,note3 ,images of the original pages are
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insciencewi#jjmozaiala      ,,woman ,,in
 ,,science  ,with an ,introductory      
,chapter on ,woman's ,long ,struggle for
 ,things of the ,mind  by  ,h4 ,j4      
,,mozans1 ,a4,m41 ,,ph4,d4  ,author of  
,up the ,orinoco and ,down the          
,magdalena1 ,along the ,andes and ,down 
the ,amazon1 etc4  ,illustration  ,que e
 piu bella in donna que savere8         
,,dante1 ,,convito4        ,new ,york   
and ,london ,d4 ,appleton and ,company  
#aiac  ,copyright1 #aiac1 by ,d4        
,appleton and ,company  ,printed in the 
,united ,states of ,america    ,,to     
,,mrs4 ,,charles ,m4 ,,schwab ,,as ,a   
,,slight ,,tribute ,,to ,,her ,,charming
 ,,personality ,,goodness ,,of ,,heart  
,,and ,,nobility ,,of ,,soul ,,this     
,,volume ,,is ,,respectfully ,,dedicated
 ,,with ,,the ,,best ,,wishes ,,of ,,the
 ,,author4     ,,preface   ,the         

following pages are the outcome of      
studies begun many years ago in ,greece 
and ,italy4 ,while wandering through the
 famed and picturesque land of the      
,hellenes1 rejoicing in the countless   
beauties of the islands of the ,ionian  
and ,aegean seas or scaling the heights 
of ,helicon and ,parnassus1 all so      
redolent of the storied past1 ,i saw on 
every side tangible evidence of that    
marvelous race of men and women whose   
matchless achievements have been the    
delight and inspiration of the world for
 nearly three thousand years4 ,but it   
was especially while contemplating1 from
 the portico of the ,parthenon1 the     
magnificent vista which there meets the 
charmed vision1 that ,i first fully     
experienced the spell of the favored    
land of ,hellas1 so long the home of    
beauty and of intellect4 ,the scene     
before me was indeed enchanting beyond  
expression2 for1 every ruin1 every      
marble column1 every rock had its       
history1 and evoked the most precious   

memories of men of godlike thoughts and 
of      ,a thousand glorious actions    
that may claim     ,triumphal laurels   
and immortal fame4  ,it was a tranquil  
and balmy night in midsummer4 ,the sun1 
leaving a gorgeous afterglow1 had about 
an hour before disappeared behind the   
azure-veiled mountains of ,ithaca1      
where1 in the long ago1 lived and loved 
the hero and the heroine of the         
incomparable ,odyssey4 ,the full moon1  
just rising above the plain of          
,marathon1 intensified the witchery of  
that memorable spot consecrated by the  
valor of patriots battling victoriously 
against the invading hordes of ,asia4   
,hard by was the ,areopagus1 where ,st4 
,paul preached to the superstitious     
,athenians on ,the ,unknown ,god4       
,almost adjoining it was the ,agora1    
where ,socrates was wont to hold        
converse with noble and simple on the   
sublimest questions which can engage the
 human mind4 ,not distant was the site  
of the celebrated ,painted ,porch1 where

 ,zeno developed his famous system of   
ethics4 ,in another quarter were the    
shady walks of the ,lyceum1 where       
,aristotle1 the master of those who     
know1 lectured before an admiring       
concourse of students from all parts of 
,hellas4 ,farther afield1 on the banks  
of the ,cephissus1 was the grove of     
,academus1 where the divine ,plato      
expounded that admirable idealism which1
 with ,aristotelianism1 has controlled  
the progress of speculative thought for 
more than twenty centuries1 and         
enunciated those admirable doctrines    
which have become the common heritage of
 humanity4  ,but where1 in this         
venerable city--the eye of ,greece1     
mother of arts and eloquence--was the   
abode of ,aspasia1 the wife of ,pericles
 and the inspirer of the noblest minds  
of the ,golden ,age of ,grecian         
civilization8 ,where was that salon1    
renowned these four and twenty centuries
 as the most brilliant court of culture 
the world has ever known1 wherein this  

gifted and accomplished daughter of     
,miletus gathered about her the most    
learned men and women of her time8      
,whatever the location1 there it was    
that the wit and talent of ,attica found
 a congenial trysting-place1 and human  
genius burst into fairest blossom4      
,there it was that poets1 sculptors1    
painters1 orators1 philosophers1        
statesmen were all equally at home4     
,there ,socrates discoursed on          
philosophy2 there ,euripides and        
,sophocles read their plays2 there      
,anaxagoras dilated upon the nature and 
constitution of the universe2 there     
,phidias1 the greatest sculptor of all  
time1 and ,ictinus and ,callicrates     
unfolded their plans for that supreme   
creation of architecture1 the temple of 
,athena ,parthenos on the ,acropolis4   
,like ,michaelangelo1 long centuries    
afterwards1 who saw with the eyes and   
acted by the inspiration of ,vittoria   
,colonna1 these masters of ,greek       
architecture and sculpture saw with the 

eyes and acted by the sublime promptings
 of ,aspasia1 who was the greatest      
patron and inspirer of men of genius the
 world has ever known4  ,i felt then1 as
 ,i feel now1 that this superb monument 
to the virgin goddess of wisdom and art 
and science was in great measure a      
monument to the one who by her quick    
intelligence1 her profound knowledge1   
her inspiration1 her patronage1 her     
influence1 had so much to do with its   
erection--the wise1 the cultured1 the   
richly dowered ,aspasia4  ,this thought 
it was that started the train of        
reflections on the intellectual         
achievements of women which eventually  
gave rise to the idea of writing a book 
on woman's work in things of the mind4  
,the following day1 as ,i was entering  
the ,university of ,athens1 ,i noticed  
above the stately portal a large and    
beautiful painting which1 on inspection1
 proved1 to my great delight1 to be     
nothing less than a pictorial           
representation of my musings the night  

before on the portico of the ,parthenon4
 ,for there was ,aspasia1 just as ,i had
 fancied her in her salon1 seated beside
 ,pericles1 and surrounded by the       
greatest and the wisest men of ,greece4 
,this1 ,i exclaimed1 shall be the       
frontispiece of my book2 it will tell   
more than many pages of text4 ,nor did  
,i rest till ,i had procured a copy of  
this excellent work of art4  ,shortly   
after my journey through ,greece ,i     
visited the chief cities and towns of   
,italy4 ,i traversed the whole of ,magna
 ,graecia and1 to enjoy the local color 
of things ,grecian and breathe1 as far  
as might be1 the atmosphere which once  
enveloped the world's greatest thinkers1
 ,i stood on the spot in ,syracuse where
 ,plato discoursed on the true1 the     
beautiful and the good1 before          
enthusiastic audiences of men and women1
 and wandered through the land inhabited
 by the ancient ,bruttii1 where         
,pythagoras has his famous school of    
science and philosophy--a school which  

was continued after the founder's death 
by his celebrated wife1 ,theano4 ,for in
 ,crotona1 as well as in ,athens1 and in
 ,alexandria in the time of ,hypatia1   
women were teachers as well as scholars1
 and attained to marked distinction in  
every branch of intellectual activity4  
,as ,i visited1 one after the other1    
what were once the great centers of     
learning and culture in ,magna ,graecia1
 the idea of writing the book           
aforementioned appealed to me more      
strongly from day to day1 but it did not
 assume definite form until after ,i had
 tarried for some weeks or months in    
each of the great university towns of   
,italy4 ,and as ,i wended my way through
 the almost deserted streets of         
,salerno1 which was for centuries one of
 the noblest seats of learning in       
,christendom1 and recalled the          
achievements of its gifted              
daughters--those wonderful mulieres     
,salernitanae1 whose praises were once  
sounded throughout ,europe1 but whose   

names have been almost forgotten--,i    
began to realize1 as never before1 that 
women of intellectual eminence have     
received too little credit for their    
contributions to the progress of        
knowledge1 and should have a sympathetic
 historian of what they have achieved in
 the domain of learning4  ,but it was   
not until after ,i had visited the great
 university towns of ,bologna1 ,padua   
and ,pavia1 had become more familiar    
with their fascinating histories and    
traditions1 and surveyed there the      
scenes of the great scholastic triumphs 
of women as students and professors1    
that ,i fully realized the importance1  
if not the necessity1 of such a work as 
,i had in contemplation4 ,for then1 as  
when standing in silent meditation on   
the pronaos of the ,parthenon1 the past 
seemed to become present1 and the       
graceful figures of those illustrious   
daughters of ,italia la ,bella1 who have
 conferred such honor on both their     
country and on womankind throughout the 

world1 seemed to flit before me as they 
returned to and from their lecture halls
 and laboratories1 where their          
discourses1 in flowing ,latin periods1  
had commanded the admiration and the    
applause of students from every         
,european country1 from the ,rock of    
,cashel to the ,athenian ,acropolis4    
,only then did the magnitude and the    
difficulty of my self-imposed task begin
 to dawn upon me4 ,i saw that it would  
be impossible1 if ,i were to do justice 
to the subject1 to compass in a single  
volume anything like an adequate account
 of the contributions of women to the   
advancement of general knowledge4 ,i    
accordingly resolved to restrict my     
theme and confine myself to an attempt  
to show what an important role women    
have played in the development of those 
branches of knowledge in which they are 
usually thought to have had but little  
part4  ,the subject of my book thus1 by 
a process of elimination1 narrowed its  
scope to woman's achievements in        

science4 ,many works in various         
languages had been written on what women
 had accomplished in art1 literature1   
and state-craft1 and there was1         
therefore1 no special call for a new    
volume on any of these topics4 ,but1    
with the exception of a few brief       
monographs in ,german1 ,french and      
,italian1 and an occasional magazine    
article here and there1 practically     
nothing had been written about woman in 
science4 ,the time1 then1 seemed        
opportune for entering upon a field that
 had thus far been almost completely    
neglected2 and1 although ,i soon        
discovered that the labor involved would
 be far greater than ,i had anticipated1
 ,i never lost sight of the work which  
had its virtual inception in the        
peerless sanctuary of ,pallas ,athena in
 the ,city of the ,violet ,crown4       
,duties and occupations innumerable have
 retarded the progress of the work4 ,but
 not the least cause of delay has been  
the difficulty of locating the material 

essential to the production of a volume 
that would do even partial justice to   
the numerous topics requiring treatment4
 ,my experience1 parva componere magnis1
 was not unlike that of ,dr4 ,johnson1  
who tells us in the preface to his      
,dictionary of the ,english ,language1  
,i saw that one inquiry only gave       
occasion to another1 that book referred 
to book1 that to search was not always  
to find1 and that thus to pursue        
perfection was1 like the first          
inhabitants of ,arcadia1 to chase the   
sun1 which1 when they reached the hill  
where he seemed to rest1 was still      
beheld at the same distance from them4  
,although ,i have endeavored to give a  
place in this work to all women who have
 achieved special distinction in        
science1 it is not unlikely that ,i may 
have inadvertently overlooked some1     
particularly among those of recent      
years1 who were deserving of mention4   
,should this be the case1 ,i shall be   
grateful for information which will     

enable me to correct such oversights and
 render the volume1 should there be a   
demand for more than one edition1 more  
complete and serviceable4 ,and1 although
 ,i have striven to be as accurate as   
possible in all my statements1 ,i can   
scarcely hope1 in traversing so broad a 
field1 to have been wholly successful4  
,for all shortcomings1 whether through  
omission or commission1            ,quas
 aut incuria fudit1     ,aut humana     
parum cavit natura1  ,i crave the       
reader's indulgence1 and trust that the 
present volume will have at least the   
merit of stimulating some ambitious     
young ,whewell to explore more          
thoroughly the interesting field that ,i
 have but partially reconnoitred1 and   
give us ere long an adequate and        
comprehensive history of the            
achievements of woman1 not only in the  
inductive but in all the sciences4      
,,contents   ,,chapter                  
,,page        ,i4 ,,woman',s ,,long     
,,struggle ,,for ,,things ,,of ,,the    

,,mind             #a       ,,ii4       
,,woman',s ,,capacity ,,for ,,scientific
 ,,pursuits               #ajf          
,,iii4 ,,women ,,in ,,mathematics       
#acf       ,,iv4 ,,women ,,in           
,,astronomy                             
#afg        ,v4 ,,women ,,in ,,physics  
#aig       ,,vi4 ,,women ,,in           
,,chemistry                             
#bad      ,,vii4 ,,women ,,in ,,the     
,,natural ,,sciences                    
#bcc     ,,viii4 ,,women ,,in ,,medicine
 ,,and ,,surgery                        
#bff       ,,ix4 ,,women ,,in           
,,archaeology                           
#cji        ,x4 ,,women ,,as ,,inventors
                                        
#ccd       ,,xi4 ,,women ,,as           
,,inspirers ,,and ,,collaborators ,,in  
,,science        #cef      ,,xii4 ,,the 
,,future ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,science3   
,,summary ,,and ,,epilogue   #cij       
,,bibliography                          
#dai           ,,index                  
#dbg       ,le donne son venute in      

excellenza     ,di ciascun'arte1 ove    
hanno posta cura2     ,e qualunque      
all'istorie abbia avvertenza1     ,ne   
sente ancor la fama non oscura4         
,what art so deep1 what science so high1
     ,but worthy women have thereto     
attained8     ,who list in stories old  
to look may try1     ,and find my speech
 herein not false nor fain'd4           
,,ariosto1 ,,orlando ,,furioso1         
,,canto ,,xx1 ,,strophe #b4      ,ad    
omnem igitur doctrinam 444 muliebres    
animos natura comparavit4               
,,maria ,,gaetana ,,agnesi4     ,,woman 
,,in ,,science     ,,chapter ,i         
,,woman',s ,,long ,,struggle ,,for      
,,things ,,of ,,the ,,mind   ,,woman    
,,and ,,education ,,in ,,ancient        
,,greece  ,i purpose to review the      
progress and achievements of woman in   
science from her earliest efforts in    
ancient ,greece down to the present     
time4 ,i shall relate how1 in every     
department of natural knowledge1 when   
not inhibited by her environment1 she   

has been the colleague and the          
emulatress1 if not the peer1 of the most
 illustrious men who have contributed to
 the increase and diffusion of human    
learning4 ,but a proper understanding of
 this subject seems to require some     
preliminary survey of the many and      
diverse obstacles which1 in every age of
 the world's history1 have opposed      
woman's advancement in general          
knowledge4 ,without such preliminary    
survey it is impossible to realize the  
intensity of her age-long struggle for  
freedom and justice in things of the    
mind or fully to appreciate the         
comparative liberty and advantages she  
now enjoys in almost every department of
 intellectual activity4 ,neither could  
one understand why woman's achievements 
in science1 compared with those of men1 
have been so few and of so small import1
 especially in times past1 or why it is 
that1 as a student of nature or as an   
investigator in the various realms of   
pure and applied science1 we hear so    

little of her before the second half of 
the nineteenth century4  ,to exhibit the
 nature of the difficulties woman has   
had to contend with in every age and in 
every land1 in order to secure what we  
now consider her inalienable rights to  
things of the mind1 it is not necessary 
to review the history of female         
education1 or to enter into the details 
of her gradual progress forward and     
upward in the ,new and ,old ,worlds4    
,but it is necessary that we should know
 what was the attitude of mankind toward
 woman's education during the leading   
epochs of the world's history and what  
were1 until almost our own day1 the     
opinions of men--scholars and rulers    
included--respecting the nature and the 
duties of woman and what was considered1
 almost by all1 her proper sphere of    
action4 ,understanding the numerous and 
cruel handicaps which she had so long to
 endure1 the opposition to her          
aspirations which she had to encounter1 
even during the most enlightened periods

 of the world's history1 and that1 too1 
from those who should have been the     
first to extend to her a helping hand1  
we can the better appreciate the extent 
of her recent intellectual              
enfranchisement and of the value of the 
work she has accomplished since she has 
been free to exercise those ,god-given  
faculties which were so long held in    
restraint4  ,the first great bar to the 
mental development of woman was the     
assumed superiority of the male sex1 the
 opinion1 so generally accepted1 that1  
in the scheme of creation1 woman was but
 an accident1 an imperfection1 an error 
of nature2 that she was either a slave  
conducing to man's comfort1 or1 at best1
 a companion ministering to his         
amusement and pleasure4  ,from the      
earliest times she was regarded as man's
 inferior and relegated to a subordinate
 position in society4 ,she was1 so it   
was averred1 but a diminutive man--a    
kind of mean between the lord of        
creation and the rest of the animal     

kingdom4 ,by some she was considered a  
kind of half man2 by others1 as was     
cynically asserted1 she was looked upon 
as a mas occasionatus--a man marred in  
the making4 ,she was1 both mentally and 
physically1 what ,spencer would call a  
man whose evolution had been arrested1  
while man1 as in the modern language of 
,darwin1 was a woman1 whose evolution   
had been completed4  ,when such views   
prevailed1 it was inevitable that1 so   
long as physical force was the force    
majeure1 a woman should be relegated to 
the position of a slave or to that of a 
mere glorified toy4 ,every man then     
said1 in effect1 if not in words1 of the
 woman who happened to be in his power  
what ,petruchio said of ,katherine3     
,i will be master of what is mine own1  
,she is my goods1 my chattels2 she is my
 house1     ,my household stuff1 my     
field1 my barn1     ,my horse1 my ox1 my
 ass1 my everything4  ,even after       
civilization had superseded savagery and
 barbarism1 it was still inevitable1 so 

long as such views found acceptance1    
that woman should continue to be held in
 vassalage and ignorance and to suffer  
all the disabilities and privations of  
the lesser man4 ,she was studiously     
excluded from civic and social functions
 and compelled to pass her life in the  
restricted quarters of the harem or     
gyneceum4 ,this was the case among the  
,athenians1 as well as among other      
peoples2 for1 during the most brilliant 
period of their history1 women1 when not
 slaves or hetaerae1 were considered    
simply child-bearers or housekeepers4#a 
,a girl's education1 when she received  
any at all1 was limited to reading1     
writing and music1 and for a knowledge  
of these subjects she was dependent on  
her mother4 ,from her earliest years the
 ,athenian maiden was made to realize   
that the great fountains of knowledge1  
which were always available for her     
brothers1 were closed to her4 ,her duty 
was to become proficient in the use of  
the needle and the distaff1 and1 later  

on1 to learn how to embroider1 to ply   
the loom and make garments for herself  
and for the other members of her family4
  ,until she was seven years old1 she   
was brought up with her brothers under  
the eye of her mother4 ,during this     
period of childhood she had a certain   
amount of freedom1 but1 after her       
seventh year1 she was kept in the       
gyneconitis--women's quarters--under the
 strictest restraint1 in order1 as      
,xenophon informs us in his             
,oeconomicus1 that she might see as     
little1 hear as little and ask as few   
questions as possible4 ,on rare         
occasions she was permitted to be a     
spectator at a religious procession1 or 
to take part in certain of the choral   
dances that constituted so important a  
part in the religious ceremonies of     
ancient ,greece4 ,whether in public or  
in private1 silence was always          
considered an imperative duty for a     
woman4  ,but more than this4 ,not only  
was she expected to observe silence     

herself1 but she was also expected so to
 conduct herself that no one would have 
occasion to speak about her4 ,pericles1 
in a celebrated discourse1 gave         
expression to the prevailing opinion    
regarding this phase of female          
excellence when1 on a notable occasion1 
he addressed to a certain number of     
women the following words3 ,great will  
be your glory in not falling short of   
your natural character2 and greatest    
will be hers who is least talked of     
among men whether for good or for       
evil4#b  ,from the foregoing            
observations it will be seen that the   
general attitude of the ,athenians      
toward woman was anything but favorable 
to her intellectual development1 or to  
her exerting any influence beyond the   
limits of her own household4 ,and what  
is said of the ,greeks can be affirmed1 
with still greater emphasis1 of the     
other nations of antiquity4 ,indeed1 it 
can be safely asserted that1 had they   
all entered into a solemn compact       

systematically to discredit woman's     
mental capacity and to repress all her  
noblest aspirations1 they could not have
 succeeded more effectually than by the 
methods they severally adopted4 ,in     
ancient ,greece the condition of woman  
was little better than it is in ,india  
to-day under the law of ,manu1 where the
 husband1 no matter how unworthy he may 
be1 must be regarded by the wife as a   
god4  ,and yet1 notwithstanding the     
dominant force of public opinion and the
 strange traditional prejudices that    
possessed for the majority of people all
 the semblance and commanding power of  
truth1 woman was here and there able to 
break through the barriers that impeded 
her progress in her quest of knowledge  
and to defy the social conventions that 
precluded her from being seen or heard  
in the intellectual arena4  ,one of the 
first and most notable of ,greek women  
to assert her independence and to emerge
 from the intellectual eclipse which had
 so long kept her sex in obscurity1 was 

the ,lesbian ,sappho1 who1 as a lyric   
poet1 stands1 even to-day1 without a    
superior4 ,so great was her renown among
 the ancients that she was called ,the  
,poetess1 as ,homer was called ,the     
,poet4 ,solon1 on hearing one of her    
songs sung at a banquet1 begged the     
singer to teach it to him at once that  
he might learn it and die4 ,aristotle   
did not hesitate to endorse a judgment  
that ranked her with ,homer and         
,archilochus1 while ,plato1 in his      
,phaedrus1 exalts her still higher by   
proclaiming her the tenth ,muse4 ,horace
 and ,ovid and ,catullus strove to      
reproduce her passionate strains and    
rhythmic beauty2 but their efforts were 
little better than paraphrase and feeble
 imitation4 ,her features were stamped  
on coins1 though she was but a woman1   
and1 after her death1 altars were raised
 and temples erected in honor of this   
flower of the ,graces1 of      ,that    
mighty songstress1 whose unrivaled      
powers     ,weave for the ,muse a crown 

of deathless flowers4  ,second only to  
the violet-crowned1 pure1               
sweetly-smiling ,sappho1 as her rival1  
,alcaeus1 calls her1 were ,gorgo1       
,andromeda and ,corinna4 ,the last of   
these was the teacher of ,pindar1 the   
celebrated lyric poet1 whom she defeated
 five times in poetic contests in       
,thebes4#c ,she was one of the nine     
lyrical muses1 corresponding to the     
celestial nine1 who dwelt on the sacred 
slopes of ,helicon4#d ,telesilla and    
,praxilla were two others4 ,the last    
named was by her countrymen ranked with 
,anacreon4  ,scarcely inferior to       
,corinna were those ardent pupils of    
,sappho1 who had flocked from the sunny 
isles of the ,aegean and the            
laurel-crowned hills of ,greece around  
the fair-haired ,lesbian in her island  
home1 which was1 at the same time1 a    
school of poetry and music4 ,the most   
gifted of these were ,danophila1 the    
,pamphylian1 and ,erinna1 whose         
hexameters were said by the ancients to 

reveal a genius equal to that of ,homer4
 ,she died at the early age of nineteen 
and has always excited a pathetic       
interest because1 like so many others of
 her sex since her time--women and      
maidens of the loftiest spiritual       
aspirations1--she was condemned to the  
spindle and the distaff when she wished 
to devote her life to the service of the
 ,muses4 ,the following is her own      
epitaph3      ,these are ,erinna's      
songs1 how sweet1 though slight6        
,for she was but a girl of nineteen     
years4     ,yet stronger far than what  
most men can write2     ,had death      
delayed1 whose fame had equaled hers8   
,never before nor since did such a wave 
of feminine genius pass over the        
fragrant valleys and vine-clad plains of
 ,greece4 ,never in any other place or  
time shone so brilliant a galaxy of     
women of talent and imagination2 never  
was there a more perfect flowering of   
female intelligence of the highest      
order4 ,according to tradition1 there   

appeared in the favored land of ,hellas1
 when the entire population of the      
country was not equal to that of a      
fair-sized modern city1 within the brief
 space of a century1 no fewer than      
seventy-six women poets4 ,when we       
remember that the ,renaissance produced 
only about sixty female poets1 though in
 a more extended territory and with a   
much larger population1 and that none of
 them could approach the incomparable   
,sappho1 or even many of her pupils1 in 
the perfection of their work1 we can    
realize the splendor of the achievements
 of the female intellect in the         
,hellenic world during the golden age of
 feminine poetic art4#e  ,one would     
think that this phenomenal outburst of  
mental vigor1 and especially the        
marvelous achievements of ,sappho1      
,corinna and those of their pupils and  
followers1 would have compelled the     
world for all subsequent time to        
recognize the innate power of the female
 mind1 and perceive the wisdom--not to  

say justice--of according to women the  
same advantages for the development of  
their inborn gifts as were afforded to  
men4 ,they had proved that1 under       
favorable conditions1 there was         
essentially no difference between the   
male and the female intellect1 and that 
genius knows no sex4 ,and this they     
demonstrated not only in poetry1 but    
also in philosophy and in other branches
 of human knowledge as well4  ,among    
those who had especially distinguished  
themselves were ,hipparchia1 the wife of
 the philosopher ,crates2 ,themista1 the
 wife of ,leon and a correspondent of   
,epicurus1 who was pronounced a sort of 
female ,solon2 ,perictione1 a disciple  
of ,pythagoras1 who distinguished       
herself by her writings on ,wisdom and  
,the ,harmony of ,woman1 and ,leontium1 
a disciple and companion of ,epicurus1  
who wrote a work against ,theophrastus1 
which was pronounced by ,cicero a model 
of style4  ,and was not the school of   
,pythagoras at ,crotona continued after 

his death by his daughter and his wife1 
,theano8 ,and did not this fact alone   
manifest woman's capacity for abstract  
thought1 as effectively as the ,lesbian 
school had demonstrated her talent for  
consummate verse8#f  ,but it was all to 
no purpose4 ,the comparative freedom and
 advantages which ,sappho1 ,corinna and 
their friends had enjoyed was soon--for 
some reason scarcely comprehensible by  
us--taken from all the women of ,greece 
except the peculiar class known in      
history as hetaerae--companions4 ,these 
we should now rank among the demimonde1 
but the ,greek point of view was        
different from ours4 ,the hetaerae were 
the friends and companions of the men   
who spent most of their time in public  
resorts1 and they accompanied them to   
the gymnasium1 to banquets1 the games1  
to the theater and other similar        
assemblies from which the wives and     
daughters of the ,athenians1 during the 
golden age of ,greece1 were rigorously  
excluded4 ,for so great was the         

seclusion in which the wives of the     
,greeks then lived that they never      
attended public spectacles and never    
left the house1 unless accompanied by a 
female slave4 ,they were not permitted  
to see men except in the presence of    
their husbands1 nor could they have a   
seat even at their own tables1 if their 
husbands happened to have male guests4  
,it was by reason of this strict        
seclusion and the enforced ignorance to 
which they were subjected that we hear  
very little of the virtuous women of    
this period of ,greek history4 ,we have 
records of a few instances of filial and
 conjugal affection1 but1 outside of    
this1 the names of the wives and        
daughters of even the most distinguished
 citizens have long since passed into   
oblivion4 ,only the hetaerae attracted  
public notice1 and only among them1     
during the period to which reference is 
now made1 do we find any women who      
achieved distinction by their           
intellectual attainments1 or by the     

influence which they exerted over those 
with whom they were associated4  ,but   
strange as it may appear1 these         
extra-matrimonial connections1 far from 
incurring the censure which they would  
now provoke1 received the cordial       
recognition of both legislators and     
moralists1 and even those who were      
considered the most virtuous among men  
openly entered into these relations     
without exposing themselves to the      
slightest stigma or reproach4 ,many of  
the hetaerae1 contrary to what is       
sometimes thought1 were of highly moral 
character1 temperate1 thoughtful and    
earnest1 and were either unattached or  
attached to one man1 and to all intents 
and purposes married4 ,even if they had 
two or three attachments but behaved in 
other respects with temperance and      
sobriety1 such was the ,greek feeling in
 regard to their peculiar position that 
they did not bring down upon themselves 
any censure from even the sternest of   
the ,greek moralists4#g  ,the most      

famous men of ,greece1 married as well  
as unmarried1 had their companions1 many
 of whom were as distinguished for their
 accomplishments as for their wit and   
beauty4 ,thus ,epicurus had ,leontium1  
,menander ,glycera1 ,isocrates          
,metaneira1 ,aristotle ,herpyllis1 and  
,plato ,archlanassa1 while ,aristippus1 
the philosopher1 ,diogenes1 the cynic1  
and ,demosthenes1 the great orator1 each
 had a companion bearing the name of    
,lais4#h ,more than this4 ,so strongly  
had many of the hetaerae impressed      
themselves on the esthetic sense of the 
beauty-loving ,greeks that not a few of 
them had statues erected in their honor1
 especially in ,athens and ,corinth1 and
 thus shared in the honor that hitherto 
had been reserved exclusively for the   
goddess of beauty and love1 fair        
,aphrodite4  ,the hetaerae from ,ionia  
and ,aetolia were particularly          
conspicuous for their intelligence and  
culture4 ,and all of them1 whencesoever 
they came1 enjoyed unrestricted liberty 

and1 unlike the wives of the citizens of
 ,athens1 had free access to the        
,portico and the ,academy and the       
,lyceum1 and were permitted to attend   
the lectures of the philosophers on the 
same footing as the men4 ,thus1 to      
mention only a few1 ,thais was a pupil  
of ,alciphron1 ,nicarete of ,stilpo1 and
 ,lasthenia of ,plato4  ,and so keen    
were their intellects and so marked was 
their progress in the most abstract     
studies1 that many of them were         
recognized as the most distinguished    
pupils of their masters4 ,this accounts1
 in part1 for the popularity of their   
salons1 at which were gathered the most 
eminent statesmen1 poets1 artists1      
philosophers and orators of the day4    
,the nearest approach in modern times to
 such trysting-places1 where beauty1 wit
 and talent found a congenial           
atmosphere1 were the celebrated salons  
of ,ninon de ,lenclos1 ,mlle4 de        
l',espinasse and ,mme4 du ,deffand4 ,at 
these reunions were discussed1 not only 

the news of the day1 but also1 and      
especially1 art1 science1 literature and
 politics1 and always to the advantage  
of both guests and hostesses4           
,possessing such freedom and enjoying   
such splendid opportunities for culture 
and intellectual advancement1 it is not 
surprising that the hetaerae played so  
remarkable a role in the social and     
civic life of ,greece1 and that they    
were able to wield such influence over  
their associates1 and that they often   
attained even the highest royal honors4 
,nor is it surprising to read in        
,plato's ,symposium the splendid tribute
 which ,socrates renders to ,diotima of 
,mantinea1 when1 in discussing the true 
nature of divine and eternal beauty1 he 
speaks of her as his teacher4  ,many of 
the hetaerae were not only the models   
but also the inspirers of the most      
famous painters and sculptors of        
antiquity4 ,thus1 ,lais was the         
companion and inspirer of ,apelles1 the 
most noted painter of ,greece1 while    

,phryne1 said to have been the most     
beautiful woman who ever lived1 was the 
inspirer of the peerless ,praxitiles1   
who1 in reproducing her form1 succeeded 
in bequeathing to the world what was    
undoubtedly the most lovely             
representation of the human form divine 
that ever came from a sculptor's        
chisel4#i  ,on account of the relations 
of the hetaerae1 especially those of the
 fourth and fifth centuries ,b4,c41 with
 the greatest men of their time1 the    
writers of antiquity thought them of    
sufficient importance to preserve their 
history4 ,one author has left us an     
account of no fewer than one hundred and
 thirty-five of them4 ,but1 of all those
 whose names have come down to us1 by   
far the most noted1 accomplished and    
influential was the famous ,aspasia of  
,miletus4 ,in many respects she was the 
most remarkable woman ,greece ever      
produced4 ,of rare talent and culture1  
of extraordinary tact and finesse1 of a 
fascinating personality combined with   

the grace and sensibility of her sex1   
together with a masculine power of      
intellect1 this gracious ,ionian1 as has
 well been said1 stands with ,sappho on 
the pinnacle of ,hellenic culture1 each 
in her own field the highest feminine   
representative of an esthetic race4  ,at
 an early age she won the passionate    
love of the great statesman ,pericles1  
after which she entered upon that       
marvelous career which secured for her a
 place in the front rank of the most    
eminent women of all time4 ,her house   
became the resort of all the great men  
of ,athens4 ,socrates was often there4  
,phidias and ,anaxagoras were intimate  
acquaintances1 and probably ,sophocles  
and ,euripides were in constant         
attendance4 ,indeed1 never had any woman
 such a salon in the whole history of   
man4 ,the greatest sculptor that ever   
lived1 the grandest man of all          
antiquity1 philosophers and poets1      
sculptors and painters1 statesmen and   
historians1 met each other and discussed

 congenial subjects in her rooms4 ,and  
probably hence has arisen the tradition 
that she was the teacher of ,socrates in
 philosophy and politics1 and ,pericles 
in rhetoric4 ,her influence was such as 
to stimulate men to their best1 and they
 attributed to her all that was best in 
themselves4 ,aspasia seems especially to
 have thought earnestly on the duties   
and destiny of women4 ,the cultivated   
men who thronged her assemblies had no  
hesitation in breaking through the      
conventionalities of ,athenian society1 
and brought their wives to the parties  
of ,aspasia2 and she discussed with them
 the duties of wives4 ,she thought they 
should be something more than mere      
mothers and housewives4 ,she urged them 
to cultivate their minds1 and be in all 
respects fit companions for their       
husbands4#aj  ,she is said to have      
written some of the best speeches of    
,pericles--among them his noted funeral 
oration over those who had died in      
battle before the walls of ,potidaea4   

,as to ,socrates1 he himself explicitly 
refers to her1 in the ,memorabilia1 as  
his teacher4 ,she is a notable character
 in the ,socratic dialogues and appears 
several times in those of ,aeschines1   
while there is every reason to believe  
that she strongly influenced the views  
of ,plato1 as expressed by him in the   
,republic respecting the equality of    
woman with man4  ,she was continually   
consulted regarding affairs of state1   
and her influence in social and         
political matters was profound and      
far-reaching4 ,this is evidenced by the 
abuse heaped upon her by the comic      
dramatists of the time4 ,referring to   
the ascendancy which she had over       
,pericles1 she was called ,dejanira1 the
 wife of ,hercules2 ,hera1 the queen of 
the gods and wife of the ,olympian      
,jove4 ,it was asserted by her enemies  
that the ,samian war had been brought   
about at her instigation and that the   
,peloponnesian war had been undertaken  
to avenge an insult which had been      

offered her4 ,these and similar         
statements which1 when not absurd1 were 
greatly exaggerated1 show the boundless 
influence she wielded over ,pericles1   
and what an important part she took in  
the government of ,greece in the zenith 
of its glory4  ,but1 however great her  
influence1 we are warranted in asserting
 that it was never exercised in an      
illegitimate manner4 ,she was ever1 as  
history informs us1 the good1 the wise1 
the learned1 the eloquent ,aspasia4 ,it 
was her goodness1 her wisdom1 her rare  
and varied accomplishments1 her clear   
insight and noble purposes that gave her
 the wonderful power she possessed and  
which enabled her1 probably more than   
any one person1 to make the age of      
,pericles not only the most brilliant   
age of ,greek history1 but also the most
 brilliant age of all time4#aa  ,but1   
notwithstanding the beneficent influence
 which ,aspasia ever exerted on those   
about her1 notwithstanding the heroic   
efforts she had made to liberate her own

 sex from the restrictions that had so  
long harassed and degraded it1 the wives
 and daughters of the citizens of       
,athens were still kept in almost       
absolute seclusion and denied the       
opportunities of mental culture which   
were so generously accorded the         
free-born hetaerae from ,asia ,minor and
 the islands of the ,aegean4 ,socrates1 
as we learn from ,xenophon1 asserted    
woman's equality with man1 while ,plato 
taught that mentally there was no       
essential difference between man and    
woman4 ,he concluded1 accordingly1 that 
women of talent should have the same    
educational advantages as men4 ,in ,the 
,republic as well as in the ,laws1 when 
he refers to education--which he would  
make compulsory for all and sundry1 as  
far as possible--his views are far in   
advance of those which have been        
entertained until the last half century4
 ,he would have girls as well as boys   
thoroughly instructed in music and      
gymnastic--music for the mind and       

gymnastic for the body4#ab  ,in the     
,laws he contends that women ought to   
share1 as far as possible1 in education 
and in other ways with men4 ,for        
consider3--if women do not share in     
their whole life with men1 then they    
must have some other order of life4     
,again he asserts ,nothing can be more  
absurd than the practice which prevails 
in our own country of men and women not 
following the same pursuits with all    
their strength and with one mind1 for   
thus the state1 instead of being a      
whole1 is reduced to a half4#ac  ,in    
,the ,republic he expresses the same    
idea when he affirms that the gifts of  
nature are alike diffused in both--men  
and women--all the pursuits of men are  
the pursuits of women4#ad  ,these       
opinions of ,socrates and ,plato are so 
at variance with those of their         
contemporaries1 and so contrary to the  
custom that then obtained of excluding  
all but free-born hetaerae from the     
advantages of education and culture1    

that we cannot but think that they were 
due to the profound influence which had 
been exercised directly or indirectly by
 ,aspasia on both of these great        
philosophers4 ,be this as it may1       
neither the efforts of ,aspasia nor the 
teachings of ,socrates and ,plato were  
able to remove the bars to intellectual 
development from which the women of     
,greece had so long suffered4 ,a change 
in customs and laws concerning the      
rigid1 oriental seclusion of women did  
not come until much later1 and then it  
was under a new regime--that of the     
,caesars--while complete equality of men
 and women in school and college was not
 recognized until long centuries        
afterward4  ,it is interesting to       
speculate regarding what ,greece would  
have become had she developed her women 
as she developed her men4 ,never in the 
history of the world were there in any  
one city so many eminent men--poets1    
orators1 statesmen1 painters1 sculptors1
 architects1 philosophers--as in        

,athens1 and yet not a single           
native-born ,athenian woman ever        
attained the least distinction in any   
department of art or science or         
literature4 ,we cannot conceive for a   
moment that ,greece's fertility in great
 men and barrenness in great women was  
due to the fact that the mothers of such
 illustrious men were ordinary          
housewives and entirely devoid of the   
talent and genius which gave immortality
 to their distinguished sons4 ,the      
careers of ,aspasia and the achievements
 of ,sappho1 ,corinna1 ,myrtides1       
,erinna1 ,praxilla1 ,telesilla1 ,myrus1 
,anytae and ,nossidis1 ,theano and her  
daughter1 to mention no others1         
absolutely preclude such an assumption4 
,the women in ,greece1 there can be no  
doubt about it1 were as richly endowed  
by nature as were the men1 and only     
lacked the opportunities that men       
enjoyed to achieve1 in every sphere of  
intellectual activity1 a corresponding  
measure of success4 ,they were          

extraordinary types1 these women of     
ancient ,greece2 for among them we find 
the dignified ,roman matron1 the        
chatelaine of the ,middle ,ages1 the    
brilliant woman of the ,renaissance and 
the cultured mistress of the ,french    
salon4 ,but all their talent1 power and 
genius counted for naught4  ,had the    
civilization of ,greece been a woman's  
civilization1 as well as a man's        
civilization1 had there been a          
federation of all the ,greek states1 as 
,aspasia seems to have striven for1     
instead of a number of small and        
independent city-states2 had the women  
of ,hellas been allowed the same liberty
 of action in intellectual work as was  
granted to the ,italian women during and
 after the revival of letters1 and had  
they been encouraged to develop all     
their latent powers that were so        
systematically suppressed1 and to work  
in unison with the men for the welfare  
and advancement of a united nation1 it  
is difficult to imagine what a dazzling 

intellectual zenith a supremely gifted  
people1 full summ'd in all their powers1
 would have attained4 ,their capacity   
for work and for achieving great things 
would have been doubled and their power 
as a political organization would have  
been practically irresistible4  ,we are 
the only women that bring forth men1    
said ,gorgo1 the wife of ,leonidas4 ,the
 ,spartan mothers1 who had more of      
liberty than their ,athenian sisters1   
did1 indeed1 bring forth warriors of    
undying renown2 but it was the mothers  
of ,athens who1 notwithstanding all     
their grievous disabilities1 gave to the
 world all the greatest masters in art1 
literature1 and philosophy--the men who 
through the ages have been the leaders  
and the teachers of humanity1 and who   
seem destined to hold their exalted     
position until the end of time4  ,the   
failure of the men of ,greece to avail  
themselves of the immense potential     
power1 which they always kept latent in 
their women1 was the occasion of a      

terrible nemesis in the end4 ,for this  
failure1 coupled with the frightful     
license introduced by a class of        
educated women1 like the hetaerae1      
without legal status or domestic ties1  
and the wave of corruption that         
subsequently followed the advent of the 
countless dissolute women who flocked to
 the ,hellenic cities from every part of
 the ,east1 paved the way for the       
nation's downfall and for its ultimate  
conquest by the resistless ,roman       
legions that swept the once glorious but
 ill-fated country of ,pericles and     
,aspasia4   ,,woman ,,and ,,education   
,,in ,,ancient ,,rome  ,the condition of
 women in ,rome1 especially from #aej   
,b4,c4 to #aej ,a4,d41 was quite        
different from what it was in ,athens1  
even during her palmiest days4 ,owing to
 the lack of authentic documents we know
 but little of the history of the ,roman
 people during the first five hundred   
years of their existence1 but we do know
 that during this period many and       

important changes were effected         
regarding the social and civil status of
 women4  ,in the first place the ,roman 
matron had much more freedom than was   
accorded the ,greek wife during the age 
of ,pericles4 ,far from being kept in   
oriental seclusion1 like her ,athenian  
sister1 she was at liberty to receive   
and dine with the friends of her        
husband1 and to appear in public        
whenever she desired4 ,she went to the  
theater and the ,forum2 she took part in
 all reputable entertainment1 whether   
public or private4 ,besides this1 she   
had more and greater legal rights than  
,greek women had ever known1 and was    
treated rather as the peer and companion
 of man than as his toy or his slave4   
,besides this1 foreign women were never 
so conspicuous in ,rome as in ,athens4  
,even after ,greece had become a ,roman 
province1 and after ,graecia capta      
,romam cepit--when ,greek ideas and     
,greek customs were introduced into the 
capital of the ,roman world--it was     

still the ,roman matron that was        
supreme4 ,and1 although many ,greek     
women1 some of them of rare beauty and  
culture1 found their way to ,rome1      
especially under the empire1 they were  
always kept in the background and never 
succeeded in achieving anything         
approaching the ascendancy which        
distinguished them during the time of   
,aspasia4 ,their influence in literature
 and politics was almost nil4  ,in the  
case of the women of ,rome1 on the      
contrary1 it may well be questioned     
whether woman has ever wielded a greater
 influence than she did during the three
 centuries that followed the reign of   
,augustus4 ,but she did not attain to   
this position of preeminence without a  
long and bitter struggle4 ,every advance
 toward the goal of social and          
intellectual equality was strenuously   
contested by the men1 who wished to     
limit the activities of their wives to  
the spindle1 the distaff and the loom   
and the other occupations of the        

household4 ,for1 as in ,greece1 the     
generally accepted view was that woman1 
in the language of ,gibbon1 was created 
to please and obey4 ,she was never      
supposed to have reached the age of     
reason or experience4 ,and her noblest  
epitaph1 it was averred1 was couched in 
the following words3       ,she was     
gentle1 pious1 loved her husband1 was   
skillful at      the loom and a good    
housekeeper4#ae  ,as to her mental work1
 far from being considered on its own   
merits or as a factor in the world's    
growth1 it was flouted as      ,mere    
woman's work     ,expressing the        
comparative respect     ,which means the
 absolute scorn4  ,as early as #dej     
,b4,c41 when the laws of the ,twelve    
,tables were promulgated1 the girls of  
,rome received instruction in reading1  
writing and arithmetic4 ,up before dawn1
 with a lamp to light the way1 and an   
attendant to carry her satchel1 the     
little ,roman maiden of seven years1 or 
over1 would trudge off to the portico   

where the schoolmaster wielded his      
rod4#af ,for some years this life       
continued1 with but few holidays1 and   
those far between1 until she attained   
some proficiency in the rudiments4      
,then1 most probably1 her education in  
the scholastic sense came to an end4    
,her brothers and boy schoolmates1 if   
their parents wished it1 could proceed  
from the primary school to the          
secondary1 where geography1 history and 
ethics were taught2 where the art of    
elocution was assiduously practiced and 
the works of the great ,greek and ,roman
 poets were carefully read and          
expounded2 but it was enough for the    
girl to have learned how to read1 write 
and cipher2 she had then to learn her   
domestic duties4#ag  ,with the extension
 of the empire and the consequent       
enormous increase in wealth and the     
rapid progress in social and            
intellectual freedom1 there was a       
notable change in the character of the  
education given to women1 at least to   

those of the wealthier and patrician    
families4 ,this was1 in great measure1  
due to the wave of ,hellenism which1    
shortly after the conquest of ,greece1  
broke upon the ,roman capital with such 
irresistible force4 ,to the large and   
rapidly increasing number of women of   
keen intellect and lofty aspirations1   
whose minds had hitherto been confined  
to the comparatively barren field of    
,roman letters1 the splendid creations  
of ,greek genius came as a revelation4  
,to become thoroughly versed in ,greek  
poetry and proficient in the teachings  
of ,greek philosophy was the ambition of
 scores of ,roman women1 who soon became
 noted for the extent and variety of    
their attainments1 as well as for their 
rare culture and charming personality4  
,among the pioneers of the intellectual 
movement in ,rome1 and one of the most  
beautiful types of the learned women of 
her time1 was the celebrated daughter of
 the elder ,scipio                      
,africanus--,cornelia1 mother of the    

,gracchi4 ,she is famous on account of  
her devotion to her two sons1 ,tiberius 
and ,caius4 ,she was their teacher2 and 
it was her educated and refined mind    
that1 more than anything else1          
contributed to the formation of those   
splendid characters for which they were 
so highly esteemed by their countrymen4 
,plutarch informs us that these noble   
sons of a noble mother were brought up  
by her so carefully that they became    
beyond dispute the most accomplished of 
,roman youth2 and1 thus1 they owed      
perhaps more to their excellent         
upbringing than to their natural        
parts4#ah ,one is not surprised to learn
 that this noble lady was almost        
idolized by the ,romans1 and that they  
erected a statue to her with the        
inscription1 ,cornelia1 ,mother of the  
,gracchi4  ,scarcely less distinguished 
and accomplished was another ,cornelia1 
the wife of ,pompey1 the ,great4        
,besides her youthful beauty1 writes    
,plutarch1 in his ,life of ,pompey1 she 

possessed other charms1 for she was well
 versed in literature1 in playing on the
 lyre1 and in geometry1 and she had been
 used to listen to philosophical        
discourses with profit4 ,besides this1  
she had a disposition free from all     
affectation and display of              
pedantry--blemishes which such          
acquirements usually breed in women4#ai 
,then there was the cultured and devoted
 ,aurelia1 the mother of ,julius        
,caesar4 ,it is safe to say that this   
eminent man was as much indebted to his 
mother for his success and greatness as 
were ,tiberius and ,caius ,gracchus to  
the benign influence and careful        
teachings of the gentle and virtuous    
,cornelia4 ,highly educated and of      
commanding personalities1 both these    
women1 like many others of their time1  
contributed much to the making of ,roman
 history by the success they achieved in
 molding the characters of some of the  
greatest men of their own or of any age4
  ,it is a splendid tribute that        

,cicero1 in his ,orator1 pays to ,laelia
 when he tells of the purity of her     
language and the charm of her           
conversation4 ,when ,i listen1 he       
declares1 to my mother-in-law1          
,laelia--for women preserve the         
traditional purity of accent the best   
because1 being limited in their         
intercourse with the multitude1 they    
retain their early impressions--,i could
 imagine that ,i hear ,plautus or       
,naevius speaking1 the pronunciation is 
so plain and simple1 so perfectly free  
from all affectation and display2 from  
which ,i infer that such was the accent 
of her father and his ancestors--not    
harsh like the pronunciation to which ,i
 have just referred1 not broad nor      
rustic nor rugged1 but terse1 smooth and
 flowing4#bj  ,these are a few of the   
cultured and learned women who shed     
glory on their country by the refining  
influence which they exerted in the     
quiet and unostentatious precincts of   
the family circle4 ,but there were      

others who chose a wider field for their
 activities1 and who1 by reason of their
 unerring judgment1 well-poised and     
highly cultivated minds1 had so won the 
confidence of the nation's greatest     
leaders that they were frequently       
consulted on important affairs of state4
 ,thus1 ,cicero tells us of an interview
 which he had at ,antium with ,brutus   
and ,cassius4 ,besides the men1 there   
were present on this occasion three     
women1 who took an active part in the   
discussion4 ,these were ,servilia1 the  
mother of ,brutus1 ,porcia1 the wife of 
,brutus and the daughter of ,cato1 and  
,tertulla1 the wife of ,cassius and     
sister of ,brutus4 ,the views of the    
women were not without effect1 and so   
confident was ,servilia of her power    
that she engaged to have a certain      
clause in one of the decrees of the     
,senate expunged4 ,this is but one of   
many similar instances which might be   
adduced from the lives of the women of  
,rome who took an active part in        

politics4 ,as we learn from ,tacitus1   
their counsels and assistance were      
considered of peculiar value by the     
,commonwealth4 ,for1 when some of the   
sterner old moralists wished to exclude 
women from all participation in public  
affairs1 the ,senate1 after a heated    
debate1 decided by a large majority that
 the cooperation of women in questions  
of administration1 far from being a     
menace1 as some contended1 was so       
beneficial to the state that it should  
be continued4  ,among other noteworthy  
makers of ,roman history1 besides those 
just mentioned1 is ,livia1 the wife of  
,augustus and the mother of ,tiberius4  
,so great was her influence and so      
persistent was her activity in          
government affairs1 that it is sometimes
 asserted that she was the prime mover  
of most of the public acts of both these
 rulers4 ,this woman1 whom ,ovid        
describes as having the features of     
,venus and the manner of ,juno1 and who1
 he declares1 held her head above all   

vices1 was credited with having the     
benevolence of ,ceres1 the purity of    
,diana and the wisdom and craft of      
,minerva--a woman1 as was said by one of
 her contemporaries1 in all things more 
comparable to the gods than to men1 who 
knew how to use her power so as to turn 
away peril and advance the most         
deserving4  ,then there was the         
gracious1 the virtuous1 the             
self-sacrificing ,octavia1 sister of the
 ,emperor ,augustus1 who was so         
successful in composing grave           
differences between her brother and her 
husband1 and who so exerted her         
influence for peace during the troublous
 times in which she lived that she lives
 in history as a peacemaker4 ,in marked 
contrast to this gentle and sympathetic 
woman was the energetic and heroic      
,agrippina1 the wife of ,germanicus4 ,in
 many respects she was the most         
commanding personality of her age1 and  
exhibited in an eminent degree those    
sterling qualities which we are wont to 

associate with the strong1 dignified1   
courageous women of ancient ,rome1 who  
gave to the world so many and so great  
men in every sphere of human endeavor4  
,she was1 as ,tacitus informs us1 a     
greater power in the army than legates  
and commanders1 and she1 a woman1 had   
quelled a mutiny which the emperor's    
authority could not check4#ba ,she was1 
indeed1 as has well been said1 a woman  
to whom one might address an epic but   
never a sonnet4  ,i have referred to    
these distinguished women because they  
are embodiments of the best types of the
 noble1 patrician families who made the 
great ,roman empire the admiration of   
all time1 and because they exhibit the  
wonderful advance that had been made in 
the general status of women since the   
days of ,pericles and ,aspasia4 ,i have 
referred to them1 also1 to show what    
women are capable of achieving in the   
difficult and complicated affairs of    
public life1 when they are accorded the 
necessary freedom of action and when    

they are properly equipped for work by  
education and by association with men of
 learning and experience4 ,comparing the
 secluded and illiterate ,greek wife    
with the free and highly accomplished   
,roman matron1 we find almost as much   
difference between the two as there is  
between a child and a fully developed   
woman--all the difference there was     
between the unsophisticated young wife1 
not quite fifteen1 of whom ,xenophon    
gives us such a charming picture1#bb and
 the highly educated and competent      
mother of the ,gracchi4  ,of the ,greek 
maiden we are told that1 before her     
marriage she had been most carefully    
brought up to see and hear as little as 
possible and to ask the fewest          
questions2 that her whole experience    
before her marriage consisted in knowing
 how to take the wool and make a dress1 
and in seeing how her mother's          
handmaidens had their daily spinning    
tasks assigned to them4 ,cornelia1 on   
the contrary1 was not only1 as we have  

seen1 highly accomplished1 but also one 
who1 after her husband's death1 was     
quite prepared1 as ,plutarch assures us1
 to undertake the management of the     
extensive property which he left his    
family1 and who1 we may well believe1   
would also have been qualified1 had the 
occasion demanded it1 to perform with   
distinction the same duties that fell to
 the lot of the gifted wives of         
,germanicus and ,augustus4  ,nothing in 
the history of ,greek and ,roman        
womanhood more strikingly illustrates   
than the two instances given the vast   
difference in the status of the wives of
 ,greece and ,rome1 or exhibits more    
clearly the advantages accruing to early
 training and thorough mental           
development4 ,if there was any          
difference in talent or intellect       
between the ,greek and the ,roman woman 
it was1 so far as we can determine1 in  
favor of the ,greek4 ,the sole reason1  
then1 for such a marked difference in   
their capacity for work and for         

achieving distinction in intellectual   
and administrative fields of action     
arose from the lack of education in the 
,athenian wife and the fullest measure  
of educational freedom enjoyed by the   
,roman4 ,that ,aspasia1 in spite of all 
the odds against her1 was able to rise  
to such a pinnacle of glory does not    
prove that she was the superior of her  
countrywomen--the mothers of the        
greatest poets1 artists and philosophers
 of all time--but it exhibits rather her
 good fortune in being able to effect a 
partnership with the greatest statesman 
of ,greece1 and one who was at the same 
time fully able to appreciate all her   
rare mental attainments and give her    
marvelous genius free scope for         
development by cooperating with him in  
making the period during which he held  
the reign of power the most brilliant   
one in the annals of human progress4    
,plato1 referring to the oriental       
seclusion to which ,athenian wives were 
condemned1 speaks of them as a race used

 to living out of the sunshine1 and     
that1 too1 among a people that          
habitually lived out of doors4 ,we have 
already seen how much greater freedom   
,roman women enjoyed and how much more  
important was the role they played in   
public as well as private life2 but we  
have not told all4 ,they not only went  
to1 but presided over1 public games and 
religious ceremonies4 ,they were        
admitted to aristocratic clubs and had1 
under the empire1 a regular assembly or 
senate of their own1 known as the       
,conventus ,matronarum4 ,hortensia1 the 
daughter of the great orator            
,hortensius1 pleaded the cause of her   
sex before the tribunal of the          
triumvirs1 and so eloquent and effective
 was her speech that she not only won   
her case1 but also won the praise of the
 critic1 ,quintilian1 for her splendid  
oratorical effort4  ,yet more4 ,a       
certain woman in the ,roman possessions 
in ,africa had so impressed her fellow  
citizens by her intellectual capacity   

and administrative ability that she was 
chosen as one of the two chief          
magistrates of the place4 ,she is known 
in history as ,messia ,castula1         
duumvira4 ,it is true that the men of   
the older school1 who would limit       
woman's activities to the distaff and   
the loom1 strongly objected to the      
increasing freedom and power of women1  
and endeavored to counteract their      
influence2 but all to no purpose4 ,and  
it was the crabbed old ,cato1 the       
,censor1 who growled in undisguised     
disgust3--,we ,romans rule over all men 
and our wives rule over us4  ,but great 
as were the freedom and educational     
advantages of the ,roman women1 the     
startling fact remains that1 with the   
exception of a few fragmentary verses of
 slight merit and of questionable       
authenticity1 we have absolutely no     
tangible evidence of the ,roman woman's 
literary ability while under pagan      
influence4 ,we have seen1 in considering
 her intellectual                       

attainments--especially after the       
introduction of ,greek art and letters  
into the ,city of the ,seven            
,hills--that every woman who pretended  
to culture was obliged to be familiar   
with the ,greek as well as with the     
,latin authors1 that her education was  
deemed incomplete without a knowledge of
 ,greek poetry1 oratory1 history and    
philosophy1 but the fact is indisputable
 that ,roman women were not producers   
like their ,greek sisters1 and that in  
no instance did their productions reach 
anything like the supreme excellence of 
the creations of a ,corinna or a        
,sappho4 ,there was1 it is true1        
,sulpicia1 of whom ,martial writes3 ,let
 every girl1 whose wish it is to please 
a single man1 read ,sulpicia2 let every 
man1 whose wish it is to please a single
 maid1 read ,sulpicia2 but1 if the few  
amatory verses that are credited to her 
represent the highest flights of the    
,roman women in the domain of poetry1   
then1 indeed1 were they far behind not  

only ,sappho and ,corinna1 but also far 
behind scores of their pupils4 ,martial 
does indeed speak of a young maiden in  
whom were combined the eloquence of     
,plato with the austere philosophy of   
the ,porch1 and who wrote verses worthy 
of a chaste ,sappho2 but this was       
evidently a great exaggeration1 for we  
have no other evidence of her existence4
  ,the creative work of ,roman women    
was1 so far as we are able to judge1    
quite as limited in prose as it was in  
poetry4 ,agrippina1 the mother of ,nero1
 was one of the few prose writers whose 
name has come down to us4 ,from her     
memoirs it was that ,tacitus received   
much of the material incorporated in his
 ,annals4  ,that some of the women had  
literary ability of a high order is     
indicated by a letter of ,pliny to one  
of his correspondents1 in which occurs  
the following passage3  ,pomponius      
,saturninus recently read me some       
letters which he averred had been       
written by his wife4 ,i believed that   

,plautus or ,terence was being read in  
prose4 ,whether they were really his    
wife's1 as he maintains1 or his own1    
which he denies1 he deserves equal      
honor1 either because he composes them  
or because he has made his wife1 whom he
 married when a mere girl1 so learned   
and so polished4#bc  ,scarcely less     
distinguished for her taste in          
literature1 and for her talent as a     
letter writer1 was ,pliny's wife1       
,calphurnia1 who1 at his request1 wrote 
to him in his absence every day and     
sometimes even twice a day4 ,according  
to ,cicero1 his daughter ,tulia was the 
best and most learned of women2 but her 
literary work1 it is probable1 did not  
extend much beyond her letters to her   
illustrious father4 ,nevertheless1 what 
would we not give to possess these      
letters--to have as complete a          
collection of them as we have of those  
of the great orator and philosopher4    
,they would be of inestimable value and 
would be absolutely beyond compare1     

except1 possibly1 with the letters of   
,mme4 du ,deffand or of ,elizabeth      
,barrett ,browning of a much later age4 
,considering the number of educated     
women that lived in the latter days of  
the ,republic and during the earlier    
part of the ,empire1 and their well     
known culture and love of letters1 it is
 reasonable to suppose that they may    
have written much in both prose and     
verse of which we have no record4       
,literary productions must have more    
than ordinary value to survive two      
thousand years1 and especially two      
thousand years of such revolutions and  
upheavals as have convulsed the world   
since the time of the ,pax ,romana1 when
 all the world was at peace under       
,augustus4  ,how much of the literary   
work of the women of to-day will receive
 recognition twenty centuries hence8    
,some of it may1 it is true1 find a     
place in the fireproof libraries of the 
time2 but who1 outside of a few         
antiquarians1 will take the trouble to  

read it or estimate its value8 ,a few   
anthologies containing our gems of prose
 and poetry will probably be all that   
our fortieth century readers will deem  
worthy of notice4 ,in view of the       
chaotic condition of ,europe for so many
 centuries1 the wonder is not that we   
have so little of the literary remains  
of ,greece and ,rome1 but rather that we
 have anything at all4  ,as one might   
expect1 the literary women of ,rome1 as 
well as those who ventured to take part 
in public affairs1 had their critics4   
,the satirists of the time were as      
unsparing of their ridicule as they were
 long afterward when ,moliere wrote his 
,femmes ,savantes and his ,precieuses   
,ridicules4 ,and as for men of the old  
conservative type1 a learned woman was  
as much an object of horror as is a     
militant suffragette in conservative    
,england to-day4 ,no learned wife for   
me1 exclaims ,martial1 but rather a     
well-fed slave4#bd  ,and ,juvenal had no
 more love for educated women than have 

some of our contemporaries for a        
blue-stocking housekeeper4 ,he gives his
 opinion of them in the following       
characteristic fashion3  ,that woman is 
a worse nuisance than usual who1 as soon
 as she reclines on her couch1 praises  
,virgil2 makes excuses for doomed ,dido2
 pits bards against one another and     
compares them1 and weighs ,homer and    
,mars in the balance4 ,teachers of      
literature give way1 professors are     
vanquished1 the whole mob is hushed1 and
 so great is the torrent of words that  
no lawyer or auctioneer may speak1 nor  
any other woman4#be  ,but if learned    
women had their enemies and detractors  
they also had friends and defenders4    
,among these was the ,stoic philosopher1
 ,c4 ,musonius ,rufus1 who lived in the 
time of ,nero4 ,like ,plato1 he         
contended that women should have the    
same training as men and that the       
faculties of both should be equally     
developed4 ,the gist of his teaching is 
contained in the statement that3  ,if   

the same virtues must pertain to men and
 women1 it follows1 necessarily1 that   
the same training and education must be 
suitable for both4#bf  ,our brief sketch
 of women's work in ancient ,rome would 
be incomplete without some reference to 
the famous ,ecclesia ,domestica--,church
 of the ,household--on the ,aventine1   
and the distinguished women who were its
 chief ornaments4 ,during the time of   
,pope ,damasus1 and not long before the 
sacking of ,rome by ,alaric1 the        
,ecclesia ,domestica was a kind of      
conventual home to which had retired1 or
 in which were frequently gathered1 some
 of the most noble and learned women of 
the city4 ,among the most notable of    
these were ,marcella and her friends1   
,paula and ,eustochium4  ,for beauty of 
character and nobility of purpose and   
rare mental endowments they recall the  
best traditions of a ,cornelia or a     
,calphurnia1 while so great was their   
purity of life and so unbounded was     
their charity to the poor and suffering 

that they were honored by being numbered
 among the saints of the early church4  
,but what specially distinguished them  
among all the great women of the ,roman 
world was their great and varied        
learning4 ,in this respect they probably
 were far in advance of all their       
predecessors4 ,for1 in addition to a    
thorough knowledge of ,latin and ,greek 
literature1 history and philosophy1 they
 had1 under the great theologian and    
orientalist1 ,st4 ,jerome1 become       
proficient in ,hebrew and deeply versed 
in ,scripture4  ,special mention should 
be made of ,paula and her daughter      
,eustochium2 for it is probable that1   
had it not been for their influence on  
,jerome1 and their active cooperation in
 his great life work1 we should not have
 the ,latin version of the ,scriptures  
that is to-day known as the ,vulgate4   
,this is evinced from the letters of the
 saint himself and from what we know of 
the lives of these two remarkable women1
 who1 as ,st4 ,jerome informs us in the 

epitaph which he had engraved on        
,paula's tomb in the ,church of the     
,nativity in ,bethlehem1 were descended 
from the ,scipios1 the ,gracchi and the 
,pauli on the mother's side1 and on the 
father's side from the half-mythical    
kings of ,sparta and ,mycenae4#bg  ,they
 aided him not only by their sympathy   
and by purchasing for him1 often at a   
great price1 the manuscripts he needed  
for his colossal undertaking1 but also  
assisted him by their thorough knowledge
 of ,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew in       
translating the ,sacred ,books from the 
original ,hebrew into ,latin4 ,so great 
was ,jerome's confidence in their       
scholarship and so high was his         
appreciation of their ability and       
judgment that he did not hesitate to    
submit his translations to them for     
their criticism and approval4 ,after he 
had completed his version of the first  
,book of ,kings1 he turned it over to   
them1 saying3 ,read my ,book of         
,kings--read also the ,latin and ,greek 

translations and compare them with my   
version4 ,and they did read and compare 
and criticise4 ,and more than this1 they
 frequently suggested modifications and 
corrections which the great man accepted
 with touching humility and incorporated
 in a revised copy4  ,more wonderful    
still1 the ,latin ,psalter1 as it has   
come down to us1 is not1 as is generally
 supposed1 the translation from the     
,hebrew of ,jerome1 but rather a        
corrected version made from the         
,septuagint by his illustrious          
collaborators--,paula and ,eustochium4  
,it is safe to say that no two women    
were ever engaged in a more important or
 more difficult literary                
undertaking--one requiring keener       
critical sense or more profound         
learning--than were ,paula and          
,eustochium1 or one in which their      
efforts were crowned with more brilliant
 success than were those of these two   
supreme exemplars of the grace1 the     
knowledge1 the culture1 the refinement  

of ,roman womanhood--the crowning       
glories of womanhood throughout the     
ages4  ,st4 ,jerome showed his grateful 
recognition of the invaluable assistance
 received from his devoted and talented 
co-workers by dedicating to them a great
 number of his most important books4    
,this scandalized the pharisaical men of
 the time1 who looked askance at all    
learned women and resented particularly 
the preeminence given to ,paula and her 
accomplished daughter4 ,but their       
reproaches provoked a reply from the    
saint that was worthy of the most       
chivalrous champion of woman1 and       
revealed1 at the same time1 all the     
nobility of soul of the roused ,lion of 
,bethlehem4 ,it is not only a defence of
 his course1 but also a splendid tribute
 to his two illustrious friends1 and a  
tribute also to the great and good women
 of all time4  ,there are people1 ,o    
,paula and ,eustochium1 exclaims the    
,christian ,cicero1 vibrant with emotion
 and in a burst of eloquence that       

recalls one of the burning philippics of
 ,marcus ,tullius1 who take offence at  
seeing your names at the beginning of my
 works4 ,these people do not know that  
,olda prophesied when the men were mute2
 that while ,barach was atremble1       
,deborah saved ,israel2 that ,judith and
 ,esther delivered from supreme peril   
the children of ,god4 ,i pass over in   
silence ,anna and ,elizabeth and the    
other holy women of the ,gospel1 but    
humble stars when compared with the     
great luminary1 ,mary4 ,shall ,i speak  
now of the illustrious women among the  
heathen8 ,does not ,plato have ,aspasia 
speak in his dialogues8 ,does not       
,sappho hold the lyre at the same time  
as ,alcaeus and ,pindar8 ,did not       
,themista philosophize with the sages of
 ,greece8 ,and the mother of the        
,gracchi1 your ,cornelia1 and the       
daughter of ,cato1 wife of ,brutus1     
before whom pale the austere virtue of  
the father and the courage of the       
husband--are they not the pride of the  

whole of ,rome8 ,i shall add but one    
word more4 ,was not it women to whom our
 ,lord first appeared after ,his        
resurrection8 ,yes1 men could then blush
 for not having sought what the women   
had found4#bh  ,time has spared a joint 
letter of ,paula and ,eustochium to     
their friend ,marcella--a letter which  
exhibits so well the rare culture and   
literary ability of the writers that we 
cannot but lament that we have not more 
of the correspondence which was carried 
on between the learned inmates of the   
,church of the ,household on the        
,aventine and ,paula's convent home near
 the ,church of the ,nativity in        
,bethlehem4 ,such a collection would be 
beyond price1 as it would complete the  
picture of the age so well sketched by  
,st4 ,jerome2 and1 as a contribution to 
the literary world1 it would have a     
value not inferior to that of those     
exquisite classics of a later age--the  
letters of ,madame ,sevigne to her      
daughter4#bi   ,,woman ,,and ,,education

 ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages  ,the   
period of nearly a thousand years       
intervening between the downfall of     
,rome in ,a4,d4 #dgf and the taking of  
,constantinople by the ,turks in #adec  
is usually known in history as the      
,middle ,ages4 ,by some it is considered
 as synonymous with the ,dark ,ages1    
because of the decline of learning and  
civilization during this long interval  
of time4 ,the former designation seems  
preferable1 for1 as we shall see1 the   
latter is more or less misleading4      
,during the wandering of the nations in 
the fourth and fifth centuries1 and the 
long and fierce struggles between the   
barbarian hordes from the north with the
 decadent peoples of the once great     
,roman empire1 there was1 no doubt1 a   
partial eclipse of the sun of           
civilization2 but the consequent        
darkness was not so dense nor so general
 and long-continued as is sometimes     
imagined4 ,the progress of intellectual 
culture was1 indeed1 greatly retarded1  

but there was no time when the light of 
learning was entirely extinguished4 ,for
 even during the most troublous times   
there were centers of culture in one    
part of ,europe or another4 ,at one time
 the center was in ,italy1 at another in
 ,gaul1 and1 at still another1 it was in
 ,britain or ,ireland or ,germany4  ,but
 whether it was in the south1 or the    
west or the north of ,europe that       
letters flourished1 it was always the   
convent or the monastery that was the   
home of learning and culture4 ,within   
these holy precincts the literary       
treasures of antiquity were preserved   
and multiplied4 ,here monks and nuns    
labored and studied1 always keeping     
lighted the sacred torch of             
knowledge--,et quasi cursores vitai     
lampada tradunt--and passing it on to   
the generations that succeeded them4    
,that any of the great literary         
masterpieces of ,greece and ,rome have  
come to us1 in spite of the destructive 
agencies of time and the wreck of       

empires1 is due wholly to the           
unremitting toil through long ages of   
the zealous and intelligent inmates of  
the cloister4  ,of the monastic         
institutions for men there is no        
occasion to speak1 except in so far as  
they contributed to the intellectual    
advancement of woman4 ,in some cases the
 women of the cloister owed much to     
ecclesiastics for their literary        
training2 but there are not wanting     
instances in which the nuns took the    
lead in education and had the direction 
of schools which gave to the church     
priests and bishops of recognized       
scholarship4  ,practically the only     
schools for girls during the ,middle    
,ages were the convents4 ,here were     
educated rich and poor1 gentle and      
simple4 ,and in these homes of piety and
 learning the inmates enjoyed a peace   
and a security that it was impossible to
 find elsewhere4 ,they were free from   
the dangers and annoyances that so often
 menaced them in their own homes and    

were able to pursue their studies under 
the most favorable auspices4  ,among the
 first convent schools to achieve       
distinction were those of ,arles and    
,poitiers in ,gaul1 in the latter part  
of the sixth century4 ,the ,abbess of   
,poitiers is known to us as ,st4        
,radegund4 ,she not only had a knowledge
 of letters rare for her age1 but wrote 
poems of such merit that they were until
 recently accepted as the productions of
 her master1 the poet ,fortunatus1#cj   
who subsequently became bishop of       
,poitiers4  ,far more notable1 however1 
than the convents of ,arles and         
,poitiers was the celebrated convent of 
,st4 ,hilda at ,whitby4 ,hilda1 the     
foundress and first abbess of ,whitby1  
was a princess of the blood-royal and a 
grand-niece of ,edwin1 the first        
,christian king of ,northumbria4 ,her   
convent and adjoining monastery for     
monks soon became the most noted center 
of learning and culture in ,britain4    
,and so great was her reputation for    

knowledge and wisdom that not only      
priests and bishops1 but also princes   
and kings sought her counsel in         
important matters of church and state4  
,as to the monks subject to her         
authority1 she inspired them with so    
great a love of knowledge1 and urged    
them to so thorough a study of the      
,scriptures1 that her monastery became1 
as ,venerable ,bede informs us1 a school
 not only for missionaries but for      
bishops as well4 ,he speaks in          
particular of six ecclesiastical        
dignitaries who were sent forth from    
this noble institution--all of whom were
 bishops4 ,five of them he describes as 
men of singular merit and               
sanctity--singularis meriti et          
sanctitatis viros1 while the sixth1 he  
declared1 was a man of rare ability and 
learning--doctissimus et excellentis    
ingenii4 ,of this number was ,st4 ,john 
of ,beverly1 who1 we are told1 attained 
a degree of popularity rare even in     
,england1 where the saints of old were  

so universally and so readily           
popular4#ca ,hilda governed her double  
monastery with singular wisdom and      
success2 and1 so great was the love and 
veneration she inspired among all       
classes that she merited the epithet of 
,mother of her ,country4  ,celebrated1  
however1 as ,hilda was for her great    
educational work at ,whitby1 she is     
probably better known to the world as   
the one who first recognized and        
fostered the rare gifts of the poet     
,caedmon4 ,it is on the lips of this    
cowherd1 as ,montalembert beautifully   
expresses it1 that the ,anglo-,saxon    
speech first bursts into poetry4        
,indeed1 nothing in the whole history of
 ,european literature is more original  
or more religious than this first       
utterance of the ,english muse4#cb  ,as 
soon as ,hilda discovered the           
extraordinary poetic faculty of         
,caedmon1 she did not hesitate to regard
 it as a special gift of ,god1 worthy of
 all respect and of the most tender     

care4 ,and1 in order that she might the 
more readily develop the splendid       
talents of this literary prodigy1 the   
keen discerning abbess received ,caedmon
 into the monastery of monks1 and had   
him translate the entire ,bible into    
,anglo-,saxon4 ,as soon as the ,sacred  
,text was read for him he forthwith1 as 
,bede declares1 ruminated it as a clean 
animal ruminates its food1 and          
transformed it into songs so beautiful  
that all who heard were delighted4  ,as 
his poetical faculty became more        
developed1 his profoundly original      
genius became more marked1 and his      
inspiration more earnest and            
impassioned4 ,it was this ,northumbrian 
cowherd1 transformed into a monk of     
,whitby1 who sang before the abbess     
,hilda the revolt of ,satan and         
,paradise ,lost1 a thousand years       
earlier than ,milton1 in verses which   
may still be admired even beside the    
immortal poem of the ,british ,homer4   
,so remarkable1 indeed1 in some         

instances is the similarity in the      
productions of the two poets that ,f4   
,palgrave1 one of the most competent of 
,english critics1 does not hesitate to  
declare that certain of ,caedmon's      
verses resembled so closely certain     
passages of the ,paradise ,lost that    
some of ,milton's lines seem almost like
 a translation from the work of his     
distinguished predecessor4 ,and ,m4     
,taine1 in his ,history of ,english     
,literature1 referring to the string of 
short1 accumulated1 passionate images1  
like a succession of lightning flashes1 
of the old ,anglo-,saxon poet1 asserts  
that ,milton's ,satan exists in         
,caedmon's as the picture exists in the 
sketch4#cc  ,well could ,caedmon's first
 biographer1 the ,venerable ,bede1 say  
of him1 ,many ,englishmen after him have
 tried to compose religious poems1 but  
no one has ever equaled the man who had 
only ,god for a master4 ,and not without
 warrant does the eloquent              
,montalembert1 in the masterly work just

 quoted1 pen the following statement3   
,apart from the interest which attaches 
to ,caedmon from a historical and       
literary point of view1 his life        
discloses to us essential peculiarities 
in the outward organization and         
intellectual life of those great        
communities which in the seventh century
 studded the coast of ,northumbria1 and 
which1 with all their numerous          
dependents1 found often a more complete 
development under the crozier of such a 
woman as ,hilda than under the superiors
 of the other sex4#cd  ,space precludes 
my telling of other convents which were 
centers of literary activity1 and of    
nuns who distinguished themselves by    
their learning and by the benign        
influence which they exerted far beyond 
the walls of the cloister4 ,i cannot1   
however1 refrain from referring to that 
group of learned ,english nuns who are  
chiefly known by their ,latin           
correspondence with ,st4 ,boniface1 the 
,apostle of ,germany1 and by the        

assistance which they gave him in his   
arduous labors4 ,conspicuous among these
 was ,st4 ,lioba1 who1 at the request of
 ,boniface1 left her home in ,england to
 found a convent at ,bischopsheim in    
,germany1 which1 under the direction of 
its learned and zealous abbess1 soon    
became the most important educational   
center in that part of ,europe4         
,teachers were formed here for other    
schools in ,germany and ,lioba's        
biographer tells us that there were few 
monasteria feminarum--monasteries of    
women--within the sphere of ,boniface's 
missionary activities for which ,lioba's
 pupils were not sought as              
instructresses4  ,like her illustrious  
countrywoman1 ,st4 ,hilda1 the abbess of
 ,bischopsheim was the friend and       
counselor of spiritual and temporal     
rulers4 ,charlemagne1 that eminent      
patron of scholars1 had a great         
admiration for her and gave her many    
substantial proofs of his esteem and    
veneration4 ,princes1 writes her        

biographer1 loved her1 noblemen received
 her1 and bishops gladly entertained her
 and conversed with her on the          
,scriptures and on the institutions of  
religion1 for she was familiar with many
 writings and careful in giving advice4 
,she was so bent on reading that she    
never laid aside her book except to pray
 or to strengthen her slight frame with 
food or sleep4#ce ,she was thoroughly   
conversant with the books of the ,old   
and the ,new ,testaments and was1 at the
 same time1 familiar with the writings  
of the ,fathers4 ,it is not surprising1 
then1 that she was regarded as an       
oracle1 and that all classes flocked to 
her as they did to the abbess of ,whitby
 for guidance and assistance4  ,from    
what has been said of the               
accomplishments and achievements of the 
,anglo-,saxon nuns just mentioned1 it is
 evident that they were1 of a truth1    
women of exceptional worth and of       
sterling character4 ,and it is equally  
clear that their pupils must have shared

 in the education and culture of their  
distinguished teachers4#cf ,many of     
them1 in addition to having a wide      
acquaintance with literature1 sacred and
 profane1 were also mistresses of       
several languages4 ,a woman's education1
 at this time1 was not complete unless  
she could write ,latin and speak it     
fluently4 ,the author of that most      
interesting early ,english work1 ,ancren
 ,riwle--,rule of                       
,anchoresses--presupposes in his        
auditors1 for whose benefit his         
instructions were given1 a knowledge of 
,latin and ,french1 as well as of       
,english4 ,in certain convents ,latin   
was almost the sole medium of           
communication1--to such an extent1      
indeed1 that a special rule was made    
prohibiting the use of the ,latin tongue
 except under special circumstances4    
,as long as the conventual system lasted
 the only schools for girls in ,england 
were the convent schools where1 says    
,robert ,aske1 'the daughters of        

gentlemen were brought up in virtue4'   
,from an educational point of view1 the 
suppression of the convents was         
decidedly a blunder4 ,thus writes       
,georgiana ,hill in her instructive work
 on ,women in ,english ,life1 and there 
are1 we fancy1 but few readers of her   
instructive pages who will not be       
inclined to agree with her              
conclusions4#cg ,lecky speaks of the    
dissolution of convents at the time of  
the ,reformation as far from a benefit  
to women or the world4#ch ,and ,dom     
,gasquet declares that destruction by   
,henry ,,viii of the conventual schools 
where the female population1 the rich as
 well as the poor1 found their only     
teachers1 was the absolute extinction of
 any systematic education of women for a
 long period4#ci  ,but this is not all4 
,the strangest and saddest result1      
consequent on the suppression of the    
convents1 was that men were made to     
profit by the loss which women had      
sustained4 ,the revenues of the houses  

that were suppressed had been intended  
for the sole use and behoof of women1   
and had been administered by them in    
this sense for centuries4 ,when they    
were appropriated by ,henry ,,viii1 it  
never occurred to him or his ministers  
to make any provision for the education 
of women in lieu of that which had so   
ruthlessly been wrested from them4 ,thus
 the nunnery of ,st4 ,radegund1 together
 with its revenues and possessions1 was 
transformed into ,jesus ,college1       
,cambridge1 while from the suppressed   
convents of ,bromhall in ,berkshire and 
,lillechurch in ,kent funds were secured
 for the foundation and endowment of    
,st4 ,john's ,college1 also at          
,cambridge4 ,similarly1 the properties  
of other nunneries1 large and small1    
were appropriated for the foundation of 
collegiate institutions at ,oxford1 all 
of which were for the benefit of men4   
,and so it was that1 in a few short     
years1 the great work of centuries was  
undone and women were left little better

 educational facilities than when the   
,anglo-,saxon nuns began their noble    
work in a land that was enveloped in one
 dark night of unillumined barbarism4   
,one would have thought that ,elizabeth1
 who was so highly educated1 and who did
 so much for the supremacy of her       
country on land and sea1 would have     
bethought herself of the necessity of   
doing something for the education of her
 female subjects4 ,but no4 ,she did     
nothing for them1 and the founders of   
the endowed grammar schools1 during her 
reign1 gave never a thought to the      
educational necessities of the girls4   
,they made provision only for the boys4 
,in this respect1 however1 the ,virgin  
,queen was but following in the         
footsteps of the male sovereigns and    
legislators who had preceded her1 and   
who1 although affecting an interest in  
having women sensible and virtuous1 seem
 by their conduct toward the sex to have
 entered into a general conspiracy to   
order it otherwise4  ,the truth is1 when

 anything was achieved for the          
intellectual advancement of women it was
 due either to private instruction or to
 the result of a protracted struggle on 
the part of women themselves for what   
they deemed their indefeasible rights4  
,had they relied on the spontaneous     
action of men and on legislation in     
favor of female education to which men  
had given the initiative1 they would    
to-day be in the same condition of      
ignorance and seclusion and servitude as
 was the ,athenian woman twenty-five    
centuries ago1 and would occupy a status
 but little above that of the inmates of
 oriental harems and zenanas4  ,the     
,anglo-,saxon nuns were1 as we have     
seen1 specially distinguished for their 
learning and for the splendid work they 
performed for the education of their sex
 during the long period of the ,middle  
,ages4 ,but however great their         
preeminence in these respects1 they were
 not without rivals4 ,there were1       
besides the schools1 already named1     

conducted by ,st4 ,lioba and her        
companions1 also flourishing schools in 
,germany under the direction of native  
nuns1 whose success as educators was as 
marked as that of ,lioba or ,hilda1 and 
who1 in addition to their labors in the 
class-room1 achieved distinction by     
their productive work4 ,the             
,anglo-,saxon convents developed few    
writers1 whereas those of ,germany      
produced several who not only shed      
luster on their sex but who also showed 
what woman is capable of accomplishing  
when accorded some measure of           
encouragement and full liberty of       
action4  ,one of the most noted writers 
of her age was the famous nun of        
,gandersheim1 ,hroswitha1 who was born  
in the early part of the tenth century4 
,she was the pupil of the abbess        
,gerberg1 who was of royal lineage1 and 
one of the most zealous promoters of    
learning and culture in ,saxony during  
the forty-two years of her rule in the  
convent to which she and her favorite   

pupil gave undying renown4  ,hroswitha's
 literary work consists of legends and  
contemporary history in metrical form   
and of her dramas written in the style  
of ,terence4 ,as a writer of history and
 legends she ranks with the best authors
 of her time1 while as a writer of      
dramas she stands absolutely alone4     
,hers1 indeed1 were the first dramatic  
compositions given to the world during  
the long interval that elapsed between  
the last comedies of classic antiquity  
and the first of the miracle plays which
 had such a vogue between the twelfth   
and the sixteenth century4  ,her dramas1
 which1 of all her works1 have attracted
 the most attention1 are seven in       
number4 ,they deal with the moral and   
mental conflicts which characterized the
 period of transition from heathendom to
 ,christianity4 ,some of them exhibit   
poetic talent of a high order as well as
 the inspiration and courage of genius4 
,they reveal also a wide acquaintance   
with the classic authors of ,rome and   

,greece1 besides a knowledge of many of 
the ,christian writers4 ,they are1      
likewise1 distinguished by originality  
of treatment1 complete mastery of the   
material used1 as well as by genuine    
beauty of rhyme and rhythm4 ,in form1   
all the plays preserve the simple       
directness of their model1 ,terence1    
while1 in conception1 they embody the   
noblest ideals of ,christian teaching4  
,in marked contrast to her model1 who   
invariably exhibits the frailties and   
lapses of woman1 ,hroswitha's plays turn
 on the resistance of her sex to        
temptation1 and on their steadfast      
adherence to duty and to vows           
voluntarily assumed4 ,a recent ,english 
writer1 ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson1 in an          
appreciative estimate of the work of    
this learned ,benedictine nun expresses 
himself as follows3  ,it is on the      
literary side alone that ,hroswitha     
belongs to the classic school4 ,the     
spirit and essence of her work belong   
entirely to the ,middle ,ages2 for      

beneath the rigid garb of a dead        
language--she wrote in ,latin--beats the
 warm heart of a new era4 ,everything in
 her plays that is not formal but       
essential1 everything that is original  
and individual1 belongs wholly to the   
,christianized ,germany of the tenth    
century4 ,everywhere we can trace the   
influence of the atmosphere in which she
 lived2 every thought and every motive  
is colored by the spiritual conditions  
of her time4 ,the keynote of all her    
works is the conflict of ,christianity  
with paganism2 and it is worthy of      
remark that in ,hroswitha's hands       
,christianity is throughout represented 
by the purity and gentleness of woman1  
while paganism is embodied in what she  
describes as the vigor of men--virile   
robur4#dj  ,among her legends the one   
entitled ,the ,lapse and ,conversion of 
,theophilus has a special interest as   
being the precursor of the well-known   
legend of ,faust4  ,in ,hroswitha's     
time1 as in our own1 there were people  

who were strongly opposed to the higher 
education of women4 ,there were others  
who would deny them even the elements of
 an education--who declared that they   
should be taught anything rather than   
reading and writing1 which were a cause 
of temptation and sin--that their       
knowledge should be confined solely to  
the duties of an ordinary housewife1    
that their books should consist solely  
of thimble1 thread and needles--,et     
leurs livres1 un de1 du fil et des      
aguilles4 ,some1 it is true1 were       
willing to make an exception in favor of
 nuns2 but1 as to all others1 the less  
they knew the better it was for their   
spiritual1 if not for their temporal1   
welfare also4#da ,to those who were thus
 minded1 ,hroswitha pithily replied that
 it was not knowledge itself but the bad
 use of it that was dangerous--,nec     
scientia scibilis ,deum offendit1 sed   
injustitia scientis4  ,among other women
 who were ,hroswitha's equals in        
knowledge1 if not in literary           

attainments1 were several other nuns who
 illumined the closing centuries of the 
,middle ,ages4 ,chief among these were  
,st4 ,hildegard1 the sybil of the       
,rhine2 ,herrad1 the noted author of the
 ,hortus ,deliciarum--,garden of        
,delights--and ,matilda and ,gertrude1  
those remarkable mystical writers1 whose
 descriptions of heaven and hell so     
closely resemble those in the ,divina   
,commedia that many writers are of the  
opinion that the great ,florentine poet 
must have been familiar with the        
accounts which they gave of their       
visions4  ,st4 ,hildegard was for a     
third of a century the abbess of the    
convent of ,st4 ,rupert at ,bingen4 ,so 
great was her reputation for sanctity   
and for the extent and variety of her   
attainments that she was called the     
marvel of ,germany4 ,she is without     
doubt one of the most beautiful and     
imposing as well as one of the greatest 
figures of the ,middle ,ages--great     
beside such eminent contemporaries as   

,abelard1 ,martin of ,tours and ,bernard
 of ,clairvaux4 ,people from all parts  
of the ,christian world sought her      
counsel2 and her convent at ,bingen     
became a ,mecca for all classes and     
conditions of men and women4 ,but       
nothing shows better the immense        
influence which she wielded than her    
letters of which nearly three hundred   
have been preserved4  ,among her        
correspondents were people of the humble
 walks of life as well as the highest   
representatives of ,church and ,state4  
,there were simple monks and noble      
abbots2 dukes1 kings and queens2        
archbishops and cardinals and no fewer  
than four ,popes4 ,letters came to her  
from the orient and the occident1 from  
the patriarch of ,jerusalem1 from ,queen
 ,bertha of ,greece1 from ,frederick    
,barbarossa1 ,philip the ,count of      
,flanders1 ,st4 ,bernard1 the professors
 of the ,university of ,paris2 from     
,henry ,,ii of ,england1 and from his   
grand-daughter ,eleonora1 ,the ,damsel  

of ,brittany4 ,it is safe to say that no
 woman during the ,middle ,ages         
exercised a wider or more beneficent    
influence than did this humble          
,benedictine abbess of ,bingen on the   
,rhine and had unsought so large a      
number of distinguished correspondents4 
,and1 if we accept the criterion that   
influence is measured by the number and 
nature of one's relations1 it would be  
difficult to find in any age relations  
that were more select or more           
cosmopolitan4  ,but her astonishing     
collection of letters is the slightest  
product of her intellectual activity4   
,she is without doubt the most          
voluminous woman writer of the ,middle  
,ages4 ,her works on theology1          
,scripture and science make no less than
 six or eight large octavo volumes4 ,the
 ,bollandists1 than whom there is no    
more competent authority1 express their 
amazement at the amount and quality of  
,hildegard's work4 ,witness the         
following language of one of their      

number3 ,although we may not be         
surprised that our saint was            
interrogated regarding secret things by 
so many men eminent both by reason of   
their dignity and their learning1 ,i am 
nevertheless forced to recognize with   
stupefaction that a woman without       
instruction1 and who had not acquired   
knowledge by study1 was consulted       
concerning the most difficult questions 
of theology and the most subtle of ,holy
 ,scriptures1 and that she gave1 without
 hesitation1 the answers that were      
demanded by theology and ,scripture4#db 
,is it1 then1 surprising that the famous
 ,william of ,auxerre1 after a critical 
examination of her works1 should compare
 her with ,peter ,lombard1 the          
celebrated ,master of the ,sentences1#dc
 and one of the most learned of the     
,schoolmen1 and write that ,hildegard is
 ,sententiarum ,magistra--,mistress of  
the ,sentences--and that in her works   
the words are not human but divine8 ,has
 any woman writer ever received higher  

praise1 and from one so competent to    
express an opinion as the scholarly     
divine of ,auxerre8   ,herrad1 the      
gifted abbess of ,hohenburg in ,alsace1 
was a contemporary of ,hildegard1 and1  
like her1 was noted for her culture and 
wide range of knowledge4 ,she is chiefly
 known for her ,hortus ,deliciarum1 a   
remarkable work1 encyclopaedic in       
character1 which she wrote for the nuns 
of her convent and which was designed to
 embody in words and in pictures the    
knowledge of her age4  ,nothing that    
time has bequeathed to us gives us a    
clearer conception of the manifold      
activities of a mediaeval nunnery1 of   
the industry1 talents and enthusiastic  
love of learning of its inmates1 than   
,herrad's wonderful ,garden of          
,delights4 ,nor is there any other work 
that gives us a better knowledge of the 
manners1 customs and ideals of the      
twelfth century1 or one that1 in its    
particular sphere1 is of more value to  
the student of art1 philology and       

archaeology4 ,it exhibits ,herrad's     
intense interest in the intellectual    
advancement of her nuns and pupils as   
well as her superior talent and         
acquirements4 ,unfortunately the        
manuscript copy of this work was        
destroyed at the time of the bombardment
 of ,strasburg by the ,germans in #ahgj1
 and our knowledge of it is limited to  
portions of it which had previously been
 transcribed or to accounts left of it  
by those who had examined it before its 
destruction4 ,of such exceptional value 
was this unique work that the editor of 
the great collection of pictures1 which 
illustrates this remarkable book1 does  
not hesitate to declare that ,few       
illuminated manuscripts had acquired a  
fame so well deserved as the ,hortus    
,deliciarum of ,herrad4#dd  ,no sketch1 
however brief1 of the literary nuns of  
mediaeval ,germany would be complete    
without some reference to the learned   
religious of the convent of ,helfta1    
near ,eisleben in ,saxony4 ,of the      

abbess ,gertrude we read that her       
enthusiasm for knowledge was so great   
that she not only inspired others with  
the same enthusiasm1 but that she was an
 incessant collector of books1 which she
 had her nuns transcribe4 ,among her    
most distinguished subjects were two    
religious by the name of ,matilda1 one  
of whom was her sister1 and a third1    
who1 to distinguish her from the abbess1
 is known as ,gertrude the ,great4  ,the
 writings of these nuns were inspired by
 that great mystic movement which then  
prevailed in various parts of ,europe   
and are among the most impassioned      
productions of the age4 ,for this reason
 they still have a special claim on the 
attention of students of art and        
literature1 as well as those of theology
 and mysticism4 ,impressed by the       
similarity of their ideas and           
descriptions as compared with those     
found in ,dante's great masterpiece1    
there are not wanting scholars who      
contend that the prototype of the       

,matelda in the earthly paradise of the 
,purgatorio was none other than one of  
the ,matildas of the famous convent of  
,helfta4#de  ,the writings of           
,hroswitha1 ,hildegard1 ,herrad1        
,gertrude and the ,matildas1 to speak of
 no others1 are the best evidence of the
 studious character of the nuns of      
mediaeval times1 and of their devotion  
to the cause of education4 ,they        
command1 likewise1 our admiration for   
the system of training which made such  
development possible1 and show that1 in 
certain departments1 the schools as then
 conducted were on as high a plane as   
any we have to-day4#df ,they show us1   
too1 that nuns and convent-bred women of
 the age in question were of quite      
different mental calibre from that of   
the gentle lady of chivalry living in   
her bower1 playing upon her lute and    
waiting patiently for the return of her 
triumphant knight1 and quite different1 
too1 from that of the castle            
lady-loves--whose sole attractions were 

often no more than youth and beauty--who
 inspired the impassioned lyrics of     
troubadour and minnesinger4  ,a recent  
writer sums up in a few words the status
 and the accomplishments of the lady of 
the abbey in the following paragraph3   
,no institution of ,europe has ever won 
for the lady the freedom and development
 that she enjoyed in the convent in     
early days4 ,the modern college for     
women only feebly reproduces it1 since  
the college for women has arisen at a   
time when colleges in general are under 
a cloud4 ,the lady-abbess1 on the other 
hand1 was part of the two great social  
forces of her time1 feudalism and the   
,church4 ,great spiritual rewards and   
great worldly prizes were alike within  
her grasp4 ,she was treated as an equal 
by the men of her class1 as is witnessed
 by letters we still have from popes and
 emperors to abbesses4 ,she had the     
stimulus of competition with men in     
executive capacity1 in scholarship1 and 
in artistic production1 since her work  

was freely set before the general       
public2 but she was relieved by the     
circumstances of her environment from   
the ceaseless competition in common life
 of woman with woman for the favor of   
the individual man4 ,in the cloister of 
the great days1 as on a small scale in  
the college for women to-day1 women were
 judged by each other as men are        
everywhere judged by each other1 for    
sterling qualities of head and heart and
 character4#dg  ,nor is this all4 ,never
 was woman more highly honored1 never   
was her power and influence greater than
 during the period of conventual life   
extending from ,hilda of ,whitby to     
,gertrude and the ,matildas of ,helfta1 
and especially during that golden period
 of monasticism and chivalry when       
cloister and court were the radiant     
centers of learning and culture4        
,abbesses took part in ecclesiastical   
synods and councils and assisted in the 
deliberations of national assemblies4   
,in ,england1 they ranked with lords    

temporal and spiritual1 and had the     
right to attend the king's council or to
 send proxies to represent them1 while  
in ,germany1 where they held property   
directly from the king or emperor1 they 
enjoyed the rights and privileges of    
barons and1 as such1 took part in the   
proceedings of the imperial diet either 
in person or through their accredited   
representatives4 ,in ,saxony1 the       
abbesses had the right to strike coins  
bearing their own portraits1 notably the
 abbesses of ,gandersheim and           
,quedlinburg4 ,in ,england they were    
invested with extraordinary powers1 and 
in certain cases owed obedience to none 
save the ,pope4 ,in ,kent abbesses1 as  
representatives of religion1 came       
immediately after bishops4  ,possessing 
such power and prestige1 it is not      
surprising to learn that abbesses       
wielded great influence in temporal as  
well as spiritual matters2 that it      
pervaded politics and extended to the   
courts of kings and emperors4 ,thus1    

,matilda1 the abbess of ,quedlinburg1   
together with ,adelheid1 the mother of  
,otto ,,iii who was but three years old 
at the time of his father's death1      
practically ruled the empire4 ,at a     
later period during the prolonged       
absence in ,italy of ,otto ,,iii1 the   
control of affairs was entrusted to the 
abbess alone2 and so successful was her 
administration1 and so vigorous were the
 measures which she adopted against the 
invading ,wends1 that she commanded the 
admiration of all4 ,in view of these    
facts1 the learned authoress of ,woman  
,under ,monasticism is fully warranted  
in declaring as she does ,the career    
open to the inmates of convents in      
,england and on the ,continent was      
greater than any other ever thrown open 
to women in the course of modern        
,european history4#dh  ,the educational 
influence of convents during centuries1 
continues the same writer1 cannot be    
rated too highly4 ,not only did their   
inmates attain considerable knowledge   

but education in a nunnery1 as we see   
from ,chaucer and others1 secured an    
improved standing for those who were not
 professed4#di ,it prepared the way for1
 if it did not train1 those highly      
educated women who appeared during the  
time of the transition between the      
,middle ,ages and what is now designated
 as the ,modern ,period4  ,among these  
were ,christine de ,pisan1 who was a    
prolific writer on many subjects in both
 prose and verse1 and who1 it is said1  
was the first woman to earn a livelihood
 by her pen4#ej ,there were also some of
 those remarkable women who lectured on 
law in the ,university of ,bologna1     
among whom were ,bettina ,gozzadini1#ea 
who1 some writers will have it1 occupied
 the chairs of law in her alma mater as 
early as #abcf1 and the celebrated      
,novella d',andrea1 of the following    
century1 who frequently acted as a      
substitute for her father1 a professor  
of canon law in the university1 and who1
 by reason of her varied and profound   

knowledge1 held a prominent place among 
the most learned men of her time4 ,both 
of these noted women were worthy        
prototypes of that long list of learned 
,italian women who1 during the          
,renaissance1 won such honor for        
themselves and such undying glory for   
their country4 ,not less remarkable were
 several women of the school of         
,salerno1 who1 during its palmiest days1
 distinguished themselves as teachers1  
writers and medical practitioners1#eb   
and the still more remarkable daughters 
of one ,mangord1 a professor of ,paris1 
whose daughters taught ,sacred          
,scripture4#ec ,there were few in       
number1 it is true1 but they were the   
worthy prototypes of those learned and  
brilliant women who achieved such       
distinction and glory for their sex     
during that most interesting period of  
history known as the ,renaissance4      
,,woman ,,and ,,education ,,during ,,the
 ,,renaissance  ,by the ,renaissance we 
understand not only a phase in the      

development of the nations of ,europe   
but also that period of transition      
between the mediaeval and the modern    
world during which the latent spiritual 
energies of the ,middle ,ages developed 
into the intellectual forces and moral  
habits of thought which now pervade the 
civilized world4 ,various dates are     
assigned for its starting point4 ,among 
them is the fall of ,constantinople in  
#adec1 when there was a great influx of 
scholars from the famed metropolis on   
the ,bosphorus to the ,italian          
peninsula1 who brought with them those  
forgotten treasures of science and      
literature which were so instrumental in
 producing that interesting phenomenon  
known in history as the ,revival of     
,learning4 ,but whatever date be        
assigned for the beginning of the       
,renaissance1 whether it be the year    
when ,constantinople fell into the hands
 of the ,turk or the fateful millennial 
year which was to witness the           
termination of all things1 there        

certainly was never at any period a     
distinct breach of historical continuity
 between the old order and the new4     
,this is particularly true of ,italy    
where the ,renaissance had its origin4  
,for here1 during the entire mediaeval  
period1 there never was a time when the 
study of antiquity was completely       
neglected2 when the traditions of the   
old ,roman culture had died out1 or when
 the art and the literature of the      
classical ages of the past had ceased to
 exert an influence on artists and      
scholars4 ,ozanam was1 then1 right when 
he declared that the night of the ,dark 
,age1 which in ,italy intervened between
 the intellectual daylight of antiquity 
and the dawn of the ,renaissance1 was1  
in reality1 like one of those luminous  
nights in which the fading brightness of
 evening is prolonged into the first    
beaming of the morning4#ed  ,so much1   
indeed1 was this the case that those who
 have made the most profound study of   
the ,middle ,ages recognize a first     

,renaissance in the twelfth century1    
which was not less real than the        
,renaissance par excellence of the      
fifteenth century1 a renaissance which  
counts such masters of ,latinity as     
,abelard1 ,john of ,salisbury and       
,hildebert of ,tours1 and such schools  
as that of ,chartres1 where classical   
,latin was taught with as much          
thoroughness as in the great            
universities of ,europe during the      
brilliant age of the humanists4 ,it was 
then1 as ,rashdall truly observes1 that 
a revival of architecture heralded1 as  
it usually does1 a wider revival of     
,art4 ,the schools of ,christendom      
became thronged as they were never      
thronged before4 ,a passion for enquiry 
took the place of the old routine4 ,the 
,crusades brought different parts of    
,europe into contact with one another   
and into contact with the new world of  
the ,east--with a new religion and a new
 philosophy1 with the ,arabic           
,aristotle1 with the ,arabic            

commentators on ,aristotle1 and         
eventually even with ,aristotle in the  
original ,greek4#ee  ,roughly speaking1 
the ,renaissance attained its           
culmination during the second half of   
the fifteenth century4 ,it was during   
this period that gunpowder and printing 
with movable types were invented--the   
first completely revolutionizing the    
methods of warfare and the second       
marvelously facilitating the diffusion  
of knowledge4 ,and it was during the    
same period also that ,vasco da ,gama   
doubled the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 that  
,columbus crossed the ,sea of ,darkness 
and that ,copernicus laid the foundation
 of modern astronomy4  ,but this        
wonderful half-century constituted only 
a small portion of the period embraced  
by the ,renaissance4 ,from the fall of  
,constantinople until it attained the   
highest phase of development in         
,england1 the ,renaissance covers a     
period of nearly two centuries4 ,the    
progress of the intellectual and moral  

movement which it represented1 from the 
land of its birth1 to the northern and  
western parts of ,europe1 was           
comparatively slow4 ,thus1 while ,italy 
was exhibiting the full effulgence of   
the re-birth1 ,england was still in the 
feudal condition of the ,middle ,ages4  
,a striking illustration of this truth  
is seen in the fact that a brother of   
the ,black ,prince banqueted with       
,petrarch in the palace of ,galeazzo    
,visconti--that is to say1 the founder  
of ,italian humanism1 the representative
 of ,italian despotic state-craft1 and  
the companion of ,froissart's heroes met
 together at a marriage feast4 ,in      
,italy1 as ,symonds has shown1 the      
keynote was struck by the ,novella1 as  
in ,england by the drama4#ef ,the       
supreme exponents of the ,renaissance as
 manifested in literature were1 without 
doubt1 ,ariosto in ,italy1 ,rabelais in 
,france1 ,cervantes in ,spain1 ,camoens 
in ,portugal1 ,erasmus in the           
,netherlands and ,shakespeare in        

,england4  ,considering the splendid    
achievements of men during the          
,renaissance in every department of     
intellectual activity1 one would imagine
 that women also would have attained to 
a somewhat proportionate distinction1 at
 least in literature and the arts4 ,but1
 outside of ,italy1 this was far from   
being the case4 ,in ,france1 ,spain1    
,portugal and ,england there were1 it is
 true1 a certain number of women who won
 distinction by their talents and       
learning1 but these were the exceptions 
which but served to throw into greater  
relief the prevailing ignorance of the  
great mass of their sex1 which had few1 
if any1 of the advantages of            
instruction1 even in the most elementary
 branches of knowledge4  ,the ,italian  
women1 as we have already seen1 had     
commanded marked recognition for their  
talents and learning even before the    
close of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the most   
famous of these were among those who1   
having obtained the doctorate1 became   

lecturers and professors in the great   
university of ,bologna4 ,the existence  
and accomplishments of some of these    
may1 perhaps1 be more or less legendary1
 but there can be no doubt that many of 
them1 some before the time of the       
,renaissance1 had gained a ,european    
reputation for the breadth and variety  
of their attainments4 ,but it was during
 the ,renaissance that the remarkable   
flowering of the intellect of the       
,italian woman was seen at its best4    
,while the women in the other parts of  
,europe1 especially in ,england and     
,germany1 were suffering the ill effects
 consequent on the suppression of the   
convents1 which1 for centuries1 had been
 almost the only schools available for  
girls1 the women of ,italy were taking  
an active part in the great educational 
movement inaugurated by the revival of  
learning1 and winning the highest honors
 for their sex in every department of   
science1 art and literature4 ,not since 
the days of ,sappho and ,aspasia had    

woman attained such prominence1 and     
never were they1 irrespective of        
class-condition1 accorded greater       
liberty1 privileges or honor4 ,the      
universities1 which had been opened to  
them at the close of the ,middle ,ages1 
gladly conferred upon them the          
doctorate1 and eagerly welcomed them to 
the chairs of some of their most        
important faculties4 ,the ,renaissance  
was1 indeed1 the heydey of the          
intellectual woman throughout the whole 
of the ,italian peninsula--a time when  
woman enjoyed the same scholastic       
freedom as men1 and when ,mme4 de       
,stael's dictum1 ,le genie n'a pas de   
sexe1 expressed a doctrine admitted in  
practice and not an academic theory4    
,it would require a large volume1 or    
rather many volumes1 to do justice to   
the learned women of ,italy who         
conferred such honor upon their sex     
during the period we are considering4   
,suffice it to mention a few of those   
who achieved special distinction and    

whose memories are still green in the   
land which had been made so illustrious 
by their talent and genius4  ,that which
 the modern reader finds the most       
surprising in the ,italian women of the 
,renaissance is their enthusiasm for the
 literae humaniores--the ,latin and     
,greek classics--and the proficiency    
which so many of them1 even at an early 
age1 attained in the literature and     
philosophy of antiquity4 ,it was no     
uncommon thing for a girl in her teens  
to write and speak ,latin1 while many of
 them were almost equally familiar with 
,greek4#eg ,thus ,laura ,brenzoni1 of   
,verona1 had such a mastery of these two
 languages that she wrote and spoke them
 with ease1 while ,alessandra ,scala was
 so familiar with them that she employed
 them in writing poetry4 ,lorenza       
,strozzi1 who was educated in a convent 
and eventually became a nun1 was        
distinguished for her great versatility1
 for her profound knowledge of science  
and art1 as well as for her proficiency 

in ,latin and ,greek4 ,her ,latin poems 
were so highly valued that they were    
translated into foreign languages4      
,livia ,chiavello1 of ,fabriano1 was    
celebrated as one of the most brilliant 
representatives of the ,petrarchan      
school4 ,her style was so pure and noble
 that1 had ,petrarch not lived1 she     
alone would have upheld the honor of the
 vulgar tongue4 ,so successful was      
,isotta of ,rimini in the cultivation of
 the ,muses that she was hailed as      
another ,sappho4 ,cassandra ,fedele1 of 
,venice1 deserved1 according to         
,polizian1 the noted ,florentine        
humanist1 to be ranked with that famous 
universal genius1 ,pico de la           
,mirandola4 ,so extensive were her      
attainments that in addition to being a 
thorough mistress of ,latin and ,greek1 
she was likewise distinguished in music1
 eloquence1 philosophy and even         
theology4 ,leo ,x1 ,louis ,,xii of      
,france1 and ,isabella of ,spain were   
eager to have her as an ornament for    

their courts1 but the ,venetian senate  
was so proud of its treasure that it was
 unwilling to have her depart4 ,catarina
 ,cibo1 of ,genoa1 was another prodigy  
of learning2 for1 besides a knowledge of
 ,latin and ,greek1 philosophy and      
theology1 she was well acquainted with  
,hebrew4 ,donna ,felice ,rasponi1 of    
,ravenna1 devoted herself to the study  
of ,plato and ,aristotle1 of ,scripture 
and the ,fathers4 ,but1 for the extent  
and variety of her attainments1         
,tarquinia ,molza seems to have eclipsed
 all her contemporaries4 ,she had as    
teachers the ablest scholars of an age  
of distinguished scholars4 ,not only did
 she excel in poetry and the fine arts1 
but she also had a rare knowledge of    
astronomy and mathematics1 ,latin1      
,greek and ,hebrew4 ,and so great was   
the esteem in which she was held that   
the senate of ,rome conferred on her the
 singular honor of ,roman citizenship1  
transmissible in perpetuity to her      
descendants4 ,the ,sovereign ,pontiff   

and the flower of the ,roman prelacy    
begged her to take up her residence in  
the ,eternal ,city1 but she could not be
 prevailed upon to leave the land of her
 birth4  ,in the arts of sculpture and  
painting the women of ,italy1 during the
 ,renaissance1 were no less illustrious 
than they were in science1 literature   
and philosophy4 ,indeed1 many of the    
treasures in the ,italian churches and  
art galleries that still delight all    
lovers of the beautiful are from the    
chisel and the brush of women who       
achieved distinction between three and  
four centuries ago4#eh  ,probably the   
most famous sculptress was ,properzia de
 ,rossi1 whose ability was so remarkable
 that she excited the envy of the men   
who were her competitors4#ei ,among     
painters there was ,suor ,plantilla     
,nelli1 who was a nun and prioress in   
the convent of ,santa ,catarina in      
,florence4 ,both ,lanzi and ,vasari     
bestow high praise on her work and      
declare some of her productions to be of

 rare excellence4 ,there were also      
,maria ,angela ,crisculo1 of whose      
splendid work many examples are still   
preserved in the churches of ,naples1   
and ,lavinia ,fontana of ,bologna1 who  
exhibited such extraordinary ability as 
an artist that some of her pictures     
passed for the work of her great        
contemporary1 ,guido ,reni4#fj ,still   
more remarkable were the achievements of
 four sisters of the noted family       
,anguisciola of ,cremona4 ,so admirable 
was the work of the eldest sister1      
,sofonisba1 that ,philip ,,ii invited   
her to his court in ,spain1 where she   
excited the amazement of every one by   
the splendid canvases which she executed
 for her illustrious patron and for the 
members of the royal family4  ,of the   
fifty female poets who flourished in    
,italy during the ,renaissance the most 
eminent were ,gaspara ,stampa1 ,veronica
 ,gambara1 and ,vittoria ,colonna4 ,of  
such merit and exquisite finish were the
 productions of their ,muse that they   

are still read with never failing       
pleasure4 ,so highly did ,cardinal      
,bembo1--the famous dictator of         
letters--value the scholarship and      
critical acumen of ,veronica ,gambara   
that he never published anything without
 previously submitting it to her        
judgment4 ,but far more eminent as a    
poet was the noble and accomplished     
,marchesa of ,pescara1 ,vittoria        
,colonna1 who1 on account of her talents
 and virtues1 was named ,la ,divina4    
,the friend and adviser of scholars and 
the confidante of princes1 she          
represented1 as has truly been said1 the
 best phases of the ,renaissance1 its   
learning1 its intelligence1 its         
enthusiasm1 its subtle ,platonism1      
combined with a profound religious faith
 and the trace of the mysticism of a    
simpler age4 ,the chorus of universal   
praise which was sung by her            
contemporaries is well echoed by        
,ariosto when he writes of her3 ,she has
 not only made herself immortal by her  

beautiful style1 of which ,i have heard 
not better1 but she can raise from the  
tomb those of whom she speaks or writes 
and make them live forever4 ,but it was 
as the friend and inspirer of           
,michaelangelo that she is best known to
 us to-day4 ,without wings1 he writes to
 her1 ,i fly with your wings2 by your   
genius ,i am raised to the skies2 in    
your soul my thought is born4  ,among   
those who specially distinguished       
themselves for their profound           
scholarship1 as exhibited in the halls  
of universities1 were ,dorotea ,bucca1  
who occupied a chair of medicine in the 
,university of ,bologna1 where1 by      
reason of her rare eloquence and        
learning1 she had students from all     
parts of ,europe2 ,laura ,ceretta1 of   
,brescia1 who1 during seven years1 gave 
public lectures on philosophy2 ,battista
 ,malatesta1 of ,urbino1 who taught     
philosophy with such marked success that
 the most distinguished professors of   
the day were forced to recognize        

themselves as her inferiors2 and ,fulvia
 ,olympia ,morati1 who at the age of    
fourteen wrote ,latin letters and       
dialogues in ,greek and ,latin in the   
style of ,plato and ,cicero1 and who1   
when she was scarcely sixteen1 was      
invited to give lectures in the         
,university of ,ferrara on the          
philosophical problems of the ,paradoxes
 of ,cicero4 ,so great1 indeed1 was her 
knowledge of the ancient languages that 
she was offered the professorship of    
,greek in the ,university of            
,heidelberg2 but death cut short her    
brilliant career before she could enter 
upon her duties in this famed           
institution of learning4 ,it was female 
professors of this type--masters of     
,greek and ,latin letters1 who in the   
words of a recent writer1 sent forth    
from ,italy such students as ,moritz von
 ,spiegelberg and ,rudolph ,agricola1 to
 reform the instruction of ,deventer and
 ,zwoll and prepare the way for ,erasmus
 and ,reuchlin4  ,in the preceding list 

of learned women--and but a few only    
have been named of the many who in every
 city of importance conferred undying   
glory on their sex--it is clear that the
 ,renaissance in ,italy was1 indeed1 the
 golden age of women4 ,never in history 
had they greater freedom of action in   
things of the mind2 never were they1    
except probably in the case of the      
,english and ,german abbesses of the    
,middle ,ages1 treated with more marked 
deference and consideration or fairness2
 never were their efforts more highly   
appreciated or more generously rewarded1
 and never was their success more highly
 and enthusiastically applauded4        
,temporal and spiritual rulers1 princes 
and cardinals1 ,popes and emperors vied 
with one another in paying just tribute 
to woman's genius as well as to woman's 
virtue4 ,the nun in the cloister as well
 as the lady in the palace shared in the
 general enthusiasm for learning1 and   
they enjoyed throughout the peninsula   
the same opportunities as men and       

received the same recognition for their 
work4 ,everywhere the intellectual arena
 was open to them on the same terms as  
to men4 ,incapacity and not sex was the 
only bar to entrance4  ,but the men of  
those days1 especially scholars of the  
type of ,bembo1 ,politian and ,ariosto1 
were liberal and broad-minded men1 who  
never for a moment imagined that a woman
 was out of her sphere or unsexed       
because she wore a doctor's cap or      
occupied a university chair4 ,and far   
from stigmatizing her as a singular or  
strong-minded woman1 they recognized her
 as one who had but enhanced the graces 
and virtues of her sex by the added     
attractions of a cultivated mind and a  
developed intellect4 ,not only did she  
escape the shafts of satire and         
ridicule1 which are so frequently aimed 
at the educated woman of to-day1 but she
 was called into the councils of        
temporal and spiritual rulers as well4  
,woe betide the ill-advised misogynist  
who should venture to declaim against   

the inferiority of the female sex1 or to
 protest against the honors which an    
appreciative and a chivalrous age       
bestowed upon it with so lavish a hand4 
,the women of ,italy1 unlike those of   
other nations1 knew how to defend       
themselves1 and were not afraid to take1
 when occasion demanded1 the pen in     
self-defense4 ,this is evidenced by     
numerous works which were written in    
response to certain narrow-minded       
pamphleteers--miseri pedanti1 pitiful   
pedants1--who would have the activities 
of women limited to the nursery or the  
kitchen4#fa  ,a striking characteristic 
of these learned women was the entire   
absence of all priggism or pedantry4    
,whether lecturing on law or philosophy1
 or discoursing in ,latin before ,popes 
and cardinals1 or taking part in        
discussions on art and literature with  
the eminent humanists of the day1 they  
ever retained that beautiful simplicity 
which gives such a charm to true        
greatness of mind and is the best index 

of true scholarship and noble1          
symmetrical womanhood4  ,nor did the    
rare intellectual attainments of these  
daughters of ,italy destroy that harmony
 of creation which1 some will have it1  
is sure to be jeopardized by giving     
women the same educational advantages as
 men4 ,so far was this from being the   
case that there were never more loyal   
and helpful wives nor more devoted and  
stimulating mothers than there were     
among those women who wrote verses in   
the language of ,sappho1 or delivered   
public addresses in the tongue of       
,cicero4 ,still less did their serious  
and long-protracted studies entail any  
of the dangers we hear so much of       
nowadays4 ,the large and healthy        
families of many of them prove that     
intellectual work1 even of the highest  
order1 is not incompatible with         
motherhood2 and still less that it1 per 
se1 conduces1 as is so often asserted1  
to race-suicide4 ,these facts are       
commended to the consideration of our   

modern opponents of the higher education
 of women and to those militant         
conservatives and old-time reactionaries
 who are still averse to opening the    
doors of some of our older universities 
to women--even such universities as     
,oxford1 several of whose colleges were 
founded on the revenues derived from    
suppressed educational institutions     
which had been built and used for       
generations for the sole behoof of      
women4  ,but distinguished as were the  
women of ,italy for their culture and   
scholarship1 they were yet more         
distinguished as patrons of learning1 as
 leaders and inspirers of the eminent   
men who were the chief representatives  
of the ,renaissance4 ,reference has     
already been made to the influence of   
,vittoria ,colonna on                   
,michaelangelo--who saw with her eyes1  
acted by her inspiration1 was lifted by 
her beyond the stars--but this is only  
one of many similar instances that might
 be adduced4 ,indeed1 to the student of 

the ,italian ,renaissance1 the most     
interesting feature of it was1 not its  
women doctors and professors1 but those 
noble and accomplished ladies who made  
the courts of ,ferrara1 ,mantua1 ,milan 
and ,urbino the most noted intellectual 
centers of ,europe4  ,the most beautiful
 ornaments of the first three courts    
were ,renee1 duchess of ,ferrara2       
,isabella d',este1 marchioness of       
,mantua1 and ,beatrice d',este1 duchess 
of ,milan4 ,they were all women of      
exceptional learning and culture1 and   
each was the center of a galaxy of      
talent such as is rarely witnessed in   
any one place4  ,among the men attracted
 to their courts were the most          
illustrious scholars1 artists1 poets and
 musicians of the ,renaissance4 ,here   
they found congenial homes and breathed 
an atmosphere made fragrant by the      
appreciation shown by their charming    
hostesses for their power and genius4   
,here they found inspiration and a      
stimulus that spurred them on to their  

greatest achievements4 ,in ,ferrara1    
where it was said that there were as    
many poets as there were frogs in the   
country round about1 were gathered the  
most gifted poets of the ,renaissance   
who had been attracted there to recite  
their latest masterpieces4 ,among them  
were ,clement ,marot1 the first poet of 
modern ,france1 and ,ariosto1 the       
immortal author of ,orlando ,furioso4   
,there were the great painters1 ,titian 
and ,bellini1 and the illustrious poet1 
,torquato ,tasso1 whose love            
subsequently immortalized ,renee's      
youngest daughter ,leonora4  ,a similar 
artistic and intellectual supremacy was 
held by ,isabelle d',este4 ,for portrait
 painters she had ,titian and ,leonardo 
da ,vinci1 while1 as decorators of her  
home1 she had ,bellini and ,perugino1   
whose compositions she herself arranged1
 even in the minutest details4 ,so it   
was likewise in the gay and brilliant   
court of ,beatrice d',este1 in          
,milan1--a place where artists and      

scholars of all nationalities were      
always sure of a cordial welcome4  ,but 
the ideal center of intellectual culture
 was the court of ,urbino1 the central  
figure of which was the learned and     
accomplished ,elizabetta ,gonzaga4 ,this
 picturesque city of the eastern slope  
of the ,apennines was then to ,italy    
what ,athens had been to ,greece in the 
days of ,pericles2 and ,elizabetta was  
to its court what ,aspasia was in her   
own matchless salon--the magnet which   
attracted all the artists and men of    
letters of the age4  ,castiglione1 whose
 great work1 ,the ,courtier1 was partly 
written as a memorial of the peerless   
woman who inspired it1 gives us a vivid 
picture of the fair ladies1 with their  
quick intelligence and ready sympathy1  
discussing questions of art1 literature1
 philosophy and ,platonism1 with the    
most eminent scholars and artists of    
,europe4 ,but ,castiglione confesses    
that he is unable to give us more than  
the mere outline of the picture4 ,to    

paint the polished society of ,urbino1  
as has been well said1 we should need   
colors no palette                       
contains--transparencies of the ,grecian
 sky1 the indigo of certain seas1 the   
liquid azure of certain eyes4 ,for more 
than a century the court of ,urbino was 
regarded as the supreme exemplar4 ,in   
the seventeenth century1 the ,hotel de  
,rambouillet was still striving to make 
itself a copy of it2 unluckily such     
things as these are not easily          
copied4#fb  ,we are not surprised1 then1
 at being told that men moulded by      
,italian ladies--such ladies as graced  
the court of ,urbino--could be          
distinguished among a thousand4 ,still  
less are we surprised to note the       
immense difference between the refined  
and brilliant discussions of ,the       
,courtier as compared with the coarse   
tales of the ,decameron and ,heptameron4
 ,and we can understand the marvelous   
influence which ,castiglione's matchless
 work--inspired by the beloved ,duchess 

,elizabetta--had upon the masters of    
,english literature--on ,shakespeare1   
,ben ,jonson1 ,spenser1 ,marlow1        
,shelley4  ,cardinal ,bembo1 who was one
 of the most assiduous frequenters of   
this famous court1 in writing of        
,elizabetta1 does not hesitate to       
declare3 ,i have seen many excellent and
 noble women1 and have heard of some who
 were as illustrious for certain        
qualities1 but in her alone among women1
 all virtues were united and brought    
together4 ,i have never seen nor heard  
of any one who was her equal1 and know  
very few who have even come near her4   
,it was ,castiglione's experience at the
 court of ,urbino1 where he was a daily 
witness of the irresistible influence of
 ,elizabetta1 that made him give        
expression to the sentiment1 ,man has   
for his portion physical strength and   
external activities2 all doing must be  
his1 all inspiration must come from     
woman4 ,it was also this keen student of
 the mysterious workings of woman's     

genius and of her secret1 all-pervading 
influence1 at times and in places least 
suspected1 who penned the notable       
statement--worthy of the                
,renaissance--,without women nothing is 
possible1 either in military courage1 or
 art1 or poetry1 or music1 or           
philosophy1 or even religion4 ,god is   
truly seen only through them4  ,only a  
few words are necessary to tell of the  
learned women of the ,renaissance       
outside of ,italy4 ,on account of its   
intimate connection with the ,italian   
peninsula1 ,spain was the second country
 in ,europe to experience the effects of
 the new intellectual movement4 ,among  
the educated ,italians whom ,isabella1  
the ,catholic1 had attracted to her     
court were the brothers ,geraldini1 whom
 she appointed as teachers of her       
children4 ,of her daughter1 ,juana1     
,juan ,vives1 the eminent ,spanish      
scholar1 says she was able to make      
impromptu speeches in ,latin1 while     
,catherine1 who became the wife of      

,henry ,,viii1 excited the admiration of
 ,erasmus by the extent and accuracy of 
her knowledge4 ,it was from ,salamanca  
that ,isabella summoned her own teacher 
of ,latin1 the learned ,beatrix         
,galindo1#fc who was a professor of     
rhetoric in the university long before  
,elizabeth of ,england had studied the  
language of ,virgil under ,ascham4      
,then there was ,francisca de ,lebrixa  
who often filled the chair of her       
father1 who was professor of history and
 rhetoric in the ,university of ,alcala1
 and ,isabella ,losa1 of ,cordova1 who1 
among her other acquirements1 counted a 
knowledge of ,greek and ,hebrew4 ,to his
 learned daughters1 ,gregoria and       
,luisa1 ,antonio ,perez1 minister of    
,philip ,,ii1 wrote saying3 ,do not     
imagine1 when you are writing to me1    
that you are addressing ,cicero or some 
,greek author2 lower your style to my   
level4 ,there were also ,isabella de    
,joya1 who commented on ,scotus         
,erigena2 ,catherine ,ribera1 the bard  

of love and faith2 ,dona ,maria ,pacheco
 de ,mendoza2 ,bernarda ,ferreyra1 to   
whom1 on account of her rare            
scholarship1 ,lopez de ,vega dedicated  
his beautiful elegy ,phillis2 ,juana    
,morella1 who1 besides having a profound
 knowledge of music1 philosophy1        
divinity and jurisprudence1 was the     
mistress of fourteen languages2 ,juana  
de la ,cruz1 the famous ,mexican nun    
whose poetry of superior merit1 as well 
as her exceptional attainments in many  
branches of knowledge1 won for her the  
epithet of the ,tenth ,muse2 ,luisa     
,sigea1 who besides being a poet was a  
mistress of the classical and several   
oriental languages1 including ,hebrew   
and ,syro-,chaldaic1 and other learned  
women whom no one was astonished to see 
taking by main force the first rank in  
the spheres of literature1 philosophy   
and theology4  ,so profoundly had the   
,renaissance affected the women of a    
limited circle in ,england1 that        
,erasmus could declare without          

exaggeration3 ,it is charming to see the
 female sex demand classical            
instruction4 ,the queen is remarkably   
learned and her daughter writes good    
,latin4 ,the home of ,more is truly the 
abode of the ,muses4  ,the queen of whom
 ,erasmus speaks is ,catherine of       
,aragon1 who was educated in ,spain1 who
 was a pupil of ,vives1 and who1 besides
 having a thorough knowledge of ,latin  
and ,greek1 was well acquainted with    
several modern languages4 ,the daughters
 of ,sir ,thomas ,more were among the   
most learned women of their time and    
were1 indeed1 worthy of dwelling in the 
home of the ,muses4  ,lady ,jane ,grey  
read ,plato in the original at the age  
of thirteen4#fd ,anne1 ,margaret and    
,jane ,seymour were likewise celebrated 
for their knowledge of the classics1 as 
were ,anne ,boleyn and ,mary ,stuart1   
who both received their education in    
,france1 and especially ,queen          
,elizabeth1 who was not only one of the 
most learned women of her time but was  

probably also the most learned queen    
,england has ever produced4 ,there were1
 however1 no university professors or   
poets of eminence among the ,english    
women1 as there were in ,italy and      
,spain1 and their creative work was     
practically nothing4  ,since the time of
 ,hroswitha1 ,gertrude1 the ,matildas   
and ,hildegard1 the learned woman has   
never been the ideal woman in ,germany4 
,when ,olympia ,morati was on her way   
from ,ferrara to ,heidelberg to take the
 chair of ,greek1 she found the         
daughters of professors and humanists   
devoting themselves to sewing and       
embroidery instead of art and           
literature4 ,anna1 the eldest daughter  
of ,melanchthon1 was almost alone among 
the ,german women of the ,renaissance   
who had a knowledge of ,latin4  ,in     
,france the most learned woman of her   
time was undoubtedly ,margaret of       
,angouleme1 queen of ,navarre4 ,so great
 was her knowledge and so enthusiastic  
was she in promoting the study of the   

,latin and ,greek classics that         
,michelet1 with something of            
exaggeration1 perhaps1 calls her the    
amiable mother of the ,renaissance in   
,france4#fe ,she was noted for her      
devotion to the study of ,scripture and 
theology as well as ,greek and ,hebrew4 
,she always had around her1 or was in   
correspondence with1 the most           
distinguished scholars1 poets1 artists1 
philosophers and theologians of the age1
 and undoubtedly did much1 as a         
patroness of men of letters1 toward     
furthering the literary movement in     
,france4 ,she is1 however1 chiefly known
 to modern readers by her ,heptameron--a
 work which reveals too clearly the     
tastes of her associates and the manners
 and customs of the time4  ,with the    
exception of ,margaret of ,navarre1     
there were but few literary women of    
more than ephemeral reputation during   
the ,french ,renaissance4 ,among these  
,louise ,labe deserves mention1 as she  
was the most distinguished poetess in   

,france during the sixteenth century4#ff
 ,she1 like ,margaret1 was the center of
 a coterie of men of letters2 but the   
reunions over which she presided1 as    
well as those of the author of the      
,heptameron1 were entirely lacking in   
the dignity and refinement of those of  
the polished court of ,urbino in the    
days of the peerless ,elizabetta        
,gonzaga4  ,from what has been said     
respecting the rare learning of the     
women of the ,renaissance1 one might    
infer that women in general enjoyed     
special educational facilities during   
this period of intellectual activity4   
,paradoxical as it may seem1 the very   
contrary was the case4 ,for1 as history 
tells us1 the education of the          
,renaissance was essentially            
aristocratic4 ,it was only for the women
 of the nobility and for the wives and  
daughters of scholars1 while the great  
majority of the sex remained in a state 
of complete illiteracy4  ,the           
environment of the daughters of scholars

 was peculiarly favorable to their      
intellectual development1 and learning  
was in a certain measure their natural  
heritage4 ,they did not receive their   
education in schools1 for there were    
then few or no schools for girls1 but   
from their fathers or from the men of   
letters who frequented their homes4 ,a  
typical home of this kind was that of   
the noted savant1 ,robert ,estienne of  
,paris1 printer to ,francis ,i4 ,here   
the language of conversation was ,latin1
 not only for the members of the family 
but also for the servants as well4#fg   
,under such conditions we are not       
surprised to be informed that the girls1
 as well as the boys1 learned to speak  
,latin as well as their mother tongue4  
,and listening1 as they did1 to the     
daily discussions on art and literature 
by the most learned men of a most       
learned age1 it was inevitable that they
 should acquire those vast stores of    
knowledge on all subjects that so excite
 the astonishment of our less studious  

women of to-day4  ,with the daughters of
 the nobility it was the same4 ,in their
 youth they had1 under the paternal     
roof1 the benefit of the instruction of 
the most eminent masters of the time4   
,and as they grew up their constant     
intercourse with learned men and the    
part they took in all literary and      
social assemblies1 which were so        
prominent a feature of the period1      
enabled them to complete their education
 under the most favorable auspices1 and 
to have1 before they were out of their  
teens1 a fund of information on all     
subjects that could not be obtained so  
well1 even in the best of our modern    
institutions of learning4  ,it was to   
these daughters of the elite--ingenuae  
puellae--that ,erasmus and ,vives       
addressed their treatises on education4 
,they were the privileged class at whose
 disposition were placed all the        
treasures of ,greek and ,latin letters4 
,it was1 then1 an easy matter for them  
to write poetry and dissertations in the

 languages of ,horace and ,plato4 ,and  
it was often a necessity for them to    
speak ,latin1 for it was then the       
universal language of the learned--the  
language that was understood            
everywhere--in ,england as in ,italy1 in
 ,germany as in ,france1 in ,flanders as
 well as in ,spain and ,portugal4  ,it  
was then that ,the ,republic of ,letters
 was a reality as never before2 that the
 man of letters was1 of a truth1 a      
citizen of the world2 that his country  
was wherever the cult of letters had    
priests or devotees4 ,he was what the   
ballad singer was during the ,middle    
,ages1 but with more dignity and        
seriousness4 ,he was the agent and      
representative of intellectual life1 the
 living symbol of the unity and         
solidarity of the human mind4 ,and as in
 time he linked the past to the present 
so likewise in space he bound all       
peoples together and belonged equally to
 all4 ,such was ,erasmus of ,holland1   
who was equally at home in ,france and  

,switzerland1 in ,italy and             
,england--everywhere received with the  
honor accorded to princes of the blood  
royal4 ,such was ,vives1 of ,spain1 the 
teacher of ,catherine of ,aragon1 of    
,mary1 the daughter of ,henry ,,viii--at
 one time professor in ,louvain1 at     
another in ,oxford--always and          
everywhere an ardent exponent of        
humanism for women as well as for men4  
,such was ,politian and such were scores
 of his contemporaries1 who carried the 
torch of knowledge from castle to castle
 and from court to court1 where maidens 
equally with youths enjoyed all the     
advantages derivable from the lessons of
 such distinguished teachers and such   
eminent leaders of culture4  ,for it was
 a peculiarity of the scholar of the    
,renaissance that he was a great        
traveler--seeking knowledge wherever it 
was to be found--and carrying it with   
him whithersoever he went4 ,he journeyed
 from university to university1         
everywhere exchanging views with his    

intellectual compeers1 and everywhere   
diffusing the knowledge he had so       
laboriously acquired4 ,the consequence  
was a wonderful uniformity of education 
among the higher classes--among women as
 well as among men--something that was  
never known before4 ,through the        
generally diffused knowledge of ,latin1 
the common literary medium of           
communication1 all the nations of       
,europe1 even those at war with one     
another1 were brought together in an    
intellectual brotherhood and in a way   
which gave scholarship a power and a    
prestige that accrued to the benefit of 
women and men alike4  ,but the          
educational advantages enjoyed by the   
women of the ,renaissance were not for  
the bourgeoisie--not for the daughters  
of peasants1 tradesmen and artisans4    
,they were solely1 as has been stated1  
for the benefit of the children of      
princes or of scholars--of those only   
who could claim either nobility of birth
 or nobility of genius4#fh ,even the    

most zealous of the humanists would have
 been surprised if they had been asked  
to diffuse a portion of their light     
among the women of the masses4 ,for     
education1 as they viewed it1 was       
something solely for the elect--for     
ladies of the court and not for women of
 a lower condition4 ,so far as the rest 
of womankind was concerned1 their       
occupation was limited1 according to a  
,breton saying1 to looking after altar1 
hearth1 and children--,la femme se doit 
garder l'autel1 le feu1 les enfants4    
,it was about this time1 too1 that men  
began1 especially in ,france and        
,germany1 to revive the anti-feminist   
crusade which had so retarded the       
literary movement among the women of    
ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,they refused
 to hear women and intellect spoken of  
together4 ,the ,germans recognized no   
intelligence in them apart from domestic
 duties1 and seemed to belong to that   
strange race1 that has not yet died out1
 which believes woman to be afflicted   

with the radical incapacity to acquire  
an individual idea4 ,what the ,italians 
called intelligence a ,german would call
 tittle-tattle1 trickery1 the spirit of 
opposition4 ,they rejected such         
gratifications and had no intention of  
allowing ,delilah to shear them4#fi  ,in
 the estimation of ,luther1 the         
intellectual aspirations of women were  
not only an absurdity1 but were also a  
positive peril4 ,take them1 he says1    
from their housewifery and they are good
 for nothing4 ,he treated the humanist  
,vives1 preceptor of ,mary ,tudor1 as a 
dangerous spirit1 because the learned   
,spaniard was an ardent advocate of the 
higher education of women4 ,as to       
abstract and severe studies they were   
for girls1 according to one of ,luther's
 contemporaries1 but vain and futile    
quackeries4 ,for an accomplished woman  
to quote the ,fathers or the ancient    
classical writers was to provoke        
ridicule1 because to do so was          
considered an indication of pedantry or 

affectation4 ,montaigne gave expression 
to the age-old prejudice against woman  
by refusing to regard her as anything   
but a pretty animal1 while ,rabelais1   
the coryphaeus of the ,french           
,renaissance1 declared that ,nature in  
creating woman lost the good sense which
 she had displayed in the creation of   
all other things4  ,such being the views
 of the great leaders of thought and    
formers of public opinion respecting the
 mental inferiority of woman--views     
which1 outside of ,italy1 had1 with few 
exceptions1 the cordial approval of the 
supercilious1 cockahoop male--is it     
necessary to add that the ,renaissance  
did nothing for popular education8 ,the 
masses of women1 especially after the   
suppression of the convent schools in   
,england and ,germany1 were1 in many    
parts of ,europe1 and notably in the two
 countries mentioned1 in a worse        
condition than they were during the     
,dark ,ages4#gj   ,,woman ,,and         
,,education ,,between ,,the             

,,renaissance ,,and ,,the ,,twentieth   
,,century  ,the period following the    
,renaissance was not a brilliant one for
 woman1 especially outside of ,italy4   
,for in this favored land1 even after   
the decadence in literature that        
followed the glorious cinquecento1      
intellectual life opposed so effective a
 barrier to the forces of extinction    
which were at work in other parts of    
,europe1 notably ,germany and ,england1 
that there were still in every part of  
the peninsula from the fertile plains of
 ,lombardy to the sunny ,ionian sea1    
learned and cultured women who were     
eager to emulate the achievements of    
their illustrious sisters of ,italy's   
golden age of art1 and letters4 ,we do  
not1 it is true1 find among them a      
,properzia de ,rossi1 a ,veronica       
,gambara1 or a ,vittoria ,colonna2 but  
we find many earnest and enthusiastic   
students in every department of         
knowledge4  ,that which most impresses  
the student of education during this    

period of ,italian history is not the   
splendor of art and letters in court and
 castle1 which so dazzled ,europe during
 the time of ,renee of ,ferrara and     
,elizabetta ,gonzaga of ,urbino4 ,we    
find1 it is true1 a goodly number of    
women who won distinction as poets and  
artists2 but it is rather those who were
 devoted to more serious studies that   
arrest our attention--women who attained
 eminence in physical and natural       
science1 in mathematics1 in the         
classical and oriental languages1 in    
philosophy1 law and theology4 ,space    
precludes the mention of more than a few
 of these1 but these few may be accepted
 as typical of many others almost       
equally distinguished4  ,chief among    
those of whom their countrymen are      
specially proud are ,rosanna ,somaglia  
,landi1 of ,milan1 linguist and         
translator of ,anacreon2 ,maria         
,selvaggia ,borghini1 of ,pisa1         
translator of the works of ,tertullian2 
,eleonora ,barbapiccola1 of ,salerno1   

who translated into ,italian the        
,principa ,philosophiae of ,descartes2  
,maria ,angela ,arginghelli1 of ,naples1
 who was famed for her profound         
knowledge of physics and the higher     
mathematics and who gave an ,italian    
version of ,stephen ,hales' ,vegetable  
,statics4 ,then there was ,clelia       
,grillo ,borromeo1 of ,genoa1 who was so
 distinguished in science1 mathematics1 
mechanics and languages that a medal was
 struck in her honor bearing the        
inscription1 ,gloria ,genuensium--glory 
of the ,genoese2 and the still more     
famous ,elena ,cornaro ,piscopia1 of    
,venice1 who was truly a prodigy of     
learning as well as a paragon of virtue4
 ,in addition to a knowledge of many    
modern1 classical and oriental tongues1 
she exhibited remarkable proficiency in 
astronomy1 mathematics1 music1          
philosophy and theology4 ,after a course
 of study in the ,university of ,padua  
and after the usual examination and     
discourse in classic ,latin on some of  

the questions of ,aristotelian          
philosophy1 she had the doctorate of    
philosophy conferred on her in the      
cathedral of ,padua1 in the presence of 
thousands of learned men and applauding 
students from all parts of ,europe4 ,but
 not content with conferring on this    
extraordinary woman the ring1 wreath of 
laurel and the ermine mozetta--the usual
 insignia of the doctorate--the         
,university1 as a special mark of       
distinction1 had a medal coined in honor
 of the illustrious graduate bearing her
 effigy1 with the words1 as the decree  
of the ,university expressed it1 ad     
perpetuam rei memoriam4 ,that there was 
nothing superficial about this young    
woman's knowledge of languages1 it      
suffices to state that she was able to  
speak ,latin and ,greek as fluently as  
her own ,italian1 and that so profound  
was her knowledge of divinity that there
 were many distinguished ecclesiastics  
in both ,italy and ,france who favored  
conferring on her the doctorate in      

theology4  ,among other young women who 
obtained the doctorate in various       
universities were ,maddalena            
,canedi-,noe and ,maria ,vittoria ,dosi 
who1 after the usual course of study in 
the university of ,bologna1 obtained the
 degree of doctor of civil law1 and     
,maria ,pellegrina ,amoretti1 who       
received the degree of doctor in both   
canon and civil law in the ,university  
of ,pavia and with it the doctor's      
cap--berreto dottorale4 ,but more       
remarkable for learning than any of     
these university graduates was ,maria   
,gaetana ,agnesi1 one of the most       
extraordinary women scholars of all     
time4 ,on account of her wonderful      
knowledge of languages she was called   
,the ,oracle of ,seven ,tongues4 ,this1 
however1 is not her chief title to fame4
 ,it is rather her marvelous            
achievements in the domain of the higher
 mathematics4 ,after the appearance of  
her most noted work1 ,instituzioni      
,analytiche1 she would at once have been

 elected a member of the ,french        
,academy of ,sciences had not the laws  
of this learned body precluded the      
admission of women4#ga ,that great      
,maecenas of learning1 ,benedict ,,xiv1 
showed his appreciation of ,maria       
,gaetana's exceptional attainments by   
appointing her--motu proprio--to the    
chair of higher mathematics in the      
,university of ,bologna4 ,a similar     
honor had1 in the preceding century1    
been conferred on ,marta ,marchina1 of  
,naples1 when1 on account of her rare   
knowledge of letters1 philosophy and    
theology1 she was offered a chair in the
 ,sapienza1 in ,rome1 an honor which her
 modesty and love of retirement caused  
her to decline4  ,we have seen that     
women professors achieved distinction in
 the ,italian universities even as early
 as the closing centuries of the ,middle
 ,ages4 ,the same was true during the   
,renaissance1 and it has been equally   
true during the period that has elapsed 
since the cinquecento4  ,among the most 

eminent of those who taught in the      
universities were ,laura ,bassi1 who had
 the chair of physics in the ,university
 of ,bologna1 and ,clotilde ,tambroni1  
professor of the ,greek language and    
literature in the same institution of   
learning4 ,so thorough was her knowledge
 of the language of ,plato that it was  
the opinion of her contemporaries that  
there were then only three persons in   
,europe who equaled her in her mastery  
of this classic tongue4 ,it was this    
distinguished ,hellenist who graciously 
delivered the address when one of her   
countrywomen1 ,maria dalle ,donne1      
received her doctorate in medicine and  
surgery4 ,after her graduation ,dr4     
dalle ,donne was given charge of a      
school for midwives in which she        
rendered the greatest service to her    
sex4 ,even the chair of anatomy in the  
,university of ,bologna was held by a   
woman1 ,anna ,morandi-,menzolini1 and   
her work was of the highest order4 ,the 
same position was held by another woman1

 ,maria ,petraccini-,terretti1 in the   
,university of ,ferrara4  ,what a       
contrast between the attitude of the    
universities of ,italy and those of     
other parts of the world toward women as
 students and professors6 ,for a        
thousand years the doors of the ,italian
 universities have been open to women1  
as well as to men2 and for a thousand   
years women1 as well as men1 have       
received their degrees from these noble 
and liberal institutions1 and occupied  
the most important positions in their   
gift1 and that1 too1 with the approval  
and encouragement of both spiritual and 
temporal rulers4 ,for these wise and    
broad-minded men did not regard it      
unwomanly for ,laura ,bassi to teach    
physics1 for ,clotilde ,tambroni to     
teach ,greek1 for ,dorotea ,bucca to    
teach medicine1 for ,maria ,gaetana to  
teach differential and integral         
calculus1 for ,anna ,morandi to teach   
anatomy1 for ,novella d',andrea to teach
 canon law1 or even1 if we may believe  

,denifle1 one of the best of            
authorities1 for the daughters of a     
,paris professor to teach theology4#gb  
,yes1 what a contrast1 indeed1 between  
the ,universities of ,bologna and       
,padua1 with their long and honored list
 of women graduates and professors1 and 
the ,universities of ,cambridge and     
,oxford from which women have always    
been and are still excluded1 both as    
students and professors4  ,contrast1    
also1 the honors shown to women as      
students and professors of medicine in  
,salerno1 in the thirteenth century1    
with the riots excited among the        
chivalrous male students of the         
,university of ,edinburgh1 when1 less   
than a half century ago1 seven young    
women applied for the privilege of      
attending the courses of lectures on    
medicine and surgery in that            
institution4 ,and contrast the sympathy 
and encouragement of ,italy with the    
almost brutal opposition which women in 
our own country encountered when1 but a 

few decades ago1 they applied for       
admittance to the medical schools of    
,new ,york and ,philadelphia4 ,the      
difference between the ,italian and the 
,anglo-,saxon attitude toward women in  
the all-important matters in question   
requires no comment4#gc  ,one reason for
 the great difference between the women 
of ,italy and those of other parts of   
,europe in the matter of higher         
education during the period we have been
 considering was the old ,roman spirit  
of independence of the former and their 
always insisting on what they regarded  
as their natural and indefeasible       
rights4 ,following the example of the   
matrons of ancient ,rome1 they insisted 
on being treated as the equals of men1  
and1 as a consequence1 they demanded in 
the intellectual order all the          
advantages that were accorded to men4   
,they would never admit their mental    
inferiority to man1 and woe betide the  
luckless wight who even insinuated such 
inferiority4 ,the shafts of satire and  

ridicule were at once directed against  
him by a score of women who were able to
 use the pen as well as1 if not better  
than1 himself4 ,sometimes1 however1 such
 an one was taken seriously1 and then   
the result was a book by some clever    
woman to prove that there was no        
difference in the intellectual power of 
the two sexes--that1 if there was a     
difference1 it was in favor of the      
gentler sex4 ,there is quite a large    
number of such works in ,italian2 and it
 must be said that the women always met 
the arguments of their adversaries in a 
manner that does them the greatest      
credit4  ,it was probably because of    
their insistence on the equality of the 
sexes1 as well as because of their      
achievements in every department of     
mental activity1 that the educated women
 of ,italy enjoyed so many privileges   
denied their sisters in other parts of  
,europe4 ,thus1 in addition to being    
treated as the equals of men in the     
universities1 they met them on an equal 

footing in the art1 literary and        
scientific societies and academies1 in  
the proceedings of which they always    
exhibited an active and enthusiastic    
interest4 ,in these reunions the women  
gained strength of mind and independence
 of character from the men1 while the   
men imbibed refinement and gentleness   
from the women4 ,compare this condition 
with the systematic exclusion of women  
from similar societies in other         
countries--even in this twentieth       
century of ours--and one of the not     
least potent reasons for the            
intellectual supremacy of the women of  
,italy will be apparent4  ,next after   
,italy1 ,france was the country in      
which1 during the post-,renaissance     
period1 women enjoyed the greatest      
advantages of mental development4 ,but  
we look in vain1 even during the age of 
,louis ,,xiv1 for that flowering of the 
female intellect that1 at the same      
period1 rendered the daughters of ,italy
 so famous4 ,it is true that there was a

 certain number of learned women in     
,france during the seventeenth century1 
and notably during the golden age of    
,louis ,,xiv1 for during this period the
 traditions of the ,renaissance were    
perpetuated and there was still a       
lingering love of letters1 at least     
among certain classes of the            
aristocracy4  ,prominent among those who
 attracted attention for their learning 
were ,gilberte and ,jaqueline ,pascal1  
of the celebrated convent of ,port      
,royal2 ,marie-,eleanore de ,rohan and  
,gabrielle de ,rochechouart1 both1 like 
the ,pascal sisters1 inmates of the     
cloister2 ,marie ,cramoisy1 wife of the 
first director of the royal printing    
office1 and ,mlle4 de ,luynes1 a friend 
of ,pascal4 ,all these counted among    
their attainments a writing knowledge of
 ,latin1 but were far from being able1  
like the ,italian women above mentioned1
 to speak it with the same fluency as   
they did their mother tongue4  ,in      
addition to the learned ,french women   

just named1 there was ,elisabeth de     
,rochechouart1 a niece of ,mme4 de      
,montespan1 who was able to read ,plato 
in ,greek1 and ,anne de ,rohan1         
,princess of ,guemene1 who surprised her
 countrymen by studying ,hebrew4 ,then  
there were ,mme4 de ,grignan1 ,marie    
,dupre1 ,louise ,serment1 ,anne de ,la  
,vigne1 who1 like the ,princess         
,palatine1 ,elisabeth1 and ,christine of
 ,sweden1 were ardent disciples of      
,descartes1 and took the lead among the 
femmes philosophes of their time4  ,but 
for profound and varied scholarship     
,mme4 ,dacier1 the daughter of the      
erudite ,tanquil ,le ,fevre1 was the    
most famous of all the women of her time
 in ,france4 ,possessed of rare power of
 eloquence and beauty of style1 together
 with an extraordinary capacity for     
criticism1 there was not a man in       
,europe who did not respect her judgment
 in matters of literature and culture4  
,but that for which she was specially   
celebrated was her exceptional knowledge

 of ,latin and ,greek4 ,she not only    
translated the ,iliad and the ,odyssey  
but also several other of the ancient   
classics4 ,none of her contemporaries   
had a more thorough mastery of the      
tongues of ,homer and ,virgil1 nor did  
any of her countrymen contribute more   
than she toward the advancement of the  
knowledge of the literature of ancient  
,greece and ,rome4 ,so highly prized was
 her version of the ,iliad that it was  
translated by ,ozell into ,english4 ,her
 version of ,plato's ,phaedo was also   
translated into ,english and published  
by a ,new ,york bookseller more than a  
century after her death4 ,the scholarly 
,menagius1 in his ,historia ,mulierum   
,philosopharum1 did not hesitate to     
pronounce her the most learned woman of 
all time--,feminarum quot sunt1 quot    
fuere doctissima4#gd  ,to ,mme4 de      
,maintenon1 the morganatic wife of the  
,great ,monarch1 is due the ,institut de
 ,saint-,cyr1 the first state school for
 girls founded in ,france4 ,it was1     

however1 solely for the daughters of the
 nobility4 ,and1 although it was from   
the first under the direction of the    
foundress1 a woman who was before all   
else a teacher as well as one of the    
most enlightened women of the most      
literary and philosophic age ,france    
ever knew--the age when the ,french     
language was perfected1 the age of the  
,academy1 of ,boileau1 ,moliere1        
,racine1 ,bossuet1 ,descartes--the      
studies prescribed in this institution1 
which was under the special patronage of
 the king1 were of the most elementary  
character4 ,they comprised reading1     
writing1 arithmetic1 grammar1 music1    
drawing1 dancing1 and the elements of   
history1 mythology and geography4 ,as to
 history1 ,mme4 de ,maintenon was       
satisfied if the pupils of ,saint-,cyr  
knew enough not to confound the kings of
 ,france with those of other nations1   
and were able to avoid mistaking a      
,roman emperor for the ,emperor of      
,china or ,japan2 or the ,king of ,spain

 or ,england for the ,king of ,persia or
 ,siam4 ,and yet1 restricted as it was1 
her programme of studies was more       
complete than that of any other girls'  
school in the kingdom4 ,one of her      
reasons for not insisting on a more     
thorough course was that women never    
know but by halves1 and the little that 
they do know usually makes them proud1  
haughty and talkative and disgusted with
 solid things4#ge  ,in ,saint-,cyr1 the 
best girls' school in the kingdom1 there
 was not a word about the first         
principles of philosophy1 nor about the 
physical and natural sciences           
recommended by ,fenelon4 ,the elements  
just referred to1 combined with a goodly
 amount of esprit--bien de              
l'esprit--were considered quite         
sufficient to prepare the future wives  
of the nobility for all the duties they 
would be called upon to perform4  ,mme4 
de ,maintenon had probably been         
unconsciously influenced by what she had
 seen at the court of her liege lord1   

where the greater part of the women were
 extremely ignorant4 ,even ,mme4 de     
,montespan1 the king's favorite1 and for
 years the leading figure at the court1 
was no exception4 ,so ignorant was she  
that she was not even able to spell the 
simplest and most common words4#gf  ,and
 so it was with the most illustrious    
ladies of ,france4 ,many of them were so
 devoid of instruction that they were   
unable either to read or to write4 ,even
 the teachers in ,saint-,cyr were so    
deficient in the simplest rudiments of  
an education that ,mme4 de ,maintenon   
found it necessary to correct their     
letters1 in order to teach them the most
 essential rules of epistolary          
correspondence4 ,in reality1 the women  
of the age of ,louis ,,xiv did not      
trouble themselves about an education as
 we understand it4 ,endowed with esprit1
 with a natural and acquired taste for  
things intellectual1 they were satisfied
 with such knowledge as they could glean
 from reading or conversation1 and with 

comparatively few exceptions1 showed no 
disposition to devote long years to     
study in school1 much less in a         
university1 as did their sisters to the 
south of the ,alps4  ,the foundress of  
,saint-,cyr had likewise been influenced
 by her environment as well as by the   
court--an environment which was becoming
 daily more and more unfavorable to the 
education1 especially anything          
approaching the higher education1 of    
women4 ,a young woman's education was   
considered complete when she was able to
 read1 write1 dance and play some       
musical instrument4 ,anything more was  
deemed superfluous and deserving of     
censure and ridicule rather than praise4
  ,it was at this time that ,moliere's  
two celebrated plays1 ,les ,femmes      
,savantes and ,les ,precieuses          
,ridicules1 were given to the world4    
,these well-known productions1 replete  
with the author's brightest flashes of  
wit1 and abounding in his most effective
 shafts of satire1 produced at once an  

immense sensation4 ,as soon as          
published1 they were in the hands of    
everybody4 ,those who were opposed to   
the education of women--and the number  
was daily increasing--had recourse to   
them as to arsenals which supplied them 
with just the arms they had so long     
needed to decide in their favor the long
 warfare which they had been conducting 
against the gentler sex4 ,the views of  
the bourgeois ,chrysale as expressed to 
his sister1 ,belise1 were so in harmony 
with their own that they loved on every 
occasion to repeat with him3            
,no1     ,it isn't decent1 and for many 
reasons1     ,that womankind should     
study and know too much4     ,to teach  
her children what is right and wrong1   
,manage her household1 oversee her      
servants1     ,and keep expenses within 
bounds1 should be     ,her only study   
and philosophy4     ,our fathers1 on    
this point1 showed great good sense2    
,they said a woman always knows enough  
,if but her understanding reaches       

,to telling1 one from t'other1 coat and 
breeches4     ,their wives1 who couldn't
 read1 led honest lives1     ,their     
households were their only learned      
theme1     ,and all their books were    
thimble1 thread and needles4     ,with  
which they made their daughters' wedding
 outfits4     ,but now our women scorn  
to live like that2     ,they want to    
write and all be authoresses4     ,they 
think no knowledge is too deep for      
them4#gg  ,moliere's intention in       
writing these justly famous comedies was
 not1 as is so often asserted1 to       
ridicule women of learning1 but only    
those superficial pedants who affected  
knowledge or loved to make a display of 
the little knowledge they happened to   
possess4 ,the result1 however1 was quite
 different from what had been intended1 
for the poet's pleasantries were taken  
so seriously1 that even women of real   
learning1 in order to avoid ridicule1   
were condemned to absolute silence4 ,the
 comic dramatist1 ,destouches1 expressed

 the prevailing opinion when he wrote3  
,une femme savante     ,doit cacher son 
savoir1 ou c'est une imprudente4#gh     
,few ,french women thereafter had the   
courage to defend their sex1 as did     
their sisters in ,italy1 and the result 
was that1 with a few exceptions1 like   
,mme4 du ,chatelet1 ,sophie ,germain1   
and ,mme4 ,lepaute1 there were no more  
learned women in ,france for fully two  
centuries4  ,never did satire and       
ridicule accomplish more1 except        
probably in the case of ,don            
,quixote--that masterly creation of     
,cervantes which dealt the death-blow to
 knight-errantry--than did ,les ,femmes 
,savantes and ,les ,precieuses          
,ridicules4 ,the learned woman became as
 much an object of derision in ,france  
as was the knight-errant in ,spain4  ,it
 was not1 however1 in the nature of the 
,french woman1 with all her vivacity and
 energy1 to be suppressed entirely or to
 be relegated for long to the background
 in things of the mind4 ,but1 not then  

daring to face the ridicule which was   
inevitable1 if she devoted herself to   
science or philosophy1 she sought a     
substitute for her intellectual activity
 in the salon4  ,the first salon was    
established by an ,italian woman1 the   
,marquise de ,rambouillet1 in #afag1 and
 was modeled after the famous reunions  
held at the court of ,urbino under      
,elizabetta ,gonzaga1 a century before4 
,although it never exhibited the        
splendor of its ,italian prototype1 the 
,hotel de ,rambouillet was for more than
 fifty years the most important literary
 center of the kind in ,france4 ,here1  
owing to the tact1 esprit1 and magnetic 
personality of ,mme4 de ,rambouillet1   
were gathered the most distinguished men
 and women of the time4 ,among them were
 poets1 philosophers1 statesmen1        
ecclesiastics and ladies of rank1 whose 
names still dazzle us by their          
brilliancy4 ,bossuet1 ,moliere1 ,la     
,fontaine1 ,corneille and the great     
,conde were there2 so were ,flechier1   

,balzac1 ,voiture1 ,saint-,evremont1    
,descartes and ,la ,rochefoucauld2 and  
so1 too1 were ,mme4 de ,sevigne1 the    
,duchess of ,montpensier1 ,madeleine de 
,scudery1 ,la ,comtesse de ,la ,fayette1
 ,charlotte de ,montmorency1 and        
,cardinal ,richelieu who got from this  
noted salon the idea which led to his   
greatest foundation--the ,french        
,academy4  ,it was ,mme4 de ,rambouillet
 who1 through her reunions in her       
exquisite ,chambre ,bleue1 for the first
 time brought together elements that    
were previously considered as belonging 
to different castes4 ,it was she1 also1 
who created modern society with its     
purely intellectual hierarchy1 by having
 the representatives of the nobility    
meet men of science and letters on an   
equal footing4 ,it seems to us now the  
most natural thing in the world for a   
great savant1 a great poet1 or a great  
philosopher1 to be received in the same 
salon with the ,duchess of              
,montpensier--,la ,grande               

,mademoiselle--but it was far from being
 so when the brilliant young ,italian   
matron--for she was a daughter of the   
noble ,roman family of the              
,savelli--began her epoch-making work in
 the ,hotel de ,rambouillet1 where1     
after overcoming countless difficulties 
and prejudices1 she eventually succeeded
 in bringing together1 and in enlisting 
in a common cause1 the nobility of birth
 and the nobility of intellect1 and     
introducing into the exclusive set of   
,paris the same kind of social coteries 
that had so long been popular in ,urbino
 and ,ferrara4  ,the ,hotel de          
,rambouillet was the exemplar of that   
long series of salons which1 for two    
centuries1 were the favorite            
trysting-places of the talent1 the wit1 
the beauty of ,europe1 and which exerted
 such a potent influence on society and 
on the progress of science and          
literature4 ,the mistress of the salon  
was supreme1 and she maintained her     
supremacy by her tact1 sympathy1        

intelligence and mental alertness1      
rather than by learning and superior    
mental power4  ,indeed1 it is a singular
 fact that very few of the salonieres   
were learned women4 ,the most gifted and
 the most learned of them were ,mlle4   
,lespinasse1 ,mme4 de ,stael1 and ,mme4 
,swetchine4 ,mme4 ,geoffrin1 who was of 
bourgeois origin1 was so devoid of      
education that ,voltaire said she was   
unable to write two lines correctly4    
,and yet1 despite her educational       
limitations1 she became1 by her own     
unaided efforts1 the queen of           
intellectual ,europe4  ,and1 if we may  
judge by their portraits1 most of the   
great leaders of salons were homely1 if 
not positively ugly1 and many of them   
were advanced in years4 ,thus1 ,mme4 du 
,deffand--the female ,voltaire--was     
sixty-eight years old and blind when her
 friendship with ,horace ,walpole1 one  
of the wittiest ,englishmen who ever    
lived1 began--a friendship that endured 
until her death at the age of           

eighty-three4 ,the face of ,mlle4 de    
,lespinasse was disfigured by small-pox 
and her eyesight was impaired2 and yet1 
without rank1 wealth or beauty1 she was 
the pivot around which circled the      
talent and fashion of ,paris1 and whose 
personal magnetism was so great that the
 state1 the church1 the court1 as well  
as foreign countries1 had their most    
distinguished representatives in her    
salon4  ,here she received and          
entertained her friends every evening   
from five until nine o'clock4 ,it was1  
writes ,la ,harpe1 almost a title to    
consideration to be received into this  
society4 ,so great was the influence    
exerted by ,mlle4 de ,lespinasse that   
she bent savants to her will by the     
sheer force of genius4 ,her salon became
 known as the ante-chamber of the       
,french ,academy2 for it was asserted   
that half the academicians of her time  
owed their fauteuils to her active      
canvass in their behalf4 ,and so        
successful was she in opening the lips  

and minds of her habitues1 whether an   
historian like ,hume1 a philosopher like
 ,condillac1 a statesman like ,turgot1 a
 mathematician like d',alembert1 a      
litterateur like ,marmontel or an       
encyclopedist like ,condorcet1 that it  
was said of her that she made marble    
feel and matter think4  ,she was a      
veritable enchantress of the great and  
the learned of her time4 ,she did not1  
however1 wield her magic wand through   
her learning1 or the accident of birth1 
or the physical attractions of person1  
but solely by reason of her wonderful   
vivacity1 charm of mind1 and exquisite  
tact1 which consisted1 as those who knew
 her well tell us1 in the art of saying 
to each that which suits him1 and in    
making the best of the minds of others1 
of interesting them1 and of bringing    
them into play without any appearance of
 constraint or effort4 ,this rare       
faculty it was which secured for her a  
supremacy in the world of thought and   
action that has been accorded to but few

 women in the world's history4 ,vibrant 
with emotion and passion1 she reminds   
one of the gifted but hapless ,heloise4 
,marmontel1 who had such a high opinion 
of her judgment that he submitted his   
works for her criticism1 as ,moliere had
 submitted his to ,ninon de ,lenclos1   
describes her as the keenest            
intelligence1 the most ardent soul1 the 
most inflammable imagination that has   
existed since ,sappho4  ,but aside from 
what she achieved indirectly through the
 habitues of her salon1 what has this   
supremely clever woman left to the      
world8 ,only a few love letters to a    
heartless coxcomb4  ,and what have the  
other noted salonieres from the time of 
the ,marquise de ,rambouillet to that of
 ,mme4 ,swetchine--full two             
centuries--bequeathed to us that is     
worth preserving8 ,with the exception of
 the works of ,mme4 de ,stael1 whom     
,lord ,jeffrey declared to be the       
greatest female writer in any age or    
country1 we have little more than       

certain ,memoires and ,correspondances  
whose chief claims to fame rest on the  
vivid pictures which they present of the
 manners and customs of the time and of 
the celebrities who were regarded as the
 chief ornaments of the salons which    
they severally frequented4 ,most of     
these works were posthumous2 for few    
women1 after ,moliere's merciless       
scoring of learned women1 had the       
courage to appear in print4 ,even ,mme4 
de ,scudery1 one of the most gifted and 
prolific writers of the period1 gave her
 first novel to the world under her     
brother's name4 ,and so tabooed was     
female authorship that ,mme4 de ,la     
,fayette1 one of the most brilliant of  
the precieuses1 disclaimed all knowledge
 of her ,princesse de ,cleves1 while her
 masterpiece1 ,histoire d',henriette    
d',angleterre1 was not published until  
after her death4  ,the truth is that the
 period of the salon was for the most   
part a period of contrasts and          
contradictions4 ,at first the better    

educated salonieres were chiefly        
interested in belles-lettres4 ,then they
 devoted themselves more to science and 
philosophy1 and finally1 during the     
years immediately preceding the         
,revolution1 they found their greatest  
pleasure in politics4 ,as for the men1  
while professing to adore women1 they   
had little esteem for them1 and still   
less respect4 ,often1 it is true1 the   
women who frequented the salons were    
deserving neither of respect nor of     
esteem4  ,sydney ,smith spoke of those  
under the old regime as women of        
brilliant talents who violated all the  
common duties of life and gave very     
pleasant little suppers4 ,it was        
certainly true of many of them--even of 
some of the most distinguished--such1   
for instance1 as ,mme4 d',epinay1 ,mme4 
du ,deffand1 ,ninon de ,lenclos and     
,mme4 ,tencin1 the mother of            
,d',alembert4 ,there was little in their
 manner of life to distinguish them from
 the hetaerae of ancient ,athens1 and it

 was probably owing to this fact1 as    
well as their wit and brilliancy1 that  
many of them attained such preeminence  
as social leaders4 ,the statesmen1      
philosophers1 men of science and letters
 of ,france1 like those of ,greece more 
than two thousand years before1 wanted  
distraction and amusement4 ,that the    
mistresses of the salons should be women
 of learning was of little moment4 ,the 
all important thing for their habitues  
was that they should be good            
entertainers--that they should be witty1
 tactful and sympathetic--and1 if       
ignorant1 that they should be           
brilliantly ignorant1 and1 at the same  
time1 enchantingly frank and naive4     
,strange as it may appear there was as  
much hostility to learned women at the  
close of the eighteenth century as there
 was in the time of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,and  
the remarkable fact is that the         
strongest opponents of women's education
 were found among the most prominent    
writers and scholars of the day--men    

who1 like their predecessors of old1    
based their opposition on the assumed   
mental inferiority of woman4 ,thus1 to  
,rousseau1 woman was at best but an     
imperfect man1 and1 in many respects1   
little more than a grown-up child4      
,search after abstract and speculative  
truths1 principles and axioms in        
science1 everything that tends to       
generalize ideas is outside of her      
competence4 ,that means that women are  
to be excluded from the study of        
mathematics and the physical sciences1  
because they are incapable of           
generalization1 abstraction1 and the    
mental concentration that these subjects
 demand4 ,even the masterpieces of      
literature1 according to him1 are beyond
 their comprehension4 ,in a word1       
feminine studies1 ,rousseau will have   
it1 should relate exclusively to        
practical and domestic matters and he   
endorses the words of ,moliere that     
,it is not seemly1 and for many reasons1
     ,that a woman should study and know

 so many things4  ,diderot1             
,montesquieu1 ,voltaire and the         
,encyclopedists share the views of      
,rousseau4 ,diderot declares that       
serious studies do not comport with     
woman's sex1 while ,montesquieu would   
limit female education to mere          
accomplishments4  ,but this is not all4 
,antagonistic as these men were to the  
education of the daughters of the       
nobility and the well-to-do1 they were  
entirely opposed to the education of the
 children of the poor4 ,the good of     
society1 it was averred1 demands that   
the instruction of the people extend not
 beyond their occupations4 ,the poor1   
declares ,rousseau1 have no need of     
instruction1 and ,voltaire and the      
,encyclopedists say1 ,amen4#gi  ,very   
little need be said about the education 
of women in ,germany during the period  
we have been considering4 ,when there   
was any at all1 it was of the most      
rudimentary character1 while as to      
books1 they were limited to the kind    

recommended by ,byron for the women of  
modern ,greece--books of piety and      
cookery4 ,the attitude of the ,germans  
generally toward female education1 for  
centuries past1 was clearly defined by  
the ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,,ii1 when1 a few  
years ago1 he publicly stated3 ,i agree 
with my wife4 ,she says women have no   
business to interfere with anything     
outside of the four ,k's1 that is1      
,kinder1 ,kirche1 ,kueche1              
,kleider--children1 church1 kitchen1    
clothes4  ,there was1 however1 during   
the period we are now considering1 one  
remarkable example of a learned woman of
 ,teutonic origin4 ,this was the famous 
,anna ,maria van ,schurman1 who was one 
of the most gifted women that ever      
lived4 ,she was1 probably1 as near to   
being a universal genius as any one of  
her sex of whom we have knowledge4      
,artist1 musician1 poet1 philosopher1   
theologian1 linguist1 she was the       
admiration of the scholars of the world 
and the pride of the ,low               

,countries--the land of her birth4 ,she 
lived when ,holland was in the van of   
human progress and amidst of the        
splendors of the ,dutch ,renaissance4   
,she was the friend and correspondent of
 the most distinguished scholars and    
most noted celebrities of her time4     
,among these were ,voet1 ,spanheim1     
,descartes1 ,gassendi1 ,constantine     
,huyghens1 ,princess ,elizabeth of      
,bohemia1 ,queen ,christina of ,sweden1 
and ,cardinal ,richelieu4 ,to go to the 
,netherlands1 it was then said1 without 
seeing ,anna van ,schurman1 was like    
going to ,paris without seeing the king4
 ,she was hailed as ,the ,tenth ,muse1  
,the ,sappho of ,holland1 ,the ,oracle  
of ,art1 ,the ,star of ,utrecht4  ,that1
 however1 which gave the greatest renown
 to the ,learned ,maid1 as ,anna was    
called1 was her extraordinary knowledge 
of languages4 ,for1 besides being       
proficient in the chief modern tongues  
of ,europe1 she was well acquainted with
 ,latin1 ,greek1 ,hebrew1               

,syro-,chaldaic and ,ethiopic4 ,the     
oriental languages she studied as an aid
 to the better understanding of ,holy   
,scripture4  ,she was the author of     
several works1 among which was an       
,ethiopic grammar which was acclaimed by
 the professors of the ,dutch           
universities as a marvelous achievement4
 ,her best known volume is designated   
,opuscula4 ,it was brought out by the   
,elzevirs in ,leyden and went through   
several editions4 ,it is composed of    
letters and short treatises in ,french1 
,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew--in verse as 
well as prose4  ,of more value1 if less 
striking1 than the productions named    
were the ,learned ,maid's writings in   
favor of the intellectual               
enfranchisement of her own sex4 ,in a   
letter to ,dr4 ,rivet1 ,professor of    
,theology in ,leyden1 she declares3  ,my
 deep regard for learning1 my conviction
 that equal justice is the right of all1
 impel me to protest against the theory 
which would allow only a minority of my 

sex to attain to what is in the opinion 
of all men most worth having4 ,for1     
since wisdom is admitted to be the crown
 of human achievement1 and is within    
every man's right to aim at in          
proportion to his opportunities1 ,i     
cannot see why a young girl1 in whom we 
admit a desire of self-improvement1     
should not be encouraged to acquire the 
best that life affords4  ,to those who  
objected that the distaff and the needle
 were sufficient to occupy women's      
minds1 ,anna ,maria made answer that the
 words of ,plutarch--,it becomes a      
perfect man to know what is to be known 
and to do what is to be done--applied   
with equal truth to a perfect woman4#hj 
,in ,england1 until the latter part of  
the nineteenth century1 the educational 
status of women was but little better   
than in ,germany4 ,during the ,stuart   
period schools for girls were so scarce 
that most of those who received any     
education at all obtained it at home    
under private tutors4 ,even then it     

rarely embraced more than reading1      
writing1 needlework1 singing1 dancing   
and playing on the lute or virginal4#ha 
,as to the higher studies for women1    
,lady ,mary ,wortley ,montagu writes as 
follows3 ,my sex is usually forbid      
studies of this nature and folly        
reckoned so much our proper sphere that 
we are sooner pardoned any excesses of  
that than the least pretensions to      
reading or good sense4 ,we are permitted
 no books but such as tend to the       
weakening or effeminating of the mind4  
,our natural defects are in every way   
indulged1 and it is looked upon as in a 
degree criminal to improve our reason or
 fancy we have any4444 ,there is hardly 
a creature in the world more despicable 
or more liable to universal ridicule    
than that of a learned woman3 these     
words imply1 according to the received  
sense1 a tattling1 impertinent1 vain and
 conceited creature4#hb  ,higher studies
 for their daughters were regarded by   
the generality of men1 the same writer  

tells us1 as great a profanation as the 
clergy would do if the laity would      
presume to exercise the functions of the
 priesthood4  ,referring to the         
handicaps suffered by the women of      
,england in the pursuit of knowledge1   
the same writer declares3 ,we are       
educated in the grossest ignorance1 and 
no art is omitted to stifle our natural 
reason2 if some few get above their     
nurses' instructions1 our knowledge must
 be concealed and be as useless to the  
world as gold in the mine4  ,lord       
,chesterfield1 in ,his ,letters to ,his 
,son1 expresses the opinion of his      
contemporaries when he writes on the    
same subject as follows3 ,women are only
 children of a larger growth2 they have 
an entertaining tattle1 sometimes wit2  
but1 for solid reasoning1 good sense1 ,i
 never in my life knew one who had it1  
or who reasoned or acted consequentially
 for twenty-four hours together4444 ,a  
man of sense only trifles with them1    
plays with them1 humors and flatters    

them as he does a sprightly forward     
child2 but he neither consults them     
about nor trusts them with serious      
matters1 though he often makes them     
believe he does both1 which is the thing
 in the world which they are proud of2  
for they love mightily to be dabbling in
 business1 which1 by the way1 they      
always spoil1 and1 being distrustful    
that men in general look upon them in a 
trifling light1 they almost adore that  
man who talks to them seriously and     
seems to consult and trust them4#hc     
,and this was written by that mirror of 
politeness and chivalry whose name has  
for two centuries been synonymous with  
that of a perfect gentleman6 ,and ,lady 
,montagu was compelled to pen her       
caustic and pathetic plaints during the 
age of ,pope1 ,steele1 ,addison1        
,swift1#hd ,johnson1 ,dryden and        
,goldsmith--the most brilliant pleiad of
 literary men that ,england had known   
since the days of ,shakespeare4  ,so    
unnatural for women were literary and   

scientific pursuits regarded by all     
classes that the few who attained any   
eminence in them were classed as        
abnormal creatures who deserved no more 
consideration than did the ,precieuses  
across the ,channel4 ,and so great was  
the power of public sentiment against   
women writers that ,fanny ,burney was   
afraid to acknowledge the authorship of 
,evelina4 ,even in ,jane ,austen's days1
 the feeling that a woman1 in writing a 
book1 was overstepping the limitations  
of her sex was so pronounced that she   
never actually avowed the authorship of 
those charming works which have been the
 delight of three generations of        
readers4 ,it was this same sentiment    
that caused the ,bronte sisters and     
,george ,eliot1 as well as many other   
notable women1 to write under           
pseudonyms4 ,they feared to disclose    
their sex lest their works1 if known as 
the productions of women1 should be ipso
 facto branded as of inferior merit4    
,during the period in question women    

fared no better in the ,united ,states  
than in ,england4 ,they were subject to 
the same educational debarment and were 
the victims of the same snobbery and    
intolerance4 ,the ,pilgrim ,fathers and 
their descendants for many generations  
made no secret of their belief in the   
mental inferiority of woman1 and applied
 to her the gospel of liberty contained 
in the following words of ,eve to ,adam 
as given in ,paradise ,lost3      ,my   
author and dispenser1 what thou bidst   
,unargued ,i obey2 so ,god ordains2     
,god is thy law1 thou mine3 to know no  
more     ,is woman's happiest knowledge 
and her praise4  ,to the ,puritan of    
,new ,england1 as to the ,puritan       
,milton1 the relative attainments of    
woman and man were tersely expressed in 
,tennyson's couplet3      ,she knows but
 matters of the house1     ,and he1 he  
knows a thousand things4  ,to us one of 
the most astounding facts in the        
educational history of ,new ,england is 
the long time during which girls were   

without free school opportunities4      
,thus1 although schools had been        
established within twenty years after   
the ,pilgrims landed at ,plymouth ,rock1
 it was not until a century and a half  
later that their doors were opened to   
girls4 ,the public schools of ,boston   
were established in #afdb1 but were not 
opened for girls until #aghi2 and then  
only for instruction in spelling1       
reading and composition1 and that but   
one half of the year4 ,there was no high
 school in ,boston1 the vaunted ,athens 
of ,america1 until #aheb4  ,harvard     
,college was founded in #afcf for the   
education of ye ,english and ,indian    
youth of this country in knowledge and  
godlyness1 but in this institution no   
provision was made for women and its    
doors are still closed to them4  ,the   
prevailing notion of the purpose of     
education1 declares ,charles ,francis   
,adams1 in speaking of ,harvard         
,college1 was attended with one         
remarkable consequence--the cultivation 

of the female mind was regarded with    
utter indifference2 as ,mrs4 ,abigail   
,adams says in one of her letters1 'it  
was fashionable to ridicule             
learning4'#he  ,it was not until #ahfe  
that ,matthew ,vassar1 recognizing in   
women the same intellectual constitution
 as in man1 founded the first woman's   
college in the ,united ,states4 ,this   
was soon followed by similar            
institutions in various parts of this   
country and ,europe4 ,in less than ten  
years thereafter ,girton and ,newnham   
colleges were founded at ,cambridge1    
,england1 in order that women might be  
enabled to enter upon a regular         
university career4  ,in all the         
universities of ,england1 ,scotland and 
,ireland1 except ,oxford1 ,cambridge#hf 
and ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 women   
are now admitted to all departments1    
pass the same examinations as the men   
and receive the same academic degrees4  
,germany1 whose institutions for the    
higher education of men have so long    

been justly famous1 was exceedingly slow
 to open its universities to women1 and 
then only after the most stubborn       
opposition of those who still maintained
 that the studies of women should be    
limited to the three ,r's and their     
occupations confined to the four ,k's4  
,but even in this conservative country  
the cause of woman has at length        
triumphed1 and she now enjoys           
educational advantages that a few       
decades ago were deemed forever         
impossible4   ,and so it is in every    
civilized country4 ,woman's long        
struggle for complete intellectual      
freedom is almost ended1 and certain    
victory is already in sight4 ,in spite  
of the sarcasm and ridicule of satirists
 and comic poets1 in spite of the       
antipathy of philosophers and the       
antagonism of legislators who persisted 
in treating women as inferior beings1   
they are finally in view of the goal    
toward which they have through so many  
long ages been bending their best       

efforts4 ,moreover1 so effective and so 
concentrated has been their work during 
recent years that they have accomplished
 more toward securing complete          
intellectual enfranchisement than during
 the previous thirty centuries4  ,from  
the former home of the ,vikings to the  
romantic land of the ,cid1 from the     
capital of ,holy ,russia to the fair    
metropolis of the ,golden ,gate1 women  
are now welcomed to the very            
institutions from which but a few years 
ago they were so systematically         
excluded4 ,they attend the same courses 
as men1 pass the same examinations and  
receive the same degrees and honors4    
,their sex is no longer a bar to        
positions and employment that only a    
generation ago were considered proper   
only for the proud and imperious male4  
,they have proved beyond cavil that     
genius knows not sex1 and that1 given a 
fair opportunity1 they are competent to 
achieve success in every department of  
human effort4  ,thus1 to speak only of  

,europe1 there are to-day women         
professors in the universities of       
,norway1 ,sweden1 ,switzerland1 ,france1
 ,greece and ,russia1 as there have been
 in ,italy since the closing years of   
the ,dark ,ages4 ,they lecture on       
science1 literature1 law and medicine1  
and in a manner to extort the admiration
 of their erstwhile antagonists4 ,in    
,germany and ,hungary there are women   
chemists and architects1 while it is a  
matter of record that the best          
construction work done on the           
trans-,siberian railroad was that in    
charge of a woman engineer4  ,as an     
illustration of the marvelous change    
which has been brought about during the 
last three-quarters of a century in the 
educational status of woman1 ,i can do  
no better than transcribe a few passages
 from a work by ,sir ,walter ,besant    
describing the transformation of woman  
during the reign of ,queen ,victoria2   
for it applies to all civilized         
countries as well as to ,england4  ,the 

young lady of #ahcg has been to a       
fashionable school2 she has learned     
accomplishments1 deportment and dress4  
,she is full of sentiment2 there was an 
amazing amount of sentiment in the air  
about that time2 she loves to talk and  
read about gallant knights1 crusaders   
and troubadors2 she gently touches the  
guitar2 her sentiment1 or her little    
affectation1 has touched her with a     
graceful melancholy1 a becoming stoop1 a
 sweet pensiveness4 ,she loves the      
aristocracy1 even although her home is  
in that part of ,london called          
,bloomsbury1 whither the belted earl    
cometh not1 even though her papa goes   
into the ,city2 she reads a deal of     
poetry1 especially those poems which    
deal with the affections1 of which there
 are many at this time4 ,on ,sunday she 
goes to church religiously and          
pensively1 followed by a footman        
carrying her prayerbook and a long      
stick2 she can play on the guitar and   
the piano a few easy pieces which she   

has learned4 ,she knows a few words of  
,french1 which she produces at frequent 
intervals2 as to history1 geography1    
science1 the condition of the people1   
her mind is an entire blank2 she knows  
nothing of these things4 ,her           
conversation is commonplace1 as her     
ideas are limited2 she can not reason on
 any subject whatever because of her    
ignorance2 or1 as she herself would say1
 because she is a woman4 ,in her        
presence1 and indeed in the presence of 
ladies generally1 men talk trivialities4
 ,there was indeed a general belief that
 women were creatures incapable of      
argument1 or of reason1 or of connected 
thought4 ,it was no use arguing about   
the matter4 ,the ,lord had made them so4
 ,women1 said the philosophers1 can not 
understand logic2 they see things1 if   
they do see them at all1 by instinctive 
perception4 ,this theory accounted for  
everything1 for those cases when women  
undoubtedly did 'see things4' ,also it  
fully justified people in withholding   

from women any kind of education worthy 
the name4 ,a quite needless expense1 you
 understand4  ,her amusements1 we are   
told1 were those of an amateur--a few   
pieces on the guitar and the piano and  
some slight power of sketching or flower
 painting in water-colors4 ,the         
literature she read endeavored to mold  
woman on the theory of recognized       
intellectual inferiority to man4 ,she   
was considered beneath him in intellect 
as in physical strength2 she was        
exhorted to defer to man2 to acknowledge
 his superiority2 not to show herself   
anxious to combat his opinions4444      
,this system of artificial restraints   
certainly produced faithful wives1      
gentle mothers1 loving sisters1 able    
housewives4 ,god forbid that we should  
say otherwise1 but it is certain that   
the intellectual attainments of women   
were then what we should call           
contemptible1 and the range of subjects 
of which they knew nothing was absurdly 
narrow and limited4 ,i detect the woman 

of #ahdj in the character of ,mrs4      
,clive ,newcome1 and1 indeed1 in ,mrs4  
,george ,osborne1 and in other familiar 
characters of ,thackeray4  ,then ,sir   
,walter1 turning to the young           
,englishwoman of #ahig1 thus describes  
her3  ,she is educated4 ,whatsoever     
things are taught to the young man are  
taught to the young woman2 the keys of  
knowledge are given to her2 she gathers 
of the famous tree2 if she wants to     
explore the wickedness of the world she 
can do so1 for it is all in the books4  
,the secrets of nature are not closed to
 her2 she can learn the structure of the
 body if she wishes4 ,the secrets of    
science are all open to her if she cares
 to study them4  ,at school1 at college1
 she studies just as the young man      
studies1 but harder and with greater    
concentration4 ,she has proved her      
ability in the ,honors ,tripos of every 
branch2 she has beaten the senior       
wrangler in mathematics2 she has taken a
 'first-class' in classics1 in history1 

in science1 in languages4 ,she has      
proved1 not that she is a man's equal in
 intellect1 though she claims so much1  
because she has not yet advanced any    
branch of learning1 of science1 one     
single step1 but she has proved her     
capacity to take her place beside the   
young men who are the flower of their   
generation--the young men who stand in  
the first class of honors when they take
 their degree4444  ,personal            
independence--that is the keynote of the
 situation4 ,mothers no longer attempt  
the old control over their daughters2   
they would find it impossible4 ,the     
girls go off by themselves on their     
bicycles2 they go about as they please2 
they neither compromise themselves nor  
get talked about2 for the first time in 
man's history it is regarded as a right 
and proper thing to trust a girl as a   
boy insists upon being trusted4 ,out of 
this personal freedom will come1 ,i dare
 say1 a change in the old feelings of   
young man to maiden4 ,he will not see in

 her a frail1 tender plant which must be
 protected from cold winds2 she can     
protect herself perfectly well4 ,he will
 not see in her any longer a creature of
 sweet emotions and pure aspirations1   
coupled with a complete ignorance of the
 world1 because she already knows all   
that she wants to know4444  ,perhaps the
 greatest change is that woman now does 
thoroughly what before she only did as  
an amateur4#hg  ,yes1 the world is      
beginning at last to realize the truth  
of the proposition which the learned    
,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi so eloquently   
defended nearly two centuries ago--to   
wit1 that nature has endowed the female 
mind with a capacity for all knowledge1 
and that1 in depriving women of an      
opportunity of acquiring knowledge1 men 
work against the best interests of the  
public weal4#hh  ,we are at the long    
last near that millennium which ,emerson
 had in mind when1 in #ahbb1 he         
predicted a time when higher            
institutions for the education of young 

women would be as needful as colleges   
for young men--that millennium for which
 women have hoped and striven ever since
 ,sappho sang and ,aspasia inspired the 
brightest1 the noblest minds of ,greece4
  ,,footnotes3  #a ,demosthenes ,in     
,neaeram1 #abb4 ,greek3 ,tas men gar    
hetairas hedones henek' echomen1 tas de 
pallakas tes kath' hemeran therapeias   
tou somatos1 tas de gynaikas tou        
paidopoieisthai gnesios kai ton endon   
zylaka pisten echein4  ,as indicative of
 the comparative value of men and women1
 as members of society1 in the          
estimation of the ,greeks1 ,euripides   
makes ,iphigenia give utterance to the  
following sentiment3      ,more than a  
thousand women is one man     ,worthy to
 see the light of life4  #b ,greek3 ,tes
 te gar1 hyparchouses zuseos me cheirosi
 genesthai hymin megale e doxa' kai hes 
an ep' elachiston aretes peri e psogou  
en arsesi kleos e4 ,thucidides1 ,history
 of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 ,,ii1 #de4 
,phidias1 ,plutarch tells us in his     

,conjugal ,precepts1 made the statue of 
,venus at ,elis with one foot on the    
shell of a tortoise1 to signify two     
great duties of a virtuous woman1 which 
are to keep at home and be silent4 ,for 
she is only to speak to her husband or  
by her husband4  #c ,ariosto1 referring 
to the undying fame of ,sappho and      
,corinna1 expresses himself in words as 
beautiful as they are true1 as witness  
the following couplet3      ,saffo e    
,corinna1 perche furon dotte1           
,splendono illustri1 e mai non veggon   
notte4               --,,orlando        
,,furioso1 ,canto ,,xx1 strophe ,i4  #d 
,the nine ,terrestrial ,muses were      
,sappho1 ,erinna1 ,myrus1 ,myrtis1      
,corinna1 ,telesilla1 ,praxilla1 ,nossis
 and ,anyta4  ,the ,greek poet          
,antipater embodies the names of the    
,terrestrial ,nine in an epigram which  
is well rendered in the appended ,latin 
translation3      ,has divinis linguis  
,helicon nutrivit mulieres              
,hymnis1 et ,macedon ,pierias scopulus1 

,prexillam1 ,myro1 ,anytae os1 foeminam 
,homerum1       ,lesbidum ,sappho       
ornamentum capillatarum4     ,erinnam1  
,telesillam nobilem1 teque ,corinna1    
,strenuum ,palladis scutum quae cecinit4
     ,nossidem muliebri lingua1 et      
dulsisonam ,myrtin1       ,omnes        
immortalium operatrices librorum4       
,novem quidem ,musas magnum coelum1     
novem vero illas       ,terra genuit    
hominibus1 immortalem laetitiam4  #e    
,cf4 ,poetriarum octo1 ,erinnae1 ,myrus1
 ,mytidis1 ,corinnae1 ,telesillae1      
,praxillae1 ,nossidis1 ,anytae fragmenta
 et elogia1 by ,j4 ,c4 ,wolf ,hamburg1  
#agcd4 ,see also the charming memoir    
,sappho by ,h4 ,t4 ,wharton1 ,london1   
#ahih1 and ,griechische ,dicterinnen1 by
 ,j4 ,c4 ,poestion1 ,vienna1 #ahgf4  #f 
,see ,mulierum ,graecarum quae oratione 
prosa usae sunt fragmenta et elogia     
,graece et ,latine1 by ,j4 ,c4 ,wolf1   
,london1 #agci1 ,historia ,mulierum     
,philosopharum1 scriptore ,aegidio      
,menagio1 ,lugduni1 #afij1 ,griechische 

,philosophinnen1 by ,j4 ,c4 ,poestion1  
,norden1 #ahhe1 and ,le ,donne alle     
,scuole dei ,filosofi ,greci in ,saggi e
 ,note ,critiche1 by ,a4 ,chiappelli1   
,bologna1 #ahie4  #g ,woman3 ,her       
,position and ,influence in ,ancient    
,greece and ,rome and ,among the ,early 
,christians1 pp4 #eh and #ei1 by ,james 
,donaldson1 ,london1 #aijg4  #h ,there  
were several hetaerae named ,lais4 ,one 
of them1 apparently a native of         
,corinth1 was celebrated throughout     
,greece as the most beautiful woman of  
her age4  #i ,for information respecting
 the hetaerae the reader is referred to 
the ,letters of ,alciphron1 to ,lucian's
 ,dialogues on courtesans1 and more     
particularly to the ,deipnosophists of  
,athenaeus1 ,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,see also    
,the ,lives and ,opinions of the        
,ancient ,philosophers1 by ,diogenes    
,laertius1 ,bohn ,edition1 ,london4  #aj
 ,donaldson1 op4 cit41 pp4 #fa and #fb4 
,adolph ,schmidt1 one of the late       
biographers of ,aspasia1 accepts these  

statements as true and credits to       
,aspasia the making of both ,pericles   
and ,socrates4 ,his views are also      
shared by other modern writers who have 
made a special study of the subject4    
,according to some writers an indirect  
allusion to ,aspasia's intellectual     
superiority is found in the ,medea of   
,euripedes in the following verses of   
the women's chorus3      ,in subtle     
questions ,i full many a time     ,have 
heretofore engaged1 and this great point
     ,debated1 whether woman should     
extend     ,her search into abstruse and
 hidden truths4     ,but we too have a  
,muse1 who with our sex     ,associates 
to expound the mystic lore     ,of      
wisdom1 though she dwell not with us    
all4  #aa ,it is proper to add that     
certain modern writers will not admit   
that ,aspasia was ever an hetaera in the
 sense of being a courtesan4 ,after     
,pericles had divorced his first wife1  
he lived with ,aspasia as his second    
wife1 to whom he was devoted and        

faithful until death4 ,according to     
,greek law1 which forbade ,athenian     
citizens to marry foreign women1 he     
could not be her legal husband2 but1    
there can be no doubt that he always    
treated her with all the respect and    
affection due to a wife4 ,his dying     
words3 ,athens entrusted her greatness  
and ,aspasia her happiness to me1       
clearly evince her nobility of character
 and the place she must ever have       
occupied in the great statesman's heart4
  ,the most important notices in ancient
 writings1 respecting ,aspasia1 are     
found in ,plutarch's ,pericles1         
,xenophon's ,memorabilia of ,socrates   
and ,plato's ,menexenus4 ,among the most
 valuable of modern works on the same   
subject is ,aspasie de ,milet1 by ,l4   
,becq de ,fouquieres1 ,paris1 #ahgb4    
,cf4 also ,aspasie et le ,siecle de     
,pericles1 ,paris1 #ahfb2 ,histoire des 
,deux ,aspasies1 by ,le ,comte de       
,bievre1 ,paris1 #agcf1 and ,a4         
,schmidt's ,sur l',age de ,pericles1    

#ahgg-gi4  #ab ,under the term music1   
,plato1 like his contemporaries1        
included reading1 writing1 literature1  
mathematics1 astronomy and harmony4 ,it 
was opposed to gymnastic as mental to   
bodily training4 ,both music and        
gymnastic1 however1 were intended for   
the benefit of the soul4  #ac ,the      
,dialogues of ,plato1 ,laws1 ,,vii1     
#hje1 ,jowett's translation1 ,new ,york1
 #ahib4  #ad ,op4 cit41 ,the ,republic1 
,v1 #dea et seq4 and #dff4  #ae ,it was 
the boast of the ,emperor ,augustus that
 all his clothes were woven by his wife1
 sister or daughter4 ,suetonius1 in his 
,lives of the ,twelve ,caesars1 informs 
us that this great master of the world  
filiam et neptes ita instituit ut etiam 
lanificio assuefaceret4  #af ,this type 
of the old ,roman schoolmaster is       
alluded to in the following well known  
verses of ,martial3      ,quid tibi     
nobiscum est1 ludi scelerate magister1  
,invisum pueris virginibusque caput8    
,nondum cristati rupere silentia ,galli 

,murmure jam saevo verberibusque tonas4 
--,lib4 ,,ix1 #gi4  which have been     
rendered as follows3      ,despiteful   
pedant1 why dost me pursue1     ,thou   
head detested by the younger crew8      
,before the cock proclaims the day is   
near     ,thy direful threats and lashes
 stun my ear4  ,martial elsewhere refers
 to ,ferulaeque tristes1 sceptra        
pedagogorum--melancholy rods1 sceptres  
of pedagogues--and it appears from one  
of ,juvenal's satires that to withdraw  
the hand from the rod was a phrase      
meaning to leave school4  #ag ,woman    
,through the ,ages1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aaj1 
#aaa1 by ,emil ,reich1 ,london1 #aijh4  
,schoolhouses among the ,romans1 as well
 as among the ,greeks1 were quite       
different from our modern1 well-equipped
 buildings4 ,usually1 at least1 in      
earlier times1 instruction was given in 
the open air1 in some quiet street      
corner or in tabernae--sheds or         
lean-tos--as in certain ,mohametan      
countries to-day4 ,horace refers to this

 in ,epistola ,,xx1 ,lib4 ,i1 when he   
writes3      ,ut pueros elementa        
docentem     ,occupet extremis in vicis 
balba senectus4  ,in such schools the   
pupils sat on the floor or the bare     
ground1 or1 if the lessons were given on
 the street1 they sat on the stones4    
,there were no desks1 or1 if there were 
any benches1 they had no backs4 ,the    
pupils were1 therefore1 perforce obliged
 to write on their knees4  ,cf4         
,historical ,survey of ,pre-,christian  
,education1 pp4 #bgh and #cdf1 by ,s4   
,s4 ,laurie1 ,london1 #aijj4  #ah ,cf4  
his ,tiberius ,gracchus4 ,cicero says of
 them1 ,non tam in gremio educatos quam 
sermone matris4  #ai ,ibidem1 ,life of  
,pompey4  #bj ,de ,oratore1 ,lib4 ,,iii1
 ,cap4 ,,xii4  #ba ,potiorem iam apud   
exercitus ,agrippinam quam legatos1 quam
 duces2 compressam a muliere seditionem1
 cui nomen principis obsistere non      
quiverit4 ,annales1 ,lib4 ,i1 ,cap4 #fi4
  #bb ,oeconomicus1 ,,vii1 #e1 #f4  #bc 
,epistolae1 ,lib4 ,i1 #af4  #bd ,sit    

mihi verna satur1 sit non doctissima    
conjux4 ,epigrammata1 ,lib4 ,,ii1 #ij4  
,martial's taste in this respect was the
 same as that of ,heine1 who said of the
 woman he loved3 ,she has never read a  
line of my writings and does not even   
know what a poet is1 and the same as    
that of ,rousseau1 who declared that his
 last flame1 ,therese ,lavasseur1 could 
not tell the time of day4  #be ,satire  
,,vi1 #dcd-ddj4  #bf ,joannis ,stobaei  
,florilegium1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #bab1      
,teubner's edition1 #aheg4  #bg ,the    
following is the epitaph as written by  
,st4 ,jerome1 the ,christian ,cicero3   
,scipio quam genuit1 ,pauli fudere      
parentes1     ,gracchorum soboles1      
,agamemnonis inclyta proles1     ,hoc   
jacet in tumulo1 ,paulam dixere priores1
     ,euxtochii genetrix1 ,romani prima 
senatus1     ,pauperiem ,christi et     
,bethlehemitica rura secuta est4  #bh   
,in his preface to the ,commentary on   
,sophonius4  #bi ,for an exhaustive     
account of the lives and achievements of

 ,st4 ,jerome and his noble friends1    
,paula and ,eustochium1 the reader is   
referred to ,l',histoire de ,sainte     
,paule1 by ,f4 ,lagrange1 ,paris1 #ahgj1
 and ,saint ,jerome1 ,la ,societe       
,chretienne a ,rome et l',emigration    
,romaine en ,terre ,sainte1 by ,a4      
,thierry1 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,cf4 also      
,woman's ,work in ,bible ,study and     
,translation1 by ,a4 ,h4 ,johns in ,the 
,catholic ,world1 ,new ,york1 ,june1    
#aiab4  #cj ,see ,histoire de ,sainte   
,radegonde1 ,reine de ,france1 in ,chap4
 ,,xx1 par ,em4 ,briand1 ,paris1 #ahig4 
#ca ,historia ,ecclesiastica ,gentis    
,anglorum1 ,lib4 ,,iv1 ,cap4 #bc4  #cb  
,the ,monks of the ,west1 ,book ,,xi1   
,chap4 ,,ii4  #cc ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #df and 
#di1 ,new ,york1 #ahga4  #cd ,op4 cit41 
,book ,,xi1 ,chap4 ,,ii4  ,it will      
interest the reader to know that        
,caedmon has a place among the saints in
 the ,acta ,sanctorum of the            
,bollandists4 ,see the special article  
on him in ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #eeb1 under the

 caption of ,de ,s4 ,cedmono1 cantore   
theodidacto4  #ce ,woman ,under         
,monasticism4 ,chapter ,,iv1 ,sec4 #b1  
by ,lina ,eckenstein1 ,cambridge1 #ahif4
 ,in this chapter is an interesting     
account of the ,anglo-,saxon nuns who   
were among the correspondents of        
,boniface4  #cf ,the reader will recall 
,chaucer's account in the ,canterbury   
,tales of the wife of the well-to-do    
miller of ,trumpyngton3      ,a wyf he  
hadde y-comen of noble kyn2      ,she   
was y-fostred in a nonnerye4      ,there
 dorste no wight clepen hir but ',dame2'
      ,what for hire kynnrede and hir   
nortelrie1     ,that she had lerned in  
the nonnerie4                           
--,reeve's ,tale4  #cg ,pp4 #gh1 #gi1   
,london1 #ahig4  #ch ,history of        
,european ,morals1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfi1 
,new ,york1 #aije4  #ci ,henry ,,viii   
and the ,english ,monasteries1 ,london1 
#ahie4  #dj ,the ,english ,historical   
,review1 ,july1 #ahhh4  ,another recent 
writer affirms without hesitation that  

,hroswitha has earned a place apart in  
the ,pantheon of women poets and        
writers4 ,she alone in those troublous  
times of the tenth century recalls to   
our minds the existence of dramatic art2
 her name1 indeed1 deserves to be       
rescued from oblivion and to become a   
household word4 ,fortnightly ,review1 p4
 #dej1 ,march1 #ahif4  #da ,histoire de 
l',education de ,femmes en ,france1     
,tom4 ,i1 p4 #gb et seq4 par ,paul      
,rousselot1 ,paris1 #ahhc4  ,a certain  
jurisconsult of the thirteenth century1 
one ,pierre de ,navarre1 expressed the  
sentiment of many of his contemporaries 
when he wrote the following paragraph3  
,toutes fames doivent savoir filer et   
coudre2 car la pauvre en aura mestier et
 la riche conoistra mieux l'oeuvre des  
autres4 ,a fame ne doit-on apprendre    
lettre ni escrire1 si ce n'est          
especiaument pour estre nonain1 car par 
lire et escrire1 de fame sont maint mal 
avenu4  #db ,opera ,omnia ,s4           
,hildegardis1 ,tom4 #aig1 ,col4 #dh of  

,migne's ,patrologiae ,cursus           
,completus4 ,cf4 also ,nova ,s4         
,hildegardis ,opera1 edidit ,cardinalis 
,pitra1 ,paris1 #ahhb1 and ,das ,leben  
und ,wirken der ,heiligen ,hildegardis1 
von ,j4 ,p4 ,schmelzeis1 ,freiburg im   
,breisgau1 #ahgh4  #dc ,it was ,peter   
,lombard1 whose ,sentences became the   
very canon of orthodoxy for all         
succeeding ages1 who1 in marked contrast
 with those of ancient and modern times 
that regarded woman as the inferior or  
slave of man1 asserted her equality with
 him in a sentence that should be       
written in letters of gold4 ,woman1 he  
declares1 ,sententiarum1 ,lib4 ,,ii1    
,disp4 #ah1 was not taken from the head 
of man1 for she was not intended to be  
his ruler1 nor from his foot1 for she   
was not intended to be his slave1 but   
from his side1 for she was intended to  
be his companion and comfort4  ,in this 
view the great ,schoolman but follows   
the teachings of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,for  
in his commentary1 ,de ,genesi ad       

,litteram1 ,lib4 #i1 ,cap4 #ac1 the     
learned bishop of ,hippo writes3 ,quia  
igitur viro nec domina nec ancilla      
parabatur1 sed socia1 nec de capite1 nec
 de pedibus1 sed de latere fuerat       
producenda1 ut juxta se producendam     
cognosceret1 quam de suo latere sumptam 
didecisset4 ,again the same illustrious 
doctor declares that woman was formed   
from man's side in order that it might  
be manifest that she was created to be  
united with him in love--in consortium  
creabatur dilectionis4  #dd ,cf4 ,hortus
 ,deliciarum1 by ,herrad de ,lansberg1  
folio with one hundred and ten plates1  
,strasburg1 #aija1 and ,herrade de      
,landsberg1 by ,charles ,schmidt1       
,strasburg4  ,the erudite academician1  
,charles ,jourdain1 says of ,herrad's   
great work ,l'encyclopedie qu'on lui    
doit1 l',hortus ,deliciarum1 embrasse   
toutes les parties des connaissances    
humaines1 depuis la science divine      
jusqu'a l'agriculture et la metrologie1 
et on s'etonne a bon droit qu'un tel    

ouvrage1 qui supposait une erudition si 
variee et si methodique1 soit sorti     
d'une plume feminine4 ,quelle impression
 produirait aujourd'hui l'annonce d'une 
encyclopedie qui aurait pour auteur une 
simple1 religieuse8 ,parlerons-nous des 
femmes du monde8 ,il n'existe d'elles1  
au ,x,xe siecle1 non plus que dans les  
siecles precedents aucun ouvrage        
comparable a l',hortus ,deliciarum4     
,excursions ,historiques et             
,philosophiques1 p4 #dhj1 ,paris1 #ahhh4
  #de ,see ,revelationes ,mechtildianae 
ac ,gertrudianae1 edit1 ,oudin1 for the 
,benedictines at ,solesmes1 #ahge4  #df 
,in her scholarly work on ,woman ,under 
,monasticism1 p4 #dgi1 ,lina ,eckenstein
 writes as follows regarding the studies
 pursued in the convents of the ,middle 
,ages3  ,the contributions of nuns to   
literature1 as well as incidental       
remarks1 show that the curriculum of    
study in the nunnery was as liberal as  
that accepted by the monks1 and embraced
 all available writing whether by       

,christian or profane authors4 ,while   
,scripture and the writing of the       
,fathers of the ,church at all times    
formed the groundwork of monastic       
studies1 ,cicero at this period was read
 by the side of ,boethus1 ,virgil by the
 side of ,martianus ,capella1 ,terence  
by the side of ,isidore of ,seville4    
,from remarks made by ,hroswitha we see 
that the coarseness of the ,latin       
dramatists made no reason for their     
being forbidden to nuns1 though she     
would have seen it otherwise2 and1      
,herrad was so far impressed by the     
wisdom of the heathen philosophers of   
antiquity that she pronounced this      
wisdom to be the 'product of the ,holy  
,spirit also4' ,throughout the literary 
world1 as represented by convents1 the  
use of ,latin was general1 and made     
possible the even spread of culture in  
districts that were widely remote from  
each other and practically without      
intercourse4  #dg ,the ,lady1 p4 #ga1 by
 ,emily ,james ,putnam1 ,new ,york1     

#aiaj4  #dh ,eckenstein1 op4 cit41 p4   
#dgh4  #di ,ut4 ,sup41 #dgi-dhj4  #ej   
,see ,womankind in ,western ,europe1 p4 
#bhh et seq41 by ,thomas ,wright1       
,london1 #ahfi4  #ea ,pertinere videtur 
ad haec tempora ,betisia ,gozzadini non 
minus generis claritate quam eloquentia 
ac legum professione illustris4444      
,betisiam ,ghirardaccius et nostri ab eo
 deinceps scriptores eximiis laudibus   
certatim extulerunt4 ,de ,claris        
,archigymnasii ,bononiensis             
,professoribus a ,saeculo ,,xi usque ad 
,saeculum ,,xiv1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4 #aga1     
,bologna1 #ahhh-ahif4  #eb ,l',ecole de 
,salerne1 p4 #ah1 par ,c4 ,meaux1       
,paris1 #ahhj4 ,among the most noted of 
these women was ,trotula1 who1 about the
 middle of the eleventh century1 wrote  
on the diseases of women as well as on  
other medical subjects4 ,compare the    
attitude of the school of ,salerno      
towards women with that of the          
,university of ,london1 eight hundred   
years later4 ,when1 in the latter half  

of the nineteenth century1 women applied
 to this university for degrees in      
medicine1 they were informed1 as ,h4    
,rashdall writes in ,the ,universities  
of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 ,vol4  
,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #gab1 ,oxford1     
#ahie1 that the ,university of ,london1 
although it had been empowered by ,royal
 ,charter to do all things that could be
 done by any ,university1 was legally   
advised that it could not grant degrees 
to women without a fresh ,charter1      
because no ,university had ever granted 
such degrees4 ,cf4 also ,haeser's       
,lehrbuch der ,geschichte der ,medicin1 
,band ,i1 p4 #fde1 et seq41 ,jena1      
#ahge4 ,verily1 the so-called dark ages 
have risen up to condemn our vaunted age
 of enlightenment6  #ec ,die ,entstehung
 der ,universitaeten des ,mittelalters  
bis #adjj1 ,band ,i1 p4 #bcc1 ,berlin1  
#ahhe1 von ,p4 ,heinrick ,denifle1      
assistant archivist of the ,vatican     
,library1 and ,histoire ,literaire de la
 ,france1 ,commence par des ,religieux  

,benedictins de ,s4 ,maur et ,continue  
par des ,membres de l',institut1 ,tom4  
,,ix1 #bha1 ,paris1 #agcc-aijf4  #ed    
,une de ces nuits lumineuses ou les     
dernieres clartes du soir se prolongent 
jusqu'aux premieres blancheurs du matin4
 ,documents ,inedits1 p4 #gh1 ,paris1   
#ahej4  #ee ,the ,universities of       
,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 ,vol4 ,i1 
p4 #ca1 ,oxford1 #ahie4  #ef ,a ,short  
,history of the ,renaissance in ,italy1 
p4 #bgg1 ,london1 #ahic4  #eg ,cecelia  
,gonzaga1 a pupil of the celebrated     
humanist1 ,vittorino da ,feltre1 read   
the ,gospels in ,greek when she was only
 seven years old4 ,isotta and ,ginevra  
,nogorola1 pupils of the humanist1      
,guarino ,verronese1 likewise           
distinguished themselves at an early age
 by their rare knowledge of ,latin and  
,greek4 ,in later years all three       
enjoyed great celebrity for their       
learning1 and were1 like ,battista di   
,montefeltro1 women of genuine humanist 
sympathies4 ,cecelia ,gonzaga's         

scholarship was in no wise inferior to  
that of her learned brothers1 who were  
among the most noted students of the    
famous ,casa ,zoyosa in ,mantua1 where  
,vittorino da ,feltre achieved such     
distinction as an educator in the early 
part of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,the 
learned ,italian writer1 ,sabbadini1    
beautifully expressed the relation of   
women to ,humanism1 when he declares1 in
 his ,vida di ,guarino1 ,l',humanismo si
 sposa alla gentilezza                  
feminile1--humanism weds feminine       
gentility4  #eh ,among them are the     
pictures of ,caterina ,vigri1 which are 
preserved in the ,pinacoteca of ,bologna
 and in the ,academia of ,venice4  #ei  
,no less an authority than the          
illustrious sculptor1 ,canova1 declared 
that her early death was one of the     
greatest losses ever suffered by        
,italian art4  #fj ,it was also said of 
the ,venetian artist1 ,irene di         
,spilimbergo1 that her pictures were of 
such excellence that they were          

frequently mistaken for those of her    
illustrious master1 ,titian4  #fa ,among
 these works may be mentioned ,il       
,merito delle ,donne1 by ,modesta ,pozzo
 di ,zorgi1 ,venice1 #afjj2 ,la         
,nobilita e l',excellenza delle ,donne1 
by ,lucrezia ,marinelli1 ,venice1 #afja2
 ,de ,ingenii ,muliebris ad ,doctrinam  
et ,meliores ,litteras ,aptitudine1 by  
,anna van ,schurman1 ,leyden1 #afda2    
,les ,dames ,illustres1 by ,jaquette    
,guillame1 ,paris1 #affe1 and           
,l',egalite des ,hommes et des ,femmes1 
by ,marie le ,jars de ,gournay1 ,paris1 
#afbb4 ,the last named work was by the  
celebrated fille d'alliance--adopted    
daughter--of ,montaigne4 ,it is to her  
that we owe the textus receptus of the  
,essais of the illustrious litterateur4 
#fb ,the ,women of the ,renaissance1 p4 
#bij1 by ,r4 de ,maulde la ,claviere1   
,new ,york1 #aija4  #fc ,called ,la     
,latina1 because of her thorough        
knowledge of the ,latin language4  #fd  
,the famous ,hellenist1 ,roger ,ascham1 

tells of his astonishment on finding    
,lady ,jane ,grey1 when she was only    
fourteen years of age1 reading ,plato's 
,phaedo in ,greek1 when all the other   
members of the family were amusing      
themselves in the park4 ,on his inquiry 
why she did not join the others in their
 pastime1 she smilingly replied3 ,i wit 
all their sport in the park is but a    
shadow to that pleasure ,i find in      
,plato4 ,alas1 good folk1 they never    
knew what true pleasure meant4  #fe ,to 
the poet ,ronsard1 she was a woman      
beyond compare1 as is evinced by the    
following lines of a pastoral ode       
addressed to her3      ,la ,royne       
,marguerite1     ,la plus belle fleur   
d'elite     ,qu'onques la terre enfanta4
  #ff ,cf4 ,oeuvres de ,lovize ,labe1   
nouvelle edition emprimee en caracteres 
dits de civilite1 ,paris1 #ahga4  #fg   
,the ,french poet1 ,jean ,dorat1 who was
 then professor of ,latin in the        
,college de ,france1 expresses this fact
 in the following strophe3      ,nempe  

uxor1 ancillae1 clientes1 liberi1       
,non segnis examen domus1     ,quo      
,plautus ore1 quo ,terentius1 solent    
,quotidiane loqui4  #fh ,a prominent    
writer of the time1 ,jean ,bouchet1     
expressed the prevailing opinion        
regarding the education of the women of 
the masses in the following quaint      
sentence3 ,je suis bien d'opinion que   
les femmes de bas estat1 et qui sont    
contrainctes vaquer aux choses          
familieres et domestiques1 ne doivent   
vaquer aux lettres1 parce que c'est     
chose repugnante a rusticite2 mais1 les 
roynes1 princesses et aultres dames qui 
ne se doib vent pour reverence de leur  
estat1 appliquer a mesnage4 ,cf4        
,rousellot's ,histoire de l',education  
des ,femmes en ,france1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4    
#aji1 ,paris1 #ahhc4  ,his ideal of a   
woman of the peasant type was apparently
 ,joan of ,arc1 who1 according to her   
own declaration1 did not know a from    
b--elle declarait ne savoir ni a ni b4  
#fi ,claviere1 op4 cit41 p4 #dae4  #gj  

,the noted ,english divine1 ,thomas     
,fuller1 chaplain to ,charles ,,ii1     
recognized the irreparable loss to women
 occasioned by the destruction of the   
nunneries by the ,reformers4 ,there     
were1 he tells us in his quaint         
language1 good she schools wherein the  
girls and maids of the neyghborhood were
 taught to read and work4444 ,yea1 give 
me leave to say1 if such feminine       
foundations had still continued1 444    
haply the weaker sex1 besides the       
avoiding modern inconveniences1 might be
 heyghtened to a higher perfection than 
hitherto hath been attained4 ,church    
,history1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #ccf1 #ahde4  
#ga ,m4 ,thureau ,dangin1 the perpetual 
secretary of the ,french ,academy1      
wrote1 ,la tradition ne veut pas        
d'academiciennes4  #gb ,carlyle1 in a   
lecture on ,dante1 and the ,divina      
,commedia1 declares that ,italy has     
produced a greater number of great men  
than any other nation1 men distinguished
 in art1 thinking1 conduct1 and         

everywhere in the departments of        
intellect4 ,he could with equal truth   
have said that ,italy has produced more 
great women than any other nation4  #gc 
,medical ,women1 p4 #fc1 et seq41 by    
,sophia ,jex-,blake1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf1 
and ,pioneer ,work in ,opening the      
,medical ,profession to ,women1 ,chap4  
,,iii1 by ,elizabeth ,blackwell1        
,london1 #ahie4  #gd ,mme4 ,dacier was a
 remarkable exception chiefly because   
she was the daughter and pupil of one   
,hellenist before becoming the wife of  
another4  #ge ,lettres et ,entretiens   
sur l',education de ,filles1 ,tom4 ,i1  
pp4 #bbe-bca4  ,compare this superficial
 course of study at ,saint-,cyr with the
 elaborate course mapped out by         
,lionardo d',arezzo in a letter         
addressed to the illustrious lady1      
,baptista ,malatesta4 ,in the broad     
programme of education for women        
recommended by this eminent man of      
letters1 poet1 orator1 historian1 and   
the rest1 all must be studied1 each must

 contribute a share4 ,our learning thus 
becomes full1 ready1 varied1 elegant1   
available for action or for discourse on
 all subjects4  ,lionardo's curriculum  
of studies for women was quite as       
comprehensive as that required for men1 
with perhaps a little less stress upon  
rhetoric and more upon religion4 ,there 
was no assumption that a lower standard 
of attainment is inevitably a           
consequence of smaller capacity4  ,nor  
was this thorough study of letters by   
the women of ,italy unfavorably regarded
 by social opinion2 neither did it      
introduce a new standard of womanly     
activity4 ,women1 indeed1 at this epoch1
 seem to have preserved their moral and 
intellectual balance under the stress of
 the new enthusiasm better than men4    
,the learned ladies were1 in actual     
life1 good wives and mothers1 domestic  
and virtuous women of strong judgment   
and not seldom of marked capacity in    
affairs4 ,cf4 ,vittorino da ,feltre and 
,other ,humanist ,educators1 pp4 #abb1  

#acb1 #aig1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,woodward1       
,cambridge1 #aije4  #gf ,thus1 in a     
letter of hers to ,mme4 de ,lauzun      
occurs a sentence like the following3   
,il lia sy lontant que je n'ay antandu  
parler de vous4 ,the duchess of         
,monpensier1 daughter of ,gaston        
d',orleans1 in a letter to her father   
exhibits a similar ignorance of her own 
language1 when she writes3 ,j'ai cru que
 ,votre ,altesse seret bien ese de      
savoir sete istoire4 ,quoted by         
,rousselot in his ,histoire de          
l',education des ,femmes en ,france1    
,tom4 ,i1 p4 #bhg4  #gg ,les ,femmes    
,savantes1 ,act ,,ii1 ,scene #g4  #gh   
,destouches1 in his ,l',homme singulier1
 makes one of his female characters1 who
 loves study1 speak in the following    
pathetic fashion3      ,a learned woman 
ought--so ,i surmise--     ,conceal her 
knowledge1 or she'll be unwise4     ,if 
pedantry a mental blemish be     ,at all
 times outlawed by society1     ,if     
'gainst a pedant all the world inveighs1

     ,shall pass unchecked in woman     
pedant's ways8     ,i hold it sure1     
condemned my sex is quite     ,to       
trifling nothings as its sole           
birthright2     ,ridiculous 'tis thought
 outside its 'sphere'2     ,the learned 
woman dare not such appear2     ,nay1   
she must even cloak her brilliancy      
,so envy leave in peace stupidity2      
,must keep the level of the common kind1
     ,to subjects commonplace devote her
 mind1     ,and treating these she must 
be like the rest4     ,lo1 in such garb 
refinement must be dressed3     ,that   
knowledge shall not make her seem       
unwise1     ,she must herself in        
foolishness disguise4                   
--,act ,,iii1 ,scene #g4  #gi ,no one1  
however1 went so far in his opposition  
to the education of women as the        
notorious ,silvain ,marechal1 the author
 of ,projet d'une ,loi portant ,defense 
d',apprendre a ,lire aux ,femmes1 who   
would have a law passed forbidding women
 to learn to read4 ,he maintained that a

 knowledge of science and letters       
interfered with their being good        
housekeepers4 ,reason1 he avers1 does   
not approve of women studying chemistry4
 ,women who are unable to read make the 
best soup4 ,i would rather1 he declares 
in the words of ,balzac1 have a wife    
with a beard than a wife who is         
educated4 ,see pp4 #dj1 #ej and #ea1 of 
the edition of this strange work1       
published at ,brussels1 #ahdg4  #hj ,in 
her ,problema ,practicum1 addressed to  
,dr4 ,rivet1 ,anna van ,schurman states 
and develops in true syllogistic form a 
series of propositions in defense of her
 thesis in favor of the higher education
 of women4 ,two of these propositions   
are here given as illustrative of her   
points of view3  ,i4 ,cui natura inest  
scientiarum artiumque desiderium1 ei    
conveniunt scientiae et artes4 ,atque   
feminae natura inest scientiarum        
artiumque desiderium4 ,ergo4  ,,ii      
,quidquid intellectum hominis perficit  
et exornat1 id femmae ,christianae      

convenit4 ,atqui scientiae et artes     
intellectum hominis perficiunt et       
exornant4 ,ergo4 ,see ,nobiliss4        
,virginis ,annae ,schurman ,opuscula1   
pp4 #ce and #da1 ,leyden1 #afef1 and her
 ,de ,ingenii ,muliebris ad ,doctrinam  
et ,meliores ,literas ,aptitudine1      
,leyden1 #afda4 ,cf4 also ,anna van     
,schurman1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 by ,una ,birch1 
,london1 #aiji4  #ha ,a writer of the   
seventeenth century gives the following 
as the popular programme of female      
study3 ,to learn alle pointes of good   
housewifery1 spinning of linen1 the     
ordering of dairies1 to see to the      
salting of meate1 brewing1 bakery1 and  
to understand the common prices of all  
houshold provisions4 ,to keepe account  
of all things1 to know the condition of 
the poultry--for it misbecomes no woman 
to be a hen-wife4 ,to know how to order 
your clothes and with frugality to mend 
them and to buy but what is necessary   
with ready money4 ,to love to keep at   
home4 ,how like the ,german four ,k's   

and the words on the sarcophagus of a   
,roman matron--lanifica1 frugi1         
domiseda--a diligent plyer of the       
distaff1 thrifty and a stay-at-home4    
#hb ,the ,letters and ,works of ,lady   
,mary ,wortley ,montagu1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 
#e1 ,bohn ,edition1 #ahhg4  #hc ,letter 
,,xlix1 ,london1 ,sept4 #e1 ,o4 ,s41    
#agdh4  ,walpole1 writing in #aggc1     
makes the following curious declaration3
 ,i made a discovery--,lady ,nuneham is 
a poetess1 and writes with great ease   
and sense some poetry1 but is as afraid 
of the character1 as if it was a sin to 
make verses4 ,and ,lord ,granville tells
 us of an eminent statesman and man of  
letters who1 in the early part of the   
last century1 was so troubled on        
discovering in his daughter a talent for
 poetry that he appealed to her         
affection for him1 and made a request to
 her never to write verses again4 ,he   
was not afraid of her becoming a good   
poetess1 but he was afraid of the       
disadvantages which were likely to be   

suffered by her1 if she were supposed to
 be a lady of literary attainments4  #hd
 ,it was ,swift who had such a low      
opinion of woman's intellect that in    
writing to one of his fair              
correspondents he told her that she     
could never arrive in point of learning 
to the perfection of a schoolboy4 ,lady 
,pennington1 strange to say1 seems to   
have shared his views1 for in a manual  
of advice to young ladies1 she declares3
 ,a sensible woman will soon be         
convinced that all the learning the     
utmost application can make her master  
of will be in many points inferior to   
that of the schoolboy4 ,at the time the 
,tatler first appeared in the female    
world any acquaintance with books was   
distinguished only to be censured1 and  
it was then considered more important   
for a woman to dance a minuet well than 
to know a foreign language4  #he ,the   
wife of ,president ,john ,adams1        
descended from the most illustrious     
colonial families1 writing in #ahag1    

regarding the educational opportunities 
of the girls of her time and rank1      
expressed herself as follows3  ,female  
education in the best families went no  
farther than writing and arithmetic1    
and1 in some few and rare instances1    
music and dancing4 ,according to her    
grandson1 ,charles ,francis ,adams1 ,the
 only chance for much intellectual      
improvement in the female sex was to be 
found in the families of the educated   
class1 and in occasional intercourse    
with the learned of the day4 ,whatever  
of useful instruction was secured in the
 practical conduct of life came from    
maternal lips2 and1 what of farther     
mental development depended more upon   
the eagerness with which the casual     
teachings of daily conversation were    
treasured up than upon any labor        
expended purposely to promote it4       
,familiar ,letters of ,john ,adams and  
,his ,wife1 ,abigail ,adams1 ,during the
 ,revolution1 ,with a ,memoir of ,mrs4  
,adams1 by ,charles ,francis ,adams1 pp4

 ,x and ,,xi1 ,new ,york1 #ahgf4  #hf   
,when the students of ,girton and       
,newnham in #ahig1 after passing the    
,cambridge examinations--many of them   
with the highest honors--applied for    
degrees1 the undergraduate world was    
stirred to a fine frenzy of wrath       
against all womankind1 and an astonished
 world saw re-enacted scenes scarcely   
less disgraceful than those which       
characterized the riotous demonstrations
 which1 seventeen years before1 had     
greeted seven young women at the portals
 of the ,university of ,edinburgh4  #hg 
,the ,queen's ,reign1 ,chap4 ,v1        
,london1 #ahig4  #hh ,proposition third1
 of her ,propositiones ,philosophicae1  
,milan1 #agch1 reads as follows3        
,optime etiam de universa ,philosophia  
infirmiorem sexum meruisse nullus       
infirmabitur2 nam praeter septuaginta   
fere eruditissimas1 ,mulieres1 quas     
recenset ,menagius1 complures alias     
quovis tempore floruisse novimus1 quae  
in philosophicis disciplinis maximam    

ingenii laudem sunt assecutae4 ,ad omnem
 igitur doctrinam1 eruditionemque etiam 
muliebres animos ,natura comparavit3    
quare paulo injuriosius cum feminis     
agunt qui eis bonarum artium cultu      
omnino interdicunt1 eo vel maxime1 quod 
haec illarum studia privatis1           
publicisque rebus non modo haud noxia   
futura sint verum etiam perutilia4      
,this admirable work1 with its one      
hundred and ninety-one propositions1 is 
commended to those who may have any     
doubt regarding the learning or capacity
 of the ,italian women who have been    
referred to in the preceding pages4     
,,chapter ,,ii  ,,woman',s ,,capacity   
,,for ,,scientific ,,pursuits   ,in a   
curious old black-letter volume entitled
 ,the ,boke of the ,cyte of ,ladyes1    
published in ,england in #aeba by ,henry
 ,pepwell1 occurs the following passage3
 ,i mervayle gretely of the opynyon of  
some men that say they wolde in no wyse 
that theyr daughters or wyves or        
kynnes-women sholde lerne scyences1 and 

that it sholde apayre theyr condycyons4 
,this thing is not to say ne to         
sustayne4 ,that the woman apayreth by   
conynge it is not well to beleve4 ,as   
the proverb saythe1 'that nature gyveth 
may not be taken away4'  ,the book from 
which this remarkable quotation is taken
 is a translation of ,christine de      
,pisan's ,la ,cite des ,dames1 which was
 written early in the fifteenth century4
 ,it is a capital defence against the   
slanderers of the gentler sex and an    
armory of arguments for all time against
 those men who declare that women are   
fit for nothing but to bear children and
 spin4 ,it shows conclusively that      
conynge--knowledge--far from tending to 
injure women's character--apayre theyr  
condycyons--as was asserted by          
,christine's antagonists1 contributes1  
on the contrary1 to elevate and ennoble 
them and to render them better mothers  
and more useful members of society4     
,notwithstanding that it was written    
five hundred years ago1 and             

notwithstanding its antiquated          
allegorical dress and its quaint        
pre-,renaissance notions of history1 it 
is in many of its aspects a surprisingly
 modern production4 ,the line of        
argument adopted by the writer is       
virtually the same as that which is     
adopted to-day in the discussion of the 
same questions which are so ably treated
 in this long-forgotten book#hi and show
 that ,christine de ,pisan was in every 
way a worthy champion of her sex4  ,no  
woman of her time was more competent to 
discuss the capacity of her sex for     
science as well as for other            
intellectual pursuits than was this     
learned daughter of ,italy4 ,she was not
 only a woman of profound and varied    
knowledge1 but was also1 as stated in   
the preceding chapter1 the first woman  
to earn her living by her pen4 ,besides 
writing ,the ,city of ,ladies and more  
verses--mostly ballads and              
virelays--than are contained in the     
,divina ,commedia1 she was also the     

author of many other works on the most  
diverse subjects4 ,she is best known to 
historians as the author of ,livre des  
,fais et ,bonnes ,meurs du sage ,roy    
,charles ,v1 which is a graphic account 
of the court and policy of this monarch1
 and of the ,livre des ,faits d',armes  
et de ,chevalerie4 ,the latter work is  
not1 as might be imagined from its      
title1 a collection of tales of         
chivalry1 but1 incredible as it may     
seem1 a profound and systematic treatise
 on military tactics and international  
law4 ,it deals with many topics of the  
highest policy1 from the manners of a   
good general and the minutiae of siege  
operations to the wager of battle1      
safe-conducts and letters of marque1 and
 was deemed so important by ,henry ,,vii
 that at his expressed desire it was    
translated into ,english and published  
by ,caxton under the title of ,the ,boke
 of ,fayettes of ,armes and ,chyvalrye4 
,even so late as the time of ,henry     
,,viii it was regarded as an            

authoritative manual on the topics      
treated4  ,so great1 indeed1 was the    
extent and variety of ,christine's      
attainments1 so thoroughly had she      
studied the ,latin and ,greek authors1  
sacred and profane1 and so profound was 
her knowledge of all the subjects which 
she dealt with in her numerous books    
that one cannot but feel a certain      
astonishment when one finds in a woman  
in the fourteenth century an erudition  
such as is hardly possessed by the most 
laborious of men4  ,when we read the    
eloquent plea which this learned woman  
of five centuries ago makes in behalf of
 her sex1 when we note the examples she 
quotes of women illumined of great      
sciences1 and consider the arguments by 
which she demonstrated the capacity of  
women for all scientific pursuits1 we   
can easily fancy that we are reading the
 brief of some modern exponent of the   
woman's rights movement and are almost  
disposed to believe that ,la ,bruyiere  
was right when he declared1 ,les anciens

 ont tout dit4 ,for so cogent is        
,christine's reasoning and so thoroughly
 does she traverse her subject from     
every point of view that she has left   
later writers little to add to the      
controversy except matters of detail    
which were not available in her time4   
,in spite1 however1 of ,christine's     
,cyte of ,ladyes1 in which1 according to
 our mediaeval paragon1 women1 hitherto 
scattered and defenceless1 were forever 
to find refuge against all their        
slanderers1 in spite of the fact that   
the foundations of this city were laid  
by ,reason1 that its walls and cloisters
 were built on ,righteousness1 and its  
battlements and high towers on ,justice1
 in spite of the fact that the material 
entering into its construction was      
stronger and more durable than any      
marble1 and that it was1 as our author  
declares1 a city right fair1 without    
fear and of perpetual during to the     
world--a city that should never be      
brought to nought1 ,christine's work was

 soon lost sight of1 and the right of   
women to the same intellectual          
advantages as men was as strongly denied
 as it had been before she had so       
valiantly championed their cause1 and   
denied1 too1 on the assumed ground of   
their innate incapacity4  ,it mattered  
not that during the succeeding centuries
 other women took up the cause for which
 the author of ,la ,cite des ,dames had 
so nobly battled2 it mattered not that  
countless women in every civilized      
country of the globe distinguished      
themselves by their achievements in     
every department of science and gave    
evidence of talent and genius of the    
highest order2 it mattered not that     
chivalrous representatives of the       
sterner sex1 like ,john ,stuart ,mill1  
came forward to plead the case of that  
half of humanity which had so long been 
held in cruel subjection4 ,the attitude 
of the world toward the intellectually  
disfranchised sex remained unchanged    
almost until our own time4  ,but1       

although women now enjoy advantages in  
the pursuit of science which were       
undreamed of only a generation ago1 the 
age-old prejudices respecting woman's   
mental powers and her capacity for the  
more abstract branches of science still 
prevail4 ,it is useless to cite         
instances of women who have attained    
eminence in astronomy1 mathematics1     
archaeology1 or in any other science    
whatever4 ,such instances1 we are       
assured1 are only exceptions and prove  
nothing4 ,men like ,lombroso are willing
 to admit the existence of an occasional
 woman of talent1 but they deny the     
existence of genius in one who is truly 
a womanly woman4#ij ,for1 with          
,goncourt1 they flippantly assert1 ,il  
n'y a pas de femmes de genie3           
lorsqu'elles sont des genies1 elles sont
 des hommes--there are no women of      
genius2 when they have genius they are  
men4  ,the reasons that now influence   
men for affirming the intellectual      
disparity of the sexes are1 it must be  

observed1 quite different from what they
 were in the time of ,christine de      
,pisan--quite different from what they  
were half a century ago4 ,our forebears1
 in their endless disputations regarding
 woman's mental inferiority1 based their
 arguments on a priori deductions1 or on
 metaphysical considerations which      
proved nothing and which were often     
irrelevant1 if not absurd4  ,thus the   
,aristotelians1 accepting as true the   
doctrine of the four elements as well as
 the superimposed doctrine of the four  
elemental qualities1 sought to explain  
the properties of all compound bodies by
 these primal qualities4 ,in this way   
they explained the various virtues of   
drugs and medicines4 ,and by the same   
process of reasoning they explained the 
assumed difference between male and     
female brains4 ,they assumed1 to begin  
with1 that there was a difference       
between the intellectual capacities of  
men and women4 ,they then assumed that  
this difference in capacity was due to  

the difference in character and texture 
of the female as compared with those of 
the male brain4 ,they next further      
assumed that the doctrines of the four  
elements and of the four elemental      
qualities were established beyond       
question1 and then assumed again that   
the reason of woman's inferior capacity 
was due to the fact that her brain was  
moister and softer1 and1 therefore1 more
 impressionable than that of man4 ,no   
wonder that the old ,spanish            
,benedictine1 ,benito ,jeronimo ,feijoo1
 in his chivalrous ,defensa de la       
,mujer1 lost all patience with such     
fantastic theorizers and wrote3 ,did ,i 
write 444 to display my wit1 ,i could   
easily1 by deducting a chain of         
consequences from received principles1  
shew that man's understanding1 weighed  
in the balance with female capacity1    
would be found so light as to kick the  
beam4#ia  ,abandoning the ,aristotelian 
method of envisaging the question under 
discussion1 our modern philosophers have

 recourse to the recent sciences of     
biology and psycho-physiology to prove  
what they1 too1 assume to be true--viz41
 woman's incurable mental weakness4     
,like their predecessors1 they are      
dominated by passion1 prejudice1 the    
errors of countless centuries1 and1 like
 them1 they approach the subject on     
which they are to pronounce judgment1   
with minds warped by long ages of       
imperious instincts1 ignorant           
preconceptions and social bias4 ,they   
will quote the opinions of ,proudhon and
 ,schopenhauer--as if they had the value
 of mathematical demonstrations--on the 
mental inferiority of women1 and will   
declare with unblushing assurance that  
no woman has ever produced a single work
 of any kind of enduring worth4 ,with   
the ,german pessimist1 they will        
blatantly declare1 taken as a whole1    
women are and remain thoroughgoing      
,philistines and quite incurable4#ib    
,with the ,french socialist they will   
assert1 as if it were an axiomatic      

truth1 that thought in every living     
being is proportional to force--that    
physical force is not less necessary for
 thought than for muscular labor4  ,they
 have apparently no more doubt          
respecting the truth of these           
assumptions than had their predecessors1
 the ,aristotelians1 respecting their   
assumptions of the four elements and    
their first qualities4 ,their process of
 reasoning is somewhat as follows3      
,woman is smaller and weaker than man4  
,this is a matter of simple observation1
 confirmed by the teachings of          
physiology4 ,therefore1 woman is        
physically and intellectually inferior  
to man4 ,therefore she is incapable of  
any of those great conceptions and      
achievements in science or philosophy   
which have so distinguished the male sex
 in every age of the world's history4   
,that she is thus weaker and inferior   
physically and intellectually and       
forever incapacitated from successfully 
competing with man in the intellectual  

arena is a fatality for which1 we are   
gravely told1 there is no remedy1 and to
 which women1 consequently1 must resign 
themselves as to one of the inexorable  
laws of nature4  ,it would be difficult 
to cite a more preposterous example of  
ratiocination4 ,if it were true that    
there is a necessary relation between   
vigor of body and vigor of mind2 that   
mental power is proportional to physical
 power2 that thought is but a special   
form of energy and capable of           
transformation1 like heat1 light and    
electricity2 that it1 like the various  
physical forces1 has its chemical and   
mechanical equivalents2 that psychic    
work corresponds to a certain amount of 
chemical or thermic action2 that        
intellectual capacity in man is         
proportional to muscular strength2 it   
would follow that the great leaders of  
thought and action through the ages have
 been ,goliaths in stature and          
,herculeses in strength4 ,but so far is 
this conclusion from being warranted    

that it is almost the reverse of the    
truth4 ,for many1 if not the majority1  
of the great geniuses of the world in   
every age have been either men of small 
frame or men of delicate and precarious 
health4  ,among the men of genius who   
were noted for their diminutive stature 
were ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,alexander the 
,great1 ,archimedes1 ,epicurus1 ,horace1
 ,albertus ,magnus1 ,montaigne1         
,lipsius1 ,spinoza1 ,erasmus1 ,lalande1 
,charles ,lamb1 ,keats1 ,balzac and     
,thiers4 ,many others were remarkable   
for their spare form4 ,among these in   
the prime of life were ,aristotle1      
,demosthenes1 ,cicero1 ,st4 ,paul1      
,kepler1 ,pascal1 ,boileau1 ,fenelon1   
,d',alembert1 ,napoleon1 ,lincoln and   
,leo ,,xiii4 ,others1 like ,aesop1      
,brunelleschi1 ,leopardi1 ,magliabecchi1
 ,parini1 ,scarron1 ,talleyrand1 ,pope1 
,goldsmith1 ,byron1 ,sir ,walter ,scott1
 to mention only a few of the most      
eminent1 were either hunchbacked1 lame1 
rachitic or clubfooted4  ,others1 still1

 were the victims of chronic ill health1
 or of nervous disorders of the most    
serious character4 ,virgil was of a     
delicate and frail constitution4 ,he    
essayed the bar1 but shrank from it and 
turned to the contemplation of diviner  
things4 ,nor was ,horace1 though less   
completely a recluse and more of a bon  
vivant1 a strong man4 ,both of them1 as 
scholars will remember1 sought the      
couch1 while ,maecenas went off to the  
tennis court4 ,pope's life1 says        
,johnson1 was a long disease4 ,johnson  
himself1 though large and muscular1 had 
queer health and a tormenting           
constitution4 ,schiller wrote most of   
his best work while struggling against a
 painful malady1 and ,heine's mattress  
grave is proverbial4 ,france furnishes  
an excellent example in ,pascal4#ic     
,some of the most noted leaders of      
thought in our own era were likewise    
chronic invalids4 ,among these were the 
scholarly theologian1 ,e4 ,b4 ,pusey1   
and ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 the historian of  

the ,renaissance4 ,there was also       
,herbert ,spencer1 who was frequently   
forced by nervous breakdowns to take    
long periods of absolute rest4 ,more    
remarkable still was the case of the    
famous naturalist1 ,charles ,darwin4 ,it
 is1 writes his son1 a principal feature
 of his life that for nearly forty years
 he never knew one day of the health of 
ordinary men1 and that thus his life was
 one long struggle against the weariness
 and the strain of sickness4#id ,but1   
notwithstanding his continued ill health
 and the spinal anemia from which he    
suffered1 he was able to conduct those  
epoch-making researches which put him in
 the forefront of men of science1 and to
 write those famous books which have    
completely revolutionized our views of  
nature and nature's laws4  ,but a still 
more remarkable illustration of the fact
 that there is no necessary relation    
between muscular and mental power1      
between physical well-being and         
intellectual energy1 is afforded by the 

illustrious discoverer of the world of  
the infinitely little1 ,louis ,pasteur4 
,stricken by hemiplegia shortly after he
 had begun those brilliant              
investigations which have rendered him  
immortal1 he remained affected by       
partial paralysis until the end of his  
life4 ,his friends had reason to fear   
that this attack1 even if he should     
survive it1 would weaken or extinguish  
his spirit of initiative1 if it did not 
make further work entirely impossible4  
,but this was far from the case4 ,for a 
quarter of a century he continued with  
unabated activity those marvelous labors
 which are forever associated with his  
name4 ,and it was after1 not before1 his
 misfortune that he made his most famous
 discoveries in the domain of microbian 
life1 and placed in the hands of        
physicians and surgeons those infallible
 means of combatting disease which have 
made him one of the greatest benefactors
 of suffering humanity4 ,the complete   
separation of the intellectual from the 

motor faculties was never more clearly  
exhibited than in this case1 nor was it 
ever more completely demonstrated by an 
experiment1 whose validity no one could 
question1 that power of mind does not   
necessarily depend on strength or health
 of body4 ,it proved1 also1 in the most 
telling manner that it is not muscular  
but psychic force which avails most1    
whether to the individual or to society4
 ,and it showed1 at the same time1 the  
utter absurdity of those theories which 
would fatally connect intellectual with 
physical debility in woman1 and would   
forever adjudge the physically weaker   
sex to be of hopeless inferiority in all
 things of the mind4  ,what has been    
said of men achieving renown1           
notwithstanding ill health1 may likewise
 be affirmed of women4 ,the case of     
,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning is        
scarcely less remarkable than that of   
,darwin4 ,in spite of being a chronic   
invalid the greater part of her life1   
she attained a position in letters      

reached by but few of her               
contemporaries4 ,the same almost may be 
said of the three ,bronte sisters4 ,the 
deadly seeds of consumption were sown in
 their systems in early youth1 but1     
although fully aware that life had      
passed them by with averted head1 they  
were1 through their indomitable wills1  
able to send forth from their bleak home
 in the wild ,yorkshire moors works of  
genius that still instruct and delight  
the world4  ,from the foregoing it is   
clear that valetudinarianism1 if it     
prove anything1 proves not that it      
renders intellectual effort impossible1 
but that it serves as a discipline for  
the soul4 ,it forces the mind to husband
 its strength1 and thus enables it to   
accomplish by economy and concentration 
of effort that which the same mind in a 
healthy body1 with the distractions of  
society and the allurements of life1    
would be unable to accomplish4 ,it      
exemplifies in the most striking manner 
the truth of what ,socrates says in     

,plato's ,republic about the beneficent 
action of the bridle of ,theages1       
preventing an infirm friend of his from 
embracing politics and keeping him true 
to his first love--philosophy4  ,failing
 to show any necessary connection       
between superior physique and           
intellectual capacity1 between health of
 body and mental activity1 between the  
amount of food consumed and the degree  
of intelligence1 the class of thinkers  
whose theories are now under            
consideration found themselves forced to
 abandon the argument based on robust   
health and physical strength and seek   
elsewhere for support of their views4   
,this1 they soon announced1 was found in
 the greater cranial capacity and       
greater brain weight of the male as     
compared with that of the female4       
,following up this fancied clew1        
anthropologists the world over began    
measuring skulls and weighing brains in 
order to determine the supposed ratio of
 sex-difference4  ,the results of these 

investigations were far from            
corroborating the preconceived notions  
of those who had fancied a necessary    
correlation between mental capacity and 
size of cranium1 between the weight of  
encephalon and degree of intelligence4  
,for it was soon discovered that cranial
 capacity depended on many causes--many 
of them unknown--and that people having 
the largest skulls were often far from  
being the ones dowered with the greatest
 intellectual power4 ,it was found1 for 
instance1 that climate was a determining
 factor--that the inhabitants of        
northern regions have larger heads than 
those who live farther south4 ,thus the 
,lapps1 in proportion to their stature1 
have the largest heads in ,europe4      
,after these come in order the          
,scandinavians1 the ,germans1 the       
,french1 the ,italians1 the ,arabs4  ,it
 was found also that the least cranial  
capacity of the ancient ,egyptians      
coincides with the most brilliant period
 of their civilization--that of the     

eighteenth dynasty4 ,measurements of    
skulls unearthed at ,pompeii showed that
 the heads of the ,romans who lived two 
thousand years ago were larger than the 
heads of the ,romans of to-day4         
,similarly1 the skulls of the           
lake-dwellers of ,switzerland were      
larger than those of the ,swiss people  
of the present time1 while the average  
circumference of the skulls measured in 
the catacombs of ,paris is more than an 
inch greater than that of the ,parisians
 who have died during the last half     
century4 ,the circumference of the      
skulls of a large number of             
mound-builders1 excavated some years ago
 near ,carrollton1 ,illinois1 exceeded  
that of the average head of white men in
 ,new ,york of our day by nearly three  
inches4 ,this shows that the culture of 
the white race during long centuries has
 not developed its cranial capacity to  
equal that of the uncultured ,indians   
who flourished in the ,mississippi      
valley untold generations ago4  ,the    

skulls of ,quaternary men were likewise 
very voluminous1 although they belonged 
to a race whose mental manifestations   
were infantile in the extreme4 ,even the
 celebrated ,engis skull1 one of the    
most ancient in existence1 has been     
described by the late ,professor ,huxley
 as well formed and considerably larger 
than the average of the ,european skulls
 of to-day1 not only in the width and   
height of the forehead1 but also in the 
cubic capacity of the whole4            
,furthermore1 the eminent craniologist1 
,broca1 has proved that the illiterate  
peasants of ,auvergne have a much       
greater cranial capacity than that of   
the learned and cultured denizens of    
,paris4 ,and1 as if to show conclusively
 that there is no necessary connection  
between intellectual capacity and size  
of cranium1 authentic measurements      
disclose the fact that some of the most 
gifted men the world has known had small
 heads4 ,among these were ,dante and    
,voltaire4 ,the skull of the latter is  

one of the smallest which has thus far  
been observed4  ,what has been said     
regarding the relation of cranial volume
 to intellectual capacity1 as revealed  
by the measurements of the skulls of    
ancient and modern1 savage and civilized
 peoples may likewise be predicated of  
the differences in the sizes of the     
crania of men and women4 ,no argument as
 to the greater or less intelligence of 
either sex can be based on mere         
craniometric determinations4 ,at the    
best1 cranial capacity is but a rough   
indication of brain size2 and to measure
 brain size by the external size of the 
skull furnishes still rougher and more  
fallacious approximations1 since the    
male skull is more massive than the     
female4  ,even the slight morphological 
differences between male and female     
skulls--some anthropologists deny that  
there are any at all--afford no more    
ground for conclusions in favor of the  
superiority of one or the other sex than
 the relative differences in size4 ,such

 trifling differences as do exist       
exhibit1 as ,virchow has pointed out1 an
 approximation of men to the savage1    
simian and senile type1 and an approach 
of women to the infantile type4         
,havelock ,ellis1 commenting on this    
difference1 pertinently remarks1 ,it is 
open to a man in a ,pharisaic mood to   
thank ,god that his cranial type is far 
removed from the infantile4 ,it is      
equally open to woman in such a mood to 
be thankful that her cranial type does  
not approach the senile4#ie  ,but much  
stress as has been laid on physical     
power1 health and cranial capacity1 as  
determining factors of intellectual     
capacity and sexual differences1 far    
greater stress has been laid on         
conclusions deducible from the relative 
brain weights of different classes of   
people as well as of different sexes4   
,it was assumed that by a critical study
 of the brain1 by careful weighings of  
many brains of both sexes and of many   
races1 it would be easy to secure       

conclusive evidence that the size and   
weight of the brain increase with the   
amount of intelligence of the           
individual4 ,it was also assumed that   
function not only makes the organ1 but  
also develops it4 ,brain became         
synonymous with mind4 ,a large brain    
implied vigor of thought2 a small brain 
was evidence of mental inferiority4     
,physiology had demonstrated            
unquestionably that the muscles of the  
body are enlarged by exercise4 ,it was  
assumed by those who are wont to measure
 mind in terms of matter that the brain1
 being the organ of thought1 was also   
developed by exercise4 ,it was also     
assumed that the development of the     
brain was in a direct ratio to its      
activity4 ,the greater its activity the 
greater its mass1 and the greater the   
mass the greater the degree of          
intelligence4 ,in other words1 it was   
assumed that there was an exact and     
invariable proportion between weight of 
brain and amount of brain power4  ,none 

of the theories which have already been 
adverted to have been so full of        
assumptions and prejudices or vitiated  
by so many fallacies and over-hasty     
generalizations as this4 ,no subject has
 possessed a greater fascination for    
anthropologists1 and no subject has been
 prolific in more diverse and           
conflicting conclusions4 ,many men of   
science who1 in other matters1 were     
noted for their care in weighing        
evidence1 before formulating theories1  
completely lost the scientific spirit   
when they began to weigh brains and to  
draw conclusions respecting the         
relations of brain weight and mental    
power1 and to establish ratios between  
the character of the convolutions of the
 organ of thought and the degree of     
intelligence of its possessor4          
,contrary to what is generally believed1
 a large brain is not always an         
indication of superior capacity or      
intelligence4 ,there have been1 it is   
true1 a number of men of genius who were

 the possessors of large brains1 but    
there have also been others whose brains
 were of but medium weight4  ,the       
largest known brains of intellectual    
workers were those of ,cuvier1 the noted
 zoologist1 and ,turgenieff1 the        
distinguished novelist4 ,the brain of   
the ,frenchman weighed #ahcj grams1     
while that of the ,russian totaled #bjab
 grams4 ,among other large brains--even 
larger than ,cuvier's--were those of a  
bricklayer1 which weighed #aijj grams1  
and of an ordinary laborer1 which       
reached #aibd grams4 ,the largest brains
 on record were that of an ignorant     
laborer named ,rustan1 which weighed    
#bbbb grams2 that of a weak-minded      
,london newsboy1 which weighed #bbfh    
grams1 and that of a twenty-one-year-old
 epileptic idiot1 which had the unheard 
of weight of #bhej grams4#if  ,the seven
 largest recorded female brains were    
three weighing #aehj grams each1 one of 
which belonged to a medical student of  
marked ability1 while the other two     

belonged to quite undistinguished women4
 ,there were two others weighing #aehg  
each1 one of which belonged to an insane
 woman4 ,still heavier than these by far
 were the brains of an insane woman who 
died of consumption1 and of a dwarfed   
,indian squaw4 ,the brain of the first  
weighed #agdb grams2 while that of the  
second was no less than #bjhd grams4    
,from the foregoing examples it is      
evident that a large brain is far from  
being a certain index of mental capacity
 or of superior intelligence4 ,it is    
frequently the very reverse4 ,if1 for   
instance1 it fail to receive the        
necessary supply of blood1 it will be   
inert or disordered and will prove to be
 a dangerous possession rather than a   
precious endowment4 ,epileptics usually 
have brains that are large relatively to
 the size of the body4 ,and1 while it is
 probably true that the great thinkers  
and men of action of the world have1 in 
most instances1 had comparatively large 
brains1 it is also true that the brain  

weights of but few of them exceeded     
#aejj grams1 while those of many fall   
below #abjj grams4  ,thus the brain of  
,gambetta1 the foremost ,frenchman of   
his time1 weighed only #aaei grams1     
while the weight of the brain of        
,napoleon ,i was #aejb grams--barely    
equal to that of a negro described by   
the anthropologist ,broca1 and but      
little superior to that of a ,hottentot 
mentioned by ,dr4 ,jeffries ,wyman4#ig  
,the late ,dr4 ,joseph ,simms found the 
average brain weight of sixty persons   
who were either imbeciles1 idiots1      
criminals or men of ordinary mind to be 
#agib grams1 while that of sixty famous 
men was #aded grams1 a difference in    
favor of men not noted for intellectual 
greatness of #cch grams4 ,these figures 
are far from showing that large brains  
are a necessary concomitant of mental   
capacity4  ,in view of these and many   
similar facts1 we are not surprised that
 the eminent ,german anatomist and      
anthropologist1 ,rudolph ,wagner1 should

 declare that very intelligent men do   
not differ strikingly in brain weight   
from less gifted men1 and that the noted
 ,french physician1 ,esquirol1 should   
assert that no size or form of head or  
brain is incident to idiocy or superior 
talent4  ,so far as civilized races are 
concerned1 there can be no doubt that   
the absolute weight of the male is      
greater than that of the female brain4  
,according to the investigations of     
seven of the most notable               
anthropologists1 who have given special 
attention to the subject under          
consideration1 and who1 collectively1   
have carefully weighed many thousands of
 brains1 the average brain weight of men
 in ,europe is #acha grams1 while that  
of women is #abcg grams4 ,this shows a  
difference between the average weight of
 the brain in man and woman of #add     
grams4  ,but1 if it must be conceded    
that the absolute weight of man's brain 
is greater than woman's1 is it likewise 
true that the relative weight is        

greater8 ,this is a question which      
demands an answer1 as it is impossible  
to come to any just conclusion          
respecting the intellectual capacity of 
woman expressed in terms of brain       
weight1 unless we can affirm with       
certainty that men's brains are         
relatively1 as well as absolutely1      
larger than those of women4  ,speaking  
of the relative weight of brain in man  
implies a term of comparison4 ,several  
methods of estimating the sexual        
proportions of brain mass have been     
suggested1 but only two of them have met
 with any favor4 ,these are determining 
the ratio of brain weight to body weight
 or body height4  ,according to the     
investigations of anthropologists of    
acknowledged authority1 the average     
brain weight of woman is to that of man 
in ,england and ,france as #ij is to    
#ajj4 ,the average stature of men and   
women in the same countries is as #ic to
 #ajj4 ,this gives man an excess of     
brain weight over that of woman of      

something more than an ounce4 ,but this 
slight difference in weight has been    
considered sufficient to constitute it a
 fundamental sexual distinction4 ,when1 
however1 it is considered that men are  
not only taller but also larger than    
women1 this apparent advantage of an    
ounce in favor of the male entirely     
disappears1 and the result is that the  
relative amount of brain mass in the two
 sexes is practically equal4  ,because  
of the manifest inaccuracy of the       
stature criterion1 many eminent         
anthropologists have prepared to        
estimate sexual differences in brain    
weight by adopting the method based on  
the ratio of brain mass to body weight4 
,according to this method1 women are    
found to possess brains which are equal 
to or even somewhat larger than those of
 men4 ,if the comparative excess of     
non-vital tissue in the form of fat in  
woman be eliminated and estimates be    
based only on the active organic mass of
 her body1 as compared with the same    

mass in man1 the excess of brain weight 
in woman over that in man will be still 
more marked4  ,a careful study1 then1 of
 the brain as a whole1 far from proving 
woman's inferiority to man1 rather      
proves her superiority4 ,the same may be
 said regarding sexual distinctions     
based on certain parts of the brain4    
,some years ago it was positively       
asserted that the development of the    
frontal lobe exhibited a pronounced     
difference in the two sexes4 ,it was    
said to be much greater in man than in  
woman and was regarded as a             
distinguishing characteristic of the    
male sex4 ,this was in keeping with the 
generally accepted assumption that this 
portion of the brain is the seat of the 
higher intellectual processes4 ,further 
investigation1 however1 showed that     
there was practically no sexual         
difference in the frontal lobe of the   
brain1 or1 if there was a difference1 it
 was probably in favor of woman4  ,it   
has also become recognized that there is

 no valid reason for considering the    
anterior portion of the brain as the    
seat of the higher mental functions4 ,it
 is possible1 but in the present state  
of science it can neither be affirmed   
nor denied4 ,so far as our present      
knowledge goes1 it seems more likely    
that the whole of the brain1 especially 
the sensori-motor regions of its middle 
part1 have a part in mental operations4 
,at all events1 it can certainly be     
affirmed that ,huschke's distinction of 
man and woman into homo frontalis et    
homo parietalis is utterly devoid of    
foundation in fact4  ,many              
anthropologists have fancied that a     
certain index of the degree of          
intelligence is to be found in the      
convolutions of the brain4 ,the tortuous
 foldings of the female brain1 it is    
asserted1 are less ample1 less          
pronounced and less beautiful4 ,behold1 
they exclaim1 a most positive evidence  
of inferiority4 ,these men overlook the 
fact that certain animals1 notably the  

elephant and divers species of          
cetaceans1 have cerebral convolutions   
that are more complex than those of man4
 ,if1 then1 brain convolutions were1 as 
claimed1 a certain index of the degree  
of intelligence1 the whale or the       
elephant1 and not man--pace             
,shakespeare--would be the paragon of   
animals4  ,but men of science are by no 
means at one on this alleged sexual     
difference in brain convolutions4 ,on   
the contrary1 there are many eminent    
physiologists and anatomists who contend
 that the superficies of brain          
convolutions in women is relatively     
greater than in men4 ,for those who     
believe--and they are probably the      
majority at present--that the seat of   
mental activity is in the gray matter of
 the brain1 this greater brain surface1 
due to its convolutions1 would be a     
decided compensation for woman's        
relatively smaller brain volume4#ih  ,in
 whatever way1 then1 we consider the    
brains of men and women1 whether we     

compare the ratio of brain weight to    
height of body or to weight of body1 or 
compare the relative amounts of gray    
matter in the two sexes1 the advantage1 
in spite of her smaller body1 is        
distinctly in favor of woman4  ,from the
 preceding considerations it seems clear
 that there is no ground from the point 
of view of brain anatomy for considering
 one sex as superior to the other4 ,they
 evince1 too1 that quality as well as   
quantity of brain tissue must be        
considered in all our discussions on the
 relations between the volume of brain  
and the intelligence of its possessor4  
,whales and elephants have much larger  
brains than men1 but they nevertheless  
stand far below him in intelligence4    
,it must be remembered1 also1 that the  
brain is not only an organ of mental    
function4 ,it is likewise the center of 
the entire nervous system1 and its      
volume1 therefore1 must correspond with 
the size and number of nerve trunks     
under its control4 ,in man1 as in       

animals1 the brain elements are to a    
great extent but sensori-motor delegates
 whose function is the regulation and   
government of every part of the body4   
,the superior size of the whale's brain1
 as compared with that of man1 can      
readily be understood when we reflect on
 the much greater amount of territory   
which these sensori-motor delegates     
represent4 ,when this fact is borne in  
mind it will be found that the whale's  
brain1 relatively to that of man1 is    
extremely small4 ,for while the ratio of
 man's brain weight to that of his body 
is as #a to #cf1 the ratio of the       
whale's brain weight to its immense body
 is but #a to #c1jjj4  ,as an evidence  
that quality often counts for more than 
quantity1 brain anatomists would do well
 to reflect on the marvelous            
intelligence displayed by ants and      
termites1 those mites of animated nature
 which so excited the admiration of the 
naturalist ,pliny and caused ,darwin to 
declare1 ,the brain of an ant is one of 

the most marvelous atoms of matter in   
the world1 perhaps more so than the     
brain of man4#ii  ,moreover1 when       
discussing the relative brain weights of
 the two sexes1 we must not lose sight  
of the fact that we have1 with the      
solitary exception of the eminent       
,russian mathematician1 ,sonya          
,kovalevsky1#ajj no record of the brain 
weights of any eminently intellectual   
woman4 ,the brains of scores of men of  
genius and exceptional mentality have   
been weighed1 but we are utterly        
ignorant of the weight of brain of such 
women as ,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi1       
,madame de ,stael1 ,maria ,theresa1     
,sophie ,germain1 ,george ,sand1        
,harriet ,martineau1 ,george ,eliot1    
,eleanor ,ormerod1 ,mary ,somerville1   
and others of the same caliber4 ,the    
only data so far available1 regarding   
the average brain weight of women1 are  
such as have been obtained from the     
inmates of hospitals1 prisons and pauper
 institutions4 ,and yet we are asked to 

accept the average based on such data as
 a fair term of comparison with the     
average male brain weight as increased  
by the superior weight of brain of such 
men as ,cuvier and ,turgenieff4 ,and    
this is called science6#aja  ,the       
attempt1 then1 to prove by weighing and 
measuring and studying brains that man  
is the intellectual superior of woman   
has been an ignominious failure4 ,the   
old belief that woman is by nature and  
cerebral organization less intelligent  
than man is not borne out by the        
investigations of those best qualified  
to pronounce an opinion on the subject4 
,to assert1 as so many do1 that woman   
was created man's intellectual inferior 
is begging the question4 ,science can   
adduce no proof of such a gratuitous    
statement4 ,broca1 the most eminent of  
,french anthropologists1 regarded as an 
absurdity the attempt to establish a    
necessary relation between the          
development of intelligence and the     
volume and weight of the encephalon4    

,with the ripe knowledge of his mature  
years he was inclined to believe that   
the apparent difference in intelligence 
in the two sexes was owing1 not to a    
difference of brain organization1 but   
rather to a difference of education1    
physical as well as mental1 and that1   
with equal opportunities for            
intellectual and physical development1  
the present sexual differences that we  
have been considering--differences which
 are due not to nature but to the long  
ages of restraint and subjection under  
which women have lived--would gradually 
be lessened1 and that men and women     
would eventually approach that equality 
which characterizes them in the state of
 nature4#ajb  ,realizing the            
impossibility of arriving1 by the study 
of brain sizes and structure1 at any    
satisfactory conclusion respecting the  
relative intellectual capacities of men 
and women1 seekers after truth cast     
about for other methods that were free  
from the errors and fallacies of those  

which had proved so unreliable4 ,the    
attempt to base the alleged mental      
inferiority of woman upon the facial    
angle of ,camper1 the metafacial angle  
of ,serres1 the craniofacial angle of   
,huxley1 the sphenoidal angle of        
,welcker1 or the nasobasal angle of     
,virchow had issued in utter failure1   
and had proved for the thousandth time  
that it is easier to formulate theories 
than to establish their validity4 ,it   
was evident1 notwithstanding the        
assertions of certain materialistic     
theorists1 that the brain did not       
secrete thought as the liver secretes   
bile2 it was evident1 too1 that         
intelligence could not be estimated in  
terms of any kind of mechanical units4  
,psycho-physiologists had no sort of    
dynamometer for measuring brain power as
 they would measure muscular energy4 ,by
 means of the plethysmograph they might 
determine the amount of blood sent to   
the brain in a given time1 but they had 
no psychometer of any description which 

would enable them to estimate the       
quantity1 much less the quality1 of     
psychic force such a blood supply was   
competent to produce4  ,many1 of course1
 still remained adherents of the old    
view that woman must ever remain the    
mental inferior of man because she is by
 nature physically weaker4 ,these       
persons1 however1 seemed to lose sight  
of the fact that women who lead a       
rational life--who are not the slaves of
 fashion or the victims of luxury--have 
little to complain of on the score of   
physical weakness4 ,this is evidenced by
 the life and habits of the women of the
 people1 as well as by the tasks        
performed by women among savage tribes1 
who in health and strength are little1  
if at all1 inferior to their male       
companions4  ,the late ,professor       
,huxley1 in referring to this subject1  
exhibited his usual acumen and sanity in
 such matters when he indited the       
following paragraph3  ,we have heard a  
great deal lately about the physical    

disabilities of women4 ,some of these   
alleged impediments1 no doubt1 are      
really inherent in their organization1  
but nine-tenths of them are             
artificial--the products of their mode  
of life4 ,i believe that nothing would  
tend so effectually to get rid of these 
creations of idleness1 weariness and    
that 'over-stimulation of the emotions' 
which in plainer spoken days used to be 
called wantonness1 than a fair share of 
healthy work1 directed toward a definite
 object1 combined with an equally fair  
share of healthy play1 during the years 
of adolescence2 and those who are best  
acquainted with the acquirements of an  
average medical practitioner will find  
it hardest to believe that the attempt  
to reach that standard is like to prove 
exhausting to an ordinarily intelligent 
and well-educated woman4#ajc            
,substantially the same views are held  
by ,mrs4 ,henry ,fawcett and ,dr4 ,mary 
,putnam ,jacobi1 whose rare experience  
and knowledge give their opinions on the

 subject under consideration special    
weight and value4  ,after men of science
 had tried the various theories above   
enumerated and found them wanting1 they 
finally bethought themselves of         
investigating the relative intellectual 
standing of male and female students in 
coeducational institutions1 and         
inquiring into their comparative        
capacity for different branches of      
knowledge1 as made known by their       
professors and by the results of oral   
and written examinations4 ,considering  
the simplicity of this method and the   
fact that it is the more rational way to
 reach reliable conclusions1 the wonder 
is that it was not thought of sooner4   
,it excludes the bias of prepossessions 
and preconceived theories and lends     
itself to the discussion of results     
based on incontestable facts4  ,the     
first coeducational institution in which
 the intellectual capacity of women1 in 
competition with men1 was fairly tested 
was1 strange to say1 in the ,royal      

,college of ,science for ,ireland4 ,this
 was somewhat more than half a century  
ago4 ,when the time of examinations     
came1 both the men and women students   
were handed the same examination papers4
 ,at the public distribution of prizes1 
at the close of the session1 the ladies1
 in the words of a ,dublin paper1       
vindicated the genius of their sex by   
carrying off the highest prizes4 ,in    
zoology1 botany1 physics1 chemistry and 
mathematics they proved themselves the  
peers1 and frequently the superiors1 of 
their male competitors4  ,the success of
 the female students disturbed1 of      
course1 very much the preconceived      
notions of some people1 who had always  
taken for granted that the female       
intellect was inferior to the male2 and1
 not being able to combat the stubborn  
facts that appeared from time to time in
 the newspapers1 when the results of the
 examinations were published1 they tried
 to account for them4#ajd  ,these       
cavillers1 however1 soon discovered that

 there was no way of accounting for the 
disconcerting fact which confronted     
them1 except by confessing that their   
theory regarding the mental inferiority 
of women was not substantiated by fact4 
,this unexpected demand for the         
unconditional surrender of their        
long-cherished theory of male           
superiority was a crushing and          
humiliating blow to their pride of      
intellect1 but there was no remedy for  
it1 nor was it accompanied by any balm  
of consolation that they1 at the time1  
felt disposed to regard as adequate     
compensation for their lost prestige--a 
prestige which their overweening sex had
 claimed from time immemorial4  ,similar
 experiments under even more trying     
conditions were subsequently made in the
 ,united ,states and in other parts of  
the world1 and everywhere with the same 
results4 ,in the universities of        
,switzerland1 ,france1 ,england1        
,germany and ,russia women1 when given a
 fair opportunity1 were able to         

demonstrate to the satisfaction of all  
unprejudiced judges that the            
long-vaunted superiority of the male    
intellect was a myth2 that intelligence1
 like genius1 has no sex4  ,one of the  
most interesting and comprehensive      
investigations ever undertaken regarding
 this long-debated question was made    
some years ago by ,arthur ,kirchhoff1 an
 enterprising ,german journalist4#aje   
,it consisted in collecting and         
collaborating the opinions of more than 
a hundred of the most distinguished     
professors of the ,fatherland1 besides  
the opinions of a number of eminent     
writers and teachers in girls' high     
schools4 ,these constitute a volume of  
nearly four hundred pages1 and embody   
the views on the capacity of woman for  
science of professors of theology1      
jurisprudence1 anatomy1 physiology1     
surgery1 psychology1 history1           
gynecology1 psychiatry1 philology1      
philosophy1 art1 mathematics1 physics1  
astronomy1 chemistry1 zoology1 botany1  

geology1 paleontology and technology4   
,the investigation1 indeed1 covered     
every branch of knowledge and evoked the
 deliberate views of those who were     
looked upon as the leading              
representatives of ,german thought and  
culture4  ,this book possesses a special
 value from the fact that1 of all       
peoples in ,europe1 the ,germans have   
been the most refractory to the claims  
of women to be received at the          
universities on the same footing as men4
 ,the ,german professors1 naturally1    
share the conservatism of their         
countrymen1 and1 like them1 are wedded  
to routine when there is question of    
introducing innovations into their      
social1 political or educational        
systems4 ,one would anticipate1 then1   
that1 when called upon to give their    
honest opinions respecting the          
intellectual capacity of women1 as      
compared with that of men1 their answer 
would be decidedly in favor of the      
sterner sex4 ,for1 they will ask1 have  

not all the achievements in science     
which have given the ,fatherland such   
prestige in the eyes of the world been  
due entirely to men8 ,have the women of 
,germany ever undertaken the solution of
 any great scientific problem1 or have  
they ever made any notable contribution 
to scientific advancement8 ,they have   
not4  ,yet1 notwithstanding all these   
facts1 notwithstanding all traditions   
and prejudices and social bias1 the     
unexpected has happened1 even in        
conservative1 old-fashioned ,germany4   
,the ,german professor may be tenacious 
of preconceived views2 he may be a      
stickler for ancient customs and usages2
 nevertheless1 when he is called upon to
 give a question a categorical answer   
which can be arrived at by observation  
or experiment1 he may generally1 in     
spite of his likes or dislikes1 be      
counted on to give a decision in accord 
with the principles of legitimate       
induction4 ,he may have his             
prejudices--and who has not8--but1 when 

one appeals to him in the name of       
science and justice1 he will rarely be  
found wanting4 ,regardless of all       
personal consideration1 he will feel    
that loyalty to science1 of which he is 
the avowed devotee1 requires him to     
consider a question proposed to him as  
he would a scientific problem--something
 to be decided solely by such evidence  
as may be available4  ,to the exceeding 
gratification of the believers in the   
intellectual equality of the sexes1 this
 proved to be the case in ,herr         
,kirchhoff's investigation4 ,the answers
 of the ,german professors1 contrary to 
what most people would have anticipated1
 were1 by a surprising majority1 in     
favor of women4 ,but their answers were 
in keeping with the changed educational 
conditions in ,germany1 as well as in   
other parts of the civilized world4 ,had
 ,herr ,kirchhoff undertaken his        
investigation a few decades earlier1 the
 result would undoubtedly have been     
different1 for women were then excluded 

from the universities and the professors
 had not had an opportunity of          
accurately testing their intellectual   
capacities4 ,but having1 during the     
latter part of the nineteenth century1  
had them as students in their lecture   
halls and laboratories1 where they were 
able to study their mental powers and   
determine the value of their work by    
strict scientific methods1 they were in 
a better position to express an opinion 
on the question at issue than would1 a  
few years previously1 have been         
possible4  ,accordingly1 even the       
declared enemies of the woman's movement
 among the ,german professorate were    
forced to admit the intellectual        
equality of the two sexes4 ,for they1   
too1 as well as men of science in other 
parts of ,europe1 had been measuring    
skulls and weighing brains2 they1 too1  
had been studying woman's mental caliber
 in the light of the new psychology2    
they1 too1 had been watching her work in
 the various departments of the         

university2 and1 notwithstanding all    
their observations and experiments1 they
 were unable to detect any difference   
between men and women in brain          
organization or in intellectual         
capacity4 ,and1 as might have been      
foreseen1 results harmonized perfectly  
with those arrived at by investigators  
in other parts of the world--namely1    
that in things of the mind there is     
perfect sexual equality4  ,among the    
hundred and more professors whose       
opinions are given in ,herr ,kirchhoff's
 book there were1 of course1 a few who  
were not prepared to subscribe to the   
findings of the great majority of their 
colleagues4 ,but the reasons they assign
 for dissent were1 at least in some     
instances1 little better founded than   
that of a certain professor of chemistry
 in the ,university of ,geneva1 who1 a  
few years ago1 gravely declared that    
women have no aptitude for science      
because1 forsooth1 in chemical          
manipulations they break more test-tubes

 than men4 ,verily1 a ,daniel come to   
judgment4  ,what probably more deeply   
impressed the ,german professors than   
anything else was the marked talent and 
taste of many of the women students for 
the abstract sciences1 especially for   
the higher mathematics4 ,for it had     
always been asserted that these branches
 of knowledge were beyond woman's       
capacity and that she had an instinctive
 antipathy for abstruse reasoning and   
for abstractions of all kinds4 ,when1   
however1 they discovered women whose    
delight was to discuss the theory of    
elliptic functions or curves defined by 
differential equations2 when they found 
a mathematical genius like ,sonya       
,kovalevsky speculating on the fourth   
dimension1 and carrying away from the   
mathematicians of the world the most    
coveted prize of the ,french ,academy of
 ,sciences1 they were forced to confess 
that another of their illusions was     
dissipated1 and to acknowledge that they
 had no longer anything on which to base

 their long and fondly cherished opinion
 of the mental inequality of the sexes4 
,as an evidence of the extraordinary    
change that had been effected among the 
conservative ,germans in the course of a
 few years respecting their attitude    
toward the admission of the ,academic   
,woman to the universities1 and1        
consequently1 toward her intellectual   
capacity1 it will suffice to reproduce a
 sentence from the elaborately expressed
 opinion of ,dr4 ,julius ,bernstein1    
professor of physiology in the          
,university of ,halle4 ,after reflection
 on the subject1 he declares1 ,i am     
convinced that neither ,god nor         
religion1 neither custom nor law1 and   
still less science1 warrants one in     
maintaining any essential difference in 
this respect between the male and the   
female sex4#ajf  ,the controversy of    
centuries regarding woman's intellectual
 capacity was now virtually settled     
beyond all peradventure4 ,woman had     
conquered1 and her final victory had    

been won in the heart of the enemy's    
country1 yea1 even in what was thought  
to be the impregnable fortress of her   
relentless foes4 ,it was achieved where 
the proud ,teuton male had imagined that
 he was unapproachable and beyond       
compare--in the laboratories and lecture
 rooms of his great universities--more  
irresistible1 in his estimation1 than   
the ,kaiser's trained legions in battle 
array4  ,it finally dawned upon the     
leaders of thought in the ,fatherland1  
as it had but shortly before dawned upon
 philosophers and men of science in     
other lands1 that the reputed sexual    
difference in intelligence was not due  
to difference in brain size or brain    
structure1 or innate power of intellect1
 but rather to some other factors which 
had been neglected1 or overlooked1 as   
being unessential or of minor           
importance4 ,these factors1 on further  
investigation1 proved to be education   
and opportunity4  ,as far back as #ahfi 
that keen observer and philosopher1     

,john ,stuart ,mill1 had expressed      
himself on the subject in the following 
words3 ,like the ,french compared with  
the ,english1 the ,irish with the       
,swiss1 the ,greeks or ,italians        
compared with the ,german races1 so     
women compared with men may be found1 on
 the average1 to do the same things with
 some variety in the particular kind of 
excellence4 ,but that they would do them
 fully as well1 on the whole1 if their  
education and cultivation were adapted  
to correcting instead of aggravating the
 infirmities incident to their          
temperament1 ,i see not the smallest    
reason to doubt4#ajg  ,it would be      
difficult to find a better illustration 
of the sluggishness of the male as      
compared with the female mind than the  
tardiness of men of science in arriving 
at a sane conclusion respecting the     
subject of this chapter4 ,for five      
hundred years ago ,christine de ,pisan  
arrived at the same conclusion which the
 learned professors of ,germany reached 

only in the last decade of the          
nineteenth century4 ,discussing in ,la  
,cite des ,dames the question at issue  
she writes as follows3 ,i say to thee   
again1 and doubt never the contrary1    
that if it were the custom to put the   
little maidens to the school1 and they  
were made to learn the sciences as they 
do to the men-children1 that they should
 learn as perfectly1 and they should be 
as well entered into the subtleties of  
all the arts and sciences as men be4    
,and peradventure1 there should be more 
of them1 for ,i have teached heretofore 
that by how much women have the body    
more soft than the men have1 and less   
able to do divers things1 by so much    
they have the understanding more sharp  
there as they apply it4  ,christine de  
,pisan's statement is virtually a       
challenge demanding the same educational
 opportunities for women as were        
accorded to men4 ,but it was a challenge
 that men did not see fit to accept     
until full five centuries had elapsed1  

and until it was no longer possible to  
deny giving satisfaction to the         
long-aggrieved half of humanity4 ,it was
 also an appeal to experiment and an    
appeal1 likewise1 to the teachings of   
history in lands where women have       
enjoyed the same educational advantages 
as men4  ,having reviewed the many      
disabilities which so long retarded     
woman's intellectual advancement1 and   
considered some of the objections which 
were urged against her capacity for     
scientific pursuits1 we are now prepared
 to consider the appeal of ,christine de
 ,pisan and deal with it on its merits4 
,this we shall do by a brief survey of  
woman's achievements in the various     
branches of science in which she has    
been accorded the same intellectual     
opportunities that were so long the     
exclusive privilege of her male compeer4
  ,,footnotes3  #hi ,an edition of this 
work1 based on an old manuscript in ,la 
,bibliotheque ,nationale of ,paris1 in  
,french1 is announced to appear in      

,france at an early date4 ,an           
interesting account of this precious    
volume has recently been published by   
,mlle4 ,mathilde ,laigle1 ,ph4 ,d41     
under the title of ,le ,livre de ,trois 
,vertus de ,christine de ,pisan et son  
,milieu ,historique et ,litteraire4 ,it 
is to be hoped that some enterprising   
,english publisher will soon favor us   
with a reprint of the quaint old1 but   
none the less valuable1 volume1 ,the    
,boke of the ,cyte of ,ladyes4  #ij     
,quando la genialita compare nella donna
 e sempre associata a grandi anomalie3 e
 la piu grande e la somiglianza coi     
maschi--la virilita4 ,l',uomo di ,genio1
 sesta edizione1 p4 #bfa1 ,torino1      
#ahid4  #ia ,an ,essay on the ,learning1
 ,genius and ,abilities of the ,fair    
,sex1 ,proving ,them ,not ,inferior to  
,man1 p4 #adb1 ,london1 #aggd4  #ib     
,schopenhauer1 ,studies in ,pessimism1  
p4 #aae1 ,london1 #ahia4  #ic ,the      
,literary ,advantages of ,weak ,health1 
in the ,spectator for ,october1 #ahid4  

#id ,the ,life and ,letters of ,charles 
,darwin1 edited by his son1 ,francis    
,darwin1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #acf1 ,new ,york1 
#ahhh4  #ie ,man and ,woman1 p4 #id1    
,london1 #ahih4  #if ,cf4 ,das          
,hirngewicht des ,menschen1 pp4 #ba and 
#acg1 by ,theodor ,l4 ,w4 von ,bischoff1
 ,bonn1 #ahhj1 and ,dr4 ,g4 van ,walsem 
in ,neurologisches ,centralblatt1 pp4   
#egh-ehj1 ,leipsic1 ,july #a1 #ahii4    
#ig ,l',anthropologie1 pp4 #ccf-ccg1 by 
,paul ,topinard1 ,paris1 #ahgf4  #ih    
,the importance of gray matter in mental
 processes has evidently been greatly   
overestimated1 for it has been found to 
be thicker in the brains of negroes1    
murderers and ignorant persons than it  
was in the encephalon of ,daniel        
,webster4 ,it is also much thicker in   
the brains of dolphins1 porpoises and   
other cetaceans than it is in the most  
intellectual of men4  #ii ,the ,descent 
of ,man1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ade1 ,london1    
#ahga4  #ajj ,the brain of ,sonya       
,kovalevsky was not weighed until it had

 been four years in alcohol4 ,prof4     
,gustaf ,retzius then wrote an elaborate
 account of it and estimated that its   
weight1 at the time of ,sonya's death1  
was #ache grams4 ,the brain-weight of   
her illustrious contemporary1 ,hermann  
von ,helmholtz1 was #addj grams4 ,but   
when the body-weights of these two      
eminent mathematicians are borne in     
mind--,sonya was short and slender--it  
will be seen that the relative amount of
 brain tissue was greater in the woman  
than in the man4 ,cf4 ,das ,gehirn des  
,mathematikers ,sonja ,kovalewski in    
,biologische ,untersuchungen1 von ,prof4
 ,dr4 ,gustaf ,retzius1 pp4 #a-ag1      
,stockholm1 #aijj4  #aja ,the reader who
 desires more detailed information      
respecting the brain-weights of men and 
women of various races and the relation 
of brain-weight to intelligence may     
consult with profit the following works 
and articles3 ,memoires d',anthropologie
 de ,paul ,broca1 #e ,vols41 ,paris1    
#ahga-ahhh2 ,alte und ,neue ,gehirn     

,probleme nebst einer #ajgh ,falle      
umfassenden ,gehirngewichstatistik aus  
den ,kgl4 pathologisch-anatomischen     
,institut zu ,muenchen1 von ,w4 ,w4     
,wendt1 ,muenchen1 #aiji2 ,gehirngewicht
 und ,intelligenz1 by ,dr4 ,f4 ,k4      
,walter1 ,rostok1 #aiaa2 ,gehirngewicht 
und ,intelligenz1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,draeseke1
 ,hamburg1 in ,archiv fuer ,rassen und  
,gesellschafts ,biologe1 pp4 #dii-ebb1  
#aijf2 ,brain ,weights and ,intellectual
 ,capacity1 by ,joseph ,simms1 ,m4 ,d41 
in the ,popular ,science ,monthly1      
,december1 #ahih1 and ,the ,growth of   
the ,brain1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,donaldson1      
,london1 #ahie4  #ajb ,quand on songe a 
la difference qui separe de notre temps 
l'education intellectuelle de l'homme de
 celle de la femme1 on se demande si ce 
n'est pas cette influence qui retrecit  
le cervaux et le crane feminins1 et si1 
les deux sexes etant livres a leur      
spontaneite1 leur cervaux ne tendraient 
pas a se ressembler1 aussi qu'il arrive 
chez les sauvages4 ,bulletin de la      

,societe d',anthropologie1 p4 #ejc1     
,paris1 ,july #c1 #ahgi4  #ajc ,times1  
,london1 ,july #h1 #ahgd4 ,cf4 ,chap4   
,,xvii1 on ,adolescent ,girls and ,their
 ,education1 in ,adolescence1 ,vol4     
,,ii1 by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 ,new ,york1
 #aijd4  #ajd ,the ,study of ,science by
 ,women in the ,contemporary ,review for
 ,march1 #ahfi4  #aje ,die ,akademische 
,frau4 ,gutachten hervorragender        
,universitaeten-professoren1            
,frauenlehrer und ,schriftsteller ueber 
die ,befaehigung der ,frau zum          
wissenschaftlichen ,studium and ,berufe 
herausgegeben von ,arthur ,kirchhoff1   
,berlin1 #ahig4  #ajf ,ich komme beim   
,nachdenken hieruber zu der             
,ueberzeigung1 dass kein ,gott und keine
 ,religion1 kein ,herkommen und kein    
,gesetz1 aber ebensowenig die           
,wissenschaft uns das ,recht erteilen1  
in dieser ,beziehung zwischen dem       
mannerlichen und weiblichen ,geschlect  
einen principiellen ,unterschied zu     
statuiren4 ,die ,akademische ,frau1 p4  

#da4  #ajg ,the ,subjection of ,women1  
p4 #ia1 ,london1 #aiji4     ,,chapter   
,,iii  ,,women ,,in ,,mathematics   ,all
 abstract speculations1 all knowledge   
which is dry1 however useful it may be1 
must be abandoned to the laborious and  
solid mind of man4444 ,for this reason  
women will never learn geometry4  ,in   
these words ,immanuel ,kant1 more than a
 century ago1 gave expression to an     
opinion that had obtained since the     
earliest times respecting the incapacity
 of the female mind for abstract        
science1 and notably for mathematics4   
,women1 it was averred1 could readily   
assimilate what is concrete1 but1 like  
children1 they have a natural repugnance
 for everything which is abstract4 ,they
 are competent to discuss details and to
 deal with particulars1 but become      
hopelessly lost when they attempt to    
generalize or deal with universals4  ,de
 ,lamennais shares ,kant's opinion      
concerning woman's intellectual         
inferiority and does not hesitate to    

express himself on the subject in the   
most unequivocal manner4 ,i have never1 
he writes1 met a woman who was competent
 to follow a course of reasoning the    
half of a quarter of an hour--un demi   
quart d'heure4 ,she has qualities which 
are wanting in us1 qualities of a       
particular1 inexpressible charm2 but1 in
 the matter of reason1 logic1 the power 
to connect ideas1 to enchain principles 
of knowledge and perceive their         
relationships1 woman1 even the most     
highly gifted1 rarely attains to the    
height of a man of mediocre capacity4   
,but it is not only in the past that    
such views found acceptance4 ,they      
prevail even to-day to almost the same  
extent as during the ages of long ago4  
,how far they have any foundation in    
fact can best be determined by a brief  
survey of what woman has achieved in the
 domain of mathematics4  ,athenaeus1 a  
,greek writer who flourished about      
,a4,d4 #bjj1 tells us in his            
,deipnosophistae of several ,greek women

 who excelled in mathematics1 as well as
 philosophy1 but details are wanting as 
to their attainments in this branch of  
knowledge4 ,if1 however1 we may judge   
from the number of women--particularly  
among the hetaerae--who became eminent  
in the various schools of philosophy1   
especially during the pre-,christian    
era1 we must conclude that many of them 
were well versed in geometry and        
astronomy as well as in the general     
science of numbers4 ,menagius declares  
that he found no fewer than sixty-five  
women philosophers mentioned in the     
writings of the ancients#ajh2 and1      
judging from what we know of the        
character of the studies pursued in     
certain of the philosophical schools1   
especially those of ,plato#aji and      
,pythagoras1 and the enthusiasm which   
women manifested in every department of 
knowledge1 there can be no doubt that   
they achieved the same measure of       
success in mathematics as in philosophy 
and literature4#aaj  ,the first woman   

mathematician1 regarding whose          
attainments we have any positive        
knowledge1 is the celebrated ,hypatia1 a
 ,neo-platonic philosopher1 whose       
unhappy fate at the hands of an         
,alexandrian mob in the early part of   
the fifth century has given rise to many
 legends and romances which have        
contributed not a little toward         
obscuring the real facts of her         
extraordinary career4 ,she was the      
daughter of ,theon1 who was             
distinguished as a mathematician and    
astronomer and as a professor in the    
school of ,alexandria1 which was then   
probably the greatest seat of learning  
in the world4 ,born about the year #cge 
,a4 ,d41 she at an early age evinced the
 possession of those talents that were  
subsequently to render her so           
illustrious4 ,so great indeed was her   
genius and so rapid was her progress in 
this branch of knowledge under the      
tuition of her father that she soon     
completely eclipsed her master in his   

chosen specialty4  ,there is reason to  
believe--although the fact is not       
definitely established--that she studied
 for a while in ,athens in the school of
 philosophy conducted by ,plutarch the  
,younger and his daughter ,asclepigenia4
 ,after her return from ,athens1        
,hypatia was invited by the magistrates 
of ,alexandria to teach mathematics and 
philosophy4 ,here in brief time her     
lecture room was filled by eager and    
enthusiastic students from all parts of 
the civilized world4 ,she was also      
gifted with a high order of eloquence   
and with a voice so marvelous that it   
was declared to be divine4  ,regarding  
her much vaunted beauty1 nothing certain
 is known1 as antiquity has bequeathed  
to us no medal or statue by which we    
could form an estimate of her physical  
grace4 ,but1 be this as it may1 it is   
certain that she commanded the          
admiration and respect of all for her   
great learning1 and that she bore the   
mantle of science and philosophy with so

 great modesty and self-confidence that 
she won all hearts4 ,a letter addressed 
to ,the ,muse1 or to ,the               
,philosopher--,greek3 ,te               
,philosopho--was sure to be delivered to
 her at once4 ,small wonder1 then1 to   
find a ,greek poet inditing to her an   
epigram containing the following        
sentiment3  ,when ,i see thee and hear  
thy word ,i thee adore2 it is the       
ethereal constellation of the ,virgin1  
which ,i contemplate1 for to the heavens
 thy whole life is devoted1 ,o august   
,hypatia1 ideal of eloquence and        
wisdom's immaculate star4#aaa  ,but it  
was as a mathematician that ,hypatia    
most excelled4 ,she taught not only     
geometry and astronomy1 but also the new
 science of algebra1 which had but a    
short time before been introduced by    
,diophantus4 ,and1 singular to relate1  
no further progress was made in the     
mathematical sciences1 as taught by     
,hypatia1 until the time of ,newton1    
,leibnitz and ,descartes1--more than    

twelve centuries later4  ,hypatia was   
the author of three works on            
mathematics1 all of which have been     
lost1 or destroyed by the ravages of    
time4 ,one of these was a commentary on 
the ,arithmetica of ,diophantus4 ,the   
original treatise--or rather the part   
which has come down to us--was found    
about the middle of the fifteenth       
century in the ,vatican ,library1       
whither it had probably been brought    
after ,constantinople had fallen into   
the possession of the ,turks4 ,this     
valuable work1 as annotated by the great
 ,french mathematicians ,bachet and     
,fermat1 gives us a good idea of the    
extent of ,hypatia's attainments as a   
mathematician4  ,another of ,hypatia's  
works was a treatise on the ,conic      
,sections by ,apollonius of             
,perga--surnamed ,the ,great ,geometer4 
,next to ,archimedes1 he was the most   
distinguished of the ,greek             
geometricians2 and the last four books  
of his conics constitute the chief      

portions of the higher geometry of the  
ancients4 ,moreover1 they offer some    
elegant geometrical solutions of        
problems which1 with all the resources  
of our modern analytical method1 are not
 without difficulty4 ,the greater part  
of this precious work has been preserved
 and has engaged the attention of       
several of the most illustrious of      
modern mathematicians--among them       
,borelli1 ,viviani1 ,fermat1 ,barrow and
 others4 ,the famous ,english           
astronomer1 ,halley1 regarded this      
production of ,apollonius of such       
importance that he learned ,arabic for  
the express purpose of translating it   
from the version that had been made into
 this language4  ,a woman who could     
achieve distinction by her commentaries 
on such works as the ,arithmetica of    
,diophantus1 of the ,conic ,sections of 
,apollonius1 and occupy an honored place
 among such mathematicians as ,fermat1  
,borelli1 and ,halley1 must have had a  
genius for mathematics1 and we can well 

believe that the glowing tributes paid  
by her contemporaries to her            
extraordinary powers of intellect were  
fully deserved4 ,if1 with ,pascal1 we   
see in mathematics the highest exercise 
of the intelligence1 and agree with him 
in placing geometers in the first rank  
of intellectual princes--princes de     
l'esprit--we must admit that ,hypatia   
was indeed exceptionally dowered by ,him
 whom ,plato calls ,the ,great          
,geometer4  ,there is still a third work
 of this ill-fated woman that deserves  
notice--namely1 her ,astronomical       
,canon1 which dealt with the movements  
of the heavenly bodies4 ,it is the      
general opinion that this was but a     
commentary on the tables of ,ptolemy1 in
 which event it is still possible that  
it may be found incorporated in the work
 of her father1 ,theon1 on the same     
subject4  ,in addition to her works on  
astronomy and mathematics1 ,hypatia is  
credited with several inventions of     
importance1 some of which are still in  

daily use4 ,among these are an apparatus
 for distilling water1 another for      
measuring the level of water1 and a     
third an instrument for determining the 
specific gravity of liquids--what we    
should now call an areometer4 ,besides  
these apparatus1 she was likewise the   
inventor of an astrolabe and a          
planisphere4  ,one of her most          
distinguished pupils was the eminent    
,neo-platonist philosopher1 ,synesius1  
who became the ,bishop of ,ptolemais in 
the ,pentapolis of ,libya4 ,his letters 
constitute our chief source of          
information respecting this remarkable  
woman4 ,seven of them are addressed to  
her1 and in four others he makes mention
 of her4 ,in one of them he writes3 ,we 
have seen and we have heard her who     
presides at the sacred mysteries of     
philosophy4 ,in another he apostrophizes
 her as ,my benefactress1 my            
teacher1--magistra--my sister1 my       
mother4  ,in science ,hypatia was among 
the women of antiquity what ,sappho was 

in poetry and what ,aspasia was in      
philosophy and eloquence--the chiefest  
glory of her sex4 ,in profundity of     
knowledge and variety of attainments she
 had few peers among her contemporaries1
 and she is entitled to a conspicuous   
place among such luminaries of science  
as ,ptolemy1 ,euclid1 ,apollonius1      
,diophantus and ,hipparchus4#aab  ,it is
 a matter of regret to the admirers of  
this favored daughter of the ,muses that
 she is absent from ,raphael's ,school  
of ,athens2 but1 had her achievements   
been as well known and appreciated in   
his day as they are now1 we can readily 
believe that the incomparable artist    
would have found a place for her in this
 masterpiece with the matchless form and
 features of his beloved ,fornarina4    
,after the death of ,hypatia the science
 of mathematics remained stationary for 
many long centuries4 ,outside of certain
 ,moors in ,spain1 the only             
mathematicians of note in ,europe1 until
 the ,renaissance1 were ,gerbert1       

afterward ,pope ,silvester ,,ii1 and    
,leonardo da ,pisa4 ,the first woman to 
attract special attention for her       
knowledge of mathematics was ,heloise1  
the noted pupil of ,abelard4 ,according 
to ,franciscus ,ambrosius1 who edited   
the works of ,abelard and ,heloise in   
#afaf1 the famous prioress of ,the      
,paraclete was a prodigy of learning1   
for besides having a knowledge of       
,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew1 which was   
something extremely rare in her time1   
she was also well versed in philosophy1 
theology and mathematics1 and inferior  
in these branches only to ,abelard      
himself1 who was probably the most      
eminent scholar of his age4#aac  ,many  
,italian women1 as we have seen in a    
preceding chapter1 were noted for their 
proficiency in the various branches of  
mathematics4 ,some of the most          
distinguished of them flourished during 
the seventeenth and eighteenth          
centuries4 ,among these were ,elena     
,cornaro ,piscopia1 celebrated as a     

linguist as well as a mathematician2    
,maria ,angela ,ardinghelli1 translator 
of the ,vegetable ,statics of ,stephen  
,hales2 ,cristina ,roccati1 who taught  
physics for twenty-seven years in the   
,scientific ,institute of ,rovigo1 and  
,clelia ,borromeo1 fondly called by her 
countrymen gloria ,genuensium--the glory
 of the ,genoese4 ,in addition to a     
special talent for languages1 she       
possessed so great a capacity for       
mathematics and mechanics that no       
problem in these sciences seemed to be  
beyond her comprehension4#aad ,then     
there was also ,diamante ,medaglia1 a   
mathematician of note1 who wrote a      
special dissertation on the importance  
of mathematics in the curriculum of     
studies for women1 ,alle matematiche1   
alle matematiche prestino l'opera loro  
le donne1 onde non cadano in crassi     
paralogismi--,to mathematics1 to        
mathematics1 she cries1 let women devote
 attention for mental discipline4#aae   
,the most illustrious1 by far1 of the   

women mathematicians of ,italy was      
,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi1 who was born in
 ,milan in #agah and died there at the  
age of eighty-one4 ,at an early age she 
exhibited rare intelligence and soon    
distinguished herself by her            
extraordinary talent for languages4 ,at 
the age of five she spoke ,french with  
ease and correctness1 while only six    
years later she was able to translate   
,greek into ,latin at sight and to speak
 the former as fluently as her own      
,italian4 ,at the early age of nine she 
startled the learned men and women of   
her native city by discoursing for an   
hour in ,latin on the rights of women to
 the study of science4 ,this            
discourse--,oratio--was not1 as usually 
stated1 her own composition1 but a      
translation from the ,italian of a      
discourse written by her teacher of     
,latin4 ,that a child of nine years     
should speak in the language of ,cicero 
for a full hour before a learned        
assembly and without once losing the    

thread of her discourse was1 indeed1 a  
wonderful performance1 and we are not   
surprised to learn that she was regarded
 by her countrymen as an infant         
prodigy4#aaf  ,in addition to ,italian1 
,french1 ,latin and ,greek1 she was     
acquainted with ,german1 ,spanish and   
,hebrew4 ,for this reason she was1 like 
,elena ,cornaro ,piscopia1 the famous   
,venetian ,minerva1 called ,oracolo     
,settilingue--,oracle of ,seven         
,languages4#aag  ,but it was in the     
higher mathematics that ,maria ,gaetana 
was to win her chief title to fame in   
the world of learning4 ,so successful   
had she been in her prosecution of this 
branch of science that she was1 at the  
early age of twenty1 able to enter upon 
her monumental work--,le ,instituzioni  
,analitiche--a treatise in two large    
quarto volumes on the differential and  
integral calculus4 ,to this difficult   
task she devoted ten years of arduous   
and uninterrupted labor4 ,and if we may 
credit her biographer1 she consecrated  

the nights as well as the days to her   
herculean undertaking4 ,for frequently1 
after working in vain on a difficult    
problem during the day1 she was known to
 bound from her bed during the night    
while sound asleep and1 like a          
somnambulist1 make her way through a    
long suite of rooms to her study1 where 
she wrote out the solution of the       
problem and then returned to her bed4   
,the following morning1 on returning to 
her desk1 she found1 to her great       
surprise1 that while asleep she had     
fully solved the problem which had been 
the subject of her meditations during   
the day and of her dreams during the    
night4 ,could the psychiatrist who so   
loves to deal with obscure mental       
phenomena find a more interesting case  
to engage his attention or one more     
worthy of the most careful              
investigation8  ,finally ,maria         
,gaetana's opus majus was completed and 
given to the public4 ,it would be       
impossible to describe the sensation it 

produced in the learned world4          
,everybody talked about it2 everybody   
admired the profound learning of the    
author1 and acclaimed her3 ,il portento 
del sesso1 unico al ,mondo--the portent 
of her sex1 unique in the world4 ,by a  
single effort of her genius she had     
completely demolished that fabric of    
false reasoning which had so long been  
appealed to as proof positive of woman's
 intellectual inferiority1 especially in
 the domain of abstract science4 ,maria 
,gaetana's victory was complete1 and her
 victory was likewise a victory for her 
sex4 ,she had demonstrated once for all1
 and beyond a quirk or quibble1 that    
women could attain to the highest       
eminence in mathematics as well as in   
literature1 that supreme excellence in  
any department of knowledge was not a   
question of sex but a question of       
education and opportunity1 and that in  
things of the mind there was essentially
 no difference between the male and the 
female intellect4  ,the world saw in    

,agnesi a worthy accession to that noble
 band of gifted women who count among   
their number a ,sappho1 a ,corinna1 an  
,aspasia1 a ,hypatia1 a ,paula1 a       
,hroswitha1 a ,dacier1 an ,isabella     
,rosales who1 in the sixteenth century1 
successfully defended the most difficult
 theological theses in the presence of  
,paul ,,iii and the entire college of   
cardinals4 ,and so delighted were the   
women--especially those in ,italy--with 
the signal triumph of their eminent     
sister that they defied the traducers of
 their sex--muliebris sapientiae        
infensissimis hostibus--to continue any 
longer their unreasonable campaign      
against the rights of women which were  
based on the intellectual equality of   
the two sexes4  ,so highly did the      
,french ,academy of ,science value      
,agnesi's achievement that she would at 
once have been made a member of this    
learned body had it not been against the
 constitutions to admit a woman to      
membership4 ,m4 ,motigny1 one of the    

committee appointed by the ,academy to  
report on the work1 in his letter to the
 author1 among other things1 writes3    
,permit me1 ,mademoiselle1 to unite my  
personal homage to the plaudits of the  
entire ,academy4 ,i have the pleasure of
 making known to my country an extremely
 useful work which has long been        
desired1 and which has hitherto--both in
 ,france and in ,england--existed only  
in outline4 ,i do not know any work of  
this kind which is clearer1 more        
methodic or more comprehensive than your
 ,analytical ,institutions4 ,there is   
none in any language which can guide    
more surely1 lead more quickly1 and     
conduct further those who wish to       
advance in the mathematical sciences4 ,i
 admire particularly the art with which 
you bring under uniform methods the     
divers conclusions scattered among the  
works of geometers and reached by       
methods entirely different4  ,as an     
indication of the exceptional merit of  
,agnesi's work1 even long after its     

publication in #agdh1 it suffices to    
state that the second volume of the     
,instituzioni ,analitiche was translated
 into ,french in #agge by ,antelmy and  
annotated by the ,abbe ,bossuet1 a      
member of the ,french ,academy and a    
collaborator of ,d',alembert on the     
mathematical part of the famous         
,encyclopedie4  ,a still greater proof  
of the estimation in which ,agnesi's    
work was held by men of science is the  
fact that it was translated in its      
entirety into ,english by the ,rev4     
,john ,colton1 ,lucasian ,professor of  
,mathematics in the ,university of      
,cambridge1 and published in #ahja1     
fifty-two years after it had appeared in
 ,italian4 ,his impression of the       
methods followed by the ,milanese       
savante was so favorable that1 in the   
words of a contemporary writer1 it gave 
rise to his very spirited resolution of 
learning a new language at an advanced  
period of life1 that he might make      
himself perfect master of them4#aah     

,gratifying1 however1 as were the       
tributes of admiration and appreciation 
which came to ,agnesi from all quarters1
 from learned societies1 from eminent   
mathematicians1 from sovereigns--the    
,empress ,maria ,theresa sent her a     
splendid diamond ring and a precious    
crystal casket bejeweled with           
diamonds--that which touched her most   
deeply was1 undoubtedly1 the recognition
 which she received from the great      
,maecenas of his age1 ,pope ,benedict   
,,xiv4 ,as ,cardinal ,lambertini and    
,archbishop of ,bologna1 he had taken a 
conspicuous part in the honors showered 
on ,laura ,bassi when she received her  
doctorate1 and was specially delighted  
when she was made professor of physics  
in his favored university4 ,being       
himself familiar with the higher        
mathematics1 he recognized at once the  
exceptional merit of ,maria ,gaetana's  
work and showed his appreciation of it  
not only by letters and presents1 but   
also by having her1 motu proprio1       

appointed by the ,bolognese senate as   
professor of higher mathematics in the  
,university of ,bologna4  ,in advising  
her of this appointment1 he writes her  
that he had in view the honor of the    
,university in which he had always taken
 a special interest1 and that the       
appointment carried with it no          
obligation of thanks on her part but    
rather on his--che porta seco ch'ella   
non deve ringraziar ,noi1 ma che ,noi   
dobbiamo ringraziar lei4 ,the interest  
that this wise and broad-minded pontiff 
exhibited in the advancement of learned 
women and the rewards he was ever ready 
to accord to their achievements in      
science and literature--especially in   
the cases of ,laura ,bassi and ,maria   
,gaetana ,agnesi--is in keeping with the
 policy pursued by his predecessors1 and
 accounts in great measure for that     
large number of learned women in ,italy 
who1 since the opening of the first     
universities1 have been the glory of    
their sex and country4  ,but ardent as  

was the desire of the ,supreme ,pontiff 
to have ,agnesi occupy the chair of     
mathematics1 and numerous as were the   
appeals of her friends and the members  
of the university faculty to have her   
accept the appointment that carried with
 it such signal honor1 she could never  
be induced to leave her beloved ,milan4 
,for1 after completing her masterpiece1 
she resolved to retire from the world   
and devote the rest of her life to the  
care of the poor1 the sick and the      
helpless in her native city4 ,she did   
not1 however1 as is so frequently       
asserted1 enter the convent and become a
 nun4#aai ,during many years after her  
retirement from the world1 she lived in 
her own home1 a part of which she had   
converted into a hospital4 ,during the  
last fifteen years of her life she had  
charge of the ,pio ,albergo             
,trivulzio--a large institution founded 
by ,prince ,trivulzio for the aged poor 
who were without home or assistance4    
,she had devoted ten years of the flower

 of her life to the writing of her      
,instituzioni ,analitiche--prepared     
primarily for the benefit of one of her 
brothers who had a taste for            
mathematics--and1 after it was finished1
 she entered upon that long career of   
heroic charity which was terminated only
 at her death at the advanced age of    
eighty-one4  ,one loves to speculate    
regarding ,maria ,gaetana's possible    
achievements if she had continued during
 the rest of her life that science in   
which1 during a few short years1 she had
 won such distinction4 ,she had made her
 own the discoveries of ,newton1        
,leibnitz1 ,roberval1 ,fermat1          
,descartes1 ,riccati1 ,euler1 the       
brothers ,bernouilli1 and had mastered  
the entire science of mathematics then  
known4 ,her pinions were trimmed for    
essaying loftier flights than any       
hitherto attempted1 and her intellect   
was prepared1 as one of her scientific  
friends expressed it1 for fixing the    
limits of the infinite4 ,but while the  

world of science was still sounding her 
praises and predicting for her still    
greater triumphs in the field of        
analysis1 it learned with surprise and  
sorrow that she had bid adieu to those  
studies in which she had achieved such  
extraordinary success1 and had          
consecrated her life to the service of  
the poor and the afflicted4 ,she        
disappeared completely from those       
literary and scientific reunions where  
she had so long been the most           
conspicuous figure1 and was thenceforth 
known only as the ministering angel of  
the suffering and the abandoned4 ,for   
half a century hers was a life of the   
most heroic charity and self-abnegation4
 ,very readily1 therefore1 we can       
understand why a recent representative  
of the scientific world should desire to
 see her name placed on the calendar of 
saints4#abj  ,had ,agnesi devoted her   
entire life to science instead of       
abandoning it just when she was prepared
 to do her best work1 she might to-day  

be ranked among such supreme            
mathematicians as ,lagrange1 ,monge1    
,laplace and the ,bernouillis1 all of   
whom were her contemporaries4 ,even as  
it was1 she has been placed beside      
,cardan1 ,leibnitz and ,euler for her   
remarkable powers of analysis of        
infinitesimals1 while the best proof of 
the literary value of her ,instituzioni 
,analitiche is the fact that it has been
 selected by the famous society ,della  
,crusca as a testo di lingua--a work    
considered as a classic of its kind and 
used in the preparation of the great    
authoritative dictionary of the ,italian
 language4  ,but by consecrating herself
 to charity she probably accomplished   
far more for humanity and for the       
well-being of her sex than if she had   
elected to continue her work in the     
higher mathematics4 ,there had been many
 learned women in ,italy before her time
 and many since2 many who were          
distinguished as ,hellenists1 as        
,latinists1 as polyglots1 as            

mathematicians--women like the ,roccati1
 the ,borghini1 the ,brassi1 the        
,ardinghelli1 the ,barbapiccola1 the    
,caminer ,turra1 the ,tambroni2 but     
,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi surpasses them  
all1 not only in knowledge1 but as a    
potent influence for the diffusion of   
culture and the spirit of brotherhood1  
for the expansion of benevolence and    
charity1 and1 above all1 for the        
elevation of woman4 ,she was also1 as   
her latest and best biographer          
beautifully expresses it1 an inspired   
condottiera who1 in the field of        
civility1 anticipated the conquests of  
these latter days4 ,she was1 indeed1 as 
her epitaph informs us1 pietate1        
doctrina1 beneficentia insignis1 and as 
such she will live in the memory of our 
race as long as men shall admire genius 
and love virtue4  ,in the year following
 the publication of ,agnesi's           
,instituzioni ,analitiche was recorded  
the premature and tragic death of the   
distinguished ,french mathematician1 the

 ,marquise ,emilie du ,chatelet4 ,she   
has been described as a thinker and     
scientist1 precieuse and pedant1 but not
 the less a coquette--in short1 a woman 
of contradictions4#aba ,to most readers 
she is better known by reason of her    
liaison with ,voltaire1 of whom she is  
regarded as a mere satellite1 than for  
her work in science4 ,but she was far   
more than a satellite that shone by the 
light received from the sage of ,ferney4
 ,for there can be no doubt that she was
 a highly gifted woman who1 besides     
having a thorough knowledge of several  
languages1 including ,latin1 possessed a
 special talent for mathematics4 ,it was
 said of her that she read ,virgil1     
,pope and algebra as others read novels1
 and that she was able to multiply nine 
figures by nine others in her head4 ,no 
less an authority than the illustrious  
,ampere declared her to be a genius in  
geometry4  ,among her teachers in       
mathematics were ,clairaut1 ,koenig1    
,maupertuis1 ,pere ,jaquier and ,jean   

,bernouilli1 the immediate predecessors 
of such distinguished mathematicians as 
,monge1 ,lagrange1 d',alembert and      
,laplace4 ,at her ,chateau of ,cirey1   
where she and ,voltaire spent many years
 together1 she was visited by learned   
men from various parts of ,europe4      
,among these was the ,italian scholar1  
,francisco ,algarotti1 who was the      
author of a work entitled ,newtonism for
 ,women4 ,and as ,mme4 du ,chatelet was 
an ardent admirer of ,newton1 the author
 of the ,principia soon became a strong 
bond of union between her and the       
brilliant ,italian4 ,she called the     
savants who frequented her chateau at   
,cirey the ,emiliens and purposed       
writing memoirs to be entitled          
,emiliana--a design1 however1 which she 
was never able to execute4  ,the first  
work of importance from the pen of the  
,marquise was entitled ,institutions de 
,physique4 ,in it she gave an exposition
 of the philosophy of ,leibnitz and     
dissertations on space1 time and force4 

,in the discussion of the last topic she
 seems to have anticipated some of the  
later conclusions of science respecting 
the nature of energy4  ,her most noted  
achievement1 however1 was her           
translation of ,newton's ,principia1 the
 first translation into ,french of this 
epoch-making work4 ,to translate this   
masterpiece from its original ,latin1 it
 was necessary that the ,marquise1 in   
order to make it intelligible to others1
 should have a thorough understanding of
 it herself4 ,to the translation she    
added a commentary1 which shows that    
,mme4 du ,chatelet had a mathematical   
mind of undoubted power4 ,she labored   
assiduously on this great undertaking   
for many years and completed it only    
shortly before her death2 but it was not
 published until ten years after her    
demise4  ,in his ,elogie ,historique on 
the ,marquise's translation of the      
,principia1 ,voltaire1 in his usual     
flamboyant style1 declares ,two wonders 
have been performed3 one that ,newton   

was able to write this work1 the other  
that a woman could translate and explain
 it4 ,in an effort to express in a      
single sentence all his admiration for  
his talented friend he does not hesitate
 to state3 ,never was woman so learned  
as she1 and never did anyone less       
deserve that people should say of her1  
',she is a learned woman4' ,again he    
refers to her with characteristic       
,frenchiness as a woman who has         
translated and explained ,newton1 in one
 word a very great man--en un mot un    
tres grand homme4#abb  ,but1 although   
the extent of her attainments and her   
ability as a mathematician were         
unquestionable1 she fell far short of   
her great contemporary1 ,gaetana        
,agnesi1 both in the depth and breadth  
of her scholarship and in her power of  
infinitesimal analysis4 ,as to her moral
 character1 she was infinitely inferior 
to the saintly savante of ,milan4 ,she  
was by inclination and profession an    
,epicurean and an avowed sensualist4 ,in

 her little treatise1 ,reflexions sur le
 ,bonheur--,reflections on              
,happiness--she unblushingly asserts    
that we have nothing to do in this world
 except procure for ourselves agreeable 
sensations4 ,considering her profligate 
life1 bordering at times on utter       
abandon1 we are not surprised that one  
of her countrymen has characterized her 
as ,femme sans foi1 sans moeurs1 sans   
pudeur1--a woman without faith1 without 
morals1 without shame4#abc  ,anna       
,barbara ,reinhardt of ,winterthur in   
,switzerland was another woman of       
exceptional mathematical talent4 ,she is
 remarkable for having extended and     
improved the solution of a difficult    
problem that specially engaged the      
attention of ,maupertuis4 ,according to 
so competent an authority as ,jean      
,bernouilli1 she was the superior1 as a 
mathematician1 of the ,marquise de      
,chatelet4  ,of a more original and     
profound mathematical mind was ,sophie  
,germain1 a countrywoman of the         

,marquise du ,chatelet4 ,hers was the   
glory of being one of the founders of   
mathematical physics4 ,a pupil of       
,lagrange and a co-worker with ,biot1   
,legendre1 ,poisson and ,lagrange1 she  
has justly been called by ,de ,prony the
 ,hypatia of the nineteenth century4    
,her success1 however1 was not achieved 
without overcoming many and great       
difficulties4 ,in the first place1 she  
had to overcome the opposition of her   
family1 who were decidedly averse to her
 studying mathematics4 ,of what use1    
they asked1 was geometry to a girl8 ,but
 in trying to extinguish her ardor for  
mathematics they but augmented it4      
,alone and unaided she read every work  
on mathematics she could find4 ,the     
study of this science had such a        
fascination for her that it became a    
passion4 ,it occupied her mind day and  
night4 ,finally her parents1 becoming   
alarmed about her health and resolved to
 force her to take the necessary repose1
 left her bedroom without fire or light1

 and even removed from it her clothing  
after she had gone to bed4 ,she feigned 
to be resigned2 but when all were       
asleep1 she arose and1 wrapping herself 
in quilts and blankets1 she devoted     
herself to her favorite studies1 even   
when the cold was so intense that the   
ink was frozen in her ink-horn4 ,not    
infrequently she was found in the       
morning chilled through1 having been so 
engrossed in her studies that she was   
not aware of her condition4 ,before such
 a determined will1 so extraordinary for
 one of her age1 the family of the young
 ,sophie had the wisdom to permit her to
 dispose of her time and genius         
according to her own pleasure4 ,and they
 did well4 ,like the great geometer of  
,syracuse1 ,archimedes1 who had ever    
been her inspiration in the study of    
mathematics1 she would have died rather 
than abandon a problem which1 for the   
time being1 engaged her attention4  ,she
 first attracted the attention of       
savants by her mathematical theory of   

,chladni's figures4 ,by the order of    
,napoleon1 the ,academy of ,science had 
offered a prize for the one who would   
,give the mathematical theory of the    
vibration of elastic surfaces and       
compare it with the results of          
experiment4 ,lagrange declared the      
problem insoluble without a new system  
of analysis1 which was yet to be        
invented4 ,the consequence was that no  
one attempted its solution except one   
who1 until then1 was almost unknown in  
the mathematical world2 and this one was
 ,sophie ,germain4  ,great was the      
surprise of the savants of ,europe when 
they learned that the winner of the     
grand prix of the ,academy was a woman4 
,she became at once the recipient of    
congratulations from the most noted     
mathematicians of the world4 ,this      
eventually brought her into scientific  
relations with such eminent men as      
,delambre1 ,fourier1 ,cauchy1 ,ampere1  
,navier1 ,gauss#abd and others already  
mentioned4  ,it was in #ahaf1 after     

eight years of work on the problem1 that
 her last memoir on vibrating surfaces  
was crowned in a public seance of the   
,institut de ,france4 ,after this event 
,mlle4 ,germain was treated as an equal 
by the great mathematicians of ,france4 
,she shared their labors and was invited
 to attend the sessions of the          
,institut1 which was the highest honor  
that this famous body had ever conferred
 on a woman4  ,the noted mathematician1 
,m4 ,navier1 was so impressed with the  
extraordinary powers of analysis evinced
 by one of ,mlle4 ,germain's memoirs on 
vibrating surfaces that he did not      
hesitate to declare that it is a work   
which few men are able to read and which
 only one woman was able to write4      
,biot1 in the ,journal de ,savants1     
,march1 #ahag1 writes that ,mlle4       
,germain is probably the one of her sex 
who has most deeply penetrated the      
science of mathematics1 not excepting   
,mme4 du ,chatelet1 for here there was  
no ,clairaut4#abe  ,like ,maria ,gaetana

 ,agnesi1 ,mlle4 ,germain was endowed   
with a profoundly philosophical mind as 
well as with a remarkable talent for    
mathematics4 ,this is attested by her   
interesting work entitled               
,considerations ,generales sur l',etat  
des ,sciences et des ,lettres aux       
,differentes ,epoques de ,leur ,culture4
 ,all things considered1 she was        
probably the most profoundly            
intellectual woman that ,france has yet 
produced4 ,and yet1 strange as it may   
seem1 when the state official came to   
make out the death certificate of this  
eminent associate and co-worker of the  
most illustrious members of the ,french 
,academy of ,sciences he designated her 
as a rentiere--annuitant--not as a      
mathematicienne4 ,nor is this all4 ,when
 the ,eiffel tower was erected1 in which
 the engineers were obliged to give     
special attention to the elasticity of  
the materials used1 there were inscribed
 on this lofty structure the names of   
seventy-two savants4 ,but one will not  

find in this list the name of that      
daughter of genius1 whose researches    
contributed so much toward establishing 
the theory of the elasticity of         
metals1--,sophie ,germain4 ,was she     
excluded from this list for the same    
reason that ,agnesi was ineligible to   
membership in the ,french               
,academy--because she was a woman8 ,it  
would seem so4 ,if such1 indeed1 was the
 case1 more is the shame for those who  
were responsible for such ingratitude   
toward one who had deserved so well of  
science1 and who by her achievements had
 won an enviable place in the hall of   
fame4#abf  ,four years after the birth  
of ,sophie ,germain was born in         
,jedburgh1 ,scotland1 one whom an       
,english writer has declared was the    
most remarkable scientific woman our    
country has produced4 ,she was the      
daughter of a naval officer1 ,sir       
,william ,fairfax2 but is best known as 
,mary ,somerville4 ,her life has been   
well described as an unobtrusive record 

of what can be done by the steady       
culture of good natural powers and the  
pursuit of a high standard of excellence
 in order to win for a woman a          
distinguished place in the sphere       
naturally reserved for men1 without     
parting with any of those               
characteristics of mind1 or character1  
or demeanor which have ever been taken  
to form the grace and the glory of      
womanhood4#abg  ,the surroundings of her
 youth were not conducive to scientific 
pursuits4 ,on the contrary1 they were   
entirely unfavorable to her manifest    
inclinations in that direction4 ,having 
scarcely any of the advantages of a     
school education1 she was obliged to    
depend almost entirely on her own       
unaided efforts for the knowledge she   
actually acquired4 ,she1 like ,sophie   
,germain1 was essentially a self-made   
woman2 and her success was achieved only
 after long labor and suffering and in  
spite of the persistent opposition of   
family and friends4  ,when she was about

 fifteen years old1 the future ,mrs4    
,somerville received her first          
introduction to mathematics2 and then1  
strange to say1 it was through a fashion
 magazine4 ,at the end of a page of this
 magazine1 ,i read1 writes ,mrs4        
,somerville1 what appeared to me to be  
simply an arithmetical question2 but in 
turning the page ,i was surprised to see
 strange-looking lines mixed with       
letters1 chiefly ,x's and ,y's1 and     
asked ',what is that8' ,she was told it 
was a kind of arithmetic1 called        
algebra4  ,her interest was at once     
aroused2 and she resolved forthwith to  
seek information regarding the curious  
lines and letters which had so excited  
her curiosity4 ,unfortunately1 she tells
 us1 none of our acquaintances or       
relatives knew anything of science or   
natural history2 nor1 had they done so1 
should ,i have had courage to ask of    
them a question1 for ,i should have been
 laughed at4  ,finally she was able to  
secure a copy of a work on algebra and a

 ,euclid4 ,although without a teacher   
she immediately applied herself to      
master the contents of these two works1 
but she had to do so by stealth in bed  
after she had retired for the night4    
,when her father learned of what was    
going on1 he said to the girl's mother1 
,peg1 we must put a stop to this1 or we 
shall have ,mary in a straightjacket one
 of these days4 ,the mother1 who had no 
more sympathy with her daughter's       
scientific pursuits than had the father1
 and1 fully convinced1 like the great   
majority of her sex1 that woman's duties
 should be confined to the affairs of   
the household1 strove to divert her     
daughter's mind from her unladylike     
pursuits4 ,but her efforts were         
ineffectual4 ,the young woman1 in spite 
of all obstacles and opposition1        
contrived to continue her cherished     
studies2 and1 through her uncle1 the    
,rev4 ,dr4 ,somerville1 afterward her   
father-in-law1 she was able to become   
proficient in both ,latin and ,greek4   

,when she was thirty-three years of age 
she became the happy possessor of a     
small library of mathematical works4 ,i 
had now1 she writes1 the means1 and     
pursued my studies with increased       
assiduity2 concealment was no longer    
necessary1 nor was it attempted4 ,i was 
considered eccentric and foolish1 and my
 conduct was highly disapproved of by   
many1 especially by some members of my  
own family4#abh  ,in ,march1 #ahbg1     
,mrs4 ,somerville received a letter from
 ,lord ,brougham1 who had heard of her  
remarkable acquirements1 begging her to 
prepare for ,english readers a popular  
exposition of ,laplace's great          
work--,mecanique ,celeste4 ,she was     
overwhelmed with astonishment at this   
request1 for her modesty made her       
diffident of her powers2 and she felt   
that her self-acquired knowledge of     
science was so far inferior to that of  
university men that it would be sheer   
presumption for her to undertake the    
task proposed to her4 ,she was1 however1

 finally persuaded to make the attempt1 
with the proviso that her manuscript    
should be consigned to the flames unless
 it fulfilled the expectations of those 
who urged its production4  ,in less than
 a year her work1 to which she gave the 
name of ,the ,mechanism of the ,heavens1
 was ready for the press4 ,but it was   
far more than a translation and epitome1
 as originally intended by its          
projector1 ,lord ,brougham2 for1 in     
addition to the views of ,laplace1 it   
contained the independent opinions of   
the translator respecting the           
propositions of the illustrious ,french 
savant4 ,no sooner was the work         
published than ,mrs4 ,somerville found  
herself famous4 ,she had1 as ,sir ,john 
,herschel expressed it1 written for     
posterity1 and her book placed her at   
once among the leading scientific       
writers and thinkers of the day4 ,she   
was elected an honorary member of the   
,royal ,astronomical ,society at the    
same time as ,caroline ,herschel1 they  

being the first two women thus honored4 
,her bust1 by ,chantry1 was placed in   
the great hall of the ,royal ,society1  
and she was made a member of many other 
scientific societies in ,europe and     
,america4 ,in recognition of her        
services to science she was granted by  
the government a pension of ,l#bjj a    
year--a sum which was shortly afterward 
increased to ,l#cjj4 ,in addition to all
 this1 ,mrs4 ,somerville had the        
satisfaction of learning that her work  
was so highly esteemed by ,dr4 ,whewell1
 the great master of ,trinity1 that it  
was1 chiefly on his recommendation1     
introduced as a textbook in the         
,university of ,cambridge and prescribed
 as an essential work to those students 
who aspire to the highest places in the 
examinations4 ,what ,mme4 du ,chatelet  
had done for ,newton1 ,mrs4 ,somerville 
did for ,laplace4  ,among other books   
from the pen of this highly gifted woman
 is her ,connection of the ,physical    
,sciences and a work entitled ,physical 

,geography1 which1 together with the    
,mechanism of the ,heavens1 was the     
object of the profound admiration of    
,humboldt4 ,then there is a number of   
very abstruse monographs on mathematical
 subjects1 one of which is a treatise of
 two hundred and forty-six pages ,on    
,curves and ,surfaces of ,higher        
,orders1 which1 she tells us1 she wrote 
con amore to fill up her morning hours  
while spending the winter in ,southern  
,italy4  ,her last work was a treatise  
,on ,molecular and ,microscopic ,science
 embodying the most recondite           
investigations on the subject4 ,this    
book1 begun after she had passed her    
eightieth birthday1 occupied her for    
many years and was not ready for        
publication until she was close upon her
 ninetieth year4 ,her last occupations1 
continued until the day of her death at 
the advanced age of ninety-two1 were the
 reading of a book on ,quaternions and  
the review and completion of a volume   
,on the ,theory of ,differences4  ,like 

her illustrious friend1 the great       
,humboldt1 ,mary ,somerville was        
possessed of extraordinary physical     
vigor1 and1 like him1 she retained her  
mental powers unimpaired until the last4
 ,and like her great rival in           
mathematics1 ,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi1   
she was always beautifully womanly4 ,her
 scientific and literary occupations did
 not cause her to neglect the duties of 
her household or to disregard the       
graceful and artistic accomplishments of
 an elegant woman of the world4 ,her    
daughter ,martha writes of her3 ,it     
would be almost incredible were ,i to   
describe how much my mother contrived to
 do in the course of the day4 ,when my  
sister and ,i were small children1      
although busily engaged in writing for  
the press1 she used to teach us for     
three hours in the morning1 besides     
managing her house carefully1 reading   
the newspapers--for she was always a    
keen and1 ,i must add1 a liberal        
politician--and the most important new  

books on all subjects1 grave and gay4   
,in addition to this1 she freely visited
 and received her friends4444 ,gay and  
cheerful company was a pleasant         
relaxation after a hard day's work4#abi 
,the life of ,mary ,somerville1 like    
that of ,gaetana ,agnesi1 proves that   
the pursuit of science is not1 as so    
often asserted1 incompatible with       
domestic and social duties4 ,it also    
disposes of the fallacy1 so generally   
entertained1 that intellectual labor is 
detrimental to the health of women and  
antagonistic to longevity4 ,the truth is
 that it is yet to be demonstrated that 
intellectual work1 even of the severest 
kind1 is1 per se1 more deleterious to   
women than to those of the stronger sex4
  ,scarcely less remarkable as a        
mathematician was ,mrs4 ,somerville's   
distinguished contemporary1 ,janet      
,taylor1 who was known as the ,mrs4     
,somerville of the ,marine ,world4 ,she 
was the author of numerous works on     
navigation and nautical astronomy which 

in their day were highly prized by      
seafaring men4 ,in recognition of her   
valuable services to the marine world   
she was placed on the civil list of the 
,british government4  ,as an eminent    
mathematician as well as a              
representative of the highest           
intellectual accomplishments to which   
women have attained1 ,sonya ,kovalevsky 
will ever occupy an honored place among 
the votaries of science4 ,in many       
respects this richly endowed daughter of
 ,holy ,russia was par excellence the   
woman of genius of the latter half of   
the nineteenth century4  ,she was born  
in ,moscow in #ahej1 but although her   
career was brief it was one of meteoric 
splendor4 ,at an early age she exhibited
 an unusual talent for mathematics and  
an unquenchable thirst for knowledge4   
,not being able to obtain in her own    
country the educational advantages she  
desired1 she resolved at the age of     
eighteen to go to ,germany with a view  
of pursuing her studies there under more

 favorable auspices4  ,she first        
matriculated in the ,university of      
,heidelberg1 where she spent two years  
in studying mathematics under the most  
eminent professors of that famous old   
institution4 ,thence she went to        
,berlin4 ,she could not enter the       
,university there1 as its doors were    
closed to female students2 but she was  
fortunate enough to prevail on the      
illustrious ,professor ,weierstrass1    
regarded by many as the father of       
mathematical analysis1 to give her      
private lessons4 ,he soon discovered to 
his astonishment that this child-woman  
had the gift of intuitive genius to a   
degree he had seldom found among even   
his older and more developed students4  
,under this eminent mathematician ,sonya
 spent about three years1 at the end of 
which period she was able to present to 
the ,university of ,goettingen three    
theses which she had written under the  
direction of her professor4 ,the merit  
of her work and the testimonials which  

she was able to present from            
,weierstrass1 ,kirchhoff and others were
 of such supreme excellence that she was
 exempted from an oral examination and  
was enabled1 by a very special          
privilege1 to receive her doctorate     
without appearing in person4  ,not long 
after receiving her doctor's degree--one
 of the first to be granted to a woman  
by a ,german university--she was offered
 the chair of higher mathematics in the 
,university of ,stockholm4 ,she was the 
first woman in ,europe1 outside of      
,italy1 to be thus honored4 ,but her    
appointment had to be made in the face  
of great opposition4 ,no other          
university1 it was urged by the         
conservatives1 had yet offered a        
professor's chair to a woman4           
,strindberg1 one of the leaders of      
modern ,swedish literature1 wrote an    
article in which he proved1 as decidedly
 as that two and two make four1 what a  
monstrosity is a woman who is a         
professor of mathematics1 and how       

unnecessary1 injurious and out of place 
she is4#acj  ,the fame that came to     
,sonya through her achievements in the  
,german and ,swedish universities was   
immensely enhanced when1 on ,christmas  
eve1 #ahhh1 at a solemn session of the  
,french ,academy of ,sciences1 she      
received in person the ,prix            
,bordin--the greatest scientific honor  
which any woman had ever gained2 one of 
the greatest honors1 indeed1 to which   
any one can aspire4  ,she became at once
 the heroine of the hour and was        
thenceforth a ,european celebrity with a
 place in history4 ,she was feted by men
 of science whithersoever she went and  
hailed by the women of the world as the 
glory of her sex and as the most        
brilliant type of intellectual          
womanhood4  ,mme4 ,kovalevsky's printed 
mathematical works embrace only a few   
memoirs including those which she       
presented for her doctorate and for the 
,prix ,bordin4 ,but brief as they are1  
all of these memoirs are regarded by    

mathematicians as being of special      
value4 ,this is particularly true of the
 memoirs1 which secured for her the     
,prix ,bordin2 for it contains the      
solution of a problem that long had     
baffled the genius of the greatest      
mathematicians4  ,the prize had been    
opened to the competition of the        
mathematicians of the world1 and the    
astonishment of the committee of the    
,french ,academy was beyond expression  
when it was found that the successful   
contestant was a woman4#aca  ,everyone  
admired her varied and profound         
knowledge1 but1 above all1 her amazing  
powers of analysis4 ,a ,german          
mathematician1 ,kronecker1 did not      
hesitate to declare that the history of 
mathematics will speak of her as one of 
the rarest investigators4#acb  ,shortly 
before her premature death1 she had     
planned a great work on mathematics4    
,all who are interested in the          
intellectual capacities and achievements
 of woman must regret that she was      

unable to complete what would           
undoubtedly have been the noblest       
monument of woman's scientific genius4  
,she was then in the prime of life and  
perfectly equipped for the work she had 
in mind4 ,considering the extraordinary 
receptive and productive power of this  
richly dowered woman1 there can be      
little doubt1 had she lived a few years 
longer1 that she would have produced a  
work that would have caused her to be   
ranked among the greatest mathematicians
 of the nineteenth century4  ,it is     
pleasant to record that this woman of   
masculine mind1 masculine energy and    
masculine genius1 far from being mannish
 or unwomanly1 was1 on the contrary1 a  
woman of a truly feminine heart2 and    
that1 although a giantess in            
intellectual attainments1 she was in    
grace and charm and delicacy of         
sentiment one of the noblest types of   
beautiful womanhood4 ,she could with the
 greatest ease turn from a lecture on   
,abel's ,functions or a research on     

,saturn's rings to the writing of verse 
in ,french or of a novel in ,russian or 
to collaborating with her friend1 the   
,duchess of ,cajanello1 on a drama in   
,swedish1 or to making a lace collar for
 her little daughter1 ,fouzi1 to whom   
she was most tenderly attached4#acc     
,little more than a quarter of a century
 has elapsed since ,strindberg1         
expressing the sentiment of the great   
majority of the men of his time1        
declared that a woman professor of      
mathematics is a monstrosity4 ,but      
during this short period what a change  
has been effected in the attitude of the
 world toward women who devote          
themselves to the study and the teaching
 of science6 ,women mathematicians are  
found to-day in all civilized countries1
 and no sane person now considers it any
 more unwomanly or more monstrous for   
them to study or teach mathematics than 
for them to teach music or needlework4  
,yet more4 ,they are now frequent       
contributors to mathematical magazines  

and to the official bulletins of learned
 societies1 and not infrequently they   
are on the editorial staffs of          
publications devoted exclusively to     
mathematics4 ,they are also found as    
computers in some of the largest        
astronomical observatories1 where the   
speed and accuracy of their work have   
evoked the most favorable comment4  ,of 
women in ,america1 who have             
distinguished themselves by their work  
in the higher mathematics1 it suffices  
to mention the name of ,miss ,charlotte 
,angas ,scott1 recently deceased1 who   
was for years professor of mathematics  
in the ,college of ,bryn ,mawr4 ,her    
writings on various problems of the     
higher mathematics show that she        
faithfully followed in the footsteps of 
her illustrious predecessors1--,hypatia1
 ,agnesi1 du ,chatelet1 ,germain1       
,somerville and ,kovalevsky4            
,,footnotes3  #ajh ,ipse mulieres       
,philosophas in libris ,veterum         
sexaginta quinque reperi1 ,historia     

,mulierum ,philosopharum1 p4 #c1        
,amstelodami1 #afib4  #aji ,plato had   
inscribed above the entrance of his     
school1 ,greek3 ,oudeis ageometretos    
eisito4 ,let no one enter here who is   
not a geometer4  #aaj ,menagius in      
referring to this matter1 op4 cit41 p4  
#cg1 writes as follows3 ,meritrices     
,graecas plerasque humanioribus literis 
et mathematicis disciplinis operam      
dedisse notat ,athenaeus4  #aaa ,the    
sentiment of the ,greek epigram is well 
expressed in the following ,latin       
verses3      ,quando intueor te1 adoro1 
et sermones1     ,virginis domum        
sideream intuens4     ,e coelis enim tua
 sunt opera1     ,hypatia casta1        
sermonum venustas1     ,impollutum      
astrum sapientis doctrinae4  #aab ,among
 modern works on ,hypatia may be        
mentioned ,hypatia1 die ,philosophin von
 ,alexandria1 by ,st4 ,wolt1 ,vienna1   
#ahgi2 ,hypatia von ,alexandria1 by ,w4 
,a4 ,meyer1 ,heidelberg1 #ahhf2 ,ipazia 
,alessandrina1 by ,d4 ,guido ,bigoni1   

,venize1 #ahhg1 and ,de ,hypatia1 by ,b4
 ,ligier1 ,dijon1 #ahgi4  #aac          
,ambrosius in his preface to the works  
of ,abelard and ,heloise refers to the  
latter as ,clarum sui sexus sidus et    
ornamentum1 and declares necnon         
mathesin1 philosophiam et theologiam a  
viro suo edocta1 illo solo minor fuit4  
#aad ,mazzuchelli says of her in his    
,museo1 ,sembra non avervi nella ,natura
 cosa la piu intralciata ed oscura nelle
 storie1 ne finalemente la piu astrusa  
nelle matematiche e nelle mecchaniche1  
che a lei conta non sia e palese1 e che 
sfugga la capacita del suo spirito4     
,dizionario ,biografico1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4   
#abb1 by ,ambrogio ,levati1 ,milano1    
#ahba4  #aae ,delle ,donne ,illustri    
,italiane del ,,xiii al ,,xix ,secolo1  
p4 #bfh1 ,roma4  #aaf ,the full title of
 this celebrated discourse is ,oratio   
qua ostenditur ,artium liberalium studia
 a ,faemineo sexu neutiquam abhorere1   
habita a ,maria de ,agnesis ,rhetoricae 
,operam ,dante1 ,anno aetatis suae nono 

nondum exacto1 die #ah1 ,augusti1 #agbg4
 ,it is found at the end of a work      
entitled ,discorsi ,academici di varj   
autori ,viventi intorno agli ,stuj delle
 ,donne in ,padova1 #agbi4 ,this        
subject1 it may be remarked1 frequently 
engaged the attention of ,maria ,gaetana
 as she advanced in years1 for we find  
it among the questions discussed in her 
,propositiones ,philosophicae1 pp4 #b   
and #c1 ,mediolani1 #agch4  #aag ,m4    
,charles de ,brosses1 in his ,lettres   
,familieres ecrites de l',italie en     
#agci et #agdj1 speaks of ,agnesi in    
terms that recall the marvelous stories 
which are related of ,admirable         
,crichton and ,pico della ,mirandola4   
,she appeared to me1 he tells us1       
something more stupendous--una cosa piu 
stupenda--than the ,duomo of ,milan4    
,having been invited to a conversazione 
for the purpose of meeting this         
wonderful woman1 the learned ,frenchman 
found her to be a young lady of about   
eighteen or twenty4 ,she was surrounded 

by about thirty people 444 many of them 
from different parts of ,europe4 ,the   
discussion turned on various questions  
of mathematics and natural philosophy4  
,she spoke1 writes de ,brosses1         
wonderfully well on these subjects1     
though she could not have been prepared 
beforehand any more than we were4 ,she  
is much attached to the philosophy of   
,newton2 and1 it is marvelous to see a  
person of her age so conversant with    
such abstruse subjects4 ,yet1 however   
much ,i was surprised at the extent and 
depth of her knowledge1 ,i was still    
more amazed to hear her speak ,latin 444
 with such purity1 ease and accuracy1   
that ,i do not recollect any book in    
modern ,latin written in so classical a 
style as that in which she pronounced   
these discourses4444 ,the conversation  
afterwards became general1 everyone     
speaking in the language of his own     
country1 and she answering in the same  
language2 for1 her knowledge of         
languages is prodigious4  #aah ,at the  

conclusion of an elaborate review of    
,colton's translation of ,agnesi's      
,instituzioni ,analitiche in the        
,edinburgh ,review for ,january1 #ahjd1 
the writer expresses himself as follows3
 ,we cannot take leave of a work that   
does so much honor to female genius1    
without earnestly recommending the      
perusal of it to those who believe that 
great talents are bestowed by nature    
exclusively on man1 and who allege that 
women1 even in their highest            
attainments1 are to be compared only to 
grown children1 and have1 in no         
instance1 given proofs of original and  
inventive powers1 of a capacity for     
patient research1 or for profound       
investigation4 ,let those who hold these
 opinions endeavor to follow the author 
of the ,analytical ,institutions through
 the long series of demonstrations1     
which she has contrived with so much    
skill and explained with such elegance  
and perspicuity4 ,if they are able to do
 so1 and to compare her work with others

 of the same kind1 they will probably   
retract their former opinions1 and      
acknowledge that1 in one instance at    
least1 intellectual powers of the       
highest order have been lodged in the   
brain of a woman4  ,at si gelidus       
obstiterit circum praecordia sanguis2   
and if they are unable to attend this   
illustrious female in her scientific    
excursions1 of course1 they will not see
 the reasons for admiring her genius    
that others do2 but they may at least   
learn to think modestly of their own4   
#aai ,it is surprising how many legends 
have obtained respecting the life of    
,agnesi after the publication of her    
,instituzioni ,analitiche4 ,thus1 the   
writer of the article in the ,edinburgh 
,review1 above quoted1 declares that she
 retired to a convent of blue nuns1--a  
statement that has frequently been      
repeated in many of our most noted      
encyclopedias4  ,in a ,prospetto        
,biografico delle ,donne ,italiane1     
written by ,g4 ,c4 ,facchini and        

published in ,venice in #ahbd1 it is    
stated that ,maria ,gaetana was selected
 by the ,pope to occupy the chair of    
mathematics which had been left vacant  
by the death of her father1 while       
,cavazza in his work ,le ,scuole dell1  
,antico ,studio ,bolognese1 pp4         
#bhi-bij1 published in ,milan in #ahif1 
assures us that ,gaetana ,agnesi taught 
analytical geometry in the ,university  
of ,bologna for full forty-eight years4 
,the facts are that neither the father  
nor the daughter ever taught even a     
single hour either in this or in any    
other university4 ,cf4 ,maria ,gaetana  
,agnesi1 p4 #bgc et seq41 by ,luisa     
,anzoletti1 ,milano1 #aijj4 ,this is far
 the best life of ,milan's illustrious  
daughter that has yet appeared4 ,the    
reader may also consult with profit the 
,elogio ,storico di ,maria ,gaetana     
,agnesi1 by ,antonio ,frisi1 ,milano1   
#agii1 and ,gli ,scrittori d',italia1 of
 ,g4 ,mazzuchelli1 ,tom4 ,i1 ,par4 ,i1  
p4 #aih et seq41 ,brescia1 #agie4  #abj 

,m4 ,rebiere1 in his ,les ,femmes dans  
la ,science1 p4 #ac1 ,paris1 #ahig1     
writes1 ,ne pourrait-on aller plus loin 
et canonizer notre ,agnesi8 ,j'estime1  
moi profane1 que ce serait une sainte   
qui en vaudrait bien d'autres4  #aba ,an
 ,eighteenth ,century ,marquise1 a      
,study of ,emilie du ,chatelet1 p4 #e1  
by ,f4 ,hamel1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4  #abb 
,preface to ,mme4 du ,chatelet's        
translation of the ,principia of        
,newton1 ,paris1 #agdj4  #abc           
,voltaire's last tribute1 ,the ,divine  
,emilie1 or1 as ,frederick ,,ii was wont
 to call her1 ,venus-,newton1 concluded 
with the following verses3              
,l',univers a perdu la sublime ,emilie2 
,elle aimait les plaisirs1 les arts1 la 
verite2     ,les dieux1 en lui donnant  
leur ame et genie1     ,n'avaient garde 
pour eux que l'immortalite4  ,the       
universe has lost the sublime ,emilie2  
she loved pleasure1 the arts1 truth2 the
 gods1 in giving her their soul and     
genius1 retained for themselves only    

immortality4  ,for further information  
of this extraordinary woman1 see        
,lettres de la ,mme4 du ,chatelet1      
,reunies pour la premiere fois1 par     
,eugene ,asse1 ,paris1 #ahhb4  #abd ,at 
the beginning of her correspondence with
 ,gauss1 ,legendre and ,lagrange ,mlle4 
,germain concealed her sex under a      
pseudonym1 in order1 as she declared1 to
 escape the ridicule attached to a woman
 devoted to science--craignant le       
ridicule attache au titre de femme      
savante4 ,she1 too1 suffered from the   
widespread effects of ,moliere's ,les   
,femmes ,savantes1 as had many a gifted 
woman before her time and as have many  
others of a much later date4  #abe ,this
 celebrated mathematician1 as is        
well-known1 was a collaborator with     
,mme4 du ,chatelet in her translation of
 ,newton's ,principia4  #abf ,for       
further information respecting this     
remarkable woman the reader is referred 
to ,oeuvres ,philosophiques de ,sophie  
,germain ,suivies de ,pensees et de     

,lettres ,inedites et ,precedees d'une  
,etude sur sa ,vie et ses ,oeuvres1 par4
 ,h4 ,stupy1 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,one may    
also consult ,todhunter's ,history of   
the ,theory of ,elasticity and of the   
,strength of ,materials1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4  
#adg-afj1 ,cambridge1 #ahhf1 in which is
 given a careful resume of ,mlle4       
,germain's mathematical memoirs on      
elastic surfaces4  #abg ,saturday       
,review1 ,january #aj1 #ahgd4  #abh     
,personal ,recollections1 ,from ,early  
,life to ,old ,age1 of ,mary            
,somerville1 p4 #hj1 ,boston1 #ahgd4    
#abi ,personal ,recollections1 ut sup41 
p4 #e4  #acj ,sonya ,kovalevsky1 ,her   
,recollections of ,childhood1 ,with a   
,biography1 by ,anna ,carlotta ,leffler1
 p4 #bai1 ,new ,york1 #ahie4  #aca ,the 
prize was doubled to five thousand      
francs1 on account of the 'quite        
extraordinary service rendered to       
mathematical physics by this work1'     
which the ,academy of ,sciences         
pronounced 'a remarkable work4' ,the    

competing dissertations were signed with
 mottoes1 not with names1 and the jury  
of the ,academy made the award in utter 
ignorance that the winner was a woman4  
,her dissertation was printed1 by order 
of the ,academy1 in the ,memoires des   
,savants ,etrangers4 ,in the following  
year ,mme4 ,kovalevsky received a prize 
of fifteen hundred kroner from the      
,stockholm ,academy for two works       
connected with the foregoing4  #acb ,men
 of science will realize the capacity of
 this gifted ,russian woman as a        
mathematician when they learn that she  
gave in the ,university of ,stockholm   
courses of lectures on such subjects as 
the following3  ,theory of derived      
partial equations2 theory of potential  
functions2 applications of the theory of
 elliptic functions2 theory of ,abelian 
functions1 according to ,weierstrass2   
curves defined by differential          
equations1 according to ,poincare2      
application of analysis to the theory of
 whole numbers4 ,how many men are there 

who give more advanced mathematical     
courses than these8  #acc ,to a friend1 
who expressed surprise at her fluttering
 to and fro between mathematics and     
literature1 she made a reply which      
deserves a place here1 as it gives a    
better idea than anything else of the   
wonderful versatility of this gifted    
daughter of ,russia4 ,i understand1 she 
writes1 your surprise at my being able  
to busy myself simultaneously with      
literature and mathematics4 ,many who   
have never had an opportunity of knowing
 any more about mathematics confound it 
with arithmetic1 and consider it an arid
 science4 ,in reality1 however1 it is a 
science which requires a great amount of
 imagination1 and one of the leading    
mathematicians of our century states the
 case quite correctly when he says that 
it is impossible to be a mathematician  
without being a poet in soul4 ,only1 of 
course1 in order to comprehend the      
accuracy of this definition1 one must   
renounce the ancient prejudice that a   

poet must invent something which does   
not exist1 that imagination and         
invention are identical4 ,it seems to me
 that the poet has only to perceive that
 which others do not perceive1 to look  
deeper than others look4 ,and the       
mathematician must do the same thing4   
,as for myself1 all my life ,i have been
 unable to decide for which ,i had the  
greater inclination1 mathematics or     
literature4 ,as soon as my brain grows  
wearied of purely abstract speculations 
it immediately begins to incline to     
observations on life1 to narrative1 and 
vice versa1 everything in life begins to
 appear insignificant and uninteresting1
 and only the eternal1 immutable laws of
 science attract me4 ,it is very        
possible that ,i should have            
accomplished more in either of these    
lines1 if ,i had devoted myself         
exclusively to it2 nevertheless1 ,i     
cannot give up either of them           
completely4  ,from ,ellen ,key's        
,biography of the ,duchess of           

,cajanello1 quoted in ,anna ,leffler's  
biography of ,sonya ,kovalevsky1 ut sup1
 pp4 #cag-cah4     ,,chapter ,,iv       
,,women ,,in ,,astronomy   ,urania1 the 
muse of astronomy1 was a woman2 and1    
although most of her devotees have been 
men1 the number of the gentler sex who  
have achieved success in the cultivation
 of the science of the stars has been   
much larger than is usually supposed4   
,there is reason to believe that woman's
 interest in astronomy dates back to    
early ,egyptian and ,babylonian times   
when the star-gazers in the fertile     
valley of the ,nile and on the broad    
plains of ,chaldea were so active1 and  
when they made so many important        
discoveries respecting the laws and     
movements of the heavenly bodies4       
,according to ,plutarch1 ,aganice1 the  
daughter of ,sesostris1 ,king of ,egypt1
 tried to predict future events by the  
aid of celestial globes and by the study
 of the constellations4 ,her            
observations1 however1 were in the      

interests of astrology rather than of   
astronomy1 as we now understand the     
science4  ,the first woman whose name   
has come down to us1 who deserved to be 
regarded as an astronomer1 was most     
probably ,aglaonice1 the daughter of    
,hegetoris of ,thessaly4 ,by means of   
the lunar cycle known as the ,saros1 a  
period discovered by the ,chaldean      
astronomers and embracing a little more 
than eighteen years1 during which the   
eclipses of the moon and sun recur in   
nearly the same order as during the     
preceding period1 this ,greek woman was 
able to predict eclipses4 ,the people   
among whom she lived regarded her as a  
sorceress2 but she flouted them all1 and
 declared that she was able to make the 
sun and moon disappear at will4  ,the   
first woman1 however1 to attain eminence
 as an astronomer was undoubtedly       
,hypatia1 that universal genius of the  
ancient world1 who seemed equally at    
home in literature1 philosophy and      
mathematics1 and who may justly be      

regarded as one of the most highly      
gifted women that has ever lived4 ,in   
,alexandria1 where she was born and     
lived1 this accomplished daughter of    
,theon taught not only philosophy1 but  
also algebra1 geometry and astronomy4   
,one of her pupils1 ,synesius1 who      
became ,bishop of ,ptolemais1 informs us
 that she was the inventor of two       
important astronomical instruments3 an  
astrolabe and a planisphere4 ,in        
addition to two mathematical works1 a   
,treatise on the ,conics of ,apollonius 
and a ,commentary on the ,arithmetic of 
,diophantus1 which was in reality a     
treatise on algebra1 she was the author 
of an ,astronomical ,canon1 which       
contained tables regarding the movements
 of the heavenly bodies4 ,it is         
generally supposed that this was an     
original work2 but there are some who   
think it was but a commentary on the    
tables of ,ptolemy4 ,in this latter case
 ,hypatia's work may still exist in     
connection with that of her father1     

,theon1 on the same subject4#acd  ,if   
the works of ,hypatia had not been      
destroyed by the ravages of time1 they  
would undoubtedly prove that she fully  
merited all the encomiums bestowed on   
her by antiquity for her genius2 and    
they would also prove1 we may well      
believe1 that she deserved to be ranked 
not only with the eminent mathematicians
 upon whose works she commented1 but    
also with such masters of astronomic    
science as ,ptolemy1 ,eratosthenes and  
,aristarchus4  ,after the tragic death  
of ,hypatia many centuries elapsed      
before any other woman attracted        
attention for her work in astronomy4    
,indeed1 so neglected was the study of  
the heavens between the time of ,hypatia
 and the ,arab prince and astronomer1   
,albategni1 who flourished during the   
latter part of the ninth century and the
 early part of the tenth1 that only     
eight observations1 it is asserted1 were
 recorded during this long period4 ,the 
works and observations of ,albategni1 it

 may be remarked1 have a particular     
interest from the fact that they form a 
connecting link between those of the    
,alexandrine astronomers and those of   
modern ,europe4  ,antoine ,hamilton1 in 
his ,gaufrey--a parody on ,the ,thousand
 and ,one ,nights--tells of a ,saracen  
princess1 ,fleur d',epine1 who1 before  
she was fifteen years of age1 was able  
not only to speak ,latin and ,romance1  
but who was also better acquainted than 
any woman in the world with the         
movements of the stars and the moon4    
,et du cours des etoiles et de la lune  
luisant     ,savoit moult plus que fame 
de chest siecle vivant4  ,if any woman  
between the time of ,hypatia and        
,galileo deserved such high praise for  
her astronomical knowledge it was       
certainly ,saint ,hildegard1 the famous 
,benedictine abbess of ,bingen on the   
,rhine4 ,she has well been called the   
marvel of the twelfth century1 not only 
on account of her sanctity1 but also on 
account of her extraordinary attainments

 in every branch of knowledge then      
cultivated4  ,when treating of the sun1 
,hildegard tells us that it is in the   
center of the firmament and holds in    
place the stars that gravitate around   
it1 as the earth attracts the creatures 
which inhabit it4 ,this view of a       
twelfth century nun is indeed           
remarkable4 ,for1 in her time1 the earth
 was by everyone considered as the      
center of the firmament1 while universal
 gravitation--the sublime discovery of  
,newton--had not as yet entered into the
 scientific theories of that epoch4     
,hildegard likewise anticipates         
subsequent discoveries regarding the    
alternation of the seasons4 ,if1 she    
writes1 it is cold in the winter time on
 the part of the earth which we inhabit1
 the other part must be warm1 in order  
that the temperature of the earth may   
always be in equilibrium4 ,that she     
should have arrived at this conclusion  
before navigators had visited the       
southern hemisphere is truly            

astonishing4#ace  ,the stars1 she       
continues1 have neither the same        
brightness nor the same size4 ,they are 
kept in their course by a superior body4
 ,here again is her idea of universal   
gravitation4  ,these stars1 she further 
declares1 are not immovable1 but they   
traverse the firmament in its entirety4 
,and to make clearer her conception of  
the motion of the stars1 she compares   
this motion to that of the blood in the 
veins4 ,to hear one of this early period
 speaking of blood coursing through the 
veins and thus traversing the whole body
 of man seems to presage1 in a          
remarkable manner1 the beautiful        
discoveries of ,cesalpino and ,harvey   
regarding the circulation of the blood4 
,the most celebrated astronomer of the  
early ,renaissance was ,john ,mueller1  
of ,koenigsburg1 better known as        
,regiomontanus4 ,in his observatory in  
,nuremberg he was ably assisted by his  
wife who exhibited a special interest in
 astronomy4 ,at the end of the sixteenth

 century1 ,sophia ,brahe1 the youngest  
sister of ,tycho ,brahe1 following in   
the footsteps of her illustrious        
brother1 attained great celebrity as an 
astronomer4  ,more distinguished for her
 astronomical work than either of these 
two women was ,maria ,cunitz1 a         
,silesian1 who1 from her tenderest      
years1 displayed extraordinary zeal for 
study and who eventually became mistress
 of seven languages1 among which were   
,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew4 ,she also   
cultivated poetry1 music and painting2  
but her favorite studies were           
mathematics and astronomy4 ,at the      
solicitation of her husband1 she        
undertook the preparation of an         
abridgment of the ,rudolphine ,tables4  
,her work1 under the name of ,urania    
,propitia1 was published after her death
 by her husband1 and gained for the     
talented authoress the name of ,the     
second ,hypatia4#acf  ,shortly after the
 completion of ,urania ,propitia1 a     
,french woman1 ,jeanne ,dumee1          

distinguished herself by writing a work 
on the theory of ,copernicus entitled   
,entretiens sur l',opinion de ,copernic 
,touchant la ,mobilite de la ,terre4 ,so
 far as known1 this work was never      
published1 but the original manuscript  
is still preserved in the ,national     
,library of ,paris4 ,the authoress deems
 it necessary it apologize for writing  
on a subject that is usually considered 
foreign to her sex and to explain why   
she was ambitious to discuss questions  
to which the women of her time never    
gave any thought4 ,it was that she might
 prove to them that they are not        
incapable of study1 if they wish to make
 the effort1 because between the brain  
of a woman and that of a man there is no
 difference4#acg  ,how often before had 
not women endeavored to prove the       
equality of brain power of the two      
sexes1 and how often since have they    
bent their efforts in this direction6   
,and yet the majority of men still      
remain skeptical about such equality4   

,among the contemporaries of ,jeanne    
,dumee were two other women who gained  
more than ordinary distinction by their 
attainments in astronomy4 ,these were   
,mme4 de la ,sabliere1 in ,france1 and  
,maria ,margaret ,kirch1 of ,germany4   
,mme4 de la ,sabliere evinced from an   
early age a special aptitude for        
science1 especially for physics and     
astronomy4 ,she studied mathematics     
under the eminent mathematician1        
,roberval1 and at the age of thirty was 
famous4 ,her home became the resort of  
learned and eminent men1 including some 
of the most noted characters of the age4
 ,among these was ,sobieski1 ,king of   
,poland4 ,but it is as the friend and   
protectress of ,la ,fontaine and as the 
object of ,boileau's satire that she is 
best known4  ,for a woman to devote     
herself to the study of science so soon 
after the appearance of ,moliere's ,les 
,femmes ,savantes argued more than      
ordinary courage4 ,but for her to become
 distinguished for her scientific       

acquirements was almost tantamount to   
defying public opinion4 ,the great      
majority of men had come to regard      
learned women in the same light as those
 who were so mercilessly derided in the 
,precieuses ,ridicules2 and they had1   
accordingly1 no hesitation in treating  
them as unbearable pedants4 ,no one     
could have made less parade of her      
learning than ,mme4 de la ,sabliere1 or 
striven more successfully to conceal her
 admirable gifts4 ,but this was not     
sufficient4 ,she was known to have      
devoted special study to science1       
particularly to astronomy1 and this was 
sufficient to make her the target of the
 satirists of her time4  ,by an act that
 wounded the self-love of ,boileau this 
,venus ,urania1 as she has been called1 
soon found herself the victim of the    
satirist's well-directed shafts4 ,the   
poet does not name her1 but refers to   
her as                                  
,cette savante     ,qu'estime ,roberval 
et que ,sauveur frequente----  this     

learned woman whom ,roberval esteems and
 whom ,sauveur frequents4 ,and with the 
view of pricking the object of his      
spleen in her most sensitive part1 he   
tells1 in his ,satire contre les        
,femmes1 how she1 with astrolabe in     
hand1 spends her nights in making       
observations of the planet ,jupiter and 
how this occupation has had the effect  
of weakening her sight and ruining her  
complexion4#ach  ,mme4 de la ,sabliere  
does not1 however1 seem to have been    
greatly perturbed by the ungracious     
effusions of the satirist1 for she      
continued her cultivation of astronomy  
as before the poet's ill-natured        
outburst4 ,she probably found ample     
compensation in the writings of ,la     
,fontaine1 who addressed her as his muse
 and proclaimed her as one in whom were 
combined manly beauty and feminine      
grace--beaute d'homme avec grace de     
femme4  ,maria ,kirch1 born at ,panitch1
 near ,leipsic1 in #afgj1 was the wife  
of a ,berlin astronomer1 ,gottfried     

,kirch4 ,after her marriage she1 like   
her three sisters-in-law1 became her    
husband's pupil in astronomy4 ,in #agjb1
 as his assistant in observations and   
calculations1 she was fortunate enough  
to discover a comet4 ,she was the friend
 of ,leibnitz1 and was by him presented 
to the court of ,prussia4 ,it is a      
matter of regret to those of her own sex
 that this comet was not1 as it should  
have been1 named after its discoverer4  
,the death of ,herr ,kirch1 which took  
place in #agaj1 caused no interruption  
in ,frau ,kirch's astronomical          
occupations4 ,among the evidences of her
 activity is a work which she wrote in  
#agac on the conjunction of ,jupiter and
 ,saturn in the year following4 ,in our 
day the conjunction of planets is for   
the laity a mere matter of curiosity1   
while for professional astronomers it is
 quite devoid of particular interest4   
,but it was not so in the time of ,maria
 ,kirch1 for then astronomy was so      
intimately associated with astrology    

that mankind attributed to such special 
positions of the planets a certain      
occult and capricious influence on the  
destiny of the earth and its            
inhabitants4 ,as theoretical astronomy  
progressed1 such erroneous notions were 
abandoned1 because it was then          
recognized that the conjunction of the  
superior planets was not something      
fortuitous1 but something that was      
reproduced at fixed periods by the known
 movements of these bodies4 ,writers on 
the subject made it a point to warn the 
public that they had nothing in common  
with astrologers4 ,among these was      
,christopher ,thurm1 who published a    
work on the conjunction of ,jupiter and 
,saturn in #afha4 ,similarly1 the book  
of ,maria ,kirch contains only          
astronomical calculations and nothing   
more--a fact that redounds to the honor 
of the author and to the age in which   
she lived4  ,the daughters of ,maria    
,kirch1 even long after their mother's  
death1 continued to occupy themselves   

with astronomy4 ,they calculated for the
 ,berlin ,academy of ,sciences its      
,almanac and ,ephemeris1 which were     
among the sources of revenue of this    
learned body4  ,during the same period a
 number of ,french and ,italian         
astronomers had female collaborators in 
their own families4 ,celsus1 the        
celebrated professor of ,upsala1 and a  
pupil of the son of ,gottfried ,kirch1  
had been accorded a most cordial        
reception1 while passing through ,paris 
on his way to ,bologna1 by ,de ,l',isle 
who had a sister who was devoted to     
astronomy4 ,on his arrival in ,italy he 
found that his new master1 the director 
of the observatory at ,bologna1 had two 
sisters1 ,teresa and ,maddalena1 both of
 great learning1 who1 like their        
brother1 were engaged in the study of   
the heavens and collaborated with him in
 the preparation of the ,ephemeris of   
,bologna4 ,this caused ,celsus1 in a    
letter to ,kirch1 to declare ,i begin to
 believe that it is the destiny of all  

the astronomers whom ,i have had the    
honor of becoming acquainted with during
 my journey to have learned sisters4 ,i 
have also a sister1 although not a very 
learned one4 ,to preserve the harmony1  
we must make an astronomer of her4#aci  
,the ,polish astronomer1 ,hevilius1 who 
had an observatory at ,dantzig1 is noted
 for having made the most accurate      
observations that had been known before 
the adaptation of the telescope to      
astronomical instruments4 ,he is also   
noted for his ,prodromus ,astronomiae1 a
 catalogue of #a1hhh stars2 for his     
,selenographia1 containing accurate     
descriptions and drawings of the moon in
 her different phases and librations1   
and for his ,machina ,coelestis1 which  
contained the results of forty years of 
observations and labor4 ,much of his    
success and eminence1 however1 was due  
to his intelligent and devoted wife1    
,elizabeth1 who1 during twenty-seven    
years1 was a zealous collaborator and   
should share the credit usually given to

 her husband4 ,it was she who1 after his
 death1 edited and published their joint
 work1 the ,prodromus ,astronomiae4     
,among the women most distinguished in  
the eighteenth century for astronomical 
pursuits was the ,marquise du ,chatelet1
 who was likewise famous for her        
knowledge of mathematics4 ,it was she   
who accomplished the difficult task of  
translating ,newton's ,principia into   
,french4 ,this translation1 writes      
,voltaire1 which the most learned men of
 ,france should have made and which the 
others should study1 was undertaken by a
 woman and completed to the astonishment
 and glory of her country4#adj  ,france 
was at this time devoted to the         
doctrines of ,descartes and to his      
theory of elementary vortices2 and      
,voltaire1 who had been deeply impressed
 by the admirable simplicity of         
,newton's theory of universal attraction
 as a means of explaining the seemingly 
complex motions of the heavenly bodies1 
resolved to make his countrymen         

acquainted with the teachings of the    
great ,english geometer and1 at the same
 time1 dethrone ,descartes in the       
,french ,academy4 ,it was1 indeed1 a    
huge undertaking2 but1 thanks to the    
ability which ,mme4 du ,chatelet        
displayed in translating and elucidating
 ,newton's immortal masterpiece1 he     
lived to see his dream realized4  ,how  
proud ,mme4 du ,chatelet's countrywomen 
must have been of her6 ,how they must   
have rejoiced in her success and        
acclaimed her as the intellectual glory 
of her sex6 ,how they must have pointed 
to her work as a triumphant refutation  
of the age-old belief in woman's        
incapacity for mathematics and all      
abstract science6 ,how they must have   
been elated to find one of their number 
successfully executing a task which     
would have taxed the powers of the most 
eminent mathematicians of ,france6 ,how 
they must have associated her truly     
notable performance with similar        
achievements of ,hypatia and ,maria     

,gaetana ,agnesi and discerned in it    
concrete evidence of the falsity of all 
those imputations of mental inferiority 
which had been fostered by man's huge   
egotism and woman's carefully coddled   
superstition4 ,how they must have been  
encouraged by her achievement and       
spurred on to emulate her by similar    
contributions to the advancement of     
science6  ,that is what we think now2   
but the light and frivolous women who   
constituted the leaders of society in   
,mme4 du ,chatelet's day1 and who were  
devoured by envy and jealousy of one who
 was so much their superior in intellect
 were not so minded4 ,far from          
sympathizing with her work1 they proved 
to be her most virulent critics and most
 pronounced enemies4 ,neither ,moliere  
nor ,boileau could have heaped more     
ridicule on the pedantic women of their 
time than was meted out to the          
translator of the ,principia by certain 
noble dames of provincial chateaux or by
 distinguished habituees of prominent   

,parisian salons4  ,thus the petulant   
ennuyee1 ,mme4 de ,stael1 in a letter to
 her friend1 ,mme4 du ,deffand1 writing 
of ,mme4 du ,chatelet1 who was then her 
guest at ,sceaux1 tells us that she is  
now passing in review her principles4   
,this is a task she performs every year1
 else they might1 perhaps1 make their   
escape and run to such a distance that  
she would never be able to recover any  
of them4 ,i verily believe that they are
 in durance vile while in her           
possession1 as they were certainly not  
born with her4 ,she does well to keep a 
strict watch over them4#ada  ,and1 in   
her turn1 ,mme4 du ,deffand1 who was    
wont to pose as the intimate friend of  
,mme4 du ,chatelet1 did not hesitate to 
write and circulate a pen portrait of   
this friend--and that after the unhappy 
woman was in her grave--which for bitter
 reviling and brutal villification has  
probably never been equalled4 ,a witty  
,frenchman observed of this portrait    
that it reminded him of an observation  

once made by a medical acquaintance of  
his concerning one of his patients3 ',my
 friend fell ill2 ,i attended him4 ,he  
died2 ,i dissected him4'#adb  ,among    
other women astronomers of the          
eighteenth century who deserve mention  
are ,mme4 du ,pierry1 the ,duchesse     
,louise of ,saxe-,gotha1 and ,mme4      
,hortense ,lepaute4  ,according to      
,lalande1 ,mme4 du ,pierry was the first
 woman professor of astronomy in ,paris4
 ,he dedicated to her his ,astronomie   
des ,dames1 and incorporated in his own 
works many of her memoirs on            
astronomical subjects4 ,she devoted much
 time to calculating eclipses with a    
view to accurately determining the      
motion of the moon1 and was1 besides1   
the author of numerous astronomical     
tables which exhibit patient research   
and unquestioned skill4  ,the ,duchesse 
,louise had a great reputation as a     
rapid and accurate computer1 and was    
celebrated for the number and variety of
 her computations4 ,her modesty1        

however1 prevented her from publishing  
anything or even having her work quoted4
  ,considering1 however1 the amount and 
character of her work1 the most eminent 
woman astronomer that ,france has yet   
produced was1 without doubt1 ,mme4      
,hortense ,lepaute1 the wife of the     
royal clockmaker of ,france4 ,she first 
distinguished herself by her            
investigations on the oscillations of   
pendulums of different lengths1 an      
account of which is to be found in her  
husband's valuable work1 ,traite        
d',horlogerie1 published in #agee4  ,in 
#agei ,lalande1 who was then the        
,director of the ,paris ,observatory1   
engaged ,mme4 ,lepaute and the          
celebrated mathematician1 ,clairaut1 to 
determine the amount of the attraction  
of ,jupiter and ,saturn on ,halley's    
comet1 whose return was expected in that
 year4 ,so difficult was this problem1  
and so numerous were the complications  
involved1 that ,lalande frankly         
confesses that he would not have dared  

to undertake its solution without ,mme4 
,lepaute's assistance4 ,for it          
necessitated calculating for every      
degree1 and for one hundred and fifty   
years the distances and forces of each  
of the planets with reference to the    
comet4 ,it would be difficult1 declares 
,lalande1 to realize the courage which  
this enterprise required1 if one did not
 know that for more than six months we  
calculated from morning until night1    
sometimes even at meals1 and that at the
 end of this enforced labor ,i was      
stricken by a malady which affected me  
during the rest of my life4 ,clairaut   
was so impressed by ,mme4 ,lepaute's    
energy and skill during this time that  
he declared her ardor was surprising1   
and he did not hesitate to call her ,la 
savante calculatrice--the learned       
computer4#adc  ,the eclipse of #agfb    
also engaged ,mme4 ,lepaute's attention1
 as did also the annular eclipse of     
#agfd4 ,the latter was a curious        
phenomenon for ,france1 as it had never 

before been observed4 ,mme4 ,lepaute    
calculated it for the whole of ,europe  
and published a chart showing its path  
for every quarter of an hour4 ,she also 
published another chart for ,paris1 in  
which were exhibited the different      
phases of the eclipse4  ,on the occasion
 of the different eclipses which she had
 calculated1 ,mme4 ,lepaute recognized  
the advantage of having a table of      
parallactic angles4 ,she accordingly    
prepared a very extended table of this  
kind which was published by the ,french 
government4 ,besides this table1 she was
 the author of numerous memoirs on      
astronomical subjects4 ,among them was  
one embracing calculations based on all 
the observations which had been made on 
the transit of ,venus in #agfa4  ,in    
#agei1 again writes ,lalande1 ,i was    
given charge of the ,connaissance des   
,temps1 a work which the ,academy of    
,sciences published every year for the  
use of astronomers and navigators1 the  
calculations for which gave occupation  

to several persons4 ,i had the good     
fortune to find in ,mme4 ,lepaute a     
co-worker without whom ,i should not    
have been able to undertake the labor   
required4 ,she continued in this        
occupation until #aggd1 when another    
,academician assumed this laborious     
task4 ,but she thereupon began work on  
the ,ephemeris1 of which the seventh    
volume in quarto1 which appeared in     
#aggd1 goes to #aghd1 and of which the  
eighth1 published in #aghc1 extends to  
the year #agib4 ,in this latter volume  
she made1 unaided1 all the computations 
for the sun1 the moon and all the       
planets4  ,this long series of          
calculations finally enfeebled her      
eyesight1 which had been excellent1 and 
she was in the last years of her life   
obliged to discontinue them4#add  ,in   
view of her extraordinary and           
long-continued work in her chosen       
specialty1 ,m4 ,lalande was quite       
warranted in stating that ,mme4 ,lepaute
 is the only woman in ,france who has   

acquired veritable knowledge in         
astronomy2 and she is now replaced only 
by ,mme4 du ,pierry1 who has published  
divers astronomical calculations1 and   
who has deserved to have dedicated to   
her ,l',astronomie des ,dames1 which    
appeared in #aghf4  ,it is gratifying to
 know that the beautiful ,japan         
,rose--originally called ,pautia1 but   
changed to ,hortensia by ,jussieu--was  
named after this distinguished woman4   
,it is also gratifying to be assured    
that her engrossing work in astronomy in
 no wise caused her to neglect her home 
duties or to lose that sweetness of     
character and delicacy of refinement for
 which she was noted before she entered 
upon the absorbing and taxing career of 
astronomical computer4  ,the wife of    
,lalande's nephew1 ,mme4 ,lefrancais de 
,lalande1 proved herself in many        
respects a worthy successor of ,mme4    
,lepaute4 ,my niece1 writes her uncle1  
,jerome ,lalande1 aids her husband in   
his observations and draws conclusions  

from them by calculation4 ,she has      
reduced the observations of ten thousand
 stars1 and prepared a work of three    
hundred pages of horary tables--an      
immense work for her age and sex4 ,they 
are incorporated in my ,abrege de       
,navigation4  ,she is one of the rare   
women who have written scientific books4
 ,she has published tables for finding  
the time at sea by the altitude of the  
sun and stars4 ,these tables were       
printed in #agia by the order of the    
,national ,assembly4444 ,in #agii she   
published a catalogue of ten thousand   
stars1 reduced and calculated4  ,this   
distinguished observer and computer had 
a daughter in whom her grand-uncle was  
particularly interested4 ,this daughter 
of astronomy1 he tells us1 was born the 
twentieth of ,january1 #agij1 the day on
 which we at ,paris saw for the first   
time the comet which ,miss ,caroline    
,herschel had just discovered4 ,the     
child was accordingly named ,caroline2  
her godfather was ,delambre4  ,the      

discoverer of the comet referred to was1
 in many ways1 a most remarkable woman4 
,she was the sister of ,sir ,william    
,herschel1 the illustrious pioneer of   
modern physical astronomy and the       
virtual founder of sidereal science1 as 
we know it to-day4 ,she was also the    
aunt of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 who was   
the only rival of his uncle1 ,sir       
,william1 as an explorer of the heavens4
  ,but she was far more than a mere     
relative of these immortal leaders in   
astronomic science4 ,she herself was an 
astronomer of distinction1 and is known1
 in the annals of astronomy1 as the     
discoverer of no fewer than eight       
comets4 ,great1 however1 as was her     
skill as an observer and computer1 it   
was as her brother's assistant that she 
is entitled to the most distinction4    
,her affection for him was as unbounded 
as her devotion to his life work was    
abiding and productive of great results4
 ,for fifty years1 after joining him in 
,england--they both had been born and   

bred in ,hanover--she was ever at his   
side1 to assist him in his labors and to
 cheer him by her words of counsel and  
encouragement4 ,she helped him to grind 
and polish the mirrors that were used in
 his epoch-making reflectors4 ,this was 
a most arduous task2 for1 at that time1 
there was no machinery sufficiently     
exact for grinding specula1 and1 as a   
consequence1 the work had all to be done
 by hand4 ,so interested was the great  
astronomer in his work1 when polishing  
his larger specula1 that he forgot all  
about the passage of time1 and on these 
occasions his sister was constantly     
obliged1 as she herself informs us1 to  
feed him by putting the victuals by bits
 into his mouth by way of keeping him   
alive4 ,when finishing his seven-foot   
reflector he was on one occasion found  
so intent on his work that he had not   
taken his hands from it for sixteen     
hours together4  ,in our day1 when all  
kinds of astronomical apparatus are made
 by machinery1 it is difficult for us to

 realize what stupendous labor was      
required to produce those giant         
telescopes with which the ,herschels    
made their great discoveries and by     
which they1 at the same time1           
revolutionized the science of the stars4
 ,for they had not only to design and   
make the specula1 but also the mountings
 of the mirrors as well4 ,and1 in order 
to obtain the money required for        
material and workmen1 they were obliged 
to make telescopes for sale4 ,this meant
 an immense loss of precious time that  
would otherwise have been devoted to the
 study of the heavens4  ,after long     
years of struggle1 during which the     
devoted brother and sister overcame     
countless difficulties of every kind1   
their condition was somewhat ameliorated
 by financial aid from the government   
and by ,william's appointment to the    
position of astronomer royal with a     
salary of ,l#bjj a year4 ,when ,sir     
,william ,watson heard that this limited
 sum had been granted by ,george ,,iii  

to the discoverer of ,georgium          
,sidus--the planet now known as         
,uranus--he exclaimed1 ,never bought    
monarch honor so cheap4  ,shortly       
afterwards ,caroline was appointed as   
assistant to her brother at a salary of 
,l#ej a year4 ,this we should now       
consider but a nominal sum1 but she     
managed to live on it4 ,when she        
received the first quarterly payment of 
twelve pounds she wrote in her memoirs1 
,it was the first money ,i ever in all  
my lifetime thought myself to be at     
liberty to spend to my liking4 ,her     
appointment as assistant to her brother 
is notable from the fact that she was   
the first woman in ,england1 if not in  
the world1 to hold such a position in   
the government service4  ,miss ,herschel
 held this official appointment until   
,sir ,william's death in #ahbb4 ,when   
not acting as her brother's assistant or
 secretary1 she devoted her time to what
 she quaintly called minding the        
heavens4 ,it was during this period that

 she made her most important            
discoveries4 ,as assistant1 however1 to 
so indefatigable an observer as ,sir    
,william ,herschel1 she had but little  
time for sweeping the heavens1 for1 when
 at home1 ,sir ,william was invariably  
accustomed to carry on his observations 
until day-break1 circumstances          
permitting1 without regard to seasons2  
it was the business of his assistant to 
note the clocks and to write down the   
observations from his dictations as they
 were made4 ,subsequently she assisted  
in the laborious numerical calculations 
and reductions1 so that it was only     
during his absence from home or when any
 other interruption of his regular      
course of observation occurred that she 
was able to devote herself to the       
,newtonian sweeper1 which she used to   
such good purpose4 ,besides the eight   
comets by her discovered1 she detected  
several remarkable nebulae and clusters 
of stars1 previously unnoticed1         
especially the superb nebulae known as  

,no4 #a1 ,class ,v1 in ,sir ,william    
,herschel's catalogue4 ,long practice   
taught her to make light of her work4   
',an observer at your twenty-foot when  
sweeping1' she wrote many years after1  
'wants nothing but a being who can and  
will execute his commands with the      
quickness of lightning2 for you will    
have seen that in many sweeps six or    
twice six objects have been secured and 
described in one minute of time4'#ade   
,it was her quick1 intelligent action1  
combined with a patience1 enthusiasm and
 powers of endurance that were most     
extraordinary1 that made ,caroline      
,herschel so valuable as an assistant to
 her brother1 and enabled him to achieve
 the unique position which is his among 
the world's greatest astronomers4 ,had  
she been able to devote all her time to 
minding the heavens1 it is certain that 
she would have made many more           
discoveries than are now credited to    
her2 but her service to astronomy would 
have been less than it was as the       

auxiliary of her illustrious brother4   
,no two ever did better teamwork2 no two
 were ever more devoted to each other or
 exhibited greater enthusiasm in the    
task to which they so heroically devoted
 their lives4#adf  ,in addition to her  
arduous and engrossing duties as        
secretary and assistant to her brother1 
,caroline found time to prepare a number
 of works for the press4 ,among these   
were a ,catalogue of ,eight ,hundred and
 ,sixty ,stars ,observed by ,flamsteed  
but not ,included in the ,british       
,catalogue and ,a ,general ,index of    
,reference to ,every ,observation of    
,every ,star in the ,above-mentioned    
,british ,catalogue4 ,she had the honor 
of having these two works published by  
the ,royal ,society4 ,another1 and a    
more valuable work1 was ,the ,reduction 
and ,arrangement in the ,form of        
,catalogue1 in ,zones1 of ,all the      
,star-,clusters and ,nebulae ,observed  
by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel in ,his ,sweeps4  
,it was for this catalogue that a gold  

medal was voted to her by the ,royal    
,astronomical ,society in #ahbh--;a     
production that was characterized as a  
work of immense labor and an            
extraordinary monument to the           
unextinguished ardor of a lady of       
seventy-five in the cause of abstract   
science4 ,to her nephew1 ,sir ,john     
,herschel1 it proved invaluable1 as it  
supplied the needful data when he       
undertook the review of the nebulae of  
the northern hemisphere4 ,it was also a 
fitting prelude to ,sir ,john's ,cape   
,observations1 a copy of which great    
work she received from her nephew nearly
 twenty years subsequently1 after he had
 completed his famous observations of   
the southern heavens in his observatory 
at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4  ,by a most
 striking and happy coincidence1 writes 
,mrs4 ,john ,herschel1 she1 whose       
unflagging toil had so greatly          
contributed to its successful           
prosecution in the hands of her beloved 
brother1 lived to witness its triumphant

 termination through the no less        
persistent industry and strenuous labor 
of his son2 and her last days were      
crowned by the possession of the work   
which brought to its glorious conclusion
 ,sir ,william ,herschel's vast         
undertaking--,the ,survey of the        
,heavens4  ,that ,miss ,herschel's      
labors in the cause of astronomy were   
appreciated by her contemporaries is    
evidenced by the honors of which she was
 the recipient4 ,the first of these     
honors came in the form of a gold medal1
 unanimously awarded by the ,royal      
,astronomical ,society for her reduction
 of twenty-five hundred nebulae         
discovered by her illustrious brother1  
which may be considered as the          
completion of a series of exertions     
probably unparalleled either in         
magnitude or importance in the annals of
 astronomical labor4  ,it was on this   
occasion1 when referring to the         
immensity of the task which ,sir        
,william ,herschel had undertaken1 that 

the vice-president of the society paid a
 deserving tribute to the great         
astronomer's devoted sister1 in which is
 found the following statement3  ,miss  
,herschel it was who by right acted as  
his amanuensis2 she it was whose pen    
conveyed to paper his observations as   
they issued from his lips2 she it was   
who noted the right ascensions and polar
 distances of the objects observed2 she 
it was who1 having passed the night near
 the instrument1 took the rough         
manuscripts to her cottage at the dawn  
of day and produced a fair copy of the  
night's work on the following morning2  
she it was who planned the labor of each
 succeeding night2 she it was who       
reduced every observation1 made every   
calculation2 she it was who arranged    
everything in systematic order2 and she 
it was who helped him to obtain his     
imperishable name4#adg  ,besides this   
gold medal from the ,royal ,astronomical
 ,society1 ,miss ,herschel also received
 two others1 one from the ,king of      

,denmark and the other from the ,king of
 ,prussia4 ,the latter was accompanied  
by a most eulogistic letter from        
,alexander von ,humboldt1 who informed  
her that the medal was awarded her in   
recognition of the valuable services    
rendered by her as the fellow worker of 
her immortal brother1 ,sir ,william     
,herschel1 by discoveries1 observations 
and laborious calculations4  ,in #ahce1 
when she was eighty-five years of age1  
,miss ,herschel had the signal honor of 
being elected1 along with ,mrs4         
,somerville1 an honorary member of the  
,royal ,astronomical ,society4 ,as they 
were the first two women in ,england to 
receive such recognition for their      
contributions to science1 it seems      
desirable to reproduce here an extract  
from the report of the council of the   
society regarding the bestowal of an    
honor which marked so distinct a change 
in ,england of the attitude that should 
be taken toward women who excelled in   
intellectual achievements4 ,the extract 

reads as follows3  ,your council has no 
small pleasure in recommending that the 
names of two ladies distinguished in    
different walks of astronomy be placed  
on the list of honorary members4 ,on the
 propriety of such a step1 in an        
astronomical point of view1 there can be
 but one voice2 and your council is of  
the opinion that the time is gone by    
when either feeling or prejudice1 by    
whichever name it may be proper to call 
it1 should be allowed to interfere with 
the payment of a well-earned tribute of 
respect4 ,your council has hitherto felt
 that1 whatever might be its own        
sentiment on the subject1 or however    
able and willing it might be to defend  
such a measure1 it had no right to place
 the name of a lady in a position the   
propriety of which might be contested1  
though upon what it might consider      
narrow grounds and false principles4    
,but your council has no fear that such 
a difference could now take place       
between any men whose opinion could     

avail to guide the society at large2    
and1 abandoning compliment on the one   
hand and false delicacy on the other1   
submits that1 while the tests of        
astronomical merit should in no case be 
applied to the works of a woman less    
severely than to those of a man1 the sex
 of the former should no longer be an   
obstacle to her receiving any           
acknowledgment which might be held due  
to the latter4 ,and your council1       
therefore1 recommends this meeting to   
add to the list of honorary members the 
names of ,miss ,caroline ,herschel and  
,mrs4 ,somerville1 of whose astronomical
 knowledge1 and of the utility of the   
ends to which it has been applied1 it is
 not necessary to recount the           
proofs4#adh  ,three years after this    
splendid recognition of ,miss           
,herschel's astronomical labors she was 
elected an honorary member of the ,royal
 ,irish ,academy4  ,but exceptional as  
were the honors conferred on her by     
sovereigns and learned societies1 none  

of them afforded her the extreme        
satisfaction that she experienced on the
 receipt of a copy1 shortly before her  
death1 of her nephew's epochal ,cape    
,observations2 for1 as has well been    
said1 nothing in the power of man to    
bestow could have given such pleasure on
 her death-bed as this last crowning    
completion of her brother's work4 ,we   
are told that a copy1 just from the     
press1 of his immortal work1 ,de ,orbium
 ,celestium ,revolutionibus1 in which he
 had established the heliocentric theory
 of the planetary system1 was placed in 
the hands of ,copernicus on the day of  
his death1 just a few hours before he   
expired4 ,he seemed conscious of what it
 was2 but1 after touching it and        
contemplating it for a moment1 he lapsed
 into a state of insensibility which    
soon terminated in death4 ,with ,miss   
,herschel the case was different4       
,although in her ninety-seventh year1   
she still retained possession of all her
 faculties and was fully able to        

appreciate the volume which told of the 
crowning of her brother's life work--a  
volume which must have given her        
additional satisfaction when she        
recalled her fifty years of loyal       
service at her brother's side as his    
associate and ministering angel in the  
greatest work ever undertaken by a      
single man in the history of astronomy4 
,caroline ,herschel died at the advanced
 age of ninety-seven years and ten      
months1 retaining to the last her       
interest in astronomy which had occupied
 her mind for more than three-quarters  
of a century4  ,her epitaph1 composed by
 herself1 is engraved on a heavy stone  
slab which covers her grave and contains
 the following words3 ,the eyes of her  
who is glorified were here below turned 
to the starry heavens4 ,her own         
discoveries of comets and her           
participation in the immortal labors of 
her brother1 ,william ,herschel1 bear   
witness of this to future ages4  ,space 
precludes any extended reference to     

,miss ,herschel's distinguished         
associate in the ,royal ,astronomical   
,society1 ,mrs4 ,somerville1 whose      
masterly translation and exposition of  
,laplace's ,mecanique ,celeste secured  
for her so enviable a place among the   
mathematicians of her time1 and placed  
all ,english students of mathematical   
astronomy under such deep obligations4  
,it is true that she ever manifested a  
lively interest in celestial phenomena2 
but it is rather as a mathematician than
 as an astronomer that she will be      
remembered by the devotees of science4  
,the first ,american woman to win       
distinction in astronomy was ,miss      
,maria ,mitchell4 ,born in the island of
 ,nantucket in #ahah1 she1 at an early  
age1 displayed remarkable talent for    
astronomy and mathematics4 ,her first   
instructor was her father1 who1 besides 
being a school teacher1 had from his    
youth been an enthusiastic student of   
astronomy1 and that1 too1 at a time when
 very little attention was given to its 

study in this country1 and when the     
observatory of ,harvard ,college        
consisted of only a little projection to
 an old mansion in ,cambridge1 in which 
there was a small telescope4  ,at the   
age of thirteen little ,maria counted   
seconds by the chronometer for her      
father while he observed the annular    
eclipse of the sun in #ahca2 and from   
that time on she was his assiduous      
co-worker in the study of the heavens4  
,after teaching school for some years1  
she became the librarian of the         
,nantucket ,atheneum1 a position which  
she held for nearly twenty years4 ,here 
she continued the study of her favorite 
science1 and read all the books on      
astronomy which she could obtain4 ,it   
was during this period that she read    
,bowditch's translation of ,laplace's   
,mecanique ,celeste and ,gauss's        
,theoria ,motus ,corporum ,caelestium in
 the original4  ,on the evening of      
,october #a1 #ahdg1 she was the         
discoverer of a comet that attracted    

great attention because it secured for  
her a medal offered by the ,king of     
,denmark in #ahca for the first one who 
should discover a telescopic comet4 ,the
 same comet was observed by ,father de  
,vico in ,rome two days subsequently1 by
 ,dawes in ,england on ,october seventh1
 and by ,madame ,ruemker1 wife of the   
director of the observatory of ,hamburg1
 on the eleventh of the same month4 ,as 
there was no ,atlantic cable in those   
days1 it was not known who was the      
fortunate winner of the prize until     
nearly a year afterward1 when word was  
received from ,denmark announcing that  
the priority of ,miss ,mitchell's       
discovery had been recognized and that  
she would be the recipient of the prize1
 which1 for a while1 it was thought     
would go to ,de ,vico or ,madame        
,ruemker4#adi  ,in #ahdi ,miss ,mitchell
 was appointed a compiler for the       
,nautical ,almanac1 a position she held 
for nineteen years4 ,during the same    
period she was employed by the ,united  

,states ,coast ,survey4  ,when ,vassar  
,college was opened in #ahfe for the    
higher education of women1 ,miss        
,mitchell was called to fill the chair  
of astronomy and to be the first        
director of the observatory4 ,in this   
position she soon succeeded in giving   
astronomy a prominence that it never had
 had before in any other college for    
women1 and in but few for men4  ,miss   
,mitchell was a member of several       
learned societies and the author of a   
number of papers containing the results 
of her observations on ,jupiter and     
,saturn and their satellites4 ,but she  
is notable chiefly for being the first  
woman astronomer in the ,united ,states 
and for training up a number of young   
women who have followed in her footsteps
 as enthusiastic astronomers4 ,she held 
her position at ,vassar until #ahhi1    
when she died1 a few months before her  
seventy-first birthday4  ,since the     
pioneer days of ,miss ,caroline         
,herschel1 the number of women          

throughout the world who have achieved  
distinction in astronomy has rapidly    
augmented4 ,one of the most noted of    
these was ,caterina ,scarpellini1 niece 
of ,feliciano ,scarpellini1 professor of
 astronomy in ,rome1 restorer of the    
,academy of the ,lyncei1 and founder of 
the ,capitoline ,observatory4 ,born in  
#ahjh1 she manifested at an early age a 
decided taste for astronomy1 which was  
carefully developed by her uncle4 ,she  
it was who organized the ,meteorologico 
,ozonometric station in ,rome and edited
 its monthly bulletin4 ,she exhibited a 
special interest in shooting stars and  
prepared the first catalogue of these   
meteors observed in ,italy4 ,in #ahed   
she discovered a comet4 ,she has also   
left valuable studies on the probable   
influence of the moon on                
earthquakes--studies which brought her  
distinction from several of the learned 
societies of ,europe4 ,in #ahgb the     
,italian government decreed her a gold  
medal for her statistical labors in     

science4 ,since her death her countrymen
 have recognized the value of her       
contributions to science by erecting a  
statue to her memory4  ,another woman   
who has won enduring fame in the annals 
of astronomy is ,miss ,dorothea         
,klumpke1 of ,san ,francisco4 ,while yet
 quite young1 she and her sisters were  
taken to ,europe to be educated4 ,there 
she soon became proficient in a number  
of languages1 and then devoted herself  
to the study of mathematics and         
astronomy4 ,after securing her          
baccalaureate and licentiate in ,paris1 
she applied for admission as a student  
to the ,paris observatory4 ,the         
directors of the observatory consulted  
the statutes4 ,no woman had hitherto    
proposed herself as a colleague1 but    
there was no rule opposing it4 ,they    
themselves approved1 and gave her a     
telescope to make her own observations4 
,after a time she completed the work    
begun by ,mme4 ,kovalevsky on the rings 
of ,saturn1 which she made the subject  

of her thesis1 and1 when she had become 
,doctor of ,science1 she was given a    
decoration by the ,institute and made an
 ,officier de l',academie4  ,after ,miss
 ,klumpke had brilliantly defended her  
thesis in the ,sorbonne1 ,m4 ,darboux1  
the president of the jury1 complimented 
the young ,american doctor on her       
splendid work and concluded a notable   
address in her honor in the following   
laudatory words3  ,the great names of   
,galileo1 of ,huyghens1 of ,cassini1 of 
,laplace1 without speaking of those of  
my illustrious colleagues and friends1  
are attached to the history of every    
serious step forward made in this       
attractive and difficult theory of      
,saturn's rings4 ,your work constitutes 
another valuable contribution to the    
same subject and places you in an       
honorable rank beside those women who   
have consecrated themselves to the study
 of mathematics4 ,in the last century   
,maria ,agnesi gave us a treatise on the
 differential and integral calculus4    

,since then ,sophie ,germain1 as        
remarkable for her literary and         
philosophical talent as for her faculty 
for mathematics1 won the esteem of the  
great geometricians who honored our     
country at the commencement of this     
century4 ,it is but a few years since   
the ,academy awarded one of its most    
beautiful prizes which will place the   
name of ,mme4 ,kovalevsky beside those  
of ,euler and ,lagrange in the history  
of discoveries relative to the theory of
 the movement of a solid body about a   
fixed point4444 ,and you1 mademoiselle1 
your thesis is the first which a woman  
has presented and successfully defended 
before our faculty for the degree of    
doctor in mathematics4 ,you worthily    
open the way1 and the faculty           
unanimously makes haste to declare you  
worthy of obtaining the degree of       
doctor4  ,besides her thesis just       
referred to1 ,miss ,klumpke is the      
author of numerous communications to    
scientific journals and learned         

societies regarding her researches on   
the spectra of stars and meteorites and 
other allied subjects4 ,for many years  
she was at the head of the bureau in the
 ,paris ,observatory for measuring the  
photographic plates that are to be used 
in the large catalogue of stars and map 
of the heavens which are to constitute  
the crowning achievements of the        
,international ,astronomical ,congress4 
,she was the first woman to be elected a
 member of the ,astronomical ,society of
 ,france1 and the character of her work 
as an observer as well as a computer has
 given her an enviable position among   
the astronomers of the world4#aej  ,in  
,america another woman has won renown   
among astronomers by successfully       
executing the same kind of work as was  
entrusted to ,miss ,dorothea ,klumpke in
 ,paris4 ,for many years ,mrs4 ,w4      
,fleming1 with her large corps of women 
assistants1 had charge of the immense   
collection of astronomical photographs  
in the ,observatory of ,harvard         

,university4 ,to her and her staff were 
assigned the reductions and measurements
 of the photographic and photometric    
work done in ,cambridge and ,arequipa1  
,peru4 ,she was singularly successful in
 her studies of photographic plates and 
made many discoveries which astronomers 
regard of the greatest importance4 ,by  
such studies she and her assistants     
detected many new nebulae1 double and   
variable stars1 besides spectra of      
different types and of rare interest4   
,in addition to this they examined and  
classified tens of thousands of         
photographs of stellar spectra1 a labor 
which involved countless details of     
reduction and measurements of exceeding 
delicacy and skill4  ,a complete list of
 the women who1 during the past half    
century1 have devoted themselves to the 
study of astronomy and who have         
contributed to its advancement by their 
observations and writings would be a    
very long one4 ,among those1 however1   
whose labors have attracted special     

notice1 mention must be made of the     
,misses ,antonia ,c4 ,maury1 ,florence  
,cushman1 ,louisa ,d4 ,wells1 ,mabel ,c4
 ,stephens1 ,eva ,f4 ,leland1 ,anna     
,winlock1 ,annie ,j4 ,cannon and        
,henrietta ,s4 ,leavitt1 all of whom are
 on the staff of the ,harvard           
,observatory4  ,then1 too1 there are    
many women who occupy important         
positions as professors or assistant    
professors in our colleges and          
universities4 ,chief among these in the 
,united ,states are ,sarah ,f4 ,whiting1
 of ,wellesley2 ,mary ,w4 ,whitney1 of  
,vassar2 ,mary ,e4 ,boyd1 of ,smith2    
,susan ,cunningham1 of ,swarthmore1 and 
,annie ,s4 ,young1 of ,mt4 ,holyoke4    
,nor must we forget such able computers 
as ,mrs4 ,margaretta ,palmer1 of ,yale1 
and ,miss ,hanna ,mace1 the clever      
assistant of the late ,simon ,newcomb in
 the ,naval ,observatory in ,washington4
  ,in the ,old ,world among the women   
who1 during the last few decades1 have  
materially contributed to the progress  

of astronomy1 either as observers and   
computers or as writers1 are ,miss      
,alice ,everett1 who has done splendid  
work in the observatories of ,greenwich 
and ,potsdam1 ,misses ,m4 ,a4 ,orr1     
,mary ,ashley1 ,alice ,brown1 ,mary     
,proctor--daughter of the late          
astronomer1 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor--,agnes ,m4
 and ,ellen ,m4 ,clerke1 and ,lady      
,huggins1 of ,england2 ,mmes4 ,jansen1  
,faye1 and ,flammarion1 in ,france2 the 
,countess ,bobinski1 in ,russia2 and    
,miss ,pogson1 in the ,observatory of   
,madras1 ,india4  ,in conclusion1 it is 
but just to observe that women's work in
 astronomy has by no means been confined
 to their contributions as observers1   
writers and computers4 ,reference must  
also be made to the financial aid which 
they have given to various observatories
 and learned societies for the          
furtherance of astronomical research    
both in the ,new and the ,old ,world4   
,it must suffice here to recall the     
endowment at ,harvard ,university of the

 ,henry ,draper ,memorial1 by ,mrs4     
,henry ,draper1 in order that the work  
of photographing stellar spectra1 which 
occupied her husband's later years1     
might be continued under the most       
favorable auspices1 and the munificent  
sum of fifty thousand dollars given by  
,miss ,c4 ,bruce1 of ,new ,york1 for the
 construction of a large telescope      
especially designed for photographing   
faint stars and nebulae4 ,the           
photographs taken with this instrument  
will be used in the preparation of the  
great chart of the heavens which is to  
be the joint production of the chief    
observatories of the world4             
,,footnotes3  #acd ,cf4 the preceding   
chapter1 p4 #adj4 ,see also ,histoire de
 l',astronomie ,ancienne1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4  
#cag1 par4 ,m4 ,delambre1 ,paris1 #ahag4
  #ace ,calor etiam solis in hieme maior
 est sub terra quam super terram1 quod  
si tunc frigus tantum esset sub terra   
quam super terram1 vel si in aestate    
calor tantus esset sub terra quantus est

 super terram1 de immoderatione ista    
terra tota scinderetur4 ,hildegardis    
,causae et ,curae1 p4 #g1 ,lipsiae1     
#aijc4  #acf ,commentaire de ,theon     
d',alexandrie1 p4 ,x1 translated by the 
,abbe ,halma1 ,paris1 #ahhb4  #acg      
,enfin de leur faire connoistre qu'elles
 ne sont pas incapable de l'estude1 si  
elles s'en vouloient donner la peine    
puisqu'entre le cerveau d'une femme et  
celui d'un homme il n'y a aucune        
difference4 ,cf4 ,journal de ,savans1   
,tom4 ,,iii1 p4 #cjd1 a ,amsterdam1     
#afhg4  #ach      ,d'ou vient qu'elle a 
l'oeil trouble et le teint si terni8    
,c'est que sur le calcul1 dit-on1 de    
,cassini1     ,un astrolabe a la main1  
elle a1 dans la gouttiere1     ,a suivre
 ,jupiter passe la nuit entiere4  #aci  
,celebre inter observatores hujus aevi  
nomen adeptus est ,godfredus ,kirchius1 
astronomus nuper regius in ,societate   
,scienciarum ,berlinensi2 mense ,julio  
,a1 #agaj mortuus4 ,ejus vidua1 ,maria  
,magdalena ,winckelmannia1 non minore in

 observando et calculo astronomico      
dexteritate pollet1 ac in utroque labore
 maritum1 cum viveret1 fideliter juvit  
444 quod laudi ducitur foeminae ea animo
 comprehendisse1 quae sine ingenii vi   
studiique assiduitate non               
comprehenduntur1 ,acta ,eruditorum1 pp4 
#gh1 #gi1 ,lipsiae1 #agab4  #adj        
,preface ,historique to ,principes      
,mathematiques de la ,philosophie       
,naturelle par feue ,madame la ,marquise
 du ,chastellet1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4 ,v1       
,paris1 #agei4  #ada ,the ,unpublished  
,correspondence of ,madame du ,deffand1 
,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bjb-bjc1 ,london1 #ahaj4 
#adb ,mme4 du ,deffand's venomous       
letter1 somewhat abridged1 reads as     
follows3 ,imagine a tall1 hard and      
withered woman1 narrow-chested1 with    
large limbs1 enormous feet1 a very small
 head1 a thin face1 a pointed nose1 two 
small sea-green eyes1 her color dark1   
her complexion florid1 her mouth flat1  
her teeth set far apart and very much   
decayed2 there is the figure of the     

beautiful ,emilie1 a figure with which  
she is so well pleased that she spares  
nothing for the sake of setting it off4 
,her manner of dressing her hair1 her   
adornments1 her top-knots1 her jewelry1 
all are in profusion2 but1 as she wishes
 to be lovely in spite of nature1 and as
 she wishes to appear magnificent in    
spite of fortune1 she is obliged1 in    
order to obtain superfluities1 to go    
without necessaries such as             
under-garments and other trifles4  ,she 
was born with sufficient intellect1 and 
the desire to appear as though she had a
 great deal made her prefer to study the
 most abstract sciences rather than more
 general and pleasant branches of       
knowledge4 ,she thought she would gain a
 greater reputation by this peculiarity 
and a more decided superiority over     
other women4  ,she did not limit herself
 to this ambition4 ,she wished to be a  
princess as well1 and she became so1 not
 by the grace of ,god nor by that of the
 ,king1 but by her own act4 ,this       

absurdity went on like the others4 ,one 
became accustomed to regard her as a    
princess of the theatre1 and one almost 
forgot that she was a woman of rank4    
,madame worked so hard to appear what   
she was not that no one knew what she   
really was4 ,even her faults were       
perhaps not natural4 ,they may have had 
something to do with her pretensions1   
her want of respect with regard to the  
state of princess1 her dullness in that 
of savante1 and her stupidity in that of
 a jolie femme4  ,however much of a     
celebrity ,mme4 du ,chatelet may be1 she
 would not be satisfied if she were not 
celebrated1 and that is what she desired
 in becoming the friend of ,m4 de       
,voltaire4 ,to him she owes the eclat of
 her life1 and it is to him that she    
will owe immortality4 ,see ,lettres de  
la ,marquise du ,deffand a ,horace      
,walpole1 ,tom4 ,i1 pp4 #bjj-bja1       
,paris1 #ahbd4  ,as a contrast to this  
atrocious caricature1 it is but due to  
the memory of ,mme4 du ,chatelet to give

 her portrait by ,voltaire1 to whom she 
was ever the beautiful1 the charming    
,urania1 the                      ,vaste
 et puissante genie1     ,minerve de la 
,france1 immortelle ,emilie4  ,it is    
contained in the following verses3      
,l'esprit sublime et la delicatesse1    
,l'oubli charmante de sa propre beaute  
,l'amitie tendre et l'amour emporte     
,sont les attraits de ma belle          
maitresse4  ,if the whole truth were    
known1 it would1 doubtless1 be found    
somewhere between the above extreme and 
contradictory views1 and the cause of   
the caustic statements of ,mesdames de  
,stael and du ,deffand would probably be
 found to be quite accurately expressed 
in the first part of ,voltaire's        
,epistle on ,calumny1 which was written 
about the beginning of his particular   
relationship with the divine ,emilie4   
,the first lines of this epistle1 as    
translated by ,smollett1 are3           
,since beautiful1 'twill be your fate1  
,emelia1 to incur much hate2     ,almost

 one-half of human race     ,will even  
curse you to your face2     ,possesst of
 genius1 noblest fire1     ,with fear   
you will each breast inspire2     ,as   
you too easily confide1     ,you'll     
often be betrayed1 belied2     ,you     
ne'er of virtue made parade1     ,to    
hypocrites no court you've paid1        
,therefore1 of ,calumny beware1     ,foe
 to the virtuous and the fair4  #adc ,in
 his work on ,comets1 ,clairaut at first
 gave ,mme4 ,lepaute full credit for her
 work which had been of such inestimable
 service to himself2 but1 in order to   
gratify a woman who1 having pretensions 
without knowledge1 was very jealous of  
the superior attainments of ,mme4       
,lepaute1 he had the weakness           
subsequently to suppress his generous   
tribute to merit4 ,commenting on this   
strange conduct of his assistant1       
,lalande expresses himself as follows3  
,we know that it is not rare to see     
ordinary women depreciate those who have
 knowledge1 tax them with pedantry and  

contest their merit in order to avenge  
themselves upon them for their          
superiority4 ,the latter are so few in  
number that the others have almost      
succeeded in making them conceal their  
acquirements4  #add ,bibliographie      
,astronomique1 pp4 #fgf-fhg1 par ,jerome
 de la ,lande1 ,paris1 #ahjc4  #ade     
,memoirs and ,correspondence of         
,caroline ,herschel1 p4 #add1 by ,mrs4  
,john ,herschel1 ,london1 #ahgi4  #adf  
,so sensitive was ,miss ,herschel in her
 old age regarding the reputation of her
 brother1 ,william1 who had always been 
her idol and the one in whom she had    
concentrated all her affection1 that she
 came to look askance at every person   
and thing that seemed calculated to dull
 the glory of his achievements4 ,thus   
her niece1 in writing to ,sir ,john     
,herschel1 after her death1 declares3   
,she looked upon progress in science as 
so much detraction from her brother's   
fame2 and1 even your investigations     
would have become a source of           

estrangement had she been with you4 ,in 
a letter to ,sir ,john ,herschel1       
written four years before her death1 she
 exhibits1 in an amusing fashion1 her   
jealous spirit anent the great telescope
 of ,lord ,rosse4 ,they talk of nothing 
here at the clubs1 she writes1 but of   
the great mirror and the great man who  
made it4 ,i have but one answer for     
all--,der ,kerl ist ein ,narr--the      
fellow is a fool4  ,even ,every word    
said in her own praise seemed to be so  
much taken away from the honour due to  
her brother4 ,she had lived so many     
years in companionship with a truly     
great man1 and in the presence of the   
unfathomable depths of the starry       
heavens1 that praise of herself seemed  
childish exaggeration4 ,and             
notwithstanding the honor and           
recognition which she received from     
learned men and learned societies for   
her truly remarkable astronomical       
labors1 her dominant idea was always the
 same--,i am nothing4 ,i have done      

nothing4 ,all ,i am1 all ,i know1 ,i owe
 to my brother4 ,i am only a tool which 
he shaped to his use--a well-trained    
puppy-dog would have done as much4 ,op4 
cit41 pp4 ,,ix1 #cce and #cdf4  #adg    
,op4 cit41 p4 #bbd4  #adh ,memoirs and  
,correspondence of ,caroline ,herschel1 
ut4 sup41 pp4 #bbf-bbg4  #adi ,maria    
,mitchell1 ,life1 ,letters and          
,journals1 compiled by ,phebe ,mitchell 
,kendall1 p4 #bfg et seq41 ,boston1     
#ahif4  #aej ,miss ,klumpke1 the reader 
may be interested in knowing1 belongs to
 a singularly gifted family4 ,her       
sister1 ,augusta1 is a distinguished    
physician and an authority on nervous   
diseases4 ,hers is the glory to be the  
first woman permitted1 after an         
exceptionally severe examination1 to    
serve as interne in the ,paris          
hospitals4 ,julia1 her youngest sister1 
who achieved distinction as a violinist 
with ,ysaye1 was one of the first to    
pass the examination required of women  
entering the ,paris ,lycees1 while      

,anna1 the eldest1 has won fame as an   
artist1 and as the friend1 heiress and  
executrix of ,france's famous daughter1 
,rosa ,bonheur4     ,,chapter ,v        
,,women ,,in ,,physics   ,physics1 being
 one of the inductive sciences1 received
 little attention until modern times4   
,true1 the ,greeks were familiar with   
some of the fundamental facts of the    
mechanics of solids and fluids1 and had 
some notions respecting the various     
physical forces2 but their knowledge of 
what until recently was known as natural
 philosophy was extremely limited4      
,aristotle1 ,pythagoras and ,archimedes 
were among the most successful          
investigators of their time respecting  
the laws and properties of matter1 and  
contributed materially to the           
advancement of knowledge regarding the  
phenomena of the material universe2 but 
the sum total of their information of   
what we now know as physics could be    
embodied in a few pages4  ,in view of   
the foregoing facts1 we should not      

expect to find women engaged in the     
study1 much less in the teaching1 of    
physical science during ancient times4  
,and yet1 if we are to credit           
,boccaccio1 who bases his statements on 
those of early ,greek writers1 there was
 at least one woman that won distinction
 by her knowledge of natural philosophy 
as early as the days of ,socrates4 ,in  
his work1 ,de ,laudibus ,mulierum1 which
 treats of the achievements of some of  
the illustrious representatives of the  
gentler sex1 the genial author of the   
,decameron gives special praise to one  
,arete of ,cyrene for the breadth and   
variety of her attainments4 ,she was the
 daughter of ,aristippus1 the founder of
 the ,cyrenaic school of philosophy1 and
 is represented as being a veritable    
prodigy of learning4 ,for among her many
 claims to distinction she is said to   
have publicly taught natural and moral  
philosophy in the schools and academies 
of ,attica for thirty-five years1 to    
have written forty books1 and to have   

counted among her pupils one hundred and
 ten philosophers4 ,she was so highly   
esteemed by her countrymen that they    
inscribed on her tomb an epitaph which  
declared that she was the splendor of   
,greece and possessed the beauty of     
,helen1 the virtue of ,thirma1 the pen  
of ,aristippus1 the soul of ,socrates1  
and the tongue of ,homer4#aea  ,this is 
high praise1 indeed1 but1 when we       
recollect that ,arete lived during the  
golden age of ,greek learning and       
culture1 that she had exceptional       
opportunities of acquiring knowledge in 
every department of intellectual effort2
 when we recall the large number of     
women who1 in their time1 distinguished 
themselves by their learning and        
accomplishment1 and reflect on the      
advantages they enjoyed as pupils of the
 ablest teachers of the ,lyceum1 the    
,portico1 and the ,academy2 when we     
remember further that they lived in an  
atmosphere of intelligence such as has  
since been unknown2 when we call to mind

 the signal success that rewarded the   
pursuit of knowledge by the scores of   
women mentioned by ,athenaeus and other 
,greek writers2 when we peruse the      
fragmentary notices of their            
achievements as recorded in the pages of
 more recent investigators regarding the
 educational facilities of a certain    
class of women living in ,athens and the
 eminence which they attained in        
science1 philosophy and literature1 we  
can realize that the character and      
amount of ,arete's work as an author and
 as a teacher have not been             
overestimated4  ,living in an age of    
prodigious mental activity1 when women1 
as well as men1 were actuated by an     
abiding love of knowledge for its own   
sake1 there is nothing surprising in    
finding a woman like ,arete commanding  
the admiration of her countrymen by her 
learning and eloquence4 ,for was not the
 learned and eloquent ,aspasia her      
contemporary8 ,and did not ,theano1 the 
wife of ,pythagoras1 take charge of her 

husband's school after his death2 and   
does not antiquity credit her with being
 not only a successful teacher of       
philosophy1 but also a writer of books  
of recognized value8 ,such being the    
case1 what is there incredible in the   
statements made by ancient writers      
regarding the literary activity of      
,arete1 and about her eminence as a     
teacher of science and philosophy8 ,she 
was but one of many of the ,greek women 
of her age that won renown by their     
gifts of intellect and by their         
contributions to the educational work of
 their time and country4  ,better known 
than ,arete1 but probably not superior  
to her as a teacher or writer1 was the  
illustrious ,hypatia of ,alexandria4    
,she1 too1 like her distinguished       
predecessor in ,athens1 was an          
instructor in natural philosophy1 as    
well as other branches of science4 ,of  
her we know more than we do of the      
daughter of ,aristippus1 but even our   
knowledge of the acquisitions and       

achievements of ,hypatia is1            
unfortunately1 extremely meager4 ,we do1
 however1 know from the historian1      
,socrates1 and from ,synesius1 bishop of
 ,ptolemais1 who was her pupil1 that she
 was one of the most richly dowered     
women of all time4 ,born and educated in
 ,alexandria when its schools and       
scholars were the most celebrated in the
 world1 she was even at an early age    
regarded as a marvel of learning4 ,for1 
not satisfied with excelling her father1
 ,theon1 in mathematics1 of which he was
 a distinguished professor1 she1 as     
,suidas informs us1 devoted herself to  
the study of philosophy with such       
success that she was soon regarded as   
the ablest living exponent of the       
doctrines of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,her
 knowledge1 writes the historian1       
,socrates1 was so great that she far    
surpassed all the philosophers of her   
time4 ,and succeeding ,plotinus1 in the 
,platonic school which he had founded in
 the city of ,alexandria1 she taught all

 the branches of philosophy with such   
signal success that students flocked to 
her in crowds from all parts4#aeb ,her  
home1 as well as her lecture room1 was  
the resort of the most noted scholars of
 the day1 and was1 with the exception of
 the ,library and the ,museum1 the most 
frequented intellectual center of the   
great city of learning and culture4     
,small wonder1 then1 that her           
contemporaries lauded her as an oracle  
and as the most brilliant luminary in   
,alexandria's splendid galaxy of        
thinkers and scholars--sapientis artis  
sidus integerrimum4  ,among the many    
inventions attributed to ,hypatia1      
besides the planisphere and astrolabe   
which she designed for the use of       
astronomers1 are several employed in the
 study of natural philosophy4 ,probably 
the most useful of these is an areometer
 mentioned by her pupil ,synesius4 ,he  
calls it a hydroscope and describes it  
as having the form and size of a flute1 
and graduated in such wise that it can  

be used for determining the density of  
liquids4 ,that ,hypatia was thoroughly  
familiar with the science of natural    
philosophy1 as then known1 there can be 
no doubt4 ,that she also contributed    
materially to its advancement1 as well  
as to that of astronomy1 in which she   
always exhibited a special interest1    
there is every reason to believe4#aec   
,after the death of ,hypatia1 the study 
of natural philosophy was almost        
entirely neglected for more than a      
thousand years4 ,the first woman in     
modern times to attract attention by her
 discussion of physical problems was the
 famous ,marquise du ,chatelet1 although
 she was better known as a mathematician
 and as the translator into the ,french 
of ,newton's ,principia4 ,in her chateau
 at ,cirey she had a well-equipped      
physical cabinet in which she took      
special delight4 ,but in her time1 as in
 that of ,hypatia1 natural philosophy   
was far from being the broad            
experimental science which it has become

 through the marvelous discoveries made 
in heat1 light1 electricity and         
magnetism during the last hundred years1
 as well as through those countless     
brilliant investigations which have led 
up to our present doctrine of the       
correlation and conservation of the     
various physical forces4 ,there was then
 no occasion for those delicate         
instruments of precision which are now  
found in every physical laboratory by   
means of which the man of science is    
able to investigate phenomena and       
determine laws that were quite unknown  
until a few years ago4  ,in the time of 
,mme4 du ,chatelet1 as during the       
century following1 natural philosophy   
consisted rather in the mechanical and  
mathematical than in the physical study 
of nature4 ,this is illustrated by the  
title of the great work on the          
translation of which she spent the best 
years of her life--,newton's immortal   
,philosophiae ,naturalis ,principia     
,mathematica4  ,the ,marquise's first   

scientific work was an investigation    
regarding the nature of fire4 ,the      
,french ,academy of ,sciences had       
offered a prize for the best memoir on  
the subject4 ,among the contestants for 
the coveted honor were the chatelaine of
 ,cirey and the celebrated ,swiss       
mathematician1 ,leonard ,euler4 ,the    
,marquise was unsuccessful in the       
contest1 but her paper was of such value
 that the eminent physicist and         
astronomer1 ,arago1 was able to         
characterize it as an elegant piece of  
work1 embracing all the facts relating  
to the subject then known to science and
 containing among the experiments       
suggested one which proved so fecund in 
the hands of ,herschel4 ,in this        
remarkable ,memoire sur le ,feu1 which  
is printed in the ,collections of the   
,academy1 the ,marquise anticipates the 
results of subsequent researches of     
others by maintaining that both heat and
 light have the same cause1 or1 as we   
should now say1 are both modes of       

motion4  ,the second book written by    
this remarkable woman is entitled       
,institutions de ,physique1 and was     
dedicated to her son1 for whose benefit 
it was primarily written4 ,it deals     
specially with the philosophy of        
,leibnitz and discusses such questions  
as force1 time and space4 ,her views    
respecting the nature of the force      
called vis viva1 which was much         
discussed in her time1 are of particular
 interest1 as they are not only opposed 
to those which were held by ,descartes  
and ,newton1 but also because they are  
in essential accord with those now      
accepted in the world of science4  ,all 
things considered1 the ,marquise du     
,chatelet deservedly takes high rank in 
the history of mathematical physics4 ,in
 this department of science she has had 
few1 if any1 superiors among her own    
sex4 ,and1 when we recollect that she   
labored while the foundations of        
dynamics were still being laid1 we shall
 more readily appreciate the            

difficulties she had to contend with and
 the distinct service which her         
researches and writings rendered to the 
cause of natural philosophy among her   
contemporaries4  ,the first woman to    
occupy a chair of physics in a          
university was the famous daughter of   
,italy1 ,laura ,maria ,catarina ,bassi4 
,she was born in ,bologna in #agaa--;but
 five years after the birth of ,madame  
du ,chatelet--and from her most tender  
years she exhibited an exceptional      
facility for the acquisition of         
knowledge4  ,after she had1 through the 
assistance of excellent masters1 become 
proficient in ,french and ,latin1 she   
took up the study of logic1 metaphysics 
and natural philosophy4 ,in all these   
branches of learning her progress was so
 rapid that it far exceeded the fondest 
expectations of her parents and         
teachers4 ,thanks to a wonderful memory 
and a highly developed reasoning        
faculty1 she was able1 while still a    
young maiden1 to prove herself the      

possessor of knowledge that is          
ordinarily obtained only in the maturity
 of age and after long years of         
systematic study4  ,when she had        
attained the twenty-first year of her   
age she was induced by her family and   
friends--much against her own           
inclination1 however--to take part in a 
public disputation on philosophy4 ,her  
entering the lists against some of the  
most distinguished scholars of the time 
was made the occasion for an unusual    
demonstration in her honor4 ,the hall of
 the university in which such           
intellectual jousts were generally held 
was too small for the multitude that was
 eager to witness the young girl's      
formal appearance among the scholars and
 the notables of the old university     
city4 ,it was1 accordingly1 arranged    
that the disputation should be held in  
the great hall of the public ,palace of 
the ,senators4  ,among the vast         
assemblage present at the disputation   
were ,cardinal ,grimaldi1 the papal     

legate2 ,cardinal ,archbishop           
,lambertini1 afterwards ,pope ,benedict 
,,xiv2 the gonfalonier1 senators1       
literati from far and near1 leading     
members of the nobility and             
representatives of all the religious    
orders4  ,when the argumentation began  
the young girl found herself pitted     
against five of the most distinguished  
scholars of ,bologna4 ,but she was fully
 equal to the occasion and passed the   
ordeal to which she was subjected in a  
manner that excited the admiration and  
won the plaudits of all present4        
,cardinal ,lambertini was so impressed  
with the brilliant defence which she had
 made against the five trained          
dialecticians and the evidence she gave 
of varied and profound learning that he 
paid her a special visit the next day in
 her own home to renew his              
congratulations on her signal triumph   
and to encourage her to continue the    
prosecution of her studies4  ,in less   
than a month after this interesting     

event ,laura ,bassi1 in response to the 
expressed desire of the whole of        
,bologna1 presented herself as a        
candidate for the doctorate in          
philosophy4 ,this was the occasion for a
 still more brilliant and imposing      
ceremony4 ,it was held in the spacious  
,hall of ,hercules in the ,communal     
,palace1 which was magnificently        
decorated for the splendid function4 ,in
 addition to the distinguished          
personages who had been spectators of   
the fair student's triumph a few weeks  
before1 there was present in the vast   
audience the noted ,french ecclesiastic1
 ,cardinal ,polignac1 who was on his way
 from ,rome to ,france4  ,the heroine of
 the hour1 dressed in a black gown1 was 
ushered into the great hall1 preceded by
 two college beadles and accompanied by 
two of the most prominent ladies of the 
,bolognese nobility4 ,she was given a   
seat between the chancellor and the     
prior of the university1 who1 in turn1  
were flanked by the professors and      

officials of the institution4  ,after   
the usual preliminaries of the function 
were over the prior of the university1  
,doctor ,bazzani1 rose and pronounced an
 eloquent discourse in ,latin to which  
,laura made a suitable response in the  
same language4 ,she was then crowned    
with a laurel wreath exquisitely wrought
 in silver1 and had thrown round her the
 vajo1 or university gown1 both symbols 
of the doctorate4 ,after this the young 
doctor proceeded to where the three     
cardinals were seated1 and in delicately
 chosen words1 also in ,latin1 expressed
 to them her thanks for the honor of    
their presence4 ,all then withdrew to   
the apartments of the gonfalonier1 where
 refreshments were served in sumptuous  
style1 after which the young ,laureata1 
accompanied by a numerous cortege and   
applauded by the entire city1 was       
escorted to her home4  ,so profound was 
the impression made on the university   
senate by the deep erudition of ,laura  
,bassi that it was eager to secure her  

services in its teaching body4 ,but1    
before she could be offered a chair in  
the institution1 long-established custom
 required that she should pass a public 
examination on the subject matter which 
she was to teach4 ,five examiners were  
chosen by lot1 and all of them proved to
 be men whose names1 says ,fantuzzi1    
will always be held by our university in
 glorious remembrance4 ,they had all to 
promise under oath that the candidate   
for the chair should have no knowledge  
before the examination of the questions 
which were to be asked1 and that the    
test of the aspirant's qualifications to
 fill the position sought should be     
absolutely free from any suspicion of   
favoritism or partiality4               
,notwithstanding the difficulties she   
had to confront1 ,laura acquitted       
herself with even greater credit than on
 former occasions of a similar          
character4 ,there was no question in the
 mind of any one present at the         
examination of the candidate's ability  

to fill the chair of physics1 and it    
was1 accordingly1 offered to her by     
acclamation4  ,the first public lecture 
of the gifted young dottoressa was made 
the occasion of a demonstration such as 
the old walls of the university had     
rarely witnessed4 ,her lecture room was 
thronged by the elite of the city1 as   
well as by a large class of enthusiastic
 students4 ,all were charmed by her     
eloquence and amazed at the complete    
mastery she evinced of the subject she  
had selected for discussion4 ,from that 
day forth her reputation as a scholar   
and a teacher was established1 and her  
lectures were attended by appreciative  
students from all parts of ,europe4 ,she
 was especially popular with the        
students from ,greece1 ,germany and     
,poland1 and her popularity1 far from   
waning1 waxed greater with the passing  
years4  ,at the time of ,laura's        
entering upon her professional career   
the senate of ,bologna had a medal      
coined in her honor1 on the obverse of  

which was her name and effigy1 while on 
the reverse there was an image of       
,minerva1 with the inscription1 ,soli   
cui fas vidisse ,minervam4  ,far from   
interrupting her studies1 which had     
hitherto been the joy of her life1      
,laura's university work gave new zest  
to the literary and scientific pursuits 
which had always such a fascination for 
her4 ,among the subjects that specially 
engaged her attention were studies so   
diverse as ,greek and the higher        
mathematics4 ,she was particularly      
interested in the great                 
physico-mathematical work of ,newton1   
and did not rest until she had          
thoroughly mastered the contents of his 
epoch-making ,principia4  ,a few years  
after she had become a member of the    
university faculty ,laura was a         
,european celebrity1 and no one eminent 
by learning or birth passed through     
,bologna without availing himself of the
 opportunity of making the acquaintance 
of so extraordinary a woman4 ,men of    

science and letters vied with princes   
and emperors in doing honor to one who  
was looked upon by many as being1 like  
,arete of old1 endowed with a soul and a
 genius far above that of ordinary      
mortals1 and as being the possessor of a
 talent that indicated something        
superhuman4  ,laura ,bassi was in       
constant correspondence with the most   
celebrated scholars of ,europe1 and more
 especially with those who had attained 
eminence in her special line of work4   
,among the letters received from her    
illustrious correspondents were two from
 ,voltaire4 ,they were written shortly  
after the author had been refused       
admittance into the ,french academy4 ,he
 then bethought himself of securing     
membership in the ,academy of ,sciences 
of ,bologna4 ,this1 he reasoned1 would  
be a splendid tribute to the versatility
 of his genius and would1 at the same   
time1 be a biting satire on the demigods
 of ,french literature who had dared to 
exclude him from their society4  ,that  

he might not meet the same refusal on   
the part of the ,academy of ,bologna as 
he had experienced in ,paris1 ,voltaire 
determined not to rely entirely on the  
good will of the male members of the    
,bolognese academy4 ,he accordingly     
resolved to enlist the services of      
,laura ,bassi1 who was one of the       
leading members of this distinguished   
body1 and trust to her influence in his 
behalf on the hearts of her colleagues4 
,the first letter1 written in ,italian1 
is so characteristic of the writer that 
it will bear reproduction4  ,most       
,illustrious ,lady1 he writes from      
,paris1 the #bc;d of ,november1 #agdd1  
,i have been wishing to journey to      
,bologna in order to be able one day to 
tell my countrymen ,i have seen ,signora
 ,bassi2 but1 being deprived of this    
honor1 let it at least be permitted me  
to place at your feet this philosophic  
homage and to salute the honor of her   
age and of women4 ,there is not a ,bassi
 in ,london1 and ,i should be more happy

 to be a member of the ,academy of      
,bologna than of that of the ,english1  
although it has produced a ,newton4 ,if 
your protection should obtain for me    
this title1 of which ,i am so ambitious1
 the gratitude of my heart will be equal
 to my admiration for yourself4 ,i beg  
you to excuse the style of a foreigner  
who presumes to write you in ,italian1  
but who is as great an admirer of yours 
as if he were born in ,bologna4  ,the   
second letter of ,voltaire is in        
response to one received from ,laura    
,bassi announcing that he had been      
elected to membership in the ,bologna   
,academy4 ,the first sentence of it     
suffices to indicate its tenor4         
,nothing1 he writes1 was ever more      
grateful to me than to receive from your
 hand the first advice that ,i had the  
honor1 by means of your favor1 of being 
united by this new link to one who had  
already bound me to her car by all the  
chains of esteem and admiration4#aed    
,like so many of her gifted sisters of  

sunny ,italy1 ,laura was in every way a 
perfect woman nobly planned4 ,of a      
deeply religious nature1 she was as     
pious as she was intelligent1 and was   
throughout her life the devoted friend  
of the poor and the afflicted4 ,the     
mother of twelve children1 she never    
permitted her scientific and literary   
work to conflict with her domestic      
duties or to detract in the least from  
the singular affection which so closely 
united her to her husband and children4 
,she was as much at home with the needle
 and the spindle as she was with her    
books and the apparatus of her          
laboratory4 ,and she was equally        
admirable whether superintending her    
household1 looking after her children1  
entertaining the great and the learned  
of the world1 or in holding the rapt    
attention of her students in the lecture
 room4 ,she was1 indeed1 a living proof 
that higher education is not            
incompatible with woman's natural       
avocations2 and that cerebral           

development does not lead to race       
suicide and all the other dire results  
attributed to it by a certain class of  
our modern sociologists and             
anti-feminists4  ,considering her       
manifold duties as a professor in the   
university and the mother of a large    
family1 it was scarcely to be expected  
that ,laura ,bassi would have much time 
for writing for the press4 ,she was1    
however1 able to devote some of her     
leisure moments to the cultivation of   
the ,muses1 of whom1 ,fantuzzi informs  
us1 she was a favorite4 ,her verses1 as 
well as her contributions to the science
 of physics1 are scattered through      
various publications1 but they suffice  
to show that the accounts of her        
transmitted to us by her contemporaries 
were not exaggerated4#aee  ,a learned   
,french traveler who visited ,laura in  
,bologna describes her as having a face 
that was sweet1 serious and modest4 ,her
 eyes were dark and sparkling1 and she  
was blessed with a powerful memory1 a   

solid judgment1 and a ready imagination4
 ,she conversed fluently with me in     
,latin for an hour with grace and       
precision4 ,she is very proficient in   
metaphysics2 but she prefers modern     
physics1 particularly that of ,newton4  
,how many of our college women of to-day
 could readily carry on a conversation  
in ,latin1 if this were the sole medium 
of communication1 or discuss the        
philosophy of ,plato and ,aristotle in  
the tongue of ,cicero1 or give public   
lectures on the physico-mathematical    
discoveries of ,descartes and ,newton in
 what was the universal language of the 
learned world1 even less than a century 
ago8  ,it must not1 however1 be inferred
 from the foregoing statements regarding
 the great intellectual capacity of     
,laura ,bassi or the enthusiastic       
demonstrations that were so frequently  
made in her honor that she was unique in
 this respect among her countrywomen4   
,special attention has been called to   
her as a type of the large number of her

 sex who1 by their learning and culture1
 graced the courts and honored the      
universities of her country for full ten
 centuries4 ,scarcely had death removed 
,laura ,bassi from a career in which for
 twenty-eight years she had won the     
plaudits of the whole of ,europe1 when  
the ,university of ,bologna welcomed to 
its learned halls two other women who1  
in their respective lines of research1  
were fully as eminent as their departed 
countrywoman4 ,these were ,maria dalle  
,donne1 for whom ,napoleon established a
 chair of obstetrics1 and ,clotilda     
,tambroni1 the famous professor of      
,greek1 of whom a noted ,hellenist      
declared1 ,only three persons in ,europe
 are able to write ,greek as well as she
 does1 and not more than fifteen are    
able to understand her4  ,burckhardt1 in
 his thoughtful work on the culture of  
the ,italian ,renaissance1 has a        
paragraph which expresses1 in a few     
words1 what was always the attitude of  
the ,italian father toward the education

 of his daughter4  ,the education of the
 woman of the upper class was absolutely
 the same as that of the man4 ,the      
,italian of the ,renaissance did not for
 a moment hesitate to give his son and  
daughter the same literary and          
philosophical training4 ,he considered  
the knowledge of the works of antiquity 
life's greatest good1 and he could not1 
therefore1 deny to woman participation  
in such knowledge4 ,hence the perfection
 attained by the daughters of noble     
families in writing and speaking        
,latin4#aef  ,this attitude of the      
members of the nobility toward the      
education of their daughters was        
essentially the same as that of the     
universities of ,italy toward women who 
had a thirst for knowledge4 ,for from   
the dawn of learning in ,salerno to the 
present there never was a time when     
women were not as cordially welcomed to 
the universities as students and        
professors as were the men2 and never a 
time when the merit of intellectual work

 was not determined without regard to   
sex4  ,in ,bologna1 where were passed   
the sixty-seven years of her mortal     
life1 the name of ,laura ,bassi1 like   
that of her illustrious colleague1      
,luigi ,galvani1 is one to conjure with1
 and a name that is still pronounced    
with respect and reverence4 ,her last   
resting place is in the ,church of      
,corpus ,domini1 the same sacred shrine 
in which were deposited all that was    
mortal of the renowned discoverer of    
galvanic electricity4#aeg  ,two years   
after ,signora ,bassi was gathered to   
her fathers there was born near         
,edinburgh to a ,scotch admiral1 ,sir   
,william ,george ,fairfax1 an infant    
daughter who was destined to shed as    
much luster on her sex in the ,british  
,isles as the incomparable ,laura ,bassi
 had diffused on womankind in ,italy    
during her brilliant career in ,bologna1
 the learned4 ,she is known in the      
annals of science as ,mary ,somerville1 
and was in every way a worthy successor 

of her famous sister in ,italy1 both as 
a woman and as a votary of science4     
,although her chief title to fame is her
 notable work in mathematical astronomy1
 especially her translation of          
,laplace's ,mechanique ,celeste1 she is 
likewise to be accorded a prominent     
place among scientific investigators for
 her contributions to physics and       
cognate branches of knowledge4 ,chief   
among these are her works on the        
,connection of the ,physical ,sciences  
and ,physical ,geography4 ,as to the    
last production1 no less an authority   
than ,alexander von ,humboldt pronounced
 it an exact and admirable treatise1 and
 wrote of it as that excellent work     
which has charmed and instructed me     
since its first appearance4  ,in a      
letter from the illustrious ,german     
savant to the gifted authoress of the   
two last-named volumes occurs the       
following paragraph3 ,to the great      
superiority you possess and which has so
 nobly illustrated your name on the high

 regions of mathematical analysis1 you  
add1 ,madam1 a variety of information in
 all parts of physics and descriptive   
natural history4 ,after the ,mechanism  
of the ,heavens1 the philosophical      
,connection of the ,physical ,sciences  
has been the object of my profound      
admiration4444 ,the author of the vast  
,cosmos should more than any one else   
salute the ,physical ,geography of ,mary
 ,somerville4444 ,i know of no work on  
physical geography in any language that 
can compare with yours4  ,among the     
other works by ,mrs4 ,somerville1       
treating of physical subjects or of     
subjects intimately related to physics  
are ,the ,form and ,rotation of the     
,earth1 ,the ,tides of the ,ocean and   
,atmosphere1 and an abstruse            
investigation ,on ,molecular and        
,microscopic ,science4 ,the last volume 
was published in #ahfi1 when its author 
was near her ninetieth year1 and bore as
 its motto ,st4 ,augustine's sublime    
words3 ,deus magnus in magnis1 maximus  

in minimis--,god is great in great      
things1 greatest in the least4  ,after  
,mrs4 ,somerville's death1 in #ahgb1 at 
the advanced age of ninety-two1 the     
number of women who devoted themselves  
to the study and teaching of physics was
 greatly augmented4 ,the brilliant      
success of ,laura ,bassi and ,mary      
,somerville had not been without        
results1 and their notable achievements 
as authors and teachers had the effect  
of stimulating women everywhere to      
emulate their example1 and encouraging  
them to devote more attention to a      
branch of science which1 until then1 had
 been regarded by the general public as 
beyond the sphere and capacity of what  
was assumed to be the intellectually    
weaker sex4  ,one of the most eminent   
scientific women of the present day in  
,england is ,mrs4 ,ayrton1 the wife of  
the late ,professor ,w4 ,e4 ,ayrton1 the
 well-known electrician4 ,her chosen    
field of research1 like that of her     
husband1 has been electricity1 in which 

she has achieved marked distinction4    
,her investigations on the electric arc 
and on the sand ripples of the seashore 
won for her the first medal ever awarded
 to a woman by the ,royal ,society4     
,when1 however1 in #aijb1 she was       
formally nominated for fellowship in    
this same society1 she failed of        
election because the council of the     
society discovered that it had no legal 
power to elect a married woman to this  
distinction4  ,how different it was in  
the case of ,laura ,bassi1 who was an   
active member of all the leading        
scientific and literary societies of    
,italy1 where from time immemorial women
 have been as cordially welcomed to     
membership in its learned societies as  
to the chairs of its great universities4
  ,the list of the women who in ,europe 
and ,america are now engaged in physical
 research and in teaching physics in    
schools and colleges is a long one1 and 
the work accomplished by them is1 in    
many cases1 of a high order of merit4   

,it is only1 indeed1 during the present 
generation that such work has been made 
generally accessible to them2 and1      
considering the success which has       
already attended their efforts in this  
branch of science1 we have every reason 
to believe that the future will bring   
forth many others of their sex who will 
take rank with such intellectual        
luminaries as ,hypatia1 ,mme4 du        
,chatelet1 ,laura ,bassi and ,mary      
,somerville4  ,,footnotes3  #aea        
,publice philosophiam naturalem et      
moralem in scholis ,academiisque        
,atticis docuit haec foemina annis      
,,xxxv1 libros composuit ,,xl1          
discipulos habuit philosophos ,,cx1     
obiit anno aetatis ,,lxxvii1 cui tale   
,athenienses statuere epitaphium3       
,nobilis hic ,arete dormit1 lux         
,helladis1 ore       ,tyndaris at tibi  
par1 ,icarioti1 fide4     ,patris       
,aristippi calamumque animamque         
dederunt1       ,socratis huic linguam  
,maeonidaeque ,dii4                     

--,boccaccio1 ,de ,laudibus ,mulierum1  
,lib4 ,,ii4  ,cf4 ,wolf's ,mulierum     
,graecarum quae ,oratione ,prosa ,usae  
,sunt ,fragmenta et ,elogia1 pp4 #bhc et
 seq41 ,london1 #agci4  #aeb ,mulier    
quaedam fuit ,alexandriae1 nomine       
,hypatia1 ,theonis filia4 ,haec ad      
tantam eruditionem pervenerat ut omnes  
sui temporis philosophos longo          
intervallo superaret1 et in ,platonicam 
scholam a ,plotino deductam succederet1 
cunctasque philosophiae disciplinas     
auditoribus exponeret4 ,quocirca omnes  
philosophiae studiosi ad illam undique  
confluebant4 ,socrates1 ,historiae      
,ecclesiasticae1 ,lib4 ,,vii1 ,cap4 #ae4
  #aec ,for extracts from the ancient   
authors regarding ,hypatia1 as well as  
for the extant letters to her from her  
friend and pupil1 ,synesius1 the reader 
is referred to ,wolf's erudite ,mulierum
 ,graecarum quae ,oratione ,prosa ,usae 
sunt ,fragmenta et ,elogia1 pp4 #gb-ia1 
ut sup4  #aed ,ernesto ,masi1 ,studi e  
,ritratti1 p4 #aff et seq41 ,bologna1   

#ahha4  #aee ,two of her ,latin         
dissertations on certain physical       
problems were published in the          
,commentaries of the ,bologna           
,institute4 ,one of them is entitled ,de
 ,problemate quodam ,mechanico2 the     
other ,de ,problemate quodam            
,hydrometrico4 ,many of her lectures on 
physics still exist in manuscript1 and  
it is to be hoped that at least the     
titles of them may be given in a        
biography of the learned author which   
has been long desired and long promised4
  #aef ,die ,cultur der ,renaissance in 
,italien1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cfc1 #ahfi4     
#aeg ,as no satisfactory biography of   
,laura ,bassi has yet been written1 most
 of our knowledge respecting her is     
limited to that found in ,fantuzzi's    
,notizie degli ,scrittori ,bolognesi1   
,tom4 ,i1 pp4 #chd-cia1 and             
,mazzuchelli's ,gli ,scrittori          
d',italia1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,i1 pp4    
#ebg-ebi1 ,brescia1 #ageh4     ,,chapter
 ,,vi  ,,women ,,in ,,chemistry   ,the  

first woman deserving special mention in
 the history of chemistry is the wife of
 the immortal ,lavoisier1 the most      
famous of the founders of modern        
chemical science4 ,while yet in her     
teens1 this remarkable woman gave       
evidence of exceptional intelligence and
 will power4 ,she was thoroughly devoted
 to her husband1 and had the greatest   
admiration for his genius4 ,her highest 
ambition was to prove herself worthy of 
him and to render herself competent to  
assist him in those investigations that 
have given him such imperishable renown4
 ,with this end in view1 she learned    
,latin and ,english1 and she thus became
 an accomplished translator from these  
languages of any chemical works which   
might aid her spouse in his epoch-making
 researches4 ,it was she who translated 
for him the chemical memoirs of         
,cavendish1 ,henry1 ,kirwan1 ,priestly  
and other noted ,english scientific     
investigators4  ,arthur ,young1 well    
known in his day as a traveler and      

author1 who in #aghg made the           
acquaintance of ,madame ,lavoisier1     
describes her as a woman full of        
animation1 good sense and knowledge4 ,in
 referring to a breakfast she had given 
him1 he declares that unquestionably the
 best part of the repast was her        
conversation on ,kirwan's ,essay on     
,phlogiston1 which she was then         
translating1 and on other subjects which
 a woman of sense1 working in the       
laboratory of her husband1 knows so well
 how to make interesting4  ,she was an  
ardent co-worker with her husband in his
 laboratory and materially aided him in 
his labors4 ,under his direction she    
wrote the results of the experiments    
that were made1 as is evidenced by the  
records of his work4 ,as a pupil of the 
illustrious painter1 ,david1 she was    
naturally skillful in drawing4 ,besides 
this1 she was a good engraver1 and it is
 to her that are due the illustrations  
in ,lavoisier's great ,traite de        
,chimie1 which contributed so much      

toward revolutionizing the science of   
chemistry4 ,it was1 indeed1 the first   
work that deserved to be regarded as a  
textbook of modern chemistry4 ,among her
 drawings are two of special interest4  
,they represent her as seated at a table
 in the laboratory1 taking notes1 while 
her husband and his assistant1 ,seguin1 
are making an experiment on the         
phenomena of respiration4#aeh  ,all     
,mme4 ,lavoisier's writings testify to  
her great admiration of the genius of   
her husband4 ,intimately associated with
 him in his work1 she combatted for the 
triumph of his ideas and sought to make 
converts to them4 ,one of her most      
notable converts was the ,swiss chemist1
 de ,saussure4 ,you have1 ,madame1 he   
writes her1 triumphed over my doubts1 at
 least in the matter of phlogiston1     
which is the principal object of the    
interesting work of which you have done 
me the honor of sending me a copy4      
,after ,lavoisier's tragic death on the 
guillotine1 it was his devoted wife who 

edited his ,memoirs on ,chemistry1 of   
which ,lavoisier had himself projected  
the publication4 ,the two volumes       
constituting this work were not for     
sale1 but were gratuitously distributed 
by the bereaved widow among the most    
eminent scientific men of the epoch4    
,cuvier1 in acknowledging the receipt of
 these precious memoirs1 declares3 ,all 
the friends of science are under        
obligations to you for your sorrowful   
determination to publish this collection
 of papers and to publish them as they  
were written--a melancholy monument of  
your loss and theirs--a loss which      
humanity will feel for centuries4  ,to  
realize the importance of the work in   
which ,mme4 ,lavoisier participated1 it 
suffices to recall the fact that her    
husband1 as one of the creators of      
modern chemistry1 was the first to      
demonstrate the existence of the law of 
the conservation of matter1 which       
declares that in all chemical changes   
nothing is lost and nothing is created4 

,the co-discoverer with ,scheele and    
,priestly of oxygen1 he was the first   
one to exhibit the role of this         
important element in the phenomena of   
combustion and respiration and the      
first1 also1 to lay the foundations of a
 chemical nomenclature4 ,we are not1    
then1 surprised to learn that ,mme4     
,lavoisier's salon1 even long after her 
lamented husband's death1 was frequented
 by the most eminent savants of the     
time4 ,for here were gathered such      
scientific luminaries as ,cuvier1       
,laplace1 ,arago1 ,lagrange1 ,prony1    
,berthollet1 ,delambre1 ,biot1          
,humboldt1 and others scarcely less     
brilliant4  ,after the conclusion of    
,mme4 ,lavoisier's work in the          
laboratory of her husband1 little was   
accomplished by women in chemistry for  
more than half a century4 ,the reason   
was simple4 ,chemistry was not a part of
 the curriculum of studies for girls    
either in ,europe or ,america4 ,even    
during the sixties1 writes a teacher of 

one of the prominent female seminaries  
of the ,united ,states1 the study of    
chemistry was mostly confined to the    
textbook1 supplemented once a year by a 
course of lectures from an itinerant    
expert1 who with his tanks of various   
gases produced highly spectacular       
effects4  ,when one recollects that the 
first institution in                    
,america--,vassar--for the higher       
education of women was not opened until 
#ahfe1 one will understand that there   
were previously to this date few        
opportunities for women to study either 
chemistry or any of the other sciences4 
,the first scientific institution to    
open its doors to women was the         
,massachusetts ,institute of            
,technology4 ,this was on ,may #aa1     
#ahgf1 when the governing board of the  
institute decided that hereafter special
 students in chemistry shall be admitted
 without regard to sex4 ,in less than a 
year after this event every department  
of this institution was open to women1  

and any one who could pass the requisite
 examination was admitted as a student4 
,five years1 however1 before women were 
formally admitted to the courses of     
chemistry an energetic young graduate   
from ,vassar1 eager to devote her life  
to the pursuit of science1 had1 as an   
exceptional favor1 been allowed to enter
 the ,institute as a special student in 
chemistry4 ,as she was the first woman  
in the ,united ,states to enter a       
strictly professional scientific school1
 her entrance marks the beginning of a  
new epoch in the history of female      
education4 ,the name of this ardent     
votary of science was ,miss ,ellen      
,swallow1 better known to the world as  
,mrs4 ,ellen ,h4 ,richards4  ,mrs4      
,richards had not devoted herself long  
to the study of her favorite science    
before she resolved to apply the        
knowledge thus gained to the problems of
 daily life4 ,she saw1 among other      
things1 the necessity of a complete     
reform in domestic economy1 and         

resolutely set to work to have her views
 adopted and put in practice4 ,she was1 
in consequence1 one of the first leaders
 of the crusade in behalf of pure food1 
and her lectures and books on this      
all-important subject contributed       
greatly toward the diffusion of exact   
knowledge respecting the dangers lurking
 in unwholesome food4  ,she was likewise
 one of the first to apply the science  
of chemistry to an exhaustive study of  
the science of nutrition--to the study  
of food and the proper preparation of   
food materials4 ,in this she was        
eminently successful1 and was able to   
achieve for home economics what the     
illustrious ,liebig had many years      
before accomplished for agricultural    
chemistry--put it on a firm and lasting 
basis4 ,to her the kitchen was the      
center and source of political economy4 
,the facts of science1 indeed1 were to  
,mrs4 ,richards more than mere          
uncorrelated facts4 ,they are potential 
agencies of service1 and their chief    

value consists in their enabling us to  
control our environment in such wise as 
to secure the maximum of physical well  
being4 ,hence her constant insistence on
 personal cleanliness1 on the           
cleanliness of food1 of the house we    
live in1 and1 above all1 of the kitchen4
 ,hence1 also1 her preaching1 in season 
and out of season1 on the necessity of  
pure air1 pure water and abundance of   
vitalizing sunshine4  ,we cannot1 then1 
wonder that sanitary chemistry          
eventually became the life work of ,mrs4
 ,richards1 and that1 when the course of
 sanitary engineering was inaugurated in
 the ,institute of ,technology--the     
first course of its kind in the         
world--she became an important agent in 
its development and contributed         
immensely to its popularity and         
prestige4  ,she held the position of    
instructor of sanitary chemistry in the 
institute for twenty-seven years4       
,during this time she trained a large   
number of young men in her chosen       

specialty1 and these1 after graduating1 
engaged in similar work in various parts
 of the ,new and the ,old ,world4  ,the 
branch of sanitary chemistry to which   
,mrs4 ,richards devoted most attention  
was air1 water and sewage analysis4 ,in 
this she was a recognized expert1 and   
her advice and services were sought in  
all parts of the country4 ,during the   
last three years of her life she acted1 
according to her own testimony1 as      
general sanitary adviser to no fewer    
than two score corporations and schools4
 ,in addition to this she was also      
during this brief period consulted on   
the subject of foods by nearly two      
hundred educational and other           
institutions4  ,what1 however1          
constituted the greatest contribution of
 ,mrs4 ,richards to the public health   
was the part she took in the great      
sanitary survey of the waters of the    
,state of ,massachusetts4 ,during this  
long and laborious investigation she    
analyzed more than forty thousand       

samples of water4 ,these analyses       
exhibited the condition of the water    
from all parts of the state during all  
seasons of the year and were of the     
greatest value in solving a number of   
important problems in state sanitation4 
,but notwithstanding the drafts made on 
her time and energy by her classwork in 
the laboratory and her occupation as    
sanitary engineer for scores of public  
and private institutions1 she still     
found leisure to engage in many         
important movements which had in view   
the public health and the betterment of 
sanitary conditions in city and country4
 ,it is safe to say that no one ever put
 her knowledge of chemical science to   
more practical use or made it more      
perfectly subserve the public weal than 
did ,mrs4 ,richards4 ,to spread among   
the masses a knowledge of the principles
 of sanitation1 to make them realize how
 indispensable to health are pure food1 
pure water1 pure air and life-giving    
sunshine was her great mission in life1 

and in this she displayed an energy and 
a tireless zeal which were an           
inspiration to all with whom she came   
into contact4  ,this indefatigable      
woman1 it is proper to record here1     
might have distinguished herself as a   
discoverer in chemical science had she  
elected to devote her life to original  
research rather than to utilizing the   
knowledge already available for the     
welfare of her fellows4 ,thus1 after a  
careful analysis of the rare mineral    
samarskite1 she found an insoluble      
residue which led her to believe might  
contain unknown elements4 ,this view she
 repeatedly expressed to her co-workers 
in the laboratory4 ,but she was         
unwilling to take from what she regarded
 more important work the time necessary 
for making investigations which might   
have given her undying fame as a        
discoverer4 ,for not long afterward this
 insoluble residue1 in the hands of two 
,french chemists1 yielded the           
exceedingly rare elements1 samarium and 

gadolinium4  ,another chemist of a less 
altruistic nature than ,mrs4 ,richards  
would not have resisted the temptation  
to achieve distinction in the domain of 
original research4 ,but where there was 
so much suffering to be relieved and so 
much ignorance to be removed regarding  
the most fundamental principles of      
sanitation1 this philanthropic woman    
preferred to put to practical use what  
she called the considerable body of     
useful knowledge now lying on our       
shelves4  ,her duty1 as she conceived   
it1 is well indicated in the following  
paragraph1 taken from a thoughtful      
discussion by her of the subject of home
 economics a short time before her death
 in #aiaa4 ,the sanitary research worker
 in laboratory and field1 she declares1 
has gone nearly to the limit of his     
value4 ,he will soon be smothered in his
 own work1 if no one takes it4          
,meanwhile children die by the          
thousands2 contagious diseases take toll
 of hundreds2 back alleys remain foul   

and the streets are unswept2            
school-houses are unwashed and danger   
lurks in the drinking cups and about the
 towels4 ,dust is stirred up each       
morning with the feather duster to greet
 the warm1 moist noses and throats of   
the children4 ,to the watchful expert it
 seems like the old cities dancing and  
making merry on the eve of a volcanic   
outbreak4#aei  ,from the day in #ahgc   
when ,mrs4 ,richards received from the  
,institute of ,technology the degree of 
,bachelor of ,science--a degree which   
made her not only the first woman       
graduate of this institution1 but also  
the first graduate in the ,united       
,states of a strictly scientific seat of
 learning--the number of women who have 
devoted themselves to chemical pursuits 
is legion4 ,they are now found in every 
civilized country in both hemispheres   
and their number is daily increasing4   
,they are everywhere doing excellent    
work as teachers in classrooms and      
laboratories and holding their own with 

men as chemical experts in manufacturing
 establishments and government          
institutions4 ,many of them have done   
original work of a high order1 and      
distinguished themselves by their       
valuable contributions to contemporary  
chemical literature4 ,space1 however1   
precludes more than a general reference 
to their achievements1 for the names    
only of those who have done meritorious 
work in chemistry would make a very long
 list4  ,passing over1 then1 all the    
lesser feminine lights in chemistry who1
 in various fields of activity1 have    
rendered such distinct service during   
the past generation1 we come to one who 
for nearly two decades has stood in the 
forefront of the great chemists of the  
world4 ,this is that renowned daughter  
of ,poland1 ,mme4 ,marie ,klodowska     
,curie1 whose name will always be       
identified with some of the most        
remarkable discoveries which have ever  
been made in the long-continued study of
 the material universe4  ,marie         

,klodowska was born in ,warsaw1 in      
#ahfh4 ,her father was a professor of   
chemistry in the university of the      
former ,polish capital2 and it is       
undoubtedly from him that his           
brilliantly dowered daughter has        
inherited her love of chemistry and her 
extraordinary genius for scientific     
research4 ,owing to the paltry salary he
 received1 ,professor ,klodowska was    
obliged to make little ,marie his       
laboratory assistant while she was quite
 a young girl4 ,instead1 then1 of       
playing with tops and dolls1 her time   
was occupied in cleaning evaporating    
dishes and test tubes and in assisting  
her father to prepare for his lectures  
and experiments4 ,and it was thus that1 
at an early age1 she acquired a taste   
for that science in which she was       
subsequently to achieve such world-wide 
fame4  ,while still a young woman1 her  
love of science drew her to ,paris1     
where she arrived with only fifty francs
 in her purse4 ,but1 possessed of       

dauntless courage and unfaltering       
perseverance1 she was prepared to make  
any sacrifice in the pursuit of         
knowledge4  ,her first home in the gay  
,french metropolis was a poorly         
furnished garret in an obscure part of  
the city1 and her diet was for so long a
 time restricted to black bread and     
skimmed milk that she afterward avowed  
that she had to cultivate a taste for   
wine and meat4 ,and so intensely cold   
was her cheerless room in winter that   
the little bottle of milk which was     
daily left at her door was speedily     
congealed4 ,at this time the poor girl  
was living on less than ten cents a day1
 but still cherishing all the while the 
fond hope that she might eventually     
secure a position as a student assistant
 in some good chemical laboratory4      
,after a long struggle with poverty and 
after countless disappointments in quest
 of a position where she could gratify  
her ambition as a student of chemistry1 
she finally found occupation as a poorly

 paid assistant in the laboratory       
conducted by ,professor ,lipmann4 ,she  
was not1 however1 at work a week before 
this distinguished investigator         
recognized in the young woman one whose 
knowledge of chemistry and faculty for  
original research were far above the    
average4 ,she was accordingly           
transferred without delay from the      
menial employment in which she had been 
engaged and given every possible        
facility for prosecuting work as an     
original investigator4  ,it was shortly 
after this event that ,marie ,klodowska 
met the noted savant1 ,pierre ,curie4   
,he was not long in discovering in her a
 kindred spirit--one who1 besides having
 exceptional talent in experimental     
chemistry1 was actuated by an ardent    
love of science4 ,it was then that he   
determined to make her his wife4 ,a     
single sentence in a letter he wrote at 
this time to the object of his          
admiration and affection reveals1 better
 than anything else1 the devotion of    

this matchless pair in the cause of     
science4 ,what a great thing it would   
be1 he exclaims1 to unite our lives and 
work together for the sake of science   
and humanity4 ,these simple words were  
the keynote to the ideal life led by    
this incomparable couple during the     
eleven years they worked together in    
perfect unity of thought and aspiration 
before the sudden and premature         
extinction of the husband's life gave   
such a shock to the entire scientific   
world4  ,after her marriage the gifted  
young ,polish woman had reached the goal
 of her ambition4 ,she was able to      
devote herself exclusively to what was  
henceforth to constitute her life work  
in one of the best laboratories of      
,paris1 that of the ,ecole de ,physique 
et de ,chimie1 and that1 too1 in        
collaboration with her husband1 from    
whom she was never separated during the 
entire period of their married life for 
even a single day4  ,it was about this  
time that ,mme4 ,curie had her interest 

aroused by the brilliant discoveries of 
,roentgen and ,becquerel regarding      
radiant matter4 ,after a long series of 
carefully conducted experiments on the  
compounds of uranium and thorium1 she1  
with the intuition of genius1 opened up 
to the world of science an entirely new 
field of research4 ,but she soon        
realized that the labor involved in the 
investigations which she had planned was
 entirely beyond the capacity of any one
 person4 ,it was then that she succeeded
 in enlisting her husband's interest in 
the undertaking which was to lead to    
such marvelous results4  ,confining     
their work to a careful analytical study
 of the residue of the famous ,bohemian 
pitchblend--an extremely complex        
mineral1 largely composed of oxide of   
uranium--they soon found themselves     
confronted by most extraordinary        
radio-active phenomena4 ,continuing     
their researches1 their labor was       
rewarded by the discovery of a new      
element which ,mme4 ,curie1 in her      

enthusiasm1 named in honor of the land  
of her birth1 polonium4  ,as their      
investigations progressed1 they became  
correspondingly difficult4 ,they were   
dealing with substances which exist in  
pitchblend residue only in infinitesimal
 quantities--not more than three troy   
grams to the ton4 ,the difficulties they
 had to contend with were enough to     
discourage the stoutest heart4 ,few     
believed in their theories1 while the   
majority of those who had some          
intimation of the character of their    
work were persuaded that they were      
pursuing a phantom4 ,but the            
indefatigable pair toiled on day and    
night and continued their experiments   
through long years of poverty and       
deferred hopes4  ,considering the       
herculean task in which they were       
engaged for so many years1 we scarcely  
know which to admire most1 their        
clearness of vision1 which made them    
divine success2 their profound          
knowledge1 which guided them in the     

choice of reagents2 or the indomitable  
perseverance which characterized them in
 their laborious task and in the        
countless sacrifices which they were    
obliged to make before their efforts    
were crowned with success4  ,during this
 long search into the inner heart of    
nature1 ,pierre ,curie was often so     
discouraged and depressed that1 had he  
not been sustained by his more sanguine 
wife1 he would time and again have given
 up his investigations in despair4 ,but 
,marie ,curie never faltered4 ,she never
 lost faith in their theories or        
confidence in the outcome of their great
 undertaking4 ,before her deft hands and
 fertile brain difficulties vanished as 
if under the magic wand of ,prospero4   
,at length1 after countless experiments 
of the most delicate character1 after   
bringing to bear on the solution of the 
problem before them the most refined    
methods of chemical analysis1 they were 
rewarded by one of the most             
extraordinary discoveries recorded in   

the annals of science4 ,with the        
announcement of the discovery of radium1
 the ,curies sprang into world-wide     
fame1 and the name of the wonderful     
woman who had been the prime mover in   
the supreme achievement was on every    
lip4 ,pierre ,curie himself declared    
that more than half of the epochal      
discovery belonged to his wife4 ,it was 
she who began the work4 ,it was she who1
 after her marriage1 enlisted in it the 
cooperation of her husband4 ,it was she 
whose invincible patience and           
persistence--typical of the noblest     
representatives of her race--supported  
him during periods of doubt and         
despondency and fanned his flagging     
spirits to new endeavor4 ,it can indeed 
be truthfully asserted that had it not  
been for her penetrating intelligence1  
her tenacity of purpose and her keenness
 of vision1 which were never at fault1  
the great victory which crowned their   
efforts would never have been           
achieved4#afj  ,compare their work with 

that which was accomplished by their    
illustrious predecessors1 ,antoine      
,laurent ,lavoisier1 and his wife1 a    
century earlier4 ,the latter1 by their  
discovery of and experiments with       
oxygen1 were able to explain the until  
then mysterious phenomena of combustion 
and respiration and to coordinate       
numberless facts which had before stood 
isolated and enigmatic4 ,but the reverse
 was the case in the discovery of that  
extraordinary and uncanny element1      
radium4 ,it completely subverted many   
long-established theories and           
necessitated an entirely new view of the
 nature of energy and of the            
constitution of matter4 ,a substance    
that seemed capable of emitting light   
and heat indefinitely1 with little or no
 appreciable change or transformation1  
appeared to sap the very foundations of 
the fundamental principle of the        
conservation of energy4  ,subsequent    
investigations seemed only to render    
confusion worse confounded4 ,they       

appeared to justify the dreams of the   
alchemists of old1 not only regarding   
the transmutation of metals but also    
respecting the elixir of life4 ,for was 
not this apparently absurd idea         
vindicated by the observed curative     
properties--bordering almost on the     
miraculous--this marvelous element was  
reputed to possess6 ,its virtues1 it was
 averred1 transcended the fabled        
properties of the famous red tincture   
and the philosopher's stone combined1   
and many were prepared to find in it a  
panacea for the most distressing of     
human ailments1 from lupus and rodent   
ulcer to cancer and other frightful     
forms of morbid degeneration4#afa  ,and 
the end is not yet4 ,continued          
investigations1 made in all parts of the
 world since the discovery of radium by 
the ,curies1 have but emphasized its    
mysterious properties1 and compelled a  
revision of many of our most cherished  
theories in chemistry1 physics and      
astronomy4 ,no one single discovery1 not

 even ,pasteur's far-reaching discovery 
of microbic life1 it may safely be      
asserted1 has ever been more subversive 
of long-accepted views in certain       
domains of science1 or given rise to    
more perplexing problems regarding      
matters which were previously thought to
 be thoroughly understood4  ,never in   
the entire history of science have the  
results of a woman's scientific         
researches been so stupendous or so     
revolutionary4 ,and never has any one   
achievement in science reflected more   
glory on womankind than that which is so
 largely due to the genius and the      
perseverance of ,mme4 ,curie4  ,after   
their startling discovery1 honors and   
tributes to their genius came in rapid  
succession to the gifted couple4 ,on the
 recommendation of the venerable        
,british savant1 ,lord ,kelvin1 they    
were awarded the ,davy gold medal by the
 ,royal ,society4 ,shortly after this   
they shared with ,m4 ,h4 ,becquerel in  
the ,nobel prize for physics bestowed on

 them by ,sweden4 ,then came laggard    
,france with its decoration of the      
,legion of ,honor4 ,but it was offered  
only to the man4 ,there was nothing for 
the woman4 ,pierre ,curie showed his    
spirit and chivalry by declining to     
accept the proffered honor unless his   
wife could share it with him4 ,his      
answer was simple1 but its meaning could
 not be mistaken4 ,this decoration1 he  
said1 has no bearing on my work4#afb    
,shortly after her husband's death ,mme4
 ,curie was appointed as his successor  
as special lecturer in the ,sorbonne4   
,this was the first time that this      
conservative old university ever invited
 a woman to a full professorship4 ,but  
she soon showed that she was thoroughly 
competent to fill the position with     
honor and eclat4 ,she has the elite of  
society and the world's most noted men  
of science among her auditors4 ,the     
crowned heads of the ,old ,world eagerly
 seek an opportunity to witness her     
experiments and hear her discourse on   

what is by all odds the most marvelous  
element in nature4  ,mme4 ,curie has not
 allowed her lectures in the ,sorbonne  
to interfere with the continuation of   
the researches which have won for her   
such world-wide renown4 ,since the      
sudden taking off of her husband by a   
passing truck on a ,paris bridge1 she   
has succeeded in isolating both radium  
and polonium--only the chlorides and    
bromides of these elements were         
previously known--besides doing other   
work scarcely less remarkable4 ,and     
besides all this1 she has also found    
time to write a connected account of her
 investigations under the title of      
,traite de ,radio-,activite--a work that
 reflects as much honor on her sex as   
did ,le ,instituzioni ,analitiche of    
,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi1 which won for  
her1 through that celebrated patron of  
learning1 ,benedict ,,xiv1 the chair of 
higher mathematics in the ,university of
 ,bologna4  ,the list of learned        
societies to which ,mme4 ,curie belongs 

is an extended one4 ,to mention only a  
few1 she is an honorary or foreign      
member of the ,london ,chemical         
,society1 the ,royal ,institution of    
,great ,britain1 the ,royal ,swedish    
,academy1 the ,american ,chemical       
,society1 the ,american ,philosophical  
,society1 and the ,imperial ,academy of 
,sciences of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,from the
 universities of ,geneva and ,edinburgh 
she has received the honorary degree of 
doctor4  ,in #ahih she received the     
,gegner prize from the ,french ,academy 
of ,sciences for her elaborate          
researches on the magnetic properties of
 iron and steel1 as also for her        
investigations relating to              
radio-activity4 ,the same prize was     
again awarded to her in #aijj1 and still
 again in #aijc4 ,with her husband she  
received in #aija the ,la ,caze prize of
 ten thousand francs2 and in #aijc she  
received a part of the ,osiris prize of 
sixty thousand francs4 ,since her       
husband's death in #aijf ,mme4 ,curie   

has been awarded the coveted ,nobel     
prize in chemistry1 which was placed in 
her hand by the ,king of ,sweden on     
,december #aa1 #aiaa--;a prize which    
increased the exchequer of the fair     
recipient by nearly two hundred thousand
 francs4 ,having before been the        
beneficiary of the ,nobel prize for     
physics1 in conjunction with her husband
 and ,m4 ,h4 ,becquerel1 ,mme4 ,curie is
 thus the first person to be twice      
singled out for the world 's highest    
financial recognition of scientific     
research4  ,it would take too long to   
enumerate all the medals and prizes and 
honors which have come to this          
remarkable woman from foreign countries4
 ,but she has doubtless been the        
recipient of more trophies of undying   
fame during the last decade and a half  
than any other one person during the    
same brief period of intellectual       
activity4 ,and all these tokens of      
recognition of genius were showered upon
 her not because she was a woman1 but in

 spite of this fact4 ,had she been a    
man1 she would have been honored with   
the other distinctions which tradition  
and prejudice still persist in denying  
to one of the proscribed sex1 no matter 
how great her merit or how signal her   
achievements4  ,at a recent scientific  
congress1 held in ,brussels1 it was     
decided to prepare a standard of        
measurement of radium emanations4 ,it   
was the unanimous opinion of the        
congress that ,mme4 ,curie was better   
equipped than any other person for      
establishing such a standard2 and she   
was accordingly requested to undertake  
the delicate and difficult task--a      
commission which she executed to the    
satisfaction of all concerned4  ,this   
unit of measurement1 it is gratifying to
 learn1 will be known as the curie--a   
word which will enter the same category 
as the volt1 the ohm1 the ampere1 the   
farad1 and a few others which will      
perpetuate the names of the world's     
greatest geniuses in the domain of      

experimental science4  ,when1 not long  
since1 there was a vacancy among the    
immortals of the ,french ,academy1 there
 was a generally expressed desire that  
it should be filled by one who was      
universally recognized as among the     
foremost of living scientists4 ,the name
 of ,mme4 ,curie trembled on every lip2 
and the hope was entertained that the   
,academy would honor itself by admitting
 the world-famed savante among its      
members4 ,considering her achievements1 
she had no competitor1 and was1 in the  
estimation of all outside of the        
,academy1 the one person in ,france who 
was most deserving of the coveted honor4
  ,but no4 ,she was a woman2 and for    
that reason alone she was excluded from 
an institution the sole object of whose 
establishment was the reward of merit   
and the advancement of learning4 ,the   
age-old prejudice against women who     
devote themselves to the study of       
science1 or who contribute to the       
progress of knowledge1 was still as     

dominant as it was in the days of ,maria
 ,gaetana ,agnesi1 a century and a half 
before4 ,mme4 ,curie1 like her famous   
sister in ,italy1 might win the plaudits
 of the world for her achievements2 but 
she could have no recognition from the  
one institution1 above all others1 that 
was specially founded to foster the     
development of science and literature1  
and to crown the efforts of those who   
had proven themselves worthy of the     
,academy's highest honor4 ,the attitude 
of the ,french institution toward ,mme4 
,curie was exactly like that of the     
,royal ,society of ,great ,britain when 
,mrs4 ,ayrton's name was up for         
membership4 ,the answer to both         
applicants was in effect1 if not in     
words1 ,no woman need apply4  ,when one 
reads of the sad experiences of ,mme4   
,curie and ,mrs4 ,ayrton with the       
learned societies of ,paris and ,london1
 one instinctively asks1 ,when will the 
day come when women1 in every part of   
the civilized world1 shall enjoy all the

 rights and privileges in every field of
 intellectual effort which have so long 
been theirs in the favored land of      
,dante and ,beatrice--the motherland of 
learned societies and universities8 ,for
 not until the advent of the day when   
such exclusive organizations as the     
,royal ,society and the ,french ,academy
 of ,sciences1 such ultra-conservative  
universities as ,oxford and ,cambridge  
shall admit women on the same footing as
 men1 will these institutions be more   
than half serving the best interests of 
humanity4#afc  ,women1 it is true1 are  
now eligible to many literary and       
scientific associations from which they 
were formerly debarred1 and are1 in most
 countries1 admitted to colleges and    
universities whose portals were closed  
to them until only a few years ago2 but 
until they shall be welcomed to all     
universities and all societies whose    
objects are the advancement of          
knowledge1 until they shall participate 
in the advantages and prestige accruing 

from connection with these              
organizations1 they will have reason to 
feel that they are not yet in the full  
possession of the intellectual          
advantages for which they have so long  
yearned--that they have been but        
partially liberated from that           
educational disqualification in which   
they have been held during so many long 
centuries of deferred hopes and         
fruitless struggles4  ,,footnotes3  #aeh
 ,lavoisier #agdc-agid1 d'apres sa      
,correspondence1 ,ses ,manuscrits1 ,ses 
,papiers de ,famille et d',autres       
,documents ,inedits1 p4 #db et seq41 par
 ,e4 ,grimaux1 ,paris1 #ahif4  #aei ,the
 ,life of ,ellen ,h4 ,richards1 p4 #bgc 
et seq41 by ,caroline ,l4 ,hunt1        
,boston1 #aiab4  #afj ,mme4 ,curie1 in  
an article which she wrote shortly after
 her discovery of radium1 shows that she
 possesses a genius for inductive       
science of the highest type4 ,it was at 
the close of the year #ahig1 she writes1
 that ,i began to study the compounds of

 uranium1 the properties of which had   
greatly attracted my interest4 ,here was
 a substance emitting spontaneously and 
continually radiations similar to       
,roentgen rays1 whereas ordinarily1     
,roentgen rays can be produced only in a
 vacuum tube with the expenditure of    
electrical energy4 ,by what process can 
uranium furnish the same rays without   
expenditure of energy and without       
undergoing apparent modification8 ,is   
uranium the only body whose compounds   
emit similar rays8 ,such were the       
questions ,i asked myself2 and it was   
while seeking to answer them that ,i    
entered into the researches which have  
led to the discovery of radium4 ,radium 
and ,radio-,activity in ,the ,century   
,magazine1 for ,january1 #aijd4  #afa   
,notice sur ,pierre ,curie1 p4 #bj et   
seq41 by ,m4 ,d4 ,gernez1 ,paris1 #aijg1
 and ,le ,radium1 ,son ,origine et ses  
,transformations1 by ,m4 ,l4            
,houllerigue1 in ,la ,revue de ,paris1  
,may #a1 #aiaa4  #afb ,the day following

 ,pierre ,curie's refusal of the        
decoration offered by the ,government1  
the elder of his two daughters1 little  
,irene1 climbed upon her father's knee  
and put a red geranium in the lapel of  
his coat4 ,now1 papa1 she gravely       
remarked1 you are decorated with the    
,legion of ,honor4 ,in this case1 the   
fond father replied1 ,i make no         
objection4  #afc ,a few days before     
,mme4 ,curie's name was to come before  
the ,academy of ,sciences as a candidate
 for membership1 the ,french ,institute 
in its quarterly plenary meeting of the 
five academies1 of which the ,institute 
is composed1 decided by a vote of ninety
 to fifty-two against the eligibility of
 women to membership1 and put itself on 
record in favor of the immutable        
tradition against the election of women1
 which it seemed eminently wise to      
respect4  ,commenting on this decision  
of ,the ,immortals1 a writer in the     
well-known ,english magazine1 ,nature1  
under date of ,january #ab1 #aiaa1      

penned the following pertinent          
paragraph3  ,it remains to be seen what 
the ,academy of ,sciences will do in the
 face of such an expression of opinion4 
,mme4 ,curie is deservedly popular in   
,french scientific circles4 ,it is      
everywhere recognized that her work is  
of transcendent merit1 and that it has  
contributed enormously to the prestige  
of ,france as a home of experimental    
inquiry4 ,indeed1 it is not too much to 
say that the discovery and isolation of 
the radio-active elements are among the 
most striking and fruitful results of a 
field of investigation preeminently     
,french4 ,if any prophet is to have     
honour in his own country--even if the  
country be only the land of his         
adoption--surely1 that honour ought to  
belong to ,mme4 ,curie4 ,at this moment1
 ,mme4 ,curie is without doubt1 in the  
eyes of the world1 the dominant figure  
in ,french chemistry4 ,there is no      
question that any man who had           
contributed to the sum of human         

knowledge what she has made known1 would
 years ago have gained that recognition 
at the hands of his colleagues1 which   
,mme4 ,curie's friends are now desirous 
of securing for her4 ,it is             
incomprehensible1 therefore1 on any     
ethical principles of right and justice 
that1 because she happens to be a woman1
 she should be denied the laurels which 
her preeminent scientific achievement   
has earned for her4  ,compare this frank
 and honest statement with that of a    
contributor1 about the same date1 to ,la
 ,revue du ,monde1 of ,paris4 ,guided by
 his myopic vision and diseased         
imagination1 this writer discerns in the
 admittance of women into the grand old 
institution of ,richelieu and ,napoleon 
the imminent triumph of what ,prudhon   
called pornocracy and the eventual      
opening of the portals of the ,palais   
,mazarin to representatives of the type 
of ,lais and ,phryne1 on the ,hellenic  
pretext that ,beauty is the supreme     
merit4  ,it is gratifying1 however1 to  

the friends of woman's cause to learn   
that ,mme4 ,curie's candidacy was       
defeated by only two votes4 ,her        
competitor1 ,m4 ,branly1 received thirty
 votes against the ,polish woman's      
twenty-eight4 ,she thus fared far better
 than did ,mme4 ,pauline ,savari1 who   
aspired to the fauteuil made vacant by  
the death of ,renan1 regarding whose    
candidature the ,academy curtly         
declared1 ,considering that its         
traditions do not permit it to examine  
this question1 the ,academy passes to   
the order of the day4 ,thus1 it will be 
seen that1 in spite of the              
long-continued opposition to women      
members1 the ,french ,academy is more   
than likely to offer its next vacant    
chair to the pride and glory of         
,poland1--the immortal discoverer of    
radium and polonium4     ,,chapter ,,vii
  ,,women ,,in ,,the ,,natural          
,,sciences   ,it is reasonable to       
suppose that women1 who are such lovers 
of nature1 have always had a greater or 

less interest in the natural sciences1  
especially in botany and zoology2 but   
the fact remains that the first one of  
their sex to write at any length on the 
various kingdoms of nature was that     
extraordinary nun of the ,middle ,ages1 
,st4 ,hildegard1 the learned abbess of  
the ,benedictine convent of ,st4        
,rupert1 at ,bingen on the ,rhine4 ,of  
an exceptionally versatile and inquiring
 mind1 her range of study and           
acquirement was truly encyclopaedic4 ,in
 this respect she was the worthy        
forerunner of ,albert the ,great1 the   
famous ,doctor ,universalis of          
,scholasticism4  ,although ,st4         
,hildegard has much to say about nature 
in several of her works1 the one of     
chiefest interest to us as an exposition
 of the natural history of her time is  
her treatise entitled ,liber            
,subtilitatum ,diversarum ,naturarum    
,creaturarum4 ,it is usually known by   
its more abbreviated name1 ,physica1    
and1 considering the circumstances under

 which it was written1 is1 in many ways1
 a most remarkable production4 ,it      
consists of nine books treating of      
minerals1 plants1 fishes1 birds1 insects
 and quadrupeds4 ,the book on plants is 
composed of no fewer than two hundred   
and thirty chapters1 while that on birds
 contains seventy-two chapters4  ,in    
reading ,hildegard's descriptions of    
animated nature we are often reminded of
 ,pliny's great work on natural history2
 but1 so far as known1 there is no      
positive evidence that the learned      
religieuse had any acquaintance whatever
 with the writings of the old ,roman    
naturalist4 ,had she had1 the general   
tenor of her work would have been quite 
different from what it actually is4     
,the mystery1 then1 is1 what were the   
sources of ,physica8 ,some have fancied 
that ,hildegard in preparing this made  
use of the writings not only of ,pliny  
and ,virgil1 but also of those of       
,macer1 ,constantinus ,africanus1       
,walafrid ,strabo1 ,isodore of ,seville1

 and other writers who were in great    
vogue during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the    
general consensus of opinion1 however1  
of those who have carefully studied this
 interesting problem is that the gentle 
nun was not acquainted with any of the  
authors named1 except1 possibly1        
,isodore of ,seville1 whose works were  
all held in high esteem1 especially     
during the period of ,hildegard's       
greatest literary activity4             
,hildegard's ,physica has a special     
value for philologists1 as well as for  
students of natural history1 for it     
contains the ,german names of plants    
still used by the people of the         
,fatherland seven hundred years after   
they were penned by the painstaking     
abbess of ,st4 ,rupert's4#afd           
,referring to the ,saint's work entitled
 ,de ,natura ,hominis1 ,elementorum1    
,diversarumque ,creaturarum--a treatise 
on the nature of man1 the elements and  
divers created things--no less an       
authority than ,dr4 ,charles ,daremberg 

declares that it will always hold an    
important place in the history of       
medical art and of inanimate and animate
 nature--insignis semper locus debetitur
 in artis medicae rerumque naturalium   
historia4#afe  ,he even goes further and
 affirms that ,hildegard was familiar   
with numerous facts of science regarding
 which other mediaeval writers were     
entirely ignorant4 ,more than this4 ,she
 was acquainted with many of nature's   
secrets which were unknown to men of    
science until recent times1 and which1  
on being disclosed by modern researches1
 have been proclaimed to the world as   
new discoveries4#aff  ,one reason why   
,st4 ,hildegard's writings on botany1   
zoology and mineralogy are not better   
known is that few students care to make 
the effort to master her voluminous     
works4 ,they require long and assiduous 
study and a knowledge of her            
peculiarities of style and expression   
which is acquired only after patient and
 persistent labor4 ,but the labor is not

 in vain1 as is evidenced by the        
numerous monographs which have appeared 
in recent years1 especially in ,germany1
 on the scientific works of this        
marvelous nun of the twelfth century4   
,all things considered1 the ,abbess of  
,bingen may be said to hold the same    
position in the natural sciences of her 
time as was held in the physical and    
mathematical sciences seven hundred     
years earlier by the illustrious        
,hypatia of ,alexandria4  ,after the    
death of ,st4 ,hildegard1 full six      
centuries elapsed before any one of her 
sex again achieved distinction in the   
domain of natural science4 ,and then1   
strange to relate1 the first woman who  
won fame by her knowledge of science and
 by her contributions to it1 did so in  
the field where a woman would1 one would
 think1 be least disposed to exercise   
her talent and least likely to find     
congenial work4 ,it was in the then     
comparatively new science of human      
anatomy--a science which had been       

inaugurated in the famous medical       
schools of ,salerno and which was       
subsequently so highly developed in the 
great ,university of ,bologna4  ,the    
name of this remarkable woman was ,anna 
,morandi ,manzolini4 ,she was born in   
#agaf in ,bologna1 where1 after a       
brilliant career in her favorite branch 
of science1 she died at the age of      
fifty-eight4 ,she held the chair of     
anatomy in the ,university of ,bologna  
for many years1 and is noted for a      
number of important discoveries made as 
the result of her dissections of        
cadavers4  ,but she won a still greater 
title to fame by the marvelous skill    
which she exhibited in making anatomical
 models out of indurated wax4 ,they were
 so carefully fashioned that some of    
them could scarcely be distinguished    
from the parts of the body from which   
they were modeled4 ,as aids in the study
 of anatomy they were most highly valued
 and eagerly sought for on all sides4   
,the collection which she made for her  

own use was1 after her death1 acquired  
by the ,medical ,institute of ,bologna  
and prized as one of its most precious  
possessions4  ,three years after her    
demise1 ,luigi ,galvani1 professor of   
anatomy in the same university in which 
,anna had achieved such fame1 made use  
of these wax models for a course of     
lectures on the organs and structure of 
the human body4  ,these famous models1  
first perfected by ,anna ,manzolini1    
were the archetypes of the exquisite wax
 models of ,vassourie as well as of the 
unrivaled papier-mache creations of ,dr4
 ,auzoux and of all similar productions 
now so extensively used in our schools  
and colleges4  ,even during the lifetime
 of the gifted modeler there were       
demands for specimens of her work from  
all parts of ,italy4 ,from many cities  
in ,europe1 even from ,london and ,st4  
,petersburg1 she received the most      
flattering offers for her services4 ,so 
eager was ,milan to have her accept a   
position which had been offered her that

 the city authorities sent her a blank  
contract and begged her to name her own 
conditions4 ,but she could never be     
induced to leave the home of her        
childhood and the city which had        
witnessed and applauded her triumphs of 
maturer years4  ,men of learning and    
eminence1 on passing through ,bologna1  
invariably made it a point to call on   
the learned professora in order to make 
her acquaintance and to see her         
wonderful anatomical collection1 which  
was celebrated throughout ,europe as    
,supellex ,manzoliniana4 ,among these   
visitors was ,joseph ,,ii of ,austria4  
,so greatly was ,his ,majesty impressed 
by ,anna's rare intellectual attainments
 and by her marvelous skill in          
reproducing the various parts of the    
human form divine that he could not take
 leave of her without showing his       
appreciation of them by loading her with
 gifts worthy of a sovereign4#afg  ,a   
contemporary of ,anna ,manzolini1 who   
also distinguished herself in the       

preparation of anatomical models1 was   
the ,french woman1 ,mlle4 ,biheron4 ,her
 facsimiles of parts of the human body  
were1 according to ,mme4 de ,genlis1 so 
true to nature that they could not be   
distinguished from the originals4 ,this 
led the facetious ,chevalier ,ringle1   
after examining a specimen of her       
handiwork1 to declare1 ,verily1 it is so
 perfect that it lacks only the odor of 
the natural object4  ,while yet prince  
royal1 ,gustavus of ,sweden visited the 
,french ,academy of ,sciences in ,paris4
 ,here he was entertained by a number of
 experiments in anatomy4 ,the           
demonstrator was ,mlle4 ,biheron1 who is
 said to have had a veritable passion   
for both anatomy and surgery4 ,so       
impressed was ,gustavus with the        
extraordinary skill and knowledge of    
this gifted daughter of ,france that he 
offered her the position of demonstrator
 of anatomy in the royal ,university of 
,sweden4  ,other branches of science1   
apparently quite as alien as anatomy to 

women's taste and talent1 are mineralogy
 and metallurgy4 ,yet as early as the   
first half of the seventeenth century1  
the ,baroness de ,beausoleil had        
achieved a great reputation by her      
investigations into the mineral         
treasures of ,france4 ,indeed1 she may1 
strange as it may appear1 be regarded as
 the first mining engineer of her native
 land4 ,she details the qualifications  
of a mining engineer and tells us he    
must1 among other things1 be well versed
 in chemistry1 mineralogy1 geometry1    
mechanics and hydraulics4 ,as for       
herself1 she assures us that she devoted
 thirty years of unremitting study to   
these divers branches4  ,to ,mme4 de    
,beausoleil is also attributed the glory
 of awakening her countrymen's interest 
in the mineral resources of ,france1 and
 of showing them how their proper       
exploitation would inure not only to the
 credit of the nation abroad but also to
 its prosperity at home4  ,she was the  
author of two works which prove that she

 was a woman of rare attainments        
combined with exceptional breadth of    
view and political acumen4 ,she was     
deeply concerned in the development of  
the mineral resources of her country and
 foresaw how greatly they could be made 
to contribute to the augmentation of the
 nation's finances4  ,her work entitled 
,la ,restitution de ,pluton is a report 
on the mines and ore deposits of        
,france1 and is a document as precious  
as it is curious4 ,it was addressed to  
,cardinal ,richelieu1 and shows how the 
,french monarch could1 if the           
subterranean treasures of the country   
were properly developed1 become the     
greatest ruler in ,christendom and his  
subjects the happiest of all peoples4   
,another report by this energetic and   
enthusiastic woman is in the same       
strain4 ,in it she proves how the ,king 
of ,france1 by utilizing the underground
 riches of his country1 could make      
himself and his people independent of   
all other nations4#afh  ,in these two   

productions ,mme4 de ,beausoleil treats 
of the science of mining1 the different 
kinds of mines1 the assaying of ores and
 the divers methods of smelting them1 as
 well as of the general principles of   
metallurgy1 as then understood4 ,but1   
unlike the majority of her              
contemporaries1 this enlightened woman  
had no patience with those who believed 
that the earth's hidden treasures could 
not be discovered without recourse to   
magic or to the aid of demons4 ,she was 
unsparing in her ridicule of those who  
had faith in the existence of gnomes and
 kobolds1 or thought that ore deposits  
could be located only by divining-rods  
or similar foolish contrivances which   
were relics of an ignorant and          
superstitious age4  ,the same century   
that witnessed the exploring activity of
 the ,baroness de ,beausoleil saw the   
beginnings of the notable achievements  
of a daughter of ,germany1 well known in
 the annals of science as ,maria        
,sibylla ,merian4 ,born in ,frankfort in

 #afdg1 she died in ,amsterdam in #agag1
 after a somewhat checkered career1 most
 of which was devoted to the pursuit of 
natural history4 ,so fond was she of    
flowers and insects that it is said they
 told her all their secrets4  ,after    
having familiarized herself with the    
fauna and flora of her native land1 she 
proceeded to investigate the collections
 of the principal ,european cabinets of 
natural history4 ,this only fired her   
ambition to see more of the world and   
study ,nature where she is seen in her  
greatest splendor and luxuriance4  ,she 
accordingly resolved to undertake a     
journey to the equatorial regions of    
,south ,america4 ,such a voyage can now 
be made with comparative ease1 but in   
her days it was fraught with discomforts
 and dangers of all kinds1 and one that 
no woman thought to venture on unless   
obliged to do so by stern necessity4    
,but she was set on investigating       
animals and plants in their own habitats
 in the glorious and exuberant flora of 

the tropics and1 accompanied by her two 
daughters1 ,helena and ,dorothea1 she   
embarked for ,surinam4 ,here1 assisted  
by her daughters1 who1 like their       
mother1 were both skillful artists1 the 
intrepid naturalist spent two years in  
studying the wonders of plant and animal
 life that everywhere greeted her       
delighted vision4 ,all the time not     
occupied in research work was devoted to
 sketching and painting those superb    
insects that are so abundant in tropical
 fields and forests4#afi  ,returning to 
,holland with her precious scientific   
treasures1 she began the preparation of 
a work that will long endure as a       
monument to her knowledge and industry4 
,it was a magnificent volume in folio on
 the insects of ,surinam4 ,it appeared  
simultaneously in ,dutch and ,latin1 and
 was subsequently translated into       
,french4  ,in illustrating this         
sumptuous work1 ,frau ,merian was       
greatly assisted by her younger         
daughter1 ,dorothea4 ,the etchings and  

hand-colored reproductions of the       
gorgeous butterflies and flowers of     
,surinam commanded universal admiration1
 and marked a new epoch in book-making4 
,even to-day this noble volume is       
eagerly sought by both book-lovers and  
men of science1 for it is not only a    
work of rare conception and beauty but  
also one of exceptional accuracy in     
illustration and statement of fact4#agj 
,besides etchings of multiform insects1 
lizards and batrachians indigenous to   
,dutch ,guiana1 there were in this      
unique volume carefully executed        
illustrations of plants and trees       
peculiar to tropical ,america1 such as  
vanilla1 cacao1 and the species of      
manihot which constitutes the staff of  
life of so large a portion of the       
population in the basins of the ,amazon 
and the ,orinoco4  ,a new and enlarged  
edition of this work was published after
 ,frau ,merian's death by her daughter  
,dorothea4 ,the same gifted daughter    
showed her interest in her parent's work

 and her devotion to her memory by      
bringing out a beautifully illustrated  
edition of her mother's earliest work   
which treated of the wonderful          
life-history of silkworms4#aga  ,the    
century following that which had        
celebrated the scientific triumphs of   
,maria ,merian found in ,josephine      
,kablick1 born in #aghg in ,hohenelbe1  
,bohemia1 a woman who was destined to   
prove a worthy successor1 as a          
nature-student1 of the noted daughter of
 ,frankfort-on-the-,main4  ,from her    
tenderest years she exhibited a         
passionate love for every form of plant 
life4 ,in addition to this1 she had1    
while yet young1 the good fortune of    
studying under the best botanists of her
 time4  ,soon she became an enthusiastic
 collector and was in a short time the  
happy possessor of a herbarium which    
contained many new species of plants    
which she had discovered during her     
frequent botanical excursions4 ,from    
making collections for her private      

herbarium1 she was gradually led to make
 collections for the schools and        
colleges of her native country1 as well 
as for the museums and learned societies
 of various parts of ,europe4 ,many     
public institutions owed to her cordial 
cooperation some of the choicest        
treasures in their herbaria1 and not a  
few botanical writers of her day found  
in her an intelligent and sympathetic   
collaborator4  ,but ,frau ,kablick's    
interest in nature was not confined to  
plants4 ,she was an assiduous student of
 paleontology as well as of botany1 and 
the many fossil animals and plants named
 in her honor testify to her success in 
the pursuit of her favorite branches of 
science4  ,there was nothing of the     
conventional blue-stocking about this   
ardent votary of nature4 ,strong and    
healthy1 neither wind nor rain          
interfered with her fieldwork in botany 
or paleontology4 ,it was her greatest   
pleasure to roam through dark forests   
and scale high mountains in search of   

new species of plants and fossils4 ,and 
the success which rewarded her efforts  
was such that the old and trained       
naturalists among her male friends had  
reason to envy her good fortune as an   
explorer4  ,but ,frau ,kablick never    
permitted her frequent excursions1 or   
her devotion to science1 to cause her to
 neglect the duties of her household4   
,fortunately1 her husband was also an   
ardent student of nature1 and while his 
wife was devoting her attention to      
botany and paleontology1 he was making  
investigations in zoology and           
mineralogy4 ,they spent fifty happy     
years together in the pursuit of science
 and their joint efforts contributed not
 a little toward the advancement of the 
branches of science to which they had   
devoted their lives with such           
well-directed effort and enthusiasm4    
,as the fruitful life of ,josephine     
,kablick who had shed such luster on her
 sex in ,bohemia was drawing to a close1
 a young woman in ,germany1 ,amalie     

,dietrich by name1 was preparing herself
 to fill the void which would be        
occasioned by her predecessor's death4  
,her first love1 as a young girl1 was   
plant life1 and this was subsequently   
accentuated by her husband1 who was not 
only a botanist himself but also one who
 belonged to a distinguished family of  
botanists4  ,a keen observer and an     
indefatigable collector1 ,frau ,dietrich
 soon became known throughout ,europe as
 a botanist of marked ability and       
daring4 ,she was wont1 unaccompanied1 to
 climb the highest peaks of the         
,salzburg ,alps1 and spend entire weeks 
there seeking new species of ,alpine    
flora4 ,during the day she explored the 
deep ravines and clambered along the    
brambly ledges of beetling precipices1  
and during the night she sought shelter 
and repose in the humble hut of some    
hospitable herdsman4  ,valuable1        
however1 as was ,amalie ,dietrich's work
 in the ,austrian ,alps1 it was but a   
preparation for that which some years   

later she was to enter upon in far-off  
,australia4 ,here she devoted twelve of 
the best years of her life to the       
cultivation of botany in the virgin soil
 of ,queensland4 ,here1 too1 she        
surprised everyone by her venturesome   
spirit no less than by her irrepressible
 zeal in making collections4 ,heedless  
of danger1 she plunged quite alone into 
the wilderness and spent days and weeks 
at a time with the wild aborigines4     
,but she secured what she went in quest 
of1--a large and valuable collection of 
plants1 containing many new and         
interesting species4 ,besides these1 she
 was able to bring back with her to     
,europe a large mass of zoological      
specimens as well as countless domestic 
utensils and implements of warfare and  
husbandry employed by the savages among 
whom she so frequently journeyed and    
with whose manners and customs she      
eventually became so familiar4  ,modest 
and trustworthy1 ,frau ,dietrich had a  
host of friends in the scientific world1

 and the number of plants which bear her
 name are not only a tribute to her     
worth1 but a striking evidence of the   
extent of her activity in the pursuit of
 the science which became the absorbing 
passion of her life4#agb  ,of ,russian  
women who have become specially noted   
for their contributions to natural      
science1 a very prominent place must be 
assigned to ,sophia ,pereyaslawzewa4    
,after receiving the doctorate of       
science in the ,university of ,zurich1  
she became director of the biological   
station at ,sebastopol1 a position she  
held with great eclat during twelve     
years4 ,here she made numerous important
 researches on manifold forms of marine 
life and prepared many works for the    
press in ,german and ,french1 as well as
 in her native ,russian4 ,her           
,monographie de ,turbellaries de la ,mer
 ,noire1 a large and beautifully        
illustrated volume published at ,odessa 
in #ahib1 placed her at once among      
biologists of the first rank4 ,indeed1  

so meritorious was this production of   
the talented daughter of ,holy ,russia  
that the ,congress of ,naturalists in   
#ahic did not hesitate to recognize its 
exceptional value by conferring on the  
fair authoress a special prize4  ,this  
gifted biologist has since rendered     
distinct service in the cause of science
 by her explorations of the ,gulf of    
,naples and the coasts of ,france4 ,her 
activity is prodigious1 and the long    
list of books and monographs which she  
has published on the lower forms of     
marine life in the ,black and           
,mediterranean seas shows that she has a
 capacity for work that is truly        
extraordinary4  ,here is1 probably1 the 
place to make mention of a woman of     
encyclopaedic mind1 ,clemence ,augustine
 ,royer1 who was born in #ahcj in       
,nantes1 ,france4 ,she wrote on such a  
variety of subjects that it is difficult
 to classify her4 ,she was in no sense  
of the word a specialist1 and she seems 
by temperament to have been averse to   

confining herself to any one branch of  
knowledge4  ,her first work to attract  
particular attention was one on a topic 
connected with political economy4 ,a    
prize had been offered for the          
discussion of this subject1 and the     
little ,french woman acquitted herself  
so well that she had the honor of       
sharing the prize with the noted        
,proudhon4 ,she has also written many   
works on philosophy and physics4 ,among 
these are two which attracted           
considerable notice at the time of their
 publication4 ,in one of them she       
attacks the positivism of ,comte2 in the
 other she assails ,laplace's hypothesis
 regarding the origin of the material   
universe4  ,but the work which made her 
famous1 particularly in ,france1 was her
 translation into ,french in #ahfb of   
,darwin's ,origin of ,species4 ,it is   
safe to say that this version created as
 much of a sensation in ,france as the  
original had caused in ,great ,britain  
and ,america4 ,her preface to the work  

of the ,english naturalist1 in which she
 indicates the results which flow from  
an acceptance of the transformist       
theory1 created a veritable storm in    
both religious and scientific circles4  
,so gratified was ,madame ,royer by the 
impression made by this preface and so  
pleased was she with the controversy    
which she had started1 that she expanded
 her summary of the theory of evolution 
as therein given and published it in    
#ahgj under the title of ,origine de    
l',homme et de ,societes4 ,this         
production was so revolutionary in      
character and so subversive of teachings
 long held sacred that it provoked an   
indignant protest from all quarters1 and
 the author was at once ranked with such
 radical exponents of the new science as
 ,voght1 ,buechner and ,haeckel4  ,after
 the appearance of this production1 she 
wrote numerous other works1 several of  
them on subjects relating to natural    
science1 especially in its connection   
with anthropology and prehistoric       

archaeology4 ,and so great was her      
breadth of view and so exceptional was  
her grasp of all subjects discussed by  
her that ,renan declared of her1 ,elle  
est presque un homme de genie--,she is  
almost a man of genius4  ,mme4 ,royer   
was frequently spoken of as a candidate 
for the ,french ,institute1 but she was 
so well aware of the prejudices against 
the admission of women to membership in 
this learned body that she never allowed
 herself to consider the proposal       
seriously4 ,she was certainly a brainy  
woman1 and in her own department of     
intellectual effort she exhibited as    
much talent as did ,george ,sand and    
,mme4 de ,stael in literature and       
history4  ,an entirely different type of
 woman from the radical and disputatious
 ,mme4 ,royer was the charming and      
cultured lady1 ,miss ,eleanor ,ormerod1 
her contemporary1 who1 in her chosen    
department of science1 won both fame and
 the lasting gratitude of her fellowmen4
  ,miss ,ormerod1 unlike ,mme4 ,royer1  

was preeminently a specialist1 and the  
branch of science in which she achieved 
distinction was entomology1 or rather   
that branch of it known as economic     
entomology4 ,from her childhood she     
manifested an unusual interest in all   
forms of insects1 but particularly in   
those which are serviceable to mankind  
or are destructive to farms and gardens1
 orchards and forests4  ,fortunately for
 the gratification of her peculiar bent 
of mind1 nearly half of ,miss ,ormerod's
 life was spent in a locality which was 
specially favorable to the study of     
insects which are obnoxious to the      
gardener1 the farmer and the forester4  
,this was at the confluence of the ,wye 
and the ,severn1 where her father owned 
a large landed estate1 part of which was
 under cultivation and part wood and    
park land4  ,here the young girl made   
her first collection of insects1 and    
here she began her studies on the cause 
and nature of the parasitic attacks upon
 crops4 ,here she first realized the    

frightful ravages that were occasioned  
by the manifold insect pests that infest
 not only trees1 shrubs1 cereals and    
vegetables1 but also flocks and herds as
 well4 ,and here1 too1 she resolved to  
devote her life to devising preventive  
and remedial treatment for the evils    
which were robbing the husbandman of so 
great a part of the fruits of his toil4 
,after taking this generous resolution1 
the life of our young heroine was1 like 
that of ,liebig and ,pasteur1 devoted to
 the welfare of her fellowmen4 ,and like
 these noble benefactors of their race1 
her thought was always how she might    
prevent the losses and increase the     
products of the tillers of the soil4    
,entomology with her was not mere       
nomenclature--a knowledge of strange and
 fantastic names1 which1 with the       
ignorant1 constitutes a distinction--but
 one of the most practical and useful of
 the sciences4  ,miss ,ormerod might1   
had she so elected1 have won fame as a  
systematic entomologist and as a        

distinguished contributor to the already
 long list of genera and species of     
insects4 ,she might have devoted herself
 to theoretical work1 or bent her       
energies towards the general advancement
 of the science1 like ,fabricius1       
,swammerdam1 ,westwood and ,burnmeister2
 but she preferred to forego all the    
glory that might accrue from pursuing   
such a course1 and to direct her efforts
 in such wise as to be of most service  
to humanity4  ,like the great ,pasteur1 
after his long and laborious            
experimental researches on silkworm     
diseases1 ,miss ,ormerod could1 at the  
end of her illustrious career1 declare  
with truth3 ,the results which ,i have  
obtained are1 perhaps1 less brilliant   
than those which ,i might have          
anticipated from researches pursued in  
the field of pure science1 but ,i have  
the satisfaction of having served my    
country in endeavoring1 to the best of  
my ability1 to discover the remedy for  
great misery4 ,it is to the honor of a  

scientific man that he values           
discoveries which at their birth can    
only obtain the esteem of his equals1   
far above those which at once conquer   
the favor of the crowd by the immediate 
utility of their application2 but1 in   
the presence of misfortune1 it is       
equally an honor to sacrifice everything
 in the endeavor to relieve it4#agc     
,miss ,ormerod's labors were not1 it is 
true1 instrumental in rescuing from     
destruction a nation's chief industries1
 as were ,pasteur's in the case of his  
famous researches on the phyloxera of   
the grape vine or the pebrine of the    
silkworm4 ,nor had they to do with such 
frightful industrial disturbances as    
have frequently been occasioned by      
rinderpest or by the potato blight in   
,ireland in #ahde4  ,this is true in so 
far as any one pest is concerned4 ,but  
when one reflects on the scope of ,miss 
,ormerod's investigations and considers 
how far-reaching were her researches and
 how many and diverse industries were   

embraced by the remedial and            
prophylactic measures which she         
proposed1 one cannot but realize the    
immense importance of her life-work4    
,the fact that her activities were      
confined chiefly to old and well-known  
pests--insects from which the farmer and
 the gardener and the forester had      
suffered for centuries1 and which they  
had come to regard as necessary and     
inevitable evils--does not detract from 
the merit and the value of her labors4  
,that she should have taken up a work   
which affected so many people and have  
been so successful in abating1 or in    
entirely removing evils which had so    
long afflicted agriculturists and       
stock-growers1 shows that she was a     
woman of rare courage and determination 
as well as one of invincible persistence
 and of intellectual resources of a very
 high order4  ,during more than a       
quarter of a century ,miss ,ormerod     
devoted practically the whole of her    
time to the study of economic entomology

 and to spreading a knowledge of it     
among her countrymen4 ,from #ahgg to    
#ahih she published annual reports on   
injurious insects and sent them         
broadcast throughout ,great ,britain and
 her colonies4 ,in addition to this she 
wrote a number of manuals and textbooks 
on insects injurious to food crops1     
forest trees1 orchards and bush fruits4 
,nor was this all4 ,she also prepared   
for gratuitous distribution a large     
number of four-page leaflets on the most
 common farm pests4 ,of the leaflet1 for
 instance1 on the warble-fly1 its       
life-history1 methods of prevention and 
remedy1 no less than a hundred and      
seventy thousand copies were printed4   
,and so great was the demand for her    
leaflet on the gooseberry red spider    
that a single mail brought her an order 
for three thousand copies4  ,miss       
,ormerod1 it is proper to state here1   
received no remuneration whatever for   
her great services to the public4 ,on   
the contrary1 she gave not only all her 

time gratuitously1 but bore a great part
 of the expense of printing and         
distributing her publications4 ,the     
amount of good she thus did unaided and 
alone cannot be estimated4  ,in her     
leaflet on the warble-fly1 also known as
 bot-fly1 she estimates the annual      
damage to the stock-growers of the      
,united ,kingdom from this pest at from 
,l#c1jjj1jjj to ,l#d1jjj1jjj4 ,the      
losses due to fruit1 grain and vegetable
 insects of various kinds1 before she   
began her insect crusade1 were much     
greater4 ,in ,great ,britain and her    
colonies they amounted to very many     
millions of pounds sterling every       
year4#agd  ,and most of these losses1 as
 she demonstrated1 were preventable by  
simple precautions which she eventually 
succeeded in inducing the people to     
adopt4 ,how much she was instrumental in
 saving annually to the farmers and     
gardeners of ,england by her writings   
and lectures can only be imagined1 but  
the sum must have been immense4  ,when  

we recollect that ,miss ,ormerod        
accomplished all her work before it     
occurred to the ,english ,board of      
,agriculture to appoint a government    
entomologist1 we shall realize what a   
pioneer she was in the career in which  
she achieved such distinction and       
through which she conferred such        
inestimable benefits upon her fellows4  
,miss ,ormerod's entomological          
publications1 especially her annual     
reports1 brought her into relations with
 people of all classes throughout the   
whole world4 ,her correspondence1 in    
consequence1 was enormous1 and not      
infrequently amounted to from fifty to a
 hundred letters a day4 ,the great      
entomologists of ,europe and ,america   
held her in the highest esteem1 and had 
implicit faith in her judgment in all   
matters pertaining to her specialty4    
,one day she would receive a letter from
 an ,english gardener begging for a     
remedy against the strawberry beetle4   
,the next day she would have a similar  

letter regarding mite-galls on black    
currants1 or pea-weevil larvae or       
clover-eel worms4 ,again there would be 
a communication from ,norway requesting 
advice about the ,hessian fly1 or from  
,argentina asking information concerning
 a certain kind of destructive grass    
beetle1 or from ,india appealing for    
help against a pernicious species of    
forest fly1 or from ,south ,africa      
seeking a relief from the boot-beetle4  
,and still again1 she was consulted by  
her foreign correspondents about        
termites1 which were causing havoc among
 the young cocoa trees of ,ceylon1 or   
about certain peculiar species of       
,australian larvae1 or about the        
devastating action of the pine beetle in
 the ,scotch forests1 or about the wheat
 midge and antler moth in ,finland4     
,one day she had a communication from   
the ,austrian ,embassy regarding a      
beetle that was eating the oats about   
,constantinople1 and not long afterwards
 she received a letter from the ,chinese

 ,minister in ,london begging for       
information as to how to prevent the    
ravages of certain noxious bugs in the  
lee-chee orchards of ,china4  ,in view  
of all these facts it is not surprising 
that ,miss ,ormerod became an active and
 valued colleague of some of ,england's 
most noted scientific men4 ,professor   
,huxley said of her in connection with  
certain work performed by her as a      
member of one of the committees to which
 he belonged that she knew more about   
the business than all the rest put      
together4  ,miss ,ormerod's services and
 attainments1 it is gratifying to note1 
were not without recognition in high    
quarters4 ,besides being in constant    
correspondence with the most eminent    
entomologists of the world1 consulting  
entomologist to the ,royal ,agricultural
 ,society of ,england and examiner in   
agricultural entomology in the          
,university of ,edinburgh1 she was a    
member of many learned societies in both
 the ,old and the ,new ,world4 ,she was 

also the recipient of many medals1 two  
of which came from ,russia4  ,the honor1
 however1 which gave her the most       
pleasure was the degree of ,doctor of   
,laws1 which was conferred on her by the
 ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,it was the 
first time this old and conservative    
institution thus honored a woman1 but in
 honoring ,miss ,ormerod it honored     
itself as well4#age  ,but when one      
considers the magnitude of ,miss        
,ormerod's services to her country and  
to the world1 when one reflects on the  
tens of millions of pounds sterling     
which she saved to the ,british ,empire 
by her researches and writings1 these   
honors seem trivial and unworthy of the 
great nation which she so signally      
benefited4 ,if any of her countrymen had
 labored so long and so successfully and
 made so many sacrifices for the welfare
 of the nation as she had1 he would have
 been knighted or ennobled4 ,but        
age-long prejudices and traditions will 
not yet permit ,england to bestow the   

same honors on women as on men1 no      
matter how brilliant their attainments  
or how distinguished their services to  
the crown and to humanity4 ,recognition 
of this kind may possibly come as one of
 the desirable innovations of the       
twentieth century4 ,no lover of fair    
play can deny 'tis a consummation       
devoutly to be wished4#agf  ,the names  
of the women in the ,united ,states who 
have become prominent by their          
researches and writings in the various  
branches of the natural sciences would  
make a long list4 ,and when one recalls 
the fact that it was only in the latter 
part of the nineteenth century that     
,american women were afforded an        
opportunity to study science1 it is a   
matter of surprise that the list is so  
extended4 ,for practically no provision 
was made for the serious pursuit by them
 of the natural sciences until the      
opening of ,vassar ,college in #ahfe1   
and it was not until the closing years  
of the century that the portals of many 

men's colleges were unlocked and thrown 
open to the hitherto proscribed sex4    
,considering all the obstacles they had 
to overcome1 the ignorance1 the         
prejudice1 the opposition of all kinds  
they had to combat in the ,united       
,states1 women have already accomplished
 wonders and bid fair to achieve much   
more in the near future4  ,now almost   
every educational institution in the    
land1 private or state1 has one or more 
women professors or associate           
professors4 ,they teach all the branches
 of the natural sciences that are taught
 by their male colleagues1--botany1     
geology1 mineralogy1 zoology1 anatomy1  
bacteriology and all the numerous       
subdivisions of these sciences1--and    
they teach them with success and eclat4 
,they also occupy responsible scientific
 positions in various state and federal 
institutions4 ,thus one woman has been  
the principal of the ,denver ,school of 
,mines1 while another has been the state
 entomologist for ,missouri4 ,women are 

also found doing important work in the  
,national ,museum1 in the ,smithsonian  
,institution1 and in the ,agricultural  
,department in ,washington1 as well as  
in the various museums1 botanical       
gardens and public laboratories of the  
country from the ,atlantic to the       
,pacific4  ,among those who have        
deserved well of science in the ,united 
,states by their investigations and     
writings are ,olive ,thorne ,miller and 
,florence ,merriam in ornithology2      
,susanna ,phelps ,gage1 ,dr4 ,ida ,h4   
,hyde1 ,mary ,h4 ,hinckley1 ,cornelia   
,m4 ,clapp1 ,edith ,j4 and ,agnes ,m4   
,claypole in biology2 ,rose ,s4         
,eigenman in icthyology2 ,edith ,m4     
,patch1 ,elizabeth ,w4 ,peckham1 ,emily 
,a4 ,smith1 ,cora ,h4 ,clarke1 ,j4 ,m4  
,arms ,sheldon1 ,mary ,treat1 ,mary ,e4 
,murfeldt1 ,annie ,t4 ,slosson in       
entomology2 ,elizabeth ,g4 ,britton and 
,clara ,e4 ,cummings in cryptogamic     
botany2 ,sarah ,a4 ,plummer ,lemmon1    
,katherine ,e4 ,golden1 ,alice ,eastman 

and ,almira ,lincoln ,phelps in general 
botany2 ,ada ,d4 ,davidson1 ,ella ,f4   
,boyd and ,florence ,bascom in geology4 
,besides these1 special mention should  
also be made of ,dr4 ,julia ,w4 ,snow   
for her work on the microscopical forms 
of fresh-water algae2 ,anna ,botsford   
,comstock for her contributions to our  
knowledge of microscopic insects2       
,katherine ,j4 ,bush for her monographs 
on shallow and deep-water molusca2      
,harriet ,randolph and ,fannie ,e4      
,langdon for their studies on worms1 and
 ,katherine ,foot for her papers on     
cellular morphology4 ,particularly      
notable1 too1 is the work that has been 
done on marine invertebrates by ,mary   
,j4 ,rathbun in the ,united ,states     
,national ,museum and by ,florence      
,wambaugh ,patterson in vegetable       
physiology and pathology in the         
,department of ,agriculture in          
,washington4  ,but much as the women    
just named deserve recognition for their
 achievements in the various branches of

 science to which they have severally   
devoted themselves1 the one who will    
always be specially remembered1 not only
 for her valuable contributions to      
divers branches of natural science1 but 
also for her labors in behalf of higher 
female education--particularly as       
president of ,radcliffe ,college--is    
,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,cary ,agassiz1 the    
wife of the celebrated ,swiss-,american 
naturalist1 who gave such an impetus to 
the study of natural science in the     
,united ,states1 and whose influence on 
the general advancement of science in   
all its departments has proved so       
enduring and so far-reaching4 ,as an    
inspirer of and collaborator with her   
gifted husband1 ,mrs4 ,agassiz deserves 
a large page in the annals of science1  
while as an enthusiastic student of     
nature and as one who communicated her  
enthusiasm to her students1 and at the  
same time held up before them the       
highest ideals of womanhood1 she is sure
 of a portion of that immortality which 

has been decreed to her illustrious     
life-partner1 ,jean ,louis ,agassiz4    
,this chapter would not be complete     
without some reference to that large    
class of women travelers who1 directly  
or indirectly1 have contributed so much 
to the advancement of the natural       
sciences4 ,the gifted ,roumanian writer 
and traveler1 ,princess ,helena ,kolzoff
 ,massalsky1--better known under her    
pseudonym1 ,doria d',istria1--somewhere 
expresses the opinion that a woman      
traveler admirably supplements the      
scientific work of the male explorer by 
bringing to it aptitudes that the latter
 does not possess4 ,for she notes many  
things in nature1 as well as in the     
national life and popular customs of the
 countries which she traverses1 which   
escape the more hebetudinous perceptions
 of men1 and thus a vast field1 that    
would otherwise remain unknown1 is      
opened to observation and critical      
study4  ,one of the most noted travelers
 of her sex in the nineteenth century   

was the famous ,ida ,pfeiffer1 of       
,austria4 ,during the years intervening 
between #ahdb and #aheh1 the date of her
 death1 she traveled nearly two hundred 
thousand miles and1 in so doing1 visited
 nearly every quarter of the globe4     
,when one recalls the difficulties and  
discomforts of transportation in the    
early part of the last century1 as      
compared with our present facilities and
 conveniences1 and bears in mind the    
fact that her traveling expenses for an 
entire year were less than those of a   
,lamartine or a ,chateaubriand for a    
single week1 we must admit that her     
achievements were1 indeed1              
extraordinary4  ,besides being the      
author of numerous books which had for  
many years a great vogue--books which1  
by reason of the keen observations and  
the absolutely truthful narratives of   
their author1 are still of special value
 to the student of geography and        
ethnology--she made collections         
illustrative of botany1 mineralogy and  

entomology which were subsequently      
secured for the ,british ,museum and    
other similar institutions in ,europe4  
,no one more highly appreciated ,frau   
,pfeiffer's efforts in behalf of science
 than did the illustrious ,alexander von
 ,humboldt1 whose friendship was one of 
the greatest joys of this remarkable    
woman's life4 ,through his              
recommendation and that of the noted    
geographer1 ,karl ,ritter1 she was made 
an honorary member of the ,geographical 
,society of ,berlin4 ,besides this1 the 
,king of ,prussia conferred on her the  
gold medal for arts and sciences4       
,three other women1 all representatives 
of ,great ,britain1 likewise deserve    
notice for their extensive travels and  
the interesting and instructive accounts
 which they published of them4 ,these   
are ,constance ,gordon ,cumming1        
,isabella ,bird ,bishop and ,amelia ,b4 
,edwards4  ,more notable in many        
respects than these three distinguished 
women were ,miss ,mary ,h4 ,kingsley and

 ,madame ,octavie ,coudreau4 ,for their 
contributions to science and for their  
daring adventures in savage lands1 they 
have won for themselves an unique       
position among women explorers4  ,miss  
,kingsley--the niece of the well-known  
writer and naturalist1 ,charles         
,kingsley--exhibited much of her uncle's
 literary ability and love of nature4   
,so complete was her intellectual grasp 
of the most difficult problems1 and so  
rare was her overflowing sympathy for   
all of ,god's creatures1 that she was   
well described as possessing the brain  
of a man and the heart of a woman4  ,in 
order to get at first-hand information  
that was necessary to complete a work   
which her father1 ,george ,kingsley1    
had1 owing to his premature death1 left 
unfinished1 she determined to visit that
 part of ,west ,africa where all        
authorities agreed that the ,africans   
were at their wildest and worst4        
,accompanied only by the natives1 she   
travelled among cannibals1 pushed her   

way through mangrove swamps and         
pestilential morasses4 ,she spent months
 in a canoe exploring the territory     
watered by the ,calabar and ,ogowe      
rivers1 often in imminent peril of death
 from wild animals or wilder men4  ,when
 not studying the manners and customs of
 the native tribes1 she was hunting     
fishes and reptiles in streams and      
quagmires and collecting insects in the 
weird1 grim twilight of the equatorial  
forest with its inextricable tangle of  
creepers1 its great hanging tapestries  
of vines and flowers1 its myriads of    
bush-ropes1 suspended from the summits  
of tall buttressed trees1 some as       
straight as plumb lines1 others coiled  
round and intertwined among each other  
until one could fancy one was looking on
 some mighty battle between armies of   
gigantic serpents that had been arrested
 at its height by some mighty spell4    
,the results of ,miss ,kingsley's       
wanderings in this dark and uncanny     
wilderness and among the savage tribes  

visited by her were her two instructive 
volumes entitled ,travels in ,west      
,africa and ,west ,african ,studies4 ,in
 addition to these two works from her   
pen there are deposited in the ,british 
,museum an interesting collection of    
insects1 fishes and reptiles--many of   
them new species and some of them named 
in her honor--which testifies to her    
activity as a collector and her         
enthusiasm as a naturalist4  ,her       
brilliant and useful career was cut     
short in ,cape ,colony1 whither she had 
gone as an army nurse during the ,boer  
war4 ,in view of her achievements one is
 not surprised to learn that her        
countrymen regarded her premature       
taking-off as a national misfortune4    
,the noblest monument to her memory is  
,the ,mary ,kingsley ,society of ,west  
,africa1 whose object is to carry on1 as
 far as may be1 the beneficent work she 
began on the ,west ,african coast and to
 accomplish for ,english rule in this   
part of the world what the ,royal       

,asiatic ,society has achieved for      
,british administration in ,india4      
,madame ,coudreau is designated in ,qui 
,etes-,vous--the ,french ,who's ,who--as
 an exploratrice4 ,this well            
characterizes her2 for1 if not the first
 woman explorer by profession1 she is   
certainly the most energetic and        
successful4  ,her first work was in     
,french ,guiana1 under instructions from
 the colonial minister of ,france4 ,this
 was in #ahid4 ,the following year she  
began the scientific exploration of the 
province of ,para in northern ,brazil1  
in collaboration with her husband1      
,henri ,coudreau1 who had previously    
distinguished himself by his            
achievements as a writer and as an      
explorer in ,french ,guiana4 ,the fruit 
of their joint work from #ahie to #ahii 
was six quarto volumes profusely        
illustrated by photographs which they   
had taken and by carefully executed     
charts of the various rivers which they 
had explored4  ,while engaged in the    

exploration of the ,trombetas1 a        
tributary of the ,amazon1 ,henri        
,coudreau was taken seriously ill1 and1 
after a few days' struggle against the  
disease with which he was stricken1 he  
expired in the depths of the forest     
primeval1 where he was buried by his    
desolate and disconsolate widow4 ,after 
such a calamity any other woman would   
have left the tropics at once and       
returned to her home and friends4 ,not  
so ,mme4 ,coudreau4 ,with matchless     
courage and determination she buried her
 grief in the work in which her husband 
had been so interested1 and1 after      
completing the unfinished survey1       
published the results of this expedition
 under the title ,voyage au ,trombetas4 
,having completed this work1 she was    
engaged by the states of ,para and      
,amazonas to explore a number of other  
rivers in the vast territory known as   
,amazonia4 ,this commission involved the
 most arduous and dangerous kind of     
labor and was a task which few men would

 have been willing to undertake4 ,it is 
doubtful if any other woman would have  
ventured on such an expedition1 and it  
is quite certain that no other one could
 have been found that was so well       
equipped for this herculean undertaking 
or who would have carried it to a more  
successful issue4  ,mme4 ,coudreau was  
in the service of ,amazonia1 in the     
capacity of official explorer1 from     
#ahii to #aijf4 ,most of this time she  
spent in a canoe on the affluents of the
 ,amazon1 or in her tent in the dense   
forests under the equator4 ,her only    
companions were negroes1 or ,indians1 or
 ,brazilian halfbreeds who served her as
 porters1 cooks and boatmen4 ,frequently
 they were in the forest wilds for many 
months at a time and far away from every
 vestige of civilized life4 ,as it was  
impossible to take sufficient provisions
 with them to last them during the whole
 of their journey1 they had to depend on
 wild fruits and such fish and game as  
they were able to secure4 ,often they   

were forced to live for weeks at a time 
on an unchanging diet of manioc and     
tapir meat4  ,but their sufferings were 
not confined to hunger and              
disagreeable--often indigestible--food4 
,there were the heavy steaming          
atmosphere and the broiling rays of a   
superheated sun1 especially when        
reflected from the mirror-like surface  
of lake or river1 which were so         
debilitating and exhausting that        
physical exertion of any kind was at    
times almost impossible4 ,there were    
also the torrential and incessant       
rains--making it impossible for them to 
cook their food or dry their            
clothing--which added to their miseries 
whether in camp or in their canoe4      
,great1 however1 as were their trials on
 the river1 they were trifling in       
comparison with those in the woods4     
,here locomotion was impeded by tangled 
undergrowth which was bound together by 
strands of lianas and thorny vines which
 constituted an impenetrable barrier    

until a passage was hewn through it with
 a machete4 ,under foot was a yielding  
morass which threatened to absorb them4 
,overhead were countless chigoes1       
garapatas and fire-ants which infested  
the body or buried themselves in the    
flesh4 ,or there were clouds of         
mosquitoes which gave no rest day or    
night4 ,and worst of all was the        
ever-present danger of fever and        
dysentery1 not to speak of the dread    
diseases so common in certain sections  
of the equatorial regions4 ,it was then 
that ,mme4 ,coudreau had to act the part
 of a physician1 as well as of a leader1
 even though she was at the time such a 
sufferer herself that she was barely    
able to stand4  ,to make matters still  
more difficult for ,mme4 ,coudreau1 her 
employees at times1 especially when     
under the influence of liquor which they
 contrived to obtain some way or other1 
became mutinous and refused to accompany
 her to the end of her journey4 ,at     
other times the expedition was halted by

 their fear of wild beasts or savage    
,indians1 or by imaginary evils of many 
kinds1 suggested to them by their       
superstitious minds4 ,on such occasions 
,mme4 ,coudreau never failed to show    
herself a born leader of men1 for she   
invariably--alone as she was with a crew
 who were often half savages--was       
successful in suppressing incipient     
rebellion and in restoring obedience and
 order4#agg  ,continually confronted1 as
 she was1 by such trials and            
difficulties1 privations and dangers1   
one would imagine that the delicately   
reared ,frenchwoman would have sought   
immediate release from an engagement    
that necessitated so much exposure and  
suffering and sought surcease of sorrow 
in the distractions and gaieties of     
pleasure-loving ,paris4  ,nothing1      
however1 was farther from her thoughts4 
,intrepid and resourceful1 she feared no
 danger and hesitated before no         
difficulty1 however great4 ,as an       
explorer she was as venturesome as      

,crevaux and as conscientious as ,la    
,condamine4 ,like them1 who were both   
her countrymen1 she spent many years of 
her life in the equinoctial regions1    
and1 like them1 she contributed         
immensely to our knowledge of the ,land 
of the ,southern ,cross4  ,never did the
 tropics have a greater fascination for 
anyone than for ,mme4 ,coudreau4 ,during
 the twelve years she spent there1      
exploring its rivers and traversing its 
interminable forests1 the spell of      
,amazonia was ever upon her and was     
never broken1 even for a moment4  ,i    
have1 she writes1 loved everything in   
,amazonia1 the great majestic woodland  
and the mysterious virgin forest1 the   
beautiful rivers with their traitorous  
waters and thundering cataracts1 the    
suffocating air and the perfumed breeze1
 the burning sun and the sweet freshness
 of night1 the impressive voice of the  
wind among the trees and the torrential 
rain4 ,and1 contrary to the usual custom
 of man of bringing everything under his

 domination1 it is ,i who have become a 
captive of this savage life which ,i    
love1 and have permitted it to take     
possession of all my soul and all my    
will4#agh  ,elsewhere she declares3 ,in 
the solitude of the virgin forest ,i am 
calm1 tranquil1 experience no ennui and 
am almost merry4 ,when ,i am obliged to 
leave the great woodland the power to   
struggle grows less in me4 ,i become of 
an excessive sensibility4 ,i feel more  
keenly life's blows4 ,i am not armed for
 elbowing my way and making a place for 
myself in the sunshine4 ,i neither love 
nor understand anything except my virgin
 forest4 ,there1 indeed1 ,i suffer from 
the inclemency of the weather1 from     
hunger1 from sickness2 but these are    
only physical sufferings and are soon   
forgotten1 while moral and interior     
pains1 on the contrary1 are             
ineradicable4#agi  ,and still again she 
tells us3 ,the solitude of the virgin   
forest has become a necessity for me2 it
 attracts me by its mysterious silence1 

and only in the great woods have ,i the 
impression of being at home4#ahj  ,can  
we wonder that such an ardent lover of  
,nature and such a strenuous votary of  
science was able to forget herself in   
her work and was able1 notwithstanding  
her toils and her sufferings1 to produce
 six quarto volumes of reports1 in as   
many years1 on the unexplored regions   
which she had so carefully surveyed and 
charted8 ,can we be surprised that her  
labors received due recognition from    
learned societies in both the ,new and  
the ,old ,world1 and that she was       
acclaimed as an explorer who had        
rendered distinct service to the cause  
of natural science1 as well as to       
geography8#aha  ,when we recall the     
labors of this lone daughter of ,france 
in the wilds of the tropics1 with no one
 to communicate with except her         
half-civilized servants and boatmen1 we 
instinctively hark back to days not long
 past and estimate the enormous progress
 women have made in social and          

intellectual freedom within but a few   
decades4  ,owing to the policy of       
repression which so long prevailed      
regarding the intellectual efforts of   
women1 and the social obstacles which   
prevented them from publicly            
acknowledging the offspring of their    
genius1 women like the ,bronte sisters1 
,george ,sand and ,george ,eliot were   
compelled to conceal their identity     
under male designations4 ,because it was
 considered immodest for a woman to     
appear before the public as an author1  
,lady ,nairne1 after ,burns1 the most   
popular song writer in ,scotland1 felt  
obliged to keep secret the authorship of
 her beautiful poems4  ,similarly1      
family honor made it incumbent on ,fanny
 ,mendelssohn to refrain from publishing
 her musical compositions under her own 
name4 ,accordingly1 they appeared along 
with those of her brother ,felix1 and so
 similar are they in color and sentiment
 to his own productions that they are   
indistinguishable from them1 unless the 

author's signature be attached4 ,to     
satisfy an inane public opinion1 they   
long contributed to swell the volume of 
her brother's fame1 and there is reason 
to believe that some of them still      
appear under his name at the present    
day4  ,yes1 truly1 when one recalls     
these and similar facts1 one cannot help
 exclaiming3 ,what a marvelous change in
 the attitude of the world toward women 
within the memories of those still      
living6 ,women like ,miss ,ormerod1     
,miss ,kingsley and ,mme4 ,coudreau     
would have been ostracized if they had  
dared to attempt1 in the days of ,lady  
,nairne1 the ,bronte sisters and ,fanny 
,mendelssohn1 what they may now do not  
only without censure but without        
exciting more than passing comment4 ,the
 ban has been lifted from what was for  
ages tabu for women1 and the sphere of  
their intellectual activities is now    
almost coextensive with that of the     
sterner sex4 ,not only does society no  
longer point the finger of scorn at the 

woman naturalist or the woman explorer1 
but it showers honors on her while      
living and erects monuments to her      
memory when dead4 ,a great change1      
indeed1 and one long and ardently       
desired4 ,verily1 tempora mutantur1 nos 
et mutamur in illis4  ,,footnotes3  #afd
 ,in his erudite work1 ,geschichte der  
,botanik1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #eag1         
,koenigsberg1 #ahef1 ,ernest ,h4 ,f4    
,meyer gives in a few words his estimate
 of the excellence of ,hildegard's      
,physica3 ,aber als ehrwuerdiges        
,denkmal des ,alterthums und einer zu   
jener ,zeit nicht gemeinen              
,naturkentniss empfehlen sich zumal     
deutschen ,naturforschern ihre vier     
,buecher der ,physica4444 ,denn nicht   
nur der deutsche ,botaniker und ,zoologe
 finden in ihrer ,physik fast die ersten
 rohen ,anfaenge vaterlaendische        
,naturforshung1 auch dem ,artzt bietet  
sic fuer jene ,zeit ueberraschende      
,erscheinung dar1 eine nicht von        
,dioskorides abgeleitete1 sondern       

unverkennbar aus der                    
,volksueberlieferung geschoepfte        
,heilmittellehre2 und der               
,sprachforscher stoesst im lateinischen 
,text beinahe ,zeile um ,zeile auf      
deutsche ,ausdruecke seltener           
,sprachformen4  #afe ,hildegardis ,opera
 ,omnia1 p4 #aabb1 ,migne's ,edition1   
,paris1 #ahhb4  #aff ,constat permulta  
,s4 ,hildegardi nota jam fuisse1 quae   
caeteri medii aevi scriptores           
nescierunt1 quaeque sagaces demum       
recentiorum temporum indagatores        
reperierunt ac tamquam nova ventitarunt4
 ,ibid4 ,dr4 ,karl ,jessen1 in his      
thoughtful ,botanik der ,gegenwart und  
,vorzeit in ,culturhistorischer         
,entwickelung1 p4 #abc1 ,leipzig1 #ahfd1
 expresses himself on the extraordinary 
medical knowledge of the abbess of      
,bingen as follows3 ,wer deutsche       
,volkarznei studieren will1 der studiere
 ,hildegard und er wird ,respect davor  
bekommen4  #afg ,compendio ,storico     
della ,scuola ,anatomica di ,bologna1 p4

 #ceh1 by ,michele ,medici1 ,bologna1   
#aheg1 and ,notizie degli ,scrittori    
,bolognesi1 ,tom4 ,,vi1 p4 #aac1 by     
,giovanni ,fantuzzi1 ,bologna1 #aghh4   
,certain writers tell us of another     
woman who distinguished herself in      
anatomy in the early part of the        
fourteenth century4 ,her name was       
,alessandra ,giliani1 who is said to    
have been a pupil and an assistant of   
the celebrated ,mondino1 father of      
modern anatomy4 ,in addition to         
possessing great skill in dissection1   
she is reputed to have devised a means  
of drawing the blood from the veins and 
arteries--even the most minute--and then
 filling them with variously colored    
liquids which quickly solidified4 ,by   
this means1 we are told1 she was able to
 exhibit the circulatory system in all  
its details and complexity1 and to have 
always on hand1 for purposes of         
instruction1 a model that was absolutely
 true to nature4  ,how much truth there 
may be in these statements regarding a  

young girl1 who was only nineteen when  
she died1 is difficult to determine4    
,medici1 in concluding his account of   
her and referring to the inscription on 
her tomb1 which seems to authenticate   
all the claims made for her1 expresses  
himself as follows3 ,in quoting this    
document1 ,i do not intend that my      
readers shall accord to it a credence   
that ,i myself abstain from giving it1  
but only that they may know of it1 if   
for no other reason than to satisfy     
their curiosity4 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #cj and 
#cfb1 note ,i4 ,should the traditions   
regarding this precocious girl be       
verified1 it would be most gratifying to
 the people of ,bologna1 for it would   
add one more to the long list of her    
illustrious women4  #afh ,the titles of 
the two works of this remarkable woman  
are of sufficient interest to be given  
in full4 ,they are as follows3  #a4     
,veritable ,declaration de la           
,decouverte des ,mines et ,minieres par 
le ,moyen desquelles ,sa ,majeste et    

,sujets se peuvent passer des ,pays     
,etrangers1 ,paris1 #afcb4  #b4 ,la     
,restitution de ,pluton a ,mgr4         
l',eminent ,card4 de ,richelieu1 des    
,mines et ,minieres de ,france1 cachees 
jusqu'a present au ,ventre de la ,terre1
 par la ,moyen desquelles les ,finances 
de sa ,majeste seront beaucoup plus     
,grandes que celles de tous les ,princes
 ,chrestiens et ses ,sujets plus        
,heureux de tous les ,peuples4 ,paris1  
#afdj4  #afi ,die ,verdienste der       
,frauen um ,naturwissenschaft and       
,heilkunde1 p4 #afi1 von ,dr4 ,c4 ,f4   
,harless1 ,goettingen1 #ahcj4  #agj ,the
 ,latin title of this interesting work  
is ,de ,generatione et ,metamorphose    
,insectorum ,surinamensium1 ,amsterdam1 
#agje4  #aga ,the ,latin edition of this
 work is entitled ,erucarum ,ortus1     
,alimenta et ,paradoxa ,metamorphosis1  
,amsterdam1 #agah4 ,it was afterwards   
translated into ,french and published   
under the title ,histoire des ,insectes 
de l',europe4  #agb ,die ,leistungen der

 deutschen ,frau in den letzen          
vierhundert ,jahren auf                 
wissenschaftlichem ,gebiebte1 p4 #he1   
von ,elise ,oelsner1 ,guhrau1 #ahid4    
#agc ,in his preface to ,les ,maladies  
des ,vers a ,soie4  #agd ,it is         
estimated that the loss to the ,united  
,states from cattle ticks alone is      
#ajj1jjj1jjj a year4 ,according to the  
year-book of the ,agricultural          
,department for #aijd1 the annual losses
 to agriculture from destructive insects
 reach the enormous sum of #dbj1jjj1jjj4
  #age ,the dean of the law faculty in  
presenting ,miss ,ormerod to the        
vice-chancellor on this occasion and    
speaking before an audience of three    
thousand people said1 among other       
things3 ,the preeminent position which  
,miss ,ormerod holds in the world of    
science is the reward of patient study  
and unwearying observation4 ,her        
investigations have been chiefly        
directed towards the discovery of       
methods for the prevention of the       

ravages of those insects which are      
injurious to orchard1 field and forest4 
,her labors have been crowned with such 
success1 that she is entitled to be     
hailed as the protectress of agriculture
 and the fruits of the earth--a         
beneficent ,demeter of the nineteenth   
century4 ,eleanor ,ormerod1 ,economic   
,entomologist1 ,autobiography and       
,correspondence1 ,edited by ,robert     
,wallace1 p4 #if1 ,london1 #aijd4  #agf 
,the ,canadian ,entomologist1           
,september1 #aija1 in an obituary notice
 of ,miss ,ormerod1 well voiced the high
 appreciation in which she was held     
throughout the civilized world in the   
following paragraph3 ,miss ,ormerod was 
one of the most remarkable women of the 
latter half of the nineteenth century   
and did more than any one else in the   
,british ,isles to further the interests
 of farmers1 fruit-growers and gardeners
 by making known to them methods for    
controlling and subduing their multiform
 insect pests4 ,her labors were         

unwearied and unselfish2 she received no
 remuneration for her services1 but     
cheerfully expended her private means in
 carrying out her investigations and    
publishing their results4 ,we know not  
now by whom in ,england this work can be
 continued2 it is not likely that anyone
 can follow in the unique path laid out 
by ,miss ,ormerod2 we may1 therefore1   
cherish the hope that the ,government of
 the day will hold out a helping hand   
and establish an entomological bureau   
for the lasting benefit of the great    
agricultural interests of the country4  
,professor ,j4 ,ritzema ,bos1 the       
distinguished entomologist of ,holland1 
had no hesitation in proclaiming ,miss  
,ormerod the first economic entomologist
 in ,england and one of the most famous 
economic entomologists in the world4    
#agg ,the following dialogue between    
,mme4 ,coudreau and one of her boatmen1 
,joas-,felix1 who was the spokesman of  
his companions1 illustrates not only the
 bravery of the daring explorer1 but    

also the pusillanimity of her half-breed
 personnel when in the depths of the    
forest at night3  ',madam has no fear8' 
',fear of what8'  ',of tigers4'  ',no1  
it is not of tigers that ,i have fear4' 
',of ,indians8'  ',neither have ,i fear 
of ,indians4'  ',then1 madam1 it is     
something which is in the woods1 which  
we do not know1 that can harm us4'      
',you know very well what frightens me4 
,i am afraid that the bats will attack  
my chickens during the night4 ,if you   
hear them making a noise you must get   
up4'  ,i laugh heartily in observing    
their astonished look and ask myself how
 men whose consciences are stained with 
many bloody crimes can have fear here4  
,joas-,felix gives me the explanation3  
',madam makes game of us4 ,none the     
less1 madam1 ,i am a man in the city and
 in the savanna4 ,with my poignard and  
machete ,i fear nothing1 neither man nor
 beast4 ,but here1 madam1 where         
everything is dark1 even in the daytime2
 where an enemy may be lying in wait for

 us behind every tree2 it is not the    
same thing4 ,it would be impossible for 
me to live in the forest4 ,one cannot   
see far enough in it4'  ,now ,i         
understand better their terror4 ,the    
mysterious depth of the virgin forest   
impresses them4 ,the opaque obscurity of
 the night in the underwood contrasts   
too strongly with the moonlit savanna   
where they have been reared4 ,the low   
and sombre vault of the woods oppresses 
them and they imagine they are going to 
be crushed4 ,they lose their heads and  
see in every tree a phantom enemy4 ,to  
reason with them is useless1 for when   
fear takes possession of them1 there is 
nothing to be done4 ,voyage au ,maycuru1
 p4 #abg4  #agh ,voyage au ,maycuru1 p4 
#a1 ,paris1 #aijc4  #agi ,voyage au ,rio
 ,curua1 p4 #he1 ,paris1 #aijc4  #ahj   
,ibid41 p4 #a4  #aha ,in order that the 
reader may realize the immense extent of
 territory that was covered by this     
strenuous woman's explorations1 during  
the twelve years she spent in ,amazonia1

 it suffices to give the titles of her  
books1 all of which are profusely       
illustrated by photographs taken by     
herself and by accurate charts of       
rivers1 whose courses were previously   
almost unknown4  ,the books written in  
collaboration with her husband are      
,voyage au ,tapajos1 ,voyage au ,xingu1 
,voyage au ,tocantins-,araguaya1 ,voyage
 au ,itaboca et a l',etacayuna1 ,voyage 
entre ,tocantins et ,xingu1 et ,voyage  
au ,yamunda4  ,the books written by     
,mme4 ,coudreau after her husband's     
death are ,voyage au ,trombetas1 ,voyage
 au ,cumina1 ,voyage au ,rio ,curua1    
,voyage a la ,mapuera and ,voyage au    
,maycuru4  ,when one remembers that many
 of the watercourses here named would be
 considered large rivers outside of     
,south ,america2 that1 notwithstanding  
their countless rapids and waterfalls1  
necessitating numberless portages1 ,mme4
 ,coudreau explored all these rivers    
from their embouchures to as near their 
sources as the water would carry her    

rude dugouts1 we can form some idea of  
the miles she traveled and of the       
stupendous labor that was involved in   
making these long journeys in the       
sweltering and debilitating and         
insect-laden atmosphere of the ,amazon  
basin4     ,,chapter ,,viii  ,,women    
,,in ,,medicine ,,and ,,surgery   ,as   
woman was the first nurse1 so was she   
also the first practitioner of the      
healing art4 ,among savages the world   
over it is the women1 in the great      
majority of cases1 who have the care of 
the sick and wounded1 and who1 by reason
 of their superior knowledge of simples 
for the cure of diseases1 occupy the    
position of doctors4 ,in certain parts  
of the uncivilized world there are1 it  
is true1 shamans or medicine men2 but   
these are conjurers or exorcists1 who   
profess to expel disease1 or rather the 
evil spirits causing the disease1 by    
sorcery or incantation1 rather than     
physicians who essay to cure ailments or
 relieve suffering by the use of        

substances which experience has showed  
to possess remedial properties4 ,in a   
word1 the shaman is a kind of a         
religious functionary who imposes on the
 ignorance of his tribe and who holds   
his position by the fear he excites1 and
 not by any knowledge he possesses of   
the healing art4 ,it was the same1 we   
may believe1 in the early history of our
 race--women1 and not men1 were the     
first physicians2 and they were also    
most probably the first surgeons4       
,according to ,greek mythology1 the god 
of the medical art was ,aesculapius1 a  
male2 but his six daughters1 as         
antiquity beautifully expressed it1 were
 not only goddesses but were also       
medical mistresses--artifices medici--of
 suffering humanity4 ,of these ,hygiea  
was specially distinguished as the      
goddess of health1 or1 rather1 as the   
conserver of good health1 while ,panacea
 was invoked as the restorer of health  
after it had been impaired or lost4     
,one of the most beautiful pictures in  

the ,iliad is that representing the     
daughter of ,augea1 ,king of the ,epei1 
caring for the wounded and suffering    
,greeks on the plain before ,troy4 ,she 
was3      ,his eldest born1 hight       
,agamede1 with golden hair1     ,a leech
 was she1 and well she knew all herbs on
 ground that grew4  ,nothing deterred by
 the din of battle around her1 she      
provided cordial potions for the        
disabled warrior and prepared      ,the 
gentle bath and washed their gory       
wounds4  ,what a beautiful prototype of 
another ministering angel in the same   
land nearly thirty centuries later1 amid
 similar scenes of suffering--of one    
who1 though unsung by immortal bard1 the
 world will never let die--the          
courageous1 the self-sacrificing        
,florence ,nightingale4  ,that there    
were in ,greece from the earliest times 
numerous women possessed of a high      
degree of medical skill is evidenced by 
many of the ancient writers4 ,they were 
what we would call medical herbalists1  

and not a few of them exhibited a       
natural genius for determining the      
curative virtues of rare plants and a   
remarkable sagacity in preparing from   
them juices1 infusions and soothing     
anodynes4 ,others there were who1 in    
addition to evincing the cunning of     
leechcraft in the therapeutic art1 were 
distinguished for nimble hands in       
treating painful lesions and festering  
sores1 and who1 when occasion required1 
were experts in quickly drawing the barb
 from the flesh and healing the wound of
 the soldier4  ,in the ,odyssey special 
mention is made of the surpassing       
expertness of the ,egyptian female      
leech1 ,polydamna1 whose name signifies 
the subduer of many diseases4 ,the land 
of the ,nile1 the poet tells us1 teems  
with drugs1 and      ,there ev'ry man in
 skill medicinal     ,excels1 for these 
are sons of ,paeon all4  ,in this       
favored cradle of civilization1 to which
 ,greece owed so much of its knowledge  
and culture1 there were many women who1 

like ,polydamna1 achieved distinction in
 the healing art1 and many1 too1 we have
 reason to think1 who communicated their
 knowledge to their sisters in the fair 
land of ,hellas4  ,but not only were    
there in ,greece women physicians like  
,agamede1 who were noted for their      
general medicinal knowledge and         
practice1 but there were also others who
 made a specialty of treating ailments  
peculiar to their own sex4 ,this we     
learn from a passage in the ,hippolytus 
of ,euripides1 wherein the nurse of     
,phaedra addressed the suffering queen  
in the following words3                 
,if under pains     ,thou labor1 such as
 may not be revealed1     ,to succor    
thee thy female friends are here4       
,but if the other sex may know thy      
sufferings     ,let the physician try   
his healing art4  ,more positive        
information1 however1 is afforded us by 
the ancient ,roman author ,hyginus1 who1
 in writing of the ,greek maiden1       
,agnodice1 tells us how the medical     

profession was legalized for all the    
free-born women of ,athens4 ,instead of 
a literal translation of ,hyginus1 the  
version of his story is given in the    
quaint language of one ,mrs4 ,celleor1 a
 noted midwife in the reign of ,james   
,,ii4  ,among the subtile ,athenians1   
writes ,mrs4 ,celleor1 a law at one time
 forbade women to study or practice     
medicine or physick on pain of death1   
which law continued some time1 during   
which many women perished1 both in      
child-bearing and by private diseases1  
their modesty not permitting them to    
admit of men either to deliver or cure  
them4 ,but ,god finally stirred up the  
spirit of ,agnodice1 a noble maid1 to   
pity the miserable condition of her own 
sex1 and hazard her life to help them2  
which1 to enable herself to do1 she     
apparelled her like a man and became the
 scholar of ,hierophilos1 the most      
learned physician of the time2 and1     
having learnt the art1 she found out a  
woman that had long languished under    

private diseases1 and made proffer of   
her service to cure her1 which the sick 
person refused1 thinking her to be a    
man2 but1 when ,agnodice discovered that
 she was a maid1 the woman committed    
herself into her hands1 who cured her   
perfectly2 and after her many others1   
with the like skill and industry1 so    
that in a short time she became the     
successful and beloved physician of the 
whole sex4  ,when it became known that  
,agnodice was a woman she was like to be
 condemned to death for transgressing   
the law--which1 coming to the ears of   
the noble women1 they ran before the    
,areopagites1 and1 the house being      
encompassed by most women of the city1  
the ladies entered before the judges and
 told them they would no longer account 
them for husbands and friends1 but for  
cruel enemies1 that condemned her to    
death who restored to them their health1
 protesting they would all die with her 
if she were put to death4 ,this caused  
the magistrates to disannul the law and 

make another1 which gave gentlewomen    
leave to study and practice all parts of
 physick to their own sex1 giving large 
stipends to those that did it well and  
carefully4 ,and there were many noble   
women who studied that practice and     
taught it publicly in their schools as  
long as ,athens flourished in           
learning4#ahb  ,after the time of       
,agnodice many ,greek women won         
distinction in medicine1 some as        
practitioners in the healing art1 others
 as writers on medical subjects4 ,nor   
were their activities confined to the   
land of ,hellas4 ,they were also found  
succoring the infirm and instructing the
 poor and ignorant in ,italy1 ,egypt and
 ,asia ,minor4 ,among these was ,theano1
 the wife of ,pythagoras1 who1 after her
 husband's death1 assumed charge of his 
school of philosophy1 and who1 like her 
husband and teacher1 was distinguished  
for her attainments in medicine4 ,the   
names of many others occur in the pages 
of ,hippocrates1 ,galen and ,pliny2 and 

frequent references are made to the     
works and prescriptions of women doctors
 who enjoyed more than ordinary         
celebrity during their time4 ,of these  
female practitioners many confined their
 practice to the diseases of women and  
children1 while others excelled in      
surgery and pharmacy1 as well as in     
general medical practice4  ,among the   
medical women whom antiquity especially 
honored1 particularly during the        
,greco-,roman period1 were ,origenia1   
,aspasia--not the famous wife of        
,pericles--and ,cleopatra1 who was not1 
however1 as is often asserted1 the      
ill-fated queen of ,egypt4 ,likewise    
deserving of special mention was        
,metradora1 of whom there is still      
preserved in ,florence a manuscript work
 on the diseases of women1#ahc and      
,antiochis1 to whom her admiring        
countrymen erected a statue bearing the 
following inscription3 ,antiochis1      
daughter of ,diodotos of ,tlos2 the     
council and the commune of the city of  

,tlos1 in appreciation of her medical   
ability1 erected at their own expense   
this statue in her honor4  ,pliny1 the  
naturalist1 felicitates the ,romans on  
having been for nearly six hundred years
 free from the brood of doctors4 ,these 
he does not hesitate to berate roundly4 
,his statement regarding the            
non-existence of physicians1 it must be 
observed1 is somewhat exaggerated4 ,it  
is true that during the first five      
centuries there were no professional    
doctors who lived entirely on their     
practice4 ,there were1 however1 many men
 who had by long experience gained an   
extensive knowledge of drugs and        
simples1 and who were able to dress     
wounds and treat diseases with          
considerable success4  ,the first ,greek
 freeman to practice medicine in ,rome  
was one ,archagatos1 about two centuries
 ,b4,c4 ,he was soon followed by one of 
his countrymen named ,asclepiades4      
,these two soon built up a great        
reputation as successful practitioners1 

and were held in the highest esteem by  
the people of ,rome4 ,in consequence of 
this and of the favorable conditions    
offered foreigners for the practice of  
the healing art1 there was soon a large 
influx of physicians and surgeons from  
,greece1 not only into ,rome but also   
into other parts of ,italy4  ,not long  
after the arrival of ,greek doctors in  
the capital of the ,roman world we learn
 of certain women physicians in ,rome   
who were held in high repute4 ,among    
these were ,victoria and ,leoparda1 both
 mentioned by the medical writer1       
,theodorus ,priscianus4 ,to ,victoria1  
,priscianus dedicates the third book of 
his ,rerum ,medicarum1 and in the       
preface to this book he refers to her as
 one who has not only an accurate       
knowledge of medicine1 but also as one  
who is a keen observer and experienced  
practitioner4  ,the word medica1 which  
occurs in ,latin authors of the         
classical period1 testifies to the      
existence of the woman doctor as early  

as the age of ,augustus4  ,but the most 
important documents bearing on women    
physicians1 not only in the city of     
,rome but also in ,italy1 ,gaul and the 
,iberian peninsula1 are the large body  
of epigraphic monuments which have      
recently been brought to light1 and     
which prove beyond all doubt that women 
were not only obstetricians1 but that   
they were successful practitioners in   
the entire field of medical art4 ,thus a
 funeral tablet found in ,portugal tells
 of a woman who was a most excellent    
physician--medica optima--while another 
describes the deceased not only as a    
woman incomparable for her virtues1 but 
also as a mistress of medical science1  
antistes disciplinae in medicina fuit4  
,the ,greek word for                    
medica--iatromaia--occasionally found in
 some of the inscriptions1 seems to     
refer specially to women of ,greek      
origin or birth4 ,this is particularly  
true of a monument erected to one       
,valiae1 who is designated as ,kalista  

iatromaia--the best doctor4#ahd  ,among 
the many women who became converts to   
,christianity during the early ages of  
the church a goodly number were         
physicians4 ,unfortunately1 our         
information respecting these votaries of
 the healing art is not as complete as  
we could wish4 ,one of the most noted of
 them is ,st4 ,theodosia1 whose name is 
given in the ,roman martyrology for the 
twenty-ninth of ,may4 ,she was the      
mother of the martyr1 ,st4 ,procopius1  
and was distinguished for her knowledge 
of medicine and surgery1 both of which  
she practiced in ,rome with the most    
signal success4 ,she died a heroic death
 by the sword during the persecution of 
,diocletian4  ,another woman who was as 
eminent for her knowledge of medicine as
 for her holiness of life was ,st4      
,nicerata1 who lived in ,constantinople 
during the reign of the emperor         
,arcadius4 ,she is said to have cured   
,st4 ,john ,chrysostom of an affection  
of the stomach from which he was a      

sufferer4  ,to the ,roman lady ,fabiola1
 remarkable as the daughter of one of   
the most illustrious patrician families 
of ,rome1 but more remarkable for her   
sanctity and her boundless charity      
toward the poor1 was due the erection of
 the first hospital--a noble structure  
which she founded in ,ostia1 at the     
mouth of the ,tiber1 which was then the 
port of entry to the capital of the     
,roman empire4 ,here the noble matron   
received the poor and suffering from all
 parts1 and did everything in her power 
to afford them succor in their wants and
 infirmities4  ,it is difficult for us  
now1 when hospitals and charitable      
institutions of all kinds are so common1
 to understand what an innovation       
,fabiola's unheard-of institution was   
considered by her contemporaries4 ,for  
her method of treating the needy and the
 suffering was as different from that   
which had hitherto obtained as were the 
debasing lessons of heathendom from the 
elevating precepts of the ,gospels4  ,no

 wonder that the news of this godlike   
work was soon wafted to the uttermost   
bounds of the earth2 that1 in the words 
of ,st4 ,jerome1 summer should announce 
in ,britain what ,egypt and ,parthia had
 learned in the spring4 ,no wonder that 
the same eloquent hermit of ,bethlehem  
should proclaim the foundress of this   
home of the indigent and the afflicted  
to be the glory of the church1 the      
astonishment of the ,gentiles1 the      
mother of the poor and the consolation  
of the saints4 ,no wonder that1 in      
contemplating her countless acts of     
charity1 he should ignore the fact that 
,fabiola was a daughter of the ,fabii   
and a descendant of the renowned        
,quintus ,maximus1 who1 by his sage     
counsel1 had saved his country from her 
enemies1 and that1 recalling the words  
of ,virgil1 he should declare3 ,if ,i   
had a hundred tongues and a hundred     
mouths and iron lungs1 ,i should not be 
able to enumerate all the maladies to   
which ,fabiola gave the most prodigal   

care and tenderness--to the extent even 
of making the poor who were in health   
envy the good fortune of those who were 
sick4#ahe ,no wonder that ,fabiola's    
funeral1 which brought together the     
whole of ,rome1 was more like an        
apotheosis than the transfer of the     
remains of the deceased to their last   
resting-place1 and that ,jerome should  
declare1 the glory of ,furius and       
,papirius and ,scipio and ,pompey1 when 
they triumphed over the ,gauls1 the     
,sammites1 ,numantia and ,pontus was    
less than that which was spontaneously  
accorded to ,fabiola1 the solace of the 
sick and the comforter of the           
distressed4 ,for she had in her hospital
 at ,ostia established a type of        
institution that was to effect more for 
ameliorating the condition of suffering 
humanity than anything that had before  
been dreamed of2 something that was to  
contribute immensely to the efforts of  
physicians and surgeons in minimizing   
the sad ravages of wounds and disease2  

something whose beneficent effects were 
to be felt through the centuries and in 
every part of the world down to the     
wards of the military hospital at       
,scutari1 guarded by the watchful eyes  
of ,florence ,nightingale1 and to the   
leper-tenanted lazarettos1 blessed by   
the ministrations of ,father ,damien and
 the ,sisters of ,charity1 on the       
desolate shores of plague-stricken      
,molokai4  ,after the fall of the ,roman
 empire and through the long period of  
the ,middle ,ages1 when the monasteries 
and convents were almost the only       
centers of learning and culture for the 
greater part of ,europe1 the practice of
 medicine was to a great extent in the  
hands of monks and nuns4 ,for every     
religious house was then a hospital as  
well as a school1 a place where drugs   
and ointments were compounded and       
distributed1 as well as a place where   
manuscripts were transcribed and        
illuminated4 ,at a time when there were 
but few professional physicians and when

 these few were widely separated from   
one another1 the only places where the  
poor could always be sure to find free  
medical treatment as well as abundant   
alms were those sanctuaries of knowledge
 and charity where the love of one's    
neighbor was never lost sight of in the 
love of science and literature4 ,and    
during this time1 too1 the care of the  
sick was regarded as a duty incumbent on
 everyone1 but particularly on those    
devoted to the service of ,god in       
religion4 ,it was considered1 above all1
 as a duty devolving on women1          
especially on the lady in the castle and
 on the nun in the convent4  ,the old   
romance of ,sir ,isumbras gives us a    
charming picture of the nuns of long ago
 receiving the wounded knight and       
ministering unto him until he was made  
whole and strong1 as witness the        
following verses3      ,the nonnes of   
him they were full fayne1     ,for that 
he had the ,saracenes slayne       ,and 
those haythene houndes4     ,and of his 

paynnes sare ganne them rewe4     ,ilke 
a day they made salves new       ,and   
laid them till his woundes2     ,they   
gave him metis and drynkis lythe1       
,and heled the knyghte wunder swythe4   
,so universally during mediaeval times  
was the healing art considered as       
pertaining to woman's calling that it   
became a part of the curriculum in      
convent schools2 and no girl's education
 was considered complete unless she had 
an elementary knowledge of medicine and 
of that part of surgery which deals with
 the treatment of wounds4 ,for during   
those troublous times a woman was liable
 to be called upon at any time to nurse 
the sick wayfarer or dress the wounds of
 those who had been maimed in battle or 
in the tourney4  ,illustrations of these
 facts are found in many of the romances
 and fabliaux of the ,middle ,ages4     
,thus1 when a sick or wounded man was   
given hospitality in a chateau or castle
 it was not the seigneur1 but his wife  
and daughters1 as being better versed in

 medicine and surgery1 who acted as     
nurses and doctors and took entire      
charge of the patient until his         
recovery4  ,in the exquisite little     
story of ,aucassin et ,nicolette1 the   
heroine is pictured as setting the      
dislocated shoulder of her lover in the 
following simple but touching language3 
,nicolette searched his hurt1 and       
perceived that his shoulder was out of  
joint4 ,she handled it so deftly with   
her white hands1 and used such skillful 
surgery that1 by the grace of ,god1 who 
loveth all true lovers1 the shoulder    
came back to its place4 ,then she       
plucked flowers and fresh grasses and   
green leafage1 and bound them tightly   
about the setting with the hem torn from
 her shift1 and he was altogether       
healed4  ,and in the mediaeval ,latin   
poem1 ,waltharius1 written by a ,german 
monk1 ,ekkehard1 reference is made to a 
sanguinary contest in which one of the  
combatants falls to the earth seriously 
wounded4 ,seeing this1 ,alpharides1 in a

 loud voice1 summons a young girl1 who  
timidly comes forward and dresses the   
unfortunate man's wound4#ahf  ,still    
more to our purpose is a passage from   
the famous epic poem1 ,tristan and      
,isolde1 written by ,godfrey of         
,strasburg1 in which ,isolde1           
accompanied by her mother and cousin1 is
 represented as administering           
restoratives to ,tristan1 who had fallen
 exhausted after his combat with the    
dragon4 ,it shows that women1 in        
accompanying an army to the field of    
battle1 always went provided with       
bandages and medicaments for dressing   
wounds and fractured limbs4 ,similarly  
,angelica1 in ,orlando ,furioso1 and    
,ermina1 in ,jerusalem ,delivered1 are  
portrayed as surgeons with deftness of  
hand and leeches with rare knowledge and
 skill4  ,the frequent introduction of  
women doctors into the poems and        
romances of the ,middle ,ages would of  
itself1 if other evidence were wanting1 
suffice to show what an important role  

women played in medicine and surgery at 
a time when1 in many parts of ,europe1  
women were far better educated and far  
more cultured than men--when the knights
 and barons of ,france and ,germany were
 inclined to look upon reading and      
writing as unmanly and almost degrading 
accomplishments1 fit only for priests or
 monks1 and especially for priests or   
monks not too well born4#ahg  ,in the   
instances just quoted1 as well as those 
mentioned by ,homer and ,euripides1 the 
writers do no more than faithfully      
reflect conditions which then obtained1 
and truthfully report what were the     
occupations of women when their status  
was so different from what it is to-day4
 ,but1 fortunately1 we do not have to   
rely on works of the imagination for our
 knowledge respecting the women         
practitioners of the healing art1 either
 during the ,homeric period or during   
that which intervened between the       
downfall of ,rome and the dawn of the   
,renaissance4 ,for the history of       

medicine during mediaeval times affords 
too many examples of women who became   
famous for their knowledge of medicine1 
as well as for their success in surgical
 and medical practice1 to leave any     
doubt about the matter4 ,besides this1  
we have still the writings of many of   
these women1 and are thus able to judge 
of their competency in those branches of
 knowledge on which they shed so great  
luster4  ,one of the most noted of them 
was the ,benedictine abbess1 ,st4       
,hildegard1 of ,bingen on the ,rhine1   
who was eminent not only as a theologian
 but also as a writer whose treatises on
 various branches of science are justly 
regarded as the most important          
productions of the kind during the      
,middle ,ages prior to the time of      
,albertus ,magnus4 ,besides this1 she   
not only wrote many books on materia    
medica1 on pathology1 physiology and    
therapeutics1 but1 as a practitioner1   
she gloriously sustained the best       
traditions of her sex in both           

theoretical and practical medicine4     
,her work entitled ,liber ,simplicis    
,medicinae1 which deals with what in the
 ,saint's time was called simples--for  
the belief was then current that each   
plant or herb was or provided a specific
 for some disease--contains accounts of 
many plants used in materia medica1 as  
well as statements of their importance  
in therapeutics4 ,her descriptions often
 indicate an observer of exceptionally  
keen perception and one whose knowledge 
of science was far in advance of her    
epoch4 ,the same observations may be    
made respecting ,hildegard 's work1     
,liber ,compositae ,medicinae1 in which 
she treats of the causes1 signs and     
treatment of diseases4#ahh  ,still more 
remarkable1 in many respects1 is a      
treatise in nine books1 entitled        
,physica or ,liber ,subtilitatum        
,diversarum ,naturarum ,creaturarum1    
which1 among other things1 treats of the
 various elements1 of plants1 trees1    
minerals1 fish1 birds1 quadrupeds1 and  

of the manner in which they may be of   
service to man4 ,of so great importance 
was this book considered that several   
editions of it were printed as early as 
the sixteenth century4 ,no less an      
authority than the late ,rudolph        
,virchow1 the founder of cellular       
pathology1 characterizes it as an early 
materia medica1 curiously complete1     
considering the age to which it         
belongs4#ahi ,and ,haeser1 in his       
history of medicine1 directs attention  
to the historical value of the book1    
declaring it to be an independent       
,german treatise1 based chiefly on      
popular experience4  ,dr4 ,f4 ,a4       
,reuss1 of the ,university of           
,wuertzburg1 at the conclusion of his   
,prolegomena to the ,physica published  
in ,migne's ,patrologia1 expresses      
himself as follows regarding the        
writings and medical knowledge of the   
illustrious abbess of ,bingen3 ,among   
all the saintly religieuses who1 during 
the ,middle ,ages1 practiced medicine or

 wrote treatises on it1 the first1      
without contradiction1 is ,hildegard4   
,according to the monk ,theodoric1 who  
was an eye witness1 she had to so high a
 degree the gift of healing that no sick
 person had recourse to her without     
being restored to health4 ,there is     
among the books of this prophetic virgin
 a work which treats of physics and     
medicine4 ,its title is ,de ,natura     
,nominis ,elementorum ,diversarumque    
,creaturarum1 and it embodies1 as the   
same ,theodoric fully explains1 the     
secrets of nature which were revealed to
 the saint by the prophetic spirit4 ,all
 who wish to write the history of the   
medical and natural sciences should read
 this book1 in which the holy virgin1   
initiated into all the secrets of nature
 which were then known1 and having      
received special assistance from above1 
thoroughly examines and scrutinizes all 
that which was1 until then1 buried in   
darkness and concealed from the eyes of 
mortals4 ,it is certain that ,hildegard 

was acquainted with many things of which
 the doctors of the ,middle ,ages were  
ignorant1 and which the investigators of
 our own age1 after rediscovering them1 
have announced as something entirely    
new4#aij  ,the life and works of ,st4   
,hildegard throw a flood of light on    
many subjects that have long been veiled
 in mystery4 ,it explains why the       
convents of the later ,middle ,ages were
 so famed as curative centers and why   
the sick flocked to them for relief from
 far and near4 ,it reveals the real     
agencies employed in effecting the      
extraordinary cures that were reported  
in so many religious houses--cures so   
extraordinary that they were usually    
regarded by the multitude as            
miraculous--and discloses the secret of 
the success of so many nuns in the      
alleviation of physical and mental      
sufferings4 ,it was not because they    
were thaumaturges1 but because they were
 good nurses1 and because of their      
thorough knowledge of the healing art1  

that they were able to diagnose and     
prescribe for diseases of all kinds with
 a success which1 in the estimation of  
the multitude1 savored of the           
supernatural4  ,there was also another  
reason for the fame of convents as      
sanctuaries of health4 ,they were       
usually situated in healthy locations   
where there was an abundance of pure    
water1 fresh air and cheerful sunshine4 
,then there were likewise a wholesome   
diet1 good sanitary conditions1 and1    
above all1 regularity of life4  ,the    
same can be said of the hospitals       
connected with the convents4 ,they were 
not like some of the public hospitals of
 the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
 in many of the large cities of         
,europe--repulsive1 prison-like         
structures1 with narrow windows and     
devoid of light and air and the most    
necessary hygienic                      
appliances--institutions that were      
hospitals in name1 but which were in    
reality too frequently breeding places  

of disease and death4#aia  ,unlike      
these1 the hospitals presided over by   
nuns of the type of ,hildegard were     
splendid roomy structures with large    
windows and abundance of light1 pure    
air1 with special provisions for the    
privacy of the patients1 and with       
sanitary arrangements that not only     
precluded the dissemination of disease  
but which contributed materially to     
those marvelous cures which the good    
people of the time attributed to        
supernatural agencies rather than to the
 medical knowledge and skill of the     
devoted nuns1#aib who were the real     
conquerors of disease and death4  ,but  
the inmates of the cloister were not the
 only women who1 during the ,middle     
,ages1 achieved distinction by their    
writings on medical subjects and by     
their signal success in the practice of 
the healing art4 ,in various parts of   
,europe1 but especially in ,italy and   
,france1 there were at this time among  
women1 outside as well as inside convent

 walls1 many daughters of ,aesculapius  
and sisters of ,hygeia who stood in such
 high repute among their contemporaries 
that they received the same honors and  
emoluments as were accorded to their    
masculine colleagues4  ,this was        
particularly the case in ,salerno1 which
 was the venerated mother of all        
,christian medical schools1 and which1  
for nine centuries1 was universally     
regarded as the unquestioned fountain   
and archetype of orthodox medicine4     
,situated on the ,gulf of ,salerno1 and 
laved by the cerulean waters of the     
,tyrrhenian sea1 the ,civitas           
,hippocratica1 as it was called on its  
medals1 rejoiced in a salubrious        
climate1 and was celebrated throughout  
the world as the ,city sacred to        
,phoebus1 the sedulous nurse of         
,minerva1 the fountain of physic1 the   
votary of medicine1 the handmaid of     
,nature1 the destroyer of disease and   
the strong adversary of death4#aic ,for 
to this favored city flocked from all   

quarters the lame and the halt and those
 afflicted with the tortures of disease 
and the disabilities of advancing years4
 ,the noble and the simple1 crowned     
heads as well as the poorest of the     
poor1 were found there1 all of them in  
quest of life's most precious           
boon--health and strength4  ,never did  
the far-famed sanctuary of the god of   
medicine in ,epidaurus witness such an  
influx of invalids as gathered in the   
hospitals of ,salerno and pressed       
through the streets of the ,hippocratic 
city1 seeking the aid of those doctors  
whose marvelous cures had given them a  
world-wide reputation4 ,small wonder1   
then1 that the ,regimen ,santatis       
,salernitanum--that famous code of      
health of the school of ,salerno--has   
been translated into almost all the     
languages of modern ,europe1 and that   
since #adhj no fewer than two hundred   
and fifty editions of it have been      
published4 ,not to have been familiar   
with it from beginning to end1 not to   

have been able to quote it orally as    
occasion might require1 would1 during   
the ,middle ,ages1 have cast serious    
suspicion upon the professional culture 
of any physician4#aid ,but the noblest  
claims of the ,hippocratic city to the  
gratitude of humanity yet remain to be  
told4 ,a ,german traveler in the        
thirteenth century wrote3      ,laudibus
 aeternum nullum negat esse ,salernum   
,illuc pro morbis totus circumfluit     
orbis4#aie  ,this was because ,salerno  
was universally recognized as the day   
star and morning glory of the best      
culture in the healing art1 and1 still  
more1 because of the thorough           
instruction she gave in her schools of  
medicine and the preeminence she so long
 held in every department of medical    
lore4  ,the course of study in medicine 
was long and thorough1 and the candidate
 applying for a degree had to pass a    
rigid examination and give proof not    
only of his proficiency in every branch 
of the healing art1 but also of perfect 

acquaintance with the various branches  
of science and letters as well4 ,at the 
time of ,frederick ,,ii1 who organized  
all the different schools of ,salerno   
into a single university1 a three years'
 course in philosophy and literature was
 required before one could present      
himself for entrance into the school of 
medicine4 ,the courses in medicine      
lasted five years1 at least1 after which
 a year of practice with an old         
physician was required4 ,in addition to 
this1 if the candidate wished to        
practice surgery he was obliged to      
devote one year to the study of human   
anatomy and to the dissection of human  
bodies4 ,considering the progress of    
knowledge since the time of ,frederick  
,,ii1 it must be admitted that the legal
 requirements enforced by the faculty of
 ,salerno compare favorably with those  
of the best of our medical schools of   
to-day4  ,still more to the credit of   
,salerno1 long known as the ,athens of  
the two ,sicilies1 was her boundless    

liberality toward scholarship and       
culture regardless of sex4 ,for1 with a 
chivalrous admiration for intellect1    
wherever found1 and with a sense of     
intellectual justice that has put to    
shame all medical schools outside of    
,italy1 until less than fifty years ago1
 the school of ,salerno was the first to
 throw open its portals to women as well
 as men1 and give to an admiring world a
 number of women--those celebrated      
mulieres ,salernitanae--who were eminent
 not only as physicians1 but also as    
professors of the theory and practice of
 medicine4 ,for this reason1 if for no  
other1 it can be truly affirmed that ,no
 school of medicine in any age or       
country1 if only for this1 can ever     
over-peer her in renown2 and1 even as   
formerly in the universities of ,europe1
 at the bare mention of the name of the 
learned ,cujacius1 every scholar        
instinctively uncovered himself1 so at  
the very name of ,salernum1 the fount   
and nurse of rational medicine1 every   

physician should recall her memory 'with
 mute thanks and secret ecstasy' as     
among the most spotless and venerated   
chapters in the history of his art4#aif 
,the most noted professor and successful
 practitioner among the women of        
,salerno was ,trotula1 wife of the      
distinguished physician1 ,john          
,platearius1 and a member of the old    
noble family of the ,ruggiero4 ,she     
flourished during the eleventh century  
and enjoyed a reputation as a physician 
that was not inferior to that of the    
most noted doctors of her time4 ,besides
 occupying a chair in the school of     
medicine and having an extensive        
practice1 she was the author of many    
works on medicine which had a great     
vogue among her contemporaries4 ,some of
 them1 especially those relating to     
diseases of her own sex1#aig were       
published several times after the       
invention of printing1 and many         
manuscript copies of her works are still
 found in various libraries of ,europe4 

,but she did not confine her practice to
 the diseases of women4 ,she was also   
well versed in general medicine and     
exhibited1 besides1 as her works        
testify1 marked skill as a surgeon in   
many cases that would even now be       
considered as peculiarly difficult of   
treatment4  ,one of her books was       
entitled ,de ,compositione              
,medicamentorum--the ,compounding of    
,medicaments--and it was this work1     
doubtless1 that gave her much of the    
fame she enjoyed beyond the confines of 
,italy4 ,ruteboeuf1 a noted ,french     
trouvere of the thirteenth century1     
gives us a quaint picture of a scene    
frequently witnessed in his day4 ,crowds
 were frequently attracted by           
herbalists--venders of simples--who1    
stationed at street corners or in other 
public places1 near tables covered with 
a cloth of flaring colors1 were wont to 
descant1 somewhat after the style of    
certain of our patent-medicine hawkers  
and quack-salvers1 upon the             

extraordinary curative properties of the
 various drugs and panaceas which they  
had for sale4  ,good people1 one of     
these traveling herb doctors would      
begin1 ,i am not one of those poor      
preachers1 nor one of those poor        
herbalists who carry boxes and sachets  
and spread them out on a carpet4 ,no1 ,i
 am a disciple of a great lady named    
,madame ,trotte of ,salerno1 who        
performs such marvels of every kind4    
,and know ye that she is the wisest     
woman in the four quarters of the world4
  ,ordericus ,vitalis1 an ,english      
,benedictine monk1 in his ,historia     
,ecclesiastica1 tells us of the         
impression made by ,trotula on ,rudolfo 
,malacorona1 one of those famous        
itinerant scholars of the ,middle ,ages1
 who spent their lives in wandering from
 one university to another in pursuit of
 knowledge4 ,he had been a student from 
his youth and was a man of remarkable   
attainments in every department of      
learning4 ,after visiting and conferring

 with the learned men of the most       
celebrated universities of ,france and  
,italy1 he finally arrived at ,salerno1 
where1 he informs us1 he found no one   
who could cope with him in disputation  
except quandam sapientem matronam--a    
certain very learned woman4#aih ,this   
was ,trotula1 who1 by reason of the     
extraordinary cures she effected1 was   
known among her contemporaries as       
magistra operis--a consummate           
practitioner4 ,when1 however1 we        
consider the thorough course of study   
that every one aspiring to a degree in  
medicine was obliged to complete1 women 
as well as men1 it is not so surprising 
that ,trotula should be regarded both as
 a learned woman and as a successful    
physician4  ,among other women doctors  
who did honor to ,salerno and whose     
names have come down to us were three   
who are known in history as ,abella1    
,rebeca de ,guarna and ,mercuriade4 ,all
 of them achieved a great reputation by 
their writings on medical subjects1     

especially ,mercuriade1 who             
distinguished herself in surgery as well
 as in medicine4 ,still another woman   
deserving special mention is ,francesca1
 wife of ,matteo de ,romana1 of         
,salerno4 ,after passing a very severe  
examination before a board composed of  
physicians and surgeons1 she was        
accorded the doctorate in surgery4 ,an  
official document of the time referring 
to this event reads as follows3 ,whereas
 the laws permit women to practice      
medicine1 and whereas1 from the         
viewpoint of good morals1 women are best
 adapted to the treatment of their own  
sex1 we1 after having received the oath 
of fidelity1 permit the said ,francesca 
to practice the said art of healing1    
etc4#aii  ,in view of the facts above   
mentioned regarding the ,university of  
,salerno--the excellence of its work1   
its liberality and breadth of view1 its 
attitude toward the higher education of 
women1 and its preeminence for so many  
centuries as a school of medicine--is it

 surprising that it was1 until          
comparatively recent times1 considered  
the mater et caput of medical authority 
in ethical matters1 and that1 so late as
 #agdh1 the ,medical ,faculty of ,paris 
should address an official letter to the
 faculty of ,salerno requesting its     
judgment regarding the rights of        
precedence as between physicians and    
surgeons8 ,but what is surprising1 and  
what1 too1 passes all understanding1 is 
that the ,university of ,london1 after  
being empowered by royal charter to do  
all things that could be done by any    
university1 was legally advised that it 
could not grant degrees to women without
 a fresh charter1 because no university 
had ever granted such degrees4#bjj      
,while women were winning such laurels  
in ,salerno in every department of the  
healing art1 their sisters north of the 
,alps were not idle4 ,as early as #abib 
there were in ,paris no less than eight 
women doctors--called miresses or       
mediciennes--whose names have come down 

to us1 not to speak of those who        
practiced in other parts of ,france4    
,there was also a certain number of     
women who devoted themselves to surgery 
and called by the old ,latin authors of 
the time cyrurgiae4  ,in ,paris1        
however1 conditions for studying and    
practicing medicine and surgery were far
 from being as favorable to women as    
they were in ,salerno4 ,as there were no
 schools open to them for the study of  
these branches1 they had to depend      
entirely for such knowledge as they were
 able to acquire on the aid they could  
get from practicing doctors1 the reading
 of medical books and their own         
experience4 ,the consequence was that   
they were not at all so well equipped   
for their work as were the women who    
enjoyed all the exceptional advantages  
offered the students at ,salerno4 ,none 
of them was noted for scholarship1 none 
of them was a writer of books1 and only 
one of them--,jacobe ,felicie1 about    
whom more presently--rose above         

mediocrity4  ,the reason for the great  
difference between the conditions of the
 women doctors of ,paris and those of   
,salerno is not far to seek4 ,the       
,faculty of ,medicine in ,paris was1    
from the beginning of its existence1    
unalterably opposed to female medical   
practitioners4 ,as early as #abbj it    
promulgated an edict prohibiting the    
practice of medicine by any one who did 
not belong to the faculty1 and1         
according to its constitutions and      
by-laws1 only unmarried men were        
eligible to membership4  ,for a long    
time the edict remained a dead letter4  
,but eventually1 as the faculty grew in 
power and influence1 it was able to     
enforce the observance of its decrees4  
,one of its first victims was ,jacobe   
,felicie1 just mentioned1 who was hailed
 before court for practicing medicine in
 contravention of its edict issued many 
years before4  ,jacobe ,felicie was a   
woman of noble birth1 and had won       
distinction by her success in the       

healing art4 ,as the testimony at her   
trial revealed1 she never treated the   
sick for the sake of gain4 ,in nearly   
all cases the sick who had addressed    
themselves to her had been abandoned by 
their own physicians4 ,all the witnesses
 who had been called testified that they
 had been cured by ,jacobe ,felicie1 and
 all expressed their deepest gratitude  
to her for her care and devotion4 ,but1 
in spite of all these facts1 and in     
spite of the brilliant defence that this
 worthy woman made1 she was condemned to
 pay a heavy fine--condemned because1 as
 the indictment read1 she had presumed  
to put her sickle into the harvest of   
others-falcem in messem mittere         
alienam--and this was a crime4#bja ,the 
faculty was a close corporation and     
insisted that its members should have a 
monopoly of all the honors and          
emoluments that were to accrue from the 
treatment of the sick and suffering4    
,what a curious adumbration of similar  
proceedings within the memory of many   

still living6  ,the prosecution of      
,jacobe ,felicie recalls that of        
,agnodice in ,greece long ages before4  
,and the plea urged for the necessity of
 a female physician--that many a woman  
would rather die than reveal the secrets
 of her infirmity to a man#bjb--was the 
same as that offered by the women of    
,athens before the council of the       
,areopagus4 ,it was the same agonizing  
cry that had been heard thousands of    
times before and which has been heard   
thousands of times since4 ,isabella of  
,castile was not the first of the long  
list of victims who1 for lack of a      
doctor of their own sex1 have been      
sacrificed through womanly modesty1 and1
 more's the pity1 she will not be the   
last4  ,unfortunately for the women of  
,france1 the result of the prosecution  
of ,mme4 ,felicie was the very reverse  
of that instituted against ,agnodice2   
for the latter came off victorious1     
while the former was condemned and      
punished4 ,so crushing was the blow     

dealt to women practitioners1 outside of
 obstetrics1 that they did not recover  
from its effects for more than five     
hundred years4 ,for it was not until    
#ahfh that the ,ecole de ,medicine of   
,paris opened its doors to women1 and it
 was not until nearly twenty years later
 that female physicians were able to    
enter the hospitals of the ,french      
capital as internes4#bjc  ,until quite  
recent years there is very little to be 
said of women physicians in ,england and
 ,germany4 ,their practice1 outside of  
that of certain herb doctors1 was       
confined chiefly to midwifery4 ,there   
was no provision made in either of these
 countries for the education of women in
 medicine and surgery1 and such a thing 
as a college where they could receive   
instruction in the healing art was      
unknown4 ,it is true that an            
ecclesiastical law of ,edgar1 ,king of  
,england1 permitted women as well as men
 to practice medicine1 but this law was 
subsequently abolished by ,henry ,v4#bjd

  ,during the reign of ,henry ,,viii a  
law was again enacted in favor of women 
physicians2 for at that time an act was 
passed for the relief and protection of 
,divers honest psones1 as well men as   
women1 whom ,god hathe endued with the  
knowledge of the nature1 kind and       
operacon of certeyne herbes1 rotes and  
waters1 and the using and ministering   
them to suche as be payned with         
customable diseases1 for neighbourhode  
and ,goddes sake and of pitie and       
charitie1 because that ',the ,companie  
and ,fellowship of ,surgeons of ,london1
 mynding only their owne lucres and     
nothing the profit or case of the       
diseased or patient1 have sued1 vexed   
and troubled' the aforesaid 'honest     
psones1' who were henceforth to be      
allowed 'to practyse1 use and mynistre  
in and to any outwarde sore1 swelling or
 disease1 any herbes1 oyntments1 bathes1
 pultes or emplasters1 according to     
their cooning1 experience and           
knowledge--without sute1 vexation1      

penaltie or loss of their goods4'#bje   
,the italicized words in this quotation 
prove that the women doctors of ,england
 had the same difficulties as their     
sisters in ,france1 and that the real   
reason of the opposition of the male    
practitioners was that they wished to   
monopolize the practice of medicine4    
,they1 like the medical faculty of      
,paris1 strenuously objected to women   
putting the sickle into their harvest1  
and they1 accordingly1 left nothing     
undone to circumvent the intrusion of   
those whom they always regarded as      
undesirable competitors4  ,it was argued
 by the men that women1 to begin with1  
lacked the strength and capacity        
necessary for medical practice4 ,it was 
also urged that it was indelicate and   
unwomanly for the gentler sex to engage 
in the healing art1 and that1 for their 
own good1 they should be excluded from  
it at all costs4 ,those who were willing
 to waive these objections contended    
that women had not the knowledge        

necessary for the profession of medicine
 and should be excluded on the score of 
ignorance4 ,when women sought to qualify
 themselves for medical practice by     
seeking instruction under licenced      
practitioners or in medical schools1    
they found a deaf ear turned to their   
requests4 ,the doctors declined to teach
 them and the medical schools1 one and  
all1 closed their doors against them4   
,thus it was that in ,england1 ,france  
and ,germany the practice of medicine   
and surgery was always practically in   
the hands of men until only a generation
 ago4 ,even the ,english midwives       
gradually fell from their high estate1  
and were left far behind the female     
obstetricians of ,germany and ,france4  
,for these two countries can point to a 
number of midwives who1 by their        
knowledge1 successful practice1 and the 
books they wrote1 achieved a celebrity  
that still endures4  ,chief among these 
in ,germany were ,regina ,joseph von    
,siebold1 her daughter ,carlotta1 and   

,frau ,teresa ,frei1 all of whom1 in the
 early part of the last century1 enjoyed
 an enviable reputation in the          
,fatherland4  ,the first named1 after   
following a course of lectures on       
physiology and the diseases of women and
 children1 and passing a brilliant      
examination in the medical college of   
,darmstadt1 devoted herself to the      
practice of obstetrics1 and with so     
great success that the ,university of   
,giessen in #ahai conferred on her the  
degree of doctor of obstetrics4 ,her    
daughter1 ,carlotta1 after studying     
obstetrics under her mother1 went to the
 ,university of ,goettingen1 where she  
devoted herself to physiology1 anatomy  
and pathology4 ,after passing an        
examination and successfully defending a
 number of theses in the ,university of 
,giessen1 she was also proclaimed a     
doctor of obstetrics4 ,at a later date  
,frau ,frei received a similar          
degree4#bjf  ,more noted as accoucheuses
 and gynecologists than the three       

distinguished women just mentioned were 
,mme4 ,marie ,louise ,la ,chapelle and  
,mme4 ,marie ,bovin1 who1 shortly after 
the ,french ,revolution1 entered upon   
those wonderful careers in their chosen 
specialties which have given them so    
unique a place in the annals of         
medicine4  ,mme4 ,la ,chapelle was      
particularly celebrated for the numerous
 improvements she effected in lying-in  
hospitals1 for the large number of      
skilled midwives whom she furnished1 not
 only to ,france1 but also to the whole 
of ,europe1 and1 above all1 for the     
excellent treatises which she wrote on  
obstetrics1 which gave her a reputation 
second to none among her contemporaries1
 men or women4 ,her ,pratique des       
,accouchements1 in three volumes1 based 
on the immense number of fifty thousand 
cases at which she presided1 reveals an 
operator of rarest skill and genius4    
,this production was long regarded as a 
standard work on the topics discussed1  
and for years exerted an immense        

influence in the medical world4  ,less  
skillful as an operator1 but of greater 
ability as a doctor than ,mme4 ,la      
,chapelle1 was her illustrious          
contemporary1 ,mme4 ,bovin4 ,possessing 
extraordinary insight as an investigator
 and marvelous sagacity as a            
diagnostician1 ,mme4 ,bovin achieved the
 distinction of being the first really  
great woman doctor of modern times4 ,her
 marvelous success as a                 
practitioner--,dupuytren said she had an
 eye at the tip of her finger--her      
extended knowledge of the entire range  
of gynecology1 but above all her        
numerous treatises on the subject matter
 of her life work1 gave her a prestige  
that none of her sex had ever before    
enjoyed1 and commanded the admiration of
 the doctors of the world4 ,her         
,memorial de l',art des ,accouchements  
passed through many editions and was    
translated into several ,european       
languages4 ,and so highly were her      
scientific attainments valued in        

,germany that the ,university of        
,marburg recognized them by conferring  
on her--honoris causa--the degree of    
doctor of medicine and1 had its rules   
permitted the admission of women1 the   
,royal ,academy of ,medicine would have 
honored her with a place among its      
members4 ,she was also the recipient of 
many other honors1 besides being a      
member of several learned societies4    
,but the greatest monument to her genius
 is a large illustrated treatise in two 
volumes1 in which she exhibits a        
wonderful knowledge of anatomy1         
physiology1 surgery1 pathology and      
therapeutics4 ,it gave her a large      
following in ,germany as well as in     
,france1 and there were not wanting     
distinguished ,german accoucheurs who   
followed ,mme4 ,bovin's teachings to the
 letter4  ,the remarkable ,german and   
,french women just named were all       
practically self-made women4 ,they won  
fame as they had acquired               
knowledge--chiefly by courage1 in spite 

of the countless obstacles that beset   
their paths4 ,they owed nothing to      
schools or universities1 nothing to     
government patronage or assistance1     
nothing to the medical fraternity as a  
whole4 ,universities would not admit    
them to their lecture rooms or          
laboratories1 and the various medical   
faculties opposed them as intruders into
 their jealously guarded domain1 and as 
competitors whose aspirations were to be
 frustrated1 whatever the means         
employed4 ,it is true that1 when some of
 the women mentioned had won world-wide 
renown by their achievements1 they were 
made the recipients of belated honors by
 certain universities and learned       
societies2 but these societies and      
universities were then honoring         
themselves as much as the women who     
received their degrees and diplomas of  
membership4  ,how different it was in   
,italy1 which1 since the fall of the    
,roman ,empire1 has ever been in the van
 of civilization1 and which has always  

continued the best traditions of        
,graeco-,roman learning and             
culture--,italy1 which has been the home
 of such supreme masters of literature1 
science1 art as ,dante1 ,petrarch1      
,galileo1 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ,raphael1
 ,michaelangelo1 ,brunelleschi--,italy1 
the mother of universities1 the         
birthplace of the ,renaissance1 and the 
recognized leader of intellectual       
progress among the nations of the world4
 ,here in the favored land of the ,muses
 and the ,graces1 women enjoyed all the 
rights and privileges accorded to men2  
here the doors of schools and           
universities were open to all regardless
 of sex2 and art1 science1 literature1  
law1 medicine1 jurisprudence counted its
 votaries among women as well as among  
men2 here1 far from encountering        
jealousy and opposition in the pursuit  
of knowledge or in the practice of the  
professions1 women never found aught but
 generous emulation and sympathetic     
cooperation4  ,for a thousand years     

women were welcomed into the arena of   
learning and culture on the same footing
 as men4 ,in ,salerno1 ,bologna1 ,padua1
 ,pavia1 they competed for the same     
honors and were contestants for the same
 prizes that stimulated the exertions of
 the sterner sex4 ,position and         
emolument were the guerdons of merit and
 ability1 and the victor1 whether man or
 woman1 was equally acclaimed and       
showered with equal honor4 ,women asked 
for no favors in the intellectual arena 
and expected none4 ,all they desired    
were the same opportunities and the same
 privileges as were granted the men1 and
 these were never denied them4 ,from the
 time when ,trotula taught in ,salerno  
to the present1 when ,giuseppina ,catani
 is professor of general pathology in   
the medical faculty of ,bologna1 the    
women of ,italy always had access to the
 universities and were at liberty to    
follow any course of study they might   
elect4 ,we thus find them achieving     
distinction in civil and canon law1 in  

medicine1 in theology even1 as well as  
in art1 science1 literature1 philosophy 
and linguistics4 ,no department of      
knowledge had any terrors for them1 and 
there was none in which some of them did
 not win undying fame4 ,they held chairs
 of language1 jurisprudence1 philosophy1
 physics1 mathematics1 medicine and     
anatomy1 and filled these positions with
 such marked ability that they commanded
 the admiration and applause of all who 
heard them4  ,this is not the place to  
tell of the triumphs of the women       
professors in the ,italian universities1
 or to recount the achievements of those
 who were honored with degrees within   
their classic walls4 ,let it suffice to 
recall the names of a few of those who  
won renown in medicine and surgery and  
whose names are still in their own land 
pronounced with respect and veneration4 
,one of the most noted practitioners in 
,southern ,italy1 after the death of    
,trotula and her compeers1 was one      
,margarita1 who had studied medicine in 

,salerno4 ,one of her patients was no   
less a personage than ,ladislaus1 ,king 
of ,naples4 ,among those that had       
diplomas for the practice of surgery    
were ,maria ,incarnata1 of ,naples1 and 
,thomasia de ,matteo1 of ,castro ,isiae4
  ,that women enjoyed in ,rome the same 
privileges in the practice of medicine  
and surgery as their sisters in the     
southern part of the peninsula is       
manifest from an edict issued by ,pope  
,sixtus ,,iv in confirmation of a law   
promulgated by the ,medical ,faculty of 
,rome1 which reads as follows3 ,no man  
or woman1 whether ,christian or ,jew1   
unless he be a master or a licentiate in
 medicine1 shall presume to treat the   
human body either as a physician or as a
 surgeon4#bjg  ,in central and northern 
,italy--in ,florence1 ,turin1 ,padua1   
,venice--as well as in the southern     
part1 we find constantly recurring      
instances of women practicing medicine  
and surgery and winning for themselves  
an enviable reputation as successful    

practitioners4  ,but after the decline  
of ,salerno1 consequent on the          
establishment by ,frederick ,,ii of a   
school of medicine in ,naples1 the great
 center of medicine and surgery1 as of  
civil and canon law1 was ,bologna4#bjh  
,so renowned did it become as a teaching
 and intellectual center that it was1 as
 ,sarti informs us1 known throughout    
,europe as ,civitas ,docta--the learned 
city--and ,mater ,studiorum--the mother 
of studies4 ,on its coins were stamped  
the words ,bononia ,docet--,bologna     
teaches--and on the city seal1 which is 
still used for certain public documents1
 were the words ,legum ,bononia         
,mater--,bologna1 the ,mother of ,laws4 
,here1 more than in ,salerno1 more than 
in any other city in the world1 was1 for
 long centuries1 witnessed a blooming of
 female genius that has1 since the time 
of ,gratian and ,irnerius1 given the    
,university of ,bologna preeminence in  
the estimation of all friends of woman's
 education and woman's culture4 ,for    

here1 within the walls of what was for  
centuries the most celebrated university
 in ,christendom1 women had1 for the    
first time1 an opportunity of devoting  
themselves at will to the study of any  
and all branches of knowledge4 ,and it  
can be truthfully affirmed that no seat 
of learning can point to such a long    
list of eminent scholars and teachers   
among the gentler sex as is to be found 
on the register of ,bologna's famous    
university4 ,for here1 to name only a   
few1 achieved distinction1 either as    
students or as professors1 such noted   
women as ,bitisia ,gozzadina1 ,bettina  
and ,novella ,calendrini1 ,dorotea      
,bocchi1 ,giovanna and ,maddalena       
,bianchetti1 ,virginia ,malvezzi1 ,maria
 ,vittoria ,dosi1 ,elisabetta ,sirani1  
,ippolita ,grassi1 ,properzia de ,rossi1
 ,maria ,mastellagri1 ,laura ,bassi1    
,maddelena ,noe-,candedi1 ,clotilda     
,tambroni and ,anna ,manzolini4 ,in this
 honor list we have a group of savantes 
that were famed throughout ,europe for  

their attainments in law1 philosophy1   
science1 ancient and modern languages1  
medicine1 and surgery--the rivals1 and  
sometimes the superiors1 in scholarship 
of the ablest men among their           
distinguished colleagues4  ,it would be 
a pleasure to recount the achievements  
of these justly celebrated daughters of 
,italy2 but lack of space precludes the 
mention of more than one of them4 ,this 
was ,maria dalle ,donne1 who was born of
 poor peasants near ,bologna1 and who at
 an early age exhibited intelligence of 
a superior order4 ,after pursuing her   
studies under the ablest masters1 she   
obtained from the ,university of        
,bologna1 maxima cum laude1 the degree  
of doctor in philosophy and medicine4   
,on account of her knowledge of surgery1
 as well as of medicine1 she was soon   
afterward put in charge of the city's   
school for midwives4 ,when ,napoleon1 in
 #ahjb1 passed through ,bologna he was  
so struck by the exceptional ability of 
the young dottoressa that1 on the       

recommendation of the savant ,caterzani1
 he had instituted for her in the       
university a chair of obstetrics--a     
position which she held until the time  
of her death1 in #ahdb1 with the        
greatest credit to herself and to the   
institution with which she was          
identified4  ,maria dalle ,donne is a   
worthy link between that long line of   
women doctors1 beginning with ,trotula1 
who have so honored their sex in ,italy1
 and those still more numerous          
practitioners in the healing art who1   
shortly after her death1 began to spring
 up in all parts of the civilized       
world4#bji  ,for it was about this time 
that the movement which had long been   
agitated in behalf of the higher        
education of women began suddenly to    
assume extraordinary vitality1 not only 
throughout ,europe but in ,america as   
well4 ,and to no women did this movement
 appeal so strongly as to those who had 
long been looking forward to an         
opportunity to qualify themselves for   

the learned professions1 especially     
medicine4 ,no sooner did they descry the
 first flush of dawn on their           
long-deferred hopes than they began to  
consider ways and means for putting     
their fondly nurtured projects into     
execution4  ,seven years1 almost to the 
day1 after the death of ,maria dalle    
,donne1 ,miss ,elizabeth ,blackwell1 a  
young woman in ,america1 of ,english    
birth1 decided to enter college with a  
view of studying medicine and surgery4  
,but1 at the very outset1 she           
encountered all kinds of unforeseen     
difficulties--difficulties that would   
have caused a less courageous and       
determined woman to give up her plans in
 despair4 ,she was told1 in the first   
place1 that it was highly improper for a
 woman to study medicine and that no    
decent woman would think of becoming a  
medical practitioner4 ,as to a lady     
studying or practicing surgery that1 of 
course1 was out of the question4  ,but a
 more serious obstacle than the         

conventionalities in the case was the   
difficulty of finding a medical college 
that was willing to admit a woman to its
 lecture rooms and laboratories4 ,miss  
,blackwell applied to more than a dozen 
of the leading institutions of ,america1
 and received a positive refusal to her 
request4 ,finally1 when hope had almost 
vanished1 she received word from a small
 college in ,geneva1 ,new ,york1        
announcing that her application had been
 favorably considered and that she would
 be admitted as a student whenever she  
presented herself4  ,the truth is that  
the faculty of the college was opposed  
to the young woman's admission1 but     
wished to escape the odium incident to a
 direct refusal by referring the        
question to the class with a proviso    
which1 it was believed1 would           
necessarily exclude her4 ,but in this it
 was greatly surprised and disappointed4
 ,for the entire medical class1 to the  
number of about one hundred and fifty1  
decided unanimously in favor of the fair

 applicant's admission4 ,and they did   
more than this4 ,they put themselves on 
record regarding the equality of        
educational opportunities for women and 
men in a way that must have put their   
timid professors to shame4 ,their       
resolution1 accompanying an invitation  
to the young woman to become a member of
 the student body1 was worded as        
follows3  ',resolved1 ,that one of the  
radical principles of a republican      
government is the universal education of
 both sexes2 that to every branch of    
scientific education the door should be 
equally open to all2 that the           
application of ,elizabeth ,blackwell to 
become a member of our class meets our  
entire approbation1 and1 in extending   
our unanimous invitation1 we pledge     
ourselves that no conduct of ours shall 
cause her to regret her attendance at   
this institution4'  ,the students were  
as good as their word4 ,their conduct1  
as ,miss ,blackwell wrote years         
afterward1 was always admirable and that

 of true ,christian gentlemen4 ,but the 
women of ,geneva were shocked at the    
female medical student4 ,they stared at 
her as a curious animal2 and the theory 
was fully established that she was      
either a bad woman1 whose designs would 
gradually become evident1 or that1 being
 insane1 an outbreak of insanity would  
soon be apparent4#baj  ,in due time     
,miss ,blackwell finished her course in 
medicine and surgery1 and graduated at  
the head of her class4 ,the orator of   
the day1 who was a member of the        
faculty1 naturally referred to the new  
departure that had been made--the       
admission of a woman for the first time 
to a complete medical education--and    
among other things declared that the    
experiment1 of which every member of the
 faculty was proud1 had proved that the 
strongest intellect and nerve and the   
most untiring perseverance were         
compatible with the softest attributes  
of feminine delicacy and grace4#baa     
,the awarding of the degree of ,m4,d4   

for the first time to a woman in        
,america excited general comment and    
widespread interest1 not only in the    
,united ,states1 but in ,europe as well4
 ,the public press was not unfavorable  
in its opinion of the new departure1 and
 even ,punch could not resist writing   
some verses1 sympathetic1 albeit        
humorous1 in honor of the fair          
,m4,d4#bab  ,after spending some time   
abroad studying in the great hospitals  
of ,europe1 ,miss ,blackwell started the
 practice of medicine in ,new ,york     
,city4 ,at first1 as she declares in her
 autobiographical sketches1 it was very 
difficult1 though steady1 uphill work4  
,i had1 she tells us1 no medical        
companionship1 the profession stood     
aloof1 and society was distrustful of   
the innovation4  ,the aloofness of the  
profession arose from a dread of        
successful rivalry1 and the men did not 
wish to encourage the invasion by women 
of their own preserves4 ,you cannot     
expect us1 one of them frankly admitted 

to her1 to furnish you with a stick to  
break our heads with4  ,but1 undeterred 
by opposition1 ,miss ,blackwell         
continued her work1 daily making        
converts to the new movement and        
receiving substantial aid1 as well as   
sympathetic cooperation1 from many      
people1 both men and women1 prominent in
 society and public life4 ,in #ahed she 
started a free dispensary for poor      
women4 ,three years later she founded a 
hospital for women and children1 where  
young women physicians as well as       
patients could be received4 ,these were 
the humble beginnings of the present    
flourishing institutions known as the   
,new ,york ,infirmary and the ,college  
for ,women4 ,and in less than ten years 
after her graduation1 ,miss ,blackwell  
saw the new departure in medical        
practice successfully established1 not  
only in ,new ,york1 but also in other   
large cities of the ,united ,states4 ,in
 #ahfi the early pioneer medical work by
 women in ,america was completed4       

,during the twenty years which followed 
the graduation of the first woman       
physician1 the public recognition of the
 justice and advantage of such a measure
 had steadily grown4 ,throughout the    
northern states the free and equal      
entrance of women into the profession of
 medicine was secured4 ,in ,boston1 ,new
 ,york and ,philadelphia special medical
 schools for women were sanctioned by   
the legislatures1 and in some           
long-established colleges women were    
received as students in the ordinary    
classes4#bac  ,meanwhile1 the women in  
,europe were not idle nor heedless of   
the example set by their brave sisters  
in ,america4 ,the ,university of ,zurich
 threw open its portals to women1 and   
was soon followed by those of ,bern and 
,geneva4 ,the first woman to obtain a   
degree in medicine in ,zurich--it was in
 #ahfg--was ,nadejda ,suslowa1 a        
,russian4 ,she was soon followed by     
scores of others from ,europe and       
,america1 who found greater advantages  

and more sympathy in ,swiss universities
 than elsewhere4  ,in #ahfi the         
,medico-,chirurgical ,academy of ,st4   
,petersburg conferred the degree of     
,m4,d4 upon ,madame ,kaschewarow1 the   
first female candidate for this honor4  
,when her name was mentioned by the dean
 it was received with an immense storm  
of applause which lasted several        
minutes4 ,the ceremony of investing her 
with the insignia of her dignity being  
over1 her fellow students and colleagues
 lifted her on a chair and carried her  
with triumphant shouts throughout the   
halls4  ,the first woman graduate from  
the ,university of ,france was ,miss    
,elizabeth ,garrett1 of ,england4 ,she  
received her degree in medicine in      
#ahgj1 and the following year the same  
institution conferred the doctor's      
degree on ,miss ,mary ,c4 ,putnam1 of   
,new ,york4  ,after these precedents had
 been established1 the universities of  
the various countries on the continent1 
following the examples set by those in  

the ,united ,states and ,switzerland1   
opened one after the other their doors  
to women1 and in most of them accorded  
them all the privileges of cives        
academici enjoyed by the men4  ,great   
,britain held out against the new       
movement long after most of the         
continental countries had fallen into   
line1 nor did she surrender until after 
a protracted and bitter fight1 during   
which the men leading the opposition    
exhibited evidences of selfishness and  
obscurantism that now seem incredible4  
,the leader in ,great ,britain of       
pioneer medical work for women was ,miss
 ,sophia ,jex-,blake1 whose academic    
pathway was beset with difficulties far 
sterner than had in the ,united ,states 
confronted her friend and colleague1    
,miss ,blackwell4  ,hearing much of the 
tolerance and liberality of the         
,university of ,london1 she applied to  
it for admission as a student1 but was  
informed at once that the charter of the
 institution had purposely been so      

worded as to exclude the possibility of 
examining women for medical degrees4    
,after this rebuff she made application 
to the ,university of ,edinburgh1 which1
 like the other ,scotch universities1   
had always boasted of its               
broad-mindedness and freedom from       
educational trammels4 ,she was received 
provisionally1 and was1 after a while1  
joined by six other women who had in    
view the same object as herself4 ,for a 
time1 notwithstanding opposition from   
certain quarters1 everything was quiet  
and apparently satisfactory4 ,but the   
gathering storm soon broke1 and the     
seven young women1 as they were one day 
entering the university gates1 were     
actually mobbed by a ruffianly band of  
students who had all along been opposed 
to the presence of women in the class   
and lecture rooms4 ,they pelted the     
helpless females with street mud and    
hurled at them all the vile epithets and
 heaped upon them all the abuse that    
their foul tongues could command4 ,these

 outrageous proceedings on the part of  
the rabble of rowdies were allowed to   
continue for several days1 and1 had it  
not been for a brave band of chivalrous 
young ,irishmen among the students1 who 
formed themselves into a bodyguard for  
the protection of their fair classmates1
 and were1 in consequence1 known as ,the
 ,irish ,brigade1 the hapless women     
students would not have escaped bodily  
harm4 ,what a marked contrast between   
the conduct toward ,miss ,blackwell of  
the gallant students of the modest      
little ,american town and that of the   
cowardly ruffians of the vaunted ,athens
 of the ,north6  ,but this was not all4 
,the seven young women in question had  
matriculated as students of the         
university with the understanding that  
they were to have all the rights and    
privileges of the male students4 ,but   
after the disgraceful conduct of the mob
 just referred to1 they discovered that 
the authorities of the university were  
prepared to break faith with them1 and  

prevent them from getting their coveted 
degrees1 and thus debar them from all   
chance of medical practice4  ,the reason
 why the university was induced to annul
 its contract1 after the women on their 
part had fully complied with all its    
stipulations1 soon became apparent4 ,it 
was purely and simply to make it        
impossible for women to secure a license
 as medical practitioners4 ,both in and 
outside of ,edinburgh the conviction    
daily grew stronger that women doctors  
were a menace to the monopoly so long   
enjoyed by the medical fraternity1 and  
that the movement in their favor should 
be crushed by fair means or foul before 
it got beyond control4 ,the ,spectator  
made this clear by stating at the time  
of the controversy that every profession
 in this country--,england--is more or  
less of a trades union1 and yet the     
members of these professions would shake
 their heads and prate about the        
necessity of stamping out trades        
unionism among workmen4 ,women1 whined  

one of the doctors1 would snatch the    
bread from the mouths of poor           
practitioners4 ,another doctor who had  
championed the cause of women           
physicians1 when commenting on the      
hypocritical objection that it was      
unbecoming for women to practice        
medicine or surgery1 expressed the same 
idea in other words4 ,it appears1 he    
declared1 that it is most becoming and  
proper for a woman to discharge all the 
duties which are incidental to our      
profession for thirty shillings a week2 
but1 if she is to have three or four    
guineas a day for discharging the same  
duties1 then they are immoral and       
immodest and unsuited to the soft nature
 that should characterize a lady4       
,after ,miss ,jex-,blake and her        
companions learned that the university  
was determined to refuse them the       
degrees to which they were entitled1    
they brought suit against it for breach 
of contract4 ,but1 after a long and     
expensive trial1 the judge rendered a   

decision against them4 ,they then       
appealed to ,parliament1 and1 after a   
protracted and strenuous campaign on the
 part of friends whom they had enlisted 
in their cause1 they saw their opponents
 not only dragged at the chariot wheels 
of progress but forced to help to turn  
them2 for1 in #ahgh1 after nearly ten   
years of a persistent1 continuous       
struggle such as had rarely been        
witnessed in woman's long battle for    
things of the mind--a struggle in which 
the intrepid1 dauntless ,miss           
,jex-,blake made the greatest of all the
 contributions to the end attained--the 
women of ,great ,britain had the supreme
 satisfaction of winning what was       
probably the most glorious victory which
 their sex had ever won4#bad ,the war   
was over and henceforward they were     
free--as were their sisters in other    
parts of the world--as the women in     
,italy had been for a thousand years--to
 devote themselves at will to the study 
and practice of the healing art without 

let or hindrance4  ,what a wonderful    
change has taken place in the medical   
world almost within the space of a      
single generation6 ,the tiny grain of   
mustard that was sown by two lone women1
 the ,misses ,blackwell and ,jex-,blake1
 in their chosen field of effort has    
grown and waxed a great tree4 ,women    
doctors are now found in all parts of   
the civilized world and are numbered by 
thousands4 ,and so great has been their 
professional success1 so widespread is  
the desire to secure their services1    
especially in countries like ,america   
and ,england1 where opposition was in   
the beginning especially bitter1 that   
the proportion of women practitioners in
 medicine and surgery is now regarded as
 the best index of a nation's           
enlightenment4  ,the healing art of     
,greece and ,rome has broadened out into
 the noble sciences of medicine and     
surgery of to-day4 ,for1 based as they  
now are on the sciences of chemistry1   
botany1 biology1 hygiene1 physiology1   

anatomy and bacteriology1 which have all
 witnessed such extraordinary           
developments during the last half       
century1 they both deserve a preeminent 
place in the history of the sciences4   
,and the success which has crowned      
woman's efforts in surgery and medicine 
is not only a conclusive indication of  
her capacity1 so long denied by her     
self-interested opponents1 but also the 
most convincing indication that she is  
at last properly occupied in a field of 
activity from which she was too long    
excluded4 ,her contributions as writer  
and investigator toward the progress of 
both sciences1 even during the short    
time in which she has been able to give 
proof of her ability1 have been notable 
and augur well for the share she will   
have in their future advancement4 ,but  
more important still is the refining    
influence she has already exerted on    
both professions1 and the relief she has
 been able to afford to countless       
thousands of her own sex who would      

otherwise have been the voluntary       
victims of untold misery4 ,women doctors
 are1 indeed1 not only worthy           
representatives of ,aesculapia ,victrix 
and of the two sciences which they have 
so elevated and so ennobled1 but are    
also ministering angels to poor1        
suffering humanity comparable only with 
the heroic ,sisters of ,charity and the 
devoted nurses of the ,red ,cross4      
,,footnotes3  #ahb ,quoted in ,medical  
,women1 p4 #aa1 by ,sophia ,jex-,blake1 
,m4 ,d41 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf4 ,cf4        
,hyginus1 ,fabularum ,liber1 ,no4 #bgd4 
#ahc ,charles ,daremberg1 who1 at the   
time of his death in #ahgb1 was         
professor of the history of medicine in 
the ,faculty of ,medicine in ,paris1 had
 the intention of publishing this work  
,greek3 ,peri ton gynaichaion           
tazon4--,on the ,diseases of ,women--but
 his premature death prevented him from 
executing his project4 ,it is to be     
hoped that some one else1 interested in 
woman's medical work1 may at an early   

date give this production to the public 
with an appropriate commentary4  #ahd   
,cf4 ,hertzen et ,rossi ,inscriptiones  
,urbis ,romae ,latinae1 p4 #abde1 ,no4  
#idgh1 ,berlin1 #ahhb4  #ahe ,non mihi  
si linguae centum1 oraque centum1 ferrea
 vox 444 omnia morborum percurrere      
nomina possim quae ,fabiola in tanta    
miserorum refregeria commutavit ut multi
 pauperum sani languentibus inviderent4 
,epistola ad ,oceanum4  #ahf ,haec inter
 timidam revocat clamore puellam        
,alpharides1 veniens quae saucia quaeque
 ligavit4      --,ekkehardi ,primi      
,waltharius1 ,berlin1 #ahgc4  #ahg ,that
 the ,germans1 at the time under        
discussion1 regarded learning as having 
an effeminating effect on men is well   
illustrated by the following            
characteristic anecdote3 when           
,amasvintha1 a very learned woman who   
was a daughter of the ,ostrogoth ,king1 
,theodoric1 selected three masters for  
the instruction of her son1 the people  
became indignant4 ',theodoric1' they    

exclaimed1 'never sent the children of  
the ,goths to school1 learning making a 
woman of a man and rendering him        
timorous4 ,the saber and the lance are  
sufficient for him4' ,procopius1 ,de    
,bello ,gothico1 ,i1 #b1 ,leipsic1      
#aije4  ,if we may judge by a letter    
from ,pace to ,dean ,colet1 the noted   
classical scholar and founder of ,st4   
,paul's school in ,london1 such views   
found acceptance in ,england as late as 
the time of ,more and ,erasmus4 ,for we 
are told of a ,british parent who       
expressed his opinion on the education  
of men in these words3 ,i swear by      
,god's body ,i'd rather that my son     
should hang than study letters4 ,the    
study of letters should be left to      
rustics4  #ahh ,this work was for a long
 time regarded as lost1 but a manuscript
 copy was recently found in ,copenhagen1
 and it has since been published by     
,teubner of ,leipsic1 under the title of
 ,hildegard's ,causae et ,curae4  #ahi  
,archiv fuer ,pathologische ,anatomie   

und ,physiologie und fuer ,klinische    
,medicin1 ,band #ah1 p4 #bhf1 ,berlin4  
#aij ,s4 ,hildegardis ,opera ,omnia1    
,ed4 ,migne1 p4 #aabb1 ,paris1 #ahhb4   
#aia ,in the municipal and state        
institutions of this period the         
beautiful gardens1 roomy halls and      
springs of water of the old cloistral   
hospital of the ,middle ,ages were not  
heard of1 still less the comforts of    
their friendly interiors4 ,a ,history of
 ,nursing1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ejj1 ,m4       
,adelaide ,nutting and ,lavinia ,l4     
,dock1 ,new ,york1 #aijg4  ,the         
mortality in some of the state hospitals
 from the latter part of the seventeenth
 to the middle of the nineteenth century
 was appalling1 often as high as fifty  
and sixty per cent4 ,this was due not   
only to shockingly unsanitary           
conditions1 but also to inordinate      
overcrowding4 ,a large proportion of the
 beds1 incredible as it may seem1 were  
purposely made for four patients1 and   
six were frequently crowded into them4  

,the extraordinary spectacle was then to
 be seen of two or three small-pox      
cases1 or several surgical cases1 lying 
on one bed4 ,john ,howard1 in his       
,prisons and ,hospitals1 pp4 #agf-agg4  
,warrington1 #ahgd1 tells us of two     
hospitals that were so crowded that he  
had often seen five or six patients in  
one bed1 and some of them dying4  ,it is
 gratifying to learn that the chief     
agents in changing this revolting       
condition1 due to faulty construction   
and management of hospitals1 were women4
 ,prominent among these benefactors of  
humanity were ,mme4 ,necker1 ,florence  
,nightingale1 and the wise and alert    
superiors of the various nursing        
sisterhoods4  #aib ,how like ,chaucer's 
prioress who      ,was so charitable and
 so piteous1     ,and al was conscience 
and tender herte4  #aic ,cf4 ,lib4 de   
,virtutibus et ,laudibus1 by ,aegidius1 
head physician to ,philip ,augustus of  
,france1 in which occur the following   
verses3      ,urbs ,phoebo sacrata1     

,minervae sedula nutrix1     ,fons      
physicae1 pugil eucrasiae1 cultrix      
medicinae1     ,assecla ,naturae1 vitae 
paranympha1 salutis     ,promula fida2  
magis ,lachesis soror1 ,atropos hostis4 
,morbi pernicies1 gravis adversaria     
mortis4  quoted in the appendix1 p4     
xxxii1 to ,s4 de ,renzi's1 ,storia      
,documentata della ,scuola ,medica di   
,salerno1 ,naples1 #aheg4  #aid ,cf4    
,the introduction to the ,english       
translation of the ,regimen ,sanitatis  
,salernitanum1 p4 #bh1 by ,j4           
,ordronaux1 ,philadelphia1 #ahgj4  #aie 
,immortal praise adorns ,salerno's name 
,to seek whose shrine the world once    
came4  #aif ,see ,storia ,documentata   
della ,scuola ,medica di ,salerno1 ut4  
sup41 p4 #dgd et seq41 and p4 lxxvi et  
seq4 of ,appendix2 also ,ordronaux1 ut  
sup41 p4 #af4  #aig ,probably her most  
noted work is the one which bears the   
title ,de ,morbis ,mulierum et ,eorum   
,cura--,the ,diseases of ,women and     
,their ,cure4  #aih ,physicae quoque    

scientiam tam copiose habuit ut in urbe 
,psaleritana1 ubi maxime medicorum      
scholae ab antiquo tempore habentur1    
neminem in medicinali arte1 praeter     
quandam sapientem matronam1 sibi parem  
inveniret4 ,migne1 ,patrologiae         
,latinae1 ,tom4 #ahh1 ,col4 #bfj4  #aii 
,as this decree is of singular interest 
and importance1 a copy of the original  
is here given in full3  ,karolus1 etc41 
,universis per ,justitieratum           
,principatus citra ,serras ,montorii    
constitutis presentes litteras          
inspecturis fidelibus paternis et suis  
salutem1 etc4 ,in actionibus nostris    
utilitati puplice libenter oportune     
perspicimus et honestatem morum in      
quantum suadet modestia conservamus4    
,sane ,francisca uxor ,mathei de ,romana
 de ,salerno in ,regia ,curia presens   
exposuit quod ipsa circa principale     
exercitium cirurgie sufficiens          
circumspecto in talibus judicio         
reputatur4 ,propter quod excellentie    
nostre supplicavit attentius ut         

licentiam sibi dignaremus concedere in  
arte hujusmodi practicandi4 ,quia igitur
 per scriptum puplicum universitatis    
terre ,salerni presentatum eidem ,regie 
,curie1 inventum est lucide quod        
,francisca prefata fidelis est et genere
 orta fidelium ac examinata per medicos 
,regios paternos nostrosque cirurgicos1 
in eadem arte cirurgie tamquam ydiota   
sufficiens est inventa1 licet alienum   
sit feminis conventibus interrese       
virorum1 ne in matronalis pudoris       
contumelia irruant et primum culpam     
vetite transgressionis incurrant4 ,quia 
tamen de juris indicto medicine officium
 mulieribus est concessum expedienter   
attento quod ad mulieres curandas       
egrotas de honestate morum viris sunt   
femine aptiores1 not recepto prius ab   
eadem ,francisca solito fidelitatis et  
quod iuxta tradiciones ipsius artis     
curabit fideliter corporaliter          
,juramento1 licentiam curandi et        
practicandi sibi in eadem arte per      
,justitieratum jam dictum auctoritate   

presentium impartimus4 ,quare fidelitati
 vestre precipimus quatenus eandem      
,franciscam curare et practicari in     
prefata arte per ,justitieratum         
predictum ad honorem et fidelitatem     
paternam et nostram ac utilitatem       
fidelium presentium earumdam libere     
permittatis1 nullum sibi in hoc         
impedimentum vel obstaculum interentes4 
,datum ,neapoli per dominum             
,bartholomeum de ,capua1 etc41 ,anno    
domini mcccxxi1 die x ,septembris v1    
indictionis ,regnorum dicti domini      
patris nostri anno xiii4  ,collectio    
,salernitana1 ,tom4 ,,iii1 p4 #cch1 by  
,g4 ,henschel1 ,c4 ,daremberg1 and ,s4  
de ,renzi1 ,naples1 #aheb-ei4  #bjj     
,universities in the ,middle ,ages1     
,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part ,,ii1 p4 #gab1 by ,h4 
,rashdall1 ,oxford1 #ahie4 ,the most    
exhaustive work on the ,university of   
,salerno and its famous doctors1 men and
 women1 is a joint work in five volumes 
entitled ,collectio ,salernitana2 ossia 
,documenti ,inediti e ,trattati di      

,medicina appartenenti alla scuola      
,salernitana1 raccolti e illustrati1 by 
,g4 ,henschel1 ,c4 ,daremberg e ,s4     
,renzi1 ,naples1 #aheb-ei4 ,cf4 also1   
,storia ,documentata della ,scuola      
,medica di ,salerno1 by ,s4 de ,renzi1  
,naples1 #aheg2 ,l',ecole de ,salerne1  
by ,c4 ,meaux1 with introduction by ,c4 
,daremberg1 ,paris1 #ahhj1 and ,piero   
,giacosa's ,magistri ,salernitani       
,nondum ,editi1 ,turin1 #ahia4  #bja    
,chartularium ,universitatis            
,parisiensis1 ,tom4 ,,ii1 p4 #aej1 and  
pp4 #bee and #bfg1 by ,denifle and      
,chatelain1 ,paris1 #ahhi-ahia4  #bjb   
,mulier antea permitteret se mori1 quam 
secreta infirmitatis sui homini revelare
 propter honestatem sexus muliebris et  
propter verecundiam quam revelando      
pateretur4 ,chartularium ,universitatis 
,parisiensis1 ,tom4 ,,ii1 p4 #bfd1      
,paris1 #ahia4  #bjc ,it may interest   
the reader to know that the first two   
women to get the doctorate in the ,paris
 ,school of ,medicine were ,miss        

,elizabeth ,garret1 an ,english woman1  
and ,miss ,mary ,putnam1 an ,american4  
,the first woman permitted to practice  
in the ,paris hospitals was likewise an 
,american1 ,miss ,augusta ,klumpke1 of  
,san ,francisco4  #bjd ,possunt et vir  
et foemina medici esse4 ,cf4            
,chiappelli1 ,medicina negli ,ultimi    
,tre ,secoli del ,medio ,evo1 ,milan1   
#ahhe4  #bje ,quoted in ,woman's ,work  
and ,woman's ,culture1 p4 #hg1          
,josephine ,e4 ,butler1 ,london1 #ahfi4 
,dom ,gasquet in his ,english ,monastic 
,life1 p4 #age1 tells us that in the    
,wiltshire convents the young maids     
learned needlework1 the art of          
confectionery1 surgery--for anciently   
there were no apothecaries or surgeons2 
the gentlewomen did cure their poor     
neighbors--physic1 drawing1 etc4  #bjf  
,the first woman to receive the         
doctorate of medicine in ,germany was   
,frau ,dorothea ,christin ,erxleben4    
,hers1 however1 was a wholly exceptional
 case1 and required the intervention of 

no less a personage than ,frederick the 
,great4 ,in #aged1 ,frau ,erxleben1 who 
had made a thorough course of humanities
 under her father1 presented herself    
before the faculty of the ,university of
 ,halle1 where she passed an oral       
examination in ,latin which lasted two  
hours4 ,so impressed were the examiners 
by her knowledge and eloquence that they
 did not hesitate to adjudge her worthy 
of the coveted degree1 which was        
accorded her by virtue of a royal edict4
  ,her reception of the doctorate was   
made the occasion of a most enthusiastic
 demonstration in her honor4            
,felicitations poured in upon her from  
all quarters in both prose and verse4   
,one of them1 in lapidary style1 runs as
 follows3      ,stupete nova litteraria1
     ,in ,italia nonnumquam1     ,in    
,germania nunquam     ,visa vel audita  
,at quo rarius eo carius4  ,this1 freely
 translated1 adverts to the fact that an
 event1 which before had been witnessed 
only in ,italy1 was then being          

celebrated in ,germany for the first    
time1 and was1 for that very reason1    
specially deserving of commemoration4   
#bjg ,nemo masculus aut foemina1 seu    
,christianus vel ,judaeus1 nisi         
,magister vel ,licentiatus in ,medicina 
foret1 auderet humano corpori mederi in 
physica vel in chyrurgia4 ,marini1      
,archiatri ,pontifici1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4     
#aii1 ,roma1 #aghd4  #bjh ,thomas       
,aquinas1 the ,angel of the ,schools1   
who had taught in ,salerno1 and was well
 acquainted with the leading            
universities of ,europe1 was wont to say
 ,quattuor sunt urbes caeteris          
praeeminentes1 ,parisius in ,scientiis1 
,salernum in ,medicinis1 ,bononia in    
legibus1 ,aurelianis in actoribus--     
there are four preeminent cities3       
,paris1 in the sciences2 ,salerno1 in   
medicine2 ,bologna1 in law2 ,orleans1 in
 actors4 ,op4 #ag4 ,de ,virtutibus et   
,vitiis1 ,cap4 ult4  ,the mediaeval     
poet1 ,galfrido1 expressed the same idea
 in verse when he wrote3      ,in morbis

 sanat medici virtute ,salernum         
,aegros3 in causis ,bononia legibus     
armat     ,nudos3 ,parisius dispensat in
 artibus illos     ,panes1 unde cibat   
robustos3 ,aurelianis     ,educat in    
cunis actorum lacte tenellos4  #bji ,it 
may be remarked that it was a woman1    
,lady ,mary ,montagu1 who introduced    
inoculation with small-pox virus into   
,western ,europe1 and that it was also a
 woman--a simple ,english milkmaid--who 
communicated to ,jenner the information 
which led to his discovery of a         
prophylactic against small-pox4 ,but of 
far greater importance was the          
introduction into ,europe of that       
priceless febrifuge and                 
antiperiodic--chinchona bark4 ,this was 
due to the ,countess of ,chinchon1      
vicereine of ,peru4 ,having been cured  
by its virtues of an aggravated case of 
tertian fever in #afch1 while living in 
,lima1 she lost no time1 on her return  
to ,spain1 in making known to the world 
the marvelous curative properties of the

 precious quinine-producing bark4 ,the  
powder made from the bark was most      
appropriately called ,pulvis            
,comitessae--the countess's powder--and 
by this name it was long known to       
druggists and in commerce4 ,thanks to   
,linnaeus1 the memory of the gracious   
lady will always be kept green1 because 
her name is now borne by nearly eight   
score species of the beautiful trees    
which constitute the great and          
incomparable genus ,chinchona4 ,see ,a  
,memoir of the ,lady ,ana de ,osorio1   
,countess of ,chinchon1 and ,vice-,queen
 of ,peru1 by ,clements ,r4 ,markham1   
,london1 #ahgd4  #baj ,pioneer ,work in 
,opening the ,medical ,profession to    
,women1 p4 #gj1 by ,dr4 ,elizabeth      
,blackwell1 ,london1 #ahie4  #baa       
,ibid41 p4 #ia4  #bab      ,young ladies
 all1 of every clime1       ,especially 
of ,britain     ,who wholly occupy your 
time       ,in novels or in knitting1   
,whose highest skill is but to play1    
,sing1 dance or ,french to clack well1  

,reflect on the example1 pray1       ,of
 excellent ,miss ,blackwell4            
44499444994449944499      ,for ,doctrix 
,blackwell1 that's the way       ,to dub
 in rightful gender--     ,in her       
profession1 ever may       ,prosperity  
attend her4     ,punch a gold-headed    
parasol       ,suggests for presentation
     ,to one so well deserving all      
,esteem and ,admiration4  #bac ,op4     
cit41 p4 #bda4  #bad ,for an interesting
 account of the long campaign for the   
admission of women to medical schools   
and practice1 see ,medical ,women--,a   
,thesis and a ,history1 by ,dr4 ,sophia 
,jex-,blake1 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf4  ,for a 
more elaborate work on women in         
medicine1 the reader may consult with   
profit1 ,histoire des ,femmes ,medecins1
 by ,mlle4 ,melanie ,lepinska1 ,paris1  
#aijj4     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,women ,,in 
,,archaeology   ,archaeology1 in its    
broadest sense1 is one of the most      
recent of the sciences1 and may be said 
to be a creation of the nineteenth      

century4 ,in its restricted sense1      
however1 it dates back to the beginning 
of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,for it   
was at this period that the collector's 
zeal began to manifest itself1 and that 
were brought together those priceless   
treasures of ancient art which are      
to-day the pride of the museums of ,rome
 and ,florence4 ,it was then that ,pope 
,sixtus ,,iv and ,julius ,,ii1 his      
nephew1 laid the foundations of the     
great museums of the ,capitol and the   
,vatican1 and enriched them with such   
famous masterpieces as the ,ariadne1 the
 ,nile1 the ,tiber1 the ,laocoon and the
 ,apollo ,belvidere4 ,their example was 
quickly followed by such cardinals as   
,ippolito d',este1 ,fernando de'        
,medici1 and by representatives of the  
leading princely houses of the ,italian 
peninsula4 ,in rapid succession the     
palaces of the ,borghese1 ,chigi1       
,pamphili1 ,ludovisi1 ,barbarini and    
,aldobrandini became filled with the    
choicest ,greek and ,roman antiques4 ,in

 the course of time many of these       
treasures found their way to the museums
 of ,venice1 ,madrid1 ,paris1 ,munich   
and ,dresden1 while still others were   
purchased by wealthy art connoisseurs in
 various parts of ,europe and ,great    
,britain4  ,in the beginning these      
antiques in marble and bronze were used 
chiefly for decorative purposes4        
,courts1 stairs1 fountains1 galleries   
and palaces were adorned with statues1  
busts1 reliefs and sarcophagi applied in
 such a manner as to become incorporated
 in contemporary art and thereby to gain
 fresh life4#bae  ,these treasures of   
antiquity1 statues1 bas-reliefs1        
mosaics1 coins1 medals1 busts1          
sarcophagi1 and productions of ceramic  
art1 although at first used almost      
exclusively for decorating palaces and  
villas and enriching museums1 were      
eventually to become of inestimable     
value in the study of the history of art
 and the civilization of ,greece and    
,rome1 as well as of the various nations

 of antiquity with which they had come  
into contact4 ,besides this1 they       
supplied the necessary raw material not 
only for classical archaeology1 but also
 for that more comprehensive science of 
archaeology which deals with the art1   
the architecture1 the language1 the     
literature1 the inscriptions1 the       
manners1 customs and development of our 
race from prehistoric times until the   
present day4  ,among the women who took 
a prominent part in collecting material 
toward the advancement of archaeologic  
science were those illustrious          
ladies--as celebrated for their         
knowledge and culture as for their noble
 lineage and their patronage of men of  
letters--who presided over the brilliant
 courts of ,urbino1 ,mantua1 ,milan and 
,ferrara4  ,preeminent among these were 
,elizabetta ,gonzaga1 ,duchess of       
,urbino1 and ,isabella d',este1         
,marchioness of ,mantua4 ,the palace of 
the former--that peerless lady who      
excelled all others in excellence--was  

famous for its precious antiques in     
bronze and marble1 but above all for its
 superb collection of rare old books and
 manuscripts in ,greek1 ,latin and      
,hebrew4  ,isabella d',este1 who was    
through life the most intimate friend of
 ,elizabetta ,gonzaga1 was acclaimed by 
her contemporaries as the first lady in 
the world4 ,she was a true daughter of  
the ,renaissance1 in the heart of which 
she was brought up2 and the small1      
passing incidents of her everyday life  
are to us memorials of the classic age  
when the gods of ,parnassus walked with 
men4#baf ,she was an even more          
enthusiastic collector than the ,duchess
 of ,urbino1 and her magnificent palace 
in ,mantua was filled with the choicest 
works of ,greek and ,roman art that were
 then procurable4  ,she has been        
described as one who secured everything 
to which she took a fancy4 ,she had but 
to hear of the discovery of a beautiful 
antique1 a rare work in bronze or marble
 uncovered by the spade of the          

excavator1 when she forthwith made an   
effort to procure it for her priceless  
collection4 ,if that was not possible1  
she would not rest until she could      
secure something else even more         
precious4 ,she aimed at supremacy in    
everything artistic and intellectual1   
and would be content with nothing short 
of perfection4 ,hence it is that her    
collection of antiques1 like those of   
her friend1 the ,duchess of ,urbino1 is 
rightly regarded as having been of      
singular value in preparing the way for 
the foundation of scientific            
archaeology--a foundation that was laid 
by the eminent ,german scholar1         
,winckelmann1 in the eighteenth century 
by the publication of his masterly      
work--,history of the ,art of           
,antiquity4  ,the first woman of        
eminence to take an active part in      
archaeologic excavation was the youngest
 sister of ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 the    
beautiful1 clever and ambitious         
,caroline4 ,when ,joachim ,murat became 

king of ,naples1 after his              
brother-in-law1 ,joseph ,bonaparte1 had 
in #ahjh been transferred to the throne 
of ,spain1 his wife1 ,queen ,caroline1  
gave at once a new impetus to the work  
of the excavation of ,pompeii along the 
lines planned a few years before by the 
eminent ,neapolitan scholar1 ,michele   
,arditi4 ,she exhibited the keenest     
interest in the work1 and the notable   
discoveries which were made under her   
inspiring supervision of this important 
undertaking show how much classical     
archaeology owes to her intelligent and 
munificent patronage4  ,queen ,caroline 
proved her interest in the excavations  
that were to contribute so much to our  
knowledge of antiquity by appearing     
frequently at ,pompeii and stimulating  
the workmen to greater efforts4 ,she    
frequently spent entire days1 during the
 great heat of summer1 at the           
excavations1 to encourage the lazy      
workmen and to reward them in the event 
of success4 ,the funds were increased so

 as to make the employment of six       
hundred men possible4 ,the ,street of   
,tombs was next uncovered1 forming a    
complete and solemn picture1 greatly    
impressing the beholder even to-day4    
,for the first time a complete outline  
of an ancient marketplace and its       
surroundings could be obtained4 ,the    
market1 closed and inaccessible to      
wheeled traffic1 was surrounded by a    
colonnade filled with monuments1 with   
the great temple in the background1 and 
beyond the arcades were other temples or
 public buildings1 among the principal  
being the stately ,basilica4 ,constant  
and increased efforts were thus crowned 
by important results4 ,the ,queen did   
not withhold generous assistance4 ,the  
,french architect1 ,fr4 ,mazois1        
received from her fifteen hundred francs
 while preparing his monumental work at 
,pompeii4#bag  ,it is not too much to   
say that ,queen ,caroline's             
archaeological work at ,pompeii was as  
far-reaching in its results as was that 

of her illustrious brother in the land  
of the ,pharaohs4 ,it drew in the most  
impressive manner the attention of the  
world to the vast treasures of art which
 lay concealed under the earth-covered  
ruins of the once noted cities of the   
ancient world1 and stimulated scholars  
and learned societies to undertake      
similar researches in ,sicily1 ,greece1 
,mesopotamia1 ,asia ,minor1 and the     
almost forgotten islands of the ,aegean 
,seas4  ,while this energetic sister of 
the great ,napoleon was occupied in     
bringing to light those priceless       
treasures of art which had for seventeen
 centuries lain beneath the ashes of    
,vesuvius1 a bright1 refined1           
spirituelle young girl1 born in ,dublin 
and bred in ,england1 was unconsciously 
preparing herself for a brilliant career
 in the branch of archaeology known as  
,christian iconography4 ,her name was   
,anna ,murphy1 better known to the world
 as ,mrs4 ,jameson4 ,at an early age she
 gave evidence of unusual intelligence1 

and she had hardly attained to womanhood
 when she was noted for her knowledge of
 languages and for her remarkable       
attainments in art and literature4      
,numerous journeys to ,france1 ,italy   
and ,germany and a systematic study in  
the great museums and art galleries of  
these countries1 but1 above all1 her    
association with the most distinguished 
scholars of ,europe1 completed her      
education and prepared her for those    
splendid works on ,christian art which  
have made her name a household word     
throughout the world4  ,mrs4 ,jameson   
was a prolific writer1 but those of her 
works on which her fame chiefly rests   
are the ones which are classed under the
 general title1 ,sacred and ,legendary  
,art4 ,they treat of ,god the ,father   
and ,son1 of the ,madonna and the       
,saints1 as illustrated in art from the 
earliest ages to modern times4 ,so      
masterly and exhaustive was her         
treatment of the difficult subjects     
discussed in this chef d'oeuvre of hers 

that no less an authority than the      
eminent ,german archaeologist1 ,f4 ,x4  
,kraus1 writes of this elaborate        
production as follows3  ,neither before 
nor since has the subject matter of this
 work been handled with such skill and  
thoroughness4 ,the older iconographic   
works were mere dilettanteism4 ,for the 
first time since classical archaeology  
had applied the principles of modern    
criticism to ,greek and ,roman          
iconography1 and had presented an       
example of scientific treatment free    
from such reproach1 was a serious       
iconography of our early ,christian     
monuments possible4 ,mrs4 ,jameson was  
the first to attempt this on a large    
scale4 ,it was clear to her--and here   
lay the advance which her work          
reveals--that in order to accomplish her
 colossal task two things must be       
realized4 ,she must not build on a      
foundation of material that is imperfect
 or brought together in a haphazard way4
 ,she must not only see and test        

everything available in the way of      
monuments1 but she must likewise place  
the productions of literature and poetry
 beside those of the plastic arts4 ,it  
was clear to her1 also1 that1 in this   
case1 one would throw light on the      
other1 and that the investigator who    
would lay claim to the name of          
archaeologist must1 moreover1 study the 
spirit of a people in all its monumental
 and literary manifestations4  ,mrs4    
,jameson strove to learn the mind and   
the mode of early ,christian times from 
the works of the ,fathers4 ,she saw in  
the hymns of the ,middle ,ages and in   
the writings of the mystics the sources 
of the art ideas which disclose         
themselves in the wall and glass        
paintings of our cathedrals and in the  
entrancing creation of a ,fiesole4 ,she 
had also the special advantage of being 
thoroughly imbued with ,dante's ideas of
 the plastic arts of the ,middle ,ages4 
,and all this is evidenced in a form    
which exhibits neither dry dissertation 

nor wearisome nomenclature4 ,each of her
 articles is a little essay4 ,it teaches
 us what place the ,madonna1 or ,st4    
,catherine1 or some other saint has held
 in the memory and in the imagination of
 past centuries4 ,we behold the sainted 
forms flitting before our eyes in all   
the charm of poetic perfection which was
 given them by the childlike phantasy of
 the ,middle ,ages1 and in all the power
 which they exercised over men's minds1 
and which1 however we may view the      
religious side of the question1         
certainly had the effect of creating    
forms of infinite beauty and pictures of
 unspeakable reality4#bah  ,when we     
recollect that ,mrs4 ,jameson achieved  
so much before the foundations of       
,christian archaeology had been fully   
laid2 before de ,rossi's monumental     
publications had supplied the means of  
interpreting early ,christian sculpture2
 before critics and archaeologists were 
at one regarding the significance of    
early ,christian and ,middle ,age       

symbolism1 or agreed on the principles  
that were to guide to a correct         
understanding of the pictures of ,roman 
and ,gothic art1 and while students were
 yet in ignorance as to the real        
influence of ,byzantine art on that of  
western ,europe1 we cannot but wonder at
 the courage and the energy of this     
gifted woman in undertaking and in      
bringing to a happy issue a work which1 
even to-day1 with all our increased     
facilities and greater array of facts1  
would be considered a herculean task4   
,as we read her admirable volumes on    
,sacred and ,legendary ,art we can1 as  
did a close friend of hers1 see the     
enraptured author kindle into enthusiasm
 amidst the gorgeous natural beauty1 the
 antique memorials and the sacred       
,christian relics of ,italy1 and we are 
prepared to believe1 with the same      
friend1 that there was not a cypress on 
the ,roman hills1 or a sunny vine       
overhanging the southern gardens1 or a  
picture in those vast somber galleries  

of foreign palaces1 or a catacomb spread
 out1 vast and dark1 under the martyr   
churches of the ,city of the ,seven     
,hills1 which was not associated with   
some vivid flashes of her intellect and 
imagination4 ,and we can also understand
 how the strange1 mystic symbolism of   
the early mosaics was a familiar        
language to her1 and why she should     
experience special delight when she     
found herself on the polished marble of 
the ,lateran floor or under the         
gorgeously somber tribune of the        
,basilica of ,santa ,maria ,maggiore1   
reading off the quaint emblems or       
expounding the pious thoughts of more   
than a thousand years ago4#bai  ,it is  
gratifying to know that ,queen ,victoria
 recognized the surpassing merits of    
this noble woman by placing her on the  
civil list1 and that our own ,longfellow
 was able to say of her masterpiece1    
,sacred and ,legendary ,art1 ,it most   
amply supplies the cravings of the      
religious sentiment of the spiritual    

nature within4  ,a countrywoman of ,mrs4
 ,jameson and her contemporary1 who also
 deserves an honorable place in the     
literature of archaeology1 is ,louise   
,twining4 ,although inferior in         
intellectual attainments and literary   
activity to the accomplished author of  
,sacred and ,legendary ,art1 her two    
works on ,types and ,figures of the     
,bible ,illustrated by ,art and ,symbols
 and ,emblems of ,early ,mediaeval      
,christian ,art have given her a        
well-deserved reputation on the         
,continent as well as in the ,british   
,isles4 ,the latter volume ,mrs4        
,jameson herself declares in her        
,legends of the ,madonna to be certainly
 the most complete and useful book of   
the kind which ,i know of4  ,a third    
woman who has won fame for her sex in   
the island kingdom in the domain of     
archeology is ,miss ,margaret ,stotes4  
,her activities1 however1 have been     
chiefly confined to the antiquities of  
,ireland1 on which she is a recognized  

authority4  ,the notable part she took  
in editing ,lord ,dunraven's great work1
 ,notes on ,irish ,architecture1        
established her reputation on a firm    
basis4 ,among her other important works 
are ,early ,christian ,art in ,ireland  
and ,christian ,inscriptions in the     
,irish ,language1 chiefly collected and 
drawn by ,george ,petrie1 one of the    
annual volumes of the ,royal ,historical
 and ,archaeological ,association of    
,ireland4 ,this work has justly been    
described as an epoch-making            
contribution to ,christian epigraphy and
 to our rapidly developing knowledge of 
,keltic language and literature4 ,the   
learned ,dr4 ,krauss1 than whom there is
 no more competent judge1 in referring  
to this splendid performance1 does not  
hesitate to affirm1 ,no man could have  
done better than this brave college     
girl1 whom ,i would wish to greet across
 the ,channel with a cordial ,macte     
virtute4  ,the women archaeologists so  
far mentioned1 with the exception of    

,queen ,caroline ,murat1 were           
conspicuous as writers rather than      
active investigators in the field4      
,there have been1 however1 quite a      
number who have won distinction as      
archaeologists of the spade--women who1 
either alone or with their husbands1    
have superintended excavations in       
different lands1 which have yielded     
results of untold scientific value4     
,among the most conspicuous of these are
 ,mme4 ,sophia ,schliemann1 ,mme4       
,dieulafoy and the enterprising ,yankee 
girl1 ,miss ,harriet ,a4 ,boyd4  ,of    
these the first named is the wife of the
 late ,dr4 ,henry ,schliemann1 who      
immortalized himself by his famous      
excavations at ,troy1 ,tiryns and       
,mycenae--enterprises which solved for  
us the great problem of nearly thirty   
centuries and demonstrated in the most  
startling manner the truth of the       
foundations on which was framed the     
poetical conception that has for        
thousands of years called forth the     

enchanted delight of the educated world4
 ,during his meteoric career as an      
archaeologist1 ,schliemann was able to  
realize the dreams of his youth1 and    
succeeded in unveiling the mystery that 
had so long hung over ,sacred ,ilios1   
and to give the heroes of the ,iliad a  
local habitation on the rediscovered    
,plain of ,troy4 ,and his glorious      
achievements we must credit largely to  
that brave and devoted woman--his       
wife--who was ever at his side to share 
in his trials and labors and to raise   
his drooping spirits in hours of        
depression1 or when hostile criticism   
treated him as a visionary in the       
pursuit of a chimera4  ,mrs4 ,schliemann
 is a ,greek lady who was born and bred 
under the shadow of the ,acropolis and a
 worthy descendant of those proud       
,athenian women who wore the golden     
grasshopper in their hair as a sign that
 they were natives of the ,city of the  
,violet ,crown4 ,she was not only       
dowered with intellectual gifts of a    

high order1 but she was also her        
husband's most congenial companion and  
sympathetic friend in all his literary  
work1 while she was his very right hand 
in those glorious enterprises at        
,hissarlik and ,mycenae1 which secured  
for both of them undying fame4  ,dr4    
,schliemann was the first to attest the 
never-failing assistance which he       
received from this noble woman who1 as  
he informs us1 was a warm admirer of    
,homer and with glad enthusiasm joined  
her husband in executing the great work 
which he had conceived in his early     
boyhood4 ,usually they worked together1 
but at times ,mrs4 ,schliemann          
superintended a gang of laborers at one 
spot while the ,doctor was occupied at  
another in the immediate vicinity4 ,thus
 it was she who excavated the heroic    
tumulus of ,batieia in the ,troad--that 
,batieia who1 according to ,homer1 was a
 queen of the ,amazons and undertook a  
campaign against ,troy4#bbj  ,mme4 ,jane
 ,dieulafoy is noted as the collaborator

 of her husband1 ,marcel ,dieulafoy1 in 
the important archaeological mission to 
,persia that was entrusted to him by the
 ,french government4 ,the results of    
this mission1 in which ,mme4 ,dieulafoy 
had a conspicuous part1 were published  
in ,paris in #ahhd in five octavo       
volumes4  ,it was during this expedition
 to the ancient empire of ,cyrus and    
,artaxerxes that this indefatigable     
couple became interested in the ruins of
 ,susa1 the ancient capital of the      
,persian kings4 ,on their return to     
,france they succeeded in securing money
 and supplies for conducting excavations
 among these ruins which1 in the end1   
yielded results which were1 in some     
respects1 as important as those which   
rewarded the labors of the ,schliemanns 
in ,greece and ,asia ,minor4  ,so       
completely had ,susa--the ,city of the  
,lilies--been buried and forgotten for  
nearly two thousand years that even its 
site was almost as much a matter of     
dispute as was that of ancient ,troy4   

,and yet it was one of the greatest and 
richest cities of antiquity--the city of
 ,esther and ,daniel1 the city of the   
mighty ,assuerus who reigned from ,india
 even unto ,ethiopia1 over a hundred and
 twenty-seven provinces--the city where 
the great ,alexander celebrated his     
nuptials with ,statira1 the daughter of 
,darius1 with a magnificent festival at 
which1 according to ,plutarch1 there    
were no fewer than nine thousand guests1
 to each of which he gave a golden cup  
for the libations4  ,in ,december1      
#ahhd1 the two brave and venturesome    
explorers were on their way to ,susa    
with high hopes1 but not without a full 
knowledge of the difficulties and       
dangers that they would have to confront
 among the fanatical nomads of          
,arabistan1 where the very name of      
,christian inspires rage and horror4 ,it
 meant1 as ,mme4 ,dieulafoy herself     
tells us1 to cross the ,mediterranean1  
the ,red ,sea1 the ,indian ,ocean1 the  
,persian ,gulf and the deserts of ,elam 

three times in less than a year2 to pass
 whole weeks without undressing2 to     
sleep on the bare ground2 to struggle   
nights and days against robbers and     
thieves2 to cross rivers without a      
bridge2 to suffer heat1 rain1 cold1     
mists1 fever1 fatigue1 hunger1 thirst1  
the stings of divers insects2 to lead   
this hard and perilous existence without
 being guided by any interest other than
 the glory of one's country4#bba  ,in   
spite1 however1 of all the opposition   
which they encountered among the        
fanatical ,mussulmans of ,arabistan and 
of the dreadful sufferings incident to  
living in a desert where it was at times
 impossible to secure the necessaries of
 life1 their mission was successful1 and
 their account of their finds in the    
ancient capital of ,elam was as         
thrilling in its way as anything        
reported of the excavations at ,troy or 
,pompeii4 ,their splendid collection of 
specimens of ancient ,persian art and   
architecture1 now on exhibition in the  

,museum of the ,louvre1 testifies to the
 successful issue of their expedition   
and to their indomitable energy in      
conducting researches under the most    
untoward conditions4#bbb ,so highly did 
the ,french government value the part   
,mme4 ,dieulafoy had taken in this      
arduous enterprise that it conferred on 
her a distinction rarely awarded to a   
woman for scientific work--that of      
,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor4    
,as an archaeologist1 the gifted and    
energetic ,american woman1 ,miss        
,harriet ,boyd--now ,mrs4 ,c4 ,h4       
,hawes--has achieved an international   
reputation for her remarkable           
excavations in the island of ,crete4    
,she is a frequent contributor to       
archaeological journals2 but it is upon 
her splendid work in the field that her 
fame will ultimately rest4  ,her first  
work of importance was undertaken as    
,fellow of the ,american ,school of     
,classical ,studies at ,athens4 ,this   
was in #aijj1 and the field of her      

investigations was the ,isthmus of      
,hierapetra in ,crete4 ,here she        
excavated numerous tombs and houses of  
the early ,geometric ,period1 circa #ijj
 ,b4,c41 and paved the way for those    
brilliant discoveries which rewarded her
 labors during the following three      
years4  ,the investigations conducted   
during these three years under ,miss    
,boyd's directions yielded results of   
transcendent value4 ,assisted by three  
young ,american women--the ,misses ,b4  
,e4 ,wheeler1 ,blanche ,e4 ,williams1   
and ,edith ,h4 ,hall--she superintended 
the work of more than a hundred native  
employees whom she had on her payroll4  
,by good fortune in the choice of a site
 for excavation and by well-directed    
efforts she was soon able to unearth one
 of the oldest of ,cretan cities and to 
expose to view the ruins of what was    
probably one of the ninety cities which 
,homer tells us in his ,odyssey graced  
the land of ,crete--a fair land and a   
rich1 in the midst of a wine-dark sea4  

,so remarkable were the finds in this   
long-buried ,minoan town and so well    
preserved are its general features that 
it has justly been called the ,cretan   
,pompeii4 ,it antedates by long         
centuries the oldest cities of ,greece  
and was a flourishing center of commerce
 ages before the heroes of the ,iliad   
battled on the plains of ,troy4  ,it is 
not too much to say that the            
extraordinary discoveries made by this  
enterprising ,yankee girl at ,gournia1  
no less than those made by ,british and 
,italian archaeologists at ,knossos and 
,phaestos1 have completely              
revolutionized our ideas respecting the 
state of culture of the inhabitants of  
,crete during the second and third      
millenia before the ,christian era4     
,they have thrown a flood of light on   
the origins of ,mediterranean culture1  
and have1 at the same time1 supplied    
material for a study of ,european       
civilization that was before entirely   
wanting4  ,an enduring monument to ,miss

 ,boyd's ability as an archaeologist is 
her notable volume containing an account
 of her excavations at ,gournia1        
,vasilike and other prehistoric sites on
 the ,isthmus of ,hierapetra4 ,it will  
bear comparison with any similar        
productions by the ,schliemanns or the  
,dieulafoys4 ,a later work on ,crete1   
the ,forerunner of ,greece1 which she   
wrote in collaboration with her husband1
 ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hawes1 is also a         
production of recognized merit4 ,as a   
study on the origin of ,greek           
civilization it opens up many new vistas
 in pre-history and illumines many      
questions that were before involved in  
mystery4  ,besides ,mrs4 ,hawes1 three  
other ,american women have achieved     
marked distinction by their             
archaeological researches4 ,these are   
,mrs4 ,sarah ,yorke ,stevenson1 ,miss   
,alice ,c4 ,fletcher and ,mrs4 ,zelia   
,nuttall4  ,mrs4 ,stevenson has long    
been identified with the progress of    
archaeological research1 especially with

 that in ,egypt and the ,mediterranean4 
,a prominent member of many learned     
societies1 she is likewise a writer and 
lecturer of note4 ,she enjoys the       
distinction of being the first woman    
whose name appears as a lecturer on the 
calendar of the ,university of ,harvard4
 ,in acknowledgment of her scholarly    
ability and eminent services in the     
development of its ,department of       
,archaeology1 the ,university of        
,pennsylvania has conferred upon her the
 honorary degree of ,doctor of ,science4
  ,that ,american women have not been   
behind their sisters in ,europe in their
 enthusiasm for archaeological          
investigation is evinced by the         
researches and writings of ,miss ,alice 
,c4 ,fletcher and ,mrs4 ,zelia ,nuttall1
 both of whom enjoy an international    
reputation in the learned world4  ,miss 
,fletcher's chosen field of labor has   
been in ethnology and anthropology4 ,her
 studies of the folk lore and the       
manners and customs of various tribes of

 ,north ,american ,indians have a       
distinct and permanent value1 while     
those of her contributions which have   
been published by the ,smithsonian      
,institution and the ,bureau of         
,ethnology--contributions based on      
personal knowledge of a long residence  
among the tribes she writes about--show 
that she has exceptional talent for the 
branches of archaeology to which she has
 devoted many years of earnest and      
successful study4  ,mrs4 ,nuttall is the
 daughter of an ,american mother and an 
,english father4 ,thanks to the care    
that was bestowed on her education by   
her parents and to her long residence in
 the different countries of ,europe1 she
 is proficient in seven languages4 ,this
 knowledge of tongues has been of       
inestimable advantage to her in her     
researches in ,european libraries and in
 those historical and archaeological    
investigations which have rendered her  
famous4 ,she has devoted special        
attention to the early history1         

languages1 religions and calendar       
systems of the primitive inhabitants of 
,mexico and ,central ,america1 in all of
 which she is a recognized authority4   
,when1 some years ago1 the mysterious   
ruins of ,mexico began to attract the   
special attention of archaeologists1    
,mrs4 ,nuttall was selected by the      
,university of ,california as the field 
director of the commission which it sent
 to pursue archaeological researches in 
this ,egypt of the ,new ,world4 ,a more 
competent or a more enthusiastic        
director could not have been chosen4    
,her finds in the ,pyramids of the ,sun 
and ,moon at ,teotihuacan and elsewhere 
in our sister republic were especially  
important4 ,in recognition of her       
achievements ,president ,porfirio ,diaz 
nominated ,mrs4 ,nuttall honorary       
professor in the ,mexican ,national     
,museum4 ,she was also offered the      
position of curator of the              
archaeological ,museum of ,mexico2 but  
this office she declined4 ,she holds    

membership in a large number of learned 
societies in ,america and ,europe and is
 a frequent contributor to numerous     
magazines on historical and             
archaeological subjects4 ,she has had   
the good fortune to discover a number of
 important manuscripts illustrating the 
early history of ,mexico4 ,chief among  
these are a ,hispano-,american          
manuscript which she dug out of one of  
the libraries of ,madrid and another    
which was found in a private collection 
in ,england and reproduced in facsimile 
in this country4 ,in honor of its fair  
discoverer it is now known as the ,codex
 ,nuttall1 and is regarded by experts as
 one of the most precious records of    
ancient ,mexico4  ,what is probably     
,mrs4 ,nuttall's most valuable          
contribution to archaeological science  
is her erudite work entitled ,the       
,fundamental ,principles of ,old and    
,new ,world ,civilizations4 ,it is a    
comparative research based on a study of
 the ancient ,mexican1 religious1       

sociological and calendar systems1 and  
represents thirteen years of assiduous  
labor4 ,it is a worthy monument to the  
scientific ability of this gifted       
,americanist1 and one which brilliantly 
illumines some of the most controverted 
points of comparative archaeology4  ,the
 ,nestor of women archaeologists is     
,donna ,ersilia ,caetani-,bovatelli--the
 daughter of the famous ,dante scholar1 
the late ,duke ,don ,michel ,angelo     
,caetani-,sermonetta4 ,since the days of
 ,boniface ,,viii1 whom ,dante          
scornfully denounced as lo principe de' 
,pharisei1 the family of the ,caetani   
has been one of the most illustrious of 
the ,roman nobility1 and is to-day      
ranked with those of the ,colonna and   
,orsini4  ,besides his thorough         
knowledge of ,dante1 whose ,divina      
,commedia he regarded as the great      
artistic production of the human mind--a
 work which he knew by heart--the ,duke 
of ,sermonetta was deeply versed in     
philology and archaeology4 ,no one was  

more familiar with the history and      
antiquities of ,rome than he was1 nor a 
greater friend and patron of scholars of
 every nationality4 ,the ,palazzo       
,caetani was the resort of not only the 
savants of ,rome1 but also and          
especially of those who gathered from   
all quarters of the world to study the  
rich collections of antiquities for     
which the ,eternal ,city is so famous4  
,here the ablest authorities in history 
and archaeology discussed the latest    
discoveries among the ruins of ,greece  
and ,asia ,minor1 and the most recent   
finds in the ,forum or amidst the       
crumbling ruins of the palaces of the   
,caesars4  ,having such a father and    
brought up in such an environment it is 
not surprising that ,donna ,ersilia     
acquired at an early age that taste for 
archaeology which was1 as events proved1
 to constitute the chief occupation of  
her long and busy life4 ,having enjoyed 
and studied literature and the languages
 under the best masters in ,rome1 she   

was thoroughly prepared for the work of 
deciphering ,greek and ,latin           
inscriptions and for an intelligent     
study of the ancient monuments of ,italy
 and ,hellas4  ,her learned countryman1 
,a4 de ,gubernatis1 assures us that she 
has such a thorough knowledge of ,latin 
and ,greek that she writes both with    
ease and elegance1 and that she is      
endowed with an admirable memory for    
philology and archaeology4 ,besides     
being a mistress of several modern      
languages1 she is also familiar with    
,sanscrit4  ,since the death of her     
husband1 in #ahgi1 she has devoted all  
her time1 outside of that given to the  
care and education of her children1 to  
the pursuit of classical archaeology1 in
 which she has long been regarded as an 
authority of the first order4 ,her      
salon1 unlike those of the frivolous    
leaders of high life1 has for many years
 been the favorite rendezvous in ,rome  
of learned men and women from every     
clime4 ,here were seen the noted        

historians ,gregorovius1 ,theodore      
,mommsen1 and ,giovanni ,battista de    
,rossi1 the illustrious founder of      
,christian archaeology4 ,here the       
representatives of the ,french1 ,german 
and ,american schools of archaeology    
meet to exchange views on their favorite
 science and to find inspiration in the 
knowledge and enthusiasm of their gifted
 hostess1 who always takes an active    
part in their recondite discussions1 and
 never fails to contribute her share to 
these meetings1 which have contributed  
so much toward the advancement of       
science and the history of antiquity4   
,whether the discussion turn on the     
deciphering of an ancient text1 the     
inscription of a monument or a recently 
excavated sarcophagus1 ,donna ,ersilia's
 opinion is eagerly sought1 and her     
judgment is generally unerring4  ,this  
cultured and erudite daughter of sunny  
,italy has been a prolific writer on her
 favorite branch of research4 ,besides  
contributing to such publications as the

 ,nuova ,antologia and the bulletins of 
the archaeological commissions in ,rome1
 she has found time to prepare for the  
press a number of volumes of the highest
 value on divers questions of ,roman and
 ,greek archaeology4  ,it is            
interesting1 in this connection1 to note
 the fact that1 after ,mme4 ,curie had  
been refused admittance into the ,french
 ,academy1 one of the members of this   
institution1 who had voted against her  
on the ground that she was a woman1 had 
occasion to attend a meeting of the     
,academy of the ,lincei in ,rome1 an    
association which plays the same role in
 ,italy as does the ,french ,academy in 
,france1 and found1 to his astonishment1
 that the dean of the department of     
archaeology1 as well as the presiding   
officer of some of the most important   
meetings of the academy1 was a woman4   
,she was no other than ,donna ,ersilia  
,caetani-,bovatelli1 the learned and    
gracious scion of an honored race4 ,so  
taken aback was the ,gallic opponent of 

feminisme that he could but exclaim3    
,diable6 they order things differently  
in ,italy from what we do in la belle   
,france4  ,considering their attainments
 and achievements1 the two women who    
occupy the highest place as             
archaeologists in the ,english-speaking 
world are ,mrs4 ,agnes ,smith ,lewis and
 ,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson4 ,they are   
the twin daughters of the ,rev4 ,john   
,smith1 an ,english clergyman1 and have 
long enjoyed an enviable reputation     
among ,scriptural scholars and          
,orientalists4  ,during their youth they
 had the advantage of instruction under 
the best masters1 and1 among other      
things1 acquired a wide knowledge of the
 modern and classical languages4        
,subsequent study and frequent visits to
 ,greece and the ,orient made them      
proficient in modern ,greek1 ,arabic1   
,hebrew and ,syriac4 ,becoming          
interested in the search for ancient    
manuscripts1 they resolved to make the  
long and arduous journey to the ,greek  

convent of ,st4 ,catherine on ,mt4      
,sinai4  ,in the latter part of         
,january1 #ahib1 these two brave and    
enterprising women left ,suez for their 
destination in the heart of the ,arabian
 desert4 ,they were accompanied only by 
their dragoman and ,bedouin servants4   
,eleven camels carried the two          
travelers1 their baggage1 tents and     
provisions for fifty days4 ,they had    
laid in supplies not only for the two or
 three weeks they were to spend on the  
way to and from ,sinai1 but also for the
 month they expected to remain at the   
,convent of ,st4 ,catherine4  ,arriving 
at the end of their journey1 they were  
most cordially received by the monks1   
who afforded them every facility for    
examining the treasures of their unique 
and venerable library4 ,they immediately
 set to work1 and before they left the  
room in which the manuscripts were      
preserved they had made one of the most 
remarkable finds of the century4 ,for1  
in closely inspecting a dirty1          

forbidding old manuscript whose leaves  
had probably not been turned for        
centuries1 they discovered a palimpsest1
 of which the upper writing contained   
the biographies of women saints1 while  
that beneath proved to be one of the    
earliest copies of the ,syriac ,gospels1
 if not the very earliest in existence4 
,no find since the celebrated discovery 
by ,tischendorf of the ,sinaitic ,codex1
 in the same convent nearly fifty years 
before1 ever excited such interest among
 ,scriptural scholars or was hailed with
 greater rejoicings4 ,it was by all     
,biblical students regarded as an       
invaluable contribution to ,scriptural  
literature1 and as a find which has     
doubled our sources of knowledge of the 
darkest corner of ,new ,testament       
criticism4 ,to distinguish it from the  
,codex ,sinaiticus1 the precious        
manuscript brought to light by ,mrs4    
,lewis has been very appropriately named
 after the fortunate discoverer1 and    
will hereafter be known as the ,codex   

,ludovicus4#bbc  ,another find of rare  
importance made by the gifted twin      
sisters was a ,palestinian ,syriac      
lectionary similar to the hitherto      
unique copy in the ,library of the      
,vatican4 ,a special interest attaches  
to this lectionary from the fact that it
 is written in the language that was    
most probably spoken by our ,lord4      
,among other notable discoveries of     
,mrs4 ,lewis and her sister during the  
four visits#bbd which they made to ,mt4 
,sinai and ,palestine between the years 
#ahib and #ahig were a number of        
manuscripts in ,arabic and a portion of 
the original ,hebrew manuscript of      
,ecclesiastes which was written about   
#bjj ,b4,c4 ,previously the oldest      
copies of this book of the ,old         
,testament were the ,greek and ,syriac  
versions4  ,what is specially remarkable
 about the discoveries made by ,mrs4    
,lewis and ,mrs4 ,gibson is that they   
were able to make so many valuable finds
 after the convent library at ,mt4      

,sinai had been so frequently examined  
by previous scholars4 ,the indefatigable
 ,tischendorf made three visits to this 
library and had but one phenomenal      
success4 ,but neither he nor any of the 
other wandering scholars who have       
visited the convent attained1 as has    
been well said1 to a tithe of the       
acquaintance with its treasures which   
these energetic ladies possess4  ,but   
more remarkable than the mere discovery 
of so many invaluable manuscripts1 which
 was1 of course1 an extraordinary       
achievement1 is the fact that these     
manuscripts1 whether in ,syriac1 ,arabic
 or ,hebrew1 have been translated1      
annotated and edited by these same      
scholarly women4 ,already more than a   
score of volumes have come from their   
prolific pens1 all evincing the keenest 
critical acumen and the highest order of
 ,biblical and archaeological           
scholarship4 ,the reader who desires a  
popular account of their famous         
discoveries should by all means read    

,mrs4 ,gibson's entertaining volume1    
,how the ,codex ,was ,found1 and ,mrs4  
,lewis' charming little work entitled1  
,in the ,shadow of ,sinai4 ,as to those 
men--and the species is yet far from    
extinct--who still doubt the capacity of
 women for the higher kinds of          
intellectual effort1 let them glance at 
the pages of the numerous volumes given 
to the press by these richly dowered    
women under the captions of ,studia     
,sinaitica and ,horae ,semiticae2 and1  
if they are able to comprehend the      
evidence before them1 they will be      
forced to admit that the long-imagined  
difference between the intellectual     
powers of men and women is one of fancy 
and not one of reality4#bbe  ,and yet1  
strange to relate1 while ,mrs4 ,lewis   
and ,mrs4 ,gibson were electrifying the 
learned world by their achievements in  
the highest form of scholarship1 the    
slow-moving ,university of ,cambridge   
was gravely debating whether it was a   
proper thing to confer degrees upon     

women1 and preparing to answer the      
question in the negative4 ,the fact that
 there were representatives of the      
unenfranchised sex at their gates who   
had gathered more laurels in the field  
of scholarship than most of those who   
belong to the privileged sex did not    
appeal to the university dons or prevent
 them from putting themselves on record 
as favoring a condition of things which1
 at this late age of the world1 should  
be expected only among the              
women-enslaving followers of ,mohammed4 
,the saying that a prophet hath no honor
 in his own country was fulfilled to the
 letter in the case of the two women who
 had shed such luster on the land of    
their birth4 ,while foreign institutions
 were vying with one another in         
showering honors on the two brilliant   
,englishwomen1 with whose praises the   
whole world was resounding1 the         
,university of ,cambridge was silent4   
,the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews       
conferred on them the degree of         

,,ll4,d41 while conservative old        
,heidelberg1 casting aside its age-old  
traditions1 made haste to honor them    
with the degree of ,doctor of ,divinity4
 ,in addition to this1 ,halle made ,mrs4
 ,lewis a ,doctor of ,philosophy4 ,one  
would have thought that sheer shame1 if 
not patriotic spirit1 would have        
compelled the university in whose       
shadows the two women had their home1   
and in which ,mrs4 ,lewis' husband had  
held for years an official appointment1 
to show itself equally appreciative of  
superlative merit and equally ready to  
reward rare scholarship1 regardless of  
the sex of the beneficiaries4 ,but no4  
,the illustrious archaeologists and     
,biblical scholars were women1 and this 
fact alone was in the estimation of the 
,cambridge authorities enough to        
withhold from them that recognition     
which was so spontaneously accorded them
 by the great universities of the       
,continent4  ,nor was this the only     
instance of the kind4 ,while the        

celebrated twin sisters just referred to
 were so materially contributing to our 
knowledge of ,biblical lore1 another    
,englishwoman1 ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1 who 
lived within hearing of the church bells
 of ,cambridge1 was lecturing to        
delighted audiences in ,newnham ,college
 on the history1 mythology and monuments
 of ancient ,athens1 and writing those  
learned works on the religion and       
antiquities of ,greece which have given 
her so conspicuous a place among modern 
archaeologists4#bbf ,but1 as in the case
 of her distinguished neighbors1 the    
discoverers of the ,codex ,ludovicus1   
the degrees she was honored with came   
not from ,cambridge1 with which1 through
 her fellowship in ,newnham1 she was so 
closely connected4  ,and while this     
gifted lady was deserving so well of    
science and literature1 the             
undergraduate students of ,cambridge1   
following the cue given by the          
twenty-four hundred graduates who had   
just rejected the proposal to give      

honorary degrees to women who could pass
 the required examinations1 were giving 
an exhibition of rowdyism which far     
surpassed that which1 a few years       
before1 had so disgraced the ,university
 of ,edinburgh1 when the same question  
of degrees for women was under          
consideration4  ,according to the report
 of an eye witness of the turbulent     
scene at ,cambridge1 ,the undergraduate 
students appeared to be1 as a body1     
viciously opposed to the proposal to    
give degrees to women1 and became fairly
 riotous4 ,they hooted those who        
supported the reform and fired crackers 
even in the ,senate ,house and made the 
night lurid with bonfires and powder4   
,they put up insulting effigies of girl 
students1 and such mottoes as ',get you 
to ,girton1 ,beatrice4 ,get you to      
,newnham4 ,here is no place for maids6' 
,verily1 when such scenes are possible  
in one of the world's great intellectual
 centers--a place where1 above all      
others1 women should receive due        

recognition for their contributions     
toward the progress of knowledge--one is
 constrained to declare that what we    
call civilization is still far from the 
ideal4 ,and1 when one witnesses the     
total indifference of institutions like 
,cambridge and the ,french ,academy to  
the splendid achievements of women like 
,mrs4 ,lewis1 ,mrs4 ,gibson and ,mme4   
,curie1 one cannot but exclaim in words 
,apocalyptic3 ,how long1 ,o ,lord1 holy 
and true1 is this iniquitous            
discrimination against one-half of our  
race to endure8 ,o ,lord1 how long8     
,,footnotes3  #bae ,a4 ,michaelis1 ,a   
,century of ,archaeological             
,discoveries1 p4 #f1 ,new ,york1 #aijh4 
#baf ,the ,most ,illustrious ,ladies of 
the ,renaissance1 p4 #aeb1 by           
,christopher ,hare1 ,london1 #aijd4     
#bag ,michaelis1 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bj1 ,cf4
 also ,fiorelli's ,pompeinarum          
,antiquitatum ,historia1 ,vol4 ,i1      
,pars4 ,,iii1 ,naples1 #ahfj4 ,arditi   
characterized ,queen ,caroline's        

interest in the excavations as          
entusiasmo veramente ammirabile4  #bah  
,frauenarbeit in der ,archaeologie in   
,deutsche ,rundschau1 ,march1 #ahij1    
page #cif4  #bai ,memoirs of the ,life  
of ,anna ,jameson1 pp4 #bif-big1 by her 
niece1 ,geraldine ,macpherson1 ,london1 
#ahgh4  #bbj ,ilios1 the ,city and      
,country of the ,trojans1 pp4 #feg-feh1 
by ,dr4 ,henry ,schliemann1 ,new ,york1 
#ahha4  ,as an illustration of ,mrs4    
,schliemann's devotion to the work which
 has rendered her1 as well as her       
husband1 immortal1 a single passage from
 the volume just quoted1 p4 #bfa1 is    
pertinent4 ,referring to the sufferings 
and privations which they endured during
 their third year's work at ,hissarlik1 
,dr4 ,schliemann writes as follows3  ,my
 poor wife and myself1 therefore1       
suffered very much since the icy north  
wind1 which recalls ,homer's frequent   
mention of the blasts of ,boreas1 blew  
with such violence through the chinks of
 our house-walls1 which were made of    

planks1 that we were not even able to   
light our lamps in the evening1 while   
the water which stood near the hearth   
froze into solid masses4 ,during the day
 we could1 to some degree1 bear the cold
 by working in the excavations2 but1 in 
the evenings1 we had nothing to keep us 
warm except our enthusiasm for the great
 work of discovering ,troy4  ,so high   
was ,dr4 ,schliemann's opinion of his   
wife's ability as an archaeologist that 
he entrusted to her--as well as to their
 daughter1 ,andromache1 and son1        
,agamemnon--the continuation of the work
 which death prevented him from         
completing4  #bba ,see ,mme4            
,dieulafoy's graphic account of the     
expedition in a work which has been     
translated into ,english under the      
title1 ,at ,susa1 the ,ancient ,capital 
of the ,kings of ,persia1 ,narrative of 
,travel ,through ,western ,persia and   
,excavations ,made at the ,site of the  
,lost ,city of the ,lilies1 #ahhd-ahhf1 
,philadelphia1 #ahij4  ,see also her    

other related work--crowned by the      
,french ,academy--entitled1 ,la ,perse1 
,la ,chaldee et la ,susiane1 ,paris1    
#ahhg4  #bbb ,among the specimens       
secured were two of extraordinary beauty
 and interest4 ,one of them is a        
beautiful enameled frieze of a lion and 
the other1 likewise a work in enamel1   
represents a number of polychrome       
figures of the ,immortals--the name     
given to the guards of the ,great ,kings
 of ,persia4 ,both are truly magnificent
 specimens of ceramic art1 and compare  
favorably with anything of the kind     
which antiquity has bequeathed to us4   
,commenting on the pictures of the      
,persian guards1 ,mme4 ,dieulafoy       
writes3 ,whatever their race may be1 our
 ,immortals appear fine in line1 fine in
 form1 fine in color and constitute a   
ceramic work infinitely superior to the 
bas-reliefs1 so justly celebrated1 of   
,lucca della ,robbia4 ,op4 cit41 p4     
#bbb4  #bbc ,one passage in this codex  
bears so strongly on a leading argument 

of this work that ,i cannot resist the  
temptation to give it with ,mrs4 ,lewis'
 own comment3  ,the piece of my work1   
she writes1 ,in the ,shadow of ,sinai1  
p4 #ih et seq41 which has given me the  
greatest satisfaction1 consists in the  
decipherment of two words in ,john ,,iv1
 #bg4 ,they were well worth all our     
visits to ,sinai1 for they illustrate an
 action of our ,lord which seems to be  
recorded nowhere else1 and which has    
some degree of inherent probability from
 what we know of ,his character4 ,the   
passage is ',his disciples came and     
wondered that with the women he was     
standing and talking'4444  ,why was our 
,lord standing8 ,he had been sitting on 
the wall when the disciples left ,him2  
and1 we know that ,he was tired4        
,moreover1 sitting is the proper        
attitude for an ,easterner when engaged 
in teaching4 ,and an ordinary ,oriental 
would never rise of his own natural free
 will out of politeness to a woman4 ,it 
may be that ,he rose in ,his enthusiasm 

for the great truths ,he was uttering2  
but1 ,i like to think that ,his great   
heart1 which embraced the lowest of     
humanity1 lifted ,him above the         
restrictions of ,his race and age1 and  
made ,him show that courtesy to our sex1
 even in the person of a degraded       
specimen1 which is considered among all 
really progressive peoples to be a mark 
of true and noble manhood4 ,to shed even
 a faint light upon that wondrous story 
of ,his tabernacling amongst us is an   
inestimable privilege and worthy of all 
the trouble we can possibly take4  #bbd 
,mrs4 ,gibson1 unaccompanied by her     
sister1 has since made two more visits  
to ,mt4 ,sinai in order to complete the 
work so auspiciously begun4  #bbe ,the  
following partial list of the works of  
these erudite twins on subjects         
connected with ,scripture and ,oriental 
literature gives some idea of their     
extraordinary attainments and of their  
prodigious activity in researches that  
are usually considered entirely foreign 

to the tastes and aptitudes of women4   
,some ,pages of the ,four ,gospels      
,retranscribed ,from the ,sinaitic      
,palimpsest1 with a translation of the  
whole text by ,agnes ,smith ,lewis4  ,an
 ,arabic ,version of ,st4 ,paul's       
,epistles to the ,romans1 ,corinthians1 
,galatians and part of ,ephesians4      
,edited from a ninth century ,,ms4 by   
,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson4  ,apocrypha  
,sinaitica4 ,containing the ,anaphora   
,pilati in ,syriac and ,arabic3 the     
,syriac transcribed by ,j4 ,rendel      
,harris1 and the ,arabic by ,margaret   
,dunlop ,gibson2 also two recensions of 
the ,recognitions of ,clement1 in       
,arabic1 transcribed and translated by  
,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson4  ,an ,arabic 
,version of the ,acts of the ,apostles  
and the ,seven ,catholic ,epistles1 from
 an eighth or ninth century ,,ms41 with 
a treatise on the ,triune ,nature of    
,god and translation4 ,edited by        
,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson4  ,apocrypha  
,arabica1 ,edited by ,margaret ,d4      

,gibson1 containing #a1 ,kitab al       
,magall or the ,book of the ,rolls2 #b1 
,the ,story of the ,aphikia ,wife of    
,jesus ,ben ,sira 7,carshuni72 #c1      
,cyprian and ,justa1 in ,arabic and     
,greek4  ,select ,narratives of ,holy   
,women1 from the ,syro-,antiochene or   
,sinai ,palimpsest1 as written above the
 ,old ,syriac ,gospels in ,a4 ,d4 #ggh4 
,translation by ,agnes ,smith ,lewis4   
,apocrypha ,syriaca ,sinaitica1 being   
the ,protevangelium ,jacobi and         
,transitus ,mariae1 from a ,palimpsest  
of the fifth or sixth century4 ,edited  
by ,agnes ,smith ,lewis4  ,forty-,one   
,facsimiles of ,dated ,christian ,arabic
 ,manuscripts1 with ,text and ,english  
,translation1 arranged by ,agnes ,smith 
,lewis and ,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson1   
with introductory observations in       
,arabic calligraphy by the ,rev4 ,david 
,s4 ,margoliouth4  ,the ,didascalia     
,apostolorum in ,syriac1 edited from a  
,mesopotamian ,,ms1 with various        
readings and collations of other ,,ms1  

by ,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson4  ,the     
,arabic ,version of the ,acta ,apocrypha
 ,apostolorum1 edited and translated by 
,agnes ,smith ,lewis1 with fifth century
 fragments of the ,acta ,thomae1 in     
,syriac4  ,the ,gospel of ,isbodad in   
,syriac and ,english1 by ,margaret ,d4  
,gibson4  ,acta ,mythologica            
,apostolorum in ,arabic1 with           
translation by ,agnes ,smith ,lewis4    
,for an elaborate and sympathetic       
account of the labors and discoveries of
 ,mrs4 ,lewis and her sister1 the reader
 is referred to an article from the pen 
of the learned ,professor ,v4 ,ryssel1  
in the ,schweizerische ,theologische    
,zeitschrift1 ,,xvi1 ,jahrgang1 #ahii4  
#bbf ,for an evidence of this learned   
lady's competency to deal with the most 
recondite stores of history and         
archaeology1 the reader is referred to  
two of her later works1 viz41 ,primitive
 ,athens as ,described by ,thucydides1  
,cambridge1 #aijf1 and ,prolegomena to  
the ,study of ,greek ,religion1         

,cambridge ,university ,press1 #aijc4   
,,chapter ,x  ,,women ,,as ,,inventors  
,there have been very learned women as  
there have been women warriors1 but     
there have never been women             
inventors4#bbg ,thus wrote ,voltaire    
with that flippancy and cocksureness    
which was so characteristic of the      
author of the ,dictionnaire             
,philosophique--a man who was ever ready
 to give1 offhand1 a categorical answer 
to any question that came before him for
 discussion4 ,his countryman1 ,proudhon1
 expressed the same opinion in other    
words when he wrote1 ,les femmes n'ont  
rien invente1 pas meme leur             
quenouille--women have invented nothing1
 not even their distaff4  ,had these two
 writers thoroughly sifted the evidence 
available1 even in their day1 for a     
proper consideration of this interesting
 subject1 they would1 both of them1 have
 reached a very different conclusion    
from that which is expressed in the     
sentences just quoted4 ,had they        

consulted the records of antiquity1 they
 would have learned that most of the    
earliest and most important inventions  
were attributed to women2 and1 had they 
studied the reports of explorers among  
the savage tribes of the modern world1  
they would have found that these early  
legends and traditions regarding the    
inventions of women were fully confirmed
 by what was being done in their own    
time4 ,man's first needs were food1     
shelter and clothing2 and tradition in  
all parts of the world is unanimous in  
ascribing to woman the invention1 in    
essentially their present forms1 of all 
the arts most conducive to the          
preservation and well-being of our race4
  ,in ,egypt1 as ,diodorus ,siculus     
informs us1 the inventors of specially  
useful things were1 as a reward of their
 deserts1 enrolled among the gods1 as   
were certain heroes among the ancient   
,greeks and ,romans4 ,foremost among    
these was ,isis1 who laid the foundation
 of agriculture by the introduction of  

the culture of wheat and other cereals4 
,before her time the ,egyptians lived on
 roots and herbs4 ,in lieu of these     
crude articles of food1 ,isis gave them 
bread and other more wholesome aliments4
 ,she invented the process of making    
linen and was the first to apply a sail 
to the propulsion of a boat4 ,to her    
also was attributed the art of          
embalming1 the discovery of many        
medicines and the beginnings of         
,egyptian literature4  ,even more       
prominent was ,pallas ,athene1 one of   
the greatest divinities of the ,greeks4 
,virgil1 in his ,georgics1 invokes her  
as      ,inventor1 ,pallas1 of the      
fatt'ning oil1     ,thou founder of the 
plow and the plowman's toil4  ,but not  
only was she regarded as the oleae      
inventrix-inventress of the olive--as   
,virgil phrases it1 but also as the     
inventor of all handicrafts1 whether of 
women or men4 ,like ,isis1 she was      
deemed the originator of agriculture and
 many of the mechanic arts4 ,but1 above 

all1 she was the inventor of musical    
instruments and those plastic and       
graphic arts which have for ages placed 
,greece in the forefront of civilization
 and culture4  ,from the beginning it   
was woman who first made use of wool and
 flax for textile fabrics2 and of this  
prehistoric woman one can affirm what   
,solomon1 in his ,book of ,proverbs1    
said of the virtuous woman of his day3  
,she seeketh wool and flax and worketh  
diligently with her hands2     ,she     
layeth her hands to the spindle and her 
hands hold the distaff4  ,she was also  
the first one to weave cotton and silk4 
,it was ,mama ,oclo1 the wife of ,manco 
,capac1 as the ,inca historian1         
,garcilasso de la ,vega1 tells us1 who  
taught the women of ancient ,peru to sew
 and weave cotton and wool and to make  
clothes for themselves1 their husbands  
and children4  ,and it was a woman1     
,se-ling-she1 the wife of the emperor1  
,hwang-te1 who lived nearly three       
thousand years before ,christ1 to whom  

the most ancient ,chinese writers assign
 the discovery of silk4 ,her name is    
perpetuated in the name ,china1 the     
goddess of silkworms1 and under this    
appellation she still receives divine   
honors4  ,the preparation and weaving of
 silk were introduced into ,japan by    
four ,chinese girls1 and the new        
industry soon became there1 as in       
,china1 one of the chief sources1 as it 
is to-day1 of the country's wealth4 ,to 
perpetuate the memory of these four     
pioneer silk weavers the grateful       
,japanese erected a temple in their     
honor in the province of ,setsu4        
,according to tradition1 the eggs of the
 silk moth and the seed of the mulberry 
tree were conveyed to ,india1 concealed 
in the lining of her headdress1 by a    
,chinese princess4 ,she was thus        
instrumental in establishing in the     
region watered by the ,indus and the    
,ganges the same industry which her     
countrywomen had introduced into the    
,land of the ,rising ,sun4  ,cashmere   

shawls and attar of roses1 the costliest
 of perfumes1 are attributed to an      
,indian empress1 ,nur ,mahal1 whom her  
husband1 in view of her achievements1 as
 well as on account of his passionate   
love for her1 called ,the ,light of the 
,world4#bbh  ,and what shall we say of  
those exquisite creations of woman's    
brain and hand--needle-point and pillow 
lace8 ,these two inventions1 like the   
manufacture of silk1 have given         
employment to tens of thousands of women
 throughout the world2 and1 in such     
countries as ,italy1 ,belgium and       
,france1 where lace-making has received 
special attention1 they have for        
centuries been most prolific sources of 
revenue4 ,silk fabrics in ancient ,rome 
were worth their weight in gold4 ,the   
finest specimens of point lace are1 even
 to-day1 as highly prized as precious   
stones1 and1 like the great masterpieces
 of plastic art1 are handed down as     
heirlooms from generation to generation4
 ,in no other instance1 except possibly 

in the hairspring of a watch1 is there  
such an extraordinary difference in     
value between the raw material and the  
finished product as there is in the case
 of the finest thread lace4  ,a great   
sensation was caused in ,italy a few    
decades ago when a humble workwoman1    
,signora ,bassani1 succeeded in         
rediscovering the peculiar stitch of the
 celebrated ,venetian point1 which had  
been lost for centuries4 ,she was at    
once granted a patent for her invention1
 which was by her countrymen regarded as
 an event of national importance4       
,after painting and sculpture1 probably 
no art has contributed more to the      
development of the esthetic sense among 
the nations of the world than has the   
art whose chief tools are the needle and
 the bobbin in the deft hands of a      
beauty-loving woman4 ,if the name of the
 first lace-maker had not been lost in  
the mists of antiquity1 it is reasonable
 to suppose that she1 too1 would long   
since have had a monument erected to her

 memory1 as well as the weavers of silk 
and makers of attar of roses and        
cashmere shawls4 ,she was surely as     
deserving of such an honor4  ,more      
conclusive information respecting woman 
as an inventor is1 strange as it may    
appear1 afforded by a systematic study  
of the various races of mankind which   
are still in a state of savagery4 ,such 
a study discloses the interesting fact  
that woman1 contrary to the declaration 
of ,proudhon1 has not only been the     
inventor of the distaff1 but that she   
has furthermore--pace ,voltaire--been   
the inventor of all the peaceful arts of
 life1 and the inventor1 too1 of the    
earliest forms of nearly all the        
mechanical devices now in use in the    
world of industry4  ,architecture1 as   
well as many other things1 was credited 
by the ancient ,greeks to ,minerva4     
,this was a poetical way of stating the 
fact--now generally accepted by men of  
science--that women were the first      
homemakers4 ,but the first home was a   

very simple and a very humble structure4
 ,when not a cave1 it was a simple      
shelter made of bark or skins1          
sufficient to afford protection to the  
mother and her child4 ,subsequently it  
was a lodge made of earth1 of stone or  
wattle work or adobe4  ,women were1 in  
the light of anthropology1 as well as in
 that of mythology and tradition1 the   
first to discover the nutritive and     
medicinal values of fruits1 seeds1 nuts1
 roots and vegetables4 ,they were       
consequently the first gardeners and    
agriculturists and the first to build up
 a materia medica4 ,while men were      
engaged in the chase or in warfare1     
women were gradually perfecting those   
divers domestic arts which1 in the      
course of time1 became their recognized 
specialties4 ,they soon found that it   
was better to cultivate certain food    
plants and trees than to depend on them 
for nourishment in the wild state4 ,this
 was particularly true in the case of   
such useful and widely distributed      

species as wheat1 rice1 maize1 the yam1 
potato1 banana and cassava4  ,at first  
most of these food products were used in
 the raw state1 but woman's quick       
inventive genius was not long in making 
one of the most important and           
far-reaching discoveries--a method for  
producing fire4 ,in a certain sense this
 was the greatest discovery ever made1  
and the ,greeks showed their            
appreciation of the value of it by      
asserting that fire was stolen from     
heaven4 ,considering its multifarious   
uses in heating and cooking1 thereby    
immensely adding to the comfort and     
well-being of primitive man1 we are not 
surprised that in certain parts of the  
world fire has always been considered   
something sacred1 and that the old      
,romans instituted ,vestal ,virgins1 and
 the ancient ,peruvians ,virgins of the 
,sun1 to preserve this precious element 
and have it ever ready when required for
 sacrifice or for any of their various  
liturgical functions4 ,if any one ever  

deserved a monument more durable than   
bronze1 it was the woman who1 on the    
edge of time1 first drew the ,promethean
 spark from a piece of pyrites by       
striking it with flint or produced it by
 the friction of two pieces of wood4    
,after building a home and establishing 
in it a fireplace for the preparation of
 food1 woman's next concern was to      
secure more raiment than was afforded by
 the traditional fig leaf4 ,this she    
found in the bark of certain trees1 in  
the fiber of hemp and cotton and in the 
wool of sheep and goats4 ,with these and
 her distaff she spun thread1 and from  
the thread thus obtained she was by     
means of her primitive loom--likewise   
her invention--able to provide all kinds
 of textile fabrics for clothing for    
herself and family4  ,but there was much
 more to invent before the home of      
primitive man1 or rather primitive      
woman1 could be considered as fairly    
equipped4 ,furniture and culinary       
utensils were required1 and these1 too1 

were provided by the deft and cunning   
fingers of woman4 ,she was the first    
potter and the first basketmaker2 and   
anyone who has lived among the savages  
of any land1 especially among the       
aborigines in the interior of ,south    
,america1 knows what an important part  
is played in domestic economy by native 
basketry and ceramic ware4 ,both of     
these articles were at first of the     
simplest character1 but woman's innate  
esthetic sense soon enabled her to      
produce those highly ornate specimens of
 pottery and basketry that are so highly
 prized in the public and private       
collections of this country and ,europe4
  ,the first device for converting grain
 into flour was1 like the many other    
articles already named1 the invention of
 woman4 ,whether the simple mortar and  
pestle of the ,north ,american ,indian1 
or the ,mexican metate and muller1 or   
the ,irish quern1 it was1 in every case1
 the product of woman's brain and       
handiwork1 as it was also the basal     

prototype of our most improved types of 
flouring mills4 ,and so was the         
soapstone pot--the predecessor of the   
iron or brass kettle--a woman's         
invention1 as well as many similar      
contrivances for preparing food4  ,but  
what is probably the most remarkable    
culinary invention of woman in the state
 of savagery is her unique contrivance  
for converting the poisonous root of the
 manihot utilissima--the staple food of 
tropical ,america--into a wholesome and 
nutritious aliment4 ,it is a bag1 called
 matapi1 which serves both as a press   
and as a sieve4 ,for the inhabitants of 
the vast basins of the ,amazon and the  
,orinoco1 where the chief articles of   
diet are derived from the manihot and   
the plantain1 this invention of woman is
 the most important ever made and ranks 
in importance with the discovery by the 
same skilled food purveyor of the       
dietetic value of manihot itself4  ,the 
first knife was a woman's invention1 as 
the arrow-head and the spear point were 

the inventions of her hunter husband4   
,it was in the beginning a most         
primitive implement2 but1 whether in the
 form of a simple flake of flint of     
obsidian1 or in that of an ,eskimo      
ulu--the woman's knife--it was the      
archetype of all the forms of cutlery   
now in use4 ,with this rude knife the   
primitive housewife skinned and carved  
the game brought to her by her male     
companion4 ,with it she scraped the     
interior of the hide and cut it up into 
articles of clothing4 ,she was thus the 
first furrier and tailor4 ,with it she  
made the first sandals and moccasins1   
and1 in doing so1 became the first      
shoemaker and the original ,st4         
,crispin4  ,to woman1 the originator of 
the first home1 is due also the         
invention of the oven and the chimney4  
,she was also the first maker of        
salt--that all-important condiment and  
sanitary agent--and the first to obtain 
nitre from wood ashes4 ,she was the     
first engineer1 as is evinced in her    

invention of the parbuckle and in the   
bamboo conduit1 which was the           
predecessor of the great canals of      
,babylonia#bbi and the imposing         
aqueducts of ancient ,rome4  ,important1
 however1 as are all the foregoing      
inventions1 we must not forget what was 
an equally important contribution by    
woman to the welfare and progress of our
 race--the domestication of animals4 ,no
 discovery after that of artificially   
producing fire has contributed more     
toward the development of our race than 
the taming of milk- and fleece-bearing  
animals1 like the cow1 the sheep1 the   
goat and the llama1 or of burden-bearing
 animals1 like the horse1 the ass1 the  
camel and the reindeer1 or of hunting   
and watching animals like the faithful1 
ubiquitous dog4 ,for1 in the first      
place1 the domestication of these       
supremely useful animals diminished     
man's labor as burden bearers4 ,it      
likewise supplemented the fecundity of  
women and facilitated the multiplication

 of the race1 because it supplied to the
 child a nourishment that previously    
could be obtained only from the mother1 
who had been obliged to suckle her young
 several years longer than was necessary
 after the friendly goat and cow came to
 her aid4 ,still another consequence of 
the domestication of animals was that it
 immensely diminished the amount of     
woman's care and labor1 afforded her the
 necessary leisure to develop the arts  
of refinement1 and stimulated           
intellectual growth in a way that       
otherwise would have been impossible4   
,it is often stated by certain writers  
who love to indulge in fanciful         
speculations that women inventors got   
their ideas as home builders and weavers
 and potters from nest-building birds1  
from web-weaving spiders1 and from clay 
workers like termites and mud wasps4 ,be
 this as it may1 the fact remains in all
 its inspiring truth that1 in the matter
 of industrialism1 as opposed to the    
militancy of man1 we can unhesitatingly 

declare1 with ,virgil1 ,dux femina      
facti--woman was the leader in all the  
arts of peace--arts which have been     
slowly perfected through the ages until 
they present the extraordinary          
development which we now witness4  ,when
 we contemplate the splendid porcelain  
wares of ,meissen and ,sevres1 or the   
countless varieties of cutlery produced 
in the factories of ,sheffield1 or the  
beautiful textile fabrics from the looms
 of ,lowell and ,manchester1 or the     
delicate silks woven in the famous      
establishments of ,lombardy and         
,southern ,france1 or the countless     
forms of footwear made in ,lynn and     
,chicago1 or the exquisite furs brought 
from ,siberia and the ,pribyloff        
,islands1 and dyed in ,leipsic and      
,london1 or the astonishing output of   
food products from the factories of     
,pittsburgh and the immense roller mills
 of ,minneapolis1 we little think that  
the colossal wheels of these vast and   
varied industries were set in motion by 

the inventive genius of woman in the dim
 and distant prehistoric past4  ,and yet
 such is the case4 ,her handiwork from  
the earliest pottery may be traced      
through its manifold stages from its    
first rude beginnings to the most       
gorgeous creations of ceramic art4 ,the 
primeval knife of flint or obsidian has 
become the keen tool of tempered steel2 
the simple distaff has issued in the    
intricate ,jacquard loom2 the metate and
 pestle actuated by a woman's arm have1 
by a long process of evolution1         
developed into our mammoth roller mills 
impelled by water power1 steam or       
electricity4#bcj  ,but these            
extraordinary changes from the rude     
implements of prehistoric time to the   
complicated machinery of the present is 
but a change of kind1 not one of        
principle4 ,it is a change due to       
specialization of work which became     
possible only when men1 liberated from  
the avocations of hunting and warfare1  
were able to take up the occupations of 

women1 and develop them in the manner   
with which we are now familiar4  ,why   
men1 rather than women1 should have     
achieved this work of specialization2   
whether it was due to social causes or  
to woman's physical and mental          
organization1 or to these various       
factors combined1 we need not inquire2  
but such is the fact4 ,whereas in       
primitive times every woman having a    
home was a cook1 a butcher1 a baker1 a  
potter1 a weaver1 a cutler1 a miller1 a 
tanner1 a furrier1 an engineer1 man1 in 
assuming the work which was originally  
exclusively feminine and performed by   
one and the same person1 has subdivided 
and specialized by improved forms of    
machinery and otherwise1 so that what is
 now done is accomplished more rapidly  
and to better purpose1 and with         
correspondingly greater results in the  
development of industry and in the      
progress of civilization4  ,and the     
remarkable fact is that many of the most
 important of these improvements due to 

specialization have been made within the
 memory of those yet living1 while still
 others have been originated in quite   
recent years4 ,nevertheless1 great as   
has been the work of specialization and 
coordination in every department of     
human industry during the last few      
decades1 it is1 to judge by the reports 
of the ,patent ,office1 as yet in little
 more than its initial stage4  ,we are  
now prepared for the consideration of   
the part woman has taken in this        
specializing movement and for a         
discussion of her share in modern       
inventions and in the improvements of   
those manifold inventions which were due
 to her genius and industry untold ages 
ago4 ,considering the short time during 
which her inventive mind has been       
specially active1 and the many handicaps
 which have been imposed on her1 the    
wonder is not that she has achieved so  
little in comparison with man1 but      
rather that she has accomplished so     
much4  ,the first woman to receive a    

patent in the ,united ,states was ,mary 
,kies4 ,it was issued ,may #e1 #ahji1   
for a process of straw-weaving with silk
 or thread4 ,six years later ,mary      
,brush was granted a patent for a       
corset4 ,it seems to have been quite    
satisfactory1 for no other patent for   
this article of feminine attire was     
issued to a woman until #ahda1 when one 
was granted to ,elizabeth ,adams4       
,during the thirty-two years which      
elapsed between the issuing of a patent 
to ,mary ,kies and ,elizabeth ,adams1   
but twenty other patents were granted to
 women4 ,the chief of these were for    
weaving hats from grass1 manufacturing  
moccasins1 whitening leghorn straw1 for 
a sheet-iron shovel1 a cook stove and a 
machine for cutting straw and fodder4   
,during the decade following #ahda1     
fourteen patents were issued to as many 
different women4 ,among the articles    
patented by them were an ice-cream      
freezer1 a weighing scale and a fan     
attachment for a rocking chair4 ,it was 

not recorded1 however1 that this last   
invention1 valuable as it was           
apparently1 ever became particularly    
popular4 ,but by far the most remarkable
 of woman's inventions during this      
period was a submarine telescope and    
lamp1 for which a patent was awarded in 
#ahde to ,sarah ,mather4  ,from #ahea to
 #ahfa1 twenty-eight patents were issued
 to women--just twice the number awarded
 them during the preceding decade4 ,most
 of these patents were for articles of  
domestic use or feminine apparel4 ,four 
of them1 however1 comprised a scale for 
instrumental music1 for mounting fluid  
lenses1 a fountain pen and an           
improvement in reaping and mowing       
machines4  ,the following decade is     
remarkable for the wonderful increase in
 the number of inventions due to women1 
for there was a sudden jump from        
twenty-eight to four hundred and        
forty-one patents awarded them between  
the years #ahfa and #ahga4 ,women now   
began to have confidence in their       

inventive faculties1 and1 no longer     
content with exercising their genius on 
articles of clothing and culinary       
utensils1 sewing1 washing and churning  
machines1 they began to devote their    
attention to objects that were entirely 
foreign to their ordinary home          
activities4 ,this is clearly evinced by 
the patents they obtained for such      
inventions as improvements in locomotive
 wheels1 devices for reducing straw and 
other fibrous substances for the        
manufacture of paper pulp1 improvements 
in corn huskers1 low-water indicators1  
steam and other whistles1 corn plows1 a 
method of constructing screw propellers1
 improvements in materials for packing  
journals and bearings1 in fire alarms1  
thermometers1 railroad car heaters1     
improvements in lubricating railway     
journals1 in conveyors of smoke and     
cinders for locomotives1 in pyrotechnic 
night signals1 burglar alarms1 railway  
car safety apparatus1 in apparatus for  
punching corrugated metals1             

desulphurizing ores and other similar   
inventions in the domain of mechanical  
engineering1 inventions that1 at first  
blush1 would seem to be quite alien to  
the genius and capacity of woman4  ,from
 now on women's inventions in the       
,united ,states increased at an         
extraordinary rate1 for from #ahga until
 ,july #a1 #ahhh1 when the first        
government report was made on the       
patents issued to women inventors1 she  
had to her credit nearly two thousand   
inventions1 many of which were of prime 
importance4#bca  ,during the seven years
 following #ahhh she was awarded        
twenty-five hundred and twenty-six      
patents--more than the total number that
 had been granted her during the        
preceding seventy-nine years4 ,between  
#ahie and #aiaj1 three thousand six     
hundred and fifteen more patents were   
placed to her credit1 making a grand    
total for her first century of inventive
 achievement of eight thousand five     
hundred and ninety-six patents4 ,no     

,patent ,office reports are available   
since #aiaj1 but the number of          
inventions for which women have received
 patents since ,mary ,kies was awarded  
hers on ,may #e1 #ahji1 for             
straw-weaving with silk or thread1      
cannot be far from ten thousand4 ,this  
fact will1 doubtless1 be a revelation to
 that large class of men who still seem 
to share the views of ,voltaire and     
,proudhon that women are incapable of   
inventing even the simplest article of  
domestic use4  ,the following story well
 illustrates the prevailing ignorance   
regarding the part women have taken in  
the invention of certain articles that  
are so common that most people think    
they were never patented4  ,i was out   
driving once with an old farmer in      
,vermont1 writes ,mrs4 ,ada ,c4 ,bowles1
 and he told me1 ',you women may talk   
about your rights1 but why don't you    
invent something8' ,i answered1 ',your  
horse's feed bag and the shade over his 
head were both of them invented by      

women4' ,the old fellow was so taken    
aback that he was barely able to gasp1  
',do tell6'  ,had he investigated       
further he would have found that the    
flynet on his horse's back1 the tugs and
 other harness trimmings1 the shoes on  
his horse's feet#bcb and the buggy seat 
he then occupied were all the inventions
 of women4 ,he would1 doubtless1 also   
have discovered that the currycomb he   
had used before starting out on his     
drive1 as well as the snap hook of the  
halter and the checkrein and the stall  
unhitching device were likewise the     
inventions of members of that sex whose 
capacity he was so disposed to          
depreciate2 for women have been awarded 
patents--in some instances several of   
them--for all the articles that have    
been mentioned4 ,he might furthermore   
have learned that the fellies in his    
buggy wheels and his daughter's side    
saddle had been made under women's      
patents2 and that1 to complete his      
surprise and confusion1 the leather used

 in his harness had been sewn by a      
machine patented by a woman who was not 
only an inventor but who was also for   
many years the manager and proprietor of
 a large harness factory in ,new ,york  
,city4  ,what particularly arrests one's
 attention in reading the ,patent       
,office reports is not only the large   
number of inventions by women1 but also 
the very wide range of the devices which
 they embrace4 ,it is not surprising to 
find them inventing and improving       
culinary utensils1 house furniture and  
furnishings1 toilet articles1 wearing   
apparel and stationery1 trunks and bags1
 toys and games1 designs for printed and
 textile fabrics1 for boxes and baskets1
 screens1 awnings1 baby carriers1       
musical instruments1 appliances for     
washing and cleaning1 attachments for   
bicycles and type-writing machines1 art1
 educational and medical appliances2 for
 these things are in keeping with their 
proper metier2 but it is surprising for 
those who are not familiar with the     

history of modern inventions to learn of
 the share women have had in inventing  
and improving agricultural implements1  
building appurtenances1 motors of       
various kinds1 plumbing apparatus1      
theatrical stage mechanisms1 and1 above 
all1 countless railway appliances from a
 coupling or fender to an apparatus for 
sanding railroad tracks1 or a device for
 unloading boxcars4  ,those who are     
still of the opinion of ,voltaire and   
,proudhon--and their name is            
legion--respecting woman's inventive    
powers1 might be willing to accord to   
her the capacity to design a new form of
 clothes pin1 or hair crimper1 or rouge 
pad1 or complexion mask1 or powder puff1
 or baby jumper2 but they would limit   
her ability to contrivances of this     
character4 ,but what would these same   
people say if they were told that over  
and above the things just mentioned for 
which many women have actually received 
patents1 the much depreciated female sex
 had been granted patents for locomotive

 wheels1 stuffing boxes1 railway car    
safety apparatus1 life rafts1 cut-offs  
for hydraulic and other engines1 street 
cars1 mining machines1 furnaces for     
smelting ores1 sound-deadening          
attachments for railway cars1 feed pumps
 and transfer apparatus for traction    
cars1 machines for driving hoops on to  
barrels1 apparatus for destroying       
vegetation on and removing snow from    
railroads1 coke crushers1 artificial    
stone compositions1 elevated railways1  
new forms of cattle cars1 dams and      
reservoirs1 welding seams of pipes and  
hardening iron1 alloys for bell metal   
and alloys to resemble silver1 methods  
of refining and hardening copper1       
processes for concentrating ores1       
improvement in elevators and designs for
 raising sunken vessels8 ,and yet1      
incredible as it may appear to these    
scoffers at woman's genius1 patents for 
all these inventions1 methods and       
processes--many of them of exceeding    
value--and for hundreds of others of a  

similar nature1 have been issued to     
women during recent years4 ,and the     
activity of the fair inventors1 far from
 abating1 is becoming daily more        
pronounced1 and promises to reward their
 efforts with far greater triumphs4     
,indeed1 women are becoming so active in
 the numerous fields of invention--even 
in such unlikely ones as metallurgy and 
civil1 mechanical and electrical        
engineering--that they bid fair to rival
 men in what they have long regarded as 
their peculiar specialty4  ,in #ahib a  
woman in ,new ,york was granted two     
patents1 one for a process of malting   
beer and the other for hooping malt     
liquors4 ,these inventions1 however1 are
 not so foreign to the avocation of     
woman as they at first appear4 ,for1 if 
we may believe the teachings of         
ethnology and prehistoric archaeology in
 this matter1 women were the first      
brewers4 ,the one1 therefore1 who two   
decades ago secured the two patents just
 mentioned was but taking up anew an    

occupation in which her sex furnished   
the first invention many thousand years 
ago4  ,an instructive fact touching     
woman's inventive achievements is that  
her fullest success is coincident with  
her enlarged opportunities for          
education1 and began with the breaking  
down of the prejudices which so long    
existed against her having anything to  
do with the development of the          
mechanical or industrial arts4 ,when one
 recollects that the public schools of  
,boston1 established in #afdb1 were not 
open to girls until a century and a half
 later1 and then only for the most      
elementary branches and for but one-half
 the year2 and that girls did not have  
the benefit of a high school education  
in the center of ,new ,england culture  
until #aheb2 and when one furthermore   
recalls the attitude of the general     
public toward women and girls extending 
their activities beyond the nursery and 
the kitchen1 it is easy to understand   
that there was not much encouragement   

for them to exercise their inventive    
talent1 even if they had felt an        
inclination to do so4  ,the experience  
of ,miss ,margaret ,knight1 of ,boston1 
who in #ahga was awarded a valuable     
patent for making a paper-bag machine is
 a case in point and well illustrates   
some of the difficulties that women     
inventors had to contend with only a few
 decades ago4  ,as a child1 she writes  
to a friend1 ,i never cared for the     
things that girls usually do2 dolls     
never had any charms for me4 ,i couldn't
 see the sense of coddling bits of      
porcelain with senseless faces2 the only
 things ,i wanted were a jackknife1 a   
gimlet and pieces of wood4 ,my friends  
were horrified4 ,i was called a tomboy1 
but that made very little impression on 
me4 ,i sighed sometimes because ,i was  
not like other girls1 but wisely        
concluded that ,i couldn't help it1 and 
sought further consolation from my      
tools4 ,i was always making things for  
my brothers4 ,did they want anything in 

the line of playthings1 they always     
said1 ',mattie will make them for us4'  
,i was famous for my kites1 and my sleds
 were the envy and admiration of all the
 boys in town4 ,i'm not surprised at    
what ,i've done2 ,i'm only sorry ,i     
couldn't have had as good a chance as a 
boy1 and have been put to my trade      
regularly4  ,even after she had         
demonstrated her skill as an inventor1  
,miss ,knight had to encounter the      
skepticism of the workmen to whom she   
entrusted the manufacture of her        
machines4 ,they questioned her ability  
to superintend her own work1 and it was 
only her persistency and remarkable     
competency that ultimately converted    
their incredulity into respect and      
admiration4  ,since women have come into
 the possession of greater freedom than 
they formerly enjoyed1 and have been    
afforded better opportunities of        
developing their inventive faculties1   
many of them have taken to invention as 
an occupation1 and with marked success4 

,they find it the easiest and most      
congenial way of earning a livelihood1  
and not a few of them have been able    
thereby to accumulate comfortable       
fortunes1 besides developing industries 
that have given employment to thousands 
of both sexes4  ,thus the straw industry
 in the ,united ,states is due to ,miss 
,betsy ,metcalf1 who1 more than a       
century ago1 produced the first straw   
bonnet ever manufactured in this        
country4 ,since then the industry which 
this woman originated has assumed       
immense proportions4 ,the number of     
straw hats now made in ,massachusetts   
alone1 not to speak of those annually   
manufactured elsewhere1 runs into the   
millions4  ,scarcely less wonderful is  
the industry developed by ,miss ,knight1
 already mentioned1 through her         
marvelous invention for manufacturing   
satchel-bottom paper bags4 ,many men had
 previously essayed to solve the problem
 which she attacked with such signal    
success1 but all to no purpose4 ,so     

valuable was her invention considered by
 experts that she refused fifty thousand
 dollars for it shortly after taking out
 her patent4  ,often what are apparently
 the most trivial inventions prove the  
most lucrative4 ,thus1 a ,chicago woman 
receives a handsome income for her      
invention of a paper pail4 ,a woman in  
,san ,francisco invented a baby         
carriage1 and received fourteen thousand
 dollars for her patent4 ,the           
gimlet-pointed screw1 which was the idea
 of a little girl1 has realized to its  
patentee an independent fortune4 ,still 
more remarkable is the ,burden horseshoe
 machine1 the invention of a woman1     
which turns out a complete horseshoe    
every three seconds and which is said to
 have effected a saving to the public of
 tens of millions of dollars4  ,the     
cotton gin1 one of the most useful and  
important of ,american inventions--a    
machine that effected a complete        
revolution in the cotton industry       
throughout the world--is due to a woman1

 ,catherine ,l4 ,greene1 the wife of    
,general ,nathaniel ,greene1 of         
,revolutionary fame4 ,after she had     
fully developed in her own mind a method
 for separating the cotton from its     
seed1 which was after her husband's     
death1 she intrusted the making of the  
machine to ,eli ,whitney1 who was then  
boarding with her1 and who had a        
,yankee's skill in the use of tools4    
,whitney was several times on the point 
of abandoning as impossible the task    
which had been assigned to him1 but     
,mrs4 ,greene's faith in ultimate       
success never wavered1 and1 thanks to   
her persistence in the work and the     
putting into execution of her ideas1 her
 great undertaking was finally crowned  
with success4 ,she did not apply for a  
patent for her invention in her own     
name1 because so opposed was public     
opinion to woman's having part in       
mechanical occupation that she would    
have exposed herself to general ridicule
 and to a loss of position in society4  

,the consequence was that ,whitney--her 
employee--got credit for an invention   
which1 in reality1 belonged to her4 ,she
 was1 however1 subsequently able to     
retain a subordinate interest in it     
through her second husband1 ,mr4        
,miller4  ,this is only one of many     
instances in which patents1 taken out in
 the name of some man1 are really due to
 women4 ,the earliest development of the
 mower and reaper1 as well as the clover
 cleaner1 belongs to ,mrs4 ,a4 ,h4      
,manning1 of ,plainfield1 ,new ,jersey4 
,the patent on the clover cleaner was   
issued in the name of her husband2 but1 
as he failed to apply for a patent for  
the mower and reaper1 his wife was1     
after his death1 robbed of the fruit of 
her brain by a neighbor1 whose name     
appears on the list of patentees of an  
invention which originated with ,mrs4   
,manning4  ,a few years ago men of      
science awoke to the startling fact that
 the earth's supply of nitrates was     
being rapidly exhausted4 ,it was then   

realized that1 unless some new store of 
this essential fertilizer could be      
found1 it would soon be impossible to   
provide the food requisite for the      
world's teeming millions4 ,what was to  
be done8 ,never was a more important    
problem presented to science for        
solution1 and never did science more    
quickly and efficaciously respond4 ,it  
was soon recognized that the earth's    
atmosphere was the only available       
storehouse for the much-needed nitrogen4
 ,forthwith scientists and inventors the
 world over proceeded to tap this source
 of supply and to convert its vast      
stores of nitrogen into the nitrates    
which are so indispensable to vegetable 
life4  ,to form some idea of the        
importance of the problem and the       
urgency of its solution1 it may be      
stated that the amount of fertilizer    
required for the cotton crop alone in   
the ,southern ,states in #aiaa was no   
less than three million tons4 ,what1    
then1 must have been the total amount   

used through the world for cereals and  
other crops that need constant          
fertilizing8 ,the famous nitrate        
deposits of ,chili could supply only a  
small fraction of the stupendous amount 
required1 and they1 according to recent 
calculations1 cannot continue to meet   
the present demands on them for more    
than a hundred years longer1 at most4   
,the process involved1 when once        
conceived1 was simple enough1 for it    
merely required the conversion of the   
nitrogen of the air into nitric acid1   
which in turn was employed in the       
production of nitrate of lime4 ,but1    
simple as it was1 mankind had to wait a 
long time for its origination1 and      
action was taken only when necessity    
compelled4 ,at present there are        
numerous nitrate factories in ,france1  
,germany1 ,austria1 ,sweden1 ,norway and
 the ,united ,states1 and the output is 
already enormous and constantly         
increasing4 ,electricity1 that          
mysterious force which has so frequently

 come to man's assistance during the    
last few decades1 is the agent employed4
  ,but who was the originator of the    
idea of utilizing the atmosphere for the
 production of nitrates8 ,who took out  
the first patent for a process for      
making nitrates by using the nitrogen of
 the air8 ,it was a ,frenchwoman--,mme4 
,lefebre1 of ,paris--long since         
forgotten4 ,as early as #ahei she       
obtained a patent in ,england for her   
invention1 but1 as the need of          
fertilizers was not so urgent then as it
 is now1 it was allowed to drop into    
oblivion1 and the matter was not again  
taken up until a half-century later1    
when others secured the credit for an   
idea which was first conceived by a     
woman who happened to have the          
misfortune to live fifty years in       
advance of her time4  ,it were easy to  
extend the list of important inventions 
due to women and of patents which were  
issued in the name of their husbands or 
other men2 to tell of inventions1 too1  

of whose fruits1 because they happened  
to be helpless or inexperienced women1  
the real patentees were often robbed2   
but the foregoing instances are quite   
sufficient to show what woman's keen    
inventive genius is capable of achieving
 in spite of all the restrictions put on
 her sex1 and in spite of her lack of   
training in the mechanic arts4  ,had    
women1 since the organization of our    
,patent ,office1 enjoyed all the        
educational opportunities possessed by  
men2 had they received the same         
encouragement as the lordly sex to      
develop their inventive faculties2 had  
the laws of the country accorded them   
the rewards to which their labor and    
genius entitled them1 they would now    
have far more inventions to their credit
 than those indicated in our government 
reports2 and they would1 furthermore1 be
 able to point to far more brilliant    
achievements than have heretofore1 under
 the unfavorable conditions under which 
they were obliged to work1 been         

possible4 ,but when we recall all the   
obstacles they have had to overcome and 
remember also the fact that most of the 
patents referred to in the preceding    
pages have been secured by women living 
in the ,united ,states--little being    
said of the modern inventions of women  
in foreign countries--we can see that   
their record is indeed a splendid one1  
that their achievements are not only    
worthy of all praise1 but also a happy  
augury for the future4 ,when they shall 
have the same freedom of action as men  
in all departments of activity in which 
they exhibit special aptitude1 when they
 shall have the same advantages of      
training and equipment and the prospect 
of the same emoluments as the sterner   
sex for the products of their brainwork 
and craftsmanship1 then may we expect   
them to achieve the same distinction in 
the mechanic arts as has rewarded their 
efforts in science and literature2 and  
then1 too1 may we hope to see them once 
more regain something of that supremacy 

in invention which was theirs in the    
early history of our race4  ,,footnotes3
  #bbg ,on a vu des femmes tres         
savantes1 comme en fut des guerrieres1  
mais il n'y en eut jamais d'inventrices4
 ,dictionnaire ,philosophique1 sub voce 
,femmes4 ,condorcet1 in commenting on   
this statement1 remarks that if men     
capable of invention were alone to have 
a place in the world1 there would be    
many a vacant one1 even in the          
academies4  #bbh ,that marvelous        
structure known as the ,taj             
,mahal--,india's noblest tribute to the 
grace and goodness of ,indian           
womanhood--is sometimes said to be a    
monument to the memory of ,nur ,mahal4  
,this is not the case4 ,this matchless  
gem of architecture--       444 ,the    
proud passion of an emperor's love      
,wrought into living stone1 which gleams
 and soars     ,with body of beauty     
shrining soul and thought4  is a        
monument to ,nur ,mahal's niece and     
successor as empress1                   

,mumtaz-,mahal--,the ,crown of the      
,palace--who1 like her aunt1 was a woman
 of rare beauty and talent and endeared 
herself to her people by her splendid   
qualities of mind and heart4  #bbi ,the 
inventor of canals as well as of bridges
 over rivers and causeways over morasses
 was1 according to ,greek historians1   
the famous ,assyrian queen1 ,semiramis1 
the builder of ,babylon with its        
wonderful hanging gardens4  #bcj ,among 
the works which treat of the            
subject-matter of the foregoing pages   
the reader may consult with profit1     
,woman's ,share in ,primitive ,culture1 
by ,o4 ,t4 ,mason1 ,london1 #ahie2 ,man 
and ,woman1 the introductory chapter1 by
 ,havelock ,ellis1 ,london1 #ahih2 and  
,histoire ,nouvelle des ,arts et des    
,sciences1 by ,a4 ,renaud1 ,paris1      
#ahgh4  #bca ,cf4 ,women ,inventors to  
whom patents have been granted by the   
,united ,states ,government1 ,compiled  
under the ,direction of the             
,commissioner of ,patents1 ,washington1 

#ahhh4 ,see also subsequent reports of  
the ,patent ,office4  #bcb ,to one      
woman1 ,mary ,e4 ,poupard1 of ,london1  
,england1 were granted in a single year 
no less than three patents for          
horse-shoes--two of the patents being   
for sectional and segmental horse-shoes4
     ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,women ,,as       
,,inspirers ,,and ,,collaborators ,,in  
,,science   ,one of the most interesting
 literary figures of the fifth century  
was ,caius ,apollinaris ,sidonius1 who1 
after holding a number of important     
civil offices1 became the bishop of     
,clermont4 ,the most valuable of his    
extant works are his nine books of      
letters which are a mine of information 
respecting the history of his age and   
the manners1 customs and ideals of his  
contemporaries4  ,in one of these       
letters1 addressed to ,hesperius1 a     
young friend of his who exhibited       
special talent in polite literature1 he 
expresses a sentiment which applies as  
well to the votary of science as to the 

man of letters4 ,referring to the       
assistance which women had given to     
their husbands and friends in their     
studies1 he conjures him to remember    
that in days of old it was the wont of  
,martia1 ,terentia1 ,calpurnia1         
,pudentilla and ,rusticana to hold the  
lamp while their husbands1 ,hortensius1 
,cicero1 ,pliny1 ,apuleius and          
,symmachus1 were reading and            
meditating4#bcc  ,this picture of women 
as light-bearers to the great orators   
and philosophers just named is symbolic 
of them as the helpmates and inspirers  
of men in every field of human activity 
and in every age of the world's history4
 ,always and everywhere1 when permitted 
to occupy the same social plane as men1 
women have been not only as lamps unto  
the feet and as lights unto the paths of
 their male compeers in the ordinary    
affairs of life1 but have also been     
their guiding stars and ministering     
angels in the highest spheres of        
intellectual effort4  ,for nearly       

fifteen centuries ,st4 ,jerome has had  
the gratitude of the church for his     
masterly translation1 known as the      
,vulgate1 of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4   
,but1 had it not been for his two noble 
friends1 ,paula and ,eustochium1 who    
were as eminent for their intellectual  
attainments as they were for their      
descent from the most distinguished     
families of ,rome and ,greece1 there    
would have been no ,vulgate4 ,for they  
were not only his inspirers in this     
colossal undertaking1 but they were his 
active and zealous collaborators as     
well4  ,dante and ,petrarch are         
acclaimed as the morning stars of modern
 literature1 but both of them owed their
 immortality to the inspiration of two  
pure-minded and noble-hearted women4    
,in the concluding paragraph of his     
,vita ,nuova--the most beautiful love   
story ever written--,dante records his  
purpose to say of his inspirer1 the     
gentle1 gracious ,beatrice ,portinari1  
what was never said of any woman4 ,the  

outcome of this exalted purpose was the 
,divina ,commedia1 the world's greatest 
literary masterpiece4  ,petrarch1 the   
father of humanism1 is the first to give
 ,laura de ,noves credit for his        
attainments as a poet4 ,in one of his   
poems he sings3      ,blest be the year1
 the month1 the hour1 the day1     ,the 
season and the time1 and point of space1
     ,and blest the beauteous country   
and the place     ,where first of two   
eyes ,i felt the sway4  ,elsewhere in   
one of his prose dialogues with ,st4    
,augustine he declares1 ,whatever you   
see in me1 be it little or much1 is due 
to her2 nor would ,i ever have attained 
to this measure of name and fame unless 
she had cherished by those most noble   
influences that my feeble implanting of 
virtues which nature had placed in this 
breast4#bcd  ,a no less remarkable      
inspirer1 but in an entirely different  
sphere of activity1 was the devout and  
spotless ,italian maiden1 ,chiara       
,schiffi1 better known as ,st4 ,clara4  

,she was1 as is well known1 the ardent  
cooperator of ,st4 ,francis ,assisi in  
his great work of social and religious  
reform which has contributed so much    
toward the welfare of humanity4 ,but it 
is not generally known what an important
 part she had in this great undertaking1
 and how she sustained the ,poverello   
during long hours of trial and hardship4
 ,it was during these periods of care   
and struggle that we see how courageous 
and intrepid was this woman who has     
always been represented as frail1       
emaciated1 blanched like a flower of the
 cloister4  ,she defended ,francis not  
only against others but also against    
himself4 ,in those hours of dark        
discouragement which so often and so    
profoundly disturb the noblest souls and
 sterilize the grandest efforts1 she was
 beside him to show the way4 ,when he   
doubted his mission and thought of      
fleeing to the heights of repose and    
solitary prayer1 it was she who showed  
him the ripening harvest with no reapers

 to gather it in1 men going astray with 
no shepherd to herd them1 and drew him  
once again into the train of the        
,galilean1 into the number of those who 
give their lives as a ransom for        
many4#bce  ,it is under the shade of the
 olive trees of ,st4 ,damian1 with his  
sister-friend ,clara caring for him1    
that he composes his finest work1 that  
which ,ernest ,renan called the most    
perfect utterance of modern religions   
sentiment1 ,the ,canticle of the        
,sun4#bcf  ,this canticle1 however1     
beautiful as it is1 lacks1 as has well  
been remarked1 one strophe4 ,if it was  
not upon ,francis' lips1 it was surely  
in his heart3      ,be praised1 ,lord1  
for ,sister ,clara2     ,thou hast made 
her silent1 active1 and sagacious1      
,and1 by her1 thy light shines in our   
hearts4#bcg  ,it was through the        
inspiration and influence of ,theodora  
that the famous ,church of ,st4 ,sophia1
 that matchless poem in marble and gold1
 that imperishable monument to the glory

 of the true ,god1 came into existence4 
,it was through her that ,justinian     
conceived the idea of those ,pandects   
and ,institutes which constitute the    
greatest glory of his reign1 and which  
are the basis of the ,code ,napoleon and
 of all modern jurisprudence4  ,it was  
to ,vittoria ,colonna that              
,michaelangelo dedicated many of the    
most exquisite productions of his       
peerless genius4 ,he saw1 as has been   
said1 with her eyes and acted by her    
inspiration4  ,almost every one of      
,chopin's compositions was inspired by  
women1 and a large proportion of them   
are dedicated to them4 ,the same may be 
said of ,mozart1 ,mendelssohn1          
,schubert1 ,beethoven1 ,weber1 ,schumann
 and other illustrious composers4 ,all  
these sons of genius believed with      
,castiglione that all inspiration must  
come from woman2 that she had been      
expressly created and sent into the     
world to inspire them with intelligence 
and creative power4  ,m4 ,claviere      

declares that ,there is hardly a        
philosopher or a poet of the sixteenth  
century whose pages are not illuminated 
or gladdened by the smile of some       
high-born lady4#bch  ,what the brilliant
 ,frenchman says of the influence of    
woman on the poets and philosophers of a
 single century could with equal truth  
be said of the poets and philosophers of
 every century from ,anacreon and ,plato
 to the present day4 ,and1 still more1  
it can be predicated of woman's         
inspiration and influence in every      
department of intellectual effort1 in   
art and architecture1 in music and      
literature1 in science in all its       
departments1 whether deductive or       
inductive4  ,it has been well said1     
,were history to be rewritten1 with due 
regard to women's share in it1 many     
small causes1 heretofore disregarded1   
would be found fully to explain great   
and unlooked-for results4444 ,for it is 
not in outward facts1 nor great names1  
nor noisy deeds1 nor genealogies of     

crowned heads1 nor in tragic loves1 nor 
ambitious or striking heroism1 nor      
crime1 that we find proofs of the       
constant and secret working whereby     
woman most effectually asserts herself4 
,certainly she has played her part in   
the outward and visible history of the  
world1 but in that history which is told
 and written1 which is buried in        
archives and revivified in books1       
woman's part is always small when set   
beside that of her companion1 man4 ,she 
contributes but little1 and at this she 
may surely rejoice1 to the tales of     
battles and treaties of successions and 
alliances1 of violence1 fraud1          
suspicions and hatreds4 ,but if the     
inward history of human affairs could be
 described as fully as the outward      
facts2 if the story of the family could 
be told together with the story of the  
nation2 if human thoughts could with    
certainty be divined from human deeds1  
then the chief figure in this history of
 sentiment and morals would certainly be

 that of ,woman the ,inspirer4#bci      
,this same statement would hold equally 
good if applied to the part taken by    
women in the history of science4 ,their 
achievements have1 in most cases1 been  
so overshadowed by those of men that    
their work has been usually regarded as 
a negligible quantity4 ,but when one    
considers the mainsprings of actions1   
and examines the silent undercurrents   
which escape the notice of the          
superficial observer1 one finds1 as in  
social and political history1 that the  
most important scientific investigations
 are often conducted1 and the most      
momentous discoveries are made1 in      
consequence of the promptings of some   
devoted woman friend1 or in virtue of   
the still1 small voice of a cherished   
wife1 or sister1 who prefers to remain  
in the background in order that all the 
glory of achievement may redound to the 
man4  ,there have been1 it may safely be
 asserted1 few really eminent men in    
science1 as there have been few really  

eminent men in art or letters1 or in the
 great reform and religious movements of
 the world1 who have not been assisted  
by some woman light-bearer1 as were     
,hortensius by ,martia1 ,tully by       
,terentia and ,pliny by ,calpurnia4     
,there have been few that have not1     
during hours of doubt and               
discouragement1 been sustained and      
stimulated as was ,francis by ,clara1   
and ,jerome by ,paula and ,eustochium4  
,and there have been still fewer who    
have not had1 like ,petrarch and ,dante1
 their ,laura or their ,beatrice of whom
 each could say3      ,this is the      
beacon guides to deeds of worth1        
,and urges me to see the glorious goal3 
,this bids me leave behind the vulgar   
throng4  ,in the preceding chapters we  
have had notable examples of women whose
 beneficent influence and cooperation   
have enabled distinguished men of       
science to achieve results that would   
otherwise have been impossible4 ,among  
these--to mention only a few--were ,mme4

 ,lavoisier and ,mme4 ,curie in         
chemistry1 ,mme4 ,lapaute and ,miss     
,herschel in astronomy1 ,mrs4 ,agassiz  
and ,mme4 ,coudreau in natural science  
and exploration1 ,mme4 ,schliemann and  
,mme4 ,dieulafoy in archaeology4  ,one  
of the most illustrious women inspirers 
of ,france was ,catherine de ,parthenay1
 who1 after attaining womanhood1 became 
the brilliant ,princess de ,rohan1 and  
was recognized as one of the most       
learned and most remarkable women of the
 sixteenth century4 ,as a young girl she
 exhibited rare intelligence and        
displayed special aptitude for the exact
 sciences4 ,for this reason her mother  
saw to it that her child had the benefit
 of instruction under the ablest masters
 that could be secured4  ,the most noted
 of these was ,francois ,viete1 the     
learned ,french mathematician1 who is   
justly regarded as the father of modern 
algebra4 ,in his day1 especially in the 
higher classes of society1 the education
 given to women was often more thorough 

than that afforded to men4 ,for this    
reason1 too1 women not infrequently     
became distinguished in astronomy1 which
 was then usually known under the name  
of astrology4  ,viete1 in initiating his
 gifted pupil into the principles of    
this science1 became himself so         
enthusiastic a student of astronomy that
 he determined to prepare an elaborate  
work on the subject--something on the   
plan of the ,almagest of ,ptolemy--a    
work which he designated ,harmonicum    
,celeste4  ,in order that the           
instruction given his pupil might not be
 lacking in precision1 ,viete wrote out1
 with the most scrupulous care1 the     
lessons designed for her benefit4 ,the  
manuscripts containing these lessons    
were long preserved among the family    
archives1 but nearly all of them were   
unfortunately consigned to the flames   
during the ,french ,revolution in #agic4
  ,no one was more interested in        
,viete's mathematical researches--those 
researches which have rendered him so   

famous in the history of science--than  
was the ,princess de ,rohan4 ,the former
 pupil was the first to receive notice  
of her distinguished master's           
discoveries and the first to            
congratulate him on his success4  ,it   
was to this cherished pupil1 who always 
remained his friend and benefactress1   
that ,viete dedicated his important work
 on mathematical analysis entitled ,in  
,artem ,analyticam ,isagoge4 ,the words 
of the dedication are a tribute to the  
learning and the genius of the pupil as 
well as an expression of the gratitude  
of the teacher4 ,it reads as follows3   
,it is to you especially1 august        
daughter of ,melusine1 that ,i am       
indebted for my proficiency in          
mathematics1 to attain which ,i was     
encouraged by your love for this        
science1 as well as your great knowledge
 of it1 and by your mastery of all other
 sciences1 which one cannot too much    
admire in a person of your noble        
lineage4#bdj  ,more interesting1 and at 

the same time more pathetic1 were the   
relations of an ,italian nun1 ,sister   
,maria ,celeste1 and the man whom ,byron
 so happily designates as      ,the     
starry ,galileo1 with his woes4  ,sister
 ,celeste1 who was a ,franciscan nun in 
the convent of ,st4 ,matthew1 in        
,arcetri1 was the great astronomer's    
eldest and favorite daughter4 ,they were
 greatly attached to each other1 and the
 gentle religieuse was not only her     
father's confidante and consoler in the 
hours of trial and affliction1 but was  
also his inspirer and ever-vigilant     
guardian angel4 ,she watched over him1  
not as a daughter over a father1 but as 
a mother watches over an only son4#bda  
,all this is beautifully exhibited in   
her one hundred and twenty-four letters 
which were published in #ahia for the   
first time4 ,a few of these letters1 it 
is true1 were published as early as     
#aheb by ,alberi1 in his edition of the 
complete works of ,galileo1 and others  
were given to the press at subsequent   

dates2 but the world had to wait more   
than two and a half centuries for a     
complete collection of all the known    
letters of this remarkable daughter of  
an illustrious sire4  ,these documents  
are precious for the insight they give  
into the sterling character of a noble  
woman1 but they are beyond price as     
sources of information respecting the   
tenderly affectionate relations which   
existed between her and one of the      
foremost men of science1 not only of his
 own age1 but of all time4 ,they show   
how he made her his confidante in all   
his undertakings1 and how she was his   
amanuensis1 his counselor1 his inspirer2
 how her love was an incentive to the   
work that won for him undying fame2 how 
she was his support and comfort when    
suffering from the jealousy of rivals or
 the enmity of those who were opposed to
 his teachings4  ,these letters cover a 
period of nearly eleven years--the most 
momentous years of her father's busy and
 troubled life4 ,now playful1 quaint1   

elfish1 then serious1 vivid1            
confidential1 they show that the        
writer's intelligence was as rare as her
 nature was loyal and affectionate4 ,at 
times she half-apologizes for the length
 of a letter1 but you must remember1 she
 adds in excuse1 that ,i must put into  
this paper everything that ,i should    
chatter to you in a week4  ,no daughter 
was ever prouder of her father or loved 
him with a more abounding love4 ,i pride
 myself1 she says1 that ,i love and     
revere my dearest father more1 by far1  
than others love their fathers1 and ,i  
clearly perceive that1 in return1 he far
 surpasses the greater part of other    
fathers in the love which he has for me1
 his loved daughter4  ,when he was ill  
she prepared dishes and confections that
 she knew would tempt his appetite4 ,but
 she was not satisfied with looking     
after the welfare of his body1 for she  
took occasion to send with the cakes and
 preserved fruits a sermonette for the  
benefit of his soul4  ,an extract from  

one of her letters gives an insight into
 the character of this devoted daughter1
 who1 ,galileo says in a letter to his  
friend1 ,elia ,diodati1 was a woman of  
exquisite mind1 singular goodness and   
most tenderly attached to me4  ,of the  
preserved citron you ordered1 she writes
 him on the nineteenth of ,december1    
#afbe1 ,i have only been able to do a   
small quantity4 ,i feared the citrons   
were too shriveled for preserving1 and  
so they proved4 ,i send two baked pears 
for these days of vigil4 ,but the       
greatest treat of all ,i send you is a  
rose1 which ought to please you         
extremely1 seeing what a rarity it is at
 this season4 ,and with the rose you    
must accept its thorns1 which represent 
the bitter passion of ,our ,lord1 while 
the green leaves represent the hope we  
may entertain that1 through the same    
sacred passion1 we1 having passed       
through the darkness of this short      
winter of our mortal life1 may attain to
 the brightness and felicity of an      

eternal spring in heaven1 which may our 
gracious ,god grant us through ,his     
mercy4#bdb  ,she always insists upon his
 keeping her fully informed about his   
studies and discoveries4 ,she is        
particular1 also1 about receiving       
without delay copies of his latest      
publications4 ,i beg you1 she writes in 
one of her letters1 to be so kind as to 
send me that book of yours which has    
just been published1 ,il ,saggiatore1 so
 that ,i may read it2 for ,i have a     
great desire to see it4  ,on another    
occasion1 after his difficulties with   
the ,holy ,office1 when she fancies her 
father is not keeping her fully informed
 about the subject matter of his        
writings1 she implores him to tell her  
on what topic he is engaged1 if1 she    
archly adds1 it be something ,i can     
understand and you are not afraid that  
,i will blab4  ,and on still another    
occasion ,sister ,celeste reminds her   
father of a promise of his to send her a
 small telescope4 ,from this we should  

infer that she desired to repeat the    
observations on the heavenly bodies that
 had created such a sensation in the    
learned world1 and which had given      
occasion for such acrimonious           
controversy4  ,in one of her earlier    
letters ,sister ,celeste calls her      
father's attention to a promise of his  
to spend an afternoon with her and her  
sister ,arcangela1 also a nun in the    
same convent4 ,and1 referring to one of 
the regulations of the ,franciscan      
cloister1 she playfully observes3 ,you  
will be able to sup in the parlor1 since
 the excommunication is for the table   
cloth--,o ,sister ,celeste6--and not for
 the meats thereon4  ,what would one not
 give for a stenographic report of the  
conversations held that afternoon in the
 convent garden of ,arcetri1 as father  
and daughters leisurely strolled through
 the peaceful enclosure1 all quite      
oblivious of the fleeting hours8 ,how   
interesting would be a faithful record  
of the confidences exchanged at the     

frugal meal in the evening in the humble
 parlor of ,s4 ,matteo6 ,we would       
willingly exchange many of the famous   
,dialoghi di ,galileo ,galilei for a    
verbatim report of what passed between  
,sister ,celeste and the father whom she
 so idolized4#bdc  ,judging from her    
letters1 she had many questions to ask  
him about his studies1 his experiments1 
his discoveries1 his books1 as well as  
about more personal and domestic        
matters4  ,although there is no         
documentary proof of the fact1 yet there
 is every reason to believe that        
,galileo had taken personal charge of   
the education of this1 his favorite     
daughter4 ,she shared his taste for     
science and inherited not a little of   
his genius4 ,such being the case1 we may
 well believe that a faithful account of
 their conversations of that day would  
be not only of surpassing interest1 but 
would also throw a flood of light on    
many questions now ill understood4 ,they
 would certainly tend to fill up the    

numerous lacunae caused by the          
disappearance of the letters of         
,galileo1 which he wrote in answer to   
those of his ever-cherished             
daughter4#bdd  ,they would also show    
more clearly than any facts now         
available what an unbounded influence   
the gentle nun had over the greatest    
intellect of his time1 and would1 more  
clearly than anything in her            
correspondence1 exhibit ,sister ,celeste
 as the efficient co-worker and the     
abiding inspirer of the father of modern
 physics and astronomy4  ,but1 although 
we have no record of this soul-communion
 between father and daughter on the     
occasion in question2 although we are   
deprived of the invaluable letters which
 he wrote in reply to hers1 we are1     
nevertheless1 from the evidence at hand1
 justified in regarding this unique pair
 as being ever one in heart1 aspirations
 and ideals1 and comparable in their    
mutual influence on each other with any 
of those famous men and women who1      

through achievement on the one side and 
inspiration and collaboration on the    
other1 have ever been recognized as the 
greatest benefactors of their race4     
,one of ,galileo's countrymen1 ,g4 ,b4  
,clemente de ,nelli1 was right when he  
declared that1 had it not been for the  
assistance and consolation which he     
received from ,sister ,celeste1 ,galileo
 would have succumbed to the blows that 
were showered upon him during the most  
trying part of his career4 ,an          
indication of this is given in one of   
the letters written by ,sister ,celeste 
in the last year of her life4  ,while in
 a fit of despondency and imagining his 
friends had forgotten him1 ,galileo1 in 
a moment of bitterness1 wrote in a      
letter to his daughter3 ,my name is     
erased from the book of the living4     
,nay1 came at once ,sister ,celeste's   
cheering reply1 say not that your name  
is struck de libro viventium1 for it is 
not so2 neither in the greater part of  
the world nor in your own country4      

,indeed1 it seems to me that1 if for a  
brief moment your name and fame were    
clouded1 they are now restored to       
greater brightness1 at which ,i am much 
astonished1 for ,i know that generally  
,nemo propheta acceptus est in patria   
sua4 ,i am afraid1 however1 if ,i begin 
quoting ,latin1 ,i shall fall into some 
barbarism4 ,but1 of a truth1 you are    
loved and esteemed here more than       
ever4#bde  ,how much ,sister ,celeste   
was to her father in every way was not  
known until after her premature death in
 her thirty-fourth year4 ,he was never  
the same man afterward4 ,disconsolate   
and broken1 he fancied he heard the     
voice of the daughter he so fondly loved
 resounding through the house4 ,brooding
 over his great loss1 the heart-broken  
old man writes to a friend in words of  
infinite pathos1 ,mi sento continuamente
 chiamare della mia diletta             
figlioula--,i continually hear myself   
called by my dearly beloved daughter4   
,the eighth of ,january1 #afdb1 he      

answered her call and went to join her  
in a better world4  ,two other noted    
investigators1 one of them a            
contemporary of ,galileo1 owed much to  
the inspiration and encouragement which 
they received from women4 ,these were   
,descartes and ,leibnitz4 ,and the women
 that had the most influence on them    
were representatives of royal families1 
who were famous in their day for their  
love and knowledge and the extent of    
their intellectual attainments4  ,one of
 the most noted of these was ,elizabeth 
of ,bohemia1 ,princess ,palatine4 ,she  
was the favorite pupil of ,descartes1   
and it was to her that he dedicated his 
great work1 ,principia ,philosophiae4   
,she1 he declared1 understood him better
 than any one else he had ever met1 for 
in her alone were united those generally
 separated talents for metaphysics and  
for mathematics which are so            
characteristically operative in the     
,cartesian system4#bdf  ,to this earnest
 student who was always absorbed in the 

mysteries of metaphysics and the        
problems of geometry1 ,descartes could  
refuse nothing4 ,when distance separated
 them he continued his instructions by  
correspondence4 ,one of the results of  
this correspondence was his treatise on 
,passions de l',ame1 in which he        
develops certain ethical views suggested
 by the ,vita ,beata of ,seneca4        
,another distinguished pupil of         
,descartes who exercised a marked       
influence over him was the celebrated   
daughter of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 ,queen 
,christine of ,sweden4 ,a mistress of   
many languages and an ardent votary of  
science1 she was a munificent patron of 
scientific men1 a great number of whom  
she had attracted to her court4 ,the    
most distinguished of these was         
,descartes1 to whom she was deeply      
attached1 and with whom she had planned 
great things for science in ,sweden1    
when his career was cut short by a      
premature death4  ,not the least        
influence on the intellectual life of   

,leibnitz was ,sophia ,charlotte1 ,queen
 of ,prussia and mother of ,frederick   
the ,great4 ,she was the niece of       
,descartes' illustrious friend1         
,elizabeth of ,bohemia1 and1 as the     
pupil of ,leibnitz1 quite as gloriously 
associated as had been her aunt with the
 father of ,cartesianism4  ,leibnitz was
 as distinguished by genius as his royal
 pupil was by birth4 ,besides being     
eminent as a philosopher and a          
statesman1 he shared with ,newton the   
honor of discovering the calculus4      
,huxley pronounced him a man of science1
 in the modern sense1 of the first rank1
 while the ,king of ,prussia declared of
 him1 ,he represents in himself a whole 
academy4 ,through the cooperation of    
,sophia ,charlotte he founded the       
,berlin ,academy of ,sciences4 ,for her 
he wrote one of the most notable of his 
productions--his famed ,theodicy4  ,it  
would be difficult to estimate the      
influence of this learned queen on      
,leibnitz1 but it was undoubtedly       

greater than any other single influence 
whatever4 ,her death was the greatest   
loss he ever suffered1 and when she was 
no more1 the beautiful ,berlin suburb1  
,charlottenburg--named after her--where 
he had been so happy in reading and     
philosophizing with his illustrious     
pupil1 lost all attraction for him4  ,a 
more striking illustration of woman's   
helpfulness is afforded in the case of  
,francois ,huber1 the celebrated ,swiss 
naturalist4 ,although blind from his    
seventeenth year1 he was able to carry  
on researches requiring the keenest     
eyesight and the closest observation4   
,this he was able to do through the     
affectionate cooperation of his devoted 
wife1 ,marie ,aimee4  ,when her friends 
tried to dissuade her from marrying     
,huber1 to whom she had been engaged for
 some time1 saying he had become blind1 
her reply was worthy of her generous and
 noble nature3 ,he then needs me more   
than ever4  ,during the forty years of  
their married life her tenderness and   

devotion to her husband were as         
unfailing as they were inspiring4 ,he   
worked through the eyes and hands of his
 wife as if they were his own4 ,she was 
his reader1 his observer1 his secretary1
 his enthusiastic collaborator in all   
those investigations that have rendered 
him so famous4 ,the blind man devised   
the experiments to be made1 and the     
quick-witted wife executed them and     
recorded the observations which supplied
 the material for his epoch-making work 
on bees1 entitled ,nouvelles            
,observations sur les ,abeilles4 ,so    
accurate are his descriptions of the    
habits of the winged creatures1 to the  
study of which he devoted the best years
 of his life1 that one would think his  
great work was the production1 not of a 
man who had been blind for a quarter of 
a century1 when he wrote it1 but of one 
who was gifted with exceptional keenness
 of vision and powers of observation4   
,as long as she lived1 exclaimed the    
great naturalist after his trusty       

,aimee's death1 ,i was not sensible of  
the misfortune of being blind4 ,nay1    
more4 ,during her lifetime1 when1 though
 sightless1 he was always so happy in   
his work1 he went so far as to aver that
 he would be miserable were he to       
recover his eyesight4 ,i should not     
know1 he declared1 to what an extent a  
person in my condition could be beloved4
 ,besides1 to me1 my wife is always     
young1 fresh and pretty1 which is no    
light matter4 ,he could truly say of    
her1 as ,wordsworth said of his sister  
,dorothy1      ,she gave me eyes1 she   
gave me ears1      44499444994449944499 
,and love and thought and joy4  ,we hear
 much of the achievements of ,galvani   
and ,faraday in the domain of           
electricity and electromagnetism1 but   
little is said of the women to whom they
 were so greatly indebted for their     
success and fame4  ,it was ,galvani's   
wife who first directed his attention to
 the convulsions of a frog's leg when   
placed near an electrical machine4 ,this

 induced him to make those celebrated   
investigations which led to the         
foundation of a new science which has   
ever since been identified with his     
name4  ,it was ,mrs4 ,marcet's works on 
science--especially her ,conversations  
on ,chemistry--that inspired ,faraday   
with a love of science and blazed for   
him that road in chemical and physical  
experimentation which led to such       
marvelous results4 ,he was always proud 
to call her his first teacher1 and never
 hesitated to attribute to her that     
taste for scientific research for which 
he became so preeminent4 ,and it was his
 devoted wife who was not only a        
helpmate but a soulmate as well for     
nearly half a century1 that had very    
much to do with the splendid development
 of the germ which had been placed in   
his youthful mind by ,mrs4 ,marcet4     
,the same may likewise be asserted of   
the wives of two distinguished          
geologists--,charles ,lyell and ,xavier 
,hommaire de ,hell4 ,mrs4 ,lyell was    

intimately associated with her husband  
in all his scientific undertakings1 and 
her ready intellect contributed         
immensely toward securing for him that  
enviable position which he attained of  
being the premier geologist of his      
century4 ,mme4 ,hommaire de ,hell       
deserves special mention in the history 
of geology for the invaluable assistance
 which she gave her husband in the      
scientific exploration of the basin of  
the ,caspian ,sea4 ,not only did she    
share his labors and perils in this then
 wild part of the world1 and collaborate
 with him in the preparation of the     
report for which the ,french government 
conferred on him the ,cross of the      
,legion of ,honor1 but she also wrote   
unaided the two descriptive volumes of  
their great work1 ,steppes de la ,mer   
,caspienne4 ,her part of this great     
undertaking received the special        
commendation of ,m4 ,villemain1 who was 
the minister of public instruction1 and 
had she not belonged to the             

disenfranchized sex1 she1 too1 would    
have been decorated with the ,cross of  
the ,legion of ,honor4  ,all the world  
has heard of the daring explorations of 
,baker and ,livingstone in the ,dark    
,continent1 but how few are aware of the
 important part taken in their great    
enterprises by their devoted and heroic 
wives8 ,sir ,samuel ,baker immortalized 
himself by discovering ,lake ,albert    
,nyanza1 one of the main sources of the 
,nile1 but in attaining this goal1 which
 other explorers had in vain essayed to 
reach1 he was not alone4 ,the companion 
of his triumph1 as of his trials and    
hardships1 was ,lady ,baker1 a woman    
who1 although delicately reared1 was as 
brave in presence of danger as she was  
resourceful in trials and difficulties4 
,more than once her husband owed his    
life to her intrepidity and presence of 
mind1 when confronted by the treacherous
 savages of equatorial ,africa2 and1 if 
he achieved success where others failed1
 it was in no slight measure due to her 

tact1 her energy and perseverance in    
what seemed at times a forlorn hope4    
,she had learned ,arabic with him in a  
year of necessary but wearisome delay2  
her mind traveled with his mind as her  
feet had followed his footsteps4 ,and1  
when after preliminary toils without    
number1 after braving dangers from      
climate1 disease and ruthless savages1  
they finally stood on the shore of that 
unknown sea which was then first beheld 
by ,english eyes1 she could1 in         
contemplating their achievements of     
which ,albert ,nyanza was the crowning  
glory1 exclaim with exaltation and      
truth1 ,quorum pars magna fui4  ,when   
,livingstone lost1 in the unexplored    
valley of the ,zambesi1 the faithful    
wife who had been his inspiring         
companion in his wanderings in darkest  
,africa1 he lost completely that        
enthusiasm for deeds of high emprise    
that before had been one of his leading 
characteristics4 ,writing to his        
distinguished friend1 ,sir ,roderick    

,murchison1 he mournfully declares3 ,i  
must confess this heavy stroke quite    
takes the heart out of me4 ,everything  
that has happened only made me more     
determined to overcome all difficulties2
 but after this sad stroke ,i feel      
crushed and void of strength4444 ,i     
shall do my duty still1 but it is with a
 darkened horizon that ,i again set     
about it4  ,the noted ,english          
naturalist1 ,frank ,buckland1 in        
speaking of the aid afforded by his     
gifted mother to her distinguished      
husband1 ,dr4 ,buckland1 writes as      
follows3 ,during the long period that   
,dr4 ,buckland was engaged in writing   
the book which ,i now have the honor of 
editing1 my mother sat up night after   
night1 for weeks and months             
consecutively1 writing to my father's   
dictation2 and this often until the     
sun's rays1 shining through the shutters
 at early morn1 warned the husband to   
cease from thinking and the wife to rest
 her weary hand4  ,not only with the pen

 did she render material assistance1 but
 her natural talent in the use of her   
pencil enabled her to give accurate     
illustrations and finished drawings1    
many of which are perpetuated in ,dr4   
,buckland's works4 ,she was also        
particularly clever and neat in mending 
broken fossils4 ,there are many         
specimens in the ,oxford ,museum1 now   
exhibiting their natural forms and      
beauty1 which were restored by her      
perseverance to shape from a mass of    
broken and almost comminuted fragments4 
,it was her occupation also to label the
 specimens1 which she did in a          
particularly neat way2 and there is     
hardly a fossil or a bone in the ,oxford
 ,museum which has not her handwriting  
upon it4  ,notwithstanding her devotion 
to her husband's pursuits1 she did not  
neglect the education of her children1  
but occupied her mornings in            
superintending their instruction in     
sound and useful knowledge4 ,the        
sterling value of her labors they now1  

in after life1 fully appreciate1 and    
feel most thankful that they were       
blessed with so good a mother4#bdg      
,what has been said of the influence and
 cooperation of the women already named 
may1 with equal truth1 be affirmed of   
numberless others of recent as well as  
of earlier date4 ,it is particularly    
true of the wife of the naturalist      
,heller and of the great astronomer1    
,kepler4 ,it is true of the wife of the 
illustrious mathematician1 the ,marquis 
de l',hopital4 ,she not only shared her 
husband's talent for mathematics1 but   
was of special assistance to him in     
preparing for the press his important   
,analyse des ,infiniment ,petits4 ,it is
 true of the wife of ,asaph ,hall1 the  
illustrious discoverer of the satellites
 of ,mars4 ,often he was on the point of
 abandoning the quest of these          
diminutive moons--which no one had ever 
seen but which his calculations led him 
to believe really existed--but he was   
encouraged by ,mrs4 ,hall to continue   

his observations1 with the result that  
his labors and vigils were at last      
rewarded by the startling discovery of  
,deimos and ,phobos4  ,and there is     
,mme4 ,pasteur1 who1 in her way1 was    
quite as important a factor in the      
scientific career of her immortal       
husband as were the women just mentioned
 in the lives of their husbands1 to     
whose triumphs they so materially       
contributed4  ,one of the great         
,frenchman's biographers has truly      
declared that it is impossible rightly  
to appreciate ,pasteur's life without   
some understanding of the immense       
assistance which he received in his     
home4 ,whether in discussing forms of   
crystals1 watching over experiments1    
shielding her husband from all the daily
 fret of life1 or busy at the customary 
evening task of writing to his          
dictation1 ,madame ,pasteur was at once 
his most devoted assistant and          
incomparable companion4 ,his            
surroundings at home were entirely      

subordinated to his scientific life1 and
 his family shared with him both his    
trials and his triumphs4 ,at the time   
when ,pasteur was engrossed with the    
study of anthrax1 and1 after many       
difficulties and disappointments1 had at
 length succeeded in preparing a vaccine
 against it1 he at once hurried from the
 laboratory to communicate his great    
discovery first to his wife and         
daughter4#bdh  ,it was particularly     
during his long and arduous researches  
on the disease of silkworms that        
,pasteur found his wife's aid of        
incalculable value4 ,for ,mme4 ,pasteur 
and her daughter then constituted       
themselves veritable silkworm rearers4  
,they collected mulberry leaves1 sorted 
larvae1 and were unremitting in their   
labors during the continuance of this   
memorable investigation4 ,and not only  
in the silk-producing districts of      
,southern ,france were they thus        
occupied1 but also in a special         
laboratory in ,ecole ,normale1 after    

their return to ,paris4  ,and1 when in  
the midst of these researches1 on the   
successful outcome of which hinged one  
of the greatest sources of national     
wealth1 the indefatigable savant was    
stricken with paralysis and his life was
 for a while despaired of1 it was again 
his devoted helpmate that afforded him  
solace in suffering and exercised a     
supervision over those experiments which
 the great man was still conducting     
almost in the presence of death4  ,that 
,pasteur's life was prolonged for a     
quarter of a century after the terrible 
attack of hemiplegia in #ahfh1 that he  
was able to unravel the deep mysteries  
of microbian life1 that he was able to  
make discoveries whose economical value 
to ,france was1 in the estimation of    
,professor ,huxley1 more than sufficient
 to liquidate the immense indemnity of  
five billion francs exacted from his    
country by ,germany at the termination  
of the ,franco-,prussian war1 that he   
was able1 especially during these       

fruitful twenty-five years1 to render   
his scientific life like a luminous     
trail in the great night of the         
infinitely little in those ultimate     
abysses of being where life is born1    
was1 in great measure1 due to the       
unceasing care1 the untiring vigilance  
and the sympathetic collaboration of one
 of the most devoted of wives and most  
noble and whole-souled of women4  ,what 
has been said of the influence and      
helpfulness of ,mme4 ,pasteur can be    
asserted with even greater truth of     
,elizabeth ,agassiz and of ,caroline    
,herschel4 ,for these two women1 apart  
from the assistance they gave to a loved
 husband and an idolized brother1 in the
 labors that made them so famous1 both  
achieved distinction for their          
contributions to the sciences which they
 individually cultivated with such      
splendid results4 ,and had they elected 
to devote all their time to scientific  
research1 instead of giving the greater 
part of it to those to whom they were so

 devotedly attached1 who can tell how   
much more brilliant would have been     
their achievements and how much greater 
would have been the fame they would have
 won for themselves4 ,both of them were 
dowered in an eminent degree with taste 
and talent for science1 and had they    
chosen to make it the sole object of    
their life work1 there can be no doubt  
that their personal contributions to    
natural history and astronomy would have
 been far greater than they were4 ,as it
 was1 they were so overshadowed by those
 for whom they labored with such        
unselfishness and loyalty that the real 
value of their work is too often        
forgotten when there is question of the 
scientific triumphs of ,louis ,agassiz  
and ,sir ,william ,herschel4  ,but they 
willed it so4 ,they gladly effaced      
themselves that those whom they loved   
with such a deep and abiding love might 
shine the more brightly in the firmament
 of science4 ,they preferred to spend   
and be spent in strengthening the great 

workers and leaders with whose lives    
their own were so thoroughly            
identified--,inspiring them with        
courage1 keeping faith in their own     
ideas alive1 in days of darkness        
',when all the world seems adverse to   
desert4'  ,both of these noble women had
 the same quality in common--absolute   
devotion and unswerving faith in those  
to whose success and happiness they had 
dedicated their lives4 ,they sought     
nothing for themselves1 they thought    
nothing of themselves4 ,they both had1  
to borrow the idea of another1 an       
intense power of sympathy1 a generous   
love of giving themselves to the service
 of others1 which enabled them to       
transfuse the force of their own        
personality into the objects to which   
they dedicated their powers4  ,in the   
preface of the joint work of ,mr4 and   
,mrs4 ,agassiz entitled ,a ,journey in  
,brazil1 that delightful volume which   
throws such a flood of light on the     
fauna and flora of the ,amazon valley1  

occur the following significant words   
regarding the share each had in         
producing the book3 ,our separate       
contributions have become so closely    
interwoven that we should hardly know   
how to disconnect them4 ,so was it with 
all their undertakings4 ,there was the  
same common interest1 the same unity of 
purpose1 the same unselfish devotion to 
the cause of science during those long  
years of toil which were so prolific in 
results of supreme importance4 ,reading 
between the lines in ,a ,journey in     
,brazil1 and in ,louis ,agassiz1 ,his   
,life and ,correspondence1 written by   
,mrs4 ,agassiz1 we can easily fancy that
 the great naturalist owed as much1 if  
not more1 to his wife's never-failing   
sympathy and inspiration as to her      
active cooperation in his work1 and we  
are ready to apply to her the words of  
,longfellow when he sings3      ,and    
whenever the way seemed long1       ,or 
his heart began to fail1     ,she would 
sing a more wonderful song       ,or    

tell a more wonderful tale4  ,as to     
,caroline ,herschel as a helper and     
sustainer of her illustrious brother1   
too much cannot be said4 ,in the days   
when he gave up a lucrative career that 
he might devote himself to astronomy1 it
 was owing to her thrift and care that  
he was not harassed by the rankling     
vexations of money matters4 ,she had    
been his helper and assistant when he   
was a leading musician2 she became his  
helper and assistant when he gave       
himself up to astronomy4 ,by sheer force
 of will and devoted affection she      
learned enough of mathematics and of    
methods of calculation1 which to those  
unlearned seem mysteries1 to be able to 
commit to writing his researches4 ,she  
became his assistant in the workshop2   
she helped him to grind and polish his  
mirrors2 she stood beside his telescope 
in the nights of midwinter1 to write    
down his observations when the very ink 
was frozen in the bottle4 ,she kept him 
alive by her care2 thinking nothing of  

herself1 she lived for him4 ,she loved  
him and believed in him1 and helped him 
with all her heart and with all her     
strength4 ,she might have become a      
distinguished woman on her own account1 
for with the seven-foot ,newtonian      
sweeper given her by her brother she    
discovered eight comets first and last4 
,but the pleasure of seeking and finding
 for herself was scarcely tested4 ,she  
'minded the heavens' for her brother2   
she worked for him1 not for herself1 and
 the unconscious self-denial with which 
she gave up 'her own pleasure in the use
 of her sweeper' is not the least       
beautiful picture in her life4#bdi      
,while recounting the achievements of   
women who directly or indirectly        
contributed to our knowledge of the     
earth and what it contains we cannot    
forget what the world owes to the       
gracious and glorious ,isabella of      
,castile4 ,for it is to her probably as 
much as to ,columbus that a new         
continent was discovered at the close of

 the fifteenth century4 ,for1 while the 
doctors of ,salamanca--most of whom were
 what ,galileo called paper             
philosophers1 men who fancied that a    
correct knowledge of the physical       
universe was to be obtained by a        
collation of ancient texts--were        
denouncing the great navigator as an    
idle dreamer1 and quoting the           
ill-founded notions of ,pliny and       
,aristotle to prove the impossibility of
 his carrying out his project1 ,isabella
 was quietly revolving in her own mind  
the reasons which ,columbus had adduced 
in favor of his great enterprise4       
,having satisfied herself that his views
 were sufficiently probable to justify  
action1 she was prepared to make any    
sacrifices to have his plans executed4  
,the result of her decision is but      
another illustration of the value of    
woman's quick intuition1 as against the 
slow reasoning processes of philosophers
 and men of science4  ,again1 while     
considering what women have accomplished

 for the advancement of science by      
inspiration and collaboration1 we must  
not lose sight of what they have done by
 suggestion4 ,for1 as ,john ,stuart     
,mill well observes3 ,it no doubt often 
happens that a person who has not widely
 and accurately studied the thoughts of 
others on a subject has by natural      
sagacity a happy intuition which he can 
suggest but cannot prove1 which yet1    
when matured1 may be an important       
addition to knowledge3 but1 even then1  
no justice can be done to it until some 
other person1 who does possess the      
previous acquirements1 takes it in hand1
 tests it1 gives it a scientific or     
practical form1 and fits it into its    
place among the existing truths of      
philosophy or science4 ,is it supposed  
that such felicitous thoughts do not    
occur to women8 ,they occur by hundreds 
to every woman of intellect2 but they   
are mostly lost for want of a husband or
 friend who has the other knowledge     
which can enable him to estimate them   

properly and bring them before the      
world2 and1 even when they are brought  
before it1 they usually appear as his   
ideas1 not their real author's4 ,who can
 tell how many of the original thoughts 
put forth by male writers belong to a   
woman by suggestion1 to themselves only 
by verifying and working out8 ,if ,i may
 judge by my own case1 a very large     
proportion indeed4#bej  ,nor should we  
forget those active and energetic       
women--and their number is much greater 
than is ordinarily supposed--whose      
husbands1 although often endowed with   
genius of the highest order1 were       
indolent by temperament and disorderly  
and unmethodical by nature4 ,such men   
would1 in the majority of cases1 have   
run to seed had not their genius been   
given special force and impulse by their
 vigorous and methodical helpmates4 ,sir
 ,william ,hamilton1 the most learned   
philosopher of the ,scottish school1 is 
a striking instance in point2 for it was
 due almost entirely to the stimulation 

he received from his ever active wife   
that he was always kept keyed up to his 
fullest working capacity as a           
philosopher and became recognized the   
world over as one of the commanding     
intellects of his age4  ,lady ,hamilton1
 writes ,professor ,veitch in his       
,memoir of ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 had 
a power of keeping her husband up to    
what he had to do4 ,she contended wisely
 against a sort of energetic indolence  
which characterized him1 and which1     
while he was always laboring1 made him  
apt to put aside the task actually      
before him1 sometimes diverted by       
subjects of inquiry suggested in the    
course of study on the matter in hand1  
sometimes discouraged by the difficulty 
of reducing to order the immense mass of
 materials he had accumulated in        
connection with it4 ,then her resolution
 and cheerful disposition sustained and 
refreshed him1 and never more so than   
when1 during the last twelve years of   
his life1 his bodily strength was broken

 and his spirit1 though languid1 yet    
ceased not from mental toil4 ,the truth 
is that ,sir ,william's marriage1 his   
comparatively limited circumstances1 and
 the character of his wife supplied to a
 nature that would have been contented  
to spend its mighty energies in work    
that brought no reward but in the doing 
of it1 and that might never have been   
made publicly known or available1 the   
practical force and impulse which       
enabled him to accomplish what he       
actually did in literature and          
philosophy4 ,it was this influence1     
without doubt1 which saved him from     
utter absorption in his world of rare1  
noble and elevated but ever-increasingly
 unattainable ideas4 ,but for it the    
serene sea of abstract thought might    
have held him becalmed for life2 and1 in
 the absence of all utterance of        
definite knowledge of his conclusions1  
the world might have been left to an    
ignorant and mysterious wonder about the
 unprofitable scholar4#bea  ,what has   

been so far said1 important as it is1   
does not tell the whole story of woman's
 influence on men of science1 and       
consequently on the progress of science4
 ,we should not have an adequate        
conception of women as inspirers and    
collaborators if we did not advert to   
certain faculties which they usually    
possess in a more eminent degree than   
the most of men4 ,it is a well-known    
fact that in many of the affairs of life
 women are more practical1 have more    
tact1 and possess keener and quicker    
perceptions than men4 ,they are1 too1   
more ideal1 more romantic and more      
enthusiastic4  ,men of science in their 
investigations usually proceed by the   
slow and laborious process of collecting
 facts and collating phenomena1 either  
by observation or experiment1 or both1  
and1 from the observed facts and        
phenomena1 they formulate a law which   
explains and correlates them4 ,this is  
known as induction1 a method which      
proceeds from facts to ideas4  ,women1  

on the contrary1 are rather disposed to 
proceed from ideas to facts2 to explain 
phenomena from ideas which already exist
 in the mind1 without having recourse to
 the slow process of induction4 ,this is
 the deductive method1 and is the very  
reverse of that employed by the average 
man of science4 ,it would1 however1 be a
 mistake to maintain that the inductive 
method is always employed1 for such is  
not the case4 ,more than a half a       
century ago the historian1 ,buckle1 in a
 notable lecture delivered in the ,royal
 ,institution of ,great ,britain1       
directed attention to the fact that some
 of the greatest scientific discoveries 
had been made by the deductive method4  
,one of these was ,newton's epoch-making
 discovery of universal gravitation4    
,while sitting in a garden he saw an    
apple fall1 and this simple fact caused 
him to advance from idea to idea1 and to
 be carried1 by what ,tyndall loved to  
call the scientific use of the          
imagination1 into the distant realms of 

space4 ,and1 heedless of the operations 
of nature1 neither observing nor        
experimenting1 the great philosopher1 by
 pure a priori reasoning1 completed the 
most sublime and majestic speculation   
that it ever entered into the heart of  
man to conceive4 ,it was1 as ,buckle    
well observes1 the triumph of an idea4  
,it was the audacity of genius4 ,it was 
also the triumph of the deductive method
 in the solution of a problem that one  
not a genius could have worked out only 
by the long and toilsome process of     
induction4  ,similarly1 the great law of
 metamorphosis in plants1 according to  
which the stamens1 pistils1 corollas1   
bracts1 petals and so forth1 of every   
plant1 are simply modified leaves1 was  
discovered not by an inductive          
investigator1 but by a poet4 ,guided by 
his brilliant imagination1 his passion  
for beauty and his exquisite conception 
of form which supplied him with ideas1  
,germany's greatest poet1 ,goethe1 by   
reasoning deductively1 was able to      

generalize a law which lesser minds     
could never have arrived at except      
through the application of the inductive
 method4  ,so also was it in the science
 of crystallography4 ,its foundations   
were laid1 not by a mineralogist nor a  
mathematician1 as one would suppose1 but
 by one of strong imagination and marked
 poetic temperament4 ,like ,goethe1     
,hauey was led by his ideas of beauty   
and symmetry to work deductively on the 
problem before him4 ,descending from    
ideas to facts1 he finally succeeded1   
after a long series of subsequent       
labors1 in reading the riddle which had 
baffled his able but unimaginative      
predecessors4  ,it is the possession of 
this deductive faculty1 so              
characteristic of men of genius--their  
ability to reach conclusions directly1  
as great mathematicians perceive        
inferences which those less gifted reach
 only after pages of elaborate          
calculations--which enable women1 not   
indeed to make scientific discoveries1  

but to exercise the most momentous and  
salutary influence over the method by   
which scientific discoveries are made4  
,for1 as ,buckle points out1 men of     
science are too inclined to employ the  
inductive method to the exclusion of the
 deductive4#beb ,they have become slaves
 to the tyranny of facts1 and1 as such1 
are incompetent to further the progress 
of science as they would by using both  
methods instead of one4 ,and their      
slavery would be still more complete and
 ignominious were it not for the great  
though unconscious service to science   
rendered by women who have kept alive   
the deductive habit of thought4 ,their  
turn of thought1 their habits of mind1  
their conversation1 their influence1    
insensibly extending over the whole     
surface of society and frequently       
penetrating its intimate structure1     
have1 more than all other things put    
together1 tended to raise us up into an 
ideal world1 lift us from the dust in   
which we are too prone to grovel1 and   

develop in us those germs of imagination
 which even the most sluggish and       
apathetic understandings in some degree 
possess4  ,from the foregoing           
observations it is manifest that the    
best results to science are secured when
 men and women work together--men       
supplying the slow1 logical reasoning   
power1 women the vivid1 far-reaching    
imagination2 men generalizing from      
facts1 women from ideas2 men working    
chiefly by induction1 women principally 
by deduction4 ,for thus collaborating1  
each with his or her predominant        
faculties1 the two combined possess in a
 measure the elements which go to make  
up a man or woman of genius and which   
enable them to achieve far more for the 
advancement of science than would       
otherwise be possible4  ,no one has ever
 given more eloquent expression to this 
truth than ,john ,stuart ,mill1 who was 
as keen as an observer as he was        
profound as a thinker4 ,writing on the  
subject under discussion1 he does not   

hesitate to say3 ,hardly anything can be
 of greater value to a man of theory and
 speculation who employs himself1 not in
 collecting materials of knowledge by   
observation1 but in working them up by  
processes of thought into comprehensive 
truths of science and laws of conduct1  
than to carry on his speculations in the
 companionship and under the criticism  
of a really superior woman4 ,there is   
nothing comparable to it for keeping his
 thoughts within the limits of real     
things and the actual facts of nature4  
,a woman seldom runs wild after an      
abstraction4444 ,women's thoughts are   
thus as useful in giving reality to     
those of thinking men as men's thoughts 
in giving width and largeness to those  
of women4 ,in depth1 as distinguished   
from breadth1 ,i greatly doubt if even  
now women1 compared with men1 are at any
 disadvantage4#bec  ,we have already    
learned1 from his own avowal1 how much  
,mill was beholden to his wife for her  
active cooperation in the production of 

those works of his which have exerted so
 profound an influence on many phases of
 modern thought4 ,a more striking       
illustration of the value of woman's    
assistance1 but in the domain of        
biology1 is found in the biography of   
the late ,professor ,huxley4 ,by those  
who know this distinguished man of      
science--so remarkable for his          
intellectual vigor--only from his       
writings1 the impression would be       
gleaned that he was one of the most     
independent of thinkers1 and that his   
utterances on all subjects were         
absolutely personal and entirely        
unmodified by suggestion or criticism   
from any quarter4  ,how far this view is
 from being correct is found in the     
statement by his son that his father    
invariably submitted his writings to the
 criticism of his wife before they were 
seen by any other eye4 ,to her judgment 
was due the toning down of many a       
passage which erred by excess of vigor1 
and the clearing up of phrases which    

would be obscure to the public4 ,in     
fact1 if any essay met with her         
approval1 he felt sure it would not fail
 of its effect when published4#bed ,she 
was not only his help and stay for forty
 years2 in his struggles ready to       
counsel1 in adversity to comfort1 but1  
over and above this1 she was the critic 
whose judgment he valued above almost   
any1 and whose praise he cared most to  
win--the other self who made his life   
work possible4#bee  ,an intelligent1    
sympathetic pair of this kind--and this1
 as we have seen1 is but one of a       
multitude which illuminates and         
beautifies the history of science--are  
competent to achieve wonders4 ,they are 
like the two-celled heart beating with  
one full stroke--      ,two plummets    
dropt for one to sound the abyss     ,of
 science1 and the secrets of the mind4  
,the woman is then truly1 as ,de        
,lamennais in ,scriptural phrases has   
it1 ,man's companion1 man's assistant1  
bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh1

 and1 in her sublime and endearing      
character so complete in every relation 
of life1 she fully answers to the       
beautiful characterization which ,adam1 
in ,paradise ,lost1 gives of his beloved
 ,eve3                  ,so absolute she
 seems1         ,and in herself         
complete1 so well to know     ,her own1 
that what she wills to do or say        
,seems wisest1 virtuosest1 discreetest1 
best4      44499444994449944499         
,authority and reason on her wait1      
44499444994449944499      99 99 99 and1 
to consummate all1     ,greatness of    
mind and nobleness their seat     ,build
 in her loveliest1 and create an awe    
,about her1 as a guard angelic plac'd4  
,,footnotes3  #bcc ,sis oppido meminens 
quod olim ,martia ,hortensio1 ,terentia 
,tullio1 ,calpurnia ,plinio1 ,pudentilla
 ,apuleio1 ,rusticana ,symmacho         
legentibus meditantibusque candelas and 
candelabra tenuerunt4 ,lib4 ,,ii1       
,epist4 #aj4  #bcd ,verum hoc--seu      
gratitudini seu ineptiae                

ascribendum--non sileo1 me              
quantulucunque conspicis1 per illam     
esse1 nec unquam ad hoc1 si quid est    
nominis aut gloriae fuisse venturum1    
nisi virtutum tenuissman sementem1 quasi
 pectore in hoc natura locaverat1       
nobilissimis his affectibus coluisset4  
,francisci ,petrarchae1 ,colloquiorum   
,liber quem ,secretum ,suum ,inscripsit1
 pp4 #aje-ajf1 ,berne1 #afjc4  ,in his  
canzone beginning with the words ,perche
 la vita e breve1 ,petrarch declares to 
his inspirer--      ,thus if in me is   
nurst     ,any good fruit1 from you the 
seed came first2     ,to you1 if such   
appear1 the praise is due1     ,barren  
myself till fertilized by you4  #bce    
,the ,life of ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi1 
by ,paul ,sabatier1 p4 #aff1 ,new ,york1
 #ahid4  #bcf ,ibid41 p4 #afg4  #bcg    
,ibid41 p4 #cjg4  #bch ,the ,women of   
the ,renaissance1 p4 #cid1 ,new ,york1  
#aija4  #bci ,women of ,florence1 by    
,isodoro del ,lungo1 p4 xxvii1 ,london1 
#aijg4  #bdj ,this passage from the     

dedication is so important that ,i      
reproduce the ,latin original3 ,omnino  
vitam1 aut1 si quid mihi carius est1    
vobis autem debeo1 tibi autem1 o diva   
,melusinis1 omne presertim ,mathematicis
 studium1 ad quod me excitavit tum tuus 
in earn amor1 tum summa artis illius1   
quam tenes1 peritia1 immo vero nunquam  
satis admiranda in tuo tamque regii et  
nobilis generis sexu ,encyclopaedia4    
,francois ,viete1 ,inventeur de         
l',algebre ,moderne1 p4 #bj1 par        
,frederic ,ritter1 ,paris1 #ahie4  #bda 
,e nell' amore della figlia il grande   
astronomo trovo non soltanto un conforto
 a suoi affanni1 ma anche una guida     
benefica alla quale sembro egli         
abandonarsi con cieca tenerezza         
figliale4 ,la ,storia del ,feminismo1 p4
 #eji1 by ,g4 ,l4 ,arrighi1 ,florence1  
#aiaa4  #bdb ,galileo ,galilei e ,suor  
,celeste1 by ,antonio ,favaro1 p4 #bef  
et seq41 ,florence1 #ahia4  #bdc ,an    
,english writer1 discussing this        
subject1 pertinently observes3 ,for1    

after all1 is it not the personal       
incidents and commonplaces of life that 
gather interest as the centuries roll   
on1 while its more pretentious events   
often drop into mere literary lumber8   
,how much more interesting ,dr4         
,johnson's incidental admission1 ',i    
have a strong inclination1 ,sir1 to do  
nothing to-day1' is to us now than many 
of his more formal utterances4 ,and1 in 
reality1 is it the personal element     
alone that is in the long run perennial8
 ,the wise may prate as they will about 
the importance of maintaining the       
continuity of history and of handing on 
the torch of science4 ,the world cares  
for none of these things2 they interest 
only some few political economists and  
laborious men4 ,what does the crowd and 
poor little ,tom ,jones and his nestful1
 for instance1 care about the fact that 
,cheops was--at any rate by courteous   
tradition--a mighty man of valor of such
 an era and land8 ,but little ,tom      
,jones and the rest of us would become  

mightily interested in this misty       
monster of many traditions1 could we    
learn in some magical way all he        
thought1 hated and loved in his inmost  
heart of hearts4 ,the ,national ,review1
 p4 #dfa1 ,june1 #ahhi4  #bdd ,the ,duke
 of ,peiresc1 in a letter to ,gassendi1 
regarding ,galileo1 refers to certain   
letters--tres belles epistres--of the   
great philosopher1 a une sienne fille   
religieuse sur le sujet mesme des       
matieres traictees en son dernier livre4
 ,this shows that ,sister ,celeste was  
kept fully informed by her father       
respecting the nature and contents of   
his various works while he was preparing
 them for the press4 ,it implies1       
likewise1 that she was not only         
interested in them in a general way1 but
 that she was able to read them         
intelligently and appreciate them as    
well4  ,how fondly ,galileo treasured   
the letters written him by this daughter
 of predilection is made known to us by 
,sister ,celeste herself1 when she tells

 him in one of her letters ,resto       
confusa sentendo ch'ella conservi le mie
 lettere1 e dubito che il grande affeto 
que mi porta gliele dimonstri piu       
compita di quello che sono4 ,op4 cit41  
p4 #cag4  #bde ,op4 cit41 p4 #djd4  #bdf
 ,in the dedication of his ,principles  
of ,philosophy he addresses his young   
friend and pupil in the following words3
 ,je puis dire avec verite que je ne    
jamais rencontre que le seul esprit de  
votre altesse auquel l'un et            
l'autre--metaphysics and                
mathematics--fut egalement facile2 ce   
qui fait quo j'ai une tres juste raison 
de l'estimer incomparable4  #bdg        
,geology and ,mineralogy ,considered    
with ,reference to ,natural ,theology1  
by ,william ,buckland1 p4 xxxvi1        
,london1 #aheh4  #bdh ,pasteur1 by ,mr4 
and ,mrs4 ,percy ,frankland1 p4 #bf et  
seq41 ,london1 #ahih4 ,a ,french writer 
referring to this happy discovery       
expresses himself as follows3 ,quand    
,pasteur trouva le vaccin de charbon1 il

 remonta triomphant de son laboratoire  
et les larmes lui vinrent aux yeux en   
embrassant sa femme et sa fille         
auxquelles annoncait sa victoire4 ,revue
 ,encyclopedique1 p4 #bj1 ,jan4 #ae1    
#ahie4  #bdi ,memoir and ,correspondence
 of ,caroline ,herschel1 ,london1 #ahgi1
 pp4 vi and vii1 by ,mrs4 ,john         
,herschel4 ,cf4 ,chap4 ,,iv of this     
,vol4  #bej ,the ,subjection of ,women1 
pp4 #ih1 #ii1 ,london1 #aiji4  ,the idea
 herein expressed is beautifully        
accentuated in the touching dedication  
to the author's work ,on ,liberty1 which
 reads as follows3  ,to the beloved and 
deplored memory of her who was the      
inspirer1 and in part the author1 of all
 that is best in my writings--the friend
 and wife whose exalted sense of truth  
and right was my strongest incitement1  
and whose approbation was my chief      
reward--,i dedicate this volume4 ,like  
all that ,i have written for many years1
 it belongs as much to her as to me2 but
 the work as it stands has had1 in a    

very insufficient degree1 the           
inestimable advantage of her revision1  
some of the most important portions     
having been reserved for a more careful 
re-examination1 which they are now never
 destined to receive4 ,were ,i but      
capable of interpreting to the world    
one-half the great thoughts and noble   
feelings which are buried in her grave1 
,i should be the medium of a greater    
benefit to it than is ever likely to    
arise from anything ,i can write1       
unprompted and unassisted by her all but
 unrivalled wisdom4  ,the chivalrous    
sentiments expressed in this generous   
tribute by one of the deepest thinkers  
of his time1 to the memory of his noble 
and gifted life-companion1 extravagant  
as they may seem1 are but echoes of     
similar sentiments often voiced before  
by the world's greatest leaders of      
thought and science4  #bea ,memoir of   
,sir ,william ,hamilton1 by ,john       
,veitch1 p4 #acf et seq41 ,edinburgh1   
#ahfi4  ,it is frequently said that     

women1 unlike men1 are indifferent to   
fame4 ,this may be true so far as they  
are personally concerned2 but it is     
certainly not true of them in regard to 
their husbands1 or the men for whom they
 have a genuine affection4 ,this is     
abundantly proved by the lives of ,mme4 
,huber1 ,mme4 ,pasteur1 ,caroline       
,herschel and ,lady ,hamilton1 not to   
name others who have been mentioned in  
the foregoing pages4 ,after ,sir        
,william ,hamilton1 at the age of       
fifty-six1 had been stricken by         
hemiplegia on the right side1 as the    
result of over-work1 his faithful wife  
became for twelve years eyes1 hands and 
even mind for him4 ,she read and        
consulted books for him1 and helped him 
to prepare his lectures and the works   
which have given him such celebrity4    
,everything that was sent to the press  
and all the courses of lectures were    
written by her1 either to dictation or  
from copy4 ,and when we remember that   
the lectures and books were of the most 

abstruse character and that ,lady       
,hamilton was associated with her       
husband in his recondite work throughout
 his long and brilliant career1 we must 
confess that her conduct was not only   
heroic to a degree1 but also that the   
fame of the one she loved was to her a  
matter of the deepest concern4  #beb    
,induction is1 indeed1 a mighty weapon  
laid up in the armory of the human mind1
 and by its aid great deeds have been   
accomplished and noble conquests have   
been won4 ,but in that armory there is  
another weapon1 ,i will not say of      
stronger make1 but certainly of keener  
edge2 and1 if that weapon had been      
oftener used during the present and     
preceding century1 our knowledge would  
be far more advanced than it actually   
is4 ,if the imagination had been more   
cultivated1 if there had been a closer  
union between the spirit of poetry and  
the spirit of science1 natural          
philosophy would have made greater      
progress1 because natural philosophers  

would have taken a higher and more      
successful aim1 and would have enlisted 
on their side a wider range of human    
sympathies4 ,buckle3 ,the ,influence of 
,women on the ,progress of ,knowledge4  
#bec ,the ,subjection of ,women1 ut     
sup41 p4 #hg4  #bed ,life and ,letters  
of ,thomas ,henry ,huxley1 by his son   
,leonard ,huxley1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbd1    
,new ,york1 #aijj4  #bee ,ibid41 p4 #ci1
 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #deh4     ,,chapter     
,,xii  ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,women ,,in 
,,science3  ,,summary ,,and ,,epilogue  
,saint-,evremond1 the first great master
 of the genteel style in ,french        
literature1 who was equally noted as a  
brilliant courtier1 a graceful wit1 a   
professed ,epicurean1 and who exerted so
 marked an influence on the writings of 
,voltaire and the essayists of ,queen   
,anne's time1 gives us in one of his    
desultory productions an entertaining   
disquisition on ,la femme qui ne se     
trouve point et ne se trouvera          
jamais--the woman who is not and never  

will be found4 ,the caption of this     
singular essay admirably expresses the  
idea that the majority of mankind has1  
even until the present day1 held        
respecting woman in science4 ,for them  
she was non-existent4 ,nature1 in their 
view1 had disqualified her for serious  
and1 above all1 for abstract science4   
,never1 therefore1 in the opinion of    
these solemn wiseacres1 had been found  
or could be found a woman who had       
achieved distinction in science4  ,the  
foregoing chapters show how ill-founded 
is such a view regarding woman in times 
past4 ,for that half of humanity which  
has produced such scientific luminaries 
as ,aspasia1 ,laura ,bassi1 ,maria      
,gaetana ,agnesi1 ,sophie ,germain1     
,mary ,somerville1 ,caroline ,herschel1 
,sonya ,kovalevsky1 ,agnes ,s4 ,lewis1  
,margaret ,dunlop ,gibson1 ,eleanor     
,ormerod and ,mme4 ,curie--to mention no
 others--is far from exhibiting any     
evidence of intellectual                
disqualification and still farther from 

warranting any one from declaring that  
the successful pursuit of science is    
entirely beyond the mental powers of    
womankind4  ,the preceding pages1       
likewise1 afford an answer to those who 
insist on woman's incapacity for        
scientific pursuits1 and point to the   
small number of those that have attained
 eminence in any of the branches of     
science2 who continue to assert that the
 women named are but exceptions to the  
rule of the hopeless inferiority of     
their sex1 and that no conclusions can  
be deduced from the paucity of women who
 have risen above the intellectual level
 of their less fortunate or less highly 
dowered sisters4 ,they further show     
that1 until the last few decades1       
woman's environment was rarely if ever  
favorable to her pursuit of science4    
,from the days of ,aspasia until the    
latter half of the nineteenth century   
she was discriminated against by law1   
custom and public opinion4 ,save only in
 ,italy1 she was excluded from the      

universities and from learned societies 
in which she might have had an          
opportunity of developing her intellect4
 ,in other countries her social         
ostracism in all that pertained to      
mental development was so complete and  
universal that she rarely had an        
opportunity of making a trial of her    
powers or exhibiting her innate         
capacity4 ,the consequence was that her 
mind remained in a condition of         
comparative atrophy--a condition that   
gave rise to that long prevalent belief 
in woman's intellectual inferiority to  
man and her natural incapacity for      
everything that is not light or         
frivolous4  ,practically all that women 
have achieved in science1 until very    
recent years1 has been accomplished in  
defiance of that conventional code which
 compelled them to confine their        
activities to the ordinary duties of the
 household4 ,the lives and achievements 
of the eminent mathematicians1 ,sophie  
,germain and ,mary ,somerville1 are good

 illustrations of the truth of this     
assertion4 ,it was only their           
persistence in the study of their       
favorite branch of science1 in spite of 
the opposition of their family and      
friends1 and in spite of what was       
considered taboo for their sex by the   
usages and ordinances of society1 that  
they were able to attain that eminence  
in the most abstruse of the sciences    
which won for them the plaudits of the  
world4 ,both were virtually self-made   
women4 ,deprived of the advantages of a 
college or university education1 and    
denied the stimulus afforded by         
membership in learned scientific        
associations1 they nevertheless         
succeeded by their own unaided efforts  
in winning a place of highest honor in  
the ,walhalla of men of science4  ,m4   
,alphonse de ,candolle1 in his great    
work1 ,histoire des ,sciences et des    
,savants depuis ,deux ,siecles1 devotes 
only two pages to the consideration of  
woman in science4 ,she is1 to him1 a    

negligible quantity4 ,and1 although a   
professed man of science1 he repeats1   
without any scientific warrant whatever1
 all the gratuitous statements of his   
predecessors regarding the superficial  
character of the female mind1 a mind1 he
 will have it1 which takes pleasure in  
ideas that are readily seized by a kind 
of intuition2 a mind to which the slow  
methods of observation and calculation  
by which truth is surely arrived at are 
not pleasing4 ,truths themselves1 the   
,swiss savant continues1 independent of 
their nature and possible               
consequences--especially general truths 
which have no relation to a particular  
person--are of small moment to most     
women4 ,add to this a feeble            
independence of opinion1 a reasoning    
faculty less intense than in man1 and1  
finally1 the horror of doubt1 that is1 a
 state of mind in which all research in 
the sciences of observation must begin  
and often end4 ,these reasons are1      
according to de ,candolle1 more than    

sufficient to explain the position of   
women in scientific pursuits4#bef  ,they
 certainly are more than sufficient to  
explain their position if we choose to  
accept the author's method of           
determining one's attainments in the    
realm of science4 ,his chief test of    
one's eminence in science is the number 
of learned societies to which one       
belongs4 ,for ,de ,candolle1 membership 
in one or more such bodies is prima     
facie evidence of special distinction in
 some branch of science4 ,but ,we1 he   
declares1 do not see the name of any    
woman on the lists of learned men       
connected with the principal academies4 
,this is not due entirely to the fact   
that the customs and regulations have   
made no provision for their admission1  
for it is easy to assure one's self that
 no person of the feminine sex has ever 
produced an original scientific work    
which has made its mark in any science  
and commanded the attention of          
specialists in science4 ,i do not think 

it has ever been considered desirable to
 elect a woman a member of any of the   
great scientific academies with         
restricted membership4#beg  ,when ,de   
,candolle insisted on membership in     
learned societies as a necessary        
indication of scientific eminence1 he   
must have known1 what everybody knew1   
that such exclusive societies as the    
,french ,academy of ,sciences and the   
,royal ,society of ,great ,britain have 
always been dead set against the        
admission of women members4 ,it is      
difficult to imagine that the learned   
author of the ,history of ,science and  
,scientists was entirely ignorant of the
 exclusion from the ,french ,academy of 
,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi solely because  
she was a woman4 ,and he must have been 
aware that1 had it not been for her sex1
 ,sophie ,germain would have been       
accorded a fauteuil in the same society 
for her remarkable investigations in one
 of the difficult departments of        
mathematical physics4 ,he must likewise 

have been cognizant of the attitude of  
such organizations as the ,royal        
,society toward women1 no matter how    
meritorious their achievements in       
science4  ,according to ,de ,candolle's 
criterion1 such women as ,mme4 ,curie1  
,sonya ,kovalevsky1 ,eleanor ,ormerod1  
,agnes ,s4 ,lewis1 ,margaret ,dunlop    
,gibson have accomplished nothing worthy
 of note because1 forsooth1 their names 
are not found on the rolls of membership
 of the ,royal ,society or the ,french  
,academy of ,sciences--associations     
whose constitutions have been purposely 
so framed as to exclude women from      
membership4 ,it would1 indeed1 be       
difficult to instance a more unfair or a
 more unscientific test of woman's      
eminence in science1 and that1 too1     
proposed by one who is supposed to be   
actuated in his judgments by rigorously 
scientific methods4 ,had any of the     
women named belonged to the male sex1   
there never would have been any question
 of their fitness to become members of  

the societies in question4 ,this is     
particularly true of ,mme4 ,curie1 who1 
in the estimation of the world1 has done
 more to enhance the prestige of ,french
 science than any man of the present    
generation--a statement that is         
sufficiently justified by the fact that 
she is the only one so far who has      
twice1 in competition with the greatest 
of the world's men of science1 succeeded
 in carrying away the great ,nobel      
prize4#beh  ,not only have men1 from    
time immemorial1 been wont to point to  
woman's incapacity for science as       
evidenced by the small number of those  
who have achieved distinction in any of 
its branches1 but they have also taken a
 special pleasure in directing attention
 to the fact that no woman has ever     
given to the world any of the great     
creations of genius1 or been the        
prime-mover in any of the far-reaching  
discoveries which have so greatly       
contributed to the weal1 the advancement
 and the happiness of our race4  ,no    

one1 probably1 has expressed himself on 
this subject in a more positive or      
characteristic fashion than the noted   
litterateur and philosopher1 ,count     
,joseph de ,maistre4 ,writing from ,st4 
,petersburg to his daughter1 ,constance1
 he says3 ,voltaire1 according to what  
you affirm--for as to me1 ,i know       
nothing1 as ,i have not read all his    
works1 and have not read a line of them 
during the last thirty years--says that 
women are capable of doing all that men 
do1 etc4 ,this is merely a compliment   
paid to some pretty woman1 or1 rather1  
it is one of the hundred thousand and   
thousand silly things which he said     
during his lifetime4 ,the very contrary 
is the truth4 ,women have produced no   
chef d'oeuvre of any kind whatsoever4   
,they have been the authors neither of  
the ,iliad1 nor the ,aeneid1 nor the    
,jerusalem ,delivered1 nor ,phedre1 nor 
,athalie nor ,rodogune1 nor ,the        
,misanthrope1 nor ,tartufe1 nor ,the    
,joueur1 nor ,the ,pantheon1 nor ,the   

,church of ,st4 ,peter's1 nor the ,venus
 de' ,medici1 nor the ,apollo           
,belvidere1 nor the ,principia1 nor the 
,discourse on ,universal ,history1 nor  
,telemachus4 ,they have invented neither
 algebra nor the telescope1 nor         
achromatic glasses nor the fire engine1 
nor hose-machines1 etc4#bei  ,all this  
is true1 but what does it prove8 ,it    
does not prove1 as is so frequently     
assumed1 woman's lesser brain power or  
inferior intelligence4 ,it does not     
prove--as the learned ,frenchman and    
those who are similarly minded would    
have us believe--her incapacity for the 
highest flights of genius in every      
sphere of intellectual effort4 ,such    
assumptions are entirely negatived by   
woman's past achievements in all        
departments of art1 literature and      
science4  ,far from making the inference
 that ,de ,maistre wished his daughter  
to draw from his letter1 we should1 from
 what we know of woman's ability as     
disclosed in the foregoing chapters1    

hesitate to set a limit to her powers1  
or to declare apodictically that she    
could not have been the author of works 
of as great merit as most of those--if  
not all of them--mentioned as among     
men's supreme achievements4 ,the simple 
fact that ,mme4 ,curie and ,sonya       
,kovalevsky were able1 in sciences      
usually considered beyond female        
intelligence1 to wrest from their male  
competitors the most coveted prizes     
within the gift of the ,nobel ,prize    
,commission and the ,french ,academy of 
,sciences1 demonstrates completely that 
woman's assumed incapacity for even the 
most recondite scientific pursuits is a 
mere figment of the masculine           
imagination4  ,what women have done that
 at least1 if nothing else1 as ,john    
,stuart ,mill aptly observes1 it is     
proved they can do4 ,when we consider   
how sedulously they are all trained away
 from1 instead of being trained toward1 
any of the occupations or objects       
reserved for men1 it is evident that ,i 

am taking very humble ground for them1  
when ,i rest their case on what they    
have actually achieved4 ,for1 in this   
case1 negative evidence is worth little1
 while any positive evidence is         
conclusive4 ,it cannot be inferred to be
 impossible that a woman should be a    
,homer1 or an ,aristotle1 or a          
,michaelangelo1 or a ,beethoven1 because
 no woman has yet actually produced     
works comparable to theirs in any of    
those lines of excellence4 ,this        
negative fact at most leaves the        
question uncertain and open to          
psychological discussion4 ,but it is    
quite certain that a woman can be a     
,queen ,elizabeth or a ,deborah or a    
,joan of ,arc1 since this is not        
inference but a fact4#bfj  ,in like     
manner it is quite certain that1 in     
spite of all kinds of disabilities and  
prejudices and adverse legislation1     
there have been a large number of women 
who1 in every department of intellectual
 activity1 have achieved marked         

distinction and won imperishable renown 
for their proscribed sex4 ,it is a fact1
 which admits of no question1 that1     
notwithstanding their being debarred    
from all the educational advantages so  
generously lavished upon the dominant   
sex1 women have since the days of       
,sappho and ,hypatia shown themselves   
the equals and often the superiors of   
men in the highest and noblest spheres  
of mental achievement4  ,such being the 
case1 what1 we may ask1 would have been 
the result had women1 from that splendid
 ,heroic ,period of which ,homer sings  
until the present1 enjoyed all the      
opportunities of mental development of  
which men have systematically claimed   
the exclusive privilege8#bfa ,what would
 now be their condition if1 from the    
days of the ,muses--who were but learned
 women apotheosized--women had never    
been deprived of their intellectual     
birthright and had been permitted to    
continue in the path so auspiciously    
blazed by ,corinna--the victor over     

,pindar--and ,arete1 the splendor of    
,greece and the possessor of the mind of
 ,socrates and the tongue of ,homer8    
,what would not now be their            
intellectual efflorescence1 if ,plato's 
dream of twenty-three centuries ago of  
giving women equal rights with men in   
all things of the mind could have been  
realized2 if those ardent female        
disciples of his1 who so lovingly       
followed him through the streets of     
,athens--the home of the intellectual   
and the beautiful--and hung on his lips 
during his matchless discourses in the  
groves of the ,academy and on the banks 
of the ,ilyssus1 could have continued   
that race of intellect and genius which 
was the admiration and the inspiration  
of all ,hellas during the most brilliant
 period of its marvelous history8       
,speculating only on what the gifted    
daughters of ,greece might have         
achieved1 we may easily believe that    
they would have kept pace with their    
most highly gifted countrymen1 and that1

 following in the footsteps of ,sappho  
and the other ,muses of the ,terrestrial
 ,nine1 they would have been worthy     
rivals of ,homer1 ,pindar and           
,aeschylus1 and would have occupied a   
prominent place in that brilliant galaxy
 of genius composed of such luminaries  
as ,anaxagoras1 ,sophocles1 ,euclid1    
,archimedes1 ,theophrastus1 ,polygnotus1
 ,diophantus1 ,pausanias and            
,thucydides4  ,to those who base their  
opinions on what so long has been the   
absurdly anomalous condition of women   
and who1 in formulating their theories  
of human progress1 completely ignore the
 fundamental laws of heredity1 such     
conjectures will seem extravagant1 if   
not chimerical4 ,but1 when one bears in 
mind the universal fact that offspring1 
whatever the sex1 inherits its          
characteristics and its powers from both
 parents alike2 that the soul1 unlike   
the body1 has no sex1 and that1 so far  
as legitimate indications from the      
teachings of biology and psychology can 

serve as a guide1 there is no valid     
reason for asserting the mental         
superiority of man over woman1 one will 
be obliged to confess that these        
surmises are far from being either      
fanciful or preposterous4  ,it is then  
the veriest sophism to predicate woman's
 incapacity for science and for         
intellectual achievements of the highest
 order on what she has not accomplished 
in the past1 or on the comparatively    
limited number of her contributions to  
the advancement of knowledge2 for up    
till the present she has1 for the most  
part1 been but a dwarf of the gynaeceum1
      ,cramp'd under worse than         
,south-sea isle taboo4  ,had men been   
compelled to labor under similar        
conditions1 it is doubtful if they would
 have accomplished any more than women  
have now to their credit4  ,considering 
woman's past achievements in science1 as
 well as in other departments of        
knowledge2 considering her present      
opportunities for developing her        

long-hampered faculties1 and            
considering1 especially1 the many new   
social and economic adjustments which   
have been made within the last half     
century1 in consequence of the greatly  
changed conditions of modern life1 it   
requires no prophetic vision to forecast
 what share the gentler sex will have in
 the future advancement of science4     
,that it will be far greater than it has
 been hitherto there can be no          
reasonable doubt4 ,that the number of   
savantes of the type of ,maria ,gaetana 
,agnesi1 ,sonya ,kovalevsky and ,mme4   
,curie will be greatly enlarged there is
 every reason to believe4 ,that among   
these coming votaries of science there  
will be more than one woman who1 even in
 the most abstruse sciences1 will stand 
,upon an even pedestal with man1  seems 
to be assured by the achievements of    
many who are now so materially adding to
 the sum of human knowledge4  ,is it    
probable that the future will bring     
forth women whose achievements in       

science will rank with those of ,euler1 
,faraday1 ,liebig1 ,leverrier1          
,champollion and ,geoffry               
,saint-,hillaire8 ,it would be a rash   
man who would answer in the negative4   
,we cannot1 as ,de ,maistre seems to do1
 reason from what they have not         
done--when everything was against       
them--to what they may do when          
conditions shall1 in every way1 be as   
favorable to them as they always have   
been to the dominant sex4  ,still rasher
 would be the man who would attempt to  
prove the negative of this question4    
,mere a priori arguments1 based on      
preconceived bias or on the vague and   
groundless impression that woman is     
essentially and hopelessly the          
intellectual inferior of man1 have no   
more value than gratuitous opinions4    
,the unprejudiced seeker after truth    
will insist on a demonstration based on 
incontrovertible facts4 ,he will appeal 
to history to learn what the sex has    
already accomplished1 and to science to 

inquire if there be anything in the     
female brain to differentiate it from   
that of the male1 or to preclude woman  
from attaining the highest rank in the  
activities of the intellect4  ,the      
result of such an investigation will1 ,i
 think1 cause even the most biased      
person to suspend judgment1 if it does  
not induce him to align himself with    
those who1 finding no differences in the
 mental endowments of the sexes1 have   
reached the conclusion that the day will
 come1 and1 mayhap1 in the near future1 
when the achievements of women will be  
on a par with those of man4 ,the facts  
stated in the preceding chapters seem1  
not unreasonably1 to point to such a    
conclusion1 if1 indeed1 they do not     
warrant it as a necessary inference4  ,a
 few considerations germane to this     
discussion will illustrate the danger of
 forming hasty judgments regarding      
questions like the one under discussion4
  ,during the last hundred years no     
country in the world has done more for  

the education of the masses than the    
,united ,states4 ,everything that money 
could purchase and ingenuity suggest has
 been adopted to develop the minds and  
stimulate the latent talents and genius 
of our youth4 ,from the primary schools 
to the highest and best equipped        
universities1 a special premium has been
 put on success in study1 and the       
highest rewards have awaited those who  
should make any notable contribution    
towards the advancement of knowledge4   
,but1 notwithstanding all the           
educational advantages our people have  
enjoyed and all the encouragement they  
have received to achieve something of   
supreme excellence1 our great country   
with its teeming millions attracted from
 the most gifted nations of the ,old    
,world has not yet produced a single man
 who has attained the highest rank in   
either literature or art or science4    
,far from having a preeminent master of 
song like ,homer or ,dante1 we have not 
even a poet approaching ,goethe or      

,tasso or ,camoens4 ,we have no         
,cervantes1 no ,milton1 no ,racine1 no  
,moliere4 ,america has produced no      
,raphael or ,michaelangelo2 no ,mozart  
or ,wagner or ,tschaikovsky4 ,nor has it
 given us a ,descartes1 a ,leibnitz1 a  
,newton or a ,darwin4 ,would any one1   
from this complete absence in ,america  
of representatives of the highest order 
in literature1 art and science1 ever    
dream of concluding that we shall never 
have such favorite sons of genius and   
such giants of intellect8 ,does our     
comparative intellectual sterility in   
the past1 and in a country which seemed 
specially adapted to foster genius and  
attainments of the highest order1       
justify any one in inferring that the   
days of great geniuses1 like the days of
 demigods1 are gone never to return8    
,and yet the number of men in our broad 
commonwealth who1 during the past       
hundred years1 have enjoyed such signal 
opportunities for attaining distinction 
in every domain of intellectual effort  

is incomparably greater than that of all
 the women so favored since the earliest
 days of human history4 ,if1 from the   
first flowering of ,greek culture to the
 present day1 as many millions of women 
had enjoyed all the transcendent        
advantages of education as have been in 
the ,united ,states so lavishly accorded
 to the same number of millions of men1 
who will say that very many of them     
would not have attained a much higher   
rank in science1 as well as in art and  
literature1 than has yet been reached by
 any man that ,america has yet produced8
 ,who even1 on the evidence now         
available1 would be warranted in denying
 that at least some of these millions of
 women might have attained the very     
highest rank in every department of     
intellectual achievement8  ,gray1 in his
 ,elegy ,written in a ,country          
,churchyard1 muses on the potential     
statesmen and the mute1 inglorious      
,miltons of those countless multitudes  
who1 for lack of opportunity to develop 

their inborn gifts1 were condemned to   
pass their lives in obscurity and die1  
to ,fortune and to ,fame unknown4 ,but  
how much more truthfully could his words
 have been applied to that much larger  
number of women of rare mental powers to
 whose eyes knowledge                   
,her ample page     ,rich with the      
spoils of time did ne'er unroll1  and   
whose ,god-given genius was ruthlessly  
suppressed from the cradle to the grave8
  ,we are still in ignorance as to many 
of the conditions which are essential to
 the development of genius and which    
contribute to its loftiest flights4 ,we 
have yet to learn how far the           
efflorescence of the human mind is aided
 and modified by heredity1 environment1 
atmosphere1 as well as by education1    
encouragement and other stimuli equally 
potent4  ,but we do know that ,germany1 
in spite of its famed universities and  
its feverish intellectual activity in   
many departments of knowledge1 had to   
wait many long dreary centuries before  

it could point to a ,goethe1 a          
,schiller1 a ,humboldt1 a ,bach1 or a   
,beethoven4 ,we know that ,france--so   
long the reputed center of culture--has 
so far produced no great epic poet1 no  
,cervantes1 no ,murillo4 ,but shall we  
affirm that she will never give to the  
world imperishable works like ,paradise 
,lost1 ,don ,quixote or the ,immaculate 
,conception8 ,we know that ,athens1     
which during the most brilliant period  
of its history counted only fifty-four  
hundred free-born citizens--less than   
the population of a small modern        
town--was able to produce within a very 
brief epoch more men of supreme         
distinction than all the rest of ,europe
 from the ,age of ,pericles until the   
dawn of the ,renaissance4 ,hers is still
 the art of the world1 the literature of
 the world1 the philosophy of the world1
 the culture of the world4 ,for         
twenty-five centuries her canons of     
taste and beauty have guided poets1     
orators1 artists2 and her matchless     

productions have been the inspiration1  
as they have been the despair1 of the   
greatest geniuses of our modern world4  
,had the women of ,greece not been put  
under constraint just as they were      
beginning to exhibit the splendid       
results of their intellectual           
activities2 had they been encouraged to 
develop to the utmost their             
richly-dowered minds1 as were the men1 a
 far larger number of them1 no doubt1   
would have been as successful in        
carrying off coveted prizes in the      
intellectual arena as was ,corinna in   
her contests with ,pindar4 ,and they    
would1 likewise1 as we may easily       
conceive1 have greatly added to the     
number of masterpieces of ,greek        
intellect in science as well as in art  
and letters4  ,but the opportunity for  
women to test their powers1 which was so
 wantonly snatched from their sisters in
 the ,hellenic world1 seems again to be 
offered to their sex4 ,this opportunity1
 as has been stated1 is due chiefly to  

their persistence in claiming the same  
right as men to intellectual development
 as well as to the countless proofs they
 have given that their demands are      
founded on reason and justice4 ,what    
shall be the outcome of the new         
opportunity for woman to prove her      
capacity as compared with man's in      
things of the intellect remains to be   
seen1 but1 from indications she has     
during recent years given of her powers 
in every branch of scientific inquiry1  
there can be little doubt that it will  
be of such character as to place woman  
on a higher intellectual plane than she 
has yet occupied4 ,in physical strength 
and in the rougher conflicts with the   
world she will doubtless always remain  
the lesser man1 but1 once she feels in  
full possession of liberty              
,to burgeon out of all     ,within her1 
she will duly justify her advocates who 
throughout the centuries have been      
,maintaining that with equal husbandry  
,the woman were an equal to the man4    

,not the least of the contributing      
factors to woman's intellectual growth1 
and especially to her future            
achievements in science1 are the recent 
adjustments for women in social and     
economical conditions brought about     
chiefly by far-reaching changes in the  
industrial world4 ,even so late as the  
last half of the nineteenth century the 
energies of women1 when they were not   
engaged in the kitchen or the nursery1  
were spent on the domestic loom1        
spinning wheel and the knitting needle4 
,all the various processes from carding 
the wool to making it into clothing for 
all the members of the family were in   
the hands of the housewife4 ,ready-made 
clothing was far from being as common   
and inexpensive as it is now4 ,canned   
foods and cereals1 which do away with so
 much of the drudgery of the kitchen1   
were unknown4 ,electricity1 which has   
proved to be such a remarkable aid in   
every modern home1 was little more than 
a mysterious force that was utilized in 

the electric telegraph4 ,most of the    
domestic labor-saving machines were     
still in their infancy and possessed by 
but few people4 ,large fortunes were    
confined to only a favored few in our   
great metropolises4 ,the mass of the    
people was preoccupied with the struggle
 for existence4  ,but science1 the      
spirit of invention and the advent of   
the age of machinery have completely    
changed the conditions of life which    
obtained but a generation ago4 ,they    
have not only opened up for women       
countless occupations that were         
undreamed of in their mother's time1 but
 have also given to tens of thousands of
 them the necessary means and leisure to
 indulge their tastes for study and     
research and enabled an ever increasing 
number of them to realize their         
aspirations for achieving distinction in
 the divers departments of scientific   
research4  ,as an instance of this      
marked change in the intellectual       
activity of women1 we need only consider

 what an important part they now take in
 our present prodigious literary output1
 as compared with their share in similar
 work but a few decades ago4 ,as        
authors1 as writers and readers in the  
editorial rooms of our leading          
periodicals1 as contributors to learned 
journals and reviews dealing with every 
branch of science1 even the most        
abstruse1 they now occupy a conspicuous 
place and are doing work that is quite  
as creditable as that of men4  ,and it  
is no longer necessary1 in deference to 
public sentiment1 for them to write     
under a pseudonym1 for it is no longer  
considered unfeminine1 as it was in the 
time of the ,bronte sisters1 for women  
to acknowledge themselves the authors of
 books or of articles in magazines4 ,if 
they elect to devote their lives to     
literary or scientific work1 they will  
not be deterred from so doing by what   
,mrs4 ,grundy may say1 or by the fear   
that some feeble imitator of ,moliere   
may dub them as ,precieuses ,ridicules4 

,the value of their productions1 like   
those of men1 is gauged solely by merit 
and not by any narrow-minded            
considerations of the author's sex4  ,so
 also will it be in all other           
occupations where women choose to gain  
their livelihood by devoting themselves 
to scientific pursuits rather than to   
manual labor or to secretarial work in  
the counting-room4 ,there are positions 
open for them in colleges1 universities 
and the government service where1 as    
professors or experts in every branch of
 science1 their talents have full       
liberty of action and where they have   
the same opportunity of achieving       
distinction in their chosen life-work as
 have their male colleagues4  ,in       
,germany there are to-day a million more
 women than men4 ,it is the same in     
,england4 ,in ,france the number of     
women who are widows or unmarried or    
divorcees or mothers with full-grown    
children aggregates no less than four   
and a half millions4 ,a similar         

condition obtains in other parts of     
,europe4 ,a large percentage of this    
number is without home ties and1 as the 
old fields of labor are no longer open  
to women1 they are forced to find new   
ones4 ,they naturally demand the        
privilege of exercising their talents in
 occupations which are most congenial to
 them4 ,many have no inclination for any
 of the avocations in the industrial or 
commercial world1 but have a very       
decided inclination as well as talent   
for scientific pursuits4 ,hence the     
ever-increasing number of women who seek
 employment in chemical and biological  
laboratories1 in museums and            
astronomical observatories1 as well as  
aspire to professorships of science in  
schools and colleges4 ,from this large  
number of votaries of science some are  
sure to achieve distinction in their    
calling and to contribute materially to 
the advancement of knowledge4 ,in the   
course of time the number of those1 like
 ,mme4 ,curie1 ,mme4 ,coudreau1 ,mary   

,kingsley1 ,sonya ,kovalevsky1 ,eleanor 
,ormerod1 ,caroline ,herschel1 ,zelia   
,nuttall1 ,harriet ,boyd ,hawes1 ,donna 
,eersilia ,bovatillo1 ,sophie           
,pereyaslawewa--to name only a few--who 
will become prominent as chemists1      
explorers1 naturalists1 mathematicians1 
entomologists1 astronomers1             
archaeologists1 biologists will be      
vastly increased1 for women will find a 
greater stimulus for such work and more 
numerous demands for their service in   
the constantly expanding sphere of      
scientific research4  ,many women will1 
doubtless1 become specialists in some   
specific branch of science1 particularly
 if they have a genuine love for it1 or 
be fired by an ambition to achieve fame 
as discoverers4 ,but it is not probable 
that they will ever specialize to the   
same extent as men do4 ,for men         
scientific work has to a large extent   
become a metier1 and success1 as in     
industry1 depends on a division of      
labor4 ,hence it is that their field of 

investigation is daily becoming more and
 more circumscribed4 ,this is observable
 in all the sciences1 but especially in 
such all-embracing sciences as          
chemistry1 biology1 and archaeology4 ,a 
man now does well if he master a single 
branch of any of these sciences1 and is 
hailed as exceptionally fortunate if he 
succeed in making some notable discovery
 in his limited field of research4 ,so  
great1 indeed1 has been the activity of 
scientific men in every department of   
science during the last half century1   
and so thoroughly have they explored the
 most hidden recesses of nature1 that   
it1 at times1 seems as if there were but
 little left to discover4 ,a prominent  
scientist recently well expressed the   
difficulty of making any striking       
additions to our knowledge of nature by 
asserting that all great discoveries    
would hereafter be made in the sixth    
place of decimals4 ,this statement is   
well illustrated by the delicate        
experiments that were required to       

isolate such rare elements as radium1   
polonium1 helium and neon1 which occur  
only in infinitesimal quantities4       
,while men of science will be forced to 
continue as specialists as long as the  
love of fame1 to consider no other      
motives of research1 continues to be a  
potent influence in their               
investigations1 it is probable that     
women will have less love for the long  
and tedious processes involved in the   
more difficult kinds of specialization4 
,they will1 it seems likely1 be more    
inclined to acquire a general knowledge 
of the whole circle of the sciences--a  
knowledge that will enable them to take 
a comprehensive survey of nature4 ,and  
it will be fortunate for themselves1 as 
well as for the men who must perforce   
remain specialists1 if they elect to do 
so4 ,for nothing gives falser views of  
nature as a whole1 nothing more unfits  
the mind for a proper apprehension of   
higher and more important truths1       
nothing more incapacitates one for the  

enjoyment of the masterpieces of        
literature or the sweeter amenities of  
life1 than the narrow occupation of a   
specialist who sees nothing in the      
universe but electrons1 microbes and    
protozoa4  ,but just at the critical    
moment1 when men of science would rather
 discover a process than a law1 when    
they are so preoccupied with the        
infinitely little that they lose sight  
of the cosmos as a whole2 when their    
attention is so riveted on particular   
phenomena that they will no longer have 
aptitude for rising from effects to     
causes2 when they cease to have any     
interest in general ideas and stray away
 from the guidance of the true          
philosophic spirit2 when1 like ,plato's 
cave men1 they have so long groped in   
darkness that their powers of vision are
 impaired1 then it is that woman1 ,the  
herald of a brighter race1 comes to the 
rescue and holds up to their astonished 
gaze the picture of an ideal world whose
 existence they had almost forgotten4   

,for women1 as a rule1 love science for 
its own sake1 and1 unlike the           
specialists in question1 they are1 in   
its pursuit1 rarely actuated by any     
selfish or mercenary interests1 or by   
the hope of financial reward4 ,precise  
and never-ending observations with the  
microscope and spectroscope1 which at   
best give them but a superficial        
knowledge of certain details of science1
 while it leaves them in ignorance of   
the greater and better part of it1 do   
not appeal to them4 ,they prefer general
 ideas to particular facts1 and love to 
roam over the whole realm of science    
rather than confine themselves to one of
 its isolated corners4  ,women1 writes  
,m4 ,etienne ,lamy1 the distinguished   
,french ,academician1 group themselves  
at the center of human knowledge1       
whereas men disperse themselves towards 
its outer boundaries4 ,while men are    
always pushing analysis to its utmost   
limits1 women are seeking a synthesis4  
,while men are becoming more technical1 

women are becoming more intellectual4   
,they are better placed to observe the  
correlations of the different sciences1 
and to subordinate them to the common   
and unique source of truth from which   
they all descend4 ,we seem1 indeed1 to  
be approaching a time when women will   
become the conservers of general        
ideas4#bfb  ,in the preceding chapter   
reference was made to the fact that     
women are naturally inclined to adopt   
the deductive method in their search for
 truth when men would employ only the   
inductive method4 ,this disposition of  
theirs to arrive at conclusions by a    
kind of intuition1 coupled with their   
more pronounced idealism1 is sure to    
react favorably on men1 and prevent them
 from becoming so involved in mere facts
 and phenomena as to cause them to      
forget that it is as important to reason
 well as to observe well--that the      
fundamental principles of a true        
philosophy are quite as necessary for   
the eminent man of science as they are  

to the trustworthy historian or         
commanding statesman4  ,from what has   
been said1 it is clear that man's ideal 
of the woman of the future will be quite
 different from what it was but a little
 more than a century ago1 when ,dr4     
,johnson could say that any acquaintance
 with books1 among women1 was           
distinguished only to be censured4 ,it  
will be quite different from the ideal  
woman1 as portrayed by poets and        
novelists1 for centuries past4 ,for     
among the thousands of women painted by 
our leading writers of fiction1 poets   
and dramatists there are few1 if any1   
outside of those sketched by ,tennyson  
in ,the ,princess1 who are distinguished
 for their learning or for their love of
 intellectual pursuits4 ,even ,portia1  
,shakespeare's most learned woman1 was1 
according to her own confession1 but    
,an unlessoned girl1 unschooled1        
unpracticed4  ,and the heroines of the  
novelist1 far from being women who had a
 thirst for knowledge1 or were eager    

,to sound the abyss     ,of science and 
the secrets of the mind1  were those    
only whose chief attractions were       
physical graces and charms1 affectionate
 natures1 brilliant wit together with   
sweet laughs for bird-notes and blue    
eyes for a heaven4  ,now1 however1 that 
women after ages of struggle are        
beginning to experience a sense of      
intellectual freedom before unknown1 and
 to exult in the fact that              
,knowledge is now no more a fountain    
sealed2  now that they are1 for the     
first time1 beginning1 in every         
civilized nation1 to realize their      
age-long aspirations for unimpeded      
opportunity in all the activities of the
 intellect2 now that they are no longer 
,dismiss'd in shame to live     ,no     
wiser than their mothers1 household     
stuff1     ,live chattels1 999999       
999999 laughing-stocks of ,time1  we may
 expect soon to see a marked change in  
the character of the ideal woman as     
depicted in literature and as desired by

 the intelligent portion of mankind4    
,what woman's liberation from           
intellectual bondage and her freedom to 
devote herself to scientific pursuits   
mean for the future of humanity it is   
difficult at present adequately to      
forecast4 ,that it will contribute      
immensely to the betterment of social   
conditions and to the elevation of the  
masses of humanity1 there can be no     
doubt4 ,setting free the imprisoned     
energies of one half of our race1 means 
more than doubling mankind's capacity   
for advancement4 ,for the failure to    
utilize woman's vast energies1 pining   
for an outlet1 acted as a drag on man's 
own potentialities1 and thus retarded to
 an untold extent the world's           
advancement4 ,in times past1 as has     
aptly been said1 an enormous part of the
 brain power of mankind has been spent  
or wasted in smiting the ,philistines   
hip and thigh1 and an enormous part of  
the brain power of womankind has been   
spent in cajoling ,sampson4  ,it will   

mean that the women of the future will  
be more suitable companions for the     
rapidly increasing number of highly     
educated men of science2 that having    
their intellects developed pari passu   
with those of men1 they will be able to 
sympathize with the noblest aims of     
their husbands and assist them in their 
most important undertakings1 as did the 
wives of ,huber1 ,lavoisier1 ,pasteur1  
,huxley1 ,louis ,agassiz and others     
scarcely less renowned in the annals of 
science4 ,it will mean that they will   
not only share in the joys and the      
sorrows of their life-companions1 but   
that they will also have a part in their
 thoughts1 their studies1 their labors1 
their achievements4 ,for one should bear
 in mind that the first essential to a  
perfect union of hearts is a perfect    
harmony of minds4 ,where neither husband
 nor wife is educated1 the virtues may  
suffice for companionship1 but where the
 man is educated and the woman ignorant1
 there are sooner or later estrangements

 and the wife becomes little better than
 an old ,japanese conception of her1 a  
cook without pay1 or a pasha's toy for  
an idle hour4 ,chrysalde in ,moliere's  
,l',ecole des ,femmes1 declares3        
,qu'il est assez ennuyeux1 que je crois1
     ,d'avoir toute sa vie une bete avec
 soi4  ,a briefer and truer statement of
 the evils of unequal intellectual      
mating was never penned4#bfc ,men of    
intelligence are no longer1 like        
,rousseau1 satisfied with an ignorant   
domestic for a wife1 and still less are 
they disposed with ,schopenhauer to     
regard woman as an incurable            
,philistine1 and as a mere intermediary 
between a child and a man4 ,they have   
learned by sad experience that it is    
contrary both to justice and public     
policy to impose artificial restrictions
 on the acquisition of knowledge by     
women1 or to close to the vigorous and  
capable representatives of their sex    
careers which are open to the weakest   
and most incompetent men4 ,history has  

taught them that the fall of ,greece and
 ,rome was owing to the failure of these
 nations to make due provision for the  
mental development of women4  ,and women
 know that it was because of the        
inability of the wives of the ,athenians
 to enter into the thoughts of their    
highly educated husbands and to         
sympathize with their aims and          
appreciate their achievements that      
caused the men to leave them in their   
solitude and seek in the companionship  
of the hetaerae the intellectual        
atmosphere which was wanting in their   
own homes4 ,they know1 too1 that the    
lack of knowledge in the wife and the   
absence of virtue in the hetaerae1 which
 brought such disasters on the most     
learned and most cultured of nations are
 still evils to be guarded against1 and 
that one of the means over and above    
moral rule and revealed truth of        
safe-guarding their own interests and   
preserving the sanctity of the home is  
to make themselves by knowledge and     

culture the intellectual equals of their
 consorts4  ,they realize also that if  
they are to attain the highest measure  
of success as wives and mothers1 a broad
 and thorough education--a knowledge of 
science1 as well as familiarity with art
 and literature and the teachings of    
religion--is essential to them for their
 children's sake4 ,it is said that      
,the hand that rocks the cradle rules   
the world1  but how much truer is it    
that ,the domestic hearth is the first  
of schools1 and the best of             
lecture-rooms2 for here the heart will  
cooperate with the mind1 the affections 
with the reasoning power4 ,it is only   
when the mothers of this1 the woman's   
century1 shall dispute with men the     
primacy of erudition--when they shall   
prove their mastery of those newer      
sciences by which our age sets such     
great store--when they shall possess    
,seraphic intellect and force           
,to seize and throw the doubts of man2  
that their grown-up sons will have the  

same confidence in their intelligence as
 they now have in their hearts4 ,then   
only will mothers be properly equipped  
for developing the character of their   
children2 for inspiring them with a love
 of the true1 the beautiful and the     
good2 for stimulating their talents and 
aiding them to attain to all the        
sublimities of knowledge2 for assisting 
them in doubt and despondency and firing
 them with an ambition to strive for    
supreme excellence in all that makes for
 the nobility of manhood and the glory  
of womanhood2 for making them1 as       
,beatrice made ,dante after he was      
renewed and purified in the waters of   
,eunoe1 fit to mount up to the stars4   
,puro e disposto a salire alle stelle4  
,the romantic idea of treating woman as 
a clinging vine1 and thus eliminating   
half the energies of humanity1 is       
rapidly disappearing and giving place to
 the idea that the strong are for the   
strong--the intellectually strong2 that 
the evolution of the race will be       

complete only when men and women shall  
be associated in perfect unity of       
purpose1 and shall1 in fullest sympathy1
 collaborate for the attainment of the  
highest and the best4 ,then1 indeed1    
will man's helpmate become to him and to
 his children      ,more rich than      
pearls of ,ind or gold of ,ophir1       
,and in her sex more wonderful and rare4
  ,then will men and women for the first
 time fully supplement each other in    
their aspirations and endeavors and     
realize somewhat of that oneness of     
heart and mind which was so beautifully 
adumbrated in ,plato's androgyn4 ,then  
will the world witness the return of    
another ,golden ,age--the ,golden ,age  
of ,science--the ,golden ,age of        
cultured1 noble1 perfect womanhood4     
,then to all who really think and love  
will be manifest the clearness and power
 of vision of ,england's great poet     
laureate when in matchless numbers he   
sings3      ,the woman's cause is man's2
 they rise or sink     ,together1       

dwarfed or godlike1 bond or free4       
44499444994449944499      ,for woman is 
not undevelopt man     ,but diverse3    
could we make her as the man1     ,sweet
 ,love were slain2 his dearest bond is  
this1     ,not like to like1 but like in
 difference4     ,yet in the long years 
liker must they grow2     ,the man be   
more of woman1 she of man2     ,he gain 
in sweetness and in moral height1       
,nor lose the wrestling thews that throw
 the world2     ,she mental breadth1 nor
 fail in childward care1     ,nor lose  
the childlike in the larger mind2       
,till at the last she set herself to    
man1     ,like perfect music unto noble 
words2     ,and as these twain1 upon the
 skirts of ,time1     ,sit side by side1
 full-summ'd in all their powers1       
,dispensing harvest1 sowing the ,to-be1 
,self-rev'rent each1 and reverencing    
each1     ,distinct in individualities1 
,but like each other ev'n as those who  
love1     ,then comes the statelier     
,eden back to men2     ,then reign the  

world's great bridals chaste and calm2  
,then springs the crowning race of      
human-kind4     ,may these things be6   
,,footnotes3  #bef ,histoire des        
,sciences et des ,savants1 p4 #bga1     
,geneve-,bale1 #ahhe4  #beg ,ibid41 p4  
#bgj4  #beh ,a writer in the ,english   
magazine1 ,nature1 under date of        
,january #ab1 #aiaa1 when the ,european 
press was discussing ,mme4 ,curie's     
claims to membership in the ,french     
,academy of ,sciences1 makes the        
following sane observations on the      
admission of women to the various       
academies of the ,french ,institute3    
,there may be room for difference of    
opinion as to the      wisdom or        
expediency of permitting women to embark
 on the      troubled sea of politics1  
or of allowing them a determinate       
voice in the settlement of questions    
which may affect the      existence or  
the destiny of a nation2 but surely     
there ought      to be no question that 
in the peaceful walks of art1           

literature and science1 there should be 
the freest possible      scope extended 
to them1 and that1 as human beings1     
every      avenue to distinction and    
success should unreservedly be      open
 to them4       ,all academies tend to  
be conservative and to move slowly2     
they are the homes of privilege and of  
vested interest4 ,some      of them     
incline to be reactionary4 ,they were   
created by men      for men and for the 
most part at a time when women played   
little or no part in those occupations  
which such societies      were intended 
to foster and develop4 ,but the times   
have      changed4 ,women have gradually
 won for themselves their      rightful 
position as human beings4 ,we have now  
to recognize      that academies as     
seats of learning were made for humanity
      and that1 as members of the human 
race1 women have the right      to look 
upon their heritage and property no less
 than men4      ,this consummation may  
not at once be reached1 but1 as it is   

based upon reason and justice1 it is    
certain to be attained      eventually4 
,a fortnight later the same magazine    
contained a second article1 in which the
 matter is treated in an equally manly  
fashion4  ,as scientific work1 the      
writer pertinently observes1 must       
ultimately be judged by its merits1 and 
not by the nationality or sex of its    
author1 we believe that the opposition  
to the election of women into scientific
 societies will soon be seen to be      
unjust and detrimental to the progress  
of natural knowledge4 ,by no pedantic   
reasoning can the rejection of a        
candidate for membership of a scientific
 society be justified1 if the work done 
places the candidate in the leading     
position among other competitors4       
,science knows no nationality and should
 recognize no distinction of sex1 color 
or creed among those who are            
contributing to its advancement4        
,believing that this is the conclusion  
to which consideration of the question  

must inevitably lead1 we have confidence
 that the doors of all scientific       
societies will eventually be open to    
women on equal terms with men4  #bei    
,lettres et ,opuscules ,inedits du      
,comte ,joseph de ,maistre1 ,tom4 ,i1 p4
 #aid1 ,paris1 #ahea4  ,it was this same
 brusque and original writer who        
asserted that science was a most        
dangerous thing for women2 that no woman
 should study science under penalty of  
becoming ridiculous and unhappy2 that a 
coquette can more readily get married   
than a savante4 ,and he it was who      
declared that women who attempted to    
emulate men in the pursuit of science   
are monkeys and donne barbute--bearded  
women--and who designated ,mme4 de      
,stael as la science en jupons1 une     
impertinente femelette--science in      
petticoats1 a silly1 impertinent female4
  ,he1 however1 met an opponent worthy  
of his steel in the person of the       
eloquent bishop of ,orleans1 ,mgr4      
,dupanloup4 ,in a lengthy and brilliant 

critique of ,de ,maistre's views he     
shows them to be untenable1 if not      
ridiculous4 ,i by no means1 he writes1  
agree with ,m4 de ,maistre that 'la     
science en jupons1' as he calls it1 or  
talents of any kind whatsoever1         
militates in the slightest against a    
woman being a good wife or a good       
mother4 ,quite the contrary4 ,and       
considering woman as the companion and  
aid of man--socia et adjutorium--he     
expresses a view which is quite the     
opposite of that championed by his      
distinguished adversary for1 in words   
precise and pregnant1 he asserts that   
the education of women cannot be too    
consistent1 too serious1 and too        
solid--,l'education des femmes ne       
saurait etre trop suivie1 trop serieuse 
et trop forte4 ,la ,femme ,studieuse1 p4
 #afj1 ,paris1 #ahie4  #bfj ,the        
,subjection of ,women1 p4 #ha1 ,london1 
#aiji4  #bfa ,the late ,mr4 ,gladstone  
asserts that ,it would be hard to       
discover any period of history or       

country of the world1 not being         
,christian1 in which they--women--stood 
so high as with the ,greeks of the      
,heroic ,age--when the position of the  
,greek woman was so remarkable and so   
elevated1 both absolutely and in        
comparison with what it became in the   
,historic ,ages of ,greece and ,rome    
amidst their elaborate civilization4    
,studies on ,homer and the ,homeric     
,age1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dgi et seq41      
,oxford1 #aheh4 ,cf4 also the same      
author's ,juventus ,mundi1 p4 #dje et   
seq41 ,london1 #ahfi4  #bfb ,la ,femme  
de ,demain1 pp4 #de1 #df1 ,paris1 #aiab4
  #bfc ,dr4 ,johnson expressed the same 
sentiment when he declared that a man of
 sense should meet a suitable companion 
in a wife4 ,it was a miserable thing1 he
 asserted in characteristic fashion1    
when the conversation could only be such
 as whether the mutton should be boiled 
or roasted1 and a probable dispute about
 that4  ,sidney ,smith1 in a forceful   
and trenchant essay ,on the ,education  

of ,women1 written for the ,edinburgh   
,review a century ago1 gives it as his  
deliberate opinion that ,the instruction
 of women improves the stock of natural 
talents1 and employs more minds for the 
instruction and amusement of the world2 
it increases the pleasures of society by
 multiplying the topics upon which the  
two sexes take a common interest2 and   
makes marriage an intercourse of        
understanding as well as of affection by
 giving dignity and importance to the   
female character4 ,the education of     
women favors public morals2 it provides 
for every season of life as well as for 
the brightest and the best2 and leaves a
 woman when she is stricken by the hand 
of time1 not as she now is1 destitute of
 everything and neglected by all1 but   
with the full power and the splendid    
attractions of knowledge1--diffusing the
 elegant pleasures of polite literature1
 and receiving the just homage of       
learned and accomplished men4  ,as to   
the oft repeated commonplace of         

noodledom that higher education puts an 
end to domestic economy and deteriorates
 the noblest qualities of womanhood1 the
 same clear-headed writer asks3 ,can    
anything 444 be more perfectly absurd   
than to suppose that the care and       
perpetual solicitude which a mother     
feels for her children1 depends upon her
 ignorance of ,greek or mathematics2 and
 that she would desert an infant for a  
quadratic equation--that ,cimmerian     
ignorance can aid parental affection1 or
 the circle of the arts and sciences    
produce its destruction--that the moment
 you suffer women to eat of the tree of 
knowledge the rest of the family will   
very soon be reduced to the same kind of
 aerial and unsatisfactory diet8  ,still
 more insistent on the necessity of the 
broadest and deepest education for      
woman--education in science as well as  
in art and literature--is the ,most     
,rev4 ,archbishop1 ,j4 ,l4 ,spalding1   
who by his writing and lectures has done
 so much for the cause of the higher    

education of both men and women4 ,in an 
eloquent and pregnant discourse1        
pronounced in the ,church of the ,gesu  
in ,rome1 in ,march1 #aijj1 he told his 
vast audience--composed of the elite of 
the ,eternal ,city--that3  ,if we are to
 have a race of enlightened1 noble1 and 
brave men1 we must give to woman the    
best education it is possible for her to
 receive4 ,she has the same right as man
 to become all that she may be1 to know 
whatever may be known1 to do whatever is
 fair and just and good4 ,in souls there
 is no sex4 ,if we leave half the race  
in ignorance1 how shall we hope to lift 
the other half into the light of truth  
and love8 ,let woman's mental power     
increase1 let her influence grow1 and   
more and more she will stand by the side
 of man as a helper in all his struggles
 to make the will of ,god prevail4 ,from
 the time the ,virgin ,mother held the  
,infant ,saviour in her arms1 to this   
hour1 woman has been the great lover of 
,christ and the unweary helper of ,his  

little ones2 and the more we strengthen 
and illumine her1 the more we add to her
 sublime faith and devotion the power of
 knowledge and culture1 the more        
efficaciously shall she work to purify  
life1 to make justice1 temperance1      
chastity1 and love prevail4 ,she is more
 unselfish1 more capable of enthusiasm  
for spiritual ends1 she has more        
sympathy with what is beautiful1 noble1 
and godlike than man2 and the more her  
knowledge increases1 the more shall she 
become a heavenly force to help spread  
,god's kingdom on earth4                
,,bibliography  ,,partial ,,list ,,of   
,,the ,,works ,,quoted ,,or ,,referred  
,,to ,,in ,,the ,,text   ,,agassiz1     
,,mrs4 ,l4 ,louis ,agassiz1 ,his ,life  
and ,correspondence4 ,boston1 #ahic4    
,,agnesi1 ,,maria ,,gaetana4            
,instituzioni ,analitiche4 ,milan1      
#agdh4  ----4 ,propositiones            
,philosophicae4 ,milan1 #agch4          
,,anzoletti1 ,,luisa4 ,maria ,gaetana   
,agnesi4 ,milan1 #aijj4  ,,arrighi1 ,g4 

,l4 ,storia del ,feminismo4 ,florence1  
#aiaa4  ,,asse1 ,,eugene4 ,lettres de la
 ,marquise du ,chatelet4 ,paris1 #ahhb4 
,,athenaeus4 ,the ,deipnosophists2 or   
the ,banquet of the ,learned1 ,bohn     
,edition4 ,london1 #aijg4  ,,becq ,,de  
,,fouquieres1 ,l4 ,aspasie de ,milet4   
,paris1 #ahgb4  ,,bede1 ,,venerable4    
,historia ,ecclesiastica ,gentis        
,anglorum4 ,london1 #ahdh4  ,,bievre1   
,,le ,,comte ,,de4 ,histoire des ,deux  
,aspasies4 ,paris1 #agcf4  ,,bigoni1 ,d4
 ,,guido4 ,ipazia1 ,alessandrina4       
,venice1 #ahhg4  ,,birch1 ,,una4 ,anna  
van ,schurman4 ,london1 #aiji4          
,,blackwell1 ,,elizabeth4 ,pioneer ,work
 in ,opening the ,medical ,profession to
 ,women4 ,london1 #ahie4  ,,bonnet1 ,j4 
,vie d',olympie ,morata4 ,paris1 #ahej4 
,,bremmer1 ,c4 ,s4 ,education of ,girls 
and ,women4 ,london1 #ahig4  ,,briand1  
,e4 ,m4 ,histoire de ,sainte ,radegonde1
 ,reine de ,france4 ,paris1 #ahih4      
,,broca1 ,,paul4 ,memoires              
d',anthropologie4 ,paris1 #ahga-ahhh4   

,,burckhardt1 ,j4 ,die ,cultur der      
,renaissance in ,italien4 ,leipsic1     
#ahii4  ,,candolle1 ,,alphonse ,,de4    
,histoire des ,sciences et des ,savants 
depuis ,deux ,siecles4 ,geneve1 #ahhe4  
,,castiglione1 ,,baldassare4 ,libro del 
,cortigiano4 ,milan1 #ahij4  ,,chabaud1 
,l4 ,mesdames de ,maintenon1 de ,genlis 
et ,campan4 ,leur ,role dans            
l',education ,chretienne de la ,femme4  
,paris1 #aija4  ,,chatelet1 ,,marquise  
,,du4 ,principes ,mathematiques de la   
,philosophie ,naturelle4 ,paris1 #agei4 
,,chiappelli1 ,a4 ,saggi e ,note        
,critche4 ,bologna1 #ahie4  ,,coudreau1 
,,mme4 ,h4 ,voyage au ,maycuru4 ,paris1 
#aijc4  ----4 ,voyage au ,rio ,curua4   
,paris1 #aijc4  ,,curie1 ,,pierre1      
,,mme4 ,traite de ,radio-activite4      
,paris1 #aiaj4  ,,delambre1 ,j4 ,b4     
,histoire de l',astronomie4 ,paris1     
#ahag4  ,,denifle1 ,h4 ,die ,entstehung 
der ,universitaeten des ,mittelalters4  
,berlin1 #ahhe4  ,,denifle ,,et         
,,chatelain4 ,chartularium              

,universitatis ,parisiensis4 ,paris1    
#ahhi-ahia4  ,,diogenes ,,laertius4     
,lives and ,opinions of the ,ancient    
,philosophers1 ,bohn ,edition4 ,london4 
,,dieulafoy1 ,,mme4 ,at ,susa the       
,ancient ,capital of the ,kings of      
,persia1 ,narrative of ,travel through  
,western ,persia and ,excavations made  
on the ,site of the ,lost ,city of the  
,lilies1 #ahhd-ahhf4 ,philadelphia1     
#ahij4  ----4 ,la ,perse1 la ,chaldee et
 la ,susane4 ,paris1 #ahhg4             
,d',,istria1 ,,dora4 ,des ,femmes par   
une ,femme4 ,paris1 #ahfe4  ,,donaldson1
 ,,james4 ,woman3 ,her ,position in     
,ancient ,greece and ,rome among the    
,early ,christians4 ,london1 #aijg4     
,,drane1 ,,augusta ,t4 ,christian       
,schools and ,scholars4 ,london1 #ahha4 
,,druon1 ,h4 ,oeuvres de ,synesius1     
,eveque de ,ptolemais1 ,traduites       
entierement pour la premiere ,fois en   
,francais et ,precedees d'une ,etude    
,biographique et ,litteraire4 ,paris1   
#ahgh4  ,,dupanloup1 ,,mgr4 ,la ,femme  

,studieuse4 ,paris1 #ahie4  ,,eckstein1 
,,lena4 ,women ,under ,monasticism4     
,cambridge1 #ahif4  ,,ellis1 ,,havelock4
 ,man and ,woman4 ,london1 #ahih4       
,,fantuzzi1 ,,giovanni4 ,notizie degli  
,scrittori ,bolognesi4 ,bologna1 #agha4 
,,favaro1 ,,antonio4 ,galileo ,galilei e
 ,suor ,celeste4 ,florence1 #ahia4      
,,fenelon1 ,,francois ,,de ,,salignac   
,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 de ,l'education ,des 
,filles4 ,paris1 #ahha4  ,,finot1 ,j4   
,problems of the ,sexes4 ,new ,york1    
#aiac4  ,,fiorelli1 ,,jos4 ,pompeinarum 
,antiquitatum ,historia4 ,naples1       
#ahfj-ahfd4  ,,frankland1 ,,mr4 ,,and   
,,mrs4 ,,percy4 ,pasteur4 ,london1      
#ahih4  ,,gasquet1 ,,aidan4 ,henry      
,,viii and the ,english ,monasteries4   
,london1 #ahie4  ,,gibson1 ,,margaret   
,,dunlop4 ,how the ,codex was ,found4   
,cambridge1 #ahic4  ,,gicosa1 ,,piero4  
,magistri ,salernitani ,nondum ,editi4  
,turin1 #ahia4  ,,girard1 ,,paul4       
,l',education ,athenienne an ,ve et     
,i,ve ,siecle avant ,jesus ,christ4     

,paris1 #ahhi4  ,,gladstone1 ,w4 ,e4    
,studies on ,homer and the ,homeric     
,age4 ,oxford1 #aheh4  ,,grimaux1 ,e4   
,lavoisier1 #agdc-agid1 d'apres sa      
,correspondence1 ,ses ,manuscrits1 ,ses 
,papiers de ,famille et d',autres       
,documents ,inedits4 ,paris1 #ahif4     
,,hall1 ,g4 ,,stanley4 ,adolescence4    
,new ,york1 #aijd4  ,,hamel1 ,f4 ,an    
,eighteenth ,century ,marquise4 ,a      
,study of ,emilie du ,chatelet and ,her 
,times4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4  ,,harless1  
,c4 ,f4 ,die ,verdienste der ,frauen um 
,naturwissenschaft and ,heilkunde4      
,goettingen1 #ahcj4  ,,harrison1 ,,jane 
,e4 ,prolegomena to the ,study of ,greek
 ,religion4 ,cambridge1 #aijc4  ,,hawes1
 ,,harriet ,,boyd4 ,gournia1 ,vasilike  
and ,other ,prehistoric ,sites on the   
,isthmus of ,hierapetra1 ,crete4        
,philadelphia1 #aijh4  ,,henschel1 ,g4  
,e4 ,t4 ,daremberg1 ,c41 e ,renzi de1   
,s4 ,collectio ,salernitana1 ,ossia     
,documenti ,inediti e ,trattati di      
,medicina ,appertenti alla la ,scuola   

,medica ,salernitana4 ,naples1          
#aheb-ahei4  ,,herrade ,,de ,,lansberg4 
,hortus ,deliciarum4 ,strasburg1 #aija4 
,,herschel1 ,,mrs4 ,,john4 ,memoirs and 
,correspondence of ,caroline ,herschel4 
,london1 #ahgi4  ,,hertzen ,,et ,,rossi4
 ,inscriptiones ,urbis ,romae ,latinae4 
,berlin1 #ahhb4  ,,hildegardis1 ,s4     
,causae et ,curae4 ,leipsic1 #aijc4     
----4 ,opera ,omnia1 ,edition ,migne4   
,paris1 #ahhb4  ----4 ,nova ,s4         
,hildegardis ,opera4 ,ed4 ,j4 ,b4 ,card4
 ,pitra4 ,paris1 #ahhb4  ,,hill1        
,,georgiana4 ,women in ,english ,life4  
,london1 #ahif4  ,,hunt1 ,,caroline ,l4 
,the ,life of ,helen ,h4 ,richards4     
,boston1 #aiab4  ,,huxley1 ,l4 ,h4 ,life
 and ,letters of ,thomas ,h4 ,huxley4   
,new ,york1 #aijj4  ,,jerome1 ,,st4     
,epistolae1 ,edition ,vallarsi4 ,verona1
 #agcd-db4  ,,jex-,,blake1 ,,sophia4    
,medical ,women4 ,edinburgh1 #ahhf4     
,,jourdain1 ,,charles4 ,excursions      
,historiques et ,philosophiques a       
travers le ,moyen ,age4 ,paris1 #ahhh4  

,,kendall1 ,,phebe ,m4 ,maria ,mitchell1
 ,life1 ,letters and ,journals4 ,boston1
 #ahif4  ,,kingsley1 ,,mary ,h4 ,travels
 in ,west ,africa4 ,london1 #ahig4      
----4 ,west ,african ,studies4 ,london1 
#ahii4  ,,kirchhoff1 ,a4 ,die           
,akademische ,frau4 ,berlin1 #ahig4     
,,labe1 ,,louize4 ,oeuvres de4 ,paris1  
#ahga4  ,,lagrange1 ,f4 ,histoire de    
,sainte ,paule4 ,paris1 #ahgj4          
,,laigle1 ,,mathilde4 ,le ,livre de     
,trois ,vertus de ,christine de ,pisan  
et son ,milieu ,historique et           
,literaire4 ,paris1 #aiab4  ,,lalande1  
,,jerome4 ,bibliographie ,astronomique4 
,paris1 #ahjc4  ,,lamy1 ,e4 ,la ,femme  
de ,demain4 ,paris1 #aiab4  ,,lange1    
,,helene4 ,higher ,education of ,women  
in ,europe4 ,new ,york1 #ahij4          
,,laurie1 ,s4 ,c4 ,historical ,survey of
 ,pre-,christian ,education4 ,london1   
#aijj4  ,,lecky1 ,w4 ,e4 ,history of    
,european ,morals4 ,new ,york1 #aije4   
,,lefevre1 ,m4 ,la ,femme a travers     
l',histoire4 ,paris1 #aijb4  ,,leffler1 

,,anna ,,carlotta4 ,sonya ,kovalevsky1  
,her ,recollections of ,childhood1 with 
a ,biography4 ,new ,york1 #ahie4        
,,lepinska1 ,,melanie1 ,,mlle4 ,histoire
 des ,femmes ,medecins4 ,paris1 #aijj4  
,,lewis1 ,,agnes ,,smith4 ,in the       
,shadow of ,sinai4 ,cambridge1 #ahih4   
,,ligier1 ,,hermann4 ,de ,hypatia       
,philosopha et ,eclectismi ,fine4       
,dijon1 #ahgi4  ,,lourbet1 ,j4 ,la      
,femme devant la ,science4 ,paris1      
#ahif4  ,,lungo1 ,,isodoro ,,del4 ,women
 of ,florence4 ,london1 #aijg4          
,,macpherson1 ,,geraldine4 ,memoirs of  
the ,life of ,anna ,jameson4 ,london1   
#ahgh4  ,,maistre1 ,,comte ,,joseph     
,,de4 ,lettres ,et ,opuscules ,inedits4 
,paris1 #ahea4  ,,marini1 ,,gaetano4    
,archiatri ,pontifici4 ,rome1 #aghd4    
,,mason1 ,o4 ,t4 ,woman's ,share in     
,primitive ,culture4 ,london1 #ahie4    
----4 ,origin of ,inventions4 ,london1  
#ahie4  ,,maulde ,,la ,,claviere1 ,r4   
,,de4 ,the ,women of the ,renaissance4  
,new ,york1 #aija4  ,,mazzuchelli1      

,,giammaria4 ,gli ,scrittori d',italia4 
,brescia1 #ageh4  ,,medici1 ,,michele4  
,compendio ,storico della ,scuola       
,anatomica di ,bologna4 ,bologna1 #aheg4
  ,,menagius1 ,,aegidius4 ,historia     
,mulierum ,philosopharum4 ,amsterdam1   
#afib4  ,,meyer1 ,h4 ,f4 ,geschichte der
 ,botanik4 ,koenigsburg1 #ahef4         
,,michaelis1 ,a4 ,a ,century of         
,archaeological ,discoveries4 ,new      
,york1 #aijh4  ,,mill1 ,,john ,,stuart4 
,the ,subjection of ,women4 ,london1    
#aiji4  ,,moebius1 ,p4 ,j4 ,ueber die   
,anlage zur ,mathematik4 ,leipsic1      
#aijg4  ,,montagu1 ,,lady ,,mary        
,,wortley4 ,letters and ,works of1 ,bohn
 ,edition4 ,london1 #ahhg4              
,,montalambert1 ,,comte ,,de4 ,monks of 
the ,west4 ,london1 #ahif4  ,,myers1    
,,annie ,n4 ,woman's ,work in ,america4 
,new ,york1 #ahia4  ,,nuttall1 ,,zelia4 
,the ,fundamental ,principles of ,old   
and ,new ,world ,civilizations4         
,cambridge1 ,mass41 #aija4  ,,nolhac1   
,,pierre ,,de4 ,petrarque et            

l',humanisme4 ,paris1 #ahib4  ,,oelsner1
 ,,elise4 ,die ,leistungen der deutschen
 ,frau in den letzen vierhundert ,jahren
 auf wissenschaftlichem ,gebiete4       
,guhrau1 #ahid4  ,,ozanam1 ,a4 ,f4      
,documents ,inedits pour servir a       
l',histoire ,litteraire de l',italie4   
,paris1 #ahej4  ,,plato',s ,,dialogues1 
,jowett's ,translation4 ,london1 #ahib4 
,,poestion1 ,j4 ,c41 ,griechische       
,dicterinnen4 ,wien1 #ahgf4  ----4      
,griechische ,philosophinnen4 ,norden1  
#ahhe4  ,,rashdall1 ,h4 ,the            
,universities of ,europe in the ,middle 
,ages4 ,oxford1 #ahie4  ,,rebiere1 ,a4  
,les ,femmes dans la ,science4 ,paris1  
#ahig4  ,,reich1 ,,emil4 ,woman through 
the ,ages4 ,london1 #aijh4  ,,renaud1   
,a4 ,histoire ,nouvelle des ,arts et des
 ,sciences4 ,paris1 #ahgh4  ,,renzi     
,,de1 ,,salvatore4 ,storia ,documentata 
della ,scuola ,medica di ,salerno4      
,naples1 #aheg4  ,,rodocanachi1 ,e4 ,la 
,femme ,italienne a l',epoque de la     
,renaissance4 ,paris1 #aijg4            

,,rousselot1 ,,paul4 ,histoire de       
l',education des ,femmes en ,france4    
,paris1 #ahhc4  ,,sabbadini1 ,,remigio4 
,vita di ,guarino ,veronese4 ,genoa1    
#ahia4  ,,sainte-,,beuve1               
,,charles-,,augustin ,,de4 ,nouvelle    
,galerie de ,femmes ,celebres4 ,paris1  
#ahgb4  ,,sarti1 ,,mauri1 ,,et          
,,fattorini1 ,,mauri4 ,de ,claris       
,archigymnasii ,bononiensis             
,professoribus a ,saeculo ,,xi usque ad 
,saeculum ,,xiv4 ,bologna1 #ahhh-ahif4  
,,schliemann1 ,h4 ,ilios1 the ,city and 
,country of the ,trojans4 ,new ,york1   
#ahha4  ,,schmidt1 ,a4 ,sur l',age de   
,pericles4 #ahgg-gi4  ,,sertillanges1   
,a4 ,d4 ,feminisme et ,christianisme4   
,paris1 #aijh4  ,,simon1 ,,jules4 ,la   
,femme du ,vingtieme ,siecle4 ,paris1   
#ahib4  ,,socrates1 ,,scholasticus4     
,ecclesiastical ,history4 ,london1      
#ahdh4  ,,somerville1 ,,mary4 ,personal 
,recollections from ,early ,life to ,old
 ,age4 ,boston1 #ahgd4  ,,stanton1      
,,theodore4 ,the ,woman ,question in    

,europe4 ,new ,york1 #ahhd4  ,,stupuy1  
,h4 ,oeuvres ,philosophiques de ,sophie 
,germain4 ,paris1 #ahif4  ,,symonds1 ,j4
 ,a4 ,a ,short ,history of the          
,renaissance in ,italy4 ,london1 #ahic4 
,,thierry1 ,a4 ,saint ,jerome1 ,la      
,societe ,chretienne a ,rome et         
l',emigration ,romaine en ,terre        
,sainte4 ,paris1 #ahfg4  ,,tiraboschi1  
,g4 ,storia della ,letteratura          
,italiana4 ,milan1 #ahbb4  ,,veitch1 ,j4
 ,memoir of ,sir ,william ,hamilton4    
,edinburgh1 #ahfi4  ,,vives1 ,,joannes  
,,ludovicus4 ,de ,tradendis             
,disciplinis4 ,colon1 ,agr41 #aecf4     
,,wallace1 ,r4 ,eleanor ,ormerod1       
,economic ,entomologist1 ,autobiography 
and ,correspondence4 ,london1 #aijd4    
,,wharton1 ,h4 ,t4 ,sappho4 ,london1    
#ahih4  ,,wolf1 ,j4 ,c4 ,mulierum       
,graecarum ,quae ,oratione ,prosa ,usae 
,sunt ,fragmenta et ,elogia ,graece et  
,latine4 ,london1 #agci4  ----4         
,poetriarum ,octo1 ,erinnae1 ,myrus1    
,myrtidis1 ,corinnae1 ,telesillae1      

,praxillae1 ,nossidis1 ,anytae1         
,fragmenta et ,elogia4 ,hamburg1 #agcd4 
----4 ,sapphus1 ,poetriae ,lesbiae1     
,fragmenta et ,elogia4 ,hamburg1 #agcc4 
,,woodward1 ,w4 ,h4 ,vittorino da       
,feltre and ,other ,humanist ,educators4
 ,cambridge1 ,england1 #aije4  ,,wright1
 ,t4 ,womankind in ,western ,europe4    
,london1 #ahfi4  ,,zuccante1            
,,giusseppe4 ,fra il ,pensiero ,antico e
 il ,moderno4 ,milan1 #aije4  ,women    
,inventors to whom ,patents have been   
granted by the ,united ,states          
,government1 ,compiled under the        
,direction of the ,commissioner of      
,patents4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 #ahhh4  
,histoire ,letteraire de la ,france1    
,commencee par des ,religieux           
,benedictins de ,s4 ,maur et ,continuee 
par des ,membres de l',institut4 ,paris1
 #agic-aijf4     ,,index   ,abelard1    
#ada1 #adb4  ,abella1 physician1 #bhf4  
,abrege de ,navigation1 ,lalande's1     
#ahb4  ,academy of ancient ,athens1     
admission of women to1 #aj4  ,academy of

 the ,lincei1 ,donna                    
,caetani-,bovatelli1 dean of1 #cbf4     
,academy of ,science1 ,french4 ,see     
,french ,academy of ,science4  ,acta    
,mythologica ,apostolorum in ,arabic1   
translated by ,agnes ,lewis1 #cca       
footnote4  ,adams1 7,mrs47 ,abigail1    
quoted1 #ajj4  ,adams1 ,charles         
,francis1 quoted1 #ajj4  ,adams1        
,elizabeth1 #cdd4  ,addison1 #ih4       
,adelheid1 #eb4  ,aegidius1 quoted1 #bhb
 footnote4  ,aeschines1 #ac4  ,africa1  
,mary ,kingsley's explorations in1 #beg1
 #beh4  ,agamede1 physician1 #bfg1 #bfh4
  ,aganice1 daughter of ,sesostris1     
#afg4  ,agassiz1 7,mrs47 ,elizabeth     
,cary1 #bee1 #cgg4  ,agassiz1 ,jean     
,louis1 #bee1 #cgh4  ,aglaonice1 the    
first woman astronomer1 #afg4  ,agnesi1 
,maria ,gaetana1 #gh1 #gi1 #aje1 #bbh1  
#bcj2   knowledge of languages of1 #adc1
 #add2   achievements of1 in            
mathematics1 #add-aej2   charitable     
works of1 #adh-aea2   exclusion of1 from
 ,french ,academy1 #cic4  ,agnodice1    

physician1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bij4  ,agricola1
 ,rudolph1 #fb4  ,agriculture1 ,english 
,board of1 #bej4  ,agriculturists1 women
 as1 #cce1 #cch4  ,agrippina1 #bd1 #be2 
prose writings of1 #bh4  ,albategni1    
#afi4  ,albert the ,great1 #bcc4        
,alcaeus1 in praise of ,sappho1 #f4     
,alcala1 ,university of1 #fh4           
,alciphoron1 #aa4  ,alexandria1         
,hypatia's work in1 #ach1 #aii1 #bjj4   
,algae1 ,dr4 ,snow's work on1 #bed4     
,algarotti1 ,francisco1 #aeb4  ,algebra1
 taught by ,hypatia1 #aci4  ,alpine     
flora1 ,amalie ,dietrich's collection   
of1 #bdc4  ,amazonia1 explorations of   
,madame ,coudreau in1 #bei-bfa4         
,ambrosius1 ,franciscus1 #adb4          
,american ,chemical ,society1 #bbh4     
,american ,philosophical ,society1 #bbh4
  ,amoretti1 ,maria ,pellegrina1 #gg4   
,ampere1 in praise of ,emilie du        
,chatelet1 #aea4  ,analyse des          
,infiniment ,petits1 by ,marquis        
l',hopital1 #cgf4  ,anatomical models1  
perfected by ,anna ,manzolini1 #bcf2    

perfected by ,mlle4 ,biheron1 #bch4     
,anatomy1 the study of1 by women1       
#bcf-bch4  ,anaxagoras1 #ab4  ,ancren   
,riwle1 #dj4  ,andrea1 ,novella d'1 #ec1
 #gi4  ,andromeda1 #f4  ,anguisciola    
sisters of ,cremona1 #fa4  ,annals of   
,tacitus1 #bh4  ,antelmy1 ,agnesi's     
,analytical ,institutions translated    
into     ,french by1 #adf4  ,antiochis1 
physician1 #bgj4  ,antipater1 epigram   
of1 #f footnote4  ,anytae1 #ag4         
,apelles1 #aa4  ,apocrypha ,arabica1    
edited by ,margaret ,gibson1 #ccj       
footnote4  ,apocrypha ,sinaitica1 #ccj  
footnote4  ,apocrypha ,syriaca          
,sinaitica1 edited by ,agnes ,lewis1    
#cca footnote4  ,apollonius1 ,conic     
,sections of1 ,hypatia's commentary on1 
#afh4  ,apollonius of ,perga1 #aci1     
#adj4  ,aquinas1 ,thomas1 quoted1 #big  
footnote4  ,arabic ,version of the ,acta
 ,apocrypha ,apostolorum edited by      
,agnes ,lewis1     #cca footnote4       
,arabic ,version of the ,acts of the    
,apostles and the ,seven ,catholic      

,epistles1 edited by ,margaret ,gibson1 
#ccj footnote4  ,arabic ,version of ,st4
 ,paul's ,epistles to the ,romans1      
,corinthians1     ,galatians and part of
 ,ephesians1 by ,margaret ,gibson1 #ccj 
footnote4  ,arago1 #bjb4  ,archaeology1 
museums of1 #cji1 #caj2   women in1     
#cji-ccc2   ,american women in1         
#cba-cbd4  ,archagatos1 #bga4           
,archimedes1 #aig4  ,archlanassa1 #aj4  
,ardinghelli1 ,maria ,angela1 #gg1 #adb4
  ,arditi1 ,michele1 #caa4  ,areometer1 
invention of1 by ,hypatia1 #bjj4  ,arete
 of ,cyrene1 teacher of philosophy1     
#aig-aii4  ,arezzo1 ,leonardo d'1 course
 of study for women planned by1 #hd     
footnote4  ,ariosto1 quoted1 #f         
footnote1 #eg2   in praise of ,vittoria 
,colonna1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff4  ,aristippus1  
#aj1 #aig4  ,aristotelian theory of     
difference between intellectual capacity
 of men and     women1 #aaj4            
,aristotle1 in praise of ,sappho1 #e1   
#aj1 #aig4  ,arithmetica of ,diophantus1
 ,hypatia's commentary on1 #aci1 #afh4  

,arrighi1 ,g4 ,l41 #cfd footnote4  ,art1
 achievements of women in1 in ,italy    
during the ,renaissance1 #fj1 #fa4      
,ascham1 ,roger1 #fi footnote4          
,asclepiades1 #bga4  ,ashley1 ,mary1    
#aif4  ,aske1 ,robert1 quoted1 #da4     
,aspasia1 of ,miletus1 #ab-ad1 #af1 #ag1
 #bf4  ,aspasia1 physician1 #aii1 #bgj4 
,assisi1 ,st4 ,francis1 #ceh4           
,astrolabe1 invention of1 by ,hypatia1  
#adj1 #bjj4  ,astronomical ,canon1      
,hypatia's1 #adj1 #afh4  ,astronomical  
,society of ,france1 ,dorothea ,klumpke 
first woman member of1     #aid4        
,astronomie des ,dames1 ,lalande's1     
#agh1 #aha4  ,astronomy1 achievements of
 ,hypatia in1 #aci1 #bjj-bja2   women   
in1 #afg-aif4  ,at ,susa by ,mme4       
,dieulafoy1 #cbj footnote4  ,athenaeus1 
#acg4  ,athens1 position of women in1   
#c-e1 #af1 #ah1 #ai1 #aii1 #dad1 #dae2  
culture of1 #djd4  ,attica1 #aih4       
,aucassin et ,nicolette1 #bge4          
,augustus1 ,emperor1 #ai1 #bd4          
,aurelia1 mother of ,julius ,caesar1    

#bb4  ,austen1 ,jane1 #ih4  ,auzoux1    
,dr41 #bcf4  ,ayrton1 ,mrs4 ,w4 ,e41    
achievements of1 in electricity1 #bab1  
#bcj4   ,baker1 ,lady1 wife of ,sir     
,samuel ,baker1 #cgd4  ,balzac1 #hh4    
,barbapiccola1 ,eleonora1 of ,salerno1  
#gf4  ,bascom1 ,florence1 #bed4         
,bassani1 ,signora1 lace-maker1 #ccg4   
,bassi1 ,laura1 #gh1 #gi1 #adg1 #adh1   
#bjc-bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bih2       
birth of1 at ,bologna1 #bjc2            
,doctorate of ,physics bestowed upon1   
#bjd2   letters of ,voltaire to1 #bjg4  
,bazzani1 ,doctor1 #bjd4  ,beatrice1    
#ceg1 #cfa4  ,beausoleil1 ,baroness de1 
#bch-bdj4  ,becquerel1 ,m4 ,h41 #bbc1   
#bbg1 #bbh4  ,beethoven1 #cei4          
,bellini1 #ff4  ,bembo1 ,cardinal1 #fa1 
#fc2   in praise of ,elizabetta         
,gonzaga1 #fg4  ,benedict ,,xiv1 #gh1   
#adg1 #adh1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #bbh4  ,berlin  
,academy of ,sciences1 #cga4  ,bern1    
,university of1 #cjd4  ,bernouilli1     
,jean1 #aeb4  ,bernstein1 ,dr4 ,julius1 
on intellectual capacity of women1 #acc4

  ,berthollet1 #baf4  ,besant1 ,sir     
,walter1 quoted1 #ajb-aje4  ,bianchetti1
 ,giovanna1 #bih4  ,bianchetti1         
,maddalena1 #bih4  ,biheron1 ,mlle41    
#bch4  ,biology1 #bde1 #bed2   as a     
basis for woman's equality with man1    
#cii4  ,biot1 #aed1 #baf2   in praise of
 ,sophie ,germain1 #aef4  ,bishop1      
,isabella ,bird1 #bef4  ,blackwell1     
,miss ,elizabeth1 physician1 #cjj-cjd1  
#cje1 #cjg4  ,bobinski1 ,countess1 #aif4
  ,boccaccio1 #aig4  ,bocchi1 ,dorotea1 
#bih4  ,boileau's satire on ,mme4 de la 
,sabliere1 #agb4  ,boke of the ,cyte of 
,ladyes1 quoted from1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh4 
,boleyn1 ,anne1 #fi4  ,bollandists1 on  
work of ,st4 ,hildegard1 #dg4  ,bologna1
 ,academy of ,sciences of1 #bjg4        
,bologna1 ,university of1 #bjc-baj1     
#bcf1 #bif-bii2   in ,middle ,ages1 #ec2
   women lecturers and professors in1   
#eg1 #gh1 #gi2   ,dorotea ,bucca of1    
#fb2   degrees conferred upon ,maddalena
 ,canedi-,noe and ,maria ,vittoria ,dosi
   by1 #gg2 chair of higher mathematics 

in1 given to ,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi1   
#gh1 #adh4  ,bonaparte1 ,caroline1      
archaeological excavations of1 #caa1    
#cab1 #cag4  ,bonaparte1 ,joseph1 #caa4 
,borghini1 ,maria ,selvaggia of ,pisa1  
#gf4  ,borromeo1 ,clelia ,grillo1 of    
,genoa1 #gg1 #adb4  ,bos1 ,j4 ,ritzema1 
#bec footnote4  ,bossuet1 ,abbe1 #hh1   
#adf4  ,boston1 public schools of1 #ii4 
,botany1 #bef2   ,frau ,kablick's       
studies in1 #bdb1 #bdc2   ,amalie       
,dietrich's studies in1 #bdc-bdd2       
cryptoganic1 #bed4  ,bouchet1 ,jean1    
quoted1 #gd footnote4  ,bovin1 ,mme4    
,marie1 physician1 #bic-bie4  ,bowles1  
,ada ,c41 quoted1 #cdf1 #cdg4  ,boyd1   
,ella ,f41 #bed4  ,boyd1 ,harriet1 #cag2
   archaeological investigations of1    
#cba1 #cbb4  ,boyd1 ,mary ,e41 of       
,smith1 #aie4  ,brahe1 ,sophia1 #agj4   
,brahe1 ,tycho1 #agj4  ,brain1          
convolutions of1 as an index to         
intelligence1 #abb1 #abc2   frontal lobe
 of1 in man and in woman1 #abb2   gray  
matter of1 and its relation to          

intelligence1 #abc4  ,brain weight1     
relation of1 to mental power1 #aah-abb1 
#abd-abf4  ,brenzoni1 ,laura1 #eh1 #ei4 
,brescia1 ,university of1 #fb4  ,british
 ,museum1 #bef1 #beh4  ,britton1        
,elizabeth ,g41 #bed4  ,broca1 #aaf1    
#abf4  ,bronte sisters1 #ih1 #aad1 #aae1
 #bfd4  ,brosses1 ,m4 ,charles de1      
quoted1 #add4  ,brougham1 ,lord1 #aei4  
,brown1 ,alice1 #aif4  ,browning1       
,elizabeth ,barrett1 #aad4  ,bruce1     
,miss ,c41 #aif4  ,brush1 ,mary1 #cdd4  
,brussels1 #bbi4  ,brutus1 #bc4  ,bryn  
,mawr1 ,college of1 #aff4  ,bucca1      
,dorotea1 #fb1 #gi4  ,buechner1 #bdf4   
,buckland1 ,mrs4 ,william1 #cgd1 #cge4  
,buckle1 #chd1 #che1 #chf4  ,burckhardt1
 #baj4  ,burney1 ,fanny1 #ih4           
,burnmeister1 #bdh4  ,bush1 ,katherine  
,j41 #bed4  ,butter1 ,josephine ,e41    
#bia footnote4   ,caedmon1 influence of 
,st4 ,hilda on1 #cg1 #ch4  ,caesar1     
,aurelia1 mother of1 #bb4               
,caetani-,bovatelli1 ,donna ,ersilia1   
archaeologist1 #cbd-cbg4                

,caetani-,sermonetta1 ,duke of1 #cbd1   
#cbe4  ,caius ,musonius ,rufus1 on      
education of women1 #cj1 #ca4           
,calendrini1 ,bettina1 #bih4            
,calendrini1 ,novella1 #bih4            
,california1 ,university of1 #cbc4      
,calphurnia1 letters of1 #bi4           
,calpurnia1 #cef1 #cfa4  ,cambridge1    
,university of1 funds from suppressed   
convents devoted to1     #da1 #db2      
exclusion of women from1 #hj1 #ajj1     
#bcj1 #ccj-ccc4  ,camoens1 #eg4         
,candolle1 ,alphonse de1 #cib1 #cic4    
,canedi-,noe1 ,maddalena1 #gg4  ,cannon1
 ,annie ,j41 #aie4  ,canova1 in praise  
of ,suor ,plantilla ,nelli1 #fj         
footnote4  ,canticle of the ,sun1 ,the1 
by ,st4 ,francis ,assisi1 quoted1 #cei4 
,cape ,observations1 ,herschel's1 #ahf1 
#ahi4  ,carlyle1 quoted1 #gi footnote4  
,cassius1 wife of1 #bc4  ,castiglione1  
#ff1 #fg2   in praise of women1 #cei4   
,catalogue of ,eight ,hundred and ,sixty
 ,stars ,observed by ,flamsteed but ,not
     ,included in the ,british          

,catalogue1 by ,caroline ,herschel1     
#ahf4  ,catani1 ,giuseppina1 professor  
of pathology at ,bologna1 #bif4         
,caterzani1 #bii4  ,catherine of        
,aragon1 #fh1 #fi4  ,cato1 quoted1 #bg4 
,catullus1 #e4  ,celeste1 ,sister       
,maria1 daughter of ,galileo1 #cfc-cfi4 
,celleor1 ,mrs41 quoted1 #bfh4  ,celsus1
 #agd4  ,ceretta1 ,laura1 #fb4          
,cervantes1 #eg4  ,chantry1 bust of     
,mary ,somerville by1 #aei4  ,charity1  
,sisters of1 #cjh4  ,charlemagne1 #ci4  
,chateaubriand1 #bef4  ,chatelain1 #bhi 
footnote4  ,chatelet1 ,emilie du1 #hg2  
#aea-aec2   achievements of1 in         
astronomy1 #age-agg2   as mathematical  
physicist1 #bja1 #bjb4  ,chaucer1       
quoted1 #dj footnote4  ,chemistry1 women
 in1 #bad-bcb2   sanitary1 #bah4        
,chesterfield1 ,lord1 quoted1 #ig4      
,chiavello1 ,livia1 of ,fabriano1 #ei4  
,chinchon1 ,countess of1 #bii footnote4 
,chinchona bark1 introduction of1 into  
,europe1 #bii footnote4  ,chopin1 #cei4 
,christian ,inscriptions in the ,irish  

,language by ,miss ,stotes1 #caf4       
,christine of ,sweden1 #hb1 #id1 #cgj4  
,church of the ,household1 #ca-cd4      
,cibo1 ,catarina1 of ,genoa1 #ei1 #fj4  
,cicero1 #h2   tribute of1 to ,laelia1  
#bc2   ,tulia's letters to1 #bi4        
,cirey1 #bja4  ,cite des ,dames1 #ajf1  
#ajg1 #ajh1 #aji1 #acd4  ,clairaut1     
#aeb2   work of1 with ,mme4 ,lepaute1   
#agi1 #ahj4  ,clapp1 ,cornelia ,m41     
#bed4  ,clarke1 ,cora ,h41 #bed4        
,claviere1 in praise of women1 #cfj4    
,claypole1 ,agnes ,m41 #bed4  ,claypole1
 ,edith ,j41 #bed4  ,cleopatra1         
physician1 #bgj4  ,clerke1 ,agnes ,m4   
and ,ellen ,m41 #aif4  ,codex           
,ludovicus1 discovery of1 #cbh1 #ccc4   
,codex ,nuttall1 #cbd4  ,codex          
,sinaiticus1 #cbh4  ,coeducational      
institutions1 comparative standing of   
men and     women in1 #abh1abi4         
,colonna1 ,vittoria1 #fa1 #fb1 #fe1     
#cei4  ,colton1 ,rev4 ,john1 ,agnesi's  
,analytical ,institutions translated    
into     ,french by1 #adf1 #adg4        

,columbus1 #ef1 #chj4  ,comstock1 ,anna 
,botsford1 #bed4  ,comte1 #bde4  ,conde1
 #hh4  ,condorcet1 #ccd footnote4       
,conic ,sections1 of ,apollonius1       
,hypatia's commentary on1 #aci1 #adj1   
#afh4  ,connection of the ,physical     
,sciences by ,mary ,somerville1 #afj1   
#baa4  ,considerations ,generales sur   
l',etat des ,sciences et des ,lettres   
aux     ,differentes ,epoques de ,leur  
,culture by ,sophie ,germain1 #aef4     
,convent of ,arles1 #cf2   of ,poitiers1
 #cf2   of ,st4 ,hilda1 #cf2   of       
,bishopsheim1 #ci2   of ,st4 ,rupert at 
,bingen1 #df2   of ,helfta1 #di4        
,convent schools1 #cf1 #da4  ,convents1 
as centers of learning in ,middle ,ages1
 #ce-ec2   suppression of1 in ,england1 
#da1 #db2   advantages of1 #ea2         
influence of1 #ea-ec4  ,conventus       
,matronarum1 #bg4  ,conversations on    
,chemistry1 by ,mrs4 ,marcet1 #cgb4     
,copernicus1 #ef1 #ahi4  ,corinna1 #f1  
#ag4  ,corneille1 #hh4  ,cornelia1      
mother of the ,gracchi1 #bb1 #be1 #bf4  

,cornelia1 wife of ,pompey1 #bb4        
,cotton gin1 invention of1 #cea1 #ceb4  
,coudreau1 ,henri1 #beh4  ,coudreau1    
,mme4 ,octavie1 #bef1 #beh-bfd2   books 
by1 #bfc footnote4  ,courtier1          
,castiglione's1 #ff1 #fg4  ,cramoisy1   
,marie1 #hb4  ,cranial capacity1        
relation of1 to mental energy1 #aae-aag4
  ,crete1 the ,forerunner of ,greece1 by
 ,mrs4 ,hawes1 #cbb4  ,crevaux1 #bfb4   
,crisculo1 ,maria ,angela1 #fa4         
,cumming1 ,constance ,gordon1 #bef4     
,cummings1 ,clara ,e41 #bed  ,cunitz1   
,maria1 #agj1 #aga4  ,cunningham1       
,susan1 of ,swarthmore1 #aie4  ,curie1  
,mme4 ,marie ,klodowska1 #cbf1 #ccc1    
#cfb1 #cid1 #cig1 #bba-bcb2   birth and 
early life of1 #bba-bbb2   marriage of1 
to ,pierre ,curie1 #bbb2   scientific   
investigations and discoveries of1      
#bbc-bbf2   honors of1 #bbg-bcb4        
,curie1 ,pierre1 #bbb1 #bbd4  ,cushman1 
,florence1 #aie4  ,cuvier1 weight of    
brain of1 #aai1 #bae1 #baf4  ,cyrene1   
school of philosophy at1 #aig4          

,dacier1 ,mme41 #hb1 #hc footnote4      
,damien1 ,father1 #bgd4  ,danophila1 #g4
  ,dante1 #aag1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #ceg4       
,darboux1 ,m41 in praise of ,dorothea   
,klumpke1 #aic1 #aid4  ,daremberg1 ,dr4 
,charles1 #bcd1 #bgj1 #bhg and #bhh     
footnote4  ,darmstadt1 ,medical ,college
 of1 #bib4  ,darwin1 on man1 #c1 #aac2  
quoted1 #abd4  ,darwin's ,origin of     
,species1 the ,french translation of1 by
 ,clemence ,royer1 #bde4  ,davy gold    
medal of the ,royal ,society awarded to 
the ,curies1 #bbg4  ,davidson1 ,ada ,b41
 #bed4  ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo1 #ff4     
,dawes1 #aia4  ,decameron1 ,the1 #aig4  
,de ,compositione ,medicamentorum1 by   
,trotula1 #bhe4  ,deffand1 ,mme4 du1    
#aa1 #hi1 #ib2   ,marquise du ,chatelet 
ridiculed by1 #agg and footnote1 #agh   
footnote4  ,deipnosophistoe1 of         
,athenaeus1 #acg4  ,delambre1 #baf4  ,de
 ,lamennais1 on woman's intellectual    
inferiority1 #acf4  ,de ,morbis         
,mulierum et ,eorum ,cura1 by ,trotula1 
#bhd footnote4  ,demosthenes1 quoted1 #c

 footnote2 #aj4  ,denifle1 #gi1 #bhi    
footnote4  ,denver ,school of ,mines1   
woman principal of1 #bed4  ,de ,orbium  
,celestium ,revolutionibus1 #ahi4  ,de  
,problemate quodam ,hydrometrico by     
,laura ,bassi1 #bji footnote4  ,de      
,problemate quodam ,mechanico by ,laura 
,bassi1 #bjh footnote4  ,de ,prony1 in  
praise of ,sophie ,germaine1 #aed4      
,descartes1 #hh1 #id1 #bjb2   doctrines 
of1 #age1 #agf2   female pupils of1     
#cfi1 #cgj4  ,destouches1 #hf1 #hg4     
,diaz1 ,porfirio1 #cbd4  ,didascalia    
,apostolorum in ,syriac1 ,the1 edited by
 ,margaret     ,gibson1 #cca footnote4  
,diderot1 attitude of1 toward women1    
#ic4  ,dietrich1 ,amalie1 botanist1     
#bdc-bdd4  ,dieulafoy1 ,mme41           
archaeologist1 #cag1 #cfb2              
archaeological expeditions of1 #cah-cba4
  ,dieulafoy1 ,marcel1 #cah4            
,diocletian1 #bgb4  ,diogenes1 #aj4     
,diophantus1 ,arithmetica of1 ,hypatia's
 commentary on1 #aci1 #afh4  ,diotima of
 ,mantinea1 ,socrates' tribute to1 #aa4 

,divina ,commedia by ,dante1 #ceg4      
,dock1 ,lavinia ,l41 #bhj footnote4     
,doni ,gasquet on dissolution of        
convents1 #da4  ,donne1 ,maria dalle1   
#gi2   as professor of obstetrics1 #bji2
   as surgeon1 #bii-cjj4  ,dorat1 ,jean1
 quoted1 #ga footnote4  ,dosi1 ,maria   
,vittoria1 #gg1 #bih4  ,dramas of       
,hroswitha1 #dc1 #dd4  ,draper1 ,mrs4   
,henry1 endowment of the ,henry ,draper 
,memorial at ,harvard   by1 #aif4       
,dryden1 #ih4  ,dumee1 ,jeanne1 #aga4   
,dunraven's ,notes on ,irish            
,architecture1 edited by ,miss ,stotes1 
#caf4  ,dupanloup1 ,mgr41 quoted1 #cif  
footnote4  ,dupre1 ,marie1 #hb4         
,dupuytren1 #bid4   ,early ,christian   
,art in ,ireland1 by ,miss ,stotes1     
#caf4  ,eastman1 ,alice1 #bed4          
,ecclesia ,domestica1 #ca-cd4           
,eckenstein1 ,lina1 quoted1 #ej         
footnote2   on influence of convents1   
#eb1 #ec4  ,ecole de ,medecine of       
,paris1 admittance of women to1 #bij4   
,ecole de ,physique et de ,chimie in    

,paris1 #bbc4  ,ecole des ,femmes1 #dab4
  ,edinburgh1 ,university of1 #bbh1     
#cje2   opposition of1 to women1 #hj2   
,miss ,ormerod receives degree of       
,doctor of ,laws at1 #beb4  ,education1 
during the ,renaissance1 #ga-ge2   in   
,england1 in the ,middle ,ages1 #cf-db2 
in ,france1 in the post-,renaissance    
period1 #hc-he4  ,education of women in 
ancient ,greece1 #a-ah2   in ancient    
,rome1 #ah-cd2   in ,greece and ,rome   
compared1 #bf1 #bg2   in the ,middle    
,ages1 #cd-ed2   during the             
,renaissance1 #ed-ge2   in ,germany1 in 
post-,renaissance period1 #ic1 #id2   in
 ,england1 in post-,renaissance period1 
#if-ih2   in the ,united ,states1 in the
 post-,renaissance period #ii1 #ajj2    
changes in1 in last three-quarters of a 
century1 #ajb-aje2   in ,italy1 #baj4   
,edwards1 ,amelia ,b41 #bef4  ,eigenman1
 ,rose ,s41 #bed4  ,electricity1 work of
 ,mrs4 ,ayrton in1 #bab4  ,eliot1       
,george1 #ih1 #bfd4  ,elizabeth of      
,bohemia1 #id1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cga4        

,elizabeth1 ,queen1 #fi1 #gj2   failure 
of1 to provide for education of women1  
#db4  ,elizabeth of ,sweden1 #hb4       
,elizabeth1 wife of ,hevilius1 #age4    
,ellis1 ,havelock1 #aag1 #cdc footnote4 
,elogie ,historique1 ,voltaire's1 #aeb1 
#aec4  ,emerson1 quoted1 #aje4          
,encyclopedists1 attitude of1 toward    
women1 #ic4  ,engineering1 on           
trans-,siberian railroad in charge of a 
woman1 #ajb4  ,england1 education in1 in
 the ,middle ,ages1 #cf-db2   prestige  
of abbesses in1 #eb2   position of woman
 in1 during the ,renaissance1 #eg1 #fi2 
position of women in1 during            
post-,renaissance period1 #ie-ii2       
women physicians in1 #cjd-cjg2          
feminine population of1 #djg4           
,entomology1 #bef2   achievements of    
,missouri woman in1 #bed4  ,entomology1 
economic1 ,eleanor ,ormerod's work in1  
#bdg-beb2   her publications on1        
#bdi-bej4  ,entretiens sur l',opinion de
 ,copernic ,touchant la ,mobilite de la 
,terre1     by ,jeanne ,dumee1 #aga4    

,ephemeris of the ,academy of ,sciences1
 ,mme4 ,lepaute's work on1 #aha4        
,epicurus1 #h1 #aj4  ,epinay1 ,mme4 d'1 
#ib4  ,erasmus1 #eg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gc4     
,erinna1 #g1 #ag4  ,erucarum ,ortus1    
,alimenta et ,paradoxa ,metamorphosis1  
by ,frau ,merian1 #bdb4  ,erxleben1     
,dorothea ,christin1 physician1 #bic    
footnote4  ,espinasse1 ,mlle4 de l'1    
#aa4  ,este1 ,beatriche d'1 ,duchess of 
,milan1 #fe1 #ff4  ,este1 ,isabella d'1 
,marchioness of ,mantua1 archaeologist1 
#fe1 #ff1 #caj1 #caa4  ,estienne1       
,robert1 #ga4  ,ethnology1 #cbc4        
,euler1 ,leonard1 #bjb4  ,euripides1    
#ab2   quoted1 #c footnote2 #ab1 #ac    
footnote2 #bfh4  ,eustochium1 #ca-cd1   
#ceg1 #cfa4  ,everett1 ,alice1 #aif4    
,evolution1 ,clemence ,royer's theory   
of1 #bdf4  ,explorations carried on by  
women1 #beg-bfc4   ,fabiola1 physician1 
#bgb-bgd4  ,fabricius1 #bdh4  ,fairfax1 
,mary4 ,see ,somerville4  ,fairfax1 ,sir
 ,william1 #aeg1 #baa4  ,fantuzzi1      
,giovanni1 #bje1 #bjh1 #bcg footnote4   

,faraday1 #cgb1 #cgc4  ,fawcett1 ,mrs4  
,henry1 #abh4  ,faye1 ,mme41 #aif4      
,fedele1 ,cassandra1 #ei4  ,feijoo1     
,benito ,jeronimo1 #aaj4  ,felicie1     
,jacobe1 physician1 #bhi-bij4  ,feltre1 
,vittorino da1 #eh and #ei footnote4    
,femmes ,savantes of ,moliere1 #cj1     
#he-hg1 #agb4  ,ferrara1 court of1 #fe1 
#ff4  ,ferrara1 ,university of1 #fb1    
#gi4  ,ferreyra1 ,bernada1 #fh4         
,fiorelli1 #cab footnote4  ,flammarion1 
,mme41 #aif4  ,flechier1 #hh4  ,fleming1
 ,mrs4 ,w41 achievements of1 in         
astronomy1 #aie4  ,fletcher1 ,alice ,c41
 archaeologist1 #cbb1 #cbc4  ,fontana1  
,lavinia1 #fa4  ,foot1 ,katherine1 #bed4
  ,form and ,rotation of the ,earth1    
,the1 by ,mary ,somerville1 #bab4       
,fortunatus1 #cf4  ,forty-one           
,facsimiles of ,dated ,christian ,arabic
 ,manuscripts by ,agnes     ,lewis and  
,margaret ,gibson1 #cca footnote4       
,france1 women in1 during the           
,renaissance1 #gj1 #ga2   women in1     
during the post-,renaissance period1    

#ha-ic2   mineral resources of1 ,mme4 de
 ,beausoleil's interest in1 #bci2       
feminine population of1 #djg4  ,france1 
,university of1 #cjd4  ,frankland1      
,percy1 #cgf footnote4  ,frederick the  
,great1 mother of1 #cgj4  ,frei1 ,frau  
,teresa1 physician1 #bib4  ,french      
,academy of ,sciences1 #acc1 #adf1 #aee1
 #bja1 #bbh1 #bcb footnote1     #bch1   
#cbf2   exclusion of women from1 #gh1   
#bbi1 #bcj1 #ccc1 #cic1 #cid4  ,french  
,institute1 #bdf2   ,sophie ,germain    
honored by1 #aee2   discrimination of1  
against women1 #bcj-bca footnote4       
,frontal lobe of brain in man and in    
woman1 #abb4  ,fuller1 ,thomas1 quoted1 
#ge footnote4  ,fundamental ,principles 
of ,old and ,new ,world ,civilizations1 
,the1 by ,mrs4     ,nuttall1 #cbd4      
,gadolinium1 discovery of1 #bai4  ,gage1
 ,susanna ,phelps1 #bed4  ,galfrido1    
quoted1 #bih footnote4  ,galileo1       
#cfd-cfi1 #chj4  ,galindo1 ,beatrix1    
#fh4  ,galvani1 ,luigi1 #baj1 #bcf1     
#cgb4  ,galvanic electricity1 #baj4     

,gambara1 ,veronica1 #fa4  ,gambetta1   
weight of brain of1 #abj4  ,garden of   
,delights4 ,see ,hortus ,deliciarum4    
,garrett1 ,elizabeth1 physician1 #bij   
footnote1 #cjd4  ,gassendi1 #id4        
,gaufrey1 ,antoine ,hamilton's1 #afi4   
,gebert1 #ada4  ,gegner prize from the  
,french ,academy of ,sciences awarded to
 ,mme4     ,curie1 #bbh4  ,general      
,index of ,reference to ,every          
,observation of ,every ,star in the     
,above-mentioned ,british ,catalogue1 by
 ,caroline ,herschel1 #ahf4  ,geneva1   
,university of1 #bbh1 #cjd4  ,geneva1   
,new ,york1 ,college at1 #cja4  ,genlis1
 ,mme4 de1 #bch4  ,geoffrin1 ,mme41 #hi4
  ,geographical ,society of ,berlin1    
#bef4  ,geology1 #bed4  ,geometry1      
taught by ,hypatia1 #aci4  ,geraldini   
brothers1 #fh4  ,gerberg1 ,abbess1 #dc4 
,germain1 ,sophia1 #hg1 #aed-aeg1 #cia1 
#cib2   grand prix of ,french ,academy  
of ,science won by1 #aee2   exclusion   
of1 from ,french ,academy1 #cic4        
,germanicus1 wife of1 #bd1 #be4         

,germany1 education in1 during ,middle  
,ages1 #dc-eb2   privileges of abbesses 
in1 #eb2   position of woman in1 during 
the ,renaissance1 #eg1 #gj1 #gd2   women
 in1 in post-,renaissance period1       
#ic-ie2   universities of1 open to      
women1 #aja2   attitude of1 toward women
 to-day1 #acj-acd2   feminine population
 of1 #djg4  ,gernez1 ,m4 ,d41 #bbf1     
footnote4  ,gertrude the ,great1 #df1   
#di4  ,gibbon1 quoted1 #ai4  ,gibson1   
,margaret ,dunlop1 archaeologist1       
#cbg-ccb1 #ccc4  ,giessen1 ,university  
of1 #bic4  ,giliani1 ,alessandra1 #bcg1 
footnote4  ,girton ,college1 #ajj4      
,gladstone1 quoted1 #cih1 footnote4     
,glycera1 #aj4  ,goethe1 #che4  ,golden1
 ,katherine ,e41 #bed4  ,goldsmith1 #ih4
  ,goncourt1 #aji4  ,gonzaga1 ,cecelia1 
#eh and #ei1 footnote4  ,gonzaga1       
,elizabetta1 #ff1 #fg1 #caj4  ,gorgo1   
#f2   quoted1 #ag4  ,gospel of ,isbodad 
in ,syriac and ,english1 by ,margaret   
,gibson1 #cca1 footnote4  ,goettingen1  
,university of1 #bic4  ,gozzadina1      

,bitisia1 #bih4  ,gozzadini1 ,bettina1  
#ec4  ,gracchi1 ,cornelia1 mother of    
the1 #bb4  ,granville1 ,lord1 quoted1   
#ig and #ih footnote4  ,grassi1         
,ippolita1 #bih4  ,gravitation1         
discovery of1 #chd1 #che4  ,gray matter 
in the brain1 relation of1 to           
intelligence1 #abc4  ,gray's ,elegy1    
quoted1 #djc4  ,greece1 ancient1 woman  
and education in1 #a-ah1 #cih2          
position of woman in1 compared with     
,rome1 #ah1 #ai1 #be-bg2   medical women
 in1 #bfg-bga4  ,greene1 ,catherine ,l41
 cotton gin invented by1 #cea4  ,grey1  
,lady ,jane1 #fi4  ,grignan1 ,mme4 de1  
#hb4  ,grimaldi1 ,cardinal1 #bjc4       
,guarna1 ,rebeca de1 physician1 #bhf4   
,gubernatis1 ,a4 de1 in praise of ,donna
 ,bovatelli1 #cbe4  ,gustavus of        
,sweden1 #bch4   ,haeckel1 #bdf4        
,haeser1 #bgh4  ,hall1 ,mrs4 ,asaph1    
#cgf4  ,hall1 ,edith ,h41 archaeologist1
 #cba4  ,halle1 #ccb4  ,halley1 #adj4   
,hamilton1 ,antoine1 #afi4  ,hamilton1  
,lady1 #chb1 #chc4  ,hamilton1 ,sir     

,william1 #chb1 #chc4  ,hare1           
,christopher1 #caa footnote4  ,harmony  
of ,women1 by ,perictione1 #h4          
,harrison1 ,jane ,e41 archaeologist1    
#ccb1 #ccc4  ,harvard ,observatory1     
women on staff of1 #aie4  ,harvard      
,university1 #ii1 #ajj2   ,henry ,draper
 ,memorial at1 #aif1 #cbb4  ,hauey1     
#che4  ,hawes1 ,c4 ,h41 #cbb4  ,hawes1  
,mrs4 ,c4 ,h4 ,see ,boyd1 ,harriet4     
,heidelberg1 ,university of1 #fb1 #ccb4 
,heine1 quoted1 #cj footnote1 #aac4     
,hell1 ,mme4 ,hommaire de1 #cgc4        
,heller1 #cge4  ,helmholtz1 ,hermann    
von1 weight of brain of1 #abe footnote4 
,heloise1 #ada1 #adb4  ,henry ,,vii1    
#ajg4  ,henry ,,viii1 suppression of    
convents by1 #da2   law of1 in favor of 
women physicians1 #bia4  ,henschel1 ,g41
 #bhg and #bhh footnote4  ,heptameron1  
#gj4  ,heredity1 as a basis for woman's 
equality with man1 #cii4  ,herpyllis1   
#aj4  ,herrad1 #de1 #dh1 #di4           
,herschel1 ,caroline1 #aei1 #ahb-aij1   
#cfb1 #cgg1 #cgi1 #chc footnote2        

discoveries of1 #ahc1 #ahe2             
astronomical writings of1 #ahf2   honors
 of1 #ahg-ahi4  ,herschel1 ,mrs4 ,john1 
quoted1 #ahg1 #chj footnote4  ,herschel1
 ,sir ,john1 #aei1 #ahb1 #ahf4          
,herschel1 ,sir ,william1 #ahb-ahe1 #ahe
 and #ahf footnote1 #cgh4  ,hertzen1    
#bgb footnote4  ,hetaerae1 the1 #i-ab1  
#ah1 #dad2   mistresses of ,french      
salons compared with1 #ib4  ,hevilius1  
#age4  ,hierophilos1 #bfi4  ,hill1      
,georgiana1 ,women in ,english ,life1   
#da4  ,hinckley1 ,mary ,h41 #bed4       
,hipparchia1 #h4  ,histoire d',henriette
 d',angleterre1 #ia4  ,histoire des     
,insects de l',europe1 by ,frau ,merian1
 #bdb4  ,histoire des ,sciences et des  
,savants depuis ,deux ,siecles1         
,candolle's1 #cib4  ,history of the ,art
 of ,antiquity1 by ,winckelmann1 #caa4  
,hopital1 ,marquis de l'1 #cge4         
,horace1 #e1 #ba footnote1 #aac4  ,horae
 ,semiticae1 #ccj4  ,hortensia1 #bg4    
,hortus ,deliciarum1 by ,herrad1 #dh1   
#di4  ,hospital1 first1 founded by      

,fabiola1 #bgb4  ,hotel de ,rambouillet1
 #hh-hi4  ,houllerigue1 ,m4 ,l41 #bbf   
footnote4  ,how the ,codex ,was ,found1 
by ,mrs4 ,gibson1 #ccj4  ,howard1 ,john1
 #bha footnote4  ,hroswitha1 #dc-de4    
,huber1 ,mme41 #cga1 #chc footnote4     
,huber1 ,francois1 #cga4  ,hudson1 ,w4  
,h41 on the dramas of ,hroswitha1 #dd4  
,huggins1 ,lady1 #aif4  ,humboldt1      
,alexander von1 #afj1 #ahh1 #baa1 #baf1 
#bef4  ,huschke1 #abb4  ,huxley1 #bea1  
#cga1 #cgg1 #chg1 #chh2   on physical   
disability of women1 #abg1 #abh4        
,huxley1 ,leonard1 #chh footnote4       
,hyde1 ,dr4 ,ida ,h41 #bed4  ,hyghens1  
,constantine1 #id4  ,hypatia1 #bce2     
achievements of1 in mathematics1        
#acg-ada2   inventions of1 #adj2        
letters of ,synesius to1 #ada2          
achievements of1 in astronomy1 #afh2    
attainments of1 in natural philosophy   
and astronomy1 #aii-bja4   ,icthyology1 
#bed4  ,iliad1 translated by ,mme4      
,dacier1 #hb2   quotation from1 #bfg4   
,imperial ,academy of ,sciences of ,st4 

,petersburg1 #bbh4  ,in ,artem          
,analyticam ,isagoge1 by ,francois      
,viete1 #cfc4  ,in the ,shadow of       
,sinai1 by ,mrs4 ,lewis1 #cbg footnote1 
#ccj4  ,incarnata1 ,maria1 physician1   
#big4  ,india1 position of woman in1 #e4
  ,insects1 destructive1 ,eleanor       
,ormerod's study of1 #bdg2   her famous 
leaflets on1 #bdi1 #bej4  ,insects1     
microscopic1 ,anna ,comstock's work on1 
#bed4  ,institut de ,saint ,cyr1 #hc1   
#he4  ,institutions de ,physique1 by    
,marquise du ,chatelet1 #aeb1 #bjb4     
,instituzioni ,analitiche1 by ,maria    
,gaetana ,agnesi1 #gh1 #add-aej1 #bbh4  
,inventions of ,hypatia1 #adj4          
,inventors1 women as1 #ccd-cee4         
,isabella of ,castile1 #bij1 #chj4      
,isabella of ,spain1 #ei1 #fh4  ,isis1  
inventions of1 #cce4  ,isocrates1 #aj4  
,isotta of ,rimini1 #ei4  ,italy1 women 
of the ,renaissance in1 #ee1 #eg-fh2    
women in1 during the post-,renaissance  
periods1 #gf-ha2   women mathematicians 
in1 #adb-aea2   education of women in1  

#baj1 #bie1 #bif4   ,jacobi1 ,dr4 ,mary 
,putnam1 #abh4  ,jameson1 ,mrs41 work   
of1 in ,christian iconography1 #cac-caf4
  ,jansen1 ,mme41 #aif4  ,jaquier1      
,pere1 #aeb4  ,jeffrey1 ,lord1 #ia4     
,jenner1 #bii footnote4  ,jerusalem     
,delivered1 #bgf4  ,jesus ,college1     
,cambridge1 nunnery of ,st4 ,radegund   
transformed into1 #da4  ,jex-,blake1    
,sophia1 physician1 #bfi footnote1      
#cje-cjg4  ,johnson1 ,dr41 #ih1 #aac2   
quoted1 #daj1 #dab and #dac footnote4   
,jonson1 ,ben1 #fg4  ,joseph ,,ii of    
,austria1 #bcg4  ,journey in ,brazil1 by
 ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,agassiz1 #cgi4  ,joya1 
,isabella de1 #fh4  ,juana1 daughter of 
,isabella the ,catholic1 #fh4  ,julius  
,,ii1 #cji4  ,juvenal1 quoted1 #bj      
footnote1 #cj4   ,kablick1 ,josephine1  
#bdb-bdc4  ,kant1 ,immanuel1 on woman's 
incapacity for mathematics1 #acf4       
,kaschewarow1 ,mme41 physician1 #cjd4   
,kelvin1 ,lord1 #bbg4  ,kepler1 #cge4   
,kies1 ,mary1 #cdf2   first ,united     
,states patent awarded to1 #cdd4        

,kingsley1 ,charles1 #beg4  ,kingsley1  
,george1 #beg4  ,kingsley1 ,mary ,h41   
,african explorer1 #bef-beh1 #bfd4      
,kirch1 ,gottfried1 #agc4  ,kirch1      
,maria1 #agc1 #agd4  ,kirchhoff1        
,arthur1 investigation of1 regarding    
intellectual     capacity of women1     
#abi-acb4  ,kirwan's ,essay on          
,phlogiston1 #bad4  ,klumpke1 ,anna1    
#aid4  ,klumpke1 ,augusta1 #aid         
footnote1 #bij footnote4  ,klumpke1     
,dorothea1 #aic1 #aid4  ,klumpke1       
,julia1 #aid4  ,knight1 ,miss1 #cea4    
,koenig1 #aeb4  ,kovalevsky1 ,sonya1    
#acc1 #afa-afe1 #cig2   weight of brain 
of1 #abc and footnote2   studies of1 in 
,germany1 #afb2   appointment of1 to    
chair of higher mathematics1 in         
,university     of ,stockholm1 #afb1    
#afc2   ,prix ,bordin won by1 #afc4     
,krauss1 ,dr41 #cac quoted1 #cag quoted4
  ,kronecker1 in praise of ,sonya       
,kovalevsky1 #afd4   ,labe1 ,louise1    
#ga4  ,la ,bruyiere1 #ajh4  ,la ,caze   
prize awarded to the ,curies1 #bbh4  ,la

 ,chappelle1 ,mme4 ,marie ,louise1      
physician1 #bic1 #bid4  ,la ,condamine1 
#bfb4  ,la ,cruz1 ,juana de1 #fi4       
,laelia1 ,cicero's tribute to1 #bc4  ,la
 ,fayette1 ,la ,comtesse de1 #hh1 #ia4  
,la ,fontaine1 #hh1 #agb1 #agc4         
,lagrange1 #aed1 #baf4  ,la ,harpe1     
quoted1 #ij4  ,lais1 #aj1 #aa4          
,lalande1 #agh1 #agi2   in praise of    
,mme4 ,lepaute1 #ahj1 #aha2   in praise 
of ,mme4 ,lefrancais1 #ahb4  ,lamartine1
 #bef4  ,lamennais1 de1 quoted1 #chh4   
,lamy1 ,m4 ,etienne1 quoted1 #dji1 #daj4
  ,landi1 ,rosanna ,somaglia1 of ,milan1
 #gf4  ,langdon1 ,fannie ,e41 #bed4     
,lanzi1 in praise of ,suor ,plantilla   
,nelli1 #fj4  ,la ,perse1 ,la ,chaldee  
et la ,susiane1 by ,mme4 ,dieulafoy1    
#cbj footnote4  ,laplace1 #baf1 #bde4   
,laplace's ,mechanique ,celeste1 ,mary  
,somerville's     translation of1 #aei1 
#baa4  ,lapse and ,conversion of        
,theophilus1 by ,hroswitha1 #de4  ,la   
,rochefoucauld1 #hh4  ,lasthenia1 #aa4  
,la ,vigne1 ,anne de1 #hb4  ,lavoisier1 

,mme4 ,antoine ,laurent1 #bad-baf1 #bbe1
 #cfb4  ,laws of ,plato1 #ae1 #af4      
,leavitt1 ,henrietta ,s41 #aie4         
,lebrixa1 ,francisca de1 #fh4  ,lecky1  
on dissolution of convents1 #da4        
,lefebre1 ,mme41 #cec4  ,le ,fevre1     
,tanquil1 #hb4  ,lefrancais1 ,mme41     
#ahb4  ,legendre1 #aed4  ,legends of the
 ,madonna1 by ,mrs4 ,jameson1 #caf4     
,legion of ,honor1 decoration of1       
refused by ,pierre ,curie1 #bbg2        
chevalier of1 conferred on ,mme4        
,dieulafoy1 #cba4  ,legrange1 #aee4     
,leibnitz1 #agc1 #bjb1 #cfi1 #cgj4      
,leland1 ,eva ,f41 #aie4  ,lemmon1      
,sarah ,a4 ,plummer1 #bed4  ,leo ,x1    
#ei4  ,leontium1 #h1 #aj4  ,leoparda1   
physician1 #bga4  ,lepaute1 ,mme4       
,hortense1 #hg1 #cfb2   achievements of1
 in astronomy1 #agh-ahb4  ,lepinska1    
,melanie1 #cjg footnote4  ,lespinasse1  
,mlle41 #hi1 #ij1 #ia4  ,lewis1 ,mrs4   
,agnes ,smith1 archaeologist1 #cbg-ccc4 
,liber ,compositae ,medicinae1 by ,st4  
,hildegard1 #bgh4  ,liber ,simplicis    

,medicinae1 by ,st4 ,hildegard1 #bgh4   
,liber ,subtilitatum ,diversarum        
,naturarum ,creaturarum1 #bcc4  ,liebig1
 #bag1 #bdg4  ,linnaeus1 #cjj footnote4 
,lipmann1 ,professor1 #bbb4             
,literature1 women in1 in ancient       
,greece1 #a-ah2   in ancient ,rome1     
#bg-cj2   achievements of ,paula and    
,eustochium in1 #ca-cd2   achievements  
of women in1 in ,italy during the       
,renaissance1 #eh-fb2   women of to-day 
in1 #djf4  ,livia1 #bd4  ,livingstone1  
,david1 #cgc1 #cgd4  ,livre des ,fais et
 ,bonnes ,meurs du sage ,roy ,charles   
,v1 by ,christine de     ,pisan1 #ajg4  
,livre des ,faits d',armes et de        
,chevalerie1 by ,christine de ,pisan1   
#ajg4  ,lombard1 ,peter1 on equality of 
woman1 #dg footnote4  ,lombroso1 #aji4  
,london ,chemical ,society1 #bbh4       
,london1 ,university of1 attitude of1   
toward women1     #ed footnote1 #bjg1   
#bhh1 #cje4  ,longfellow1 #caf2 quoted1 
#cgi4  ,losa1 ,isabella1 #fh4  ,louis   
,,xii1 #ei4  ,louis ,agassiz1 ,his ,life

 and ,correspondence1 #cgi4  ,louise of 
,saxe-,gotha1 ,duchesse1 #agh1 #agi4    
,lungo1 ,isidoro del1 #cfa footnote4    
,luther1 attitude of1 toward women1 #ge4
  ,luynes1 ,mlle4 de1 #hb4  ,lyceum of  
ancient ,athens1 admission of women to1 
#aj4  ,lyell1 ,mrs4 ,charles1 #cgc4     
,mace1 ,hanna1 #aie4  ,machina          
,coelestis1 of ,hevilius1 #age4         
,macpherson1 ,geraldine1 #caf footnote4 
,maintenon1 ,mme4 de1 #hc1 #hd1 #he4    
,maistre1 ,count ,joseph de1 quoted1    
#cie1 #cif4  ,malacorona1 ,rudolfo1     
#bhe1 #bhf4  ,malatesta1 ,battista1 #fb4
  ,malvezzi1 ,virginia1 #bih4  ,mangord1
 daughters of1 #ed4  ,manning1 ,mrs4 ,a4
 ,h41 #ceb4  ,mantua1 ,marchioness of1  
#caj1 #caa4  ,manzolini1 ,anna ,morandi1
 #bcf-bch1 #bih4  ,marburg1 ,university 
of1 #bid4  ,marcella1 #ca4  ,marcet1    
,mrs41 #cgb1 #cgc4  ,marchina1 ,marta1  
#gh4  ,margaret of ,navarre1 #gj4       
,margarita1 physician1 #big4  ,maria    
,theresa1 ,empress1 #adg4  ,marine      
invertebrates1 ,mary ,rathbun's work on1

 #bed4  ,marine life1 ,sophia           
,pereyaslawzewa's study of1 #bdd1 #bde4 
,markham1 ,clements ,r41 #cjj footnote4 
,marlow1 #fg4  ,marmontel1 #ij4  ,marot1
 ,clement1 #ff4  ,marriage1 intellectual
 development of women and1 #dab1 #dae1  
#daf4  ,martia1 #cef1 #cfa4  ,martial1  
quoted1 #bj footnote1 #bh1 #cj4  ,mary  
,kingsley ,society of ,west ,africa1    
,the1 #beh4  ,mary ,stuart1 #fi4  ,masi1
 ,ernesto1 #bjh footnote4  ,mason1 ,o4  
,t41 #cdc footnote4  ,massachusetts     
,institute of ,technology1 #bag1 #bbj4  
,massalsky1 ,princess ,helena ,kolzoff  
7,doria d',istria71 traveler1 #bee4     
,mastellagri1 ,maria1 #bih4  ,matapi1   
the1 woman's invention of1 #cdj4        
,materia medica1 #bgh4  ,mathematics1   
women in1 #acf-aff4  ,mather1 ,sarah1   
#cde4  ,matilda1 ,abbess of             
,quedlinburg1 #df1 #eb4  ,matildas of   
,helfta1 #di4  ,matteo1 ,thomasia de1   
physician1 #big4  ,maupertuis1 #aeb4    
,maury1 ,antonia ,c41 #aie4  ,mazois1   
,fr41 #cab4  ,mazzuchelli1 quoted1 #adb 

footnote4  ,meaux1 ,c41 #bhh footnote4  
,mechanique ,celeste1 ,laplace's1 ,mary 
,somerville's translation of1 #aei4     
,mechanism of the ,heavens1 ,mary       
,somerville's1 #aei4  ,medaglia1        
,diamante1 #adb4  ,medical women in     
,greece1 #bfg-bga2   in ,rome1 #bga-bgd2
   in ,england and ,germany1 #bij-bie4  
,medical ,women--,a ,thesis and a       
,history1 by ,dr4 ,sophia ,jex-,blake1  
#cjg footnote4  ,medici1 ,michele1 #bcg 
footnote4  ,medicine1 attitude of       
,italian and ,anglo-,saxon universities 
toward women     students of1 #hj2      
women in1 #bff-cjh4                     
,medico-,chirurgical ,academy of ,st4   
,petersburg1 #cjd4  ,melanchthon1       
daughter of1 #gj4  ,memoire sur le ,feu1
 by ,marquise du ,chatelet1 #bjb4       
,memoirs on ,chemistry1 by ,lavoisier1  
#bae4  ,memorial de l',art des          
,accouchements1 by ,mme4 ,bovin1 #bid4  
,menagius1 #acg4  ,menander1 #aj4       
,mendelssohn1 ,fanny1 #bfd4             
,mendelssohn1 ,felix1 #bfd1 #cei4       

,mendoza1 ,dona ,maria ,pacheco de1 #fh4
  ,mercuriade1 physician1 #bhf4         
,merian1 ,dorothea and ,helena1 #bda4   
,merian1 ,maria ,sibylla1 naturalist1   
#bdj-bdb4  ,merriam1 ,florence1 #bed4   
,messia ,castula1 duumvira1 #bg4        
,metallurgy1 #bch1 #bdj4  ,metaneira1   
#aj4  ,metcalf1 ,betsy1 #cea4           
,meteorologico ,ozonometric station at  
,rome organized by     ,caterina        
,scarpellini1 #aib4  ,metradora1        
physician1 #bgj4  ,mexican ,national    
,museum1 #cbd4  ,meyer1 ,ernest ,h4 ,f41
 #bcd footnote4  ,michaelangelo1 #cei2  
,vittoria ,colonna and1 #fb1 #fe4       
,michaelis1 #cab footnote4  ,michelet1  
quoted1 #gj4  ,middle ,ages1 the        
education of women during1 #cd-ed4      
,mill1 ,john ,stuart1 #aji2   on        
intellectual capacity of women1 #acd2   
quoted1 #cha1 #chg1 #cig1 #cih4         
,miller1 ,olive ,thorne1 #bed4  ,milton1
 quoted1 #ii4  ,mineralogy1 #bch1 #bef2 
,herr ,kablick's study of1 #bdc4        
,minerva1 #cch4  ,mines1 ,denver ,school

 of1 #bed4  ,mining1 ,mme4 de           
,beausoleil's treatment of1 #bdj4       
,mitchell1 ,maria1 achievements of1 in  
astronomy1 #aia1 #aib4  ,moliere1 #cj1  
#ij2 plays of1 #he-hg2   ,femmes        
,savantes1 and ,precieuses ,ridicules   
of1 #agb2   ,l',ecole des ,femmes of1   
#dab4  ,molluoca1 #bed4  ,molza1        
,tarquinia1 #fj4  ,monasteries1 as      
centers of learning in ,middle ,ages1   
#ce4  ,mondino1 #bcg footnote4          
,monographie de ,turbellaries de la ,mer
 ,noire1 by ,sophia     ,pereyaslawzewa1
 #bde4  ,montagu1 ,lady ,mary ,wortley1 
quoted1 #if1 #ig2 #bii footnote4        
,montaigne1 attitude of1 toward women1  
#ge4  ,montalembert1 quoted1 #cg1 #ch4  
,montespan1 ,mme4 de1 #hd4              
,montesquieu1 attitude of1 toward women1
 #ic4  ,montmorency1 ,charlotte de1 #hh4
  ,montpensier1 ,duchess of1 #hd1 #hg4  
,morandi-,menzolini1 ,anna1 #gi4        
,morati1 ,fulvia ,olympia1 #fb1 #gj4    
,more1 ,sir ,thomas1 daughters of1 #fi4 
,morella1 ,juana1 #fh1 #fi4             

,morphology1 cellular1 #bed4            
,motherhood1 intellectual development   
and1 #dae1 #daf4  ,mozart1 #cei4        
,mueller1 ,john1 of ,koenigsburg1 #agj4 
,murat1 ,joachim1 #caa4  ,murfeldt1     
,mary ,e41 #bed4  ,murphy1 ,anna4 ,see  
,jameson1 ,mrs4  ,myrtides1 #ag4        
,myrus1 #ag4   ,nairne1 ,lady1 #bfd4    
,naples1 school of medicine at1 #big4   
,napoleon1 #aee1 #bji1 #bii1 #caa1 #cac2
   weight of brain of1 #abj4  ,natural  
sciences1 women in1 #bcc-bfd4           
,naturalists1 ,congress of1 in #ahic1   
#bde4  ,nautical ,almanac1 ,miss        
,mitchell1 compiler for1 #aia1 #aib4    
,navarre1 ,pierre de1 quoted1 #de       
footnote4  ,navier1 #aef4  ,navigation1 
,janet ,taylor's works on1 #afa4        
,necker1 ,mme41 #bha footnote4  ,nelli1 
,suor ,plantilla1 #fj4  ,newnham        
,college1 #ajj2   ,jane ,e4 ,harrison's 
lectures at1 #ccb4  ,newton1 #bjb1 #bjg1
 #bji1 #cga1 #chd4  ,newtonism for      
,women1 ,algarotti's1 #aeb4  ,newton's  
,principia1 #bjf2   ,mme4 du ,chatelet's

 translation of1 #aeb1 #age1 #agf1 #bja4
  ,new ,york ,infirmary1 #cjc4          
,nicarete1 #aa4  ,nightingale1          
,florence1 #bfg1 #bgd1 #bha footnote4   
,ninon de ,lenclos1 #aa1 #ij1 #ib4      
,nobel prize1 in chemistry awarded to   
,mme4 ,curie by ,king of ,sweden1 #bbh2 
in physics awarded to the ,curies and   
,m4 ,h4 ,becquerel1 #bbh2   won by      
,madame ,curie1 #cid4  ,noe-,candedi1   
,maddelena1 #bih4  ,nogorola1 ,ginevra1 
#eh footnote4  ,nogorola1 ,isotta1 #eh  
footnote4  ,nossidis1 #ag4  ,nouvelles  
,observations sur les ,abeilles1 by     
,francois ,huber1 #cgb4  ,noves1 ,laura 
de1 #ceg1 #cfb4  ,nuns1 ,anglo-,saxon1  
#cf-db2   ,german1 #dc-ej2              
accomplishments of1 #ea2   influence of1
 #ea-ec2   medical work of1 #bgd-bha4   
,nur ,mahal1 #ccf4  ,nuttall1 ,zelia1   
archaeologist1 #cbb-cbd4  ,nutting1 ,m4 
,adelaide1 #bhj footnote4   ,oclo1      
,mama1 inventions of1 #ccf4  ,octavia1  
#bd4  ,odyssey1 #bfg2   translated by   
,mme4 ,dacier1 #hb2   quotation from1   

#bfg4  ,on ,curves and ,surfaces of     
,higher ,order1 by ,mary ,somerville1   
#afj4  ,on ,molecular and ,microscopic  
,science1 by ,mary ,somerville1 #afj1   
#bab4  ,on the ,theory of ,differences1 
by ,mary ,somerville1 #afj4  ,opuscula  
of ,anna ,maria von ,schurman1 #ie4     
,ordronaux1 ,j41 #bhc and #bhd footnote4
  ,origenia1 physician1 #bgj4  ,origin  
de l',homme et de ,societes1 by         
,clemence ,royer1 #bdf4  ,orlando       
,furioso1 #bgf4  ,ormerod1 ,eleanor1    
economic entomologist1 #bdf-beb1 #bfd2  
entomological publications of1 #bdi-bej2
   important positions of1 #bea1 #beb4  
,ornithology1 #bed4  ,orr1 ,m4 ,a41     
#aif4  ,ostia1 ,fabiola's hospital at1  
#bgb4  ,otto ,,iii1 #eb4  ,ovid1 #e2 in 
praise of ,livia1 #bd4  ,oxford1 ,h4    
,rashdall1 #bhh footnote4  ,oxford1     
,university of1 funds from suppressed   
convents devoted to1 #da1 #db2          
attitude of1 toward women1 #fe1 #hj1    
#ajj1 #bcj4  ,oxygen1 discoveries of1   
#baf2   discovery of1 by ,lavoisier1    

#baf4  ,ozanam1 quoted1 #ee4   ,padua1  
#bif4  ,padua1 ,university of1 ,elena   
,cornaro ,piscopia honored by1 #gg4     
,palatine1 ,princess1 #hb4              
,paleontology1 ,frau ,kablick's study   
of1 #bdb-bdc4  ,palgrave1 comparison of 
,milton and ,caedmon by1 #ch4  ,pallas  
,athene1 inventions of1 #cce4  ,palmer1 
,mrs4 ,margaretta1 of ,yale1 #aie4      
,paradise ,lost1 quoted from #chi4      
,paris1 medical work of women in1       
#bhh-bij1 #bib2   ,faculty of ,medicine 
in1 opposition by1 to ,jacobe ,felicie1 
#bhi4  ,parthenay1 ,catherine de1 #cfb4 
,pascal1 #hb1 #aac1 #adj4  ,pascal1     
,gilberte and ,jaqueline1 #hb4          
,passions de l',ame of ,descartes1 #cgj4
  ,pasteur1 ,louis1 #aac1 #aad1 #bbf1   
#bdg1 #bdh4  ,pasteur1 ,mme41 #cgf1     
#cgg1 #chc footnote4  ,patch1 ,edith    
,m41 #bed4  ,patents granted to women   
inventors1 #cdd-cee4  ,patterson1       
,florence ,wambaugh1 work in1 #bed4     
,patterson1 ,florence ,wambaugh1 #bed4  
,paula1 #ca-cd1 #ceg1 #cfa4  ,pavia1    

#bif2   ,university of1 degree conferred
 on ,maria ,pellegrina ,amoretti by1    
#gh4  ,peckham1 ,elizabeth ,w41 #bed4   
,pennington1 ,lady1 quoted1 #ih         
footnote4  ,pennsylvania1 ,university   
of1 #cbb4  ,pereyaslawzewa1 ,sophia1    
biologist1 #bdd-bde4  ,perez1 ,antonio1 
#fh4  ,perez1 ,gregoria1 #fh4  ,perez1  
,luisa1 #fh4  ,pericles1 quoted1 #d2    
influence of ,aspasia on1 #ab-ad4       
,perictione1 #h4  ,perugino1 #ff4       
,petraccini-,terretti1 ,maria1 #gi4     
,petrarch1 #ceg1 #ceh footnote4         
,pfeiffer1 ,ida1 traveler1 #bee1 #bef4  
,phelps1 ,almira ,lincoln1 #bed4        
,phidias1 #ab4  ,philosophy1            
achievements of women in1 in ancient    
,greece1 #h2   ,clemence ,royer's books 
on1 #bde4  ,phryne1 #aa4  ,physica1     
#bcc1 #bcd4  ,physica1 by ,st4          
,hildegard1 #bgh4  ,physical ,geography1
 by ,mary ,somerville1 #afj1 #baa4      
,physical power1 relation of1 to mental 
energy1 arguments based     on1         
#aaa-aae1 #abg4  ,physicians1 women1 in 

,italy1 #bie-cjj2   ,american attitude  
toward1 #cjj-cjd2   ,see also ,medical  
women4  ,physics1 women in1 #aig-bac2   
,clemence ,royer's books on1 #bde4      
,physiology1 vegetable1 ,florence       
,patterson's work in1 #bed4  ,pierry1   
,mme4 du1 #agh1 #agi4  ,pindar1 defeated
 by ,corinna1 #f4  ,pio ,albergo        
,trivulzio1 ,maria ,gaetana ,agnesi in  
charge of1 #adi4  ,pioneer ,work in     
,opening the ,medical ,profession to    
,women1 by ,elizabeth     ,blackwell1   
#cjb footnote4  ,pisa1 ,leonardo da1    
#ada4  ,pisan1 ,christine de1 #ec1      
#ajf-ajh2   on intellectual capacity of 
women1 #acd1 #ace4  ,piscopia1 ,elena   
,cornaro1 of ,venice1 #gg1 #adb1 #adc4  
,planisphere1 invention of1 by ,hypatia1
 #adj1 #bjj4  ,platearius1 ,john1 #bhd4 
,plato1 #aj1 #aa1 #acg2   in praise of  
,sappho1 #e2   quoted1 #aa2   influence 
of ,aspasia on1 #ac1 #af2   on education
 of women1 #ae1 #af2   on the seclusion 
of ,athenian women1 #bf1 #bg2   ideal   
of1 of equal rights for women1 #cii4    

,pliny1 #bgj2   quoted1 #bh1 #bi4       
,plotinus1 #bjj4  ,plutarch1 #bb1 #afg2 
quoted1 #d footnote1 #ie2   in praise of
 ,cornelia1 #bf4  ,poetry1 achievements 
of women in1 in ancient ,greece1 #e-g2  
in ancient ,rome1 #bh2   in the         
,renaissance1 #fa1 #fb4  ,pogson1 ,miss1
 in the ,observatory of ,madras1 ,india1
 #aif4  ,poisson1 #aed4  ,polignac1     
,cardinal1 #bjd4  ,politian1 #fc1 #gc4  
,political economy1 ,clemence ,royer's  
work in1 #bde4  ,polonium1 discovery of1
 by ,mme4 ,curie1 #bbc4  ,polydamna1    
physician1 #bfg1 #bfh4  ,pompeii1       
excavations of ,queen ,caroline at1     
#caa1 #cab4  ,pope1 #ih1 #aac4  ,porcia1
 #bc4  ,portico1 the admission of women 
to1 #aj4  ,portinari1 ,beatrice1 #ceg4  
,poupard1 ,mary ,e41 #cdg footnote4     
,pratique des ,accouchements1 by ,mme4  
,la ,chapelle1 #bid4  ,praxilla1 #f1    
#ag4  ,praxiteles1 #aa4  ,precieuses    
,ridicules1 of ,moliere1 #cj1 #he-hg1   
#agb4  ,priestly1 #baf4  ,primitive     
,athens as ,described by ,thucydides1 by

 ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1     #ccb footnote4
  ,princesse de ,cleves1 #ia4           
,principia1 ,newton's1 ,emilie du       
,chatelet's translation of1     #aeb1   
#age1 #agf1 #bja4  ,principia           
,philosophiae of ,descartes1 #cfi1 #cgj4
  ,priscianus1 ,theodorus1 #bga4  ,prix 
,bordin1 won by ,sonya ,kovalevsky1     
#afc4  ,problema ,practicum of ,anna    
,van ,schurman1 #ie footnote4           
,procopius1 #bgg footnote4  ,proctor1   
,mary1 #aif4  ,proctor1 ,r4 ,a41 #aif4  
,prodromus ,astronomiae1 of ,hevilius1  
#age4  ,prolegomena to the ,study of    
,greek ,religion by ,jane ,e4 ,harrison1
     #ccb footnote4  ,prony1 #baf4      
,proudhon1 #aaa1 #bde1 #ccd1 #cch1 #cdf4
  ,psalter1 ,latin1 ,st4 ,jerome's      
version of1 corrected by ,paula     and 
,eustochium1 #cb1 #cc4  ,psychology1 as 
a basis of woman's equality with man1   
#cii4  ,public affairs1 woman's         
influence in1 in ancient ,rome1 #bc-be4 
,pudentilla1 #cef4  ,punch1 quoted1 #cjb
 footnote4  ,pusey1 ,e4 ,b41 #aac4      

,putnam1 ,mary ,c41 physician1 #bij     
footnote2 #cjd4  ,pythagoras1 #acg1     
#aig1 #aii4   ,queensland ,amalie       
,dietrich's botanical work in1 #bdd4    
,quintilian1 ,hortensia praised by1 #bg4
  ,quintus ,maximus1 #bgc4   ,rabelais1 
#eg2   attitude of1 toward women1 #ge4  
,radcliffe ,college1 #bee4  ,radium1    
discovery of1 by the ,curies1 #bbd4     
,rambouillet1 ,marquise de1 #hh1 #hi4   
,randolph1 ,harriet1 #bed4  ,raphael's  
,school of ,athens1 #ada4  ,rashdall1   
quoted1 #ee1 #ef4  ,rasponi1 ,donna     
,felice1 #fj4  ,rathbun1 ,mary ,j41     
#bed4  ,recognitions of ,clement        
translated by ,margaret ,gibson1        
#ccj footnote4  ,red ,cross1 nurses of1 
#cjh4  ,reduction and ,arrangement in   
the ,form of ,catalogue1 in ,zones1 of  
,all the     ,star-clusters and ,nebulae
 ,observed by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel in ,his
 ,sweeps1 by     ,caroline ,herschel1   
#ahf4  ,reflexions sur le ,bonheur1 by  
,emilie du ,chatelet1 #aec4  ,regimen   
,santatis ,salernitanum1 #bhb4          

,regiomontanus1 #agj4  ,reinhardt1 ,anna
 ,barbara1 #aed4  ,renaissance1 #cji1   
#caj2   women poets of1 #g2   dates of1 
#ed-ef2   women and education during1   
#ed-ge2   in ,italy1 #ee2   literary    
exponents of1 #eg2   women of1 in       
,italy1 #eg-fh2   women and education   
following1 #gf-aje4  ,renan1 in praise  
of ,mme4 ,royer1 #bdf4  ,renaud1 ,a41   
#cdc footnote4  ,renee1 ,duchess of     
,ferrara1 #fe1 #ff4  ,reni1 ,guido1 #fa4
  ,renzi1 ,s4 de1 #bhg and #bhh1        
footnote4  ,republic of ,plato1 #ae1    
#af4  ,rerum ,medicarum1 by ,theodorus  
,priscianus1 #bga4  ,restitution de     
,pluton1 by ,baroness de ,beausoleil1   
#bch4  ,retzius1 ,prof41 #abd4  ,reuss1 
,dr4 ,f4 ,a41 quoted on ,st4 ,hildegard1
 #bgi4  ,ribera1 ,catherine1 #fh4       
,richards1 ,mrs4 ,ellen ,h41 sanitary   
chemist1 #bag-bbj4  ,richelieu1         
,cardinal1 #hh1 #id1 #bci4  ,ringle1    
,chevalier1 #bch4  ,ritter1 ,frederic1  
#cfc footnote4  ,ritter1 ,karl1 #bef4   
,roberval1 #agb4  ,roccati1 ,cristina1  

#adb4  ,rochechouart1 ,elizabeth de1    
#hb4  ,rochechouart1 ,gabrielle de1 #hb4
  ,rohan1 ,anne de1 #hb4  ,rohan1       
,marie-,eleanore de1 #hb4  ,rohan1      
,princesse de1 #cfb4  ,romana1          
,francesca de1 physician1 #bhf4  ,rome1 
ancient woman and education in1 #ah-cd2 
medical women in1 #bga-bgd2   medical   
faculty of1 #big4  ,ronsard1 quoted1 #gj
 footnote4  ,roentgen1 #bbc4  ,rosales1 
,isabella1 #ade4  ,rossi1 ,giovanni     
,battista de1 #cbf4  ,rossi1 ,properzia 
de1 #fj1 #bih4  ,rousseau1 #dac2        
quoted1 #cj footnote2   attitude of1    
toward women1 #ib1 #ic4  ,royal         
,agricultural ,society of ,england1     
#bea4  ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #beh4  
,royal ,astronomical ,society1 ,mary    
,somerville elected to1 #aei2   gold    
medal bestowed upon ,caroline ,herschel 
by1 #ahf1 #ahg2   ,caroline ,herschel's 
books published by1 #ahf2   ,caroline   
,herschel elected to1 #ahh4  ,royal     
,college of ,science for ,ireland1      
comparative standing of men and women   

in1 #abh1 #abi4  ,royal ,historical and 
,archaeological ,association of         
,ireland1 #caf4  ,royal ,institution of 
,great ,britain1 #bbh4  ,royal ,irish   
,academy1 election of ,caroline         
,herschel to1 #ahi4  ,royal ,society of 
,great ,britain1 attitude of1 toward    
women1 #bcj1 #cic1 #cid4  ,royal        
,swedish ,academy1 #bbh4  ,royer1       
,clemence ,augustine1 scientist1        
#bde-bdf4  ,rudolphine ,tables1 ,maria  
,cunitz's abridgment of1 #aga4          
,ruemker1 ,mme41 #aia4  ,rusticana1     
#cef4  ,ruteboeuf1 in praise of         
,trotula1 #bhe4  ,ryssel1 ,professor    
,v41 #cca footnote4   ,sabatier1 ,paul1 
#cei footnote4  ,sabbadini1 quoted1 #ei 
footnote4  ,sabliere1 ,mme4 de la1      
#aga-agc4  ,sacred and ,legendary ,art  
by ,mrs4 ,jameson1 #cac1 #cae1 #caf4    
,st4 ,andrews1 ,university of1 #ccb4    
,st4 ,augustine1 #bab4  ,st4 ,boniface1 
#ci4  ,st4 ,clara1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cfa4    
,st4 ,cyr1 ,institut de1 #hc1 #hd1 #he4 
,saint-,evremond1 #hh1 #cij4  ,st4      

,hilda1 ,abbess of ,whitby1 #cf-ci4     
,st4 ,hildegard1 ,abbess of the ,convent
 of ,st4 ,rupert1 #de-dh1 #bcc-bce2     
knowledge of astronomy of1 #afi1 #agj2  
as physician1 #bgg-bha4  ,st4 ,jerome1  
#ca-cc2   quoted1 #bgc4  ,st4 ,jerome's 
,vulgate1 #ceg4  ,st4 ,john of ,beverly1
 #cg4  ,st4 ,john's ,college1           
,cambridge1 endowment of1 by funds from 
suppressed     convents1 #da1 #db4  ,st4
 ,lioba1 ,abbess of ,bishopsheim1 #ci1  
#dj4  ,st4 ,nicerata1 physician1 #bgb4  
,st4 ,radegund1 ,abbess of ,poitiers1   
#cf4  ,st4 ,theodosia1 physician1 #bgb4 
,salerno1 #ec1 #ed footnotes1 #bif4     
,salerno1 ,university of1 #bha-bhh2     
women as students and professors of     
medicine in1 #hj1 #bha-bhh4  ,salons1   
,french1 #hh-ib4  ,samarium1 discovery  
of1 #bai4  ,sand1 ,george1 #bdf1 #bfd4  
,sanitation1 study of1 by ,mrs4 ,ellen  
,h4 ,richards1 #bag-bbj4  ,sapienza1    
chair in1 offered to ,marta ,marchina1  
#gh4  ,sappho1 #e-h1 #ag4  ,sarti1 #bih4
  ,satire contre les ,femmes1           

,boileau's1 #agb4  ,saussure1 de1 #bae4 
,savari1 ,mme4 ,pauline1 #bca footnote4 
,saxony1 privileges of abbesses in1 #eb4
  ,scala1 ,alessandra1 #ei4             
,scarpellini1 ,caterina1 #aib4          
,scarpellini1 ,feliciano1 #aib4         
,scheele1 #baf4  ,schiffi1 ,chiara4 ,see
 ,st4 ,clara4  ,schiller1 #aac4         
,schliemann1 ,dr4 ,henry1 #cag1 #cah1   
#cai4  ,schliemann1 ,mme4 ,sophia1      
archaeologist1 #cag1 #cah1 #cai1 #cfb4  
,scholasticism1 #bcc4  ,school of       
,athens1 ,raphael's1 #ada4              
,schopenhauer1 #aaa1 #dad4  ,schubert1  
#cei4  ,schumann1 #cei4  ,scipio        
,africanus1 ,cornelia1 daughter of1 #bb4
  ,scott1 ,miss ,charlotte ,angas1 #aff4
  ,scudery1 ,madeleine de1 #hh1 #ia4    
,scutari1 #bgd4  ,sebastopol1 biological
 station at1 #bdd4  ,select ,narratives 
of ,holy ,women translated by ,agnes    
,lewis1     #cca footnote4              
,selenographia of ,hevilius1 #age4      
,se-ling-she1 invention of silk by1     
#ccf4  ,semiramis1 #cda footnote4       

,serment1 ,louise1 #hb4  ,servilia1 #bc4
  ,sevigne1 ,mme4 de1 #hh4  ,seymour1   
,anne1 ,margaret and ,jane1 #fi4        
,shakespeare1 #eg1 #fg4  ,sheldon1 ,j4  
,m4 ,arms1 #bed4  ,shelley1 #fg4        
,sidonius1 ,caius ,apollinaris1 #cef4   
,siebold1 ,carlotta von1 physician1     
#bib4  ,siebold1 ,regina ,joseph von1   
physician1 #bib4  ,sigea1 ,luisa1 #fi4  
,silkworms1 ,frau ,merian's work on1    
#bdb4  ,simms1 ,dr4 ,joseph1 #abj4  ,sir
 ,isumbras1 #bge4  ,sixtus ,,iv1 ,pope1 
#big1 #cji4  ,skull1 relation of size   
of1 to mental energy1 arguments based   
on1 #aae-aag4  ,slosson1 ,annie ,t41    
#bed4  ,small-pox1 prevention of1 #bii  
footnote4  ,smith1 ,emily ,a41 #bed4    
,smith1 ,sydney1 quoted1 #ib1 #dac      
footnote4  ,smithsonian ,institute1     
#cbc4  ,snow1 ,dr4 ,julia ,w41 #bed4    
,social and economic conditions1        
intellectual growth of women and1 #dje1 
#djf4  ,socrates1 #aii1 #bjj2   tribute 
of1 to ,diotima of ,mantinea1 #aa2      
influence of ,aspasia on1 #ab1 #ac1 #af2

   woman's equality with man asserted   
by1 #ae1 #af4  ,solomon1 quoted1 #ccf4  
,solon1 in praise of ,sappho1 #e4  ,some
 ,pages of the ,four ,gospels           
,retranscribed from the ,sinaitic       
,palimpsest1 by ,agnes ,lewis1 #ccj     
footnote4  ,somerville1 ,mary1 #aeg-afa1
 #baa1 #cia1 #cib2   early life of1     
#aeg1 #aeh2   translation of ,laplace's 
,mechanique ,celeste by1 #aei2   honors 
of1 #aei1 #afj2   books by1 #afj1 #baa1 
#bab2   home life of1 #afa2   election  
of1 to ,royal ,astronomical ,society1   
#ahh1 #ahi2   achievements of1 in       
astronomy1 #aij1 #baa1 #bab2   death of1
 #bab4  ,somerville1 ,rev4 ,dr41 #aeh4  
,sophia ,charlotte1 ,queen of ,prussia1 
#cgj1 #cga4  ,sophocles1 #ab4           
,sorbonne1 lectures of ,mme4 ,curie at1 
#bbg4  ,south ,america1 ,mme4           
,coudreau's explorations in1 #beh-bfc4  
,spain1 women of the ,renaissance in1   
#fh1 #fi4  ,spalding1 ,most ,rev4       
,archbishop ,j4 ,l41 quoted1 #dac and   
#dad footnote4  ,spanheim1 #id4         

,specialization in scientific research1 
#djh1 #dji4  ,spectator1 #cjf4          
,spencer1 ,herbert1 #b1 #aac4  ,spenser1
 #fg4  ,spiegelberg1 ,moritz von1 #fb4  
,spilimbergo1 ,irene di1 #fa footnote4  
,stael1 ,mme4 de1 #hi1 #ia1 #bdf2       
,marquise du ,chatelet ridiculed by1    
#agg4  ,stampa1 ,gaspara1 #fa4  ,steele1
 #ih4  ,stephens1 ,mabel ,c41 #aie4     
,steppes de la ,mer ,caspienne1 by ,mme4
 ,hommaire de ,hell1 #cgc4  ,stevenson1 
,sarah ,yorke1 archaeologist1 #cbb1     
#cbc4  ,stilpo1 #aa4  ,stockholm1       
,university of1 appointment of ,sonya   
,kovalevsky to chair of     higher      
mathematics in1 #afb1 #ahc2   ,sonya    
,kovalevsky's lectures at1 #afd         
footnote4  ,stotes1 ,margaret1          
archaeologist1 #caf1 #cag4  ,strindberg1
 #afc1 #afe4  ,strozi1 ,lorenza1 #ei4   
,studia ,sinaitica1 #ccj4  ,suetonius1  
quoted1 #ai4  ,suidas1 #bjj4  ,sulpicia1
 #bh4  ,supellex ,manzoliniana1 #bcg4   
,surgery1 women in1 #bff-cjh4  ,surinam1
 insects of1 ,frau ,merian's book on1   

#bdj-bda4  ,survey of the ,heavens1 by  
,sir ,william ,herschel1 #ahg4          
,suslowa1 ,nadejda1 physician1 #cjd4    
,sviani1 ,elisabetta1 #bih4  ,swallow1  
,ellen4 ,see ,richards1 ,mrs4 ,ellen ,h4
  ,swammerdam1 #bdh4  ,swetchine1 ,mme41
 #hi4  ,swift1 #ih1 quoted1 #ih         
footnote4  ,symbols and ,emblems of     
,early ,mediaeval ,christian ,art     by
 ,louise ,twining1 #caf4  ,symonds1 ,j4 
,a41 #aac4  ,synesius1 bishop of        
,ptolemais1 #ada1 #afh1 #aii1 #bjj4     
,tacitus1 #bd1 #be1 #bh4  ,taine1       
comparison of ,milton and ,caedmon by1  
#ch4  ,taj ,mahal1 #ccg footnote4       
,tambroni1 ,clotilda1 professor of      
,greek1 #gh1 #gi1 #bji1 #bih4  ,tasso1  
,torquato1 #ff4  ,taylor1 ,janet1 #afa4 
,telesilla1 #f1 #ag4  ,tencin1 ,mme41   
#ib4  ,tennyson1 quoted1 #daf1 #dag4    
,terentia1 #cef1 #cfa4  ,tertulla1 #bc4 
,thais1 #aa4  ,theano1 #h1 #ag1 #aii1   
#bfi4  ,themista1 #h4  ,theodicy1 by    
,leibnitz1 #cga4  ,theodora1 #cei4      
,theon1 #acg1 #afh1 #aii4  ,thucydides1 

quoted1 #d footnote4  ,thurm1           
,christopher1 #agd4  ,tiberius1 wife of1
 #bd4  ,tides of the ,ocean and         
,atmosphere1 ,the1 by ,mary ,somerville1
 #bab4  ,tischendorf1 #cbh1 #cbi4       
,titian1 #fa1 footnote1 #ff4  ,traite de
 ,chimie1 by ,lavoisier1 #bae4  ,traite 
d',horlogerie1 #agi4  ,traite de        
,radio-,activite1 by ,mme4 ,curie1 #bbh4
  ,travelers1 women1 #bee-bfd4  ,travels
 in ,west ,africa1 by ,mary ,h4         
,kingsley1 #beg4  ,treat1 ,mary1 #bed4  
,trinity college1 ,dublin1 #ajj4        
,tristan und ,isolde1 by ,godfrey of    
,strasburg1 #bgf4  ,trombetas1 explored 
by ,madame ,coudreau1 #beh4  ,trotula of
 ,salerno1 physician1 #bhd-bhf1 #bif1   
#big1 #bii4  ,tulia1 letters of1 #bi4   
,turgenieff1 weight of brain of1 #aai4  
,twining1 ,louise1 archaeologist1 #caf4 
,tyndall1 #che4  ,types and ,figures of 
the ,bible ,illustrated by ,art1     by 
,louise ,twining1 #caf4   ,united       
,states1 women in1 in post-,renaissance 
period1 #ii1 #ajj2   women              

mathematicians in1 #aff2   women        
astronomers in1 #aie2   famous women    
naturalists in1 #bec-bee2   women       
physicians in1 #cjj-cjd2   education in1
 #dja1 #djb4  ,united ,states ,national 
,museum1 #bed4  ,universities1 of       
,england1 ,scotland and ,ireland1       
attitude of1     toward women1 #ajj1    
#aja2   of ,germany open to women1 #aja2
   ,european1 women as professors in1   
#ajb2   coeducational1 comparative      
standing of men and women in1 #abh1     
#abi4  ,universities1 ,italian1 attitude
 of1 toward women1 #eg1 #eh2   women in1
 during the ,renaissance1 #fb-fe2       
women professors in1 #gh-hj2   attitude 
of1 toward women1 compared with that of 
,anglo-,saxons1 #hj4  ,urania1 muse of  
astronomy1 #afg4  ,urania ,propitia1 by 
,maria ,cunitz1 #aga4  ,urbino1 court   
of1 #ff1 #fg4  ,urbino1 ,duchess of1    
#caj1 #caa4  ,urbino1 ,university of1   
#fb4   ,vaccination1 #bii footnote4     
,valiae1 physician1 #bgb4  ,van         
,schurman1 ,anna ,maria1 #id1 #ie4      

,vasari1 in praise of ,suor ,plantilla  
,nelli1 #fj4  ,vasca de ,gama1 #ef4     
,vasourie1 #bcf4  ,vassar1 ,matthew1    
#ajj4  ,vassar ,college1 #ajj1 #aib1    
#baf1 #bec4  ,vatican1 #cji4  ,vega1    
,lopez1 #fh4  ,veitch1 ,professor ,john1
 quoted1 #chb1 #chc footnote4           
,venerable ,bede1 quoted1 #cg1 #ch4     
,verronese1 ,guarino1 #eh and #ei       
footnote4  ,vico1 ,father de1 #aia4     
,victoria1 physician1 #bga4  ,victoria1 
,queen1 #caf4  ,viete1 ,francois1 #cfb4 
,vigri1 ,caterina1 #fj footnote4        
,virchow1 ,rudolph1 #aag1 #bgh4         
,virgil1 quoted1 #aab1 #cce4  ,vis viva1
 views of ,marquise du ,chatelet on1    
#bjb4  ,vita ,nuova1 by ,dante1 #ceg4   
,vitalis1 ,ordericus1 #bhe4  ,vives1    
,juan1 #fh1 #fi1 #gc1 #ge4  ,voet1 #id4 
,voght1 #bdf4  ,voiture1 #hh4           
,voltaire1 #hi1 #aag2   attitude of1    
toward women1 #ic2   ,emilie du         
,chatelet and1 #aea1 #aec1 #agh and #agi
 footnote2   quoted #age1 #bjf1 #ccd1   
#cdf2   election of1 to the ,bologna    

,academy1 #bjg2   letters of1 to ,laura 
,bassi1 #bjg4  ,voyage a la ,mapuera1 by
 ,mme4 ,coudreau1 #bfc footnote4        
,voyage au ,cumina1 by ,mme4 ,coudreau1 
#bfc footnote4  ,voyage au ,itaboca et a
 l',etacayuna1 by the ,coudreaux1 #bfc  
footnote4  ,voyage au ,maycuru1 by      
,madame ,coudreau1 #bfb and #bfc        
footnote4  ,voyage au ,rio ,curua1 by   
,madame ,coudreau1 #bfb and #bfc        
footnote4  ,voyage au ,tapaos1 by the   
,coudreaux1 #bfc footnote4  ,voyage au  
,tocantins-,araguaya1 by the ,coudreaux1
 #bfc footnote4  ,voyage au ,trombetas1 
by ,madame ,coudreau1 #beh1 #bfc        
footnote4  ,voyage au ,xingu1 by the    
,coudreaux1 #bfc footnote4  ,voyage     
entre ,tocantins et ,xingu1 et ,voyage  
au ,yamunda1 by the ,coudreaux1 #bfc    
footnote4  ,vulgate1 #ceg2   assistance 
of ,paula and ,eustochium in preparation
 of1 #cb4   ,wagner1 ,rudolph1 #abj4    
,wallace1 ,robert1 #beb footnote4       
,walpole1 ,horace1 #hi2   quoted1 #ig   
footnote4  ,waltharius1 by ,ekkehard1   

#bgf4  ,warsaw1 #bba4  ,watson1 ,sir    
,william1 quoted1 #ahd4  ,weber1 #cei4  
,wells1 ,louisa ,d41 #aie4  ,west       
,african ,studies1 by ,mary ,h4         
,kingsley1 #beg4  ,westwood1 #bdh4      
,wheeler1 ,miss ,b4 ,e41 archaeologist1 
#cba4  ,whewell1 ,dr41 #afj4  ,whiting1 
,sarah ,f41 of ,wellesley1 #aie4        
,whitney1 ,eli1 #ceb4  ,whitney1 ,mary  
,w41 of ,vassar1 #aie4  ,wilhelm ,,ii1  
attitude of1 toward women1 #id4         
,william of ,auxerre1 in praise of ,st4 
,hildegard1 #dg1 #dh4  ,williams1       
,blanche ,e41 archaeologist1 #cba4      
,winckelmann1 #caa4  ,winlock1 ,anna1   
#aie4  ,wisdom1 by ,perictione1 #h4     
,woman ,under ,monasticism1             
,eckenstein's1 #eb4  ,women in ,english 
,life1 by ,georgiana ,hill1 #da4        
,wordsworth1 quoted1 #cgb4  ,wordsworth1
 ,dorothy1 #cgb4  ,worms1 ,fannie       
,langdon's study of1 #bed4  ,wuerzburg1 
,university of1 #bgi4   ,xenophon1      
quoted1 #d2 #be4   ,young1 ,annie ,s41  
of ,mt4 ,holyoke1 #aie4  ,young1        

,arthur1 #bad4   ,zoology1 ,herr        
,kablick's study of1 #bdc4  ,zoyosa1    
,casa1 #ei footnote4  ,zurich1          
,university of1 #bdd1 #cjd4         99  
99       99       99       99           
,,following ,,the ,,conquistadores   ,up
 the ,orinoco and ,down the ,magdalena  
,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,mozans1 ,a4 ,m41 ,ph4 ,d4 
,illustrated4 #hvo1 cloth1 gilt top1    
uncut edges4 ,price #c4jj net4 ,by mail 
#c4bj4       ,his pages breathe the     
poetry of travel1 the romance of ,sir   
,john ,mandeville1 tempered by the      
moderation of scientific      research4 
,this is a very model of a travel book1 
and the      author is to be            
congratulated on a result that will     
insure a      wide public for the       
promised sequel4--,the ,world1 ,london1 
,england4       ,the book is beyond     
question the most valuable of all the   
books on ,south ,america which has      
appeared4 ,it is as      interesting as 
a novel1 full of entertaining anecdote  
and of      real value to the student4  

,it contains some maps and              
excellent illustrations from            
photographs4--,the ,call1 ,san          
,francisco1 ,cal4       ,this is a      
remarkably interesting book1 leading us 
through a      region little known to   
the majority of ,english travelers1     
and possessing1 in consequence1 that    
charm of novelty in      which works of 
the same description are occasionally   
deficient4--,the ,standard1 ,london1    
,england4       ,the reader will find   
this trip with the author1 ,up the      
,orinoco and ,down the ,magdalena1 as   
agreeable and      instructive as a     
personally conducted visit to the heart 
of      the ,andes4--,evening           
,transcript1 ,boston1 ,mass4       ,this
 volume1 remarkable alike for its       
instructive qualities      and the      
excellent composition1 will open a vista
 of delight      to the reader who      
relishes travel4--,the ,news1           
,charleston1      ,s4 ,c4       ,dr4    
,mozans sees the country with the       

trained and      experienced eye of a   
world traveler and with the well        
stocked mind of the lover of literature4
 ,the past is linked      with the      
present1 the unknown with the known1 and
 poetically      appreciated in a way   
that is most delightful4--,the          
,tribune1 ,chicago1 ,ill4       ,the    
author1 a traveler of many years of     
experience1 who has      explored       
strange corners of the globe in every   
zone1      combines with accurate       
observation and a facile power of       
description a knowledge of history that 
enables him to      illuminate his work 
with something of the romance that      
attaches to the tales of the            
conquistadores in whose trail      he   
followed on this journey4 ,the resulting
 book is one that      gives the reader 
a complete new set of impressions and   
ideas      concerning ,venezuela and    
,columbia and the great rivers that     
water these still unsettled lands4--,the
 ,times ,star1      ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 

,not since the appearance of ,humboldt's
 ,personal ,narrative      of ,travels  
in the ,equinoctial ,regions of ,america
 has the      fertile and romantic      
region of ,tierra ,firma--the scene of  
the exploits of some of this most       
illustrious of the                      
,conquistadores--been so fully and so   
vividly described as      by ,doctor    
,mozans in his instructive and          
fascinating volume      ,up the ,orinoco
 and ,down the ,magdalena4--,bulletin of
      the ,pan-,american ,union4        
,along the ,andes and ,down the ,amazon 
,by ,h4 ,j4 ,,mozans1 ,a4 ,m41 ,ph4 ,d4 
,with an ,introduction by ,,theodore    
,,roosevelt4 ,illustrated4 #hvo1 cloth1 
gilt top1 uncut edges4 ,price #c4ej net4
 ,by mail #c4gj       ,it was a great   
project and a grand journey1 but we do  
not      recall any writer who could    
describe it so delightfully as      ,dr4
 ,mozans4 ,he has not only an           
irresistible literary charm1      but he
 is so saturated with knowledge of what 

he writes      about that all he writes 
has an irresistible      interest4--,the
 ,herald1 ,glasgow1 ,scotland4          
,readers of ,dr4 ,mozans' book have been
 impressed by the      remarkable1      
almost amazing1 erudition shown in it4  
,it has      also a modernity that is   
unusual in scholarly persons4 ,dr4      
,mozans seems to have been everywhere   
and studied everything4      ,his       
especial interest in life has been      
thoroughly to      acquaint himself with
 the history1 antiquities and people1   
past and present1 of northern ,south    
,america4--,the ,literary      ,digest1 
,new ,york ,city4       ,dr4 ,mozans    
writes ,english after our own style1 and
 has a      point of view half          
philosophical and half poetic4 ,he is   
highly sensitive to the mystery of the  
dead civilizations of      the ,andean  
plateaux1 as well as to the abounding   
life of the      modern ,states1 and the
 book generally is the pleasantest      
account of ,south ,america we have      

encountered for a      considerable     
time4--,the ,standard1 ,london1         
,england4       ,to read his book is not
 only to travel with him to strange     
places but also to be steeped in good   
literature4--,the      ,record-,herald1 
,chicago1 ,ill4       ,great learning is
 often allied with great simplicity4 ,it
 is      so in the case of ,dr4 ,mozans4
 ,he is bubbling over with              
information about the achievements of   
the ,spanish      conquistadores and the
 subsequent history of the lands over   
which they established their sway4--,the
 ,field1 ,london1      ,england4        
,whether ,dr4 ,mozans' volume is        
resorted to for solid      information  
or mere entertainment it will well repay
 the      reading4--,the ,new ,york     
,times4       ,a book which every       
traveler to ,south ,america1 especially 
every traveler to the west coast of the 
continent1 will wish      to have in his
 handbag4--,bulletin of the             
,pan-,american      ,union4       ,this 

is a delightful book from every         
standpoint4--,ex-,president ,roosevelt1 
in the ,introduction to      ,dr4       
,mozans' book4       ,like the          
well-known works of ,waterton and       
,humboldt on ,south      ,america1 the  
two books by ,dr4 ,mozans are sure to   
have a      permanent value and to be   
recognized as soon as known1 as         
authorities on the countless subjects   
discussed in their      illuminating    
pages with such fairness and            
scholarship4--,the ,freeman's ,journal1 
,new ,york ,city4   ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and
 ,,company1 ,,new ,,york