,transcrib]'s notes3 7#a7 ,numb]s foll[+ lett]s 7)\t space7 l ,c#b 7 orig9ally pr9t$ 9 subscript4 ,lett] subscripts are prec$$ by an und]score1 l ,cn4 7#b7 ,*>act]s foll[+ a c>at 77 7 pr9t$ 9 sup]script4 7#c7 ,side-notes 7 relocat$ to function z titles ( _! respective p>agraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons & breves above lett]s & dots bel[ lett]s 7 n ins]t$4 7#e7 d,p /&s = ! p>tial-d]ivative symbol1 or curl$ 'd'4 7#f7 oo /&s = ! inf9ity symbol1 & int = ! integral symbol4 7#g7 ,lett]s foll[$ ) a grave acc5t h orig9ally dots above4 7#h7 ,! foll[+ typographical errors h be5 correct$3 ,,article ,,dy]1 ,,john3 ,8 poems 7 collect$ by ,dodsley 9 #aggj1 & by ,mr ,edw>d ,?omas 9 #aijc = ! ,wel% ,libr>y1 vol4 iv4 'poems' am5d$ f 'peoms'4 ,,article ,,e>3 ,! membran\s semicircul> canals are v mu* small] 9 section ?an ! bony2 9 ! ampulla ( ea* is a ridge444 '!' am5d$ f 'tbe'4 ,,article ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,!3 ,o4 ,call&reau1 ',memoire sur la !orie de la figure des planetes1' ,ann4 obs4 de ,p>is 7#ahhi72444 ',call&reau' am5d$ f ',call5dreau'4 ,,article ,,eaton1 ,,!ophilus3 ,9 ,octob] #afci a =m ( gov]nm5t 0 adopt$1 bas$ on ! ,mosaic ,law1 & ,eaton 0 elect$ gov]nor444 ',mosaic' am5d$ f ',mosiac'4 ,,article ,,ecclesia/es3 ,a p>ticul> in/ance is m5tion$ 7ix4 #ac-ae7 ( a beleagu]$ city sav$ by a wise man2 b ! man happ5$ to be poor1 & no "o rememb]$ him4 'beleagu]$' am5d$ f 'beleagur$'4 ,,article ,,ecclesia/es3 ,su* ass]tions z ^? ( ii4 #bf 7,god gives joy to him :o pleases him1 & makes ! s9n] toil to lay up = ! latt]71444 '&' am5d$ f 'amd'4 ,,article ,,ecclesia/es3 ,?is disagreem5t comes l>gely f ! attempts made to f9d def9itely express$ ,greek philosophical dogmas 9 ! book2 su* =mulas x has n1 b ! g5]al air ( ,greek reflection seems unmi/akable4 ,! scepticism ( ,kohele? diff]s f t ( ,job 9 quality & scope444 '!' orig9ally repeat$ twice4 ,,article ,,ecclesia/ical ,,jurisdiction3 ,9 ! fir/ case1 !y may be puni%$ by ! ord9>y ( ! place1 act+ z delegate ( ! pope )\t special appo9tm5t 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 vi4 c4 #c74 'special' am5d$ f 'speical'4 ,,encyclopa$ia ,,britannica ,a ,,diction>y ,,( ,,arts1 ,,sci5ces1 ,,lit]ature ,,& ,,g5]al ,,in=mation ,,elev5? ,,edition ,,volume ,,viii1 ,,slice ,,ix ,dy] to ,e*idna ,,articles ,,9 ,,?is ,,slice3 ,,dy]1 ,,sir ,,edw>d ,,ea/ ,,liv]pool ,,dy]1 ,,john ,,ea/ ,,london ,,dy]1 ,,?omas ,,h5ry ,,ea/on ,,dymoke ,,ea/ ,,orange ,,dynamics ,,ea/port ,,dynamite ,,ea/ ,,provid5ce ,,dynamo ,,ea/ ,,prussia ,,dynamomet] ,,ea/wick1 ,,edw>d ,,backh\se ,,dyna/y ,,eaton1 ,,dorman ,,bridgman ,,dys>t ,,eaton1 ,,m>g>et ,o',,neill ,,dys5t]y ,,eaton1 ,,!ophilus ,,dyspepsia ,,eaton1 ,,william ,,dy/eleology ,,eaton1 ,,wyatt ,,dzung>ia ,,eau ,,claire ,e ,,eau ,,de ,,cologne ,,ea ,,eaux-,,bonnes ,,eabani ,,eaves ,,ea*>d1 ,,john ,,eavesdrip ,,eadbald ,,ebbw ,,vale ,,eadie1 ,,john ,,ebel1 ,,h]mann ,,wilhelm ,,eadm] ,,ebel1 ,,johann ,,gottfri$ ,,eads1 ,,james ,,bu*anan ,,eb]1 ,,paul ,,eagle ,,eb]ba* 7t[n ( ,g]many7 ,,eaglehawk ,,eb]ba* 7mona/]y ( ,g]many7 ,,eagre ,,eb]h>d ,,eak9s1 ,,?omas ,,eb]h>d1 ,,*ri/ian ,,augu/ ,,gottlob ,,eal+ ,,eb]h>d1 ,,johann ,,augu/us ,,e> ,,eb]l91 ,,johann ,,ern/ ,,e>l ,,eb]s1 ,,georg ,,moritz ,,e>le1 ,,john ,,eb]swalde ,,e>le1 ,,ralph ,,eb]t1 ,,fri$ri* ,,adolf ,,e>l ,,m>%al ,,eb+5 ,,e>lom1 ,,ri*>d ,,ebionites ,,e>l/on ,,ebn]-,,es*5ba*1 ,,m>ie ,,e>ly1 ,,jubal ,,&]son ,,eboli ,,e>ly ,,engli% ,,p]iod ,,ebony ,,e>n ,,ebr>d1 ,,johannes ,,he9ri* ,,augu/ ,,e>ne/ ,,ebro ,,e>-,,r+ ,,ebro9 ,,e>? ,,eburacum ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,! ,,eca ,,de ,,queiroz1 ,,jose ,,m>ia ,,e>? ,,curr5ts ,,ec>te ,,e>?-,,nut ,,ecbatana ,,e>? ,,pill> ,,ecc>d1 ,,johann ,,e>?quake ,,eccel9o ,,da ,,romano ,,e>?-,,/> ,,ecc5tric ,,e>?worm ,,ec*ell5sis1 ,,abraham ,,e>wig ,,eccles ,,easem5t ,,ecclesfield ,,ea/1 ,,alfr$ ,,eccle%all ,,ea/ ,,anglia ,,ecclesia ,,ea/b\rne ,,ecclesia/es ,,ea/ ,,*icago ,,ecclesia/ical ,,commission]s ,,ea/] ,,ecclesia/ical ,,jurisdiction ,,ea/] ,,isl& ,,ecclesia/ical ,,law ,,ea/]n ,,b5gal ,,& ,,assam ,,ecclesia/icus ,,ea/]n ,,"q1 ,,! ,,ecgb]t 7k+ ( ! ,we/ ,saxons7 ,,ea/ ,,gr9/ead ,,ecgb]t 7ar*bi%op ( ,york7 ,,ea/ ,,ham ,,ecgfri? ,,ea/hampton ,,ecgon9e ,,ea/ ,,hampton ,,e*eg>ay ,y ,,eizaguirre1 ,,jose ,,ea/ ,,india ,,company ,,e*elon ,,ea/ ,,indies ,,e*idna ,,ea/lake1 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lock ,,dy]1 ,,sir ,,edw>d 7d4 #afjg71 ,engli% c\rti] & poet1 son ( ,sir ,?omas ,dy]1 ,kt41 0 born at ,%>pham ,p>k1 ,som]set%ire4 ,he 0 educat$1 accord+ to ,an?ony a ,wood1 ei!r at ,balliol ,college or at ,broadgates ,hall1 ,ox=d4 ,he left ! univ]sity )\t tak+ a degree1 & aft] "s "t sp5t abroad appe>$ at ,que5 ,elizabe?'s c\rt4 ,8 fir/ patron 0 ! e>l ( ,leice/]1 :o seems to h ?\ght ( putt+ him =w>d z a rival to ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,hatton 9 ! que5's fav\r4 ,he is m5tion$ by ,gabriel ,h>vey ) ,sidney z "o ( ! ornam5ts ( ! c\rt4 ,sidney 9 8 w desir$ t 8 books %\ld be divid$ betwe5 ,fulke ,greville 7,"l ,brooke7 & ,dy]4 ,he 0 employ$ by ,elizabe? on a mission 7#aehd7 to ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 & 9 #aehi 0 s5t to ,d5m>k4 ,9 a commission to inquire into manors unju/ly ali5at$ f ! cr[n 9 ! we/ c\ntry he did n altoge!r please ! que51 b he receiv$ a grant ( "s =feit$ l&s 9 ,som]set 9 #aehh4 ,he 0 knight$ & made *ancellor ( ! ord] ( ! ,g>t] 9 #aeif4 ,william ,oldys says ( him t he w\ld n /oop to fawn1 & "s ( 8 v]ses seem to %[ t ! exig5cies ( life at c\rt oppress$ him4 ,he 0 buri$ at ,/ ,savi\r's1 ,s\?w>k1 on ! #aa? ( ,may #afjg4 ,wood says t _m e/eem$ him to be a ,rosicrucian1 & t he 0 a firm believ] 9 al*emy4 ,he _h a great reputation z a poet among 8 contempor>ies1 b v little ( 8 "w has surviv$4 ,putt5ham 9 ! ,arte ( ,engli% ,poesie speaks ( ,mai/] ,edw>d ,dy>1 = ,elegie mo/ sweete1 solempne1 & ( high conceit4 ,"o ( ! poems univ]sally accept$ z 8 is ,my ,mynde to me a k+dome is4 ,among ! poems 9 ,engl&'s ,helicon 7#afjj71 sign$ ,s4,e4,d41 & includ$ 9 ,dr ,a4,b4 ,gros>t's collection ( ,dy]'s works 7,miscellanies ( ! ,full] ,wor?ies ,libr>y1 vol4 iv41 #ahgf7 is ! *>m+ pa/oral ,my ,phillis ha? ! morn+e sunne1 b ?is comes f ! ,phillis ( ,?omas ,lodge4 ,gros>t also pr9ts a prose tract entitl$ ,! ,prayse ( ,no?+ 7#aehe74 ,! ,sixe ,idillia f ,!ocritus1 reckon$ by ,j4,p4 ,colli] among ,dy]'s works1 7 d$icat$ to1 n writt5 by1 him4 ,,dy]1 ,,john 7c4 #agjj-ageh71 ,briti% poet1 ! son ( a solicitor1 0 born 9 #afii or #agjj at ,ab]glasney1 9 ,c>m>!n%ire4 ,he 0 s5t to ,we/m9/] s*ool & 0 de/9$ = ! law1 b on 8 fa!r's dea? he began to /udy pa9t+4 ,he w&]$ ab\t ,s\? ,wales1 sket*+ & occasionally pa9t+ portraits4 ,9 #agbf 8 fir/ poem1 ,grong> ,hill1 appe>$ 9 a miscellany publi%$ by ,ri*>d ,savage1 ! poet4 ,x 0 an irregul> ode 9 ! s-call$ ,p9d>ic /yle1 b ,dy] entirely rewrote x into a loose measure ( f\r cad5ces1 & pr9t$ x sep>ately 9 #agbg4 ,x _h an imm$iate & brilliant success4 ,grong> ,hill1 z x n[ /&s1 is a %ort poem ( only #aej l9es1 describ+ 9 language ( mu* fre%ness & picturesque *>m ! view f a hill ov]look+ ! poet's native vale ( ,t[y4 ,a visit to ,italy bore fruit 9 ,! ,ru9s ( ,rome 7#agdj71 a descriptive piece 9 ab\t #fjj l9es ( ,miltonic blank v]se4 ,he 0 orda9$ prie/ 9 #agda1 & held successively ! liv+s ( ,cal?orp 9 ,leice/]%ire1 ,bel*=d 7#agea71 ,con+sby 7#ageb71 & ,kirby-on-,bane 7#agef71 ! la/ ?ree be+ ,l9coln%ire p>i%es4 ,he m>ri$1 9 #agda1 a ,miss ,ensor1 said to be desc5d$ f ! bro!r ( ,%akespe>e4 ,9 #ageg he publi%$ 8 longe/ "w1 ! didactic blank-v]se epic ( ,! ,fleece1 9 f\r books1 disc\rs+ ( ! t5d+ ( %eep1 ( ! %e>+ & prep>ation ( ! wool1 ( weav+1 & ( trade 9 wooll5 manufactures4 ,! t[n took no int]e/ 9 x1 & ,dodsley faceti\sly prophesi$ t ,mr ,dy] w\ld be buri$ 9 wooll54 ,he di$ at ,con+sby ( consumption1 on ! #ae? ( ,decemb] #ageh4 ,8 poems 7 collect$ by ,dodsley 9 #aggj1 & by ,mr ,edw>d ,?omas 9 #aijc = ! ,wel% ,libr>y1 vol4 iv4 ,,dy]1 ,,?omas ,,h5ry 7#ahjd-ahhh71 ,engli% hi/orical & antiqu>ian writ]1 0 born 9 ,london on ! #d? ( ,may #ahjd4 ,he 0 orig9ally int5d$ = a bus9ess c>e]1 & = "s "t act$ z cl]k 9 a ,we/ ,india h\se2 b f9d+ 8 s]vices no long] requir$ aft] ! pass+ ( ! ,negro ,emancipation ,act1 he decid$ to devote himself to lit]ature4 ,9 #ahej he publi%$ ! ,life ( ,calv91 a consci5ti\s & on ! :ole imp>tial "w1 ?\gh ! "* ( ,calv9 is some:at h>%ly drawn1 & 8 influ5ce 9 ! religi\s _w g5]ally is insuffici5tly appreciat$4 ,dy]'s fir/ hi/orical "w 0 ! ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,europe 7#ahfa-ahfd2 #crd ed4 revis$ & cont9u$ to ! end ( ! #ai? c5tury1 by ,a4 ,hassall1 #aija71 a m]itori\s compilation & /oreh\se ( facts1 b n v readable4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ! ,city ( ,rome 7#ahfe7 d[n to ! end ( ! middle ages 0 foll[$ by ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,k+s ( ,rome 7#ahfh71 :i*1 uphold+ aga9/ ! ,g]man s*ool ! g5]al cr$ibility ( ! acc\nt ( e>ly ,roman hi/ory1 giv5 9 ,livy & o!r classical au?ors1 0 viol5tly attack$ by ,j4,r4 ,seeley & ! ,saturday ,review1 z %[+ ignorance ( ! comp>ative me?od4 ,m fav\rable op9ions ( ! "w 7 express$ by o!rs1 b x is g5]ally agre$ t ! au?or's s*ol>%ip is defective & t 8 views are f> too cons]vative4 ,roma ,regalis 7#ahgb7 & ,a ,plea = ,livy 7#ahgc7 7 writt5 9 reply to 8 critics4 ,dy] frequ5tly visit$ ,greece & ,italy1 & 8 topographical works are probably 8 be/2 among/ ^! m5tion may be made ( ,pompeii1 its ,hi/ory1 ,build+s & ,antiquities 7#ahfg1 new ed4 9 ,bohn's ,illu/rat$ ,libr>y71 & ,anci5t ,a!ns1 its ,hi/ory1 ,topography & ,rema9s 7#ahgc74 ,8 la/ publication 0 ,on ,imitative ,art 7#ahhb74 ,he di$ at ,ba? on ! #cj? ( ,janu>y #ahhh4 ,,dymoke1 ! "n ( an ,engli% family hold+ ! (fice ( k+'s *ampion4 ,! functions ( ! *ampion 7 to ride into ,we/m9/] ,hall at ! coronation banquet1 & *all5ge all com]s to impugn ! k+'s title 7see ,,*ampion74 ,! e>lie/ record ( ! c]emony at ! coronation ( an ,engli% k+ dates f ! accession ( ,ri*>d ,,ii4 ,on ?is occasion ! *ampion 0 ,sir ,john ,dymoke 7d4 #acha71 :o held ! manor ( ,scrivelsby1 ,l9coln%ire1 9 "r ( 8 wife ,m>g>et1 gr&daught] ( ,joan ,ludl[1 :o 0 ! daught] & co-heiress ( ,philip ,m>mion1 la/ ,b>on ,m>mion4 ,! ,m>mions claim$ desc5t f ! lords ( ,font5ay1 h]$it>y *ampions ( ! dukes ( ,norm&y1 & held ! ca/le ( ,tamwor?1 ,leice/]%ire1 & ! manor ( ,scrivelsby1 ,l9coln%ire4 ,! "r to ! *ampion%ip 0 disput$ ) ! ,dymoke family by ,sir ,baldw9 de ,freville1 "l ( ,tamwor?1 :o 0 desc5d$ f an eld] daught] ( ,philip ,m>mion4 ,! c\rt ( claims ev5tually decid$ 9 fav\r ( ! own]s ( ,scrivelsby on ! gr\nd t ,scrivelsby 0 held 9 gr& s]jeanty1 t is1 t its t5ure 0 dep5d5t on r5d]+ a special s]vice1 9 ?is case ! *ampion%ip4 ,sir ,?omas ,dymoke 7#adbh8-adga7 jo9$ a ,lanca/rian ris+ 9 #adfi1 &1 ) 8 bro!r-9-law ,ri*>d1 ,"l ,will\ghby & ,welles1 0 behead$ 9 #adga by ord] ( ,edw>d ,,iv4 aft] he _h be5 induc$ to leave sanctu>y on a promise ( p]sonal safety4 ,! e/ates 7 re/or$ to 8 son ,sir ,rob]t ,dymoke 7d4 #aedf71 *ampion at ! coronations ( ,ri*>d ,,iii41 ,h5ry ,,vii4 & ,h5ry ,,viii41 :o di/+ui%$ himself at ! siege ( ,t\rnai & became treasur] ( ! k+dom4 ,8 desc5dants act$ z *ampions at successive coronations4 ,lewis ,dymoke 7d4 #ahbj7 put 9 an unsuccessful claim be=e ! ,h\se ( ,lords = ! b>ony ( ,m>mion4 ,8 nephew ,h5ry 7#ahja-ahfe7 0 *ampion at ! coronation ( ,george ,,iv4 ,he 0 accompani$ on t occasion by ! duke ( ,well+ton & ,"l ,h[>d ( ,eff+ham4 ,h5ry ,dymoke 0 creat$ a b>onet2 he 0 succe$$ by 8 bro!r ,john1 rector ( ,scrivelsby 7#ahjd-ahgc71 ^: son ,h5ry ,lionel di$ )\t issue 9 #ahge1 :5 ! b>onetcy became ext9ct1 ! e/ate pass+ to a collat]al bran* ( ! family4 ,aft] ! coronation ( ,george ,,iv4 ! c]emony 0 all[$ to lapse1 b at ! coronation ( ,k+ ,edw>d ,,vii4 ,h4,s4 ,dymoke bore ! /&>d ( ,engl& 9 ,we/m9/] ,abbey4 ,,dynamics 7f ,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 /r5g?71 ! "n ( a bran* ( ! sci5ce ( ,me*anics 7q4v474 ,! t]m 0 at "o "t re/rict$ to ! treatm5t ( motion z affect$ by =ce1 be+ ?us oppos$ to ,/atics1 :i* inve/igat$ equilibrium or conditions ( re/4 ,9 m rec5t times ! ^w has be5 appli$ compreh5sively to ! action ( =ce on bodies ei!r at re/ or 9 motion1 ?us includ+ dynamics 7n[ t]m$ k9etics7 9 ! re/rict$ s5se & /atics4 ,,analytical ,,dynamics4--,! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( dynamics1 & _! application to special problems1 are expla9$ 9 ! articles ,,me*anics & ,,motion1 ,,laws ,,(1 :]e brief indications are also giv5 ( ! m g5]al me?ods ( inve/igat+ ! prop]ties ( a dynamical sy/em1 indep5d5tly ( ! accid5ts ( its p>ticul> con/itution1 :i* 7 inaugurat$ by ,j4,l4 ,lagrange4 ,^! me?ods1 9 addition to ! unity & bread? :i* !y h introduc$ into ! treatm5t ( pure dynamics1 h a peculi> int]e/ 9 relation to mod]n physical speculation1 :i* f9ds itself confront$ 9 v>i\s directions ) ! problem ( expla9+ on dynamical pr9ciples ! prop]ties ( sy/ems ^: ultimate me*anism c at pres5t only be vaguely conjectur$4 ,9 det]m9+ ! prop]ties ( su* sy/ems ! me?ods ( analytical geometry & ( ! inf9itesimal calculus 7or1 m g5]ally1 ( ma!matical analysis7 are necess>ily employ$2 = ?is reason ! subject has be5 nam$ ,analytical ,dynamics4 ,! foll[+ article is devot$ to an outl9e ( su* portions ( g5]al dynamical !ory z seem to be mo/ important f ! physical po9t ( view4 #a4 ,g5]al ,equations ( ,impulsive ,motion4 ,! sy/ems contemplat$ by ,lagrange are compos$ ( discrete p>ticles1 or ( rigid bodies1 9 f9ite numb]1 connect$ 7x may be7 9 v>i\s ways by inv>iable geometrical relations1 ! fundam5tal po/ulate be+ t ! position ( e p>ticle ( ! sy/em at any "t c be completely specifi$ by means ( ! in/antane\s values ( a f9ite numb] ( indep5d5t v>iables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 ea* ( :i* admits ( cont9u\s v>iation ov] a c]ta9 range1 s t if x1 y1 z be ! ,c>tesian co-ord9ates ( any "o p>ticle1 we h = example x f7q#a1 q#b1 444 qn71 y c41 z c41 7#a7 :]e ! functions f diff] 7( c\rse7 f p>ticle to p>ticle4 ,9 mod]n language1 ! v>iables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are g5]aliz$ co-ord9ates s]v+ to specify ! configuration ( ! sy/em2 _! d]ivatives ) respect to ! "t are d5ot$ by q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 & are call$ ! g5]aliz$ compon5ts ( velocity4 ,! cont9u\s sequ5ce ( configurations assum$ by ! sy/em 9 any actual or imag9$ motion 7subject to ! giv5 connexions7 is call$ ! pa?4 ,impulsive motion4 ,= ! purposes ( a connect$ outl9e ( ! :ole subject x is conv5i5t to deviate some:at f ! hi/orical ord] ( developm5t1 & to beg9 ) ! consid]ation ( impulsive motion4 ,:atev] ! actual motion ( ! sy/em at any in/ant1 we may conceive x to be g5]at$ in/antane\sly f re/ by ! application ( prop] impulses4 ,on ?is view we h1 if x1 y1 z be ! rectangul> co-ord9ates ( any p>ticle m1 mx ,x'1 my ,y'1 mz ,z'1 7#b7 :]e ,x'1 ,y'1 ,z' are ! compon5ts ( ! impulse on m4 ,n[ let deltax1 deltay1 deltaz be any inf9itesimal v>iations ( x1 y1 z :i* are consi/5t ) ! connexions ( ! sy/em1 & let u =m ! equation ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ,sigma7,x'deltax ,y'deltay ,z'deltaz71 7#c7 :]e ! sign ,sigma indicates 7z ?r\gh\t ?is article7 a summation ext5d+ ov] all ! p>ticles ( ! sy/em4 ,to trans=m 7#c7 into an equation involv+ ! v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 ( ! g5]aliz$ co-ord9ates1 we h d,px d,px x ---- q#a ---- q#b 4441 c41 c4 7#d7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,px d,px deltax ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 4441 c41 c4 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#b & !re=e ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7,a#aaq#a ,a#abq#b 4447deltaq#a 7,a#baq#a ,a#bbq#b 4447deltaq#b 4441 7#f7 :]e _/ d,px squ>$ _/ d,py squ>$ _/ d,pz squ>$ ,arr ,sigmam 7 ----- 7 7 ----- 7 7 ----- 7 1 d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ 7#g7 d,px d,px d,py d,py d,pz d,pz ,ars ,sigmam ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ,asr4 d,pqr d,pqs d,pqr d,pqs d,pqr d,pqs _/ ,if we =m ! expression = ! k9etic en]gy ,tau ( ! sy/em1 we f9d #b,tau ,sigmam7x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7 ,a#aaq#a squ>$ ,a#bbq#b squ>$ 444 #b;,a#abq#aq#b 444 7#h7 ,! coeffici5ts ,a#aa1 ,a#bb1 444 ,a#ab1 444 are by an obvi\s analogy call$ ! coeffici5ts ( in]tia ( ! sy/em2 !y are 9 g5]al functions ( ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 4 ,! equation 7#f7 may n[ be writt5 d,p,tau d,p,tau ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,?is maybe reg>d$ z ! c>d9al =mula 9 ,lagrange's me?od4 ,= ! "r-h& side ( 7#c7 we may write ,sigma7,x'deltax ,y'deltay ,z'deltaz7 ,q'#a;deltaq#a ,q'#b;deltaq#b 444 1 7#aj7 :]e _/ d,px d,py d,pz ,q'r ,sigma7 ,x'----- ,y'----- ,z'----- 74 7#aa7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr_/ ,! quantities ,q#a1 ,q#b1 444 are call$ ! g5]aliz$ compon5ts ( impulse4 ,comp>+ 7#i7 & 7#aj71 we h1 s9ce ! v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1444 are indep5d5t1 d,p,tau d,p,tau ------- ,q'#a1 ------- ,q'#b1 444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,^! are ! g5]al equations ( impulsive motion4 ,x is n[ usual to write d,p,tau pr ------- 7#ac7 d,pqr ,! quantities p#a1 p#b1 444 repres5t ! effects ( ! sev]al compon5t impulses on ! sy/em1 & are !re=e call$ ! g5]aliz$ compon5ts ( mom5tum4 ,9 t]ms ( !m we h ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 444 7#ad7 ,also1 s9ce ,tau is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b 4441 #b,tau p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 7#ae7 ,?is foll[s indep5d5tly f 7#ad71 assum+ ! special v>iations deltax xdt1 c41 & !re=e deltaq#a q#a;dt1 deltaq#b q#b;dt1 444 ,reciprocal !orems4 ,aga91 if ! values ( ! velocities & ! mom5ta 9 any o!r motion ( ! sy/em ?r\gh ! same configuration be di/+ui%$ by acc5ts1 we h ! id5tity p#aq'#a p#bq'#b 444 p'#aq#a p'#bq#b 4441 7#af7 ea* side be+ equal to ! symmetrical expression ,a#aaq#aq''#a ,a#bbq#bq'#b 444 ,a#ab7q#aq'#b q'#aq#b7 444 7#ag7 ,! !orem 7#af7 leads to "s important reciprocal relations4 ,?us1 let u suppose t ! mom5ta p#a1 p#b1 444 all vani% ) ! exception ( p#a1 & simil>ly t ! mom5ta p'#a1 p'#b1 444 all vani% except p'#b4 ,we h !n p#aq'#a p'#bq#b1 or q#b 3 p#a q'#a 3 p'#b 7#ah7 ,! int]pretation is simple/ :5 ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b are bo? ( ! same k9d1 e4g4 bo? l9es or bo? angles4 ,we may !n conv5i5tly put p#a p'#b1 & ass]t t ! velocity ( ! fir/ type due to an impulse ( ! second type is equal to ! velocity ( ! second type due to an equal impulse ( ! fir/ type4 ,z an example1 suppose we h a *a9 ( /raight l9ks h+$ ea* to ! next1 ext5d$ 9 a /raight l9e1 & free to move4 ,a bl[ at "r angles to ! *a91 at any po9t ,p1 w produce a c]ta9 velocity at any o!r po9t ,q2 ! !orem ass]ts t an equal velocity w be produc$ at ,p by an equal bl[ at ,q4 ,aga91 an impulsive c\ple act+ on any l9k ,a w produce a c]ta9 angul> velocity 9 any o!r l9k ,b2 an equal c\ple appli$ to ,b w produce an equal angul> velocity 9 ,a4 ,also if an impulse ,f appli$ at ,p produce an angul> velocity omega 9 a l9k ,a1 a c\ple ,fa appli$ to ,a w produce a l9e> velocity omegaa at ,p4 ,hi/orically1 we may note t reciprocal relations 9 dynamics 7 fir/ recogniz$ by ,h4,l4,f4 ,helmholtz 9 ! doma9 ( ac\/ics2 _! use has be5 greatly ext5d$ by ,"l ,rayleigh4 ,velocities 9 t]ms ( mom5ta4 ,! equations 7#ac7 det]m9e ! mom5ta p#a1 p#b1444 z l9e> functions ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b1444 ,solv+ ^!1 we c express q#a1 q#b 444 z l9e> functions ( p#a1 p#b1444 ,! result+ equations give u ! velocities produc$ by any giv5 sy/em ( impulses4 ,fur!r1 by sub/itution 9 7#h71 we c express ! k9etic en]gy z a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! mom5ta p#a1 p#b1444 ,! k9etic en]gy1 z s express$1 w be d5ot$ by ,tau'2 ?us #b,tau' ,a'#aap#a squ>$ ,a'#bbp#b squ>$ 444 #b;,a'#abp - p#b 444 7#ai7 :]e ,a'#aa1 ,a'#bb1444 ,a'#ab1444 are c]ta9 coeffici5ts dep5d+ on ! configuration4 ,!y h be5 call$ by ,maxwell ! coeffici5ts ( mobility ( ! sy/em4 ,:5 ! =m 7#ai7 is giv51 ! values ( ! velocities 9 t]ms ( ! mom5ta c be express$ 9 a rem>kable =m due to ,sir ,w4,r4 ,hamilton4 ,! =mula 7#ae7 may be writt5 p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 ,tau ,tau'1 444 7#bj7 :]e ,tau is suppos$ express$ z 9 7#h71 & ,tau' z 9 7#ai74 ,h5ce if1 = ! mom5t1 we d5ote by delta a v>iation affect+ ! velocities1 & !re=e ! mom5ta1 b n ! configuration1 we h p#a;deltaq#a q#a;deltap p#b;deltaq#b q#b;deltap#b 444 delta,tau delta,tau' d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau' d,p,tau' ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 -------- deltap#a -------- deltap#b 444 7#ba7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pp#a d,pp#b ,9 virtue ( 7#ac7 ?is r$uces to d,p,tau' d,p,tau' q#a;deltap#a q#b;deltap#b 444 ------- deltap#a ------- deltap#b 444 7#bb7 d,pp#a d,pp#b ,s9ce deltap#a1 deltap#b1 444 may be tak5 to be indep5d5t1 we inf] t d,p,tau' d,p,tau' q#a -------1 q#b -------1 444 7#bc7 d,pp#a d,pp#b ,9 ! v rem>kable exposition ( ! matt] giv5 by ,james ,cl]k ,maxwell 9 8 ,electricity & ,magnetism1 ! ,hamiltonian expressions 7#bc7 = ! velocities 9 t]ms ( ! impulses are obta9$ directly f fir/ pr9ciples1 & ! =mulae 7#ac7 are !n d$uc$ by an inv]sion ( ! above argum5t4 ,r\?'s modification4 ,an important modification ( ! above process 0 introduc$ by ,e4,j4 ,r\? & ,"l ,kelv9 & ,p4,g4 ,tait4 ,in/ead ( express+ ! k9etic en]gy 9 t]ms ( ! velocities alone1 or 9 t]ms ( ! mom5ta alone1 we may express x 9 t]ms ( ! velocities correspond+ to "s ( ! co-ord9ates1 say q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 & ( ! mom5ta correspond+ to ! rema9+ co-ord9ates1 :i* 7= ! sake ( di/9ction7 we may d5ote by *i1 *i'1 *i1 4444 ,?us1 ,tau be+ express$ z a homog5e\s quadratic function ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 *i1 *i'1 *i1 4441 ! mom5ta correspond+ to ! co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 may be writt5 d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau kappa --------1 kappa' ---------1 kappa ------------1 444 7#bd7 d,p*i d,p*i' d,p4*i ,^! equations1 :5 writt5 out 9 full1 det]m9e *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 z l9e> functions ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,we n[ consid] ! function ,r ,tau - kappa*i' - kappa'*i' - kappa*i - 4441 7#be7 suppos$ express$1 by means ( ! above relations 9 t]ms ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,p]=m+ ! op]ation delta on bo? sides ( 7#be71 we h d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,tau ----- deltaq#a 444 --------- deltakappa 444 ------- deltaq#a 444 -------- delta*i 444 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a d,p*i - kappad,p*i - *ideltakappa - 444 1 7#bf7 :]e1 = brevity1 only "o t]m ( ea* type has be5 exhibit$4 ,omitt+ ! t]ms :i* cancel 9 virtue ( 7#bd71 we h d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau ----- deltaq#a 444 --------- deltakappa 444 ------- deltaq#a 444 - *ideltakappa - 444 7#bg7 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a ,s9ce ! v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqm1 deltakappa1 deltakappa'1 deltakappa1 444 may be tak5 to be indep5d5t1 we h d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r p#a ------- -----1 p#b ------- -----1 444 7#bh7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b & d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r *i - ---------1 *i' - ----------1 *i - ---------1 444 7#bi7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,an important prop]ty ( ! pres5t trans=mation is t1 :5 express$ 9 t]ms ( ! new v>iables1 ! k9etic en]gy is ! sum ( two homog5e\s quadratic functions1 ?us ,tau ,k1 7#cj7 :]e involves ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm alone1 & ,k ! mom5ta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 alone4 ,= 9 virtue ( 7#bi7 we h1 f 7#be71 _/ d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r ,tau ,r - 7 kappa --------- kappa' ---------- kappa ----------- 444 71 7#ca7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa _/ & x is evid5t t ! t]ms 9 ,r :i* are bil9e> 9 respect ( ! two sets ( v>iables q#a1 q#b1 444 qm & kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 w disappe> f ! "r-h& side4 ,maximum & m9imum en]gy4 ,x may be not$ t ! =mula 7#cj7 gives imm$iate pro( ( two important !orems due to ,b]tr& & to ,"l ,kelv9 respectively4 ,let u suppose1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! sy/em is />t$ by giv5 impulses ( c]ta9 types1 b is o!rwise free4 ,j4,l4,f4 ,b]tr&'s !orem is to ! effect t ! k9etic en]gy is great] ?an if by impulses ( ! rema9+ types ! sy/em 7 con/ra9$ to take any o!r c\rse4 ,we may suppose ! co-ord9ates to be s *os5 t ! con/ra9t is express$ by ! vani%+ ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 :il/ ! giv5 impulses are kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,h5ce ! en]gy 9 ! actual motion is great] ?an 9 ! con/ra9$ motion by ! am\nt 4 ,aga91 suppose t ! sy/em is />t$ ) prescrib$ velocity compon5ts q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 by means ( prop] impulses ( ! correspond+ types1 b is o!rwise free1 s t 9 ! motion actually g5]at$ we h kappa #j1 kappa' #j1 kappa #j1 444 & !re=e ,k #j4 ,! k9etic en]gy is !re=e less ?an 9 any o!r motion consi/5t ) ! prescrib$ velocity-conditions by ! value :i* ,k assumes :5 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 repres5t ! impulses due to ! con/ra9ts4 ,simple illu/rations ( ^! !orems are af=d$ by ! *a9 ( /raight l9ks already employ$4 ,?us if a po9t ( ! *a9 be held fix$1 or if "o or m ( ! jo9ts be made rigid1 ! en]gy g5]at$ by any giv5 impulses is less ?an if ! *a9 _h possess$ its =m] fre$om4 #b4 ,cont9u\s ,motion ( a ,sy/em4 ,lagrange's equations4 ,we may proce$ to ! cont9u\s motion ( a sy/em4 ,! equations ( motion ( any p>ticle ( ! sy/em are ( ! =m mx ,x1 my ,y1 mz ,z 7#a7 ,n[ let x deltax1 y deltay1 z deltaz be ! co-ord9ates ( m 9 any arbitr>y motion ( ! sy/em diff]+ inf9itely little f ! actual motion1 & let u =m ! equation ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 7#b7 ,lagrange's inve/igation consi/s 9 ! trans=mation ( 7#b7 into an equation involv+ ! indep5d5t v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqn4 ,x is important to notice t ! symbols delta & d_/dt are commutative1 s9ce d dx d deltax --7x deltax7 - -- --deltax1 c4 7#c7 dt dt dt ,h5ce d ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 -- ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 dt - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 d --7p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 4447 - delta,tau1 7#d7 dt by ,sec4 #a 7#ad74 ,! la/ memb] may be writt5 p#a;deltaq#a p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b p#b;deltaq#b 444 d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau - ------- deltaq#a - ------- deltaq#a - ------- deltaq#b - ------- deltaq#b - 444 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,h5ce1 omitt+ ! t]ms :i* cancel 9 virtue ( ,sec4 #a 7#ac71 we f9d _/ d,p,tau _/ d,p,tau ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7p#a - ------- 7 deltaq#a 7p#b - ------- 7 deltaq#b 444 7#f7 d,pq#a _/ d,pq#b _/ ,= ! "r-h& side ( 7#b7 we h ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 ,q#a;deltaq#a ,q#b;deltaq#b 4441 7#g7 _/ d,px d,py d,pz :]e ,qr ,sigma7 ,x ----- ,y ----- ,z ----- 7 7#h7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr_/ ,! quantities ,q#a1 ,q#b1 444 are call$ ! g5]aliz$ compon5ts ( =ce act+ on ! sy/em4 ,comp>+ 7#f7 & 7#g7 we f9d d,p,tau d,p,tau p#a - ------- ,q#a1 p#b - ------- ,q#b1 4441 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#b or1 re/or+ ! values ( p#a1 p#b1 4441 d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- ,q#a1 -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- ,q#b1 444 7#aj7 dt d,pq#a _/ d,pq#a dt d,pq#b _/ d,pq#b ,^! are ,lagrange's g5]al equations ( motion4 ,_! numb] is ( c\rse equal to t ( ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 to be det]m9$4 ,analytically1 ! above pro( is t giv5 by ,lagrange1 b ! t]m9ology employ$ is ( mu* m rec5t date1 hav+ be5 fir/ introduc$ by ,"l ,kelv9 & ,p4,g4 ,tait2 x has greatly promot$ ! physical application ( ! subject4 ,ano!r pro( ( ! equations 7#aj71 by direct trans=mation ( co-ord9ates1 has be5 giv5 by ,hamilton & indep5d5tly by o!r writ]s 7see ,,me*anics71 b ! v>iational me?od ( ,lagrange is t :i* /&s 9 close/ relation to ! subsequ5t developm5ts ( ! subject4 ,! *apt] ( ,maxwell1 already ref]r$ to1 is a mo/ in/ructive comm5t>y on ! subject f ! physical po9t ( view1 al?\gh ! pro( !re attempt$ ( ! equations 7#aj7 is fallaci\s4 ,9 a cons]vative sy/em ! "w :i* w\ld h to be done by extrane\s =ces to br+ ! sy/em f re/ 9 "s /&>d configuration to re/ 9 ! configuration 7q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 is indep5d5t ( ! pa?1 & may !re=e be reg>d$ z a def9ite function ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qn4 ,d5ot+ ?is function 7! pot5tial en]gy7 by ,v1 we h1 if !re be no extrane\s =ce on ! sy/em1 ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 - delta,v1 7#aa7 & !re=e d,p,v d,p,v ,q#a - ----1 ,q#b - ----1 4444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,h5ce ! typical ,lagrange's equation may be n[ writt5 9 ! =m d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,v -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- - -----1 7#ac7 dt d,pqr _/ d,pqr d,pqr or1 aga91 d,p pr - ----- 7,v - ,tau7 7#ad7 d,pqr ,x has be5 propos$ by ,helmholtz to give ! "n k9etic pot5tial to ! comb9ation ,v - ,tau4 ,z %[n "u ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bb1 we d]ive f 7#aj7 d,tau ------ ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 4441 7#ae7 dt & !re=e 9 ! case ( a cons]vative sy/em free f extrane\s =ce1 d --7,tau ,v7 #j or ,tau ,v con/41 7#af7 dt :i* is ! equation ( en]gy4 ,= examples ( ! application ( ! =mula 7#ac7 see ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bb4 #c4 ,con/ra9$ ,sy/ems4 ,case ( v>y+ relations4 ,x has s f> be5 assum$ t ! geometrical relations1 if any1 :i* exi/ betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! sy/em are ( ! type ,sec4 #a 7#a71 & s d n conta9 t explicitly4 ,! ext5sion ( ,lagrange's equations to ! case ( v>y+ relations ( ! type x f7t1 q#a1 q#b1444qn71 y c41 z c41 7#a7 0 made by ,j4,m4,l4 ,vieille4 ,we n[ h d,px d,px d,px x --- ---- q#a ---- q#b 4441 c41 c41 7#b7 d,pt d,pq#a d,pq#b d,px d,px d,px ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 4441 c41 c41 7#c7 d,pq#a d,pq#b s t ! expression ,sec4 #a 7#h7 = ! k9etic en]gy is to be replac$ by #b,tau alpha#j #b;alpha#aq#a #b;alpha#bq#b 444 ,a#aaq#a squ>$ ,a#bbq#b squ>$ 444 ,a#abq#aq#b 4441 7#d7 :]e _/d,px squ>$ _/d,py squ>$ _/d,pz squ>$ a#j ,sigmam 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 1 d,pt_/ d,pt_/ d,pt_/ 7#e7 d,px d,px d,py d,py d,pz d,pz ar ,sigmam --- ----- --- ----- --- ----- 1 d,pt d,pqr d,pt d,pqr d,pt d,pqr _/ & ! =ms ( ,arr1 ,ars are z giv5 by ,sec4 #a 7#g74 ,x is to be rememb]$ t ! coeffici5ts alpha#j1 alpha#a1 alpha#b1 444 ,a#aa1 ,a#bb1 444 ,a#ab 444 w 9 g5]al involve t explicitly z well z implicitly ?r\gh ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1444 ,aga91 we f9d ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7alpha#a ,a#aaq#a ,a#abq#b 4447deltaq#a 7alpha#b ,a#baq#a ,a#bbq#b 4447d,pq#b 444 d,p,tau d,p,tau ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 d,pq#a d,pq#b p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 4441 7#f7 :]e pr is def9$ z 9 ,sec4 #a 7#ac74 ,! d]ivation ( ,lagrange's equations !n foll[s exactly z be=e4 ,x is to be not$ t ! equation ,sec4 #b 7#ae7 does n z a rule n[ hold4 ,! pro( involv$ ! assumption t ,tau is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b4444 ,x has be5 po9t$ out by ,r4,b4 ,hayw>d t ,vieille's case c be br\ght "u ,lagrange's by introduc+ a new co-ord9ate 7*i7 9 place ( t1 s f> z x appe>s explicitly 9 ! relations 7#a74 ,we h !n #b,tau alpha#j;*i squ>$ #b7;alpha#aq#a alpha#bq#b 4447*i ,a#aaq#a squ>$ ,a#bbq#b squ>$ 444 #b;,a#abq#aq#b 4444 7#g7 ,! equations ( motion w be z 9 ,sec4 #b 7#aj71 ) ! additional equation d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- -------- - ------- ,x1 7#h7 dt d,p*i d,p*i :]e ,x is ! =ce correspond+ to ! co-ord9ate *i4 ,we may suppose ,x to be adju/$ s z to make *i #j1 & 9 ! rema9+ equations no?+ is alt]$ if we write t = *i be=e1 in/ead ( aft]1 ! diff]5tiations4 ,! reason :y ! equation ,sec4 #b 7#ae7 no long] holds is t we %\ld require to add a t]m ,x*i on ! "r-h& side2 ?is repres5ts ! rate at :i* "w is be+ done by ! con/ra9+ =ces requir$ to keep *i con/ant4 ,z an example1 let x1 y1 z be ! co-ord9ates ( a p>ticle relative to axes fix$ 9 a solid :i* is free to rotate ab\t ! axis ( z4 ,if phi be ! angul> co-ord9ate ( ! solid1 we f9d )\t difficulty #b,tau m7x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7 #bphim7xy - yx7 ,i m7x squ>$ y squ>$7phi squ>$1 7#i7 :]e ,i is ! mom5t ( in]tia ( ! solid4 ,! equations ( motion1 viz4 d d,p,tau d,p,tau d d,p,tau d,p,tau d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- ------ - ------ ,x1 -- ------- - ------- ,y1 -- ------- - ------- ,z1 7#aj7 dt d,px d,px dt d,py d,py dt d,pz d,pz d d,p,tau d,p,tau & -- -------- - ------- ,phi1 7#aa7 dt d,pphi d,pphi become m7x - #bphiy - xphi squ>$ - yphi7 ,x1 m7y #bphix - yphi squ>$ xphi7 ,y1 mz ,z1 7#ab7 d _/ & -- 7,i m7x squ>$ y squ>$77 phi m7xy - yx7 ,phi4 7#ac7 dt _/ ,if we suppose ,phi adju/$ s z to ma9ta9 phi #j1 or 7aga97 if we suppose ! mom5t ( in]tia ,i to be inf9itely great1 we obta9 ! famili> equations ( motion relative to mov+ axes1 viz4 m7x - #bomegay - omega squ>$x7 ,x1 m7y #bomegax - omega squ>$y7 ,y1 mz ,z1 7#ad7 :]e omega has be5 writt5 = phi4 ,^! are ! equations :i* we %\ld h obta9$ by apply+ ,lagrange's rule at once to ! =mula #b,tau m7x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7 #bmomega7xy - yx7 momega squ>$7x squ>$ y squ>$71 7#ae7 :i* gives ! k9etic en]gy ( ! p>ticle ref]r$ to axes rotat+ ) ! con/ant angul> velocity omega4 7,see ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #ac47 ,m g5]ally1 let u suppose t we h a c]ta9 gr\p ( co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 ^: absolute values d n affect ! expression = ! k9etic en]gy1 & t by suitable =ces ( ! correspond+ types ! velocity-compon5ts *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 are ma9ta9$ con/ant4 ,! rema9+ co-ord9ates be+ d5ot$ by q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 we may write #b,tau ,tau#j #b7;alpha#aq#a alpha#bq#b 4447*i #b7;alpha'#aq#a alpha'#bq#b 4447*i' 4441 7#af7 :]e is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn ( ! type ,sec4#a 7#h71 :il/ ,tau#j is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! velocities *i1*i'1 *i1 444 alone4 ,! rema9+ t]ms1 :i* are bil9e> 9 respect ( ! two sets ( velocities1 are indicat$ m fully4 ,! =mulae 7#aj7 ( ,sec4 #b give n equations ( ! type d _/d,p _/d,p d,p,tau#j --7 ----- 7 - 7 ----- 7 7r1 #a7q#a 7r1 #b7q#b 444 - -------- ,qr 7#ag7 dt d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ d,pqr :]e _/d,par d,pas _/d,pa'r d,pa's 7r1 s7 7 ----- - ----- 7*i 7 ------ - ------ 7*i' 4444 7#ah7 d,pqs d,pqr_/ d,pqs d,pqr_/ ,^! quantities 7r1 s7 are subject to ! relations 7r1 s7 -7s1 r71 7r1 r7 #j 7#ai7 ,! rema9+ dynamical equations1 equal 9 numb] to ! co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 4441 yield expressions = ! =ces :i* mu/ be appli$ 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! velocities *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 con/ant2 !y ne$ n be writt5 d[n4 ,if we foll[ ! me?od by :i* ! equation ( en]gy 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,sec4 #b1 ! equations 7#ag7 lead1 on tak+ acc\nt ( ! relations 7#ai71 to d --7 - ,tau#j7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 444 ,qnqn1 7#bj7 dt or1 9 case ! =ces ,qr dep5d only on ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn & are cons]vative1 ,v - ,tau#j con/4 7#ba7 ,! conditions t ! equations 7#ag7 %\ld be satisfi$ by z]o values ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are d,p,tau#j ,qr - --------1 7#bb7 d,pqr or 9 ! case ( cons]vative =ces d,p ------ 7,v - ,tau#j7 #j1 7#bc7 d,pqr i4e4 ! value ( ,v - ,tau#j mu/ be /ation>y4 ,rotat+ axes4 ,we may apply ?is to ! case ( a sy/em ^: configuration relative to axes rotat+ ) con/ant angul> velocity 7omega7 is def9$ by means ( ! n co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn4 ,?is is important on acc\nt ( its be>+ on ! k9etic !ory ( ! tides4 ,s9ce ! ,c>tesian co-ord9ates x1 y1 z ( any p>ticle m ( ! sy/em relative to ! mov+ axes are functions ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 ( ! =m ,sec4 #a 7#a71 we h1 by 7#ae7 #b ,sigmam7x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$71 #b,tau#j omega squ>$,sigmam7x squ>$ y squ>$71 7#bd7 _/ d,py d,px ar ,sigmam7 x----- - y----- 71 7#be7 d,pqr d,pqr_/ :5ce d,p7x1 y7 7r1 s7 #bomega4,sigmam ------------4 7#bf7 d,p7qs1 qr7 ,! conditions ( relative equilibrium are giv5 by 7#bc74 ,x w be notic$ t ?is expression ,v - ,tau#j1 :i* is to be /ation>y1 diff]s f ! true pot5tial en]gy by a t]m :i* repres5ts ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! sy/em 9 relation to fictiti\s c5trifugal =ces4 ,! "q ( /ability ( relative equilibrium w be notic$ lat] 7,sec4 #f74 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! rem>kable =mula 7#bj7 may 9 ! pres5t case be obta9$ directly z foll[s4 ,f 7#ae7 & 7#ad7 we f9d d,tau d ------ --7 ,tau#j7 omega4,sigmam7xy - yx7 dt dt d --7 - ,tau#j7 omega4,sigma7x,y - y,x74 7#bg7 dt ,?is mu/ be equal to ! rate at :i* ! =ces act+ on ! sy/em d "w1 viz4 to omega,sigma7x,y - y,x7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 444 ,qnqn1 :]e ! fir/ t]m repres5ts ! "w done 9 virtue ( ! rotation4 ,con/ra9$ sy/ems4 ,we h /ill to notice ! modifications :i* ,lagrange's equations und]go :5 ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are n all indep5d5tly v>iable4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we may suppose !m connect$ by a numb] m 7 n7 ( relations ( ! type ,a7t1 q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 #j1 ,b7t1 q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 #j1 c4 7#bh7 ,^! may be int]pret$ z introduc+ p>tial con/ra9ts into a previ\sly free sy/em4 ,! v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqn 9 ! expressions 7#f7 & 7#g7 ( ,sec4 #b :i* are to be equat$ are no long] indep5d5t1 b are subject to ! relations d,p,a d,p,a d,p,b d,p,b ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 444 #j1 ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 444 #j1 c4 7#bi7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#a d,pq#b ,introduc+ indet]m9ate multipli]s lambda1 mu1 4441 "o = ea* ( ^! equations1 we obta9 9 ! usual mann] n equations ( ! type d d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,a d,p,b -- ------- - ------- ,qr lambda ----- mu ----- 4441 7#cj7 dt d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr 9 place ( ,sec4 #b 7#aj74 ,^! equations1 toge!r ) 7#bh71 s]ve to det]m9e ! n co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn & ! m multipli]s lambda1 mu1 4444 ,:5 t does n occur explicitly 9 ! relations 7#bh7 ! sy/em is said to be holonomic4 ,! t]m connotes ! exi/5ce ( integral 7z oppos$ to diff]5tial7 relations betwe5 ! co-ord9ates1 indep5d5t ( ! "t4 ,aga91 x may happ5 t al?\gh !re are no prescrib$ relations betwe5 ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 yet f ! circum/ances ( ! problem c]ta9 geometrical conditions are impos$ on _! v>iations1 ?us ,a#a;deltaq#a ,a#b;deltaq#b 444 #j1 ,b#a;deltaq#a ,b#b;deltaq#b 444 #j1 c41 7#ca7 :]e ! coeffici5ts are functions ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qn & 7possibly7 ( t4 ,x is assum$ t ^! equations are n integrable z reg>ds ! v>iables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn2 o!rwise1 we fall back on ! previ\s conditions4 ,cases ( ! pres5t type arise1 = in/ance1 9 ord9>y dynamics :5 we h a solid roll+ on a 7fix$ or mov+7 surface4 ,! six co-ord9ates :i* s]ve to specify ! position ( ! solid at any in/ant are n subject to any necess>y relation1 b ! conditions to be satisfi$ at ! po9t ( contact impose ?ree conditions ( ! =m 7#ca74 ,! g5]al equations ( motion are obta9$1 z be=e1 by ! me?od ( indet]m9ate multipli]s1 ?us d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- ------- - ------- ,qr lambda,ar mu,br 444 7#cb7 dt d,pqr d,pqr ,! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 & ! indet]m9ate multipli]s lambda1 mu1 4441 are det]m9$ by ^! equations & by ! velocity-conditions correspond+ to 7#ca74 ,:5 t does n appe> explicitly 9 ! coeffici5ts1 ^! velocity-conditions take ! =ms ,a#aq#a ,a#bq#b 444 #j1 ,b#aq#a ,b#bq#b 444 #j1 c4 7#cc7 ,sy/ems ( ?is k9d1 :]e ! relations 7#ca7 are n integrable1 are call$ non-holonomic4 #d4 ,hamiltonian ,equations ( ,motion4 ,9 ! ,hamiltonian =m ( ! equations ( motion ( a cons]vative sy/em ) unv>y+ relations1 ! k9etic en]gy is suppos$ express$ 9 t]ms ( ! mom5ta p#a1 p#b1 444 & ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 4441 z 9 ,sec4 #a 7#ai74 ,s9ce ! symbol delta n[ d5otes a v>iation ext5d+ to ! co-ord9ates z well z to ! mom5ta1 we mu/ add to ! la/ memb] ( ,sec4 #a 7#ba7 t]ms ( ! types d,p,tau d,p,tau' ------- deltaq#a -------- deltaq#a 444 7#a7 d,pq#a d,pq#a ,s9ce ! v>iations deltap#a1 deltap#b1 444 deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 may be tak5 to be indep5d5t1 we inf] ! equations ,sec4 #a 7#bc7 z be=e1 toge!r ) d,p,tau d,p,tau' d,p,tau d,p,tau' ------ - --------1 ------- - --------1 4441 7#b7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,h5ce ! ,lagrangian equations ,sec4 #b 7#ad7 trans=m into d,p d,p p#a - ----7,tau' ,v71 p#b ---- 7,tau' ,v71 444 7#c7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,if we write ,h ,tau' ,v1 7#d7 s t ,h d5otes ! total en]gy ( ! sy/em1 suppos$ express$ 9 t]ms ( ! new v>iables1 we get d,p,h d,p,h p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 444 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,if to ^! we jo9 ! equations d,p,h d,p,h q#a ----1 q#b ----1 4441 7#f7 d,pp#a d,pp#b :i* foll[ at once f ,sec4 #a 7#bc71 s9ce ,v does n involve p#a1 p#b1 4441 we obta9 a complete sy/em ( diff]5tial equations ( ! fir/ ord] = ! det]m9ation ( ! motion4 ,! equation ( en]gy is v]ifi$ imm$iately by 7#e7 & 7#f71 s9ce ^! make d,h d,p,h d,p,h d,p,h d,p,h -- ---- p#a ---- p#b 444 ---- q#a ---- q#b 444 #j4 7#g7 dt d,pp#a d,pp#b d,pq#a d,pq#b ,! ,hamiltonian trans=mation is ext5d$ to ! case ( v>y+ relations z foll[s4 ,in/ead ( 7#d7 we write ,h p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 - ,tau ,v1 7#h7 & imag9e ,h to be express$ 9 t]ms ( ! mom5ta p#a1 p#b1 4441 ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 4441 & ! "t4 ,! int]nal =ces ( ! sy/em are assum$ to be cons]vative1 ) ! pot5tial en]gy ,v4 ,p]=m+ ! v>iation delta on bo? sides1 we f9d d,p,tau d,p,v delta,h q#a;deltap#a 444 - ------- deltaq#a ---- deltaq 4441 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#a t]ms :i* cancel 9 virtue ( ! def9ition ( p#a1 p#b1 444 be+ omitt$4 ,s9ce deltap#a1 deltap#b1 4441 deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 may be tak5 to be indep5d5t1 we inf] d,p,h d,p,h q#a ----1 q#b ----1 4441 7#aj7 d,pp#a d,pp#b & d,p d,p,h d,p d,p,h ---- 7,tau - ,v7 - ----1 ----7,tau - ,v7 - ----1 4444 7#aa7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,x foll[s f 7#aa7 t d,p,h d,p,h p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,! equations 7#aj7 & 7#ab7 h ! same =m z above1 b ,h is no long] equal to ! en]gy ( ! sy/em4 #e4 ,cyclic ,sy/ems4 ,a cyclic or gyro/atic sy/em is *>act]iz$ by ! foll[+ prop]ties4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! k9etic en]gy is n affect$ if we alt] ! absolute values ( c]ta9 ( ! co-ord9ates1 :i* we w d5ote by *i1 *i'1 *i1 4441 provid$ ! rema9+ co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm & ! velocities1 includ+ ( c\rse ! velocities 4*i1 4*i'1 4*i1 4441 are unalt]$4 ,secondly1 !re are no =ces act+ on ! sy/em ( ! types *i1 *i'1 *i1 4444 ,?is case arises1 = example1 :5 ! sy/em includes gyro/ats :i* are free to rotate ab\t _! axes1 ! co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 !n be+ ! angul> co-ord9ates ( ! gyro/ats relatively to _! frames4 ,aga91 9 !oretical hydrodynamics we h ! problem ( mov+ solids 9 a frictionless liquid2 ! ignor$ co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 !n ref] to ! fluid1 & are inf9ite 9 numb]4 ,! same "q pres5ts itself 9 v>i\s physical speculations :]e c]ta9 ph5om5a are ascrib$ to ! exi/5ce ( lat5t motions 9 ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]4 ,! g5]al !ory ( su* sy/ems has be5 treat$ by ,e4,j4 ,r\?1 ,"l ,kelv91 & ,h4,l4,f4 ,helmholtz4 ,r\?'s equations4 ,if we suppose ! k9etic en]gy ,tau to be express$1 z 9 ,lagrange's me?od1 9 t]ms ( ! co-ord9ates & ! velocities1 ! equations ( motion correspond+ to *i1 *i'1 *i''1 444 r$uce1 9 virtue ( ! above hypo!ses1 to ! =ms d d,p,tau d d,p,tau d d,p,tau -- --------- #j1 -- --------- #j1 -- --------- #j1 4441 7#a7 dt d,p*i dt d,p*i' dt d,p*i :5ce d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau -------- kappa1 --------- kappa'1 --------- kappa1 4441 7#b7 d,p*i d,p*i' d,p*i :]e kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 are ! con/ant mom5ta correspond+ to ! cyclic co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 4444 ,^! equations are l9e> 9 4*i1 4*i'1 4*i1 4442 solv+ !m ) respect to ^! quantities & sub/itut+ 9 ! rema9+ ,lagrangian equations1 we obta9 m diff]5tial equations to det]m9e ! rema9+ co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,! object ( ! pres5t inve/igation is to asc]ta9 ! g5]al =m ( ! result+ equations4 ,! reta9$ co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm may be call$ 7= di/9ction7 ! palpable co-ord9ates ( ! sy/em2 9 _m practical que/ions !y are ! only co-ord9ates directly 9 evid5ce4 ,if1 z 9 ,sec4 #a 7#be71 we write ,r ,tau - kappa*i - kappa'*i' - kappa*i - 4441 7#c7 & imag9e ,r to be express$ by means ( 7#b7 z a quadratic function ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 ) coeffici5ts :i* are 9 g5]al functions ( ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 !n1 p]=m+ ! op]ation delta on bo? sides1 we f9d d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,tau -----deltaq#a 444 ---------deltakappa 444 ----deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#a d,p,tau d,p,tau --------delta*i 444 --------deltaq#a 444 - kappadelta*i - *ideltakappa - 4444 7#d7 d,p*i d,p*i#a ,omitt+ ! t]ms :i* cancel by 7#b71 we f9d d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r ------- -----1 ------- -----1 4441 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r ------- ----1 ------- ----1 4441 7#f7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r *i - ---------1 *i' - ----------1 *i - ----------1 444 7#g7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,sub/itut+ 9 ,sec4 #b 7#aj71 we h d d,p,r d,p,r d d,p,r d,p,r -- ----- - ----- ,q#a1 -- ----- - ---- ,q#b1 444 7#h7 dt d,pq#a d,pq#a dt d,pq#b d,pq#b ,^! are ,r\?'s =ms ( ! modifi$ ,lagrangian equations4 ,equival5t =ms 7 obta9$ indep5d5tly by ,helmholtz at a lat] date4 ,kelv9's equations4 ,! function ,r is made up ( ?ree p>ts1 ?us ,r ,r7#b1j7 ,r7#a1a7 ,r7#j1b71 444 7#i7 :]e ,r7#b1j7 is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 ,r7#j1b7 is a homog5e\s quadratic function ( kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 :il/ ,r7#a1a7 consi/s ( products ( ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm into ! mom5ta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa4444 ,h5ce f 7#c7 & 7#g7 we h _/ d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r ,tau ,r - 7 kappa --------- kappa'---------- kappa ---------- 4447 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa _/ ,r7#b1j7 - ,r7#j1b74 7#aj7 ,if1 z 9 ,sec4 #a 7#cj71 we write ?is 9 ! =m ,tau ,kappa1 7#aa7 !n 7#c7 may be writt5 ,r - ,kappa ss#aq#a ss#bq#b 4441 7#ab7 :]e ss#a1 ss#b1 444 are l9e> functions ( kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 say ssr alpharkappa alpha'rkappa' alpharkappa 4441 7#ac7 ! coeffici5ts alphar1 alpha'r1 alphar1 444 be+ 9 g5]al functions ( ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,evid5tly ssr d5otes t "p ( ! mom5tum-compon5t d,p,r_/d,pqr :i* is due to ! cyclic motions4 ,n[ d d,p,r d _/ d,p d d,p d,pssr d,pssr -- ------ -- 7 ------ ssr7 -- ------ -----q#a -----q#b 4441 7#ad7 dt d,pqr dt d,pqr _/ dt d,pqr d,pq#a d,pq#b d,p,r d,p d,p,kappa d,pss#a d,pss#b ----- ----- - --------- -----q#a -----q#b 4444 7#ae7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr ,h5ce1 sub/itut+ 9 7#h71 we obta9 ! typical equation ( motion ( a gyro/atic sy/em 9 ! =m d d,p d,p d,p,kappa -- ------ - ----- 7r1 #a7q#a 7r1 #b7q#b 444 7r1 s7qs 444 --------- ,qr1 7#af7 dt d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr :]e d,pssr d,psss 7r1 s7 ----- - -----4 7#ag7 d,pqs d,pqr ,?is =m is due to ,"l ,kelv94 ,:5 q#a1 q#b1 444 qm h be5 det]m9$1 z functions ( ! "t1 ! velocities correspond+ to ! cyclic co-ord9ates c be f\nd1 if requir$1 f ! relations 7#g71 :i* may be writt5 d,p,kappa ,*i --------- - alpha#aq#a - alpha#bq#b - 4441 d,pkappa d,p,kappa 7#ah7 ,*i' ---------- - alpha'#aq#a - alpha'#bq#b - 4441 d,pkappa' c41 c4 _/ ,x is to be p>ticul>ly notic$ t 7r1 r7 #j1 7r1 s7 -7s1 r74 7#ai7 ,h5ce1 if 9 7#af7 we put r #a1 #b1 #c1 444 m1 & multiply by q#a1 q#b1 444 qm respectively1 & add1 we f9d d --7 ,kappa7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 4441 7#bj7 dt or1 9 ! case ( a cons]vative sy/em ,v ,kappa con/41 7#ba7 :i* is ! equation ( en]gy4 ,! equation 7#af7 includes ,sec4 #c 7#ag7 z a p>ticul> case1 ! elim9at$ co-ord9ate be+ ! angul> co-ord9ate ( a rotat+ solid hav+ an inf9ite mom5t ( in]tia4 ,9 ! p>ticul> case :]e ! cyclic mom5ta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 are all z]o1 7#af7 r$uces to d d,p d,p -- ------ - ----- ,qr4 7#bb7 dt d,pqr d,pqr ,! =m is ! same z 9 ,sec4 #b1 & ! sy/em n[ behaves1 z reg>ds ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 exactly l ! acyclic type !re contemplat$4 ,^! co-ord9ates d n1 h[ev]1 n[ fix ! position ( e p>ticle ( ! sy/em4 ,= example1 if by suitable =ces ! sy/em be br\ght back to its initial configuration 7s f> z ?is is def9$ by q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm71 aft] p]=m+ any evolutions1 ! ignor$ co-ord9ates *i1 *i'1 *i1 444 w n 9 g5]al return to _! orig9al values4 ,if 9 ,lagrange's equations ,sec4 #b 7#aj7 we rev]se ! sign ( ! "t-elem5t dt1 ! equations are unalt]$4 ,! motion is !re=e rev]sible2 t is to say1 if z ! sy/em is pass+ ?r\gh any configuration its velocities q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm be all rev]s$1 x w 7if ! =ces be ! same 9 ! same configuration7 retrace its =m] pa?4 ,b x is important to obs]ve t ! /atem5t does n 9 g5]al hold ( a gyro/atic sy/em2 ! t]ms ( 7#af71 :i* are l9e> 9 q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm1 *ange sign ) dt1 :il/ ! o!rs d n4 ,h5ce ! motion ( a gyro/atic sy/em is n rev]sible1 unless inde$ we rev]se ! cyclic motions z well z ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm4 ,= in/ance1 ! precessional motion ( a top _c be rev]s$ unless we rev]se ! sp94 ,k9eto/atics4 ,! conditions ( equilibrium ( a sy/em ) lat5t cyclic motions are obta9$ by putt+ q#a #j1 q#b #j1 444 qm #j 9 7#af72 viz4 !y are d,p,kappa d,p,kappa ,q#a ---------1 ,q#b ---------1 444 7#bc7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,^! may ( c\rse be obta9$ indep5d5tly4 ,?us if ! sy/em be guid$ f 7app>5t7 re/ 9 ! configuration 7q#a1 q#b1 444 qm7 to re/ 9 ! configuration q#a deltaq#a1 q#b deltaq#b1 4441 qm deltaqm1 ! "w done by ! =ces mu/ be equal to ! increm5t ( ! k9etic en]gy4 ,h5ce ,q#a;deltaq#a ,q#b;deltaq#b 444 delta,kappa1 7#bd7 :i* is equival5t to 7#bc74 ,! conditions are ! same z = ! equilibrium ( a sy/em )\t lat5t motion1 b end[$ ) pot5tial en]gy ,kappa4 ,?is is important f a physical po9t ( view1 z %[+ h[ en]gy :i* is app>5tly pot5tial may 9 its ultimate ess5ce be k9etic4 ,by means ( ! =mulae 7#ah71 :i* n[ r$uce to d,p,kappa d,p,kappa d,p,kappa *i ---------1 *i' ----------1 *i ---------- 4441 7#be7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,kappa may also be express$ z a homog5e\s quadratic function ( ! cyclic velocities 4*i1 4*i'1 4*i1 444 ,d5ot+ x 9 ?is =m by ,tau#j1 we h delta7,tau#j ,kappa #b;delta,kappa delta7kappa *i kappa'*i' kappa*i 44474 7#bf7 ,p]=m+ ! v>iations1 & omitt+ ! t]ms :i* cancel by 7#b7 & 7#be71 we f9d d,p,tau#j d,p,kappa d,p,tau#j d,p,kappa -------- - ---------1 -------- - ---------1 4441 7#bg7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b s t ! =mulae 7#bc7 become d,p,tau#j d,p,tau#j ,q#a - --------1 ,q#b - --------1 444 7#bh7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,a simple example is furni%$ by ! top 7,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bb74 ,! cyclic co-ord9ates be+ psi1 phi1 we f9d 7 mu - nu cos !ta7 squ>$ nu squ>$ #b ,a!ta squ>$1 #b,kappa ----------------------- -----1 ,a s9 squ>$ !ta ,c #b,tau#j ,a s9 squ>$!tapsi squ>$ ,c7phi psi cos !ta7 squ>$1 7#bi7 :5ce we may v]ify t d,p,tau#j_/;d,p!ta - d,p,kappa_/d,p!ta 9 accordance ) 7#bg74 ,& ! condition ( equilibrium d,p,kappa d,p,v --------- - --------- 7#cj7 d,p!ta d,p!ta gives ! condition ( /eady precession4 #f4 ,/ability ( ,/eady ,motion4 ,! small oscillations ( a cons]vative sy/em ab\t a configuration ( equilibrium1 & ! crit]ion ( /ability1 are discuss$ 9 ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bc4 ,! "q ( ! /ability ( giv5 types ( motion is m difficult1 ow+ to ! want ( a suffici5tly g5]al1 & at ! same "t precise1 def9ition ( :at we mean by /ability4 ,a numb] ( def9itions :i* h be5 prop\nd$ by diff]5t writ]s are exam9$ by ,f4 ,kle9 & ,a4 ,somm]feld 9 _! "w ,ueb] die ,!orie des ,kreisels 7#ahig-aijc74 ,reject+ previ\s def9itions1 !y base _! crit]ion ( /ability on ! "* ( ! *anges produc$ 9 ! pa? ( ! sy/em by small arbitr>y di/urb+ impulses4 ,if ! undi/urb$ pa? be ! limit+ =m ( ! di/urb$ pa? :5 ! impulses are indef9itely dim9i%$1 x is said to be /able1 b n o!rwise4 ,= in/ance1 ! v]tical fall ( a p>ticle "u gravity is reckon$ z /able1 al?\gh = a giv5 impulsive di/urbance1 h[ev] small1 ! deviation ( ! p>ticle's position at any "t t f ! position :i* x w\ld h occupi$ 9 ! orig9al motion increases indef9itely ) t4 ,ev5 ?is crit]ion1 z ! writ]s quot$ !mselves recognize1 is n free f ambiguity unless ! phrase limit+ =m1 z appli$ to a pa?1 be /rictly def9$4 ,x appe>s1 moreov]1 t a def9ition :i* is analytically precise may n 9 all cases be easy to reconcile ) geometrical prepossessions4 ,?us a p>ticle mov+ 9 a circle ab\t a c5tre ( =ce v>y+ inv]sely z ! cube ( ! di/ance w if slightly di/urb$ ei!r fall into ! c5tre1 or rec$e to inf9ity1 aft] describ+ 9 ei!r case a spiral ) an inf9ite numb] ( convolutions4 ,ea* ( ^! spirals has1 analytically1 ! circle z its limit+ =m1 al?\gh ! motion 9 ! circle is mo/ naturally describ$ z un/able4 ,a special =m ( ! problem1 ( great int]e/1 pres5ts itself 9 ! /eady motion ( a gyro/atic sy/em1 :5 ! non-elim9at$ co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm all vani% 7see ,sec4 #e74 ,?is has be5 discuss$ by ,r\?1 ,"l ,kelv9 & ,tait1 & ,po9c>e4 ,^! writ]s treat ! "q1 by an ext5sion ( ,lagrange's me?od1 z a problem ( small oscillations4 ,:e!r we adopt ! notion ( /ability :i* ?is implies1 or take up ! position ( ,kle9 & ,somm]feld1 !re is no difficulty 9 %[+ t /ability is ensur$ if ,v ,kappa be a m9imum z reg>ds v>iations ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,! pro( is ! same z t ( ,diri*let = ! case ( /atical /ability4 ,we c illu/rate ?is condition f ! case ( ! top1 :]e1 9 our previ\s notation1 7 mu - nucos !ta7 squ>$ nu squ>$ ,v ,kappa ,mgh cos!ta ---------------------- -----4 7#a7 #b;,a s9 squ>$ !ta #b;,c ,to exam9e :e!r ! /eady motion ) ! c5tre ( gravity v]tically above ! pivot is /able1 we mu/ put mu nu4 ,we !n f9d )\t difficulty t ,v ,kappa is a m9imum provid$ nu squ>$ #d;,a,mgh4 ,! me?od ( small oscillations gave u ! condition nu squ>$ #d;,a,mgh1 & indicat$ in/ability 9 ! cases nu squ>$ #d;,a,mgh4 ,! pres5t crit]ion c also be appli$ to %[ t ! /eady precessional motions 9 :i* ! axis has a con/ant incl9ation to ! v]tical are /able4 ,! "q rema9s1 z be=e1 :e!r x is ess5tial = /ability t ,v ,kappa %\ld be a m9imum4 ,x appe>s t f ! po9t ( view ( ! !ory ( small oscillations x is n ess5tial1 & t !re may ev5 be /ability :5 ,v ,kappa is a maximum4 ,! precise conditions1 :i* are ( a some:at elaborate "*1 h be5 =mulat$ by ,r\?4 ,an important di/9ction has1 h[ev]1 be5 e/abli%$ by ,?omson & ,tait1 & by ,po9c>e1 betwe5 :at we may call ord9>y or tempor>y /ability 7:i* is /ability 9 ! above s5se7 & p]man5t or secul> /ability1 :i* means /ability :5 reg>d is _h to possible dissipative =ces call$ into play :5ev] ! co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm v>y4 ,s9ce ! total en]gy ( ! sy/em at any in/ant is giv5 79 ! notation ( ,sec4 #e7 by an expression ( ! =m ,v ,kappa1 :]e _c be negative1 ! argum5t ( ,?omson & ,tait1 giv5 "u ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bc1 = ! /atical "q1 %[s t x is a necess>y z well z a suffici5t condition = secul> /ability t ,v ,kappa %\ld be a m9imum4 ,:5 a sy/em is ord9>ily /able1 b secul>ly un/able1 ! op]ation ( ! frictional =ces is to induce a gradual increase 9 ! amplitude ( ! free vibrations :i* are call$ into play by accid5tal di/urbances4 ,!re is a simil> !ory 9 relation to ! con/ra9$ sy/ems consid]$ 9 ,sec4 #c above4 ,! equation 7#ba7 !re giv5 leads to ! conclusion t = secul> /ability ( any type ( motion 9 :i* ! velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are z]o x is necess>y & suffici5t t ! function ,v - ,tau#j %\ld be a m9imum4 ,! simple/ possible example ( ?is is ! case ( a p>ticle at ! l[e/ po9t ( a smoo? sph]ical b[l :i* rotates ) con/ant angul> velocity 7omega7 ab\t ! v]tical diamet]4 ,?is position obvi\sly possesses ord9>y /ability4 ,if a be ! radius ( ! b[l1 & !ta d5ote angul> di/ance f ! l[e/ po9t1 we h ,v - ,tau#j mga7#a - cos !ta7 - #a_/bmomega squ>$a squ>$ s9 squ>$ !ta2 7#b7 ?is is a m9imum = !ta #j only s long z omega squ>$ g_/a4 ,= great] values ( omega ! only position ( p]man5t /ability is t 9 :i* ! p>ticle rotates ) ! b[l at an angul> di/ance cos7-#a7 7g_/omega squ>$a7 f ! l[e/ po9t4 ,to exam9e ! motion 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! l[e/ po9t1 :5 frictional =ces are tak5 into acc\nt1 we may take fix$ ones1 9 a horizontal plane1 ?r\gh ! l[e/ po9t4 ,assum+ t ! friction v>ies z ! relative velocity1 we h x -p squ>$x - k7x omegay71 7#c7 y -p squ>$y - k7y - omegax71 _/ :]e p squ>$ g_/a4 ,^! comb9e into z kz 7p squ>$ - ikomega7z #j1 7#d7 :]e z x iy1 i root-#a4 ,assum+ z ,ce7lambdat71 we f9d lambda -#a_/bk7#a - omega_/p7 - ip1 7#e7 if ! squ>e ( k be neglect$4 ,! complete solution is !n x iy ,c#a;e7-ss#at7e7ipt7 ,c#b;e7-ss#bt7e7-ipt71 7#f7 :]e ss#a #a_/bk7#a - omega_/p71 ss#b #a_/bk7#a omega_/p74 7#g7 ,?is repres5ts two sup]pos$ circul> vibrations1 9 opposite directions1 ( p]iod #bpi_/p4 ,if omega p1 ! amplitude ( ea* ( ^! dim9i%es asymptotically to z]o1 & ! position x #j1 y #j is p]man5tly /able4 ,b if omega p ! amplitude ( t circul> vibration :i* agrees 9 s5se ) ! rotation omega w cont9ually increase1 & ! p>ticle w "w its way 9 an ev]-wid5+ spiral pa? t[>ds ! ecc5tric position ( secul> /ability4 ,if ! b[l be n sph]ical b ellipsoidal1 ! v]tical diamet] be+ a pr9cipal axis1 x may easily be %[n t ! l[e/ position is p]man5tly /able only s long z ! p]iod ( ! rotation is long] ?an t ( ! sl[] ( ! two normal modes 9 ! abs5ce ( rotation 7see ,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #ac74 #g4 ,pr9ciple ( ,lea/ ,action4 ,/ation>y ,action4 ,! prec$+ !ories give u /atem5ts applicable to ! sy/em at any "o in/ant ( its motion4 ,we n[ come to a s]ies ( !orems relat+ to ! :ole motion ( ! sy/em betwe5 any two configurations ?r\gh :i* x passes1 viz4 we consid] ! actual motion & comp>e x ) o!r imag9able motions1 diff]+ inf9itely little f x1 betwe5 ! same two configurations4 ,we use ! symbol delta to d5ote ! transition f ! actual to any "o ( ! hypo!tical motions4 ,! be/-kn[n !orem ( ?is class is t ( ,lea/ ,action1 orig9at$ by ,p4,l4,m4 de ,maup]tuis1 b fir/ put 9 a def9ite =m by ,lagrange4 ,! action ( a s+le p>ticle 9 pass+ f "o position to ano!r is ! space-integral ( ! mom5tum1 or ! "t-integral ( ! vis viva4 ,! action ( a dynamical sy/em is ! sum ( ! actions ( its con/itu5t p>ticles1 & is accord+ly giv5 by ! =mula _/ _/ _/ ,a ,sigma mvds ,sigma mv squ>$dt #b ,taudt4 7#a7 _/ _/ _/ ,! !orem ref]r$ to ass]ts t ! free motion ( a cons]vative sy/em betwe5 any two giv5 configurations is *>act]iz$ by ! prop]ty delta,a #j1 7#b7 provid$ ! total en]gy h ! same con/ant value 9 ! v>i$ motion z 9 ! actual motion4 ,if t1 t' be ! times ( pass+ ?r\gh ! initial & f9al configurations respectively1 we h _/ t' delta,a delta ,sigmam7x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7dt _/t _/ t' #b delta,taudt #b,tau'deltat' #b,taudeltat1 7#c7 _/t s9ce ! upp] & l[] limits ( ! integral mu/ bo? be reg>d$ z v>iable4 ,?is may be writt5 _/ t' _/ t' delta,a delta,taudt ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7dt #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat _/t _/t _/ t' t' delta,taudt ,sigmam 7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz _/t t _/ t' - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7dt #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat4 7#d7 _/t ,n[1 by d',alemb]t's pr9ciple1 ,sigmam7 xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz 7 -delta,v1 7#e7 & by hypo!sis we h delta7,tau ,v7 #j4 7#f7 ,! =mula !re=e r$uces to t' delta,a ,sigmam 7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat4 7#g7 t ,s9ce ! t]m9al configurations are unalt]$1 we mu/ h at ! l[] limit deltax xdeltat #j1 deltay ydeltat #j1 deltaz zdeltat #j1 7#h7 ) simil> relations at ! upp] limit4 ,^! r$uce 7#g7 to ! =m 7#b74 ,! equation 7#b71 x is to be notic$1 m]ely expresses t ! v>iation ( ,a vani%es to ! fir/ ord]2 ! phrase /ation>y action has !re=e be5 sugge/$ z indicat+ m accurately :at has be5 prov$4 ,! action 9 ! free pa? betwe5 two giv5 configurations is 9 fact n inv>iably a m9imum1 & ev5 :5 a m9imum x ne$ n be ! lea/ possible subject to ! giv5 conditions4 ,simple illu/rations are furni%$ by ! case ( a s+le p>ticle4 ,a p>ticle mov+ on a smoo? surface1 & free f extrane\s =ce1 w h its velocity con/ant2 h5ce ! !orem 9 ?is case resolves itself into _/ delta ds #j1 7#i7 _/ i4e4 ! pa? mu/ be a geodesic l9e4 ,n[ a geodesic is n necess>ily ! %orte/ pa? betwe5 two giv5 po9ts on x2 = example1 on ! sph]e a great-circle arc ceases to be ! %orte/ pa? betwe5 its extremities :5 x exce$s #ahj deg44 ,m g5]ally1 tak+ any surface1 let a po9t ,p1 />t+ f ,o1 move along a geodesic2 ?is geodesic w be a m9imum pa? f ,o to ,p until ,p passes ?r\gh a po9t ,o' 7if su* exi/71 :i* is ! int]section ) a consecutive geodesic ?r\gh ,o4 ,aft] ?is po9t ! m9imum prop]ty ceases4 ,on an anticla/ic surface two geodesics _c int]sect m ?an once1 & ea* geodesic is !re=e a m9imum pa? betwe5 any two ( its po9ts4 ,^! illu/rations are due to ,k4,g4,j4 ,jacobi1 :o has also =mulat$ ! g5]al crit]ion1 applicable to all dynamical sy/ems1 z foll[s3--,let ,o & ,p d5ote any two configurations on a natural pa? ( ! sy/em4 ,if ?is be ! sole free pa? f ,o to ,p ) ! prescrib$ am\nt ( en]gy1 ! action f ,o to ,p is a m9imum4 ,b if !re be sev]al di/9ct pa?s1 let ,p v>y f co9cid5ce ) ,o along ! fir/-nam$ pa?2 ! action w !n cease to be a m9imum :5 a configuration ,o' is rea*$ su* t two ( ! possible pa?s f ,o to ,o' co9cide4 ,= in/ance1 if ,o & ,p be positions on ! p>abolic pa? ( a projectile "u gravity1 !re w be a second pa? 7) ! same en]gy & !re=e ! same velocity ( projection f ,o71 ^! two pa?s co9cid+ :5 ,p is at ! o!r extremity 7,o'1 say7 ( ! focal *ord ?r\gh ,o4 ,! action f ,o to ,p w !re=e be a m9imum = all positions ( ,p %ort ( ,o'4 ,two configurations su* z ,o & ,o' 9 ! g5]al /atem5t are call$ conjugate k9etic foci4 ,cf4 ,,v>iations1 ,,calculus ,,(4 ,be=e leav+ ?is topic ! connexion ( ! pr9ciple ( /ation>y action ) a well-kn[n !orem ( optics may be notic$4 ,= ! motion ( a p>ticle 9 a cons]vative field ( =ce ! pr9ciple takes ! =m _/ delta vds #j4 7#aj7 _/ ,on ! corpuscul> !ory ( light v is proportional to ! refractive index mu ( ! m$ium1 :5ce _/ delta muds #j4 7#aa7 _/ ,hamiltonian pr9ciple4 ,9 ! =mula 7#b7 ! en]gy 9 ! hypo!tical motion is prescrib$1 :il/ ! "t ( transit f ! initial to ! f9al configuration is v>iable4 ,9 ano!r & g5]ally m conv5i5t !orem1 due to ,hamilton1 ! "t ( transit is prescrib$ to be ! same z 9 ! actual motion1 :il/ ! en]gy may be diff]5t & ne$ n 7inde$7 be con/ant4 ,"u ^! conditions we h _/t' delta 7,tau - ,v7dt #j1 7#ab7 _/t :]e t1 t' are ! prescrib$ times ( pass+ ?r\gh ! giv5 initial & f9al configurations4 ,! pro( ( 7#ab7 is simple2 we h _/t' _/t' _/t' delta 7,tau - ,v7dt 7delta,tau - delta,v7dt ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 - delta,vdt _/t _/t _/t t' ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 t _/t' - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 delta,vdt 7#ac7 _/t ,! integrat$ t]ms vani% at bo? limits1 s9ce by hypo!sis ! configurations at ^! in/ants are fix$2 & ! t]ms "u ! integral sign vani% by d',alemb]t's pr9ciple4 ,! fact t 9 7#ab7 ! v>iation does n affect ! "t ( transit r5d]s ! =mula easy ( application 9 any sy/em ( co-ord9ates4 ,?us1 to d$uce ,lagrange's equations1 we h _/t' _/t'_/d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,v 7delta,tau-delta,v7dt 7 -------deltaq#a -------deltaq#a 444 - ----deltaq#a - 4447dt _/t _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#a _/ t' p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 444 t _/t' _/ d,p,tau d,p,v _/ d,p,tau d,p,v - 7p#a - ------- ---- 7deltaq#a 7p#b - ------- -----7deltaq#b 444dt4 7#ad7 _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a_/ d,pq#b d,pq#b_/ ,! integrat$ t]ms vani% at bo? limits2 & 9 ord] t ! rema9d] ( ! "r-h& memb] may vani% x is necess>y t ! coeffici5ts ( deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 "u ! integral sign %\ld vani% = all values ( t1 s9ce ! v>iations 9 "q are indep5d5t1 & subject only to ! condition ( vani%+ at ! limits ( integration4 ,we are ?us l$ to ,lagrange's equation ( motion = a cons]vative sy/em4 ,x appe>s t ! =mula 7#ab7 is a conv5i5t z well z a compact embodim5t ( ! :ole ( ord9>y dynamics4 ,ext5sion to cyclic sy/ems4 ,! modification ( ! ,hamiltonian pr9ciple appropriate to ! case ( cyclic sy/ems has be5 giv5 by ,j4 ,l>mor4 ,if we write1 z 9 ,sec4 #a 7#be71 ,r ,t - kappa*i - kappa'*i' - kappa''*i - 4441 7#ae7 we %all h _/t' delta 7,r - ,v7dt #j1 7#af7 _/t provid$ t ! v>iation does n affect ! cyclic mom5ta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 & t ! configurations at times t & t' are unalt]$1 s f> z !y dep5d on ! palpable co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,! initial & f9al values ( ! ignor$ co-ord9ates w 9 g5]al be affect$4 ,to prove 7#af7 we h1 on ! above und]/&+s1 _/t' _/t' delta 7,r - ,v7dt 7delta,tau - kappadelta*i - 444 -delta,v7dt _/t _/t _/t' _/d,p,tau d,p,tau 7 -------deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 - delta,v 7dt1 7#ag7 _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a _/ :]e t]ms h be5 cancell$ 9 virtue ( ,sec4 #e 7#b74 ,! la/ memb] ( 7#ag7 repres5ts a v>iation ( ! integral _/t' 7,tau - ,v7dt _/t on ! supposition t delta,x #j1 delta,x' #j1 delta,x #j1 444 ?r\gh\t1 :il/ deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 deltaqm vani% at times t & t'2 i4e4 x is a v>iation 9 :i* ! initial & f9al configurations are absolutely unalt]$4 ,x !re=e vani%es z a consequ5ce ( ! ,hamiltonian pr9ciple 9 its orig9al =m4 ,l>mor has also giv5 ! correspond+ =m ( ! pr9ciple ( lea/ action4 ,he %[s t if we write _/ ,a 7#b,tau - kappa*i - kappa'*i' - kappa*i - 4447dt1 7#ah7 _/ !n delta,a #j1 7#ai7 provid$ ! v>i$ motion takes place ) ! same con/ant value ( ! en]gy1 & ) ! same con/ant cyclic mom5ta1 betwe5 ! same two configurations1 ^! be+ reg>d$ z def9$ by ! palpable co-ord9ates alone4 ,sec4 #h4 ,hamilton's ,pr9cipal & ,*>act]i/ic ,functions4 ,pr9cipal function4 ,9 ! inve/igations next to be describ$ a m ext5d$ mean+ is giv5 to ! symbol delta4 ,we w1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 d5ote by x an inf9itesimal v>iation ( ! mo/ g5]al k9d1 affect+ n m]ely ! values ( ! co-ord9ates at any in/ant1 b also ! initial & f9al configurations & ! times ( pass+ ?r\gh !m4 ,if we put _/t' ,s 7,t - ,v7dt1 7#a7 _/t we h1 !n1 _/t' delta,s 7,t' - ,v'7deltat' - 7,t - ,v7deltat 7delta,t - delta,v7dt _/t t' 7,t' - ,v'7deltat' - 7,t - ,v7deltat ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7#b7 t ,let u n[ d5ote by x' deltax'1 y' deltay'1 z' deltaz'1 ! f9al co-ord9ates 7i4e4 at "t t' deltat'7 ( a p>ticle m4 ,9 ! t]ms 9 7#b7 :i* relate to ! upp] limit we mu/ !re=e write deltax' - x'deltat'1 deltay' - y'deltat'1 deltaz' - z'deltat' = deltax1 deltay1 deltaz4 ,) a simil> modification at ! l[] limit1 we obta9 delta,s - ,hdeltatau ,sigmam7x'deltax' y'deltay' z'deltaz'7 - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz71 7#c7 :]e ,h7 ,t ,v7 is ! con/ant value ( ! en]gy 9 ! free motion ( ! sy/em1 & tau7 t' - t7 is ! "t ( transit4 ,9 g5]aliz$ co-ord9ates ?is takes ! =m delta,s - ,hdeltatau p'#a;deltaq'#a p'#b;deltaq'#b 444 - p#a;deltaq#a - p#b;deltaq#b - 4444 7#d7 ,n[ if we select any two arbitr>y configurations z initial & f9al1 x is evid5t t we c 9 g5]al 7by suitable initial velocities or impulses7 />t ! sy/em s t x w ( itself pass f ! fir/ to ! second 9 any prescrib$ "t tau4 ,on ?is view ( ! matt]1 ,s w be a function ( ! initial & f9al co-ord9ates 7q#a1 q#b1 444 & q'#a1 q'#b1 4447 & ! "t tau1 z indep5d5t v>iables4 ,& we obta9 at once f 7#d7 d,p,s d,p,s p'#a -----1 p'#b -----1 4441 d,pq'#a d,pq'#b 7#e7 d,p,s d,p,s p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4441 d,pq#a d,pq#b _/ d,p,s & ,h - -------4 7#f7 d,ptau ,s is call$ by ,hamilton ! pr9cipal function2 if its g5]al =m = any sy/em c be f\nd1 ! prec$+ equations suffice to det]m9e ! motion result+ f any giv5 conditions4 ,if we sub/itute ! values ( p#a1 p#b1 444 & ,h f 7#e7 & 7#f7 9 ! expression = ! k9etic en]gy 9 ! =m ,tau' 7see ,sec4 #a71 ! equation ,t ,v ,h 7#g7 becomes a p>tial diff]5tial equation to be satisfi$ by ,s4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,jacobi t ! dynamical problem resolves itself into obta9+ a complete solution ( ?is equation1 involv+ n #a arbitr>y con/ants4 ,?is aspect ( ! subject1 z a problem 9 p>tial diff]5tial equations1 has receiv$ great att5tion at ! h&s ( ma!maticians1 b mu/ be pass$ ov] "h4 ,*>act]i/ic function4 ,!re is a simil> !ory = ! function _/ ,a #b ,tdt ,s ,htau 7#h7 _/ ,x foll[s f 7#d7 t delta,a taudelta,h p'#a;deltaq'#a p'#b;deltaq'#b 444 - p#a;deltaq#a - p#b;deltaq#b - 4444 7#i7 ,?is =mula 7x may be rem>k$7 conta9s ! pr9ciple ( lea/ action z a p>ticul> case4 ,select+1 z be=e1 any two arbitr>y configurations1 x is 9 g5]al possible to />t ! sy/em f "o ( ^!1 ) a prescrib$ value ( ! total en]gy ,h1 s t x %all pass ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,h5ce1 reg>d+ ,a z a function ( ! initial & f9al co-ord9ates & ! en]gy1 we f9d d,p,a d,p,a p'#a -----1 p'#b -----1 4441 d,pq'#a d,pq'#b 7#aj7 d,p,a d,p,a p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4441 d,pq#a d,pq#b _/ d,p,a & tau --- 7#aa7 d,p,h ,a is call$ by ,hamilton ! *>act]i/ic function2 x repres5ts1 ( c\rse1 ! action ( ! sy/em 9 ! free motion 7) prescrib$ en]gy7 betwe5 ! two configurations4 ,l ,s1 x satisfies a p>tial diff]5tial equation1 obta9$ by sub/itution f 7#aj7 9 7#g74 ,! prec$+ !orems are easily adapt$ to ! case ( cyclic sy/ems4 ,we h only to write _/t' _/t' ,s 7,r - ,v7dt 7,t - kappa*i - kappa'*i' - 444 - ,v7dt 7#ab7 _/t _/t 9 place ( 7#a71 & _/ ,a 7#b,t - kappa*i - kappa'*i' - 4447dt1 7#c7 _/ 9 place ( 7#h72 cf4 ,sec4 #g ad f94 ,x is und]/ood1 ( c\rse1 t 9 7#ab7 ,s is reg>d$ z a function ( ! initial & f9al values ( ! palpable co-ord9ates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 & ( ! "t ( transit tau1 ! cyclic mom5ta be+ inv>iable4 ,simil>ly 9 7#ac71 ,a is reg>d$ z a function ( ! initial & f9al values ( q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 & ( ! total en]gy ,h1 ) ! cyclic mom5ta inv>iable4 ,x w be f\nd t ! =ms ( 7#d7 & 7#i7 w be cons]v$1 provid$ ! v>iations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 be und]/ood to ref] to ! palpable co-ord9ates alone4 ,x foll[s t ! equations 7#e71 7#f7 & 7#aj71 7#aa7 w /ill hold "u ! new mean+s ( ! symbols4 #i4 ,reciprocal ,prop]ties ( ,direct & ,rev]s$ ,motions4 ,lagrange's =mula4 ,we may employ ,hamilton's pr9cipal function to prove a v rem>kable =mula connect+ any two slightly di/urb$ natural motions ( ! sy/em4 ,if we use ! symbols delta & ,delta to d5ote ! correspond+ v>iations1 ! !orem is d --,sigma7deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltapr4deltaqr7 #j2 7#a7 dt or integrat+ f t to t'1 ,sigma7deltap'r4,deltaq'r - ,deltaq'r4deltaq'r7 ,sigma7deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltapr4deltaqr74 7#b7 ,if = %ortness we write d,p squared,s d,p squared,s 7r1s7 ----------1 7r1s'7 -----------1 7#c7 d,pqrd,pqs d,pqrd,pq's we h d,ppr - ,sigmas7r1s7deltaqs - ,sigmas7r1s'7deltaq's 7#d7 ) a simil> expression = ,deltapr4 ,h5ce ! "r-h& side ( 7#b7 becomes - ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s7deltaqs ,sigmas7r1s'7deltaq's,deltaqr ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s7,deltaqs ,sigmas7r1s'7,deltaq'sdeltaqr ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s'7deltaqr4,deltaq's - ,deltaqr4deltaq's4 7#e7 ,! same value is obta9$ 9 l mann] = ! expression on ! left h& ( 7#b72 h5ce ! !orem1 :i*1 9 ! =m 7#a71 is due to ,lagrange1 & 0 employ$ by him z ! basis ( 8 me?od ( treat+ ! dynamical !ory ( ,v>iation ( ,arbitr>y ,con/ants4 ,helmholtz's reciprocal !orems4 ,! =mula 7#b7 leads at once to "s rem>kable reciprocal relations :i* 7 fir/ express$1 9 _! complete =m1 by ,helmholtz4 ,consid] any natural motion ( a cons]vative sy/em betwe5 two configurations ,o & ,o' ?r\gh :i* x passes at times t & t' respectively1 & let t' - t tau4 ,z ! sy/em is pass+ ?r\gh ,o let a small impulse deltapr be giv5 to x1 & let ! consequ5t alt]ation 9 ! co-ord9ate qs aft] ! "t tau be deltaq's4 ,next consid] ! rev]s$ motion ( ! sy/em1 9 :i* x w\ld1 if undi/urb$1 pass f ,o' to ,o 9 ! same "t tau4 ,let a small impulse deltap's be appli$ z ! sy/em is pass+ ?r\gh ,o'1 & let ! consequ5t *ange 9 ! co-ord9ate qr aft] a "t tau be deltaqr4 ,helmholtz's fir/ !orem is to ! effect t deltaqr 3 deltap's deltaq's 3 deltapr4 7#f7 ,to prove ?is1 suppose1 9 7#b71 t all ! deltaq vani%1 & likewise all ! deltap ) ! exception ( deltapr4 ,fur!r1 suppose all ! ,deltaq' to vani%1 & likewise all ! ,deltap' except ,deltap's1 ! =mula !n gives deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltap's4deltaq's1 7#g7 :i* is equival5t to ,helmholtz's result1 s9ce we may suppose ! symbol ,delta to ref] to ! rev]s$ motion1 provid$ we *ange ! signs ( ! ,deltap4 ,9 ! mo/ g5]al motion ( a top 7,,me*anics1 ,sec4 #bb71 suppose t a small impulsive c\ple ab\t ! v]tical produces aft] a "t tau a *ange delta!ta 9 ! incl9ation ( ! axis1 ! !orem ass]ts t 9 ! rev]s$ motion an equal impulsive c\ple 9 ! plane ( !ta w produce aft] a "t tau a *ange deltapsi1 9 ! azimu? ( ! axis1 :i* is equal to delta!ta4 ,x is und]/ood1 ( c\rse1 t ! c\ples h no compon5ts 79 ! g5]aliz$ s5se7 except ( ! types indicat$2 = in/ance1 !y may consi/ 9 ea* case ( a =ce appli$ to ! top at a po9t ( ! axis1 & ( ! accompany+ reaction at ! pivot4 ,aga91 9 ! corpuscul> !ory ( light let ,o1 ,o' be any two po9ts on ! axis ( a symmetrical optical comb9ation1 & let ,v1 ,v' be ! correspond+ velocities ( light4 ,at ,o let a small impulse be appli$ p]p5dicul> to ! axis s z to produce an angul> deflection delta!ta1 & let ss' be ! correspond+ lat]al deviation at ,o'4 ,9 l mann] 9 ! rev]s$ motion1 let a small deflection delta!ta' at ,o' produce a lat]al deviation ss at ,o4 ,! !orem 7#f7 ass]ts t ss ss' ----------------- ---------------1 7#h7 ,v'delta!ta' ,vdelta!ta or1 9 optical language1 ! app>5t di/ance ( ,o f ,o' is to t ( ,o' f ,o 9 ! ratio ( ! refractive indices at ,o' & ,o respectively4 ,helmholtz's second reciprocal !orem4 ,9 ! second reciprocal !orem ( ,helmholtz ! configuration ,o is slightly v>i$ by a *ange deltaqr 9 "o ( ! co-ord9ates1 ! mom5ta be+ all unalt]$1 & deltaq's is ! consequ5t v>iation 9 "o ( ! mom5ta aft] "t tau4 ,simil>ly 9 ! rev]s$ motion a *ange deltap's produces aft] "t tau a *ange ( mom5tum deltapr4 ,! !orem ass]ts t deltap's 3 deltaqr deltapr 3 deltaq's 7#i7 ,?is foll[s at once f 7#b7 if we imag9e all ! deltap to vani%1 & likewise all ! deltaq save deltaqr1 & if 7fur!r7 we imag9e all ! ,deltap' to vani%1 & all ! ,deltaq' save ,deltaq's4 ,rev]t+ to ! optical illu/ration1 if ,f1 ,f'1 be pr9cipal foci1 we c inf] t ! conv]g5ce at ,f' ( a p>allel beam f ,f is to ! conv]g5ce at ,f ( a p>allel beam f ,f' 9 ! inv]se ratio ( ! refractive indices at ,f' & ,f4 ,?is is equival5t to ,gauss's relation betwe5 ! two pr9cipal focal l5g?s ( an optical in/rum5t4 ,x may be obta9$ o!rwise z a p>ticul> case ( 7#h74 ,we h by no means exhau/$ ! inf]5ces to be drawn f ,lagrange's =mula4 ,x may be not$ t 7#f7 includes z p>ticul> cases v>i\s important reciprocal relations 9 optics & ac\/ics =mulat$ by ,r4,j4,e4 ,clausius1 ,helmholtz1 ,?omson 7,"l ,kelv97 & ,tait1 & ,"l ,rayleigh4 ,9 apply+ ! !orem c>e mu/ be tak5 t 9 ! rev]s$ motion ! rev]sal is complete1 & ext5ds to e velocity 9 ! sy/em2 9 p>ticul>1 9 a cyclic sy/em ! cyclic motions mu/ be imag9$ to be rev]s$ ) ! re/4 ,conspicu\s in/ances ( ! failure ( ! !orem ?r\gh incomplete rev]sal are af=d$ by ! propagation ( s\nd 9 a w9d & ! propagation ( light 9 a magnetic m$ium4 ,x may be wor? :ile to po9t out1 h[ev]1 t !re is no su* limitation to ! use ( ,lagrange's =mula 7#a74 ,9 apply+ x to cyclic sy/ems1 x is conv5i5t to introduce conditions already laid d[n1 viz4 t ! co-ord9ates qr are ! palpable co-ord9ates & t ! cyclic mom5ta are inv>iable4 ,special inf]5ce c !n be drawn z be=e1 b ! int]pretation _c be express$ s neatly ow+ to ! non-rev]sibility ( ! motion4 ,,au?orities4--,! mo/ important & mo/ accessible e>ly au?orities are ,j4,l4 ,lagrange1 ,mecanique analytique 7#a/ ed4 ,p>is1 #aghh1 #bnd ed4 ,p>is1 #ahaa2 repr9t$ 9 ,oeuvres1 vols4 xi41 xii41 ,p>is1 #ahhh-hi72 ,hamilton1 ,on a ,g5]al ,me?od 9 ,dynamics1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd & #ahce2 ,c4,g4,j4 ,jacobi1 ,vorlesung5 ueb] ,dynamik 7,b]l91 #ahff1 repr9t$ 9 ,w]ke1 ,supp4-,bd41 ,b]l91 #ahhd74 ,an acc\nt ( ! ext5sive lit]ature on ! diff]5tial equations ( dynamics & on ! !ory ( v>iation ( p>amet]s is giv5 by ,a4 ,cayley1 ,report on ,!oretical ,dynamics1 ,brit4 ,assn4 ,rep4 7#aheg71 ,ma!matical ,pap]s1 vol4 iii4 7,cambridge1 #ahij74 ,= ! mod]n developm5ts ref]5ce may be made to ,?omson & ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy 7#a/ ed4 ,ox=d1 #ahfg1 #bnd ed4 ,cambridge1 #ahgi72 ,"l ,rayleigh1 ,!ory ( ,s\nd1 vol4 i4 7#a/ ed4 ,london1 #ahgg2 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahid72 ,e4,j4 ,r\?1 ,/ability ( ,motion 7,london1 #ahgg71 & ,rigid ,dynamics 7#d? ed4 ,london1 #ahhd72 ,h4 ,helmholtz1 ,ueb] die physikalis*e ,b$eutung des ,pr9zips d] kle9/5 ,action1 ,crelle1 vol4 c41 #ahhf1 repr9t$ 7) o!r cognate pap]s7 9 ,wiss4 ,abh4 vol4 iii4 7,leipzig1 #ahie72 ,j4 ,l>mor1 ,on ,lea/ ,action1 ,proc4 ,lond4 ,ma?4 ,soc4 vol4 xv4 7#ahhd72 ,e4,t4 ,:ittak]1 ,analytical ,dynamics 7,cambridge1 #aijd74 ,z to ! "q ( /ability1 ref]5ce may be made to ,h4 ,po9c>e1 ,sur l'equilibre d'une masse fluide animee d'un m\vem5t de rotation ,acta ma?4 vol4 vii4 7#ahhe72 ,f4 ,kle9 & ,a4 ,somm]feld1 ,!orie des ,kreisels1 pts4 #a1 #b 7,leipzig1 #ahig-ahih72 ,a4 ,li\pan(f & ,j4 ,hadam>d1 ,li\ville1 #eme s]ie1 vol4 iii4 7#ahig72 ,t4,j4,i4 ,bromwi*1 ,proc4 ,lond4 ,ma?4 ,soc4 vol4 xxxiii4 7#aija74 ,a rem>kable int]pretation ( v>i\s dynamical pr9ciples is giv5 by ,h4 ,h]tz 9 8 po/hum\s "w ,die ,pr9zipi5 d] ,me*anik 7,leipzig1 #ahid71 ( :i* an ,engli% translation appe>$ 9 #aijj4 7,h4 ,lb47 ,,dynamite 7,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 p[]71 ! "n giv5 to sev]al explosive prep>ations conta9+ nitroglyc]9 7q4v47 :i* are almo/ exclusively us$ = bla/+ purposes4 ,! fir/ practical application ( nitroglyc]9 9 ?is way 0 made by ,a4 ,nobel 9 #ahfc4 ,he soak$ gunp[d] ) ! liquid & fir$ ! gunp[d] by an ord9>y fuse4 ,lat] he f\nd t nitroglyc]9 c\ld be detonat$ by ! explosion ( sev]al mat]ials su* z fulm9ate ( m]cury1 ! use ( :i* z a detonator he pat5t$ 9 #ahfg4 ,9 #ahff-ahfg he exp]im5t$ ) *>coal & o!r sub/ances1 & f\nd ! infusorial e>? kn[n z kieselguhr1 :i* consi/s ma9ly ( silica 7ne>ly #ie71 em95tly adapt$ to ! purpose1 z x 0 in]t1 non-combu/ible1 & aft] a little heat+ & prep>ation v por\s1 reta9+ a l>ge am\nt ( nitroglyc]9 z wat] is held 9 a sponge1 )\t v s]i\s exudation on /&+4 ,?is kieselguhr dynamite is g5]ally made by incorporat+ ?ree p>ts ( nitroglyc]9 ) "o "p ( ! dry e>?1 ! pa/e be+ !n =m$ into cyl9drical c>tridges4 ,?is "w is done by h&4 ,g5]ally a small p]c5tage ( ! kieselguhr is replac$ by a mixture conta9+ sodium & ammonium c>bonates1 talc & o*re4 ,?is product is kn[n z dynamite ,no4 #a4 ,disabilities atta*+ to kieselguhr dynamite are t :5 plac$ 9 wat] ! nitroglyc]9 is liable to be exud$ or displac$1 also t1 l nitroglyc]9 itself1 x freezes fairly easily & ?aw+ ! froz5 c>tridges is a dang]\s op]ation4 ,o!r sub/ances1 e4g4 kaol91 tripoli1 magnesia alba 7magnesium c>bonate71 alum9a1 sug>1 *>coal1 "s p[d]$ salts & mixtures ( sawdu/ & salts1 h be5 %[n to be absorb5ts m or less adapt$ to ! purpose ( mak+ a dynamite4 ,*>coal f cork is said to absorb ab\t #ij ( its weight ( nitroglyc]94 ,) ! idea ( obta9+ great] safety1 mixtures h be5 made ( nitroglyc]9 ) wood fibre1 *>coal & metallic nitrates4 ,li?(racteur1 = in/ance1 consi/s ( #ej nitroglyc]9 & a mixture ( prep>$ sawdu/1 kieselguhr & b>ium nitrate4 ,c>bonite conta9s #be ( nitroglyc]91 ! rema9d] be+ a mixture ( wood-meal & alkali nitrates1 ) ab\t #a ( sulphur4 ,dual91 atlas dynamite & pot5tite are o!r modifications4 ,a conv5i5t =m 9 :i* nitroglyc]9 c be made up = bla/+ purposes1 especially 9 wet gr\nd1 is ! gelat9\s mat]ial obta9$ by ! action ( nitroglyc]91 ei!r alone or ) ! help ( solv5ts1 on l[-grade or soluble gun-cottons4 ,x is kn[n z bla/+ gelat91 & 0 fir/ made by ,nobel by incorporat+ #f or #g ( l[ nitrat$ cellulose 7collodion cotton or soluble gun-cotton7 ) slightly w>m$ nitroglyc]94 ,! result is a transp>5t pla/ic mat]ial1 ( specific gravity #a4e to #a4f1 :i* may be kept "u wat] = a long "t )\t appreciable *ange4 ,x is less s5sitive to detonation ?an ord9>y dynamite1 & al?\gh its explosion is slightly sl[] x is m p[]ful ?an dynamite & mu* sup]ior to ! liquid nitroglyc]94 ,bla/+ gelat9 also freezes & is s5sitive to p]cussion 9 ?is /ate4 ,camphor & o!r sub/ances h be5 add$ to bla/+ gelat9 to r5d] x m solid & less s5sitive4 ,"s modifications ( bla/+ gelat91 e4g4 gelignite1 conta9 wood-meal & su* oxyg5-conta9+ salts z potassium nitrate4 ,exp]i5ce has conclusively %[n t dynamites are m satisfactory1 quick]1 & m int5se 9 action ?an liquid nitroglyc]94 ,to prev5t nitroglyc]9 & "s ( ! =ms ( dynamite f freez+ x has be5 propos$ to add to !m small quantities ( ei!r mono*lor-d9itroglyc]9 or ( a nitrat$ poly-glyc]94 ,! =m] is obta9$ by fir/ act+ ^u glyc]9 ) hydrog5 *loride to produce u-*lorhydr9 or *lor-propyl5e glycol1 ,c#c;,h#g,o#b;,cl1 :i* is !n nitrat$ z 9 ! case ( glyc]94 ,! latt] is obta9$ by heat+ glyc]9 = six or sev5 h\rs to ab\t #cjj deg4 ,c41 :]eby wat] is split (f 9 su* mann] t a diglyc]9 ,c#f;,h#ad,o#e1 = ! mo/ "p1 results4 ,?is on nitration 9 ! usual mann] gives a product ,c#f;,h#aj,n#d,o#ac1 :i* burns & explodes 9 a simil> mann] to ord9>y nitroglyc]91 b is less s5sitive & does n s easily freeze4 ,! mono- & di-nitrates ( glyc]9 h also be5 propos$ z additions to ord9>y nitroglyc]9 7q4v47 = ! same purpose4 7,w4 ,r4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,dynamo 7a %ort5$ =m ( dynamo-electric ma*9e1 f ,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 p[]71 a ma*9e = conv]t+ me*anical into electrical en]gy4 ,! dynamo ranks ) ! telegraph & telephone z "o ( ! ?ree /rik+ applications ( electrical & magnetic sci5ce to :i* ! mat]ial progress t m>k$ ! second half ( ! #ai? c5tury 0 9 no small measure due4 ,s9ce ! discov]y ( ! pr9ciple ( ! dynamo by ,f>aday 9 #ahca ! simple model :i* he fir/ con/ruct$ has be5 gradually develop$ into ! ma*9es ( #ejjj horse-p[] or m :i* are n[ built to meet ! ne$s ( l>ge cities = electric light+ & p[]1 :ile at ! same "t ! numb]s ( dynamos 9 use h increas$ almo/ beyond e/imate4 ,yet su* 0 ! insight ( ,f>aday into ! fundam5tal nature ( ! dynamo t ! !ory ( its action :i* he laid d[n has rema9$ ess5tially un*ang$4 ,8 exp]im5ts on ! curr5t :i* 0 set up 9 a coil ( wire dur+ its movem5t across ! poles ( a magnet l$ naturally to ! explanation ( induc$ electromotive =ce z caus$ by ! l9k+ or unl9k+ ( magnetic l9es ( flux ) an electric circuit4 ,= ! m def9ite case ( ! dynamo1 h[ev]1 we may1 ) ,f>aday1 make ! transition f l9e-l9kage to ! equival5t conception ( l9e-cutt+ z ! s\rce ( ,e4,m4,f4--9 o!r words1 to ! idea ( electric conductors cutt+ or int]sect+#a ! l9es ( flux 9 virtue ( relative motion ( ! magnetic field & electric circuit4 ,on ! #bh? ( ,octob] #ahca ,f>aday m\nt$ a copp] disk s t x c\ld be rotat$ edgewise betwe5 ! poles ( a p]man5t horse-%oe magnet4 ,:5 s rotat$1 x cut ! l9es ( flux :i* pass$ transv]sely ?r\gh its l[] half1 & by means ( two rubb+ contacts1 "o on its p]iph]y & ! o!r on its sp9dle1 ! circuit 0 clos$ ?r\gh a galvanomet]1 :i* indicat$ ! passage ( a cont9u\s curr5t s long z ! disk 0 rotat$ 7fig4 #a74 ,?us by ! inv5tion ( ! fir/ dynamo ,f>aday prov$ 8 idea t ! ,e4,m4,f4 induc$ ?r\gh ! int]action ( a magnetic field & an electric circuit 0 due to ! passage ( a portion ( ! electric circuit across ! l9es ( flux1 or vice v]sa1 & s c\ld be ma9ta9$ if ! cutt+ ( ! l9es 7 made cont9u\s4#b ,9 comp>ison ) ,f>aday's results1 ! subsequ5t advance is to be reg>d$ z a progressive p]fect+ ( ! me*anical & electro-magnetic design1 p>tly f ! !oretical & p>tly f ! practical side1 r ?an z modify+ or add+ to ! idea :i* 0 orig9ally pres5t 9 8 m9d1 & ( :i* he already saw ! possibilities4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,a dynamo1 !n1 is a ma*9e 9 :i*1 by means ( cont9u\s relative motion1 an electrical conductor or sy/em ( conductors =m+ "p ( a circuit is caus$ to cut ! l9es ( a magnetic field or fields2 ! cutt+ ( ! magnetic flux induces an electromotive =ce 9 ! conductors1 & :5 ! circuit is clos$ a curr5t fl[s1 :]eby me*anical en]gy is conv]t$ into electrical en]gy4 ,little practical use c\ld be made ( electrical en]gy s long z its only kn[n s\rces 7 frictional ma*9es & voltaic batt]ies4 ,! co/ ( ! mat]ials = produc+ electrical curr5ts on a l>ge scale by *emical action 0 prohibitive1 :ile ! frictional ma*9e only yield$ v small curr5ts at extremely high pot5tials4 ,9 ! dynamo1 on ! o!r h&1 electrical en]gy 9 a conv5i5t =m c\ld be *eaply & easily obta9$ by me*anical means1 & ) its inv5tion ! application ( electricity to a wide range ( comm]cial purposes became economically possible4 ,z a conv]t] ( en]gy f "o =m to ano!r x is only surpass$ 9 effici5cy by ano!r electrical appliance1 namely1 ! trans=m] 7see ,,trans=m]s74 ,9 ?is !re is m]ely conv]sion ( electrical en]gy at a high pot5tial into electrical en]gy at a l[ pot5tial1 or vice v]sa1 b 9 ! dynamo ! me*anical en]gy :i* mu/ be appli$ to ma9ta9 ! relative movem5t ( magnetic field & conductor is absorb$1 & reappe>s 9 an electrical =m4 ,a true trans=mation takes place1 & ! proportion :i* ! rate ( deliv]y ( electrical en]gy be>s to ! p[] absorb$1 or 9 o!r words ! effici5cy1 is ! m rem>kable4 ,! useful return or output at ! t]m9als ( a l>ge ma*9e may am\nt to z mu* z #ie ( ! me*anical en]gy :i* =ms ! input4 ,s9ce x ne$s "s prime mov] to drive x1 ! dynamo has n made any direct addition to our s\rces ( en]gy1 & does n !re=e rank ) ! prim>y batt]y or oil-eng9e1 or ev5 ! /eam-eng9e1 all ( :i* draw _! en]gy m imm$iately f nature4 ,yet by ! aid ( ! dynamo ! p[] to be d]iv$ f wat]falls c be economically & conv5i5tly conv]t$ into an electrical =m & br\ght to ! neighb\r+ factory or di/ant t[n1 to be !re reconv]t$ by motors into me*anical p[]4 ,ov] any b v %ort di/ances en]gy is mo/ easily transmitt$ :5 x is 9 an electrical =m1 & turb9e-driv5 dynamos are v l>gely & successfully employ$ = su* transmission4 ,?us by conduc+ to ! utilization ( wat]-p[] :i* may previ\sly h _h b little value ow+ to its disadvantage\s situation1 ! dynamo may almo/ be said to h add$ ano!r to our available natural res\rces4 ,! two ess5tial p>ts ( ! dynamo1 z requir$ by its def9ition1 may be illu/rat$ by ! orig9al disk ma*9e ( ,f>aday4 ,!y are 7#a7 ! iron magnet1 betwe5 ! poles ( :i* a magnetic field exi/s1 & 7#b7 ! electrical conductors1 repres5t$ by ! rotat+ copp] disk4 ,! sector ( ! disk cutt+ ! l9es ( ! field =ms "p ( a clos$ electric circuit1 & has an ,e4,m4,f4 induc$ 9 x1 by reason ( :i* x is no long] simply a conductor1 b has become active4 ,9 its m highly develop$ =m ! simple copp] disk is elaborat$ into a sy/em ( _m active wires or b>s :i* =m ! w9d+1 & :i* are s int]connect$ z to add up _! sev]al ,e4,m4,f4's4 ,s9ce ^! active wires are usually m\nt$ on an iron /ructure1 :i* may be lik5$ to ! keep] or armature ( a magnet rotat+ betwe5 its poles1 ! t]m armature has be5 ext5d$ to cov] n only ! iron core1 b also ! wires on x1 & :5 !re is no iron core x is ev5 appli$ to ! copp] conductors !mselves4 ,9 ! dynamo ( ,f>aday ! armature 0 ! rotat+ portion1 & su* is ! case ) mod]n cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos2 9 alt]nators1 h[ev]1 ! magnet1 or a portion ( x1 is m commonly rotat$ :ile ! armature is /ation>y4 ,x is 9 fact immat]ial to ! action :e!r ! "o or ! o!r is mov$1 or bo?1 s long z _! relative motion causes ! armature conductors to cut ! magnetic flux4 ,z to ! ultimate reason :y an ,e4,m4,f4 %\ld be !reby induc$1 physical sci5ce _c z yet yield any sur] k ?an 9 ! days ( ,f>aday4#c ,= ! eng9e]1 x suffices to "k t ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! dynamo is due to ! cutt+ ( ! magnetic flux by ! active wires1 &1 fur!r1 is proportional to ! rate at :i* ! l9es are cut4#d ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,! equation ( ! electromotive =ce :i* is requir$ 9 ord] to r5d] ?is /atem5t quantitative mu/ conta9 ?ree factors1 namely1 ! d5sity ( ! flux 9 ! air-gap ?r\gh :i* ! armature conductors move1 ! active l5g? ( ^! wires1 & ! spe$ ( _! movem5t4 ,= giv5 values ( ! fir/ & ?ird factors & a s+le /raight wire mov$ p>allel to itself ?r\gh a uni=m field1 ! maximum rate ( cutt+ is evid5tly obta9$ :5 ! ?ree directions ( ! l9es ( ! conductor's l5g? & ( ! relative motion are respectively at "r angles to ea* o!r1 z %[n by ! ?ree co-ord9ate axes ( fig4 #b4 ,! ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! s+le wire is !n ,e ,bg,l,v x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a7 :]e ,bg is ! d5sity ( ! flux )9 ! air-gap express$ 9 ,c4,g4,s4 l9es p] squ>e c5timetre1 ,l is ! active l5g? ( ! conductor )9 ! field 9 c5timetres1 & ,v is ! velocity ( movem5t 9 c5timetres p] second4 ,fur!r1 ! direction 9 :i* ! ,e4,m4,f4 has ! above maximum value is along ! l5g? ( ! conductor1 its s5se be+ det]m9$ by ! direction ( ! movem5t#e 9 relation to ! direction ( ! field4 ,! second fundam5tal equation ( ! dynamo br+s to light its me*anical side1 & re/s on ,h4,c4 ,o]/$'s discov]y ( ! int]action ( a magnetic field & an electric curr5t4 ,if a /raight electric conductor ?r\gh :i* a curr5t is pass+ be s plac$ 9 a magnetic field t its l5g? is n p>allel to ! direction ( ! l9es ( flux1 x is act$ on by a =ce :i* w move x1 if free1 9 a def9ite direction relatively to ! magnet2 or if ! conductor is fix$ & ! magnet is free1 ! latt] w itself move 9 ! opposite direction4 ,n[ 9 ! dynamo ! active wires are plac$ s t _! l5g? is at "r angles to ! field2 h5ce :5 !y are rotat$ & an electric curr5t beg9s to fl[ "u ! ,e4,m4,f4 :i* !y induce1 a mutual =ce at once arises betwe5 ! copp] conductors & ! magnet1 & ! direction ( ?is =ce mu/ by ,l5z's law be oppos$ to ! direction ( ! movem5t4 ,?us z soon z ! disk ( fig4 #a is rotat$ & its circuit is clos$1 x exp]i5ces a me*anical pull or drag :i* mu/ be ov]come by ! =ce appli$ to turn ! disk4 ,:ile ! magnet mu/ be firmly held s z to rema9 /ation>y1 ! armature mu/ be ( su* me*anical con/ruction t its wires c be =cibly driv5 ?r\gh ! magnetic field aga9/ ! mutual pull4 ,?is law ( electrodynamic action may be quantitatively /at$ 9 an equation ( me*anical =ce1 analog\s to ! equation 7,i47 ( electromotive =ce1 :i* /ates ! law ( electromagnetic induction4 ,if a conductor ( l5g? ,l cm41 c>ry+ a curr5t ,c amp]es1 is imm]s$ 9 a field ( uni=m d5sity ,bg1 & ! l5g? ( ! conductor is at "r angles to ! direction ( ! l9es1 x is act$ on by a =ce ,f ,bg,l,c x #aj7-a7 dynes1 7#b7 & ! direction ( ?is =ce is at "r angles to ! conductor & to ! field4 ,! rate at :i* electrical en]gy is develop$1 :5 ?is =ce is ov]come by mov+ ! conductor z a dynamo ?r\gh ! field1 is ,,ec ,bg,l,v,c x #aj7-h7 watts1 :5ce ! equality ( ! me*anical p[] absorb$ & ! electrical p[] develop$ 7z requir$ by ! law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy7 is easily e/abli%$4 ,! :ole ( ?is p[] is n1 h[ev]1 available at ! t]m9als ( ! ma*9e2 if ,ra be ! resi/ance ( ! armature 9 ohms1 ! passage ( ! curr5t ,ca ?r\gh ! armature conductors causes a drop ( pressure ( ,ca,ra volts1 & a correspond+ loss ( en]gy 9 ! armature at ! rate ( ,ca squared,ra watts4 ,z ! resi/ance ( ! ext]nal circuit ,re is l[]$1 ! curr5t ,c ,ea_/7,re ,ra7 is increas$4 ,! increase ( ! curr5t is1 h[ev]1 accompani$ by a progressive increase 9 ! loss ( en]gy ov] ! armature1 & z ?is is exp5d$ 9 heat+ ! armature conductors1 _! temp]ature may rise s mu* z to de/roy ! insulat+ mat]ials ) :i* !y are cov]$4 ,h5ce ! temp]ature :i* ! ma*9e may be p]mitt$ to atta9 9 its work+ is ( great importance 9 det]m9+ its output1 ! curr5t :i* =ms "o factor !re9 be+ prim>ily limit$ by ! heat+ :i* x produces 9 ! armature w9d+4 ,! l[] ! resi/ance ( ! armature1 ! less ! rise ( its temp]ature = a giv5 curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh x2 & ! reason = ! almo/ univ]sal adoption ( copp] z ! mat]ial = ! armature conductors is n[ se5 to lie 9 its high conductivity4#f ,s9ce ! voltage ( ! dynamo is ! second factor to :i* its output is proportional1 ! conditions :i* r5d] ! induc$ ,e4,m4,f4 a maximum mu/ evid5tly be reproduc$ z f> z possible 9 practice1 if ! be/ use is to be made ( a giv5 mass ( iron & copp]4 ,! fir/ problem1 !re=e1 9 ! con/ruction ( ! dynamo is ! disposition ( ! wires & field 9 su* a mann] t ! ?ree directions ( field1 l5g? ( active conductors1 & movem5t are at "r angles to "o ano!r1 & s t ! relative motion is cont9u\s4 ,reciprocat+ motion1 su* z w\ld be obta9$ by direct atta*m5t ( ! conductors to ! pi/on ( a /eam-eng9e1 has be5 successfully employ$ only 9 ! special case ( an oscillator1#g produc+ a small curr5t v rapidly *ang+ 9 direction4 ,rot>y motion is !re=e univ]sally adopt$1 & ) ?is two di/9ct cases arise4 ,ei!r 7,a7 ! active l5g? ( ! wire is p>allel to ! axis ( rotation1 or 7,b7 x is at "r angles to x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7,a7 ,if a conductor is rotat$ 9 ! gap betwe5 ! poles ( a horse-%oe magnet1 & ^! poles h plane p>allel faces oppos+ "o ano!r z 9 fig4 #c1 n only is ! d5sity ( ! flux 9 ! int]pol> gap small1 b ! direction ( movem5t is n always at "r angles to ! direction ( ! l9es1 :i* = ! mo/ "p pass /raight across f "o oppos+ face to ! o!r4 ,:5 ! conductor is midway betwe5 ! poles 7i4e4 ei!r at its highe/ or l[e/ po9t71 x is at ?is in/ant slid+ along ! l9es & does n cut !m1 s t its ,e4,m4,f4 is z]o4 ,tak+ ?is position z ! />t+-po9t1 z ! conductor moves r\nd1 its rate ( l9e-cutt+ increases to a maximum :5 x has mov$ ?r\gh a "r angle & is opposite to ! c5tre ( a pole-face 7z 9 fig4 #c71 f :i* po9t onw>d ! rate decreases to z]o :5 x has mov$ ?r\gh #ahj deg44 ,ea* "t ! conductor crosses a l9e drawn symmetrically ?r\gh ! gap betwe5 ! poles & at "r angles to ! axis ( rotation1 ! ,e4,m4,f4 along its l5g? is rev]s$ 9 direction1 s9ce ! motion relatively to ! direction ( ! field is rev]s$4 ,if ! ends ( ! active conductor are electrically connect$ to two collect+ r+s fix$ ^u1 b insulat$ f1 ! %aft1 two /ation>y bru%es bb c be press$ on ! r+s s z to make a slid+ contact4 ,an ext]nal circuit c !n be connect$ to ! bru%es1 :i* w =m ! t]m9als ( ! ma*9e1 ! p]iodically rev]s$ or alt]nat+ ,e4,m4,f4 induc$ 9 ! active conductor w cause an alt]nat+ curr5t to fl[ ?r\gh conductor & ext]nal circuit1 & ! simple/ =m ( alt]nator is obta9$4 ,if ! field cut by ! /raight conductor is ( uni=m d5sity1 & all ! l9es pass /raight across f "o pole-face to ! o!r 7bo? ( :i* assumptions are approximately correct71 a curve connect+ ! in/antane\s values ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 z ord9ates ) "t or degrees ( angul> movem5t z abscissae 7z %[n at ! foot ( fig4 #c71 w1 if ! spe$ ( rotation be uni=m1 be a s9e curve4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! conductor is m\nt$ on an iron cyl9d] 7fig4 #d71h a suffici5t m>g9 be+ all[$ = me*anical cle>ance betwe5 x & ! poles1 n only w ! reluctance ( ! magnetic circuit be r$uc$ & ! total flux & its d5sity 9 ! air-gap ,bg be !reby increas$1 b ! pa? ( ! l9es w become ne>ly radial1 except at ! fr+e ne> ! edges ( ! pole-tips2 h5ce ! relative directions ( ! movem5t & ( ! l9es w be cont9u\sly at "r angles4 ,! %ape ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve w !n be z %[n 9 fig4 #d--;flat-topp$1 ) r\nd$ corn]s rapidly slop+ d[n to ! z]o l9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,b a s+le wire _c ?us be made to give m ?an a few volts1 & :ile dynamos = voltages f #e to #aj are requir$ = c]ta9 purposes1 ! voltages 9 common use range f #ajj to #aj1jjj4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to connect a numb] ( su* wires 9 s]ies1 s z to =m an armature w9d+4 ,if sev]al simil> conductors are arrang$ along ! l5g? ( ! iron core p>allel to ! fir/ 7fig4 #e71 ! ,e4,m4,f4's g5]at$ 9 ! conductors :i* at any mom5t are "u ! same pole are simil>ly direct$1 & are opposite to ! directions ( ! ,e4,m4,f4's 9 ! conductors "u ! o!r pole 7cf fig4 #e :]e ! dott$ & cross$ ends ( ! wires indicate ,e4,m4,f4's direct$ respectively t[>ds & away f ! obs]v]74 ,two di/9ct me?ods ( w9d+ !nce arise1 ! simil>ity ( ! ,e4,m4,f4's "u ! same pole be+ tak5 advantage ( 9 ! fir/1 & ! opposite ,e4,m4,f4's "u ,n & ,s poles 9 ! second4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 #a4 ,! fir/1 or r+-w9d+1 0 inv5t$ by ,dr ,antonio ,pac9otti ( ,flor5ce#i 9 #ahfj1 & 0 subsequ5tly & indep5d5tly re9troduc$ 9 #ahgjaj by ! ,belgian electrician1 ,z5obe ,!ophile ,gramme1 :5ce x is also frequ5tly call$ ! ,gramme w9d+4 ,by ?is me?od ! f>!r end ( conductor #a 7fig4 #e7 is jo9$ 9 s]ies to ! ne> end ( conductor #b2 ?is latt] lies next to x on ! surface ( ! core or imm$iately above x1 s t bo? are simultane\sly "u ! same pole-piece4 ,= ?is s]ies connexion to be possible1 ! armature core mu/ be a holl[ cyl9d]1 support$ f ! %aft on an op5 non-magnetic spid] or hub1 betwe5 ! arms ( :i* !re is room = ! int]nal wire complet+ ! loop 7fig4 #f74 ,! end ( "o complete loop or turn embrac+ "o side ( ! armature core ?us =ms ! />t+-po9t = ano!r loop1 & ! process c be cont9u$ if requir$ to =m a coil ( two or m turns4 ,9 ! r+ armature ! iron core s]ves ! d\ble purpose ( conduct+ ! l9es across f "o pole to ! o!r1 & also ( %ield+ f ! magnetic flux ! holl[ int]ior ?r\gh :i* ! connect+ wires pass4 ,any l9es :i* leak across ! c5tral space are cut by ! int]nal wires1 & ! direction ( cutt+ is su* t ! ,e4,m4,f4 caus$ !reby opposes ! ,e4,m4,f4 due to ! active conductors prop] on ! ext]nal surface4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! section ( iron 9 ! core be correctly proportion$1 ! numb] ( l9es :i* cross ! int]ior w be> b a small ratio to ^? :i* pass entirely ?r\gh ! iron1 & ! c\nt] ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! int]nal wires w become v small2 !y may !n be reg>d$ simply z connectors = jo9+ ! ext]nal active wires 9 s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 #b4 ,! second or drum me?od 0 us$ 9 ! orig9al %uttle-w\nd armatures inv5t$ by ,dr ,w]n] von ,siem5s 9 #ahef1 & is sometimes call$ ! ,siem5s w9d+4 ,! f>!r end ( conductor #a 7fig4 #e7 is jo9$ by a connect+ wire to ! f>!r end ( ano!r conductor #b' situat$ ne>ly diametrically opposite on ! o!r side ( ! core & "u ! opposite pole-piece4 ,! ne> end ( ! complete loop or turn is !n br\ght across ! end ( ! core1 & c be us$ z ! />t+-po9t = ano!r loop beg9n+ ) conductor #b1 :i* is situat$ by ! side ( ! fir/ conductor4 ,! iron core may n[ be solid f ! surface to ! %aft1 s9ce no connect+ wires are br\ght ?r\gh ! c5tre1 & ea* loop embraces ! entire armature core 7fig4 #g74 ,by ! =mation ( two loops 9 ! r+ armature & ( ! s+le loop 9 ! drum armature1 two active wires are plac$ 9 s]ies2 ! curves ( in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 are !re=e simil> 9 %ape to t ( ! s+le wire 7fig4 #d71 b ) _! ord9ates rais$ ?r\gh\t to d\ble _! =m] height1 z %[n at ! foot ( fig4 #f4 ,next1 if ! free ends ( ei!r ! r+ or drum loops1 in/ead ( be+ connect$ to two collect+ r+s1 are atta*$ to ! two halves ( a split-r+ insulat$ f ! %aft 7z %[n 9 fig4 #g 9 connexion ) a drum armature71 & ! /ation>y bru%es are s set relatively to ! loops t !y pass ov] f ! "o half ( ! split-r+ to ! o!r half at ! mom5t :5 ! loops are pass+ ! c5tre ( ! int]pol> gap1 & s are giv+ little or no ,e4,m4,f41 ea* bru% w always rema9 ei!r positive or negative4 ,! curr5t 9 ! ext]nal circuit atta*$ to ! bru%es w !n h a con/ant direction1 al?\gh ! ,e4,m4,f4 9 ! active wires /ill rema9s alt]nat+2 ! curve ( ,e4,m4,f4 obta9$ at ! bru%es is ?us 7z 9 fig4 #g7 entirely above ! z]o l9e4 ,! fir/ dynamo ( ,h4 ,pixii1#aa :i* imm$iately foll[$ ,f>aday's discov]y1 gave an alt]nat+ curr5t1 b 9 #ahcbab ! alt]nator 0 conv]t$ into a ma*9e giv+ a unidirect$ curr5t by ! sub/itution ( a rudim5t>y commutator 9 place ( m]cury collect+ cups4 7,b7 ,s f> ! l5g? ( ! active wires has be5 p>allel to ! axis ( rotation1 b !y may equally well be arrang$ p]p5dicul>ly !reto4 ,! poles w !n h plane faces & ! active wires w be dispos$ ) _! l5g? approximately radial to ! axis ( ! %aft4 ,9 ord] to add _! ,e4,m4,f4's 9 s]ies1 two types ( w9d+ may be employ$1 :i* are precisely analog\s 9 pr9ciple to ! r+ & drum w9d+s "u arrangem5t 7,a74 #c4 ,! discoidal or flat-r+ armature is equival5t to a r+ ( :i* ! radial dep? greatly exce$s ! l5g?1 ) ! poles pres5t$ to "o side ( ! r+ in/ead ( embrac+ its cyl9drical surface4 ,a simil> set ( poles is also pres5t$ to ! opposite side ( ! r+1 l poles be+ opposite to "o ano!r1 s t 9 effect ea* pol> surface is divid$ into two halves1 & ! gr\ps ( l9es f ea* side bifurcate & pass circumf]5tially ?r\gh ! armature core to issue into ! adjac5t poles ( opposite sign4 #d4 ,9 ! disk ma*9e1 no iron core is necess>y = ! armature1 ! two opposite poles ( unlike sign be+ br\ght close toge!r1 leav+ b a %ort pa? = ! l9es 9 ! air-gap ?r\gh :i* ! active wires are rotat$4 ,if ! above elem5t>y dynamos are comp>$ ) fig4 #a1 x w be f\nd t !y all possess a di/9ctive feature :i* is n pres5t 9 ! orig9al disk ma*9e ( ,f>aday4 ,9 ! f\r types ( ma*9e above describ$ ea* active wire 9 ea* revolution fir/ cuts ! gr\p ( l9es =m+ a field 9 "o direction1 & !n cuts ! same l9es aga9 9 ! opposite direction relatively to ! s5se ( ! l9es1 s t along ! l5g? ( ! wire ! ,e4,m4,f4 alt]nates 9 direction4 ,b 9 ! dynamo ( fig4 #a ! sector ( ! copp] disk :i* is at any mom5t mov+ ?r\gh ! magnetic field & :i* =ms ! s+le active elem5t is always cutt+ ! l9es 9 ! same mann]1 s t ! ,e4,m4,f4 g5]at$ along its radial l5g? is cont9u\s & un*ang$ 9 direction4 ,?is radical di/9ction diff]5tiates ! two classes ( het]opol> & homopol> dynamos1 ,f>aday's disk ma*9e ( fig4 #a be+ ! type ( ! latt] class4 ,9 x ! active elem5t may be arrang$ ei!r p>allel or at "r angles to ! axis ( rotation2 b 9 bo? cases1 9 ord] to increase ! ,e4,m4,f4 by plac+ two or m elem5ts 9 s]ies1 x becomes necess>y ei!r 7#a7 to employ "s =m ( slid+ contact by :i* ! curr5t may be collect$ f ! end ( "o active elem5t & pass$ r\nd a connect+ wire into ! next elem5t )\t aga9 cutt+ ! field 9 ! rev]se direction1 or 7#b7 to =m on ! armature a loop ( :i* ea* side is alt]nately active & inactive4 ,! fir/ me?od limits ! possibilities ( ! homopol> ma*9e s greatly :5 l>ge curr5ts & high voltages are requir$ t x is n[ only us$ 9 r>e in/ances1 z e4g4 occasionally 9 dynamos driv5 by /eam-turb9es :i* h a v high spe$ ( rotation4 ,! second alt]native may be c>ri$ into effect ) any ( ! f\r me?ods ( armature w9d+1 b is practically conf9$ to ! drum & disk types4 ,9 its drum =m ! field is divid$ into two or m project+ poles1 all ( ! same sign1 ) int]v5+ neutral spaces ( equal wid?1 & ! span ( ! loop 9 ! direction ( rotation is at lea/ equal to ! wid? ( a pol> projection1 z 9 fig4 #h1 :]e two pol> projections are %[n4 ,ea* side ( ! loop !n plays a dual "p2 x fir/ cuts ! l9es ( "o pol> projection & g5]ates an ,e4,m4,f41 & next becomes an inactive connect+ wire1 :ile ! action is tak5 up by ! opposite side ( ! loop :i* has previ\sly s]v$ z a connector b n[ cuts ! l9es ( ! next pol> projection4 ,! ,e4,m4,f4 is ?us always 9 ! same direction along ! side :i* is at any mom5t active1 b alt]nates r\nd ! loop z a :ole1 & ! di/9ctive peculi>ity ( ! homopol> ma*9e1 s soon z any =m ( w9d+ is introduc$ into its armature1 is lo/4 ,x results t ! homopol> pr9ciple1 :i* w\ld prima facie appe> specially suitable = ! g5]ation ( a unidirectional ,e4,m4,f4 & cont9u\s curr5t1 c seldom be us$ = ?is purpose & is practically conf9$ to alt]nators4 ,x may !re=e be said t 9 almo/ all dynamos1 :e!r !y supply an alt]nat+ or a cont9u\s curr5t 9 ! ext]nal circuit1 ! ,e4,m4,f4 & curr5t 9 ! armature are alt]nat+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,r+ w9d+ 0 l>gely employ$ 9 e>ly cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos & also 9 ! alt]nators ( ,gramme & ,h4 ,wilde1 & lat] ( ,augu/e de ,m]it5s4 ,disk w9d+ 0 also successfully introduc$ = alt]nators1 z 9 ! magneto-ma*9es ( ,nollet 7#ahdi7 & ! alt]nators ( ,wilde 7#ahff7 & ,siem5s 7#ahgh71 & its use 0 cont9u$ 9 ! ma*9es ( ,w4,m4 ,mordey & ,s4,z4 ,f]ranti4 ,b al?\gh ! r+1 discoidal-r+ & disk me?ods ( w9d+ des]ve m5tion f _! hi/orical importance1 exp]i5ce has %[n t drum w9d+ possesses a m>k$ sup]iority = bo? electrical & manufactur+ reasons2 ! ?ree =m] me?ods h 9 fact be5 practically disc>d$ 9 its fav\r1 s t ! drum me?od w h]eaft] alone be consid]$4 ,! drum coil1 compos$ ( sev]al loops w\nd side by side1 may !re=e be reg>d$ z ! con/itu5t active elem5t out ( :i* ! armature w9d+ ( ! mod]n dynamo is develop$4 ,its application to ! multipol> ma*9e is easily foll[$ f fig4 #i1 :i* illu/rates ! het]opol> type ( dynamo4 ,! span ( ! loops1 :i* is ne>ly #ahj deg4 or across ! diamet] ( ! two-pole ma*9e1 is r$uc$ approximately to #ij deg4 9 ! f\r-pole or to #fj deg4 9 ! six-pole ma*9e & s on1 ! curvature ( ! coil becom+ gradually less z ! numb] ( poles is increas$4 ,! passage ( a coil ?r\gh two magnetic fields ( opposite direction yields a complete wave ( ,e4,m4,f41 su* z is %[n 9 fig4 #f1 & ! "t 9 seconds tak5 to pass ?r\gh su* a complete cycle is ! p]iod ( ! alt]nat+ ,e4,m4,f4 ,! numb] ( complete p]iods ?r\gh :i* ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! coil passes p] second is call$ ! p]iodicity or frequ5cy ( ! ma*9e4 ,9 ! bipol> ma*9e ?is is equal to ! numb] ( revolutions p] second1 & 9 ! multipol> ma*9e x is equal to ! numb] ( pairs ( fields ?r\gh :i* ! coil passes 9 "o second2 h5ce 9 g5]al ! p]iodicity is p,n_/#fj1 :]e ,n ! numb] ( revolutions p] m9ute & p ! numb] ( pairs ( poles1 & ?is holds true ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 & curr5t r\nd ! coil1 ev5 ?\gh ! ,e4,m4,f4 & curr5t furni%$ to ! ext]nal circuit may be r5d]$ unidirectional or cont9u\s4 ,! only diff]5ce on ?is po9t is t 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t ma*9e ! poles are usually few] ?an 9 ! alt]nator1 & ! p]iodicity is correspond+ly l[]4 ,?us 9 ! =m] case ! numb] ( poles ranges f #b to #ab & ! usual frequ5cies f #e to #bj2 b ) alt]nators ! frequ5cies 9 comm]cial use range f #be to #abj1 & 9 l>ge ma*9es driv5 by sl[-spe$ eng9es ! numb] ( poles may ev5 be z high z #if4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,i4 ,smoo?4 ,,ii4 ,too!d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,! drum coil may be appli$ ei!r to ! ext]nal surface ( a rotat+ armature1 ! field-magnet be+ ext]nal & /ation>y 7fig4 #i71 or to ! int]nal surface ( a /ation>y armature 7fig4 #aj71 ! field-magnet be+ int]nal & rotat+4 ,:ile ! =m] comb9ation is univ]sally adopt$ 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo1 ! latt] is m usual 9 ! mod]n alt]nator4 ,9 ei!r case ! iron armature core mu/ be lam9at$2 ! passage ( ! l9es ( ! field across its surface sets up ,e4,m4,f4's :i* are 9 opposite directions "u poles ( opposite sign1 s t if ! core 7 a solid mass a curr5t-%eet w\ld fl[ along its surface opposite to a pole1 & complete its circuit by pass+ ?r\gh ! deep] lay]s ( metal or by return+ 9 a %eet "u a pole ( opposite sign4 ,su* eddy-curr5ts c be practically avoid$ by divid+ ! metal core into lam9ations at "r angles to ! l5g? ( ! active wires :i* are !mselves arrang$ to secure ! greate/ rate ( l9e-cutt+ & maximum ,e4,m4,f4 ,! production ( ! eddy-curr5t ,e4,m4,f4 is n !reby prev5t$1 b ! pa?s ( ! eddy-curr5ts are s brok5 up t ! comp>atively high resi/ance ) :i* !y meet r$uces _! am\nt v greatly4 ,! lam9ae mu/ be lightly insulat$ f "o ano!r1 "r up to _! edges1 s t ! ,e4,m4,f4's :i* /ill act across _! ?ickness w n be add$ up along ! l5g? ( ! core1 b w only produce extremely small curr5ts circulat+ ?r\gh ! int]ior ( ! sep>ate lam9ations4 ,ea* ?9 iron plate is ei!r coat$ ) an insulat+ v>ni% or has "o ( its sides cov]$ ) a %eet ( v ?9 pap]2 ! ?ickness ( ! lam9ae is usually ab\t "o-=tie? ( an in*1 & if ?is is n exce$$ ! rate at :i* en]gy is dissipat$ by eddy-curr5ts 9 ! core is s f> r$uc$ t x does n s]i\sly impair ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e4 ,la/ly1 ! drum coils may be ei!r atta*$ to ! surface ( a smoo? armature core 7fig4 #i1 ,i471 or may be w\nd ?r\gh holes =m$ close to ! p]iph]y ( ! core1 or may be emb$d$ 9 ! slots betwe5 project+ iron tee? 7figs4 #i ,,ii4 & #aj74 ,orig9ally employ$ by ,antonio ,pac9otti 9 connexion ) r+ w9d+1 ! too!d armature 0 aft] "s consid]able use l>gely disc>d$ 9 fav\r ( ! smoo? core2 x has1 h[ev]1 be5 re9troduc$ ) a full] und]/&+ ( ! special precautions necessitat$ 9 its design1 & x is n[ s commonly us$ t x may be said to h sup]s$$ ! smoo?-surface armature4 ,n only does ! too!d armature r$uce ! l5g? ( ! air-gap to ! m9imum p]mitt$ by me*anical & magnetic consid]ations1 & furni% bett] me*anical protection to ! armature coils1 b x also ensures ! positive hold+ ( ! active wires aga9/ ! me*anical drag :i* !y exp]i5ce z !y pass ?r\gh ! magnetic field4 ,fur!r1 ! active wires 9 ! too!d armature are reliev$ ( a l>ge proportion ( ?is me*anical drag1 :i* is transf]r$ to ! iron tee?4 ,! l9es ( ! field1 aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! air-gap prop]1 divide betwe5 ! tee? & ! slots 9 proportion to _! relative p]meances4 ,h5ce at any mom5t ! active wires are situat$ 9 a weak field1 & = a giv5 armature curr5t ! =ce on !m is only proportional to ?is weak field4 ,?is important result is connect$ ) ! fact t :5 ! armature is giv+ curr5t ! di/ribution ( ! l9es ov] ! face ( ea* too? is di/ort$1 s t !y become d5s] on ! trail+ side ?an on ! lead+ side2#ac ! effect ( ! non-uni=m di/ribution act+ on all ! tee? is to produce a magnetic drag on ! armature core proportional to ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! wires1 s t ! total resi/+ =ce rema9s ! same z if ! armature _h a smoo? core4 ,! am\nt by :i* ! /ress on ! active wires is r$uc$ entirely dep5ds ^u ! degree to :i* ! tee? are saturat$1 b1 s9ce ! relative p]meability ( iron ev5 at a flux d5sity ( #bj1jjj l9es p] sq4 cm4 is to t ( air approximately z #cc3a1 ! emb$d$ wires are v l>gely reliev$ ( ! driv+ /ress4 ,an additional ga9 is t solid b>s ( mu* great] wid? c be us$ 9 ! too!d armature ?an on a smoo? core )\t appreciable loss f eddy-curr5ts )9 _! mass4 ,a disadvantage ( ! slott$ core is1 h[ev]1 t x usually necessitates ! lam9ation ( ! pole-pieces4 ,if ! top ( ! slot is op51 & its wid? ( op5+ is consid]ably great] ?an ! l5g? ( ! air-gap f ! iron ( ! pole-face to ! surface ( ! tee?1 ! l9es become unequally di/ribut$ n only at ! surface ( ! tee?1 b also at ! face ( ! pole-pieces2 & ?is mass+ ( ! l9es into b&s causes ! d5sity at ! pole-face to be rhy?mically v>i$ z ! tee? pass "u x4 ,no su* v>iation c take place 9 a solid mass ( metal )\t ! production ( eddy-curr5ts )9 x2 h5ce if ! wid? ( ! slot-op5+ is equal to or exce$s twice ! l5g? ( ! s+le air-gap1 lam9ation ( ! pole-pieces 9 ! same plane z t ( ! armature core becomes advisable4 ,if ! wires are ?read$ ?r\gh holes or tunnels pi]c$ close to ! p]iph]y ( ! core1 ! same advantages are ga9$ z ) op5 slots1 & lam9ation ( ! pole-pieces is r5d]$ unnecess>y4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ! process ( w9d+ becomes labori\s & exp5sive1 :ile ! increase 9 ! inductance ( ! coils ow+ to _! be+ surr\nd$ by a clos$ iron circuit is prejudicial to sp>kless commutation 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo & to ! regulation ( ! voltage ( ! alt]nator4 ,a compromise is f\nd 9 ! half-clos$ slot1 :i* is n uncommon 9 alt]nators1 al?\gh ! op5 slot is m usual 9 cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos4 ,) ! addition ( m turns to ! elem5t>y drum loop or ( sev]al complete coils1 new que/ions arise1 & 9 connexion !re) ! two great classes ( ma*9es1 viz4 alt]nators & cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos1 :i* h above be5 treat$ side by side1 div]ge consid]ably1 s t !y are be/ consid]$ sep>ately4 ,! electromotive-=ce equation ( ! alt]nator w be fir/ d$uc$1 & subsequ5tly t ( ! cont9u\s-curr5t ma*9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,correspond+ to ! numb] ( pairs ( poles 9 ! multipol> alt]nator1 x is evid5t t !re may also be an equal numb] ( coils z %[n diagrammatically 9 fig4 #aa4 ,! additional coils1 be+ simil>ly situat$ 9 respect to o!r pairs ( poles1 w exactly reproduce ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! orig9al coil 9 phase & magnitude1 s t :5 !y are connect$ 9 s]ies ! total ,e4,m4,f4 w be proportional to ! numb] ( coils 9 s]ies2 or if !y are connect$ 9 p>allel1 :ile n add+ to ! ,e4,m4,f41 !y w proportionately increase ! curr5t-c>ry+ capacity ( ! comb9ation4 ,b )9 ea* coil ! addition ( m loops w n cause an equal increase 9 ! total ,e4,m4,f41 unless ! phases ( ! compon5t ,e4,m4,f4's due to ! sev]al turns are id5tical1 & on ?is acc\nt x becomes necess>y to consid] ! effect ( ! wid? ( ! coil-side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,if ! additional loops are w\nd )9 ! same slots z ! orig9al loop1 ! w9d+ is conc5trat$1 & ea* turn w !n add ! same ,e4,m4,f4 ,b if ! coil-side is divid$ betwe5 two or m slots1 ! phase ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 yield$ by ! wires 9 "o slot be+ diff]5t f t ( ! wires 9 ano!r neighb\r+ slot1 ! sum ( all ! ,e4,m4,f4's w be less ?an ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( "o compon5t loop multipli$ by ! numb] ( loops or turns 9 ! coil4 ,! p]c5tage r$uction 9 ! ,e4,m4,f4 w dep5d ^u ! numb] ( ! slots 9 a coil-side & _! di/ance ap>t1 i4e4 on ! virtual wid? ( ! coil-side express$ z a fraction ( ! pole-pit* or ! di/ance measur$ along ! pit*-l9e f ! c5tre ( "o pole to ! c5tre ( a neighb\r+ pole ( opposite sign 7fig4 #ab74 ,! w9d+ is n[ to be reg>d$ z gr\p$1 s9ce a small numb] ( di/9ct phases correspond+ to ! gr\ps )9 ! two1 ?ree or f\r slots h to be comp\nd$ toge!r4 ,z ! numb] ( slots p] coil-side is increas$1 an approa* is gradually made to ! case ( uni=m di/ribution1 su* z w\ld obta9 9 a smoo?-core armature 9 :i* ! turns ( ! coil are w\nd closely side by side4 ,?us 9 ! six-turn coil ( fig4 #ab ,a1 :i* repres5ts ! developm5t ( a two-pole armature :5 ! core is cut d[n to ! %aft & op5$ out flat1 !re are 9 effect six phases comp\nd$ toge!r1 ea* ( :i* diff]s b little f t ( its next neighb\r4 ,) num]\s wires ly+ /ill clos] toge!r a l>ge numb] ( phases are comp\nd$ until ! di/ribution becomes practically uni=m2 ! decrease 9 ! ,e4,m4,f41 z comp>$ ) t ( a s+le turn multipli$ by ! numb] 9 s]ies1 is !n imm$iately dep5d5t ^u ! wid? ( ! coil-side relatively to ! pole-pit*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,if ! wid? ( ! inn] loop ( fig4 #ab ,a is less ?an t ( ! pole-face1 its two sides w = "s portion ( ea* p]iod be mov+ "u ! same pole1 & diff]5tial action results1 ! net ,e4,m4,f4 be+ only t due to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,e4,m4,f4's ( ! two sides4 ,! loop ( smalle/ wid? mu/ !re=e exce$ ! wid? ( pole-face1 if direct diff]5tial action is to be avoid$4 ,! same consid]ation also det]m9es ! wid? ( ! out] loop2 if ?is be d$uct$ f twice ! pole-pit*1 ! diff]5ce %\ld n be less ?an ! wid? ( ! pole-face1 s t1 e4g41 9 a bipol> ma*9e ! out] loop may /& to ! ,s4 pole exactly z ! inn] loop /&s to ! ,n4 pole 7fig4 #ac74 ,9 o!r words1 ! wid? ( ! coil-side mu/ n exce$ ! wid? ( ! int]pol> gap betwe5 two fields4 ,evid5tly !n if ! ratio ( ! pole-wid? to ! pole-pit* approa*es unity1 ! wid? ( ! coil-side mu/ be v small1 & vice v]sa4 ,a compromise betwe5 ^! conflict+ consid]ations is f\nd if ! pole is made n mu* m ?an half ! pole-pit*1 & ! wid? ( ! coil-side is simil>ly ab\t half ! pole-pit* & !re=e equal 9 wid? to ! pole 7fig4 #ac74 ,a s+le l>ge coil1 su* z t ( fig4 #ab ,a1 c1 h[ev]1 equally well be divid$ into two halves by tak+ ! end-connexions ( "o half ( ! turns r\nd ! opposite side ( ! %aft 7fig4 #ab ,b71 z inde$ has already be5 done 9 fig4 #ac4 ,ea* %eaf or b& ( active wires correspond+ to a pole is !reby unaffect$1 b ! advantages are ga9$ t ! axial l5g? ( ! end-connexions is halv$1 & t !y h less inductance4 ,?us if 9 fig4 #aa !re are f\r turns p] coil1 fig4 #ad is electrically equival5t to x 7save t ! coils are "h %[n divid$ into two p>allel pa?s1 ea* c>ry+ half ! total curr5t74 ,:5 ! l>ge coils are divid$ z above describ$1 x results t !re are z _m coils z !re are poles1 ! out] loop ( ! small coil hav+ a wid? equal to ! pole-pit*1 & ! inn] a wid? equal to ! pole-face4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,su* is ! =m :i* ! s+le-phase alt]nator takes1 b s9ce only "o-half ( ! armature core is n[ cov]$ ) w9d+1 an entirely di/9ct b simil> set ( coils may be w\nd to =m a second armature circuit betwe5 ! coils ( ! fir/ circuit4 ,! phase ( ?is second circuit w diff] by #ij deg4 or a qu>t] ( a p]iod f t ( ! fir/1 & x may ei!r be us$ to fe$ an entirely sep>ate ext]nal circuit possibly at a diff]5t pressure or1 if x be compos$ ( ! same numb] ( turns & !re=e gives ! same voltage1 x may be int]connect$ ) ! fir/ circuit to =m a qu>t]-phase alt]nator1 z w be m fully describ$ lat]4 ,by an ext5sion ( ! same process1 if ! wid? ( ea* side ( a coil is r$uc$ to "o-six? ( ! pole-pit*1 ?ree armature circuits c be w\nd on ! same core1 & a ?ree-phase alt]nator1 giv+ waves ( ,e4,m4,f4 diff]+ 9 phase by #abj deg41 is obta9$4 ,! fundam5tal electromotive-=ce equation ( ! het]opol> alt]nator c n[ be giv5 a m def9ite =m4 ,let ,za be ! numb] ( ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 l9es or ! total flux1 :i* issu+ f any "o pole fl[s ?r\gh ! armature core1 to leave x by ano!r pole ( opposite sign4 ,s9ce ea* active wire cuts ^! l9es1 fir/ z !y ent] ! armature core & !n z !y em]ge f x to ent] ano!r pole1 ! total numb] ( l9es cut 9 "o revolution by any "o active wire is #bp,za4 ,! "t 9 seconds tak5 by "o revolution is #fj_/,n4 ,! av]age ,e4,m4,f4 induc$ 9 ea* active wire 9 "o revolution be+ proportional to ! numb] ( l9es cut divid$ by ! "t tak5 to cut !m is !re=e #b,za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,! active wires :i* are 9 s]ies & =m "o di/9ct phase may be divid$ into z _m b&s z !re are poles2 let ea* su* b& conta9 t active wires1 :i* z be=e expla9$ may ei!r =m "o side ( a s+le l>ge coil or ! adjac5t sides ( two coils :5 ! l>ge coil is divid$ into two halves4 ,s9ce ! wires are jo9$ up into loops1 two b&s are be/ consid]$ toge!r1 :i* ) ei!r arrangem5t yield 9 effect a s+le coil ( t turns4 ,! av]age ,e4,m4,f4's ( all ! wires 9 ! two b&s :5 add$ toge!r w !re=e be #d,za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,b unless ea* b& is conc5trat$ )9 a s+le slot1 !re mu/ be "s diff]5tial action z !y cross ! neutral l9e betwe5 ! poles1 s t ! la/ expression is virtually ! gross av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! loops on ! assumption t ! compon5t ,e4,m4,f4's always act 9 agreem5t r\nd ! coil & d n at times p>tially neutralize "o ano!r4 ,! net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! coil z a :ole1 or ! ari?metical mean ( all ! in/antane\s values ( a half-wave ( ! actual ,e4,m4,f4 curve1 is !re=e r$uc$ to an ext5t dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( diff]5tial action & s ^u ! wid? ( ! coil-side :5 ?is is n conc5trat$4 ,let k' ! coeffici5t by :i* ! gross av]age ,e4,m4,f4 mu/ be multipli$ to give ! net av]age ,e4,m4,f42 !n k' may be call$ ! wid?-factor1 & w h "s value less ?an unity :5 ! wires ( ea* b& are spread ov] a numb] ( slots4 ,! net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! two b&s correspond+ to a pair ( poles is ?us e7av7 #dk',za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,! %ape ( ! curve ( in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! coil mu/ fur!r be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! effective value ( an alt]nat+ ,e4,m4,f4 is equal to ! squ>e root ( ! mean squ>e ( its in/antane\s values1 s9ce ?is is ! value ( ! equival5t unidirectional & unv>y+ ,e4,m4,f41 :i* :5 appli$ to a giv5 resi/ance develops en]gy at ! same rate z ! alt]nat+ ,e4,m4,f41 :5 ! effect ( ! latt] is av]ag$ ov] "o or any :ole numb] ( p]iods4 ,let k ! ratio ( ! squ>e root ( ! mean squ>e to ! av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! coil1 i4e4 effective ,e4,m4,f4_/av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ,s9ce x dep5ds ^u ! %ape ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve1 k is also kn[n z ! =m-factor2 ?us if ! l5g? ( gap betwe5 pole-face & armature core & ! spac+ ( ! wires 7 s graduat$ z to give a curve ( ,e4,m4,f4 v>y+ aft] a s9e law1 ! =m-factor w\ld h ! p>ticul> value ( pi_/#broot#b #a4aa1 & to ?is condition practical alt]nators m or less con=m4 ,! effective ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! two b&s correspond+ to a pair ( poles is ?us e7eff7 #dk'k,za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,9 any "o phase !re are p pairs ( b&s1 & ^! may be divid$ into q p>allel pa?s1 :]e q is "o or any :ole numb] ( :i* p is a multiple4 ,! effective ,e4,m4,f4 ( a complete phase is !re=e peeff_/q4 ,la/ly1 if m ! numb] ( phases into :i* ! armature w9d+ is divid$1 & tau ! total numb] ( active wires on ! armature c\nt$ all r\nd its p]iph]y1 t tau_/#bpm1 & ! effective ,e4,m4,f4 p] phase is ,ea #bk'k,za7p,ntau_/#fjmq7 x #aj7-h74 ,! two factors k' & k may be unit$ into "o coeffici5t1 & ! equation !n takes its f9al =m ,ea #b,,kza7p,ntau_/#fjmq7 x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a;a7 ,9 ! alt]nator q is mo/ commonly #a1 & !re is only "o circuit p] phase2 f9ally ! value ( ,k or ! product ( ! wid?-factor & ! =m-factor usually falls betwe5 ! limits ( #a & #a4be4 ,we h next to consid] ! effect ( ! addition ( m armature loops 9 ! case ( dynamos :i* give a unidirectional ,e4,m4,f4 9 virtue ( _! split-r+ collect+ device1 i4e4 ( ! type %[n 9 fig4 #g ) drum armature or its equival5t r+ =m4 ,z be=e1 if ! additional loops are w\nd 9 cont9uation ( ! fir/ z "o coil connect$ to a s+le split-r+1 ?is coil mu/ be m or less conc5trat$ into a n>r[ b&2 s9ce if ! wid? becomes ne>ly equal to or exce$s ! wid? ( ! int]pol> gap1 ! two edges ( ! coil-side w j z 9 ! alt]nator act diff]5tially aga9/ "o ano!r dur+ "p ( ea* revolution4 ,! drum w9d+ ) a s+le coil ?us gives an armature ( ! ,h- or %uttle =m inv5t$ by ,dr ,w]n] von ,siem5s4 ,al?\gh ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( su* an arrangem5t may h a mu* high] maximum value ?an t ( ! curve ( fig4 #g = a s+le loop1 yet x /ill p]iodically v>ies dur+ ea* revolution & s gives a pulsat+ curr5t1 :i* is = mo/ practical uses unsuitable4 ,b su* pulsation might be l>gely r$uc$ if1 = example1 a second coil 7 plac$ at "r angles to ! orig9al coil & ! two 7 connect$ 9 s]ies2 ! cre/s ( ! wave ( ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! second coil w !n co9cide ) ! holl[s ( ! fir/ wave1 & al?\gh ! maximum ( ! resultant curve ( ,e4,m4,f4 may be no high] its fluctuations w be greatly decreas$4 ,a spacial displacem5t ( ! new coils along ! pole-pit*1 some:at z 9 a polyphase ma*9e1 ?us sugge/s itself1 & ! process may be c>ri$ /ill fur!r by increas+ ! numb] ( equally spac$ coils1 provid$ t !y c be connect$ 9 s]ies & yet c h _! connexion ) ! ext]nal circuit rev]s$ z !y pass ! neutral l9e betwe5 ! poles4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,giv5 two coils at "r angles & ) _! split-r+s displac$ ?r\gh a correspond+ angle ( #ij deg41 !y may be connect$ 9 s]ies by jo9+ "o bru% to ! opposite bru% ( ! second coil1 ! ext]nal circuit be+ appli$ to ! two rema9+ bru%es4#ad ,! same arrangem5t may aga9 be repeat$ ) ano!r pair ( coils 9 p>allel ) ! fir/1 & we ?us obta9 fig4 #ae ) f\r split-r+s1 _! connexions to ! loops be+ m>k$ by correspond+ num]als2 ! f\r coils w give ! same ,e4,m4,f4 z ! two1 b !y w be jo9tly capable ( c>ry+ twice ! curr5t1 ow+ to _! division into two p>allel circuits4 ,n[ 9 place ( ! f\r split-r+s may be employ$ ! greatly simplifi$ f\r-segm5t /ructure %[n 9 fig4 #af1 :i* s]ves precisely ! same purpose z ! f\r split-r+s b only requires two in/ead ( eight bru%es4 ,! effect ( jo9+ bru% #b 9 fig4 #ae across to bru% #c1 bru% #d to bru% #e1 #e to #f1 c41 has virtually be5 to connect ! end ( coil ,a ) ! beg9n+ ( coil ,b1 & ! end ( coil ,b ) ! beg9n+ ( coil ,a'1 & s on1 until !y =m a cont9u\s clos$ helix4 ,ea* sector ( fig4 #af w !re=e replace two halves ( a pair ( adjac5t split-r+s1 if ! end & beg9n+ ( a pair ( adjac5t coils are connect$ to x 9 a regul> ord] ( sequ5ce4 ,! f\r sectors are insulat$ f "o ano!r & f ! %aft1 & ! :ole /ructure is kn[n z ! commutator1#ae its function be+ n simply to collect ! curr5t b also to commute its direction 9 any coil z x passes ! int]pol> gap4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! clos$-coil cont9u\s-curr5t armature is ?us rea*$1 9 :i* !re are at lea/ two p>allel circuits f bru% to bru%1 & f :i* a practically /eady curr5t c be obta9$4 ,ea* coil is successively %ort-circuit$1 z a bru% bridges ov] ! insulation betwe5 ! two sectors :i* t]m9ate x2 & ! bru%es mu/ be s set t ! p]iod ( %ort-circuit takes place :5 ! coil is g5]at+ little or no ,e4,m4,f41 i4e4 :5 x is mov+ ?r\gh ! zone betwe5 ! pole-tips4 ,! effect ( ! f\r coils 9 r$uc+ ! p]c5tage fluctuation ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 is v m>k$1 z %[n at ! foot ( fig4 #ae 7:]e ! upp] curve is ! resultant obta9$ by add+ toge!r ! sep>ate curves ( coils ,a & ,b71 & ! levell+ process may evid5tly be c>ri$ /ill fur!r by ! ins]tion ( m coils & m correspond+ sectors 9 ! commutator1 until ! :ole armature is cov]$ ) w9d+4 ,= example1 figs4 #ag & #ah %[ a r+ & a drum armature1 ea* ) eight coils & eight commutator sectors2 _! resultant curve1 on ! assumption t a s+le active wire gives ! flat-topp$ curve ( fig4 #d1 w be ! upp] wavy l9e ( ,e4,m4,f4 obta9$ by add+ toge!r two ( ! resultant curves ( fig4 #ae1 ) a relative displacem5t ( #de deg44 ,! am\nt ( fluctuation = a giv5 numb] ( commutator sectors dep5ds ^u ! %ape ( ! curve ( ,e4,m4,f4 yield$ by ! sep>ate small sections ( ! armature w9d+2 ! great] ! pol> arc1 ! less ! fluctuation4 ,9 practice1 ) a pol> arc equal to ab\t #j4ge ( ! pit*1 any numb] ( sectors ov] #cb p] pair ( poles yields an ,e4,m4,f4 :i* is s5sibly con/ant ?r\gh\t "o or any numb] ( revolutions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,! fundam5tal electro-motive-=ce equation ( ! cont9u\s-curr5t het]opol> ma*9e is easily obta9$ by analogy f t ( ! alt]nator4 ,! gross av]age ,e4,w4,f4 f ! two sides ( a drum loop )\t ref]5ce to its direction is z be=e #d,za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,b = two reasons its net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 may be less2 ! span ( ! loop may be less ?an ! pole-pit*1 s t ev5 :5 ! bru%es are s set t ! position ( %ort-circuit falls on ! l9e :]e ! field *anges its direction1 ! two sides ( ! loop = "s little "t act aga9/ ea* o!r2 or1 secondly1 ev5 if ! span ( ! loop be equal to ! pole-pit*1 ! bru%es may be s set t ! rev]sal ( ! direction ( its induc$ ,e4,m4,f4 does n co9cide ) rev]sal ( ! curr5t by ! passage ( ! coil "u ! bru%es4 ,! net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! loop is !re=e proportional to ! algebraic sum ( ! l9es :i* x cuts 9 pass+ f "o bru% to ano!r1 & ?is is equal to ! net am\nt ( ! flux :i* is includ$ )9 ! loop :5 situat$ 9 ! position ( %ort-circuit "u a bru%4 ,! am\nt ( ?is flux may be express$ z k',za :]e k' is "s coeffici5t1 less ?an unity if ! span ( ! coil be less ?an ! pole-pit*1 & also v>y+ ) ! position ( ! bru%es4 ,! net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! loop is !re=e #dk',za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h74 ,9 practice ! numb] ( sections ( ! armature w9d+ is s l>ge & _! di/ribution r\nd ! armature p]iph]y is s uni=m1 t ! sum total ( ! in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4's ( ! sev]al sections :i* are 9 s]ies becomes at any mom5t equal to ! net av]age ,e4,m4,f4 ( "o loop multipli$ by ! numb] :i* are 9 s]ies4 ,if ! w9d+ is divid$ into q p>allel circuits1 ! numb] ( loops 9 s]ies is tau_/#bq1 s t ! total ,e4,m4,f4 is ,ea #b7k'_/q7,za7p,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,?us z comp>$ ) ! alt]nator n only is !re no division ( ! w9d+ into sep>ate phases1 b ! =m-factor k' disappe>s1 s9ce ! effective & av]age ,e4,m4,f4's are ! same4 ,fur!r :]eas 9 ! alt]nator q may #a1 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t clos$-coil armature !re c nev] be less ?an two circuits 9 p>allel f bru% to bru%1 & if m1 _! numb] mu/ always be a multiple ( two1 s t q c nev] be less ?an two & mu/ always be an ev5 numb]4 ,la/ly1 ! factor k' is usually s closely equal to #a1 t ! simplifi$ equation may 9 practice be adopt$1 viz4 ,ea 7#b_/q77,zp,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a;b7 ,! fundam5tal equation ( ! electromotive =ce ( ! dynamo 9 its fully develop$ =ms 7#a a7 7& #a b7 may be comp>$ ) its previ\s simple /atem5t 7#a474 ,! ?ree v>iable t]ms /ill f9d _! equival5ts1 b are diff]5tly express$1 ! d5sity ,bg be+ replac$ by ! total flux ( "o field ,za1 ! l5g? ,l ( ! s+le active wire by ! total numb] ( su* wires tau1 & ! velocity ( movem5t ,v by ! numb] ( revolutions p] second4 ,ev5 :5 ! spe$ is fix$1 an endless numb] ( *anges may be rung by alt]+ ! relative values ( ! rema9+ two factors2 & 9 successful practice ^! may be v>i$ betwe5 fairly wide limits )\t detrim5t to ! work+ or economy ( ! ma*9e4 ,:ile x may be said t ! equation ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 0 implicitly kn[n f ,f>aday's "t onw>ds1 ! difficulty "u :i* design]s lab\r$ 9 e>ly days 0 ! problem ( *oos+ ! correct relation ( ,za or tau = ! requir$ output2 ?is1 aga91 0 due *iefly to ! difficulty ( pr$et]m9+ ! total flux be=e ! ma*9e 0 con/ruct$4 ,! g5]al error lay 9 employ+ too weak a field & too _m turns on ! armature1 & cr$it mu/ "h be giv5 to ! ,am]ican inv5tors1 ,e4 ,we/on & ,t4,a4 ,edison1 = _! e>ly appreciation ( ! sup]iority 9 practical work+ ( ! drum armature1 ) comp>atively few active wires rotat+ 9 a /rong field4 ,! armature core4 ,cont9u\s-curr5t ,dynamos4--,on pass+ to ! sep>ate consid]ation ( alt]nators & cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos1 ! *ief con/ructive features ( ! latt] w fir/ be tak5 9 great] detail4 ,z already /at$ 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo ! armature is usually ! rotat+ portion1 & ! necessity ( lam9at+ its core has be5 g5]ally describ$4 ,! ?9 iron /amp+s employ$ to build up ! core take ! =m ( circul> wa%]s or disks1 :i* 9 small ma*9es are /rung directly on ! %aft2 9 l>g] multipol> ma*9es1 9 :i* ! requir$ radial dep? ( iron is small relatively to ! diamet]1 a c5tral ca/ iron hub supports ! disks4 ,s9ce ! driv+ =ce is transmitt$ ?r\gh ! %aft to ! disks1 !y mu/ 9 ! =m] case be securely fix$ by keys sunk into ! %aft2 :5 a c5tral hub is employ$ 7fig4 #ai7 x is key$ to ! %aft1 & its project+ arms engage 9 not*es /amp$ on ! inn] circumf]5ce ( ! disks1 or ! latt] h dovetail$ projections fitt+ into ! arms4 ,! disks are !n tightly compress$ & clamp$ betwe5 /\t end-plates s z to =m a ne>ly solid iron cyl9d] ( axial l5g? slightly exce$+ ! correspond+ dim5sion ( ! poles4 ,if ! armature is m ?an #d ft4 9 diamet]1 ! disks become too l>ge to be conv5i5tly h&l$ 9 "o piece1 & are !re=e made 9 segm5ts1 :i* are built up s z to break jo9t alt]nately4 ,prior to assemblage1 ! ext]nal circumf]5ce ( ea* disk is not*$ 9 a /amp+ ma*9e ) ! requir$ numb] ( slots to receive ! armature coils1 & ! longitud9al grooves !reby =m$ 9 ! f9i%$ core only require to h _! %>p edges smoo!d (f s t !re may be no risk ( injury to ! insulation ( ! coils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,armature w9d+4 ,) op5 slots ei!r ! armature coils may be encas$ ) wrapp+s ( oil$ l951 v>ni%$ pap] & ?9 flexible micanite %eet+ 9 ord] to insulate !m electrically f ! iron slots 9 :i* !y are aft]w>ds emb$d$2 or ! slots may be !mselves l9$ ) m\ld$ tr\ghs ( micanite1 c41 = ! reception ( ! armature coils1 ! latt] me?od be+ necess>y ) half-clos$ slots4 ,accord+ to ! nature ( ! coils armatures may be divid$ into ! two classes ( coil-w\nd & b>-w\nd4 ,9 ! =m] class1 r\nd copp] wire1 d\ble-cotton cov]$1 is employ$1 & ! coils are ei!r w\nd by h& directly on to ! armature core1 or are %ap$ on =m]s prior to be+ ins]t$ 9 ! armature slots4 ,h&-w9d+ is n[ only employ$ 9 v small bipol> ma*9es1 ! process be+ exp5sive & accompani$ by ! disadvantage t if "o section requires to be repair$1 ! :ole armature usually has to be dismantl$ & re-w\nd4 ,=m]-w\nd coils are1 on ! o!r h&1 economical 9 lab\r1 p]fectly symmetrical & int]*angeable1 & c be ?or\ghly insulat$ be=e !y are plac$ 9 ! slots4 ,! %ap]s employ$ 9 ! =m+ process are v v>i\s1 b are usually arrang$ to give to ! f9i%$ coil a loz5ge %ape1 ! two /raight active sides :i* fit into ! /raight slots be+ jo9$ by ,v-%ap$ ends2 at ea* apex ( ! coil ! wire is giv5 a twi/1 s t ! two sides fall into diff]5t levels1 an upp] & a l[]1 correspond+ to ! two lay]s :i* ! coil-sides =m on ! f9i%$ armature4 ,rectangul> wire ( comp>atively small section may be simil>ly treat$1 & if only "o loop is requir$ p] section1 wide & ?9 /rip c be b5t into a complete loop1 s t ! only sold]$ jo9ts are ^? at ! commutator end :]e ! loops are int]connect$4 ,b f9ally ) massive rectangul> conductors1 ! transition mu/ be made to b>-w9d+1 9 :i* ea* b> is a half-loop1 insulat$ by be+ tap$ aft] x has be5 b5t to ! requir$ %ape2 ! sep>ate b>s are arrang$ on ! armature 9 two lay]s1 & _! ends are sold]$ toge!r subsequ5tly to =m loops4 ,z a g5]al rule1 :e!r b>s or =m]-w\nd coils are employ$1 ! armature is b>rel-w\nd1 i4e4 ! end-connexions project outw>ds f ! slots ) b little *ange ( level1 s t !y =m a cyl9drical mass support$ on projections f ! end-plates ( ! core 7fig4 #ai72 b1 9 c]ta9 cases1 ! end-connexions are b5t d[nw>ds at "r angles to ! %aft1 & !y may !n consi/ ( sep>ate /rips ( copp] b5t to a s-call$ butt]fly or evolute %ape4 ,aft] ! coils or loops h be5 assembl$ 9 ! slots on ! armature core1 & ! commutator has be5 fix$ 9 place on ! %aft1 ! sold]+ ( ! ends ( ! coils proce$s1 by :i* at once ! union ( ! end ( "o coil ) ! beg9n+ ( ! next1 & also _! connexion to ! commutator sectors1 is effect$1 & 9 ?is lies ! ess5tial "p ( armature w9d+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,lap-loops ,lap-w9d+4 ,! developm5t ( ! mod]n drum armature1 ) its num]\s coils connect$ 9 ord]ly sequ5ce into a symmetrical w9d+1 z contra/$ ) ! e>li] ,siem5s armatures1 0 initiat$ by ,f4 von ,hefn] ,alt5eck 7#ahga71 & ! laws gov]n+ ! int]connexion ( ! coils h n[ be5 elaborat$ into a def9ite sy/em ( w9d+ =mulae4 ,:atev] ! numb] ( wires or b>s 9 ea* side ( a coil1 i4e4 :e!r x consi/ ( a s+le loop or ( _m turns1 ! f9al connexions ( its free ends are n !reby affect$1 & x may be m5tally replac$ by a s+le loop ) two active induc+ sides4 ,! coil-sides 9 _! f9al position are ?us to be reg>d$ z sep>ate prim>y elem5ts1 ev5 9 numb]1 & di/ribut$ uni=mly r\nd ! armature p]iph]y or divid$ into small1 equally spac$ gr\ps by be+ locat$ )9 ! slots ( a too!d armature4 ,att5tion mu/ !n be direct$ simply to ! span ( ! back connexion betwe5 ! elem5ts at ! end ( ! armature fur!r f ! commutator1 & to ! span ( ! front connexion by :i* ! la/ turn ( a coil is f9ally connect$ to ! fir/ turn ( ! next 9 sequ5ce1 precisely z if ea* coil ( _m turns 7 r$uc$ to a s+le loop4 ,9 ord] to avoid direct diff]5tial action1 ! span ( ! back connexion :i* fixes ! wid? ( ! coil mu/ exce$ ! wid? ( ! pole-face1 & %\ld n be f> diff]5t f ! pole-pit*2 x is usually a little less ?an ! pole-pit*4 ,tak+ any "o elem5t z ,no4 #a 9 fig4 #bj1 :]e = simplicity a smoo?-core bipol> armature is %[n1 ! numb] ( w9d+-spaces1 ea* to be occupi$ by an elem5t1 :i* mu/ be c\nt$ (f 9 ord] to f9d ! position ( ! next elem5t 9 s]ies1 is call$ ! pit* ( ! end-connexion1 front or back1 z ! case may be4 ,?us ! back pit* ( ! w9d+ z m>k$ by ! dott$ l9e 9 fig4 #bj is #g1 ! second side ( ! fir/ loop be+ ! elem5t numb]$ #a #g #h4 ,9 =m+ ! front end-connexion :i* completes ! loop & jo9s x to ! next 9 succession1 two possible cases pres5t !mselves4 ,by ! fir/1 or lap-w9d+1 ! front end-connexion is br\ght backw>ds1 & pass+ on its way to a junction ) a commutator sector is l$ to a ?ird elem5t ly+ )9 ! two sides ( ! fir/ loop1 i4e4 ! second loop />ts ) ! elem5t1 ,no4 #c1 ly+ next b "o to ! />t+-po9t ( ! fir/ loop4 ,! w9d+ !re=e returns backw>ds on itself to =m ea* front end1 b z a :ole x works cont9ually =w>ds r\nd ! armature1 until x f9ally re-ent]s1 aft] e elem5t has be5 trav]s$4 ,! developm5t ( ! complet$ w9d+ on a flat surface %[s t x takes ! =m ( a numb] ( p>tially ov]lapp+ loops1 :5ce its "n orig9ates4 ,! firm-l9e portion ( fig4 #ba gives ! developm5t ( an armature simil> to t ( fig4 #ah :5 cut ?r\gh at ! po9t m>k$ ,x & op5$ out2 two ( ! ov]lapp+ loops are m>k$ !reon 9 heavy l9es4 ,! multipol> lap-w\nd armature is obta9$ by simply repeat+ ! bipol> w9d+ p times1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ additions ( fig4 #ba :i* conv]t x f a two-pole to a f\r-pole ma*9e4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! lap-w\nd armature is t !re are z _m p>allel pa?s f bru% to bru%1 & z _m po9ts at :i* ! curr5t mu/ be collect$1 z !re are poles4 ,z ! bipol> clos$-coil cont9u\s-curr5t armature has be5 %[n to consi/ 9 reality ( two circuits 9 p>allel1 ea* giv+ ! same ,e4,m4,f4 & c>ry+ half ! total curr5t1 s ! multipol> lap-w\nd drum consi/s ( p pairs ( p>allel pa?s1 ea* giv+ ! same ,e4,m4,f4 & c>ry+ #a_/bp ( ! total curr5t4 ,?us 9 equation #a4;b we h q #bp1 & ! special =m :i* ! ,e4,m4,f4 equation ( ! lap-w\nd armature takes is ,ealpha ,za 7,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,all ! bru%es :i* are ( ! same sign mu/ be connect$ toge!r 9 ord] to collect ! total armature curr5t4 ,! sev]al bru%-sets ( ! multipol> lap-w\nd ma*9e may aga9 be r$uc$ to two by cross-connexion ( sectors situat$ #cfj deg4_/p ap>t1 b ?is is seldom done1 s9ce ! commutator mu/ !n be l5g!n$ p times 9 ord] to obta9 ! necess>y bru% contact-surface = ! collection ( ! entire curr5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,wave-loops ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,wave-w9d+4 ,b = _m purposes1 especially :]e ! voltage is high & ! curr5t small1 x is advantage\s to add toge!r ! inductive effect ( ! sev]al poles ( ! multipol> ma*9e by ?r[+ ! ,e4,m4,f's ( half ! total numb] ( elem5ts into s]ies1 ! numb] ( p>allel circuits be+ conv]sely aga9 r$uc$ to two4 ,?is is effect$ by ! second me?od ( w9d+ ! clos$-coil cont9u\s curr5t drum1 :i* is kn[n z wave-w9d+4 ,! front pit* is n[ 9 ! same direction r\nd ! armature z ! back pit* 7fig4 #bb71 s t ! beg9n+ ( ! second loop1 i4e4 elem5t ,no4 #ae1 lies outside ! fir/ loop4 ,aft] p loops h be5 =m$ & z _m elem5ts h be5 trav]s$ z !re are poles1 ! di/ance cov]$ ei!r falls %ort ( or exce$s a complete t\r ( ! armature by two w9d+-spaces1 or ! wid? ( two elem5ts4 ,a second & ?ird t\r are !n made1 & s on1 until f9ally ! w9d+ aga9 closes ^u itself4 ,:5 ! complet$ w9d+ is develop$ z 9 fig4 #bc1 x is se5 to "w cont9u\sly =w>ds r\nd ! armature 9 zigzag waves1 "o ( :i* is m>k$ 9 heavy l9es1 & ! numb] ( complete t\rs is equal to ! av]age ( ! back & front pit*es4 ,s9ce ! numb] ( p>allel circuits f bru% to bru% is q #b1 ! ,e4,m4,f4 equation ( ! wave-w\nd drum is ,ea p,za 7,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,only two sets ( bru%es are necess>y1 b 9 ord] to %ort5 ! l5g? ( ! commutator1 o!r sets may also be add$ at ! po9t ( highe/ & l[e/ pot5tial up to z _m 9 numb] z !re are poles4 ,?us ! advantage ( ! wave-w\nd armature is t = a giv5 voltage & numb] ( poles ! numb] ( active wires is only #a_/p ( t 9 ! lap-w\nd drum1 ea* be+ ( l>g] cross-section 9 ord] to c>ry p times z mu* curr5t2 h5ce ! ratio ( ! room occupi$ by ! insulation to ! copp] area is less1 & ! available space is bett] utiliz$4 ,a fur!r advantage is t ! two circuits f bru% to bru% consi/ ( elem5ts influ5c$ by all ! poles1 s t if = any reason1 su* z ecc5tricity ( ! armature )9 ! bore ( ! pole-pieces1 or want ( uni=mity 9 ! magnetic qualities ( ! poles1 ! flux ( ea* field is n equal to t ( e o!r1 ! equality ( ! voltage produc$ by ! two halves ( ! w9d+ is n affect$ !reby4 ,9 appe>ance ! two classes ( armatures1 lap & wave1 may be di/+ui%$ 9 ! b>rel type ( w9d+ by ! slope ( ! upp] lay] ( back end-connexions1 & t ( ! front connexions at ! commutator end be+ p>allel to "o ano!r 9 ! latt]1 & oppositely direct$ 9 ! =m]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,aft] completion ( ! w9d+1 ! end-connexions are firmly b\nd d[n by b&s ( /eel or phosphor bronze b9d+ wire1 s z to resi/ ! /ress ( c5trifugal =ce4 ,9 ! case ( smoo?-surface armatures1 su* b&s are also plac$ at int]vals along ! l5g? ( ! armature core1 b 9 too!d armatures1 al?\gh ! coils are (t5 9 small ma*9es secur$ 9 ! slots by simil> b&s ( a non-magnetic high-resi/ance wire1 ! use ( h>d-wood w$ges driv5 into not*es at ! sides ( ! slots becomes pref]able1 & 9 v l>ge ma*9es indisp5sable4 ,! ext]nal appe>ance ( a typical armature ) lap-w9d+ is %[n 9 fig4 #bd4 ,! commutator4 ,a s\nd me*anical con/ruction ( ! commutator is ( vital importance to ! good work+ ( ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo4 ,! n>r[1 w$ge-%ap$ sectors ( h>d-drawn copp]1 ) _! insulat+ /rips ( ?9 mica1 are built up into a cyl9d]1 tightly clamp$ toge!r1 & turn$ 9 ! la!2 at ea* end a ,v-%ap$ groove is turn$1 & into ^! are fitt$ r+s ( micanite ( correspond+ section 7fig4 #ai72 ! :ole is !n slipp$ ov] a ca/ iron sleeve1 & at ei!r end /rong r+s are =c$ into ! ,v-%ap$ grooves "u great pressure & fix$ by a numb] ( closely-pit*$ tight5+ bolts4 ,9 dynamos driv5 by /eam-turb9es 9 :i* ! p]iph]al spe$ ( ! commutator is v high1 r+s ( /eel are frequ5tly %runk on ! surface ( ! commutator at ei!r end & at its c5tre4 ,b 9 e case ! copp] mu/ be entirely insulat$ f ! support+ body ( metal by ! int]position ( mica or micanite & ! prev5tion ( any movem5t ( ! sectors "u frequ5t & long-cont9u$ heat+ & cool+ calls = ! greate/ c>e 9 bo? ! design & ! manufacture4 ,=ms ( field-magnet4 ,on pass+ to ! second fundam5tal "p ( ! dynamo1 namely1 ! field-magnet1 its functions may be briefly recall$ z foll[s3--,x has to supply ! magnetic flux2 to provide = x an iron pa? z ne>ly clos$ z possible ^u ! armature1 save = ! air-gaps :i* mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! pole-sy/em & ! armature core1 ! "o /ation>y & ! o!r rotat+2 &1 la/ly1 x has to give ! l9es su* direction & int5sity )9 ! air-gaps t !y may be cut by ! armature wires to ! be/ advantage4 ,r\ghly correspond+ to ! ?ree functions above summ>iz$ are ! ?ree portions :i* are m or less diff]5tiat$ 9 ! complete /ructure4 ,^! are3 7#a7 ! magnet cores or limbs1 c>ry+ ! excit+ coils :]eby ! in]t iron is conv]t$ into an electro-magnet2 7#b7 ! yoke1 :i* jo9s ! limbs toge!r & conducts ! flux betwe5 !m2 & 7#c7 ! pole-pieces1 :i* face ! armature & transmit ! l9es f ! limbs ?r\gh ! air-gap to ! armature core1 or vice v]sa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,( ! c\ntless %apes :i* ! field-magnet may take1 x may be said1 )\t mu* exagg]ation1 t almo/ all h be5 tri$2 yet ^? :i* h prov$ economical & successful1 & h5ce h met ) g5]al adoption1 may be class$ "u a comp>atively small numb] ( types4 ,= bipol> ma*9es ! s+le horse-%oe 7fig4 #be71 :i* is ! l9eal successor ( ! p]man5t magnet employ$ 9 ! fir/ magneto-electric ma*9es1 0 =m]ly v l>gely us$4 ,x takes two pr9cipal =ms1 accord+ z ! pole-pieces & armature are above or b5ea? ! magnet limbs & yoke4 ,! ov]-type =m is be/ suit$ to small belt-driv5 dynamos1 :ile ! "u-type is admirably adapt$ to be directly driv5 by ! /eam-eng9e1 ! armature %aft be+ imm$iately c\pl$ to ! crank-%aft ( ! eng9e4 ,9 ! latt] case ! magnet mu/ be m\nt$ on non-magnetic supports ( gun-metal or z9c1 s z to hold x at "s di/ance away f ! iron b$plate :i* c>ries bo? eng9e & dynamo2 o!rwise a l>ge proportion ( ! flux :i* passes ?r\gh ! magnet limbs w\ld leak ?r\gh ! b$plate across f pole to pole )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! armature core1 & s w\ld n be cut by ! armature wires4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,next may be plac$ ! ,man*e/] field 7fig4 #bf7--! type ( a divid$ magnetic circuit 9 :i* ! flux =m+ "o field or pole is divid$ betwe5 two magnets4 ,an excit+ coil is plac$ on ea* half ( ! d\ble horse-%oe magnet1 ! pair be+ s w\nd t consequ5t poles are =m$ above & bel[ ! armature4 ,ea* magnet ?us c>ries "o-half ( ! total flux1 ! l9es ( ! two halves unit+ to =m a common field :]e !y issue =? into or leave ! air-gaps4 ,! pole-pieces may be light] ?an 9 ! s+le horse-%oe type1 & ! field is mu* m symmetrical1 :5ce x is well suit$ to r+ armatures ( l>ge diamet]4 ,yet ^! advantages are greatly disc\nt$ by ! excessive magnetic leakage1 & by ! increas$ weight ( copp] 9 ! excit+ coils4 ,ev5 if ! great] p]c5tage :i* ! leakage l9es be> to ! useful flux is neglect$1 & ! cross sectional area ( ea* magnet core is b half t ( ! equival5t s+le horse-%oe1 ! weight ( wire 9 ! d\ble magnet = ! same rise ( temp]ature 9 ! coils mu/ be "s #dj m ?an 9 ! s+le horse-%oe1 & ! rate at :i* en]gy is exp5d$ 9 heat+ ! coils w exce$ t ( ! s+le horse-%oe 9 ! same proportion4 ,?irdly comes ! two-pole ironclad type1 s call$ f ! excit+ coil be+ m or less encas$ by ! iron yoke2 ?is latt] is divid$ into two halves1 :i* pass on ei!r side ( ! armature4 ,unless ! yoke be kept well away f ! pol> edges & armature1 ! leakage across ! air into ! yoke becomes consid]able1 especially if only "o excit+ coil is us$1 z 9 fig4 #bg ,a2 x is bett]1 !re=e1 to divide ! excitation betwe5 two coils1 z 9 fig4 #bg ,b1 :5 ! field also becomes symmetrical4 ,f ?is =m is easily d]iv$ ! multipol> type ( fig4 #bh or fig4 #bi1 :i* is by f> ! mo/ usual = any numb] ( poles f f\r upw>ds2 its leakage coeffici5t is b small1 & x is economical 9 weight bo? ( iron & copp]4 ,mat]ials ( magnets4 ,z reg>ds ! mat]ials ( :i* magnets are made1 g5]ally speak+ !re is little diff]5ce 9 ! p]meability ( wr\ght iron or mild /eel =g+s & good ca/ /eel2 typical 7,b1 ,h7 curves connect+ ! magnetiz+ =ce requir$ ) diff]5t flux-d5sities = ^! mat]ials are giv5 "u ,,electromagnetism4 ,on ! o!r h& !re is a m>k$ inf]iority 9 ! case ( ca/ iron1 :i* = a flux-d5sity ( ,b #hjjj ,c4,g4,s4 l9es p] sq4 cm4 requires practically ! same numb] ( amp]e-turns p] c5timetre l5g? z /eel requires = ,b #af1jjj4 ,:atev] ! mat]ial1 if ! flux-d5sity be press$ to a high value ! amp]e-turns are v l>gely increas$ ow+ to its approa*+ saturation1 & ?is implies ei!r a l>ge am\nt ( copp] 9 ! field coils or an undue exp5diture ( electrical en]gy 9 _! excitation4 ,h5ce !re is a limit impos$ by practical consid]ations to ! d5sity at :i* ! magnet %\ld be work$1 & ?is limit may be plac$ at ab\t ,b #af1jjj = wr\ght iron or /eel1 & at half ?is value = ca/ iron4 ,= a giv5 flux1 !re=e1 ! ca/ iron magnet mu/ h twice ! sectional area & be twice z heavy1 al?\gh ?is disadvantage is p>tly comp5sat$ by its great] *eapness4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ca/ iron be us$ = ! portion ( ! magnetic circuit :i* is cov]$ ) ! excit+ coils1 ! fur!r disadvantage mu/ be add$ t ! weight ( copp] on ! field-magnet is mu* increas$1 s t x is usual to employ =g+s or ca/ /eel = ! magnet cores on :i* ! coils are w\nd4 ,if weight is n a disadvantage1 a ca/ iron yoke may be comb9$ ) ! wr\ght iron or ca/ /eel magnet cores4 ,an abs5ce ( jo9ts 9 ! magnetic circuit is only desirable f ! po9t ( view ( economy ( exp5se 9 ma*9+ ! compon5t p>ts dur+ manufacture2 :5 ! surfaces :i* abut aga9/ ea* o!r are drawn firmly toge!r by screws1 ! want ( homog5eity at ! jo9t1 :i* virtually am\nts to ! pres5ce ( a v ?9 film ( air1 produces little or no effect on ! total reluctance by comp>ison ) ! v mu* long] air-gaps surr\nd+ ! armature4 ,9 ord] to r$uce ! eddy-curr5ts 9 ! pole-pieces1 due to ! use ( too!d armatures ) relatively wide slots1 ! poles !mselves mu/ be lam9at$1 or mu/ h fix$ to !m lam9at$ pole-%oes1 built up ( ?9 /rips ( mild /eel rivet$ toge!r 7z %[n 9 fig4 #bi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,h[ev] x be built up1 ! me*anical /r5g? ( ! magnet sy/em mu/ be c>efully consid]$4 ,any two surfaces betwe5 :i* !re exi/s a field ( d5sity ,bg exp]i5ce a =ce t5d+ to draw !m toge!r proportional to ! squ>e ( ! d5sity1 & hav+ a value ( ,bg squ>$_/7#a4gce x #ajf7 lb4 p] sq4 94 ( surface1 ov] :i* ! d5sity may be reg>d$ z hav+ ! uni=m value ,bg4 ,h5ce1 q ap>t f ! torque ) :i* ! /ation>y "p ( ! dynamo t5ds to turn ) ! rotat+ "p z soon z curr5t is tak5 out ( ! armature1 !re exi/s a =ce t5d+ to make ! pole-pieces close on ! armature z soon z ! field is excit$4 ,s9ce bo? armature & magnet mu/ be capable ( resi/+ ?is =ce1 !y require to be rigidly held2 al?\gh ! "o or ! o!r mu/ be capable ( rotation1 !re %\ld o!rwise be no possibility ( "o "p ( ! magnetic circuit %ift+ relatively to any o!r "p4 ,an important conclusion may be drawn f ?is circum/ance4 ,if ! armature be plac$ exactly conc5tric )9 ! bore ( ! poles1 & ! two or m magnetic fields be symmetrical ab\t a l9e jo9+ _! c5tres1 !re is no t5d5cy = ! armature core to be drawn 9 "o direction m ?an 9 ano!r2 b if !re is any diff]5ce betwe5 ! d5sities ( ! sev]al fields1 x w cause an unbalanc$ /ress on ! armature & its %aft1 "u :i* x w b5d1 & z ?is b5d+ is cont9ually rev]s$ relatively to ! fibres ( ! %aft1 !y w ev5tually become weak5$ & give way4 ,especially is ?is likely to take place 9 dynamos ) %ort air-gaps1 :]e9 any diff]5ce 9 ! l5g?s ( ! air-gaps produces a mu* great] p]c5tage diff]5ce 9 ! flux-d5sity ?an 9 dynamos ) long air-gaps4 ,9 too!d armatures ) %ort air-gaps ! %aft mu/ on ?is acc\nt be suffici5tly /rong to )/& ! /ress )\t appreciable b5d+4 ,! magnetic circuit4 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made to ! importance 9 dynamo design ( ! pr$et]m9ation ( ! flux due to a giv5 numb] ( amp]e-turns w\nd on ! field-magnet1 or1 conv]sely1 ( ! numb] ( amp]e-turns :i* mu/ be furni%$ by ! excit+ coils 9 ord] t a c]ta9 flux correspond+ to "o field may fl[ ?r\gh ! armature core f ea* pole4 ,an equally important problem is ! correct proportion+ ( ! field-magnet1 s t ! useful flux ,za may be obta9$ ) ! greate/ economy 9 mat]ials & excit+ en]gy4 ,! key to ! two problems is to be f\nd 9 ! concept ( a magnetic circuit z orig9at$ by ,h4,a4 ,r[l& & ,r4,h4,m4 ,bosanquet2#af & ! full solution ( bo? may be especially connect$ ) ! "n ( ,dr ,j4 ,hopk9son1 f 8 practical application ( ! concept 9 8 design ( ! ,edison-,hopk9son ma*9e1 & 9 8 pap] on ,dynamo-,electric ,ma*9]y4#ag ,! publication ( ?is pap] 9 #ahhf beg9s ! second era 9 ! hi/ory ( ! dynamo2 x at once rais$ its design f ! level ( empirical rules-(-?umb to a sci5ce1 & is ?us wor?y to be rank$ z ! necess>y supplem5t ( ! orig9al discov]ies ( ,f>aday4 ,! process ( pr$et]m9+ ! necess>y amp]e-turns is describ$ 9 a simple case "u ,,electromagnetism4 ,9 its ext5sion to ! complete dynamo1 x consi/s m]ely 9 ! division ( ! magnetic circuit into su* portions z h ! same sectional area & p]meability & c>ry approximately ! same total flux2 ! diff]5ce ( magnetic pot5tial t mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! ends ( ea* section ( ! magnet 9 ord] t ! flux may pass ?r\gh x is !n calculat$ s]iatim = ! sev]al portions into :i* ! magnetic circuit is divid$1 & ! sep>ate items are summ$ up into "o magnetomotive =ce t mu/ be furni%$ by ! excit+ coils4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,! *ief sections ( ! magnetic circuit are 7#a7 ! air-gaps1 7#b7 ! armature core1 & 7#c7 ! iron magnet4 ,! air-gap ( a dynamo ) smoo?-core armature is p>tly fill$ ) copp] & p>tly ) ! cotton1 mica1 or o!r mat]ials us$ to insulate ! core & wires2 all ^! sub/ances are1 h[ev]1 s5sibly non-magnetic1 s t ! :ole int]f]ric gap betwe5 ! iron ( ! pole-pieces & ! iron ( ! armature may be treat$ z an air-space1 ( :i* ! p]meability is con/ant = all values ( ! flux d5sity1 & 9 ! ,c4,g4,s4 sy/em is unity4 ,h5ce if lg & ,ag be ! l5g? & area ( ! s+le air-gap 9 cm4 & sq4 cm41 ! reluctance ( ! d\ble air-gap is #blg_/,ag1 & ! diff]5ce ( magnetic pot5tial requir$ to pass ,za l9es ov] ?is reluctance is ,za4#blg_/,ag ,bg4#blg2 or1 s9ce "o amp]e-turn gives #a4beg ,c4,g4,s4 units ( magnetomotive =ce1 ! excit+ p[] 9 amp]e-turns requir$ ov] ! two air-gaps is ,xg ,bg4#blg_/#a4beg #j4h ,bg4#blg4 ,9 ! det]m9ation ( ! area ,ag small all[ance mu/ be made = ! fr+e ( l9es :i* ext5d beyond ! actual pol> face4 ,9 ! too!d armature ) op5 slots1 ! l9es are no long] uni=mly di/ribut$ ov] ! air-gap area1 b are graduat$ into alt]nate b&s ( d5se & weak induction correspond+ to ! tee? & slots4 ,fur!r1 ! l9es curve r\nd into ! sides ( ! tee?1 s t _! av]age l5g? ( pa? 9 ! air & ! air-gap reluctance is n s easily calculat$4 ,all[ance mu/ be made = ?is by tak+ an increas$ l5g? ( air-gap mlg1 :]e m is ! ratio maximum d5sity_/mean d5sity1 ( :i* ! value is *iefly det]m9$ by ! ratios ( ! wid? ( too? to wid? ( slot & ( ! wid? ( slot to ! air-gap betwe5 pole-face & surface ( ! armature core4 ,! armature core mu/ be divid$ into ! tee? & ! core prop] bel[ ! tee?4 ,ow+ to ! tap]+ section ( ! tee?1 ! d5sity rises t[>ds _! root1 & :5 ?is rea*es a high value1 su* z #ah1jjj or m l9es p] sq4 cm41 ! saturation ( ! iron aga9 =ces an increas+ proportion ( ! l9es outw>ds into ! slot4 ,a di/9ction mu/ !n be drawn betwe5 ! app>5t induction :i* w\ld hold if all ! l9es 7 conc5trat$ 9 ! tee?1 & ! real induction4 ,! area ( ! iron is obta9$ by multiply+ ! numb] ( tee? "u ! pole-face by _! wid? & by ! net l5g? ( ! iron core p>allel to ! axis ( rotation4 ,! latt] is ! gross l5g? ( ! armature less ! space lo/ ?r\gh ! insulat+ v>ni% or pap] betwe5 ! disks or ?r\gh ! pres5ce ( v5tilat+ ducts1 :i* are introduc$ at int]vals along ! l5g? ( ! core4 ,! =m] d$uction av]ages ab\t #g to #aj ( ! gross l5g?1 :ile ! latt]1 especially 9 l>ge multipol> ma*9es1 is an ev5 m important item4 ,alt] calculat+ ! d5sity at diff]5t sections ( ! tee?1 ref]5ce has n[ to be made to a 7,b1 ,h7 or flux-d5sity curve1 f :i* may be f\nd ! numb] ( amp]e-turns requir$ p] cm4 l5g? ( pa?4 ,?is numb] may be express$ z a function ( ! d5sity 9 ! tee?1 & f7,bt7 be its av]age value ov] ! l5g? ( a too?1 ! amp]e-turns ( excitation requir$ ov] ! tee? on ei!r side ( ! core z ! l9es ( "o field ent] or leave ! armature is ,xt f7,bt74#blt1 :]e lt is ! l5g? ( a s+le too? 9 cm4 ,9 ! core prop] bel[ ! tee? ! l5g? ( pa? cont9ually %ort5s z we pass f ! middle ( ! pole t[>ds ! c5tre l9e ( symmetry4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z ! l9es gradually accumulate 9 ! core1 _! d5sity increases f z]o midway "u ! poles until x rea*es a maximum on ! l9e ( symmetry4 ,! two effects p>tially c\nt]act "o ano!r1 & t5d to equalize ! diff]5ce ( magnetic pot5tial requir$ ov] ! pa?s ( v>y+ l5g?s2 b s9ce ! reluctivity ( ! iron increases m rapidly ?an ! d5sity ( ! l9es1 we may approximately take = ! l5g? ( pa? 7la7 ! m9imum p]iph]al di/ance betwe5 ! edges ( adjac5t pole-faces1 & !n assume ! maximum value ( ! d5sity ( ! l9es z hold+ ?r\gh\t ?is entire pa?4 ,9 r+ & drum ma*9es ! flux issu+ f "o pole divides into two halves 9 ! armature core1 s t ! maximum d5sity ( l9es 9 ! armature is ,ba ,za_/#b;ab1 :]e a ! radial dep? ( ! disks 9 c5timetres & b ! net l5g? ( iron core4 ,! total excit+ p[] requir$ betwe5 ! pole-pieces is !re=e1 at no load1 ,xp ,xg ,xt ,xa1 :]e ,xa f7,ba74la2 9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to all[ = ! effect ( ! armature curr5t1 :i* increases ) ! load1 a fur!r t]m ,xb1 mu/ be add$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo x may be1 & usually is1 necess>y to move ! bru%es =w>d f ! int]pol> l9e ( symmetry ?r\gh a small angle 9 ! direction ( rotation1 9 ord] to avoid sp>k+ betwe5 ! bru%es & ! commutator 7vide infra74 ,:5 ! dynamo is giv+ curr5t1 ! wires on ei!r side ( ! diamet] ( commutation =m a curr5t-%eet fl[+ along ! surface ( ! armature f end to end1 & :atev] ! actual end-connexions ( ! wires1 ! wires may be imag9$ to be jo9$ toge!r into a sy/em ( loops su* t ! two sides ( ea* loop are c>ry+ curr5t 9 opposite directions4 ,?us a numb] ( armature amp]e-turns are =m$1 & _! effect on ! entire sy/em ( magnet & armature mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,s long z ! diamet] ( commutation co9cides ) ! l9e ( symmetry1 ! armature may be reg>d$ z a cyl9drical electromagnet produc+ a flux ( l9es1 z %[n 9 fig4 #cj4 ,! direction ( ! self-induc$ flux 9 ! air-gaps is ! same z t ( ! l9es ( ! ext]nal field 9 "o quadrant on "o side ( ,,dc1 b oppos$ to x 9 ! o!r quadrant on ! same side ( ,,dc2 h5ce 9 ! resultant field due to ! comb9$ action ( ! field-magnet & armature amp]e-turns1 ! flux is z mu* /r5g!n$ ov] ! "o half ( ea* pol> face z x is weak5$ ov] ! o!r1 & ! total numb] ( l9es is unaffect$1 al?\gh _! di/ribution is alt]$4 ,! armature amp]e-turns are !n call$ cross-turns1 s9ce !y produce a cross-field1 :i*1 :5 comb9$ ) ! symmetrical field1 causes ! lead+ pole-corn]s ll to be weak5$ & ! trail+ pole-corn]s tt to be /r5g!n$1 ! neutral l9e ( z]o field be+ ?us twi/$ =w>ds 9 ! direction ( rotation4 ,b :5 ! bru%es & diamet] ( commutation are %ift$ =w>d1 z %[n 9 fig4 #ca1 x w be se5 t a numb] ( amp]e-turns1 =m+ a zone betwe5 ! l9es ,dn & m,c1 are 9 effect w\nd imm$iately on ! magnetic circuit prop]1 & ?is belt ( amp]e-turns is 9 direct opposition to ! amp]e-turns ( ! field1 z %[n by ! dott$ & cross$ wires on ! pole-pieces4 ,! armature amp]e-turns are !n divisible into ! two b&s1 ! back-turns1 includ$ )9 twice ! angle ( lead lambda1 weak5+ ! field1 & ! cross-turns1 b\nd$ by ! l9es ,dm1 n,c1 aga9 produc+ di/ortion ( ! weak5$ symmetrical field4 ,if1 !re=e1 a c]ta9 flux is to be pass$ ?r\gh ! armature core 9 opposition to ! demagnetiz+ turns1 ! diff]5ce ( magnetic pot5tial betwe5 ! pole-faces mu/ include n only ,xa1 ,xt1 & ,xg1 b also an item ,xb1 9 ord] to balance ! back amp]e-turns ( ! armature4 ,! am\nt by :i* ! bru%es mu/ be %ift$ =w>d increases ) ! armature curr5t1 & 9 correspond+ proportion ! back amp]e-turns are also increas$1 _! value be+ ctau#blambda_/#cfj deg41 :]e c ! curr5t c>ri$ by ea* ( ! tau active wires4 ,?us ! t]m ,xb1 takes into acc\nt ! effect ( ! armature reaction on ! total flux2 x v>ies z ! armature curr5t & angle ( lead requir$ to avoid sp>k+ are increas$2 & ! reason = its introduction 9 ! f\r? place 7,xp ,xg ,xt ,xa ,xb71 is t x increases ! magnetic diff]5ce ( pot5tial :i* mu/ exi/ betwe5 ! poles ( ! dynamo1 & to :i* ! great] "p ( ! leakage is due4 ,! leakage pa?s :i* are 9 p>allel ) ! armature across ! poles mu/ n[ be e/imat$1 & s a new value be d]iv$ = ! flux at ! comm5cem5t ( ! iron-magnet pa?4 ,if ,p _! jo9t p]meance1 ! leakage flux due to ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial at ! poles is zl #a4beg,xp x ,p1 & ?is mu/ be add$ to ! useful flux ,za1 or ,zp ,za ,zl4 ,!re are also c]ta9 leakage pa?s 9 p>allel ) ! magnet cores1 & ^u ! p]meance ( ^! a v>y+ numb] ( amp]e-turns is act+ z we proce$ along ! magnet coils2 ! magnet flux !re=e increases by ! addition ( leakage along ! l5g? ( ! limbs1 & f9ally rea*es a maximum ne> ! yoke4 ,ei!r1 !n1 ! d5sity 9 ! magnet ,bm ,zm_/,am w v>y if ! same sectional area be reta9$ ?r\gh\t1 or ! sectional area ( ! magnet mu/ itself be progressively increas$4 ,9 g5]al1 suffici5t accuracy w be obta9$ by assum+ a c]ta9 numb] ( additional leakage l9es zn z trav]s+ ! entire l5g? ( magnet limbs & yoke 7 lm71 s t ! d5sity 9 ! magnet has ! uni=m value ,bm 7,zp zn7_/,am4 ,! leakage flux add$ on actually )9 ! l5g? ( ! magnet core or zn w be approximately equal to half ! total ,m4,m4,f4 ( ! coils multipli$ by ! p]meance ( ! leakage pa?s ar\nd "o coil4 ,! correspond+ value ( ,h c !n be obta9$ f ! 7,b1 ,h7 curve ( ! mat]ial ( :i* ! magnet is compos$1 & ! amp]e-turns ?us det]m9$ mu/ be add$ to ,xp1 or ,x ,xp ,xm1 :]e ,xm f7,bm7lm4 ,! f9al equation = ! excit+ p[] requir$ on a magnetic circuit z a :ole w !re=e take ! =m ,x ,a,tau #j4h;,bg4#blg f7,bt7#blt f7,ba7la ,xb f7,bm7lm4 7#c7 ,if ! magnet cores are ( wr\ght iron or ca/ /eel1 & ! yoke is ( ca/ iron1 ! la/ t]m mu/ be divid$ into two portions correspond+ to ! diff]5t mat]ials1 i4e4 into f7,bm7lm f7,by7ly4 ,9 ! ord9>y multipol> ma*9e ) z _m magnet-coils z !re are poles1 ea* coil mu/ furni% half ! above numb] ( amp]e-turns4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,magnetic leakage4 ,s9ce no sub/ance is imp]meable to ! passage ( magnetic flux1 ! only =m ( magnetic circuit free f leakage is "o uni=mly w\nd ) amp]e-turns ov] its :ole l5g?4 ,! r$uction ( ! magnetic leakage to a m9imum 9 any giv5 type is !re=e prim>ily a "q ( di/ribut+ ! w9d+ z f> z possible uni=mly ^u ! circuit1 & z ! w9d+ mu/ be m or less conc5trat$ into coils1 x resolves itself into ! necessity ( introduc+ z long air-pa?s z possible betwe5 any surfaces :i* are at diff]5t magnetic pot5tials4 ,no iron %\ld be br\ght ne> ! ma*9e :i* does n =m "p ( ! magnetic circuit prop]1 & especially no iron %\ld be br\ght ne> ! poles1 betwe5 :i* ! diff]5ce ( magnetic pot5tial practically rea*es its maximum value4 ,9 default ( a ma*9e ( ! same size or simil> type on :i* to exp]im5t1 ! probable direction ( ! leakage flux mu/ be assum$ f ! draw+1 & ! air surr\nd+ ! ma*9e mu/ be mapp$ out into areas1 betwe5 :i* ! p]meances are calculat$ z closely z possible by means ( su* approximate =mulae z ^? devis$ by ,pr(essor ,g4 ,=bes4 ,excitation ( field-magnet4 ,9 ! e>lie/ magneto-electric ma*9es p]man5t /eel magnets1 ei!r simple or comp\nd1 7 employ$1 & = _m ye>s ^! 7 reta9$ 9 c]ta9 alt]nators1 "s ( :i* are /ill 9 use = arc light+ 9 ligh?\ses4 ,b s9ce ! field !y furni% is v weak1 a great advance 0 made :5 !y 7 replac$ by s(t iron electromagnets1 :i* c\ld be made to yield a mu* m int5se flux4 ,z e>ly z #ahca ,f>aday#ah exp]im5t$ ) electromagnets1 & aft] #ahej !y gradually sup]s$$ ! p]man5t magnet4 ,:5 ! total amp]e-turns requir$ to excite ! electromagnet h be5 det]m9$1 x rema9s to decide h[ ! excitation %all be obta9$2 &1 accord+ to ! me?od adopt$1 cont9u\s-curr5t ma*9es may be divid$ into f\r well-def9$ classes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,! simple/ me?od1 & t :i* 0 fir/ us$1 is sep>ate excitation f "s o!r s\rce ( direct curr5t1 :i* may be ei!r a prim>y or a second>y batt]y or ano!r dynamo 7fig4 #cb74 ,b s9ce ! armature yields a cont9u\s curr5t1 x 0 e>ly sugge/$ 7by ,j4 ,brett 9 #ahdh & ,f4 ,s9/$5 9 #ahea7 t ?is curr5t might be utiliz$ to increase ! flux2 comb9ations ( p]man5t & electromagnets 7 !re=e next employ$1 act+ ei!r on ! ma9 armature or on sep>ate armatures1 until 9 #ahfg ,dr ,w]n] von ,siem5s & ,sir ,c4 ,:eat/one almo/ simultane\sly discov]$ t ! dynamo c\ld be made self-excit+ ?r\gh ! residual magnetism reta9$ 9 ! s(t iron cores ( ! electromagnet4 ,! =m] propos$ to take ! :ole ( ! curr5t r\nd ! magnet coils :i* 7 9 s]ies ) ! armature & ext]nal circuit1 :ile ! latt] propos$ to utilize only a portion d]iv$ by a %unt f ! ma9 circuit2 we ?us arrive at ! second & ?ird classes1 namely1 s]ies & %unt ma*9es4 ,! />t+ ( ! process ( excitation 9 ei!r case is ! same2 :5 ! bru%es are t\*+ ! commutator & ! armature is rotat$1 ! small am\nt ( flux left 9 ! magnet is cut by ! wires1 & a v small curr5t beg9s to fl[ r\nd ! clos$ circuit2 ?is increases ! flux1 :i* 9 turn fur!r increases ! ,e4,m4,f4 & curr5t1 until1 f9ally1 ! cumulative effect /ops ?r\gh ! increas+ saturation ( ! iron cores4 ,fig4 #cc1 illu/rat+ ! s]ies ma*9e1 %[s ! w9d+ ( ! excit+ coils to be compos$ ( a few turns ( ?ick wire4 ,s9ce ! curr5t is undivid$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole circuit1 ! resi/ance ( bo? ! armature & field-magnet w9d+ mu/ be l[ z comp>$ ) t ( ! ext]nal circuit1 if ! useful p[] available at ! t]m9als ( ! ma*9e is to =m a l>ge p]c5tage ( ! total electrical p[]--9 o!r words1 if ! effici5cy is to be high4 ,fig4 #cd %[s ! ?ird me?od1 9 :i* ! w9d+ ( ! field-magnets is a %unt or f9e-wire circuit ( _m turns appli$ to ! t]m9als ( ! ma*9e2 9 ?is ease ! resi/ance ( ! %unt mu/ be high z comp>$ ) t ( ! ext]nal circuit1 9 ord] t only a small proportion ( ! total en]gy may be absorb$ 9 ! field4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,s9ce ! :ole ( ! armature curr5t passes r\nd ! field-magnet ( ! s]ies ma*9e1 any alt]ation 9 ! resi/ance ( ! ext]nal circuit w affect ! excitation & also ! voltage4 ,a curve connect+ toge!r correspond+ values ( ext]nal curr5t & t]m9al voltage = a giv5 spe$ ( rotation is kn[n z ! ext]nal-*>act]i/ic ( ! ma*9e2 9 its ma9 features x has ! same appe>ance z a curve ( magnetic flux1 b :5 ! curr5t exce$s a c]ta9 am\nt x beg9s to b5d d[nw>ds & ! voltage decreases4 ,! reason = ?is w be f\nd 9 ! armature reaction at l>ge loads1 :i* gradually produces a m & m p[]ful demagnetiz+ effect1 z ! bru%es are %ift$ =w>ds to avoid sp>k+2 ev5tually ! back amp]e-turns ov]p[] any addition to ! field t w\ld o!rwise be due to ! increas$ curr5t fl[+ r\nd ! magnet4 ,! ext]nal *>act]i/ic = a %unt ma*9e has an entirely diff]5t %ape4 ,! field-magnet circuit be+ connect$ 9 p>allel ) ! ext]nal circuit1 ! excit+ curr5t1 if ! appli$ voltage rema9s ! same1 is 9 no way affect$ by alt]ations 9 ! resi/ance ( ! latt]4 ,z1 h[ev]1 an increase 9 ! ext]nal curr5t causes a great] loss ( volts 9 ! armature & a great] armature reaction1 ! t]m9al voltage1 :i* is also ! excit+ voltage1 is highe/ at no load & !n dim9i%es4 ,! fall is at fir/ gradual1 b aft] a c]ta9 critical value ( ! armature curr5t is rea*$1 ! ma*9e is rapidly demagnetiz$ & loses its voltage entirely4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,! la/ me?od ( excitation1 namely1 comp\nd-w9d+ 7fig4 #ce71 is a comb9ation ( ! two prec$+1 & 0 fir/ us$ by ,s4,a4 ,v>ley & by ,c4,f4 ,bru%4 ,if a ma*9e is 9 ! fir/ in/ance %unt-w\nd1 & a c]ta9 numb] ( s]ies-turns are add$1 ! latt]1 s9ce !y c>ry ! ext]nal curr5t1 c be made to c\nt]act ! effect :i* ! increas$ ext]nal curr5t w\ld h 9 l[]+ ! voltage ( ! simple %unt ma*9e4 ,! amp]e-turns ( ! s]ies w9d+ mu/ be su* t !y n only balance ! increase ( ! demagnetiz+ back amp]e-turns on ! armature1 b fur!r increase ! useful flux1 & comp5sate = ! loss ( volts ov] _! own resi/ance & t ( ! armature4 ,! ma*9e w !n give = a con/ant spe$ a ne>ly con/ant voltage at its t]m9als1 & ! curve ( ! ext]nal *>act]i/ic becomes a /raight l9e = all loads )9 its capacity4 ,s9ce ) mo/ prime mov]s an increase ( ! load is accompani$ by a drop 9 spe$1 ?is effect may also be c\nt]act$2 :ile1 la/ly1 if ! s]ies-turns are /ill fur!r increas$1 ! voltage may be made to rise ) an increas+ load1 & ! ma*9e is ov]-comp\nd$4 ,commutation & sp>k+ at ! bru%es4 ,at ! initial mom5t :5 an armature coil is fir/ %ort-circuit$ by ! passage ( ! two sectors =m+ its ends "u ! contact surface ( a bru%1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( electromagnetic en]gy is /or$ up 9 its magnetic field z l9k$ ) ! amp]e-turns ( ! coil :5 c>ry+ its full %>e ( ! total armature curr5t4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( %ort-circuit ?is quantity ( en]gy has to be dissipat$ z ! curr5t falls to z]o1 & has aga9 to be re-/or$ z ! curr5t is rev]s$ & rais$ to ! same value1 b 9 ! opposite direction4 ,! p]iod ( %ort-circuit z fix$ by ! wid?s ( ! bru% & ( ! mica insulation betwe5 ! sectors1 & by ! p]iph]al spe$ ( ! commutator is extremely brief1 & only la/s on an av]age f 7#a_/bjj7? to 7#a_/ajjj7? ( a second4 ,! problem ( sp>kless commutation is !re=e prim>ily a "q ( our ability to dissipate & to re-/ore ! requir$ am\nt ( en]gy ) suffici5t rapidity4 ,an important aid t[>ds ! solution ( ?is problem is f\nd 9 ! effect ( ! v>y+ contact-resi/ance betwe5 ! bru% & ! surfaces ( ! lead+ & trail+ sectors :i* x cov]s4 ,z ! commutator moves "u ! bru%1 ! area ( contact :i* ! bru% makes ) ! lead+ sector dim9i%es1 & ! resi/ance betwe5 ! two rises2 conv]sely1 ! area ( contact betwe5 ! bru% & ! trail+ sector increases & ! resi/ance falls4 ,?is action t5ds automatically to br+ ! curr5t ?r\gh ea* sector into /rict proportionality to ! am\nt ( its surface :i* is cov]$ by ! bru%1 & s to keep ! curr5t-d5sity & ! loss ( volts ov] ! contacts uni=m & con/ant4 ,z soon z ! curr5t-d5sity 9 ! two portions ( ! bru% becomes unequal1 a great] am\nt ( heat is develop$ at ! commutator surface1 & ?is 9 ! fir/ place af=ds an additional outlet = ! dissipation ( ! /or$ en]gy ( ! coil1 :ile aft] rev]sal ( ! curr5t x is ! accompanim5t ( a re-/orage ( ! requir$ en]gy4 ,?is en]gy1 z well z t :i* is sp5t 9 heat+ ! coil1 c 9 fact1 9 default ( o!r s\rces1 be d]iv$ ?r\gh ! action ( ! unequal curr5t-d5sity f ! electrical output ( ! re/ ( ! armature w9d+1 & s only indirectly f ! prime mov]4 ,9 practice1 :5 ! normal contact-resi/ance ( ! bru%es is l[ relatively to ! resi/ance ( ! coil1 z is ! case ) metal bru%es ( copp] or brass gauze1 b little b5efit c be obta9$ f ! action ( ! v>y+ contact-resi/ance4 ,x ex]ts no appreciable effect until close t[>ds ! end ( ! p]iod ( %ort-circuit1 & !n only ) su* a high-curr5t-d5sity at ! trail+ edge ( ! leav+ sector t at ! mom5t ( p>t+ ! bru%-tip is fus$1 or its metal volatiliz$1 & sp>k+ has 9 fact set 94 ,) su* bru%es1 !n1 x becomes necess>y to call 9 ! aid ( a rev]s+ ,e4,m4,f4 impress$ ^u ! coil by ! magnetic field ?r\gh :i* x is mov+4 ,if su* a rev]s+ field comes into action :ile ! curr5t is /ill unrev]s$1 its ,e4,m4,f4 is oppos$ to ! direction ( ! curr5t1 & ! coil is !re=e driv+ ! armature =w>d z 9 a motor2 x ?us af=ds a ready means ( rapidly dissipat+ "p ( ! initial en]gy 9 ! =m ( me*anical "w in/ead ( z heat4 ,aft] ! curr5t has be5 rev]s$1 ! conv]se process sets 91 & ! prime mov] directly exp5ds me*anical en]gy n only 9 heat+ ! coil1 b also 9 /or+ up electromagnetic en]gy ) a rapidity dep5d5t ^u ! /r5g? ( ! rev]s+ field4 ,! requir$ direction ( ext]nal field c be obta9$ 9 ! dynamo by %ift+ ! bru%es =w>d1 s t ! %ort-circuit$ coil ent]s into ! fr+e ( l9es issu+ f ! lead+ pole-tip1 i4e4 by giv+ ! bru%es an angle ( lead4 ,an objection to ?is process is t ! ma9 flux is !reby weak5$ ow+ to ! belt ( back amp]e-turns :i* arises 7v4 supra74 ,a /ill great] objection is t ! am\nt ( ! angle ( lead mu/ be suit$ to ! value ( ! load1 ! corrective p[] ( copp] bru%es be+ v small if ! rev]s+ ,e4,m4,f4 is n closely adju/$ 9 proportion to ! armature curr5t4 ,on ?is acc\nt metal bru%es h be5 almo/ entirely sup]s$$ by c>bon m\ld$ into h>d blocks4 ,) ^!1 ow+ to _! high] specific contact-resi/ance1 a v consid]able rev]s+ effect c be obta9$ ?r\gh ! action ( unequal curr5t-d5sity1 & inde$ 9 fav\rable cases complete sp>klessness c be obta9$ ?r\gh\t ! entire range ( load ( ! ma*9e ) a fix$ position ( ! bru%es4 ,yet if ! "w :i* !y are call$ ^u to p]=m exce$s c]ta9 limits1 !y t5d to become ov]heat$ ) consequ5t gl[+ or sp>k+ at _! tips1 s t1 :]ev] possible1 x is advisable to re9=ce _! action by a c]ta9 am\nt ( rev]s+ field1 ! bru%es be+ set s t its /r5g? is r\ghly correct =1 say1 half load4 ,9 ! case ( dynamos driv5 by /eam-turb9es1 sp>kless commutation is especially difficult to obta9 ow+ to ! high spe$ ( rotation & ! v %ort space ( "t 9 :i* ! curr5t has to be rev]s$4 ,special rev]s+ poles !n become necess>y2 ^! are w\nd ) magnetiz+ coils 9 s]ies ) ! ma9 armature curr5t1 s t ! /r5g? ( field :i* !y yield is r\ghly proportional to ! curr5t :i* has to be rev]s$4 ,^! aga9 may be comb9$ ) a comp5sat+ w9d+ emb$d$ 9 ! pole-faces & c>ry+ curr5t 9 ! opposite direction to ! armature amp]e-turns1 s z to neutralize ! cross effect ( ! latt] & prev5t di/ortion ( ! resultant field4 ,heat+ effects4 ,f ! mom5t t a dynamo beg9s to run ) excit$ field1 heat is cont9u\sly g5]at$ by ! passage ( ! curr5t ?r\gh ! w9d+s ( ! field-magnet coils & ! armature1 z well z by ! action ( hy/]esis & eddy curr5ts 9 ! armature & pole-pieces4 ,:e!r ! s\rce ( ! heat be 9 ! field-magnet or 9 ! armature1 ! mass 9 :i* x orig9ates w cont9ue to rise 9 temp]ature until su* a diff]5ce ( temp]ature is e/abli%$ betwe5 itself & ! surr\nd+ air t ! rate at :i* ! heat is c>ri$ (f by radiation1 convection & conduction is equal to ! rate at :i* x is be+ g5]at$4 ,evid5tly1 !n1 ! temp]ature :i* any "p ( ! ma*9e atta9s aft] a prolong$ run mu/ dep5d on ! ext5t & effectiv5ess ( ! cool+ surface f :i* radiation takes place1 ^u ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( any curr5ts ( air set up by ! rotation ( itself or surr\nd+ p>ts1 & ^u ! pres5ce ( neighb\r+ masses ( metal to c>ry away ! heat by conduction4 ,9 ! field-magnet coils ! rate at :i* heat is be+ g5]at$ is easily det]m9$1 s9ce x is equal to ! squ>e ( ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh !m multipli$ by _! resi/ance4 ,fur!r1 ! magnet is usually /ation>y1 & only indirectly affect$ by draughts ( air due to ! rotat+ armature4 ,h5ce = ma*9es ( a giv5 type & ( simil> proportions1 x is n difficult to decide ^u "s me?od ( reckon+ ! cool+ surface ( ! magnet coils ,sc1 su* t ! rise ( temp]ature above t ( ! surr\nd+ air may be pr$ict$ f an equation ( ! =m t deg4 k,w_/,sc1 :]e ,w ! rate 9 watts at :i* heat is g5]at$ 9 ! coils1 & k is "s con/ant dep5d+ ^u ! exact me?od ( reckon+ _! cool+ surface4 ,z a g5]al rule ! cool+ surface ( a field-coil is reckon$ z equal to ! expos$ out] surface ( its wire1 ! influ5ce ( ! end flanges be+ neglect$1 or only tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! case ( v %ort bobb9s w\nd ) a consid]able dep? ( wire4 ,9 ! case ( ! rotat+ armature a simil> =mula mu/ be con/ruct$1 b ) ! addition ( a factor to all[ = ! increase 9 ! effectiv5ess ( any giv5 cool+ surface due to ! rotation caus+ convection curr5ts 9 ! surr\nd+ air4 ,only exp]im5t c det]m9e ! exact effect ( ?is1 & ev5 ) a giv5 type ( armature x is dep5d5t on ! numb] ( poles1 ea* ( :i* helps to break up ! air-curr5ts1 & s to dissipate ! heat4 ,= example1 9 two-pole ma*9es ) drum b>-armatures1 if ! cool+ surface be reckon$ z equal to ! cyl9drical ext]ior plus ! area ( ! two ends1 ! heat+ coeffici5t = a p]iph]al spe$ ( #aejj ft4 p] m9ute is less ?an half ( t = ! same armature :5 at re/4 ,a fur!r difficulty /ill meets ! design] 9 ! correct pr$et]m9ation ( ! total loss ( watts 9 an armature be=e ! ma*9e has be5 te/$4 ,x is made up ( ?ree sep>ate items1 namely1 ! copp] loss 9 ! armature w9d+1 ! loss by hy/]esis 9 ! iron1 & ! loss by eddy curr5ts1 :i* aga9 may be divid$ into ^? 9 ! armature b>s & end-connexions1 & ^? 9 ! core & its end-plates4 ,! two latt] items are bo? dep5d5t ^u ! spe$ ( ! ma*9e2 b :]eas ! hy/]esis loss is proportional to ! spe$ = a giv5 d5sity ( flux 9 ! armature1 ! eddy curr5t loss is proportional to ! squ>e ( ! spe$1 & ow+ to ?is diff]5ce1 ! "o loss c be sep>at$ f ! o!r by te/+ an armature at v>y+ spe$s4 ,?us = a giv5 rise ( temp]ature1 ! "q ( ! am\nt ( curr5t :i* c be tak5 out ( an armature at diff]5t spe$s dep5ds ^u ! proportion :i* ! hy/]esis & eddy watts be> to ! copp] loss1 & ! ratio 9 :i* ! effectiv5ess ( ! cool+ surface is alt]$ by ! alt]ation 9 spe$4 ,exp]im5tal data1 aga91 c alone decide ^u ! am\nt ( eddy curr5ts t may be expect$ 9 giv5 armatures1 & caution is requir$ 9 apply+ ! results ( "o ma*9e to ano!r 9 :i* any ( ! conditions1 su* z ! numb] ( poles1 d5sity 9 ! tee?1 proportions ( slot dep? to wid?1 c41 are radically alt]$4 ,x rema9s to add1 t ! rise ( temp]ature :i* may be p]mitt$ 9 any "p ( a dynamo aft] a prolong$ run is v g5]ally plac$ at ab\t #gj deg4 ,fahr4 above ! surr\nd+ air4 ,su* a limit 9 ord9>y conditions ( work+ leads to a f9al temp]ature ( ab\t #agj deg4 ,fahr41 beyond :i* ! durability ( ! insulation ( ! wires is liable to be injuri\sly affect$4 ,^u "s su* basis ! output ( a dynamo 9 cont9u\s work+ is rat$1 al?\gh = %ort p]iods (1 say1 two h\rs ! normal full-load curr5t ( a l>ge ma*9e may be exce$$ by "s #be )\t unduly heat+ ! armature4 ,uses ( cont9u\s curr5t dynamos4 ,= ! electro-deposition ( metals or ! electrolytic treatm5t ( ores a cont9u\s curr5t is a necessity2 b1 ap>t f su* use1 ! purposes f :i* ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo is well adapt$ are s num]\s t !y cov] ne>ly ! :ole field ( electrical eng9e]+1 ) "o important exception4 ,to meet ^! v>i\s uses1 ! pressures = :i* ! ma*9e is design$ are ( equally wide range2 = ! transmission ( p[] ov] long di/ances !y may be z high z #cjjj volts1 & = electrolytic "w z l[ z five4 ,ea* electrolytic ba?1 ) its leads1 requires on an av]age only "s f\r or five volts1 s t ev5 :5 sev]al are work$ 9 s]ies ! voltage ( ! dynamo seldom exce$s #fj4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! curr5t is l>ge & may am\nt to z mu* z f #ajjj to #ad1jjj amp]es1 necessitat+ ! use ( two commutators1 "o at ei!r end ( ! armature1 9 ord] to collect ! curr5t )\t excessive heat+ ( ! sectors & bru%es4 ,! field-magnets are inv>iably %unt-w\nd1 9 ord] to avoid rev]sal ( ! curr5t ?r\gh pol>ization at ! electrodes ( ! ba?4 ,= inc&esc5t light+ by gl[ lamps1 ! requirem5ts ( small isolat$ in/allations & ( c5tral /ations = ! di/ribution ( electrical en]gy ov] l>ge areas mu/ be di/+ui%$4 ,= ! light+ ( a private h\se or small factory1 ! dynamo giv+ f #e to #ajj kilo-watts ( output is commonly w\nd = a voltage ( #ajj1 & is driv5 by pulley & belt f a gas1 oil or /eam-eng9e2 or1 if approa*+ ! high] limit above m5tion$1 x is (t5 directly c\pl$ to ! crank-%aft ( ! /eam-eng9e4 ,if us$ 9 conjunction ) an accumulator ( second>y cells1 x is %unt-w\nd1 & mu/ give ! high] voltage necess>y to *>ge ! batt]y2 o!rwise x is comp\nd-w\nd1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! pressure on ! lamps con/ant "u all loads )9 its capacity4 ,! comp\nd-w\nd dynamo is likewise ! mo/ usual = ! light+ ( /eam%ips1 & is !n directly c\pl$ to its /eam-eng9e2 its output seldom exce$s #ajj kilo-watts1 at a voltage ( #ajj or #aaj4 ,= l>g] in/allations a voltage ( #bej is commonly us$1 :ile = c5tral-/ation "w1 economy 9 ! di/ribut+ ma9s dictates a high] voltage1 especially 9 connexion ) a ?ree-wire sy/em2 ! l>g] dynamos may !n give #ejj volts1 & be connect$ directly across ! two out] wires4 ,a pair ( small] ma*9es c\pl$ toge!r1 & ea* capable ( giv+ #bej volts1 are (t5 plac$ 9 s]ies across ! sy/em1 ) _! common junction connect$ to ! middle wire2 ! "o :i* at any "t is on ! side c>ry+ ! small] curr5t w act z a motor & drive ! o!r z a dynamo1 s z to balance ! sy/em4 ,! directly-c\pl$ /eam dynamo may be said to h practically displac$ ! belt- or rope-driv5 sets :i* 7 =m]ly common 9 c5tral /ations4 ,! g5]at+ units ( ! c5tral /ation are arrang$ 9 progressive sizes1 ris+ f1 x may be1 #bej or #ejj horse-p[] up to #gej or #ajjj1 or 9 l>ge t[ns to z mu* z #ejjj horse-p[]4 ,if = light+ only1 !y are usually %unt-w\nd1 ! regulation ( ! voltage1 to keep ! pressure con/ant on ! di/ribut+ sy/em "u ! gradual *anges ( load1 be+ effect$ by v>iable resi/ances 9 ! %unt circuit ( ! field-magnets4 ,g5]ators us$ = supply+ curr5t to electric tramways are commonly w\nd = #ejj volts at no load & are ov]-comp\nd$1 s t ! voltage rises to #eej volts at ! maximum load1 & ?us comp5sates = ! loss ( volts ov] ! transmitt+ l9es4 ,= arc light+ x 0 =m]ly usual to employ a class ( dynamo :i*1 f ! nature ( its con/ruction1 0 call$ an op5-coil ma*9e1 & :i* gave a unidirectional b pulsat+ curr5t4 ,( su* ma*9es ! ,bru% & ,?omson-,h\/on types 7 v widely us$2 _! ,e4,m4,f4 rang$ f #bjjj to #cjjj volts = work+ a l>ge numb] ( arcs 9 s]ies1 & by means ( special regulators _! curr5t 0 ma9ta9$ con/ant ov] a wide range ( voltage4 ,b z _! effici5cy 0 l[ & !y c\ld n be appli$ to any o!r purpose1 !y h be5 l>gely sup]s$$ 9 c5tral /ations by clos$-coil dynamos or alt]nators1 :i* c also be us$ = inc&esc5t light+4 ,9 cases :]e ! c5tral /ation is situat$ at "s di/ance f ! di/rict to :i* ! electric en]gy is to be suppli$1 voltages f #ajjj to #bjjj are employ$1 & ^! are trans=m$ d[n at c]ta9 di/ribut+ c5tres by cont9u\s-curr5t trans=m]s 7see ,,trans=m]s & ,,electricity ,,supply74 ,^! latt] ma*9es are 9 reality motor-driv5 dynamos1 & h5ce are also call$ motor-g5]ators2 ! armatures ( ! motor & dynamo are (t5 w\nd on ! same core1 ) a commutator at ei!r end1 ! "o to receive ! high-pressure motor curr5t1 & ! o!r to collect ! l[-pressure curr5t furni%$ by ! dynamo4 ,9 all l>ge c5tral /ations x is necess>y t ! dynamos %\ld be capable ( be+ run 9 p>allel1 s t _! outputs may be comb9$ on ! same omnibus b>s & !nce di/ribut$ to ! network ( fe$]s4 ,) simple %unt-w\nd ma*9es ?is is easily effect$ by c\pl+ toge!r t]m9als ( l sign :5 ! voltage ( ! two or m ma*9es are closely equal4 ,) comp\nd-w\nd dynamos n only mu/ ! ext]nal t]m9als ( l sign be c\pl$ toge!r1 b ! junctions ( ! bru% leads ) ! s]ies w9d+ mu/ be connect$ by an equaliz+ lead ( l[ resi/ance2 o!rwise1 %\ld ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( "o ma*9e = any reason fall bel[ ! voltage ( ! omnibus b>s1 !re is a dang] ( its pol>ity be+ rev]s$ by a back curr5t f ! o!rs ) :i* x is 9 p>allel4 ,ow+ to ! necess>y pres5ce 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo ( ! commutator1 ) its att5dant liability to sp>k+ at ! bru%es1 & fur!r1 ow+ to ! difficulty ( insulat+ ! rotat+ armature wires1 a pressure ( #cjjj volts has seldom be5 exce$$ 9 any "o cont9u\s-curr5t ma*9e1 & has be5 giv5 above z ! limit+ voltage ( ! class4 ,if !re=e x is requir$ to "w ) high] pressures 9 ord] to secure economy 9 ! transmitt+ l9es1 two or m ma*9es mu/ be c\pl$ 9 s]ies by connect+ toge!r t]m9als :i* are ( unlike sign4#ai ,! /ress ( ! total voltage may /ill fall on ! insulation ( ! w9d+ f ! body ( ! ma*9e2 h5ce = high-voltage transmission ( p[] ov] v long di/ances1 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo 9 c]ta9 po9ts yields 9 conv5i5ce to ! alt]nator4 ,9 ?is !re is no commutator1 ! armature coils may be /ation>y & c be m ?or\ghly insulat$1 :ile fur!r1 if x be ?\ght undesirable to design ! ma*9e = ! full transmitt+ voltage1 x is easy to w9d ! armature = a l[ pressure2 ?is c be subsequ5tly trans=m$ up to a high pressure by means ( ! alt]nat+-curr5t trans=m]1 :i* has /ation>y w9d+s & s high an effici5cy t b little loss arises f its use4 ,) ^! rem>ks1 ! transition may be made to ! full] discussion ( ! alt]nator4 ,alt]nators4 ,frequ5cy4 ,! frequ5cy employ$ 9 alt]nat+-curr5t sy/ems = di/ribut+ p[] & light v>ies betwe5 su* wide limits z #be & #acc2 yet 9 rec5t times ! t5d5cy has be5 t[>ds /&>d frequ5cies ( #be1 #ej & #ajj z a maximum4 ,high frequ5cies involve m copp] 9 ! magnet coils1 ow+ to ! great] numb] ( poles1 & a great] loss ( p[] 9 _! excitation1 b ! alt]nator z a :ole is some:at light]1 & ! trans=m]s are *eap]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 high frequ5cy may cause prejudicial effects1 due to ! inductance & capacity ( ! di/ribut+ l9es2 & 9 asyn*ron\s motors us$ on polyphase sy/ems ! increas$ numb] ( poles necess>y to obta9 reasonable spe$s r$uces _! effici5cy1 & is o!rwise disadvantage\s1 especially = small horse-p[]s4 ,a frequ5cy l[] ?an #dj is1 h[ev]1 n p]missible :]e arc light+ is to =m any consid]able portion ( ! "w & is to be effect$ by ! alt]nat+ curr5t )\t rectification1 s9ce bel[ ?is value ! eye c detect ! p]iodic alt]ation 9 ! light z ! c>bons alt]nately cool & become heat$4 ,?us = comb9$ light+ & p[] #ej or #fj are ! mo/ usual frequ5cies2 b if ! sy/em is design$ solely or *iefly = ! di/ribution ( p[]1 a /ill l[] frequ5cy is pref]able4 ,on ?is acc\nt #be 0 select$ by ! eng9e]s = ! ,niag>a ,falls p[] transmission1 aft] c>eful consid]ation ( ! problem1 & ?is frequ5cy has s9ce be5 widely adopt$ 9 simil> cases4 ,alt]nator con/ruction4 ,! mo/ usual type ( het]opol> alt]nator has an int]nal rotat+ field-magnet sy/em1 & an ext]nal /ation>y armature1 z 9 fig4 #aj4 ,! coils ( ! armature1 :i* mu/ = high voltages be heavily insulat$1 are !n n subject$ to ! additional /resses due to c5trifugal =ce2 & fur!r1 ! collect+ r+s :i* mu/ be atta*$ to ! rotat+ portion ne$ only transmit ! excit+ curr5t at a l[ voltage4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,! homopol> ma*9e possesses ! advantages t only a s+le excit+ coil is requir$1 :atev] ! numb] ( pol> projections1 & t bo? ! armature & field-magnet coils may be /ation>y4 ,f fig4 #h x w be se5 t x is n ess5tial t ! excit+ coil %\ld revolve ) ! int]nal magnet1 b x may be support$ f ! ext]nal /ation>y armature :ile /ill embrac+ ! c5tral "p ( ! rotor4 ,! ,e4,m4,f4 is set up 9 ! armature coils ?r\gh ! p]iodic v>iation ( ! flux ?r\gh !m z ! iron projections sweep pa/1 & ^! latt] may be lik5$ to a numb] ( keep]s1 :i* complete ! magnetic circuit4 ,f ! action ( ! rotat+ iron masses !y may also be consid]$ z ! induc+ elem5ts or inductors1 & ! homopol> ma*9e is !nce also kn[n z ! inductor alt]nator4 ,if ! end ( ! rotor m>k$ ,s 9 fig4 #h is split up into a numb] ( ,s pol> projections simil> to ! ,n poles1 a second set ( armature coils may be arrang$ opposite to !m1 & we obta9 an inductor alt]nator ) d\ble armature4 ,or ! pol> projections at ! two ends may be /agg]$1 & a s+le armature w9d+ be pass$ /raight ?r\gh ! armature1 z 9 fig4 #cf1 :i* %[s at ! side ! appe>ance ( ! revolv+ inductor ) its cr[n ( pol> projections 9 "o r+ opposite to ! gaps betwe5 ! pol> projections ( ! o!r r+4 ,b 9 spite ( its advantage ( ! s+le /ation>y excit+ coil1 ! inductor alt]nator has su* a high degree ( leakage1 & ! effect ( armature reaction is s detrim5tal 9 x1 t ! type has be5 gradually ab&on$1 & a return has be5 almo/ univ]sally made to ! het]opol> alt]nator ) int]nal poles radiat+ outw>ds f a circul> yoke-r+4 ,! con/ruction ( a typical ma*9e ( ?is class is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #cg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,s9ce ! field-magnet coils rotate1 !y mu/ be c>efully design$ to )/& c5trifugal =ce1 & are be/ compos$ ( flat copp] /rip w\nd on edge ) ?9 insulation betwe5 adjac5t lay]s4 ,! coil is secur$ by ! edges ( ! pole-%oes :i* ov]hang ! pole & tightly compress ! coil aga9/ ! yoke-r+2 ! only effect f c5trifugal =ce is !n to compress /ill fur!r ! flat turns ( copp] aga9/ ! pole-%oes )\t de=mation4 ,! poles are ei!r ( ca/ /eel ( circul> or oblong section1 bolt$ to ! rim ( ! yoke-r+1 or are built up ( ?9 lam9ations ( %eet /eel4 ,:5 ! p]iph]al spe$ is v high1 ! yoke-r+ w be ( ca/ /eel or may itself be built up ( %eet /eel lam9ations1 ?is mat]ial be+ reliable & easily te/$ to ensure its s\nd me*anical /r5g?4 ,if ! armature slots are op51 ! pole-pieces w 9 any case be lam9at$ to r$uce ! eddy curr5ts set up by ! v>iation ( ! flux-d5sity4 ,ow+ to ! great numb] ( poles#bj ( ! alt]nator :5 driv5 by a reciprocat+ /eam-eng9e1 ! diamet] ( its rotor is usually l>g] & its l5g? less ?an 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo ( correspond+ output4 ,! support ( ! armature core :5 ( l>ge diamet] is !re=e a m difficult problem1 s9ce1 ap>t f any magnetic /ra9s to :i* x may be subject$1 its own weight t5ds to de=m x4 ,! segm5tal core-disks are usually secur$ to ! int]nal circumf]5ce ( a circul> ca/ iron frame2 ! latt] has a box section ( consid]able radial dep? to give /iffness to x1 & ! disks are tightly clamp$ betwe5 int]nal flanges1 "o be+ a fix$ "p ( ! frame & ! o!r loose1 ) transv]se bolts pass+ "r ?r\gh f side to side 7fig4 #cg74 ,9 ord] to less5 ! weight ( ! /ructure & its exp5se 9 mat]ial1 ! ca/ iron frame has 9 "s cases be5 entirely disp5s$ )1 & brac$ tie-rods h be5 us$ to r5d] ! effective iron ( ! armature core-disks self-support+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,ow+ to ! high spe$ ( ! turbo-alt]nator1 its rotor calls = ! utmo/ c>e 9 its design to )/& ! effect ( c5trifugal =ce )\t any %ift+ ( ! excit+ coils1 & to secure a p]fect balance4 ,! appe>ance ( ! armature ( a typical ?ree-phase alt]nator is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ch1 :i* %[s a portion ( ! l[] half aft] removal ( ! field-magnet4 ,) op5 slots ! coils1 aft] be+ w\nd on =m]s to ! requir$ %ape1 are ?or\ghly impregnat$ ) insulat+ comp\nd1 dri$1 & aft] a fur!r wrapp+ ) sev]al lay]s ( insulat+ mat]ial1 f9ally press$ into ! slots toge!r ) a %eet ( lea!roid or flexible micanite4 ,! end-connexions ( ea* gr\p ( coils ( "o phase project /raight out f ! slots or are b5t upw>ds alt]nately ) ^? ( ! o!r phases1 s t !y may cle> "o ano!r 7fig4 #cg74 ,a wood5 w$ge driv5 into a groove at ! top ( ea* slot is (t5 us$ to lock ! coil 9 place4 ,) slots ne>ly clos$ at ! top1 ! coils are =m$ by h& by ?read+ ! wire ?r\gh tubes ( micanite or specially prep>$ pap] l9+ ! slots2 or ) s+le-turn loops1 /\t b>s ( copp] ( ,u-%ape c be driv5 ?r\gh ! slots & clos$ by sold]$ connexions at ! o!r end4 ,%ape ( ,e4,m4,f4 curve4 ,! fir/ exp]im5tal det]m9ation ( ! %ape ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve ( an alt]nator 0 made by ,j4 ,j\b]t 9 #ahhj4 ,a revolv+ contact-mak] *>g$ a cond5s] ) ! ,e4,m4,f4 produc$ by ! armature at a p>ticul> in/ant dur+ ea* p]iod4 ,! cond5s] 0 dis*>g$ ?r\gh a balli/ic galvanomet]1 & f ! measur$ ?r[ ! in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 c\ld be d$uc$4 ,! contact-mak] 0 !n %ift$ ?r\gh a small angle1 & ! in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 at ! new position correspond+ to a diff]5t mom5t 9 ! p]iod 0 measur$2 ?is process 0 repeat$ until ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve = a complete p]iod c\ld be trac$4 ,v>i\s modifications ( ! same pr9ciple h s9ce be5 us$1 & a =m ( oscillograph 7q4v47 has be5 p]fect$ :i* is well adapt$ = ! purpose ( trac+ ! curves bo? ( ,e4,m4,f4 & ( curr5t4 ,! ma*9e on :i* ,j\b]t c>ri$ out 8 exp]im5ts 0 a ,siem5s disk alt]nator hav+ no iron 9 its armature1 & x 0 f\nd t ! curve ( ,e4,m4,f4 0 practically id5tical ) a s9e curve4 ,! same law has also be5 f\nd to hold true = a smoo?-core r+ or drum armature1 b ! pres5ce ( ! iron core enables ! armature curr5t to produce great] di/ort+ effect1 s t ! curves "u load may v>y consid]ably f _! %ape at no load4 ,9 too!d armatures1 ! brok5 surface ( ! core1 & ! /ill great] reaction f ! armature curr5t1 may produce wide v>iations f ! s9e law1 ! g5]al t5d5cy be+ to give ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve a m peak$ =m4 ,! great conv5i5ce ( ! assumption t ! ,e4,m4,f4 obeys ! s9e law has l$ to its be+ v commonly us$ z ! basis = ! ma!matical analysis ( alt]nator problems2 b any d$uctions made f ?is premiss require to be appli$ ) caution if !y are likely to be modifi$ by a diff]5t %ape ( ! curve4 ,fur!r1 ! same alt]nator w give widely diff]5t curves ev5 ( ,e4,m4,f41 & /ill m s ( curr5t1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! ext]nal circuit to :i* x is connect$4 ,z w be expla9$ lat]1 ! phase ( ! curr5t relatively to ! ,e4,m4,f4 dep5ds n only on ! inductance ( ! alt]nator itself1 b also ^u ! inductance & capacity ( ! ext]nal circuit1 s t ! same curr5t w produce diff]5t effects accord+ to ! am\nt by :i* x lags or leads4 ,! "q z to ! relative advantages ( diff]5tly %ap$ ,e4,m4,f4 curves has l$ to mu* discussion1 b c only be answ]$ by ref]5ce to ! nature ( ! "w t ! alt]nator has to d--i4e4 :e!r x be arc light+1 motor driv+1 or inc&esc5t light+ ?r\gh trans=m]s4 ,! %ape ( ! ,e4,m4,f4 curve is1 h[ev]1 ( great importance 9 "o respect1 s9ce ^u x dep5ds ! ratio ( ! maximum in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 to ! effective value1 & ! insulation ( ! entire circuit1 bo? ext]nal & int]nal1 mu/ be capable ( )/&+ ! maximum ,e4,m4,f4 ,:ile ! maximum value ( ! s9e curve is root#b or #a4dad times ! effective value1 ! maximum value ( a ,lambda curve is #a4gcb times ! effective value1 s t = ! same effective ,e4,m4,f4 ! armature wires mu/ n only be m heavily insulat$ ?an 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo1 b also ! m peak$ ! curve ! bett] mu/ be ! insulation4 ,excitation4 ,s9ce an alt]nat+ curr5t _c be us$ = excit+ ! field-magnet1 rec\rse mu/ be _h to "s s\rce ( a direct curr5t4 ,?is is usually obta9$ f a small auxili>y cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo1 call$ an excit]1 :i* may be an entirely sep>ate ma*9e1 sep>ately driv5 & us$ = excit+ sev]al alt]nators1 or may be driv5 f ! alt]nator itself2 9 ! latt] case ! armature ( ! excit] is (t5 c\pl$ directly to ! rotat+ %aft ( ! alt]nator1 :ile its field-magnet is atta*$ to ! b$-plate4 ,al?\gh sep>ate excitation is ! m usual me?od1 ! alt]nator c also be made self-excit+ if a "p or ! :ole ( ! alt]nat+ curr5t is rectifi$1 & ?us conv]t$ into a direct curr5t4 ,qu>t]-phase alt]nators4 ,! g5]al idea ( ! polyphase alt]nator giv+ two or m ,e4,m4,f4's ( ! same frequ5cy1 b displac$ 9 phase1 has be5 already describ$4 ,! sev]al phases may be entirely indep5d5t1 & su* 0 ! case ) ! e>ly polyphase ma*9es ( ,gramme1 :o us$ f\r indep5d5t circuits1 & also 9 ! l>ge two-phase alt]nators design$ by ,j4,e4,h4 ,gordon 9 #ahhc4 ,if ! phases are ?us entirely sep>ate1 ea* requires two collector r+s & two wires to its ext]nal circuit1 i4e4 f\r 9 all = two-phase & six = ?ree-phase ma*9es4 ,! only advantage ( ! polyphase ma*9e z ?us us$ is t ! :ole ( ! surface ( ! armature core may be effici5tly cov]$ ) w9d+1 & ! output ( ! alt]nator = a giv5 size be !reby increas$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 also possible s to int]l9k ! sev]al circuits ( ! armature t ! necess>y numb] ( transmitt+ l9es to ! ext]nal circuits may be r$uc$1 & also ! weight ( copp] 9 !m = a giv5 loss 9 ! transmission4#ba ,! condition :i* obvi\sly mu/ be fulfill$1 = su* int]l9k+ ( ! phases to be possible1 is t 9 ! l9es :i* are to meet at any common junction ! algebraic sum ( ! in/antane\s curr5ts1 reckon$ z positive if away f su* junction & z negative if t[>ds x1 mu/ be z]o4 ,?us if ! phases be diagrammatically repres5t$ by ! relative angul> position ( ! coils 9 fig4 #ci1 ! curr5t 9 ! coils ,a & ,b diff]s 9 phase f ! curr5t 9 ! coils ,c & ,d by a qu>t] ( a p]iod or #ij deg42 h5ce if ! two wires b & d be replac$ by ! s+le wire bd1 ?is ?ird wire w s]ve z a common pa? = ! curr5ts ( ! two phases ei!r outw>ds or on _! return4 ,at any in/ant ! value ( ! curr5t 9 ! ?ird wire mu/ be ! vector sum ( ! two curr5ts 9 ! o!r wires1 & if ! %ape ( ! curves ( in/antane\s ,e4,m4,f4 & curr5t are id5tical1 & are assum$ to be s9usoidal1 ! effective value ( ! curr5t 9 ! ?ird wire w be ! vector sum ( ! effective values ( ! curr5ts 9 ! o!r wires2 9 o!r words1 if ! sy/em is balanc$1 ! effective curr5t 9 ! ?ird wire is root#b1 or #a4dad times ! curr5t 9 ei!r ( ! two out] wires4 ,s9ce ! curr5ts ( ! two phases d n rea* _! maximum values at ! same "t1 ! sectional area ( ! ?ird wire ne$ n be twice t ( ! o!rs2 9 ord] to secure maximum effici5cy by employ+ ! same curr5t d5sity 9 all ?ree wires1 x ne$ only be #dj great] ?an t ( ei!r ( ! out] wires4 ,! effective voltage betwe5 ! ext]nal leads may 9 ! same way be calculat$ by a vector diagram1 & ) ! above /> connexion ! voltage betwe5 ! out] pair ( wires a & c is root#b1 or #a4dad times ! voltage betwe5 ei!r ( ! out] wires & ! common wire bd4 ,next1 if ! f\r coils are jo9$ up into a cont9u\s helix1 j z 9 ! w9d+ ( a cont9u\s-curr5t ma*9e1 f\r wires may be atta*$ to equidi/ant po9ts at ! opposite ends ( two diamet]s at "r angles to ea* o!r 7fig4 #dj74 ,su* a me?od is kn[n z ! me% connexion1 & gives a p]fectly symmetrical f\r-phase sy/em ( di/ribution4 ,f\r collect+ r+s are necess>y if ! armature rotates1 & !re is no sav+ 9 copp] 9 ! transmitt+ l9es2 b ! importance ( ! arrangem5t lies 9 its use 9 connexion ) rot>y conv]t]s1 9 :i* x is necess>y t ! w9d+ ( ! armature %\ld =m a clos$ circuit4 ,if e ! effective voltage ( "o phase ,a1 ! voltage betwe5 any pair ( adjac5t l9es 9 ! diagram is e1 & betwe5 m & o or n & p is e root#b4 ,! curr5t 9 any l9e is ! resultant ( ! curr5ts 9 ! two phases connect$ to x1 & its effective value is c root#b1 :]e c is ! curr5t ( "o phase4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,?ree-phase alt]nators4 ,:5 we pass to ma*9es giv+ ?ree phases diff]+ by #abj deg41 ! same me?ods ( /> & me% connexion f9d _! analogies4 ,if ! curr5t 9 coil ,a 7fig4 #da7 is fl[+ away f ! c5tre1 & has its maximum value1 ! curr5ts 9 coils ,b & ,c are fl[+ t[>ds ! c5tre1 & are ea* ( half ! magnitude ( ! curr5t 9 ,a2 ! algebraic sum ( ! curr5ts is !re=e z]o1 & ?is w also be ! case = all o!r in/ants4 ,h5ce ! ?ree coils c be unit$ toge!r at ! c5tre1 & ?ree ext]nal wires are alone requir$4 ,9 ?is /> or ,y connexion1 if e be ! effective voltage ( ea* phase1 or ! voltage betwe5 any "o ( ! ?ree collect+ r+s & ! common connexion1 ! volts betwe5 any pair ( transmitt+ l9es w be ,e e root#c 7fig4 #da72 if ! load be balanc$1 ! effective curr5t ,c 9 ea* ( ! ?ree l9es w be equal1 & ! total output 9 watts w be ,w #c;,ce #c;,,ce_/root#c #a4gcb ,,ec1 or #a4gcb times ! product ( ! effective voltage betwe5 ! l9es & ! curr5t 9 any s+le l9e4 ,next1 if ! ?ree coils are clos$ ^u !mselves 9 a me% or delta fa%ion 7fig4 #db71 ! ?ree transmitt+ wires may be connect$ to ! junctions ( ! coils 7by means ( collect+ r+s if ! armature rotates74 ,! voltage ,e betwe5 any pair ( wires is evid5tly t g5]at$ by "o phase1 & ! curr5t 9 a l9e wire is ! resultant ( t 9 two adjac5t phases2 or 9 a balanc$ sy/em1 if c be ! curr5t 9 ea* phase1 ! curr5t 9 ! l9e wire beyond a collect+ r+ is ,c c root#c1 h5ce ! watts are ,w #c;c,e #c;,,ce_/root#c #a4gcb ,,ec1 z be=e4 ,?us any ?ree-phase w9d+ may be *ang$ ov] f ! /> to ! delta connexion1 & w !n give #a4gcb times z mu* curr5t1 b only #a_/a4gcb times ! voltage1 s t ! output rema9s ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,armature reaction 9 alt]nators ,! armature reaction ( ! alt]nator1 :5 ! t]m is us$ 9 its wide/ s5se to cov] all ! effects ( ! alt]nat+ curr5t 9 ! armature z l9k$ ) a magnetic circuit or circuits1 may be divid$ into ?ree items :i* are diff]5t 9 _! orig9 & consequ5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! armature curr5t produces a self-induc$ flux 9 local circuits indep5d5t ( ! ma9 magnetic circuit1 z e4g4 l9k$ ) ! ends ( ! coils z !y project outw>ds f ! armature core2 su* l9es may be call$ second>y leakage1 ( :i* ! *>act]i/ic feature is t its am\nt is indep5d5t ( ! position ( ! coils relatively to ! poles4 ,! alt]nations ( ?is flux give rise to an inductive voltage lagg+ #ij deg4 beh9d ! phase ( ! curr5t1 & ?is leakage or reactance voltage mu/ be directly c\nt]balanc$ electrically by an equal compon5t 9 ! opposite s5se 9 ! voltage f ! ma9 field4 ,! second & ?ird elem5ts are m imm$iately magnetic & are entirely dep5d5t ^u ! position ( ! coils 9 relation to ! poles & 9 relation to ! phase ( ! curr5t :i* !y !n c>ry4 ,:5 ! side ( a drum coil is imm$iately "u ! c5tre ( a pole1 its amp]e-turns are cross-magnetiz+1 i4e4 produce a di/ortion ( ! ma9 flux1 displac+ its maximum d5sity to "o or o!r edge ( ! pole4 ,:5 ! coil-side is midway betwe5 ! poles & ! axes ( coil & pole co9cide1 ! coil /&s exactly opposite to ! pole & embraces ! same magnetic circuit z ! field-magnet coils2 its turns are !re=e directly magnetiz+1 ei!r weak5+ or /r5g!n+ ! ma9 flux accord+ to ! direction ( ! curr5t4 ,9 int]m$iate positions ! amp]e-turns ( ! coil gradually pass f cross to direct & vice v]sa4 ,:5 ! in/antane\s values ( ei!r ! cross or direct magnetiz+ effect are integrat$ ov] a p]iod & av]ag$1 due acc\nt be+ tak5 ( ! numb] ( slots p] coil-side & ( ! diff]5t phases ( ! curr5ts 9 ! polyphase ma*9e1 expressions are obta9$ = ! equival5t cross & direct amp]e-turns ( ! armature z act+ ^u a pair ( poles4 ,= a giv5 w9d+ & curr5t1 ! det]m9+ factor 9 ei!r ! "o or ! o!r is f\nd to be ! relative phase angle betwe5 ! axis ( a coil 9 its position :5 c>ry+ ! maximum curr5t & ! c5tre ( a pole1 ! transv]se reaction be+ proportional to ! cos9e ( ?is angle1 & ! direct reaction to its s9e4 ,if ! ext]nal circuit is inductive1 ! maximum value ( ! curr5t lags beh9d ! ,e4,m4,f4 & s beh9d ! c5tre ( ! pole2 su* a negative angle ( lag causes ! direct magnetiz+ turns to become back turns1 directly weak5+ ! ma9 field & l[]+ ! t]m9al voltage4 ,?us1 j z 9 ! cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo1 = a giv5 voltage "u load ! excitation betwe5 ! pole-pieces ,xp mu/ n only supply ! net excitation requir$ ov] ! air-gaps1 armature core & tee?1 b mu/ also balance ! back amp]e-turns ,xb ( ! armature4 ,evid5tly !re=e ! *>act]i/ic curve connect+ armature curr5t & t]m9al volts w ) a con/ant excit+ curr5t dep5d on ! nature ( ! load1 :e!r inductive or non-inductive1 & ^u ! am\nt ( inductance already possess$ by ! armature itself4 ,) an inductive load x w fall m rapidly f its initial maximum value1 or1 conv]sely1 if ! initial voltage is to be ma9ta9$ "u an increas+ load1 ! excit+ curr5t w h to be increas$ m ?an if ! load 7 non-inductive4 ,9 practical work+ _m disadvantages result f a rapid drop ( ! t]m9al ,e4,m4,f4 "u increas+ load1 s t betwe5 no load & full load ! v>iation 9 t]m9al voltage ) con/ant excitation %\ld n exce$ #ae4 ,?us ! output ( an alt]nator is limit$ ei!r by its heat+ or by its armature reaction1 j z is ! output ( a cont9u\s-curr5t dynamo2 9 ! case ( ! alt]nator1 h[ev]1 ! limit set by armature reaction is n due to any sp>k+ at ! bru%es1 b to ! drop 9 t]m9al voltage z ! curr5t is increas$1 & ! consequ5t difficulty 9 ma9ta9+ a con/ant pot5tial on ! ext]nal circuit4 ,! c\pl+ ( alt]nators4 ,! jo9t op]ation ( sev]al alt]nators s t _! outputs may be deliv]$ into ! same ext]nal circuit is %>ply di/+ui%$ f ! correspond+ problem 9 cont9u\s-curr5t dynamos by ! necess>y condition t !y mu/ be 9 syn*ronism1 i4e4 n only mu/ !y be s driv5 t _! frequ5cy is ! same1 b _! ,e4,m4,f4's mu/ be 9 phase or1 z x is also express$1 ! ma*9es mu/ be 9 /ep4 ,al?\gh 9 practice x is impossible to run two alt]nators 9 s]ies unless !y are rigidly c\pl$ toge!r--:i* virtually r$uces !m to "o ma*9e--two or m ma*9es c be run 9 p>allel1 z 0 fir/ describ$ by ,h4 ,wilde 9 #ahfh & subsequ5tly r$emon/rat$ by ,j4 ,hopk9son & ,w4,g4 ,adams 9 #ahhd4 ,_! ,e4,m4,f4's %\ld be z ne>ly z possible 9 syn*ronism1 b1 z contra/$ ) s]ies connexion1 p>allel c\pl+ gives !m a c]ta9 p[] ( recov]y if !y fall out ( /ep1 or are n 9 exact syn*ronism :5 ?r[n into p>allel4 ,9 su* circum/ances a syn*roniz+ curr5t passes betwe5 ! two ma*9es1 due to ! diff]5ce 9 _! in/antane\s pressures2 & z ?is curr5t agrees 9 phase m ne>ly ) ! lead+ ?an ) ! lagg+ ma*9e1 ! =m] ma*9e does "w z a g5]ator on ! latt] z a motor4 ,h5ce ! lagg+ ma*9e is accel]at$ & ! lead+ ma*9e is ret>d$1 until _! frequ5cies & phase are aga9 ! same4 ,uses ( alt]nators4 ,! *ief use ( ! alt]nator has already be5 allud$ to4 ,s9ce x c be employ$ to produce v high pressures ei!r directly or ?r\gh ! m$ium ( trans=m]s1 x is specially adapt$ to ! electrical transmission ( en]gy ov] long di/ances4#bb ,9 ! e>ly days ( electric light+1 ! alt]nate-curr5t sy/em 0 adopt$ = a great numb] ( c5tral /ations2 ! ma*9es1 design$ to give a pressure ( #bjjj volts1 suppli$ trans=m]s :i* 7 situat$ at consid]able di/ances & spread ov] l>ge areas1 )\t an undue am\nt ( copp] 9 ! transmitt+ l9es4 ,:ile !re 0 lat] a t5d5cy to return to ! cont9u\s curr5t = c5tral /ations1 ow+ to ! introduction ( bett] means = economiz+ ! weight ( copp] 9 ! ma9s1 ! alt]nat+ curr5t aga9 came into fav\r1 z r5d]+ x possible to place ! c5tral /ation 9 "s conv5i5t site f> away f ! di/rict :i* x 0 to s]ve4 ,! pione] c5tral /ation 9 ?is direction 0 ! ,dept=d /ation ( ! ,london ,electric ,supply ,corporation1 :i* furni%$ curr5t to ! he>t ( ,london f a di/ance ( #g m4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! alt]nators 7 s+le-phase & gave ! high pressure ( #aj1jjj volts imm$iately1 :ile m rec5tly ! t5d5cy has be5 to employ /ep-up trans=m]s & a polyphase sy/em4 ,! advantage ( ! latt] is t ! curr5t1 aft] rea*+ ! di/ant sub-/ations1 c be dealt ) by rot>y conv]t]s1 ?r\gh :i* x is trans=m$ into a cont9u\s curr5t4 ,! alt]nator is also us$ = weld+1 smelt+ 9 electric furnaces1 & o!r metallurgical processes :]e heat+ effects are alone requir$2 ! l>ge curr5ts ne$$ !re9 c be produc$ )\t ! disadvantage ( ! commutator1 &1 if necess>y1 trans=m]s c be int]pos$ to l[] ! voltage & /ill fur!r increase ! curr5t4 ,! alt]nat+ sy/em c ?us meet v v>i\s ne$s1 & its great recomm5dation may be said to lie 9 ! flexibility ) :i* x c supply electrical en]gy ?r\gh trans=m]s at any pot5tial1 or ?r\gh rot>y conv]t]s 9 cont9u\s-curr5t =m4 ,,au?orities4--,= ! fur!r /udy ( ! dynamo1 ! foll[+ may be consult$1 9 addition to ! ref]5ces already giv53-- ,g5]al3 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson1 ,dynamo-,electric ,ma*9]y--,cont9u\s-,curr5t ,ma*9es 7#aijd71 ,alt]nat+-,curr5t ,ma*9]y 7#aije1 ,london72 ,g4 ,kapp1 ,dynamos1 ,alt]nators & ,trans=m]s 7,london1 #ahic72 ,id41 ,electric ,transmission ( ,en]gy 7,london1 #ahid72 ,id41 ,dynamo ,con/ruction2 ,electrical & ,me*anical 7,london1 #ahii72 ,h4,f4 ,p>%all & ,h4,m4 ,hob>t1 ,electric ,g5]ators 7,london1 #aijj72 ,c4,c4 ,hawk9s & ,f4 ,wallis1 ,! ,dynamo 7,london1 #aijc72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,kon/ruktion/afeln fu] d5 ,dynamobau 7,/uttg>t1 #aijb72 ,c4,p4 ,/e9metz1 ,elem5ts ( ,electrical ,eng9e]+ 7,new ,york1 #aija74 ,cont9u\s-,curr5t ,dynamos3 ,j4 ,fis*]-,h9n51 ,cont9u\s-,curr5t ,dynamos 7,london1 #ahii72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,die ,glei*/rommas*9e 7,b]l91 #aijb72 ,f4 ,nie?amm]1 ,b]e*nung und ,kon/ruktion d] ,glei*/rommas*95 und ,glei*/rommotor5 7,/uttg>t1 #aijd74 ,alt]nators3 ,d4,c4 ,jackson & ,j4,p4 ,jackson1 ,alt]nat+ ,curr5ts & ,alt]nat+ ,curr5t ,ma*9]y 7,new ,york1 #aijc72 ,j4,a4 ,flem+1 ,! ,alt]nate ,curr5t ,trans=m] 7,london1 #ahii72 ,c4,p4 ,/e9metz1 ,alt]nat+ ,curr5t ,ph5om5a 7,new ,york1 #aijj72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,die ,we*sel/romte*nik 7,b]l91 #aijd72 ,s4,p4 ,?ompson1 ,polyphase ,electric ,curr5ts 7,london1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,/ew>t1 ,mod]n ,polyphase ,ma*9]y 7,london1 #aijf72 ,m4 ,oud91 ,/&>d ,polyphase ,app>atus & ,sy/ems 7,new ,york1 #aijd74 7,c4 ,c4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,exp]im5tal ,rese>*es 9 ,electricity1 s]ies ii4 ,sec4 #f1 p>s4 #bef1 #bei-bfj1 & s]ies xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd4 #b ,ibid4 s]ies i4 ,sec4 #d1 p>s4 #hd-ij4 #c ,on ! ,physical ,l9es ( ,magnetic ,=ce1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,june #aheb4 #d ,f>aday1 ,exp4 ,res4 s]ies xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd1 p>s4 #cajd1 #caad-caae4 #e ,id41 ib4 s]ies i4 ,sec4 #d1 p>s4 #aad-aai4 #f ,id41 ib4 s]ies ii4 ,sec4 #f1 p>s4 #baa1 #bac2 s]ies xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd1 p>4 #caeb4 #g ,inv5t$ by ,nikola ,tesla 7,elec4 ,eng4 vol4 xiii4 p4 #hc4 ,cf4 ,brit4 ,pat4 ,spec4 ,nos4 #bhja & #bhab1 #ahid74 ,sev]al e>ly inv5tors1 e4g4 ,salvatore dal ,negro 9 #ahcb 7,phil4 ,mag4 ?ird s]ies1 vol4 i4 p4 #de71 adopt$ reciprocat+ or oscillatory motion1 & ?is 0 aga9 tri$ by ,edison 9 #ahgh4 #h ,! advantage to be obta9$ by mak+ ! poles closely embrace ! armature core 0 fir/ realiz$ by ,dr ,w]n] von ,siem5s 9 8 %uttle-w\nd armature 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #bajg1 #ahef74 #i ,nuovo ,cim5to 7#ahfe71 #ai1 #cgh4 #aj ,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #affh 7#ahgj72 ,comptes r5dus 7#ahga71 #gc1 #age4 #aa ,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 l4 #cbb4 #ab ,ibid4 li4 #gf4 ,s9ce 9 ,h4 ,pixii's ma*9e ! armature 0 /ation>y1 :ile bo? magnet & commutator rotat$1 f\r bru%es 7 us$1 & ! arrangem5t 0 n s simple z ! split-r+ describ$ above1 al?\gh ! result 0 ! same4 ,j4 ,saxton's ma*9e 7#ahcc7 & ,e4,m4 ,cl>ke's ma*9e 7#ahce1 see ,/urgeon's ,annals ( ,electricity1 i4 #ade7 7 simil> to "o ano!r 9 t a unidirect$ curr5t 0 obta9$ by utiliz+ e alt]nate half-wave ( ,e4,m4,f41 b ! =m] /ill employ$ m]cury collect+ cups1 :ile ! latt] employ$ metal bru%es4 ,w4 ,/urgeon 9 #ahce foll[$ ,pixii 9 utiliz+ ! entire wave ( ,e4,m4,f41 & ab&on$ ! m]cury cups 9 fav\r ( metal bru%es press+ on f\r semicircul> disks 7,sci5tific ,rese>*es1 p4 #beb74 ,! simple split-r+ is describ$ by ,sir ,c4 ,:eat/one & ,sir ,w4,f4 ,cooke 9 _! ,pat5t ,no4 #hcde 7#ahdj74 #ac ,by ! lead+ side ( ! too? or ( an armature coil or sector is to be und]/ood t side :i* fir/ ent]s "u a pole aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! int]pol> gap1 & ! edge ( ! pole "u :i* x ent]s is "h t]m$ ! lead+ edge z oppos$ to ! trail+ edge or corn] f "u :i* a too? or coil em]ges into ! gap betwe5 ! poles2 cf4 fig4 #cj1 :]e ! lead+ & trail+ pole-corn]s are m>k$ ll & tt4 #ad ,su* 0 ! arrangem5t ( ,:eat/one's ma*9e 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ijbb7 ( #ahda1 :i* 0 ! fir/ to give a m ne>ly cont9u\s curr5t1 ! numb] ( sections & split-r+s be+ five4 #ae ,its developm5t f ! split-r+ 0 due to ,pac9otti & ,gramme 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #affh1 #ahgj7 9 connexion ) _! r+ armatures4 #af ,& ext5d$ by ,g4 ,kapp1 ,on ,mod]n ,cont9u\s-,curr5t ,dynamo-,electric ,ma*9es1 ,proc4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 vol4 lxxxiii4 p4 #acf4 #ag ,drs ,j4 & ,e4 ,hopk9son1 ,dynamo-,electric ,ma*9]y1 ,phil4 ,trans41 ,may #f1 #ahhf2 ?is 0 fur!r exp&$ 9 a second pap] on ,dynamo-,electric ,ma*9]y1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,feb4 #ae1 #ahib1 & bo? are repr9t$ 9 ,orig9al ,pap]s on ,dynamo-,ma*9]y & ,alli$ ,subjects4 #ah ,exp4 ,res41 s]ies i4 ,sec4 #d1 p>4 #aaa4 ,9 #ahde ,:eat/one & ,cooke pat5t$ ! use ( voltaic magnets 9 place ( p]man5t magnets 7,no4 #aj1fee74 #ai ,betwe5 ,m\ti]s & ,lyons1 a di/ance ( #aae m41 en]gy is transmitt$ on ! ,?ury direct-curr5t sy/em at a maximum pressure ( #fj1jjj volts4 ,f\r gr\ps ( ma*9es 9 s]ies are employ$1 ea* gr\p consi/+ ( f\r ma*9es 9 s]ies2 ! rat$ output ( ea* compon5t ma*9e is #ge amp]es at #cijj volts or #djj h4p4 ,a wat] turb9e drives two pairs ( su* ma*9es ?r\gh an insulat+ c\pl+1 & ! sub-base ( ea* pair ( ma*9es is sep>ately insulat$ f e>?1 ! f\ndation be+ also ( special insulat+ mat]ials4 #bj ,= exp]im5ts on high-frequ5cy curr5ts1 ,nikola ,tesla con/ruct$ an alt]nator hav+ #chd poles & giv+ a frequ5cy ( ab\t #aj1jjj 7,j\rn4 ,in/4 ,elec4 ,eng4 #ahib1 #ba1 p4 #hb74 ,! opposite extreme is f\nd 9 alt]nators directly c\pl$ to ! ,p>sons /eam-turb9e1 9 :i*1 ) a spe$ ( #cjjj revs4 p] m941 only two poles are requir$ to give a frequ5cy ( #ej4 ,by a comb9ation ( a ,p>sons /eam-turb9e runn+ at #ab1jjj revs4 p] m94 ) an alt]nator ( #adj poles a frequ5cy ( #ad1jjj has be5 obta9$ 7,eng9e]+1 #be? ( ,augu/ #ahii74 ,= description ( an exp]im5tal ma*9e = #aj1jjj cycles p] second :5 runn+ at #cjjj revs4 p] m941 see ,trans4 ,am]4 ,in/4 ,elect4 ,eng4 vol4 xxiii4 p4 #dag4 #ba ,z 9 ! hi/orical transmission ( en]gy f ,lauff5 to ,frank=t 7#ahia74 #bb ,9 ! pione] ?ree-phase transmission betwe5 ,lauf5 & ,frank=t 7,electrician1 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #fcg1 & xxvii4 p4 #edh71 ! ?ree-phase curr5t 0 trans=m$ up f ab\t #ee to #hejj volts1 ! di/ance be+ #aaj m4 ,a l>ge numb] ( in/allations driv5 by wat] p[] are n[ at "w1 9 :i* en]gy is transmitt$ on ! alt]nat+-curr5t sy/em ov] di/ances ( ab\t #ajj m4 at pressures rang+ f #bj1jjj to #fg1jjj volts4 ,,dynamomet] 7,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 /r5g?1 & ,greek3 metron1 a measure71 an in/rum5t = measur+ =ce ex]t$ by m51 animals & ma*9es4 ,! "n has be5 appli$ g5]ally to all k9ds ( in/rum5ts us$ 9 ! measurem5t ( a =ce1 z = example electric dynamomet]s1 b ! t]m specially d5otes app>atus us$ 9 connexion ) ! measurem5t ( "w1 or 9 ! measurem5t ( ! horse-p[] ( eng9es & motors4 ,if ,p repres5t ! av]age value ( ! compon5t ( a =ce 9 ! direction ( ! displacem5t1 s1 ( its po9t ( application1 ! product ,ps measures ! "w done dur+ ! displacem5t4 ,:5 ! =ce acts on a body free to turn ab\t a fix$ axis only1 x is conv5i5t to express ! "w done by ! trans=m$ product ,t!ta1 :]e ,t is ! av]age turn+ mom5t or torque act+ to produce ! displacem5t !ta radians4 ,! app>atus us$ to measure ,p or ,t is ! dynamomet]4 ,! factors s or !ta are obs]v$ indep5d5tly4 ,app>atus is add$ to "s dynamomet]s by means ( :i* a curve %[+ ! v>iations ( ,p on a di/ance base is drawn automatically1 ! area ( ! diagram repres5t+ ! "w done2 ) o!rs1 integrat+ app>atus is comb9$1 f :i* ! "w done dur+ a giv5 int]val may be read (f directly4 ,x is conv5i5t to di/+ui% betwe5 absorption & transmission dynamomet]s4 ,9 ! fir/ k9d ! "w done is conv]t$ into heat2 9 ! second x is transmitt$1 aft] measurem5t1 = use4 ,absorption ,dynamomet]s4--,b>on ,prony's dynamomet] 7,ann4 ,*im4 ,phys4 #ahba1 vol4 #ai71 :i* has be5 modifi$ 9 v>i\s ways1 consi/s 9 its orig9al =m ( two symmetrically %ap$ timb] beams clamp$ to ! eng9e-%aft4 ,:5 ^! are held f turn+1 _! frictional resi/ance may be adju/$ by means ( nuts on ! screw$ bolts :i* hold !m toge!r until ! %aft revolves at a giv5 spe$4 ,to promote smoo?ness ( action1 ! rubb+ surfaces are lubricat$4 ,a weight is mov$ along ! arm ( "o ( ! beams until x j keeps ! brake /eady midway betwe5 ! /ops :i* mu/ be provid$ to hold x :5 ! weight fails to d s4 ,! g5]al !ory ( ?is k9d ( brake is z foll[s3-,let ,f be ! :ole frictional resi/ance1 r ! common radius ( ! rubb+ surfaces1 ,w ! =ce :i* holds ! brake f turn+ & ^: l9e ( action is at a p]p5dicul> di/ance ,r f ! axis ( ! %aft1 ,n ! revolutions ( ! %aft p] m9ute1 omega its angul> velocity 9 radians p] second2 !n1 assum+ t ! adju/m5ts are made s t ! eng9e runs /eadily at a uni=m spe$1 & t ! brake is held /ill1 cle> ( ! /ops & )\t oscillation1 by ,w1 ! torque ,t ex]t$ by ! eng9e is equal to ! frictional torque ,fr act+ at ! brake surfaces1 & ?is is measur$ by ! /atical mom5t ( ! weight ,w ab\t ! axis ( revolution2 t is-- ,t ,fr ,,wr4 7#a7 ,h5ce ,,wr measures ! torque ,t4 ,if m ?an "o =ce be appli$ to hold ! brake f turn+1 ,fr1 & !re=e ,t1 are measur$ by ! algebraical sum ( _! individual mom5ts ) respect to ! axis4 ,if ! brake is n balanc$1 its mom5t ab\t ! axis mu/ be includ$4 ,!re=e1 q g5]ally1 ,t ,sigma,,wr4 7#b7 ,! factor !ta ( ! product ,t!ta is f\nd by means ( a revolution c\nt]4 ,! p[] ( a motor is measur$ by ! rate at :i* x works1 & ?is is express$ by ,tomega ,t#bpi,n_/#fj 9 foot-p\nds p] second1 or ,t#bpi,n_/#cc1jjj 9 horse-p[] units4 ,! latt] is commonly ref]r$ to z ! brake horse-p[]4 ,! ma9t5ance ( ! conditions ( /ead9ess impli$ 9 equation 7#a7 dep5ds ^u ! con/ancy ( ,f1 & !re=e ( ! coeffici5t ( friction mu betwe5 ! rubb+ surfaces4 ,! heat+ at ! surfaces1 ! v>iations 9 _! smoo?ness1 & ! v>iations ( ! lubrication make mu cont9u\sly v>iable1 & necessitate frequ5t adju/m5t ( ,w or ( ! nuts4 ,j4,v4 ,poncelet 7#aghh-ahfg7 inv5t$ a =m ( ,prony brake :i* automatically adju/$ its grip z mu *ang$1 !reby ma9ta9+ ,f con/ant4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! comp5sat+ brake devis$ by ,j4,g4 ,appold 7#ahjj-ahfe7 is %[n 9 fig4 #a4 ,a flexible /eel b&1 l9$ ) wood blocks1 is gripp$ on ! motor fly-:eel or pulley by a screw ,a1 :i*1 toge!r ) ,w1 is adju/$ to hold ! brake /eady4 ,comp5sation is effect$ by ! lev] ,l ins]t$ at ,b4 ,?is has a slott$ end1 engag$ by a p9 ,p fix$ to ! fram+1 & x w be se5 t its action is to slack5 ! b& if ! load t5ds to rise & to tight5 x 9 ! contr>y case4 ,! ext]nal =ces hold+ ! brake f turn+ are ,w1 di/ant ,r f ! axis1 & ! reaction1 ,w#a say1 ( ! lev] aga9/ ! fix$ p9 ,p1 di/ant ,r#a f ! axis4 ,! mom5t ( ,w#a may be positive or negative4 ,! torque ,t at any in/ant ( /eady runn+ is !re=e ,,wr - ,w#a,r#a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,"l ,kelv9 pat5t$ a brake 9 #aheh 7fig4 #b7 consi/+ ( a rope or cord wrapp$ r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( a rotat+ :eel1 to "o end ( :i* is appli$ a regulat$ =ce1 ! o!r end be+ fix$ to a spr+ balance4 ,! ropes are spac$ lat]ally by ! blocks ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 :i* also s]ve to prev5t !m f slipp+ sideways4 ,:5 ! :eel is turn+ 9 ! direction indicat$1 ! =ces hold+ ! b& /ill are ,w1 & p1 ! obs]v$ pull on ! spr+ balance4 ,bo? ^! =ces usually act at ! same radius ,r1 ! di/ance f ! axis to ! c5tre l9e ( ! rope1 9 :i* case ! torque ,t is 7,w - p7,r1 & consequ5tly ! brake horse-p[] is 7,w - p7,r x #bpi,n -----------------4 #cc1jjj ,:5 mu *anges ! weight ,w rises or falls aga9/ ! action ( ! spr+ balance until a /able condition ( runn+ is obta9$4 ,! ratio ,w_/p is giv5 by e mu!ta1 :]e e #b4gah2 mu is ! coeffici5t ( friction & !ta ! angle1 measur$ 9 radians1 subt5d$ by ! arc ( contact betwe5 ! rope & ! :eel4 ,9 fig4 #b !ta #bpi4 ,! ratio ,w_/p increases v rapidly z !ta is increas$1 & !re=e1 by mak+ !ta suffici5tly l>ge1 p may conv5i5tly be made a small fraction ( ,w1 !reby r5d]+ errors ( obs]vation ( ! spr+ balance negligible4 ,?us ?is k9d ( brake1 ?\gh *eap to make1 is1 :5 !ta is l>ge en\gh1 an exce$+ly accurate measur+ in/rum5t1 readily appli$ & easily controll$4 ,x has come into v g5]al use 9 rec5t ye>s1 & has practically sup]s$$ ! old] =ms ( block brakes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,x is sometimes necess>y to use wat] to keep ! brake :eel cool4 ,eng9es specially design$ = te/+ are usually provid$ ) a brake :eel hav+ a tr\gh-%ap$ rim4 ,wat] trickles cont9u\sly into ! tr\gh1 & ! c5trifugal action holds x z an inside l9+ aga9/ ! rim1 :]e x sl[ly evaporates4 ,fig4 #c %[s a b&-brake inv5t$ by ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson1 suitable = te/+ motors ex]t+ a con/ant torque 7see ,eng9e]+1 #bbnd ,octob] #ahhj74 ,to ma9ta9 e mu!ta con/ant1 comp5sation = v>iation ( mu is made by inv]sely v>y+ !ta4 ,a & ,b are fa/ & loose pulleys1 & ! brake b& is plac$ p>tly ov] ! "o & p>tly ov] ! o!r4 ,weights ,w & w are adju/$ to ! torque4 ,! b& turns ) ! fa/ pulley if mu increase1 !reby slightly turn+ ! loose pulley1 o!rwise at re/1 until !ta is adju/$ to ! new value ( mu4 ,?is =m ( brake 0 also inv5t$ indep5d5tly by ,j4,a4,m4,l4 ,c>p5ti]1 & ! pr9ciple has be5 us$ 9 ! ,raff>d brake4 ,a self-comp5sat+ brake ( ano!r k9d1 by ,m>cel ,deprez1 0 describ$ ) ,c>p5ti]'s 9 #ahhj 7,bullet9 de la societe d'enc\ragem5t1 ,p>is74 ,w4,e4 ,ayrton & ,j4 ,p]ry us$ a b& or rope brake 9 :i* comp5sation is effect$ by ! pulley draw+ 9 or lett+ out a "p ( ! b& or rope :i* has be5 r\gh5$ or 9 :i* a knot has be5 ti$4 ,9 an effective wat]-brake inv5t$ by ,w4 ,fr\de 7see ,proc4 ,in/4 ,m4 ,e4 #ahgg71 two simil> ca/+s1 ,a & ,b1 ea* consi/+ ( a boss & circumf]5tial annul> *annel1 are plac$ face to face on a %aft1 to :i* ,b is key$1 ,a be+ free 7fig4 #d74 ,a r+ tube ( elliptical section is ?us =m$4 ,ea* *annel is divid$ into a s]ies ( pockets by equally spac$ vanes incl9$ at #de deg44 ,:5 ,a is held /ill1 & ,b rotat$1 c5trifugal action sets up vortex curr5ts 9 ! wat] 9 ! pockets2 ?us a cont9u\s circulation is caus$ betwe5 ,b & ,a1 & ! consequ5t *anges ( mom5tum give rise to oblique reactions4 ,! mom5ts ( ! compon5ts ( ^! actions & reactions 9 a plane to :i* ! axis ( rotation is at "r angles are ! two aspects ( ! torque act+1 & !re=e ! torque act+ on ,b ?r\gh ! %aft is measur$ by ! torque requir$ to hold ,a /ill4 ,fr\de con/ruct$ a brake to take up #bjjj ,h4,p4 at #ij revs4 p] m94 by duplicat+ ?is app>atus4 ,?is replac$ ! propell] ( ! %ip ^: eng9es 7 to be te/$1 & ! out] cas+ 0 held f turn+ by a suitable arrangem5t ( lev]s c>ri$ to weigh+ app>atus conv5i5tly dispos$ on ! :>f4 ,! torque correspond+ to #bjjj ,h4,p4 at #ij revs4 p] m94 is #aaf1ggb foot-p\nds1 & a brake #e ft4 9 diamet] gave ?is resi/ance4 ,?9 metal sluices 7 arrang$ to slide betwe5 ! :eel & cas+1 & by _! means ! range ( action c\ld be v>i$ f #cjj ,h4,p4 at #abj revs4 p] m94 to ! maximum4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,pr(essor ,osborne ,reynolds 9 #ahhg pat5t$ a wat]-brake 7see ,proc4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 #ii1 p4 #afg71 us+ ,fr\de's turb9e to obta9 ! highly resi/+ spiral vortices1 & arrang+ passages 9 ! cas+ = ! entry ( wat] at ! hub ( ! :eel & its exit at ! circumf]5ce4 ,wat] ent]s at ,e 7fig4 #e71 & f9ds its way into ! int]ior ( ! :eel1 ,a1 driv+ ! air 9 front ( x ?r\gh ! air-passages ,k1 ,k4 ,!n foll[+ into ! pocket$ *amb]s ,v#a1 ,v#b1 x is caught into ! vortex1 & f9ally escapes at ! circumf]5ce1 fl[+ away at ,f4 ,! air-ways k1 k1 9 ! fix$ vanes e/abli% communication betwe5 ! cores ( ! vortices & ! atmosph]e4 ,f #a_/e to #cj ,h4,p4 may be measur$ at #ajj revs4 p] m94 by a brake-:eel ( ?is k9d #ah 94 9 diamet]4 ,= o!r spe$s ! p[] v>ies z ! cube ( ! spe$4 ,! cas+ is held f turn+ by weights hang+ on an atta*$ arm4 ,! cocks regulat+ ! wat] are connect$ to ! cas+1 s t any tilt+ automatically regulates ! fl[1 & !re=e ! ?ickness ( ! film 9 ! vortex4 ,9 ?is way ! brake may be arrang$ to ma9ta9 a con/ant torque1 n )/&+ v>iation ( ! spe$4 ,9 ,g4,i4 ,ald5's brake 7see ,trans4 ,am]4 ,soc4 ,eng4 vol4 xi47 ! resi/ance is obta9$ by turn+ a ca/ iron disk aga9/ ! frictional resi/ance ( two ?9 copp] plates1 :i* are held 9 a cas+ free to turn ^u ! %aft1 & are s arrang$ t ! pressure betwe5 ! rubb+ surfaces is controll$1 & ! heat develop$ by friction c>ri$ away1 by ! regulat$ fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! cas+4 ,! torque requir$ to hold ! cas+ /ill aga9/ ! action ( ! disk measures ! torque ex]t$ by ! %aft to :i* ! disk is key$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,transmission ,dynamomet]s4--,! ess5tial "p ( _m transmission dynamomet]s is a spr+ ^: de=mation indirectly measures ! magnitude ( ! =ce transmitt$ ?r\gh x4 ,= _m k9ds ( spr+ ! *ange ( =m is practically proportional to ! =ce1 b ! relation %\ld always be det]m9$ exp]im5tally4 ,g5]al ,a4,j4 ,mor9 7see ,notice sur div]s app>eils dynamometriques1 ,p>is1 #ahda71 9 8 classical exp]im5ts on traction1 arrang$ 8 app>atus s t ! *ange 9 =m ( ! spr+ 0 cont9u\sly record$ on a %eet ( pap] drawn "u a /yle4 ,= long] exp]im5ts he us$ a ,compteur or me*anical integrator1 sugge/$ by ,j4,v4 ,poncelet1 f :i* ! "w done dur+ a giv5 displacem5t c\ld be read (f directly4 ,?is device consi/s ( a roll] ( radius r1 press$ into contact ) a disk4 ,! two are c>ri$ on a common frame1 s arrang$ t a *ange 9 =m ( ! spr+ causes a relative displacem5t ( ! disk & roll]1 ! po9t ( contact mov+ radially f or t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! disk4 ,! radial di/ance x is at any in/ant proportional to ! =ce act+ ?r\gh ! spr+4 ,! angul> displacem5t1 !ta1 ( ! disk is made proportional to ! displacem5t1 s1 ( ! po9t ( application ( ! =ce by suitable driv+ ge>4 ,if dphi is ! angul> displacem5t ( ! roll] correspond+ to displacem5ts1 d!ta ( ! disk1 & ds ( ! po9t ( application ( ,p1 a1 & ,c con/ants1 !n xd!ta a dphi --------- -- ,p ds ,c4,p ds1 r r _/s#b & !re=e phi ,c ,p ds2 _/s#a t is1 ! angul> displacem5t ( ! roll] measures ! "w done dur+ ! displacem5t f s#a to s#b4 ,! %aft c>ry+ ! roll] is connect$ to a c\nt] s t phi may be obs]v$4 ,! angul> velocity ( ! %aft is proportional to ! rate ( work+4 ,mor9's dynamomet] is %[n 9 fig4 #f4 ,! transmitt+ spr+ is made up ( two flat b>s l9k$ at _! ends4 ,_! c5tres s#a1 s#b1 are held respectively by ! pieces ,a1 ,b1 :i* toge!r =m a slid+ pair4 ,! block ,a c>ries ! disk ,d1 ,b c>ries ! roll] ,r & c\nt+ ge>4 ,! pulley ,e is driv5 f an axle ( ! c>riage4 ,9 a dynamomet] us$ by ,f4,w4 ,webb to measure ! tractive resi/ance ( tra9s on ! ,london ,nor?-,we/]n railway1 a tractive pull or pu% compresses two spiral spr+s by a def9ite am\nt1 :i* is record$ to scale by a p5cil on a %eet ( pap]1 drawn cont9u\sly f a /orage drum at ! rate ( #c 94 p] mile1 by a roll] driv5 f "o ( ! c>riage axles4 ,?us ! diagram %[s ! tractive =ce at any in/ant4 ,a second p5cil electrically connect$ to a clock traces a "t l9e on ! diagram ) a kick at e ?irty seconds4 ,a ?ird p5cil traces an obs]vation l9e 9 :i* a kick c be made at w by press+ any "o ( ! electrical pu%es plac$ ab\t ! c>1 & a f\r? draws a datum l9e4 ,! spr+ ( ! dynamomet] c> us$ by ,w4 ,dean on ! ,great ,we/]n railway is made up ( ?irty flat plates1 #g ft4 #f 94 long1 #e 94 x #e_/h 94 at ! c5tre1 spac$ by di/ance pieces nibb$ into ! plates at ! c5tre & by roll]s at ! ends4 ,! draw-b> is connect$ to ! buckle1 :i* is c>ri$ on roll]s1 ! ends ( ! spr+ re/+ on plates fix$ to ! "u-frame4 ,! ge> op]at+ ! pap] roll is driv5 f ! axle ( an indep5d5t :eel :i* is let d[n into contact ) ! rail :5 requir$4 ,?is :eel s]ves also to measure ! di/ance travell$4 ,a ,mor9 disk & roll] integrator is connect$ ) ! app>atus1 s t ! "w done dur+ a j\rney may be read (f4 ,five l9es are trac$ on ! diagram4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,9 spr+ dynamomet]s design$ to measure a transmitt$ torque1 ! me*anical problem ( asc]ta9+ ! *ange ( =m ( ! spr+ is complicat$ by ! fact t ! spr+ & ! :ole app>atus are rotat+ toge!r4 ,9 ! ,ayrton & ,p]ry transmission dynamomet] or spr+ c\pl+ ( ?is type1 ! relative angul> displacem5t is proportional to ! radius ( ! circle describ$ by ! end ( a light lev] op]at$ by me*anism betwe5 ! spr+-connect$ p>ts4 ,by a device us$ by ,w4,e4 ,dalby 7,proc4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 #ahig-ahih1 p4 #acb7 ! *ange 9 =m ( ! spr+ is %[n on a fix$ indicator1 :i* may be plac$ 9 any conv5i5t position4 ,two equal sprocket :eels ,q#a1 ,q#b1 are fa/5$1 ! "o to ! spr+ pulley1 ! o!r to ! %aft4 ,an endless b& is plac$ ov] !m to =m two loops1 :i* dur+ rotation rema9 at ! same di/ance ap>t1 unless relative angul> displacem5t occurs betwe5 ,q#a & ,q#b 7fig4 #g7 due to a *ange 9 =m ( ! spr+4 ,! *ange 9 ! di/ance d is proportional to ! *ange 9 ! torque transmitt$ f ! %aft to ! pulley4 ,to measure ?is1 guide pulleys are plac$ 9 ! loops guid$ by a geometric slide1 ! "o pulley c>ry+ a scale1 & ! o!r an index4 ,a record+ drum or integrat+ app>atus may be arrang$ on ! pulley frames4 ,a quick v>iation1 or a p]iodic v>iation ( ! magnitude ( ! =ce or torque transmitt$ ?r\gh ! spr+s1 t5ds to set up oscillations1 & ?is t5d5cy increases ! ne>] ! p]iodic "t ( ! =ce v>iation approa*es a p]iodic "t ( ! spr+4 ,su* vibrations may be damp$ out to a consid]able ext5t by ! use ( a da%-pot1 or may be practically prev5t$ by us+ a relatively /iff spr+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,e "p ( a ma*9e transmitt+ =ce suff]s ela/ic de=mation1 & ! =ce may be measur$ indirectly by measur+ ! de=mation4 ,! relation betwe5 ! two %\ld 9 all cases be f\nd exp]im5tally4 ,g4,a4 ,hirn 7see ,les ,p&ynamometres1 ,p>is1 #ahgf7 employ$ ?is pr9ciple to measure ! torque transmitt$ by a %aft4 ,signor ,rosio us$ a telephonic me?od to effect ! same end1 & me*anical1 optical & telephonic devices h be5 utiliz$ by ! ,rev4 ,f4,j4 ,j]vis-,smi?4 7,see ,phil4 ,mag4 ,febru>y #ahih47 ,h4 ,frahm1#a dur+ an important inve/igation on ! torsional vibration ( propell] %afts1 measur$ ! relative angul> displacem5t ( two flanges on a propell] %aft1 select$ z f> ap>t z possible1 by means ( an electrical device 7,eng9e]+1 #f? ( ,febru>y #aijc74 ,^! measurem5ts 7 utiliz$ 9 comb9ation ) appropriate ela/ic coeffici5ts ( ! mat]ial to f9d ! horse-p[] transmitt$ f ! eng9es along ! %aft to ! propell]4 ,9 ?is way ! effective horse-p[] & also ! me*anical effici5cy ( a numb] ( l>ge m>9e eng9es1 ea* ( sev]al ?\s& horse-p[]1 h be5 det]m9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,:5 a belt1 9 :i* ! maximum & m9imum t5sions are respectively ,p & p lb41 drives a pulley1 ! torque ex]t$ is 7,p - p7r lb4 ft41 r be+ ! radius ( ! pulley plus half ! ?ickness ( ! belt4 ,p & p may be measur$ directly by lead+ ! belt r\nd two freely hang+ guide pulleys1 "o 9 ! tight1 ! o!r 9 ! slack "p ( ! belt1 & adju/+ loads on !m until a /able condition ( runn+ is obta9$4 ,9 ,w4 ,fr\de's belt dynamomet] 7see ,proc4 ,in/4 ,m4,e41 #aheh7 7fig4 #h7 ! guide pulleys ,g#a1 ,g#b are c>ri$ ^u an arm free to turn ab\t ! axis ,o4 ,h is a pulley to guide ! approa*+ & rec$+ p>ts ( ! belt to & f ! beam 9 p>allel directions4 ,neglect+ friction1 ! unbalanc$ torque act+ on ! beam is #dr,p - p lb4 ft4 ,if a =ce ,q act+ at ,r ma9ta9s equilibrium1 ,,qr_/#d 7,p - p7r ,t4 ,q is suppli$ by a spr+1 ! ext5sions ( :i* are record$ on a drum driv5 proportionally to ! angul> displacem5t ( ! driv+ pulley2 ?us a "w diagram is obta9$4 ,9 ! ,f>cot =m ! guide pulleys are atta*$ to sep>ate weigh+ lev]s plac$ horizontally bel[ ! app>atus4 ,9 a belt dynamomet] built = ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute f ! designs ( ,ta?am1 ! weigh+ lev]s are sep>ate & arrang$ horizontally at ! top ( ! app>atus4 ,! weigh+ beam 9 ! ,hefn]-,alt5eck dynamomet] is plac$ transv]sely to ! belt 7see ,electrote*nis*5 ,zeits*rift1 #ahha1 #g74 ,! =ce ,q1 usually measur$ by a spr+1 requir$ to ma9ta9 ! beam 9 its c5tral position is proportional to 7,p - p74 ,if ! angle !ta#a !ta#b #abj deg41 ,q 7,p - p7 neglect+ friction4 ,:5 a %aft is driv5 by means ( ge>+ ! driv+ torque is measur$ by ! product ( ! resultant pressure ,p act+ betwe5 ! :eel tee? & ! radius ( ! pit* circle ( ! :eel fix$ to ! %aft4 ,fig4 #i1 :i* has be5 reproduc$ f ,j4 ,:ite's ,a ,new ,c5tury ( ,inv5tions 7,man*e/]1 #ahbb71 illu/rates possibly ! e>lie/ application ( ?is pr9ciple to dynamometry4 ,! :eel ,d1 key$ to ! %aft ov]com+ ! resi/ance to be measur$1 is driv5 f :eel ,n by two bevel :eels ,l1 ,l1 c>ri$ 9 a loose pulley ,k4 ,! two %afts1 ?\gh 9 a l9e1 are indep5d5t4 ,a torque appli$ to ! %aft ,a c be transmitt$ to ,d1 neglect+ friction1 )\t *ange only if ! c5tral pulley ,k is held f turn+2 ! torque requir$ to d ?is is twice ! torque transmitt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,! torque act+ on ! armature ( an electric motor is necess>ily accompani$ by an equal & opposite torque act+ on ! frame4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! motor is m\nt$ on a cradle free to turn ab\t knife-edges1 ! react+ torque is ! only torque t5d+ to turn ! cradle :5 x is 9 a v]tical position1 & may !re=e be measur$ by adju/+ weights to hold ! cradle 9 a v]tical position4 ,! rate at :i* ! motor is transmitt+ "w is !n ,t#bpin_/#eej ,h4,p41 :]e n is ! revolutions p] second ( ! armature4 ,see ,james ,dr$ge1 ,electric ,illum9ation1 vol4 ii4 7,london1 #ahhe72 ,w4,w4 ,beaumont1 ,dynamomet]s & ,friction ,brakes1 ,proc4 ,in/4 ,c4,e4 vol4 xcv4 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,e4 ,brau]1 ,ueb] ,bremsdynamomet] & v]w&te ,kraftmess]1 ,zeits*rift des ,v]e9s deuts*] ,+5ieure 7,b]l91 #ahhh72 ,j4,j4 ,fla!r1 ,dynamomet]s & ! ,measurem5t ( ,p[] 7,new ,york1 #ahic74 7,w4 ,e4 ,d47 ,,footnote3 #a ,h4 ,frahm1 ,neue ,unt]su*ung5 ueb] die dynamis*5 ,vorga5ge 9 d5 ,well5leitung5 von ,s*iffsmas*95 mit besond]] ,b]uecksi*tigung d] ,resonanzs*w+ung51 ,zeits*rift des ,v]e9s deuts*] ,+5ieure1 #ca/ ,may #aijb4 ,,dyna/y 7,gr4 ,greek3 dyna/eia1 sov]eignty1 ! position ( a ,greek3 dyna/es1 "l1 rul]1 f ,greek3 dyna/hai1 to be able1 ,greek3 dynamis1 p[]71 a family or l9e ( rul]s1 a succession ( sov]eigns ( a c\ntry belong+ to a s+le family or trac+ _! desc5t to a common ance/or4 ,! t]m is p>ticul>ly us$ 9 ! hi/ory ( anci5t ,egypt z a conv5i5t means ( arrang+ ! *ronology4 ,,dys>t1 a royal & police burgh & seaport ( ,fife%ire1 ,scotl&1 on ! %ore ( ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 #b m4 ,n4,e4 ( ,kirkcaldy by ! ,nor? ,briti% railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cefb4 ,x has a qua9t old-fa%ion$ appe>ance1 _m anci5t h\ses 9 ,high ,/reet be>+ inscriptions & dates4 ,! public build+s include a t[n hall1 libr>y1 cottage hospital1 me*anics' in/itute & memorial hall4 ,sc>cely any?+ is left ( ! old *apel d$icat$ to ,/ ,d5nis1 :i* = a "t 0 us$ z a smi?y2 & ( ! *apel ( ,/ ,s]f1 ! patron sa9t ( ! burgh1 only ! t[] rema9s4 ,! *ief indu/ries are ! manufacture ( b$ & table l951 t[ell+ & wooll5 clo?1 %ipbuild+ & flax-sp9n+4 ,!re is a /eady export ( coal1 & ! h>b\r is provid$ ) a wet dock & pat5t slip4 ,9 smuggl+ days ! canty c>les ( ,dys>t 7 pr(ess$ free trad]s4 ,9 ! #ae? & #af? c5turies ! t[n 0 a lead+ seat ( ! salt indu/ry 7salt to ,dys>t 0 ! equival5t ( coals to ,newca/le71 b ! salt-pans h be5 ab&on$ = a consid]able p]iod4 ,nail-mak+1 once fam\s1 is ano!r ext9ct indu/ry4 ,dur+ ! "t ( ! alliance betwe5 ,scotl& & ,holl&1 :i* 0 clos] 9 ,fife%ire ?an 9 o!r c\nties1 ,dys>t became kn[n z ,little ,holl&4 ,to ! we/ ( ! t[n is ,dys>t ,h\se1 ! resid5ce ( ! e>l ( ,rosslyn4 ,) ,burntisl& & ,k+horn ,dys>t =ms "o ( ! ,kirkcaldy di/rict gr\p ( p>liam5t>y burghs4 ,! t[n is m5tion$ z e>ly z #hgd 9 connexion ) a ,dani% invasion4 ,its "n is said to be a corruption ( ! ,lat9 des]tum1 a des]t1 :i* 0 appli$ to a cave on ! sea%ore occupi$ by ,/ ,s]f4 ,9 ! cave ! sa9t held 8 fam\s colloquy ) ! devil1 9 :i* ,satan 0 wor/$ & contemptu\sly dismiss$4 ,f ,james ,v4 ! t[n receiv$ ! rights ( a royal burgh4 ,9 #aeei x 0 ! headqu>t]s ( ! ,lords ( ! ,congregation1 & 9 #afjg ! sc5e ( ! meet+s ( ! synod ( ,fife kn[n z ! ,?ree ,synods ( ,dys>t4 ,rav5%eugh ,ca/le1 on ! %ore to ! we/ ( ! t[n1 is ! ,rav5scraig ( ,sir ,walt] ,scott's ballad ( ,rosabelle4 ,william ,murray1 a native ( ! place1 0 made e>l ( ,dys>t 9 #afdc1 & 8 elde/ *ild & heir1 a daught]1 ,elizabe?1 obta9$ 9 #afgj a regrant ( ! title1 :i* pass$ to ! desc5dants ( h] fir/ m>riage ) ,sir ,lionel ,tollema*e1 ,b>t41 ( ,helm+ham2 %e m>ri$ secondly ! #a/ duke ( ,laud]dale1 b _h no *ildr5 by him1 & di$ 9 #afih4 ,?is c\ntess ( ,dys>t 7aft]w>ds du*ess ( ,laud]dale7 0 a fam\s beauty ( ! p]iod1 & notori\s bo? = h] am\rs & = h] political influ5ce4 ,%e 0 said to h be5 ! mi/ress ( ,oliv] ,cromwell1 & also ( ,laud]dale be=e h] fir/ husb&'s dea?1 & 0 a lead] at ! c\rt ( ,*>les ,,ii4 ,wy*]ley is suppos$ to h aim$ at h] 9 8 ,wid[ ,blackacre 9 ! ,pla9 ,deal]4 ,h] son1 ,lionel ,tollema*e 7d4 #agbg71 transmitt$ ! e>ldom to 8 gr&son ,lionel 7d4 #aggj71 ^: sons ,lionel 7d4 #agii7 & ,wilbraham 7d4 #ahba7 succe$$2 !y di$ )\t issue1 & _! si/] ,l\isa 7d4 #ahdj71 :o m>ri$ ,john ,mann]s1 an illegitimate son ( ! second son ( ! #bnd duke ( ,rutl&1 became c\ntess 9 h] own "r1 be+ succe$$ by h] gr&son 7d4 #ahgh71 & 8 gr&son1 ! #h? e>l4 ,! e>ldom ( ,dys>t mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) t ( ,des>t 7,iri%71 creat$ 7b>ony #agcc7 9 #agic1 & held 9 ! ,cuffe family1 :o 7 orig9ally ( ,cree* ,/ ,mi*ael1 ,som]set1 ! ,iri% bran* dat+ f ,que5 ,elizabe?'s "t4 ,,dys5t]y 7f ! ,gr4 prefix ,greek3 dys-1 9 ! s5se ( bad1 & ,greek3 ent]on1 ! inte/9e71 also call$ bloody flux1 an infecti\s disease ) a local lesion 9 ! =m ( inflammation & ulc]ation ( ! l[] portion ( ! b[els4 ,al?\gh at "o "t a common disease 9 ,great ,brita91 dys5t]y is n[ v r>ely met ) !re1 & is = ! mo/ "p conf9$ to w>m c\ntries1 :]e x is ! cause ( a l>ge am\nt ( mortality4 7,= ! pa?ology see ,,dige/ive ,,organs47 ,rec5tly consid]able advance has be5 made 9 our k ( dys5t]y1 & x appe>s t !re are two di/9ct types ( ! disease3 7#a7 amoebic dys5t]y1 :i* is due to ! pres5ce ( ! amoeba hi/olytica 7( ,s*aud9n7 9 ! inte/9e2 7#b7 bacill>y dys5t]y1 :i* has z causative ag5t two sep>ate bact]ia1 7a7 t discov]$ by ,%iga 9 ,japan1 7b7 t discov]$ by ,flexn] 9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,) reg>d to ! bacill>y type1 at fir/ bo? organisms 7 consid]$ to be id5tical1 & ! "n bacillus dys5t]iae 0 giv5 to !m2 b lat] x 0 %[n t ^! bacilli are diff]5t1 bo? 9 reg>d to _! cultural *>act]i/ics & also 9 t "o 7,%iga7 gives out a soluble tox91 :il/ ! o!r has s f> resi/$ all ef=ts to discov] x4 ,fur!r1 ! s]um ( a pati5t affect$ ) "o ( ! types has a m>k$ agglut9ative p[] on ! v>iety ) :i* he is infect$ & n on ! o!r4 ,cl9ically1 dys5t]y manife/s itself ) v>y+ degrees ( int5sity1 & x is (t5 impossible )\t microscopical exam9ation to det]m9e betwe5 ! amoebic & bacill>y =ms4 ,9 well-m>k$ cases ! foll[+ are ! *ief symptoms4 ,! attack is commonly prec$$ by c]ta9 premonitory indications 9 ! =m ( g5]al illness1 loss ( appetite1 & "s am\nt ( di>rhoea1 :i* gradually increases 9 sev]ity1 & is accompani$ ) grip+ pa9s 9 ! abdom5 7torm9a74 ,! dis*>ges f ! b[els succe$ ea* o!r ) great frequ5cy1 & ! pa9ful feel+ ( pressure d[nw>ds 7t5esmus7 becomes s int5se t ! pati5t is con/antly desir+ to defecate4 ,! matt]s pass$ f ! b[els1 :i* at fir/ resemble ^? ( ord9>y di>rhoea1 soon *ange _! "*1 becom+ scanty1 muc\s or slimy1 & subsequ5tly mix$ )1 or consi/+ :olly (1 blood1 along ) %r$s ( exudation ?r[n (f f ! muc\s membrane ( ! inte/9e4 ,! evacuations possess a peculi>ly (f5sive od\r *>act]i/ic ( ! disease4 ,al?\gh ! con/itutional di/urbance is at fir/ comp>atively slight1 x increases ) ! advance ( ! disease1 & febrile symptoms come on att5d$ ) urg5t ?ir/ & scanty & pa9ful fl[ ( ur9e4 ,along ) ?is ! n]v\s depression is v m>k$1 & ! /ate ( pro/ration to :i* ! pati5t is r$uc$ c sc>cely be exce$$4 ,%\ld no improvem5t occur dea? may take place 9 f "o to ?ree weeks1 ei!r f repeat$ losses ( blood1 or f gradual exhau/ion consequ5t on ! cont9uance ( ! symptoms1 9 :i* case ! dis*>ges f ! b[els become m (f5sive & are pass$ involunt>ily4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! disease is *eck$1 ! signs ( improvem5t are %[n 9 ! cessation ( ! pa91 9 ! evacuations be+ less frequ5t & m natural1 & 9 relief f ! /ate ( extreme depression4 ,convalesc5ce is1 h[ev]1 g5]ally sl[1 & recov]y may be imp]fect--! disease cont9u+ 9 a *ronic =m1 :i* may exi/ = a v>iable l5g? ( "t1 giv+ rise to mu* suff]+1 & n unfrequ5tly lead+ to an ultimately fatal result4 ,! dys5t]y poison appe>s to ex]t its effects ^u ! gl&ul> /ructures ( ! l>ge inte/9e1 p>ticul>ly 9 its l[] "p4 ,9 ! mild] =ms ( ! disease !re is simply a conge/$ or inflam$ condition ( ! muc\s membrane1 ) p]haps "s inflammatory exudation on its surface1 :i* is pass$ (f by ! dis*>ges f ! b[els4 ,b 9 ! m sev]e =ms ulc]ation ( ! muc\s membrane takes place4 ,comm5c+ 9 & ar\nd ! solit>y gl&s ( ! l>ge inte/9e 9 ! =m ( exudations1 ^! ulc]s1 small at fir/1 enl>ge & run into ea* o!r1 till a l>ge portion ( ! b[el may be implicat$ 9 ! ulc]ative process4 ,%\ld ! disease be arre/$ ^! ulc]s may heal entirely1 b occasionally !y rema91 caus+ m or less disorganization ( ! coats ( ! inte/9es1 z is (t5 f\nd 9 *ronic dys5t]y4 ,sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 ! ulc]s p]=ate ! inte/9es1 caus+ rapidly fatal inflammation ( ! p]itoneum1 or !y may erode a blood vessel & produce viol5t haemorrhage4 ,ev5 :]e !y und]go heal+ !y may cause su* a /ricture ( ! calibre ( ! inte/9al canal z to give rise to ! symptoms ( ob/ruction :i* ultimately prove fatal4 ,"o ( ! sev]e/ complications ( ! disease is abscess ( ! liv]1 usually said to be solit>y1 & kn[n z tropical abscess ( ! liv]1 b probably is m frequ5tly multiple ?an is usually ?\ght4 ,treatm5t4--,:]e ! disease is endemic or is prevail+ epidemically1 x is ( great importance to use all prev5tive measures1 & = ?is purpose ! avoidance ( all causes likely to precipitate an attack is to be enjo9$4 ,exposure to cold aft] heat1 ! use ( unripe fruit1 & intemp]ance 9 eat+ & dr9k+ %\ld be =bidd52 & ! utmo/ c>e tak5 z to ! quality ( ! food & dr9k+ wat]4 ,9 h\ses or hospitals :]e cases ( ! disease are "u treatm5t1 dis9fectants %\ld be freely employ$1 & ! evacuations ( ! pati5ts remov$ z spe$ily z possible1 hav+ previ\sly be5 /]iliz$ 9 mu* ! same mann] z is employ$ 9 typhoid fev]4 ,9 ! mild] v>ieties ( ?is compla9t1 su* z ^? occurr+ sporadically1 & :]e ! symptoms are probably due to matt]s 9 ! b[els sett+ up ! dys5t]ic irritation1 ! employm5t ( diaphoretic m$ic9es is to be recomm5d$1 & ! adm9i/ration ( su* a laxative z ca/or oil1 to :i* a small quantity ( laudanum has be5 add$1 w (t51 by remov+ ! s\rce ( ! mis*ief1 arre/ ! attack2 b a me?od ( treatm5t m to be recomm5d$ is ! use ( sal9es 9 l>ge doses1 su* z "o dra*m ( sodium sulphate f f\r to eight times a day4 ,?is treatm5t may ) advantage be comb9$ ) ! int]nal adm9i/ration ( ipecacuanha1 :i* /ill reta9s its reputation 9 ?is disease4 ,latt]ly1 free irrigation ( ! b[el ) a/r+5ts1 su* z silv] nitrate1 tannalb91 c41 has be5 att5d$ ) success 9 ^? cases :i* h be5 able to tol]ate ! injections4 ,9 _m in/ances !y _c be us$ ow+ to ! extreme degree ( irritability ( ! b[el4 ,! op]ation ( app5dico/omy1 or br++ ! app5dix to ! surface & us+ x z ! site = ! introduction ( ! irrigat+ fluid1 has be5 att5d$ ) consid]able success4 ,9 ^? cases due to ,%iga's bacillus ! ideal treatm5t has be5 put at our disposal by ! prep>ation ( a specific antitox92 ?is has be5 giv5 a trial 9 sev]al grave epidemics ( late1 & may be said to be ! mo/ satisfactory treatm5t & (f] ! greate/ hope ( recov]y4 ,x is also ( great use z a prophylactic4 ,! prep>ations ( morphia are ( great value 9 ! symptomatic treatm5t ( ! disease4 ,!y may be appli$ ext]nally z fom5tations1 = ! relief ( torm9a2 by rectal injection = ! relief ( ! t5esmus & irritability ( ! b[el2 hypod]mically 9 advanc$ cases1 = ! relief ( ! g5]al di/ress4 ,9 amoebic dys5t]y1 w>m injections ( qu99e p] rectum h prov$ v efficaci\s1 are usually well tol]at$1 & are n att5d$ ) any ill effects4 ,! diet %\ld be re/rict$1 consi/+ *iefly ( s\ps & f>9ace\s foods2 m especially is ?is ( importance 9 ! *ronic =m4 ,= ! ?ir/ ice may be giv5 by ! m\?4 ,ev5 9 ! *ronic =ms1 conf9em5t to b$ & re/riction ( diet are ! mo/ important elem5ts ( ! treatm5t4 ,removal f ! hot climate & unhygi5ic surr\nd+s mu/ naturally be att5d$ to4 ,,bibliography4--,allbutt & ,rolle/on1 ,sy/em ( ,m$ic9e1 vol4 ii4 "p ii4 7#aijg71 ,dys5t]y1 ,drs ,&rew ,davidson & ,simon ,flexn]2 ,davidson1 ,hygi5e & ,diseases ( ,w>m ,climates 7,ed9burgh1 #aijc72 ,fe>nside 9 ,ind4 ,m$4 ,gaz4 7,july #aije72 ,=d 9 ,j\rnal ( ,tropical ,m$ic9e 7,july #ae1 #aijd72 ,kor5t*ewsky 9 ,bullet9 de l',in/itut ,pa/eur 7,febru>y #aije72 ,%iga3 ,osi] & ,m',crae's ,sy/em ( ,m$ic9e1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gha 7#aijg72 ,sks*ivan & ,/efansky 9 ,b]l9] kl9is*e ,wo*5s*rift 7,febru>y #aa1 #aijg72 ,vaill>d & ,dopt]1 on ! treatm5t by antidys5t]ic s]um1 ,annales de l',in/itut ,pa/eur1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #cbf 7#aijf72 ,j4,a4 ,pott+]1 ,app5dico/omy 9 ,*ronic ,dys5t]y1 ,lancet 7,decemb] #bh1 #aijg72 ,rob]t ,do]r1 ,das ,dys5t]ietox9 7,gu/av ,fis*]1 ,j5a1 #aijg72 ,f4,m4 ,s&)1 ,hunt]ian ,lecture on ! ,treatm5t ( ,dys5t]y1 ,lancet 7,decemb] #g1 #aijg74 ,,dyspepsia 7f ! ,gr4 prefix ,greek3 dys-1 h>d1 ill1 & ,greek3 pepte91 to dige/71 or indige/ion1 a t]m vaguely giv5 to a gr\p ( pa?ological symptoms4 ,!re are comp>atively few diseases ( any mom5t :]e "s ( ! ph5om5a ( dyspepsia are n pres5t z associat$ symptoms1 & n infrequ5tly ^! exi/ to su* a degree z to mask ! real disease1 ( :i* !y are only complications4 ,?is is especially ! case 9 _m organic diseases ( ! alim5t>y canal1 9 :i* ! symptoms ( dyspepsia are (t5 ! mo/ prom95t4 ,9 its re/rict$ mean+1 h[ev] 7& x is to ?is t ! pres5t article applies71 ! t]m is us$ to describe a functional d]angem5t ( ! natural process ( dige/ion1 ap>t f any /ructural *ange 9 ! organs conc]n$ 9 ! act4 ,! causes ( ?is tr\ble may be divid$ into 7a7 ^? :i* conc]n ! food1 & 7b7 ^? :i* conc]n ! organism4 ,among ! causes connect$ ) ! food are n only ! indulg5ce 9 indige/ible articles ( diet1 b ! too common practice ( eat+ too mu* ( :at may be o!rwise q :olesome & dige/ible2 & irregul>1 too frequ5t or too infrequ5t meals4 ,! quantity ( food requir$ by diff]5t individuals v>ies betwe5 wide limits1 b also ! quantity requir$ by ! same individual v>ies consid]ably accord+ to circum/ances1 m food be+ ne$$ 9 cold ?an 9 w>m wea!r1 & m 9 an active op5-air occupation ?an 9 a s$5t>y "o4 ,! ?or\gh ma/ication ( ! food is a v important precursor ( dige/ion1#a & ?is only too (t5 fails1 ei!r ow+ to ha/e ov] meals or because ( pa9ful or defici5t tee?4 ,aga91 ! quality ( ! food is ( importance1 "s k9ds ( fle% be+ h>d] & m difficult ( ma/ication ?an o!rs4 ,?is is especially ! case ) meat t has be5 smok$ or salt$1 & ) t cook$ too soon aft] ! dea? ( ! animal4 ,dr9ks are a common s\rce ( dyspepsia4 ,be] :5 new & its f]m5tation n complet$ is especially bad4 ,v9eg> & acid w9es1 if tak5 9 l>ge quantities1 t5d to produce ga/ric cat>rh1 & tea is a v fruitful s\rce ( ?is tr\ble4 ,ev5 too mu* wat] at meal-times may cause indige/ion1 s9ce ! food 9 ! m\? is apt to be s(t5$ by ! wat] in/ead ( saliva1 & also ! ga/ric juice becomes unduly dilut$1 r5d]+ ! dige/ion 9 ! /oma* too sl[ & prolong$4 ,c>i\s tee? & oral sepsis1 f :atsoev] cause1 lead to ! same tr\ble4 ,( ! causes :i* conc]n ! organism1 n]v\s influ5ces come fir/4 ,bad news may take away all p[] ( dige/ion & ev5 provoke vomit+1 & any worry or m5tal tr\ble t5ds to br+ on ?is condition4 ,g5]al weakness & atony ( ! body affects ! /oma* 9 l degree1 &1 if ! muscles ( ! abdom9al wall be mu* wa/$1 !y become too weak to support ! abdom9al visc]a 9 place4 ,h5ce results a g5]al t5d5cy = ^! organs to fall1 giv+ rise to a condition ( visc]optosis1 ( :i* an ob/9ate dyspepsia is a v m>k$ feature4 ,adhesions ( ! inte/9es f old inflammatory tr\bles1 float+ kidney & bad circulation may ea* be a cause ( pa9ful dige/ion4 ,aga91 a dyspepsia t w n yield to treatm5t is (t5 "o ( ! symptoms ( r5al disease1 or1 9 "y p ( fifte5 to tw5ty ye>s ( age1 x may be ! e>lie/ sign ( a g\ty dia!sis1 or ev5 ( a m s]i\s condition /ill--incipi5t ph?isis4 ,*ronic dyspepsia1 by weak5+ ! organism1 r5d]s x m liable to fall a prey to ! attacks ( ! tub]cle bacillus1 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! tub]cul\s lesion 9 ! lung is (t5 accompani$ by a mo/ intractable =m ( dyspepsia4 ,f ?is x is cle> t any condition :i* less5s ! g5]al well-be+ ( ! organism z a :ole1 ap>t f its produc+ any p]man5t morbid condition 9 ! /oma*1 may yet int]f]e ) ! normal dige/ive processes & s give rise to dyspepsia4 ,! symptoms ( dyspepsia1 ev5 :5 due to a l cause1 are s num]\s & div]sifi$ 9 diff]5t individuals t probably no description c\ld exactly repres5t !m z !y occur 9 any giv5 case4 ,all t c be "h attempt$ is to m5tion "s ( ! m prom95t morbid ph5om5a usually pres5t 9 great] or less degree4 ,v briefly1 a furr$ tongue1 f\l brea?1 di/urbance ( appetite1 nausea & vomit+1 oppression 9 ! *e/1 pa91 flatul5ce & di/5sion1 acidity1 pyrosis & con/ipation or di>rhoea are a few ( ! commone/ symptoms4 ,:5 ! attack is dep5d5t on "s error 9 diet1 & ! dyspepsia consequ5tly m ( an acute "*1 !re is (t5 pa9 foll[$ ) sickness & vomit+ ( ! (f5sive matt]s1 aft] :i* ! pati5t soon rega9s 8 =m] heal?y /ate4 ,:at are commonly kn[n z bili\s attacks are frequ5tly ( ?is "*4 ,9 ! m *ronic cases ( dyspepsia ! symptoms are some:at diff]5t4 ,a s5sation ( discom=t comes on %ortly aft] a meal1 & is m ( ! nature ( weight & di/5sion 9 ! /oma* ?an ( actual pa91 al?\gh ?is too may be pres5t4 ,^! feel+s may come on aft] ea* meal1 or only aft] c]ta9 meals1 & !y may arise irrespective ( ! k9d ( food tak51 or only aft] c]ta9 articles ( diet4 ,z 9 mo/ ( su* cases ! food is long reta9$ 9 ! /oma*1 x is apt to und]go f]m5tive *anges1 "o ( ! results ( :i* is ! accumulation ( gases :i* cause flatul5ce & eructations ( an acid or f\l "*4 ,occasionally quantities ( hot1 s\r1 ta/eless or bitt] fluid--pyrosis--or m\?fuls ( half-dige/$ food1 regurgitate f ! /oma*4 ,tempor>y relief may be obta9$ :5 ano!r meal is tak51 b soon ! uncom=table s5sations return z be=e4 ,! appetite may be crav+ or defici5t1 or desir\s ( abnormal k9ds ( food4 ,! tongue regi/]s ! ga/ric condition ) great delicacy2--a pa/y :ite fur on ! tongue is consid]$ a sign ( weakness or atony ( ! dige/ive tract2 a clean po9t$ tongue ) l>ge papillae1 & r r$ at ! edges & tip1 is a sign ( ga/ric irritation2 & a pale flabby tongue sugge/s ! ne$ ( /imulat+ treatm5t4 ,con/ipation is m common 9 ! *ronic =ms ( dyspepsia1 di>rhoea 9 ! acute4 ,num]\s disagreeable & pa9ful s5sations 9 o!r p>ts are exp]i5c$1 & are inde$ (t5 m di/ress+ ?an ! m]ely ga/ric symptoms4 ,pa9s 9 ! *e/1 %ortness ( brea?+1 palpitation1 heada*e1 gidd9ess1 affections ( vision1 coldness ( ! extremities1 & g5]al languor are common accompanim5ts ( dyspepsia2 :ile ! n]v\s ph5om5a are specially tr\blesome 9 ! =m ( sleeplessness1 irritability1 despond5cy & hypo*ondriasis4 ,z reg>ds treatm5t only a few g5]al obs]vations c be made4 ,! c>eful arrangem5t ( ! diet is a matt] ( fir/ importance4 ,quantity mu/ be regulat$ by ! dige/ive capabilities ( ! individual1 8 age1 & ! dem&s made ^u 8 /r5g? by "w4 ,!re is little d\bt t ! dang] is 9 mo/ in/ances on ! side ( excess1 & ! rule :i* enjo9s ! cessation f eat+ be=e ! appetite is satisfi$ is a safe "o = dyspeptics4 ,due "t1 too1 mu/ be giv5 = ! dige/ion ( a meal1 & f f\r to six h\rs are 9 g5]al requir$ = ?is purpose4 ,long fa/s1 h[ev]1 are ne>ly z hurtful z too frequ5t meals4 ,( no less importance is ! k9d ( food tak51 & on ?is po9t ^? :o suff] f indige/ion mu/ ev] ex]cise ! greate/ c>e4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t idiosyncrasy (t5 plays an important "p 9 dige/ion1 "s p]sons be+ unable to p>take )\t injury ( sub/ances :i* are g5]ally reg>d$ z :olesome & dige/ible4 ,9 mo/ cases x is f\nd v helpful to sep>ate ! prote9 f ! f>9ace\s food1 & ! m sev]e ! dyspepsia ! m ?or\ghly %\ld ?is be done1 only relax+ z ! dyspepsia yields4 ,no fluid %\ld be drunk at meal-times1 b f "o to two tumbl]s ( hot wat] %\ld be drunk f an h\r to an h\r & a half be=e food4 ,?is wa%es any remnant ( ! la/ meal f ! /oma*1 & also supplies mat]ial = ! free secretion ( saliva & ga/ric juice1 ?us promot+ & accel]at+ dige/ion4 ,! only exception to ?is is 9 ! case ( a dilat$ /oma*1 :5 x is :olly contra-indicat$4 ,) reg>d to ma/ication1 ,sir ,&rew ,cl>k's rule is a v good "o1 & is m easily foll[$ ?an ! ideal !ory laid d[n by ,horace ,flet*]1 accord+ to :om any food is dige/ible if prop]ly treat$ :ile /ill 9 ! m\?4 ,cl>k's rule is t z ! m\? normally conta9s ?irty-two tee?1 ?irty-two bites %\ld be giv5 be=e ! food is swall[$4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is a practical doctor's concession to human weakness4 ,mr ,flet*] w\ld tra9 e "o to *ew till ! cont5ts ( ! m\? 7 swall[$ by reflex action )\t delib]ate act2 & he applies ?is !ory ( ma/ication & salivation also to dr9ks 7except wat]74 ,aga91 a lack ( w>m? be+ a s\rce ( dyspepsia1 ?is %\ld be att5d$ to1 ! back ( ! neck1 ! front ( ! abdom5 & ! feet be+ ! p>ts t require special att5tion4 ,! feet %\ld be rais$ on a /ool1 ! ankles protect$ ) w>m /ock+s & a wooll5 cumm]bund w\nd two or ?ree times r\nd ! body4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t 9 ?is compla9t no p>ticul> k9d ( food or avoidance ( food is absolutely to be reli$ on1 b t 9 g5]al ! be/ diet is "o ( a mix$ animal & vegetable k9d1 simply b well cook$4 ,! p>tak+ ( _m di%es1 ( highly-season$ or salt$ meats1 raw vegetables1 newly-bak$ bread1 pa/ry & confection]y are all well-kn[n common causes ( dyspepsia1 & %\ld be avoid$4 ,:5 ev5 ! simple diet usually tak5 is f\nd to disagree1 x may be necess>y to *ange x tempor>ily = a /ill light] =m1 su* z a milk diet1 & t ev5 9 v mod]ate quantity4 ,! employm5t ( alcoholic /imulants to assi/ dige/ion is l>gely resort$ to1 bo? ) & )\t m$ical advice4 ,:ile x seems probable t 9 c]ta9 cases ( atonic dyspepsia1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! feeble & ag$1 ! mod]ate adm9i/ration ( alcohol has ! effect ( /imulat+ ! secretion ( ga/ric juice1 & is an important adjuvant to o!r rem$ies1 ! advantages ( its habitual use z an aid to dige/ion by ! "y & o!rwise heal?y1 is m ?an que/ionable1 & x w g5]ally be f\nd t among !m1 ^? are lea/ tr\bl$ ) indige/ion :o ab/a9 f x4 ,re/ %\ld be tak5 bo? be=e & aft] food1 & g5]al hygi5ic measures are highly important1 s9ce :atev] improves ! /ate ( ! heal? w h a fav\rable influ5ce on dige/ion4 ,h5ce regul> ex]cise 9 ! op5 air1 e>ly ris+ & ! cold ba? are to be /rongly recomm5d$4 ,! m$ic9al treatm5t ( dyspepsia c only be und]tak5 by a physician1 b ! foll[+ is a v brief resume ( ! drugs he dep5ds on to-day4 ,bic>bonate ( soda ) "s bitt]1 z quassia1 g5tian or columba1 is mu* 9 vogue z a direct ga/ric /imulant4 ,9 irritable dyspepsia "s =m ( bismu? 9 solution or p[d]2 &1 to assi/ dige/ion ?r\gh ! n]v\s sy/em1 nux vomica & /ry*n9e c be reli$ on4 ,to give directly dige/ive mat]ial1 hydro*loric acid1 peps9 & r5net are prescrib$ 9 _m =ms1 b :]e !re is mu* vomit+ +luv9 is m efficaci\s ?an peps94 ,:5 f>9ace\s food is badly borne1 dia/ase is helpful1 giv5 ei!r be=e or ) ! meal4 ,to prev5t f]m5tation1 ph5ol1 creasote & sulpho-c>bolate ( soda are all extremely useful 9 skill$ h&s2 & = inte/9al decomposition & flatul5t di/5sion1 bismu? salicylate ) salol or ss-naph?ol is mu* us$4 ,cyll91 & *>coal 9 _m =ms1 may be tak5 bo? = ga/ric & inte/9al flatul5ce4 ,b all ^! drugs1 ( prov$ value ?\gh !y are1 mu/ be modifi$ & comb9$ to suit ! special idiosyncrasy ( ! pati5t1 & are !re=e (t5 worse ?an useless 9 inexp]i5c$ h&s4 ,! condition ( ! b[els mu/ always h due att5tion4 ,see also ,,dige/ive ,,organs2 ,,nutrition & ,,dietetics4 ,,footnote3 #a ,?is aspect ( ! matt]--buccal dige/ion--has be5 specially emphasiz$ 9 rec5t ye>s by ,horace ,flet*] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: exp]i5ce ( ! results ( sy/ematic *ew+1 confirm$ by ,sir ,m4 ,fo/]1 ,pr(4 ,*itt5d5 & o!rs1 has almo/ revolutioniz$ ! sci5ce ( dietetics4 ,,dy/eleology1 a mod]n ^w inv5t$ by ,haeckel 7,evolution ( ,man7 = ! doctr9e ( purposelessness1 z oppos$ to ! philosophical doctr9e ( design 7,teleology74 ,,dzung>ia1 ,,dsong>ia1 or ,,jung>ia1 a =m] ,mongolian k+dom ( ,c5tral ,asia1 rais$ to its highe/ pit* by ,kaldan or ,bu%tu ,khan 9 ! latt] half ( ! #ag? c5tury1 b completely de/roy$ by ,*9ese invasion ab\t #ageg-agei4 ,x has play$ an important "p 9 ! hi/ory ( ,mongolia & ! great migrations ( ,mongolian /ems we/w>d4 ,n[ its t]ritory belongs p>tly to ! ,*9ese empire 7ea/ ,turke/an & nor?-we/]n ,mongolia7 & p>tly to ,russian ,turke/an 7prov9ces ( ,semirye*5sk & ,semipalat9sk74 ,x d]iv$ its "n f ! ,dsong>s1 or ,song>s1 :o 7 s call$ because !y =m$ ! left w+ 7dson1 left2 g>1 h&7 ( ! ,mongolian army4 ,its wide/ limit includ$ ,ka%g>1 ,y>k&1 ,khotan1 ! :ole region ( ! ,t'i5 ,%an1 or ,tian-%an1 ,m\nta9s1 & 9 %ort ! great] proportion ( t "p ( ,c5tral ,asia :i* ext5ds f #ce deg4 to #ej deg4 ,n4 & f #gb deg4 to #ig deg4 ,e4 ,! "n1 h[ev]1 is m prop]ly appli$ only to ! pres5t ,*9ese prov9ce ( ,t'i5 ,%an-pei-lu & ! c\ntry wat]$ by ! ,ili4 ,z a political or geographical t]m x has practically disappe>$ f ! map2 b ! range ( m\nta9s /ret*+ nor?-ea/ along ! s\!rn fronti] ( ! ,l& ( ! ,sev5 ,/reams1 z ! di/rict to ! s\?-ea/ ( ! ,balkha% ,lake is call$1 pres]ves ! "n ( ,dzung>ian ,range4 ,e ,! fif? symbol 9 ! ,engli% alphabet occupies also ! same position 9 ,pho5ician & 9 ! o!r alphabets desc5d$ f ,pho5ician4 ,z ! ,semitic alphabet did n repres5t v[els1 ,e 0 orig9ally an aspirate4 ,its e>lie/ =m1 :ile writ+ is /ill f "r to left1 is symbol1 ! upright be+ cont9u$ "s di/ance bel[ ! l[e/ ( ! cross-/rokes4 ,9 "s ( ! ,greek alphabets x appe>s z symbol ) ! upright prolong$ at bo? top & bottom1 b x soon took ! =m ) :i* we are famili>1 ?\gh 9 ! e>li] examples ( ?is =m ! cross-/rokes are n horizontal b drop at an angle1 symbol4 ,9 ,cor9? & places "u its e>ly influ5ce l ,meg>a1 or coloniz$ f x l ,corcyra1 ! symbol = e takes ! =m symbol or symbol1 :ile at ,sicyon 9 ! #f? & #e? c5turies ,b4,c4 x is repres5t$ by symbol4 ,9 e>ly ,lat9 x 0 sometimes repres5t$ by two p]p5dicul> /rokes ( equal l5g?1 symbol4 ,9 ! e>lie/ ,greek inscriptions & always 9 ,lat9 ! symbol ,e repres5t$ bo? ! %ort & ! long e-s\nd4 ,9 ,greek also x 0 (t5 us$ = ! close long s\nd :i* arose ei!r by contraction ( two %ort e-s\nds or by ! loss ( a consonant1 aft] a %ort e-s\nd1 z 9 ,greek3 phileite1 y love1 = ,greek3 phileete1 & ,greek3 phae9os1 bright1 out ( an e>li] ,greek3 phaesnos4 ,! ,ionian ,greeks ( ,asia ,m9or1 :o _h altoge!r lo/ ! aspirate1 7 ! fir/ to use ! symbol ,h = ! long e-s\nd1 & 9 (ficial docum5ts at ,a!ns d[n to #djc ,b4,c41 :5 ! ,greek alphabet z /ill kn[n 0 adopt$ by ! /ate1 ,e repres5t$ epsilon1 eta & ! s\nd aris+ by contraction or consonant loss z m5tion$ above :i* h5ce=? 0 writt5 ) two symbols1 ,greek3 ei1 & be+ really a s+le s\nd is kn[n z ! spuri\s diph?ong4 ,!re 7 "s m9or di/9ctions 9 usage ( ! symbols ,e & ,h :i* ne$ n "h be giv5 9 detail4 ,! anci5t ,greek "n 0 ,greek3 ei1 n ,epsilon z popul>ly suppos$2 ! names ( ! ,greek lett]s are giv5 f ,kallias1 an e>li] contempor>y ( ,euripides1 9 ,a!naeus x4 p4 #dec d4 ,9 ,greek ! %ort e-s\nd to :i* ,e 0 ultimately limit$ 0 a close s\nd incl9+ m t[>ds i ?an a2 h5ce ! repres5tation ( ! contraction ( ,greek3 ee by ,greek3 ei4 ,its value 9 ,lat9 0 exactly ! opposite1 ! ,lat9 %ort e be+ op51 & ! long close4 ,9 ,engli% !re has be5 a gradual n>r[+ ( ! long v[els1 a becom+ approximately ei & e becom+ i 7,sweet1 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,s\nds1 ,sec4,sec4 #gha1 #hag ff4 #bnd ed474 ,9 languages :]e ! diph?ong ai has become a monoph?ong1 ! result+ s\nd is "s v>iety ( long e4 ,(t5 ! gradual assimilation c be trac$ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /age ( ae to e1 z 9 ! ,old ,lat9 aidilis1 :i* 9 classical ,lat9 is a$ilis1 & 9 m$ieval ,,mss4 edilis4 ,! v>iety ( spell+ 9 ,engli% = ! long & %ort e-s\nds is conv5i5tly illu/rat$ 9 ,miss ,soames's ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,phonetics1 pp4 #af & #bj4 7,p4 ,gi47 ,,ea 7writt5 by means ( two signs signify+ h\se & wat]71 9 ! ,babylonian religion1 orig9ally ! patron deity ( ,eridu1 situat$ 9 anci5t times at ! head ( ! ,p]sian ,gulf1 b n[1 by reason ( ! con/ant accumulation ( soil 9 ! ,euphrates valley1 at "s di/ance f ! gulf4 ,eridu1 mean+ ! good city1 0 "o ( ! olde/ settlem5ts 9 ! ,euphrates valley1 & is n[ repres5t$ by ! m\nds kn[n z ,abu ,%ahre94 ,9 ! abs5ce ( excavations on t site1 we are dep5d5t = our k ( ,ea on mat]ial f\nd else:]e4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 suffici5t to enable u to /ate def9itely t ,ea 0 a wat]-deity1 & !re is e reason to believe t ! ,p]sian ,gulf 0 ! body ( wat] m p>ticul>ly sacr$ to him4 ,:e!r ,ea 7or ,a-e z "s s*ol>s pref]7 repres5ts ! real pronunciation ( 8 "n we d n "k4 ,all attempts to connect ,ea ) ,yah & ,yahweh are idle conjectures )\t any sub/antial basis4 ,he is figur$ z a man cov]$ ) ! body ( a fi%1 & ?is repres5tation1 z likewise ! "n ( 8 temple ,e-apsu1 h\se ( ! wat]y deep1 po9ts decid$ly to 8 "* z a god ( ! wat]s 7see ,,oannes74 ,( 8 cult at ,eridu1 :i* rev]ts to ! olde/ p]iod ( ,babylonian hi/ory1 no?+ def9ite is kn[n beyond ! fact t ! "n ( 8 temple 0 ,e-saggila1 ! l(ty h\se--po9t+ to a /ag$ t[] z 9 ! case ( ! temple ( ,bel 7q4v47 at ,nippur1 kn[n z ,e-,kur1 i4e4 m\nta9 h\se--& t incantations1 involv+ c]emonial rites1 9 :i* wat] z a sacr$ elem5t play$ a prom95t "p1 =m$ a feature ( 8 wor%ip4 ,:e!r ,eridu at "o "t also play$ an important political role is n c]ta91 ?\gh n improbable4 ,at all ev5ts1 ! prom95ce ( ! ,ea cult l$1 z 9 ! case ( ,nippur1 to ! survival ( ,eridu z a sacr$ city1 long aft] x _h ceas$ to h any significance z a political c5tre4 ,my?s 9 :i* ,ea figures prom95tly h be5 f\nd 9 ,assur-bani-pal's libr>y1 indicat+ t ,ea 0 reg>d$ z ! protector & tea*] ( mank9d4 ,he is ess5tially a god ( civilization1 & x 0 natural t he 0 also look$ ^u z ! creator ( man1 & ( ! _w 9 g5]al4 ,traces ( ?is view appe> 9 ! ,m>duk epic celebrat+ ! a*ievem5ts ( ?is god1 & ! close connexion betwe5 ! ,ea cult at ,eridu & t ( ,m>duk also foll[s f two consid]ations3 7#a7 t ! "n ( ,m>duk's sanctu>y at ,babylon be>s ! same "n1 ,e-saggila1 z t ( ,ea 9 ,eridu1 & 7#b7 t ,m>duk is g5]ally t]m$ ! son ( ,ea1 :o d]ives 8 p[]s f ! volunt>y abdication ( ! fa!r 9 fav\r ( 8 son4 ,accord+ly1 ! incantations orig9ally compos$ = ! ,ea cult 7 re-edit$ by ! prie/s ( ,babylon & adapt$ to ! wor%ip ( ,m>duk1 &1 simil>ly1 ! hymns to ,m>duk betray traces ( ! transf] ( attributes to ,m>duk :i* orig9ally belong$ to ,ea4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 m p>ticul>ly z ! ?ird figure 9 ! triad1 ! two o!r memb]s ( :i* 7 ,anu 7q4v47 & ,bel 7q4v471 t ,ea acquires 8 p]man5t place 9 ! pan!on4 ,to him 0 assign$ ! control ( ! wat]y elem5t1 & 9 ?is capacity he becomes ! %> apsi1 i4e4 k+ ( ! ,apsu or ! deep4 ,! ,apsu 0 figur$ z an ocean encircl+ ! e>?1 & s9ce ! ga!r+ place ( ! dead1 kn[n z ,aralu1 0 situat$ ne> ! conf9es ( ! ,apsu1 he 0 also designat$ z ,en-,ki1 i4e4 "l ( t :i* is bel[1 9 contra/ to ,anu1 :o 0 ! "l ( ! above or ! heav5s4 ,! cult ( ,ea ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ,babylonia & ,assyria4 ,we f9d temples & %r9es erect$ 9 8 hon\r1 e4g4 at ,nippur1 ,girsu1 ,ur1 ,babylon1 ,sipp> & ,n9eveh1 & ! num]\s epi!ts giv5 to him1 z well z ! v>i\s =ms "u :i* ! god appe>s1 alike be> witness to ! popul>ity :i* he enjoy$ f ! e>lie/ to ! late/ p]iod ( ,babylonian-,assyrian hi/ory4 ,! consort ( ,ea1 kn[n z ,damk9a1 lady ( t :i* is bel[1 or ,n9-,ki1 hav+ ! same mean+1 or ,damgal-nunna1 great lady ( ! wat]s1 repres5ts a pale reflection ( ,ea & plays a "p m]ely 9 association ) h] "l4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,eabani1 ! "n ( ! fri5d ( ,gilgame%1 ! h]o 9 ! ,babylonian epic 7see ,,gilgame%1 ,,epic ,,(74 ,eabani1 ^: "n signifies ,ea creates1 po9t+ to ! tradition :i* made ! god ,ea 7q4v47 ! creator ( mank9d1 is repres5t$ 9 ! epic z ! type ( ! primeval man4 ,he is a wild man :o lives ) ! animals ( ! field until lur$ away f 8 surr\nd+s by ! *>ms ( a woman4 ,creat$ to become a rival to ,gilgame%1 he /rikes up a fri5d%ip ) ! h]o1 & toge!r !y proce$ to a c$> =e/ gu>d$ by ,khumbaba1 :om !y kill4 ,! goddess ,irn9a 7a =m ( ,i%t>1 q4v47 9 rev5ge kills ,eabani1 & ! balance ( ! epic is tak5 up ) ,gilgame%'s lam5t = 8 fri5d1 8 w&]+s 9 que/ ( a remote ance/or1 ,ut-,napi%tim1 f :om he hopes to le>n h[ he may escape ! fate ( ,eabani1 & 8 f9ally le>n+ f 8 fri5d ( ! sad fate 9 /ore = all mortals except ! fav\rites ( ! god1 l ,ut-,napi%tim1 to :om immortal life is v\*saf$ z a special boon4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,ea*>d1 ,,john 7#afcf8-afig71 ,engli% div9e1 0 born 9 ,suffolk1 & 0 educat$ at ,ca?>9e ,hall1 ,cambridge1 ( :i* he became ma/] 9 #afge 9 succession to ,john ,lightfoot4 ,he 0 creat$ ,d4,d4 9 #afgf by royal m&ate1 & 0 twice 79 #afgi & #afie7 vice-*ancellor ( ! univ]sity4 ,he di$ on ! #g? ( ,july #afig4 ,9 #afgj he _h publi%$ anonym\sly a humor\s satire entitl$ ,! ,gr\nd & ,occasions ( ! ,contempt ( ! ,cl]gy enquir$ into 9 a lett] to ,r4 ,l41 :i* excit$ mu* att5tion & provok$ sev]al replies1 "o ( !m be+ f ,john ,ow54 ,^! 7 met by ,"s ,obs]vations1 c41 9 a second lett] to ,r4 ,l4 7#afga71 writt5 9 ! same bant]+ tone z ! orig9al "w4 ,ea*>d attribut$ ! contempt into :i* ! cl]gy _h fall5 to _! imp]fect education1 _! insuffici5t incomes1 & ! want ( a true vocation4 ,8 descriptions1 :i* 7 some:at exagg]at$1 7 l>gely us$ by ,macaulay 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,he gave amus+ illu/rations ( ! absurdity & pov]ty ( ! curr5t pulpit oratory ( 8 day1 "s ( !m be+ tak5 f ! s]mons ( 8 own fa!r4 ,he attack$ ! philosophy ( ,hobbes 9 8 ,mr ,hobb's ,/ate ( ,nature consid]$2 9 a dialogue betwe5 ,philautus & ,timo?y 7#afgb71 & 9 8 ,"s ,op9ions ( ,mr ,hobbs consid]$ 9 a second dialogue 7#afgc74 ,^! 7 writt5 9 _! au?or's *os5 ve9 ( light satire1 & ,dryd5 prais$ !m z highly effective )9 _! own range4 ,ea*>d's own s]mons1 h[ev]1 7 n sup]ior to ^? he satiriz$4 ,swift 7,works1 xii4 #bgi7 alludes to him z a signal in/ance ( a successful humori/ :o entirely fail$ z a s]i\s writ]4 ,a collect$ edition ( 8 works 9 ?ree volumes1 ) a notice ( 8 life1 0 publi%$ 9 #aggd4 ,! ,contempt ( ! ,cl]gy 0 repr9t$ 9 ,e4 ,arb]'s ,engli% ,g>n]4 ,a ,free ,enquiry into ! ,causes ( ! v great ,e/eem t ! ,noncon=m+ ,prea*]s are g5]ally 9 ) _! ,foll[]s 7#afgc7 has be5 attribut$ to ,ea*>d on insuffici5t gr\nds4 ,,eadbald 7d4 #fdj71 k+ ( ,k5t1 succe$$ to ! ?rone on ! dea? ( 8 fa!r ,a,ethelberht 9 #faf4 ,he _h n be5 influ5c$ by ! tea*+ ( ! ,*ri/ian mission>ies1 & 8 fir/ /ep on 8 accession 0 to m>ry 8 fa!r's wid[4 ,aft] 8 subsequ5t conv]sion by ,laur5tius1 ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 he recall$ ! bi%ops ,mellitus & ,ju/us1 & built a *ur* d$icat$ to ! ,virg9 at ,cant]bury4 ,he arrang$ a m>riage betwe5 8 si/] ,a,ethelberg & ,edw9 ( ,nor?umbria1 on ^: defeat & dea? 9 #fcc he receiv$ 8 si/] & ,paul9us1 & (f]$ ! latt] ! bi%opric ( ,ro*e/]4 ,eadbald m>ri$ ,emma1 a ,franki% pr9cess1 & di$ on ! #bj? ( ,janu>y #fdj4 ,see ,b$e1 ,hi/oria ecclesia/ica 7ed4 ,c4 ,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahif72 ,saxon ,*ronicle 7ed4 ,j4 ,e>le & ,c4 ,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahii74 ,,eadie1 ,,john 7#ahaj-ahgf71 ,scotti% !ologian & biblical critic1 0 born at ,alva1 9 ,/irl+%ire1 on ! #i? ( ,may #ahaj4 ,hav+ tak5 ! arts curriculum at ,glasg[ ,univ]sity1 he /udi$ = ! m9i/ry at ! ,div9ity ,hall ( ! ,secession ,*ur*1 a diss5t+ body :i*1 on its union a few ye>s lat] ) ! ,relief ,*ur*1 adopt$ ! title ,unit$ ,presbyt]ian4 ,9 #ahce he became m9i/] ( ! ,cambridge ,/reet ,secession *ur* 9 ,glasg[1 & = _m ye>s he 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z ! lead+ repres5tative ( 8 d5om9ation 9 ,glasg[4 ,z a prea*]1 ?\gh he 0 n eloqu5t1 he 0 di/+ui%$ by good s5se1 e>ne/ness & bread? ( sympa?y4 ,9 #ahfc he remov$ ) a portion ( 8 congregation to a new *ur* at ,lansd[ne ,cresc5t4 ,9 #ahdc ,eadie 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( biblical lit]ature & h]m5eutics 9 ! ,div9ity ,hall ( ! ,unit$ ,presbyt]ian body4 ,he held ?is appo9tm5t along ) 8 m9i/]ial *>ge till ! close ( 8 life4 ,?\gh n a pr(\nd s*ol>1 he 0 surpass$ by few biblical comm5tators ( 8 day 9 range ( le>n+1 & 9 s\ndness ( judgm5t4 ,9 ! pr(essor's *air1 z 9 ! pulpit1 8 /r5g? lay 9 ! tact ) :i* he select$ ! s\nde/ results ( biblical criticism1 :e!r 8 own or t ( o!rs1 & pres5t$ !m 9 a cle> & connect$ =m1 ) a con/ant view to _! practical be>+4 ,he receiv$ ! degree ( ,,ll4,d4 f ,glasg[ 9 #ahdd1 & t ( ,d4,d4 f ,/ ,&rews 9 #ahej4 ,8 publications 7 connect$ ) biblical criticism & int]pretation1 "s ( !m be+ = popul> use & o!rs m /rictly sci5tific4 ,to ! =m] class belong ! ,biblical ,cyclopa$ia1 8 edition ( ,crud5's ,concordance1 8 ,e>ly ,ori5tal ,hi/ory1 & 8 disc\rses on ! ,div9e ,love & on ,paul ! ,prea*]2 to ! latt] 8 comm5t>ies on ! ,greek text ( ,/ ,paul's epi/les to ! ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philippians & ,galatians1 publi%$ at int]vals 9 f\r volumes4 ,8 la/ "w 0 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,bible 7#b vols41 #ahgf74 ,he r5d]$ good s]vice z "o ( ! revis]s ( ! au?oriz$ v]sion4 ,he di$ at ,glasg[ on ! #crd ( ,june #ahgf4 ,8 valuable libr>y 0 b\ght & pres5t$ to ! ,unit$ ,presbyt]ian ,college4 ,,eadm]1 or ,,edm] 7c4 #ajfj-;c4 #aabd71 ,engli% hi/orian & ecclesia/ic1 0 probably1 z 8 "n sugge/s1 ( ,engli%1 & n ( ,norman p>5tage4 ,he became a monk 9 ! ,b5$ict9e mona/]y ( ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 ,cant]bury1 :]e he made ! acqua9tance ( ,anselm1 at t "t visit+ ,engl& z abbot ( ,bec4 ,! intimacy 0 r5ew$ :5 ,anselm became ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury 9 #ajic2 !nce=w>d ,eadm] 0 n only 8 disciple & foll[]1 b 8 fri5d & director1 be+ =mally appo9t$ to ?is position by ,pope ,urban ,,ii4 ,9 #aabj he 0 nom9at$ to ! ar*bi%opric ( ,/ ,&rews1 b z ! ,scots w\ld n recognize ! au?ority ( ! see ( ,cant]bury he 0 nev] consecrat$1 & soon aft]w>ds he resign$ 8 claim to ! ar*bi%opric4 ,8 dea? is g5]ally assign$ to ! ye> #aabd4 ,eadm] left a l>ge numb] ( writ+s1 ! mo/ important ( :i* is 8 ,hi/oriae novorum1 a "w :i* deals ma9ly ) ! hi/ory ( ,engl& betwe5 #ajff & #aabb4 ,al?\gh conc]n$ pr9cipally ) ecclesia/ical affairs s*ol>s agree 9 reg>d+ ! ,hi/oriae z "o ( ! able/ & mo/ valuable writ+s ( its k9d4 ,x 0 fir/ edit$ by ,john ,seld5 9 #afbc &1 ) ,eadm]'s ,vita ,anselmi1 has be5 edit$ by ,m>t9 ,rule = ! ,rolls ,s]ies 7,london1 #ahhd74 ,! ,vita ,anselmi1 fir/ pr9t$ at ,antw]p 9 #aeea1 is probably ! be/ life ( ! sa9t4 ,less notewor?y are ,eadm]'s lives ( ,/ ,dun/an1 ,/ ,bregw91 ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 & ,/ ,oswald1 ar*bi%op ( ,york2 ^! are all pr9t$ 9 ,h5ry ,:>ton's ,anglia ,sacra1 "p ii4 7#afia71 :]e a li/ ( ,eadm]'s writ+s w be f\nd4 ,! manuscripts ( mo/ ( ,eadm]'s works are pres]v$ 9 ! libr>y ( ,corpus ,*ri/i ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,see ,m4 ,rule1 ,on ,eadm]'s ,elaboration ( ! fir/ f\r ,books ( ,hi/oriae novorum 7#ahhf72 & ,p]e ,ragey1 ,eadm] 7,p>is1 #ahib74 ,,eads1 ,,james ,,bu*anan 7#ahbj-ahhg71 ,am]ican eng9e]1 0 born at ,lawr5ceburg1 ,indiana1 on ! #bcrd ( ,may #ahbj4 ,8 fir/ eng9e]+ "w ( any importance 0 9 rais+ sunk5 /eam]s4 ,9 #ahde he e/abli%$ glass works 9 ,/ ,l\is4 ,dur+ ! ,civil ,w> he con/ruct$ ironclad /eam]s & mort> boats = ! ,f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,8 next important eng9e]+ a*ievem5t 0 ! con/ruction ( ! great /eel ar* bridge across ! ,mississippi at ,/ ,l\is 7see ,,bridge1 fig4 #bi71 ^u :i* he 0 engag$ f #ahfg till #ahgd4 ,! "w1 h[ev]1 ^u :i* 8 reputation pr9cipally re/s 0 8 deep5+ & fix+ ! *annel at ! m\?s ( ! ,mississippi by means ( jetties1 :]eby ! n>r[$ /ream 0 made to sc\r out its own *annel & c>ry ! s$im5t out to sea4 ,%ortly be=e 8 dea? he project$ a s*eme = a %ip railway across ! ,i/hmus ( ,tehuantepec1 9 lieu ( an i/hmian canal4 ,he di$ at ,nassau1 9 ! ,bahamas1 on ! #h? ( ,m>* #ahhg4 ,,eagle 7,fr4 aigle1 f ! ,lat4 aquila71 ! "n g5]ally giv5 to ! l>g] diurnal birds ( prey :i* are n vultures2 b ! limits ( ! subfamily ,aquil9ae h be5 v v>i\sly assign$ by diff]5t writ]s on sy/ematic orni?ology1 & !re are eagles small] ?an c]ta9 buzz>ds4 ,by "s au?orities ! ,laemm]gei] ( ! ,alps1 & o!r high m\nta9s ( ,europe1 ,nor? ,africa & ,asia1 is acc\nt$ an eagle1 b by o!rs ! g5us ,gypaetus is plac$ ) ! ,vulturidae z its common ,engli% "n 7be>d$ vulture7 %[s4 ,!re are also o!r =ms1 su* z ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,h>pyia & its allies1 :i* ?\gh g5]ally call$ eagles h be5 rank$ z buzz>ds4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any truly sci5tific def9ition ( ! family ,aquil9ae x is be/ to leave ^! & _m o!r m or less que/ionable memb]s ( ! gr\p--su* z ! g5]a ,spizaetus1 ,circaetus1 ,spilornis1 ,helot>sus1 & s =?--& to treat "h ( ^? ^: position _c be ga9said4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,sea-,eagle4 ,true eagles inhabit all ! regions ( ! _w1 & "s sev5 or eight species at lea/ are f\nd 9 ,europe1 ( :i* two are resid5t 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,9 ,engl& & 9 ! ,l[l&s ( ,scotl& eagles only exi/ z /raggl]s2 b 9 ! ,hebrides & "s p>ts ( ! ,highl&s a good _m may yet be f\nd1 & _! numb]s appe> to h r increas$ ( late ye>s ?an dim9i%$2 = ! =e/]s & %eph]ds1 f9d+ t a high price c be got = _! eggs1 take c>e to protect ! own]s ( ! eyries1 :i* are ne>ly all well kn[n1 & to keep up ! /ock by all[+ !m at times to re> _! "y4 ,!re are also n[ n a few occupi]s ( ,scotti% =e/s :o int]f]e s f> z !y c to protect ! k+ ( birds4#a ,9 ,irel& ! extirpation ( eagles seems to h be5 c>ri$ on almo/ unaffect$ by ! prud5t consid]ations :i* 9 ! nor!rn k+dom h op]at$ s fav\rably = ! race1 & except 9 ! wilde/ p>ts ( ,donegal1 ,mayo & ,k]ry1 eagles 9 ! si/] isl& are almo/ birds ( ! pa/4 ,( ! two ,briti% species ! erne 7,icel4 ,o]n7 or sea-eagle 7by "s call$ also ! :ite-tail$ & c9]e\s eagle7--,haliaetus albicilla--affects *iefly ! coa/ & neighb\rhood ( inl& wat]s1 liv+ 9 great "p on ! fi% & refuse t is ?r[n up on ! %ore1 ?\gh x n unfrequ5tly takes liv+ prey1 su* z lambs1 h>es & rabbits4 ,on ^! la/1 inde$1 "y examples mo/ly fe$ :5 !y w&] s\?w>d 9 autumn1 z !y ye>ly d1 & appe> 9 ,engl&4 ,! adults 7fig4 #a7 are di/+ui%$ by _! preval5t greyi%-br[n col\r1 _! pale head1 yell[ beak & :ite tail--*>act]s1 h[ev]1 want+ 9 ! immature1 :i* d n assume ! p]fect plumage = "s ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,! eyry is commonly plac$ 9 a high cliff or on an isl& 9 a lake--sometimes on ! gr\nd1 at o!rs 9 a tree--& consi/s ( a va/ mass ( /icks 9 ! mid/ ( :i* is =m$ a holl[ l9$ ) ,luzula sylvatica 7z fir/ obs]v$ by ,john ,wolley7 or "s simil> grass1 & "h are laid ! two or ?ree :ite eggs4 ,9 =m] days ! sea-eagle seems to h br$ 9 sev]al p>ts ( ,engl&--z ! ,lake di/rict1 & possibly ev5 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight & on ,d>tmoor4 ,?is species inhabits all ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,old ,_w f ,icel& to ,kam*atka1 & bre$s 9 ,europe s f> to ! s\?w>d z ,albania4 ,9 ! ,new ,_w1 h[ev]1 x is only f\nd 9 ,gre5l&1 be+ else:]e replac$ by ! :ite-head$ or bald eagle1 ,h4 leucocephalus1 a bird ( simil> habits1 & ! *os5 emblem ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,9 ! f> ea/ ( ,asia occurs a /ill l>g] & f9] sea-eagle1 ,h4 pelagicus1 rem>kable = its :ite ?ighs & upp] w+-cov]ts4 ,s\?-ea/]n ,europe & ,india furni% a mu* small] species1 ,h4 leucoryphus1 :i* has its repres5tative1 ,h4 leucoga/]1 9 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago & ,au/ralia1 &1 z allies 9 ,s\? ,africa & ,madagasc>1 ,h4 vocif] & ,h4 vocif]oides respectively4 ,all ^! eagles may be di/+ui%$ by _! scaly t>si1 :ile ! gr\p next to be treat$ ( h ! t>si fea!r$ to ! toes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,m\nta9-,eagle4 ,! gold5 or m\nta9 eagle1 ,aquila *rysaetus1 is ! second ,briti% species4 ,?is also =m]ly inhabit$ ,engl&1 & a ne/1 f\nd 9 #affh 9 ! ,peak ( ,d]by%ire1 is well describ$ by ,willughby1 9 ^: "t x 0 said to bre$ also 9 ! ,sn[don range4 ,x seldom if ev] frequ5ts ! coa/1 & is m active on ! w+ ?an ! sea-eagle1 be+ able to take "s birds z !y fly1 b a l>ge "p ( its su/5ance is ! fle% ( animals t die a natural dea?4 ,its eyry is g5]ally plac$ & built l t ( ! o!r ,briti% species1#b b ! neighb\rhood ( wat] is n requisite4 ,! eggs1 f two to f\r 9 numb]1 v>y f a pure :ite to a mottl$1 & (t5 highly col\r$1 surface1 on :i* appe> diff]5t %ades ( r$ & purple4 ,! adult bird 7fig4 #b7 is ( a ri* d>k br[n1 ) ! elongat$ fea!rs ( ! neck1 especially on ! nape1 light tawny1 9 :i* imag9ation sees a gold5 hue1 & ! tail m>bl$ ) br[n & a%y-grey4 ,9 ! "y ! tail is :ite at ! base1 & ! neck has sc>cely any tawny t9t4 ,! gold5 eagle does n occur 9 ,icel&1 b occupies suitable situations ov] ! re/ ( ! ,palae>ctic ,region & a consid]able portion ( ! ,ne>ctic--?\gh ! ,am]ican bird has be51 by "s1 consid]$ a di/9ct species4 ,dome/icat$1 x has _m times be5 tra9$ to take prey = its ma/] 9 ,europe1 & to ?is species is ?\ght to belong an eagle habitually us$ by ! ,kirghiz ,tat>s1 :o call x ,b]gut or ,be>coot1 = ! capture ( antelopes1 foxes & wolves4 ,x is c>ri$ hood$ on horseback or on a p]* betwe5 two m51 & releas$ :5 ! qu>ry is 9 sight4 ,su* a bird1 :5 well tra9$1 is valu$1 says ,p4,s4 ,pallas1 at ! price ( two camels4 ,x is q possible1 h[ev]1 t m ?an "o k9d ( eagle is ?us us$1 & ! s]vices ( ,a4 heliaca 7:i* is ! imp]ial eagle ( "s writ]s#c7 & ( ,a4 mogilnik--bo? ( :i* are f\nd 9 c5tral ,asia1 z well z 9 s\?-ea/]n ,europe--may also be employ$4 ,a small] =m ( eagle1 :i* has usually gone "u ! "n ( ,a4 naevia1 is n[ ?\ght by ! be/ au?orities to include ?ree local races1 or1 9 ! eyes ( "s1 species4 ,!y inhabit ,europe1 ,nor? ,africa & we/]n ,asia to ,india1 & two examples ( "o ( !m--,a4 clanga1 ! =m :i* is some:at pl5tiful 9 nor?-ea/]n ,g]many--h occurr$ 9 ,cornwall4 ,! smalle/ true eagle is ,a4 p5nata1 :i* inhabits s\!rn ,europe1 ,africa & ,india4 ,diff]+ f o!r eagles ( _! g5us by its w$ge-%ap$ tail1 ?\gh o!rwise greatly resembl+ !m1 is ! ,a4 audax ( ,au/ralia4 ,la/ly may be notic$ "h a small gr\p ( eagles1 *>act]iz$ by _! long legs1 =m+ ! g5us ,nisaetus1 ( :i* "o species1 ,n4 fasciatus1 is f\nd 9 ,europe4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,"l ,breadalbane 7d4 #ahga7 0 p]haps ! fir/ l>ge l&[n] :o set ! example t has be5 s9ce foll[$ by o!rs4 ,on 8 unrivall$ =e/ ( ,black ,m\nt1 eagles--else:]e p]secut$ to ! dea?--7 by him ord]$ to be unmole/$ s long z !y 7 n num]\s en\gh to cause consid]able depr$ations on ! f>m]s' flocks4 ,he ?\ght t ! spectacle ( a so>+ eagle 0 a fitt+ adjunct to ! gr&eur ( 8 ,argyll%ire m\nta9 sc5]y1 & a good equival5t = ! occasional loss ( a lamb1 or ! slight d$uction f ! r5t paid by 8 t5antry 9 consequ5ce4 #b ,z already /at$1 ! site *os5 v>ies greatly4 ,occasionally plac$ 9 a ni*e 9 :at passes = a p]p5dicul> cliff to :i* access c\ld only be ga9$ by a skilful cragsman ) a rope1 ! writ] has kn[n a ne/ to )9 #aj or #ae yds4 ( :i* he rode on a pony4 ,two beautiful views ( z _m gold5 eagles' ne/s1 drawn on ! spot by ,joseph ,wolf1 are giv5 9 ! ,oo!ca ,wolleyana1 & a f9e s]ies ( eggs is also figur$ 9 ! same "w4 #c ,:i* species may h be5 ! traditional emblem ( ,roman p[]1 & ! ,ales ,jovis1 is v unc]ta94 ,,eaglehawk1 a bor\gh ( ,b5digo c\nty1 ,victoria1 ,au/ralia1 #aje m4 by rail ,n4,n4,w4 ( ,melb\rne & #d m4 f ,b5digo1 ) :i* x is connect$ by /eam tramway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hacj4 ,x /&s on ! ,b5digo gold-be>+ reef1 & its m9es are important4 ,,eagre 7a ^w ( obscure orig92 ! e>lie/ =m seems to be higre1 ,lat9iz$ z higra1 :i* ,william ( ,malmesbury gives z ! "n ( ! bore 9 ! ,sev]n2 ! ,new ,engli% ,diction>y rejects ! usual d]ivations f ! ,o4 ,eng4 eagor or egor1 :i* is se5 9 comp\nds mean+ flood1 & also ! connexion ) ! ,norse sea-god ,aegir71 a tide wave ( great height ru%+ up an e/u>y 7see ,,bore71 us$ locally ( ! ,humb] & ,tr5t4 ,,eak9s1 ,,?omas 7#ahdd- 71 ,am]ican portrait & figure pa9t]1 0 born at ,philadelphia1 on ! #be? ( ,july #ahdd4 ,a pupil ( ,j4,l4 ,g]ome1 9 ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ,p>is1 & ,also ( ,leon ,bonnat1 besides work+ 9 ! /udio ( ! sculptor ,dumont1 he became a prolific portrait pa9t]4 ,he also pa9t$ g5re pictures1 s5d+ to ! ,c5t5nial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia1 9 #ahgf1 ! ,*ess ,play]s1 n[ 9 ! ,metropolitan ,museum ( ,art1 ,new ,york4 ,a l>ge canvas1 ,! ,surgical ,cl9ic ( ,pr(essor ,gross1 own$ by ,jeff]son ,m$ical ,college1 ,philadelphia1 conta9s _m life-siz$ figures4 ,eak9s1 ) 8 pupil ,samuel ,murray 7b4 #ahgj71 modell$ ! h]oic ,prophets = ! ,)]spoon ,build+1 ,philadelphia1 & 8 "w 9 pa9t+ has a decid$ sculptural quality4 ,he 0 = "s ye>s pr(essor ( anatomy at ! s*ools ( ! ,p5nsylvania ,academy ( ,f9e ,arts 9 ,philadelphia4 ,a man ( great inv5tiv5ess1 he exp]im5t$ 9 _m directions1 depict+ on canvas mod]n a?letic sports1 ! negro1 & e>ly ,am]ican life1 b he is be/ kn[n by 8 portraits4 ,he receiv$ aw>ds at ! ,columbian 7#ahic71 ,p>is 7#aijj71 ,pan-,am]ican 7#aijj71 & ! ,/ ,l\is 7#aijd71 ,expositions2 & won ! ,temple m$al 9 ! ,p5nsylvania ,academy ( ,f9e ,arts1 & ! ,proctor prize ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,design4 ,,eal+1 a municipal bor\gh 9 ! ,eal+ p>liam5t>y division ( ,middlesex1 ,engl&1 suburban to ,london1 #i m4 ,w4 ( ,/ ,paul's ca!dral4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #bc1igi2 7#aija7 #cc1jca4 ,! nucleus ( ! t[n1 ! anci5t village1 lies s\? ( ! highroad to ,uxbridge1 we/ ( ! op5 ,eal+ ,common4 ,! place is :olly resid5tial4 ,at ,/ ,m>y's *ur*1 almo/ :olly rebuilt c4 #ahgj1 are buri$ ,john ,oldmixon1 ! hi/orian 7d4 #agdb71 & ,horne ,tooke 7d4 #ahab74 ,! *ur* ( ,all ,sa9ts 7#aije7 commemorates ,sp5c] ,p]ceval1 prime m9i/]1 :o 0 assass9at$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons 9 #ahab4 ,x 0 erect$ "u ! w ( 8 daught] ,fr$]ica1 a resid5t ( ,eal+4 ,gunn]sbury ,p>k1 s\? ( ,eal+ ,common1 is a h&some ,italian mansion4 ,among =m] own]s ( ! prop]ty 0 ,pr9cess ,amelia1 daught] ( ,george ,,ii41 :o liv$ "h f #agfa till h] dea? 9 #aghf4 ,! "n ( ,gunn]sbury is said to be traceable to ! resid5ce "h ( ,gunilda1 niece ( ,k+ ,canute4 ,! manor ( ,eal+ e>ly belong$ to ! see ( ,london1 b x is n m5tion$ 9 ,domesday & its hi/ory is obscure4 ,,e> 7common ,teut42 ,o4,e4 e>e1 ,g]4 ,ohr1 ,du4 oor1 ak9 to ,lat4 auris1 ,gr4 ,greek3 ous71 9 anatomy1 ! organ ( he>+4 ,! human e> is divid$ into ?ree p>ts--ext]nal1 middle & int]nal4 ,! ext]nal e> consi/s ( ! p9na & ! ext]nal auditory meatus4 ,! p9na is compos$ ( a yell[ fibro-c>tilag9\s framework cov]$ by sk91 & has an ext]nal & an int]nal or cranial surface4 ,r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! ext]nal surface 9 its upp] ?ree qu>t]s is a rim call$ ! helix 7fig4 #a1 a71 9 :i* is (t5 se5 a little prom95ce kn[n z ,d>w9's tub]cle1 repres5t+ ! fold$-ov] apex ( a prick-e>$ ance/or4 ,conc5tric ) ! helix & ne>] ! meatus is ! antihelix 7c71 :i*1 above1 divides into two limbs to enclose ! triangul> fossa ( ! antihelix4 ,betwe5 ! helix & ! antihelix is ! fossa ( ! helix4 ,9 front ( ! antihelix is ! deep fossa kn[n z ! con*a 7fig4 #a1 d71 & f ! ant]ior "p ( ?is ! meatus passes inw>d into ! skull4 ,ov]lapp+ ! meatus f 9 front is a flap call$ ! tragus1 & bel[ & beh9d ?is is ano!r small] flap1 ! antitragus4 ,! l[] "p ( ! p9na is ! lobule 7e71 :i* conta9s no c>tilage4 ,on ! cranial surface ( ! p9na elevations correspond to ! con*a & to ! fossae ( ! helix & antihelix4 ,! p9na c be slightly mov$ by ! ant]ior1 sup]ior & po/]ior auricul> muscles1 & 9 addition to ^! !re are f\r small intr9sic muscles on ! ext]nal surface1 kn[n z ! helicis major & m9or1 ! tragicus & ! antitragicus1 & two on ! int]nal surface call$ ! obliquus & transv]sus4 ,! ext]nal auditory meatus 7fig4 #a1 n7 is a tube runn+ at fir/ =w>d & upw>d1 !n a little backw>d & !n =w>d & slightly d[nw>d2 ( c\rse all ! "t x is also runn+ inw>d until ! tympanic membrane is rea*$4 ,! tube is ab\t an in* long1 its out] ?ird be+ c>tilag9\s & its inn] two-?irds bony4 ,x is l9$ by sk9 9 its :ole l5g?1 ! sweat gl&s ( :i* are modifi$ to secrete ! wax or c]um54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,! ,e> z se5 9 ,section4 a1 ,helix4 m1 ,tip ( petr\s process4 b1 ,antitragus4 n1 ,ext]nal auditory meatus4 c1 ,antihelix4 o1 ,membrana tympani4 d1 ,con*a4 p1 ,tympanum4 e1 ,lobule4 #a1 po9ts to malleus4 f1 ,ma/oid process4 #b1 to incus4 g1 ,portio dura4 #c1 to /apes4 h1 ,/yloid process4 #d1 to co*lea4 k1 ,int]nal c>otid art]y4 #e1 #f1 #g1 ! ?ree semicircul> canals4 l1 ,eu/a*ian tube4 #h & #i1 facial & auditory n]ves4 ,! middle e> or tympanum 7fig4 #a1 p7 is a small cavity 9 ! temporal bone1 ! %ape ( :i* may p]haps be realiz$ by imag9+ a hock bottle subject$ to lat]al pressure 9 su* a way t its circul> section becomes triangul>1 ! base ( ! triangle be+ above4 ,! neck ( ! bottle1 also lat]ally compress$1 w repres5t ! ,eu/a*ian tube 7fig4 #a1 l71 :i* runs =w>d1 inw>d & d[nw>d1 to op5 into ! naso-ph>ynx1 & s admits air into ! tympanum4 ,! bottom ( ! bottle w repres5t ! po/]ior wall ( ! tympanum1 f ! upp] "p ( :i* an op5+ leads backw>d into ! ma/oid antrum & s into ! air-cells ( ! ma/oid process4 ,l[] d[n is a little pyramid :i* transmits ! /ap$ius muscle1 & at ! base ( ?is is a small op5+ kn[n z ! it] *ordae po/]ius1 = ! *orda tympani to come ?r\gh f ! facial n]ve4 ,! ro( is =m$ by a v ?9 plate ( bone1 call$ ! tegm5 tympani1 :i* sep>ates ! cavity f ! middle fossa ( ! skull4 ,bel[ ! ro( ! upp] "p ( ! tympanum is some:at con/rict$ (f f ! re/1 & to ?is "p ! t]m attic is (t5 appli$4 ,! floor is a m]e groove =m$ by ! meet+ ( ! ext]nal & int]nal walls4 ,! out] wall is l>gely occupi$ by ! tympanic membrane 7fig4 #a1 o71 :i* entirely sep>ates ! middle e> f ! ext]nal auditory meatus2 x is circul>1 & s plac$ t x slopes f above1 d[nw>d & inw>d1 & f beh9d1 =w>d & inw>d4 ,ext]nally x is l9$ by sk91 int]nally by muc\s membrane1 :ile betwe5 ! two is a firm fibr\s membrane1 convex inw>d ab\t its c5tre to =m ! umbo4 ,j 9 front ( ! membrane on ! out] wall is ! ,glas]ian fissure lead+ to ! gl5oid cavity1 & close to ?is is ! canal ( ,hugui] = ! *orda tympani n]ve4 ,! inn] wall %[s a promontory caus$ by ! co*lea & groov$ by ! tympanic plexus ( n]ves2 above & beh9d x is ! f5e/ra ovalis1 :ile bel[ & beh9d ! f5e/ra rotunda is se51 clos$ by a membrane4 ,curv+ r\nd1 above & beh9d ! promontory & f5e/rae1 is a ridge caus$ by ! aqu$uctus ,fallopii or canal = ! facial n]ve4 ,! :ole tympanum is ab\t half an in* f be=e backw>d1 & half an in* high1 & is spann$ f side to side by ?ree small bones1 ( :i* ! malleus 7fig4 #a1 #a7 is ! mo/ ext]nal4 ,?is is atta*$ by its h&le to ! umbo ( ! tympanic membrane1 :ile its head lies 9 ! attic & articulates po/]iorly ) ! upp] "p ( ! next bone or incus 7fig4 #a1 #b74 ,! long process ( ! incus runs d[nw>d & ends 9 a little knob call$ ! os orbicul>e1 :i* is jo9t$ on to ! /apes or /irrup bone 7fig4 #a1 #c74 ,! two bran*es ( ! /apes are ant]ior & po/]ior1 :ile ! footplate fits into ! f5e/ra ovalis & is b\nd to x by a membrane4 ,x w ?us be se5 t ! /apes lies ne>ly at "r angles to ! long process ( ! incus4 ,f ! front ( ! malleus a sl5d] process projects =w>d into ! ,glas]ian fissure1 :ile f ! back ( ! incus ! po/]ior process is direct$ backw>d & is atta*$ to ! po/]ior wall ( ! tympanum4 ,^! two processes =m a fulcrum by :i* ! lev] action ( ! malleus & incus is br\ght ab\t1 s t :5 ! h&le ( ! malleus is pu%$ 9 by ! membrane ! head moves out2 ! top ( ! incus1 atta*$ to x1 also moves out1 & ! os orbicul>e moves 91 & s ! /apes is press$ into ! f5e/ra ovalis4 ,! /ap$ius & t5sor tympanic muscles1 ! latt] ( :i* ent]s ! tympanum 9 a canal j above ! ,eu/a*ian tube to be atta*$ to ! malleus1 modify ! movem5ts ( ! ossicles4 ,! muc\s membrane l9+ ! tympanum is cont9u\s ?r\gh ! ,eu/a*ian tube ) t ( ! naso-ph>ynx1 & is reflect$ on to ! ossicles1 muscles & *orda tympani n]ve4 ,x is ciliat$ except :]e x cov]s ! membrana tympani1 ossicles & promontory2 "h x is /ratifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,diagram ( ! ,membran\s ,labyr9?4 ,,dc1 ,ductus co*le>is4 dr1 ,ductus reuni5s4 ,s1 ,sacculus4 ,u1 ,utriculus4 dv1 ,ductus endolymphaticus4 ,,sc1 ,semicircul> canals4 7,aft] ,waldey]47 ,! int]nal e> or labyr9? consi/s ( a bony & a membran\s "p1 ! latt] ( :i* is conta9$ 9 ! =m]4 ,! bony labyr9? is compos$ ( ! ve/ibule1 ! semicircul> canals & ! co*lea4 ,! ve/ibule lies j int]nal to ! po/]ior "p ( ! tympanum1 & !re w\ld be a communication betwe5 ! two1 ?r\gh ! f5e/ra ovalis1 7 x n t ! footplate ( ! /apes blocks ! way4 ,! inn] wall ( ! ve/ibule is sep>at$ f ! bottom ( ! int]nal auditory meatus by a plate ( bone pi]c$ by _m =am9a = bran*es ( ! auditory n]ve 7fig4 #a1 #i71 :ile at ! l[] "p is ! op5+ ( ! aqu$uctus ve/ibuli1 by means ( :i* a communication is e/abli%$ ) ! po/]ior cranial fossa4 ,po/]iorly ! ?ree semicircul> canals op5 into ! ve/ibule2 ( ^! ! ext]nal 7fig4 #a1 #g7 has two indep5d5t op5+s1 b ! sup]ior & po/]ior 7fig4 #a1 #e & #f7 jo9 toge!r at "o end & s h a common op5+1 :ile at _! o!r ends !y op5 sep>ately4 ,! ?ree canals h !re=e five op5+s into ! ve/ibule in/ead ( six4 ,"o end ( ea* canal is dilat$ to =m its ampulla4 ,! sup]ior semicircul> canal is v]tical1 & ! two pill>s ( its ar* are ne>ly ext]nal & int]nal2 ! ext]nal canal is horizontal1 its two pill>s be+ ant]ior & po/]ior1 :ile ! convexity ( ! ar* ( ! po/]ior canal is backw>d & its two pill>s are sup]ior & inf]ior4 ,ant]iorly ! ve/ibule leads into ! co*lea 7fig4 #a1 #d71 :i* is twi/$ two & a half times r\nd a c5tral pill> call$ ! modiolus1 ! :ole co*lea =m+ a r\nd$ cone some?+ l ! %ell ( a snail ?\gh x is only ab\t #e mm4 f base to apex4 ,project+ f ! modiolus is a horizontal plate :i* runs r\nd x f base to apex l a spiral /aircase2 ?is is kn[n z ! lam9a spiralis1 & x /ret*es ne>ly half-way across ! canal ( ! co*lea4 ,at ! summit x ends 9 a little hook nam$ ! hamulus4 ,! modiolus is pi]c$ by canals :i* transmit bran*es ( ! auditory n]ve to ! lam9a spiralis4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;cl1 ,column> cells cov]+ ! cri/a acu/ica2 p1 p]iph]al1 & c1 c5tral processes ( auditory cells2 n1 n]ve fibres4 7,aft] ,ru$+]47 ,! membran\s labyr9? lies 9 ! bony labyr9?1 b does n fill x2 betwe5 ! two is ! fluid call$ p]ilymph1 :ile inside ! membran\s labyr9? is ! endolymph4 ,9 ! bony ve/ibule lie two membran\s bags1 ! saccule 7fig4 #b1 ,s7 9 front1 & ! utricle 7fig4 #b1 ,u7 beh9d2 ea* ( ^! has a special pat* or macula to :i* twigs ( ! auditory n]ve are suppli$1 & 9 ! muc\s membrane ( :i* specializ$ hair cells are f\nd 7fig4 #c1 p74 ,atta*$ to ! maculae are cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime call$ otoconia4 ,! membran\s semicircul> canals are v mu* small] 9 section ?an ! bony2 9 ! ampulla ( ea* is a ridge1 ! cri/a acu/ica1 :i* is cov]$ by a muc\s membrane conta9+ s5sory hair cells l ^? 9 ! maculae4 ,all ! canals op5 into ! utricle4 ,f ! l[] "p ( ! saccule a small canal call$ ! ductus endolymphaticus 7fig4 #b1 dv7 runs into ! aqu$uctus ve/ibuli2 x is soon jo9$ by a small duct f ! utricle1 & ends1 close to ! dura mat] ( ! po/]ior fossa ( ! cranium1 z ! saccus endolymphaticus1 :i* may h m9ute p]=ations ?r\gh :i* ! endolymph c pass4 ,ant]iorly ! saccule communicates ) ! membran\s co*lea or scala m$ia by a %ort ductus reuni5s 7fig4 #b1 dr74 ,a section ?r\gh ea* turn ( ! co*lea %[s ! bony lam9a spiralis1 already notic$1 :i* is cont9u$ "r across ! canal by ! basil> membrane 7fig4 #d1 bm71 ?us cutt+ ! canal into an upp] & l[] half & connect$ ) ! out] wall by ! /rong spiral ligam5t 7fig4 #d1 sl74 ,ne> ! free end ( ! lam9a spiralis ano!r membrane call$ ! membrane ( ,reissn] 7fig4 #d1 m,r7 is atta*$1 & runs outw>d & upw>d to ! out] wall1 tak+ a triangul> slice out ( ! upp] half ( ! section4 ,!re are n[ ?ree canals se5 9 section1 ! upp] ( :i* is ! scala ve/ibuli 7fig4 #d1 ,,sv71 ! middle & out] ! scala m$ia1 ductus co*le>is or true membran\s co*lea 7fig4 #d1 ,,dc71 :ile ! l[] is ! scala tympani 7fig4 #d1 ,,/74 ,! scala ve/ibuli & scala tympani communicate at ! apex ( ! co*lea by an op5+ kn[n z ! helicotrema1 s t ! p]ilymph c "h pass f "o canal to ! o!r4 ,at ! base ( ! co*lea ! p]ilymph 9 ! scala ve/ibuli is cont9u\s ) t 9 ! ve/ibule1 b t 9 ! scala tympani ba!s ! inn] surface ( ! membrane /ret*$ across ! f5e/ra rotunda1 & also communicates ) ! sub>a*noid space ?r\gh ! aqu$uctus co*leae1 :i* op5s into ! po/]ior cranial fossa4 ,! scala m$ia conta9+ endolymph communicates1 z has be5 %[n1 ) ! saccule ?r\gh ! canalis reuni5s1 :ile1 at ! apex ( ! co*lea1 x ends 9 a bl9d extremity ( consid]able morphological int]e/ call$ ! lag5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,transv]se ,section ?r\gh ! ,tube ( ! ,co*lea4 m1 ,modiolus4 bm1 ,basil> membrane4 #j1 ,out] wall ( co*lea4 cs1 ,cri/a spiralis4 ,,sv1 ,scala ve/ibuli4 sl1 ,spiral ligam5t4 ,,/1 ,scala tympani4 sg1 ,spiral ganglion ( auditory n]ve4 ,,dc1 ,ductus co*le>is4 oc1 ,organ ( ,corti4 m,r1 ,membrane ( ,reissn]4 ,! scala m$ia conta9s ! ess5tial organ ( he>+ or organ ( ,corti 7fig4 #d1 oc71 :i* lies ^u ! inn] "p ( ! basil> membrane2 x consi/s ( a tunnel b\nd$ on ea* side ( ! inn] & out] rods ( ,corti2 on ea* side ( ^! are ! inn] & out] hair cells1 betwe5 ! latt] ( :i* are f\nd ! support+ cells ( ,deit]s4 ,mo/ ext]nally are ! l>ge cells ( ,h5s54 ,a delicate membrane call$ ! lam9a reticul>is cov]s ! top ( all ^!1 & is pi]c$ by ! hairs ( ! hair cells1 :ile above ?is is ! loose membrana tectoria atta*$ to ! p]io/eum ( ! lam9a spiralis1 ne> its tip1 int]nally1 & possibly to "s ( ,deit]'s cells ext]nally4 ,! co*le> bran* ( ! auditory n]ve ent]s ! lam9a spiralis1 :]e a spiral ganglion 7fig4 #d1 sg7 is develop$ on x2 aft] ?is x is di/ribut$ to ! inn] & out] hair cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,transv]se ,section ( ,corti's ,organ f ! ,c5tral ,coil ( ,co*lea 7,retzius74 7,f ,r4 ,h[d5--,cunn+ham's ,text-,book ( ,anatomy47 ,= fur!r details see ,text-,book ( ,anatomy1 edit$ by ,d4,j4 ,cunn+ham 7,ed9burgh1 #aijf72 ,qua9's ,elem5ts ( ,anatomy 7,london1 #ahic72 ,gray's ,anatomy 7,london1 #aije72 ,a ,treatise on ,anatomy1 edit$ by ,h4 ,morris 7,london1 #aijb72 ,a ,text-,book ( ,human ,anatomy1 by ,a4 ,macali/] 7,london1 #ahhi74 ,embryology4--,! p9na is =m$ f six tub]cles :i* appe> r\nd ! dorsal end ( ! hyom&ibul> cleft or1 m /rictly speak+1 p\*4 ,^? = ! tragus & ant]ior "p ( ! helix belong to ! fir/ or m&ibul> ar*1 :ile ^? = ! antitragus1 antihelix & lobule come f ! second or hyoid ar*4 ,! tub]cle = ! helix is dorsal to ! end ( ! cleft :]e ! two ar*es jo94 ,! ext]nal auditory meatus1 tympanum & ,eu/a*ian tube are rema9s ( ! hyom&ibul> cleft1 ! membrana tympani be+ a remnant ( ! cleft membrane & !re=e l9$ by ectod]m outside & entod]m inside4 ,! orig9 ( ! ossicles is v d\btful4 ,h4 ,gad['s view1 :i* is "o ( ! late/1 is t all ?ree are d]iv$ f ! hyom&ibul> plate :i* connects ! dorsal ends ( ! hyoid & m&ibul> b>s 7,anatomis*] ,anzeig]1 ,bd4 xix41 #aija1 p4 #cif74 ,o!r pap]s :i* %\ld be consult$ are ^? ( ,e4 ,gaupp1 ,anatom4 ,hefte1 ,ergebnisse1 ,bd4 #h1 #ahih1 p4 #iia1 & ,j4,a4 ,hamm>1 ,ar*iv f4 mikr4 ,anat4 lix41 #aijb4 ,^! pap]s w give a clue to ! imm5se lit]ature ( ! subject4 ,! int]nal e> fir/ appe>s z a pit f ! cephalic ectod]m1 ! m\? ( :i* 9 ,man & o!r mammals closes up1 s t a pe>-%ap$ cavity is left4 ,! /alk ( ! pe> :i* is ne>e/ ! po9t ( invag9ation is call$ ! recessus labyr9?i1 & ?is1 aft] los+ its connexion ) ! surface ( ! embryo1 gr[s backw>d t[>d ! po/]ior cranial fossa & becomes ! ductus endolymphaticus4 ,! l[] "p ( ! vesicle gr[s =w>d & becomes ! co*lea1 :ile f ! upp] "p ?ree holl[ circul> plates gr[ out1 ! c5tral p>ts ( :i* disappe>1 leav+ ! m>g9 z ! semicircul> canals4 ,subsequ5tly con/rictions appe> 9 ! vesicle m>k+ (f ! saccule & utricle4 ,f ! surr\nd+ mesod]m ! petr\s bone is =m$ by a process ( *ondrification & ossification4 ,see ,w4 ,81 ,junr41 ,ar*iv f4 ,anat4 und ,phys41 #ahhi1 supplem5t1 p4 #a2 also ,/reet]1 ,am4 ,j\rn4 ( ,anat4 vi41 #aijg4 ,comp>ative ,anatomy4--,! ectod]mal inpu%+ ( ! int]nal e> has probably a common orig9 ) ! organs ( ! lat]al l9e ( fi%4 ,9 ! l[] =ms ! ductus endolymphaticus reta9s its communication ) ! ext]ior on ! dorsum ( ! head1 & 9 "s ,elasmobran*s ! op5+ is wide en\gh to all[ ! passage ( p>ticles ( s& into ! saccule4 ,x is probable t ?is duct is ! same :i*1 tak+ a diff]5t direction & los+ its communication ) ! sk91 abuts on ! po/]ior cranial fossa ( high] =ms 7see ,rudolf ,krause1 ,die ,entwickelung des ,aq4 ve/ibuli seu d4 ,endelymphaticus1 ,anat4 ,anzeig]1 ,bd4 xix41 #aija1 p4 #di74 ,9 c]ta9 ,teleo/ean fi%es ! swim bladd] =ms a second>y communication ) ! int]nal e> by means ( special ossicles 7see ,g4 ,ridewood1 ,j\rn4 ,anat4 ,phys4 vol4 xxvi474 ,among ! ,cyclo/omata ! ext]nal semicircul> canals are want+2 ,petromyzon has ! sup]ior & po/]ior only1 :ile 9 ,myx9e ^! two appe> to be fus$ s t only "o is se54 ,9 high] types ! ?ree canals are con/ant4 ,concretions ( c>bonate ( lime are pres5t 9 ! int]nal e>s ( almo/ all v]tebrates2 :5 ^! are v small !y are call$ otoconia1 b :51 z 9 mo/ ( ! teleo/ean fi%es1 !y =m huge concretions1 !y are spok5 ( z otoli?s4 ,"o %>k1 ,squat9a1 has s& in/ead ( otoconia 7,c4 ,/ew>t1 ,j\rn4 ,l9n4 ,society1 xxix4 #dji74 ,! utricle1 saccule1 semicircul> canals1 ductus endolymphaticus & a %ort lag5a are ! only p>ts ( ! e> pres5t 9 fi%4 ,! ,amphibia h an important s5sory area at ! base ( ! lag5a kn[n z ! macula acu/ica basil>is1 :i* is probably ! fir/ rudim5t ( a true co*lea4 ,! ductus endolymphaticus has lo/ its communication ) ! sk91 b x is frequ5tly prolong$ into ! skull & along ! sp9al canal1 f :i* x protrudes1 ?r\gh ! int]v]tebral =am9a1 bulg+ into ! coelom4 ,?is is ! case 9 ! common frog 7,a4 ,coggi1 ,anat4 ,anz4 #e4 ,jahrg41 #ahij1 p4 #agg74 ,9 ?is class ! tympanum & ,eu/a*ian tube are fir/ develop$2 ! membrana tympani lies flu% ) ! sk9 ( ! side ( ! head1 & ! s\nd-waves are transmitt$ f x to ! int]nal e> by a s+le bony rod--! columella4 ,9 ! ,reptilia ! int]nal e> passes ?r\gh a great range ( developm5t4 ,9 ! ,*elonia & ,ophidia ! co*lea is z rudim5t>y z 9 ! ,amphibia1 b 9 ! high] =ms 7,crocodilia7 !re is a l5g!n$ & slightly twi/$ co*lea1 at ! end ( :i* ! lag5a =ms a m9ute t]m9al app5dage4 ,at ! same "t indications ( ! scalae tympani & ve/ibuli appe>4 ,z 9 ! ,amphibia ! ductus endolymphaticus sometimes ext5ds into ! cranial cavity & on into o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,snakes h no tympanic membrane4 ,9 ! birds ! co*lea resembles t ( ! crocodiles1 b ! po/]ior semicircul> canal is above ! sup]ior :]e !y jo9 "o ano!r4 ,9 c]ta9 liz>ds & birds 7owls7 a small fold ( sk9 repres5ts ! fir/ appe>ance ( an ext]nal e>4 ,9 ! monotremes ! int]nal e> is reptilian 9 its arrangem5t1 b above !m ! mammals always h a spirally twi/$ co*lea1 ! numb] ( turns v>y+ f "o & a half 9 ! ,cetacea to ne>ly five 9 ! rod5t ,coelog5ys4 ,! lag5a is r$uc$ to a m]e ve/ige4 ,! organ ( ,corti is peculi> to mammals1 & ! s+le columella ( ! middle e> is replac$ by ! ?ree ossicles already describ$ 9 ,man 7see ,alban ,doran1 ,morphology ( ! ,mammalian ,ossicula auditus1 ,proc4 ,l9n4 ,soc41 #ahgf-ahgg1 xiii4 #ahe2 also ,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 #bnd ,s]4 ,zool4 i4 #cga74 ,9 "s mammals1 especially ,c>nivora1 ! middle e> is enl>g$ to =m ! tympanic bulla1 b ! ma/oid cells are peculi> to ,man4 ,= fur!r details see ,g4 ,retzius1 ,das ,geho]organ d] ,wirbel?i]e 7,/ockholm1 #ahha-ahhd72 ,catalogue ( ! ,museum ( ! ,r4 ,college ( ,surgeons--,physiological ,s]ies1 vol4 iii4 7,london1 #aijf72 ,r4 ,wi$]%eim's ,v]glei*5de ,anatomie d] ,wirbelti]e 7,j5a1 #aijb74 7,f4 ,g4 ,p47 ,,diseases ,,( ,,! ,,e> ,mod]n sci5tific aural surg]y & m$ic9e 7commonly kn[n z ,otology7 dates f ! "t ( ,sir ,william ,wilde ( ,dubl9 7#ahdc71 ^: "w m>k$ a great advance 9 ! application ( anatomical1 physiological & !rapeutical k to ! /udy ( ?is organ4 ,less noticeable contributions to ! subject _h n long be=e be5 made by ,saund]s 7#ahbg71 ,kram] 7#ahcc71 ,pil*] 7#ahda7 & ,ye>sley 7#ahda74 ,! next important ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( otology 0 ! publication ( ,j4 ,toynbee's book 9 #ahfj conta9+ 8 valuable anatomical & pa?ological obs]vations4 ,von ,troelts* ( ,wu]zburg1 foll[+ on ! l9es ( ,wilde & ,toynbee1 produc$ two well-kn[n works 9 #ahfa & #ahfb1 lay+ ! f\ndation ( ! /udy 9 ,g]many4 ,9 t c\ntry & 9 ,au/ria he 0 foll[$ by ,h]mann ,s*w>tze1 ,politz]1 ,grub]1 ,web]-,liel1 ,ru$+]1 ,moos & num]\s o!rs4 ,france produc$ ,it>d1 de la ,*>ri]e1 ,m5i]e1 ,loew5b]g & ,bonnafont2 & ,belgium1 ,*>les ,del/an*e1 fa!r & son4 ,9 ,great ,brita9 ! "w 0 c>ri$ on by ,james ,h9ton 7#ahgd71 ,pet] ,all5 7#ahga71 ,patt]son ,cassells & ,sir ,william ,dalby4 ,9 ,am]ica we may c\nt among ! e>ly otologi/s ,edw>d ,h4 ,cl>ke 7#aheh71 ,d4,b4 ,/ ,john ,roosa1 ,h4 ,knapp1 ,cl>5ce ,j4 ,blake1 ,alb]t ,h4 ,buck & ,*>les ,burnett4 ,o!r work]s all ov] ! _w are too num]\s to m5tion4 ,v>i\s ,diseases & ,injuries4--,diseases ( ! e> may affect any ( ! ?ree divisions1 ! ext]nal1 middle or int]nal e>4 ,! common] affections ( ! auricle are eczema1 v>i\s tum\rs 7simple & malignant71 & s]\s & sebace\s cy/s4 ,haematoma auris 7o?aematoma71 or effusion ( blood into ! auricle1 is (t5 due to injury1 b may occur spontane\sly1 especially 9 insane p]sons4 ,! *ief diseases ( ! ext]nal auditory canal are z foll[s3--impact$ c]um5 7or wax71 circumscrib$ 7or furuncul>7 inflammation1 diffuse inflammation1 /rictures due to inflammatory affections1 bony gr[?s1 fungi 7otomycosis71 malignant disease1 c>ies & necrosis1 & =eign bodies4 ,diseases ( ! middle e> fall into two categories1 suppurative & non-suppurative 7i4e4 ) & )\t ! =mation ( pus74 ,suppurative inflammation ( ! middle e> is ei!r acute or *ronic1 & is 9 ei!r case accompani$ by p]=ation ( ! drum head & dis*>ge f ! e>4 ,! *ief importance ( ^! affections1 9 addition to ! symptoms ( pa91 deafness1 dis*>ge1 c41 is ! s]i\s complications :i* may ensue f _! neglect1 viz4 aural polypi1 c>ies & necrosis ( ! bone1 affections ( ! ma/oid process1 includ+ ! ma/oid antrum1 p>alysis ( ! facial n]ve1 & ! /ill m s]i\s intracranial & vascul> infective diseases1 su* z abscess 9 ! bra9 7c]ebrum or c]ebellum71 m5+itis1 ) subdural & extradural abscesses1 septic ?rombosis ( ! sigmoid & o!r v5\s s9uses1 & pyaemia4 ,x is ow+ to ! possibility ( ^! complications t life insurance companies usually1 & rightly1 inquire z to ! pres5ce ( e> dis*>ge be=e accept+ a life4 ,patt]son ,cassells ( ,glasg[ urg$ ?is special po9t z long ago z #ahgg4 ,acute suppurative disease ( ! middle e> is (t5 due to ! exan!mata1 sc>lat9a1 measles & smallpox1 & to ba?+ & div+4 ,x may also be caus$ by influ5za1 diph!ria & pulmon>y ph?isis4 ,non-suppurative disease ( ! middle e> may be acute or *ronic4 ,9 ! acute =m ! inflammation is less viol5t ?an 9 ! acute suppurative inflammation1 & is r>ely accompani$ by p]=ation4 ,*ronic non-suppurative inflammation may be divid$ into ! moi/ =m1 9 :i* ! symptoms are improv$ by inflation ( ! tympanum ?r\gh ! ,eu/a*ian tube1 & ! dry =m 7includ+ scl]osis71 :i* is m intractable & 9 :i* ?is proc$ure has little or no b5eficial effect4 ,diseases ( ! int]nal e> may be prim>y or second>y to an affection ( ! tympanum or to intracranial disease4 ,injuries to any "p ( ! e> may occur1 among ! common] be+ injuries to ! auricle1 rupture ( ! drum head 7f explosions1 bl[s on ! e> or ! introduction ( %>p bodies into ! e> canal71 & injuries f fractur$ skull4 ,cong5ital mal=mations ( ! e> are mo/ frequ5tly met ) 9 ! auricle & ext]nal canal4 ,me?ods ( ,exam9ation4--,! me?ods ( exam9+ ! e> are r\ghly ?reefold3--7#a7 ,te/+ ! he>+ ) wat*1 voice & tun+-=k4 ,! latt] is especially us$ to di/+ui% betwe5 disease ( ! middle e> 7conduct+ app>atus7 & t ( ! int]nal e> 7p]ceptive app>atus74 ,our k ( ! subject has be5 br\ght to its pres5t /ate by ! lab\rs ( _m obs]v]s1 notably ,web]1 ,r9ne1 ,s*waba*1 ,lucae & ,gelle4 7#b7 ,exam9ation ( ! canal & drum-head ) speculum & reflector1 introduc$ by ,kram]1 ,wilde & von ,troelts*4 7#c7 ,exam9ation ( ! drum-cavity ?r\gh ! ,eu/a*ian tube by ! v>i\s me?ods ( inflation4 ,symptoms4--,! *ief symptoms ( e> diseases are deafness1 noises 9 ! e> 7t9nitus aurium71 gidd9ess1 pa9 & dis*>ge4 ,deafness 7or o!r di/urbance ( he>+7 & noises may occur f disease 9 almo/ any "p ( ! e>4 ,purul5t dis*>ge usually comes f ! middle e>4 ,gidd9ess is m commonly associat$ ) affections ( ! int]nal e>4 ,treatm5t4--,e> diseases are treat$ on ord9>y surgical & m$ical l9es1 due reg>d be+ _h to ! anatomical & physiological peculi>ities ( ?is organ ( s5se1 & especially to its close relation%ip1 on ! "o h& to ! nose & naso-ph>ynx1 & on ! o!r h& to ! cranium & its cont5ts4 ,! *ief advance 9 aural surg]y 9 rec5t ye>s has be5 9 ! surg]y ( ! ma/oid process & antrum4 ,! pione]s ( ?is "w 7 ,h4 ,s*w>tze ( ,halle1 & ,/acke ( ,erfurt1 :o h be5 foll[$ by a ho/ ( work]s 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,?is developm5t l$ to increas$ att5tion be+ paid to ! intracranial complications ( suppurative e> disease1 9 ! treatm5t ( :i* great /rides h be5 made 9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,effects ( ,diseases ( ! ,nose on ! ,e>4--,! influ5ce ( diseases ( ! nose & naso-ph>ynx on e> diseases 0 br\ght out by ,loew5b]g ( ,p>is1 ,voltol9i ( ,breslau1 & especially by ,wilhelm ,mey] ( ,cop5hag51 ! discov]] ( ad5oid vegetations ( ! naso-ph>ynx 7ad5oids71 :o recogniz$ ! great importance ( ?is disease & gave an inimitable acc\nt ( x 9 ! ,trans4 ( ! ,royal ,m$ical & ,*irurgical ,society ( ,london1 #ahgj1 & ! ,ar*iv fu] ,ohr5heilkunde1 #ahgc4 ,ad5oid vegetations1 :i* consi/ ( an abnormal enl>gem5t ( ,lus*ka's tonsil 9 ! vault ( ! ph>ynx1 frequ5tly give rise to e> disease 9 *ildr51 &1 if n att5d$ to1 lay ! f\ndation ( nasal & e> tr\bles 9 aft] life4 ,!y are (t5 associat$ ) enl>gem5t ( ! faucial tonsils4 ,j\rnals4--,9 #ahfd ! ,ar*iv fu] ,ohr5heilkunde 0 />t$ by ,politz] & ,s*w>tze1 &1 9 #ahfg1 ! ,monatss*rift fu] ,ohr5heilkunde 7a mon?ly publication7 0 f\nd$ by ,voltol9i1 ,grub]1 ,web]-,liel & ,ru$+]4 ,appe>+ fir/ z ! ,ar*ives ( ,oph?almology & ,otology1 simultane\sly 9 ,engli% & ,g]man1 9 #ahfi1 ! ,ar*ives ( ,otology became a sep>ate publication "u ! editor%ip ( ,knapp1 ,moos & ,roosa 9 #ahgi4 ,among/ o!r j\rnals n[ exi/+ are ,annales des maladies de l'oreille et du l>ynx 7,p>is71 ,j\rnal ( ,l>yngology 7,london71 ,c5tralblatt fu] ,ohr5heilkunde 7,leipzig71 c4 ,societies4--,! e>lie/ society =m$ 0 ! ,am]ican ,otological ,society 7#ahfh71 :i* held annual meet+s & publi%$ ye>ly transactions4 ,fl\ri%+ societies = ! /udy ( otology 7sometimes comb9$ ) l>yngology7 exi/ 9 almo/ all civiliz$ c\ntries1 & !y usually publi% transactions consi/+ ( orig9al pap]s & cases4 ,! ,otological ,society ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom 0 f\nd$ 9 #aijj4 ,int]national ,congresses4--,int]national ,otological congresses h be5 held at int]vals ( ab\t f\r ye>s at ,new ,york1 ,milan1 ,basel1 ,brussels1 ,flor5ce1 ,london & ,bordeaux 7#aijd74 ,! proce$+s ( ! congresses appe> z sub/antial volumes4 ,hospitals4--,! e>lie/ record ( a public in/itution = ! treatm5t ( e> diseases is a ,disp5s>y = ,diseases ( ! ,eye & ,e> 9 ,london1 />t$ by ,saund]s & ,coop]1 :i* exi/$ 9 #ahjd2 ! aural "p1 h[ev]1 0 soon clos$1 s t ! actual olde/ in/itution appe>s to be ! ,royal ,e> ,hospital1 ,london1 :i* 0 f\nd$ by ,curtis 9 #ahaf4 ,f\r ye>s lat] !re 0 />t$ ! ,new ,york ,eye & ,e> ,infirm>y4 ,at ! pres5t "t 9 e l>ge t[n ( ,europe & ,am]ica e> diseases are treat$ ei!r 9 sep>ate dep>tm5ts ( g5]al hospitals or 9 in/itutions especially devot$ to ! purpose4 ,= a hi/ory ( otology f ! e>lie/ times ref] to ,a ,practical ,treatise on ! ,diseases ( ! ,e>1 by ,d4,b4 ,/ ,john ,roosa1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 7#f? edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahhe71 & = a g5]al acc\nt ( ! pres5t /ate ( otological sci5ce to ,a ,text-,book ( ! ,diseases ( ! ,e> = ,/ud5ts & ,practition]s1 by ,pr(essor ,dr ,adam ,politz]1 transl4 by ,milton ,j4 ,ball91 ,ph4,b41 ,m4,d41 & ,cl>5ce ,j4 ,hell]1 ,m4,d4 7#d? edition1 ,london1 #aijb74 7,e4 ,c4 ,b4997 ,,e>l1 a title & rank ( nobility 7correspond+ to ,lat4 comes2 ,fr4 comte71 n[ ! ?ird 9 ord] ( ! ,briti% pe]age1 & accord+ly int]v5+ betwe5 m>quess & visc\nt4 ,e>l1 h[ev]1 is ! olde/ title & rank ( ,engli% nobles1 & 0 ! highe/ until ! ye> #accg1 :5 ! ,black ,pr9ce 0 creat$ duke ( ,cornwall by ,edw>d ,,iii4 ,! nature ( a mod]n e>ldom is readily und]/ood1 s9ce x is a rank & dignity ( nobility :i*1 :ile x conf]s no (ficial p[] or au?ority1 is inali5able1 indivisible1 & desc5ds 9 regul> succession to all ! heirs "u ! limitation 9 ! grant until1 on _! failure1 x becomes ext9ct4 ,! title is ( ,sc&9avian orig91 & fir/ appe>s 9 ,engl& "u ,canute z j>l1 :i* 0 engli%$ z eorl4 ,l ! ealdorman1 ^: place he took1 ! eorl 0 a great royal (fic]1 :o might be set ov] sev]al c\nties1 b :o presid$ sep>ately 9 ! c\nty c\rt ( ea* ) ! bi%op ( ! diocese4 ,al?\gh !re 7 c\nts 9 ,norm&y be=e ! ,norman ,conque/1 !y diff]$ 9 "* f ! ,engli% e>ls1 & ! e>l's position appe>s to h be5 b slightly modifi$ by ! ,conque/4 ,he 0 /ill g5]ally entitl$ to ! ?ird p5ny ( ! c\nty1 b 8 (fice t5d$1 "u ,norman influ5ce1 to become an h]$it>y dignity & 8 sph]e 0 re/rict$ by ! ,conqu]or to a s+le c\nty4 ,! "r to ! ?ird p5ny is a "q ( "s obscurity1 b its possession seems to h be5 deem$ ! di/9ctive m>k ( an e>l1 :ile ! gird+ ) ! sword ( ! c\nty =m$ ! ess5tial feature 9 8 creation or inve/iture1 z x cont9u$ to d = c5turies lat]4 ,! fact t e e>l 0 ! e>l ( a p>ticul> c\nty has be5 mu* obscur$ by ! loose usage ( e>ly times1 :5 ! /yle adopt$ 0 sometimes t ( ! noble's surname 7e4g4 ! ,e>ls ,f]r]s71 sometimes t ( 8 *ief seat 7e4g4 ! ,e>ls ( ,arundel71 & sometimes t ( ! c\nty4 ,palat9e e>ldoms1 or palat9ates1 7 ^? :i* possess$ regalia1 i4e4 special privileges delegat$ by ! cr[n4 ,! two great examples1 :i* dat$ f ,norman times1 7 ,*e/] & ,durham1 :]e ! e>l & ! bi%op respectively _h _! own c\rts & jurisdiction1 & 7 almo/ petty sov]eigns4 ,! e>lie/ kn[n *>t] creat+ an e>l is t by :i* ,/eph5 be/[$ on ,ge(frey de ,m&eville1 9 or ab\t #aadj1 ! e>ldom ( ,essex z an h]$it>y dignity4 ,sev]al o!r creations by ,/eph5 & ! empress ,maud foll[$ 9 quick succession4 ,f at lea/ ! "t ( ! ,conque/ ! e>l _h a d\ble "*2 he 0 "o ( ! b>ons1 or t5ants 9 *ief1 9 virtue ( ! fief he held ( ! cr[n1 z well z an e>l 9 virtue ( 8 belt+ 7) ! sword7 & 8 ?ird p5ny ( ! c\nty4 ,8 fief w\ld desc5d to ! heirs ( 8 body2 & ! e>lie/ *>t]s creat+ e>ldoms 7 grant$ ) ! same limitation4 ,! dignity might ?us desc5d to a woman1 &1 9 t case1 l ! t]ritorial fief1 x w\ld be held by h] husb&1 :o might be summon$ to p>liam5t 9 "r ( x4 ,! e>ldom ( ,w>wick ?us pass$ ?r\gh sev]al families till x 0 f9ally obta9$1 9 #addi1 by ! ,k+mak]1 :o _h m>ri$ ! heiress ( ! =m] e>ls4 ,b 9 ! case ( co-heiresses 7m daught]s ?an "o71 ! k+ det]m9$ :i*1 if any1 %\ld inh]it ! dignity4 ,! #ad? c5tury saw "s *anges introduc$4 ,! e>ldom ( ,m>*1 creat$ 9 #acbh1 0 ! fir/ t 0 n nam$ f a c\nty or its capital t[n4 ,"u ,edw>d ,,iii4 also an idea appe>s to h aris5 t e>ldoms 7 connect$ ) ! t5ure ( l&s1 & 9 #accg sev]al fre% ones 7 creat$ & l>ge grants ( l&s made = _! support4 ,! fir/ e>ldom grant$ ) limitation to ! heirs male ( ! grantee's body 0 t ( ,nott+ham 9 #achc4 ,ano!r innovation 0 ! grant ( ! fir/ e>ldom = life only 9 #acgg4 ,! gird+ ) ! sword 0 ! only obs]vance at a creation till ! fir/ ye> ( ,edw>d ,,vi41 :5 ! imposition ( ! cap ( dignity & a circlet ( gold 0 add$4 ,"u ,james ,i4 ! pat5t ( creation 0 decl>$ to be suffici5t )\t any c]emony4 ,an e>l's robe ( e/ate has ?ree b>s ( erm9e1 b possibly x _h orig9ally f\r4 ,some?+ %\ld be said ( anomal\s e>ldoms ) ,norman or ,scotti% /yles4 ,! ,norman /yles orig9at$ ei!r "u ! ,norman k+s or at ! "t ( ! conque/ ( ,norm&y by ! h\se ( ,lanca/]4 ,to ! =m] p]iod belong$ t ( ,aumale1 :i* successive fre% creations1 "u ! ,lat9iz$ =m ,albem>le h p]petuat$ to ! pres5t day 7see ,,albem>le1 ,,e>ls ,,& ,,dukes ,,(74 ,! s-call$ e>ls ( ,eu & ( ,morta91 9 t p]iod1 7 really hold]s ( ,norman comtes4 ,h5ry ,v4 & 8 son creat$ five or six1 x is said1 b really sev5 at lea/1 ,norman c\nt%ips or e>ldoms1 ( :i* ,h>c\rt 7#adah71 ,p]*e 7#adai71 ,dreux 7#adbg7 & ,morta9 78 #adcj7 7 be/[$ on ,engli% nobles1 ,eu 7#adai71 & ,tank]ville 7#adai7 on ,engli% common]s1 & ,longueville 7#adai7 on a =eign]1 ,ga/on de ,foix4 ,( ^! ! e>ldom ( ,eu 0 assum$ by ! e>ls ( ,essex till ! dea? ( ,rob]t1 ! p>liam5t's g5]al 7#afdf71 :ile ! title ( ,tank]ville /ill survives "u a mod]n creation 7#agad74 ,an anomal\s royal lic5ce ( #affa p]mitt$ ! e>l ( ,ba? to use ! title ( e>l ( ,corbeil by alleg$ h]$it>y "r4 ,( ,scotti% e>ldoms recogniz$ 9 ! ,engli% p>liam5t ! mo/ rem>kable case is t ( ! ,lords ,umfraville1 :o 7 summon$ = ?ree g5]ations 7#abig-achj71 z e>ls ( ,angus2 ,h5ry1 ,"l ,beaumont1 also 0 summon$ z e>l ( ,bu*an f #accd to #acci4 ,! e>ldom ( ,*e/] is grant$ to ! pr9ces ( ,wales on _! creation1 & ! ,scotti% e>ldom ( ,c>rick is held by ! elde/ son ( ! sov]eign "u act ( p>liam5t4 ,! premi] e>ldom is t ( ,arundel 7q4v471 b z ?is is at pres5t unit$ ) ! duk$om ( ,norfolk1 ! olde/ e>ldom n m]g$ 9 a high] title is t ( ,%rewsbury 7#addb71 ! next 9 s5iority be+ ,d]by 7#adhe71 & ,hunt+don 7#aebi74 ,^! ?ree h be5 kn[n z ! catsk9 e>ls1 a t]m ( unc]ta9 orig94 ,! anci5t e>ldom ( ,wilt%ire 7#acig7 0 unsuccessfully claim$ 9 #ahfi by ,mr ,scrope ( ,danby1 & t ( ,norfolk 7#acab71 9 #aijf1 by ,"l ,m[bray & ,/\rton4 ,! premi] e>ldom ( ,scotl& z recogniz$ by ! ,union ,roll 7#agjg71 is t ( ,craw=d1 held by ! ,l9dsays s9ce its creation 9 #acih2 b x is n "o ( ! anci5t sev5 e>ldoms4 ,! ,decreet ( ,rank+ 7#afjf7 appe>s to h recogniz$ ! e>ldom ( ,su!rl& z ! mo/ anci5t 9 virtue ( a *>t] ( #acdg1 b ! ,h\se ( ,lords' decision ( #agga recogniz$ x z hav+ desc5d$ f at lea/ ! ye> #abge1 & x may be z old z #abbh4 ,x is at pres5t unit$ ) ! duk$om ( ,su!rl&4 ,! orig9al sev5 e>ldoms 7( :i* x 0 "o7 repres5t$ sev5 prov9ces1 ea* ( :i* 0 "u a morma]4 ,?is ,celtic title 0 r5d]$ j>l by ! ,norsem51 & "u ,alex&] ,i4 7c4 #aaae7 began to be replac$ by e>l 7comes71 ow+ to ,anglo-,norman influ5ce1 :i* also t5d$ to make ^! e>ldoms less (ficial & m feudal4 ,9 ,irel& ! duke ( ,le9/] is1 z e>l ( ,kild>e1 premi] e>l z well z premi] duke4 ,an e>l is ,"r ,hon\rable1 & is /yl$ ,my ,"l4 ,8 elde/ son be>s 8 fa!r's second title1 & !re=e1 t second title be+ 9 mo/ cases a visc\nty1 he g5]ally is /yl$ ,visc\nt2 :]e1 z ) ,devon & ,hunt+don1 !re is no second title1 "o may be assum$ = conv5i5ce2 "u all circum/ances1 h[ev]1 ! elde/ son ( an e>l takes prec$5ce imm$iately aft] ! visc\nts4 ,! y\ng] sons ( e>ls are ,hon\rable1 b all _! daught]s are ,ladies4 ,9 =mal docum5ts & in/rum5ts1 ! sov]eign1 :5 address+ or mak+ m5tion ( any pe] ( ! degree ( an e>l1 usually designates him tru/y & well-belov$ c\s91--a =m ( appellation fir/ adopt$ by ,h5ry ,,iv41 :o ei!r by desc5t or alliance 0 actually relat$ to e e>l & duke 9 ! realm4 ,! wife ( an e>l is a c\ntess2 %e is ,"r ,hon\rable1 & is /yl$ ,my ,lady4 ,= ! e>l's coronet see ,,cr[n ,,& ,,coronet4 ,see ,"l's ,reports on ! ,dignity ( a ,pe]2 ,pike's ,con/itutional ,hi/ory ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords2 ,seld5's ,titles ( ,hon\r2 ,g4,e4 ,c7okayne7's ,complete ,pe]age2 ,r\nd's ,ge(frey de ,m&eville4 7,j4 ,h4 ,r47 ,,e>le1 ,,john 7c4 #afja-affe71 ,engli% div9e1 0 born at ,york ab\t #afja4 ,he matriculat$ at ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 ,ox=d1 b migrat$ to ,m]ton1 :]e he obta9$ a fell[%ip4 ,9 #afca he 0 proctor & also *apla9 to ,philip1 e>l ( ,pembroke1 !n *ancellor ( ! univ]sity1 :o pres5t$ him to ! rectory ( ,bi%op/on 9 ,wilt%ire4 ,8 fame spread1 & 9 #afda he 0 appo9t$ *apla9 & tutor to ,pr9ce ,*>les4 ,9 #afdc he 0 elect$ "o ( ! ,assembly ( ,div9es at ,we/m9/]1 b 8 sympa?ies ) ! k+ & ) ! ,anglican ,*ur* 7 s /rong t he decl9$ to sit4 ,e>ly 9 #afdc he 0 *os5 *ancellor ( ! ca!dral ( ,salisbury1 b ( ?is pref]m5t he 0 soon depriv$ z a malignant4 ,aft] ,cromwell's great victory at ,worce/]1 ,e>le w5t abroad1 & 0 nam$ cl]k ( ! closet & *apla9 to ,*>les ,,ii4 ,he sp5t a ye> at ,antw]p 9 ! h\se ( ,isaac ,walton's fri5d1 ,george ,morley1 :o aft]w>ds became bi%op ( ,w9*e/]4 ,he next jo9$ ! duke ( ,york 7,james ,,ii47 at ,p>is1 return+ to ,engl& at ! ,re/oration4 ,he 0 at once appo9t$ dean ( ,we/m9/]1 & 9 #affa 0 "o ( ! commission]s = revis+ ! liturgy4 ,he 0 on fri5dly t]ms ) ,ri*>d ,baxt]4 ,9 ,novemb] #affb he 0 consecrat$ bi%op ( ,worce/]1 & 0 translat$1 t5 mon?s lat]1 to ! see ( ,salisbury1 :]e he conciliat$ ! noncon=mi/s4 ,he 0 /rongly oppos$ to ! ,conv5ticle & ,five ,mile ,acts4 ,dur+ ! great plague ,e>le att5d$ ! k+ & que5 at ,ox=d1 & !re he di$ on ! #ag? ( ,novemb] #affe4 ,e>le's *ief title to remembrance is 8 witty & humor\s "w entitl$ ,microcosmographie1 or a ,peece ( ! ,_w discov]$1 9 ,essayes & ,*>act]s1 :i* ?r[s light on ! mann]s ( ! "t4 ,fir/ publi%$ anonym\sly 9 #afbh1 x became v popul>1 & ran ?r\gh t5 editions 9 ! lifetime ( ! au?or4 ,! /yle is qua9t & epigrammatic2 & ! read] is frequ5tly rem9d$ ( ,?omas ,full] by su* passages z ?is3 ,a univ]sity dunn] is a g5tlem5 foll[] *eaply pur*as$1 = 8 own money has hyr'd him4 ,sev]al repr9ts ( ! book h be5 issu$ s9ce ! au?or's dea?2 & 9 #afga a ,fr5* translation by ,j4 ,dymock appe>$ ) ! title ( ,le ,vice ridicule4 ,e>le 0 employ$ by ,*>les ,,ii4 to make ! ,lat9 translation ( ! ,eikon ,basilike1 publi%$ 9 #afdi4 ,a simil> translation ( ,r4 ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity 0 accid5tally de/roy$4 ,dr ,e>le1 says ,"l ,cl>5don 9 8 ,life1 0 a man ( great piety & devotion1 a mo/ eloqu5t & p[]ful prea*]1 & ( a conv]sation s pleasant & delightful1 s v innoc5t1 & s v faceti\s1 t no man's company 0 m desir$ & lov$4 ,no man 0 m neglig5t 9 8 dress & habit & mi51 no man m w>y & cultivat$ 9 8 behavi\r & disc\rse4 ,he 0 v de> to ! ,"l ,falkl&1 ) :om he sp5t z mu* "t z he c\ld make 8 own4 ,see especially ,philip ,bliss's edition ( ! ,microcosmographie 7,london1 #ahaa71 & ,e4 ,arb]'s ,repr9t 7,london1 #ahfh74 ,,e>le1 ,,ralph 7#agea-ahja71 ,am]ican hi/orical & portrait pa9t]1 0 born at ,leice/]1 ,massa*usetts1 on ! #aa? ( ,may #agea4 ,l s _m ( ! colonial craftsm51 ,e>le 0 self-taught1 & = _m ye>s 0 an it9]ant pa9t]4 ,he w5t ) ! ,gov]nor's ,gu>d to ,lex+ton & made battle sket*es1 f :i* 9 #agge he pa9t$ f\r sc5es1 engrav$ by ,amos ,doolittle1 :i* are probably ! fir/ hi/orical pa9t+s by an ,am]ican4 ,aft] ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1 ,e>le w5t to ,london1 ent]$ ! /udio ( ,b5jam9 ,we/1 & pa9t$ ! k+ & _m notables4 ,aft] 8 return to ,am]ica 9 #aghf he made portraits ( ,timo?y ,dwight1 ,gov]nor ,caleb ,/rong1 ,rog] ,%]man1 & o!r prom95t m54 ,he also pa9t$ a l>ge picture ( ,niag>a ,falls4 ,he di$ at ,bolton1 ,connecticut1 on ! #af? ( ,augu/ #ahja4 ,,e>l ,,m>%al1 9 ,engl&1 a function>y :o ranks z ! eigh? ( ! great (fic]s ( /ate4 ,he is ! head ( ! college ( arms1 & has ! appo9tm5t ( ! k+s-(-arms1 h]alds & pursuivants at 8 discretion4 ,he att5ds ! sov]eign 9 op5+ & clos+ ! session ( p>liam5t1 walk+ opposite to ! "l great *amb]la9 on 8 or h] "r h&4 ,x is 8 duty to make arrangem5ts = ! ord] ( all /ate processions & c]emonials1 especially = coronations & royal m>riages & fun]als4 ,l ! "l high con/able he rode into ,we/m9/] ,hall ) ! *ampion aft] a coronation1 till ! coronation banquet 0 ab&on$1 tak+ 8 place on ! left h&1 & ) ! "l great *amb]la9 he assi/s at ! introduction ( all newly-creat$ pe]s into ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,! m>%al appe>s 9 ! feudal armies to h be5 9 comm& ( ! cavalry "u ! con/able1 & to h 9 "s measure sup]s$$ him z ma/] ( ! horse 9 ! royal palace4 ,he ex]cis$ jo9t & co-ord9ate jurisdiction ) ! con/able 9 ! c\rt ( *ivalry1 & aft]w>ds became ! sole judge ( t tribunal till its obsolesc5ce4 ,! m>%al%ip ( ,engl& 0 =m]ly believ$ to h be5 inh]it$ f ! ,cl>es by ! ,m>%al family1 :o _h only be5 m>%als ( ! h\sehold4 ,x 0 held1 h[ev]1 by ! latt] family1 z ! (fice ( *ief 7magi/]7 m>%al1 z e>ly z ! days ( ,h5ry ,i4 ,?r\gh !m1 "u ,h5ry ,,iii41 x pass$ to ! ,bigods1 z _! elde/ co-heirs4 ,9 #acjf x fell to ! cr[n on ! dea? ( ! la/ ,bigod1 e>l ( ,norfolk1 :o _h made ,edw>d ,i4 8 heir1 & 9 #acaf x 0 grant$ by ,edw>d ,,ii4 to 8 own y\ng] bro!r1 ,?omas ( ,bro!rton1 e>l ( ,norfolk4 ,z yet ! /yle ( ! (fice 0 only m>%al al?\gh ! la/ ,bigod hold]1 be+ an e>l1 0 sometimes loosely spok5 ( z ! e>l m>%al4 ,! (fice1 hav+ rev]t$ to ! cr[n1 0 grant$ out anew by ,ri*>d ,,ii41 9 #ache1 to ,?omas ,m[bray1 e>l ( ,nott+ham1 ! repres5tative ( ,?omas ( ,bro!rton4 ,9 #achf ! /yle ( e>l m>%al 0 =mally grant$ to him 9 addition4 ,aft] sev]al atta9d]s & p>tial re/orations 9 ! reigns ( ! ,tudors & ! ,/u>ts1 ! e>l m>%al%ip 0 grant$ anew to ! ,h[>ds by ,*>les ,,ii4 9 #afgb & entail$ on _! male l9e1 ) _m specific rema9d]s & limitations1 "u :i* settlem5t x has regul>ly desc5d$ to ! pres5t duke ( ,norfolk4 ,its hold]s1 h[ev]1 c\ld n execute ! (fice until ! ,roman ,ca?olic emancipation1 & _h to appo9t deputies4 ,! duke is /yl$ e>l m>%al & h]$it>y m>%al ( ,engl&1 b ! d\ble /yle w\ld seem to be an error1 ?\gh ! ,m[brays1 ) _! d\ble creation 7#ache1 #achf7 might h claim$ x4 ,8 ,grace app5ds ! lett]s ,e4,m4 to 8 signature1 & be>s beh9d 8 %ield two batons cross$ 9 saltire1 ! m>%al's rod 7virga7 hav+ be5 ! badge ( ! (fice f ,norman times4 ,!re appe> to h be5 h]$it>y m>%als ( ,irel&1 b _! hi/ory is n well asc]ta9$4 ,! ,kei?s 7 ,great ,m>is*als ( ,scotl& f at lea/ ! days ( ,rob]t ,bruce1 & 7 creat$ e>ls m>is*al 9 or ab\t #adeh1 b lo/ bo? e>ldom & (fice by ! atta9d] ( ,george1 ! #aj? e>l1 9 #agaf4 7,see also ,,m>%al2 ,,/ate1 ,,great ,,(fic]s ,,(47 ,see ,! ,m>%al%ip ( ,engl&1 9 ,j4,h4 ,r\nd1 ,commune ( ,london & ,o!r ,/udies 7,london1 #ahii72 ,g4,e4 ,c7okayne7's ,complete ,pe]age4 7,j4 ,h4 ,r47 ,,e>lom1 ,,ri*>d 7#agdb-ahbb71 ,engli% mezzot9t engrav]1 0 born & di$ 9 ,london4 ,8 natural faculty = art appe>s to h be5 fir/ call$ into ex]cise by admiration = ! "l mayor's /ate coa*1 j decorat$ by ,cipriani4 ,he tri$ to copy ! pa9t+s1 & 0 s5t to /udy "u ,cipriani4 ,he display$ great skill z a draughtsman1 & at ! same "t acquir$ )\t assi/ance ! art ( engrav+ 9 mezzot9t4 ,9 #agfe he 0 employ$ by ,ald]man ,boydell1 !n "o ( ! mo/ lib]al promot]s ( ! f9e arts1 to make a s]ies ( draw+s f ! pictures at ,h\ghton ,hall2 & ^! he aft]w>ds engrav$ 9 mezzot9t4 ,8 mo/ p]fect works z engrav] are p]haps ! fruit & fl[] pieces aft] ! ,dut* arti/s ,van ,os & ,van ,huysum4 ,among/ 8 hi/orical & figure subjects are--,agripp9a1 aft] ,we/2 ,love 9 ,bondage1 aft] ,guido ,r5i2 ! ,royal ,academy1 ! ,embassy ( ,hyd]beck to meet ,"l ,cornwallis1 & a ,tig] ,hunt1 ! la/ ?ree aft] ,z(fany2 & ,"l ,hea?field1 aft] ,sir ,jo%ua ,reynolds4 ,e>lom also execut$ a s]ies ( #bjj facsimiles ( ! draw+s & sket*es ( ,claude ,lorra9e1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #c vols4 folio1 "u ! title ( ,lib] v]itatis 7#aggg-ahai74 ,,e>l/on 7=m]ly ,,ercild\ne1 ( :i* x is a corruption71 a p>i% & m>ket t[n ( ,b]wick%ire1 ,scotl&4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ajdi4 ,x is situat$ on ,lead] ,wat] 9 ,laud]dale1 #gba_/b m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,ed9burgh by ! ,nor? ,briti% railway bran* l9e f ,re/on ,junction to ,/ ,boswells1 & ab\t #d m4 ,n4,e4 ( ,melrose4 ,:5 ! place 0 a hamlet ( rude huts x 0 call$ ,arcioldun or ,prospect ,=t1 ) ref]5ce to ,black ,hill 7#ajjc ft471 on ! top ( :i* may yet be trac$ ! conc5tric r+s ( ! ,briti% =t by :i* x 0 cr[n$4 ,x is said to be possible to make out ! rema9s ( ! cave-dwell+s ( ! ,ottad5i1 ! aborig9es ( ! di/rict4 ,9 ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies ! ,l9dsays & ! e>ls ( ,m>* & ,dunb> 7 ! *ief b>onial families4 ,! p>ticul> l9k ) ! remote pa/1 h[ev]1 is ! ivy-clad ru9 ( ! anci5t t[]1 ,! ,rhym]'s ,ca/le1 ! traditional resid5ce ( ,?omas ,le>mont1 commonly call$ ,?omas ( ,ercild\ne1 or ,?omas ! ,rhym]1 poet & prophet1 & fri5d ( ! ,fairies1 :o 0 born "h ab\t #abbe4 ,rhym]'s ,t[] 0 crumbl+ to pieces1 & its /ones 7 be+ us$ 9 ! erection ( dykes1 cottages & h\ses1 :5 ! ,ed9burgh ,bord] ,c\nties ,association acquir$ ! relic & surr\nd+ l&s 9 #ahie1 & took /eps to prev5t fur!r spoliation & decay4 ,! lead+ manufactures are g+hams1 twe$s & %irt+s1 & ! t[n is also an important agricultural c5tre1 /ock sales tak+ place at regul> int]vals & cattle & horse fairs be+ held e ye>4 ,"s #c m4 away is ! e/ate ( ,bem]syde1 said to h be5 9 ! possession ( ! ,haigs = ne>ly #ajjj ye>s4 ,! prospect f ,bem]syde ,hill 0 ,sir ,walt] ,scott's fav\rite view4 ,! ca/le at ,bem]syde 0 erect$ 9 #aece to secure ! peace ( ! ,bord]4 ,,e>ly1 ,,jubal ,,&]son 7#ahaf-ahid71 ,am]ican soldi] & lawy]1 0 born 9 ,frankl9 c\nty1 ,virg9ia1 on ! #crd ( ,novemb] #ahaf1 & graduat$ at ! ,u4,s4 ,milit>y ,academy 9 #ahcg4 ,he s]v$ 9 ! ,sem9ole ,w> ( #ahcg-ch1 aft] :i* he resign$ 9 ord] to practise law 9 ,frankl9 c\nty1 ,va4 ,he also engag$ 9 /ate politics1 & s]v$ 9 ! ,mexican ,w> z a major ( ,virg9ia volunte]s4 ,he 0 /rongly oppos$ to secession1 b ?\ght x 8 duty to con=m to ! action ( 8 /ate4 ,z a colonel 9 ! ,conf$]ate army1 he r5d]$ conspicu\s s]vice at ! fir/ battle ( ,bull ,run 7q4v474 ,promot$ brigadi]-g5]al1 & subsequ5tly major-g5]al1 ,e>ly s]v$ ?r\gh\t ! ,virg9ian campaigns ( #ahfb-fc1 & def5d$ ! l9es ( ,fr$]icksburg dur+ ! battle ( ,*ancellorsville4 ,at ,gettysburg he comm&$ 8 division ( ,ewell's corps4 ,9 ! campaign ( #ahfd ,e>ly1 :o _h n[ rea*$ ! rank ( lieut5ant-g5]al1 comm&$ ! ,conf$]ate =ces 9 ! ,%5&oah ,valley4 ,! action ( ,lyn*burg left him free to move nor?w>ds1 8 oppon5t be+ compell$ to m>* away f ! ,valley4 ,e>ly promptly utiliz$ 8 advantage1 cross$ ! ,potomac1 & defeat$1 on ! ,monocacy1 all ! troops :i* c\ld be ga!r$ to meet him4 ,he appe>$ be=e ! l9es ( ,wa%+ton1 put "p ( ,m>yl& & ,p5nsylvania "u contribution1 & only retir$ to ! ,valley :5 ?reat5$ by heavy =ces hurri$ly s5t up to ,wa%+ton4 ,he !n f\ght a successful action at ,w9*e/]1 reappe>$ on ! ,potomac1 & s5t 8 cavalry on a raid into ,p5nsylvania4 ,a greatly sup]ior army 0 n[ =m$ "u ,g5]al ,%]idan to oppose ,e>ly4 ,9 spite ( 8 skill & en]gy ! ,conf$]ate lead] 0 defeat$ 9 ! battles ( ,w9*e/] & ,fi%]'s ,hill4 ,f9ally1 on ! #ai? ( ,octob]1 aft] inflict+ at fir/ a sev]e bl[ ^u ! ,f$]al army 9 its camps on ,c$> ,creek1 he 0 decisively beat5 by ,%]idan4 7,see ,,%5&oah ,,valley ,,campaigns47 ,waynesboro 7,m>* #ahfe7 0 8 la/ fight1 aft] :i* he 0 reliev$ f 8 comm&4 ,g5]al ,e>ly 0 reg>d$ by _m z ! able/ soldi]1 aft] ,lee & ,jackson1 9 ! ,army ( ,nor!rn ,virg9ia1 & "o ( ! able/ 9 ! :ole ,conf$]ate army4 ,t he fail$ to make headway aga9/ an army f> sup]ior 9 numb]s1 & l$ by a g5]al ( ! calibre ( ,%]idan1 _c be held to prove ! falsity ( ?is judgm5t4 ,aft] ! peace he w5t to ,canada1 b 9 #ahfg return$ to resume ! practice ( law4 ,= a "t he manag$ 9 conjunction ) ,g5]al ,beaureg>d ! ,l\isiana lott]y4 ,he di$ at ,lyn*burg1 ,va41 on ! #bnd ( ,m>* #ahid4 ,g5]al ,e>ly 0 = a "t presid5t ( ! ,s\!rn ,hi/orical ,society1 & wrote1 besides v>i\s essays & hi/orical pap]s1 ,a ,memoir ( ! ,la/ ,ye> ( ! ,w>1 c4 7#ahfg74 ,,e>ly ,,engli% ,,p]iod1 9 ar*itecture1 ! t]m giv5 by ,rickman to ! fir/ po9t$ or ,go?ic /yle 9 ,engl&1 nom9ally #aahi-acjg1 :i* succe$$ ! ,romanesque or ,norman p]iod t[>ds ! end ( ! #ab? c5tury1 & develop$ into ! ,decorat$ p]iod 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! #ad? c5tury4 ,x is *iefly *>act]iz$ by ! almo/ univ]sal employm5t ( ! po9t$ ar*1 n only 9 ar*es ( wide span su* z ^? ( ! nave arcade1 b = doorways & w9d[s4 ,! actual introduction ( ! po9t$ ar* took place at a mu* e>li] date1 z 9 ! nave arcade ( ! ,ci/]cian ,abbey ( ,buildwas 7#aadj71 ?\gh ! cl]e/ory w9d[ above has semicircul> ar*es4 ,x is cu/om>y1 !re=e1 to make all[ance = a transitional epo* f ! middle ( ! #ab? c5tury4 ,al?\gh ! po9t$ ar*es us$ are sometimes equilat]al & sometimes drop-ar*es1 ! lancet-ar* is ! mo/ *>act]i/ic4 ,! p]iod is be/ recogniz$ 9 ,engl& by ! great dep? giv5 to ! holl[s ( ! m\ld+s1 alt]nat+ ) fillets & rolls1 by ! decoration ( ! holl[s ) ! dog-too? ornam5t1 by ! circul> abacus ( ! capitals1 & ! employm5t ( sl5d] deta*$ %afts ( ,purbeck m>ble :i* are atta*$ to pi]s by circul> m\ld$ %aft-r+s 7,fr4 anneau74 ,! ar*es are sometimes cusp$2 circles ) trefoils1 quatrefoils1 c41 are introduc$ into ! trac]y1 & l>ge rose w9d[s 9 ! transept or nave1 z at ,l9coln 7#abbj74 ,! conv5tional foliage decorat+ ! capitals is ( great beauty & v>iety1 & ext5ds to sp&rils1 bosses1 c4 ,9 ! sp&rils ( ! ar*es ( ! nave1 transept or *oir arcades1 diap] "w is occasionally f\nd1 z 9 ! transept ( ,we/m9/] ,abbey4 ,! latt] is "o ( ! *ief examples ( ! p]iod1 to :i* mu/ be add$ ! ca!dral ( ,salisbury 7except ! t[]72 ! ,galilee at ,ely2 nave & transept ( ,wells 7#abbe-abdj72 nave ( ,l9coln2 we/ front ( ,pet]bor\gh2 & ! m9/] at ,bev]ley4 7,r4 ,p4 ,s47 ,,e>n1 ! "n ( a lo* & riv] 9 ,p]?%ire1 ,scotl&4 ,! lo*1 ly+ almo/ due ea/ & we/1 is #fa_/b m4 long & #d_/e m4 9 maximum bread?1 #bhg ft4 deep1 ) a mean dep? ( #ach ft41 cov]s an area ( ne>ly #d sq4 m41 has a dra9age bas9 ( ov] #eda_/b sq4 m41 & /&s #cag ft4 above ! sea4 ,its wat]s are said nev] to freeze4 ,x dis*>ges by ! riv] ,e>n4 ,! po9ts ( int]e/ on its %ores are ,lo*e>nhead 7at ! s\!rn extremity ( ,gl5 ,ogle71 :i* has a /ation on ! ,call&]-,oban railway1 & ! ru9s ( ,/ ,blane's *apel2 ,ed9ample ,ca/le1 an old turret$ mansion belong+ to ! m>quess ( ,breadalbane1 situat$ 9 well-wood$ gr\nds ne> ! pretty falls ( ! ,ample2 ,ardvorli* ,h\se1 ! orig9al ( ,d>l9v>a* 9 ,scott's ,leg5d ( ,montrose1 & ! village ( ,/ ,fillans at ! foot ( ! lo*1 once ! t]m9us ( ! bran* ( ! ,cal$onian railway f ,p]?4 ,! riv] fl[s out ( ,lo* ,e>n1 pursues an ea/w>d c\rse ) a g5tle incl9ation t[>ds ! s\?1 & rea*es ! ,fir? ( ,tay1 #fa_/b m4 bel[ ,p]?1 aft] a total run ( #di m4 ,its *ief tribut>ies on ! "r are ! ,ru*il1 ,ma*any1 ,ru?v51 ,may & ,f>g1 & on ! left1 ! ,l$nock & ,turret4 ,x is navigable by vessels ( #ej tons z f> up z ,bridge ( ,e>n1 & is a notable fi%+ /ream1 ab\nd+ ) salmon & tr\t1 p]* & pike be+ also pl5tiful4 ,on ! ,l$nock are ! falls ( ! ,devil's ,cauldron & on ! ,turret & its fe$]s sev]al graceful cascades4 ,! pr9cipal places ( int]e/ on ! banks ( ! ,e>n are ,dunira1 ! fav\rite seat ( ,h5ry ,dundas1 #a/ ,visc\nt ,melville1 :o took ! title ( 8 b>ony f ! e/ate & to ^: memory an obelisk 0 rais$ on ! adjo9+ hill ( ,dunmore2 ! village ( ,comrie2 ! t[n ( ,crieff2 ! ru9$ ca/le ( ,inn]peffray1 f\nd$ 9 #afaj by ! #a/ ,"l ,mad]ty1 close to :i* is ! libr>y f\nd$ 9 #afia by ! #crd ,"l ,mad]ty1 conta9+ "s r>e black-lett] books & ! ,bible t belong$ to ! m>quess ( ,montrose2 ,gascon ,hall1 n[ 9 ru9s1 b ) traditions rea*+ back to ! days ( ,wallace2 ,duppl9 ,ca/le1 a f9e ,tudor mansion1 seat ( ! e>l ( ,k9n\ll1 :o d]ives f x ! title ( 8 visc\nty2 ,ab]dalgie1 ,=g&5ny & ,bridge ( ,e>n1 a heal? resort situat$ amid/ picturesque surr\nd+s4 ,/ra!>n1 z ! valley ( ! ,e>n is call$1 ext5d+ f ! lo* to ! ,fir? ( ,tay1 is a beautiful &1 on ! :ole1 f]tile tract1 ?\gh liable at times to heavy floods4 ,! e>l ( ,p]? is h]$it>y /ew>d ( ,/ra!>n4 ,,e>ne/ 7probably a corruption ( ! obsolete arles or erles1 adapt$ f ,lat4 equival5t arrha1 due to a confusion ) ! adjective e>ne/1 s]i\s1 ,o4 ,eng4 eornu/1 cognate ) ,g]4 ern/71 ! paym5t ( a sum ( money by ! buy] ( goods to ! sell] on ! conclusion ( a b>ga9 z a pl$ge = its due p]=mance4 ,x is almo/ simil> to ! arrha ( ! ,roman law1 :i* may be trac$ back 9 ! hi/ory ( legal in/itutions to a p]iod :5 ! validity ( a contract dep5d$ n s mu* ^u ! real int5tion ( ! p>ties1 z ^u ! due obs]vance ( a prescrib$ c]emony4 ,b e>ne/ 0 nev] "p paym5t1 :i* arrha might h be54 ,ap>t f its survival z a cu/om1 its *ief importance 9 ,engli% law is its recognition by ! ,/atute ( ,frauds z giv+ validity to contracts = ! sale ( goods ( a value exce$+ ,l#aj 7see ,,sale ,,( ,,goods74 ,x is 9 t /atute cle>ly di/+ui%$ f "p paym5t1 consequ5tly any sum1 h[ev] small1 w\ld be suffici5t z e>ne/1 be+ giv5 z a tok5 t ! contract is b9d+ & %\ld be expressly /at$ s by ! giv]4 ,! giv+ ( e>ne/1 or h&-money1 z x is sometimes call$1 has n[ fall5 into v g5]al disuse4 ,,e>-,,r+1 an ornam5t worn p5d5t f ! e>1 & g5]ally susp5d$ 7especially among ! m civiliz$ races7 by means ( a r+ or hook pass+ ?r\gh ! p5dul\s lobe ( ! e>4 ,among savage races ! impulse to decorate1 or at any rate to modify ! appe>ance ( ! e>1 is almo/ univ]sal4 ,) su* peoples ! e> app5dage is *iefly rem>kable = its extravagant dim5sions4 ,_m examples may be se5 9 ! e?nographic gall]ies ( ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,! ,b]awan p ( ,borneo use plugs ?r\gh ! lobe ( ! e> #cc_/d 94 9 diamet]4 ,m extraord9>y /ill is an example ( a /one e>-plug worn by a ,masai1 #da_/b 94 9 diamet] & weigh+ #b lb4 #ad oz4 7,man1 #aije1 p4 #bb74 ,x is /at$ t accord+ to ! ,masai /&>d ( fa%ion1 ! lobes ( ! e>s %\ld be enl>g$ s z to be capable ( meet+ above ! head4 ,among ! sup]ior races1 ?\gh e> ornam5ts ( extravagant size & elaboration are n unkn[n1 mod]ation 9 size is commonly obs]v$1 & great] att5tion is paid to workman%ip & f95ess ( mat]ial4 ,! g5]al usage appe>s to h be5 to h e>-r+s worn 9 pairs1 ! two ornam5ts 9 all respects resembl+ ea* o!r2 9 anci5t times1 or m rec5tly among ,ori5tal races1 a s+le e>-r+ has sometimes be5 worn4 ,! use ( ?is k9d ( ornam5t1 :i* con/antly 0 ( great value1 dates f ! remote/ hi/orical antiquity1 ! e>lie/ m5tion ( e>-r+s occurr+ 9 ! book ( ,g5esis4 ,x appe>s probable t ! e>-r+s ( ,jacob's family1 :i* he buri$ ) 8 /range idols at ,be!l1 7 reg>d$ z amulets or talismans1 su* unque/ionably be+ ! e/imation 9 :i* "s ornam5ts ( ?is class h be5 held f a v e>ly p]iod1 z !y /ill are held 9 ! ,ea/4 ,?us 9 ,new ,zeal& e>-r+s are decorat$ ) ! tee? ( enemies1 & ) talismanic %>ks' tee?4 ,among all ! ,ori5tal races ( :om we h any accurate k1 ! ,hebrews & ,egyptians except$1 e>-r+s always h be5 9 g5]al use by bo? sexes2 :ile 9 ! ,we/1 z well z by ! ,hebrews & ,egyptians1 z a g5]al rule !y h be5 consid]$ exclusively female ornam5ts4 ,by ! ,greeks & ,romans also e>-r+s 7 worn only by wom51 & ! we>+ ( !m by a man is (t5 spok5 ( z di/9ctively ori5tal4 ,illu/ration3 ,f ,la ,gr&e ,encyclop$ie4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,e>-r+ f an ,assyrian bas relief4 ,9 ar*aic art1 e>-r+s are frequ5tly repres5t$ or _! traces are left 9 ! p]=at$ e> lobes ( e>ly /atues4 ,aft] ! #d? c5tury su* p]=ations occur seldom4 ,9 "o in/ance1 a ,greek inscription records ! weight ( ! deta*able gold ornam5ts on a /atue1 among :i* a pair ( e>-r+s is includ$4 ,e>-r+s ( *>act]i/ic =m are frequ5tly discov]$ by excavation4 ,9 ,egypt1 a sy/em ( p5d5t *a9s is f\nd hang+ f a disk4 ,9 ,assyria ! decoration consi/s ( p5dants or knobs atta*$ to a rigid r+4 ,9 ! e>ly civilization repres5t$ by ,dr ,s*liemann's ,trojan inve/igations1 pieces ( gold plate are susp5d$ by p>allel *a9s4 ,9 ! ,myc5aean p]iod1 e>-r+s are infrequ5t 9 ,greece1 b h be5 f\nd 9 abundance 9 ! ,myc5aean f9ds ( ,enkomi 7,cyprus7 9 ! =m ( p5d5t bulls'-heads1 or ( decorative =ms bas$ on ! bull's head4 ,9 ! tombs ( ! ,greek settl]s 9 ! ,crimea 7#d? c5tury ,b4,c471 e>-r+s are f\nd ( m>vell\s complexity & beauty4 ,! lexicograph] ,pollux1 speak+ ( ! names giv5 to e>-r+s1 d]iv$ f _! =ms1 m5tions c>yatids1 hippocamps & c5tauresses4 ,jewels ( ! same class1 ( exquisite beauty & ( workman%ip t is truly wond]ful1 h be5 rescu$ f ! sepul*res ( anci5t ,etruria4 ,e>-r+s ( comp>atively simple =ms1 b set ) pe>ls & o!r /ones1 7 ! mode 9 ,rome4 ,9 "s in/ances1 ! /ones 7 ( fabul\s value4 ,dur+ ! ,byzant9e p]iod !y once m atta9$ an extravagant size4 ,rese>*es among ! burial places ( ,anglo-,saxon ,brita9 h l$ to ! discov]y ( jewels 9 consid]able numb]s1 :i* among _! v>ieties include e>-r+s execut$ 9 a /yle t proves ! ,anglo-,saxons to h made no inconsid]able advances 9 ! arts ( civilization4 ,illu/ration3 ,f ,la ,gr&e ,encyclop$ie4 ,,fig4 #b4--,!tis cross+ ! sea1 ) ! arm\r ( ,a*illes4 ,e>-r+ f ! ,crimea1 ,h]mitage museum4 ,^! same ornam5ts1 :i* nev] h fall5 into disuse1 enjoy at ! pres5t day a consid]able degree ( fav\r1 & ! tide ( fa%ion has set t[>ds _! increas$ use4 ,l all o!r mod]n jewels1 h[ev]1 ! e>-r+s ( our own times z works ( art c claim no hi/orical attributes1 because !y consi/ z well ( reproductions f all pa/ ages & ( e race z ( fanciful productions t c]ta9ly c be assign$ to no /yle ( art :atev]4 ,z "o ( ! curiosities ( ! subject x may be m5tion$ t ,antonia1 wife ( ,drusus1 is said by ,pl9y to h atta*$ a pair ( e>-r+s to h] pet lamprey4 ,,e>? 7a ^w common to ,teutonic languages1 cf4 ,g]4 ,erde1 ,dut* a>de1 ,sw$4 & ,dan4 jord2 outside ,teutonic x appe>s only 9 ! ,gr4 ,greek3 eraze1 on ! gr\nd2 x has be5 connect$ by "s etymologi/s ) ! ,aryan root ar-1 to pl\gh1 :i* is se5 9 ! ,lat4 ar>e1 obsolete ,eng4 e>1 & ,gr4 ,greek3 ar\n1 b ?is is n[ consid]$ v d\btful2 see ,g4 ,curtius1 ,greek ,etymology1 ,eng4 trans41 i4 #dbf2 ,max ,muell]1 ,lectures1 #h? ed4 i4 #bid74 ,f e>ly times ! ^w e>? has be5 us$ 9 sev]al connexions--f t ( soil or gr\nd to t ( ! planet :i* we inhabit1 b x is difficult to trace ! exact hi/oric sequ5ce ( ! div]se usages4 ,9 ! cosmogony ( ! ,py?agoreans1 ,platoni/s & o!r philosoph]s1 ! t]m or its equival5t d5ot$ an elem5t or fundam5tal quality :i* conf]r$ ^u matt] ! "* ( e>?9ess2 & 9 ! subsequ5t developm5t ( !ories z to ! ultimate composition ( matt] by ! al*emi/s1 iatro*emi/s1 & e>ly phlogi/oni/s an elem5t ( ! same "n 0 reta9$ 7see ,,elem5t74 ,9 mod]n *emi/ry1 ! common t]m e>? is appli$ to c]ta9 oxides3--! alkal9e e>?s 7q4v47 are ! oxides ( calcium 7lime71 b>ium 7b>yta7 & /rontium 7/rontia72 ! r>e e>?s 7q4v47 are ! oxides ( a c]ta9 class ( r>e metals4 ,,! ,,e>? ,! t]re/rial globe is a memb] ( ! ,sol> sy/em1 ! ?ird 9 di/ance f ! ,sun1 & ! l>ge/ )9 ! orbit ( ,jupit]4 ,9 ! wid] s5se x may be reg>d$ z compos$ ( a gase\s atmosph]e 7see ,,meteorology71 :i* encircles ! cru/ or li?osph]e 7see ,,geography71 & surface wat]s or hydrosph]e 7see ,,ocean ,,& ,,oceanography74 ,! description ( ! surface features is a bran* ( ,geography1 & ! discussions z to _! orig9 & p]man5ce belongs to ,physiography 79 ! n>r[] s5se71 physiographical geology1 or physical geography4 ,! inve/igation ( ! cru/ belongs to geology & ( rocks 9 p>ticul> to petrology4 ,9 ! pres5t article we %all treat ! subject matt] ( ! ,e>? z a planet "u ! foll[+ head+s3--7#a7 ,figure & ,size1 7#b7 ,mass & ,d5sity1 7#c7 ,a/ronomical ,relations1 7#d7 ,evolution & ,age4 ,^! subjects w be treat$ summ>ily1 read]s be+ ref]r$ to ! article ,,a/ronomy & to ! cross-ref]5ces = details4 #a4 ,figure & ,size4--,to primitive man ! ,e>? 0 a flat disk ) its surface div]sifi$ by m\nta9s1 riv]s & seas4 ,9 _m cosmogonies ?is disk 0 encircl$ by wat]s1 unmeasurable by man & ext5d+ to a junction ) ! sky2 & ! disk /ood z an isl& ris+ up ?r\gh ! wat]s f ! floor ( ! univ]se1 or 0 borne z an immovable %ip on ! surface4 ,( su* a nature 0 ! cosmogony ( ! ,babylonians & ,hebrews2 ,hom] /ates ! same idea1 nam+ ! encircl+ wat]s ,greek3 ,okeanos2 & ,hesiod reg>d$ x z a disk midway betwe5 ! sky & ! inf]nal regions4 ,! !ory t ! ,e>? ext5d$ d[nw>ds to ! limit ( ! univ]se 0 subject$ to modification :5 x 0 se5 t ! same sun & />s reappe>$ 9 ! ea/ aft] _! sett+ 9 ! we/4 ,b man sl[ly realiz$ t ! e>? 0 isolat$ 9 space1 float+ freely z a balloon1 & mu* speculation 0 associat$ ab\t t :i* support$ ! ,e>?4 ,tunnels 9 ! f\ndations to p]mit ! passage ( ! sun & />s 7 sugge/$2 ! ,greeks consid]$ twelve columns to support ! heav5s1 & 9 _! my?ology ! god ,atlas appe>s condemn$ to support ! columns2 :ile ! ,egyptians _h ! ,e>? support$ by f\r elephants1 :i* !mselves /ood on a tortoise swimm+ on a sea4 ,e>?quakes 7 reg>d$ z due to a movem5t ( ^! f\ndations2 9 ,japan ?is 0 consid]$ to be due to ! motion ( a great spid]1 an animal subsequ5tly replac$ by a cat-fi%2 9 ,mongolia x is a hog2 9 ,india1 a mole2 9 "s p>ts ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 a :ale2 & among "s ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians1 a giant tortoise4 ,! doctr9e ( ! sph]ical =m has be5 errone\sly assign$ to ,?ales2 b he accept$ ! ,semitic conception ( ! disk1 & reg>d$ ! production ( spr+s aft] e>?quakes z due to ! inru%+ ( ! wat]s "u ! ,e>? into fissures 9 ! surface4 ,8 pupil1 ,anaxim&] 7#faj-edg71 accord+ to ,diog5es ,la]tius1 believ$ x to be sph]ical 7see ,! ,obs]vatory1 #ahid1 ,p4 #bjh72 & ,anaxim5es probably held a simil> view4 ,! sph]ical =m is und\bt$ly a discov]y ( ,py?agoras1 & 0 taught by ! ,py?agoreans & by ! ,eleatic ,p>m5ides4 ,! expositor ( greate/ mom5t 0 ,ari/otle2 8 argum5ts are ^? :i* we employ to-day3--! %ip gradually disappe>+ f hull to ma/ z x rec$es f ! h>b\r to ! horizon2 ! circul> %ad[ ca/ by ! ,e>? on ! ,moon dur+ an eclipse1 & ! alt]ation 9 ! appe>ance ( ! heav5s z "o passes f po9t to po9t on ! ,e>?'s surface4#a ,he records attempts made to det]m9e ! circumf]5ce2 b ! fir/ sci5tific inve/igation 9 ?is direction 0 made #aej ye>s lat] by ,erato/h5es4 ,! sph]ical =m1 h[ev]1 only became g5]ally accept$ aft] ! ,e>?'s circumnavigation 7see ,,geography74 ,! hi/orical developm5t ( ! me?ods = det]m9+ ! figure ( ! ,e>? 7by :i* we mean a !oretical surface 9 "p indicat$ by ! ocean at re/1 & 9 o!r p>ts by ! level to :i* wat] freely communicat+ ) ! oceans by canals trav]s+ ! l& masses w\ld rise7 & ! ma!matical inve/igation ( ?is problem are treat$ 9 ! articles ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,!1 & ,,geodesy2 "h ! results are summ>iz$4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton d$uc$ f ! me*anical consid]ation ( ! figure ( equilibrium ( a mass ( rotat+ fluid1 ! =m ( an oblate sph]oid1 ! ellipticity ( a m]idian section be+ #a_/bca1 & ! axes 9 ! ratio #bcj 3 #bca4 ,geodetic measurem5ts by ! ,cass9is & o!r ,fr5* a/ronom]s po9t$ to a prolate =m1 b ! ,newtonian figure 0 prov$ to be correct by ! measurem5t ( m]idional arcs 9 ,p]u & ,lapl& by ! exp$itions organiz$ by ! ,fr5* ,academy ( ,sci5ces4 ,m rec5t "w po9ts to an elliptical equatorial section1 ?us mak+ ! e>? pe>-%ap$4 ,! position ( ! long] axis is some:at unc]ta92 x is c]ta9ly 9 ,africa1 ,cl>ke plac+ x 9 longitude #h deg4 #ae' ,w41 & ,s*ub]t 9 longitude #da deg4 #d' ,e42 ,w4,j4 ,sollas1 argu+ f t]re/rial symmetry1 has *os5 ! position lat4 #f deg4 ,n41 long4 #bh deg4 ,e41 i4e4 betwe5 ,cl>ke's & ,s*ub]t's positions4 ,= ! l5g?s ( ! axes & ! ellipticity ( ! ,e>?1 see ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,!4 #b4 ,mass & ,d5sity4--,! e>lie/ sci5tific inve/igation on ! d5sity & mass ( ! ,e>? 7! problem is really s+le if ! volume ( ! ,e>? be kn[n7 0 made by ,newton1 :o1 ma9ly f a/ronomical consid]ations1 sugge/$ ! limit+ d5sities #e & #f2 x is rem>kable t ?is prophetic guess %\ld be realiz$1 ! mean value f subsequ5t rese>*es be+ ab\t #ea_/b1 :i* gives = ! mass ! value #f x #ajba tons4 ,! d5sity ( ! ,e>? has be5 det]m9$ by sev]al exp]im5t]s )9 rec5t ye>s by me?ods describ$ 9 ! article ,,gravitation2 ! mo/ probable value is !re /at$ to be #e4ebg4 #c4 ,a/ronomical ,relations4--,! gr&e/ a*ievem5ts ( a/ronomical sci5ce are und\bt$ly to be associat$ ) ! elucidation ( ! complex motion ( our planet4 ,! notion t ! ,e>? 0 fix$ & immovable at ! c5tre ( an immeasurable univ]se long possess$ ! m9ds ( m52 & we f9d ! illu/ri\s ,ptolemy accept+ ?is view 9 ! #bnd c5tury ,a4,d41 & reject+ ! notion ( a rotat+ ,e>?--a !ory :i* _h be5 propos$ z e>ly z ! #e? c5tury ,b4,c4 by ,philolaus on philosophical gr\nds1 & 9 ! #crd c5tury ,b4,c4 by ! a/ronom] ,ari/>*us ( ,samos4 ,he argu$ t if ! ,e>? rotat$ !n po9ts at ! equator _h ! enorm\s velocity ( ab\t #ajjj m4 p] h\r1 & z a consequ5ce !re %\ld be t]rific gales f ! ea/2 ! fact t !re 7 no su* gales invalidat$1 9 8 op9ion1 ! !ory4 ,! ,ptolemaic !ory 0 un*all5g$ until #aedc1 9 :i* ye> ! ,de ,revolutionibus orbium ,cele/ium ( ,cop]nicus 0 publi%$4 ,9 ?is "w x 0 %[n t ! common a/ronomical ph5om5a c\ld be m simply expla9$ by reg>d+ ! ,e>? z annually revolv+ ab\t a fix$ ,sun1 & daily rotat+ ab\t itself4 ,a clean sweep 0 made ( ! geoc5tric epicyclic motions ( ! planets :i* ,ptolemy's !ory dem&$1 & 9 place !re 0 sub/itut$ a procession ( planets ab\t ! ,sun at diff]5t di/ances4 ,! developm5t ( ! ,cop]nican !ory--! corn]-/one ( mod]n a/ronomy--by ,johann ,kepl] & ,sir ,isaac ,newton is treat$ 9 ! article ,,a/ronomy3 ,hi/ory2 "h we %all summ>ily discuss ! motions ( our planet & its relation to ! sol> sy/em4 ,! ,e>? has two pr9cipal motions--revolution ab\t ! ,sun1 rotation ab\t its axis2 !re are 9 addition a numb] ( secul> motions4 ,revolution4--,! ,e>? revolves ab\t ! ,sun 9 an elliptical orbit hav+ ! ,sun at "o focus4 ,! plane ( ! orbit is t]m$ ! ecliptic2 x is incl9$ to ! ,e>?'s equator at an angle t]m$ ! obliquity1 & ! po9ts ( int]section ( ! equator & ecliptic are t]m$ ! equ9octial po9ts4 ,! major axis ( ! ellipse is ! l9e ( apsides2 :5 ! ,e>? is ne>e/ ! ,sun x is said to be 9 p]ihelion1 :5 f>!/ x is 9 aphelion4 ,! mean di/ance ( ! ,e>? f ! ,sun is a mo/ important a/ronomical con/ant1 s9ce x is ! unit ( l9e> measurem5t2 its value is ab\t #ic1jjj1jjj m41 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]ihelion & aphelion di/ances is ab\t #c1jjj1jjj m4 ,! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit is #j4jafgea4 ,a tabul> comp>ison ( ! orbital con/ants ( ! ,e>? & ! o!r planets is giv5 9 ! article ,,planet4 ,! p]iod ( revolution ) reg>d to ! ,sun1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! "t tak5 by ! ,sun app>5tly to pass f "o equ9ox to ! same equ9ox1 is ! tropical or equ9octial ye>2 its l5g? is #cfe d4 #e hrs4 #dh m4 #df secs4 ,x is ab\t #bj m9utes %ort] ?an ! true or sid]eal ye>1 :i* is ! "t tak5 = ! ,sun app>5tly to travel f "o /> to x aga94 ,! diff]5ce 9 ^! two ye>s is due to ! secul> v>iation t]m$ precession 7see bel[74 ,a ?ird ye> is nam$ ! anomali/ic ye>1 :i* is ! "t occupi$ 9 ! passage f p]ihelion to p]ihelion2 x is a little long] ?an ! sid]eal4 ,rotation4--,! ,e>? rotates ab\t an axis t]m9at+ at ! nor? & s\? geographical poles1 & p]p5dicul> to ! equator2 ! p]iod ( rotation is t]m$ ! day 7q4v471 ( :i* sev]al k9ds are di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! body or po9t ( ref]5ce4 ,! rotation is p]=m$ f we/ to ea/2 ?is daily rotation occasions ! diurnal motion ( ! cele/ial sph]e1 ! ris+ ( ! ,sun & />s 9 ! ea/ & _! sett+ 9 ! we/1 & also ! ph5om5a ( day & night4 ,! incl9ation ( ! axis to ! ecliptic br+s ab\t ! pres5tation ( places 9 diff]5t latitudes to ! m direct rays ( ! sun2 ?is is reveal$ 9 ! v>iation 9 ! l5g? ( daylight ) ! "t ( ! ye>1 & ! ph5om5a ( seasons4 ,al?\gh ! rotation ( ! ,e>? 0 an accept$ fact soon aft] its sugge/ion by ,cop]nicus1 an exp]im5tal pro( 0 want+ until #ahea1 :5 ,f\cault p]=m$ 8 celebrat$ p5dulum exp]im5t at ! ,pan!on1 ,p>is4 ,a p5dulum ab\t #bjj ft4 long1 compos$ ( a flexible wire c>ry+ a heavy iron bob1 0 susp5d$ s z to be free to oscillate 9 any direction4 ,! bob 0 provid$ ) a /yle :i* pass$ ov] a table /rewn ) f9e s&1 s t ! /yle trac$ ! direction 9 :i* ! bob 0 sw++4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! oscillat+ p5dulum nev] retrac$ its pa?1 b at ea* sw+ x 0 app>5tly deviat$ to ! "r1 & moreov] ! deviations 9 equal times 7 !mselves equal4 ,?is means t ! floor ( ! ,pan!on 0 mov+1 & !re=e ! ,e>? 0 rotat+4 ,if ! p5dulum 7 swung 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! deviation w\ld be to ! left2 if at ! equator x w\ld n deviate1 :ile at ! poles ! plane ( oscillation w\ld trav]se a complete circle 9 #bd h\rs4 ,! rotation ( ! ,e>? appe>s to be p]fectly uni=m1 comp>isons ( ! times ( transits1 eclipses1 c41 po9t to a v>iation ( less ?an #a_/ajj? ( a second s9ce ! "t ( ,ptolemy4 ,!oretical inve/igations on ! ph5om5a ( tidal friction po9t1 h[ev]1 to a ret>dation1 :i* may to "s ext5t be dim9i%$ by ! accel]ations occasion$ by ! %r9kage ( ! globe1 & "s o!r factors difficult to evaluate 7see ,,tide74 ,we n[ proce$ to ! secul> v>iations4 ,precession4--,! axis ( ! e>? does n pres]ve an inv>iable direction 9 space1 b 9 a c]ta9 "t x describes a cone1 9 mu* ! same mann] z ! axis ( a top sp9n+ out ( ! v]tical4 ,! equator1 :i* pres]ves approximately ! same incl9ation to ! ecliptic 7!re is a slight v>iation 9 ! obliquity :i* we %all m5tion lat]71 mu/ move s t its int]sections ) ! ecliptic1 or equ9octial po9ts1 pass 9 a retrograde direction1 i4e4 opposite to t ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is motion is t]m$ ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 & 0 obs]v$ by ,hipp>*us 9 ! #bnd c5tury ,b4,c42 ,ptolemy correct$ ! catalogue ( ,hipp>*us = precession by add+ #b deg4 #dj' to ! longitudes1 ! latitudes be+ unalt]$ by ?is motion1 :i* at ! pres5t "t is #ej4bf annually1 ! complete circuit be+ made 9 ab\t #bf1jjj ye>s4 ,ow+ to precession ! signs ( ! zodiac are trav]s+ pa?s ?r\gh ! con/ellations1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! con/ellations are cont9ually %ift+ ) reg>d to ! equ9octial po9ts2 at "o "t ! v]nal equ9ox ,aries 0 9 ! con/ellations ( t "n2 x is n[ 9 ,pisces1 & w !n pass into ,aqu>ius4 ,! pole />1 i4e4 ! /> t[>ds :i* ! ,e>?'s axis po9ts1 is also %ift+ ow+ to precession2 9 ab\t #bgjj ,b4,c4 ! ,*9ese obs]v$ alpha ,draconis z ! pole /> 7at pres5t alpha ,ursae m9oris occupies ?is position & w d s until #cejj72 9 #acfjj ,vega 7alpha ,lyrae7 ! brighte/ /> 9 ! ,nor!rn hemisph]e1 w be ne>e/4 ,precession is ! result ( ! ,sun & ! ,moon's attraction on ! ,e>? n be+ a s+le =ce ?r\gh its c5tre ( gravity4 ,if ! ,e>? 7 a homog5e\s sph]e ! attractions w\ld act ?r\gh ! c5tre1 & su* =ces w\ld h no effect ^u ! rotation ab\t ! c5tre ( gravity1 b ! ,e>? be+ sph]oidal ! equatorial b& :i* /&s up z x 7 beyond ! surface ( a sph]e is m /rongly attract$1 ) ! result t ! axis und]goes a tilt+4 ,! precession due to ! ,sun is t]m$ ! sol> precession & t due to ! ,moon ! lun> precession2 ! jo9t effect 7two-?irds ( :i* is due to ! ,moon7 is ! luni-sol> precession4 ,sol> precession is greate/ at ! sol/ices & z]o at ! equ9oxes2 ! "p ( luni-sol> precession due to ! ,moon v>ies ) ! position ( ! ,moon 9 its orbit4 ,! obliquity is un*ang$ by precession 7see ,,precession ,,( ,,! ,,equ9oxes74 ,nutation4--,9 treat+ precession we h /at$ t ! axis ( ! ,e>? traces a cone1 & x foll[s t ! pole describes a circle 7approximately7 on ! cele/ial sph]e1 ab\t ! pole ( ! ecliptic4 ,?is is n q true4 ,irregul>ities 9 ! attract+ =ces :i* occasion precession also cause a slight oscillation backw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! mean precessional pa? ( ! pole1 ! pole trac+ a wavy l9e or nodd+4 ,bo? ! ,sun & ,moon contribute to ?is effect4 ,sol> nutation dep5ds ^u ! position ( ! ,sun on ! ecliptic2 its p]iod is !re=e #a ye>1 & 9 ext5t x is only #a4b2 lun> nutation dep5ds ^u ! position ( ! ,moon's nodes2 its p]iod is !re=e ab\t #ah4f ye>s1 ! "t ( revolution ( ! nodes1 & its ext5t is #i4b4 ,!re is also giv5 to ! obliquity a small oscillation to & fro4 ,nutation is "o ( ! great discov]ies ( ,james ,bradley 7#agdg74 ,planet>y ,precession4--,s f> we h reg>d$ ! ecliptic z absolutely fix$1 & treat$ precession z a real motion ( ! equator4 ,! ecliptic 7q4v471 h[ev]1 is itself subject to a motion1 due to ! attractions ( ! planets on ! ,e>?4 ,?is effect also displaces ! equ9octial po9ts4 ,its annual value is #j4ac4 ,! t]m ,g5]al ,precession 9 longitude is giv5 to ! displacem5t ( ! int]section ( ! equator ) ! app>5t ecliptic on ! latt]4 ,! /&>d value is #ej4bdec1 :i* prevail$ 9 #ahej1 & ! value at #ahej t1 i4e4 ! con/ant ( precession1 is #ej4bdec #j4jjjbbbe t4 ,?is value is also liable to a v small *ange4 ,! nutation ( ! obliquity at "t #ahej t is giv5 by ! =mula #bc deg4 #bg' #cb4j - #j4dg t4 ,complete expressions = ^! functions are giv5 9 ,newcomb's ,sph]ical ,a/ronomy 7#aijh71 & 9 ! ,nautical ,almanac4 ,! v>iation ( ! l9e ( apsides is ! "n giv5 to ! motion ( ! major axis ( ! ,e>?'s orbit along ! ecliptic4 ,x is due to ! g5]al influ5ce ( ! planets1 & ! revolution is effect$ 9 #ba1jjj ye>s4 ,! v>iation ( ! ecc5tricity d5otes an oscillation ( ! =m ( ! ,e>?'s orbit betwe5 a circle & ellipse4 ,?is foll[$ ! ma!matical rese>*es ( ,lagrange & ,lev]ri]4 ,x 0 sugge/$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 #ahcj t ?is v>iation might occasion great climatic *anges1 & ,james ,croll develop$ ! !ory z af=d+ a solution ( ! glacial p]iods 9 geology 7q4v474 ,v>iation ( ,latitude4--,ano!r secul> motion ( ! ,e>? is due to ! fact t ! axis ( rotation is n rigidly fix$ )9 x1 b its pol> extremities w&] 9 a circle ( ab\t #ej ft4 diamet]4 ,?is oscillation br+s ab\t a v>iability 9 t]re/rial latitudes1 h5ce ! "n4 ,eul] %[$ ma!matically t su* an oscillation exi/$1 &1 mak+ c]ta9 assumptions z to ! rigidity ( ! ,e>?1 d$uc$ t its p]iod 0 #cje days2 ,s4,c4 ,*&l]1 f #ahij onw>ds1 d$uc$ f obs]vations ( ! />s a p]iod ( #dbh days2 & ,simon ,newcomb expla9$ ! deviation ( ^! p]iods by po9t+ out t ,eul]'s assumption ( a p]fectly rigid ,e>? is n 9 accordance ) fact4 ,= details ( ?is intricate subject see ! articles ,,latitude & ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,!4 #d4 ,evolution & ,age4--,9 its e>lie/ hi/ory ! mass n[ consolidat$ z ! ,e>? & ,moon 0 "p ( a va/ nebul\s aggregate1 :i* 9 ! c\rse ( "t =m$ a c5tral nucleus--our ,sun--:i* %$ its out] lay]s 9 su* a mann] z to =m ! sol> sy/em 7see ,,nebul> ,,!ory74 ,! moon may h be5 =m$ f ! ,e>? 9 a simil> mann]1 b ! !ory ( tidal friction sugge/s ! elongation ( ! ,e>? along an equatorial axis to =m a pe>-%ap$ figure1 & t 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! protub]ance %ot (f to =m ! ,moon 7see ,,tide74 ,! age ( ! ,e>? has be5 inve/igat$ f sev]al directions1 z h also associat$ que/ions relat$ to climatic *anges1 int]nal temp]ature1 ori5tation ( ! l& & wat] 7p]man5ce ( oceans & cont95ts71 c4 ,^! problems are treat$ 9 ! articles ,,geology & ,,geography4 ,,footnote3 #a ,ari/otle reg>d$ ! ,e>? z hav+ an upp] inhabit$ half & a l[] un9habit$ "o1 & ! air on ! l[] half z t5d+ to fl[ upw>ds ?r\gh ! ,e>?4 ,! ob/ruction ( ?is passage br\ght ab\t an accumulation ( air )9 ! ,e>?1 & ! increas$ pressure may occasion oscillations ( ! surface1 :i* may be s int5se z to cause e>?quakes4 ,,e>?1 ,,figure ,,( ,,!4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! figure ( ! e>? is a problem ( ! highe/ importance 9 a/ronomy1 inasmu* z ! diamet] ( ! e>? is ! unit to :i* all cele/ial di/ances mu/ be ref]r$4 ,hi/orical4 ,reason+ f ! uni=m level appe>ance ( ! horizon1 ! v>iations 9 altitude ( ! circumpol> />s z "o travels t[>ds ! nor? or s\?1 ! disappe>ance ( a %ip /&+ out to sea1 & p]haps o!r ph5om5a1 ! e>lie/ a/ronom]s reg>d$ ! e>? z a sph]e1 & !y endeav\r$ to asc]ta9 its dim5sions4 ,ari/otle relates t ! ma!maticians _h f\nd ! circumf]5ce to be #djj1jjj /adia 7ab\t #df1jjj miles74 ,b ,erato/h5es 7c4 #bej ,b4,c47 appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ :o ent]ta9$ an accurate idea ( ! pr9ciples on :i* ! det]m9ation ( ! figure ( ! e>? really dep5ds1 & attempt$ to r$uce !m to practice4 ,8 results 7 v inaccurate1 b 8 me?od is ! same z t :i* is foll[$ at ! pres5t day--dep5d+1 9 fact1 on ! comp>ison ( a l9e measur$ on ! e>?'s surface ) ! correspond+ arc ( ! heav5s4 ,he obs]v$ t at ,sy5e 9 ,upp] ,egypt1 on ! day ( ! summ] sol/ice1 ! sun 0 exactly v]tical1 :il/ at ,alex&ria at ! same season ( ! ye> its z5i? di/ance 0 #g deg4 #ab'1 or "o-fiftie? ( ! circumf]5ce ( a circle4 ,he assum$ t ^! places 7 on ! same m]idian2 &1 reckon+ _! di/ance ap>t z #ejjj /adia1 he inf]r$ t ! circumf]5ce ( ! e>? 0 #bej1jjj /adia 7ab\t #bi1jjj miles74 ,a simil> attempt 0 made by ,posidonius1 :o adopt$ a me?od :i* diff]$ f t ( ,erato/h5es only 9 us+ a /> in/ead ( ! sun4 ,he obta9$ #bdj1jjj /adia 7ab\t #bg1fjj miles7 = ! circumf]5ce4 ,ptolemy 9 8 ,geography assigns ! l5g? ( ! degree z #ejj /adia4 ,! ,arabs also inve/igat$ ! "q ( ! e>?'s magnitude4 ,! caliph ,abdallah al ,mamun 7,a4,d4 #had71 hav+ fix$ on a spot 9 ! pla9s ( ,mesopotamia1 despat*$ "o company ( a/ronom]s nor?w>ds & ano!r s\?w>ds1 measur+ ! j\rney by rods1 until ea* f\nd ! altitude ( ! pole to h *ang$ "o degree4 ,b ! result ( ?is measurem5t does n appe> to h be5 v satisfactory4 ,f ?is "t ! subject seems to h attract$ no att5tion until ab\t #aejj1 :5 ,jean ,f]nel 7#adig-aeeh71 a ,fr5*man1 measur$ a di/ance 9 ! direction ( ! m]idian ne> ,p>is by c\nt+ ! numb] ( revolutions ( ! :eel ( a c>riage4 ,8 a/ronomical obs]vations 7 made ) a triangle us$ z a quadrant1 & 8 result+ l5g? ( a degree 0 v ne> ! tru?4 ,willebrord ,snell#a sub/itut$ a *a9 ( triangles = actual l9e> measurem5t4 ,he measur$ 8 base l9e on ! froz5 surface ( ! mead[s ne> ,leid51 & measur$ ! angles ( 8 triangles1 :i* lay betwe5 ,alkma> & ,b]g5-op-,zoom1 ) a quadrant & semicircles4 ,he took ! precaution ( comp>+ 8 /&>d ) t ( ! ,fr5*1 s t 8 result 0 express$ 9 toises 7! l5g? ( ! toise is ab\t #f4ci ,engli% ft474 ,! "w 0 recomput$ & reobs]v$ by ,p4 von ,muss*5broek 9 #agbi4 ,9 #afcg an ,engli%man1 ,ri*>d ,norwood1 publi%$ a det]m9ation ( ! figure ( ! e>? 9 a volume entitl$ ,! ,seaman's ,practice1 contayn+ a ,fundam5tall ,probleme 9 ,navigation exp]im5tally v]ifi$1 namely1 t\*+ ! ,compasse ( ! ,e>? & ,sea & ! quantity ( a ,degree 9 our ,engli% ,measures4 ,he obs]v$ on ! #aa? ( ,june #afcc ! sun's m]idian altitude 9 ,london z #fb deg4 #a'1 & on ! #f? ( ,june #afce1 8 m]idian altitude 9 ,york z #ei deg4 #cc'4 ,he measur$ ! di/ance betwe5 ^! places p>tly ) a *a9 & p>tly by pac+4 ,by ?is means1 ?r\gh comp5sation ( errors1 he arriv$ at #cfg1agf ft4 = ! degree--a v fair result4 ,! application ( ! telescope to angul> in/rum5ts 0 ! next important /ep4 ,jean ,pic>d 0 ! fir/ :o 9 #affi1 ) ! telescope1 us+ su* precautions z ! nature ( ! op]ation requires1 measur$ an arc ( m]idian4 ,he measur$ ) wood5 rods a base l9e ( #effc toises1 & a second or base ( v]ification ( #cijb toises2 8 triangulation ext5d$ f ,malvois9e1 ne> ,p>is1 to ,s\rdon1 ne> ,ami5s4 ,! angles ( ! triangles 7 measur$ ) a quadrant furni%$ ) a telescope hav+ cross-wires4 ,! diff]5ce ( latitude ( ! t]m9al /ations 0 det]m9$ by obs]vations made ) a sector on a /> 9 ,cassiopeia1 giv+ #a deg4 #bb' #ee = ! amplitude4 ,! t]re/rial measurem5t gave #gh1hej toises1 :5ce he inf]r$ = ! l5g? ( ! degree #eg1jfj toises4 ,hi!rto geodetic obs]vations _h be5 conf9$ to ! det]m9ation ( ! magnitude ( ! e>? consid]$ z a sph]e1 b a discov]y made by ,jean ,ri*] 7d4 #afif7 turn$ ! att5tion ( ma!maticians to its deviation f a sph]ical =m4 ,?is a/ronom]1 hav+ be5 s5t by ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is to ! isl& ( ,cay5ne1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 = ! purpose ( inve/igat+ ! am\nt ( a/ronomical refraction & o!r a/ronomical objects1 obs]v$ t 8 clock1 :i* _h be5 regulat$ at ,p>is to beat seconds1 lo/ ab\t two m9utes & a half daily at ,cay5ne1 & t 9 ord] to br+ x to measure mean sol> "t x 0 necess>y to %ort5 ! p5dulum by m ?an a l9e 7ab\t #a_/ab? ( an 9474 ,?is fact1 :i* 0 sc>cely cr$it$ till x _h be5 confirm$ by ! subsequ5t obs]vations ( ,v>9 & ,de%ayes on ! coa/s ( ,africa & ,am]ica1 0 fir/ expla9$ 9 ! ?ird book ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia1 :o %[$ t x c\ld only be ref]r$ to a dim9ution ( gravity aris+ ei!r f a protub]ance ( ! equatorial p>ts ( ! e>? & consequ5t increase ( ! di/ance f ! c5tre1 or f ! c\nt]act+ effect ( ! c5trifugal =ce4 ,ab\t ! same "t 7#afgc7 appe>$ ,*ri/ian ,huyg5s' ,de ,horologio ,oscillatorio1 9 :i* = ! fir/ "t 7 f\nd correct notions on ! subject ( c5trifugal =ce4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 appe> t !y 7 appli$ to ! !oretical inve/igation ( ! figure ( ! e>? be=e ! publication ( ,newton's ,pr9cipia4 ,9 #afij ,huyg5s publi%$ 8 ,de ,causa ,gravitatis1 :i* conta9s an inve/igation ( ! figure ( ! e>? on ! supposition t ! attraction ( e p>ticle is t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,betwe5 #afhd & #agah ,j4 & ,d4 ,cass9i1 />t+ f ,pic>d's base1 c>ri$ a triangulation nor?w>ds f ,p>is to ,dunkirk & s\?w>ds f ,p>is to ,colli\re4 ,!y measur$ a base ( #gbdf toises ne> ,p]pignan1 & a some:at %ort] base ne> ,dunkirk2 & f ! nor!rn portion ( ! arc1 :i* _h an amplitude ( #b deg4 #ab' #i1 obta9$ = ! l5g? ( a degree #ef1ifj toises2 :ile f ! s\!rn portion1 ( :i* ! amplitude 0 #f deg4 #ah' #eg1 !y obta9$ #eg1jig toises4 ,! imm$iate inf]5ce f ?is 0 t1 ! degree dim9i%+ ) increas+ latitude1 ! e>? mu/ be a prolate sph]oid4 ,?is conclusion 0 totally oppos$ to ! !oretical inve/igations ( ,newton & ,huyg5s1 & accord+ly ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,p>is det]m9$ to apply a decisive te/ by ! measurem5t ( arcs at a great di/ance f ea* o!r--"o 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! equator1 ! o!r 9 a high latitude4 ,?us arose ! celebrat$ exp$itions ( ! ,fr5* academicians4 ,9 ,may #agce ,l\is ,god91 ,pi]re ,b\gu] & ,*>les ,m>ie de la ,condam9e1 "u ! auspices ( ,l\is ,,xv41 proce$$ to ,p]u1 :]e1 assi/$ by two ,spani% (fic]s1 aft] t5 ye>s ( labori\s ex]tion1 !y measur$ an arc ( #c deg4 #g'1 ! nor!rn end ne> ! equator4 ,! second p>ty consi/$ ( ,pi]re ,l\is ,moreau de ,maup]tuis1 ,alexis ,claude ,clairault1 ,*>les ,eti5ne ,l\is ,camus1 ,pi]re ,*>les ,lemonni]1 & ,reg9aud ,ou?i]1 :o rea*$ ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia 9 ,july #agcf2 !y 7 9 "s respects m =tunate ?an ! fir/ p>ty1 inasmu* z !y complet$ ! measurem5t ( an arc ne> ! pol> circle ( #eg' amplitude & return$ )9 sixte5 mon?s f ! date ( _! dep>ture4 ,! measurem5t ( ,b\gu] & ,de la ,condam9e 0 execut$ ) great c>e1 & on acc\nt ( ! locality1 z well z ! mann] 9 :i* all ! details 7 conduct$1 x has always be5 reg>d$ z a mo/ valuable det]m9ation4 ,! s\!rn limit 0 at ,t>qui1 ! nor!rn at ,cot*esqui4 ,a base ( #fbgb toises 0 measur$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,quito1 ne> ! nor!rn extremity ( ! arc1 & a second base ( #ebfj toises ne> ! s\!rn extremity4 ,! m\nta9\s nature ( ! c\ntry made ! "w v labori\s1 9 "s cases ! diff]5ce ( heights ( two neighb\r+ /ations exce$+ #a mile2 & !y _h mu* tr\ble ) _! in/rum5ts1 ^? ) :i* !y 7 to det]m9e ! latitudes prov+ untru/wor?y4 ,b !y succe$$ by simultane\s obs]vations ( ! same /> at ! two extremities ( ! arc 9 obta9+ v fair results4 ,! :ole l5g? ( ! arc am\nt$ to #agf1ide toises1 :ile ! diff]5ce ( latitudes 0 #c deg4 #g' #c4 ,9 consequ5ce ( a misund]/&+ t arose betwe5 ,de la ,condam9e & ,b\gu]1 _! op]ations 7 conduct$ sep>ately1 & ea* wrote a full acc\nt ( ! exp$ition4 ,b\gu]'s book 0 publi%$ 9 #agdi2 t ( ,de la ,condam9e 9 #agea4 ,! toise us$ 9 ?is measure 0 aft]w>ds reg>d$ z ! /&>d toise1 & is always ref]r$ to z ! ,toise ( ,p]u4 ,! p>ty ( ,maup]tuis1 ?\gh _! "w 0 quickly despat*$1 _h also to cont5d ) great difficulties4 ,n be+ able to make use ( ! small isl&s 9 ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia = ! trigonometrical /ations1 !y 7 =c$ to p5etrate into ! =e/s ( ,lapl&1 comm5c+ op]ations at ,tornea1 a city situat$ on ! ma9l& ne> ! extremity ( ! gulf4 ,f ?is1 ! s\!rn extremity ( _! arc1 !y c>ri$ a *a9 ( triangles nor?w>d to ! m\nta9 ,kittis1 :i* !y select$ z ! nor!rn t]m9us4 ,! latitudes 7 det]m9$ by obs]vations ) a sector 7made by ,george ,graham7 ( ! z5i? di/ance ( alpha & delta ,draconis4 ,! base l9e 0 measur$ on ! froz5 surface ( ! riv] ,tornea ab\t ! middle ( ! arc2 two p>ties measur$ x sep>ately1 & !y diff]$ by ab\t #d 94 ,! result ( ! :ole 0 t ! diff]5ce ( latitudes ( ! t]m9al /ations 0 #eg' #bi 4#f1 & ! l5g? ( ! arc #ee1jbc toises4 ,9 ?is exp$ition1 z well z 9 t to ,p]u1 obs]vations 7 made ) a p5dulum to det]m9e ! =ce ( gravity2 & ^! obs]vations co9cid$ ) ! geodetic results 9 prov+ t ! e>? 0 an oblate & n prolate sph]oid4 ,9 #agdj 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,p>is ,memoires an acc\nt1 by ,cass9i de ,?ury1 ( a remeasurem5t by himself & ,nicolas ,l\is de ,lacaille ( ! m]idian ( ,p>is4 ,) a view to det]m9e m accurately ! v>iation ( ! degree along ! m]idian1 !y divid$ ! di/ance f ,dunkirk to ,colli\re into f\r p>tial arcs ( ab\t two degrees ea*1 by obs]v+ ! latitude at five /ations4 ,! results previ\sly obta9$ by ,j4 & ,d4 ,cass9i 7 n confirm$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 ! l5g? ( ! degree d]iv$ f ^! p>tial arcs %[$ on ! :ole an increase ) an increas+ latitude4 ,cass9i & ,lacaille also measur$ an arc ( p>allel across ! m\? ( ! ,rhone4 ,! diff]5ce ( "t ( ! extremities 0 det]m9$ by ! obs]v]s at ei!r end not+ ! in/ant ( a signal giv5 by fla%+ gunp[d] at a po9t ne> ! middle ( ! arc4 ,:ile at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope 9 #ageb1 engag$ 9 v>i\s a/ronomical obs]vations1 ,lacaille measur$ an arc ( m]idian ( #a deg4 #ac' #ag1 :i* gave him = ! l5g? ( ! degree #eg1jcg toises--an unexpect$ result1 :i* has l$ to ! remeasurem5t ( ! arc by ,sir ,?omas ,macle> 7see ,,geodesy74 ,pass+ ov] ! measurem5ts made betwe5 ,rome & ,rim9i & on ! pla9s ( ,pi$mont by ! ,jesuits ,ruggi]o ,giuseppe ,boscovi* & ,giovanni ,batti/a ,becc>ia1 & also ! arc measur$ ) deal rods 9 ,nor? ,am]ica by ,*>les ,mason & ,j]emiah ,dixon1 we come to ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,engli% triangulation4 ,9 #aghc1 9 consequ5ce ( a repres5tation f ,cass9i de ,?ury on ! advantages t w\ld accrue f ! geodetic connexion ( ,p>is & ,gre5wi*1 ,g5]al ,william ,roy 01 ) ! k+'s approval1 appo9t$ by ! ,royal ,society to conduct ! op]ations on ! "p ( ,engl&1 ,c\nt ,cass9i1 ,me*a9 & ,delambre be+ appo9t$ on ! ,fr5* side4 ,a precision previ\sly unkn[n 0 atta9$ by ! use ( ,ramsd5's !odolite1 :i* 0 ! fir/ to make ! sph]ical excess ( triangles measurable4 ,! wood5 rods ) :i* ! fir/ base 0 measur$ 7 replac$ by glass rods1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds reject$ = ! /eel *a9 ( ,ramsd54 7,= fur!r details see ,acc\nt ( ! ,trigonometrical ,survey ( ,engl& & ,wales47 ,%ortly aft] ?is1 ! ,national ,conv5tion ( ,france1 hav+ agre$ to remodel _! sy/em ( weights & measures1 *ose = _! unit ( l5g? ! t5-million? "p ( ! m]idian quadrant4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ?is l5g? precisely1 ! remeasurem5t ( ! ,fr5* m]idian 0 resolv$ on1 & deput$ to ,j4,b4,j4 ,delambre & ,pi]re ,francois ,&re ,me*a94 ,! details ( ?is op]ation w be f\nd 9 ! ,base du sy/eme metrique decimale4 ,! arc 0 subsequ5tly ext5d$ by ,jean ,bapti/e ,biot & ,dom9ique ,francois ,jean ,arago to ! isl& ( ,iviza4 ,op]ations = ! connexion ( ,engl& ) ! cont95t ( ,europe 7 resum$ 9 #ahba to #ahbc by ,h5ry ,kat] & ,?omas ,fr$]ick ,colby on ! ,engli% side1 & ,f4,j4,d4 ,arago & ,claude ,l\is ,ma?ieu on ! ,fr5*4 ,! publication 9 #ahch ( ,fri$ri* ,wilhelm ,bessel's ,gradmessung 9 ,o/preuss5 m>ks an era 9 ! sci5ce ( geodesy4 ,"h we f9d ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es appli$ to ! calculation ( a network ( triangles & ! r$uction ( ! obs]vations g5]ally4 ,! sy/ematic mann] 9 :i* all ! obs]vations 7 tak5 ) ! view ( secur+ f9al results ( extreme accuracy is admirable4 ,! triangulation1 :i* 0 a small "o1 ext5d$ ab\t a degree & a half along ! %ores ( ! ,baltic 9 a ,n4,n4,e4 direction4 ,! angles 7 obs]v$ ) !odolites ( #ab & #ae 94 diamet]1 & ! latitudes det]m9$ by means ( ! transit in/rum5t 9 ! prime v]tical--a me?od mu* us$ 9 ,g]many4 7,! base app>atus is describ$ 9 ! article ,,geodesy47 ,! pr9cipal triangulation ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 :i* 0 comm5c$ 9 #aghc "u ,g5]al ,roy1 = ! m imm$iate purpose ( connect+ ! obs]vatories ( ,gre5wi* & ,p>is1 _h be5 gradually ext5d$1 "u ! successive direction ( ,colonel ,e4 ,williams1 ,g5]al ,w4 ,mudge1 ,g5]al ,t4,f4 ,colby1 ,colonel ,l4,a4 ,hall1 & ,colonel ,sir ,h5ry ,james2 x 0 f9i%$ 9 #ahea4 ,! numb] ( /ations is ab\t #bej4 ,at #cb ( ^! ! latitudes 7 det]m9$ ) ,ramsd5's & ,airy's z5i? sectors4 ,! !odolites us$ = ?is "w 71 9 addition to ! two great !odolites ( ,ramsd5 :i* 7 us$ by ,g5]al ,roy & ,capta9 ,kat]1 a small] !odolite ( #ah 94 diamet] by ! same me*anician1 & ano!r ( #bd 94 diamet] by ,messrs ,tr\ghton & ,simms4 ,obs]vations = det]m9ation ( absolute azimu? 7 made ) ^? in/rum5ts at a l>ge numb] ( /ations2 ! />s alpha1 delta1 & lambda ,ursae ,m9oris & #ea ,cephei be+ ^? obs]v$ always at ! greate/ azimu?s4 ,at six ( ^! /ations ! probable error ( ! result is "u #j4d1 at twelve "u #j4e1 at ?irty-f\r "u #j4g3 s t ! absolute azimu? ( ! :ole network is det]m9$ ) extreme accuracy4 ,( ! sev5 base l9es :i* h be5 measur$1 five 7 by means ( /eel *a9s & two ) ,colby's comp5sation b>s 7see ,,geodesy74 ,! triangulation 0 comput$ by lea/ squ>es4 ,! total numb] ( equations ( condition = ! triangulation is #ibj2 if !re=e ! :ole _h be5 r$uc$ 9 "o mass1 z x %\ld h be51 ! solution ( an equation ( #ibj unkn[n quantities w\ld h occurr$ z a "p ( ! "w4 ,to avoid ?is an approximation 0 resort$ to2 ! triangulation 0 divid$ into tw5ty-"o p>ts or figures2 f\r ( ^!1 n adjac5t1 7 fir/ adju/$ by ! me?od expla9$1 & ! corrections ?us det]m9$ 9 ^! figures c>ri$ into ! equations ( condition ( ! adjac5t figures4 ,! av]age numb] ( equations 9 a figure is #dd2 ! l>ge/ equation is "o ( #gg unkn[n quantities4 ,! v]tical limb ( ,airy's z5i? sector is read by f\r microscopes1 & 9 ! complete obs]vation ( a /> !re are #aj micromet] read+s & #ab level read+s4 ,! in/rum5t is portable2 & a complete det]m9ation ( latitude1 affect$ ) ! mean ( ! decl9ation errors ( two />s1 is effect$ by two micromet] read+s & f\r level read+s4 ,! obs]vation consi/s 9 measur+ ) ! telescope micromet] ! diff]5ce ( z5i? di/ances ( two />s :i* cross ! m]idian1 "o to ! nor? & ! o!r to ! s\? ( ! obs]v] at z5i? di/ances :i* diff] by n mu* m ?an #aj' or #ae'1 ! int]val ( ! times ( transit be+ n less ?an "o nor m ?an tw5ty m9utes4 ,! advantages are t1 ) simplicity 9 ! con/ruction ( ! in/rum5t & facility 9 ! manipulation1 refraction is elim9at$ 7or ne>ly s1 z ! />s are g5]ally select$ )9 #be deg4 ( ! z5i?71 & !re is no l>ge divid$ circle4 ,! telescope1 :i* is c\nt]pois$ on "o side ( ! v]tical axis1 has a small circle = f9d+1 & !re is also a small horizontal circle4 ,?is in/rum5t is univ]sally us$ 9 ,am]ican geodesy4 ,! pr9cipal "w conta9+ ! me?ods & results ( ^! op]ations 0 publi%$ 9 #aheh ) ! title ,ordnance ,trigonometrical ,survey ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,acc\nt ( ! obs]vations & calculations ( ! pr9cipal triangulation & ( ! figure1 dim5sions & mean specific gravity ( ! e>? z d]iv$ !refrom4 ,drawn up by ,capta9 ,alex&] ,ross ,cl>ke1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 "u ! direction ( ,lieut4-,colonel ,h4 ,james1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,r4,i4,a41 c4 ,a supplem5t appe>$ 9 #ahfb3 ,ext5sion ( ! ,triangulation ( ! ,ordnance ,survey into ,france & ,belgium1 ) ! measurem5t ( an arc ( p>allel 9 #eb deg4 ,n4 f ,val5tia 9 ,irel& to ,m\nt ,kemmel 9 ,belgium4 ,publi%$ by 444 ,col4 ,sir ,h5ry ,james4 ,ext5sive op]ations = survey+ ,india & det]m9+ ! figure ( ! e>? 7 comm5c$ 9 #ahjj4 ,colonel ,w4 ,lambton />t$ ! great m]idian arc at ,punnae 9 latitude #h deg4 #i'1 &1 foll[+ g5]ally ! me?ods ( ! ,engli% survey1 he c>ri$ 8 triangulation z f> nor? z #bj deg4 #cj'4 ,! "w 0 cont9u$ by ,sir ,george 7!n ,capta97 ,ev]e/1 :o c>ri$ x to ! latitude ( #bi deg4 #cj'4 ,two admirable volumes by ,sir ,george ,ev]e/1 publi%$ 9 #ahcj & 9 #ahdg1 give ! details ( ?is und]tak+4 ,! survey 0 aft]w>ds prosecut$ by ,colonel ,t4,t4 ,walk]1 ,r4,e41 :o made valuable contributions to geodesy4 ,! work+ out ( ! ,indian *a9s ( triangle by ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es pres5ts peculi> difficulties1 b1 enorm\s 9 ext5t z ! "w 01 x has be5 ?or\ghly c>ri$ out4 ,! t5 base l9es on :i* ! survey dep5ds 7 measur$ ) ,colby's comp5sation b>s4 ,! survey is detail$ 9 eighte5 volumes1 publi%$ at ,dehra ,dun1 & entitl$ ,acc\nt ( ! ,op]ations ( ! ,great ,trigonometrical ,survey ( ,india4 ,( ^! ! fir/ n9e 7 publi%$ "u ! direction ( ,colonel ,walk]2 & ! rema9d] by ,colonels ,/rahan & ,/ ,g4,c4 ,gore1 ,major ,s4,g4 ,burr>d & o!rs4 ,vol4 i41 #ahgj1 treats ( ! base l9es2 vol4 ii41 #ahgi1 hi/ory & g5]al descriptions ( ! pr9cipal triangulation & ( its r$uction2 vol4 v41 #ahgi1 p5dulum op]ations 7,capta9s ,t4,p4 ,basevi & ,w4,t4 ,heaviside72 vols4 xi41 #ahij1 & xviii41 #aijf1 latitudes2 vols4 ix41 #ahhc1 x41 #ahhg1 xv41 #ahic1 longitudes2 vol4 xvii41 #aija1 ! ,indo-,european longitude-arcs f ,k>a*i to ,gre5wi*4 ,! o!r volumes conta9 ! triangulations4 ,9 #ahfj ,fri$ri* ,georg ,wilhelm ,/ruve publi%$ 8 ,arc du m]idi5 de #be deg4 #bj' entre le ,danube et la ,m] ,glaciale mesure depuis #ahaf jusqu'en #ahee4 ,! latitudes ( ! ?irte5 a/ronomical /ations ( ?is arc 7 det]m9$ p>tly ) v]tical circles & p>tly by means ( ! transit in/rum5t 9 ! prime v]tical4 ,! triangulation1 a great "p ( :i*1 h[ev]1 is a simple *a9 ( triangles1 is r$uc$ by ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es1 & ! probable errors ( ! result+ di/ances ( p>allels is giv52 ! probable error ( ! :ole arc 9 l5g? is - #f4b toises4 ,t5 base l9es 7 measur$4 ,! sum ( ! l5g?s ( ! t5 measur$ bases is #bi1hfc toises1 s t ! av]age l5g? ( a base l9e is #ai1ajj ft4 ,! azimu?s 7 obs]v$ at f\rte5 /ations4 ,9 high latitudes ! det]m9ation ( ! m]idian is a matt] ( great difficulty2 nev]!less ! azimu?s at all ! nor!rn /ations 7 successfully det]m9$1--! probable error ( ! result at ,fugl5aes be+ - #j4ec4 ,be=e proce$+ ) ! mod]n developm5ts ( geodetic measurem5ts & _! application to ! figure ( ! e>?1 we mu/ discuss ! me*anical !ory1 :i* is indisp5sable = a full und]/&+ ( ! subject4 ,me*anical ,!ory4 ,newton1 by apply+ 8 !ory ( gravitation1 comb9$ ) ! s-call$ c5trifugal =ce1 to ! e>?1 & assum+ t an oblate ellipsoid ( rotation is a =m ( equilibrium = a homog5e\s fluid rotat+ ) uni=m angul> velocity1 obta9$ ! ratio ( ! axes #bbi3bcj1 & ! law ( v>iation ( gravity on ! surface4 ,a few ye>s lat] ,huyg5s publi%$ an inve/igation ( ! figure ( ! e>?1 suppos+ ! attraction ( e p>ticle to be t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 obta9+ z a result t ! proportion ( ! axes %\ld be #egh 3 #egi4 ,9 #agdj ,col9 ,maclaur91 9 8 ,de causa physica fluxus et refluxus m>is1 demon/rat$ t ! oblate ellipsoid ( revolution is a figure :i* satisfies ! conditions ( equilibrium 9 ! case ( a revolv+ homog5e\s fluid mass1 ^: p>ticles attract "o ano!r accord+ to ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance2 he gave ! equation connect+ ! ellipticity ) ! proportion ( ! c5trifugal =ce at ! equator to gravity1 & det]m9$ ! attraction on a p>ticle situat$ any:]e on ! surface ( su* a body4 ,9 #agdc ,clairault publi%$ 8 ,!orie de la figure de la t]re1 :i* conta9s a rem>kable !orem 7,clairault's ,!orem71 e/abli%+ a relation betwe5 ! ellipticity ( ! e>? & ! v>iation ( gravity f ! equator to ! poles4 ,assum+ t ! e>? is compos$ ( conc5tric ellipsoidal /rata hav+ a common axis ( rotation1 ea* /ratum homog5e\s 9 itself1 b ! ellipticities & d5sities ( ! successive /rata v>y+ accord+ to any law1 & t ! sup]ficial /ratum has ! same =m z if x 7 fluid1 he prov$ t g'- g #e ----- e -- m1 g #b :]e g1 g' are ! am\nts ( gravity at ! equator & at ! pole respectively1 e ! ellipticity ( ! m]idian 7or flatt5+71 & m ! ratio ( ! c5trifugal =ce at ! equator to g4 ,he also prov$ t ! increase ( gravity 9 proce$+ f ! equator to ! poles is z ! squ>e ( ! s9e ( ! latitude4 ,?is1 tak5 ) ! =m] !orem1 gives ! means ( det]m9+ ! e>?'s ellipticity f obs]vation ( ! relative =ce ( gravity at any two places4 ,p4,s4 ,laplace1 :o devot$ mu* att5tion to ! subject1 rem>ks on ,clairault's "w t ! importance ( all 8 results & ! elegance ) :i* !y are pres5t$ place ?is "w among/ ! mo/ beautiful ( ma!matical productions 7,isaac ,todhunt]'s ,hi/ory ( ! ,ma!matical ,!ories ( ,attraction & ! ,figure ( ! ,e>?1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbi74 ,! problem ( ! figure ( ! e>? treat$ z a "q ( me*anics or hydro/atics is "o ( great difficulty1 & x w\ld be q impracticable b = ! circum/ance t ! surface diff]s b little f a sph]e4 ,9 ord] to express ! =ces at any po9t ( ! body aris+ f ! attraction ( its p>ticles1 ! =m ( ! surface is requir$1 b ?is =m is ! v "o :i* x is ! object ( ! inve/igation to discov]2 h5ce ! complexity ( ! subject1 & ev5 ) all ! pres5t res\rces ( ma!maticians only a p>tial & imp]fect solution c be obta9$4 ,we may "h briefly indicate ! l9e ( reason+ by :i* "s ( ! mo/ important results may be obta9$4 ,if ,x1 ,y1 ,z be ! compon5ts p>allel to ?ree rectangul> axes ( ! =ces act+ on a p>ticle ( a fluid mass at ! po9t x1 y1 z1 !n1 p be+ ! pressure !re1 & rho ! d5sity1 dp rho7,xdx ,ydy ,zdz72 & = equilibrium ! necess>y conditions are1 t rho7,xdx ,ydy ,zdz7 be a complete diff]5tial1 & at ! free surface ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz #j4 ,?is equation implies t ! resultant ( ! =ces is normal to ! surface at e po9t1 & 9 a homog5e\s fluid x is obvi\sly ! diff]5tial equation ( all surfaces ( equal pressure4 ,if ! fluid be het]og5e\s !n x is to be rem>k$ t = =ces ( attraction accord+ to ! ord9>y law ( gravitation1 if ,x1 ,y1 ,z be ! compon5ts ( ! attraction ( a mass ^: pot5tial is ,v1 !n d,v d,v d,v ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz --dx --dy --dz1 dx dy dz :i* is a complete diff]5tial4 ,& 9 ! case ( a fluid rotat+ ) uni=m velocity1 9 :i* ! s-call$ c5trifugal =ce ent]s z a =ce act+ on ea* p>ticle proportional to its di/ance f ! axis ( rotation1 ! correspond+ "p ( ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz is obvi\sly a complete diff]5tial4 ,!re=e = ! =ces ) :i* we are n[ conc]n$ ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz d,u1 :]e ,u is "s function ( x1 y1 z1 & x is necess>y = equilibrium t dp rhod,u be a complete diff]5tial2 t is1 rho mu/ be a function ( ,u or a function ( p1 & s also p a function ( ,u4 ,s t d,u #j is ! diff]5tial equation ( surfaces ( equal pressure & d5sity4 ,we may n[ %[ t a homog5e\s fluid mass 9 ! =m ( an oblate ellipsoid ( revolution hav+ a uni=m velocity ( rotation c be 9 equilibrium4 ,x may be prov$ t ! attraction ( ! ellipsoid x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7#a epsilon squ>$7 c squ>$7#a epsilon squ>$72 ^u a p>ticle ,p ( its mass at x1 y1 z has = compon5ts ,x -,ax1 ,y -,ay1 ,z -,cz1 :]e _/#a epsilon squ>$ #a ,a #bpik squ>$rho7 ------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon - -------- 71 epsilon cub$ epsilon squ>$_/ _/#a epsilon squ>$ #a epsilon squ>$ ,c #dpik squ>$rho7 -------------- - ------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon 71 epsilon squ>$ epsilon cub$ _/ & k squ>$ ! con/ant ( attraction4 ,besides ! attraction ( ! mass ( ! ellipsoid1 ! c5trifugal =ce at ,p has = compon5ts xomega squ>$1 yomega squ>$1 #j2 !n ! condition ( fluid equilibrium is 7,a - omega squ>$7xdx 7,a - omega squ>$7ydy ,czdz #j1 :i* by integration gives 7,a - omega squ>$77x squ>$ y squ>$7 ,cz squ>$ con/ant4 ,?is is ! equation ( an ellipsoid ( rotation1 & !re=e ! equilibrium is possible4 ,! equation co9cides ) t ( ! surface ( ! fluid mass if we make ,a - omega squ>$ ,c_/7#a epsilon squ>$71 :i* gives omega squ>$ #c epsilon squ>$ #c ------------ -------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon - ---------- 4 #bpik squ>$rho epsilon cub$ epsilon squ>$ ,9 ! case ( ! e>?1 :i* is ne>ly sph]ical1 we obta9 by exp&+ ! expression = omega squ>$ 9 p[]s ( epsilon squ>$1 reject+ ! high] p[]s1 & rem>k+ t ! ellipticity e #a_/b;epsilon squ>$1 omega squ>$_/#bpik squ>$rho #d;epsilon squ>$_/#ae #h;e_/#ae4 ,n[ if m be ! ratio ( ! c5trifugal =ce to ! int5sity ( gravity at ! equator1 & a c7#a e71 !n m aomega squ>$1_/7#d_/c7pik squ>$rhoa1 34 omega squ>$_/#bpik squ>$rho 7#b_/c7m4 ,9 ! case ( ! e>? x is a matt] ( obs]vation t m #a_/bhi1 h5ce ! ellipticity e #em_/#d #a_/bca1 s t ! ratio ( ! axes on ! supposition ( a homog5e\s fluid e>? is #bcj3bca1 z /at$ by ,newton4 ,n[1 to come to ! case ( a het]og5e\s fluid1 we %all assume t its surfaces ( equal d5sity are sph]oids1 conc5tric & hav+ a common axis ( rotation1 & t ! ellipticity ( ^! surfaces v>ies f ! c5tre to ! out] surface1 ! d5sity also v>y+4 ,9 o!r words1 ! body is compos$ ( homog5e\s sph]oidal %ells ( v>iable d5sity & ellipticity4 ,on ?is supposition we %all express ! attraction ( ! mass ^u a p>ticle 9 its int]ior1 & !n1 tak+ into acc\nt ! c5trifugal =ce1 =m ! equation express+ ! condition ( fluid equilibrium4 ,! attraction ( ! homog5e\s sph]oid x squ>$ y squ>$ z squ>$7#a #b;e7 c squ>$7#a #b;e71 :]e e is ! ellipticity 7( :i* ! squ>e is neglect$71 on an int]nal p>ticle1 ^: co-ord9ates are x f1 y #j1 z h1 has = its x & z compon5ts ,x' -7#d_/c7pik squ>$rhof7#a - 7#b_/e7;e71 ,z' -7#d_/c7pik squ>$rhoh7#a 7#d_/e7;e71 ! ,y compon5t be+ ( c\rse z]o4 ,h5ce we inf] t ! attraction ( a %ell ^: inn] surface has an ellipticity e1 & its out] surface an ellipticity e de1 ! d5sity be+ rho1 is express$ by d,x' 7#d_/c747b_/e7pik squ>$rhof de1 d,z' -7#d_/c747d_/e7pik squ>$rhoh de4 ,to apply ?is to our het]og5e\s sph]oid2 if we put c#a = ! semiaxis ( t surface ( equal d5sity on :i* is situat$ ! attract$ po9t ,p1 & c#j = ! semiaxis ( ! out] surface1 ! attraction ( t portion ( ! body :i* is ext]ior to ,p1 namely1 ( all ! %ells :i* enclose ,p1 has = compon5ts #h _/c#j de #af _/c#j de ,x#j --pik squ>$f rho --dc1 ,z#j - -- pik squ>$h rho --dc1 #ae _/c#a dc #ae _/c#a dc bo? e & rho be+ functions ( c4 ,aga9 ! attraction ( a homog5e\s sph]oid ( d5sity rho on an ext]nal po9t f1 h has ! compon5ts ,x -7#d_/c7pik squ>$rhofr7-#c7 c cub$7#a #b;e7 - lambdaec#e1 ,z -7#d_/c7pik squ>$rhohr7-#c7 c cub$7#a #b;e7 - lambda'ec#e1 :]e lambda 7#c_/e77d;h squ>$ - f squ>$7_/r#d1 lambda' 7#c_/e77b;h squ>$ - #c;f squ>$7_/r#d1 & r squ>$ f squ>$ h squ>$4 ,n[ e be+ consid]$ a function ( c1 we c at once express ! attraction ( a %ell 7d5sity rho7 conta9$ betwe5 ! surface def9$ by c dc1 e de & t def9$ by c1 e ^u an ext]nal po9t2 ! diff]5tials ) respect to c1 viz4 d,x d,z1 mu/ !n be integrat$ ) rho "u ! integral sign z be+ a function ( c4 ,! integration w ext5d f c #j to c c#a4 ,?us ! compon5ts ( ! attraction ( ! het]og5e\s sph]oid ^u a p>ticle )9 its mass1 ^: co-ord9ates are f1 #j1 h1 are #d #a _/c#a ,x - -- pik squ>$f -- rho dc cub$7#a #b;e7 #c r cub$ _/#j lambda _/c#a #b _/c#a - -------- rho d7ec#e7 - -- rho de 1 r cub$ _/#j #e _/#j #d #a _/c#a ,z - -- pik squ>$h -- rho dc cub$7#a #b;e7 #c r cub$ _/#j lambda'_/c#a #d _/c#a - -------- rho d7ec#e7 -- rho de 4 r cub$ _/#j #e _/#j ,we take into acc\nt ! rotation ( ! e>? by add+ ! c5trifugal =ce fomega squ>$ ,f to ,x4 ,n[1 ! surface ( con/ant d5sity ^u :i* ! po9t f1 #j1 h is situat$ gives 7#a - #b;e7 fdf hdh #j2 & ! condition ( equilibrium is t 7,x ,f7df ,zdh #j4 ,!re=e1 7,x ,f7h ,zf7#a - #b;e71 :i*1 neglect+ small quantities ( ! ord] e squ>$ & putt+ omega squ>$t squ>$ #dpi squ>$k squ>$1 gives #b;e _/c#a #f _/c#a #f _/c#j #cpi -- rhodc cub$7#a #b;e7 - ---- rhod7ec#e7 - -- rhode -----4 r cub$_/#j #er#e _/#j #e _/c#a t squ>$ ,"h we mu/ n[ put c = c#a1 c = r2 & #a #b;e "u ! fir/ integral sign may be replac$ by unity1 s9ce small quantities ( ! second ord] are neglect$4 ,two diff]5tiations lead u to ! foll[+ v important diff]5tial equation 7,clairault73 d squ>$e #brhoc squ>$ de _/ #brhoc #f --- -------------- 4 -- 7 -------------- - -- 7 e #j4 dc squ>$ intrhoc squ>$dc dc intrhoc squ>$dc c squ>$_/ ,:5 rho is express$ 9 t]ms ( c1 ?is equation c be integrat$4 ,we inf] !n t a rotat+ sph]oid ( v small ellipticity1 compos$ ( fluid homog5e\s /rata su* z we h specifi$1 w be 9 equilibrium2 & :5 ! law ( ! d5sity is express$1 ! law ( ! correspond+ ellipticities w foll[4 ,if we put ,m = ! mass ( ! sph]oid1 !n #dpi _/c c cub$ #dpi squ>$ ,m ----- rhodc cub$7#a #b;e72 & m --- 4 -----1 #c _/#j ,m t squ>$ & putt+ c c#j 9 ! equation express+ ! condition ( equilibrium1 we f9d #d #f _/c ,m7#b;e - m7 -- pi4--- rhod7ec#e74 #c #e;c squ>$_/#j ,mak+ ^! sub/itutions 9 ! expressions = ! =ces at ! surface1 & putt+ r_/c #a e - e7h_/c7 squ>$1 we get ,mk squ>$ #c _/#e h squ>$ f ,g cos phi --- #a - e - -- m 7 - m - #b;e7 -- -- ac #b #b _/ c squ>$ c ,mk squ>$ #c _/#e h squ>$ h ,g s9 phi --- #a e - -- m 7 - m - #b;e7 -- --4 ac #b #b _/ c squ>$ c ,"h ,g is gravity 9 ! latitude phi1 & a ! radius ( ! equator4 ,s9ce sec phi 7c_/f7#a e 7eh squ>$_/c squ>$71 ,mk squ>$ #c _/#e ,g --- #a - -- m 7 -- m - e7 s9 squ>$ phi 1 ac #b #b _/ an expression :i* conta9s ! !orems we h ref]r$ to z discov]$ by ,clairault4 ,! !ory ( ! figure ( ! e>? z a rotat+ ellipsoid has be5 especially inve/igat$ by ,laplace 9 8 ,mecanique cele/e4 ,! pr9cipal ,engli% works are3--,sir ,george ,airy1 ,ma!matical ,tracts1 a lucid treatm5t )\t ! use ( ,laplace's coeffici5ts2 ,ar*deacon ,pratt's ,attractions & ,figure ( ! ,e>?2 & ,o',bri5's ,ma!matical ,tracts2 9 ! la/ two ,laplace's coeffici5ts are us$4 ,9 #ahde ,sir ,g4,g4 ,/okes 7,camb4 ,trans4 viii42 see also ,camb4 ,dub4 ,ma?4 ,j\rn41 #ahdi1 iv47 prov$ t if ! ext]nal =m ( ! sea--imag9$ to p]colate ! l& by canals--be a sph]oid ) small ellipticity1 !n ! law ( gravity is t :i* we h %[n above2 8 pro( requir$ no assumption z to ! ellipticity ( ! int]nal /rata1 or z to ! pa/ or pres5t fluidity ( ! e>?4 ,?is inve/igation admits ( be+ reg>d$ conv]sely1 viz4 z det]m9+ ! elliptical =m ( ! e>? f measurem5ts ( gravity2 if ,g1 ! obs]v$ value ( gravity 9 latitude phi1 be express$ 9 ! =m ,g g7#a ss s9 squ>$ phi71 :]e g is ! value at ! equator & ss a coeffici5t4 ,9 ?is inve/igation1 ! squ>e & high] p[]s ( ! ellipticity are neglect$2 ! solution 0 complet$ by ,f4,r4 ,helm]t ) reg>d to ! squ>e ( ! ellipticity1 :o %[$ t a t]m ) s9 squ>$ #bphi appe>$ 7see ,helm]t1 ,geodaesie1 ii4 #hc74 ,= ! coeffici5t ( ?is t]m1 ! gravity measurem5ts give a small b n suffici5tly c]ta9 value2 we !re=e assume a value :i* agrees be/ ) ! hypo!sis ( ! fluid /ate ( ! entire e>?2 ?is assumption is well support$1 s9ce ev5 at a dep? ( only #ej km4 ! pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t cru/ is s great t rocks become pla/ic1 & behave approximately z fluids1 & consequ5tly ! cru/ ( ! e>? floats1 to "s ext5t1 on ! int]ior 7ev5 ?\gh ?is may n be fluid 9 ! usual s5se ( ! ^w74 ,?is is ! geological !ory ( ,iso/asis 7cf4 ,,geology72 x agrees ) ! results ( measurem5ts ( gravity 7vide infra71 & 0 br\ght =w>d 9 ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury by ,j4,h4 ,pratt1 :o d$uc$ x f obs]vations made 9 ,india4 ,! s9 squ>$ #bphi t]m 9 ! expression = ,g1 & ! correspond+ deviation ( ! m]idian f an ellipse1 h be5 analytically e/abli%$ by ,sir ,g4,h4 ,d>w9 & ,e4 ,wie*]t2 e>li] & less complete inve/igations 7 made by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy & ,o4 ,call&reau4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! s9 squ>$ #bphi t]m1 two p>amet]s ( ! level surfaces 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? are to be det]m9$2 = ?is purpose1 ,d>w9 develops two diff]5tial equations 9 ! place ( ! "o by ,clairault4 ,by assum+ ,ro*e's law = ! v>iation ( ! d5sity 9 ! int]ior ( ! ,e>?1 viz4 rho rho#a - k7c_/c#a7 squ>$1 k be+ a coeffici5t1 x is %[n t 9 latitude #de deg41 ! m]idian is depress$ ab\t #ca_/d metres f ! ellipse1 & ! coeffici5t ( ! t]m s9 squ>$ phi cos squ>$ phi 7 #a_/d s9 squ>$ #bphi7 is -#j4jjjjbie4 ,accord+ to ,wie*]t ! e>? is compos$ ( a k]nel & a %ell1 ! k]nel be+ compos$ ( mat]ial1 *iefly metallic iron1 ( d5sity ne> #h4b1 & ! %ell1 ab\t #ijj miles ?ick1 ( silicates1 c41 ( d5sity ab\t #c4b4 ,on ?is assumption ! depression 9 latitude #de deg4 is #bc_/d metres1 & ! coeffici5t ( s9 squ>$ phi cos squ>$ phi is1 9 r\nd numb]s1 -#j4jjjjbhj4b ,to ?is additional t]m 9 ! =mula = ,g1 !re corresponds an ext5sion ( ,clairault's =mula = ! calculation ( ! flatt5+ f ss ) t]ms ( ! high] ord]s2 ?is 0 fir/ accompli%$ by ,helm]t4 ,= a long "t ! assumption ( an ellipsoid ) ?ree unequal axes has be5 held possible = ! figure ( ! e>?1 9 consequ5ce ( an important !orem due to ,k4,g4 ,jacobi1 :o prov$ t = a homog5e\s fluid 9 rotation a sph]oid is n ! only =m ( equilibrium2 an ellipsoid rotat+ r\nd its lea/ axis may ) c]ta9 proportions ( ! axes & a c]ta9 "t ( revolution be a =m ( equilibrium4#c ,x has be5 object$ to ! figure ( ?ree unequal axes t x does n satisfy1 9 ! proportions ( ! axes1 ! conditions br\ght out 9 ,jacobi's !orem 7c3 a #a_/root#b74 ,admitt+ ?is1 x has to be not$1 on ! o!r h&1 t ,jacobi's !orem contemplates a homog5e\s fluid1 & ?is is c]ta9ly f> f ! actual condition ( our globe2 inde$ ! irregul> di/ribution ( cont95ts & oceans sugge/s ! possibility ( a s5sible div]g5ce f a p]fect surface ( revolution4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 assume ! ellipsoid ) ?ree unequal axes to be an int]polation =m4 ,m plausible =ms are little adapt$ = computation4#d ,consequ5tly we n[ g5]ally take ! ellipsoid ( rotation z a basis1 especially s because measurem5ts ( gravity h %[n t ! deviation f x is b trifl+4 ,local ,attraction4 ,9 speak+ ( ! figure ( ! e>?1 we mean ! surface ( ! sea imag9$ to p]colate ! cont95ts by canals4 ,t ?is surface %\ld turn out1 aft] precise measurem5ts1 to be exactly an ellipsoid ( revolution is a priori improbable4 ,al?\gh x may be highly probable t orig9ally ! e>? 0 a fluid mass1 yet 9 ! cool+ :]eby ! pres5t cru/ has result$1 ! actual solid surface has be5 left mo/ irregul> 9 =m4 ,x is cle> t ^! irregul>ities ( ! visible surface mu/ be accompani$ by irregul>ities 9 ! ma!matical figure ( ! e>?1 & :5 we consid] ! g5]al surface ( our globe1 its irregul> di/ribution ( m\nta9 masses1 cont95ts1 ) oceans & isl&s1 we are prep>$ to admit t ! e>? may n be precisely any surface ( revolution4 ,nev]!less1 !re mu/ exi/ "s sph]oid :i* agrees v closely ) ! ma!matical figure ( ! e>?1 & has ! same axis ( rotation4 ,we mu/ conceive ?is figure z exhibit+ slight dep>tures f ! sph]oid1 ! two surfaces cutt+ "o ano!r 9 v>i\s l9es2 ?us a po9t ( ! surface is def9$ by its latitude1 longitude1 & its height above ! sph]oid ( ref]5ce4 ,call+ ?is height ,n1 !n ( ! actual magnitude ( ?is quantity we c g5]ally h no in=mation1 x only obtrudes itself on our notice by its v>iations4 ,9 ! vic9ity ( m\nta9s x may *ange sign 9 ! space ( a few miles2 ,n be+ reg>d$ z a function ( ! latitude & longitude1 if its diff]5tial coeffici5t ) respect to ! =m] be z]o at a c]ta9 po9t1 ! normals to ! two surfaces !n w lie 9 ! prime v]tical2 if ! diff]5tial coeffici5t ( ,n ) respect to ! longitude be z]o1 ! two normals w lie 9 ! m]idian2 if bo? coeffici5ts are z]o1 ! normals w co9cide4 ,! comp>isons ( t]re/rial measurem5ts ) ! correspond+ a/ronomical obs]vations h always be5 accompani$ ) discrepancies4 ,suppose ,a & ,b to be two trigonometrical /ations1 & t at ,a !re is a di/urb+ =ce draw+ ! v]tical ?r\gh an angle delta1 !n x is evid5t t ! app>5t z5i? ( ,a w be really t ( "s o!r place ,a'1 ^: di/ance f ,a is rdelta1 :5 r is ! e>?'s radius2 & simil>ly if !re be a di/urbance at ,b ( ! am\nt delta'1 ! app>5t z5i? ( ,b w be really t ( "s o!r place ,b'1 ^: di/ance f ,b is rdelta'4 ,h5ce we h ! discrepancy t1 :ile ! geodetic measurem5ts deal ) ! po9ts ,a & ,b1 ! a/ronomical obs]vations belong to ! po9ts ,a'1 ,b'4 ,%\ld delta1 delta' be equal & p>allel1 ! displacem5ts ,,aa'1 ,,bb' w be equal & p>allel1 & no discrepancy w appe>4 ,! non-recognition ( ?is circum/ance (t5 l$ to mu* p]plexity 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( geodesy4 ,suppose t1 ?r\gh ! unkn[n v>iations ( ,n1 ! probable error ( an obs]v$ latitude 7t is1 ! angle betwe5 ! normal to ! ma!matical surface ( ! e>? at ! giv5 po9t & t ( ! correspond+ po9t on ! sph]oid ( ref]5ce7 be epsilon1 !n if we comp>e two arcs ( a degree ea* 9 mean latitudes1 & ne> ea* o!r1 say ab\t five degrees ( latitude ap>t1 ! probable error ( ! result+ value ( ! ellipticity w be approximately - #a_/ejj;epsilon1 epsilon be+ express$ 9 seconds1 s t if epsilon be s great z #b ! probable error ( ! result+ ellipticity w be great] ?an ! ellipticity itself4 ,x is necess>y at times to calculate ! attraction ( a m\nta91 & ! consequ5t di/urbance ( ! a/ronomical z5i?1 at any po9t )9 its influ5ce4 ,! deflection ( ! plumb-l9e1 caus$ by a local attraction ^: am\nt is k squared,adelta1 is measur$ by ! ratio ( k squared,adelta to ! =ce ( gravity at ! /ation4 ,express$ 9 seconds1 ! deflection ,lambda is ,lambda #ab4ddg;,adelta_/rho1 :]e rho is ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 delta t ( ! attract+ mass1 & ,a fs7-#c7xdv1 9 :i* dv is a volume elem5t ( ! attract+ mass )9 ! di/ance s f ! po9t ( deflection1 & x ! projection ( s on ! horizontal plane ?r\gh ?is po9t1 ! l9e> unit 9 express+ ,a be+ a mile4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 a table-l& ^: =m is a rectangle ( #ab miles by #h miles1 hav+ a height ( #ejj ft4 & d5sity half t ( ! e>?2 let ! obs]v] be #b miles di/ant f ! middle po9t ( ! long] side4 ,! deflection !n is #a4dgb2 b at #a mile x increases to #b4bj4 ,at sixte5 a/ronomical /ations 9 ! ,engli% survey ! di/urbance ( latitude due to ! =m ( ! gr\nd has be5 comput$1 & ! foll[+ w give an idea ( ! results4 ,at six /ations ! deflection is "u #b1 at six o!rs x is betwe5 #b & #d1 & at f\r /ations x exce$s #d4 ,!re is "o v exceptional /ation on ! nor? coa/ ( ,banff%ire1 ne> ! village ( ,portsoy1 at :i* ! deflection am\nts to #aj1 s t if t village 7 plac$ on a map 9 a position to correspond ) its a/ronomical latitude1 x w\ld be #ajjj ft4 out ( position6 ,!re is ! sea to ! nor? & an undulat+ c\ntry to ! s\?1 :i*1 h[ev]1 to a spectator at ! /ation does n sugge/ any great di/urbance ( gravity4 ,a some:at r\gh e/imate ( ! local attraction f ext]nal causes gives a maximum limit ( #e1 !re=e we h #e :i* mu/ arise f unequal d5sity 9 ! und]ly+ /rata 9 ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,9 ord] to ?r[ light on ?is rem>kable ph5om5on1 ! latitudes ( a numb] ( /ations betwe5 ,nairn on ! we/1 ,fras]burgh on ! ea/1 & ! ,grampians on ! s\?1 7 obs]v$1 & ! local deflections det]m9$4 ,x is some:at s+ul> t ! deflections dim9i% 9 all directions1 n v regul>ly c]ta9ly1 & mo/ sl[ly 9 a s\?-we/ direction1 f9ally disappe>+1 & leav+ ! maximum at ! orig9al /ation at ,portsoy4 ,! me?od employ$ by ,dr ,c4 ,hutton = comput+ ! attraction ( masses ( gr\nd is s simple & effectual t x c h>dly be improv$ on4 ,let a horizontal plane pass ?r\gh ! giv5 /ation2 let r1 !ta be ! pol> co-ord9ates ( any po9t 9 ?is plane1 & r1 !ta1 z1 ! co-ord9ates ( a p>ticle ( ! attract+ mass2 & let x be requir$ to f9d ! attraction ( a portion ( ! mass conta9$ betwe5 ! horizontal planes z #j1 z h1 ! cyl9drical surfaces r r#a1 r r#b1 & ! v]tical planes !ta !ta#a1 !ta !ta#b4 ,! compon5t ( ! attraction at ! /ation or orig9 along ! l9e !ta #j is _/r#b _/!ta#b _/h r squ>$cos !ta k squ>$delta ------------- dr d!ta dz _/r#a _/!ta#a _/#j 7r squ>$z squ>$77#c_/b7 k squ>$deltah7s9!ta#b - s9!ta#a7 logr#b 7r#b squ>$ h squ>$77#a_/b7_/r#a 7r#a squ>$ h squ>$77#a_/b74 ,by tak+ r#b - r#a1 suffici5tly small1 & suppos+ h also small comp>$ ) r#a r#b 7z x usually is71 ! attraction is k squ>$delta7r#b - r#a77s9 !ta#b - s9 !ta#a7;h_/r1 :]e r #a_/b7r#a r#b74 ,?is =m sugge/s ! foll[+ proc$ure4 ,draw on ! cont\r$ map a s]ies ( equidi/ant circles1 conc5tric ) ! /ation1 int]sect$ by radial l9es s dispos$ t ! s9es ( _! azimu?s are 9 ari?metical progression4 ,!n1 hav+ e/imat$ f ! map ! mean heights ( ! v>i\s comp>tm5ts1 ! calculation is obvi\s4 ,9 m\nta9\s c\ntries1 z ne> ! ,alps & 9 ! ,caucasus1 deflections h be5 obs]v$ to ! am\nt ( z mu* z #cj1 :ile 9 ! ,himalayas deflections am\nt+ to #fj 7 obs]v$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 deflections h be5 obs]v$ 9 flat c\ntries1 su* z t not$ by ,pr(essor ,k4,g4 ,s*weiz]1 :o has %[n t1 at c]ta9 /ations 9 ! vic9ity ( ,mosc[1 )9 a di/ance ( #af miles ! plumb-l9e v>ies #af 9 su* a mann] z to indicate a va/ defici5cy ( matt] 9 ! und]ly+ /rata2 deflections ( #aj 7 obs]v$ 9 ! level regions ( nor? ,g]many4 ,s9ce ! attraction ( a m\nta9 mass is express$ z a num]ical multiple ( delta 3 rho ! ratio ( ! d5sity ( ! m\nta9 to t ( ! e>?1 if we h any indep5d5t means ( asc]ta9+ ! am\nt ( ! deflection1 we h at once ! ratio rho3delta1 & ?us we obta9 ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?1 z1 = in/ance1 at ,s*iehallion1 & aft]w>ds at ,ar?ur's ,seat4 ,exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d = det]m9+ ! mean d5sity ( ! e>? h be5 made 9 great] numb]s2 b !y are n free f objection 7see ,,gravitation74 ,let u n[ consid] ! p]turbation att5d+ a sph]ical subt]ranean mass4 ,a compact mass ( great d5sity at a small di/ance "u ! surface ( ! e>? w produce an elevation ( ! ma!matical surface :i* is express$ by ! =mula y a mu77#a - #bu cos !ta u squ>$77-#a_/b7 - #a71 :]e a is ! radius ( ! 7sph]ical7 e>?1 a7#a - u7 ! di/ance ( ! di/urb+ mass bel[ ! surface1 mu ! ratio ( ! di/urb+ mass to ! mass ( ! e>?1 & a!ta ! di/ance ( any po9t on ! surface f t po9t1 say ,q1 :i* is v]tically ov] ! di/urb+ mass4 ,! maximum value ( y is at ,q1 :]e x is y a muu7#a -u74 ,! deflection at ! di/ance a!ta is ,lambda muu s9!ta7#a - #bu cos!ta u squ>$77-#c_/b71 or s9ce !ta is small1 putt+ h u #a1 we h ,lambda mu!ta7h squ>$ !ta squ>$77-#c_/b74 ,! maximum deflection takes place at a po9t ^: di/ance f ,q is to ! dep? ( ! mass z #a3root#b1 & its am\nt is #b mu_/#c root7#c;h squ>$74 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! di/urb+ mass 7 a sph]e a mile 9 diamet]1 ! excess ( its d5sity above t ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry be+ equal to half ! d5sity ( ! e>?1 & ! dep? ( its c5tre half a mile1 ! greate/ deflection w\ld be #e1 & ! greate/ value ( y only two in*es4 ,?us a l>ge di/urbance ( gravity may arise f an irregul>ity 9 ! ma!matical surface ^: actual magnitude1 z reg>ds height at lea/1 is extremely small4 ,! effect ( ! di/urb+ mass mu on ! vibrations ( a p5dulum w\ld be a maximum at ,q2 if v be ! numb] ( seconds ( "t ga9$ p] diem by ! p5dulum at ,q1 & sigma ! numb] ( seconds ( angle 9 ! maximum deflection1 !n x may be %[n t v_/sigma piroot#c_/aj4 ,! great ,indian survey1 & ! att5dant measurem5ts ( ! degree ( latitude1 gave occasion to elaborate inve/igations ( ! deflection ( ! plumb-l9e 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! high plateaus & m\nta9 *a9s ( ,c5tral ,asia4 ,ar*deacon ,pratt 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahee & #aheg71 9 in/itut+ ^! inve/igations1 took into consid]ation ! influ5ce ( ! app>5t dim9ution ( ! mass ( ! e>?'s cru/ occasion$ by ! neighb\r+ ocean-bas9s2 he conclud$ t ! accumulat$ masses ( m\nta9 *a9s1 c41 correspond$ to subt]ranean mass dim9utions1 s t ov] any level surface 9 a fix$ dep? 7p]haps #ajj miles or m7 ! masses ( prisms ( equal section are equal4 ,?is is support$ by ! gravity measurem5ts at ,m 9 ! ,himalayas at a height ( #dfif metres1 :i* %[$ no deflection due to ! m\nta9 *a9 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahga72 m rec5tly1 ,h4,a4 ,faye 7,compt4 r5d41 #ahhj7 arriv$ at ! same conclusion = ! entire cont95t4 ,?is comp5sation1 h[ev]1 mu/ only be reg>d$ z a g5]al pr9ciple2 9 c]ta9 cases1 ! comp5sat+ masses %[ m>k$ horizontal displacem5ts4 ,fur!r inve/igations1 especially ( gravity measurem5ts1 w und\bt$ly e/abli% o!r important facts4 ,colonel ,s4,g4 ,burr>d has rec5tly recalculat$1 ) ! aid ( m exact data1 c]ta9 ,indian deviations ( ! plumb-l9e1 & has e/abli%$ t 9 ! region s\? ( ! ,himalayas 7lat4 #bd deg47 !re is a subt]ranean p]turb+ mass4 ,! ext5t ( ! comp5sation ( ! high m\nta9 *a9s is difficult to recognize f ! latitude obs]vations1 s9ce ! same effect may result f diff]5t causes2 on ! o!r h&1 obs]vations ( geographical longitude h e/abli%$ a /rong comp5sation4#e ,m]idian ,arcs4 ,! a/ronomical /ations = ! measurem5t ( ! degree ( latitude w g5]ally lie n exactly on ! same m]idian2 & x is !re=e necess>y to calculate ! arcs ( m]idian ,m :i* lie betwe5 ! latitude ( neighb\r+ /ations4 ,if ,s be ! geodetic l9e calculat$ f ! triangulation ) ! a/ronomically det]m9$ azimu?s alpha#a & alpha#b1 !n cos alpha #a ,s squ>$ ,m ,s ------------------- #a -- -------- s9 squ>$ alpha 444 1 cos #a_/b;,deltaalpha #ab alpha squ>$ 9 :i* #b;alpha alpha#a alpha#b - #ahj deg41 ,deltaalpha alpha#b - alpha#a - #ahj deg44 ,! l5g? ( ! arc ( m]idian betwe5 ! latitudes phi#a & phi#b is phi#b phi#b _/ _/ 7#a - e squ>$7dphi ,m rhodphi alpha ----------------------- _/ _/ 7#a - e squ>$s9 squ>$phi77#c_/b7 phi#a phi#a :]e a squ>$e squ>$ a squ>$ - b squ>$2 in/ead ( us+ ! ecc5tricity e1 put ! ratio ( ! axes b3a #a - n3#a n1 !n phi#b _/ b7#a n77#a - n squ>$7dphi ,m ------------------------------4 _/ 7#a #bn cos #bphi n squ>$77#c_/b7 phi#a ,?is1 aft] integration1 gives _/ #e #e _/ #ba ,m_/b 7 #a n -n squ>$ -n cub$7 alpha#j - 7 #cn #cn squ>$ --n cub$7 alpha#a #d #d _/ #h _/ _/#ae #ae _/#ce 7 --n squ>$ --n cub$7 alpha#b - 7 --n cub$ 7 alpha#c1 #h #h _/ #bd _/ :]e alpha#j phi#b - phi#a alpha#a s9 7phi#b - phi#a7 cos 7phi#b phi#a7 alpha#b s9 #b7phi#b - phi#a7 cos #b7phi#b phi#a7 alpha#c s9 #c7phi#b - phi#a7 cos #c7phi#b phi#a74 ,! "p ( ,m :i* dep5ds on n cub$ is v small2 9 fact1 if we calculate x = "o ( ! longe/ arcs measur$1 ! ,russian arc1 x am\nts to only an in* & a half1 !re=e we omit ?is t]m1 & put = ,m_/b ! value _/ #e _/#ae 7l n --n squ>$7 alpha#j - 7#cn #cn squ>$7 alpha#a 7 --n squ>$7 alpha#b4 #d _/ #h _/ ,n[1 if we suppose ! obs]v$ latitudes to be affect$ ) errors1 & t ! true latitudes are phi#a x#a1 phi#b x#b2 & if fur!r we suppose t n#a dn is ! true value ( a - b3a b1 & t n#a itself is m]ely a v approximate num]ical value1 we get1 on mak+ ^! sub/itutions & neglect+ ! influ5ce ( ! corrections x on ! position ( ! arc 9 latitude1 i4e4 on phi#a phi#b1 _/ #e _/ _/#ae ,m_/b 7 #a n --n#a squ>$7alpha#j - 7#cn#a #cn#a squ>$7alpha#a 7 --n#a squ>$7alpha#b #d _/ _/ #h _/ _/ #e _/ _/#ae 7 #a -- n#a 7a#j - 7 #c #fn#a 7a#a 7 -- n#a 7a#b dn #b _/ _/ #d _/ da#a #a n#a - #cn --- da#j2 da#j "h da#j x#b - x#a2 & z b is only kn[n approximately1 put b b#a7a u72 !n we get1 aft] divid+ ?r\gh by ! coeffici5t ( da#j1 :i* is #a n#a - #cn#a cos7phi#b - phi#a7 cos7phi#b phi#a71 an equation ( ! =m x#b x#a h fu gv1 :]e = conv5i5ce we put v = dn4 ,n[ 9 e measur$ arc !re are n only ! extreme /ations det]m9$ 9 latitude1 b also a numb] ( int]m$iate /ations s t if !re be i #a /ations !re w be i equations x#b x#a f#au g#av h#a x#c x#a f#bu g#bv h#b 3 3 3 3 3 3 xi x#a fiu giv hi ,9 comb9+ a numb] ( diff]5t arcs ( m]idian1 ) ! view ( det]m9+ ! figure ( ! e>?1 ea* arc w supply a numb] ( equations 9 u & v & ! corrections to its obs]v$ latitudes4 ,!n1 accord+ to ! me?od ( lea/ squ>es1 ^? values ( u & v are ! mo/ probable :i* r5d] ! sum ( ! squ>es ( all ! errors x a m9imum4 ,! corrections x :i* are "h appli$ arise n f errors ( obs]vation only4 ,! m]e unc]ta9ty ( a latitude1 z det]m9$ ) mod]n in/rum5ts1 does n exce$ a v small fraction ( a second z f> z errors ( obs]vation g1 b no accuracy 9 obs]v+ w remove ! error t may arise f local attraction4 ,?is1 z we h se51 may am\nt to "s seconds1 s t ! corrections x to ! obs]v$ latitudes are attributable to local attraction4 ,ar*deacon ,pratt object$ to ?is mode ( apply+ lea/ squ>es fir/ us$ by ,bessel2 b ,bessel 0 "r1 & ! objection is gr\ndless4 ,bessel f\nd1 9 #ahda1 f t5 m]idian arcs ) a total amplitude ( #ej deg44#f3 a #cbgbjgg toises #fcggcig metres4 e 7ellipticity7 7a - b7_/a #a_/bii4ae 7prob4 error - #c4b74 ,! probable error 9 ! l5g? ( ! e>?'s quadrant is - #ccf m4 ,we n[ give a s]ies ( "s m]idian-arcs measurem5ts1 :i* 7 utiliz$ 9 #ahff by ,a4,r4 ,cl>ke 9 ! ,comp>isons ( ! ,/&>ds ( ,l5g?1 pp4 #bhj-bhg2 details ( ! calculations are giv5 by ! same au?or 9 8 ,geodesy 7#ahhj71 pp4 #caa et seq4 ,! data ( ! ,fr5* arc f ,=m5t]a to ,dunkirk are-- ,/ations4 ,a/ronomical ,di/ance ( ,latitudes4 ,p>allels4 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,=m5t]a #ch #ci #ec4ag 44 ,m\ntj\y #da #ba #dd4if #ihbfga4jd ,b>celona #da #bb #dg4ij #ihhgja4ib ,c>cassonne #dc #ab #ed4cj #afegbhg4ic ,pan!on #dh #ej #dg4ih #cgajhbg4ac ,dunkirk #ea #b #h4da #dejigij4hd ,! di/ance ( ! p>allels ( ,dunkirk & ,gre5wi*1 d$uc$ f ! ext5sion ( ! triangulation ( ,engl& into ,france1 9 #ahfb1 is #afadjg4c ft41 :i* is #c4i ft4 great] ?an t obta9$ f ,capta9 ,kat]'s triangulation1 & #c4b ft4 less ?an ! di/ance calculat$ by ,delambre f ,g5]al ,roy's triangulation4 ,! foll[+ table %[s ! data ( ! ,engli% arc ) ! di/ances 9 /&>d feet f ,=m5t]a4 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,=m5t]a 44 44 ,gre5wi* #ea #bh #ch4cj #dfgaaih4c ,arbury #eb #ac #bf4ei #didchcg4f ,clifton #ec #bg #bi4ej #ecidjfc4d ,kellie ,law #ef #ad #ec4fj #fdacbba4g ,/irl+ #eg #bg #di4ab #fhegcbc4c ,saxavord #fj #di #cg4ba #hjhfhbj4g ,! latitude assign$ 9 ?is table to ,saxavord is n ! directly obs]v$ latitude1 :i* is #fj deg4 #di' #ch4eh1 = !re are "h a clu/] ( ?ree po9ts1 ^: latitudes are a/ronomically det]m9$2 & if we transf]1 by means ( ! geodesic connexion1 ! latitude ( ,g]? ( ,scaw to ,saxavord1 we get #fj deg4 #di' #cf4ei2 & if we simil>ly transf] ! latitude ( ,balta1 we get #fj deg4 #di' #cf4df4 ,! mean ( ^! ?ree is t ent]$ 9 ! above table4 ,= ! ,indian arc 9 long4 #gg deg4 #dj' we h ! foll[+ data3-- deg4 ' ,ft4 ,punnea #h #i #ca4acb 44 ,put*apolliam #aj #ei #db4bgf #ajbiagd4i ,dodagunta #ab #ei #eb4afe #agefefb4j ,nam?abad #ae #e #ec4efb #beahcgf4c ,daum]gida #ah #c #ae4bib #ceiaghh4d ,takalkh]a #ba #e #ea4ecb #dfigcbi4e ,kalianpur #bd #g #aa4bfb #egidfie4g ,kaliana #bi #cj #dh4cbb #ggeehce4i ,! data ( ! ,russian arc 7long4 #bf deg4 #dj'7 tak5 f ,/ruve's "w are z bel[3-- deg4 ' ,ft4 ,/>o ,nekrasovsk #de #bj #b4id 44 ,vodu-,luy #dg #a #bd4ih #fafebi4ha ,suprunkovzy #dh #de #c4jd #abdfgfb4ag ,krem5ets #ej #e #di4ie #agcgeea4dh ,byel9 #eb #b #db4af #bddhgde4ag ,neme% #ed #ci #d4af #cdjjcab4fc ,jacob/adt #ef #cj #d4ig #djgfdab4bh ,dorpat #eh #bb #dg4ef #dgfbdba4dc ,hogl& #fj #e #i4hd #echface4ci ,kilpi-maki #fb #ch #e4be #fcagije4fg ,tornea #fe #di #dd4eg #gdhfghi4ig ,/uor-oivi #fh #dj #eh4dj #hecjeag4ij ,fugl5aes #gj #dj #aa4bc #ibegiba4jf ,f ! are measur$ 9 ,cape ,colony by ,sir ,?omas ,macle> 9 long4 #ah deg4 #cj'1 we h deg4 ' ,ft4 ,nor? ,end #bi #dd #ag4ff 44 ,he]5logem5t ,b]g #ca #eh #i4aa #haaejg4g ,royal ,obs]vatory #cc #ef #c4bj #aebfchf4h ,zw>t ,kop #cd #ac #cb4ac #afcbehc4c ,cape ,po9t #cd #ba #f4bf #afghcge4g ,&1 f9ally1 = ! ,p]uvian arc1 9 long4 #bha deg4 #j'1 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,t>qui #c #d #cb4jfh 44 ,cot*esqui #j #b #ca4chg #aacajcf4c ,hav+ n[ /at$ ! data ( ! problem1 we may seek t oblate ellipsoid 7sph]oid7 :i* be/ repres5ts ! obs]vations4 ,:atev] ! real figure may be1 x is c]ta9 t if we suppose x an ellipsoid ) ?ree unequal axes1 ! ari?metical process w br+ out an ellipsoid1 :i* w agree bett] ) all ! obs]v$ latitudes ?an any sph]oid w\ld1 !re=e we d n prove t x is an ellipsoid2 to prove ?is1 arcs ( longitude w\ld be requir$4 ,! result = ! sph]oid may be express$ ?us3-- a #bjibfjfb ft4 #fcghbjf4d metres4 b #bjheeaba ft4 #fcefehc4h metres4 b 3 a #bic4ih 3 #bid4ih4 ,z might be expect$1 ! sum ( ! squ>es ( ! #dj latitude corrections1 viz4 #aec4ii1 is great] 9 ?is figure ?an 9 t ( ?ree axes1 :]e x am\nts to #ach4cj4 ,= ?is case1 9 ! ,indian arc ! l>ge/ corrections are at ,dodagunta1 #c4hg1 & at ,kalianpur1 - #c4fh4 ,9 ! ,russian arc ! l>ge/ corrections are #c4gf1 at ,tornea1 & - #c4ca1 at ,/>o ,nekrasovsk4 ,( ! :ole #dj corrections1 #af are "u #a4j1 #aj betwe5 #a4j & #b4j1 #aj betwe5 #b4j & #c4j1 & #d ov] #c4j4 ,! probable error ( an obs]v$ latitude is - #a4db2 = ! sph]oidal x w\ld be v slightly l>g]4 ,?is quantity may be tak5 !re=e z approximately ! probable am\nt ( local deflection4 ,if rho be ! radius ( curvature ( ! m]idian 9 latitude phi1 rho' t p]p5dicul> to ! m]idian1 ,d ! l5g? ( a degree ( ! m]idian1 ,d' ! l5g? ( a degree ( longitude1 r ! radius drawn f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 ,v ! angle ( ! v]tical ) ! radius-vector1 !n ,ft4 rho #bjhijfjf4f - #ajfdaa4e cos #bphi #bbe4h cos #dphi rho' #bjifafjg4c - #ceeij4i cos #bphi #de4b cos #dphi ,d #cfdfji4hg - #aheg4ad cos #bphi #c4id cos #dphi ,d' #cfeech4dh cos phi - #caj4ag cos #cphi #j4ci cos #ephi ,log r_/a #i4iiibfde 4#jjjgcgd cos #bphi - 4#jjjjjai cos #dphi ,v #gjj4dd s9 #bphi - #a4ai s9 #dphi4 ,a4,r4 ,cl>ke has recalculat$ ! elem5ts ( ! ellipsoid ( ! e>?2 8 values1 d]iv$ 9 #ahhj1 9 :i* he utiliz$ ! measurem5ts ( p>allel arcs 9 ,india1 are p>ticul>ly 9 practice4 ,^! values are3-- a #bjibfbjb ft4 #fcghbdi metres1 b #bjhedhie ft4 #fcefeae metres1 b 3 a #bib4dfe 3 #bic4dfe4 ,! calculation ( ! elem5ts ( ! ellipsoid ( rotation f measurem5ts ( ! curvature ( arcs 9 any giv5 azimu? by means ( geographical longitudes1 latitudes & azimu?s is indicat$ 9 ! article ,,geodesy2 ref]5ce may be made to ,pr9cipal ,triangulation1 ,helm]t's ,geodasie1 & ! publications ( ! ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,in/43--,lotabwei*ung5 7#ahhf71 & ,die europ4 ,la5g5gradmessung 9 #eb deg4 ,br4 7#ahic74 ,= ! calculation ( an ellipsoid ) ?ree unequal axes see ,comp>ison ( ,/&>ds1 preface2 & = non-elliptical m]idians1 ,pr9cipal ,triangulation1 p4 #gcc4 ,gravitation-,measurem5ts4 ,accord+ to ,clairault's !orem 7see above7 ! ellipticity e ( ! ma!matical surface ( ! e>? is equal to ! diff]5ce 7#e_/b7m -ss1 :]e m is ! ratio ( ! c5trifugal =ce at ! equator to gravity at ! equator1 & ss is d]iv$ f ! =mula ,g g7#a ss s9 squ>$phi74 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! #ai? c5tury _m ef=ts h be5 made to det]m9e ! con/ants ( ?is =mula1 & num]\s exp$itions und]tak5 to inve/igate ! int5sity ( gravity 9 diff]5t latitudes4 ,if m be kn[n1 x is only necess>y to det]m9e ss = ! evaluation ( e2 consequ5tly x is unnecess>y to det]m9e ,g absolutely1 = ! relative values ( ,g at two kn[n latitudes suffice4 ,su* relative measurem5ts are easi] & m exact ?an absolute ones4 ,9 "s cases ! ord9>y ?read p5dulum1 i4e4 a sph]ical bob susp5d$ by a wire1 has be5 employ$2 b m (t5 a rigid metal rod1 be>+ a weight & a knife-edge on :i* x may oscillate1 has be5 adopt$4 ,! ma9 po9t is ! con/ancy ( ! p5dulum4 ,f ! =mula = ! "t ( oscillation ( ! ma!matically ideal p5dulum1 t #b pi root7l_/,g71 l be+ ! l5g?1 x foll[s t = two po9ts ,g#a_/;,g#b t#b squ>$_/t#a squ>$4 ,9 #ahjh ,j4,b4 ,biot comm5c$ 8 p5dulum obs]vations at sev]al /ations 9 we/]n ,europe2 & 9 #ahag-ahbe ,capta9 ,l\is de ,freyc9et & ,l4,i4 ,dup]rey prosecut$ simil> obs]vations f> into ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,capta9 ,h5ry ,kat] conf9$ himself to ,briti% /ations 7#ahah-ahai72 ,capta9 ,e4 ,sab9e1 f #ahai to #ahbi1 obs]v$ simil>ly1 ) ,kat]'s p5dulum1 at sev5te5 /ations rang+ f ! ,we/ ,indies to ,gre5l& & ,spitsb]g52 & 9 #ahbd-ahca1 ,capta9 ,h5ry ,fo/] 7:o met 8 dea? by dr[n+ 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica7 exp]im5t$ at sixte5 /ations2 8 obs]vations 7 complet$ by ,francis ,baily 9 ,london4 ,( o!r work]s 9 ?is field m5tion may be made ( ,f4,b4 ,luetke 7#ahbf-ahbi71 a ,russian re>-admiral1 & ,capta9s ,j4,b4 ,basevi & ,w4,t4 ,heaviside1 :o obs]v$ dur+ #ahfe to #ahgc at ,kew & at #bi ,indian /ations1 p>ticul>ly at ,m 9 ! ,himalayas at a height ( #dfif metres4 ,( ! e>li] absolute det]m9ations we may m5tion ^? ( ,biot1 ,kat]1 & ,bessel at ,p>is1 ,london & ,ko5igsb]g respectively4 ,! measurem5ts 7 p>ticul>ly difficult by reason ( ! l5g? ( ! p5dulums employ$1 ^! g5]ally be+ second-p5dulums ov] #a metre long4 ,9 ab\t #ahhj1 ,colonel ,rob]t von ,/]neck ( ,au/ria introduc$ ! half-second p5dulum1 :i* p]mitt$ f> quick] & m accurate "w4 ,! use ( ^! p5dulums spread 9 all c\ntries1 & ! numb] ( gravity /ations consequ5tly increas$3 9 #ahhj !re 7 ab\t #abj1 9 #aijj !re 7 ab\t #afjj1 ( :i* ! great] numb] 7 9 ,europe4 ,sir ,e4 ,sab9e#f calculat$ ! ellipticity to be #a_/bhh4e1 a value %[n to be too high by ,helm]t1 :o 9 #ahhd1 ) ! aid ( #abj /ations1 gave ! value #a_/bii4bf1g & 9 #aija1 ) ab\t #adjj /ations1 d]iv$ ! value #a_/bih4c4h ,! reason = ! excessive e/imate ( ,sab9e is t he did n take into acc\nt ! sy/ematic diff]5ce betwe5 ! values ( ,g = cont95ts & isl&s2 x 0 f\nd t 9 consequ5ce ( ! con/itution ( ! e>?'s cru/ 7,pratt7 ,g is great] on small isl&s ( ! ocean ?an on cont95ts by an am\nt :i* may approa* to #j4c cm4 ,moreov]1 /ations 9 ! neighb\rhood ( coa/s %elv+ to deep seas h a surplus1 b a little small]4 ,consequ5tly1 ,helm]t conduct$ 8 calculations ( #aija = cont95ts & coa/s sep>ately1 & obta9$ ,g = ! coa/s #j4jcf cm4 great] ?an = ! cont95ts1 :ile ! value ( ss rema9$ ! same4 ,! mean value1 r$uc$ to cont95ts1 is ,g #igh4jc7a #j4jjecjb s9 squ>$phi - #j4jjjjjg s9 squ>$ #bphi7cm_/sec squ>$4 ,! small t]m involv+ s9 squ>$ #bphi c\ld n be calculat$ ) suffici5t exactness f ! obs]vations1 & is !re=e tak5 f ! !oretical views ( ,sir ,g4,h4 ,d>w9 & ,e4 ,wie*]t4 ,= ! con/ant g #igh4jc cm4 ano!r correction has be5 sugge/$ 7#aijf7 by ! absolute det]m9ations made by ,f4 ,kuehn5 & ,ph4 ,furtwa5gl] at ,potsdam4#i ,a report on ! p5dulum measurem5ts ( ! #ai? c5tury has be5 giv5 by ,helm]t 9 ! ,comptes r5dus des seances de la #ac;e conf]5ce g5]ale de l',association ,geod4 ,int]nationale a ,p>is 7#aijj71 ii4 #aci-che4 ,a difficulty pres5ts itself 9 ! case ( ! application ( measurem5ts ( gravity to ! det]m9ation ( ! figure ( ! e>? by reason ( ! extrusion or /&+ out ( ! l&-masses 7cont95ts1 c47 above ! sea-level4 ,! pot5tial ( gravity has a diff]5t ma!matical expression outside ! masses ?an inside4 ,! difficulty is remov$ by assum+ 7) ,sir ,g4,g4 ,/okes7 ! v]tical cond5sation ( ! masses on ! sea-level1 )\t its =m be+ consid]ably alt]$ 7sc>cely #a metre radially74 ,fur!r1 ! value ( gravity 7g7 measur$ at ! height ,h is correct$ to sea-level by #b;g,h_/,r1 :]e ,r is ! radius ( ! e>?4 ,ano!r correction1 due to ,p4 ,b\gu]1 is -7#c_/b7;gdelta,h_/rho,r1 :]e delta is ! d5sity ( ! /rata ( height ,h1 & rho ! mean d5sity ( ! e>?4 ,^! two corrections are repres5t$ 9 ,b\gu]'s ,rule3 g,h gs7#a - #b;,h_/,r #c;delta,h_/#brho,r71 :]e g,h is ! gravity at height ,h1 & gs ! value at sea-level4 ,?is is suppos$ to take into acc\nt ! attraction ( ! elevat$ /rata or plateau2 b1 f ! analytical me?od1 ?is is n correct2 x is also disadvantage\s s9ce1 9 g5]al1 ! l&-masses are comp5sat$ subt]rane\sly1 by reason ( ! iso/asis ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,9 #ahdi ,/okes %[$ t ! normal elevations ,n ( ! geoid t[>ds ! ellipsoid are calculable f ! deviations ,deltag ( ! accel]ation ( gravity1 i4e4 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! obs]v$ g & ! value calculat$ f ! normal ,g =mula4 ,! me?od assumes t gravity is measur$ on ! e>?'s surface at a suffici5t numb] ( po9ts1 & t x is con=mably r$uc$4 ,9 ord] to secure ! conv]g5ce ( ! expansions 9 sph]ical h>monics1 x is necess>y to assume all masses outside a surface p>allel to ! surface ( ! sea at a dep? ( #ba km4 7 ,r x ellipticity7 to be cond5s$ on ?is surface 7,helm]t1 ,geod4 ii4 #agb74 ,9 addition to ! r$uction ) #b;g,h_/,r1 !re /ill result small r$uctions ) m\nta9 *a9s & coa/s1 & some:at l>g] ones = isl&s4 ,! sea-surface g5]ally v>ies b v little by ?is cond5sation4 ,! elevation 7,n7 ( ! geoid is !n equal to _/pi ,n ,r ,,fg7-#a7 ,deltagpsi dpsi1 _/ :]e psi is ! sph]ical di/ance f ! po9t ,n1 & ,deltagpsi d5otes ! mean value ( ,deltag = all po9ts 9 ! same di/ance psi ar\nd2 ,f is a function ( psi1 & has ! foll[+ values3-- -------------- ,psi ,f -------------- #j deg4 #a #aj deg4 #a4bb #bj deg4 #j4id #cj deg4 #j4dg #dj deg4 -#j4jf #ej deg4 -#j4ed #fj deg4 -#j4ij #gj deg4 -#a4jh #hj deg4 -#a4jh #ij deg4 -#j4ia #ajj deg4 -#j4fb #aaj deg4 -#j4bg #abj deg4 #j4jh #acj deg4 #j4cf #adj deg4 #j4ec #aej deg4 #j4ef #afj deg4 #j4df #agj deg4 #j4bf #ahj deg4 #j -------------- ,h4 ,po9c>e 7,bull4 ,a/r41 #aija1 p4 #e7 has exhibit$ ,n by means ( ,lame's functions2 9 ?is case ! cond5sation is effect$ on an ellipsoidal surface1 :i* approximates to ! geoid4 ,?is cond5sation is1 9 practice1 ! same z to ! geoid itself4 ,if we imag9e ! out] l&-masses to be cond5s$ on ! sea-level1 & ! inn] masses 7:i*1 toge!r ) ! out] masses1 causes ! deviation ( ! geoid f ! ellipsoid7 to be comp5sat$ 9 ! sea-level by a di/urb+ /ratum 7:i*1 accord+ to ,gauss1 is possible71 & if ^! masses ( bo? k9ds correspond at ! po9t ,n to a /ratum ( ?ickness ,d & d5sity delta1 !n1 accord+ to ,helm]t 7,geod4 ii4 #bfj7 we h approximately #c g _/delta,d ,deltag -- -- 7 -------- - ,n 74 #b ,r rho _/ ,s9ce ,n sl[ly v>ies empirically1 x foll[s t 9 re/rict$ regions 7( a few #ajj km4 9 diamet]7 ,deltag is a measure ( ! v>iation ( ,d4 ,by apply+ ! r$uction ( ,b\gu] to g1 ,d is dim9i%$ by ,h & only gives ! ?ickness ( ! ideal di/urb+ mass :i* corresponds to ! p]turbations due to subt]ranean masses4 ,deltag has positive values on coa/s1 small isl&s1 & high & m$ium m\nta9 *a9s1 & occasionally 9 pla9s2 :ile 9 valleys & at ! foot ( m\nta9 ranges x is negative 7up to #j4b cm474 ,we conclude f ?is t ! masses ( small] d5sity exi/+ "u high m\nta9 *a9s lie n only v]tically und]nea? b also spread out sideways4 ,! ,european ,arc ( ,p>allel 9 #eb deg4 ,lat4 ,_m measurem5ts ( degrees ( longitudes along c5tral p>allels 9 ,europe 7 project$ & p>tly c>ri$ out z e>ly z ! fir/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury2 ^!1 h[ev]1 only became ( importance aft] ! introduction ( ! electric telegraph1 ?r\gh :i* calculations ( a/ronomical longitudes obta9$ a mu* high] degree ( accuracy4 ,( ! greate/ mom5t is ! measurem5t ne> ! p>allel ( #eb deg4 lat41 :i* ext5d$ f ,val5tia 9 ,irel& to ,orsk 9 ! s\!rn ,ural m\nta9s ov] #fi deg4 long1 7ab\t #fgej km474 ,f4,g4,w4 ,/ruve1 :o is to be reg>d$ z ! fa!r ( ! ,russo-,sc&9avian latitude-degree measurem5ts1 0 ! orig9ator ( ?is inve/igation4 ,hav+ made ! requisite arrangem5ts ) ! gov]nm5ts 9 #aheg1 he transf]r$ !m to 8 son ,otto1 :o1 9 #ahfj1 secur$ ! co-op]ation ( ,engl&4 ,a new connexion ( ,engl& ) ! cont95t1 via ! ,engli% ,*annel1 0 accompli%$ 9 ! next two ye>s2 :]eas ! requisite triangulations 9 ,prussia & ,russia ext5d$ ov] sev]al dec5n>ies4 ,! numb] ( longitude /ations orig9ally arrang$ = 0 #ae2 & ! det]m9ations ( ! diff]5ces 9 longitude 7 uni=mly comm5c$ by ! ,russian obs]v]s ,e4,i4 von ,=s*1 ,j4,i4 ,zyl9ski1 ,b4 ,tiele & o!rs2 ,feaghma9 7,val5tia7 be+ res]v$ = ,engli% obs]v]s4 ,) ! conclud+ calculation ( ^! op]ations1 new] det]m9ations ( diff]5ces ( longitudes 7 also applicable1 by :i* ! numb] ( /ations 0 br\ght up to #bi4 ,s9ce local deflections ( ! plumb-l9e 7 suspect$ at ,feaghma91 ! mo/ we/]ly /ation1 ! longitude 7) respect to ,gre5wi*7 ( ! trigonometrical /ation ,killorgl9 at ! head ( ,d+le ,bay 0 %ortly aft]w>ds det]m9$4 ,! results 7#ahia-ahid7 are giv5 9 volumes xlvii4 & l4 ( ! memoirs 7,zapiski7 ( ! milit>y topographical division ( ! ,russian g5]al /aff1 volume li4 conta9s a reconnexion ( ,orsk4 ,! obs]vations made we/ ( ,w>saw are detail$ 9 ! ,die europ4 ,la5g5gradmessung 9 #eb deg4 ,br41 i4 & ii41 #ahic1 #ahif1 publi%$ by ! ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,in/4 ,! foll[+ figures are quot$ f ,helm]t's report ,die ,groesse d] ,erde 7,sitzb4 d4 ,b]l4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41 #aijf1 p4 #ece73-- ,ea/]ly ,deviation ( ! ,a/ronomical ,z5i?4 ,"n4 ,longitude4 deg4 ' ,feaghma9 -#aj #ba -#c4c ,killorgl9 - #i #dg #b4h ,hav]=dwe/ - #d #eh #a4f ,gre5wi* #j #j #a4e ,ros5dael-,nieuport #b #ce -#a4g ,bonn #g #f -#d4d ,goett+5 #i #eg -#b4d ,brock5 #aj #cg #b4c ,leipzig #ab #bc #b4g ,rau5b]g-,b]l9 #ac #bc #a4g ,gross5ha9 #ac #cc -#b4i ,s*neekoppe #ae #de #j4a ,spr+b]g #af #cg #j4h ,breslau-,ros5?al #ag #b #c4e ,trock5b]g #ah #ec -#j4e ,s*o5see #ah #ed -#b4i ,mirov #ai #ah #b4b ,w>saw #ba #b #a4i ,grodno #bc #ej -#b4h ,bobruisk #bi #ad #j4e ,orel #cf #d #d4d ,lipetsk #ci #cf #j4b ,s>atov #df #c #f4d ,sam>a #ej #e -#b4f ,or5burg #ee #g #a4g ,orsk #eh #cd -#h4j ,^! deviations ( ! plumb-l9e correspond to an ellipsoid hav+ an equatorial radius 7a7 ( ne>ly #f1cgh1jjj metres 7prob4 error - #gj metres7 & an ellipticity #a_/bii4ae4 ,! latt] 0 tak5 = grant$2 x is ne>ly equal to ! result f ! gravity-measurem5ts2 ! value = a !n gives ,sigmaeta squ>$ a m9imum 7ne>ly74 ,! a/ronomical values ( ! geographical longitudes 7) reg>d to ,gre5wi*7 are assum$1 accord+ to ! comp5sation ( longitude diff]5ces c>ri$ out by van de ,s&e ,bakhuyz5 7,comp4 r5d1 des seances de la commission p]man5te de l',association ,geod4 ,int]nationale a ,g5eve1 #ahic1 annexe ,a4,i474 ,rec5t det]m9ations 7,albre*t1 ,a/r4 ,na*41 #ciic_/d7 h introduc$ only small alt]ations 9 ! deviations1 a be+ slightly increas$4 ,( consid]able importance 9 ! inve/igation ( ! great arc 0 ! repres5tation ( ! l9e> l5g?s f\nd 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 9 t]ms ( ! same unit4 ,! necessity = ?is _h previ\sly occurr$ 9 ! computation ( ! figure ( ! e>? f latitude-degree-measurem5ts4 ,a4,r4 ,cl>ke in/itut$ an ext5sive s]ies ( comp>isons at ,s\?ampton 7see ,comp>isons ( ,/&>ds ( ,l5g? ( ,engl&1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,prussia1 ,russia1 ,india & ,au/ralia1 made at ! ,ordnance ,survey ,(fice1 ,s\?ampton1 #ahff1 & a pap] 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions = #ahgc1 by ,lieut4-,col4 ,a4,r4 ,cl>ke1 ,c4,b41 ,r4,e41 on ! fur!r comp>isons ( ! /&>ds ( ,au/ria1 ,spa91 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,cape ( ,good ,hope & ,russia7 & f\nd t #a toise #f4cideccdh ft41 #a metre #c4bhjhficc ft4 ,9 #ahge a numb] ( ,european /ates conclud$ ! metre conv5tion1 & 9 #ahgg an int]national weights-&-measures bureau 0 e/abli%$ at ,breteuil4 ,until ?is "t ! metre 0 det]m9$ by ! end-surfaces ( a plat9um rod 7metre des ar*ives72 subsequ5tly1 rods ( plat9um-iridium1 ( cross-section ,h1 7 con/ruct$1 hav+ engrav$ l9es at bo? ends ( ! bridge1 :i* det]m9e ! di/ance ( a metre4 ,!re 7 ?irty ( ! rods :i* gave z accurately z possible ! l5g? ( ! metre2 & ^! 7 di/ribut$ among ! diff]5t /ates 7see ,,weights ,,& ,,measures74 ,c>eful comp>isons ) sev]al /&>d toises %[$ t ! metre 0 n exactly equal to #ddc1bif l9es ( ! toise1 b1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #a_/gejjj ( ! l5g? small]4 ,! metre accord+ to ! old] relation is call$ ! legal metre1 accord+ to ! new relation ! int]national metre4 ,! values are 7see ,europ4 ,la5g5gradmessung1 i4 p4 #bcj73-- ,legal metre #c4bhjhficc ft41 ,int]national metre #c4bhjhbeg ft4 ,! values ( a giv5 above are 9 t]ms ( ! int]national metre2 ! e>li] ones 9 legal metres1 :ile ! gravity =mulae are 9 int]national metres4 ,! ,int]national ,geodetic ,association 7,int]nationale ,erdmessung74 ,on ! proposition ( ! ,prussian lieut5ant-g5]al1 ,johann ,jacob ,baey]1 a conf]5ce ( delegates ( sev]al ,european /ates met at ,b]l9 9 #ahfb to discuss ! "q ( a ,c5tral ,european degree-measurem5t4 ,! fir/ g5]al conf]5ce took place at ,b]l9 two ye>s lat]2 %ortly aft]w>ds o!r c\ntries jo9$ ! movem5t1 :i* 0 !n nam$ ,! ,european degree-measurem5t4 ,f #ahff till #ahhf ,prussia _h borne ! exp5se incid5t to ! c5tral bureau at ,b]l92 b :5 9 #ahhf ! op]ations receiv$ fur!r ext5sion & ! title 0 alt]$ to ,! ,int]national ,e>?-measurem5t or ,int]national ,geodetic ,association1 ! co-op]at+ /ates made f9ancial contributions to ?is purpose4 ,! c5tral bureau is affiliat$ ) ! ,prussian ,geodetic ,in/itute1 :i*1 s9ce #ahib1 has be5 situat$ on ! ,telegraph5b]g ne> ,potsdam4 ,aft] ,baey]'s dea? ,pr(4 ,fri$ri* ,rob]t ,helm]t 0 appo9t$ director4 ,! funds are devot$ to ! advancem5t ( su* sci5tific works z conc]n all c\ntries & deal ) geodetic problems ( a g5]al or univ]sal nature4 ,dur+ ! p]iod #ahig-aijf ! foll[+ tw5ty-"o c\ntries belong$ to ! association3--,au/ria1 ,belgium1 ,d5m>k1 ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,greece1 ,holl&1 ,hung>y1 ,italy1 ,japan1 ,mexico1 ,norway1 ,portugal1 ,rumania1 ,russia1 ,s]via1 ,spa91 ,sw$51 ,switz]l& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,at ! pres5t "t g5]al conf]5ces take place e ?ree ye>s4#aj ,baey] project$ ! inve/igation ( ! curvature ( ! m]idians & ! p>allels ( ! ma!matical surface ( ! e>? /ret*+ f ,*ri/iania to ,pal]mo = #ab degrees ( longitude2 he s\ght to co-ord9ate & complete ! network ( triangles 9 ! c\ntries ?r\gh :i* ^! m]idians pass$1 & to repres5t 8 results by a common unit ( l5g?4 ,?is proposition has be5 c>ri$ out1 & ext5d$ ov] ! great] "p ( ,europe2 z a matt] ( fact1 ! network has1 ) trifl+ gaps1 be5 c>ri$ ov] ! :ole ( we/]n & c5tral ,europe1 &1 by "s *a9s ( triangles1 ov] ,european ,russia4 ,?r\gh ! co-op]ation ( ,france1 ! network has be5 ext5d$ into nor? ,africa z f> z ! geographical latitude ( #cb deg42 9 ,greece a network1 unit$ ) ^? ( ,italy & ,bosnia1 has be5 c>ri$ out by ! ,au/rian colonel1 ,he9ri* ,h>tl2 ,s]via has project$ simil> triangulations2 ,rumania has begun to make ! triangle measurem5ts1 & ?ree base l9es h be5 measur$ by ,fr5* (fic]s ) ,brunn]'s app>atus4 ,at pres5t1 9 ,rumania1 !re is be+ work$ a connexion betwe5 ! arc ( p>allel 9 lat4 #dg deg4_/#dh deg4 9 ,russia 7/ret*+ f ,a/rakan to ,ki%9ev7 ) ,au/ria-,hung>y4 ,9 ! latt] c\ntry & 9 s\? ,bav>ia ! connect+ triangles = ?is p>allel h be5 rec5tly revis$1 z well z ! ,fr5* *a9 on ! ,p>is p>allel1 :i* has be5 connect$ ) ! ,g]man net by ! co-op]ation ( ,g]man & ,fr5* geodesi/s4 ,?is w give a long arc ( p>allel1 really project$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,! calculation ( ! ,russian section gives1 ) an assum$ ellipticity ( #a_/bii4ae1 ! value a #fcggcej metres2 ?is is r unc]ta91 s9ce ! arc embraces only #ai deg4 9 longitude4 ,we may "h recall t 9 ,france geodetic /udies h recov]$ _! =m] expansion "u ! vigor\s impulse ( ,colonel 7aft]w>ds ,g5]al7 ,francois ,p]ri]4 ,:5 occupi$ ) ! triangulation ( ,alg]ia1 ,colonel ,p]ri] _h conceiv$ ! possibility ( ! geodetic junction ( ,alg]ia to ,spa91 ov] ! ,m$it]ranean2 !re=e ! ,fr5* m]idian l9e1 :i* 0 already connect$ ) ,engl&1 & 0 ?us produc$ to ! #fj? p>allel1 c\ld fur!r be l9k$ to ! ,spani% triangulation1 cross !nce into ,alg]ia & ext5d to ! ,sah>a1 s z to =m an arc ( ab\t #cj deg4 9 l5g?4 ,b x !n became urg5t to proce$ to a new measurem5t ( ! ,fr5* arc1 betwe5 ,dunkirk & ,p]pignan4 ,9 #ahfi ,p]ri] 0 au?oriz$ to und]take t revision4 ,he devot$ himself to t "w till ! end ( 8 c>e]1 clos$ by premature dea? 9 ,febru>y #ahhh1 at ! v mom5t :5 ! ,depot de la gu]re _h j be5 trans=m$ into ! ,geographical ,s]vice ( ! ,army1 ( :i* ,g5]al ,f4 ,p]ri] 0 ! fir/ director4 ,8 "w 0 cont9u$ by 8 assi/ant1 ,colonel 7aft]w>ds ,g5]al7 ,j4,a4,l4 ,bassot4 ,! op]ations conc]n+ ! revision ( ! ,fr5* arc 7 complet$ only 9 #ahif4 ,mean:ile ! ,fr5* geodesi/s _h accompli%$ ! junction ( ,alg]ia to ,spa91 ) ! help ( ! geodesi/s ( ! ,madrid ,in/itute "u ,g5]al ,c>los ,ibanez 7#ahgi71 & measur$ ! m]idian l9e betwe5 ,algi]s & ,el ,aghuat 7#ahha74 ,!y h s9ce be5 busy 9 prolong+ ! m]idians ( ,el ,aghuat & ,biskra1 s z to conv]ge t[>ds ,w>gla1 ?r\gh ,gh>daia & ,tuggurt4 ,! fundam5tal co-ord9ates ( ! ,pan!on h also be5 obta9$ anew1 by connect+ ! ,pan!on & ! ,p>is ,obs]vatory ) ! five /ations ( ,bry-sur-,m>ne1 ,morlu1 ,mont ,val]i51 ,*atillon & ,monts\ris1 :]e ! obs]vations ( latitude & azimu? h be5 effect$4#aa ,accord+ to ! calculations made at ! c5tral bureau ( ! int]national association on ! great m]idian arc ext5d+ f ! ,%etl& ,isl&s1 ?r\gh ,great ,brita91 ,france & ,spa9 to ,el ,aghuat 9 ,alg]ia1 a #fcggice metres1 ! ellipticity be+ assum$ z #a_/bii4ae4 ,! foll[+ table gives ! diff]5ce3 a/ronomical-geodetic latitude4 ,! net does n foll[ ! m]idian exactly1 b deviates bo? to ! we/ & to ! ea/2 actually1 ! m]idian ( ,gre5wi* is ne>] ! mean ?an t ( ,p>is 7,helm]t1 ,groesse d4 ,erde74 ,we/ ,europe-,africa ,m]idian-arc4#ab ,"n4 ,latitude4 ,a4-,g4 deg4 ' ,saxavord #fj #di4f -#d4j ,balta #fj #de4j -#f4a ,b5 ,hutig #eh #cc4a #j4c ,c[hy! #eg #da4a #g4c ,great ,/irl+ #eg #bg4h -#b4c ,kellie ,law #ef #ad4i -#c4g ,calton ,hill #ee #eg4d #c4e ,durham #ed #df4a -#j4i ,burleigh ,moor #ed #cd4c #b4a ,clifton ,beacon #ec #bg4e #a4c ,arbury ,hill #eb #ac4d -#c4j ,gre5wi* #ea #bh4f -#b4e ,nieuport #ea #g4h -#j4d ,ros5dael #ea #b4g -#j4i ,lihons #di #di4i #j4e ,pan!on #dh #ej4h -#j4j ,*evry #dh #j4e #b4b ,saligny le ,vif #dg #b4g #c4j ,arpheuille #df #ac4g #f4c ,puy de ,dome #de #df4e #g4j ,rodez #dd #ba4d #a4g ,c>cassonne #dc #ac4c #j4g ,rivesaltes #db #de4b -#j4g ,montol> #da #ch4e #c4f ,l]ida #da #cg4j -#j4b ,javalon #dj #ac4h -#j4b ,desi]to #dj #e4j -#d4e ,*9*illa #ch #ee4b #b4b ,mola de ,=m5t]a #ch #ci4i -#a4b ,tetica #cg #ae4b #c4e ,roldan #cf #ef4f -#f4j ,conjuros #cf #dd4d -#ab4f ,mt4 ,sabiha #ce #ci4f #f4e ,nem\rs #ce #e4h #g4d ,b\z>eah #cf #dh4j #b4i ,algi]s 7,voirol7 #cf #de4a -#i4a ,guelt es ,/el #ce #g4h -#a4j ,el ,aghuat #cc #dh4j -#b4h ,illu/ration ,:ile ! radius ( curvature ( ?is arc is obvi\sly n uni=m 7be+1 9 ! mean1 ab\t #fjj metres great] 9 ! nor!rn ?an 9 ! s\!rn "p71 ! ,russo-,sc&9avian m]idian arc 7f #de deg4 to #gj deg471 on ! o!r h&1 is v uni=mly curv$1 & gives1 ) an ellipticity ( #a_/bii4ae1 a #fcghdee metres2 ?is arc gives ! plausible value #a_/bih4f = ! ellipticity4 ,b 9 ! case ( ?is arc ! orographical circum/ances are m fav\rable4 ,! we/-,european & ! ,russo-,sc&9avian m]idians indicate ano!r anomaly ( ! geoid4 ,!y 7 connect$ at ! ,c5tral ,bureau by means ( ea/-to-we/ triangle *a9s 7pr9cipally by ! arc ( p>allel measurem5ts 9 lat4 #eb deg472 x 0 %[n t1 if "o proce$s f ! we/-,european m]idian arcs1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! a/ronomical & geodetic latitudes ( ! ,russo-,sc&9avian arc become "s #d great]4#ac ,! c5tral ,european m]idian1 :i* passes ?r\gh ,g]many & ! c\ntries adjac5t on ! nor? & s\?1 is "u review at ,potsdam 7see ! publications ( ! ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,in/41 ,lotabwei*ung51 ,nos4 #a-c74 ,p>ticul> notice mu/ be made ( ! ,vi5na m]idian1 n[ c>ri$ s\?w>ds to ,malta4 ,! ,italian triangulation is n[ complete1 & has be5 jo9$ ) ! neighb\r+ c\ntries on ! nor?1 & ) ,tunis on ! s\?4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey has publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! transcont95tal triangulation & measurem5t ( an arc ( ! p>allel ( #ci deg41 :i* ext5ds f ,cape ,may 7,new ,j]sey71 on ! ,atlantic coa/1 to ,po9t ,ar5a 7,cali=nia71 on ! ,pacific coa/1 & embraces #dh deg4 #df' ( longitude1 ) a l9e> developm5t ( ab\t #dbbe km4 7#bfbe miles74 ,! triangulation dep5ds ^u t5 base-l9es1 ) an aggregate l5g? ( #hf km4 ! longe/ exce$+ #ag km4 9 l5g?1 :i* h be5 measur$ ) ! utmo/ c>e4 ,9 cross+ ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 _m ( its sides exce$ #ajj miles 9 l5g?1 & !re is "o side rea*+ to a l5g? ( #bid km41 or #ahc miles2 ! altitude ( _m ( ! /ations is also consid]able1 rea*+ to #dcjj metres1 or #ad1ajh ft41 9 ! case ( ,pike's ,peak1 & to #ad1dba ft4 at ,elb]t ,peak1 ,colo4 ,all geometrical conditions subsi/+ 9 ! triangulation are satisfi$ by adju/m5t1 inclusive ( ! requir$ accord ( ! base-l9es1 s t ! same l5g? = any giv5 l9e is f\nd1 no matt] f :at l9e "o may />t4#ad ,ov] or ne> ! arc 7 di/ribut$ #aji latitude /ations1 occupi$ ) z5i? telescopes2 #gc azimu? /ations2 & #bi telegraphically det]m9$ longitudes4 ,x has ?us be5 possible to /udy 9 a v complete mann] ! deviations ( ! v]tical1 :i* 9 ! m\nta9\s regions sometimes am\nt to #be seconds1 & ev5 to #bi seconds4 ,) ! ellipticity #a_/bii4ae1 a #fcgghig - #fe metres 7prob4 error72 9 ?is calculation1 h[ev]1 "s exce$+ly p]turb$ /ations are exclud$2 = ! employ$ /ations ! mean p]turbation 9 longitude is - #d4i 7z5i?-deflection ea/-to-we/ - #c4h74 ,! computations relative to ano!r arc1 ! ea/]n oblique arc ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 are also f9i%$4#ae ,x ext5ds f ,calais 7,ma9e7 9 ! nor?-ea/1 to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & t]m9ates at ,new ,orleans 7,l\isiana71 9 ! s\?4 ,its l5g? is #bfab km4 7#afbc miles71 ! diff]5ce ( latitude #ae deg4 #a'1 & ( longitude #bb deg4 #dg'4 ,9 ! ma91 ! triangulation foll[s ! ,appala*ian *a9 ( m\nta9s1 bifurcat+ once1 s z to leave an oval space betwe5 ! two bran*es4 ,x includes among its /ations ,m\nt ,wa%+ton 7#aibj metres7 & ,m\nt ,mit*ell 7#bjch metres74 ,x dep5ds ^u six base-l9es1 & ! adju/m5t is effect$ 9 ! same mann] z = ! arc ( ! p>allel4 ,! a/ronomical data h be5 af=d$ by #ga latitude /ations1 #ag longitude /ations1 & #ef azimu? /ations1 di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole ext5t ( ! arc4 ,! result+ dim5sions ( an osculat+ sph]oid 7 f\nd to be a #fcghaeg metres - #ij 7prob4 error71 e7ellipticity7 #a_/cjd4e - #a4i 7prob4 error74 ,) ! ellipticity #a_/cii4ae1 a #fcghjda metres - #hj 7prob4 er474 ,dur+ ! ye>s #aijc-aijf ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey1 "u ! direction ( ,o4,h4 ,tittmann & ! special managem5t ( ,john ,f4 ,hay=d1 execut$ a calculation ( ! be/ ellipsoid ( rotation = ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!re 7 #ejg a/ronomical det]m9ations employ$1 all ! /ations be+ connect$ ?r\gh ! net-"w ( triangles4 ,! obs]v$ latitudes1 longitude & azimu?s 7 improv$ by ! attractions ( ! e>?'s cru/ on ! hypo!sis ( iso/asis = ?ree dep?s ( ! surface ( #aad1 #aba & #afb km41 :]e ! iso/asis is complete4 ,! l&-masses1 )9 ! di/ance ( #dabf km41 7 tak5 into consid]ation4 ,9 ! d]ivation ( an ellipsoid ( rotation1 ! fir/ case prov$ itself ! mo/ fav\rable1 & !re result$3-- a #fcghbhc metres - #gd 7prob4 er471 ellipticity #a_/big4h - #j4i 7prob4 er474 ,! mo/ fav\rable value = ! dep? ( ! iso/atic surface is approximately #aad km4 ,! measurem5t ( a great m]idian arc1 9 long4 #ih deg4 ,w41 has be5 comm5c$2 x has a range ( latitude ( #bc deg41 & w ext5d ov] #ej deg4 :5 produc$ s\?w>ds & nor?w>ds by ,mexico & ,canada4 ,x may aft]w>ds be connect$ ) ! arc ( ,quito4 ,a new measurem5t ( ! m]idian arc ( ,quito 0 execut$ 9 ! ye>s #aija-aijf by ! ,s]vice geographique ( ,france "u ! direction ( ! ,academie des ,sci5ces1 ! gr\nd hav+ be5 previ\sly reconnoitr$ 9 #ahii4 ,! new arc has an amplitude 9 latitude ( #e deg4 #ec' #cc1 & /ret*es f ,tulcan 7lat4 #j deg4 #dh' #be7 on ! bord]s ( ,columbia & ,ecuador1 ?r\gh ,columbia to ,payta 7lat4 -#e deg4 #e' #h7 9 ,p]u4 ,! end-po9ts1 at :i* ! *a9 ( triangles has a slight nor?-ea/]ly tr5d1 %[ a longitude diff]5ce ( #c deg44 ,( ! #gd triangle po9ts1 #fd 7 latitude /ations2 #f azimu?s & #h longitude-diff]5ces 7 measur$1 ?ree base-l9es 7 laid d[n1 & gravity 0 det]m9$ f six po9ts1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 indications ov] ! g5]al de=mation ( ! geoid 9 t region4 ,computations ( ! attraction ( ! m\nta9s on ! plumb-l9e are also be+ consid]$4 ,! "w has be5 mu* delay$ by ! h>d%ips & difficulties enc\nt]$4 ,x 0 conduct$ by ,lieut4-,colonel ,rob]t ,b\rgeois1 assi/$ by elev5 (fic]s & tw5ty-f\r soldi]s ( ! geodetic bran* ( ! ,s]vice geographique4 ,( ^! (fic]s m5tion may be made ( ,comm&ant ,e4 ,maura91 :o retir$ 9 #aijd aft] suff]+ great h>d%ips2 ,comm&ant ,l4 ,mass5et1 :o di$ 9 #aije2 & ,capta9s ,i4 ,lacombe1 ,a4 ,lallem&1 & ,lieut4 ,georges ,p]ri] 7son ( ,g5]al ,p]ri]74 ,x is conceivable t ! *a9 ( triangles 9 longitude #ih deg4 9 ,nor? ,am]ica may be unit$ ) t ( ,ecuador & ,p]u3 a cont9u\s *a9 ov] ! :ole ( ,am]ica is c]ta9ly b a "q ( "t4 ,dur+ ! ye>s #ahii-aijb ! measurem5t ( an arc ( m]idian 0 made 9 ! extreme nor?1 9 ,spitzb]g51 betwe5 ! latitudes #gf deg4 #ch' & #hj deg4 #ej'1 accord+ to ! project ( ,p4,g4 ,ros54 ,! s\!rn "p 0 det]m9$ by ! ,russians--,o4 ,baecklund1 ,capta9 ,d4,d4 ,s]gieffsky1 ,f4,n4 ,ts*]ny*ev1 ,a4 ,hansky & o!rs--dur+ #ahii-aija1 ) ! aid ( #a base-l9e1 #ae trigonometrical1 #aa latitude & #e gravity /ations4 ,! nor!rn "p1 :i* has "o side 9 common ) ! s\!rn "p1 has be5 det]m9$ by ,sw$es 7,pr(essors ,ros51 fa!r & son1 ,e4 ,ja$]91 ,t4 ,rub9 & o!rs71 :o utiliz$ #a base-l9e1 #i azimu? measurem5ts1 #ah trigonometrical1 #ag latitude & #e gravity /ations4 ,! p>ty work$ "u excessive difficulties1 :i* 7 acc5tuat$ by ! arctic climate4 ,consequ5tly1 9 ! fir/ ye>1 little headway 0 made4#af ,sir ,david ,gill1 :5 director ( ! ,royal ,obs]vatory1 ,cape ,t[n1 in/itut$ ! magnific5t project ( work+ a latitude-degree measurem5t along ! m]idian ( #cj deg4 long4 ,?is m]idian passes ?r\gh ,natal1 ! ,transvaal1 by ,lake ,tanganyika1 & f !nce to ,cairo2 connexion ) ! ,russo-,sc&9avian m]idian arc ( ! same longitude %\ld be made ?r\gh ,asia ,m9or1 ,turkey1 ,bulg>ia & ,rumania4 ,) ! completion ( ?is project a cont9u\s arc ( #aje deg4 9 latitude w h be5 measur$4#ag ,ext5sive triangle *a9s1 suitable = latitude-degree measurem5ts1 h also be5 effect$ 9 ,japan & ,au/ralia4 ,besides1 ! sy/ematization ( gravity measurem5ts is ( importance1 & = ?is purpose ! association has in/itut$ _m re=ms4 ,x has ensur$ t ! relative measurem5ts made at ! /ations 9 diff]5t c\ntries %\ld be r$uc$ con=mably ) ! absolute det]m9ations made at ,potsdam2 ! result 0 t1 9 #aijf1 ! int5sities ( gravitation at "s #bjjj /ations _h be5 co-ord9at$4 ,! int5sity ( gravity on ! sea has be5 det]m9$ by ! comp>ison ( b>ometric & hypsometric obs]vations 7,mohn's me?od74 ,! association1 at ! proposal ( ,helm]t1 provid$ ! necess>y funds = two exp$itions3--,engli% ,*annel--,rio de ,janeiro1 & ! ,r$ ,sea--,au/ralia--,san ,francisco--,japan4 ,dr ,o4 ,heck] ( ! c5tral bureau 0 9 *>ge2 he successfully ov]came ! difficulties ( ! "w1 & e/abli%$ ! t5ability ( ! iso/atic hypo!sis1 :i* necessitates t ! int5sity ( gravity on ! deep seas has1 9 g5]al1 ! same value z on ! cont95ts 7)\t reg>d to ! proximity ( coa/s74#ah ,z ! result ( ! m rec5t det]m9ations1 ! ellipticity1 compression or flatt5+ ( ! ellipsoid ( ! e>? may be assum$ to be v ne>ly #a_/bih4c2 a value det]m9$ 9 #aija by ,helm]t f ! measurem5ts ( gravity4 ,! semi-major axis1 a1 ( ! m]idian ellipse may exce$ #f1cgh1jjj int]4 metres by ab\t #bjj metres4 ,! c5tral bureau h adopt$1 = practical reasons1 ! value #a_/bii4ae1 aft] ,bessel1 = :i* tables exi/2 & also ! value a #fcggcig4aee7a #j4jjja74 ,! me?ods ( !oretical a/ronomy also p]mit ! evaluation ( ^! con/ants4 ,! semi-axis a is calculable f ! p>allax ( ! moon & ! accel]ation ( gravity on ! e>?2 b ! results are some:at unc]ta93 ! ellipticity d$uc$ f lun> p]turbations is #a_/big4h - #b 7,helm]t1 ,geodaesie1 ii4 pp4 #dfj-dgc72 ,william ,h>kness 7,! ,sol> ,p>allax & its relat$ ,con/ants1 #ahia7 f all possible data d]iv$ ! values3 ellipticity #a_/cjj4b - #c1 a #fcggigb - #abe metres4 ,h>kness also consid]$ 9 ?is inve/igation ! relation ( ! ellipticity to precession & nutation2 new] inve/igations ( ! latt] lead to ! limit+ values #a_/bif1 #a_/bih 7,wie*]t74 ,x 0 cle>ly notic$ 9 ?is me?od ( det]m9ation t ! influ5ce ( ! assumption z to ! d5sity ( ! /rata 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? 0 b v slight 7,radau1 ,bull4 a/r4 ii4 7#ahhe7 #aeg74 ,! deviations ( ! geoid f ! flatt5$ ellipsoid ( rotation ) reg>d to ! heights 7! directions ( normals be+ ne>ly ! same7 w sc>cely exce$ - #ajj metres 7,helm]t74#ai ,! basis ( ! degree- & gravity-measurem5ts is actually =m$ by a /ation>y sea-surface1 :i* is assum$ to be level4 ,h[ev]1 by ! influ5ce ( w9ds & ocean curr5ts ! mean surface ( ! sea ne> ! coa/s 7:i* "o assumes z ! fundam5tal sea-surface7 c deviate some:at f a level surface4 ,accord+ to ! m rec5t levell+ x v>ies at ! mo/ by only "s decimet]s4#bj ,x is well kn[n t ! masses ( ! e>? are cont9ually und]go+ small *anges2 ! e>?'s cru/ & sea-surface reciprocally oscillate1 & ! axis ( rotation vibrates relatively to ! body ( ! e>?4 ,! inve/igation ( ^! problems falls 9 ! programme ( ! ,association4 ,by cont9u$ obs]vations ( ! wat]-level on sea-coa/s1 results h already be5 obta9$ z to ! relative motions ( ! l& & sea 7cf4 ,,geology72 m exact levell+ w1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 provide obs]vations on c\ntries remote f ! sea-coa/4 ,s9ce #aijj an int]national s]vice has be5 organiz$ betwe5 "s a/ronomical /ations di/ribut$ ov] ! nor? p>allel ( #ci deg4 #h'1 at :i* geographical latitudes are obs]v$ :5ev] possible4 ,! association contributes to all ^! /ations1 support+ f\r entirely3 two 9 ,am]ica1 "o 9 ,italy1 & "o 9 ,japan2 ! o!rs p>tially 7,ts*>djui 9 ,russia1 & ,c9c9nati obs]vatory74 ,"s obs]vatories1 especially ,pulk[a1 ,leid5 & ,tokyo1 take "p volunt>ily4 ,s9ce #aijf ano!r /ation = ,s\? ,am]ica & "o = ,au/ralia 9 latitude -#ca deg4 #ee' h be5 add$4 ,accord+ to ! exi/+ data1 geographical latitudes exhibit v>iations am\nt+ to -#j4be1 :i*1 = ! great] "p1 proce$ f a twelve- & a f\rte5-mon? p]iod4#ba 7,a4 ,r4 ,c2 ,f4 ,r4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,erato/h5es ,batavus1 seu de t]rae ambitus v]a quantitate suscitatus1 a ,willebrordo ,snellio1 ,lugduni-,batavorum 7#afag74 #b ,o4 ,call&reau1 ,memoire sur la !orie de la figure des planetes1 ,ann4 obs4 de ,p>is 7#ahhi72 ,g4,h4 ,d>w91 ,! ,!ory ( ! ,figure ( ! ,e>? c>ri$ to ! ,second ,ord] ( ,small ,quantities1 ,mon4 ,n4 ,r4,a4,s41 #ahii2 ,e4 ,wie*]t1 ,ueb] die ,mass5v]teilung im ,inn]n d] ,erde1 ,na*4 d4 ko54 ,g4 d4 ,w4 zu ,goett41 #ahig4 #c ,see ,i4 ,todhunt]1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahgj4 #d ,j4,h4 ,jeans1 ,on ! ,vibrations & ,/ability ( a ,gravitat+ ,planet1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 #ga2 ,g4,h4 ,d>w91 ,on ! ,figure & ,/ability ( a liquid ,satellite1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #bjf1 p4 #afa2 ,a4,e4,h4 ,love1 ,! ,gravitational ,/ability ( ! ,e>?1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #bjg1 p4 #bcg2 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 #hj4 #e ,survey ( ,india1 ,! ,attraction ( ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s ^u ! ,plumb ,l9e 9 ,india 7#aija71 p4 #ih4 #f ,acc\nt ( ,exp]im5ts to ,det]m9e ! ,figure ( ! ,e>? by means ( a ,p5dulum vibrat+ ,seconds 9 ,diff]5t ,latitudes 7#ahbe74 #g ,helm]t1 ,!ori5 d4 hoeh]5 ,geod4 ii41 ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 #h ,helm]t1 ,sitzb]4 d4 kgl4 preuss4 ,ak4 d4 ,wiss4 zu ,b]l9 7#aija71 p4 #ccf4 #i ,be/immung d] absolut5 ,groesse d] ,s*w]kraft zu ,potsdam mit ,rev]sionsp5deln 7,v]oeff5tli*ung des kgl4 preuss4 ,geod4 ,in/41 ,n4,f41 ,no4 #bg74 #aj ,die ,ko5igl4 ,obs]vatori5 fu] ,a/rophysik1 ,meteorologie und ,geodaesie bei ,potsdam 7,b]l91 #ahij72 ,v]h&lung5 d] ,i4 ,allgeme95 ,conf]5z d] ,bevollmae*tigt5 zur mitteleurop4 ,gradmessung1 ,octob]1 #ahfd1 9 ,b]l9 7,b]l91 #ahfe72 ,a4 ,hirs*1 ,v]h&lung5 d] ,,viii4 ,allg4 ,conf4 d] ,int]national5 ,erdmessung1 ,octob]1 #ahhf1 9 ,b]l9 7,b]l91 #ahhg72 & ,v]h&lung5 d] ,,xi4 ,allg4 ,conf4 d4 ,i4 ,e41 ,octob]1 #ahie1 9 ,b]l9 7#ahif74 #aa ,ibanez & ,p]ri]1 ,jonction geod4 et a/r4 de l',alg]ie avec l',espagne 7,p>is1 #ahhf72 ,memorial du depot g5]al de la gu]re1 t4 xii43 ,n\velle m]idi5ne de ,france 7,p>is1 #ahhe1 #aijb1 #aijd72 ,comptes r5dus des seances de la #ab;e-#ai;e conf]5ce g5]ale de l',assoc4 ,geod4 ,int]nat41 #ahih at ,/uttg>t1 #aijj at ,p>is1 #aijc at ,cop5hag51 #aijf at ,budape/ 7,b]l91 #ahii1 #aija1 #aijd1 #aijh72 ,a4 ,f]r]o1 ,rapport sur les triangulations1 pres4 a la #ab;e conf4 g54 #ahih4 #ab ,r4 ,s*umann1 ,c4 r4 de ,budape/1 p4 #bdd4 #ac ,o4 & ,a4 ,bo]s*1 ,v]b9dung d4 russ4-sk&9av4 mit d] franz4-engl4 ,breit5gradmessung 7,v]h&lung5 d] #i4 ,allgem4 ,conf4 d4 ,i4 ,e4 9 ,p>is1 #ahhi1 ,ann4 xi474 #ad ,u4,s4 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey2 ,h4,s4 ,prit*ett1 sup]9t5d5t4 ,! ,transcont95tal ,triangulation & ! ,am]ican ,arc ( ! ,p>allel1 by ,c4,a4 ,s*ott 7,wa%+ton1 #aijj74 #ae ,u4,s4 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey2 ,o4,h4 ,tittmann1 sup]9t5d5t4 ,! ,ea/]n ,oblique ,arc ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by ,c4,a4 ,s*ott 7#aijb74 #af ,missions sci5tifiques p\r la mesure d'un arc de m]idi5 au ,spitzb]g entreprises en #ahii-aijb s\s les auspices des g\v]nem5ts russe et su$ois4 ,mission russe 7,/ ,pet]sb\rg1 #aijd72 ,mission su$oise 7,/ockholm1 #aijd74 #ag ,sir ,david ,gill1 ,report on ! ,geodetic ,survey ( ,s\? ,africa1 #ahcc-ahib 7,cape ,t[n1 #ahif71 vol4 ii4 #aija1 vol4 iii4 #aije4 #ah ,o4 ,heck]1 ,be/immung d] ,s*w]kraft a4 d4 ,atlantis*5 ,ozean 7,v]oeff5tl4 d4 ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,in/4 ,no4 #aa71 ,b]l91 #aijc4 #ai ,f4,r4 ,helm]t4 ,neu]e ,=ts*ritte 9 d] ,erk5ntnis d] ma?4 ,erdge/alt 7,v]h&l4 des ,,vii4 ,int]national5 ,geograph5-,kongresses1 ,b]l91 #ahii71 ,london1 #aija4 #bj ,c4 ,lallem&1 ,rapport sur les travaux du s]vice du nivellem5t g5]al de la ,france1 de #aijj a #aijf 7,comp4 r5d4 de la #ad;e conf4 g54 de l',assoc4 ,geod-,int]n41 #aijc1 p4 #agh74 #ba ,t4 ,albre*t1 ,resultate des int]nat4 ,breit5di5/es1 i4 & ii4 7,b]l91 #aijc & #aijf72 ,f4 ,kle9 & ,a4 ,somm]feld1 ,ueb] die ,!orie des ,kreisels1 iii4 p4 #fgb2 ,r4 ,spital]1 ,die p]iodis*5 ,luftmass5v]s*iebung5 und ihr ,e9fluss auf die ,lag5a5d]ung d] ,erdaxe 7,pet]manns ,mitteilung51 ,erga5zung%eft1 #acg72 ,s4 ,newcomb1 ,/atem5t ( ! ,!oretical ,laws ( ! ,pol> ,motion 7,a/ronomical ,j\rnal1 #ahih1 xix4 #aeh72 ,f4,r4 ,helm]t1 ,zur ,erkla]ung d] beoba*tet5 ,breit5a5d]ung5 7,a/r4 ,na*r4 ,no4 #cjad72 ,j4 ,we$]1 ,! #ad-mon?ly p]iod ( ! motion ( ! ,pole f det]m9ations ( ! azimu? ( ! m]idian m>ks ( ! ,leid5 obs]vatory 7,kon4 ,ak4 van ,wet5s*app5 to ,am/]dam1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,sokol(1 ,det]m9ation du m\vem5t du pole t]r4 au moy5 des mires m]idi5nes de ,p\lkovo 7,mel4 ma?4 et a/r4 vii41 #ahid72 ,j4 ,bonsdorff1 ,beoba*tung5 von delta ,cassiopejae mit dem gross5 ,z5itteleskop 7,mitteilung5 d] ,nikolai-,haupt/]nw>te zu ,pulk[o1 #aijg72 ,j4 ,l>mor & ,e4,h4 ,hills1 ,! irregul> movem5t ( ! ,e>?'s axis ( rotation3 a contribution t[>ds ! analysis ( its causes 7,mon?ly ,notices ,r4,a4,s41 #aijf1 lxvii4 #bb72 ,a4,s4 ,cri/ie1 ,! latitude v>iation ,tide 7,phil4 ,soc4 ( ,wa%41 #ahie1 ,bull4 xiii4 #ajc72 ,h4,g4 van de ,s&e ,bakhuys51 ,ueb] die ,a5d]ung d] ,polhoehe 7,a/r4 ,na*r4 ,no4 #cbfa72 ,a4,v4 ,baecklund1 ,zur ,frage na* d] ,bewegung des ,erdpoles 7,a/r4 ,na*r4 ,no4 #cghg72 ,r4 ,s*umann1 ,ueb] die ,polhoeh5s*wankung 7,a/r4 ,na*r4 ,no4 #chgc72 ,num]is*e ,unt]su*ung 7,erga5zung%efte zu d5 ,a/r4 ,na*r4 ,no4 #aa72 ,weit]e ,unt]su*ung5 7,no4 #dadb72 ,bull4 a/r41 #aijj1 ,june1 report ( diff]5t !oretical memoirs4 ,,e>? ,,curr5ts4 ,aft] ! inv5tion ( telegraphy x 0 soon f\nd t telegraph l9es 9 :i* ! circuit is complet$ by ! e>? are trav]s$ by natural electric curr5ts :i* occasionally int]f]e s]i\sly ) _! use1 & :i* are kn[n z e>? curr5ts4 #a4 ,among/ ! pione]s 9 inve/igat+ ! subject 7 sev]al ,engli% telegraphi/s1 e4g4 ,w4,h4 ,b>l[ 7#a7 & ,c4,v4 ,walk] 7#b71 :o 7 9 *>ge respectively ( ! ,midl& & ,s\?-,ea/]n telegraph sy/ems4 ,b>l[ notic$ ! exi/5ce ( a m or less regul> diurnal v>iation1 & ! result--confirm$ by all subsequ5t inve/igators--t e>? curr5ts prop] occur 9 a l9e only :5 bo? ends are e>!d4 ,walk]1 z ! result ( g5]al in/ructions issu$ to telegraph cl]ks1 collect$ num]\s /ati/ics z to ! ph5om5a dur+ times ( l>ge e>? curr5ts4 ,8 results & ^? giv5 by ,b>l[ bo? indicate t ! l9es to suff] mo/ f e>? curr5ts 9 ,engl& h ! g5]al direction ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 ,z ,walk] po9ts out1 x is ! direction ( ! t]m9al plates relative to "o ano!r t is ! ess5tial ?+4 ,at ! same "t he notic$ t :il/ at any giv5 in/ant ! curr5ts 9 p>allel l9es h ) r>e exceptions ! same direction1 "s l9es %[ normally /rong] curr5ts ?an o!rs1 & he sugge/$ t diff]5ces 9 ! geological /ructure ( ! int]v5+ gr\nd might be ( importance4 ,?is is a po9t :i* seems /ill some:at obscure4 ,our pres5t k ( ! subject owes mu* to practical m51 b ev5 9 ! e>ly days ( telegraphy ! fact t telegraph sy/ems are comm]cial und]tak+s1 & _c all[ ! public to wait ! conv5i5ce ( sci5ce1 0 a s]i\s ob/acle to _! employm5t = rese>*4 ,?us ,walk] feel+ly says1 :5 regrett+ 8 paucity ( data dur+ a notable e>? curr5t di/urbance3 ,our cl]ks 7 at _! wits' end to cle> (f ! telegrams4444 ,at a "t :5 obs]vations w\ld h be5 v highly acceptable !y 7 too mu* occupi$ ) _! ord9>y duties4 ,"s valuable obs]vations h1 h[ev]1 be5 made on long telegraph l9es :]e special facilities h be5 giv54 ,among/ ^! may be m5tion$ ! obs]vations on ,fr5* l9es 9 #ahhc describ$ by ,e4,e4 ,blavi] 7#c71 & ^? on two ,g]man l9es ,b]l9-,?orn & ,b]l9-,dresd5 dur+ #ahhd to #ahhh discuss$ by ,b4 ,we9/e9 7#d74 #b4 ,( ! exp]im5tal l9es specially con/ruct$ p]haps ! be/ kn[n are ! ,gre5wi* l9es in/itut$ by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy 7#e71 ! l9es at ,pawl[sk due to ,h4 ,wild 7#f71 & ^? at ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur1 ne> ,p>is 7#g74 ,exp]im5tal ,l9es4--,at ,gre5wi* obs]vations 7 comm5c$ 9 #ahfe1 b !re h be5 s]i\s di/urbances due to artificial curr5ts f electric railways = _m ye>s4 ,!re are two l9es1 "o to ,d>t=d di/ant ab\t #aj m41 9 a direction some:at s\? ( ea/1 ! o!r to ,croydon di/ant ab\t #h m41 9 a direction we/ ( s\?4 ,in=mation f a s+le l9e is incomplete1 & unless ?is is cle>ly und]/ood errone\s ideas may be d]iv$4 ,! times at :i* ! curr5t is l>ge/ & lea/1 or :5 x vani%es1 9 an ea/-we/ l9e1 tell no?+ directly z to ! amplitude at ! "t ( ! resultant curr5t4 ,! l9es laid d[n at ,pawl[sk 9 #ahhc lay ne>ly 9 & p]p5dicul> to ! geographical m]idian1 a di/9ct desid]atum1 b 7 only ab\t #a km4 long4 ,! in/allation at ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur1 discuss$ by ,t4 ,m\reaux1 calls = full] description4 ,!re are ?ree l9es1 "o hav+ t]m9al e>? plates #ad4h km4 ap>t 9 ! geographical m]idian1 a second hav+ its e>? plates due ea/ & we/ ( "o ano!r1 also #ad4h km4 ap>t1 & ! ?ird =m+ a clos$ circuit :olly insulat$ f ! gr\nd4 ,9 ea* ( ! ?ree l9es is a ,deprez d',arsonval galvanomet]4 ,light reflect$ f ! galvanomet] mirrors falls on photographic pap] w\nd r\nd a drum turn$ by clockwork1 & a cont9u\s record is ?us obta9$4 #c4 ,ea* galvanomet] has a resi/ance ( ab\t #bjj ohms1 b is %unt$ by a resi/ance ( only #b ohms4 ,! total effective resi/ances 9 ! ,n4-,s4 & ,e4-,w4 l9es are #bbe & #cdh ohms respectively4 ,if i is ! curr5t record$1 ,l1 g & s ! resi/ances ( ! l9e1 galvanomet] & %unt respectively1 !n ,e1 ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial betwe5 ! two e>? plates1 is giv5 by ,e i7#a g_/s7 ,l gs_/7g s74 ,to calibrate ! record1 a ,daniell cell is put 9 a circuit includ+ #ajjj ohms & ! ?ree galvanomet]s z %unt$4 ,if i' be ! curr5t record$1 e ! ,e4,m4,f4 ( ! cell1 !n e i'7#a g_/s7#ajjj #c;gs_/7g s74 ,"u ! conditions at ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur we may write #b = gs_/7g s71 & #a4jgb = e1 & !nce we h approximately ,e #j4bdj7;i_/i'7 = ! ,n4-,s4 l9e1 & ,e -#j4cga7;i_/i'7 = ! ,e4-,w4 l9e4 ,! me?od ( /&>dization assumes a pot5tial diff]5ce betwe5 e>? plates :i* v>ies sl[ly en\gh to produce a practically /eady curr5t4 ,!re are sev]al causes produc+ curr5ts 9 a telegraph wire :i* d n satisfy ?is limitation4 ,dur+ ?und]/orms surg+s may arise1 at lea/ 9 ov]head wires1 )\t ^! be+ actually /ruck4 ,aga91 if ! circuit includes a v>iable magnetic field1 electric curr5ts w be produc$ indep5d5tly ( any direct s\rce ( pot5tial diff]5ce4 ,9 ! ?ird circuit at ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur1 :]e no e>? plates exi/1 ! curr5t mu/ be ma9ly due to *anges 9 ! e>?'s v]tical magnetic field1 ) sup]pos$ di/urbances due to atmosph]ic electricity or a]ial waves4 ,ev5 9 ! o!r circuits1 magnetic & atmosph]ic influ5ces play "s "p1 & :5 _! contribution is important1 ! galvanomet] deflection has an unc]ta9 value4 ,:at a galvanomet] records :5 trav]s$ by a sudd5ly v>y+ curr5t dep5ds on o!r ?+s ?an its m]e resi/ance4 ,ev5 :5 ! curr5t is fairly /eady1 its exact significance is n easily /at$4 ,9 ! fir/ place !re is usually an appreciable ,e4,m4,f4 betwe5 a plate & ! e>? 9 contact ) x1 & ?is ,e4,m4,f4 may v>y ) ! temp]ature & ! dryness ( ! soil4 ,naturally "o employs simil> plates buri$ to ! same dep? at ! two ends1 b absolute id5tity & inv>iability ( conditions c h>dly be secur$4 ,9 "s cases1 9 %ort l9es 7#h71 !re is reason to fe> t plate ,e4,m4,f4's h be5 responsible = a good deal t has be5 ascrib$ to true e>? curr5ts4 ,) deep e>? plates1 9 dry gr\nd1 ?is s\rce ( unc]ta9ty c1 h[ev]1 ent] b little into ! diurnal inequality4 #d4 ,ano!r difficulty is ! "q ( ! resi/ance 9 ! e>? itself4 ,a giv5 ,e4,m4,f4 betwe5 plates #aj m4 ap>t may mean v diff]5t curr5ts travell+ ?r\gh ! e>?1 accord+ to ! *emical con/itution & condition ( ! surface /rata4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,a4 ,s*u/] 7#i71 if rho & rho' be ! specific resi/ances ( ! mat]ial ( ! wire & ( ! soil1 ! curr5t i :i* w\ld pass along an und]gr\nd cable =m$ ( actual soil1 equal 9 diamet] to ! wire connect+ ! plates1 is giv5 by i i'rho_/rho'1 :]e i' is ! obs]v$ curr5t 9 ! wire4 ,z rho' w v>y ) ! dep?1 & be diff]5t at diff]5t places along ! r\te1 :ile discont9uities may arise f geological faults1 wat] *annels & s on1 x is cle> t ev5 ! mo/ c>eful obs]vations convey b a g5]al idea z to ! absolute int5sity ( ! curr5ts 9 ! e>? itself4 ,9 ,s*u/]'s =mula1 z 9 ! =mulae d$uc$ = ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur1 x is reg>d$ z immat]ial :e!r ! wire connect+ ! plates is above or bel[ gr\nd4 ,?is view is 9 accordance ) records obta9$ by ,blavi] 7#c7 f two l9es betwe5 ,p>is & ,nancy1 ! "o an air l9e1 ! o!r und]gr\nd4 #e4 ,! e>lie/ quantitative results = ! regul> diurnal *anges 9 e>? curr5ts are probably ^? d$uc$ by ,airy 7#e7 f ! records at ,gre5wi* betwe5 #ahfe & #ahfg4 ,airy resolv$ ! obs]v$ curr5ts f ! two ,gre5wi* l9es 9 & p]p5dicul> to ! magnetic m]idian 7!n ab\t #ba deg4 to ! we/ ( a/ronomical nor?74 ,! in=mation giv5 by ,airy z to ! precise mean+ ( ! quantities he t]ms magnetic t5d5cy to nor? & to we/ is some:at scanty1 b we are unlikely to be mu* wrong 9 accept+ 8 figures z proportional to ! e>? curr5ts f magnetic ea/ to we/ & f magnetic nor? to s\? respectively4 ,airy gives mean h\rly values = ea* mon? ( ! ye>4 ,! correspond+ mean diurnal inequality = ! :ole ye> appe>s 9 ,table #a41 ! unit be+ arbitr>y4 ,9 e mon? ! algebraic mean ( ! #bd h\rly values repres5t$ a curr5t f nor? to s\? 9 ! magnetic m]idian1 & f ea/ to we/ 9 ! p]p5dicul> direction2 9 ! same arbitr>y units us$ 9 ,table ,i4 ! mean values ( ^! two con/ant curr5ts 7 respectively #ggg & #eei4 #f4 ,diurnal ,v>iation4--,probably ! mo/ complete records ( diurnal v>iation are ^? discuss$ by ,we9/e9 7#d71 :i* dep5d on sev]al ye>s' records on l9es f ,b]l9 to ,dresd5 & to ,?orn4 ,relative to ,b]l9 ! geographical co-ord9ates ( ! o!r two places are3 ,?orn #j deg4 #bi' ,n4 lat4 #e deg4 #ab' ,e4 long4 ,dresd5 #a deg4 #bh' ,s4 lat4 #j deg4 #ba' ,e4 long4 ,?us ! ,b]l9-,dresd5 l9e 0 direct$ ab\t #ha_/b deg4 ea/ ( s\?1 & ! ,b]l9-,?orn l9e some:at m to ! nor? ( ea/4 ,! latt] l9e _h a l5g? ab\t #b4ah times t ( ! =m]4 ,! resi/ances 9 ! two l9es 7 made ! same1 s if we suppose ! diff]5ce ( pot5tial betwe5 e>? plates along a giv5 direction to v>y z _! di/ance ap>t1 ! curr5t obs]v$ 9 ! ,?orn-,b]l9 l9e has to be divid$ by #b4ah to be comp>able ) ! o!r4 ,9 ?is way1 resolv+ along & p]p5dicul> to ! geographical m]idian1 ,we9/e9 gives z proportional to ! e>? curr5ts f ea/ to we/ & f s\? to nor? respectively ,j #j4adg;i' #j4dce;i1 & ,j' #j4ihi;i' - #j4ajj;i1 :]e i & i' are ! obs]v$ curr5ts 9 ! ,?orn-,b]l9 & ,dresd5-,b]l9 l9es respectively1 bo? be+ c\nt$ positive :5 fl[+ t[>ds ,b]l94 ,x is tacitly assum$ t ! av]age e>? conductivity is ! same betwe5 ,b]l9 & ,?orn z betwe5 ,b]l9 & ,dresd54 ,x %\ld also be notic$ t local "t at ,b]l9 & ,?orn diff]s by fully #bj m9utes1 :ile ! cre/s ( ! diurnal v>iations 9 %ort l9es at ! two places w\ld probably occur ab\t ! same local "t4 ,! result is probably a less %>p occurr5ce ( maxima & m9ima1 & a relatively small] range1 ?an 9 a %ort l9e hav+ ! same ori5tation4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,mean ,diurnal ,inequalities = ! ye>4 ,num]ical ,values ( resultant curr5t4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,gre5wi*4 ,?orn-,b]l9-,dresd54 ,?orn-,b]l9-,dresd54 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,nor? ,ea/ ,b]l9 ,?orn ,nor? ,ea/ ,mean h\rly values f ,h\r4 to to to to to to --------------------------- ,s\? ,we/ ,dresd54,b]l94,s\? ,we/ ,ye>4,w9t]4,equ9ox4,summ]4 7,mag477,mag47 7,a/477,a/47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #a -#id -#da -#ag -#ac -#bj -#aj #ha #id #ea #ih #b -#fh -#bd -#f -#ac -#i -#aa #hd #aae #ci #ig #c -#dd -#h -#a -#a -#a -#a #hd #aac #ca #ajh #d -#ah #i -#bj #ae -#ag #ag #aja #id #eh #abg #e -#cj -#a -#gi #ba -#gd #cb #abb #eh #gh #bcj #f -#fc -#cc -#aci #e -#acf #bf #adh #hj #aci #bbe #g -#aba -#hj -#ach -#cf -#add -#ad #aff #aee #bjf #acf #h -#age -#abc -#g -#ih -#bh -#ib #bjc #aeb #ahe #bga #i -#aef -#acg #bdi -#aef #bab -#ahd #cje #fg #bgb #ege #aj -#dc -#gg #edj -#ahd #did -#bed #eeg #bcb #fbh #haa #aa #hb #a #gbb -#afe #fgh -#bfc #gbh #daa #hhe #hhg ,noon #bjg #ff #fgc -#ajg #fdb -#bjj #fge #dda #hdh #gce #a #bde #id #djd -#bj #cie -#gi #djj #bhd #eaj #djf #b #bje #aac #ce #ee #df #dg #ih #fh #ajc #abe #c #aec #ig -#bfa #ii -#bcg #acb #bgb #acf #cee #cbd #d #aei #ajh -#cig #aad -#cfh #afg #djd #bah #ejc #dib #e #afg #aah -#cia #ajh -#cfc #afj #cig #bjf #dec #ecb #f #abe #ie -#caa #if -#bhg #acg #cai #agf #ccc #ddf #g #dc #ee -#bcg #he -#baf #aae #bdg #ahj #bej #cab #h -#bb #d -#aia #gd -#agc #ih #bja #bjg #bag #aha #i -#aae -#di -#afh #ei -#aec #ha #agd #bjh #aid #abj #aj -#ach -#gd -#ace #dj -#abe #eh #ach #aee #adi #aaa #aa -#acf -#gj -#hd #ah -#gi #bi #hi #fd #ie #ajg ,midnight -#adg -#hj -#dc -#b -#dc #d #ia #db #aai #aaa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,x 0 f\nd t ! av]age curr5t d]iv$ f a numb] ( undi/urb$ days on ei!r l9e might be reg>d$ z made up ( a con/ant "p plus a regul> diurnal inequality1 ! con/ant "p repres5t+ ! algebraic mean value ( ! #bd h\rly read+s4 ,9 bo? l9es ! con/ant "p %[$ a decid$ alt]ation dur+ ! ?ird ye>--*ang+ sign 9 "o l9e--9 consequ5ce1 x is believ$1 ( alt]ations made 9 ! e>? plates4 ,! con/ant "p 0 reg>d$ z a plate effect1 & 0 omitt$ f fur!r consid]ation4 ,table ,i4 %[s 9 t]ms ( an arbitr>y unit--^: relation to t employ$ = ,gre5wi* data is unkn[n--! diurnal inequality 9 ! curr5ts along ! two l9es1 & ! inequalities !nce calculat$ = ideal l9es 9 & p]p5dicul> to ! geographical m]idian4 ,curr5ts are reg>d$ z positive :5 direct$ f ,b]l9 to ,dresd5 & f nor? to s\?1 ! opposite po9t ( view to t adopt$ by ,we9/e94 ,! table also %[s ! mean num]ical value ( ! resultant curr5t 7! con/ant "p be+ omitt$7 = ea* h\r ( ! day1 = ! ye> z a :ole1 & = w9t] 7,novemb] to ,febru>y71 equ9ox 7,m>*1 ,april1 ,septemb]1 ,octob]7 & summ] 7,may to ,augu/74 ,!re is a m>k$ d\ble p]iod 9 bo? ! ,n4-,s4 & ,e4-,w4 curr5ts4 ,9 bo? cases ! num]ically l>ge/ curr5ts occur f #aj ,a4,m4 to noon1 ! directions !n be+ f nor? to s\? & f we/ to ea/4 ,! curr5ts t5d to die out & *ange sign ab\t #b ,p4,m41 ! num]ical magnitude !n ris+ aga9 rapidly to #d or #e ,p4,m4 ,! curr5t 9 ! m]idian is notably ! l>g]4 ,! num]ical values assign$ to ! resultant curr5t are ari?metic means f ! sev]al mon?s compos+ ! season 9 "q4 #g4 ,! mean ( ! #bd h\rly num]ical values ( ! resultant curr5t = ea* mon? ( ! ye> a d$ucible f ,we9/e9's data--! unit be+ ! same z be=e--are giv5 9 ,table ,,ii4 ,,table ,,ii4--,mean ,num]ical ,value ( ,resultant ,curr5t4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,m>* ,april ,may ,june ,july ,aug4 ,sep4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #aeb #baa #bic #cbh #cac #cad #ccg #cjj #beh #bce #afe #acb ,!re is ?us a conspicu\s m9imum at mid-w9t]1 & b little diff]5ce betwe5 ! mon?ly means f ,april to ,augu/4 ,?is is closely analog\s to :at is se5 9 ! daily range ( ! magnetic elem5ts 9 simil> latitudes 7see ,,magnetism1 ,,t]re/rial74 ,!re is also consid]able resemblance betwe5 ! curve ^: ord9ates repres5t ! diurnal inequality 9 ! curr5t pass+ f nor? to s\?1 & ! curve %[+ ! h\rly *ange 9 ! we/]ly compon5t ( ! horizontal magnetic =ce 9 simil> ,european latitudes4 #h4 ,relations ) ,sun-spots1 ,auroras & ,magnetic ,/orms4--,we9/e9 gives curves repres5t+ ! mean diurnal inequality = sep>ate ye>s4 ,9 bo? l9es ! diurnal amplitudes 7 notably small] 9 ! lat] ye>s :i* 7 ne> sun-spot m9imum4 ,?is raises a presumption t ! regul> diurnal e>? curr5ts1 l ! ranges ( ! magnetic elem5ts1 foll[ ! #aa-ye> sun-spot p]iod4 ,:5 we pass to ! l>ge & irregul> e>? curr5ts1 :i* are ( practical int]e/ 9 telegraphy1 !re is e reason to suppose t ! sun-spot p]iod applies4 ,^! curr5ts are always accompani$ by magnetic di/urbances1 & :5 specially /rik+ by brilliant aurora4 ,"o mo/ conspicu\s example ( ?is occurr$ 9 ! end ( ,augu/ & beg9n+ ( ,septemb] #ahei4 ,! magnetic di/urbances record$ 7 ( almo/ unexampl$ size & rapidity1 ! accompany+ aurora 0 extraord9>ily brilliant1 & ,e4,m4,f4's ( #gjj & #hjj volts are said to h be5 rea*$ on telegraph l9es #ejj to #fjj km4 long4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! di/urbances ( #ahei h be5 equall$ s9ce1 b e>? curr5t voltages ( ! ord] ( #j4e volts p] mile h be5 record$ by v>i\s au?orities1 e4g4 ,sir ,w4,h4 ,preece 7#aj74 ,x 0 ! practice = sev]al ye>s to publi% 9 ! ,ann4 du bureau c5tral meteorologique syn*ron\s magnetic & e>? curr5t curves f ,p>c ,sa9t ,maur correspond+ to ! *ief di/urbances ( ! ye>4 ,9 mo/ cases !re is a m>k$ simil>ity betwe5 ! curve ( magnetic decl9ation & t ( ! nor?-s\? e>? curr5t4 ,at times !re is also a di/9ct resemblance betwe5 ! horizontal =ce magnetic curve & t ( ! ea/-we/ e>? curr5t1 b exceptions to ?is are n infrequ5t4 ,simil> ph5om5a appe> 9 syn*ron\s ,gre5wi* records publi%$ by ,airy 9 #ahfh2 ^! %[ a close accordance betwe5 ! horizontal =ce curves & ^? ( ! curr5ts f magnetic ea/ to we/4 ,orig9ally x 0 suppos$ by ,airy t :il/ rapid movem5ts 9 ! decl9ation & nor?-s\? curr5t curves sometimes occurr$ simultane\sly1 !re 0 a di/9ct t5d5cy = ! latt] to prec$e ! =m]4 ,m rec5t exam9ations ( ! ,gre5wi* records by ,w4 ,ellis 7#aa71 & ( ! ,p>c ,/ ,maur curves by ,m\reaux1 h n confirm$ ?is result1 & x is n[ believ$ t ! two ph5om5a are practically simultane\s4 ,!re has also be5 a conflict ( views z to ! connexion betwe5 magnetic & e>? curr5t di/urbances4 ,airy's obs]vations t5d$ to sugge/ t ! e>? curr5t 0 ! prim>y cause1 & ! magnetic di/urbance 9 consid]able "p at lea/ its effect4 ,o!rs1 on ! contr>y1 h suppos$ e>? curr5ts to be a direct effect ( *anges 9 ! e>?'s magnetic field4 ,! prevail+ view n[ is t bo? ! magnetic & ! e>? curr5t di/urbances are due to electric curr5ts 9 ! upp] atmosph]e1 ^! upp] curr5ts becom+ visible at times z aurora4 #i4 ,!re seems "s evid5ce t e>? curr5ts c be call$ into exi/5ce by purely local causes1 notably diff]5ce ( level4 ,?us ,k4,a4 ,br&] 7#ab7 has obs]v$ a curr5t fl[+ con/antly = a good _m days f ,airolo 7height #aafj metres7 to ! ,hospice ,/ ,got?>d 7height #bjid metres74 ,9 an #h-km4 l9e f ,res9a to ! top ( ,vesuvius ,l4 ,palmi]i 7#ac7--obs]v+ 9 #ahhi at ?ree-h\r int]vals f #i ,a4,m4 to #i ,p4,m4--always f\nd a curr5t runn+ uphill s long z ! m\nta9 0 quiet4 ,on a long l9e f ,vi5na to ,graz ,a4 ,baumg>tn] 7#ad7 f\nd t ! curr5t g5]ally fl[$ f bo? ends t[>ds int]v5+ high] gr\nd dur+ ! day1 b 9 ! opposite directions at night4 ,dur+ a =tnight 9 ,septemb] & ,octob] #ahhe h\rly read+s 7 tak5 ( ! curr5t 9 ! telegraph cable f ,=t-,william to ,b5 ,nevis ,obs]vatory1 & ! results 7 discuss$ by ,h4,n4 ,dickson 7#ae71 :o f\nd a m>k$ prepond]ance ( curr5ts up ! l9e to ! summit4 ,! record$ mean data1 o!rwise reg>d$1 repres5t a con/ant curr5t1 equal to #bi 9 ! arbitr>y units employ$ by ,dickson1 fl[+ up ! l9e1 toge!r ) ! foll[+ diurnal inequality1 d5ot+ curr5t t[>ds ,=t-,william 7i4e4 d[n ! hill1 & ne>ly ea/ to we/74 ,h\r #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,a4,m4 -#ba -#da #ac #bc #ee -#c #be -#cb -#ei -#fb -#df #f ,p4,m4 #bd #ah #aae #ah #ge -#e #ej -#i -#ef -#cg -#bh -#cd ,!re is ?us a diurnal inequality1 :i* is by no means v irregul> consid]+ ! limit$ numb] ( days1 & x be>s at lea/ a g5]al resemblance to t %[n by ,we9/e9's figures = an ea/-we/ l9e 9 ,g]many4 ,?is w s]ve to illu/rate ! unc]ta9ties affect+ ^! & analog\s obs]vations4 ,a con/ant curr5t 9 "o direction may arise 9 :ole or "p f plate ,e4,m4,f4's2 a curr5t %[+ a diurnal inequality w naturally arise betwe5 any two places "s di/ance ap>t :e!r !y be at diff]5t levels or n4 ,f9ally1 :5 records are tak5 only = a %ort "t1 d\bts mu/ arise z to ! g5]ality ( ! results4 ,dur+ ! ,b5 ,nevis obs]vations1 = in/ance1 we are told t ! summit 0 almo/ con/antly envelop$ 9 fog or mi/4 ,by hav+ ?ree e>? plates 9 ! same v]tical plane1 "o at ! top ( a m\nta91 ! o!rs at opposite sides ( x1 & !n obs]v+ ! curr5ts betwe5 ! summit & ea* ( ! base /ations1 z well z directly betwe5 ! base /ations--dur+ an adequate numb] ( days repres5tative ( diff]5t seasons ( ! ye> & diff]5t climatic conditions--_m unc]ta9ties w\ld soon be remov$4 #aj4 ,artificial ,curr5ts4--,! great ext5sion 9 ! applications ( electricity to light+1 traction & p[] transmission1 *>act]i/ic ( ! end ( ! #ai? c5tury1 has l$ to ! exi/5ce ( l>ge artificial e>? curr5ts1 :i* ex]t a di/urb+ influ5ce on galvanomet]s & magnetic in/rum5ts1 & also t5d to de/roy metal pipes4 ,9 ! =m] case1 :il/ ! di/urbance is g5]ally loosely assign$ to /ray or vagabond e>? curr5ts1 ?is is only p>tly correct4 ,! curr5ts us$ = traction are l>ge1 & ev5 if !re 7 a p]fectly insulat$ return !re w\ld be a consid]able resultant magnetic field at di/ances f ! track :i* 7 n l>gely 9 excess ( ! di/ance ap>t ( ! direct & return curr5ts 7#af74 ,at a di/ance ( half a mile or m f an electric tram l9e ! di/urbance is usually l>ge/ 9 magnetographs record+ ! v]tical compon5t ( ! e>?'s field4 ,! magnets are slightly displac$ f ! position !y w\ld occupy if undi/urb$1 & are kept 9 cont9u\s oscillation :il/ ! trams are runn+ 7#ag74 ,! ext5t ( ! oscillation dep5ds on ! damp+ ( ! magnets4 ,! di/ance f an electric tram l9e :]e ! di/urbance ceases to be felt v>ies ) ! sy/em adopt$4 ,x also dep5ds on ! l5g? ( ! l9e & its subdivision into sections1 on ! /r5g? ( ! curr5ts suppli$1 ! am\nt ( leakage1 ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( boo/]s1 & f9ally on ! s5sitiv5ess ( ! magnetic in/rum5ts4 ,at ! ,u4,s4 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey's obs]vatory at ,*elt5ham ! effect ( ! ,wa%+ton electric trams has be5 detect$ by highly s5sitive magnetographs1 ?\gh ! ne>e/ po9t ( ! l9e is #ab m4 away 7#ah74 ,among/ ! magnetic obs]vatories :i* h suff]$ sev]ely f ?is cause are ^? at ,toronto1 ,wa%+ton 7,naval ,obs]vatory71 ,kew1 ,p>is 7,p>c ,/ ,maur71 ,p]pignan1 ,nice1 ,lisbon1 ,vi5na1 ,rome1 ,bombay 7,colaba7 & ,batavia4 ,9 "s cases magnetic obs]vations h be5 :olly susp5d$1 9 o!rs new obs]vatories h be5 built on m remote sites4 ,z reg>ds damage to und]gr\nd pipes1 ma9ly gas & wat] pipes1 num]\s obs]vations h be5 made1 especially 9 ,g]many & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,:5 electric tramways h un9sulat$ returns1 & ! pot5tial ( ! rails is all[$ to diff] consid]ably f t ( ! e>?1 v consid]able curr5ts are f\nd 9 neighb\r+ pipes4 ,"u ^! conditions1 if ! jo9ts betwe5 contigu\s pipes =m+ a ma9 pres5t appreciable resi/ance1 :il/ ! surr\nd+ e>? ?r\gh moi/ure or any o!r cause is a fair conductor1 curr5t passes locally f ! pipes to ! e>? caus+ electrolytic corrosion ( ! pipes4 ,ow+ to ! div]sity ( int]e/s conc]n$1 ! ext5t ( ! damage ?us caus$ has be5 v v>i\sly e/imat$4 ,9 "s in/ances x has be5 s consid]able z to be ! alleg$ cause ( ! ultimate failure ( wat] pipes to /& ! pressure !y are expos$ to4 ,,bibliography4--,see ,svante ,augu/ ,arrh5ius1 ,lehrbu* d] kosmis*5 ,physik 7,leipzig1 #aijc71 pp4 #ihd-iij4 ,= li/s ( ref]5ces see ,j4,e4 ,burbank1 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 vol4 #aj 7#aije71 p4 #bc1 & ,p4 ,ba*metjew 7#h74 ,= pap]s descriptive ( corrosion ( pipes1 c41 by artificial curr5ts see ,sci5ce ,ab/racts 79 rec5t ye>s 9 ! volumes devot$ to eng9e]+7 "u ! head+ ,traction1 ,electric2 ,electrolysis4 ,! foll[+ are ! ref]5ces 9 ! text3--7#a7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 = #ahdi1 pt4 i4 p4 #fa2 7#b7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #aea 7#ahfa71 p4 #hi1 & vol4 #aeb 7#ahfb71 p4 #bjc2 7#c7 ,etude des c\rants telluriques 7,p>is1 #ahhd72 7#d7 ,die ,erd/roeme im deuts*5 ,rei*/elegraph5gebiet 7,brauns*weig1 #aijj72 7#e7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #aeh 7#ahfh71 p4 #dfe1 & vol4 #afj 7#ahgj71 p4 #bae2 7#f7 ,mem4 de l',academie ,/-,pet]sb\rg1 t4 #ca1 ,no4 #ab 7#ahhc72 7#g7 ,t4 ,m\reaux1 ,ann4 du ,bureau ,c5tral ,met4 7,annee #ahic71 #a ,mem4 p4 ,b #bc2 7#h7 ,p4 ,ba*metjew1 ,mem4 de l',academie ,/-,pet]sb\rg1 vol4 #ab1 ,no4 #c 7#aija72 7#i7 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 vol4 #c 7#ahih71 p4 #acj2 7#aj7 ,j\rnal ,tel4 ,eng9e]s 7#ahha72 7#aa7 ,proc4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #eb 7#ahib71 p4 #aia2 7#ab7 ,akad4 ,abh&lung 7,hels+=s1 #ahhh72 7#ac7 ,acad4 ,napoli ,r5d4 7#ahij71 & ,atti 7#ahid1 #ahie72 7#ad7 ,pogg4 ,ann4 vol4 #gf1 p4 #ace2 7#ae7 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e4 vol4 #ac1 p4 #ecj2 7#af7 ,a4 ,rueck]1 ,phil4 ,mag4 #a 7#aija71 p4 #dbc1 & ,r4,t4 ,glazebrook1 ibid4 p4 #dcb2 7#ag7 ,j4 ,edl]1 ,elektrote*4 ,zeit4 vol4 #bj 7#ahii72 7#ah7 ,l4,a4 ,bau]1 ,t]re/rial ,magnetism1 vol4 #aa 7#aijf71 p4 #ec4 7,c4 ,*47 ,,e>?-,,nut1 ! ,engli% "n = a plant kn[n botanically z ,conopodium d5udatum 7or ,bunium flexuosum71 a memb] ( ! natural ord] ,umbellif]ae1 :i* has a br[n tub]-l root-/ock ! size ( a *e/nut4 ,x gr[s 9 woods & fields1 has a sl5d] flexu\s smoo? /em #b to #c ft4 high1 mu*-divid$ leaves1 & small :ite fl[]s 9 _m-ray$ t]m9al comp\nd umbels4 ,boswell ,syme1 9 ,engli% ,botany1 iv4 #aad1 says3 ,! common names ( ?is plant 9 ,engl& are v>i\s4 ,x is kn[n z e>?-nut1 pig-nut1 ar-nut1 kipp]-nut1 hawk-nut1 j>-nut1 e>?-*e/nut & gr\nd-nut4 ,?\gh really excell5t 9 ta/e & unobjectionable z food1 x is disreg>d$ 9 ,engl& by all b pigs & *ildr51 bo? ( :om appreciate x & seek eag]ly = x4 ,dr ,)]+ describes ! roots z little inf]ior to *e/nuts4 ,9 ,holl& & else:]e on ! cont95t ( ,europe !y are m g5]ally eat54 ,,e>? ,,pill>1 a pill> ( s(t rock1 or e>?1 capp$ by "s h>d] mat]ial t has protect$ x f d5udation4 ,! bad l&s ( we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica furni% num]\s examples4 ,"h ! =mations are (t5 b$s ( s&/one or %ale alt]nat+ ) un9durat$ b$s ( clay4 ,a semi-arid climate :]e ! precipitation is mu* conc5trat$ seems to be mo/ fav\rable to ! developm5t ( ?is type ( =mation4 ,! c\ntry r\nd ! ,dead ,sea1 :]e loose friable s&y clay is capp$ by h>d] rock1 produces bad-l& topography4 ,! cap ( h>d rock gives way at ! jo9ts1 & ! wat] mak+ its way d[nw>ds wa%es away ! s(t] mat]ial directly "u ! cracks1 :i* become wid]1 leav+ isolat$ columns ( clay capp$ ) h>d s&/one or lime/one4 ,^! become small] & few] z d5udation proce$s1 ! pill>s /&+ a great height at times1 until f9ally !y all disappe>4 ,,e>?quake4 ,al?\gh ! t]rible effects :i* (t5 accompany e>?quakes h 9 all ages =c$ !mselves ^u ! att5tion ( man1 ! exact inve/igation ( seismic ph5om5a dates only f ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,a new sci5ce has be5 ?us e/abli%$ "u ! "n ( seismology 7,gr4 ,greek3 seismos1 an e>?quake74 ,hi/ory4--,acc\nts ( e>?quakes are to be f\nd scatt]$ ?r\gh ! writ+s ( _m anci5t au?ors1 b !y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( little value to ! seismologi/4 ,!re is a natural t5d5cy to exagg]ation 9 describ+ su* ph5om5a1 sometimes inde$ to ! ext5t ( import+ a sup]natural elem5t into ! description4 ,x is true t attempts 7 made by "s anci5t writ]s on natural philosophy to (f] a rational explanation ( e>?quake ph5om5a1 b ! hypo!ses :i* _! explanations involv$ are1 z a rule1 too fanciful to be wor? reproduc+ at ! pres5t day4 ,x is !re=e unnecess>y to dwell ^u ! ref]5ces to seismic ph5om5a :i* h come d[n to u 9 ! writ+s ( su* hi/orians & philosoph]s z ,?ucydides1 ,ari/otle & ,/rabo1 ,s5eca1 ,livy & ,pl9y4 ,nor is mu* to be glean$ f ! pages ( m$ieval & lat] writ]s on e>?quakes1 ( :om ! mo/ notable are ,fromondi 7#aebg71 ,maggio 7#aega7 & ,travag9i 7#afgi74 ,9 ,engl&1 ! e>lie/ "w wor?y ( m5tion is ,rob]t ,hooke's ,disc\rse on ,e>?quakes1 writt5 9 #affh1 & read at a lat] date be=e ! ,royal ,society4 ,?is disc\rse1 ?\gh conta9+ _m passages ( consid]able m]it1 t5d$ b little to a correct int]pretation ( ! ph5om5a 9 "q4 ,equally unsatisfactory 7 ! attempts ( ,joseph ,prie/ley & "s o!r sci5tific writ]s ( ! #ah? c5tury to connect ! cause ( e>?quakes ) electrical ph5om5a4 ,! great e>?quake ( ,lisbon 9 #agee l$ ! ,rev4 ,john ,mi*ell1 pr(essor ( m9]alogy at ,cambridge1 to turn 8 att5tion to ! subject2 & 9 #agfj he publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions a rem>kable essay on ! ,cause & ,ph5om5a ( ,e>?quakes4 ,a sugge/ion ( mu* sci5tific int]e/ 0 made by ,?omas ,"y1 :5 9 8 ,lectures on ,natural ,philosophy1 publi%$ 9 #ahjg1 he rem>k$ t an e>?quake is probably propagat$ ?r\gh ! e>? ne>ly 9 ! same mann] z a noise is convey$ ?r\gh ! air4 ,! recognition ( ! fact t ! seismologi/ has to deal ) ! inve/igation ( wave-motion 9 solids lies at ! v base ( 8 sci5ce4 ,9 #ahdf ,rob]t ,mallet communicat$ to ! ,royal ,iri% ,academy 8 fir/ pap] ,on ! ,dynamics ( ,e>?quakes2 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> ,w4 ,hopk9s1 ( ,cambridge1 pres5t$ to ! ,briti% ,association a valuable report 9 :i* e>?quake ph5om5a 7 discuss$ 9 "s detail4 ,mallet's lab\rs 7 cont9u$ = _m ye>s *iefly 9 ! =m ( ,reports to ! ,briti% ,association1 & culm9at$ 9 8 great "w on ! ,neapolitan e>?quake ( #aheg4 ,an entirely new impetus1 h[ev]1 0 giv5 to ! /udy ( e>?quakes by an en]getic body ( obs]v]s 9 ,japan1 :o comm5c$ _! inve/igations ab\t ! ye> #ahhj1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,pr(4 ,john ,milne1 !n ( ,tokyo4 ,_! "w1 c>ri$ on by means ( new in/rum5ts ( precision1 & s9ce tak5 up by obs]v]s 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 has s ext5d$ our k ( e>?quake-motion t seismology has n[ become practically a new dep>tm5t ( physical sci5ce4 ,x is h>dly too mu* to say1 h[ev]1 t ! e>lie/ sy/ematic application ( sci5tific pr9ciples to ! /udy ( ! effects ( an e>?quake 0 made by ,mallet 9 8 inve/igation ( ! ,neapolitan e>?quake m5tion$ above4 ,x is true1 ! great ,calabrian e>?quake ( #aghc _h be5 ! subject ( c>eful inquiry by ! ,royal ,academy ( ,naples1 z also by ,deodat ,dolomieu & "s o!r sci5tific au?orities2 b 9 consequ5ce ( ! misconception :i* at t "t prevail$ ) reg>d to ! nature ( seismic activity1 ! results ( ! inquiry1 ?\gh 9 _m ways int]e/+1 7 ( v limit$ sci5tific value4 ,x 0 res]v$ = ,mallet to und]take = ! fir/ "t an ext5sive s]ies ( sy/ematic obs]vations 9 an area ( great seismic di/urbance1 ) ! view ( expla9+ ! ph5om5a by ! application ( ! laws ( wave-motion4 ,neapolitan e>?quake1 #aheg4 ,! ,great ,neapolitan ,e>?quake1 by :i* m ?an #ab1cjj lives 7 lo/1 0 felt 9 great] or less degree ov] all ,italy s\? ( ! p>allel ( #db deg41 & has be5 reg>d$ z rank+ ?ird 9 ord] ( sev]ity among ! record$ e>?quakes ( ,europe4 ,! pr9cipal %ock occurr$ at ab\t #aj ,p4,m4 on ! #af? ( ,decemb] #aheg2 b1 z is usually ! case1 x _h be5 prec$$ by m9or di/urbances & 0 foll[$ by num]\s aft]-%ocks :i* cont9u$ = _m mon?s4 ,e>ly 9 #aheh1 aid$ by a grant f ! ,royal ,society1 ,mallet visit$ ! deva/at$ di/ricts1 & sp5t m ?an two mon?s 9 /udy+ ! effects ( ! cata/rophe1 especially exam9+1 ) ! eye ( an eng9e]1 ! cracks & ru9s ( ! build+s4 ,8 volum9\s report 0 publi%$ 9 #ahfb1 & ?\gh 8 me?ods ( rese>* & 8 d$uctions h 9 _m cases be5 sup]s$$ by ! advance ( k1 ! report /ill rema9s a memorable "w 9 ! hi/ory ( seismology4 ,mu* ( ,mallet's lab\r 0 direct$ to ! det]m9ation ( ! position & magnitude ( ! subt]ranean s\rce f :i* ! vibratory impulses orig9at$4 ,?is is kn[n v>i\sly z ! seismic c5tre1 c5trum1 hypoc5tre1 orig9 or focus4 ,x is (t5 conv5i5t to reg>d ?is c5tre !oretically z a po9t1 b practically x mu/ be a locus or space ( ?ree dim5sions1 :i* 9 diff]5t cases v>ies mu* 9 size & %ape1 & may be ( great magnitude4 ,t "p ( ! surface ( ! e>? :i* is v]tically above ! c5tre is call$ ! epic5tre2 or1 if ( consid]able area1 ! epic5tral or epifocal tract4 ,a v]tical l9e jo9+ ! epic5tre & ! focus 0 t]m$ by ,mallet ! seismic v]tical4 ,he calculat$ t 9 ! case ( ! ,neapolitan e>?quake ! focal cavity 0 a curv$ lamelli=m fissure1 hav+ a l5g? ( ab\t #aj m4 & a height ( ab\t #ca_/b m41 :il/ its wid? 0 inconsid]able4 ,! c5tral po9t ( ?is fissure1 ! !oretical seismic c5tre1 he e/imat$ to h be5 at a dep? ( ab\t #fa_/b m4 f ! surface4 ,dr ,c4 ,davison1 9 discuss+ ,mallet's data1 0 l$ to ! conclusion t !re 7 two di/9ct foci1 possibly situat$ on a fault1 or plane ( dislocation1 runn+ 9 a nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ direction4 ,mallet locat$ 8 epic5tre ne> ! village ( ,caggiano1 n f> f ,polla1 :ile ! o!r seems to h be5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,montemurro1 ab\t #be m4 to ! s\?-ea/4 ,! int5sity1 or viol5ce1 ( an e>?quake is greate/ 9 or ne> ! epic5tre1 :5ce x decreases 9 all directions4 ,a l9e drawn ?r\gh po9ts ( equal int5sity =ms a curve r\nd ! epic5tre kn[n z an isosei/1 an isoseismal or an isoseismic l9e4 ,if ! int5sity decl9$ equally 9 all directions ! isoseismals w\ld be circles1 b z ?is is r>ely if ev] ! case 9 nature !y usually become ellipses & o!r clos$ curves4 ,! tract :i* is mo/ viol5tly %ak5 0 t]m$ by ,mallet ! meizoseismic area1 :il/ ! l9e ( maximum de/ruction is kn[n z ! meizoseismic l9e4 ,t isoseismal along :i* ! decl9e ( en]gy is mo/ rapid 0 call$ by ,k4 von ,seeba* a plei/osei/4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! position ( ! seismic c5tre1 ,mallet made mu* use ( ! cracks 9 damag$ build+s1 especially 9 walls ( masonry1 hold+ t ! direction ( su* fractures mu/ g5]ally be at "r angles to t 9 :i* ! normal e>?quake-wave rea*$ !m4 ,9 ?is way he obta9$ ! angle ( em]g5ce ( ! wave4 ,he also assum$ t free-fall+ bodies w\ld be ov]?r[n & project$ 9 ! direction ( propagation ( ! wave1 s t ! epic5tre might imm$iately be f\nd f ! int]section ( su* directions4 ,^! data are1 h[ev]1 subject to mu* error1 especially ?r\gh want ( homog5eity 9 ! rocks1 b ,mallet's "w 0 /ill ( great value4 ,*>le/on e>?quake1 #ahhf4 ,a diff]5t me?od ( asc]ta9+ ! dep? ( ! focus 0 adopt$ by ,major ,c4,e4 ,dutton 9 8 inve/igation ( ! ,*>le/on e>?quake ( ! #ca/ ( ,augu/ #ahhf = ! ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,?is cata/rophe 0 h]ald$ by %ocks ( great] or less sev]ity a few days previ\sly at ,summ]ville1 a village #bb m4 nor?-we/ ( ,*>le/on4 ,! great e>?quake occurr$ at #i4ea ,p4,m41 /&>d "t ( ! #ge? m]idian1 & 9 ab\t #gj seconds almo/ e build+ 9 ,*>le/on 0 m or less s]i\sly damag$1 :ile _m lives 7 lo/4 ,! epic5tral tract 0 ma9ly a =e/ region ) b few build+s1 & ! pr9cipal records ( seismological value 7 af=d$ by ! l9es ( railway :i* trav]s$ ! di/urb$ area4 ,9 _m places ^! rails 7 flexur$ & dislocat$4 ,num]\s fissures op5$ 9 ! gr\nd1 & _m ( ^! dis*>g$ wat]1 mix$ sometimes ) s& & silt1 :i* 0 ?r[n up 9 jets ris+ 9 "s cases to a height ( #bj ft4 ,two epic5tres 7 recogniz$--"o ne> ,wood/ock /ation on ! ,s\? ,c>ol9a railway1 & ! o!r1 be+ ! c5tre ( a mu* small] tract1 ab\t #ad m4 s\?-we/ ( ! fir/ & ne> ! /ation ( ,rant[les on ! ,*>le/on & ,savannah l9e4 ,ar\nd ^! c5tres & f> away isoseismal l9es 7 drawn1 ! relative int5sity at diff]5t places be+ r\ghly e/imat$ by ! effects ( ! cata/rophe on v>i\s /ructures & natural objects1 or1 :]e visible records 7 want+1 by p]sonal evid5ce1 :i* is (t5 vague & v>iable4 ,! ,rossi-,=el scale 0 adopt$4 ,?is is an arbitr>y scale =mulat$ by ,pr(essor ,m4,s4 de ,rossi1 ( ,rome1 & ,dr ,f4,a4 ,=el1 ( ,g5eva1 bas$ mo/ly on ! ord9>y ph5om5a obs]v$ dur+ an e>?quake1 & consi/+ ( t5 degrees1 ( :i* ! l[e/ is ! feeble/1 viz4 ,i4 ,microseismic %ock2 ,,ii4 ,extremely feeble %ock2 ,,iii4 ,v feeble %ock2 ,,iv4 ,feeble2 ,v4 ,%ock ( mod]ate int5sity2 ,,vi4 ,fairly /rong %ock2 ,,vii4 ,/rong %ock2 ,,viii4 ,v /rong %ock2 ,,ix4 ,extremely /rong %ock2 ,x4 ,%ock ( extreme int5sity4 ,o!r conv5tional scales1 "s be+ less detail$1 h be5 drawn up by obs]v]s 9 su* e>?quake-%ak5 c\ntries z ,italy & ,japan4 ,a curve1 or !oretical isoseismal1 drawn ?r\gh c]ta9 po9ts :]e ! decl9e ( int5sity on rec$+ f ! epic5tre seems to be greate/ 0 call$ by ,dutton an index-circle2 & x c be %[n t ! radius ( su* a circle multipli$ by ! squ>e root ( #c gives ! focal dep? !oretically4 ,9 ?is way x 0 comput$ t 9 ! ,*>le/on e>?quake ! orig9 "u ,wood/ock mu/ h _h a dep? ( ab\t #ab m4 & t ne> ,rant[les a dep? ( ne>ly #h m4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! index-circle pres5ts mu* difficulty1 & ! conclusions mu/ be reg>d$ z only approximate4 ,x is probable1 accord+ to ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 t local e>?quakes may orig9ate 9 ! out] sk9 ( ! e>?1 :il/ a l>ge _w-%ak+ e>?quake takes its orig9 9 ! deep] "p ( ! cru/1 :5ce su* a di/urbance is t]m$ a ba?yseism4 ,l>ge e>?quakes may h v ext5d$ orig9s1 ) no def9ite c5tre1 or ) sev]al foci4 ,great ,indian e>?quake1 #ahig4 ,! gigantic disa/] kn[n z ! ,great ,indian ,e>?quake1 :i* occurr$ on ! #ab? ( ,june #ahig1 0 ! subject ( c>eful inve/igation by ! ,geological ,survey ( ,india & 0 describ$ 9 detail by ! sup]9t5d5t1 ,r4,d4 ,oldham4 ,x is sometimes t]m$ ! ,assam e>?quake1 s9ce x 0 9 t prov9ce t ! effects 7 mo/ sev]e1 b ! %ocks 7 felt ov] a l>ge "p ( ,india1 & inde$ f> beyond its b\nd>ies4 ,mu* ( ! area :i* suff]$ mo/ di/urbance 0 a wild c\ntry1 sp>sely populat$1 ) b few build+s ( brick or /one f :i* ! viol5ce ( ! %ocks c\ld be e/imat$4 ,! epic5tral tract 0 ( great size1 hav+ an e/imat$ area ( ab\t #fjjj sq4 m41 b ! mis*ief 0 mo/ sev]e 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,%illong1 :]e ! /onework ( bridges1 *ur*es & o!r build+s 0 absolutely levell$ to ! gr\nd4 ,aft] ! ma9 di/urbance1 %ocks ( great] or less sev]ity cont9u$ at int]vals = _m weeks4 ,x is suppos$ t ?is e>?quake 0 connect$ ) movem5t ( subt]ranean rock-masses ( enorm\s magnitude along a great ?ru/-plane1 or s]ies ( su* planes1 hav+ a l5g? ( ab\t #bjj m4 & a maximum bread? ( n less ?an #ej m4 ,x is po9t$ out by ,oldham t ?is may be comp>$ = size ) ! great ,faille du ,midi 9 ,belgium1 :i* is kn[n to ext5d = a di/ance ( #abj m4 ,! dep? ( ! pr9cipal focus1 ?\gh n actually capable ( det]m9ation1 0 probably less ?an #e m4 f ! surface4 ,f ! focus _m second>y faults & fractures proce$$1 "s rea*+ ! surface ( ! gr\nd4 ,enorm\s l&slips accompani$ ! e>?quake1 & z an indirect effect ( ^! slides ! =m ( ! wat]-c\rses became 9 c]ta9 cases modifi$4 ,p]man5t *anges ( level 7 also obs]v$4 ,kangra e>?quake1 #aije4 ,eight ye>s aft] ! great ,assam e>?quake ,india 0 visit$ by ano!r e>?quake1 :i*1 ?\gh less int5se1 result$ 9 ! loss ( ab\t #bj1jjj lives4 ,?is cata/rophe is kn[n z ! ,kangra e>?quake1 s9ce its c5tre seems to h be5 locat$ 9 ! ,kangra valley1 9 ! nor?-we/ ,himalaya4 ,x occurr$ on ! #d? ( ,april #aije1 & ! fir/ great %ocks 7 felt 9 ! *ief epifocal di/rict at ab\t #f4i a4m41 ,madras "t4 ,al?\gh ! tract *iefly affect$ 0 ar\nd ,kangra & ,dh>msala1 !re 0 a subord9ate epifocal tract 9 ,dehra ,dun & ! neighb\rhood ( ,mussoorie1 :il/ ! effects ( ! e>?quake ext5d$ 9 slight measure to ,lahore & o!r cities ( ! pla94 ,x is e/imat$ t ! e>?quake 0 felt ov] an area ( ab\t #a1fbe1jjj m4 ,imm$iately aft] ! calamity a sci5tific exam9ation ( its effects 0 made by ! ,geological ,survey ( ,india1 & a report 0 drawn up by ! sup]9t5d5t1 ,c4,s4 ,middlemiss4 ,cali=nia e>?quake1 #aijf4 ,! great e>?quake1 :i*1 ) ! subsequ5t fire1 wr\ght su* t]rible de/ruction 9 & ar\nd ,san ,francisco on ! #ah? ( ,april #aijf1 0 ! mo/ disa/r\s ev] record$ 9 ,cali=nia4 ,x occurr$ betwe5 #aj & #ae m9utes aft] #e ,a4,m41 /&>d "t ( ! #abj? m]idian4 ,! mom5t at :i* ! disa/] began & ! duration ( ! %ock v>i$ at diff]5t localities 9 ! great area ov] :i* ! e>?quake 0 felt4 ,at ,san ,francisco ! ma9 %ock la/$ r m ?an "o m9ute4 ,accord+ to ! (ficial ,report1 ! e>?quake 0 due to rupture & movem5t along ! plane ( ! ,san ,&reas fault1 "o ( a s]ies :i* runs = sev]al hundr$ miles approximately 9 a ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 direction ne> ! coa/ l9e4 ,evid5ce ( fre% movem5t along ?is plane ( dislocation 0 trac$ = a di/ance ( #aij m4 f ,san ,juan on ! s\? to ,po9t ,ar5a on ! nor?4 ,!re ! trace ( ! fault is lo/ b5ea? ! sea1 b ei!r ! same fault or ano!r appe>s #ge m4 to ! nor? at ,po9t ,delgada4 ,! belt ( di/urb$ c\ntry is notori\sly un/able1 & "p ( ! fault _h be5 kn[n z ! e>?quake crack4 ,! direction is m>k$ by l9es ( /raight cliffs1 long ponds & n>r[ depressions1 =m+ a ,rift1 or old l9e ( seismic di/urbance4 ,accord+ to ,dr ,g4,k4 ,gilb]t ! e>?quake zone has a l5g? ( #cjj or #djj m4 ,! pr9cipal displacem5t ( rock1 9 #aijf1 0 horizontal1 am\nt+ g5]ally to ab\t #aj ft4 7maximum #ba ft471 b !re 0 also locally a slight v]tical movem5t1 :i* t[>ds ! nor? end ( ! fault rea*$ #c ft4 ,movem5t 0 trac$ = a di/ance ( ab\t #bgj m41 & x is e/imat$ t at lea/ #age1jjj sq4 m4 ( c\ntry mu/ h be5 di/urb$4 ,9 e/imat+ ! int5sity ( ! e>?quake 9 ,san ,francisco a new scale 0 introduc$ by ,h4,o4 ,wood4 ,! greate/ /ructural damage occurr$ on s(t alluvial soil & made gr\nd4 ,mo/ ( ! loss ( prop]ty 9 ,san ,francisco 0 due to ! t]rible fire :i* foll[$ ! e>?quake & 0 beyond control ow+ to ! de/ruction ( ! sy/em ( wat]-supply4 ,imm$iately aft] ! cata/rophe a ,cali=nia ,e>?quake ,inve/igation ,committee 0 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor ( ! /ate2 & ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce aft]w>ds in/itut$ a ,seismological ,committee4 ,! elaborate ,report ( ! ,/ate ,inve/igation ,committee1 by ! *airman1 ,pr(essor ,a4,c4 ,lawson1 0 publi%$ 9 #aijh4 ,on ! #ag? ( ,augu/ #aijf a disa/r\s e>?quake occurr$ at ,valp>aiso1 & ! ye> #aijf 0 m>k$ g5]ally by exceptional seismic activity4 ,! ,jamaica e>?quake ( ! #ad? ( ,janu>y #aijg appe>s to h accompani$ movem5t ( rock along an ea/ & we/ fracture or s]ies ( fractures "u ! sea a few miles f ! city ( ,k+/on4 ,! /atue ( ,que5 ,victoria at ,k+/on 0 turn$ ^u its p$e/al ! eigh? ( a revolution4 ,mess9a e>?quake1 #aijh4 ,a t]rible e>?quake occurr$ 9 ,calabria & ,sicily on ,decemb] #bh1 #aijh1 practically de/roy+ ,mess9a & ,reggio4 ,accord+ to ! (ficial returns ! total loss ( life 0 #gg1bhc4 ,:il/ ! pr9cipal c5tre seems to h be5 9 ! ,/rait ( ,mess9a1 :5ce ! di/urbance is g5]ally kn[n z ! ,mess9a e>?quake1 !re 7 indep5d5t c5tres 9 ! ,calabrian p59sula1 a c\ntry :i* _h be5 visit$ by sev]e e>?quakes n long previ\sly1 namely on ,septemb] #h1 #aije1 & ,octob] #bc1 #aijg4 ,! pr9cipal %ock ( ! great ,mess9a e>?quake ( #aijh occurr$ at #e4ba ,a4,m4 7#d4ba ,gre5wi* "t71 & _h a duration ( f #cj to #dj seconds4 ,nei!r dur+ nor imm$iately be=e ! cata/rophe 0 !re any special volcanic di/urbance at ,etna or at ,/romboli1 b x is believ$ t !re mu/ h be5 movem5t along a great plane ( weakness 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,/rait ( ,mess9a1 :i* has be5 /udi$ by ,e4 ,cortese4 ,! sea-floor 9 ! /rait probably suff]$ great di/urbance1 result+ 9 ! rem>kable movem5t ( wat] obs]v$ on ! coa/4 ,at fir/ ! sea retir$1 & !n a great wave roll$ 91 foll[$ by o!rs g5]ally ( decreas+ amplitude1 ?\gh at ,catania ! second 0 said to h be5 great] ?an ! fir/4 ,at ,mess9a ! height ( ! great wave 0 #b4gj metres1 :il/ at ,ali & ,gi>d9i x rea*$ #h4dj metres & at ,san ,alessio z mu* z #aa4g metres4 ,at ,malta ! tide-gauge record$ a wave ( #j4ia metre4 ,! dep? ( ! *ief e>?quake-c5tre 0 e/imat$ by ,dr ,e4 ,oddone at ab\t #i kilometres4 ,! e>?quake & accompany+ ph5om5a 7 /udi$ also by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,ricco1 ,dr ,m4 ,b>atta & ,pr(essor ,g4 ,platania & by ,dr ,f4 ,omori ( ,tokyo4 ,aft] ! great di/urbance1 %ocks cont9u$ to affect ! region int]mitt5tly = sev]al mon?s4 ,9 c]ta9 respects ! e>?quake ( #aijh pres5t$ mu* resemblance to ! great ,calabrian cata/rophe ( #aghc4 ,x has be5 propos$ by ,r4,d4 ,oldham t ! di/urbance :i* causes ! fracture & p]man5t displacem5t ( ! rocks dur+ an e>?quake %\ld be call$ an e>?%ake1 leav+ ! t]m e>?quake especially = ! vibratory motion4 ,! movem5t ( ! e>?quake is molecul>1 :il/ t ( ! e>?%ake is mol>4 ,subsequ5tly he sugge/$ ! t]ms mo*leusis & or*esis 7,greek3 mo*leuo1 ,i heave2 ,greek3 or*eomai1 ,i dance71 to d5ote respectively ! mol> & ! molecul> movem5t1 reta9+ ! ^w e>?quake = use 9 its ord9>y s5se4 ,9 mo/ e>?quakes ! proximate cause is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! fracture & sudd5 movem5t ( und]gr\nd rock-masses4 ,di/urbances ( ?is type are kn[n z tectonic e>?quakes1 s9ce !y are connect$ ) ! fold+ & fault+ ( ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,!y indicate a relief ( ! /ra9 to :i* ! rock-masses are subject$ by m\nta9-mak+ & o!r cru/al movem5ts1 & !y are consequ5tly apt to occur along ! /eep face ( a table-l& or ! m>g9 ( a cont95t ) a great slope f l& to sea4 ,9 _m cases ! imm$iate seat ( ! orig9at+ impulse is locat$ b5ea? ! sea1 giv+ rise to subm>9e di/urbances :i* h be5 call$ seaquakes4 ,mu* att5tion has be5 giv5 to ^! suboceanic di/urbances by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,rudolph4 ,pr(essor ,j4,h4 ,jeans has po9t$ out t ! regions ( ! e>?'s cru/ mo/ affect$ by e>?quakes lie on a great circle correspond+ ) ! equator ( ! slightly pe>-%ap$ figure t he assigns to ! e>?4 ,?is w\ld repres5t a belt ( weakness1 subject to cru%+1 f ! t5d5cy ( ! pe> to pass into a sph]ical or sph]oidal =m "u ! action ( int]nal /resses4 ,accord+ to ! comte de ,montessus de ,ballore1 ! regions ( maximum seismic in/ability appe> to be arrang$ on two great circles1 incl9$ to ea* o!r at ab\t #fg deg44 ,^! are ! ,circumpacific & ,m$it]ranean zones4 ,maps ( ! _w1 %[+ ! orig9s ( l>ge e>?quakes ea* ye>1 accompany ! ,annual ,reports ( ! ,seismological ,committee ( ! ,briti% ,association1 drawn up by ,pr(essor ,milne4 ,x is important to note t ,pr(essor ,milne has %[n a relation%ip betwe5 e>?quake-frequ5cy & ! w&]+ ( ! e>?'s pole f its mean position4 ,e>?quakes seem to h be5 mo/ frequ5t :5 ! displacem5t ( ! pole has be5 comp>atively great1 or :5 ! *ange 9 ! direction ( movem5t has be5 m>k$4 ,valuable e>?quake catalogues h be5 compil$ at v>i\s times by ,alexis ,p]rey1 ,r4 & ,j4,w4 ,mallet1 ,john ,milne1 ,t4 ,oldham1 ,c4,w4,c4 ,fu*s1 ,f4 de ,montessus de ,ballore & o!rs4 ,briti% e>?quakes4 ,su* e>?quakes z are felt f "t to "t 9 ,great ,brita9 may g5]ally be trac$ to ! =mation ( faults1 or r to incid5ts 9 ! gr[? ( old faults4 ,! ,ea/ ,anglian e>?quake ( ! #bbnd ( ,april #ahhd--! mo/ disa/r\s t _h occurr$ 9 ! ,briti% ,isles = c5turies--0 inve/igat$ by ,pr(4 ,r4 ,meldola & ,w4 ,:ite on behalf ( ! ,essex ,field ,club4 ,! %ocks probably proce$$ f two foci--"o ne> ! villages ( ,peldon & ,abb]ton1 ! o!r ne> ,wiv5hoe & ,r[h$ge1 9 ,n4,e4 ,essex4 ,x is believ$ t ! sup]ficial di/urbance result$ f rupture ( rocks along a deep fault4 ,an attempt has be5 made by ,h4 ,d>w91 = ! ,seismological ,committee ( ! ,briti% ,association1 to detect & measure any gradual movem5t ( ! /rata along a fault1 by obs]vation at ! ,ridgeway fault1 ne> ,upway1 9 ,dorset%ire4 ,dr ,c4 ,davison 9 /udy+ ! e>?quakes :i* h orig9at$ 9 ,brita9 s9ce #ahhi f9ds t sev]al h be5 tw9s4 ,a tw9 e>?quake has two maxima ( int5sity proce$+ f two foci1 :]eas a d\ble e>?quake has its successive impulses f :at is practically a s+le focus4 ,! ,h]e=d e>?quake ( ,decemb] #ahif1 :i* result$ 9 great /ructural damage1 0 a tw91 hav+ "o epic5tre ne> ,h]e=d & ! o!r ne> ,ross4 ,davison ref]s x to a slip along a fault-plane betwe5 ! anticl9al areas ( ,woolhope & ,may ,hill2 & accord+ to ! same au?ority ! ,inv]ness e>?quake ( ! #ah? ( ,septemb] #aija 0 ref]able to movem5t along a fault betwe5 ,lo* ,ness & ,inv]ness4 ,! ,s\? ,wales e>?quake ( ,june #bg1 #aijf1 0 probably due to movem5t connect$ ) ! ,armorican sy/em ( folds1 /rik+ 9 an ea/ & we/ direction4 ,x may be not$ t :5 a slip occurs along a fault1 ! displacem5t und]gr\nd may be b slight & may die out be=e rea*+ ! surface1 s t no sc>p is =m$4 ,9 connexion1 h[ev]1 ) a seismic di/urbance ( ! fir/ magnitude ! sup]ficial features may be m>k$ly affect$4 ,?us1 ! great ,japan e>?quake ( ,octob] #ahia--kn[n (t5 z ! ,m9o-,ow>i e>?quake--0 connect$ ) ! =mation or developm5t ( a fault :i*1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,b4 ,koto1 0 trac$ on ! surface = a di/ance ( ne>ly #ej m4 & pres5t$ 9 places a sc>p ) a v]tical ?r[ ( z mu* z #bj ft41 :ile probably ! maximum displacem5t und]gr\nd 0 v mu* great]4 ,al?\gh mo/ e>?quakes seem to be ( tectonic type1 !re are "s :i* are evid5tly connect$1 directly or indirectly1 ) volcanic activity 7see ,,volcano74 ,su*1 x is commonly believ$1 7 ! e>?quakes :i* di/urb$ ! ,isle ( ,is*ia 9 #ahha & #ahhc1 & 7 /udi$ by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,john/on-,lavis & ,g4 ,m]calli4 ,9 addition to ! tectonic & volcanic types1 !re are occasional e>?quakes ( m9or importance :i* may be ref]r$ to ! collapse ( ! ro( ( cav]ns1 or o!r falls ( rock 9 und]gr\nd cavities at no great dep?4 ,accord+ to ,pr(4 ,t4,j4,j4 ,see mo/ e>?quakes are due1 directly or indirectly1 to ! explosive action ( /e by ! leakage ( sea-wat] ?r\gh ! ocean floor4 ,e>?quake waves4 ,:atev] ! nature ( ! impulse :i* orig9ates ! e>?quake1 x gives rise to a s]ies ( waves :i* are propagat$ ?r\gh ! e>?'s sub/ance & also sup]ficially4 ,9 "o k9d1 kn[n z normal or cond5sational waves1 or waves ( ela/ic compression1 ! p>ticles vibrate to & f ! c5tre ( di/urbance1 mov+ 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! wave travels1 & !re=e 9 a way analog\s to ! movem5t ( air 9 a s\nd-wave4 ,associat$ ) ?is type are o!r waves t]m$ transv]se waves1 or waves ( ela/ic di/ortion1 9 :i* ! p>ticles vibrate across or ar\nd ! direction 9 :i* ! wave is propagat$4 ,! normal waves result f a tempor>y *ange ( volume 9 ! m$ium2 ! transv]se f a *ange ( %ape4 ,! di/ance ?r\gh :i* an e>?-p>ticle moves f its mean position ( re/1 :e!r radially or transv]sely1 is call$ ! amplitude ( ! wave2 :il/ ! d\ble amplitude1 or total di/ance ( movem5t1 to & fro or up & d[n1 l ! di/ance f cre/ to tr\gh ( a wat] wave1 may be reg>d$ z ! range ( ! wave4 ,! p]iod ( a wave is ! "t requir$ = ! vibrat+ p>ticle to complete an oscillation4 ,z ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ are v het]og5e\s1 ! e>?quake-waves suff] refraction & reflection z !y pass f "o rock to ano!r diff]+ 9 d5sity & ela/icity4 ,9 ?is way ! waves break up & become mu* modifi$ 9 c\rse ( transmission1 ?us introduc+ great complexity into ! ph5om5a4 ,x is kn[n t ! normal waves travel m rapidly ?an ! transv]se4 ,measurem5ts ( ! surface spe$ at :i* e>?quake-waves travel require v accurate "t-measur]s1 & ^! are n g5]ally available 9 e>?quake-%ak5 regions4 ,obs]vations dur+ ! ,*>le/on e>?quake ( #ahhf 7 at t "t ( exceptional value1 s9ce !y 7 made ov] a l>ge area :]e /&>d "t 0 kept4 ,l9es drawn ?r\gh places ar\nd ! epic5tre at :i* ! %ock arrives at ! same mom5t are call$ coseismal l9es4 ,! motion ( ! wave is to be di/+ui%$ f ! movem5t ( ! vibrat+ p>ticles4 ,! velocity ( ! e>?-p>ticle is its rate ( movem5t1 b ?is is con/antly *ang+ dur+ ! vibration1 & ! rate at :i* ! velocity *anges is te*nically call$ ! accel]ation ( ! p>ticle4 ,unfelt movem5ts ( ! gr\nd are regi/]$ 9 ! e>?quake records1 or seismograms1 obta9$ by ! delicate in/rum5ts us$ by mod]n seismologi/s4 ,f ! /udy ( ! records ( a great e>?quake f a di/ant s\rce1 sometimes t]m$ a teleseismic di/urbance1 "s int]e/+ inf]5ces h be5 drawn ) respect to ! con/itution ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,! complete record %[s two phases ( prelim9>y tremors prec$+ ! pr9cipal waves4 ,x is believ$ t :ile ! prelim9>y tremors pass ?r\gh ! body ( ! e>?1 ! pr9cipal waves travel along or p>allel to ! surface4 ,probably ! fir/ phase repres5ts cond5sational1 & ! second phase di/ortional1 waves4 ,pr(essor ,milne concludes f ! spe$ ( ! waves at diff]5t dep?s t mat]ials hav+ simil> physical prop]ties to ^? at ! surface may ext5d to a dep? ( ab\t #cj m41 bel[ :i* !y pass into a fairly homog5e\s nucleus4 ,f ! diff]5t rates ( propagation ( ! precursors x has be5 inf]r$ by ,r4,d4 ,oldham t bel[ ! out] cru/1 :i* is probably n ev]y:]e ( ! same ?ickness1 ! e>? is ( practically uni=m "* to a dep? ( ab\t six-t5?s ( ! radius1 b ! rema9+ f\r-t5?s may repres5t a core diff]+ physically & p]haps *emically f ! out] "p4 ,oldham also sugge/s1 f 8 /udy ( oceanic & cont95tal wave-pa?s1 t !re is probably a diff]5ce 9 ! con/itution ( ! e>? b5ea? oceans & b5ea? cont95ts4 ,! surface waves1 :i* are waves ( great l5g? & long p]iod & are propagat$ to great di/ances ) practically a con/ant velocity1 h be5 reg>d$ z quasi-ela/ic gravitational waves4 ,fur!r1 9 a great e>?quake ! surface ( ! gr\nd is sometimes visibly agitat$ 9 ! epifocal di/rict by undulations :i* may be responsible = sev]e sup]ficial damage4 7,see also = ela/ic waves ,,ela/icity1 ,sec4 #hi47 ,an old classification ( e>?quake-%ocks1 traces ( :i* /ill l+] 9 popul> nom5clature1 describ$ !m z undulatory1 :5 ! movem5t ( ! gr\nd 0 ma9ly 9 a horizontal direction2 subsultory1 :5 ! motion 0 v]tical1 l ! effect ( a normal wave at ! epic5tre2 & vorticose1 :5 ! movem5t 0 rotatory1 app>5tly due to successive impulses 9 v>y+ directions4 ,! s\nds :i* are associat$ ) seismic ph5om5a1 (t5 describ$ z subt]ranean rumbl+ & ro>+1 are n )\t sci5tific int]e/1 & h be5 c>efully /udi$ by ,davison4 ,isac\/ic l9es are curves drawn ?r\gh places :]e ! s\nd is he>d by ! same p]c5tage ( obs]v]s4 ,! s\nd is always l[ & (t5 inaudible to _m4 ,! ref9$ in/rum5ts :i* are n[ us$ by seismologi/s = det]m9+ ! elem5ts ( e>?quake motion & = record+ e>?quakes f di/ant orig9s are describ$ 9 ! article ,,seismomet]4 ,^! in/rum5ts 7 develop$ z a consequ5ce ( ! att5tion giv5 9 mod]n times to ! /udy ( e>?quakes 9 ! ,f> ,ea/4 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,seismology 9 ,japan4 ,/range z x may appe>1 ! advances t h be5 made 9 ! /udy ( e>?quakes & ! _w-wide int]e/ %[n 9 _! ph5om5a 7 initiat$ 9 "w comm5c$ 9 ,japan4 ,:5 ! ,japanese gov]nm5t1 desir+ to adopt ,we/]n k1 invit$ to its %ores bodies ( m5 to act z its in/ructors1 ! att5tion ( ! newcom]s 0 naturally attract$ to ! frequ5t %ak+s ( ! gr\nd4 ,int]e/ 9 ^! ph5om5a increas$ m rapidly ?an _! frequ5cy1 & at l5g? x 0 felt t some?+ %\ld be done = _! sy/ematic /udy4 ,at midnight on ! #bbnd ( ,febru>y #ahhj movem5ts m viol5t ?an usual occurr$2 *imneys 7 %att]$ or rotat$1 tiles slid d[n f ro(s1 & 9 ! morn+ x 0 se5 t ,yokohama _h ! appe>ance ( a city t _h suff]$ a bomb>dm5t4 ,! excitem5t 0 int5se1 & be=e ! ru9s _h be5 remov$ a meet+ 0 conv5$ & ! ,seismological ,society ( ,japan e/abli%$4 ,! tw5ty volumes ( orig9al pap]s publi%$ by ?is body summ>ize to a l>ge ext5t ! results ( ! lat] /udy ( seismology4#a ,! att5tion ( ! /ud5ts ( e>?quakes 9 ,japan 0 at fir/ direct$ almo/ entirely to seismometry or e>?quake measurem5t4 ,=ms ( app>atus :i* !n exi/$1 z = example ! seismographs1 seismomet]s & seismoscopes ( ,mallet1 ,palmi]i & o!rs1 7 subject$ to trial2 b inasmu* z !y did little m ?an indicate t an e>?quake _h tak5 place--! m elaborate =ms record+ also ! "t ( its occurr5ce--!y 7 rapidly disc>d$1 & in/rum5ts 7 con/ruct$ to measure e>?quake motion4 ,slightly modifi$ types ( ! new in/rum5ts devis$ 9 ,japan 7 adopt$ ?r\gh\t ! ,italian p59sula1 & x is fair to say t ! seismometry develop$ 9 ,japan revolutioniz$ ! seismometry ( ! _w4 ,! records obta9$ f ! new in/rum5ts increas$ our k ( ! "* ( e>?quake motion1 & ! eng9e] & ! ar*itect 7 plac$ 9 a position to con/ruct s t ! effects ( kn[n movem5ts c\ld be m9imiz$4 ,x 0 no d\bt ! m>k$ success1 bo? practical & sci5tific1 att5d+ ^! inve/igations t l$ ! ,japanese gov]nm5t to e/abli% a *air ( seismology at its univ]sity1 to organize a sy/em ( ne>ly #ajjj obs]v+ /ations ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 & 9 #ahic to appo9t a committee ( sci5tific & practical m5 to c>ry out inve/igations :i* might palliate ! effects ( seismic di/urbances4 ,9 ! fir/ ye> ?is committee receiv$ a grant ( ,l#ejjj1 & z lib]al sums = ! same purpose appe> f "t to "t 9 ! p>liam5t>y e/imates1 x may be assum$ t ! "w has be5 fraught ) good results4 ,9 _! publications we f9d n only records ( exp]i5ces & exp]im5ts 9 ,japan1 b descriptions & comm5ts ^u e>?quake effects 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,9 two ( ! volumes !re are long & extremely well illu/rat$ acc\nts ( ! e>?quake :i* on ! #ab? ( ,june #ahig deva/at$ ,assam1 to :i* c\ntry two memb]s ( ! above-m5tion$ committee 7 despat*$ to ga!r su* in=mation z might be ( value to ! ar*itect & build] 9 e>?quake-%ak5 di/ricts4 ,seismological rese>*4 ,a great impetus to seismological inve/igation 9 ,europe & ,am]ica 0 no d\bt giv5 by ! realization ( ! fact t a l>ge e>?quake orig9at+ 9 any "o "p ( ! _w may be record$ 9 almo/ any o!r4 ,italy = _m ye>s pa/ has _h its obs]vatories = record+ e>?quakes :i* c be felt1 & :i* are ( local orig91 b at ! pres5t "t at all its fir/-class /ations we f9d in/rum5ts to record ! unfelt movem5ts due to e>?quakes orig9at+ at great di/ances1 & z mu* att5tion is n[ paid to ! l>ge e>?quakes ( ! _w z to ! small] ones orig9at+ )9 ,italian t]ritory4#b ,! ,kais]li*e ,akademie d] ,wiss5s*aft5 ( ,vi5na e/abli%$ e>?quake obs]vatories 9 ,au/ria1#c & ! ,c5tral ,obs]vatorium ( ,/ ,pet]sburg has c>ri$ out simil> "w 9 ,russia4 ,g]many atta*$ a seismological obs]vatory to its univ]sity at ,/rassburg1 :il/ provision has be5 made = a pr(essor%ip ( ,e>? ,physics 7,geophysik7 at ,goett+54#d ,9 accordance ) ! recomm5dation ( ! ,briti% ,association1 seismographs ( a simil> "* h be5 in/all$ at /ations all ov] ! _w4#e ,! pr9cipal objects ( ?is ext5d$ & /ill ext5d+ sy/em ( /ations are to det]m9e ! velocity ) :i* motion is propagat$ ov] ! surface & ?r\gh ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 to locate ! positions ( sub-oceanic e>?quake orig9s1 & g5]ally to ext5d our k respect+ ! physical nature ( ! planet on :i* we live4 ,frequ5cy ( e>?quakes4 ,we n[ "k t e>?quakes are _m times m frequ5t ?an 0 previ\sly suppos$4 ,9 ,japan1 = example1 betwe5 #ahhe & #ahib no few] ?an #hcca 7 record$--t is to say1 on ! av]age !re 7 dur+ t "t m ?an #ajjj di/urbances p] ye>4 ,al?\gh _m ( ^! did n cause a s5sible %ak+ ov] areas exce$+ a few hundr$ squ>e miles1 _m ( !m 7 suffici5tly int5se to propagate vibrations r\nd & ?r\gh ! globe4 ,if we pick out ! well-m>k$ e>?quake di/ricts ( ! _w1 & give to ea* ( !m a seismicity or e>?quake frequ5cy p] unit area "o-?ird ( t 9 ,japan1 ! conclusion arriv$ at is t consid]able areas ( our planet are on ! av]age %ak5 e half-h\r4 ,volcanoes & e>?quakes4 ,! k :i* we n[ possess respect+ ! localities :]e e>?quakes are frequ5t & ! =ms ( ! foci f :i* !y h spread1 enables u to speak def9itely respect+ ! orig9at+ causes ( _m ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,x is f\nd1 = example1 t al?\gh 9 _m c\ntries !re may be displays ( volcanic & seismic activity tak+ place almo/ side by side1 x is only r>ely t !re is direct relation%ip betwe5 ! two4 ,n[ & !n1 h[ev]1 be=e a volcano breaks into eruption !re may be a few ineffectual ef=ts to =m a v5t1 ea* ( :i* is accompani$ by no m ?an a slight local %ak+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,?is is true ev5 = ! l>ge/ & mo/ viol5t eruptions1 :5 m\nta9s h ) practically a s+le ef=t bl[n (f _! heads & %\ld]s4 ,?us ! e>?quake :i* accompani$ ! eruption ( ,b&aisan1 9 c5tral ,japan1 9 #ahhh 0 felt only ov] a radius ( #be m4 ,! analyses ( ! seismic regi/]s ( ,japan cle>ly indicate t comp>atively few %ak+s orig9ate ne> to ! volcanoes ( ! c\ntry1 ! majority ( !m1 l ^? ( _m o!r c\ntries1 com+ f regions :]e volcanic rocks are abs5t4 ,! greate/ numb] spread inl& f ! ,pacific seabo>d1 ! movem5t becom+ m & m feeble z x approa*es ! backbone ( ! c\ntry1 :i* is drill$ ) num]\s volcanic v5ts4 ,:at is true = ,japan is g5]ally true = ! we/]n coa/s ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,orig9 ( e>?quakes4 ,speak+ broadly1 e>?quakes are mo/ frequ5t along ! /eep] flexures 9 ! e>?'s surface1 & 9 ^? regions :]e !re is geological evid5ce to %[ t sl[ secul> movem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/ are possibly yet 9 progress4 ,) a unit di/ance ( #b degrees1 or #abj geographical m41 we f9d t ! slopes runn+ ea/w>ds f ! highl&s ( ,japan & we/w>ds f ! ,&ean ridges d[n into ! ,pacific v>y f #a 9 #bj to #a 9 #cj1 & x is on ! faces or ne> to ! bottom ( ^! slopes t seismic ef=ts are frequ5t4 ,! slopes runn+ f ,au/ralia1 ea/]n ,am]ica & we/]n ,europe into ! neighb\r+ oceans v>y betwe5 #a 9 #gj & #a 9 #bej1 & 9 ^! regions e>?quakes are ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,! seismic activity met ) 9 ! ,himalayas & ! ,alps f9ds its be/ explanation 9 ! fact t ^! m\nta9s are geologically rec5t1 & !re are no reasons to d\bt t ! =ces :i* br\ght _! folds into exi/5ce are yet 9 action4 ,?is peculi> association ( e>?quakes ) pron\nc$ topographical configuration & c]ta9 geological conditions evid5tly indicates t ! orig9 ( _m ( !m is connect$ ) rock fold+4 ,inasmu* z c]ta9 l>ge e>?quakes h be5 accompani$ by rock fracture1 z = example 9 #ahia1 :5 9 c5tral ,japan a fault "s #ej m4 9 l5g? 0 creat$1 :il/ ! orig9s ( o!rs h be5 di/9ctly trac$ to ! l9e ( an exi/+ fault or its cont9uation1 we may conclude t ! majority ( e>?quakes are spasmodic accel]ations 9 ! secul> movem5ts :i* are creat+ 7& 9 "s in/ances possibly oblit]at+7 ! m prom95t features ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,^! secul> movem5ts1 :i* include upheavals1 subsid5ces1 horizontal displacem5ts--all ( :i* are expla9$ on ! assumption ( a cru/ seek+ support on a nucleus gradually contract+ by loss ( heat1 are collectively ref]r$ to z bradyseismical 7,greek3 bradys1 sl[7 movem5ts4 ,to ^! may be add$ movem5ts directly attributable to ! influ5ce ( gravity4 ,sub-oceanic di/ricts 9 a /ate ( seismic /ra9 may be s f> load$ by ! accumulation ( s$im5ts t g5tle b5d+ may be accompani$ by sudd5 yield+s4 ,?is possibly acc\nts = ! frequ5cy ( e>?quakes (f ! m\? ( ! ,tonegawa on ! ea/]n side ( ,japan4 ,! di/ortions s frequ5tly obs]v$ 9 fossils & pebbles1 ! v>y+ ?ickness ( contort$ /rata1 & ! creep 9 coal-m9es1 toge!r ) o!r ph5om5a1 indicate t rocks may fl[4 ,obs]vations ( ?is nature lead to ! supposition t high plateau-l regions may be gradually subsid+ "u ! influ5ce ( _! own weight1 & t ! process ( settlem5t may f "t to "t be spasmodic 9 its "*4 ,:e!r ! e>?quakes :i* orig9ate r\nd ! subm]g$ basal fronti]s ( ! cont95ts b\nd+ ! ,pacific are ev] attributable to su* activities1 x is impossible to say4 ,all t we "k ) c]ta9ty is t !y are sometimes accompani$ by su* a va/ displacem5t ( mat]ial t ! ocean has be5 set into a /ate ( oscillation = p]iods ( #bd h\rs1 t 9 "s in/ances !re h be5 m>k$ *anges 9 dep?1 & t enorm\s sub-oceanic l&slips h occurr$4 ,^! ph5om5a are1 h[ev]1 equally well expla9$ on ! assumption ( sudd5 fault+ accompani$ by viol5t %ak+1 :i* w\ld dislodge /eeply incl9$ b$s ( mat]ial b5ea? ! ocean z x does ^u ! l&4 ,two types ( e>?quake motion4 ,al?\gh ! proximate cause ( e>?quake motion is trac$ to sudd5 yield+s 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? br\ght ab\t by "s =m ( bradyseismical action1 ! exi/5ce ( at lea/ two di/9ct types ( seismic motion indicates t ! me*anical conditions accompany+ ! fractur+ ( rocks are n always id5tical4 #ij or #ie ( ! e>?quakes :i* c be record$ consi/ ( ela/ic or quasi-ela/ic vibrations4 ,! rema9d]1 includ+ ! l>ge e>?quakes1 n only exhibit ! ela/ic movem5ts1 b are accompani$ by surface undulations :i* are propagat$ mo/ c]ta9ly = "s hundr$s ( miles r\nd _! orig91 & !n z horizontal movem5ts sweep ov] ! :ole surface ( ! globe4 ,! =m] ( ^! may accompany ! =mation ( a new fault or ! sudd5 r5ewal ( movem5t along an old "o2 !y are crack+ or r5d+ effects1 )\t any great displacem5t4 ,! latt] are probably fractur+s accompani$ by v]tical & horizontal displacem5ts ( masses ( ! e>?'s cru/ suffici5tly great to set up ! obs]v$ surface undulations4 ,^! %ocks are s frequ5tly foll[$ a few m9utes lat] by di/urbances1 :i* f _! simil>ity to ! movem5ts :i* h prec$$ !m may be call$ e>?quake e*oes1 t we are l$ to ! speculation t we are "h deal+ ) ! cav+-9 ( ill-support$ portions ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ! waves f :i* are radiat$ to b\nd>ies & !n return$ to _! orig9 to coalesce & give rise to a second impulse n unlike ! prim>y4 ,succe$+ ! fir/ repetition ( motion record$ by ! seismograph !re is (t5 a rhy?mical repetition ( simil> wave gr\ps1 sugge/+ ! exi/5ce )9 our e>? ( ph5om5a ak9 to multiple e*oes4 ,"* ( e>?quake motion4 ,! introduction ( new me?ods into seismometry quickly revolutioniz$ our ideas respect+ ! "* ( e>?quake motion4 ,al?\gh an e>?quake may be /rongly felt )9 a di/ance ( #ej m4 f its orig91 & al?\gh ! movem5ts 9 ! upp] /oreys ( build+s )9 ! %ak5 area may be l>ge1 ! actual range ( ! horizontal motion ( ! gr\nd is usually less ?an #a_/aj ( an in*4 ,) su* e>?quakes ord9>y seismographs = record+ v]tical motion d n %[ any di/urbance4 ,:5 ! movem5t rea*es #a_/b 94 x becomes dang]\s1 & a back-&-=? movem5t ( an in* is usually accompani$ by de/ructive effects4 ,9 ?is latt] case ! amplitude ( ! v]tical record :i* indicates ! exi/5ce ( surface waves w v>y betwe5 #a_/b & #a_/ajj ( an in*4 ,9 ! e>?quake :i* deva/at$ c5tral ,japan on ! #bf? ( ,octob] #ahia1 ne>ly e build+ )9 ! epifocal di/rict fell1 ! gr\nd 0 fissur$1 =e/s slipp$ d[n f m\nta9 sides to dam up valleys1 :il/ ! valleys !mselves 7 p]man5tly compress$4 ,! horizontal movem5ts seem to h rea*$ #i 94 or #a ft41 & ! surface undulations 7 visible to ! eye4 ,p]iod & duration4 ,! rapidity ) :i* ! movem5ts are p]=m$ v>ies ?r\gh\t a di/urbance4 ,a typical e>?quake usually comm5ces ) m9ute ela/ic vibrations1 ! p]iods ( :i* v>y betwe5 #a_/e & #a_/bj ( a second4 ,^! are record$ by seismographs1 & are notic$ by c]ta9 ( ! l[] animals l pheasants1 :i* be=e ! occurr5ce ( movem5t p]ceptible to human be+s scream z if al>m$4 ,:5 an e>?quake is prec$$ by a s\nd we h evid5ce ( prelim9>y tremors ev5 m rapid ?an ^? record$ by seismographs4 ,foll[+ ^! precursors !re is a %ock or %ocks1 ! p]iod ( :i* w be #a or #b seconds4 ,f ?is climax ! movem5ts1 al?\gh irregul> 9 "*1 become sl[] & small] until f9ally !y are imp]ceptible4 ,! duration ( a small e>?quake usually v>ies f a few seconds to a m9ute1 b l>ge e>?quakes1 :i* are accompani$ by surface undulations1 may be felt = #b or #c m9utes1 :il/ an ord9>y seismograph indicates a duration ( f #f to #ab m9utes4 ,a free horizontal p5dulum tells u t ) sev]e e>?quakes ! gr\nd comes to re/ by a s]ies ( m or less rhy?mical surg+s1 cont9u+ ov] #a or #b h\rs4 ,al?\gh ! maximum displacem5t has a def9ite direction1 ! successive vibrations are frequ5tly p]=m$ 9 _m diff]5t azimu?s4 ,! pr$om9at+ direction at a giv5 /ation 9 c]ta9 in/ances is app>5tly at "r angles to ! /rike ( ! neighb\r+ /rata1 ?is be+ ! direction ( easie/ yield+4 ,velocity4 ,e>?quake motion z record$ at /ations sev]al ?\s&s ( miles di/ant f its orig9 exhibits *>act]i/ics /rik+ly diff]5t f ^? j describ$4 ,! precursors n[ %[ p]iods ( f #a to #e seconds1 :il/ ! l>ge/ movem5ts correspond+ to ! %ocks may h p]iods ( f #bj to #dj seconds4 ,! int]val ( "t by :i* ! fir/ tremors h outrac$ ! maximum movem5t has also become great]4 ,)9 a few hundr$s ( miles f an orig9 ?is int]val increases /eadily1 ! velocity ( propagation ( ! fir/ movem5ts be+ ab\t #b km4 p] second1 :il/ t ( ! latt] may be tak5 at ab\t #a4f km4 p] second4 ,beyond ?is di/ance ! velocity ( transmission ( ! fir/ movem5ts rapidly increases1 & = great di/ances1 z = example f ,japan to ,engl&1 x is high] ?an we %\ld expect = waves ( compression pass+ ?r\gh /eel or glass4 ,?is obs]vation precludes ! idea t ^! prelim9>y tremors h travell$ ?r\gh ! het]og5e\s cru/ ( ! e>?1 & s9ce ! av]age velocity ( _! transmission increases ) ! l5g? ( ! pa? along :i* !y h travell$1 & we b r>ely obta9 c]ta9 evid5ce t a seismograph has be5 di/urb$ by waves :i* h rea*$ x by travell+ 9 opposite directions r\nd ! _w1 we are l$ to ! conclusion t e>?quake precursors pass ?r\gh our e>? & n r\nd its surface4 ,! foll[+ table relat+ to e>?quakes1 :i* orig9at$ (f ! coa/ ( ,borneo on ! #bj? & #bg? ( ,septemb] #ahig1 is illu/rative ( ! velocities "h consid]$3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,di/ance ,velocity _/,av]age ,localities f 9 kms4 _/dep? ( orig9 p] sec4 if _/ *ord 9 9 degrees4 on *ord4 #a_/d ,v kms4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,nicolaieff #ha deg4 #h4a #h4j ,potsdam #ib deg4 #h4d #i4a ,catania1 ,is*ia1 ,rocca di ,papa1 ,rome #if deg4 #i4j #i4e ,isle ( ,wight #ajc deg4 #i4h #aj4b ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,! *ords ref]r$ to "h are ^? jo9+ ! e>?quake orig9s & di/ant obs]v+ /ations1 & x w be not$ t "o-qu>t] ( ! squ>e root ( ! av]age dep?s at :i* ^! run closely corresponds to obs]v$ av]age velocities if wave pa?s foll[$ *ords4 ,?is increase ( velocity ) av]age dep? %[s t ! pa?s foll[$ ?r\gh ! e>? mu/ be curv$ ) _! convexity t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,^! obs]vations d n directly tell u to :at ext5t a true wave pa? is deflect$ f ! direction ( a *ord1 b !y sugge/ z an extremely plausible assumption t ! squ>e ( ! spe$ is a l9e> function ( ! dep? bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,) ?is assumption ,dr ,c4,g4 ,knott %[s t ! squ>e ( ! spe$ 7v squ>$7 c be express$ l9e>ly 9 t]ms ( ! av]age dep? ( ! *ord d1 ?us3 v squ>$ #b4i 4#jbf d1 ! units be+ miles & seconds4 ,! =mula applies ) fair accuracy to mod]ate & high values ( d1 b x gives too high a value = %ort *ords4 ,x foll[s t ! squ>e ( ! spe$ increases #j4i p] mile ( desc5t 9 ! e>?4 ,! conclusion we arrive at is t ! prelim9>y tremors :i* pass ?r\gh ! e>? d s 9 ! vic9ity ( _! orig9 at ! rate ( almo/ #b4c km4 p] second4 ,?is velocity increases z ! wave pa? plunges d[nw>ds1 atta9+ 9 ! c5tral regions a velocity ( #af to #ag kms41 :il/ ! highe/ av]age velocity :i* is across a diamet] lies betwe5 #aj & #ab kms4 p] second4 ,! l>ge surface waves radiat+ f an orig9 to a di/ant place h velocities ly+ betwe5 #a4f & #d kms4 p] second1 & x has be5 obs]v$ t :5 ! high] velocity has be5 not$ ?is ref]s to an obs]vation at a /ation v remote f ! orig94 ,"o explanation ( ?is is ! assumption t only v l>ge waves indicat+ a l>ge initial di/urbance are capable ( travell+ to great di/ances1 & z po9t$ out by ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 l>ge waves "u ! influ5ce ( gravity w travel fa/] ?an small waves4 ,^! waves 7:i* may be gravitational or di/ortional7 are record$ z sl[ tilt+s ( ! gr\nd measur$ by angles ( #j4e to #aj or #ae seconds ( arc1 or z horizontal displacem5ts ( #j4e or sev]al millimetres4 ,_! calculat$ l5g?s h rea*$ #ej kms4 7#ca m474 ,frequ5cy4 ,9 ! section ( ?is article relat+ to ! cause ( e>?quakes a little has be5 said ab\t _! frequ5cy or ! numb] ( times ^! ph5om5a are repeat$ dur+ a giv5 int]val ( "t4 ,x has be5 %[n t all c\ntries are v (t5 mov$ by e>?quakes :i* h orig9at$ at great di/ances4 ,great ,brita91 = example1 is cross$ ab\t #ajj times a ye> by e>?quake waves hav+ durations ( f #c m9utes to #c h\rs1 :il/ ! vibratory motions :i* orig9ate 9 t c\ntry are n only small b ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! _w's hi/ory1 because ! contraction ( its nucleus 0 m rapid ?an x is at pres5t1 x is commonly inf]r$ t ph5om5a accompany+ bradyseismical activity mu/ h be5 m pron\nc$ & h %[n !mselves ^u a gr&] scale ?an !y d at ! pres5t "t4 ,n[1 al?\gh ! records ( our rocks only c>ry u back ov] a c]ta9 portion ( ?is hi/ory1 !y c]ta9ly repres5t an int]val ( "t suffici5tly long to furni% "s evid5ce ( su* enfeeblem5t if x ev] exi/$4 ,s f> f ?is be+ ! case1 h[ev]1 we meet ) di/9ct evid5ces 9 ! lat] *apt]s ( geological hi/ory ( plutonic awak5+s mu* m viol5t ?an ^? record$ at its comm5cem5t4 ,dur+ ,palaeozoic times _m m\nta9 ranges 7 =m$1 & accompany+ ^! orog5ic processes !re 0 m>k$ volcanic activity4 ,9 ! succe$+ ,second>y p]iod plutonic =ces 7 quiesc5t1 b dur+ ! =mation ( ! e>ly ,t]ti>ies1 :5 "s ( ! l>ge/ m\nta9 ranges 7 creat$1 !y awoke ) a vig\r great] ?an _h ev] be5 previ\sly exhibit$4 ,at ?is p]iod x is n improbable t ,scotl& 0 z rem>kable = its volcanoes & its e>?quakes z ,japan is at ! pres5t day4 ,if ! /atem5t relat+ to ! g5]al decrease 9 bradyseismical *anges ref]r$ m]ely to _! frequ5cy1 & omitt$ ref]5ce to _! magnitude1 ! views ( ! geologi/ & physici/ might h>monize4 ,"o explanation = ?is div]g5ce ( op9ion may re/ on ! fact t too little att5tion has be5 direct$ to all ! conditions :i* accompany ! adaptation ( ! e>?'s cru/ to its %r9k+ nucleus4 ,z ! latt] gr[s small] ! puck]+s & fold+s ( ! =m] %\ld gr[ l>g]4 ,ea* succe$+ geological epo* %\ld be *>act]iz$ by m\nta9 =mations m /up5d\s ?an ^? :i* prec$$ !m1 :il/ ! fractur+1 dislocation1 cav+-9 ( ill-support$ regions1 & creation ( l9es ( fre$om = ! exhibition ( volcanic activity :i* w\ld accompany ^! *anges1 w\ld gr[ 9 magnitude4 ,! writt5 records ( _m c\ntries reflect b on a small] scale ! cry/alliz$ records 9 _! hills4 ,9 #ahdd1 at ,comrie1 9 ,p]?%ire1 z _m z twelve e>?quakes 7 record$ 9 a s+le mon?1 :il/ n[ !re are b "o or two p] ye>4 ,e>?quake frequ5cy v>ies ) "t4 ,a di/rict "u ! influ5ce ( hypog5ic activities rea*es a condition ( seismic /ra9 :i* usually is reliev$ rapidly at fir/1 b subsequ5tly m sl[ly4 ,! small %ocks :i* foll[ an initial l>ge di/urbance are kn[n z aft]-%ocks4 ,! fir/ %ock :i* 9 #ahia deva/at$ c5tral ,japan 0 accompani$ by ! =mation ( a l>ge fault1 & ! #ccfd small %ocks :i* succe$$ ?is dur+ ! foll[+ two ye>s are reg>d$ z due to int]mitt5t settlem5ts ( disjo9t$ mat]ial4 ,! decreas+ frequ5cy ) :i* aft]-%ocks occur may be repres5t$ by a curve4 ,dr ,f4 ,omori po9ts out t ! cont9uation ( su* a curve gives ! means ( det]m9+ ! l5g? ( "t :i* w probably elapse be=e ! region to :i* x ref]s w return to ! same seismic quiesc5ce t x _h prior to ! initial di/urbance4 ,p]iodicity4 ,! positive results t we h respect+ ! p]iodicity ( e>?quakes are b few4 ,g5]ally e>?quakes are some:at m frequ5t dur+ w9t] ?an dur+ summ]1 & ?is applies to bo? ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es4 ,! annual p]iodicity1 :i*1 h[ev]1 does n %[ itself if only de/ructive e>?quakes are consid]$1 f9ds an explanation1 accord+ to ,dr ,knott1 9 ! annual p]iodicity ( long-cont9u$ /resses1 z = example ^? due to ! accumulation ( sn[ & to b>ometric gradi5ts4 ,= c]ta9 e>?quake regions !re appe>s to be a di/9ct semi-annual p]iod = :i* no satisfactory explanation has yet be5 adduc$4 ,al?\gh ! elaborate regi/]s ( ,japan1 :i* h enabl$ u to gr\p e>?quakes accord+ to _! respective orig9s & v>y+ int5sities1 & to sep>ate aft]-%ocks f initial di/urbances1 h be5 subject$ by ,dr ,knott to mo/ c>eful analysis1 ) ! object ( discov]+ p]iodicities connect$ ) ! ebb & fl[ ( ! tides1 ! lun> day or lun> mon?s1 no?+ ( m>k$ "* has be5 f\nd4 ,c]ta9ly !re is slight evid5ce ( a p]iodicity connect$ ) ! times ( conjunction & opposition ( ! sun & moon1 & a maximum frequ5cy ne> ! "t ( p]igee1 b ! effect ( lun> /resses is comp>atively insignificant4 ,ord9>y e>?quakes1 & especially aft]-%ocks1 %[ a diurnal p]iod1 b we _c say t !re are m e>?quakes dur+ ! night ?an dur+ ! day4 ,magnetic ph5om5a4 ,_m exp]im5ts & inve/igations h be5 made to det]m9e a possible relation%ip betwe5 e>?quakes & electrical ph5om5a1 b beyond draw+ att5tion to ! fact t lum9\s appe>ances may accompany ! friction ( mov+ masses ( rock1 & t a tempor>y curr5t may be e/abli%$ 9 a l9e by ! di/urbance ( an e>?-plate1 ^! inquiries h yield$ b little ( importance4 ,! inquiries respect+ a possible relation%ip betwe5 adju/m5ts s frequ5tly tak+ place )9 & b5ea? t region call$ ! cru/ ( ! e>? & magnetic ph5om5a are1 h[ev]1 ( a m promis+ nature4 ,we h se5 t at or ne> ! orig9 ( e>?quakes :i* = sev]al h\rs di/urb cont95ts1 & occasionally cause oceans to oscillate = long] p]iods1 we sometimes h direct evid5ce ( ! bodily displacem5t ( _m cubic miles ( mat]ial4 ,:5 ?is mat]ial is volcanic x is almo/ inv>iably magnetic1 & we p]ceive 9 its sudd5 re>rangem5t causes :i* %\ld produce magnetic effects )9 an epifocal di/rict4 ,9 ,japan1 :]e att5tion is be+ direct$ to ph5om5a ( ?is description1 n only h su* effects be5 obs]v$1 b unusual magnetic di/urbances h be5 not$ prior to ! occurr5ce ( l>ge e>?quakes4 ,^! may1 ( c\rse1 be reg>d$ z m]e co9cid5ces1 b :5 we consid] volcanic & seismic activities z evid5ces ( physical & *emical *anges1 toge!r ) me*anical displacem5ts ( a magnetic magma1 x is reasonable to suppose t !y %\ld h at lea/ a local influ5ce ^u magnetic ne$les4 ,ano!r =m ( di/urbance to :i* magnetic ne$les are subject$ is t :i* accompanies ! passage ( l>ge e>?-waves b5ea? c]ta9 obs]vatories situat$ at great di/ances f e>?quake orig9s4 ,at ,utre*t1 ,potsdam & ,wilhelm%av5 ! magnetographs are frequ5tly di/urb$ by seismic waves1 :il/ at _m o!r ,european obs]vatories su* effects are abs5t or only b>ely appreciable4 ,to expla9 ^! m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ! behavi\r ( magnetic ne$les at diff]5t /ations we are at pres5t only 9 a position to =mulate hypo!ses4 ,!y may be due to ! fact t diff]5t ne$les h diff]5t p]iodic times ( oscillation2 x is possible t at "o obs]vatory ! me*anical movem5ts ( ! gr\nd are mu* great] ?an at o!rs2 we may speculate on ! exi/5ce ( mat]ials b5ea? & ar\nd v>i\s obs]vatories :i* are diff]5t 9 _! magnetic *>act]s2 &1 la/ly1 we may picture a cru/ ( v>y+ ?ickness1 :i* f "t to "t is caus$ to rise & fall ^u a magnetic magma1 ! places ne>e/ to ?is be+ ! mo/ di/urb$4 ,effects on ! human m9d4 ,a subject to :i* b little att5tion has be5 direct$ is ! effect :i* displays ( seismic & volcanic activities h _h ^u ! human m9d4 ,! effects are di/9ctly dual & opposite 9 "*4 ,9 c\ntries l ,engl&1 :]e e>?quakes are seldom exp]i5c$1 ! prevail+ idea is t !y are associat$ ) all t is baneful4 ,= c]ta9 e>?quakes1 :i* =tunately are less ?an #a ( ^? :i* are annually record$1 ?is is p>tially true4 ,a disa/r\s %ock may unn]ve a :ole community4 ,effects ( ?is nature1 h[ev]1 diff] 9 a m>k$ mann] ) diff]5t nationalities4 ,aft] ! %ock ( #ahia1 :5 ,japan lo/ #iifj ( its inhabitants1 among/ ! w\nd$ indications ( m5tal excitem5t 7 %[n 9 sp9al & o!r tr\ble4 ,not)/&+ ! ligh!>t$ness ( ?is p>ticul> nation1 x is difficult to imag9e t ! long s]ies ( seismic effects *ronicl$ 9 ,japanese hi/ory1 :i* culm9at$ 9 #ahif 9 ! loss ( #bi1jjj lives by sea-waves1 has be5 )\t "s effect ^u its m5tal & moral "*4 ,sev]al e>?quakes are annually commemorat$ by special s]vices at temples4 ,9 bygone times gov]nm5ts h recogniz$ e>?quakes z visitations ( an angry deity1 :om !y h endeav\r$ to appease by repeal+ /r+5t laws & taxes4 ,9 o!r c\ntries ! s]mons :i* h be5 prea*$ to %[ t ! trembl+s ( ! _w 7 visitations consequ5t on impiety1 & ! pray]s :i* h be5 =mulat$ to w>d (f disa/]s 9 ! future1 f> exce$ 9 numb] ! e>?quakes :i* gave rise to !m4 ,9 #agee _m ( ! ,engli% cl]gy held ! view t ,lisbon 0 de/roy$ because its inhabitants 7 ,ca?olics1 :il/ ! survivors f t disa/] attribut$ _! mis=tune to ! fact t !y _h tol]at$ a few ,prote/ant h]etics 9 _! mid/4 ,to avoid a recurr5ce ( disa/] c]ta9 ( ^! 7 baptiz$ by =ce4 ,9 ! my?s relat+ to und]gr\nd mon/]s & p]sonages t are said to be ! cause ( e>?quakes we see ! direct effects :i* exhibitions ( seismic & volcanic activity h produc$ ^u ! imag9ation4 ,! beliefs1 or m prop]ly1 p]haps1 ! poetical fancies1 ?us eng5d]$ h exhibit$ !mselves 9 v>i\s =ms4 ,b5ea? ,japan !re is said to be a catfi%1 :i* 9 o!r c\ntries is replac$ by a mole1 a hog1 an elephant or o!r liv+ creature1 :i* :5 x is re/less %akes ! globe4 ,! ,kam*adales picture a subt]ranean deity call$ ,tuil1 :o 9 ,sc&9avian my?ology is repres5t$ by ! evil g5ius ,loki4 ,we h only to ?9k ( ! ref]5ce 9 ! ,decalogue =bidd+ ! mak+ ( grav5 images ( t :i* is 9 ! e>? b5ea?1 to see 9 e>ly ,biblical hi/ory evid5ce ( a subt]ranean my?ology2 & x seems probable t ! same causes :i* l$ to ! creation ( ,pluto1 ,vulcan & ,poseidon gave rise to practices condemn$ by ,moses4 ,build+ to )/& e>?quakes4 ,p]haps ! greate/ practical b5efits d]iv$ f seismological inve/igations relate to important *anges & new pr9ciples :i* h be5 introduc$ into ! arts ( ! eng9e] & build] :5 con/ruct+ 9 e>?quake c\ntries4 ,! new rules & =mulae1 r ?an be+ !oretical d$uctions f hypo!ses1 are ! outcome ( obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,true measures ( e>?quake motion h be5 giv5 to u by mod]n seismomet]s1 ) ! result t seismic de/ructivity c be accurately express$ 9 me*anical units4 ,f obs]vation we n[ "k ! greate/ accel]ation & maximum velocity ( an e>? p>ticle likely to be enc\nt]$2 & ^! are measures ( ! de/ructivity4 ,! eng9e] is !re=e deal+ ) kn[n =ces1 & he has to be> 9 m9d t ^! are *iefly appli$ 9 a horizontal direction4 ,a =mula connect+ ! accel]ation requisite to ov]turn bodies ( diff]5t dim5sions has be5 giv54 ,! accel]ation :i* w fracture or %att] a column firmly fix$ at its f\ndation to ! mov+ e>? may be express$ z foll[s3-- #a g,f,a,b a -- ----1 #f fw :]e a ! accel]ation p] sec4 p] sec4 ,f ! =ce ( cohesion1 or =ce p] unit surface1 :i* :5 gradually appli$ produces fracture4 ,a area ( base fractur$4 ,b ?ickness ( ! column4 f height ( c5tre ( gravity ( column above ! fractur$ base4 w ! weight ( ! portion brok5 (f4 ,) ?is =mula & its d]ivatives we are enabl$ to /ate ! height to :i* a wall1 = example1 may be built capable ( resi/+ any assum$ accel]ation4 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t yield+ fir/ %[s itself at ! base ( a pi]1 a wall or a build+1 & x is !re=e cle> t ! l[] portion ( su* /ructures %\ld be ( great] dim5sions or /rong] ?an t above4 ,pi]s hav+ ^! increas$ dim5sions bel[1 & tap]+ upw>ds 9 a prop] mann]1 s t e horizontal section is suffici5tly /rong to resi/ ! effects ( ! in]tia ( its sup]/ructure1 are employ$ to c>ry railways 9 ,japan4 ,9 t c\ntry ca/-iron pi]s are ?+s ( ! pa/1 :il/ pi]s ( masonry1 toge!r ) _! f\ndations1 no long] foll[ ! rules ( ord9>y eng9e]+ practice4 ,aft] flood1 fire1 e>?quake1 or :5 opportunity pres5ts itself1 *anges are introduc$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ord9>y build+s4 ,9 a s-call$ e>?quake-pro( h\se1 al?\gh ext]nally x is simil> to o!r dwell+s1 we f9d raft]s runn+ f ! ridge pole to ! floor sills1 an exce$+ly light ro(1 iron /raps & sockets replac+ mortices & t5ons1 & _m o!r dep>tures f ord9>y rules4 ,masonry ar*es = bridges or ar*$ op5+s 9 walls 7unless protect$ by l9tels71 heavy gables1 ornam5tal cop+s1 capp+s = *imneys1 h by _! repeat$ failure %[n t !y are undesirable features = con/ruction 9 e>?quake c\ntries4 ,z sites = build+s x is well to avoid s(t gr\nd1 on :i* ! movem5t is always great] ?an on h>d gr\nd4 ,excessive movem5t also takes place along ! face ( unsupport$ op5+s1 & = ?is reason ! edges ( sc>ps1 bluffs1 cutt+s & riv]-banks are localities to be avoid$4 ,9 %ort1 ! rules & precautions :i* h to be recogniz$ s z to avoid or mitigate ! effects ( e>?quake movem5t are s num]\s t /ud5ts ( eng9e]+ & ar*itecture 9 ,japan receive a special c\rse ( lectures on ?is subject4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t a l>ge e>?quake may entail a loss ( life great] ?an t :i* takes place 9 _m w>s1 & t = ! recon/ruction ( ord9>y build+s1 factories & public works an exp5diture ( sev]al million p\nds /]l+ is requir$1 ! importance ( ^! /udies _c be ov]rat$4 ,sev]e e>?quakes are =tunately unkn[n 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 b we h simply to turn our eyes to e>?quake-%ak5 colonies & l&s 9 close comm]cial t\* ) ,great ,brita9 to realize ! importance ( mitigat+ su* disa/]s z mu* z possible1 & any endeav\r to obviate ! :olesale de/ruction ( life %\ld appeal to ! civiliz$ communities ( ! _w4 ,applications ( seismometry4 ,an unexpect$ application ( seismometry has be5 to record ! vibration ( railway tra9s1 bridges & /eam%ips4 ,an in/rum5t ( suitable con/ruction w give records ( ! m or less viol5t jolt+ & vibratory movem5ts ( a tra91 & s localize irregul>ities due to *anges 9 ! "* ( balla/ & sleep]s1 to v>iation 9 gauge1 c4 ,an in/rum5t plac$ on a locomotive ?r[s consid]able light ^u ! effects due to ! me?ods ( balanc+ ! :eels1 & by alt]ations 9 ?is respect a sav+ ( fuel ( f #a to #e lb4 ( coal p] mile p] locomotive has sometimes be5 effect$4 ,by mapp+ ! c5tres f :i* e>?quakes orig9ate (f ! coa/ ( ,japan1 we h n only det]m9$ di/ricts :]e geological activity is pron\nc$1 b h plac$ be=e ! cable eng9e] well-def9$ localities :i* x is advisable to avoid2 & 9 ! records ( unfelt e>?quakes :i* orig9ate f> f l& simil> in=mation is be+ collect$ = ! deep] p>ts ( ! oceans4 ,occasionally ^! records h almo/ imm$iately made cle> ! cause ( a cable failure4 ,f lack ( su* in=mation 9 #ahhh1 :5 ! cables connect+ ,au/ralia ) ! out] _w 7 simultane\sly brok51 ! sudd5 isolation 0 reg>d$ z a possible op]ation ( w>1 & ! coloni/s call$ out _! naval & milit>y res]ves4 ,records ( e>?quakes orig9at+ at great di/ances h also frequ5tly enabl$ u to anticipate1 to correct1 to ext5d1 or to disprove telegraphic acc\nts ( ! disa/]s4 ,:atev] in=mation a seismogram may give is c]ta91 :il/ ! in=mation ga!r$ f telegrams may 9 ! process ( transit become exagg]at$ or m9imiz$4 ,o!rwise unacc\ntable di/urbances 9 records f magnetographs1 b>ographs & o!r in/rum5ts employ$ 9 obs]vatories are frequ5tly expla9$ by ref]5ce to ! traces yield$ by seismomet]s4 ,p]haps ! greate/ triumph 9 seismological inve/igation has be5 ! det]m9ation ( ! v>y+ rates at :i* motion is propagat$ ?r\gh ! _w4 ,^! measurem5ts h already ?r[n new light ^u its effective rigidity1 & if we assume t ! d5sity ( ! e>? increases uni=mly f its surface t[>ds its c5tre1 s t its mean d5sity is #e4e1 !n1 accord+ to ,knott1 ! coeffici5t ( ela/icity :i* gov]ns ! transmission ( prelim9>y tremors ( an e>?quake increases at a rate ( ne>ly #a4b p] mile ( desc5t4 7,j4 ,mi47 ,,au?orities4--,j4 ,milne1 ,seismology 7,london1 #ahih71 ,e>?quakes 7,london1 #ahih71 ,bak]ian ,lecture1 ,rec5t ,advances 9 ,seismology1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #gg1 p4 #cfe2 ,j4,a4 ,ew+1 ,memoir on ,e>?quake ,measurem5t 7,tokyo1 #ahhc72 ,c4,e4 ,dutton1 ,e>?quakes 9 ! ,light ( ! ,new ,seismology 7,london1 #aijd72 ,! ,*>le/on ,e>?quake ( ,aug4 #ca1 #ahhf1 ,n9? ,annual ,report ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,geological ,survey1 #ahhi2 ,w4,h4 ,hobbs1 ,e>?quakes1 an ,introduction to ,seismic ,geology 7,london1 #aijh71 ,! ,san ,francisco ,e>?quake & ,fire1 #aijf1 ,bull4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,no4 #cbd2 ,! ,cali=nia ,e>?quake ( ,ap4 #ah1 #aijf1 ,rep4 ,/ate ,e>?q4 ,com4 7,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #aijh72 ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 ,report on ! ,great ,e>?quake ( #ab ,june #ahig1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,india1 xxix4 #ahii1 ,on ! ,propagation ( ,e>?quake ,motion to great ,di/ances1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aijj1 ,a1 vol4 #aid1 p4 #ace1 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,int]ior ( ! ,e>? z reveal$ by ,e>?quakes1 ,qu>4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #fb1 p4 #def2 #aijg1 #fc1 p4 #cdd2 ,c4 ,davison1 ,a ,/udy ( ,rec5t ,e>?quakes 7,london1 #aije72 ,! ,h]e=d ,e>?quake ( ,decemb] #ag1 #ahif 7,birm+ham1 #ahii71 ,! ,inve/igation ( ,e>?quakes1 ,beitraege z4 ,geophysik1 ,bd4 ix41 #aijh1 p4 #bja1 & pap]s on ,briti% e>?quakes 9 ,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc42 ,t4,j4,j4 ,see1 ,! ,cause ( ,e>?quakes1 ,m\nta9 ,=mation & ,k9dr$ ,ph5om5a connect$ ) ! ,physics ( ! ,e>?1 ,proc4 ,am]4 ,phil4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #de1 p4 #bgc2 ,f4 ,fre*1 ,erdbeb5 und ,gebirgsbau1 ,pet]mann's ,mitteilung51 ,bd4 #ec1 #aijg1 p4 #bde 7) maps72 ,c4,g4 ,knott1 ,! ,physics ( ,e>?quake ,ph5om5a 7,ox=d1 #aijh72 ,comte ,f4 de ,montessus de ,ballore1 ,les ,tremblem5ts de t]re3 geographie seismologique 7,p>is1 #aijf71 ,la ,sci5ce seismologique 7#aijg72 ,transactions ( ! ,seismological ,society ( ,japan2 ,seismological ,j\rnal 7,yokohama72 ,bollett9o della ,societa ,sismologica ,italiana 7,rome72 ,reports ( ! ,briti% ,association1 conta9+ ! annual reports ( ! ,committee = ,seismological ,inve/igations2 pap]s 9 ! ,beitraege zur ,geophysik & ! ,erga5zungsba5de4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! publications = #ahhj-ahib 7 t]m$ ! ,transactions ( ! ,seismological ,society ( ,japan1 & = #ahic-ahie ! ,seismological ,j\rnal ( ,japan4 ,! obs]vations are n[ publi%$ by ! ,e>?quake ,inve/igation ,committee ( ,japan1 & edit$ by ,f4 ,omori1 pr(essor ( seismology at ! univ]sity ( ,tokyo4 #b ,! *ief ,italian /ation is at ,rocca di ,papa ne> ,rome4 ,x is equipp$ ) delicate in/rum5ts design$ by its director1 ,giovanni ,agam5none4 ,! records s9ce #ahie are publi%$ 9 ! ,bollett9o della ,societa ,sismologica ,italiana1 edit$ by ,luigi ,palazzo1 director ( ! ,c5tral ,(fice = ,meteorology & ,geodynamics at ,rome4 #c ,! *ief ,au/rian publications are3--,mit!ilung5 d] ,erdbeb5commission d] k4 ,akad4 d] ,wiss54 9 ,wi5 7s9ce #ahig72 ,die ,erdbeb5w>te 7#aija-aijg72 & ! ,neue/e ,erdbeb5na*ri*t51 ,beilage d] ,monatss*rift ,die ,erdbeb5w>te4 #d ,! ,int]national ,seismological ,association 0 f\nd$ at ,/rassburg 9 #aijc1 & publi%es ! ,beitraege zur ,geophysik1 edit$ by ,george ,g]l&1 director ( ! ,/rassburg /ation2 ! pap]s are pr9t$ 9 sev]al languages4 #e ,! records ( ! ,briti% ,association /ations are publi%$ 7s9ce #ahif7 9 ! ,reports4 ,*ile has a national e>?quake s]vice 7f\nd$ aft] ! ,valp>aiso e>?quake ( ,augu/ #aijf7 direct$ by comte de ,montessus de ,ballore4 ,,e>?-,,/> 7,gea/]71 9 botany1 a k9d ( puff-ball1 ) a di/9ct out] coat :i*1 on sep>at+ f ! inn]1 splits into sev]al divisions1 :i* become reflex$ & spread l a />4 ,! inn] coat envelop+ ! spores is support$1 l a ball1 ei!r ) or )\t a /alk on ! upp] face ( ! />4 ,! spores escape g5]ally by means ( a di/9ct ap]ture :i* appe>s 9 ! top ( ! ball4 ,!re are sev]al species 9 ,brita9 f\nd on ! gr\nd or on decay+ leaves4 ,!y are r>e or local1 b m common 9 ! s\? or s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& ?an 9 o!r p>ts ( ,brita94 ,illu/ration3 ,f ,/rasburg]'s ,lehrbu* d] ,botanik1 by p]mission ( ,gu/av ,fis*]4 ,gea/] ,granulosus1 nat4 size4 ,,e>?worm1 ! common "n ( a *aetopod worm f\nd ne>ly all ov] ! _w4 ,l9naeus recogniz$ only "o species ( e>?worm & nam$ x ,lumbricus t]re/ris4 ,!re are n[ "o ?\s& well-*>act]iz$ species kn[n f diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 & ! numb] increases almo/ daily4 ,! e>?worms ( ,engl& belong entirely to ! ?ree g5]a ,lumbricus1 ,allolobophora & ,allurus1 :i* are fur!r subdivid$ by "s sy/emati/s2 & ^! g5]a =m ! preval5t e>?worm fauna ( ! ,palae>ctic region & are also v num]\s 9 ! ,ne>ctic region4 ,else:]e !y d n appe> to be indig5\s1 b are replac$ by ! num]\s o!r g5]a ( ! families enum]at$ 9 ! article ,,*aetopoda 7q4v474 ,x is a rem>kable fact t ^! g5]a1 compriz+ a sep>ate family ,lumbricidae1 :5 introduc$ into tropical & o!r c\ntries1 ?rive abundantly & ou/ ! indig5\s =ms4 ,9 ga!r+s ( e>?worms f v>i\s extra-,european c\ntries x is always f\nd t if ! collections h be5 made 9 cultivat$ gr\nd & ne> ! coa/ ! worms are ( ,european species2 f>!r inl& ! native =ms are met )4 ,inasmu* z 9 e case ! ,lumbricidae f non-,european c\ntries are id5tical ) ,european species1 s9ce x has be5 %[n t ^! animals are v readily introduc$ accid5tally ) plants1 c41 & 9 view ( ! fact t !y are impati5t ( sea wat]1 x seems cle> t ! pres5ce ( ^! ,lumbricidae 9 o!r cont95ts is due to accid5tal transportation4 ,mo/ e>?worms live 9 ! soil1 :i* !y dev\r z !y burr[ ?r\gh x4 ,a few1 l _! allies ! riv] worms 7,limicolae71 habitually frequ5t /reams1 lakes1 c4 ,"o g5us1 at any rate1 viz4 ,pontodrilus1 seeks an unusual environm5t1 & is f\nd 9 heaps ( sea-we$ ca/ up by ! sea4 ,! range ( ?is g5us is !re=e naturally wid] ?an t ( o!r g5]a :i* are conf9$ to l& masses & _c cross ! sea by _! own ef=ts4 ,x might be inf]r$1 !re=e1 & ! inf]5ce is prov$ by facts1 t truly oceanic isl&s h no indig5\s fauna ( e>?worms1 b are inhabit$ by =ms :i* are id5tical ) ^? ( neighb\r+ cont95ts1 & d\btless1 !re=e1 accid5tally introduc$4 ,l ! lee*es ! e>?worms produce cocoons :i* are a product ( ! gl&ul> epi!lium ( ! clitellum4 ,9 ^! cocoons are deposit$ ! eggs toge!r ) a c]ta9 am\nt ( album5 ^u :i* ! develop+ embryos fe$4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 ! production ( cocoons is univ]sal among e>?worms & ! rema9+ ,oligo*aeta ( aquatic habit4 ,! "y leave ! cocoon z fully =m$ e>?worms 9 :i*1 h[ev]1 ! g5italia are n fully develop$4 ,!re is no free liv+ l>val /age4 ,out ( a s+le cocoon em]ge a v>y+ numb] ( "y worms1 ! numb]s be+ app>5tly *>act]i/ic ( ! species4 ,! "w ( e>?worms 9 aid+ 9 ! production ( ! subsoil & 9 levell+ ! surface 0 fir/ /udi$ by ,c4 ,d>w91 & has s9ce be5 inve/igat$ by o!rs4 ,?is "w is p>tly c>ri$ out b5ea? ! surface & p>tly on ! surface1 ^u :i* ! worms w&] at night & eject ! swall[$ & triturat$ e>?2 frequ5tly ca/+s ( "s height are =m$ ( coil$ ropes ( agglut9at$ p>ticles ( m\ld4 ,! indig5\s species ( ,great ,brita91 ab\t tw5ty 9 numb]1 d n gr[ to a great] l5g? ?an "s #aj 942 b 9 sev]al tropical c\ntries !re are species :i* gr[ to a l5g? ( f #c to #f ft4 ,?us we h 9 ,natal ! gigantic ,micro*aeta rappi1 9 ,ceylon ,megascolex co]uleus1 9 ,au/ralia ,megascolides au/ralis1 & an equally l>ge =m 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 7,f4 ,e4 ,b47 ,,e>wig1 an insect belong+ to ! ,=ficulidae1 a family usually ref]r$ to ! ,or?opt]a1 b sometimes reg>d$ z typify+ a special ord]1 to :i* ! names ,d]mapt]a1 ,d]matopt]a & ,euplexopt]a h be5 giv51 9 allusion to c]ta9 peculi>ities 9 ! /ructure ( ! w+s 9 ! species t possess !m4 ,! front w+s are %ort & horny & :5 at re/ meet )\t ov]lapp+ 9 ! middle l9e1 l ! w+-cases ( bra*elytr\s 7cocktail7 beetles4 ,! h9d w+s1 on ! contr>y1 are = ! mo/ "p membran\s &1 :5 ext5d$1 ( l>ge size2 ea* consi/s ( two portions1 ! di/al ( :i*1 9 virtue ( ! arrangem5t & jo9t+ ( its n]vures1 is capable ( be+ bo? d\bl$ up & fold$ fanwise b5ea? ! proximal1 :i* is p>tly horny :5 ! w+ is tuck$ away "u ! front w+-case ( ! same side4 ,ap>t f ^! *>act]i/ics1 ! mo/ di/9ctive feature ( e>wigs is ! pres5ce at ! end ( ! abdom5 ( a pair ( p9c]s :i* are 9 reality modifi$ app5dages1 kn[n z c]copods1 & repres5t ! simil> limbs ( ,japyx & ! caudal feel]s ( ,campodea & "s o!r insects4 ,! ,=ficulidae are almo/ cosmopolitan2 b ! v>i\s species & g5]a diff] f ea* o!r bo? 9 /ructure & size to a comp>atively slight ext5t4 ,! l5g? & armature ( ! p9c]s & ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( w+s are p]haps ! mo/ important features us$ by sy/emati/s 9 di/+ui%+ ! v>i\s k9ds4 ,( p>ticul> zoological int]e/ 9 ?is connexion is a ,ceylonese g5us ,dyscrit9a1 9 :i* ! c]copods are long1 _m-jo9t$ & fili=m dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( gr[?1 & only assume at ! la/ m\lt ! =cipate /ructure *>act]i/ic ( ! family4 ,! be/ kn[n e>wig is ! common ,european species1 ,=ficula auricul>ia4 ,?is insect is greg>i\s & nocturnal4 ,x hides by day "u /ones or ! loos5$ b>k ( trees or 9 any crevice or hole %elt]$ f ! light4 ,at night x crawls ab\t 9 se>* ( food1 :i* consi/s to a small ext5t ( dead animal or vegetable matt]1 b pr9cipally1 z g>d5]s are aw>e1 ( ! petals & o!r p>ts ( fl[]s ( gr[+ %oots & s(t ripe fruit4 ,dur+ ! w9t] e>wigs lie dormant2 b 9 ! e>ly mon?s ( ! ye> females ) _! eggs may be f\nd 9 ! soil1 frequ5tly 9 des]t$ e>?worm burr[s4 ,mat]nal in/9cts are well develop$1 bo? ! eggs1 :i* numb] ab\t fifty1 & ! "y be+ c>efully brood$ & wat*$ ov] by ! p>5t4 ,except = ! abs5ce ( w+s1 ! "y are m9iature models ( ! adult4 ,z gr[? proce$s ! integum5t is p]iodically ca/2 & at ! f9al m\lt ! p]fect w+$ insect appe>s4 ,males & females are l ea* o!r 9 size1 b may be di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! numb] ( visible abdom9al segm5ts1 ! male hav+ n9e & ! female sev54 ,9 ! male1 moreov]1 ! p9c]s are calip]-l & too!d at ! base1 :]eas 9 ! female !y are untoo!d & only lightly curv$ at ! tip4 ,^! diff]5ces sugge/ t ! p9c]s aid 9 ! pair+ ( ! sexes4 ,h[ev] t may be1 !y are kn[n to be us$ 9 ! fold+ ( ! w+s2 & _! importance z weapons ( def5ce is atte/$ by ! precision & effect ) :i* !y are wield$ aga9/ assailants l ants4 7,r4 ,i4 ,p47 ,,easem5t 7,fr4 aise2 ,o4 ,fr4 aisem5t2 ,anglo-,lat4 aisiam5tum1 a privilege or conv5i5ce71 9 ,engli% law1 a species ( s]vitude or limit$ "r ( use ov] l& belong+ to ano!r4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f pr(its a pr5dre--ano!r species ( s]vitude :i* involves a "r to p>ticipate 9 ! pr(its ( ! soil ( ano!r--s9ce an easem5t conf]s m]ely a conv5i5ce 7aisiam5tum7 to be ex]cis$ ov] ! l& ( ano!r 7)\t any p>ticipation 9 ! pr(its ( x71 i4e4 a "r to use ! soil or produce ( ! soil 9 a way t5d+ to ! m conv5i5t enjoym5t ( ano!r piece ( l&4 ,?us a "r ( way is an easem5t1 a "r ( common is a pr(it4 ,an easem5t is di/+ui%able also f a lic5ce1 :i*1 unless x is c\pl$ ) a grant1 is p]sonal to bo? grantor & grantee & is nei!r b9d+ on ! lic5sor1 nor1 9 g5]al1 assignable by ! lic5see2 :ile bo? ! b5efit & ! burd5 ( an easem5t are annex$ to l& 7,gale on ,easem5ts1 #h? ed4 p4 #b74 ,) easem5ts are sometimes class$ c]ta9 closely alli$ natural rights1 su* z a l&[n]'s "r to lat]al support = 8 soil 9 its natural /ate1 & a rip>ian own]'s "r to ! natural fl[ ( a /ream4 ,! ess5tial features ( an easem5t1 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1 are !re=e ^!3 7i47 ,x is an incorporeal "r2 a "r to ! use & enjoym5t ( l&--n to ! l& itself2 7ii47 x is impos$ ^u corporeal prop]ty2 7iii47 x is a "r )\t pr(it2 7iv47 x requires = its con/itution two di/9ct t5em5ts--! dom9ant t5em5t :i* enjoys ! "r1 & ! s]vi5t t5em5t :i* submits to x4 ,?is la/ *>act]i/ic excludes f ! category ( easem5ts ! s-call$ easem5ts 9 gross1 su* z a "r ( way conf]r$ by grant indep5d5tly ( ! possession ( any t5em5t by ! grantee4 ,! true easem5t is an app5dant or appurt5ant "r1 n a "r 9 gross4 ,fur!r classifications ( easem5ts mu/ be not$4 ,!y are divid$ into 7a7 affirmative or positive1 ^? :i* au?orize ! commission ( an act by ! dom9ant own]1 e4g4 rights ( way1 a "r to draw wat] f a spr+1 rights ( aqu$uct1 & negative1 :5 ! easem5t re/ricts ! rights ( ! s]vi5t own] ov] 8 own prop]ty1 e4g4 prev5ts him f build+ on l& s z to ob/ruct anci5t lights 7cf4 also ! "r to ! support ( neighb\r+ soil72 7b7 cont9u\s1 ( :i* ! enjoym5t may be cont9ual )\t ! int]f]5ce ( man1 e4g4 access to light1 & discont9u\s1 :]e !re mu/ be a fre% act on ea* occasion ( ! ex]cise ( ! "r1 e4g4 a "r ( way1 or "r to draw wat]2 7c7 app>5t1 :]e !re are visible ext]nal signs ( ! ex]cise ( ! "r1 e4g4 a "r to dam up a wat]c\rse1 & non-app>5t1 :]e su* signs are abs5t1 e4g4 a "r to lat]al support f l&1 a prohibition to build above a c]ta9 height4 ,acquisition ( ,easem5ts4--,easem5ts may be acquir$ 7a7 by express grant1 ei!r by /atute1 or by de$ int] vivos1 or by w2 7b7 by an impli$ grant2 7c7 by express or impli$ res]vation1 e4g4 by ! own] ( l& 9 sell+ ! fee 7z to impli$ res]vation1 see ,gale on ,easem5ts1 #h? ed4 pp4 #acg et seq472 7d7 by prescription1 ei!r at common law or "u ! ,prescription ,act #ahcb4 ,an express grant1 or express res]vation1 ( an easem5t _c be effect$ except by de$4 ,an easem5t arises by impli$ grant :]e a man makes "o "p ( 8 t5em5t dep5d5t on ano!r1 or makes ! p>ts mutually int]dep5d5t1 & grants any su* "p ) ! dep5d5ce atta*+ to x to ano!r p]son 7,innes1 ,law ( ,easem5ts1 #g? ed4 p4 #aj74 ,= example1 a man builds two h\ses1 ea* ( :i* by ! plan ( con/ruction receives support f ! o!r2 ?is mutual "r ( support is a quasi-easem5t1 ( :i* on sev]ance ( ! t5em5ts ! grantee ( "o w h ! b5efit2 :]e ! enjoym5t ( ! sev]$ t5em5t c\ld n be _h at all )\t su* a "r1 x is said to be an easem5t ( necessity4 ,easem5ts are acquir$ by prescription at common law by pro( ( immemorial us] by ! dom9ant own] & ^? ?r\gh :om he claims4 ,at "o "t x 0 ?\ght t su* pro( mu/ date back to ! fir/ ye> 7#aahi7 ( ,ri*>d ,i4 7see preamble to ,prescription ,act #ahcb74 ,! gr\nd1 h[ev]1 on :i* prescription 0 admitt$ z a means ( acquir+ easem5ts 0 ! fiction ( a lo/ grant4 ,long enjoym5t ( ! "r po9t$ to its hav+ _h a legal orig9 9 a grant f ! s]vi5t own]1 & s any p]iod ( reasonably long use came to be accept$4 ,a lo/ grant may be presum$ to h be5 made 7! "q is "o ( fact7 if #bj ye>s' un9t]rupt$ enjoym5t is %[n4 ,to avoid ! difficulties ( pro( ( prescriptive "r at common law1 ! ,prescription ,act #ahcb e/abli%$ %ort] p]iods ( us]4 ,9 ! case ( easem5ts1 o!r ?an light1 ! p]iods ( prescription are #bj ye>s = a claim t may be defeat$1 & #dj ye>s = an indefeasible claim 7s4 #b74 ,! "r ( access ( light is dealt ) "u s4 #c 7see ,,anci5t ,,lights74 ,! enjoym5t to become prescriptive mu/ be op51 i4e4 ( su* a "* t ! own] ( ! t5em5t said to be s]vi5t has a reasonable opportunity ( becom+ aw>e ( ! adv]se claim 7,union ,light]age ,co4 v4 ,london ,grav+ ,dock ,co41 #aijb1 #b ,*4 #eeg72 & x mu/ be enjoy$ z ( "r 7,g>dn] v4 ,hodgson's ,k+/on ,brew]y ,co41 #aijc1 ,a4,c4 #bbi7 z aga9/ ! own] ( ! t5em5t affect$ 7,kilg\r v4 ,gaddes1 #aijd1 #a ,k4,b4 #deg74 ,! p]iods ( prescription are to be reckon$ backw>ds f ! "t :5 "s suit or matt] involv+ ! claim ( ! dom9ant own] has aris5 7s4 #d74 ,no?+ is to be deem$ an int]ruption unless ! act ( int]ruption has be5 submitt$ to1 or acquiesc$ 91 = a ye> 7s4 #d74 ,easem5ts may be ext+ui%$ 7i47 by express release--"h an in/rum5t "u seal is necess>y2 7ii47 by m]g]1 i4e4 :]e bo? t5em5ts become ! prop]ty ( ! same own]2 7iii47 by ab&onm5t ?r\gh non-us]4 ,9 ! case ( discont9u\s easem5ts1 ! %orte/ p]iod ( non-us] may suffice if !re is direct evid5ce ( an int5tion to ab&on4 ,a ^w may be add$ "h z to ! "r to air4 ,x is an actionable nuisance to cause pollution ( ! air ent]+ a dwell+-h\se4 ,! own] ( a dwell+-h\se may by prescription acquire a "r to ! passage ( air ?r\gh x by a def9$ *annel2 & ! enjoym5t )\t int]ruption ( v5tilation by means ( air fl[+ 9 a def9ite *annel1 ) ! k ( ! own] & occupi] ( ! adjo9+ premises1 creates a presumption ( ! grant ( su* an easem5t 7see ,gale on ,easem5ts1 #h? ed4 p4 #cch74 ,9 ,scots ,law ! t]m easem5t is unkn[n4 ,bo? ! "n s]vitude & ! ma9 species ( s]vitudes exi/+ 9 ,roman law 7q4v47 h be5 adopt$4 ,! classification ( s]vitudes into positive & negative1 c41 & ! modes ( _! creation & ext9ction1 are simil> to ^? ( ,engli% law4 ,! /atutory p]iod ( prescription is #dj ye>s 7,scots ,acts #afag1 c4 #ab71 or #bj ye>s 9 ! case ( enjoym5t "u any ex facie valid irr$eemable title duly record$ 9 ! appropriate regi/] ( sas9es 7,conveyanc+ ,scotl& ,act #ahgd74 ,!re are c]ta9 s]vitudes special to ,scots law1 e4g4 ?irlage1 by :i* l&s are ?irl$ or b\nd to a p>ticul> mill1 & ! possessors oblig$ to gr9d _! gra9 !re1 = paym5t ( c]ta9 multures 7quantities ( gra9 or meal1 payable to ! mill-own]7 & sequels 7small quantities giv5 to ! mill s]vants7 z ! cu/om>y price ( gr9d+4 ,/atutory provision has be5 made = ! commutation ( ^! duties 7,?irlage ,act #agii71 & !y h n[ almo/ disappe>$4 ,! ,fr5* ,code ,civil 7,arts4 #fcg et seq47 & ! o!r ,european codes 7e4g4 ,belgium1 arts4 #fcg et seq42 ,holl&1 arts4 #gba et seq42 ,italy1 arts4 #eca et seq42 ,spa91 arts4 #ecj et seq42 ,g]many1 arts4 #ajah et seq47 closely foll[ ,roman law4 ,fr5* law is 9 =ce 9 ,mauritius1 & has be5 foll[$ 9 ,quebec 7,civil ,code1 arts4 #dii et seq47 & ,/ ,lucia 7,civil ,code1 arts4 #ddi et seq474 ,9 ,india ! law is regulat$1 on ,engli% l9es1 by ! ,easem5ts ,act #ahhb 7,act v4 ( #ahhb74 ,! t]m easem5ts1 h[ev]1 9 ,india includes pr(its a pr5dre4 ,9 ! ,s\? ,african colonies ! law ( easem5ts is bas$ on ! ,roman ,dut* law 7see ,maasdorp1 ,in/itutes ( ,cape ,law1 #aijd2 ,bk4 ii4 p4 #aff et seq474 ,9 mo/ ( ! o!r colonies ! law ( easem5ts is simil> to ,engli% law4 ,9 "s1 h[ev]1 x has be5 provid$ by /atute t rights to ! access & use ( light or wat] _c be acquir$ by prescription3 e4g4 ,victoria 7,wat] ,act #ahij1 ,no4 #aaef1 s4 #c71 ,ont>io 7,real ,prop]ty ,limitation ,act1 ,revis$ ,/ats4 ,ont>io1 #ahig2 c4 #acc1 s4 #cf1 light74 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! law ( easem5ts is f\nd$ ^u1 & sub/antially id5tical )1 ,engli% law4 ,! ,engli% doctr9e1 h[ev]1 z to acquisition ( "r ( light & air by prescription is n accept$ 9 mo/ ( ! ,/ates4 ,,au?orities4--,engli% ,law3 ,gale1 ,law ( ,easem5ts 7#h? ed41 ,london1 #aijh72 ,godd>d1 ,law ( ,easem5ts 7#f? ed41 ,london1 #aijd72 ,innes1 ,dige/ ( ! ,law ( ,easem5ts 7#g? ed41 ,london1 #aijc74 ,indian ,law3 ,peacock1 ,easem5ts 9 ,briti% ,india 7,calcutta1 #aijd72 ,hudson & ,inman1 ,law ( ,light & ,air 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #aije74 ,scots ,law3 ,ersk9e1 ,pr9ciples ( ! ,law ( ,scotl& 7#bj? ed41 ,ed9burgh1 #aijc74 ,am]ican ,law3 ,jones1 ,law ( ,easem5ts 7,new ,york1 #ahih72 ,b\vi]1 ,law ,dict4 7,bo/on & ,london1 #ahig72 ,rul+ ,cases1 ,london & ,bo/on1 #ahid-aija1 tit4 ,easem5t 7,am]ican ,notes74 7,a4 ,w4 ,r47 ,,ea/1 ,,alfr$ 7#ahdi- 71 ,engli% pa9t] & et*]1 0 born at ,kett]+ on ! #ae? ( ,decemb] #ahdi4 ,"o ( ! mo/ prom95t among mod]n ,engli% l&scape pa9t]s1 he receiv$ 8 art education fir/ at ! ,glasg[ ,s*ool ( ,art & !n 9 ,p>is at ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 & "u ,rob]t-,fleury & ,b\gu]eau4 ,8 l&scapes are rem>kable = ! lyrical use ( col\r & = ! pleas+ rhy?m ( l9e :i* is ! result ( c>eful selection & build+ up ( ! elem5ts t con/itute ! sc5e4 ,bas$ on ke5 obs]vation ( ! col\r ( nature & on c>eful /udies ( ! details1 !y are arrang$ ) a r>e & by no means obvi\s s5se ( balance & compositional beauty :i* summ>ily disc>ds all di/urb+ accid5ts ( nature4 ,he also a*iev$ di/9ction z an et*]1 & publi%$ an in/ructive & useful volume on l&scape pa9t+ 7,london1 #aijf74 ,he began to exhibit at ! ,royal ,academy 9 #ahhb1 & 0 elect$ an associate4 ,9 #aijf he became presid5t ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,briti% ,arti/s4 ,_m ( 8 works are to be f\nd 9 ! ,engli% prov9cial gall]ies2 ,man*e/] owns ,! ,sil5t ,somme & ,autumn2 ,liv]pool1 ,gibralt> f ,algeciras2 ,le$s1 ,! ,gold5 ,valley2 ,birm+ham1 ,hayle f ,lelant2 ,pre/on1 ,an ,idyll ( ,spr+2 & ,hull1 ,ev5+ on ! ,cotswolds4 ,8 ,pass+ ,/orm is at ! ,luxemb\rg2 ,! ,n5e ,valley at ! ,v5ice gall]y2 & ,a ,haunt ( ,anci5t ,peace at ! ,national gall]y 9 ,budape/4 ,9 #aijc he receiv$ ! ord] ( ! ,cr[n ( ,italy 9 connexion ) 8 s]vices to ! ,v5ice int]national exhibition2 & he 0 made an honor>y memb] ( ! ,japanese ,meiji ,bijutsu ,kai4 ,,ea/ ,,anglia1 "o ( ! k+doms into :i* ,anglo-,saxon ,brita9 0 divid$4 ,b$e gives no in=mation ab\t its orig9 except t its e>lie/ settl]s 7 ,angles4 ,! k+dom ( ,ea/ ,anglia compris$ ! two c\nties ( ,norfolk & ,suffolk4 ,) reg>d to ! we/]n b\nd>y we h no accurate in=mation1 b x 0 probably =m$ by ! f5s ( ,cambridge%ire4 ,?is k+dom fir/ appe>s 9 ,b$e's n>rative e>ly 9 ! #g? c5tury1 :5 its p[] 0 at its height4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! reign ( ,a,ethelberht1 :o di$ ab\t #faf1 ,ra$wald ( ,ea/ ,anglia1 :o _h app>5tly sp5t "s "t at ! c\rt ( ,k5t1 began to w9 = himself ! *ief position among ! ,anglo-,saxon k+s ( 8 day4 ,8 position 0 assur$1 at lea/ tempor>ily1 9 #fag1 :5 he decid$ to esp\se ! cause ( ! ,nor?umbrian pr9ce ,edw91 !n a fugitive at 8 c\rt1 & defeat$ ,a,ethelfrith ( ,nor?umbria on ! banks ( ! ,idle1 a tribut>y ( ! ,tr5t1 9 ,m]cian t]ritory4 ,ra$wald _h be5 conv]t$ to ,*ri/ianity 9 ,k5t1 b aft] 8 return home he relaps$1 accord+ to ,b$e1 ow+ to ! influ5ce ( 8 wife1 & !re 7 to be se5 9 ! same build+ a ,*ri/ian & a pagan alt>4 ,b$e /ates t ,ra$wald 0 ! son ( ,tytili1 ! son ( ,wuffa1 f :om ! ,ea/ ,anglian royal family d]iv$ _! "n ,wuff+as4 ,accord+ to ! ,hi/oria ,brittonum ,guffa 7,wuffa7 0 ! son ( 7,gue*a7 ,wehha1 :o fir/ rul$ ! ,ea/ ,angles 9 ,brita94 ,?is w\ld put ! organization ( ! k+dom 9 ! fir/ or second qu>t] ( ! #f? c5tury4 ,eorpwald1 ! son ( ,ra$wald1 0 conv]t$ to ,*ri/ianity by ,edw91 b 0 soon aft]w>ds sla9 by ,ricb]ht 7#fbg or #fbh71 :]eupon ! k+dom aga9 became pagan = ?ree ye>s1 :5 ,sigeb]ht1 ! bro!r ( ,eorpwald1 became k+ & f\nd$ a see = ,felix at ,dunwi*4 ,sigeb]ht also f\nd$ a s*ool 9 ,ea/ ,anglia1 & on ! arrival ( an ,iri% mission>y nam$ ,furseus he built him a mona/]y at ,cnobh]esburg1 p]haps to be id5tifi$ ) ,burgh ,ca/le4 ,be=e #fdd1 h[ev]1 ,sigeb]ht resign$ ! cr[n 9 fav\r ( 8 bro!r ,ecgric & retir$ to a mona/]y4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds bo? bro!rs 7 sla9 by ,p5da ( ,m]cia 9 8 invasion ( ,ea/ ,anglia1 & ,anna became k+4 ,?is k+ 0 an en?usia/ic ,*ri/ian1 & conv]t$ ,co5walh1 k+ ( ,wessex1 :o _h fl$ to 8 c\rt4 ,two ( 8 daught]s1 ,sae?ry? & ,a,ethelberg1 took ! veil2 :ile ano!r1 ,sexburg1 0 m>ri$ to ,e>conb]ht1 k+ ( ,k5t2 & a f\r?1 ,a,ethelthryth1 aft] two m>riages1 ) ,tondb]ht ( ! ,s\? ,gyrwe & ,ecgfri? ( ,nor?umbria1 became abbess ( ,ely4 ,9 #fed ,anna 0 sla9 by ,p5da ( ,m]cia1 & 0 succe$$ by 8 bro!r ,a,ethelhere1 :o 0 kill$ 9 #fee at ! ,w9wa$1 fight+ = ! ,m]cian k+ aga9/ ,oswio ( ,nor?umbria4 ,9 #fgc ,ar*bi%op ,!odore divid$ ! ,ea/ ,anglian diocese into two1 ,elmham be+ ! seat ( ! nor!rn1 ,dunwi* t ( ! s\!rn bi%op4 ,a long blank foll[s 9 ! hi/ory ( ?is k+dom1 until 9 #gib we f9d ,(fa ( ,m]cia slay+ ,a,ethelberht1 k+ ( ,ea/ ,anglia1 :o is said to h be5 8 son-9-law4 ,ea/ ,anglia 0 subject to ! supremacy ( ! ,m]cian k+s until #hbe1 :5 its p slew ,beornwulf ( ,m]cia1 & ) _! k+ ackn[l$g$ ,ecgb]ht 7,egb]t7 ( ,wessex z _! "l4 ,9 #hgj ,edmund1 k+ ( ,ea/ ,anglia1 0 kill$ by ! ,danes "u ,i'v>r & ,ubbi1 ! sons ( ,ragn> ,loe?brok4 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( ! k+s ( ,ea/ ,anglia ( :om !re is record3--,wehha2 ,wuffa2 ,ra$wald1 son ( ,tytili & gr&son ( ,wuffa 7reign+ #fag72 ,eorpwald1 son ( ,ra$wald 7d4 #fbg or #fbh72 ,sigeb]ht1 bro!r ( ,eorpwald2 ,ecgric1 bro!r ( ,sigeb]ht 7bo? sla9 be=e #fdd72 ,anna1 son ( ,ene & gr&son ( ,tytili 7d4 #fed72 ,a,ethelhere1 bro!r ( ,anna 7d4 #fee72 ,a,ethelwald1 a ?ird bro!r2 ,aldwulf 7succ4 #ffc1 d4 #gac71 son ( ,a,ethelric & gr&son ( ,ene2 ,elfwald1 son ( ,aldwulf 7d4 #gdi72 ,hun ,beonna & ,alb]ht2 ,a,ethelberht 7#gib72 ,edmund 7#hgj74 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,ragn> ,loe?brok's sons ,ea/ ,anglia 0 occupi$ by ! ,dani% k+ ,gu?rum1 :o made a treaty ) ,alfr$ settl+ _! respective b\nd>ies1 probably ab\t #hhj4 ,gu?rum di$ 9 #hij4 ,a lat] k+ nam$ ,eohric took up ! cause ( ,a,ethelwald1 ! son ( ,a,ethelred ,i41 & 0 sla9 9 ! fight ) ! ,k5ti% army at ! ,holm 9 #ije4 ,a w> broke out ) ,k+ ,edw>d ! ,eld] 9 #iac2 9 #iba a k+ ^: "n is unkn[n 0 kill$ at ! fall ( ,temps=d1 & 9 ! same ye> ! ,danes ( ,ea/ ,anglia submitt$ to ,edw>d ! ,eld]4 ,f ?is "t1 probably1 ,ea/ ,anglia 0 gov]n$ by ,engli% e>ls1 ! mo/ fam\s ( :om 7 ,a,ethelstan1 surnam$ ,half-,k+ 7#icb-ief7 & 8 sons1 ,a,ethelwold 7#ief-ifb71 & ,a,ethelwine1 surnam$ ,dei amicus 7#ifb-iib74 ,see ,b$e1 ,hi/4 ,eccl4 7ed4 ,c4 ,plumm]1 ,ox=d4 #ahif71 ii4 #e1 #ae1 iii4 #g1 #h1 #ah-bj1 #bb1 iv4 #c1 #e1 #bc2 ,saxon ,*ronicle 7ed4 ,e>le & ,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahii71 s4 a4 #hbc1 #hch1 #hff1 #hgj1 #hhj1 #hhe1 #hij1 #hid1 #ije1 #iba2 ,hi/oria ,brittonum 7,san-,m>te1 #ahdd71 s4 #ei2 ,h4 ,sweet1 ,olde/ ,engli% ,texts1 p4 #aga 7,london1 #ahhe74 7,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b47 ,,ea/b\rne1 a municipal bor\gh 7#ahhc7 9 ! ,ea/b\rne p>liam5t>y division ( ,sussex1 ,engl&1 #fa m4 ,s4,s4,e4 ( ,london by ! ,london1 ,brighton ,s\? ,coa/ railway4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #cd1ifi2 7#aija7 #dc1cdd2 7local c5sus1 #aiji7 #di1bhf4 ,x is situat$ #c m4 ,n4,e4 ( ,bea*y ,head1 ! l(tie/ headl& on ! ,engli% ,*annel coa/4 ,x once consi/$ ( ?ree p>ts--! village ( ,ea/ ,b\rne1 a mile inl&2 ,s\? ,b\rne1 ly+ back f ! %ore2 & ,seah\ses1 fac+ ! bea*4 ,! *ur* ( ,/ ,m>y1 ! anci5t p>i% *ur* ( ,ea/ ,b\rne1 is a f9e transitional ,norman build+2 & !re are num]\s mod]n *ur*es & *apels4 ,! pr9cipal build+s & in/itutions are ! t[n hall & municipal build+s1 ! ,pr9cess ,alice ,memorial & o!r hospitals1 a free libr>y &1 among _m high-class s*ools1 ,ea/b\rne ,college = boys1 f\nd$ 9 #ahfg4 ,!re is a f9e pi] ) pavilion1 & a m>9e p>ade ne>ly #c m4 9 ext5t1 arrang$ 9 t]rac$ prom5ades4 ,devon%ire ,p>k ( #ac acres is pleasantly laid out1 & conta9s a pavilion & a !atre4 ,! duke ( ,devon%ire is ! pr9cipal l&[n]4 ,golf l9ks are laid out on ! neighb\r+ d[ns4 ,a ,roman villa 0 =m]ly se5 close to ! %ore1 b x is n n[ visible4 ,! corporation consi/s ( a mayor1 #h ald]m5 & #bd c\ncillors4 ,9 #aiaj ! corporation promot$ a bill 9 p>liam5t to add ! ,hampd5 ,p>k di/rict 9 ! p>i% ( ,will+don to ! bor\gh & to make ,ea/b\rne1 ) ?is ext5sion1 a c\nty bor\gh4 ,,ea/ ,,*icago1 a city ( ,lake c\nty1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,lake ,mi*igan1 ab\t #ai m4 ,s4,e4 ( ! bus9ess c5tre ( ,*icago4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #abee2 7#aijj7 #cdaa 7#acca =eign-born72 7#aiaj7 #ai1jih4 ,x is s]v$ by sev]al railways1 includ+ ! ,p5nsylvania1 ! ,waba%1 ! ,*icago ,t]m9al ,transf] 7^: %ops are "h71 ! ,lake ,%ore ,mi*igan ,s\!rn1 ! ,*icago1 ,indiana ,s\!rn1 & ! ,indiana ,h>bor railways4 ,ea/ ,*icago cov]s an area ^: greate/ dim5sions are #d by #ca_/b m4 ,t "p ( ! city along ! lake1 kn[n z ,indiana ,h>bor1 dates f #aija & has gr[n v rapidly because ( its position at ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ! ,calumet ,di/rict1 & because ( ! meet+ "h ( railway & lake comm]ce4 ,a good h>b\r has be5 con/ruct$1 a new %ip canal connect+ ! h>b\r ) ! ,calumet riv]4 ,ea/ ,*icago is indu/rially virtually a "p ( ,great] ,*icago2 among its manufactures are iron & /eel1 cem5t1 lumb]1 boil]s1 hay presses1 *a9s1 *emicals & f\ndry products4 ,ea/ ,*icago 0 *>t]$ z a city 9 #ahic4 ,,ea/]1 ! annual fe/ival obs]v$ ?r\gh\t ,*ri/5dom 9 commemoration ( ! resurrection ( ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,! "n ,ea/] 7,g]4 ,o/]n71 l ! names ( ! days ( ! week1 is a survival f ! old ,teutonic my?ology4 ,accord+ to ,b$e 7,de ,temp4 ,rat4 c4 xv47 x is d]iv$ f ,eo/re1 or ,o/>a1 ! ,anglo-,saxon goddess ( spr+1 to :om ! mon? answ]+ to our ,april1 & call$ ,eo/ur-mona?1 0 d$icat$4 ,?is mon?1 ,b$e says1 0 ! same z ! m5sis pas*alis1 :5 ! old fe/ival 0 obs]v$ ) ! gladness ( a new solemnity4 ,! "n ( ! fe/ival 9 o!r languages 7z ,fr4 paques2 ,ital4 pasqua2 ,span4 pascua2 ,dan4 paaske2 ,dut* paas*2 ,wel% pasg7 is d]iv$ f ! ,lat4 pas*a & ! ,gr4 ,greek3 pas*a4 ,^! 9 turn come f ! ,*aldee or ,aramaean =m ,hebrew3 pas*a pas*a'1 ( ! ,hebrew "n ( ! ,passov] fe/ival ,hebrew3 pesa* pesa*1 f ,hebrew3 pasa* he pass$ ov]1 9 memory ( ! great deliv]ance1 :5 ! de/roy+ angel pass$ ov] ! h\ses1 ( ! *ildr5 ( ,israel 9 ,egypt :5 he smote ! ,egyptians 7,exod4 xii4 #bg74 ,an errone\s d]ivation ( ! ^w pas*a f ! ,greek ,greek3 pas*e91 to suff]1 ?us connect$ ) ! suff]+s or passion ( ! ,"l1 is giv5 by "s ( ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1 z ,ir5aeus1 ,t]tullian & o!rs1 :o 7 ignorant ( ,hebrew4 ,/ ,augu/9e 7,9 ,joann4 ,tract4 #ee7 notices ?is false etymology1 %[s h[ simil>ity ( s\nd _h l$ to x1 & gives ! correct d]ivation4 ,!re is no indication ( ! obs]vance ( ! ,ea/] fe/ival 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 or 9 ! writ+s ( ! apo/olic ,fa!rs4 ,! sanctity ( special times 0 an idea abs5t f ! m9ds ( ! fir/ ,*ri/ians4 ,! :ole ( "t is a fe/ival unto ,*ri/ians because ( ! excell5cy ( ! good ?+s :i* h be5 giv5 is ! comm5t ( ,/ ,*ryso/om on #a ,cor4 v4 #g1 :i* has be5 errone\sly suppos$ to ref] to an apo/olic obs]vance ( ,ea/]4 ,! ecclesia/ical hi/orian ,socrates 7,hi/4 ,eccl4 v4 #bb7 /ates1 ) p]fect tru?1 t nei!r ! ,"l nor 8 apo/les enjo9$ ! keep+ ( ?is or any o!r fe/ival4 ,he says3 ,! apo/les _h no ?\ght ( appo9t+ fe/ival days1 b ( promot+ a life ( blamelessness & piety2 & he attributes ! obs]vance ( ,ea/] by ! *ur* to ! p]petuation ( an old usage1 j z _m o!r cu/oms h be5 e/abli%$4 ,?is is d\btless ! true /atem5t ( ! case4 ,! fir/ ,*ri/ians cont9u$ to obs]ve ! ,jewi% fe/ivals1 ?\gh 9 a new _s1 z commemorations ( ev5ts :i* ^? fe/ivals _h =e%ad[$4 ,?us ! ,passov]1 ) a new conception add$ to x ( ,*ri/ z ! true ,pas*al ,lamb & ! fir/ fruits f ! dead1 cont9u$ to be obs]v$1 & became ! ,*ri/ian ,ea/]4 ,al?\gh ! obs]vance ( ,ea/] 0 at a v e>ly p]iod ! practice ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur*1 a s]i\s diff]5ce z to ! day = its obs]vance soon arose betwe5 ! ,*ri/ians ( ,jewi% & ^? ( ,g5tile desc5t1 :i* l$ to a long & bitt] controv]sy4 ,! po9t at issue 0 :5 ! ,pas*al fa/ 0 to be reckon$ z end+4 ,) ! ,jewi% ,*ri/ians1 ^: lead+ ?\ght 0 ! dea? ( ,*ri/ z ! ,pas*al ,lamb1 ! fa/ end$ at ! same "t z t ( ! ,jews1 on ! f\rte5? day ( ! moon at ev5+1 & ! ,ea/] fe/ival imm$iately foll[$1 )\t reg>d to ! day ( ! week4 ,! ,g5tile ,*ri/ians1 on ! o!r h&1 unfett]$ by ,jewi% traditions1 id5tifi$ ! fir/ day ( ! week ) ! ,resurrection1 & kept ! prec$+ ,friday z ! commemoration ( ! crucifixion1 irrespective ( ! day ( ! mon?4 ,) ! "o ! obs]vance ( ! day ( ! mon?1 ) ! o!r ! obs]vance ( ! day ( ! week1 0 ! guid+ pr9ciple4 ,g5]ally speak+1 ! ,we/]n *ur*es kept ,ea/] on ! fir/ day ( ! week1 :ile ! ,ea/]n *ur*es foll[$ ! ,jewi% rule1 & kept ,ea/] on ! f\rte5? day4 ,/ ,polyc>p1 ! disciple ( ,/ ,john ! ,evangeli/ & bi%op ( ,smyrna1 visit$ ,rome 9 #aei to conf] ) ,anicetus1 ! bi%op ( t see1 on ! subject2 & urg$ ! tradition1 :i* he _h receiv$ f ! apo/le1 ( obs]v+ ! f\rte5? day4 ,anicetus1 h[ev]1 decl9$ to admit ! ,jewi% cu/om 9 ! *ur*es "u 8 jurisdiction1 b readily communicat$ ) ,polyc>p & ^? :o foll[$ x4 ,ab\t =ty ye>s lat] 7#aig7 ! "q 0 discuss$ 9 a v diff]5t _s betwe5 ,victor1 bi%op ( ,rome1 & ,polycrates1 metropolitan ( proconsul> ,asia4 ,t prov9ce 0 ! only portion ( ,*ri/5dom :i* /ill adh]$ to ! ,jewi% usage1 & ,victor dem&$ t all %\ld adopt ! usage prevail+ at ,rome4 ,?is ,polycrates firmly refus$ to agree to1 & urg$ _m weighty reasons to ! contr>y1 :]eupon ,victor proce$$ to excommunicate ,polycrates & ! ,*ri/ians :o cont9u$ ! ,ea/]n usage4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 re/ra9$ f actually proce$+ to en=ce ! decree ( excommunication1 ow+ to ! remon/rance ( ,ir5aeus & ! bi%ops ( ,gaul4 ,peace 0 ?us ma9ta9$1 & ! ,asiatic *ur*es reta9$ _! usage unmole/$ 7,euseb4 ,h4,e4 v4 #bc-be74 ,we f9d ! ,jewi% usage f "t to "t reass]t+ itself aft] ?is1 b x nev] prevail$ to any l>ge ext5t4 ,a f9al settlem5t ( ! dispute 0 "o among ! o!r reasons :i* l$ ,con/ant9e to summon ! c\ncil ( ,nicaea 9 #cbe4 ,at t "t ! ,syrians & ,antio*5es 7 ! solit>y *ampions ( ! obs]vance ( ! f\rte5? day4 ,! decision ( ! c\ncil 0 unanim\s t ,ea/] 0 to be kept on ,sunday1 & on ! same ,sunday ?r\gh\t ! _w1 & t none %\ld h]eaft] foll[ ! bl9dness ( ! ,jews 7,socrates1 ,h4,e4 i4 #i74 ,! correct date ( ! ,ea/] fe/ival 0 to be calculat$ at ,alex&ria1 ! home ( a/ronomical sci5ce1 & ! bi%op ( t see 0 to ann\nce x ye>ly to ! *ur*es "u 8 jurisdiction1 & also to ! occupant ( ! ,roman see1 by :om x 0 to be communicat$ to ! ,we/]n *ur*es4 ,! few :o aft]w>ds sep>at$ !mselves f ! unity ( ! *ur*1 & cont9u$ to keep ! f\rte5? day1 7 nam$ ,qu>todecimani1 & ! dispute itself is kn[n z ! ,qu>to-deciman controv]sy4 ,al?\gh measures _h ?us be5 tak5 to secure uni=mity ( obs]vance1 & to put an end to a controv]sy :i* _h endang]$ ,*ri/ian unity1 a new difficulty _h to be enc\nt]$ ow+ to ! abs5ce ( any au?oritative rule by :i* ! pas*al moon 0 to be asc]ta9$4 ,! subject is a v difficult & complex "o 7see also ,,cal5d>74 ,briefly1 x may be expla9$ "h t ,ea/] day is ! fir/ ,sunday aft] ! full moon foll[+ ! v]nal equ9ox4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 v>ies 9 diff]5t longitudes1 :ile a fur!r difficulty occurr$ 9 ! attempt to fix ! correct "t ( ,ea/] by means ( cycles ( ye>s1 :5 ! *anges ( ! sun & moon m or less exactly repeat !mselves4 ,at fir/ an eight ye>s' cycle 0 adopt$1 b x 0 f\nd to be faulty1 !n ! ,jewi% cycle ( #hd ye>s 0 us$1 & rema9$ 9 =ce at ,rome till ! ye> #deg1 :5 a m accurate calculation ( a cycle ( #ecb ye>s1 inv5t$ by ,victorius ( ,acquita9e1 took its place4 ,ultimately a cycle ( #ai ye>s 0 accept$1 & x is ! use ( ?is cycle :i* makes ! ,gold5 ,numb] & ,sunday ,lett]1 expla9$ 9 ! preface to ! ,book ( ,common ,pray]1 necess>y4 ,ow+ to ?is lack ( decision z to ! accurate f9d+ ( ,ea/]1 ,/ ,augu/9e tells u 7,epi/4 #bc7 t 9 ! ye> #chg ! *ur*es ( ,gaul kept ,ea/] on ! #ba/ ( ,m>*1 ^? ( ,italy on ! #ah? ( ,april1 & ^? ( ,egypt on ! #be? ( ,april2 & x appe>s f a lett] ( ,leo ! ,great 7,epi/4 #fd1 ad ,m>cian47 t 9 #dee !re 0 a diff]5ce ( eight days betwe5 ! ,roman & ! ,alex&r9e ,ea/]4 ,gregory ( ,t\rs relates t 9 #egg !re 0 a d\bt ab\t ,ea/]4 ,9 ,gaul we ) _m o!r cities kept ,ea/] on ! f\rte5? cal5ds ( ,may1 o!rs1 z ! ,spani>ds1 on ! twelf? cal5ds ( ,april4 ,! anci5t ,briti% & ,celtic *ur*es foll[$ ! cycle ( #hd ye>s :i* !y _h orig9ally receiv$ f ,rome1 & _! /ubborn refusal to ab&on x caus$ mu* bitt] controv]sy 9 ! #h? c5tury betwe5 _! repres5tatives & ,/ ,augu/9e ( ,cant]bury & ! ,lat9 mission>ies4 ,^! latt] unfairly attempt$ to fix ! /igma ( ! ,qu>todeciman obs]vance on ! ,briti% & ,celtic *ur*es1 & !y are ev5 n[ sometimes ignorantly spok5 ( z hav+ foll[$ ! ,asiatic practice z to ,ea/]4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is q errone\s4 ,! ,briti% & ,celtic *ur*es always kept ,ea/] accord+ to ! ,nic5e decree on a ,sunday4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 !m & ! ,roman ,*ur*1 at ?is p]iod1 0 t !y /ill foll[$ ! #hd ye>s' cycle 9 comput+ ,ea/]1 :i* _h be5 ab&on$ at ,rome = ! m accurate cycle ( #ecb ye>s4 ,?is diff]5ce ( calculation l$ to ,ea/] be+ obs]v$ on diff]5t ,sundays1 9 c]ta9 ye>s1 9 ,engl&1 by ! adh]5ts ( ! two *ur*es4 ,?us ,b$e records t 9 a c]ta9 ye> 7:i* mu/ h be5 #fde1 #fdg1 #fdh or #fea7 ,que5 ,eanfl$a1 :o _h receiv$ h] in/ruction f a ,k5ti% prie/ ( ! ,roman ob$i5ce1 0 fa/+ & keep+ ,palm ,sunday1 :ile h] husb&1 ,oswy1 k+ ( ,nor?umbria1 foll[+ ! rule ( ! ,briti% *ur*1 0 celebrat+ ! ,ea/] fe/ival4 ,?is div]sity ( usage 0 end$1 s f> z ! k+dom ( ,nor?umbria 0 conc]n$1 by ! c\ncil ( ,/reane%al*1 or ,:itby1 9 #fed4 ,to ,ar*bi%op ,!odore is usually ascrib$ ! cr$it ( end+ ! diff]5ce 9 ! re/ ( ,engl& 9 #ffi4 ,! ,gregorian correction ( ! cal5d> 9 #aehb has once m l$ to diff]5t days be+ obs]v$4 ,s f> z ,we/]n ,*ri/5dom is conc]n$ ! correct$ cal5d> is n[ univ]sally accept$1 & ,ea/] is kept on ! same day1 b x 0 n until #ageb t ! ,gregorian re=mation ( ! cal5d> 0 adopt$ 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4 ,jeal\sy ( ev]y?+ emanat+ f ,rome /ill keeps ! ,ea/]n *ur*es f correct+ ! cal5d> accord+ to ! ,gregorian re=mation1 & ?us _! ,ea/] usually falls be=e1 or aft]1 t ( ! ,we/]n *ur*es1 & only v r>ely1 z 0 ! case 9 #ahfe1 d ! two co9cide4 ,ea/]1 z commemorat+ ! c5tral fact ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 has always be5 reg>d$ z ! *ief fe/ival ( ! ,*ri/ian ye>1 & accord+ to a regulation ( ,con/ant9e x 0 to be ! fir/ day ( ! ye>4 ,?is reckon+ ( ! ye> z beg9n+ at ,ea/] l+]$ 9 ,france till #aefe1 :51 by an ord9ance ( ,*>les ,,ix41 ! #a/ ( ,janu>y f9ally took its place4 ,f\r diff]5t p]iods may be m5tion$ z connect$ ) ! obs]vance ( ,ea/]1 viz4 7#a7 ! prep>atory fa/ ( ! =ty days ( ,l5t2 7#b7 ! fifte5 days1 beg9n+ ) ! ,sunday be=e & end+ ) ! ,sunday aft] ,ea/]1 dur+ :i* ! c]emonies ( ,holy ,week & ! s]vices ( ! ,octave ( ,ea/] 7 obs]v$2 ?is p]iod1 call$ by ! ,fr5* ! ,qu9za9e de ,paques1 0 specially obs]v$ 9 t c\ntry2 7#c7 ! ,octave ( ,ea/]1 dur+ :i* ! newly-baptiz$ wore _! :ite g>m5ts1 :i* !y laid aside on ! ,sunday aft] ,ea/]1 kn[n z ,dom9ica 9 albis depositis f ?is cu/om2 ano!r "n = ?is ,sunday 0 ,pas*a clausum1 or ! close ( ,ea/]1 & f a clipp+ ( ! ^w close ! ,engli% "n ( ,l[ ,sunday is believ$ to be d]iv$2 7#d7 ,ea/]tide prop]1 or ! pas*al season beg9n+ at ,ea/] & la/+ till ,:it ,sunday1 dur+ ! :ole ( :i* "t ! fe/ival "* ( ! ,ea/] season 0 ma9ta9$ 9 ! s]vices ( ! *ur*4 ,_m ecclesia/ical c]emonies1 gr[+ up f e>ly times1 clu/]$ r\nd ! celebration ( ! ,ea/] fe/ival4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable ( ^! 0 ! use ( ! pas*al c&le4 ,?is 0 a c&le ( v l>ge dim5sions1 set 9 a c&le/ick big en\gh to hold x1 :i* 0 usually plac$ on ! nor? side1 j bel[ ! fir/ asc5t to ! high alt>4 ,x 0 kept alight dur+ ea* s]vice till ,:itsuntide4 ,! ,pas*al1 z x 0 call$ at ,durham ca!dral1 0 "o ( ! *ief sights ( t *ur* be=e ! ,re=mation4 ,x 0 an elaborate con/ruction ( poli%$ brass1 &1 contr>y to ! usual cu/om1 seems to h be5 plac$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! alt>-/ep1 long bran*es /ret*+ out t[>ds ! f\r c>d9al po9ts1 be>+ small] c&les4 ,! c5tral /em ( ! c&le/ick 0 ab\t #ch ft4 high1 & bore ! pas*al c&le prop]1 & toge!r !y rea*$ a comb9$ height ( ab\t #gj ft41 ! c&le be+ light$ f an op5+ above4 ,o!r pas*al c&les seem to h be5 ( sc>cely less size4 ,at ,l9coln1 c4 #acjj1 ! c&le 0 to weigh ?ree /ones ( wax2 at ,salisbury 9 #aeag x 0 to be #cf ft4 long2 & at ,we/m9/] 9 #aeeh x weigh$ no less ?an #c cwt4 ( wax4 ,aft] ,:itsuntide :at rema9$ 0 made into small] c&les = ! fun]als ( ! poor4 ,9 ! anci5t *ur*es at ,rome ! pas*al c&le/icks 7 fixtures1 b else:]e !y 7 usually movable1 & 7 br\ght into ! *ur* & set up on ! ,?ursday be=e ,ea/]4 ,at ,w9*e/] ! pas*al c&le/ick 0 ( silv]1 & 0 ! gift ( ,canute4 ,o!rs ( m or less importance are record$ z hav+ be5 at ,cant]bury1 ,bury ,/ ,edmunds1 ,h]e=d & ,york4 ,! burn+ ( ! pas*al c&le /ill =ms "p ( ! ,ea/] c]emonial ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* 7see ,,lights1 ,,c]emonial74 ,! liturgical col\r = ,ea/] 0 ev]y:]e :ite1 z ! sign ( joy1 light & purity1 & ! *ur*es & alt>s 7 adorn$ ) ! be/ ornam5ts t ea* possess$4 ,fl[]s & %rubs no d\bt 9 e>ly times 7 also us$ = ?is purpose1 b :at evid5ce !re is goes aga9/ ! m$ieval use ( su* decorations1 :i* are s popul> at ! pres5t day4 ,x is n ! purpose ( ?is article to ent] on ! wide subject ( ! popul> obs]vances1 su* z ! giv+ & s5d+ ( ,pas* or ,ea/] eggs z pres5ts4 ,= su* ! read] may consult ,br&'s ,popul> ,antiquities1 ,hone's ,e-,day ,book1 & ,*amb]s's ,book ( ,days4 ,,au?orities4--,b+ham1 ,antiquities ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*2 ,b$e1 ,ecclesia/ical ,hi/ory ( ,engl&2 ,proct] & ,fr]e1 ,a ,new ,hi/ory ( ! ,book ( ,common ,pray] 7,london1 #aija72 ,surtees ,society1 ,rites ( ,durham1 ed4 ,j4,t4 ,f[l] 7#aijc72 ,de ,morgan1 ,companion to ! ,almanac 7#ahde72 ,de ,moleon1 ,voyages liturgiques 7,p>is1 #agah74 7,t4 ,m4 ,f47 ,,ea/] ,,isl& 7,rapanui1 i4e4 ,great ,rapa71 an isl& 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! ,s\? ,pacific ocean1 belong+ to ,*ile 7s9ce #ahhh71 9 #bg deg4 #h' ,s4 & #aji deg4 #bh' ,w41 #adjj m4 ,e4 ( ,pitcairn1 & #bjjj m4 f ! ,s\? ,am]ican coa/4 ,x is r\ghly triangul> 9 %ape1 ) its hypot5use #ab m4 long runn+ nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 & its ?ree angles m>k$ by ?ree volcanic peaks1 ( :i* ! nor?-ea/]n rea*es #agfh ft4 ( altitude4 ,! area ( ! isl& is #de sq4 m4 ,! coa/ has no good natural h>b\r1 & l&+ is difficult4 ,!re is no lack ( f]tile soil1 & ! climate is moi/ en\gh to make up = ! abs5ce ( runn+ wat]4 ,=m]ly ! isl& appe>s to h be5 wood$1 b x n[ pres5ts only a few bu%es 7,edw>dsia1 ,br\ssonetia1 c471 f]ns1 grasses1 s$ges1 c4 ,! natives gr[ bananas 9 ! %elt] ( artificial pits1 also sug>-canes & sweet potatoes1 & keep a few goats & a l>ge /ock ( dome/ic f[ls1 & a ,tahitian comm]cial h\se bre$s cattle & %eep on ! isl&4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ,rapanui 0 discov]$ by ,davis 9 #afhf1 ?\gh x is sometimes m>k$ ,davis ,isl& on maps4 ,admiral ,roggeve5 rea*$ x on ,ea/] day #agbb2 9 #aggd ,capta9 ,cook discov]$ x anew & call$ x ,teapi or ,waihu4 ,x 0 subsequ5tly visit$ by ,la ,p]\se 7#aggf71 ,kotzebue 7#ahaf71 c4 ,at ! "t ( ,roggeve5's discov]y ! isl& probably conta9$ f #bjjj to #cjjj inhabitants ( ,polynesian race1 :o1 accord+ to _! own tradition1 came f ,rapa ,iti 7,little ,rapa7 or ,op>o1 "o ( ! ,tubuai or ,au/ral gr\p4 ,9 #ahfc a l>ge proportion ( ! inhabitants 7 kidnapp$ by ! ,p]uvians & transport$ to "w at ! guano digg+s on ! ,*9*a ,isl&s4 ,! next ye> a ,jesuit mission f ,tahiti rea*$ ! isl& & succe$$ 9 ! task ( civilization4 ,! natives1 :o numb] sc>cely "o hundr$1 are all ,*ri/ians4 ,ea/] ,isl& is fam\s = its wond]ful ar*aeological rema9s4 ,"h are f\nd imm5se plat=ms built ( l>ge cut /ones fitt$ toge!r )\t cem5t4 ,!y are g5]ally built ^u headl&s1 & on ! slope t[>ds ! sea4 ,! walls on ! seaside are1 9 "s ( ! plat=ms1 ne>ly #cj ft4 high & f #bjj to #cjj ft4 long1 by ab\t #cj ft4 wide4 ,"s ( ! squ>$ /ones are z mu* z #f ft4 long4 ,on ! l& side ( ! plat=ms !re is a broad t]race ) l>ge /one p$e/als ^u :i* once /ood colossal /one images c>v$ some:at into ! %ape ( ! human trunk4 ,on "s ( ! plat=ms !re are upw>ds ( a doz5 images1 n[ ?r[n f _! p$e/als & ly+ 9 all directions4 ,_! usual height is f #ad to #af ft41 b ! l>ge/ are #cg ft41 :ile "s are only ab\t #d ft4 ,!y are =m$ f a grey tra*ytic lava f\nd at ! ea/ end ( ! isl&4 ,! top ( ! heads ( ! images is cut flat to receive r\nd cr[ns made ( a r$di% vesicul> tuff f\nd at a crat] ab\t #h m4 di/ant f ! qu>ry :]e ! images 7 cut4 ,a numb] ( ^! cr[ns /ill lie at ! crat] app>5tly ready = removal1 "s ( ! l>ge/ be+ ov] #aj ft4 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! atlas illu/rat+ ! voyage ( ,la ,p]\se a plan ( ! isl& is giv51 ) ! position ( sev]al ( ! plat=ms4 ,two ( ! images are also repres5t$ 9 a plate4 ,"o /atue1 #h ft4 9 height & weigh+ #d tons1 0 br\ght to ,engl&1 & is n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,9 "o "p ( ! isl& are ! rema9s ( /one h\ses ne>ly #ajj ft4 long by ab\t #bj ft4 wide4 ,^! are built 9 c\rses ( l>ge flat /ones fitt$ toge!r )\t cem5t1 ! walls be+ ab\t #e ft4 ?ick & ov] #e ft4 high4 ,!y are l9$ on ! inside ) upright slabs1 on :i* are pa9t$ geometrical figures & repres5tations ( animals4 ,! ro(s are =m$ by plac+ slabs s t ea* c\rse ov]laps ! l[] "o until ! op5+ becomes ab\t #e ft4 wide1 :5 x is cov]$ ) flat slabs rea*+ f "o side to ! o!r4 ,! lava rocks ne> ! h\ses are c>v$ into ! resemblance ( v>i\s animals & human faces1 =m+1 probably1 a k9d ( picture writ+4 ,wood5 tablets cov]$ ) v>i\s signs & figures h also be5 f\nd4 ,! only anci5t implem5t discov]$ on ! isl& is a k9d ( /one *isel1 b x seems impossible t su* l>ge & num]\s works c\ld h be5 execut$ ) su* a tool4 ,! pres5t inhabitants ( ,ea/] ,isl& "k no?+ ( ! con/ruction ( ^! rem>kable works2 & ! entire subject ( _! exi/5ce 9 ?is small & remote isl& is a my/]y4 ,,ea/]n ,,b5gal ,,& ,,assam1 a prov9ce ( ,briti% ,india1 :i* 0 con/itut$ out ( ,assam & ! ea/]n portion ( ,b5gal on ! #af? ( ,octob] #aije4 ,area #aaa1efi sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija7 #cj1ifa1dei4 ,x is situat$ betwe5 #bj deg4 #de' & #bh deg4 #ag' ,n41 & betwe5 #hg deg4 #dh' & #ig deg4 #e' ,e4 ,! prov9ce1 z ?us recon/itut$1 consi/s ( ! ,b5gal di/ricts ( ,dacca1 ,mym5s+h1 ,f>idpur1 ,back]gunje1 ,tipp]a1 ,noakhali1 ,*ittagong1 ,*ittagong ,hill ,tracts1 ,raj%ahi1 ,d9ajpur1 ,jalpaiguri1 ,rangpur1 ,bogra1 ,pabna1 ,malda1 & ! native /ates ( ,ku* ,beh> & ,hill ,tipp]a2 & ! :ole ( ! =m] area ( ,assam consi/+ ( ! di/ricts ( ,goalp>a1 ,kamrup1 ,d>rang1 ,n[gong1 ,sibsag>1 ,lakhimpur1 ,sylhet1 ,ca*>1 ,g>o ,hills1 ,khasi & ,ja9tia ,hills1 ,naga ,hills & ,lu%ai ,hills4 ,x is b\nd$ on ! ,n4 by ,bhutan1 on ! ,w4 by ,burma1 on ! ,s4 by ,burma & ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 & on ! ,e4 by ,b5gal4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ,b5gal & ! new prov9ce beg9s at ! fronti] ( ,bhutan1 ea/ ( ,d>jeel+1 runs s\?-we/ to ,sahibganj on ! ,ganges & !nce foll[s ! c\rse ( ! ,ganges d[n to ! deltaic bran*1 call$ ! ,h>+hata1 :i* leaves ! ma9 /ream above ,goal&a1 & ! c\rse ( ! latt]1 :i* runs s\? into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,! capital ( ! prov9ce is ,dacca1 & its *ief port is ,*ittagong4 ,! ,b5gal di/ricts :i* 7 transf]r$ to ,ea/]n ,b5gal & ,assam compris$ nor!rn & ea/]n ,b5gal1 ! mo/ prosp]\s & lea/ ov]cr[d$ portion ( ,b5gal4 ,! l& !re is less d5sely populat$1 wages are high] & food *eap]1 & ! ra9fall m copi\s & m regul>1 :ile ! /aple crops ( jute1 tobacco & rice comm& a high] price relative to ! r5t ( ! l& ?an 9 ,beh> or o!r p>ts ( ,b5gal4 ,! population are l>gely ,mahomm$ans & ( a m virile /ock ?an ! ,b5gali prop]4 ,nor!rn ,b5gal corresponds almo/ exactly ) ! ,raj%ahi division & lies )9 ! b\nd>ies ( ! ,ganges & ,brahmaputra riv]s4 ,x conta9s mu* high l& ( a /iff r$ clay1 ) an undulat+ surface cov]$ = ! mo/ "p ) scrub jungle4 ,! inhabitants are ,indo-,*9ese1 n ,indo-,aryans z 9 ,b5gal prop]1 & are ,mahomm$an by religion in/ead ( ,h9du4 ,ea/]n ,b5gal consi/s ( ! ,dacca & ,*ittagong divisions :i* are ma9ly ,b5gali 9 race & ,h9du 9 religion4 ,= ! ,assamese di/ricts see ,,assam4 ,! prov9ce z a :ole conta9s #ah1jcf1fhh ,mahomm$ans & #ab1jcf1ech ,h9dus4 ,9 language #bg1bgb1hie ( ! inhabitants speak ,b5gali1 #a1cdi1ghd speak ,assamese1 & ! rema9d] ,h9di & v>i\s hill dialects1 ,manipuri1 ,bodo1 ,khasi & ,g>o4 ,! adm9i/ration is 9 ! h&s ( a lieut5ant-gov]nor1 assi/$ by a legislative c\ncil ( fifte5 memb]s4 ,"u him are five commission]s1 & f9ancial matt]s are regulat$ by a bo>d ( rev5ue consi/+ ( two memb]s4 ,! con/itution ( ! new prov9ce arose out ( ! fact t ,b5gal _h gr[n too unwieldy = ! adm9i/ration ( a s+le lieut5ant-gov]nor4 ,9 #ahfh ,sir ,/af=d ,nor?cote drew att5tion to ! greatly augm5t$ dem&s t ! outly+ portions ( ,b5gal made on ! "t & lab\r ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,at t "t ! population ( ! prov9ce 0 betwe5 #dj & #ej millions1 & ! "q 0 left 9 abeyance until #aijc1 :5 ! population _h ris5 to #gha_/b millions4 ,9 ! meantime ! importance ( r5d]+ ,assam a self-conta9$ & indep5d5t adm9i/ration ) a s]vice ( its own1 & ( provid+ = its future comm]cial expansion1 _h aris54 ,^! two consid]ations l$ ,"l ,curzon to propose t ,b5gal %\ld be lopp$ ( t]ritory bo? on its ea/]n & we/]n bord]s1 & t all ! di/ricts ea/ ( ! ,brahmaputra %\ld be con/itut$ into a sep>ate prov9ce4 ,?is proposal 0 bitt]ly oppos$ by ! ,h9dus ( ,b5gal on ! gr\nd t x w\ld de/roy ! unity ( ! ,b5gali race2 & _! agitation 0 associat$ ) ! ,swade%i 7own c\ntry7 movem5t = ! boycott ( ,briti% goods4 ,aft] ! con/itution ( ! prov9ce 9 ,octob] #aije1 ! agitation 9 ,ea/]n ,b5gal increas$4 ,public meet+s ( prote/ 7 held1 v]nacul> broad%eets conta9+ sc&al\s attacks on ! ,briti% au?orities 7 circulat$1 s*oolboys & o!rs 7 organiz$ & drill$ z s-call$ national volunte]s1 & employ$ z pickets to prev5t ! sale ( ,briti% goods4 ,su* 0 ! /ate ( ?+s :5 ,sir ,j4 ,bampfylde ,full] ent]$ on 8 (fice z fir/ lieut5ant-gov]nor ( ,ea/]n ,b5gal 9 ,janu>y #aijf4 ,8 reception 0 om9\s4 ,repres5tative bodies t 7 dom9at$ by ,h9dus refus$ to vote ! usual addresses ( welcome1 & non-(ficial ,h9dus ab/a9$ f pay+ ! cu/om>y calls4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 no fur!r ov]t signs ( objection to ! lieut5ant-gov]nor p]sonally1 & aft] a mon? or two--9 spite (1 or p]haps because (1 8 ef=ts to re/ra9 s$ition & to keep discipl9e 9 ! s*ools--!re 0 a decid$ *ange 9 ! attitude ( ,h9du op9ion4 ,at ,dacca1 9 ,july1 = in/ance1 ! reception at ,gov]nm5t ,h\se 0 att5d$ by l>ge numb]s ( ,b5gali g5tlem51 :o assur$ ! lieut5ant-gov]nor t ! tr\ble 0 ne>ly end$4 ,! agitation 01 9 fact1 l>gely artificial1 ! "w ( ,calcutta lawy]s1 j\rnali/s & s*oolma/]s2 ! mass ( ! p1 naturally law-abid+1 0 unmov$ by x s long z ! gov]nm5t %[$ a firm h&2 :ile ! ,mussulmans1 :o =m$ a l>ge proportion ( ! :ole1 saw 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! p>tition & ( ! pre/ige ( ! ,briti% gov]nm5t ! gu>antees ( _! own security4 ,all seem$ to be go+ well :5 an un=tunate diff]5ce ( op9ion occurr$ betwe5 ! lieut5ant-gov]nor & ! c5tral gov]nm5t1 result+ 9 ! resignation ( ,sir ,bampfylde ,full] 7,augu/ #aijf7 & 9 ult]ior consequ5ces de/9$ to be ( f>-rea*+ import4 ,! facts are briefly z foll[s4 ,act+ on a report ( ,dr ,p4 ,*att]ji1 inspector ( s*ools1 dat$ ,janu>y #b1 #aijf1 ! lieut5ant-gov]nor1 on ! #aj? ( ,febru>y1 address$ a lett] to ! regi/r> ( ,calcutta ,univ]sity recomm5d+ t ! privilege ( affiliation to ! univ]sity %\ld be )drawn f ! ,banw>ilal & ,victoria high s*ools at ,sirajganj 9 ,pabna1 z a puni%m5t = ! s$iti\s conduct ( bo? pupils & tea*]s4 ,ap>t f num]\s cases ( illegal int]f]5ce ) trade & ( disord] 9 ! /reets report$ aga9/ ! /ud5ts1 two specific outrages ( a s]i\s "* 7 in/anc$ z hav+ occurr$ on ! #ae? ( ,novemb]3 ! raid+ ( a c>t lad5 ) ,engli% clo? belong+ to ,m>w>i trad]s1 & a c[>dly assault by "s #dj or #ej lads on ! ,engli% manag] ( ! ,bank ( ,b5gal4 ,^! outrages 7 n ! result ( ?\ghtlessness or sudd5 excitem5t1 b 7 ! outcome ( a regul>ly organiz$ s*eme1 set on foot & guid$ by ! ma/]s ( ^! s*ools1 = employ+ ! /ud5ts 9 en=c+ a boycott4 ,all attempts to discov] & puni% ! (f5d]s _h be5 fru/rat$ by ! refusal ( ! s*ool au?orities to take action1 & 9 ! op9ion ( ! lieut5ant-gov]nor ! only c\rse op5 0 to apply ! rem$y sugge/$ 9 ! circul> lett] address$ to magi/rates & collectors 7,octob] #aj1 #aije7 by ,mr ,r4,w4 ,c>lyle1 ! (ficiat+ *ief secret>y to ! gov]nm5t ( ,b5gal1 direct+ !m1 9 ! ev5t ( /ud5ts tak+ any "p 9 political agitation1 boycott+ & ! l1 to in=m ! heads ( s*ools or colleges conc]n$ t1 unless !y prev5t$ su* action be+ tak5 by ! boys att5d+ _! in/itutions1 _! grant-9-aid & ! privilege ( compet+ = s*ol>%ips & ( receiv+ s*ol>%ip-hold]s w\ld be )drawn1 & t ! univ]sity w\ld be ask$ to disaffiliate _! in/itutions4 ,! reply1 dat$ ,july #e?1 f ! secret>y 9 ! home dep>tm5t ( ! gov]nm5t ( ,india1 0--to use ,sir ,bampfylde's own lat] expression--to ?r[ him ov]4 ,x 0 likely t a diff]5ce ( op9ion 9 ! syndicate ( ! univ]sity w\ld arise z to ! degree ( culpability t atta*$ to ! proprietors ( ! s*ools2 9 ! ev5t ( ! syndicate tak+ any punitive action1 ! matt] 0 c]ta9 to be rais$ 9 ! s5ate1 & w\ld lead to an acrimoni\s public discussion1 9 :i* ! p>tition ( ,b5gal & ! adm9i/ration ( ! new prov9ce w\ld be viol5tly attack$2 & 9 ! actual /ate ( public op9ion 9 ,b5gal x seem$ to ! gov]nm5t ( ,india highly inexp$i5t t su* a debate %\ld take place4 ,collective puni%m5t1 too1 w\ld be liable to be miscon/ru$ 9 ,engl&1 & ! gov]nm5t pref]r$ to rely on ! gradual effect ( ! new univ]sity regulations1 :i* aim$ at disc\rag+ ! p>ticipation ( /ud5ts 9 political movem5ts by en=c+ ! responsibility ( ma/]s & ! manag+ committees ( s*ools = ma9ta9+ discipl9e4 ,on receipt ( ?is communication ,sir ,bampfylde ,full] at once t5d]$ 8 resignation to ! vic]oy 7,july #ae74 ,he po9t$ out t to )draw f ! position tak5 up w\ld be concession1 n 9 ! int]e/s ( education1 b to ^? p 9 ,calcutta :o h be5 /riv+ to r5d] my gov]nm5t impossible1 9 ord] to discr$it ! p>tition2 t previ\s concessions _h _h m]ely provocative effects1 & t 7 he to give way 9 ?is matt] 8 au?ority w\ld be s weak5$ t he w\ld be unable to ma9ta9 ord] 9 ! c\ntry4 ,on ! #crd ( ,augu/1 aft] "s days ( delib]ation1 ! vic]oy telegraph$ say+ t he 0 unable to reconsid] ! ord]s s5t1 & accept+ ,sir ,bampfylde's resignation4 ,by ! ,anglo-,indian press ! news 0 receiv$ ) some?+ l con/]nation1 ! ,times ( ,india describ+ ! resignation z "o ( ! grave/ blund]s ev] committ$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,briti% rule 9 ,india1 & z a direct inc5tive to ! =ces ( disquiet1 di/urbance & unre/4 ,equally emphatic 0 ! v]dict ( ! ,mussulman community =m+ two-?irds ( ! population ( ,ea/]n ,b5gal4 ,on ! #g? ( ,augu/1 ! day ( ,sir ,bampfylde ,full]'s dep>ture f ,dacca1 a mass-meet+ ( #cj1jjj ,mahomm$ans 0 held1 :i* plac$ on record _! disapproval ( a sy/em ( gov]nm5t :i* ma9ta9s no cont9uity ( policy1 & express$ its feel+ t ! l[]+ ( ,briti% pre/ige mu/ ali5ate ! sympa?y ( a num]ically important & loyal section ( ,8 ,maje/y's subjects2 & _m meet+s ( ,mussulmans subsequ5tly pass$ resolutions to ! same g5]al effect4 ,! ,akhb>-i-,islam1 ! organ ( ,bombay ,mussulman op9ion1 deplor$ ! unwise /ep tak5 by ! gov]nm5t1 & ascrib$ x to ,"l ,m9to's fe> ( ! ,babu press1 a display ( weakness ( :i* ! ,babus w\ld n be sl[ to take advantage4 ,?is latt] prophecy 0 n sl[ 9 fulfill+ itself4 ,s e>ly z ! #h? ( ,augu/ ,calcutta 0 ! sc5e ( sev]al l>ge demon/rations at :i* ! ,swade%i v[ 0 r5ew$1 & at :i* resolutions 7 pass$ decl9+ to accept ! p>tition z a settl$ fact1 & resolv+ on ! cont9uance ( ! agitation4 ,! tone ( ! ,babu press 0 op5ly exultant3 ,we h read ! famili> /ory ( ! ,russian travell] & ! wolves1 said a lead+ ,indian newspap] 9 ,calcutta4 ,! ,briti% gov]nm5t foll[s a simil> policy4 ,fir/ ! little babies 7 (f]$ up 9 ! %ape ( ! ,b&e ,mat>am circul> & ! ,c>lyle circul>4 ,n[ a bigg] boy has gone 9 ! p]son ( our own ,joseph4 ,c\rage1 !re=e1 ,o wolves6 ,press on & ! horse w soon be y\rs to dev\r6 ,aft]w>ds ! travell] himself w alone be left4#a ,! task be=e ! new lieut5ant-gov]nor ( ,ea/]n ,b5gal1 ! ,hon4 ,l4 ,h>e1 0 obvi\sly no easy "o4 ,! enc\ragem5t giv5 to s$ition by ! weakness ( ! gov]nm5t 9 ?is case 0 %[n by lat] ev5ts 9 ,b5gal & else:]e 7see ,,india3 ,hi/ory1 ad f9474 ,= ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! v>i\s portions ( ! prov9ce see ,,b5gal & ,,assam4 ,see ,sir ,james ,b\rdillon1 ,! ,p>tition ( ,b5gal 7,society ( ,arts1 #aije72 (ficial blue-books on ,! ,recon/itution ( ! ,prov9ces ( ,b5gal & ,assam 7,cd4 #bfeh & #bgdf71 & ,resignation ( ,sir ,j4 ,bampfylde ,full]1 lieut5ant-gov]nor1 c4 7,cd4 #cbdb74 ,a long lett] f ,sir ,j4,b4 ,full]1 head$ ,j'accuse1 attack+ ! g5]al policy ( ! ,indian gov]nm5t 9 reg>d to ! s$iti\s propag&a1 appe>$ 9 ,! ,times ( ,june #f1 #aijh4 ,,footnote3 #a ,quot$ by ,mr ,f4,s4,p4 ,lely 9 ,! ,times ( ,novemb] #bb1 #aijf4 ,,ea/]n ,,"q1 ,,!1 ! expression us$ 9 diplomacy f ab\t ! "t ( ! congress ( ,v]ona 7#ahbb7 to compreh5d ! int]national problems involv$ 9 ! decay ( ! ,turki% empire & its suppos$ imp5d+ dissolution4 ,! ess5tial que/ions t are involv$ are s old t hi/orians commonly speak ( ! ,ea/]n ,"q 9 ref]5ce to ev5ts t happ5$ long be=e ! actual phrase 0 co9$4 ,b1 :]ev] us$1 x is always ! ,turki% ,"q1 ! g5]ic t]m 9 :i* subsidi>y issues1 e4g4 ! ,greek1 ,arm5ian or ,mac$onian que/ions1 are embrac$4 ,t a phrase ( s wide & loose a nature %\ld h be5 /]eotyp$ 9 s n>r[ a s5se is simply ! outcome ( ! conditions "u :i* x 0 inv5t$4 ,to ! ,european diplomati/s ( ! fir/ half ( ! #ai? c5tury ! ,ottoman empire 0 /ill ! only ,ea/ ) :i* !y 7 collectively br\ght into contact4 ,! rivalry ( ,great ,brita9 & ,russia 9 ,p]sia _h n yet rais$ ! "q ( ! ,middle ,ea/2 /ill less any ambitions ( ,g]many 9 ! ,euphrates valley4 ,! imm5se & incalculable problems involv$ 9 ! rise ( ,japan1 ! awak5+ ( ,*9a1 & _! relations to ! ,european p[]s & to ,am]ica--kn[n z ! ,f> ,ea/]n ,"q--are comp>atively b affairs ( ye/]day4 ,! ,ea/]n ,"q1 ?\gh its roots are set f> back 9 hi/ory--9 ! anci5t conte/ betwe5 ! political & intellectual ideals ( ,greece & ,asia1 & 9 ! p]5nial rivalry ( ! p[]s = ! control ( ! great trade r\tes to ! ,ea/--dates 9 its mod]n s5se f ! treaty ( ,ku*uk ,ka9>ji 9 #aggd1 :i* m>k$ ! def9itive e/abli%m5t ( ,russia z a ,black ,sea p[] & =m$ ! basis ( h] special claims to int]f]e 9 ! affairs ( ! ,ottoman empire4 ,! compact betwe5 ,napoleon & ! emp]or ,alex&] ,i4 at ,tilsit 7#ahjg7 m>k$ a new phase1 :i* culm9at$ 9 #ahab 9 ! treaty ( ,bu*>e/1 9 :i* ,russia def9itely appe>$ z ! protector ( ! ,*ri/ian nationalities subject to ! ,ottoman sultan4 ,! attitude ( ! v>i\s p[]s 9 ! ,ea/]n ,"q 0 n[ def9$4 ,russia1 ap>t f h] desire to protect ! ,or?odox nationalities subject to ! ,ottoman p[]1 aim$ at own+ or controll+ ! /raits by :i* alone %e c\ld f9d an outlet to ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ocean beyond4 ,au/ria1 once ! *ampion ( ,europe aga9/ ! ,turk1 saw 9 ! ,russian advance on ! ,danube a great] p]il ?an any to be fe>$ f ! moribund ,ottoman p[]1 & made ! ma9t5ance ( ! integrity ( ,turkey a prime object ( h] policy4 ,%e 0 ?us br\ght into l9e ) ,great ,brita91 ^: traditional fri5d%ip ) ,turkey 0 /r5g!n$ by ! rise ( a new p[] ^: rapid advance ?reat5$ ! /ability ( ,briti% rule 9 ,india4 ,b ?\gh ,au/ria1 ,great ,brita9 & pres5tly ,france1 7 all equally int]e/$ 9 ma9ta9+ ! ,ottoman empire1 ! failure ( ! congress ( ,vi5na 9 #ahae to take action 9 ! matt] ( a gu>antee ( ,turkey1 & ! exclusion ( ! ,sultan f ! ,holy ,alliance1 seem$ to endorse ! claim ( ,russia to reg>d ! ,ea/]n ,"q z h] dome/ic conc]n 9 :i* ,europe _h no "r to int]f]e4 ,! revolt ( ! ,greeks 7#ahba7 put ?is claim to ! te/2 by ! treaty ( ,adrianople 7#ahbi7 ,russia /ipulat$ = _! autonomy z "p ( ! price ( peace1 b ! p[]s assembl$ 9 conf]5ce at ,london refus$ to recognize ?is settlem5t1 & ! e/abli%m5t ( ,greece z an indep5d5t k+dom 7#ahcb7 0 really aim$ at ! pret5sions & ! influ5ce ( ,russia4 ,^! rea*$ _! high-wat] m>k 9 ! treaty ( ,unki> ,skelessi 7,july #h?1 #ahcb74 ,x 0 no long] a "q ( ! p>tition ( ,turkey or ( a ,russian conque/ ( ,con/ant9ople1 b ( ! delib]ate degradation by ,russia ( ! ,ottoman empire into a weak /ate :olly dep5d5t ^u h]self4 ,! t5 ye>s' crisis 7#ahca-ahda7 evok$ by ! revolt ( ,mehemet ,ali1 pa%a ( ,egypt1 ?us resolv$ itself into a diplomatic /ruggle betwe5 ,russia & ! o!r p[]s to ma9ta9 or to recov] influ5ce at ,con/ant9ople4 ,! ,russian exp]im5t ( ma9ta9+ ! integrity ( ,turkey :ile practically treat+ h] z a vassal /ate1 end$ ) ! compromise ( #ahda2 & ! emp]or ,ni*olas ,i4 rev]t$ to ! old] idea ( expell+ ! ,turks f ,europe4 ,! ,ea/]n ,"q1 h[ev]1 slumb]$ until1 9 #ahea1 ! matt] ( ! ,holy ,places 0 rais$ by ,napoleon ,,iii41 involv+ ! :ole "q ( ! influ5ce 9 ,ottoman affairs ( ,france "u ! capitulations ( #agdj & ( ,russia "u ! treaty ( #aggd4 ,! ,crimean ,w> foll[$ & 9 #ahef ! treaty ( ,p>is1 by :i* ! p[]s hop$ to /em ! tide ( ,russian advance & e/abli% ! integrity ( a re=m$ ,ottoman /ate4 ,turkey 0 n[ = ! fir/ "t solemnly admitt$ to ! ,european conc]t4 ,! next critical phase 0 op5$ 9 #ahga1 :5 ,russia took advantage ( ! collapse ( ,france to d5\nce ! ,black ,sea clauses ( ! treaty ( #ahef4 ,! r5ewal ( an aggressive policy ?us ann\nc$ to ! _w soon produc$ a new crisis 9 ! ,ea/]n ,"q1 :i* _h mean:ile become complicat$ by ! gr[? ( ,pan-,slav ideals 9 ea/]n ,europe4 ,9 #ahge a ris+ 9 ,h]zegov9a gave evid5ce ( a /ate ( feel+ 9 ! ,balkan p59sula :i* call$ = ! int]v5tion ( ,europe1 if a disa/r\s w> 7 to be prev5t$4 ,b ?is int]v5tion1 embodi$ 9 ! ,&rassy ,note 7,decemb] #ahge7 & ! ,b]l9 memor&um 7,may #ahgf71 met ) ! /ubborn opposition ( ,turkey1 :]e ! "y ,turks 7 beg9n+ to oppose a ,pan-,islamic to ! ,pan-,slav ideal4 ,! ,russo-,turki% ,w> ( #ahgg-gh foll[$1 conclud$ by ! treaty ( ,san ,/efano1 ! t]ms ( :i* 7 modifi$ 9 ,turkey's fav\r by ! congress ( ,b]l9 7#ahgh71 :i* m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! lat] phase ( ! ,ea/]n ,"q4 ,betwe5 ,russia & ,turkey x int]pos$1 9 effect1 a b>ri] ( indep5d5t 7,rumania1 ,s]via7 & quasi-indep5d5t 7,bulg>ia7 /ates1 erect$ ) ! c\nsel & cons5t ( collective ,europe4 ,x ?us1 :ile o/5sibly weak5+1 actually t5d$ to /r5g!n ! ,ottoman p[] ( resi/ance4 ,! p]iod foll[+ ! treaty ( ,b]l9 is co9cid5t ) ! reign ( ,sultan ,abd-ul-,hamid ,,ii4 ,! int]national position ( ! ,ottoman empire 0 /r5g!n$ by ! able1 if ,ma*iavellian1 /atecraft ( ! sultan2 :ile ! dang] ( disruption f )9 0 less5$ by ! m effective c5tral control made possible by railways1 telegraphs1 & ! o!r me*anical improvem5ts borr[$ f we/]n civilization4 ,) ! spread ( ! ,pan-,islamic movem5t1 moreov]1 ! undef9$ au?ority ( ! sultan z caliph ( ,islam receiv$ a fre% importance ev5 9 c\ntries beyond ! bord]s ( ! ,ottoman empire1 :ile 9 c\ntries =m]ly1 or nom9ally /ill1 subject to x1 x caus$1 & promis$ to cause1 incalculable tr\ble4 ,! ,ea/]n ,"q ?us develop$1 9 ! latt] ye>s ( ! #ai? c5tury1 f t ( ! problems rais$ by ! imp5d+ break-up ( a moribund empire1 into ! ev5 m complex "q ( h[ to deal ) an empire :i* %[$ vigor\s evid5ce ( life1 b ( a type ( life :i*1 ?\gh on all sides 9 close t\* ) mod]n ,european civilization1 0 incapable ( be+ br\ght into h>mony ) x4 ,! belief 9 ! imm95t collapse ( ! ,ottoman dom9ion 0 weak5$ almo/ to ext9ction2 s 0 ! belief1 :i* inspir$ ! treaty ( #ahef1 9 ! capacity ( ,turkey to re=m & develop itself on ,european l9es4 ,b ! ,ottoman empire rema9$1 ! mi/ress ( va/ undevelop$ weal?4 ,! rema9+ phase ( ! ,ea/]n ,"q1 if we except ! conc]t$ ef=ts to impose good gov]nm5t on ,mac$onia 9 ! int]e/s ( ,european peace1 or ! side issues 9 ,egypt & ,arabia1 0 ! rivalry ( ! progressive nations = ! "r to exploit ?is weal?4 ,9 ?is rivalry ,g]many1 ^: int]e/ 9 ,turkey ev5 s late z ! congress ( ,b]l9 _h be5 :olly subord9ate1 took a lead+ "p1 unhamp]$ by ! traditional policies or ! humanit>ian consid]ations by :i* ! int]e/s ( ! old] p[]s 7 prejudic$4 ,! motives ( ,g]man int]v5tion 9 ! ,ea/]n ,"q 7 o/5sibly comm]cial2 b ! ,bagdad railway concession1 po/ulat+ = its ultimate success ! control ( ! trade r\te by way ( ! ,euphrates valley1 involv$ political issues ( ! highe/ mom5t & op5$ up a new & p]il\s phase ( ! "q ( ! ,middle ,ea/4 ,?is 0 ! position :5 9 #aijh an entirely new situation 0 creat$ by ! ,turki% revolution4 ,z ! result ( ! pati5t & ma/]ly organization ( ! "y ,turks1 comb9$ ) ! univ]sal discont5t ) ! rule ( ! sultan & ! palace cam>illa1 ! impossible seem$ to be a*iev$1 & ! het]og5e\s elem5ts compos+ ! ,ottoman empire to be unit$ 9 ! desire to e/abli% a unifi$ /ate on ! con/itutional model ( ! ,we/4 ,! result on ! int]national situation 0 pr(\nd4 ,great ,brita9 ha/5$ to re-knit ! bonds ( h] anci5t fri5d%ip ) ,turkey2 ! p[]s1 )\t exception1 pr(ess$ _! sympa?y ) ! new regime4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a unit$ ,turkey on a con/itutional & nationali/ basis 01 h[ev]1 n sl[ 9 produc+ a fre% complication 9 ! ,ea/]n ,"q4 ,soon] or lat] ! issue 0 sure to be rais$ ( ! /atus ( ^? c\ntries1 /ill nom9ally "p ( ! ,ottoman empire1 b 9 effect indep5d5t1 l ,bulg>ia1 or subject to ano!r /ate1 l ,bosnia & ,h]zegov9a4 ,! cutt+ ( ! ,gordian knot by ,au/ria's annexation ( ,bosnia & ,h]zegov9a1 & by ! proclamation ( ! indep5d5ce ( ,bulg>ia1 & ( ,pr9ce ,f]d9&'s assumption ( ! old title ( ts> 7k+71 ?reat5$ to raise ! ,ea/]n ,"q once m 9 its acute/ =m4 ,! int]national conc]t def9$ 9 ! treaty ( ,b]l9 _h be5 rudely %ak51 if n de/roy$2 ! d5unciation by ,au/ria1 )\t consult+ h] co-signatories1 ( ! clauses ( ! treaty affect+ h]self seem$ to invalidate all ! re/2 & 9 ! abs5ce ( ! re/ra9+ =ce ( a unit$ conc]t ( ! great p[]s1 free play seem$ likely once m to be giv5 to ! rival ambitions ( ! ,balkan nationalities1 ! situation be+ complicat$ by ! necessity = ! dom9ant p>ty 9 ! r5ovat$ ,turki% /ate to ma9ta9 its pre/ige4 ,dur+ ! anxi\s mon?s t foll[$ ! ,au/rian c\p1 ! ef=ts ( diplomacy 7 direct$ to calm+ ! excitem5t ( ,s]vians1 ,mont5egr9s & ! ,"y ,turks1 & to consid]+ a ,european conf]5ce 9 :i* ! fait accompli %\ld be regul>iz$ 9 accordance ) ! accept$ canons ( int]national law4 ,! long delay 9 ann\nc+ ! assembly ( ! conf]5ce prov$ ! extreme difficulty ( arriv+ at any satisfactory basis ( settlem5t2 & ?\gh ! ef=ts ( ! p[]s succe$$ 9 salv+ ! w\nd$ pride ( ! ,turks1 & re/ra9+ ! impetuosity ( ! ,s]bs & ,mont5egr9s1 w>like prep>ations on ! "p ( ,au/ria cont9u$ dur+ ! w9t] ( #aijh-aiji1 be+ ju/ifi$ by ! agitation 9 ,s]via1 ,mont5egro & ! annex$ prov9ces4 ,x 0 n till ,april #aiji 7see ,,europe3 ad f947 t ! crisis 0 end$1 ?r\gh ! effectual back+ giv5 by ,g]many to ,au/ria2 & ,russia1 foll[$ by ,engl& & ,france1 gave way & ass5t$ to :at _h be5 done4 ,see ,,turkey3 ,hi/ory1 :]e cross-ref]5ces to ! articles on ! v>i\s phases ( ! ,ea/]n ,"q w be f\nd1 toge!r ) a bibliography4 ,see also ,e4 ,driault1 ,la ,"q d'ori5t depuis son orig9e 7,p>is1 #ahih71 a compreh5sive sket* ( ! :ole subject1 includ+ ! ,middle & ,f> ,ea/4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,ea/ ,,gr9/ead1 a m>ket t[n 9 ! ,ea/ ,gr9/ead p>liam5t>y division ( ,sussex1 ,engl&1 #cj m4 ,s4 by ,e4 f ,london by ! ,london1 ,brighton ,s\? ,coa/ railway4 ,pop4 ( urban di/rict 7#aija7 #fjid4 ,/ ,s)9's *ur* conta9s1 among num]\s anci5t memorials1 "o ( ! iron memorial slabs 7#aejg7 peculi> to c]ta9 *ur*es ( ,sussex1 & recall+ ! p]iod :5 iron 0 ext5sively work$ 9 ! di/rict4 ,!re may be notic$ ,sackville ,college 7an alm%\se f\nd$ 9 #afjh71 & ,/ ,m>g>et's home & orphanage1 f\nd$ by ! ,rev4 ,john ,mason ,neale 7#ahah-ahff71 w>d5 ( ,sackville ,college4 ,brew+ & brick & tile mak+ are c>ri$ on4 ,9 ! vic9ity 7ne> ,=e/ ,r[ /ation7 is ! golf c\rse ( ! ,royal ,a%d[n ,=e/ ,golf ,club4 ,! hundr$ ( ,ea/ ,gr9/ead 7,gr5e/$e1 ,e/gr5/$7 0 9 ! possession ( ! c\nt ( ,morta9 9 #ajhf1 b no m5tion ( a vill or manor ( ,ea/ ,gr9/ead is made 9 ! ,domesday ,survey4 ,9 ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,iii4 ! hundr$ 0 "p ( ! hon\r ( ,aquila1 !n 9 ! k+'s h&s4 ,! hon\r 0 grant$ by him to ,pet] ( ,savoy1 ?r\gh :om x pass$ to 8 niece ,que5 ,eleanor4 ,9 ! next reign ! k+'s "m held ! bor\gh ( ,ea/ ,gr9/ead z p>cel ( ! hon\r ( ,aquila4 ,ea/ ,gr9/ead 0 includ$ 9 a grant by ,edw>d ,,iii4 to ,john ( ,gaunt1 duke ( ,lanca/]1 & x rema9$ "p ( ! du*y ( ,lanca/] until ,james ,i4 grant$ ! bor\gh to ,sir ,george ,riv]s1 ?r\gh :om x 0 obta9$ by ! ,sackvilles1 e>ls ( ,dorset4 ,ea/ ,gr9/ead 0 a bor\gh by prescription4 ,9 ! #af? c5tury x 0 gov]n$ by an ald]man1 bailiff & con/able4 ,x return$ two memb]s to p>liam5t f #acjg until #ahcb1 b 0 dis5fran*is$ by ! ,re=m ,act4 ,9 #abhe ! k+ ord]$ t 8 m>ket at ,gr5e/$e %\ld be held on ,saturday in/ead ( ,sunday1 & 9 #aeaf ! inhabitants ( ! t[n 7 grant$ a m>ket ea* week on ,saturday & a fair e ye> on ! eve ( ,/ ,&rew & two days foll[+4 ,*>les ,i4 grant$ ! e>l ( ,dorset a m>ket on ,?ursday in/ead ( ! ,saturday m>ket1 & fairs on ! #af? ( ,april & ! #bf? ( ,septemb] e ye>4 ,?ursday is /ill ! m>ket-day1 & cattle-fairs are n[ held on ! #ba/ ( ,april & ! #aa? ( ,decemb]4 ,,ea/ ,,ham1 a municipal bor\gh 9 ! s\!rn p>liam5t>y division ( ,essex1 ,engl&1 contigu\s to ,we/ ,ham1 & ?us =m+ geographically "p ( ! ea/w>d ext5sion ( ,london4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #if1jah4 ,its mod]n gr[? has be5 v rapid1 ! population be+ 9 ! ma9 ( ! artisan class4 ,!re are "s *emical & o!r factories4 ,! anci5t p>i% *ur* ( ,/ ,m>y ,magdal5 reta9s ,norman "w 9 ! *ancel1 :i* t]m9ates 9 an ea/]n apse4 ,!re is a monum5t = ,edmund ,neville :o claim$ ! e>ldom ( ,we/morl& 9 ! #ag? c5tury1 & ,william ,/ukeley1 ! antiqu>y1 0 buri$ 9 ! *ur*y>d4 ,ea/ ,ham 0 incorporat$ 9 #aijd1 & among its municipal und]tak+s is a te*nical college 7#aije74 ,! corporation consi/s ( a mayor1 #f ald]m5 & #ah c\ncillors4 ,area1 #ccbja_/b acres4 ,,ea/hampton1 a t[n%ip ( ,hamp%ire c\nty1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a41 9 ! ,connecticut ,valley4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #efjc1 ( :om #agca 7 =eign-born2 7#aije7 #fhjh2 7#aiaj7 #hebd4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,bo/on ,ma9e1 & ! ,new ,york1 ,new ,hav5 ,h>t=d railways1 & by int]urban electric railways4 ,! t[n%ip is g5]ally level1 & is surr\nd$ by high hills4 ,9 ,ea/hampton are a free public libr>y & ,willi/on ,sem9>y2 ! latt]1 "o ( ! olde/ & l>ge/ prep>atory s*ools 9 ,new ,engl&1 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahda by ! gifts ( ,samuel ,willi/on 7#agie-ahgd7 & ,emily ,graves ,willi/on 7#agig-ahhe74 ,mr & ,mrs ,willi/on built up ! indu/ry ( cov]+ buttons ) clo?1 at fir/ do+ ! "w by h&1 !n 7#ahbg7 exp]im5t+ ) ma*9]y1 & 9 #ahdh build+ a factory = mak+ & cov]+ buttons4 ,z ! soil 0 f]tile & well wat]$1 ! t[n%ip _h be5 agricultural up to ?is "t4 ,x is n[ *iefly devot$ to manufactur+4 ,among its products are cotton goods1 especially m]c]is$ goods1 = ! manufacture ( :i* x has "o ( ! l>ge/ plants 9 ! c\ntry2 rubb]1 ?read1 ela/ic fabrics1 susp5d]s & buttons4 ,p>ts ( ,nor?ampton & ,s\?ampton 7 incorporat$ z ! di/rict ( ,ea/hampton 9 #aghe2 x became a t[n%ip 9 #ahji1 & 9 #ahda & #ahej annex$ p>ts ( ,s\?ampton4 ,,ea/ ,,hampton1 a t[n%ip ( ,suffolk c\nty1 ,new ,york1 9 ! extreme ,s4,e4 "p ( ,long ,isl&1 occupy+ ! p59sula ( ,montauk1 & b\nd$ on ! ,s4 & ,e4 by ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 & on ! ,n4 by ,block ,isl& ,s\nd1 ,g>d9]'s ,bay & ,peconic ,bay4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #cgdf2 7#aije7 #dcjc2 7#aiaj7 #dgbb4 ,! t[n%ip1 #be m4 long & #h m4 at its greate/ wid? f nor? to s\?1 has an irregul> nor? coa/-l9e & a v regul> s\? coa/-l9e4 ,! surface is r\gh] to ! we/ :]e !re are sev]al l>ge lakes1 notably ,great ,pond1 #b m4 long4 ,! sc5]y is picturesque & ! t[n%ip is mu* frequ5t$ by arti/s4 ,montauk ,ligh?\se1 on ,turtle ,hill1 0 fir/ built 9 #agie4 ,at ,montauk1 aft] ! ,spani%-,am]ican ,w>1 0 ,camp ,wik(f1 a l>ge ,u4,s4 milit>y camp4 ,! t[n%ip is s]v$ by ! s\!rn division ( ! ,long ,isl& railway1 ! t]m9us ( :i* is ,montauk4 ,o!r villages ( ! t[n%ip1 all summ] resorts1 are3 ,promis$ ,l&1 ,amagansett1 ,ea/ ,hampton & ,sag ,h>bor2 ! la/ nam$1 only p>tly 9 ! t[n%ip1 0 incorporat$ 9 #ahjc & _h a population ( #aifi 9 #aijj1 & #cjhd 9 #aiaj4 ,silv]w>e & wat* cases are manufactur$ "h4 ,f ,sag ,h>bor1 :i* is a port ( entry1 a daily /eam] runs to ,new ,york city4 ,! village receiv$ _m gifts 9 #aijf-aijh f ,mrs ,russell ,sage4 ,mo/ ( ! pres5t t[n%ip 0 b\ght f ! ,indians 7,montauks1 ,cor*augs & ,%9necocks7 9 #afdh = ab\t ,l#cj1 ?r\gh ! gov]nors ( ,connecticut & ,new ,hav51 by n9e ,massa*usetts freem51 mo/ly inhabitants ( ,lynn1 ,massa*usetts4 ,) tw5ty o!r families !y settl$ "h 9 #afdi1 call+ ! place ,maid/one1 f ! old home ( "s ( ! settl]s 9 ,k5t2 b z e>ly z #afej ! "n ,ea/ ,hampton 0 us$ 9 ref]5ce to ! e>li] settlem5t ( ,s\? ,hampton4 ,until #affd1 :5 all ,long ,isl& pass$ to ! duke ( ,york1 ! gov]nm5t 0 by t[n meet+1 autonom\s & indep5d5t except = occasional appeals to ,connecticut4 ,9 #afhc ,g>d9]'s ,isl&1 settl$ by ,lion ,g>d9] 9 #afci & s "o ( ! fir/ ,engli% settlem5ts 9 :at is n[ ,new ,york /ate1 0 made a "p ( ,long ,isl& & ( ,ea/ ,hampton t[n%ip4 ,! ,engli% settlem5ts 9 ,ea/ ,hampton 7 repeat$ly ?reat5$ by pirates & private]s1 & !re are _m /ories ( treasure buri$ by ,capta9 ,kidd on ,g>d9]'s ,isl& & on ,montauk ,po9t4 ,! ,cl9ton ,academy1 op5$ 9 ,ea/ ,hampton village 9 #aghe1 0 long a fam\s s*ool4 ,( ! *ur* built "h 9 #afec 7fir/ ,congregational & aft] #agdg ,presbyt]ian 9 gov]nm5t71 ,lyman ,bee*] 0 pa/or 9 #agii-ahaj2 & 9 ,ea/ ,hampton 7 born 8 eld] *ildr54 ,:ale fi%+ 0 begun 9 ,ea/ ,hampton 9 #afge1 :5 f\r ,indians 7 engag$ by :ites 9 (f-%ore :al+2 b ,sag ,h>bor1 :i* 0 fir/ settl$ 9 #agcj & 0 held by ! ,briti% aft] ! battle ( ,long ,isl& z a /rategic naval & %ipp+ po9t1 became ! c5tre ( ! :al+ bus9ess4 ,! fir/ successful :al+ voyage 0 made f ,sag ,h>bor 9 #aghe1 & al?\gh ! ,emb>go ru9$ ! fi%+ = a "t1 x reviv$ dur+ #ahcj-ahej4 ,cod & m5had5 fi%+1 ! latt] = ! manufacture ( fi%-oil & guano1 7 important = a "t1 b 9 ! second half ( ! #ai? c5tury ,sag ,h>bor lo/ its comm]cial importance4 ,,ea/ ,,india ,,company1 an incorporat$ company = exploit+ ! trade ) ,india & ! ,f> ,ea/4 ,9 ! #ag? & #ah? c5turies ,ea/ ,india companies 7 e/abli%$ by ,engl&1 ,holl&1 ,france1 ,d5m>k1 ,scotl&1 ,spa91 ,au/ria & ,sw$54 ,by f> ! mo/ important ( ^! 0 ! ,engli% ,ea/ ,india ,company1 :i* became ! dom9ant p[] 9 ,india1 & only h&$ ov] its functions to ! ,briti% ,gov]nm5t 9 #aheh 7see also ,,dut* ,,ea/ ,,india ,,company1 ,,o/5d ,,company74 ,engli% ,ea/ ,india ,co4 ,! ,engli% ,ea/ ,india ,company 0 f\nd$ at ! end ( ! #af? c5tury 9 ord] to compete ) ! ,dut* m]*ants1 :o _h obta9$ a practical monopoly ( ! trade ) ! ,spice ,isl&s1 & _h rais$ ! price ( pepp] f #cs4 to #hs4 p] lb4 ,que5 ,elizabe? incorporat$ x by royal *>t]1 dat$ ,decemb] #ca1 #afjj1 "u ! title ( ,! ,gov]nor & ,company ( ,m]*ants ( ,london1 trad+ into ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,?is *>t] conf]r$ ! sole "r ( trad+ ) ! ,ea/ ,indies1 i4e4 ) all c\ntries ly+ beyond ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope or ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 ^u ! company = a t]m ( #ae ye>s4 ,unau?oriz$ int]lop]s 7 liable to =feiture ( %ips & c>go4 ,!re 7 #abe %>ehold]s 9 ! orig9al ,ea/ ,india ,company1 ) a capital ( ,l#gb1jjj3 ! fir/ gov]nor 0 ,sir ,?omas ,smy!4 ,! e>ly voyages ( ! company1 f #afja to #afab1 are di/+ui%$ z ! sep>ate voyages1 because ! subscrib]s individually bore ! co/ ( ea* voyage & reap$ ! :ole pr(its1 :i* seldom fell bel[ #ajj4 ,aft] #afab ! voyages 7 conduct$ on ! jo9t /ock sy/em = ! b5efit ( ! company z a :ole4 ,^! e>ly voyages1 ^: own n>ratives may be read 9 ,pur*as1 pu%$ z f> z ,japan1 & e/abli%$ fri5dly relations at ! c\rt ( ! ,great ,mogul4 ,9 #afaj-afaa ,capta9 ,hippon plant$ ! fir/ ,engli% factories on ! ma9l& ( ,india1 at ,masulipatam & at ,pettapoli 9 ! ,bay ( ,b5gal4 ,! pr(itable nature ( ! company's trade _h induc$ ,james ,i4 to grant subsidi>y lic5ces to private trad]s2 b 9 #afji he r5ew$ ! company's *>t] = ev]1 ?\gh ) a proviso t x might be revok$ on ?ree ye>s' notice if ! trade %\ld n prove pr(itable to ! realm4 ,engli% & ,dut* disputes4 ,mean:ile friction 0 aris+ betwe5 ! ,engli% & ,dut* ,ea/ ,india ,companies4 ,! ,dut* trad]s consid]$ t !y _h prior rights 9 ! ,f> ,ea/1 & _! asc5dancy 9 ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago 0 inde$ firmly e/abli%$ on ! basis ( t]ritorial dom9ion & au?ority4 ,9 #afac !y made advances to ! ,engli% company ) a sugge/ion = co-op]ation1 b ! (f] 0 decl9$1 & ! next few ye>s 7 f]tile 9 disputes betwe5 ! arm$ trad]s ( bo? nations4 ,9 #afai 0 ratifi$ a treaty ( def5ce to prev5t disputes betwe5 ! ,engli% & ,dut* companies4 ,:5 x 0 proclaim$ 9 ! ,ea/1 ho/ilities solemnly ceas$ = ! space ( an h\r1 :ile ! ,dut* & ,engli% fleets1 dress$ out 9 all _! flags & ) y>ds mann$1 salut$ ea* o!r2 b ! treaty end$ 9 ! smoke ( t /ately salutation1 & p]petual & fruitless cont5tions betwe5 ! ,dut* & ,engli% companies w5t on j z be=e4 ,9 #afbc ^! disputes culm9at$ 9 ! massacre ( ,amboyna1 :]e ! ,dut* gov]nor tortur$ & execut$ ! ,engli% resid5ts on a *>ge ( conspir+ to seize ! =t4 ,great & la/+ indignation 0 ar\s$ 9 ,engl&1 b x 0 n until ! "t ( ,cromwell t "s pecuni>y rep>ation 0 exact$ = ! heirs ( ! victims4 ,! imm$iate result 0 t ! ,engli% company tacitly admitt$ ! ,dut* claims to a monopoly ( ! trade 9 ! ,f> ,ea/1 & conf9$ _! op]ations to ! ma9l& ( ,india & ! adjo9+ c\ntries4 ,! ,ea/ ,indiam54 ,! necessity ( good %ips = ! ,ea/ ,indian trade _h l$ ! company 9 #afji to con/ruct _! docky>d at ,dept=d1 f :i*1 z ,monson obs]ves1 dates ! increase ( great %ips 9 ,engl&4 ,d[n to ! middle ( ! #ai? c5tury1 ! fam\s ,ea/ ,indiam5 held unque/ion$ pre-em95ce among ! m]*ant vessels ( ! _w4 ,?r\gh\t ! #ag? c5tury !y _h to be prep>$ at any mom5t to fight n m]ely ,malay pirates1 b ! arm$ trad+ vessels ( _! ,dut*1 ,fr5* & ,portuguese rivals4 ,_m su* battles are record$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company1 & usually ) successful results4 ,! acquisition ( t]ritory4 ,x 0 n until x _h be5 9 exi/5ce = m ?an a c5tury t ! ,engli% ,ea/ ,india ,company obta9$ a practical monopoly ( ! ,indian trade4 ,9 #afce1 a ye> aft] ! ,great ,mogul _h grant$ x ! lib]ty ( trad+ ?r\gh\t ,b5gal1 ,*>les ,i4 issu$ a lic5ce to ,c\rt5's rival association1 kn[n z ! ,assada ,m]*ants1 on ! gr\nd t ! company _h neglect$ ,engli% int]e/s4 ,! piratical me?ods ( _! rivals disgrac$ ! company ) ! ,mogul (ficials1 & a modus viv5di 0 only rea*$ 9 #afdi4 ,9 #afeg ,cromwell r5ew$ ! *>t] ( #afji1 provid+ t ! ,indian trade %\ld be 9 ! h&s ( a s+le jo9t /ock company4 ,! new company ?us =m$ b\ght up ! factories1 =ts & privileges ( ! old "o4 ,x 0 fur!r consolidat$ by ! fo/]+ c>e ( ,*>les ,,ii41 :o grant$ x five important *>t]s4 ,f a simple trad+ company1 x grew "u 8 reign into a great *>t]$ company--to use ! mod]n t]m--) ! "r to acquire t]ritory1 co9 money1 comm& =tresses & troops1 =m alliances1 make w> & peace1 & ex]cise bo? civil & crim9al jurisdiction4 ,x is accord+ly 9 #afhi1 :5 ! ?ree presid5cies ( ,b5gal1 ,madras & ,bombay _h lately be5 e/abli%$1 t ! rul+ c>e] ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company beg9s1 ) ! pass+ by its directors ( ! foll[+ resolution = ! guidance ( ! local gov]nm5ts 9 ,india3--,! increase ( our rev5ue is ! subject ( our c>e1 z mu* z our trade2 'tis t mu/ ma9ta9 our =ce :5 tw5ty accid5ts may int]rupt our trade2 'tis t mu/ make u a nation 9 ,india2 )\t t we are b a great numb] ( int]lop]s1 unit$ by ,8 ,maje/y's royal *>t]1 fit only to trade :]e nobody ( p[] ?9ks x _! int]e/ to prev5t u2 & ^u ?is acc\nt x is t ! wise ,dut*1 9 all _! g5]al advices t we h se51 write t5 p>agraphs conc]n+ _! gov]nm5t1 _! civil & milit>y policy1 w>f>e1 & ! increase ( _! rev5ue1 = "o p>agraph !y write conc]n+ trade4 ,f ?is mom5t ! hi/ory ( ! transactions ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company becomes ! hi/ory ( ,briti% ,india 7see ,,india3 ,hi/ory74 ,"h we %all only trace ! lat] *anges 9 ! con/itution & p[]s ( ! rul+ body itself4 ,! int]lop]s4 ,! great prosp]ity ( ! company "u ! ,re/oration1 & ! imm5se pr(its ( ! ,indian trade1 attract$ a numb] ( private trad]s1 bo? outside m]*ants & dismiss$ or retir$ s]vants ( ! company1 :o came to be kn[n z int]lop]s4 ,9 #afhc ! case ( ,?omas ,s&ys1 an int]lop]1 rais$ ! :ole "q ( ! royal pr]ogative to create a monopoly ( ! ,indian trade4 ,! case 0 tri$ by ,judge ,jeffreys1 :o upheld ! royal pr]ogative2 b 9 spite ( 8 decision ! cu/om ( int]lop+ cont9u$ & laid ! f\ndation ( _m great =tunes4 ,by #afia ! int]lop]s _h =m$ !mselves into a new society1 meet+ at ,d[gate1 & rivall+ ! old company2 ! case 0 c>ri$ be=e ! ,h\se ( ,commons1 :i* decl>$ 9 #afid t all ! subjects ( ,engl& h equal "r to trade to ! ,ea/ ,indies unless prohibit$ by act ( p>liam5t4 ,?is decision l$ up to ! act ( #afih1 :i* creat$ a new ,ea/ ,india ,company 9 consid]ation ( a loan ( two millions to ! /ate4 ,! old company subscrib$ ,l#cae1jjj & became ! dom9ant factor 9 ! new body2 :ile at ! same "t x reta9$ its *>t] = ?ree ye>s1 its factories1 =ts & assur$ position 9 ,india4 ,! rivalry betwe5 ! two companies cont9u$ bo? 9 ,engl& & 9 ,india1 until !y 7 f9ally amalgamat$ by a trip>tite ind5ture betwe5 ! companies & ,que5 ,anne 7#agjb71 :i* 0 ratifi$ "u ! ,godolph9 ,aw>d 7#agjh74 ,"u ?is aw>d ! company 0 to l5d ! nation ,l#c1bjj1jjj1 & its exclusive privileges 7 to cease at ?ree ye>s' notice aft] ?is am\nt _h be5 repaid4 ,b by ?is "t ! ne$ = p]man5ce 9 ! ,indian e/abli%m5t began to be felt1 :ile p>liam5t w\ld n rel9qui% its privilege ( milk+ ! company f "t to "t4 ,9 #agab an act 0 pass$ cont9u+ ! privileges ( ! company ev5 aft] _! fund %\ld be r$eem$2 9 #agcj ! *>t] 0 prolong$ until #agff1 & 9 #agdb ! t]m 0 ext5d$ until #aghc 9 return = ! loan ( a million4 ,?is million 0 requir$ = ! w> ) ,france1 :i* ext5d$ to ,india & involv$ ! ,engli% & ,fr5* companies !re 9 long-drawn ho/ilities1 9 :i* ! names ( ,dupleix & ,clive became prom95t4 ,! company & ! cr[n4 ,s long z ! company's *ief bus9ess 0 t ( trade1 x 0 left to manage its own affairs4 ,! orig9al *>t] ( ,elizabe? _h plac$ its control 9 ! h&s ( a gov]nor & a committee ( tw5ty-f\r1 & ?is arrangem5t subsi/$ 9 ess5ce d[n to ! "t ( ,george ,,iii4 ,! *airman & c\rt ( directors 9 ,london ex]cis$ un*eck$ control ov] _! s]vants 9 ,india4 ,b aft] ,clive's brilliant victory at ,plassey 7#ageg7 _h made ! company a rul+ p[] 9 ,india1 x 0 felt to be necess>y t ! ,briti% gov]nm5t %\ld h "s control ov] ! t]ritories ?us acquir$4 ,"l ,nor?'s ,regulat+ ,act 7#aggc7 rais$ ! gov]nor ( ,b5gal--,w>r5 ,ha/+s--to ! rank ( gov]nor-g5]al1 & provid$ t 8 nom9ation1 ?\gh made by a c\rt ( directors1 %\ld 9 future be subject to ! approval ( ! cr[n2 9 conjunction ) a c\ncil ( f\r1 he 0 entru/$ ) ! p[] ( peace & w>2 a supreme c\rt ( judicature 0 e/abli%$1 to :i* ! judges 7 appo9t$ by ! cr[n2 & legislative p[] 0 conf]r$ on ! gov]nor-g5]al & 8 c\ncil4 ,next foll[$ ,pitt's ,india ,bill 7#aghd71 :i* creat$ ! bo>d ( control1 z a dep>tm5t ( ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 to ex]cise political1 milit>y & f9ancial sup]9t5d5ce ov] ! ,briti% possessions 9 ,india4 ,?is bill fir/ au?oriz$ ! hi/oric phrase gov]nor-g5]al 9 c\ncil4 ,f ?is date ! direction ( ,indian policy pass$ def9itely f ! company to ! gov]nor-g5]al 9 ,india & ! m9i/ry 9 ,london4 ,9 #ahac ,"l ,liv]pool pass$ a bill :i* fur!r gave ! bo>d ( control au?ority ov] ! company's comm]cial transactions1 & aboli%$ its monopoly ( ,indian trade1 :il/ leav+ x ! monopoly ( ! valuable trade ) ,*9a1 *iefly 9 tea4 ,f9ally1 "u ,e>l ,grey's act ( #ahcc1 ! company 0 depriv$ ( ?is monopoly also4 ,its prop]ty 0 !n secur$ on ! ,indian possessions1 & its annual divid5ds ( t5 gu9eas p] ,l#ajj /ock 7 made a *>ge ^u ! ,indian rev5ue4 ,h5ce=w>d ! ,ea/ ,india ,company ceas$ to be a trad+ conc]n & ex]cis$ only adm9i/rative functions4 ,su* a position c\ld n1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 be p]man5t1 & ! great cataclysm ( ! ,indian ,mut9y 0 foll[$ by ! entire transf]5ce ( ,indian adm9i/ration f ! company to ! cr[n1 on ! #bnd ( ,augu/ #aheh4 ,see ,pur*as 8 ,pilgrimes 7ed4 #aije71 vols4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 = ! *>t] ( ,elizabe? & ! e>ly voyages2 ,sir ,w4,w4 ,hunt]1 ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,india 7#ahii72 ,beckles ,willson1 ,l$g] & ,sword 7#aijc72 ,sir ,george ,birdwood1 ,report on ! ,old ,records ( ! ,india ,(fice 7#ahgi72 ,! ,ea/ ,india ,company's ,fir/ ,lett] ,book 7#ahie71 ,lett]s ,receiv$ by ! ,ea/ ,india ,company f its ,s]vants 9 ! ,ea/1 ed4 ,fo/]1 7#ahif ff474 ,see also ! int]e/+ memorial volume ,relics ( ! ,hon\rable ,ea/ ,india ,company 7ed4 ,griggs1 #aiji71 lett]press by ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood & ,w4 ,fo/]4 ,,ea/ ,,indies1 a "n =m]ly appli$ vaguely1 9 its wide/ s5se1 to ! :ole area ( ,india1 ,fur!r ,india & ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 9 di/9ction f ! ,we/ ,indies1 :i*1 at ! "t ( _! discov]y1 7 tak5 to be ! extreme p>ts ( ! ,indian region4 ,! t]m ,ea/ ,indies is /ill sometimes appli$ to ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago 7q4v47 alone1 & ! phrase ,dut* ,ea/ ,indies is commonly us$ to d5ote ! ,dut* possessions :i* con/itute ! great] "p ( t ar*ipelago4 ,! ,dut* !mselves use ! t]m ,n$]l&s*-,indie4 ,,ea/lake1 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lock 7#agic-ahfe71 ,engli% pa9t]1 0 born on ! #ag? ( ,novemb] #agic at ,plym\?1 :]e 8 fa!r1 a man ( uncommon gifts b ( indol5t temp]am5t1 0 solicitor to ! admiralty & judge advocate ( ! admiralty c\rt4 ,*>les 0 educat$ 7l ,sir ,jo%ua ,reynolds7 at ! ,plympton gramm>-s*ool1 & 9 ,london at ! ,*>t]h\se4 ,t[>ds #ahji1 p>tly ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( 8 fell[-,devonian ,haydon1 ( :om he became a pupil1 he det]m9$ to be a pa9t]2 he also /udi$ 9 ! ,royal ,academy s*ool4 ,9 #ahac he exhibit$ 9 ! ,briti% ,in/itution 8 fir/ picture1 a "w ( consid]able size1 ,*ri/ re/or+ life to ! ,daught] ( ,jairus4 ,9 #ahad he 0 commission$ to copy "s ( ! pa9t+s collect$ by ,napoleon 9 ! ,l\vre2 he return$ to ,engl& 9 #ahae1 & practis$ portrait-pa9t+ at ,plym\?4 ,"h he saw ,napoleon a captive on ! ,bell]ophon2 f a boat he made "s sket*es ( ! emp]or1 & he aft]w>ds pa9t$1 f ^! sket*es & f memory1 a life-siz$ full-l5g? portrait ( him 7) "s ( 8 (fic]s7 :i* 0 pron\nc$ a good lik5ess2 x belongs to ! m>quess ( ,lansd[ne4 ,9 #ahag ,ea/lake w5t to ,italy2 9 #ahai to ,greece2 9 #ahbj back to ,italy1 :]e he rema9$ altoge!r f\rte5 ye>s1 *iefly 9 ,rome & 9 ,f]r>a4 ,9 #ahbg he exhibit$ at ! ,royal ,academy 8 picture ( ! ,sp>tan ,isidas1 :o 7z n>rat$ by ,plut>* 9 ! life ( ,agesilaus71 ru%+ nak$ out ( 8 ba?1 p]=m$ prodigies ( val\r aga9/ ! ,!ban ho/4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ "w t attract$ mu* notice to ! "n ( ,ea/lake1 :o 9 consequ5ce obta9$ 8 election z ,a4,r4,a42 9 #ahcj1 :5 he return$ to ,engl&1 he 0 *os5 ,r4,a4 ,9 #ahej he succe$$ ,%ee z presid5t ( ! ,royal ,academy1 & 0 knight$4 ,prior to ?is1 9 #ahda1 he _h be5 appo9t$ secret>y to ! royal commission = decorat+ ! ,h\ses ( ,p>liam5t1 & he reta9$ ?is po/ until ! commission 0 dissolv$ 9 #ahfb4 ,9 #ahdc he 0 made keep] ( ! ,national ,gall]y1 a po/ :i* he resign$ 9 #ahdg 9 consequ5ce ( an un=tunate pur*ase t r\s$ mu* animadv]sion1 a portrait errone\sly ascrib$ to ,holbe92 9 #ahee1 director ( ! same in/itution1 ) m ext5d$ p[]s4 ,dur+ 8 director%ip he pur*as$ = ! gall]y #aee pictures1 mo/ly ( ! ,italian s*ools4 ,he became also a ,d4,c4,l4 ( ,ox=d1 ,f4,r4,s41 a *evali] ( ! ,legion ( ,hon\r1 & memb] ( v>i\s =eign academies4 ,9 #ahdi he m>ri$ ,miss ,elizabe? ,rigby1 :o _h already !n become kn[n z a writ] 7,lett]s f ! ,baltic1 #ahda2 ,livonian ,tales1 #ahdf2 ,! ,jewess1 #ahdh7 & z a contributor to ! ,qu>t]ly ,review4 ,lady ,ea/lake 7#ahji-ahic7 _h = "s ye>s be5 int]e/$ 9 art subjects1 & aft] h] m>riage %e naturally devot$ m att5tion to !m1 translat+ ,waag5's ,treasures ( ,art 9 ,great ,brita9 7#ahed-aheg71 & complet+ ,mrs ,jameson's ,hi/ory ( our ,"l 9 ,works ( ,art4 ,9 #ahfe ,sir ,*>les ,ea/lake fell ill at ,milan2 & he di$ at ,pisa on ! #bd? ( ,decemb] 9 ! same ye>4 ,lady ,ea/lake1 :o surviv$ him = _m ye>s1 cont9u$ to play an active "p z a writ] on art 7,five ,great ,pa9t]s1 #ahhc1 c471 & _h a l>ge circle ( fri5ds among ! mo/ int]e/+ m5 & wom5 ( ! day4 ,9 #ahhj %e publi%$ a volume ( ,lett]s f ,france 7describ+ ev5ts 9 ,p>is dur+ #aghi71 writt5 by h] fa!r1 ,edw>d ,rigby 7#agdg-ahba71 a di/+ui%$ ,norwi* doctor :o 0 kn[n also = 8 practical int]e/ 9 agriculture1 & :o is said to h made kn[n ! fly+ %uttle to ,norwi* manufactur]s4 ,z a pa9t]1 ,sir ,*>les ,ea/lake 0 g5tle1 h>moni\s1 dilig5t & correct2 lack+ fire ( inv5tion or ( execution2 eclectic1 )\t be+ exactly imitative2 influ5c$ r by a love ( ideal grace & beauty ?an by any m>k$ b5t ( individual p[] or vigor\s orig9ality4 ,among 8 pr9cipal works 7:i* 7 n num]\s1 #ea be+ ! total exhibit$ 9 ! ,academy7 are3 #ahbh1 ,pilgrims arriv+ 9 sight ( ,rome 7repeat$ 9 #ahce & #ahcf1 & p]haps on ! :ole 8 *ef-d'oeuvre72 #ahbi1 ,byron's ,dream 79 ! ,tate ,gall]y72 #ahcd1 ! ,escape ( ,francesco di ,c>r>a 7a duplicate 9 ! ,tate ,gall]y72 #ahda1 ,*ri/ ,lam5t+ ov] ,j]usalem 7ditto72 #ahdc1 ,hag> & ,i%mael2 #ahde1 ,comus2 #ahdi1 ,hel5a2 #ahea1 ,ippolita ,torelli2 #ahec1 ,violante2 #ahee1 ,beatrice4 ,^! female heads1 ( a ref9$ semi-ideal quality1 ) some?+ ( ,v5etian gl[ ( t9t1 are ! mo/ satisfactory specim5s ( ,ea/lake's "w to an arti/'s eye4 ,he 0 an accompli%$ & judici\s s*ol> 9 matt]s ( art1 & publi%$1 9 #ahdj1 a translation ( ,goe!'s ,!ory ( ,col\rs2 9 #ahdg 78 *ief lit]>y "w7 ,mat]ials = a ,hi/ory ( ,oil-,pa9t+1 especially valuable z reg>ds ! ,flemi% s*ool2 9 #ahdh1 ,contributions to ! ,lit]ature ( ! ,f9e ,arts 7a second s]ies 0 edit$ by ,lady ,ea/lake 9 #ahgj1 & accompani$ by a ,memoir f h] p572 9 #ahea & #ahee1 translat$ editions ( ,kugl]'s ,hi/ory ( ! ,italian ,s*ool ( ,pa9t+1 & ,h&book ( ,pa9t+ 7new edition1 by ,lady ,ea/lake1 #ahgd74 ,see ,w4 ,cosmo ,monkh\se1 ,pictures by ,sir ,*>les ,ea/lake1 ) biographical & critical ,sket* 7#ahge74 7,w4 ,m4 ,r47 ,,ea/ ,,liv]pool1 a city ( ,columbiana c\nty1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ! ,ohio riv]1 ab\t #ajf m4 ,s4,e4 ( ,clevel&4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #aj1ief2 7#aijj7 #af1dhe1 ( :om #baab 7 =eign-born2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #bj1ceg4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,p5nsylvania railway1 by riv] /eamboats1 & by int]urban electric l9es4 ,next to ,tr5ton1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,ea/ ,liv]pool is ! mo/ important place 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! manufacture ( e>!nw>e & pott]y1 #dhei out ( its #ebbh wage-e>n]s1 or #ib4i1 be+ employ$ 9 ?is indu/ry 9 #aije1 :5 #e1cgc1heb 7#hc4e ( ! value ( all its factory products7 0 ! value ( ! e>!nw>e & pott]y4 ,no o!r city 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is s exclusively devot$ to ! manufacture ( pott]y2 9 #aijh !re 7 #cb pott]ies 9 ! city & its imm$iate vic9ity4 ,! manufacture ( :ite w>e1 begun 9 #ahgb1 is ! mo/ important bran* ( ! indu/ry--almo/ half ( ! cream-col\r$1 :ite granite w>e & semivitre\s porcela9 produc$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #aije 79 value1 #d1cdd1dfh out ( #i1aie1gjc7 be+ manufactur$ 9 ,ea/ ,liv]pool4 ,?\gh !re are l>ge clay deposits 9 ! vic9ity1 v little ( x c be us$ = crock]y1 & mo/ ( ! clay us$ 9 ! city's pott]ies is obta9$ f o!r /ates2 "s ( x is import$ f ,europe4 ,aft] #ahgb a l>ge numb] ( skill$ ,engli% pott]y-work]s settl$ 9 ! city4 ,! city's product ( pott]y1 t]ra-cotta & fireclay increas$ f #b1acg1jfc to #d1aje1bjj f #ahij to #aijj1 & 9 ! latt] ye> almo/ equall$ t ( ,tr5ton1 ,n4,j41 ! two cities toge!r produc+ m ?an half 7#ej4i7 ( ! total pott]y product ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 9 #aije ,ea/ ,liv]pool & ,tr5ton toge!r produc$ #db4a ( ! total value ( ! c\ntry's pott]y product4 ,! municipality owns & op]ates its wat]-works4 ,ea/ ,liv]pool 0 settl$ 9 #agih1 & 0 incorporat$ 9 #ahcd4 ,,ea/ ,,london1 a t[n ( ! ,cape prov9ce1 ,s\? ,africa1 at ! m\? ( ! ,buffalo riv]1 9 #cc deg4 #a' ,s4 #bg deg4 #ee' ,e41 #edc m4 ,e4,n4,e4 ( ,cape ,t[n by sea & #fff m4 ,s4 ( ,johannesburg by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijd7 #be1bbj1 ( :om #ad1fgd 7 :ites4 ,! t[n is picturesquely situat$ on bo? sides ( ! riv]1 :i* is spann$ by a comb9$ road & railway bridge4 ,! railway t]m9us & bus9ess qu>t] are on ! ea/ side on ! top ( ! cliffs1 :i* rise #aej ft4 above ! riv]4 ,9 ,ox=d ,/reet1 ! *ief ?or\ghf>e1 is ! t[n hall1 a h&some build+ erect$ 9 #ahih4 ,high] up a numb] ( *ur*es & a s*ool are gr\p$ r\nd ,v9c5t ,squ>e1 a l>ge op5 space4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! excell5t sea ba?+1 & ! beauty ( ! riv] banks above ! t[n1 ,ea/ ,london is ! *ief seaside holiday resort ( ! ,cape prov9ce4 ,! t[n is ! entrepot ( a ri* agricultural di/rict1 includ+ ! ,transkei1 ,basutol& & ! s\? ( ,orange ,free ,/ate1 & ! port ( ! ,cape ne>e/ ,johannesburg4 ,x ranks ?ird among ! ports ( ! prov9ce4 ,! road/ead is expos$ & insecure1 b ! inn] h>b\r1 con/ruct$ at a co/ ( ov] ,l#b1jjj1jjj1 is protect$ f all w9ds4 ,a %ift+ s& b> lies at ! m\? ( ! riv]1 b ! build+ ( tra9+ walls & dr$g+ h increas$ ! m9imum dep? ( wat] to #bb ft4 ,f ! ea/ bank ( ! ,buffalo a pi] & f ! we/ bank a breakwat] project into ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! entrance be+ #dej ft4 wide1 r$uc$ betwe5 ! tra9+ walls to #bej ft4 ,!re is ext5sive :>f accommodation on bo? sides ( ! riv]1 & /eam]s ( ov] #hjjj tons c moor alongside4 ,!re is a pat5t slip capable ( tak+ vessels ( #ajjj tons dead weight4 ,an a]ial /eel ropeway f ! riv] bank to ! t[n greatly facilitates ! deliv]y ( c>go4 ,! imports are *iefly textiles1 h>dw>e & provisions1 ! exports ma9ly wool & mohair4 ,! rateable value ( ! t[n 9 #aijh 0 ,l#d1ajh1jjj1 & ! municipal rate #a-e_/h d4 ,ea/ ,london owes its f\ndation to ! necessities ( ! ,kaffir w> ( #ahdf-ahdg4 ,! ,briti%1 requir+ a port ne>] ! sc5e ( w> ?an ^? !n exi/+1 select$ a site at ! m\? ( ! ,buffalo riv]1 & 9 #ahdg ! fir/ c>go ( milit>y /ores 0 l&$4 ,a =t1 nam$ ,glamorgan1 0 built1 & ! place p]man5tly occupi$4 ,ar\nd ?is milit>y po/ grew up ! t[n1 kn[n at fir/ z ,port ,rex4 ,numb]s ( its inhabitants are desc5dants ( ,g]man immigrants :o settl$ 9 ! di/rict 9 #aheg4 ,! prosp]ity ( ! t[n dates f ! era ( railway & port developm5t 9 ! la/ decade ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,9 #ahge ! value ( ! exports 0 ,l#aca1hjc & t ( ! imports ,l#eeb1jcc4 ,9 #aijd ! value ( ! exports 0 ,l#a1afe1ich & t ( ! imports ,l#d1fhh1dae4 ,9 #aijg ! exports1 not)/&+ a p]iod ( sev]e trade depression1 7 valu$ at ,l#a1dge1cee1 b ! imports _h fall5 to ,l#c1ced1fcc4 ,,ea/on1 a city & ! c\nty-seat ( ,nor?ampton c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 at ! conflu5ce ( ! ,lehigh riv] & ,bu%kill ,creek ) ! ,delaw>e1 ab\t #fj m4 ,n4 ( ,philadelphia4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ad1dha2 7#aijj7 #be1bch1 ( :om #bace 7 =eign-born2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #bh1ebc4 ,ea/on is s]v$ by ! ,c5tral ( ,new ,j]sey1 ! ,lehigh ,valley1 ! ,lehigh ,hudson ,riv] & ! ,delaw>e1 ,lackawanna ,we/]n railways1 & is connect$ by canals ) ! an?racite coal region to ! nor?-we/ & ) ,bri/ol1 ,pa4 ,a bridge across ! ,delaw>e riv] connects x ) ,phillipsburg1 ,new ,j]sey1 :i* is s]v$ by ! ,p5nsylvania railway4 ,! city is built on roll+ gr\nd1 comm&+ pleasant views ( hill & riv] sc5]y4 ,_m f9e resid5ces ov]look city & c\ntry f ! hillsides1 & a ,c>negie libr>y is prom95t among ! public build+s4 ,lafayette ,college1 a ,presbyt]ian in/itution op5$ 9 #ahcb1 is f9ely situat$ on a bluff nor? ( ! ,bu%kill & ,delaw>e4 ,! college provides ! foll[+ c\rses ( in/ruction3 graduate1 classical1 ,lat9 sci5tific1 g5]al sci5tific1 civil eng9e]+1 electrical eng9e]+1 m9+ eng9e]+ & *emical2 9 #aijh x _h #ch in/ructors & #ddb /ud5ts1 #bef ( :om 7 enroll$ 9 ! sci5tific & eng9e]+ c\rses4 ,ov]look+ ! ,bu%kill is ! ,ea/on ,cemet]y1 9 :i* is ! grave ( ,george ,taylor 7#agaf-agha71 a sign] ( ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 ) a monum5t ( ,italian m>ble to 8 memory4 ,among ! city's manufactures are silk1 hosi]y & knit goods1 fl\r1 malt liquors1 brick1 tile1 drills1 lumb] & plan+ mill products & organs2 9 #aije ! value ( all ! factory products 0 #e1fed1eid1 ( :i* #b1bij1eih1 or #dj4e1 0 ! value ( ! silk manufactures4 ,ea/on is ! comm]cial c5tre ( an important m9+ region1 :i* produces1 9 p>ticul>1 iron ore1 soap/one1 cem5t1 slate & build+ /one4 ,! municipality owns & op]ates an electric-light+ plant4 ,ea/on 0 a g>d5 spot ( ! ,indians1 & "h1 because !y w\ld n negotiate else:]e1 sev]al important treaties 7 made betwe5 #agef & #agfb dur+ ! ,fr5* & ,indian ,w>4 ,! place 0 laid out 9 #ageb1 & 0 made ! c\nty-seat ( ! newly erect$ c\nty4 ,x 0 incorporat$ z a bor\gh 9 #aghi1 receiv$ a new bor\gh *>t] 9 #ahbc1 & 9 #ahhg 0 *>t]$ z a city4 ,s\? ,ea/on 0 annex$ 9 #ahih4 ,,ea/ ,,orange1 a city ( ,essex c\nty1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,u4,s4,a41 9 ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ! /ate1 adjo9+ ! city ( ,new>k1 & ab\t #ab m4 ,w4 ( ,new ,york city4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ac1bhb2 7#aijj7 #ba1ejf1 ( :om #ciej 7 =eign-born & #adbj 7 negroes2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #cd1cga4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,morris ,essex division ( ! ,delaw>e1 ,lackawanna ,we/]n railway & by ! ,orange bran* ( ! ,erie 7! =m] hav+ f\r /ations--,amp]e1 ,grove ,/reet1 ,ea/ ,orange & ,brick ,*ur*71 & is connect$ ) ,new>k1 ,orange & ,we/ ,orange by electric l9e4 ,! city cov]s an area ( ab\t #d sq4 m41 & has broad1 well-pav$ /reets1 bord]$ ) f9e %ade trees 7"u ! jurisdiction ( a ,%ade ,tree ,commission74 ,x is prim>ily a resid5tial suburb ( ,new ,york & ,new>k1 & has _m beautiful homes2 ) ,orange1 ,we/ ,orange & ,s\? ,orange x =ms virtually "o community1 popul>ly kn[n z ! ,oranges4 ,! public s*ool sy/em is excell5t1 & ! city has a ,c>negie libr>y 7#aijc71 ) m ?an #bb1jjj volumes 9 #aijg4 ,among ! pr9cipal build+s are sev]al attractive *ur*es1 ! city hall1 & ! club-h\se ( ! ,woman's ,club ( ,orange4 ,! pr9cipal manufactures ( ,ea/ ,orange are electrical ma*9]y1 app>atus1 & supplies 7! factory ( ! ,crock]-,:eel] ,co4 be+ "h--9 a "p ( ! city kn[n z ,amp]e7 & ph>maceutical mat]ials4 ,! total value ( ! city's factory products 9 #aije 0 #b1cbf1eeb4 ,ea/ ,orange has a f9e wat]-works sy/em1 :i* x owns & op]ates2 ! wat] supply is obta9$ f artesian wells at ,:ite ,oaks ,ridge1 9 ! t[n%ip ( ,milburn 7ab\t #aj m4 f ! city hall72 !nce ! wat] is pump$ to a /eel re9=c$ res]voir 7capacity #e1jjj1jjj gallons7 on ! m\nta9 back ( ,s\? ,orange4 ,9 #ahfc ! t[n%ip ( ,ea/ ,orange 0 sep>at$ f ! t[n%ip ( ,orange1 :i*1 9 turn1 _h be5 sep>at$ f ! t[n%ip ( ,new>k 9 #ahjf4 ,an act ( ! ,new ,j]sey legislature 9 #ahie creat$ ! (fice ( t[n%ip presid5t1 ) p[] ( appo9tm5t & veto4 ,f\r ye>s lat] ,ea/ ,orange 0 *>t]$ z a city4 ,see ,h4 ,:ittemore1 ,! ,f\nd]s & ,build]s ( ! ,oranges 7,new>k1 #ahif74 ,,ea/port1 a city & port ( entry ( ,wa%+ton c\nty1 ,ma9e1 ,u4,s4,a41 co-ext5sive ) ,moose ,isl& 9 ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 ab\t #aij m4 ,e4,n4,e4 ( ,portl&4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dijh2 7#aijj7 #ecaa 7#aeed =eign-born72 7#aiaj7 #difa4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,wa%+ton ,c\nty railway1 & by /eamboat l9es to ,bo/on1 ,portl& & ,calais4 ,x is ! mo/ ea/]n city ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & is sep>at$ f ! ma9l& by a n>r[ *annel1 :i* is spann$ by a bridge4 ,! h>b\r is well protect$ f ! w9ds1 & ! tide1 :i* rises & falls "h ab\t #be ft41 prev5ts x f be+ ob/ruct$ ) ice4 ,! city is built on gr\nd slop+ g5tly to ! wat]'s edge1 & comm&s delightful views ( ! bay1 9 :i* !re are sev]al isl&s4 ,its pr9cipal indu/ry is ! cann+ ( s>d9es2 !re are also clam cann]ies4 ,%oes1 mu/>d1 decorat$ t91 & %ooks are manufactur$1 & fi% & lob/]s are %ipp$ f "h 9 ! season4 ,! city is ! port ( entry = ! cu/oms di/rict ( ,passamaquoddy2 9 #aijh its imports 7 valu$ at #iid1ifa1 & its exports at #a1aee1gia4 ,ea/port 0 fir/ settl$ ab\t #aghb by fi%]m52 x became a port ( entry 9 #agij1 0 incorporat$ z a t[n 9 #agih1 & 0 *>t]$ z a city 9 #ahic4 ,x 0 a notori\s place = smuggl+ "u ! ,emb>go ,acts ( #ahjg & #ahjh4 ,on ! #aa? ( ,july #ahad1 dur+ ! w> ( #ahab1 x 0 tak5 by ! ,briti%4 ,z ! ,briti% gov]nm5t claim$ ! isl&s ( ,passamaquoddy ,bay "u ! treaty ( #aghc1 ! ,briti% =ces reta9$ possession ( ,ea/port aft] ! close ( ! w> & held x "u m>tial law until ,july #ahah1 :5 x 0 surr5d]$ 9 accordance ) ! decision r5d]$ 9 ,novemb] #ahag by commission]s appo9t$ "u ,article ,,iv4 ( ! treaty ( ,gh5t 7#ahad71 ?is decision aw>d+ ,moose ,isl&1 ,dudley ,isl& & ,fr$]ick ,isl& to ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! o!r isl&s1 includ+ ! ,isl& ( ,gr& ,manan 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 to ,great ,brita94 ,,ea/ ,,provid5ce1 a t[n%ip ( ,provid5ce c\nty1 ,rhode ,isl&1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ! ,e4 side ( ,provid5ce riv]1 opposite ,provid5ce4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #hdbb2 7#aijj7 #ab1ach1 ( :om #bjfg 7 =eign-born2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #ae1hjh4 ,area1 #aba_/b sq4 m4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,new ,york1 ,new ,hav5 ,h>t=d railway4 ,x has a roll+ surface & conta9s sev]al villages1 "o ( :i*1 kn[n z ,rum=d1 has important manufactories ( *emicals & electrical supplies4 ,s\? ( ?is village1 along ! riv] bank1 are sev]al attractive summ] resorts1 ,hunt's ,mills1 ,silv] ,spr+1 ,riv]side1 ,vanity ,fair1 ,kettle ,po9t & ,bullock's ,po9t be+ prom95t among !m4 ,9 #aije ! factory products ( ! t[n%ip 7 valu$ at #e1jce1bhh4 ,! oy/] trade is important4 ,x 0 )9 ! pres5t limits ( ?is t[n%ip t ,rog] ,williams e/abli%$ himself 9 ! spr+ ( #afcf1 until he le>n$ t ! place 0 )9 ! jurisdiction ( ! ,plym\? ,colony4 ,ab\t #afdd x 0 settl$ by a company f ,weym\? z a "p ( a t[n ( ,rehobo?4 ,9 #ahab ,rehobo? 0 divid$1 & ! we/ "p 0 made ! t[n%ip ( ,seekonk4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahfa1 x 0 decid$ t ! we/ "p ( ,seekonk belong$ to ,rhode ,isl&1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> t "p 0 incorporat$ z ! t[n%ip ( ,ea/ ,provid5ce4 ,,ea/ ,,prussia 7,o/-,preuss571 ! ea/]nmo/ prov9ce ( ! k+dom ( ,prussia1 b\nd$ on ! ,n4 by ! ,baltic1 on ! ,e4 & ,s4,w4 by ,russia & ,russian ,pol&1 & on ! ,w4 by ! ,prussian prov9ce ( ,we/ ,prussia4 ,x has an area ( #ad1bhd sq4 m41 & _h1 9 #aije1 a population ( #b1jbe1gda4 ,x %>es 9 ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! great nor? ,g]man pla91 b1 ?\gh l[1 its surface is by no means absolutely flat1 z ! s\!rn half is trav]s$ by a l[ ridge or plateau1 :i* atta9s a height ( #ajbe ft4 at a po9t ne> ! we/]n b\nd>y ( ! prov9ce4 ,?is plateau1 "h nam$ ! ,prussian ,se5platte1 is ?ickly spr9kl$ ) small lakes1 among :i* is ! ,spird+ ,see1 #df sq4 m4 9 ext5t & ! l>ge/ inl& lake 9 ! ,prussian mon>*y4 ,! coa/ is l9$ ) l[ dunes or s&hills1 9 front ( :i* lie ! l>ge littoral lakes or lagoons nam$ ! ,fris*es ,haff & ! ,kuris*es ,haff4 ,! fir/ ( ^! receives ! wat]s ( ! ,nogat & ! ,pregel1 & ! o!r ^? ( ! ,memel or ,niem54 ,ea/ ,prussia is ! colde/ "p ( ,g]many1 its mean annual temp]ature be+ ab\t #dd deg4 ,f41 :ile ! mean ,janu>y temp]ature ( ,tilsit is only #be deg44 ,! ra9fall is #bd 94 p] annum4 ,ab\t half ! prov9ce is "u tillage2 #ah is occupi$ by =e/s1 & ab\t #bc by mead[s & pa/ures4 ,! mo/ f]tile soil is f\nd 9 ! valleys ( ! ,pregel & ! ,memel1 b ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,baltic plateau & ! di/rict to ! nor? ( ! ,memel consi/ 9 great "p ( /]ile moor1 s& & bog4 ,! *ief crops are rye1 oats & potatoes1 :ile flax is cultivat$ 9 ! di/rict ( ,ermel&1 betwe5 ! ,pass>ge & ! upp] ,alle4 ,ea/ ,prussia is ! headqu>t]s ( ! horse-bre$+ ( ! c\ntry1 & conta9s ! pr9cipal gov]nm5t /ud ( ,trakehn52 num]\s cattle are also fatt5$ on ! ri* pa/ures ( ! riv]-valleys4 ,! ext5sive woods 9 ! s\? "p ( ! prov9ce h>b\r a few wolves & lynxes1 & ! elk is /ill pres]v$ 9 ! =e/ ( ,ib5hor/1 ne> ! ,kuris*es ,haff4 ,! fi%]ies 9 ! lakes & haffs are ( "s importance2 b ! only m9]al product ( note is amb]1 :i* is f\nd 9 ! p59sula ( ,saml& 9 great] abundance ?an 9 any o!r "p ( ! _w4 ,manufactures are almo/ conf9$ to ! pr9cipal t[ns1 ?\gh l95-weav+ is practis$ z a dome/ic indu/ry4 ,comm]ce is facilitat$ by canals connect+ ! ,memel & ,pregel & also ! pr9cipal lakes1 b is some:at hamp]$ by ! heavy dues exact$ at ! ,russian fronti]4 ,a brisk =eign trade is c>ri$ on ?r\gh ! seaports ( ,ko5igsb]g1 ! capital ( ! prov9ce1 & ,memel1 ! exports consi/+ ma9ly ( timb] & gra94 ,! population ( ! prov9ce 0 9 #aijj #a1iif1fbf1 & includ$ #a1fih1dfe ,prote/ants1 #bfi1aif ,roman ,ca?olics & #ac1hgg ,jews4 ,! ,roman ,ca?olics are ma9ly conf9$ to ! di/rict ( ,ermel&1 9 :i* ! ord9>y proportions ( ! confessions are completely rev]s$4 ,! bulk ( ! inhabitants are ( ,g]man blood1 b !re are above #djj1jjj ,prote/ant ,poles 7,masurians or ,masovians7 9 ! s\? "p ( ! prov9ce1 & #age1jjj ,li?uanians 9 ! nor?4 ,z 9 o!r prov9ces :]e ! ,poli% elem5t is /rong1 ,ea/ ,prussia is some:at bel[ ! g5]al av]age ( ! k+dom 9 education4 ,!re is a univ]sity at ,ko5igsb]g4 ,see ,lohmey]1 ,ges*i*te von ,o/- und ,we/-,preuss5 7,go?a1 #ahhd72 ,bru5neck1 ,zur ,ges*i*te des ,kir*5-,patronats 9 ,o/- und ,we/-,preuss5 7,b]l91 #aijb71 & ,o/-,preuss51 ,l& und ,volk 7,/uttg>t1 #aija-aijb74 ,,ea/wick1 ,,edw>d ,,backh\se 7#ahad-ahhc71 ,briti% ,ori5tali/1 0 born 9 #ahad1 a memb] ( an ,anglo-,indian family4 ,educat$ at ,*>t]h\se & at ,ox=d1 he jo9$ ! ,bombay infantry 9 #ahcf1 b1 ow+ to 8 tal5t = languages1 0 soon giv5 a political po/4 ,9 #ahdc he translat$ ! ,p]sian ,kessahi ,sanjan1 or ,hi/ory ( ! ,arrival ( ! ,p>sees 9 ,india2 & he wrote a ,life ( ,zoroa/]1 a ,s9dhi vocabul>y1 & v>i\s pap]s 9 ! transactions ( ! ,bombay ,asiatic ,society4 ,compell$ by ill-heal? to return to ,europe1 he w5t to ,frank=t1 :]e he le>n$ ,g]man & translat$ ,s*ill]'s ,revolt ( ! ,ne!rl&s & ,bopp's ,comp>ative ,gramm>4 ,9 #ahde he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( ,h9du/ani at ,haileybury ,college4 ,two ye>s lat] he publi%$ a ,h9du/ani gramm>1 &1 9 subsequ5t ye>s1 a new edition ( ! ,guli/an1 ) a translation 9 prose & v]se1 also an edition ) vocabul>y ( ! ,h9di translation by ,lallu ,lal ( ,*atur ,*uj ,misr's ,prem ,sag>1 & translations ( ! ,bagh-o-,bah>1 & ( ! ,anv>-i ,suhaili ( ,bidpai4 ,9 #ahea he 0 elect$ a ,fell[ ( ! ,royal ,society4 ,9 #aheg-aheh he edit$ ,! ,autobiography ( ,lutfullah4 ,he also edit$ = ! ,bible ,society ! ,book ( ,g5esis 9 ! ,dakhani language4 ,f #ahfj to #ahfc he 0 9 ,p]sia z secret>y to ! ,briti% ,legation1 publi%+ on 8 return ,! ,j\rnal ( a ,diplomate4 ,9 #ahff he became private secret>y to ! secret>y ( /ate = ,india1 ,"l ,cranborne 7aft]w>ds m>quess ( ,salisbury71 & 9 #ahfg w5t1 z 9 #ahfd1 on a gov]nm5t mission to ,v5ezuela4 ,on 8 return he wrote1 at ! reque/ ( ,*>les ,dick5s1 = ,all ! ,ye> ,r\nd1 ,sket*es ( ,life 9 a ,s\? ,am]ican ,republic4 ,f #ahfh to #ahgd he 0 ,m4,p4 = ,p5ryn & ,falm\?4 ,9 #ahge he receiv$ ! degree ( ,m4,a4 ) ! fran*ise f ! univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 z a slight recognition ( di/+ui%$ s]vices4 ,at v>i\s times he wrote sev]al ( ,murray's ,indian h&-books4 ,8 la/ "w 0 ! ,kais>namah-i-,h9d 7! lay ( ! empress71 9 two volumes 7#ahgh-ahhb74 ,he di$ at ,v5tnor1 ,isle ( ,wight1 on ! #af? ( ,july #ahhc4 ,,eaton1 ,,dorman ,,bridgman 7#ahbc-ahii71 ,am]ican lawy]1 0 born at ,h>dwick1 ,v]mont1 on ! #bg? ( ,june #ahbc4 ,he graduat$ at ! univ]sity ( ,v]mont 9 #ahdh & at ! ,h>v>d ,law ,s*ool 9 #ahej1 & 9 ! latt] ye> 0 admitt$ to ! b> 9 ,new ,york city4 ,!re he became associat$ 9 practice ) ,william ,k5t1 ! son ( ! great *ancellor1 an edition ( ^: ,comm5t>ies he assi/$ 9 edit+4 ,eaton e>ly became int]e/$ 9 municipal & civil s]vice re=m4 ,he 0 conspicu\s 9 ! fight aga9/ ,twe$ & 8 foll[]s1 by "o ( :om he 0 assault$2 he requir$ a long p]iod ( re/1 & w5t to ,europe1 :]e he /udi$ ! work+s ( ! civil s]vice 9 v>i\s c\ntries4 ,f #ahgc to #ahge he 0 a memb] ( ! fir/ ,unit$ ,/ates ,civil ,s]vice ,commission4 ,9 #ahgg1 at ! reque/ ( ,presid5t ,hayes1 he made a c>eful /udy ( ! ,briti% civil s]vice1 & ?ree ye>s lat] publi%$ ,civil ,s]vice 9 ,great ,brita94 ,he draft$ ! ,p5dleton ,civil ,s]vice ,act ( #ahhc1 & lat] became a memb] ( ! new commission e/abli%$ by x4 ,he resign$ 9 #ahhe1 b 0 almo/ imm$iately reappo9t$ by ,presid5t ,clevel&1 & s]v$ until #ahhf1 edit+ ! #crd & #d? ,reports ( ! commission4 ,he 0 an organiz] 7#ahgh7 ( ! fir/ society = ! fur!rance ( civil s]vice re=m 9 ,new ,york1 ( ! ,national ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m ,association1 & ( ! ,national ,conf]5ce ( ! ,unit>ian ,*ur* 7#ahfe74 ,he di$ 9 ,new ,york city on ! #bcrd ( ,decemb] #ahii1 leav+ #ajj1jjj ea* to ,h>v>d & ,columbia univ]sities = ! e/abli%m5ts ( pr(essor%ips 9 gov]nm5t4 ,he 0 a legal writ] & editor1 & a frequ5t contributor to ! lead+ reviews4 ,9 addition to ! works m5tion$ he publi%$ ,%\ld ,judges be ,elect$8 7#ahgc71 ,! ,indep5d5t ,movem5t 9 ,new ,york 7#ahhj71 ,t]m & ,t5ure ( ,(fice 7#ahhb71 ,! ,spoils ,sy/em & ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m 7#ahhb71 ,problems ( ,police ,legislation 7#ahie7 & ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,municipalities 7#ahii74 ,see ! privately pr9t$ memorial volume1 ,dorman ,b4 ,eaton1 #ahbc-ahii 7,new ,york1 #aijj74 ,,eaton1 ,,m>g>et ,o',,neill 7#agif-ahgi71 bett] kn[n z ,,peggy ,o',,neill1 0 ! daught] ( ! keep] ( a popul> ,wa%+ton tav]n1 & 0 not$ = h] beauty1 wit & vivacity4 ,ab\t #ahbc1 %e m>ri$ a purs] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates navy1 ,john ,b4 ,timb]lake1 :o committ$ suicide :ile on s]vice 9 ! ,m$it]ranean 9 #ahbh4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> %e m>ri$ ,john ,h5ry ,eaton 7#agij-ahef71 a ,t5nessee politician1 at ! "t a memb] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,s5ate4 ,s5ator ,eaton 0 a close p]sonal fri5d ( ,presid5t ,jackson1 :o 9 #ahbi appo9t$ him secret>y ( w>4 ,?is sudd5 elevation ( ,mrs ,eaton into ! cab9et social circle 0 res5t$ by ! wives ( sev]al ( ,jackson's secret>ies1 & *>ges 7 made aga9/ h] ( improp] conduct ) ,eaton previ\s to h] m>riage to him4 ,! refusal ( ! wives ( ! cab9et memb]s to recognize ! wife ( 8 fri5d ang]$ ,presid5t ,jackson1 & he tri$ 9 va9 to co]ce !m4 ,ev5tually1 & p>tly = ?is reason1 he almo/ completely reorganiz$ 8 cab9et4 ,! effect ( ! incid5t on ! political =tunes ( ! vice-presid5t1 ,john ,c4 ,calh\n1 ^: wife 0 "o ( ! recalcitrants1 0 p]haps mo/ important4 ,p>tly on ?is acc\nt1 ,jackson's fav\r 0 transf]r$ f ,calh\n to ,m>t9 ,van ,bur51 ! secret>y ( /ate1 :o _h tak5 ,jackson's side 9 ! qu>rel & _h %[n m>k$ att5tion to ,mrs ,eaton1 & ^: subsequ5t elevation to ! vice-presid5cy & presid5cy ?r\gh ,jackson's fav\r is no d\bt p>tly attributable to ?is incid5t4 ,9 #ahcf ,mrs ,eaton accompani$ h] husb& to ,spa91 :]e he 0 ,unit$ ,/ates m9i/] 9 #ahcf-ahdj4 ,aft] ! dea? ( h] husb& %e m>ri$ a "y ,italian danc+-ma/]1 ,antonio ,bu*ignani1 b soon obta9$ a divorce f him4 ,%e di$ 9 ,wa%+ton on ! #h? ( ,novemb] #ahgi4 ,see ,james ,p>ton's ,life ( ,&rew ,jackson 7,new ,york1 #ahfj74 ,,eaton1 ,,!ophilus 7c4 #aeij-afeh71 ,engli% colonial gov]nor 9 ,am]ica1 0 born at ,/ony ,/rat=d1 ,buck+ham%ire1 ab\t #aeij4 ,he 0 educat$ 9 ,cov5try1 became a successful m]*ant1 travell$ widely ?r\gh\t ,europe1 & = sev]al ye>s 0 ! f9ancial ag5t ( ,*>les ,i4 9 ,d5m>k4 ,he subsequ5tly settl$ 9 ,london1 :]e he jo9$ ! ,puritan congregation ( ! ,rev4 ,john ,dav5port1 :om he _h kn[n s9ce boyhood4 ,! pressure ^u ! ,puritans increas+1 ,eaton1 :o _h be5 "o ( ! orig9al pat5tees ( ! ,massa*usetts ,bay colony 9 #afbi1 det]m9$ to use 8 influ5ce & =tune to e/abli% an indep5d5t colony ( :i* 8 pa/or %\ld be ! head4 ,9 #afcg he emigrat$ ) ,dav5port to ,massa*usetts1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> 7,m>* #afch7 he & ,dav5port f\nd$ ,new ,hav54 ,9 ,octob] #afci a =m ( gov]nm5t 0 adopt$1 bas$ on ! ,mosaic ,law1 & ,eaton 0 elect$ gov]nor1 a po/ :i* he cont9u$ to hold by annual re-election1 fir/ ov] ,new ,hav5 alone1 & aft] #afdc ov] ! ,new ,hav5 ,colony or ,jurisdiction1 until 8 dea? at ,new ,hav5 on ! #g? ( ,janu>y #afeh4 ,8 adm9i/ration 0 emb>rass$ by con/antly recurr+ disputes ) ! neighb\r+ ,dut* settlem5ts1 especially aft] ,/am=d 7,conn47 & ,s\?old 7,long ,isl&7 _h ent]$ ! ,new ,hav5 ,jurisdiction1 b 8 prud5ce & diplomacy prev5t$ an actual outbreak ( ho/ilities4 ,he 0 prom95t 9 ! affairs ( ! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation1 ( :i* he 0 "o ( ! f\nd]s 7#afdc74 ,9 #afee he & ,dav5port drew up ! code ( laws1 popul>ly kn[n z ! ,connecticut ,blue ,laws1 :i* 7 publi%$ 9 ,london 9 #afef "u ! title ,new ,hav5's ,settl+ 9 ,new ,engl& & "s ,lawes = ,gov]nm5t publi%$ = ! ,use ( t ,colony4 ,a sket* ( 8 life appe>s 9 ,cotton ,ma!r's ,magnalia 7,london1 #agjb72 see also ,j4,b4 ,moore's ,memoir ( ,!ophilus ,eaton 9 ! ,collections ( ! ,new ,york ,hi/orical ,society1 second s]ies1 vol4 ii4 7,new ,york1 #ahdi74 ,,eaton1 ,,william 7#agfd-ahaa71 ,am]ican soldi]1 0 born 9 ,wood/ock1 ,connecticut1 on ! #bcrd ( ,febru>y #agfd4 ,z a boy he s]v$ = a %ort "t 9 ! ,cont95tal army4 ,he 0 a s*ool tea*] = sev]al ye>s1 graduat$ at ,d>tm\? ,college 9 #agij1 0 cl]k ( ! l[] h\se ( ! ,v]mont legislature 9 #agia-agib1 & 9 #agib re-ent]$ ! army z a capta91 lat] s]v+ aga9/ ! ,indians 9 ,ohio & ,georgia4 ,9 #agig he 0 appo9t$ consul to ,tunis1 :]e he arriv$ 9 ,febru>y #agii4 ,9 ,m>* #agii1 ) ! consuls to ,tripoli & ,algi]s1 he negotiat$ alt]ations 9 ! treaty ( #agig ) ,tunis4 ,he r5d]$ great s]vice to ,dani% m]*antm5 by buy+ on cr$it sev]al ,dani% prizes 9 ,tunis & turn+ !m ov] to _! orig9al own]s = ! r$emption ( 8 notes4 ,9 #ahjc he qu>rell$ ) ! ,bey1 0 ord]$ f ! c\ntry1 & return$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates to urge ,am]ican int]v5tion = ! re/oration ( ,ahmet ,k>amanli to ! ?rone ( ,tripoli1 argu+ t ?is w\ld impress ! ,b>b>y ,/ates ) ! p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 #ahjd he return$ to ! ,m$it]ranean z ,unit$ ,/ates naval ag5t to ! ,b>b>y ,/ates ) ,b>ron's fleet4 ,on ! #bcrd ( ,febru>y #ahje he agre$ ) ,ahmet t ! ,unit$ ,/ates %\ld und]take to re-e/abli% him 9 ,tripoli1 t ! exp5ses ( ! exp$ition %\ld be repaid to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ,ahmet1 & t ,eaton %\ld be g5]al & comm&]-9-*ief ( ! l& =ces 9 ,ahmet's campaign2 z ! secret>y ( ! navy _h giv5 ! entire matt] into ! h&s ( ,commodore ,b>ron1 & z ,b>ron & ,tobias ,le> 7#agfb-ahaf71 ! ,unit$ ,/ates consul-g5]al at ,algi]s & a diplomatic ag5t to conduct negotiations1 _h be5 in/ruct$ to consid] ! advisability ( mak+ arrangem5ts ) ! exi/+ gov]nm5t 9 ,tripoli1 ,eaton f> exce$$ 8 au?ority4 ,on ! #h? ( ,m>* he />t$ = ,d]na across ! ,libyan des]t f ! ,arab's ,t[]1 #dj m4 ,w4 ( ,alex&ria1 ) a =ce ( ab\t #ejj m51 includ+ a few ,am]icans1 ab\t #dj ,greeks & "s ,arab cavalry4 ,9 ! m>* ( ne>ly #fjj m4 ! camel-driv]s & ! ,arab *iefs repeat$ly mut9i$1 & ,ahmet ,pa%a once put himself at ! head ( ! ,arabs & ord]$ !m to attack ,eaton4 ,ahmet m ?an once wi%$ to give up ! exp$ition4 ,!re 7 practically no provisions = ! latt] "p ( ! m>*4 ,on ! #bg? ( ,april ) ! assi/ance ( ?ree bomb>d+ cruis]s ,eaton captur$ ,d]na--an exploit commemorat$ by ,:itti]'s poem ,d]ne4 ,on ! #ac? ( ,may & on ! #aj? ( ,june he successfully )/ood ! attacks ( ,tripolitan =ces s5t to dislodge him4 ,on ! #ab? ( ,june he ab&on$ ! t[n ^u ord]s f ,commodore ,rodg]s1 = ,le> _h made peace 7#d? ,june7 ) ,yussuf1 ! de facto ,pa%a ( ,tripoli4 ,eaton return$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & receiv$ a grant ( #aj1jjj acres 9 ,ma9e f ! ,massa*usetts legislature4 ,accord+ to a deposition :i* he made 9 ,janu>y #ahjg he 0 approa*$ by ,a>on ,burr 7q4v471 :o attempt$ to enli/ him 9 8 conspiracy1 & wi%$ him to w9 ov] ! m>9e corps & to s\nd ,preble & ,decatur4 ,z he receiv$ f ! gov]nm5t1 soon aft] mak+ ?is deposition1 ab\t #aj1jjj to liquidate claims = 8 exp5se 9 ,tripoli1 :i* he _h long press$ 9 va91 8 good fai? has be5 d\bt$4 ,at ,burr's trial at ,ri*mond 9 #ahjg ,eaton 0 "o ( ! witnesses1 b 8 te/imony 0 unimportant4 ,9 ,may #ahjg he 0 elect$ a memb] ( ! ,massa*usetts ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & s]v$ = "o t]m4 ,he di$ on ! #a/ ( ,june #ahaa 9 ,brimfield1 ,massa*usetts4 ,see ! anonym\sly publi%$ ,life ( ! ,late ,g54 ,william ,eaton 7,brookfield1 ,massa*usetts1 #ahac7 by ,*>les ,pr5tiss2 ,c4,c4 ,felton1 ,life ( ,william ,eaton 9 ,sp>ks's ,libr>y ( ,am]ican ,biography1 vol4 ix4 7,bo/on1 #ahch72 & ,g>dn] ,w4 ,all5's ,our ,navy & ! ,b>b>y ,corsairs 7,bo/on1 #aije74 ,,eaton1 ,,wyatt 7#ahdi-ahif71 ,am]ican portrait & figure pa9t]1 0 born at ,philipsburg1 ,canada1 on ! #f? ( ,may #ahdi4 ,he 0 a pupil ( ! s*ools ( ! ,national ,academy ( ,design1 ,new ,york1 & 9 #ahgb w5t to ,p>is1 :]e he /udi$ 9 ! ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts "u ,j4,l4 ,g]ome4 ,he made ! acqua9tance ( ,j4,f4 ,millet at ,b>bizon1 & 0 also influ5c$ by 8 fri5d ,jules ,ba/i5-,lepage4 ,aft] 8 return to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahgf he became a tea*] 9 ,coop] ,in/itute & op5$ a /udio 9 ,new ,york city4 ,he 0 "o ( ! organiz]s 7& ! fir/ secret>y7 ( ! ,society ( ,am]ican ,arti/s4 ,among 8 portraits are ^? ( ,william ,cull5 ,bryant & ,timo?y ,cole1 ! wood engrav] 7,! ,man ) ! ,viol974 ,eaton di$ at ,newport1 ,rhode ,isl&1 on ! #g? ( ,june #ahif4 ,,eau ,,claire1 a city & ! c\nty-seat ( ,eau ,claire c\nty1 ,wiscons91 ,u4,s4,a41 on ! ,*ippewa riv]1 at ! m\? ( ! ,eau ,claire1 ab\t #hg m4 ,e4 ( ,/ ,paul4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ag1dae2 7#aijj7 #ag1eag1 ( :om #diif 7 =eign-born2 7#aiaj c5sus7 #ah1caj4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,*icago ,nor?-,we/]n1 ! ,*icago1 ,milwaukee ,/ ,paul1 & ! ,wiscons9 ,c5tral railways1 & is connect$ by an electric l9e ) ,*ippewa ,falls 7#ab m4 di/ant74 ,! city has a ,c>negie libr>y ) #ag1bjj volumes 9 #aijh1 a ,f$]al build+1 c\nty c\rt h\se1 normal s*ool & insane asylum4 ,x has abundant wat]-p[]1 & is an important lumb] manufactur+ c5tre2 among its o!r manufactures are fl\r1 wood5-w>e1 agricultural ma*9]y1 saw-mill ma*9]y1 logg+ locomotives1 wood pulp1 pap]1 l951 mattresses1 %oes & trunks4 ,! total value ( factory products 9 #aije 0 #c1fja1eeh4 ,! city is ! pr9cipal :olesale & jobb+ m>ket = ! prosp]\s ,*ippewa ,valley4 ,eau ,claire 0 fir/ settl$ ab\t #ahdg1 & 0 *>t]$ z a city 9 #ahgb2 its gr[? dates f ! developm5t ( ! nor?-we/]n lumb] trade 9 ! decade #ahgj-ahhj4 ,9 #ahha a s]i\s /rike necessitat$ ! call+ out ( /ate militia = its suppression & ! protection ( prop]ty4 ,,eau ,,de ,,cologne 7,g]4 ,koelnis*es ,wass]1 ,cologne wat]71 a p]fume1 s nam$ f ! city ( ,cologne1 :]e its manufacture 0 fir/ e/abli%$ by an ,italian1 ,johann 7or ,giovanni7 ,m>ia ,f>9a 7#afhe-agff71 :o settl$ at ,cologne 9 #agji4 ,! p]fume ga9$ a high reputation by #agff1 & ,f>9a associat$ himself ) 8 nephew1 to ^: gr&son ! secret 0 ultimately imp>t$2 ! orig9al p]fume is /ill manufactur$ by memb]s ( ?is family "u ! "n ( ! f\nd]4 ,! manufacture is1 h[ev]1 c>ri$ on at ,cologne1 & also 9 ,italy1 by o!r firms be>+ ! "n ,f>9a1 & ! sc5t has become "p ( ! regul> output ( p]fum]s4 ,! discov]y has also be5 ascrib$ to a ,paul de ,fem9is1 :o is suppos$ to h br\ght 8 recipe f ,milan to ,cologne1 ( :i* he became a citiz5 9 #afij1 & sold ! p]fume "u ! "n ,eau admirable1 leav+ ! secret at 8 dea? to 8 nephew ,johann ,m>ia ,f>9a4 ,c]ta9 ( ! ,f>9as claim to use 8 process4 ,x 0 orig9ally prep>$ by mak+ an alcoholic infusion ( c]ta9 fl[]s1 pot-h]bs1 drugs & spices1 di/ill+ & !n add+ def9ite quantities ( sev]al vegetable ess5ces4 ,! purity & ?or\gh bl5d+ ( ! +r$i5ts are ( ! greate/ importance4 ,! orig9al p]fume is simulat$ & ev5 excell$ by artificial prep>ations4 ,! oils ( lemon1 b]gamot & orange are employ$1 toge!r ) ! oils ( n]oli & rosem>y 9 ! bett] class4 ,! common practice consi/s 9 dissolv+ ! oils1 9 c]ta9 def9ite proportions bas$ on exp]i5ce1 9 pure alcohol & di/ill+1 ! di/illate be+ dilut$ by rose-wat]4 ,,eaux-,,bonnes1 a wat]+-place ( s\?-we/]n ,france1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,basses-,pyr5ees1 #ca_/b m4 ,s4,e4 ( ! small t[n ( ,l>uns1 ! latt] be+ #bd m4 ,s4 ( ,pau by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #faj4 ,eaux-,bonnes is situat$ at a height ( #bdfj ft4 at ! entrance ( a f9e gorge1 ov]look+ ! conflu5ce ( two torr5ts1 ! ,val5t9 & ! ,s\rde4 ,! village is well kn[n = its sulphur\s & sal9e m9]al wat]s 7fir/ m5tion$ 9 ! middle ( ! #ad? c5tury71 :i* are b5eficial 9 affections ( ! ?roat & lungs4 ,!y v>y betwe5 #ej deg4 & #ij deg4 ,f4 9 temp]ature1 & are us$ = dr9k+ & ba?+4 ,!re are two !rmal e/abli%m5ts1 a cas9o & f9e prom5ades4 ,! wat]+-place ( ,,les ,,eaux-,,*audes is #e m4 by road s\?-we/ ( ,eaux-,bonnes1 9 a wild gorge on ! ,gave d',ossau4 ,! spr+s are sulphur\s1 v>y+ 9 temp]ature f #eb deg4 to #ig deg4 ,f41 & are us$ 9 cases ( rheumatism1 c]ta9 maladies ( wom51 c4 ,! !rmal e/abli%m5t is a h&some m>ble build+4 ,!re is f9e m\nta9 sc5]y 9 ! neighb\rhood ( bo? places1 ! ,pic de ,g] ne> ,eaux-,bonnes1 comm&+ an ext5sive view4 ,! valley ( ,ossau1 "o ( ! mo/ beautiful 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 be=e ! ,revolution =m$ a community :i*1 ?\gh dep5d5t on ,be>n1 _h its own legal organization1 mann]s & co/umes1 ! la/ ( :i* are /ill to be se5 on holidays4 ,,eaves 7n a plural =m z is sometimes suppos$1 b s+ul>2 ,o4 ,eng4 efes1 9 ,mid4 ,high ,g]4 obse1 ,go?ic ubizwa1 a por*2 connect$ ) ov]71 9 ar*itecture1 ! project+ edge ( a slop+ ro(1 :i* ov]hangs ! face ( ! wall s z to ?r[ (f ! wat]4 ,,eavesdrip1 or ,,eavesdrop1 t wid? ( gr\nd ar\nd a h\se or build+ :i* receives ! ra9 wat] dropp+ f ! eaves4 ,by an anci5t ,saxon law1 a l&[n] 0 =bidd5 to erect any build+ at less ?an #b ft4 f ! b\nd>y ( 8 l&1 & 0 ?us prev5t$ f injur+ 8 neighb\r's h\se or prop]ty by ! dripp+ ( wat] f 8 eaves4 ,! law ( ,eavesdrip has _h its equival5t 9 ! ,roman /illicidium1 :i* prohibit$ build+ up to ! v edge ( an e/ate4 ,f ! ,saxon cu/om arose ! t]m eavesdropp]1 i4e4 any "o :o /&s )9 ! eavesdrop ( a h\se1 h5ce "o :o pries into o!rs' bus9ess or li/5s to secrets4 ,at common law an eavesdropp] 0 reg>d$ z a common nuisance1 & 0 pres5table at ! c\rt leet1 & indictable at ! %]iff's t\rn & puni%able by f9e & f9d+ sureties = good behavi\r4 ,?\gh ! (f5ce ( eavesdropp+ /ill exi/s at common law1 !re is no mod]n in/ance ( a prosecution or indictm5t4 ,,ebbw ,,vale1 an urban di/rict 9 ! we/]n p>liam5t>y division ( ,monm\?%ire1 ,engl&1 #ba m4 ,n4,w4 ( ,newport on ! ,great ,we/]n1 ,london ,nor?-,we/]n & ,rhymney railways4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #ag1cab2 7#aija7 #bj1iid4 ,x lies ne> ! head ( ! valley ( ! riv] ,ebbw1 at an elevation ( ne>ly #ajjj ft41 9 a wild & m\nta9\s m9+ di/rict1 :i* conta9s l>ge colli]ies & important iron & /eel works4 ,,ebel1 ,,h]mann ,,wilhelm 7#ahbj-ahge71 ,g]man philologi/1 0 born at ,b]l9 on ! #aj? ( ,may #ahbj4 ,he display$ 9 8 e>ly ye>s a rem>kable capacity = ! /udy ( languages1 & at ! same "t a passionate fondness = music & poetry4 ,at ! age ( sixte5 he became a /ud5t at ! univ]sity ( ,b]l91 apply+ himself especially to philology1 & att5d+ ! lectures ( ,boeckh4 ,music cont9u$ to be ! fav\rite occupation ( 8 leisure h\rs1 & he pursu$ ! /udy ( x "u ! direction ( ,m>x4 ,9 ! spr+ ( #ahch he pass$ to ! univ]sity ( ,halle1 & !re began to apply himself to comp>ative philology "u ,pott4 ,return+ 9 ! foll[+ ye> to 8 native city1 he cont9u$ ?is /udy z a disciple ( ,bopp4 ,he took 8 degree 9 #ahdb1 &1 aft] sp5d+ 8 ye> ( probation at ! ,fr5* ,gymnasium ( ,b]l91 he resum$ ) great e>ne/ness 8 language /udies4 ,ab\t #ahdg he began to /udy ,old ,p]sian4 ,9 #aheb he accept$ a pr(essor%ip at ! ,beheim-,s*w>zba* ,in/itution at ,filehne1 :i* po/ he held = six ye>s4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is p]iod t 8 /udies 9 ! ,old ,slavic & ,celtic languages began4 ,9 #aheh he remov$ to ,s*neidemuehl1 & !re he dis*>g$ ! duties ( fir/ pr(essor = t5 ye>s4 ,he 0 aft]w>ds call$ to ! *air ( comp>ative philology at ! univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,he di$ at ,misdroy on ! #ai? ( ,augu/ #ahge4 ,! mo/ important "w ( ,dr ,ebel 9 ! field ( ,celtic philology is 8 revis$ edition ( ! ,grammatica ,celtica ( ,pr(essor ,zeuss1 complet$ 9 #ahga4 ,?is _h be5 prec$$ by 8 treatises--,de v]bi ,britannici futuro ac conjunctivo 7#ahff71 & ,de ,zeussii curis positis 9 ,grammatica ,celtica 7#ahfi74 ,he made _m le>n$ contributions to ,kuehn's ,zeits*rift fu] v]glei*5de ,spra*=s*ung1 & to ,a4 ,s*lei*]'s ,beitraege zur v]glei*5d5 ,spra*=s*ung2 & a selection ( ^! contributions 0 translat$ into ,engli% by ,sullivan1 & publi%$ "u ! title ( ,celtic ,/udies 7#ahfc74 ,ebel contribut$ ! ,old ,iri% section to ,s*lei*]'s ,indog]manis*e ,*re/oma?ie 7#ahfi74 ,among 8 o!r works mu/ be nam$ ,die ,lehnwo]t] d] deuts*5 ,spra*e 7#ahef74 ,,ebel1 ,,johann ,,gottfri$ 7#agfd-ahcj71 ! au?or ( ! fir/ real guide-book to ,switz]l&1 0 born at ,zuelli*au 7,prussia74 ,he became a m$ical man1 visit$ ,switz]l& = ! fir/ "t 9 #agij1 & became s enam\r$ ( x t he sp5t ?ree ye>s explor+ ! c\ntry & collect+ all k9ds ( in=mation relat+ to x4 ,! result 0 ! publication 7,zu]i*1 #agic7 ( 8 ,anleitung auf die nuetzli*/e und g5ussvoll/e ,art 9 d] ,s*weitz zu reis5 7#b vols471 9 :i* he gave a complete acc\nt ( ! c\ntry1 ! ,g5]al ,in=mation sections be+ foll[$ by an alphabetically arrang$ li/ ( places1 ) descriptions4 ,x at once sup]s$$ all o!r works ( ! k9d1 & 0 ! be/ ,swiss guide-book till ! appe>ance ( ,murray 7#ahch74 ,x 0 p>ticul>ly /rong on ! geological & hi/orical sides4 ,! second 7#ahjd-ahje7 & ?ird 7#ahji-ahaj7 editions fill$ f\r volumes1 b ! foll[+ 7! #h? appe>$ 9 #ahdc7 7 9 a s+le volume4 ,! "w 0 translat$ into ,fr5* 9 #agie 7_m lat] editions7 & into ,engli% 7by #ahah74 ,ebel also publi%$ a "w 7#b vols41 ,leipzig1 #agih-ahjb7 entitl$ ,s*ild]ung5 d] ,gebirgsvoelk] d] ,s*weiz1 :i* deals ma9ly ) ! pa/oral cantons ( ,gl>us & ,app5zell4 ,9 #ahja he 0 naturaliz$ a ,swiss citiz51 & settl$ d[n 9 ,zu]i*4 ,9 #ahjh he issu$ 8 *ief geological "w1 ,ueb] d5 ,bau d] ,erde im ,alp5gebirge 7,zu]i*1 #b vols474 ,he took an active %>e 9 promot+ all t c\ld make 8 adopt$ c\ntry bett] kn[n1 e4g4 ,he9ri* ,kell]'s map 7#ahac71 ! build+ ( a hotel on ! ,rigi 7#ahaf71 & ! prep>ation ( a panorama f t po9t 7#ahbc74 ,f #ahaj onw>ds he liv$ at ,zu]i*1 ) ! family ( 8 fri5d1 ,conrad ,es*] von d] ,l9? 7#agfg-ahbc71 ! celebrat$ eng9e]4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,eb]1 ,,paul 7#aeaa-aefi71 ,g]man !ologian1 0 born at ,kitz+5 9 ,franconia1 & 0 educat$ at ,nuremb]g & ,witt5b]g1 :]e he became ! close fri5d ( ,philip ,melan*?on4 ,9 #aeda he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( ,lat9 gramm> at ,witt5b]g1 & 9 #aeeg pr(essor ( ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,8 range ( le>n+ 0 wide1 & he publi%$ a h&book ( ,jewi% hi/ory1 a hi/orical cal5d> int5d$ to sup]s$e ! ,roman ,sa9ts' ,cal5d>1 & a revision ( ! ,lat9 ,old ,te/am5t4 ,9 ! !ological conflict ( ! "t he play$ a l>ge "p1 do+ :at he c\ld to m$iate betwe5 ! extremi/s4 ,f #aeei to ! close ( 8 life he 0 sup]9t5d5t-g5]al ( ! electorate ( ,saxony4 ,he atta9$ "s fame z a hymn-writ]1 8 be/-kn[n composition be+ ,w5n wir 9 hoe*/5 ,noe!n se94 ,he di$ at ,witt5b]g on ! #aj? ( ,decemb] #aefi4 ,,eb]ba*1 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! gr&-du*y ( ,bad51 romantically situat$ on ! ,neck>1 at ! foot ( ! ,katz5buckel1 #ai m4 ,e4 ( ,heidelb]g by ! railway to ,wu]zburg4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #eheg4 ,x conta9s an ,evangelical & a ,roman ,ca?olic *ur*1 a comm]cial & a te*nical s*ool1 &1 9 addition to manufactur+ cig>s1 lea!r & cutl]y1 c>ries on by wat] an active trade 9 timb] & w9e4 ,eb]ba* 0 f\nd$ 9 #abbg by ! ,g]man k+ ,h5ry ,,vii41 :o acquir$ ! ca/le 7! ru9s ( :i* ov]hang ! t[n7 f ! bi%op ( ,worms4 ,x became an imp]ial t[n & pass$ lat] to ! ,palat9ate4 ,see ,wir?1 ,ges*i*te d] ,/adt ,eb]ba* 7,/uttg>t1 #ahfd74 ,,eb]ba*1 a fam\s ,ci/]cian mona/]y ( ,g]many1 9 ! ,prussian prov9ce ( ,hesse-,nassau1 situat$ ne> ,hatt5heim 9 ! ,rhe+au1 #aj m4 ,n4,w4 f ,wiesbad54 ,f\nd$ 9 #aaaf by ,ar*bi%op ,adalb]t ( ,ma9z1 z a h\se ( ,augu/9ian canons regul>1 x 0 be/[$ by him 9 #aaca ^u ! ,b5$ict9es1 b 0 %ortly aft]w>ds repur*as$ & conf]r$ ^u ! ,ci/]cian ord]4 ,! ,romanesque *ur* 7consecrat$ 9 #aahf7 conta9s num]\s int]e/+ monum5ts & tombs1 notable among !m be+ ^? ( ! ar*bi%op ( ,ma9z1 ,g]la* 7d4 #acga7 & ,adolph ,,ii4 ( ,nassau 7d4 #adge74 ,x 0 despoil$ dur+ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 0 secul>iz$ 9 #ahjc1 & n[ s]ves z a h\se ( correction4 ,its cell>s conta9 "s ( ! f9e/ v9tages ( ! ,rh9e w9es ( ! locality4 ,see ,ba]1 ,diplomatis*e ,ges*i*te d] ,abtei ,eb]ba* 7,wiesb41 #ahea-aheh & #ahhf1 #c vols471 & ,s*aef]1 ,die ,abtei ,eb]ba* im ,mittelalt] 7,b]l91 #aija74 ,,eb]h>d1 surnam$ ,,im ,,b>t 7,b>batus71 c\nt & aft]w>ds duke ( ,wu]ttemb]g 7#adde-adif71 0 ! second son ( ,l\is ,i41 c\nt ( ,wu]ttemb]g-,ura* 7d4 #adej71 & succe$$ 8 eld] bro!r ,l\is ,,ii4 9 #adeg4 ,8 uncle ,ulri* ,v41 c\nt ( ,wu]ttemb]g-,/uttg>t 7d4 #adhj71 act$ z 8 gu>dian1 b 9 #adei1 assi/$ by ,fr$]ick ,i41 elector palat9e1 he ?rew (f ?is re/ra9t1 & und]took ! gov]nm5t ( ! di/rict ( ,ura* z ,c\nt ,eb]h>d ,v4 ,he neglect$ 8 duties z a rul] & liv$ a reckless life until #adfh1 :5 he made a pilgrimage to ,j]usalem4 ,he visit$ ,italy1 became acqua9t$ ) "s fam\s s*ol>s1 & 9 #adgd m>ri$ ,b>b>a di ,gonzaga1 daught] ( ,lodovico ,,iii41 m>quis ( ,mantua1 a lady di/+ui%$ = h] intellectual qualities4 ,9 #adhb he br\ght ab\t ! treaty ( ,mu5s+5 ) 8 c\s9 ,eb]h>d ,,vi41 c\nt ( ,wu]ttemb]g-,/uttg>t4 ,by ?is treaty ! di/ricts ( ,ura* & ,/uttg>t into :i* ,wu]ttemb]g _h be5 divid$ 9 #adcg 7 aga9 unit$1 & = ! future ! c\nty 0 decl>$ indivisible1 & ! "r ( primog5iture e/abli%$4 ,! treaty l$ to "s di/urbances1 b 9 #adib ! sanction ( ! nobles 0 secur$ = its provisions4 ,9 return = ?is ,eb]h>d agre$ to "s limitations on ! p[] ( ! c\nt1 & s 9 a s5se f\nd$ ! con/itution ( ,wu]ttemb]g4 ,at ! diet ( ,worms 9 #adie ! emp]or ,maximilian ,i4 gu>ante$ ! treaty1 confirm$ ! possessions & pr]ogatives ( ! h\se ( ,wu]ttemb]g1 & rais$ ,eb]h>d to ! rank ( duke4 ,eb]h>d1 al?\gh a lov] ( peace1 0 "o ( ! f\nd]s ( ! ,swabian ,league 9 #adhh1 & assi/$ to release ,maximilian1 !n k+ ( ! ,romans1 f 8 imprisonm5t at ,bruges 9 ! same ye>4 ,he gave *>t]s to ! t[ns ( ,/uttg>t & ,tueb+51 & introduc$ ord] into ! conv5ts ( 8 l&1 "s ( :i* he secul>iz$4 ,he took a ke5 int]e/ 9 ! new le>n+1 f\nd$ ! univ]sity ( ,tueb+5 9 #adgf1 befri5d$ ,john ,reu*l91 :om he made 8 private secret>y1 welcom$ s*ol>s to 8 c\rt1 & is said to h le>n$ ,lat9 9 lat] life4 ,9 #adhb he aga9 visit$ ,italy & receiv$ ! ,gold5 ,rose f ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 ,he won ! e/eem ( ! emp]ors ,fr$]ick ,,iii4 & ,maximilian ,i4 on acc\nt ( 8 wisdom & fidelity1 & 8 p held him 9 high reg>d4 ,8 lat] ye>s 7 ma9ly sp5t at ,/uttg>t1 b he di$ at ,tueb+5 on ! #be? ( ,febru>y #adif1 & 9 #aecg 8 a%es 7 plac$ 9 ! *oir ( ! ,/iftskir*e !re4 ,eb]h>d left no *ildr51 & ! succession pass$ to 8 c\s9 ,eb]h>d1 :o became ,duke ,eb]h>d ,,ii4 ,see ,roessl91 ,leb5 ,eb]h>ds im ,b>te 7,tueb+51 #agic72 ,boss]t1 ,eb]h>d im ,b>t 7,/uttg>t1 #ahhd74 ,,eb]h>d1 ,,*ri/ian ,,augu/ ,,gottlob 7#agfi-ahde71 ,g]man miscellane\s writ]1 0 born at ,belzig1 ne> ,witt5b]g1 on ! #ab? ( ,janu>y #agfi4 ,he /udi$ !ology at ,leipzig2 b1 a /ory he contribut$ to a p]iodical hav+ prov$ successful1 he devot$ himself to lit]ature4 ,) ! exception ( ,hann*5 und die ,kue*le9 7#ahbb71 a n>rative poem 9 t5 p>ts1 & an epic on ! ,creation1 ,d] er/e ,m5s* und die ,erde 7#ahbh71 ,eb]h>d's "w 0 ephem]al 9 "* & is n[ =gott54 ,he di$ at ,dresd5 on ! #ac? ( ,may #ahde4 ,8 collect$ works 7,gesammelte ,s*rift57 appe>$ 9 #bj volumes 9 #ahcj-ahca4 ,,eb]h>d1 ,,johann ,,augu/us 7#agci-ahji71 ,g]man !ologian & philosoph]1 0 born at ,halb]/adt 9 ,l[] ,saxony1 :]e 8 fa!r 0 s++-ma/] at ! *ur* ( ,/ ,m>t9's1 & tea*] ( ! s*ool ( ! same "n4 ,he /udi$ !ology at ! univ]sity ( ,halle1 & became tutor to ! elde/ son ( ! b>on von d] ,hor/1 to ^: family he atta*$ himself = a numb] ( ye>s4 ,9 #agfc he 0 appo9t$ con-rector ( ! s*ool ( ,/ ,m>t9's1 & second prea*] 9 ! hospital *ur* ( ! ,holy ,gho/2 b he soon aft]w>ds resign$ ^! (fices & foll[$ 8 patron to ,b]l94 ,!re he met ,nicolai & ,moses ,m5delssohn1 ) :om he =m$ a close fri5d%ip4 ,9 #agfh he became prea*] or *apla9 to ! workh\se at ,b]l9 & ! neighb\r+ fi%+ village ( ,/ral[4 ,"h he wrote 8 ,neue ,apologie des ,socrates 7#aggb71 a "w occasion$ by an attack on ! fifte5? *apt] ( ,m>montel's ,belis>ius made by ,pet] ,h(/$e1 a cl]gyman ( ,rott]dam1 :o ma9ta9$ ! patri/ic view t ! virtues ( ! noble/ pagans 7 only spl5dida peccata4 ,eb]h>d /at$ ! argum5ts = ! broad] view ) dignity1 acut5ess & le>n+1 b ! lib]ality ( ! reason+ gave great (f5ce to ! /rictly or?odox div9es1 & is believ$ to h ob/ruct$ 8 pref]m5t 9 ! *ur*4 ,9 #aggd he 0 appo9t$ to ! liv+ ( ,*>lott5burg4 ,a second volume ( 8 ,apologie appe>$ 9 #aggh4 ,9 ?is he n only endeav\r$ to obviate "s objections :i* 7 tak5 to ! =m] "p1 b cont9u$ 8 inquiries into ! doctr9es ( ! ,*ri/ian religion1 religi\s tol]ation & ! prop] rules = int]pret+ ! ,scriptures4 ,9 #aggh he accept$ ! pr(essor%ip ( philosophy at ,halle4 ,z an academical tea*]1 h[ev]1 he 0 unsuccessful4 ,8 p[]s z an orig9al ?9k] 7 n equal to 8 le>n+ & 8 lit]>y gifts1 z 0 %[n 9 8 opposition to ! philosophy ( ,kant4 ,9 #aghf he 0 admitt$ a memb] ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy ( ,sci5ces2 9 #ahje ! k+ ( ,prussia conf]r$ ^u him ! honor>y title ( a privy-c\ncillor4 ,9 #ahjh he obta9$ ! degree ( doctor 9 div9ity1 :i* 0 giv5 him z a rew>d = 8 !ological writ+s4 ,he di$ on ! #f? ( ,janu>y #ahji4 ,he 0 ma/] ( ! le>n$ languages1 spoke & wrote ,fr5* ) facility & correctness1 & und]/ood ,engli%1 ,italian & ,dut*4 ,he possess$ a j & discrim9at+ ta/e = ! f9e arts1 & 0 a great lov] ( music4 ,works3--,neue ,apologie des ,socrates1 c4 7#b vols41 #aggb-aggh72 ,allgeme9e ,!orie des ,d5k5s und ,empf9d5s1 c4 7,b]l91 #aggf71 an essay :i* ga9$ ! prize assign$ by ! ,royal ,society ( ,b]l9 = t ye>2 ,von dem ,begriff d] ,philosophie und ihr5 ,!il5 7,b]l91 #aggh7--;a %ort essay1 9 :i* he ann\nc$ ! plan ( 8 lectures on be+ appo9t$ to ! pr(essor%ip at ,halle2 ,lobs*rift auf ,h]rn ,johann ,?unmann ,pr(4 d] ,weltwei%eit und ,b]$samkeit auf d] ,univ]sitaet zu ,halle 7,halle1 #aggi72 ,amyntor1 e9e ,ges*i*te 9 ,brief5 7,b]l91 #aghb7--writt5 ) ! view ( c\nt]act+ ! influ5ce ( ^? sceptical & ,epicurean pr9ciples 9 religion & morals !n s preval5t 9 ,france1 & rapidly spread+ among/ ! high] ranks 9 ,g]many2 ,ueb] die ,zei*5 d] ,aufkla]ung e9] ,nation1 c4 7,halle1 #aghc72 ,!orie d] s*o55 ,ku5/e und ,wiss5s*aft51 c4 7,halle1 #aghc1 #crd ed4 #agij72 ,v]mis*te ,s*rift5 7,halle1 #aghd72 ,neue v]mis*te ,s*rift5 7ib4 #aghf72 ,allgeme9e ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie1 c4 7,halle1 #aghh71 #bnd ed4 ) a cont9uation & *ronological tables 7#agif72 ,v]su* e9] allgeme95-deuts*5 ,synonymik 7,halle & ,leipzig1 #agie-ahjb1 #f vols41 #d? ed4 #aheb-ahec71 long reckon$ ! be/ "w on ! synonyms ( ! ,g]man language 7an abridgm5t ( x 0 publi%$ by ! au?or 9 "o l>ge volume1 ,halle1 #ahjb72 ,h&bu* d] ,ae/hetik 7,halle1 #ahjc-ahje1 #bnd ed4 #ahjg-ahbj74 ,he also edit$ ! ,philosophis*es ,magaz9 7#aghh-agib7 & ! ,philosophis*es ,ar*iv 7#agib-agie74 ,see ,f4 ,nicolai1 ,g$ae*tniss*rift auf ,j4,a4 ,eb]h>d 7,b]l9 & ,/ett91 #ahaj72 also ,k4,h4 ,jo]d5s1 ,lexicon deuts*] ,di*t] und ,prosai/54 ,,eb]l91 ,,johann ,,ern/ 7#agjb-agfb71 ,g]man musician & compos]1 0 born 9 ,bav>ia1 & became aft]w>ds organi/ 9 ! ca!dral at ,salzburg1 :]e he di$4 ,mo/ ( 8 compositions 7 = ! *ur* 7oratorios1 c471 b he also wrote "s important fugues1 sonatas & preludes2 & 8 pieces 7 at "o "t highly valu$ by ,moz>t4 ,,eb]s1 ,,georg ,,moritz 7#ahcg-ahih71 ,g]man ,egyptologi/ & noveli/1 0 born 9 ,b]l9 on ! #a/ ( ,m>* #ahcg4 ,at ,goett+5 he /udi$ jurisprud5ce1 & at ,b]l9 ori5tal languages & ar*aeology4 ,hav+ made a special /udy ( ,egyptology1 he became 9 #ahfe doc5t 9 ,egyptian language & antiquities at ,j5a1 & 9 #ahgj he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor 9 ^! subjects at ,leipzig4 ,he _h made two sci5tific j\rneys to ,egypt1 & 8 fir/ "w ( importance1 ,aegypt5 und die ,bue*] ,moses1 appe>$ 9 #ahfg-ahfh4 ,9 #ahgd he edit$ ! celebrat$ m$ical papyrus 7,papyrus ,eb]s7 :i* he _h discov]$ 9 ,!bes 7translation by ,h4 ,joa*im1 #ahij74 ,eb]s e>ly conceiv$ ! idea ( popul>iz+ ,egyptian lore by means ( hi/orical romances4 ,e9e aegyptis*e ,ko5ig/o*t] 0 publi%$ 9 #ahfd1 & obta9$ great success4 ,8 subsequ5t works ( ! same k9d--,u>da 7#ahgg71 ,homo sum 7#ahgh71 ,die ,s*we/]n 7#ahhj71 ,d] ,kais] 7#ahha71 ( :i* ! sc5e is laid 9 ,egypt at ! "t ( ,hadrian1 ,s]apis 7#ahhe71 ,die ,nilbraut 7#ahhg71 & ,kleopatra 7#ahid71 7 also well receiv$1 & did mu* to make ! public famili> ) ! discov]ies ( ,egyptologi/s4 ,eb]s also turn$ 8 att5tion to o!r fields ( hi/orical fiction--especially ! #af? c5tury 7,die ,frau ,bu]g]mei/]91 #ahhb2 ,die ,gr$1 #ahhg7--)\t1 h[ev]1 atta9+ ! success ( 8 ,egyptian novels4 ,ap>t f _! antiqu>ian & hi/orical int]e/1 ,eb]s's books h n a v high lit]>y value4 ,8 o!r writ+s include a descriptive "w on ,egypt 7,aegypt5 9 ,wort und ,bild1 #bnd ed41 #ahhj71 a guide to ,egypt 7#ahhf7 & a life 7#ahhe7 ( 8 old tea*]1 ! ,egyptologi/ ,k>l ,ri*>d ,lepsius4 ,! /ate ( 8 heal? l$ him 9 #ahhi to retire f 8 *air at ,leipzig on a p5sion4 ,he di$ at ,tutz+ 9 ,bav>ia1 on ! #g? ( ,augu/ #ahih4 ,eb]s's ,gesammelte ,w]ke appe>$ 9 #be vols4 at ,/uttg>t 7#ahic-ahie74 ,_m ( 8 books h be5 translat$ into ,engli%4 ,= 8 life see 8 ,die ,ges*i*te me9es ,leb5s 7,/uttg>t1 #ahic72 also ,r4 ,gos*e1 ,g4 ,eb]s1 d] ,=s*] und ,di*t] 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahhg74 ,,eb]swalde1 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! k+dom ( ,prussia1 #bh m4 ,n4,e4 ( ,b]l9 by rail2 on ! ,f9[ canal4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bc1hgf4 ,! t[n has a ,roman ,ca?olic & two ,evangelical *ur*es1 a s*ool ( =e/ry1 a gymnasium1 a high]-grade girls' s*ool & two s*ools ( dome/ic economy4 ,x possesses a m9]al spr+1 :i* attracts num]\s summ] visitors1 & has v>i\s indu/ries1 :i* include iron-f\nd+ & ! mak+ ( horse-%oe nails1 ro(+ mat]ial & bricks4 ,a consid]able trade is c>ri$ on 9 gra91 wood & coals4 ,9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood are "o ( ! *ief brass-f\ndries 9 ,g]many & an ext5sive gov]nm5t pap]-mill1 9 :i* ! pap] = ! notes ( ! imp]ial bank is manufactur$4 ,eb]swalde receiv$ its municipal *>t] 9 #abeg4 ,x 0 tak5 & sack$ dur+ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,9 #agdg ,fr$]ick ! ,great br\ght a colony ( ,?ur+ian cutl]s to ! t[n1 b ?is bran* ( indu/ry has entirely di$ out4 ,ab\t #d m4 to ! nor? lies ! old ,ci/]cian mona/]y ( ,*or91 ! f9e ,go?ic *ur* ( :i* conta9s ! tombs ( sev]al m>graves ( ,br&5burg4 ,,eb]t1 ,,fri$ri* ,,adolf 7#agia-ahcd71 ,g]man bibliograph]1 0 born at ,tau*a1 ne> ,leipzig1 on ! #i? ( ,july #agia1 ! son ( a ,lu!ran pa/or4 ,at ! age ( fifte5 he 0 appo9t$ to a subord9ate po/ 9 ! municipal libr>y ( ,leipzig4 ,he /udi$ !ology = a %ort "t at ,leipzig1 & aft]w>ds philology at ,witt5b]g1 :]e he graduat$ doctor 9 philosophy 9 #ahab4 ,:ile /ill a /ud5t he _h already publi%$1 9 #ahaa1 a "w on public libr>ies1 & 9 #ahab ano!r "w entitl$ ,hi]>*iae 9 religionem ac lit]as commoda4 ,9 #ahac he 0 atta*$ to ! ,leipzig ,univ]sity libr>y1 & 9 #ahad 0 appo9t$ secret>y to ! ,royal libr>y ( ,dresd54 ,! same ye> he publi%$ ,f4 ,taubmanns ,leb5 und ,v]di5/e1 & 9 #ahai ,torquato ,tasso1 a translation f ,pi]re ,l\is ,g+u5e ) annotations4 ,! ri* res\rces op5 to him 9 ! ,dresd5 libr>y enabl$ him to und]take ! "w on :i* 8 reputation *iefly re/s1 ! ,allgeme9es bibliographis*es ,lexikon1 ! fir/ volume ( :i* appe>$ 9 #ahba & ! second 9 #ahcj4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ "w ( ! k9d produc$ 9 ,g]many1 & ! mo/ sci5tific publi%$ any:]e4 ,f #ahbc to #ahbe ,eb]t 0 libr>ian to ! duke ( ,brunswick at ,wolf5buettel1 b return+ to ,dresd5 0 made1 9 #ahbg1 *ief libr>ian ( ! ,dresd5 ,royal libr>y4 ,among 8 o!r works are--,die ,bildung des ,biblio!k>s 7#ahbj71 ,ges*i*te und ,bes*reibung d] ko5igli*5 oeff5tli*5 ,biblio!k 9 ,dresd5 7#ahbb71 ,zur ,h&s*rift5kunde 7#ahbe-ahbg71 & ,culturp]iod5 des ob]sae*sis*5 ,mittelalt]s 7#ahbe74 ,eb]t 0 a contributor to v>i\s j\rnals & took "p 9 ! edit+ ( ,ers* & ,grub]'s great encyclopa$ia4 ,he di$ at ,dresd5 on ! #ac? ( ,novemb] #ahcd1 9 consequ5ce ( a fall f ! ladd] 9 8 libr>y4 ,see ! article 9 ,ers* und ,grub]s ,encyclopa$ie1 & t 9 ! ,allg4 deuts*e ,biog4 by 8 successor 9 ! po/ ( *ief libr>ian 9 ,dresd51 ,s*norr von ,c>olsfeld4 ,,eb+51 a t[n ( ,g]many1 9 ! k+dom ( ,wu]ttemb]g1 on ! ,s*mie*a1 a left-h& tribut>y ( ! ,danube1 #bb m4 ,s4 ( ,tueb+5 & #cg m4 ,w4 ( ,ulm by rail4 ,x manufactures velvet & cotton-velvet 7,man*e/]7 goods1 /ock+s1 /ays1 hats1 ne$les1 tools1 c4 ,!re are also tann]ies4 ,pop4 #ijjj4 ,,ebionites 7,heb4 ,hebrew3 ebyonim1 poor m571 a "n giv5 to ! ultra-,jewi% p>ty 9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian *ur*4 ,x is fir/ met ) 9 ,ir5aeus 7,adv4 ,ha]4 i4 #bf4 #b71 :o %$s no light on ! orig9 ( ! ,ebionites1 b says t :ile !y admit ! _w to h be5 made by ! true ,god 79 contra/ to ! ,demiurge ( ! ,gno/ics71 !y held ,c]9?ian views on ! p]son ( ,*ri/1 us$ only ! ,gospel ( ,mat!w 7probably ! ,gospel accord+ to ! ,hebrews--s ,eusebius71 & reject$ ,paul z an apo/ate f ! ,mosaic ,law1 to ! cu/oms & ord9ances ( :i*1 includ+ circumcision1 !y /eadily adh]$4 ,a simil> acc\nt is giv5 by ,hippolytus 7,ha]4 vii4 #ce71 :o inv5ts a f\nd] nam$ ,ebion4 ,orig5 7,contra ,celsum1 v4 #fa2 ,9 ,matt4 tom4 xvi4 #ab7 divides ! ,ebionites into two classes accord+ to _! acceptance or rejection ( ! virg9 bir? ( ,jesus1 b says t all alike reject ! ,paul9e epi/les4 ,?is is confirm$ by ,eusebius1 :o adds t ev5 ^? :o admitt$ ! virg9 bir? did n accept ! pre-exi/5ce ( ,jesus z ,logos & ,sophia4 ,!y kept bo? ! ,jewi% ,sabba? & ! ,*ri/ian ,"l's day1 & held extreme mill5>ian ideas 9 :i* ,j]usalem figur$ z ! c5tre ( ! com+ ,messianic k+dom4 ,epiphanius ) 8 cu/om>y confusion makes two sep>ate sects1 ,ebionites & ,naz>5es4 ,bo? names1 h[ev]1 ref] to ! same p#a 7! ,jewi% ,*ri/ians ( ,syria71 ! latt] go+ back to ! designation ( apo/olic times 7,acts xxiv4 #e71 & ! =m] be+ ! t]m usually appli$ to !m 9 ! ecclesia/ical lit]ature ( ! #bnd & #crd c5turies4 ,! orig9 ( ! ,naz>5es or ,ebionites z a di/9ct sect is v obscure1 b may be dat$ ) mu* likelihood f ! edict ( ,hadrian :i* 9 #ace f9ally scatt]$ ! old *ur* ( ,j]usalem4 ,:ile ,*ri/ians ( ! type ( ,ari/o ( ,pella & ,hegesippus1 on ! snapp+ ( ! old ties1 7 gradually assimilat$ to ! great *ur* outside1 ! m cons]vative section became m & m isolat$ & exclusive4 ,x may h be5 !n t !y call$ !mselves ! ,poor ,m51 probably z claim+ to be ! true repres5tatives ( ^? :o _h be5 bless$ 9 ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 b possibly add+ to ! "n o!r associations4 ,out ( t\* ) ! ma9 /ream ( ! *ur* !y develop$ a new k9d ( ph>isaism4 ,doctr9ally !y /ood n s mu* = a !ology z = a refusal ( !ology1 &1 reject+ ! practical lib]alism ( ,paul1 became ! natural heirs ( ^? e>ly ,judaiz]s :o _h caus$ ! apo/le s mu* annoyance & tr\ble4 ,?\gh !re is insuffici5t ju/ification = divid+ ! ,ebionites into two sep>ate & di/9ct communities1 labell$ respectively ,ebionites & ,naz>5es1 we h good evid5ce1 n only t !re 7 grades ( ,*ri/ological ?\ght among !m1 b t a consid]able section1 at ! end ( ! #bnd c5tury & ! beg9n+ ( ! #crd1 ex*ang$ _! simple ,judai/ic cre$ = a /range bl5d ( ,ess5ism & ,*ri/ianity4 ,^! are kn[n z ! ,helxaites or ,el*asaites1 = !y accept$ z a revelation ! book ( ,el*asai1 & "o ,alcibiades ( ,apamea und]took a mission to ,rome ab\t #bbj to propagate its tea*+4 ,x 0 claim$ t ,*ri/1 z an angel #if miles high1 accompani$ by ! ,holy ,_s1 z a female angel ( ! same /ature1 _h giv5 ! revelation to ,el*asai 9 ! #crd ye> ( ,trajan 7,a4,d4 #ajj71 b ! book 0 probably q new 9 ,alcibiades' "t4 ,x taught t ,*ri/ 0 an angel born ( human p>5ts1 & _h appe>$ bo? be=e 7e4g4 9 ,adam & ,moses7 & aft] ?is bir? 9 ,judea4 ,8 com+ did n annul ! ,law1 = he 0 m]ely a prophet & tea*]2 ,paul 0 wrong & circumcision /ill necess>y4 ,baptism mu/ be repeat$ z a means ( purification f s91 & pro( aga9/ disease2 ! s9n] imm]ses himself 9 ! "n ( ! mighty & mo/ high ,god1 invok+ ! sev5 witnesses 7sky1 wat]1 ! holy spirits1 ! angels ( pray]1 oil1 salt & e>?71 & pl$g+ himself to am5dm5t4 ,ab/95ce f fle% 0 also enjo9$1 & a good deal ( a/rological fancy 0 int]wov5 ) ! doctr9al & practical tea*+4 ,x is highly probable1 too1 t f ^! ,ess5e ,ebionites !re issu$ ! fanta/ical & widely read ,clem5t9e lit]ature 7,homilies & ,recognitions7 ( ! #crd c5tury4 ,ebionite views l+]$ especially 9 ! c\ntry ea/ ( ! ,jordan until !y 7 absorb$ by ,islam 9 ! #g? c5tury4 ,9 addition to ! lit]ature cit$ see ,r4,c4 ,ottley1 ,! ,doctr9e ( ! ,inc>nation1 "p iii4 ,sec4 ii42 ,w4 ,moell]1 ,hi/4 ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 i4 #ii2 art4 9 ,h]zog-,hauck1 ,real5cyklopa$ie1 s4v4 ,ebionit52 also ,,clem5t9e ,,lit]ature4 ,,footnote3 #a ,s ,a4 ,h>nack1 ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 i4 #cja1 & ,f4,j4,a4 ,hort1 ,judai/ic ,*ri/ianity1 p4 #aii4 ,?4 ,zahn & ,j4,b4 ,lightfoot 7,/4 ,paul & ! ,?ree1 9 ,comm5t>y on ,galatians7 ma9ta9 ! di/9ction4 ,,ebn]-,,es*5ba*1 ,,m>ie1 ,,freifrau ,,von 7#ahcj- 71 ,au/rian noveli/1 0 born at ,zdislavic 9 ,moravia1 on ! #ac? ( ,septemb] #ahcj1 ! daught] ( a ,c\nt ,dubsky4 ,%e lo/ h] "m 9 e>ly infancy1 b receiv$ a c>eful intellectual tra9+ f two /epmo!rs4 ,9 #ahdh %e m>ri$ ! ,au/rian capta91 & subsequ5t field-m>%al1 ,moritz von ,ebn]-,es*5ba*1 & resid$ fir/ at ,vi5na1 !n at ,klo/]bruck1 :]e h] husb& _h a milit>y *>ge1 & aft] #ahfj aga9 at ,vi5na4 ,! m>riage 0 *ildless1 & ! tal5t$ wife s\ght consolation 9 lit]>y "w4 ,9 h] endeav\rs %e receiv$ assi/ance & enc\ragem5t f ,franz ,grillp>z] & ,freih]r von ,mu5*-,bell+haus54 ,h] fir/ essay 0 ) ! drama ,m>ia ,/u>t 9 ,s*ottl&1 :i* ,philipp ,edu>d ,devri5t produc$ at ! ,k>lsruhe !atre 9 #ahfj4 ,aft] "s o!r unsuccessful attempts 9 ! field ( drama1 %e f\nd h] true sph]e 9 n>rative4 ,comm5c+ ) ,die ,pr9zess9 von ,banali5 7#ahgb71 %e graphically depicts 9 ,boz5a 7,/uttg>t1 #ahgf1 #d? ed4 #ahii7 & ,das ,geme9dek9d 7,b]l91 #ahhg1 #d? ed4 #aijj7 ! surr\nd+s ( h] ,moravian home1 & 9 ,lotti1 die ,uhrma*]9 7,b]l91 #ahhc1 #d? ed4 #aijj71 ,zwei ,comtess5 7,b]l91 #ahhe1 #e? ed4 #ahih71 ,unsuehnb> 7#ahij1 #e? ed4 #aijj7 & ,glaub5slos8 7#ahic7 ! life ( ! ,au/rian ari/ocracy 9 t[n & c\ntry4 ,%e also publi%$ ,neue ,erzaehlung5 7,b]l91 #ahha1 #crd ed4 #ahid71 ,aphorism5 7,b]l91 #ahhj1 #d? ed4 #ahie7 & ,p>abeln1 ,ma]*5 und ,g$i*te 7#bnd ed41 ,b]l91 #ahib74 ,frau von ,ebn]-,es*5ba*'s elegance ( /yle1 h] incisive wit & ma/]ly depiction ( "* give h] a =emo/ place among ! ,g]man wom5-writ]s ( h] "t4 ,on ! occasion ( h] sev5tie? bir?day ! univ]sity ( ,vi5na conf]r$ ^u h] ! degree ( doctor ( philosophy1 honoris causa4 ,an edition ( ,m>ie von ,ebn]-,es*5ba*'s ,gesammelte ,s*rift5 began to appe> 9 #ahic 7,b]l974 ,see ,a4 ,bettelheim1 ,m>ie von ,ebn]-,es*5ba*3 biographis*e ,blaett] 7,b]l91 #aijj71 & ,m4 ,neck]1 ,m>ie von ,ebn]-,es*5ba*1 na* ihr5 ,w]k5 ges*ild]t 7,b]l91 #aijj74 ,,eboli 7anc4 ,eburum71 a t[n ( ,campania1 ,italy1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,sal]no1 f :i* x is #af m4 ,e4 by rail1 situat$ #dgj ft4 above sea-level1 on ! ,s4 edge ( ! hills ov]look+ ! valley ( ! ,sele4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ifdb 7t[n71 #ab1dbc 7commune74 ,! sacri/y ( ,/ ,francesco conta9s two #ad?-c5tury pictures1 "o by ,rob]to da ,od]isio ( ,naples4 ,! anci5t ,eburum 0 a ,lucanian city1 m5tion$ only by ,pl9y & 9 inscriptions1 n f> di/ant f ! ,campanian bord]4 ,x lay above ! ,via ,popillia1 :i* foll[$ ! l9e tak5 by ! mod]n railway4 ,"s scanty rema9s ( its anci5t polygonal walls may /ill be se54 7,t4 ,z47 ,,ebony 7,gr4 ,greek3 eb5os71 ! wood ( v>i\s species ( trees ( ! g5us ,diospyros 7natural ord] ,eb5aceae71 widely di/ribut$ 9 ! tropical p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! be/ k9ds are v heavy1 are ( a deep black1 & consi/ ( he>t-wood only4 ,on acc\nt ( its col\r1 durability1 h>dness & susceptibility ( poli%1 ebony is mu* us$ = cab9et "w & inlay+1 & = ! manufacture ( pian(orte-keys1 knife-h&les & turn$ articles4 ,! be/ ,indian & ,ceylon ebony is furni%$ by ,d4 ,eb5um1 a native ( s\!rn ,india & ,ceylon1 :i* gr[s 9 great abundance ?r\gh\t ! flat c\ntry we/ ( ,tr9comalee4 ,! tree is di/+ui%$ f o!rs by ! inf]ior wid? ( its trunk1 & its jet-black1 *>r$-look+ b>k1 b5ea? :i* ! wood is p]fectly :ite until ! he>t is rea*$4 ,! wood is /at$ to excel t obta9$ f ,d4 reticulata ( ! ,mauritius & all o!r v>ieties ( ebony 9 ! f95ess & int5sity ( its d>k col\r4 ,al?\gh ! c5tre ( ! tree alone is employ$1 r$uc$ logs #a to #c ft4 9 diamet] c readily be procur$4 ,mu* ( ! ,ea/ ,indian ebony is yield$ by ! species ,d4 ,melanoxylon 7,corom&el ebony71 a l>ge tree atta9+ a height ( #fj to #hj ft41 & #h to #aj ft4 9 circumf]5ce1 ) irregul> rigid bran*es1 & oblong or oblong-lanceolate leaves4 ,! b>k ( ! tree is a/r+5t1 & mix$ ) pepp] is us$ 9 dys5t]y by ! natives ( ,india4 ,! wood ( ,d4 tom5tosa1 a native ( nor? ,b5gal1 is black1 h>d & ( great weight4 ,d4 montana1 ano!r ,indian species1 produces a yell[i%-grey s(t b durable wood4 ,d4 quaesita is ! tree f :i* is obta9$ ! wood kn[n 9 ,ceylon by ! "n ,calam&]1 d]iv$ by ,pridham f ! ,s9halee kalum9drie1 black-fl[+4 ,its clos5ess ( gra91 great h>dness & f9e hazel-br[n col\r1 mottl$ & /rip$ ) black1 r5d] x a valuable mat]ial = v5e]+ & furniture mak+4 ,d4 ,d5do1 a native ( ,angola1 is a valuable timb] tree1 #be to #ce ft4 high1 ) a trunk #a to #b ft4 9 diamet]4 ,! he>t-wood is v black & h>d & is kn[n z black ebony1 also z billet-wood1 & ,gabun1 ,lagos1 ,calab> or ,nig] ebony4 ,:at is t]m$ ,jamaica or ,we/ ,indian ebony1 & also ! gre5 ebony ( comm]ce1 are produc$ by ,brya ,eb5us1 a legum9\s tree or %rub1 hav+ a trunk r>ely m ?an #d 94 9 diamet]1 flexible sp9y bran*es1 & orange-yell[1 sweet-sc5t$ fl[]s4 ,! he>t-wood is ri* d>k br[n 9 col\r1 heavi] ?an wat]1 exce$+ly h>d & capable ( receiv+ a high poli%4 ,f ! book ( ,ezekiel 7xxvii4 #ae7 we le>n t ebony 0 among ! articles ( m]*&ise br\ght to ,tyre2 & ,h]odotus /ates 7iii4 #ig7 t ! ,e?iopians e ?ree ye>s s5t a tribute ( #bjj logs ( x to ,p]sia4 ,ebony 0 kn[n to ,virgil z a product ( ,india 7,georg4 ii4 #aaf71 & 0 display$ by ,pompey ! ,great 9 8 ,mi?radatic triumph at ,rome4 ,by ! anci5ts x 0 e/eem$ ( equal value = durability ) ! cypress & c$> 7see ,pl9y1 ,nat4 ,hi/4 xii4 #i1 xvi4 #gi74 ,accord+ to ,sol9us 7,polyhi/or1 cap4 lv4 p4 #cec1 ,p>is1 #afba71 x 0 employ$ by ! k+s ( ,india = sceptres & images1 also1 on acc\nt ( its suppos$ antagonism to poison1 = dr9k+-cups4 ,! h>dness & black col\r ( ! wood appe> to h giv5 rise to ! tradition relat$ by ,pausanias1 & allud$ to by ,s\!y 9 ,?alaba1 i4 #bb1 t ! ebony tree produc$ nei!r leaves nor fruit1 & 0 nev] se5 expos$ to ! sun4 ,,ebr>d1 ,,johannes ,,he9ri* ,,augu/ 7#ahah-ahhh71 ,g]man !ologian1 0 born at ,erlang5 on ! #ah? ( ,janu>y #ahah4 ,he 0 educat$ 9 8 native t[n & at ,b]l91 & aft] tea*+ 9 a private family became ,privatdoc5t at ,erlang5 7#ahda7 & !n pr(essor ( !ology at ,zu]i* 7#ahdd74 ,9 #ahdg he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( !ology at ,erlang51 a *air :i* he resign$ 9 #ahfa2 9 #ahge he became pa/or ( ! ,fr5* re=m$ *ur* 9 ! same city4 ,z a critic ,ebr>d occupi$ a v mod]ate /&po9t2 z a writ] 8 *ief works 7 ,*ri/li*e ,dogmatik 7#b vols41 #ahea71 ,vorlesung5 ueb] praktis*e ,!ologie 7#ahfd71 ,apologetik 7#ahgd-ahge1 ,eng4 trans4 #ahhf74 ,he also edit$ & complet$ ,h4 ,ol%aus5's comm5t>y1 himself writ+ ! volumes on ! ,epi/le to ! ,hebrews1 ! ,johann9e ,epi/les1 & ,revelation4 ,9 ! dep>tm5t ( belles-lettres he wrote a good deal "u su* pseudonyms z ,*ri/ian ,deuts*1 ,gottfri$ ,flammb]g & ,sigmund ,/urm4 ,he di$ at ,erlang5 on ! #bcrd ( ,july #ahhh4 ,,ebro 7anc4 ,ib]us or ,hib]us71 ! only "o ( ! five great riv]s ( ! ,ib]ian ,p59sula 7,tagus1 ,d\ro1 ,ebro1 ,guadalquivir1 ,guadiana7 :i* fl[s into ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! ,ebro rises at ,fu5tibre1 a hamlet among ! ,cantabrian ,m\nta9s1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,sant&]2 at ,re9osa1 #d m4 ea/1 x is jo9$ on ! "r by ! ,hij>1 & ?us ga9s consid]ably 9 volume4 ,x fl[s g5]ally ea/ by s\? ?r\gh a tortu\s valley z f> z ,mir&a de ,ebro1 pass+ ?r\gh ! celebrat$ ,roman bridge kn[n z ,la ,horadada 7! p]=at$71 ne> ,ona 9 ,burgos4 ,f ,mir&a x w9ds s\?-ea/w>d ?r\gh ! wide bas9 enclos$ on ! "r by ! highl&s ( ,old ,ca/ile & we/]n ,aragon1 & on ! left by ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! *ief cities on its banks are ,logrono1 ,calahorra1 ,tudela1 ,s>agossa & ,caspe4 ,ne> ,mora 9 ,catalonia x =ces a way ?r\gh ! coa/al m\nta9s1 &1 pass+ ,tortosa1 falls into ! ,m$it]ranean ab\t #hj m4 s\?-we/ ( ,b>celona1 aft] =m+ by its delta a conspicu\s projection on ! o!rwise regul> coa/ l9e4 ,9 its l5g?1 approximately #dfe m41 ! ,ebro is inf]ior to ! ,tagus1 ,guadiana & ,d\ro2 x dra9s an area ( ne>ly #cb1jjj sq4 m4 ,its pr9cipal tribut>ies are--f ! "r h& ! ,jalon ) its afflu5t ! ,jiloca1 ! ,hu]va1 ,aguas1 ,m>t91 ,guadalope & ,mat>rana2 f ! left ! ,ega1 ,aragon1 ,arba1 ,gallego1 & ! ,segre ) its intricate sy/em ( conflu5t riv]s4 ,! ,ebro & its tribut>ies h be5 utiliz$ = irrigation s9ce ! ,moori% conque/2 ! ma9 /ream becomes navigable by small boats ab\t ,tudela2 b its value z a means ( communication is almo/ neutraliz$ by ! ob/acles 9 its *annel1 & seaf>+ vessels _c proce$ f>!r up ?an ,tortosa4 ,! great ,imp]ial ,canal1 begun "u ! emp]or ,*>les ,v4 7#aejj-aeeh71 proce$s along ! "r bank ( ! riv] f a po9t ab\t #c m4 bel[ ,tudela1 to ,el ,burgo de ,ebro1 #e m4 bel[ ,s>agossa2 ! irrigation canal ( ,tau/e skirts ! opposite bank = a %ort] di/ance2 & ! ,san ,c>los or ,new ,canal af=ds direct communication betwe5 ,ampo/a at ! head ( ! delta & ! h>b\r ( ,los ,alfaques4 ,f ,mir&a to ,mora ! ,bilbao-,t>ragona railway foll[s ! c\rse ( ! ,ebro along ! "r bank4 ,,ebro9 7d4 #fha71 ,franki% mayor ( ! palace1 0 a ,neu/rian1 & wi%$ to impose ! au?ority ( ,neu/ria ov] ,burgundy & ,au/rasia4 ,9 #fef1 at ! mom5t ( 8 accession to p[]1 ,sigeb]t ,,iii41 ! k+ ( ,au/rasia1 _h j di$1 & ! ,au/rasian mayor ( ! palace1 ,grimoald1 0 attempt+ to usurp ! au?ority4 ,! great nobles1 h[ev]1 appeal$ to ! k+ ( ,neu/ria1 ,clovis ,,ii41 & unity 0 re-e/abli%$4 ,b 9 spite ( a v firm policy ,ebro9 0 unable to ma9ta9 ?is unity1 & :ile ,clotaire ,,iii41 son ( ,clovis ,,ii41 reign$ 9 ,neu/ria & ,burgundy1 he 0 oblig$ 9 #ffj to give ! ,au/rasians a special k+1 ,*ild]ic ,,ii41 bro!r ( ,clotaire ,,iii41 & a special mayor ( ! palace1 ,wulfoald4 ,he endeav\r$ to ma9ta9 at any rate ! union ( ,neu/ria & ,burgundy1 b ! great ,burgundian nobles wi%$ to rema9 indep5d5t1 & rose "u ,/ ,leg] 7,leodeg>71 bi%op ( ,autun1 defeat$ ,ebro91 & int]n$ him 9 ! mona/]y ( ,luxeuil 7#fgj74 ,a proclamation 0 !n issu$ to ! effect t ea* k+dom %\ld keep its own laws & cu/oms1 t !re %\ld be no fur!r int]*ange ( function>ies betwe5 ! k+doms1 & t no "o %\ld aga9 set up a tyranny l t ( ,ebro94 ,soon1 h[ev]1 ,leg] 0 defeat$ by ,wulfoald & ! ,au/rasians1 & 0 himself conf9$ at ,luxeuil 9 #fgc4 ,9 ! same ye>1 tak+ advantage ( ! g5]al an>*y1 ,ebro9 & ,leg] left ! cloi/] & soon f\nd !mselves once m face to face4 ,ea* look$ = support to a diff]5t ,m]ov+ian k+1 ,ebro9 ev5 proclaim+ a false ,m]ov+ian z sov]eign4 ,9 ?is /ruggle ,leg] 0 vanqui%$2 he 0 besieg$ 9 ,autun1 0 =c$ to surr5d] & _h 8 eyes put out1 &1 on ! #ab? ( ,octob] #fgh1 he 0 put to dea? aft] und]go+ prolong$ tortures4 ,! *ur* hon\rs him z a sa9t4 ,aft] 8 dea? ,ebro9 became sole & absolute rul] ( ! ,franks1 impos+ 8 au?ority ov] ,burgundy & subdu+ ! ,au/rasians1 :om he defeat$ 9 #fgh at ,bois-du-,fay1 ne> ,laon4 ,8 triumph1 h[ev]1 0 %ort-liv$2 he 0 assass9at$ 9 #fha1 ! victim ( a comb9$ attack ( 8 num]\s enemies4 ,he 0 a man ( great en]gy1 b all 8 actions seem to h be5 dictat$ by no high] motives ?an ambition & lu/ ( p[]4 ,see ,lib] hi/oriae ,francorum1 edit$ by ,b4 ,krus*1 9 ,mon4 ,g]m4 hi/4 script4 r]4 ,m]ov4 vol4 ii42 ,vita sancti ,leodeg>ii1 by ,urs9us1 a monk ( ,/ ,maix5t 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,lat9a1 vol4 xcvi472 ,vita metrica 9 ,poetae ,lat9i aevi ,c>ol9i1 vol4 iii4 7,mon4 ,g]m4 hi/472 ,j4,b4 ,pitra1 ,hi/oire de ,sa9t ,leg] 7,p>is1 #ahdf72 & ,j4 ,fri$ri*1 ,zur ,ges*4 des ,hausmei]s ,ebro91 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,academy ( ,muni* 7#ahhg1 pp4 #db-fa74 7,c4 ,pf47 ,,eburacum1 or ,,eboracum 7probably a lat] v>iant71 ! ,roman "n ( ,york 7q4v47 9 ,engl&4 ,e/abli%$ ab\t ,a4,d4 #ge-hj z =tress ( ! ,n9? legion & g>rison$ 7aft] ! annihilation ( t legion ab\t ,a4,d4 #aah7 by ! ,six? legion1 x develop$ outside its walls a t[n ( civil life1 :i* lat] obta9$ ,roman municipal rank & 9 ! #d? c5tury 0 ! seat ( a ,*ri/ian bi%op4 ,! =tress & t[n 7 sep>at$ by ! ,ouse4 ,on ! left bank1 :]e ! m9/] /&s1 0 ! =tress1 ( :i* ! walls c /ill be p>tly trac$1 & "o corn] 7! s-call$ ,multangul> ,t[]7 survives4 ,! municipality occupi$ ! "r bank ne> ! pres5t railway /ation4 ,! place 0 important = its g>rison & z an adm9i/rative c5tre1 & ! t[n itself 0 prosp]\s1 ?\gh probably nev] v l>ge4 ,! "n is pres]v$ 9 ! abbreviat$ =m ,ebor 9 ! (ficial "n ( ! ar*bi%op ( ,york1 b ! philological connexion betwe5 ,eboracum & ! mod]n "n ,york is d\btful & has probably be5 complicat$ by ,dani% influ5ce4 7,f4 ,j4 ,h47 ,,eca ,,de ,,queiroz1 ,,jose ,,m>ia 7#ahdc-aijj71 ,portuguese writ]1 0 born at ! nor!rn fi%+ t[n ( ,povoa de ,v>zim1 8 fa!r be+ a retir$ judge4 ,he w5t ?r\gh ! univ]sity ( ,coimbra1 & on tak+ 8 degree 9 law 0 appo9t$ ,adm9i/rador de ,concelho at ,leiria1 b soon tir$ ( ! n>r[ m5tal atmosph]e ( ! old ca!dral t[n & left x4 ,he accompani$ ! ,conde de ,rez5de to ,egypt1 :]e he assi/$ at ! op5+ ( ! ,suez ,canal1 & to ,pale/9e1 & on 8 return settl$ d[n to j\rnalism 9 ,lisbon & began to evolve a /yle1 at once magical & unique1 :i* 0 to r5ovate 8 c\ntry's prose4 ,?\gh he sp5t mu* ( 8 days ) ! philosoph] sonnete] ,an!ro de ,qu5tal1 & ! critic ,jayme ,batalha ,reis1 aft]w>ds consul-g5]al 9 ,london1 he did n re/rict 8 intimacy to m5 ( lett]s1 b frequ5t$ all k9ds ( society1 acquir+ a complete acqua9tance ) contempor>y ,portuguese life & mann]s4 ,ent]+ ! consul> s]vice 9 #ahgb1 he w5t to ,havana1 &1 aft] a t\r 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 0 transf]r$ two ye>s lat] to ,newca/le-on-,tyne & 9 #ahgf to ,bri/ol4 ,9 #ahhh he became ,portuguese consul-g5]al 9 ,p>is1 & !re di$ 9 #aijj4 ,queiroz made 8 lit]>y debut 9 #ahgj by a s5sational /ory1 ,! ,my/]y ( ! ,c9tra ,road1 writt5 9 collaboration ) ! art critic ,ramalho ,ortigao1 b ! fir/ publication :i* br\ght him fame 0 ,! ,f>pas1 a s]ies ( satirical & humor\s sket*es ( v>i\s phases ( social life1 :i*1 to quote ! poet ,gu]ra ,junqueiro1 conta9 ! epilepsy ( tal5t4 ,^! essays1 ! jo9t production ( ! same p>tn]s1 criticiz$ & ridicul$ ! faults & foibles ( e class 9 turn1 ma9ly by a comp>ison ) ! ,fr5*1 = ! education ( ,queiroz _h made him a ,fr5*man 9 ideas & sympa?ies4 ,8 ,brazilian fri5d1 ,edu>do ,prado1 be>s witness t at ?is p]iod ,fr5* lit]ature1 especially ,hugo's v]se1 & ev5 ,fr5* politics1 int]e/$ ,queiroz pr(\ndly1 :ile he altoge!r ignor$ ! belles-lettres ( 8 own c\ntry & its public affairs4 ,?is phase la/$ = "s ye>s1 & ev5 :5 he travell$ 9 ! ,ea/ he 0 incl9$ to see x ) ! eyes ( ,flaub]t1 ?\gh ! publication ( ,! ,relic & t delightful prose poem ,sweet ,miracle aft]w>ds %[$ t he _h be5 directly impress$ & deeply p5etrat$ by its sc5]y1 poetry & my/icism4 ,! ,franco-,g]man ,w> ( #ahgj1 h[ev]1 by l[]+ ! pre/ige ( ,france1 prov$ ! h]ald ( a national ,portuguese revival1 & _h a great influ5ce on ,queiroz1 z also _h 8 fri5d ,oliveira ,m>t9s 7q4v471 ! biograph] ( ! patriot k+s ( ! ,aviz dyna/y4 ,he f\nd$ ! ,portuguese ,reali/-,naturali/ s*ool1 ( :i* he rema9$ = ! re/ ( 8 life ! *ief expon5t1 by a p[]ful romance1 ,! ,crime ( ,fa!r ,am>o1 writt5 9 #ahga at ,leiria b only issu$ 9 #ahge4 ,its appe>ance !n l$ to a baseless *>ge t he _h plagi>iz$ ,la ,faute de l',abbe ,m\ret1 & ill-in=m$ critics began to "n ,queiroz ! ,portuguese ,zola1 ?\gh he cle>ly occupi$ an altoge!r diff]5t plane 9 ! doma9 ( art4 ,dur+ 8 /ay 9 ,engl& he produc$ two ma/]pieces1 ,c\s9 ,basil & ,! ,maias1 b !y %[ no traces ( ,engli% influ5ce1 nor aga9 are !y ,fr5* 9 tone1 =1 liv+ ne> to ,france1 8 disillusionm5t progress$ & 0 complet$ :5 he w5t to ,p>is & _h to live "u ! regime ( ! ,?ird ,republic4 ,settl+ at ,neuilly1 ! noveli/ became *ronicl]1 critic1 & lett]-writ] z well1 & 9 all ^! capacities ,queiroz display$ a spontaneity1 p[] & arti/ic f9i% unequall$ 9 ! lit]ature ( 8 c\ntry s9ce ! dea? ( ,g>rett4 ,a bold draughtsman1 he excell$ 9 fre%ness ( imag9ation & c>eful *oice & collocation ( words1 :ile 8 w>m? ( col\r+ & brilliance ( language speak ( ! s\?4 ,_m ( 8 pages descriptive ( natural sc5]y1 su* = in/ance z ! episode ( ! return to ,tormes 9 ,! ,city & ! ,m\nta9s1 h tak5 rank z classic examples ( ,portuguese prose1 :ile z a creator ( *>act]s he /ood unsurpass$ by any writ] ( 8 g5]ation 9 ! same field4 ,he p>ticul>ly lov$ to draw & judge ! middle class1 & he mocks at & *a/ises its hypocrisy & n>r[ness1 its v5e] ( religion & culture1 its triumphant ly+1 its self-satisfi$ propriety1 its cruel egotism4 ,b ?\gh he manife/$ a pr$ilection = middle-class types1 8 portrait gall]y comprises m5 & wom5 ( all social conditions4 ,! ,maias1 8 longe/ book1 treats ( fidalgos1 :ile p]haps 8 mo/ rem>kable "* /udy is ( a s]vant1 ,juliana1 9 ,c\s9 ,basil4 ,at lea/ two ( 8 books1 ?is latt] & ,! ,crime ( ,fa!r ,am>o1 are *roniques sc&aleuses 9 _! plots & episodes2 ^! volumes1 h[ev]1 m>k n only ! high-wat] l9e ( ! ,reali/-,naturali/ s*ool 9 ,portugal1 b are 9 !mselves1 leav+ aside all accid5tals1 creative a*ievem5ts ( a high ord]4 ,?\gh ,queiroz 0 a ke5 satiri/ ( ! ills ( society1 8 pages %[ h>dly a trace ( pessimism4 ,! ,city & ! ,m\nta9s1 & 9 "p ,! ,relic also1 reveal ! apo/le ( ,realism z an ideali/ & dream]1 a true repres5tative ( t ,celtic tradition :i* survives 9 ! race & has p]meat$ ! :ole lit]ature ( ,portugal4 ,! ,m&>91 a fanta/ic v>iation on ! old !me ( a man self-sold to ,satan1 & ,! ,illu/ri\s ,h\se ( ,ramires1 are ! only o!r writ+s ( 8 t require m5tion1 except ,! ,correspond5ce ( ,fradique ,m5des4 ,9 conjunction ) ,an!ro de ,qu5tal & ,jayme ,batalha ,reis1 ,queiroz inv5t$ "u t "n a sm>t man ( ! _w :o _h some?+ ( himself & some?+ ( ,edu>do ,prado1 & made him correspond on all sorts ( subjects ) imag9>y fri5ds & relatives to ! delight ( ! public1 _m ( :om saw 9 him a my/]i\s new writ] ^: id5tity !y 7 eag] to discov]4 ,^! sp>kl+ & humor\s lett]s are an especial fav\rite ) admir]s ( ,queiroz1 because !y reveal s mu* ( 8 v attractive p]sonality1 & p]haps ! clev]e/ ( ! numb]1 t on ,pa*eco1 has receiv$ an ,engli% dress4 ,9 addition to 8 long] & m important works1 ,queiroz wrote a numb] ( %ort /ories1 "s ( :i* h be5 pr9t$ 9 a volume "u ! title ( ,contos4 ,! gems ( ?is rem>kable collection are p]haps ,! ,peculi>ities ( a ,fair-hair$ ,girl1 ,a ,lyric ,poet1 ,jose ,mat?ias1 ,! ,corpse1 & ,sweet ,miracle4 ,mo/ ( 8 books h gone ?r\gh _m editions1 & !y are ev5 m appreciat$ 9 ! ,brazils ?an 9 ,portugal4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ t ! f\r? edition ( ,fa!r ,am>o is entirely diff]5t 9 =m & action f ! fir/1 ! :ole /ory hav+ be5 rewritt54 ,"o ( ,queiroz's romances & two ( 8 %ort /ories h be5 publi%$ 9 ,engli%4 ,an unsatisfactory v]sion ( ,c\s9 ,basil1 "u ! title ,dragon's ,tee?1 appe>$ at ,bo/on1 ,u4,s4,a41 9 #ahhi1 :ile ,sweet ,miracle has _h ?ree editions 9 ,engl& & "o 9 ,am]ica1 & !re is also a translation ( ,o ,defunto 7,! ,corpse7 "u ! "n ( ,our ,lady ( ! ,pill>4 ,an admirable critical /udy ( ! "w ( ,queiroz w be f\nd 9 ,a ,g]acao ,nova--,os ,novelli/as1 by ,j4 ,p]eira de ,sampaio 7,bruno71 7,oporto1 #ahhf74 ,! ,revi/a mod]na ( ! #bj? ( ,novemb] #ahig 0 entirely devot$ to him4 ,s5hor ,batalha ,reis gives int]e/+ rem9isc5ces ( ! noveli/'s e>ly days 9 8 preface to "s prose fragm5ts edit$ by him & nam$ ,prosas ,b>b>as 7,oporto1 #aijc74 7,e4 ,pr47 ,,ec>te 7,fr4 = sep>at$1 disc>d$71 a game at c>ds1 ( mod]n orig91 probably fir/ play$ 9 ! ,p>is salons 9 ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury4 ,x is a developm5t ( a v old c>d game call$ la triomphe or ,fr5*-ruff4 ,ec>te is g5]ally play$ by two p]sons1 b a pool ( ?ree may be =m$1 ! play] :o is out tak+ ! place ( ! los]1 & ! w9n] ( two consecutive games w9n+ ! pool4 ,at ,fr5* ec>te 7b n at ,engli%7 by/&]s :o are bett+ may advise ! play]s1 b only by po9t+ to ! c>ds !y desire !m to play1 & ! los] ( ! game goes out1 "o ( ! r5trants tak+ 8 place1 unless ! los] is play+ la *\ette1 i4e4 play+ s+le-h&$ aga9/ two1 & tak+ all bets4 ,! small c>ds 7f ! two to ! six1 bo? inclusive7 are remov$ f an ord9>y pack4 ,! play]s cut = deal1 ! highe/ hav+ ! *oice4 ,! k+ is ! highe/ c>d1 ! ace rank+ aft] ! knave4 ,! deal] gives five c>ds to 8 adv]s>y1 & five to himself1 by two at a "t to ea* & by ?ree at a "t to ea*1 or vice v]sa4 ,! elev5? c>d is turn$ up = trumps4 ,if x is a k+1 ! deal] scores "o1 at any "t be=e ! next deal4 ,! non-deal] !n looks at 8 c>ds4 ,if satisfi$ ) !m he plays1 & !re is no disc>d+2 if n satisfi$ he proposes4 ,! deal] may ei!r accept or refuse4 ,if he accepts1 ea* play] disc>ds face d[nw>ds z _m c>ds z he ?9ks fit1 & fre% ones are giv5 f ! undealt c>ds or /ock1 fir/ to complete ! non-deal]'s h& to five1 !n to complete ! deal]'s4 ,to ask = a book is to ask = five c>ds4 ,simil>ly a second proposal may be made1 & s on1 until "o play] is satisfi$ ) 8 h&4 ,if ! deal] refuses1 ! h& is play$ )\t disc>d+4 ,if ! non-deal] ann\nces t he holds ! k+ ( trumps1 he scores "o2 & simil>ly1 if ! deal] holds ! k+ & ann\nces x1 he scores "o4 ,! ann\ncem5t mu/ be made be=e play+ "o's fir/ c>d1 or if t c>d be ! k+1 on play+ x4 ,! non-deal]1 be+ satisfi$ ) 8 h&1 leads a c>d4 ,! deal] plays a c>d to x1 ! two c>ds ?us play$ =m+ a trick4 ,! w9n] ( ! trick leads to ! next1 & s on4 ,! second to play to a trick mu/ foll[ suit if able1 & mu/ w9 ! trick if he c4 ,! scores are = ! k+ & = ! majority ( tricks4 ,! play] :o w9s ?ree tricks scores "o = ! po9t2 if he w9s all five tricks1 he scores two = ! vole4 ,if ! non-deal] plays )\t propos+1 or ! deal] refuses ! fir/ proposal1 & fails to w9 ?ree tricks1 ! adv]s>y scores two1 b no m ev5 if he w9s ! vole4 ,! game is five up4 ,! po9ts are conv5i5tly m>k$ ) a ?ree-c>d & a two-c>d1 z at eu*re4 ,! ?ree is put face upw>ds ) ! two face d[nw>ds on ! top ( x4 ,:5 "o or two or ?ree po9ts are scor$ ! top c>d is mov$ s z to expose !m4 ,at f\r1 "o pip ( ! two-c>d is put "u ! o!r c>d4 ,games may be record$ simil>ly4 ,h9ts to ,play]s4--,! foll[+ h9ts may be ( s]vice to beg9n]s3-- ,%uffle ?or\ghly aft] e deal4 ,d n ann\nce ! k+ until 9 ! act ( play+ y\r fir/ c>d4 ,! h&s :i* %\ld be play$ )\t propos+1 call$ jeux de regle 7/&>d h&s71 ought to be ?or\ghly kn[n4 ,!y are z foll[s3-- #a4 ,all h&s ) ?ree or m trumps1 :atev] ! o!r c>ds4 #b4 ,h&s ) two trumps :i* conta9 also-- 7a7 ,any ?ree c>ds ( "o pla9 suit2 7b7 ,two c>ds ( "o pla9 suit1 "o be+ z high z a que52 7c7 ,two small c>ds ( "o suit1 ! fif? c>d be+ a k+ ( ano!r suit2 7d7 ,?ree high c>ds ( diff]5t suits4 #c4 ,h&s ) "o trump1 :i* conta9 also-- 7a7 ,k+1 que51 knave ( "o suit1 & a small c>d ( ano!r2 7b7 ,f\r c>ds ( "o suit head$ by k+2 7c7 ,?ree c>ds ( "o suit head$ by que51 & que5 ( ano!r suit4 #d4 ,h&s ) no trump1 :i* conta9 ?ree que5s or c>ds ( equal value 9 diff]5t suits1 e4g41 f\r c\rt c>ds4 #e4 ,h&s f :i* only two c>ds c be disc>d$ )\t ?r[+ a k+ or a trump4 ,hold+ c>ds :i* make ! po9t c]ta91 propose4 ,if y hold a jeu de regle1 & "o ( ! trumps is ! k+1 propose1 z y\r adv]s>y _c !n take 9 ! k+4 ,:5 disc>d+1 ?r[ out all c>ds except trumps & k+s4 ,if y\r adv]s>y proposes y %\ld accept1 unless y are gu>d$ 9 ?ree suits 7a que5 be+ a suffici5t gu>d71 or 9 two suits ) a trump1 or 9 "o suit ) two trumps4 ,h5ce ! rule n to disc>d two c>ds1 unless hold+ ! k+ ( trumps1 applies to ! deal]4 ,! h&s ) :i* to refuse are ! same z ^? ) :i* to play )\t propos+1 except z foll[s3-- #a4 ,two trumps & ?ree c>ds ( "o pla9 suit %\ld n be play$ unless ! pla9 suit is head$ by a c\rt c>d4 #b4 ,"o trump & a ti]ce major is too weak1 unless ! fif? c>d is a c\rt c>d4 ,) simil> h&s weak] 9 ! ti]ce major suit1 accept unless ! fif? c>d is a que54 #c4 ,"o trump & f\r c>ds ( a pla9 suit is too weak to play4 #d4 ,"o trump & two que5s is too weak1 unless bo? que5s are s+ly gu>d$4 #e4 ,"o trump1 que5 ( "o suit1 & knave gu>d$ ( ano!r %\ld n be play$ unless ! que5 is also gu>d$1 or ! c>d ( ! f\r? suit is a c\rt c>d4 #f4 ,"o trump1 a k+ & a que51 bo? ungu>d$1 %\ld n be play$1 unless ! f\r? suit conta9s a c>d z high z an ace4 #g4 ,f\r c\rt c>ds )\t a trump are too weak to play1 unless !y are ( ?ree diff]5t suits4 ,refuse ) ?ree que5s1 if two are s+ly gu>d$2 o!rwise1 accept4 ,lead f y\r gu>d$ suit1 & lead ! highe/4 ,if ! /rong suit l$ is n trump$1 p]sev]e ) x1 unless ) k+ ( trumps1 or que5 7k+ n hav+ be5 ann\nc$71 or knave ace1 :5 lead a trump be=e cont9u+ y\r suit4 ,y %\ld n lead trumps at />t+1 unless y hold k+ or que51 knave1 or knave ace1 ) c\rt c>ds out ( trumps4 ,! score has to be consid]$4 ,if ! deal] is at f\r1 & ! k+ is n 9 y\r h& nor turn$ up1 play any c>ds )\t propos+ :i* give an ev5 *ance ( ?ree tricks1 e4g4 a que51 a gu>d$ knave1 & a gu>d$ t54 ,! same rule applies to ! deal]'s refusal4 ,at ! adv]se score ( f\r1 & k+ n be+ 9 h& or turn$ up1 any h& ) "o trump %\ld be play$1 unless ! pla9 c>ds are v small & ( diff]5t suits4 ,if ! non-deal] plays )\t propos+ :5 he is f\r to ?ree1 & ! deal] holds ! k+ he ought n to m>k x4 ,! same rule applies to ! non-deal] aft] a refusal1 if ! deal] is f\r to ?ree4 ,at ! score ( non-deal] ?ree1 deal] f\r1 ! deal] %\ld refuse on mod]ate c>ds1 z ! play] propos+ at ?is score mu/ h a v bad h&4 ,at f\r a =w>d game %\ld n be play$ 9 trumps1 z !re is no advantage 9 w9n+ ! vole4 ,laws ( ,ec>te4--,! foll[+ laws are abridg$ f ! revis$ code adopt$ by ! ,turf ,club3--,a cut mu/ consi/ ( at lea/ two c>ds4 ,c>d expos$ 9 cutt+1 fre% cut4 ,ord] ( di/ribution ( c>ds1 :e!r by ?ree & two1 or vice v]sa1 once select$1 deal] mu/ n *ange x dur+ game4 ,play] ann\nc+ k+ :5 he has n got x1 & play+ a c>d )\t decl>+ error1 adv]s>y may correct score & h h& play$ ov] aga94 ,if (f5d] w9s po9t or vole t h&1 he scores "o less ?an he w9s4 ,proposal1 acceptance1 or refusal made _c be retract$4 ,c>ds disc>d$ mu/ n be look$ at4 ,c>ds expos$ 9 giv+ c>ds to non-deal]1 he has option ( tak+ !m or ( hav+ next c>ds2 deal] expos+ 8 own c>ds1 no p5alty4 ,deal] turn+ up top c>d aft] giv+ c>ds1 _c refuse second disc>d4 ,deal] accept+ :5 too few c>ds 9 /ock to supply bo?1 non-deal] may take c>ds1 & deal] mu/ play 8 h&4 ,c>d l$ 9 turn _c be tak5 up aga94 ,c>d play$ to a lead c only be tak5 up prior to ano!r lead1 to save revoke or to correct error ( n w9n+ trick4 ,c>d l$ out ( turn may be tak5 up prior to its be+ play$ to4 ,play] nam+ "o suit & lead+ ano!r1 adv]s>y has option ( requir+ suit nam$ to be l$4 ,if (f5d] has none1 no p5alty4 ,play] ab&on+ h&1 adv]s>y is deem$ to w9 rema9+ tricks1 & scores accord+ly4 ,if a play] revokes or does n w9 trick :5 he c d s1 ! adv]s>y may correct score & h h& replay$4 ,see ,academie des jeux 7v>i\s editions aft] ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! #ai? c5tury72 ,hoyle's ,games 7v>i\s editions ab\t ! same dates72 ,*4 ,van-,t5ac et ,l\is ,delan\e1 ,traite du jeu de l'ec>te 7,p>is1 #ahde2 translat$ 9 ,bohn's ,h&book ( ,games1 ,london1 #ahej72 ,cav5di%1 ,! ,laws ( ,ec>te1 adopt$ by ! ,turf ,club1 ) a ,treatise on ! ,game 7,london1 #ahgh72 ,pocket ,guide to ,ec>te 7,cav5di%1 #ahig72 ,fo/]'s ,encyclopa$ia ( ,indoor ,games 7#aijc74 ,,ecbatana 7,agbatana 9 ,aes*ylus1 ,hangmatana 9 ,old ,p]sian1 writt5 ,agamtanu by ,nabonidos1 & ,agamatanu at ,behi/un1 mod4 ,hamadan71 ! capital ( ,a/yages 7,i/uvegu71 :i* 0 tak5 by ,cyrus 9 ! six? ye> ( ,nabonidos 7#edi ,b4,c474 ,! ,greeks suppos$ x to be ! capital ( ,m$ia1 confus+ ! ,m&a1 ( :om ,a/yages 0 k+1 ) ! ,mada or ,m$es ( ,m$ia ,atropat5e1 & ascrib$ its f\ndation to ,deioces 7! ,daiukku ( ! cunei=m inscriptions71 :o is said to h surr\nd$ 8 palace 9 x ) sev5 conc5tric walls ( diff]5t col\rs4 ,"u ! ,p]sian k+s1 ,ecbatana1 situat$ at ! foot ( ,m\nt ,elv5d1 became a summ] resid5ce2 & 0 aft]w>ds ! capital ( ! ,p>?ian k+s4 ,sir ,h4 ,rawl9son attempt$ to prove t !re 0 a second & old] ,ecbatana 9 ,m$ia ,atropat5e1 on ! site ( ! mod]n ,takht-i-,suleiman1 midway betwe5 ,hamadan & ,tabriz 7,j4,r4,g4,s4 x4 #ahda71 b ! cunei=m texts imply t !re 0 only "o city ( ! "n1 & ,takht-i-,suleiman is ! ,gazaca ( classical geography4 ,! ,ecbatana at :i* ,cambyses is said by ,h]odotus 7iii4 #fd7 to h di$ is probably a blund] = ,hama?4 ,see ,p]rot & ,*ipiez1 ,hi/ory ( ,art 9 ,p]sia 7,eng4 trans41 #ahib72 ,m4 ,dieulafoy1 ,l',art antique de la ,p]se1 pt4 i4 7#ahhd72 ,j4 de ,morgan1 ,mission sci5tifique en ,p]se1 ii4 7#ahid74 ,see ,,hamadan & ,,p]sia3 ,anci5t ,hi/ory1 ,sec4 v4 #b4 7,a4 ,h4 ,s47 ,,ecc>d1 ,,johann 7#aeec-afaa71 ,g]man compos] ( *ur* music1 0 born at ,muehlhaus5 on ! ,un/rut1 ,prussia1 9 #aeec4 ,at ! age ( eighte5 he w5t to ,muni*1 :]e he became ! pupil ( ,orl&o ,lasso4 ,9 8 company ,ecc>d is said to h visit$ ,p>is1 b 9 #aegd we f9d him aga9 at ,muehlhaus51 :]e he resid$ = f\r ye>s1 & edit$1 toge!r ) ,johann von ,burgk1 8 fir/ ma/]1 a collection ( sacr$ songs1 call$ ,crepundia sacra ,helmboldi 7#aegg74 ,soon aft]w>ds he obta9$ an appo9tm5t z musician 9 ! h\se ( ,jacob ,fugg]1 ! ,augsburg bank]4 ,9 #aehc he became assi/ant conductor1 & 9 #aeii conductor1 at ,ko5igsb]g1 to ,georg ,fri$ri*1 m>grave ( ,br&5burg-,anspa*1 ! adm9i/rator ( ,prussia4 ,9 #afjh he 0 call$ by ! elector ,joa*im ,fri$ri* to ,b]l9 z *ief conductor1 b ?is po/ he held only = ?ree ye>s1 ow+ to 8 premature dea? at ,ko5igsb]g 9 #afaa4 ,ecc>d's works consi/ exclusively ( vocal compositions1 su* z songs1 sacr$ cantatas & *orales = f\r or five1 & sometimes = sev51 eight1 or ev5 n9e voices4 ,_! polyphonic /ructure is a m>vel ( art1 & /ill excites ! admiration ( musicians4 ,at ! same "t 8 works are in/9ct ) a _s ( true religi\s feel+4 ,8 sett+ ( ! beautiful words ,e9' fe/e ,burg i/ uns] ,gott is /ill reg>d$ by ! ,g]mans z _! repres5tative national hymn4 ,ecc>d & 8 s*ool are insep>ably connect$ ) ! hi/ory ( ! ,re=mation4 ,( ,ecc>d's songs a great _m collections are extant2 see ,k4,g4,a4 von ,w9t]feld1 ,d] ,evangelis*e ,kir*5gesang 7#ahdc72 ,do]+ 7,*oralkunde1 p4 #dg74 ,,eccel9o or ,,ezzel9o ,,da ,,romano 7#aaid-abei71 ,ghibell9e lead]1 & support] ( ! emp]or ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 0 born on ! #be? ( ,april #aaid4 ,he belong$ to a family desc5d$ f a ,g]man knight nam$ ,eccel91 :o foll[$ ! emp]or ,conrad ,,ii4 to ,italy ab\t #ajcf1 & receiv$ ! fief ( ,romano ne> ,padua4 ,eccel9's gr&son 0 ,eccel9o ,,iii41 surnam$ ! ,monk1 :o divid$ 8 l&s betwe5 8 two sons 9 #abbc1 & di$ 9 #abce4 ,! eld] ( ^! two sons 0 ,eccel9o1 :o 9 e>ly life began to take "p 9 family & o!r feuds1 & 9 #abbf1 at ! head ( a b& ( ,ghibell9es1 seiz$ ,v]ona & became pode/a ( ! city4 ,he soon lo/ ,v]ona1 b rega9$ x 9 #abcj2 & ab\t ?is "t came into relations ) ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 :o 9 #abcb issu$ a *>t] confirm+ him 9 8 possessions4 ,9 #abcf :5 besieg$ 9 ,v]ona he 0 sav$ by ! advance ( ! emp]or1 :o 9 ,novemb] ( ! same ye> took ,vic5za & entru/$ its gov]nm5t to ,eccel9o4 ,9 #abcg he obta9$ au?ority ov] ,padua & ,treviso2 & on ! #bg? ( ,novemb] 9 t ye> he %>$ 9 ! victory ga9$ by ! emp]or ov] ! ,lomb>ds at ,cort5uova4 ,9 #abch he m>ri$ ,fr$]ick's natural daught]1 ,selvaggia2 9 #abci 0 appo9t$ imp]ial vic> ( ! m>* ( ,treviso2 b 9 ! same ye> 0 excommunicat$ by ,pope ,gregory ,,ix4 ,he 0 con/antly engag$ 9 increas+ 8 possessions2 0 pres5t at ! siege ( ,p>ma 9 #abdg1 & aft] ,fr$]ick's dea? 9 #abej he support$ 8 son1 ! ,g]man k+ ,conrad ,,iv4 ,8 cruelties _h1 h[ev]1 ar\s$ g5]al disgu/1 & 9 #abed he 0 aga9 excommunicat$4 ,9 #abef ,pope ,alex&] ,,iv4 proclaim$ a crusade aga9/ him1 & a p[]ful league 0 soon =m$ "u ! lead]%ip ( ,philip1 ar*bi%op ( ,rav5na4 ,padua 0 tak5 f ,eccel9o1 b on ! #a/ ( ,septemb] #abeh he defeat$ 8 enemies at ,torricella4 ,he !n made an attempt on ,milan1 & ! rival =ces met at ,cassano on ! #bg? ( ,septemb] #abei1 :5 ,eccel9o 0 w\nd$ & tak5 prison]4 ,enrag$ at 8 capture1 he tore ! b&ages f 8 w\nds1 refus$ to take n\ri%m5t1 & di$ at ,sonc9o on ! #g? ( ,octob] #abei4 ,9 ! foll[+ ye> 8 bro!r ,alb]t 0 put to dea?1 & ! ,romano family became ext9ct4 ,eccel9o1 :o is sometimes call$ ! tyrant1 acquir$ a t]rible reputation on acc\nt ( 8 cruelties1 a reputation t won = him ! immortality ( inclusion 9 ,dante's ,inf]no2 b 8 unsw]v+ loyalty to ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 =ms a m>k$ contra/ to ! attitude ( _m ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,eccel9o is ! subject ( a novel by ,ces>e ,cantu & ( a drama by ,j4 ,ei*5dorff4 ,see ,j4,m4 ,gitt]mann1 ,ezzel9o da ,romano 7,freiburg1 #ahij72 ,s4 ,mitis1 ,/oria d' ,ezzel9o ,,iv4 da ,romano 7,maddaloni1 #ahif72 & ,f4 ,/ieve1 ,ezzel9o von ,romano 7,leipzig1 #aiji74 ,,ecc5tric 7f ,gr4 ,greek3 ek1 out (1 & ,greek3 k5tron1 c5tre71 lit]ally out f ! c5tre1 & ?us us$ to connote g5]ally any deviation f ! normal4 ,9 a/ronomy ! ^w d5otes a circle r\nd :i* a body revolves1 b ^: c5tre is displac$ f ! visible c5tre ( motion4 ,9 ! anci5t a/ronomy ! ellipses 9 :i* x is n[ kn[n t ! planets revolve ar\nd ! sun c\ld n be di/+ui%$ f circles1 b ! unequal angul> motion due to ellipticity 0 obs]v$4 ,! !ory ( ! ecc5tric 0 t ! c5tre ( ! epicycle ( ea* planet mov$ uni=mly 9 a circle1 ! c5tre ( :i* 0 displac$ f t ( ! e>? by an am\nt d\ble ! ecc5tricity ( ! actual ellipse1 z ! case is n[ und]/ood4 ,:5 measur$ ar\nd ?is imag9>y c5tre1 :i* is s situat$ on ! major axis ( ! ellipse t ! focus1 or place ( ! real sun1 is midway betwe5 x & ! c5tre ( ! ellipse1 ! motion is approximately uni=m4 ,9 eng9e]+1 an ecc5tric is a me*anical device = conv]t+ rot>y into reciprocat+ motion 7see ,,/eam-,,eng9e74 ,= ecc5tric angle see ,,ellipse4 ,,ec*ell5sis 7or ,,e*ell5sis71 ,,abraham 7d4 #affd71 a le>n$ ,m>onite1 ^: surname is d]iv$ f ,eckel 9 ,syria1 :]e he 0 born t[>ds ! close ( ! #af? c5tury4 ,he 0 educat$ at ! ,m>onite college 9 ,rome1 &1 aft] tak+ 8 doctor's degree 9 !ology & philosophy1 return$ = a "t to 8 native l&4 ,he !n became pr(essor ( ,arabic & ,syriac 9 ! college ( ! ,propag&a at ,rome4 ,call$ to ,p>is 9 #afdj to assi/ ,le ,jay 9 ! prep>ation ( 8 polyglot ,bible1 he contribut$ to t "w ! ,arabic & ,lat9 v]sions ( ! book ( ,ru? & ! ,arabic v]sion ( ! ?ird book ( ,maccabees4 ,9 #afdf he 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( ,syriac & ,arabic at ! ,college de ,france4 ,be+ invit$ by ! ,congregation ( ! ,propag&a to take "p 9 ! prep>ation ( an ,arabic v]sion ( ! ,bible1 ,ec*ell5sis w5t aga9 9 #afeb or #afec to ,rome4 ,he publi%$ sev]al ,lat9 translations ( ,arabic works1 ( :i* ! mo/ important 0 ! ,*ronicon ,ori5tale ( ,ibn>-,rahib 7,p>is1 #afec71 a hi/ory ( ! patri>*s ( ,alex&ria4 ,he 0 engag$ 9 an int]e/+ controv]sy ) ,john ,seld5 z to ! hi/orical gr\nds ( episcopacy1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* he publi%$ 8 ,euty*ius v9dicatus1 sive ,responsio ad ,seld5i ,orig9es 7,rome1 #affa74 ,conjo9tly ) ,giovanni ,borelli he wrote a ,lat9 translation ( ! #e?1 #f? & #g? books ( ! ,conics ( ,apollonius ( ,p]ga 7#affa74 ,he di$ at ,rome 9 #affd4 ,,eccles1 a municipal bor\gh 9 ! ,eccles p>liam5t>y division ( ,lanca%ire1 ,engl&1 #d m4 ,w4 ( ,man*e/]1 ( :i* x =ms practically a suburb4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cd1cfi4 ,x is s]v$ by ! ,london ,nor?-,we/]n railway & by ! ,birk5head railway 7,nor?-,we/]n & ,great ,we/]n jo9t74 ,! ,man*e/] ,%ip ,canal passes ?r\gh4 ,! *ur* ( ,/ ,m>y is believ$ to date f ! #ab? c5tury1 b has be5 enl>g$ & :olly re/or$ 9 mod]n times4 ,!re are sev]al h&some mod]n *ur*es & *apels1 a t[n hall1 & num]\s cotton mills1 :ile silk-?r[+ & ! manufacture ( fu/ians & g+hams are also among ! indu/ries1 & !re are also l>ge eng9e works4 ,a peculi> =m ( cake is made "h1 tak+ "n f ! t[n1 & has a wide reputation4 ,eccles 0 incorporat$ 9 #ahib1 & ! corporation consi/s ( a mayor1 #f ald]m5 & #ah c\ncillors4 ,! bor\gh ma9ta9s ! tramway s]vice1 c41 b wat] & gas are suppli$ f ,man*e/] & ,sal=d respectively4 ,area1 #bjeg acres4 ,be=e ! ,re=mation ! monks ( ,:alley ,abbey _h a grange "h at :at is /ill call$ ,monks' ,hall2 & 9 #ahfd _m ?\s&s ( silv] p5nies ( ,h5ry ,,iii4 & ,john ( ,engl& & ,william ,i4 ( ,scotl& 7 discov]$ ne> ! spot4 ,rob]t ,a9swor?1 ! au?or ( ! ,lat9 & ,engli% diction>y s long famili> to ,engli% /ud5ts1 0 born at ,eccles 9 #affj2 & x 0 at ! vic>age t ,william ,huskisson expir$ on ! #ae? ( ,septemb] #ahcj f injuries receiv$ at ! op5+ ( ! ,liv]pool ,man*e/] railway4 ,f e>ly times wakes 7 held at ,eccles1 & bull-bait+1 be>-bait+ & cock-fight+ 7 c>ri$ on4 ,"u ,elizabe? ^! fe/ivals1 :i* _h become notori\sly disord]ly1 7 aboli%$1 b 7 reviv$ "u ,james ,i41 & ma9ta9$ until late 9 ! #ai? c5tury on public gr\nd4 ,! cockpit rema9$ on ! site ( ! pres5t t[n hall4 ,a celebration on private prop]ty /ill recalls ^! wakes4 ,,ecclesfield1 a t[n%ip 9 ! ,hallam%ire p>liam5t>y division ( ! ,we/ ,rid+ ( ,york%ire1 ,engl&1 #e m4 ,n4 ( ,%effield1 on ! ,great ,c5tral & ,midl& railways4 ,! *ur* ( ,/ ,m>y is ,p]p5dicul>1 ) a c5tral t[]1 & conta9s excell5t woodwork4 ,x =m]ly bore1 & mu/ h des]v$1 ! famili> title ( ! ,m9/] ( ! ,moors4 ,ecclesfield 0 ! seat ( a ,b5$ict9e priory1 :i* pass$ to ! ,c>?usians 9 ! #ad? c5tury4 ,cutl]y & tools are l>gely manufactur$1 & !re are coal-m9es1 pap] mills & iron & fire-clay works4 ,aft] ! inclusion )9 ! c\nty bor\gh ( ,%effield ( "p ( ! civil p>i% ( ,ecclesfield 9 #aija1 ! population 0 #ah1cbd4 ,,eccle%all1 a m>ket t[n 9 ! nor?-we/]n p>liam5t>y division ( ,/af=d%ire1 ,engl&2 #g m4 ,n4,w4 f ,/af=d1 & #d ,w4 ( ,norton ,bridge /ation on ! ,london ,nor?-,we/]n ma9 l9e4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cgii4 ,! *ur* ( ! ,holy ,tr9ity1 "o ( ! mo/ notewor?y 9 ,/af=d%ire1 is pr9cipally ,e>ly ,engli%1 & has f9e /a9$ glass4 ,sev]al bi%ops ( ,li*field are buri$ "h1 z ,eccle%all ,ca/le 0 ! episcopal resid5ce f ! #ac? c5tury until #ahfg4 ,( ?is ! anci5t rema9s include a picturesque t[] & bridge4 ,to ! we/ on ! bord]s ( ,%rop%ire is ,blore ,hea?1 ! sc5e ( a defeat ( ! ,lanca/rians by ! ,yorki/s 9 #adei4 ,,ecclesia 7,gr4 ,greek3 ekklesia1 f ,greek3 ek1 out1 & ,greek3 kale91 to call71 9 anci5t ,a!ns1 ! g5]al assembly ( all ! freem5 ( ! /ate4 ,9 ! primitive unorganiz$ /ate ! k+ 0 !oretically absolute1 ?\gh 8 great nobles meet+ 9 ! ,c\ncil 7see ,,b\le7 7 no d\bt able to influ5ce him consid]ably4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no d\bt t 9 ! e>lie/ times ! free p1 i4e4 ! fight+ =ce ( ! /ate1 7 call$ toge!r to ratify ! decisions ( ! k+1 & t !y 7 gradually able to en=ce _! wi%es aga9/ ^? ( ! nobles4 ,9 ,a!ns1 z 9 ,rome1 :]e ! ,plebs succe$$ 9 _! dem& = ! codification ( ! laws 7! ,twelve ,tables71 x 0 no d\bt ow+ to ! gr[+ p[] ( ! p meet+ 9 ! ,agora t ,draco 0 entru/$ ) ! task ( publi%+ a code ( law & s putt+ an end to ! arbitr>y judicature ( ! ari/ocratic p>ty4 ,b !re is no evid5ce t ! ,ecclesia _h m ?an a de facto exi/5ce be=e ,solon's re=ms4 ,! precise p[]s :i* ,solon gave ! p are n kn[n4 ,x is cle> t ! executive p[] 9 ! /ate 7see ,,ar*on7 0 /ill ve/$ 9 ! ,eupatrid class4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t a mod]ate re=m] w\ld endeav\r to give to ! p "s control ov] ! magi/racy4 ,n[ 9 speak+ ( ! ,!tes 7! l[e/ ( ! f\r ,solonian classes2 see ,,solon71 ,ari/otle's ,con/itution ( ,a!ns says t ,solon gave !m m]ely a %>e 9 ! ,ecclesia & ! ,law ,c\rts1 & 9 ! ,politics we f9d t he gave !m ! "r ( elect+ ! magi/rates & receiv+ _! acc\nts at ! end ( ! (ficial ye>4 ,?us x seems t ! mix$ "* ( ,solon's con/itution consi/$ 9 ! fact t ?\gh ! (ficials ( ! /ate 7 /ill necess>ily ,eupatrid1 ! ,ecclesia elect$ ^? ( ! ,eupatrids :om !y c\ld tru/1 & fur!r _h ! "r ( criticiz+ _! (ficial actions4 ,secondly1 all our acc\nts agree t ,solon admitt$ ! ,!tes to ! ,ecclesia1 ?us recogniz+ !m z citiz5s4 ,"u ,clei/h5es ! ,ecclesia rema9$ ! sov]eign p[]1 b ! ,c\ncil seems to h become to "s ext5t a sep>ate adm9i/rative body4 ,! relation ( ,b\le & ,ecclesia 9 ! ,clei/h5ic democracy 0 ( ! greate/ importance4 ,! ,ecclesia alone1 a het]og5e\s body ( untra9$ citiz5s1 c\ld n h pass$1 nor ev5 h drawn up intelligible measures2 all ! prelim9>y draft+ 0 done by ! small committee ( ! ,b\le :i* 0 9 session at any p>ticul> "t4 ,9 ! #e? c5tury ! functions ( ! ,ecclesia & ! popul> c\rts ( ju/ice 7 va/ly increas$ by ! exig5cies ( empire4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! #d? c5tury ,b4,c4 ! sy/em ( paym5t 0 introduc$ 7see bel[74 ,9 #cjh ,b4,c4 ,demetrius ( ,phal]um curtail$ ! p[] ( ! ,ecclesia by ! in/itution ( ! ,nomophylaces 7,gu>dians ( ! ,law71 :o prev5t$ ! ,ecclesia f vot+ on an illegal or injuri\s motion4 ,"u ,roman rule ! p[]s ( ! ,ecclesia & ! popul> c\rts 7 mu* dim9i%$1 & aft] #dh ,b4,c4 7! fran*ise be+ frequ5tly sold to any casual ali57 ! ,demos 7p7 0 ( no importance4 ,!y /ill assembl$ to pass psephisms 9 ! !atre & to elect /rategi1 &1 "u ,hadrian1 _h "s small judicial duties1 b z a gov]n+ body ! ,ecclesia di$ :5 ,a!ns became a civitas lib]a "u ,roman protection4 ,con/itution & ,functions4--,?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( ,a!nian greatness ! ,ecclesia 0 ! sov]eign p[]1 n only 9 practice b also 9 !ory4 ,! assembly met 9 e>ly times ne> ! sanctu>y ( ,aphrodite ,p&emus 7i4e4 s\? ( ! ,acropolis71 b1 9 ! #e? & #d? c5turies1 ! regul> place ( meet+ 0 ! ,pnyx4 ,f ! #e? c5tury x met sometimes 9 ! !atre1 :i* 9 ! #crd c5tury 0 ! regul> place4 ,f ,demo/h5es we le>n t 9 8 "t special meet+s 7 held at ,peiraeus1 &1 9 ! la/ c5turies ,b4,c41 meet+s 7 held at ,a!ns & ,peiraeus alt]nately4 ,c]ta9 meet+s1 h[ev]1 = vot+ o/racism 7q4v47 & on que/ions affect+ individual /atus took place 9 ! ,agora4 ,meet+s 7 7#a7 ord9>y1 7#b7 extraord9>y1 & 7#c7 conv5$ by special mess5g]s 7,greek3 kyriai1 ,greek3 synkletoi & ,greek3 katakletoi71 ^! la/ be+ call$ :5 x 0 desirable t ! c\ntry p %\ld att5d4 ,at ord9>y meet+s ! att5dance 0 practically conf9$ to ,a!nian resid5ts4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle !re 7 f\r regul> meet+s 9 ea* prytany 7see ,,b\le72 probably only ! fir/ ( ^! 0 call$ ,greek3 kyria4 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ! f\r meet+s did n fall on regul> days1 ow+ to ! occurr5ce ( fea/ days on :i* no meet+ c\ld take place4 ,9 ! ,greek3 kyria ekklesia ( ea* mon? took place ! ,epi*eirotonia 7mon?ly inquiry7 ( ! /ate (ficials1 & if x prov$ unsatisfactory a trial be=e ! ,heliaea 0 arrang$2 ! c\ncil report$ on ! g5]al security & ! corn-supply1 & read out li/s ( vacant inh]itances & unm>ri$ heiresses4 ,9 ! six? prytany ( ea* ye> at ! ,greek3 kyria ekklesia ! "q :e!r o/racism %\ld take place t ye> 0 put to ! vote4 ,= all meet+s x 0 usual t ! ,prytaneis %\ld give five days' notice 9 ! =m ( a programma 7ag5da74 ,on occasions ( sudd5 importance ! h]ald ( ! c\ncil summon$ ! p ) a trumpet1 & sometimes special mess5g]s 7 despat*$ to br+ 9 ! c\ntry p 7,greek3 katakale974 ,aft] ! ar*on%ip ( ,solon all ,a!nians ov] ! age ( eighte5 7 eligible to att5d ! assembly1 save ^? :o = "s reason _h suff]$ atimia 7loss ( civil rights74 ,to prev5t ! pres5ce ( any disqualifi$ p]sons1 six lexi>*s ) ?irty assi/ants 7 pres5t ) ! deme-rolls 9 _! h&s4 ,^! (fic]s sup]9t5d$ ! paym5t 9 ! #d? c5tury & probably ! toxotae 7police7 also1 ^: duty x 0 be=e ! introduction ( pay to drive ! p out ( ! ,agora into ! ,ecclesia ) a rope /eep$ 9 r$ dye :i* !y /ret*$ out & us$ z a draw net 7see ,ari/oph4 ,a*>n4 #bb & ,eccles4 #cgh74 ,! introduction ( pay1 :i* belongs to ! e>ly ye>s ( ! #d? c5tury & by ! ,con/itution 7c4 #da ad f947 is attribut$ to ,agyrrhius1 a /atesman ( ! re/or$ democracy1 0 a device to secure a l>g] att5dance4 ,! rate rose f "o to two obols & !n to ?ree obols 7,ari/oph4 ,eccles4 #cjj sqq471 :ile at ! "t ( ,ari/otle x 0 "o & a half dra*mas = ! ,greek3 kyria ekklesia & "o dra*ma = o!r meet+s4 ,probably ^? :o 7 late did n receive paym5t4 ,proc$ure4--,! proce$+s op5$ ) =malities3 ! purification by ! p]i/i>*s1 :o c>ri$ r\nd sla9 suck+ pigs2 ! curse aga9/ all :o %\ld deceive ! p2 ! appo9tm5t 79 ! #d? c5tury7 ( ! pro$ri & _! epi/ates 7see ,,b\le72 ! report z to ! wea!r-om5s4 ,! assembly 0 always dismiss$ if !re 7 ?und]1 ra9 or an eclipse4 ,^! =malities ov]1 ! ,prytaneis communicat$ ! prob\leuma ( ! c\ncil1 )\t :i* ! ,ecclesia c\ld n debate4 ,?is recomm5dation ei!r submitt$ def9ite proposals or m]ely br\ght ! ag5da be=e ! assembly4 ,its importance lay l>gely 9 ! fact t x expla9$ ! bus9ess 9 h&1 :i* o!rwise mu/ (t5 h be5 beyond ! grasp ( a miscellane\s assembly4 ,aft] ! read+1 a prelim9>y vote 0 tak5 z to :e!r ! c\ncil's report %\ld be accept$ en bloc4 ,if x 0 decid$ to discuss1 ! h]ald call$ ^u p to speak4 ,any p]son1 )\t di/9ction ( age or position1 might obta9 leave to speak1 b x seems probable t ! man :o _h mov$ ! recomm5dation previ\sly 9 ! c\ncil w\ld advocate x 9 ! assembly4 ,! c\ncil 01 !re=e1 a *eck on ! assembly1 b its p[]s 7 to "s ext5t illusory1 because any memb] ( ! assembly 7#a7 might propose an am5dm5t1 7#b7 might draw up a new resolution f\nd$ on ! pr9cipal motion1 7#c7 might move ! rejection ( ! motion & ! sub/itution ( ano!r1 7#d7 might br+ 9 a motion ask+ ! c\ncil = a recomm5dation on a p>ticul> matt]1 7#e7 might petition ! c\ncil = leave to speak on a giv5 matt] to ! assembly4 ,vot+ usually 0 by %[ ( h&s1 b 9 special cases 7o/racism1 c47 by ballot 7i4e4 by ca/+ pebbles into "o ( two urns74 ,! decision ( ! assembly 0 call$ a psephism & _h absolute validity4 ,^! decisions 7 deposit$ 9 ! ,metroo5 :]e /ate docum5ts 7 pres]v$2 peculi>ly important decrees 7 inscrib$ also on a column 7/ele7 erect$ on ! ,acropolis4 ,x has be5 %[n t ! p[] ( ! c\ncil 0 f> f suffici5t4 ,! real *eck on ! vag>ies ( amateur legislators 0 ! ,graphe ,p>anomon4 ,any man 0 at lib]ty to give notice t he w\ld proce$ aga9/ ! mov] ( a giv5 resolution ei!r be=e or aft] ! vot+ 9 ! ,ecclesia4 ,a trial 9 a ,helia/ic c\rt 0 !n arrang$1 & ! pla9tiff _h to prove t ! resolution 9 "q contrav5$ an exi/+ law4 ,if ?is cont5tion 7 upheld by ! c\rt1 :5 ! case 0 br\ght to x by ! ,!smo!tae1 ! resolution 0 annull$1 & ! def5dant _h to appe> 9 a new trial = ! assessm5t ( ! p5alty1 :i* 0 usually a f9e1 r>ely dea?4 ,?ree convictions "u ?is law1 h[ev]1 involv$ a c]ta9 loss ( rights2 ! los] c\ld no long] move a resolution 9 ! ,ecclesia4 ,aft] ! lapse ( a ye> ! mov] ( a resolution c\ld n be attack$4 ,9 ! #d? c5tury ! ,graphe ,p>anomon took ! place ( ,o/racism 7q4v474 ,9 ! #e? c5tury x 0 m]ely an arrangem5t :]eby ! p sitt+ z sworn juries ratifi$ or annull$ _! own fir/ decision 9 ! ,ecclesia4 ,revision ( ,laws4--,9 ! #d? c5tury1 ! assembly annually1 on ! elev5? day ( ,hecatombaeon 7! fir/ day ( ! (ficial ye>71 took a g5]al vote on ! laws1 to decide :e!r revision 0 necess>y4 ,if ! decision 0 9 fav\r ( alt]ation1 x 0 op5 to any private citiz5 to put up notice ( am5dm5ts4 ,! ,nomo!tae1 a panel select$ by ! ,prytaneis f ! ,heliaea1 he>d argum5ts = & aga9/ ! *anges propos$ & vot$ accord+ly4 ,aga9/ all new laws s pass$1 !re lay ! ,graphe2 ,p>anomon4 ,?us ! ,nomo!tae1 n ! ,ecclesia1 f9ally pass$ ! law4 ,judicial ,functions4--,! ,ecclesia he>d cases ( ,probole & ,eisangelia 7see ,,greek ,,law74 ,! ,probole 0 an action aga9/ sycophants & p]sons :o _h n kept _! promises to ! p1 or _h di/urb$ a public fe/ival4 ,! v]dict w5t by %[ ( h&s1 b no legal consequ5ces ensu$2 if ! pla9tiff dem&$ puni%m5t he _h to g to ! ,heliaea :i* 7 n at all b\nd by ! previ\s vote 9 ! ,ecclesia4 ,cases ( ,eisangelia 9 :i* ! p5alty exce$$ ! legal compet5ce ( ! c\ncil came be=e ! ,ecclesia 9 ! =m ( a prob\leuma4 ,to prev5t vexati\s accusations1 x 0 7at "s date unkn[n7 decid$ t ! accus] :o fail$ to obta9 "o-fif? ( ! votes %\ld be f9$ #ajjj dra*mas 7,l#dj74 7,= ! proc$ure 9 case ( ,,o/racism see t article47 ,summ>y4--,?us x w be se5 t ! ,ecclesia1 ) no =mal organization1 _h absolute p[] save = ! ,graphe ,p>anomon 7:i*1 !re=e1 con/itut$ ! dica/]ies 9 "o s5se ! sov]eign p[] 9 ! /ate74 ,x dealt ) all matt]s home & =eign4 ,e memb] c\ld initiate legislation1 &1 z has be5 %[n1 ! p[] ( ! c\ncil 0 m]ely =mal4 ,z aga9/ ?is x mu/ be po9t$ out t x 0 by no means a repres5tative assembly 9 practice4 ,! phrase us$ to describe a v special assembly 7,greek3 katakletos ekklesia7 %[s t ord9>ily ! c\ntry memb]s did n att5d 7,greek3 katakale9 always involv+ ! idea ( motion f a di/ance t[>ds ,a!ns71 & ,?ucydides says t #ejjj 0 ! maximum att5dance1 ?\gh x mu/ be rememb]$ t he is speak+ ( ! "t :5 ! numb] ( citiz5s _h be5 mu* r$uc$ ow+ to ! plague & ! ,sicilian exp$ition4 ,f ?is we und]/& ! necessity ( paym5t 9 ! #d? c5tury1 al?\gh 9 t p]iod ! ,ecclesia 0 supreme 7,con/itution ( ,a!ns1 xli4 #b74 ,! functions ( ! ,ecclesia ?us diff]$ 9 two fundam5tal respects f ^? :i* are 9 mod]n times associat$ ) a popul> assembly4 7#a7 ,x did n ex]cise1 at lea/ 9 ! p]iod z to :i* we are be/ in/ruct$1 ! p[] ( law-mak+ 7,greek3 nomo!sia7 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 9 qualification ( ?is /atem5t t x possess$ ! p[] ( pass+ psephismata :i* w\ld 9 _m cases be reg>d$ z law 9 ! mod]n s5se4 7#b7 ,! ,ecclesia 0 pr9cipally conc]n$ ) ! sup]vision ( adm9i/ration4 ,mu* ( :at we reg>d z executive functions 7 dis*>g$ by ! ,ecclesia4 ,) ?is article comp>e ^? on ,,solon2 ,,b\le2 ,,areopagus2 ,,greek ,,law1 &1 = o!r anci5t popul> assemblies1 ,,apella2 ,,comitia4 ,see also ,a4,h4,j4 ,gre5idge1 ,h&book ( ,greek ,con/itutional ,hi/ory 7#ahif72 ,gilb]t1 ,greek ,con/itutional ,antiquities 7trans4 ,brooks & ,nickl91 #ahie72 ,s*oemann1 ,de comitiis ,a!ni5sium2 ,l4 ,s*midt1 ,de ,a!ni5sis reipublicae indole democratica 9 ,ind4 ,lect4 7,m>burg1 #ahfe72 ,j4,w4 ,headlam1 ,election by ,lot at ,a!ns 7,cambridge1 #ahia74 ,see also ! hi/ories ( ,greece by ,mey]1 ,busolt1 ,grote1 ,evelyn ,abbott1 & ,j4,e4 ,s&ys' edition ( ! ,con/itution ( ,a!ns 7#ahib72 = a comp>ative /udy1 ,e4,a4 ,freeman1 ,comp>ative ,politics4 7,j4 ,m4 ,m47 ,,ecclesia/es 7,heb4 ,hebrew3 ,kohelet1 ,kohelet1 ,kohele?2 ,sept4 ,greek3 ekklesia/es2 ,j]ome concionator71 "o ( ! ,wisdom ,books ( ! ,old ,te/am5t 7see ,,wisdom ,,lit]ature74 ,! book1 z x /&s1 is a collection ( ! disc\rses1 obs]vations & aphorisms ( a sage call$ ,kohele?1 a t]m ! precise mean+ ( :i* is n c]ta94 ,! ,greek ecclesia/es means "o :o takes "p 9 ! delib]ations ( an assembly 7ecclesia71 a debat] or speak] 9 an assembly 7,plato1 ,gorgias1 #deb ,e71 & ?is is ! g5]al s5se ( ! ,hebrew ^w4 ,its =m 7s+ul> fem99e7 has be5 suppos$ to be ! adoption or imitation ( ! ,arabic employm5t ( a fem4 s+4 z ! designation ( a high (ficial p]son1 z is ! case 9 ! title caliph 7:5ce ! r5d]+ 9 ! m>g9 ( ! ,revis$ ,v]sion1 ,great orator72 b ! adoption ( an ,arabic idiom is n probable4 ,?is usage is n ,hebrew2 x is n f\nd ei!r 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t or 9 ! lat] 7,mi%naic7 ,hebrew4 ,! =m may h be5 sugge/$ by t ( ! ,hebrew ^w = wisdom4 ,kohele?1 h[ev]1 is employ$ 9 ! book n z a title ( wisdom 7= wisdom is nev] ! speak]71 b z ! indep5d5t "n ( ! sage4 ,x is int5d$ to repres5t him z a memb] ( an assembly 7,kahal7--n ! ,jewi% congregation1 b a body ( /ud5ts or inquir]s1 su* z is ref]r$ to 9 xii4 #i-aa1 a sort ( collegium1 ( :i* he 0 ! head2 & z in/ructor ( ?is body he gives 8 criticism ( life4 ,! au?or beg9s1 inde$1 ) id5tify+ 8 sage ) ,k+ ,solomon 7i4 #ab-;ii4 #aa1 #ab;b72 b he soon ab&ons ?is lit]>y device1 & speaks 9 8 own "n4 ,! r5d]+ prea*] has a mislead+ connotation4 ,9 ! book z we h x !re is no ord]ly exposition ( a !ory2 x r has ! appe>ance ( a collection ( rem>ks jott$ d[n by a pupil 7some:at aft] ! mann] ( ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia71 or ( extracts f a sage's notebook4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 *>act]iz$ ?r\gh\t 7except 9 "s scribal additions7 by a def9ite ?\ght1 & p]vad$ by a def9ite tone ( feel+4 ,! keynote is giv5 9 ! classic phrase ) :i* ! discussion op5s & ) :i* x closes3 ,vanity ( vanities 7i4e4 absolute vanity71 all#a is vanity6 ,life1 says ! au?or1 has no?+ ( p]man5t value to (f]4 ,8 attitude is "o n ( bitt]ness b ( calm hopelessness1 ) an occasional t+e ( disgu/ or contempt4 ,he fancies t he has tri$ or obs]v$ ev]y?+ 9 human exp]i5ce1 & 8 delib]ate conclusion is t no?+ is wor? do+4 ,he believes 9 an all-p[]ful b indiff]5t ,god1 & is himself an obs]v] ( society1 /&+ alo( f its passions & ambitions1 & int]e/$ only 9 po9t+ out _! empt9ess4 ,?is g5]al view is set =? 9 a numb] ( p>ticul> obs]vations4 #a4 ,8 fundam5tal proposition is t !re is a fix$1 un*angeable ord] 9 ! _w1 a reign ( inflexible law 7i4 #d-aa1 iii4 #a-aa1 #ad1 #ae1 vii4 #ac1 viii4 #e-i73 natural ph5om5a1 su* z sunrise & sunset1 recur regul>ly2 = ev]y?+ 9 human exp]i5ce a "t has be5 set2 bir? & dea?1 build+ up & de/roy+1 laugh+ & weep+1 sil5ce & spee*1 love & hate1 w> & peace1 are to be reg>d$ n z utt]ances ( a liv+1 self-direct+ _w1 b z incid5ts 9 ! "w ( a va/ ma*9e t rolls on = ev]2 !re is an endless repetition--no?+ is new1 no?+ is lo/2 if "o ?9ks he has f\nd some?+ new1 inquiry %[s t x 0 9 exi/5ce long ago2 ,god1 ! au?or ( all1 seeks out ! pa/ 9 ord] to make x once m pres5t2 x is impossible to add to or take f ! cont5t ( ! _w1 impossible to *ange ! nature ( ?+s1 to effect any radical bett]m5t ( life2 ! result is unspeakable we>9ess--a depress+ s]ies ( sights & s\nds4 ,no goal or purpose is discov]able 9 ?is et]nal r\nd2 if ! sun rises & goes on 8 j\rney ?r\gh ! sky1 x is m]ely to come back to ! place :]e he rose2 riv]s fl[ = ev] into ! sea )\t fill+ x4 ,to :at end 0 ! _w creat$8 ,x is impossible to say4 ,su* is ,kohele?'s view ( life1 & x is obvi\s t su* a conception ( an aimless cosmos is ?or\ghly non-,jewi%1 if we may judge ,jewi% ?\ght by ! great body ( ! extant lit]ature4 #b4 ,fur!r1 says ,kohele?1 man is impell$ to /udy ! _w1 b "u ! condition t he %all nev] compreh5d x 7iii4 #aa1 vii4 #bc1 #bd1 viii4 #af1 #ag74 ,z to ! mean+ ( ! ,hebrew t]m olam 9 iii4 #aa1 !re are v>i\s op9ions1 b _w appe>s to be ! r5d]+ fav\r$ by ! connexion3 ,god has made ev]y?+ beautiful 9 its "t1 & has put ! olam into m5's m9ds1 yet s t !y _c und]/& ,8 "w3 ! olam1 ! sum ( ph5om5a1 is ,god's "w4 ,! ^w is n f\nd 9 ?is s5se else:]e 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t1 b x s occurs 9 ! ,mi%na 7,pirke ,abo?1 iv4 #g71 & ! vocabul>y ( ,ecclesia/es is admitt$ly simil> to t ( ! ,mi%na4 ,only "h 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t does x /& z a simple isolat$ n\n2 else:]e x is ! def9ition ( a n\n 79 ev]la/+ cov5ant1 c471 or x is prec$$ by a preposition1 9 ! phrases = ev]1 ( old1 or x /&s alone 7s+4 or plur47 9 ! same adv]bial s5se1 = ev]4 ,! ^w means fir/ a remote po9t 9 pa/ or future1 !n a future po9t )\t limit ( "t1 !n a p]iod ( hi/ory1 & f9ally ! _w consid]$ z a mass ( human exp]i5ces 7cf4 ,greek3 aion74 ,! r5d]+s et]nity & future 9 ! pres5t passage are unsatisfactory2 ! =m] has an inappropriate metaphysical connotation1 & yields no di/9ct s5se2 ! latt] does n suit ! connexion1 ?\gh !re is ref]5ce to ! future else:]e 7ix4 #a74 ,god1 ! text "h decl>es1 has made ! _w an object ( man's ?\ght1 yet s t man c nev] f9d out ! "w t ,god has done 7iii4 #aa74 ,! ref]5ce seems to be n s mu* to ! v>iety & complexity ( ph5om5a z to ! impossibility ( con/ru+ !m rationally or 9 su* a way t man may =esee & provide = 8 future4 ,man is 9 ! clut*es ( fate 7ix4 #aa1 #ab73 !re is no obs]vable relation betwe5 ex]tion & result 9 life3 ! race is n to ! swift nor ! battle to ! /rong2 success does n att5d wisdom1 k & skill2 m5 are l fi% tak5 9 a net or birds caught 9 a sn>e4 #c4 ,human life1 ,kohele? decl>es1 is unsatisfy+4 ,he inquir$1 he says1 into ev]y?+ t is done by m5 "u ! sun 7i4 #ab-af73 ,god has inflict$ on m5 a re/less desire = movem5t & "w#b1 yet life is b a catalogue ( fruitless /ruggles4 ,he gives a numb] ( illu/rations4 ,9 8 "* ( k+ he tri$ all ! bodily pleasures ( life 7ii4 #a-aa73 he _h h\ses1 v9ey>ds1 g>d5s1 p>ks1 ponds1 =e/s1 s]vants1 flocks & h]ds1 treasures ( gold & silv]1 s+]s1 wives2 all ^! he set himself to enjoy 9 a rational way--inde$1 he f\nd a c]ta9 pleasure 9 c>ry+ out 8 designs1 b1 :5 all 0 done1 he survey$ x only to see t x 0 we>y & unpr(itable4 ,dropp+ ! role ( ,solomon & speak+ z an obs]v] ( life1 ! au?or decl>es 7iv4 #d7 t ! /ruggle = success is ! result ( rivalry among m51 :i* has no wor?y outcome4 ,! secur+ ( ri*es is a fallaci\s a*ievem5t1 = (t5 weal? p]i%es by "s accid5t 7v4 #ac f471 or its possessor is unable to enjoy x 7vi4 #a-c;a71 or he has no "o to :om to leave x1 & he _c keep x--nak$ man comes into ! _w1 nak$ he goes out4 ,he does n consid] ! possibility ( d]iv+ enjoym5t f weal? by help+ ! poor or enc\rag+ le>n+ 7?is latt]1 inde$1 he looks on z vanity71 & 9 g5]al he recognizes no obligation on ! "p ( a man to 8 fell[s4 ,a notewor?y survival ( an old belief is f\nd 9 vi4 #c3 ?\gh a man h ! great good =tune to live long & to h _m *ildr51 yet1 if he h n prop] burial ! blank d>kness ( an untimely bir? is bett] ?an he3 ?is latt] is m]ely ! negation ( exi/5ce2 ! =m]1 x appe>s to be held1 is positive mis=tune1 ! loss ( a desirable place 9 ,%eol1 ?\gh else:]e 7ix4 #e7 exi/5ce 9 ,%eol is repres5t$ z ! negation ( real life4 ,x is n necess>y to suppose t ! writ] has "h any p>ticul> case 9 m9d4 ,if weal? be ?us a va9 ?+1 yet a sage might be suppos$ to f9d satisfaction 9 wisdom1 t is1 practical good s5se & sagacity2 b ?is also ! au?or puts aside z br++ no la/+ advantage1 s9ce a wise man mu/ f9ally give up ! fruit ( 8 wisdom to someone else1 :o may be a fool1 & 9 any case ! f9al result = bo? fools & wise m5 is ! same--bo? are =gott5 7ii4 #ab-bc74 ,a p>ticul> in/ance is m5tion$ 7ix4 #ac-ae7 ( a beleagu]$ city sav$ by a wise man2 b ! man happ5$ to be poor1 & no "o rememb]$ him4 ,! :ole con/itution ( society1 9 fact1 seems to ! sage a lam5table ?+3 ! poor are oppress$1 ! e>? is full ( _! cries1 & !re is no help] 7iv4 #a72 /range social upheavals may be se53 ! poor#c set 9 high places1 ! ri* ca/ d[n1 slaves on horseback1 pr9ces on foot 7x4 #e-g74 ,he p]mits himself a sweep+ g5]alization 7vii4 #be-bh73 human be+s z a rule are bad3 "o may occasionally f9d a good man1 nev] a good woman--woman is a sn>e & a curse4 ,he 7or an editor7 adds 7vii4 #bi7 t ?is condition ( ?+s is due to social developm5t3 man 0 creat$ upright 7,g54 i4 #bg2 ,eno* lxix4 #aa71 b 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory has introduc$ corrupt+ complications into life4 #d4 ,! natural outcome ( ^! exp]i5ces ( ! au?or is t he _c recognize a moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w4 ,he f9ds1 l ,job1 t !re are good m5 :o die prematurely not)/&+ _! goodness1 & bad m5 :o live long not)/&+ _! badness 7vii4 #ae71 ?\gh long life1 x is assum$1 is "o ( ! great bless+s ( man's lot2 & 9 g5]al !re is no moral discrim9ation 9 ! =tunes ( m5 7viii4 #ad1 ix4 #b74 #e4 ,!re is no sacr$ness or dignity 9 man or 9 human life3 man has no pre-em95ce ov] bea/s1 see+ t he & !y h ! same f9al fate1 die & pass into ! du/1 & no "o kn[s :at becomes ( ! _s1 :e!r 9 man's case x goes up to heav51 & 9 ! case ( bea/s goes d[n into ,%eol--dea? is practically ! end-all2 & s poor a ?+ is life t ! dead are to be consid]$ m =tunate ?an ! liv+1 & m to be envi$ ?an ei!r class is he :o nev] came into exi/5ce 7iv4 #b1 #c74 ,x is a special grievance t ! wick$ :5 !y die are buri$ ) pomp & c]emony1 :ile m5 :o h act$ well are =gott5#d 9 ! city 7viii4 #aj74 #f4 ,t ! au?or does n believe 9 a happy or active future life appe>s 9 ! passage 7iv4 #b1 #c7 quot$ above4 ,! old ,hebrew view ( ! future exclud$ f ,%eol ! common activities ( life & also ! wor%ip ( ! national god 7,isa4 xxxviii4 #ah72 he goes ev5 beyond ?is 9 8 conception ( ! blankness ( exi/5ce 9 ! und]world4 ,! liv+1 he says1 at lea/ "k t !y %all die1 b ! dead "k no?+--! memory ( !m1 _! love1 hate & envy1 p]i%es1 !y h no rew>d1 no "p 9 e>?ly life 7ix4 #e1 #f72 !re is absolutely no k & no "w 9 ,%eol 7ix4 #aj74 ,8 conclusion is t m5 %\ld d n[ ) all _! might :at !y h to d2 ! future ( man's vital "p1 ! _s1 is :olly unc]ta94 #g4 ,8 conception ( ,god is 9 accord ) ^! views4 ,god = him is ! creator & rul] ( ! _w1 b h>dly m2 he is ! ma/] ( a va/ ma*9e t gr9ds out human de/9ies )\t sympa?y ) man & )\t visible reg>d = :at man deems ju/ice--a be+ to be ackn[l$g$ z "l1 n "o to be lov$4 ,!re c ?us be no social contact betwe5 man & ,god1 no communion ( s\l1 no en?usiasm ( s]vice4 ,moral conduct is to be regulat$ n by div9e law 7( ?is no?+ is said7 b by human exp]i5ce4 ,! au?or's !ism is cold1 spiritless1 )\t influ5ce on life4 ,if n[ ! "q be ask$ :at purpose or aim a man c h1 see+ t !re is no?+ ( p]man5t value 9 human "w1 an answ] is giv5 :i* recurs1 l a refra91 f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! book1 & appe>s to be f ! h& ( ! orig9al au?or3 aft] e description ( ! vanity ( ?+s comes ! injunction to enjoy su* pleasures z may fall to "o's lot 7ii4 #bd1 #be1 iii4 #ab1 #ac1 #bb1 v4 #ah1 #ai1 viii4 #ae1 ix4 #g-aj1 xi4 #g-xii4 #g74 ,else:]e 7ii471 x is true1 x is said t !re is no la/+ satisfaction 9 pleasure2 b ! sage may mean to po9t out t1 ?\gh !re is no p]man5t outcome to life1 x is ! "p ( common-s5se to enjoy :at "o has4 ,! opportunity & ! p[] to enjoy are repres5t$ z be+ ! gift ( ,god2 b ?is /atem5t is n out ( accord ) ! au?or's g5]al position1 :i* is di/9ctly !i/ic4 ,all ! passages j cit$1 except ! la/ 7xi4 #g-xii4 #g71 are simple & pla91 b ! be>+ ( ! la/ is obscur$ by int]polations4 ,obvi\sly ! purpose ( ! p>agraph is to po9t out ! wisdom ( enjoy+ life 9 ! "t ( y\? :ile ! physical p[]s are fre% & /rong1 & ! impot5cy ( old age has n yet crept 94 ,omitt+ xi4 #h;c1 #i;b1 #aj;b1 xii4 #a;a1 ! passage w read3 ,life is pleasant 9 ! bright sun%9e--h[ev] long a man may live1 he mu/ be *e]ful always1 only rememb]+ t d>k days w come4 ,let ! "y man enjoy all ! pleasures ( y\?1 putt+ away ev]y?+ pa9ful1 be=e ! "t comes :5 8 bodily p[]s decay & he c enjoy no?+4 ,to relieve ! app>5t ,epicureanism ( ?is passage1 an editor has ins]t$ rem9d]s ( ! vanity ( y\?ful pleasures1 & admonitions to rememb] ,god & ,8 judgm5t4 ,! au?or1 h[ev]1 does n recomm5d dissipation1 & does n mean to introduce a religi\s motive--he (f]s simply a c\nsel ( prud5ce4 ,! exhortation to rememb] ! ,creator 9 ! days ( y\?1 ?\gh x is to be reta9$ 9 ! m>g9 z a pi\s editorial addition1 "h int]rupts ! l9e ( ?\ght4 ,9 xii4 #a;a "s critics propose to sub/itute = rememb] ?y ,creator ! expression ( xi4 #i1 let ?y he>t *e] !e2 b ! repetition is improbable4 ,o!rs w\ld read3 rememb] ?y ci/]n 7,bickell71 or ?y well 7,haupt71 t is1 ?y wife4 ,! wife is s call$ 9 ,prov4 v4 #ae-ai 9 an elaborate poetical figure 7! wife z a s\rce ( bodily pleasure71 9 :i* ! ref]5ce is cle> f ! context2 b !re is no au?ority1 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t or 9 o!r lit]ature ( ?is p]iod1 = tak+ ! t]m z a simple prose designation ( a wife4 ,nor w\ld ?is ref]5ce to ! wife be appropriate 9 ! connexion1 s9ce ! writ]'s purpose is simply to urge m5 to enjoy life :ile !y c4 ,! p>agraph 7& ! orig9al book7 concludes ) a su/a9$ & impressive figure1 9 :i* ! fail+ body ( ! old man is comp>$ to a h\se fall+ into decay3 fir/1 ! bodily organs 7xii4 #c1 #d;a73 ! keep]s ( ! h\se 7! arms & h&s7 tremble1 ! /rong m5 7! legs & p]haps ! backbone7 are b5t1 ! gr9d+ wom5 7! tee?7 cease to "w1 ^? t look out ( ! w9d[s 7! eyes7 are d>k5$1 ! /reet-doors are %ut1 ! s\nd ( ! mill be+ l[ 7app>5tly a summ>y /atem5t ( ! prec$+ details3 communication ) ! out] _w ?r\gh ! s5ses is cut (f1 ! p]=mance ( bodily functions be+ feeble72 ! re/ ( v4 #d may ref] to ! old man's inability to make or he> music3 9 ! h\se !re is no s\nd ( birds#e or ( s+]s1 !re are none ( ! arti/ic delights ( a well-to-d h\sehold2 fur!r 7v4 #e;a7 ! inmates ( ! h\se fe> dang]s f all p[]ful ?+s & p]sons 7! old man is afraid ( ev]y?+71 ! almond tree blossoms 7p]haps ! hair turns :ite74 ,! two next clauses are obscure4#f ,!n comes ! end3 man goes to 8 ev]la/+ home2 ! du/ 7! body7 returns to ! e>? :5ce x came 7,g54 ii4 #g71 & ! brea? ( life1 brea!d by ,god into ! body1 returns to him :o gave x4 ,?is la/ clause does n affirm ! immortality ( ! s\l2 x is simply an explanation ( :at becomes ( ! vital pr9ciple 7! brea? ( life ( ,g54 ii4 #g72 its positive ass]tion is n 9 accord ) ! d\bt express$ 9 iii4 #ba 7:o kn[s :e!r ! _s ( man goes upw>d871 & x seems to be f ano!r h& ?an t ( ! au?or ( ! orig9al book4 ,!re are o!r say+s 9 ! book t appe> to be at v>iance ) its fundam5tal ?\ght4 ,wisdom is prais$ 9 a numb] ( passages 7iv4 #ac1 vii4 #e1 #aa1 #ab1 #ai1 viii4 #a1 ix4 #af1 #ag1 x4 #b1 #c71 ?\gh x is else:]e d5\nc$ z wor?less4 ,x may be said t ! au?or1 :ile d5y+ t wisdom 7practical sagacity & level-head$ness7 c give p]man5t satisfaction1 yet admits its practical value 9 ! conduct ( life4 ,?is may be s2 b x w\ld be /range if a writ] :o c\ld say1 9 mu* wisdom is mu* grief1 %\ld delib]ately laud wisdom4 ,! "q is n ( great importance & may be left undecid$4 ,x may be add$ t !re are 9 ! book a numb] ( aphorisms ab\t fools 7v4 #cd1 vii4 #e1 #f1 x4 #a-c1 #ab-ae7 q 9 ! /yle ( ! book ( ,prov]bs1 "s ( !m contra/+ ! wise man & ! fool2 ^! appe> to be ! ins]tions ( an editor4 ,fur!r1 x may be conclud$ ) reasonable c]ta9ty t ! passages t affirm a moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w are additions by pi\s editors :o wi%$ to br+ ! book into h>mony ) ! or?odox ?\ght ( ! "t4 ,su* ass]tions z ^? ( ii4 #bf 7,god gives joy to him :o pleases him1 & makes ! s9n] toil to lay up = ! latt]71 viii4 #ab 7x %all be well ) ^? t fe> ,god1 b n ) ! wick$71 xii4 #ac f4 7man's duty is simply to obey ! comm&s ( ,god1 = ,god w br+ ev]y?+ into judgm5t7 are irreconcilable ) ! (t-repeat$ /atem5t t !re is no diff]5ce 9 ! e>?ly lots ( ! righte\s & ! wick$1 & no e?ical life aft] dea?4 ,_m practical admonitions & homely aphorisms are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! book3 iv4 #e1 quiet is a bless+2 iv4 #i-ab1 two are bett] ?an "o2 iv4 #ag 7,eng4 v4 #a71 be rev]5t 9 visit+ ! h\se ( ,god 7! temple & ! connect$ build+s7--to li/5 7to ! s]vice ( song or ! read+ ( ,scripture7 is bett] ?an to (f] a fooli% 7?\ghtless7 sacrifice2 v4 #a 7#b71 be sp>+ ( words 9 address+ ,god2 v4 #a-e 7#b-f71 pay y\r v[s--d n say to ! prie/'s mess5g] t y made a mi/ake2 vii4 #b-d1 sorr[ is bett] ?an mir?2 vii4 #af-ah1 be n ov]-righte\s 7ov]-att5tive to details ( ritual & conv5tion7 or ov]-wick$ 7flagrantly neglectful ( e/abli%$ beliefs & cu/oms72 "h righte\s & wick$ appe> to be te*nical t]ms designat+ two p>ties 9 ! ,jewi% _w ( ! #bnd & #a/ c5turies ,b4,c41 ! obs]v]s & ! non-obs]v]s ( ! ,jewi% ritual law2 ^! p>ties repres5t 9 a g5]al way ! ,ph>isees & ! ,sadducees2 viii4 #b-d1 x4 #bj1 x is well to obey k+s & to be cauti\s 9 speak+ ab\t !m1 = !re are talebe>]s ev]y:]e2 vii4 #bj1 no man is free f s92 vii4 #ba1 d n li/5 to all t y may ov]he>1 le/ y he> y\rself ill spok5 (2 ix4 #d1 a liv+ dog is bett] ?an a dead lion2 xi4 #a-f1 %[ prud5ce & decision 9 bus9ess2 d n set all y\r goods on "o v5ture2 act promptly & hope = ! be/4 ,at ! close ( ! book 7xii4 #i-ab7 !re are two obs]vations t appe> to be editorial recomm5dations & cautions4 ,fir/1 ,kohele? is endors$ z an indu/ri\s1 discrim9at+ & in/ructive writ]4 ,possibly ?is is 9 reply to objections t _h be5 made to :at he _h writt54 ,!re foll[s an obscure passage 7v4 #aa7 :i* seems to be meant z a comm5dation ( ! tea*+ ( ! sages 9 g5]al3 _! words are said to be l goads 7incit+ to action7 & l nails driv5 9 a build+ 7giv+ firmness to "*72 !y issue f ma/]s ( assemblies1#g heads ( academies 7b n ( ! ,sanh$r974 ,! succe$+ clause !y are giv5 f "o %eph]d may ref] to a collection or revision by "o au?oritative p]son1 b its relevancy is n obvi\s4 ,! %eph]d _c be ,god 7,g54 xlix4 #bd2 ,ps4 xxiii4 #a72 ! poetical use ( ! ^w w\ld n be appropriate "h4 ,! clause is possibly a gloss1 a comm5t on ! prec$+ expression4 ,a caution aga9/ c]ta9 books is add$ 7v4 #ab71 probably works !n consid]$ h>mful 7p]haps philosophic treatises71 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 no?+ fur!r is kn[n4 ,composition ( ! ,book4--,if ! analysis giv5 above is correct1 ! book is n a unit2 x conta9s passages mutually contradictory & n h>monizable4 ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made to e/abli% its unity4 ,! hypo!sis ( two voices is n[ g5]ally ab&on$2 !re is no indication ( a debate1 ( affirmations & responses4 ,a m plausible !ory is t ! au?or is an hone/ ?9k]1 a ke5 obs]v] & critic ( life1 :o sees t ! _w is full ( mis]ies & unsolv$ problems1 reg>ds z futile ! attempts ( 8 "t to demon/rate an e?ically active future life1 &1 recogniz+ a div9e au?or ( all1 holds t ! only wise c\rse = m5 is to ab&on ! attempt to get full satisfaction out ( ! /ruggle = pleasure1 ri*es & wisdom1 & to cont5t !mselves ) mak+ ! be/ ( :at !y h4 ,?is conception ( him is l>gely true1 z is po9t$ out above1 b x does n h>monize ! contradictions ( ! book1 ! discrepancies betwe5 ! piety ( "s passages & ! emotional indiff]5ce t[>d ,god %[n 9 o!rs4 ,o!r ( ! ,biblical ,wisdom books 7,job1 ,prov]bs7 are compilations--:y n ?is8 ,x is n necess>y to multiply au?ors1 z is done1 = example1 by ,siegfri$1 :o supposes f\r pr9cipal writ]s 7a pessimi/ic philosoph]1 an ,epicurean glossator1 a sage :o upholds ! value ( wisdom1 & an or?odox editor7 besides a numb] ( annotators2 x is suffici5t to assume t sev]al cons]vative scribes h made %ort additions to ! orig9al "w4 ,nor is x wor? :ile to attempt a logical or symmetrical arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial4 ,x has be5 surmis$ 7by ,bickell7 t ! %eets ( ! orig9al codex became dis>rang$ & 7 re>rang$ incorrectly2#h by o!r critics portions ( ! book are transf]r$ hi!r & ?i!r2 9 all cases ! critic is guid$ 9 ^! *anges by :at he conceives to h be5 ! orig9al =m ( ! book4 ,b x is m probable t we h x 9 ! =m 9 :i* x grew up--a s]ies ( obs]vations by ! orig9al au?or ) int]sp]s$ editorial rem>ks2 & x is bett] to pres]ve ! exi/+ =m z giv+ a record ( ! process ( gr[?4 ,date4--,z to ! date ( ! book1 ?\gh !re are /ill diff]5ces ( op9ion among s*ol>s1 !re is a gradual approa* to a cons5sus4 ,! ,solomonic au?or%ip has long s9ce be5 giv5 up3 ! hi/orical sett+ ( ! "w & its atmosph]e--! sil5t assumption ( mono!ism & monogamy1 ! non-national tone1 ! attitude t[>ds k+s & p1 ! picture ( a complicat$ social life1 ! /ra9 ( philosophic reflection--are :olly at v>iance ) :at is kn[n ( ! #aj? c5tury ,b4,c4 & ) ! ,hebrew lit]ature d[n to ! #e? or #d? c5tury ,b4,c4 ,! introduction ( ,solomon1 ! ideal ( wisdom1 is a lit]>y device ( ! lat] "t1 & probably deceiv$ nobody4 ,! decisive consid]ations = ! det]m9ation ( ! date are ! language1 ! hi/orical backgr\nd & ! ?\ght4 ,! language belongs to ! po/-classical p]iod ( ,hebrew4 ,! num]\s ,aramaisms po9t to a "t c]ta9ly n e>li] ?an ! #d? c5tury ,b4,c41 & probably 7?\gh ! hi/ory ( ! p5etration ( ,aramaic into ,hebrew spee* is n def9itely kn[n7 n e>li] ?an ! #crd c5tury4 ,m ?an ?is1 !re are _m resemblances betwe5 ! dialect ( ,kohele? & t ( ,mi%na4 ,n only are new words employ$1 & old words 9 new significations1 b ! grammatical /ructure has a mod]n /amp--"s phrases h ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 translat$ out ( ,aramaic into ,hebrew4 ,by ab\t ! beg9n+ ( our era ! ,jews _h giv5 up ,hebrew & wrote 9 ,aramaic2 ! process ( expulsion _h be5 go+ on1 d\btless1 = "s "t2 b comp>ison ) ! lat] extant lit]ature 7,*ronicles1 ! ,hebrew ,ecclesia/icus or ,b5-,sira1 ,e/h]7 makes x improbable t su* ,hebrew z t ( ,kohele? w\ld h be5 writt5 e>li] ?an ! #bnd c5tury ,b4,c4 7= details see ,driv]'s ,introduction74 ,! g5]al hi/orical situation1 also1 presuppos$ or ref]r$ to1 is t ( ! p]iod f ! ye> #bjj ,b4,c4 to ! beg9n+ ( our era2 9 p>ticul>1 ! famili> ref]5ces to k+s z a "p ( ! social sy/em1 & to social dislocations 7s]vants & pr9ces *ang+ places1 x4 #g71 sugge/ ! tr\bl\s "t ( ! lat] ,greek & ! ,maccabean rul]s1 ( :i* ! hi/ory ( ,josephus gives a good picture4 ,! conception ( ! _w & ( human life z controll$ by natural law1 a naturali/ic cosmos1 is ali5 n only to ! prophetic & liturgical ,hebrew lit]ature b also to ,hebrew ?\ght 9 g5]al4 ,:e!r borr[$ or n1 x mu/ be late2 & its resemblance to ,greek ideas sugge/s ,greek influ5ce4 ,! supposition ( su* influ5ce is fav\r$ by "s critics 7,tyl]1 ,plumptre1 ,palm1 ,siegfri$1 ,*eyne 9 8 ,jewi% ,religi\s ,life aft] ! ,exile1 & o!rs71 reject$ by "s 7,zell]1 ,r5an1 ,kle9]t & o!rs74 ,?is disagreem5t comes l>gely f ! attempts made to f9d def9itely express$ ,greek philosophical dogmas 9 ! book2 su* =mulas x has n1 b ! g5]al air ( ,greek reflection seems unmi/akable4 ,! scepticism ( ,kohele? diff]s f t ( ,job 9 quality & scope3 x is delib]ate & calm1 n wrung out by p]sonal suff]+2 & x relates to ! :ole c\rse & con/itution ( nature1 n m]ely to ! inju/ices ( =tune4 ,su* a conception has a ,greek t+e1 & w\ld be f\nd 9 ,jewi% circles1 probably1 n be=e ! #bnd c5tury ,b4,c4 ,a precise indication ( date has be5 s\ght 9 c]ta9 suppos$ ref]5ces or allusions to hi/orical facts4 ,! m5tion ( p]sons :o d n sacrifice or take oa?s 7ix4 #b7 is held by "s to po9t to ! ,ess5es2 if ?is be s1 x is n *ronologically precise1 s9ce we h n ! means ( det]m9+ ! beg9n+ ( ! movem5t ( ?\ght t issu$ 9 ,ess5ism4 ,s also ! co9cid5ces ( ?\ght ) ,b5-,sira 7,ecclesia/icus7 are n decisive3 cf4 iii4 #ad ) ,b4,s4 xviii4 #f2 v4 #b-f 7#c-g7 ) ,b4,s4 xxxiv4 #a-g2 vii4 #ai ) ,b4,s4 xxxvii4 #ad2 x4 #h ) ,b4,s4 xxvii4 #bf;a2 xi4 #aj ) ,b4,s4 xxx4 #ba2 xii4 #aj1 #aa ) ,b4,s4 xxxix4 #b ff41 xii4 #ac ) ,b4,s4 xliii4 #bg2 if !re be borr[+ 9 ^! passages1 x is n cle> on :i* side x lies2 & x is n c]ta9 t !re is borr[+--! ?\ghts may h be5 tak5 indep5d5tly by ! two au?ors f ! same s\rce4 ,9 any case1 s9ce ,b5-,sira belongs to ab\t #ahj ,b4,c41 ! date ( ,kohele?1 s f> z ^! co9cid5ces indicate x1 w\ld n be f> f #bjj ,b4,c4 ,! contra/ made 9 x4 #af f4 betwe5 a k+ :o is a boy & "o :o is ( noble bir? may allude to hi/orical p]sons4 ,! anti!sis is n exact2 we expect ei!r boy & mature man or l[-born & high-born4 ,! *ild might be ,antio*us ,v4 7#afd ,b4,c471 or ,ptolemy ,v41 ,epiphanes 7#bjd ,b4,c471 b ! ref]5ce is too g5]al to be decisive4 ,! text ( ! obscure passage iv4 #ac-af is 9 bad condition1 & x is only by consid]able *anges t a cle> mean+ c be got f x4 ,! two p]sonages--! old & fooli% k+ & ! poor & wise y\?--h be5 suppos$ 7by ,w9ckl]7 to be ,antio*us ,epiphanes 7#age-afd ,b4,c47 & ,demetrius 7#afb-aej ,b4,c471 or 7by ,haupt7 ,antio*us & ! impo/or ,alex&] ,balas 7#aej-adf ,b4,c471 or 7by o!rs7 ,demetrius & ,alex&]2 9 fav\r ( ,alex&] z ! y\? x may be said t he 0 ( obscure orig91 0 at fir/ popul>1 & 0 lat] ab&on$ by 8 fri5ds4 ,su* id5tifications1 h[ev]1 d n fix ! date ( ! book precisely2 ! au?or may h ref]r$ to ev5ts t happ5$ be=e 8 "t4 ,! reign ( ,h]od1 a p]iod ( despotism & t]ror1 & ( /rife betwe5 ,jewi% religi\s p>ties1 is pref]r$ by "s s*ol>s 7,graetz1 ,*eyne & o!rs7 z be/ answ]+ to ! social situation depict$ 9 ! book1 :ile /ill o!rs 7z ,r5an7 decide = ! reign ( ,alex&] ,jannaeus 7#ajd-gh ,b4,c474 ,! data are n num]\s & di/9ct en\gh to settle ! "q beyond det]m9+ g5]al limits3 = reasons giv5 above ! book c h>dly h be5 compos$ be=e ab\t #bjj ,b4,c41 & if1 z is probable1 a ,septuag9t translation ( x 0 made 7?\gh ! pres5t ,septuag9t text %[s ! influ5ce ( ,aquila71 x is to be put e>li] ?an #ej ,b4,c4 ,probably also1 its diff]5t p>ts are ( diff]5t dates4 ,( ! au?or no?+ is kn[n beyond ! obvi\s fact t he 0 a man ( wide obs]vation & philosophic ?\ght1 ( ! ,sadducean type 9 religion1 b non-,jewi% 9 8 attitude t[>d life4 ,he 01 d\btless1 a man ( high /&+1 b nei!r a k+ nor a high-prie/1 c]ta9ly n ! apo/ate prie/ ,alcimus 7#a ,macc4 vii4 ix472 nor 0 he necess>ily a physician--!re are no details 9 *4 xii4 or else:]e t any man ( good intellig5ce might n "k4 ,! book is writt5 9 prose1 "s ( :i* is rhy?mical1 ) bits ( v]se "h & !re3 ?us i4 #b-aa is balanc$ prose1 #ab-ad pla9 prose1 #ae a c\plet1 i4 #af-;ii4 #be simple prose1 vii4 conta9s a numb] ( poetical aphorisms1 & s on4 ,"s ( ! v]ses are app>5tly f ! au?or1 "s f editors4 ,! =tunes ( ! book are n kn[n 9 detail1 b x is cle> t its m]ciless criticism ( life & its lit]>y *>m made x popul>1 :ile its scepticism excit$ ! appreh5sions ( pi\s cons]vatives4 ,possibly ! ,wisdom ( ,solomon 7c4 #ej ,b4,c47 0 writt5 p>tly z a reply to x4 ,! claim ( sacr$ness made = x 0 w>mly conte/$ by "s ,jewi% s*ol>s4 ,9 spite ( ! relief af=d$ by or?odox additions1 x 0 urg$ t its ,epicurean s5tim5ts contradict$ ! ,torah & fav\r$ h]esy4 ,f9ally1 by "s process ( reason+ n fully record$1 ! difficulties 7 set aside & ! book 0 receiv$ into ! sacr$ canon2 ,j]ome 7on ,eccl4 xii4 #ac1 #ad7 decl>es t ! decisive fact 0 ! or?odox /atem5t at ! end ( ! book3 ! "o important ?+ is to fe> ,god & keep ,8 comm&m5ts4 ,! probability is t ! book _h receiv$ ! /amp ( popul> approbation be=e ! end ( ! #a/ c5tury ( our era1 & ! lead+ m5 did n d>e to reject x4 ,x is n c]ta9 t x is quot$ 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t1 b x appe>s to be includ$ 9 ,josephus' li/ ( sacr$ books4 ,,lit]ature4--,= ! old] works see ,zoeckl] 79 ,lange's ,comm472 = ,jewi% comm5t>ies see ,z$n]1 ,cat4 ( ,heb4 books 9 ,libry4 ( ,brit4 ,mus4 7#ahfg71 & = ! hi/ory ( ! int]pretations1 ,c4,d4 ,g9sburg1 ,cohele? 7#ahfa74 ,introductions ( ,a4 ,ku551 ,s4,r4 ,driv]1 ,cornhill1 ,ko5ig4 ,articles 9 ,h]zog-,hauck1 ,real5cykl4 7by ,p4 ,kle9]t72 ,ha/+s1 ,dict4 ,bible 7by ,a4,s4 ,peake72 ,t4,k4 ,*eyne1 ,encycl4 ,bibl4 7by ,a4,b4 ,davidson72 ,jew4 ,encycl4 7by ,d4,s4 ,m>goli\?74 ,comm5t>ies3 ,f4 ,hitzig 7#ahdg72 ,c4,d4 ,g9sburg 7#ahfa72 ,h4 ,graetz 7#ahga72 ,tyl] 7#ahgd72 ,delitzs* 7#ahge72 ,e4,h4 ,plumptre 7#ahha72 ,c4,h4,h4 ,wright 7#ahhc72 ,n[ack1 revision ( ,hitzig 7#ahhc72 ,volck 79 ,/rack u4 ,zoeckl]'s ,kurzgef4 ,komm41 #ahhi72 ,wildebo] 79 ,m>ti's ,kurz] ,h&-,comm41 #ahih72 ,c4 ,siegfri$ 79 ,w4 ,n[ack's ,h&komm41 #ahih72 ,oort 79 ,de ,oude ,te/41 #ahii74 ,o!r works3 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,dirge ( ,koh4 7#ahgd72 ,wu5s*e1 ,midra% on ,koh4 79 8 ,biblio?4 rabb941 #ahhj72 ,e4 ,r5an1 ,l',ecclesia/e 7#ahhb72 ,bickell1 ,d] ,pr$ig] 7#ahhd7 & ,kohel4-,unt]su*ung5 7#ahhf2 ,engl4 by ,e4,j4 ,dillon1 ,sceptics ( ,old ,te/41 #ahie72 ,s*iff]1 ,das ,bu* ,koh4 na* d4 ,auffass4 d4 ,weis5 d4 ,talmuds1 c4 7#ahhd72 ,a4 ,palm1 ,qoh4 u4 d4 na*-ari/otel4 ,philosophie 7#ahhe7 & ,die ,qoh4-,lit4 7#ahhf72 ,e4 ,pfleid]]1 ,die ,phil4 d4 ,h]aklit1 c4 7#ahhf72 ,*eyne1 ,job & ,solomon 7#ahhg7 & ,jew4 ,relig4 ,life1 c4 7#ahih72 ,w4 ,eur+]1 ,d] ,masorahtext d4 ,koh4 7#ahij72 ,w4,t4 ,davison1 ,wisdom-,lit4 ( ,old ,te/4 7#ahid72 ,h4 ,w9ckl]1 9 8 ,altori5t4 ,=s*ung5 7#ahih72 ,j4,f4 ,g5ung1 ,words ( ,koh4 7,bo/on1 ,mass41 #aijd72 ,p4 ,haupt1 ,ecclesia/es 7,baltimore1 #aije74 ,! rabb9ical discussions ( ! book are m5tion$ 9 ,%abba?1 #cj;b2 ,megilla1 #g;a2 ,eduyo?1 v4 #c2 ,mi%na ,yadaim1 iii4 #e1 iv4 #f2 ,midra% ,kohele? 7on xi4 #i71 ,abo? d' ,rab4 ,na?an1 i4 7,c4 ,h4 ,t4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,! ,hebrew has ! def9ite article1 ! :ole1 ,greek3 to pan4 #b ,9 fact1 he sugge/s1 a curse1 z 9 ,g54 iii4 #ag-ai1 ?\gh ) a wid] sweep ?an t passage has 9 m9d4 #c ,! text has folly1 b ! p>allelism & v4 #g po9t to social1 n intellectual1 conditions1 & a slight *ange 7,hebrew3 haskel = ,hebrew3 misk57 gives ! s5se poor4 #d ,! ,septuag9t has less well3 ,!y 7! wick$7 are prais$ 9 ! city4 #e ,! clause is obscure2 lit]ally he 7or1 "o7 rises at 787 ! voice ( ! bird1 usually und]/ood to ref] to ! old man's inability to sleep 9 ! morn+2 b ?is is n a univ]sal trait ( old age1 & besides1 a ref]5ce to affairs 9 ! h\se is to be expect$2 ! ,hebrew con/ruction also is ( d\btful correctness4 ,a *ange ( ! ,hebrew text seems necess>y2 possibly we %\ld read ,hebrew3 i%pal kol1 l[ is ! voice1 in/ead ( ,hebrew3 yakum lekol he rises up at ! voice4 #f ,! second is p]haps to be read3 ! cap]-b]ry blooms 7:ite hair72 usually ! cap]-b]ry loses its appetiz+ p[]2 ,eng4 ,au?4 ,v]s4 desire %all fail4 ,= ! mean+ ( ! ^w abyona 7cap]-b]ry1 n desire or pov]ty71 see art4 by ,g4,f4 ,moore 9 ,j\rn4 ( ,bibl4 ,lit4 x4 #a 7,bo/on1 ,mass41 #ahia74 #g ,?is is ! ,talmudic und]/&+ ( ! ,hebrew expression 7,j]us4 ,sanh$4 #aj1 #bh;a1 cf4 ,sanh$4 #ab;a2 see ,ecclus4 xxxix4 #b74 ,!re is no good au?ority = ! r5d]+s collectors ( maxims1 collections ( maxims4 #h ,x is n c]ta9 t ! codex =m 0 9 use 9 ,pale/9e or 9 ,egypt z e>ly z ! #bnd or ! #a/ c5tury ,b4,c4 ,,ecclesia/ical ,,commission]s1 9 ,engl&1 a body corporate1 ^: full title is ,ecclesia/ical & ,*ur* ,e/ates ,commission]s = ,engl&1 inve/$ ) v important p[]s1 "u ! op]ation ( :i* ext5sive *anges h be5 made 9 ! di/ribution ( ! rev5ues ( ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*4 ,_! appo9tm5t 0 "o ( ! results ( ! vigor\s movem5ts = ! re=m ( public in/itutions :i* foll[$ ! ,re=m ,act ( #ahcb4 ,9 #ahce two commissions 7 appo9t$ to consid] ! /ate ( ! sev]al dioceses ( ,engl& & ,wales1 ) ref]5ce to ! am\nt ( _! rev5ues & ! m equal di/ribution ( episcopal duties1 & ! prev5tion ( ! necessity ( atta*+ by comm5dam to bi%oprics c]ta9 b5efices ) cure ( s\ls2 & to consid] also ! /ate ( ! sev]al ca!dral & collegiate *ur*es 9 ,engl& & ,wales1 ) a view to ! sugge/ion ( su* measures z might r5d] !m conducive to ! effici5cy ( ! e/abli%$ *ur*1 & to provide = ! be/ mode ( provid+ = ! cure ( s\ls1 ) special ref]5ce to ! resid5ce ( ! cl]gy on _! respective b5efices4 ,& x 0 enact$ by an act ( #ahce t dur+ ! exi/5ce ( ! commission ! pr(its ( dignities & b5efices )\t cure ( s\ls becom+ vacant %\ld be paid ov] to ! treasur] ( ,que5 ,anne's ,b\nty4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! recomm5dation ( ^! commission]s1 a p]man5t commission 0 appo9t$ by ! ,ecclesia/ical ,commission]s ,act #ahcf = ! purpose ( prep>+ & lay+ be=e ! k+ 9 c\ncil su* s*emes z %\ld appe> to !m to be be/ adapt$ = c>ry+ into effect ! alt]ations sugge/$ 9 ! report ( ! orig9al commission & recit$ 9 ! act4 ,! new commission 0 con/itut$ a corporation ) p[] to pur*ase & hold l&s = ! purposes ( ! act1 not)/&+ ! /atutes ( mortma94 ,! fir/ memb]s ( ! commission 7 ! two ar*bi%ops & ?ree bi%ops1 ! "l *ancellor & ! pr9cipal (fic]s ( /ate1 & ?ree laym5 nam$ 9 ! act4 ,! con/itution ( ! commission 0 am5d$ by ! ,ecclesia/ical ,commission]s ,act #ahdj & subsequ5t acts1 & n[ consi/s ( ! two ar*bi%ops1 all ! bi%ops1 ! deans ( ,cant]bury1 ,/ ,paul's & ,we/m9/]1 ! "l *ancellor1 ! "l presid5t ( ! c\ncil1 ! fir/ "l ( ! treasury1 ! *ancellor ( ! ex*equ]1 ! home secret>y1 ! "l *ief ju/ice1 ! ma/] ( ! rolls1 two judges ( ! admiralty division1 & c]ta9 laym5 appo9t$ by ! cr[n & by ! ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury4 ,! lay commission]s are requir$ to be memb]s ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 & to subscribe a decl>ation to t effect4 ,! cr[n also appo9ts two laym5 z *ur* e/ates commission]s1 & ! ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury "o4 ,^! ?ree are ! jo9t treasur]s ( ! commission1 & con/itute1 along ) two memb]s appo9t$ by ! commission1 ! *ur* e/ates committee1 *>g$ ) all bus9ess relat+ to ! sale1 pur*ase1 ex*ange1 lett+ or managem5t ( any l&s1 ti!s or h]$itam5ts4 ,! commission has p[] to make inquiries & exam9e witnesses on oa?4 ,five commission]s are a quorum = ! transaction ( bus9ess1 provid$ two ( !m are *ur* e/ates commission]s2 two ecclesia/ical commission]s at lea/ mu/ be pres5t at any proce$+ "u ! common seal1 & if only two are pres5t !y c dem& its po/ponem5t to a subsequ5t meet+4 ,! s*emes ( ! commission hav+1 aft] due notice to p]sons affect$ !reby1 be5 laid be=e ! k+ 9 c\ncil1 may be ratifi$ by ord]s1 specify+ ! times :5 !y %all take effect1 & su* ord]s :5 publi%$ 9 ! ,london ,gazette h ! same =ce & effect z acts ( p>liam5t4 ,! recomm5dations ( ! commission recit$ 9 ! act ( #ahcf are too num]\s to be giv5 "h4 ,!y include an ext5sive re>rangem5t ( ! dioceses1 equalization ( episcopal income1 provid+ resid5ces1 c4 ,by ! act ( #ahdj ! f\r? report ( ! orig9al commission]s1 deal+ *iefly ) ca!dral & collegiate *ur*es1 0 c>ri$ into effect1 a l>ge numb] ( canonries be+ susp5d$1 & s9ecure b5efices & dignities suppress$4 ,! emolum5ts ( ^! suppress$ or susp5d$ (fices1 & ! surplus income ( ! episcopal sees1 con/itute ! fund at ! disposal ( ! commission]s4 ,by an act ( #ahfj1 on ! avoidance ( any bi%opric or ar*bi%opric1 all ! l& & emolum5ts ( ! see1 except ! patronage & l&s atta*$ to h\ses ( resid5ce1 become1 by ord] 9 c\ncil1 ve/$ 9 ! commission]s1 :o may1 h[ev]1 reassign to ! see s mu* ( ! l& z may be suffici5t to secure ! net annual income nam$ = x by /atute or ord]4 ,all ! pr(its & emolum5ts ( ! susp5d$ canonries1 c41 pass ov] to ! commission]s1 z well z ! sep>ate e/ates ( ^? dean]ies & canonries :i* are n susp5d$4 ,out ( ?is fund ! exp5ses ( ! commission are to be paid1 & ! residue is to be devot$ to increas+ ! effici5cy ( ! *ur* by ! augm5tation ( ! small] bi%oprics & ( poor liv+s1 ! end[m5t ( new *ur*es1 & employm5t ( additional m9i/]s4 ,! sub/itution ( "o c5tral corporation = ! _m local & indep5d5t corporations ( ! *ur*1 s f> at lea/ z ! managem5t ( prop]ty is conc]n$1 0 a con/itutional *ange ( great importance1 & ! effect ( x und\bt$ly 0 to correct ! anomal\s di/ribution ( ecclesia/ical rev5ues by equaliz+ incomes & aboli%+ s9ecures4 ,at ! same "t x 0 reg>d$ z hav+ made a s]i\s brea* 9 ! legal !ory ( ecclesia/ical prop]ty4 ,! important pr9ciple1 says ,cripps1 on :i* ! inviolability ( ! *ur* e/abli%m5t dep5ds1 t ! *ur* g5]ally possesses no prop]ty z a corporation1 or :i* is applicable to g5]al purposes1 b t su* p>ticul> ecclesia/ical corporation1 :e!r aggregate or sole1 has its prop]ty sep>ate1 di/9ct & inali5able1 accord+ to ! int5tion ( ! orig9al end[m5t1 0 giv5 up )\t an ef=t to def5d x 7,law ,relat+ to ! ,*ur* & ,cl]gy1 p4 #df74 ,,ecclesia/ical ,,jurisdiction4 ,?is phrase 9 its prim>y s5se imports n jurisdiction ov] ecclesia/ics1 b jurisdiction ex]cis$ by ecclesia/ics ov] o!r ecclesia/ics & ov] ! laity4 ,jurisdiction is a ^w borr[$ f ! juri/s :i* has acquir$ a wide ext5sion 9 !ology1 :]e91 = example1 x is frequ5tly us$ 9 contradi/9ction to ord]1 to express ! "r to adm9i/] sacram5ts z some?+ sup]add$ to ! p[] to celebrate !m4 ,s x is us$ to express ! t]ritorial or o!r limits ( ecclesia/ical1 executive or legislative au?ority4 ,"h x is us$1 9 ! limit$ s5se def9$ by an ,am]ican ,c\rt1 z ! au?ority by :i* judicial (fic]s take cognizance ( & decide causes4 ,orig9 ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction4 ,su* au?ority 9 ! m9ds ( lay ,roman lawy]s :o fir/ us$ ?is ^w jurisdiction 0 ess5tially temporal 9 its orig9 & 9 its sph]e4 ,! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* transf]r$ ! notion to ! spiritual doma9 z "p ( ! g5]al idea ( a ,k+dom ( ,god correlative1 on ! spiritual side ( man ^u e>?1 to ! p[]s1 also orda9$ ( ,god1 :o _h dom9ion ov] 8 temporal e/ate 7see ,,canon ,,law74 ,z ! ,*ur* 9 ! e>lie/ ages _h executive & legislative p[] 9 its own spiritual sph]e1 s also x _h judicial (fic]s1 tak+ cognizance ( & decid+ causes4 ,only be=e its union ) ! ,/ate1 its p[] 9 ?is direction1 z 9 o!rs1 0 m]ely ov] ! spirits ( m54 ,co]cive temporal au?ority ov] _! bodies or e/ates c\ld only be giv5 by concession f ! temporal pr9ce4 ,moreov]1 ev5 spiritual au?ority ov] memb]s ( ! ,*ur*1 i4e4 baptiz$ p]sons1 c\ld n be exclusively claim$ z ( "r by ! ,*ur* tribunals1 if ! subject matt] ( ! cause 7 purely temporal4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is cle> t all ! fai?ful 7 subject to ^! c\rts 7:5 act+ )9 _! own sph]e71 & t1 9 ! e>lie/ times1 no di/9ction 0 made 9 ?is respect betwe5 cl]gy & laity4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction ) its sanction ( excommunication w be f\nd 9 ,*ri/'s words 9 ,matt4 xviii4 #ae-ah4 ,a v e>ly example ( crim9al spiritual jurisdiction ex]cis$ by ,/ ,paul is f\nd 9 ! case ( ! ince/u\s ,cor9?ian 7#a ,cor4 v474 ,we f9d lat] ! same apo/le ex]cis+ l jurisdiction 9 ! cause ( ,hym5aeus & ,alex&] 7#a ,tim4 i4 #bj74 ,aft] ! "t ( ! ,apo/les1 we f9d ?is crim9al jurisdiction ex]cis$ by ! bi%ops individually ov] _! respective subjects--d\btless ) ! advice ( _! presbyt]s accord+ to ! precept ( ,/ ,ignatius 7c4 #aaj74 ,z neighb\r+ dioceses coalesc$ into prov9ces & prov9ces into l>g] di/ricts 7correspond+ to ! civil dioceses ( ! lat] ,roman ,empire71 ! prov9cial synods ( bi%ops & ! synods ( ! l>g] di/ricts acquir$ a crim9al jurisdiction1 /ill purely spiritual1 ( _! own4 ,at fir/ ?is 0 orig9al & ma9ly 7al?\gh n exclusively7 ov] bi%ops 7( ! prov9ce or l>g] di/rict74 ,! beg9n+s ( an appellate jurisdiction 9 ! cases ( cl]ics & laym5 may be trac$ be=e ! conv]sion ( ! ,empire4 ,! bi%op ov] :om ! synod ( neighb\r+ bi%ops _h ex]cis$ jurisdiction _h no =mal "r ( appeal2 b sometimes bi%ops 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,*ur* w\ld refuse to ackn[l$ge ! local synodical s5t5ce & w\ld communicate ) a bi%op :om !y deem$ unju/ly depos$4 ,! !ory1 z express$ 9 legal phrase by ,/ ,cyprian 9 ! #crd c5tury1 0 t ! apo/olic p[] ( delegat$ sov]eignty f ! ,"l1 alike legislative & judicial1 0 held 9 jo9t-t5ancy by ! :ole body ( ,ca?olic bi%ops4 ,9 bo? capacities1 h[ev]1 a c]ta9 undef9$ pre-em95ce 0 conc$$ to ! occupants ( ,apo/olic sees1 i4e4 sees traditionally f\nd$ by ,apo/les1 or ( sees ) a special secul> position4 ,ev5 be=e ! edict ( ,milan1 at lea/ z e>ly z ! latt] half ( ! #crd c5tury1 ! spiritual s5t5ces ( deposition f (fice _h sometimes indirect temporal consequ5ces recogniz$ by ! secul> c\rts4 ,! classical example is ! case ( ,paul ( ,samosata1 bi%op ( ,antio*4 ,x w\ld seem t1 9 ! int]vals ( p]secution1 "s rights ( prop]ty 7 recogniz$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* & its (fic]s2 al?\gh ! ,*ur* 0 an illegal society4 ,aft] "s previ\s abortive trials1 ,paul ( ,samosata 0 depos$ & excommunicat$1 9 #bfi1 by a great synod ( ! ,antio*5e di/rict4 ,paul1 not)/&+ 8 deposition1 kept possession ( ! episcopal resid5ce4 ,! local *ur* s\ght recov]y ( x be=e ! tribunals ( ! ,empire4 ,! judicial au?orities reque/$ a rescript f ! emp]or ,aurelian = ! decision ( ! cause4 ,aurelian ref]r$ ! matt] to ! bi%op ( ,rome & ! bi%ops ( ,italy1 :o gave _! aw>d 9 fav\r ( ! ,antio*5e ,*ur*4 ,temporal ,jurisdiction ( ! ,*ur*4 ,side by side ) ?is :i* we may call crim9al jurisdiction--none ! less real or co]cive because its sanctions 7 purely spiritual--!re grew up a quasi-jurisdiction 9 causes entirely temporal1 bas$ ^u ! free cons5t ( ! p>ties to accept ! arbitration ( ! bi%op4 ,?is sy/em _h also its roots 9 ! ,new ,te/am5t 7see ,matt1 xviii4 #ae-ag & #a ,cor4 vi4 #a-h74 ,9 ! matt] ( crim9al jurisdiction we paus$ = a mom5t at ! edict ( ,milan2 b we may at once trace ?is second or civil bran* ( episcopal judicature or quasi-judicature d[n z f> z ! reign ( ,*>lemagne1 :5 x und]w5t a fundam5tal *ange1 & became1 if ei!r litigant once *ose1 no long] a matt] ( cons5t b ( "r4 ,con/ant9e decre$ t judgm5t 9 causes might be pass$ by bi%ops :5 litigants pref]r$ _! adjudication to t ( ! secul> c\rts 7see 8 epi/le to ! ,numidian bi%ops & ,cod4 ,!odos4 ,tit4 de ,episcopis74 ,! episcopal judgm5t 0 to be equival5t to t ( ! emp]or & irrev]sible1 & ! civil au?orities 7 to see to its execution4 ,sa9ts ,ambrose & ,augu/9e bo? sp5t days 9 decid+ temporal causes4 ,honorius1 9 ! ,we/1 at ! end ( ! #d? c5tury1 made a con/itution provid+ t if any desir$ to litigate be=e ! bi%ops !y %\ld n be =bidd51 b t 9 civil matt]s ! prelates %\ld r5d] judgm5t 9 ! mann] ( arbitrators by cons5t 7,cod4 #a1 ,tit4 iv474 ,:]e ! fai?ful _h _h rec\rse to ! bi%op1 no appeal 0 to be all[$1 & ! judges 7 to comm& execution ( ! episcopal decree4 ,a qu>t] ( a c5tury lat]1 h[ev]1 ,val5t9ian ,,iii4 9 ! ,we/ expressly provid$ t bi%ops 7 n to be p]mitt$ to be judges 7t is1 ( c\rse1 9 temporal causes71 save by ! cons5t ( ! p>ties4 ,?is legislation 01 sub/antially1 adopt$ by ,ju/9ian4 ,on ! revival ( ! ,we/]n ,empire1 h[ev]1 ,*>lemagne1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #i? c5tury1 "u ! mi/ak5 belief t he 0 foll[+ ! au?ority ( ,con/ant9e ,i4 & ,!odosius ,i41 took a great /ep =w>d1 by :i* ! bi%op ceas$ to be a m]e legally indicat$ arbitrator by cons5t 9 secul> causes1 & became a real judge4 ,by a capitul>y he provid$ t ei!r litigant1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! o!r p>ty1 & n only at ! beg9n+ ( a suit b at any "t dur+ its cont9uance1 might take ! cause f lay cognizance & transf] x to ! bi%op's tribunal4 ,he re-enact$ ! prohibition ( appeal4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t1 f ! latt] "p ( ! #crd c5tury1 ! lead+ bi%ops _h g5]ally be5 tra9$ 9 secul> le>n+4 ,/ ,cyprian1 ,/ ,ambrose & ,/ ,augu/9e1 ,/ ,paul9us ( ,nola & ,/ ,john ,*ryso/om _h practis$ law z tea*]s or advocates4 ,/ ,ambrose & ,/ ,paul9us _h ev5 held high adm9i/rative & judicial (fices4 ,roman empire f ,con/ant9e4 ,to return to ! evolution ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction f ! "t ( ,con/ant9e4 ,) ! ,nic5e p]iod came a great developm5t on ! crim9al side4 ,a sy/em beg9s to be =m$1 & ! secul> arm supports ! decrees ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! fir/ trace ( sy/em is 9 ! limit$ "r ( appeal giv5 by ! fir/ oecum5ical c\ncil ( ,nicaea & its provision t episcopal s5t5ces or ^? ( prov9cial synods on appeal 7 to be recogniz$ ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,! fif? canon provides t ^?1 :e!r cl]ics or laym51 :o are cut (f f communion 9 any p>ticul> prov9ce are n to be admitt$ !reto else:]e4 ,/ill exam9ation mu/ be _h :e!r p]sons h be5 expell$ f ! congregation by any episcopal small-m9d$ness 7,greek3 mikropsy*ia71 or cont5ti\s _s1 or su*-l h>%ness 7,greek3 a$ia74 ,t ?is may be conv5i5tly inquir$ into1 synods are to be held1 ?ree 9 e ye>1 9 ea* prov9ce1 & que/ions ( ?is k9d exam9$4 ,!re is to be no /ay ( execution2 ! episcopal s5t5ce is to prevail until ! prov9cial synod o!rwise decide4 ,x w be notic$ t z yet no provision is made = appeals by bi%ops f prov9cial synods sitt+ 9 fir/ in/ance4 ,! edicts ( ,milan _h only admitt$ ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* among ! numb] ( lawful religions2 b ! t5d5cy 7except 9 ! "t ( ,julian7 0 t[>ds mak+ x ! only lawful religion4 ,h5ce ! practice1 imm$iately aft] ,nicaea ,i41 ( sup]add+ bani%m5t by ! emp]or to synodical condemnation4 ,! dogmatic decrees ( ,nicaea ,i4 7 at once en=c$ 9 ?is temporal mann]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,arian reaction at c\rt work$ its objects 7see ,pusey1 ,c\ncils ( ! ,*ur*7 by us+ ! crim9al spiritual jurisdiction ( synods aga9/ ! ,ca?olics--(t5 pack+ ! synods = ! purpose4 ,! acts ( c\ncils ( ?is age are full ( ! trials ( bi%ops n only = h]esy b = immorality & common law crimes4 ,! accusations are frequ5tly unf\nd$2 b ! trials are already conduct$ 9 a c]ta9 regul> =5sic =m4 ,! secul> au?orities foll[ ! prec$5t ( ,nicaea ,i4 & int]v5e to supplem5t ! spiritual s5t5ce by adm9i/rative p5alties4 ,sometimes an imp]ial (fic] ( high rank 7z1 e4g4 a c\nt7 is pres5t at ! synod1 z an assessor to ma9ta9 ord] & advise ^u po9ts ( proc$ure4 ,lead+ examples may be f\nd 9 ! v>i\s prosecutions ( ,/ ,a?anasius1 9 ^: case also !re is ! g]m ( an appeal1 tanquam ab abusu4 ,x has be5 cont5d$ t1 accord+ to lat] & m =mulat$ jurisprud5ce1 su* an appeal w\ld h la91 s9ce ! trial at ,tyre 0 n conc]n$ ) purely spiritual matt]s 7see ! case 9 ,hefele1 ,c\ncils1 9 loc474 ,! trial ( ,/ ,a?anasius l$ to ext5sions ( ! "r ( appeal4 ,?is 0 fav\r$ by ! developm5t ( ! great] sees into positions ( great adm9i/rative dignity1 %ortly to be call$ patri>*al4 ,a synod 0 held at ,rome1 att5d$ by bi%ops f v>i\s regions1 :i* rev]s$ ! orig9al judgm5t ( ! synod ( ,tyre :i* _h condemn$ ,a?anasius4 ,a mu* l>g] synod at ,antio*1 ga!r$ only f ! ,ea/1 on ! o!r h&1 confirm$ t judgm5t4 ,?is la/ synod did some?+ to sy/ematize ! crim9al proc$ure ( ! ,*ur*1 & its legislation has be5 always receiv$4 ,?is legislation m>ks ano!r /ep =w>d4 ,deposition ( a bi%op by a synod1 or ( a prie/ or deacon by 8 bi%op1 is to take effect ev5 p5d+ an appeal1 & a cl]ic cont9u+ 8 functions aft] s5t5ce 9 fir/ in/ance is to lose all "r ( appeal4 ,! appeal giv5 by ,nicaea ,i4 to cl]ics & laym5 f episcopal excommunications is ext5d$4 ,! synod may re/ore !m if conv9c$ ( ! ju/ice ( _! cause 7& n m]ely 9 cases ( ,greek3 a$ia74 ,a bi%op may appeal to a great assembly ( bi%ops4 ,any bi%op1 prie/ or deacon importun+ ! emp]or1 in/ead ( ex]t+ 8 "r ( appeal to synods1 is to lose all "r ( appeal & nev] to be re/or$ or p>don$4 ,if a prov9cial synod be divid$ z to ! guilt ( a bi%op1 ! metropolitan is to conv5e bi%ops f ! neighb\r+ prov9ces to decide ! cause jo9tly ) ! bi%ops ( ! orig9al prov9ce4 ,a few ye>s lat]1 9 #cdg1 ! c\ncil ( ,s>dica1 a c\ncil ( practically ! :ole ,we/ save ,africa1 rev]s$ ,tyre & acquitt$ ,/ ,a?anasius aft] a full judicial inquiry4 ,?is c\ncil endeav\r$ to set up a sy/em ( appeals 9 ! case ( bi%ops1 9 :i* ! see ( ,rome 0 made to play a great "p4 ,out ( hon\r to ! memory ( ,/ ,pet]1 a condemn$ bi%op may ask ! int]v5tion ( ,rome4 ,if ?is be done1 ! synod ( fir/ in/ance is to s5d lett]s to ,julius1 bi%op ( ,rome4 ,if t prelate ?9k ! cause %\ld be he>d aga91 he is to appo9t judges2 if o!rwise1 ! orig9al judgm5t is to be confirm$4 ,p5d+ appeal1 ! appellant's see is n to be fill$ up4 ,! judges appo9t$ by ! bi%op ( ,rome to he> ! appeal are to be f ! neighb\r+ prov9ces4 ,! appellant may1 h[ev]1 reque/ t bi%op to s5d prie/s f 8 side to sit ) ! synod ( appeal4 ,if su* prie/s are s5t1 !y are to preside 9 ! c\rt ( appeal4 ,^! canons 7 always repudiat$ 9 ! ,ea/1 & :51 sixty ye>s aft]w>ds1 !y 71 = ! fir/ "t1 he>d ( 9 ,africa1 !y 7 repudiat$ !re also4 ,a rescript ( ,gratian 9 #cgh emp[]$ ! bi%op ( ,rome to judge bi%ops ) ! assi/ance ( six or sev5 o!r bi%ops or1 9 ! case ( a metropolitan1 ( fifte5 comprov9cial bi%ops4 ,a bi%op refus+ to come to ,rome 0 to be br\ght !re by ! civil p[]4 ,! rescript1 h[ev]1 0 n incorporat$ 9 ! ,codes & p]haps 0 only a tempor>y measure4 ,! t5d5cy to give pre-em95ce to ,rome appe>s aga9 9 an imp]ial lett] to ,/ ,flavian1 :o1 9 ! judgm5t ( ! ,ea/1 0 bi%op ( ,antio*1 b :o 0 reject$ by ! ,we/ & ,egypt1 summon+ him to ,rome to be !re judg$ by ! bi%ops ( ! imp]ial city--a summons :i* ,/ ,flavian did n obey 7,tillemont1 ,mem4 ,ecc474 ,9 ,africa 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #e? c5tury ,api>ius1 a prie/ :o _h be5 depos$ by ! bi%op ( ,sicca = immorality1 & ^: deposition _h be5 affirm$ by ! prov9cial synod1 in/ead ( fur!r appeal+ to a g5]al synod ( ,africa1 c>ri$ 8 appeal to ,pope ,zosimus4 ,! pope receiv$ ! appeal1 absolv$ him & re/or$ him to ! rank ( prie/1 & s5t a bi%op & two prie/s z legates to ,africa ) in/ructions to !m to he> ! cause ( ,api>ius anew & = execution ( _! s5t5ce to crave ! prefect's aid2 moreov]1 !y 7 to summon ! bi%op ( ,sicca to ,rome & to excommunicate him1 unless he %\ld am5d ^? ?+s :i* ! legates deem$ wrong4 ,! up%ot ( a long conflict 0 t ! papal claim to ent]ta9 appeals f ,africa by prie/s & deacons 0 reject$ by ! ,african bi%ops1 :o 9 _! f9al synodical epi/le also repudiate 9 t]ms any "r ( appeal by ,african bi%ops to p>ts beyond ! seas 7see ,hefele1 ,c\ncils1 bk4 viii474 ,! /ory ( ! adm9i/rative developm5t ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! #e? c5tury is ma9ly ! /ory ( ! f9al em]g5ce & con/itution ( ! great patri>*ates1 z au?orities sup]ior to metropolitans & prov9cial synods4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! occupants ( ! ?rones ( ,con/ant9ople & ,alex&ria fall+ successively into opposite h]esies1 ! "q arose h[ patri>*s 7 to be judg$4 ,9 bo? cases1 z x seems1 an attempt 0 made by ! bi%op ( ,rome to depose ! err+ patri>* by 8 au?ority z primate ( ,*ri/5dom1 act+ 9 conc]t ) a ,we/]n synod4 ,9 bo? cases1 app>5tly1 an oecum5ical synod ignor$ ! ,roman deposition & judg$ ! alleg$ (f5ces ( ! respective patri>*s 9 fir/ & la/ in/ance4 ,! ?ird & f\r? oecum5ical synods 7,ephesus1 #dca2 ,*alc$on1 #dea7 7 prim>ily tribunals = ! trials ( ,ne/orius & ,dioscorus2 x 0 second>ily t !y became organs ( ! univ]sal episcopate = ! def9ition ( ! fai?1 or legislative assemblies = ! enactm5t ( canons4 ,no?+ is m rem>kable ?an _! m9ute c>e z to obs]vance ( rules ( proc$ure4 ,9 bo? cases1 imp]ial assessors 7 appo9t$4 ,at ,ephesus ! ,c\nt ,c&idian 0 commission$ to ma9ta9 ord]1 b took little "p 9 ! proce$+s4 ,at ,*alc$on1 on ! o!r h&1 ! imp]ial commission]s decid$ po9ts ( ord]1 kept ! synod to ! "q1 took ! votes & adj\rn$ ! c\rt4 ,b ! synod alone judg$ & pron\nc$ s5t5ce4 ,no oecum5ical synod has tri$ a patri>* ( ,old ,rome :ile yet 9 ! fle%4 ,! fif? oecum5ical c\ncil came ne>e/ to s do+1 9 ! case ( ,vigilius4 ,t pope1 al?\gh 9 ,con/ant9ople1 refus$ to att5d ! sitt+s ( ! c\ncil4 ,he 0 cit$ ?ree times1 9 ! canonical mann]1 & ^u n appe>+ 0 ?reat5$ 9 ! ?ird session ) ana!ma 7,hefele1 ,c\ncils1 sect4 #bfh ad f9474 ,he 0 n1 h[ev]1 *>g$ ) direct h]esy1 z 7 ,ne/orius & ,dioscorus1 & ! synod seems to h hesitat$ to deal /r+5tly ) ! primate ( ,*ri/5dom4 ,9 ! sev5? session x accept$ ! sugge/ion ( ,ju/9ian1 m]ely to ord] ! "n ( ,vigilius to be remov$ f ! liturgical pray]s1 at ! same "t express+ its desire to ma9ta9 unity ) ! see ( ,old ,rome 7,hefele1 sect4 #bgc74 ,aft] ! c\ncil1 ,ju/9ian bani%$ ! pope to ,egypt1 & aft]w>ds to an isl&1 until he accept$ ! c\ncil1 :i* he ultimately did 7ib4 #bgf74 ,! six? oecum5ical synod decre$ t ! dead pope ,honorius %\ld be ca/ out f ! holy ,ca?olic ,*ur* ( ,god & ana!matiz$1 a s5t5ce approv$ by ! reign+ pope ,leo ,,ii4 & affirm$ by ! sev5? oecum5ical synod 9 #ghg4 ,! con/itution ( ! patri>*al sy/em result$ 9 ! recognition ( a c]ta9 "r ( appeal to ,rome f ! l>g] "p ( ! ,we/4 ,brita9 rema9$ outside t jurisdiction1 ! ,celtic *ur*es ( ! ,briti% isl&s1 aft] ^? isl&s 7 ab&on$ by ! ,empire1 pursu+ a c\rse ( _! own4 ,9 ! ,ea/1 ,con/ant9ople1 f its pr9cipality1 acquir$ special adm9i/rative pre-em95ce1 naturally foll[$1 z 9 ! case ( old ,rome1 by judicial pre-em95ce4 ,an example ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! n9? canon ( ,*alc$on1 :i* also illu/rates ! en=cem5t ^u a cl]ical pla9tiff 9 dispute ) a bro!r cl]ic ( t rec\rse to ! arbitration ( _! ecclesia/ical sup]ior already m5tion$4 ,! canon provides t any cl]k hav+ a compla9t aga9/ ano!r cl]k mu/ n pass by 8 own bi%op & turn to secul> tribunals1 b fir/ lay b>e 8 cause be=e him1 s t by ! s5t5ce ( ! bi%op himself ! dispute may be settl$ by arbitrators acceptable to bo? p>ties4 ,any "o act+ aga9/ ^! provisions %all be subject to canonical p5alties4 ,if any cl]k h a compla9t aga9/ 8 own bi%op1 he %all h 8 cause adjudicat$ ^u by ! synod ( ! prov9ce4 ,b if a bi%op or cl]k h a diff]5ce ) ! metropolitan ( 8 prov9ce let him br+ x be=e ! ex>* ( ! diocese 7i4e4 ! l>g] di/rict answ]+ to ! civil diocese71 or be=e ! royal see ( ,con/ant9ople1 :o %all d ju/ice ^u x4 ,an ex>* means prop]ly a sup]ior metropolitan hav+ sev]al prov9ces "u him4 ,9 ! next c5tury ,ju/9ian 7,nov4 #abc1 c4 #bb7 put ! o!r patri>*ates on ! same foot+ z ,con/ant9ople4 ,9 c4 #ba he gives ei!r pla9tiff or def5dant an appeal )9 t5 days to ! secul> judge ( ! locality f ! bi%op's judgm5t4 ,if !re be no appeal1 t judge is to give execution to ! episcopal aw>d4 ,! gr[? ( a special orig9al jurisdiction at ,con/ant9ople1 :i* p]haps develop$ e>li] ?an ! correspond+ in/itution at ,rome1 may be trac$ to ! fact t bi%ops f all p>ts 7 con/antly 9 ,con/ant9ople4 ,! bi%op ( ,con/ant9ople1 ev5 be=e he became prop]ly patri>*1 w\ld (t5 assemble a synod f ^! visit+ bi%ops1 :i* acquir$ ! te*nical "n ( ,greek3 synodos endem\sa1 ! synod ( soj\rn]s4 ,?is synod frequ5tly decid$ que/ions belong+ to o!r patri>*ates4 ,! crim9al jurisdiction ?us ex]cis$ 0 g5]ally speak+ unlimit$4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! =um ext]num ( ! ecclesia/ical jurisdiction1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we n[ use ! phrase1 ( a judge decid+ causes1 0 n !n cle>ly m>k$ (f f ! =um int]num1 or :at aft]w>ds came to be call$ ! tribunal ( p5ance 7see ,van ,esp51 ,jus ecc4 univ4 p>s iii4 tit4 iv4 c4 #a74 ,ecclesia/ical proce$+s by way ( prosecution are call$ crim9al1 b !y are prim>ily pro salute animae2 :]eas temporal crim9al proce$+s are prim>ily = ! protection ( ! /ate & its citiz5s4 ,h5ce a ,*ri/ian might be fir/ puni%$ 9 ! civil c\rts & !n put to public p5ance by ! ecclesia/ical jurisdiction1 or vice v]sa3 an app>5tly d\ble sy/em ( puni%m5t :i* ! m$ieval ,*ur*1 :5 ! =um ext]num _h become q sep>at$ f ! =um int]num1 sometimes repudiat$ 7see ,maitl&1 ,engli% ,canon ,law1 #ach1 #aci1 #add74 ,!odosius began ! sy/em ( giv+ secul> au?ority to ,*ur* tribunals4 ,?us1 9 #cgf1 ,l4 #bc ,cod4 ,!odos4 de4 ,episcopis1 c41 subject$ cl]ics = small (f5ces p]ta9+ to ! obs]vances ( religion to bi%ops & synods4 ,9 #cii1 ,l4 #a ,cod4 de ,religione provides t1 :5 x is a matt] ( religion1 x beseems ! bi%op to judge4 ,a rescript ( ,con/antius1 9 #cee1 ins]t$ 9 ,cod4 ,!od4 lxii4 de ,epis4 ,ecc4 et ,cl]41 exclud$ bi%ops f accusations be=e secul> judges & comm&$ su* accusations to be spe$ily br\ght be=e ! tribunal ( o!r bi%ops4 ,?is law 0 probably only int5d$ to be ( a tempor>y "*4 ,!n comes ! law ( ,gratian already notic$4 ,!n1 9 #cii1 a law ( ,honorius 7,cod4 ,!od4 ,l4 #a de ,religione73 ,z (t5 z x conc]ns religion1 x is meet t ! bi%ops %\ld judge1 b o!r causes :i* belong to ord9>y jurisdiction or to public law are to be he>d 9 ! ord9>y c\rts 7legibus oportet audiri74 ,l4 #c de ,epis4 ,jud41 at ! end ( ! ,!odosian ,code1 seems spuri\s 7see ! comm5t ( ,go?(r$us 9 loco74 ,b a con/itution ( ,honorius 9 #dab 7,cod4 ,!od4 ,l4 xli4 de ,epis4 ,ecc4 et ,cl]47 provides t cl]ks are n to be accus$ except be=e ! bi%op4 ,bi%ops1 prie/s1 deacons1 & e o!r m9i/] ( ! ,*ri/ian law ( inf]ior degree1 are tak5 f secul> jurisdiction 9 crim9al cases4 ,! words are q g5]al2 b x has be5 cont5d$ t !y apply only to crimes ( an ecclesia/ical "* 7see ,go?(r$us 9 loc42 ,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 iii4 c4 #a1 #aj74 ,9 #dbe a con/itution ( ,!odosius ,,ii4 provides t a rec5t decree ( ! usurp] ,john %\ld be disreg>d$ & t cl]ks :om he _h br\ght be=e secul> judges %\ld be res]v$ = ! episcopal jurisdictions1 s9ce x is n lawful to subject ! m9i/]s ( ! div9e (fice to ! arbitram5t ( temporal p[]s4 ,ju/9ian has a cle>] p]ception ( ! dem>cation betwe5 ! sph]es ( spiritual & temporal law4 ,! #hcrd ,novell provides t if ! (f5ce be ecclesia/ical1 ne$+ ecclesia/ical correction1 ! bi%op %all take cognizance ( x4 ,! #abcrd ,novell 7c4 #ba7 provides t if a cl]k be accus$ ( a secul> crime he %all be accus$ be=e 8 bi%op1 :o may depose him f 8 (fice & ord]1 & !n ! compet5t judge may take him & deal ) him accord+ to ! laws4 ,if ! prosecutor h fir/ br\ght him be=e ! civil judge1 ! evid5ce is to be s5t to ! bi%op1 & ! latt]1 if he ?9ks ! crime has be5 committ$1 may deprive him ( 8 (fice & ord]1 & ! judge %all apply to him ! prop] legal puni%m5t4 ,b if ! bi%op ?9k ! evid5ce insuffici5t1 ! affair %all be ref]r$ to ! emp]or1 by way ( appeal bo? f bi%op & judge4 ,if ! cause be ecclesia/ical1 ! civil judges are to take no "p 9 ! inquiry4 ,! law includes ) cl]ics1 monks1 deaconesses1 nuns1 ascetics2 & ! ^w cl]ics cov]$ p]sons 9 m9or ord]s1 d[n to doorkeep]s4 ,x w be notic$ t ,ju/9ian supposes t ! prosecutor may beg9 ! proce$+s be=e ! civil judge4 ,a con/itution ( ,alexius ,comn5us ,i4 seems to s5d him to ! special =um ( ! accus$4 ,anglo-,saxon c\rts4 ,c]ta9 enactm5ts ( lat] ,saxon times 9 ,engl& h be5 sometimes spok5 ( z ?\gh !y unit$ toge!r ! temporal & spiritual jurisdictions into "o mix$ tribunal d]iv+ its au?ority f ! ,/ate4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! #aj? c5tury1 laws ( ,edg> provid$ t ! bi%op %\ld be at ! c\nty c\rt & also ! ald]man1 & t !re ea* ( !m %\ld put 9 use bo? ,god's laws & ! _w's law 7,johnson's ,engli% ,canons1 i4 #daa74 ,?is probably 01 z ,johnson sugge/s1 t ! bi%op might en=ce secul> laws by ecclesia/ical c5sure & ! ald]man ecclesia/ical laws ) secul> puni%m5t4 ,b ! two jurisdictions 7 kept sep>ate2 = by ano!r law ( ,edg> 7,leges ,edg4 c4 v47 x 0 provid$ t 9 ! mo/ augu/ assembly ! bi%op & ald]man %\ld be pres5t1 & ! "o %\ld int]pret to ! p ! law ( ,god1 ! o!r ! laws ( m54 ,edg>1 9 a spee* to ,/ ,dun/an & ! bi%ops 9 synod 79 #ifi71 said1 ,i hold 9 my h&s ! sword ( ,con/ant9e1 y t ( ,pet]4 ,let u jo9 "r h&s & unite sword to sword 7,h>d\91 ,conc4 tom4 vi4 p4 #a1 col4 #fge74 ,! juxtaposition ( ! judicatures may1 h[ev]1 h l$ to "s confusion betwe5 !m4 ,z to appeals ! mix$ c\ncil ( ,cliff at ,hoo 7#gdg7 said !y %\ld g to ! synod ( ! prov9ce4 ,! only appeal to ,rome 9 ,saxon times 0 t ( ,/ ,wilfrid1 bi%op ( ,york1 :o appeal$ f ! division ( 8 see & 8 deposition = refus+ to cons5t to x1 & 0 he>d 9 a ,roman synod "u ! presid5cy ( ,pope ,aga?o4 ,! synod f\nd him unlawfully depos$ & ord]$ 8 re/oration4 ,^u 8 return to ,engl&1 ! ,roman judgm5t 0 refus$ recognition & he 0 = a "t imprison$4 ,t5 ye>s lat] he 0 recall$ to ,york1 b refus+ to cons5t to ! division ( 8 see 0 aga9 depos$ & aga9 appeal$ to ,rome4 ,! appeal 0 he>d at great l5g?1 9 a synod ( #gjc "u ,john ,,vi41 deputies f ! ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury be+ pres5t4 ,/ ,wilfrid 0 ju/ifi$ & 0 s5t back to 8 see1 ) papal lett]s to ! k+s ( ,nor?umbria & ,m]cia4 ,! ,roman decree 0 aga9 disreg>d$4 ,at ! c\ncil ( ,nid he 0 reconcil$ to ! o!r bi%ops ( ! prov9ce1 b n re/or$4 ,9 ! end he 0 br\ght back to ,york1 b n to ! undivid$ see4 ,! details ( ! case w be f\nd 9 ,wilk9s1 ,concilia1 9 ,mansi1 ,concilia1 "u ! v>i\s c\ncils nam$1 & 9 ,haddan ,/ubbs1 ,c\ncils & ,eccl4 ,docum5ts1 vol4 iii4 ,p5alties inflict$ by ecclesia/ical c\rts4 ,! p5alties :i* ! spiritual c\rt c\ld inflict1 9 ! p]iod betwe5 ! edict ( ,milan & c4 #hed1 7 prop]ly excommunication :e!r g5]ally or z exclusion f ! sacram5ts = a t]m ( mon?s or ye>s or till ! day ( dea? & 79 ! case ( cl]ics7 susp5sion or deposition4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 d\btless by way ( commutation ( excommunication & ( p5ance1 temporal p5alties 7 add$1 z sc\rg+1 bani%m5t1 seclusion 9 a mona/]y1 f9es4 ,x is difficult to say h[ f> "s ( ^! temporal p5alties 7 p5it5tial only or h[ f> !y c\ld be inflict$ 9 invitos4 ,b ! secul> arm1 f ! "t ( ,nicaea ,i41 0 9 ! habit ( aid+ spiritual decrees1 z by bani%+ depos$ bi%ops1 & gradually by o!r ways1 ev5 ) laym54 ,sc\rg+ 7al?\gh x _h be5 a well-kn[n puni%m5t ( ! synagogue7 0 at fir/ =bidd54 ,c4 #bh 7#bf7 ( ! ,apo/olic ,canons imposes deposition on any bi%op1 prie/ or deacon /rik+ ! del9qu5t fai?ful4 ,9 ,africa1 h[ev]1 a contr>y practice e>ly sprang up 7see ,/ ,augu/9e1 ,epi/4 clix4 ad ,m>cellum al4 cxxxiii474 ,! small c\ncil ( ,vannes 9 ,brittany 9 #dfe made x an alt]native puni%m5t = cl]ks convict$ ( drunk5ness 7,c4 #ac74 ,canon #ac ( ! fir/ c\ncil ( ,orleans1 :i* has be5 cit$ 9 ?is matt]1 seems to h no application4 ,/ ,gregory ! ,great seems to assume t sc\rg+ & seclusion 9 a mona/]y are 9 ! discretion ( episcopal tribunals 7see ,epi/les1 lib4 ii4 ep4 #aa1 #dj1 #db1 #dd1 #de2 lib4 vii4 ep4 #aa1 #fg2 lib4 xii4 ep4 #ca1 c4 #d74 ,! #af? c\ncil ( ,tol$o 79 #fic7 has be5 cit$ z if x visit$ c]ta9 v great s9n]s ) sc\rg+ z an ecclesia/ical puni%m5t4 ,9 fact1 x only approves ! puni%m5t z ord]$ by ! ,visigo?ic laws4 ,an alleg$ decree ( a c\ncil ( ,autun 9 #fgj is "p ( a code ( discipl9e = mona/]ies 7see au?orities cit$ by ,hefele1 ,c\ncils1 sect4 #bij1 t[>ds ! end74 ,bani%m5t does n seem to h be5 inflict$ by ! spiritual c\rt 9 invitum4 ,seclusion 9 a mona/]y seems fir/ to h be5 us$ by ! civil p[] 9 aid ( ! spiritual4 ,! fif? canon ( ! c\ncil ( ,macon1 9 #ehd1 =bids cl]gy to dress l laym5 & imposes a p5alty ( ?irty days' imprisonm5t on bread & wat]2 b ?is may be m]ely p5it5tial4 ,!re is little evid5ce ( ! imposition ( f9es z ecclesia/ical p5alties2 b !re are ref]5ces to ! practice 9 ! epi/les ( ,/ ,gregory ! ,great1 notably 9 8 in/ructions to ,/ ,augu/9e4 ,gregory ,,iii4 copies f ,/ ,gregory ,i4 ,probably ^! also 7 by way ( p5ance4 ,isolat$ examples 9 ! e>ly middle ages ( metropolitans deal+ ) _! suffragan bi%ops by imprisonm5t 9 *a9s 7 extra-canonical abuses1 connect$ ) ! p]v]sion ( ,*ur* law :i* treat$ ! metropolitan 7:o orig9ally 0 m]ely conv5] ( ! prov9cial synod & its repres5tative dur+ ! int]vals ( sessions7 z ! feudal "l ( 8 comprov9cials4 ,) ! lat] #i? c5tury we ent] ^u a new epo*1 & by ! "t ( ,gregory ,,vii41 9 ! #aa? c5tury1 ! tribunals h fall5 into ! h&s ( a regul> class ( canoni/s :o are 9 fact pr(essional *ur*-lawy]s 9 ord]s4 ,! *anges due to ! adoption ( ! ,false ,decretals by ,ni*olas ,i4 & ! application ( _! pr9ciples by ,hildebr& 7aft]w>ds ,gregory ,,vii47 are discuss$ 9 ! article ,,canon ,,law4 ,! lat] m$ieval sy/em1 ?us inaugurat$1 may be consid]$ 7#a7 9 its hi]>*y1 7#b7 9 ! subject matt] ( its jurisdiction1 7#c7 9 its p5alties4 ,lat] m$ieval sy/em4 #a4 7a7 ,x is a sy/em ( c\rts4 ,mu* t _h be5 done by bi%ops1 s9e /repitu =5si et figura judicii1 is n[ done 9 ! c\rse ( regul> judicial proc$ure4 ,aga91 ! c\rt takes ! place ( ! synod4 ,! diocesan synod ceases to h judicial "w4 ,! c\rt ( ! metropolitan takes ! place ( ! prov9cial synod1 except possibly = ! trial ( bi%ops1 & ev5 ?is becomes d\btful4 7b7 ,at fir/ ! bi%op 0 ! only judge 9 ! diocesan c\rt & he always rema9s a judge4 ,b j z ! k+ appo9ts judges to he> placita coram rege ipso1 & ! feudal "l appo9ts 8 s5es*al or /ew>d1 s ! bi%op appo9ts 8 (ficial4 7c7 ,! ar*deacon acquires a concurr5t ord9>y jurisdiction ) ! bi%op 7see ,,ar*deacon74 ,= "s "t x 0 consid]$ t he 0 a m]e (fice-hold] dep5d5t on ! w ( ! bi%op ) a jurisdiction m]ely vic>ial2 b by ! #ac? c5tury x 0 settl$ t he held a b5efice & t 8 jurisdiction ov] causes 0 ord9>y & indep5d5t ( ! bi%op 7,van ,esp51 p>s i4 tit4 xii4 c4 #a2 ,f\rni]1 ,les ,(ficialites au moy5 age1 p4 #acd74 ,x 0 p>tly 9 ord] to c\nt]poise ! p[] ( ar*deacons t bi%ops creat$ (ficials 7,f\rni]1 p4 #h74 ,ar*deacons 9 c\rse ( "t creat$ (ficials :o presid$ 9 c\rt 9 _! /ead4 ,! ext5t ( jurisdiction ( ar*deacons dep5d$ mu* ^u local cu/oms4 ,9 ,engl& ! cu/om 0 g5]ally 9 _! fav\r4 ,ord9>ily1 ! appeal f an ar*deacon or 8 (ficial lay to ! c\rt ( ! bi%op2 b by cu/om ! appeal might be to ! c\rt ( ! metropolitan3 ,! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don1 9 #aafd1 made ! appeal f ! c\rt ( ! ar*deacon lie to ! c\rt ( ! bi%op4 7d7 ,! (ficial ( ! bi%op might be 8 (ficial pr9cipal1 :o 0 8 alt] ego1 or a special (fic] = a p>ticul> locality 7(ficialis =aneus74 ,! latt] 0 treat$ z a m]e delegate1 f :om an appeal c\ld be made to ! bi%op4 ,! =m] _h "o consi/ory ) ! bi%op1 s t appeals f him _h to be made to ! c\rt ( ! metropolitan4 ,h[ f> ! (ficial pr9cipal _h jurisdiction 9 crim9al matt]s by virtue ( 8 (fice1 h[ f> x 0 usual to add ?is jurisdiction by special commission1 & :at 7 ! respective limits ( 8 (fice & t ( ! vic>-g5]al1 are que/ions ( "s nicety4 ,! emphasis 9 ,italy 0 on ! vic>-g5]al 7,sext4 de (ficio ,vic>ii74 ,9 ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 ,france & ,engl& ! jurisdiction ( ! (ficial pr9cipal 0 wid] 7,van ,esp51 p>s i4 tit4 xii4 cc4 #d1 #e2 ,f\rni]1 p4 #ba74 ,b he c\ld n try crim9al matt]s unless specially committ$ to him 7,lyndwood1 ,prov9ciale1 lib4 ii4 tit4 #a74 ,lat] 9 ,engl& x became usual to appo9t "o man to ! two (fices & to call him *ancellor1 a ^w p]haps borr[$ f ca!dral *apt]s1 & n 9 use = a diocesan (fic] till ! "t ( ,h5ry ,,viii4 or lat] 7see ,,*ancellor74 ,9 ,irel& ! title1 till ! *ur* 0 dise/abli%$1 0 vic>-g5]al4 ,! importance ( di/+ui%+ ! normal functions ( an (ficial pr9cipal & a vic>-g5]al lies 9 ?is3 t x 0 gradually e/abli%$ t z a k+ %\ld n he> causes b commit !m to 8 judges1 s a bi%op %\ld n he> causes b appo9t an (ficial to he> !m 7see ,ridley1 ,view ( ! ,civil & ,eccl4 ,law2 ,ayliffe1 ,p>]gon juris ecclesia/ici1 p4 #afa2 ,godolph91 ,abridgem5t ( ! ,laws ,ecclesia/ical1 p4 #h74 ,! p>lem5ts ( ,france 7 con/antly insi/+ on ! indep5d5ce & irremovability ( ! (ficial 7,f\rni]1 p4 #bai74 ,b jurisdiction :i* 0 n necess>ily incid5t to ! (fice ( ! (ficial pr9cipal1 t is to say volunt>y jurisdiction1 su* z ! grant+ ( lic5ces & in/itution to b5efices1 & crim9al jurisdiction ov] cl]ks 7& probably ov] laym571 ! bi%op c\ld res]ve to himself4 ,res]vations ( ?is nature are made 9 _m ,engli% pat5ts ( *ancellors & 7 held good 9 ,r4 v4 ,tri/ram1 #aijb1 #a ,k4,b4 #haf4 7e7 ,! ecclesia/ical & temporal c\rts are kept di/9ct4 ,! *>t] ( ,william ! ,conqu]or abrogat$ ! laws ( ,edg>4 ,no bi%op or ar*deacon %all any long] hold pleas 9 ! ,hundr$ conc]n+ episcopal law nor draw a cause :i* conc]ns ! rule ( su* to ! judgm5t ( m5 ( ! _w 7,/ubbs1 ,select ,*>t]s1 "p iii474 ,9 ,france1 :]e ! bi%op 0 a temporal b>on1 8 feudal & 8 spiritual c\rts 7 kept by di/9ct (fic]s 7,f\rni]1 p4 #b74 7f7 ,f ! bi%op1 or 8 (ficial1 appeal lay to ! metropolitan1 :o aga9 c\ld he> causes by 8 (ficial4 ,! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don recognize ?is appeal 7c4 viii474 7g7 ,an appeal lay f ! c\rt ( ! metropolitan to t ( ! primate4 ,!re 7 _m disputes z to ! exi/5ce ( ^! primates 7see ,maitl&1 ,canon ,law 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 p4 #aba74 ,9 ,engl& ! dispute betwe5 ,cant]bury & ,york 0 settl$ by mak+ !m bo? primates1 giv+ ,cant]bury ! fur!r hon\r ( be+ primate ( all ,engl&4 ,9 ,france ! primatial sees & ! c\rse ( appeals to !m 7 well e/abli%$ 7,f\rni]1 p4 #bai74 7h7 ,sev]al attempts 7 made by metropolitans & _! (ficials to take causes aris+ 9 ! dioceses ( _! comprov9cials 9 ! fir/ in/ance & n by way ( appeal4 ,! (ficials ( primates 9 _! turn made simil> attempts4 ,aft] long /ruggles ?is 0 h9d]$1 9 ,france by ! bull ,romana 7,f\rni]1 p4 #bah71 9 ,engl& by ! ,bill ( ,citations1 #bc ,h5ry ,,viii4 c4 #i1 & ,canon #id ( ! ,canons ( #afjc4 ,! preamble ( ! ,bill ( ,citations is eloqu5t z to ! mis*ief :i* x is fram$ to prev5t4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a few cases 9 :i* ! metropolitan is /ill all[$ to cite 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,"o ( !m 0 9 cases ( p]plexity4 ,p]plexity arose :]e ! suffragans c\ld n ow+ to ! geographical limitations ( _! compet5ce d full ju/ice 7,maitl&1 pp4 #aah-aai74 ,su* 0 ! case ( probate :]e notable goods ( ! deceas$ lay 9 m ?an "o diocese4 ,h5ce ! orig9 ( ! pr]ogative c\rt ( ,cant]bury 7cf4 ,van ,esp51 p>s i4 tit4 xix42 & = ,spa91 ,cov>ruvias1 ,pract4 ,quae/4 c4 #i74 7i7 ,gradually !re grew up a mass ( peculi> & exempt jurisdictions 7,ayliffe1 pp4 #dag1 #dah2 ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law1 pp4 #bad1 #ibg2 de ,maillane1 ,dict4 du droit canonique1 s4v4 ,exemptions74 ,exempt jurisdictions began ) ! mona/]ies & 7 matt] ( vehem5t discussion 9 ! lat] middle ages4 ,!re 7 no true exemptions be=e ! #aa? c5tury 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 xii474 ,peculi> or special jurisdiction1 equal to t ( ! bi%op1 0 giv5 to deans & *apt]s ov] ! ca!dral prec9cts & 9 places :]e !y _h corporate prop]ty 7see ,p>ham v4 ,templ]1 #c ,phil4 ,ecc4 ,r4 #bb74 ,sometimes x 0 giv5 to deans alone or to preb5d>ies 9 ! p>i%es :5ce !y d]iv$ _! preb5ds4 ,:]e ! ar*deacon _h a jurisdiction co-ord9ate ) ! bi%op1 x 0 call$ a peculi>4 ,! metropolitans _h peculi>s )9 ! dioceses ( _! comprov9cials :]ev] !y _h resid5ces or manors1 & "s ^: orig9 is unc]ta91 e4g4 t ( ! fifte5 p>i%es 9 ! dean]y ( ! ,ar*es4 ,! (ficial adm9i/]+ ju/ice = ! metropolitan 0 usually call$ a dean4 ,f a peculi> jurisdiction rank+ z episcopal ! appeal lay to ! c\rt ( ! metropolitan4 ,z to metropolitan peculi>s1 ! metropolitan might give an appeal f ! dean to 8 regul> (ficial pr9cipal4 ,?us1 9 ,cant]bury !re 0 an appeal f ! dean ( ,ar*es to ! (ficial pr9cipal ( ! ,ar*es c\rt4 ,:5 peculi>s 7 aboli%$ 7vide infra7 ! dean ( ,ar*es disappe>$1 & 8 title1 9 ! #ai? c5tury1 0 errone\sly giv5 to ! (ficial pr9cipal4 ,on peculi>s 9 ,spa9 cf4 ,cov>ruvias1 ,works1 tit4 i4 p4 #daj4 ,! ,fr5* p>lem5ts1 aft] ! middle ages1 disc\rag$ !m4 ,9 exempt conv5ts ! head ( ! mona/]y or priory ex]cis$ jurisdiction subject to an appeal to ! pope4 7j7 ,x is said t orig9ally a metropolitan _h only "o (ficial pr9cipal1 :o1 l ! metropolitan himself1 act$ bo? = ! diocese & prov9ce4 ,f\rni] 7p4 #bai7 says t 9 ,france x 0 n till ! #ag? c5tury t !re grew up a cu/om ( hav+ diff]5t (ficials = ! metropolitan1 "o = him z bi%op1 a second z metropolitan1 & ev5 a ?ird z primate1 ) an appeal f "o to ! o!r1 & t x 0 an abuse due to ! p>lem5ts :i* /rove to make ! (ficial indep5d5t ( ! bi%op4 ,9 ,engl& !re has be51 = a long "t1 a sep>ate diocesan c\rt ( ,cant]bury held be=e ! commiss>y4 ,! ^w is significant z %[+ t !re 0 some?+ special & re/rict$ ab\t ! position4 ,9 ,york !re are two c\rts1 "o call$ ! consi/ory = ! diocese1 ! o!r call$ ! *anc]y = ! prov9ce4 ,b ! same p]son 0 (t5 (ficial ( bo? c\rts4 7k7 ,9 ,engl& ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don add$ a provision = appeal to ! k+1 & if ! ar*bi%op %all h fail$ 9 do+ ju/ice rec\rse is to be _h 9 ! la/ resort 7po/remo7 to our "l ! k+1 t by 8 writ ! controv]sy may be end$ 9 ! c\rt ( ! ar*bi%op2 because !re mu/ be no fur!r process )\t ! ass5t ( our "l ! k+4 ,! la/ words 7 an attempt to limit fur!r appeal to ,rome4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! k+ does n he> ! cause or adjudicate ^u x4 ,he m]ely corrects slackness or lack ( do+ ju/ice 7,si ar*iepiscopus defec]it 9 ju/itia exhib5da7 & by 8 writ 7precepto7 directs ! controv]sy to be det]m9$ 9 ! metropolitan's c\rt4 ,z bi%op ,/ubbs says 7,report ( ,eccl4 ,comm4 vol4 i4 ,hi/4 ,app4 i473 ,! appeal to ! k+ is m]ely a provision = a rehe>+ be=e ! ar*bi%op1 su* failure to d ju/ice be+ n s mu* applicable to an unfair decision z to ! delays or refusal to proce$ common at t "t 7cf4 ,joyce1 ,! ,sword & ! ,keys1 #bnd ed4 pp4 #ai-bj74 ,! recursus ad pr9cipem1 9 "s =m or o!r ( appeal or application to ! sov]eign or 8 lay judges1 0 at ! end ( ! middle ages well kn[n ov] we/]n ,europe4 ,?is rec\rse 9 ,engl& sometimes took ! =m ( ! appeal to ! k+ giv5 by ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don1 j m5tion$1 & lat] by ! acts ( ,h5ry ,,viii42 sometimes t ( su+ = writs ( prohibition or m&amus1 :i* 7 grant$ by ! k+'s judges1 ei!r to re/ra9 excess ( jurisdiction1 or to compel ! spiritual judge to ex]cise jurisdiction 9 cases :]e x seem$ to ! temporal c\rt t he 0 fail+ 9 8 duty4 ,! appellatio tanquam ab abusu 7appel comme d'abus7 9 ,france 0 an application ( a l nature4 ,su* an appeal lay ev5 9 cases :]e !re 0 a refusal to ex]cise volunt>y jurisdiction 7de ,maillane1 ,dictionnaire du droit canonique1 tit4 ,abus1 cf4 tit4 ,appel74 ,?is writ] traces _! orig9 to ! #ad? c5tury2 b ! proc$ure does n seem to h become regul>iz$ or common till ! reigns ( ,l\is ,,xii4 or ,francis ,i4 7cf4 ,dict4 eccl41 ,p>is1 #agfe1 titt4 ,abus & ,appel comme d'abus74 ,on ! recursus ad pr9cipem & ! practice ( cassation 9 ,belgium1 ,g]many & ,spa91 cf4 ,van ,esp5's treatise "u ?is title 7,works1 vol4 iv47 & ,jus eccles4 univ4 p>s iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #d4 ,l\is ,,xiv4 =bad ! p>lem5ts to give judgm5t !mselves 9 causes ^u an appel comme d'abus4 ,!y _h to decl>e ! proce$+s null & abusive & comm& ! c\rt ,*ri/ian to r5d] "r judgm5t 7,edict ( #afie1 arts4 #cd1 #cf1 cit$ 9 ,gaudry1 ,traite de la legislation des cultes1 ,p>is1 #ahed1 tom4 i4 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi74 ,9 ,catalonia ,pragmatics1 lett]s f ! pr9ce1 issu$ to re/ra9 jurisdiction assum$ by ecclesia/ical judges contr>y to ! cu/oms ( ! pr9cipality4 ,?us 9 #acfh ,pet] ,,iii4 evok$ to ! royal c\rt a prosecution = abduction p5d+ be=e ! ar*bi%op ( ,t>ragona1 decl>+ t ! ar*bi%op & ! (ficial 7 incompet5t to judge noblem54 ,see ?is & o!r in/ances collect$ 9 ,usages y demas d]e*os de ,cataluna1 by ,vives y ,cebria 7,b>celona1 #ahce71 tom4 iv4 p4 #acg et seq4 7l7 ,la/ly !re 0 ! appeal to ! patri>*s1 i4e4 9 ! ,we/ to ,rome4 ,! di/+ui%+ feature ( ?is appeal 0 t ! rule ( ! o!r appeals did n apply to x4 ,9 ! regul> c\rse ( ^? appeals an appellant c\ld n leap ! int]m$iate /ages2 b he c\ld at any /age g to ?is f9al appeal1 omisso m$io1 z x 0 te*nically call$ 7see de appell4 c4 ,dilect4 iii4 = g5]al rule1 & c4 #c de appell4 9 #f = diff]5t rule 9 case ( ! pope1 & au?orities cit$ 9 ,van ,esp51 p>s iii1 tit4 x4 c4 #b1 #e74 ,van ,esp5 says3 ,! :ole "r ( appeal to ! ,roman pontiff omisso m$io _h und\bt$ly its orig9 9 ?is pr9ciple1 t ! ,roman pontiff is ord9>y ( ord9>ies1 or1 9 o!r words1 has imm$iate episcopal au?ority 9 all p>ticul> *ur*es1 & ?is pr9ciple _h its own beg9n+ f ! ,false ,decretals4 ,appeals to ,rome lay f int]locutory z well z f9al judgm5ts4 ,causes c\ld ev5 be evok$ to ,rome be=e any judgm5t & !re he>d 9 fir/ in/ance 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #a1 #h74 ,!re 0 an alleg$ orig9al jurisdiction ( ! pope1 :i* he ex]cis$ sometimes by p]man5t legates1 :om ,gregory ,,vii4 & 8 successors e/abli%$ 9 ! *ief c\ntries ( ,europe1 & to :om 7 committ$ ! legislative executive & judicial p[]s ( ! spiritual pr9ce 9 ! di/ricts assign$ to !m4 ,^! ,clem5t ,,iv4 lik5$ to pro-consuls & decl>$ to h ord9>y jurisdiction2 because !y _h jurisdiction ov] e k9d ( cause1 )\t any special delegation1 9 a c]ta9 def9$ area or prov9ce 7c4 ii4 de ,(ficio ,legati 9 #f74 ,!y 7 express$ to h n m]ely appellate b orig9al jurisdiction ov] causes 7iii4 c4 i4 de ,(ficio ,legati74 ,! occupants ( c]ta9 sees by a k9d ( prescription became legates )\t special appo9tm5t1 legati nati1 z 9 ! case ( ,cant]bury4 ,9 ! #ac? c5tury ,ar*bi%op ,peckham1 says ,maitl& 7p4 #aag71 z ar*bi%op ass]t$ = himself & 8 (ficial 7#a7 a g5]al "r to ent]ta9 9 ! fir/ in/ance compla9ts made aga9/ 8 suffragans' subjects1 & 7#b7 a g5]al "r to he> appeals omisso m$io4 ,x 01 = ! "t1 det]m9$ t ! ar*bi%op might himself1 9 virtue ( 8 legat9e au?ority1 ent]ta9 compla9ts f o!r dioceses 9 fir/ in/ance1 b t ?is legat9e jurisdiction 0 n includ$ 9 ! ord9>y jurisdiction ( 8 (ficial pr9cipal1 ev5 if ! ar*bi%op _h s will$ x 9 8 commission4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ! (ficial did be=e ! end ( ! lat] m$ieval p]iod get ! same p[] z ! ar*bi%op 7,maitl&1 pp4 #aah-abj2 cf4 ,lyndwood1 lib4 v4 tit4 #a71 till x 0 tak5 f him by ! ,bill ( ,citations4 ,aft] legates came special delegates appo9t$ by ! pope to he> a p>ticul> cause4 ,x 0 ! g5]al practice to appo9t two or ?ree to sit toge!r 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #b1 #cg74 ,^! might sub-delegate ! :ole cause or any "p ( x z !y pleas$1 ibid4 #i-ah4 ,dr ,maitl& 7essay on ,! ,univ]sal ,ord9>y7 ?9ks1 b )\t v mu* f\ndation1 t great numb]s especially ( ! m important causes 7 tri$ be=e ^! delegates2 al?\gh ! records h l>gely p]i%$1 s9ce !y 7 ! records ( c\rts :i* 7 dissolv$ z soon z _! s+le cause _h be5 decid$4 ,^! c\rts 7 conv5i5t1 s9ce x 0 ! cu/om to appo9t delegates resid5t 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & ! p[] ( sub-delegation1 g5]al or limit$1 simplifi$ que/ions ( di/ance4 ,9 ,belgium causes appeal$ to ,rome _h to be committ$ to local delegates 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #c1 tit4 x4 c4 #b74 ,!re c\ld be an appeal f ^! delegates to ! pope & f ! pope himself to ! pope bett] in=m$ 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #b1 #ab1 #ac74 ,s p]sonal _h ! sy/em ( jurisdiction become t ev5 ! trials ( bi%ops ceas$ to be necess>ily concili>4 ,g5]ally !y 7 res]v$ to ! pope 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 iii4 c4 #e1 #ag-ai72 b 9 ,engl& ! ar*bi%op1 ei!r 9 synod1 or ) "s ( 8 comprov9cial bi%ops concurr+1 tri$ & depos$ bi%ops 7see case ( ,bi%op ,peacock & ! o!r cases cit$ 9 ,read v4 ,bi%op ( ,l9coln1 #ad ,p4,d4 #adh1 & ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law1 pp4 #ff et seq474 7m7 ,! jurisdiction ( a bi%op s$e vacante pass$1 by g5]al law1 to ! dean & *apt]2 b 9 ,engl& ! metropolitans became gu>dians ( ! spiritualities & ex]cis$ orig9al jurisdiction ?r\gh ! vacant diocese 7,phillimore1 pp4 #fb-fc71 except 9 ! case ( ,durham1 & ) a peculi> arrangem5t z to ,l9coln4 ,if ! metropolitan see 7 vacant ! jurisdiction 0 ex]cis$ by ! dean & *apt] ?r\gh an (ficial 7,ro!ry1 ,return ( ,cases be=e ,delegates1 ,nos4 #d1 #e74 ,z to ,france see ,f\rni]1 p4 #bid4 7n7 ,(ficials1 ev5 ( bi%ops & metropolitans1 ne$ n be 9 holy ord]s1 ?\gh ,bi%op ,/ubbs 9 8 pap] 9 ! ,report ( ! ,commission on ,ecclesia/ical ,c\rts seems to say s4 ,!y _h to be cl]ics1 t is1 to h receiv$ ! tonsure4 ,ev5 papal delegates might be simple cl]ks 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #b1 #bj74 ,x came1 h[ev]1 to be ! practice to impose "s re/rictions1 z on cl]ks twice m>ri$4 ,?us ,ar*bi%op ,*i*ele provid$ t no cl]k m>ri$ or bigam\s 7t is1 hav+ _h two wives 9 succession7 %\ld ex]cise spiritual jurisdiction 7see ,lyndwood1 lib4 iii4 tit4 #c74 ,abroad unsuccessful attempts 7 made by local c\ncils to enact t (ficials & vic>s-g5]al %\ld be 9 holy ord]s 7,hefele on ,c\ncils ( ,tortosa 9 #adbi & ,six? ( ,milan 9 #aehb74 ,^! c\ncils1 z w be se51 are late4 7o7 ,) or )\t ! concurr5ce & goodwill ( ! national ,*ur*1 re/rictions 7 impos$ by ! ,/ate on ! papal jurisdiction1 :e!r orig9al or appellate4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don 7by *ap4 viii47 prohibit$ appeals to ! pope2 b aft] ! murd] ( ,/ ,?omas ( ,cant]bury ,h5ry ,,ii4 _h to promise n to en=ce !m4 ,! /atutes #ch ,edw4 ,,iii4 /4 #b1 #ac ,ri*4 ,,ii4 /4 #b1 c4 #b1 & #af ,ri*4 ,,ii4 c4 #e =bid su* appeals2 b x is sugge/$ t not)/&+ ! g5]ality ( _! language !y ref] only to cases ( temporal cognizance4 ,cases ^u ! execution ( ^! /atutes are collect$ 9 ,/ill+fleet1 ,on ,ecclesia/ical ,jurisdiction1 p4 #ahi2 ,gibson1 ,codex1 #hc4 ,ob/acles 7 plac$ 9 ! way ( appeals to ! pope omisso m$io4 ,?us :5 a writ ( significavit issu$ on ! m&ate ( a bi%op1 an appeal to ,rome avail$ n to /ay execution2 b if !re 7 an appeal to ! ar*bi%op x 0 o!rwise4 ,x !re=e became ! cu/om to lodge a d\ble appeal3 "o to ! ar*bi%op = def5ce1 & ! o!r to ! pope z ! real appeal 7,ho/i5sis1 ,sup] ,decret4 ii4 fol4 #afi2 cf4 ,ow51 ,in/itutes ( ,canon ,law1 #ahhd1 pt4 i4 c4 #ai1 #e74 ,!re seems to h be5 no ma*9]y = assi/+ ! orig9al or appellate jurisdiction ( ! pope by secul> process1--by significavit or o!rwise4 ,! matrimonial cause betwe5 ,h5ry ,,viii4 & ,ca?>9e ( ,aragon 0 ! mo/ fam\s ,engli% cause tri$ by delegates "u ! orig9al jurisdiction ( ! pope1 & 0 ultimately evok$ to ,rome4 ,! =ese5 adv]se t]m9ation ( ?is long-drawn cause l$ to ,h5ry's legislation4 ,:5 ! temporal c\rts int]f]$ to prev5t excess ( jurisdiction1 !y did s by prohibit+ ! ecclesia/ical c\rt f try+ & ! suitor f su+ 9 t c\rt4 ,! pope c\ld n be effectively prohibit$1 & no in/ance is record$ ( a prohibition to papal delegates4 ,b suitors h be5 prohibit$ f appeal+ to ! pope 7see p] ,willes1 ,j41 9 ,mayor ( ,london v4 ,cox1 ,l4,r4 #b ,h4,l4 #bhj74 ,:atev] may h be5 ! law1 x is c]ta9 t1 not)/&+ ! /atutes ( ,edw4 ,,iii4 & ,ri*4 ,,ii41 appeals to ,rome & orig9al trials by papal delegates did g on1 p]haps ) ! k+'s lic5ce2 = ! /atute #bd ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ab recites t ! he>+ ( appeals 0 an usurpation by ! pope & a griev\s abuse1 & proce$s to take away ! appeal 9 matrimonial1 te/am5t>y & ti! causes1 & to h9d] by =bidd+ citation & process f ,rome1 all orig9al he>+s also4 ,! /atute #be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ai foll[s ?is up by tak+ away appeals 9 all o!r subjects ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction4 ,9 #adch ! c\ncil ( ,basel took away all papal orig9al jurisdiction 7save 9 c]ta9 res]v$ cases--( :i* infra71 evocation ( causes to ,rome1 appeals to ,rome omisso m$io1 & appeals to ,rome altoge!r 9 _m causes4 ,su* appeals :5 p]missible1 except ! great]1 7 to be tri$ by delegates on ! spot 7#ca/ ,session2 ,mansi1 ,concilia1 9 loco74 ,^! proce$+s at ,basel 7 reg>d$ at ,rome z ( no effect4 ,nev]!less ?is decree & o!rs 7 adopt$ by a ,fr5* national c\ncil at ,b\rges & promulgat$ by ! k+ z a ,pragmatic ,sanction 7,migne1 ,dict4 du droit canonique1 ,pragmatique ,sanction74 ,! p>lem5ts regi/]$ ! ,sanction & ! effect 0 p]man5t 9 ,france4 ,l\is ,,xi4 & ,*>les ,,viii4 s\ght to revoke x2 b bo? p>lem5ts & /ates-g5]al refus$ to recognize ! revok+ decrees4 ,9 #adii ,l\is ,,xii4 ord]$ ! ,pragmatic to be inviolably obs]v$4 ,! p>lem5ts !reupon condemn$ sev]al private p]sons = obta9+ bulls f ,rome4 ,9 #aeaf a ,concordat betwe5 ,leo ,x4 & ,francis ,i4 settl$ all ^! que/ions 9 ! s5se ( ! ,pragmatic1 sub/antially accord+ to ! ,basel canon4 ,all causes1 except ! great]1 7 to be t]m9at$ 9 ! c\ntry :]e ! prop] cognizance w\ld lie 7,migne1 op4 cit4 ,concordat74 ,by ?is ,concordat1 by an ord9ance ( ,francis ,i4 9 #aeci1 by two or ?ree o!r royal edicts1 & 7above all7 by ! practice ( ! p>lem5ts1 explanatory ( ?is legislation1 & _! arrets1 ! conflict ( secul> & ecclesia/ical jurisdictions 0 settl$ until ! ,revolution 7,migne1 ubi sup474 ,great] causes came 9 ,france to be re/rict$ to crim9al prosecutions ( bi%ops4 ,ev5 9 ^! ! orig9al jurisdiction ( ! pope 0 tak5 away4 ,9 fir/ in/ance !y 7 tri$ by ! prov9cial synod4 ,!nce !re 0 appeal to ! pope 7de ,maillane1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,causes majeures2 ,dict4 eccl41 ,p>is1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,cause74 ,! only orig9al jurisdiction left to ! pope 0 9 ! case ( ! matrimonial causes ( pr9ces4 ,b !y c\ld only be he>d on ! spot by judges delegate4 ,examples are ! causes ( ,l\is ,,xii4 & ,jeanne ( ,france 9 #adih1 & ( ,h5ry ,,iv4 & ,m>gu]ite ( ,valois 9 #aeii 7,migne1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,causes74 ,! prohibition ( papal int]f]5ce 0 en=c$ if necess>y by ! appel comme d'abus 7vide supra74 ,out ( respect = ! pope ?is appeal 0 n br\ght aga9/ 8 decrees b aga9/ _! execution 7,dict4 eccl41 ,p>is1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,abus74 ,spa9 appe>s to h p]mitt$ & recogniz$ appeals to ! pope4 ,a royal writ ( ! #af? c5tury cit$ by ,cov>ruvias 7c4 xxxv47 prohibits execution ( ! s5t5ce ( a ,spani% c\rt ,*ri/ian p5d+ an appeal to ! pope4 ,civil jurisdiction4 #b4 ,! subject matt] ov] :i* ! ecclesia/ical c\rts _h jurisdiction 0 no long] purely crim9al ) a civil quasi-jurisdiction by way ( arbitration4 ,9 ! lat] middle ages ^! c\rts _h jurisdiction ov] mo/ que/ions1 except inde$ ! !n mo/ important ones1 ^? relat+ to real prop]ty4 ,?is civil jurisdiction 0 sometimes concurr5t ) t ( ! secul> c\rts1 sometimes exclusive4 ,= ,engl& x may be ?us classifi$3-- 7a7 ,matrimonial4--,?is arose naturally f ! sacr$ "* ( ,*ri/ian m>riage4 ,?is jurisdiction 0 exclusive4 ,f x foll[$ ! "r ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian to pron\nce ^u que/ions ( legitimacy4 ,^u ?is "r an inroad 0 e>ly made1 9 consequ5ce ( ! "q ( legitimation by subsequ5t m>riage4 ,9 ! #ab? c5tury ! ,*ur*'s rule1 t subsequ5t m>riage did legitimize previ\s issue1 0 settl$ 7c4 #f1 x4 #d1 #ag74 ,! k+'s judges !n began to ask ! ord9>y ! specific "q :e!r ,a4 ,b4 0 born be=e or aft] 8 p>5ts' m>riage4 ,aft] ! inconclusive proce$+s at ! realm-c\ncil ( ,m]ton 7#abcf71 :5 spiritual & temporal lords took opposite views1 ! k+'s judges w5t a /ep fur!r & !nce=w>d submitt$ ?is p>ticul> "q to a jury4 ,all o!r que/ions ( legitimacy aris+ 9 ! k+'s c\rts 7 /ill s5t = trial to ! bi%op & conclud$ by 8 c]tificate 7see ,pollock & ,maitl&1 ,hi/4 ,eng4 ,law be=e ,edw>d ,i4 vol4 i4 #aje-ajf2 ,maitl&1 ubi supra1 pp4 #ec-ef74 7b7 ,te/am5t>y & 9 reg>d to succession f inte/ates4--,real prop]ty 0 n ! subject ( w or te/am5t 9 ! m$ieval p]iod4 ,b z to p]sonal prop]ty1 ! jurisdiction ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian became exclusive 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,*ur*1 ,ea/ & ,we/1 _h long ass]t$ a "r to sup]vise ^? legacies :i* 7 devot$ to pi\s uses1 a "r recogniz$ by ,ju/9ian 7,cod4 i4 #c4 #df74 ,! bi%op or1 fail+ him1 ! metropolitan1 0 to see su* legacies prop]ly paid & appli$ & might appo9t p]sons to adm9i/] ! funds 7,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ccj74 ,?is "r & duty became a jurisdiction 9 all te/am5t>y causes4 ,inte/acy 0 reg>d$ ) ! greate/ horror1 because ( ! dang] to ! inte/ate's s\l f a dea? )\t a fitt+ "p giv5 to pi\s uses 7,ma9e1 ,anci5t ,law1 ed4 #aijf1 note by ,pollock1 p4 #bcj2 cf4 ,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ced74 ,h5ce came ! jurisdiction ( ! ord9>y 9 inte/acy1 = ! peace ( ! s\l ( ! dep>t$4 ,?is head ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 0 9 ,engl& n transf]r$ to ! secul> c\rt till #aheg4 7c7 ,*ur* ,l&s4--,if und\bt$ly held 9 frankalmoign or free alms1 by a spiritual t5ure only1 ! claim ( jurisdiction = ! ecclesia/ical =um seems to h be5 at fir/ conc$$4 ,b ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don 7c4 #i7 res]v$ ! prelim9>y "q1 ( frankalmoign or n1 = a jury 9 ! k+'s c\rt4 ,!n1 if ! t5ure 7 f\nd free alms1 ! plea 0 to be he>d 9 ! c\rt ,*ri/ian4 ,f ! #ac? c5tury1 h[ev]1 inclusive1 ! k+'s c\rts insi/$ on _! exclusive jurisdiction 9 reg>d to all realty1 temporal or spiritual 7,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 i4 #ajf74 7d7 ,title to pres5t to & possession ( b5efices4--,z to ! title to pres5t to b5efices1 ! c\rts ,*ri/ian at "o "t _h concurr5t jurisdiction ) ! temporal c\rts4 ,adv[sons 71 h[ev]1 look$ ^u z a species ( real prop]ty 9 ,engl&1 & !re=e ! k+'s c\rt e>ly claim$ exclusive jurisdiction 9 disputes :]e ! title to pres5t 0 involv$4 ,! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don provid$ t ^! causes %\ld be he>d only 9 ! k+'s c\rt 7c4 #a74 ,?is rule 0 appli$ ev5 :]e bo? litigants 7 spiritual4 ,9 ! #ac? c5tury abbots sue ea* o!r 9 ! royal c\rt = adv[sons 7,seld5 ,soc4 ,select ,civil ,pleas1 i4 pl4 #bde74 ,9 #abca1 9 su* a suit1 ! bi%op ( ,london accepts wag] ( battle 7,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 i4 #aje74 ,9 cases1 h[ev]1 :]e ! title to pres5t 0 n 9 "q1 b ! fitness ( ! cl]k pres5t$1 or1 9 cases ( election to b5efices1 ! validity ( ! election1 !re 0 jurisdiction 9 ! c\rts ,*ri/ian4 7e7 ,! recov]y ( ti!s & *ur* dues1 includ+ 9 ,engl& *ur* rates levi$ to repair or improve *ur*es & *ur*y>ds4 7f7 ,que/ions conc]n+ fabrics1 ornam5ts1 ritual & c]emonial ( *ur*es4 7g7 ,adm9i/ration ( pi\s gifts & rev5ues giv5 to prelates or conv5ts4--,_! "r application c\ld be effectively en=c$ only 9 ! c\rts ,*ri/ian2 until ! rise 9 ,engl& ( ! equitable jurisdiction ( ! c\rt ( *anc]y & ! developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( uses at ! end ( ! middle ages4 7h7 ,en=cem5t ( contractual promises made by oa? or pl$ge ( fai?4--,! break+ ( su* a promissory oa? 0 call$ p]jury 7z 9 classical ,lat9 & 9 ,%akespe>e71 contr>y to mod]n usage :i* conf9es ! ^w to false evid5ce be=e a c\rt ( ju/ice4 ,9 reg>d to ! execution ( ^! promises1 ! jurisdiction ( ! ecclesia/ical c\rts 0 possibly trav]s$ by c4 #ae ( ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don2 b all[$ by ! /atute #ac ,edw4 ,i4 /4 #d4 ,z j intimat$1 besides ! en=cem5t ( ! promise1 ! p]jury 0 treat$ z an ecclesia/ical crime4 ,! crim9al jurisdiction ( c\rts ,*ri/ian ov] laym5 includ$1 besides ^! p]juries1 7a7 all sexual (f5ces n puni%able on indictm5t2 7b7 ,defamation ( "* 7! k+'s c\rts came 9 "t to limit ?is to su* defamation z c\ld n be made ! subject ( a temporal action72 7c7 ,(f5ces by laym5 aga9/ cl]ks 7i4e4 aga9/ all tonsur$ p]sons1 supra72 7d7 ,(f5ces 9 reg>d to holy places--brawl+ & su* l2 7e7 ,h]esy1 s*ism1 apo/asy1 wit*craft4 ,9 reg>d to cl]ks1 !re 0 7#a7 all ! crim9al jurisdiction :i* exi/$ ov] laym51 & 7#b7 crim9al jurisdiction 9 reg>d to pr(essional misconduct4 ,conc]n+ feloni\s cl]ks ! great que/ions discuss$ 7 :e!r ! c\rts ,*ri/ian _h exclusive jurisdiction or ! k+'s c\rt1 or :e!r !re 0 a concurr5t jurisdiction4 ,! subject 0 dealt ) 9 ! ,con/itutions ( ,cl>5don1 =mally revok$ aft] ! murd] ( ,/ ,?omas ( ,cant]bury4 ,9 ! #ac? c5tury x 0 recogniz$ t a cl]k = felony 0 subject only to ecclesia/ical trial & puni%m5t2 puni%m5t :i* might involve lifelong imprisonm5t4 ,= misdemean\rs1 z yet unimportant1 he _h no exemption f secul> jurisdiction 7,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 *4 iv474 ,at "s indet]m9ate lat] p]iod1 ! cl]k 0 tri$ = felony by a jury 9 ! k+'s c\rt & !n plead$ 8 cl]gy1 aft] conviction !re1 & 0 remitt$ to ! ord9>y = ecclesia/ical puni%m5t4 ,cl]ks = ! purpose ( b5efit ( cl]gy includ$ n only p]sons 9 m9or ord]s1 b all religi\s p]sons1 i4e4 monks1 fri>s1 nuns1 c4 ,lat] ! cu/om arose ( tak+ cl]k to include any lit]ate1 ev5 if n 9 ord]s or religi\s 7cf4 ,/eph51 ,hi/4 ,crim4 ,law1 i4 #dfa74 ,! /atute #d ,h54 ,,vii4 c4 #ac took away b5efit ( cl]gy1 if claim$ a second "t1 f p]sons n )9 ord]s1 9 c]ta9 bad cases4 #d ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #b 7a tempor>y act7 took away cl]gy1 9 c]ta9 he9\s crimes1 f all p]sons n 9 holy ord]s4 ,?is /atute 0 p>tly r5ew$ by #bb ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ac4 ,o!r *anges 7 introduc$ by #bc ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #a & lat] acts4 ,9 "t1 b5efit ( cl]gy became entirely div]t$ f its orig9al objects4 ,9 ,france1 till #acbi1 !re seems to h be5 no cle> l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 secul> & ecclesia/ical jurisdictions4 ,beaumanoir 7,c\tume de ,baulvoisis1 *4 xi41 cit$ ,gaudry1 op4 cit4 i4 #bb7 _h laid d[n ! pr9ciple t spiritual ju/ice %\ld m$dle only ) spiritual ?+s4 ,9 ! ye> nam$ ! secul> c\rts compla9$ to ! k+1 ,philip ( ,valois1 ( ! encroa*m5ts ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian4 ,! cause 0 solemnly argu$ be=e t mon>*1 :o decid$ to leave ?+s z !y 7 7,migne1 ,dict4 du droit canon41 s4v4 ,(ficialites74 ,9 #acga ,*>les ,v4 =bade spiritual c\rts to take cognizance ( real & possessory actions ev5 9 reg>d to cl]ks 7,migne1 loc4 cit42 cf4 ,gaudry1 ubi sup474 ,f ?is p]iod ! p>lem5ts began ! proc$ure :i*1 aft] ! ,pragmatic ,sanction ( ,*>les ,,vii41 9 #adch took regul> %ape z ! appel comme d' abus 7supra2 ,migne1 loc4 cit474 ,te/am5t>y causes at fir/ 7 subject to ! concurr5t jurisdiction ( ! spiritual & secul> c\rts4 ,aft] ! #ad? c5tury1 ! latt] _h exclusive jurisdiction 7,van ,esp51 op4 cit4 lib4 iii4 tit4 ii4 cc4 #b1 #ae1 #af74 ,9 reg>d to m>riage ! secul> juri/s di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! civil contract & ! sacram5t1 = purposes ( sep>at+ ! jurisdiction 7,dict4 eccl41 ,p>is1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,m>iage74 ,! volunt>y jurisdiction z reg>ds disp5sations 0 kept = ! ,*ur*4 ,! cont5ti\s jurisdiction ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian 0 conf9$ to promises ( m>riage1 nullity ( m>riage caus$ by dirim5t imp$im5ts only1 validity or invalidity ( ! sacram5t1 divorce a ?oro 7ibid474 ,que/ions 9 reg>d to ! prop]ty 9 a b5efice 7 = ! c\rts ,*ri/ian2 9 reg>d to its possession1 = ! k+'s c\rts4 ,b if a possessory action _h be5 br\ght 9 ! latt]1 a subsequ5t suit 9 ! c\rts spiritual = ! prop]ty 0 deem$ abusive & re/ra9$ 7ib41 s4v4 ,petitoire7 ,brea* ( fai? or ( promise confirm$ by oa? 0 matt] = ! c\rt ,*ri/ian 7,f\rni]1 pp4 #ie1 #ii1 #aji1 #abe74 ,?is bran* ( jurisdiction 0 l>g] & m freely us$ ?an 9 ,engl& 7cf4 ,pollock & ,maitl&1 op4 cit41 z to ,norm&y74 ,! only o!r rema9+ civil jurisdiction ( ! ecclesia/ical c\rts 0 9 p]sonal actions :]e cl]ks 7 def5dants 7,migne1 op4 cit41 s4v4 ,(ficialites1 ,f\rni]1 pp4 #fe-abe72 or1 aft] ! #ad? c5tury1 :]e bo? p>ties 7 cl]ks4 ,9 reg>d to crimes delicts 7delits7 7 divid$ into classes = purposes ( jurisdiction4 ,cl]ks 7 puni%able only 9 ! c\rt ,*ri/ian1 except 9 cases ( grave crimes su* z murd]1 mutilation 7,f\rni]1 p4 #gb71 & cases call$ royal cases 7vide infra74 ,laym5 7 puni%able 9 ! c\rt ,*ri/ian = ! delits foll[+3 injury to sacr$ or religi\s places1 sacrilege1 h]esy 7except :]e x 0 a royal case71 sorc]y1 magic1 blasphemy 7also puni%able 9 ! secul> c\rt71 adult]y1 simony1 usury & infractions ( ! truce ( ,god 7,f\rni]1 pp4 #ij-ic74 ,:at 7 call$ privileg$ delicts 7 judg$ 9 ! case ( ! cl]gy conjo9tly by ! spiritual judge & ! k+'s judge4 ,bi%ops _h no exemption 7,dict4 ecc41 s4v4 ,delits1 ,cas privilegie1 ,causes majeures74 ,royal cases includ$ su* crimes z t\*$ ! pr9ce1 z all =ms ( treason2 or ! dignity ( 8 (fic]s2 or ! public safety4 ,9 ?is class 7 also includ$ su* h]esies z tr\bl$ ! /ate1 z by =bidd5 assemblies1 or by tea*+ prohibit$ doctr9e4 ,among ^! h]esies 7 reckon$ idolatry1 a!ism1 ,prote/antism1 relapse 7ib4 et ,cas royaux1 ,h]esie74 ,^! 7 ( exclusive royal jurisdiction z aga9/ bo? spiritual c\rts & ! c\rts ( feudal lords4 ,a simil> claim 0 made by ,pombal = ,portugal 7vide infra74 ,! p>lem5ts1 9 ord] to h a ready means ( en=c+ all ^! re/rictions by appel comme d'abus1 compell$ ! bi%ops to appo9t (ficials1 ,fr5*m51 graduates1 & 7z x seems7 secul>s 7,dict4 eccl41 ,p>is1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,(ficial74 ,?is la/ qualification 0 disput$ 7see ,fevret1 ,traite de l'abus74 #c4 ,puni%m5ts4--,ecclesia/ical sanctions 7 divid$ into puni%m5ts 7po5ae71 ei!r purely temporal 9 "* or else ( a mix$ spiritual & temporal "*1 & c5sures 7c5surae71 purely spiritual & rem$ial 7see ,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 xl4 cc4 #a1 #c2 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesia/ical ,law1 p4 #ajfd74 ,9 ! book la/ cit$ c5surae & po5ae are class$ toge!r z c5sures 7:i* is ! mod]n use74 ,po5ae4--7a7 ,f9es sprang f ! old] cu/om ( direct+ alms by way ( p5ance 9 ! int]nal =um 7,van ,esp51 ubi sup4 c4 #a1 #e-aj74 ,!y 7 to be appli$ to pi\s uses4 7b7 ,reclusion 9 a mona/]y cont9u$ f =m] p]iod1 & might be ei!r tempor>y or p]petual 7loc4 cit4 #ag-ai74 7c7 ,imprisonm5t1 9 ! bi%op's prison1 might be 9 *a9s1 or on bread & wat]1 & tempor>y or p]petual4 ,9 its sev]] =ms x 0 only inflict$ = m atroci\s crimes :i* ! secul> law w\ld h puni%$ ) dea? 7loc4 cit4 #ba-bg74 ,! act #bc ,h5ry ,,viii4 c4 #aa made special provision = convict$ cl]ks :o broke out ( ! prisons ( ! ord9>y4 7d7 ,fu/igation1 z 9 =m] p]iod1 0 h>dly an ecclesia/ical puni%m5t4 ,if giv51 x 0 to be ( a pat]nal "* 7loc4 cit4 #ci-de74 ,puni%m5ts ( a mix$ nature 73 7e7 ,susp5sion ei!r f (fice alone or f (fice & b5efice2 7f7 ,deprivation ( b5efice2 7g7 ,deposition or ,degradation 7a m solemn & c]emonial =m7 f ! m9i/ry2 7h7 ,irregul>ity--n always a puni%m5t--a /ate ( incapacity to be orda9$1 or1 be+ orda9$1 to execute ! m9i/ry2 ?is might result f "s defect ( m9d & body1 b 0 also incurr$ by "s grave (f5ces4 ,c5sures 7 z foll[s3 7i7 ,susp5sion f att5d+ div9e (fices or ab +ressu ecclesiae1 m appropriate = a layman4 ,a cl]k 9 l case might be susp5d$ f (fice4 7j7 ,int]dict 0 ano!r =m ( p>tial or total susp5sion f ! b5efit ( ! rites & sacram5ts ( ! ,*ur*4 ,an int]dict might be p]sonal or local 7see ,,int]dict74 7k7 ,excommunication 0 ei!r great] or less4 ,! great] sep>at$ entirely f ! ,*ur*4 ,x might be pron\nc$ "u ana!ma4 ,! less depriv$ ( p>ticipation 9 ! sacram5ts1 & made a cl]k incapable ( tak+ a b5efice4 ,on ! ,european cont95t ! c\rts ,*ri/ian (t5 c>ri$ out _! decrees by _! own app>itors :o c\ld levy pecuni>y p5alties on a def5dant's goods 7,van ,esp51 p>s iii4 tit4 ix4 c4 #d74 ,!y c\ld arre/ & imprison4 ,9 ,engl&1 except 9 ! peculi> case ( imprisonm5t p5d+ trial = h]esy1 or 9 ! case ( a cl]k convict$ ( crime1 ^! ?+s c\ld n be4 ,! s5t5ce ( ! c\rt ,*ri/ian _h 9 all o!r cases to be en=c$ by ! secul> arm4 ,e>ly 9 ,h5ry ,,ii4's "t x _h become ! cu/om ( ,engl& = ! c\rt ,*ri/ian to signify its s5t5ce ( excommunication to ! k+ & to dem& f him a writ ( significavit to ! %]iff1 to imprison ! p]son excommunicat$4 ,! writ app>5tly issu$ = no c\rt inf]ior to ! bi%op's1 unless ^u ! bi%op's reque/4 ,9 "s s5se ! k+'s writ ( significavit 0 discretion>y2 b its issue c\ld be en=c$ by excommunication or int]dict4 ,9 ! cases ( h]esy1 apo/asy & sorc]y1 ! spiritual c\rts s\ght ! aid ( ! secul> jurisdiction to sup]add ! puni%m5t ( dea?4 ,incorrigible (f5d]s on ^! matt]s 7 left to ! secul> p[]1 to be correct$ ) due animadv]sion4 ,?is provision ( ! f\r? ,lat]an ,c\ncil 9 #abae 0 always int]pret$ to mean dea? 7see ,van ,esp51 ,obs]v4 9 ,conc4 ,lat4 ,,iv4 ,canones1 & ! decree 9 ! ,sext4 ut inquisitionis negotium2 &1 z to ,engli% law & practice1 ,maitl&1 op4 cit41 ,essay vi41 & pp4 #afa1 #agf2 #b ,h54 ,,iv4 c4 #ae2 ,fitzh]b]t1 ,natura brevium1 #bfi2 #b ,h54 ,v4 /4 #a1 c4 #g74 ,! capital puni%m5t 0 g5]ally 7always 9 ,engl&7 by burn+4 ,burn+ 0 an ,engli% puni%m5t = "s secul> (f5ces4 ,! ,concordat ) ,francis ,i4 by :i* ! pope gave up ! "r ( he>+ appeals f ,france 0 n _m ye>s be=e ! legislation ( ,h5ry ,,viii4 9 ,engl&4 ,bo? mon>*s proce$$ on ! same l9es2 b ,francis ,i4 got ! pope's cons5t3 ,h5ry ,,viii4 act$ 9 invitum1 & 9 "t w5t r fur!r4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,/atute ( ,appeals 7#bd ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ab7 takes away appeals to ,rome 9 causes te/am5t>y & matrimonial & 9 reg>d to "r ( ti!s1 oblations & obv5tions4 ,a f9al appeal is giv5 to ! ar*bi%op ( ! p>ticul> prov9ce2 b 9 causes t\*+ ! k+ a f9al appeal is giv5 to ! ,upp] ,h\se ( ,convocation ( ! prov9ce4 ,! /atute is aim$ at appeals2 b ! words us$ 9 x conc]n+ citations & all o!r processes are wide en\gh to take away also ! orig9al jurisdiction ( ! pope4 ,no appeal 0 yet giv5 to ! cr[n4 ,cant]bury1 ,york1 ,armagh1 ,dubl91 ,ca%el & ,tuam are put 9 ! place ( ,rome4 ,! ,engli% & ,iri% prov9ces are treat$ z self-conta9$4 ,all ends !re4 ,! ,act ( ,submission ( ! ,cl]gy 7#be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ai7 took away all appeals to ,rome & gave a fur!r appeal1 = lack ( ju/ice1 f ! sev]al c\rts ( ! ar*bi%ops to ! k+ 9 *anc]y4 ,!nce a commission 0 to issue to p]sons nam$ !re9 to det]m9e ! appeal def9itely4 ,?is 0 copi$ f ! !n exi/5t practice 9 admiralty appeals & 0 ! orig9 ( ! s-call$ c\rt ( delegates4 ,x is a moot "q :e!r ?is /atute took away ! appeal to ! ,upp] ,h\ses ( ! v>i\s convocations 9 causes :]e9 ! k+ 0 conc]n$ 7see ,gorham v4 ,bi%op ( ,exet]1 #ae ,q4,b4 #eb2 ,ex p>te ,bi%op ( ,exet]1 #aj ,c4,b4 #ajb2 ,re ,gorham v4 ,bi%op ( ,exet]1 #e ,ex*4 #fcj74 #cg ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ag provid$ t m>ri$ laym5 might be judges ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian if !y 7 doctors ( civil law1 creat$ 9 any univ]sity4 ,?is qualification ev5 0 consid]$ unnecess>y 9 ,*>les ,i4's "t 7,cro4 ,c>4 #beh74 ,canon #abg ( #afjc provid$ t ! judges mu/ be le>n$ 9 ! civil & ecclesia/ical laws & at lea/ ma/]s ( arts or ba*elors ( laws4 ,canon ,law z a /udy _h be5 practically prohibit$ at ! univ]sities s9ce #aecf 7,m]riman1 ,?omas ,cromwell1 i4 #adb-adc2 ,cal4 ,/ate ,pap]s1 vol4 ix4 p4 xxix4 #aag2 ,ow51 ,in/itutes ( ,canon ,law1 viii474 ,! sub/itution ( civilians1 r ?an common lawy]s1 = canoni/s 7civilians1 hi!rto1 n an important body 9 ,engl&7 _h important consequ5ces 7see ,maitl&1 op4 cit4 #ib et seq474 ,h5ry ,,viii4 _h ex]cis$ 8 jurisdiction z ,supreme ,head ?r\gh a vic>-g5]al4 ,edw>d ,,vi4 ex]cis$ orig9al jurisdiction 9 spiritual causes by delegat$ commissions 7see ,ar*deacon ,hale1 ,prec$5ts 9 ,crim9al ,cases1 p4 xlviii474 ,unless ! k+ 0 to be reg>d$ z an ecclesia/ical p]son1 !y 7 n prop]ly ecclesia/ical c\rts2 al?\gh spiritual p]sons might sit 9 !m1 = !y sat only z royal commission]s4 ,! same po9t has be5 tak5 by l>ge bodies ( cl]gy & laity 9 reg>d to ! c\rt ( f9al appeal creat$ by #be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #ai & its pres5t successor ! judicial committee ( ,privy ,c\ncil 7infra3 ,rep4 ,com4 ,ecc4 ,discipl9e1 pp4 #i1 #id et seq474 ,at any rate ! orig9al jurisdiction claim$ = ! mon>* p]sonally & 8 delegates1 "u ,h5ry ,,viii4 & ,edw>d ,,vi41 has n p]man5tly rema9$4 ,9 !ory1 ,hook]'s cont5tions h be5 conc$$ t k+s _c 9 _! own prop] p]sons decide que/ions ab\t matt]s ( fai? & ,*ri/ian religion & t !y h n ord9>y spiritual p[] 7,ecc4 ,pol4 vii4 #h1 #a1 #f2 cf4 ,,xxxix4 ,articles1 ,art4 #cg74 ,"u ,h5ry ,,viii4 a sy/em began ( mak+ c]ta9 crimes1 :i* previ\sly _h be5 only ( spiritual cognizance1 felonies 7#be ,h54 ,,viii4 c4 #f71 exclud+ !reby spiritual jurisdiction 7,/eph51 ,hi/4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dbi74 ,bigamy 79 its mod]n s5se7 0 ?us made felony 7#a ,jac4 ,i4 c4 #aa74 ,9 ?is reign & ! next1 temporal c\rts 7 sometimes giv5 jurisdiction ov] purely spiritual (f5ces4 ,a trace ( ?is rema9s 9 #a ,edw4 ,,vi4 c4 #a 7/ill on ! /atute book2 ,/eph51 ,hi/4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dci74 ,o!r traces occur 9 ! ,acts ( ,uni=mity1 :i* make (f5ces ( deprav+ ! ,book ( ,common ,pray] triable at ,assizes 7betwe5 #bc ,eliz4 c4 #a & #g #h ,vict4 c4 #ajb--;also at ,sessions7 z well z 9 ! c\rts ,*ri/ian4 ,dur+ ,edw>d ,,vi4's "t ! c\rts ,*ri/ian seem practically to h ceas$ to ex]cise crim9al jurisdiction 7,hale1 ,prec$5ts 9 ,crim9al ,cases1 p4 xlix474 ,b !y sat aga9 = ?is purpose "u ,m>y & ,elizabe? & 7save betwe5 #afdj & #affa7 cont9u$ regul> crim9al sessions till t[>ds ! end ( ! #ag? c5tury z cont9u\sly & con/antly z ! k+'s c\rts 7op4 cit474 ,! ord9>y ecclesia/ical tribunals ( ! lat] middle ages /ill subsi/ 9 ,engl&1 at lea/ z reg>ds ! laity4 ,?is is h>dly ! case else:]e 9 ! ,we/]n ,*ur*1 ?\gh "s exceptions are not$ bel[4 ,nev]!less1 _! ex]cise ( crim9al jurisdiction ov] ! laity is n[ 9 practice susp5d$2 al?\gh 9 law x subsi/s 7see ,/eph51 ,hi/4 ,crim4 ,law2 ,ray v4 ,%]wood1 #a ,curt4 ,r4 #aic2 #a ,moore ,p4,c4,r4 #cfc2 ! obs]vations ( ,kelly1 ,c4,b41 9 ,mordaunt v4 ,moncrieffe1 ,l4,r4 #b ,sc4 ,div4 #cha1 & ( ,"l ,col]idge 9 ,m>t9 v4 ,mackono*ie1 ,l4,r4 #d ,q4,b4,d4 #ggj1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ( ,"l ,p5zance 9 ,phillimore v4 ,ma*on1 ,l4,r4 #a ,p4,d4 #dhj74 ,!oretically /ill1 9 cases ( sexual immorality1 p5ance may be impos$4 ,monitions to am5d may be decre$ & be en=c$ by significavit & writ de contumace capi5do1 or by excommunication ) imprisonm5t n to exce$ six mon?s 7#ec ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #abg74 ,! tribunals ?us subsi/+ are ! c\rts ( ! bi%op & ar*bi%op1 ! latt] sometimes call$ ! c\rt ( appeal ( ! prov9ce4 ,peculi> jurisdictions h be5 gradually tak5 away "u ! op]ation ( ! acts e/abli%+ ! ecclesia/ical commission]s4 ,! appeal giv5 to delegates appo9t$ by ! cr[n has be5 transf]r$1 fir/ by #b #c ,w4 ,,iv4 c4 #ib to ! privy c\ncil1 & !n by #c #d ,w4 ,,iv4 c4 #da to ! judicial committee ( ! privy c\ncil4 ,bi%ops may n[ be summon$ z assessors by #ci #dj ,vict4 c4 #ei4 ,!re 0 9 ! "t ( ,elizabe?1 ,james ,i4 & ,*>les ,i4 a ,c\rt ( ,high ,commission ) jurisdiction ov] laity & cl]gy1 bas$ on #a ,eliz4 c4 i4 s4 #ae1 :i* 0 reckon$ z an ecclesia/ical judicature 7#e ,r4 #a1 ,cawdrey's case7 concurr5t ) ! ord9>y c\rt ,*ri/ian4 ,x 0 creat$ by virtue ( ! royal supremacy1 & 0 tak5 away by #af ,c>4 ,i4 c4 #aa4 ,z to its hi/ory see ,/eph51 ,hi/4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dad-dbh4 ,9 reg>d to cl]ical (f5ces1 #c #d ,vict4 c4 #hf 7! ,*ur* ,discipl9e ,act7 creates new tribunals2 & fir/ a commission ( inquiry appo9t$ by ! bi%op ( five p]sons1 ( :om ! vic>-g5]al1 or an ar*deacon1 or a rural dean ( ! diocese mu/ be "o4 ,if !y report a prima facie case1 ! bi%op may 7) ! cons5t ( p>ties7 proce$ to s5t5ce4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( su* cons5t1 ! bi%op may he> ! cause ) ?ree assessors1 ( :om "o %all be a b>ri/] ( sev5 ye>s' /&+ & ano!r ! dean ( ! ca!dral1 or "o ( ! ar*deacons1 or ! *ancellor4 ,?is c\rt is call$ ! consi/ory c\rt1 b is n ! old consi/ory4 ,bo? ^! tribunals are new4 ,b ! bi%op may in/ead s5d ! cause1 9 fir/ in/ance1 to ! old prov9cial c\rt1 to :i* appeal lies1 if x be n s s5t4 ,! ,public ,wor%ip ,regulation ,act 7#cg #ch ,vict4 c4 #he7 gave crim9al jurisdiction ov] b5efic$ cl]ks 7concurr5t ) t ( ! tribunal "u #c #d ,vict4 c4 #hf7 to ! judge "u ! act 9 matt]s ( ! fabric1 ornam5ts1 furniture & decorations ( *ur*es1 & ! conduct ( div9e s]vice1 rites & c]emonies4 ,! judge "u ! act is to be a b>ri/] ( t5 ye>s' /&+1 or an ex-judge ( a sup]ior secul> c\rt1 appo9t$ by ! ar*bi%ops ( ,cant]bury & ,york1 ) ! approval ( ! cr[n1 or1 if !y fail to appo9t1 by ! cr[n4 ,proce$+s "u ?is act are to be deem$ to be tak5 9 ! appropriate anci5t ecclesia/ical c\rts 7,gre5 v4 ,"l ,p5zance1 #f ,a4 ,c4 #feg74 ,! judge "u ?is act became 7^u vacancies occurr+7 ex (ficio (ficial pr9cipal ( ! ar*es c\rt ( ,cant]bury & ( ! *anc]y c\rt ( ,york4 ,?is provision caus$ grave d\bts to be ent]ta9$ z to ! canonical position ( ?is /atutory (ficial pr9cipal4 ,f9ally1 ! ,cl]gy ,discipl9e ,act #ahib 7#ee #ef ,vict4 c4 #cb7 creates yet a new c\rt ( fir/ in/ance = ! trial ( cl]ical (f5ces aga9/ morality 9 ! %ape ( a consi/ory c\rt1 :i* is n ! old c\rt ( t "n1 b is to compreh5d ! *ancellor & five assessors 7?ree cl]gym5 & two laym5 *os5 f a prescrib$ li/71 ) equal p[] ) ! *ancellor on que/ions ( fact4 ,9 _m in/ances ! conviction ( a temporal c\rt is made conclusive on ! bi%op )\t fur!r trial4 ,9 reg>d to moral (f5ces1 jurisdiction "u ?is act is exclusive4 ,b x only applies to cl]ks hold+ pref]m5t4 ,"u all ^! ?ree acts !re is a f9al appeal to ! judicial committee ( ! privy c\ncil4 ,none ( ^! acts applies to ! trial ( bi%ops1 :o are left to ! old jurisdictions1 or :atev] may be held to be ! old jurisdictions 7) t ( ! ,roman ,see elim9at$74 ,z to suffragan bi%ops 9 ! prov9ce ( ,cant]bury1 see ,read v4 ,bi%op ( ,l9coln1 #ac ,p4,d4 #bba1 #ad ,p4,d4 #hh4 7,on g5]al que/ions see ,phillimore1 ,ecc4 ,law1 #fe1 #gc47 ,despite ! bi%op ( ,l9coln's case1 ! law is 9 "s unc]ta9ty4 ,dilapidations are n[ n made matt]s ( suit be=e ! c\rt1 b ( adm9i/rative action by ! bi%op4 ,! subject matt] ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction has be5 gradually r$uc$ 9 ,engl&1 c41 by v>i\s causes4 7#a7 ,! tak+ away ( all matrimonial1 te/am5t>y & ab inte/ate jurisdiction by #bj #ba ,vict4 c4 #gg 7te/am5t>y1 c41 ,engl&71 c4 #gi 7te/am5t>y1 c41 ,irel&71 c4 #he 7matrimonial1 ,engl&72 #cc #cd ,vict4 c4 #aaj 7matrimonial1 ,irel&74 ,matrimonial jurisdiction 0 tak5 f ! bi%op ( ,sodor & ,man 9 #ahhd4 7#b7 ,s9ce #f #g ,w4 ,,iv4 c4 #ga1 ti! has become1 except 9 a few r>e cases1 ti! r5t *>ge1 & its recov]y has be5 entirely an op]ation ( secul> law4 ,mo/ k9ds ( (f]+s are n[ recov]able 9 secul> c\rts4 7#c7 ,adm9i/ration ( pi\s gifts has pass$ to ! c\rt ( *anc]y4 7#d7 ,! en=cem5t ( contractual promises has long be5 ab&on$ by ! c\rts ,*ri/ian !mselves4 7#e7 ,*ur* rates c no long] be en=c$ by suit 7#ca #cb ,vict4 c4 #aji74 7#f7 ,defamation 0 tak5 away 9 ,engl& by #ah #ai ,vict4 c4 #da1 & 9 ,irel& by #bc #bd ,vict4 c4 #cb4 7#g7 ,laym5 c no long] be tri$ 9 ! spiritual c\rts = (f5ces aga9/ cl]ks4 7#h7 ,! jurisdiction = brawl+ 9 *ur*1 c41 is tak5 away by #bc #bd ,vict4 c4 #cb 9 ! case ( ! laity4 ,9 ! case ( p]sons 9 holy ord]s !re is a concurr5t jurisdiction ( ! two tribunals 7,valancy v4 ,flet*]1 #ahig1 #a ,q4,b4 #bfe74 ,?is 0 an (f5ce v frequ5tly prosecut$ 9 ! c\rts ,*ri/ian 7see ,a4,j4 ,/eph5s1 ,ecclesia/ical ,/atutes1 i4 #ccf74 ,! exi/+ ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 ,engl& is !re=e n[ conf9$ to ! foll[+ po9ts4 7#a7 ,discipl9e ( ! cl]gy4 7#b7 ,discipl9e ( ! laity 9 respect ( sexual (f5ces z already /at$4 7#c7 ,control ( lay (fice-be>]s1 *ur*-w>d5s1 sidesm51 organi/s1 p>i% cl]ks1 sextons4 7#d7 ,protection ( ! fabrics ( *ur*es1 ( *ur*y>ds1 ornam5ts1 fitt+s1 c41 sanction+ by lic5ce or faculty any additions or alt]ations1 & prev5t+ or puni%+ unau?oriz$ deal+s by proce$+s on ! crim9al side ( ! c\rts4 7#e7 ,claims by individuals to p>ticul> seats 9 *ur* or special places ( sepulture4 7#f7 ,r>e cases ( p]sonal or special ti!s1 (f]+s or p5sions claim$ by incumb5ts ( b5efices4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,man & ! ,*annel ,isl&s c\rts ,*ri/ian h n[ jurisdiction sub/antially z 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,j]sey & 9 ,gu]nsey !re are c\rts ( fir/ in/ance ) appeal to ! bi%op ( ,w9*e/]4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 ,irel& 0 z 9 ,engl& till ! ,iri% ,*ur* 0 dise/abli%$ 9 #ahfi by #cb #cc ,vict4 c4 #db4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 non-e/abli%$ *ur*es4 ,! position ( a dise/abli%$ or an une/abli%$ ,*ur* is comp>atively mod]n1 & has giv5 rise to new jural conceptions4 ,^! ,*ur*es are collegia licita & come )9 ! lib]ty ( association s freely conc$$ 9 mod]n times4 ,! relations ( _! bi%ops1 prie/s or o!r m9i/]s & lay (fice-be>]s int] se & to _! lay folk dep5d ^u contract2 & ^! contracts w be en=c$ by ! ord9>y c\rts ( law4 ,a cons5sual ecclesia/ical jurisdiction is ?us creat$1 :i* has to ?is ext5t temporal sanction4 ,9 =o consci5tiae spiritual c5sures canonically impos$ are z b9d+ & ecclesia/ical jurisdiction is z p[]ful z ev]4 ,into ! ,briti%-settl$ colonies no bi%ops 7 s5t till #aghg2 & consequ5tly !re 7 no regul> c\rts ,*ri/ian4 ,! bi%op ( ,london 0 treat$ z ! diocesan bi%op ( ! coloni/s 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 & 9 ord] to provide = te/am5t>y & matrimonial jurisdiction x 0 usual 9 ! lett]s pat5t appo9t+ ! gov]nor ( a colony to "n him ord9>y4 ,9 ,new ,york /ate !re is /ill a c\rt call$ ! surrogates c\rt1 surrogate be+ ! regul> "n = a deputy ecclesia/ical judge4 ,9 ,l[] ,canada1 by treaty1 ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* rema9$ e/abli%$4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :atev] may h be5 ! position 9 "s ( !m be=e _! indep5d5ce1 ! ,*ur* has n[ no position recogniz$ by ! ,/ate1 b is j a body ( believ]s ^: relations are gov]n$ by contract & ) :om ecclesia/ical jurisdiction is cons5sual4 ,! position is ! same n[ ?r\gh all ! ,briti% colonies 7except1 z already m5tion$1 ,l[] ,canada or ,quebec74 ,f #aghg onw>ds1 colonial bi%ops & metropolitans 7 appo9t$ by lett]s pat5t :i* purport$ to give !m jurisdiction = discipl9>y purposes4 ,b a s]ies ( cases1 ( :i* ! mo/ rem>kable 0 t ,re ! ,bi%op ( ,natal 7#c ,moore ,p4,c4 ,n4,s4 ,a4,d4 #ahfd71 decid$ t 9 colonies possess+ self-gov]n+ legislatures su* lett]s pat5t 7 ( no value2 & soon aft] ! cr[n ceas$ to issue !m1 ev5 = cr[n colonies4 ,9 ,india ! metropolitan ( ,calcutta & ! bi%ops ( ,madras & ,bombay h "s v limit$ jurisdiction :i* is conf]r$ by lett]s pat5t "u ! au?ority ( ! /atutes #ec ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #aee & #c #d ,w4 ,,iv4 c4 #he4 ,b ! o!r ,indian bi%ops h no position recogniz$ by ! ,/ate & no jurisdiction1 except cons5sual4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 ,scotl&4 ,! ,*ur* _h ! same jurisdiction 9 ,scotl&1 & ex]cis$ x ?r\gh simil> c\rts to ^? :i* %e _h 9 ,engl& & ,france1 till ab\t #aegj4 ,z late z #aeff ,ar*bi%op ,hamilton ( ,glasg[1 ^u 8 appo9tm5t1 _h re/itution ( 8 jurisdiction 9 ! probate ( te/am5ts & o!r matt]s 7,kei?1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,scotti% ,bi%ops1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahbd1 p4 #ch74 ,!re 0 an int]val ( unc]ta9ty1 ) at any rate titul> bi%ops1 till #aeib4 ,!n p>liam5t enact$ a new sy/em ( ,*ur* c\rts :i*1 ?\gh to "s ext5t 9 its turn sup]s$$ by ! revival ( episcopacy "u ,james ,,vi41 0 reviv$ or ratifi$ by ! act ( #afij1 c4 #g1 & /&s to ?is day4 ,x is a ,presbyt]ian sy/em1 & ! ,scotti% ,episcopal ,*ur* is a dise/abli%$ & volunt>y body s9ce #afij4 ,! ,presbyt]ian c\rts ?us creat$ are arrang$ 9 asc5d+ ord]3-- 7a7 ,kirk ,session consi/s ( ! m9i/] ( ! p>i% & ! rul+ eld]s 7:o are elect$ by ! session74 ,x has cognizance ( sc&al\s (f5ces by laym5 & puni%es !m by deprivation ( religi\s privileges4 ,x does n judge m9i/]s 7,brodie-,innes1 ,comp>ative ,pr9ciples ( ! ,laws ( ,engl& & ,scotl&1 #aijc1 p4 #add74 7b7 ,! ,presbyt]y has jurisdiction1 p>tly appellate & p>tly orig9al1 ov] a numb] ( p>i%es4 ,!re are n[ eighty-f\r presbyt]ies4 ,^! c\rts consi/ ( e p>o*ial m9i/] or pr(essor ( div9ity ( any univ]sity )9 ! limits1 & ( an eld] commission$ f e kirk session4 ,a m9i/] is elect$ to preside z mod]ator4 ,^! c\rts judge m9i/]s 9 fir/ in/ance = sc&al\s conduct4 ,z civil c\rts !y judge 9 fir/ in/ance all que/ions connect$ ) glebes & ! erection & repair ( *ur*es & manses4 ,!y regulate matt]s conc]n+ public wor%ip & ord9ances1 & h appellate jurisdiction f ! kirk session4 7c7 ,! ,prov9cial ,synod consi/s ( a union ( ?ree or m presbyt]ies ) ! same memb]s4 ,!re are n[ sixte54 ,!y meet twice a ye> to he> appeals f presbyt]ies4 ,no appeal c g direct to ! ,g5]al ,assembly1 omisso m$io1 unless ! presbyt]y h s expressly direct$1 or unless !re be no meet+ ( synod aft] ! decision ( ! presbyt]y be=e ! meet+ ( ,g5]al ,assembly4 7d7 ,! ,g5]al ,assembly is ! supreme ecclesia/ical c\rt ( ?is sy/em4 ,x meets annually4 ,! k+'s "l high commission] att5ds ! sitt+s2 b does n int]v5e or take "p 9 ! c\rt's decisions4 ,! c\rt consi/s ( m9i/]s & eld]s1 elect$ f ! presbyt]ies 9 specifi$ proportions1 & ( commission]s f ! f\r univ]sities1 ! city ( ,ed9burgh & ! royal burghs4 ,! ,presbyt]ian ,*ur* 9 ,india s5ds "o m9i/] & "o eld]4 ,! :ole ,assembly consi/s ( #cga m9i/]s & #ccc eld]s4 ,! jurisdiction is entirely appellate4 ,! ,assembly appo9ts a commission to ex]cise "s ( its functions dur+ ! int]vals ( its session4 ,to ?is commission may be ref]r$ ! cognizance ( p>ticul> matt]s4 ,que/ions ( patronage n[ 7by #cg #ch ,vict4 c4 #hb7 belong to ! ,*ur* c\rts2 b n que/ions ( lapse or /ip5d4 ,seats1 seat r5ts1 pews1 ! union & disjunction ( p>i%es & =mation ( di/rict p>i%es are ( secul> jurisdiction4 ,que/ions ( ti!s 7or te9ds7 & m9i/]s' /ip5ds 7 ref]r$ to commission]s by acts ( ! ,scots p>liam5ts beg9n+ 9 #afjg4 ,! commission]s ( te9ds became a species ( ecclesia/ical c\rt4 ,by ,scots act ( #agjg1 c4 #i1 _! p[]s 7 transf]r$ to ! judges ( ! c\rt ( session1 :o n[ con/itute a te9d c\rt 7,brodie-,innes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ach1 #aci74 ,matrimonial matt]s & ^? relat+ to wills & succession 7call$ 9 ,scotl& consi/orial causes7 7 9 #aefc tak5 f ! old bi%ops' c\rts & giv5 to commiss>ies appo9t$ by ! cr[n ) an appeal to ! c\rt ( session1 :i* by act #afji1 c4 #f1 0 decl>$ ! k+'s great consi/ory4 ,!y h rema9$ matt]s ( secul> jurisdiction4 ,! ,scots ecclesia/ical c\rts are entitl$ to ! assi/ance ( ! secul> c\rts to c>ry out _! jurisdiction by due assi/ance4 ,)9 ! limits ( _! jurisdiction !y are supreme4 ,b if a c\rt g outside its jurisdiction1 or refuse to ex]cise p[]s conf]r$ on x by law1 ! civil c\rt may r$uce 7i4e4 set aside7 ! s5t5ce & aw>d damages to ! p>ty aggriev$4 ,prote/ant cont95tal ,european /ates4 ,) ! ,re=mation 9 ! #af? c5tury1 ,*ur* c\rts prop]ly speak+ disappe>$ f ! non-episcopal religi\s communities :i* 7 e/abli%$ 9 ,holl&1 9 ! ,prote/ant /ates ( ,switz]l& & ( ,g]many1 & 9 ! !n non-episcopal c\ntries ( ,d5m>k & ,norway4 ,discipl9e ov] m9i/]s & o!r (fice-be>]s 0 ex]cis$ by adm9i/rative me?ods 9 ! =m ( trials be=e consi/ories or synods4 ,to ?is ext5t ecclesia/ical jurisdiction is /ill ex]cis$ 9 ^! c\ntries4 ,consi/ories & synods h ex]cis$ discipl9e ( a p5it5tial k9d ov] _! lay memb]s2 b 9 lat] times _! c5sures h g5]ally ceas$ to c>ry temporal consequ5ces4 ,ecclesia/ical jurisdiction on ! civil side = ! trial ( causes soon disappe>$4 ,h]esy has be5 treat$ z a crime to be tri$ 9 & puni%$ by ! ord9>y c\rts ( ! c\ntry1 z 9 ! cases ( ,s]vetus 7q4v47 & ,grotius 7q4v474 ,= ! episcopal *ur*es ( ,sw$5 & ,f9l& ! fir/ con/itution or ,*ur* ord] 0 =m$ 9 #aega4 ,x provid$ = ! visitation ( ! cl]gy by ! bi%op1 & = ! p[] ( ! cl]gy to exclude _! lay folk f ! ,holy ,communion1 subject to appeal to ! bi%op4 ,bo? m9or & major excommunication _h be5 9 use1 & = a long "t public p5ance 0 requir$4 ,! proc$ure und]w5t great modification 9 #afhf2 b public p5ance 0 n tak5 away till #ahee1 & !n confession to & absolution by ! prie/ 9 ! pres5ce ( witnesses 0 /ill requir$4 ,civil jurisdiction 9 causes appe>s to h be5 giv5 up e>ly 7,cornelius1 ,sv5ska ,kirkaus ,hi/oria1 ,upsala1 #ahge1 pp4 #adf1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #bhe74 ,roman ,ca?olic c\ntries4 ,ov] ! re/ ( we/]n cont95tal ,europe & 9 ! colonies ( ,spa91 ,portugal & ,france1 ecclesia/ical jurisdiction rema9$ g5]ally 9 ! /ate :i* we h already describ$ till ne> ! end ( ! #ah? c5tury4 ,! c\ncil ( ,tr5t took away ! jurisdiction ( ar*deacons 9 m>riage que/ions4 ,! te/am5t>y jurisdiction disappe>$ 7z already /at$7 9 ,france4 ,disput$ cases ( contract 7 m (t5 tri$ 9 ! secul> c\rts4 ,rec\rse to ! secul> pr9ce by way ( appel comme d'abus1 or o!rwise1 became m frequ5t & met ) great] enc\ragem5t4 ,k+s began to insi/ ^u try+ ecclesia/ics = treason or o!r political crimes 9 secul> c\rts4 ,s "u ! advice ( 8 m9i/] 7! m>quis ( ,pombal71 ,k+ ,joseph ( ,portugal 9 #agei-agfj claim$ t ! pope %\ld give him p]mission to try 9 all cases cl]ics accus$ ( treason1 & 0 n cont5t ) ! limit$ p]mission giv5 to try & execute1 if guilty1 ! ,jesuits !n accus$ ( conspir+ 8 dea? 7,life ( ,pombal1 by ,c\nt da ,c>nota1 #ahga1 pp4 #abh1 #ada74 ,b !re 0 no sudd5 *ange 9 ! position ( ! c\rts ,*ri/ian till ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,9 ,france a law ( ! ,revolution 7,septemb] #agij7 purport$ to suppress all ecclesia/ical jurisdictions4 ,on ! re-e/abli%+ ( ! ,ca?olic religion on ! basis ( ! new ,concordat1 promulgat$ #ah ,g]m9al1 ye> ,x4 7,april #h1 #ahjb71 no express provision 0 made = ecclesia/ical jurisdictions2 b sev]al bi%ops did create new ecclesia/ical tribunals1 (ficialities 7,migne1 ,dict4 de droit canon41 s4v474 ,! gov]nm5t 9 "s cases recogniz$ ^! tribunals z capable ( judg+ ecclesia/ical causes 7,migne1 ubi sup474 ,9 #ahaj ! diocesan (ficial ( ,p>is ent]ta9$ ! cause betwe5 ,napoleon & ,joseph9e1 & pron\nc$ a decree ( nullity 7,migne1 ubi sup4 s4v4 ,causes74 ,su* litigation z /ill cont9u$ be=e ! spiritual =um 01 h[ev]1 conf9$ 7save 9 ! case ( ! matrimonial que/ions ( pr9ces7 to ! pr(essional conduct ( ! cl]gy4 ,su* neighb\r+ c\ntries z 7 conqu]$ by ,france or revolutioniz$ aft] h] patt]n took ! same c\rse ( suppress+ _! ecclesia/ical jurisdictions4 ,aft] #ahad1 "s ( ^! jurisdictions 7 reviv$4 ,b ! matt] is n[ det]m9$ = all c\ntries :i* h adopt$ codes1 :e!r aft] ! patt]n ( ! ,code ,napoleon or o!rwise4 ,^! c\ntries h creat$ a hi]>*y ( temporal c\rts compet5t to deal ) e matt] ( :i* law takes cognizance1 & a p5al code :i* embraces & deals ) all crimes or delicts :i* ! /ate recognizes z (f5ces4 ,h5ce1 ev5 9 c\ntries :]e ! ,roman ,*ur* is e/abli%$1 su* z ,belgium1 ,italy1 ! ,ca?olic /ates ( ,g]many & cantons ( ,switz]l&1 mo/ ( ! ,lat9 republics ( ,am]ica1 & ! prov9ce ( ,quebec1 & a =tiori :]e ?is ,*ur* is n e/abli%$1 !re is n[ no discipl9e ov] ! laity1 except p5it5tial1 & no jurisdiction ex]cis$ 9 civil suits1 except possibly ! matrimonial que/ions ( pr9ces 7( :i* !re 0 an example 9 ! case ( ! reign+ pr9ce ( ,monaco74 ,9 ,spa9 causes ( nullity & divorce a ?oro1 9 ,portugal causes ( nullity betwe5 ,ca?olics1 are /ill = ! c\rt ,*ri/ian4 ,9 ,p]u1 ! old ecclesia/ical matrimonial jurisdiction sub/antially rema9s 7,lehr1 ,le ,m>iage dans les pr9cipaux pays1 #ahii1 arts4 #cfb1 #gig1 #ggb1 #gha74 ,o!rwise ^! ?ree c\ntries are ,code c\ntries4 ,9 ,au/ria1 ! anci5t ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 0 tak5 away by v>i\s acts ( legislation f #agha to #ahef2 ev5 volunt>y jurisdiction z to disp5sations4 ,! ,concordat ( #ahef & consequ5t legislation re/or$ matrimonial jurisdiction to ! c\rts ,*ri/ian ov] m>riages betwe5 ,roman ,ca?olics4 ,9 #ahfh ?is 0 tak5 away4 ,! ,au/rian bi%ops1 h[ev]1 ma9ta9 _! tribunals = spiritual purposes1 & insi/ t su* ?+s z divorce a v9culo mu/ be grant$ by _! au?ority 7,ai*n]1 ,comp5dium juris ecclesia/ici1 pp4 #eea-eec74 ,by cons5t & submission ( h] memb]s1 ! ,roman ,*ur* decides 9 =o consci5tiae que/ions ( m>riage1 betro?al & legitimacy ev]y:]e2 b no temporal consequ5ces foll[ except 9 ,spa91 ,portugal & ,p]u4 ,! position 9 ,france 0 ! same z t 9 ,belgium1 ,italy1 c41 till #aijf1 :5 ! ,*ur* ceas$ to be e/abli%$4 ,! only ,lat9 c\ntries 9 :i* conflict has n aris5 appe> to be ! pr9cipality ( ,&orra & ! republic ( ,san ,m>9o 7,giron y ,areas1 ,situacion juridica de la ,iglesia ,catolica1 ,madrid1 #aije1 p4 #agc et seq474 ,ev5 z to ! discipl9e ( ! ,roman cl]gy x is only 9 c]ta9 limit$ cases t "o c speak ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction4 ,bi%ops & b5efic$ incumb5ts 7cures7 mu/ be regul>ly tri$2 & :]e ! ,*ur* is e/abli%$ ! canonical c\rts are recogniz$4 ,b ! majority ( p>i%es are s]v$ by m]e dess]vants or vicaires1 :o h no rights & c be recall$ & dismiss$ by m]e adm9i/rative ord] )\t trial 7,migne1 ubi sup4 s4v4 ,inamovibilite1 ,dess]vants74 ,! ,napoleonic legislation re-e/abli%$ ! appel comme d'abus 7,articles organiques1 art4 #f74 ,! rec\rse 0 n[ to ! c\ncil ( /ate 7see ,migne1 ubi supra1 ,(ficialite74 ,b ! revocation ( a dess]vant1 & ! =bidd+ him ! execution ( 8 m9i/ry 9 ! diocese1 0 n a case 9 :i* ! c\ncil ( /ate w\ld int]f]e 7,migne1 ubi sup4 ,appel comme d'abus1 ,conseil d'etat74 ,jurisdiction 9 ,anglican communion4 ,9 ^? prov9ces ( ! ,anglican communion :]e ! ,*ur* is n e/abli%$ by ! /ate1 ! t5d5cy is n to attempt any ext]nal discipl9e ov] ! laity2 b on ! o!r h& to ex]cise cons5sual jurisdiction ov] ! cl]gy & (fice-be>]s ?r\gh c\rts ne>ly modell$ on ! old canonical patt]ns4 ,mod]n jurisdiction ( ,*ur* ( ,rome4 ,9 ! ,roman communion1 on ! o!r h&1 bo? :]e ! ,*ur* is e/abli%$ & :]e x is n1 ! t5d5cy is to r$uce ! /atus ( cure to t ( dess]vant1 & to deal ) all memb]s ( ! prie/ly or l[] ord]s by adm9i/rative me?ods4 ,?is practice obta9s 9 all mission>y c\ntries1 e4g4 ,irel& & also 9 ,belgium 7,s4,b4 ,smi?1 ,elem5ts ( ,ecclesia/ical ,law1 ,new ,york1 i4 #aig et seq42 p4 #djc et seq42 ,taub]1 ,manuale juris canonici1 ,sab>iae1 #aijd1 p4 #bgg74 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! #crd pl5>y c\ncil ( ,baltimore 9 #ahhd provid$ t "o rector out ( t5 %\ld be irremovable 7,smi?1 op4 cit4 i4 #aig1 #dai74 ,9 ,engl& !re are few ,roman b5efices 7,e4 ,taunton1 ,law ( ! ,*ur*1 ,london1 #aijf1 s4v4 ,b5efice74 ,a dess]vant has an in=mal appeal1 by way ( rec\rse1 to ! metropolitan & ultimately to ! pope 7,smi?1 op4 cit4 p4 #bja74 ,! bi%op's (ficial is n[ univ]sally call$ 8 vic>-g5]al 7except 9 ,france1 :]e sometimes an (ficial is appo9t$ eo nom9e71 & g5]ally ex]cises bo? volunt>y & cont5ti\s jurisdiction 7op4 cit4 i4 #cgg74 ,z ( old1 he mu/ be at lea/ tonsur$ & )\t a wife liv+4 ,at ! ,vatican ,c\ncil1 a desire 0 express$ t he %\ld be a prie/ 7ib474 ,he %\ld be a doctor 9 !ology or a lic5tiate 9 canon law 7ib4 p4 #cgh74 ,:e!r a bi%op is b\nd to appo9t a vic>-g5]al is /ill disput$ 7ib4 p4 #chj2 cf4 supra2 contra1 ,b\ix1 ,in/4 ,juris ,canon4 ,de ,judic4 i4 #dje74 ,9 #ahca ! pope enact$ t 9 all ! dioceses ( ! !n ,pontifical ,/ates1 ! c\rt ( fir/ in/ance = ! crim9al causes ( ecclesia/ics %\ld consi/ ( ! ord9>y & f\r o!r judges4 ,9 ! diocese ( ,rome1 ! c\rt ( ! c>d9al vic>-g5]al consi/s ( su* vic>-g5]al & f\r o!r prelates 7,smi?1 ubi supra74 ,9 ! ,roman communion 9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 !re are commissions ( inve/igation appo9t$ to he> 9 fir/ in/ance ! crim9al causes ( cl]ks4 ,!y consi/ ( five1 or at lea/ ?ree1 prie/s nom9at$ by ! bi%op 9 & ) ! advice ( ! diocesan synod4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s9ce #ahhd1 ! bi%op presides on ^! commissions4 ,!y report _! op9ions to ! bi%op1 :o passes f9al s5t5ce 7ib4 ii4 #abi-aca74 ,exemptions n[ include all ! regul> religi\s ord]s1 i4e4 ^? ord]s :i* h solemn v[s4 ,ov] ! memb]s ( ^! ord]s _! sup]iors h jurisdiction & n ! bi%op4 ,o!rwise if !y live out ( _! mona/]y1 or ev5 )9 t enclosure s notori\sly (f5d z to cause sc&al4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 !y may be puni%$ by ! ord9>y ( ! place1 act+ z delegate ( ! pope )\t special appo9tm5t 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 vi4 c4 #c74 ,9 ! second case1 ! bi%op may require ! sup]ior to puni% )9 a c]ta9 "t & to c]tify ! puni%m5t to him2 9 default he himself may puni% 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 xxv4 c4 #ad1 cf4 ,smi?1 op4 cit4 i4 #bjd-bjf74 ,s1 regul>s hav+ cure ( s\ls are subject to ! jurisdiction ( ! bi%op 9 matt]s p]ta9+ !reto 7ib4 p4 #bjf74 ,! exemption ( regul> religi\s ord]s may be ext5d$ to religi\s societies )\t solemn v[s by special concession ( ! pope1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,passioni/s & ,r$emptori/s 7ib4 p4 #bje2 ,sangu9eti1 ,juris ecc4 in/41 ,rome1 #ahjj1 pp4 #cic1 #cid74 ,appeal lies1 9 ne>ly all cases1 to ! metropolitan 7,smi?1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bai-bbc74 ,metropolitans usually n[ h a metropolitan tribunal di/9ct f _! diocesan c\rt 7ib4 ii4 #ada71 b con/ruct$ on ! same l9es1 ) ! metropolitan z judge & 8 vic>-g5]al z vice-judge4 ,9 "s mission>y dioceses1 ! metropolitan1 qua metropolitan1 has a sep>ate commission ( inve/igation1 to try ! crim9al causes ( cl]ks1 s5t5ce be+ pass$ by himself or 8 vic>-g5]al 7ib4 p4 #adb74 ,! next /ep 9 ! hi]>*y1 t ( primates 7supra71 has 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! ,*ur* ceas$ to exi/ = our purpose 7,sangu9eti1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccd71 z a result ( ,trid5t9e legislation4 ,! only appellate jurisdiction f ! metropolitans is ! ,roman ,see4 ,to x also lies a direct appeal f ! c\rt ( fir/ in/ance1 omisso m$io 7,smi?1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbd74 ,! pope's imm$iate & orig9al jurisdiction 9 e diocese is n[ expressly affirm$ by ! ,vatican ,c\ncil 7ib4 p4 #bci74 ,t orig9al jurisdiction he res]ves exclusively to himself 9 causis majoribus 7ib4 pp4 #bdi-bej74 ,^! are 7#a7 causes relat+ to elections1 translations & deprivations (1 & crim9al prosecutions aga9/1 bi%ops1 & 7#b7 ! matrimonial cases ( pr9ces 7,taunton1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,cause74 ,ea/]n ,*ur*4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*1 ! e>ly sy/em ( ecclesia/ical judicature long cont9u$4 ,b a sacr$ "* 0 ascrib$ to ! emp]ors4 ,!y are ano9t$ lords l ! bi%ops 7,balsamon1 9 ,conc4 ,ancyr4 ,c4 xii41 repres5t+ ! view ( ! #ab? & #ac? c5turies74 ,bi%ops 7 (t5 depos$ by adm9i/rative ord] ( ! emp]or2 synods be+ expect$ aft]w>ds to confirm1 or r accept1 su* ord]4 ,! g]m ( ?is deal+ ) a major causa may be f\nd 9 ! practice ( ! ,arian emp]ors 9 ! #d? c5tury4 ,! cause ( ,ignatius & ,photius 0 dealt ) 9 ! #i? c5tury by v>i\s synods2 ^? 9 ! ,ea/ agree+ ) ! emp]or's view = ! "t be+1 :ile ^? 9 ! ,we/ act$ ) ! pope4 7,! details are 9 ,mansi1 ,conc4 9 locis1 & 9 ,hefele1 ,conc4 9 locis1 m briefly4 ,!y are summ>iz$ 9 ,l&on1 ,manual ( ,c\ncils1 s4v4 ,con/ant9ople1 ,rome1 & 9 ,e4,s4 ,f\lkes1 ,manual ( ,ecclesia/ical ,hi/ory1 s4v4 ,c5tury ,,ix47 ,s9ce ^! transactions patri>*s h be5 depos$ by ! ,byzant9e emp]ors2 & ! ,turki% sultans s9ce ! #ae? c5tury h assum$ to ex]cise ! same pr]ogative4 ,! spiritual c\rts 9 ! ,ea/ h p]man5tly acquir$ jurisdiction 9 ! matrimonial causes ( baptiz$ p]sons2 ! ,mahomm$an gov]nm5ts all[+ to ,*ri/ians a p]sonal law ( _! own4 ,! patri>* ( ,con/ant9ople is enabl$ to ex]cise an ext5sive crim9al jurisdiction ov] ,*ri/ians 7,neale1 ,hi/4 ( ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*1 i4 #cj1 #ca74 ,! empire ( ,russia has 9 ! matt] ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction p>tly develop$ into o!r =ms1 p>tly sy/ematiz$ #d? c5tury & lat] ,byzant9e rules4 ,! prov9cial sy/em does n exi/2 or x may be said t all ,russia is "o prov9ce4 ,an exception %\ld be made 9 ! case ( ,georgia1 :i* is gov]n$ by an ex>*1 ) ?ree suffragans "u him4 ,9 ! rema9d] ( ! empire ! titles ( metropolitan1 save 9 ! case ( ! metropolitan ( all ,russia1 & ( ar*bi%op1 7 & are purely honor>y1 & _! hold]s h m]ely a diocesan jurisdiction 7see ,m\ravieff1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,russian ,*ur*1 translat$ ,blackmore1 #ahdb1 translator's notes at pp4 #cgj1 #cij1 #daf et seq474 ,s 9 ,egypt ! bi%op or pope 7aft]w>ds patri>*7 ( ,alex&ria 0 ! only true metropolitan 7,neale1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,ea/]n ,*ur*1 ,g54 ,introd4 vol4 i4 p4 #aaa74 ,! metropolitan ( ,russia f ! "t ( ! conv]sion 7,a4,d4 #ihh7 settl$ at ,kiev1 & 8 prov9ce 0 "p ( ! patri>*ate ( ,con/ant9ople1 & appeals lay to ,con/ant9ople4 ,_m su* appeals 7 tak51 notably 9 ! case ( ,leon1 bi%op ( ,ro/ov 7,m\ravieff1 op4 cit4 p4 #ch74 ,! metropolitical see 0 = a %ort "t transf]r$ to ,vladimir & !n f9ally to ,mosc[ 7,m\ravieff1 *s4 iv41 v474 ,aft] ! tak+ ( ,con/ant9ople 9 #adeb1 ! ,russian metropolitans 7 always *os5 & consecrat$ 9 ,russia1 appeals ceas$1 & ,mosc[ became de facto autocephal\s 7,joyce1 ubi sup4 p4 #cgi2 ,m\ravieff1 op4 cit4 p4 #abf74 ,! ts> ,!odore 9 #aehg ex]cis$ ! p[] ( ! ,byzant9e emp]ors by depos+ ! metropolitan1 ,dionysius ,grammaticus 7,m\ravieff1 p4 #abe74 ,9 #aehg ! see ( ,mosc[ 0 rais$ to patri>*al rank ) ! cons5t ( ,con/ant9ople1 & ! subsequ5t concurr5ce ( ,alex&ria1 ,antio* & ,j]usalem 7ib4 c4 vi474 ,mosc[ became ! f9al c\rt1 9 !ory1 z x _h long be5 9 practice4 ,c]ta9 religi\s h\ses1 h[ev]1 _h _! own f9al tribunals & 7 peculi>s1 exempt f any diocesan or patri>*al jurisdiction = at lea/ all causes relat+ to ,*ur* prop]ty 7ib4 p4 #aca74 ,! subject matt] ( ecclesia/ical jurisdiction 9 ,russia dur+ ! :ole patri>*al p]iod includ$ matrimonial & te/am5t>y causes1 inh]itance & sacrilege1 & _m que/ions conc]n+ ! ,*ur* doma9s & ,*ur* prop]ty1 z well z spiritual (f5ces ( cl]gy & laity 7ib474 ,! bi%ops _h consi/orial c\rts2 ! patri>*s1 *anc]ies & consi/ories 7ib474 ,bi%ops 7 judg$ 9 synod 7see1 e4g4 ! case ( ! ar*bi%op ( ,polotsk 9 #afbb1 ib4 p4 #agi7 & only lawfully judg$ 9 synod 7ib4 p4 #bae74 ,cl]ks & ! dep5dants ( ! metropolitan 7aft]w>ds ! patri>*7 appe> to h be5 immune f secul> jurisdiction1 except 9 ! case ( crimes aga9/ life1 f ! "t ( ,ivan ! ,t]rible 7ib4 pp4 #ahj-aha74 ,! ts> ,mi*ael1 9 ! e>li] #ag? c5tury1 confirm$ ^! immunities 9 ! case ( ! cl]gy ( ! patri>*'s own diocese1 b provid$ t 9 c\ntry places belong+ to 8 diocese1 mona/]ies1 *ur*es & l&s %\ld be judg$ 9 secul> matt]s by ! ,c\rt ( ! ,great ,palace1 !oretically held be=e ! ts> himself 7ib4 p4 #aha74 ,?is ts> limit$ ! peculi> mona/]ies to ?ree1 & gave ! patri>* jurisdiction ov] !m 7ib474 ,! next ts>1 ,alexis1 h[ev]1 by 8 code in/itut$ a ,mona/]y ,c\rt1 :i* 0 a secul> tribunal compos$ ( laym51 to judge 9 civil suits aga9/ spiritual p]sons1 & 9 matt]s aris+ out ( _! manors & prop]ties 7ib4 p4 #aic74 ,?is c\rt 0 n 9 op]ation dur+ ! "t :5 ! patri>* ,nikon 0 also 9 effect fir/ m9i/]2 b ^u 8 decl9e ex]cis$ its full jurisdiction 7ib4 p4 #baf74 ,nikon 0 himself tri$ = abdicat+ 8 see1 caus+ disord] 9 ! realm1 oppression & viol5ce1 fir/ be=e a synod ( ,mosc[ compos$ ( 8 suffragans & "s ,greek bi%ops1 & aft]w>ds be=e ano!r synod 9 :i* sat ! patri>*s ( ,alex&ria & ,antio*1 ! metropolitans ( ,s]via & ,georgia1 ! ar*bi%ops ( ,s9ai & ,walla*ia1 & ! metropolitans ( ,nice1 ,amasis1 ,iconium1 ,trebizond1 ,v>na & ,scio1 besides ! ,russian bi%ops4 ,?is synod 9 #affg depos$ ,nikon1 degrad$ him f holy ord]s1 & s5t5c$ him to p]petual p5ance 9 a mona/]y 7ib4 pp4 #bbj-bcb74 ,! next ts>1 ,!odore1 suppress$ ! secul> mona/]y c\rt1 & direct$ t all suits aga9/ spiritual p]sons %\ld proce$ only 9 ! patri>*al c\rt ( reque/s 7ib4 p4 #bfd74 ,!re 01 h[ev]1 a species ( appel comme d'abus4 ,causes c\ld be evok$ to ! ts> himself1 :5 any p>tiality ( ! judges 9 any affair 9 :i* !y !mselves 7 int]e/$ 0 discov]$ 7ib474 ,! old sy/em 0 swept away by ,pet] ! ,great1 :o settl$ ecclesia/ical jurisdiction sub/antially on its pres5t basis4 ,! patri>*ate 0 aboli%$ & its jurisdiction transf]r$ by a c\ncil at ,/ ,pet]sburg 9 #agba to a ,holy ,gov]n+ ,synod4 ,! *ange 0 approv$ by ! f\r patri>*s ( ! ,ea/ 9 #agbc 7ib4 *s4 xv4-xvii474 ,pet] p]man5tly transf]r$ to ! secul> =um ! te/am5t>y jurisdiction & t conc]n+ inh]itance1 z also que/ions ( sacrilege 7ib4 p4 #bfd74 ,z ! result ( a long s]ies ( legislation1 beg9n+ ) him & end+ ) ,ca!r9e ,,ii41 all *ur* prop]ty ( e k9d 0 transf]r$ to secul> adm9i/ration1 all[ances1 accord+ to fix$ scales1 be+ made = m9i/]s1 monks & fabrics 7op4 cit4 translator's app5dix i4 p4 #dac et seq474 ,!re rema9 to ! spiritual c\rts 9 ,russia ! purely ecclesia/ical discipl9e ( cl]ks & laity & matrimonial causes4 ,! c\rt ( fir/ in/ance is ! consi/orial c\rt ( ! bi%op4 ,?is consi/s ( a small body ( ecclesia/ics4 ,its decisions mu/ be confirm$ by ! bi%op 7op4 cit4 translator's app5dix ii4 pp4 #dbb-dbc74 ,9 ! m important causes1 z divorce 7i4e4 a v9culo71 x only gives a provisional decision1 :i* is report$ by ! bi%op1 ) 8 own op9ion1 = f9al judgm5t1 to ! ,mo/ ,holy ,gov]n+ ,synod4 ,! gov]n+ synod is ! f9al c\rt ( appeal4 ,x consi/s ( a small numb] ( bi%ops & prie/s nom9at$ by ! ts>1 & is assi/$ by a procurator1 :o is a layman1 :o expla9s to x ! limits ( its jurisdiction & s]ves z ! m$ium ( communication betwe5 x & ! autocrat & secul> au?orities4 ,x deals ) ! secul> crimes ( spiritual p]sons1 if ( importance & if n capital 7^! la/ be+ res]v$ = ! secul> =um71 & ) h]esy & s*ism4 ,x is ! only c\rt :i* c try bi%ops or decree divorce4 ,! ts> =mally confirms its judgm5ts2 b sometimes r$uces p5alties 9 ! ex]cise ( ! pr]ogative ( m]cy 7see ,m\ravieff1 op4 cit4 *4 xvii4 translator's app4 ii474 ,! gov]n+ synod n[ sits at ,/ ,pet]sburg1 b appo9ts delegat$ commissions1 ) a portion ( its jurisdiction1 9 ,mosc[ & ,georgia4 ,! latt] commission is presid$ ov] by ! ex>* 7supra74 ,s9ce ! ,w> ( ,indep5d5ce1 ! k+dom ( ,greece has be5 ecclesia/ically organiz$ aft] ! model ( ,russia1 z "o autocephal\s prov9ce1 sep>at$ f its old patri>*ate ( ,con/ant9ople1 ) an honor>y metropolitan & honor>y ar*bi%ops 7,neale1 op4 cit4 ,g54 ,introd4 vol4 i474 ,! ,holy ,synod possesses ! metropolitical jurisdiction4 ,x sits at ,a!ns4 ,! metropolitan ( ,a!ns is presid5t1 & !re are f\r o!r memb]s appo9t$ by ! gov]nm5t 9 annual rotation f ! s5ior bi%ops4 ,!re is atta*$ to x a gov]nm5t commission]1 ) no vote1 b affix+ 8 signature to ! synodical judgm5ts 7,joyce1 op4 cit4 p4 #ce74 ,! subject matt] ( ! jurisdiction ( ,hell5ic c\rts ,*ri/ian seems to be conf9$ to /rictly spiritual discipl9e1 ma9ly 9 reg>d to ! pr(essional misconduct ( ! cl]gy4 ,imprisonm5t may be inflict$ 9 ^! la/ cases 7ib474 ,all matrimonial causes are he>d by ! secul> tribunals 7,lehr1 op4 cit4 sec4 #ehg74 ,! bi%op's consi/orial c\rt1 consi/+ ( himself & f\r prie/s1 has a limit$ jurisdiction 9 fir/ in/ance4 ,su* a c\rt c only susp5d = sev5 days unless ) ! sanction ( ! ,holy ,synod 7,joyce1 op4 cit474 ,! ,holy ,synod c only inflict tempor>y susp5sion1 or imprisonm5t = fifte5 days1 unless ) ! sanction ( ! ,k+'s m9i/ry4 ,deprivation1 or imprisonm5t = m ?an two mon?s1 requires ! approval ( ! k+ 7ib474 ,! k+ or ! m9i/ry d n1 h[ev]1 rehe> ! cause by way ( appeal1 b m]ely re/ra9 sev]ity ( s5t5ce 7ib474 ,! ,*ur* ( ,cyprus has be5 autocephal\s s9ce at any rate ! oecum5ical synod ( ,ephesus 9 #dca4 ,! episcopate n[ consi/s ( an ar*bi%op & ?ree suffragans 7,hackett1 ,or?odox ,*ur* 9 ,cyprus1 #aija1 *4 v4 et passim74 ,! f9al c\rt is ! isl& synod1 :i* consi/s ( ! ar*bi%op1 8 suffragans & f\r dignifi$ prie/s4 ,x has orig9al & exclusive cognizance ( causes ( deposition ( bi%ops 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bfj1 #bfb74 ,ea* bi%op is assi/$ by at lea/ two (fic]s ) judicial or quasi-judicial p[]s1 ! ar*im&rite :o adjudicates ^u causes ( rev5ue & ! ar*deacon :o adjudicates on que/ions betwe5 deacons 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bgb-bgc74 ,! ex>* ( ! ar*bi%op1 :o is a dignit>y b n a bi%op1 has a seat 9 ! prov9cial synod4 ,9 ! ,balkan ,/ates1 ! sy/em--inh]it$ f ,byzant9e & ,turki% times--( ecclesia/ical jurisdictions prevails1 except t !y are n[ autocephal\s1 & indep5d5t ( ! patri>* ( ,con/ant9ople4 ,matrimonial causes 9 ,s]via are ( ecclesia/ical cognizance 7,lehr1 op4 cit4 sect4 #ija74 ,,au?orities4--,/ ,augu/9e1 ,epi/les2 ,codex ,!odosianus1 edit$ by ,?4 ,momms5 & ,p4,m4 ,mey] 7#aije72 ,code & ,novells ( ,emp]or ,ju/9ian1 ed4 ,j4 ,go?(r$us 7#affe72 ,t4 ,balsamon1 ,9 ,conc4 ,ancyr4 9 ! ,corpus juris canonici 7#ahgi-ahha72 ,ho/i5sis ,sup] ,decretum2 ,w4 ,lyndwood1 ,prov9ciale 7,ox=d1 #afgi72 ,sir ,a4 ,fitzh]b]t1 ,natura brevium 7#aecd72 ,sir ,t4 ,ridley1 ,view ( ! ,civile & ,ecclesia/ical ,law 7#afjg72 ,j4 ,ayliffe1 ,p>]gon juris ecclesia/ici 7#agbf72 ,j4 ,godolph91 ,abridgem5t ( ! ,laws ,ecclesia/ical 7,london1 #afhg72 ,e4 ,gibson1 ,codex juris ecclesia/ici 7,ox=d1 #agfa72 ,d4 ,cov>ruvias1 ,op]a omnia 7,antw]p1 #afch72 ,jean ,h>d\91 ,concilia 7#agae72 ,j4,d4 ,mansi1 ,concilia 7#agei-agih72 ,e4 ,/ill+fleet1 ,ecclesia/ical ,jurisdiction 7#agjd72 ,l4,s4 le ,na9 de ,tillemont1 ,memoires p\r s]vir a l'hi/oire ecclesia/ique 7#agja-agab72 ,p4,t4 ,dur& de ,maillane1 ,dictionnaire du droit canonique 7#agfa72 ,dictionnaire ecclesia/ique et canonique1 p> une societe de religieux 7,p>is1 #agfe72 ,z4,b4 van ,esp51 ,jus ecclesia/icum univ]sum 7,l\va91 #agbj71 ,de recursu ad ,pr9cipem1 obs]vationes 9 ,concilium ,lat]an5se iv42 ,l4 ,?omass91 ,vetus et nova discipl9a ecc4 7#agje-agjf72 ,w4 ,bev]idge1 ,synodicon 7,ox=d1 #afgb72 ,j4,a4,s4 da ,c>nota1 ,life ( ,pombal 7#ahdc72 ,j4,p4 ,migne1 ,dictionnaire de droit canon4 7,p>is1 #ahdd72 ,r4 ,kei?1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,scotti% ,bi%ops 7,ed9burgh1 #ahbd72 ,p4,n4 ,vives y ,cebria1 ,usages y demas d]e*os de ,cataluna 7#ahcb72 ,c4,a4 ,cornelius1 ,sv5ska ,kyrkaus ,hi/oria 7,upsala1 #ahge72 ,m\ravieff1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,russian ,*ur* 7trans4 ,blackmore1 #ahdb72 ,ff\lkes1 ,manual ( ,ecclesia/ical ,hi/ory 7#ahea72 ,e4,h4 ,l&on1 ,manual ( ,c\ncils ( ! ,*ur* 7#ahic72 ,w4,h4 ,hale1 ,prec$5ts 9 ,crim9al ,cases 7,london1 #ahdg72 ,e4,b4 ,pusey1 ,c\ncils ( ! ,*ur* 7,ox=d1 #aheg72 ,c4,j4 von ,hefele1 ,concili5ges*i*te 7,freiburg1 #ahee-ahij72 ,m4 ,gaudry1 ,traite de la legislation des cultes 7,p>is1 #ahed72 ,w4 ,/ubbs1 ,select ,*>t]s 7,ox=d1 #ahie72 ,a4,w4 ,haddan & ,w4 ,/ubbs1 ,c\ncils & ,ecclesia/ical ,docum5ts 7,ox=d1 #ahfi72 ,a4,j4 ,/eph5s1 ,ecclesia/ical ,/atutes 7#ahde72 ,h4,c4 ,ro!ry1 ,return ( ,cases be=e ,delegates 7#ahfd72 ,j4,w4 ,joyce1 ,! ,sword & ! ,keys 7#bnd ed41 #ahha72 ,report ( ,ecclesia/ical ,c\rts ,commission 7#ahhh72 ,p4 ,f\rni]1 ,les ,(ficialites au moy5 age 7#ahhj72 ,s4,b4 ,smi?1 ,elem5ts ( ,ecclesia/ical ,law 7,new ,york1 #ahhi-ahij72 ,s4 ,sangu9eti1 ,juris ecc4 in/4 7,rome1 #ahij72 ,j4,f4 ,/eph51 ,hi/ory ( ! ,crim9al ,law ( ,engl& 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,pollock & ,maitl&1 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,law be=e ,edw>d ,i4 7#ahih72 ,f4,w4 ,maitl&1 ,roman ,canon ,law 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 7#ahih72 ,r4 ,ow51 ,canon ,law 7#ahhd72 ,sir ,r4,j4 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesia/ical ,law 7#bnd ed41 #ahie72 ,j4,w4 ,brodie-,innes1 ,comp>ative ,pr9ciples ( ! ,laws ( ,engl& & ,scotl& 7#aijc72 ,r4,b4 ,m]riman1 ,life & ,lett]s ( ,?omas ,cromwell 7#aijb72 ,s4 ,ai*n]1 ,comp5dium juris ecclesia/4 7#h? ed41 ,brix51 #aije1 especially 9 reg>d to ,au/ro-,hung>ian ,empire72 ,j4 ,hackett1 ,hi/ory ( ! ,or?odox ,*ur* 9 ,cyprus 7#aija72 ,taub]1 ,manuale juris canonici 7#aijf72 ,e4,l4 ,taunton1 ,law ( ! ,*ur* 7,london1 #aijf72 ,report ( ,royal ,commission on ,ecclesia/ical ,discipl9e 7#aijf74 7,w4 ,g4 ,f4 ,p47 ,,ecclesia/ical ,,law1 9 its broade/ s5se1 ! sum ( ! au?oritative rules gov]n+ ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 :e!r 9 its int]nal polity or 9 its relations ) ! secul> p[]4 ,s9ce !re are v>i\s *ur*es1 widely diff]+ alike 9 _! pr9ciples & practice1 x foll[s t a l diff]5ce exi/s 9 _! ecclesia/ical law1 :i* is ! outcome ( _! corporate consci\sness z modifi$ by _! sev]al relations to ! secul> au?ority4 ,at ! outset a di/9ction mu/ be made betwe5 *ur*es :i* are e/abli%$ & ^? t are free4 ,! ecclesia/ical laws ( ! latt] are1 l ! rules ( a private society or club1 ! conc]n ( ! memb]s ( ! *ur* only1 & come "u ! purview ( ! /ate only 9 s f> z !y come 9 conflict ) ! secul> law 7e4g4 polygamy among ! ,mormons1 or violation ( ! tru/-de$s "u :i* ! prop]ty ( a *ur* is held74 ,9 ! case ( e/abli%$ ,*ur*es1 on ! o!r h&1 :atev] ! v>y+ pr9ciple on :i* ! sy/em is bas$1 or ! diff]5ce 9 its practical application1 ! ess5tial conditions are t ! ecclesia/ical law is also ! law ( ! l&1 ! decisions ( ! *ur* c\rts be+ en=c$ by ! civil p[]4 ,?is holds good bo? ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 :]ev] ?is is recogniz$ z ! /ate religion1 ( ! ,ori5tal ,*ur*es1 :e!r closely id5tifi$ ) ! /ate itself 7z 9 ,russia71 or end[$ ) p[]s ov] p>ticul> nationalities )9 ! /ate 7z 9 ! ,ottoman empire71 & ( ! v>i\s ,prote/ant ,*ur*es e/abli%$ 9 ,great ,brita9 & on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,writ]s on ! !ory ( ecclesia/ical law1 moreov]1 draw a fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 t ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome & t ( ! ,prote/ant national or t]ritorial ,*ur*es4 ,?is di/9ction is due to ! claim ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* to be ! only ,*ur*1 h] laws be+ ?us ( univ]sal obligation2 :]eas ! laws ( ! v>i\s e/abli%$ ,prote/ant ,*ur*es are valid--at lea/ s f> z legal obligation is conc]n$--only )9 ! limits ( ! c\ntries 9 :i* !y are e/abli%$4 ,! practical effects ( ?is di/9ction h be51 & /ill are1 ( enorm\s importance4 ,! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 ev5 :5 recogniz$ z ! /ate religion1 is n[h]e e/abli%$ 9 ! s5se ( be+ id5tifi$ ) ! /ate1 b is r an imp]ium 9 imp]io :i* negotiates on equal t]ms ) ! /ate1 ! results be+ embodi$ 9 concordats 7q4v47 betwe5 ! /ate & ! pope z head ( ! ,*ur*4 ,! concordats are ( ! nature ( truces 9 ! p]5nial conflict betwe5 ! spiritual & secul> p[]s1 & imply 9 pr9ciple no surr5d] ( ! claims ( ! "o to ^? ( ! o!r4 ,:]e ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* is n recogniz$ z a /ate religion1 z 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates or 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s1 %e is 9 ! position ( a free ,*ur*1 h] jurisdiction is only 9 =o consci5tiae1 & h] ecclesia/ical laws h no validity f ! po9t ( view ( ! /ate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! root pr9ciple ( ! ecclesia/ical law ( ! e/abli%$ ,prote/ant ,*ur*es is ! rejection ( ali5 jurisdiction & ! ass]tion ( ! supremacy ( ! /ate4 ,! !ory und]ly+ ?is may v>y4 ,! sov]eign may be reg>d$1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,russian emp]or or ( ! ,engli% k+s f ! ,re=mation to ! ,revolution1 z ! vic> ( ,god 9 all causes spiritual z well z temporal )9 8 realm4 ,z ! fir/ f]v5t belief 9 ! div9e "r ( k+s fad$1 h[ev]1 a new basis _h to be discov]$ = a relation betwe5 ! spiritual & temporal p[]s aga9/ :i* ,rome _h nev] ceas$ to prote/4 ,?is 0 f\nd 9 ! s-call$ collegial !ory ( ,*ur* gov]nm5t 7,kollegialsy/em71 :i* assum$ a sort ( tacit concordat betwe5 ! /ate & ! religi\s community1 by :i* ! latt] ve/s 9 ! =m] ! "r to ex]cise a c]ta9 "p ( ! jus 9 sacra prop]ly inh]5t 9 ! ,*ur* 7see ,,puf5dorf1 ,,samuel74 ,?is _h great & la/+ effects on ! developm5t ( ! !ory ( ,prote/ant ecclesia/ical law on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,9 ,engl&1 on ! o!r h&1 ow+ to ! peculi> "* ( ! ,re=mation !re & ( ! ,*ur* t 0 its outcome1 no !ory ( ! ecclesia/ical law is conceivable t w\ld be satisfactory at once to lawy]s & to all s*ools ( op9ion )9 ! ,*ur*4 ,?is has be5 abundantly prov$ by ! attitude ( increas+ opposition assum$ by ! cl]gy1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,tract>ian movem5t1 t[>ds ! civil p[] 9 matt]s ecclesia/ical1 an attitude impossible to ju/ify on any accept$ !ory ( ! ,e/abli%m5t 7see bel[74 ,prote/ant ecclesia/ical law1 !n1 is di/+ui%$ f t ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* 7#a7 by be+ m limit$ 9 its scope1 7#b7 by hav+ = its au?oritative s\rce1 n ! ,*ur* only or ev5 ma9ly1 b ! ,*ur* 9 m or less complete union ) or subord9ation to ! ,/ate1 ! latt] be+ consid]$1 equally ) ! ,*ur*1 z an organ ( ! w ( ,god4 ,! ecclesia/ical law ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome1 on ! o!r h&1 :atev] its orig91 is n[ valid only 9 s f> z x has ! sanction ( ! au?ority ( ! ,holy ,see4 ,& "h x mu/ be not$ t ! canon law is n id5tical ) ! ecclesia/ical law ( ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*4 ,by ! canon law is meant1 sub/antially1 ! cont5ts ( ! ,corpus juris canonici1 :i* h be5 l>gely sup]s$$ or add$ to by1 e4g4 ! canons ( ! c\ncil ( ,tr5t & ! ,vatican decrees4 ,! long project$ codification ( ! :ole ( ! ecclesia/ical law ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome1 a "w ( gigantic lab\r1 0 n tak5 9 h& until ! pontificate ( ,pius ,x4 7,see also ,,canon ,,law & ,,ecclesia/ical ,,jurisdiction47 ,! ecclesia/ical law ( ,engl& is 9 complete dep5d5ce ^u ! au?ority ( ! /ate4 ,! ,*ur* ( ,engl& _c be said1 f a legal po9t ( view1 to h a corporate exi/5ce or ev5 a repres5tative assembly4 ,! ,convocation ( ,york & ! ,convocation ( ,cant]bury are prov9cial assemblies possess+ no legislative or judicial au?ority2 ev5 su* purely ecclesia/ical que/ions z may be =mally comm5d$ to _! att5tion by lett]s ( bus9ess f ! cr[n c only be f9ally settl$ by act ( p>liam5t4 ,! ecclesia/ical c\rts are = ! mo/ "p (fic]$ by laym51 ^: subord9ation to ! ar*bi%ops & bi%ops is purely =mal1 & ! f9al c\rt ( appeal is ! ,judicial ,committee ( ! ,privy ,c\ncil4 ,9 l mann] *anges 9 ! ecclesia/ical law are made directly by p>liam5t 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( legislation1 & 9 po9t ( fact a v l>ge portion ( ! exi/+ ecclesia/ical law consi/s ( acts ( p>liam5t4 ,! s\rces ( ! ecclesia/ical law ( ,engl& are ?us describ$ by ,dr4 ,ri*>d ,burn 7,! ,ecclesia/ical ,law1 #i? ed41 #ahdb73--,! ecclesia/ical law ( ,engl& is comp\nd$ ( ^! f\r ma9 +r$i5ts--! civil law1 ! canon law1 ! common law1 & ! /atute law4 ,& f ^!1 dige/$ 9 _! prop] rank & subord9ation1 to draw out "o uni=m law ( ! *ur* is ! purport ( ?is book4 ,:5 ^! laws d int]f]e & cross ea* o!r1 ! ord] ( pref]5ce is ?is3--',! civil law submitte? to ! canon law2 bo? ( ^! to ! common law2 & all ?ree to ! /atute law4 ,s t f any "o or m ( ^!1 )\t all ( !m toge!r1 or f all ( !m toge!r )\t att5d+ to _! comp>ative obligation1 x is n possible to exhibit any di/9ct prospect ( ! ,engli% ecclesia/ical con/itution4' ,"u ! head ( /atute law ,burn includes '! ,?irty-n9e ,articles ( ,religion1 agre$ ^u 9 ,convocation 9 ! ye> #aefb2 & 9 l mann] ! ,rubric ( ! ,book ( ,common ,pray]1 :i*1 be+ bo? ( !m e/abli%$ by ,acts ( ,p>liam5t1 are to be e/eem$ z "p ( ! /atute law4' ,! fir/ pr9ciple ( ! ecclesia/ical law 9 ,engl& is ! ass]tion ( ! supremacy ( ! cr[n1 :i* 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! con/itution means ! same ?+ z ! supremacy ( p>liam5t4 ,?is pr9ciple has be5 ma9ta9$ ev] s9ce ! ,re=mation4 ,be=e ! ,re=mation ! ecclesia/ical supremacy ( ! pope 0 recogniz$1 ) c]ta9 limitations1 9 ,engl&1 & ! ,*ur* itself _h "s pret5sions to ecclesia/ical fre$om4 ,! fre$om ( ! ,*ur* is1 9 fact1 "o ( ! /&+ provisions ( ^? *>t]s on :i* ! ,engli% con/itution 0 bas$4 ,! fir/ provision ( ,magna ,c>ta is quod ecclesia ,anglicana lib]a sit4 ,by ! v>i\s enactm5ts ( ! p]iod ( ! ,re=mation ! :ole con/itutional position ( ! ,*ur*1 n m]ely ) ref]5ce to ! pope b ) ref]5ce to ! /ate1 0 def9itely fix$4 ,! legislative p[] ( convocation 0 held to ext5d to ! cl]gy only1 & ev5 to t ext5t requir$ ! sanction & ass5t ( ! cr[n4 ,! common law c\rts controll$ ! jurisdiction ( ! ecclesia/ical c\rts1 claim+ to h ! exposition ( su* /atutes or acts ( p>liam5t z conc]n ei!r ! ext5t ( ! jurisdiction ( ^! c\rts or ! matt]s dep5d+ be=e !m4 ,& !re=e if ^! c\rts ei!r refuse to all[ ^! acts ( p>liam5t1 or exp\nd !m 9 any o!r s5se ?an is truly & prop]ly ! exposition ( !m1 ! k+'s great c\rts ( common law may prohibit & control !m4 ,! design ( con/ruct+ a code ( ecclesia/ical laws 0 ent]ta9$ dur+ ! p]iod ( ! ,re=mation1 b nev] c>ri$ into effect4 ,x is allud$ to 9 v>i\s /atutes ( ! reign ( ,h5ry ,,viii41 :o obta9$ p[] to appo9t a commission to exam9e ! old ecclesia/ical laws1 ) a view ( decid+ :i* ought to be kept & :i* ought to be aboli%$2 & 9 ! meantime x 0 enact$ t su* canons1 in/itutions1 ord9ances1 synodal or prov9cial or o!r ecclesia/ical laws or jurisdictions spiritual z be yet accu/om$ & us$ "h 9 ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&1 :i* necess>ily & conv5i5tly are requisite to be put 9 ure & execution = ! "t1 n be+ repugnant1 contr>i5t1 or d]ogatory to ! laws or /atutes ( ! realm1 nor to ! pr]ogatives ( ! royal cr[n ( ! same1 or any ( !m1 %all be occupi$1 ex]cis$1 & put 9 ure = ! "t ) ?is realm 7#ce ,h5ry ,,viii4 c4 #af1 #be c4 #ai1 #bg c4 #h74 ,! "w 0 actually und]tak5 & f9i%$ 9 ! reign ( ,edw>d ,,vi4 by a sub-committee ( eight p]sons1 "u ! "n ( ! ,re=matio legum ecclesia/ic>um1 :i*1 h[ev]1 nev] obta9$ ! royal ass5t4 ,al?\gh ! p[]s ( ! #be ,h5ry ,,viii4 c4 #a 7 reviv$ by ! #a ,elizabe? c4 #a1 ! s*eme 0 nev] execut$1 & ! ecclesia/ical laws rema9$ on ! foot+ assign$ to !m 9 t /atute--s mu* ( ! old ecclesia/ical laws might be us$ z _h be5 actually 9 use1 & 0 n repugnant to ! laws ( ! realm4 ,! /atem5t is1 inde$1 made by ,sir ,r4 ,phillimore 7,ecclesia/ical ,law1 #bnd ed41 #ahie7 t ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& has at all times1 be=e & s9ce ! ,re=mation1 claim$ ! "r ( an indep5d5t ,*ur* 9 an indep5d5t k+dom1 to be gov]n$ by ! laws :i* %e has deem$ x exp$i5t to adopt4 ,?is position c only be accept$ if x is conf9$1 z ! au?orities cit$ = x are conf9$1 to ! resi/ance ( int]f]5ce f abroad4 ,if x mean t ! ,*ur*1 z di/+ui%$ f ! k+dom1 has claim$ to be gov]n$ by laws ( h] own mak+1 all t c be said is t ! claim has be5 s+ul>ly unsuccessful4 ,f ! "t ( ! ,re=mation no *ange has be5 made 9 ! law ( ! ,*ur* :i* has n be5 made by ! k+ & p>liam5t1 sometimes indirectly1 z by confirm+ ! resolutions ( convocation1 b = ! mo/ "p by /atute4 ,! li/ ( /atutes cit$ 9 ,sir ,r4 ,phillimore's ,ecclesia/ical ,law fills elev5 pages4 ,x is only by a k9d ( legal fiction ak9 to ! collegial !ory m5tion$ above1 t ! ,*ur* c be said to h deem$ x exp$i5t to adopt ^! laws4 ,! t]ms on :i* ! ,*ur* ,e/abli%m5t ( ,irel& 0 aboli%$1 by ! ,iri% ,c\ncil ,act ( #ahfi1 may be m5tion$4 ,by sect4 #bj ! pres5t ecclesia/ical law 0 made b9d+ on ! memb]s = ! "t be+ ( ! ,*ur*1 z if !y _h mutually contract$ & agre$ to abide by & obs]ve ! same2 & by section #ba x 0 enact$ t ! ecclesia/ical c\rts %\ld cease aft] ! #a/ ( ,janu>y #ahga1 & t ! ecclesia/ical laws ( ,irel&1 except s f> z relates to matrimonial causes & matt]s1 %\ld cease to exi/ z law4 7,see also ,,engl&1 ,,*ur* ,,(2 ,,e/abli%m5t2 c47 ,,au?orities4--,! numb] ( works on ecclesia/ical law is v great1 & x mu/ suffice "h to m5tion a few ( ! m conspicu\s mod]n ones3 ,f]d9& ,walt]1 ,lehrbu* des ,kir*5re*ts all] *ri/li*5 ,konfession5 7#ad? ed41 ,bonn1 #ahga72 ,g4 ,phillips1 ,kir*5re*t1 ,bde4 i4-vii4 7,reg5sburg1 #ahde-ahgb7 incomplete2 ! text-book by ,c>d9al ,h]g5roe!r 7q4v472 ,p4 ,h9s*ius1 ,kir*5re*t d] ,ka?olik5 und ,prote/ant5 9 ,deuts*l&1 #f ,bde4 7,b]l91 #ahfi sqq471 only ! ,ca?olic "p1 a ma/]ly & detail$ survey ( ! ecclesia/ical law1 f9i%$2 ,sir ,rob]t ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl& 7#bnd ed41 edit$ by ,sir ,walt] ,phillimore1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahie74 ,= fur!r ref]5ces see ,,canon ,,law1 & ! article ,kir*5re*t 9 ,h]zog-,hauck1 ,real5cyklopa$ie 7ed4 ,leipzig1 #aija74 ,,ecclesia/icus 7abbreviat$ to ,ecclus471 ! alt]native title giv5 9 ! ,engli% ,bible to ! apocryphal book o!rwise call$ ,! ,wisdom ( ,jesus ! son ( ,sira*4 ,! ,lat9 ^w ecclesia/icus is1 prop]ly speak+1 n a "n1 b an epi!t mean+ *ur*ly1 s t x w\ld s]ve z a designation ( any book :i* 0 read 9 *ur* or receiv$ ecclesia/ical sanction1 b 9 practice ,ecclesia/icus has become a by-"n = ! ,wisdom ( ,sira*4 ,! true "n ( ! book appe>s 9 ! au?orities 9 a v>iety ( =ms1 ! v>iation affect+ bo? ! au?or's "n & ! description ( 8 book4 ,! writ]'s full "n is giv5 9 #a4 #bg 7,heb4 text7 z ,simeon ! son ( ,je%ua 7i4e4 ,jesus7 ! son ( ,eleaz> ! son ( ,sira4 ,9 ! ,greek text ?is "n appe>s z ,jesus son ( ,sira* ,eleaz> 7probably a corruption ( ! ,hebrew read+71 & ! epi!t ( ,j]usalem is add$1 ! translator himself be+ resid5t 9 ,egypt4 ,! :ole "n is %ort5$ sometimes to ,son ( ,sira1 ,b5 ,sira 9 ,hebrew1 ,b> ,sira 9 ,aramaic1 & sometimes 7z 9 ! title prefix$ 9 ! ,greek cod4 ,b7 to ,sira*4 ,! "w is v>i\sly describ$ z ! ,words 7,heb4 text71 ! ,book 7,talmud71 ! ,prov]bs 7,j]ome71 or ! ,wisdom ( ! son ( ,sira 7or ,sira*74 ,( ! date ( ! book we h only "o c]ta9 indication4 ,x 0 translat$ by a p]son :o says t he came into ,egypt 9 ! #ch? ye> ( ,eu]getes ! k+ 7,ptolemy ,,vii471 i4e4 9 #acb ,b4,c41 & t he execut$ ! "w "s "t lat]4 ,! translator believ$ t ! writ] ( ! orig9al 0 8 own gr&fa!r 7or ance/or1 ,greek3 pappos74 ,x is !re=e reasonable to suppose t ! book 0 compos$ n lat] ?an ! fir/ half ( ! #bnd c5tury ,b4,c41 or 7if we give ! loos] mean+ to ,greek3 pappos7 ev5 be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury4 ,argum5ts = a pre-,maccabean date may be d]iv$ 7a7 f ! fact t ! book conta9s app>5tly no ref]5ce to ! ,maccabean /ruggles1 7b7 f ! eulogy ( ! prie/ly h\se ( ,zadok :i* fell into disrepute dur+ ^! w>s = indep5d5ce4 ,9 ! ,jewi% ,*ur* ,ecclesia/icus hov]$ on ! bord] ( ! canon2 9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* x cross$ & recross$ ! bord]4 ,! book conta9s mu* :i* attract$ & also mu* :i* repell$ ,jewi% feel+1 & x appe>s t x 0 necess>y to pron\nce aga9/ its canonicity4 ,9 ! ,talmud 7,sanh$r9 #ajj b7 ,rabbi ,joseph says t x is =bidd5 to read 7i4e4 9 ! synagogue7 ! book ( b5 ,sira1 & fur!r t if our ma/]s _h n hidd5 ! book 7i4e4 decl>$ x uncanonical71 we might int]pret ! good ?+s :i* are 9 x 7,s*e*t]1 ,j4 ,q4 ,review1 iii4 #fia-fib74 ,9 ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur* x 0 l>gely us$ by ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bjj7 & by ,/ ,augu/9e4 ,! li/s ( ! ,hebrew canon1 h[ev]1 giv5 by ,melito 7c4 ,a4,d4 #ahj7 & by ,orig5 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bcj7 rightly exclude ,ecclesia/icus1 & ,j]ome 7c4 ,a4,d4 #cij-djj7 writes3 ,let ! ,*ur* read ^! two volumes 7,wisdom ( ,solomon & ,ecclesia/icus7 = ! in/ruction ( ! p1 n = e/abli%+ ! au?ority ( ! dogmas ( ! ,*ur* 7,praefatio 9 libros ,salomonis74 ,9 ! *ief ,,ms4 ( ! ,septuag9t1 cod4 ,b1 ,ecclesia/icus comes betwe5 ,wisdom & ,e/h]1 no di/9ction be+ drawn betwe5 canonical & uncanonical4 ,9 ! ,vulgate x imm$iately prec$es ,isaiah4 ,! c\ncil ( ,tr5t decl>$ ?is book & ! re/ ( ! books reckon$ 9 ! ,?irty-n9e ,articles z apocryphal to be canonical4 ,! text ( ! book raises intricate problems :i* are /ill f> f solution4 ,! orig9al ,hebrew 7r$iscov]$ 9 fragm5ts & publi%$ betwe5 #ahif & #aijj7 has come d[n to u 9 a mutilat$ & corrupt =m4 ,! beg9n+ z f> z iii4 #g is lo/4 ,!re is a gap f xvi4 #bf to xxx4 #aa4 ,!re are m>g9al read+s :i* %[ t two diff]5t rec5sions exi/$ once 9 ,hebrew4 ,! ,greek v]sion exi/s 9 two =ms--7a7 t pres]v$ 9 cod4 ,b & 9 ! o!r uncial ,,mss41 7b7 t pres]v$ 9 ! cursive codex #bdh 7,holmes & ,p>sons74 ,! =m] has a some:at brief] text1 ! latt] agrees m closely ) ! ,hebrew text4 ,! majority ( ,greek cursives agree g5]ally ) ! ,lat9 ,vulgate1 & (f] ! full] text 9 a corrupt =m4 ,! ,syriac 7,pe%itta7 v]sion is p>aphra/ic1 b on ! :ole x foll[s ! ,hebrew text4 ,ow+ to ! mutilation ( ! ,hebrew by ! accid5ts ( "t ! ,greek v]sion reta9s its place z ! *ief au?ority = ! text1 & ref]5ces by *apt] & v]se are usually made to x4 ,bickell & ,d4,s4 ,m>goli\? h suppos$ t ! ,hebrew text pres]v$ 9 ! fragm5ts is n orig9al1 b a retranslation f ! ,greek or ! ,syriac or bo?4 ,?is view has n comm5d$ itself to ! majority ( s*ol>s1 b !re is at lea/ a residuum ( tru? 9 x4 ,! ,hebrew text1 z we h x1 has a hi/ory ( progressive corruption beh9d x1 & its read+s c (t5 be em5d$ f ! ,septuag9t1 e4g4 xxxvii4 #aa 7read ,hebrew3 umira = ! mean+less ,hebrew3 um]]74 ,! ,hebrew m>g9al read+s occasionally seem to be translations f ! ,greek or ,syriac1 e4g4 xxxviii4 #d 7,hebrew3 b>a %amaym = ,greek3 ektis5 ph>maka74 ,m frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 /range read+s ( ! ,greek & ,syriac are to be expla9$ z corruptions ( our pres5t ,hebrew4 ,sub/antially our ,hebrew mu/ be pron\nc$ orig9al4 ,! re/oration ( a satisfactory text is beyond our hopes4 ,ev5 be=e ! ,*ri/ian era ! book exi/$ 9 two rec5sions1 = we _c d\bt1 aft] read+ ! ,greek translator's preface1 t ! translator amplifi$ & p>aphras$ ! text be=e him4 ,x is probable t at lea/ "o consid]able omission mu/ be laid to 8 *>ge1 = ! hymn pres]v$ 9 ! ,hebrew text aft] *4 li4 #ab is almo/ c]ta9ly orig9al4 ,anci5t translators all[$ !mselves mu* lib]ty 9 _! "w1 & ,ecclesia/icus possess$ no reputation = canonicity 9 ! #bnd c5tury ,b4,c4 to s]ve z a protection = its text4 ,mu*1 h[ev]1 may be done t[>ds improv+ two ( ! rec5sions :i* n[ lie be=e u4 ,! incomplete ,hebrew text exi/s 9 f\r diff]5t ,,mss41 & ! /udy ( ! peculi>ities ( ^! _h already prov$ fruitful4 ,! ,syriac text1 made )\t d\bt f ! ,hebrew1 ?\gh (t5 p>aphra/ic is (t5 sugge/ive4 ,! ,greek translation1 made )9 a c5tury or half-c5tury ( ! writ+ ( ! book1 mu/ possess great value = ! criticism ( ! ,hebrew text4 ,! "w ( re/or+ true ,hebrew read+s may proce$ ) m confid5ce n[ t we h consid]able portions ( ! ,hebrew text to s]ve z a model4 ,= ! re/oration ( ! ,greek text we h1 besides _m ,greek ,,mss41 uncial & cursive1 ! old ,lat91 ! ,syro-,hexapl>1 ! ,arm5ian1 ,sahidic & ,e?iopic v]sions1 z well z a consid]able numb] ( quotations 9 ! ,greek & ,lat9 ,fa!rs4 ,ea* ( ! two rec5sions ( ! ,greek mu/1 h[ev]1 be sep>ately /udi$1 be=e any re/oration ( ! orig9al ,greek text c be attempt$4 ,! unc]ta9ty ( ! text has affect$ bo? ,engli% v]sions unfav\rably4 ,! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion1 foll[+ ! corrupt cursives1 is (t5 wrong4 ,! ,revis$ ,v]sion1 on ! o!r h&1 9 foll[+ ! uncial ,,mss4 sometimes dep>ts f ! ,hebrew1 :ile ! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion ) ! cursives agrees ) x4 ,?us ! ,revis$ ,v]sion 7) codd4 ,hebrew3 alef991 ,a1 ,b1 ,c7 omits ! :ole ( iii4 #ai1 :i* ! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion reta9s1 b = ! clause1 ,my/]ies are reveal$ unto ! meek1 ! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion has ! support ( ! ,hebrew1 ,syriac & cod4 #bdh4 ,sometimes bo? v]sions g a/ray 9 places 9 :i* ! ,hebrew text recomm5ds itself z orig9al by its vig\r2 e4g4 9 vii4 #bf1 :]e ! ,hebrew is1 ,ha/ ?\ a wife8 abom9ate h] n4 ,ha/ ?\ a hat$ wife8 tru/ n 9 h]4 ,aga9 9 *4 xxxviii4 ! ,hebrew text 9 at lea/ two int]e/+ passages %[s its sup]iority ov] ! text :i* und]lies bo? ,engli% v]sions4 ,hebrew4 ,revis$ ,v]sion 7simil>ly ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion74 v]4 #a4 ,acqua9t ?yself ) a ,hon\r a physician accord+ physician be=e ?\ h to ?y ne$ ( him ) ! ne$ ( him4 hon\rs due unto him4 v]4 #ae4 ,he t s9ne? aga9/ 8 ,he t s9ne? be=e 8 ,mak] w behave himself ,mak]1 let him fall into ! pr\dly aga9/ a physician4 h&s ( ! physician4 ,9 ! second in/ance1 :ile ! ,hebrew says t ! man :o rebels aga9/ 8 ,heav5ly ,b5efactor w a =tiori rebel aga9/ a human b5efactor1 ! ,greek text gives a cynical turn to ! v]se1 ,let ! man :o rebels aga9/ 8 true b5efactor be puni%$ ?r\gh ! t5d] m]cies ( a quack4 ,! ,hebrew text is probably sup]ior also 9 xliv4 #a1 ! op5+ words ( ! eulogy ( ! ,fa!rs3 ,let me n[ praise fav\r$ m51 i4e4 m5 9 :om ,god's grace 0 %[n4 ,! ,hebrew phrase is m5 ( grace1 z 9 v4 #aj4 ,! ,greek text ( v4 #a1 fam\s m51 seems to be no?+ b a loose p>aphrase1 sugge/$ by v4 #b1 ,! ,"l manife/$ 9 !m great glory4 ,9 "* & cont5ts ,ecclesia/icus resembles ! book ( ,prov]bs4 ,x consi/s ma9ly ( maxims :i* may be describ$ 9 turn z moral1 utilit>ian & secul>4 ,occasionally ! au?or attacks preval5t religi\s op9ions1 e4g4 ! d5ial ( free-w 7xv4 #aa-bj71 or ! ass]tion ( ,god's indiff]5ce t[>ds m5's actions 7xxxv4 #ab-ai74 ,occasionally1 aga91 ,b5 ,sira t\*es ! highe/ !mes1 & speaks ( ! nature ( ,god3 ,he is ,all 7xliii4 #bg72 ,he is ,"o f ev]la/+ 7xlii4 #ba1 ,heb4 text72 ,! m]cy ( ! ,"l is ^u all fle% 7xviii4 #ac74 ,?\gh ! book is imitative & second>y 9 "* x conta9s sev]al passages ( =ce & beauty1 e4g4 *4 ii4 7h[ to fe> ! ,"l72 xv4 #aa-bj 7on free-w72 xxiv4 #a-bb 7! song ( wisdom72 xlii4 #ae-be 7praise ( ! works ( ! ,"l72 xliv4 #a-ae 7! well-kn[n praise ( fam\s m574 ,_m deta*$ say+s scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! book %[ a dep? ( insight1 or a practical %rewdness1 or aga9 a p[] ( concise spee*1 :i* /amps !m on ! memory4 ,a few examples out ( _m may be cit$4 ,call no man bless$ be=e 8 dea? 7xi4 #bh72 ,he t t\*e? pit* %all be defil$ 7xiii4 #a72 ,he ha? n giv5 any man lic5ce to s9 7xv4 #bj72 ,man *]i%e? ang] aga9/ man2 & do? he seek heal+ f ! ,"l8 7xxviii4 #c72 ,m]cy is seasonable 444 z cl\ds ( ra9 7xxxv4 #bj72 ,all ?+s are d\ble "o aga9/ ano!r3 & he ha? made no?+ imp]fect 7xlii4 #bd1 ! motto ( ,butl]'s ,analogy72 ,"w y\r "w be=e ! "t come?1 & 9 8 "t he w give y y\r rew>d 7li4 #cj74 ,9 spite1 h[ev]1 ( ! words j quot$ x _c be said t ,b5 ,sira prea*es a hopeful religion4 ,?\gh he prays1 ,r5ew ?y signs1 & repeat ?y wond]s 444 ,fill ,sion ) ?y maje/y & ?y ,temple ) ?y glory 7xxxvi4 #f1 #ad #ai1 ,heb4 text71 he does n look = a ,messiah4 ,( ! resurrection ( ! dead or ( ! immortality ( ! s\l !re is no ^w1 n ev5 9 xli4 #a-d1 :]e ! au?or exhorts m5 n to fe> dea?4 ,l ! ,psalmi/ 7,ps4 lxxxviii4 #aj1 #aa7 he asks1 ,:o %all give praise to ! ,mo/ ,high 9 ! grave8 ,9 8 maxims ( life he %[s a some:at frigid & n>r[ m9d4 ,he is a pessimi/ z reg>ds wom52 ,f a woman 0 ! beg9n+ ( s92 & because ( h] we all die 7xxv4 #bd74 ,he does n believe 9 home-spun wisdom2 ,h[ %all he become wise t holde? ! pl\gh8 7xxxviii4 #be74 ,artific]s are n expect$ to pray l ! wise man2 ,9 ! h&ywork ( _! craft is _! pray] 7v4 #cd74 ,m]*ants are expect$ to *eat2 ,s9 w ?ru/ itself 9 betwe5 buy+ & sell+ 7xxvii4 #b74 ,,bibliography4--,! lit]ature ( ,ecclesiaticus has gr[n v consid]ably s9ce ! discov]y ( ! fir/ ,hebrew fragm5t 9 #ahif4 ,a useful summ>y ( x is f\nd at ! end ( ,israel ,levi's article1 ,sira*1 9 ! ,jewi% ,encyclop$ia4 ,eb]h>d ,ne/le's article 9 ,ha/+s's ,diction>y ( ! ,bible is important = its bibliographical in=mation z well z 9 o!r respects4 ,a complete edition ( ! ,hebrew fragm5ts 9 collotype facsimile 0 publi%$ jo9tly by ! ,ox=d & ,cambridge ,presses 9 #aija4 ,j4,h4,a4 ,h>t's edition ( cod4 #bdh ?r[s mu* light on "s ( ! problems ( ?is book4 ,x conta9s a fre% collation ( all ! *ief au?orities 7,heb41 ,syr41 ,syr4-,hex41 ,lat4 & ,gr47 = ! text1 toge!r ) a complete textual comm5t>y4 ,! acc\nt giv5 9 ! ,synopsis attribut$ to ,a?anasius 7,migne1 ,p4,g41 iv4 #cge-chd7 has an int]e/ ( its own4 ,! beg9n+ is giv5 9 ! ,au?oriz$ ,v]sion z ,a prologue made by an unc]ta9 au?or4 7,w4 ,e4 ,b47 ,,ecgb]t1 or ,,ecgb]ht 7d4 #hci71 k+ ( ! ,we/ ,saxons1 succe$$ to ! ?rone 9 #hjb on ! dea? ( ,beorhtric4 ,x is said t at an e>li] p]iod 9 8 life he _h be5 driv5 out = ?ree ye>s by ,(fa & ,beorhtric4 ,! accession ( ,ecgb]t seems to h br\ght ab\t an invasion by ,a,ethelmund1 e>l ( ! ,hwicce1 :o 0 defeat$ by ,weoxtan1 e>l ( ,wilt%ire4 ,9 #hae ,ecgb]t ravag$ ! :ole ( ! t]ritories ( ! ,we/ ,wel%1 :i* probably at ?is "t did n include mu* m ?an ,cornwall4 ,! next important occurr5ce 9 ! reign 0 ! defeat ( ,beornwulf ( ,m]cia at a place call$ ,ell&un 9 #hbe4 ,aft] ?is victory ,k5t1 ,surrey1 ,sussex & ,essex submitt$ to ,wessex2 :ile ! ,ea/ ,anglians1 :o slew ,beornwulf %ortly aft]w>ds1 ackn[l$g$ ,ecgb]t z ov]lord4 ,9 #hbi ! k+ conqu]$ ,m]cia1 & ,nor?umbria accept$ him z ov]lord4 ,9 #hcj he l$ a successful exp$ition aga9/ ! ,wel%4 ,9 #hcf he 0 defeat$ by ! ,danes1 b 9 #hch he won a battle aga9/ !m & _! allies ! ,we/ ,wel% at ,h+/on ,d[n 9 ,cornwall4 ,ecgb]t di$ 9 #hci1 aft] a reign ( ?irty-sev5 ye>s1 & 0 succe$$ by 8 son ,a,ethelwulf4 ,a some:at difficult "q has aris5 z to ! p>5tage ( ,ecgb]t4 ,"u ! ye> #hbe ! ,*ronicle /ates t 9 8 ea/]n conque/s ,ecgb]t recov]$ :at _h be5 ! rightful prop]ty ( 8 k94 ,! fa!r ( ,ecgb]t 0 call$ ,ealhmund1 & we f9d an ,ealhmund1 k+ 9 ,k5t1 m5tion$ 9 a *>t] dat$ #ghd1 :o is id5tifi$ ) ,ecgb]t's fa!r 9 a late addition to ! ,*ronicle "u ! date #ghd4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 t ! ,*ronicle 9 #hbe ref]s to "s claim ?r\gh ,ine ( ,wessex f ^: bro!r ,+eld ,ecgb]t 0 desc5d$4 ,see ,anglo-,saxon ,*ronicle1 edit$ by ,e>le & ,plumm] 7,ox=d1 #ahii72 ,w4 de ,g4 ,bir*1 ,c>tul>ium ,saxonicum 7,london1 #ahhe-ahic74 ,also a pap] by ,sir ,h4,h4 ,h[or? 9 ,numismatic ,*ronicle1 ?ird s]ies1 vol4 xx4 pp4 #ff-hg 7repr9t$ sep>ately1 ,london1 #aijj71 :]e att5tion is call$ to ! peculi> dat+ ( sev]al ( ,ecgb]t's *>t]s1 & ! view is put =w>d t he rema9$ abroad consid]ably lat] ?an ! date giv5 by ! ,*ronicle = 8 accession4 ,on ! o!r h& a *>t] 9 ,bir*1 ,c>t4 ,sax41 purport+ to date f #gii1 conta9s ! curi\s /atem5t t peace 0 made betwe5 ,co5wulf & ,ecgb]t 9 t ye>4 ,,ecgb]t1 or ,,ecgb]ht 7d4 #gff71 ar*bi%op ( ,york1 0 made bi%op ( t see 9 #gcd by ,ceolwulf1 k+ ( ,nor?umbria1 succe$+ ,wilfrid ,,ii4 on ! latt]'s resignation4 ,! pall 0 s5t him 9 #gce & he became ! fir/ nor!rn ar*bi%op aft] ,paul9us4 ,he 0 ! bro!r ( ,eadb]ht1 :o rul$ ,nor?umbria #gcg-geh4 ,he 0 ! recipi5t ( ! fam\s lett] ( ,b$e1 deal+ ) ! evils aris+ f spuri\s mona/]ies4 ,ecgb]ht himself wrote a ,dialogus ,ecclesia/icae ,in/itutionis1 a ,p5it5tiale & a ,pontificale4 ,he 0 a correspond5t ( ,/ ,boniface1 :o asks him to support 8 c5sure ( ,a,ethelbald ( ,m]cia4 ,see ,b$e1 ,cont9uatio1 sub4 ann4 #gcb1 #gce1 #gff1 & ,epi/ola ad ,ecgb]ctum 7,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahif72 ,*ronicle1 sub ann4 #gcd1 #gce1 #gch1 #gff 7,e>le & ,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahii72 ,haddan & ,/ubbs1 ,c\ncils & ,ecclesia/ical ,docum5ts 7,ox=d1 #ahfi-ahgh71 iii4 #djc-dca2 ,proce$+s ( ,surtees ,society 7,durham1 #ahec74 ,,ecgfri? 7d4 #fhe71 k+ ( ,nor?umbria1 succe$$ 8 fa!r ,oswio 9 #fga4 ,he 0 m>ri$ to ,a,ethelthryth1 daught] ( ,anna ( ,ea/ ,anglia1 :o1 h[ev]1 took ! veil %ortly aft] ,ecgfri?'s accession1 a /ep :i* possibly l$ to 8 long qu>rel ) ,wilfrid ar*bi%op ( ,york4 ,ecgfri? m>ri$ a second wife1 ,eorm5burg1 be=e #fgh1 ! ye> 9 :i* he expell$ ,wilfrid f 8 k+dom4 ,e>ly 9 8 reign he defeat$ ! ,picts :o _h ris5 9 revolt4 ,betwe5 #fga & #fge ,ecgfri? defeat$ ,wulfh]e ( ,m]cia & seiz$ ,l9dsey4 ,9 #fgi1 h[ev]1 he 0 defeat$ by ,a,ethelred ( ,m]cia1 :o _h m>ri$ 8 si/] ,o/hry?1 on ! riv] ,tr5t4 ,ecgfri?'s bro!r ,a,elfwine 0 kill$ 9 ! battle1 & ! prov9ce ( ,l9dsey 0 giv5 up :5 peace 0 re/or$ at ! int]v5tion ( ,!odore ( ,cant]bury4 ,9 #fhd ,ecgfri? s5t an exp$ition to ,irel& "u 8 g5]al ,b]ht1 :i* seems to h be5 unsuccessful4 ,9 #fhe1 aga9/ ! advice ( ,cu?b]t1 he l$ a =ce aga9/ ! ,picts "u 8 c\s9 ,burde1 son ( ,bile1 0 lur$ by a feign$ flight into _! m\nta9 fa/nesses1 & sla9 at ,ne*tanesm]e 7n[ ,dunni*57 9 ,=f>%ire4 ,b$e dates ! beg9n+ ( ! decl9e ( ,nor?umbria f 8 dea?4 ,he 0 succe$$ by 8 bro!r ,aldfri?4 ,see ,eddius1 ,vita ,wilfridi 7,ra9e1 ,hi/orians ( ,*ur* ( ,york1 ,rolls1 ,s]ies1 ,london1 #ahgi-ahid71 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #cd1 #ci1 #dd2 ,b$e1 ,hi/4 ,eccl4 7,plumm]1 ,ox=d1 #ahif71 iii4 #bd1 iv4 #e1 #ab1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bf4 ,,ecgon9e1 9 *emi/ry1 ,c#i;,h#ae,,no#c1 a cycloheptane d]ivative ) a nitrog5 bridge4 ,x is obta9$ by hydrolys+ coca9e ) acids or alkalis1 & cry/allizes ) "o molecule ( wat]1 ! cry/als melt+ at #aih deg4 to #aii deg4 ,c4 ,x is laevo-rotatory1 & on w>m+ ) alkalis gives iso-ecgon9e1 :i* is dextro-rotatory4 ,x is a t]ti>y base1 & has also ! prop]ties ( an acid & an alcohol4 ,:5 boil$ ) cau/ic b>yta x gives me?ylam9e4 ,x is ! c>boxylic acid correspond+ to trop9e1 = x yields ! same products on oxidation1 & by treatm5t ) phosphorus p5ta*loride is conv]t$ into anhydroecgon9e1 ,c#i;,h#ac,,no#b1 :i*1 :5 heat$ to #bhj deg4 ,c4 ) hydro*loric acid1 splits out c>bon dioxide & yields tropid9e1 ,c#h;,h#ac,n4 ,anhydroecgon9e melts at #bce deg4 ,c41 & has an acid & a basic "*4 ,x is an unsaturat$ comp\nd1 & on oxidation ) potassium p]manganate gives succ9ic acid4 ,x is app>5tly a tropid9e monoc>boxylic acid1 = on exhau/ive me?ylation x yields cycloheptatri5e-#a4c4e-;c>boxylic acid-#g4 ,sodium 9 amyl alcohol solution r$uces x to hydroecgonid9e ,c#i;,h#ae,,no#b1 :ile mod]ate oxidation by potassium p]manganate conv]ts x into norecgon9e4 ,! pres5ce ( ! heptame?yl5e r+ 9 ^! comp\nds is %[n by ! production ( sub]one by ! exhau/ive me?ylation1 c41 ( hydroecgonid9e e?yl e/] 7see ,,polyme?yl5es & ,,trop9e74 ,! above comp\nds may be repres5t$ z3 ,,*#b--;,,*----,,* ,,cooh ,,*#b--;,,*----,,* ,,cooh ,,*#b--;,,*------,,* ,,cooh ,n ,,*#c ,,* ,,oh ,n ,,*#c ,,* ,n ,,*#c ,,*#b ,,*#b--;,,*----,,*#b ,,*#b--;,,*----,,* ,,*#b--;,,*------,,*#b ,ecgon9e ,anhydroecgon9e ,hydroecgon9e ,,e*eg>ay ,y ,,eizaguirre1 ,,jose 7#ahcc- 71 ,spani% ma!matician1 /atesman & dramati/1 0 born at ,madrid 9 ,m>* #ahcc1 & 0 educat$ at ! gramm> s*ool ( ,murcia1 :5ce he proce$$ to ! ,escuela de ,cam9os at ! capital4 ,8 exempl>y dilig5ce & unusual ma!matical capacity 7 soon notic$4 ,9 #ahec he pass$ out at ! head ( ! li/ ( eng9e]s1 &1 aft] a brief practical exp]i5ce at ,alm]ia & ,granada1 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( pure & appli$ ma!matics 9 ! s*ool :]e he _h lately be5 a pupil4 ,8 ,problemas de geometria analitica 7#ahfe7 & ,teorias mod]nas de la fisica unidad de las fu]zas mat]iales 7#ahfg7 are said to be e/eem$ by compet5t judges4 ,he became a memb] ( ! ,society ( ,political ,economy1 help$ to f\nd ,la ,revi/a1 & took a prom95t "p 9 propagat+ ,free ,trade doctr9es 9 ! press & on ! plat=m4 ,he 0 cle>ly m>k$ out = (fice1 & :5 ! popul> movem5t ( #ahfh ov]?rew ! mon>*y1 he resign$ 8 po/ = a place 9 ! revolution>y cab9et4 ,betwe5 #ahfg & #ahgd he act$ z m9i/] ( education & ( f9ance2 ^u ! re/oration ( ! ,b\rbon dyna/y he )drew f politics1 & won a new reputation z a dramati/4 ,z e>ly z #ahfg he wrote ,la ,hija natural1 :i* 0 reject$1 & rema9$ unkn[n till #ahgg1 :5 x appe>$ ) ! title ( ,p>a tal culpa tal p5a4 ,ano!r play1 ,la ,ultima ,no*e1 also writt5 9 #ahfg1 0 produc$ 9 #ahge2 b 9 ! latt] ye> ,e*eg>ay 0 already accept$ z ! successful au?or ( ,el ,libro talon>io1 play$ at ! ,teatro de ,apolo on ! #ah? ( ,febru>y #ahgd1 "u ! transp>5t pseudonym ( ,jorge ,hayaseca4 ,lat] 9 ! same ye> ,e*eg>ay won a popul> triumph ) ,la ,esposa del v5gador1 9 :i* ! good & bad qualities--! clev] /agecraft & unbridl$ extravagance--( 8 lat] "w are cle>ly noticeable4 ,f #ahgd onw>ds he wrote1 ) v>y+ success1 a prodigi\s numb] ( plays4 ,among ! mo/ fav\rable specim5s ( 8 tal5t may be m5tion$ ,en el puno de la espada 7#ahge72 ,o locura o santidad 7#ahgg71 :i* has be5 translat$ into ,sw$i% & ,italian2 ,en el s5o de la mu]te 7#ahgi71 ( :i* !re exi/s an admirable ,g]man v]sion by ,fa/5ra?4 ,el gran ,galeoto 7#ahha71 p]haps ! be/ ( ,e*eg>ay's plays 9 conception & execution1 has be5 translat$ into sev]al languages1 & /ill holds ! /age4 ,! humor\s prov]b1 8,pi5sa mal y ac]t>as8 exemplifies ! au?or's limitations1 b ! attempt is int]e/+ z an in/ance ( ambiti\s v]satility4 ,8 susceptibility to new ideas is illu/rat$ 9 su* pieces z ,m>iana 7#ahib71 ,man*a que limpia 7#ahie71 ,el ,hijo de ,don ,juan 7#ahib71 & ,el ,loco ,dios 7#aijj73 ^! indicate a close /udy ( ,ibs51 & ,el ,loco ,dios m especially might be tak5 = an un9t5tional p>ody ( ,ibs5's symbolism4 ,e*eg>ay succe$$ to ! lit]>y inh]itance ( ,lopez de ,ayala & ( ,tamayo y ,baus2 & ?\gh he possesses nei!r ! poetic imag9ation ( ! fir/ nor ! in/9ctive tact ( ! second1 x is impossible to d5y t he has rea*$ a l>g] audi5ce ?an ei!r4 ,n m]ely 9 ,spa91 b 9 e l& :]e ,spani% is spok51 & 9 cities z remote f ,madrid z ,muni* & ,/ockholm1 he has met ) an appreciation incomp>ably beyond t accord$ to any o!r ,spani% dramati/ ( rec5t ye>s4 ,b x w\ld be m ?an usually ra% to prophesy t ?is exceptional popul>ity w endure4 ,!re h be5 signs ( a reaction 9 ,spa9 itself1 & ,e*eg>ay's return to politics 9 #aije 0 significant en\gh4 ,he applies 8 ma!matics to ! drama2 no writ] excels him 9 artful con/ruction1 9 ! arrangem5t ( dramatic sc5es1 9 m]e !atrical te*nique1 9 ! focus+ ( att5tion on 8 *ief p]sonages4 ,^! are valuable gifts 9 _! way1 & ,e*eg>ay has1 moreov]1 a p[]ful1 gloomy imag9ation1 :i* is mom5t>ily impressive4 ,9 ! draw+ ( "*1 9 ! inv5tion ( felicit\s phrase1 9 ! contrivance ( v]bal music1 he is defici5t4 ,he alt]nates betwe5 ! use ( v]se & prose2 & 8 hesitancy 9 *oos+ a m$ium ( expression is amply ju/ifi$1 = ! writ]'s prose is n m di/+ui%$ ?an 8 v]se4 ,^! s]i\s %ortcom+s may expla9 ! dim9ution ( 8 vogue 9 ,spa92 !y w c]ta9ly tell aga9/ him 9 ! e/imate ( po/]ity4 7,j4 ,f4-,k47 ,,e*elon 7,fr4 f e*elle1 ladd]71 9 milit>y tactics1 a =mation ( troops 9 :i* ea* body ( troops is retir$ on1 b n beh9d1 ! flank ( ! next 9 front1 ! position ( ! :ole ?us resembl+ ! /eps ( a /aircase4 ,to =m e*elon f l9e1 ! p>ts ( ! l9e move (f1 ea* direct to its front1 9 succession1 s t :5 ! =mation is complet$ ! rightmo/ body1 = example1 is f>!/ advanc$1 ! "o orig9ally next on its left is to ! left re>1 a ?ird is to ! left re> ( ! second1 & s on4 ,! ^w is also us$ m loosely to express successive l9es1 irrespective ( di/ances & relative positions1 e4g4 ! second e*elon ( ammunition supply1 :i* is fully a day's m>* beh9d ! fir/4 ,,e*idna1 or ,,porcup9e ,,ant-,,eat] 7,e*idna aculeata71 "o ( ! few species ( ,monotremata1 ! l[e/ subclass ( ,mammalia1 =m+ ! family ,e*idnidae4 ,x is a native ( ,au/ralia1 :]e x *iefly ab\nds 9 ,new ,s\? ,wales1 inhabit+ rocky & m\nta9\s di/ricts1 :]e x burr[s among ! loose s&1 or hides itself 9 crevices ( rocks4 ,9 size & appe>ance x be>s a consid]able resemblance to ! h$gehog1 its upp] surface be+ cov]$ ov] ) /rong sp9es direct$ backw>ds1 & on ! back inw>ds1 s z to cross ea* o!r on ! middle l9e4 ,! sp9es 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! tail =m a tuft suffici5t to hide t almo/ rudim5t>y organ4 ,! head is produc$ into a long tubul> sn\t1 cov]$ ) sk9 = ! great] "p ( its l5g?4 ,! op5+ ( ! m\? is small1 & f x ! e*idna puts =? its long sl5d] tongue1 lubricat$ ) a visc\s secretion1 by means ( :i* x seizes ! ants & o!r insects on :i* x fe$s4 ,x has no tee?4 ,its legs are %ort & /rong1 & =m1 ) its broad feet & l>ge solid nails1 p[]ful burr[+ organs4 ,9 common ) ! o!r monotremes1 ! male e*idna has its heel provid$ ) a %>p holl[ spur1 connect$ ) a secret+ gl&1 & ) muscles capable ( press+ ! secretion f ! gl& into ! spur4 ,x is a nocturnal or crepuscul> animal1 g5]ally sleep+ dur+ ! day1 b %[+ consid]able activity by night4 ,:5 attack$ x seeks to escape ei!r by roll+ itself into a ball1 its erect sp9es prov+ a =midable b>ri] to its capture1 or by burr[+ into ! s&1 :i* its p[]ful limbs enable x to d ) great cel]ity4 ,! only mode ( c>ry+ ! creature1 writes ,g4 ,b5nett 7,ga!r+s ( a ,naturali/ 9 ,au/ralasia71 is by "o ( ! h9d legs2 its p[]ful resi/ance & ! %>pness ( ! sp9es w soon oblige ! captor1 attempt+ to seize x by any o!r "p ( ! body1 to rel9qui% 8 hold4 ,9 a y\ng] /age ( _! developm5t1 h[ev]1 ! "y are c>ri$ 9 a tempor>y abdom9al p\*1 to :i* !y are transf]r$ aft] hat*+1 & into :i* op5 ! mamm>y gl&s4 ,! e*idnas are exce$+ly re/less 9 conf9em5t1 & con/antly endeav\r by burr[+ to effect _! escape4 ,f ! quantity ( s& & mud always f\nd 9 ! alim5t>y canal ( ^! animals1 x is suppos$ t ^! +r$i5ts mu/ be necess>y to ! prop] dige/ion ( _! insect food4 ,!re are two v>ieties ( ?is species1 ! ,port ,moresby e*idna & ! hairy e*idna4 ,! la/-m5tion$ is f\nd 9 s\?-ea/]n ,new ,gu9ea1 ,au/ralia & ,tasmania4 ,9 all ! sp9es are mix$ ) hair2 9 ! ,tasmanian race !y are ne>ly hidd5 by ! long h>% fur4 ,( ! ?ree-claw$ e*idnas 7,proe*idna7 conf9$ to ,new ,gu9ea !re are two species1 ,bruijn's e*idna 7,p4 bruijnii71 discov]$ 9 #ahgg 9 ! m\nta9s on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ at an elevation ( #cejj ft41 & ! black-sp9$ e*idna 7,p4 nigroaculeata7 ( l>g] size--! type specim5 measur+ #ca 941 z aga9/ #bd 94--) %ort] claws4