,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 d,p stands for the partial-derivative symbol1 or curled 'd'4 7#f7 oo stands for the infinity symbol1 and int for the integral symbol4 7#g7 ,letters followed with a grave accent have originally dots above4 7#h7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,dyer1 ,,john3 ,his poems were collected by ,dodsley in #aggj1 and by ,mr ,edward ,thomas in #aijc for the ,welsh ,library1 vol4 iv4 'poems' amended from 'peoms'4 ,,article ,,ear3 ,the membranous semicircular canals are very much smaller in section than the bony2 in the ampulla of each is a ridge444 'the' amended from 'tbe'4 ,,article ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the3 ,o4 ,callandreau1 ',memoire sur la theorie de la figure des planetes1' ,ann4 obs4 de ,paris 7#ahhi72444 ',callandreau' amended from ',callendreau'4 ,,article ,,eaton1 ,,theophilus3 ,in ,october #afci a form of government was adopted1 based on the ,mosaic ,law1 and ,eaton was elected governor444 ',mosaic' amended from ',mosiac'4 ,,article ,,ecclesiastes3 ,a particular instance is mentioned 7ix4 #ac-ae7 of a beleaguered city saved by a wise man2 but the man happened to be poor1 and no one remembered him4 'beleaguered' amended from 'beleagured'4 ,,article ,,ecclesiastes3 ,such assertions as those of ii4 #bf 7,god gives joy to him who pleases him1 and makes the sinner toil to lay up for the latter71444 'and' amended from 'amd'4 ,,article ,,ecclesiastes3 ,this disagreement comes largely from the attempts made to find definitely expressed ,greek philosophical dogmas in the book2 such formulas it has not1 but the general air of ,greek reflection seems unmistakable4 ,the scepticism of ,koheleth differs from that of ,job in quality and scope444 'the' originally repeated twice4 ,,article ,,ecclesiastical ,,jurisdiction3 ,in the first case1 they may be punished by the ordinary of the place1 acting as delegate of the pope without special appointment 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 vi4 c4 #c74 'special' amended from 'speical'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,viii1 ,,slice ,,ix ,dyer to ,echidna ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,dyer1 ,,sir ,,edward ,,east ,,liverpool ,,dyer1 ,,john ,,east ,,london ,,dyer1 ,,thomas ,,henry ,,easton ,,dymoke ,,east ,,orange ,,dynamics ,,eastport ,,dynamite ,,east ,,providence ,,dynamo ,,east ,,prussia ,,dynamometer ,,eastwick1 ,,edward ,,backhouse ,,dynasty ,,eaton1 ,,dorman ,,bridgman ,,dysart ,,eaton1 ,,margaret ,o',,neill ,,dysentery ,,eaton1 ,,theophilus ,,dyspepsia ,,eaton1 ,,william ,,dysteleology ,,eaton1 ,,wyatt ,,dzungaria ,,eau ,,claire ,e ,,eau ,,de ,,cologne ,,ea ,,eaux-,,bonnes ,,eabani ,,eaves ,,eachard1 ,,john ,,eavesdrip ,,eadbald ,,ebbw ,,vale ,,eadie1 ,,john ,,ebel1 ,,hermann ,,wilhelm ,,eadmer ,,ebel1 ,,johann ,,gottfried ,,eads1 ,,james ,,buchanan ,,eber1 ,,paul ,,eagle ,,eberbach 7town of ,germany7 ,,eaglehawk ,,eberbach 7monastery of ,germany7 ,,eagre ,,eberhard ,,eakins1 ,,thomas ,,eberhard1 ,,christian ,,august ,,gottlob ,,ealing ,,eberhard1 ,,johann ,,augustus ,,ear ,,eberlin1 ,,johann ,,ernst ,,earl ,,ebers1 ,,georg ,,moritz ,,earle1 ,,john ,,eberswalde ,,earle1 ,,ralph ,,ebert1 ,,friedrich ,,adolf ,,earl ,,marshal ,,ebingen ,,earlom1 ,,richard ,,ebionites ,,earlston ,,ebner-,,eschenbach1 ,,marie ,,early1 ,,jubal ,,anderson ,,eboli ,,early ,,english ,,period ,,ebony ,,earn ,,ebrard1 ,,johannes ,,heinrich ,,august ,,earnest ,,ebro ,,ear-,,ring ,,ebroin ,,earth ,,eburacum ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the ,,eca ,,de ,,queiroz1 ,,jose ,,maria ,,earth ,,currents ,,ecarte ,,earth-,,nut ,,ecbatana ,,earth ,,pillar ,,eccard1 ,,johann ,,earthquake ,,eccelino ,,da ,,romano ,,earth-,,star ,,eccentric ,,earthworm ,,ecchellensis1 ,,abraham ,,earwig ,,eccles ,,easement ,,ecclesfield ,,east1 ,,alfred ,,eccleshall ,,east ,,anglia ,,ecclesia ,,eastbourne ,,ecclesiastes ,,east ,,chicago ,,ecclesiastical ,,commissioners ,,easter ,,ecclesiastical ,,jurisdiction ,,easter ,,island ,,ecclesiastical ,,law ,,eastern ,,bengal ,,and ,,assam ,,ecclesiasticus ,,eastern ,,question1 ,,the ,,ecgbert 7king of the ,west ,saxons7 ,,east ,,grinstead ,,ecgbert 7archbishop of ,york7 ,,east ,,ham ,,ecgfrith ,,easthampton ,,ecgonine ,,east ,,hampton ,,echegaray ,y ,,eizaguirre1 ,,jose ,,east ,,india ,,company ,,echelon ,,east ,,indies ,,echidna ,,eastlake1 ,,sir ,,charles ,,lock ,,dyer1 ,,sir ,,edward 7d4 #afjg71 ,english courtier and poet1 son of ,sir ,thomas ,dyer1 ,kt41 was born at ,sharpham ,park1 ,somersetshire4 ,he was educated1 according to ,anthony a ,wood1 either at ,balliol ,college or at ,broadgates ,hall1 ,oxford4 ,he left the university without taking a degree1 and after some time spent abroad appeared at ,queen ,elizabeth's court4 ,his first patron was the earl of ,leicester1 who seems to have thought of putting him forward as a rival to ,sir ,christopher ,hatton in the queen's favour4 ,he is mentioned by ,gabriel ,harvey with ,sidney as one of the ornaments of the court4 ,sidney in his will desired that his books should be divided between ,fulke ,greville 7,lord ,brooke7 and ,dyer4 ,he was employed by ,elizabeth on a mission 7#aehd7 to the ,low ,countries1 and in #aehi was sent to ,denmark4 ,in a commission to inquire into manors unjustly alienated from the crown in the west country he did not altogether please the queen1 but he received a grant of some forfeited lands in ,somerset in #aehh4 ,he was knighted and made chancellor of the order of the ,garter in #aeif4 ,william ,oldys says of him that he would not stoop to fawn1 and some of his verses seem to show that the exigencies of life at court oppressed him4 ,he was buried at ,st ,saviour's1 ,southwark1 on the #aath of ,may #afjg4 ,wood says that many esteemed him to be a ,rosicrucian1 and that he was a firm believer in alchemy4 ,he had a great reputation as a poet among his contemporaries1 but very little of his work has survived4 ,puttenham in the ,arte of ,english ,poesie speaks of ,maister ,edward ,dyar1 for ,elegie most sweete1 solempne1 and of high conceit4 ,one of the poems universally accepted as his is ,my ,mynde to me a kingdome is4 ,among the poems in ,england's ,helicon 7#afjj71 signed ,s4,e4,d41 and included in ,dr ,a4,b4 ,grosart's collection of ,dyer's works 7,miscellanies of the ,fuller ,worthies ,library1 vol4 iv41 #ahgf7 is the charming pastoral ,my ,phillis hath the morninge sunne1 but this comes from the ,phillis of ,thomas ,lodge4 ,grosart also prints a prose tract entitled ,the ,prayse of ,nothing 7#aehe74 ,the ,sixe ,idillia from ,theocritus1 reckoned by ,j4,p4 ,collier among ,dyer's works1 were dedicated to1 not written by1 him4 ,,dyer1 ,,john 7c4 #agjj-ageh71 ,british poet1 the son of a solicitor1 was born in #afii or #agjj at ,aberglasney1 in ,carmarthenshire4 ,he was sent to ,westminster school and was destined for the law1 but on his father's death he began to study painting4 ,he wandered about ,south ,wales1 sketching and occasionally painting portraits4 ,in #agbf his first poem1 ,grongar ,hill1 appeared in a miscellany published by ,richard ,savage1 the poet4 ,it was an irregular ode in the so-called ,pindaric style1 but ,dyer entirely rewrote it into a loose measure of four cadences1 and printed it separately in #agbg4 ,it had an immediate and brilliant success4 ,grongar ,hill1 as it now stands1 is a short poem of only #aej lines1 describing in language of much freshness and picturesque charm the view from a hill overlooking the poet's native vale of ,towy4 ,a visit to ,italy bore fruit in ,the ,ruins of ,rome 7#agdj71 a descriptive piece in about #fjj lines of ,miltonic blank verse4 ,he was ordained priest in #agda1 and held successively the livings of ,calthorp in ,leicestershire1 ,belchford 7#agea71 ,coningsby 7#ageb71 and ,kirby-on-,bane 7#agef71 the last three being ,lincolnshire parishes4 ,he married1 in #agda1 a ,miss ,ensor1 said to be descended from the brother of ,shakespeare4 ,in #ageg he published his longest work1 the didactic blank-verse epic of ,the ,fleece1 in four books1 discoursing of the tending of sheep1 of the shearing and preparation of the wool1 of weaving1 and of trade in woollen manufactures4 ,the town took no interest in it1 and ,dodsley facetiously prophesied that ,mr ,dyer would be buried in woollen4 ,he died at ,coningsby of consumption1 on the #aeth of ,december #ageh4 ,his poems were collected by ,dodsley in #aggj1 and by ,mr ,edward ,thomas in #aijc for the ,welsh ,library1 vol4 iv4 ,,dyer1 ,,thomas ,,henry 7#ahjd-ahhh71 ,english historical and antiquarian writer1 was born in ,london on the #dth of ,may #ahjd4 ,he was originally intended for a business career1 and for some time acted as clerk in a ,west ,india house2 but finding his services no longer required after the passing of the ,negro ,emancipation ,act1 he decided to devote himself to literature4 ,in #ahej he published the ,life of ,calvin1 a conscientious and on the whole impartial work1 though the character of ,calvin is somewhat harshly drawn1 and his influence in the religious world generally is insufficiently appreciated4 ,dyer's first historical work was the ,history of ,modern ,europe 7#ahfa-ahfd2 #crd ed4 revised and continued to the end of the #aith century1 by ,a4 ,hassall1 #aija71 a meritorious compilation and storehouse of facts1 but not very readable4 ,the ,history of the ,city of ,rome 7#ahfe7 down to the end of the middle ages was followed by the ,history of the ,kings of ,rome 7#ahfh71 which1 upholding against the ,german school the general credibility of the account of early ,roman history1 given in ,livy and other classical authors1 was violently attacked by ,j4,r4 ,seeley and the ,saturday ,review1 as showing ignorance of the comparative method4 ,more favourable opinions of the work were expressed by others1 but it is generally agreed that the author's scholarship is defective and that his views are far too conservative4 ,roma ,regalis 7#ahgb7 and ,a ,plea for ,livy 7#ahgc7 were written in reply to his critics4 ,dyer frequently visited ,greece and ,italy1 and his topographical works are probably his best2 amongst these mention may be made of ,pompeii1 its ,history1 ,buildings and ,antiquities 7#ahfg1 new ed4 in ,bohn's ,illustrated ,library71 and ,ancient ,athens1 its ,history1 ,topography and ,remains 7#ahgc74 ,his last publication was ,on ,imitative ,art 7#ahhb74 ,he died at ,bath on the #cjth of ,january #ahhh4 ,,dymoke1 the name of an ,english family holding the office of king's champion4 ,the functions of the champion were to ride into ,westminster ,hall at the coronation banquet1 and challenge all comers to impugn the king's title 7see ,,champion74 ,the earliest record of the ceremony at the coronation of an ,english king dates from the accession of ,richard ,,ii4 ,on this occasion the champion was ,sir ,john ,dymoke 7d4 #acha71 who held the manor of ,scrivelsby1 ,lincolnshire1 in right of his wife ,margaret1 granddaughter of ,joan ,ludlow1 who was the daughter and co-heiress of ,philip ,marmion1 last ,baron ,marmion4 ,the ,marmions claimed descent from the lords of ,fontenay1 hereditary champions of the dukes of ,normandy1 and held the castle of ,tamworth1 ,leicestershire1 and the manor of ,scrivelsby1 ,lincolnshire4 ,the right to the championship was disputed with the ,dymoke family by ,sir ,baldwin de ,freville1 lord of ,tamworth1 who was descended from an elder daughter of ,philip ,marmion4 ,the court of claims eventually decided in favour of the owners of ,scrivelsby on the ground that ,scrivelsby was held in grand serjeanty1 that is1 that its tenure was dependent on rendering a special service1 in this case the championship4 ,sir ,thomas ,dymoke 7#adbh8-adga7 joined a ,lancastrian rising in #adfi1 and1 with his brother-in-law ,richard1 ,lord ,willoughby and ,welles1 was beheaded in #adga by order of ,edward ,,iv4 after he had been induced to leave sanctuary on a promise of personal safety4 ,the estates were restored to his son ,sir ,robert ,dymoke 7d4 #aedf71 champion at the coronations of ,richard ,,iii41 ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii41 who distinguished himself at the siege of ,tournai and became treasurer of the kingdom4 ,his descendants acted as champions at successive coronations4 ,lewis ,dymoke 7d4 #ahbj7 put in an unsuccessful claim before the ,house of ,lords for the barony of ,marmion4 ,his nephew ,henry 7#ahja-ahfe7 was champion at the coronation of ,george ,,iv4 ,he was accompanied on that occasion by the duke of ,wellington and ,lord ,howard of ,effingham4 ,henry ,dymoke was created a baronet2 he was succeeded by his brother ,john1 rector of ,scrivelsby 7#ahjd-ahgc71 whose son ,henry ,lionel died without issue in #ahge1 when the baronetcy became extinct1 the estate passing to a collateral branch of the family4 ,after the coronation of ,george ,,iv4 the ceremony was allowed to lapse1 but at the coronation of ,king ,edward ,,vii4 ,h4,s4 ,dymoke bore the standard of ,england in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,,dynamics 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 strength71 the name of a branch of the science of ,mechanics 7q4v474 ,the term was at one time restricted to the treatment of motion as affected by force1 being thus opposed to ,statics1 which investigated equilibrium or conditions of rest4 ,in more recent times the word has been applied comprehensively to the action of force on bodies either at rest or in motion1 thus including dynamics 7now termed kinetics7 in the restricted sense and statics4 ,,analytical ,,dynamics4--,the fundamental principles of dynamics1 and their application to special problems1 are explained in the articles ,,mechanics and ,,motion1 ,,laws ,,of1 where brief indications are also given of the more general methods of investigating the properties of a dynamical system1 independently of the accidents of its particular constitution1 which were inaugurated by ,j4,l4 ,lagrange4 ,these methods1 in addition to the unity and breadth which they have introduced into the treatment of pure dynamics1 have a peculiar interest in relation to modern physical speculation1 which finds itself confronted in various directions with the problem of explaining on dynamical principles the properties of systems whose ultimate mechanism can at present only be vaguely conjectured4 ,in determining the properties of such systems the methods of analytical geometry and of the infinitesimal calculus 7or1 more generally1 of mathematical analysis7 are necessarily employed2 for this reason the subject has been named ,analytical ,dynamics4 ,the following article is devoted to an outline of such portions of general dynamical theory as seem to be most important from the physical point of view4 #a4 ,general ,equations of ,impulsive ,motion4 ,the systems contemplated by ,lagrange are composed of discrete particles1 or of rigid bodies1 in finite number1 connected 7it may be7 in various ways by invariable geometrical relations1 the fundamental postulate being that the position of every particle of the system at any time can be completely specified by means of the instantaneous values of a finite number of independent variables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 each of which admits of continuous variation over a certain range1 so that if x1 y1 z be the ,cartesian co-ordinates of any one particle1 we have for example x f7q#a1 q#b1 444 qn71 y c41 z c41 7#a7 where the functions f differ 7of course7 from particle to particle4 ,in modern language1 the variables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are generalized co-ordinates serving to specify the configuration of the system2 their derivatives with respect to the time are denoted by q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 and are called the generalized components of velocity4 ,the continuous sequence of configurations assumed by the system in any actual or imagined motion 7subject to the given connexions7 is called the path4 ,impulsive motion4 ,for the purposes of a connected outline of the whole subject it is convenient to deviate somewhat from the historical order of development1 and to begin with the consideration of impulsive motion4 ,whatever the actual motion of the system at any instant1 we may conceive it to be generated instantaneously from rest by the application of proper impulses4 ,on this view we have1 if x1 y1 z be the rectangular co-ordinates of any particle m1 mx ,x'1 my ,y'1 mz ,z'1 7#b7 where ,x'1 ,y'1 ,z' are the components of the impulse on m4 ,now let deltax1 deltay1 deltaz be any infinitesimal variations of x1 y1 z which are consistent with the connexions of the system1 and let us form the equation ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ,sigma7,x'deltax ,y'deltay ,z'deltaz71 7#c7 where the sign ,sigma indicates 7as throughout this article7 a summation extending over all the particles of the system4 ,to transform 7#c7 into an equation involving the variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 of the generalized co-ordinates1 we have d,px d,px x ---- q#a ---- q#b 4441 c41 c4 7#d7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,px d,px deltax ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 4441 c41 c4 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#b and therefore ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7,a#aaq#a ,a#abq#b 4447deltaq#a 7,a#baq#a ,a#bbq#b 4447deltaq#b 4441 7#f7 where _/ d,px squared _/ d,py squared _/ d,pz squared ,arr ,sigmam 7 ----- 7 7 ----- 7 7 ----- 7 1 d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ 7#g7 d,px d,px d,py d,py d,pz d,pz ,ars ,sigmam ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ,asr4 d,pqr d,pqs d,pqr d,pqs d,pqr d,pqs _/ ,if we form the expression for the kinetic energy ,tau of the system1 we find #b,tau ,sigmam7x squared y squared z squared7 ,a#aaq#a squared ,a#bbq#b squared 444 #b;,a#abq#aq#b 444 7#h7 ,the coefficients ,a#aa1 ,a#bb1 444 ,a#ab1 444 are by an obvious analogy called the coefficients of inertia of the system2 they are in general functions of the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 4 ,the equation 7#f7 may now be written d,p,tau d,p,tau ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,this maybe regarded as the cardinal formula in ,lagrange's method4 ,for the right-hand side of 7#c7 we may write ,sigma7,x'deltax ,y'deltay ,z'deltaz7 ,q'#a;deltaq#a ,q'#b;deltaq#b 444 1 7#aj7 where _/ d,px d,py d,pz ,q'r ,sigma7 ,x'----- ,y'----- ,z'----- 74 7#aa7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr_/ ,the quantities ,q#a1 ,q#b1 444 are called the generalized components of impulse4 ,comparing 7#i7 and 7#aj71 we have1 since the variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1444 are independent1 d,p,tau d,p,tau ------- ,q'#a1 ------- ,q'#b1 444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,these are the general equations of impulsive motion4 ,it is now usual to write d,p,tau pr ------- 7#ac7 d,pqr ,the quantities p#a1 p#b1 444 represent the effects of the several component impulses on the system1 and are therefore called the generalized components of momentum4 ,in terms of them we have ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 444 7#ad7 ,also1 since ,tau is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities q#a1 q#b 4441 #b,tau p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 7#ae7 ,this follows independently from 7#ad71 assuming the special variations deltax xdt1 c41 and therefore deltaq#a q#a;dt1 deltaq#b q#b;dt1 444 ,reciprocal theorems4 ,again1 if the values of the velocities and the momenta in any other motion of the system through the same configuration be distinguished by accents1 we have the identity p#aq'#a p#bq'#b 444 p'#aq#a p'#bq#b 4441 7#af7 each side being equal to the symmetrical expression ,a#aaq#aq''#a ,a#bbq#bq'#b 444 ,a#ab7q#aq'#b q'#aq#b7 444 7#ag7 ,the theorem 7#af7 leads to some important reciprocal relations4 ,thus1 let us suppose that the momenta p#a1 p#b1 444 all vanish with the exception of p#a1 and similarly that the momenta p'#a1 p'#b1 444 all vanish except p'#b4 ,we have then p#aq'#a p'#bq#b1 or q#b 3 p#a q'#a 3 p'#b 7#ah7 ,the interpretation is simplest when the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b are both of the same kind1 e4g4 both lines or both angles4 ,we may then conveniently put p#a p'#b1 and assert that the velocity of the first type due to an impulse of the second type is equal to the velocity of the second type due to an equal impulse of the first type4 ,as an example1 suppose we have a chain of straight links hinged each to the next1 extended in a straight line1 and free to move4 ,a blow at right angles to the chain1 at any point ,p1 will produce a certain velocity at any other point ,q2 the theorem asserts that an equal velocity will be produced at ,p by an equal blow at ,q4 ,again1 an impulsive couple acting on any link ,a will produce a certain angular velocity in any other link ,b2 an equal couple applied to ,b will produce an equal angular velocity in ,a4 ,also if an impulse ,f applied at ,p produce an angular velocity omega in a link ,a1 a couple ,fa applied to ,a will produce a linear velocity omegaa at ,p4 ,historically1 we may note that reciprocal relations in dynamics were first recognized by ,h4,l4,f4 ,helmholtz in the domain of acoustics2 their use has been greatly extended by ,lord ,rayleigh4 ,velocities in terms of momenta4 ,the equations 7#ac7 determine the momenta p#a1 p#b1444 as linear functions of the velocities q#a1 q#b1444 ,solving these1 we can express q#a1 q#b 444 as linear functions of p#a1 p#b1444 ,the resulting equations give us the velocities produced by any given system of impulses4 ,further1 by substitution in 7#h71 we can express the kinetic energy as a homogeneous quadratic function of the momenta p#a1 p#b1444 ,the kinetic energy1 as so expressed1 will be denoted by ,tau'2 thus #b,tau' ,a'#aap#a squared ,a'#bbp#b squared 444 #b;,a'#abp - p#b 444 7#ai7 where ,a'#aa1 ,a'#bb1444 ,a'#ab1444 are certain coefficients depending on the configuration4 ,they have been called by ,maxwell the coefficients of mobility of the system4 ,when the form 7#ai7 is given1 the values of the velocities in terms of the momenta can be expressed in a remarkable form due to ,sir ,w4,r4 ,hamilton4 ,the formula 7#ae7 may be written p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 ,tau ,tau'1 444 7#bj7 where ,tau is supposed expressed as in 7#h71 and ,tau' as in 7#ai74 ,hence if1 for the moment1 we denote by delta a variation affecting the velocities1 and therefore the momenta1 but not the configuration1 we have p#a;deltaq#a q#a;deltap p#b;deltaq#b q#b;deltap#b 444 delta,tau delta,tau' d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau' d,p,tau' ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 -------- deltap#a -------- deltap#b 444 7#ba7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pp#a d,pp#b ,in virtue of 7#ac7 this reduces to d,p,tau' d,p,tau' q#a;deltap#a q#b;deltap#b 444 ------- deltap#a ------- deltap#b 444 7#bb7 d,pp#a d,pp#b ,since deltap#a1 deltap#b1 444 may be taken to be independent1 we infer that d,p,tau' d,p,tau' q#a -------1 q#b -------1 444 7#bc7 d,pp#a d,pp#b ,in the very remarkable exposition of the matter given by ,james ,clerk ,maxwell in his ,electricity and ,magnetism1 the ,hamiltonian expressions 7#bc7 for the velocities in terms of the impulses are obtained directly from first principles1 and the formulae 7#ac7 are then deduced by an inversion of the above argument4 ,routh's modification4 ,an important modification of the above process was introduced by ,e4,j4 ,routh and ,lord ,kelvin and ,p4,g4 ,tait4 ,instead of expressing the kinetic energy in terms of the velocities alone1 or in terms of the momenta alone1 we may express it in terms of the velocities corresponding to some of the co-ordinates1 say q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 and of the momenta corresponding to the remaining co-ordinates1 which 7for the sake of distinction7 we may denote by chi1 chi'1 chi1 4444 ,thus1 ,tau being expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 chi1 chi'1 chi1 4441 the momenta corresponding to the co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 may be written d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau kappa --------1 kappa' ---------1 kappa ------------1 444 7#bd7 d,pchi d,pchi' d,p4chi ,these equations1 when written out in full1 determine chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 as linear functions of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,we now consider the function ,r ,tau - kappachi' - kappa'chi' - kappachi - 4441 7#be7 supposed expressed1 by means of the above relations in terms of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,performing the operation delta on both sides of 7#be71 we have d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,tau ----- deltaq#a 444 --------- deltakappa 444 ------- deltaq#a 444 -------- deltachi 444 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a d,pchi - kappad,pchi - chideltakappa - 444 1 7#bf7 where1 for brevity1 only one term of each type has been exhibited4 ,omitting the terms which cancel in virtue of 7#bd71 we have d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau ----- deltaq#a 444 --------- deltakappa 444 ------- deltaq#a 444 - chideltakappa - 444 7#bg7 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a ,since the variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqm1 deltakappa1 deltakappa'1 deltakappa1 444 may be taken to be independent1 we have d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r p#a ------- -----1 p#b ------- -----1 444 7#bh7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b and d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r chi - ---------1 chi' - ----------1 chi - ---------1 444 7#bi7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,an important property of the present transformation is that1 when expressed in terms of the new variables1 the kinetic energy is the sum of two homogeneous quadratic functions1 thus ,tau ,k1 7#cj7 where involves the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm alone1 and ,k the momenta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 alone4 ,for in virtue of 7#bi7 we have1 from 7#be71 _/ d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r ,tau ,r - 7 kappa --------- kappa' ---------- kappa ----------- 444 71 7#ca7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa _/ and it is evident that the terms in ,r which are bilinear in respect of the two sets of variables q#a1 q#b1 444 qm and kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 will disappear from the right-hand side4 ,maximum and minimum energy4 ,it may be noted that the formula 7#cj7 gives immediate proof of two important theorems due to ,bertrand and to ,lord ,kelvin respectively4 ,let us suppose1 in the first place1 that the system is started by given impulses of certain types1 but is otherwise free4 ,j4,l4,f4 ,bertrand's theorem is to the effect that the kinetic energy is greater than if by impulses of the remaining types the system were constrained to take any other course4 ,we may suppose the co-ordinates to be so chosen that the constraint is expressed by the vanishing of the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 whilst the given impulses are kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1444 ,hence the energy in the actual motion is greater than in the constrained motion by the amount 4 ,again1 suppose that the system is started with prescribed velocity components q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 by means of proper impulses of the corresponding types1 but is otherwise free1 so that in the motion actually generated we have kappa #j1 kappa' #j1 kappa #j1 444 and therefore ,k #j4 ,the kinetic energy is therefore less than in any other motion consistent with the prescribed velocity-conditions by the value which ,k assumes when kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 represent the impulses due to the constraints4 ,simple illustrations of these theorems are afforded by the chain of straight links already employed4 ,thus if a point of the chain be held fixed1 or if one or more of the joints be made rigid1 the energy generated by any given impulses is less than if the chain had possessed its former freedom4 #b4 ,continuous ,motion of a ,system4 ,lagrange's equations4 ,we may proceed to the continuous motion of a system4 ,the equations of motion of any particle of the system are of the form mx ,x1 my ,y1 mz ,z 7#a7 ,now let x deltax1 y deltay1 z deltaz be the co-ordinates of m in any arbitrary motion of the system differing infinitely little from the actual motion1 and let us form the equation ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 7#b7 ,lagrange's investigation consists in the transformation of 7#b7 into an equation involving the independent variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqn4 ,it is important to notice that the symbols delta and d_/dt are commutative1 since d dx d deltax --7x deltax7 - -- --deltax1 c4 7#c7 dt dt dt ,hence d ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 -- ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 dt - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 d --7p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 4447 - delta,tau1 7#d7 dt by ,sec4 #a 7#ad74 ,the last member may be written p#a;deltaq#a p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b p#b;deltaq#b 444 d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau - ------- deltaq#a - ------- deltaq#a - ------- deltaq#b - ------- deltaq#b - 444 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,hence1 omitting the terms which cancel in virtue of ,sec4 #a 7#ac71 we find _/ d,p,tau _/ d,p,tau ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7p#a - ------- 7 deltaq#a 7p#b - ------- 7 deltaq#b 444 7#f7 d,pq#a _/ d,pq#b _/ ,for the right-hand side of 7#b7 we have ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 ,q#a;deltaq#a ,q#b;deltaq#b 4441 7#g7 _/ d,px d,py d,pz where ,qr ,sigma7 ,x ----- ,y ----- ,z ----- 7 7#h7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr_/ ,the quantities ,q#a1 ,q#b1 444 are called the generalized components of force acting on the system4 ,comparing 7#f7 and 7#g7 we find d,p,tau d,p,tau p#a - ------- ,q#a1 p#b - ------- ,q#b1 4441 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#b or1 restoring the values of p#a1 p#b1 4441 d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- ,q#a1 -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- ,q#b1 444 7#aj7 dt d,pq#a _/ d,pq#a dt d,pq#b _/ d,pq#b ,these are ,lagrange's general equations of motion4 ,their number is of course equal to that of the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 to be determined4 ,analytically1 the above proof is that given by ,lagrange1 but the terminology employed is of much more recent date1 having been first introduced by ,lord ,kelvin and ,p4,g4 ,tait2 it has greatly promoted the physical application of the subject4 ,another proof of the equations 7#aj71 by direct transformation of co-ordinates1 has been given by ,hamilton and independently by other writers 7see ,,mechanics71 but the variational method of ,lagrange is that which stands in closest relation to the subsequent developments of the subject4 ,the chapter of ,maxwell1 already referred to1 is a most instructive commentary on the subject from the physical point of view1 although the proof there attempted of the equations 7#aj7 is fallacious4 ,in a conservative system the work which would have to be done by extraneous forces to bring the system from rest in some standard configuration to rest in the configuration 7q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 is independent of the path1 and may therefore be regarded as a definite function of q#a1 q#b1 444 qn4 ,denoting this function 7the potential energy7 by ,v1 we have1 if there be no extraneous force on the system1 ,sigma7,xdeltax ,ydeltay ,zdeltaz7 - delta,v1 7#aa7 and therefore d,p,v d,p,v ,q#a - ----1 ,q#b - ----1 4444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,hence the typical ,lagrange's equation may be now written in the form d _/d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,v -- 7 ------- 7 - ------- - -----1 7#ac7 dt d,pqr _/ d,pqr d,pqr or1 again1 d,p pr - ----- 7,v - ,tau7 7#ad7 d,pqr ,it has been proposed by ,helmholtz to give the name kinetic potential to the combination ,v - ,tau4 ,as shown under ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bb1 we derive from 7#aj7 d,tau ------ ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 4441 7#ae7 dt and therefore in the case of a conservative system free from extraneous force1 d --7,tau ,v7 #j or ,tau ,v const41 7#af7 dt which is the equation of energy4 ,for examples of the application of the formula 7#ac7 see ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bb4 #c4 ,constrained ,systems4 ,case of varying relations4 ,it has so far been assumed that the geometrical relations1 if any1 which exist between the various parts of the system are of the type ,sec4 #a 7#a71 and so do not contain t explicitly4 ,the extension of ,lagrange's equations to the case of varying relations of the type x f7t1 q#a1 q#b1444qn71 y c41 z c41 7#a7 was made by ,j4,m4,l4 ,vieille4 ,we now have d,px d,px d,px x --- ---- q#a ---- q#b 4441 c41 c41 7#b7 d,pt d,pq#a d,pq#b d,px d,px d,px ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 4441 c41 c41 7#c7 d,pq#a d,pq#b so that the expression ,sec4 #a 7#h7 for the kinetic energy is to be replaced by #b,tau alpha#j #b;alpha#aq#a #b;alpha#bq#b 444 ,a#aaq#a squared ,a#bbq#b squared 444 ,a#abq#aq#b 4441 7#d7 where _/d,px squared _/d,py squared _/d,pz squared a#j ,sigmam 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 7 --- 7 1 d,pt_/ d,pt_/ d,pt_/ 7#e7 d,px d,px d,py d,py d,pz d,pz ar ,sigmam --- ----- --- ----- --- ----- 1 d,pt d,pqr d,pt d,pqr d,pt d,pqr _/ and the forms of ,arr1 ,ars are as given by ,sec4 #a 7#g74 ,it is to be remembered that the coefficients alpha#j1 alpha#a1 alpha#b1 444 ,a#aa1 ,a#bb1 444 ,a#ab 444 will in general involve t explicitly as well as implicitly through the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1444 ,again1 we find ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7alpha#a ,a#aaq#a ,a#abq#b 4447deltaq#a 7alpha#b ,a#baq#a ,a#bbq#b 4447d,pq#b 444 d,p,tau d,p,tau ------- deltaq#a ------- deltaq#b 444 d,pq#a d,pq#b p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 4441 7#f7 where pr is defined as in ,sec4 #a 7#ac74 ,the derivation of ,lagrange's equations then follows exactly as before4 ,it is to be noted that the equation ,sec4 #b 7#ae7 does not as a rule now hold4 ,the proof involved the assumption that ,tau is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities q#a1 q#b4444 ,it has been pointed out by ,r4,b4 ,hayward that ,vieille's case can be brought under ,lagrange's by introducing a new co-ordinate 7chi7 in place of t1 so far as it appears explicitly in the relations 7#a74 ,we have then #b,tau alpha#j;chi squared #b7;alpha#aq#a alpha#bq#b 4447chi ,a#aaq#a squared ,a#bbq#b squared 444 #b;,a#abq#aq#b 4444 7#g7 ,the equations of motion will be as in ,sec4 #b 7#aj71 with the additional equation d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- -------- - ------- ,x1 7#h7 dt d,pchi d,pchi where ,x is the force corresponding to the co-ordinate chi4 ,we may suppose ,x to be adjusted so as to make chi #j1 and in the remaining equations nothing is altered if we write t for chi before1 instead of after1 the differentiations4 ,the reason why the equation ,sec4 #b 7#ae7 no longer holds is that we should require to add a term ,xchi on the right-hand side2 this represents the rate at which work is being done by the constraining forces required to keep chi constant4 ,as an example1 let x1 y1 z be the co-ordinates of a particle relative to axes fixed in a solid which is free to rotate about the axis of z4 ,if phi be the angular co-ordinate of the solid1 we find without difficulty #b,tau m7x squared y squared z squared7 #bphim7xy - yx7 ,i m7x squared y squared7phi squared1 7#i7 where ,i is the moment of inertia of the solid4 ,the equations of motion1 viz4 d d,p,tau d,p,tau d d,p,tau d,p,tau d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- ------ - ------ ,x1 -- ------- - ------- ,y1 -- ------- - ------- ,z1 7#aj7 dt d,px d,px dt d,py d,py dt d,pz d,pz d d,p,tau d,p,tau and -- -------- - ------- ,phi1 7#aa7 dt d,pphi d,pphi become m7x - #bphiy - xphi squared - yphi7 ,x1 m7y #bphix - yphi squared xphi7 ,y1 mz ,z1 7#ab7 d _/ and -- 7,i m7x squared y squared77 phi m7xy - yx7 ,phi4 7#ac7 dt _/ ,if we suppose ,phi adjusted so as to maintain phi #j1 or 7again7 if we suppose the moment of inertia ,i to be infinitely great1 we obtain the familiar equations of motion relative to moving axes1 viz4 m7x - #bomegay - omega squaredx7 ,x1 m7y #bomegax - omega squaredy7 ,y1 mz ,z1 7#ad7 where omega has been written for phi4 ,these are the equations which we should have obtained by applying ,lagrange's rule at once to the formula #b,tau m7x squared y squared z squared7 #bmomega7xy - yx7 momega squared7x squared y squared71 7#ae7 which gives the kinetic energy of the particle referred to axes rotating with the constant angular velocity omega4 7,see ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #ac47 ,more generally1 let us suppose that we have a certain group of co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 whose absolute values do not affect the expression for the kinetic energy1 and that by suitable forces of the corresponding types the velocity-components chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 are maintained constant4 ,the remaining co-ordinates being denoted by q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 we may write #b,tau ,tau#j #b7;alpha#aq#a alpha#bq#b 4447chi #b7;alpha'#aq#a alpha'#bq#b 4447chi' 4441 7#af7 where is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn of the type ,sec4#a 7#h71 whilst ,tau#j is a homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities chi1chi'1 chi1 444 alone4 ,the remaining terms1 which are bilinear in respect of the two sets of velocities1 are indicated more fully4 ,the formulae 7#aj7 of ,sec4 #b give n equations of the type d _/d,p _/d,p d,p,tau#j --7 ----- 7 - 7 ----- 7 7r1 #a7q#a 7r1 #b7q#b 444 - -------- ,qr 7#ag7 dt d,pqr_/ d,pqr_/ d,pqr where _/d,par d,pas _/d,pa'r d,pa's 7r1 s7 7 ----- - ----- 7chi 7 ------ - ------ 7chi' 4444 7#ah7 d,pqs d,pqr_/ d,pqs d,pqr_/ ,these quantities 7r1 s7 are subject to the relations 7r1 s7 -7s1 r71 7r1 r7 #j 7#ai7 ,the remaining dynamical equations1 equal in number to the co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 4441 yield expressions for the forces which must be applied in order to maintain the velocities chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 constant2 they need not be written down4 ,if we follow the method by which the equation of energy was established in ,sec4 #b1 the equations 7#ag7 lead1 on taking account of the relations 7#ai71 to d --7 - ,tau#j7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 444 ,qnqn1 7#bj7 dt or1 in case the forces ,qr depend only on the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn and are conservative1 ,v - ,tau#j const4 7#ba7 ,the conditions that the equations 7#ag7 should be satisfied by zero values of the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are d,p,tau#j ,qr - --------1 7#bb7 d,pqr or in the case of conservative forces d,p ------ 7,v - ,tau#j7 #j1 7#bc7 d,pqr i4e4 the value of ,v - ,tau#j must be stationary4 ,rotating axes4 ,we may apply this to the case of a system whose configuration relative to axes rotating with constant angular velocity 7omega7 is defined by means of the n co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn4 ,this is important on account of its bearing on the kinetic theory of the tides4 ,since the ,cartesian co-ordinates x1 y1 z of any particle m of the system relative to the moving axes are functions of q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 of the form ,sec4 #a 7#a71 we have1 by 7#ae7 #b ,sigmam7x squared y squared z squared71 #b,tau#j omega squared,sigmam7x squared y squared71 7#bd7 _/ d,py d,px ar ,sigmam7 x----- - y----- 71 7#be7 d,pqr d,pqr_/ whence d,p7x1 y7 7r1 s7 #bomega4,sigmam ------------4 7#bf7 d,p7qs1 qr7 ,the conditions of relative equilibrium are given by 7#bc74 ,it will be noticed that this expression ,v - ,tau#j1 which is to be stationary1 differs from the true potential energy by a term which represents the potential energy of the system in relation to fictitious centrifugal forces4 ,the question of stability of relative equilibrium will be noticed later 7,sec4 #f74 ,it should be observed that the remarkable formula 7#bj7 may in the present case be obtained directly as follows4 ,from 7#ae7 and 7#ad7 we find d,tau d ------ --7 ,tau#j7 omega4,sigmam7xy - yx7 dt dt d --7 - ,tau#j7 omega4,sigma7x,y - y,x74 7#bg7 dt ,this must be equal to the rate at which the forces acting on the system do work1 viz4 to omega,sigma7x,y - y,x7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 444 ,qnqn1 where the first term represents the work done in virtue of the rotation4 ,constrained systems4 ,we have still to notice the modifications which ,lagrange's equations undergo when the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are not all independently variable4 ,in the first place1 we may suppose them connected by a number m 7 n7 of relations of the type ,a7t1 q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 #j1 ,b7t1 q#a1 q#b1 444 qn7 #j1 c4 7#bh7 ,these may be interpreted as introducing partial constraints into a previously free system4 ,the variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 deltaqn in the expressions 7#f7 and 7#g7 of ,sec4 #b which are to be equated are no longer independent1 but are subject to the relations d,p,a d,p,a d,p,b d,p,b ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 444 #j1 ---- deltaq#a ---- deltaq#b 444 #j1 c4 7#bi7 d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#a d,pq#b ,introducing indeterminate multipliers lambda1 mu1 4441 one for each of these equations1 we obtain in the usual manner n equations of the type d d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,a d,p,b -- ------- - ------- ,qr lambda ----- mu ----- 4441 7#cj7 dt d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr in place of ,sec4 #b 7#aj74 ,these equations1 together with 7#bh71 serve to determine the n co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn and the m multipliers lambda1 mu1 4444 ,when t does not occur explicitly in the relations 7#bh7 the system is said to be holonomic4 ,the term connotes the existence of integral 7as opposed to differential7 relations between the co-ordinates1 independent of the time4 ,again1 it may happen that although there are no prescribed relations between the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 yet from the circumstances of the problem certain geometrical conditions are imposed on their variations1 thus ,a#a;deltaq#a ,a#b;deltaq#b 444 #j1 ,b#a;deltaq#a ,b#b;deltaq#b 444 #j1 c41 7#ca7 where the coefficients are functions of q#a1 q#b1 444 qn and 7possibly7 of t4 ,it is assumed that these equations are not integrable as regards the variables q#a1 q#b1 444 qn2 otherwise1 we fall back on the previous conditions4 ,cases of the present type arise1 for instance1 in ordinary dynamics when we have a solid rolling on a 7fixed or moving7 surface4 ,the six co-ordinates which serve to specify the position of the solid at any instant are not subject to any necessary relation1 but the conditions to be satisfied at the point of contact impose three conditions of the form 7#ca74 ,the general equations of motion are obtained1 as before1 by the method of indeterminate multipliers1 thus d d,p,tau d,p,tau -- ------- - ------- ,qr lambda,ar mu,br 444 7#cb7 dt d,pqr d,pqr ,the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qn1 and the indeterminate multipliers lambda1 mu1 4441 are determined by these equations and by the velocity-conditions corresponding to 7#ca74 ,when t does not appear explicitly in the coefficients1 these velocity-conditions take the forms ,a#aq#a ,a#bq#b 444 #j1 ,b#aq#a ,b#bq#b 444 #j1 c4 7#cc7 ,systems of this kind1 where the relations 7#ca7 are not integrable1 are called non-holonomic4 #d4 ,hamiltonian ,equations of ,motion4 ,in the ,hamiltonian form of the equations of motion of a conservative system with unvarying relations1 the kinetic energy is supposed expressed in terms of the momenta p#a1 p#b1 444 and the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 4441 as in ,sec4 #a 7#ai74 ,since the symbol delta now denotes a variation extending to the co-ordinates as well as to the momenta1 we must add to the last member of ,sec4 #a 7#ba7 terms of the types d,p,tau d,p,tau' ------- deltaq#a -------- deltaq#a 444 7#a7 d,pq#a d,pq#a ,since the variations deltap#a1 deltap#b1 444 deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 may be taken to be independent1 we infer the equations ,sec4 #a 7#bc7 as before1 together with d,p,tau d,p,tau' d,p,tau d,p,tau' ------ - --------1 ------- - --------1 4441 7#b7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,hence the ,lagrangian equations ,sec4 #b 7#ad7 transform into d,p d,p p#a - ----7,tau' ,v71 p#b ---- 7,tau' ,v71 444 7#c7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,if we write ,h ,tau' ,v1 7#d7 so that ,h denotes the total energy of the system1 supposed expressed in terms of the new variables1 we get d,p,h d,p,h p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 444 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,if to these we join the equations d,p,h d,p,h q#a ----1 q#b ----1 4441 7#f7 d,pp#a d,pp#b which follow at once from ,sec4 #a 7#bc71 since ,v does not involve p#a1 p#b1 4441 we obtain a complete system of differential equations of the first order for the determination of the motion4 ,the equation of energy is verified immediately by 7#e7 and 7#f71 since these make d,h d,p,h d,p,h d,p,h d,p,h -- ---- p#a ---- p#b 444 ---- q#a ---- q#b 444 #j4 7#g7 dt d,pp#a d,pp#b d,pq#a d,pq#b ,the ,hamiltonian transformation is extended to the case of varying relations as follows4 ,instead of 7#d7 we write ,h p#aq#a p#bq#b 444 - ,tau ,v1 7#h7 and imagine ,h to be expressed in terms of the momenta p#a1 p#b1 4441 the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 4441 and the time4 ,the internal forces of the system are assumed to be conservative1 with the potential energy ,v4 ,performing the variation delta on both sides1 we find d,p,tau d,p,v delta,h q#a;deltap#a 444 - ------- deltaq#a ---- deltaq 4441 7#i7 d,pq#a d,pq#a terms which cancel in virtue of the definition of p#a1 p#b1 444 being omitted4 ,since deltap#a1 deltap#b1 4441 deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 may be taken to be independent1 we infer d,p,h d,p,h q#a ----1 q#b ----1 4441 7#aj7 d,pp#a d,pp#b and d,p d,p,h d,p d,p,h ---- 7,tau - ,v7 - ----1 ----7,tau - ,v7 - ----1 4444 7#aa7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b ,it follows from 7#aa7 that d,p,h d,p,h p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4444 7#ab7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,the equations 7#aj7 and 7#ab7 have the same form as above1 but ,h is no longer equal to the energy of the system4 #e4 ,cyclic ,systems4 ,a cyclic or gyrostatic system is characterized by the following properties4 ,in the first place1 the kinetic energy is not affected if we alter the absolute values of certain of the co-ordinates1 which we will denote by chi1 chi'1 chi1 4441 provided the remaining co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm and the velocities1 including of course the velocities 4chi1 4chi'1 4chi1 4441 are unaltered4 ,secondly1 there are no forces acting on the system of the types chi1 chi'1 chi1 4444 ,this case arises1 for example1 when the system includes gyrostats which are free to rotate about their axes1 the co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 then being the angular co-ordinates of the gyrostats relatively to their frames4 ,again1 in theoretical hydrodynamics we have the problem of moving solids in a frictionless liquid2 the ignored co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 then refer to the fluid1 and are infinite in number4 ,the same question presents itself in various physical speculations where certain phenomena are ascribed to the existence of latent motions in the ultimate constituents of matter4 ,the general theory of such systems has been treated by ,e4,j4 ,routh1 ,lord ,kelvin1 and ,h4,l4,f4 ,helmholtz4 ,routh's equations4 ,if we suppose the kinetic energy ,tau to be expressed1 as in ,lagrange's method1 in terms of the co-ordinates and the velocities1 the equations of motion corresponding to chi1 chi'1 chi''1 444 reduce1 in virtue of the above hypotheses1 to the forms d d,p,tau d d,p,tau d d,p,tau -- --------- #j1 -- --------- #j1 -- --------- #j1 4441 7#a7 dt d,pchi dt d,pchi' dt d,pchi whence d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,tau -------- kappa1 --------- kappa'1 --------- kappa1 4441 7#b7 d,pchi d,pchi' d,pchi where kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 are the constant momenta corresponding to the cyclic co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 4444 ,these equations are linear in 4chi1 4chi'1 4chi1 4442 solving them with respect to these quantities and substituting in the remaining ,lagrangian equations1 we obtain m differential equations to determine the remaining co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,the object of the present investigation is to ascertain the general form of the resulting equations4 ,the retained co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm may be called 7for distinction7 the palpable co-ordinates of the system2 in many practical questions they are the only co-ordinates directly in evidence4 ,if1 as in ,sec4 #a 7#be71 we write ,r ,tau - kappachi - kappa'chi' - kappachi - 4441 7#c7 and imagine ,r to be expressed by means of 7#b7 as a quadratic function of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 with coefficients which are in general functions of the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 then1 performing the operation delta on both sides1 we find d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,tau -----deltaq#a 444 ---------deltakappa 444 ----deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 d,pq#a d,pkappa d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#a d,p,tau d,p,tau --------deltachi 444 --------deltaq#a 444 - kappadeltachi - chideltakappa - 4444 7#d7 d,pchi d,pchi#a ,omitting the terms which cancel by 7#b71 we find d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r ------- -----1 ------- -----1 4441 7#e7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b d,p,tau d,p,r d,p,tau d,p,r ------- ----1 ------- ----1 4441 7#f7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r chi - ---------1 chi' - ----------1 chi - ----------1 444 7#g7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,substituting in ,sec4 #b 7#aj71 we have d d,p,r d,p,r d d,p,r d,p,r -- ----- - ----- ,q#a1 -- ----- - ---- ,q#b1 444 7#h7 dt d,pq#a d,pq#a dt d,pq#b d,pq#b ,these are ,routh's forms of the modified ,lagrangian equations4 ,equivalent forms were obtained independently by ,helmholtz at a later date4 ,kelvin's equations4 ,the function ,r is made up of three parts1 thus ,r ,r7#b1j7 ,r7#a1a7 ,r7#j1b71 444 7#i7 where ,r7#b1j7 is a homogeneous quadratic function of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 ,r7#j1b7 is a homogeneous quadratic function of kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 whilst ,r7#a1a7 consists of products of the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qm into the momenta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa4444 ,hence from 7#c7 and 7#g7 we have _/ d,p,r d,p,r d,p,r ,tau ,r - 7 kappa --------- kappa'---------- kappa ---------- 4447 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa _/ ,r7#b1j7 - ,r7#j1b74 7#aj7 ,if1 as in ,sec4 #a 7#cj71 we write this in the form ,tau ,kappa1 7#aa7 then 7#c7 may be written ,r - ,kappa ss#aq#a ss#bq#b 4441 7#ab7 where ss#a1 ss#b1 444 are linear functions of kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 say ssr alpharkappa alpha'rkappa' alpharkappa 4441 7#ac7 the coefficients alphar1 alpha'r1 alphar1 444 being in general functions of the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,evidently ssr denotes that part of the momentum-component d,p,r_/d,pqr which is due to the cyclic motions4 ,now d d,p,r d _/ d,p d d,p d,pssr d,pssr -- ------ -- 7 ------ ssr7 -- ------ -----q#a -----q#b 4441 7#ad7 dt d,pqr dt d,pqr _/ dt d,pqr d,pq#a d,pq#b d,p,r d,p d,p,kappa d,pss#a d,pss#b ----- ----- - --------- -----q#a -----q#b 4444 7#ae7 d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr ,hence1 substituting in 7#h71 we obtain the typical equation of motion of a gyrostatic system in the form d d,p d,p d,p,kappa -- ------ - ----- 7r1 #a7q#a 7r1 #b7q#b 444 7r1 s7qs 444 --------- ,qr1 7#af7 dt d,pqr d,pqr d,pqr where d,pssr d,psss 7r1 s7 ----- - -----4 7#ag7 d,pqs d,pqr ,this form is due to ,lord ,kelvin4 ,when q#a1 q#b1 444 qm have been determined1 as functions of the time1 the velocities corresponding to the cyclic co-ordinates can be found1 if required1 from the relations 7#g71 which may be written d,p,kappa ,chi --------- - alpha#aq#a - alpha#bq#b - 4441 d,pkappa d,p,kappa 7#ah7 ,chi' ---------- - alpha'#aq#a - alpha'#bq#b - 4441 d,pkappa' c41 c4 _/ ,it is to be particularly noticed that 7r1 r7 #j1 7r1 s7 -7s1 r74 7#ai7 ,hence1 if in 7#af7 we put r #a1 #b1 #c1 444 m1 and multiply by q#a1 q#b1 444 qm respectively1 and add1 we find d --7 ,kappa7 ,q#aq#a ,q#bq#b 4441 7#bj7 dt or1 in the case of a conservative system ,v ,kappa const41 7#ba7 which is the equation of energy4 ,the equation 7#af7 includes ,sec4 #c 7#ag7 as a particular case1 the eliminated co-ordinate being the angular co-ordinate of a rotating solid having an infinite moment of inertia4 ,in the particular case where the cyclic momenta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 444 are all zero1 7#af7 reduces to d d,p d,p -- ------ - ----- ,qr4 7#bb7 dt d,pqr d,pqr ,the form is the same as in ,sec4 #b1 and the system now behaves1 as regards the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 exactly like the acyclic type there contemplated4 ,these co-ordinates do not1 however1 now fix the position of every particle of the system4 ,for example1 if by suitable forces the system be brought back to its initial configuration 7so far as this is defined by q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm71 after performing any evolutions1 the ignored co-ordinates chi1 chi'1 chi1 444 will not in general return to their original values4 ,if in ,lagrange's equations ,sec4 #b 7#aj7 we reverse the sign of the time-element dt1 the equations are unaltered4 ,the motion is therefore reversible2 that is to say1 if as the system is passing through any configuration its velocities q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm be all reversed1 it will 7if the forces be the same in the same configuration7 retrace its former path4 ,but it is important to observe that the statement does not in general hold of a gyrostatic system2 the terms of 7#af71 which are linear in q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm1 change sign with dt1 whilst the others do not4 ,hence the motion of a gyrostatic system is not reversible1 unless indeed we reverse the cyclic motions as well as the velocities q#a1 q#b1 4441 qm4 ,for instance1 the precessional motion of a top cannot be reversed unless we reverse the spin4 ,kinetostatics4 ,the conditions of equilibrium of a system with latent cyclic motions are obtained by putting q#a #j1 q#b #j1 444 qm #j in 7#af72 viz4 they are d,p,kappa d,p,kappa ,q#a ---------1 ,q#b ---------1 444 7#bc7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,these may of course be obtained independently4 ,thus if the system be guided from 7apparent7 rest in the configuration 7q#a1 q#b1 444 qm7 to rest in the configuration q#a deltaq#a1 q#b deltaq#b1 4441 qm deltaqm1 the work done by the forces must be equal to the increment of the kinetic energy4 ,hence ,q#a;deltaq#a ,q#b;deltaq#b 444 delta,kappa1 7#bd7 which is equivalent to 7#bc74 ,the conditions are the same as for the equilibrium of a system without latent motion1 but endowed with potential energy ,kappa4 ,this is important from a physical point of view1 as showing how energy which is apparently potential may in its ultimate essence be kinetic4 ,by means of the formulae 7#ah71 which now reduce to d,p,kappa d,p,kappa d,p,kappa chi ---------1 chi' ----------1 chi ---------- 4441 7#be7 d,pkappa d,pkappa' d,pkappa ,kappa may also be expressed as a homogeneous quadratic function of the cyclic velocities 4chi1 4chi'1 4chi1 444 ,denoting it in this form by ,tau#j1 we have delta7,tau#j ,kappa #b;delta,kappa delta7kappa chi kappa'chi' kappachi 44474 7#bf7 ,performing the variations1 and omitting the terms which cancel by 7#b7 and 7#be71 we find d,p,tau#j d,p,kappa d,p,tau#j d,p,kappa -------- - ---------1 -------- - ---------1 4441 7#bg7 d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#b d,pq#b so that the formulae 7#bc7 become d,p,tau#j d,p,tau#j ,q#a - --------1 ,q#b - --------1 444 7#bh7 d,pq#a d,pq#b ,a simple example is furnished by the top 7,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bb74 ,the cyclic co-ordinates being psi1 phi1 we find 7 mu - nu cos theta7 squared nu squared #b ,atheta squared1 #b,kappa ----------------------- -----1 ,a sin squared theta ,c #b,tau#j ,a sin squaredthetapsi squared ,c7phi psi cos theta7 squared1 7#bi7 whence we may verify that d,p,tau#j_/;d,ptheta - d,p,kappa_/d,ptheta in accordance with 7#bg74 ,and the condition of equilibrium d,p,kappa d,p,v --------- - --------- 7#cj7 d,ptheta d,ptheta gives the condition of steady precession4 #f4 ,stability of ,steady ,motion4 ,the small oscillations of a conservative system about a configuration of equilibrium1 and the criterion of stability1 are discussed in ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bc4 ,the question of the stability of given types of motion is more difficult1 owing to the want of a sufficiently general1 and at the same time precise1 definition of what we mean by stability4 ,a number of definitions which have been propounded by different writers are examined by ,f4 ,klein and ,a4 ,sommerfeld in their work ,ueber die ,theorie des ,kreisels 7#ahig-aijc74 ,rejecting previous definitions1 they base their criterion of stability on the character of the changes produced in the path of the system by small arbitrary disturbing impulses4 ,if the undisturbed path be the limiting form of the disturbed path when the impulses are indefinitely diminished1 it is said to be stable1 but not otherwise4 ,for instance1 the vertical fall of a particle under gravity is reckoned as stable1 although for a given impulsive disturbance1 however small1 the deviation of the particle's position at any time t from the position which it would have occupied in the original motion increases indefinitely with t4 ,even this criterion1 as the writers quoted themselves recognize1 is not free from ambiguity unless the phrase limiting form1 as applied to a path1 be strictly defined4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that a definition which is analytically precise may not in all cases be easy to reconcile with geometrical prepossessions4 ,thus a particle moving in a circle about a centre of force varying inversely as the cube of the distance will if slightly disturbed either fall into the centre1 or recede to infinity1 after describing in either case a spiral with an infinite number of convolutions4 ,each of these spirals has1 analytically1 the circle as its limiting form1 although the motion in the circle is most naturally described as unstable4 ,a special form of the problem1 of great interest1 presents itself in the steady motion of a gyrostatic system1 when the non-eliminated co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm all vanish 7see ,sec4 #e74 ,this has been discussed by ,routh1 ,lord ,kelvin and ,tait1 and ,poincare4 ,these writers treat the question1 by an extension of ,lagrange's method1 as a problem of small oscillations4 ,whether we adopt the notion of stability which this implies1 or take up the position of ,klein and ,sommerfeld1 there is no difficulty in showing that stability is ensured if ,v ,kappa be a minimum as regards variations of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,the proof is the same as that of ,dirichlet for the case of statical stability4 ,we can illustrate this condition from the case of the top1 where1 in our previous notation1 7 mu - nucos theta7 squared nu squared ,v ,kappa ,mgh costheta ---------------------- -----4 7#a7 #b;,a sin squared theta #b;,c ,to examine whether the steady motion with the centre of gravity vertically above the pivot is stable1 we must put mu nu4 ,we then find without difficulty that ,v ,kappa is a minimum provided nu squared #d;,a,mgh4 ,the method of small oscillations gave us the condition nu squared #d;,a,mgh1 and indicated instability in the cases nu squared #d;,a,mgh4 ,the present criterion can also be applied to show that the steady precessional motions in which the axis has a constant inclination to the vertical are stable4 ,the question remains1 as before1 whether it is essential for stability that ,v ,kappa should be a minimum4 ,it appears that from the point of view of the theory of small oscillations it is not essential1 and that there may even be stability when ,v ,kappa is a maximum4 ,the precise conditions1 which are of a somewhat elaborate character1 have been formulated by ,routh4 ,an important distinction has1 however1 been established by ,thomson and ,tait1 and by ,poincare1 between what we may call ordinary or temporary stability 7which is stability in the above sense7 and permanent or secular stability1 which means stability when regard is had to possible dissipative forces called into play whenever the co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm vary4 ,since the total energy of the system at any instant is given 7in the notation of ,sec4 #e7 by an expression of the form ,v ,kappa1 where cannot be negative1 the argument of ,thomson and ,tait1 given under ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bc1 for the statical question1 shows that it is a necessary as well as a sufficient condition for secular stability that ,v ,kappa should be a minimum4 ,when a system is ordinarily stable1 but secularly unstable1 the operation of the frictional forces is to induce a gradual increase in the amplitude of the free vibrations which are called into play by accidental disturbances4 ,there is a similar theory in relation to the constrained systems considered in ,sec4 #c above4 ,the equation 7#ba7 there given leads to the conclusion that for secular stability of any type of motion in which the velocities q#a1 q#b1 444 qn are zero it is necessary and sufficient that the function ,v - ,tau#j should be a minimum4 ,the simplest possible example of this is the case of a particle at the lowest point of a smooth spherical bowl which rotates with constant angular velocity 7omega7 about the vertical diameter4 ,this position obviously possesses ordinary stability4 ,if a be the radius of the bowl1 and theta denote angular distance from the lowest point1 we have ,v - ,tau#j mga7#a - cos theta7 - #a_/bmomega squareda squared sin squared theta2 7#b7 this is a minimum for theta #j only so long as omega squared g_/a4 ,for greater values of omega the only position of permanent stability is that in which the particle rotates with the bowl at an angular distance cos7-#a7 7g_/omega squareda7 from the lowest point4 ,to examine the motion in the neighbourhood of the lowest point1 when frictional forces are taken into account1 we may take fixed ones1 in a horizontal plane1 through the lowest point4 ,assuming that the friction varies as the relative velocity1 we have x -p squaredx - k7x omegay71 7#c7 y -p squaredy - k7y - omegax71 _/ where p squared g_/a4 ,these combine into z kz 7p squared - ikomega7z #j1 7#d7 where z x iy1 i root-#a4 ,assuming z ,ce7lambdat71 we find lambda -#a_/bk7#a - omega_/p7 - ip1 7#e7 if the square of k be neglected4 ,the complete solution is then x iy ,c#a;e7-ss#at7e7ipt7 ,c#b;e7-ss#bt7e7-ipt71 7#f7 where ss#a #a_/bk7#a - omega_/p71 ss#b #a_/bk7#a omega_/p74 7#g7 ,this represents two superposed circular vibrations1 in opposite directions1 of period #bpi_/p4 ,if omega p1 the amplitude of each of these diminishes asymptotically to zero1 and the position x #j1 y #j is permanently stable4 ,but if omega p the amplitude of that circular vibration which agrees in sense with the rotation omega will continually increase1 and the particle will work its way in an ever-widening spiral path towards the eccentric position of secular stability4 ,if the bowl be not spherical but ellipsoidal1 the vertical diameter being a principal axis1 it may easily be shown that the lowest position is permanently stable only so long as the period of the rotation is longer than that of the slower of the two normal modes in the absence of rotation 7see ,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #ac74 #g4 ,principle of ,least ,action4 ,stationary ,action4 ,the preceding theories give us statements applicable to the system at any one instant of its motion4 ,we now come to a series of theorems relating to the whole motion of the system between any two configurations through which it passes1 viz4 we consider the actual motion and compare it with other imaginable motions1 differing infinitely little from it1 between the same two configurations4 ,we use the symbol delta to denote the transition from the actual to any one of the hypothetical motions4 ,the best-known theorem of this class is that of ,least ,action1 originated by ,p4,l4,m4 de ,maupertuis1 but first put in a definite form by ,lagrange4 ,the action of a single particle in passing from one position to another is the space-integral of the momentum1 or the time-integral of the vis viva4 ,the action of a dynamical system is the sum of the actions of its constituent particles1 and is accordingly given by the formula _/ _/ _/ ,a ,sigma mvds ,sigma mv squareddt #b ,taudt4 7#a7 _/ _/ _/ ,the theorem referred to asserts that the free motion of a conservative system between any two given configurations is characterized by the property delta,a #j1 7#b7 provided the total energy have the same constant value in the varied motion as in the actual motion4 ,if t1 t' be the times of passing through the initial and final configurations respectively1 we have _/ t' delta,a delta ,sigmam7x squared y squared z squared7dt _/t _/ t' #b delta,taudt #b,tau'deltat' #b,taudeltat1 7#c7 _/t since the upper and lower limits of the integral must both be regarded as variable4 ,this may be written _/ t' _/ t' delta,a delta,taudt ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7dt #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat _/t _/t _/ t' t' delta,taudt ,sigmam 7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz _/t t _/ t' - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7dt #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat4 7#d7 _/t ,now1 by d',alembert's principle1 ,sigmam7 xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz 7 -delta,v1 7#e7 and by hypothesis we have delta7,tau ,v7 #j4 7#f7 ,the formula therefore reduces to t' delta,a ,sigmam 7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 #b,tau'deltat' - #b,taudeltat4 7#g7 t ,since the terminal configurations are unaltered1 we must have at the lower limit deltax xdeltat #j1 deltay ydeltat #j1 deltaz zdeltat #j1 7#h7 with similar relations at the upper limit4 ,these reduce 7#g7 to the form 7#b74 ,the equation 7#b71 it is to be noticed1 merely expresses that the variation of ,a vanishes to the first order2 the phrase stationary action has therefore been suggested as indicating more accurately what has been proved4 ,the action in the free path between two given configurations is in fact not invariably a minimum1 and even when a minimum it need not be the least possible subject to the given conditions4 ,simple illustrations are furnished by the case of a single particle4 ,a particle moving on a smooth surface1 and free from extraneous force1 will have its velocity constant2 hence the theorem in this case resolves itself into _/ delta ds #j1 7#i7 _/ i4e4 the path must be a geodesic line4 ,now a geodesic is not necessarily the shortest path between two given points on it2 for example1 on the sphere a great-circle arc ceases to be the shortest path between its extremities when it exceeds #ahj deg44 ,more generally1 taking any surface1 let a point ,p1 starting from ,o1 move along a geodesic2 this geodesic will be a minimum path from ,o to ,p until ,p passes through a point ,o' 7if such exist71 which is the intersection with a consecutive geodesic through ,o4 ,after this point the minimum property ceases4 ,on an anticlastic surface two geodesics cannot intersect more than once1 and each geodesic is therefore a minimum path between any two of its points4 ,these illustrations are due to ,k4,g4,j4 ,jacobi1 who has also formulated the general criterion1 applicable to all dynamical systems1 as follows3--,let ,o and ,p denote any two configurations on a natural path of the system4 ,if this be the sole free path from ,o to ,p with the prescribed amount of energy1 the action from ,o to ,p is a minimum4 ,but if there be several distinct paths1 let ,p vary from coincidence with ,o along the first-named path2 the action will then cease to be a minimum when a configuration ,o' is reached such that two of the possible paths from ,o to ,o' coincide4 ,for instance1 if ,o and ,p be positions on the parabolic path of a projectile under gravity1 there will be a second path 7with the same energy and therefore the same velocity of projection from ,o71 these two paths coinciding when ,p is at the other extremity 7,o'1 say7 of the focal chord through ,o4 ,the action from ,o to ,p will therefore be a minimum for all positions of ,p short of ,o'4 ,two configurations such as ,o and ,o' in the general statement are called conjugate kinetic foci4 ,cf4 ,,variations1 ,,calculus ,,of4 ,before leaving this topic the connexion of the principle of stationary action with a well-known theorem of optics may be noticed4 ,for the motion of a particle in a conservative field of force the principle takes the form _/ delta vds #j4 7#aj7 _/ ,on the corpuscular theory of light v is proportional to the refractive index mu of the medium1 whence _/ delta muds #j4 7#aa7 _/ ,hamiltonian principle4 ,in the formula 7#b7 the energy in the hypothetical motion is prescribed1 whilst the time of transit from the initial to the final configuration is variable4 ,in another and generally more convenient theorem1 due to ,hamilton1 the time of transit is prescribed to be the same as in the actual motion1 whilst the energy may be different and need not 7indeed7 be constant4 ,under these conditions we have _/t' delta 7,tau - ,v7dt #j1 7#ab7 _/t where t1 t' are the prescribed times of passing through the given initial and final configurations4 ,the proof of 7#ab7 is simple2 we have _/t' _/t' _/t' delta 7,tau - ,v7dt 7delta,tau - delta,v7dt ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 - delta,vdt _/t _/t _/t t' ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 t _/t' - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 delta,vdt 7#ac7 _/t ,the integrated terms vanish at both limits1 since by hypothesis the configurations at these instants are fixed2 and the terms under the integral sign vanish by d',alembert's principle4 ,the fact that in 7#ab7 the variation does not affect the time of transit renders the formula easy of application in any system of co-ordinates4 ,thus1 to deduce ,lagrange's equations1 we have _/t' _/t'_/d,p,tau d,p,tau d,p,v 7delta,tau-delta,v7dt 7 -------deltaq#a -------deltaq#a 444 - ----deltaq#a - 4447dt _/t _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a d,pq#a _/ t' p#a;deltaq#a p#b;deltaq#b 444 t _/t' _/ d,p,tau d,p,v _/ d,p,tau d,p,v - 7p#a - ------- ---- 7deltaq#a 7p#b - ------- -----7deltaq#b 444dt4 7#ad7 _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a_/ d,pq#b d,pq#b_/ ,the integrated terms vanish at both limits2 and in order that the remainder of the right-hand member may vanish it is necessary that the coefficients of deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 under the integral sign should vanish for all values of t1 since the variations in question are independent1 and subject only to the condition of vanishing at the limits of integration4 ,we are thus led to ,lagrange's equation of motion for a conservative system4 ,it appears that the formula 7#ab7 is a convenient as well as a compact embodiment of the whole of ordinary dynamics4 ,extension to cyclic systems4 ,the modification of the ,hamiltonian principle appropriate to the case of cyclic systems has been given by ,j4 ,larmor4 ,if we write1 as in ,sec4 #a 7#be71 ,r ,t - kappachi - kappa'chi' - kappa''chi - 4441 7#ae7 we shall have _/t' delta 7,r - ,v7dt #j1 7#af7 _/t provided that the variation does not affect the cyclic momenta kappa1 kappa'1 kappa1 4441 and that the configurations at times t and t' are unaltered1 so far as they depend on the palpable co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm4 ,the initial and final values of the ignored co-ordinates will in general be affected4 ,to prove 7#af7 we have1 on the above understandings1 _/t' _/t' delta 7,r - ,v7dt 7delta,tau - kappadeltachi - 444 -delta,v7dt _/t _/t _/t' _/d,p,tau d,p,tau 7 -------deltaq#a 444 -------deltaq#a 444 - delta,v 7dt1 7#ag7 _/t d,pq#a d,pq#a _/ where terms have been cancelled in virtue of ,sec4 #e 7#b74 ,the last member of 7#ag7 represents a variation of the integral _/t' 7,tau - ,v7dt _/t on the supposition that delta,x #j1 delta,x' #j1 delta,x #j1 444 throughout1 whilst deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 deltaqm vanish at times t and t'2 i4e4 it is a variation in which the initial and final configurations are absolutely unaltered4 ,it therefore vanishes as a consequence of the ,hamiltonian principle in its original form4 ,larmor has also given the corresponding form of the principle of least action4 ,he shows that if we write _/ ,a 7#b,tau - kappachi - kappa'chi' - kappachi - 4447dt1 7#ah7 _/ then delta,a #j1 7#ai7 provided the varied motion takes place with the same constant value of the energy1 and with the same constant cyclic momenta1 between the same two configurations1 these being regarded as defined by the palpable co-ordinates alone4 ,sec4 #h4 ,hamilton's ,principal and ,characteristic ,functions4 ,principal function4 ,in the investigations next to be described a more extended meaning is given to the symbol delta4 ,we will1 in the first instance1 denote by it an infinitesimal variation of the most general kind1 affecting not merely the values of the co-ordinates at any instant1 but also the initial and final configurations and the times of passing through them4 ,if we put _/t' ,s 7,t - ,v7dt1 7#a7 _/t we have1 then1 _/t' delta,s 7,t' - ,v'7deltat' - 7,t - ,v7deltat 7delta,t - delta,v7dt _/t t' 7,t' - ,v'7deltat' - 7,t - ,v7deltat ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz7 7#b7 t ,let us now denote by x' deltax'1 y' deltay'1 z' deltaz'1 the final co-ordinates 7i4e4 at time t' deltat'7 of a particle m4 ,in the terms in 7#b7 which relate to the upper limit we must therefore write deltax' - x'deltat'1 deltay' - y'deltat'1 deltaz' - z'deltat' for deltax1 deltay1 deltaz4 ,with a similar modification at the lower limit1 we obtain delta,s - ,hdeltatau ,sigmam7x'deltax' y'deltay' z'deltaz'7 - ,sigmam7xdeltax ydeltay zdeltaz71 7#c7 where ,h7 ,t ,v7 is the constant value of the energy in the free motion of the system1 and tau7 t' - t7 is the time of transit4 ,in generalized co-ordinates this takes the form delta,s - ,hdeltatau p'#a;deltaq'#a p'#b;deltaq'#b 444 - p#a;deltaq#a - p#b;deltaq#b - 4444 7#d7 ,now if we select any two arbitrary configurations as initial and final1 it is evident that we can in general 7by suitable initial velocities or impulses7 start the system so that it will of itself pass from the first to the second in any prescribed time tau4 ,on this view of the matter1 ,s will be a function of the initial and final co-ordinates 7q#a1 q#b1 444 and q'#a1 q'#b1 4447 and the time tau1 as independent variables4 ,and we obtain at once from 7#d7 d,p,s d,p,s p'#a -----1 p'#b -----1 4441 d,pq'#a d,pq'#b 7#e7 d,p,s d,p,s p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4441 d,pq#a d,pq#b _/ d,p,s and ,h - -------4 7#f7 d,ptau ,s is called by ,hamilton the principal function2 if its general form for any system can be found1 the preceding equations suffice to determine the motion resulting from any given conditions4 ,if we substitute the values of p#a1 p#b1 444 and ,h from 7#e7 and 7#f7 in the expression for the kinetic energy in the form ,tau' 7see ,sec4 #a71 the equation ,t ,v ,h 7#g7 becomes a partial differential equation to be satisfied by ,s4 ,it has been shown by ,jacobi that the dynamical problem resolves itself into obtaining a complete solution of this equation1 involving n #a arbitrary constants4 ,this aspect of the subject1 as a problem in partial differential equations1 has received great attention at the hands of mathematicians1 but must be passed over here4 ,characteristic function4 ,there is a similar theory for the function _/ ,a #b ,tdt ,s ,htau 7#h7 _/ ,it follows from 7#d7 that delta,a taudelta,h p'#a;deltaq'#a p'#b;deltaq'#b 444 - p#a;deltaq#a - p#b;deltaq#b - 4444 7#i7 ,this formula 7it may be remarked7 contains the principle of least action as a particular case4 ,selecting1 as before1 any two arbitrary configurations1 it is in general possible to start the system from one of these1 with a prescribed value of the total energy ,h1 so that it shall pass through the other4 ,hence1 regarding ,a as a function of the initial and final co-ordinates and the energy1 we find d,p,a d,p,a p'#a -----1 p'#b -----1 4441 d,pq'#a d,pq'#b 7#aj7 d,p,a d,p,a p#a - ----1 p#b - ----1 4441 d,pq#a d,pq#b _/ d,p,a and tau --- 7#aa7 d,p,h ,a is called by ,hamilton the characteristic function2 it represents1 of course1 the action of the system in the free motion 7with prescribed energy7 between the two configurations4 ,like ,s1 it satisfies a partial differential equation1 obtained by substitution from 7#aj7 in 7#g74 ,the preceding theorems are easily adapted to the case of cyclic systems4 ,we have only to write _/t' _/t' ,s 7,r - ,v7dt 7,t - kappachi - kappa'chi' - 444 - ,v7dt 7#ab7 _/t _/t in place of 7#a71 and _/ ,a 7#b,t - kappachi - kappa'chi' - 4447dt1 7#c7 _/ in place of 7#h72 cf4 ,sec4 #g ad fin4 ,it is understood1 of course1 that in 7#ab7 ,s is regarded as a function of the initial and final values of the palpable co-ordinates q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 and of the time of transit tau1 the cyclic momenta being invariable4 ,similarly in 7#ac71 ,a is regarded as a function of the initial and final values of q#a1 q#b1 444 qm1 and of the total energy ,h1 with the cyclic momenta invariable4 ,it will be found that the forms of 7#d7 and 7#i7 will be conserved1 provided the variations deltaq#a1 deltaq#b1 444 be understood to refer to the palpable co-ordinates alone4 ,it follows that the equations 7#e71 7#f7 and 7#aj71 7#aa7 will still hold under the new meanings of the symbols4 #i4 ,reciprocal ,properties of ,direct and ,reversed ,motions4 ,lagrange's formula4 ,we may employ ,hamilton's principal function to prove a very remarkable formula connecting any two slightly disturbed natural motions of the system4 ,if we use the symbols delta and ,delta to denote the corresponding variations1 the theorem is d --,sigma7deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltapr4deltaqr7 #j2 7#a7 dt or integrating from t to t'1 ,sigma7deltap'r4,deltaq'r - ,deltaq'r4deltaq'r7 ,sigma7deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltapr4deltaqr74 7#b7 ,if for shortness we write d,p squared,s d,p squared,s 7r1s7 ----------1 7r1s'7 -----------1 7#c7 d,pqrd,pqs d,pqrd,pq's we have d,ppr - ,sigmas7r1s7deltaqs - ,sigmas7r1s'7deltaq's 7#d7 with a similar expression for ,deltapr4 ,hence the right-hand side of 7#b7 becomes - ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s7deltaqs ,sigmas7r1s'7deltaq's,deltaqr ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s7,deltaqs ,sigmas7r1s'7,deltaq'sdeltaqr ,sigmar,sigmas7r1s'7deltaqr4,deltaq's - ,deltaqr4deltaq's4 7#e7 ,the same value is obtained in like manner for the expression on the left hand of 7#b72 hence the theorem1 which1 in the form 7#a71 is due to ,lagrange1 and was employed by him as the basis of his method of treating the dynamical theory of ,variation of ,arbitrary ,constants4 ,helmholtz's reciprocal theorems4 ,the formula 7#b7 leads at once to some remarkable reciprocal relations which were first expressed1 in their complete form1 by ,helmholtz4 ,consider any natural motion of a conservative system between two configurations ,o and ,o' through which it passes at times t and t' respectively1 and let t' - t tau4 ,as the system is passing through ,o let a small impulse deltapr be given to it1 and let the consequent alteration in the co-ordinate qs after the time tau be deltaq's4 ,next consider the reversed motion of the system1 in which it would1 if undisturbed1 pass from ,o' to ,o in the same time tau4 ,let a small impulse deltap's be applied as the system is passing through ,o'1 and let the consequent change in the co-ordinate qr after a time tau be deltaqr4 ,helmholtz's first theorem is to the effect that deltaqr 3 deltap's deltaq's 3 deltapr4 7#f7 ,to prove this1 suppose1 in 7#b71 that all the deltaq vanish1 and likewise all the deltap with the exception of deltapr4 ,further1 suppose all the ,deltaq' to vanish1 and likewise all the ,deltap' except ,deltap's1 the formula then gives deltapr4,deltaqr - ,deltap's4deltaq's1 7#g7 which is equivalent to ,helmholtz's result1 since we may suppose the symbol ,delta to refer to the reversed motion1 provided we change the signs of the ,deltap4 ,in the most general motion of a top 7,,mechanics1 ,sec4 #bb71 suppose that a small impulsive couple about the vertical produces after a time tau a change deltatheta in the inclination of the axis1 the theorem asserts that in the reversed motion an equal impulsive couple in the plane of theta will produce after a time tau a change deltapsi1 in the azimuth of the axis1 which is equal to deltatheta4 ,it is understood1 of course1 that the couples have no components 7in the generalized sense7 except of the types indicated2 for instance1 they may consist in each case of a force applied to the top at a point of the axis1 and of the accompanying reaction at the pivot4 ,again1 in the corpuscular theory of light let ,o1 ,o' be any two points on the axis of a symmetrical optical combination1 and let ,v1 ,v' be the corresponding velocities of light4 ,at ,o let a small impulse be applied perpendicular to the axis so as to produce an angular deflection deltatheta1 and let ss' be the corresponding lateral deviation at ,o'4 ,in like manner in the reversed motion1 let a small deflection deltatheta' at ,o' produce a lateral deviation ss at ,o4 ,the theorem 7#f7 asserts that ss ss' ----------------- ---------------1 7#h7 ,v'deltatheta' ,vdeltatheta or1 in optical language1 the apparent distance of ,o from ,o' is to that of ,o' from ,o in the ratio of the refractive indices at ,o' and ,o respectively4 ,helmholtz's second reciprocal theorem4 ,in the second reciprocal theorem of ,helmholtz the configuration ,o is slightly varied by a change deltaqr in one of the co-ordinates1 the momenta being all unaltered1 and deltaq's is the consequent variation in one of the momenta after time tau4 ,similarly in the reversed motion a change deltap's produces after time tau a change of momentum deltapr4 ,the theorem asserts that deltap's 3 deltaqr deltapr 3 deltaq's 7#i7 ,this follows at once from 7#b7 if we imagine all the deltap to vanish1 and likewise all the deltaq save deltaqr1 and if 7further7 we imagine all the ,deltap' to vanish1 and all the ,deltaq' save ,deltaq's4 ,reverting to the optical illustration1 if ,f1 ,f'1 be principal foci1 we can infer that the convergence at ,f' of a parallel beam from ,f is to the convergence at ,f of a parallel beam from ,f' in the inverse ratio of the refractive indices at ,f' and ,f4 ,this is equivalent to ,gauss's relation between the two principal focal lengths of an optical instrument4 ,it may be obtained otherwise as a particular case of 7#h74 ,we have by no means exhausted the inferences to be drawn from ,lagrange's formula4 ,it may be noted that 7#f7 includes as particular cases various important reciprocal relations in optics and acoustics formulated by ,r4,j4,e4 ,clausius1 ,helmholtz1 ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin7 and ,tait1 and ,lord ,rayleigh4 ,in applying the theorem care must be taken that in the reversed motion the reversal is complete1 and extends to every velocity in the system2 in particular1 in a cyclic system the cyclic motions must be imagined to be reversed with the rest4 ,conspicuous instances of the failure of the theorem through incomplete reversal are afforded by the propagation of sound in a wind and the propagation of light in a magnetic medium4 ,it may be worth while to point out1 however1 that there is no such limitation to the use of ,lagrange's formula 7#a74 ,in applying it to cyclic systems1 it is convenient to introduce conditions already laid down1 viz4 that the co-ordinates qr are the palpable co-ordinates and that the cyclic momenta are invariable4 ,special inference can then be drawn as before1 but the interpretation cannot be expressed so neatly owing to the non-reversibility of the motion4 ,,authorities4--,the most important and most accessible early authorities are ,j4,l4 ,lagrange1 ,mecanique analytique 7#ast ed4 ,paris1 #aghh1 #bnd ed4 ,paris1 #ahaa2 reprinted in ,oeuvres1 vols4 xi41 xii41 ,paris1 #ahhh-hi72 ,hamilton1 ,on a ,general ,method in ,dynamics1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcd and #ahce2 ,c4,g4,j4 ,jacobi1 ,vorlesungen ueber ,dynamik 7,berlin1 #ahff1 reprinted in ,werke1 ,supp4-,bd41 ,berlin1 #ahhd74 ,an account of the extensive literature on the differential equations of dynamics and on the theory of variation of parameters is given by ,a4 ,cayley1 ,report on ,theoretical ,dynamics1 ,brit4 ,assn4 ,rep4 7#aheg71 ,mathematical ,papers1 vol4 iii4 7,cambridge1 #ahij74 ,for the modern developments reference may be made to ,thomson and ,tait1 ,natural ,philosophy 7#ast ed4 ,oxford1 #ahfg1 #bnd ed4 ,cambridge1 #ahgi72 ,lord ,rayleigh1 ,theory of ,sound1 vol4 i4 7#ast ed4 ,london1 #ahgg2 #bnd ed4 ,london1 #ahid72 ,e4,j4 ,routh1 ,stability of ,motion 7,london1 #ahgg71 and ,rigid ,dynamics 7#dth ed4 ,london1 #ahhd72 ,h4 ,helmholtz1 ,ueber die physikalische ,bedeutung des ,prinzips der kleinsten ,action1 ,crelle1 vol4 c41 #ahhf1 reprinted 7with other cognate papers7 in ,wiss4 ,abh4 vol4 iii4 7,leipzig1 #ahie72 ,j4 ,larmor1 ,on ,least ,action1 ,proc4 ,lond4 ,math4 ,soc4 vol4 xv4 7#ahhd72 ,e4,t4 ,whittaker1 ,analytical ,dynamics 7,cambridge1 #aijd74 ,as to the question of stability1 reference may be made to ,h4 ,poincare1 ,sur l'equilibre d'une masse fluide animee d'un mouvement de rotation ,acta math4 vol4 vii4 7#ahhe72 ,f4 ,klein and ,a4 ,sommerfeld1 ,theorie des ,kreisels1 pts4 #a1 #b 7,leipzig1 #ahig-ahih72 ,a4 ,lioupanoff and ,j4 ,hadamard1 ,liouville1 #eme serie1 vol4 iii4 7#ahig72 ,t4,j4,i4 ,bromwich1 ,proc4 ,lond4 ,math4 ,soc4 vol4 xxxiii4 7#aija74 ,a remarkable interpretation of various dynamical principles is given by ,h4 ,hertz in his posthumous work ,die ,prinzipien der ,mechanik 7,leipzig1 #ahid71 of which an ,english translation appeared in #aijj4 7,h4 ,lb47 ,,dynamite 7,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 power71 the name given to several explosive preparations containing nitroglycerin 7q4v47 which are almost exclusively used for blasting purposes4 ,the first practical application of nitroglycerin in this way was made by ,a4 ,nobel in #ahfc4 ,he soaked gunpowder with the liquid and fired the gunpowder by an ordinary fuse4 ,later he found that nitroglycerin could be detonated by the explosion of several materials such as fulminate of mercury1 the use of which as a detonator he patented in #ahfg4 ,in #ahff-ahfg he experimented with charcoal and other substances1 and found the infusorial earth known as kieselguhr1 which consists mainly of silica 7nearly #ie71 eminently adapted to the purpose1 as it was inert1 non-combustible1 and after a little heating and preparation very porous1 retaining a large amount of nitroglycerin as water is held in a sponge1 without very serious exudation on standing4 ,this kieselguhr dynamite is generally made by incorporating three parts of nitroglycerin with one part of the dry earth1 the paste being then formed into cylindrical cartridges4 ,this work is done by hand4 ,generally a small percentage of the kieselguhr is replaced by a mixture containing sodium and ammonium carbonates1 talc and ochre4 ,this product is known as dynamite ,no4 #a4 ,disabilities attaching to kieselguhr dynamite are that when placed in water the nitroglycerin is liable to be exuded or displaced1 also that1 like nitroglycerin itself1 it freezes fairly easily and thawing the frozen cartridges is a dangerous operation4 ,other substances1 e4g4 kaolin1 tripoli1 magnesia alba 7magnesium carbonate71 alumina1 sugar1 charcoal1 some powdered salts and mixtures of sawdust and salts1 have been shown to be absorbents more or less adapted to the purpose of making a dynamite4 ,charcoal from cork is said to absorb about #ij of its weight of nitroglycerin4 ,with the idea of obtaining greater safety1 mixtures have been made of nitroglycerin with wood fibre1 charcoal and metallic nitrates4 ,lithofracteur1 for instance1 consists of #ej nitroglycerin and a mixture of prepared sawdust1 kieselguhr and barium nitrate4 ,carbonite contains #be of nitroglycerin1 the remainder being a mixture of wood-meal and alkali nitrates1 with about #a of sulphur4 ,dualin1 atlas dynamite and potentite are other modifications4 ,a convenient form in which nitroglycerin can be made up for blasting purposes1 especially in wet ground1 is the gelatinous material obtained by the action of nitroglycerin1 either alone or with the help of solvents1 on low-grade or soluble gun-cottons4 ,it is known as blasting gelatin1 and was first made by ,nobel by incorporating #f or #g of low nitrated cellulose 7collodion cotton or soluble gun-cotton7 with slightly warmed nitroglycerin4 ,the result is a transparent plastic material1 of specific gravity #a4e to #a4f1 which may be kept under water for a long time without appreciable change4 ,it is less sensitive to detonation than ordinary dynamite1 and although its explosion is slightly slower it is more powerful than dynamite and much superior to the liquid nitroglycerin4 ,blasting gelatin also freezes and is sensitive to percussion in this state4 ,camphor and other substances have been added to blasting gelatin to render it more solid and less sensitive4 ,some modifications of blasting gelatin1 e4g4 gelignite1 contain wood-meal and such oxygen-containing salts as potassium nitrate4 ,experience has conclusively shown that dynamites are more satisfactory1 quicker1 and more intense in action than liquid nitroglycerin4 ,to prevent nitroglycerin and some of the forms of dynamite from freezing it has been proposed to add to them small quantities of either monochlor-dinitroglycerin or of a nitrated poly-glycerin4 ,the former is obtained by first acting upon glycerin with hydrogen chloride to produce u-chlorhydrin or chlor-propylene glycol1 ,c#c;,h#g,o#b;,cl1 which is then nitrated as in the case of glycerin4 ,the latter is obtained by heating glycerin for six or seven hours to about #cjj deg4 ,c41 whereby water is split off in such manner that a diglycerin ,c#f;,h#ad,o#e1 for the most part1 results4 ,this on nitration in the usual manner gives a product ,c#f;,h#aj,n#d,o#ac1 which burns and explodes in a similar manner to ordinary nitroglycerin1 but is less sensitive and does not so easily freeze4 ,the mono- and di-nitrates of glycerin have also been proposed as additions to ordinary nitroglycerin 7q4v47 for the same purpose4 7,w4 ,r4 ,e4 ,h47 ,,dynamo 7a shortened form of dynamo-electric machine1 from ,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 power71 a machine for converting mechanical into electrical energy4 ,the dynamo ranks with the telegraph and telephone as one of the three striking applications of electrical and magnetic science to which the material progress that marked the second half of the #aith century was in no small measure due4 ,since the discovery of the principle of the dynamo by ,faraday in #ahca the simple model which he first constructed has been gradually developed into the machines of #ejjj horse-power or more which are now built to meet the needs of large cities for electric lighting and power1 while at the same time the numbers of dynamos in use have increased almost beyond estimate4 ,yet such was the insight of ,faraday into the fundamental nature of the dynamo that the theory of its action which he laid down has remained essentially unchanged4 ,his experiments on the current which was set up in a coil of wire during its movement across the poles of a magnet led naturally to the explanation of induced electromotive force as caused by the linking or unlinking of magnetic lines of flux with an electric circuit4 ,for the more definite case of the dynamo1 however1 we may1 with ,faraday1 make the transition from line-linkage to the equivalent conception of line-cutting as the source of ,e4,m4,f4--in other words1 to the idea of electric conductors cutting or intersecting#a the lines of flux in virtue of relative motion of the magnetic field and electric circuit4 ,on the #bhth of ,october #ahca ,faraday mounted a copper disk so that it could be rotated edgewise between the poles of a permanent horse-shoe magnet4 ,when so rotated1 it cut the lines of flux which passed transversely through its lower half1 and by means of two rubbing contacts1 one on its periphery and the other on its spindle1 the circuit was closed through a galvanometer1 which indicated the passage of a continuous current so long as the disk was rotated 7fig4 #a74 ,thus by the invention of the first dynamo ,faraday proved his idea that the ,e4,m4,f4 induced through the interaction of a magnetic field and an electric circuit was due to the passage of a portion of the electric circuit across the lines of flux1 or vice versa1 and so could be maintained if the cutting of the lines were made continuous4#b ,in comparison with ,faraday's results1 the subsequent advance is to be regarded as a progressive perfecting of the mechanical and electro-magnetic design1 partly from the theoretical and partly from the practical side1 rather than as modifying or adding to the idea which was originally present in his mind1 and of which he already saw the possibilities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,a dynamo1 then1 is a machine in which1 by means of continuous relative motion1 an electrical conductor or system of conductors forming part of a circuit is caused to cut the lines of a magnetic field or fields2 the cutting of the magnetic flux induces an electromotive force in the conductors1 and when the circuit is closed a current flows1 whereby mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy4 ,little practical use could be made of electrical energy so long as its only known sources were frictional machines and voltaic batteries4 ,the cost of the materials for producing electrical currents on a large scale by chemical action was prohibitive1 while the frictional machine only yielded very small currents at extremely high potentials4 ,in the dynamo1 on the other hand1 electrical energy in a convenient form could be cheaply and easily obtained by mechanical means1 and with its invention the application of electricity to a wide range of commercial purposes became economically possible4 ,as a converter of energy from one form to another it is only surpassed in efficiency by another electrical appliance1 namely1 the transformer 7see ,,transformers74 ,in this there is merely conversion of electrical energy at a high potential into electrical energy at a low potential1 or vice versa1 but in the dynamo the mechanical energy which must be applied to maintain the relative movement of magnetic field and conductor is absorbed1 and reappears in an electrical form4 ,a true transformation takes place1 and the proportion which the rate of delivery of electrical energy bears to the power absorbed1 or in other words the efficiency1 is the more remarkable4 ,the useful return or output at the terminals of a large machine may amount to as much as #ie of the mechanical energy which forms the input4 ,since it needs some prime mover to drive it1 the dynamo has not made any direct addition to our sources of energy1 and does not therefore rank with the primary battery or oil-engine1 or even the steam-engine1 all of which draw their energy more immediately from nature4 ,yet by the aid of the dynamo the power to be derived from waterfalls can be economically and conveniently converted into an electrical form and brought to the neighbouring factory or distant town1 to be there reconverted by motors into mechanical power4 ,over any but very short distances energy is most easily transmitted when it is in an electrical form1 and turbine-driven dynamos are very largely and successfully employed for such transmission4 ,thus by conducing to the utilization of water-power which may previously have had but little value owing to its disadvantageous situation1 the dynamo may almost be said to have added another to our available natural resources4 ,the two essential parts of the dynamo1 as required by its definition1 may be illustrated by the original disk machine of ,faraday4 ,they are 7#a7 the iron magnet1 between the poles of which a magnetic field exists1 and 7#b7 the electrical conductors1 represented by the rotating copper disk4 ,the sector of the disk cutting the lines of the field forms part of a closed electric circuit1 and has an ,e4,m4,f4 induced in it1 by reason of which it is no longer simply a conductor1 but has become active4 ,in its more highly developed form the simple copper disk is elaborated into a system of many active wires or bars which form the winding1 and which are so interconnected as to add up their several ,e4,m4,f4's4 ,since these active wires are usually mounted on an iron structure1 which may be likened to the keeper or armature of a magnet rotating between its poles1 the term armature has been extended to cover not only the iron core1 but also the wires on it1 and when there is no iron core it is even applied to the copper conductors themselves4 ,in the dynamo of ,faraday the armature was the rotating portion1 and such is the case with modern continuous-current dynamos2 in alternators1 however1 the magnet1 or a portion of it1 is more commonly rotated while the armature is stationary4 ,it is in fact immaterial to the action whether the one or the other is moved1 or both1 so long as their relative motion causes the armature conductors to cut the magnetic flux4 ,as to the ultimate reason why an ,e4,m4,f4 should be thereby induced1 physical science cannot as yet yield any surer knowledge than in the days of ,faraday4#c ,for the engineer1 it suffices to know that the ,e4,m4,f4 of the dynamo is due to the cutting of the magnetic flux by the active wires1 and1 further1 is proportional to the rate at which the lines are cut4#d ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the equation of the electromotive force which is required in order to render this statement quantitative must contain three factors1 namely1 the density of the flux in the air-gap through which the armature conductors move1 the active length of these wires1 and the speed of their movement4 ,for given values of the first and third factors and a single straight wire moved parallel to itself through a uniform field1 the maximum rate of cutting is evidently obtained when the three directions of the lines of the conductor's length and of the relative motion are respectively at right angles to each other1 as shown by the three co-ordinate axes of fig4 #b4 ,the ,e4,m4,f4 of the single wire is then ,e ,bg,l,v x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a7 where ,bg is the density of the flux within the air-gap expressed in ,c4,g4,s4 lines per square centimetre1 ,l is the active length of the conductor within the field in centimetres1 and ,v is the velocity of movement in centimetres per second4 ,further1 the direction in which the ,e4,m4,f4 has the above maximum value is along the length of the conductor1 its sense being determined by the direction of the movement#e in relation to the direction of the field4 ,the second fundamental equation of the dynamo brings to light its mechanical side1 and rests on ,h4,c4 ,oersted's discovery of the interaction of a magnetic field and an electric current4 ,if a straight electric conductor through which a current is passing be so placed in a magnetic field that its length is not parallel to the direction of the lines of flux1 it is acted on by a force which will move it1 if free1 in a definite direction relatively to the magnet2 or if the conductor is fixed and the magnet is free1 the latter will itself move in the opposite direction4 ,now in the dynamo the active wires are placed so that their length is at right angles to the field2 hence when they are rotated and an electric current begins to flow under the ,e4,m4,f4 which they induce1 a mutual force at once arises between the copper conductors and the magnet1 and the direction of this force must by ,lenz's law be opposed to the direction of the movement4 ,thus as soon as the disk of fig4 #a is rotated and its circuit is closed1 it experiences a mechanical pull or drag which must be overcome by the force applied to turn the disk4 ,while the magnet must be firmly held so as to remain stationary1 the armature must be of such mechanical construction that its wires can be forcibly driven through the magnetic field against the mutual pull4 ,this law of electrodynamic action may be quantitatively stated in an equation of mechanical force1 analogous to the equation 7,i47 of electromotive force1 which states the law of electromagnetic induction4 ,if a conductor of length ,l cm41 carrying a current ,c amperes1 is immersed in a field of uniform density ,bg1 and the length of the conductor is at right angles to the direction of the lines1 it is acted on by a force ,f ,bg,l,c x #aj7-a7 dynes1 7#b7 and the direction of this force is at right angles to the conductor and to the field4 ,the rate at which electrical energy is developed1 when this force is overcome by moving the conductor as a dynamo through the field1 is ,,ec ,bg,l,v,c x #aj7-h7 watts1 whence the equality of the mechanical power absorbed and the electrical power developed 7as required by the law of the conservation of energy7 is easily established4 ,the whole of this power is not1 however1 available at the terminals of the machine2 if ,ra be the resistance of the armature in ohms1 the passage of the current ,ca through the armature conductors causes a drop of pressure of ,ca,ra volts1 and a corresponding loss of energy in the armature at the rate of ,ca squared,ra watts4 ,as the resistance of the external circuit ,re is lowered1 the current ,c ,ea_/7,re ,ra7 is increased4 ,the increase of the current is1 however1 accompanied by a progressive increase in the loss of energy over the armature1 and as this is expended in heating the armature conductors1 their temperature may rise so much as to destroy the insulating materials with which they are covered4 ,hence the temperature which the machine may be permitted to attain in its working is of great importance in determining its output1 the current which forms one factor therein being primarily limited by the heating which it produces in the armature winding4 ,the lower the resistance of the armature1 the less the rise of its temperature for a given current flowing through it2 and the reason for the almost universal adoption of copper as the material for the armature conductors is now seen to lie in its high conductivity4#f ,since the voltage of the dynamo is the second factor to which its output is proportional1 the conditions which render the induced ,e4,m4,f4 a maximum must evidently be reproduced as far as possible in practice1 if the best use is to be made of a given mass of iron and copper4 ,the first problem1 therefore1 in the construction of the dynamo is the disposition of the wires and field in such a manner that the three directions of field1 length of active conductors1 and movement are at right angles to one another1 and so that the relative motion is continuous4 ,reciprocating motion1 such as would be obtained by direct attachment of the conductors to the piston of a steam-engine1 has been successfully employed only in the special case of an oscillator1#g producing a small current very rapidly changing in direction4 ,rotary motion is therefore universally adopted1 and with this two distinct cases arise4 ,either 7,a7 the active length of the wire is parallel to the axis of rotation1 or 7,b7 it is at right angles to it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 7,a7 ,if a conductor is rotated in the gap between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet1 and these poles have plane parallel faces opposing one another as in fig4 #c1 not only is the density of the flux in the interpolar gap small1 but the direction of movement is not always at right angles to the direction of the lines1 which for the most part pass straight across from one opposing face to the other4 ,when the conductor is midway between the poles 7i4e4 either at its highest or lowest point71 it is at this instant sliding along the lines and does not cut them1 so that its ,e4,m4,f4 is zero4 ,taking this position as the starting-point1 as the conductor moves round1 its rate of line-cutting increases to a maximum when it has moved through a right angle and is opposite to the centre of a pole-face 7as in fig4 #c71 from which point onward the rate decreases to zero when it has moved through #ahj deg44 ,each time the conductor crosses a line drawn symmetrically through the gap between the poles and at right angles to the axis of rotation1 the ,e4,m4,f4 along its length is reversed in direction1 since the motion relatively to the direction of the field is reversed4 ,if the ends of the active conductor are electrically connected to two collecting rings fixed upon1 but insulated from1 the shaft1 two stationary brushes bb can be pressed on the rings so as to make a sliding contact4 ,an external circuit can then be connected to the brushes1 which will form the terminals of the machine1 the periodically reversed or alternating ,e4,m4,f4 induced in the active conductor will cause an alternating current to flow through conductor and external circuit1 and the simplest form of alternator is obtained4 ,if the field cut by the straight conductor is of uniform density1 and all the lines pass straight across from one pole-face to the other 7both of which assumptions are approximately correct71 a curve connecting the instantaneous values of the ,e4,m4,f4 as ordinates with time or degrees of angular movement as abscissae 7as shown at the foot of fig4 #c71 will1 if the speed of rotation be uniform1 be a sine curve4 ,if1 however1 the conductor is mounted on an iron cylinder 7fig4 #d71h a sufficient margin being allowed for mechanical clearance between it and the poles1 not only will the reluctance of the magnetic circuit be reduced and the total flux and its density in the air-gap ,bg be thereby increased1 but the path of the lines will become nearly radial1 except at the fringe near the edges of the pole-tips2 hence the relative directions of the movement and of the lines will be continuously at right angles4 ,the shape of the ,e4,m4,f4 curve will then be as shown in fig4 #d--;flat-topped1 with rounded corners rapidly sloping down to the zero line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,but a single wire cannot thus be made to give more than a few volts1 and while dynamos for voltages from #e to #aj are required for certain purposes1 the voltages in common use range from #ajj to #aj1jjj4 ,it is therefore necessary to connect a number of such wires in series1 so as to form an armature winding4 ,if several similar conductors are arranged along the length of the iron core parallel to the first 7fig4 #e71 the ,e4,m4,f4's generated in the conductors which at any moment are under the same pole are similarly directed1 and are opposite to the directions of the ,e4,m4,f4's in the conductors under the other pole 7cf fig4 #e where the dotted and crossed ends of the wires indicate ,e4,m4,f4's directed respectively towards and away from the observer74 ,two distinct methods of winding thence arise1 the similarity of the ,e4,m4,f4's under the same pole being taken advantage of in the first1 and the opposite ,e4,m4,f4's under ,n and ,s poles in the second4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 #a4 ,the first1 or ring-winding1 was invented by ,dr ,antonio ,pacinotti of ,florence#i in #ahfj1 and was subsequently and independently reintroduced in #ahgjaj by the ,belgian electrician1 ,zenobe ,theophile ,gramme1 whence it is also frequently called the ,gramme winding4 ,by this method the farther end of conductor #a 7fig4 #e7 is joined in series to the near end of conductor #b2 this latter lies next to it on the surface of the core or immediately above it1 so that both are simultaneously under the same pole-piece4 ,for this series connexion to be possible1 the armature core must be a hollow cylinder1 supported from the shaft on an open non-magnetic spider or hub1 between the arms of which there is room for the internal wire completing the loop 7fig4 #f74 ,the end of one complete loop or turn embracing one side of the armature core thus forms the starting-point for another loop1 and the process can be continued if required to form a coil of two or more turns4 ,in the ring armature the iron core serves the double purpose of conducting the lines across from one pole to the other1 and also of shielding from the magnetic flux the hollow interior through which the connecting wires pass4 ,any lines which leak across the central space are cut by the internal wires1 and the direction of cutting is such that the ,e4,m4,f4 caused thereby opposes the ,e4,m4,f4 due to the active conductors proper on the external surface4 ,if1 however1 the section of iron in the core be correctly proportioned1 the number of lines which cross the interior will bear but a small ratio to those which pass entirely through the iron1 and the counter ,e4,m4,f4 of the internal wires will become very small2 they may then be regarded simply as connectors for joining the external active wires in series4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 #b4 ,the second or drum method was used in the original shuttle-wound armatures invented by ,dr ,werner von ,siemens in #ahef1 and is sometimes called the ,siemens winding4 ,the farther end of conductor #a 7fig4 #e7 is joined by a connecting wire to the farther end of another conductor #b' situated nearly diametrically opposite on the other side of the core and under the opposite pole-piece4 ,the near end of the complete loop or turn is then brought across the end of the core1 and can be used as the starting-point for another loop beginning with conductor #b1 which is situated by the side of the first conductor4 ,the iron core may now be solid from the surface to the shaft1 since no connecting wires are brought through the centre1 and each loop embraces the entire armature core 7fig4 #g74 ,by the formation of two loops in the ring armature and of the single loop in the drum armature1 two active wires are placed in series2 the curves of instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 are therefore similar in shape to that of the single wire 7fig4 #d71 but with their ordinates raised throughout to double their former height1 as shown at the foot of fig4 #f4 ,next1 if the free ends of either the ring or drum loops1 instead of being connected to two collecting rings1 are attached to the two halves of a split-ring insulated from the shaft 7as shown in fig4 #g in connexion with a drum armature71 and the stationary brushes are so set relatively to the loops that they pass over from the one half of the split-ring to the other half at the moment when the loops are passing the centre of the interpolar gap1 and so are giving little or no ,e4,m4,f41 each brush will always remain either positive or negative4 ,the current in the external circuit attached to the brushes will then have a constant direction1 although the ,e4,m4,f4 in the active wires still remains alternating2 the curve of ,e4,m4,f4 obtained at the brushes is thus 7as in fig4 #g7 entirely above the zero line4 ,the first dynamo of ,h4 ,pixii1#aa which immediately followed ,faraday's discovery1 gave an alternating current1 but in #ahcbab the alternator was converted into a machine giving a unidirected current by the substitution of a rudimentary commutator in place of mercury collecting cups4 7,b7 ,so far the length of the active wires has been parallel to the axis of rotation1 but they may equally well be arranged perpendicularly thereto4 ,the poles will then have plane faces and the active wires will be disposed with their length approximately radial to the axis of the shaft4 ,in order to add their ,e4,m4,f4's in series1 two types of winding may be employed1 which are precisely analogous in principle to the ring and drum windings under arrangement 7,a74 #c4 ,the discoidal or flat-ring armature is equivalent to a ring of which the radial depth greatly exceeds the length1 with the poles presented to one side of the ring instead of embracing its cylindrical surface4 ,a similar set of poles is also presented to the opposite side of the ring1 like poles being opposite to one another1 so that in effect each polar surface is divided into two halves1 and the groups of lines from each side bifurcate and pass circumferentially through the armature core to issue into the adjacent poles of opposite sign4 #d4 ,in the disk machine1 no iron core is necessary for the armature1 the two opposite poles of unlike sign being brought close together1 leaving but a short path for the lines in the air-gap through which the active wires are rotated4 ,if the above elementary dynamos are compared with fig4 #a1 it will be found that they all possess a distinctive feature which is not present in the original disk machine of ,faraday4 ,in the four types of machine above described each active wire in each revolution first cuts the group of lines forming a field in one direction1 and then cuts the same lines again in the opposite direction relatively to the sense of the lines1 so that along the length of the wire the ,e4,m4,f4 alternates in direction4 ,but in the dynamo of fig4 #a the sector of the copper disk which is at any moment moving through the magnetic field and which forms the single active element is always cutting the lines in the same manner1 so that the ,e4,m4,f4 generated along its radial length is continuous and unchanged in direction4 ,this radical distinction differentiates the two classes of heteropolar and homopolar dynamos1 ,faraday's disk machine of fig4 #a being the type of the latter class4 ,in it the active element may be arranged either parallel or at right angles to the axis of rotation2 but in both cases1 in order to increase the ,e4,m4,f4 by placing two or more elements in series1 it becomes necessary either 7#a7 to employ some form of sliding contact by which the current may be collected from the end of one active element and passed round a connecting wire into the next element without again cutting the field in the reverse direction1 or 7#b7 to form on the armature a loop of which each side is alternately active and inactive4 ,the first method limits the possibilities of the homopolar machine so greatly when large currents and high voltages are required that it is now only used in rare instances1 as e4g4 occasionally in dynamos driven by steam-turbines which have a very high speed of rotation4 ,the second alternative may be carried into effect with any of the four methods of armature winding1 but is practically confined to the drum and disk types4 ,in its drum form the field is divided into two or more projecting poles1 all of the same sign1 with intervening neutral spaces of equal width1 and the span of the loop in the direction of rotation is at least equal to the width of a polar projection1 as in fig4 #h1 where two polar projections are shown4 ,each side of the loop then plays a dual part2 it first cuts the lines of one polar projection and generates an ,e4,m4,f41 and next becomes an inactive connecting wire1 while the action is taken up by the opposite side of the loop which has previously served as a connector but now cuts the lines of the next polar projection4 ,the ,e4,m4,f4 is thus always in the same direction along the side which is at any moment active1 but alternates round the loop as a whole1 and the distinctive peculiarity of the homopolar machine1 so soon as any form of winding is introduced into its armature1 is lost4 ,it results that the homopolar principle1 which would prima facie appear specially suitable for the generation of a unidirectional ,e4,m4,f4 and continuous current1 can seldom be used for this purpose and is practically confined to alternators4 ,it may therefore be said that in almost all dynamos1 whether they supply an alternating or a continuous current in the external circuit1 the ,e4,m4,f4 and current in the armature are alternating4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,ring winding was largely employed in early continuous-current dynamos and also in the alternators of ,gramme and ,h4 ,wilde1 and later of ,auguste de ,meritens4 ,disk winding was also successfully introduced for alternators1 as in the magneto-machines of ,nollet 7#ahdi7 and the alternators of ,wilde 7#ahff7 and ,siemens 7#ahgh71 and its use was continued in the machines of ,w4,m4 ,mordey and ,s4,z4 ,ferranti4 ,but although the ring1 discoidal-ring and disk methods of winding deserve mention from their historical importance1 experience has shown that drum winding possesses a marked superiority for both electrical and manufacturing reasons2 the three former methods have in fact been practically discarded in its favour1 so that the drum method will hereafter alone be considered4 ,the drum coil1 composed of several loops wound side by side1 may therefore be regarded as the constituent active element out of which the armature winding of the modern dynamo is developed4 ,its application to the multipolar machine is easily followed from fig4 #i1 which illustrates the heteropolar type of dynamo4 ,the span of the loops1 which is nearly #ahj deg4 or across the diameter of the two-pole machine1 is reduced approximately to #ij deg4 in the four-pole or to #fj deg4 in the six-pole machine and so on1 the curvature of the coil becoming gradually less as the number of poles is increased4 ,the passage of a coil through two magnetic fields of opposite direction yields a complete wave of ,e4,m4,f41 such as is shown in fig4 #f1 and the time in seconds taken to pass through such a complete cycle is the period of the alternating ,e4,m4,f4 ,the number of complete periods through which the ,e4,m4,f4 of the coil passes per second is called the periodicity or frequency of the machine4 ,in the bipolar machine this is equal to the number of revolutions per second1 and in the multipolar machine it is equal to the number of pairs of fields through which the coil passes in one second2 hence in general the periodicity is p,n_/#fj1 where ,n the number of revolutions per minute and p the number of pairs of poles1 and this holds true of the ,e4,m4,f4 and current round the coil1 even though the ,e4,m4,f4 and current furnished to the external circuit may be rendered unidirectional or continuous4 ,the only difference on this point is that in the continuous-current machine the poles are usually fewer than in the alternator1 and the periodicity is correspondingly lower4 ,thus in the former case the number of poles ranges from #b to #ab and the usual frequencies from #e to #bj2 but with alternators the frequencies in commercial use range from #be to #abj1 and in large machines driven by slow-speed engines the number of poles may even be as high as #if4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,i4 ,smooth4 ,,ii4 ,toothed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the drum coil may be applied either to the external surface of a rotating armature1 the field-magnet being external and stationary 7fig4 #i71 or to the internal surface of a stationary armature 7fig4 #aj71 the field-magnet being internal and rotating4 ,while the former combination is universally adopted in the continuous-current dynamo1 the latter is more usual in the modern alternator4 ,in either case the iron armature core must be laminated2 the passage of the lines of the field across its surface sets up ,e4,m4,f4's which are in opposite directions under poles of opposite sign1 so that if the core were a solid mass a current-sheet would flow along its surface opposite to a pole1 and complete its circuit by passing through the deeper layers of metal or by returning in a sheet under a pole of opposite sign4 ,such eddy-currents can be practically avoided by dividing the metal core into laminations at right angles to the length of the active wires which are themselves arranged to secure the greatest rate of line-cutting and maximum ,e4,m4,f4 ,the production of the eddy-current ,e4,m4,f4 is not thereby prevented1 but the paths of the eddy-currents are so broken up that the comparatively high resistance with which they meet reduces their amount very greatly4 ,the laminae must be lightly insulated from one another1 right up to their edges1 so that the ,e4,m4,f4's which still act across their thickness will not be added up along the length of the core1 but will only produce extremely small currents circulating through the interior of the separate laminations4 ,each thin iron plate is either coated with an insulating varnish or has one of its sides covered with a sheet of very thin paper2 the thickness of the laminae is usually about one-fortieth of an inch1 and if this is not exceeded the rate at which energy is dissipated by eddy-currents in the core is so far reduced that it does not seriously impair the efficiency of the machine4 ,lastly1 the drum coils may be either attached to the surface of a smooth armature core 7fig4 #i1 ,i471 or may be wound through holes formed close to the periphery of the core1 or may be embedded in the slots between projecting iron teeth 7figs4 #i ,,ii4 and #aj74 ,originally employed by ,antonio ,pacinotti in connexion with ring winding1 the toothed armature was after some considerable use largely discarded in favour of the smooth core2 it has1 however1 been reintroduced with a fuller understanding of the special precautions necessitated in its design1 and it is now so commonly used that it may be said to have superseded the smooth-surface armature4 ,not only does the toothed armature reduce the length of the air-gap to the minimum permitted by mechanical and magnetic considerations1 and furnish better mechanical protection to the armature coils1 but it also ensures the positive holding of the active wires against the mechanical drag which they experience as they pass through the magnetic field4 ,further1 the active wires in the toothed armature are relieved of a large proportion of this mechanical drag1 which is transferred to the iron teeth4 ,the lines of the field1 after passing through the air-gap proper1 divide between the teeth and the slots in proportion to their relative permeances4 ,hence at any moment the active wires are situated in a weak field1 and for a given armature current the force on them is only proportional to this weak field4 ,this important result is connected with the fact that when the armature is giving current the distribution of the lines over the face of each tooth is distorted1 so that they become denser on the trailing side than on the leading side2#ac the effect of the non-uniform distribution acting on all the teeth is to produce a magnetic drag on the armature core proportional to the current passing through the wires1 so that the total resisting force remains the same as if the armature had a smooth core4 ,the amount by which the stress on the active wires is reduced entirely depends upon the degree to which the teeth are saturated1 but1 since the relative permeability of iron even at a flux density of #bj1jjj lines per sq4 cm4 is to that of air approximately as #cc3a1 the embedded wires are very largely relieved of the driving stress4 ,an additional gain is that solid bars of much greater width can be used in the toothed armature than on a smooth core without appreciable loss from eddy-currents within their mass4 ,a disadvantage of the slotted core is1 however1 that it usually necessitates the lamination of the pole-pieces4 ,if the top of the slot is open1 and its width of opening is considerably greater than the length of the air-gap from the iron of the pole-face to the surface of the teeth1 the lines become unequally distributed not only at the surface of the teeth1 but also at the face of the pole-pieces2 and this massing of the lines into bands causes the density at the pole-face to be rhythmically varied as the teeth pass under it4 ,no such variation can take place in a solid mass of metal without the production of eddy-currents within it2 hence if the width of the slot-opening is equal to or exceeds twice the length of the single air-gap1 lamination of the pole-pieces in the same plane as that of the armature core becomes advisable4 ,if the wires are threaded through holes or tunnels pierced close to the periphery of the core1 the same advantages are gained as with open slots1 and lamination of the pole-pieces is rendered unnecessary4 ,but on the other hand1 the process of winding becomes laborious and expensive1 while the increase in the inductance of the coils owing to their being surrounded by a closed iron circuit is prejudicial to sparkless commutation in the continuous-current dynamo and to the regulation of the voltage of the alternator4 ,a compromise is found in the half-closed slot1 which is not uncommon in alternators1 although the open slot is more usual in continuous-current dynamos4 ,with the addition of more turns to the elementary drum loop or of several complete coils1 new questions arise1 and in connexion therewith the two great classes of machines1 viz4 alternators and continuous-current dynamos1 which have above been treated side by side1 diverge considerably1 so that they are best considered separately4 ,the electromotive-force equation of the alternator will be first deduced1 and subsequently that of the continuous-current machine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,corresponding to the number of pairs of poles in the multipolar alternator1 it is evident that there may also be an equal number of coils as shown diagrammatically in fig4 #aa4 ,the additional coils1 being similarly situated in respect to other pairs of poles1 will exactly reproduce the ,e4,m4,f4 of the original coil in phase and magnitude1 so that when they are connected in series the total ,e4,m4,f4 will be proportional to the number of coils in series2 or if they are connected in parallel1 while not adding to the ,e4,m4,f41 they will proportionately increase the current-carrying capacity of the combination4 ,but within each coil the addition of more loops will not cause an equal increase in the total ,e4,m4,f41 unless the phases of the component ,e4,m4,f4's due to the several turns are identical1 and on this account it becomes necessary to consider the effect of the width of the coil-side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,if the additional loops are wound within the same slots as the original loop1 the winding is concentrated1 and each turn will then add the same ,e4,m4,f4 ,but if the coil-side is divided between two or more slots1 the phase of the ,e4,m4,f4 yielded by the wires in one slot being different from that of the wires in another neighbouring slot1 the sum of all the ,e4,m4,f4's will be less than the ,e4,m4,f4 of one component loop multiplied by the number of loops or turns in the coil4 ,the percentage reduction in the ,e4,m4,f4 will depend upon the number of the slots in a coil-side and their distance apart1 i4e4 on the virtual width of the coil-side expressed as a fraction of the pole-pitch or the distance measured along the pitch-line from the centre of one pole to the centre of a neighbouring pole of opposite sign 7fig4 #ab74 ,the winding is now to be regarded as grouped1 since a small number of distinct phases corresponding to the groups within the two1 three or four slots have to be compounded together4 ,as the number of slots per coil-side is increased1 an approach is gradually made to the case of uniform distribution1 such as would obtain in a smooth-core armature in which the turns of the coil are wound closely side by side4 ,thus in the six-turn coil of fig4 #ab ,a1 which represents the development of a two-pole armature when the core is cut down to the shaft and opened out flat1 there are in effect six phases compounded together1 each of which differs but little from that of its next neighbour4 ,with numerous wires lying still closer together a large number of phases are compounded until the distribution becomes practically uniform2 the decrease in the ,e4,m4,f41 as compared with that of a single turn multiplied by the number in series1 is then immediately dependent upon the width of the coil-side relatively to the pole-pitch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,if the width of the inner loop of fig4 #ab ,a is less than that of the pole-face1 its two sides will for some portion of each period be moving under the same pole1 and differential action results1 the net ,e4,m4,f4 being only that due to the difference between the ,e4,m4,f4's of the two sides4 ,the loop of smallest width must therefore exceed the width of pole-face1 if direct differential action is to be avoided4 ,the same consideration also determines the width of the outer loop2 if this be deducted from twice the pole-pitch1 the difference should not be less than the width of the pole-face1 so that1 e4g41 in a bipolar machine the outer loop may stand to the ,s4 pole exactly as the inner loop stands to the ,n4 pole 7fig4 #ac74 ,in other words1 the width of the coil-side must not exceed the width of the interpolar gap between two fields4 ,evidently then if the ratio of the pole-width to the pole-pitch approaches unity1 the width of the coil-side must be very small1 and vice versa4 ,a compromise between these conflicting considerations is found if the pole is made not much more than half the pole-pitch1 and the width of the coil-side is similarly about half the pole-pitch and therefore equal in width to the pole 7fig4 #ac74 ,a single large coil1 such as that of fig4 #ab ,a1 can1 however1 equally well be divided into two halves by taking the end-connexions of one half of the turns round the opposite side of the shaft 7fig4 #ab ,b71 as indeed has already been done in fig4 #ac4 ,each sheaf or band of active wires corresponding to a pole is thereby unaffected1 but the advantages are gained that the axial length of the end-connexions is halved1 and that they have less inductance4 ,thus if in fig4 #aa there are four turns per coil1 fig4 #ad is electrically equivalent to it 7save that the coils are here shown divided into two parallel paths1 each carrying half the total current74 ,when the large coils are divided as above described1 it results that there are as many coils as there are poles1 the outer loop of the small coil having a width equal to the pole-pitch1 and the inner a width equal to the pole-face4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,such is the form which the single-phase alternator takes1 but since only one-half of the armature core is now covered with winding1 an entirely distinct but similar set of coils may be wound to form a second armature circuit between the coils of the first circuit4 ,the phase of this second circuit will differ by #ij deg4 or a quarter of a period from that of the first1 and it may either be used to feed an entirely separate external circuit possibly at a different pressure or1 if it be composed of the same number of turns and therefore gives the same voltage1 it may be interconnected with the first circuit to form a quarter-phase alternator1 as will be more fully described later4 ,by an extension of the same process1 if the width of each side of a coil is reduced to one-sixth of the pole-pitch1 three armature circuits can be wound on the same core1 and a three-phase alternator1 giving waves of ,e4,m4,f4 differing in phase by #abj deg41 is obtained4 ,the fundamental electromotive-force equation of the heteropolar alternator can now be given a more definite form4 ,let ,za be the number of ,c4 ,g4 ,s4 lines or the total flux1 which issuing from any one pole flows through the armature core1 to leave it by another pole of opposite sign4 ,since each active wire cuts these lines1 first as they enter the armature core and then as they emerge from it to enter another pole1 the total number of lines cut in one revolution by any one active wire is #bp,za4 ,the time in seconds taken by one revolution is #fj_/,n4 ,the average ,e4,m4,f4 induced in each active wire in one revolution being proportional to the number of lines cut divided by the time taken to cut them is therefore #b,za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,the active wires which are in series and form one distinct phase may be divided into as many bands as there are poles2 let each such band contain t active wires1 which as before explained may either form one side of a single large coil or the adjacent sides of two coils when the large coil is divided into two halves4 ,since the wires are joined up into loops1 two bands are best considered together1 which with either arrangement yield in effect a single coil of t turns4 ,the average ,e4,m4,f4's of all the wires in the two bands when added together will therefore be #d,za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,but unless each band is concentrated within a single slot1 there must be some differential action as they cross the neutral line between the poles1 so that the last expression is virtually the gross average ,e4,m4,f4 of the loops on the assumption that the component ,e4,m4,f4's always act in agreement round the coil and do not at times partially neutralize one another4 ,the net average ,e4,m4,f4 of the coil as a whole1 or the arithmetical mean of all the instantaneous values of a half-wave of the actual ,e4,m4,f4 curve1 is therefore reduced to an extent depending upon the amount of differential action and so upon the width of the coil-side when this is not concentrated4 ,let k' the coefficient by which the gross average ,e4,m4,f4 must be multiplied to give the net average ,e4,m4,f42 then k' may be called the width-factor1 and will have some value less than unity when the wires of each band are spread over a number of slots4 ,the net average ,e4,m4,f4 of the two bands corresponding to a pair of poles is thus e7av7 #dk',za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,the shape of the curve of instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 of the coil must further be taken into account4 ,the effective value of an alternating ,e4,m4,f4 is equal to the square root of the mean square of its instantaneous values1 since this is the value of the equivalent unidirectional and unvarying ,e4,m4,f41 which when applied to a given resistance develops energy at the same rate as the alternating ,e4,m4,f41 when the effect of the latter is averaged over one or any whole number of periods4 ,let k the ratio of the square root of the mean square to the average ,e4,m4,f4 of the coil1 i4e4 effective ,e4,m4,f4_/average ,e4,m4,f4 ,since it depends upon the shape of the ,e4,m4,f4 curve1 k is also known as the form-factor2 thus if the length of gap between pole-face and armature core and the spacing of the wires were so graduated as to give a curve of ,e4,m4,f4 varying after a sine law1 the form-factor would have the particular value of pi_/#broot#b #a4aa1 and to this condition practical alternators more or less conform4 ,the effective ,e4,m4,f4 of the two bands corresponding to a pair of poles is thus e7eff7 #dk'k,za7p,n_/#fj7t x #aj7-h74 ,in any one phase there are p pairs of bands1 and these may be divided into q parallel paths1 where q is one or any whole number of which p is a multiple4 ,the effective ,e4,m4,f4 of a complete phase is therefore peeff_/q4 ,lastly1 if m the number of phases into which the armature winding is divided1 and tau the total number of active wires on the armature counted all round its periphery1 t tau_/#bpm1 and the effective ,e4,m4,f4 per phase is ,ea #bk'k,za7p,ntau_/#fjmq7 x #aj7-h74 ,the two factors k' and k may be united into one coefficient1 and the equation then takes its final form ,ea #b,,kza7p,ntau_/#fjmq7 x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a;a7 ,in the alternator q is most commonly #a1 and there is only one circuit per phase2 finally the value of ,k or the product of the width-factor and the form-factor usually falls between the limits of #a and #a4be4 ,we have next to consider the effect of the addition of more armature loops in the case of dynamos which give a unidirectional ,e4,m4,f4 in virtue of their split-ring collecting device1 i4e4 of the type shown in fig4 #g with drum armature or its equivalent ring form4 ,as before1 if the additional loops are wound in continuation of the first as one coil connected to a single split-ring1 this coil must be more or less concentrated into a narrow band2 since if the width becomes nearly equal to or exceeds the width of the interpolar gap1 the two edges of the coil-side will just as in the alternator act differentially against one another during part of each revolution4 ,the drum winding with a single coil thus gives an armature of the ,h- or shuttle form invented by ,dr ,werner von ,siemens4 ,although the ,e4,m4,f4 of such an arrangement may have a much higher maximum value than that of the curve of fig4 #g for a single loop1 yet it still periodically varies during each revolution and so gives a pulsating current1 which is for most practical uses unsuitable4 ,but such pulsation might be largely reduced if1 for example1 a second coil were placed at right angles to the original coil and the two were connected in series2 the crests of the wave of ,e4,m4,f4 of the second coil will then coincide with the hollows of the first wave1 and although the maximum of the resultant curve of ,e4,m4,f4 may be no higher its fluctuations will be greatly decreased4 ,a spacial displacement of the new coils along the pole-pitch1 somewhat as in a polyphase machine1 thus suggests itself1 and the process may be carried still further by increasing the number of equally spaced coils1 provided that they can be connected in series and yet can have their connexion with the external circuit reversed as they pass the neutral line between the poles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,given two coils at right angles and with their split-rings displaced through a corresponding angle of #ij deg41 they may be connected in series by joining one brush to the opposite brush of the second coil1 the external circuit being applied to the two remaining brushes4#ad ,the same arrangement may again be repeated with another pair of coils in parallel with the first1 and we thus obtain fig4 #ae with four split-rings1 their connexions to the loops being marked by corresponding numerals2 the four coils will give the same ,e4,m4,f4 as the two1 but they will be jointly capable of carrying twice the current1 owing to their division into two parallel circuits4 ,now in place of the four split-rings may be employed the greatly simplified four-segment structure shown in fig4 #af1 which serves precisely the same purpose as the four split-rings but only requires two instead of eight brushes4 ,the effect of joining brush #b in fig4 #ae across to brush #c1 brush #d to brush #e1 #e to #f1 c41 has virtually been to connect the end of coil ,a with the beginning of coil ,b1 and the end of coil ,b with the beginning of coil ,a'1 and so on1 until they form a continuous closed helix4 ,each sector of fig4 #af will therefore replace two halves of a pair of adjacent split-rings1 if the end and beginning of a pair of adjacent coils are connected to it in a regular order of sequence4 ,the four sectors are insulated from one another and from the shaft1 and the whole structure is known as the commutator1#ae its function being not simply to collect the current but also to commute its direction in any coil as it passes the interpolar gap4 ,the principle of the closed-coil continuous-current armature is thus reached1 in which there are at least two parallel circuits from brush to brush1 and from which a practically steady current can be obtained4 ,each coil is successively short-circuited1 as a brush bridges over the insulation between the two sectors which terminate it2 and the brushes must be so set that the period of short-circuit takes place when the coil is generating little or no ,e4,m4,f41 i4e4 when it is moving through the zone between the pole-tips4 ,the effect of the four coils in reducing the percentage fluctuation of the ,e4,m4,f4 is very marked1 as shown at the foot of fig4 #ae 7where the upper curve is the resultant obtained by adding together the separate curves of coils ,a and ,b71 and the levelling process may evidently be carried still further by the insertion of more coils and more corresponding sectors in the commutator1 until the whole armature is covered with winding4 ,for example1 figs4 #ag and #ah show a ring and a drum armature1 each with eight coils and eight commutator sectors2 their resultant curve1 on the assumption that a single active wire gives the flat-topped curve of fig4 #d1 will be the upper wavy line of ,e4,m4,f4 obtained by adding together two of the resultant curves of fig4 #ae1 with a relative displacement of #de deg44 ,the amount of fluctuation for a given number of commutator sectors depends upon the shape of the curve of ,e4,m4,f4 yielded by the separate small sections of the armature winding2 the greater the polar arc1 the less the fluctuation4 ,in practice1 with a polar arc equal to about #j4ge of the pitch1 any number of sectors over #cb per pair of poles yields an ,e4,m4,f4 which is sensibly constant throughout one or any number of revolutions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the fundamental electro-motive-force equation of the continuous-current heteropolar machine is easily obtained by analogy from that of the alternator4 ,the gross average ,e4,w4,f4 from the two sides of a drum loop without reference to its direction is as before #d,za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,but for two reasons its net average ,e4,m4,f4 may be less2 the span of the loop may be less than the pole-pitch1 so that even when the brushes are so set that the position of short-circuit falls on the line where the field changes its direction1 the two sides of the loop for some little time act against each other2 or1 secondly1 even if the span of the loop be equal to the pole-pitch1 the brushes may be so set that the reversal of the direction of its induced ,e4,m4,f4 does not coincide with reversal of the current by the passage of the coil under the brushes4 ,the net average ,e4,m4,f4 of the loop is therefore proportional to the algebraic sum of the lines which it cuts in passing from one brush to another1 and this is equal to the net amount of the flux which is included within the loop when situated in the position of short-circuit under a brush4 ,the amount of this flux may be expressed as k',za where k' is some coefficient1 less than unity if the span of the coil be less than the pole-pitch1 and also varying with the position of the brushes4 ,the net average ,e4,m4,f4 of the loop is therefore #dk',za7p,n_/#fj7 x #aj7-h74 ,in practice the number of sections of the armature winding is so large and their distribution round the armature periphery is so uniform1 that the sum total of the instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4's of the several sections which are in series becomes at any moment equal to the net average ,e4,m4,f4 of one loop multiplied by the number which are in series4 ,if the winding is divided into q parallel circuits1 the number of loops in series is tau_/#bq1 so that the total ,e4,m4,f4 is ,ea #b7k'_/q7,za7p,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,thus as compared with the alternator not only is there no division of the winding into separate phases1 but the form-factor k' disappears1 since the effective and average ,e4,m4,f4's are the same4 ,further whereas in the alternator q may #a1 in the continuous-current closed-coil armature there can never be less than two circuits in parallel from brush to brush1 and if more1 their number must always be a multiple of two1 so that q can never be less than two and must always be an even number4 ,lastly1 the factor k' is usually so closely equal to #a1 that the simplified equation may in practice be adopted1 viz4 ,ea 7#b_/q77,zp,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts 7#a;b7 ,the fundamental equation of the electromotive force of the dynamo in its fully developed forms 7#a a7 7and #a b7 may be compared with its previous simple statement 7#a474 ,the three variable terms still find their equivalents1 but are differently expressed1 the density ,bg being replaced by the total flux of one field ,za1 the length ,l of the single active wire by the total number of such wires tau1 and the velocity of movement ,v by the number of revolutions per second4 ,even when the speed is fixed1 an endless number of changes may be rung by altering the relative values of the remaining two factors2 and in successful practice these may be varied between fairly wide limits without detriment to the working or economy of the machine4 ,while it may be said that the equation of the ,e4,m4,f4 was implicitly known from ,faraday's time onwards1 the difficulty under which designers laboured in early days was the problem of choosing the correct relation of ,za or tau for the required output2 this1 again1 was due chiefly to the difficulty of predetermining the total flux before the machine was constructed4 ,the general error lay in employing too weak a field and too many turns on the armature1 and credit must here be given to the ,american inventors1 ,e4 ,weston and ,t4,a4 ,edison1 for their early appreciation of the superiority in practical working of the drum armature1 with comparatively few active wires rotating in a strong field4 ,the armature core4 ,continuous-current ,dynamos4--,on passing to the separate consideration of alternators and continuous-current dynamos1 the chief constructive features of the latter will first be taken in greater detail4 ,as already stated in the continuous-current dynamo the armature is usually the rotating portion1 and the necessity of laminating its core has been generally described4 ,the thin iron stampings employed to build up the core take the form of circular washers or disks1 which in small machines are strung directly on the shaft2 in larger multipolar machines1 in which the required radial depth of iron is small relatively to the diameter1 a central cast iron hub supports the disks4 ,since the driving force is transmitted through the shaft to the disks1 they must in the former case be securely fixed by keys sunk into the shaft2 when a central hub is employed 7fig4 #ai7 it is keyed to the shaft1 and its projecting arms engage in notches stamped on the inner circumference of the disks1 or the latter have dovetailed projections fitting into the arms4 ,the disks are then tightly compressed and clamped between stout end-plates so as to form a nearly solid iron cylinder of axial length slightly exceeding the corresponding dimension of the poles4 ,if the armature is more than #d ft4 in diameter1 the disks become too large to be conveniently handled in one piece1 and are therefore made in segments1 which are built up so as to break joint alternately4 ,prior to assemblage1 the external circumference of each disk is notched in a stamping machine with the required number of slots to receive the armature coils1 and the longitudinal grooves thereby formed in the finished core only require to have their sharp edges smoothed off so that there may be no risk of injury to the insulation of the coils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,armature winding4 ,with open slots either the armature coils may be encased with wrappings of oiled linen1 varnished paper and thin flexible micanite sheeting in order to insulate them electrically from the iron slots in which they are afterwards embedded2 or the slots may be themselves lined with moulded troughs of micanite1 c41 for the reception of the armature coils1 the latter method being necessary with half-closed slots4 ,according to the nature of the coils armatures may be divided into the two classes of coil-wound and bar-wound4 ,in the former class1 round copper wire1 double-cotton covered1 is employed1 and the coils are either wound by hand directly on to the armature core1 or are shaped on formers prior to being inserted in the armature slots4 ,hand-winding is now only employed in very small bipolar machines1 the process being expensive and accompanied by the disadvantage that if one section requires to be repaired1 the whole armature usually has to be dismantled and re-wound4 ,former-wound coils are1 on the other hand1 economical in labour1 perfectly symmetrical and interchangeable1 and can be thoroughly insulated before they are placed in the slots4 ,the shapers employed in the forming process are very various1 but are usually arranged to give to the finished coil a lozenge shape1 the two straight active sides which fit into the straight slots being joined by ,v-shaped ends2 at each apex of the coil the wire is given a twist1 so that the two sides fall into different levels1 an upper and a lower1 corresponding to the two layers which the coil-sides form on the finished armature4 ,rectangular wire of comparatively small section may be similarly treated1 and if only one loop is required per section1 wide and thin strip can be bent into a complete loop1 so that the only soldered joints are those at the commutator end where the loops are interconnected4 ,but finally with massive rectangular conductors1 the transition must be made to bar-winding1 in which each bar is a half-loop1 insulated by being taped after it has been bent to the required shape2 the separate bars are arranged on the armature in two layers1 and their ends are soldered together subsequently to form loops4 ,as a general rule1 whether bars or former-wound coils are employed1 the armature is barrel-wound1 i4e4 the end-connexions project outwards from the slots with but little change of level1 so that they form a cylindrical mass supported on projections from the end-plates of the core 7fig4 #ai72 but1 in certain cases1 the end-connexions are bent downwards at right angles to the shaft1 and they may then consist of separate strips of copper bent to a so-called butterfly or evolute shape4 ,after the coils or loops have been assembled in the slots on the armature core1 and the commutator has been fixed in place on the shaft1 the soldering of the ends of the coils proceeds1 by which at once the union of the end of one coil with the beginning of the next1 and also their connexion to the commutator sectors1 is effected1 and in this lies the essential part of armature winding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,lap-loops ,lap-winding4 ,the development of the modern drum armature1 with its numerous coils connected in orderly sequence into a symmetrical winding1 as contrasted with the earlier ,siemens armatures1 was initiated by ,f4 von ,hefner ,alteneck 7#ahga71 and the laws governing the interconnexion of the coils have now been elaborated into a definite system of winding formulae4 ,whatever the number of wires or bars in each side of a coil1 i4e4 whether it consist of a single loop or of many turns1 the final connexions of its free ends are not thereby affected1 and it may be mentally replaced by a single loop with two active inducing sides4 ,the coil-sides in their final position are thus to be regarded as separate primary elements1 even in number1 and distributed uniformly round the armature periphery or divided into small1 equally spaced groups by being located within the slots of a toothed armature4 ,attention must then be directed simply to the span of the back connexion between the elements at the end of the armature further from the commutator1 and to the span of the front connexion by which the last turn of a coil is finally connected to the first turn of the next in sequence1 precisely as if each coil of many turns were reduced to a single loop4 ,in order to avoid direct differential action1 the span of the back connexion which fixes the width of the coil must exceed the width of the pole-face1 and should not be far different from the pole-pitch2 it is usually a little less than the pole-pitch4 ,taking any one element as ,no4 #a in fig4 #bj1 where for simplicity a smooth-core bipolar armature is shown1 the number of winding-spaces1 each to be occupied by an element1 which must be counted off in order to find the position of the next element in series1 is called the pitch of the end-connexion1 front or back1 as the case may be4 ,thus the back pitch of the winding as marked by the dotted line in fig4 #bj is #g1 the second side of the first loop being the element numbered #a #g #h4 ,in forming the front end-connexion which completes the loop and joins it to the next in succession1 two possible cases present themselves4 ,by the first1 or lap-winding1 the front end-connexion is brought backwards1 and passing on its way to a junction with a commutator sector is led to a third element lying within the two sides of the first loop1 i4e4 the second loop starts with the element1 ,no4 #c1 lying next but one to the starting-point of the first loop4 ,the winding therefore returns backwards on itself to form each front end1 but as a whole it works continually forwards round the armature1 until it finally re-enters1 after every element has been traversed4 ,the development of the completed winding on a flat surface shows that it takes the form of a number of partially overlapping loops1 whence its name originates4 ,the firm-line portion of fig4 #ba gives the development of an armature similar to that of fig4 #ah when cut through at the point marked ,x and opened out2 two of the overlapping loops are marked thereon in heavy lines4 ,the multipolar lap-wound armature is obtained by simply repeating the bipolar winding p times1 as indicated by the dotted additions of fig4 #ba which convert it from a two-pole to a four-pole machine4 ,the characteristic feature of the lap-wound armature is that there are as many parallel paths from brush to brush1 and as many points at which the current must be collected1 as there are poles4 ,as the bipolar closed-coil continuous-current armature has been shown to consist in reality of two circuits in parallel1 each giving the same ,e4,m4,f4 and carrying half the total current1 so the multipolar lap-wound drum consists of p pairs of parallel paths1 each giving the same ,e4,m4,f4 and carrying #a_/bp of the total current4 ,thus in equation #a4;b we have q #bp1 and the special form which the ,e4,m4,f4 equation of the lap-wound armature takes is ,ealpha ,za 7,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,all the brushes which are of the same sign must be connected together in order to collect the total armature current4 ,the several brush-sets of the multipolar lap-wound machine may again be reduced to two by cross-connexion of sectors situated #cfj deg4_/p apart1 but this is seldom done1 since the commutator must then be lengthened p times in order to obtain the necessary brush contact-surface for the collection of the entire current4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,wave-loops ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,wave-winding4 ,but for many purposes1 especially where the voltage is high and the current small1 it is advantageous to add together the inductive effect of the several poles of the multipolar machine by throwing the ,e4,m4,f's of half the total number of elements into series1 the number of parallel circuits being conversely again reduced to two4 ,this is effected by the second method of winding the closed-coil continuous current drum1 which is known as wave-winding4 ,the front pitch is now in the same direction round the armature as the back pitch 7fig4 #bb71 so that the beginning of the second loop1 i4e4 element ,no4 #ae1 lies outside the first loop4 ,after p loops have been formed and as many elements have been traversed as there are poles1 the distance covered either falls short of or exceeds a complete tour of the armature by two winding-spaces1 or the width of two elements4 ,a second and third tour are then made1 and so on1 until finally the winding again closes upon itself4 ,when the completed winding is developed as in fig4 #bc1 it is seen to work continuously forwards round the armature in zigzag waves1 one of which is marked in heavy lines1 and the number of complete tours is equal to the average of the back and front pitches4 ,since the number of parallel circuits from brush to brush is q #b1 the ,e4,m4,f4 equation of the wave-wound drum is ,ea p,za 7,n_/#fj7tau x #aj7-h7 volts4 ,only two sets of brushes are necessary1 but in order to shorten the length of the commutator1 other sets may also be added at the point of highest and lowest potential up to as many in number as there are poles4 ,thus the advantage of the wave-wound armature is that for a given voltage and number of poles the number of active wires is only #a_/p of that in the lap-wound drum1 each being of larger cross-section in order to carry p times as much current2 hence the ratio of the room occupied by the insulation to the copper area is less1 and the available space is better utilized4 ,a further advantage is that the two circuits from brush to brush consist of elements influenced by all the poles1 so that if for any reason1 such as eccentricity of the armature within the bore of the pole-pieces1 or want of uniformity in the magnetic qualities of the poles1 the flux of each field is not equal to that of every other1 the equality of the voltage produced by the two halves of the winding is not affected thereby4 ,in appearance the two classes of armatures1 lap and wave1 may be distinguished in the barrel type of winding by the slope of the upper layer of back end-connexions1 and that of the front connexions at the commutator end being parallel to one another in the latter1 and oppositely directed in the former4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,after completion of the winding1 the end-connexions are firmly bound down by bands of steel or phosphor bronze binding wire1 so as to resist the stress of centrifugal force4 ,in the case of smooth-surface armatures1 such bands are also placed at intervals along the length of the armature core1 but in toothed armatures1 although the coils are often in small machines secured in the slots by similar bands of a non-magnetic high-resistance wire1 the use of hard-wood wedges driven into notches at the sides of the slots becomes preferable1 and in very large machines indispensable4 ,the external appearance of a typical armature with lap-winding is shown in fig4 #bd4 ,the commutator4 ,a sound mechanical construction of the commutator is of vital importance to the good working of the continuous-current dynamo4 ,the narrow1 wedge-shaped sectors of hard-drawn copper1 with their insulating strips of thin mica1 are built up into a cylinder1 tightly clamped together1 and turned in the lathe2 at each end a ,v-shaped groove is turned1 and into these are fitted rings of micanite of corresponding section 7fig4 #ai72 the whole is then slipped over a cast iron sleeve1 and at either end strong rings are forced into the ,v-shaped grooves under great pressure and fixed by a number of closely-pitched tightening bolts4 ,in dynamos driven by steam-turbines in which the peripheral speed of the commutator is very high1 rings of steel are frequently shrunk on the surface of the commutator at either end and at its centre4 ,but in every case the copper must be entirely insulated from the supporting body of metal by the interposition of mica or micanite and the prevention of any movement of the sectors under frequent and long-continued heating and cooling calls for the greatest care in both the design and the manufacture4 ,forms of field-magnet4 ,on passing to the second fundamental part of the dynamo1 namely1 the field-magnet1 its functions may be briefly recalled as follows3--,it has to supply the magnetic flux2 to provide for it an iron path as nearly closed as possible upon the armature1 save for the air-gaps which must exist between the pole-system and the armature core1 the one stationary and the other rotating2 and1 lastly1 it has to give the lines such direction and intensity within the air-gaps that they may be cut by the armature wires to the best advantage4 ,roughly corresponding to the three functions above summarized are the three portions which are more or less differentiated in the complete structure4 ,these are3 7#a7 the magnet cores or limbs1 carrying the exciting coils whereby the inert iron is converted into an electro-magnet2 7#b7 the yoke1 which joins the limbs together and conducts the flux between them2 and 7#c7 the pole-pieces1 which face the armature and transmit the lines from the limbs through the air-gap to the armature core1 or vice versa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,of the countless shapes which the field-magnet may take1 it may be said1 without much exaggeration1 that almost all have been tried2 yet those which have proved economical and successful1 and hence have met with general adoption1 may be classed under a comparatively small number of types4 ,for bipolar machines the single horse-shoe 7fig4 #be71 which is the lineal successor of the permanent magnet employed in the first magneto-electric machines1 was formerly very largely used4 ,it takes two principal forms1 according as the pole-pieces and armature are above or beneath the magnet limbs and yoke4 ,the over-type form is best suited to small belt-driven dynamos1 while the under-type is admirably adapted to be directly driven by the steam-engine1 the armature shaft being immediately coupled to the crank-shaft of the engine4 ,in the latter case the magnet must be mounted on non-magnetic supports of gun-metal or zinc1 so as to hold it at some distance away from the iron bedplate which carries both engine and dynamo2 otherwise a large proportion of the flux which passes through the magnet limbs would leak through the bedplate across from pole to pole without passing through the armature core1 and so would not be cut by the armature wires4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,next may be placed the ,manchester field 7fig4 #bf7--the type of a divided magnetic circuit in which the flux forming one field or pole is divided between two magnets4 ,an exciting coil is placed on each half of the double horse-shoe magnet1 the pair being so wound that consequent poles are formed above and below the armature4 ,each magnet thus carries one-half of the total flux1 the lines of the two halves uniting to form a common field where they issue forth into or leave the air-gaps4 ,the pole-pieces may be lighter than in the single horse-shoe type1 and the field is much more symmetrical1 whence it is well suited to ring armatures of large diameter4 ,yet these advantages are greatly discounted by the excessive magnetic leakage1 and by the increased weight of copper in the exciting coils4 ,even if the greater percentage which the leakage lines bear to the useful flux is neglected1 and the cross sectional area of each magnet core is but half that of the equivalent single horse-shoe1 the weight of wire in the double magnet for the same rise of temperature in the coils must be some #dj more than in the single horse-shoe1 and the rate at which energy is expended in heating the coils will exceed that of the single horse-shoe in the same proportion4 ,thirdly comes the two-pole ironclad type1 so called from the exciting coil being more or less encased by the iron yoke2 this latter is divided into two halves1 which pass on either side of the armature4 ,unless the yoke be kept well away from the polar edges and armature1 the leakage across the air into the yoke becomes considerable1 especially if only one exciting coil is used1 as in fig4 #bg ,a2 it is better1 therefore1 to divide the excitation between two coils1 as in fig4 #bg ,b1 when the field also becomes symmetrical4 ,from this form is easily derived the multipolar type of fig4 #bh or fig4 #bi1 which is by far the most usual for any number of poles from four upwards2 its leakage coefficient is but small1 and it is economical in weight both of iron and copper4 ,materials of magnets4 ,as regards the materials of which magnets are made1 generally speaking there is little difference in the permeability of wrought iron or mild steel forgings and good cast steel2 typical 7,b1 ,h7 curves connecting the magnetizing force required with different flux-densities for these materials are given under ,,electromagnetism4 ,on the other hand there is a marked inferiority in the case of cast iron1 which for a flux-density of ,b #hjjj ,c4,g4,s4 lines per sq4 cm4 requires practically the same number of ampere-turns per centimetre length as steel requires for ,b #af1jjj4 ,whatever the material1 if the flux-density be pressed to a high value the ampere-turns are very largely increased owing to its approaching saturation1 and this implies either a large amount of copper in the field coils or an undue expenditure of electrical energy in their excitation4 ,hence there is a limit imposed by practical considerations to the density at which the magnet should be worked1 and this limit may be placed at about ,b #af1jjj for wrought iron or steel1 and at half this value for cast iron4 ,for a given flux1 therefore1 the cast iron magnet must have twice the sectional area and be twice as heavy1 although this disadvantage is partly compensated by its greater cheapness4 ,if1 however1 cast iron be used for the portion of the magnetic circuit which is covered with the exciting coils1 the further disadvantage must be added that the weight of copper on the field-magnet is much increased1 so that it is usual to employ forgings or cast steel for the magnet cores on which the coils are wound4 ,if weight is not a disadvantage1 a cast iron yoke may be combined with the wrought iron or cast steel magnet cores4 ,an absence of joints in the magnetic circuit is only desirable from the point of view of economy of expense in machining the component parts during manufacture2 when the surfaces which abut against each other are drawn firmly together by screws1 the want of homogeneity at the joint1 which virtually amounts to the presence of a very thin film of air1 produces little or no effect on the total reluctance by comparison with the very much longer air-gaps surrounding the armature4 ,in order to reduce the eddy-currents in the pole-pieces1 due to the use of toothed armatures with relatively wide slots1 the poles themselves must be laminated1 or must have fixed to them laminated pole-shoes1 built up of thin strips of mild steel riveted together 7as shown in fig4 #bi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,however it be built up1 the mechanical strength of the magnet system must be carefully considered4 ,any two surfaces between which there exists a field of density ,bg experience a force tending to draw them together proportional to the square of the density1 and having a value of ,bg squared_/7#a4gce x #ajf7 lb4 per sq4 in4 of surface1 over which the density may be regarded as having the uniform value ,bg4 ,hence1 quite apart from the torque with which the stationary part of the dynamo tends to turn with the rotating part as soon as current is taken out of the armature1 there exists a force tending to make the pole-pieces close on the armature as soon as the field is excited4 ,since both armature and magnet must be capable of resisting this force1 they require to be rigidly held2 although the one or the other must be capable of rotation1 there should otherwise be no possibility of one part of the magnetic circuit shifting relatively to any other part4 ,an important conclusion may be drawn from this circumstance4 ,if the armature be placed exactly concentric within the bore of the poles1 and the two or more magnetic fields be symmetrical about a line joining their centres1 there is no tendency for the armature core to be drawn in one direction more than in another2 but if there is any difference between the densities of the several fields1 it will cause an unbalanced stress on the armature and its shaft1 under which it will bend1 and as this bending is continually reversed relatively to the fibres of the shaft1 they will eventually become weakened and give way4 ,especially is this likely to take place in dynamos with short air-gaps1 wherein any difference in the lengths of the air-gaps produces a much greater percentage difference in the flux-density than in dynamos with long air-gaps4 ,in toothed armatures with short air-gaps the shaft must on this account be sufficiently strong to withstand the stress without appreciable bending4 ,the magnetic circuit4 ,reference has already been made to the importance in dynamo design of the predetermination of the flux due to a given number of ampere-turns wound on the field-magnet1 or1 conversely1 of the number of ampere-turns which must be furnished by the exciting coils in order that a certain flux corresponding to one field may flow through the armature core from each pole4 ,an equally important problem is the correct proportioning of the field-magnet1 so that the useful flux ,za may be obtained with the greatest economy in materials and exciting energy4 ,the key to the two problems is to be found in the concept of a magnetic circuit as originated by ,h4,a4 ,rowland and ,r4,h4,m4 ,bosanquet2#af and the full solution of both may be especially connected with the name of ,dr ,j4 ,hopkinson1 from his practical application of the concept in his design of the ,edison-,hopkinson machine1 and in his paper on ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery4#ag ,the publication of this paper in #ahhf begins the second era in the history of the dynamo2 it at once raised its design from the level of empirical rules-of-thumb to a science1 and is thus worthy to be ranked as the necessary supplement of the original discoveries of ,faraday4 ,the process of predetermining the necessary ampere-turns is described in a simple case under ,,electromagnetism4 ,in its extension to the complete dynamo1 it consists merely in the division of the magnetic circuit into such portions as have the same sectional area and permeability and carry approximately the same total flux2 the difference of magnetic potential that must exist between the ends of each section of the magnet in order that the flux may pass through it is then calculated seriatim for the several portions into which the magnetic circuit is divided1 and the separate items are summed up into one magnetomotive force that must be furnished by the exciting coils4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,the chief sections of the magnetic circuit are 7#a7 the air-gaps1 7#b7 the armature core1 and 7#c7 the iron magnet4 ,the air-gap of a dynamo with smooth-core armature is partly filled with copper and partly with the cotton1 mica1 or other materials used to insulate the core and wires2 all these substances are1 however1 sensibly non-magnetic1 so that the whole interferric gap between the iron of the pole-pieces and the iron of the armature may be treated as an air-space1 of which the permeability is constant for all values of the flux density1 and in the ,c4,g4,s4 system is unity4 ,hence if lg and ,ag be the length and area of the single air-gap in cm4 and sq4 cm41 the reluctance of the double air-gap is #blg_/,ag1 and the difference of magnetic potential required to pass ,za lines over this reluctance is ,za4#blg_/,ag ,bg4#blg2 or1 since one ampere-turn gives #a4beg ,c4,g4,s4 units of magnetomotive force1 the exciting power in ampere-turns required over the two air-gaps is ,xg ,bg4#blg_/#a4beg #j4h ,bg4#blg4 ,in the determination of the area ,ag small allowance must be made for the fringe of lines which extend beyond the actual polar face4 ,in the toothed armature with open slots1 the lines are no longer uniformly distributed over the air-gap area1 but are graduated into alternate bands of dense and weak induction corresponding to the teeth and slots4 ,further1 the lines curve round into the sides of the teeth1 so that their average length of path in the air and the air-gap reluctance is not so easily calculated4 ,allowance must be made for this by taking an increased length of air-gap mlg1 where m is the ratio maximum density_/mean density1 of which the value is chiefly determined by the ratios of the width of tooth to width of slot and of the width of slot to the air-gap between pole-face and surface of the armature core4 ,the armature core must be divided into the teeth and the core proper below the teeth4 ,owing to the tapering section of the teeth1 the density rises towards their root1 and when this reaches a high value1 such as #ah1jjj or more lines per sq4 cm41 the saturation of the iron again forces an increasing proportion of the lines outwards into the slot4 ,a distinction must then be drawn between the apparent induction which would hold if all the lines were concentrated in the teeth1 and the real induction4 ,the area of the iron is obtained by multiplying the number of teeth under the pole-face by their width and by the net length of the iron core parallel to the axis of rotation4 ,the latter is the gross length of the armature less the space lost through the insulating varnish or paper between the disks or through the presence of ventilating ducts1 which are introduced at intervals along the length of the core4 ,the former deduction averages about #g to #aj of the gross length1 while the latter1 especially in large multipolar machines1 is an even more important item4 ,alter calculating the density at different sections of the teeth1 reference has now to be made to a 7,b1 ,h7 or flux-density curve1 from which may be found the number of ampere-turns required per cm4 length of path4 ,this number may be expressed as a function of the density in the teeth1 and f7,bt7 be its average value over the length of a tooth1 the ampere-turns of excitation required over the teeth on either side of the core as the lines of one field enter or leave the armature is ,xt f7,bt74#blt1 where lt is the length of a single tooth in cm4 ,in the core proper below the teeth the length of path continually shortens as we pass from the middle of the pole towards the centre line of symmetry4 ,on the other hand1 as the lines gradually accumulate in the core1 their density increases from zero midway under the poles until it reaches a maximum on the line of symmetry4 ,the two effects partially counteract one another1 and tend to equalize the difference of magnetic potential required over the paths of varying lengths2 but since the reluctivity of the iron increases more rapidly than the density of the lines1 we may approximately take for the length of path 7la7 the minimum peripheral distance between the edges of adjacent pole-faces1 and then assume the maximum value of the density of the lines as holding throughout this entire path4 ,in ring and drum machines the flux issuing from one pole divides into two halves in the armature core1 so that the maximum density of lines in the armature is ,ba ,za_/#b;ab1 where a the radial depth of the disks in centimetres and b the net length of iron core4 ,the total exciting power required between the pole-pieces is therefore1 at no load1 ,xp ,xg ,xt ,xa1 where ,xa f7,ba74la2 in order1 however1 to allow for the effect of the armature current1 which increases with the load1 a further term ,xb1 must be added4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,in the continuous-current dynamo it may be1 and usually is1 necessary to move the brushes forward from the interpolar line of symmetry through a small angle in the direction of rotation1 in order to avoid sparking between the brushes and the commutator 7vide infra74 ,when the dynamo is giving current1 the wires on either side of the diameter of commutation form a current-sheet flowing along the surface of the armature from end to end1 and whatever the actual end-connexions of the wires1 the wires may be imagined to be joined together into a system of loops such that the two sides of each loop are carrying current in opposite directions4 ,thus a number of armature ampere-turns are formed1 and their effect on the entire system of magnet and armature must be taken into account4 ,so long as the diameter of commutation coincides with the line of symmetry1 the armature may be regarded as a cylindrical electromagnet producing a flux of lines1 as shown in fig4 #cj4 ,the direction of the self-induced flux in the air-gaps is the same as that of the lines of the external field in one quadrant on one side of ,,dc1 but opposed to it in the other quadrant on the same side of ,,dc2 hence in the resultant field due to the combined action of the field-magnet and armature ampere-turns1 the flux is as much strengthened over the one half of each polar face as it is weakened over the other1 and the total number of lines is unaffected1 although their distribution is altered4 ,the armature ampere-turns are then called cross-turns1 since they produce a cross-field1 which1 when combined with the symmetrical field1 causes the leading pole-corners ll to be weakened and the trailing pole-corners tt to be strengthened1 the neutral line of zero field being thus twisted forwards in the direction of rotation4 ,but when the brushes and diameter of commutation are shifted forward1 as shown in fig4 #ca1 it will be seen that a number of ampere-turns1 forming a zone between the lines ,dn and m,c1 are in effect wound immediately on the magnetic circuit proper1 and this belt of ampere-turns is in direct opposition to the ampere-turns of the field1 as shown by the dotted and crossed wires on the pole-pieces4 ,the armature ampere-turns are then divisible into the two bands1 the back-turns1 included within twice the angle of lead lambda1 weakening the field1 and the cross-turns1 bounded by the lines ,dm1 n,c1 again producing distortion of the weakened symmetrical field4 ,if1 therefore1 a certain flux is to be passed through the armature core in opposition to the demagnetizing turns1 the difference of magnetic potential between the pole-faces must include not only ,xa1 ,xt1 and ,xg1 but also an item ,xb1 in order to balance the back ampere-turns of the armature4 ,the amount by which the brushes must be shifted forward increases with the armature current1 and in corresponding proportion the back ampere-turns are also increased1 their value being ctau#blambda_/#cfj deg41 where c the current carried by each of the tau active wires4 ,thus the term ,xb1 takes into account the effect of the armature reaction on the total flux2 it varies as the armature current and angle of lead required to avoid sparking are increased2 and the reason for its introduction in the fourth place 7,xp ,xg ,xt ,xa ,xb71 is that it increases the magnetic difference of potential which must exist between the poles of the dynamo1 and to which the greater part of the leakage is due4 ,the leakage paths which are in parallel with the armature across the poles must now be estimated1 and so a new value be derived for the flux at the commencement of the iron-magnet path4 ,if ,p their joint permeance1 the leakage flux due to the difference of potential at the poles is zl #a4beg,xp x ,p1 and this must be added to the useful flux ,za1 or ,zp ,za ,zl4 ,there are also certain leakage paths in parallel with the magnet cores1 and upon the permeance of these a varying number of ampere-turns is acting as we proceed along the magnet coils2 the magnet flux therefore increases by the addition of leakage along the length of the limbs1 and finally reaches a maximum near the yoke4 ,either1 then1 the density in the magnet ,bm ,zm_/,am will vary if the same sectional area be retained throughout1 or the sectional area of the magnet must itself be progressively increased4 ,in general1 sufficient accuracy will be obtained by assuming a certain number of additional leakage lines zn as traversing the entire length of magnet limbs and yoke 7 lm71 so that the density in the magnet has the uniform value ,bm 7,zp zn7_/,am4 ,the leakage flux added on actually within the length of the magnet core or zn will be approximately equal to half the total ,m4,m4,f4 of the coils multiplied by the permeance of the leakage paths around one coil4 ,the corresponding value of ,h can then be obtained from the 7,b1 ,h7 curve of the material of which the magnet is composed1 and the ampere-turns thus determined must be added to ,xp1 or ,x ,xp ,xm1 where ,xm f7,bm7lm4 ,the final equation for the exciting power required on a magnetic circuit as a whole will therefore take the form ,x ,a,tau #j4h;,bg4#blg f7,bt7#blt f7,ba7la ,xb f7,bm7lm4 7#c7 ,if the magnet cores are of wrought iron or cast steel1 and the yoke is of cast iron1 the last term must be divided into two portions corresponding to the different materials1 i4e4 into f7,bm7lm f7,by7ly4 ,in the ordinary multipolar machine with as many magnet-coils as there are poles1 each coil must furnish half the above number of ampere-turns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,magnetic leakage4 ,since no substance is impermeable to the passage of magnetic flux1 the only form of magnetic circuit free from leakage is one uniformly wound with ampere-turns over its whole length4 ,the reduction of the magnetic leakage to a minimum in any given type is therefore primarily a question of distributing the winding as far as possible uniformly upon the circuit1 and as the winding must be more or less concentrated into coils1 it resolves itself into the necessity of introducing as long air-paths as possible between any surfaces which are at different magnetic potentials4 ,no iron should be brought near the machine which does not form part of the magnetic circuit proper1 and especially no iron should be brought near the poles1 between which the difference of magnetic potential practically reaches its maximum value4 ,in default of a machine of the same size or similar type on which to experiment1 the probable direction of the leakage flux must be assumed from the drawing1 and the air surrounding the machine must be mapped out into areas1 between which the permeances are calculated as closely as possible by means of such approximate formulae as those devised by ,professor ,g4 ,forbes4 ,excitation of field-magnet4 ,in the earliest magneto-electric machines permanent steel magnets1 either simple or compound1 were employed1 and for many years these were retained in certain alternators1 some of which are still in use for arc lighting in lighthouses4 ,but since the field they furnish is very weak1 a great advance was made when they were replaced by soft iron electromagnets1 which could be made to yield a much more intense flux4 ,as early as #ahca ,faraday#ah experimented with electromagnets1 and after #ahej they gradually superseded the permanent magnet4 ,when the total ampere-turns required to excite the electromagnet have been determined1 it remains to decide how the excitation shall be obtained2 and1 according to the method adopted1 continuous-current machines may be divided into four well-defined classes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,the simplest method1 and that which was first used1 is separate excitation from some other source of direct current1 which may be either a primary or a secondary battery or another dynamo 7fig4 #cb74 ,but since the armature yields a continuous current1 it was early suggested 7by ,j4 ,brett in #ahdh and ,f4 ,sinsteden in #ahea7 that this current might be utilized to increase the flux2 combinations of permanent and electromagnets were therefore next employed1 acting either on the main armature or on separate armatures1 until in #ahfg ,dr ,werner von ,siemens and ,sir ,c4 ,wheatstone almost simultaneously discovered that the dynamo could be made self-exciting through the residual magnetism retained in the soft iron cores of the electromagnet4 ,the former proposed to take the whole of the current round the magnet coils which were in series with the armature and external circuit1 while the latter proposed to utilize only a portion derived by a shunt from the main circuit2 we thus arrive at the second and third classes1 namely1 series and shunt machines4 ,the starting of the process of excitation in either case is the same2 when the brushes are touching the commutator and the armature is rotated1 the small amount of flux left in the magnet is cut by the wires1 and a very small current begins to flow round the closed circuit2 this increases the flux1 which in turn further increases the ,e4,m4,f4 and current1 until1 finally1 the cumulative effect stops through the increasing saturation of the iron cores4 ,fig4 #cc1 illustrating the series machine1 shows the winding of the exciting coils to be composed of a few turns of thick wire4 ,since the current is undivided throughout the whole circuit1 the resistance of both the armature and field-magnet winding must be low as compared with that of the external circuit1 if the useful power available at the terminals of the machine is to form a large percentage of the total electrical power--in other words1 if the efficiency is to be high4 ,fig4 #cd shows the third method1 in which the winding of the field-magnets is a shunt or fine-wire circuit of many turns applied to the terminals of the machine2 in this ease the resistance of the shunt must be high as compared with that of the external circuit1 in order that only a small proportion of the total energy may be absorbed in the field4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,since the whole of the armature current passes round the field-magnet of the series machine1 any alteration in the resistance of the external circuit will affect the excitation and also the voltage4 ,a curve connecting together corresponding values of external current and terminal voltage for a given speed of rotation is known as the external-characteristic of the machine2 in its main features it has the same appearance as a curve of magnetic flux1 but when the current exceeds a certain amount it begins to bend downwards and the voltage decreases4 ,the reason for this will be found in the armature reaction at large loads1 which gradually produces a more and more powerful demagnetizing effect1 as the brushes are shifted forwards to avoid sparking2 eventually the back ampere-turns overpower any addition to the field that would otherwise be due to the increased current flowing round the magnet4 ,the external characteristic for a shunt machine has an entirely different shape4 ,the field-magnet circuit being connected in parallel with the external circuit1 the exciting current1 if the applied voltage remains the same1 is in no way affected by alterations in the resistance of the latter4 ,as1 however1 an increase in the external current causes a greater loss of volts in the armature and a greater armature reaction1 the terminal voltage1 which is also the exciting voltage1 is highest at no load and then diminishes4 ,the fall is at first gradual1 but after a certain critical value of the armature current is reached1 the machine is rapidly demagnetized and loses its voltage entirely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,the last method of excitation1 namely1 compound-winding 7fig4 #ce71 is a combination of the two preceding1 and was first used by ,s4,a4 ,varley and by ,c4,f4 ,brush4 ,if a machine is in the first instance shunt-wound1 and a certain number of series-turns are added1 the latter1 since they carry the external current1 can be made to counteract the effect which the increased external current would have in lowering the voltage of the simple shunt machine4 ,the ampere-turns of the series winding must be such that they not only balance the increase of the demagnetizing back ampere-turns on the armature1 but further increase the useful flux1 and compensate for the loss of volts over their own resistance and that of the armature4 ,the machine will then give for a constant speed a nearly constant voltage at its terminals1 and the curve of the external characteristic becomes a straight line for all loads within its capacity4 ,since with most prime movers an increase of the load is accompanied by a drop in speed1 this effect may also be counteracted2 while1 lastly1 if the series-turns are still further increased1 the voltage may be made to rise with an increasing load1 and the machine is over-compounded4 ,commutation and sparking at the brushes4 ,at the initial moment when an armature coil is first short-circuited by the passage of the two sectors forming its ends under the contact surface of a brush1 a certain amount of electromagnetic energy is stored up in its magnetic field as linked with the ampere-turns of the coil when carrying its full share of the total armature current4 ,during the period of short-circuit this quantity of energy has to be dissipated as the current falls to zero1 and has again to be re-stored as the current is reversed and raised to the same value1 but in the opposite direction4 ,the period of short-circuit as fixed by the widths of the brush and of the mica insulation between the sectors1 and by the peripheral speed of the commutator is extremely brief1 and only lasts on an average from 7#a_/bjj7th to 7#a_/ajjj7th of a second4 ,the problem of sparkless commutation is therefore primarily a question of our ability to dissipate and to re-store the required amount of energy with sufficient rapidity4 ,an important aid towards the solution of this problem is found in the effect of the varying contact-resistance between the brush and the surfaces of the leading and trailing sectors which it covers4 ,as the commutator moves under the brush1 the area of contact which the brush makes with the leading sector diminishes1 and the resistance between the two rises2 conversely1 the area of contact between the brush and the trailing sector increases and the resistance falls4 ,this action tends automatically to bring the current through each sector into strict proportionality to the amount of its surface which is covered by the brush1 and so to keep the current-density and the loss of volts over the contacts uniform and constant4 ,as soon as the current-density in the two portions of the brush becomes unequal1 a greater amount of heat is developed at the commutator surface1 and this in the first place affords an additional outlet for the dissipation of the stored energy of the coil1 while after reversal of the current it is the accompaniment of a re-storage of the required energy4 ,this energy1 as well as that which is spent in heating the coil1 can in fact1 in default of other sources1 be derived through the action of the unequal current-density from the electrical output of the rest of the armature winding1 and so only indirectly from the prime mover4 ,in practice1 when the normal contact-resistance of the brushes is low relatively to the resistance of the coil1 as is the case with metal brushes of copper or brass gauze1 but little benefit can be obtained from the action of the varying contact-resistance4 ,it exerts no appreciable effect until close towards the end of the period of short-circuit1 and then only with such a high-current-density at the trailing edge of the leaving sector that at the moment of parting the brush-tip is fused1 or its metal volatilized1 and sparking has in fact set in4 ,with such brushes1 then1 it becomes necessary to call in the aid of a reversing ,e4,m4,f4 impressed upon the coil by the magnetic field through which it is moving4 ,if such a reversing field comes into action while the current is still unreversed1 its ,e4,m4,f4 is opposed to the direction of the current1 and the coil is therefore driving the armature forward as in a motor2 it thus affords a ready means of rapidly dissipating part of the initial energy in the form of mechanical work instead of as heat4 ,after the current has been reversed1 the converse process sets in1 and the prime mover directly expends mechanical energy not only in heating the coil1 but also in storing up electromagnetic energy with a rapidity dependent upon the strength of the reversing field4 ,the required direction of external field can be obtained in the dynamo by shifting the brushes forward1 so that the short-circuited coil enters into the fringe of lines issuing from the leading pole-tip1 i4e4 by giving the brushes an angle of lead4 ,an objection to this process is that the main flux is thereby weakened owing to the belt of back ampere-turns which arises 7v4 supra74 ,a still greater objection is that the amount of the angle of lead must be suited to the value of the load1 the corrective power of copper brushes being very small if the reversing ,e4,m4,f4 is not closely adjusted in proportion to the armature current4 ,on this account metal brushes have been almost entirely superseded by carbon moulded into hard blocks4 ,with these1 owing to their higher specific contact-resistance1 a very considerable reversing effect can be obtained through the action of unequal current-density1 and indeed in favourable cases complete sparklessness can be obtained throughout the entire range of load of the machine with a fixed position of the brushes4 ,yet if the work which they are called upon to perform exceeds certain limits1 they tend to become overheated with consequent glowing or sparking at their tips1 so that1 wherever possible1 it is advisable to reinforce their action by a certain amount of reversing field1 the brushes being set so that its strength is roughly correct for1 say1 half load4 ,in the case of dynamos driven by steam-turbines1 sparkless commutation is especially difficult to obtain owing to the high speed of rotation and the very short space of time in which the current has to be reversed4 ,special reversing poles then become necessary2 these are wound with magnetizing coils in series with the main armature current1 so that the strength of field which they yield is roughly proportional to the current which has to be reversed4 ,these again may be combined with a compensating winding embedded in the pole-faces and carrying current in the opposite direction to the armature ampere-turns1 so as to neutralize the cross effect of the latter and prevent distortion of the resultant field4 ,heating effects4 ,from the moment that a dynamo begins to run with excited field1 heat is continuously generated by the passage of the current through the windings of the field-magnet coils and the armature1 as well as by the action of hysteresis and eddy currents in the armature and pole-pieces4 ,whether the source of the heat be in the field-magnet or in the armature1 the mass in which it originates will continue to rise in temperature until such a difference of temperature is established between itself and the surrounding air that the rate at which the heat is carried off by radiation1 convection and conduction is equal to the rate at which it is being generated4 ,evidently1 then1 the temperature which any part of the machine attains after a prolonged run must depend on the extent and effectiveness of the cooling surface from which radiation takes place1 upon the presence or absence of any currents of air set up by the rotation of itself or surrounding parts1 and upon the presence of neighbouring masses of metal to carry away the heat by conduction4 ,in the field-magnet coils the rate at which heat is being generated is easily determined1 since it is equal to the square of the current passing through them multiplied by their resistance4 ,further1 the magnet is usually stationary1 and only indirectly affected by draughts of air due to the rotating armature4 ,hence for machines of a given type and of similar proportions1 it is not difficult to decide upon some method of reckoning the cooling surface of the magnet coils ,sc1 such that the rise of temperature above that of the surrounding air may be predicted from an equation of the form t deg4 k,w_/,sc1 where ,w the rate in watts at which heat is generated in the coils1 and k is some constant depending upon the exact method of reckoning their cooling surface4 ,as a general rule the cooling surface of a field-coil is reckoned as equal to the exposed outer surface of its wire1 the influence of the end flanges being neglected1 or only taken into account in the case of very short bobbins wound with a considerable depth of wire4 ,in the case of the rotating armature a similar formula must be constructed1 but with the addition of a factor to allow for the increase in the effectiveness of any given cooling surface due to the rotation causing convection currents in the surrounding air4 ,only experiment can determine the exact effect of this1 and even with a given type of armature it is dependent on the number of poles1 each of which helps to break up the air-currents1 and so to dissipate the heat4 ,for example1 in two-pole machines with drum bar-armatures1 if the cooling surface be reckoned as equal to the cylindrical exterior plus the area of the two ends1 the heating coefficient for a peripheral speed of #aejj ft4 per minute is less than half of that for the same armature when at rest4 ,a further difficulty still meets the designer in the correct predetermination of the total loss of watts in an armature before the machine has been tested4 ,it is made up of three separate items1 namely1 the copper loss in the armature winding1 the loss by hysteresis in the iron1 and the loss by eddy currents1 which again may be divided into those in the armature bars and end-connexions1 and those in the core and its end-plates4 ,the two latter items are both dependent upon the speed of the machine2 but whereas the hysteresis loss is proportional to the speed for a given density of flux in the armature1 the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the speed1 and owing to this difference1 the one loss can be separated from the other by testing an armature at varying speeds4 ,thus for a given rise of temperature1 the question of the amount of current which can be taken out of an armature at different speeds depends upon the proportion which the hysteresis and eddy watts bear to the copper loss1 and the ratio in which the effectiveness of the cooling surface is altered by the alteration in speed4 ,experimental data1 again1 can alone decide upon the amount of eddy currents that may be expected in given armatures1 and caution is required in applying the results of one machine to another in which any of the conditions1 such as the number of poles1 density in the teeth1 proportions of slot depth to width1 c41 are radically altered4 ,it remains to add1 that the rise of temperature which may be permitted in any part of a dynamo after a prolonged run is very generally placed at about #gj deg4 ,fahr4 above the surrounding air4 ,such a limit in ordinary conditions of working leads to a final temperature of about #agj deg4 ,fahr41 beyond which the durability of the insulation of the wires is liable to be injuriously affected4 ,upon some such basis the output of a dynamo in continuous working is rated1 although for short periods of1 say1 two hours the normal full-load current of a large machine may be exceeded by some #be without unduly heating the armature4 ,uses of continuous current dynamos4 ,for the electro-deposition of metals or the electrolytic treatment of ores a continuous current is a necessity2 but1 apart from such use1 the purposes from which the continuous-current dynamo is well adapted are so numerous that they cover nearly the whole field of electrical engineering1 with one important exception4 ,to meet these various uses1 the pressures for which the machine is designed are of equally wide range2 for the transmission of power over long distances they may be as high as #cjjj volts1 and for electrolytic work as low as five4 ,each electrolytic bath1 with its leads1 requires on an average only some four or five volts1 so that even when several are worked in series the voltage of the dynamo seldom exceeds #fj4 ,on the other hand1 the current is large and may amount to as much as from #ajjj to #ad1jjj amperes1 necessitating the use of two commutators1 one at either end of the armature1 in order to collect the current without excessive heating of the sectors and brushes4 ,the field-magnets are invariably shunt-wound1 in order to avoid reversal of the current through polarization at the electrodes of the bath4 ,for incandescent lighting by glow lamps1 the requirements of small isolated installations and of central stations for the distribution of electrical energy over large areas must be distinguished4 ,for the lighting of a private house or small factory1 the dynamo giving from #e to #ajj kilo-watts of output is commonly wound for a voltage of #ajj1 and is driven by pulley and belt from a gas1 oil or steam-engine2 or1 if approaching the higher limit above mentioned1 it is often directly coupled to the crank-shaft of the steam-engine4 ,if used in conjunction with an accumulator of secondary cells1 it is shunt-wound1 and must give the higher voltage necessary to charge the battery2 otherwise it is compound-wound1 in order to maintain the pressure on the lamps constant under all loads within its capacity4 ,the compound-wound dynamo is likewise the most usual for the lighting of steamships1 and is then directly coupled to its steam-engine2 its output seldom exceeds #ajj kilo-watts1 at a voltage of #ajj or #aaj4 ,for larger installations a voltage of #bej is commonly used1 while for central-station work1 economy in the distributing mains dictates a higher voltage1 especially in connexion with a three-wire system2 the larger dynamos may then give #ejj volts1 and be connected directly across the two outer wires4 ,a pair of smaller machines coupled together1 and each capable of giving #bej volts1 are often placed in series across the system1 with their common junction connected to the middle wire2 the one which at any time is on the side carrying the smaller current will act as a motor and drive the other as a dynamo1 so as to balance the system4 ,the directly-coupled steam dynamo may be said to have practically displaced the belt- or rope-driven sets which were formerly common in central stations4 ,the generating units of the central station are arranged in progressive sizes1 rising from1 it may be1 #bej or #ejj horse-power up to #gej or #ajjj1 or in large towns to as much as #ejjj horse-power4 ,if for lighting only1 they are usually shunt-wound1 the regulation of the voltage1 to keep the pressure constant on the distributing system under the gradual changes of load1 being effected by variable resistances in the shunt circuit of the field-magnets4 ,generators used for supplying current to electric tramways are commonly wound for #ejj volts at no load and are over-compounded1 so that the voltage rises to #eej volts at the maximum load1 and thus compensates for the loss of volts over the transmitting lines4 ,for arc lighting it was formerly usual to employ a class of dynamo which1 from the nature of its construction1 was called an open-coil machine1 and which gave a unidirectional but pulsating current4 ,of such machines the ,brush and ,thomson-,houston types were very widely used2 their ,e4,m4,f4 ranged from #bjjj to #cjjj volts for working a large number of arcs in series1 and by means of special regulators their current was maintained constant over a wide range of voltage4 ,but as their efficiency was low and they could not be applied to any other purpose1 they have been largely superseded in central stations by closed-coil dynamos or alternators1 which can also be used for incandescent lighting4 ,in cases where the central station is situated at some distance from the district to which the electric energy is to be supplied1 voltages from #ajjj to #bjjj are employed1 and these are transformed down at certain distributing centres by continuous-current transformers 7see ,,transformers and ,,electricity ,,supply74 ,these latter machines are in reality motor-driven dynamos1 and hence are also called motor-generators2 the armatures of the motor and dynamo are often wound on the same core1 with a commutator at either end1 the one to receive the high-pressure motor current1 and the other to collect the low-pressure current furnished by the dynamo4 ,in all large central stations it is necessary that the dynamos should be capable of being run in parallel1 so that their outputs may be combined on the same omnibus bars and thence distributed to the network of feeders4 ,with simple shunt-wound machines this is easily effected by coupling together terminals of like sign when the voltage of the two or more machines are closely equal4 ,with compound-wound dynamos not only must the external terminals of like sign be coupled together1 but the junctions of the brush leads with the series winding must be connected by an equalizing lead of low resistance2 otherwise1 should the ,e4,m4,f4 of one machine for any reason fall below the voltage of the omnibus bars1 there is a danger of its polarity being reversed by a back current from the others with which it is in parallel4 ,owing to the necessary presence in the continuous-current dynamo of the commutator1 with its attendant liability to sparking at the brushes1 and further1 owing to the difficulty of insulating the rotating armature wires1 a pressure of #cjjj volts has seldom been exceeded in any one continuous-current machine1 and has been given above as the limiting voltage of the class4 ,if therefore it is required to work with higher pressures in order to secure economy in the transmitting lines1 two or more machines must be coupled in series by connecting together terminals which are of unlike sign4#ai ,the stress of the total voltage may still fall on the insulation of the winding from the body of the machine2 hence for high-voltage transmission of power over very long distances1 the continuous-current dynamo in certain points yields in convenience to the alternator4 ,in this there is no commutator1 the armature coils may be stationary and can be more thoroughly insulated1 while further1 if it be thought undesirable to design the machine for the full transmitting voltage1 it is easy to wind the armature for a low pressure2 this can be subsequently transformed up to a high pressure by means of the alternating-current transformer1 which has stationary windings and so high an efficiency that but little loss arises from its use4 ,with these remarks1 the transition may be made to the fuller discussion of the alternator4 ,alternators4 ,frequency4 ,the frequency employed in alternating-current systems for distributing power and light varies between such wide limits as #be and #acc2 yet in recent times the tendency has been towards standard frequencies of #be1 #ej and #ajj as a maximum4 ,high frequencies involve more copper in the magnet coils1 owing to the greater number of poles1 and a greater loss of power in their excitation1 but the alternator as a whole is somewhat lighter1 and the transformers are cheaper4 ,on the other hand1 high frequency may cause prejudicial effects1 due to the inductance and capacity of the distributing lines2 and in asynchronous motors used on polyphase systems the increased number of poles necessary to obtain reasonable speeds reduces their efficiency1 and is otherwise disadvantageous1 especially for small horse-powers4 ,a frequency lower than #dj is1 however1 not permissible where arc lighting is to form any considerable portion of the work and is to be effected by the alternating current without rectification1 since below this value the eye can detect the periodic alteration in the light as the carbons alternately cool and become heated4 ,thus for combined lighting and power #ej or #fj are the most usual frequencies2 but if the system is designed solely or chiefly for the distribution of power1 a still lower frequency is preferable4 ,on this account #be was selected by the engineers for the ,niagara ,falls power transmission1 after careful consideration of the problem1 and this frequency has since been widely adopted in similar cases4 ,alternator construction4 ,the most usual type of heteropolar alternator has an internal rotating field-magnet system1 and an external stationary armature1 as in fig4 #aj4 ,the coils of the armature1 which must for high voltages be heavily insulated1 are then not subjected to the additional stresses due to centrifugal force2 and further1 the collecting rings which must be attached to the rotating portion need only transmit the exciting current at a low voltage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,the homopolar machine possesses the advantages that only a single exciting coil is required1 whatever the number of polar projections1 and that both the armature and field-magnet coils may be stationary4 ,from fig4 #h it will be seen that it is not essential that the exciting coil should revolve with the internal magnet1 but it may be supported from the external stationary armature while still embracing the central part of the rotor4 ,the ,e4,m4,f4 is set up in the armature coils through the periodic variation of the flux through them as the iron projections sweep past1 and these latter may be likened to a number of keepers1 which complete the magnetic circuit4 ,from the action of the rotating iron masses they may also be considered as the inducing elements or inductors1 and the homopolar machine is thence also known as the inductor alternator4 ,if the end of the rotor marked ,s in fig4 #h is split up into a number of ,s polar projections similar to the ,n poles1 a second set of armature coils may be arranged opposite to them1 and we obtain an inductor alternator with double armature4 ,or the polar projections at the two ends may be staggered1 and a single armature winding be passed straight through the armature1 as in fig4 #cf1 which shows at the side the appearance of the revolving inductor with its crown of polar projections in one ring opposite to the gaps between the polar projections of the other ring4 ,but in spite of its advantage of the single stationary exciting coil1 the inductor alternator has such a high degree of leakage1 and the effect of armature reaction is so detrimental in it1 that the type has been gradually abandoned1 and a return has been almost universally made to the heteropolar alternator with internal poles radiating outwards from a circular yoke-ring4 ,the construction of a typical machine of this class is illustrated in fig4 #cg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,since the field-magnet coils rotate1 they must be carefully designed to withstand centrifugal force1 and are best composed of flat copper strip wound on edge with thin insulation between adjacent layers4 ,the coil is secured by the edges of the pole-shoes which overhang the pole and tightly compress the coil against the yoke-ring2 the only effect from centrifugal force is then to compress still further the flat turns of copper against the pole-shoes without deformation4 ,the poles are either of cast steel of circular or oblong section1 bolted to the rim of the yoke-ring1 or are built up of thin laminations of sheet steel4 ,when the peripheral speed is very high1 the yoke-ring will be of cast steel or may itself be built up of sheet steel laminations1 this material being reliable and easily tested to ensure its sound mechanical strength4 ,if the armature slots are open1 the pole-pieces will in any case be laminated to reduce the eddy currents set up by the variation of the flux-density4 ,owing to the great number of poles#bj of the alternator when driven by a reciprocating steam-engine1 the diameter of its rotor is usually larger and its length less than in the continuous-current dynamo of corresponding output4 ,the support of the armature core when of large diameter is therefore a more difficult problem1 since1 apart from any magnetic strains to which it may be subjected1 its own weight tends to deform it4 ,the segmental core-disks are usually secured to the internal circumference of a circular cast iron frame2 the latter has a box section of considerable radial depth to give stiffness to it1 and the disks are tightly clamped between internal flanges1 one being a fixed part of the frame and the other loose1 with transverse bolts passing right through from side to side 7fig4 #cg74 ,in order to lessen the weight of the structure and its expense in material1 the cast iron frame has in some cases been entirely dispensed with1 and braced tie-rods have been used to render the effective iron of the armature core-disks self-supporting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,owing to the high speed of the turbo-alternator1 its rotor calls for the utmost care in its design to withstand the effect of centrifugal force without any shifting of the exciting coils1 and to secure a perfect balance4 ,the appearance of the armature of a typical three-phase alternator is illustrated in fig4 #ch1 which shows a portion of the lower half after removal of the field-magnet4 ,with open slots the coils1 after being wound on formers to the required shape1 are thoroughly impregnated with insulating compound1 dried1 and after a further wrapping with several layers of insulating material1 finally pressed into the slots together with a sheet of leatheroid or flexible micanite4 ,the end-connexions of each group of coils of one phase project straight out from the slots or are bent upwards alternately with those of the other phases1 so that they may clear one another 7fig4 #cg74 ,a wooden wedge driven into a groove at the top of each slot is often used to lock the coil in place4 ,with slots nearly closed at the top1 the coils are formed by hand by threading the wire through tubes of micanite or specially prepared paper lining the slots2 or with single-turn loops1 stout bars of copper of ,u-shape can be driven through the slots and closed by soldered connexions at the other end4 ,shape of ,e4,m4,f4 curve4 ,the first experimental determination of the shape of the ,e4,m4,f4 curve of an alternator was made by ,j4 ,joubert in #ahhj4 ,a revolving contact-maker charged a condenser with the ,e4,m4,f4 produced by the armature at a particular instant during each period4 ,the condenser was discharged through a ballistic galvanometer1 and from the measured throw the instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 could be deduced4 ,the contact-maker was then shifted through a small angle1 and the instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 at the new position corresponding to a different moment in the period was measured2 this process was repeated until the ,e4,m4,f4 curve for a complete period could be traced4 ,various modifications of the same principle have since been used1 and a form of oscillograph 7q4v47 has been perfected which is well adapted for the purpose of tracing the curves both of ,e4,m4,f4 and of current4 ,the machine on which ,joubert carried out his experiments was a ,siemens disk alternator having no iron in its armature1 and it was found that the curve of ,e4,m4,f4 was practically identical with a sine curve4 ,the same law has also been found to hold true for a smooth-core ring or drum armature1 but the presence of the iron core enables the armature current to produce greater distorting effect1 so that the curves under load may vary considerably from their shape at no load4 ,in toothed armatures1 the broken surface of the core1 and the still greater reaction from the armature current1 may produce wide variations from the sine law1 the general tendency being to give the ,e4,m4,f4 curve a more peaked form4 ,the great convenience of the assumption that the ,e4,m4,f4 obeys the sine law has led to its being very commonly used as the basis for the mathematical analysis of alternator problems2 but any deductions made from this premiss require to be applied with caution if they are likely to be modified by a different shape of the curve4 ,further1 the same alternator will give widely different curves even of ,e4,m4,f41 and still more so of current1 according to the nature of the external circuit to which it is connected4 ,as will be explained later1 the phase of the current relatively to the ,e4,m4,f4 depends not only on the inductance of the alternator itself1 but also upon the inductance and capacity of the external circuit1 so that the same current will produce different effects according to the amount by which it lags or leads4 ,the question as to the relative advantages of differently shaped ,e4,m4,f4 curves has led to much discussion1 but can only be answered by reference to the nature of the work that the alternator has to do--i4e4 whether it be arc lighting1 motor driving1 or incandescent lighting through transformers4 ,the shape of the ,e4,m4,f4 curve is1 however1 of great importance in one respect1 since upon it depends the ratio of the maximum instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 to the effective value1 and the insulation of the entire circuit1 both external and internal1 must be capable of withstanding the maximum ,e4,m4,f4 ,while the maximum value of the sine curve is root#b or #a4dad times the effective value1 the maximum value of a ,lambda curve is #a4gcb times the effective value1 so that for the same effective ,e4,m4,f4 the armature wires must not only be more heavily insulated than in the continuous-current dynamo1 but also the more peaked the curve the better must be the insulation4 ,excitation4 ,since an alternating current cannot be used for exciting the field-magnet1 recourse must be had to some source of a direct current4 ,this is usually obtained from a small auxiliary continuous-current dynamo1 called an exciter1 which may be an entirely separate machine1 separately driven and used for exciting several alternators1 or may be driven from the alternator itself2 in the latter case the armature of the exciter is often coupled directly to the rotating shaft of the alternator1 while its field-magnet is attached to the bed-plate4 ,although separate excitation is the more usual method1 the alternator can also be made self-exciting if a part or the whole of the alternating current is rectified1 and thus converted into a direct current4 ,quarter-phase alternators4 ,the general idea of the polyphase alternator giving two or more ,e4,m4,f4's of the same frequency1 but displaced in phase1 has been already described4 ,the several phases may be entirely independent1 and such was the case with the early polyphase machines of ,gramme1 who used four independent circuits1 and also in the large two-phase alternators designed by ,j4,e4,h4 ,gordon in #ahhc4 ,if the phases are thus entirely separate1 each requires two collector rings and two wires to its external circuit1 i4e4 four in all for two-phase and six for three-phase machines4 ,the only advantage of the polyphase machine as thus used is that the whole of the surface of the armature core may be efficiently covered with winding1 and the output of the alternator for a given size be thereby increased4 ,it is1 however1 also possible so to interlink the several circuits of the armature that the necessary number of transmitting lines to the external circuits may be reduced1 and also the weight of copper in them for a given loss in the transmission4#ba ,the condition which obviously must be fulfilled1 for such interlinking of the phases to be possible1 is that in the lines which are to meet at any common junction the algebraic sum of the instantaneous currents1 reckoned as positive if away from such junction and as negative if towards it1 must be zero4 ,thus if the phases be diagrammatically represented by the relative angular position of the coils in fig4 #ci1 the current in the coils ,a and ,b differs in phase from the current in the coils ,c and ,d by a quarter of a period or #ij deg42 hence if the two wires b and d be replaced by the single wire bd1 this third wire will serve as a common path for the currents of the two phases either outwards or on their return4 ,at any instant the value of the current in the third wire must be the vector sum of the two currents in the other wires1 and if the shape of the curves of instantaneous ,e4,m4,f4 and current are identical1 and are assumed to be sinusoidal1 the effective value of the current in the third wire will be the vector sum of the effective values of the currents in the other wires2 in other words1 if the system is balanced1 the effective current in the third wire is root#b1 or #a4dad times the current in either of the two outer wires4 ,since the currents of the two phases do not reach their maximum values at the same time1 the sectional area of the third wire need not be twice that of the others2 in order to secure maximum efficiency by employing the same current density in all three wires1 it need only be #dj greater than that of either of the outer wires4 ,the effective voltage between the external leads may in the same way be calculated by a vector diagram1 and with the above star connexion the voltage between the outer pair of wires a and c is root#b1 or #a4dad times the voltage between either of the outer wires and the common wire bd4 ,next1 if the four coils are joined up into a continuous helix1 just as in the winding of a continuous-current machine1 four wires may be attached to equidistant points at the opposite ends of two diameters at right angles to each other 7fig4 #dj74 ,such a method is known as the mesh connexion1 and gives a perfectly symmetrical four-phase system of distribution4 ,four collecting rings are necessary if the armature rotates1 and there is no saving in copper in the transmitting lines2 but the importance of the arrangement lies in its use in connexion with rotary converters1 in which it is necessary that the winding of the armature should form a closed circuit4 ,if e the effective voltage of one phase ,a1 the voltage between any pair of adjacent lines in the diagram is e1 and between m and o or n and p is e root#b4 ,the current in any line is the resultant of the currents in the two phases connected to it1 and its effective value is c root#b1 where c is the current of one phase4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,three-phase alternators4 ,when we pass to machines giving three phases differing by #abj deg41 the same methods of star and mesh connexion find their analogies4 ,if the current in coil ,a 7fig4 #da7 is flowing away from the centre1 and has its maximum value1 the currents in coils ,b and ,c are flowing towards the centre1 and are each of half the magnitude of the current in ,a2 the algebraic sum of the currents is therefore zero1 and this will also be the case for all other instants4 ,hence the three coils can be united together at the centre1 and three external wires are alone required4 ,in this star or ,y connexion1 if e be the effective voltage of each phase1 or the voltage between any one of the three collecting rings and the common connexion1 the volts between any pair of transmitting lines will be ,e e root#c 7fig4 #da72 if the load be balanced1 the effective current ,c in each of the three lines will be equal1 and the total output in watts will be ,w #c;,ce #c;,,ce_/root#c #a4gcb ,,ec1 or #a4gcb times the product of the effective voltage between the lines and the current in any single line4 ,next1 if the three coils are closed upon themselves in a mesh or delta fashion 7fig4 #db71 the three transmitting wires may be connected to the junctions of the coils 7by means of collecting rings if the armature rotates74 ,the voltage ,e between any pair of wires is evidently that generated by one phase1 and the current in a line wire is the resultant of that in two adjacent phases2 or in a balanced system1 if c be the current in each phase1 the current in the line wire beyond a collecting ring is ,c c root#c1 hence the watts are ,w #c;c,e #c;,,ce_/root#c #a4gcb ,,ec1 as before4 ,thus any three-phase winding may be changed over from the star to the delta connexion1 and will then give #a4gcb times as much current1 but only #a_/a4gcb times the voltage1 so that the output remains the same4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,armature reaction in alternators ,the armature reaction of the alternator1 when the term is used in its widest sense to cover all the effects of the alternating current in the armature as linked with a magnetic circuit or circuits1 may be divided into three items which are different in their origin and consequences4 ,in the first place the armature current produces a self-induced flux in local circuits independent of the main magnetic circuit1 as e4g4 linked with the ends of the coils as they project outwards from the armature core2 such lines may be called secondary leakage1 of which the characteristic feature is that its amount is independent of the position of the coils relatively to the poles4 ,the alternations of this flux give rise to an inductive voltage lagging #ij deg4 behind the phase of the current1 and this leakage or reactance voltage must be directly counterbalanced electrically by an equal component in the opposite sense in the voltage from the main field4 ,the second and third elements are more immediately magnetic and are entirely dependent upon the position of the coils in relation to the poles and in relation to the phase of the current which they then carry4 ,when the side of a drum coil is immediately under the centre of a pole1 its ampere-turns are cross-magnetizing1 i4e4 produce a distortion of the main flux1 displacing its maximum density to one or other edge of the pole4 ,when the coil-side is midway between the poles and the axes of coil and pole coincide1 the coil stands exactly opposite to the pole and embraces the same magnetic circuit as the field-magnet coils2 its turns are therefore directly magnetizing1 either weakening or strengthening the main flux according to the direction of the current4 ,in intermediate positions the ampere-turns of the coil gradually pass from cross to direct and vice versa4 ,when the instantaneous values of either the cross or direct magnetizing effect are integrated over a period and averaged1 due account being taken of the number of slots per coil-side and of the different phases of the currents in the polyphase machine1 expressions are obtained for the equivalent cross and direct ampere-turns of the armature as acting upon a pair of poles4 ,for a given winding and current1 the determining factor in either the one or the other is found to be the relative phase angle between the axis of a coil in its position when carrying the maximum current and the centre of a pole1 the transverse reaction being proportional to the cosine of this angle1 and the direct reaction to its sine4 ,if the external circuit is inductive1 the maximum value of the current lags behind the ,e4,m4,f4 and so behind the centre of the pole2 such a negative angle of lag causes the direct magnetizing turns to become back turns1 directly weakening the main field and lowering the terminal voltage4 ,thus1 just as in the continuous-current dynamo1 for a given voltage under load the excitation between the pole-pieces ,xp must not only supply the net excitation required over the air-gaps1 armature core and teeth1 but must also balance the back ampere-turns ,xb of the armature4 ,evidently therefore the characteristic curve connecting armature current and terminal volts will with a constant exciting current depend on the nature of the load1 whether inductive or non-inductive1 and upon the amount of inductance already possessed by the armature itself4 ,with an inductive load it will fall more rapidly from its initial maximum value1 or1 conversely1 if the initial voltage is to be maintained under an increasing load1 the exciting current will have to be increased more than if the load were non-inductive4 ,in practical working many disadvantages result from a rapid drop of the terminal ,e4,m4,f4 under increasing load1 so that between no load and full load the variation in terminal voltage with constant excitation should not exceed #ae4 ,thus the output of an alternator is limited either by its heating or by its armature reaction1 just as is the output of a continuous-current dynamo2 in the case of the alternator1 however1 the limit set by armature reaction is not due to any sparking at the brushes1 but to the drop in terminal voltage as the current is increased1 and the consequent difficulty in maintaining a constant potential on the external circuit4 ,the coupling of alternators4 ,the joint operation of several alternators so that their outputs may be delivered into the same external circuit is sharply distinguished from the corresponding problem in continuous-current dynamos by the necessary condition that they must be in synchronism1 i4e4 not only must they be so driven that their frequency is the same1 but their ,e4,m4,f4's must be in phase or1 as it is also expressed1 the machines must be in step4 ,although in practice it is impossible to run two alternators in series unless they are rigidly coupled together--which virtually reduces them to one machine--two or more machines can be run in parallel1 as was first described by ,h4 ,wilde in #ahfh and subsequently redemonstrated by ,j4 ,hopkinson and ,w4,g4 ,adams in #ahhd4 ,their ,e4,m4,f4's should be as nearly as possible in synchronism1 but1 as contrasted with series connexion1 parallel coupling gives them a certain power of recovery if they fall out of step1 or are not in exact synchronism when thrown into parallel4 ,in such circumstances a synchronizing current passes between the two machines1 due to the difference in their instantaneous pressures2 and as this current agrees in phase more nearly with the leading than with the lagging machine1 the former machine does work as a generator on the latter as a motor4 ,hence the lagging machine is accelerated and the leading machine is retarded1 until their frequencies and phase are again the same4 ,uses of alternators4 ,the chief use of the alternator has already been alluded to4 ,since it can be employed to produce very high pressures either directly or through the medium of transformers1 it is specially adapted to the electrical transmission of energy over long distances4#bb ,in the early days of electric lighting1 the alternate-current system was adopted for a great number of central stations2 the machines1 designed to give a pressure of #bjjj volts1 supplied transformers which were situated at considerable distances and spread over large areas1 without an undue amount of copper in the transmitting lines4 ,while there was later a tendency to return to the continuous current for central stations1 owing to the introduction of better means for economizing the weight of copper in the mains1 the alternating current again came into favour1 as rendering it possible to place the central station in some convenient site far away from the district which it was to serve4 ,the pioneer central station in this direction was the ,deptford station of the ,london ,electric ,supply ,corporation1 which furnished current to the heart of ,london from a distance of #g m4 ,in this case1 however1 the alternators were single-phase and gave the high pressure of #aj1jjj volts immediately1 while more recently the tendency has been to employ step-up transformers and a polyphase system4 ,the advantage of the latter is that the current1 after reaching the distant sub-stations1 can be dealt with by rotary converters1 through which it is transformed into a continuous current4 ,the alternator is also used for welding1 smelting in electric furnaces1 and other metallurgical processes where heating effects are alone required2 the large currents needed therein can be produced without the disadvantage of the commutator1 and1 if necessary1 transformers can be interposed to lower the voltage and still further increase the current4 ,the alternating system can thus meet very various needs1 and its great recommendation may be said to lie in the flexibility with which it can supply electrical energy through transformers at any potential1 or through rotary converters in continuous-current form4 ,,authorities4--,for the further study of the dynamo1 the following may be consulted1 in addition to the references already given3-- ,general3 ,s4,p4 ,thompson1 ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery--,continuous-,current ,machines 7#aijd71 ,alternating-,current ,machinery 7#aije1 ,london72 ,g4 ,kapp1 ,dynamos1 ,alternators and ,transformers 7,london1 #ahic72 ,id41 ,electric ,transmission of ,energy 7,london1 #ahid72 ,id41 ,dynamo ,construction2 ,electrical and ,mechanical 7,london1 #ahii72 ,h4,f4 ,parshall and ,h4,m4 ,hobart1 ,electric ,generators 7,london1 #aijj72 ,c4,c4 ,hawkins and ,f4 ,wallis1 ,the ,dynamo 7,london1 #aijc72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,konstruktionstafeln fuer den ,dynamobau 7,stuttgart1 #aijb72 ,c4,p4 ,steinmetz1 ,elements of ,electrical ,engineering 7,new ,york1 #aija74 ,continuous-,current ,dynamos3 ,j4 ,fischer-,hinnen1 ,continuous-,current ,dynamos 7,london1 #ahii72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,die ,gleichstrommaschine 7,berlin1 #aijb72 ,f4 ,niethammer1 ,berechnung und ,konstruktion der ,gleichstrommaschinen und ,gleichstrommotoren 7,stuttgart1 #aijd74 ,alternators3 ,d4,c4 ,jackson and ,j4,p4 ,jackson1 ,alternating ,currents and ,alternating ,current ,machinery 7,new ,york1 #aijc72 ,j4,a4 ,fleming1 ,the ,alternate ,current ,transformer 7,london1 #ahii72 ,c4,p4 ,steinmetz1 ,alternating ,current ,phenomena 7,new ,york1 #aijj72 ,e4 ,arnold1 ,die ,wechselstromtechnik 7,berlin1 #aijd72 ,s4,p4 ,thompson1 ,polyphase ,electric ,currents 7,london1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,stewart1 ,modern ,polyphase ,machinery 7,london1 #aijf72 ,m4 ,oudin1 ,standard ,polyphase ,apparatus and ,systems 7,new ,york1 #aijd74 7,c4 ,c4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity1 series ii4 ,sec4 #f1 pars4 #bef1 #bei-bfj1 and series xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd4 #b ,ibid4 series i4 ,sec4 #d1 pars4 #hd-ij4 #c ,on the ,physical ,lines of ,magnetic ,force1 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,june #aheb4 #d ,faraday1 ,exp4 ,res4 series xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd1 pars4 #cajd1 #caad-caae4 #e ,id41 ib4 series i4 ,sec4 #d1 pars4 #aad-aai4 #f ,id41 ib4 series ii4 ,sec4 #f1 pars4 #baa1 #bac2 series xxviii4 ,sec4 #cd1 par4 #caeb4 #g ,invented by ,nikola ,tesla 7,elec4 ,eng4 vol4 xiii4 p4 #hc4 ,cf4 ,brit4 ,pat4 ,spec4 ,nos4 #bhja and #bhab1 #ahid74 ,several early inventors1 e4g4 ,salvatore dal ,negro in #ahcb 7,phil4 ,mag4 third series1 vol4 i4 p4 #de71 adopted reciprocating or oscillatory motion1 and this was again tried by ,edison in #ahgh4 #h ,the advantage to be obtained by making the poles closely embrace the armature core was first realized by ,dr ,werner von ,siemens in his shuttle-wound armature 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #bajg1 #ahef74 #i ,nuovo ,cimento 7#ahfe71 #ai1 #cgh4 #aj ,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #affh 7#ahgj72 ,comptes rendus 7#ahga71 #gc1 #age4 #aa ,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys4 l4 #cbb4 #ab ,ibid4 li4 #gf4 ,since in ,h4 ,pixii's machine the armature was stationary1 while both magnet and commutator rotated1 four brushes were used1 and the arrangement was not so simple as the split-ring described above1 although the result was the same4 ,j4 ,saxton's machine 7#ahcc7 and ,e4,m4 ,clarke's machine 7#ahce1 see ,sturgeon's ,annals of ,electricity1 i4 #ade7 were similar to one another in that a unidirected current was obtained by utilizing every alternate half-wave of ,e4,m4,f41 but the former still employed mercury collecting cups1 while the latter employed metal brushes4 ,w4 ,sturgeon in #ahce followed ,pixii in utilizing the entire wave of ,e4,m4,f41 and abandoned the mercury cups in favour of metal brushes pressing on four semicircular disks 7,scientific ,researches1 p4 #beb74 ,the simple split-ring is described by ,sir ,c4 ,wheatstone and ,sir ,w4,f4 ,cooke in their ,patent ,no4 #hcde 7#ahdj74 #ac ,by the leading side of the tooth or of an armature coil or sector is to be understood that side which first enters under a pole after passing through the interpolar gap1 and the edge of the pole under which it enters is here termed the leading edge as opposed to the trailing edge or corner from under which a tooth or coil emerges into the gap between the poles2 cf4 fig4 #cj1 where the leading and trailing pole-corners are marked ll and tt4 #ad ,such was the arrangement of ,wheatstone's machine 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #ijbb7 of #ahda1 which was the first to give a more nearly continuous current1 the number of sections and split-rings being five4 #ae ,its development from the split-ring was due to ,pacinotti and ,gramme 7,brit4 ,pat4 ,no4 #affh1 #ahgj7 in connexion with their ring armatures4 #af ,and extended by ,g4 ,kapp1 ,on ,modern ,continuous-,current ,dynamo-,electric ,machines1 ,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 vol4 lxxxiii4 p4 #acf4 #ag ,drs ,j4 and ,e4 ,hopkinson1 ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery1 ,phil4 ,trans41 ,may #f1 #ahhf2 this was further expanded in a second paper on ,dynamo-,electric ,machinery1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,feb4 #ae1 #ahib1 and both are reprinted in ,original ,papers on ,dynamo-,machinery and ,allied ,subjects4 #ah ,exp4 ,res41 series i4 ,sec4 #d1 par4 #aaa4 ,in #ahde ,wheatstone and ,cooke patented the use of voltaic magnets in place of permanent magnets 7,no4 #aj1fee74 #ai ,between ,moutiers and ,lyons1 a distance of #aae m41 energy is transmitted on the ,thury direct-current system at a maximum pressure of #fj1jjj volts4 ,four groups of machines in series are employed1 each group consisting of four machines in series2 the rated output of each component machine is #ge amperes at #cijj volts or #djj h4p4 ,a water turbine drives two pairs of such machines through an insulating coupling1 and the sub-base of each pair of machines is separately insulated from earth1 the foundation being also of special insulating materials4 #bj ,for experiments on high-frequency currents1 ,nikola ,tesla constructed an alternator having #chd poles and giving a frequency of about #aj1jjj 7,journ4 ,inst4 ,elec4 ,eng4 #ahib1 #ba1 p4 #hb74 ,the opposite extreme is found in alternators directly coupled to the ,parsons steam-turbine1 in which1 with a speed of #cjjj revs4 per min41 only two poles are required to give a frequency of #ej4 ,by a combination of a ,parsons steam-turbine running at #ab1jjj revs4 per min4 with an alternator of #adj poles a frequency of #ad1jjj has been obtained 7,engineering1 #beth of ,august #ahii74 ,for description of an experimental machine for #aj1jjj cycles per second when running at #cjjj revs4 per min41 see ,trans4 ,amer4 ,inst4 ,elect4 ,eng4 vol4 xxiii4 p4 #dag4 #ba ,as in the historical transmission of energy from ,lauffen to ,frankfort 7#ahia74 #bb ,in the pioneer three-phase transmission between ,laufen and ,frankfort 7,electrician1 vol4 xxvi4 p4 #fcg1 and xxvii4 p4 #edh71 the three-phase current was transformed up from about #ee to #hejj volts1 the distance being #aaj m4 ,a large number of installations driven by water power are now at work1 in which energy is transmitted on the alternating-current system over distances of about #ajj m4 at pressures ranging from #bj1jjj to #fg1jjj volts4 ,,dynamometer 7,gr4 ,greek3 dynamis1 strength1 and ,greek3 metron1 a measure71 an instrument for measuring force exerted by men1 animals and machines4 ,the name has been applied generally to all kinds of instruments used in the measurement of a force1 as for example electric dynamometers1 but the term specially denotes apparatus used in connexion with the measurement of work1 or in the measurement of the horse-power of engines and motors4 ,if ,p represent the average value of the component of a force in the direction of the displacement1 s1 of its point of application1 the product ,ps measures the work done during the displacement4 ,when the force acts on a body free to turn about a fixed axis only1 it is convenient to express the work done by the transformed product ,ttheta1 where ,t is the average turning moment or torque acting to produce the displacement theta radians4 ,the apparatus used to measure ,p or ,t is the dynamometer4 ,the factors s or theta are observed independently4 ,apparatus is added to some dynamometers by means of which a curve showing the variations of ,p on a distance base is drawn automatically1 the area of the diagram representing the work done2 with others1 integrating apparatus is combined1 from which the work done during a given interval may be read off directly4 ,it is convenient to distinguish between absorption and transmission dynamometers4 ,in the first kind the work done is converted into heat2 in the second it is transmitted1 after measurement1 for use4 ,absorption ,dynamometers4--,baron ,prony's dynamometer 7,ann4 ,chim4 ,phys4 #ahba1 vol4 #ai71 which has been modified in various ways1 consists in its original form of two symmetrically shaped timber beams clamped to the engine-shaft4 ,when these are held from turning1 their frictional resistance may be adjusted by means of nuts on the screwed bolts which hold them together until the shaft revolves at a given speed4 ,to promote smoothness of action1 the rubbing surfaces are lubricated4 ,a weight is moved along the arm of one of the beams until it just keeps the brake steady midway between the stops which must be provided to hold it when the weight fails to do so4 ,the general theory of this kind of brake is as follows3-,let ,f be the whole frictional resistance1 r the common radius of the rubbing surfaces1 ,w the force which holds the brake from turning and whose line of action is at a perpendicular distance ,r from the axis of the shaft1 ,n the revolutions of the shaft per minute1 omega its angular velocity in radians per second2 then1 assuming that the adjustments are made so that the engine runs steadily at a uniform speed1 and that the brake is held still1 clear of the stops and without oscillation1 by ,w1 the torque ,t exerted by the engine is equal to the frictional torque ,fr acting at the brake surfaces1 and this is measured by the statical moment of the weight ,w about the axis of revolution2 that is-- ,t ,fr ,,wr4 7#a7 ,hence ,,wr measures the torque ,t4 ,if more than one force be applied to hold the brake from turning1 ,fr1 and therefore ,t1 are measured by the algebraical sum of their individual moments with respect to the axis4 ,if the brake is not balanced1 its moment about the axis must be included4 ,therefore1 quite generally1 ,t ,sigma,,wr4 7#b7 ,the factor theta of the product ,ttheta is found by means of a revolution counter4 ,the power of a motor is measured by the rate at which it works1 and this is expressed by ,tomega ,t#bpi,n_/#fj in foot-pounds per second1 or ,t#bpi,n_/#cc1jjj in horse-power units4 ,the latter is commonly referred to as the brake horse-power4 ,the maintenance of the conditions of steadiness implied in equation 7#a7 depends upon the constancy of ,f1 and therefore of the coefficient of friction mu between the rubbing surfaces4 ,the heating at the surfaces1 the variations in their smoothness1 and the variations of the lubrication make mu continuously variable1 and necessitate frequent adjustment of ,w or of the nuts4 ,j4,v4 ,poncelet 7#aghh-ahfg7 invented a form of ,prony brake which automatically adjusted its grip as mu changed1 thereby maintaining ,f constant4 ,the principle of the compensating brake devised by ,j4,g4 ,appold 7#ahjj-ahfe7 is shown in fig4 #a4 ,a flexible steel band1 lined with wood blocks1 is gripped on the motor fly-wheel or pulley by a screw ,a1 which1 together with ,w1 is adjusted to hold the brake steady4 ,compensation is effected by the lever ,l inserted at ,b4 ,this has a slotted end1 engaged by a pin ,p fixed to the framing1 and it will be seen that its action is to slacken the band if the load tends to rise and to tighten it in the contrary case4 ,the external forces holding the brake from turning are ,w1 distant ,r from the axis1 and the reaction1 ,w#a say1 of the lever against the fixed pin ,p1 distant ,r#a from the axis4 ,the moment of ,w#a may be positive or negative4 ,the torque ,t at any instant of steady running is therefore ,,wr - ,w#a,r#a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,lord ,kelvin patented a brake in #aheh 7fig4 #b7 consisting of a rope or cord wrapped round the circumference of a rotating wheel1 to one end of which is applied a regulated force1 the other end being fixed to a spring balance4 ,the ropes are spaced laterally by the blocks ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 ,b1 which also serve to prevent them from slipping sideways4 ,when the wheel is turning in the direction indicated1 the forces holding the band still are ,w1 and p1 the observed pull on the spring balance4 ,both these forces usually act at the same radius ,r1 the distance from the axis to the centre line of the rope1 in which case the torque ,t is 7,w - p7,r1 and consequently the brake horse-power is 7,w - p7,r x #bpi,n -----------------4 #cc1jjj ,when mu changes the weight ,w rises or falls against the action of the spring balance until a stable condition of running is obtained4 ,the ratio ,w_/p is given by e mutheta1 where e #b4gah2 mu is the coefficient of friction and theta the angle1 measured in radians1 subtended by the arc of contact between the rope and the wheel4 ,in fig4 #b theta #bpi4 ,the ratio ,w_/p increases very rapidly as theta is increased1 and therefore1 by making theta sufficiently large1 p may conveniently be made a small fraction of ,w1 thereby rendering errors of observation of the spring balance negligible4 ,thus this kind of brake1 though cheap to make1 is1 when theta is large enough1 an exceedingly accurate measuring instrument1 readily applied and easily controlled4 ,it has come into very general use in recent years1 and has practically superseded the older forms of block brakes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,it is sometimes necessary to use water to keep the brake wheel cool4 ,engines specially designed for testing are usually provided with a brake wheel having a trough-shaped rim4 ,water trickles continuously into the trough1 and the centrifugal action holds it as an inside lining against the rim1 where it slowly evaporates4 ,fig4 #c shows a band-brake invented by ,professor ,james ,thomson1 suitable for testing motors exerting a constant torque 7see ,engineering1 #bbnd ,october #ahhj74 ,to maintain e mutheta constant1 compensation for variation of mu is made by inversely varying theta4 ,a and ,b are fast and loose pulleys1 and the brake band is placed partly over the one and partly over the other4 ,weights ,w and w are adjusted to the torque4 ,the band turns with the fast pulley if mu increase1 thereby slightly turning the loose pulley1 otherwise at rest1 until theta is adjusted to the new value of mu4 ,this form of brake was also invented independently by ,j4,a4,m4,l4 ,carpentier1 and the principle has been used in the ,raffard brake4 ,a self-compensating brake of another kind1 by ,marcel ,deprez1 was described with ,carpentier's in #ahhj 7,bulletin de la societe d'encouragement1 ,paris74 ,w4,e4 ,ayrton and ,j4 ,perry used a band or rope brake in which compensation is effected by the pulley drawing in or letting out a part of the band or rope which has been roughened or in which a knot has been tied4 ,in an effective water-brake invented by ,w4 ,froude 7see ,proc4 ,inst4 ,m4 ,e4 #ahgg71 two similar castings1 ,a and ,b1 each consisting of a boss and circumferential annular channel1 are placed face to face on a shaft1 to which ,b is keyed1 ,a being free 7fig4 #d74 ,a ring tube of elliptical section is thus formed4 ,each channel is divided into a series of pockets by equally spaced vanes inclined at #de deg44 ,when ,a is held still1 and ,b rotated1 centrifugal action sets up vortex currents in the water in the pockets2 thus a continuous circulation is caused between ,b and ,a1 and the consequent changes of momentum give rise to oblique reactions4 ,the moments of the components of these actions and reactions in a plane to which the axis of rotation is at right angles are the two aspects of the torque acting1 and therefore the torque acting on ,b through the shaft is measured by the torque required to hold ,a still4 ,froude constructed a brake to take up #bjjj ,h4,p4 at #ij revs4 per min4 by duplicating this apparatus4 ,this replaced the propeller of the ship whose engines were to be tested1 and the outer casing was held from turning by a suitable arrangement of levers carried to weighing apparatus conveniently disposed on the wharf4 ,the torque corresponding to #bjjj ,h4,p4 at #ij revs4 per min4 is #aaf1ggb foot-pounds1 and a brake #e ft4 in diameter gave this resistance4 ,thin metal sluices were arranged to slide between the wheel and casing1 and by their means the range of action could be varied from #cjj ,h4,p4 at #abj revs4 per min4 to the maximum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,professor ,osborne ,reynolds in #ahhg patented a water-brake 7see ,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #ii1 p4 #afg71 using ,froude's turbine to obtain the highly resisting spiral vortices1 and arranging passages in the casing for the entry of water at the hub of the wheel and its exit at the circumference4 ,water enters at ,e 7fig4 #e71 and finds its way into the interior of the wheel1 ,a1 driving the air in front of it through the air-passages ,k1 ,k4 ,then following into the pocketed chambers ,v#a1 ,v#b1 it is caught into the vortex1 and finally escapes at the circumference1 flowing away at ,f4 ,the air-ways k1 k1 in the fixed vanes establish communication between the cores of the vortices and the atmosphere4 ,from #a_/e to #cj ,h4,p4 may be measured at #ajj revs4 per min4 by a brake-wheel of this kind #ah in4 in diameter4 ,for other speeds the power varies as the cube of the speed4 ,the casing is held from turning by weights hanging on an attached arm4 ,the cocks regulating the water are connected to the casing1 so that any tilting automatically regulates the flow1 and therefore the thickness of the film in the vortex4 ,in this way the brake may be arranged to maintain a constant torque1 not withstanding variation of the speed4 ,in ,g4,i4 ,alden's brake 7see ,trans4 ,amer4 ,soc4 ,eng4 vol4 xi47 the resistance is obtained by turning a cast iron disk against the frictional resistance of two thin copper plates1 which are held in a casing free to turn upon the shaft1 and are so arranged that the pressure between the rubbing surfaces is controlled1 and the heat developed by friction carried away1 by the regulated flow of water through the casing4 ,the torque required to hold the casing still against the action of the disk measures the torque exerted by the shaft to which the disk is keyed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,transmission ,dynamometers4--,the essential part of many transmission dynamometers is a spring whose deformation indirectly measures the magnitude of the force transmitted through it4 ,for many kinds of spring the change of form is practically proportional to the force1 but the relation should always be determined experimentally4 ,general ,a4,j4 ,morin 7see ,notice sur divers appareils dynamometriques1 ,paris1 #ahda71 in his classical experiments on traction1 arranged his apparatus so that the change in form of the spring was continuously recorded on a sheet of paper drawn under a style4 ,for longer experiments he used a ,compteur or mechanical integrator1 suggested by ,j4,v4 ,poncelet1 from which the work done during a given displacement could be read off directly4 ,this device consists of a roller of radius r1 pressed into contact with a disk4 ,the two are carried on a common frame1 so arranged that a change in form of the spring causes a relative displacement of the disk and roller1 the point of contact moving radially from or towards the centre of the disk4 ,the radial distance x is at any instant proportional to the force acting through the spring4 ,the angular displacement1 theta1 of the disk is made proportional to the displacement1 s1 of the point of application of the force by suitable driving gear4 ,if dphi is the angular displacement of the roller corresponding to displacements1 dtheta of the disk1 and ds of the point of application of ,p1 a1 and ,c constants1 then xdtheta a dphi --------- -- ,p ds ,c4,p ds1 r r _/s#b and therefore phi ,c ,p ds2 _/s#a that is1 the angular displacement of the roller measures the work done during the displacement from s#a to s#b4 ,the shaft carrying the roller is connected to a counter so that phi may be observed4 ,the angular velocity of the shaft is proportional to the rate of working4 ,morin's dynamometer is shown in fig4 #f4 ,the transmitting spring is made up of two flat bars linked at their ends4 ,their centres s#a1 s#b1 are held respectively by the pieces ,a1 ,b1 which together form a sliding pair4 ,the block ,a carries the disk ,d1 ,b carries the roller ,r and counting gear4 ,the pulley ,e is driven from an axle of the carriage4 ,in a dynamometer used by ,f4,w4 ,webb to measure the tractive resistance of trains on the ,london ,north-,western railway1 a tractive pull or push compresses two spiral springs by a definite amount1 which is recorded to scale by a pencil on a sheet of paper1 drawn continuously from a storage drum at the rate of #c in4 per mile1 by a roller driven from one of the carriage axles4 ,thus the diagram shows the tractive force at any instant4 ,a second pencil electrically connected to a clock traces a time line on the diagram with a kick at every thirty seconds4 ,a third pencil traces an observation line in which a kick can be made at will by pressing any one of the electrical pushes placed about the car1 and a fourth draws a datum line4 ,the spring of the dynamometer car used by ,w4 ,dean on the ,great ,western railway is made up of thirty flat plates1 #g ft4 #f in4 long1 #e in4 x #e_/h in4 at the centre1 spaced by distance pieces nibbed into the plates at the centre and by rollers at the ends4 ,the draw-bar is connected to the buckle1 which is carried on rollers1 the ends of the spring resting on plates fixed to the under-frame4 ,the gear operating the paper roll is driven from the axle of an independent wheel which is let down into contact with the rail when required4 ,this wheel serves also to measure the distance travelled4 ,a ,morin disk and roller integrator is connected with the apparatus1 so that the work done during a journey may be read off4 ,five lines are traced on the diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,in spring dynamometers designed to measure a transmitted torque1 the mechanical problem of ascertaining the change of form of the spring is complicated by the fact that the spring and the whole apparatus are rotating together4 ,in the ,ayrton and ,perry transmission dynamometer or spring coupling of this type1 the relative angular displacement is proportional to the radius of the circle described by the end of a light lever operated by mechanism between the spring-connected parts4 ,by a device used by ,w4,e4 ,dalby 7,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 #ahig-ahih1 p4 #acb7 the change in form of the spring is shown on a fixed indicator1 which may be placed in any convenient position4 ,two equal sprocket wheels ,q#a1 ,q#b1 are fastened1 the one to the spring pulley1 the other to the shaft4 ,an endless band is placed over them to form two loops1 which during rotation remain at the same distance apart1 unless relative angular displacement occurs between ,q#a and ,q#b 7fig4 #g7 due to a change in form of the spring4 ,the change in the distance d is proportional to the change in the torque transmitted from the shaft to the pulley4 ,to measure this1 guide pulleys are placed in the loops guided by a geometric slide1 the one pulley carrying a scale1 and the other an index4 ,a recording drum or integrating apparatus may be arranged on the pulley frames4 ,a quick variation1 or a periodic variation of the magnitude of the force or torque transmitted through the springs1 tends to set up oscillations1 and this tendency increases the nearer the periodic time of the force variation approaches a periodic time of the spring4 ,such vibrations may be damped out to a considerable extent by the use of a dash-pot1 or may be practically prevented by using a relatively stiff spring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,every part of a machine transmitting force suffers elastic deformation1 and the force may be measured indirectly by measuring the deformation4 ,the relation between the two should in all cases be found experimentally4 ,g4,a4 ,hirn 7see ,les ,pandynamometres1 ,paris1 #ahgf7 employed this principle to measure the torque transmitted by a shaft4 ,signor ,rosio used a telephonic method to effect the same end1 and mechanical1 optical and telephonic devices have been utilized by the ,rev4 ,f4,j4 ,jervis-,smith4 7,see ,phil4 ,mag4 ,february #ahih47 ,h4 ,frahm1#a during an important investigation on the torsional vibration of propeller shafts1 measured the relative angular displacement of two flanges on a propeller shaft1 selected as far apart as possible1 by means of an electrical device 7,engineering1 #fth of ,february #aijc74 ,these measurements were utilized in combination with appropriate elastic coefficients of the material to find the horse-power transmitted from the engines along the shaft to the propeller4 ,in this way the effective horse-power and also the mechanical efficiency of a number of large marine engines1 each of several thousand horse-power1 have been determined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,when a belt1 in which the maximum and minimum tensions are respectively ,p and p lb41 drives a pulley1 the torque exerted is 7,p - p7r lb4 ft41 r being the radius of the pulley plus half the thickness of the belt4 ,p and p may be measured directly by leading the belt round two freely hanging guide pulleys1 one in the tight1 the other in the slack part of the belt1 and adjusting loads on them until a stable condition of running is obtained4 ,in ,w4 ,froude's belt dynamometer 7see ,proc4 ,inst4 ,m4,e41 #aheh7 7fig4 #h7 the guide pulleys ,g#a1 ,g#b are carried upon an arm free to turn about the axis ,o4 ,h is a pulley to guide the approaching and receding parts of the belt to and from the beam in parallel directions4 ,neglecting friction1 the unbalanced torque acting on the beam is #dr,p - p lb4 ft4 ,if a force ,q acting at ,r maintains equilibrium1 ,,qr_/#d 7,p - p7r ,t4 ,q is supplied by a spring1 the extensions of which are recorded on a drum driven proportionally to the angular displacement of the driving pulley2 thus a work diagram is obtained4 ,in the ,farcot form the guide pulleys are attached to separate weighing levers placed horizontally below the apparatus4 ,in a belt dynamometer built for the ,franklin ,institute from the designs of ,tatham1 the weighing levers are separate and arranged horizontally at the top of the apparatus4 ,the weighing beam in the ,hefner-,alteneck dynamometer is placed transversely to the belt 7see ,electrotechnischen ,zeitschrift1 #ahha1 #g74 ,the force ,q1 usually measured by a spring1 required to maintain the beam in its central position is proportional to 7,p - p74 ,if the angle theta#a theta#b #abj deg41 ,q 7,p - p7 neglecting friction4 ,when a shaft is driven by means of gearing the driving torque is measured by the product of the resultant pressure ,p acting between the wheel teeth and the radius of the pitch circle of the wheel fixed to the shaft4 ,fig4 #i1 which has been reproduced from ,j4 ,white's ,a ,new ,century of ,inventions 7,manchester1 #ahbb71 illustrates possibly the earliest application of this principle to dynamometry4 ,the wheel ,d1 keyed to the shaft overcoming the resistance to be measured1 is driven from wheel ,n by two bevel wheels ,l1 ,l1 carried in a loose pulley ,k4 ,the two shafts1 though in a line1 are independent4 ,a torque applied to the shaft ,a can be transmitted to ,d1 neglecting friction1 without change only if the central pulley ,k is held from turning2 the torque required to do this is twice the torque transmitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,the torque acting on the armature of an electric motor is necessarily accompanied by an equal and opposite torque acting on the frame4 ,if1 therefore1 the motor is mounted on a cradle free to turn about knife-edges1 the reacting torque is the only torque tending to turn the cradle when it is in a vertical position1 and may therefore be measured by adjusting weights to hold the cradle in a vertical position4 ,the rate at which the motor is transmitting work is then ,t#bpin_/#eej ,h4,p41 where n is the revolutions per second of the armature4 ,see ,james ,dredge1 ,electric ,illumination1 vol4 ii4 7,london1 #ahhe72 ,w4,w4 ,beaumont1 ,dynamometers and ,friction ,brakes1 ,proc4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 vol4 xcv4 7,london1 #ahhi72 ,e4 ,brauer1 ,ueber ,bremsdynamometer and verwandte ,kraftmesser1 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins deutscher ,ingenieure 7,berlin1 #ahhh72 ,j4,j4 ,flather1 ,dynamometers and the ,measurement of ,power 7,new ,york1 #ahic74 7,w4 ,e4 ,d47 ,,footnote3 #a ,h4 ,frahm1 ,neue ,untersuchungen ueber die dynamischen ,vorgaenge in den ,wellenleitungen von ,schiffsmaschinen mit besonderer ,beruecksichtigung der ,resonanzschwingungen1 ,zeitschrift des ,vereins deutscher ,ingenieure1 #cast ,may #aijb4 ,,dynasty 7,gr4 ,greek3 dynasteia1 sovereignty1 the position of a ,greek3 dynastes1 lord1 ruler1 from ,greek3 dynasthai1 to be able1 ,greek3 dynamis1 power71 a family or line of rulers1 a succession of sovereigns of a country belonging to a single family or tracing their descent to a common ancestor4 ,the term is particularly used in the history of ancient ,egypt as a convenient means of arranging the chronology4 ,,dysart1 a royal and police burgh and seaport of ,fifeshire1 ,scotland1 on the shore of the ,firth of ,forth1 #b m4 ,n4,e4 of ,kirkcaldy by the ,north ,british railway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cefb4 ,it has a quaint old-fashioned appearance1 many ancient houses in ,high ,street bearing inscriptions and dates4 ,the public buildings include a town hall1 library1 cottage hospital1 mechanics' institute and memorial hall4 ,scarcely anything is left of the old chapel dedicated to ,st ,dennis1 which for a time was used as a smithy2 and of the chapel of ,st ,serf1 the patron saint of the burgh1 only the tower remains4 ,the chief industries are the manufacture of bed and table linen1 towelling and woollen cloth1 shipbuilding and flax-spinning4 ,there is a steady export of coal1 and the harbour is provided with a wet dock and patent slip4 ,in smuggling days the canty carles of ,dysart were professed free traders4 ,in the #aeth and #afth centuries the town was a leading seat of the salt industry 7salt to ,dysart was the equivalent of coals to ,newcastle71 but the salt-pans have been abandoned for a considerable period4 ,nail-making1 once famous1 is another extinct industry4 ,during the time of the alliance between ,scotland and ,holland1 which was closer in ,fifeshire than in other counties1 ,dysart became known as ,little ,holland4 ,to the west of the town is ,dysart ,house1 the residence of the earl of ,rosslyn4 ,with ,burntisland and ,kinghorn ,dysart forms one of the ,kirkcaldy district group of parliamentary burghs4 ,the town is mentioned as early as #hgd in connexion with a ,danish invasion4 ,its name is said to be a corruption of the ,latin desertum1 a desert1 which was applied to a cave on the seashore occupied by ,st ,serf4 ,in the cave the saint held his famous colloquy with the devil1 in which ,satan was worsted and contemptuously dismissed4 ,from ,james ,v4 the town received the rights of a royal burgh4 ,in #aeei it was the headquarters of the ,lords of the ,congregation1 and in #afjg the scene of the meetings of the synod of ,fife known as the ,three ,synods of ,dysart4 ,ravensheugh ,castle1 on the shore to the west of the town1 is the ,ravenscraig of ,sir ,walter ,scott's ballad of ,rosabelle4 ,william ,murray1 a native of the place1 was made earl of ,dysart in #afdc1 and his eldest child and heir1 a daughter1 ,elizabeth1 obtained in #afgj a regrant of the title1 which passed to the descendants of her first marriage with ,sir ,lionel ,tollemache1 ,bart41 of ,helmingham2 she married secondly the #ast duke of ,lauderdale1 but had no children by him1 and died in #afih4 ,this countess of ,dysart 7afterwards duchess of ,lauderdale7 was a famous beauty of the period1 and notorious both for her amours and for her political influence4 ,she was said to have been the mistress of ,oliver ,cromwell1 and also of ,lauderdale before her first husband's death1 and was a leader at the court of ,charles ,,ii4 ,wycherley is supposed to have aimed at her in his ,widow ,blackacre in the ,plain ,dealer4 ,her son1 ,lionel ,tollemache 7d4 #agbg71 transmitted the earldom to his grandson ,lionel 7d4 #aggj71 whose sons ,lionel 7d4 #agii7 and ,wilbraham 7d4 #ahba7 succeeded2 they died without issue1 and their sister ,louisa 7d4 #ahdj71 who married ,john ,manners1 an illegitimate son of the second son of the #bnd duke of ,rutland1 became countess in her own right1 being succeeded by her grandson 7d4 #ahgh71 and his grandson1 the #hth earl4 ,the earldom of ,dysart must not be confounded with that of ,desart 7,irish71 created 7barony #agcc7 in #agic1 and held in the ,cuffe family1 who were originally of ,creech ,st ,michael1 ,somerset1 the ,irish branch dating from ,queen ,elizabeth's time4 ,,dysentery 7from the ,gr4 prefix ,greek3 dys-1 in the sense of bad1 and ,greek3 enteron1 the intestine71 also called bloody flux1 an infectious disease with a local lesion in the form of inflammation and ulceration of the lower portion of the bowels4 ,although at one time a common disease in ,great ,britain1 dysentery is now very rarely met with there1 and is for the most part confined to warm countries1 where it is the cause of a large amount of mortality4 7,for the pathology see ,,digestive ,,organs47 ,recently considerable advance has been made in our knowledge of dysentery1 and it appears that there are two distinct types of the disease3 7#a7 amoebic dysentery1 which is due to the presence of the amoeba histolytica 7of ,schaudinn7 in the intestine2 7#b7 bacillary dysentery1 which has as causative agent two separate bacteria1 7a7 that discovered by ,shiga in ,japan1 7b7 that discovered by ,flexner in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,with regard to the bacillary type1 at first both organisms were considered to be identical1 and the name bacillus dysenteriae was given to them2 but later it was shown that these bacilli are different1 both in regard to their cultural characteristics and also in that one 7,shiga7 gives out a soluble toxin1 whilst the other has so far resisted all efforts to discover it4 ,further1 the serum of a patient affected with one of the types has a marked agglutinative power on the variety with which he is infected and not on the other4 ,clinically1 dysentery manifests itself with varying degrees of intensity1 and it is often impossible without microscopical examination to determine between the amoebic and bacillary forms4 ,in well-marked cases the following are the chief symptoms4 ,the attack is commonly preceded by certain premonitory indications in the form of general illness1 loss of appetite1 and some amount of diarrhoea1 which gradually increases in severity1 and is accompanied with griping pains in the abdomen 7tormina74 ,the discharges from the bowels succeed each other with great frequency1 and the painful feeling of pressure downwards 7tenesmus7 becomes so intense that the patient is constantly desiring to defecate4 ,the matters passed from the bowels1 which at first resemble those of ordinary diarrhoea1 soon change their character1 becoming scanty1 mucous or slimy1 and subsequently mixed with1 or consisting wholly of1 blood1 along with shreds of exudation thrown off from the mucous membrane of the intestine4 ,the evacuations possess a peculiarly offensive odour characteristic of the disease4 ,although the constitutional disturbance is at first comparatively slight1 it increases with the advance of the disease1 and febrile symptoms come on attended with urgent thirst and scanty and painful flow of urine4 ,along with this the nervous depression is very marked1 and the state of prostration to which the patient is reduced can scarcely be exceeded4 ,should no improvement occur death may take place in from one to three weeks1 either from repeated losses of blood1 or from gradual exhaustion consequent on the continuance of the symptoms1 in which case the discharges from the bowels become more offensive and are passed involuntarily4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the disease is checked1 the signs of improvement are shown in the cessation of the pain1 in the evacuations being less frequent and more natural1 and in relief from the state of extreme depression4 ,convalescence is1 however1 generally slow1 and recovery may be imperfect--the disease continuing in a chronic form1 which may exist for a variable length of time1 giving rise to much suffering1 and not unfrequently leading to an ultimately fatal result4 ,the dysentery poison appears to exert its effects upon the glandular structures of the large intestine1 particularly in its lower part4 ,in the milder forms of the disease there is simply a congested or inflamed condition of the mucous membrane1 with perhaps some inflammatory exudation on its surface1 which is passed off by the discharges from the bowels4 ,but in the more severe forms ulceration of the mucous membrane takes place4 ,commencing in and around the solitary glands of the large intestine in the form of exudations1 these ulcers1 small at first1 enlarge and run into each other1 till a large portion of the bowel may be implicated in the ulcerative process4 ,should the disease be arrested these ulcers may heal entirely1 but occasionally they remain1 causing more or less disorganization of the coats of the intestines1 as is often found in chronic dysentery4 ,sometimes1 though rarely1 the ulcers perforate the intestines1 causing rapidly fatal inflammation of the peritoneum1 or they may erode a blood vessel and produce violent haemorrhage4 ,even where they undergo healing they may cause such a stricture of the calibre of the intestinal canal as to give rise to the symptoms of obstruction which ultimately prove fatal4 ,one of the severest complications of the disease is abscess of the liver1 usually said to be solitary1 and known as tropical abscess of the liver1 but probably is more frequently multiple than is usually thought4 ,treatment4--,where the disease is endemic or is prevailing epidemically1 it is of great importance to use all preventive measures1 and for this purpose the avoidance of all causes likely to precipitate an attack is to be enjoined4 ,exposure to cold after heat1 the use of unripe fruit1 and intemperance in eating and drinking should be forbidden2 and the utmost care taken as to the quality of the food and drinking water4 ,in houses or hospitals where cases of the disease are under treatment1 disinfectants should be freely employed1 and the evacuations of the patients removed as speedily as possible1 having previously been sterilized in much the same manner as is employed in typhoid fever4 ,in the milder varieties of this complaint1 such as those occurring sporadically1 and where the symptoms are probably due to matters in the bowels setting up the dysenteric irritation1 the employment of diaphoretic medicines is to be recommended1 and the administration of such a laxative as castor oil1 to which a small quantity of laudanum has been added1 will often1 by removing the source of the mischief1 arrest the attack2 but a method of treatment more to be recommended is the use of salines in large doses1 such as one drachm of sodium sulphate from four to eight times a day4 ,this treatment may with advantage be combined with the internal administration of ipecacuanha1 which still retains its reputation in this disease4 ,latterly1 free irrigation of the bowel with astringents1 such as silver nitrate1 tannalbin1 c41 has been attended with success in those cases which have been able to tolerate the injections4 ,in many instances they cannot be used owing to the extreme degree of irritability of the bowel4 ,the operation of appendicostomy1 or bringing the appendix to the surface and using it as the site for the introduction of the irrigating fluid1 has been attended with considerable success4 ,in those cases due to ,shiga's bacillus the ideal treatment has been put at our disposal by the preparation of a specific antitoxin2 this has been given a trial in several grave epidemics of late1 and may be said to be the most satisfactory treatment and offer the greatest hope of recovery4 ,it is also of great use as a prophylactic4 ,the preparations of morphia are of great value in the symptomatic treatment of the disease4 ,they may be applied externally as fomentations1 for the relief of tormina2 by rectal injection for the relief of the tenesmus and irritability of the bowel2 hypodermically in advanced cases1 for the relief of the general distress4 ,in amoebic dysentery1 warm injections of quinine per rectum have proved very efficacious1 are usually well tolerated1 and are not attended with any ill effects4 ,the diet should be restricted1 consisting chiefly of soups and farinaceous foods2 more especially is this of importance in the chronic form4 ,for the thirst ice may be given by the mouth4 ,even in the chronic forms1 confinement to bed and restriction of diet are the most important elements of the treatment4 ,removal from the hot climate and unhygienic surroundings must naturally be attended to4 ,,bibliography4--,allbutt and ,rolleston1 ,system of ,medicine1 vol4 ii4 part ii4 7#aijg71 ,dysentery1 ,drs ,andrew ,davidson and ,simon ,flexner2 ,davidson1 ,hygiene and ,diseases of ,warm ,climates 7,edinburgh1 #aijc72 ,fearnside in ,ind4 ,med4 ,gaz4 7,july #aije72 ,ford in ,journal of ,tropical ,medicine 7,july #ae1 #aijd72 ,korentchewsky in ,bulletin de l',institut ,pasteur 7,february #aije72 ,shiga3 ,osier and ,m',crae's ,system of ,medicine1 vol4 ii4 p4 #gha 7#aijg72 ,skschivan and ,stefansky in ,berliner klinische ,wochenschrift 7,february #aa1 #aijg72 ,vaillard and ,dopter1 on the treatment by antidysenteric serum1 ,annales de l',institut ,pasteur1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #cbf 7#aijf72 ,j4,a4 ,pottinger1 ,appendicostomy in ,chronic ,dysentery1 ,lancet 7,december #bh1 #aijg72 ,robert ,doerr1 ,das ,dysenterietoxin 7,gustav ,fischer1 ,jena1 #aijg72 ,f4,m4 ,sandwith1 ,hunterian ,lecture on the ,treatment of ,dysentery1 ,lancet 7,december #g1 #aijg74 ,,dyspepsia 7from the ,gr4 prefix ,greek3 dys-1 hard1 ill1 and ,greek3 peptein1 to digest71 or indigestion1 a term vaguely given to a group of pathological symptoms4 ,there are comparatively few diseases of any moment where some of the phenomena of dyspepsia are not present as associated symptoms1 and not infrequently these exist to such a degree as to mask the real disease1 of which they are only complications4 ,this is especially the case in many organic diseases of the alimentary canal1 in which the symptoms of dyspepsia are often the most prominent4 ,in its restricted meaning1 however 7and it is to this that the present article applies71 the term is used to describe a functional derangement of the natural process of digestion1 apart from any structural change in the organs concerned in the act4 ,the causes of this trouble may be divided into 7a7 those which concern the food1 and 7b7 those which concern the organism4 ,among the causes connected with the food are not only the indulgence in indigestible articles of diet1 but the too common practice of eating too much of what may be otherwise quite wholesome and digestible2 and irregular1 too frequent or too infrequent meals4 ,the quantity of food required by different individuals varies between wide limits1 but also the quantity required by the same individual varies considerably according to circumstances1 more food being needed in cold than in warm weather1 and more in an active open-air occupation than in a sedentary one4 ,the thorough mastication of the food is a very important precursor of digestion1#a and this only too often fails1 either owing to haste over meals or because of painful or deficient teeth4 ,again1 the quality of the food is of importance1 some kinds of flesh being harder and more difficult of mastication than others4 ,this is especially the case with meat that has been smoked or salted1 and with that cooked too soon after the death of the animal4 ,drinks are a common source of dyspepsia4 ,beer when new and its fermentation not completed is especially bad4 ,vinegar and acid wines1 if taken in large quantities1 tend to produce gastric catarrh1 and tea is a very fruitful source of this trouble4 ,even too much water at meal-times may cause indigestion1 since the food in the mouth is apt to be softened by the water instead of saliva1 and also the gastric juice becomes unduly diluted1 rendering the digestion in the stomach too slow and prolonged4 ,carious teeth and oral sepsis1 from whatsoever cause1 lead to the same trouble4 ,of the causes which concern the organism1 nervous influences come first4 ,bad news may take away all power of digestion and even provoke vomiting1 and any worry or mental trouble tends to bring on this condition4 ,general weakness and atony of the body affects the stomach in like degree1 and1 if the muscles of the abdominal wall be much wasted1 they become too weak to support the abdominal viscera in place4 ,hence results a general tendency for these organs to fall1 giving rise to a condition of visceroptosis1 of which an obstinate dyspepsia is a very marked feature4 ,adhesions of the intestines from old inflammatory troubles1 floating kidney and bad circulation may each be a cause of painful digestion4 ,again1 a dyspepsia that will not yield to treatment is often one of the symptoms of renal disease1 or1 in young people of fifteen to twenty years of age1 it may be the earliest sign of a gouty diathesis1 or even of a more serious condition still--incipient phthisis4 ,chronic dyspepsia1 by weakening the organism1 renders it more liable to fall a prey to the attacks of the tubercle bacillus1 but1 on the other hand1 the tuberculous lesion in the lung is often accompanied by a most intractable form of dyspepsia4 ,from this it is clear that any condition which lessens the general well-being of the organism as a whole1 apart from its producing any permanent morbid condition in the stomach1 may yet interfere with the normal digestive processes and so give rise to dyspepsia4 ,the symptoms of dyspepsia1 even when due to a like cause1 are so numerous and diversified in different individuals that probably no description could exactly represent them as they occur in any given case4 ,all that can be here attempted is to mention some of the more prominent morbid phenomena usually present in greater or less degree4 ,very briefly1 a furred tongue1 foul breath1 disturbance of appetite1 nausea and vomiting1 oppression in the chest1 pain1 flatulence and distension1 acidity1 pyrosis and constipation or diarrhoea are a few of the commonest symptoms4 ,when the attack is dependent on some error in diet1 and the dyspepsia consequently more of an acute character1 there is often pain followed with sickness and vomiting of the offensive matters1 after which the patient soon regains his former healthy state4 ,what are commonly known as bilious attacks are frequently of this character4 ,in the more chronic cases of dyspepsia the symptoms are somewhat different4 ,a sensation of discomfort comes on shortly after a meal1 and is more of the nature of weight and distension in the stomach than of actual pain1 although this too may be present4 ,these feelings may come on after each meal1 or only after certain meals1 and they may arise irrespective of the kind of food taken1 or only after certain articles of diet4 ,as in most of such cases the food is long retained in the stomach1 it is apt to undergo fermentive changes1 one of the results of which is the accumulation of gases which cause flatulence and eructations of an acid or foul character4 ,occasionally quantities of hot1 sour1 tasteless or bitter fluid--pyrosis--or mouthfuls of half-digested food1 regurgitate from the stomach4 ,temporary relief may be obtained when another meal is taken1 but soon the uncomfortable sensations return as before4 ,the appetite may be craving or deficient1 or desirous of abnormal kinds of food4 ,the tongue registers the gastric condition with great delicacy2--a pasty white fur on the tongue is considered a sign of weakness or atony of the digestive tract2 a clean pointed tongue with large papillae1 and rather red at the edges and tip1 is a sign of gastric irritation2 and a pale flabby tongue suggests the need of stimulating treatment4 ,constipation is more common in the chronic forms of dyspepsia1 diarrhoea in the acute4 ,numerous disagreeable and painful sensations in other parts are experienced1 and are indeed often more distressing than the merely gastric symptoms4 ,pains in the chest1 shortness of breathing1 palpitation1 headache1 giddiness1 affections of vision1 coldness of the extremities1 and general languor are common accompaniments of dyspepsia2 while the nervous phenomena are specially troublesome in the form of sleeplessness1 irritability1 despondency and hypochondriasis4 ,as regards treatment only a few general observations can be made4 ,the careful arrangement of the diet is a matter of first importance4 ,quantity must be regulated by the digestive capabilities of the individual1 his age1 and the demands made upon his strength by work4 ,there is little doubt that the danger is in most instances on the side of excess1 and the rule which enjoins the cessation from eating before the appetite is satisfied is a safe one for dyspeptics4 ,due time1 too1 must be given for the digestion of a meal1 and from four to six hours are in general required for this purpose4 ,long fasts1 however1 are nearly as hurtful as too frequent meals4 ,of no less importance is the kind of food taken1 and on this point those who suffer from indigestion must ever exercise the greatest care4 ,it must be borne in mind that idiosyncrasy often plays an important part in digestion1 some persons being unable to partake without injury of substances which are generally regarded as wholesome and digestible4 ,in most cases it is found very helpful to separate the protein from the farinaceous food1 and the more severe the dyspepsia the more thoroughly should this be done1 only relaxing as the dyspepsia yields4 ,no fluid should be drunk at meal-times1 but from one to two tumblers of hot water should be drunk from an hour to an hour and a half before food4 ,this washes any remnant of the last meal from the stomach1 and also supplies material for the free secretion of saliva and gastric juice1 thus promoting and accelerating digestion4 ,the only exception to this is in the case of a dilated stomach1 when it is wholly contra-indicated4 ,with regard to mastication1 ,sir ,andrew ,clark's rule is a very good one1 and is more easily followed than the ideal theory laid down by ,horace ,fletcher1 according to whom any food is digestible if properly treated while still in the mouth4 ,clark's rule is that as the mouth normally contains thirty-two teeth1 thirty-two bites should be given before the food is swallowed4 ,this1 of course1 is a practical doctor's concession to human weakness4 ,mr ,fletcher would train every one to chew till the contents of the mouth were swallowed by reflex action without deliberate act2 and he applies this theory of mastication and salivation also to drinks 7except water74 ,again1 a lack of warmth being a source of dyspepsia1 this should be attended to1 the back of the neck1 the front of the abdomen and the feet being the parts that require special attention4 ,the feet should be raised on a stool1 the ankles protected with warm stockings and a woollen cummerbund wound two or three times round the body4 ,experience has shown that in this complaint no particular kind of food or avoidance of food is absolutely to be relied on1 but that in general the best diet is one of a mixed animal and vegetable kind1 simply but well cooked4 ,the partaking of many dishes1 of highly-seasoned or salted meats1 raw vegetables1 newly-baked bread1 pastry and confectionery are all well-known common causes of dyspepsia1 and should be avoided4 ,when even the simple diet usually taken is found to disagree1 it may be necessary to change it temporarily for a still lighter form1 such as a milk diet1 and that even in very moderate quantity4 ,the employment of alcoholic stimulants to assist digestion is largely resorted to1 both with and without medical advice4 ,while it seems probable that in certain cases of atonic dyspepsia1 particularly in the feeble and aged1 the moderate administration of alcohol has the effect of stimulating the secretion of gastric juice1 and is an important adjuvant to other remedies1 the advantages of its habitual use as an aid to digestion by the young and otherwise healthy1 is more than questionable1 and it will generally be found that among them1 those are least troubled with indigestion who abstain from it4 ,rest should be taken both before and after food1 and general hygienic measures are highly important1 since whatever improves the state of the health will have a favourable influence on digestion4 ,hence regular exercise in the open air1 early rising and the cold bath are to be strongly recommended4 ,the medicinal treatment of dyspepsia can only be undertaken by a physician1 but the following is a very brief resume of the drugs he depends on to-day4 ,bicarbonate of soda with some bitter1 as quassia1 gentian or columba1 is much in vogue as a direct gastric stimulant4 ,in irritable dyspepsia some form of bismuth in solution or powder2 and1 to assist digestion through the nervous system1 nux vomica and strychnine can be relied on4 ,to give directly digestive material1 hydrochloric acid1 pepsin and rennet are prescribed in many forms1 but where there is much vomiting ingluvin is more efficacious than pepsin4 ,when farinaceous food is badly borne1 diastase is helpful1 given either before or with the meal4 ,to prevent fermentation1 phenol1 creasote and sulpho-carbolate of soda are all extremely useful in skilled hands2 and for intestinal decomposition and flatulent distension1 bismuth salicylate with salol or ss-naphthol is much used4 ,cyllin1 and charcoal in many forms1 may be taken both for gastric and intestinal flatulence4 ,but all these drugs1 of proved value though they are1 must be modified and combined to suit the special idiosyncrasy of the patient1 and are therefore often worse than useless in inexperienced hands4 ,the condition of the bowels must always have due attention4 ,see also ,,digestive ,,organs2 ,,nutrition and ,,dietetics4 ,,footnote3 #a ,this aspect of the matter--buccal digestion--has been specially emphasized in recent years by ,horace ,fletcher of the ,united ,states1 whose experience of the results of systematic chewing1 confirmed by ,sir ,m4 ,foster1 ,prof4 ,chittenden and others1 has almost revolutionized the science of dietetics4 ,,dysteleology1 a modern word invented by ,haeckel 7,evolution of ,man7 for the doctrine of purposelessness1 as opposed to the philosophical doctrine of design 7,teleology74 ,,dzungaria1 ,,dsongaria1 or ,,jungaria1 a former ,mongolian kingdom of ,central ,asia1 raised to its highest pitch by ,kaldan or ,bushtu ,khan in the latter half of the #agth century1 but completely destroyed by ,chinese invasion about #ageg-agei4 ,it has played an important part in the history of ,mongolia and the great migrations of ,mongolian stems westward4 ,now its territory belongs partly to the ,chinese empire 7east ,turkestan and north-western ,mongolia7 and partly to ,russian ,turkestan 7provinces of ,semiryechensk and ,semipalatinsk74 ,it derived its name from the ,dsongars1 or ,songars1 who were so called because they formed the left wing 7dson1 left2 gar1 hand7 of the ,mongolian army4 ,its widest limit included ,kashgar1 ,yarkand1 ,khotan1 the whole region of the ,t'ien ,shan1 or ,tian-shan1 ,mountains1 and in short the greater proportion of that part of ,central ,asia which extends from #ce deg4 to #ej deg4 ,n4 and from #gb deg4 to #ig deg4 ,e4 ,the name1 however1 is more properly applied only to the present ,chinese province of ,t'ien ,shan-pei-lu and the country watered by the ,ili4 ,as a political or geographical term it has practically disappeared from the map2 but the range of mountains stretching north-east along the southern frontier of the ,land of the ,seven ,streams1 as the district to the south-east of the ,balkhash ,lake is called1 preserves the name of ,dzungarian ,range4 ,e ,the fifth symbol in the ,english alphabet occupies also the same position in ,phoenician and in the other alphabets descended from ,phoenician4 ,as the ,semitic alphabet did not represent vowels1 ,e was originally an aspirate4 ,its earliest form1 while writing is still from right to left1 is symbol1 the upright being continued some distance below the lowest of the cross-strokes4 ,in some of the ,greek alphabets it appears as symbol with the upright prolonged at both top and bottom1 but it soon took the form with which we are familiar1 though in the earlier examples of this form the cross-strokes are not horizontal but drop at an angle1 symbol4 ,in ,corinth and places under its early influence like ,megara1 or colonized from it like ,corcyra1 the symbol for e takes the form symbol or symbol1 while at ,sicyon in the #fth and #eth centuries ,b4,c4 it is represented by symbol4 ,in early ,latin it was sometimes represented by two perpendicular strokes of equal length1 symbol4 ,in the earliest ,greek inscriptions and always in ,latin the symbol ,e represented both the short and the long e-sound4 ,in ,greek also it was often used for the close long sound which arose either by contraction of two short e-sounds or by the loss of a consonant1 after a short e-sound1 as in ,greek3 phileite1 you love1 for ,greek3 phileete1 and ,greek3 phaeinos1 bright1 out of an earlier ,greek3 phaesnos4 ,the ,ionian ,greeks of ,asia ,minor1 who had altogether lost the aspirate1 were the first to use the symbol ,h for the long e-sound1 and in official documents at ,athens down to #djc ,b4,c41 when the ,greek alphabet as still known was adopted by the state1 ,e represented epsilon1 eta and the sound arising by contraction or consonant loss as mentioned above which henceforth was written with two symbols1 ,greek3 ei1 and being really a single sound is known as the spurious diphthong4 ,there were some minor distinctions in usage of the symbols ,e and ,h which need not here be given in detail4 ,the ancient ,greek name was ,greek3 ei1 not ,epsilon as popularly supposed2 the names of the ,greek letters are given from ,kallias1 an earlier contemporary of ,euripides1 in ,athenaeus x4 p4 #dec d4 ,in ,greek the short e-sound to which ,e was ultimately limited was a close sound inclining more towards i than a2 hence the representation of the contraction of ,greek3 ee by ,greek3 ei4 ,its value in ,latin was exactly the opposite1 the ,latin short e being open1 and the long close4 ,in ,english there has been a gradual narrowing of the long vowels1 a becoming approximately ei and e becoming i 7,sweet1 ,history of ,english ,sounds1 ,sec4,sec4 #gha1 #hag ff4 #bnd ed474 ,in languages where the diphthong ai has become a monophthong1 the resulting sound is some variety of long e4 ,often the gradual assimilation can be traced through the intermediate stage of ae to e1 as in the ,old ,latin aidilis1 which in classical ,latin is aedilis1 and in medieval ,,mss4 edilis4 ,the variety of spelling in ,english for the long and short e-sounds is conveniently illustrated in ,miss ,soames's ,introduction to the ,study of ,phonetics1 pp4 #af and #bj4 7,p4 ,gi47 ,,ea 7written by means of two signs signifying house and water71 in the ,babylonian religion1 originally the patron deity of ,eridu1 situated in ancient times at the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 but now1 by reason of the constant accumulation of soil in the ,euphrates valley1 at some distance from the gulf4 ,eridu1 meaning the good city1 was one of the oldest settlements in the ,euphrates valley1 and is now represented by the mounds known as ,abu ,shahrein4 ,in the absence of excavations on that site1 we are dependent for our knowledge of ,ea on material found elsewhere4 ,this is1 however1 sufficient to enable us to state definitely that ,ea was a water-deity1 and there is every reason to believe that the ,persian ,gulf was the body of water more particularly sacred to him4 ,whether ,ea 7or ,a-e as some scholars prefer7 represents the real pronunciation of his name we do not know4 ,all attempts to connect ,ea with ,yah and ,yahweh are idle conjectures without any substantial basis4 ,he is figured as a man covered with the body of a fish1 and this representation1 as likewise the name of his temple ,e-apsu1 house of the watery deep1 points decidedly to his character as a god of the waters 7see ,,oannes74 ,of his cult at ,eridu1 which reverts to the oldest period of ,babylonian history1 nothing definite is known beyond the fact that the name of his temple was ,e-saggila1 the lofty house--pointing to a staged tower as in the case of the temple of ,bel 7q4v47 at ,nippur1 known as ,e-,kur1 i4e4 mountain house--and that incantations1 involving ceremonial rites1 in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part1 formed a feature of his worship4 ,whether ,eridu at one time also played an important political role is not certain1 though not improbable4 ,at all events1 the prominence of the ,ea cult led1 as in the case of ,nippur1 to the survival of ,eridu as a sacred city1 long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political centre4 ,myths in which ,ea figures prominently have been found in ,assur-bani-pal's library1 indicating that ,ea was regarded as the protector and teacher of mankind4 ,he is essentially a god of civilization1 and it was natural that he was also looked upon as the creator of man1 and of the world in general4 ,traces of this view appear in the ,marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god1 and the close connexion between the ,ea cult at ,eridu and that of ,marduk also follows from two considerations3 7#a7 that the name of ,marduk's sanctuary at ,babylon bears the same name1 ,e-saggila1 as that of ,ea in ,eridu1 and 7#b7 that ,marduk is generally termed the son of ,ea1 who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son4 ,accordingly1 the incantations originally composed for the ,ea cult were re-edited by the priests of ,babylon and adapted to the worship of ,marduk1 and1 similarly1 the hymns to ,marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to ,marduk which originally belonged to ,ea4 ,it is1 however1 more particularly as the third figure in the triad1 the two other members of which were ,anu 7q4v47 and ,bel 7q4v471 that ,ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon4 ,to him was assigned the control of the watery element1 and in this capacity he becomes the shar apsi1 i4e4 king of the ,apsu or the deep4 ,the ,apsu was figured as an ocean encircling the earth1 and since the gathering place of the dead1 known as ,aralu1 was situated near the confines of the ,apsu1 he was also designated as ,en-,ki1 i4e4 lord of that which is below1 in contrast to ,anu1 who was the lord of the above or the heavens4 ,the cult of ,ea extended throughout ,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,we find temples and shrines erected in his honour1 e4g4 at ,nippur1 ,girsu1 ,ur1 ,babylon1 ,sippar and ,nineveh1 and the numerous epithets given to him1 as well as the various forms under which the god appears1 alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of ,babylonian-,assyrian history4 ,the consort of ,ea1 known as ,damkina1 lady of that which is below1 or ,nin-,ki1 having the same meaning1 or ,damgal-nunna1 great lady of the waters1 represents a pale reflection of ,ea and plays a part merely in association with her lord4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,eabani1 the name of the friend of ,gilgamesh1 the hero in the ,babylonian epic 7see ,,gilgamesh1 ,,epic ,,of74 ,eabani1 whose name signifies ,ea creates1 pointing to the tradition which made the god ,ea 7q4v47 the creator of mankind1 is represented in the epic as the type of the primeval man4 ,he is a wild man who lives with the animals of the field until lured away from his surroundings by the charms of a woman4 ,created to become a rival to ,gilgamesh1 he strikes up a friendship with the hero1 and together they proceed to a cedar forest guarded by ,khumbaba1 whom they kill4 ,the goddess ,irnina 7a form of ,ishtar1 q4v47 in revenge kills ,eabani1 and the balance of the epic is taken up with ,gilgamesh's lament for his friend1 his wanderings in quest of a remote ancestor1 ,ut-,napishtim1 from whom he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate of ,eabani1 and his finally learning from his friend of the sad fate in store for all mortals except the favourites of the god1 like ,ut-,napishtim1 to whom immortal life is vouchsafed as a special boon4 7,m4 ,ja47 ,,eachard1 ,,john 7#afcf8-afig71 ,english divine1 was born in ,suffolk1 and was educated at ,catharine ,hall1 ,cambridge1 of which he became master in #afge in succession to ,john ,lightfoot4 ,he was created ,d4,d4 in #afgf by royal mandate1 and was twice 7in #afgi and #afie7 vice-chancellor of the university4 ,he died on the #gth of ,july #afig4 ,in #afgj he had published anonymously a humorous satire entitled ,the ,ground and ,occasions of the ,contempt of the ,clergy enquired into in a letter to ,r4 ,l41 which excited much attention and provoked several replies1 one of them being from ,john ,owen4 ,these were met by ,some ,observations1 c41 in a second letter to ,r4 ,l4 7#afga71 written in the same bantering tone as the original work4 ,eachard attributed the contempt into which the clergy had fallen to their imperfect education1 their insufficient incomes1 and the want of a true vocation4 ,his descriptions1 which were somewhat exaggerated1 were largely used by ,macaulay in his ,history of ,england4 ,he gave amusing illustrations of the absurdity and poverty of the current pulpit oratory of his day1 some of them being taken from the sermons of his own father4 ,he attacked the philosophy of ,hobbes in his ,mr ,hobb's ,state of ,nature considered2 in a dialogue between ,philautus and ,timothy 7#afgb71 and in his ,some ,opinions of ,mr ,hobbs considered in a second dialogue 7#afgc74 ,these were written in their author's chosen vein of light satire1 and ,dryden praised them as highly effective within their own range4 ,eachard's own sermons1 however1 were not superior to those he satirized4 ,swift 7,works1 xii4 #bgi7 alludes to him as a signal instance of a successful humorist who entirely failed as a serious writer4 ,a collected edition of his works in three volumes1 with a notice of his life1 was published in #aggd4 ,the ,contempt of the ,clergy was reprinted in ,e4 ,arber's ,english ,garner4 ,a ,free ,enquiry into the ,causes of the very great ,esteem that the ,nonconforming ,preachers are generally in with their ,followers 7#afgc7 has been attributed to ,eachard on insufficient grounds4 ,,eadbald 7d4 #fdj71 king of ,kent1 succeeded to the throne on the death of his father ,a,ethelberht in #faf4 ,he had not been influenced by the teaching of the ,christian missionaries1 and his first step on his accession was to marry his father's widow4 ,after his subsequent conversion by ,laurentius1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 he recalled the bishops ,mellitus and ,justus1 and built a church dedicated to the ,virgin at ,canterbury4 ,he arranged a marriage between his sister ,a,ethelberg and ,edwin of ,northumbria1 on whose defeat and death in #fcc he received his sister and ,paulinus1 and offered the latter the bishopric of ,rochester4 ,eadbald married ,emma1 a ,frankish princess1 and died on the #bjth of ,january #fdj4 ,see ,bede1 ,historia ecclesiastica 7ed4 ,c4 ,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahif72 ,saxon ,chronicle 7ed4 ,j4 ,earle and ,c4 ,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahii74 ,,eadie1 ,,john 7#ahaj-ahgf71 ,scottish theologian and biblical critic1 was born at ,alva1 in ,stirlingshire1 on the #ith of ,may #ahaj4 ,having taken the arts curriculum at ,glasgow ,university1 he studied for the ministry at the ,divinity ,hall of the ,secession ,church1 a dissenting body which1 on its union a few years later with the ,relief ,church1 adopted the title ,united ,presbyterian4 ,in #ahce he became minister of the ,cambridge ,street ,secession church in ,glasgow1 and for many years he was generally regarded as the leading representative of his denomination in ,glasgow4 ,as a preacher1 though he was not eloquent1 he was distinguished by good sense1 earnestness and breadth of sympathy4 ,in #ahfc he removed with a portion of his congregation to a new church at ,lansdowne ,crescent4 ,in #ahdc ,eadie was appointed professor of biblical literature and hermeneutics in the ,divinity ,hall of the ,united ,presbyterian body4 ,he held this appointment along with his ministerial charge till the close of his life4 ,though not a profound scholar1 he was surpassed by few biblical commentators of his day in range of learning1 and in soundness of judgment4 ,in the professor's chair1 as in the pulpit1 his strength lay in the tact with which he selected the soundest results of biblical criticism1 whether his own or that of others1 and presented them in a clear and connected form1 with a constant view to their practical bearing4 ,he received the degree of ,,ll4,d4 from ,glasgow in #ahdd1 and that of ,d4,d4 from ,st ,andrews in #ahej4 ,his publications were connected with biblical criticism and interpretation1 some of them being for popular use and others more strictly scientific4 ,to the former class belong the ,biblical ,cyclopaedia1 his edition of ,cruden's ,concordance1 his ,early ,oriental ,history1 and his discourses on the ,divine ,love and on ,paul the ,preacher2 to the latter his commentaries on the ,greek text of ,st ,paul's epistles to the ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philippians and ,galatians1 published at intervals in four volumes4 ,his last work was the ,history of the ,english ,bible 7#b vols41 #ahgf74 ,he rendered good service as one of the revisers of the authorized version4 ,he died at ,glasgow on the #crd of ,june #ahgf4 ,his valuable library was bought and presented to the ,united ,presbyterian ,college4 ,,eadmer1 or ,,edmer 7c4 #ajfj-;c4 #aabd71 ,english historian and ecclesiastic1 was probably1 as his name suggests1 of ,english1 and not of ,norman parentage4 ,he became a monk in the ,benedictine monastery of ,christ ,church1 ,canterbury1 where he made the acquaintance of ,anselm1 at that time visiting ,england as abbot of ,bec4 ,the intimacy was renewed when ,anselm became archbishop of ,canterbury in #ajic2 thenceforward ,eadmer was not only his disciple and follower1 but his friend and director1 being formally appointed to this position by ,pope ,urban ,,ii4 ,in #aabj he was nominated to the archbishopric of ,st ,andrews1 but as the ,scots would not recognize the authority of the see of ,canterbury he was never consecrated1 and soon afterwards he resigned his claim to the archbishopric4 ,his death is generally assigned to the year #aabd4 ,eadmer left a large number of writings1 the most important of which is his ,historiae novorum1 a work which deals mainly with the history of ,england between #ajff and #aabb4 ,although concerned principally with ecclesiastical affairs scholars agree in regarding the ,historiae as one of the ablest and most valuable writings of its kind4 ,it was first edited by ,john ,selden in #afbc and1 with ,eadmer's ,vita ,anselmi1 has been edited by ,martin ,rule for the ,rolls ,series 7,london1 #ahhd74 ,the ,vita ,anselmi1 first printed at ,antwerp in #aeea1 is probably the best life of the saint4 ,less noteworthy are ,eadmer's lives of ,st ,dunstan1 ,st ,bregwin1 archbishop of ,canterbury1 and ,st ,oswald1 archbishop of ,york2 these are all printed in ,henry ,wharton's ,anglia ,sacra1 part ii4 7#afia71 where a list of ,eadmer's writings will be found4 ,the manuscripts of most of ,eadmer's works are preserved in the library of ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,see ,m4 ,rule1 ,on ,eadmer's ,elaboration of the first four ,books of ,historiae novorum 7#ahhf72 and ,pere ,ragey1 ,eadmer 7,paris1 #ahib74 ,,eads1 ,,james ,,buchanan 7#ahbj-ahhg71 ,american engineer1 was born at ,lawrenceburg1 ,indiana1 on the #bcrd of ,may #ahbj4 ,his first engineering work of any importance was in raising sunken steamers4 ,in #ahde he established glass works in ,st ,louis4 ,during the ,civil ,war he constructed ironclad steamers and mortar boats for the ,federal government4 ,his next important engineering achievement was the construction of the great steel arch bridge across the ,mississippi at ,st ,louis 7see ,,bridge1 fig4 #bi71 upon which he was engaged from #ahfg till #ahgd4 ,the work1 however1 upon which his reputation principally rests was his deepening and fixing the channel at the mouths of the ,mississippi by means of jetties1 whereby the narrowed stream was made to scour out its own channel and carry the sediment out to sea4 ,shortly before his death he projected a scheme for a ship railway across the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 in lieu of an isthmian canal4 ,he died at ,nassau1 in the ,bahamas1 on the #hth of ,march #ahhg4 ,,eagle 7,fr4 aigle1 from the ,lat4 aquila71 the name generally given to the larger diurnal birds of prey which are not vultures2 but the limits of the subfamily ,aquilinae have been very variously assigned by different writers on systematic ornithology1 and there are eagles smaller than certain buzzards4 ,by some authorities the ,laemmergeier of the ,alps1 and other high mountains of ,europe1 ,north ,africa and ,asia1 is accounted an eagle1 but by others the genus ,gypaetus is placed with the ,vulturidae as its common ,english name 7bearded vulture7 shows4 ,there are also other forms1 such as the ,south ,american ,harpyia and its allies1 which though generally called eagles have been ranked as buzzards4 ,in the absence of any truly scientific definition of the family ,aquilinae it is best to leave these and many other more or less questionable members of the group--such as the genera ,spizaetus1 ,circaetus1 ,spilornis1 ,helotarsus1 and so forth--and to treat here of those whose position cannot be gainsaid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,sea-,eagle4 ,true eagles inhabit all the regions of the world1 and some seven or eight species at least are found in ,europe1 of which two are resident in the ,british ,islands4 ,in ,england and in the ,lowlands of ,scotland eagles only exist as stragglers2 but in the ,hebrides and some parts of the ,highlands a good many may yet be found1 and their numbers appear to have rather increased of late years than diminished2 for the foresters and shepherds1 finding that a high price can be got for their eggs1 take care to protect the owners of the eyries1 which are nearly all well known1 and to keep up the stock by allowing them at times to rear their young4 ,there are also now not a few occupiers of ,scottish forests who interfere so far as they can to protect the king of birds4#a ,in ,ireland the extirpation of eagles seems to have been carried on almost unaffected by the prudent considerations which in the northern kingdom have operated so favourably for the race1 and except in the wildest parts of ,donegal1 ,mayo and ,kerry1 eagles in the sister island are almost birds of the past4 ,of the two ,british species the erne 7,icel4 ,oern7 or sea-eagle 7by some called also the white-tailed and cinereous eagle7--,haliaetus albicilla--affects chiefly the coast and neighbourhood of inland waters1 living in great part on the fish and refuse that is thrown up on the shore1 though it not unfrequently takes living prey1 such as lambs1 hares and rabbits4 ,on these last1 indeed1 young examples mostly feed when they wander southward in autumn1 as they yearly do1 and appear in ,england4 ,the adults 7fig4 #a7 are distinguished by their prevalent greyish-brown colour1 their pale head1 yellow beak and white tail--characters1 however1 wanting in the immature1 which do not assume the perfect plumage for some three or four years4 ,the eyry is commonly placed in a high cliff or on an island in a lake--sometimes on the ground1 at others in a tree--and consists of a vast mass of sticks in the midst of which is formed a hollow lined with ,luzula sylvatica 7as first observed by ,john ,wolley7 or some similar grass1 and here are laid the two or three white eggs4 ,in former days the sea-eagle seems to have bred in several parts of ,england--as the ,lake district1 and possibly even in the ,isle of ,wight and on ,dartmoor4 ,this species inhabits all the northern part of the ,old ,world from ,iceland to ,kamchatka1 and breeds in ,europe so far to the southward as ,albania4 ,in the ,new ,world1 however1 it is only found in ,greenland1 being elsewhere replaced by the white-headed or bald eagle1 ,h4 leucocephalus1 a bird of similar habits1 and the chosen emblem of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,in the far east of ,asia occurs a still larger and finer sea-eagle1 ,h4 pelagicus1 remarkable for its white thighs and upper wing-coverts4 ,south-eastern ,europe and ,india furnish a much smaller species1 ,h4 leucoryphus1 which has its representative1 ,h4 leucogaster1 in the ,malay ,archipelago and ,australia1 and1 as allies in ,south ,africa and ,madagascar1 ,h4 vocifer and ,h4 vociferoides respectively4 ,all these eagles may be distinguished by their scaly tarsi1 while the group next to be treated of have the tarsi feathered to the toes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,mountain-,eagle4 ,the golden or mountain eagle1 ,aquila chrysaetus1 is the second ,british species4 ,this also formerly inhabited ,england1 and a nest1 found in #affh in the ,peak of ,derbyshire1 is well described by ,willughby1 in whose time it was said to breed also in the ,snowdon range4 ,it seldom if ever frequents the coast1 and is more active on the wing than the sea-eagle1 being able to take some birds as they fly1 but a large part of its sustenance is the flesh of animals that die a natural death4 ,its eyry is generally placed and built like that of the other ,british species1#b but the neighbourhood of water is not requisite4 ,the eggs1 from two to four in number1 vary from a pure white to a mottled1 and often highly coloured1 surface1 on which appear different shades of red and purple4 ,the adult bird 7fig4 #b7 is of a rich dark brown1 with the elongated feathers of the neck1 especially on the nape1 light tawny1 in which imagination sees a golden hue1 and the tail marbled with brown and ashy-grey4 ,in the young the tail is white at the base1 and the neck has scarcely any tawny tint4 ,the golden eagle does not occur in ,iceland1 but occupies suitable situations over the rest of the ,palaearctic ,region and a considerable portion of the ,nearctic--though the ,american bird has been1 by some1 considered a distinct species4 ,domesticated1 it has many times been trained to take prey for its master in ,europe1 and to this species is thought to belong an eagle habitually used by the ,kirghiz ,tatars1 who call it ,bergut or ,bearcoot1 for the capture of antelopes1 foxes and wolves4 ,it is carried hooded on horseback or on a perch between two men1 and released when the quarry is in sight4 ,such a bird1 when well trained1 is valued1 says ,p4,s4 ,pallas1 at the price of two camels4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 that more than one kind of eagle is thus used1 and the services of ,a4 heliaca 7which is the imperial eagle of some writers#c7 and of ,a4 mogilnik--both of which are found in central ,asia1 as well as in south-eastern ,europe--may also be employed4 ,a smaller form of eagle1 which has usually gone under the name of ,a4 naevia1 is now thought by the best authorities to include three local races1 or1 in the eyes of some1 species4 ,they inhabit ,europe1 ,north ,africa and western ,asia to ,india1 and two examples of one of them--,a4 clanga1 the form which is somewhat plentiful in north-eastern ,germany--have occurred in ,cornwall4 ,the smallest true eagle is ,a4 pennata1 which inhabits southern ,europe1 ,africa and ,india4 ,differing from other eagles of their genus by its wedge-shaped tail1 though otherwise greatly resembling them1 is the ,a4 audax of ,australia4 ,lastly may be noticed here a small group of eagles1 characterized by their long legs1 forming the genus ,nisaetus1 of which one species1 ,n4 fasciatus1 is found in ,europe4 7,a4 ,n47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,lord ,breadalbane 7d4 #ahga7 was perhaps the first large landowner who set the example that has been since followed by others4 ,on his unrivalled forest of ,black ,mount1 eagles--elsewhere persecuted to the death--were by him ordered to be unmolested so long as they were not numerous enough to cause considerable depredations on the farmers' flocks4 ,he thought that the spectacle of a soaring eagle was a fitting adjunct to the grandeur of his ,argyllshire mountain scenery1 and a good equivalent for the occasional loss of a lamb1 or the slight deduction from the rent paid by his tenantry in consequence4 #b ,as already stated1 the site chosen varies greatly4 ,occasionally placed in a niche in what passes for a perpendicular cliff to which access could only be gained by a skilful cragsman with a rope1 the writer has known a nest to within #aj or #ae yds4 of which he rode on a pony4 ,two beautiful views of as many golden eagles' nests1 drawn on the spot by ,joseph ,wolf1 are given in the ,ootheca ,wolleyana1 and a fine series of eggs is also figured in the same work4 #c ,which species may have been the traditional emblem of ,roman power1 and the ,ales ,jovis1 is very uncertain4 ,,eaglehawk1 a borough of ,bendigo county1 ,victoria1 ,australia1 #aje m4 by rail ,n4,n4,w4 of ,melbourne and #d m4 from ,bendigo1 with which it is connected by steam tramway4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #hacj4 ,it stands on the ,bendigo gold-bearing reef1 and its mines are important4 ,,eagre 7a word of obscure origin2 the earliest form seems to be higre1 ,latinized as higra1 which ,william of ,malmesbury gives as the name of the bore in the ,severn2 the ,new ,english ,dictionary rejects the usual derivations from the ,o4 ,eng4 eagor or egor1 which is seen in compounds meaning flood1 and also the connexion with the ,norse sea-god ,aegir71 a tide wave of great height rushing up an estuary 7see ,,bore71 used locally of the ,humber and ,trent4 ,,eakins1 ,,thomas 7#ahdd- 71 ,american portrait and figure painter1 was born at ,philadelphia1 on the #beth of ,july #ahdd4 ,a pupil of ,j4,l4 ,gerome1 in the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 ,paris1 and ,also of ,leon ,bonnat1 besides working in the studio of the sculptor ,dumont1 he became a prolific portrait painter4 ,he also painted genre pictures1 sending to the ,centennial ,exhibition at ,philadelphia1 in #ahgf1 the ,chess ,players1 now in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art1 ,new ,york4 ,a large canvas1 ,the ,surgical ,clinic of ,professor ,gross1 owned by ,jefferson ,medical ,college1 ,philadelphia1 contains many life-sized figures4 ,eakins1 with his pupil ,samuel ,murray 7b4 #ahgj71 modelled the heroic ,prophets for the ,witherspoon ,building1 ,philadelphia1 and his work in painting has a decided sculptural quality4 ,he was for some years professor of anatomy at the schools of the ,pennsylvania ,academy of ,fine ,arts in ,philadelphia4 ,a man of great inventiveness1 he experimented in many directions1 depicting on canvas modern athletic sports1 the negro1 and early ,american life1 but he is best known by his portraits4 ,he received awards at the ,columbian 7#ahic71 ,paris 7#aijj71 ,pan-,american 7#aijj71 and the ,st ,louis 7#aijd71 ,expositions2 and won the ,temple medal in the ,pennsylvania ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 and the ,proctor prize of the ,national ,academy of ,design4 ,,ealing1 a municipal borough in the ,ealing parliamentary division of ,middlesex1 ,england1 suburban to ,london1 #i m4 ,w4 of ,st ,paul's cathedral4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #bc1igi2 7#aija7 #cc1jca4 ,the nucleus of the town1 the ancient village1 lies south of the highroad to ,uxbridge1 west of the open ,ealing ,common4 ,the place is wholly residential4 ,at ,st ,mary's church1 almost wholly rebuilt c4 #ahgj1 are buried ,john ,oldmixon1 the historian 7d4 #agdb71 and ,horne ,tooke 7d4 #ahab74 ,the church of ,all ,saints 7#aije7 commemorates ,spencer ,perceval1 prime minister1 who was assassinated in the ,house of ,commons in #ahab4 ,it was erected under the will of his daughter ,frederica1 a resident of ,ealing4 ,gunnersbury ,park1 south of ,ealing ,common1 is a handsome ,italian mansion4 ,among former owners of the property was ,princess ,amelia1 daughter of ,george ,,ii41 who lived here from #agfa till her death in #aghf4 ,the name of ,gunnersbury is said to be traceable to the residence here of ,gunilda1 niece of ,king ,canute4 ,the manor of ,ealing early belonged to the see of ,london1 but it is not mentioned in ,domesday and its history is obscure4 ,,ear 7common ,teut42 ,o4,e4 eare1 ,ger4 ,ohr1 ,du4 oor1 akin to ,lat4 auris1 ,gr4 ,greek3 ous71 in anatomy1 the organ of hearing4 ,the human ear is divided into three parts--external1 middle and internal4 ,the external ear consists of the pinna and the external auditory meatus4 ,the pinna is composed of a yellow fibro-cartilaginous framework covered by skin1 and has an external and an internal or cranial surface4 ,round the margin of the external surface in its upper three quarters is a rim called the helix 7fig4 #a1 a71 in which is often seen a little prominence known as ,darwin's tubercle1 representing the folded-over apex of a prick-eared ancestor4 ,concentric with the helix and nearer the meatus is the antihelix 7c71 which1 above1 divides into two limbs to enclose the triangular fossa of the antihelix4 ,between the helix and the antihelix is the fossa of the helix4 ,in front of the antihelix is the deep fossa known as the concha 7fig4 #a1 d71 and from the anterior part of this the meatus passes inward into the skull4 ,overlapping the meatus from in front is a flap called the tragus1 and below and behind this is another smaller flap1 the antitragus4 ,the lower part of the pinna is the lobule 7e71 which contains no cartilage4 ,on the cranial surface of the pinna elevations correspond to the concha and to the fossae of the helix and antihelix4 ,the pinna can be slightly moved by the anterior1 superior and posterior auricular muscles1 and in addition to these there are four small intrinsic muscles on the external surface1 known as the helicis major and minor1 the tragicus and the antitragicus1 and two on the internal surface called the obliquus and transversus4 ,the external auditory meatus 7fig4 #a1 n7 is a tube running at first forward and upward1 then a little backward and then forward and slightly downward2 of course all the time it is also running inward until the tympanic membrane is reached4 ,the tube is about an inch long1 its outer third being cartilaginous and its inner two-thirds bony4 ,it is lined by skin in its whole length1 the sweat glands of which are modified to secrete the wax or cerumen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the ,ear as seen in ,section4 a1 ,helix4 m1 ,tip of petrous process4 b1 ,antitragus4 n1 ,external auditory meatus4 c1 ,antihelix4 o1 ,membrana tympani4 d1 ,concha4 p1 ,tympanum4 e1 ,lobule4 #a1 points to malleus4 f1 ,mastoid process4 #b1 to incus4 g1 ,portio dura4 #c1 to stapes4 h1 ,styloid process4 #d1 to cochlea4 k1 ,internal carotid artery4 #e1 #f1 #g1 the three semicircular canals4 l1 ,eustachian tube4 #h and #i1 facial and auditory nerves4 ,the middle ear or tympanum 7fig4 #a1 p7 is a small cavity in the temporal bone1 the shape of which may perhaps be realized by imagining a hock bottle subjected to lateral pressure in such a way that its circular section becomes triangular1 the base of the triangle being above4 ,the neck of the bottle1 also laterally compressed1 will represent the ,eustachian tube 7fig4 #a1 l71 which runs forward1 inward and downward1 to open into the naso-pharynx1 and so admits air into the tympanum4 ,the bottom of the bottle will represent the posterior wall of the tympanum1 from the upper part of which an opening leads backward into the mastoid antrum and so into the air-cells of the mastoid process4 ,lower down is a little pyramid which transmits the stapedius muscle1 and at the base of this is a small opening known as the iter chordae posterius1 for the chorda tympani to come through from the facial nerve4 ,the roof is formed by a very thin plate of bone1 called the tegmen tympani1 which separates the cavity from the middle fossa of the skull4 ,below the roof the upper part of the tympanum is somewhat constricted off from the rest1 and to this part the term attic is often applied4 ,the floor is a mere groove formed by the meeting of the external and internal walls4 ,the outer wall is largely occupied by the tympanic membrane 7fig4 #a1 o71 which entirely separates the middle ear from the external auditory meatus2 it is circular1 and so placed that it slopes from above1 downward and inward1 and from behind1 forward and inward4 ,externally it is lined by skin1 internally by mucous membrane1 while between the two is a firm fibrous membrane1 convex inward about its centre to form the umbo4 ,just in front of the membrane on the outer wall is the ,glaserian fissure leading to the glenoid cavity1 and close to this is the canal of ,huguier for the chorda tympani nerve4 ,the inner wall shows a promontory caused by the cochlea and grooved by the tympanic plexus of nerves2 above and behind it is the fenestra ovalis1 while below and behind the fenestra rotunda is seen1 closed by a membrane4 ,curving round1 above and behind the promontory and fenestrae1 is a ridge caused by the aqueductus ,fallopii or canal for the facial nerve4 ,the whole tympanum is about half an inch from before backward1 and half an inch high1 and is spanned from side to side by three small bones1 of which the malleus 7fig4 #a1 #a7 is the most external4 ,this is attached by its handle to the umbo of the tympanic membrane1 while its head lies in the attic and articulates posteriorly with the upper part of the next bone or incus 7fig4 #a1 #b74 ,the long process of the incus runs downward and ends in a little knob called the os orbiculare1 which is jointed on to the stapes or stirrup bone 7fig4 #a1 #c74 ,the two branches of the stapes are anterior and posterior1 while the footplate fits into the fenestra ovalis and is bound to it by a membrane4 ,it will thus be seen that the stapes lies nearly at right angles to the long process of the incus4 ,from the front of the malleus a slender process projects forward into the ,glaserian fissure1 while from the back of the incus the posterior process is directed backward and is attached to the posterior wall of the tympanum4 ,these two processes form a fulcrum by which the lever action of the malleus and incus is brought about1 so that when the handle of the malleus is pushed in by the membrane the head moves out2 the top of the incus1 attached to it1 also moves out1 and the os orbiculare moves in1 and so the stapes is pressed into the fenestra ovalis4 ,the stapedius and tensor tympanic muscles1 the latter of which enters the tympanum in a canal just above the ,eustachian tube to be attached to the malleus1 modify the movements of the ossicles4 ,the mucous membrane lining the tympanum is continuous through the ,eustachian tube with that of the naso-pharynx1 and is reflected on to the ossicles1 muscles and chorda tympani nerve4 ,it is ciliated except where it covers the membrana tympani1 ossicles and promontory2 here it is stratified4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,diagram of the ,membranous ,labyrinth4 ,,dc1 ,ductus cochlearis4 dr1 ,ductus reuniens4 ,s1 ,sacculus4 ,u1 ,utriculus4 dv1 ,ductus endolymphaticus4 ,,sc1 ,semicircular canals4 7,after ,waldeyer47 ,the internal ear or labyrinth consists of a bony and a membranous part1 the latter of which is contained in the former4 ,the bony labyrinth is composed of the vestibule1 the semicircular canals and the cochlea4 ,the vestibule lies just internal to the posterior part of the tympanum1 and there would be a communication between the two1 through the fenestra ovalis1 were it not that the footplate of the stapes blocks the way4 ,the inner wall of the vestibule is separated from the bottom of the internal auditory meatus by a plate of bone pierced by many foramina for branches of the auditory nerve 7fig4 #a1 #i71 while at the lower part is the opening of the aqueductus vestibuli1 by means of which a communication is established with the posterior cranial fossa4 ,posteriorly the three semicircular canals open into the vestibule2 of these the external 7fig4 #a1 #g7 has two independent openings1 but the superior and posterior 7fig4 #a1 #e and #f7 join together at one end and so have a common opening1 while at their other ends they open separately4 ,the three canals have therefore five openings into the vestibule instead of six4 ,one end of each canal is dilated to form its ampulla4 ,the superior semicircular canal is vertical1 and the two pillars of its arch are nearly external and internal2 the external canal is horizontal1 its two pillars being anterior and posterior1 while the convexity of the arch of the posterior canal is backward and its two pillars are superior and inferior4 ,anteriorly the vestibule leads into the cochlea 7fig4 #a1 #d71 which is twisted two and a half times round a central pillar called the modiolus1 the whole cochlea forming a rounded cone something like the shell of a snail though it is only about #e mm4 from base to apex4 ,projecting from the modiolus is a horizontal plate which runs round it from base to apex like a spiral staircase2 this is known as the lamina spiralis1 and it stretches nearly half-way across the canal of the cochlea4 ,at the summit it ends in a little hook named the hamulus4 ,the modiolus is pierced by canals which transmit branches of the auditory nerve to the lamina spiralis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;cl1 ,columnar cells covering the crista acustica2 p1 peripheral1 and c1 central processes of auditory cells2 n1 nerve fibres4 7,after ,ruedinger47 ,the membranous labyrinth lies in the bony labyrinth1 but does not fill it2 between the two is the fluid called perilymph1 while inside the membranous labyrinth is the endolymph4 ,in the bony vestibule lie two membranous bags1 the saccule 7fig4 #b1 ,s7 in front1 and the utricle 7fig4 #b1 ,u7 behind2 each of these has a special patch or macula to which twigs of the auditory nerve are supplied1 and in the mucous membrane of which specialized hair cells are found 7fig4 #c1 p74 ,attached to the maculae are crystals of carbonate of lime called otoconia4 ,the membranous semicircular canals are very much smaller in section than the bony2 in the ampulla of each is a ridge1 the crista acustica1 which is covered by a mucous membrane containing sensory hair cells like those in the maculae4 ,all the canals open into the utricle4 ,from the lower part of the saccule a small canal called the ductus endolymphaticus 7fig4 #b1 dv7 runs into the aqueductus vestibuli2 it is soon joined by a small duct from the utricle1 and ends1 close to the dura mater of the posterior fossa of the cranium1 as the saccus endolymphaticus1 which may have minute perforations through which the endolymph can pass4 ,anteriorly the saccule communicates with the membranous cochlea or scala media by a short ductus reuniens 7fig4 #b1 dr74 ,a section through each turn of the cochlea shows the bony lamina spiralis1 already noticed1 which is continued right across the canal by the basilar membrane 7fig4 #d1 bm71 thus cutting the canal into an upper and lower half and connected with the outer wall by the strong spiral ligament 7fig4 #d1 sl74 ,near the free end of the lamina spiralis another membrane called the membrane of ,reissner 7fig4 #d1 m,r7 is attached1 and runs outward and upward to the outer wall1 taking a triangular slice out of the upper half of the section4 ,there are now three canals seen in section1 the upper of which is the scala vestibuli 7fig4 #d1 ,,sv71 the middle and outer the scala media1 ductus cochlearis or true membranous cochlea 7fig4 #d1 ,,dc71 while the lower is the scala tympani 7fig4 #d1 ,,st74 ,the scala vestibuli and scala tympani communicate at the apex of the cochlea by an opening known as the helicotrema1 so that the perilymph can here pass from one canal to the other4 ,at the base of the cochlea the perilymph in the scala vestibuli is continuous with that in the vestibule1 but that in the scala tympani bathes the inner surface of the membrane stretched across the fenestra rotunda1 and also communicates with the subarachnoid space through the aqueductus cochleae1 which opens into the posterior cranial fossa4 ,the scala media containing endolymph communicates1 as has been shown1 with the saccule through the canalis reuniens1 while1 at the apex of the cochlea1 it ends in a blind extremity of considerable morphological interest called the lagena4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,transverse ,section through the ,tube of the ,cochlea4 m1 ,modiolus4 bm1 ,basilar membrane4 #j1 ,outer wall of cochlea4 cs1 ,crista spiralis4 ,,sv1 ,scala vestibuli4 sl1 ,spiral ligament4 ,,st1 ,scala tympani4 sg1 ,spiral ganglion of auditory nerve4 ,,dc1 ,ductus cochlearis4 oc1 ,organ of ,corti4 m,r1 ,membrane of ,reissner4 ,the scala media contains the essential organ of hearing or organ of ,corti 7fig4 #d1 oc71 which lies upon the inner part of the basilar membrane2 it consists of a tunnel bounded on each side of the inner and outer rods of ,corti2 on each side of these are the inner and outer hair cells1 between the latter of which are found the supporting cells of ,deiters4 ,most externally are the large cells of ,hensen4 ,a delicate membrane called the lamina reticularis covers the top of all these1 and is pierced by the hairs of the hair cells1 while above this is the loose membrana tectoria attached to the periosteum of the lamina spiralis1 near its tip1 internally1 and possibly to some of ,deiter's cells externally4 ,the cochlear branch of the auditory nerve enters the lamina spiralis1 where a spiral ganglion 7fig4 #d1 sg7 is developed on it2 after this it is distributed to the inner and outer hair cells4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,transverse ,section of ,corti's ,organ from the ,central ,coil of ,cochlea 7,retzius74 7,from ,r4 ,howden--,cunningham's ,text-,book of ,anatomy47 ,for further details see ,text-,book of ,anatomy1 edited by ,d4,j4 ,cunningham 7,edinburgh1 #aijf72 ,quain's ,elements of ,anatomy 7,london1 #ahic72 ,gray's ,anatomy 7,london1 #aije72 ,a ,treatise on ,anatomy1 edited by ,h4 ,morris 7,london1 #aijb72 ,a ,text-,book of ,human ,anatomy1 by ,a4 ,macalister 7,london1 #ahhi74 ,embryology4--,the pinna is formed from six tubercles which appear round the dorsal end of the hyomandibular cleft or1 more strictly speaking1 pouch4 ,those for the tragus and anterior part of the helix belong to the first or mandibular arch1 while those for the antitragus1 antihelix and lobule come from the second or hyoid arch4 ,the tubercle for the helix is dorsal to the end of the cleft where the two arches join4 ,the external auditory meatus1 tympanum and ,eustachian tube are remains of the hyomandibular cleft1 the membrana tympani being a remnant of the cleft membrane and therefore lined by ectoderm outside and entoderm inside4 ,the origin of the ossicles is very doubtful4 ,h4 ,gadow's view1 which is one of the latest1 is that all three are derived from the hyomandibular plate which connects the dorsal ends of the hyoid and mandibular bars 7,anatomischer ,anzeiger1 ,bd4 xix41 #aija1 p4 #cif74 ,other papers which should be consulted are those of ,e4 ,gaupp1 ,anatom4 ,hefte1 ,ergebnisse1 ,bd4 #h1 #ahih1 p4 #iia1 and ,j4,a4 ,hammar1 ,archiv f4 mikr4 ,anat4 lix41 #aijb4 ,these papers will give a clue to the immense literature of the subject4 ,the internal ear first appears as a pit from the cephalic ectoderm1 the mouth of which in ,man and other mammals closes up1 so that a pear-shaped cavity is left4 ,the stalk of the pear which is nearest the point of invagination is called the recessus labyrinthi1 and this1 after losing its connexion with the surface of the embryo1 grows backward toward the posterior cranial fossa and becomes the ductus endolymphaticus4 ,the lower part of the vesicle grows forward and becomes the cochlea1 while from the upper part three hollow circular plates grow out1 the central parts of which disappear1 leaving the margin as the semicircular canals4 ,subsequently constrictions appear in the vesicle marking off the saccule and utricle4 ,from the surrounding mesoderm the petrous bone is formed by a process of chondrification and ossification4 ,see ,w4 ,his1 ,junr41 ,archiv f4 ,anat4 und ,phys41 #ahhi1 supplement1 p4 #a2 also ,streeter1 ,am4 ,journ4 of ,anat4 vi41 #aijg4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,the ectodermal inpushing of the internal ear has probably a common origin with the organs of the lateral line of fish4 ,in the lower forms the ductus endolymphaticus retains its communication with the exterior on the dorsum of the head1 and in some ,elasmobranchs the opening is wide enough to allow the passage of particles of sand into the saccule4 ,it is probable that this duct is the same which1 taking a different direction and losing its communication with the skin1 abuts on the posterior cranial fossa of higher forms 7see ,rudolf ,krause1 ,die ,entwickelung des ,aq4 vestibuli seu d4 ,endelymphaticus1 ,anat4 ,anzeiger1 ,bd4 xix41 #aija1 p4 #di74 ,in certain ,teleostean fishes the swim bladder forms a secondary communication with the internal ear by means of special ossicles 7see ,g4 ,ridewood1 ,journ4 ,anat4 ,phys4 vol4 xxvi474 ,among the ,cyclostomata the external semicircular canals are wanting2 ,petromyzon has the superior and posterior only1 while in ,myxine these two appear to be fused so that only one is seen4 ,in higher types the three canals are constant4 ,concretions of carbonate of lime are present in the internal ears of almost all vertebrates2 when these are very small they are called otoconia1 but when1 as in most of the teleostean fishes1 they form huge concretions1 they are spoken of as otoliths4 ,one shark1 ,squatina1 has sand instead of otoconia 7,c4 ,stewart1 ,journ4 ,linn4 ,society1 xxix4 #dji74 ,the utricle1 saccule1 semicircular canals1 ductus endolymphaticus and a short lagena are the only parts of the ear present in fish4 ,the ,amphibia have an important sensory area at the base of the lagena known as the macula acustica basilaris1 which is probably the first rudiment of a true cochlea4 ,the ductus endolymphaticus has lost its communication with the skin1 but it is frequently prolonged into the skull and along the spinal canal1 from which it protrudes1 through the intervertebral foramina1 bulging into the coelom4 ,this is the case in the common frog 7,a4 ,coggi1 ,anat4 ,anz4 #e4 ,jahrg41 #ahij1 p4 #agg74 ,in this class the tympanum and ,eustachian tube are first developed2 the membrana tympani lies flush with the skin of the side of the head1 and the sound-waves are transmitted from it to the internal ear by a single bony rod--the columella4 ,in the ,reptilia the internal ear passes through a great range of development4 ,in the ,chelonia and ,ophidia the cochlea is as rudimentary as in the ,amphibia1 but in the higher forms 7,crocodilia7 there is a lengthened and slightly twisted cochlea1 at the end of which the lagena forms a minute terminal appendage4 ,at the same time indications of the scalae tympani and vestibuli appear4 ,as in the ,amphibia the ductus endolymphaticus sometimes extends into the cranial cavity and on into other parts of the body4 ,snakes have no tympanic membrane4 ,in the birds the cochlea resembles that of the crocodiles1 but the posterior semicircular canal is above the superior where they join one another4 ,in certain lizards and birds 7owls7 a small fold of skin represents the first appearance of an external ear4 ,in the monotremes the internal ear is reptilian in its arrangement1 but above them the mammals always have a spirally twisted cochlea1 the number of turns varying from one and a half in the ,cetacea to nearly five in the rodent ,coelogenys4 ,the lagena is reduced to a mere vestige4 ,the organ of ,corti is peculiar to mammals1 and the single columella of the middle ear is replaced by the three ossicles already described in ,man 7see ,alban ,doran1 ,morphology of the ,mammalian ,ossicula auditus1 ,proc4 ,linn4 ,soc41 #ahgf-ahgg1 xiii4 #ahe2 also ,trans4 ,linn4 ,soc4 #bnd ,ser4 ,zool4 i4 #cga74 ,in some mammals1 especially ,carnivora1 the middle ear is enlarged to form the tympanic bulla1 but the mastoid cells are peculiar to ,man4 ,for further details see ,g4 ,retzius1 ,das ,gehoerorgan der ,wirbelthiere 7,stockholm1 #ahha-ahhd72 ,catalogue of the ,museum of the ,r4 ,college of ,surgeons--,physiological ,series1 vol4 iii4 7,london1 #aijf72 ,r4 ,wiedersheim's ,vergleichende ,anatomie der ,wirbeltiere 7,jena1 #aijb74 7,f4 ,g4 ,p47 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,ear ,modern scientific aural surgery and medicine 7commonly known as ,otology7 dates from the time of ,sir ,william ,wilde of ,dublin 7#ahdc71 whose work marked a great advance in the application of anatomical1 physiological and therapeutical knowledge to the study of this organ4 ,less noticeable contributions to the subject had not long before been made by ,saunders 7#ahbg71 ,kramer 7#ahcc71 ,pilcher 7#ahda7 and ,yearsley 7#ahda74 ,the next important event in the history of otology was the publication of ,j4 ,toynbee's book in #ahfj containing his valuable anatomical and pathological observations4 ,von ,troeltsch of ,wuerzburg1 following on the lines of ,wilde and ,toynbee1 produced two well-known works in #ahfa and #ahfb1 laying the foundation of the study in ,germany4 ,in that country and in ,austria he was followed by ,hermann ,schwartze1 ,politzer1 ,gruber1 ,weber-,liel1 ,ruedinger1 ,moos and numerous others4 ,france produced ,itard1 de la ,charriere1 ,meniere1 ,loewenberg and ,bonnafont2 and ,belgium1 ,charles ,delstanche1 father and son4 ,in ,great ,britain the work was carried on by ,james ,hinton 7#ahgd71 ,peter ,allen 7#ahga71 ,patterson ,cassells and ,sir ,william ,dalby4 ,in ,america we may count among the early otologists ,edward ,h4 ,clarke 7#aheh71 ,d4,b4 ,st ,john ,roosa1 ,h4 ,knapp1 ,clarence ,j4 ,blake1 ,albert ,h4 ,buck and ,charles ,burnett4 ,other workers all over the world are too numerous to mention4 ,various ,diseases and ,injuries4--,diseases of the ear may affect any of the three divisions1 the external1 middle or internal ear4 ,the commoner affections of the auricle are eczema1 various tumours 7simple and malignant71 and serous and sebaceous cysts4 ,haematoma auris 7othaematoma71 or effusion of blood into the auricle1 is often due to injury1 but may occur spontaneously1 especially in insane persons4 ,the chief diseases of the external auditory canal are as follows3--impacted cerumen 7or wax71 circumscribed 7or furuncular7 inflammation1 diffuse inflammation1 strictures due to inflammatory affections1 bony growths1 fungi 7otomycosis71 malignant disease1 caries and necrosis1 and foreign bodies4 ,diseases of the middle ear fall into two categories1 suppurative and non-suppurative 7i4e4 with and without the formation of pus74 ,suppurative inflammation of the middle ear is either acute or chronic1 and is in either case accompanied by perforation of the drum head and discharge from the ear4 ,the chief importance of these affections1 in addition to the symptoms of pain1 deafness1 discharge1 c41 is the serious complications which may ensue from their neglect1 viz4 aural polypi1 caries and necrosis of the bone1 affections of the mastoid process1 including the mastoid antrum1 paralysis of the facial nerve1 and the still more serious intracranial and vascular infective diseases1 such as abscess in the brain 7cerebrum or cerebellum71 meningitis1 with subdural and extradural abscesses1 septic thrombosis of the sigmoid and other venous sinuses1 and pyaemia4 ,it is owing to the possibility of these complications that life insurance companies usually1 and rightly1 inquire as to the presence of ear discharge before accepting a life4 ,patterson ,cassells of ,glasgow urged this special point as long ago as #ahgg4 ,acute suppurative disease of the middle ear is often due to the exanthemata1 scarlatina1 measles and smallpox1 and to bathing and diving4 ,it may also be caused by influenza1 diphtheria and pulmonary phthisis4 ,non-suppurative disease of the middle ear may be acute or chronic4 ,in the acute form the inflammation is less violent than in the acute suppurative inflammation1 and is rarely accompanied by perforation4 ,chronic non-suppurative inflammation may be divided into the moist form1 in which the symptoms are improved by inflation of the tympanum through the ,eustachian tube1 and the dry form 7including sclerosis71 which is more intractable and in which this procedure has little or no beneficial effect4 ,diseases of the internal ear may be primary or secondary to an affection of the tympanum or to intracranial disease4 ,injuries to any part of the ear may occur1 among the commoner being injuries to the auricle1 rupture of the drum head 7from explosions1 blows on the ear or the introduction of sharp bodies into the ear canal71 and injuries from fractured skull4 ,congenital malformations of the ear are most frequently met with in the auricle and external canal4 ,methods of ,examination4--,the methods of examining the ear are roughly threefold3--7#a7 ,testing the hearing with watch1 voice and tuning-fork4 ,the latter is especially used to distinguish between disease of the middle ear 7conducting apparatus7 and that of the internal ear 7perceptive apparatus74 ,our knowledge of the subject has been brought to its present state by the labours of many observers1 notably ,weber1 ,rinne1 ,schwabach1 ,lucae and ,gelle4 7#b7 ,examination of the canal and drum-head with speculum and reflector1 introduced by ,kramer1 ,wilde and von ,troeltsch4 7#c7 ,examination of the drum-cavity through the ,eustachian tube by the various methods of inflation4 ,symptoms4--,the chief symptoms of ear diseases are deafness1 noises in the ear 7tinnitus aurium71 giddiness1 pain and discharge4 ,deafness 7or other disturbance of hearing7 and noises may occur from disease in almost any part of the ear4 ,purulent discharge usually comes from the middle ear4 ,giddiness is more commonly associated with affections of the internal ear4 ,treatment4--,ear diseases are treated on ordinary surgical and medical lines1 due regard being had to the anatomical and physiological peculiarities of this organ of sense1 and especially to its close relationship1 on the one hand to the nose and naso-pharynx1 and on the other hand to the cranium and its contents4 ,the chief advance in aural surgery in recent years has been in the surgery of the mastoid process and antrum4 ,the pioneers of this work were ,h4 ,schwartze of ,halle1 and ,stacke of ,erfurt1 who have been followed by a host of workers in all parts of the world4 ,this development led to increased attention being paid to the intracranial complications of suppurative ear disease1 in the treatment of which great strides have been made in the last few years4 ,effects of ,diseases of the ,nose on the ,ear4--,the influence of diseases of the nose and naso-pharynx on ear diseases was brought out by ,loewenberg of ,paris1 ,voltolini of ,breslau1 and especially by ,wilhelm ,meyer of ,copenhagen1 the discoverer of adenoid vegetations of the naso-pharynx 7adenoids71 who recognized the great importance of this disease and gave an inimitable account of it in the ,trans4 of the ,royal ,medical and ,chirurgical ,society of ,london1 #ahgj1 and the ,archiv fuer ,ohrenheilkunde1 #ahgc4 ,adenoid vegetations1 which consist of an abnormal enlargement of ,luschka's tonsil in the vault of the pharynx1 frequently give rise to ear disease in children1 and1 if not attended to1 lay the foundation of nasal and ear troubles in after life4 ,they are often associated with enlargement of the faucial tonsils4 ,journals4--,in #ahfd the ,archiv fuer ,ohrenheilkunde was started by ,politzer and ,schwartze1 and1 in #ahfg1 the ,monatsschrift fuer ,ohrenheilkunde 7a monthly publication7 was founded by ,voltolini1 ,gruber1 ,weber-,liel and ,ruedinger4 ,appearing first as the ,archives of ,ophthalmology and ,otology1 simultaneously in ,english and ,german1 in #ahfi1 the ,archives of ,otology became a separate publication under the editorship of ,knapp1 ,moos and ,roosa in #ahgi4 ,amongst other journals now existing are ,annales des maladies de l'oreille et du larynx 7,paris71 ,journal of ,laryngology 7,london71 ,centralblatt fuer ,ohrenheilkunde 7,leipzig71 c4 ,societies4--,the earliest society formed was the ,american ,otological ,society 7#ahfh71 which held annual meetings and published yearly transactions4 ,flourishing societies for the study of otology 7sometimes combined with laryngology7 exist in almost all civilized countries1 and they usually publish transactions consisting of original papers and cases4 ,the ,otological ,society of the ,united ,kingdom was founded in #aijj4 ,international ,congresses4--,international ,otological congresses have been held at intervals of about four years at ,new ,york1 ,milan1 ,basel1 ,brussels1 ,florence1 ,london and ,bordeaux 7#aijd74 ,the proceedings of the congresses appear as substantial volumes4 ,hospitals4--,the earliest record of a public institution for the treatment of ear diseases is a ,dispensary for ,diseases of the ,eye and ,ear in ,london1 started by ,saunders and ,cooper1 which existed in #ahjd2 the aural part1 however1 was soon closed1 so that the actual oldest institution appears to be the ,royal ,ear ,hospital1 ,london1 which was founded by ,curtis in #ahaf4 ,four years later there was started the ,new ,york ,eye and ,ear ,infirmary4 ,at the present time in every large town of ,europe and ,america ear diseases are treated either in separate departments of general hospitals or in institutions especially devoted to the purpose4 ,for a history of otology from the earliest times refer to ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,diseases of the ,ear1 by ,d4,b4 ,st ,john ,roosa1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 7#fth edition1 ,new ,york1 #ahhe71 and for a general account of the present state of otological science to ,a ,text-,book of the ,diseases of the ,ear for ,students and ,practitioners1 by ,professor ,dr ,adam ,politzer1 transl4 by ,milton ,j4 ,ballin1 ,ph4,b41 ,m4,d41 and ,clarence ,j4 ,heller1 ,m4,d4 7#dth edition1 ,london1 #aijb74 7,e4 ,c4 ,b4997 ,,earl1 a title and rank of nobility 7corresponding to ,lat4 comes2 ,fr4 comte71 now the third in order of the ,british peerage1 and accordingly intervening between marquess and viscount4 ,earl1 however1 is the oldest title and rank of ,english nobles1 and was the highest until the year #accg1 when the ,black ,prince was created duke of ,cornwall by ,edward ,,iii4 ,the nature of a modern earldom is readily understood1 since it is a rank and dignity of nobility which1 while it confers no official power or authority1 is inalienable1 indivisible1 and descends in regular succession to all the heirs under the limitation in the grant until1 on their failure1 it becomes extinct4 ,the title is of ,scandinavian origin1 and first appears in ,england under ,canute as jarl1 which was englished as eorl4 ,like the ealdorman1 whose place he took1 the eorl was a great royal officer1 who might be set over several counties1 but who presided separately in the county court of each with the bishop of the diocese4 ,although there were counts in ,normandy before the ,norman ,conquest1 they differed in character from the ,english earls1 and the earl's position appears to have been but slightly modified by the ,conquest4 ,he was still generally entitled to the third penny of the county1 but his office tended1 under ,norman influence1 to become an hereditary dignity and his sphere was restricted by the ,conqueror to a single county4 ,the right to the third penny is a question of some obscurity1 but its possession seems to have been deemed the distinctive mark of an earl1 while the girding with the sword of the county formed the essential feature in his creation or investiture1 as it continued to do for centuries later4 ,the fact that every earl was the earl of a particular county has been much obscured by the loose usage of early times1 when the style adopted was sometimes that of the noble's surname 7e4g4 the ,earls ,ferrers71 sometimes that of his chief seat 7e4g4 the ,earls of ,arundel71 and sometimes that of the county4 ,palatine earldoms1 or palatinates1 were those which possessed regalia1 i4e4 special privileges delegated by the crown4 ,the two great examples1 which dated from ,norman times1 were ,chester and ,durham1 where the earl and the bishop respectively had their own courts and jurisdiction1 and were almost petty sovereigns4 ,the earliest known charter creating an earl is that by which ,stephen bestowed on ,geoffrey de ,mandeville1 in or about #aadj1 the earldom of ,essex as an hereditary dignity4 ,several other creations by ,stephen and the empress ,maud followed in quick succession4 ,from at least the time of the ,conquest the earl had a double character2 he was one of the barons1 or tenants in chief1 in virtue of the fief he held of the crown1 as well as an earl in virtue of his belting 7with the sword7 and his third penny of the county4 ,his fief would descend to the heirs of his body2 and the earliest charters creating earldoms were granted with the same limitation4 ,the dignity might thus descend to a woman1 and1 in that case1 like the territorial fief1 it would be held by her husband1 who might be summoned to parliament in right of it4 ,the earldom of ,warwick thus passed through several families till it was finally obtained1 in #addi1 by the ,kingmaker1 who had married the heiress of the former earls4 ,but in the case of co-heiresses 7more daughters than one71 the king determined which1 if any1 should inherit the dignity4 ,the #adth century saw some changes introduced4 ,the earldom of ,march1 created in #acbh1 was the first that was not named from a county or its capital town4 ,under ,edward ,,iii4 also an idea appears to have arisen that earldoms were connected with the tenure of lands1 and in #accg several fresh ones were created and large grants of lands made for their support4 ,the first earldom granted with limitation to the heirs male of the grantee's body was that of ,nottingham in #achc4 ,another innovation was the grant of the first earldom for life only in #acgg4 ,the girding with the sword was the only observance at a creation till the first year of ,edward ,,vi41 when the imposition of the cap of dignity and a circlet of gold was added4 ,under ,james ,i4 the patent of creation was declared to be sufficient without any ceremony4 ,an earl's robe of estate has three bars of ermine1 but possibly it had originally four4 ,something should be said of anomalous earldoms with ,norman or ,scottish styles4 ,the ,norman styles originated either under the ,norman kings or at the time of the conquest of ,normandy by the house of ,lancaster4 ,to the former period belonged that of ,aumale1 which successive fresh creations1 under the ,latinized form ,albemarle have perpetuated to the present day 7see ,,albemarle1 ,,earls ,,and ,,dukes ,,of74 ,the so-called earls of ,eu and of ,mortain1 in that period1 were really holders of ,norman comtes4 ,henry ,v4 and his son created five or six1 it is said1 but really seven at least1 ,norman countships or earldoms1 of which ,harcourt 7#adah71 ,perche 7#adai71 ,dreux 7#adbg7 and ,mortain 78 #adcj7 were bestowed on ,english nobles1 ,eu 7#adai71 and ,tankerville 7#adai7 on ,english commoners1 and ,longueville 7#adai7 on a foreigner1 ,gaston de ,foix4 ,of these the earldom of ,eu was assumed by the earls of ,essex till the death of ,robert1 the parliament's general 7#afdf71 while the title of ,tankerville still survives under a modern creation 7#agad74 ,an anomalous royal licence of #affa permitted the earl of ,bath to use the title of earl of ,corbeil by alleged hereditary right4 ,of ,scottish earldoms recognized in the ,english parliament the most remarkable case is that of the ,lords ,umfraville1 who were summoned for three generations 7#abig-achj71 as earls of ,angus2 ,henry1 ,lord ,beaumont1 also was summoned as earl of ,buchan from #accd to #acci4 ,the earldom of ,chester is granted to the princes of ,wales on their creation1 and the ,scottish earldom of ,carrick is held by the eldest son of the sovereign under act of parliament4 ,the premier earldom is that of ,arundel 7q4v471 but as this is at present united with the dukedom of ,norfolk1 the oldest earldom not merged in a higher title is that of ,shrewsbury 7#addb71 the next in seniority being ,derby 7#adhe71 and ,huntingdon 7#aebi74 ,these three have been known as the catskin earls1 a term of uncertain origin4 ,the ancient earldom of ,wiltshire 7#acig7 was unsuccessfully claimed in #ahfi by ,mr ,scrope of ,danby1 and that of ,norfolk 7#acab71 in #aijf1 by ,lord ,mowbray and ,stourton4 ,the premier earldom of ,scotland as recognized by the ,union ,roll 7#agjg71 is that of ,crawford1 held by the ,lindsays since its creation in #acih2 but it is not one of the ancient seven earldoms4 ,the ,decreet of ,ranking 7#afjf7 appears to have recognized the earldom of ,sutherland as the most ancient in virtue of a charter of #acdg1 but the ,house of ,lords' decision of #agga recognized it as having descended from at least the year #abge1 and it may be as old as #abbh4 ,it is at present united with the dukedom of ,sutherland4 ,the original seven earldoms 7of which it was one7 represented seven provinces1 each of which was under a mormaer4 ,this ,celtic title was rendered jarl by the ,norsemen1 and under ,alexander ,i4 7c4 #aaae7 began to be replaced by earl 7comes71 owing to ,anglo-,norman influence1 which also tended to make these earldoms less official and more feudal4 ,in ,ireland the duke of ,leinster is1 as earl of ,kildare1 premier earl as well as premier duke4 ,an earl is ,right ,honourable1 and is styled ,my ,lord4 ,his eldest son bears his father's second title1 and therefore1 that second title being in most cases a viscounty1 he generally is styled ,viscount2 where1 as with ,devon and ,huntingdon1 there is no second title1 one may be assumed for convenience2 under all circumstances1 however1 the eldest son of an earl takes precedence immediately after the viscounts4 ,the younger sons of earls are ,honourable1 but all their daughters are ,ladies4 ,in formal documents and instruments1 the sovereign1 when addressing or making mention of any peer of the degree of an earl1 usually designates him trusty and well-beloved cousin1--a form of appellation first adopted by ,henry ,,iv41 who either by descent or alliance was actually related to every earl and duke in the realm4 ,the wife of an earl is a countess2 she is ,right ,honourable1 and is styled ,my ,lady4 ,for the earl's coronet see ,,crown ,,and ,,coronet4 ,see ,lord's ,reports on the ,dignity of a ,peer2 ,pike's ,constitutional ,history of the ,house of ,lords2 ,selden's ,titles of ,honour2 ,g4,e4 ,c7okayne7's ,complete ,peerage2 ,round's ,geoffrey de ,mandeville4 7,j4 ,h4 ,r47 ,,earle1 ,,john 7c4 #afja-affe71 ,english divine1 was born at ,york about #afja4 ,he matriculated at ,christ ,church1 ,oxford1 but migrated to ,merton1 where he obtained a fellowship4 ,in #afca he was proctor and also chaplain to ,philip1 earl of ,pembroke1 then chancellor of the university1 who presented him to the rectory of ,bishopston in ,wiltshire4 ,his fame spread1 and in #afda he was appointed chaplain and tutor to ,prince ,charles4 ,in #afdc he was elected one of the ,assembly of ,divines at ,westminster1 but his sympathies with the king and with the ,anglican ,church were so strong that he declined to sit4 ,early in #afdc he was chosen chancellor of the cathedral of ,salisbury1 but of this preferment he was soon deprived as a malignant4 ,after ,cromwell's great victory at ,worcester1 ,earle went abroad1 and was named clerk of the closet and chaplain to ,charles ,,ii4 ,he spent a year at ,antwerp in the house of ,isaac ,walton's friend1 ,george ,morley1 who afterwards became bishop of ,winchester4 ,he next joined the duke of ,york 7,james ,,ii47 at ,paris1 returning to ,england at the ,restoration4 ,he was at once appointed dean of ,westminster1 and in #affa was one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy4 ,he was on friendly terms with ,richard ,baxter4 ,in ,november #affb he was consecrated bishop of ,worcester1 and was translated1 ten months later1 to the see of ,salisbury1 where he conciliated the nonconformists4 ,he was strongly opposed to the ,conventicle and ,five ,mile ,acts4 ,during the great plague ,earle attended the king and queen at ,oxford1 and there he died on the #agth of ,november #affe4 ,earle's chief title to remembrance is his witty and humorous work entitled ,microcosmographie1 or a ,peece of the ,world discovered1 in ,essayes and ,characters1 which throws light on the manners of the time4 ,first published anonymously in #afbh1 it became very popular1 and ran through ten editions in the lifetime of the author4 ,the style is quaint and epigrammatic2 and the reader is frequently reminded of ,thomas ,fuller by such passages as this3 ,a university dunner is a gentlemen follower cheaply purchased1 for his own money has hyr'd him4 ,several reprints of the book have been issued since the author's death2 and in #afga a ,french translation by ,j4 ,dymock appeared with the title of ,le ,vice ridicule4 ,earle was employed by ,charles ,,ii4 to make the ,latin translation of the ,eikon ,basilike1 published in #afdi4 ,a similar translation of ,r4 ,hooker's ,ecclesiastical ,polity was accidentally destroyed4 ,dr ,earle1 says ,lord ,clarendon in his ,life1 was a man of great piety and devotion1 a most eloquent and powerful preacher1 and of a conversation so pleasant and delightful1 so very innocent1 and so very facetious1 that no man's company was more desired and loved4 ,no man was more negligent in his dress and habit and mien1 no man more wary and cultivated in his behaviour and discourse4 ,he was very dear to the ,lord ,falkland1 with whom he spent as much time as he could make his own4 ,see especially ,philip ,bliss's edition of the ,microcosmographie 7,london1 #ahaa71 and ,e4 ,arber's ,reprint 7,london1 #ahfh74 ,,earle1 ,,ralph 7#agea-ahja71 ,american historical and portrait painter1 was born at ,leicester1 ,massachusetts1 on the #aath of ,may #agea4 ,like so many of the colonial craftsmen1 ,earle was self-taught1 and for many years was an itinerant painter4 ,he went with the ,governor's ,guard to ,lexington and made battle sketches1 from which in #agge he painted four scenes1 engraved by ,amos ,doolittle1 which are probably the first historical paintings by an ,american4 ,after the ,war of ,independence1 ,earle went to ,london1 entered the studio of ,benjamin ,west1 and painted the king and many notables4 ,after his return to ,america in #aghf he made portraits of ,timothy ,dwight1 ,governor ,caleb ,strong1 ,roger ,sherman1 and other prominent men4 ,he also painted a large picture of ,niagara ,falls4 ,he died at ,bolton1 ,connecticut1 on the #afth of ,august #ahja4 ,,earl ,,marshal1 in ,england1 a functionary who ranks as the eighth of the great officers of state4 ,he is the head of the college of arms1 and has the appointment of the kings-of-arms1 heralds and pursuivants at his discretion4 ,he attends the sovereign in opening and closing the session of parliament1 walking opposite to the lord great chamberlain on his or her right hand4 ,it is his duty to make arrangements for the order of all state processions and ceremonials1 especially for coronations and royal marriages and funerals4 ,like the lord high constable he rode into ,westminster ,hall with the champion after a coronation1 till the coronation banquet was abandoned1 taking his place on the left hand1 and with the lord great chamberlain he assists at the introduction of all newly-created peers into the ,house of ,lords4 ,the marshal appears in the feudal armies to have been in command of the cavalry under the constable1 and to have in some measure superseded him as master of the horse in the royal palace4 ,he exercised joint and co-ordinate jurisdiction with the constable in the court of chivalry1 and afterwards became the sole judge of that tribunal till its obsolescence4 ,the marshalship of ,england was formerly believed to have been inherited from the ,clares by the ,marshal family1 who had only been marshals of the household4 ,it was held1 however1 by the latter family1 as the office of chief 7magister7 marshal1 as early as the days of ,henry ,i4 ,through them1 under ,henry ,,iii41 it passed to the ,bigods1 as their eldest co-heirs4 ,in #acjf it fell to the crown on the death of the last ,bigod1 earl of ,norfolk1 who had made ,edward ,i4 his heir1 and in #acaf it was granted by ,edward ,,ii4 to his own younger brother1 ,thomas of ,brotherton1 earl of ,norfolk4 ,as yet the style of the office was only marshal although the last ,bigod holder1 being an earl1 was sometimes loosely spoken of as the earl marshal4 ,the office1 having reverted to the crown1 was granted out anew by ,richard ,,ii41 in #ache1 to ,thomas ,mowbray1 earl of ,nottingham1 the representative of ,thomas of ,brotherton4 ,in #achf the style of earl marshal was formally granted to him in addition4 ,after several attainders and partial restorations in the reigns of the ,tudors and the ,stuarts1 the earl marshalship was granted anew to the ,howards by ,charles ,,ii4 in #afgb and entailed on their male line1 with many specific remainders and limitations1 under which settlement it has regularly descended to the present duke of ,norfolk4 ,its holders1 however1 could not execute the office until the ,roman ,catholic emancipation1 and had to appoint deputies4 ,the duke is styled earl marshal and hereditary marshal of ,england1 but the double style would seem to be an error1 though the ,mowbrays1 with their double creation 7#ache1 #achf7 might have claimed it4 ,his ,grace appends the letters ,e4,m4 to his signature1 and bears behind his shield two batons crossed in saltire1 the marshal's rod 7virga7 having been the badge of the office from ,norman times4 ,there appear to have been hereditary marshals of ,ireland1 but their history is not well ascertained4 ,the ,keiths were ,great ,marischals of ,scotland from at least the days of ,robert ,bruce1 and were created earls marischal in or about #adeh1 but lost both earldom and office by the attainder of ,george1 the #ajth earl1 in #agaf4 7,see also ,,marshal2 ,,state1 ,,great ,,officers ,,of47 ,see ,the ,marshalship of ,england1 in ,j4,h4 ,round1 ,commune of ,london and ,other ,studies 7,london1 #ahii72 ,g4,e4 ,c7okayne7's ,complete ,peerage4 7,j4 ,h4 ,r47 ,,earlom1 ,,richard 7#agdb-ahbb71 ,english mezzotint engraver1 was born and died in ,london4 ,his natural faculty for art appears to have been first called into exercise by admiration for the lord mayor's state coach1 just decorated by ,cipriani4 ,he tried to copy the paintings1 and was sent to study under ,cipriani4 ,he displayed great skill as a draughtsman1 and at the same time acquired without assistance the art of engraving in mezzotint4 ,in #agfe he was employed by ,alderman ,boydell1 then one of the most liberal promoters of the fine arts1 to make a series of drawings from the pictures at ,houghton ,hall2 and these he afterwards engraved in mezzotint4 ,his most perfect works as engraver are perhaps the fruit and flower pieces after the ,dutch artists ,van ,os and ,van ,huysum4 ,amongst his historical and figure subjects are--,agrippina1 after ,west2 ,love in ,bondage1 after ,guido ,reni2 the ,royal ,academy1 the ,embassy of ,hyderbeck to meet ,lord ,cornwallis1 and a ,tiger ,hunt1 the last three after ,zoffany2 and ,lord ,heathfield1 after ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,earlom also executed a series of #bjj facsimiles of the drawings and sketches of ,claude ,lorraine1 which was published in #c vols4 folio1 under the title of ,liber veritatis 7#aggg-ahai74 ,,earlston 7formerly ,,ercildoune1 of which it is a corruption71 a parish and market town of ,berwickshire1 ,scotland4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ajdi4 ,it is situated on ,leader ,water in ,lauderdale1 #gba_/b m4 ,s4,e4 of ,edinburgh by the ,north ,british railway branch line from ,reston ,junction to ,st ,boswells1 and about #d m4 ,n4,e4 of ,melrose4 ,when the place was a hamlet of rude huts it was called ,arcioldun or ,prospect ,fort1 with reference to ,black ,hill 7#ajjc ft471 on the top of which may yet be traced the concentric rings of the ,british fort by which it was crowned4 ,it is said to be possible to make out the remains of the cave-dwellings of the ,ottadeni1 the aborigines of the district4 ,in the #abth and #acth centuries the ,lindsays and the earls of ,march and ,dunbar were the chief baronial families4 ,the particular link with the remote past1 however1 is the ivy-clad ruin of the ancient tower1 ,the ,rhymer's ,castle1 the traditional residence of ,thomas ,learmont1 commonly called ,thomas of ,ercildoune1 or ,thomas the ,rhymer1 poet and prophet1 and friend of the ,fairies1 who was born here about #abbe4 ,rhymer's ,tower was crumbling to pieces1 and its stones were being used in the erection of dykes1 cottages and houses1 when the ,edinburgh ,border ,counties ,association acquired the relic and surrounding lands in #ahie1 and took steps to prevent further spoliation and decay4 ,the leading manufactures are ginghams1 tweeds and shirtings1 and the town is also an important agricultural centre1 stock sales taking place at regular intervals and cattle and horse fairs being held every year4 ,some #c m4 away is the estate of ,bemersyde1 said to have been in the possession of the ,haigs for nearly #ajjj years4 ,the prospect from ,bemersyde ,hill was ,sir ,walter ,scott's favourite view4 ,the castle at ,bemersyde was erected in #aece to secure the peace of the ,border4 ,,early1 ,,jubal ,,anderson 7#ahaf-ahid71 ,american soldier and lawyer1 was born in ,franklin county1 ,virginia1 on the #crd of ,november #ahaf1 and graduated at the ,u4,s4 ,military ,academy in #ahcg4 ,he served in the ,seminole ,war of #ahcg-ch1 after which he resigned in order to practise law in ,franklin county1 ,va4 ,he also engaged in state politics1 and served in the ,mexican ,war as a major of ,virginia volunteers4 ,he was strongly opposed to secession1 but thought it his duty to conform to the action of his state4 ,as a colonel in the ,confederate army1 he rendered conspicuous service at the first battle of ,bull ,run 7q4v474 ,promoted brigadier-general1 and subsequently major-general1 ,early served throughout the ,virginian campaigns of #ahfb-fc1 and defended the lines of ,fredericksburg during the battle of ,chancellorsville4 ,at ,gettysburg he commanded his division of ,ewell's corps4 ,in the campaign of #ahfd ,early1 who had now reached the rank of lieutenant-general1 commanded the ,confederate forces in the ,shenandoah ,valley4 ,the action of ,lynchburg left him free to move northwards1 his opponent being compelled to march away from the ,valley4 ,early promptly utilized his advantage1 crossed the ,potomac1 and defeated1 on the ,monocacy1 all the troops which could be gathered to meet him4 ,he appeared before the lines of ,washington1 put part of ,maryland and ,pennsylvania under contribution1 and only retired to the ,valley when threatened by heavy forces hurriedly sent up to ,washington4 ,he then fought a successful action at ,winchester1 reappeared on the ,potomac1 and sent his cavalry on a raid into ,pennsylvania4 ,a greatly superior army was now formed under ,general ,sheridan to oppose ,early4 ,in spite of his skill and energy the ,confederate leader was defeated in the battles of ,winchester and ,fisher's ,hill4 ,finally1 on the #aith of ,october1 after inflicting at first a severe blow upon the ,federal army in its camps on ,cedar ,creek1 he was decisively beaten by ,sheridan4 7,see ,,shenandoah ,,valley ,,campaigns47 ,waynesboro 7,march #ahfe7 was his last fight1 after which he was relieved from his command4 ,general ,early was regarded by many as the ablest soldier1 after ,lee and ,jackson1 in the ,army of ,northern ,virginia1 and one of the ablest in the whole ,confederate army4 ,that he failed to make headway against an army far superior in numbers1 and led by a general of the calibre of ,sheridan1 cannot be held to prove the falsity of this judgment4 ,after the peace he went to ,canada1 but in #ahfg returned to resume the practice of law4 ,for a time he managed in conjunction with ,general ,beauregard the ,louisiana lottery4 ,he died at ,lynchburg1 ,va41 on the #bnd of ,march #ahid4 ,general ,early was for a time president of the ,southern ,historical ,society1 and wrote1 besides various essays and historical papers1 ,a ,memoir of the ,last ,year of the ,war1 c4 7#ahfg74 ,,early ,,english ,,period1 in architecture1 the term given by ,rickman to the first pointed or ,gothic style in ,england1 nominally #aahi-acjg1 which succeeded the ,romanesque or ,norman period towards the end of the #abth century1 and developed into the ,decorated period in the commencement of the #adth century4 ,it is chiefly characterized by the almost universal employment of the pointed arch1 not only in arches of wide span such as those of the nave arcade1 but for doorways and windows4 ,the actual introduction of the pointed arch took place at a much earlier date1 as in the nave arcade of the ,cistercian ,abbey of ,buildwas 7#aadj71 though the clerestory window above has semicircular arches4 ,it is customary1 therefore1 to make allowance for a transitional epoch from the middle of the #abth century4 ,although the pointed arches used are sometimes equilateral and sometimes drop-arches1 the lancet-arch is the most characteristic4 ,the period is best recognized in ,england by the great depth given to the hollows of the mouldings1 alternating with fillets and rolls1 by the decoration of the hollows with the dog-tooth ornament1 by the circular abacus of the capitals1 and the employment of slender detached shafts of ,purbeck marble which are attached to piers by circular moulded shaft-rings 7,fr4 anneau74 ,the arches are sometimes cusped2 circles with trefoils1 quatrefoils1 c41 are introduced into the tracery1 and large rose windows in the transept or nave1 as at ,lincoln 7#abbj74 ,the conventional foliage decorating the capitals is of great beauty and variety1 and extends to spandrils1 bosses1 c4 ,in the spandrils of the arches of the nave1 transept or choir arcades1 diaper work is occasionally found1 as in the transept of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the latter is one of the chief examples of the period1 to which must be added the cathedral of ,salisbury 7except the tower72 the ,galilee at ,ely2 nave and transept of ,wells 7#abbe-abdj72 nave of ,lincoln2 west front of ,peterborough2 and the minster at ,beverley4 7,r4 ,p4 ,s47 ,,earn1 the name of a loch and river in ,perthshire1 ,scotland4 ,the loch1 lying almost due east and west1 is #fa_/b m4 long and #d_/e m4 in maximum breadth1 #bhg ft4 deep1 with a mean depth of #ach ft41 covers an area of nearly #d sq4 m41 has a drainage basin of over #eda_/b sq4 m41 and stands #cag ft4 above the sea4 ,its waters are said never to freeze4 ,it discharges by the river ,earn4 ,the points of interest on its shores are ,lochearnhead 7at the southern extremity of ,glen ,ogle71 which has a station on the ,callander-,oban railway1 and the ruins of ,st ,blane's chapel2 ,edinample ,castle1 an old turreted mansion belonging to the marquess of ,breadalbane1 situated in well-wooded grounds near the pretty falls of the ,ample2 ,ardvorlich ,house1 the original of ,darlinvarach in ,scott's ,legend of ,montrose1 and the village of ,st ,fillans at the foot of the loch1 once the terminus of the branch of the ,caledonian railway from ,perth4 ,the river flows out of ,loch ,earn1 pursues an eastward course with a gentle inclination towards the south1 and reaches the ,firth of ,tay1 #fa_/b m4 below ,perth1 after a total run of #di m4 ,its chief tributaries on the right are the ,ruchil1 ,machany1 ,ruthven1 ,may and ,farg1 and on the left1 the ,lednock and ,turret4 ,it is navigable by vessels of #ej tons as far up as ,bridge of ,earn1 and is a notable fishing stream1 abounding with salmon and trout1 perch and pike being also plentiful4 ,on the ,lednock are the falls of the ,devil's ,cauldron and on the ,turret and its feeders several graceful cascades4 ,the principal places of interest on the banks of the ,earn are ,dunira1 the favourite seat of ,henry ,dundas1 #ast ,viscount ,melville1 who took the title of his barony from the estate and to whose memory an obelisk was raised on the adjoining hill of ,dunmore2 the village of ,comrie2 the town of ,crieff2 the ruined castle of ,innerpeffray1 founded in #afaj by the #ast ,lord ,maderty1 close to which is the library founded in #afia by the #crd ,lord ,maderty1 containing some rare black-letter books and the ,bible that belonged to the marquess of ,montrose2 ,gascon ,hall1 now in ruins1 but with traditions reaching back to the days of ,wallace2 ,dupplin ,castle1 a fine ,tudor mansion1 seat of the earl of ,kinnoull1 who derives from it the title of his viscounty2 ,aberdalgie1 ,forgandenny and ,bridge of ,earn1 a health resort situated amidst picturesque surroundings4 ,strathearn1 as the valley of the ,earn is called1 extending from the loch to the ,firth of ,tay1 is a beautiful and1 on the whole1 fertile tract1 though liable at times to heavy floods4 ,the earl of ,perth is hereditary steward of ,strathearn4 ,,earnest 7probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles1 adapted from ,lat4 equivalent arrha1 due to a confusion with the adjective earnest1 serious1 ,o4 ,eng4 eornust1 cognate with ,ger4 ernst71 the payment of a sum of money by the buyer of goods to the seller on the conclusion of a bargain as a pledge for its due performance4 ,it is almost similar to the arrha of the ,roman law1 which may be traced back in the history of legal institutions to a period when the validity of a contract depended not so much upon the real intention of the parties1 as upon the due observance of a prescribed ceremony4 ,but earnest was never part payment1 which arrha might have been4 ,apart from its survival as a custom1 its chief importance in ,english law is its recognition by the ,statute of ,frauds as giving validity to contracts for the sale of goods of a value exceeding ,l#aj 7see ,,sale ,,of ,,goods74 ,it is in that statute clearly distinguished from part payment1 consequently any sum1 however small1 would be sufficient as earnest1 being given as a token that the contract is binding and should be expressly stated so by the giver4 ,the giving of earnest1 or hand-money1 as it is sometimes called1 has now fallen into very general disuse4 ,,ear-,,ring1 an ornament worn pendent from the ear1 and generally suspended 7especially among the more civilized races7 by means of a ring or hook passing through the pendulous lobe of the ear4 ,among savage races the impulse to decorate1 or at any rate to modify the appearance of the ear1 is almost universal4 ,with such peoples the ear appendage is chiefly remarkable for its extravagant dimensions4 ,many examples may be seen in the ethnographic galleries of the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,berawan people of ,borneo use plugs through the lobe of the ear #cc_/d in4 in diameter4 ,more extraordinary still is an example of a stone ear-plug worn by a ,masai1 #da_/b in4 in diameter and weighing #b lb4 #ad oz4 7,man1 #aije1 p4 #bb74 ,it is stated that according to the ,masai standard of fashion1 the lobes of the ears should be enlarged so as to be capable of meeting above the head4 ,among the superior races1 though ear ornaments of extravagant size and elaboration are not unknown1 moderation in size is commonly observed1 and greater attention is paid to workmanship and fineness of material4 ,the general usage appears to have been to have ear-rings worn in pairs1 the two ornaments in all respects resembling each other2 in ancient times1 or more recently among ,oriental races1 a single ear-ring has sometimes been worn4 ,the use of this kind of ornament1 which constantly was of great value1 dates from the remotest historical antiquity1 the earliest mention of ear-rings occurring in the book of ,genesis4 ,it appears probable that the ear-rings of ,jacob's family1 which he buried with his strange idols at ,bethel1 were regarded as amulets or talismans1 such unquestionably being the estimation in which some ornaments of this class have been held from a very early period1 as they still are held in the ,east4 ,thus in ,new ,zealand ear-rings are decorated with the teeth of enemies1 and with talismanic sharks' teeth4 ,among all the ,oriental races of whom we have any accurate knowledge1 the ,hebrews and ,egyptians excepted1 ear-rings always have been in general use by both sexes2 while in the ,west1 as well as by the ,hebrews and ,egyptians1 as a general rule they have been considered exclusively female ornaments4 ,by the ,greeks and ,romans also ear-rings were worn only by women1 and the wearing of them by a man is often spoken of as distinctively oriental4 ,illustration3 ,from ,la ,grande ,encyclopedie4 ,,fig4 #a4--;,ear-ring from an ,assyrian bas relief4 ,in archaic art1 ear-rings are frequently represented or their traces are left in the perforated ear lobes of early statues4 ,after the #dth century such perforations occur seldom4 ,in one instance1 a ,greek inscription records the weight of the detachable gold ornaments on a statue1 among which a pair of ear-rings is included4 ,ear-rings of characteristic form are frequently discovered by excavation4 ,in ,egypt1 a system of pendent chains is found hanging from a disk4 ,in ,assyria the decoration consists of pendants or knobs attached to a rigid ring4 ,in the early civilization represented by ,dr ,schliemann's ,trojan investigations1 pieces of gold plate are suspended by parallel chains4 ,in the ,mycenaean period1 ear-rings are infrequent in ,greece1 but have been found in abundance in the ,mycenaean finds of ,enkomi 7,cyprus7 in the form of pendent bulls'-heads1 or of decorative forms based on the bull's head4 ,in the tombs of the ,greek settlers in the ,crimea 7#dth century ,b4,c471 ear-rings are found of marvellous complexity and beauty4 ,the lexicographer ,pollux1 speaking of the names given to ear-rings1 derived from their forms1 mentions caryatids1 hippocamps and centauresses4 ,jewels of the same class1 of exquisite beauty and of workmanship that is truly wonderful1 have been rescued from the sepulchres of ancient ,etruria4 ,ear-rings of comparatively simple forms1 but set with pearls and other stones1 were the mode in ,rome4 ,in some instances1 the stones were of fabulous value4 ,during the ,byzantine period they once more attained an extravagant size4 ,researches among the burial places of ,anglo-,saxon ,britain have led to the discovery of jewels in considerable numbers1 which among their varieties include ear-rings executed in a style that proves the ,anglo-,saxons to have made no inconsiderable advances in the arts of civilization4 ,illustration3 ,from ,la ,grande ,encyclopedie4 ,,fig4 #b4--,thetis crossing the sea1 with the armour of ,achilles4 ,ear-ring from the ,crimea1 ,hermitage museum4 ,these same ornaments1 which never have fallen into disuse1 enjoy at the present day a considerable degree of favour1 and the tide of fashion has set towards their increased use4 ,like all other modern jewels1 however1 the ear-rings of our own times as works of art can claim no historical attributes1 because they consist as well of reproductions from all past ages and of every race as of fanciful productions that certainly can be assigned to no style of art whatever4 ,as one of the curiosities of the subject it may be mentioned that ,antonia1 wife of ,drusus1 is said by ,pliny to have attached a pair of ear-rings to her pet lamprey4 ,,earth 7a word common to ,teutonic languages1 cf4 ,ger4 ,erde1 ,dutch aarde1 ,swed4 and ,dan4 jord2 outside ,teutonic it appears only in the ,gr4 ,greek3 eraze1 on the ground2 it has been connected by some etymologists with the ,aryan root ar-1 to plough1 which is seen in the ,lat4 arare1 obsolete ,eng4 ear1 and ,gr4 ,greek3 aroun1 but this is now considered very doubtful2 see ,g4 ,curtius1 ,greek ,etymology1 ,eng4 trans41 i4 #dbf2 ,max ,mueller1 ,lectures1 #hth ed4 i4 #bid74 ,from early times the word earth has been used in several connexions--from that of soil or ground to that of the planet which we inhabit1 but it is difficult to trace the exact historic sequence of the diverse usages4 ,in the cosmogony of the ,pythagoreans1 ,platonists and other philosophers1 the term or its equivalent denoted an element or fundamental quality which conferred upon matter the character of earthiness2 and in the subsequent development of theories as to the ultimate composition of matter by the alchemists1 iatrochemists1 and early phlogistonists an element of the same name was retained 7see ,,element74 ,in modern chemistry1 the common term earth is applied to certain oxides3--the alkaline earths 7q4v47 are the oxides of calcium 7lime71 barium 7baryta7 and strontium 7strontia72 the rare earths 7q4v47 are the oxides of a certain class of rare metals4 ,,the ,,earth ,the terrestrial globe is a member of the ,solar system1 the third in distance from the ,sun1 and the largest within the orbit of ,jupiter4 ,in the wider sense it may be regarded as composed of a gaseous atmosphere 7see ,,meteorology71 which encircles the crust or lithosphere 7see ,,geography71 and surface waters or hydrosphere 7see ,,ocean ,,and ,,oceanography74 ,the description of the surface features is a branch of ,geography1 and the discussions as to their origin and permanence belongs to ,physiography 7in the narrower sense71 physiographical geology1 or physical geography4 ,the investigation of the crust belongs to geology and of rocks in particular to petrology4 ,in the present article we shall treat the subject matter of the ,earth as a planet under the following headings3--7#a7 ,figure and ,size1 7#b7 ,mass and ,density1 7#c7 ,astronomical ,relations1 7#d7 ,evolution and ,age4 ,these subjects will be treated summarily1 readers being referred to the article ,,astronomy and to the cross-references for details4 #a4 ,figure and ,size4--,to primitive man the ,earth was a flat disk with its surface diversified by mountains1 rivers and seas4 ,in many cosmogonies this disk was encircled by waters1 unmeasurable by man and extending to a junction with the sky2 and the disk stood as an island rising up through the waters from the floor of the universe1 or was borne as an immovable ship on the surface4 ,of such a nature was the cosmogony of the ,babylonians and ,hebrews2 ,homer states the same idea1 naming the encircling waters ,greek3 ,okeanos2 and ,hesiod regarded it as a disk midway between the sky and the infernal regions4 ,the theory that the ,earth extended downwards to the limit of the universe was subjected to modification when it was seen that the same sun and stars reappeared in the east after their setting in the west4 ,but man slowly realized that the earth was isolated in space1 floating freely as a balloon1 and much speculation was associated about that which supported the ,earth4 ,tunnels in the foundations to permit the passage of the sun and stars were suggested2 the ,greeks considered twelve columns to support the heavens1 and in their mythology the god ,atlas appears condemned to support the columns2 while the ,egyptians had the ,earth supported by four elephants1 which themselves stood on a tortoise swimming on a sea4 ,earthquakes were regarded as due to a movement of these foundations2 in ,japan this was considered to be due to the motion of a great spider1 an animal subsequently replaced by a cat-fish2 in ,mongolia it is a hog2 in ,india1 a mole2 in some parts of ,south ,america1 a whale2 and among some of the ,north ,american ,indians1 a giant tortoise4 ,the doctrine of the spherical form has been erroneously assigned to ,thales2 but he accepted the ,semitic conception of the disk1 and regarded the production of springs after earthquakes as due to the inrushing of the waters under the ,earth into fissures in the surface4 ,his pupil1 ,anaximander 7#faj-edg71 according to ,diogenes ,laertius1 believed it to be spherical 7see ,the ,observatory1 #ahid1 ,p4 #bjh72 and ,anaximenes probably held a similar view4 ,the spherical form is undoubtedly a discovery of ,pythagoras1 and was taught by the ,pythagoreans and by the ,eleatic ,parmenides4 ,the expositor of greatest moment was ,aristotle2 his arguments are those which we employ to-day3--the ship gradually disappearing from hull to mast as it recedes from the harbour to the horizon2 the circular shadow cast by the ,earth on the ,moon during an eclipse1 and the alteration in the appearance of the heavens as one passes from point to point on the ,earth's surface4#a ,he records attempts made to determine the circumference2 but the first scientific investigation in this direction was made #aej years later by ,eratosthenes4 ,the spherical form1 however1 only became generally accepted after the ,earth's circumnavigation 7see ,,geography74 ,the historical development of the methods for determining the figure of the ,earth 7by which we mean a theoretical surface in part indicated by the ocean at rest1 and in other parts by the level to which water freely communicating with the oceans by canals traversing the land masses would rise7 and the mathematical investigation of this problem are treated in the articles ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the1 and ,,geodesy2 here the results are summarized4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton deduced from the mechanical consideration of the figure of equilibrium of a mass of rotating fluid1 the form of an oblate spheroid1 the ellipticity of a meridian section being #a_/bca1 and the axes in the ratio #bcj 3 #bca4 ,geodetic measurements by the ,cassinis and other ,french astronomers pointed to a prolate form1 but the ,newtonian figure was proved to be correct by the measurement of meridional arcs in ,peru and ,lapland by the expeditions organized by the ,french ,academy of ,sciences4 ,more recent work points to an elliptical equatorial section1 thus making the earth pear-shaped4 ,the position of the longer axis is somewhat uncertain2 it is certainly in ,africa1 ,clarke placing it in longitude #h deg4 #ae' ,w41 and ,schubert in longitude #da deg4 #d' ,e42 ,w4,j4 ,sollas1 arguing from terrestrial symmetry1 has chosen the position lat4 #f deg4 ,n41 long4 #bh deg4 ,e41 i4e4 between ,clarke's and ,schubert's positions4 ,for the lengths of the axes and the ellipticity of the ,earth1 see ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the4 #b4 ,mass and ,density4--,the earliest scientific investigation on the density and mass of the ,earth 7the problem is really single if the volume of the ,earth be known7 was made by ,newton1 who1 mainly from astronomical considerations1 suggested the limiting densities #e and #f2 it is remarkable that this prophetic guess should be realized1 the mean value from subsequent researches being about #ea_/b1 which gives for the mass the value #f x #ajba tons4 ,the density of the ,earth has been determined by several experimenters within recent years by methods described in the article ,,gravitation2 the most probable value is there stated to be #e4ebg4 #c4 ,astronomical ,relations4--,the grandest achievements of astronomical science are undoubtedly to be associated with the elucidation of the complex motion of our planet4 ,the notion that the ,earth was fixed and immovable at the centre of an immeasurable universe long possessed the minds of men2 and we find the illustrious ,ptolemy accepting this view in the #bnd century ,a4,d41 and rejecting the notion of a rotating ,earth--a theory which had been proposed as early as the #eth century ,b4,c4 by ,philolaus on philosophical grounds1 and in the #crd century ,b4,c4 by the astronomer ,aristarchus of ,samos4 ,he argued that if the ,earth rotated then points at the equator had the enormous velocity of about #ajjj m4 per hour1 and as a consequence there should be terrific gales from the east2 the fact that there were no such gales invalidated1 in his opinion1 the theory4 ,the ,ptolemaic theory was unchallenged until #aedc1 in which year the ,de ,revolutionibus orbium ,celestium of ,copernicus was published4 ,in this work it was shown that the common astronomical phenomena could be more simply explained by regarding the ,earth as annually revolving about a fixed ,sun1 and daily rotating about itself4 ,a clean sweep was made of the geocentric epicyclic motions of the planets which ,ptolemy's theory demanded1 and in place there was substituted a procession of planets about the ,sun at different distances4 ,the development of the ,copernican theory--the corner-stone of modern astronomy--by ,johann ,kepler and ,sir ,isaac ,newton is treated in the article ,,astronomy3 ,history2 here we shall summarily discuss the motions of our planet and its relation to the solar system4 ,the ,earth has two principal motions--revolution about the ,sun1 rotation about its axis2 there are in addition a number of secular motions4 ,revolution4--,the ,earth revolves about the ,sun in an elliptical orbit having the ,sun at one focus4 ,the plane of the orbit is termed the ecliptic2 it is inclined to the ,earth's equator at an angle termed the obliquity1 and the points of intersection of the equator and ecliptic are termed the equinoctial points4 ,the major axis of the ellipse is the line of apsides2 when the ,earth is nearest the ,sun it is said to be in perihelion1 when farthest it is in aphelion4 ,the mean distance of the ,earth from the ,sun is a most important astronomical constant1 since it is the unit of linear measurement2 its value is about #ic1jjj1jjj m41 and the difference between the perihelion and aphelion distances is about #c1jjj1jjj m4 ,the eccentricity of the orbit is #j4jafgea4 ,a tabular comparison of the orbital constants of the ,earth and the other planets is given in the article ,,planet4 ,the period of revolution with regard to the ,sun1 or1 in other words1 the time taken by the ,sun apparently to pass from one equinox to the same equinox1 is the tropical or equinoctial year2 its length is #cfe d4 #e hrs4 #dh m4 #df secs4 ,it is about #bj minutes shorter than the true or sidereal year1 which is the time taken for the ,sun apparently to travel from one star to it again4 ,the difference in these two years is due to the secular variation termed precession 7see below74 ,a third year is named the anomalistic year1 which is the time occupied in the passage from perihelion to perihelion2 it is a little longer than the sidereal4 ,rotation4--,the ,earth rotates about an axis terminating at the north and south geographical poles1 and perpendicular to the equator2 the period of rotation is termed the day 7q4v471 of which several kinds are distinguished according to the body or point of reference4 ,the rotation is performed from west to east2 this daily rotation occasions the diurnal motion of the celestial sphere1 the rising of the ,sun and stars in the east and their setting in the west1 and also the phenomena of day and night4 ,the inclination of the axis to the ecliptic brings about the presentation of places in different latitudes to the more direct rays of the sun2 this is revealed in the variation in the length of daylight with the time of the year1 and the phenomena of seasons4 ,although the rotation of the ,earth was an accepted fact soon after its suggestion by ,copernicus1 an experimental proof was wanting until #ahea1 when ,foucault performed his celebrated pendulum experiment at the ,pantheon1 ,paris4 ,a pendulum about #bjj ft4 long1 composed of a flexible wire carrying a heavy iron bob1 was suspended so as to be free to oscillate in any direction4 ,the bob was provided with a style which passed over a table strewn with fine sand1 so that the style traced the direction in which the bob was swinging4 ,it was found that the oscillating pendulum never retraced its path1 but at each swing it was apparently deviated to the right1 and moreover the deviations in equal times were themselves equal4 ,this means that the floor of the ,pantheon was moving1 and therefore the ,earth was rotating4 ,if the pendulum were swung in the southern hemisphere1 the deviation would be to the left2 if at the equator it would not deviate1 while at the poles the plane of oscillation would traverse a complete circle in #bd hours4 ,the rotation of the ,earth appears to be perfectly uniform1 comparisons of the times of transits1 eclipses1 c41 point to a variation of less than #a_/ajjth of a second since the time of ,ptolemy4 ,theoretical investigations on the phenomena of tidal friction point1 however1 to a retardation1 which may to some extent be diminished by the accelerations occasioned by the shrinkage of the globe1 and some other factors difficult to evaluate 7see ,,tide74 ,we now proceed to the secular variations4 ,precession4--,the axis of the earth does not preserve an invariable direction in space1 but in a certain time it describes a cone1 in much the same manner as the axis of a top spinning out of the vertical4 ,the equator1 which preserves approximately the same inclination to the ecliptic 7there is a slight variation in the obliquity which we shall mention later71 must move so that its intersections with the ecliptic1 or equinoctial points1 pass in a retrograde direction1 i4e4 opposite to that of the ,earth4 ,this motion is termed the precession of the equinoxes1 and was observed by ,hipparchus in the #bnd century ,b4,c42 ,ptolemy corrected the catalogue of ,hipparchus for precession by adding #b deg4 #dj' to the longitudes1 the latitudes being unaltered by this motion1 which at the present time is #ej4bf annually1 the complete circuit being made in about #bf1jjj years4 ,owing to precession the signs of the zodiac are traversing paths through the constellations1 or1 in other words1 the constellations are continually shifting with regard to the equinoctial points2 at one time the vernal equinox ,aries was in the constellations of that name2 it is now in ,pisces1 and will then pass into ,aquarius4 ,the pole star1 i4e4 the star towards which the ,earth's axis points1 is also shifting owing to precession2 in about #bgjj ,b4,c4 the ,chinese observed alpha ,draconis as the pole star 7at present alpha ,ursae minoris occupies this position and will do so until #cejj72 in #acfjj ,vega 7alpha ,lyrae7 the brightest star in the ,northern hemisphere1 will be nearest4 ,precession is the result of the ,sun and the ,moon's attraction on the ,earth not being a single force through its centre of gravity4 ,if the ,earth were a homogeneous sphere the attractions would act through the centre1 and such forces would have no effect upon the rotation about the centre of gravity1 but the ,earth being spheroidal the equatorial band which stands up as it were beyond the surface of a sphere is more strongly attracted1 with the result that the axis undergoes a tilting4 ,the precession due to the ,sun is termed the solar precession and that due to the ,moon the lunar precession2 the joint effect 7two-thirds of which is due to the ,moon7 is the luni-solar precession4 ,solar precession is greatest at the solstices and zero at the equinoxes2 the part of luni-solar precession due to the ,moon varies with the position of the ,moon in its orbit4 ,the obliquity is unchanged by precession 7see ,,precession ,,of ,,the ,,equinoxes74 ,nutation4--,in treating precession we have stated that the axis of the ,earth traces a cone1 and it follows that the pole describes a circle 7approximately7 on the celestial sphere1 about the pole of the ecliptic4 ,this is not quite true4 ,irregularities in the attracting forces which occasion precession also cause a slight oscillation backwards and forwards over the mean precessional path of the pole1 the pole tracing a wavy line or nodding4 ,both the ,sun and ,moon contribute to this effect4 ,solar nutation depends upon the position of the ,sun on the ecliptic2 its period is therefore #a year1 and in extent it is only #a4b2 lunar nutation depends upon the position of the ,moon's nodes2 its period is therefore about #ah4f years1 the time of revolution of the nodes1 and its extent is #i4b4 ,there is also given to the obliquity a small oscillation to and fro4 ,nutation is one of the great discoveries of ,james ,bradley 7#agdg74 ,planetary ,precession4--,so far we have regarded the ecliptic as absolutely fixed1 and treated precession as a real motion of the equator4 ,the ecliptic 7q4v471 however1 is itself subject to a motion1 due to the attractions of the planets on the ,earth4 ,this effect also displaces the equinoctial points4 ,its annual value is #j4ac4 ,the term ,general ,precession in longitude is given to the displacement of the intersection of the equator with the apparent ecliptic on the latter4 ,the standard value is #ej4bdec1 which prevailed in #ahej1 and the value at #ahej t1 i4e4 the constant of precession1 is #ej4bdec #j4jjjbbbe t4 ,this value is also liable to a very small change4 ,the nutation of the obliquity at time #ahej t is given by the formula #bc deg4 #bg' #cb4j - #j4dg t4 ,complete expressions for these functions are given in ,newcomb's ,spherical ,astronomy 7#aijh71 and in the ,nautical ,almanac4 ,the variation of the line of apsides is the name given to the motion of the major axis of the ,earth's orbit along the ecliptic4 ,it is due to the general influence of the planets1 and the revolution is effected in #ba1jjj years4 ,the variation of the eccentricity denotes an oscillation of the form of the ,earth's orbit between a circle and ellipse4 ,this followed the mathematical researches of ,lagrange and ,leverrier4 ,it was suggested by ,sir ,john ,herschel in #ahcj that this variation might occasion great climatic changes1 and ,james ,croll developed the theory as affording a solution of the glacial periods in geology 7q4v474 ,variation of ,latitude4--,another secular motion of the ,earth is due to the fact that the axis of rotation is not rigidly fixed within it1 but its polar extremities wander in a circle of about #ej ft4 diameter4 ,this oscillation brings about a variability in terrestrial latitudes1 hence the name4 ,euler showed mathematically that such an oscillation existed1 and1 making certain assumptions as to the rigidity of the ,earth1 deduced that its period was #cje days2 ,s4,c4 ,chandler1 from #ahij onwards1 deduced from observations of the stars a period of #dbh days2 and ,simon ,newcomb explained the deviation of these periods by pointing out that ,euler's assumption of a perfectly rigid ,earth is not in accordance with fact4 ,for details of this intricate subject see the articles ,,latitude and ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the4 #d4 ,evolution and ,age4--,in its earliest history the mass now consolidated as the ,earth and ,moon was part of a vast nebulous aggregate1 which in the course of time formed a central nucleus--our ,sun--which shed its outer layers in such a manner as to form the solar system 7see ,,nebular ,,theory74 ,the moon may have been formed from the ,earth in a similar manner1 but the theory of tidal friction suggests the elongation of the ,earth along an equatorial axis to form a pear-shaped figure1 and that in the course of time the protuberance shot off to form the ,moon 7see ,,tide74 ,the age of the ,earth has been investigated from several directions1 as have also associated questions related to climatic changes1 internal temperature1 orientation of the land and water 7permanence of oceans and continents71 c4 ,these problems are treated in the articles ,,geology and ,,geography4 ,,footnote3 #a ,aristotle regarded the ,earth as having an upper inhabited half and a lower uninhabited one1 and the air on the lower half as tending to flow upwards through the ,earth4 ,the obstruction of this passage brought about an accumulation of air within the ,earth1 and the increased pressure may occasion oscillations of the surface1 which may be so intense as to cause earthquakes4 ,,earth1 ,,figure ,,of ,,the4 ,the determination of the figure of the earth is a problem of the highest importance in astronomy1 inasmuch as the diameter of the earth is the unit to which all celestial distances must be referred4 ,historical4 ,reasoning from the uniform level appearance of the horizon1 the variations in altitude of the circumpolar stars as one travels towards the north or south1 the disappearance of a ship standing out to sea1 and perhaps other phenomena1 the earliest astronomers regarded the earth as a sphere1 and they endeavoured to ascertain its dimensions4 ,aristotle relates that the mathematicians had found the circumference to be #djj1jjj stadia 7about #df1jjj miles74 ,but ,eratosthenes 7c4 #bej ,b4,c47 appears to have been the first who entertained an accurate idea of the principles on which the determination of the figure of the earth really depends1 and attempted to reduce them to practice4 ,his results were very inaccurate1 but his method is the same as that which is followed at the present day--depending1 in fact1 on the comparison of a line measured on the earth's surface with the corresponding arc of the heavens4 ,he observed that at ,syene in ,upper ,egypt1 on the day of the summer solstice1 the sun was exactly vertical1 whilst at ,alexandria at the same season of the year its zenith distance was #g deg4 #ab'1 or one-fiftieth of the circumference of a circle4 ,he assumed that these places were on the same meridian2 and1 reckoning their distance apart as #ejjj stadia1 he inferred that the circumference of the earth was #bej1jjj stadia 7about #bi1jjj miles74 ,a similar attempt was made by ,posidonius1 who adopted a method which differed from that of ,eratosthenes only in using a star instead of the sun4 ,he obtained #bdj1jjj stadia 7about #bg1fjj miles7 for the circumference4 ,ptolemy in his ,geography assigns the length of the degree as #ejj stadia4 ,the ,arabs also investigated the question of the earth's magnitude4 ,the caliph ,abdallah al ,mamun 7,a4,d4 #had71 having fixed on a spot in the plains of ,mesopotamia1 despatched one company of astronomers northwards and another southwards1 measuring the journey by rods1 until each found the altitude of the pole to have changed one degree4 ,but the result of this measurement does not appear to have been very satisfactory4 ,from this time the subject seems to have attracted no attention until about #aejj1 when ,jean ,fernel 7#adig-aeeh71 a ,frenchman1 measured a distance in the direction of the meridian near ,paris by counting the number of revolutions of the wheel of a carriage4 ,his astronomical observations were made with a triangle used as a quadrant1 and his resulting length of a degree was very near the truth4 ,willebrord ,snell#a substituted a chain of triangles for actual linear measurement4 ,he measured his base line on the frozen surface of the meadows near ,leiden1 and measured the angles of his triangles1 which lay between ,alkmaar and ,bergen-op-,zoom1 with a quadrant and semicircles4 ,he took the precaution of comparing his standard with that of the ,french1 so that his result was expressed in toises 7the length of the toise is about #f4ci ,english ft474 ,the work was recomputed and reobserved by ,p4 von ,musschenbroek in #agbi4 ,in #afcg an ,englishman1 ,richard ,norwood1 published a determination of the figure of the earth in a volume entitled ,the ,seaman's ,practice1 contayning a ,fundamentall ,probleme in ,navigation experimentally verified1 namely1 touching the ,compasse of the ,earth and ,sea and the quantity of a ,degree in our ,english ,measures4 ,he observed on the #aath of ,june #afcc the sun's meridian altitude in ,london as #fb deg4 #a'1 and on the #fth of ,june #afce1 his meridian altitude in ,york as #ei deg4 #cc'4 ,he measured the distance between these places partly with a chain and partly by pacing4 ,by this means1 through compensation of errors1 he arrived at #cfg1agf ft4 for the degree--a very fair result4 ,the application of the telescope to angular instruments was the next important step4 ,jean ,picard was the first who in #affi1 with the telescope1 using such precautions as the nature of the operation requires1 measured an arc of meridian4 ,he measured with wooden rods a base line of #effc toises1 and a second or base of verification of #cijb toises2 his triangulation extended from ,malvoisine1 near ,paris1 to ,sourdon1 near ,amiens4 ,the angles of the triangles were measured with a quadrant furnished with a telescope having cross-wires4 ,the difference of latitude of the terminal stations was determined by observations made with a sector on a star in ,cassiopeia1 giving #a deg4 #bb' #ee for the amplitude4 ,the terrestrial measurement gave #gh1hej toises1 whence he inferred for the length of the degree #eg1jfj toises4 ,hitherto geodetic observations had been confined to the determination of the magnitude of the earth considered as a sphere1 but a discovery made by ,jean ,richer 7d4 #afif7 turned the attention of mathematicians to its deviation from a spherical form4 ,this astronomer1 having been sent by the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris to the island of ,cayenne1 in ,south ,america1 for the purpose of investigating the amount of astronomical refraction and other astronomical objects1 observed that his clock1 which had been regulated at ,paris to beat seconds1 lost about two minutes and a half daily at ,cayenne1 and that in order to bring it to measure mean solar time it was necessary to shorten the pendulum by more than a line 7about #a_/abth of an in474 ,this fact1 which was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by the subsequent observations of ,varin and ,deshayes on the coasts of ,africa and ,america1 was first explained in the third book of ,newton's ,principia1 who showed that it could only be referred to a diminution of gravity arising either from a protuberance of the equatorial parts of the earth and consequent increase of the distance from the centre1 or from the counteracting effect of the centrifugal force4 ,about the same time 7#afgc7 appeared ,christian ,huygens' ,de ,horologio ,oscillatorio1 in which for the first time were found correct notions on the subject of centrifugal force4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that they were applied to the theoretical investigation of the figure of the earth before the publication of ,newton's ,principia4 ,in #afij ,huygens published his ,de ,causa ,gravitatis1 which contains an investigation of the figure of the earth on the supposition that the attraction of every particle is towards the centre4 ,between #afhd and #agah ,j4 and ,d4 ,cassini1 starting from ,picard's base1 carried a triangulation northwards from ,paris to ,dunkirk and southwards from ,paris to ,collioure4 ,they measured a base of #gbdf toises near ,perpignan1 and a somewhat shorter base near ,dunkirk2 and from the northern portion of the arc1 which had an amplitude of #b deg4 #ab' #i1 obtained for the length of a degree #ef1ifj toises2 while from the southern portion1 of which the amplitude was #f deg4 #ah' #eg1 they obtained #eg1jig toises4 ,the immediate inference from this was that1 the degree diminishing with increasing latitude1 the earth must be a prolate spheroid4 ,this conclusion was totally opposed to the theoretical investigations of ,newton and ,huygens1 and accordingly the ,academy of ,sciences of ,paris determined to apply a decisive test by the measurement of arcs at a great distance from each other--one in the neighbourhood of the equator1 the other in a high latitude4 ,thus arose the celebrated expeditions of the ,french academicians4 ,in ,may #agce ,louis ,godin1 ,pierre ,bouguer and ,charles ,marie de la ,condamine1 under the auspices of ,louis ,,xv41 proceeded to ,peru1 where1 assisted by two ,spanish officers1 after ten years of laborious exertion1 they measured an arc of #c deg4 #g'1 the northern end near the equator4 ,the second party consisted of ,pierre ,louis ,moreau de ,maupertuis1 ,alexis ,claude ,clairault1 ,charles ,etienne ,louis ,camus1 ,pierre ,charles ,lemonnier1 and ,reginaud ,outhier1 who reached the ,gulf of ,bothnia in ,july #agcf2 they were in some respects more fortunate than the first party1 inasmuch as they completed the measurement of an arc near the polar circle of #eg' amplitude and returned within sixteen months from the date of their departure4 ,the measurement of ,bouguer and ,de la ,condamine was executed with great care1 and on account of the locality1 as well as the manner in which all the details were conducted1 it has always been regarded as a most valuable determination4 ,the southern limit was at ,tarqui1 the northern at ,cotchesqui4 ,a base of #fbgb toises was measured in the vicinity of ,quito1 near the northern extremity of the arc1 and a second base of #ebfj toises near the southern extremity4 ,the mountainous nature of the country made the work very laborious1 in some cases the difference of heights of two neighbouring stations exceeding #a mile2 and they had much trouble with their instruments1 those with which they were to determine the latitudes proving untrustworthy4 ,but they succeeded by simultaneous observations of the same star at the two extremities of the arc in obtaining very fair results4 ,the whole length of the arc amounted to #agf1ide toises1 while the difference of latitudes was #c deg4 #g' #c4 ,in consequence of a misunderstanding that arose between ,de la ,condamine and ,bouguer1 their operations were conducted separately1 and each wrote a full account of the expedition4 ,bouguer's book was published in #agdi2 that of ,de la ,condamine in #agea4 ,the toise used in this measure was afterwards regarded as the standard toise1 and is always referred to as the ,toise of ,peru4 ,the party of ,maupertuis1 though their work was quickly despatched1 had also to contend with great difficulties4 ,not being able to make use of the small islands in the ,gulf of ,bothnia for the trigonometrical stations1 they were forced to penetrate into the forests of ,lapland1 commencing operations at ,tornea1 a city situated on the mainland near the extremity of the gulf4 ,from this1 the southern extremity of their arc1 they carried a chain of triangles northward to the mountain ,kittis1 which they selected as the northern terminus4 ,the latitudes were determined by observations with a sector 7made by ,george ,graham7 of the zenith distance of alpha and delta ,draconis4 ,the base line was measured on the frozen surface of the river ,tornea about the middle of the arc2 two parties measured it separately1 and they differed by about #d in4 ,the result of the whole was that the difference of latitudes of the terminal stations was #eg' #bi 4#f1 and the length of the arc #ee1jbc toises4 ,in this expedition1 as well as in that to ,peru1 observations were made with a pendulum to determine the force of gravity2 and these observations coincided with the geodetic results in proving that the earth was an oblate and not prolate spheroid4 ,in #agdj was published in the ,paris ,memoires an account1 by ,cassini de ,thury1 of a remeasurement by himself and ,nicolas ,louis de ,lacaille of the meridian of ,paris4 ,with a view to determine more accurately the variation of the degree along the meridian1 they divided the distance from ,dunkirk to ,collioure into four partial arcs of about two degrees each1 by observing the latitude at five stations4 ,the results previously obtained by ,j4 and ,d4 ,cassini were not confirmed1 but1 on the contrary1 the length of the degree derived from these partial arcs showed on the whole an increase with an increasing latitude4 ,cassini and ,lacaille also measured an arc of parallel across the mouth of the ,rhone4 ,the difference of time of the extremities was determined by the observers at either end noting the instant of a signal given by flashing gunpowder at a point near the middle of the arc4 ,while at the ,cape of ,good ,hope in #ageb1 engaged in various astronomical observations1 ,lacaille measured an arc of meridian of #a deg4 #ac' #ag1 which gave him for the length of the degree #eg1jcg toises--an unexpected result1 which has led to the remeasurement of the arc by ,sir ,thomas ,maclear 7see ,,geodesy74 ,passing over the measurements made between ,rome and ,rimini and on the plains of ,piedmont by the ,jesuits ,ruggiero ,giuseppe ,boscovich and ,giovanni ,battista ,beccaria1 and also the arc measured with deal rods in ,north ,america by ,charles ,mason and ,jeremiah ,dixon1 we come to the commencement of the ,english triangulation4 ,in #aghc1 in consequence of a representation from ,cassini de ,thury on the advantages that would accrue from the geodetic connexion of ,paris and ,greenwich1 ,general ,william ,roy was1 with the king's approval1 appointed by the ,royal ,society to conduct the operations on the part of ,england1 ,count ,cassini1 ,mechain and ,delambre being appointed on the ,french side4 ,a precision previously unknown was attained by the use of ,ramsden's theodolite1 which was the first to make the spherical excess of triangles measurable4 ,the wooden rods with which the first base was measured were replaced by glass rods1 which were afterwards rejected for the steel chain of ,ramsden4 7,for further details see ,account of the ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,england and ,wales47 ,shortly after this1 the ,national ,convention of ,france1 having agreed to remodel their system of weights and measures1 chose for their unit of length the ten-millionth part of the meridian quadrant4 ,in order to obtain this length precisely1 the remeasurement of the ,french meridian was resolved on1 and deputed to ,j4,b4,j4 ,delambre and ,pierre ,francois ,andre ,mechain4 ,the details of this operation will be found in the ,base du systeme metrique decimale4 ,the arc was subsequently extended by ,jean ,baptiste ,biot and ,dominique ,francois ,jean ,arago to the island of ,iviza4 ,operations for the connexion of ,england with the continent of ,europe were resumed in #ahba to #ahbc by ,henry ,kater and ,thomas ,frederick ,colby on the ,english side1 and ,f4,j4,d4 ,arago and ,claude ,louis ,mathieu on the ,french4 ,the publication in #ahch of ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,bessel's ,gradmessung in ,ostpreussen marks an era in the science of geodesy4 ,here we find the method of least squares applied to the calculation of a network of triangles and the reduction of the observations generally4 ,the systematic manner in which all the observations were taken with the view of securing final results of extreme accuracy is admirable4 ,the triangulation1 which was a small one1 extended about a degree and a half along the shores of the ,baltic in a ,n4,n4,e4 direction4 ,the angles were observed with theodolites of #ab and #ae in4 diameter1 and the latitudes determined by means of the transit instrument in the prime vertical--a method much used in ,germany4 7,the base apparatus is described in the article ,,geodesy47 ,the principal triangulation of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 which was commenced in #aghc under ,general ,roy1 for the more immediate purpose of connecting the observatories of ,greenwich and ,paris1 had been gradually extended1 under the successive direction of ,colonel ,e4 ,williams1 ,general ,w4 ,mudge1 ,general ,t4,f4 ,colby1 ,colonel ,l4,a4 ,hall1 and ,colonel ,sir ,henry ,james2 it was finished in #ahea4 ,the number of stations is about #bej4 ,at #cb of these the latitudes were determined with ,ramsden's and ,airy's zenith sectors4 ,the theodolites used for this work were1 in addition to the two great theodolites of ,ramsden which were used by ,general ,roy and ,captain ,kater1 a smaller theodolite of #ah in4 diameter by the same mechanician1 and another of #bd in4 diameter by ,messrs ,troughton and ,simms4 ,observations for determination of absolute azimuth were made with those instruments at a large number of stations2 the stars alpha1 delta1 and lambda ,ursae ,minoris and #ea ,cephei being those observed always at the greatest azimuths4 ,at six of these stations the probable error of the result is under #j4d1 at twelve under #j4e1 at thirty-four under #j4g3 so that the absolute azimuth of the whole network is determined with extreme accuracy4 ,of the seven base lines which have been measured1 five were by means of steel chains and two with ,colby's compensation bars 7see ,,geodesy74 ,the triangulation was computed by least squares4 ,the total number of equations of condition for the triangulation is #ibj2 if therefore the whole had been reduced in one mass1 as it should have been1 the solution of an equation of #ibj unknown quantities would have occurred as a part of the work4 ,to avoid this an approximation was resorted to2 the triangulation was divided into twenty-one parts or figures2 four of these1 not adjacent1 were first adjusted by the method explained1 and the corrections thus determined in these figures carried into the equations of condition of the adjacent figures4 ,the average number of equations in a figure is #dd2 the largest equation is one of #gg unknown quantities4 ,the vertical limb of ,airy's zenith sector is read by four microscopes1 and in the complete observation of a star there are #aj micrometer readings and #ab level readings4 ,the instrument is portable2 and a complete determination of latitude1 affected with the mean of the declination errors of two stars1 is effected by two micrometer readings and four level readings4 ,the observation consists in measuring with the telescope micrometer the difference of zenith distances of two stars which cross the meridian1 one to the north and the other to the south of the observer at zenith distances which differ by not much more than #aj' or #ae'1 the interval of the times of transit being not less than one nor more than twenty minutes4 ,the advantages are that1 with simplicity in the construction of the instrument and facility in the manipulation1 refraction is eliminated 7or nearly so1 as the stars are generally selected within #be deg4 of the zenith71 and there is no large divided circle4 ,the telescope1 which is counterpoised on one side of the vertical axis1 has a small circle for finding1 and there is also a small horizontal circle4 ,this instrument is universally used in ,american geodesy4 ,the principal work containing the methods and results of these operations was published in #aheh with the title ,ordnance ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,account of the observations and calculations of the principal triangulation and of the figure1 dimensions and mean specific gravity of the earth as derived therefrom4 ,drawn up by ,captain ,alexander ,ross ,clarke1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 under the direction of ,lieut4-,colonel ,h4 ,james1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,m4,r4,i4,a41 c4 ,a supplement appeared in #ahfb3 ,extension of the ,triangulation of the ,ordnance ,survey into ,france and ,belgium1 with the measurement of an arc of parallel in #eb deg4 ,n4 from ,valentia in ,ireland to ,mount ,kemmel in ,belgium4 ,published by 444 ,col4 ,sir ,henry ,james4 ,extensive operations for surveying ,india and determining the figure of the earth were commenced in #ahjj4 ,colonel ,w4 ,lambton started the great meridian arc at ,punnae in latitude #h deg4 #i'1 and1 following generally the methods of the ,english survey1 he carried his triangulation as far north as #bj deg4 #cj'4 ,the work was continued by ,sir ,george 7then ,captain7 ,everest1 who carried it to the latitude of #bi deg4 #cj'4 ,two admirable volumes by ,sir ,george ,everest1 published in #ahcj and in #ahdg1 give the details of this undertaking4 ,the survey was afterwards prosecuted by ,colonel ,t4,t4 ,walker1 ,r4,e41 who made valuable contributions to geodesy4 ,the working out of the ,indian chains of triangle by the method of least squares presents peculiar difficulties1 but1 enormous in extent as the work was1 it has been thoroughly carried out4 ,the ten base lines on which the survey depends were measured with ,colby's compensation bars4 ,the survey is detailed in eighteen volumes1 published at ,dehra ,dun1 and entitled ,account of the ,operations of the ,great ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,india4 ,of these the first nine were published under the direction of ,colonel ,walker2 and the remainder by ,colonels ,strahan and ,st ,g4,c4 ,gore1 ,major ,s4,g4 ,burrard and others4 ,vol4 i41 #ahgj1 treats of the base lines2 vol4 ii41 #ahgi1 history and general descriptions of the principal triangulation and of its reduction2 vol4 v41 #ahgi1 pendulum operations 7,captains ,t4,p4 ,basevi and ,w4,t4 ,heaviside72 vols4 xi41 #ahij1 and xviii41 #aijf1 latitudes2 vols4 ix41 #ahhc1 x41 #ahhg1 xv41 #ahic1 longitudes2 vol4 xvii41 #aija1 the ,indo-,european longitude-arcs from ,karachi to ,greenwich4 ,the other volumes contain the triangulations4 ,in #ahfj ,friedrich ,georg ,wilhelm ,struve published his ,arc du meridien de #be deg4 #bj' entre le ,danube et la ,mer ,glaciale mesure depuis #ahaf jusqu'en #ahee4 ,the latitudes of the thirteen astronomical stations of this arc were determined partly with vertical circles and partly by means of the transit instrument in the prime vertical4 ,the triangulation1 a great part of which1 however1 is a simple chain of triangles1 is reduced by the method of least squares1 and the probable errors of the resulting distances of parallels is given2 the probable error of the whole arc in length is - #f4b toises4 ,ten base lines were measured4 ,the sum of the lengths of the ten measured bases is #bi1hfc toises1 so that the average length of a base line is #ai1ajj ft4 ,the azimuths were observed at fourteen stations4 ,in high latitudes the determination of the meridian is a matter of great difficulty2 nevertheless the azimuths at all the northern stations were successfully determined1--the probable error of the result at ,fuglenaes being - #j4ec4 ,before proceeding with the modern developments of geodetic measurements and their application to the figure of the earth1 we must discuss the mechanical theory1 which is indispensable for a full understanding of the subject4 ,mechanical ,theory4 ,newton1 by applying his theory of gravitation1 combined with the so-called centrifugal force1 to the earth1 and assuming that an oblate ellipsoid of rotation is a form of equilibrium for a homogeneous fluid rotating with uniform angular velocity1 obtained the ratio of the axes #bbi3bcj1 and the law of variation of gravity on the surface4 ,a few years later ,huygens published an investigation of the figure of the earth1 supposing the attraction of every particle to be towards the centre of the earth1 obtaining as a result that the proportion of the axes should be #egh 3 #egi4 ,in #agdj ,colin ,maclaurin1 in his ,de causa physica fluxus et refluxus maris1 demonstrated that the oblate ellipsoid of revolution is a figure which satisfies the conditions of equilibrium in the case of a revolving homogeneous fluid mass1 whose particles attract one another according to the law of the inverse square of the distance2 he gave the equation connecting the ellipticity with the proportion of the centrifugal force at the equator to gravity1 and determined the attraction on a particle situated anywhere on the surface of such a body4 ,in #agdc ,clairault published his ,theorie de la figure de la terre1 which contains a remarkable theorem 7,clairault's ,theorem71 establishing a relation between the ellipticity of the earth and the variation of gravity from the equator to the poles4 ,assuming that the earth is composed of concentric ellipsoidal strata having a common axis of rotation1 each stratum homogeneous in itself1 but the ellipticities and densities of the successive strata varying according to any law1 and that the superficial stratum has the same form as if it were fluid1 he proved that g'- g #e ----- e -- m1 g #b where g1 g' are the amounts of gravity at the equator and at the pole respectively1 e the ellipticity of the meridian 7or flattening71 and m the ratio of the centrifugal force at the equator to g4 ,he also proved that the increase of gravity in proceeding from the equator to the poles is as the square of the sine of the latitude4 ,this1 taken with the former theorem1 gives the means of determining the earth's ellipticity from observation of the relative force of gravity at any two places4 ,p4,s4 ,laplace1 who devoted much attention to the subject1 remarks on ,clairault's work that the importance of all his results and the elegance with which they are presented place this work amongst the most beautiful of mathematical productions 7,isaac ,todhunter's ,history of the ,mathematical ,theories of ,attraction and the ,figure of the ,earth1 vol4 i4 p4 #bbi74 ,the problem of the figure of the earth treated as a question of mechanics or hydrostatics is one of great difficulty1 and it would be quite impracticable but for the circumstance that the surface differs but little from a sphere4 ,in order to express the forces at any point of the body arising from the attraction of its particles1 the form of the surface is required1 but this form is the very one which it is the object of the investigation to discover2 hence the complexity of the subject1 and even with all the present resources of mathematicians only a partial and imperfect solution can be obtained4 ,we may here briefly indicate the line of reasoning by which some of the most important results may be obtained4 ,if ,x1 ,y1 ,z be the components parallel to three rectangular axes of the forces acting on a particle of a fluid mass at the point x1 y1 z1 then1 p being the pressure there1 and rho the density1 dp rho7,xdx ,ydy ,zdz72 and for equilibrium the necessary conditions are1 that rho7,xdx ,ydy ,zdz7 be a complete differential1 and at the free surface ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz #j4 ,this equation implies that the resultant of the forces is normal to the surface at every point1 and in a homogeneous fluid it is obviously the differential equation of all surfaces of equal pressure4 ,if the fluid be heterogeneous then it is to be remarked that for forces of attraction according to the ordinary law of gravitation1 if ,x1 ,y1 ,z be the components of the attraction of a mass whose potential is ,v1 then d,v d,v d,v ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz --dx --dy --dz1 dx dy dz which is a complete differential4 ,and in the case of a fluid rotating with uniform velocity1 in which the so-called centrifugal force enters as a force acting on each particle proportional to its distance from the axis of rotation1 the corresponding part of ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz is obviously a complete differential4 ,therefore for the forces with which we are now concerned ,xdx ,ydy ,zdz d,u1 where ,u is some function of x1 y1 z1 and it is necessary for equilibrium that dp rhod,u be a complete differential2 that is1 rho must be a function of ,u or a function of p1 and so also p a function of ,u4 ,so that d,u #j is the differential equation of surfaces of equal pressure and density4 ,we may now show that a homogeneous fluid mass in the form of an oblate ellipsoid of revolution having a uniform velocity of rotation can be in equilibrium4 ,it may be proved that the attraction of the ellipsoid x squared y squared z squared7#a epsilon squared7 c squared7#a epsilon squared72 upon a particle ,p of its mass at x1 y1 z has for components ,x -,ax1 ,y -,ay1 ,z -,cz1 where _/#a epsilon squared #a ,a #bpik squaredrho7 ------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon - -------- 71 epsilon cubed epsilon squared_/ _/#a epsilon squared #a epsilon squared ,c #dpik squaredrho7 -------------- - ------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon 71 epsilon squared epsilon cubed _/ and k squared the constant of attraction4 ,besides the attraction of the mass of the ellipsoid1 the centrifugal force at ,p has for components xomega squared1 yomega squared1 #j2 then the condition of fluid equilibrium is 7,a - omega squared7xdx 7,a - omega squared7ydy ,czdz #j1 which by integration gives 7,a - omega squared77x squared y squared7 ,cz squared constant4 ,this is the equation of an ellipsoid of rotation1 and therefore the equilibrium is possible4 ,the equation coincides with that of the surface of the fluid mass if we make ,a - omega squared ,c_/7#a epsilon squared71 which gives omega squared #c epsilon squared #c ------------ -------------- tan7-#a7 epsilon - ---------- 4 #bpik squaredrho epsilon cubed epsilon squared ,in the case of the earth1 which is nearly spherical1 we obtain by expanding the expression for omega squared in powers of epsilon squared1 rejecting the higher powers1 and remarking that the ellipticity e #a_/b;epsilon squared1 omega squared_/#bpik squaredrho #d;epsilon squared_/#ae #h;e_/#ae4 ,now if m be the ratio of the centrifugal force to the intensity of gravity at the equator1 and a c7#a e71 then m aomega squared1_/7#d_/c7pik squaredrhoa1 34 omega squared_/#bpik squaredrho 7#b_/c7m4 ,in the case of the earth it is a matter of observation that m #a_/bhi1 hence the ellipticity e #em_/#d #a_/bca1 so that the ratio of the axes on the supposition of a homogeneous fluid earth is #bcj3bca1 as stated by ,newton4 ,now1 to come to the case of a heterogeneous fluid1 we shall assume that its surfaces of equal density are spheroids1 concentric and having a common axis of rotation1 and that the ellipticity of these surfaces varies from the centre to the outer surface1 the density also varying4 ,in other words1 the body is composed of homogeneous spheroidal shells of variable density and ellipticity4 ,on this supposition we shall express the attraction of the mass upon a particle in its interior1 and then1 taking into account the centrifugal force1 form the equation expressing the condition of fluid equilibrium4 ,the attraction of the homogeneous spheroid x squared y squared z squared7#a #b;e7 c squared7#a #b;e71 where e is the ellipticity 7of which the square is neglected71 on an internal particle1 whose co-ordinates are x f1 y #j1 z h1 has for its x and z components ,x' -7#d_/c7pik squaredrhof7#a - 7#b_/e7;e71 ,z' -7#d_/c7pik squaredrhoh7#a 7#d_/e7;e71 the ,y component being of course zero4 ,hence we infer that the attraction of a shell whose inner surface has an ellipticity e1 and its outer surface an ellipticity e de1 the density being rho1 is expressed by d,x' 7#d_/c747b_/e7pik squaredrhof de1 d,z' -7#d_/c747d_/e7pik squaredrhoh de4 ,to apply this to our heterogeneous spheroid2 if we put c#a for the semiaxis of that surface of equal density on which is situated the attracted point ,p1 and c#j for the semiaxis of the outer surface1 the attraction of that portion of the body which is exterior to ,p1 namely1 of all the shells which enclose ,p1 has for components #h _/c#j de #af _/c#j de ,x#j --pik squaredf rho --dc1 ,z#j - -- pik squaredh rho --dc1 #ae _/c#a dc #ae _/c#a dc both e and rho being functions of c4 ,again the attraction of a homogeneous spheroid of density rho on an external point f1 h has the components ,x -7#d_/c7pik squaredrhofr7-#c7 c cubed7#a #b;e7 - lambdaec#e1 ,z -7#d_/c7pik squaredrhohr7-#c7 c cubed7#a #b;e7 - lambda'ec#e1 where lambda 7#c_/e77d;h squared - f squared7_/r#d1 lambda' 7#c_/e77b;h squared - #c;f squared7_/r#d1 and r squared f squared h squared4 ,now e being considered a function of c1 we can at once express the attraction of a shell 7density rho7 contained between the surface defined by c dc1 e de and that defined by c1 e upon an external point2 the differentials with respect to c1 viz4 d,x d,z1 must then be integrated with rho under the integral sign as being a function of c4 ,the integration will extend from c #j to c c#a4 ,thus the components of the attraction of the heterogeneous spheroid upon a particle within its mass1 whose co-ordinates are f1 #j1 h1 are #d #a _/c#a ,x - -- pik squaredf -- rho dc cubed7#a #b;e7 #c r cubed _/#j lambda _/c#a #b _/c#a - -------- rho d7ec#e7 - -- rho de 1 r cubed _/#j #e _/#j #d #a _/c#a ,z - -- pik squaredh -- rho dc cubed7#a #b;e7 #c r cubed _/#j lambda'_/c#a #d _/c#a - -------- rho d7ec#e7 -- rho de 4 r cubed _/#j #e _/#j ,we take into account the rotation of the earth by adding the centrifugal force fomega squared ,f to ,x4 ,now1 the surface of constant density upon which the point f1 #j1 h is situated gives 7#a - #b;e7 fdf hdh #j2 and the condition of equilibrium is that 7,x ,f7df ,zdh #j4 ,therefore1 7,x ,f7h ,zf7#a - #b;e71 which1 neglecting small quantities of the order e squared and putting omega squaredt squared #dpi squaredk squared1 gives #b;e _/c#a #f _/c#a #f _/c#j #cpi -- rhodc cubed7#a #b;e7 - ---- rhod7ec#e7 - -- rhode -----4 r cubed_/#j #er#e _/#j #e _/c#a t squared ,here we must now put c for c#a1 c for r2 and #a #b;e under the first integral sign may be replaced by unity1 since small quantities of the second order are neglected4 ,two differentiations lead us to the following very important differential equation 7,clairault73 d squarede #brhoc squared de _/ #brhoc #f --- -------------- 4 -- 7 -------------- - -- 7 e #j4 dc squared intrhoc squareddc dc intrhoc squareddc c squared_/ ,when rho is expressed in terms of c1 this equation can be integrated4 ,we infer then that a rotating spheroid of very small ellipticity1 composed of fluid homogeneous strata such as we have specified1 will be in equilibrium2 and when the law of the density is expressed1 the law of the corresponding ellipticities will follow4 ,if we put ,m for the mass of the spheroid1 then #dpi _/c c cubed #dpi squared ,m ----- rhodc cubed7#a #b;e72 and m --- 4 -----1 #c _/#j ,m t squared and putting c c#j in the equation expressing the condition of equilibrium1 we find #d #f _/c ,m7#b;e - m7 -- pi4--- rhod7ec#e74 #c #e;c squared_/#j ,making these substitutions in the expressions for the forces at the surface1 and putting r_/c #a e - e7h_/c7 squared1 we get ,mk squared #c _/#e h squared f ,g cos phi --- #a - e - -- m 7 - m - #b;e7 -- -- ac #b #b _/ c squared c ,mk squared #c _/#e h squared h ,g sin phi --- #a e - -- m 7 - m - #b;e7 -- --4 ac #b #b _/ c squared c ,here ,g is gravity in the latitude phi1 and a the radius of the equator4 ,since sec phi 7c_/f7#a e 7eh squared_/c squared71 ,mk squared #c _/#e ,g --- #a - -- m 7 -- m - e7 sin squared phi 1 ac #b #b _/ an expression which contains the theorems we have referred to as discovered by ,clairault4 ,the theory of the figure of the earth as a rotating ellipsoid has been especially investigated by ,laplace in his ,mecanique celeste4 ,the principal ,english works are3--,sir ,george ,airy1 ,mathematical ,tracts1 a lucid treatment without the use of ,laplace's coefficients2 ,archdeacon ,pratt's ,attractions and ,figure of the ,earth2 and ,o',brien's ,mathematical ,tracts2 in the last two ,laplace's coefficients are used4 ,in #ahde ,sir ,g4,g4 ,stokes 7,camb4 ,trans4 viii42 see also ,camb4 ,dub4 ,math4 ,journ41 #ahdi1 iv47 proved that if the external form of the sea--imagined to percolate the land by canals--be a spheroid with small ellipticity1 then the law of gravity is that which we have shown above2 his proof required no assumption as to the ellipticity of the internal strata1 or as to the past or present fluidity of the earth4 ,this investigation admits of being regarded conversely1 viz4 as determining the elliptical form of the earth from measurements of gravity2 if ,g1 the observed value of gravity in latitude phi1 be expressed in the form ,g g7#a ss sin squared phi71 where g is the value at the equator and ss a coefficient4 ,in this investigation1 the square and higher powers of the ellipticity are neglected2 the solution was completed by ,f4,r4 ,helmert with regard to the square of the ellipticity1 who showed that a term with sin squared #bphi appeared 7see ,helmert1 ,geodaesie1 ii4 #hc74 ,for the coefficient of this term1 the gravity measurements give a small but not sufficiently certain value2 we therefore assume a value which agrees best with the hypothesis of the fluid state of the entire earth2 this assumption is well supported1 since even at a depth of only #ej km4 the pressure of the superincumbent crust is so great that rocks become plastic1 and behave approximately as fluids1 and consequently the crust of the earth floats1 to some extent1 on the interior 7even though this may not be fluid in the usual sense of the word74 ,this is the geological theory of ,isostasis 7cf4 ,,geology72 it agrees with the results of measurements of gravity 7vide infra71 and was brought forward in the middle of the #aith century by ,j4,h4 ,pratt1 who deduced it from observations made in ,india4 ,the sin squared #bphi term in the expression for ,g1 and the corresponding deviation of the meridian from an ellipse1 have been analytically established by ,sir ,g4,h4 ,darwin and ,e4 ,wiechert2 earlier and less complete investigations were made by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy and ,o4 ,callandreau4 ,in consequence of the sin squared #bphi term1 two parameters of the level surfaces in the interior of the earth are to be determined2 for this purpose1 ,darwin develops two differential equations in the place of the one by ,clairault4 ,by assuming ,roche's law for the variation of the density in the interior of the ,earth1 viz4 rho rho#a - k7c_/c#a7 squared1 k being a coefficient1 it is shown that in latitude #de deg41 the meridian is depressed about #ca_/d metres from the ellipse1 and the coefficient of the term sin squared phi cos squared phi 7 #a_/d sin squared #bphi7 is -#j4jjjjbie4 ,according to ,wiechert the earth is composed of a kernel and a shell1 the kernel being composed of material1 chiefly metallic iron1 of density near #h4b1 and the shell1 about #ijj miles thick1 of silicates1 c41 of density about #c4b4 ,on this assumption the depression in latitude #de deg4 is #bc_/d metres1 and the coefficient of sin squared phi cos squared phi is1 in round numbers1 -#j4jjjjbhj4b ,to this additional term in the formula for ,g1 there corresponds an extension of ,clairault's formula for the calculation of the flattening from ss with terms of the higher orders2 this was first accomplished by ,helmert4 ,for a long time the assumption of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes has been held possible for the figure of the earth1 in consequence of an important theorem due to ,k4,g4 ,jacobi1 who proved that for a homogeneous fluid in rotation a spheroid is not the only form of equilibrium2 an ellipsoid rotating round its least axis may with certain proportions of the axes and a certain time of revolution be a form of equilibrium4#c ,it has been objected to the figure of three unequal axes that it does not satisfy1 in the proportions of the axes1 the conditions brought out in ,jacobi's theorem 7c3 a #a_/root#b74 ,admitting this1 it has to be noted1 on the other hand1 that ,jacobi's theorem contemplates a homogeneous fluid1 and this is certainly far from the actual condition of our globe2 indeed the irregular distribution of continents and oceans suggests the possibility of a sensible divergence from a perfect surface of revolution4 ,we may1 however1 assume the ellipsoid with three unequal axes to be an interpolation form4 ,more plausible forms are little adapted for computation4#d ,consequently we now generally take the ellipsoid of rotation as a basis1 especially so because measurements of gravity have shown that the deviation from it is but trifling4 ,local ,attraction4 ,in speaking of the figure of the earth1 we mean the surface of the sea imagined to percolate the continents by canals4 ,that this surface should turn out1 after precise measurements1 to be exactly an ellipsoid of revolution is a priori improbable4 ,although it may be highly probable that originally the earth was a fluid mass1 yet in the cooling whereby the present crust has resulted1 the actual solid surface has been left most irregular in form4 ,it is clear that these irregularities of the visible surface must be accompanied by irregularities in the mathematical figure of the earth1 and when we consider the general surface of our globe1 its irregular distribution of mountain masses1 continents1 with oceans and islands1 we are prepared to admit that the earth may not be precisely any surface of revolution4 ,nevertheless1 there must exist some spheroid which agrees very closely with the mathematical figure of the earth1 and has the same axis of rotation4 ,we must conceive this figure as exhibiting slight departures from the spheroid1 the two surfaces cutting one another in various lines2 thus a point of the surface is defined by its latitude1 longitude1 and its height above the spheroid of reference4 ,calling this height ,n1 then of the actual magnitude of this quantity we can generally have no information1 it only obtrudes itself on our notice by its variations4 ,in the vicinity of mountains it may change sign in the space of a few miles2 ,n being regarded as a function of the latitude and longitude1 if its differential coefficient with respect to the former be zero at a certain point1 the normals to the two surfaces then will lie in the prime vertical2 if the differential coefficient of ,n with respect to the longitude be zero1 the two normals will lie in the meridian2 if both coefficients are zero1 the normals will coincide4 ,the comparisons of terrestrial measurements with the corresponding astronomical observations have always been accompanied with discrepancies4 ,suppose ,a and ,b to be two trigonometrical stations1 and that at ,a there is a disturbing force drawing the vertical through an angle delta1 then it is evident that the apparent zenith of ,a will be really that of some other place ,a'1 whose distance from ,a is rdelta1 when r is the earth's radius2 and similarly if there be a disturbance at ,b of the amount delta'1 the apparent zenith of ,b will be really that of some other place ,b'1 whose distance from ,b is rdelta'4 ,hence we have the discrepancy that1 while the geodetic measurements deal with the points ,a and ,b1 the astronomical observations belong to the points ,a'1 ,b'4 ,should delta1 delta' be equal and parallel1 the displacements ,,aa'1 ,,bb' will be equal and parallel1 and no discrepancy will appear4 ,the non-recognition of this circumstance often led to much perplexity in the early history of geodesy4 ,suppose that1 through the unknown variations of ,n1 the probable error of an observed latitude 7that is1 the angle between the normal to the mathematical surface of the earth at the given point and that of the corresponding point on the spheroid of reference7 be epsilon1 then if we compare two arcs of a degree each in mean latitudes1 and near each other1 say about five degrees of latitude apart1 the probable error of the resulting value of the ellipticity will be approximately - #a_/ejj;epsilon1 epsilon being expressed in seconds1 so that if epsilon be so great as #b the probable error of the resulting ellipticity will be greater than the ellipticity itself4 ,it is necessary at times to calculate the attraction of a mountain1 and the consequent disturbance of the astronomical zenith1 at any point within its influence4 ,the deflection of the plumb-line1 caused by a local attraction whose amount is k squared,adelta1 is measured by the ratio of k squared,adelta to the force of gravity at the station4 ,expressed in seconds1 the deflection ,lambda is ,lambda #ab4ddg;,adelta_/rho1 where rho is the mean density of the earth1 delta that of the attracting mass1 and ,a fs7-#c7xdv1 in which dv is a volume element of the attracting mass within the distance s from the point of deflection1 and x the projection of s on the horizontal plane through this point1 the linear unit in expressing ,a being a mile4 ,suppose1 for instance1 a table-land whose form is a rectangle of #ab miles by #h miles1 having a height of #ejj ft4 and density half that of the earth2 let the observer be #b miles distant from the middle point of the longer side4 ,the deflection then is #a4dgb2 but at #a mile it increases to #b4bj4 ,at sixteen astronomical stations in the ,english survey the disturbance of latitude due to the form of the ground has been computed1 and the following will give an idea of the results4 ,at six stations the deflection is under #b1 at six others it is between #b and #d1 and at four stations it exceeds #d4 ,there is one very exceptional station on the north coast of ,banffshire1 near the village of ,portsoy1 at which the deflection amounts to #aj1 so that if that village were placed on a map in a position to correspond with its astronomical latitude1 it would be #ajjj ft4 out of position6 ,there is the sea to the north and an undulating country to the south1 which1 however1 to a spectator at the station does not suggest any great disturbance of gravity4 ,a somewhat rough estimate of the local attraction from external causes gives a maximum limit of #e1 therefore we have #e which must arise from unequal density in the underlying strata in the surrounding country4 ,in order to throw light on this remarkable phenomenon1 the latitudes of a number of stations between ,nairn on the west1 ,fraserburgh on the east1 and the ,grampians on the south1 were observed1 and the local deflections determined4 ,it is somewhat singular that the deflections diminish in all directions1 not very regularly certainly1 and most slowly in a south-west direction1 finally disappearing1 and leaving the maximum at the original station at ,portsoy4 ,the method employed by ,dr ,c4 ,hutton for computing the attraction of masses of ground is so simple and effectual that it can hardly be improved on4 ,let a horizontal plane pass through the given station2 let r1 theta be the polar co-ordinates of any point in this plane1 and r1 theta1 z1 the co-ordinates of a particle of the attracting mass2 and let it be required to find the attraction of a portion of the mass contained between the horizontal planes z #j1 z h1 the cylindrical surfaces r r#a1 r r#b1 and the vertical planes theta theta#a1 theta theta#b4 ,the component of the attraction at the station or origin along the line theta #j is _/r#b _/theta#b _/h r squaredcos theta k squareddelta ------------- dr dtheta dz _/r#a _/theta#a _/#j 7r squaredz squared77#c_/b7 k squareddeltah7sintheta#b - sintheta#a7 logr#b 7r#b squared h squared77#a_/b7_/r#a 7r#a squared h squared77#a_/b74 ,by taking r#b - r#a1 sufficiently small1 and supposing h also small compared with r#a r#b 7as it usually is71 the attraction is k squareddelta7r#b - r#a77sin theta#b - sin theta#a7;h_/r1 where r #a_/b7r#a r#b74 ,this form suggests the following procedure4 ,draw on the contoured map a series of equidistant circles1 concentric with the station1 intersected by radial lines so disposed that the sines of their azimuths are in arithmetical progression4 ,then1 having estimated from the map the mean heights of the various compartments1 the calculation is obvious4 ,in mountainous countries1 as near the ,alps and in the ,caucasus1 deflections have been observed to the amount of as much as #cj1 while in the ,himalayas deflections amounting to #fj were observed4 ,on the other hand1 deflections have been observed in flat countries1 such as that noted by ,professor ,k4,g4 ,schweizer1 who has shown that1 at certain stations in the vicinity of ,moscow1 within a distance of #af miles the plumb-line varies #af in such a manner as to indicate a vast deficiency of matter in the underlying strata2 deflections of #aj were observed in the level regions of north ,germany4 ,since the attraction of a mountain mass is expressed as a numerical multiple of delta 3 rho the ratio of the density of the mountain to that of the earth1 if we have any independent means of ascertaining the amount of the deflection1 we have at once the ratio rho3delta1 and thus we obtain the mean density of the earth1 as1 for instance1 at ,schiehallion1 and afterwards at ,arthur's ,seat4 ,experiments of this kind for determining the mean density of the earth have been made in greater numbers2 but they are not free from objection 7see ,,gravitation74 ,let us now consider the perturbation attending a spherical subterranean mass4 ,a compact mass of great density at a small distance under the surface of the earth will produce an elevation of the mathematical surface which is expressed by the formula y a mu77#a - #bu cos theta u squared77-#a_/b7 - #a71 where a is the radius of the 7spherical7 earth1 a7#a - u7 the distance of the disturbing mass below the surface1 mu the ratio of the disturbing mass to the mass of the earth1 and atheta the distance of any point on the surface from that point1 say ,q1 which is vertically over the disturbing mass4 ,the maximum value of y is at ,q1 where it is y a muu7#a -u74 ,the deflection at the distance atheta is ,lambda muu sintheta7#a - #bu costheta u squared77-#c_/b71 or since theta is small1 putting h u #a1 we have ,lambda mutheta7h squared theta squared77-#c_/b74 ,the maximum deflection takes place at a point whose distance from ,q is to the depth of the mass as #a3root#b1 and its amount is #b mu_/#c root7#c;h squared74 ,if1 for instance1 the disturbing mass were a sphere a mile in diameter1 the excess of its density above that of the surrounding country being equal to half the density of the earth1 and the depth of its centre half a mile1 the greatest deflection would be #e1 and the greatest value of y only two inches4 ,thus a large disturbance of gravity may arise from an irregularity in the mathematical surface whose actual magnitude1 as regards height at least1 is extremely small4 ,the effect of the disturbing mass mu on the vibrations of a pendulum would be a maximum at ,q2 if v be the number of seconds of time gained per diem by the pendulum at ,q1 and sigma the number of seconds of angle in the maximum deflection1 then it may be shown that v_/sigma piroot#c_/aj4 ,the great ,indian survey1 and the attendant measurements of the degree of latitude1 gave occasion to elaborate investigations of the deflection of the plumb-line in the neighbourhood of the high plateaus and mountain chains of ,central ,asia4 ,archdeacon ,pratt 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahee and #aheg71 in instituting these investigations1 took into consideration the influence of the apparent diminution of the mass of the earth's crust occasioned by the neighbouring ocean-basins2 he concluded that the accumulated masses of mountain chains1 c41 corresponded to subterranean mass diminutions1 so that over any level surface in a fixed depth 7perhaps #ajj miles or more7 the masses of prisms of equal section are equal4 ,this is supported by the gravity measurements at ,more in the ,himalayas at a height of #dfif metres1 which showed no deflection due to the mountain chain 7,phil4 ,trans41 #ahga72 more recently1 ,h4,a4 ,faye 7,compt4 rend41 #ahhj7 arrived at the same conclusion for the entire continent4 ,this compensation1 however1 must only be regarded as a general principle2 in certain cases1 the compensating masses show marked horizontal displacements4 ,further investigations1 especially of gravity measurements1 will undoubtedly establish other important facts4 ,colonel ,s4,g4 ,burrard has recently recalculated1 with the aid of more exact data1 certain ,indian deviations of the plumb-line1 and has established that in the region south of the ,himalayas 7lat4 #bd deg47 there is a subterranean perturbing mass4 ,the extent of the compensation of the high mountain chains is difficult to recognize from the latitude observations1 since the same effect may result from different causes2 on the other hand1 observations of geographical longitude have established a strong compensation4#e ,meridian ,arcs4 ,the astronomical stations for the measurement of the degree of latitude will generally lie not exactly on the same meridian2 and it is therefore necessary to calculate the arcs of meridian ,m which lie between the latitude of neighbouring stations4 ,if ,s be the geodetic line calculated from the triangulation with the astronomically determined azimuths alpha#a and alpha#b1 then cos alpha #a ,s squared ,m ,s ------------------- #a -- -------- sin squared alpha 444 1 cos #a_/b;,deltaalpha #ab alpha squared in which #b;alpha alpha#a alpha#b - #ahj deg41 ,deltaalpha alpha#b - alpha#a - #ahj deg44 ,the length of the arc of meridian between the latitudes phi#a and phi#b is phi#b phi#b _/ _/ 7#a - e squared7dphi ,m rhodphi alpha ----------------------- _/ _/ 7#a - e squaredsin squaredphi77#c_/b7 phi#a phi#a where a squarede squared a squared - b squared2 instead of using the eccentricity e1 put the ratio of the axes b3a #a - n3#a n1 then phi#b _/ b7#a n77#a - n squared7dphi ,m ------------------------------4 _/ 7#a #bn cos #bphi n squared77#c_/b7 phi#a ,this1 after integration1 gives _/ #e #e _/ #ba ,m_/b 7 #a n -n squared -n cubed7 alpha#j - 7 #cn #cn squared --n cubed7 alpha#a #d #d _/ #h _/ _/#ae #ae _/#ce 7 --n squared --n cubed7 alpha#b - 7 --n cubed 7 alpha#c1 #h #h _/ #bd _/ where alpha#j phi#b - phi#a alpha#a sin 7phi#b - phi#a7 cos 7phi#b phi#a7 alpha#b sin #b7phi#b - phi#a7 cos #b7phi#b phi#a7 alpha#c sin #c7phi#b - phi#a7 cos #c7phi#b phi#a74 ,the part of ,m which depends on n cubed is very small2 in fact1 if we calculate it for one of the longest arcs measured1 the ,russian arc1 it amounts to only an inch and a half1 therefore we omit this term1 and put for ,m_/b the value _/ #e _/#ae 7l n --n squared7 alpha#j - 7#cn #cn squared7 alpha#a 7 --n squared7 alpha#b4 #d _/ #h _/ ,now1 if we suppose the observed latitudes to be affected with errors1 and that the true latitudes are phi#a x#a1 phi#b x#b2 and if further we suppose that n#a dn is the true value of a - b3a b1 and that n#a itself is merely a very approximate numerical value1 we get1 on making these substitutions and neglecting the influence of the corrections x on the position of the arc in latitude1 i4e4 on phi#a phi#b1 _/ #e _/ _/#ae ,m_/b 7 #a n --n#a squared7alpha#j - 7#cn#a #cn#a squared7alpha#a 7 --n#a squared7alpha#b #d _/ _/ #h _/ _/ #e _/ _/#ae 7 #a -- n#a 7a#j - 7 #c #fn#a 7a#a 7 -- n#a 7a#b dn #b _/ _/ #d _/ da#a #a n#a - #cn --- da#j2 da#j here da#j x#b - x#a2 and as b is only known approximately1 put b b#a7a u72 then we get1 after dividing through by the coefficient of da#j1 which is #a n#a - #cn#a cos7phi#b - phi#a7 cos7phi#b phi#a71 an equation of the form x#b x#a h fu gv1 where for convenience we put v for dn4 ,now in every measured arc there are not only the extreme stations determined in latitude1 but also a number of intermediate stations so that if there be i #a stations there will be i equations x#b x#a f#au g#av h#a x#c x#a f#bu g#bv h#b 3 3 3 3 3 3 xi x#a fiu giv hi ,in combining a number of different arcs of meridian1 with the view of determining the figure of the earth1 each arc will supply a number of equations in u and v and the corrections to its observed latitudes4 ,then1 according to the method of least squares1 those values of u and v are the most probable which render the sum of the squares of all the errors x a minimum4 ,the corrections x which are here applied arise not from errors of observation only4 ,the mere uncertainty of a latitude1 as determined with modern instruments1 does not exceed a very small fraction of a second as far as errors of observation go1 but no accuracy in observing will remove the error that may arise from local attraction4 ,this1 as we have seen1 may amount to some seconds1 so that the corrections x to the observed latitudes are attributable to local attraction4 ,archdeacon ,pratt objected to this mode of applying least squares first used by ,bessel2 but ,bessel was right1 and the objection is groundless4 ,bessel found1 in #ahda1 from ten meridian arcs with a total amplitude of #ej deg44#f3 a #cbgbjgg toises #fcggcig metres4 e 7ellipticity7 7a - b7_/a #a_/bii4ae 7prob4 error - #c4b74 ,the probable error in the length of the earth's quadrant is - #ccf m4 ,we now give a series of some meridian-arcs measurements1 which were utilized in #ahff by ,a4,r4 ,clarke in the ,comparisons of the ,standards of ,length1 pp4 #bhj-bhg2 details of the calculations are given by the same author in his ,geodesy 7#ahhj71 pp4 #caa et seq4 ,the data of the ,french arc from ,formentera to ,dunkirk are-- ,stations4 ,astronomical ,distance of ,latitudes4 ,parallels4 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,formentera #ch #ci #ec4ag 44 ,mountjouy #da #ba #dd4if #ihbfga4jd ,barcelona #da #bb #dg4ij #ihhgja4ib ,carcassonne #dc #ab #ed4cj #afegbhg4ic ,pantheon #dh #ej #dg4ih #cgajhbg4ac ,dunkirk #ea #b #h4da #dejigij4hd ,the distance of the parallels of ,dunkirk and ,greenwich1 deduced from the extension of the triangulation of ,england into ,france1 in #ahfb1 is #afadjg4c ft41 which is #c4i ft4 greater than that obtained from ,captain ,kater's triangulation1 and #c4b ft4 less than the distance calculated by ,delambre from ,general ,roy's triangulation4 ,the following table shows the data of the ,english arc with the distances in standard feet from ,formentera4 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,formentera 44 44 ,greenwich #ea #bh #ch4cj #dfgaaih4c ,arbury #eb #ac #bf4ei #didchcg4f ,clifton #ec #bg #bi4ej #ecidjfc4d ,kellie ,law #ef #ad #ec4fj #fdacbba4g ,stirling #eg #bg #di4ab #fhegcbc4c ,saxavord #fj #di #cg4ba #hjhfhbj4g ,the latitude assigned in this table to ,saxavord is not the directly observed latitude1 which is #fj deg4 #di' #ch4eh1 for there are here a cluster of three points1 whose latitudes are astronomically determined2 and if we transfer1 by means of the geodesic connexion1 the latitude of ,gerth of ,scaw to ,saxavord1 we get #fj deg4 #di' #cf4ei2 and if we similarly transfer the latitude of ,balta1 we get #fj deg4 #di' #cf4df4 ,the mean of these three is that entered in the above table4 ,for the ,indian arc in long4 #gg deg4 #dj' we have the following data3-- deg4 ' ,ft4 ,punnea #h #i #ca4acb 44 ,putchapolliam #aj #ei #db4bgf #ajbiagd4i ,dodagunta #ab #ei #eb4afe #agefefb4j ,namthabad #ae #e #ec4efb #beahcgf4c ,daumergida #ah #c #ae4bib #ceiaghh4d ,takalkhera #ba #e #ea4ecb #dfigcbi4e ,kalianpur #bd #g #aa4bfb #egidfie4g ,kaliana #bi #cj #dh4cbb #ggeehce4i ,the data of the ,russian arc 7long4 #bf deg4 #dj'7 taken from ,struve's work are as below3-- deg4 ' ,ft4 ,staro ,nekrasovsk #de #bj #b4id 44 ,vodu-,luy #dg #a #bd4ih #fafebi4ha ,suprunkovzy #dh #de #c4jd #abdfgfb4ag ,kremenets #ej #e #di4ie #agcgeea4dh ,byelin #eb #b #db4af #bddhgde4ag ,nemesh #ed #ci #d4af #cdjjcab4fc ,jacobstadt #ef #cj #d4ig #djgfdab4bh ,dorpat #eh #bb #dg4ef #dgfbdba4dc ,hogland #fj #e #i4hd #echface4ci ,kilpi-maki #fb #ch #e4be #fcagije4fg ,tornea #fe #di #dd4eg #gdhfghi4ig ,stuor-oivi #fh #dj #eh4dj #hecjeag4ij ,fuglenaes #gj #dj #aa4bc #ibegiba4jf ,from the are measured in ,cape ,colony by ,sir ,thomas ,maclear in long4 #ah deg4 #cj'1 we have deg4 ' ,ft4 ,north ,end #bi #dd #ag4ff 44 ,heerenlogement ,berg #ca #eh #i4aa #haaejg4g ,royal ,observatory #cc #ef #c4bj #aebfchf4h ,zwart ,kop #cd #ac #cb4ac #afcbehc4c ,cape ,point #cd #ba #f4bf #afghcge4g ,and1 finally1 for the ,peruvian arc1 in long4 #bha deg4 #j'1 deg4 ' ,ft4 ,tarqui #c #d #cb4jfh 44 ,cotchesqui #j #b #ca4chg #aacajcf4c ,having now stated the data of the problem1 we may seek that oblate ellipsoid 7spheroid7 which best represents the observations4 ,whatever the real figure may be1 it is certain that if we suppose it an ellipsoid with three unequal axes1 the arithmetical process will bring out an ellipsoid1 which will agree better with all the observed latitudes than any spheroid would1 therefore we do not prove that it is an ellipsoid2 to prove this1 arcs of longitude would be required4 ,the result for the spheroid may be expressed thus3-- a #bjibfjfb ft4 #fcghbjf4d metres4 b #bjheeaba ft4 #fcefehc4h metres4 b 3 a #bic4ih 3 #bid4ih4 ,as might be expected1 the sum of the squares of the #dj latitude corrections1 viz4 #aec4ii1 is greater in this figure than in that of three axes1 where it amounts to #ach4cj4 ,for this case1 in the ,indian arc the largest corrections are at ,dodagunta1 #c4hg1 and at ,kalianpur1 - #c4fh4 ,in the ,russian arc the largest corrections are #c4gf1 at ,tornea1 and - #c4ca1 at ,staro ,nekrasovsk4 ,of the whole #dj corrections1 #af are under #a4j1 #aj between #a4j and #b4j1 #aj between #b4j and #c4j1 and #d over #c4j4 ,the probable error of an observed latitude is - #a4db2 for the spheroidal it would be very slightly larger4 ,this quantity may be taken therefore as approximately the probable amount of local deflection4 ,if rho be the radius of curvature of the meridian in latitude phi1 rho' that perpendicular to the meridian1 ,d the length of a degree of the meridian1 ,d' the length of a degree of longitude1 r the radius drawn from the centre of the earth1 ,v the angle of the vertical with the radius-vector1 then ,ft4 rho #bjhijfjf4f - #ajfdaa4e cos #bphi #bbe4h cos #dphi rho' #bjifafjg4c - #ceeij4i cos #bphi #de4b cos #dphi ,d #cfdfji4hg - #aheg4ad cos #bphi #c4id cos #dphi ,d' #cfeech4dh cos phi - #caj4ag cos #cphi #j4ci cos #ephi ,log r_/a #i4iiibfde 4#jjjgcgd cos #bphi - 4#jjjjjai cos #dphi ,v #gjj4dd sin #bphi - #a4ai sin #dphi4 ,a4,r4 ,clarke has recalculated the elements of the ellipsoid of the earth2 his values1 derived in #ahhj1 in which he utilized the measurements of parallel arcs in ,india1 are particularly in practice4 ,these values are3-- a #bjibfbjb ft4 #fcghbdi metres1 b #bjhedhie ft4 #fcefeae metres1 b 3 a #bib4dfe 3 #bic4dfe4 ,the calculation of the elements of the ellipsoid of rotation from measurements of the curvature of arcs in any given azimuth by means of geographical longitudes1 latitudes and azimuths is indicated in the article ,,geodesy2 reference may be made to ,principal ,triangulation1 ,helmert's ,geodasie1 and the publications of the ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,inst43--,lotabweichungen 7#ahhf71 and ,die europ4 ,laengengradmessung in #eb deg4 ,br4 7#ahic74 ,for the calculation of an ellipsoid with three unequal axes see ,comparison of ,standards1 preface2 and for non-elliptical meridians1 ,principal ,triangulation1 p4 #gcc4 ,gravitation-,measurements4 ,according to ,clairault's theorem 7see above7 the ellipticity e of the mathematical surface of the earth is equal to the difference 7#e_/b7m -ss1 where m is the ratio of the centrifugal force at the equator to gravity at the equator1 and ss is derived from the formula ,g g7#a ss sin squaredphi74 ,since the beginning of the #aith century many efforts have been made to determine the constants of this formula1 and numerous expeditions undertaken to investigate the intensity of gravity in different latitudes4 ,if m be known1 it is only necessary to determine ss for the evaluation of e2 consequently it is unnecessary to determine ,g absolutely1 for the relative values of ,g at two known latitudes suffice4 ,such relative measurements are easier and more exact than absolute ones4 ,in some cases the ordinary thread pendulum1 i4e4 a spherical bob suspended by a wire1 has been employed2 but more often a rigid metal rod1 bearing a weight and a knife-edge on which it may oscillate1 has been adopted4 ,the main point is the constancy of the pendulum4 ,from the formula for the time of oscillation of the mathematically ideal pendulum1 t #b pi root7l_/,g71 l being the length1 it follows that for two points ,g#a_/;,g#b t#b squared_/t#a squared4 ,in #ahjh ,j4,b4 ,biot commenced his pendulum observations at several stations in western ,europe2 and in #ahag-ahbe ,captain ,louis de ,freycinet and ,l4,i4 ,duperrey prosecuted similar observations far into the southern hemisphere4 ,captain ,henry ,kater confined himself to ,british stations 7#ahah-ahai72 ,captain ,e4 ,sabine1 from #ahai to #ahbi1 observed similarly1 with ,kater's pendulum1 at seventeen stations ranging from the ,west ,indies to ,greenland and ,spitsbergen2 and in #ahbd-ahca1 ,captain ,henry ,foster 7who met his death by drowning in ,central ,america7 experimented at sixteen stations2 his observations were completed by ,francis ,baily in ,london4 ,of other workers in this field mention may be made of ,f4,b4 ,luetke 7#ahbf-ahbi71 a ,russian rear-admiral1 and ,captains ,j4,b4 ,basevi and ,w4,t4 ,heaviside1 who observed during #ahfe to #ahgc at ,kew and at #bi ,indian stations1 particularly at ,more in the ,himalayas at a height of #dfif metres4 ,of the earlier absolute determinations we may mention those of ,biot1 ,kater1 and ,bessel at ,paris1 ,london and ,koenigsberg respectively4 ,the measurements were particularly difficult by reason of the length of the pendulums employed1 these generally being second-pendulums over #a metre long4 ,in about #ahhj1 ,colonel ,robert von ,sterneck of ,austria introduced the half-second pendulum1 which permitted far quicker and more accurate work4 ,the use of these pendulums spread in all countries1 and the number of gravity stations consequently increased3 in #ahhj there were about #abj1 in #aijj there were about #afjj1 of which the greater number were in ,europe4 ,sir ,e4 ,sabine#f calculated the ellipticity to be #a_/bhh4e1 a value shown to be too high by ,helmert1 who in #ahhd1 with the aid of #abj stations1 gave the value #a_/bii4bf1g and in #aija1 with about #adjj stations1 derived the value #a_/bih4c4h ,the reason for the excessive estimate of ,sabine is that he did not take into account the systematic difference between the values of ,g for continents and islands2 it was found that in consequence of the constitution of the earth's crust 7,pratt7 ,g is greater on small islands of the ocean than on continents by an amount which may approach to #j4c cm4 ,moreover1 stations in the neighbourhood of coasts shelving to deep seas have a surplus1 but a little smaller4 ,consequently1 ,helmert conducted his calculations of #aija for continents and coasts separately1 and obtained ,g for the coasts #j4jcf cm4 greater than for the continents1 while the value of ss remained the same4 ,the mean value1 reduced to continents1 is ,g #igh4jc7a #j4jjecjb sin squaredphi - #j4jjjjjg sin squared #bphi7cm_/sec squared4 ,the small term involving sin squared #bphi could not be calculated with sufficient exactness from the observations1 and is therefore taken from the theoretical views of ,sir ,g4,h4 ,darwin and ,e4 ,wiechert4 ,for the constant g #igh4jc cm4 another correction has been suggested 7#aijf7 by the absolute determinations made by ,f4 ,kuehnen and ,ph4 ,furtwaengler at ,potsdam4#i ,a report on the pendulum measurements of the #aith century has been given by ,helmert in the ,comptes rendus des seances de la #ac;e conference generale de l',association ,geod4 ,internationale a ,paris 7#aijj71 ii4 #aci-che4 ,a difficulty presents itself in the case of the application of measurements of gravity to the determination of the figure of the earth by reason of the extrusion or standing out of the land-masses 7continents1 c47 above the sea-level4 ,the potential of gravity has a different mathematical expression outside the masses than inside4 ,the difficulty is removed by assuming 7with ,sir ,g4,g4 ,stokes7 the vertical condensation of the masses on the sea-level1 without its form being considerably altered 7scarcely #a metre radially74 ,further1 the value of gravity 7g7 measured at the height ,h is corrected to sea-level by #b;g,h_/,r1 where ,r is the radius of the earth4 ,another correction1 due to ,p4 ,bouguer1 is -7#c_/b7;gdelta,h_/rho,r1 where delta is the density of the strata of height ,h1 and rho the mean density of the earth4 ,these two corrections are represented in ,bouguer's ,rule3 g,h gs7#a - #b;,h_/,r #c;delta,h_/#brho,r71 where g,h is the gravity at height ,h1 and gs the value at sea-level4 ,this is supposed to take into account the attraction of the elevated strata or plateau2 but1 from the analytical method1 this is not correct2 it is also disadvantageous since1 in general1 the land-masses are compensated subterraneously1 by reason of the isostasis of the earth's crust4 ,in #ahdi ,stokes showed that the normal elevations ,n of the geoid towards the ellipsoid are calculable from the deviations ,deltag of the acceleration of gravity1 i4e4 the differences between the observed g and the value calculated from the normal ,g formula4 ,the method assumes that gravity is measured on the earth's surface at a sufficient number of points1 and that it is conformably reduced4 ,in order to secure the convergence of the expansions in spherical harmonics1 it is necessary to assume all masses outside a surface parallel to the surface of the sea at a depth of #ba km4 7 ,r x ellipticity7 to be condensed on this surface 7,helmert1 ,geod4 ii4 #agb74 ,in addition to the reduction with #b;g,h_/,r1 there still result small reductions with mountain chains and coasts1 and somewhat larger ones for islands4 ,the sea-surface generally varies but very little by this condensation4 ,the elevation 7,n7 of the geoid is then equal to _/pi ,n ,r ,,fg7-#a7 ,deltagpsi dpsi1 _/ where psi is the spherical distance from the point ,n1 and ,deltagpsi denotes the mean value of ,deltag for all points in the same distance psi around2 ,f is a function of psi1 and has the following values3-- -------------- ,psi ,f -------------- #j deg4 #a #aj deg4 #a4bb #bj deg4 #j4id #cj deg4 #j4dg #dj deg4 -#j4jf #ej deg4 -#j4ed #fj deg4 -#j4ij #gj deg4 -#a4jh #hj deg4 -#a4jh #ij deg4 -#j4ia #ajj deg4 -#j4fb #aaj deg4 -#j4bg #abj deg4 #j4jh #acj deg4 #j4cf #adj deg4 #j4ec #aej deg4 #j4ef #afj deg4 #j4df #agj deg4 #j4bf #ahj deg4 #j -------------- ,h4 ,poincare 7,bull4 ,astr41 #aija1 p4 #e7 has exhibited ,n by means of ,lame's functions2 in this case the condensation is effected on an ellipsoidal surface1 which approximates to the geoid4 ,this condensation is1 in practice1 the same as to the geoid itself4 ,if we imagine the outer land-masses to be condensed on the sea-level1 and the inner masses 7which1 together with the outer masses1 causes the deviation of the geoid from the ellipsoid7 to be compensated in the sea-level by a disturbing stratum 7which1 according to ,gauss1 is possible71 and if these masses of both kinds correspond at the point ,n to a stratum of thickness ,d and density delta1 then1 according to ,helmert 7,geod4 ii4 #bfj7 we have approximately #c g _/delta,d ,deltag -- -- 7 -------- - ,n 74 #b ,r rho _/ ,since ,n slowly varies empirically1 it follows that in restricted regions 7of a few #ajj km4 in diameter7 ,deltag is a measure of the variation of ,d4 ,by applying the reduction of ,bouguer to g1 ,d is diminished by ,h and only gives the thickness of the ideal disturbing mass which corresponds to the perturbations due to subterranean masses4 ,deltag has positive values on coasts1 small islands1 and high and medium mountain chains1 and occasionally in plains2 while in valleys and at the foot of mountain ranges it is negative 7up to #j4b cm474 ,we conclude from this that the masses of smaller density existing under high mountain chains lie not only vertically underneath but also spread out sideways4 ,the ,european ,arc of ,parallel in #eb deg4 ,lat4 ,many measurements of degrees of longitudes along central parallels in ,europe were projected and partly carried out as early as the first half of the #aith century2 these1 however1 only became of importance after the introduction of the electric telegraph1 through which calculations of astronomical longitudes obtained a much higher degree of accuracy4 ,of the greatest moment is the measurement near the parallel of #eb deg4 lat41 which extended from ,valentia in ,ireland to ,orsk in the southern ,ural mountains over #fi deg4 long1 7about #fgej km474 ,f4,g4,w4 ,struve1 who is to be regarded as the father of the ,russo-,scandinavian latitude-degree measurements1 was the originator of this investigation4 ,having made the requisite arrangements with the governments in #aheg1 he transferred them to his son ,otto1 who1 in #ahfj1 secured the co-operation of ,england4 ,a new connexion of ,england with the continent1 via the ,english ,channel1 was accomplished in the next two years2 whereas the requisite triangulations in ,prussia and ,russia extended over several decennaries4 ,the number of longitude stations originally arranged for was #ae2 and the determinations of the differences in longitude were uniformly commenced by the ,russian observers ,e4,i4 von ,forsch1 ,j4,i4 ,zylinski1 ,b4 ,tiele and others2 ,feaghmain 7,valentia7 being reserved for ,english observers4 ,with the concluding calculation of these operations1 newer determinations of differences of longitudes were also applicable1 by which the number of stations was brought up to #bi4 ,since local deflections of the plumb-line were suspected at ,feaghmain1 the most westerly station1 the longitude 7with respect to ,greenwich7 of the trigonometrical station ,killorglin at the head of ,dingle ,bay was shortly afterwards determined4 ,the results 7#ahia-ahid7 are given in volumes xlvii4 and l4 of the memoirs 7,zapiski7 of the military topographical division of the ,russian general staff1 volume li4 contains a reconnexion of ,orsk4 ,the observations made west of ,warsaw are detailed in the ,die europ4 ,laengengradmessung in #eb deg4 ,br41 i4 and ii41 #ahic1 #ahif1 published by the ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,inst4 ,the following figures are quoted from ,helmert's report ,die ,groesse der ,erde 7,sitzb4 d4 ,berl4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41 #aijf1 p4 #ece73-- ,easterly ,deviation of the ,astronomical ,zenith4 ,name4 ,longitude4 deg4 ' ,feaghmain -#aj #ba -#c4c ,killorglin - #i #dg #b4h ,haverfordwest - #d #eh #a4f ,greenwich #j #j #a4e ,rosendael-,nieuport #b #ce -#a4g ,bonn #g #f -#d4d ,goettingen #i #eg -#b4d ,brocken #aj #cg #b4c ,leipzig #ab #bc #b4g ,rauenberg-,berlin #ac #bc #a4g ,grossenhain #ac #cc -#b4i ,schneekoppe #ae #de #j4a ,springberg #af #cg #j4h ,breslau-,rosenthal #ag #b #c4e ,trockenberg #ah #ec -#j4e ,schoensee #ah #ed -#b4i ,mirov #ai #ah #b4b ,warsaw #ba #b #a4i ,grodno #bc #ej -#b4h ,bobruisk #bi #ad #j4e ,orel #cf #d #d4d ,lipetsk #ci #cf #j4b ,saratov #df #c #f4d ,samara #ej #e -#b4f ,orenburg #ee #g #a4g ,orsk #eh #cd -#h4j ,these deviations of the plumb-line correspond to an ellipsoid having an equatorial radius 7a7 of nearly #f1cgh1jjj metres 7prob4 error - #gj metres7 and an ellipticity #a_/bii4ae4 ,the latter was taken for granted2 it is nearly equal to the result from the gravity-measurements2 the value for a then gives ,sigmaeta squared a minimum 7nearly74 ,the astronomical values of the geographical longitudes 7with regard to ,greenwich7 are assumed1 according to the compensation of longitude differences carried out by van de ,sande ,bakhuyzen 7,comp4 rend1 des seances de la commission permanente de l',association ,geod4 ,internationale a ,geneve1 #ahic1 annexe ,a4,i474 ,recent determinations 7,albrecht1 ,astr4 ,nach41 #ciic_/d7 have introduced only small alterations in the deviations1 a being slightly increased4 ,of considerable importance in the investigation of the great arc was the representation of the linear lengths found in different countries1 in terms of the same unit4 ,the necessity for this had previously occurred in the computation of the figure of the earth from latitude-degree-measurements4 ,a4,r4 ,clarke instituted an extensive series of comparisons at ,southampton 7see ,comparisons of ,standards of ,length of ,england1 ,france1 ,belgium1 ,prussia1 ,russia1 ,india and ,australia1 made at the ,ordnance ,survey ,office1 ,southampton1 #ahff1 and a paper in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahgc1 by ,lieut4-,col4 ,a4,r4 ,clarke1 ,c4,b41 ,r4,e41 on the further comparisons of the standards of ,austria1 ,spain1 the ,united ,states1 ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,russia7 and found that #a toise #f4cideccdh ft41 #a metre #c4bhjhficc ft4 ,in #ahge a number of ,european states concluded the metre convention1 and in #ahgg an international weights-and-measures bureau was established at ,breteuil4 ,until this time the metre was determined by the end-surfaces of a platinum rod 7metre des archives72 subsequently1 rods of platinum-iridium1 of cross-section ,h1 were constructed1 having engraved lines at both ends of the bridge1 which determine the distance of a metre4 ,there were thirty of the rods which gave as accurately as possible the length of the metre2 and these were distributed among the different states 7see ,,weights ,,and ,,measures74 ,careful comparisons with several standard toises showed that the metre was not exactly equal to #ddc1bif lines of the toise1 but1 in round numbers1 #a_/gejjj of the length smaller4 ,the metre according to the older relation is called the legal metre1 according to the new relation the international metre4 ,the values are 7see ,europ4 ,laengengradmessung1 i4 p4 #bcj73-- ,legal metre #c4bhjhficc ft41 ,international metre #c4bhjhbeg ft4 ,the values of a given above are in terms of the international metre2 the earlier ones in legal metres1 while the gravity formulae are in international metres4 ,the ,international ,geodetic ,association 7,internationale ,erdmessung74 ,on the proposition of the ,prussian lieutenant-general1 ,johann ,jacob ,baeyer1 a conference of delegates of several ,european states met at ,berlin in #ahfb to discuss the question of a ,central ,european degree-measurement4 ,the first general conference took place at ,berlin two years later2 shortly afterwards other countries joined the movement1 which was then named ,the ,european degree-measurement4 ,from #ahff till #ahhf ,prussia had borne the expense incident to the central bureau at ,berlin2 but when in #ahhf the operations received further extension and the title was altered to ,the ,international ,earth-measurement or ,international ,geodetic ,association1 the co-operating states made financial contributions to this purpose4 ,the central bureau is affiliated with the ,prussian ,geodetic ,institute1 which1 since #ahib1 has been situated on the ,telegraphenberg near ,potsdam4 ,after ,baeyer's death ,prof4 ,friedrich ,robert ,helmert was appointed director4 ,the funds are devoted to the advancement of such scientific works as concern all countries and deal with geodetic problems of a general or universal nature4 ,during the period #ahig-aijf the following twenty-one countries belonged to the association3--,austria1 ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,greece1 ,holland1 ,hungary1 ,italy1 ,japan1 ,mexico1 ,norway1 ,portugal1 ,rumania1 ,russia1 ,servia1 ,spain1 ,sweden1 ,switzerland and the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,at the present time general conferences take place every three years4#aj ,baeyer projected the investigation of the curvature of the meridians and the parallels of the mathematical surface of the earth stretching from ,christiania to ,palermo for #ab degrees of longitude2 he sought to co-ordinate and complete the network of triangles in the countries through which these meridians passed1 and to represent his results by a common unit of length4 ,this proposition has been carried out1 and extended over the greater part of ,europe2 as a matter of fact1 the network has1 with trifling gaps1 been carried over the whole of western and central ,europe1 and1 by some chains of triangles1 over ,european ,russia4 ,through the co-operation of ,france1 the network has been extended into north ,africa as far as the geographical latitude of #cb deg42 in ,greece a network1 united with those of ,italy and ,bosnia1 has been carried out by the ,austrian colonel1 ,heinrich ,hartl2 ,servia has projected similar triangulations2 ,rumania has begun to make the triangle measurements1 and three base lines have been measured by ,french officers with ,brunner's apparatus4 ,at present1 in ,rumania1 there is being worked a connexion between the arc of parallel in lat4 #dg deg4_/#dh deg4 in ,russia 7stretching from ,astrakan to ,kishinev7 with ,austria-,hungary4 ,in the latter country and in south ,bavaria the connecting triangles for this parallel have been recently revised1 as well as the ,french chain on the ,paris parallel1 which has been connected with the ,german net by the co-operation of ,german and ,french geodesists4 ,this will give a long arc of parallel1 really projected in the first half of the #aith century4 ,the calculation of the ,russian section gives1 with an assumed ellipticity of #a_/bii4ae1 the value a #fcggcej metres2 this is rather uncertain1 since the arc embraces only #ai deg4 in longitude4 ,we may here recall that in ,france geodetic studies have recovered their former expansion under the vigorous impulse of ,colonel 7afterwards ,general7 ,francois ,perrier4 ,when occupied with the triangulation of ,algeria1 ,colonel ,perrier had conceived the possibility of the geodetic junction of ,algeria to ,spain1 over the ,mediterranean2 therefore the ,french meridian line1 which was already connected with ,england1 and was thus produced to the #fjth parallel1 could further be linked to the ,spanish triangulation1 cross thence into ,algeria and extend to the ,sahara1 so as to form an arc of about #cj deg4 in length4 ,but it then became urgent to proceed to a new measurement of the ,french arc1 between ,dunkirk and ,perpignan4 ,in #ahfi ,perrier was authorized to undertake that revision4 ,he devoted himself to that work till the end of his career1 closed by premature death in ,february #ahhh1 at the very moment when the ,depot de la guerre had just been transformed into the ,geographical ,service of the ,army1 of which ,general ,f4 ,perrier was the first director4 ,his work was continued by his assistant1 ,colonel 7afterwards ,general7 ,j4,a4,l4 ,bassot4 ,the operations concerning the revision of the ,french arc were completed only in #ahif4 ,meanwhile the ,french geodesists had accomplished the junction of ,algeria to ,spain1 with the help of the geodesists of the ,madrid ,institute under ,general ,carlos ,ibanez 7#ahgi71 and measured the meridian line between ,algiers and ,el ,aghuat 7#ahha74 ,they have since been busy in prolonging the meridians of ,el ,aghuat and ,biskra1 so as to converge towards ,wargla1 through ,ghardaia and ,tuggurt4 ,the fundamental co-ordinates of the ,pantheon have also been obtained anew1 by connecting the ,pantheon and the ,paris ,observatory with the five stations of ,bry-sur-,marne1 ,morlu1 ,mont ,valerien1 ,chatillon and ,montsouris1 where the observations of latitude and azimuth have been effected4#aa ,according to the calculations made at the central bureau of the international association on the great meridian arc extending from the ,shetland ,islands1 through ,great ,britain1 ,france and ,spain to ,el ,aghuat in ,algeria1 a #fcggice metres1 the ellipticity being assumed as #a_/bii4ae4 ,the following table gives the difference3 astronomical-geodetic latitude4 ,the net does not follow the meridian exactly1 but deviates both to the west and to the east2 actually1 the meridian of ,greenwich is nearer the mean than that of ,paris 7,helmert1 ,groesse d4 ,erde74 ,west ,europe-,africa ,meridian-arc4#ab ,name4 ,latitude4 ,a4-,g4 deg4 ' ,saxavord #fj #di4f -#d4j ,balta #fj #de4j -#f4a ,ben ,hutig #eh #cc4a #j4c ,cowhythe #eg #da4a #g4c ,great ,stirling #eg #bg4h -#b4c ,kellie ,law #ef #ad4i -#c4g ,calton ,hill #ee #eg4d #c4e ,durham #ed #df4a -#j4i ,burleigh ,moor #ed #cd4c #b4a ,clifton ,beacon #ec #bg4e #a4c ,arbury ,hill #eb #ac4d -#c4j ,greenwich #ea #bh4f -#b4e ,nieuport #ea #g4h -#j4d ,rosendael #ea #b4g -#j4i ,lihons #di #di4i #j4e ,pantheon #dh #ej4h -#j4j ,chevry #dh #j4e #b4b ,saligny le ,vif #dg #b4g #c4j ,arpheuille #df #ac4g #f4c ,puy de ,dome #de #df4e #g4j ,rodez #dd #ba4d #a4g ,carcassonne #dc #ac4c #j4g ,rivesaltes #db #de4b -#j4g ,montolar #da #ch4e #c4f ,lerida #da #cg4j -#j4b ,javalon #dj #ac4h -#j4b ,desierto #dj #e4j -#d4e ,chinchilla #ch #ee4b #b4b ,mola de ,formentera #ch #ci4i -#a4b ,tetica #cg #ae4b #c4e ,roldan #cf #ef4f -#f4j ,conjuros #cf #dd4d -#ab4f ,mt4 ,sabiha #ce #ci4f #f4e ,nemours #ce #e4h #g4d ,bouzareah #cf #dh4j #b4i ,algiers 7,voirol7 #cf #de4a -#i4a ,guelt es ,stel #ce #g4h -#a4j ,el ,aghuat #cc #dh4j -#b4h ,illustration ,while the radius of curvature of this arc is obviously not uniform 7being1 in the mean1 about #fjj metres greater in the northern than in the southern part71 the ,russo-,scandinavian meridian arc 7from #de deg4 to #gj deg471 on the other hand1 is very uniformly curved1 and gives1 with an ellipticity of #a_/bii4ae1 a #fcghdee metres2 this arc gives the plausible value #a_/bih4f for the ellipticity4 ,but in the case of this arc the orographical circumstances are more favourable4 ,the west-,european and the ,russo-,scandinavian meridians indicate another anomaly of the geoid4 ,they were connected at the ,central ,bureau by means of east-to-west triangle chains 7principally by the arc of parallel measurements in lat4 #eb deg472 it was shown that1 if one proceeds from the west-,european meridian arcs1 the differences between the astronomical and geodetic latitudes of the ,russo-,scandinavian arc become some #d greater4#ac ,the central ,european meridian1 which passes through ,germany and the countries adjacent on the north and south1 is under review at ,potsdam 7see the publications of the ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,inst41 ,lotabweichungen1 ,nos4 #a-c74 ,particular notice must be made of the ,vienna meridian1 now carried southwards to ,malta4 ,the ,italian triangulation is now complete1 and has been joined with the neighbouring countries on the north1 and with ,tunis on the south4 ,the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey has published an account of the transcontinental triangulation and measurement of an arc of the parallel of #ci deg41 which extends from ,cape ,may 7,new ,jersey71 on the ,atlantic coast1 to ,point ,arena 7,california71 on the ,pacific coast1 and embraces #dh deg4 #df' of longitude1 with a linear development of about #dbbe km4 7#bfbe miles74 ,the triangulation depends upon ten base-lines1 with an aggregate length of #hf km4 the longest exceeding #ag km4 in length1 which have been measured with the utmost care4 ,in crossing the ,rocky ,mountains1 many of its sides exceed #ajj miles in length1 and there is one side reaching to a length of #bid km41 or #ahc miles2 the altitude of many of the stations is also considerable1 reaching to #dcjj metres1 or #ad1ajh ft41 in the case of ,pike's ,peak1 and to #ad1dba ft4 at ,elbert ,peak1 ,colo4 ,all geometrical conditions subsisting in the triangulation are satisfied by adjustment1 inclusive of the required accord of the base-lines1 so that the same length for any given line is found1 no matter from what line one may start4#ad ,over or near the arc were distributed #aji latitude stations1 occupied with zenith telescopes2 #gc azimuth stations2 and #bi telegraphically determined longitudes4 ,it has thus been possible to study in a very complete manner the deviations of the vertical1 which in the mountainous regions sometimes amount to #be seconds1 and even to #bi seconds4 ,with the ellipticity #a_/bii4ae1 a #fcgghig - #fe metres 7prob4 error72 in this calculation1 however1 some exceedingly perturbed stations are excluded2 for the employed stations the mean perturbation in longitude is - #d4i 7zenith-deflection east-to-west - #c4h74 ,the computations relative to another arc1 the eastern oblique arc of the ,united ,states1 are also finished4#ae ,it extends from ,calais 7,maine7 in the north-east1 to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and terminates at ,new ,orleans 7,louisiana71 in the south4 ,its length is #bfab km4 7#afbc miles71 the difference of latitude #ae deg4 #a'1 and of longitude #bb deg4 #dg'4 ,in the main1 the triangulation follows the ,appalachian chain of mountains1 bifurcating once1 so as to leave an oval space between the two branches4 ,it includes among its stations ,mount ,washington 7#aibj metres7 and ,mount ,mitchell 7#bjch metres74 ,it depends upon six base-lines1 and the adjustment is effected in the same manner as for the arc of the parallel4 ,the astronomical data have been afforded by #ga latitude stations1 #ag longitude stations1 and #ef azimuth stations1 distributed over the whole extent of the arc4 ,the resulting dimensions of an osculating spheroid were found to be a #fcghaeg metres - #ij 7prob4 error71 e7ellipticity7 #a_/cjd4e - #a4i 7prob4 error74 ,with the ellipticity #a_/cii4ae1 a #fcghjda metres - #hj 7prob4 er474 ,during the years #aijc-aijf the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 under the direction of ,o4,h4 ,tittmann and the special management of ,john ,f4 ,hayford1 executed a calculation of the best ellipsoid of rotation for the ,united ,states4 ,there were #ejg astronomical determinations employed1 all the stations being connected through the net-work of triangles4 ,the observed latitudes1 longitude and azimuths were improved by the attractions of the earth's crust on the hypothesis of isostasis for three depths of the surface of #aad1 #aba and #afb km41 where the isostasis is complete4 ,the land-masses1 within the distance of #dabf km41 were taken into consideration4 ,in the derivation of an ellipsoid of rotation1 the first case proved itself the most favourable1 and there resulted3-- a #fcghbhc metres - #gd 7prob4 er471 ellipticity #a_/big4h - #j4i 7prob4 er474 ,the most favourable value for the depth of the isostatic surface is approximately #aad km4 ,the measurement of a great meridian arc1 in long4 #ih deg4 ,w41 has been commenced2 it has a range of latitude of #bc deg41 and will extend over #ej deg4 when produced southwards and northwards by ,mexico and ,canada4 ,it may afterwards be connected with the arc of ,quito4 ,a new measurement of the meridian arc of ,quito was executed in the years #aija-aijf by the ,service geographique of ,france under the direction of the ,academie des ,sciences1 the ground having been previously reconnoitred in #ahii4 ,the new arc has an amplitude in latitude of #e deg4 #ec' #cc1 and stretches from ,tulcan 7lat4 #j deg4 #dh' #be7 on the borders of ,columbia and ,ecuador1 through ,columbia to ,payta 7lat4 -#e deg4 #e' #h7 in ,peru4 ,the end-points1 at which the chain of triangles has a slight north-easterly trend1 show a longitude difference of #c deg44 ,of the #gd triangle points1 #fd were latitude stations2 #f azimuths and #h longitude-differences were measured1 three base-lines were laid down1 and gravity was determined from six points1 in order to maintain indications over the general deformation of the geoid in that region4 ,computations of the attraction of the mountains on the plumb-line are also being considered4 ,the work has been much delayed by the hardships and difficulties encountered4 ,it was conducted by ,lieut4-,colonel ,robert ,bourgeois1 assisted by eleven officers and twenty-four soldiers of the geodetic branch of the ,service geographique4 ,of these officers mention may be made of ,commandant ,e4 ,maurain1 who retired in #aijd after suffering great hardships2 ,commandant ,l4 ,massenet1 who died in #aije2 and ,captains ,i4 ,lacombe1 ,a4 ,lallemand1 and ,lieut4 ,georges ,perrier 7son of ,general ,perrier74 ,it is conceivable that the chain of triangles in longitude #ih deg4 in ,north ,america may be united with that of ,ecuador and ,peru3 a continuous chain over the whole of ,america is certainly but a question of time4 ,during the years #ahii-aijb the measurement of an arc of meridian was made in the extreme north1 in ,spitzbergen1 between the latitudes #gf deg4 #ch' and #hj deg4 #ej'1 according to the project of ,p4,g4 ,rosen4 ,the southern part was determined by the ,russians--,o4 ,baecklund1 ,captain ,d4,d4 ,sergieffsky1 ,f4,n4 ,tschernychev1 ,a4 ,hansky and others--during #ahii-aija1 with the aid of #a base-line1 #ae trigonometrical1 #aa latitude and #e gravity stations4 ,the northern part1 which has one side in common with the southern part1 has been determined by ,swedes 7,professors ,rosen1 father and son1 ,e4 ,jaederin1 ,t4 ,rubin and others71 who utilized #a base-line1 #i azimuth measurements1 #ah trigonometrical1 #ag latitude and #e gravity stations4 ,the party worked under excessive difficulties1 which were accentuated by the arctic climate4 ,consequently1 in the first year1 little headway was made4#af ,sir ,david ,gill1 when director of the ,royal ,observatory1 ,cape ,town1 instituted the magnificent project of working a latitude-degree measurement along the meridian of #cj deg4 long4 ,this meridian passes through ,natal1 the ,transvaal1 by ,lake ,tanganyika1 and from thence to ,cairo2 connexion with the ,russo-,scandinavian meridian arc of the same longitude should be made through ,asia ,minor1 ,turkey1 ,bulgaria and ,rumania4 ,with the completion of this project a continuous arc of #aje deg4 in latitude will have been measured4#ag ,extensive triangle chains1 suitable for latitude-degree measurements1 have also been effected in ,japan and ,australia4 ,besides1 the systematization of gravity measurements is of importance1 and for this purpose the association has instituted many reforms4 ,it has ensured that the relative measurements made at the stations in different countries should be reduced conformably with the absolute determinations made at ,potsdam2 the result was that1 in #aijf1 the intensities of gravitation at some #bjjj stations had been co-ordinated4 ,the intensity of gravity on the sea has been determined by the comparison of barometric and hypsometric observations 7,mohn's method74 ,the association1 at the proposal of ,helmert1 provided the necessary funds for two expeditions3--,english ,channel--,rio de ,janeiro1 and the ,red ,sea--,australia--,san ,francisco--,japan4 ,dr ,o4 ,hecker of the central bureau was in charge2 he successfully overcame the difficulties of the work1 and established the tenability of the isostatic hypothesis1 which necessitates that the intensity of gravity on the deep seas has1 in general1 the same value as on the continents 7without regard to the proximity of coasts74#ah ,as the result of the more recent determinations1 the ellipticity1 compression or flattening of the ellipsoid of the earth may be assumed to be very nearly #a_/bih4c2 a value determined in #aija by ,helmert from the measurements of gravity4 ,the semi-major axis1 a1 of the meridian ellipse may exceed #f1cgh1jjj inter4 metres by about #bjj metres4 ,the central bureau have adopted1 for practical reasons1 the value #a_/bii4ae1 after ,bessel1 for which tables exist2 and also the value a #fcggcig4aee7a #j4jjja74 ,the methods of theoretical astronomy also permit the evaluation of these constants4 ,the semi-axis a is calculable from the parallax of the moon and the acceleration of gravity on the earth2 but the results are somewhat uncertain3 the ellipticity deduced from lunar perturbations is #a_/big4h - #b 7,helmert1 ,geodaesie1 ii4 pp4 #dfj-dgc72 ,william ,harkness 7,the ,solar ,parallax and its related ,constants1 #ahia7 from all possible data derived the values3 ellipticity #a_/cjj4b - #c1 a #fcggigb - #abe metres4 ,harkness also considered in this investigation the relation of the ellipticity to precession and nutation2 newer investigations of the latter lead to the limiting values #a_/bif1 #a_/bih 7,wiechert74 ,it was clearly noticed in this method of determination that the influence of the assumption as to the density of the strata in the interior of the earth was but very slight 7,radau1 ,bull4 astr4 ii4 7#ahhe7 #aeg74 ,the deviations of the geoid from the flattened ellipsoid of rotation with regard to the heights 7the directions of normals being nearly the same7 will scarcely exceed - #ajj metres 7,helmert74#ai ,the basis of the degree- and gravity-measurements is actually formed by a stationary sea-surface1 which is assumed to be level4 ,however1 by the influence of winds and ocean currents the mean surface of the sea near the coasts 7which one assumes as the fundamental sea-surface7 can deviate somewhat from a level surface4 ,according to the more recent levelling it varies at the most by only some decimeters4#bj ,it is well known that the masses of the earth are continually undergoing small changes2 the earth's crust and sea-surface reciprocally oscillate1 and the axis of rotation vibrates relatively to the body of the earth4 ,the investigation of these problems falls in the programme of the ,association4 ,by continued observations of the water-level on sea-coasts1 results have already been obtained as to the relative motions of the land and sea 7cf4 ,,geology72 more exact levelling will1 in the course of time1 provide observations on countries remote from the sea-coast4 ,since #aijj an international service has been organized between some astronomical stations distributed over the north parallel of #ci deg4 #h'1 at which geographical latitudes are observed whenever possible4 ,the association contributes to all these stations1 supporting four entirely3 two in ,america1 one in ,italy1 and one in ,japan2 the others partially 7,tschardjui in ,russia1 and ,cincinnati observatory74 ,some observatories1 especially ,pulkowa1 ,leiden and ,tokyo1 take part voluntarily4 ,since #aijf another station for ,south ,america and one for ,australia in latitude -#ca deg4 #ee' have been added4 ,according to the existing data1 geographical latitudes exhibit variations amounting to -#j4be1 which1 for the greater part1 proceed from a twelve- and a fourteen-month period4#ba 7,a4 ,r4 ,c2 ,f4 ,r4 ,h47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,eratosthenes ,batavus1 seu de terrae ambitus vera quantitate suscitatus1 a ,willebrordo ,snellio1 ,lugduni-,batavorum 7#afag74 #b ,o4 ,callandreau1 ,memoire sur la theorie de la figure des planetes1 ,ann4 obs4 de ,paris 7#ahhi72 ,g4,h4 ,darwin1 ,the ,theory of the ,figure of the ,earth carried to the ,second ,order of ,small ,quantities1 ,mon4 ,not4 ,r4,a4,s41 #ahii2 ,e4 ,wiechert1 ,ueber die ,massenverteilung im ,innern der ,erde1 ,nach4 d4 koen4 ,g4 d4 ,w4 zu ,goett41 #ahig4 #c ,see ,i4 ,todhunter1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahgj4 #d ,j4,h4 ,jeans1 ,on the ,vibrations and ,stability of a ,gravitating ,planet1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 #ga2 ,g4,h4 ,darwin1 ,on the ,figure and ,stability of a liquid ,satellite1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #bjf1 p4 #afa2 ,a4,e4,h4 ,love1 ,the ,gravitational ,stability of the ,earth1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #bjg1 p4 #bcg2 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc4 vol4 #hj4 #e ,survey of ,india1 ,the ,attraction of the ,himalaya ,mountains upon the ,plumb ,line in ,india 7#aija71 p4 #ih4 #f ,account of ,experiments to ,determine the ,figure of the ,earth by means of a ,pendulum vibrating ,seconds in ,different ,latitudes 7#ahbe74 #g ,helmert1 ,theorien d4 hoeheren ,geod4 ii41 ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 #h ,helmert1 ,sitzber4 d4 kgl4 preuss4 ,ak4 d4 ,wiss4 zu ,berlin 7#aija71 p4 #ccf4 #i ,bestimmung der absoluten ,groesse der ,schwerkraft zu ,potsdam mit ,reversionspendeln 7,veroeffentlichung des kgl4 preuss4 ,geod4 ,inst41 ,n4,f41 ,no4 #bg74 #aj ,die ,koenigl4 ,observatorien fuer ,astrophysik1 ,meteorologie und ,geodaesie bei ,potsdam 7,berlin1 #ahij72 ,verhandlungen der ,i4 ,allgemeinen ,conferenz der ,bevollmaechtigten zur mitteleurop4 ,gradmessung1 ,october1 #ahfd1 in ,berlin 7,berlin1 #ahfe72 ,a4 ,hirsch1 ,verhandlungen der ,,viii4 ,allg4 ,conf4 der ,internationalen ,erdmessung1 ,october1 #ahhf1 in ,berlin 7,berlin1 #ahhg72 and ,verhandlungen der ,,xi4 ,allg4 ,conf4 d4 ,i4 ,e41 ,october1 #ahie1 in ,berlin 7#ahif74 #aa ,ibanez and ,perrier1 ,jonction geod4 et astr4 de l',algerie avec l',espagne 7,paris1 #ahhf72 ,memorial du depot general de la guerre1 t4 xii43 ,nouvelle meridienne de ,france 7,paris1 #ahhe1 #aijb1 #aijd72 ,comptes rendus des seances de la #ab;e-#ai;e conference generale de l',assoc4 ,geod4 ,internat41 #ahih at ,stuttgart1 #aijj at ,paris1 #aijc at ,copenhagen1 #aijf at ,budapest 7,berlin1 #ahii1 #aija1 #aijd1 #aijh72 ,a4 ,ferrero1 ,rapport sur les triangulations1 pres4 a la #ab;e conf4 gen4 #ahih4 #ab ,r4 ,schumann1 ,c4 r4 de ,budapest1 p4 #bdd4 #ac ,o4 and ,a4 ,boersch1 ,verbindung d4 russ4-skandinav4 mit der franz4-engl4 ,breitengradmessung 7,verhandlungen der #i4 ,allgem4 ,conf4 d4 ,i4 ,e4 in ,paris1 #ahhi1 ,ann4 xi474 #ad ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey2 ,h4,s4 ,pritchett1 superintendent4 ,the ,transcontinental ,triangulation and the ,american ,arc of the ,parallel1 by ,c4,a4 ,schott 7,washington1 #aijj74 #ae ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey2 ,o4,h4 ,tittmann1 superintendent4 ,the ,eastern ,oblique ,arc of the ,united ,states1 by ,c4,a4 ,schott 7#aijb74 #af ,missions scientifiques pour la mesure d'un arc de meridien au ,spitzberg entreprises en #ahii-aijb sous les auspices des gouvernements russe et suedois4 ,mission russe 7,st ,petersbourg1 #aijd72 ,mission suedoise 7,stockholm1 #aijd74 #ag ,sir ,david ,gill1 ,report on the ,geodetic ,survey of ,south ,africa1 #ahcc-ahib 7,cape ,town1 #ahif71 vol4 ii4 #aija1 vol4 iii4 #aije4 #ah ,o4 ,hecker1 ,bestimmung der ,schwerkraft a4 d4 ,atlantischen ,ozean 7,veroeffentl4 d4 ,kgl4 ,preuss4 ,geod4 ,inst4 ,no4 #aa71 ,berlin1 #aijc4 #ai ,f4,r4 ,helmert4 ,neuere ,fortschritte in der ,erkenntnis der math4 ,erdgestalt 7,verhandl4 des ,,vii4 ,internationalen ,geographen-,kongresses1 ,berlin1 #ahii71 ,london1 #aija4 #bj ,c4 ,lallemand1 ,rapport sur les travaux du service du nivellement general de la ,france1 de #aijj a #aijf 7,comp4 rend4 de la #ad;e conf4 gen4 de l',assoc4 ,geod-,intern41 #aijc1 p4 #agh74 #ba ,t4 ,albrecht1 ,resultate des internat4 ,breitendienstes1 i4 and ii4 7,berlin1 #aijc and #aijf72 ,f4 ,klein and ,a4 ,sommerfeld1 ,ueber die ,theorie des ,kreisels1 iii4 p4 #fgb2 ,r4 ,spitaler1 ,die periodischen ,luftmassenverschiebungen und ihr ,einfluss auf die ,lagenaenderung der ,erdaxe 7,petermanns ,mitteilungen1 ,ergaenzungsheft1 #acg72 ,s4 ,newcomb1 ,statement of the ,theoretical ,laws of the ,polar ,motion 7,astronomical ,journal1 #ahih1 xix4 #aeh72 ,f4,r4 ,helmert1 ,zur ,erklaerung der beobachteten ,breitenaenderungen 7,astr4 ,nachr4 ,no4 #cjad72 ,j4 ,weeder1 ,the #ad-monthly period of the motion of the ,pole from determinations of the azimuth of the meridian marks of the ,leiden observatory 7,kon4 ,ak4 van ,wetenschappen to ,amsterdam1 #aijj72 ,a4 ,sokolof1 ,determination du mouvement du pole terr4 au moyen des mires meridiennes de ,poulkovo 7,mel4 math4 et astr4 vii41 #ahid72 ,j4 ,bonsdorff1 ,beobachtungen von delta ,cassiopejae mit dem grossen ,zenitteleskop 7,mitteilungen der ,nikolai-,hauptsternwarte zu ,pulkowo1 #aijg72 ,j4 ,larmor and ,e4,h4 ,hills1 ,the irregular movement of the ,earth's axis of rotation3 a contribution towards the analysis of its causes 7,monthly ,notices ,r4,a4,s41 #aijf1 lxvii4 #bb72 ,a4,s4 ,cristie1 ,the latitude variation ,tide 7,phil4 ,soc4 of ,wash41 #ahie1 ,bull4 xiii4 #ajc72 ,h4,g4 van de ,sande ,bakhuysen1 ,ueber die ,aenderung der ,polhoehe 7,astr4 ,nachr4 ,no4 #cbfa72 ,a4,v4 ,baecklund1 ,zur ,frage nach der ,bewegung des ,erdpoles 7,astr4 ,nachr4 ,no4 #cghg72 ,r4 ,schumann1 ,ueber die ,polhoehenschwankung 7,astr4 ,nachr4 ,no4 #chgc72 ,numerische ,untersuchung 7,ergaenzungshefte zu den ,astr4 ,nachr4 ,no4 #aa72 ,weitere ,untersuchungen 7,no4 #dadb72 ,bull4 astr41 #aijj1 ,june1 report of different theoretical memoirs4 ,,earth ,,currents4 ,after the invention of telegraphy it was soon found that telegraph lines in which the circuit is completed by the earth are traversed by natural electric currents which occasionally interfere seriously with their use1 and which are known as earth currents4 #a4 ,amongst the pioneers in investigating the subject were several ,english telegraphists1 e4g4 ,w4,h4 ,barlow 7#a7 and ,c4,v4 ,walker 7#b71 who were in charge respectively of the ,midland and ,south-,eastern telegraph systems4 ,barlow noticed the existence of a more or less regular diurnal variation1 and the result--confirmed by all subsequent investigators--that earth currents proper occur in a line only when both ends are earthed4 ,walker1 as the result of general instructions issued to telegraph clerks1 collected numerous statistics as to the phenomena during times of large earth currents4 ,his results and those given by ,barlow both indicate that the lines to suffer most from earth currents in ,england have the general direction ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 ,as ,walker points out1 it is the direction of the terminal plates relative to one another that is the essential thing4 ,at the same time he noticed that whilst at any given instant the currents in parallel lines have with rare exceptions the same direction1 some lines show normally stronger currents than others1 and he suggested that differences in the geological structure of the intervening ground might be of importance4 ,this is a point which seems still somewhat obscure4 ,our present knowledge of the subject owes much to practical men1 but even in the early days of telegraphy the fact that telegraph systems are commercial undertakings1 and cannot allow the public to wait the convenience of science1 was a serious obstacle to their employment for research4 ,thus ,walker feelingly says1 when regretting his paucity of data during a notable earth current disturbance3 ,our clerks were at their wits' end to clear off the telegrams4444 ,at a time when observations would have been very highly acceptable they were too much occupied with their ordinary duties4 ,some valuable observations have1 however1 been made on long telegraph lines where special facilities have been given4 ,amongst these may be mentioned the observations on ,french lines in #ahhc described by ,e4,e4 ,blavier 7#c71 and those on two ,german lines ,berlin-,thorn and ,berlin-,dresden during #ahhd to #ahhh discussed by ,b4 ,weinstein 7#d74 #b4 ,of the experimental lines specially constructed perhaps the best known are the ,greenwich lines instituted by ,sir ,g4,b4 ,airy 7#e71 the lines at ,pawlowsk due to ,h4 ,wild 7#f71 and those at ,parc ,saint ,maur1 near ,paris 7#g74 ,experimental ,lines4--,at ,greenwich observations were commenced in #ahfe1 but there have been serious disturbances due to artificial currents from electric railways for many years4 ,there are two lines1 one to ,dartford distant about #aj m41 in a direction somewhat south of east1 the other to ,croydon distant about #h m41 in a direction west of south4 ,information from a single line is incomplete1 and unless this is clearly understood erroneous ideas may be derived4 ,the times at which the current is largest and least1 or when it vanishes1 in an east-west line1 tell nothing directly as to the amplitude at the time of the resultant current4 ,the lines laid down at ,pawlowsk in #ahhc lay nearly in and perpendicular to the geographical meridian1 a distinct desideratum1 but were only about #a km4 long4 ,the installation at ,parc ,saint ,maur1 discussed by ,t4 ,moureaux1 calls for fuller description4 ,there are three lines1 one having terminal earth plates #ad4h km4 apart in the geographical meridian1 a second having its earth plates due east and west of one another1 also #ad4h km4 apart1 and the third forming a closed circuit wholly insulated from the ground4 ,in each of the three lines is a ,deprez d',arsonval galvanometer4 ,light reflected from the galvanometer mirrors falls on photographic paper wound round a drum turned by clockwork1 and a continuous record is thus obtained4 #c4 ,each galvanometer has a resistance of about #bjj ohms1 but is shunted by a resistance of only #b ohms4 ,the total effective resistances in the ,n4-,s4 and ,e4-,w4 lines are #bbe and #cdh ohms respectively4 ,if i is the current recorded1 ,l1 g and s the resistances of the line1 galvanometer and shunt respectively1 then ,e1 the difference of potential between the two earth plates1 is given by ,e i7#a g_/s7 ,l gs_/7g s74 ,to calibrate the record1 a ,daniell cell is put in a circuit including #ajjj ohms and the three galvanometers as shunted4 ,if i' be the current recorded1 e the ,e4,m4,f4 of the cell1 then e i'7#a g_/s7#ajjj #c;gs_/7g s74 ,under the conditions at ,parc ,saint ,maur we may write #b for gs_/7g s71 and #a4jgb for e1 and thence we have approximately ,e #j4bdj7;i_/i'7 for the ,n4-,s4 line1 and ,e -#j4cga7;i_/i'7 for the ,e4-,w4 line4 ,the method of standardization assumes a potential difference between earth plates which varies slowly enough to produce a practically steady current4 ,there are several causes producing currents in a telegraph wire which do not satisfy this limitation4 ,during thunderstorms surgings may arise1 at least in overhead wires1 without these being actually struck4 ,again1 if the circuit includes a variable magnetic field1 electric currents will be produced independently of any direct source of potential difference4 ,in the third circuit at ,parc ,saint ,maur1 where no earth plates exist1 the current must be mainly due to changes in the earth's vertical magnetic field1 with superposed disturbances due to atmospheric electricity or aerial waves4 ,even in the other circuits1 magnetic and atmospheric influences play some part1 and when their contribution is important1 the galvanometer deflection has an uncertain value4 ,what a galvanometer records when traversed by a suddenly varying current depends on other things than its mere resistance4 ,even when the current is fairly steady1 its exact significance is not easily stated4 ,in the first place there is usually an appreciable ,e4,m4,f4 between a plate and the earth in contact with it1 and this ,e4,m4,f4 may vary with the temperature and the dryness of the soil4 ,naturally one employs similar plates buried to the same depth at the two ends1 but absolute identity and invariability of conditions can hardly be secured4 ,in some cases1 in short lines 7#h71 there is reason to fear that plate ,e4,m4,f4's have been responsible for a good deal that has been ascribed to true earth currents4 ,with deep earth plates1 in dry ground1 this source of uncertainty can1 however1 enter but little into the diurnal inequality4 #d4 ,another difficulty is the question of the resistance in the earth itself4 ,a given ,e4,m4,f4 between plates #aj m4 apart may mean very different currents travelling through the earth1 according to the chemical constitution and condition of the surface strata4 ,according to ,professor ,a4 ,schuster 7#i71 if rho and rho' be the specific resistances of the material of the wire and of the soil1 the current i which would pass along an underground cable formed of actual soil1 equal in diameter to the wire connecting the plates1 is given by i i'rho_/rho'1 where i' is the observed current in the wire4 ,as rho' will vary with the depth1 and be different at different places along the route1 while discontinuities may arise from geological faults1 water channels and so on1 it is clear that even the most careful observations convey but a general idea as to the absolute intensity of the currents in the earth itself4 ,in ,schuster's formula1 as in the formulae deduced for ,parc ,saint ,maur1 it is regarded as immaterial whether the wire connecting the plates is above or below ground4 ,this view is in accordance with records obtained by ,blavier 7#c7 from two lines between ,paris and ,nancy1 the one an air line1 the other underground4 #e4 ,the earliest quantitative results for the regular diurnal changes in earth currents are probably those deduced by ,airy 7#e7 from the records at ,greenwich between #ahfe and #ahfg4 ,airy resolved the observed currents from the two ,greenwich lines in and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian 7then about #ba deg4 to the west of astronomical north74 ,the information given by ,airy as to the precise meaning of the quantities he terms magnetic tendency to north and to west is somewhat scanty1 but we are unlikely to be much wrong in accepting his figures as proportional to the earth currents from magnetic east to west and from magnetic north to south respectively4 ,airy gives mean hourly values for each month of the year4 ,the corresponding mean diurnal inequality for the whole year appears in ,table #a41 the unit being arbitrary4 ,in every month the algebraic mean of the #bd hourly values represented a current from north to south in the magnetic meridian1 and from east to west in the perpendicular direction2 in the same arbitrary units used in ,table ,i4 the mean values of these two constant currents were respectively #ggg and #eei4 #f4 ,diurnal ,variation4--,probably the most complete records of diurnal variation are those discussed by ,weinstein 7#d71 which depend on several years' records on lines from ,berlin to ,dresden and to ,thorn4 ,relative to ,berlin the geographical co-ordinates of the other two places are3 ,thorn #j deg4 #bi' ,n4 lat4 #e deg4 #ab' ,e4 long4 ,dresden #a deg4 #bh' ,s4 lat4 #j deg4 #ba' ,e4 long4 ,thus the ,berlin-,dresden line was directed about #ha_/b deg4 east of south1 and the ,berlin-,thorn line somewhat more to the north of east4 ,the latter line had a length about #b4ah times that of the former4 ,the resistances in the two lines were made the same1 so if we suppose the difference of potential between earth plates along a given direction to vary as their distance apart1 the current observed in the ,thorn-,berlin line has to be divided by #b4ah to be comparable with the other4 ,in this way1 resolving along and perpendicular to the geographical meridian1 ,weinstein gives as proportional to the earth currents from east to west and from south to north respectively ,j #j4adg;i' #j4dce;i1 and ,j' #j4ihi;i' - #j4ajj;i1 where i and i' are the observed currents in the ,thorn-,berlin and ,dresden-,berlin lines respectively1 both being counted positive when flowing towards ,berlin4 ,it is tacitly assumed that the average earth conductivity is the same between ,berlin and ,thorn as between ,berlin and ,dresden4 ,it should also be noticed that local time at ,berlin and ,thorn differs by fully #bj minutes1 while the crests of the diurnal variations in short lines at the two places would probably occur about the same local time4 ,the result is probably a less sharp occurrence of maxima and minima1 and a relatively smaller range1 than in a short line having the same orientation4 ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,mean ,diurnal ,inequalities for the year4 ,numerical ,values of resultant current4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,greenwich4 ,thorn-,berlin-,dresden4 ,thorn-,berlin-,dresden4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,north ,east ,berlin ,thorn ,north ,east ,mean hourly values from ,hour4 to to to to to to --------------------------- ,south ,west ,dresden4,berlin4,south ,west ,year4,winter4,equinox4,summer4 7,mag477,mag47 7,ast477,ast47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #a -#id -#da -#ag -#ac -#bj -#aj #ha #id #ea #ih #b -#fh -#bd -#f -#ac -#i -#aa #hd #aae #ci #ig #c -#dd -#h -#a -#a -#a -#a #hd #aac #ca #ajh #d -#ah #i -#bj #ae -#ag #ag #aja #id #eh #abg #e -#cj -#a -#gi #ba -#gd #cb #abb #eh #gh #bcj #f -#fc -#cc -#aci #e -#acf #bf #adh #hj #aci #bbe #g -#aba -#hj -#ach -#cf -#add -#ad #aff #aee #bjf #acf #h -#age -#abc -#g -#ih -#bh -#ib #bjc #aeb #ahe #bga #i -#aef -#acg #bdi -#aef #bab -#ahd #cje #fg #bgb #ege #aj -#dc -#gg #edj -#ahd #did -#bed #eeg #bcb #fbh #haa #aa #hb #a #gbb -#afe #fgh -#bfc #gbh #daa #hhe #hhg ,noon #bjg #ff #fgc -#ajg #fdb -#bjj #fge #dda #hdh #gce #a #bde #id #djd -#bj #cie -#gi #djj #bhd #eaj #djf #b #bje #aac #ce #ee #df #dg #ih #fh #ajc #abe #c #aec #ig -#bfa #ii -#bcg #acb #bgb #acf #cee #cbd #d #aei #ajh -#cig #aad -#cfh #afg #djd #bah #ejc #dib #e #afg #aah -#cia #ajh -#cfc #afj #cig #bjf #dec #ecb #f #abe #ie -#caa #if -#bhg #acg #cai #agf #ccc #ddf #g #dc #ee -#bcg #he -#baf #aae #bdg #ahj #bej #cab #h -#bb #d -#aia #gd -#agc #ih #bja #bjg #bag #aha #i -#aae -#di -#afh #ei -#aec #ha #agd #bjh #aid #abj #aj -#ach -#gd -#ace #dj -#abe #eh #ach #aee #adi #aaa #aa -#acf -#gj -#hd #ah -#gi #bi #hi #fd #ie #ajg ,midnight -#adg -#hj -#dc -#b -#dc #d #ia #db #aai #aaa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,it was found that the average current derived from a number of undisturbed days on either line might be regarded as made up of a constant part plus a regular diurnal inequality1 the constant part representing the algebraic mean value of the #bd hourly readings4 ,in both lines the constant part showed a decided alteration during the third year--changing sign in one line--in consequence1 it is believed1 of alterations made in the earth plates4 ,the constant part was regarded as a plate effect1 and was omitted from further consideration4 ,table ,i4 shows in terms of an arbitrary unit--whose relation to that employed for ,greenwich data is unknown--the diurnal inequality in the currents along the two lines1 and the inequalities thence calculated for ideal lines in and perpendicular to the geographical meridian4 ,currents are regarded as positive when directed from ,berlin to ,dresden and from north to south1 the opposite point of view to that adopted by ,weinstein4 ,the table also shows the mean numerical value of the resultant current 7the constant part being omitted7 for each hour of the day1 for the year as a whole1 and for winter 7,november to ,february71 equinox 7,march1 ,april1 ,september1 ,october7 and summer 7,may to ,august74 ,there is a marked double period in both the ,n4-,s4 and ,e4-,w4 currents4 ,in both cases the numerically largest currents occur from #aj ,a4,m4 to noon1 the directions then being from north to south and from west to east4 ,the currents tend to die out and change sign about #b ,p4,m41 the numerical magnitude then rising again rapidly to #d or #e ,p4,m4 ,the current in the meridian is notably the larger4 ,the numerical values assigned to the resultant current are arithmetic means from the several months composing the season in question4 #g4 ,the mean of the #bd hourly numerical values of the resultant current for each month of the year a deducible from ,weinstein's data--the unit being the same as before--are given in ,table ,,ii4 ,,table ,,ii4--,mean ,numerical ,value of ,resultant ,current4 ,jan4 ,feb4 ,march ,april ,may ,june ,july ,aug4 ,sep4 ,oct4 ,nov4 ,dec4 #aeb #baa #bic #cbh #cac #cad #ccg #cjj #beh #bce #afe #acb ,there is thus a conspicuous minimum at mid-winter1 and but little difference between the monthly means from ,april to ,august4 ,this is closely analogous to what is seen in the daily range of the magnetic elements in similar latitudes 7see ,,magnetism1 ,,terrestrial74 ,there is also considerable resemblance between the curve whose ordinates represent the diurnal inequality in the current passing from north to south1 and the curve showing the hourly change in the westerly component of the horizontal magnetic force in similar ,european latitudes4 #h4 ,relations with ,sun-spots1 ,auroras and ,magnetic ,storms4--,weinstein gives curves representing the mean diurnal inequality for separate years4 ,in both lines the diurnal amplitudes were notably smaller in the later years which were near sun-spot minimum4 ,this raises a presumption that the regular diurnal earth currents1 like the ranges of the magnetic elements1 follow the #aa-year sun-spot period4 ,when we pass to the large and irregular earth currents1 which are of practical interest in telegraphy1 there is every reason to suppose that the sun-spot period applies4 ,these currents are always accompanied by magnetic disturbances1 and when specially striking by brilliant aurora4 ,one most conspicuous example of this occurred in the end of ,august and beginning of ,september #ahei4 ,the magnetic disturbances recorded were of almost unexampled size and rapidity1 the accompanying aurora was extraordinarily brilliant1 and ,e4,m4,f4's of #gjj and #hjj volts are said to have been reached on telegraph lines #ejj to #fjj km4 long4 ,it is doubtful whether the disturbances of #ahei have been equalled since1 but earth current voltages of the order of #j4e volts per mile have been recorded by various authorities1 e4g4 ,sir ,w4,h4 ,preece 7#aj74 ,it was the practice for several years to publish in the ,ann4 du bureau central meteorologique synchronous magnetic and earth current curves from ,parc ,saint ,maur corresponding to the chief disturbances of the year4 ,in most cases there is a marked similarity between the curve of magnetic declination and that of the north-south earth current4 ,at times there is also a distinct resemblance between the horizontal force magnetic curve and that of the east-west earth current1 but exceptions to this are not infrequent4 ,similar phenomena appear in synchronous ,greenwich records published by ,airy in #ahfh2 these show a close accordance between the horizontal force curves and those of the currents from magnetic east to west4 ,originally it was supposed by ,airy that whilst rapid movements in the declination and north-south current curves sometimes occurred simultaneously1 there was a distinct tendency for the latter to precede the former4 ,more recent examinations of the ,greenwich records by ,w4 ,ellis 7#aa71 and of the ,parc ,st ,maur curves by ,moureaux1 have not confirmed this result1 and it is now believed that the two phenomena are practically simultaneous4 ,there has also been a conflict of views as to the connexion between magnetic and earth current disturbances4 ,airy's observations tended to suggest that the earth current was the primary cause1 and the magnetic disturbance in considerable part at least its effect4 ,others1 on the contrary1 have supposed earth currents to be a direct effect of changes in the earth's magnetic field4 ,the prevailing view now is that both the magnetic and the earth current disturbances are due to electric currents in the upper atmosphere1 these upper currents becoming visible at times as aurora4 #i4 ,there seems some evidence that earth currents can be called into existence by purely local causes1 notably difference of level4 ,thus ,k4,a4 ,brander 7#ab7 has observed a current flowing constantly for a good many days from ,airolo 7height #aafj metres7 to the ,hospice ,st ,gotthard 7height #bjid metres74 ,in an #h-km4 line from ,resina to the top of ,vesuvius ,l4 ,palmieri 7#ac7--observing in #ahhi at three-hour intervals from #i ,a4,m4 to #i ,p4,m4--always found a current running uphill so long as the mountain was quiet4 ,on a long line from ,vienna to ,graz ,a4 ,baumgartner 7#ad7 found that the current generally flowed from both ends towards intervening higher ground during the day1 but in the opposite directions at night4 ,during a fortnight in ,september and ,october #ahhe hourly readings were taken of the current in the telegraph cable from ,fort-,william to ,ben ,nevis ,observatory1 and the results were discussed by ,h4,n4 ,dickson 7#ae71 who found a marked preponderance of currents up the line to the summit4 ,the recorded mean data1 otherwise regarded1 represent a constant current1 equal to #bi in the arbitrary units employed by ,dickson1 flowing up the line1 together with the following diurnal inequality1 denoting current towards ,fort-,william 7i4e4 down the hill1 and nearly east to west74 ,hour #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ,a4,m4 -#ba -#da #ac #bc #ee -#c #be -#cb -#ei -#fb -#df #f ,p4,m4 #bd #ah #aae #ah #ge -#e #ej -#i -#ef -#cg -#bh -#cd ,there is thus a diurnal inequality1 which is by no means very irregular considering the limited number of days1 and it bears at least a general resemblance to that shown by ,weinstein's figures for an east-west line in ,germany4 ,this will serve to illustrate the uncertainties affecting these and analogous observations4 ,a constant current in one direction may arise in whole or part from plate ,e4,m4,f4's2 a current showing a diurnal inequality will naturally arise between any two places some distance apart whether they be at different levels or not4 ,finally1 when records are taken only for a short time1 doubts must arise as to the generality of the results4 ,during the ,ben ,nevis observations1 for instance1 we are told that the summit was almost constantly enveloped in fog or mist4 ,by having three earth plates in the same vertical plane1 one at the top of a mountain1 the others at opposite sides of it1 and then observing the currents between the summit and each of the base stations1 as well as directly between the base stations--during an adequate number of days representative of different seasons of the year and different climatic conditions--many uncertainties would soon be removed4 #aj4 ,artificial ,currents4--,the great extension in the applications of electricity to lighting1 traction and power transmission1 characteristic of the end of the #aith century1 has led to the existence of large artificial earth currents1 which exert a disturbing influence on galvanometers and magnetic instruments1 and also tend to destroy metal pipes4 ,in the former case1 whilst the disturbance is generally loosely assigned to stray or vagabond earth currents1 this is only partly correct4 ,the currents used for traction are large1 and even if there were a perfectly insulated return there would be a considerable resultant magnetic field at distances from the track which were not largely in excess of the distance apart of the direct and return currents 7#af74 ,at a distance of half a mile or more from an electric tram line the disturbance is usually largest in magnetographs recording the vertical component of the earth's field4 ,the magnets are slightly displaced from the position they would occupy if undisturbed1 and are kept in continuous oscillation whilst the trams are running 7#ag74 ,the extent of the oscillation depends on the damping of the magnets4 ,the distance from an electric tram line where the disturbance ceases to be felt varies with the system adopted4 ,it also depends on the length of the line and its subdivision into sections1 on the strength of the currents supplied1 the amount of leakage1 the absence or presence of boosters1 and finally on the sensitiveness of the magnetic instruments4 ,at the ,u4,s4 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey's observatory at ,cheltenham the effect of the ,washington electric trams has been detected by highly sensitive magnetographs1 though the nearest point of the line is #ab m4 away 7#ah74 ,amongst the magnetic observatories which have suffered severely from this cause are those at ,toronto1 ,washington 7,naval ,observatory71 ,kew1 ,paris 7,parc ,st ,maur71 ,perpignan1 ,nice1 ,lisbon1 ,vienna1 ,rome1 ,bombay 7,colaba7 and ,batavia4 ,in some cases magnetic observations have been wholly suspended1 in others new observatories have been built on more remote sites4 ,as regards damage to underground pipes1 mainly gas and water pipes1 numerous observations have been made1 especially in ,germany and the ,united ,states4 ,when electric tramways have uninsulated returns1 and the potential of the rails is allowed to differ considerably from that of the earth1 very considerable currents are found in neighbouring pipes4 ,under these conditions1 if the joints between contiguous pipes forming a main present appreciable resistance1 whilst the surrounding earth through moisture or any other cause is a fair conductor1 current passes locally from the pipes to the earth causing electrolytic corrosion of the pipes4 ,owing to the diversity of interests concerned1 the extent of the damage thus caused has been very variously estimated4 ,in some instances it has been so considerable as to be the alleged cause of the ultimate failure of water pipes to stand the pressure they are exposed to4 ,,bibliography4--,see ,svante ,august ,arrhenius1 ,lehrbuch der kosmischen ,physik 7,leipzig1 #aijc71 pp4 #ihd-iij4 ,for lists of references see ,j4,e4 ,burbank1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 vol4 #aj 7#aije71 p4 #bc1 and ,p4 ,bachmetjew 7#h74 ,for papers descriptive of corrosion of pipes1 c41 by artificial currents see ,science ,abstracts 7in recent years in the volumes devoted to engineering7 under the heading ,traction1 ,electric2 ,electrolysis4 ,the following are the references in the text3--7#a7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 for #ahdi1 pt4 i4 p4 #fa2 7#b7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #aea 7#ahfa71 p4 #hi1 and vol4 #aeb 7#ahfb71 p4 #bjc2 7#c7 ,etude des courants telluriques 7,paris1 #ahhd72 7#d7 ,die ,erdstroeme im deutschen ,reichstelegraphengebiet 7,braunschweig1 #aijj72 7#e7 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #aeh 7#ahfh71 p4 #dfe1 and vol4 #afj 7#ahgj71 p4 #bae2 7#f7 ,mem4 de l',academie ,st-,petersbourg1 t4 #ca1 ,no4 #ab 7#ahhc72 7#g7 ,t4 ,moureaux1 ,ann4 du ,bureau ,central ,met4 7,annee #ahic71 #a ,mem4 p4 ,b #bc2 7#h7 ,p4 ,bachmetjew1 ,mem4 de l',academie ,st-,petersbourg1 vol4 #ab1 ,no4 #c 7#aija72 7#i7 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 vol4 #c 7#ahih71 p4 #acj2 7#aj7 ,journal ,tel4 ,engineers 7#ahha72 7#aa7 ,proc4 ,r4,s4 vol4 #eb 7#ahib71 p4 #aia2 7#ab7 ,akad4 ,abhandlung 7,helsingfors1 #ahhh72 7#ac7 ,acad4 ,napoli ,rend4 7#ahij71 and ,atti 7#ahid1 #ahie72 7#ad7 ,pogg4 ,ann4 vol4 #gf1 p4 #ace2 7#ae7 ,proc4 ,r4,s4,e4 vol4 #ac1 p4 #ecj2 7#af7 ,a4 ,ruecker1 ,phil4 ,mag4 #a 7#aija71 p4 #dbc1 and ,r4,t4 ,glazebrook1 ibid4 p4 #dcb2 7#ag7 ,j4 ,edler1 ,elektrotech4 ,zeit4 vol4 #bj 7#ahii72 7#ah7 ,l4,a4 ,bauer1 ,terrestrial ,magnetism1 vol4 #aa 7#aijf71 p4 #ec4 7,c4 ,ch47 ,,earth-,,nut1 the ,english name for a plant known botanically as ,conopodium denudatum 7or ,bunium flexuosum71 a member of the natural order ,umbelliferae1 which has a brown tuber-like root-stock the size of a chestnut4 ,it grows in woods and fields1 has a slender flexuous smooth stem #b to #c ft4 high1 much-divided leaves1 and small white flowers in many-rayed terminal compound umbels4 ,boswell ,syme1 in ,english ,botany1 iv4 #aad1 says3 ,the common names of this plant in ,england are various4 ,it is known as earth-nut1 pig-nut1 ar-nut1 kipper-nut1 hawk-nut1 jar-nut1 earth-chestnut and ground-nut4 ,though really excellent in taste and unobjectionable as food1 it is disregarded in ,england by all but pigs and children1 both of whom appreciate it and seek eagerly for it4 ,dr ,withering describes the roots as little inferior to chestnuts4 ,in ,holland and elsewhere on the continent of ,europe they are more generally eaten4 ,,earth ,,pillar1 a pillar of soft rock1 or earth1 capped by some harder material that has protected it from denudation4 ,the bad lands of western ,north ,america furnish numerous examples4 ,here the formations are often beds of sandstone or shale alternating with unindurated beds of clay4 ,a semi-arid climate where the precipitation is much concentrated seems to be most favourable to the development of this type of formation4 ,the country round the ,dead ,sea1 where loose friable sandy clay is capped by harder rock1 produces bad-land topography4 ,the cap of hard rock gives way at the joints1 and the water making its way downwards washes away the softer material directly under the cracks1 which become wider1 leaving isolated columns of clay capped with hard sandstone or limestone4 ,these become smaller and fewer as denudation proceeds1 the pillars standing a great height at times1 until finally they all disappear4 ,,earthquake4 ,although the terrible effects which often accompany earthquakes have in all ages forced themselves upon the attention of man1 the exact investigation of seismic phenomena dates only from the middle of the #aith century4 ,a new science has been thus established under the name of seismology 7,gr4 ,greek3 seismos1 an earthquake74 ,history4--,accounts of earthquakes are to be found scattered through the writings of many ancient authors1 but they are1 for the most part1 of little value to the seismologist4 ,there is a natural tendency to exaggeration in describing such phenomena1 sometimes indeed to the extent of importing a supernatural element into the description4 ,it is true that attempts were made by some ancient writers on natural philosophy to offer a rational explanation of earthquake phenomena1 but the hypotheses which their explanations involved are1 as a rule1 too fanciful to be worth reproducing at the present day4 ,it is therefore unnecessary to dwell upon the references to seismic phenomena which have come down to us in the writings of such historians and philosophers as ,thucydides1 ,aristotle and ,strabo1 ,seneca1 ,livy and ,pliny4 ,nor is much to be gleaned from the pages of medieval and later writers on earthquakes1 of whom the most notable are ,fromondi 7#aebg71 ,maggio 7#aega7 and ,travagini 7#afgi74 ,in ,england1 the earliest work worthy of mention is ,robert ,hooke's ,discourse on ,earthquakes1 written in #affh1 and read at a later date before the ,royal ,society4 ,this discourse1 though containing many passages of considerable merit1 tended but little to a correct interpretation of the phenomena in question4 ,equally unsatisfactory were the attempts of ,joseph ,priestley and some other scientific writers of the #ahth century to connect the cause of earthquakes with electrical phenomena4 ,the great earthquake of ,lisbon in #agee led the ,rev4 ,john ,michell1 professor of mineralogy at ,cambridge1 to turn his attention to the subject2 and in #agfj he published in the ,philosophical ,transactions a remarkable essay on the ,cause and ,phenomena of ,earthquakes4 ,a suggestion of much scientific interest was made by ,thomas ,young1 when in his ,lectures on ,natural ,philosophy1 published in #ahjg1 he remarked that an earthquake is probably propagated through the earth nearly in the same manner as a noise is conveyed through the air4 ,the recognition of the fact that the seismologist has to deal with the investigation of wave-motion in solids lies at the very base of his science4 ,in #ahdf ,robert ,mallet communicated to the ,royal ,irish ,academy his first paper ,on the ,dynamics of ,earthquakes2 and in the following year ,w4 ,hopkins1 of ,cambridge1 presented to the ,british ,association a valuable report in which earthquake phenomena were discussed in some detail4 ,mallet's labours were continued for many years chiefly in the form of ,reports to the ,british ,association1 and culminated in his great work on the ,neapolitan earthquake of #aheg4 ,an entirely new impetus1 however1 was given to the study of earthquakes by an energetic body of observers in ,japan1 who commenced their investigations about the year #ahhj1 mainly through the influence of ,prof4 ,john ,milne1 then of ,tokyo4 ,their work1 carried on by means of new instruments of precision1 and since taken up by observers in many parts of the world1 has so extended our knowledge of earthquake-motion that seismology has now become practically a new department of physical science4 ,it is hardly too much to say1 however1 that the earliest systematic application of scientific principles to the study of the effects of an earthquake was made by ,mallet in his investigation of the ,neapolitan earthquake mentioned above4 ,it is true1 the great ,calabrian earthquake of #aghc had been the subject of careful inquiry by the ,royal ,academy of ,naples1 as also by ,deodat ,dolomieu and some other scientific authorities2 but in consequence of the misconception which at that time prevailed with regard to the nature of seismic activity1 the results of the inquiry1 though in many ways interesting1 were of very limited scientific value4 ,it was reserved for ,mallet to undertake for the first time an extensive series of systematic observations in an area of great seismic disturbance1 with the view of explaining the phenomena by the application of the laws of wave-motion4 ,neapolitan earthquake1 #aheg4 ,the ,great ,neapolitan ,earthquake1 by which more than #ab1cjj lives were lost1 was felt in greater or less degree over all ,italy south of the parallel of #db deg41 and has been regarded as ranking third in order of severity among the recorded earthquakes of ,europe4 ,the principal shock occurred at about #aj ,p4,m4 on the #afth of ,december #aheg2 but1 as is usually the case1 it had been preceded by minor disturbances and was followed by numerous after-shocks which continued for many months4 ,early in #aheh1 aided by a grant from the ,royal ,society1 ,mallet visited the devastated districts1 and spent more than two months in studying the effects of the catastrophe1 especially examining1 with the eye of an engineer1 the cracks and ruins of the buildings4 ,his voluminous report was published in #ahfb1 and though his methods of research and his deductions have in many cases been superseded by the advance of knowledge1 the report still remains a memorable work in the history of seismology4 ,much of ,mallet's labour was directed to the determination of the position and magnitude of the subterranean source from which the vibratory impulses originated4 ,this is known variously as the seismic centre1 centrum1 hypocentre1 origin or focus4 ,it is often convenient to regard this centre theoretically as a point1 but practically it must be a locus or space of three dimensions1 which in different cases varies much in size and shape1 and may be of great magnitude4 ,that part of the surface of the earth which is vertically above the centre is called the epicentre2 or1 if of considerable area1 the epicentral or epifocal tract4 ,a vertical line joining the epicentre and the focus was termed by ,mallet the seismic vertical4 ,he calculated that in the case of the ,neapolitan earthquake the focal cavity was a curved lamelliform fissure1 having a length of about #aj m4 and a height of about #ca_/b m41 whilst its width was inconsiderable4 ,the central point of this fissure1 the theoretical seismic centre1 he estimated to have been at a depth of about #fa_/b m4 from the surface4 ,dr ,c4 ,davison1 in discussing ,mallet's data1 was led to the conclusion that there were two distinct foci1 possibly situated on a fault1 or plane of dislocation1 running in a north-west and south-east direction4 ,mallet located his epicentre near the village of ,caggiano1 not far from ,polla1 while the other seems to have been in the neighbourhood of ,montemurro1 about #be m4 to the south-east4 ,the intensity1 or violence1 of an earthquake is greatest in or near the epicentre1 whence it decreases in all directions4 ,a line drawn through points of equal intensity forms a curve round the epicentre known as an isoseist1 an isoseismal or an isoseismic line4 ,if the intensity declined equally in all directions the isoseismals would be circles1 but as this is rarely if ever the case in nature they usually become ellipses and other closed curves4 ,the tract which is most violently shaken was termed by ,mallet the meizoseismic area1 whilst the line of maximum destruction is known as the meizoseismic line4 ,that isoseismal along which the decline of energy is most rapid was called by ,k4 von ,seebach a pleistoseist4 ,in order to determine the position of the seismic centre1 ,mallet made much use of the cracks in damaged buildings1 especially in walls of masonry1 holding that the direction of such fractures must generally be at right angles to that in which the normal earthquake-wave reached them4 ,in this way he obtained the angle of emergence of the wave4 ,he also assumed that free-falling bodies would be overthrown and projected in the direction of propagation of the wave1 so that the epicentre might immediately be found from the intersection of such directions4 ,these data are1 however1 subject to much error1 especially through want of homogeneity in the rocks1 but ,mallet's work was still of great value4 ,charleston earthquake1 #ahhf4 ,a different method of ascertaining the depth of the focus was adopted by ,major ,c4,e4 ,dutton in his investigation of the ,charleston earthquake of the #cast of ,august #ahhf for the ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey4 ,this catastrophe was heralded by shocks of greater or less severity a few days previously at ,summerville1 a village #bb m4 north-west of ,charleston4 ,the great earthquake occurred at #i4ea ,p4,m41 standard time of the #geth meridian1 and in about #gj seconds almost every building in ,charleston was more or less seriously damaged1 while many lives were lost4 ,the epicentral tract was mainly a forest region with but few buildings1 and the principal records of seismological value were afforded by the lines of railway which traversed the disturbed area4 ,in many places these rails were flexured and dislocated4 ,numerous fissures opened in the ground1 and many of these discharged water1 mixed sometimes with sand and silt1 which was thrown up in jets rising in some cases to a height of #bj ft4 ,two epicentres were recognized--one near ,woodstock station on the ,south ,carolina railway1 and the other1 being the centre of a much smaller tract1 about #ad m4 south-west of the first and near the station of ,rantowles on the ,charleston and ,savannah line4 ,around these centres and far away isoseismal lines were drawn1 the relative intensity at different places being roughly estimated by the effects of the catastrophe on various structures and natural objects1 or1 where visible records were wanting1 by personal evidence1 which is often vague and variable4 ,the ,rossi-,forel scale was adopted4 ,this is an arbitrary scale formulated by ,professor ,m4,s4 de ,rossi1 of ,rome1 and ,dr ,f4,a4 ,forel1 of ,geneva1 based mostly on the ordinary phenomena observed during an earthquake1 and consisting of ten degrees1 of which the lowest is the feeblest1 viz4 ,i4 ,microseismic shock2 ,,ii4 ,extremely feeble shock2 ,,iii4 ,very feeble shock2 ,,iv4 ,feeble2 ,v4 ,shock of moderate intensity2 ,,vi4 ,fairly strong shock2 ,,vii4 ,strong shock2 ,,viii4 ,very strong shock2 ,,ix4 ,extremely strong shock2 ,x4 ,shock of extreme intensity4 ,other conventional scales1 some being less detailed1 have been drawn up by observers in such earthquake-shaken countries as ,italy and ,japan4 ,a curve1 or theoretical isoseismal1 drawn through certain points where the decline of intensity on receding from the epicentre seems to be greatest was called by ,dutton an index-circle2 and it can be shown that the radius of such a circle multiplied by the square root of #c gives the focal depth theoretically4 ,in this way it was computed that in the ,charleston earthquake the origin under ,woodstock must have had a depth of about #ab m4 and that near ,rantowles a depth of nearly #h m4 ,the determination of the index-circle presents much difficulty1 and the conclusions must be regarded as only approximate4 ,it is probable1 according to ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 that local earthquakes may originate in the outer skin of the earth1 whilst a large world-shaking earthquake takes its origin in the deeper part of the crust1 whence such a disturbance is termed a bathyseism4 ,large earthquakes may have very extended origins1 with no definite centre1 or with several foci4 ,great ,indian earthquake1 #ahig4 ,the gigantic disaster known as the ,great ,indian ,earthquake1 which occurred on the #abth of ,june #ahig1 was the subject of careful investigation by the ,geological ,survey of ,india and was described in detail by the superintendent1 ,r4,d4 ,oldham4 ,it is sometimes termed the ,assam earthquake1 since it was in that province that the effects were most severe1 but the shocks were felt over a large part of ,india1 and indeed far beyond its boundaries4 ,much of the area which suffered most disturbance was a wild country1 sparsely populated1 with but few buildings of brick or stone from which the violence of the shocks could be estimated4 ,the epicentral tract was of great size1 having an estimated area of about #fjjj sq4 m41 but the mischief was most severe in the neighbourhood of ,shillong1 where the stonework of bridges1 churches and other buildings was absolutely levelled to the ground4 ,after the main disturbance1 shocks of greater or less severity continued at intervals for many weeks4 ,it is supposed that this earthquake was connected with movement of subterranean rock-masses of enormous magnitude along a great thrust-plane1 or series of such planes1 having a length of about #bjj m4 and a maximum breadth of not less than #ej m4 ,it is pointed out by ,oldham that this may be compared for size with the great ,faille du ,midi in ,belgium1 which is known to extend for a distance of #abj m4 ,the depth of the principal focus1 though not actually capable of determination1 was probably less than #e m4 from the surface4 ,from the focus many secondary faults and fractures proceeded1 some reaching the surface of the ground4 ,enormous landslips accompanied the earthquake1 and as an indirect effect of these slides the form of the water-courses became in certain cases modified4 ,permanent changes of level were also observed4 ,kangra earthquake1 #aije4 ,eight years after the great ,assam earthquake ,india was visited by another earthquake1 which1 though less intense1 resulted in the loss of about #bj1jjj lives4 ,this catastrophe is known as the ,kangra earthquake1 since its centre seems to have been located in the ,kangra valley1 in the north-west ,himalaya4 ,it occurred on the #dth of ,april #aije1 and the first great shocks were felt in the chief epifocal district at about #f4i a4m41 ,madras time4 ,although the tract chiefly affected was around ,kangra and ,dharmsala1 there was a subordinate epifocal tract in ,dehra ,dun and the neighbourhood of ,mussoorie1 whilst the effects of the earthquake extended in slight measure to ,lahore and other cities of the plain4 ,it is estimated that the earthquake was felt over an area of about #a1fbe1jjj m4 ,immediately after the calamity a scientific examination of its effects was made by the ,geological ,survey of ,india1 and a report was drawn up by the superintendent1 ,c4,s4 ,middlemiss4 ,california earthquake1 #aijf4 ,the great earthquake1 which1 with the subsequent fire1 wrought such terrible destruction in and around ,san ,francisco on the #ahth of ,april #aijf1 was the most disastrous ever recorded in ,california4 ,it occurred between #aj and #ae minutes after #e ,a4,m41 standard time of the #abjth meridian4 ,the moment at which the disaster began and the duration of the shock varied at different localities in the great area over which the earthquake was felt4 ,at ,san ,francisco the main shock lasted rather more than one minute4 ,according to the official ,report1 the earthquake was due to rupture and movement along the plane of the ,san ,andreas fault1 one of a series which runs for several hundred miles approximately in a ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e4 direction near the coast line4 ,evidence of fresh movement along this plane of dislocation was traced for a distance of #aij m4 from ,san ,juan on the south to ,point ,arena on the north4 ,there the trace of the fault is lost beneath the sea1 but either the same fault or another appears #ge m4 to the north at ,point ,delgada4 ,the belt of disturbed country is notoriously unstable1 and part of the fault had been known as the earthquake crack4 ,the direction is marked by lines of straight cliffs1 long ponds and narrow depressions1 forming a ,rift1 or old line of seismic disturbance4 ,according to ,dr ,g4,k4 ,gilbert the earthquake zone has a length of #cjj or #djj m4 ,the principal displacement of rock1 in #aijf1 was horizontal1 amounting generally to about #aj ft4 7maximum #ba ft471 but there was also locally a slight vertical movement1 which towards the north end of the fault reached #c ft4 ,movement was traced for a distance of about #bgj m41 and it is estimated that at least #age1jjj sq4 m4 of country must have been disturbed4 ,in estimating the intensity of the earthquake in ,san ,francisco a new scale was introduced by ,h4,o4 ,wood4 ,the greatest structural damage occurred on soft alluvial soil and made ground4 ,most of the loss of property in ,san ,francisco was due to the terrible fire which followed the earthquake and was beyond control owing to the destruction of the system of water-supply4 ,immediately after the catastrophe a ,california ,earthquake ,investigation ,committee was appointed by the governor of the state2 and the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science afterwards instituted a ,seismological ,committee4 ,the elaborate ,report of the ,state ,investigation ,committee1 by the chairman1 ,professor ,a4,c4 ,lawson1 was published in #aijh4 ,on the #agth of ,august #aijf a disastrous earthquake occurred at ,valparaiso1 and the year #aijf was marked generally by exceptional seismic activity4 ,the ,jamaica earthquake of the #adth of ,january #aijg appears to have accompanied movement of rock along an east and west fracture or series of fractures under the sea a few miles from the city of ,kingston4 ,the statue of ,queen ,victoria at ,kingston was turned upon its pedestal the eighth of a revolution4 ,messina earthquake1 #aijh4 ,a terrible earthquake occurred in ,calabria and ,sicily on ,december #bh1 #aijh1 practically destroying ,messina and ,reggio4 ,according to the official returns the total loss of life was #gg1bhc4 ,whilst the principal centre seems to have been in the ,strait of ,messina1 whence the disturbance is generally known as the ,messina earthquake1 there were independent centres in the ,calabrian peninsula1 a country which had been visited by severe earthquakes not long previously1 namely on ,september #h1 #aije1 and ,october #bc1 #aijg4 ,the principal shock of the great ,messina earthquake of #aijh occurred at #e4ba ,a4,m4 7#d4ba ,greenwich time71 and had a duration of from #cj to #dj seconds4 ,neither during nor immediately before the catastrophe was there any special volcanic disturbance at ,etna or at ,stromboli1 but it is believed that there must have been movement along a great plane of weakness in the neighbourhood of the ,strait of ,messina1 which has been studied by ,e4 ,cortese4 ,the sea-floor in the strait probably suffered great disturbance1 resulting in the remarkable movement of water observed on the coast4 ,at first the sea retired1 and then a great wave rolled in1 followed by others generally of decreasing amplitude1 though at ,catania the second was said to have been greater than the first4 ,at ,messina the height of the great wave was #b4gj metres1 whilst at ,ali and ,giardini it reached #h4dj metres and at ,san ,alessio as much as #aa4g metres4 ,at ,malta the tide-gauge recorded a wave of #j4ia metre4 ,the depth of the chief earthquake-centre was estimated by ,dr ,e4 ,oddone at about #i kilometres4 ,the earthquake and accompanying phenomena were studied also by ,professor ,a4 ,ricco1 ,dr ,m4 ,baratta and ,professor ,g4 ,platania and by ,dr ,f4 ,omori of ,tokyo4 ,after the great disturbance1 shocks continued to affect the region intermittently for several months4 ,in certain respects the earthquake of #aijh presented much resemblance to the great ,calabrian catastrophe of #aghc4 ,it has been proposed by ,r4,d4 ,oldham that the disturbance which causes the fracture and permanent displacement of the rocks during an earthquake should be called an earthshake1 leaving the term earthquake especially for the vibratory motion4 ,the movement of the earthquake is molecular1 whilst that of the earthshake is molar4 ,subsequently he suggested the terms mochleusis and orchesis 7,greek3 mochleuo1 ,i heave2 ,greek3 orcheomai1 ,i dance71 to denote respectively the molar and the molecular movement1 retaining the word earthquake for use in its ordinary sense4 ,in most earthquakes the proximate cause is generally regarded as the fracture and sudden movement of underground rock-masses4 ,disturbances of this type are known as tectonic earthquakes1 since they are connected with the folding and faulting of the rocks of the earth's crust4 ,they indicate a relief of the strain to which the rock-masses are subjected by mountain-making and other crustal movements1 and they are consequently apt to occur along the steep face of a table-land or the margin of a continent with a great slope from land to sea4 ,in many cases the immediate seat of the originating impulse is located beneath the sea1 giving rise to submarine disturbances which have been called seaquakes4 ,much attention has been given to these suboceanic disturbances by ,professor ,e4 ,rudolph4 ,professor ,j4,h4 ,jeans has pointed out that the regions of the earth's crust most affected by earthquakes lie on a great circle corresponding with the equator of the slightly pear-shaped figure that he assigns to the earth4 ,this would represent a belt of weakness1 subject to crushing1 from the tendency of the pear to pass into a spherical or spheroidal form under the action of internal stresses4 ,according to the comte de ,montessus de ,ballore1 the regions of maximum seismic instability appear to be arranged on two great circles1 inclined to each other at about #fg deg44 ,these are the ,circumpacific and ,mediterranean zones4 ,maps of the world1 showing the origins of large earthquakes each year1 accompany the ,annual ,reports of the ,seismological ,committee of the ,british ,association1 drawn up by ,professor ,milne4 ,it is important to note that ,professor ,milne has shown a relationship between earthquake-frequency and the wandering of the earth's pole from its mean position4 ,earthquakes seem to have been most frequent when the displacement of the pole has been comparatively great1 or when the change in the direction of movement has been marked4 ,valuable earthquake catalogues have been compiled at various times by ,alexis ,perrey1 ,r4 and ,j4,w4 ,mallet1 ,john ,milne1 ,t4 ,oldham1 ,c4,w4,c4 ,fuchs1 ,f4 de ,montessus de ,ballore and others4 ,british earthquakes4 ,such earthquakes as are felt from time to time in ,great ,britain may generally be traced to the formation of faults1 or rather to incidents in the growth of old faults4 ,the ,east ,anglian earthquake of the #bbnd of ,april #ahhd--the most disastrous that had occurred in the ,british ,isles for centuries--was investigated by ,prof4 ,r4 ,meldola and ,w4 ,white on behalf of the ,essex ,field ,club4 ,the shocks probably proceeded from two foci--one near the villages of ,peldon and ,abberton1 the other near ,wivenhoe and ,rowhedge1 in ,n4,e4 ,essex4 ,it is believed that the superficial disturbance resulted from rupture of rocks along a deep fault4 ,an attempt has been made by ,h4 ,darwin1 for the ,seismological ,committee of the ,british ,association1 to detect and measure any gradual movement of the strata along a fault1 by observation at the ,ridgeway fault1 near ,upway1 in ,dorsetshire4 ,dr ,c4 ,davison in studying the earthquakes which have originated in ,britain since #ahhi finds that several have been twins4 ,a twin earthquake has two maxima of intensity proceeding from two foci1 whereas a double earthquake has its successive impulses from what is practically a single focus4 ,the ,hereford earthquake of ,december #ahif1 which resulted in great structural damage1 was a twin1 having one epicentre near ,hereford and the other near ,ross4 ,davison refers it to a slip along a fault-plane between the anticlinal areas of ,woolhope and ,may ,hill2 and according to the same authority the ,inverness earthquake of the #ahth of ,september #aija was referable to movement along a fault between ,loch ,ness and ,inverness4 ,the ,south ,wales earthquake of ,june #bg1 #aijf1 was probably due to movement connected with the ,armorican system of folds1 striking in an east and west direction4 ,it may be noted that when a slip occurs along a fault1 the displacement underground may be but slight and may die out before reaching the surface1 so that no scarp is formed4 ,in connexion1 however1 with a seismic disturbance of the first magnitude the superficial features may be markedly affected4 ,thus1 the great ,japan earthquake of ,october #ahia--known often as the ,mino-,owari earthquake--was connected with the formation or development of a fault which1 according to ,professor ,b4 ,koto1 was traced on the surface for a distance of nearly #ej m4 and presented in places a scarp with a vertical throw of as much as #bj ft41 while probably the maximum displacement underground was very much greater4 ,although most earthquakes seem to be of tectonic type1 there are some which are evidently connected1 directly or indirectly1 with volcanic activity 7see ,,volcano74 ,such1 it is commonly believed1 were the earthquakes which disturbed the ,isle of ,ischia in #ahha and #ahhc1 and were studied by ,professor ,j4 ,johnston-,lavis and ,g4 ,mercalli4 ,in addition to the tectonic and volcanic types1 there are occasional earthquakes of minor importance which may be referred to the collapse of the roof of caverns1 or other falls of rock in underground cavities at no great depth4 ,according to ,prof4 ,t4,j4,j4 ,see most earthquakes are due1 directly or indirectly1 to the explosive action of ste by the leakage of sea-water through the ocean floor4 ,earthquake waves4 ,whatever the nature of the impulse which originates the earthquake1 it gives rise to a series of waves which are propagated through the earth's substance and also superficially4 ,in one kind1 known as normal or condensational waves1 or waves of elastic compression1 the particles vibrate to and from the centre of disturbance1 moving in the direction in which the wave travels1 and therefore in a way analogous to the movement of air in a sound-wave4 ,associated with this type are other waves termed transverse waves1 or waves of elastic distortion1 in which the particles vibrate across or around the direction in which the wave is propagated4 ,the normal waves result from a temporary change of volume in the medium2 the transverse from a change of shape4 ,the distance through which an earth-particle moves from its mean position of rest1 whether radially or transversely1 is called the amplitude of the wave2 whilst the double amplitude1 or total distance of movement1 to and fro or up and down1 like the distance from crest to trough of a water wave1 may be regarded as the range of the wave4 ,the period of a wave is the time required for the vibrating particle to complete an oscillation4 ,as the rocks of the earth's crust are very heterogeneous1 the earthquake-waves suffer refraction and reflection as they pass from one rock to another differing in density and elasticity4 ,in this way the waves break up and become much modified in course of transmission1 thus introducing great complexity into the phenomena4 ,it is known that the normal waves travel more rapidly than the transverse4 ,measurements of the surface speed at which earthquake-waves travel require very accurate time-measurers1 and these are not generally available in earthquake-shaken regions4 ,observations during the ,charleston earthquake of #ahhf were at that time of exceptional value1 since they were made over a large area where standard time was kept4 ,lines drawn through places around the epicentre at which the shock arrives at the same moment are called coseismal lines4 ,the motion of the wave is to be distinguished from the movement of the vibrating particles4 ,the velocity of the earth-particle is its rate of movement1 but this is constantly changing during the vibration1 and the rate at which the velocity changes is technically called the acceleration of the particle4 ,unfelt movements of the ground are registered in the earthquake records1 or seismograms1 obtained by the delicate instruments used by modern seismologists4 ,from the study of the records of a great earthquake from a distant source1 sometimes termed a teleseismic disturbance1 some interesting inferences have been drawn with respect to the constitution of the interior of the earth4 ,the complete record shows two phases of preliminary tremors preceding the principal waves4 ,it is believed that while the preliminary tremors pass through the body of the earth1 the principal waves travel along or parallel to the surface4 ,probably the first phase represents condensational1 and the second phase distortional1 waves4 ,professor ,milne concludes from the speed of the waves at different depths that materials having similar physical properties to those at the surface may extend to a depth of about #cj m41 below which they pass into a fairly homogeneous nucleus4 ,from the different rates of propagation of the precursors it has been inferred by ,r4,d4 ,oldham that below the outer crust1 which is probably not everywhere of the same thickness1 the earth is of practically uniform character to a depth of about six-tenths of the radius1 but the remaining four-tenths may represent a core differing physically and perhaps chemically from the outer part4 ,oldham also suggests1 from his study of oceanic and continental wave-paths1 that there is probably a difference in the constitution of the earth beneath oceans and beneath continents4 ,the surface waves1 which are waves of great length and long period and are propagated to great distances with practically a constant velocity1 have been regarded as quasi-elastic gravitational waves4 ,further1 in a great earthquake the surface of the ground is sometimes visibly agitated in the epifocal district by undulations which may be responsible for severe superficial damage4 7,see also for elastic waves ,,elasticity1 ,sec4 #hi47 ,an old classification of earthquake-shocks1 traces of which still linger in popular nomenclature1 described them as undulatory1 when the movement of the ground was mainly in a horizontal direction2 subsultory1 when the motion was vertical1 like the effect of a normal wave at the epicentre2 and vorticose1 when the movement was rotatory1 apparently due to successive impulses in varying directions4 ,the sounds which are associated with seismic phenomena1 often described as subterranean rumbling and roaring1 are not without scientific interest1 and have been carefully studied by ,davison4 ,isacoustic lines are curves drawn through places where the sound is heard by the same percentage of observers4 ,the sound is always low and often inaudible to many4 ,the refined instruments which are now used by seismologists for determining the elements of earthquake motion and for recording earthquakes from distant origins are described in the article ,,seismometer4 ,these instruments were developed as a consequence of the attention given in modern times to the study of earthquakes in the ,far ,east4 7,f4 ,w4 ,r4997 ,seismology in ,japan4 ,strange as it may appear1 the advances that have been made in the study of earthquakes and the world-wide interest shown in their phenomena were initiated in work commenced in ,japan4 ,when the ,japanese government1 desiring to adopt ,western knowledge1 invited to its shores bodies of men to act as its instructors1 the attention of the newcomers was naturally attracted to the frequent shakings of the ground4 ,interest in these phenomena increased more rapidly than their frequency1 and at length it was felt that something should be done for their systematic study4 ,at midnight on the #bbnd of ,february #ahhj movements more violent than usual occurred2 chimneys were shattered or rotated1 tiles slid down from roofs1 and in the morning it was seen that ,yokohama had the appearance of a city that had suffered a bombardment4 ,the excitement was intense1 and before the ruins had been removed a meeting was convened and the ,seismological ,society of ,japan established4 ,the twenty volumes of original papers published by this body summarize to a large extent the results of the later study of seismology4#a ,the attention of the students of earthquakes in ,japan was at first directed almost entirely to seismometry or earthquake measurement4 ,forms of apparatus which then existed1 as for example the seismographs1 seismometers and seismoscopes of ,mallet1 ,palmieri and others1 were subjected to trial2 but inasmuch as they did little more than indicate that an earthquake had taken place--the more elaborate forms recording also the time of its occurrence--they were rapidly discarded1 and instruments were constructed to measure earthquake motion4 ,slightly modified types of the new instruments devised in ,japan were adopted throughout the ,italian peninsula1 and it is fair to say that the seismometry developed in ,japan revolutionized the seismometry of the world4 ,the records obtained from the new instruments increased our knowledge of the character of earthquake motion1 and the engineer and the architect were placed in a position to construct so that the effects of known movements could be minimized4 ,it was no doubt the marked success1 both practical and scientific1 attending these investigations that led the ,japanese government to establish a chair of seismology at its university1 to organize a system of nearly #ajjj observing stations throughout the country1 and in #ahic to appoint a committee of scientific and practical men to carry out investigations which might palliate the effects of seismic disturbances4 ,in the first year this committee received a grant of ,l#ejjj1 and as liberal sums for the same purpose appear from time to time in the parliamentary estimates1 it may be assumed that the work has been fraught with good results4 ,in their publications we find not only records of experiences and experiments in ,japan1 but descriptions and comments upon earthquake effects in other countries4 ,in two of the volumes there are long and extremely well illustrated accounts of the earthquake which on the #abth of ,june #ahig devastated ,assam1 to which country two members of the above-mentioned committee were despatched to gather such information as might be of value to the architect and builder in earthquake-shaken districts4 ,seismological research4 ,a great impetus to seismological investigation in ,europe and ,america was no doubt given by the realization of the fact that a large earthquake originating in any one part of the world may be recorded in almost any other4 ,italy for many years past has had its observatories for recording earthquakes which can be felt1 and which are of local origin1 but at the present time at all its first-class stations we find instruments to record the unfelt movements due to earthquakes originating at great distances1 and as much attention is now paid to the large earthquakes of the world as to the smaller ones originating within ,italian territory4#b ,the ,kaiserliche ,akademie der ,wissenschaften of ,vienna established earthquake observatories in ,austria1#c and the ,central ,observatorium of ,st ,petersburg has carried out similar work in ,russia4 ,germany attached a seismological observatory to its university at ,strassburg1 whilst provision has been made for a professorship of ,earth ,physics 7,geophysik7 at ,goettingen4#d ,in accordance with the recommendation of the ,british ,association1 seismographs of a similar character have been installed at stations all over the world4#e ,the principal objects of this extended and still extending system of stations are to determine the velocity with which motion is propagated over the surface and through the interior of the earth1 to locate the positions of sub-oceanic earthquake origins1 and generally to extend our knowledge respecting the physical nature of the planet on which we live4 ,frequency of earthquakes4 ,we now know that earthquakes are many times more frequent than was previously supposed4 ,in ,japan1 for example1 between #ahhe and #ahib no fewer than #hcca were recorded--that is to say1 on the average there were during that time more than #ajjj disturbances per year4 ,although many of these did not cause a sensible shaking over areas exceeding a few hundred square miles1 many of them were sufficiently intense to propagate vibrations round and through the globe4 ,if we pick out the well-marked earthquake districts of the world1 and give to each of them a seismicity or earthquake frequency per unit area one-third of that in ,japan1 the conclusion arrived at is that considerable areas of our planet are on the average shaken every half-hour4 ,volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,the knowledge which we now possess respecting the localities where earthquakes are frequent and the forms of the foci from which they have spread1 enables us to speak definitely respecting the originating causes of many of these phenomena4 ,it is found1 for example1 that although in many countries there may be displays of volcanic and seismic activity taking place almost side by side1 it is only rarely that there is direct relationship between the two4 ,now and then1 however1 before a volcano breaks into eruption there may be a few ineffectual efforts to form a vent1 each of which is accompanied by no more than a slight local shaking of the ground4 ,this is true even for the largest and most violent eruptions1 when mountains have with practically a single effort blown off their heads and shoulders4 ,thus the earthquake which accompanied the eruption of ,bandaisan1 in central ,japan1 in #ahhh was felt only over a radius of #be m4 ,the analyses of the seismic registers of ,japan clearly indicate that comparatively few shakings originate near to the volcanoes of the country1 the majority of them1 like those of many other countries1 coming from regions where volcanic rocks are absent4 ,the greatest number spread inland from the ,pacific seaboard1 the movement becoming more and more feeble as it approaches the backbone of the country1 which is drilled with numerous volcanic vents4 ,what is true for ,japan is generally true for the western coasts of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,origin of earthquakes4 ,speaking broadly1 earthquakes are most frequent along the steeper flexures in the earth's surface1 and in those regions where there is geological evidence to show that slow secular movements in the earth's crust are possibly yet in progress4 ,with a unit distance of #b degrees1 or #abj geographical m41 we find that the slopes running eastwards from the highlands of ,japan and westwards from the ,andean ridges down into the ,pacific vary from #a in #bj to #a in #cj1 and it is on the faces or near to the bottom of these slopes that seismic efforts are frequent4 ,the slopes running from ,australia1 eastern ,america and western ,europe into the neighbouring oceans vary between #a in #gj and #a in #bej1 and in these regions earthquakes are of rare occurrence4 ,the seismic activity met with in the ,himalayas and the ,alps finds its best explanation in the fact that these mountains are geologically recent1 and there are no reasons to doubt that the forces which brought their folds into existence are yet in action4 ,this peculiar association of earthquakes with pronounced topographical configuration and certain geological conditions evidently indicates that the origin of many of them is connected with rock folding4 ,inasmuch as certain large earthquakes have been accompanied by rock fracture1 as for example in #ahia1 when in central ,japan a fault some #ej m4 in length was created1 whilst the origins of others have been distinctly traced to the line of an existing fault or its continuation1 we may conclude that the majority of earthquakes are spasmodic accelerations in the secular movements which are creating 7and in some instances possibly obliterating7 the more prominent features of the earth's surface4 ,these secular movements1 which include upheavals1 subsidences1 horizontal displacements--all of which are explained on the assumption of a crust seeking support on a nucleus gradually contracting by loss of heat1 are collectively referred to as bradyseismical 7,greek3 bradys1 slow7 movements4 ,to these may be added movements directly attributable to the influence of gravity4 ,sub-oceanic districts in a state of seismic strain may be so far loaded by the accumulation of sediments that gentle bending may be accompanied by sudden yieldings4 ,this possibly accounts for the frequency of earthquakes off the mouth of the ,tonegawa on the eastern side of ,japan4 ,the distortions so frequently observed in fossils and pebbles1 the varying thickness of contorted strata1 and the creep in coal-mines1 together with other phenomena1 indicate that rocks may flow4 ,observations of this nature lead to the supposition that high plateau-like regions may be gradually subsiding under the influence of their own weight1 and that the process of settlement may from time to time be spasmodic in its character4 ,whether the earthquakes which originate round the submerged basal frontiers of the continents bounding the ,pacific are ever attributable to such activities1 it is impossible to say4 ,all that we know with certainty is that they are sometimes accompanied by such a vast displacement of material that the ocean has been set into a state of oscillation for periods of #bd hours1 that in some instances there have been marked changes in depth1 and that enormous sub-oceanic landslips have occurred4 ,these phenomena are1 however1 equally well explained on the assumption of sudden faulting accompanied by violent shaking1 which would dislodge steeply inclined beds of material beneath the ocean as it does upon the land4 ,two types of earthquake motion4 ,although the proximate cause of earthquake motion is traced to sudden yieldings in the crust of the earth brought about by some form of bradyseismical action1 the existence of at least two distinct types of seismic motion indicates that the mechanical conditions accompanying the fracturing of rocks are not always identical4 #ij or #ie of the earthquakes which can be recorded consist of elastic or quasi-elastic vibrations4 ,the remainder1 including the large earthquakes1 not only exhibit the elastic movements1 but are accompanied by surface undulations which are propagated most certainly for some hundreds of miles round their origin1 and then as horizontal movements sweep over the whole surface of the globe4 ,the former of these may accompany the formation of a new fault or the sudden renewal of movement along an old one2 they are cracking or rending effects1 without any great displacement4 ,the latter are probably fracturings accompanied by vertical and horizontal displacements of masses of the earth's crust sufficiently great to set up the observed surface undulations4 ,these shocks are so frequently followed a few minutes later by disturbances1 which from their similarity to the movements which have preceded them may be called earthquake echoes1 that we are led to the speculation that we are here dealing with the caving-in of ill-supported portions of the earth's crust1 the waves from which are radiated to boundaries and then returned to their origin to coalesce and give rise to a second impulse not unlike the primary4 ,succeeding the first repetition of motion recorded by the seismograph there is often a rhythmical repetition of similar wave groups1 suggesting the existence within our earth of phenomena akin to multiple echoes4 ,character of earthquake motion4 ,the introduction of new methods into seismometry quickly revolutionized our ideas respecting the character of earthquake motion4 ,although an earthquake may be strongly felt within a distance of #ej m4 from its origin1 and although the movements in the upper storeys of buildings within the shaken area may be large1 the actual range of the horizontal motion of the ground is usually less than #a_/aj of an inch4 ,with such earthquakes ordinary seismographs for recording vertical motion do not show any disturbance4 ,when the movement reaches #a_/b in4 it becomes dangerous1 and a back-and-forth movement of an inch is usually accompanied by destructive effects4 ,in this latter case the amplitude of the vertical record which indicates the existence of surface waves will vary between #a_/b and #a_/ajj of an inch4 ,in the earthquake which devastated central ,japan on the #bfth of ,october #ahia1 nearly every building within the epifocal district fell1 the ground was fissured1 forests slipped down from mountain sides to dam up valleys1 whilst the valleys themselves were permanently compressed4 ,the horizontal movements seem to have reached #i in4 or #a ft41 and the surface undulations were visible to the eye4 ,period and duration4 ,the rapidity with which the movements are performed varies throughout a disturbance4 ,a typical earthquake usually commences with minute elastic vibrations1 the periods of which vary between #a_/e and #a_/bj of a second4 ,these are recorded by seismographs1 and are noticed by certain of the lower animals like pheasants1 which before the occurrence of movement perceptible to human beings scream as if alarmed4 ,when an earthquake is preceded by a sound we have evidence of preliminary tremors even more rapid than those recorded by seismographs4 ,following these precursors there is a shock or shocks1 the period of which will be #a or #b seconds4 ,from this climax the movements1 although irregular in character1 become slower and smaller until finally they are imperceptible4 ,the duration of a small earthquake usually varies from a few seconds to a minute1 but large earthquakes1 which are accompanied by surface undulations1 may be felt for #b or #c minutes1 whilst an ordinary seismograph indicates a duration of from #f to #ab minutes4 ,a free horizontal pendulum tells us that with severe earthquakes the ground comes to rest by a series of more or less rhythmical surgings1 continuing over #a or #b hours4 ,although the maximum displacement has a definite direction1 the successive vibrations are frequently performed in many different azimuths4 ,the predominating direction at a given station in certain instances is apparently at right angles to the strike of the neighbouring strata1 this being the direction of easiest yielding4 ,velocity4 ,earthquake motion as recorded at stations several thousands of miles distant from its origin exhibits characteristics strikingly different from those just described4 ,the precursors now show periods of from #a to #e seconds1 whilst the largest movements corresponding to the shocks may have periods of from #bj to #dj seconds4 ,the interval of time by which the first tremors have outraced the maximum movement has also become greater4 ,within a few hundreds of miles from an origin this interval increases steadily1 the velocity of propagation of the first movements being about #b km4 per second1 whilst that of the latter may be taken at about #a4f km4 per second4 ,beyond this distance the velocity of transmission of the first movements rapidly increases1 and for great distances1 as for example from ,japan to ,england1 it is higher than we should expect for waves of compression passing through steel or glass4 ,this observation precludes the idea that these preliminary tremors have travelled through the heterogeneous crust of the earth1 and since the average velocity of their transmission increases with the length of the path along which they have travelled1 and we but rarely obtain certain evidence that a seismograph has been disturbed by waves which have reached it by travelling in opposite directions round the world1 we are led to the conclusion that earthquake precursors pass through our earth and not round its surface4 ,the following table relating to earthquakes1 which originated off the coast of ,borneo on the #bjth and #bgth of ,september #ahig1 is illustrative of the velocities here considered3-- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,distance ,velocity _/,average ,localities from in kms4 _/depth of origin per sec4 if _/ chord in in degrees4 on chord4 #a_/d ,v kms4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,nicolaieff #ha deg4 #h4a #h4j ,potsdam #ib deg4 #h4d #i4a ,catania1 ,ischia1 ,rocca di ,papa1 ,rome #if deg4 #i4j #i4e ,isle of ,wight #ajc deg4 #i4h #aj4b ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the chords referred to here are those joining the earthquake origins and distant observing stations1 and it will be noted that one-quarter of the square root of the average depths at which these run closely corresponds to observed average velocities if wave paths followed chords4 ,this increase of velocity with average depth shows that the paths followed through the earth must be curved with their convexity towards the centre of the earth4 ,these observations do not directly tell us to what extent a true wave path is deflected from the direction of a chord1 but they suggest as an extremely plausible assumption that the square of the speed is a linear function of the depth below the surface of the earth4 ,with this assumption ,dr ,c4,g4 ,knott shows that the square of the speed 7v squared7 can be expressed linearly in terms of the average depth of the chord d1 thus3 v squared #b4i 4#jbf d1 the units being miles and seconds4 ,the formula applies with fair accuracy to moderate and high values of d1 but it gives too high a value for short chords4 ,it follows that the square of the speed increases #j4i per mile of descent in the earth4 ,the conclusion we arrive at is that the preliminary tremors which pass through the earth do so in the vicinity of their origin at the rate of almost #b4c km4 per second4 ,this velocity increases as the wave path plunges downwards1 attaining in the central regions a velocity of #af to #ag kms41 whilst the highest average velocity which is across a diameter lies between #aj and #ab kms4 per second4 ,the large surface waves radiating from an origin to a distant place have velocities lying between #a4f and #d kms4 per second1 and it has been observed that when the higher velocity has been noted this refers to an observation at a station very remote from the origin4 ,one explanation of this is the assumption that only very large waves indicating a large initial disturbance are capable of travelling to great distances1 and as pointed out by ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 large waves under the influence of gravity will travel faster than small waves4 ,these waves 7which may be gravitational or distortional7 are recorded as slow tiltings of the ground measured by angles of #j4e to #aj or #ae seconds of arc1 or as horizontal displacements of #j4e or several millimetres4 ,their calculated lengths have reached #ej kms4 7#ca m474 ,frequency4 ,in the section of this article relating to the cause of earthquakes a little has been said about their frequency or the number of times these phenomena are repeated during a given interval of time4 ,it has been shown that all countries are very often moved by earthquakes which have originated at great distances4 ,great ,britain1 for example1 is crossed about #ajj times a year by earthquake waves having durations of from #c minutes to #c hours1 whilst the vibratory motions which originate in that country are not only small but of rare occurrence4 ,in the earlier stages of the world's history1 because the contraction of its nucleus was more rapid than it is at present1 it is commonly inferred that phenomena accompanying bradyseismical activity must have been more pronounced and have shown themselves upon a grander scale than they do at the present time4 ,now1 although the records of our rocks only carry us back over a certain portion of this history1 they certainly represent an interval of time sufficiently long to furnish some evidence of such enfeeblement if it ever existed4 ,so far from this being the case1 however1 we meet with distinct evidences in the later chapters of geological history of plutonic awakenings much more violent than those recorded at its commencement4 ,during ,palaeozoic times many mountain ranges were formed1 and accompanying these orogenic processes there was marked volcanic activity4 ,in the succeeding ,secondary period plutonic forces were quiescent1 but during the formation of the early ,tertiaries1 when some of the largest mountain ranges were created1 they awoke with a vigour greater than had ever been previously exhibited4 ,at this period it is not improbable that ,scotland was as remarkable for its volcanoes and its earthquakes as ,japan is at the present day4 ,if the statement relating to the general decrease in bradyseismical changes referred merely to their frequency1 and omitted reference to their magnitude1 the views of the geologist and physicist might harmonize4 ,one explanation for this divergence of opinion may rest on the fact that too little attention has been directed to all the conditions which accompany the adaptation of the earth's crust to its shrinking nucleus4 ,as the latter grows smaller the puckerings and foldings of the former should grow larger4 ,each succeeding geological epoch should be characterized by mountain formations more stupendous than those which preceded them1 whilst the fracturing1 dislocation1 caving-in of ill-supported regions1 and creation of lines of freedom for the exhibition of volcanic activity which would accompany these changes1 would grow in magnitude4 ,the written records of many countries reflect but on a smaller scale the crystallized records in their hills4 ,in #ahdd1 at ,comrie1 in ,perthshire1 as many as twelve earthquakes were recorded in a single month1 whilst now there are but one or two per year4 ,earthquake frequency varies with time4 ,a district under the influence of hypogenic activities reaches a condition of seismic strain which usually is relieved rapidly at first1 but subsequently more slowly4 ,the small shocks which follow an initial large disturbance are known as after-shocks4 ,the first shock which in #ahia devastated central ,japan was accompanied by the formation of a large fault1 and the #ccfd small shocks which succeeded this during the following two years are regarded as due to intermittent settlements of disjointed material4 ,the decreasing frequency with which after-shocks occur may be represented by a curve4 ,dr ,f4 ,omori points out that the continuation of such a curve gives the means of determining the length of time which will probably elapse before the region to which it refers will return to the same seismic quiescence that it had prior to the initial disturbance4 ,periodicity4 ,the positive results that we have respecting the periodicity of earthquakes are but few4 ,generally earthquakes are somewhat more frequent during winter than during summer1 and this applies to both the northern and southern hemispheres4 ,the annual periodicity1 which1 however1 does not show itself if only destructive earthquakes are considered1 finds an explanation1 according to ,dr ,knott1 in the annual periodicity of long-continued stresses1 as for example those due to the accumulation of snow and to barometric gradients4 ,for certain earthquake regions there appears to be a distinct semi-annual period for which no satisfactory explanation has yet been adduced4 ,although the elaborate registers of ,japan1 which have enabled us to group earthquakes according to their respective origins and varying intensities1 and to separate after-shocks from initial disturbances1 have been subjected by ,dr ,knott to most careful analysis1 with the object of discovering periodicities connected with the ebb and flow of the tides1 the lunar day or lunar months1 nothing of marked character has been found4 ,certainly there is slight evidence of a periodicity connected with the times of conjunction and opposition of the sun and moon1 and a maximum frequency near the time of perigee1 but the effect of lunar stresses is comparatively insignificant4 ,ordinary earthquakes1 and especially after-shocks1 show a diurnal period1 but we cannot say that there are more earthquakes during the night than during the day4 ,magnetic phenomena4 ,many experiments and investigations have been made to determine a possible relationship between earthquakes and electrical phenomena1 but beyond drawing attention to the fact that luminous appearances may accompany the friction of moving masses of rock1 and that a temporary current may be established in a line by the disturbance of an earth-plate1 these inquiries have yielded but little of importance4 ,the inquiries respecting a possible relationship between adjustments so frequently taking place within and beneath that region called the crust of the earth and magnetic phenomena are1 however1 of a more promising nature4 ,we have seen that at or near the origin of earthquakes which for several hours disturb continents1 and occasionally cause oceans to oscillate for longer periods1 we sometimes have direct evidence of the bodily displacement of many cubic miles of material4 ,when this material is volcanic it is almost invariably magnetic1 and we perceive in its sudden rearrangement causes which should produce magnetic effects within an epifocal district4 ,in ,japan1 where attention is being directed to phenomena of this description1 not only have such effects been observed1 but unusual magnetic disturbances have been noted prior to the occurrence of large earthquakes4 ,these may1 of course1 be regarded as mere coincidences1 but when we consider volcanic and seismic activities as evidences of physical and chemical changes1 together with mechanical displacements of a magnetic magma1 it is reasonable to suppose that they should have at least a local influence upon magnetic needles4 ,another form of disturbance to which magnetic needles are subjected is that which accompanies the passage of large earth-waves beneath certain observatories situated at great distances from earthquake origins4 ,at ,utrecht1 ,potsdam and ,wilhelmshaven the magnetographs are frequently disturbed by seismic waves1 whilst at many other ,european observatories such effects are absent or only barely appreciable4 ,to explain these marked differences in the behaviour of magnetic needles at different stations we are at present only in a position to formulate hypotheses4 ,they may be due to the fact that different needles have different periodic times of oscillation2 it is possible that at one observatory the mechanical movements of the ground are much greater than at others2 we may speculate on the existence of materials beneath and around various observatories which are different in their magnetic characters2 and1 lastly1 we may picture a crust of varying thickness1 which from time to time is caused to rise and fall upon a magnetic magma1 the places nearest to this being the most disturbed4 ,effects on the human mind4 ,a subject to which but little attention has been directed is the effect which displays of seismic and volcanic activities have had upon the human mind4 ,the effects are distinctly dual and opposite in character4 ,in countries like ,england1 where earthquakes are seldom experienced1 the prevailing idea is that they are associated with all that is baneful4 ,for certain earthquakes1 which fortunately are less than #a of those which are annually recorded1 this is partially true4 ,a disastrous shock may unnerve a whole community4 ,effects of this nature1 however1 differ in a marked manner with different nationalities4 ,after the shock of #ahia1 when ,japan lost #iifj of its inhabitants1 amongst the wounded indications of mental excitement were shown in spinal and other trouble4 ,notwithstanding the lightheartedness of this particular nation1 it is difficult to imagine that the long series of seismic effects chronicled in ,japanese history1 which culminated in #ahif in the loss of #bi1jjj lives by sea-waves1 has been without some effect upon its mental and moral character4 ,several earthquakes are annually commemorated by special services at temples4 ,in bygone times governments have recognized earthquakes as visitations of an angry deity1 whom they have endeavoured to appease by repealing stringent laws and taxes4 ,in other countries the sermons which have been preached to show that the tremblings of the world were visitations consequent on impiety1 and the prayers which have been formulated to ward off disasters in the future1 far exceed in number the earthquakes which gave rise to them4 ,in #agee many of the ,english clergy held the view that ,lisbon was destroyed because its inhabitants were ,catholics1 whilst the survivors from that disaster attributed their misfortune to the fact that they had tolerated a few ,protestant heretics in their midst4 ,to avoid a recurrence of disaster certain of these were baptized by force4 ,in the myths relating to underground monsters and personages that are said to be the cause of earthquakes we see the direct effects which exhibitions of seismic and volcanic activity have produced upon the imagination4 ,the beliefs1 or more properly1 perhaps1 the poetical fancies1 thus engendered have exhibited themselves in various forms4 ,beneath ,japan there is said to be a catfish1 which in other countries is replaced by a mole1 a hog1 an elephant or other living creature1 which when it is restless shakes the globe4 ,the ,kamchadales picture a subterranean deity called ,tuil1 who in ,scandinavian mythology is represented by the evil genius ,loki4 ,we have only to think of the reference in the ,decalogue forbidding the making of graven images of that which is in the earth beneath1 to see in early ,biblical history evidence of a subterranean mythology2 and it seems probable that the same causes which led to the creation of ,pluto1 ,vulcan and ,poseidon gave rise to practices condemned by ,moses4 ,building to withstand earthquakes4 ,perhaps the greatest practical benefits derived from seismological investigations relate to important changes and new principles which have been introduced into the arts of the engineer and builder when constructing in earthquake countries4 ,the new rules and formulae1 rather than being theoretical deductions from hypotheses1 are the outcome of observation and experiment4 ,true measures of earthquake motion have been given to us by modern seismometers1 with the result that seismic destructivity can be accurately expressed in mechanical units4 ,from observation we now know the greatest acceleration and maximum velocity of an earth particle likely to be encountered2 and these are measures of the destructivity4 ,the engineer is therefore dealing with known forces1 and he has to bear in mind that these are chiefly applied in a horizontal direction4 ,a formula connecting the acceleration requisite to overturn bodies of different dimensions has been given4 ,the acceleration which will fracture or shatter a column firmly fixed at its foundation to the moving earth may be expressed as follows3-- #a g,f,a,b a -- ----1 #f fw where a the acceleration per sec4 per sec4 ,f the force of cohesion1 or force per unit surface1 which when gradually applied produces fracture4 ,a area of base fractured4 ,b thickness of the column4 f height of centre of gravity of column above the fractured base4 w the weight of the portion broken off4 ,with this formula and its derivatives we are enabled to state the height to which a wall1 for example1 may be built capable of resisting any assumed acceleration4 ,experience has shown that yielding first shows itself at the base of a pier1 a wall or a building1 and it is therefore clear that the lower portion of such structures should be of greater dimensions or stronger than that above4 ,piers having these increased dimensions below1 and tapering upwards in a proper manner1 so that every horizontal section is sufficiently strong to resist the effects of the inertia of its superstructure1 are employed to carry railways in ,japan4 ,in that country cast-iron piers are things of the past1 whilst piers of masonry1 together with their foundations1 no longer follow the rules of ordinary engineering practice4 ,after flood1 fire1 earthquake1 or when opportunity presents itself1 changes are introduced in the construction of ordinary buildings4 ,in a so-called earthquake-proof house1 although externally it is similar to other dwellings1 we find rafters running from the ridge pole to the floor sills1 an exceedingly light roof1 iron straps and sockets replacing mortices and tenons1 and many other departures from ordinary rules4 ,masonry arches for bridges or arched openings in walls 7unless protected by lintels71 heavy gables1 ornamental copings1 cappings for chimneys1 have by their repeated failure shown that they are undesirable features for construction in earthquake countries4 ,as sites for buildings it is well to avoid soft ground1 on which the movement is always greater than on hard ground4 ,excessive movement also takes place along the face of unsupported openings1 and for this reason the edges of scarps1 bluffs1 cuttings and river-banks are localities to be avoided4 ,in short1 the rules and precautions which have to be recognized so as to avoid or mitigate the effects of earthquake movement are so numerous that students of engineering and architecture in ,japan receive a special course of lectures on this subject4 ,when it is remembered that a large earthquake may entail a loss of life greater than that which takes place in many wars1 and that for the reconstruction of ordinary buildings1 factories and public works an expenditure of several million pounds sterling is required1 the importance of these studies cannot be overrated4 ,severe earthquakes are fortunately unknown in the ,british ,isles1 but we have simply to turn our eyes to earthquake-shaken colonies and lands in close commercial touch with ,great ,britain to realize the importance of mitigating such disasters as much as possible1 and any endeavour to obviate the wholesale destruction of life should appeal to the civilized communities of the world4 ,applications of seismometry4 ,an unexpected application of seismometry has been to record the vibration of railway trains1 bridges and steamships4 ,an instrument of suitable construction will give records of the more or less violent jolting and vibratory movements of a train1 and so localize irregularities due to changes in the character of ballast and sleepers1 to variation in gauge1 c4 ,an instrument placed on a locomotive throws considerable light upon the effects due to the methods of balancing the wheels1 and by alterations in this respect a saving of fuel of from #a to #e lb4 of coal per mile per locomotive has sometimes been effected4 ,by mapping the centres from which earthquakes originate off the coast of ,japan1 we have not only determined districts where geological activity is pronounced1 but have placed before the cable engineer well-defined localities which it is advisable to avoid2 and in the records of unfelt earthquakes which originate far from land similar information is being collected for the deeper parts of the oceans4 ,occasionally these records have almost immediately made clear the cause of a cable failure4 ,from lack of such information in #ahhh1 when the cables connecting ,australia with the outer world were simultaneously broken1 the sudden isolation was regarded as a possible operation of war1 and the colonists called out their naval and military reserves4 ,records of earthquakes originating at great distances have also frequently enabled us to anticipate1 to correct1 to extend1 or to disprove telegraphic accounts of the disasters4 ,whatever information a seismogram may give is certain1 whilst the information gathered from telegrams may in the process of transit become exaggerated or minimized4 ,otherwise unaccountable disturbances in records from magnetographs1 barographs and other instruments employed in observatories are frequently explained by reference to the traces yielded by seismometers4 ,perhaps the greatest triumph in seismological investigation has been the determination of the varying rates at which motion is propagated through the world4 ,these measurements have already thrown new light upon its effective rigidity1 and if we assume that the density of the earth increases uniformly from its surface towards its centre1 so that its mean density is #e4e1 then1 according to ,knott1 the coefficient of elasticity which governs the transmission of preliminary tremors of an earthquake increases at a rate of nearly #a4b per mile of descent4 7,j4 ,mi47 ,,authorities4--,j4 ,milne1 ,seismology 7,london1 #ahih71 ,earthquakes 7,london1 #ahih71 ,bakerian ,lecture1 ,recent ,advances in ,seismology1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #gg1 p4 #cfe2 ,j4,a4 ,ewing1 ,memoir on ,earthquake ,measurement 7,tokyo1 #ahhc72 ,c4,e4 ,dutton1 ,earthquakes in the ,light of the ,new ,seismology 7,london1 #aijd72 ,the ,charleston ,earthquake of ,aug4 #ca1 #ahhf1 ,ninth ,annual ,report of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 #ahhi2 ,w4,h4 ,hobbs1 ,earthquakes1 an ,introduction to ,seismic ,geology 7,london1 #aijh71 ,the ,san ,francisco ,earthquake and ,fire1 #aijf1 ,bull4 ,u4,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,no4 #cbd2 ,the ,california ,earthquake of ,ap4 #ah1 #aijf1 ,rep4 ,state ,earthq4 ,com4 7,washington1 ,d4,c41 #aijh72 ,r4,d4 ,oldham1 ,report on the ,great ,earthquake of #ab ,june #ahig1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,india1 xxix4 #ahii1 ,on the ,propagation of ,earthquake ,motion to great ,distances1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #aijj1 ,a1 vol4 #aid1 p4 #ace1 ,the ,constitution of the ,interior of the ,earth as revealed by ,earthquakes1 ,quar4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #fb1 p4 #def2 #aijg1 #fc1 p4 #cdd2 ,c4 ,davison1 ,a ,study of ,recent ,earthquakes 7,london1 #aije72 ,the ,hereford ,earthquake of ,december #ag1 #ahif 7,birmingham1 #ahii71 ,the ,investigation of ,earthquakes1 ,beitraege z4 ,geophysik1 ,bd4 ix41 #aijh1 p4 #bja1 and papers on ,british earthquakes in ,quart4 ,jour4 ,geol4 ,soc42 ,t4,j4,j4 ,see1 ,the ,cause of ,earthquakes1 ,mountain ,formation and ,kindred ,phenomena connected with the ,physics of the ,earth1 ,proc4 ,amer4 ,phil4 ,soc41 #aijf1 #de1 p4 #bgc2 ,f4 ,frech1 ,erdbeben und ,gebirgsbau1 ,petermann's ,mitteilungen1 ,bd4 #ec1 #aijg1 p4 #bde 7with maps72 ,c4,g4 ,knott1 ,the ,physics of ,earthquake ,phenomena 7,oxford1 #aijh72 ,comte ,f4 de ,montessus de ,ballore1 ,les ,tremblements de terre3 geographie seismologique 7,paris1 #aijf71 ,la ,science seismologique 7#aijg72 ,transactions of the ,seismological ,society of ,japan2 ,seismological ,journal 7,yokohama72 ,bollettino della ,societa ,sismologica ,italiana 7,rome72 ,reports of the ,british ,association1 containing the annual reports of the ,committee for ,seismological ,investigations2 papers in the ,beitraege zur ,geophysik and the ,ergaenzungsbaende4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the publications for #ahhj-ahib were termed the ,transactions of the ,seismological ,society of ,japan1 and for #ahic-ahie the ,seismological ,journal of ,japan4 ,the observations are now published by the ,earthquake ,investigation ,committee of ,japan1 and edited by ,f4 ,omori1 professor of seismology at the university of ,tokyo4 #b ,the chief ,italian station is at ,rocca di ,papa near ,rome4 ,it is equipped with delicate instruments designed by its director1 ,giovanni ,agamennone4 ,the records since #ahie are published in the ,bollettino della ,societa ,sismologica ,italiana1 edited by ,luigi ,palazzo1 director of the ,central ,office for ,meteorology and ,geodynamics at ,rome4 #c ,the chief ,austrian publications are3--,mittheilungen der ,erdbebencommission der k4 ,akad4 der ,wissen4 in ,wien 7since #ahig72 ,die ,erdbebenwarte 7#aija-aijg72 and the ,neueste ,erdbebennachrichten1 ,beilage der ,monatsschrift ,die ,erdbebenwarte4 #d ,the ,international ,seismological ,association was founded at ,strassburg in #aijc1 and publishes the ,beitraege zur ,geophysik1 edited by ,george ,gerland1 director of the ,strassburg station2 the papers are printed in several languages4 #e ,the records of the ,british ,association stations are published 7since #ahif7 in the ,reports4 ,chile has a national earthquake service 7founded after the ,valparaiso earthquake of ,august #aijf7 directed by comte de ,montessus de ,ballore4 ,,earth-,,star 7,geaster71 in botany1 a kind of puff-ball1 with a distinct outer coat which1 on separating from the inner1 splits into several divisions1 which become reflexed and spread like a star4 ,the inner coat enveloping the spores is supported1 like a ball1 either with or without a stalk on the upper face of the star4 ,the spores escape generally by means of a distinct aperture which appears in the top of the ball4 ,there are several species in ,britain found on the ground or on decaying leaves4 ,they are rare or local1 but more common in the south or south-east of ,england than in other parts of ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,from ,strasburger's ,lehrbuch der ,botanik1 by permission of ,gustav ,fischer4 ,geaster ,granulosus1 nat4 size4 ,,earthworm1 the common name of a chaetopod worm found nearly all over the world4 ,linnaeus recognized only one species of earthworm and named it ,lumbricus terrestris4 ,there are now one thousand well-characterized species known from different parts of the world1 and the number increases almost daily4 ,the earthworms of ,england belong entirely to the three genera ,lumbricus1 ,allolobophora and ,allurus1 which are further subdivided by some systematists2 and these genera form the prevalent earthworm fauna of the ,palaearctic region and are also very numerous in the ,nearctic region4 ,elsewhere they do not appear to be indigenous1 but are replaced by the numerous other genera of the families enumerated in the article ,,chaetopoda 7q4v474 ,it is a remarkable fact that these genera1 comprizing a separate family ,lumbricidae1 when introduced into tropical and other countries1 thrive abundantly and oust the indigenous forms4 ,in gatherings of earthworms from various extra-,european countries it is always found that if the collections have been made in cultivated ground and near the coast the worms are of ,european species2 farther inland the native forms are met with4 ,inasmuch as in every case the ,lumbricidae from non-,european countries are identical with ,european species1 since it has been shown that these animals are very readily introduced accidentally with plants1 c41 and in view of the fact that they are impatient of sea water1 it seems clear that the presence of these ,lumbricidae in other continents is due to accidental transportation4 ,most earthworms live in the soil1 which they devour as they burrow through it4 ,a few1 like their allies the river worms 7,limicolae71 habitually frequent streams1 lakes1 c4 ,one genus1 at any rate1 viz4 ,pontodrilus1 seeks an unusual environment1 and is found in heaps of sea-weed cast up by the sea4 ,the range of this genus is therefore naturally wider than that of other genera which are confined to land masses and cannot cross the sea by their own efforts4 ,it might be inferred1 therefore1 and the inference is proved by facts1 that truly oceanic islands have no indigenous fauna of earthworms1 but are inhabited by forms which are identical with those of neighbouring continents1 and doubtless1 therefore1 accidentally introduced4 ,like the leeches the earthworms produce cocoons which are a product of the glandular epithelium of the clitellum4 ,in these cocoons are deposited the eggs together with a certain amount of albumen upon which the developing embryos feed4 ,so far as is known1 the production of cocoons is universal among earthworms and the remaining ,oligochaeta of aquatic habit4 ,the young leave the cocoon as fully formed earthworms in which1 however1 the genitalia are not fully developed4 ,there is no free living larval stage4 ,out of a single cocoon emerge a varying number of young worms1 the numbers being apparently characteristic of the species4 ,the work of earthworms in aiding in the production of the subsoil and in levelling the surface was first studied by ,c4 ,darwin1 and has since been investigated by others4 ,this work is partly carried out beneath the surface and partly on the surface1 upon which the worms wander at night and eject the swallowed and triturated earth2 frequently castings of some height are formed of coiled ropes of agglutinated particles of mould4 ,the indigenous species of ,great ,britain1 about twenty in number1 do not grow to a greater length than some #aj in42 but in several tropical countries there are species which grow to a length of from #c to #f ft4 ,thus we have in ,natal the gigantic ,microchaeta rappi1 in ,ceylon ,megascolex coeruleus1 in ,australia ,megascolides australis1 and an equally large form in ,south ,america4 7,f4 ,e4 ,b47 ,,earwig1 an insect belonging to the ,forficulidae1 a family usually referred to the ,orthoptera1 but sometimes regarded as typifying a special order1 to which the names ,dermaptera1 ,dermatoptera and ,euplexoptera have been given1 in allusion to certain peculiarities in the structure of the wings in the species that possess them4 ,the front wings are short and horny and when at rest meet without overlapping in the middle line1 like the wing-cases of brachelytrous 7cocktail7 beetles4 ,the hind wings1 on the contrary1 are for the most part membranous and1 when extended1 of large size2 each consists of two portions1 the distal of which1 in virtue of the arrangement and jointing of its nervures1 is capable of being both doubled up and folded fanwise beneath the proximal1 which is partly horny when the wing is tucked away under the front wing-case of the same side4 ,apart from these characteristics1 the most distinctive feature of earwigs is the presence at the end of the abdomen of a pair of pincers which are in reality modified appendages1 known as cercopods1 and represent the similar limbs of ,japyx and the caudal feelers of ,campodea and some other insects4 ,the ,forficulidae are almost cosmopolitan2 but the various species and genera differ from each other both in structure and size to a comparatively slight extent4 ,the length and armature of the pincers and the presence or absence of wings are perhaps the most important features used by systematists in distinguishing the various kinds4 ,of particular zoological interest in this connexion is a ,ceylonese genus ,dyscritina1 in which the cercopods are long1 many-jointed and filiform during the early stages of growth1 and only assume at the last moult the forcipate structure characteristic of the family4 ,the best known earwig is the common ,european species1 ,forficula auricularia4 ,this insect is gregarious and nocturnal4 ,it hides by day under stones or the loosened bark of trees or in any crevice or hole sheltered from the light4 ,at night it crawls about in search of food1 which consists to a small extent of dead animal or vegetable matter1 but principally1 as gardeners are aware1 of the petals and other parts of flowers of growing shoots and soft ripe fruit4 ,during the winter earwigs lie dormant2 but in the early months of the year females with their eggs may be found in the soil1 frequently in deserted earthworm burrows4 ,maternal instincts are well developed1 both the eggs1 which number about fifty1 and the young being carefully brooded and watched over by the parent4 ,except for the absence of wings1 the young are miniature models of the adult4 ,as growth proceeds the integument is periodically cast2 and at the final moult the perfect winged insect appears4 ,males and females are like each other in size1 but may be distinguished by the difference in the number of visible abdominal segments1 the male having nine and the female seven4 ,in the male1 moreover1 the pincers are caliper-like and toothed at the base1 whereas in the female they are untoothed and only lightly curved at the tip4 ,these differences suggest that the pincers aid in the pairing of the sexes4 ,however that may be1 they are known to be used in the folding of the wings2 and their importance as weapons of defence is attested by the precision and effect with which they are wielded against assailants like ants4 7,r4 ,i4 ,p47 ,,easement 7,fr4 aise2 ,o4 ,fr4 aisement2 ,anglo-,lat4 aisiamentum1 a privilege or convenience71 in ,english law1 a species of servitude or limited right of use over land belonging to another4 ,it is distinguished from profits a prendre--another species of servitude which involves a right to participate in the profits of the soil of another--since an easement confers merely a convenience 7aisiamentum7 to be exercised over the land of another 7without any participation in the profits of it71 i4e4 a right to use the soil or produce of the soil in a way tending to the more convenient enjoyment of another piece of land4 ,thus a right of way is an easement1 a right of common is a profit4 ,an easement is distinguishable also from a licence1 which1 unless it is coupled with a grant1 is personal to both grantor and grantee and is neither binding on the licensor1 nor1 in general1 assignable by the licensee2 while both the benefit and the burden of an easement are annexed to land 7,gale on ,easements1 #hth ed4 p4 #b74 ,with easements are sometimes classed certain closely allied natural rights1 such as a landowner's right to lateral support for his soil in its natural state1 and a riparian owner's right to the natural flow of a stream4 ,the essential features of an easement1 in the strict sense of the term1 are therefore these3 7i47 ,it is an incorporeal right2 a right to the use and enjoyment of land--not to the land itself2 7ii47 it is imposed upon corporeal property2 7iii47 it is a right without profit2 7iv47 it requires for its constitution two distinct tenements--the dominant tenement which enjoys the right1 and the servient tenement which submits to it4 ,this last characteristic excludes from the category of easements the so-called easements in gross1 such as a right of way conferred by grant independently of the possession of any tenement by the grantee4 ,the true easement is an appendant or appurtenant right1 not a right in gross4 ,further classifications of easements must be noted4 ,they are divided into 7a7 affirmative or positive1 those which authorize the commission of an act by the dominant owner1 e4g4 rights of way1 a right to draw water from a spring1 rights of aqueduct1 and negative1 when the easement restricts the rights of the servient owner over his own property1 e4g4 prevents him from building on land so as to obstruct ancient lights 7cf4 also the right to the support of neighbouring soil72 7b7 continuous1 of which the enjoyment may be continual without the interference of man1 e4g4 access to light1 and discontinuous1 where there must be a fresh act on each occasion of the exercise of the right1 e4g4 a right of way1 or right to draw water2 7c7 apparent1 where there are visible external signs of the exercise of the right1 e4g4 a right to dam up a watercourse1 and non-apparent1 where such signs are absent1 e4g4 a right to lateral support from land1 a prohibition to build above a certain height4 ,acquisition of ,easements4--,easements may be acquired 7a7 by express grant1 either by statute1 or by deed inter vivos1 or by will2 7b7 by an implied grant2 7c7 by express or implied reservation1 e4g4 by the owner of land in selling the fee 7as to implied reservation1 see ,gale on ,easements1 #hth ed4 pp4 #acg et seq472 7d7 by prescription1 either at common law or under the ,prescription ,act #ahcb4 ,an express grant1 or express reservation1 of an easement cannot be effected except by deed4 ,an easement arises by implied grant where a man makes one part of his tenement dependent on another1 or makes the parts mutually interdependent1 and grants any such part with the dependence attaching to it to another person 7,innes1 ,law of ,easements1 #gth ed4 p4 #aj74 ,for example1 a man builds two houses1 each of which by the plan of construction receives support from the other2 this mutual right of support is a quasi-easement1 of which on severance of the tenements the grantee of one will have the benefit2 where the enjoyment of the severed tenement could not be had at all without such a right1 it is said to be an easement of necessity4 ,easements are acquired by prescription at common law by proof of immemorial user by the dominant owner and those through whom he claims4 ,at one time it was thought that such proof must date back to the first year 7#aahi7 of ,richard ,i4 7see preamble to ,prescription ,act #ahcb74 ,the ground1 however1 on which prescription was admitted as a means of acquiring easements was the fiction of a lost grant4 ,long enjoyment of the right pointed to its having had a legal origin in a grant from the servient owner1 and so any period of reasonably long use came to be accepted4 ,a lost grant may be presumed to have been made 7the question is one of fact7 if #bj years' uninterrupted enjoyment is shown4 ,to avoid the difficulties of proof of prescriptive right at common law1 the ,prescription ,act #ahcb established shorter periods of user4 ,in the case of easements1 other than light1 the periods of prescription are #bj years for a claim that may be defeated1 and #dj years for an indefeasible claim 7s4 #b74 ,the right of access of light is dealt with under s4 #c 7see ,,ancient ,,lights74 ,the enjoyment to become prescriptive must be open1 i4e4 of such a character that the owner of the tenement said to be servient has a reasonable opportunity of becoming aware of the adverse claim 7,union ,lighterage ,co4 v4 ,london ,graving ,dock ,co41 #aijb1 #b ,ch4 #eeg72 and it must be enjoyed as of right 7,gardner v4 ,hodgson's ,kingston ,brewery ,co41 #aijc1 ,a4,c4 #bbi7 as against the owner of the tenement affected 7,kilgour v4 ,gaddes1 #aijd1 #a ,k4,b4 #deg74 ,the periods of prescription are to be reckoned backwards from the time when some suit or matter involving the claim of the dominant owner has arisen 7s4 #d74 ,nothing is to be deemed an interruption unless the act of interruption has been submitted to1 or acquiesced in1 for a year 7s4 #d74 ,easements may be extinguished 7i47 by express release--here an instrument under seal is necessary2 7ii47 by merger1 i4e4 where both tenements become the property of the same owner2 7iii47 by abandonment through non-user4 ,in the case of discontinuous easements1 the shortest period of non-user may suffice if there is direct evidence of an intention to abandon4 ,a word may be added here as to the right to air4 ,it is an actionable nuisance to cause pollution of the air entering a dwelling-house4 ,the owner of a dwelling-house may by prescription acquire a right to the passage of air through it by a defined channel2 and the enjoyment without interruption of ventilation by means of air flowing in a definite channel1 with the knowledge of the owner and occupier of the adjoining premises1 creates a presumption of the grant of such an easement 7see ,gale on ,easements1 #hth ed4 p4 #cch74 ,in ,scots ,law the term easement is unknown4 ,both the name servitude and the main species of servitudes existing in ,roman law 7q4v47 have been adopted4 ,the classification of servitudes into positive and negative1 c41 and the modes of their creation and extinction1 are similar to those of ,english law4 ,the statutory period of prescription is #dj years 7,scots ,acts #afag1 c4 #ab71 or #bj years in the case of enjoyment under any ex facie valid irredeemable title duly recorded in the appropriate register of sasines 7,conveyancing ,scotland ,act #ahgd74 ,there are certain servitudes special to ,scots law1 e4g4 thirlage1 by which lands are thirled or bound to a particular mill1 and the possessors obliged to grind their grain there1 for payment of certain multures 7quantities of grain or meal1 payable to the mill-owner7 and sequels 7small quantities given to the mill servants7 as the customary price of grinding4 ,statutory provision has been made for the commutation of these duties 7,thirlage ,act #agii71 and they have now almost disappeared4 ,the ,french ,code ,civil 7,arts4 #fcg et seq47 and the other ,european codes 7e4g4 ,belgium1 arts4 #fcg et seq42 ,holland1 arts4 #gba et seq42 ,italy1 arts4 #eca et seq42 ,spain1 arts4 #ecj et seq42 ,germany1 arts4 #ajah et seq47 closely follow ,roman law4 ,french law is in force in ,mauritius1 and has been followed in ,quebec 7,civil ,code1 arts4 #dii et seq47 and ,st ,lucia 7,civil ,code1 arts4 #ddi et seq474 ,in ,india the law is regulated1 on ,english lines1 by the ,easements ,act #ahhb 7,act v4 of #ahhb74 ,the term easements1 however1 in ,india includes profits a prendre4 ,in the ,south ,african colonies the law of easements is based on the ,roman ,dutch law 7see ,maasdorp1 ,institutes of ,cape ,law1 #aijd2 ,bk4 ii4 p4 #aff et seq474 ,in most of the other colonies the law of easements is similar to ,english law4 ,in some1 however1 it has been provided by statute that rights to the access and use of light or water cannot be acquired by prescription3 e4g4 ,victoria 7,water ,act #ahij1 ,no4 #aaef1 s4 #c71 ,ontario 7,real ,property ,limitation ,act1 ,revised ,stats4 ,ontario1 #ahig2 c4 #acc1 s4 #cf1 light74 ,in the ,united ,states the law of easements is founded upon1 and substantially identical with1 ,english law4 ,the ,english doctrine1 however1 as to acquisition of right of light and air by prescription is not accepted in most of the ,states4 ,,authorities4--,english ,law3 ,gale1 ,law of ,easements 7#hth ed41 ,london1 #aijh72 ,goddard1 ,law of ,easements 7#fth ed41 ,london1 #aijd72 ,innes1 ,digest of the ,law of ,easements 7#gth ed41 ,london1 #aijc74 ,indian ,law3 ,peacock1 ,easements in ,british ,india 7,calcutta1 #aijd72 ,hudson and ,inman1 ,law of ,light and ,air 7#bnd ed41 ,london1 #aije74 ,scots ,law3 ,erskine1 ,principles of the ,law of ,scotland 7#bjth ed41 ,edinburgh1 #aijc74 ,american ,law3 ,jones1 ,law of ,easements 7,new ,york1 #ahih72 ,bouvier1 ,law ,dict4 7,boston and ,london1 #ahig72 ,ruling ,cases1 ,london and ,boston1 #ahid-aija1 tit4 ,easement 7,american ,notes74 7,a4 ,w4 ,r47 ,,east1 ,,alfred 7#ahdi- 71 ,english painter and etcher1 was born at ,kettering on the #aeth of ,december #ahdi4 ,one of the most prominent among modern ,english landscape painters1 he received his art education first at the ,glasgow ,school of ,art and then in ,paris at the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts1 and under ,robert-,fleury and ,bouguereau4 ,his landscapes are remarkable for the lyrical use of colour and for the pleasing rhythm of line which is the result of careful selection and building up of the elements that constitute the scene4 ,based on keen observation of the colour of nature and on careful studies of the details1 they are arranged with a rare and by no means obvious sense of balance and compositional beauty which summarily discards all disturbing accidents of nature4 ,he also achieved distinction as an etcher1 and published an instructive and useful volume on landscape painting 7,london1 #aijf74 ,he began to exhibit at the ,royal ,academy in #ahhb1 and was elected an associate4 ,in #aijf he became president of the ,royal ,society of ,british ,artists4 ,many of his works are to be found in the ,english provincial galleries2 ,manchester owns ,the ,silent ,somme and ,autumn2 ,liverpool1 ,gibraltar from ,algeciras2 ,leeds1 ,the ,golden ,valley2 ,birmingham1 ,hayle from ,lelant2 ,preston1 ,an ,idyll of ,spring2 and ,hull1 ,evening on the ,cotswolds4 ,his ,passing ,storm is at the ,luxembourg2 ,the ,nene ,valley at the ,venice gallery2 and ,a ,haunt of ,ancient ,peace at the ,national gallery in ,budapest4 ,in #aijc he received the order of the ,crown of ,italy in connexion with his services to the ,venice international exhibition2 and he was made an honorary member of the ,japanese ,meiji ,bijutsu ,kai4 ,,east ,,anglia1 one of the kingdoms into which ,anglo-,saxon ,britain was divided4 ,bede gives no information about its origin except that its earliest settlers were ,angles4 ,the kingdom of ,east ,anglia comprised the two counties of ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,with regard to the western boundary we have no accurate information1 but it was probably formed by the fens of ,cambridgeshire4 ,this kingdom first appears in ,bede's narrative early in the #gth century1 when its power was at its height4 ,towards the end of the reign of ,a,ethelberht1 who died about #faf1 ,raedwald of ,east ,anglia1 who had apparently spent some time at the court of ,kent1 began to win for himself the chief position among the ,anglo-,saxon kings of his day4 ,his position was assured1 at least temporarily1 in #fag1 when he decided to espouse the cause of the ,northumbrian prince ,edwin1 then a fugitive at his court1 and defeated ,a,ethelfrith of ,northumbria on the banks of the ,idle1 a tributary of the ,trent1 in ,mercian territory4 ,raedwald had been converted to ,christianity in ,kent1 but after his return home he relapsed1 according to ,bede1 owing to the influence of his wife1 and there were to be seen in the same building a ,christian and a pagan altar4 ,bede states that ,raedwald was the son of ,tytili1 the son of ,wuffa1 from whom the ,east ,anglian royal family derived their name ,wuffingas4 ,according to the ,historia ,brittonum ,guffa 7,wuffa7 was the son of 7,guecha7 ,wehha1 who first ruled the ,east ,angles in ,britain4 ,this would put the organization of the kingdom in the first or second quarter of the #fth century4 ,eorpwald1 the son of ,raedwald1 was converted to ,christianity by ,edwin1 but was soon afterwards slain by ,ricberht 7#fbg or #fbh71 whereupon the kingdom again became pagan for three years1 when ,sigeberht1 the brother of ,eorpwald1 became king and founded a see for ,felix at ,dunwich4 ,sigeberht also founded a school in ,east ,anglia1 and on the arrival of an ,irish missionary named ,furseus he built him a monastery at ,cnobheresburg1 perhaps to be identified with ,burgh ,castle4 ,before #fdd1 however1 ,sigeberht resigned the crown in favour of his brother ,ecgric and retired to a monastery4 ,shortly afterwards both brothers were slain by ,penda of ,mercia in his invasion of ,east ,anglia1 and ,anna became king4 ,this king was an enthusiastic ,christian1 and converted ,coenwalh1 king of ,wessex1 who had fled to his court4 ,two of his daughters1 ,saethryth and ,a,ethelberg1 took the veil2 while another1 ,sexburg1 was married to ,earconberht1 king of ,kent2 and a fourth1 ,a,ethelthryth1 after two marriages1 with ,tondberht of the ,south ,gyrwe and ,ecgfrith of ,northumbria1 became abbess of ,ely4 ,in #fed ,anna was slain by ,penda of ,mercia1 and was succeeded by his brother ,a,ethelhere1 who was killed in #fee at the ,winwaed1 fighting for the ,mercian king against ,oswio of ,northumbria4 ,in #fgc ,archbishop ,theodore divided the ,east ,anglian diocese into two1 ,elmham being the seat of the northern1 ,dunwich that of the southern bishop4 ,a long blank follows in the history of this kingdom1 until in #gib we find ,offa of ,mercia slaying ,a,ethelberht1 king of ,east ,anglia1 who is said to have been his son-in-law4 ,east ,anglia was subject to the supremacy of the ,mercian kings until #hbe1 when its people slew ,beornwulf of ,mercia1 and with their king acknowledged ,ecgberht 7,egbert7 of ,wessex as their lord4 ,in #hgj ,edmund1 king of ,east ,anglia1 was killed by the ,danes under ,i'varr and ,ubbi1 the sons of ,ragnar ,loethbrok4 ,the following is a list of the kings of ,east ,anglia of whom there is record3--,wehha2 ,wuffa2 ,raedwald1 son of ,tytili and grandson of ,wuffa 7reigning #fag72 ,eorpwald1 son of ,raedwald 7d4 #fbg or #fbh72 ,sigeberht1 brother of ,eorpwald2 ,ecgric1 brother of ,sigeberht 7both slain before #fdd72 ,anna1 son of ,ene and grandson of ,tytili 7d4 #fed72 ,a,ethelhere1 brother of ,anna 7d4 #fee72 ,a,ethelwald1 a third brother2 ,aldwulf 7succ4 #ffc1 d4 #gac71 son of ,a,ethelric and grandson of ,ene2 ,elfwald1 son of ,aldwulf 7d4 #gdi72 ,hun ,beonna and ,alberht2 ,a,ethelberht 7#gib72 ,edmund 7#hgj74 ,after the death of ,ragnar ,loethbrok's sons ,east ,anglia was occupied by the ,danish king ,guthrum1 who made a treaty with ,alfred settling their respective boundaries1 probably about #hhj4 ,guthrum died in #hij4 ,a later king named ,eohric took up the cause of ,a,ethelwald1 the son of ,a,ethelred ,i41 and was slain in the fight with the ,kentish army at the ,holm in #ije4 ,a war broke out with ,king ,edward the ,elder in #iac2 in #iba a king whose name is unknown was killed at the fall of ,tempsford1 and in the same year the ,danes of ,east ,anglia submitted to ,edward the ,elder4 ,from this time1 probably1 ,east ,anglia was governed by ,english earls1 the most famous of whom were ,a,ethelstan1 surnamed ,half-,king 7#icb-ief7 and his sons1 ,a,ethelwold 7#ief-ifb71 and ,a,ethelwine1 surnamed ,dei amicus 7#ifb-iib74 ,see ,bede1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 7ed4 ,c4 ,plummer1 ,oxford4 #ahif71 ii4 #e1 #ae1 iii4 #g1 #h1 #ah-bj1 #bb1 iv4 #c1 #e1 #bc2 ,saxon ,chronicle 7ed4 ,earle and ,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahii71 s4 a4 #hbc1 #hch1 #hff1 #hgj1 #hhj1 #hhe1 #hij1 #hid1 #ije1 #iba2 ,historia ,brittonum 7,san-,marte1 #ahdd71 s4 #ei2 ,h4 ,sweet1 ,oldest ,english ,texts1 p4 #aga 7,london1 #ahhe74 7,f4 ,g4 ,m4 ,b47 ,,eastbourne1 a municipal borough 7#ahhc7 in the ,eastbourne parliamentary division of ,sussex1 ,england1 #fa m4 ,s4,s4,e4 of ,london by the ,london1 ,brighton ,south ,coast railway4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #cd1ifi2 7#aija7 #dc1cdd2 7local census1 #aiji7 #di1bhf4 ,it is situated #c m4 ,n4,e4 of ,beachy ,head1 the loftiest headland on the ,english ,channel coast4 ,it once consisted of three parts--the village of ,east ,bourne1 a mile inland2 ,south ,bourne1 lying back from the shore2 and ,seahouses1 facing the beach4 ,the church of ,st ,mary1 the ancient parish church of ,east ,bourne1 is a fine transitional ,norman building2 and there are numerous modern churches and chapels4 ,the principal buildings and institutions are the town hall and municipal buildings1 the ,princess ,alice ,memorial and other hospitals1 a free library and1 among many high-class schools1 ,eastbourne ,college for boys1 founded in #ahfg4 ,there is a fine pier with pavilion1 and a marine parade nearly #c m4 in extent1 arranged in terraced promenades4 ,devonshire ,park of #ac acres is pleasantly laid out1 and contains a pavilion and a theatre4 ,the duke of ,devonshire is the principal landowner4 ,golf links are laid out on the neighbouring downs4 ,a ,roman villa was formerly seen close to the shore1 but it is not now visible4 ,the corporation consists of a mayor1 #h aldermen and #bd councillors4 ,in #aiaj the corporation promoted a bill in parliament to add the ,hampden ,park district in the parish of ,willingdon to the borough and to make ,eastbourne1 with this extension1 a county borough4 ,,east ,,chicago1 a city of ,lake county1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,lake ,michigan1 about #ai m4 ,s4,e4 of the business centre of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #abee2 7#aijj7 #cdaa 7#acca foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #ai1jih4 ,it is served by several railways1 including the ,pennsylvania1 the ,wabash1 the ,chicago ,terminal ,transfer 7whose shops are here71 the ,lake ,shore ,michigan ,southern1 the ,chicago1 ,indiana ,southern1 and the ,indiana ,harbor railways4 ,east ,chicago covers an area whose greatest dimensions are #d by #ca_/b m4 ,that part of the city along the lake1 known as ,indiana ,harbor1 dates from #aija and has grown very rapidly because of its position at the southernmost part of the ,calumet ,district1 and because of the meeting here of railway and lake commerce4 ,a good harbour has been constructed1 a new ship canal connecting the harbour with the ,calumet river4 ,east ,chicago is industrially virtually a part of ,greater ,chicago2 among its manufactures are iron and steel1 cement1 lumber1 boilers1 hay presses1 chains1 chemicals and foundry products4 ,east ,chicago was chartered as a city in #ahic4 ,,easter1 the annual festival observed throughout ,christendom in commemoration of the resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the name ,easter 7,ger4 ,ostern71 like the names of the days of the week1 is a survival from the old ,teutonic mythology4 ,according to ,bede 7,de ,temp4 ,rat4 c4 xv47 it is derived from ,eostre1 or ,ostara1 the ,anglo-,saxon goddess of spring1 to whom the month answering to our ,april1 and called ,eostur-monath1 was dedicated4 ,this month1 ,bede says1 was the same as the mensis paschalis1 when the old festival was observed with the gladness of a new solemnity4 ,the name of the festival in other languages 7as ,fr4 paques2 ,ital4 pasqua2 ,span4 pascua2 ,dan4 paaske2 ,dutch paasch2 ,welsh pasg7 is derived from the ,lat4 pascha and the ,gr4 ,greek3 pascha4 ,these in turn come from the ,chaldee or ,aramaean form ,hebrew3 pascha pascha'1 of the ,hebrew name of the ,passover festival ,hebrew3 pesach pesach1 from ,hebrew3 pasach he passed over1 in memory of the great deliverance1 when the destroying angel passed over the houses1 of the children of ,israel in ,egypt when he smote the ,egyptians 7,exod4 xii4 #bg74 ,an erroneous derivation of the word pascha from the ,greek ,greek3 paschein1 to suffer1 thus connected with the sufferings or passion of the ,lord1 is given by some of the ,fathers of the ,church1 as ,irenaeus1 ,tertullian and others1 who were ignorant of ,hebrew4 ,st ,augustine 7,in ,joann4 ,tract4 #ee7 notices this false etymology1 shows how similarity of sound had led to it1 and gives the correct derivation4 ,there is no indication of the observance of the ,easter festival in the ,new ,testament1 or in the writings of the apostolic ,fathers4 ,the sanctity of special times was an idea absent from the minds of the first ,christians4 ,the whole of time is a festival unto ,christians because of the excellency of the good things which have been given is the comment of ,st ,chrysostom on #a ,cor4 v4 #g1 which has been erroneously supposed to refer to an apostolic observance of ,easter4 ,the ecclesiastical historian ,socrates 7,hist4 ,eccl4 v4 #bb7 states1 with perfect truth1 that neither the ,lord nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival4 ,he says3 ,the apostles had no thought of appointing festival days1 but of promoting a life of blamelessness and piety2 and he attributes the observance of ,easter by the church to the perpetuation of an old usage1 just as many other customs have been established4 ,this is doubtless the true statement of the case4 ,the first ,christians continued to observe the ,jewish festivals1 though in a new spirit1 as commemorations of events which those festivals had foreshadowed4 ,thus the ,passover1 with a new conception added to it of ,christ as the true ,paschal ,lamb and the first fruits from the dead1 continued to be observed1 and became the ,christian ,easter4 ,although the observance of ,easter was at a very early period the practice of the ,christian church1 a serious difference as to the day for its observance soon arose between the ,christians of ,jewish and those of ,gentile descent1 which led to a long and bitter controversy4 ,the point at issue was when the ,paschal fast was to be reckoned as ending4 ,with the ,jewish ,christians1 whose leading thought was the death of ,christ as the ,paschal ,lamb1 the fast ended at the same time as that of the ,jews1 on the fourteenth day of the moon at evening1 and the ,easter festival immediately followed1 without regard to the day of the week4 ,the ,gentile ,christians1 on the other hand1 unfettered by ,jewish traditions1 identified the first day of the week with the ,resurrection1 and kept the preceding ,friday as the commemoration of the crucifixion1 irrespective of the day of the month4 ,with the one the observance of the day of the month1 with the other the observance of the day of the week1 was the guiding principle4 ,generally speaking1 the ,western churches kept ,easter on the first day of the week1 while the ,eastern churches followed the ,jewish rule1 and kept ,easter on the fourteenth day4 ,st ,polycarp1 the disciple of ,st ,john the ,evangelist and bishop of ,smyrna1 visited ,rome in #aei to confer with ,anicetus1 the bishop of that see1 on the subject2 and urged the tradition1 which he had received from the apostle1 of observing the fourteenth day4 ,anicetus1 however1 declined to admit the ,jewish custom in the churches under his jurisdiction1 but readily communicated with ,polycarp and those who followed it4 ,about forty years later 7#aig7 the question was discussed in a very different spirit between ,victor1 bishop of ,rome1 and ,polycrates1 metropolitan of proconsular ,asia4 ,that province was the only portion of ,christendom which still adhered to the ,jewish usage1 and ,victor demanded that all should adopt the usage prevailing at ,rome4 ,this ,polycrates firmly refused to agree to1 and urged many weighty reasons to the contrary1 whereupon ,victor proceeded to excommunicate ,polycrates and the ,christians who continued the ,eastern usage4 ,he was1 however1 restrained from actually proceeding to enforce the decree of excommunication1 owing to the remonstrance of ,irenaeus and the bishops of ,gaul4 ,peace was thus maintained1 and the ,asiatic churches retained their usage unmolested 7,euseb4 ,h4,e4 v4 #bc-be74 ,we find the ,jewish usage from time to time reasserting itself after this1 but it never prevailed to any large extent4 ,a final settlement of the dispute was one among the other reasons which led ,constantine to summon the council of ,nicaea in #cbe4 ,at that time the ,syrians and ,antiochenes were the solitary champions of the observance of the fourteenth day4 ,the decision of the council was unanimous that ,easter was to be kept on ,sunday1 and on the same ,sunday throughout the world1 and that none should hereafter follow the blindness of the ,jews 7,socrates1 ,h4,e4 i4 #i74 ,the correct date of the ,easter festival was to be calculated at ,alexandria1 the home of astronomical science1 and the bishop of that see was to announce it yearly to the churches under his jurisdiction1 and also to the occupant of the ,roman see1 by whom it was to be communicated to the ,western churches4 ,the few who afterwards separated themselves from the unity of the church1 and continued to keep the fourteenth day1 were named ,quartodecimani1 and the dispute itself is known as the ,quarto-deciman controversy4 ,although measures had thus been taken to secure uniformity of observance1 and to put an end to a controversy which had endangered ,christian unity1 a new difficulty had to be encountered owing to the absence of any authoritative rule by which the paschal moon was to be ascertained4 ,the subject is a very difficult and complex one 7see also ,,calendar74 ,briefly1 it may be explained here that ,easter day is the first ,sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox4 ,this1 of course1 varies in different longitudes1 while a further difficulty occurred in the attempt to fix the correct time of ,easter by means of cycles of years1 when the changes of the sun and moon more or less exactly repeat themselves4 ,at first an eight years' cycle was adopted1 but it was found to be faulty1 then the ,jewish cycle of #hd years was used1 and remained in force at ,rome till the year #deg1 when a more accurate calculation of a cycle of #ecb years1 invented by ,victorius of ,acquitaine1 took its place4 ,ultimately a cycle of #ai years was accepted1 and it is the use of this cycle which makes the ,golden ,number and ,sunday ,letter1 explained in the preface to the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 necessary4 ,owing to this lack of decision as to the accurate finding of ,easter1 ,st ,augustine tells us 7,epist4 #bc7 that in the year #chg the churches of ,gaul kept ,easter on the #bast of ,march1 those of ,italy on the #ahth of ,april1 and those of ,egypt on the #beth of ,april2 and it appears from a letter of ,leo the ,great 7,epist4 #fd1 ad ,marcian47 that in #dee there was a difference of eight days between the ,roman and the ,alexandrine ,easter4 ,gregory of ,tours relates that in #egg there was a doubt about ,easter4 ,in ,gaul we with many other cities kept ,easter on the fourteenth calends of ,may1 others1 as the ,spaniards1 on the twelfth calends of ,april4 ,the ancient ,british and ,celtic churches followed the cycle of #hd years which they had originally received from ,rome1 and their stubborn refusal to abandon it caused much bitter controversy in the #hth century between their representatives and ,st ,augustine of ,canterbury and the ,latin missionaries4 ,these latter unfairly attempted to fix the stigma of the ,quartodeciman observance on the ,british and ,celtic churches1 and they are even now sometimes ignorantly spoken of as having followed the ,asiatic practice as to ,easter4 ,this1 however1 is quite erroneous4 ,the ,british and ,celtic churches always kept ,easter according to the ,nicene decree on a ,sunday4 ,the difference between them and the ,roman ,church1 at this period1 was that they still followed the #hd years' cycle in computing ,easter1 which had been abandoned at ,rome for the more accurate cycle of #ecb years4 ,this difference of calculation led to ,easter being observed on different ,sundays1 in certain years1 in ,england1 by the adherents of the two churches4 ,thus ,bede records that in a certain year 7which must have been #fde1 #fdg1 #fdh or #fea7 ,queen ,eanfleda1 who had received her instruction from a ,kentish priest of the ,roman obedience1 was fasting and keeping ,palm ,sunday1 while her husband1 ,oswy1 king of ,northumbria1 following the rule of the ,british church1 was celebrating the ,easter festival4 ,this diversity of usage was ended1 so far as the kingdom of ,northumbria was concerned1 by the council of ,streaneshalch1 or ,whitby1 in #fed4 ,to ,archbishop ,theodore is usually ascribed the credit of ending the difference in the rest of ,england in #ffi4 ,the ,gregorian correction of the calendar in #aehb has once more led to different days being observed4 ,so far as ,western ,christendom is concerned the corrected calendar is now universally accepted1 and ,easter is kept on the same day1 but it was not until #ageb that the ,gregorian reformation of the calendar was adopted in ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,jealousy of everything emanating from ,rome still keeps the ,eastern churches from correcting the calendar according to the ,gregorian reformation1 and thus their ,easter usually falls before1 or after1 that of the ,western churches1 and only very rarely1 as was the case in #ahfe1 do the two coincide4 ,easter1 as commemorating the central fact of the ,christian religion1 has always been regarded as the chief festival of the ,christian year1 and according to a regulation of ,constantine it was to be the first day of the year4 ,this reckoning of the year as beginning at ,easter lingered in ,france till #aefe1 when1 by an ordinance of ,charles ,,ix41 the #ast of ,january finally took its place4 ,four different periods may be mentioned as connected with the observance of ,easter1 viz4 7#a7 the preparatory fast of the forty days of ,lent2 7#b7 the fifteen days1 beginning with the ,sunday before and ending with the ,sunday after ,easter1 during which the ceremonies of ,holy ,week and the services of the ,octave of ,easter were observed2 this period1 called by the ,french the ,quinzaine de ,paques1 was specially observed in that country2 7#c7 the ,octave of ,easter1 during which the newly-baptized wore their white garments1 which they laid aside on the ,sunday after ,easter1 known as ,dominica in albis depositis from this custom2 another name for this ,sunday was ,pascha clausum1 or the close of ,easter1 and from a clipping of the word close the ,english name of ,low ,sunday is believed to be derived2 7#d7 ,eastertide proper1 or the paschal season beginning at ,easter and lasting till ,whit ,sunday1 during the whole of which time the festival character of the ,easter season was maintained in the services of the church4 ,many ecclesiastical ceremonies1 growing up from early times1 clustered round the celebration of the ,easter festival4 ,one of the most notable of these was the use of the paschal candle4 ,this was a candle of very large dimensions1 set in a candlestick big enough to hold it1 which was usually placed on the north side1 just below the first ascent to the high altar4 ,it was kept alight during each service till ,whitsuntide4 ,the ,paschal1 as it was called at ,durham cathedral1 was one of the chief sights of that church before the ,reformation4 ,it was an elaborate construction of polished brass1 and1 contrary to the usual custom1 seems to have been placed in the centre of the altar-step1 long branches stretching out towards the four cardinal points1 bearing smaller candles4 ,the central stem of the candlestick was about #ch ft4 high1 and bore the paschal candle proper1 and together they reached a combined height of about #gj ft41 the candle being lighted from an opening above4 ,other paschal candles seem to have been of scarcely less size4 ,at ,lincoln1 c4 #acjj1 the candle was to weigh three stones of wax2 at ,salisbury in #aeag it was to be #cf ft4 long2 and at ,westminster in #aeeh it weighed no less than #c cwt4 of wax4 ,after ,whitsuntide what remained was made into smaller candles for the funerals of the poor4 ,in the ancient churches at ,rome the paschal candlesticks were fixtures1 but elsewhere they were usually movable1 and were brought into the church and set up on the ,thursday before ,easter4 ,at ,winchester the paschal candlestick was of silver1 and was the gift of ,canute4 ,others of more or less importance are recorded as having been at ,canterbury1 ,bury ,st ,edmunds1 ,hereford and ,york4 ,the burning of the paschal candle still forms part of the ,easter ceremonial of the ,roman ,catholic ,church 7see ,,lights1 ,,ceremonial74 ,the liturgical colour for ,easter was everywhere white1 as the sign of joy1 light and purity1 and the churches and altars were adorned with the best ornaments that each possessed4 ,flowers and shrubs no doubt in early times were also used for this purpose1 but what evidence there is goes against the medieval use of such decorations1 which are so popular at the present day4 ,it is not the purpose of this article to enter on the wide subject of the popular observances1 such as the giving and sending of ,pasch or ,easter eggs as presents4 ,for such the reader may consult ,brand's ,popular ,antiquities1 ,hone's ,every-,day ,book1 and ,chambers's ,book of ,days4 ,,authorities4--,bingham1 ,antiquities of the ,christian ,church2 ,bede1 ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,england2 ,procter and ,frere1 ,a ,new ,history of the ,book of ,common ,prayer 7,london1 #aija72 ,surtees ,society1 ,rites of ,durham1 ed4 ,j4,t4 ,fowler 7#aijc72 ,de ,morgan1 ,companion to the ,almanac 7#ahde72 ,de ,moleon1 ,voyages liturgiques 7,paris1 #agah74 7,t4 ,m4 ,f47 ,,easter ,,island 7,rapanui1 i4e4 ,great ,rapa71 an island in the eastern part of the ,south ,pacific ocean1 belonging to ,chile 7since #ahhh71 in #bg deg4 #h' ,s4 and #aji deg4 #bh' ,w41 #adjj m4 ,e4 of ,pitcairn1 and #bjjj m4 from the ,south ,american coast4 ,it is roughly triangular in shape1 with its hypotenuse #ab m4 long running north-east and south-west1 and its three angles marked by three volcanic peaks1 of which the north-eastern reaches #agfh ft4 of altitude4 ,the area of the island is #de sq4 m4 ,the coast has no good natural harbour1 and landing is difficult4 ,there is no lack of fertile soil1 and the climate is moist enough to make up for the absence of running water4 ,formerly the island appears to have been wooded1 but it now presents only a few bushes 7,edwardsia1 ,broussonetia1 c471 ferns1 grasses1 sedges1 c4 ,the natives grow bananas in the shelter of artificial pits1 also sugar-canes and sweet potatoes1 and keep a few goats and a large stock of domestic fowls1 and a ,tahitian commercial house breeds cattle and sheep on the island4 ,it is doubtful whether ,rapanui was discovered by ,davis in #afhf1 though it is sometimes marked ,davis ,island on maps4 ,admiral ,roggeveen reached it on ,easter day #agbb2 in #aggd ,captain ,cook discovered it anew and called it ,teapi or ,waihu4 ,it was subsequently visited by ,la ,perouse 7#aggf71 ,kotzebue 7#ahaf71 c4 ,at the time of ,roggeveen's discovery the island probably contained from #bjjj to #cjjj inhabitants of ,polynesian race1 who1 according to their own tradition1 came from ,rapa ,iti 7,little ,rapa7 or ,oparo1 one of the ,tubuai or ,austral group4 ,in #ahfc a large proportion of the inhabitants were kidnapped by the ,peruvians and transported to work at the guano diggings on the ,chincha ,islands4 ,the next year a ,jesuit mission from ,tahiti reached the island and succeeded in the task of civilization4 ,the natives1 who number scarcely one hundred1 are all ,christians4 ,easter ,island is famous for its wonderful archaeological remains4 ,here are found immense platforms built of large cut stones fitted together without cement4 ,they are generally built upon headlands1 and on the slope towards the sea4 ,the walls on the seaside are1 in some of the platforms1 nearly #cj ft4 high and from #bjj to #cjj ft4 long1 by about #cj ft4 wide4 ,some of the squared stones are as much as #f ft4 long4 ,on the land side of the platforms there is a broad terrace with large stone pedestals upon which once stood colossal stone images carved somewhat into the shape of the human trunk4 ,on some of the platforms there are upwards of a dozen images1 now thrown from their pedestals and lying in all directions4 ,their usual height is from #ad to #af ft41 but the largest are #cg ft41 while some are only about #d ft4 ,they are formed from a grey trachytic lava found at the east end of the island4 ,the top of the heads of the images is cut flat to receive round crowns made of a reddish vesicular tuff found at a crater about #h m4 distant from the quarry where the images were cut4 ,a number of these crowns still lie at the crater apparently ready for removal1 some of the largest being over #aj ft4 in diameter4 ,in the atlas illustrating the voyage of ,la ,perouse a plan of the island is given1 with the position of several of the platforms4 ,two of the images are also represented in a plate4 ,one statue1 #h ft4 in height and weighing #d tons1 was brought to ,england1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,in one part of the island are the remains of stone houses nearly #ajj ft4 long by about #bj ft4 wide4 ,these are built in courses of large flat stones fitted together without cement1 the walls being about #e ft4 thick and over #e ft4 high4 ,they are lined on the inside with upright slabs1 on which are painted geometrical figures and representations of animals4 ,the roofs are formed by placing slabs so that each course overlaps the lower one until the opening becomes about #e ft4 wide1 when it is covered with flat slabs reaching from one side to the other4 ,the lava rocks near the houses are carved into the resemblance of various animals and human faces1 forming1 probably1 a kind of picture writing4 ,wooden tablets covered with various signs and figures have also been found4 ,the only ancient implement discovered on the island is a kind of stone chisel1 but it seems impossible that such large and numerous works could have been executed with such a tool4 ,the present inhabitants of ,easter ,island know nothing of the construction of these remarkable works2 and the entire subject of their existence in this small and remote island is a mystery4 ,,eastern ,,bengal ,,and ,,assam1 a province of ,british ,india1 which was constituted out of ,assam and the eastern portion of ,bengal on the #afth of ,october #aije4 ,area #aaa1efi sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija7 #cj1ifa1dei4 ,it is situated between #bj deg4 #de' and #bh deg4 #ag' ,n41 and between #hg deg4 #dh' and #ig deg4 #e' ,e4 ,the province1 as thus reconstituted1 consists of the ,bengal districts of ,dacca1 ,mymensingh1 ,faridpur1 ,backergunje1 ,tippera1 ,noakhali1 ,chittagong1 ,chittagong ,hill ,tracts1 ,rajshahi1 ,dinajpur1 ,jalpaiguri1 ,rangpur1 ,bogra1 ,pabna1 ,malda1 and the native states of ,kuch ,behar and ,hill ,tippera2 and the whole of the former area of ,assam consisting of the districts of ,goalpara1 ,kamrup1 ,darrang1 ,nowgong1 ,sibsagar1 ,lakhimpur1 ,sylhet1 ,cachar1 ,garo ,hills1 ,khasi and ,jaintia ,hills1 ,naga ,hills and ,lushai ,hills4 ,it is bounded on the ,n4 by ,bhutan1 on the ,w4 by ,burma1 on the ,s4 by ,burma and the ,bay of ,bengal1 and on the ,e4 by ,bengal4 ,the line of demarcation between ,bengal and the new province begins at the frontier of ,bhutan1 east of ,darjeeling1 runs south-west to ,sahibganj on the ,ganges and thence follows the course of the ,ganges down to the deltaic branch1 called the ,haringhata1 which leaves the main stream above ,goalanda1 and the course of the latter1 which runs south into the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the capital of the province is ,dacca1 and its chief port is ,chittagong4 ,the ,bengal districts which were transferred to ,eastern ,bengal and ,assam comprised northern and eastern ,bengal1 the most prosperous and least overcrowded portion of ,bengal4 ,the land there is less densely populated1 wages are higher and food cheaper1 and the rainfall more copious and more regular1 while the staple crops of jute1 tobacco and rice command a higher price relative to the rent of the land than in ,behar or other parts of ,bengal4 ,the population are largely ,mahommedans and of a more virile stock than the ,bengali proper4 ,northern ,bengal corresponds almost exactly with the ,rajshahi division and lies within the boundaries of the ,ganges and ,brahmaputra rivers4 ,it contains much high land of a stiff red clay1 with an undulating surface covered for the most part with scrub jungle4 ,the inhabitants are ,indo-,chinese1 not ,indo-,aryans as in ,bengal proper1 and are ,mahommedan by religion instead of ,hindu4 ,eastern ,bengal consists of the ,dacca and ,chittagong divisions which are mainly ,bengali in race and ,hindu in religion4 ,for the ,assamese districts see ,,assam4 ,the province as a whole contains #ah1jcf1fhh ,mahommedans and #ab1jcf1ech ,hindus4 ,in language #bg1bgb1hie of the inhabitants speak ,bengali1 #a1cdi1ghd speak ,assamese1 and the remainder ,hindi and various hill dialects1 ,manipuri1 ,bodo1 ,khasi and ,garo4 ,the administration is in the hands of a lieutenant-governor1 assisted by a legislative council of fifteen members4 ,under him are five commissioners1 and financial matters are regulated by a board of revenue consisting of two members4 ,the constitution of the new province arose out of the fact that ,bengal had grown too unwieldy for the administration of a single lieutenant-governor4 ,in #ahfh ,sir ,stafford ,northcote drew attention to the greatly augmented demands that the outlying portions of ,bengal made on the time and labour of the government4 ,at that time the population of the province was between #dj and #ej millions1 and the question was left in abeyance until #aijc1 when the population had risen to #gha_/b millions4 ,in the meantime the importance of rendering ,assam a self-contained and independent administration with a service of its own1 and of providing for its future commercial expansion1 had arisen4 ,these two considerations led ,lord ,curzon to propose that ,bengal should be lopped of territory both on its eastern and western borders1 and that all the districts east of the ,brahmaputra should be constituted into a separate province4 ,this proposal was bitterly opposed by the ,hindus of ,bengal on the ground that it would destroy the unity of the ,bengali race2 and their agitation was associated with the ,swadeshi 7own country7 movement for the boycott of ,british goods4 ,after the constitution of the province in ,october #aije1 the agitation in ,eastern ,bengal increased4 ,public meetings of protest were held1 vernacular broadsheets containing scandalous attacks on the ,british authorities were circulated1 schoolboys and others were organized and drilled as so-called national volunteers1 and employed as pickets to prevent the sale of ,british goods4 ,such was the state of things when ,sir ,j4 ,bampfylde ,fuller entered on his office as first lieutenant-governor of ,eastern ,bengal in ,january #aijf4 ,his reception was ominous4 ,representative bodies that were dominated by ,hindus refused to vote the usual addresses of welcome1 and non-official ,hindus abstained from paying the customary calls4 ,there were1 however1 no further overt signs of objection to the lieutenant-governor personally1 and after a month or two--in spite of1 or perhaps because of1 his efforts to restrain sedition and to keep discipline in the schools--there was a decided change in the attitude of ,hindu opinion4 ,at ,dacca1 in ,july1 for instance1 the reception at ,government ,house was attended by large numbers of ,bengali gentlemen1 who assured the lieutenant-governor that the trouble was nearly ended4 ,the agitation was1 in fact1 largely artificial1 the work of ,calcutta lawyers1 journalists and schoolmasters2 the mass of the people1 naturally law-abiding1 was unmoved by it so long as the government showed a firm hand2 while the ,mussulmans1 who formed a large proportion of the whole1 saw in the maintenance of the partition and of the prestige of the ,british government the guarantees of their own security4 ,all seemed to be going well when an unfortunate difference of opinion occurred between the lieutenant-governor and the central government1 resulting in the resignation of ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller 7,august #aijf7 and in ulterior consequences destined to be of far-reaching import4 ,the facts are briefly as follows4 ,acting on a report of ,dr ,p4 ,chatterji1 inspector of schools1 dated ,january #b1 #aijf1 the lieutenant-governor1 on the #ajth of ,february1 addressed a letter to the registrar of ,calcutta ,university recommending that the privilege of affiliation to the university should be withdrawn from the ,banwarilal and ,victoria high schools at ,sirajganj in ,pabna1 as a punishment for the seditious conduct of both pupils and teachers4 ,apart from numerous cases of illegal interference with trade and of disorder in the streets reported against the students1 two specific outrages of a serious character were instanced as having occurred on the #aeth of ,november3 the raiding of a cart laden with ,english cloth belonging to ,marwari traders1 and a cowardly assault by some #dj or #ej lads on the ,english manager of the ,bank of ,bengal4 ,these outrages were not the result of thoughtlessness or sudden excitement1 but were the outcome of a regularly organized scheme1 set on foot and guided by the masters of these schools1 for employing the students in enforcing a boycott4 ,all attempts to discover and punish the offenders had been frustrated by the refusal of the school authorities to take action1 and in the opinion of the lieutenant-governor the only course open was to apply the remedy suggested in the circular letter addressed to magistrates and collectors 7,october #aj1 #aije7 by ,mr ,r4,w4 ,carlyle1 the officiating chief secretary to the government of ,bengal1 directing them1 in the event of students taking any part in political agitation1 boycotting and the like1 to inform the heads of schools or colleges concerned that1 unless they prevented such action being taken by the boys attending their institutions1 their grant-in-aid and the privilege of competing for scholarships and of receiving scholarship-holders would be withdrawn1 and that the university would be asked to disaffiliate their institutions4 ,the reply1 dated ,july #eth1 from the secretary in the home department of the government of ,india1 was--to use ,sir ,bampfylde's own later expression--to throw him over4 ,it was likely that a difference of opinion in the syndicate of the university would arise as to the degree of culpability that attached to the proprietors of the schools2 in the event of the syndicate taking any punitive action1 the matter was certain to be raised in the senate1 and would lead to an acrimonious public discussion1 in which the partition of ,bengal and the administration of the new province would be violently attacked2 and in the actual state of public opinion in ,bengal it seemed to the government of ,india highly inexpedient that such a debate should take place4 ,collective punishment1 too1 would be liable to be misconstrued in ,england1 and the government preferred to rely on the gradual effect of the new university regulations1 which aimed at discouraging the participation of students in political movements by enforcing the responsibility of masters and the managing committees of schools for maintaining discipline4 ,on receipt of this communication ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller at once tendered his resignation to the viceroy 7,july #ae74 ,he pointed out that to withdraw from the position taken up would be concession1 not in the interests of education1 but to those people in ,calcutta who have been striving to render my government impossible1 in order to discredit the partition2 that previous concessions had had merely provocative effects1 and that were he to give way in this matter his authority would be so weakened that he would be unable to maintain order in the country4 ,on the #crd of ,august1 after some days of deliberation1 the viceroy telegraphed saying that he was unable to reconsider the orders sent1 and accepting ,sir ,bampfylde's resignation4 ,by the ,anglo-,indian press the news was received with something like consternation1 the ,times of ,india describing the resignation as one of the gravest blunders ever committed in the history of ,british rule in ,india1 and as a direct incentive to the forces of disquiet1 disturbance and unrest4 ,equally emphatic was the verdict of the ,mussulman community forming two-thirds of the population of ,eastern ,bengal4 ,on the #gth of ,august1 the day of ,sir ,bampfylde ,fuller's departure from ,dacca1 a mass-meeting of #cj1jjj ,mahommedans was held1 which placed on record their disapproval of a system of government which maintains no continuity of policy1 and expressed its feeling that the lowering of ,british prestige must alienate the sympathy of a numerically important and loyal section of ,his ,majesty's subjects2 and many meetings of ,mussulmans subsequently passed resolutions to the same general effect4 ,the ,akhbar-i-,islam1 the organ of ,bombay ,mussulman opinion1 deplored the unwise step taken by the government1 and ascribed it to ,lord ,minto's fear of the ,babu press1 a display of weakness of which the ,babus would not be slow to take advantage4 ,this latter prophecy was not slow in fulfilling itself4 ,so early as the #hth of ,august ,calcutta was the scene of several large demonstrations at which the ,swadeshi vow was renewed1 and at which resolutions were passed declining to accept the partition as a settled fact1 and resolving on the continuance of the agitation4 ,the tone of the ,babu press was openly exultant3 ,we have read the familiar story of the ,russian traveller and the wolves1 said a leading ,indian newspaper in ,calcutta4 ,the ,british government follows a similar policy4 ,first the little babies were offered up in the shape of the ,bande ,mataram circular and the ,carlyle circular4 ,now a bigger boy has gone in the person of our own ,joseph4 ,courage1 therefore1 ,o wolves6 ,press on and the horse will soon be yours to devour6 ,afterwards the traveller himself will alone be left4#a ,the task before the new lieutenant-governor of ,eastern ,bengal1 the ,hon4 ,l4 ,hare1 was obviously no easy one4 ,the encouragement given to sedition by the weakness of the government in this case was shown by later events in ,bengal and elsewhere 7see ,,india3 ,history1 ad fin474 ,for the early history of the various portions of the province see ,,bengal and ,,assam4 ,see ,sir ,james ,bourdillon1 ,the ,partition of ,bengal 7,society of ,arts1 #aije72 official blue-books on ,the ,reconstitution of the ,provinces of ,bengal and ,assam 7,cd4 #bfeh and #bgdf71 and ,resignation of ,sir ,j4 ,bampfylde ,fuller1 lieutenant-governor1 c4 7,cd4 #cbdb74 ,a long letter from ,sir ,j4,b4 ,fuller1 headed ,j'accuse1 attacking the general policy of the ,indian government in regard to the seditious propaganda1 appeared in ,the ,times of ,june #f1 #aijh4 ,,footnote3 #a ,quoted by ,mr ,f4,s4,p4 ,lely in ,the ,times of ,november #bb1 #aijf4 ,,eastern ,,question1 ,,the1 the expression used in diplomacy from about the time of the congress of ,verona 7#ahbb7 to comprehend the international problems involved in the decay of the ,turkish empire and its supposed impending dissolution4 ,the essential questions that are involved are so old that historians commonly speak of the ,eastern ,question in reference to events that happened long before the actual phrase was coined4 ,but1 wherever used1 it is always the ,turkish ,question1 the generic term in which subsidiary issues1 e4g4 the ,greek1 ,armenian or ,macedonian questions1 are embraced4 ,that a phrase of so wide and loose a nature should have been stereotyped in so narrow a sense is simply the outcome of the conditions under which it was invented4 ,to the ,european diplomatists of the first half of the #aith century the ,ottoman empire was still the only ,east with which they were collectively brought into contact4 ,the rivalry of ,great ,britain and ,russia in ,persia had not yet raised the question of the ,middle ,east2 still less any ambitions of ,germany in the ,euphrates valley4 ,the immense and incalculable problems involved in the rise of ,japan1 the awakening of ,china1 and their relations to the ,european powers and to ,america--known as the ,far ,eastern ,question--are comparatively but affairs of yesterday4 ,the ,eastern ,question1 though its roots are set far back in history--in the ancient contest between the political and intellectual ideals of ,greece and ,asia1 and in the perennial rivalry of the powers for the control of the great trade routes to the ,east--dates in its modern sense from the treaty of ,kuchuk ,kainarji in #aggd1 which marked the definitive establishment of ,russia as a ,black ,sea power and formed the basis of her special claims to interfere in the affairs of the ,ottoman empire4 ,the compact between ,napoleon and the emperor ,alexander ,i4 at ,tilsit 7#ahjg7 marked a new phase1 which culminated in #ahab in the treaty of ,bucharest1 in which ,russia definitely appeared as the protector of the ,christian nationalities subject to the ,ottoman sultan4 ,the attitude of the various powers in the ,eastern ,question was now defined4 ,russia1 apart from her desire to protect the ,orthodox nationalities subject to the ,ottoman power1 aimed at owning or controlling the straits by which alone she could find an outlet to the ,mediterranean and the ocean beyond4 ,austria1 once the champion of ,europe against the ,turk1 saw in the ,russian advance on the ,danube a greater peril than any to be feared from the moribund ,ottoman power1 and made the maintenance of the integrity of ,turkey a prime object of her policy4 ,she was thus brought into line with ,great ,britain1 whose traditional friendship with ,turkey was strengthened by the rise of a new power whose rapid advance threatened the stability of ,british rule in ,india4 ,but though ,austria1 ,great ,britain and presently ,france1 were all equally interested in maintaining the ,ottoman empire1 the failure of the congress of ,vienna in #ahae to take action in the matter of a guarantee of ,turkey1 and the exclusion of the ,sultan from the ,holy ,alliance1 seemed to endorse the claim of ,russia to regard the ,eastern ,question as her domestic concern in which ,europe had no right to interfere4 ,the revolt of the ,greeks 7#ahba7 put this claim to the test2 by the treaty of ,adrianople 7#ahbi7 ,russia stipulated for their autonomy as part of the price of peace1 but the powers assembled in conference at ,london refused to recognize this settlement1 and the establishment of ,greece as an independent kingdom 7#ahcb7 was really aimed at the pretensions and the influence of ,russia4 ,these reached their high-water mark in the treaty of ,unkiar ,skelessi 7,july #hth1 #ahcb74 ,it was no longer a question of the partition of ,turkey or of a ,russian conquest of ,constantinople1 but of the deliberate degradation by ,russia of the ,ottoman empire into a weak state wholly dependent upon herself4 ,the ten years' crisis 7#ahca-ahda7 evoked by the revolt of ,mehemet ,ali1 pasha of ,egypt1 thus resolved itself into a diplomatic struggle between ,russia and the other powers to maintain or to recover influence at ,constantinople4 ,the ,russian experiment of maintaining the integrity of ,turkey while practically treating her as a vassal state1 ended with the compromise of #ahda2 and the emperor ,nicholas ,i4 reverted to the older idea of expelling the ,turks from ,europe4 ,the ,eastern ,question1 however1 slumbered until1 in #ahea1 the matter of the ,holy ,places was raised by ,napoleon ,,iii41 involving the whole question of the influence in ,ottoman affairs of ,france under the capitulations of #agdj and of ,russia under the treaty of #aggd4 ,the ,crimean ,war followed and in #ahef the treaty of ,paris1 by which the powers hoped to stem the tide of ,russian advance and establish the integrity of a reformed ,ottoman state4 ,turkey was now for the first time solemnly admitted to the ,european concert4 ,the next critical phase was opened in #ahga1 when ,russia took advantage of the collapse of ,france to denounce the ,black ,sea clauses of the treaty of #ahef4 ,the renewal of an aggressive policy thus announced to the world soon produced a new crisis in the ,eastern ,question1 which had meanwhile become complicated by the growth of ,pan-,slav ideals in eastern ,europe4 ,in #ahge a rising in ,herzegovina gave evidence of a state of feeling in the ,balkan peninsula which called for the intervention of ,europe1 if a disastrous war were to be prevented4 ,but this intervention1 embodied in the ,andrassy ,note 7,december #ahge7 and the ,berlin memorandum 7,may #ahgf71 met with the stubborn opposition of ,turkey1 where the young ,turks were beginning to oppose a ,pan-,islamic to the ,pan-,slav ideal4 ,the ,russo-,turkish ,war of #ahgg-gh followed1 concluded by the treaty of ,san ,stefano1 the terms of which were modified in ,turkey's favour by the congress of ,berlin 7#ahgh71 which marks the beginning of the later phase of the ,eastern ,question4 ,between ,russia and ,turkey it interposed1 in effect1 a barrier of independent 7,rumania1 ,servia7 and quasi-independent 7,bulgaria7 states1 erected with the counsel and consent of collective ,europe4 ,it thus1 while ostensibly weakening1 actually tended to strengthen the ,ottoman power of resistance4 ,the period following the treaty of ,berlin is coincident with the reign of ,sultan ,abd-ul-,hamid ,,ii4 ,the international position of the ,ottoman empire was strengthened by the able1 if ,machiavellian1 statecraft of the sultan2 while the danger of disruption from within was lessened by the more effective central control made possible by railways1 telegraphs1 and the other mechanical improvements borrowed from western civilization4 ,with the spread of the ,pan-,islamic movement1 moreover1 the undefined authority of the sultan as caliph of ,islam received a fresh importance even in countries beyond the borders of the ,ottoman empire1 while in countries formerly1 or nominally still1 subject to it1 it caused1 and promised to cause1 incalculable trouble4 ,the ,eastern ,question thus developed1 in the latter years of the #aith century1 from that of the problems raised by the impending break-up of a moribund empire1 into the even more complex question of how to deal with an empire which showed vigorous evidence of life1 but of a type of life which1 though on all sides in close touch with modern ,european civilization1 was incapable of being brought into harmony with it4 ,the belief in the imminent collapse of the ,ottoman dominion was weakened almost to extinction2 so was the belief1 which inspired the treaty of #ahef1 in the capacity of ,turkey to reform and develop itself on ,european lines4 ,but the ,ottoman empire remained1 the mistress of vast undeveloped wealth4 ,the remaining phase of the ,eastern ,question1 if we except the concerted efforts to impose good government on ,macedonia in the interests of ,european peace1 or the side issues in ,egypt and ,arabia1 was the rivalry of the progressive nations for the right to exploit this wealth4 ,in this rivalry ,germany1 whose interest in ,turkey even so late as the congress of ,berlin had been wholly subordinate1 took a leading part1 unhampered by the traditional policies or the humanitarian considerations by which the interests of the older powers were prejudiced4 ,the motives of ,german intervention in the ,eastern ,question were ostensibly commercial2 but the ,bagdad railway concession1 postulating for its ultimate success the control of the trade route by way of the ,euphrates valley1 involved political issues of the highest moment and opened up a new and perilous phase of the question of the ,middle ,east4 ,this was the position when in #aijh an entirely new situation was created by the ,turkish revolution4 ,as the result of the patient and masterly organization of the young ,turks1 combined with the universal discontent with the rule of the sultan and the palace camarilla1 the impossible seemed to be achieved1 and the heterogeneous elements composing the ,ottoman empire to be united in the desire to establish a unified state on the constitutional model of the ,west4 ,the result on the international situation was profound4 ,great ,britain hastened to re-knit the bonds of her ancient friendship with ,turkey2 the powers1 without exception1 professed their sympathy with the new regime4 ,the establishment of a united ,turkey on a constitutional and nationalist basis was1 however1 not slow in producing a fresh complication in the ,eastern ,question4 ,sooner or later the issue was sure to be raised of the status of those countries1 still nominally part of the ,ottoman empire1 but in effect independent1 like ,bulgaria1 or subject to another state1 like ,bosnia and ,herzegovina4 ,the cutting of the ,gordian knot by ,austria's annexation of ,bosnia and ,herzegovina1 and by the proclamation of the independence of ,bulgaria1 and of ,prince ,ferdinand's assumption of the old title of tsar 7king71 threatened to raise the ,eastern ,question once more in its acutest form4 ,the international concert defined in the treaty of ,berlin had been rudely shaken1 if not destroyed2 the denunciation by ,austria1 without consulting her co-signatories1 of the clauses of the treaty affecting herself seemed to invalidate all the rest2 and in the absence of the restraining force of a united concert of the great powers1 free play seemed likely once more to be given to the rival ambitions of the ,balkan nationalities1 the situation being complicated by the necessity for the dominant party in the renovated ,turkish state to maintain its prestige4 ,during the anxious months that followed the ,austrian coup1 the efforts of diplomacy were directed to calming the excitement of ,servians1 ,montenegrins and the ,young ,turks1 and to considering a ,european conference in which the fait accompli should be regularized in accordance with the accepted canons of international law4 ,the long delay in announcing the assembly of the conference proved the extreme difficulty of arriving at any satisfactory basis of settlement2 and though the efforts of the powers succeeded in salving the wounded pride of the ,turks1 and restraining the impetuosity of the ,serbs and ,montenegrins1 warlike preparations on the part of ,austria continued during the winter of #aijh-aiji1 being justified by the agitation in ,servia1 ,montenegro and the annexed provinces4 ,it was not till ,april #aiji 7see ,,europe3 ad fin47 that the crisis was ended1 through the effectual backing given by ,germany to ,austria2 and ,russia1 followed by ,england and ,france1 gave way and assented to what had been done4 ,see ,,turkey3 ,history1 where cross-references to the articles on the various phases of the ,eastern ,question will be found1 together with a bibliography4 ,see also ,e4 ,driault1 ,la ,question d'orient depuis son origine 7,paris1 #ahih71 a comprehensive sketch of the whole subject1 including the ,middle and ,far ,east4 7,w4 ,a4 ,p47 ,,east ,,grinstead1 a market town in the ,east ,grinstead parliamentary division of ,sussex1 ,england1 #cj m4 ,s4 by ,e4 from ,london by the ,london1 ,brighton ,south ,coast railway4 ,pop4 of urban district 7#aija7 #fjid4 ,st ,swithin's church contains1 among numerous ancient memorials1 one of the iron memorial slabs 7#aejg7 peculiar to certain churches of ,sussex1 and recalling the period when iron was extensively worked in the district4 ,there may be noticed ,sackville ,college 7an almshouse founded in #afjh71 and ,st ,margaret's home and orphanage1 founded by the ,rev4 ,john ,mason ,neale 7#ahah-ahff71 warden of ,sackville ,college4 ,brewing and brick and tile making are carried on4 ,in the vicinity 7near ,forest ,row station7 is the golf course of the ,royal ,ashdown ,forest ,golf ,club4 ,the hundred of ,east ,grinstead 7,grenestede1 ,estgrensted7 was in the possession of the count of ,mortain in #ajhf1 but no mention of a vill or manor of ,east ,grinstead is made in the ,domesday ,survey4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 the hundred was part of the honour of ,aquila1 then in the king's hands4 ,the honour was granted by him to ,peter of ,savoy1 through whom it passed to his niece ,queen ,eleanor4 ,in the next reign the king's mother held the borough of ,east ,grinstead as parcel of the honour of ,aquila4 ,east ,grinstead was included in a grant by ,edward ,,iii4 to ,john of ,gaunt1 duke of ,lancaster1 and it remained part of the duchy of ,lancaster until ,james ,i4 granted the borough to ,sir ,george ,rivers1 through whom it was obtained by the ,sackvilles1 earls of ,dorset4 ,east ,grinstead was a borough by prescription4 ,in the #afth century it was governed by an alderman1 bailiff and constable4 ,it returned two members to parliament from #acjg until #ahcb1 but was disenfranchised by the ,reform ,act4 ,in #abhe the king ordered that his market at ,grenestede should be held on ,saturday instead of ,sunday1 and in #aeaf the inhabitants of the town were granted a market each week on ,saturday and a fair every year on the eve of ,st ,andrew and two days following4 ,charles ,i4 granted the earl of ,dorset a market on ,thursday instead of the ,saturday market1 and fairs on the #afth of ,april and the #bfth of ,september every year4 ,thursday is still the market-day1 and cattle-fairs are now held on the #bast of ,april and the #aath of ,december4 ,,east ,,ham1 a municipal borough in the southern parliamentary division of ,essex1 ,england1 contiguous to ,west ,ham1 and thus forming geographically part of the eastward extension of ,london4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #if1jah4 ,its modern growth has been very rapid1 the population being in the main of the artisan class4 ,there are some chemical and other factories4 ,the ancient parish church of ,st ,mary ,magdalen retains ,norman work in the chancel1 which terminates in an eastern apse4 ,there is a monument for ,edmund ,neville who claimed the earldom of ,westmorland in the #agth century1 and ,william ,stukeley1 the antiquary1 was buried in the churchyard4 ,east ,ham was incorporated in #aijd1 and among its municipal undertakings is a technical college 7#aije74 ,the corporation consists of a mayor1 #f aldermen and #ah councillors4 ,area1 #ccbja_/b acres4 ,,easthampton1 a township of ,hampshire county1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a41 in the ,connecticut ,valley4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #efjc1 of whom #agca were foreign-born2 7#aije7 #fhjh2 7#aiaj7 #hebd4 ,it is served by the ,boston ,maine1 and the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railways1 and by interurban electric railways4 ,the township is generally level1 and is surrounded by high hills4 ,in ,easthampton are a free public library and ,williston ,seminary2 the latter1 one of the oldest and largest preparatory schools in ,new ,england1 was founded in #ahda by the gifts of ,samuel ,williston 7#agie-ahgd7 and ,emily ,graves ,williston 7#agig-ahhe74 ,mr and ,mrs ,williston built up the industry of covering buttons with cloth1 at first doing the work by hand1 then 7#ahbg7 experimenting with machinery1 and in #ahdh building a factory for making and covering buttons4 ,as the soil was fertile and well watered1 the township had been agricultural up to this time4 ,it is now chiefly devoted to manufacturing4 ,among its products are cotton goods1 especially mercerised goods1 for the manufacture of which it has one of the largest plants in the country2 rubber1 thread1 elastic fabrics1 suspenders and buttons4 ,parts of ,northampton and ,southampton were incorporated as the district of ,easthampton in #aghe2 it became a township in #ahji1 and in #ahda and #ahej annexed parts of ,southampton4 ,,east ,,hampton1 a township of ,suffolk county1 ,new ,york1 in the extreme ,s4,e4 part of ,long ,island1 occupying the peninsula of ,montauk1 and bounded on the ,s4 and ,e4 by the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and on the ,n4 by ,block ,island ,sound1 ,gardiner's ,bay and ,peconic ,bay4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #cgdf2 7#aije7 #dcjc2 7#aiaj7 #dgbb4 ,the township1 #be m4 long and #h m4 at its greatest width from north to south1 has an irregular north coast-line and a very regular south coast-line4 ,the surface is rougher to the west where there are several large lakes1 notably ,great ,pond1 #b m4 long4 ,the scenery is picturesque and the township is much frequented by artists4 ,montauk ,lighthouse1 on ,turtle ,hill1 was first built in #agie4 ,at ,montauk1 after the ,spanish-,american ,war1 was ,camp ,wikoff1 a large ,u4,s4 military camp4 ,the township is served by the southern division of the ,long ,island railway1 the terminus of which is ,montauk4 ,other villages of the township1 all summer resorts1 are3 ,promised ,land1 ,amagansett1 ,east ,hampton and ,sag ,harbor2 the last named1 only partly in the township1 was incorporated in #ahjc and had a population of #aifi in #aijj1 and #cjhd in #aiaj4 ,silverware and watch cases are manufactured here4 ,from ,sag ,harbor1 which is a port of entry1 a daily steamer runs to ,new ,york city4 ,the village received many gifts in #aijf-aijh from ,mrs ,russell ,sage4 ,most of the present township was bought from the ,indians 7,montauks1 ,corchaugs and ,shinnecocks7 in #afdh for about ,l#cj1 through the governors of ,connecticut and ,new ,haven1 by nine ,massachusetts freemen1 mostly inhabitants of ,lynn1 ,massachusetts4 ,with twenty other families they settled here in #afdi1 calling the place ,maidstone1 from the old home of some of the settlers in ,kent2 but as early as #afej the name ,east ,hampton was used in reference to the earlier settlement of ,south ,hampton4 ,until #affd1 when all ,long ,island passed to the duke of ,york1 the government was by town meeting1 autonomous and independent except for occasional appeals to ,connecticut4 ,in #afhc ,gardiner's ,island1 settled by ,lion ,gardiner in #afci and so one of the first ,english settlements in what is now ,new ,york state1 was made a part of ,long ,island and of ,east ,hampton township4 ,the ,english settlements in ,east ,hampton were repeatedly threatened by pirates and privateers1 and there are many stories of treasure buried by ,captain ,kidd on ,gardiner's ,island and on ,montauk ,point4 ,the ,clinton ,academy1 opened in ,east ,hampton village in #aghe1 was long a famous school4 ,of the church built here in #afec 7first ,congregational and after #agdg ,presbyterian in government71 ,lyman ,beecher was pastor in #agii-ahaj2 and in ,east ,hampton were born his elder children4 ,whale fishing was begun in ,east ,hampton in #afge1 when four ,indians were engaged by whites in off-shore whaling2 but ,sag ,harbor1 which was first settled in #agcj and was held by the ,british after the battle of ,long ,island as a strategic naval and shipping point1 became the centre of the whaling business4 ,the first successful whaling voyage was made from ,sag ,harbor in #aghe1 and although the ,embargo ruined the fishing for a time1 it revived during #ahcj-ahej4 ,cod and menhaden fishing1 the latter for the manufacture of fish-oil and guano1 were important for a time1 but in the second half of the #aith century ,sag ,harbor lost its commercial importance4 ,,east ,,india ,,company1 an incorporated company for exploiting the trade with ,india and the ,far ,east4 ,in the #agth and #ahth centuries ,east ,india companies were established by ,england1 ,holland1 ,france1 ,denmark1 ,scotland1 ,spain1 ,austria and ,sweden4 ,by far the most important of these was the ,english ,east ,india ,company1 which became the dominant power in ,india1 and only handed over its functions to the ,british ,government in #aheh 7see also ,,dutch ,,east ,,india ,,company1 ,,ostend ,,company74 ,english ,east ,india ,co4 ,the ,english ,east ,india ,company was founded at the end of the #afth century in order to compete with the ,dutch merchants1 who had obtained a practical monopoly of the trade with the ,spice ,islands1 and had raised the price of pepper from #cs4 to #hs4 per lb4 ,queen ,elizabeth incorporated it by royal charter1 dated ,december #ca1 #afjj1 under the title of ,the ,governor and ,company of ,merchants of ,london1 trading into the ,east ,indies4 ,this charter conferred the sole right of trading with the ,east ,indies1 i4e4 with all countries lying beyond the ,cape of ,good ,hope or the ,straits of ,magellan1 upon the company for a term of #ae years4 ,unauthorized interlopers were liable to forfeiture of ships and cargo4 ,there were #abe shareholders in the original ,east ,india ,company1 with a capital of ,l#gb1jjj3 the first governor was ,sir ,thomas ,smythe4 ,the early voyages of the company1 from #afja to #afab1 are distinguished as the separate voyages1 because the subscribers individually bore the cost of each voyage and reaped the whole profits1 which seldom fell below #ajj4 ,after #afab the voyages were conducted on the joint stock system for the benefit of the company as a whole4 ,these early voyages1 whose own narratives may be read in ,purchas1 pushed as far as ,japan1 and established friendly relations at the court of the ,great ,mogul4 ,in #afaj-afaa ,captain ,hippon planted the first ,english factories on the mainland of ,india1 at ,masulipatam and at ,pettapoli in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the profitable nature of the company's trade had induced ,james ,i4 to grant subsidiary licences to private traders2 but in #afji he renewed the company's charter for ever1 though with a proviso that it might be revoked on three years' notice if the trade should not prove profitable to the realm4 ,english and ,dutch disputes4 ,meanwhile friction was arising between the ,english and ,dutch ,east ,india ,companies4 ,the ,dutch traders considered that they had prior rights in the ,far ,east1 and their ascendancy in the ,indian ,archipelago was indeed firmly established on the basis of territorial dominion and authority4 ,in #afac they made advances to the ,english company with a suggestion for co-operation1 but the offer was declined1 and the next few years were fertile in disputes between the armed traders of both nations4 ,in #afai was ratified a treaty of defence to prevent disputes between the ,english and ,dutch companies4 ,when it was proclaimed in the ,east1 hostilities solemnly ceased for the space of an hour1 while the ,dutch and ,english fleets1 dressed out in all their flags and with yards manned1 saluted each other2 but the treaty ended in the smoke of that stately salutation1 and perpetual and fruitless contentions between the ,dutch and ,english companies went on just as before4 ,in #afbc these disputes culminated in the massacre of ,amboyna1 where the ,dutch governor tortured and executed the ,english residents on a charge of conspiring to seize the fort4 ,great and lasting indignation was aroused in ,england1 but it was not until the time of ,cromwell that some pecuniary reparation was exacted for the heirs of the victims4 ,the immediate result was that the ,english company tacitly admitted the ,dutch claims to a monopoly of the trade in the ,far ,east1 and confined their operations to the mainland of ,india and the adjoining countries4 ,the ,east ,indiamen4 ,the necessity of good ships for the ,east ,indian trade had led the company in #afji to construct their dockyard at ,deptford1 from which1 as ,monson observes1 dates the increase of great ships in ,england4 ,down to the middle of the #aith century1 the famous ,east ,indiamen held unquestioned pre-eminence among the merchant vessels of the world4 ,throughout the #agth century they had to be prepared at any moment to fight not merely ,malay pirates1 but the armed trading vessels of their ,dutch1 ,french and ,portuguese rivals4 ,many such battles are recorded in the history of the ,east ,india ,company1 and usually with successful results4 ,the acquisition of territory4 ,it was not until it had been in existence for more than a century that the ,english ,east ,india ,company obtained a practical monopoly of the ,indian trade4 ,in #afce1 a year after the ,great ,mogul had granted it the liberty of trading throughout ,bengal1 ,charles ,i4 issued a licence to ,courten's rival association1 known as the ,assada ,merchants1 on the ground that the company had neglected ,english interests4 ,the piratical methods of their rivals disgraced the company with the ,mogul officials1 and a modus vivendi was only reached in #afdi4 ,in #afeg ,cromwell renewed the charter of #afji1 providing that the ,indian trade should be in the hands of a single joint stock company4 ,the new company thus formed bought up the factories1 forts and privileges of the old one4 ,it was further consolidated by the fostering care of ,charles ,,ii41 who granted it five important charters4 ,from a simple trading company1 it grew under his reign into a great chartered company--to use the modern term--with the right to acquire territory1 coin money1 command fortresses and troops1 form alliances1 make war and peace1 and exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction4 ,it is accordingly in #afhi1 when the three presidencies of ,bengal1 ,madras and ,bombay had lately been established1 that the ruling career of the ,east ,india ,company begins1 with the passing by its directors of the following resolution for the guidance of the local governments in ,india3--,the increase of our revenue is the subject of our care1 as much as our trade2 'tis that must maintain our force when twenty accidents may interrupt our trade2 'tis that must make us a nation in ,india2 without that we are but a great number of interlopers1 united by ,his ,majesty's royal charter1 fit only to trade where nobody of power thinks it their interest to prevent us2 and upon this account it is that the wise ,dutch1 in all their general advices that we have seen1 write ten paragraphs concerning their government1 their civil and military policy1 warfare1 and the increase of their revenue1 for one paragraph they write concerning trade4 ,from this moment the history of the transactions of the ,east ,india ,company becomes the history of ,british ,india 7see ,,india3 ,history74 ,here we shall only trace the later changes in the constitution and powers of the ruling body itself4 ,the interlopers4 ,the great prosperity of the company under the ,restoration1 and the immense profits of the ,indian trade1 attracted a number of private traders1 both outside merchants and dismissed or retired servants of the company1 who came to be known as interlopers4 ,in #afhc the case of ,thomas ,sandys1 an interloper1 raised the whole question of the royal prerogative to create a monopoly of the ,indian trade4 ,the case was tried by ,judge ,jeffreys1 who upheld the royal prerogative2 but in spite of his decision the custom of interloping continued and laid the foundation of many great fortunes4 ,by #afia the interlopers had formed themselves into a new society1 meeting at ,dowgate1 and rivalling the old company2 the case was carried before the ,house of ,commons1 which declared in #afid that all the subjects of ,england have equal right to trade to the ,east ,indies unless prohibited by act of parliament4 ,this decision led up to the act of #afih1 which created a new ,east ,india ,company in consideration of a loan of two millions to the state4 ,the old company subscribed ,l#cae1jjj and became the dominant factor in the new body2 while at the same time it retained its charter for three years1 its factories1 forts and assured position in ,india4 ,the rivalry between the two companies continued both in ,england and in ,india1 until they were finally amalgamated by a tripartite indenture between the companies and ,queen ,anne 7#agjb71 which was ratified under the ,godolphin ,award 7#agjh74 ,under this award the company was to lend the nation ,l#c1bjj1jjj1 and its exclusive privileges were to cease at three years' notice after this amount had been repaid4 ,but by this time the need for permanence in the ,indian establishment began to be felt1 while parliament would not relinquish its privilege of milking the company from time to time4 ,in #agab an act was passed continuing the privileges of the company even after their fund should be redeemed2 in #agcj the charter was prolonged until #agff1 and in #agdb the term was extended until #aghc in return for the loan of a million4 ,this million was required for the war with ,france1 which extended to ,india and involved the ,english and ,french companies there in long-drawn hostilities1 in which the names of ,dupleix and ,clive became prominent4 ,the company and the crown4 ,so long as the company's chief business was that of trade1 it was left to manage its own affairs4 ,the original charter of ,elizabeth had placed its control in the hands of a governor and a committee of twenty-four1 and this arrangement subsisted in essence down to the time of ,george ,,iii4 ,the chairman and court of directors in ,london exercised unchecked control over their servants in ,india4 ,but after ,clive's brilliant victory at ,plassey 7#ageg7 had made the company a ruling power in ,india1 it was felt to be necessary that the ,british government should have some control over the territories thus acquired4 ,lord ,north's ,regulating ,act 7#aggc7 raised the governor of ,bengal--,warren ,hastings--to the rank of governor-general1 and provided that his nomination1 though made by a court of directors1 should in future be subject to the approval of the crown2 in conjunction with a council of four1 he was entrusted with the power of peace and war2 a supreme court of judicature was established1 to which the judges were appointed by the crown2 and legislative power was conferred on the governor-general and his council4 ,next followed ,pitt's ,india ,bill 7#aghd71 which created the board of control1 as a department of the ,english government1 to exercise political1 military and financial superintendence over the ,british possessions in ,india4 ,this bill first authorized the historic phrase governor-general in council4 ,from this date the direction of ,indian policy passed definitely from the company to the governor-general in ,india and the ministry in ,london4 ,in #ahac ,lord ,liverpool passed a bill which further gave the board of control authority over the company's commercial transactions1 and abolished its monopoly of ,indian trade1 whilst leaving it the monopoly of the valuable trade with ,china1 chiefly in tea4 ,finally1 under ,earl ,grey's act of #ahcc1 the company was deprived of this monopoly also4 ,its property was then secured on the ,indian possessions1 and its annual dividends of ten guineas per ,l#ajj stock were made a charge upon the ,indian revenue4 ,henceforward the ,east ,india ,company ceased to be a trading concern and exercised only administrative functions4 ,such a position could not1 in the nature of things1 be permanent1 and the great cataclysm of the ,indian ,mutiny was followed by the entire transference of ,indian administration from the company to the crown1 on the #bnd of ,august #aheh4 ,see ,purchas his ,pilgrimes 7ed4 #aije71 vols4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 for the charter of ,elizabeth and the early voyages2 ,sir ,w4,w4 ,hunter1 ,history of ,british ,india 7#ahii72 ,beckles ,willson1 ,ledger and ,sword 7#aijc72 ,sir ,george ,birdwood1 ,report on the ,old ,records of the ,india ,office 7#ahgi72 ,the ,east ,india ,company's ,first ,letter ,book 7#ahie71 ,letters ,received by the ,east ,india ,company from its ,servants in the ,east1 ed4 ,foster1 7#ahif ff474 ,see also the interesting memorial volume ,relics of the ,honourable ,east ,india ,company 7ed4 ,griggs1 #aiji71 letterpress by ,sir ,g4 ,birdwood and ,w4 ,foster4 ,,east ,,indies1 a name formerly applied vaguely1 in its widest sense1 to the whole area of ,india1 ,further ,india and the ,malay ,archipelago1 in distinction from the ,west ,indies1 which1 at the time of their discovery1 were taken to be the extreme parts of the ,indian region4 ,the term ,east ,indies is still sometimes applied to the ,malay ,archipelago 7q4v47 alone1 and the phrase ,dutch ,east ,indies is commonly used to denote the ,dutch possessions which constitute the greater part of that archipelago4 ,the ,dutch themselves use the term ,nederlandsch-,indie4 ,,eastlake1 ,,sir ,,charles ,,lock 7#agic-ahfe71 ,english painter1 was born on the #agth of ,november #agic at ,plymouth1 where his father1 a man of uncommon gifts but of indolent temperament1 was solicitor to the admiralty and judge advocate of the admiralty court4 ,charles was educated 7like ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds7 at the ,plympton grammar-school1 and in ,london at the ,charterhouse4 ,towards #ahji1 partly through the influence of his fellow-,devonian ,haydon1 of whom he became a pupil1 he determined to be a painter2 he also studied in the ,royal ,academy school4 ,in #ahac he exhibited in the ,british ,institution his first picture1 a work of considerable size1 ,christ restoring life to the ,daughter of ,jairus4 ,in #ahad he was commissioned to copy some of the paintings collected by ,napoleon in the ,louvre2 he returned to ,england in #ahae1 and practised portrait-painting at ,plymouth4 ,here he saw ,napoleon a captive on the ,bellerophon2 from a boat he made some sketches of the emperor1 and he afterwards painted1 from these sketches and from memory1 a life-sized full-length portrait of him 7with some of his officers7 which was pronounced a good likeness2 it belongs to the marquess of ,lansdowne4 ,in #ahag ,eastlake went to ,italy2 in #ahai to ,greece2 in #ahbj back to ,italy1 where he remained altogether fourteen years1 chiefly in ,rome and in ,ferrara4 ,in #ahbg he exhibited at the ,royal ,academy his picture of the ,spartan ,isidas1 who 7as narrated by ,plutarch in the life of ,agesilaus71 rushing naked out of his bath1 performed prodigies of valour against the ,theban host4 ,this was the first work that attracted much notice to the name of ,eastlake1 who in consequence obtained his election as ,a4,r4,a42 in #ahcj1 when he returned to ,england1 he was chosen ,r4,a4 ,in #ahej he succeeded ,shee as president of the ,royal ,academy1 and was knighted4 ,prior to this1 in #ahda1 he had been appointed secretary to the royal commission for decorating the ,houses of ,parliament1 and he retained this post until the commission was dissolved in #ahfb4 ,in #ahdc he was made keeper of the ,national ,gallery1 a post which he resigned in #ahdg in consequence of an unfortunate purchase that roused much animadversion1 a portrait erroneously ascribed to ,holbein2 in #ahee1 director of the same institution1 with more extended powers4 ,during his directorship he purchased for the gallery #aee pictures1 mostly of the ,italian schools4 ,he became also a ,d4,c4,l4 of ,oxford1 ,f4,r4,s41 a chevalier of the ,legion of ,honour1 and member of various foreign academies4 ,in #ahdi he married ,miss ,elizabeth ,rigby1 who had already then become known as a writer 7,letters from the ,baltic1 #ahda2 ,livonian ,tales1 #ahdf2 ,the ,jewess1 #ahdh7 and as a contributor to the ,quarterly ,review4 ,lady ,eastlake 7#ahji-ahic7 had for some years been interested in art subjects1 and after her marriage she naturally devoted more attention to them1 translating ,waagen's ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain 7#ahed-aheg71 and completing ,mrs ,jameson's ,history of our ,lord in ,works of ,art4 ,in #ahfe ,sir ,charles ,eastlake fell ill at ,milan2 and he died at ,pisa on the #bdth of ,december in the same year4 ,lady ,eastlake1 who survived him for many years1 continued to play an active part as a writer on art 7,five ,great ,painters1 #ahhc1 c471 and had a large circle of friends among the most interesting men and women of the day4 ,in #ahhj she published a volume of ,letters from ,france 7describing events in ,paris during #aghi71 written by her father1 ,edward ,rigby 7#agdg-ahba71 a distinguished ,norwich doctor who was known also for his practical interest in agriculture1 and who is said to have made known the flying shuttle to ,norwich manufacturers4 ,as a painter1 ,sir ,charles ,eastlake was gentle1 harmonious1 diligent and correct2 lacking fire of invention or of execution2 eclectic1 without being exactly imitative2 influenced rather by a love of ideal grace and beauty than by any marked bent of individual power or vigorous originality4 ,among his principal works 7which were not numerous1 #ea being the total exhibited in the ,academy7 are3 #ahbh1 ,pilgrims arriving in sight of ,rome 7repeated in #ahce and #ahcf1 and perhaps on the whole his chef-d'oeuvre72 #ahbi1 ,byron's ,dream 7in the ,tate ,gallery72 #ahcd1 the ,escape of ,francesco di ,carrara 7a duplicate in the ,tate ,gallery72 #ahda1 ,christ ,lamenting over ,jerusalem 7ditto72 #ahdc1 ,hagar and ,ishmael2 #ahde1 ,comus2 #ahdi1 ,helena2 #ahea1 ,ippolita ,torelli2 #ahec1 ,violante2 #ahee1 ,beatrice4 ,these female heads1 of a refined semi-ideal quality1 with something of ,venetian glow of tint1 are the most satisfactory specimens of ,eastlake's work to an artist's eye4 ,he was an accomplished and judicious scholar in matters of art1 and published1 in #ahdj1 a translation of ,goethe's ,theory of ,colours2 in #ahdg 7his chief literary work7 ,materials for a ,history of ,oil-,painting1 especially valuable as regards the ,flemish school2 in #ahdh1 ,contributions to the ,literature of the ,fine ,arts 7a second series was edited by ,lady ,eastlake in #ahgj1 and accompanied by a ,memoir from her pen72 in #ahea and #ahee1 translated editions of ,kugler's ,history of the ,italian ,school of ,painting1 and ,handbook of ,painting 7new edition1 by ,lady ,eastlake1 #ahgd74 ,see ,w4 ,cosmo ,monkhouse1 ,pictures by ,sir ,charles ,eastlake1 with biographical and critical ,sketch 7#ahge74 7,w4 ,m4 ,r47 ,,east ,,liverpool1 a city of ,columbiana county1 ,ohio1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,ohio river1 about #ajf m4 ,s4,e4 of ,cleveland4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #aj1ief2 7#aijj7 #af1dhe1 of whom #baab were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #bj1ceg4 ,it is served by the ,pennsylvania railway1 by river steamboats1 and by interurban electric lines4 ,next to ,trenton1 ,new ,jersey1 ,east ,liverpool is the most important place in the ,united ,states for the manufacture of earthenware and pottery1 #dhei out of its #ebbh wage-earners1 or #ib4i1 being employed in this industry in #aije1 when #e1cgc1heb 7#hc4e of the value of all its factory products7 was the value of the earthenware and pottery4 ,no other city in the ,united ,states is so exclusively devoted to the manufacture of pottery2 in #aijh there were #cb potteries in the city and its immediate vicinity4 ,the manufacture of white ware1 begun in #ahgb1 is the most important branch of the industry--almost half of the cream-coloured1 white granite ware and semivitreous porcelain produced in the ,united ,states in #aije 7in value1 #d1cdd1dfh out of #i1aie1gjc7 being manufactured in ,east ,liverpool4 ,though there are large clay deposits in the vicinity1 very little of it can be used for crockery1 and most of the clay used in the city's potteries is obtained from other states2 some of it is imported from ,europe4 ,after #ahgb a large number of skilled ,english pottery-workers settled in the city4 ,the city's product of pottery1 terra-cotta and fireclay increased from #b1acg1jfc to #d1aje1bjj from #ahij to #aijj1 and in the latter year almost equalled that of ,trenton1 ,n4,j41 the two cities together producing more than half 7#ej4i7 of the total pottery product of the ,united ,states2 in #aije ,east ,liverpool and ,trenton together produced #db4a of the total value of the country's pottery product4 ,the municipality owns and operates its water-works4 ,east ,liverpool was settled in #agih1 and was incorporated in #ahcd4 ,,east ,,london1 a town of the ,cape province1 ,south ,africa1 at the mouth of the ,buffalo river1 in #cc deg4 #a' ,s4 #bg deg4 #ee' ,e41 #edc m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,cape ,town by sea and #fff m4 ,s4 of ,johannesburg by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijd7 #be1bbj1 of whom #ad1fgd were whites4 ,the town is picturesquely situated on both sides of the river1 which is spanned by a combined road and railway bridge4 ,the railway terminus and business quarter are on the east side on the top of the cliffs1 which rise #aej ft4 above the river4 ,in ,oxford ,street1 the chief thoroughfare1 is the town hall1 a handsome building erected in #ahih4 ,higher up a number of churches and a school are grouped round ,vincent ,square1 a large open space4 ,in consequence of the excellent sea bathing1 and the beauty of the river banks above the town1 ,east ,london is the chief seaside holiday resort of the ,cape province4 ,the town is the entrepot of a rich agricultural district1 including the ,transkei1 ,basutoland and the south of ,orange ,free ,state1 and the port of the ,cape nearest ,johannesburg4 ,it ranks third among the ports of the province4 ,the roadstead is exposed and insecure1 but the inner harbour1 constructed at a cost of over ,l#b1jjj1jjj1 is protected from all winds4 ,a shifting sand bar lies at the mouth of the river1 but the building of training walls and dredging have increased the minimum depth of water to #bb ft4 ,from the east bank of the ,buffalo a pier and from the west bank a breakwater project into the ,indian ,ocean1 the entrance being #dej ft4 wide1 reduced between the training walls to #bej ft4 ,there is extensive wharf accommodation on both sides of the river1 and steamers of over #hjjj tons can moor alongside4 ,there is a patent slip capable of taking vessels of #ajjj tons dead weight4 ,an aerial steel ropeway from the river bank to the town greatly facilitates the delivery of cargo4 ,the imports are chiefly textiles1 hardware and provisions1 the exports mainly wool and mohair4 ,the rateable value of the town in #aijh was ,l#d1ajh1jjj1 and the municipal rate #a-e_/h d4 ,east ,london owes its foundation to the necessities of the ,kaffir war of #ahdf-ahdg4 ,the ,british1 requiring a port nearer the scene of war than those then existing1 selected a site at the mouth of the ,buffalo river1 and in #ahdg the first cargo of military stores was landed4 ,a fort1 named ,glamorgan1 was built1 and the place permanently occupied4 ,around this military post grew up the town1 known at first as ,port ,rex4 ,numbers of its inhabitants are descendants of ,german immigrants who settled in the district in #aheg4 ,the prosperity of the town dates from the era of railway and port development in the last decade of the #aith century4 ,in #ahge the value of the exports was ,l#aca1hjc and that of the imports ,l#eeb1jcc4 ,in #aijd the value of the exports was ,l#a1afe1ich and that of the imports ,l#d1fhh1dae4 ,in #aijg the exports1 notwithstanding a period of severe trade depression1 were valued at ,l#a1dge1cee1 but the imports had fallen to ,l#c1ced1fcc4 ,,easton1 a city and the county-seat of ,northampton county1 ,pennsylvania1 ,u4,s4,a41 at the confluence of the ,lehigh river and ,bushkill ,creek with the ,delaware1 about #fj m4 ,n4 of ,philadelphia4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ad1dha2 7#aijj7 #be1bch1 of whom #bace were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #bh1ebc4 ,easton is served by the ,central of ,new ,jersey1 the ,lehigh ,valley1 the ,lehigh ,hudson ,river and the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna ,western railways1 and is connected by canals with the anthracite coal region to the north-west and with ,bristol1 ,pa4 ,a bridge across the ,delaware river connects it with ,phillipsburg1 ,new ,jersey1 which is served by the ,pennsylvania railway4 ,the city is built on rolling ground1 commanding pleasant views of hill and river scenery4 ,many fine residences overlook city and country from the hillsides1 and a ,carnegie library is prominent among the public buildings4 ,lafayette ,college1 a ,presbyterian institution opened in #ahcb1 is finely situated on a bluff north of the ,bushkill and ,delaware4 ,the college provides the following courses of instruction3 graduate1 classical1 ,latin scientific1 general scientific1 civil engineering1 electrical engineering1 mining engineering and chemical2 in #aijh it had #ch instructors and #ddb students1 #bef of whom were enrolled in the scientific and engineering courses4 ,overlooking the ,bushkill is the ,easton ,cemetery1 in which is the grave of ,george ,taylor 7#agaf-agha71 a signer of the ,declaration of ,independence1 with a monument of ,italian marble to his memory4 ,among the city's manufactures are silk1 hosiery and knit goods1 flour1 malt liquors1 brick1 tile1 drills1 lumber and planing mill products and organs2 in #aije the value of all the factory products was #e1fed1eid1 of which #b1bij1eih1 or #dj4e1 was the value of the silk manufactures4 ,easton is the commercial centre of an important mining region1 which produces1 in particular1 iron ore1 soapstone1 cement1 slate and building stone4 ,the municipality owns and operates an electric-lighting plant4 ,easton was a garden spot of the ,indians1 and here1 because they would not negotiate elsewhere1 several important treaties were made between #agef and #agfb during the ,french and ,indian ,war4 ,the place was laid out in #ageb1 and was made the county-seat of the newly erected county4 ,it was incorporated as a borough in #aghi1 received a new borough charter in #ahbc1 and in #ahhg was chartered as a city4 ,south ,easton was annexed in #ahih4 ,,east ,,orange1 a city of ,essex county1 ,new ,jersey1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the north-eastern part of the state1 adjoining the city of ,newark1 and about #ab m4 ,w4 of ,new ,york city4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ac1bhb2 7#aijj7 #ba1ejf1 of whom #ciej were foreign-born and #adbj were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #cd1cga4 ,it is served by the ,morris ,essex division of the ,delaware1 ,lackawanna ,western railway and by the ,orange branch of the ,erie 7the former having four stations--,ampere1 ,grove ,street1 ,east ,orange and ,brick ,church71 and is connected with ,newark1 ,orange and ,west ,orange by electric line4 ,the city covers an area of about #d sq4 m41 and has broad1 well-paved streets1 bordered with fine shade trees 7under the jurisdiction of a ,shade ,tree ,commission74 ,it is primarily a residential suburb of ,new ,york and ,newark1 and has many beautiful homes2 with ,orange1 ,west ,orange and ,south ,orange it forms virtually one community1 popularly known as the ,oranges4 ,the public school system is excellent1 and the city has a ,carnegie library 7#aijc71 with more than #bb1jjj volumes in #aijg4 ,among the principal buildings are several attractive churches1 the city hall1 and the club-house of the ,woman's ,club of ,orange4 ,the principal manufactures of ,east ,orange are electrical machinery1 apparatus1 and supplies 7the factory of the ,crocker-,wheeler ,co4 being here--in a part of the city known as ,ampere7 and pharmaceutical materials4 ,the total value of the city's factory products in #aije was #b1cbf1eeb4 ,east ,orange has a fine water-works system1 which it owns and operates2 the water supply is obtained from artesian wells at ,white ,oaks ,ridge1 in the township of ,milburn 7about #aj m4 from the city hall72 thence the water is pumped to a steel reinforced reservoir 7capacity #e1jjj1jjj gallons7 on the mountain back of ,south ,orange4 ,in #ahfc the township of ,east ,orange was separated from the township of ,orange1 which1 in turn1 had been separated from the township of ,newark in #ahjf4 ,an act of the ,new ,jersey legislature in #ahie created the office of township president1 with power of appointment and veto4 ,four years later ,east ,orange was chartered as a city4 ,see ,h4 ,whittemore1 ,the ,founders and ,builders of the ,oranges 7,newark1 #ahif74 ,,eastport1 a city and port of entry of ,washington county1 ,maine1 ,u4,s4,a41 co-extensive with ,moose ,island in ,passamaquoddy ,bay1 about #aij m4 ,e4,n4,e4 of ,portland4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #dijh2 7#aijj7 #ecaa 7#aeed foreign-born72 7#aiaj7 #difa4 ,it is served by the ,washington ,county railway1 and by steamboat lines to ,boston1 ,portland and ,calais4 ,it is the most eastern city of the ,united ,states1 and is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel1 which is spanned by a bridge4 ,the harbour is well protected from the winds1 and the tide1 which rises and falls here about #be ft41 prevents it from being obstructed with ice4 ,the city is built on ground sloping gently to the water's edge1 and commands delightful views of the bay1 in which there are several islands4 ,its principal industry is the canning of sardines2 there are also clam canneries4 ,shoes1 mustard1 decorated tin1 and shooks are manufactured1 and fish and lobsters are shipped from here in the season4 ,the city is the port of entry for the customs district of ,passamaquoddy2 in #aijh its imports were valued at #iid1ifa1 and its exports at #a1aee1gia4 ,eastport was first settled about #aghb by fishermen2 it became a port of entry in #agij1 was incorporated as a town in #agih1 and was chartered as a city in #ahic4 ,it was a notorious place for smuggling under the ,embargo ,acts of #ahjg and #ahjh4 ,on the #aath of ,july #ahad1 during the war of #ahab1 it was taken by the ,british4 ,as the ,british government claimed the islands of ,passamaquoddy ,bay under the treaty of #aghc1 the ,british forces retained possession of ,eastport after the close of the war and held it under martial law until ,july #ahah1 when it was surrendered in accordance with the decision rendered in ,november #ahag by commissioners appointed under ,article ,,iv4 of the treaty of ,ghent 7#ahad71 this decision awarding ,moose ,island1 ,dudley ,island and ,frederick ,island to the ,united ,states and the other islands1 including the ,island of ,grand ,manan in the ,bay of ,fundy1 to ,great ,britain4 ,,east ,,providence1 a township of ,providence county1 ,rhode ,island1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,e4 side of ,providence river1 opposite ,providence4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #hdbb2 7#aijj7 #ab1ach1 of whom #bjfg were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ae1hjh4 ,area1 #aba_/b sq4 m4 ,it is served by the ,new ,york1 ,new ,haven ,hartford railway4 ,it has a rolling surface and contains several villages1 one of which1 known as ,rumford1 has important manufactories of chemicals and electrical supplies4 ,south of this village1 along the river bank1 are several attractive summer resorts1 ,hunt's ,mills1 ,silver ,spring1 ,riverside1 ,vanity ,fair1 ,kettle ,point and ,bullock's ,point being prominent among them4 ,in #aije the factory products of the township were valued at #e1jce1bhh4 ,the oyster trade is important4 ,it was within the present limits of this township that ,roger ,williams established himself in the spring of #afcf1 until he learned that the place was within the jurisdiction of the ,plymouth ,colony4 ,about #afdd it was settled by a company from ,weymouth as a part of a town of ,rehoboth4 ,in #ahab ,rehoboth was divided1 and the west part was made the township of ,seekonk4 ,finally1 in #ahfa1 it was decided that the west part of ,seekonk belonged to ,rhode ,island1 and in the following year that part was incorporated as the township of ,east ,providence4 ,,east ,,prussia 7,ost-,preussen71 the easternmost province of the kingdom of ,prussia1 bounded on the ,n4 by the ,baltic1 on the ,e4 and ,s4,w4 by ,russia and ,russian ,poland1 and on the ,w4 by the ,prussian province of ,west ,prussia4 ,it has an area of #ad1bhd sq4 m41 and had1 in #aije1 a population of #b1jbe1gda4 ,it shares in the general characteristics of the great north ,german plain1 but1 though low1 its surface is by no means absolutely flat1 as the southern half is traversed by a low ridge or plateau1 which attains a height of #ajbe ft4 at a point near the western boundary of the province4 ,this plateau1 here named the ,prussian ,seenplatte1 is thickly sprinkled with small lakes1 among which is the ,spirding ,see1 #df sq4 m4 in extent and the largest inland lake in the ,prussian monarchy4 ,the coast is lined with low dunes or sandhills1 in front of which lie the large littoral lakes or lagoons named the ,frisches ,haff and the ,kurisches ,haff4 ,the first of these receives the waters of the ,nogat and the ,pregel1 and the other those of the ,memel or ,niemen4 ,east ,prussia is the coldest part of ,germany1 its mean annual temperature being about #dd deg4 ,f41 while the mean ,january temperature of ,tilsit is only #be deg44 ,the rainfall is #bd in4 per annum4 ,about half the province is under tillage2 #ah is occupied by forests1 and about #bc by meadows and pastures4 ,the most fertile soil is found in the valleys of the ,pregel and the ,memel1 but the southern slopes of the ,baltic plateau and the district to the north of the ,memel consist in great part of sterile moor1 sand and bog4 ,the chief crops are rye1 oats and potatoes1 while flax is cultivated in the district of ,ermeland1 between the ,passarge and the upper ,alle4 ,east ,prussia is the headquarters of the horse-breeding of the country1 and contains the principal government stud of ,trakehnen2 numerous cattle are also fattened on the rich pastures of the river-valleys4 ,the extensive woods in the south part of the province harbour a few wolves and lynxes1 and the elk is still preserved in the forest of ,ibenhorst1 near the ,kurisches ,haff4 ,the fisheries in the lakes and haffs are of some importance2 but the only mineral product of note is amber1 which is found in the peninsula of ,samland in greater abundance than in any other part of the world4 ,manufactures are almost confined to the principal towns1 though linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry4 ,commerce is facilitated by canals connecting the ,memel and ,pregel and also the principal lakes1 but is somewhat hampered by the heavy dues exacted at the ,russian frontier4 ,a brisk foreign trade is carried on through the seaports of ,koenigsberg1 the capital of the province1 and ,memel1 the exports consisting mainly of timber and grain4 ,the population of the province was in #aijj #a1iif1fbf1 and included #a1fih1dfe ,protestants1 #bfi1aif ,roman ,catholics and #ac1hgg ,jews4 ,the ,roman ,catholics are mainly confined to the district of ,ermeland1 in which the ordinary proportions of the confessions are completely reversed4 ,the bulk of the inhabitants are of ,german blood1 but there are above #djj1jjj ,protestant ,poles 7,masurians or ,masovians7 in the south part of the province1 and #age1jjj ,lithuanians in the north4 ,as in other provinces where the ,polish element is strong1 ,east ,prussia is somewhat below the general average of the kingdom in education4 ,there is a university at ,koenigsberg4 ,see ,lohmeyer1 ,geschichte von ,ost- und ,west-,preussen 7,gotha1 #ahhd72 ,bruenneck1 ,zur ,geschichte des ,kirchen-,patronats in ,ost- und ,west-,preussen 7,berlin1 #aijb71 and ,ost-,preussen1 ,land und ,volk 7,stuttgart1 #aija-aijb74 ,,eastwick1 ,,edward ,,backhouse 7#ahad-ahhc71 ,british ,orientalist1 was born in #ahad1 a member of an ,anglo-,indian family4 ,educated at ,charterhouse and at ,oxford1 he joined the ,bombay infantry in #ahcf1 but1 owing to his talent for languages1 was soon given a political post4 ,in #ahdc he translated the ,persian ,kessahi ,sanjan1 or ,history of the ,arrival of the ,parsees in ,india2 and he wrote a ,life of ,zoroaster1 a ,sindhi vocabulary1 and various papers in the transactions of the ,bombay ,asiatic ,society4 ,compelled by ill-health to return to ,europe1 he went to ,frankfort1 where he learned ,german and translated ,schiller's ,revolt of the ,netherlands and ,bopp's ,comparative ,grammar4 ,in #ahde he was appointed professor of ,hindustani at ,haileybury ,college4 ,two years later he published a ,hindustani grammar1 and1 in subsequent years1 a new edition of the ,gulistan1 with a translation in prose and verse1 also an edition with vocabulary of the ,hindi translation by ,lallu ,lal of ,chatur ,chuj ,misr's ,prem ,sagar1 and translations of the ,bagh-o-,bahar1 and of the ,anvar-i ,suhaili of ,bidpai4 ,in #ahea he was elected a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,in #aheg-aheh he edited ,the ,autobiography of ,lutfullah4 ,he also edited for the ,bible ,society the ,book of ,genesis in the ,dakhani language4 ,from #ahfj to #ahfc he was in ,persia as secretary to the ,british ,legation1 publishing on his return ,the ,journal of a ,diplomate4 ,in #ahff he became private secretary to the secretary of state for ,india1 ,lord ,cranborne 7afterwards marquess of ,salisbury71 and in #ahfg went1 as in #ahfd1 on a government mission to ,venezuela4 ,on his return he wrote1 at the request of ,charles ,dickens1 for ,all the ,year ,round1 ,sketches of ,life in a ,south ,american ,republic4 ,from #ahfh to #ahgd he was ,m4,p4 for ,penryn and ,falmouth4 ,in #ahge he received the degree of ,m4,a4 with the franchise from the university of ,oxford1 as a slight recognition of distinguished services4 ,at various times he wrote several of ,murray's ,indian hand-books4 ,his last work was the ,kaisarnamah-i-,hind 7the lay of the empress71 in two volumes 7#ahgh-ahhb74 ,he died at ,ventnor1 ,isle of ,wight1 on the #afth of ,july #ahhc4 ,,eaton1 ,,dorman ,,bridgman 7#ahbc-ahii71 ,american lawyer1 was born at ,hardwick1 ,vermont1 on the #bgth of ,june #ahbc4 ,he graduated at the university of ,vermont in #ahdh and at the ,harvard ,law ,school in #ahej1 and in the latter year was admitted to the bar in ,new ,york city4 ,there he became associated in practice with ,william ,kent1 the son of the great chancellor1 an edition of whose ,commentaries he assisted in editing4 ,eaton early became interested in municipal and civil service reform4 ,he was conspicuous in the fight against ,tweed and his followers1 by one of whom he was assaulted2 he required a long period of rest1 and went to ,europe1 where he studied the workings of the civil service in various countries4 ,from #ahgc to #ahge he was a member of the first ,united ,states ,civil ,service ,commission4 ,in #ahgg1 at the request of ,president ,hayes1 he made a careful study of the ,british civil service1 and three years later published ,civil ,service in ,great ,britain4 ,he drafted the ,pendleton ,civil ,service ,act of #ahhc1 and later became a member of the new commission established by it4 ,he resigned in #ahhe1 but was almost immediately reappointed by ,president ,cleveland1 and served until #ahhf1 editing the #crd and #dth ,reports of the commission4 ,he was an organizer 7#ahgh7 of the first society for the furtherance of civil service reform in ,new ,york1 of the ,national ,civil ,service ,reform ,association1 and of the ,national ,conference of the ,unitarian ,church 7#ahfe74 ,he died in ,new ,york city on the #bcrd of ,december #ahii1 leaving #ajj1jjj each to ,harvard and ,columbia universities for the establishments of professorships in government4 ,he was a legal writer and editor1 and a frequent contributor to the leading reviews4 ,in addition to the works mentioned he published ,should ,judges be ,elected8 7#ahgc71 ,the ,independent ,movement in ,new ,york 7#ahhj71 ,term and ,tenure of ,office 7#ahhb71 ,the ,spoils ,system and ,civil ,service ,reform 7#ahhb71 ,problems of ,police ,legislation 7#ahie7 and ,the ,government of ,municipalities 7#ahii74 ,see the privately printed memorial volume1 ,dorman ,b4 ,eaton1 #ahbc-ahii 7,new ,york1 #aijj74 ,,eaton1 ,,margaret ,o',,neill 7#agif-ahgi71 better known as ,,peggy ,o',,neill1 was the daughter of the keeper of a popular ,washington tavern1 and was noted for her beauty1 wit and vivacity4 ,about #ahbc1 she married a purser in the ,united ,states navy1 ,john ,b4 ,timberlake1 who committed suicide while on service in the ,mediterranean in #ahbh4 ,in the following year she married ,john ,henry ,eaton 7#agij-ahef71 a ,tennessee politician1 at the time a member of the ,united ,states ,senate4 ,senator ,eaton was a close personal friend of ,president ,jackson1 who in #ahbi appointed him secretary of war4 ,this sudden elevation of ,mrs ,eaton into the cabinet social circle was resented by the wives of several of ,jackson's secretaries1 and charges were made against her of improper conduct with ,eaton previous to her marriage to him4 ,the refusal of the wives of the cabinet members to recognize the wife of his friend angered ,president ,jackson1 and he tried in vain to coerce them4 ,eventually1 and partly for this reason1 he almost completely reorganized his cabinet4 ,the effect of the incident on the political fortunes of the vice-president1 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun1 whose wife was one of the recalcitrants1 was perhaps most important4 ,partly on this account1 ,jackson's favour was transferred from ,calhoun to ,martin ,van ,buren1 the secretary of state1 who had taken ,jackson's side in the quarrel and had shown marked attention to ,mrs ,eaton1 and whose subsequent elevation to the vice-presidency and presidency through ,jackson's favour is no doubt partly attributable to this incident4 ,in #ahcf ,mrs ,eaton accompanied her husband to ,spain1 where he was ,united ,states minister in #ahcf-ahdj4 ,after the death of her husband she married a young ,italian dancing-master1 ,antonio ,buchignani1 but soon obtained a divorce from him4 ,she died in ,washington on the #hth of ,november #ahgi4 ,see ,james ,parton's ,life of ,andrew ,jackson 7,new ,york1 #ahfj74 ,,eaton1 ,,theophilus 7c4 #aeij-afeh71 ,english colonial governor in ,america1 was born at ,stony ,stratford1 ,buckinghamshire1 about #aeij4 ,he was educated in ,coventry1 became a successful merchant1 travelled widely throughout ,europe1 and for several years was the financial agent of ,charles ,i4 in ,denmark4 ,he subsequently settled in ,london1 where he joined the ,puritan congregation of the ,rev4 ,john ,davenport1 whom he had known since boyhood4 ,the pressure upon the ,puritans increasing1 ,eaton1 who had been one of the original patentees of the ,massachusetts ,bay colony in #afbi1 determined to use his influence and fortune to establish an independent colony of which his pastor should be the head4 ,in #afcg he emigrated with ,davenport to ,massachusetts1 and in the following year 7,march #afch7 he and ,davenport founded ,new ,haven4 ,in ,october #afci a form of government was adopted1 based on the ,mosaic ,law1 and ,eaton was elected governor1 a post which he continued to hold by annual re-election1 first over ,new ,haven alone1 and after #afdc over the ,new ,haven ,colony or ,jurisdiction1 until his death at ,new ,haven on the #gth of ,january #afeh4 ,his administration was embarrassed by constantly recurring disputes with the neighbouring ,dutch settlements1 especially after ,stamford 7,conn47 and ,southold 7,long ,island7 had entered the ,new ,haven ,jurisdiction1 but his prudence and diplomacy prevented an actual outbreak of hostilities4 ,he was prominent in the affairs of the ,new ,england ,confederation1 of which he was one of the founders 7#afdc74 ,in #afee he and ,davenport drew up the code of laws1 popularly known as the ,connecticut ,blue ,laws1 which were published in ,london in #afef under the title ,new ,haven's ,settling in ,new ,england and some ,lawes for ,government published for the ,use of that ,colony4 ,a sketch of his life appears in ,cotton ,mather's ,magnalia 7,london1 #agjb72 see also ,j4,b4 ,moore's ,memoir of ,theophilus ,eaton in the ,collections of the ,new ,york ,historical ,society1 second series1 vol4 ii4 7,new ,york1 #ahdi74 ,,eaton1 ,,william 7#agfd-ahaa71 ,american soldier1 was born in ,woodstock1 ,connecticut1 on the #bcrd of ,february #agfd4 ,as a boy he served for a short time in the ,continental army4 ,he was a school teacher for several years1 graduated at ,dartmouth ,college in #agij1 was clerk of the lower house of the ,vermont legislature in #agia-agib1 and in #agib re-entered the army as a captain1 later serving against the ,indians in ,ohio and ,georgia4 ,in #agig he was appointed consul to ,tunis1 where he arrived in ,february #agii4 ,in ,march #agii1 with the consuls to ,tripoli and ,algiers1 he negotiated alterations in the treaty of #agig with ,tunis4 ,he rendered great service to ,danish merchantmen by buying on credit several ,danish prizes in ,tunis and turning them over to their original owners for the redemption of his notes4 ,in #ahjc he quarrelled with the ,bey1 was ordered from the country1 and returned to the ,united ,states to urge ,american intervention for the restoration of ,ahmet ,karamanli to the throne of ,tripoli1 arguing that this would impress the ,barbary ,states with the power of the ,united ,states4 ,in #ahjd he returned to the ,mediterranean as ,united ,states naval agent to the ,barbary ,states with ,barron's fleet4 ,on the #bcrd of ,february #ahje he agreed with ,ahmet that the ,united ,states should undertake to re-establish him in ,tripoli1 that the expenses of the expedition should be repaid to the ,united ,states by ,ahmet1 and that ,eaton should be general and commander-in-chief of the land forces in ,ahmet's campaign2 as the secretary of the navy had given the entire matter into the hands of ,commodore ,barron1 and as ,barron and ,tobias ,lear 7#agfb-ahaf71 the ,united ,states consul-general at ,algiers and a diplomatic agent to conduct negotiations1 had been instructed to consider the advisability of making arrangements with the existing government in ,tripoli1 ,eaton far exceeded his authority4 ,on the #hth of ,march he started for ,derna across the ,libyan desert from the ,arab's ,tower1 #dj m4 ,w4 of ,alexandria1 with a force of about #ejj men1 including a few ,americans1 about #dj ,greeks and some ,arab cavalry4 ,in the march of nearly #fjj m4 the camel-drivers and the ,arab chiefs repeatedly mutinied1 and ,ahmet ,pasha once put himself at the head of the ,arabs and ordered them to attack ,eaton4 ,ahmet more than once wished to give up the expedition4 ,there were practically no provisions for the latter part of the march4 ,on the #bgth of ,april with the assistance of three bombarding cruisers ,eaton captured ,derna--an exploit commemorated by ,whittier's poem ,derne4 ,on the #acth of ,may and on the #ajth of ,june he successfully withstood the attacks of ,tripolitan forces sent to dislodge him4 ,on the #abth of ,june he abandoned the town upon orders from ,commodore ,rodgers1 for ,lear had made peace 7#dth ,june7 with ,yussuf1 the de facto ,pasha of ,tripoli4 ,eaton returned to the ,united ,states1 and received a grant of #aj1jjj acres in ,maine from the ,massachusetts legislature4 ,according to a deposition which he made in ,january #ahjg he was approached by ,aaron ,burr 7q4v471 who attempted to enlist him in his conspiracy1 and wished him to win over the marine corps and to sound ,preble and ,decatur4 ,as he received from the government1 soon after making this deposition1 about #aj1jjj to liquidate claims for his expense in ,tripoli1 which he had long pressed in vain1 his good faith has been doubted4 ,at ,burr's trial at ,richmond in #ahjg ,eaton was one of the witnesses1 but his testimony was unimportant4 ,in ,may #ahjg he was elected a member of the ,massachusetts ,house of ,representatives1 and served for one term4 ,he died on the #ast of ,june #ahaa in ,brimfield1 ,massachusetts4 ,see the anonymously published ,life of the ,late ,gen4 ,william ,eaton 7,brookfield1 ,massachusetts1 #ahac7 by ,charles ,prentiss2 ,c4,c4 ,felton1 ,life of ,william ,eaton in ,sparks's ,library of ,american ,biography1 vol4 ix4 7,boston1 #ahch72 and ,gardner ,w4 ,allen's ,our ,navy and the ,barbary ,corsairs 7,boston1 #aije74 ,,eaton1 ,,wyatt 7#ahdi-ahif71 ,american portrait and figure painter1 was born at ,philipsburg1 ,canada1 on the #fth of ,may #ahdi4 ,he was a pupil of the schools of the ,national ,academy of ,design1 ,new ,york1 and in #ahgb went to ,paris1 where he studied in the ,ecole des ,beaux-,arts under ,j4,l4 ,gerome4 ,he made the acquaintance of ,j4,f4 ,millet at ,barbizon1 and was also influenced by his friend ,jules ,bastien-,lepage4 ,after his return to the ,united ,states in #ahgf he became a teacher in ,cooper ,institute and opened a studio in ,new ,york city4 ,he was one of the organizers 7and the first secretary7 of the ,society of ,american ,artists4 ,among his portraits are those of ,william ,cullen ,bryant and ,timothy ,cole1 the wood engraver 7,the ,man with the ,violin74 ,eaton died at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 on the #gth of ,june #ahif4 ,,eau ,,claire1 a city and the county-seat of ,eau ,claire county1 ,wisconsin1 ,u4,s4,a41 on the ,chippewa river1 at the mouth of the ,eau ,claire1 about #hg m4 ,e4 of ,st ,paul4 ,pop4 7#ahij7 #ag1dae2 7#aijj7 #ag1eag1 of whom #diif were foreign-born2 7#aiaj census7 #ah1caj4 ,it is served by the ,chicago ,north-,western1 the ,chicago1 ,milwaukee ,st ,paul1 and the ,wisconsin ,central railways1 and is connected by an electric line with ,chippewa ,falls 7#ab m4 distant74 ,the city has a ,carnegie library with #ag1bjj volumes in #aijh1 a ,federal building1 county court house1 normal school and insane asylum4 ,it has abundant water-power1 and is an important lumber manufacturing centre2 among its other manufactures are flour1 wooden-ware1 agricultural machinery1 saw-mill machinery1 logging locomotives1 wood pulp1 paper1 linen1 mattresses1 shoes and trunks4 ,the total value of factory products in #aije was #c1fja1eeh4 ,the city is the principal wholesale and jobbing market for the prosperous ,chippewa ,valley4 ,eau ,claire was first settled about #ahdg1 and was chartered as a city in #ahgb2 its growth dates from the development of the north-western lumber trade in the decade #ahgj-ahhj4 ,in #ahha a serious strike necessitated the calling out of state militia for its suppression and the protection of property4 ,,eau ,,de ,,cologne 7,ger4 ,koelnisches ,wasser1 ,cologne water71 a perfume1 so named from the city of ,cologne1 where its manufacture was first established by an ,italian1 ,johann 7or ,giovanni7 ,maria ,farina 7#afhe-agff71 who settled at ,cologne in #agji4 ,the perfume gained a high reputation by #agff1 and ,farina associated himself with his nephew1 to whose grandson the secret was ultimately imparted2 the original perfume is still manufactured by members of this family under the name of the founder4 ,the manufacture is1 however1 carried on at ,cologne1 and also in ,italy1 by other firms bearing the name ,farina1 and the scent has become part of the regular output of perfumers4 ,the discovery has also been ascribed to a ,paul de ,feminis1 who is supposed to have brought his recipe from ,milan to ,cologne1 of which he became a citizen in #afij1 and sold the perfume under the name ,eau admirable1 leaving the secret at his death to his nephew ,johann ,maria ,farina4 ,certain of the ,farinas claim to use his process4 ,it was originally prepared by making an alcoholic infusion of certain flowers1 pot-herbs1 drugs and spices1 distilling and then adding definite quantities of several vegetable essences4 ,the purity and thorough blending of the ingredients are of the greatest importance4 ,the original perfume is simulated and even excelled by artificial preparations4 ,the oils of lemon1 bergamot and orange are employed1 together with the oils of neroli and rosemary in the better class4 ,the common practice consists in dissolving the oils1 in certain definite proportions based on experience1 in pure alcohol and distilling1 the distillate being diluted by rose-water4 ,,eaux-,,bonnes1 a watering-place of south-western ,france1 in the department of ,basses-,pyrenees1 #ca_/b m4 ,s4,e4 of the small town of ,laruns1 the latter being #bd m4 ,s4 of ,pau by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijf7 #faj4 ,eaux-,bonnes is situated at a height of #bdfj ft4 at the entrance of a fine gorge1 overlooking the confluence of two torrents1 the ,valentin and the ,sourde4 ,the village is well known for its sulphurous and saline mineral waters 7first mentioned in the middle of the #adth century71 which are beneficial in affections of the throat and lungs4 ,they vary between #ej deg4 and #ij deg4 ,f4 in temperature1 and are used for drinking and bathing4 ,there are two thermal establishments1 a casino and fine promenades4 ,the watering-place of ,,les ,,eaux-,,chaudes is #e m4 by road south-west of ,eaux-,bonnes1 in a wild gorge on the ,gave d',ossau4 ,the springs are sulphurous1 varying in temperature from #eb deg4 to #ig deg4 ,f41 and are used in cases of rheumatism1 certain maladies of women1 c4 ,the thermal establishment is a handsome marble building4 ,there is fine mountain scenery in the neighbourhood of both places1 the ,pic de ,ger near ,eaux-,bonnes1 commanding an extensive view4 ,the valley of ,ossau1 one of the most beautiful in the ,pyrenees1 before the ,revolution formed a community which1 though dependent on ,bearn1 had its own legal organization1 manners and costumes1 the last of which are still to be seen on holidays4 ,,eaves 7not a plural form as is sometimes supposed1 but singular2 ,o4 ,eng4 efes1 in ,mid4 ,high ,ger4 obse1 ,gothic ubizwa1 a porch2 connected with over71 in architecture1 the projecting edge of a sloping roof1 which overhangs the face of the wall so as to throw off the water4 ,,eavesdrip1 or ,,eavesdrop1 that width of ground around a house or building which receives the rain water dropping from the eaves4 ,by an ancient ,saxon law1 a landowner was forbidden to erect any building at less than #b ft4 from the boundary of his land1 and was thus prevented from injuring his neighbour's house or property by the dripping of water from his eaves4 ,the law of ,eavesdrip has had its equivalent in the ,roman stillicidium1 which prohibited building up to the very edge of an estate4 ,from the ,saxon custom arose the term eavesdropper1 i4e4 any one who stands within the eavesdrop of a house1 hence one who pries into others' business or listens to secrets4 ,at common law an eavesdropper was regarded as a common nuisance1 and was presentable at the court leet1 and indictable at the sheriff's tourn and punishable by fine and finding sureties for good behaviour4 ,though the offence of eavesdropping still exists at common law1 there is no modern instance of a prosecution or indictment4 ,,ebbw ,,vale1 an urban district in the western parliamentary division of ,monmouthshire1 ,england1 #ba m4 ,n4,w4 of ,newport on the ,great ,western1 ,london ,north-,western and ,rhymney railways4 ,pop4 7#ahia7 #ag1cab2 7#aija7 #bj1iid4 ,it lies near the head of the valley of the river ,ebbw1 at an elevation of nearly #ajjj ft41 in a wild and mountainous mining district1 which contains large collieries and important iron and steel works4 ,,ebel1 ,,hermann ,,wilhelm 7#ahbj-ahge71 ,german philologist1 was born at ,berlin on the #ajth of ,may #ahbj4 ,he displayed in his early years a remarkable capacity for the study of languages1 and at the same time a passionate fondness for music and poetry4 ,at the age of sixteen he became a student at the university of ,berlin1 applying himself especially to philology1 and attending the lectures of ,boeckh4 ,music continued to be the favourite occupation of his leisure hours1 and he pursued the study of it under the direction of ,marx4 ,in the spring of #ahch he passed to the university of ,halle1 and there began to apply himself to comparative philology under ,pott4 ,returning in the following year to his native city1 he continued this study as a disciple of ,bopp4 ,he took his degree in #ahdb1 and1 after spending his year of probation at the ,french ,gymnasium of ,berlin1 he resumed with great earnestness his language studies4 ,about #ahdg he began to study ,old ,persian4 ,in #aheb he accepted a professorship at the ,beheim-,schwarzbach ,institution at ,filehne1 which post he held for six years4 ,it was during this period that his studies in the ,old ,slavic and ,celtic languages began4 ,in #aheh he removed to ,schneidemuehl1 and there he discharged the duties of first professor for ten years4 ,he was afterwards called to the chair of comparative philology at the university of ,berlin4 ,he died at ,misdroy on the #aith of ,august #ahge4 ,the most important work of ,dr ,ebel in the field of ,celtic philology is his revised edition of the ,grammatica ,celtica of ,professor ,zeuss1 completed in #ahga4 ,this had been preceded by his treatises--,de verbi ,britannici futuro ac conjunctivo 7#ahff71 and ,de ,zeussii curis positis in ,grammatica ,celtica 7#ahfi74 ,he made many learned contributions to ,kuehn's ,zeitschrift fuer vergleichende ,sprachforschung1 and to ,a4 ,schleicher's ,beitraege zur vergleichenden ,sprachforschung2 and a selection of these contributions was translated into ,english by ,sullivan1 and published under the title of ,celtic ,studies 7#ahfc74 ,ebel contributed the ,old ,irish section to ,schleicher's ,indogermanische ,chrestomathie 7#ahfi74 ,among his other works must be named ,die ,lehnwoerter der deutschen ,sprache 7#ahef74 ,,ebel1 ,,johann ,,gottfried 7#agfd-ahcj71 the author of the first real guide-book to ,switzerland1 was born at ,zuellichau 7,prussia74 ,he became a medical man1 visited ,switzerland for the first time in #agij1 and became so enamoured of it that he spent three years exploring the country and collecting all kinds of information relating to it4 ,the result was the publication 7,zuerich1 #agic7 of his ,anleitung auf die nuetzlichste und genussvollste ,art in der ,schweitz zu reisen 7#b vols471 in which he gave a complete account of the country1 the ,general ,information sections being followed by an alphabetically arranged list of places1 with descriptions4 ,it at once superseded all other works of the kind1 and was the best ,swiss guide-book till the appearance of ,murray 7#ahch74 ,it was particularly strong on the geological and historical sides4 ,the second 7#ahjd-ahje7 and third 7#ahji-ahaj7 editions filled four volumes1 but the following 7the #hth appeared in #ahdc7 were in a single volume4 ,the work was translated into ,french in #agie 7many later editions7 and into ,english 7by #ahah74 ,ebel also published a work 7#b vols41 ,leipzig1 #agih-ahjb7 entitled ,schilderungen der ,gebirgsvoelker der ,schweiz1 which deals mainly with the pastoral cantons of ,glarus and ,appenzell4 ,in #ahja he was naturalized a ,swiss citizen1 and settled down in ,zuerich4 ,in #ahjh he issued his chief geological work1 ,ueber den ,bau der ,erde im ,alpengebirge 7,zuerich1 #b vols474 ,he took an active share in promoting all that could make his adopted country better known1 e4g4 ,heinrich ,keller's map 7#ahac71 the building of a hotel on the ,rigi 7#ahaf71 and the preparation of a panorama from that point 7#ahbc74 ,from #ahaj onwards he lived at ,zuerich1 with the family of his friend1 ,conrad ,escher von der ,linth 7#agfg-ahbc71 the celebrated engineer4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,eber1 ,,paul 7#aeaa-aefi71 ,german theologian1 was born at ,kitzingen in ,franconia1 and was educated at ,nuremberg and ,wittenberg1 where he became the close friend of ,philip ,melanchthon4 ,in #aeda he was appointed professor of ,latin grammar at ,wittenberg1 and in #aeeg professor of the ,old ,testament4 ,his range of learning was wide1 and he published a handbook of ,jewish history1 a historical calendar intended to supersede the ,roman ,saints' ,calendar1 and a revision of the ,latin ,old ,testament4 ,in the theological conflict of the time he played a large part1 doing what he could to mediate between the extremists4 ,from #aeei to the close of his life he was superintendent-general of the electorate of ,saxony4 ,he attained some fame as a hymn-writer1 his best-known composition being ,wenn wir in hoechsten ,noethen sein4 ,he died at ,wittenberg on the #ajth of ,december #aefi4 ,,eberbach1 a town of ,germany1 in the grand-duchy of ,baden1 romantically situated on the ,neckar1 at the foot of the ,katzenbuckel1 #ai m4 ,e4 of ,heidelberg by the railway to ,wuerzburg4 ,pop4 7#aijj7 #eheg4 ,it contains an ,evangelical and a ,roman ,catholic church1 a commercial and a technical school1 and1 in addition to manufacturing cigars1 leather and cutlery1 carries on by water an active trade in timber and wine4 ,eberbach was founded in #abbg by the ,german king ,henry ,,vii41 who acquired the castle 7the ruins of which overhang the town7 from the bishop of ,worms4 ,it became an imperial town and passed later to the ,palatinate4 ,see ,wirth1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,eberbach 7,stuttgart1 #ahfd74 ,,eberbach1 a famous ,cistercian monastery of ,germany1 in the ,prussian province of ,hesse-,nassau1 situated near ,hattenheim in the ,rheingau1 #aj m4 ,n4,w4 from ,wiesbaden4 ,founded in #aaaf by ,archbishop ,adalbert of ,mainz1 as a house of ,augustinian canons regular1 it was bestowed by him in #aaca upon the ,benedictines1 but was shortly afterwards repurchased and conferred upon the ,cistercian order4 ,the ,romanesque church 7consecrated in #aahf7 contains numerous interesting monuments and tombs1 notable among them being those of the archbishop of ,mainz1 ,gerlach 7d4 #acga7 and ,adolph ,,ii4 of ,nassau 7d4 #adge74 ,it was despoiled during the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 was secularized in #ahjc1 and now serves as a house of correction4 ,its cellars contain some of the finest vintages of the ,rhine wines of the locality4 ,see ,baer1 ,diplomatische ,geschichte der ,abtei ,eberbach 7,wiesb41 #ahea-aheh and #ahhf1 #c vols471 and ,schaefer1 ,die ,abtei ,eberbach im ,mittelalter 7,berlin1 #aija74 ,,eberhard1 surnamed ,,im ,,bart 7,barbatus71 count and afterwards duke of ,wuerttemberg 7#adde-adif71 was the second son of ,louis ,i41 count of ,wuerttemberg-,urach 7d4 #adej71 and succeeded his elder brother ,louis ,,ii4 in #adeg4 ,his uncle ,ulrich ,v41 count of ,wuerttemberg-,stuttgart 7d4 #adhj71 acted as his guardian1 but in #adei1 assisted by ,frederick ,i41 elector palatine1 he threw off this restraint1 and undertook the government of the district of ,urach as ,count ,eberhard ,v4 ,he neglected his duties as a ruler and lived a reckless life until #adfh1 when he made a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem4 ,he visited ,italy1 became acquainted with some famous scholars1 and in #adgd married ,barbara di ,gonzaga1 daughter of ,lodovico ,,iii41 marquis of ,mantua1 a lady distinguished for her intellectual qualities4 ,in #adhb he brought about the treaty of ,muensingen with his cousin ,eberhard ,,vi41 count of ,wuerttemberg-,stuttgart4 ,by this treaty the districts of ,urach and ,stuttgart into which ,wuerttemberg had been divided in #adcg were again united1 and for the future the county was declared indivisible1 and the right of primogeniture established4 ,the treaty led to some disturbances1 but in #adib the sanction of the nobles was secured for its provisions4 ,in return for this ,eberhard agreed to some limitations on the power of the count1 and so in a sense founded the constitution of ,wuerttemberg4 ,at the diet of ,worms in #adie the emperor ,maximilian ,i4 guaranteed the treaty1 confirmed the possessions and prerogatives of the house of ,wuerttemberg1 and raised ,eberhard to the rank of duke4 ,eberhard1 although a lover of peace1 was one of the founders of the ,swabian ,league in #adhh1 and assisted to release ,maximilian1 then king of the ,romans1 from his imprisonment at ,bruges in the same year4 ,he gave charters to the towns of ,stuttgart and ,tuebingen1 and introduced order into the convents of his land1 some of which he secularized4 ,he took a keen interest in the new learning1 founded the university of ,tuebingen in #adgf1 befriended ,john ,reuchlin1 whom he made his private secretary1 welcomed scholars to his court1 and is said to have learned ,latin in later life4 ,in #adhb he again visited ,italy and received the ,golden ,rose from ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 ,he won the esteem of the emperors ,frederick ,,iii4 and ,maximilian ,i4 on account of his wisdom and fidelity1 and his people held him in high regard4 ,his later years were mainly spent at ,stuttgart1 but he died at ,tuebingen on the #beth of ,february #adif1 and in #aecg his ashes were placed in the choir of the ,stiftskirche there4 ,eberhard left no children1 and the succession passed to his cousin ,eberhard1 who became ,duke ,eberhard ,,ii4 ,see ,roesslin1 ,leben ,eberhards im ,barte 7,tuebingen1 #agic72 ,bossert1 ,eberhard im ,bart 7,stuttgart1 #ahhd74 ,,eberhard1 ,,christian ,,august ,,gottlob 7#agfi-ahde71 ,german miscellaneous writer1 was born at ,belzig1 near ,wittenberg1 on the #abth of ,january #agfi4 ,he studied theology at ,leipzig2 but1 a story he contributed to a periodical having proved successful1 he devoted himself to literature4 ,with the exception of ,hannchen und die ,kuechlein 7#ahbb71 a narrative poem in ten parts1 and an epic on the ,creation1 ,der erste ,mensch und die ,erde 7#ahbh71 ,eberhard's work was ephemeral in character and is now forgotten4 ,he died at ,dresden on the #acth of ,may #ahde4 ,his collected works 7,gesammelte ,schriften7 appeared in #bj volumes in #ahcj-ahca4 ,,eberhard1 ,,johann ,,augustus 7#agci-ahji71 ,german theologian and philosopher1 was born at ,halberstadt in ,lower ,saxony1 where his father was singing-master at the church of ,st ,martin's1 and teacher of the school of the same name4 ,he studied theology at the university of ,halle1 and became tutor to the eldest son of the baron von der ,horst1 to whose family he attached himself for a number of years4 ,in #agfc he was appointed con-rector of the school of ,st ,martin's1 and second preacher in the hospital church of the ,holy ,ghost2 but he soon afterwards resigned these offices and followed his patron to ,berlin4 ,there he met ,nicolai and ,moses ,mendelssohn1 with whom he formed a close friendship4 ,in #agfh he became preacher or chaplain to the workhouse at ,berlin and the neighbouring fishing village of ,stralow4 ,here he wrote his ,neue ,apologie des ,socrates 7#aggb71 a work occasioned by an attack on the fifteenth chapter of ,marmontel's ,belisarius made by ,peter ,hofstede1 a clergyman of ,rotterdam1 who maintained the patristic view that the virtues of the noblest pagans were only splendida peccata4 ,eberhard stated the arguments for the broader view with dignity1 acuteness and learning1 but the liberality of the reasoning gave great offence to the strictly orthodox divines1 and is believed to have obstructed his preferment in the church4 ,in #aggd he was appointed to the living of ,charlottenburg4 ,a second volume of his ,apologie appeared in #aggh4 ,in this he not only endeavoured to obviate some objections which were taken to the former part1 but continued his inquiries into the doctrines of the ,christian religion1 religious toleration and the proper rules for interpreting the ,scriptures4 ,in #aggh he accepted the professorship of philosophy at ,halle4 ,as an academical teacher1 however1 he was unsuccessful4 ,his powers as an original thinker were not equal to his learning and his literary gifts1 as was shown in his opposition to the philosophy of ,kant4 ,in #aghf he was admitted a member of the ,berlin ,academy of ,sciences2 in #ahje the king of ,prussia conferred upon him the honorary title of a privy-councillor4 ,in #ahjh he obtained the degree of doctor in divinity1 which was given him as a reward for his theological writings4 ,he died on the #fth of ,january #ahji4 ,he was master of the learned languages1 spoke and wrote ,french with facility and correctness1 and understood ,english1 ,italian and ,dutch4 ,he possessed a just and discriminating taste for the fine arts1 and was a great lover of music4 ,works3--,neue ,apologie des ,socrates1 c4 7#b vols41 #aggb-aggh72 ,allgemeine ,theorie des ,denkens und ,empfindens1 c4 7,berlin1 #aggf71 an essay which gained the prize assigned by the ,royal ,society of ,berlin for that year2 ,von dem ,begriff der ,philosophie und ihren ,theilen 7,berlin1 #aggh7--;a short essay1 in which he announced the plan of his lectures on being appointed to the professorship at ,halle2 ,lobschrift auf ,herrn ,johann ,thunmann ,prof4 der ,weltweisheit und ,beredsamkeit auf der ,universitaet zu ,halle 7,halle1 #aggi72 ,amyntor1 eine ,geschichte in ,briefen 7,berlin1 #aghb7--written with the view of counteracting the influence of those sceptical and ,epicurean principles in religion and morals then so prevalent in ,france1 and rapidly spreading amongst the higher ranks in ,germany2 ,ueber die ,zeichen der ,aufklaerung einer ,nation1 c4 7,halle1 #aghc72 ,theorie der schoenen ,kuenste und ,wissenschaften1 c4 7,halle1 #aghc1 #crd ed4 #agij72 ,vermischte ,schriften 7,halle1 #aghd72 ,neue vermischte ,schriften 7ib4 #aghf72 ,allgemeine ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 c4 7,halle1 #aghh71 #bnd ed4 with a continuation and chronological tables 7#agif72 ,versuch einer allgemeinen-deutschen ,synonymik 7,halle and ,leipzig1 #agie-ahjb1 #f vols41 #dth ed4 #aheb-ahec71 long reckoned the best work on the synonyms of the ,german language 7an abridgment of it was published by the author in one large volume1 ,halle1 #ahjb72 ,handbuch der ,aesthetik 7,halle1 #ahjc-ahje1 #bnd ed4 #ahjg-ahbj74 ,he also edited the ,philosophisches ,magazin 7#aghh-agib7 and the ,philosophisches ,archiv 7#agib-agie74 ,see ,f4 ,nicolai1 ,gedaechtnisschrift auf ,j4,a4 ,eberhard 7,berlin and ,stettin1 #ahaj72 also ,k4,h4 ,joerdens1 ,lexicon deutscher ,dichter und ,prosaisten4 ,,eberlin1 ,,johann ,,ernst 7#agjb-agfb71 ,german musician and composer1 was born in ,bavaria1 and became afterwards organist in the cathedral at ,salzburg1 where he died4 ,most of his compositions were for the church 7oratorios1 c471 but he also wrote some important fugues1 sonatas and preludes2 and his pieces were at one time highly valued by ,mozart4 ,,ebers1 ,,georg ,,moritz 7#ahcg-ahih71 ,german ,egyptologist and novelist1 was born in ,berlin on the #ast of ,march #ahcg4 ,at ,goettingen he studied jurisprudence1 and at ,berlin oriental languages and archaeology4 ,having made a special study of ,egyptology1 he became in #ahfe docent in ,egyptian language and antiquities at ,jena1 and in #ahgj he was appointed professor in these subjects at ,leipzig4 ,he had made two scientific journeys to ,egypt1 and his first work of importance1 ,aegypten und die ,buecher ,moses1 appeared in #ahfg-ahfh4 ,in #ahgd he edited the celebrated medical papyrus 7,papyrus ,ebers7 which he had discovered in ,thebes 7translation by ,h4 ,joachim1 #ahij74 ,ebers early conceived the idea of popularizing ,egyptian lore by means of historical romances4 ,eine aegyptische ,koenigstochter was published in #ahfd1 and obtained great success4 ,his subsequent works of the same kind--,uarda 7#ahgg71 ,homo sum 7#ahgh71 ,die ,schwestern 7#ahhj71 ,der ,kaiser 7#ahha71 of which the scene is laid in ,egypt at the time of ,hadrian1 ,serapis 7#ahhe71 ,die ,nilbraut 7#ahhg71 and ,kleopatra 7#ahid71 were also well received1 and did much to make the public familiar with the discoveries of ,egyptologists4 ,ebers also turned his attention to other fields of historical fiction--especially the #afth century 7,die ,frau ,buergermeisterin1 #ahhb2 ,die ,gred1 #ahhg7--without1 however1 attaining the success of his ,egyptian novels4 ,apart from their antiquarian and historical interest1 ,ebers's books have not a very high literary value4 ,his other writings include a descriptive work on ,egypt 7,aegypten in ,wort und ,bild1 #bnd ed41 #ahhj71 a guide to ,egypt 7#ahhf7 and a life 7#ahhe7 of his old teacher1 the ,egyptologist ,karl ,richard ,lepsius4 ,the state of his health led him in #ahhi to retire from his chair at ,leipzig on a pension4 ,he died at ,tutzing in ,bavaria1 on the #gth of ,august #ahih4 ,ebers's ,gesammelte ,werke appeared in #be vols4 at ,stuttgart 7#ahic-ahie74 ,many of his books have been translated into ,english4 ,for his life see his ,die ,geschichte meines ,lebens 7,stuttgart1 #ahic72 also ,r4 ,gosche1 ,g4 ,ebers1 der ,forscher und ,dichter 7#bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #ahhg74 ,,eberswalde1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,prussia1 #bh m4 ,n4,e4 of ,berlin by rail2 on the ,finow canal4 ,pop4 7#aije7 #bc1hgf4 ,the town has a ,roman ,catholic and two ,evangelical churches1 a school of forestry1 a gymnasium1 a higher-grade girls' school and two schools of domestic economy4 ,it possesses a mineral spring1 which attracts numerous summer visitors1 and has various industries1 which include iron-founding and the making of horse-shoe nails1 roofing material and bricks4 ,a considerable trade is carried on in grain1 wood and coals4 ,in the immediate neighbourhood are one of the chief brass-foundries in ,germany and an extensive government paper-mill1 in which the paper for the notes of the imperial bank is manufactured4 ,eberswalde received its municipal charter in #abeg4 ,it was taken and sacked during the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,in #agdg ,frederick the ,great brought a colony of ,thuringian cutlers to the town1 but this branch of industry has entirely died out4 ,about #d m4 to the north lies the old ,cistercian monastery of ,chorin1 the fine ,gothic church of which contains the tombs of several margraves of ,brandenburg4 ,,ebert1 ,,friedrich ,,adolf 7#agia-ahcd71 ,german bibliographer1 was born at ,taucha1 near ,leipzig1 on the #ith of ,july #agia1 the son of a ,lutheran pastor4 ,at the age of fifteen he was appointed to a subordinate post in the municipal library of ,leipzig4 ,he studied theology for a short time at ,leipzig1 and afterwards philology at ,wittenberg1 where he graduated doctor in philosophy in #ahab4 ,while still a student he had already published1 in #ahaa1 a work on public libraries1 and in #ahab another work entitled ,hierarchiae in religionem ac literas commoda4 ,in #ahac he was attached to the ,leipzig ,university library1 and in #ahad was appointed secretary to the ,royal library of ,dresden4 ,the same year he published ,f4 ,taubmanns ,leben und ,verdienste1 and in #ahai ,torquato ,tasso1 a translation from ,pierre ,louis ,ginguene with annotations4 ,the rich resources open to him in the ,dresden library enabled him to undertake the work on which his reputation chiefly rests1 the ,allgemeines bibliographisches ,lexikon1 the first volume of which appeared in #ahba and the second in #ahcj4 ,this was the first work of the kind produced in ,germany1 and the most scientific published anywhere4 ,from #ahbc to #ahbe ,ebert was librarian to the duke of ,brunswick at ,wolfenbuettel1 but returning to ,dresden was made1 in #ahbg1 chief librarian of the ,dresden ,royal library4 ,among his other works are--,die ,bildung des ,bibliothekars 7#ahbj71 ,geschichte und ,beschreibung der koeniglichen oeffentlichen ,bibliothek in ,dresden 7#ahbb71 ,zur ,handschriftenkunde 7#ahbe-ahbg71 and ,culturperioden des obersaechsischen ,mittelalters 7#ahbe74 ,ebert was a contributor to various journals and took part in the editing of ,ersch and ,gruber's great encyclopaedia4 ,he died at ,dresden on the #acth of ,november #ahcd1 in consequence of a fall from the ladder in his library4 ,see the article in ,ersch und ,grubers ,encyclopaedie1 and that in the ,allg4 deutsche ,biog4 by his successor in the post of chief librarian in ,dresden1 ,schnorr von ,carolsfeld4 ,,ebingen1 a town of ,germany1 in the kingdom of ,wuerttemberg1 on the ,schmiecha1 a left-hand tributary of the ,danube1 #bb m4 ,s4 of ,tuebingen and #cg m4 ,w4 of ,ulm by rail4 ,it manufactures velvet and cotton-velvet 7,manchester7 goods1 stockings1 stays1 hats1 needles1 tools1 c4 ,there are also tanneries4 ,pop4 #ijjj4 ,,ebionites 7,heb4 ,hebrew3 ebyonim1 poor men71 a name given to the ultra-,jewish party in the early ,christian church4 ,it is first met with in ,irenaeus 7,adv4 ,haer4 i4 #bf4 #b71 who sheds no light on the origin of the ,ebionites1 but says that while they admit the world to have been made by the true ,god 7in contrast to the ,demiurge of the ,gnostics71 they held ,cerinthian views on the person of ,christ1 used only the ,gospel of ,matthew 7probably the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews--so ,eusebius71 and rejected ,paul as an apostate from the ,mosaic ,law1 to the customs and ordinances of which1 including circumcision1 they steadily adhered4 ,a similar account is given by ,hippolytus 7,haer4 vii4 #ce71 who invents a founder named ,ebion4 ,origen 7,contra ,celsum1 v4 #fa2 ,in ,matt4 tom4 xvi4 #ab7 divides the ,ebionites into two classes according to their acceptance or rejection of the virgin birth of ,jesus1 but says that all alike reject the ,pauline epistles4 ,this is confirmed by ,eusebius1 who adds that even those who admitted the virgin birth did not accept the pre-existence of ,jesus as ,logos and ,sophia4 ,they kept both the ,jewish ,sabbath and the ,christian ,lord's day1 and held extreme millenarian ideas in which ,jerusalem figured as the centre of the coming ,messianic kingdom4 ,epiphanius with his customary confusion makes two separate sects1 ,ebionites and ,nazarenes4 ,both names1 however1 refer to the same people#a 7the ,jewish ,christians of ,syria71 the latter going back to the designation of apostolic times 7,acts xxiv4 #e71 and the former being the term usually applied to them in the ecclesiastical literature of the #bnd and #crd centuries4 ,the origin of the ,nazarenes or ,ebionites as a distinct sect is very obscure1 but may be dated with much likelihood from the edict of ,hadrian which in #ace finally scattered the old church of ,jerusalem4 ,while ,christians of the type of ,aristo of ,pella and ,hegesippus1 on the snapping of the old ties1 were gradually assimilated to the great church outside1 the more conservative section became more and more isolated and exclusive4 ,it may have been then that they called themselves the ,poor ,men1 probably as claiming to be the true representatives of those who had been blessed in the ,sermon on the ,mount1 but possibly adding to the name other associations4 ,out of touch with the main stream of the church they developed a new kind of pharisaism4 ,doctrinally they stood not so much for a theology as for a refusal of theology1 and1 rejecting the practical liberalism of ,paul1 became the natural heirs of those early ,judaizers who had caused the apostle so much annoyance and trouble4 ,though there is insufficient justification for dividing the ,ebionites into two separate and distinct communities1 labelled respectively ,ebionites and ,nazarenes1 we have good evidence1 not only that there were grades of ,christological thought among them1 but that a considerable section1 at the end of the #bnd century and the beginning of the #crd1 exchanged their simple ,judaistic creed for a strange blend of ,essenism and ,christianity4 ,these are known as the ,helxaites or ,elchasaites1 for they accepted as a revelation the book of ,elchasai1 and one ,alcibiades of ,apamea undertook a mission to ,rome about #bbj to propagate its teaching4 ,it was claimed that ,christ1 as an angel #if miles high1 accompanied by the ,holy ,spirit1 as a female angel of the same stature1 had given the revelation to ,elchasai in the #crd year of ,trajan 7,a4,d4 #ajj71 but the book was probably quite new in ,alcibiades' time4 ,it taught that ,christ was an angel born of human parents1 and had appeared both before 7e4g4 in ,adam and ,moses7 and after this birth in ,judea4 ,his coming did not annul the ,law1 for he was merely a prophet and teacher2 ,paul was wrong and circumcision still necessary4 ,baptism must be repeated as a means of purification from sin1 and proof against disease2 the sinner immerses himself in the name of the mighty and most high ,god1 invoking the seven witnesses 7sky1 water1 the holy spirits1 the angels of prayer1 oil1 salt and earth71 and pledging himself to amendment4 ,abstinence from flesh was also enjoined1 and a good deal of astrological fancy was interwoven with the doctrinal and practical teaching4 ,it is highly probable1 too1 that from these ,essene ,ebionites there issued the fantastical and widely read ,clementine literature 7,homilies and ,recognitions7 of the #crd century4 ,ebionite views lingered especially in the country east of the ,jordan until they were absorbed by ,islam in the #gth century4 ,in addition to the literature cited see ,r4,c4 ,ottley1 ,the ,doctrine of the ,incarnation1 part iii4 ,sec4 ii42 ,w4 ,moeller1 ,hist4 of the ,christian ,church1 i4 #ii2 art4 in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopaedie1 s4v4 ,ebioniten2 also ,,clementine ,,literature4 ,,footnote3 #a ,so ,a4 ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 i4 #cja1 and ,f4,j4,a4 ,hort1 ,judaistic ,christianity1 p4 #aii4 ,th4 ,zahn and ,j4,b4 ,lightfoot 7,st4 ,paul and the ,three1 in ,commentary on ,galatians7 maintain the distinction4 ,,ebner-,,eschenbach1 ,,marie1 ,,freifrau ,,von 7#ahcj- 71 ,austrian novelist1 was born at ,zdislavic in ,moravia1 on the #acth of ,september #ahcj1 the daughter of a ,count ,dubsky4 ,she lost her mother in early infancy1 but received a careful intellectual training from two stepmothers4 ,in #ahdh she married the ,austrian captain1 and subsequent field-marshal1 ,moritz von ,ebner-,eschenbach1 and resided first at ,vienna1 then at ,klosterbruck1 where her husband had a military charge1 and after #ahfj again at ,vienna4 ,the marriage was childless1 and the talented wife sought consolation in literary work4 ,in her endeavours she received assistance and encouragement from ,franz ,grillparzer and ,freiherr von ,muench-,bellinghausen4 ,her first essay was with the drama ,maria ,stuart in ,schottland1 which ,philipp ,eduard ,devrient produced at the ,karlsruhe theatre in #ahfj4 ,after some other unsuccessful attempts in the field of drama1 she found her true sphere in narrative4 ,commencing with ,die ,prinzessin von ,banalien 7#ahgb71 she graphically depicts in ,bozena 7,stuttgart1 #ahgf1 #dth ed4 #ahii7 and ,das ,gemeindekind 7,berlin1 #ahhg1 #dth ed4 #aijj7 the surroundings of her ,moravian home1 and in ,lotti1 die ,uhrmacherin 7,berlin1 #ahhc1 #dth ed4 #aijj71 ,zwei ,comtessen 7,berlin1 #ahhe1 #eth ed4 #ahih71 ,unsuehnbar 7#ahij1 #eth ed4 #aijj7 and ,glaubenslos8 7#ahic7 the life of the ,austrian aristocracy in town and country4 ,she also published ,neue ,erzaehlungen 7,berlin1 #ahha1 #crd ed4 #ahid71 ,aphorismen 7,berlin1 #ahhj1 #dth ed4 #ahie7 and ,parabeln1 ,maerchen und ,gedichte 7#bnd ed41 ,berlin1 #ahib74 ,frau von ,ebner-,eschenbach's elegance of style1 her incisive wit and masterly depiction of character give her a foremost place among the ,german women-writers of her time4 ,on the occasion of her seventieth birthday the university of ,vienna conferred upon her the degree of doctor of philosophy1 honoris causa4 ,an edition of ,marie von ,ebner-,eschenbach's ,gesammelte ,schriften began to appear in #ahic 7,berlin74 ,see ,a4 ,bettelheim1 ,marie von ,ebner-,eschenbach3 biographische ,blaetter 7,berlin1 #aijj71 and ,m4 ,necker1 ,marie von ,ebner-,eschenbach1 nach ihren ,werken geschildert 7,berlin1 #aijj74 ,,eboli 7anc4 ,eburum71 a town of ,campania1 ,italy1 in the province of ,salerno1 from which it is #af m4 ,e4 by rail1 situated #dgj ft4 above sea-level1 on the ,s4 edge of the hills overlooking the valley of the ,sele4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #ifdb 7town71 #ab1dbc 7commune74 ,the sacristy of ,st ,francesco contains two #adth-century pictures1 one by ,roberto da ,oderisio of ,naples4 ,the ancient ,eburum was a ,lucanian city1 mentioned only by ,pliny and in inscriptions1 not far distant from the ,campanian border4 ,it lay above the ,via ,popillia1 which followed the line taken by the modern railway4 ,some scanty remains of its ancient polygonal walls may still be seen4 7,t4 ,as47 ,,ebony 7,gr4 ,greek3 ebenos71 the wood of various species of trees of the genus ,diospyros 7natural order ,ebenaceae71 widely distributed in the tropical parts of the world4 ,the best kinds are very heavy1 are of a deep black1 and consist of heart-wood only4 ,on account of its colour1 durability1 hardness and susceptibility of polish1 ebony is much used for cabinet work and inlaying1 and for the manufacture of pianoforte-keys1 knife-handles and turned articles4 ,the best ,indian and ,ceylon ebony is furnished by ,d4 ,ebenum1 a native of southern ,india and ,ceylon1 which grows in great abundance throughout the flat country west of ,trincomalee4 ,the tree is distinguished from others by the inferior width of its trunk1 and its jet-black1 charred-looking bark1 beneath which the wood is perfectly white until the heart is reached4 ,the wood is stated to excel that obtained from ,d4 reticulata of the ,mauritius and all other varieties of ebony in the fineness and intensity of its dark colour4 ,although the centre of the tree alone is employed1 reduced logs #a to #c ft4 in diameter can readily be procured4 ,much of the ,east ,indian ebony is yielded by the species ,d4 ,melanoxylon 7,coromandel ebony71 a large tree attaining a height of #fj to #hj ft41 and #h to #aj ft4 in circumference1 with irregular rigid branches1 and oblong or oblong-lanceolate leaves4 ,the bark of the tree is astringent1 and mixed with pepper is used in dysentery by the natives of ,india4 ,the wood of ,d4 tomentosa1 a native of north ,bengal1 is black1 hard and of great weight4 ,d4 montana1 another ,indian species1 produces a yellowish-grey soft but durable wood4 ,d4 quaesita is the tree from which is obtained the wood known in ,ceylon by the name ,calamander1 derived by ,pridham from the ,sinhalee kalumindrie1 black-flowing4 ,its closeness of grain1 great hardness and fine hazel-brown colour1 mottled and striped with black1 render it a valuable material for veneering and furniture making4 ,d4 ,dendo1 a native of ,angola1 is a valuable timber tree1 #be to #ce ft4 high1 with a trunk #a to #b ft4 in diameter4 ,the heart-wood is very black and hard and is known as black ebony1 also as billet-wood1 and ,gabun1 ,lagos1 ,calabar or ,niger ebony4 ,what is termed ,jamaica or ,west ,indian ebony1 and also the green ebony of commerce1 are produced by ,brya ,ebenus1 a leguminous tree or shrub1 having a trunk rarely more than #d in4 in diameter1 flexible spiny branches1 and orange-yellow1 sweet-scented flowers4 ,the heart-wood is rich dark brown in colour1 heavier than water1 exceedingly hard and capable of receiving a high polish4 ,from the book of ,ezekiel 7xxvii4 #ae7 we learn that ebony was among the articles of merchandise brought to ,tyre2 and ,herodotus states 7iii4 #ig7 that the ,ethiopians every three years sent a tribute of #bjj logs of it to ,persia4 ,ebony was known to ,virgil as a product of ,india 7,georg4 ii4 #aaf71 and was displayed by ,pompey the ,great in his ,mithradatic triumph at ,rome4 ,by the ancients it was esteemed of equal value for durability with the cypress and cedar 7see ,pliny1 ,nat4 ,hist4 xii4 #i1 xvi4 #gi74 ,according to ,solinus 7,polyhistor1 cap4 lv4 p4 #cec1 ,paris1 #afba71 it was employed by the kings of ,india for sceptres and images1 also1 on account of its supposed antagonism to poison1 for drinking-cups4 ,the hardness and black colour of the wood appear to have given rise to the tradition related by ,pausanias1 and alluded to by ,southey in ,thalaba1 i4 #bb1 that the ebony tree produced neither leaves nor fruit1 and was never seen exposed to the sun4 ,,ebrard1 ,,johannes ,,heinrich ,,august 7#ahah-ahhh71 ,german theologian1 was born at ,erlangen on the #ahth of ,january #ahah4 ,he was educated in his native town and at ,berlin1 and after teaching in a private family became ,privatdocent at ,erlangen 7#ahda7 and then professor of theology at ,zuerich 7#ahdd74 ,in #ahdg he was appointed professor of theology at ,erlangen1 a chair which he resigned in #ahfa2 in #ahge he became pastor of the ,french reformed church in the same city4 ,as a critic ,ebrard occupied a very moderate standpoint2 as a writer his chief works were ,christliche ,dogmatik 7#b vols41 #ahea71 ,vorlesungen ueber praktische ,theologie 7#ahfd71 ,apologetik 7#ahgd-ahge1 ,eng4 trans4 #ahhf74 ,he also edited and completed ,h4 ,olshausen's commentary1 himself writing the volumes on the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 the ,johannine ,epistles1 and ,revelation4 ,in the department of belles-lettres he wrote a good deal under such pseudonyms as ,christian ,deutsch1 ,gottfried ,flammberg and ,sigmund ,sturm4 ,he died at ,erlangen on the #bcrd of ,july #ahhh4 ,,ebro 7anc4 ,iberus or ,hiberus71 the only one of the five great rivers of the ,iberian ,peninsula 7,tagus1 ,douro1 ,ebro1 ,guadalquivir1 ,guadiana7 which flows into the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,ebro rises at ,fuentibre1 a hamlet among the ,cantabrian ,mountains1 in the province of ,santander2 at ,reinosa1 #d m4 east1 it is joined on the right by the ,hijar1 and thus gains considerably in volume4 ,it flows generally east by south through a tortuous valley as far as ,miranda de ,ebro1 passing through the celebrated ,roman bridge known as ,la ,horadada 7the perforated71 near ,ona in ,burgos4 ,from ,miranda it winds south-eastward through the wide basin enclosed on the right by the highlands of ,old ,castile and western ,aragon1 and on the left by the ,pyrenees4 ,the chief cities on its banks are ,logrono1 ,calahorra1 ,tudela1 ,saragossa and ,caspe4 ,near ,mora in ,catalonia it forces a way through the coastal mountains1 and1 passing ,tortosa1 falls into the ,mediterranean about #hj m4 south-west of ,barcelona1 after forming by its delta a conspicuous projection on the otherwise regular coast line4 ,in its length1 approximately #dfe m41 the ,ebro is inferior to the ,tagus1 ,guadiana and ,douro2 it drains an area of nearly #cb1jjj sq4 m4 ,its principal tributaries are--from the right hand the ,jalon with its affluent the ,jiloca1 the ,huerva1 ,aguas1 ,martin1 ,guadalope and ,matarrana2 from the left the ,ega1 ,aragon1 ,arba1 ,gallego1 and the ,segre with its intricate system of confluent rivers4 ,the ,ebro and its tributaries have been utilized for irrigation since the ,moorish conquest2 the main stream becomes navigable by small boats about ,tudela2 but its value as a means of communication is almost neutralized by the obstacles in its channel1 and seafaring vessels cannot proceed farther up than ,tortosa4 ,the great ,imperial ,canal1 begun under the emperor ,charles ,v4 7#aejj-aeeh71 proceeds along the right bank of the river from a point about #c m4 below ,tudela1 to ,el ,burgo de ,ebro1 #e m4 below ,saragossa2 the irrigation canal of ,tauste skirts the opposite bank for a shorter distance2 and the ,san ,carlos or ,new ,canal affords direct communication between ,amposta at the head of the delta and the harbour of ,los ,alfaques4 ,from ,miranda to ,mora the ,bilbao-,tarragona railway follows the course of the ,ebro along the right bank4 ,,ebroin 7d4 #fha71 ,frankish mayor of the palace1 was a ,neustrian1 and wished to impose the authority of ,neustria over ,burgundy and ,austrasia4 ,in #fef1 at the moment of his accession to power1 ,sigebert ,,iii41 the king of ,austrasia1 had just died1 and the ,austrasian mayor of the palace1 ,grimoald1 was attempting to usurp the authority4 ,the great nobles1 however1 appealed to the king of ,neustria1 ,clovis ,,ii41 and unity was re-established4 ,but in spite of a very firm policy ,ebroin was unable to maintain this unity1 and while ,clotaire ,,iii41 son of ,clovis ,,ii41 reigned in ,neustria and ,burgundy1 he was obliged in #ffj to give the ,austrasians a special king1 ,childeric ,,ii41 brother of ,clotaire ,,iii41 and a special mayor of the palace1 ,wulfoald4 ,he endeavoured to maintain at any rate the union of ,neustria and ,burgundy1 but the great ,burgundian nobles wished to remain independent1 and rose under ,st ,leger 7,leodegar71 bishop of ,autun1 defeated ,ebroin1 and interned him in the monastery of ,luxeuil 7#fgj74 ,a proclamation was then issued to the effect that each kingdom should keep its own laws and customs1 that there should be no further interchange of functionaries between the kingdoms1 and that no one should again set up a tyranny like that of ,ebroin4 ,soon1 however1 ,leger was defeated by ,wulfoald and the ,austrasians1 and was himself confined at ,luxeuil in #fgc4 ,in the same year1 taking advantage of the general anarchy1 ,ebroin and ,leger left the cloister and soon found themselves once more face to face4 ,each looked for support to a different ,merovingian king1 ,ebroin even proclaiming a false ,merovingian as sovereign4 ,in this struggle ,leger was vanquished2 he was besieged in ,autun1 was forced to surrender and had his eyes put out1 and1 on the #abth of ,october #fgh1 he was put to death after undergoing prolonged tortures4 ,the church honours him as a saint4 ,after his death ,ebroin became sole and absolute ruler of the ,franks1 imposing his authority over ,burgundy and subduing the ,austrasians1 whom he defeated in #fgh at ,bois-du-,fay1 near ,laon4 ,his triumph1 however1 was short-lived2 he was assassinated in #fha1 the victim of a combined attack of his numerous enemies4 ,he was a man of great energy1 but all his actions seem to have been dictated by no higher motives than ambition and lust of power4 ,see ,liber historiae ,francorum1 edited by ,b4 ,krusch1 in ,mon4 ,germ4 hist4 script4 rer4 ,merov4 vol4 ii42 ,vita sancti ,leodegarii1 by ,ursinus1 a monk of ,st ,maixent 7,migne1 ,patr4 ,latina1 vol4 xcvi472 ,vita metrica in ,poetae ,latini aevi ,carolini1 vol4 iii4 7,mon4 ,germ4 hist472 ,j4,b4 ,pitra1 ,histoire de ,saint ,leger 7,paris1 #ahdf72 and ,j4 ,friedrich1 ,zur ,gesch4 des ,hausmeiers ,ebroin1 in the ,proceedings of the ,academy of ,munich 7#ahhg1 pp4 #db-fa74 7,c4 ,pf47 ,,eburacum1 or ,,eboracum 7probably a later variant71 the ,roman name of ,york 7q4v47 in ,england4 ,established about ,a4,d4 #ge-hj as fortress of the ,ninth legion and garrisoned 7after the annihilation of that legion about ,a4,d4 #aah7 by the ,sixth legion1 it developed outside its walls a town of civil life1 which later obtained ,roman municipal rank and in the #dth century was the seat of a ,christian bishop4 ,the fortress and town were separated by the ,ouse4 ,on the left bank1 where the minster stands1 was the fortress1 of which the walls can still be partly traced1 and one corner 7the so-called ,multangular ,tower7 survives4 ,the municipality occupied the right bank near the present railway station4 ,the place was important for its garrison and as an administrative centre1 and the town itself was prosperous1 though probably never very large4 ,the name is preserved in the abbreviated form ,ebor in the official name of the archbishop of ,york1 but the philological connexion between ,eboracum and the modern name ,york is doubtful and has probably been complicated by ,danish influence4 7,f4 ,j4 ,h47 ,,eca ,,de ,,queiroz1 ,,jose ,,maria 7#ahdc-aijj71 ,portuguese writer1 was born at the northern fishing town of ,povoa de ,varzim1 his father being a retired judge4 ,he went through the university of ,coimbra1 and on taking his degree in law was appointed ,administrador de ,concelho at ,leiria1 but soon tired of the narrow mental atmosphere of the old cathedral town and left it4 ,he accompanied the ,conde de ,rezende to ,egypt1 where he assisted at the opening of the ,suez ,canal1 and to ,palestine1 and on his return settled down to journalism in ,lisbon and began to evolve a style1 at once magical and unique1 which was to renovate his country's prose4 ,though he spent much of his days with the philosopher sonneteer ,anthero de ,quental1 and the critic ,jayme ,batalha ,reis1 afterwards consul-general in ,london1 he did not restrict his intimacy to men of letters1 but frequented all kinds of society1 acquiring a complete acquaintance with contemporary ,portuguese life and manners4 ,entering the consular service in #ahgb1 he went to ,havana1 and1 after a tour in the ,united ,states1 was transferred two years later to ,newcastle-on-,tyne and in #ahgf to ,bristol4 ,in #ahhh he became ,portuguese consul-general in ,paris1 and there died in #aijj4 ,queiroz made his literary debut in #ahgj by a sensational story1 ,the ,mystery of the ,cintra ,road1 written in collaboration with the art critic ,ramalho ,ortigao1 but the first publication which brought him fame was ,the ,farpas1 a series of satirical and humorous sketches of various phases of social life1 which1 to quote the poet ,guerra ,junqueiro1 contain the epilepsy of talent4 ,these essays1 the joint production of the same partners1 criticized and ridiculed the faults and foibles of every class in turn1 mainly by a comparison with the ,french1 for the education of ,queiroz had made him a ,frenchman in ideas and sympathies4 ,his ,brazilian friend1 ,eduardo ,prado1 bears witness that at this period ,french literature1 especially ,hugo's verse1 and even ,french politics1 interested ,queiroz profoundly1 while he altogether ignored the belles-lettres of his own country and its public affairs4 ,this phase lasted for some years1 and even when he travelled in the ,east he was inclined to see it with the eyes of ,flaubert1 though the publication of ,the ,relic and that delightful prose poem ,sweet ,miracle afterwards showed that he had been directly impressed and deeply penetrated by its scenery1 poetry and mysticism4 ,the ,franco-,german ,war of #ahgj1 however1 by lowering the prestige of ,france1 proved the herald of a national ,portuguese revival1 and had a great influence on ,queiroz1 as also had his friend ,oliveira ,martins 7q4v471 the biographer of the patriot kings of the ,aviz dynasty4 ,he founded the ,portuguese ,realist-,naturalist school1 of which he remained for the rest of his life the chief exponent1 by a powerful romance1 ,the ,crime of ,father ,amaro1 written in #ahga at ,leiria but only issued in #ahge4 ,its appearance then led to a baseless charge that he had plagiarized ,la ,faute de l',abbe ,mouret1 and ill-informed critics began to name ,queiroz the ,portuguese ,zola1 though he clearly occupied an altogether different plane in the domain of art4 ,during his stay in ,england he produced two masterpieces1 ,cousin ,basil and ,the ,maias1 but they show no traces of ,english influence1 nor again are they ,french in tone1 for1 living near to ,france1 his disillusionment progressed and was completed when he went to ,paris and had to live under the regime of the ,third ,republic4 ,settling at ,neuilly1 the novelist became chronicler1 critic1 and letter-writer as well1 and in all these capacities ,queiroz displayed a spontaneity1 power and artistic finish unequalled in the literature of his country since the death of ,garrett4 ,a bold draughtsman1 he excelled in freshness of imagination and careful choice and collocation of words1 while his warmth of colouring and brilliance of language speak of the south4 ,many of his pages descriptive of natural scenery1 such for instance as the episode of the return to ,tormes in ,the ,city and the ,mountains1 have taken rank as classic examples of ,portuguese prose1 while as a creator of characters he stood unsurpassed by any writer of his generation in the same field4 ,he particularly loved to draw and judge the middle class1 and he mocks at and chastises its hypocrisy and narrowness1 its veneer of religion and culture1 its triumphant lying1 its self-satisfied propriety1 its cruel egotism4 ,but though he manifested a predilection for middle-class types1 his portrait gallery comprises men and women of all social conditions4 ,the ,maias1 his longest book1 treats of fidalgos1 while perhaps his most remarkable character study is of a servant1 ,juliana1 in ,cousin ,basil4 ,at least two of his books1 this latter and ,the ,crime of ,father ,amaro1 are chroniques scandaleuses in their plots and episodes2 these volumes1 however1 mark not only the high-water line of the ,realist-,naturalist school in ,portugal1 but are in themselves1 leaving aside all accidentals1 creative achievements of a high order4 ,though ,queiroz was a keen satirist of the ills of society1 his pages show hardly a trace of pessimism4 ,the ,city and the ,mountains1 and in part ,the ,relic also1 reveal the apostle of ,realism as an idealist and dreamer1 a true representative of that ,celtic tradition which survives in the race and has permeated the whole literature of ,portugal4 ,the ,mandarin1 a fantastic variation on the old theme of a man self-sold to ,satan1 and ,the ,illustrious ,house of ,ramires1 are the only other writings of his that require mention1 except ,the ,correspondence of ,fradique ,mendes4 ,in conjunction with ,anthero de ,quental and ,jayme ,batalha ,reis1 ,queiroz invented under that name a smart man of the world who had something of himself and something of ,eduardo ,prado1 and made him correspond on all sorts of subjects with imaginary friends and relatives to the delight of the public1 many of whom saw in him a mysterious new writer whose identity they were eager to discover4 ,these sparkling and humorous letters are an especial favourite with admirers of ,queiroz1 because they reveal so much of his very attractive personality1 and perhaps the cleverest of the number1 that on ,pacheco1 has received an ,english dress4 ,in addition to his longer and more important works1 ,queiroz wrote a number of short stories1 some of which have been printed in a volume under the title of ,contos4 ,the gems of this remarkable collection are perhaps ,the ,peculiarities of a ,fair-haired ,girl1 ,a ,lyric ,poet1 ,jose ,matthias1 ,the ,corpse1 and ,sweet ,miracle4 ,most of his books have gone through many editions1 and they are even more appreciated in the ,brazils than in ,portugal4 ,it should be mentioned that the fourth edition of ,father ,amaro is entirely different in form and action from the first1 the whole story having been rewritten4 ,one of ,queiroz's romances and two of his short stories have been published in ,english4 ,an unsatisfactory version of ,cousin ,basil1 under the title ,dragon's ,teeth1 appeared at ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 in #ahhi1 while ,sweet ,miracle has had three editions in ,england and one in ,america1 and there is also a translation of ,o ,defunto 7,the ,corpse7 under the name of ,our ,lady of the ,pillar4 ,an admirable critical study of the work of ,queiroz will be found in ,a ,geracao ,nova--,os ,novellistas1 by ,j4 ,pereira de ,sampaio 7,bruno71 7,oporto1 #ahhf74 ,the ,revista moderna of the #bjth of ,november #ahig was entirely devoted to him4 ,senhor ,batalha ,reis gives interesting reminiscences of the novelist's early days in his preface to some prose fragments edited by him and named ,prosas ,barbaras 7,oporto1 #aijc74 7,e4 ,pr47 ,,ecarte 7,fr4 for separated1 discarded71 a game at cards1 of modern origin1 probably first played in the ,paris salons in the first quarter of the #aith century4 ,it is a development of a very old card game called la triomphe or ,french-ruff4 ,ecarte is generally played by two persons1 but a pool of three may be formed1 the player who is out taking the place of the loser1 and the winner of two consecutive games winning the pool4 ,at ,french ecarte 7but not at ,english7 bystanders who are betting may advise the players1 but only by pointing to the cards they desire them to play1 and the loser of the game goes out1 one of the rentrants taking his place1 unless the loser is playing la chouette1 i4e4 playing single-handed against two1 and taking all bets4 ,the small cards 7from the two to the six1 both inclusive7 are removed from an ordinary pack4 ,the players cut for deal1 the highest having the choice4 ,the king is the highest card1 the ace ranking after the knave4 ,the dealer gives five cards to his adversary1 and five to himself1 by two at a time to each and by three at a time to each1 or vice versa4 ,the eleventh card is turned up for trumps4 ,if it is a king1 the dealer scores one1 at any time before the next deal4 ,the non-dealer then looks at his cards4 ,if satisfied with them he plays1 and there is no discarding2 if not satisfied he proposes4 ,the dealer may either accept or refuse4 ,if he accepts1 each player discards face downwards as many cards as he thinks fit1 and fresh ones are given from the undealt cards or stock1 first to complete the non-dealer's hand to five1 then to complete the dealer's4 ,to ask for a book is to ask for five cards4 ,similarly a second proposal may be made1 and so on1 until one player is satisfied with his hand4 ,if the dealer refuses1 the hand is played without discarding4 ,if the non-dealer announces that he holds the king of trumps1 he scores one2 and similarly1 if the dealer holds the king and announces it1 he scores one4 ,the announcement must be made before playing one's first card1 or if that card be the king1 on playing it4 ,the non-dealer1 being satisfied with his hand1 leads a card4 ,the dealer plays a card to it1 the two cards thus played forming a trick4 ,the winner of the trick leads to the next1 and so on4 ,the second to play to a trick must follow suit if able1 and must win the trick if he can4 ,the scores are for the king and for the majority of tricks4 ,the player who wins three tricks scores one for the point2 if he wins all five tricks1 he scores two for the vole4 ,if the non-dealer plays without proposing1 or the dealer refuses the first proposal1 and fails to win three tricks1 the adversary scores two1 but no more even if he wins the vole4 ,the game is five up4 ,the points are conveniently marked with a three-card and a two-card1 as at euchre4 ,the three is put face upwards with the two face downwards on the top of it4 ,when one or two or three points are scored the top card is moved so as to expose them4 ,at four1 one pip of the two-card is put under the other card4 ,games may be recorded similarly4 ,hints to ,players4--,the following hints may be of service to beginners3-- ,shuffle thoroughly after every deal4 ,do not announce the king until in the act of playing your first card4 ,the hands which should be played without proposing1 called jeux de regle 7standard hands71 ought to be thoroughly known4 ,they are as follows3-- #a4 ,all hands with three or more trumps1 whatever the other cards4 #b4 ,hands with two trumps which contain also-- 7a7 ,any three cards of one plain suit2 7b7 ,two cards of one plain suit1 one being as high as a queen2 7c7 ,two small cards of one suit1 the fifth card being a king of another suit2 7d7 ,three high cards of different suits4 #c4 ,hands with one trump1 which contain also-- 7a7 ,king1 queen1 knave of one suit1 and a small card of another2 7b7 ,four cards of one suit headed by king2 7c7 ,three cards of one suit headed by queen1 and queen of another suit4 #d4 ,hands with no trump1 which contain three queens or cards of equal value in different suits1 e4g41 four court cards4 #e4 ,hands from which only two cards can be discarded without throwing a king or a trump4 ,holding cards which make the point certain1 propose4 ,if you hold a jeu de regle1 and one of the trumps is the king1 propose1 as your adversary cannot then take in the king4 ,when discarding1 throw out all cards except trumps and kings4 ,if your adversary proposes you should accept1 unless you are guarded in three suits 7a queen being a sufficient guard71 or in two suits with a trump1 or in one suit with two trumps4 ,hence the rule not to discard two cards1 unless holding the king of trumps1 applies to the dealer4 ,the hands with which to refuse are the same as those with which to play without proposing1 except as follows3-- #a4 ,two trumps and three cards of one plain suit should not be played unless the plain suit is headed by a court card4 #b4 ,one trump and a tierce major is too weak1 unless the fifth card is a court card4 ,with similar hands weaker in the tierce major suit1 accept unless the fifth card is a queen4 #c4 ,one trump and four cards of a plain suit is too weak to play4 #d4 ,one trump and two queens is too weak1 unless both queens are singly guarded4 #e4 ,one trump1 queen of one suit1 and knave guarded of another should not be played unless the queen is also guarded1 or the card of the fourth suit is a court card4 #f4 ,one trump1 a king and a queen1 both unguarded1 should not be played1 unless the fourth suit contains a card as high as an ace4 #g4 ,four court cards without a trump are too weak to play1 unless they are of three different suits4 ,refuse with three queens1 if two are singly guarded2 otherwise1 accept4 ,lead from your guarded suit1 and lead the highest4 ,if the strong suit led is not trumped1 persevere with it1 unless with king of trumps1 or queen 7king not having been announced71 or knave ace1 when lead a trump before continuing your suit4 ,you should not lead trumps at starting1 unless you hold king or queen1 knave1 or knave ace1 with court cards out of trumps4 ,the score has to be considered4 ,if the dealer is at four1 and the king is not in your hand nor turned up1 play any cards without proposing which give an even chance of three tricks1 e4g4 a queen1 a guarded knave1 and a guarded ten4 ,the same rule applies to the dealer's refusal4 ,at the adverse score of four1 and king not being in hand or turned up1 any hand with one trump should be played1 unless the plain cards are very small and of different suits4 ,if the non-dealer plays without proposing when he is four to three1 and the dealer holds the king he ought not to mark it4 ,the same rule applies to the non-dealer after a refusal1 if the dealer is four to three4 ,at the score of non-dealer three1 dealer four1 the dealer should refuse on moderate cards1 as the player proposing at this score must have a very bad hand4 ,at four a forward game should not be played in trumps1 as there is no advantage in winning the vole4 ,laws of ,ecarte4--,the following laws are abridged from the revised code adopted by the ,turf ,club3--,a cut must consist of at least two cards4 ,card exposed in cutting1 fresh cut4 ,order of distribution of cards1 whether by three and two1 or vice versa1 once selected1 dealer must not change it during game4 ,player announcing king when he has not got it1 and playing a card without declaring error1 adversary may correct score and have hand played over again4 ,if offender wins point or vole that hand1 he scores one less than he wins4 ,proposal1 acceptance1 or refusal made cannot be retracted4 ,cards discarded must not be looked at4 ,cards exposed in giving cards to non-dealer1 he has option of taking them or of having next cards2 dealer exposing his own cards1 no penalty4 ,dealer turning up top card after giving cards1 cannot refuse second discard4 ,dealer accepting when too few cards in stock to supply both1 non-dealer may take cards1 and dealer must play his hand4 ,card led in turn cannot be taken up again4 ,card played to a lead can only be taken up prior to another lead1 to save revoke or to correct error of not winning trick4 ,card led out of turn may be taken up prior to its being played to4 ,player naming one suit and leading another1 adversary has option of requiring suit named to be led4 ,if offender has none1 no penalty4 ,player abandoning hand1 adversary is deemed to win remaining tricks1 and scores accordingly4 ,if a player revokes or does not win trick when he can do so1 the adversary may correct score and have hand replayed4 ,see ,academie des jeux 7various editions after the first quarter of the #aith century72 ,hoyle's ,games 7various editions about the same dates72 ,ch4 ,van-,tenac et ,louis ,delanoue1 ,traite du jeu de l'ecarte 7,paris1 #ahde2 translated in ,bohn's ,handbook of ,games1 ,london1 #ahej72 ,cavendish1 ,the ,laws of ,ecarte1 adopted by the ,turf ,club1 with a ,treatise on the ,game 7,london1 #ahgh72 ,pocket ,guide to ,ecarte 7,cavendish1 #ahig72 ,foster's ,encyclopaedia of ,indoor ,games 7#aijc74 ,,ecbatana 7,agbatana in ,aeschylus1 ,hangmatana in ,old ,persian1 written ,agamtanu by ,nabonidos1 and ,agamatanu at ,behistun1 mod4 ,hamadan71 the capital of ,astyages 7,istuvegu71 which was taken by ,cyrus in the sixth year of ,nabonidos 7#edi ,b4,c474 ,the ,greeks supposed it to be the capital of ,media1 confusing the ,manda1 of whom ,astyages was king1 with the ,mada or ,medes of ,media ,atropatene1 and ascribed its foundation to ,deioces 7the ,daiukku of the cuneiform inscriptions71 who is said to have surrounded his palace in it with seven concentric walls of different colours4 ,under the ,persian kings1 ,ecbatana1 situated at the foot of ,mount ,elvend1 became a summer residence2 and was afterwards the capital of the ,parthian kings4 ,sir ,h4 ,rawlinson attempted to prove that there was a second and older ,ecbatana in ,media ,atropatene1 on the site of the modern ,takht-i-,suleiman1 midway between ,hamadan and ,tabriz 7,j4,r4,g4,s4 x4 #ahda71 but the cuneiform texts imply that there was only one city of the name1 and ,takht-i-,suleiman is the ,gazaca of classical geography4 ,the ,ecbatana at which ,cambyses is said by ,herodotus 7iii4 #fd7 to have died is probably a blunder for ,hamath4 ,see ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,persia 7,eng4 trans41 #ahib72 ,m4 ,dieulafoy1 ,l',art antique de la ,perse1 pt4 i4 7#ahhd72 ,j4 de ,morgan1 ,mission scientifique en ,perse1 ii4 7#ahid74 ,see ,,hamadan and ,,persia3 ,ancient ,history1 ,sec4 v4 #b4 7,a4 ,h4 ,s47 ,,eccard1 ,,johann 7#aeec-afaa71 ,german composer of church music1 was born at ,muehlhausen on the ,unstrut1 ,prussia1 in #aeec4 ,at the age of eighteen he went to ,munich1 where he became the pupil of ,orlando ,lasso4 ,in his company ,eccard is said to have visited ,paris1 but in #aegd we find him again at ,muehlhausen1 where he resided for four years1 and edited1 together with ,johann von ,burgk1 his first master1 a collection of sacred songs1 called ,crepundia sacra ,helmboldi 7#aegg74 ,soon afterwards he obtained an appointment as musician in the house of ,jacob ,fugger1 the ,augsburg banker4 ,in #aehc he became assistant conductor1 and in #aeii conductor1 at ,koenigsberg1 to ,georg ,friedrich1 margrave of ,brandenburg-,anspach1 the administrator of ,prussia4 ,in #afjh he was called by the elector ,joachim ,friedrich to ,berlin as chief conductor1 but this post he held only for three years1 owing to his premature death at ,koenigsberg in #afaa4 ,eccard's works consist exclusively of vocal compositions1 such as songs1 sacred cantatas and chorales for four or five1 and sometimes for seven1 eight1 or even nine voices4 ,their polyphonic structure is a marvel of art1 and still excites the admiration of musicians4 ,at the same time his works are instinct with a spirit of true religious feeling4 ,his setting of the beautiful words ,ein' feste ,burg ist unser ,gott is still regarded by the ,germans as their representative national hymn4 ,eccard and his school are inseparably connected with the history of the ,reformation4 ,of ,eccard's songs a great many collections are extant2 see ,k4,g4,a4 von ,winterfeld1 ,der ,evangelische ,kirchengesang 7#ahdc72 ,doering 7,choralkunde1 p4 #dg74 ,,eccelino or ,,ezzelino ,,da ,,romano 7#aaid-abei71 ,ghibelline leader1 and supporter of the emperor ,frederick ,,ii41 was born on the #beth of ,april #aaid4 ,he belonged to a family descended from a ,german knight named ,eccelin1 who followed the emperor ,conrad ,,ii4 to ,italy about #ajcf1 and received the fief of ,romano near ,padua4 ,eccelin's grandson was ,eccelino ,,iii41 surnamed the ,monk1 who divided his lands between his two sons in #abbc1 and died in #abce4 ,the elder of these two sons was ,eccelino1 who in early life began to take part in family and other feuds1 and in #abbf1 at the head of a band of ,ghibellines1 seized ,verona and became podesta of the city4 ,he soon lost ,verona1 but regained it in #abcj2 and about this time came into relations with ,frederick ,,ii41 who in #abcb issued a charter confirming him in his possessions4 ,in #abcf when besieged in ,verona he was saved by the advance of the emperor1 who in ,november of the same year took ,vicenza and entrusted its government to ,eccelino4 ,in #abcg he obtained authority over ,padua and ,treviso2 and on the #bgth of ,november in that year he shared in the victory gained by the emperor over the ,lombards at ,cortenuova4 ,in #abch he married ,frederick's natural daughter1 ,selvaggia2 in #abci was appointed imperial vicar of the march of ,treviso2 but in the same year was excommunicated by ,pope ,gregory ,,ix4 ,he was constantly engaged in increasing his possessions2 was present at the siege of ,parma in #abdg1 and after ,frederick's death in #abej he supported his son1 the ,german king ,conrad ,,iv4 ,his cruelties had1 however1 aroused general disgust1 and in #abed he was again excommunicated4 ,in #abef ,pope ,alexander ,,iv4 proclaimed a crusade against him1 and a powerful league was soon formed under the leadership of ,philip1 archbishop of ,ravenna4 ,padua was taken from ,eccelino1 but on the #ast of ,september #abeh he defeated his enemies at ,torricella4 ,he then made an attempt on ,milan1 and the rival forces met at ,cassano on the #bgth of ,september #abei1 when ,eccelino was wounded and taken prisoner4 ,enraged at his capture1 he tore the bandages from his wounds1 refused to take nourishment1 and died at ,soncino on the #gth of ,october #abei4 ,in the following year his brother ,albert was put to death1 and the ,romano family became extinct4 ,eccelino1 who is sometimes called the tyrant1 acquired a terrible reputation on account of his cruelties1 a reputation that won for him the immortality of inclusion in ,dante's ,inferno2 but his unswerving loyalty to ,frederick ,,ii4 forms a marked contrast to the attitude of many of his contemporaries4 ,eccelino is the subject of a novel by ,cesare ,cantu and of a drama by ,j4 ,eichendorff4 ,see ,j4,m4 ,gittermann1 ,ezzelino da ,romano 7,freiburg1 #ahij72 ,s4 ,mitis1 ,storia d' ,ezzelino ,,iv4 da ,romano 7,maddaloni1 #ahif72 and ,f4 ,stieve1 ,ezzelino von ,romano 7,leipzig1 #aiji74 ,,eccentric 7from ,gr4 ,greek3 ek1 out of1 and ,greek3 kentron1 centre71 literally out from the centre1 and thus used to connote generally any deviation from the normal4 ,in astronomy the word denotes a circle round which a body revolves1 but whose centre is displaced from the visible centre of motion4 ,in the ancient astronomy the ellipses in which it is now known that the planets revolve around the sun could not be distinguished from circles1 but the unequal angular motion due to ellipticity was observed4 ,the theory of the eccentric was that the centre of the epicycle of each planet moved uniformly in a circle1 the centre of which was displaced from that of the earth by an amount double the eccentricity of the actual ellipse1 as the case is now understood4 ,when measured around this imaginary centre1 which is so situated on the major axis of the ellipse that the focus1 or place of the real sun1 is midway between it and the centre of the ellipse1 the motion is approximately uniform4 ,in engineering1 an eccentric is a mechanical device for converting rotary into reciprocating motion 7see ,,steam-,,engine74 ,for eccentric angle see ,,ellipse4 ,,ecchellensis 7or ,,echellensis71 ,,abraham 7d4 #affd71 a learned ,maronite1 whose surname is derived from ,eckel in ,syria1 where he was born towards the close of the #afth century4 ,he was educated at the ,maronite college in ,rome1 and1 after taking his doctor's degree in theology and philosophy1 returned for a time to his native land4 ,he then became professor of ,arabic and ,syriac in the college of the ,propaganda at ,rome4 ,called to ,paris in #afdj to assist ,le ,jay in the preparation of his polyglot ,bible1 he contributed to that work the ,arabic and ,latin versions of the book of ,ruth and the ,arabic version of the third book of ,maccabees4 ,in #afdf he was appointed professor of ,syriac and ,arabic at the ,college de ,france4 ,being invited by the ,congregation of the ,propaganda to take part in the preparation of an ,arabic version of the ,bible1 ,ecchellensis went again in #afeb or #afec to ,rome4 ,he published several ,latin translations of ,arabic works1 of which the most important was the ,chronicon ,orientale of ,ibnar-,rahib 7,paris1 #afec71 a history of the patriarchs of ,alexandria4 ,he was engaged in an interesting controversy with ,john ,selden as to the historical grounds of episcopacy1 in the course of which he published his ,eutychius vindicatus1 sive ,responsio ad ,seldeni ,origines 7,rome1 #affa74 ,conjointly with ,giovanni ,borelli he wrote a ,latin translation of the #eth1 #fth and #gth books of the ,conics of ,apollonius of ,perga 7#affa74 ,he died at ,rome in #affd4 ,,eccles1 a municipal borough in the ,eccles parliamentary division of ,lancashire1 ,england1 #d m4 ,w4 of ,manchester1 of which it forms practically a suburb4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cd1cfi4 ,it is served by the ,london ,north-,western railway and by the ,birkenhead railway 7,north-,western and ,great ,western joint74 ,the ,manchester ,ship ,canal passes through4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is believed to date from the #abth century1 but has been enlarged and wholly restored in modern times4 ,there are several handsome modern churches and chapels1 a town hall1 and numerous cotton mills1 while silk-throwing and the manufacture of fustians and ginghams are also among the industries1 and there are also large engine works4 ,a peculiar form of cake is made here1 taking name from the town1 and has a wide reputation4 ,eccles was incorporated in #ahib1 and the corporation consists of a mayor1 #f aldermen and #ah councillors4 ,the borough maintains the tramway service1 c41 but water and gas are supplied from ,manchester and ,salford respectively4 ,area1 #bjeg acres4 ,before the ,reformation the monks of ,whalley ,abbey had a grange here at what is still called ,monks' ,hall2 and in #ahfd many thousands of silver pennies of ,henry ,,iii4 and ,john of ,england and ,william ,i4 of ,scotland were discovered near the spot4 ,robert ,ainsworth1 the author of the ,latin and ,english dictionary so long familiar to ,english students1 was born at ,eccles in #affj2 and it was at the vicarage that ,william ,huskisson expired on the #aeth of ,september #ahcj from injuries received at the opening of the ,liverpool ,manchester railway4 ,from early times wakes were held at ,eccles1 and bull-baiting1 bear-baiting and cock-fighting were carried on4 ,under ,elizabeth these festivals1 which had become notoriously disorderly1 were abolished1 but were revived under ,james ,i41 and maintained until late in the #aith century on public ground4 ,the cockpit remained on the site of the present town hall4 ,a celebration on private property still recalls these wakes4 ,,ecclesfield1 a township in the ,hallamshire parliamentary division of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 ,england1 #e m4 ,n4 of ,sheffield1 on the ,great ,central and ,midland railways4 ,the church of ,st ,mary is ,perpendicular1 with a central tower1 and contains excellent woodwork4 ,it formerly bore1 and must have deserved1 the familiar title of the ,minster of the ,moors4 ,ecclesfield was the seat of a ,benedictine priory1 which passed to the ,carthusians in the #adth century4 ,cutlery and tools are largely manufactured1 and there are coal-mines1 paper mills and iron and fire-clay works4 ,after the inclusion within the county borough of ,sheffield of part of the civil parish of ,ecclesfield in #aija1 the population was #ah1cbd4 ,,eccleshall1 a market town in the north-western parliamentary division of ,staffordshire1 ,england2 #g m4 ,n4,w4 from ,stafford1 and #d ,w4 of ,norton ,bridge station on the ,london ,north-,western main line4 ,pop4 7#aija7 #cgii4 ,the church of the ,holy ,trinity1 one of the most noteworthy in ,staffordshire1 is principally ,early ,english1 and has fine stained glass4 ,several bishops of ,lichfield are buried here1 as ,eccleshall ,castle was the episcopal residence from the #acth century until #ahfg4 ,of this the ancient remains include a picturesque tower and bridge4 ,to the west on the borders of ,shropshire is ,blore ,heath1 the scene of a defeat of the ,lancastrians by the ,yorkists in #adei4 ,,ecclesia 7,gr4 ,greek3 ekklesia1 from ,greek3 ek1 out1 and ,greek3 kalein1 to call71 in ancient ,athens1 the general assembly of all the freemen of the state4 ,in the primitive unorganized state the king was theoretically absolute1 though his great nobles meeting in the ,council 7see ,,boule7 were no doubt able to influence him considerably4 ,there is1 however1 no doubt that in the earliest times the free people1 i4e4 the fighting force of the state1 were called together to ratify the decisions of the king1 and that they were gradually able to enforce their wishes against those of the nobles4 ,in ,athens1 as in ,rome1 where the ,plebs succeeded in their demand for the codification of the laws 7the ,twelve ,tables71 it was no doubt owing to the growing power of the people meeting in the ,agora that ,draco was entrusted with the task of publishing a code of law and so putting an end to the arbitrary judicature of the aristocratic party4 ,but there is no evidence that the ,ecclesia had more than a de facto existence before ,solon's reforms4 ,the precise powers which ,solon gave the people are not known4 ,it is clear that the executive power in the state 7see ,,archon7 was still vested in the ,eupatrid class4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that a moderate reformer would endeavour to give to the people some control over the magistracy4 ,now in speaking of the ,thetes 7the lowest of the four ,solonian classes2 see ,,solon71 ,aristotle's ,constitution of ,athens says that ,solon gave them merely a share in the ,ecclesia and the ,law ,courts1 and in the ,politics we find that he gave them the right of electing the magistrates and receiving their accounts at the end of the official year4 ,thus it seems that the mixed character of ,solon's constitution consisted in the fact that though the officials of the state were still necessarily ,eupatrid1 the ,ecclesia elected those of the ,eupatrids whom they could trust1 and further had the right of criticizing their official actions4 ,secondly1 all our accounts agree that ,solon admitted the ,thetes to the ,ecclesia1 thus recognizing them as citizens4 ,under ,cleisthenes the ,ecclesia remained the sovereign power1 but the ,council seems to have become to some extent a separate administrative body4 ,the relation of ,boule and ,ecclesia in the ,cleisthenic democracy was of the greatest importance4 ,the ,ecclesia alone1 a heterogeneous body of untrained citizens1 could not have passed1 nor even have drawn up intelligible measures2 all the preliminary drafting was done by the small committee of the ,boule which was in session at any particular time4 ,in the #eth century the functions of the ,ecclesia and the popular courts of justice were vastly increased by the exigencies of empire4 ,at the beginning of the #dth century ,b4,c4 the system of payment was introduced 7see below74 ,in #cjh ,b4,c4 ,demetrius of ,phalerum curtailed the power of the ,ecclesia by the institution of the ,nomophylaces 7,guardians of the ,law71 who prevented the ,ecclesia from voting on an illegal or injurious motion4 ,under ,roman rule the powers of the ,ecclesia and the popular courts were much diminished1 and after #dh ,b4,c4 7the franchise being frequently sold to any casual alien7 the ,demos 7people7 was of no importance4 ,they still assembled to pass psephisms in the theatre and to elect strategi1 and1 under ,hadrian1 had some small judicial duties1 but as a governing body the ,ecclesia died when ,athens became a civitas libera under ,roman protection4 ,constitution and ,functions4--,throughout the period of ,athenian greatness the ,ecclesia was the sovereign power1 not only in practice but also in theory4 ,the assembly met in early times near the sanctuary of ,aphrodite ,pandemus 7i4e4 south of the ,acropolis71 but1 in the #eth and #dth centuries1 the regular place of meeting was the ,pnyx4 ,from the #eth century it met sometimes in the theatre1 which in the #crd century was the regular place4 ,from ,demosthenes we learn that in his time special meetings were held at ,peiraeus1 and1 in the last centuries ,b4,c41 meetings were held at ,athens and ,peiraeus alternately4 ,certain meetings1 however1 for voting ostracism 7q4v47 and on questions affecting individual status took place in the ,agora4 ,meetings were 7#a7 ordinary1 7#b7 extraordinary1 and 7#c7 convened by special messengers 7,greek3 kyriai1 ,greek3 synkletoi and ,greek3 katakletoi71 these last being called when it was desirable that the country people should attend4 ,at ordinary meetings the attendance was practically confined to ,athenian residents4 ,according to ,aristotle there were four regular meetings in each prytany 7see ,,boule72 probably only the first of these was called ,greek3 kyria4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the four meetings did not fall on regular days1 owing to the occurrence of feast days on which no meeting could take place4 ,in the ,greek3 kyria ekklesia of each month took place the ,epicheirotonia 7monthly inquiry7 of the state officials1 and if it proved unsatisfactory a trial before the ,heliaea was arranged2 the council reported on the general security and the corn-supply1 and read out lists of vacant inheritances and unmarried heiresses4 ,in the sixth prytany of each year at the ,greek3 kyria ekklesia the question whether ostracism should take place that year was put to the vote4 ,for all meetings it was usual that the ,prytaneis should give five days' notice in the form of a programma 7agenda74 ,on occasions of sudden importance the herald of the council summoned the people with a trumpet1 and sometimes special messengers were despatched to bring in the country people 7,greek3 katakalein74 ,after the archonship of ,solon all ,athenians over the age of eighteen were eligible to attend the assembly1 save those who for some reason had suffered atimia 7loss of civil rights74 ,to prevent the presence of any disqualified persons1 six lexiarchs with thirty assistants were present with the deme-rolls in their hands4 ,these officers superintended the payment in the #dth century and probably the toxotae 7police7 also1 whose duty it was before the introduction of pay to drive the people out of the ,agora into the ,ecclesia with a rope steeped in red dye which they stretched out and used as a draw net 7see ,aristoph4 ,acharn4 #bb and ,eccles4 #cgh74 ,the introduction of pay1 which belongs to the early years of the #dth century and by the ,constitution 7c4 #da ad fin47 is attributed to ,agyrrhius1 a statesman of the restored democracy1 was a device to secure a larger attendance4 ,the rate rose from one to two obols and then to three obols 7,aristoph4 ,eccles4 #cjj sqq471 while at the time of ,aristotle it was one and a half drachmas for the ,greek3 kyria ekklesia and one drachma for other meetings4 ,probably those who were late did not receive payment4 ,procedure4--,the proceedings opened with formalities3 the purification by the peristiarchs1 who carried round slain sucking pigs2 the curse against all who should deceive the people2 the appointment 7in the #dth century7 of the proedri and their epistates 7see ,,boule72 the report as to the weather-omens4 ,the assembly was always dismissed if there were thunder1 rain or an eclipse4 ,these formalities over1 the ,prytaneis communicated the probouleuma of the council1 without which the ,ecclesia could not debate4 ,this recommendation either submitted definite proposals or merely brought the agenda before the assembly4 ,its importance lay largely in the fact that it explained the business in hand1 which otherwise must often have been beyond the grasp of a miscellaneous assembly4 ,after the reading1 a preliminary vote was taken as to whether the council's report should be accepted en bloc4 ,if it was decided to discuss1 the herald called upon people to speak4 ,any person1 without distinction of age or position1 might obtain leave to speak1 but it seems probable that the man who had moved the recommendation previously in the council would advocate it in the assembly4 ,the council was1 therefore1 a check on the assembly1 but its powers were to some extent illusory1 because any member of the assembly 7#a7 might propose an amendment1 7#b7 might draw up a new resolution founded on the principal motion1 7#c7 might move the rejection of the motion and the substitution of another1 7#d7 might bring in a motion asking the council for a recommendation on a particular matter1 7#e7 might petition the council for leave to speak on a given matter to the assembly4 ,voting usually was by show of hands1 but in special cases 7ostracism1 c47 by ballot 7i4e4 by casting pebbles into one of two urns74 ,the decision of the assembly was called a psephism and had absolute validity4 ,these decisions were deposited in the ,metrooen where state documents were preserved2 peculiarly important decrees were inscribed also on a column 7stele7 erected on the ,acropolis4 ,it has been shown that the power of the council was far from sufficient4 ,the real check on the vagaries of amateur legislators was the ,graphe ,paranomon4 ,any man was at liberty to give notice that he would proceed against the mover of a given resolution either before or after the voting in the ,ecclesia4 ,a trial in a ,heliastic court was then arranged1 and the plaintiff had to prove that the resolution in question contravened an existing law4 ,if this contention were upheld by the court1 when the case was brought to it by the ,thesmothetae1 the resolution was annulled1 and the defendant had to appear in a new trial for the assessment of the penalty1 which was usually a fine1 rarely death4 ,three convictions under this law1 however1 involved a certain loss of rights2 the loser could no longer move a resolution in the ,ecclesia4 ,after the lapse of a year the mover of a resolution could not be attacked4 ,in the #dth century the ,graphe ,paranomon took the place of ,ostracism 7q4v474 ,in the #eth century it was merely an arrangement whereby the people sitting as sworn juries ratified or annulled their own first decision in the ,ecclesia4 ,revision of ,laws4--,in the #dth century1 the assembly annually1 on the eleventh day of ,hecatombaeon 7the first day of the official year71 took a general vote on the laws1 to decide whether revision was necessary4 ,if the decision was in favour of alteration1 it was open to any private citizen to put up notice of amendments4 ,the ,nomothetae1 a panel selected by the ,prytaneis from the ,heliaea1 heard arguments for and against the changes proposed and voted accordingly4 ,against all new laws so passed1 there lay the ,graphe2 ,paranomon4 ,thus the ,nomothetae1 not the ,ecclesia1 finally passed the law4 ,judicial ,functions4--,the ,ecclesia heard cases of ,probole and ,eisangelia 7see ,,greek ,,law74 ,the ,probole was an action against sycophants and persons who had not kept their promises to the people1 or had disturbed a public festival4 ,the verdict went by show of hands1 but no legal consequences ensued2 if the plaintiff demanded punishment he had to go to the ,heliaea which were not at all bound by the previous vote in the ,ecclesia4 ,cases of ,eisangelia in which the penalty exceeded the legal competence of the council came before the ,ecclesia in the form of a probouleuma4 ,to prevent vexatious accusations1 it was 7at some date unknown7 decided that the accuser who failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes should be fined #ajjj drachmas 7,l#dj74 7,for the procedure in case of ,,ostracism see that article47 ,summary4--,thus it will be seen that the ,ecclesia1 with no formal organization1 had absolute power save for the ,graphe ,paranomon 7which1 therefore1 constituted the dicasteries in one sense the sovereign power in the state74 ,it dealt with all matters home and foreign4 ,every member could initiate legislation1 and1 as has been shown1 the power of the council was merely formal4 ,as against this it must be pointed out that it was by no means a representative assembly in practice4 ,the phrase used to describe a very special assembly 7,greek3 katakletos ekklesia7 shows that ordinarily the country members did not attend 7,greek3 katakalein always involving the idea of motion from a distance towards ,athens71 and ,thucydides says that #ejjj was the maximum attendance1 though it must be remembered that he is speaking of the time when the number of citizens had been much reduced owing to the plague and the ,sicilian expedition4 ,from this we understand the necessity of payment in the #dth century1 although in that period the ,ecclesia was supreme 7,constitution of ,athens1 xli4 #b74 ,the functions of the ,ecclesia thus differed in two fundamental respects from those which are in modern times associated with a popular assembly4 7#a7 ,it did not exercise1 at least in the period as to which we are best instructed1 the power of law-making 7,greek3 nomothesia7 in the strict sense4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 in qualification of this statement that it possessed the power of passing psephismata which would in many cases be regarded as law in the modern sense4 7#b7 ,the ,ecclesia was principally concerned with the supervision of administration4 ,much of what we regard as executive functions were discharged by the ,ecclesia4 ,with this article compare those on ,,solon2 ,,boule2 ,,areopagus2 ,,greek ,,law1 and1 for other ancient popular assemblies1 ,,apella2 ,,comitia4 ,see also ,a4,h4,j4 ,greenidge1 ,handbook of ,greek ,constitutional ,history 7#ahif72 ,gilbert1 ,greek ,constitutional ,antiquities 7trans4 ,brooks and ,nicklin1 #ahie72 ,schoemann1 ,de comitiis ,atheniensium2 ,l4 ,schmidt1 ,de ,atheniensis reipublicae indole democratica in ,ind4 ,lect4 7,marburg1 #ahfe72 ,j4,w4 ,headlam1 ,election by ,lot at ,athens 7,cambridge1 #ahia74 ,see also the histories of ,greece by ,meyer1 ,busolt1 ,grote1 ,evelyn ,abbott1 and ,j4,e4 ,sandys' edition of the ,constitution of ,athens 7#ahib72 for a comparative study1 ,e4,a4 ,freeman1 ,comparative ,politics4 7,j4 ,m4 ,m47 ,,ecclesiastes 7,heb4 ,hebrew3 ,kohelet1 ,kohelet1 ,koheleth2 ,sept4 ,greek3 ekklesiastes2 ,jerome concionator71 one of the ,wisdom ,books of the ,old ,testament 7see ,,wisdom ,,literature74 ,the book1 as it stands1 is a collection of the discourses1 observations and aphorisms of a sage called ,koheleth1 a term the precise meaning of which is not certain4 ,the ,greek ecclesiastes means one who takes part in the deliberations of an assembly 7ecclesia71 a debater or speaker in an assembly 7,plato1 ,gorgias1 #deb ,e71 and this is the general sense of the ,hebrew word4 ,its form 7singular feminine7 has been supposed to be the adoption or imitation of the ,arabic employment of a fem4 sing4 as the designation of a high official person1 as is the case in the title caliph 7whence the rendering in the margin of the ,revised ,version1 ,great orator72 but the adoption of an ,arabic idiom is not probable4 ,this usage is not ,hebrew2 it is not found either in the ,old ,testament or in the later 7,mishnaic7 ,hebrew4 ,the form may have been suggested by that of the ,hebrew word for wisdom4 ,koheleth1 however1 is employed in the book not as a title of wisdom 7for wisdom is never the speaker71 but as the independent name of the sage4 ,it is intended to represent him as a member of an assembly 7,kahal7--not the ,jewish congregation1 but a body of students or inquirers1 such as is referred to in xii4 #i-aa1 a sort of collegium1 of which he was the head2 and as instructor of this body he gives his criticism of life4 ,the author begins1 indeed1 with identifying his sage with ,king ,solomon 7i4 #ab-;ii4 #aa1 #ab;b72 but he soon abandons this literary device1 and speaks in his own name4 ,the rendering preacher has a misleading connotation4 ,in the book as we have it there is no orderly exposition of a theory2 it rather has the appearance of a collection of remarks jotted down by a pupil 7somewhat after the manner of ,xenophon's ,memorabilia71 or of extracts from a sage's notebook4 ,it is1 however1 characterized throughout 7except in some scribal additions7 by a definite thought1 and pervaded by a definite tone of feeling4 ,the keynote is given in the classic phrase with which the discussion opens and with which it closes3 ,vanity of vanities 7i4e4 absolute vanity71 all#a is vanity6 ,life1 says the author1 has nothing of permanent value to offer4 ,his attitude is one not of bitterness but of calm hopelessness1 with an occasional tinge of disgust or contempt4 ,he fancies that he has tried or observed everything in human experience1 and his deliberate conclusion is that nothing is worth doing4 ,he believes in an all-powerful but indifferent ,god1 and is himself an observer of society1 standing aloof from its passions and ambitions1 and interested only in pointing out their emptiness4 ,this general view is set forth in a number of particular observations4 #a4 ,his fundamental proposition is that there is a fixed1 unchangeable order in the world1 a reign of inflexible law 7i4 #d-aa1 iii4 #a-aa1 #ad1 #ae1 vii4 #ac1 viii4 #e-i73 natural phenomena1 such as sunrise and sunset1 recur regularly2 for everything in human experience a time has been set2 birth and death1 building up and destroying1 laughing and weeping1 silence and speech1 love and hate1 war and peace1 are to be regarded not as utterances of a living1 self-directing world1 but as incidents in the work of a vast machine that rolls on for ever2 there is an endless repetition--nothing is new1 nothing is lost2 if one thinks he has found something new1 inquiry shows that it was in existence long ago2 ,god1 the author of all1 seeks out the past in order to make it once more present2 it is impossible to add to or take from the content of the world1 impossible to change the nature of things1 to effect any radical betterment of life2 the result is unspeakable weariness--a depressing series of sights and sounds4 ,no goal or purpose is discoverable in this eternal round2 if the sun rises and goes on his journey through the sky1 it is merely to come back to the place where he rose2 rivers flow for ever into the sea without filling it4 ,to what end was the world created8 ,it is impossible to say4 ,such is ,koheleth's view of life1 and it is obvious that such a conception of an aimless cosmos is thoroughly non-,jewish1 if we may judge ,jewish thought by the great body of the extant literature4 #b4 ,further1 says ,koheleth1 man is impelled to study the world1 but under the condition that he shall never comprehend it 7iii4 #aa1 vii4 #bc1 #bd1 viii4 #af1 #ag74 ,as to the meaning of the ,hebrew term olam in iii4 #aa1 there are various opinions1 but world appears to be the rendering favoured by the connexion3 ,god has made everything beautiful in its time1 and has put the olam into men's minds1 yet so that they cannot understand ,his work3 the olam1 the sum of phenomena1 is ,god's work4 ,the word is not found in this sense elsewhere in the ,old ,testament1 but it so occurs in the ,mishna 7,pirke ,aboth1 iv4 #g71 and the vocabulary of ,ecclesiastes is admittedly similar to that of the ,mishna4 ,only here in the ,old ,testament does it stand as a simple isolated noun2 elsewhere it is the definition of a noun 7in everlasting covenant1 c471 or it is preceded by a preposition1 in the phrases for ever1 of old1 or it stands alone 7sing4 or plur47 in the same adverbial sense1 for ever4 ,the word means first a remote point in past or future1 then a future point without limit of time1 then a period of history1 and finally the world considered as a mass of human experiences 7cf4 ,greek3 aion74 ,the renderings eternity and future in the present passage are unsatisfactory2 the former has an inappropriate metaphysical connotation1 and yields no distinct sense2 the latter does not suit the connexion1 though there is reference to the future elsewhere 7ix4 #a74 ,god1 the text here declares1 has made the world an object of man's thought1 yet so that man can never find out the work that ,god has done 7iii4 #aa74 ,the reference seems to be not so much to the variety and complexity of phenomena as to the impossibility of construing them rationally or in such a way that man may foresee and provide for his future4 ,man is in the clutches of fate 7ix4 #aa1 #ab73 there is no observable relation between exertion and result in life3 the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong2 success does not attend wisdom1 knowledge and skill2 men are like fish taken in a net or birds caught in a snare4 #c4 ,human life1 ,koheleth declares1 is unsatisfying4 ,he inquired1 he says1 into everything that is done by men under the sun 7i4 #ab-af73 ,god has inflicted on men a restless desire for movement and work#b1 yet life is but a catalogue of fruitless struggles4 ,he gives a number of illustrations4 ,in his character of king he tried all the bodily pleasures of life 7ii4 #a-aa73 he had houses1 vineyards1 gardens1 parks1 ponds1 forests1 servants1 flocks and herds1 treasures of gold and silver1 singers1 wives2 all these he set himself to enjoy in a rational way--indeed1 he found a certain pleasure in carrying out his designs1 but1 when all was done1 he surveyed it only to see that it was weary and unprofitable4 ,dropping the role of ,solomon and speaking as an observer of life1 the author declares 7iv4 #d7 that the struggle for success is the result of rivalry among men1 which has no worthy outcome4 ,the securing of riches is a fallacious achievement1 for often wealth perishes by some accident 7v4 #ac f471 or its possessor is unable to enjoy it 7vi4 #a-c;a71 or he has no one to whom to leave it1 and he cannot keep it--naked man comes into the world1 naked he goes out4 ,he does not consider the possibility of deriving enjoyment from wealth by helping the poor or encouraging learning 7this latter1 indeed1 he looks on as vanity71 and in general he recognizes no obligation on the part of a man to his fellows4 ,a noteworthy survival of an old belief is found in vi4 #c3 though a man have the great good fortune to live long and to have many children1 yet1 if he have not proper burial the blank darkness of an untimely birth is better than he3 this latter is merely the negation of existence2 the former1 it appears to be held1 is positive misfortune1 the loss of a desirable place in ,sheol1 though elsewhere 7ix4 #e7 existence in ,sheol is represented as the negation of real life4 ,it is not necessary to suppose that the writer has here any particular case in mind4 ,if wealth be thus a vain thing1 yet a sage might be supposed to find satisfaction in wisdom1 that is1 practical good sense and sagacity2 but this also the author puts aside as bringing no lasting advantage1 since a wise man must finally give up the fruit of his wisdom to someone else1 who may be a fool1 and in any case the final result for both fools and wise men is the same--both are forgotten 7ii4 #ab-bc74 ,a particular instance is mentioned 7ix4 #ac-ae7 of a beleaguered city saved by a wise man2 but the man happened to be poor1 and no one remembered him4 ,the whole constitution of society1 in fact1 seems to the sage a lamentable thing3 the poor are oppressed1 the earth is full of their cries1 and there is no helper 7iv4 #a72 strange social upheavals may be seen3 the poor#c set in high places1 the rich cast down1 slaves on horseback1 princes on foot 7x4 #e-g74 ,he permits himself a sweeping generalization 7vii4 #be-bh73 human beings as a rule are bad3 one may occasionally find a good man1 never a good woman--woman is a snare and a curse4 ,he 7or an editor7 adds 7vii4 #bi7 that this condition of things is due to social development3 man was created upright 7,gen4 i4 #bg2 ,enoch lxix4 #aa71 but in the course of history has introduced corrupting complications into life4 #d4 ,the natural outcome of these experiences of the author is that he cannot recognize a moral government of the world4 ,he finds1 like ,job1 that there are good men who die prematurely notwithstanding their goodness1 and bad men who live long notwithstanding their badness 7vii4 #ae71 though long life1 it is assumed1 is one of the great blessings of man's lot2 and in general there is no moral discrimination in the fortunes of men 7viii4 #ad1 ix4 #b74 #e4 ,there is no sacredness or dignity in man or in human life3 man has no pre-eminence over beasts1 seeing that he and they have the same final fate1 die and pass into the dust1 and no one knows what becomes of the spirit1 whether in man's case it goes up to heaven1 and in the case of beasts goes down into ,sheol--death is practically the end-all2 and so poor a thing is life that the dead are to be considered more fortunate than the living1 and more to be envied than either class is he who never came into existence 7iv4 #b1 #c74 ,it is a special grievance that the wicked when they die are buried with pomp and ceremony1 while men who have acted well are forgotten#d in the city 7viii4 #aj74 #f4 ,that the author does not believe in a happy or active future life appears in the passage 7iv4 #b1 #c7 quoted above4 ,the old ,hebrew view of the future excluded from ,sheol the common activities of life and also the worship of the national god 7,isa4 xxxviii4 #ah72 he goes even beyond this in his conception of the blankness of existence in the underworld4 ,the living1 he says1 at least know that they shall die1 but the dead know nothing--the memory of them1 their love1 hate and envy1 perishes1 they have no reward1 no part in earthly life 7ix4 #e1 #f72 there is absolutely no knowledge and no work in ,sheol 7ix4 #aj74 ,his conclusion is that men should do now with all their might what they have to do2 the future of man's vital part1 the spirit1 is wholly uncertain4 #g4 ,his conception of ,god is in accord with these views4 ,god for him is the creator and ruler of the world1 but hardly more2 he is the master of a vast machine that grinds out human destinies without sympathy with man and without visible regard for what man deems justice--a being to be acknowledged as lord1 not one to be loved4 ,there can thus be no social contact between man and ,god1 no communion of soul1 no enthusiasm of service4 ,moral conduct is to be regulated not by divine law 7of this nothing is said7 but by human experience4 ,the author's theism is cold1 spiritless1 without influence on life4 ,if now the question be asked what purpose or aim a man can have1 seeing that there is nothing of permanent value in human work1 an answer is given which recurs1 like a refrain1 from the beginning to the end of the book1 and appears to be from the hand of the original author3 after every description of the vanity of things comes the injunction to enjoy such pleasures as may fall to one's lot 7ii4 #bd1 #be1 iii4 #ab1 #ac1 #bb1 v4 #ah1 #ai1 viii4 #ae1 ix4 #g-aj1 xi4 #g-xii4 #g74 ,elsewhere 7ii471 it is true1 it is said that there is no lasting satisfaction in pleasure2 but the sage may mean to point out that1 though there is no permanent outcome to life1 it is the part of common-sense to enjoy what one has4 ,the opportunity and the power to enjoy are represented as being the gift of ,god2 but this statement is not out of accord with the author's general position1 which is distinctly theistic4 ,all the passages just cited1 except the last 7xi4 #g-xii4 #g71 are simple and plain1 but the bearing of the last is obscured by interpolations4 ,obviously the purpose of the paragraph is to point out the wisdom of enjoying life in the time of youth while the physical powers are fresh and strong1 and the impotency of old age has not yet crept in4 ,omitting xi4 #h;c1 #i;b1 #aj;b1 xii4 #a;a1 the passage will read3 ,life is pleasant in the bright sunshine--however long a man may live1 he must be cheerful always1 only remembering that dark days will come4 ,let the young man enjoy all the pleasures of youth1 putting away everything painful1 before the time comes when his bodily powers decay and he can enjoy nothing4 ,to relieve the apparent ,epicureanism of this passage1 an editor has inserted reminders of the vanity of youthful pleasures1 and admonitions to remember ,god and ,his judgment4 ,the author1 however1 does not recommend dissipation1 and does not mean to introduce a religious motive--he offers simply a counsel of prudence4 ,the exhortation to remember the ,creator in the days of youth1 though it is to be retained in the margin as a pious editorial addition1 here interrupts the line of thought4 ,in xii4 #a;a some critics propose to substitute for remember thy ,creator the expression of xi4 #i1 let thy heart cheer thee2 but the repetition is improbable4 ,others would read3 remember thy cistern 7,bickell71 or thy well 7,haupt71 that is1 thy wife4 ,the wife is so called in ,prov4 v4 #ae-ai in an elaborate poetical figure 7the wife as a source of bodily pleasure71 in which the reference is clear from the context2 but there is no authority1 in the ,old ,testament or in other literature of this period1 for taking the term as a simple prose designation of a wife4 ,nor would this reference to the wife be appropriate in the connexion1 since the writer's purpose is simply to urge men to enjoy life while they can4 ,the paragraph 7and the original book7 concludes with a sustained and impressive figure1 in which the failing body of the old man is compared to a house falling into decay3 first1 the bodily organs 7xii4 #c1 #d;a73 the keepers of the house 7the arms and hands7 tremble1 the strong men 7the legs and perhaps the backbone7 are bent1 the grinding women 7the teeth7 cease to work1 those that look out of the windows 7the eyes7 are darkened1 the street-doors are shut1 the sound of the mill being low 7apparently a summary statement of the preceding details3 communication with the outer world through the senses is cut off1 the performance of bodily functions being feeble72 the rest of v4 #d may refer to the old man's inability to make or hear music3 in the house there is no sound of birds#e or of singers1 there are none of the artistic delights of a well-to-do household2 further 7v4 #e;a7 the inmates of the house fear dangers from all powerful things and persons 7the old man is afraid of everything71 the almond tree blossoms 7perhaps the hair turns white74 ,the two next clauses are obscure4#f ,then comes the end3 man goes to his everlasting home2 the dust 7the body7 returns to the earth whence it came 7,gen4 ii4 #g71 and the breath of life1 breathed by ,god into the body1 returns to him who gave it4 ,this last clause does not affirm the immortality of the soul2 it is simply an explanation of what becomes of the vital principle 7the breath of life of ,gen4 ii4 #g72 its positive assertion is not in accord with the doubt expressed in iii4 #ba 7who knows whether the spirit of man goes upward871 and it seems to be from another hand than that of the author of the original book4 ,there are other sayings in the book that appear to be at variance with its fundamental thought4 ,wisdom is praised in a number of passages 7iv4 #ac1 vii4 #e1 #aa1 #ab1 #ai1 viii4 #a1 ix4 #af1 #ag1 x4 #b1 #c71 though it is elsewhere denounced as worthless4 ,it may be said that the author1 while denying that wisdom 7practical sagacity and level-headedness7 can give permanent satisfaction1 yet admits its practical value in the conduct of life4 ,this may be so2 but it would be strange if a writer who could say1 in much wisdom is much grief1 should deliberately laud wisdom4 ,the question is not of great importance and may be left undecided4 ,it may be added that there are in the book a number of aphorisms about fools 7v4 #cd1 vii4 #e1 #f1 x4 #a-c1 #ab-ae7 quite in the style of the book of ,proverbs1 some of them contrasting the wise man and the fool2 these appear to be the insertions of an editor4 ,further1 it may be concluded with reasonable certainty that the passages that affirm a moral government of the world are additions by pious editors who wished to bring the book into harmony with the orthodox thought of the time4 ,such assertions as those of ii4 #bf 7,god gives joy to him who pleases him1 and makes the sinner toil to lay up for the latter71 viii4 #ab 7it shall be well with those that fear ,god1 but not with the wicked71 xii4 #ac f4 7man's duty is simply to obey the commands of ,god1 for ,god will bring everything into judgment7 are irreconcilable with the oft-repeated statement that there is no difference in the earthly lots of the righteous and the wicked1 and no ethical life after death4 ,many practical admonitions and homely aphorisms are scattered through the book3 iv4 #e1 quiet is a blessing2 iv4 #i-ab1 two are better than one2 iv4 #ag 7,eng4 v4 #a71 be reverent in visiting the house of ,god 7the temple and the connected buildings7--to listen 7to the service of song or the reading of ,scripture7 is better than to offer a foolish 7thoughtless7 sacrifice2 v4 #a 7#b71 be sparing of words in addressing ,god2 v4 #a-e 7#b-f71 pay your vows--do not say to the priest's messenger that you made a mistake2 vii4 #b-d1 sorrow is better than mirth2 vii4 #af-ah1 be not over-righteous 7over-attentive to details of ritual and convention7 or over-wicked 7flagrantly neglectful of established beliefs and customs72 here righteous and wicked appear to be technical terms designating two parties in the ,jewish world of the #bnd and #ast centuries ,b4,c41 the observers and the non-observers of the ,jewish ritual law2 these parties represent in a general way the ,pharisees and the ,sadducees2 viii4 #b-d1 x4 #bj1 it is well to obey kings and to be cautious in speaking about them1 for there are talebearers everywhere2 vii4 #bj1 no man is free from sin2 vii4 #ba1 do not listen to all that you may overhear1 lest you hear yourself ill spoken of2 ix4 #d1 a living dog is better than a dead lion2 xi4 #a-f1 show prudence and decision in business2 do not set all your goods on one venture2 act promptly and hope for the best4 ,at the close of the book 7xii4 #i-ab7 there are two observations that appear to be editorial recommendations and cautions4 ,first1 ,koheleth is endorsed as an industrious1 discriminating and instructive writer4 ,possibly this is in reply to objections that had been made to what he had written4 ,there follows an obscure passage 7v4 #aa7 which seems to be meant as a commendation of the teaching of the sages in general3 their words are said to be like goads 7inciting to action7 and like nails driven in a building 7giving firmness to character72 they issue from masters of assemblies1#g heads of academies 7but not of the ,sanhedrin74 ,the succeeding clause they are given from one shepherd may refer to a collection or revision by one authoritative person1 but its relevancy is not obvious4 ,the shepherd cannot be ,god 7,gen4 xlix4 #bd2 ,ps4 xxiii4 #a72 the poetical use of the word would not be appropriate here4 ,the clause is possibly a gloss1 a comment on the preceding expression4 ,a caution against certain books is added 7v4 #ab71 probably works then considered harmful 7perhaps philosophic treatises71 of which1 however1 nothing further is known4 ,composition of the ,book4--,if the analysis given above is correct1 the book is not a unit2 it contains passages mutually contradictory and not harmonizable4 ,various attempts have been made to establish its unity4 ,the hypothesis of two voices is now generally abandoned2 there is no indication of a debate1 of affirmations and responses4 ,a more plausible theory is that the author is an honest thinker1 a keen observer and critic of life1 who sees that the world is full of miseries and unsolved problems1 regards as futile the attempts of his time to demonstrate an ethically active future life1 and1 recognizing a divine author of all1 holds that the only wise course for men is to abandon the attempt to get full satisfaction out of the struggle for pleasure1 riches and wisdom1 and to content themselves with making the best of what they have4 ,this conception of him is largely true1 as is pointed out above1 but it does not harmonize the contradictions of the book1 the discrepancies between the piety of some passages and the emotional indifference toward ,god shown in others4 ,other of the ,biblical ,wisdom books 7,job1 ,proverbs7 are compilations--why not this8 ,it is not necessary to multiply authors1 as is done1 for example1 by ,siegfried1 who supposes four principal writers 7a pessimistic philosopher1 an ,epicurean glossator1 a sage who upholds the value of wisdom1 and an orthodox editor7 besides a number of annotators2 it is sufficient to assume that several conservative scribes have made short additions to the original work4 ,nor is it worth while to attempt a logical or symmetrical arrangement of the material4 ,it has been surmised 7by ,bickell7 that the sheets of the original codex became disarranged and were rearranged incorrectly2#h by other critics portions of the book are transferred hither and thither2 in all cases the critic is guided in these changes by what he conceives to have been the original form of the book4 ,but it is more probable that we have it in the form in which it grew up--a series of observations by the original author with interspersed editorial remarks2 and it is better to preserve the existing form as giving a record of the process of growth4 ,date4--,as to the date of the book1 though there are still differences of opinion among scholars1 there is a gradual approach to a consensus4 ,the ,solomonic authorship has long since been given up3 the historical setting of the work and its atmosphere--the silent assumption of monotheism and monogamy1 the non-national tone1 the attitude towards kings and people1 the picture of a complicated social life1 the strain of philosophic reflection--are wholly at variance with what is known of the #ajth century ,b4,c4 and with the ,hebrew literature down to the #eth or #dth century ,b4,c4 ,the introduction of ,solomon1 the ideal of wisdom1 is a literary device of the later time1 and probably deceived nobody4 ,the decisive considerations for the determination of the date are the language1 the historical background and the thought4 ,the language belongs to the post-classical period of ,hebrew4 ,the numerous ,aramaisms point to a time certainly not earlier than the #dth century ,b4,c41 and probably 7though the history of the penetration of ,aramaic into ,hebrew speech is not definitely known7 not earlier than the #crd century4 ,more than this1 there are many resemblances between the dialect of ,koheleth and that of ,mishna4 ,not only are new words employed1 and old words in new significations1 but the grammatical structure has a modern stamp--some phrases have the appearance of having been translated out of ,aramaic into ,hebrew4 ,by about the beginning of our era the ,jews had given up ,hebrew and wrote in ,aramaic2 the process of expulsion had been going on1 doubtless1 for some time2 but comparison with the later extant literature 7,chronicles1 the ,hebrew ,ecclesiasticus or ,ben-,sira1 ,esther7 makes it improbable that such ,hebrew as that of ,koheleth would have been written earlier than the #bnd century ,b4,c4 7for details see ,driver's ,introduction74 ,the general historical situation1 also1 presupposed or referred to1 is that of the period from the year #bjj ,b4,c4 to the beginning of our era2 in particular1 the familiar references to kings as a part of the social system1 and to social dislocations 7servants and princes changing places1 x4 #g71 suggest the troublous time of the later ,greek and the ,maccabean rulers1 of which the history of ,josephus gives a good picture4 ,the conception of the world and of human life as controlled by natural law1 a naturalistic cosmos1 is alien not only to the prophetic and liturgical ,hebrew literature but also to ,hebrew thought in general4 ,whether borrowed or not1 it must be late2 and its resemblance to ,greek ideas suggests ,greek influence4 ,the supposition of such influence is favoured by some critics 7,tyler1 ,plumptre1 ,palm1 ,siegfried1 ,cheyne in his ,jewish ,religious ,life after the ,exile1 and others71 rejected by some 7,zeller1 ,renan1 ,kleinert and others74 ,this disagreement comes largely from the attempts made to find definitely expressed ,greek philosophical dogmas in the book2 such formulas it has not1 but the general air of ,greek reflection seems unmistakable4 ,the scepticism of ,koheleth differs from that of ,job in quality and scope3 it is deliberate and calm1 not wrung out by personal suffering2 and it relates to the whole course and constitution of nature1 not merely to the injustices of fortune4 ,such a conception has a ,greek tinge1 and would be found in ,jewish circles1 probably1 not before the #bnd century ,b4,c4 ,a precise indication of date has been sought in certain supposed references or allusions to historical facts4 ,the mention of persons who do not sacrifice or take oaths 7ix4 #b7 is held by some to point to the ,essenes2 if this be so1 it is not chronologically precise1 since we have not the means of determining the beginning of the movement of thought that issued in ,essenism4 ,so also the coincidences of thought with ,ben-,sira 7,ecclesiasticus7 are not decisive3 cf4 iii4 #ad with ,b4,s4 xviii4 #f2 v4 #b-f 7#c-g7 with ,b4,s4 xxxiv4 #a-g2 vii4 #ai with ,b4,s4 xxxvii4 #ad2 x4 #h with ,b4,s4 xxvii4 #bf;a2 xi4 #aj with ,b4,s4 xxx4 #ba2 xii4 #aj1 #aa with ,b4,s4 xxxix4 #b ff41 xii4 #ac with ,b4,s4 xliii4 #bg2 if there be borrowing in these passages1 it is not clear on which side it lies2 and it is not certain that there is borrowing--the thoughts may have been taken independently by the two authors from the same source4 ,in any case1 since ,ben-,sira belongs to about #ahj ,b4,c41 the date of ,koheleth1 so far as these coincidences indicate it1 would not be far from #bjj ,b4,c4 ,the contrast made in x4 #af f4 between a king who is a boy and one who is of noble birth may allude to historical persons4 ,the antithesis is not exact2 we expect either boy and mature man or low-born and high-born4 ,the child might be ,antiochus ,v4 7#afd ,b4,c471 or ,ptolemy ,v41 ,epiphanes 7#bjd ,b4,c471 but the reference is too general to be decisive4 ,the text of the obscure passage iv4 #ac-af is in bad condition1 and it is only by considerable changes that a clear meaning can be got from it4 ,the two personages--the old and foolish king and the poor and wise youth--have been supposed 7by ,winckler7 to be ,antiochus ,epiphanes 7#age-afd ,b4,c47 and ,demetrius 7#afb-aej ,b4,c471 or 7by ,haupt7 ,antiochus and the impostor ,alexander ,balas 7#aej-adf ,b4,c471 or 7by others7 ,demetrius and ,alexander2 in favour of ,alexander as the youth it may be said that he was of obscure origin1 was at first popular1 and was later abandoned by his friends4 ,such identifications1 however1 do not fix the date of the book precisely2 the author may have referred to events that happened before his time4 ,the reign of ,herod1 a period of despotism and terror1 and of strife between ,jewish religious parties1 is preferred by some scholars 7,graetz1 ,cheyne and others7 as best answering to the social situation depicted in the book1 while still others 7as ,renan7 decide for the reign of ,alexander ,jannaeus 7#ajd-gh ,b4,c474 ,the data are not numerous and distinct enough to settle the question beyond determining general limits3 for reasons given above the book can hardly have been composed before about #bjj ,b4,c41 and if1 as is probable1 a ,septuagint translation of it was made 7though the present ,septuagint text shows the influence of ,aquila71 it is to be put earlier than #ej ,b4,c4 ,probably also1 its different parts are of different dates4 ,of the author nothing is known beyond the obvious fact that he was a man of wide observation and philosophic thought1 of the ,sadducean type in religion1 but non-,jewish in his attitude toward life4 ,he was1 doubtless1 a man of high standing1 but neither a king nor a high-priest1 certainly not the apostate priest ,alcimus 7#a ,macc4 vii4 ix472 nor was he necessarily a physician--there are no details in ch4 xii4 or elsewhere that any man of good intelligence might not know4 ,the book is written in prose1 some of which is rhythmical1 with bits of verse here and there3 thus i4 #b-aa is balanced prose1 #ab-ad plain prose1 #ae a couplet1 i4 #af-;ii4 #be simple prose1 vii4 contains a number of poetical aphorisms1 and so on4 ,some of the verses are apparently from the author1 some from editors4 ,the fortunes of the book are not known in detail1 but it is clear that its merciless criticism of life and its literary charm made it popular1 while its scepticism excited the apprehensions of pious conservatives4 ,possibly the ,wisdom of ,solomon 7c4 #ej ,b4,c47 was written partly as a reply to it4 ,the claim of sacredness made for it was warmly contested by some ,jewish scholars4 ,in spite of the relief afforded by orthodox additions1 it was urged that its ,epicurean sentiments contradicted the ,torah and favoured heresy4 ,finally1 by some process of reasoning not fully recorded1 the difficulties were set aside and the book was received into the sacred canon2 ,jerome 7on ,eccl4 xii4 #ac1 #ad7 declares that the decisive fact was the orthodox statement at the end of the book3 the one important thing is to fear ,god and keep ,his commandments4 ,the probability is that the book had received the stamp of popular approbation before the end of the #ast century of our era1 and the leading men did not dare to reject it4 ,it is not certain that it is quoted in the ,new ,testament1 but it appears to be included in ,josephus' list of sacred books4 ,,literature4--,for the older works see ,zoeckler 7in ,lange's ,comm472 for ,jewish commentaries see ,zedner1 ,cat4 of ,heb4 books in ,libry4 of ,brit4 ,mus4 7#ahfg71 and for the history of the interpretations1 ,c4,d4 ,ginsburg1 ,coheleth 7#ahfa74 ,introductions of ,a4 ,kuenen1 ,s4,r4 ,driver1 ,cornhill1 ,koenig4 ,articles in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencykl4 7by ,p4 ,kleinert72 ,hastings1 ,dict4 ,bible 7by ,a4,s4 ,peake72 ,t4,k4 ,cheyne1 ,encycl4 ,bibl4 7by ,a4,b4 ,davidson72 ,jew4 ,encycl4 7by ,d4,s4 ,margoliouth74 ,commentaries3 ,f4 ,hitzig 7#ahdg72 ,c4,d4 ,ginsburg 7#ahfa72 ,h4 ,graetz 7#ahga72 ,tyler 7#ahgd72 ,delitzsch 7#ahge72 ,e4,h4 ,plumptre 7#ahha72 ,c4,h4,h4 ,wright 7#ahhc72 ,nowack1 revision of ,hitzig 7#ahhc72 ,volck 7in ,strack u4 ,zoeckler's ,kurzgef4 ,komm41 #ahhi72 ,wildeboer 7in ,marti's ,kurzer ,hand-,comm41 #ahih72 ,c4 ,siegfried 7in ,w4 ,nowack's ,handkomm41 #ahih72 ,oort 7in ,de ,oude ,test41 #ahii74 ,other works3 ,c4 ,taylor1 ,dirge of ,koh4 7#ahgd72 ,wuensche1 ,midrash on ,koh4 7in his ,biblioth4 rabbin41 #ahhj72 ,e4 ,renan1 ,l',ecclesiaste 7#ahhb72 ,bickell1 ,der ,prediger 7#ahhd7 and ,kohel4-,untersuchungen 7#ahhf2 ,engl4 by ,e4,j4 ,dillon1 ,sceptics of ,old ,test41 #ahie72 ,schiffer1 ,das ,buch ,koh4 nach d4 ,auffass4 d4 ,weisen d4 ,talmuds1 c4 7#ahhd72 ,a4 ,palm1 ,qoh4 u4 d4 nach-aristotel4 ,philosophie 7#ahhe7 and ,die ,qoh4-,lit4 7#ahhf72 ,e4 ,pfleiderer1 ,die ,phil4 d4 ,heraklit1 c4 7#ahhf72 ,cheyne1 ,job and ,solomon 7#ahhg7 and ,jew4 ,relig4 ,life1 c4 7#ahih72 ,w4 ,euringer1 ,der ,masorahtext d4 ,koh4 7#ahij72 ,w4,t4 ,davison1 ,wisdom-,lit4 of ,old ,test4 7#ahid72 ,h4 ,winckler1 in his ,altorient4 ,forschungen 7#ahih72 ,j4,f4 ,genung1 ,words of ,koh4 7,boston1 ,mass41 #aijd72 ,p4 ,haupt1 ,ecclesiastes 7,baltimore1 #aije74 ,the rabbinical discussions of the book are mentioned in ,shabbath1 #cj;b2 ,megilla1 #g;a2 ,eduyoth1 v4 #c2 ,mishna ,yadaim1 iii4 #e1 iv4 #f2 ,midrash ,koheleth 7on xi4 #i71 ,aboth d' ,rab4 ,nathan1 i4 7,c4 ,h4 ,t4997 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,hebrew has the definite article1 the whole1 ,greek3 to pan4 #b ,in fact1 he suggests1 a curse1 as in ,gen4 iii4 #ag-ai1 though with a wider sweep than that passage has in mind4 #c ,the text has folly1 but the parallelism and v4 #g point to social1 not intellectual1 conditions1 and a slight change 7,hebrew3 haskel for ,hebrew3 misken7 gives the sense poor4 #d ,the ,septuagint has less well3 ,they 7the wicked7 are praised in the city4 #e ,the clause is obscure2 literally he 7or1 one7 rises at 787 the voice of the bird1 usually understood to refer to the old man's inability to sleep in the morning2 but this is not a universal trait of old age1 and besides1 a reference to affairs in the house is to be expected2 the ,hebrew construction also is of doubtful correctness4 ,a change of the ,hebrew text seems necessary2 possibly we should read ,hebrew3 ishpal kol1 low is the voice1 instead of ,hebrew3 yakum lekol he rises up at the voice4 #f ,the second is perhaps to be read3 the caper-berry blooms 7white hair72 usually the caper-berry loses its appetizing power2 ,eng4 ,auth4 ,vers4 desire shall fail4 ,for the meaning of the word abyona 7caper-berry1 not desire or poverty71 see art4 by ,g4,f4 ,moore in ,journ4 of ,bibl4 ,lit4 x4 #a 7,boston1 ,mass41 #ahia74 #g ,this is the ,talmudic understanding of the ,hebrew expression 7,jerus4 ,sanhed4 #aj1 #bh;a1 cf4 ,sanhed4 #ab;a2 see ,ecclus4 xxxix4 #b74 ,there is no good authority for the renderings collectors of maxims1 collections of maxims4 #h ,it is not certain that the codex form was in use in ,palestine or in ,egypt as early as the #bnd or the #ast century ,b4,c4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,commissioners1 in ,england1 a body corporate1 whose full title is ,ecclesiastical and ,church ,estates ,commissioners for ,england1 invested with very important powers1 under the operation of which extensive changes have been made in the distribution of the revenues of the ,established ,church4 ,their appointment was one of the results of the vigorous movements for the reform of public institutions which followed the ,reform ,act of #ahcb4 ,in #ahce two commissions were appointed to consider the state of the several dioceses of ,england and ,wales1 with reference to the amount of their revenues and the more equal distribution of episcopal duties1 and the prevention of the necessity of attaching by commendam to bishoprics certain benefices with cure of souls2 and to consider also the state of the several cathedral and collegiate churches in ,england and ,wales1 with a view to the suggestion of such measures as might render them conducive to the efficiency of the established church1 and to provide for the best mode of providing for the cure of souls1 with special reference to the residence of the clergy on their respective benefices4 ,and it was enacted by an act of #ahce that during the existence of the commission the profits of dignities and benefices without cure of souls becoming vacant should be paid over to the treasurer of ,queen ,anne's ,bounty4 ,in consequence of the recommendation of these commissioners1 a permanent commission was appointed by the ,ecclesiastical ,commissioners ,act #ahcf for the purpose of preparing and laying before the king in council such schemes as should appear to them to be best adapted for carrying into effect the alterations suggested in the report of the original commission and recited in the act4 ,the new commission was constituted a corporation with power to purchase and hold lands for the purposes of the act1 notwithstanding the statutes of mortmain4 ,the first members of the commission were the two archbishops and three bishops1 the lord chancellor and the principal officers of state1 and three laymen named in the act4 ,the constitution of the commission was amended by the ,ecclesiastical ,commissioners ,act #ahdj and subsequent acts1 and now consists of the two archbishops1 all the bishops1 the deans of ,canterbury1 ,st ,paul's and ,westminster1 the lord chancellor1 the lord president of the council1 the first lord of the treasury1 the chancellor of the exchequer1 the home secretary1 the lord chief justice1 the master of the rolls1 two judges of the admiralty division1 and certain laymen appointed by the crown and by the archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,the lay commissioners are required to be members of the ,church of ,england1 and to subscribe a declaration to that effect4 ,the crown also appoints two laymen as church estates commissioners1 and the archbishop of ,canterbury one4 ,these three are the joint treasurers of the commission1 and constitute1 along with two members appointed by the commission1 the church estates committee1 charged with all business relating to the sale1 purchase1 exchange1 letting or management of any lands1 tithes or hereditaments4 ,the commission has power to make inquiries and examine witnesses on oath4 ,five commissioners are a quorum for the transaction of business1 provided two of them are church estates commissioners2 two ecclesiastical commissioners at least must be present at any proceeding under the common seal1 and if only two are present they can demand its postponement to a subsequent meeting4 ,the schemes of the commission having1 after due notice to persons affected thereby1 been laid before the king in council1 may be ratified by orders1 specifying the times when they shall take effect1 and such orders when published in the ,london ,gazette have the same force and effect as acts of parliament4 ,the recommendations of the commission recited in the act of #ahcf are too numerous to be given here4 ,they include an extensive rearrangement of the dioceses1 equalization of episcopal income1 providing residences1 c4 ,by the act of #ahdj the fourth report of the original commissioners1 dealing chiefly with cathedral and collegiate churches1 was carried into effect1 a large number of canonries being suspended1 and sinecure benefices and dignities suppressed4 ,the emoluments of these suppressed or suspended offices1 and the surplus income of the episcopal sees1 constitute the fund at the disposal of the commissioners4 ,by an act of #ahfj1 on the avoidance of any bishopric or archbishopric1 all the land and emoluments of the see1 except the patronage and lands attached to houses of residence1 become1 by order in council1 vested in the commissioners1 who may1 however1 reassign to the see so much of the land as may be sufficient to secure the net annual income named for it by statute or order4 ,all the profits and emoluments of the suspended canonries1 c41 pass over to the commissioners1 as well as the separate estates of those deaneries and canonries which are not suspended4 ,out of this fund the expenses of the commission are to be paid1 and the residue is to be devoted to increasing the efficiency of the church by the augmentation of the smaller bishoprics and of poor livings1 the endowment of new churches1 and employment of additional ministers4 ,the substitution of one central corporation for the many local and independent corporations of the church1 so far at least as the management of property is concerned1 was a constitutional change of great importance1 and the effect of it undoubtedly was to correct the anomalous distribution of ecclesiastical revenues by equalizing incomes and abolishing sinecures4 ,at the same time it was regarded as having made a serious breach in the legal theory of ecclesiastical property4 ,the important principle1 says ,cripps1 on which the inviolability of the church establishment depends1 that the church generally possesses no property as a corporation1 or which is applicable to general purposes1 but that such particular ecclesiastical corporation1 whether aggregate or sole1 has its property separate1 distinct and inalienable1 according to the intention of the original endowment1 was given up without an effort to defend it 7,law ,relating to the ,church and ,clergy1 p4 #df74 ,,ecclesiastical ,,jurisdiction4 ,this phrase in its primary sense imports not jurisdiction over ecclesiastics1 but jurisdiction exercised by ecclesiastics over other ecclesiastics and over the laity4 ,jurisdiction is a word borrowed from the jurists which has acquired a wide extension in theology1 wherein1 for example1 it is frequently used in contradistinction to order1 to express the right to administer sacraments as something superadded to the power to celebrate them4 ,so it is used to express the territorial or other limits of ecclesiastical1 executive or legislative authority4 ,here it is used1 in the limited sense defined by an ,american ,court1 as the authority by which judicial officers take cognizance of and decide causes4 ,origin of ecclesiastical jurisdiction4 ,such authority in the minds of lay ,roman lawyers who first used this word jurisdiction was essentially temporal in its origin and in its sphere4 ,the ,christian ,church transferred the notion to the spiritual domain as part of the general idea of a ,kingdom of ,god correlative1 on the spiritual side of man upon earth1 to the powers1 also ordained of ,god1 who had dominion over his temporal estate 7see ,,canon ,,law74 ,as the ,church in the earliest ages had executive and legislative power in its own spiritual sphere1 so also it had judicial officers1 taking cognizance of and deciding causes4 ,only before its union with the ,state1 its power in this direction1 as in others1 was merely over the spirits of men4 ,coercive temporal authority over their bodies or estates could only be given by concession from the temporal prince4 ,moreover1 even spiritual authority over members of the ,church1 i4e4 baptized persons1 could not be exclusively claimed as of right by the ,church tribunals1 if the subject matter of the cause were purely temporal4 ,on the other hand1 it is clear that all the faithful were subject to these courts 7when acting within their own sphere71 and that1 in the earliest times1 no distinction was made in this respect between clergy and laity4 ,the fundamental principle of ecclesiastical jurisdiction with its sanction of excommunication will be found in ,christ's words in ,matt4 xviii4 #ae-ah4 ,a very early example of criminal spiritual jurisdiction exercised by ,st ,paul is found in the case of the incestuous ,corinthian 7#a ,cor4 v474 ,we find later the same apostle exercising like jurisdiction in the cause of ,hymenaeus and ,alexander 7#a ,tim4 i4 #bj74 ,after the time of the ,apostles1 we find this criminal jurisdiction exercised by the bishops individually over their respective subjects--doubtless with the advice of their presbyters according to the precept of ,st ,ignatius 7c4 #aaj74 ,as neighbouring dioceses coalesced into provinces and provinces into larger districts 7corresponding to the civil dioceses of the later ,roman ,empire71 the provincial synods of bishops and the synods of the larger districts acquired a criminal jurisdiction1 still purely spiritual1 of their own4 ,at first this was original and mainly 7although not exclusively7 over bishops 7of the province or larger district74 ,the beginnings of an appellate jurisdiction in the cases of clerics and laymen may be traced before the conversion of the ,empire4 ,the bishop over whom the synod of neighbouring bishops had exercised jurisdiction had no formal right of appeal2 but sometimes bishops in other parts of the ,church would refuse to acknowledge the local synodical sentence and would communicate with a bishop whom they deemed unjustly deposed4 ,the theory1 as expressed in legal phrase by ,st ,cyprian in the #crd century1 was that the apostolic power of delegated sovereignty from the ,lord1 alike legislative and judicial1 was held in joint-tenancy by the whole body of ,catholic bishops4 ,in both capacities1 however1 a certain undefined pre-eminence was conceded to the occupants of ,apostolic sees1 i4e4 sees traditionally founded by ,apostles1 or of sees with a special secular position4 ,even before the edict of ,milan1 at least as early as the latter half of the #crd century1 the spiritual sentences of deposition from office had sometimes indirect temporal consequences recognized by the secular courts4 ,the classical example is the case of ,paul of ,samosata1 bishop of ,antioch4 ,it would seem that1 in the intervals of persecution1 some rights of property were recognized in the ,christian ,church and its officers2 although the ,church was an illegal society4 ,after some previous abortive trials1 ,paul of ,samosata was deposed and excommunicated1 in #bfi1 by a great synod of the ,antiochene district4 ,paul1 notwithstanding his deposition1 kept possession of the episcopal residence4 ,the local church sought recovery of it before the tribunals of the ,empire4 ,the judicial authorities requested a rescript from the emperor ,aurelian for the decision of the cause4 ,aurelian referred the matter to the bishop of ,rome and the bishops of ,italy1 who gave their award in favour of the ,antiochene ,church4 ,temporal ,jurisdiction of the ,church4 ,side by side with this which we may call criminal jurisdiction--none the less real or coercive because its sanctions were purely spiritual--there grew up a quasi-jurisdiction in causes entirely temporal1 based upon the free consent of the parties to accept the arbitration of the bishop4 ,this system had also its roots in the ,new ,testament 7see ,matt1 xviii4 #ae-ag and #a ,cor4 vi4 #a-h74 ,in the matter of criminal jurisdiction we paused for a moment at the edict of ,milan2 but we may at once trace this second or civil branch of episcopal judicature or quasi-judicature down as far as the reign of ,charlemagne1 when it underwent a fundamental change1 and became1 if either litigant once chose1 no longer a matter of consent but of right4 ,constantine decreed that judgment in causes might be passed by bishops when litigants preferred their adjudication to that of the secular courts 7see his epistle to the ,numidian bishops and ,cod4 ,theodos4 ,tit4 de ,episcopis74 ,the episcopal judgment was to be equivalent to that of the emperor and irreversible1 and the civil authorities were to see to its execution4 ,saints ,ambrose and ,augustine both spent days in deciding temporal causes4 ,honorius1 in the ,west1 at the end of the #dth century1 made a constitution providing that if any desired to litigate before the bishops they should not be forbidden1 but that in civil matters the prelates should render judgment in the manner of arbitrators by consent 7,cod4 #a1 ,tit4 iv474 ,where the faithful had had recourse to the bishop1 no appeal was to be allowed1 and the judges were to command execution of the episcopal decree4 ,a quarter of a century later1 however1 ,valentinian ,,iii4 in the ,west expressly provided that bishops were not to be permitted to be judges 7that is1 of course1 in temporal causes71 save by the consent of the parties4 ,this legislation was1 substantially1 adopted by ,justinian4 ,on the revival of the ,western ,empire1 however1 ,charlemagne1 in the beginning of the #ith century1 under the mistaken belief that he was following the authority of ,constantine ,i4 and ,theodosius ,i41 took a great step forward1 by which the bishop ceased to be a mere legally indicated arbitrator by consent in secular causes1 and became a real judge4 ,by a capitulary he provided that either litigant1 without the consent of the other party1 and not only at the beginning of a suit but at any time during its continuance1 might take the cause from lay cognizance and transfer it to the bishop's tribunal4 ,he re-enacted the prohibition of appeal4 ,it should be remembered that1 from the latter part of the #crd century1 the leading bishops had generally been trained in secular learning4 ,st ,cyprian1 ,st ,ambrose and ,st ,augustine1 ,st ,paulinus of ,nola and ,st ,john ,chrysostom had practised law as teachers or advocates4 ,st ,ambrose and ,st ,paulinus had even held high administrative and judicial offices4 ,roman empire from ,constantine4 ,to return to the evolution of ecclesiastical jurisdiction from the time of ,constantine4 ,with the ,nicene period came a great development on the criminal side4 ,a system begins to be formed1 and the secular arm supports the decrees of the ,church4 ,the first trace of system is in the limited right of appeal given by the first oecumenical council of ,nicaea and its provision that episcopal sentences or those of provincial synods on appeal were to be recognized throughout the world4 ,the fifth canon provides that those1 whether clerics or laymen1 who are cut off from communion in any particular province are not to be admitted thereto elsewhere4 ,still examination must be had whether persons have been expelled from the congregation by any episcopal small-mindedness 7,greek3 mikropsychia71 or contentious spirit1 or such-like harshness 7,greek3 aedia74 ,that this may be conveniently inquired into1 synods are to be held1 three in every year1 in each province1 and questions of this kind examined4 ,there is to be no stay of execution2 the episcopal sentence is to prevail until the provincial synod otherwise decide4 ,it will be noticed that as yet no provision is made for appeals by bishops from provincial synods sitting in first instance4 ,the edicts of ,milan had only admitted the ,christian ,church among the number of lawful religions2 but the tendency 7except in the time of ,julian7 was towards making it the only lawful religion4 ,hence the practice1 immediately after ,nicaea ,i41 of superadding banishment by the emperor to synodical condemnation4 ,the dogmatic decrees of ,nicaea ,i4 were at once enforced in this temporal manner4 ,on the other hand1 the ,arian reaction at court worked its objects 7see ,pusey1 ,councils of the ,church7 by using the criminal spiritual jurisdiction of synods against the ,catholics--often packing the synods for the purpose4 ,the acts of councils of this age are full of the trials of bishops not only for heresy but for immorality and common law crimes4 ,the accusations are frequently unfounded2 but the trials are already conducted in a certain regular forensic form4 ,the secular authorities follow the precedent of ,nicaea ,i4 and intervene to supplement the spiritual sentence by administrative penalties4 ,sometimes an imperial officer of high rank 7as1 e4g4 a count7 is present at the synod1 as an assessor to maintain order and advise upon points of procedure4 ,leading examples may be found in the various prosecutions of ,st ,athanasius1 in whose case also there is the germ of an appeal1 tanquam ab abusu4 ,it has been contended that1 according to later and more formulated jurisprudence1 such an appeal would have lain1 since the trial at ,tyre was not concerned with purely spiritual matters 7see the case in ,hefele1 ,councils1 in loc474 ,the trial of ,st ,athanasius led to extensions of the right of appeal4 ,this was favoured by the development of the greater sees into positions of great administrative dignity1 shortly to be called patriarchal4 ,a synod was held at ,rome1 attended by bishops from various regions1 which reversed the original judgment of the synod of ,tyre which had condemned ,athanasius4 ,a much larger synod at ,antioch1 gathered only from the ,east1 on the other hand1 confirmed that judgment4 ,this last synod did something to systematize the criminal procedure of the ,church1 and its legislation has been always received4 ,this legislation marks another step forward4 ,deposition of a bishop by a synod1 or of a priest or deacon by his bishop1 is to take effect even pending an appeal1 and a cleric continuing his functions after sentence in first instance is to lose all right of appeal4 ,the appeal given by ,nicaea ,i4 to clerics and laymen from episcopal excommunications is extended4 ,the synod may restore them if convinced of the justice of their cause 7and not merely in cases of ,greek3 aedia74 ,a bishop may appeal to a great assembly of bishops4 ,any bishop1 priest or deacon importuning the emperor1 instead of exerting his right of appeal to synods1 is to lose all right of appeal and never to be restored or pardoned4 ,if a provincial synod be divided as to the guilt of a bishop1 the metropolitan is to convene bishops from the neighbouring provinces to decide the cause jointly with the bishops of the original province4 ,a few years later1 in #cdg1 the council of ,sardica1 a council of practically the whole ,west save ,africa1 reversed ,tyre and acquitted ,st ,athanasius after a full judicial inquiry4 ,this council endeavoured to set up a system of appeals in the case of bishops1 in which the see of ,rome was made to play a great part4 ,out of honour to the memory of ,st ,peter1 a condemned bishop may ask the intervention of ,rome4 ,if this be done1 the synod of first instance is to send letters to ,julius1 bishop of ,rome4 ,if that prelate think the cause should be heard again1 he is to appoint judges2 if otherwise1 the original judgment is to be confirmed4 ,pending appeal1 the appellant's see is not to be filled up4 ,the judges appointed by the bishop of ,rome to hear the appeal are to be from the neighbouring provinces4 ,the appellant may1 however1 request that bishop to send priests from his side to sit with the synod of appeal4 ,if such priests are sent1 they are to preside in the court of appeal4 ,these canons were always repudiated in the ,east1 and when1 sixty years afterwards1 they were1 for the first time1 heard of in ,africa1 they were repudiated there also4 ,a rescript of ,gratian in #cgh empowered the bishop of ,rome to judge bishops with the assistance of six or seven other bishops or1 in the case of a metropolitan1 of fifteen comprovincial bishops4 ,a bishop refusing to come to ,rome was to be brought there by the civil power4 ,the rescript1 however1 was not incorporated in the ,codes and perhaps was only a temporary measure4 ,the tendency to give pre-eminence to ,rome appears again in an imperial letter to ,st ,flavian1 who1 in the judgment of the ,east1 was bishop of ,antioch1 but who was rejected by the ,west and ,egypt1 summoning him to ,rome to be there judged by the bishops of the imperial city--a summons which ,st ,flavian did not obey 7,tillemont1 ,mem4 ,ecc474 ,in ,africa in the beginning of the #eth century ,apiarius1 a priest who had been deposed by the bishop of ,sicca for immorality1 and whose deposition had been affirmed by the provincial synod1 instead of further appealing to a general synod of ,africa1 carried his appeal to ,pope ,zosimus4 ,the pope received the appeal1 absolved him and restored him to the rank of priest1 and sent a bishop and two priests as legates to ,africa with instructions to them to hear the cause of ,apiarius anew and for execution of their sentence to crave the prefect's aid2 moreover1 they were to summon the bishop of ,sicca to ,rome and to excommunicate him1 unless he should amend those things which the legates deemed wrong4 ,the upshot of a long conflict was that the papal claim to entertain appeals from ,africa by priests and deacons was rejected by the ,african bishops1 who in their final synodical epistle also repudiate in terms any right of appeal by ,african bishops to parts beyond the seas 7see ,hefele1 ,councils1 bk4 viii474 ,the story of the administrative development of the ,church in the #eth century is mainly the story of the final emergence and constitution of the great patriarchates1 as authorities superior to metropolitans and provincial synods4 ,in consequence of the occupants of the thrones of ,constantinople and ,alexandria falling successively into opposite heresies1 the question arose how patriarchs were to be judged4 ,in both cases1 as it seems1 an attempt was made by the bishop of ,rome to depose the erring patriarch by his authority as primate of ,christendom1 acting in concert with a ,western synod4 ,in both cases1 apparently1 an oecumenical synod ignored the ,roman deposition and judged the alleged offences of the respective patriarchs in first and last instance4 ,the third and fourth oecumenical synods 7,ephesus1 #dca2 ,chalcedon1 #dea7 were primarily tribunals for the trials of ,nestorius and ,dioscorus2 it was secondarily that they became organs of the universal episcopate for the definition of the faith1 or legislative assemblies for the enactment of canons4 ,nothing is more remarkable than their minute care as to observance of rules of procedure4 ,in both cases1 imperial assessors were appointed4 ,at ,ephesus the ,count ,candidian was commissioned to maintain order1 but took little part in the proceedings4 ,at ,chalcedon1 on the other hand1 the imperial commissioners decided points of order1 kept the synod to the question1 took the votes and adjourned the court4 ,but the synod alone judged and pronounced sentence4 ,no oecumenical synod has tried a patriarch of ,old ,rome while yet in the flesh4 ,the fifth oecumenical council came nearest to so doing1 in the case of ,vigilius4 ,that pope1 although in ,constantinople1 refused to attend the sittings of the council4 ,he was cited three times1 in the canonical manner1 and upon not appearing was threatened in the third session with anathema 7,hefele1 ,councils1 sect4 #bfh ad fin474 ,he was not1 however1 charged with direct heresy1 as were ,nestorius and ,dioscorus1 and the synod seems to have hesitated to deal stringently with the primate of ,christendom4 ,in the seventh session it accepted the suggestion of ,justinian1 merely to order the name of ,vigilius to be removed from the liturgical prayers1 at the same time expressing its desire to maintain unity with the see of ,old ,rome 7,hefele1 sect4 #bgc74 ,after the council1 ,justinian banished the pope to ,egypt1 and afterwards to an island1 until he accepted the council1 which he ultimately did 7ib4 #bgf74 ,the sixth oecumenical synod decreed that the dead pope ,honorius should be cast out from the holy ,catholic ,church of ,god and anathematized1 a sentence approved by the reigning pope ,leo ,,ii4 and affirmed by the seventh oecumenical synod in #ghg4 ,the constitution of the patriarchal system resulted in the recognition of a certain right of appeal to ,rome from the larger part of the ,west4 ,britain remained outside that jurisdiction1 the ,celtic churches of the ,british islands1 after those islands were abandoned by the ,empire1 pursuing a course of their own4 ,in the ,east1 ,constantinople1 from its principality1 acquired special administrative pre-eminence1 naturally followed1 as in the case of old ,rome1 by judicial pre-eminence4 ,an example of this is found in the ninth canon of ,chalcedon1 which also illustrates the enforcement upon a clerical plaintiff in dispute with a brother cleric of that recourse to the arbitration of their ecclesiastical superior already mentioned4 ,the canon provides that any clerk having a complaint against another clerk must not pass by his own bishop and turn to secular tribunals1 but first lay bare his cause before him1 so that by the sentence of the bishop himself the dispute may be settled by arbitrators acceptable to both parties4 ,any one acting against these provisions shall be subject to canonical penalties4 ,if any clerk have a complaint against his own bishop1 he shall have his cause adjudicated upon by the synod of the province4 ,but if a bishop or clerk have a difference with the metropolitan of his province let him bring it before the exarch of the diocese 7i4e4 the larger district answering to the civil diocese71 or before the royal see of ,constantinople1 who shall do justice upon it4 ,an exarch means properly a superior metropolitan having several provinces under him4 ,in the next century ,justinian 7,nov4 #abc1 c4 #bb7 put the other patriarchates on the same footing as ,constantinople4 ,in c4 #ba he gives either plaintiff or defendant an appeal within ten days to the secular judge of the locality from the bishop's judgment4 ,if there be no appeal1 that judge is to give execution to the episcopal award4 ,the growth of a special original jurisdiction at ,constantinople1 which perhaps developed earlier than the corresponding institution at ,rome1 may be traced to the fact that bishops from all parts were constantly in ,constantinople4 ,the bishop of ,constantinople1 even before he became properly patriarch1 would often assemble a synod from these visiting bishops1 which acquired the technical name of ,greek3 synodos endemousa1 the synod of sojourners4 ,this synod frequently decided questions belonging to other patriarchates4 ,the criminal jurisdiction thus exercised was generally speaking unlimited4 ,it must be remembered that the forum externum of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction1 in the sense in which we now use the phrase1 of a judge deciding causes1 was not then clearly marked off from the forum internum1 or what afterwards came to be called the tribunal of penance 7see ,van ,espen1 ,jus ecc4 univ4 pars iii4 tit4 iv4 c4 #a74 ,ecclesiastical proceedings by way of prosecution are called criminal1 but they are primarily pro salute animae2 whereas temporal criminal proceedings are primarily for the protection of the state and its citizens4 ,hence a ,christian might be first punished in the civil courts and then put to public penance by the ecclesiastical jurisdiction1 or vice versa3 an apparently double system of punishment which the medieval ,church1 when the forum externum had become quite separated from the forum internum1 sometimes repudiated 7see ,maitland1 ,english ,canon ,law1 #ach1 #aci1 #add74 ,theodosius began the system of giving secular authority to ,church tribunals4 ,thus1 in #cgf1 ,l4 #bc ,cod4 ,theodos4 de4 ,episcopis1 c41 subjected clerics for small offences pertaining to the observances of religion to bishops and synods4 ,in #cii1 ,l4 #a ,cod4 de ,religione provides that1 when it is a matter of religion1 it beseems the bishop to judge4 ,a rescript of ,constantius1 in #cee1 inserted in ,cod4 ,theod4 lxii4 de ,epis4 ,ecc4 et ,cler41 excluded bishops from accusations before secular judges and commanded such accusations to be speedily brought before the tribunal of other bishops4 ,this law was probably only intended to be of a temporary character4 ,then comes the law of ,gratian already noticed4 ,then1 in #cii1 a law of ,honorius 7,cod4 ,theod4 ,l4 #a de ,religione73 ,as often as it concerns religion1 it is meet that the bishops should judge1 but other causes which belong to ordinary jurisdiction or to public law are to be heard in the ordinary courts 7legibus oportet audiri74 ,l4 #c de ,epis4 ,jud41 at the end of the ,theodosian ,code1 seems spurious 7see the comment of ,gothofredus in loco74 ,but a constitution of ,honorius in #dab 7,cod4 ,theod4 ,l4 xli4 de ,epis4 ,ecc4 et ,cler47 provides that clerks are not to be accused except before the bishop4 ,bishops1 priests1 deacons1 and every other minister of the ,christian law of inferior degree1 are taken from secular jurisdiction in criminal cases4 ,the words are quite general2 but it has been contended that they apply only to crimes of an ecclesiastical character 7see ,gothofredus in loc42 ,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 iii4 c4 #a1 #aj74 ,in #dbe a constitution of ,theodosius ,,ii4 provides that a recent decree of the usurper ,john should be disregarded and that clerks whom he had brought before secular judges should be reserved for the episcopal jurisdictions1 since it is not lawful to subject the ministers of the divine office to the arbitrament of temporal powers4 ,justinian has a clearer perception of the demarcation between the spheres of spiritual and temporal law4 ,the #hcrd ,novell provides that if the offence be ecclesiastical1 needing ecclesiastical correction1 the bishop shall take cognizance of it4 ,the #abcrd ,novell 7c4 #ba7 provides that if a clerk be accused of a secular crime he shall be accused before his bishop1 who may depose him from his office and order1 and then the competent judge may take him and deal with him according to the laws4 ,if the prosecutor have first brought him before the civil judge1 the evidence is to be sent to the bishop1 and the latter1 if he thinks the crime has been committed1 may deprive him of his office and order1 and the judge shall apply to him the proper legal punishment4 ,but if the bishop think the evidence insufficient1 the affair shall be referred to the emperor1 by way of appeal both from bishop and judge4 ,if the cause be ecclesiastical1 the civil judges are to take no part in the inquiry4 ,the law includes with clerics1 monks1 deaconesses1 nuns1 ascetics2 and the word clerics covered persons in minor orders1 down to doorkeepers4 ,it will be noticed that ,justinian supposes that the prosecutor may begin the proceedings before the civil judge4 ,a constitution of ,alexius ,comnenus ,i4 seems to send him to the special forum of the accused4 ,anglo-,saxon courts4 ,certain enactments of later ,saxon times in ,england have been sometimes spoken of as though they united together the temporal and spiritual jurisdictions into one mixed tribunal deriving its authority from the ,state4 ,in the latter part of the #ajth century1 laws of ,edgar provided that the bishop should be at the county court and also the alderman1 and that there each of them should put in use both ,god's laws and the world's law 7,johnson's ,english ,canons1 i4 #daa74 ,this probably was1 as ,johnson suggests1 that the bishop might enforce secular laws by ecclesiastical censure and the alderman ecclesiastical laws with secular punishment4 ,but the two jurisdictions were kept separate2 for by another law of ,edgar 7,leges ,edg4 c4 v47 it was provided that in the most august assembly the bishop and alderman should be present1 and the one should interpret to the people the law of ,god1 the other the laws of men4 ,edgar1 in a speech to ,st ,dunstan and the bishops in synod 7in #ifi71 said1 ,i hold in my hands the sword of ,constantine1 you that of ,peter4 ,let us join right hands and unite sword to sword 7,hardouin1 ,conc4 tom4 vi4 p4 #a1 col4 #fge74 ,the juxtaposition of the judicatures may1 however1 have led to some confusion between them4 ,as to appeals the mixed council of ,cliff at ,hoo 7#gdg7 said they should go to the synod of the province4 ,the only appeal to ,rome in ,saxon times was that of ,st ,wilfrid1 bishop of ,york1 who appealed from the division of his see and his deposition for refusing to consent to it1 and was heard in a ,roman synod under the presidency of ,pope ,agatho4 ,the synod found him unlawfully deposed and ordered his restoration4 ,upon his return to ,england1 the ,roman judgment was refused recognition and he was for a time imprisoned4 ,ten years later he was recalled to ,york1 but refusing to consent to the division of his see was again deposed and again appealed to ,rome4 ,the appeal was heard at great length1 in a synod of #gjc under ,john ,,vi41 deputies from the archbishop of ,canterbury being present4 ,st ,wilfrid was justified and was sent back to his see1 with papal letters to the kings of ,northumbria and ,mercia4 ,the ,roman decree was again disregarded4 ,at the council of ,nid he was reconciled to the other bishops of the province1 but not restored4 ,in the end he was brought back to ,york1 but not to the undivided see4 ,the details of the case will be found in ,wilkins1 ,concilia1 in ,mansi1 ,concilia1 under the various councils named1 and in ,haddan ,stubbs1 ,councils and ,eccl4 ,documents1 vol4 iii4 ,penalties inflicted by ecclesiastical courts4 ,the penalties which the spiritual court could inflict1 in the period between the edict of ,milan and c4 #hed1 were properly excommunication whether generally or as exclusion from the sacraments for a term of months or years or till the day of death and 7in the case of clerics7 suspension or deposition4 ,gradually1 however1 doubtless by way of commutation of excommunication and of penance1 temporal penalties were added1 as scourging1 banishment1 seclusion in a monastery1 fines4 ,it is difficult to say how far some of these temporal penalties were penitential only or how far they could be inflicted in invitos4 ,but the secular arm1 from the time of ,nicaea ,i41 was in the habit of aiding spiritual decrees1 as by banishing deposed bishops1 and gradually by other ways1 even with laymen4 ,scourging 7although it had been a well-known punishment of the synagogue7 was at first forbidden4 ,can4 #bh 7#bf7 of the ,apostolic ,canons imposes deposition on any bishop1 priest or deacon striking the delinquent faithful4 ,in ,africa1 however1 a contrary practice early sprang up 7see ,st ,augustine1 ,epist4 clix4 ad ,marcellum al4 cxxxiii474 ,the small council of ,vannes in ,brittany in #dfe made it an alternative punishment for clerks convicted of drunkenness 7,can4 #ac74 ,canon #ac of the first council of ,orleans1 which has been cited in this matter1 seems to have no application4 ,st ,gregory the ,great seems to assume that scourging and seclusion in a monastery are in the discretion of episcopal tribunals 7see ,epistles1 lib4 ii4 ep4 #aa1 #dj1 #db1 #dd1 #de2 lib4 vii4 ep4 #aa1 #fg2 lib4 xii4 ep4 #ca1 c4 #d74 ,the #afth council of ,toledo 7in #fic7 has been cited as if it visited certain very great sinners with scourging as an ecclesiastical punishment4 ,in fact1 it only approves the punishment as ordered by the ,visigothic laws4 ,an alleged decree of a council of ,autun in #fgj is part of a code of discipline for monasteries 7see authorities cited by ,hefele1 ,councils1 sect4 #bij1 towards the end74 ,banishment does not seem to have been inflicted by the spiritual court in invitum4 ,seclusion in a monastery seems first to have been used by the civil power in aid of the spiritual4 ,the fifth canon of the council of ,macon1 in #ehd1 forbids clergy to dress like laymen and imposes a penalty of thirty days' imprisonment on bread and water2 but this may be merely penitential4 ,there is little evidence of the imposition of fines as ecclesiastical penalties2 but there are references to the practice in the epistles of ,st ,gregory the ,great1 notably in his instructions to ,st ,augustine4 ,gregory ,,iii4 copies from ,st ,gregory ,i4 ,probably these also were by way of penance4 ,isolated examples in the early middle ages of metropolitans dealing with their suffragan bishops by imprisonment in chains were extra-canonical abuses1 connected with the perversion of ,church law which treated the metropolitan 7who originally was merely convener of the provincial synod and its representative during the intervals of sessions7 as the feudal lord of his comprovincials4 ,with the later #ith century we enter upon a new epoch1 and by the time of ,gregory ,,vii41 in the #aath century1 the tribunals have fallen into the hands of a regular class of canonists who are in fact professional church-lawyers in orders4 ,the changes due to the adoption of the ,false ,decretals by ,nicholas ,i4 and the application of their principles by ,hildebrand 7afterwards ,gregory ,,vii47 are discussed in the article ,,canon ,,law4 ,the later medieval system1 thus inaugurated1 may be considered 7#a7 in its hierarchy1 7#b7 in the subject matter of its jurisdiction1 7#c7 in its penalties4 ,later medieval system4 #a4 7a7 ,it is a system of courts4 ,much that had been done by bishops1 sine strepitu forensi et figura judicii1 is now done in the course of regular judicial procedure4 ,again1 the court takes the place of the synod4 ,the diocesan synod ceases to have judicial work4 ,the court of the metropolitan takes the place of the provincial synod1 except possibly for the trial of bishops1 and even this becomes doubtful4 7b7 ,at first the bishop was the only judge in the diocesan court and he always remains a judge4 ,but just as the king appoints judges to hear placita coram rege ipso1 and the feudal lord appoints his seneschal or steward1 so the bishop appoints his official4 7c7 ,the archdeacon acquires a concurrent ordinary jurisdiction with the bishop 7see ,,archdeacon74 ,for some time it was considered that he was a mere office-holder dependent on the will of the bishop with a jurisdiction merely vicarial2 but by the #acth century it was settled that he held a benefice and that his jurisdiction over causes was ordinary and independent of the bishop 7,van ,espen1 pars i4 tit4 xii4 c4 #a2 ,fournier1 ,les ,officialites au moyen age1 p4 #acd74 ,it was partly in order to counterpoise the power of archdeacons that bishops created officials 7,fournier1 p4 #h74 ,archdeacons in course of time created officials who presided in court in their stead4 ,the extent of jurisdiction of archdeacons depended much upon local customs4 ,in ,england the custom was generally in their favour4 ,ordinarily1 the appeal from an archdeacon or his official lay to the court of the bishop2 but by custom the appeal might be to the court of the metropolitan3 ,the ,constitutions of ,clarendon1 in #aafd1 made the appeal from the court of the archdeacon lie to the court of the bishop4 7d7 ,the official of the bishop might be his official principal1 who was his alter ego1 or a special officer for a particular locality 7officialis foraneus74 ,the latter was treated as a mere delegate1 from whom an appeal could be made to the bishop4 ,the former had one consistory with the bishop1 so that appeals from him had to be made to the court of the metropolitan4 ,how far the official principal had jurisdiction in criminal matters by virtue of his office1 how far it was usual to add this jurisdiction by special commission1 and what were the respective limits of his office and that of the vicar-general1 are questions of some nicety4 ,the emphasis in ,italy was on the vicar-general 7,sext4 de officio ,vicarii74 ,in the ,low ,countries1 ,france and ,england the jurisdiction of the official principal was wider 7,van ,espen1 pars i4 tit4 xii4 cc4 #d1 #e2 ,fournier1 p4 #ba74 ,but he could not try criminal matters unless specially committed to him 7,lyndwood1 ,provinciale1 lib4 ii4 tit4 #a74 ,later in ,england it became usual to appoint one man to the two offices and to call him chancellor1 a word perhaps borrowed from cathedral chapters1 and not in use for a diocesan officer till the time of ,henry ,,viii4 or later 7see ,,chancellor74 ,in ,ireland the title1 till the church was disestablished1 was vicar-general4 ,the importance of distinguishing the normal functions of an official principal and a vicar-general lies in this3 that it was gradually established that as a king should not hear causes but commit them to his judges1 so a bishop should not hear causes but appoint an official to hear them 7see ,ridley1 ,view of the ,civil and ,eccl4 ,law2 ,ayliffe1 ,parergon juris ecclesiastici1 p4 #afa2 ,godolphin1 ,abridgement of the ,laws ,ecclesiastical1 p4 #h74 ,the parlements of ,france were constantly insisting on the independence and irremovability of the official 7,fournier1 p4 #bai74 ,but jurisdiction which was not necessarily incident to the office of the official principal1 that is to say voluntary jurisdiction1 such as the granting of licences and institution to benefices1 and criminal jurisdiction over clerks 7and probably over laymen71 the bishop could reserve to himself4 ,reservations of this nature are made in many ,english patents of chancellors and were held good in ,r4 v4 ,tristram1 #aijb1 #a ,k4,b4 #haf4 7e7 ,the ecclesiastical and temporal courts are kept distinct4 ,the charter of ,william the ,conqueror abrogated the laws of ,edgar4 ,no bishop or archdeacon shall any longer hold pleas in the ,hundred concerning episcopal law nor draw a cause which concerns the rule of such to the judgment of men of the world 7,stubbs1 ,select ,charters1 part iii474 ,in ,france1 where the bishop was a temporal baron1 his feudal and his spiritual courts were kept by distinct officers 7,fournier1 p4 #b74 7f7 ,from the bishop1 or his official1 appeal lay to the metropolitan1 who again could hear causes by his official4 ,the ,constitutions of ,clarendon recognize this appeal 7c4 viii474 7g7 ,an appeal lay from the court of the metropolitan to that of the primate4 ,there were many disputes as to the existence of these primates 7see ,maitland1 ,canon ,law in the ,church of ,england1 p4 #aba74 ,in ,england the dispute between ,canterbury and ,york was settled by making them both primates1 giving ,canterbury the further honour of being primate of all ,england4 ,in ,france the primatial sees and the course of appeals to them were well established 7,fournier1 p4 #bai74 7h7 ,several attempts were made by metropolitans and their officials to take causes arising in the dioceses of their comprovincials in the first instance and not by way of appeal4 ,the officials of primates in their turn made similar attempts4 ,after long struggles this was hindered1 in ,france by the bull ,romana 7,fournier1 p4 #bah71 in ,england by the ,bill of ,citations1 #bc ,henry ,,viii4 c4 #i1 and ,canon #id of the ,canons of #afjc4 ,the preamble of the ,bill of ,citations is eloquent as to the mischief which it is framed to prevent4 ,there are1 however1 a few cases in which the metropolitan is still allowed to cite in the first instance4 ,one of them was in cases of perplexity4 ,perplexity arose where the suffragans could not owing to the geographical limitations of their competence do full justice 7,maitland1 pp4 #aah-aai74 ,such was the case of probate where notable goods of the deceased lay in more than one diocese4 ,hence the origin of the prerogative court of ,canterbury 7cf4 ,van ,espen1 pars i4 tit4 xix42 and for ,spain1 ,covarruvias1 ,pract4 ,quaest4 c4 #i74 7i7 ,gradually there grew up a mass of peculiar and exempt jurisdictions 7,ayliffe1 pp4 #dag1 #dah2 ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law1 pp4 #bad1 #ibg2 de ,maillane1 ,dict4 du droit canonique1 s4v4 ,exemptions74 ,exempt jurisdictions began with the monasteries and were matter of vehement discussion in the later middle ages4 ,there were no true exemptions before the #aath century 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 xii474 ,peculiar or special jurisdiction1 equal to that of the bishop1 was given to deans and chapters over the cathedral precincts and in places where they had corporate property 7see ,parham v4 ,templer1 #c ,phil4 ,ecc4 ,r4 #bb74 ,sometimes it was given to deans alone or to prebendaries in the parishes whence they derived their prebends4 ,where the archdeacon had a jurisdiction co-ordinate with the bishop1 it was called a peculiar4 ,the metropolitans had peculiars within the dioceses of their comprovincials wherever they had residences or manors1 and some whose origin is uncertain1 e4g4 that of the fifteen parishes in the deanery of the ,arches4 ,the official administering justice for the metropolitan was usually called a dean4 ,from a peculiar jurisdiction ranking as episcopal the appeal lay to the court of the metropolitan4 ,as to metropolitan peculiars1 the metropolitan might give an appeal from the dean to his regular official principal4 ,thus1 in ,canterbury there was an appeal from the dean of ,arches to the official principal of the ,arches court4 ,when peculiars were abolished 7vide infra7 the dean of ,arches disappeared1 and his title1 in the #aith century1 was erroneously given to the official principal4 ,on peculiars in ,spain cf4 ,covarruvias1 ,works1 tit4 i4 p4 #daj4 ,the ,french parlements1 after the middle ages1 discouraged them4 ,in exempt convents the head of the monastery or priory exercised jurisdiction subject to an appeal to the pope4 7j7 ,it is said that originally a metropolitan had only one official principal1 who1 like the metropolitan himself1 acted both for the diocese and province4 ,fournier 7p4 #bai7 says that in ,france it was not till the #agth century that there grew up a custom of having different officials for the metropolitan1 one for him as bishop1 a second as metropolitan1 and even a third as primate1 with an appeal from one to the other1 and that it was an abuse due to the parlements which strove to make the official independent of the bishop4 ,in ,england there has been1 for a long time1 a separate diocesan court of ,canterbury held before the commissary4 ,the word is significant as showing that there was something special and restricted about the position4 ,in ,york there are two courts1 one called the consistory for the diocese1 the other called the chancery for the province4 ,but the same person was often official of both courts4 7k7 ,in ,england the ,constitutions of ,clarendon added a provision for appeal to the king1 and if the archbishop shall have failed in doing justice recourse is to be had in the last resort 7postremo7 to our lord the king1 that by his writ the controversy may be ended in the court of the archbishop2 because there must be no further process without the assent of our lord the king4 ,the last words were an attempt to limit further appeal to ,rome4 ,it will be observed that the king does not hear the cause or adjudicate upon it4 ,he merely corrects slackness or lack of doing justice 7,si archiepiscopus defecerit in justitia exhibenda7 and by his writ 7precepto7 directs the controversy to be determined in the metropolitan's court4 ,as bishop ,stubbs says 7,report of ,eccl4 ,comm4 vol4 i4 ,hist4 ,app4 i473 ,the appeal to the king is merely a provision for a rehearing before the archbishop1 such failure to do justice being not so much applicable to an unfair decision as to the delays or refusal to proceed common at that time 7cf4 ,joyce1 ,the ,sword and the ,keys1 #bnd ed4 pp4 #ai-bj74 ,the recursus ad principem1 in some form or other of appeal or application to the sovereign or his lay judges1 was at the end of the middle ages well known over western ,europe4 ,this recourse in ,england sometimes took the form of the appeal to the king given by the ,constitutions of ,clarendon1 just mentioned1 and later by the acts of ,henry ,,viii42 sometimes that of suing for writs of prohibition or mandamus1 which were granted by the king's judges1 either to restrain excess of jurisdiction1 or to compel the spiritual judge to exercise jurisdiction in cases where it seemed to the temporal court that he was failing in his duty4 ,the appellatio tanquam ab abusu 7appel comme d'abus7 in ,france was an application of a like nature4 ,such an appeal lay even in cases where there was a refusal to exercise voluntary jurisdiction 7de ,maillane1 ,dictionnaire du droit canonique1 tit4 ,abus1 cf4 tit4 ,appel74 ,this writer traces their origin to the #adth century2 but the procedure does not seem to have become regularized or common till the reigns of ,louis ,,xii4 or ,francis ,i4 7cf4 ,dict4 eccl41 ,paris1 #agfe1 titt4 ,abus and ,appel comme d'abus74 ,on the recursus ad principem and the practice of cassation in ,belgium1 ,germany and ,spain1 cf4 ,van ,espen's treatise under this title 7,works1 vol4 iv47 and ,jus eccles4 univ4 pars iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #d4 ,louis ,,xiv4 forbad the parlements to give judgment themselves in causes upon an appel comme d'abus4 ,they had to declare the proceedings null and abusive and command the court ,christian to render right judgment 7,edict of #afie1 arts4 #cd1 #cf1 cited in ,gaudry1 ,traite de la legislation des cultes1 ,paris1 #ahed1 tom4 i4 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi74 ,in ,catalonia ,pragmatics1 letters from the prince1 issued to restrain jurisdiction assumed by ecclesiastical judges contrary to the customs of the principality4 ,thus in #acfh ,peter ,,iii4 evoked to the royal court a prosecution for abduction pending before the archbishop of ,tarragona1 declaring that the archbishop and the official were incompetent to judge noblemen4 ,see this and other instances collected in ,usages y demas derechos de ,cataluna1 by ,vives y ,cebria 7,barcelona1 #ahce71 tom4 iv4 p4 #acg et seq4 7l7 ,lastly there was the appeal to the patriarchs1 i4e4 in the ,west to ,rome4 ,the distinguishing feature of this appeal was that the rule of the other appeals did not apply to it4 ,in the regular course of those appeals an appellant could not leap the intermediate stages2 but he could at any stage go to this final appeal1 omisso medio1 as it was technically called 7see de appell4 c4 ,dilect4 iii4 for general rule1 and c4 #c de appell4 in #f for different rule in case of the pope1 and authorities cited in ,van ,espen1 pars iii1 tit4 x4 c4 #b1 #e74 ,van ,espen says3 ,the whole right of appeal to the ,roman pontiff omisso medio had undoubtedly its origin in this principle1 that the ,roman pontiff is ordinary of ordinaries1 or1 in other words1 has immediate episcopal authority in all particular churches1 and this principle had its own beginning from the ,false ,decretals4 ,appeals to ,rome lay from interlocutory as well as final judgments4 ,causes could even be evoked to ,rome before any judgment and there heard in first instance 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #a1 #h74 ,there was an alleged original jurisdiction of the pope1 which he exercised sometimes by permanent legates1 whom ,gregory ,,vii4 and his successors established in the chief countries of ,europe1 and to whom were committed the legislative executive and judicial powers of the spiritual prince in the districts assigned to them4 ,these ,clement ,,iv4 likened to pro-consuls and declared to have ordinary jurisdiction2 because they had jurisdiction over every kind of cause1 without any special delegation1 in a certain defined area or province 7c4 ii4 de ,officio ,legati in #f74 ,they were expressed to have not merely appellate but original jurisdiction over causes 7iii4 c4 i4 de ,officio ,legati74 ,the occupants of certain sees by a kind of prescription became legates without special appointment1 legati nati1 as in the case of ,canterbury4 ,in the #acth century ,archbishop ,peckham1 says ,maitland 7p4 #aag71 as archbishop asserted for himself and his official 7#a7 a general right to entertain in the first instance complaints made against his suffragans' subjects1 and 7#b7 a general right to hear appeals omisso medio4 ,it was1 for the time1 determined that the archbishop might himself1 in virtue of his legatine authority1 entertain complaints from other dioceses in first instance1 but that this legatine jurisdiction was not included in the ordinary jurisdiction of his official principal1 even if the archbishop had so willed it in his commission4 ,in fact1 however1 the official did before the end of the later medieval period get the same power as the archbishop 7,maitland1 pp4 #aah-abj2 cf4 ,lyndwood1 lib4 v4 tit4 #a71 till it was taken from him by the ,bill of ,citations4 ,after legates came special delegates appointed by the pope to hear a particular cause4 ,it was the general practice to appoint two or three to sit together 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #b1 #cg74 ,these might sub-delegate the whole cause or any part of it as they pleased1 ibid4 #i-ah4 ,dr ,maitland 7essay on ,the ,universal ,ordinary7 thinks1 but without very much foundation1 that great numbers especially of the more important causes were tried before these delegates2 although the records have largely perished1 since they were the records of courts which were dissolved as soon as their single cause had been decided4 ,these courts were convenient1 since it was the custom to appoint delegates resident in the neighbourhood1 and the power of sub-delegation1 general or limited1 simplified questions of distance4 ,in ,belgium causes appealed to ,rome had to be committed to local delegates 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #c1 tit4 x4 c4 #b74 ,there could be an appeal from these delegates to the pope and from the pope himself to the pope better informed 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 x4 c4 #b1 #ab1 #ac74 ,so personal had the system of jurisdiction become that even the trials of bishops ceased to be necessarily conciliar4 ,generally they were reserved to the pope 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 iii4 c4 #e1 #ag-ai72 but in ,england the archbishop1 either in synod1 or with some of his comprovincial bishops concurring1 tried and deposed bishops 7see case of ,bishop ,peacock and the other cases cited in ,read v4 ,bishop of ,lincoln1 #ad ,p4,d4 #adh1 and ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law1 pp4 #ff et seq474 7m7 ,the jurisdiction of a bishop sede vacante passed1 by general law1 to the dean and chapter2 but in ,england the metropolitans became guardians of the spiritualities and exercised original jurisdiction through the vacant diocese 7,phillimore1 pp4 #fb-fc71 except in the case of ,durham1 and with a peculiar arrangement as to ,lincoln4 ,if the metropolitan see were vacant the jurisdiction was exercised by the dean and chapter through an official 7,rothery1 ,return of ,cases before ,delegates1 ,nos4 #d1 #e74 ,as to ,france see ,fournier1 p4 #bid4 7n7 ,officials1 even of bishops and metropolitans1 need not be in holy orders1 though ,bishop ,stubbs in his paper in the ,report of the ,commission on ,ecclesiastical ,courts seems to say so4 ,they had to be clerics1 that is1 to have received the tonsure4 ,even papal delegates might be simple clerks 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 v4 c4 #b1 #bj74 ,it came1 however1 to be the practice to impose some restrictions1 as on clerks twice married4 ,thus ,archbishop ,chichele provided that no clerk married or bigamous 7that is1 having had two wives in succession7 should exercise spiritual jurisdiction 7see ,lyndwood1 lib4 iii4 tit4 #c74 ,abroad unsuccessful attempts were made by local councils to enact that officials and vicars-general should be in holy orders 7,hefele on ,councils of ,tortosa in #adbi and ,sixth of ,milan in #aehb74 ,these councils1 as will be seen1 are late4 7o7 ,with or without the concurrence and goodwill of the national ,church1 restrictions were imposed by the ,state on the papal jurisdiction1 whether original or appellate4 ,in ,england the ,constitutions of ,clarendon 7by chap4 viii47 prohibited appeals to the pope2 but after the murder of ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury ,henry ,,ii4 had to promise not to enforce them4 ,the statutes #ch ,edw4 ,,iii4 st4 #b1 #ac ,rich4 ,,ii4 st4 #b1 c4 #b1 and #af ,rich4 ,,ii4 c4 #e forbid such appeals2 but it is suggested that notwithstanding the generality of their language they refer only to cases of temporal cognizance4 ,cases upon the execution of these statutes are collected in ,stillingfleet1 ,on ,ecclesiastical ,jurisdiction1 p4 #ahi2 ,gibson1 ,codex1 #hc4 ,obstacles were placed in the way of appeals to the pope omisso medio4 ,thus when a writ of significavit issued on the mandate of a bishop1 an appeal to ,rome availed not to stay execution2 but if there were an appeal to the archbishop it was otherwise4 ,it therefore became the custom to lodge a double appeal3 one to the archbishop for defence1 and the other to the pope as the real appeal 7,hostiensis1 ,super ,decret4 ii4 fol4 #afi2 cf4 ,owen1 ,institutes of ,canon ,law1 #ahhd1 pt4 i4 c4 #ai1 #e74 ,there seems to have been no machinery for assisting the original or appellate jurisdiction of the pope by secular process1--by significavit or otherwise4 ,the matrimonial cause between ,henry ,,viii4 and ,catharine of ,aragon was the most famous ,english cause tried by delegates under the original jurisdiction of the pope1 and was ultimately evoked to ,rome4 ,the foreseen adverse termination of this long-drawn cause led to ,henry's legislation4 ,when the temporal courts interfered to prevent excess of jurisdiction1 they did so by prohibiting the ecclesiastical court from trying and the suitor from suing in that court4 ,the pope could not be effectively prohibited1 and no instance is recorded of a prohibition to papal delegates4 ,but suitors have been prohibited from appealing to the pope 7see per ,willes1 ,j41 in ,mayor of ,london v4 ,cox1 ,l4,r4 #b ,h4,l4 #bhj74 ,whatever may have been the law1 it is certain that1 notwithstanding the statutes of ,edw4 ,,iii4 and ,rich4 ,,ii41 appeals to ,rome and original trials by papal delegates did go on1 perhaps with the king's licence2 for the statute #bd ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ab recites that the hearing of appeals was an usurpation by the pope and a grievous abuse1 and proceeds to take away the appeal in matrimonial1 testamentary and tithe causes1 and to hinder by forbidding citation and process from ,rome1 all original hearings also4 ,the statute #be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ai follows this up by taking away appeals in all other subjects of ecclesiastical jurisdiction4 ,in #adch the council of ,basel took away all papal original jurisdiction 7save in certain reserved cases--of which infra71 evocation of causes to ,rome1 appeals to ,rome omisso medio1 and appeals to ,rome altogether in many causes4 ,such appeals when permissible1 except the greater1 were to be tried by delegates on the spot 7#cast ,session2 ,mansi1 ,concilia1 in loco74 ,these proceedings at ,basel were regarded at ,rome as of no effect4 ,nevertheless this decree and others were adopted by a ,french national council at ,bourges and promulgated by the king as a ,pragmatic ,sanction 7,migne1 ,dict4 du droit canonique1 ,pragmatique ,sanction74 ,the parlements registered the ,sanction and the effect was permanent in ,france4 ,louis ,,xi4 and ,charles ,,viii4 sought to revoke it2 but both parlements and states-general refused to recognize the revoking decrees4 ,in #adii ,louis ,,xii4 ordered the ,pragmatic to be inviolably observed4 ,the parlements thereupon condemned several private persons for obtaining bulls from ,rome4 ,in #aeaf a ,concordat between ,leo ,x4 and ,francis ,i4 settled all these questions in the sense of the ,pragmatic1 substantially according to the ,basel canon4 ,all causes1 except the greater1 were to be terminated in the country where the proper cognizance would lie 7,migne1 op4 cit4 ,concordat74 ,by this ,concordat1 by an ordinance of ,francis ,i4 in #aeci1 by two or three other royal edicts1 and 7above all7 by the practice of the parlements1 explanatory of this legislation1 and their arrets1 the conflict of secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions was settled until the ,revolution 7,migne1 ubi sup474 ,greater causes came in ,france to be restricted to criminal prosecutions of bishops4 ,even in these the original jurisdiction of the pope was taken away4 ,in first instance they were tried by the provincial synod4 ,thence there was appeal to the pope 7de ,maillane1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,causes majeures2 ,dict4 eccl41 ,paris1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,cause74 ,the only original jurisdiction left to the pope was in the case of the matrimonial causes of princes4 ,but they could only be heard on the spot by judges delegate4 ,examples are the causes of ,louis ,,xii4 and ,jeanne of ,france in #adih1 and of ,henry ,,iv4 and ,marguerite of ,valois in #aeii 7,migne1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,causes74 ,the prohibition of papal interference was enforced if necessary by the appel comme d'abus 7vide supra74 ,out of respect for the pope this appeal was not brought against his decrees but against their execution 7,dict4 eccl41 ,paris1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,abus74 ,spain appears to have permitted and recognized appeals to the pope4 ,a royal writ of the #afth century cited by ,covarruvias 7c4 xxxv47 prohibits execution of the sentence of a ,spanish court ,christian pending an appeal to the pope4 ,civil jurisdiction4 #b4 ,the subject matter over which the ecclesiastical courts had jurisdiction was no longer purely criminal with a civil quasi-jurisdiction by way of arbitration4 ,in the later middle ages these courts had jurisdiction over most questions1 except indeed the then most important ones1 those relating to real property4 ,this civil jurisdiction was sometimes concurrent with that of the secular courts1 sometimes exclusive4 ,for ,england it may be thus classified3-- 7a7 ,matrimonial4--,this arose naturally from the sacred character of ,christian marriage4 ,this jurisdiction was exclusive4 ,from it followed the right of the courts ,christian to pronounce upon questions of legitimacy4 ,upon this right an inroad was early made1 in consequence of the question of legitimation by subsequent marriage4 ,in the #abth century the ,church's rule1 that subsequent marriage did legitimize previous issue1 was settled 7c4 #f1 x4 #d1 #ag74 ,the king's judges then began to ask the ordinary the specific question whether ,a4 ,b4 was born before or after his parents' marriage4 ,after the inconclusive proceedings at the realm-council of ,merton 7#abcf71 when spiritual and temporal lords took opposite views1 the king's judges went a step further and thenceforward submitted this particular question to a jury4 ,all other questions of legitimacy arising in the king's courts were still sent for trial to the bishop and concluded by his certificate 7see ,pollock and ,maitland1 ,hist4 ,eng4 ,law before ,edward ,i4 vol4 i4 #aje-ajf2 ,maitland1 ubi supra1 pp4 #ec-ef74 7b7 ,testamentary and in regard to succession from intestates4--,real property was not the subject of will or testament in the medieval period4 ,but as to personal property1 the jurisdiction of the courts ,christian became exclusive in ,england4 ,the ,church1 ,east and ,west1 had long asserted a right to supervise those legacies which were devoted to pious uses1 a right recognized by ,justinian 7,cod4 i4 #c4 #df74 ,the bishop or1 failing him1 the metropolitan1 was to see such legacies properly paid and applied and might appoint persons to administer the funds 7,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ccj74 ,this right and duty became a jurisdiction in all testamentary causes4 ,intestacy was regarded with the greatest horror1 because of the danger to the intestate's soul from a death without a fitting part given to pious uses 7,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 ed4 #aijf1 note by ,pollock1 p4 #bcj2 cf4 ,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit4 ii4 #ced74 ,hence came the jurisdiction of the ordinary in intestacy1 for the peace of the soul of the departed4 ,this head of ecclesiastical jurisdiction was in ,england not transferred to the secular court till #aheg4 7c7 ,church ,lands4--,if undoubtedly held in frankalmoign or free alms1 by a spiritual tenure only1 the claim of jurisdiction for the ecclesiastical forum seems to have been at first conceded4 ,but the ,constitutions of ,clarendon 7c4 #i7 reserved the preliminary question1 of frankalmoign or not1 for a jury in the king's court4 ,then1 if the tenure were found free alms1 the plea was to be heard in the court ,christian4 ,from the #acth century1 however1 inclusive1 the king's courts insisted on their exclusive jurisdiction in regard to all realty1 temporal or spiritual 7,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit4 i4 #ajf74 7d7 ,title to present to and possession of benefices4--,as to the title to present to benefices1 the courts ,christian at one time had concurrent jurisdiction with the temporal courts4 ,advowsons were1 however1 looked upon as a species of real property in ,england1 and therefore the king's court early claimed exclusive jurisdiction in disputes where the title to present was involved4 ,the ,constitutions of ,clarendon provided that these causes should be heard only in the king's court 7c4 #a74 ,this rule was applied even where both litigants were spiritual4 ,in the #acth century abbots sue each other in the royal court for advowsons 7,selden ,soc4 ,select ,civil ,pleas1 i4 pl4 #bde74 ,in #abca1 in such a suit1 the bishop of ,london accepts wager of battle 7,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit4 i4 #aje74 ,in cases1 however1 where the title to present was not in question1 but the fitness of the clerk presented1 or1 in cases of election to benefices1 the validity of the election1 there was jurisdiction in the courts ,christian4 7e7 ,the recovery of tithes and church dues1 including in ,england church rates levied to repair or improve churches and churchyards4 7f7 ,questions concerning fabrics1 ornaments1 ritual and ceremonial of churches4 7g7 ,administration of pious gifts and revenues given to prelates or convents4--,their right application could be effectively enforced only in the courts ,christian2 until the rise in ,england of the equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery and the development of the doctrine of uses at the end of the middle ages4 7h7 ,enforcement of contractual promises made by oath or pledge of faith4--,the breaking of such a promissory oath was called perjury 7as in classical ,latin and in ,shakespeare71 contrary to modern usage which confines the word to false evidence before a court of justice4 ,in regard to the execution of these promises1 the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts was possibly traversed by c4 #ae of the ,constitutions of ,clarendon2 but allowed by the statute #ac ,edw4 ,i4 st4 #d4 ,as just intimated1 besides the enforcement of the promise1 the perjury was treated as an ecclesiastical crime4 ,the criminal jurisdiction of courts ,christian over laymen included1 besides these perjuries1 7a7 all sexual offences not punishable on indictment2 7b7 ,defamation of character 7the king's courts came in time to limit this to such defamation as could not be made the subject of a temporal action72 7c7 ,offences by laymen against clerks 7i4e4 against all tonsured persons1 supra72 7d7 ,offences in regard to holy places--brawling and such like2 7e7 ,heresy1 schism1 apostasy1 witchcraft4 ,in regard to clerks1 there was 7#a7 all the criminal jurisdiction which existed over laymen1 and 7#b7 criminal jurisdiction in regard to professional misconduct4 ,concerning felonious clerks the great questions discussed were whether the courts ,christian had exclusive jurisdiction or the king's court1 or whether there was a concurrent jurisdiction4 ,the subject was dealt with in the ,constitutions of ,clarendon1 formally revoked after the murder of ,st ,thomas of ,canterbury4 ,in the #acth century it was recognized that a clerk for felony was subject only to ecclesiastical trial and punishment2 punishment which might involve lifelong imprisonment4 ,for misdemeanours1 as yet unimportant1 he had no exemption from secular jurisdiction 7,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit4 ch4 iv474 ,at some indeterminate later period1 the clerk was tried for felony by a jury in the king's court and then pleaded his clergy1 after conviction there1 and was remitted to the ordinary for ecclesiastical punishment4 ,clerks for the purpose of benefit of clergy included not only persons in minor orders1 but all religious persons1 i4e4 monks1 friars1 nuns1 c4 ,later the custom arose of taking clerk to include any literate1 even if not in orders or religious 7cf4 ,stephen1 ,hist4 ,crim4 ,law1 i4 #dfa74 ,the statute #d ,hen4 ,,vii4 c4 #ac took away benefit of clergy1 if claimed a second time1 from persons not within orders1 in certain bad cases4 #d ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #b 7a temporary act7 took away clergy1 in certain heinous crimes1 from all persons not in holy orders4 ,this statute was partly renewed by #bb ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ac4 ,other changes were introduced by #bc ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #a and later acts4 ,in time1 benefit of clergy became entirely diverted from its original objects4 ,in ,france1 till #acbi1 there seems to have been no clear line of demarcation between secular and ecclesiastical jurisdictions4 ,beaumanoir 7,coutume de ,baulvoisis1 ch4 xi41 cited ,gaudry1 op4 cit4 i4 #bb7 had laid down the principle that spiritual justice should meddle only with spiritual things4 ,in the year named the secular courts complained to the king1 ,philip of ,valois1 of the encroachments of the courts ,christian4 ,the cause was solemnly argued before that monarch1 who decided to leave things as they were 7,migne1 ,dict4 du droit canon41 s4v4 ,officialites74 ,in #acga ,charles ,v4 forbade spiritual courts to take cognizance of real and possessory actions even in regard to clerks 7,migne1 loc4 cit42 cf4 ,gaudry1 ubi sup474 ,from this period the parlements began the procedure which1 after the ,pragmatic ,sanction of ,charles ,,vii41 in #adch took regular shape as the appel comme d' abus 7supra2 ,migne1 loc4 cit474 ,testamentary causes at first were subject to the concurrent jurisdiction of the spiritual and secular courts4 ,after the #adth century1 the latter had exclusive jurisdiction 7,van ,espen1 op4 cit4 lib4 iii4 tit4 ii4 cc4 #b1 #ae1 #af74 ,in regard to marriage the secular jurists distinguished between the civil contract and the sacrament1 for purposes of separating the jurisdiction 7,dict4 eccl41 ,paris1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,mariage74 ,the voluntary jurisdiction as regards dispensations was kept for the ,church4 ,the contentious jurisdiction of the courts ,christian was confined to promises of marriage1 nullity of marriage caused by diriment impediments only1 validity or invalidity of the sacrament1 divorce a thoro 7ibid474 ,questions in regard to the property in a benefice were for the courts ,christian2 in regard to its possession1 for the king's courts4 ,but if a possessory action had been brought in the latter1 a subsequent suit in the courts spiritual for the property was deemed abusive and restrained 7ib41 s4v4 ,petitoire7 ,breach of faith or of promise confirmed by oath was matter for the court ,christian 7,fournier1 pp4 #ie1 #ii1 #aji1 #abe74 ,this branch of jurisdiction was larger and more freely used than in ,england 7cf4 ,pollock and ,maitland1 op4 cit41 as to ,normandy74 ,the only other remaining civil jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts was in personal actions where clerks were defendants 7,migne1 op4 cit41 s4v4 ,officialites1 ,fournier1 pp4 #fe-abe72 or1 after the #adth century1 where both parties were clerks4 ,in regard to crimes delicts 7delits7 were divided into classes for purposes of jurisdiction4 ,clerks were punishable only in the court ,christian1 except in cases of grave crimes such as murder1 mutilation 7,fournier1 p4 #gb71 and cases called royal cases 7vide infra74 ,laymen were punishable in the court ,christian for the delits following3 injury to sacred or religious places1 sacrilege1 heresy 7except where it was a royal case71 sorcery1 magic1 blasphemy 7also punishable in the secular court71 adultery1 simony1 usury and infractions of the truce of ,god 7,fournier1 pp4 #ij-ic74 ,what were called privileged delicts were judged in the case of the clergy conjointly by the spiritual judge and the king's judge4 ,bishops had no exemption 7,dict4 ecc41 s4v4 ,delits1 ,cas privilegie1 ,causes majeures74 ,royal cases included such crimes as touched the prince1 as all forms of treason2 or the dignity of his officers2 or the public safety4 ,in this class were also included such heresies as troubled the state1 as by forbidden assemblies1 or by teaching prohibited doctrine4 ,among these heresies were reckoned idolatry1 atheism1 ,protestantism1 relapse 7ib4 et ,cas royaux1 ,heresie74 ,these were of exclusive royal jurisdiction as against both spiritual courts and the courts of feudal lords4 ,a similar claim was made by ,pombal for ,portugal 7vide infra74 ,the parlements1 in order to have a ready means of enforcing all these restrictions by appel comme d'abus1 compelled the bishops to appoint officials1 ,frenchmen1 graduates1 and 7as it seems7 seculars 7,dict4 eccl41 ,paris1 #agfe1 s4v4 ,official74 ,this last qualification was disputed 7see ,fevret1 ,traite de l'abus74 #c4 ,punishments4--,ecclesiastical sanctions were divided into punishments 7poenae71 either purely temporal in character or else of a mixed spiritual and temporal character1 and censures 7censurae71 purely spiritual and remedial 7see ,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 xl4 cc4 #a1 #c2 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesiastical ,law1 p4 #ajfd74 ,in the book last cited censurae and poenae are classed together as censures 7which is the modern use74 ,poenae4--7a7 ,fines sprang from the older custom of directing alms by way of penance in the internal forum 7,van ,espen1 ubi sup4 c4 #a1 #e-aj74 ,they were to be applied to pious uses4 7b7 ,reclusion in a monastery continued from former period1 and might be either temporary or perpetual 7loc4 cit4 #ag-ai74 7c7 ,imprisonment1 in the bishop's prison1 might be in chains1 or on bread and water1 and temporary or perpetual4 ,in its severer forms it was only inflicted for more atrocious crimes which the secular law would have punished with death 7loc4 cit4 #ba-bg74 ,the act #bc ,henry ,,viii4 c4 #aa made special provision for convicted clerks who broke out of the prisons of the ordinary4 7d7 ,fustigation1 as in former period1 was hardly an ecclesiastical punishment4 ,if given1 it was to be of a paternal character 7loc4 cit4 #ci-de74 ,punishments of a mixed nature were3 7e7 ,suspension either from office alone or from office and benefice2 7f7 ,deprivation of benefice2 7g7 ,deposition or ,degradation 7a more solemn and ceremonial form7 from the ministry2 7h7 ,irregularity--not always a punishment--a state of incapacity to be ordained1 or1 being ordained1 to execute the ministry2 this might result from some defect of mind and body1 but was also incurred by some grave offences4 ,censures were as follows3 7i7 ,suspension from attending divine offices or ab ingressu ecclesiae1 more appropriate for a layman4 ,a clerk in like case might be suspended from office4 7j7 ,interdict was another form of partial or total suspension from the benefit of the rites and sacraments of the ,church4 ,an interdict might be personal or local 7see ,,interdict74 7k7 ,excommunication was either greater or less4 ,the greater separated entirely from the ,church4 ,it might be pronounced under anathema4 ,the less deprived of participation in the sacraments1 and made a clerk incapable of taking a benefice4 ,on the ,european continent the courts ,christian often carried out their decrees by their own apparitors who could levy pecuniary penalties on a defendant's goods 7,van ,espen1 pars iii4 tit4 ix4 c4 #d74 ,they could arrest and imprison4 ,in ,england1 except in the peculiar case of imprisonment pending trial for heresy1 or in the case of a clerk convicted of crime1 these things could not be4 ,the sentence of the court ,christian had in all other cases to be enforced by the secular arm4 ,early in ,henry ,,ii4's time it had become the custom of ,england for the court ,christian to signify its sentence of excommunication to the king and to demand from him a writ of significavit to the sheriff1 to imprison the person excommunicated4 ,the writ apparently issued for no court inferior to the bishop's1 unless upon the bishop's request4 ,in some sense the king's writ of significavit was discretionary2 but its issue could be enforced by excommunication or interdict4 ,in the cases of heresy1 apostasy and sorcery1 the spiritual courts sought the aid of the secular jurisdiction to superadd the punishment of death4 ,incorrigible offenders on these matters were left to the secular power1 to be corrected with due animadversion4 ,this provision of the fourth ,lateran ,council in #abae was always interpreted to mean death 7see ,van ,espen1 ,observ4 in ,conc4 ,lat4 ,,iv4 ,canones1 and the decree in the ,sext4 ut inquisitionis negotium2 and1 as to ,english law and practice1 ,maitland1 op4 cit41 ,essay vi41 and pp4 #afa1 #agf2 #b ,hen4 ,,iv4 c4 #ae2 ,fitzherbert1 ,natura brevium1 #bfi2 #b ,hen4 ,v4 st4 #a1 c4 #g74 ,the capital punishment was generally 7always in ,england7 by burning4 ,burning was an ,english punishment for some secular offences4 ,the ,concordat with ,francis ,i4 by which the pope gave up the right of hearing appeals from ,france was not many years before the legislation of ,henry ,,viii4 in ,england4 ,both monarchs proceeded on the same lines2 but ,francis ,i4 got the pope's consent3 ,henry ,,viii4 acted in invitum1 and in time went rather further4 ,ecclesiastical jurisdiction in ,england4 ,the ,statute of ,appeals 7#bd ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ab7 takes away appeals to ,rome in causes testamentary and matrimonial and in regard to right of tithes1 oblations and obventions4 ,a final appeal is given to the archbishop of the particular province2 but in causes touching the king a final appeal is given to the ,upper ,house of ,convocation of the province4 ,the statute is aimed at appeals2 but the words used in it concerning citations and all other processes are wide enough to take away also the original jurisdiction of the pope4 ,no appeal was yet given to the crown4 ,canterbury1 ,york1 ,armagh1 ,dublin1 ,cashel and ,tuam are put in the place of ,rome4 ,the ,english and ,irish provinces are treated as self-contained4 ,all ends there4 ,the ,act of ,submission of the ,clergy 7#be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ai7 took away all appeals to ,rome and gave a further appeal1 for lack of justice1 from the several courts of the archbishops to the king in chancery4 ,thence a commission was to issue to persons named therein to determine the appeal definitely4 ,this was copied from the then existent practice in admiralty appeals and was the origin of the so-called court of delegates4 ,it is a moot question whether this statute took away the appeal to the ,upper ,houses of the various convocations in causes wherein the king was concerned 7see ,gorham v4 ,bishop of ,exeter1 #ae ,q4,b4 #eb2 ,ex parte ,bishop of ,exeter1 #aj ,c4,b4 #ajb2 ,re ,gorham v4 ,bishop of ,exeter1 #e ,exch4 #fcj74 #cg ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ag provided that married laymen might be judges of the courts ,christian if they were doctors of civil law1 created in any university4 ,this qualification even was considered unnecessary in ,charles ,i4's time 7,cro4 ,car4 #beh74 ,canon #abg of #afjc provided that the judges must be learned in the civil and ecclesiastical laws and at least masters of arts or bachelors of laws4 ,canon ,law as a study had been practically prohibited at the universities since #aecf 7,merriman1 ,thomas ,cromwell1 i4 #adb-adc2 ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 vol4 ix4 p4 xxix4 #aag2 ,owen1 ,institutes of ,canon ,law1 viii474 ,the substitution of civilians1 rather than common lawyers1 for canonists 7civilians1 hitherto1 not an important body in ,england7 had important consequences 7see ,maitland1 op4 cit4 #ib et seq474 ,henry ,,viii4 had exercised his jurisdiction as ,supreme ,head through a vicar-general4 ,edward ,,vi4 exercised original jurisdiction in spiritual causes by delegated commissions 7see ,archdeacon ,hale1 ,precedents in ,criminal ,cases1 p4 xlviii474 ,unless the king was to be regarded as an ecclesiastical person1 they were not properly ecclesiastical courts2 although spiritual persons might sit in them1 for they sat only as royal commissioners4 ,the same point has been taken by large bodies of clergy and laity in regard to the court of final appeal created by #be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #ai and its present successor the judicial committee of ,privy ,council 7infra3 ,rep4 ,com4 ,ecc4 ,discipline1 pp4 #i1 #id et seq474 ,at any rate the original jurisdiction claimed for the monarch personally and his delegates1 under ,henry ,,viii4 and ,edward ,,vi41 has not permanently remained4 ,in theory1 ,hooker's contentions have been conceded that kings cannot in their own proper persons decide questions about matters of faith and ,christian religion and that they have not ordinary spiritual power 7,ecc4 ,pol4 vii4 #h1 #a1 #f2 cf4 ,,xxxix4 ,articles1 ,art4 #cg74 ,under ,henry ,,viii4 a system began of making certain crimes1 which previously had been only of spiritual cognizance1 felonies 7#be ,hen4 ,,viii4 c4 #f71 excluding thereby spiritual jurisdiction 7,stephen1 ,hist4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dbi74 ,bigamy 7in its modern sense7 was thus made felony 7#a ,jac4 ,i4 c4 #aa74 ,in this reign and the next1 temporal courts were sometimes given jurisdiction over purely spiritual offences4 ,a trace of this remains in #a ,edw4 ,,vi4 c4 #a 7still on the statute book2 ,stephen1 ,hist4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dci74 ,other traces occur in the ,acts of ,uniformity1 which make offences of depraving the ,book of ,common ,prayer triable at ,assizes 7between #bc ,eliz4 c4 #a and #g #h ,vict4 c4 #ajb--;also at ,sessions7 as well as in the courts ,christian4 ,during ,edward ,,vi4's time the courts ,christian seem practically to have ceased to exercise criminal jurisdiction 7,hale1 ,precedents in ,criminal ,cases1 p4 xlix474 ,but they sat again for this purpose under ,mary and ,elizabeth and 7save between #afdj and #affa7 continued regular criminal sessions till towards the end of the #agth century as continuously and constantly as the king's courts 7op4 cit474 ,the ordinary ecclesiastical tribunals of the later middle ages still subsist in ,england1 at least as regards the laity4 ,this is hardly the case elsewhere in the ,western ,church1 though some exceptions are noted below4 ,nevertheless1 their exercise of criminal jurisdiction over the laity is now in practice suspended2 although in law it subsists 7see ,stephen1 ,hist4 ,crim4 ,law2 ,ray v4 ,sherwood1 #a ,curt4 ,r4 #aic2 #a ,moore ,p4,c4,r4 #cfc2 the observations of ,kelly1 ,c4,b41 in ,mordaunt v4 ,moncrieffe1 ,l4,r4 #b ,sc4 ,div4 #cha1 and of ,lord ,coleridge in ,martin v4 ,mackonochie1 ,l4,r4 #d ,q4,b4,d4 #ggj1 and1 on the other hand1 of ,lord ,penzance in ,phillimore v4 ,machon1 ,l4,r4 #a ,p4,d4 #dhj74 ,theoretically still1 in cases of sexual immorality1 penance may be imposed4 ,monitions to amend may be decreed and be enforced by significavit and writ de contumace capiendo1 or by excommunication with imprisonment not to exceed six months 7#ec ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #abg74 ,the tribunals thus subsisting are the courts of the bishop and archbishop1 the latter sometimes called the court of appeal of the province4 ,peculiar jurisdictions have been gradually taken away under the operation of the acts establishing the ecclesiastical commissioners4 ,the appeal given to delegates appointed by the crown has been transferred1 first by #b #c ,will4 ,,iv4 c4 #ib to the privy council1 and then by #c #d ,will4 ,,iv4 c4 #da to the judicial committee of the privy council4 ,bishops may now be summoned as assessors by #ci #dj ,vict4 c4 #ei4 ,there was in the time of ,elizabeth1 ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 a ,court of ,high ,commission with jurisdiction over laity and clergy1 based on #a ,eliz4 c4 i4 s4 #ae1 which was reckoned as an ecclesiastical judicature 7#e ,r4 #a1 ,cawdrey's case7 concurrent with the ordinary court ,christian4 ,it was created by virtue of the royal supremacy1 and was taken away by #af ,car4 ,i4 c4 #aa4 ,as to its history see ,stephen1 ,hist4 ,crim4 ,law1 ii4 #dad-dbh4 ,in regard to clerical offences1 #c #d ,vict4 c4 #hf 7the ,church ,discipline ,act7 creates new tribunals2 and first a commission of inquiry appointed by the bishop of five persons1 of whom the vicar-general1 or an archdeacon1 or a rural dean of the diocese must be one4 ,if they report a prima facie case1 the bishop may 7with the consent of parties7 proceed to sentence4 ,in the absence of such consent1 the bishop may hear the cause with three assessors1 of whom one shall be a barrister of seven years' standing and another the dean of the cathedral1 or one of the archdeacons1 or the chancellor4 ,this court is called the consistory court1 but is not the old consistory4 ,both these tribunals are new4 ,but the bishop may instead send the cause1 in first instance1 to the old provincial court1 to which appeal lies1 if it be not so sent4 ,the ,public ,worship ,regulation ,act 7#cg #ch ,vict4 c4 #he7 gave criminal jurisdiction over beneficed clerks 7concurrent with that of the tribunal under #c #d ,vict4 c4 #hf7 to the judge under the act in matters of the fabric1 ornaments1 furniture and decorations of churches1 and the conduct of divine service1 rites and ceremonies4 ,the judge under the act is to be a barrister of ten years' standing1 or an ex-judge of a superior secular court1 appointed by the archbishops of ,canterbury and ,york1 with the approval of the crown1 or1 if they fail to appoint1 by the crown4 ,proceedings under this act are to be deemed to be taken in the appropriate ancient ecclesiastical courts 7,green v4 ,lord ,penzance1 #f ,a4 ,c4 #feg74 ,the judge under this act became 7upon vacancies occurring7 ex officio official principal of the arches court of ,canterbury and of the chancery court of ,york4 ,this provision caused grave doubts to be entertained as to the canonical position of this statutory official principal4 ,finally1 the ,clergy ,discipline ,act #ahib 7#ee #ef ,vict4 c4 #cb7 creates yet a new court of first instance for the trial of clerical offences against morality in the shape of a consistory court1 which is not the old court of that name1 but is to comprehend the chancellor and five assessors 7three clergymen and two laymen chosen from a prescribed list71 with equal power with the chancellor on questions of fact4 ,in many instances the conviction of a temporal court is made conclusive on the bishop without further trial4 ,in regard to moral offences1 jurisdiction under this act is exclusive4 ,but it only applies to clerks holding preferment4 ,under all these three acts there is a final appeal to the judicial committee of the privy council4 ,none of these acts applies to the trial of bishops1 who are left to the old jurisdictions1 or whatever may be held to be the old jurisdictions 7with that of the ,roman ,see eliminated74 ,as to suffragan bishops in the province of ,canterbury1 see ,read v4 ,bishop of ,lincoln1 #ac ,p4,d4 #bba1 #ad ,p4,d4 #hh4 7,on general questions see ,phillimore1 ,ecc4 ,law1 #fe1 #gc47 ,despite the bishop of ,lincoln's case1 the law is in some uncertainty4 ,dilapidations are now not made matters of suit before the court1 but of administrative action by the bishop4 ,the subject matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction has been gradually reduced in ,england1 c41 by various causes4 7#a7 ,the taking away of all matrimonial1 testamentary and ab intestate jurisdiction by #bj #ba ,vict4 c4 #gg 7testamentary1 c41 ,england71 c4 #gi 7testamentary1 c41 ,ireland71 c4 #he 7matrimonial1 ,england72 #cc #cd ,vict4 c4 #aaj 7matrimonial1 ,ireland74 ,matrimonial jurisdiction was taken from the bishop of ,sodor and ,man in #ahhd4 7#b7 ,since #f #g ,will4 ,,iv4 c4 #ga1 tithe has become1 except in a few rare cases1 tithe rent charge1 and its recovery has been entirely an operation of secular law4 ,most kinds of offerings are now recoverable in secular courts4 7#c7 ,administration of pious gifts has passed to the court of chancery4 7#d7 ,the enforcement of contractual promises has long been abandoned by the courts ,christian themselves4 7#e7 ,church rates can no longer be enforced by suit 7#ca #cb ,vict4 c4 #aji74 7#f7 ,defamation was taken away in ,england by #ah #ai ,vict4 c4 #da1 and in ,ireland by #bc #bd ,vict4 c4 #cb4 7#g7 ,laymen can no longer be tried in the spiritual courts for offences against clerks4 7#h7 ,the jurisdiction for brawling in church1 c41 is taken away by #bc #bd ,vict4 c4 #cb in the case of the laity4 ,in the case of persons in holy orders there is a concurrent jurisdiction of the two tribunals 7,valancy v4 ,fletcher1 #ahig1 #a ,q4,b4 #bfe74 ,this was an offence very frequently prosecuted in the courts ,christian 7see ,a4,j4 ,stephens1 ,ecclesiastical ,statutes1 i4 #ccf74 ,the existing ecclesiastical jurisdiction in ,england is therefore now confined to the following points4 7#a7 ,discipline of the clergy4 7#b7 ,discipline of the laity in respect of sexual offences as already stated4 7#c7 ,control of lay office-bearers1 church-wardens1 sidesmen1 organists1 parish clerks1 sextons4 7#d7 ,protection of the fabrics of churches1 of churchyards1 ornaments1 fittings1 c41 sanctioning by licence or faculty any additions or alterations1 and preventing or punishing unauthorized dealings by proceedings on the criminal side of the courts4 7#e7 ,claims by individuals to particular seats in church or special places of sepulture4 7#f7 ,rare cases of personal or special tithes1 offerings or pensions claimed by incumbents of benefices4 ,in the ,isle of ,man and the ,channel ,islands courts ,christian have now jurisdiction substantially as in ,england4 ,in ,jersey and in ,guernsey there are courts of first instance with appeal to the bishop of ,winchester4 ,ecclesiastical jurisdiction in ,ireland was as in ,england till the ,irish ,church was disestablished in #ahfi by #cb #cc ,vict4 c4 #db4 ,ecclesiastical jurisdiction in non-established churches4 ,the position of a disestablished or an unestablished ,church is comparatively modern1 and has given rise to new jural conceptions4 ,these ,churches are collegia licita and come within the liberty of association so freely conceded in modern times4 ,the relations of their bishops1 priests or other ministers and lay office-bearers inter se and to their lay folk depend upon contract2 and these contracts will be enforced by the ordinary courts of law4 ,a consensual ecclesiastical jurisdiction is thus created1 which has to this extent temporal sanction4 ,in foro conscientiae spiritual censures canonically imposed are as binding and ecclesiastical jurisdiction is as powerful as ever4 ,into the ,british-settled colonies no bishops were sent till #aghg2 and consequently there were no regular courts ,christian4 ,the bishop of ,london was treated as the diocesan bishop of the colonists in ,north ,america2 and in order to provide for testamentary and matrimonial jurisdiction it was usual in the letters patent appointing the governor of a colony to name him ordinary4 ,in ,new ,york state there is still a court called the surrogates court1 surrogate being the regular name for a deputy ecclesiastical judge4 ,in ,lower ,canada1 by treaty1 the ,roman ,catholic ,church remained established4 ,throughout the ,united ,states1 whatever may have been the position in some of them before their independence1 the ,church has now no position recognized by the ,state1 but is just a body of believers whose relations are governed by contract and with whom ecclesiastical jurisdiction is consensual4 ,the position is the same now through all the ,british colonies 7except1 as already mentioned1 ,lower ,canada or ,quebec74 ,from #aghg onwards1 colonial bishops and metropolitans were appointed by letters patent which purported to give them jurisdiction for disciplinary purposes4 ,but a series of cases1 of which the most remarkable was that ,re the ,bishop of ,natal 7#c ,moore ,p4,c4 ,n4,s4 ,a4,d4 #ahfd71 decided that in colonies possessing self-governing legislatures such letters patent were of no value2 and soon after the crown ceased to issue them1 even for crown colonies4 ,in ,india the metropolitan of ,calcutta and the bishops of ,madras and ,bombay have some very limited jurisdiction which is conferred by letters patent under the authority of the statutes #ec ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #aee and #c #d ,will4 ,,iv4 c4 #he4 ,but the other ,indian bishops have no position recognized by the ,state and no jurisdiction1 except consensual4 ,ecclesiastical jurisdiction in ,scotland4 ,the ,church had the same jurisdiction in ,scotland1 and exercised it through similar courts to those which she had in ,england and ,france1 till about #aegj4 ,as late as #aeff ,archbishop ,hamilton of ,glasgow1 upon his appointment1 had restitution of his jurisdiction in the probate of testaments and other matters 7,keith1 ,history of the ,scottish ,bishops1 ,edinburgh1 #ahbd1 p4 #ch74 ,there was an interval of uncertainty1 with at any rate titular bishops1 till #aeib4 ,then parliament enacted a new system of ,church courts which1 though to some extent in its turn superseded by the revival of episcopacy under ,james ,,vi41 was revived or ratified by the act of #afij1 c4 #g1 and stands to this day4 ,it is a ,presbyterian system1 and the ,scottish ,episcopal ,church is a disestablished and voluntary body since #afij4 ,the ,presbyterian courts thus created are arranged in ascending order3-- 7a7 ,kirk ,session consists of the minister of the parish and the ruling elders 7who are elected by the session74 ,it has cognizance of scandalous offences by laymen and punishes them by deprivation of religious privileges4 ,it does not judge ministers 7,brodie-,innes1 ,comparative ,principles of the ,laws of ,england and ,scotland1 #aijc1 p4 #add74 7b7 ,the ,presbytery has jurisdiction1 partly appellate and partly original1 over a number of parishes4 ,there are now eighty-four presbyteries4 ,these courts consist of every parochial minister or professor of divinity of any university within the limits1 and of an elder commissioned from every kirk session4 ,a minister is elected to preside as moderator4 ,these courts judge ministers in first instance for scandalous conduct4 ,as civil courts they judge in first instance all questions connected with glebes and the erection and repair of churches and manses4 ,they regulate matters concerning public worship and ordinances1 and have appellate jurisdiction from the kirk session4 7c7 ,the ,provincial ,synod consists of a union of three or more presbyteries with the same members4 ,there are now sixteen4 ,they meet twice a year to hear appeals from presbyteries4 ,no appeal can go direct to the ,general ,assembly1 omisso medio1 unless the presbytery have so expressly directed1 or unless there be no meeting of synod after the decision of the presbytery before the meeting of ,general ,assembly4 7d7 ,the ,general ,assembly is the supreme ecclesiastical court of this system4 ,it meets annually4 ,the king's lord high commissioner attends the sittings2 but does not intervene or take part in the court's decisions4 ,the court consists of ministers and elders1 elected from the presbyteries in specified proportions1 and of commissioners from the four universities1 the city of ,edinburgh and the royal burghs4 ,the ,presbyterian ,church in ,india sends one minister and one elder4 ,the whole ,assembly consists of #cga ministers and #ccc elders4 ,the jurisdiction is entirely appellate4 ,the ,assembly appoints a commission to exercise some of its functions during the intervals of its session4 ,to this commission may be referred the cognizance of particular matters4 ,questions of patronage now 7by #cg #ch ,vict4 c4 #hb7 belong to the ,church courts2 but not questions of lapse or stipend4 ,seats1 seat rents1 pews1 the union and disjunction of parishes and formation of district parishes are of secular jurisdiction4 ,questions of tithes 7or teinds7 and ministers' stipends were referred to commissioners by acts of the ,scots parliaments beginning in #afjg4 ,the commissioners of teinds became a species of ecclesiastical court4 ,by ,scots act of #agjg1 c4 #i1 their powers were transferred to the judges of the court of session1 who now constitute a teind court 7,brodie-,innes1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ach1 #aci74 ,matrimonial matters and those relating to wills and succession 7called in ,scotland consistorial causes7 were in #aefc taken from the old bishops' courts and given to commissaries appointed by the crown with an appeal to the court of session1 which by act #afji1 c4 #f1 was declared the king's great consistory4 ,they have remained matters of secular jurisdiction4 ,the ,scots ecclesiastical courts are entitled to the assistance of the secular courts to carry out their jurisdiction by due assistance4 ,within the limits of their jurisdiction they are supreme4 ,but if a court go outside its jurisdiction1 or refuse to exercise powers conferred on it by law1 the civil court may reduce 7i4e4 set aside7 the sentence and award damages to the party aggrieved4 ,protestant continental ,european states4 ,with the ,reformation in the #afth century1 ,church courts properly speaking disappeared from the non-episcopal religious communities which were established in ,holland1 in the ,protestant states of ,switzerland and of ,germany1 and in the then non-episcopal countries of ,denmark and ,norway4 ,discipline over ministers and other office-bearers was exercised by administrative methods in the form of trials before consistories or synods4 ,to this extent ecclesiastical jurisdiction is still exercised in these countries4 ,consistories and synods have exercised discipline of a penitential kind over their lay members2 but in later times their censures have generally ceased to carry temporal consequences4 ,ecclesiastical jurisdiction on the civil side for the trial of causes soon disappeared4 ,heresy has been treated as a crime to be tried in and punished by the ordinary courts of the country1 as in the cases of ,servetus 7q4v47 and ,grotius 7q4v474 ,for the episcopal churches of ,sweden and ,finland the first constitution or ,church order was formed in #aega4 ,it provided for the visitation of the clergy by the bishop1 and for the power of the clergy to exclude their lay folk from the ,holy ,communion1 subject to appeal to the bishop4 ,both minor and major excommunication had been in use1 and for a long time public penance was required4 ,the procedure underwent great modification in #afhf2 but public penance was not taken away till #ahee1 and then confession to and absolution by the priest in the presence of witnesses was still required4 ,civil jurisdiction in causes appears to have been given up early 7,cornelius1 ,svenska ,kirkaus ,historia1 ,upsala1 #ahge1 pp4 #adf1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #bhe74 ,roman ,catholic countries4 ,over the rest of western continental ,europe and in the colonies of ,spain1 ,portugal and ,france1 ecclesiastical jurisdiction remained generally in the state which we have already described till near the end of the #ahth century4 ,the council of ,trent took away the jurisdiction of archdeacons in marriage questions4 ,the testamentary jurisdiction disappeared 7as already stated7 in ,france4 ,disputed cases of contract were more often tried in the secular courts4 ,recourse to the secular prince by way of appel comme d'abus1 or otherwise1 became more frequent and met with greater encouragement4 ,kings began to insist upon trying ecclesiastics for treason or other political crimes in secular courts4 ,so under the advice of his minister 7the marquis of ,pombal71 ,king ,joseph of ,portugal in #agei-agfj claimed that the pope should give him permission to try in all cases clerics accused of treason1 and was not content with the limited permission given to try and execute1 if guilty1 the ,jesuits then accused of conspiring his death 7,life of ,pombal1 by ,count da ,carnota1 #ahga1 pp4 #abh1 #ada74 ,but there was no sudden change in the position of the courts ,christian till the ,french ,revolution4 ,in ,france a law of the ,revolution 7,september #agij7 purported to suppress all ecclesiastical jurisdictions4 ,on the re-establishing of the ,catholic religion on the basis of the new ,concordat1 promulgated #ah ,germinal1 year ,x4 7,april #h1 #ahjb71 no express provision was made for ecclesiastical jurisdictions2 but several bishops did create new ecclesiastical tribunals1 officialities 7,migne1 ,dict4 de droit canon41 s4v474 ,the government in some cases recognized these tribunals as capable of judging ecclesiastical causes 7,migne1 ubi sup474 ,in #ahaj the diocesan official of ,paris entertained the cause between ,napoleon and ,josephine1 and pronounced a decree of nullity 7,migne1 ubi sup4 s4v4 ,causes74 ,such litigation as still continued before the spiritual forum was1 however1 confined 7save in the case of the matrimonial questions of princes7 to the professional conduct of the clergy4 ,such neighbouring countries as were conquered by ,france or revolutionized after her pattern took the same course of suppressing their ecclesiastical jurisdictions4 ,after #ahad1 some of these jurisdictions were revived4 ,but the matter is now determined for all countries which have adopted codes1 whether after the pattern of the ,code ,napoleon or otherwise4 ,these countries have created a hierarchy of temporal courts competent to deal with every matter of which law takes cognizance1 and a penal code which embraces and deals with all crimes or delicts which the state recognizes as offences4 ,hence1 even in countries where the ,roman ,church is established1 such as ,belgium1 ,italy1 the ,catholic states of ,germany and cantons of ,switzerland1 most of the ,latin republics of ,america1 and the province of ,quebec1 and a fortiori where this ,church is not established1 there is now no discipline over the laity1 except penitential1 and no jurisdiction exercised in civil suits1 except possibly the matrimonial questions of princes 7of which there was an example in the case of the reigning prince of ,monaco74 ,in ,spain causes of nullity and divorce a thoro1 in ,portugal causes of nullity between ,catholics1 are still for the court ,christian4 ,in ,peru1 the old ecclesiastical matrimonial jurisdiction substantially remains 7,lehr1 ,le ,mariage dans les principaux pays1 #ahii1 arts4 #cfb1 #gig1 #ggb1 #gha74 ,otherwise these three countries are ,code countries4 ,in ,austria1 the ancient ecclesiastical jurisdiction was taken away by various acts of legislation from #agha to #ahef2 even voluntary jurisdiction as to dispensations4 ,the ,concordat of #ahef and consequent legislation restored matrimonial jurisdiction to the courts ,christian over marriages between ,roman ,catholics4 ,in #ahfh this was taken away4 ,the ,austrian bishops1 however1 maintain their tribunals for spiritual purposes1 and insist that such things as divorce a vinculo must be granted by their authority 7,aichner1 ,compendium juris ecclesiastici1 pp4 #eea-eec74 ,by consent and submission of her members1 the ,roman ,church decides in foro conscientiae questions of marriage1 betrothal and legitimacy everywhere2 but no temporal consequences follow except in ,spain1 ,portugal and ,peru4 ,the position in ,france was the same as that in ,belgium1 ,italy1 c41 till #aijf1 when the ,church ceased to be established4 ,the only ,latin countries in which conflict has not arisen appear to be the principality of ,andorra and the republic of ,san ,marino 7,giron y ,areas1 ,situacion juridica de la ,iglesia ,catolica1 ,madrid1 #aije1 p4 #agc et seq474 ,even as to the discipline of the ,roman clergy it is only in certain limited cases that one can speak of ecclesiastical jurisdiction4 ,bishops and beneficed incumbents 7cures7 must be regularly tried2 and where the ,church is established the canonical courts are recognized4 ,but the majority of parishes are served by mere desservants or vicaires1 who have no rights and can be recalled and dismissed by mere administrative order without trial 7,migne1 ubi sup4 s4v4 ,inamovibilite1 ,desservants74 ,the ,napoleonic legislation re-established the appel comme d'abus 7,articles organiques1 art4 #f74 ,the recourse was now to the council of state 7see ,migne1 ubi supra1 ,officialite74 ,but the revocation of a desservant1 and the forbidding him the execution of his ministry in the diocese1 was not a case in which the council of state would interfere 7,migne1 ubi sup4 ,appel comme d'abus1 ,conseil d'etat74 ,jurisdiction in ,anglican communion4 ,in those provinces of the ,anglican communion where the ,church is not established by the state1 the tendency is not to attempt any external discipline over the laity2 but on the other hand to exercise consensual jurisdiction over the clergy and office-bearers through courts nearly modelled on the old canonical patterns4 ,modern jurisdiction of ,church of ,rome4 ,in the ,roman communion1 on the other hand1 both where the ,church is established and where it is not1 the tendency is to reduce the status of cure to that of desservant1 and to deal with all members of the priestly or lower orders by administrative methods4 ,this practice obtains in all missionary countries1 e4g4 ,ireland and also in ,belgium 7,s4,b4 ,smith1 ,elements of ,ecclesiastical ,law1 ,new ,york1 i4 #aig et seq42 p4 #djc et seq42 ,tauber1 ,manuale juris canonici1 ,sabariae1 #aijd1 p4 #bgg74 ,in the ,united ,states1 the #crd plenary council of ,baltimore in #ahhd provided that one rector out of ten should be irremovable 7,smith1 op4 cit4 i4 #aig1 #dai74 ,in ,england there are few ,roman benefices 7,e4 ,taunton1 ,law of the ,church1 ,london1 #aijf1 s4v4 ,benefice74 ,a desservant has an informal appeal1 by way of recourse1 to the metropolitan and ultimately to the pope 7,smith1 op4 cit4 p4 #bja74 ,the bishop's official is now universally called his vicar-general 7except in ,france1 where sometimes an official is appointed eo nomine71 and generally exercises both voluntary and contentious jurisdiction 7op4 cit4 i4 #cgg74 ,as of old1 he must be at least tonsured and without a wife living4 ,at the ,vatican ,council1 a desire was expressed that he should be a priest 7ib474 ,he should be a doctor in theology or a licentiate in canon law 7ib4 p4 #cgh74 ,whether a bishop is bound to appoint a vicar-general is still disputed 7ib4 p4 #chj2 cf4 supra2 contra1 ,bouix1 ,inst4 ,juris ,canon4 ,de ,judic4 i4 #dje74 ,in #ahca the pope enacted that in all the dioceses of the then ,pontifical ,states1 the court of first instance for the criminal causes of ecclesiastics should consist of the ordinary and four other judges4 ,in the diocese of ,rome1 the court of the cardinal vicar-general consists of such vicar-general and four other prelates 7,smith1 ubi supra74 ,in the ,roman communion in ,england and the ,united ,states1 there are commissions of investigation appointed to hear in first instance the criminal causes of clerks4 ,they consist of five1 or at least three1 priests nominated by the bishop in and with the advice of the diocesan synod4 ,in the ,united ,states1 since #ahhd1 the bishop presides on these commissions4 ,they report their opinions to the bishop1 who passes final sentence 7ib4 ii4 #abi-aca74 ,exemptions now include all the regular religious orders1 i4e4 those orders which have solemn vows4 ,over the members of these orders their superiors have jurisdiction and not the bishop4 ,otherwise if they live out of their monastery1 or even within that enclosure so notoriously offend as to cause scandal4 ,in the first case1 they may be punished by the ordinary of the place1 acting as delegate of the pope without special appointment 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 vi4 c4 #c74 ,in the second case1 the bishop may require the superior to punish within a certain time and to certify the punishment to him2 in default he himself may punish 7,conc4 ,trid4 ,sess4 xxv4 c4 #ad1 cf4 ,smith1 op4 cit4 i4 #bjd-bjf74 ,so1 regulars having cure of souls are subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop in matters pertaining thereto 7ib4 p4 #bjf74 ,the exemption of regular religious orders may be extended to religious societies without solemn vows by special concession of the pope1 as in the case of the ,passionists and ,redemptorists 7ib4 p4 #bje2 ,sanguineti1 ,juris ecc4 inst41 ,rome1 #ahjj1 pp4 #cic1 #cid74 ,appeal lies1 in nearly all cases1 to the metropolitan 7,smith1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bai-bbc74 ,metropolitans usually now have a metropolitan tribunal distinct from their diocesan court 7ib4 ii4 #ada71 but constructed on the same lines1 with the metropolitan as judge and his vicar-general as vice-judge4 ,in some missionary dioceses1 the metropolitan1 qua metropolitan1 has a separate commission of investigation1 to try the criminal causes of clerks1 sentence being passed by himself or his vicar-general 7ib4 p4 #adb74 ,the next step in the hierarchy1 that of primates 7supra71 has in the present state of the ,church ceased to exist for our purpose 7,sanguineti1 op4 cit4 p4 #ccd71 as a result of ,tridentine legislation4 ,the only appellate jurisdiction from the metropolitans is the ,roman ,see4 ,to it also lies a direct appeal from the court of first instance1 omisso medio 7,smith1 op4 cit4 i4 #bbd74 ,the pope's immediate and original jurisdiction in every diocese is now expressly affirmed by the ,vatican ,council 7ib4 p4 #bci74 ,that original jurisdiction he reserves exclusively to himself in causis majoribus 7ib4 pp4 #bdi-bej74 ,these are 7#a7 causes relating to elections1 translations and deprivations of1 and criminal prosecutions against1 bishops1 and 7#b7 the matrimonial cases of princes 7,taunton1 op4 cit4 s4v4 ,cause74 ,eastern ,church4 ,in the ,eastern ,church1 the early system of ecclesiastical judicature long continued4 ,but a sacred character was ascribed to the emperors4 ,they are anointed lords like the bishops 7,balsamon1 in ,conc4 ,ancyr4 ,can4 xii41 representing the view of the #abth and #acth centuries74 ,bishops were often deposed by administrative order of the emperor2 synods being expected afterwards to confirm1 or rather accept1 such order4 ,the germ of this dealing with a major causa may be found in the practice of the ,arian emperors in the #dth century4 ,the cause of ,ignatius and ,photius was dealt with in the #ith century by various synods2 those in the ,east agreeing with the emperor's view for the time being1 while those in the ,west acted with the pope4 7,the details are in ,mansi1 ,conc4 in locis1 and in ,hefele1 ,conc4 in locis1 more briefly4 ,they are summarized in ,landon1 ,manual of ,councils1 s4v4 ,constantinople1 ,rome1 and in ,e4,s4 ,foulkes1 ,manual of ,ecclesiastical ,history1 s4v4 ,century ,,ix47 ,since these transactions patriarchs have been deposed by the ,byzantine emperors2 and the ,turkish sultans since the #aeth century have assumed to exercise the same prerogative4 ,the spiritual courts in the ,east have permanently acquired jurisdiction in the matrimonial causes of baptized persons2 the ,mahommedan governments allowing to ,christians a personal law of their own4 ,the patriarch of ,constantinople is enabled to exercise an extensive criminal jurisdiction over ,christians 7,neale1 ,hist4 of the ,eastern ,church1 i4 #cj1 #ca74 ,the empire of ,russia has in the matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction partly developed into other forms1 partly systematized #dth century and later ,byzantine rules4 ,the provincial system does not exist2 or it may be said that all ,russia is one province4 ,an exception should be made in the case of ,georgia1 which is governed by an exarch1 with three suffragans under him4 ,in the remainder of the empire the titles of metropolitan1 save in the case of the metropolitan of all ,russia1 and of archbishop1 were and are purely honorary1 and their holders have merely a diocesan jurisdiction 7see ,mouravieff1 ,history of the ,russian ,church1 translated ,blackmore1 #ahdb1 translator's notes at pp4 #cgj1 #cij1 #daf et seq474 ,so in ,egypt the bishop or pope 7afterwards patriarch7 of ,alexandria was the only true metropolitan 7,neale1 ,history of the ,eastern ,church1 ,gen4 ,introd4 vol4 i4 p4 #aaa74 ,the metropolitan of ,russia from the time of the conversion 7,a4,d4 #ihh7 settled at ,kiev1 and his province was part of the patriarchate of ,constantinople1 and appeals lay to ,constantinople4 ,many such appeals were taken1 notably in the case of ,leon1 bishop of ,rostov 7,mouravieff1 op4 cit4 p4 #ch74 ,the metropolitical see was for a short time transferred to ,vladimir and then finally to ,moscow 7,mouravieff1 chs4 iv41 v474 ,after the taking of ,constantinople in #adeb1 the ,russian metropolitans were always chosen and consecrated in ,russia1 appeals ceased1 and ,moscow became de facto autocephalous 7,joyce1 ubi sup4 p4 #cgi2 ,mouravieff1 op4 cit4 p4 #abf74 ,the tsar ,theodore in #aehg exercised the power of the ,byzantine emperors by deposing the metropolitan1 ,dionysius ,grammaticus 7,mouravieff1 p4 #abe74 ,in #aehg the see of ,moscow was raised to patriarchal rank with the consent of ,constantinople1 and the subsequent concurrence of ,alexandria1 ,antioch and ,jerusalem 7ib4 c4 vi474 ,moscow became the final court1 in theory1 as it had long been in practice4 ,certain religious houses1 however1 had their own final tribunals and were peculiars1 exempt from any diocesan or patriarchal jurisdiction for at least all causes relating to ,church property 7ib4 p4 #aca74 ,the subject matter of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in ,russia during the whole patriarchal period included matrimonial and testamentary causes1 inheritance and sacrilege1 and many questions concerning the ,church domains and ,church property1 as well as spiritual offences of clergy and laity 7ib474 ,the bishops had consistorial courts2 the patriarchs1 chanceries and consistories 7ib474 ,bishops were judged in synod 7see1 e4g4 the case of the archbishop of ,polotsk in #afbb1 ib4 p4 #agi7 and only lawfully judged in synod 7ib4 p4 #bae74 ,clerks and the dependants of the metropolitan 7afterwards the patriarch7 appear to have been immune from secular jurisdiction1 except in the case of crimes against life1 from the time of ,ivan the ,terrible 7ib4 pp4 #ahj-aha74 ,the tsar ,michael1 in the earlier #agth century1 confirmed these immunities in the case of the clergy of the patriarch's own diocese1 but provided that in country places belonging to his diocese1 monasteries1 churches and lands should be judged in secular matters by the ,court of the ,great ,palace1 theoretically held before the tsar himself 7ib4 p4 #aha74 ,this tsar limited the peculiar monasteries to three1 and gave the patriarch jurisdiction over them 7ib474 ,the next tsar1 ,alexis1 however1 by his code instituted a ,monastery ,court1 which was a secular tribunal composed of laymen1 to judge in civil suits against spiritual persons1 and in matters arising out of their manors and properties 7ib4 p4 #aic74 ,this court was not in operation during the time when the patriarch ,nikon was also in effect first minister2 but upon his decline exercised its full jurisdiction 7ib4 p4 #baf74 ,nikon was himself tried for abdicating his see1 causing disorder in the realm1 oppression and violence1 first before a synod of ,moscow composed of his suffragans and some ,greek bishops1 and afterwards before another synod in which sat the patriarchs of ,alexandria and ,antioch1 the metropolitans of ,servia and ,georgia1 the archbishops of ,sinai and ,wallachia1 and the metropolitans of ,nice1 ,amasis1 ,iconium1 ,trebizond1 ,varna and ,scio1 besides the ,russian bishops4 ,this synod in #affg deposed ,nikon1 degraded him from holy orders1 and sentenced him to perpetual penance in a monastery 7ib4 pp4 #bbj-bcb74 ,the next tsar1 ,theodore1 suppressed the secular monastery court1 and directed that all suits against spiritual persons should proceed only in the patriarchal court of requests 7ib4 p4 #bfd74 ,there was1 however1 a species of appel comme d'abus4 ,causes could be evoked to the tsar himself1 when any partiality of the judges in any affair in which they themselves were interested was discovered 7ib474 ,the old system was swept away by ,peter the ,great1 who settled ecclesiastical jurisdiction substantially on its present basis4 ,the patriarchate was abolished and its jurisdiction transferred by a council at ,st ,petersburg in #agba to a ,holy ,governing ,synod4 ,the change was approved by the four patriarchs of the ,east in #agbc 7ib4 chs4 xv4-xvii474 ,peter permanently transferred to the secular forum the testamentary jurisdiction and that concerning inheritance1 as also questions of sacrilege 7ib4 p4 #bfd74 ,as the result of a long series of legislation1 beginning with him and ending with ,catherine ,,ii41 all church property of every kind was transferred to secular administration1 allowances1 according to fixed scales1 being made for ministers1 monks and fabrics 7op4 cit4 translator's appendix i4 p4 #dac et seq474 ,there remain to the spiritual courts in ,russia the purely ecclesiastical discipline of clerks and laity and matrimonial causes4 ,the court of first instance is the consistorial court of the bishop4 ,this consists of a small body of ecclesiastics4 ,its decisions must be confirmed by the bishop 7op4 cit4 translator's appendix ii4 pp4 #dbb-dbc74 ,in the more important causes1 as divorce 7i4e4 a vinculo71 it only gives a provisional decision1 which is reported by the bishop1 with his own opinion1 for final judgment1 to the ,most ,holy ,governing ,synod4 ,the governing synod is the final court of appeal4 ,it consists of a small number of bishops and priests nominated by the tsar1 and is assisted by a procurator1 who is a layman1 who explains to it the limits of its jurisdiction and serves as the medium of communication between it and the autocrat and secular authorities4 ,it deals with the secular crimes of spiritual persons1 if of importance and if not capital 7these last being reserved for the secular forum71 and with heresy and schism4 ,it is the only court which can try bishops or decree divorce4 ,the tsar formally confirms its judgments2 but sometimes reduces penalties in the exercise of the prerogative of mercy 7see ,mouravieff1 op4 cit4 ch4 xvii4 translator's app4 ii474 ,the governing synod now sits at ,st ,petersburg1 but appoints delegated commissions1 with a portion of its jurisdiction1 in ,moscow and ,georgia4 ,the latter commission is presided over by the exarch 7supra74 ,since the ,war of ,independence1 the kingdom of ,greece has been ecclesiastically organized after the model of ,russia1 as one autocephalous province1 separated from its old patriarchate of ,constantinople1 with an honorary metropolitan and honorary archbishops 7,neale1 op4 cit4 ,gen4 ,introd4 vol4 i474 ,the ,holy ,synod possesses the metropolitical jurisdiction4 ,it sits at ,athens4 ,the metropolitan of ,athens is president1 and there are four other members appointed by the government in annual rotation from the senior bishops4 ,there is attached to it a government commissioner1 with no vote1 but affixing his signature to the synodical judgments 7,joyce1 op4 cit4 p4 #ce74 ,the subject matter of the jurisdiction of ,hellenic courts ,christian seems to be confined to strictly spiritual discipline1 mainly in regard to the professional misconduct of the clergy4 ,imprisonment may be inflicted in these last cases 7ib474 ,all matrimonial causes are heard by the secular tribunals 7,lehr1 op4 cit4 sec4 #ehg74 ,the bishop's consistorial court1 consisting of himself and four priests1 has a limited jurisdiction in first instance4 ,such a court can only suspend for seven days unless with the sanction of the ,holy ,synod 7,joyce1 op4 cit474 ,the ,holy ,synod can only inflict temporary suspension1 or imprisonment for fifteen days1 unless with the sanction of the ,king's ministry4 ,deprivation1 or imprisonment for more than two months1 requires the approval of the king 7ib474 ,the king or the ministry do not1 however1 rehear the cause by way of appeal1 but merely restrain severity of sentence 7ib474 ,the ,church of ,cyprus has been autocephalous since at any rate the oecumenical synod of ,ephesus in #dca4 ,the episcopate now consists of an archbishop and three suffragans 7,hackett1 ,orthodox ,church in ,cyprus1 #aija1 ch4 v4 et passim74 ,the final court is the island synod1 which consists of the archbishop1 his suffragans and four dignified priests4 ,it has original and exclusive cognizance of causes of deposition of bishops 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bfj1 #bfb74 ,each bishop is assisted by at least two officers with judicial or quasi-judicial powers1 the archimandrite who adjudicates upon causes of revenue and the archdeacon who adjudicates on questions between deacons 7op4 cit4 pp4 #bgb-bgc74 ,the exarch of the archbishop1 who is a dignitary but not a bishop1 has a seat in the provincial synod4 ,in the ,balkan ,states1 the system--inherited from ,byzantine and ,turkish times--of ecclesiastical jurisdictions prevails1 except that they are now autocephalous1 and independent of the patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,matrimonial causes in ,servia are of ecclesiastical cognizance 7,lehr1 op4 cit4 sect4 #ija74 ,,authorities4--,st ,augustine1 ,epistles2 ,codex ,theodosianus1 edited by ,th4 ,mommsen and ,p4,m4 ,meyer 7#aije72 ,code and ,novells of ,emperor ,justinian1 ed4 ,j4 ,gothofredus 7#affe72 ,t4 ,balsamon1 ,in ,conc4 ,ancyr4 in the ,corpus juris canonici 7#ahgi-ahha72 ,hostiensis ,super ,decretum2 ,w4 ,lyndwood1 ,provinciale 7,oxford1 #afgi72 ,sir ,a4 ,fitzherbert1 ,natura brevium 7#aecd72 ,sir ,t4 ,ridley1 ,view of the ,civile and ,ecclesiastical ,law 7#afjg72 ,j4 ,ayliffe1 ,parergon juris ecclesiastici 7#agbf72 ,j4 ,godolphin1 ,abridgement of the ,laws ,ecclesiastical 7,london1 #afhg72 ,e4 ,gibson1 ,codex juris ecclesiastici 7,oxford1 #agfa72 ,d4 ,covarruvias1 ,opera omnia 7,antwerp1 #afch72 ,jean ,hardouin1 ,concilia 7#agae72 ,j4,d4 ,mansi1 ,concilia 7#agei-agih72 ,e4 ,stillingfleet1 ,ecclesiastical ,jurisdiction 7#agjd72 ,l4,s4 le ,nain de ,tillemont1 ,memoires pour servir a l'histoire ecclesiastique 7#agja-agab72 ,p4,t4 ,durand de ,maillane1 ,dictionnaire du droit canonique 7#agfa72 ,dictionnaire ecclesiastique et canonique1 par une societe de religieux 7,paris1 #agfe72 ,z4,b4 van ,espen1 ,jus ecclesiasticum universum 7,louvain1 #agbj71 ,de recursu ad ,principem1 observationes in ,concilium ,lateranense iv42 ,l4 ,thomassin1 ,vetus et nova disciplina ecc4 7#agje-agjf72 ,w4 ,beveridge1 ,synodicon 7,oxford1 #afgb72 ,j4,a4,s4 da ,carnota1 ,life of ,pombal 7#ahdc72 ,j4,p4 ,migne1 ,dictionnaire de droit canon4 7,paris1 #ahdd72 ,r4 ,keith1 ,history of the ,scottish ,bishops 7,edinburgh1 #ahbd72 ,p4,n4 ,vives y ,cebria1 ,usages y demas derechos de ,cataluna 7#ahcb72 ,c4,a4 ,cornelius1 ,svenska ,kyrkaus ,historia 7,upsala1 #ahge72 ,mouravieff1 ,history of the ,russian ,church 7trans4 ,blackmore1 #ahdb72 ,ffoulkes1 ,manual of ,ecclesiastical ,history 7#ahea72 ,e4,h4 ,landon1 ,manual of ,councils of the ,church 7#ahic72 ,w4,h4 ,hale1 ,precedents in ,criminal ,cases 7,london1 #ahdg72 ,e4,b4 ,pusey1 ,councils of the ,church 7,oxford1 #aheg72 ,c4,j4 von ,hefele1 ,conciliengeschichte 7,freiburg1 #ahee-ahij72 ,m4 ,gaudry1 ,traite de la legislation des cultes 7,paris1 #ahed72 ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,select ,charters 7,oxford1 #ahie72 ,a4,w4 ,haddan and ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,councils and ,ecclesiastical ,documents 7,oxford1 #ahfi72 ,a4,j4 ,stephens1 ,ecclesiastical ,statutes 7#ahde72 ,h4,c4 ,rothery1 ,return of ,cases before ,delegates 7#ahfd72 ,j4,w4 ,joyce1 ,the ,sword and the ,keys 7#bnd ed41 #ahha72 ,report of ,ecclesiastical ,courts ,commission 7#ahhh72 ,p4 ,fournier1 ,les ,officialites au moyen age 7#ahhj72 ,s4,b4 ,smith1 ,elements of ,ecclesiastical ,law 7,new ,york1 #ahhi-ahij72 ,s4 ,sanguineti1 ,juris ecc4 inst4 7,rome1 #ahij72 ,j4,f4 ,stephen1 ,history of the ,criminal ,law of ,england 7,london1 #ahhc72 ,pollock and ,maitland1 ,history of ,english ,law before ,edward ,i4 7#ahih72 ,f4,w4 ,maitland1 ,roman ,canon ,law in the ,church of ,england 7#ahih72 ,r4 ,owen1 ,canon ,law 7#ahhd72 ,sir ,r4,j4 ,phillimore1 ,ecclesiastical ,law 7#bnd ed41 #ahie72 ,j4,w4 ,brodie-,innes1 ,comparative ,principles of the ,laws of ,england and ,scotland 7#aijc72 ,r4,b4 ,merriman1 ,life and ,letters of ,thomas ,cromwell 7#aijb72 ,s4 ,aichner1 ,compendium juris ecclesiast4 7#hth ed41 ,brixen1 #aije1 especially in regard to ,austro-,hungarian ,empire72 ,j4 ,hackett1 ,history of the ,orthodox ,church in ,cyprus 7#aija72 ,tauber1 ,manuale juris canonici 7#aijf72 ,e4,l4 ,taunton1 ,law of the ,church 7,london1 #aijf72 ,report of ,royal ,commission on ,ecclesiastical ,discipline 7#aijf74 7,w4 ,g4 ,f4 ,p47 ,,ecclesiastical ,,law1 in its broadest sense1 the sum of the authoritative rules governing the ,christian ,church1 whether in its internal polity or in its relations with the secular power4 ,since there are various churches1 widely differing alike in their principles and practice1 it follows that a like difference exists in their ecclesiastical law1 which is the outcome of their corporate consciousness as modified by their several relations to the secular authority4 ,at the outset a distinction must be made between churches which are established and those that are free4 ,the ecclesiastical laws of the latter are1 like the rules of a private society or club1 the concern of the members of the church only1 and come under the purview of the state only in so far as they come in conflict with the secular law 7e4g4 polygamy among the ,mormons1 or violation of the trust-deeds under which the property of a church is held74 ,in the case of established ,churches1 on the other hand1 whatever the varying principle on which the system is based1 or the difference in its practical application1 the essential conditions are that the ecclesiastical law is also the law of the land1 the decisions of the church courts being enforced by the civil power4 ,this holds good both of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 wherever this is recognized as the state religion1 of the ,oriental ,churches1 whether closely identified with the state itself 7as in ,russia71 or endowed with powers over particular nationalities within the state 7as in the ,ottoman empire71 and of the various ,protestant ,churches established in ,great ,britain and on the continent of ,europe4 ,writers on the theory of ecclesiastical law1 moreover1 draw a fundamental distinction between that of the ,church of ,rome and that of the ,protestant national or territorial ,churches4 ,this distinction is due to the claim of the ,roman ,catholic ,church to be the only ,church1 her laws being thus of universal obligation2 whereas the laws of the various established ,protestant ,churches are valid--at least so far as legal obligation is concerned--only within the limits of the countries in which they are established4 ,the practical effects of this distinction have been1 and still are1 of enormous importance4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 even when recognized as the state religion1 is nowhere established in the sense of being identified with the state1 but is rather an imperium in imperio which negotiates on equal terms with the state1 the results being embodied in concordats 7q4v47 between the state and the pope as head of the ,church4 ,the concordats are of the nature of truces in the perennial conflict between the spiritual and secular powers1 and imply in principle no surrender of the claims of the one to those of the other4 ,where the ,roman ,catholic ,church is not recognized as a state religion1 as in the ,united ,states or in the ,british ,islands1 she is in the position of a free ,church1 her jurisdiction is only in foro conscientiae1 and her ecclesiastical laws have no validity from the point of view of the state4 ,on the other hand1 the root principle of the ecclesiastical law of the established ,protestant ,churches is the rejection of alien jurisdiction and the assertion of the supremacy of the state4 ,the theory underlying this may vary4 ,the sovereign may be regarded1 as in the case of the ,russian emperor or of the ,english kings from the ,reformation to the ,revolution1 as the vicar of ,god in all causes spiritual as well as temporal within his realm4 ,as the first fervent belief in the divine right of kings faded1 however1 a new basis had to be discovered for a relation between the spiritual and temporal powers against which ,rome had never ceased to protest4 ,this was found in the so-called collegial theory of ,church government 7,kollegialsystem71 which assumed a sort of tacit concordat between the state and the religious community1 by which the latter vests in the former the right to exercise a certain part of the jus in sacra properly inherent in the ,church 7see ,,pufendorf1 ,,samuel74 ,this had great and lasting effects on the development of the theory of ,protestant ecclesiastical law on the continent of ,europe4 ,in ,england1 on the other hand1 owing to the peculiar character of the ,reformation there and of the ,church that was its outcome1 no theory of the ecclesiastical law is conceivable that would be satisfactory at once to lawyers and to all schools of opinion within the ,church4 ,this has been abundantly proved by the attitude of increasing opposition assumed by the clergy1 under the influence of the ,tractarian movement1 towards the civil power in matters ecclesiastical1 an attitude impossible to justify on any accepted theory of the ,establishment 7see below74 ,protestant ecclesiastical law1 then1 is distinguished from that of the ,roman ,catholic ,church 7#a7 by being more limited in its scope1 7#b7 by having for its authoritative source1 not the ,church only or even mainly1 but the ,church in more or less complete union with or subordination to the ,state1 the latter being considered1 equally with the ,church1 as an organ of the will of ,god4 ,the ecclesiastical law of the ,church of ,rome1 on the other hand1 whatever its origin1 is now valid only in so far as it has the sanction of the authority of the ,holy ,see4 ,and here it must be noted that the canon law is not identical with the ecclesiastical law of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,by the canon law is meant1 substantially1 the contents of the ,corpus juris canonici1 which have been largely superseded or added to by1 e4g4 the canons of the council of ,trent and the ,vatican decrees4 ,the long projected codification of the whole of the ecclesiastical law of the ,church of ,rome1 a work of gigantic labour1 was not taken in hand until the pontificate of ,pius ,x4 7,see also ,,canon ,,law and ,,ecclesiastical ,,jurisdiction47 ,the ecclesiastical law of ,england is in complete dependence upon the authority of the state4 ,the ,church of ,england cannot be said1 from a legal point of view1 to have a corporate existence or even a representative assembly4 ,the ,convocation of ,york and the ,convocation of ,canterbury are provincial assemblies possessing no legislative or judicial authority2 even such purely ecclesiastical questions as may be formally commended to their attention by letters of business from the crown can only be finally settled by act of parliament4 ,the ecclesiastical courts are for the most part officered by laymen1 whose subordination to the archbishops and bishops is purely formal1 and the final court of appeal is the ,judicial ,committee of the ,privy ,council4 ,in like manner changes in the ecclesiastical law are made directly by parliament in the ordinary course of legislation1 and in point of fact a very large portion of the existing ecclesiastical law consists of acts of parliament4 ,the sources of the ecclesiastical law of ,england are thus described by ,dr4 ,richard ,burn 7,the ,ecclesiastical ,law1 #ith ed41 #ahdb73--,the ecclesiastical law of ,england is compounded of these four main ingredients--the civil law1 the canon law1 the common law1 and the statute law4 ,and from these1 digested in their proper rank and subordination1 to draw out one uniform law of the church is the purport of this book4 ,when these laws do interfere and cross each other1 the order of preference is this3--',the civil law submitteth to the canon law2 both of these to the common law2 and all three to the statute law4 ,so that from any one or more of these1 without all of them together1 or from all of them together without attending to their comparative obligation1 it is not possible to exhibit any distinct prospect of the ,english ecclesiastical constitution4' ,under the head of statute law ,burn includes 'the ,thirty-nine ,articles of ,religion1 agreed upon in ,convocation in the year #aefb2 and in like manner the ,rubric of the ,book of ,common ,prayer1 which1 being both of them established by ,acts of ,parliament1 are to be esteemed as part of the statute law4' ,the first principle of the ecclesiastical law in ,england is the assertion of the supremacy of the crown1 which in the present state of the constitution means the same thing as the supremacy of parliament4 ,this principle has been maintained ever since the ,reformation4 ,before the ,reformation the ecclesiastical supremacy of the pope was recognized1 with certain limitations1 in ,england1 and the ,church itself had some pretensions to ecclesiastical freedom4 ,the freedom of the ,church is1 in fact1 one of the standing provisions of those charters on which the ,english constitution was based4 ,the first provision of ,magna ,carta is quod ecclesia ,anglicana libera sit4 ,by the various enactments of the period of the ,reformation the whole constitutional position of the ,church1 not merely with reference to the pope but with reference to the state1 was definitely fixed4 ,the legislative power of convocation was held to extend to the clergy only1 and even to that extent required the sanction and assent of the crown4 ,the common law courts controlled the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts1 claiming to have the exposition of such statutes or acts of parliament as concern either the extent of the jurisdiction of these courts or the matters depending before them4 ,and therefore if these courts either refuse to allow these acts of parliament1 or expound them in any other sense than is truly and properly the exposition of them1 the king's great courts of common law may prohibit and control them4 ,the design of constructing a code of ecclesiastical laws was entertained during the period of the ,reformation1 but never carried into effect4 ,it is alluded to in various statutes of the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 who obtained power to appoint a commission to examine the old ecclesiastical laws1 with a view of deciding which ought to be kept and which ought to be abolished2 and in the meantime it was enacted that such canons1 institutions1 ordinances1 synodal or provincial or other ecclesiastical laws or jurisdictions spiritual as be yet accustomed and used here in the ,church of ,england1 which necessarily and conveniently are requisite to be put in ure and execution for the time1 not being repugnant1 contrarient1 or derogatory to the laws or statutes of the realm1 nor to the prerogatives of the royal crown of the same1 or any of them1 shall be occupied1 exercised1 and put in ure for the time with this realm 7#ce ,henry ,,viii4 c4 #af1 #be c4 #ai1 #bg c4 #h74 ,the work was actually undertaken and finished in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 by a sub-committee of eight persons1 under the name of the ,reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum1 which1 however1 never obtained the royal assent4 ,although the powers of the #be ,henry ,,viii4 c4 #a were revived by the #a ,elizabeth c4 #a1 the scheme was never executed1 and the ecclesiastical laws remained on the footing assigned to them in that statute--so much of the old ecclesiastical laws might be used as had been actually in use1 and was not repugnant to the laws of the realm4 ,the statement is1 indeed1 made by ,sir ,r4 ,phillimore 7,ecclesiastical ,law1 #bnd ed41 #ahie7 that the ,church of ,england has at all times1 before and since the ,reformation1 claimed the right of an independent ,church in an independent kingdom1 to be governed by the laws which she has deemed it expedient to adopt4 ,this position can only be accepted if it is confined1 as the authorities cited for it are confined1 to the resistance of interference from abroad4 ,if it mean that the ,church1 as distinguished from the kingdom1 has claimed to be governed by laws of her own making1 all that can be said is that the claim has been singularly unsuccessful4 ,from the time of the ,reformation no change has been made in the law of the ,church which has not been made by the king and parliament1 sometimes indirectly1 as by confirming the resolutions of convocation1 but for the most part by statute4 ,the list of statutes cited in ,sir ,r4 ,phillimore's ,ecclesiastical ,law fills eleven pages4 ,it is only by a kind of legal fiction akin to the collegial theory mentioned above1 that the ,church can be said to have deemed it expedient to adopt these laws4 ,the terms on which the ,church ,establishment of ,ireland was abolished1 by the ,irish ,council ,act of #ahfi1 may be mentioned4 ,by sect4 #bj the present ecclesiastical law was made binding on the members for the time being of the ,church1 as if they had mutually contracted and agreed to abide by and observe the same2 and by section #ba it was enacted that the ecclesiastical courts should cease after the #ast of ,january #ahga1 and that the ecclesiastical laws of ,ireland1 except so far as relates to matrimonial causes and matters1 should cease to exist as law4 7,see also ,,england1 ,,church ,,of2 ,,establishment2 c47 ,,authorities4--,the number of works on ecclesiastical law is very great1 and it must suffice here to mention a few of the more conspicuous modern ones3 ,ferdinand ,walter1 ,lehrbuch des ,kirchenrechts aller christlichen ,konfessionen 7#adth ed41 ,bonn1 #ahga72 ,g4 ,phillips1 ,kirchenrecht1 ,bde4 i4-vii4 7,regensburg1 #ahde-ahgb7 incomplete2 the text-book by ,cardinal ,hergenroether 7q4v472 ,p4 ,hinschius1 ,kirchenrecht der ,katholiken und ,protestanten in ,deutschland1 #f ,bde4 7,berlin1 #ahfi sqq471 only the ,catholic part1 a masterly and detailed survey of the ecclesiastical law1 finished2 ,sir ,robert ,phillimore1 ,eccl4 ,law of the ,church of ,england 7#bnd ed41 edited by ,sir ,walter ,phillimore1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahie74 ,for further references see ,,canon ,,law1 and the article ,kirchenrecht in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopaedie 7ed4 ,leipzig1 #aija74 ,,ecclesiasticus 7abbreviated to ,ecclus471 the alternative title given in the ,english ,bible to the apocryphal book otherwise called ,the ,wisdom of ,jesus the son of ,sirach4 ,the ,latin word ecclesiasticus is1 properly speaking1 not a name1 but an epithet meaning churchly1 so that it would serve as a designation of any book which was read in church or received ecclesiastical sanction1 but in practice ,ecclesiasticus has become a by-name for the ,wisdom of ,sirach4 ,the true name of the book appears in the authorities in a variety of forms1 the variation affecting both the author's name and the description of his book4 ,the writer's full name is given in #a4 #bg 7,heb4 text7 as ,simeon the son of ,jeshua 7i4e4 ,jesus7 the son of ,eleazar the son of ,sira4 ,in the ,greek text this name appears as ,jesus son of ,sirach ,eleazar 7probably a corruption of the ,hebrew reading71 and the epithet of ,jerusalem is added1 the translator himself being resident in ,egypt4 ,the whole name is shortened sometimes to ,son of ,sira1 ,ben ,sira in ,hebrew1 ,bar ,sira in ,aramaic1 and sometimes 7as in the title prefixed in the ,greek cod4 ,b7 to ,sirach4 ,the work is variously described as the ,words 7,heb4 text71 the ,book 7,talmud71 the ,proverbs 7,jerome71 or the ,wisdom of the son of ,sira 7or ,sirach74 ,of the date of the book we have only one certain indication4 ,it was translated by a person who says that he came into ,egypt in the #chth year of ,euergetes the king 7,ptolemy ,,vii471 i4e4 in #acb ,b4,c41 and that he executed the work some time later4 ,the translator believed that the writer of the original was his own grandfather 7or ancestor1 ,greek3 pappos74 ,it is therefore reasonable to suppose that the book was composed not later than the first half of the #bnd century ,b4,c41 or 7if we give the looser meaning to ,greek3 pappos7 even before the beginning of the century4 ,arguments for a pre-,maccabean date may be derived 7a7 from the fact that the book contains apparently no reference to the ,maccabean struggles1 7b7 from the eulogy of the priestly house of ,zadok which fell into disrepute during these wars for independence4 ,in the ,jewish ,church ,ecclesiasticus hovered on the border of the canon2 in the ,christian ,church it crossed and recrossed the border4 ,the book contains much which attracted and also much which repelled ,jewish feeling1 and it appears that it was necessary to pronounce against its canonicity4 ,in the ,talmud 7,sanhedrin #ajj b7 ,rabbi ,joseph says that it is forbidden to read 7i4e4 in the synagogue7 the book of ben ,sira1 and further that if our masters had not hidden the book 7i4e4 declared it uncanonical71 we might interpret the good things which are in it 7,schechter1 ,j4 ,q4 ,review1 iii4 #fia-fib74 ,in the ,christian ,church it was largely used by ,clement of ,alexandria 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bjj7 and by ,st ,augustine4 ,the lists of the ,hebrew canon1 however1 given by ,melito 7c4 ,a4,d4 #ahj7 and by ,origen 7c4 ,a4,d4 #bcj7 rightly exclude ,ecclesiasticus1 and ,jerome 7c4 ,a4,d4 #cij-djj7 writes3 ,let the ,church read these two volumes 7,wisdom of ,solomon and ,ecclesiasticus7 for the instruction of the people1 not for establishing the authority of the dogmas of the ,church 7,praefatio in libros ,salomonis74 ,in the chief ,,ms4 of the ,septuagint1 cod4 ,b1 ,ecclesiasticus comes between ,wisdom and ,esther1 no distinction being drawn between canonical and uncanonical4 ,in the ,vulgate it immediately precedes ,isaiah4 ,the council of ,trent declared this book and the rest of the books reckoned in the ,thirty-nine ,articles as apocryphal to be canonical4 ,the text of the book raises intricate problems which are still far from solution4 ,the original ,hebrew 7rediscovered in fragments and published between #ahif and #aijj7 has come down to us in a mutilated and corrupt form4 ,the beginning as far as iii4 #g is lost4 ,there is a gap from xvi4 #bf to xxx4 #aa4 ,there are marginal readings which show that two different recensions existed once in ,hebrew4 ,the ,greek version exists in two forms--7a7 that preserved in cod4 ,b and in the other uncial ,,mss41 7b7 that preserved in the cursive codex #bdh 7,holmes and ,parsons74 ,the former has a somewhat briefer text1 the latter agrees more closely with the ,hebrew text4 ,the majority of ,greek cursives agree generally with the ,latin ,vulgate1 and offer the fuller text in a corrupt form4 ,the ,syriac 7,peshitta7 version is paraphrastic1 but on the whole it follows the ,hebrew text4 ,owing to the mutilation of the ,hebrew by the accidents of time the ,greek version retains its place as the chief authority for the text1 and references by chapter and verse are usually made to it4 ,bickell and ,d4,s4 ,margoliouth have supposed that the ,hebrew text preserved in the fragments is not original1 but a retranslation from the ,greek or the ,syriac or both4 ,this view has not commended itself to the majority of scholars1 but there is at least a residuum of truth in it4 ,the ,hebrew text1 as we have it1 has a history of progressive corruption behind it1 and its readings can often be emended from the ,septuagint1 e4g4 xxxvii4 #aa 7read ,hebrew3 umira for the meaningless ,hebrew3 umerer74 ,the ,hebrew marginal readings occasionally seem to be translations from the ,greek or ,syriac1 e4g4 xxxviii4 #d 7,hebrew3 bara shamaym for ,greek3 ektisen pharmaka74 ,more frequently1 however1 strange readings of the ,greek and ,syriac are to be explained as corruptions of our present ,hebrew4 ,substantially our ,hebrew must be pronounced original4 ,the restoration of a satisfactory text is beyond our hopes4 ,even before the ,christian era the book existed in two recensions1 for we cannot doubt1 after reading the ,greek translator's preface1 that the translator amplified and paraphrased the text before him4 ,it is probable that at least one considerable omission must be laid to his charge1 for the hymn preserved in the ,hebrew text after ch4 li4 #ab is almost certainly original4 ,ancient translators allowed themselves much liberty in their work1 and ,ecclesiasticus possessed no reputation for canonicity in the #bnd century ,b4,c4 to serve as a protection for its text4 ,much1 however1 may be done towards improving two of the recensions which now lie before us4 ,the incomplete ,hebrew text exists in four different ,,mss41 and the study of the peculiarities of these had already proved fruitful4 ,the ,syriac text1 made without doubt from the ,hebrew1 though often paraphrastic is often suggestive4 ,the ,greek translation1 made within a century or half-century of the writing of the book1 must possess great value for the criticism of the ,hebrew text4 ,the work of restoring true ,hebrew readings may proceed with more confidence now that we have considerable portions of the ,hebrew text to serve as a model4 ,for the restoration of the ,greek text we have1 besides many ,greek ,,mss41 uncial and cursive1 the old ,latin1 the ,syro-,hexaplar1 the ,armenian1 ,sahidic and ,ethiopic versions1 as well as a considerable number of quotations in the ,greek and ,latin ,fathers4 ,each of the two recensions of the ,greek must1 however1 be separately studied1 before any restoration of the original ,greek text can be attempted4 ,the uncertainty of the text has affected both ,english versions unfavourably4 ,the ,authorized ,version1 following the corrupt cursives1 is often wrong4 ,the ,revised ,version1 on the other hand1 in following the uncial ,,mss4 sometimes departs from the ,hebrew1 while the ,authorized ,version with the cursives agrees with it4 ,thus the ,revised ,version 7with codd4 ,hebrew3 alef991 ,a1 ,b1 ,c7 omits the whole of iii4 #ai1 which the ,authorized ,version retains1 but for the clause1 ,mysteries are revealed unto the meek1 the ,authorized ,version has the support of the ,hebrew1 ,syriac and cod4 #bdh4 ,sometimes both versions go astray in places in which the ,hebrew text recommends itself as original by its vigour2 e4g4 in vii4 #bf1 where the ,hebrew is1 ,hast thou a wife8 abominate her not4 ,hast thou a hated wife8 trust not in her4 ,again in ch4 xxxviii4 the ,hebrew text in at least two interesting passages shows its superiority over the text which underlies both ,english versions4 ,hebrew4 ,revised ,version 7similarly ,authorized ,version74 ver4 #a4 ,acquaint thyself with a ,honour a physician according physician before thou have to thy need of him with the need of him4 honours due unto him4 ver4 #ae4 ,he that sinneth against his ,he that sinneth before his ,maker will behave himself ,maker1 let him fall into the proudly against a physician4 hands of the physician4 ,in the second instance1 while the ,hebrew says that the man who rebels against his ,heavenly ,benefactor will a fortiori rebel against a human benefactor1 the ,greek text gives a cynical turn to the verse1 ,let the man who rebels against his true benefactor be punished through the tender mercies of a quack4 ,the ,hebrew text is probably superior also in xliv4 #a1 the opening words of the eulogy of the ,fathers3 ,let me now praise favoured men1 i4e4 men in whom ,god's grace was shown4 ,the ,hebrew phrase is men of grace1 as in v4 #aj4 ,the ,greek text of v4 #a1 famous men1 seems to be nothing but a loose paraphrase1 suggested by v4 #b1 ,the ,lord manifested in them great glory4 ,in character and contents ,ecclesiasticus resembles the book of ,proverbs4 ,it consists mainly of maxims which may be described in turn as moral1 utilitarian and secular4 ,occasionally the author attacks prevalent religious opinions1 e4g4 the denial of free-will 7xv4 #aa-bj71 or the assertion of ,god's indifference towards men's actions 7xxxv4 #ab-ai74 ,occasionally1 again1 ,ben ,sira touches the highest themes1 and speaks of the nature of ,god3 ,he is ,all 7xliii4 #bg72 ,he is ,one from everlasting 7xlii4 #ba1 ,heb4 text72 ,the mercy of the ,lord is upon all flesh 7xviii4 #ac74 ,though the book is imitative and secondary in character it contains several passages of force and beauty1 e4g4 ch4 ii4 7how to fear the ,lord72 xv4 #aa-bj 7on free-will72 xxiv4 #a-bb 7the song of wisdom72 xlii4 #ae-be 7praise of the works of the ,lord72 xliv4 #a-ae 7the well-known praise of famous men74 ,many detached sayings scattered throughout the book show a depth of insight1 or a practical shrewdness1 or again a power of concise speech1 which stamps them on the memory4 ,a few examples out of many may be cited4 ,call no man blessed before his death 7xi4 #bh72 ,he that toucheth pitch shall be defiled 7xiii4 #a72 ,he hath not given any man licence to sin 7xv4 #bj72 ,man cherisheth anger against man2 and doth he seek healing from the ,lord8 7xxviii4 #c72 ,mercy is seasonable 444 as clouds of rain 7xxxv4 #bj72 ,all things are double one against another3 and he hath made nothing imperfect 7xlii4 #bd1 the motto of ,butler's ,analogy72 ,work your work before the time cometh1 and in his time he will give you your reward 7li4 #cj74 ,in spite1 however1 of the words just quoted it cannot be said that ,ben ,sira preaches a hopeful religion4 ,though he prays1 ,renew thy signs1 and repeat thy wonders 444 ,fill ,sion with thy majesty and thy ,temple with thy glory 7xxxvi4 #f1 #ad #ai1 ,heb4 text71 he does not look for a ,messiah4 ,of the resurrection of the dead or of the immortality of the soul there is no word1 not even in xli4 #a-d1 where the author exhorts men not to fear death4 ,like the ,psalmist 7,ps4 lxxxviii4 #aj1 #aa7 he asks1 ,who shall give praise to the ,most ,high in the grave8 ,in his maxims of life he shows a somewhat frigid and narrow mind4 ,he is a pessimist as regards women2 ,from a woman was the beginning of sin2 and because of her we all die 7xxv4 #bd74 ,he does not believe in home-spun wisdom2 ,how shall he become wise that holdeth the plough8 7xxxviii4 #be74 ,artificers are not expected to pray like the wise man2 ,in the handywork of their craft is their prayer 7v4 #cd74 ,merchants are expected to cheat2 ,sin will thrust itself in between buying and selling 7xxvii4 #b74 ,,bibliography4--,the literature of ,ecclesiaticus has grown very considerably since the discovery of the first ,hebrew fragment in #ahif4 ,a useful summary of it is found at the end of ,israel ,levi's article1 ,sirach1 in the ,jewish ,encyclopedia4 ,eberhard ,nestle's article in ,hastings's ,dictionary of the ,bible is important for its bibliographical information as well as in other respects4 ,a complete edition of the ,hebrew fragments in collotype facsimile was published jointly by the ,oxford and ,cambridge ,presses in #aija4 ,j4,h4,a4 ,hart's edition of cod4 #bdh throws much light on some of the problems of this book4 ,it contains a fresh collation of all the chief authorities 7,heb41 ,syr41 ,syr4-,hex41 ,lat4 and ,gr47 for the text1 together with a complete textual commentary4 ,the account given in the ,synopsis attributed to ,athanasius 7,migne1 ,p4,g41 iv4 #cge-chd7 has an interest of its own4 ,the beginning is given in the ,authorized ,version as ,a prologue made by an uncertain author4 7,w4 ,e4 ,b47 ,,ecgbert1 or ,,ecgberht 7d4 #hci71 king of the ,west ,saxons1 succeeded to the throne in #hjb on the death of ,beorhtric4 ,it is said that at an earlier period in his life he had been driven out for three years by ,offa and ,beorhtric4 ,the accession of ,ecgbert seems to have brought about an invasion by ,a,ethelmund1 earl of the ,hwicce1 who was defeated by ,weoxtan1 earl of ,wiltshire4 ,in #hae ,ecgbert ravaged the whole of the territories of the ,west ,welsh1 which probably at this time did not include much more than ,cornwall4 ,the next important occurrence in the reign was the defeat of ,beornwulf of ,mercia at a place called ,ellandun in #hbe4 ,after this victory ,kent1 ,surrey1 ,sussex and ,essex submitted to ,wessex2 while the ,east ,anglians1 who slew ,beornwulf shortly afterwards1 acknowledged ,ecgbert as overlord4 ,in #hbi the king conquered ,mercia1 and ,northumbria accepted him as overlord4 ,in #hcj he led a successful expedition against the ,welsh4 ,in #hcf he was defeated by the ,danes1 but in #hch he won a battle against them and their allies the ,west ,welsh at ,hingston ,down in ,cornwall4 ,ecgbert died in #hci1 after a reign of thirty-seven years1 and was succeeded by his son ,a,ethelwulf4 ,a somewhat difficult question has arisen as to the parentage of ,ecgbert4 ,under the year #hbe the ,chronicle states that in his eastern conquests ,ecgbert recovered what had been the rightful property of his kin4 ,the father of ,ecgbert was called ,ealhmund1 and we find an ,ealhmund1 king in ,kent1 mentioned in a charter dated #ghd1 who is identified with ,ecgbert's father in a late addition to the ,chronicle under the date #ghd4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the ,chronicle in #hbe refers to some claim through ,ine of ,wessex from whose brother ,ingeld ,ecgbert was descended4 ,see ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 edited by ,earle and ,plummer 7,oxford1 #ahii72 ,w4 de ,g4 ,birch1 ,cartularium ,saxonicum 7,london1 #ahhe-ahic74 ,also a paper by ,sir ,h4,h4 ,howorth in ,numismatic ,chronicle1 third series1 vol4 xx4 pp4 #ff-hg 7reprinted separately1 ,london1 #aijj71 where attention is called to the peculiar dating of several of ,ecgbert's charters1 and the view is put forward that he remained abroad considerably later than the date given by the ,chronicle for his accession4 ,on the other hand a charter in ,birch1 ,cart4 ,sax41 purporting to date from #gii1 contains the curious statement that peace was made between ,coenwulf and ,ecgbert in that year4 ,,ecgbert1 or ,,ecgberht 7d4 #gff71 archbishop of ,york1 was made bishop of that see in #gcd by ,ceolwulf1 king of ,northumbria1 succeeding ,wilfrid ,,ii4 on the latter's resignation4 ,the pall was sent him in #gce and he became the first northern archbishop after ,paulinus4 ,he was the brother of ,eadberht1 who ruled ,northumbria #gcg-geh4 ,he was the recipient of the famous letter of ,bede1 dealing with the evils arising from spurious monasteries4 ,ecgberht himself wrote a ,dialogus ,ecclesiasticae ,institutionis1 a ,penitentiale and a ,pontificale4 ,he was a correspondent of ,st ,boniface1 who asks him to support his censure of ,a,ethelbald of ,mercia4 ,see ,bede1 ,continuatio1 sub4 ann4 #gcb1 #gce1 #gff1 and ,epistola ad ,ecgberctum 7,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahif72 ,chronicle1 sub ann4 #gcd1 #gce1 #gch1 #gff 7,earle and ,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahii72 ,haddan and ,stubbs1 ,councils and ,ecclesiastical ,documents 7,oxford1 #ahfi-ahgh71 iii4 #djc-dca2 ,proceedings of ,surtees ,society 7,durham1 #ahec74 ,,ecgfrith 7d4 #fhe71 king of ,northumbria1 succeeded his father ,oswio in #fga4 ,he was married to ,a,ethelthryth1 daughter of ,anna of ,east ,anglia1 who1 however1 took the veil shortly after ,ecgfrith's accession1 a step which possibly led to his long quarrel with ,wilfrid archbishop of ,york4 ,ecgfrith married a second wife1 ,eormenburg1 before #fgh1 the year in which he expelled ,wilfrid from his kingdom4 ,early in his reign he defeated the ,picts who had risen in revolt4 ,between #fga and #fge ,ecgfrith defeated ,wulfhere of ,mercia and seized ,lindsey4 ,in #fgi1 however1 he was defeated by ,a,ethelred of ,mercia1 who had married his sister ,osthryth1 on the river ,trent4 ,ecgfrith's brother ,a,elfwine was killed in the battle1 and the province of ,lindsey was given up when peace was restored at the intervention of ,theodore of ,canterbury4 ,in #fhd ,ecgfrith sent an expedition to ,ireland under his general ,berht1 which seems to have been unsuccessful4 ,in #fhe1 against the advice of ,cuthbert1 he led a force against the ,picts under his cousin ,burde1 son of ,bile1 was lured by a feigned flight into their mountain fastnesses1 and slain at ,nechtanesmere 7now ,dunnichen7 in ,forfarshire4 ,bede dates the beginning of the decline of ,northumbria from his death4 ,he was succeeded by his brother ,aldfrith4 ,see ,eddius1 ,vita ,wilfridi 7,raine1 ,historians of ,church of ,york1 ,rolls1 ,series1 ,london1 #ahgi-ahid71 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #cd1 #ci1 #dd2 ,bede1 ,hist4 ,eccl4 7,plummer1 ,oxford1 #ahif71 iii4 #bd1 iv4 #e1 #ab1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bf4 ,,ecgonine1 in chemistry1 ,c#i;,h#ae,,no#c1 a cycloheptane derivative with a nitrogen bridge4 ,it is obtained by hydrolysing cocaine with acids or alkalis1 and crystallizes with one molecule of water1 the crystals melting at #aih deg4 to #aii deg4 ,c4 ,it is laevo-rotatory1 and on warming with alkalis gives iso-ecgonine1 which is dextro-rotatory4 ,it is a tertiary base1 and has also the properties of an acid and an alcohol4 ,when boiled with caustic baryta it gives methylamine4 ,it is the carboxylic acid corresponding to tropine1 for it yields the same products on oxidation1 and by treatment with phosphorus pentachloride is converted into anhydroecgonine1 ,c#i;,h#ac,,no#b1 which1 when heated to #bhj deg4 ,c4 with hydrochloric acid1 splits out carbon dioxide and yields tropidine1 ,c#h;,h#ac,n4 ,anhydroecgonine melts at #bce deg4 ,c41 and has an acid and a basic character4 ,it is an unsaturated compound1 and on oxidation with potassium permanganate gives succinic acid4 ,it is apparently a tropidine monocarboxylic acid1 for on exhaustive methylation it yields cycloheptatriene-#a4c4e-;carboxylic acid-#g4 ,sodium in amyl alcohol solution reduces it to hydroecgonidine ,c#i;,h#ae,,no#b1 while moderate oxidation by potassium permanganate converts it into norecgonine4 ,the presence of the heptamethylene ring in these compounds is shown by the production of suberone by the exhaustive methylation1 c41 of hydroecgonidine ethyl ester 7see ,,polymethylenes and ,,tropine74 ,the above compounds may be represented as3 ,,ch#b--;,,ch----,,ch ,,cooh ,,ch#b--;,,ch----,,ch ,,cooh ,,ch#b--;,,ch------,,ch ,,cooh ,n ,,ch#c ,,ch ,,oh ,n ,,ch#c ,,ch ,n ,,ch#c ,,ch#b ,,ch#b--;,,ch----,,ch#b ,,ch#b--;,,ch----,,ch ,,ch#b--;,,ch------,,ch#b ,ecgonine ,anhydroecgonine ,hydroecgonine ,,echegaray ,y ,,eizaguirre1 ,,jose 7#ahcc- 71 ,spanish mathematician1 statesman and dramatist1 was born at ,madrid in ,march #ahcc1 and was educated at the grammar school of ,murcia1 whence he proceeded to the ,escuela de ,caminos at the capital4 ,his exemplary diligence and unusual mathematical capacity were soon noticed4 ,in #ahec he passed out at the head of the list of engineers1 and1 after a brief practical experience at ,almeria and ,granada1 was appointed professor of pure and applied mathematics in the school where he had lately been a pupil4 ,his ,problemas de geometria analitica 7#ahfe7 and ,teorias modernas de la fisica unidad de las fuerzas materiales 7#ahfg7 are said to be esteemed by competent judges4 ,he became a member of the ,society of ,political ,economy1 helped to found ,la ,revista1 and took a prominent part in propagating ,free ,trade doctrines in the press and on the platform4 ,he was clearly marked out for office1 and when the popular movement of #ahfh overthrew the monarchy1 he resigned his post for a place in the revolutionary cabinet4 ,between #ahfg and #ahgd he acted as minister of education and of finance2 upon the restoration of the ,bourbon dynasty he withdrew from politics1 and won a new reputation as a dramatist4 ,as early as #ahfg he wrote ,la ,hija natural1 which was rejected1 and remained unknown till #ahgg1 when it appeared with the title of ,para tal culpa tal pena4 ,another play1 ,la ,ultima ,noche1 also written in #ahfg1 was produced in #ahge2 but in the latter year ,echegaray was already accepted as the successful author of ,el ,libro talonario1 played at the ,teatro de ,apolo on the #ahth of ,february #ahgd1 under the transparent pseudonym of ,jorge ,hayaseca4 ,later in the same year ,echegaray won a popular triumph with ,la ,esposa del vengador1 in which the good and bad qualities--the clever stagecraft and unbridled extravagance--of his later work are clearly noticeable4 ,from #ahgd onwards he wrote1 with varying success1 a prodigious number of plays4 ,among the most favourable specimens of his talent may be mentioned ,en el puno de la espada 7#ahge72 ,o locura o santidad 7#ahgg71 which has been translated into ,swedish and ,italian2 ,en el seno de la muerte 7#ahgi71 of which there exists an admirable ,german version by ,fastenrath4 ,el gran ,galeoto 7#ahha71 perhaps the best of ,echegaray's plays in conception and execution1 has been translated into several languages1 and still holds the stage4 ,the humorous proverb1 8,piensa mal y acertaras8 exemplifies the author's limitations1 but the attempt is interesting as an instance of ambitious versatility4 ,his susceptibility to new ideas is illustrated in such pieces as ,mariana 7#ahib71 ,mancha que limpia 7#ahie71 ,el ,hijo de ,don ,juan 7#ahib71 and ,el ,loco ,dios 7#aijj73 these indicate a close study of ,ibsen1 and ,el ,loco ,dios more especially might be taken for an unintentional parody of ,ibsen's symbolism4 ,echegaray succeeded to the literary inheritance of ,lopez de ,ayala and of ,tamayo y ,baus2 and though he possesses neither the poetic imagination of the first nor the instinctive tact of the second1 it is impossible to deny that he has reached a larger audience than either4 ,not merely in ,spain1 but in every land where ,spanish is spoken1 and in cities as remote from ,madrid as ,munich and ,stockholm1 he has met with an appreciation incomparably beyond that accorded to any other ,spanish dramatist of recent years4 ,but it would be more than usually rash to prophesy that this exceptional popularity will endure4 ,there have been signs of a reaction in ,spain itself1 and ,echegaray's return to politics in #aije was significant enough4 ,he applies his mathematics to the drama2 no writer excels him in artful construction1 in the arrangement of dramatic scenes1 in mere theatrical technique1 in the focusing of attention on his chief personages4 ,these are valuable gifts in their way1 and ,echegaray has1 moreover1 a powerful1 gloomy imagination1 which is momentarily impressive4 ,in the drawing of character1 in the invention of felicitous phrase1 in the contrivance of verbal music1 he is deficient4 ,he alternates between the use of verse and prose2 and his hesitancy in choosing a medium of expression is amply justified1 for the writer's prose is not more distinguished than his verse4 ,these serious shortcomings may explain the diminution of his vogue in ,spain2 they will certainly tell against him in the estimate of posterity4 7,j4 ,f4-,k47 ,,echelon 7,fr4 from echelle1 ladder71 in military tactics1 a formation of troops in which each body of troops is retired on1 but not behind1 the flank of the next in front1 the position of the whole thus resembling the steps of a staircase4 ,to form echelon from line1 the parts of the line move off1 each direct to its front1 in succession1 so that when the formation is completed the rightmost body1 for example1 is farthest advanced1 the one originally next on its left is to the left rear1 a third is to the left rear of the second1 and so on4 ,the word is also used more loosely to express successive lines1 irrespective of distances and relative positions1 e4g4 the second echelon of ammunition supply1 which is fully a day's march behind the first4 ,,echidna1 or ,,porcupine ,,ant-,,eater 7,echidna aculeata71 one of the few species of ,monotremata1 the lowest subclass of ,mammalia1 forming the family ,echidnidae4 ,it is a native of ,australia1 where it chiefly abounds in ,new ,south ,wales1 inhabiting rocky and mountainous districts1 where it burrows among the loose sand1 or hides itself in crevices of rocks4 ,in size and appearance it bears a considerable resemblance to the hedgehog1 its upper surface being covered over with strong spines directed backwards1 and on the back inwards1 so as to cross each other on the middle line4 ,the spines in the neighbourhood of the tail form a tuft sufficient to hide that almost rudimentary organ4 ,the head is produced into a long tubular snout1 covered with skin for the greater part of its length4 ,the opening of the mouth is small1 and from it the echidna puts forth its long slender tongue1 lubricated with a viscous secretion1 by means of which it seizes the ants and other insects on which it feeds4 ,it has no teeth4 ,its legs are short and strong1 and form1 with its broad feet and large solid nails1 powerful burrowing organs4 ,in common with the other monotremes1 the male echidna has its heel provided with a sharp hollow spur1 connected with a secreting gland1 and with muscles capable of pressing the secretion from the gland into the spur4 ,it is a nocturnal or crepuscular animal1 generally sleeping during the day1 but showing considerable activity by night4 ,when attacked it seeks to escape either by rolling itself into a ball1 its erect spines proving a formidable barrier to its capture1 or by burrowing into the sand1 which its powerful limbs enable it to do with great celerity4 ,the only mode of carrying the creature1 writes ,g4 ,bennett 7,gatherings of a ,naturalist in ,australasia71 is by one of the hind legs2 its powerful resistance and the sharpness of the spines will soon oblige the captor1 attempting to seize it by any other part of the body1 to relinquish his hold4 ,in a younger stage of their development1 however1 the young are carried in a temporary abdominal pouch1 to which they are transferred after hatching1 and into which open the mammary glands4 ,the echidnas are exceedingly restless in confinement1 and constantly endeavour by burrowing to effect their escape4 ,from the quantity of sand and mud always found in the alimentary canal of these animals1 it is supposed that these ingredients must be necessary to the proper digestion of their insect food4 ,there are two varieties of this species1 the ,port ,moresby echidna and the hairy echidna4 ,the last-mentioned is found in south-eastern ,new ,guinea1 ,australia and ,tasmania4 ,in all the spines are mixed with hair2 in the ,tasmanian race they are nearly hidden by the long harsh fur4 ,of the three-clawed echidnas 7,proechidna7 confined to ,new ,guinea there are two species1 ,bruijn's echidna 7,p4 bruijnii71 discovered in #ahgg in the mountains on the north-east coast at an elevation of #cejj ft41 and the black-spined echidna 7,p4 nigroaculeata7 of larger size--the type specimen measuring #ca in41 as against #bd in4--with shorter claws4