,,! ,,ess5tials ,,( ,,illu/ration ,a ,,practical ,,guide ,,to ,,! ,,reproduction ,,( ,,draw+s ,,photographs ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,sci5ti/s ,,o!rs ,by ,t4 ,g4 ,,hill ,read] 9 ,vegetable ,physiology 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 ,univ]sity ,college ,,london ,,william ,,wesley ,,son #bh ,essex ,/reet1 ,/r& #aiae ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,! ,,we/m9/] ,,press1 ,,london1 ,w4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,intaglio ,,pr9t+ #a ,intaglio plates #b ,l9e engrav+ #b ,et*+ #e ,s(t-gr\nd et*+ #f ,mezzot9t #g ,photogravure #h ,,plane ,,surface ,,pr9t+ #ae ,li?ography #ae ,*romoli?ography #bj ,photoli?ographic processes #bc ,collotype #bc ,! prep>ation ( illu/rat$ pages #bf ,,relief ,,pr9t+ #cc ,woodcuts & engrav+s #cc ,! ,half-tone process #cg ,! ,half-tone ?ree-col\r process #df ,photome*anical l9e blocks #di ,! draw+ ( microscopic details #fg ,! draw+ ( diagrams & app>atus #gb ,! draw+ ( maps #gf ,! draw+ ( graphs or curves #gi ,! swell$ gelat9e process #hd ,! ,relative ,co/ ( blocks & plates by v>i\s processes #hi ,,lit]ature #ie ,,illu/rations #a4 ,,plates ,,plate #a ,an orig9al li?ograph by ,mr4 ,h>ry ,beck]4 #b ,*romoli?ograph4 ,messrs4 ,g]r>ds1 ,ltd4 #c-e ,collotype4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 #f ,half tone4 ,swan ,electric ,engrav+ ,co41 ,ltd4 #g ,half tone4 #h ,photogravure4 #i ,collotype4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 #aj ,half tone4 #aa ,half tone4 #ab ,half tone ?ree col\r4 _/ #b4 ,,text ,,figures ,tailpiece1 p4 #aa4 ,electrotype f ! orig9al wood engrav+ by ,bewick4 ,tailpiece1 p4 #cj4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,b\rne ,co4 ,fig4 #a4 ,wood engrav+4 ,messrs4 ,edmund ,evans1 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #b4 ,wood cut4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,n4 ,oliv]4 ,figs4 #c-f4 ,l9e blocks4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,figs4 #g & #h4 ,l9e blocks1 reproductions ( a wood engrav+4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,butt]wor?4 ,fig4 #i4 ,l9e block4 ,figs4 #aj-ac4 ,l9e blocks1 reproductions ( wood engrav+s4 ,fig4 #ad4 ,l9e block4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #af4 ,l9e block4 ,swan ,electric ,engrav+ ,co41 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,figs4 #ah-bj4 ,l9e blocks4 ,figs4 #ba-bc4 ,l9e blocks4 ,messrs4 ,b\rne ,co4 ,figs4 #bd & #be4 ,l9e blocks4 ,fig4 #bf4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,b\rne ,co4 ,fig4 #bg4 ,l9e block4 ,figs4 #bh & #bi4 ,l9e blocks4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #cj4 ,l9e block4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,butt]wor?4 ,fig4 #ca4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #cb4 ,l9e block4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,butt]wor?4 ,figs4 #cc & #cd4 ,l9e blocks4 ,figs4 #ce & #cf4 ,l9e blocks4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,fig4 #cg4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,b\rne ,co4 ,fig4 #ch4 ,li?ograph reproduc$ by ! ,swell$ ,gelat9e ,process4 ,arti/s ,illu/rators1 ,ltd4 ,tailpiece1 p4 #hf4 ,l9e block4 ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh ,anglo1 ,ltd4 ,,preface ,mod]n sci5tific publications1 al?\gh !y may 9 "s or ev5 _m cases equal 9 _! sci5tific quality ! memoirs ( e>li] work]s1 d n1 on ! av]age1 rea* a high /&>d z reg>ds illu/ration4 ,= in/ance1 9 ,great ,brita9 botany is pre-em95t 9 its morphological aspects2 x %\ld !re=e foll[ t ! illu/rations1 :i* =m s important a "p ( su* pap]s1 %\ld be beyond reproa*4 ,?is is n always s1 a fact :i* mu/ be pat5t to anyone ) ! slighte/ critical k :o looks ?r\gh a typical j\rnal4 ,?is is a fact mu* to be regrett$1 s9ce _m ( ! e>li] sci5ti/s 7 accompli%$ draughtsm5 &1 inde$1 (t5 arti/s2 9 ?is connection ! ,hook]s & ,pr(essor ,daniel ,oliv] may be m5tion$4 ,! implication is n int5d$ t !re are no good amateur draughtsm5 n[adays2 !re are1 & 9 "s cases possess$ ( great ability4 ,! beautiful "w ( ,*ur* 9 8 ,floral ,me*anisms may be cit$ z an example4 ,x may1 ( c\rse1 be argu$ t any picture :i* s]ves to illu/rate ! p>ticul> feature is good en\gh2 ?is is ! cont5tion ( "o :o takes an insuffici5t pride 9 8 "w4 ,a feature wor?y ( an illu/ration des]ves ! be/ ! au?or c produce1 m especially z a lit]>y =m is /ill1 =tunately1 pres]v$ or1 at any rate1 aim$ at4 ,! reason = indiff]5t illu/rations is prim>ily due to bad or m$iocre draw+s1 or to _! unsuitability = ! k9d ( reproduction 9 view4 ,) reg>d to ! fir/ po9t3 ?is lack ( draughtsman%ip (t5 obta9s2 :5 education entirely replaces m]e in/ruction1 x is to be hop$ t all /ud5ts ( sci5ce w be tra9$ 9 ! rudim5ts ( draw+4 ,mean:ile ! difficulty c be p>tly ov]come1 z w be se5 lat] on1 by ! simple means ( draw+ on an enl>g$ scale1 9 ord] t 9 reproduction r$uction c be made4 ,! second reason1 ! onus ( :i* also falls on ! au?ors1 is a lack ( k reg>d+ ! k9d ( draw+ suitable = ! diff]5t modes ( reproduction2 ?is is a v important po9t1 = te*nical conditions gov]n ev5 g5ius itself4 ,au?ors1 h[ev]1 are n always to blame2 x w\ld appe> t ev5 editors sometimes are want+ 9 ! requisite k1 = we h kn[n /raight=w>d l9e draw+s reproduc$ by half-tone2 9 o!r cases ! pap] us$ is unsuitable = ! reproduction &1 at o!r times1 ! pr9t]s are at fault4 ,) a view to rem$y+1 at any rate 9 "p1 ^! defici5cies1 a c\rse ( lectures1 arrang$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,/udies 9 ,botany ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,london1 0 deliv]$ 9 ! ,l5t t]m ( #aiac 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,botany ( ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,9 gratify+ ! wi% express$ by "s t ^! lectures %\ld be giv5 a m p]man5t dress1 ! au?or feels t "s apology is necess>y1 = he c lay no claim to au?oritative k ( mu* ( ! subject-matt]2 que/ions relat+ to ! graphic arts & to illu/rations1 h[ev]1 h always be5 ( int]e/ to him1 s t he has tri$ v>i\s exp]im5ts1 (t5 ) disa/r\s results1 & ?us has ga9$ "s exp]i5ce4 ,9 ^! matt]s ! au?or has b5efit$ mu* ?r\gh 8 association ) ,pr(essor ,f4 ,w4 ,oliv]1 :o1 *>act]i/ically1 has be5 ev] ready to discuss ^! problems )1 & to place 8 k & exp]i5ce at ! disposal ( ! au?or4 ,! outl9e ( ! ways & means ( illu/ration conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ pages is prim>ily int5d$ = ord9>y work+ sci5ti/s1 n = arti/s1 pr(essional draughtsm5 or skill$ amateurs4 ,! po9t ( view is ma9ly botanical1 prim>ily because ! pres5t writ] is a botani/ & also because ! requirem5ts ( mod]n botany 9 ! way ( illu/rations are m ext5sive ?an ^? ( any o!r sci5ce2 ! requirem5ts ( o!r sci5ces1 h[ev]1 h n be5 ov]look$4 ,) reg>d to o!r bran*es ( k1 ! pr9ciples consid]$ w1 x is hop$1 prove ( "s value to ! work]s !re94 ,! details ( te*nique h be5 kept z brief z possible2 9 fact1 suffici5t only has be5 said to indicate ! ma9 pr9ciples involv$4 ,9 ! lit]ature cit$1 to :i* ! au?or is indebt$ p>ticul>ly = matt]s relat+ to te*nique1 w be f\nd full1 & sometimes exhau/ive1 acc\nts4 ,) reg>d to ! illu/rations1 ^! h be5 select$ to illu/rate ! v>i\s me?ods ( reproduction describ$ or to demon/rate ! po9ts rais$4 ,9 ^? in/ances :]e ! s\rce has n be5 ackn[l$g$ or ! draughtsman or photograph] m5tion$ by "n1 ! figure is by ! au?or3 & s9ce ! actual mak+ ( plates & blocks is ( consid]able importance1 ! firms1 :5 kn[n1 responsible = _! mak+ are m5tion$ 9 ! ,table ( ,illu/rations4 ,9 ?is connexion ! au?or desires to express 8 appreciation ( ! skill %ewn & c>e tak5 by ,messrs4 ,&re1 ,sleigh & ,anglo1 ,limit$1 :o prep>$ ! majority ( ! new illu/rations :i* appe> 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,! au?or is indebt$ to _m :o h help$ 9 v>i\s ways 9 ! production ( 8 "w2 p>ticul>ly is he desir\s ( express+ 8 w>me/ ?anks to ,miss ,o4 ,john/on = ! *>m+ draw+ ( ,g]anium columb9um 7,plate #b7 & to ,mr4 ,h>ry ,beck] = 8 beautiful li?ograph 7,plate #a74 ,to ,miss ,s4 ,m4 ,bak]1 ,dr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,ridewood1 & ,miss ,w9ifr$ ,smi? ?anks are due = ! loan ( orig9al draw+s2 also to ,mr4 ,edw>d ,hunt] & ,mr4 ,hugh ,hunt] = in=mation reg>d+ matt]s ( te*nique & co/4 ,! numb] ( illu/rations w\ld h be5 less b = ! g5]osity ( ,messrs4 ,*apman & ,hall1 ! ,editors ( ! ,annals ( ,botany1 ,! ,impr9t1 & ! ,new ,phytologi/1 ,pr(essor ,f4 ,w4 ,oliv] & ,mr4 ,g4 ,n4 ,oliv] 9 l5d+ blocks4 ,recognition also mu/ be made ( ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,g4 ,hatton 9 cons5t+ to ! use ( c]ta9 blocks f 8 admirable ,craftsman's ,h&book1 ( ! ,delegates ( ! ,cl>5don ,press = p]mission to reproduce figure #ad1 & ( ,messrs4 ,fr$]ick ,w>ne & ,co4 = p]mission to make use ( ! wood engrav+ by ,messrs4 ,edmund ,evans1 ,ltd41 ( ,kate ,gre5away's *>m+ ,milkmaid4 ,f9ally1 ! au?or desires to express 8 s9c]e/ ?anks to ,mr4 ,g]>d ,t4 ,meynell1 ( ,! ,we/m9/] ,press1 = ! ke5 int]e/ he has tak5 9 ! "w1 = 8 help ) ! illu/rations1 & = ! great c>e he has tak5 9 ! production ( ! book4 ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london ,janu>y1 #aiae4 ,,intaglio ,,pr9t+ ,9 ! biological sci5ces ! mass+ ( illu/rations into plates is /ill ! fav\rite me?od ( illu/ration1 al?\gh text-figures h rec5tly become m num]\s4 ,?is is p>tly due to innate cons]vatism1 = mo/ ( ! e>li] memoirs 7 s illu/rat$1 d\btless because x sav$ "t1 s9ce if wood engrav+s 7 us$ ) a view to text-figures1 ! compositor _h to wait = ! blocks1 :]eas 9 ! case ( plates ! compositor & ! engrav] work$ indep5d5tly4 ,also ! possibilities ( plates are enorm\s2 !y may be v beautiful inde$ besides be+ biologically satisfactory1 = mu* f9] results c be obta9$ by engrav+ metal ?an by engrav+ wood4 ,!n aga9 !re are _m diff]5t processes available = ! mak+ ( plates1 s t if "o proves unsuitable = a subject an excell5t reproduction may be obta9$ by ano!r4 ,be=e pass+ on x is desirable to po9t out ! ess5tial diff]5ces 9 ! ?ree ways ( pr9t+4 ,intaglio pr9t+4 ,if ! f+]-tips be exam9$1 _m ridges & furr[s w be se5 on _! "u surfaces2 if n[ a ?ick ink be well rubb$ into ^! s z to fill well ! furr[s1 & ! sup]flu\s ink be wip$ (f f ! g5]al surface1 an impression w be obta9$ ( ! furr[s on press+ ! f+]s on to a piece ( smoo? :ite pap]4 ,bett] /ill1 if ! copp] plate ( a visit+ c>d be exam9$1 ! "n w be f\nd cut into ! surface4 ,if an intimate mixture ( tall[ & lamp-black be well rubb$ into ^! depressions & ! excess ( ink wip$ (f ! surface ( ! plate1 an impression c be obta9$ by plac+ a piece ( damp pap] on ! plate & pass+ bo? ?r\gh ! dome/ic mangle--! k9d ) rubb]-cov]$ roll]s4 ,9 ea* case ! pr9ciple is ! same1 ! pressure =ces ! pap] into ! depressions ( ! plate s t x takes up ! ink4 ,plane surface pr9t+4 ,?is is *>act]i/ic ( li?ography & alli$ processes4 ,writ+ or a design well *alk$ on a blackbo>d c be transf]r$ on to a smoo? piece ( pap] m]ely by a little vigor\s rubb+ on ! back ( ! pap] plac$ 9 position ov] ! draw+4 ,! transf]s ( *ildhood provide a fur!r simple illu/ration1 s also does ! hectograph 7jellygraph74 ,relief pr9t+4 ,9 ?is case1 ! design is rais$ above ! g5]al surface ( ! sub/ance4 ,a rubb] /amp is an obvi\s example4 ,x w be notic$ t intaglio & relief are ! rev]se "o ( ! o!r1 :il/ plane-surface pr9t+ is int]m$iate betwe5 ^! extremes4 ,9 intaglio1 ! ink is tak5 f a depression2 9 relief f an elevation2 & 9 flat pr9t+ f a plane surface4 ,,intaglio ,,plates4 ,!re are sev]al me?ods ( mak+ intaglio plates1 b only a few are us$ 9 ! illu/ration ( sci5tific pap]s2 att5tion h[ev] may be drawn to ! o!rs1 n only = _! own sake1 b also on acc\nt ( _! influ5ce on "s mod]n photo-me*anical processes4 ,,l9e-,,engrav+4 ,l9e engrav+1 by :i* is meant cutt+ l9es into copp]1 /eel1 or o!r suitable mat]ial ) a bur9 or grav]1 is a v anci5t art4 ,its employm5t = illu/rative purposes is an outcome ( ! art ( ! metal work]s--p>ticul>ly ! ,flor5t9e goldsmi?s ( ! fifte5? c5tury--:o fill$ up ! l9es cut 9 ! metal ) a black enamel ( silv] & lead sulphides 7niello7 :i* 0 made by heat+ toge!r a mixture ( ^! metals ) sulphur4 ,?is enamel :5 once 9 0 v h>d to remove1 s t 9 ord] to see h[ _! l9es 7 progress+1 ! arti/s rubb$ well into ! metal1 9 ord] to fill up ! l9es1 a /icky ink4 ,! sup]flu\s ink 0 !n wip$ (f ! g5]al surface ( ! metal & a piece ( pap] 0 plac$ 9 position & press$ suffici5tly h>d to make x ent] ! depressions1 :i* alone conta9$ ! pigm5t1 & take up ! ink4 ,a pr9t 0 ?us obta9$ ( ! "w & s its /ate 0 asc]ta9$4 ,metal engrav+ is c>ri$ out 9 ! same fa%ion at ! pres5t "t4 ,a flat plate ( copp] or /eel is well poli%$ & is work$ ^u ) a grav] or bur91 s t ! picture is repres5t$ by l9es cut into ! metal4 ,any l9e1 h[ev] f9e1 w give an impression on pr9t+1 h5ce x is h>dly surpris+ t engrav+ has long be5 a popul> means ( expression by arti/s1 s9ce =ce1 dep? & delicacy are possible ( atta9m5t4 ,! pr9t+ is c>ri$ out 9 exactly ! same way z by ! e>ly metal work]s3 ! plate is cov]$ ) a ?ick ink :i* is =c$ well into ! l9es & !n ! sup]flu\s ink is remov$4 ,! plate is n[ ready = pr9t+2 to d ?is1 ! plate is plac$ 9 ! b$ ( a copp]-plate press & ov] x is laid a %eet ( damp$ pap] :i* is cov]$ ) two or ?ree lay]s ( blanket4 ,! :ole is !n pass$ "u ! roll] :i* =ces ! pap] into ! incis$ l9es1 s t n only is ! ink pick$ out1 b a m\ld ( !m is tak5 on ! pap]1 h5ce ! v f9e/ l9es w give an impression4 ,hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! press ! pap] is c>efully peel$ (f1 & ?us ! pr9t is obta9$4 ,) reg>d to ! metal employ$1 copp] is commonly us$1 s9ce x is s(t & easy to "w2 its s(tness h[ev] is1 9 a s5se1 a disadvantage1 s9ce ! plate w soon we>1 ! f9e/ l9es be+ ! fir/ to g1 s t a limit$ edition ( good impressions only is possible4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty1 ! plate may be fac$ ) /eel1 by :i* means x is r5d]$ v durable4 ,/eel1 al?\gh once popul>1 is n mu* us$ n[adays ow+ to its h>dness & ! rapidity ) :i* x ru/s4 ,z comp>$ ) copp] engrav+s1 /eel gives a some:at h>d] l9e1 :il/ copp] gives a s(t l9e1 b ?is1 ( c\rse1 does n mean t /eel engrav+s are h>%2 ! f9e/ "w c be done on /eel & ( rem>kable delicacy4 ,at ! pres5t day l9e engrav+ is seldom or nev] us$ z a means ( illu/rat+ sci5tific "w4 ,x is obvi\s t ! av]age sci5ti/ has n ! "t & he c]ta9ly does n possess ! skill to make 8 own plates2 ! engrav] mu/ translate ! orig9als into l9es1 s t mu* consultation w\ld be necess>y4 ,fur!r1 a l9e engrav+ takes a long "t to make1 & mo/ publi%]s w\ld c]ta9ly look at ! exp5se4 ,9 ! pa/1 h[ev]1 ! l9e engrav+ 0 mu* us$1 & v beautiful "w 0 (t5 accompli%$4 ,! foll[+ works conta9 out/&+ examples4 ,bojanus3 ,anatome ,te/ud9is ,europaeae1 ,vilnae1 #ahai-ahba4 ,! plates are beautiful engrav+s by ,lehmann aft] ! draw+s by ! au?or4 ,*at93 ,anatomie ,comp>ee des ,vegetaux4 ,good /eel engrav+s illu/rat+ ! /ructure ( v>i\s plants4 ,curtis3 ,flora ,lond95sis1 ,london1 #aggg4 ,! illu/rations are h&-col\r$ copp] engrav+s by ,s[]by & o!rs1 _m ( :i*1 p>ticul>ly ! e>li] ones1 are ( out/&+ excell5ce4 ,! engrav+ is (t5 no?+ m ?an ! m]e outl9e ( ! plant1 :il/ 9 cases :]e ! /ructures are m massive1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( %ad+ is us$4 ,! col\r+ is v good inde$1 & x is obvi\s t mu* c>e 0 tak5 n only 9 ! actual pa9t+ b also 9 ! *oice ( pigm5ts :i*1 z f> z c be judg$1 are z fre% n[ z :5 fir/ us$4 ,curtis's ,botanical ,magaz9e & ,edw>ds's ,botanical ,regi/] conta9 "s excell5t examples ( h&-col\r$ copp] engrav+s4 ,levaillant3 ,hi/oire ,naturelle des ,oiseaux d',afrique4 ,p>is1 #ahje-h4 ,?is "w conta9s beautifully col\r$ engrav+s by ,fees>d4 ,! orig9al draw+s 7 by ,re9old4 ,lyonet3 ,traite ,anatomique de la ,*5ille4 ,la ,haye1 #agfb4 ,! plates are among/ ! be/ illu/rative ( zoological sci5ce4 ,m>tius3 ,flora ,brasili5sis4 ,! e>li] volumes1 e4g41 ,vol4 #ac1 ,"p ,i1 conta9 excell5t engrav+s4 ,passaeus3 ,hortus ,floridus4 ,arnheim1 #afad-ag4 ,s[]by & ,smi?3 ,engli% ,botany4 ,london1 #agij-ahff4 ,! illu/rations are h&-col\r$ copp] engrav+s4 ,?uret et ,bornet3 ,etudes ,phycologiques4 ,p>is1 #ahgh4 ,?is "w conta9s ! f9e/ plates ev] publi%$ 9 a botanical "w4 ,riocreux drew f ! prep>ations1 & 8 draw+s 7 engrav$ on /eel by ,pic>t1 ,?omas & o!rs4 ,,et*+4 ,et*+ is a t]m v loosely us$2 /rictly speak+ x consi/s 9 corrod+ a metal plate or a flat /one ) acid1 or o!r sub/ance possess$ ( a k9dr$ action1 s t depressions are =m$4 ,a p5 & ink draw+1 al?\gh usually s t]m$1 is n an et*+4 ,briefly ! me?od is ?is3 a well poli%$ copp]1 /eel or z9c plate is cov]$ ) a sub/ance1 kn[n z ! et*+ gr\nd1 consi/+ commonly ( a mixture ( asphaltum1 :ite wax & pit*1 :i* resi/s ! action ( ! acid4 ,! gr\nd may be laid 9 m ?an "o way2 ! simple/1 p]haps1 is to dissolve ! et*+ gr\nd 9 "s solv5t su* z *lor(orm1 :i* readily volatilises1 & to p\r ! solution on to ! plate1 :i* is tilt$ ?is way & t until ! liquid is ev5ly di/ribut$2 ! excess is p\r$ (f & :at rema9s is all[$ to dry1 ! plate be+ kept level dur+ ! process4 ,! plate is !n w>m$ until ! gr\nd is s(t5$1 :5 x is held ov] a smok+ c&le & is rapidly mov$ "h & !re s t if prop]ly done ! f9e soot is ev5ly incorporat$ 9 ! gr\nd4 ,:5 ! plate is cold1 ! draw+ may be made by cutt+ ?r\gh ! et*+ gr\nd1 s z to expose ! und]ly+ copp]1 ) ne$les ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! "w is !n et*$ by means ( dilute nitric acid4 ,:5 ?is is satisfactorily accompli%$1 ! gr\nd is clean$ (f1 ! plate well ink$ ) copp]plate ink1 & ! surface ink remov$ by co>se musl94 ,! plate is !n gone ov] ) f9e musl91 b ! ink mu/ n be remov$ f ! depressions2 f9ally ! damp$ pap] is plac$ 9 position & impressions obta9$ by ! use ( ! copp]-plate press4 ,et*+1 al?\gh suitable1 especially :5 natural-pr9t$1,a = ! illu/ration ( _m sci5tific subjects1 is b seldom employ$ at ! pres5t "t = ?is purpose2 ! prelim9>y ann\ncem5t ( ,w>burg's ,die ,pflanz5welt1 h[ev]1 /ates t "s ( ! illu/rations are et*+s4 ,footnote ,a3 ,a plate is said to be natural-pr9t$ :5 all ! ink is remov$ except f ! depressions2 9 artificial pr9t+ "s ink is all[$ to rema9 on ! flat p>ts4 ,arti/s frequ5tly1 aft] remov+ ! sup]flu\s ink1 lightly dab ! plate 9 ord] to make ! pigm5t spread slightly beyond ! actual limits ( ! depressions2 ?is is kn[n z retr\ssage4 ,,s(t-,,gr\nd ,,et*+4 ,?is is a some:at r>e me?od ( reproduction n[adays2 x may1 h[ev]1 be describ$ briefly1 = x w\ld appe> to be suitable = sci5tific purposes1 s9ce x %\ld n prove a matt] ( great difficulty = an au?or :o is a suffici5tly skill$ draughtsman to make 8 own plates4 ,! poli%$ copp] plate is laid ) ord9>y gr\nd to :i* is add$ l>d 9 a quantity accord+ to ! w>m? ( ! wea!r4 ,ov] ! plate is !n plac$ a %eet1 l>g] ?an ! plate by an in* or two1 ( damp1 ?91 gra9$ pap]1 ! edges ( :i* are fold$ ov] & pa/$ to ! back ( ! plate4 ,:5 ! pap] is dry x w be well /ret*$ & 9 close contact ) ! plate4 ,) ! h& re/+ on a bridge1 9 ord] to avoid inadv]t5t t\*+ ( ! plate1 ! draw+ is made on ! pap] ) a p5cil ( a h>dness suit$ to ! s(tness or o!rwise ( ! et*+ gr\nd4 ,:5 ! draw+ is f9i%$ ! pap] is c>efully remov$2 :]ev] ! p5cil has be5 us$1 ! et*+ gr\nd w adh]e to ! pap]1 s t 9 su* places ! metal w be expos$4 ,! plate is !n et*$ & pr9t$ z 9 ! normal process4 ,no reproductions ( draw+s ( sci5tific subjects app>5tly h be5 reproduc$ by ?is me?od4 ,examples c conv5i5tly be exam9$ 9 ,! ,sev5 ,lamps ( ,ar*itecture by ,rusk94 ,,mezzot9t4 ,! *>act]i/ic feature ( mezzot9t is t ! subject is translat$ into tones r ?an l9es z 9 ! prec$+ intaglio me?ods4 ,! surface ( a smoo? metal plate--usually copp]--is rais$ into innum]able & m9ute projections by go+ ov] x 9 all directions ) a curv$ /eel tool1 kn[n z a rock]1 ! edge ( :i* is f9ely too!d4 ,an impression tak5 ( ! plate 9 ?is condition w give a deep ri* tone4 ,! high lights are obta9$ by scrap+ & burni%+ away ! elevations s t !re are no pits left to hold ! ink1 &1 simil>ly1 int]m$iate tones are produc$ by p>tly remov+ ! pile s t ! pits are made ( v>y+ degrees ( %all[ness & consequ5tly w pr9t 9 tones accord+ to _! dep?4 ,impressions are tak5 9 ! same way z 9 ! case ( et*+s4 ,mezzot9t app>5tly has nev] be5 us$ = ! reproduction ( sci5tific subjects4 ,inde$1 9 a s5se1 ?is process is mu* too arti/ic = ! purpose4 ,at _! be/1 illu/rations reproduc$ by ?is me?od h my/]y & dep? & give ! imag9ation mu* employ2 9 a ^w1 !y are subjective r ?an objective1 qualities unsuit$ = our purpose4 ,,photogravure4 ,photogravure may next be consid]$1 = al?\gh x is a photo-me*anical process1 x corresponds to mezzot9t4 ,excell5t results may be obta9$ by its use provid$ ! draw+s--usually execut$ 9 mono*rome su* z sepia--be really good1 o!rwise !y are h>dly wor? reproduc+ by ?is relatively exp5sive me?od4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,?is acc\nt ref]s only to plates made & pr9t$ entirely by h&1 n to photogravure = pr9t+ on a rot>y ma*9e4 ,photogravure is p>ticul>ly suitable = ! reproduction ( draw+s %[+ a l>ge am\nt ( detail & made up ( a v>iety ( tones r ?an l9es or /ipple4 ,! photographic "p ( ! process is ess5tially ! same z mak+ a c>bon pr9t f a photographic negative4 ,?is consi/s 9 expos+ "u ! negative ! c>bon tissue1 :i* is a mixture ( gelat9e1 9 :i* is dissolv$ bi*romate ( pota%1 & a suitable pigm5t4 ,su* a film ( bi*romate gelat9e is1 :5 dry1 s5sitive to light4 ,if no light ga9s access to x1 ! gelat9e is readily soluble 9 w>m wat]2 if light acts ^u x1 ! gelat9e becomes insoluble 9 proportion to ! degree ( its exposure4 ,obvi\sly1 ! pigm5t w be reta9$ 9 v>y+ degrees accord+ to ! relative insolubility ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! gelat9e4 ,! c>bon tissue hav+ be5 expos$1 is roll$ d[n on a wet %eet ( pap] cov]$ ) "s adhesive & is dri$ "u pressure4 ,! pap] is !n soak$ 9 w>m wat] :5 ! basis ( ! c>bon tissue easily peels (f2 ! picture is develop$ by lav+ 9 w>m wat]1 :i* w dissolve ! gelat9e 9 proportion to its exposure to ! light4 ,! pr9t :5 dry is rem>kably p]man5t &1 f ! picturesque po9t ( view1 is inf9itely sup]ior to ! ord9>y silv] pr9t4 ,! me?od ( mak+ ! photogravure plate is1 9 outl9e1 z foll[s3 ,! orig9al draw+ is photograph$1 & x is v important t ! negative %\ld be z p]fect z possible4 ,f ! negative1 a positive is made ^u transp>5cy c>bon tissue :i* is m\nt$ ^u a %eet ( plate glass4 ,! proc$ure is1 9 ess5tials1 exactly ! same z describ$ above = ! mak+ ( a c>bon pr9t4 ,?is positive :5 dry may be t\*$ up2 aft] :i* a negative1 :i* also may be t\*$ up1 is made f x ^u an ord9>y %eet ( c>bon tissue4 ,! negative s obta9$ is transf]r$ to a prep>$ plate ( copp]1 develop$ ) w>m wat] & dri$4 ,! copp] plate is prep>$ z foll[s3 aft] be+ well poli%$ until q free f all scrat*es1 ! surface is du/$ ov] ) f9ely p[d]$ res9 or1 m usually1 bitum54 ,! plate is !n heat$ until ! du/ adh]es4 ,aft] ! c>bon negative has be5 /uck on to ! plate1 develop$ & dri$1 ! m>g9s & back ( ! copp] are protect$ ) an acid-resi/+ v>ni%4 ,:5 dry1 ! plate is plac$ 9 ! et*+ ba? ( nitric acid or1 m g5]ally1 ( f]ric *loride4 ,! et*+ fluid w pass ?r\gh ! ?9ne/ p>ts ( ! negative fir/1 s t ! surface ( ! copp] w be et*$ to a degree correspond+ to ! ?ickness ( ! gelat9e4 ,! high lights on ! negative obvi\sly w be repres5t$ by ?ick coat+s ( gelat9e1 consequ5tly su* p>ts w be b slightly et*$ & vice v]sa4 ,if ! plate _h n be5 laid ) res91 ! surface aft] et*+ w\ld %[ m or less ext5sive depressions & elevations2 b ! gra9s ( res9 protect ! copp] imm$iately b5ea? !m f ! action ( ! acid1 :i* consequ5tly c only dissolve ! expos$ p>ts ( ! metal betwe5 ! res9\s p>ticles4 ,! result is1 !re=e1 t ! plate is cov]$ ov] ) numb]less f9e pits ( v>y+ dep?s4 ,! deepe/ ones w1 on pr9t+1 give ! d>ke/ tones1 s9ce !y w hold m ink1 ! %all[] ones w give ! light] tones1 :il/ ! %all[e/ & ^? p>ts unet*$ w give ! high lights4 ,! plate is usually et*$ ?ree or f\r times successively 9 v>y+ /r5g?s ( fluid1 aft] :i* ! et*+ gr\nd & gelat9e is clean$ (f4 ,a /rong copp]-plate ink is !n well rubb$ 9 by means ( a dabb]1 aft] :i* ! ink f ! surface is remov$1 fir/ ) a co>se piece ( musl9 & f9ally1 ) f9e musl94 ,! ink mu/ n be remov$ f ! pits4 ,! fir/ pull is !n tak5 z 9 a l9e engrav+ ) a copp]-plate press1 & its appe>ance %[s :at corrections are necess>y4 ,! plate ne>ly always requires a c]ta9 am\nt ( engrav+2 ! high lights may be improv$ by means ( a burni%]1 ! %ad[s by means ( a rock] or a r\lette--a small /eel :eel ! rim ( :i* is beset ) f9e tee?--& s on4 ,f9ally1 if a l>ge edition is requir$1 ! plate is /eel fac$4 ,al?\gh mu* us$ = ! reproduction ( pictures1 photogravure is too r>ely employ$ = sci5tific purposes2 ?is is to be regrett$1 = ! process is admirably suit$ to ! reproduction ( photographs & draw+s ) delicate tones4 ,z comp>$ ) ! usual half-tone1 ! co/ is high1 & ?is no d\bt militates aga9/ its use4 ,examples ( out/&+ excell5ce w be f\nd 9 ! ,new ,phytologi/1 ,vol4 xi1 #aiab1 plates #e & #f4 ,^! are absolute facsimiles ( ! orig9al draw+s by ,mr4 ,mc,lean1 bo? z reg>ds col\r & reproduction ( tones4 ,plate #h may also be exam9$ & comp>$ ) plates #i & #aj :i* are reproductions ( ! same subject 9 collotype & half-tone respectively4 ,,plane ,,surface ,,pr9t+ ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #a4--;,an orig9al li?ograph by ,mr4 ,h>ry ,beck]4 ,,plane ,,surface ,,pr9t+ ,,li?ography4 ,( ^! me?ods ( pr9t+1 li?ography is ! out/&+ example3 x is a me?od ( reproduction possess$ ( great possibilities1 = by its employm5t a facsimile ( any draw+ c be obta9$4 ,z a means ( arti/ic expression x ranks high among/ ! graphic arts1 &1 = ! reproduction ( draw+s ( a sci5tific nature1 x is v popul>1 s9ce x meets mo/ requirem5ts & is comp>atively inexp5sive4 ,! art1 :i* 0 discov]$ by ,s5efeld] t[>ds ! end ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 dep5ds on ! fact t grease & wat] are immiscible3 a draw+ made ) a greasy pigm5t ^u a suitable surface adh]es v /rongly1 :il/ ^? p>ts free f x reta9 wat]1 s t :5 damp$ & roll$ up 7i4e41 ink$71 ! ink us$ w /ick only to ! l9es1 etc41 ( ! draw+1 b n to ! o!r p>ts4 ,cle>ly ! surface is all important1 & ?is is provid$ by li?ographic /one1 a lime/one occurr+ 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 ,engl& & ,canada4 ,! be/ /ones occur at ,sol5h(5 ne> ,muni*1 ^? f o!r localities be+ inf]ior 9 quality4 ,incid5tally x may be m5tion$ t z9c & alum9ium plates are n infrequ5tly us$ 9 place ( /one4 ,li?ographic /ones v>y 9 h>dness1 col\r & gra94 ,= ! be/ "w ! /one %\ld be homog5e\s & ( a h>dness suitable = ! subject2 ! col\r af=ds an indication ( ! h>dness1 ! light]-col\r$ /ones1 :i* are mu* ! common]1 be+ s(t] ?an ! d>k]4 ,!re are two modes ( proc$ure2 ! draw+ may be made direct on ! /one ) li?ographic ink or crayon--bo? be+ mixtures ( tall[1 wax1 soap & %ellac1 ) a suffici5cy ( pigm5t to r5d] ! draw+ visible to ! arti/--or else ! draw+ may be made ^u transf] pap]4 ,! =m] me?od1 al?\gh ! m satisfactory & (t5 us$ by arti/s1 is seldom pursu$ 9 sci5tific draw+s except :5 pr(essional draughtsm5 are employ$4 ,9 su* cases x may be necess>y to rev]se ! draw+1 :i* is conv5i5tly done by view+ x 9 a mirror1 &1 ( c\rse1 all lett]+ mu/ be rev]s$4 ,! majority ( amateur draughtsm5 make _! draw+s 9 p5cil or ink & ^! ! li?ograph] traces ^u li?ographic transf] pap] & transf]s !m to ! /one2 he1 ! li?ograph]1 may m]ely trace ! sali5t features & "w ! draw+ up on ! /one4 ,! transf] pap]s are coat$ ) gelat9e1 />* or gum1 or mixtures ( ^! sub/ances1 ! idea be+ to int]pose betwe5 ! real pap] & ! pigm5t--9 ! =m ( li?ographic crayon or ink--"s sub/ance soluble 9 wat] :i* w hold ! pigm5t & prev5t x soak+ into ! pap]1 s t a transf] has only to be damp$ ?r\gh ! back1 press$ on to ! /one & peel$ (f4 ,! "w1 toge!r ) m or less ( ! film1 w ?us be transf]r$ on to ! /one &1 ( c\rse1 w be rev]s$1 s9ce ! "p upp]mo/ on ! /one w be ! back ( ! orig9al draw+4 ,! orig9al draw+s may be made ^u ! transf] pap] direct1 & 9 s do+ mi/akes 9 trac+ w be obviat$4 ,suitable pap]s are made = v>i\s purposes1 e4g41 smoo? = ink "w & v>i\sly granulat$ = crayon 7see ,plate #a1 :i* 0 drawn by ,mr4 ,h>ry ,beck] on transf] pap]74 ,ano!r advantage 9 draw+ directly ^u ! transf] pap] is t ! draughtsman c make corrections pretty easily =1 if ne$s be1 a bad piece ( "w c be entirely cut out & a fre% piece ( pap] ins]t$4 ,assum+ t ! transf] me?od has be5 employ$1 ! /one mu/ be prep>$ accord+ z ! draw+ is made ) ink or ) crayon4 ,! /one is fir/ ?or\ghly gr\nd1 9 ord] to rid x ( all traces ( previ\s "w1 & !n poli%$ = ink "w or gra9$--i4e4 r\gh5$--= crayon "w1 ! small po9ts produc$ tak+ up ! crayon 9 proportion to ! am\nt pres5t on ! transf] & ! pressure us$4 ,! transf] is !n damp$ ) wat]1 sometimes ) a dilute solution ( nitric acid1 & plac$ 9 position on ! /one1 :i* is !n pass$ two or ?ree times ?r\gh ! li?ographic press until dry4 ,!n ! back ( ! pap] is damp$ & ! %eet peel$ (f4 ,! /one is next prov$1 i4e41 prep>$ = pr9t+4 ,x is fir/ c>efully exam9$ = brok5 l9es & o!r blemi%es1 :i* are t\*$ up ) ink or crayon4 ,! /one is !n pa9t$ ov] ) a solution ( gum 9 wat] :i* is all[$ to dry1 x is !n wa%$ 9 wat] & roll$ up ) ink4 ,! draw+ w n[ be cle>ly visible1 = if prop]ly ink$ ! cle> p>ts ( ! /one w n take ! pigm5t1 s t any p>ts :i* require clean+ up may be delet$4 ,?is is accompli%$ by means ( a p5cil ( snake /one1 a piece ( pumice /one1 an acid /ump--a rod ( h>d wood1 ! %>p5$ end ( :i* is dipp$ into nitric acid--or ) a scrap]4 ,! /one is aga9 wa%$ & roll$ up /rongly ) ink & et*$ ) a dilute solution ( nitric acid :i* is appli$ ) a sponge2 !n ! surface is aga9 gumm$ & ! /one all[$ to dry4 ,x is sometimes necess>y to re-et* ! /one2 if s1 ! damp /one is roll$ up ) ?9 ink & all[$ to dry1 x is !n du/$ ov] ) f9ely p[d]$ res91 ! sup]flu\s res9 is remov$ by means ( a wet sponge1 & ! surface is pa9t$ ov] ) a solution ( gum arabic mix$ ) dilute nitric acid4 ,if ! res9 is well incorporat$ ) ! ink1 ! "w w suff] no damage 9 ! process4 ,! acid gum is !n dabb$ (f ) a rag1 ! /one is clean$ up ) turp5t9e1 roll$ up once m1 gumm$ & f9ally set aside to dry4 ,all ?is appe>s complicat$1 b x is v necess>y to get a good surface = pr9t+4 ,! action ( ! gum does n appe> to be cle>ly und]/ood1 ! nitric acid obvi\sly w et* ! /one1 s t ! gum w easily p5etrate4 ,x is sometimes suppos$ t ! arabic acid ( ! gum ent]s into a *emical composition ) ! calcium c>bonate1 mak+ a film :i* is ! real ink-resi/+ surface4 ,?is film has n a long life1 s t 9 pr9t+ x is necess>y to r5ew x p]iodically by ! application ( gum solution4 ,if possible1 ! /one %\ld be all[$ to re/ = a day or two aft] prov+1 9 ord] t ! ink may s9k well 94 ,be=e pr9t+1 ! gum is wa%$ (f & ! /one all[$ to rema9 9 ! press-room until its temp]ature is ! same z its surr\nd+s4 ,! /one is !n ?or\ghly & ev5ly damp$ all ov]1 plac$ 9 ! press1 & roll$ up ) li?ographic ink2 ! pap] is !n laid on1 & ! :ole pass$ ?r\gh ! li?ographic press4 ,aft] ! fir/ few pulls x w be se5 :e!r all is well4 ,! ess5tials ( a good impression are ^!3 ! l9es mu/ be black & n grey1 provid$ black ink is us$2 ! l9es mu/ n be wid] or black] 7smutty7 ?an ^? on ! /one1 nor mu/ !y be ragg$ or brok5 7rott574 ,9 pr9t+1 ! /one mu/ be damp$ & ink$ be=e ea* impression is tak51 & occasionally re-gumm+ is requir$4 ,good pr9t+ requires a consid]able am\nt ( ability1 especially 9 ! case ( crayon draw+s4 ,! pap] us$ is a v important matt]1 ! selection ( :i* c be safely left to ! li?ograph]1 provid$ he be a good "o1 unless ! au?or possesses ! necess>y te*nical k4 ,if a smoo? pap] is requir$1 & ! pap] is n to be damp$ be=e pr9t+1 ,india pap] is be/ & plate pap] next be/4 ,all co>se or gra9$ pap]s mu/ be damp$ be=e pr9t+4 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 li?ography is a good process = sci5tific "w2 b1 un=tunately1 consid]+ ! numb] ( li?ographic plates publi%$1 really fir/-class examples are r>e4 ,?is is l>gely due to ! orig9al draughtsman2 x is unreasonable to expect a li?ograph]1 9 all probability ignorant ( ! subject ( ! plate1 to turn out fir/-class reproductions ( draw+s :i* are obvi\sly bad4 ,on ! o!r h&1 li?ograph]s v>y greatly 9 _! capabilities1 & indiff]5t plates may be entirely due to _! ability n be+ fir/ rate4 ,z draw+s h to be trac$1 mi/akes are apt to occur2 ! pro(s %\ld1 !re=e1 be c>efully exam9$1 = a c]ta9 am\nt ( correction c be made on ! /one4 ,! foll[+ works conta9 excell5t li?ographs1 :i* %\ld be /udi$ by ^? int]e/$ 9 ! subject4 ,bornet et ,?uret3 ,notes ,algologiques4 ,p>is1 #ahgf-ahhj4 ,?is conta9s "s ( ! be/ "w1 illu/rative ( sci5ce1 kn[n to ! pres5t au?or4 ,! orig9al draw+s mo/ly 7 made by ,bornet1 & ! li?ography 0 c>ri$ out by ,riocreux--"o ( ! be/ if n ! greate/ ( botanical arti/s--,arn\l1 ,pic>t & ,pi]re4 ,davis & ,?urnam3 ,crania ,britannica4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,mirbel3 ,sur le ,cambium1 ,p>is1 #ahdb4 ,! plates provide excell5t examples ( ink li?ography by ,laplante4 ,von ,mohl3 ,s*rift5 botanis*5 ,inhalts4 ,tueb+51 #ahde4 ,good examples by ,f$]]4 ,! fir/ volumes ( ! ,annales des ,sci5ces ,naturelles 7,p>is7 may be ref]r$ to = li?ographic "w e>li] ?an ! above 7#ahbj74 ,= m mod]n examples ! foll[+ may be consult$3 ,blackman & ,wels=d3 ,f]tilisation 9 ,lilium1 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #bg1 #aiac4 ,gravis3 ,re*]*es anatomiques sur les organes vegetatifs de l',urtica ,dioica1 ,bruxelles1 #ahhe4 ,?is memoir conta9s bo? good & indiff]5t plates4 ,keibel3 ,norm5tafeln zu ,entwicklungsges*i*te d] ,wirbelti]e1 ,j5a1 #aijd4 ,re$3 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,enzyme-secret+ ,cells 9 ! ,se$l+s ( ,zea ,mais & ,phoenix dactylif]a4 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #ah1 #aijd4 ,semon3 ,zoologis*e ,=s*ungsreis5 9 ,au/rali51 ,j5a1 #aijd4 ,vaizey3 ,on ! ,morphology ( ! ,sporophyte ( ,spla*num luteum1 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #e1 #ahij4 ,woodburn3 ,sp]matog5esis 9 ,blasia pusilla1 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #bg1 #aiac4 ,sev]al memoirs 9 ! ,fauna und ,flora des ,golfes von ,neapel 7,b]l97 are illu/rat$ by excell5t li?ographic plates4 ,_m good examples ( *romoli?ography also w be f\nd !re4 ,,*romoli?ography4 ,li?ography is mu* us$ = ! reproduction ( col\r$ pictures & illu/rations1 ! process be+ t]m$ *romoli?ography4 ,! pr9ciples involv$ are ! same z = ord9>y "w1 b x is necess>y to pr9t f sev]al /ones1 "o = ea* col\r4 ,x is obvi\s t mu* skill is requir$1 = ! employm5t ( diff]5t col\rs w give a l>ge numb] ( second>y & t]ti>y t9ts :5 pr9t$ "o above ! o!r 9 v>i\s comb9ations4 ,?us1 by pr9t+ "p ( a design 9 yell[ & ! o!r "p 9 blue1 ! f9i%$ product w\ld %[ ?ree col\rs--yell[1 gre5 & blue1 & by ! use ( ?ree prim>y col\rs a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t t9ts may be obta9$4 ,z already m5tion$1 ea* col\r is pr9t$ by a sep>ate /one1 !re is ?us no limit--except+ t ( exp5se--to ! numb] ( diff]5t col\rs :i* c be obta9$4 ,9 practice x is usual to make an outl9e ( ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! composition on a /one1 kn[n z ! key/one1 :i* is n necess>ily us$ 9 pr9t+ ! picture4 ,an impression ( ?is outl9e is tak5 ^u a %eet ( pap]1 :i* is us$ to transf] ! design on to ! /ones1 on ea* ( :i* ! arti/ w draw only ^? p>ts :i* he desires to be pr9t$ 9 "o p>ticul> pigm5t4 ,al?\gh ! sequ5ce ( col\rs is g5]ally blue1 r$ & yell[1 x is obvi\s t v>i\s *anges 9 ?is ord] mu/ be made accord+ to ! col\rs us$ & ! exact t9t requir$4 ,= in/ance1 a body col\r su* z cadmium yell[ w\ld prec$e a glaze su* z madd]-lake2 aga91 two di/9ct t9ts may be obta9$ f r$ & blue1 = example1 accord+ to ! ord] ( pr9t+--r$ ^u blue w give a mauve1 :il/ blue ^u r$ w give a purple4 ,a k ( pigm5ts is ?us all important1 & 9 pr9t+1 ! sup]position mu/ be p]fect4 ,plate #b is an example ( a *romoli?ograph4 ,miss ,o4 ,john/on fir/ drew ! outl9e ( ! plant1 :i* 0 phototransf]r$ on to ! /one4 ,an impression 0 !n pull$ & t9t$ by ! arti/1 & f ?is t9t$ impression ! col\r /ones 7 made by ! li?ograph]4 ,x may be add$ t only ?ree col\rs 7 us$ 9 pr9t+ ! plate4 ,examples3 ,baur3 ,e9fuehrung 9 die exp]im5telle ,v]]bungslehre 7,plate #a74 ,b]l91 #aiaa4 ,bruce & o!rs3 ,a ,note on ! ,occurr5ce ( a ,trypanosome 9 ! ,african ,elephant4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 ,b4 ,vol4 #ha1 #aiji4 ,cropp]3 ,! ,developm5t ( a ,p>asite ( ,e>?worms4 ,id4 ,vol4 #he1 #aiab4 ,oliv]3 ,on ,s>codes sangu9ea4 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #d1 #ahhi-ahia4 ,rubbel3 ,u,eber ,p]l5 444 ,zoologis*e ,jahrbue*]1 ,vol4 #cb1 #aiaa-ab4 ,biometrika1 #aijf-g1 ,vol4 #e1 ,plate #bc4 ,m5tion has be5 made ( ! value ( a k ( col\rs4 ,! subject is mu* too ext5sive to be consid]$ adequately on ! pres5t occasion ev5 if x 7 desirable2 its importance1 h[ev]1 w>rants a few pass+ rem>ks4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,ridgway3 ,color ,/&>ds & ,color ,nom5clature4 ,no two p w describe 9 ! same way ! col\r (1 say1 a rose petal2 bo? w h a diff]5t conception ( ! col\r crimson4 ,! majority h b a limit$ s5se ( col\r1 & ev5 :5 ?is faculty is possess$1 ! p]sonal equation looms l>ge2 fur!r1 ! ord9>y names ( col\rs are q inadequate = descriptive purposes4 ,= ^! reasons ! importance ( a sci5tific sy/em ( col\r nom5clature & col\r /&>ds is all important4 ,by ! use ( su* a s*eme1 ! exact col\r ( an object c be f\nd by comp>ison ) an adequate *>t1 & ! "n !re giv5 w convey to o!rs exactly :at col\r is describ$ or desir$4 ,! plumage ( a bird or ! col\r ( a fl[] c ?us be describ$ correctly1 & an au?or c indicate exactly ! col\r desir$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( a *romoli?ograph or o!r reproduction 9 col\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #b4--;,,g]anium ,,columb9um4 ,a *romoli?ographic reproduction ( a draw+ by ,miss ,o4 ,john/on ,,photoli?ographic ,,processes4--,( ^! me?ods ( reproduction !re are sev]al1 _! value ly+ 9 ! fact t ! orig9als c be r$uc$ or enl>g$ ) ! greate/ ( ease4 ,! g5]al pr9ciples are z foll[s4 ,a photographic negative is tak5 ( ! orig9al draw+ & a positive made on a film ( bi*romate gelat9e4 ,:]ev] light rea*es ! film1 ! gelat9e is r5d]$ m or less insoluble accord+ to ! int5sity ( ! light act+ ^u x2 ?r\gh ! d>k p>ts ( ! negative b little light w pass1 s t ! gelat9e w rema9 soluble4 ,! exposure ( ! positive hav+ be5 made1 ! film1 :i* may be m\nt$ on pap]1 is ink$ ) li?ographic ink 9 ! d>k room & !n wa%$4 ,! pigm5t w adh]e to ^? p>ts act$ on by light1 b w wa% away f ^? regions unact$ ^u2 obvi\sly ! half-tones w reta9 ink 9 direct proportion to _! d5sity4 ,! develop$ positive is !n transf]r$ to a /one or z9c plate & impressions tak5 z 9 pure li?ography = ! d>k p>ts are resi/ant to wat] & w take ! ink1 :il/ ! high lights w reta9 wat] & s w n be ink$4 ,! int]m$iate tones w take ! pigm5t accord+ to _! d5sity4 ,9 di/9ction to ! previ\s me?ods1 corrections _c be made except 9 s f> z ! negative c be t\*$ up4 ,,collotype4--,( ! v>i\s photoli?ographic me?ods :i* h f "t to "t be5 employ$1 collotype is ! "o 9 mo/ g5]al use at ! pres5t "t1 especially = ! reproduction ( photographs4 ,collotype is a simple process :i* does n require s ext5sive a te*nical k & ability z "s ( ^? previ\sly describ$4 ,b not)/&+ ?is1 ! results are sometimes unsatisfactory & unequal2 faults due to indiff]5t orig9als & to unsatisfactory conditions obta9+ 9 ! "w rooms4 ,! great drawbacks to good collotype are cold & dampness1 & x is = ^! reasons t cont95tal firms1 bless$ ) a m /able climate1 (t5 produce mu* ! be/ "w4 ,provid$ ! work%ops are prop]ly heat$1 ! collotyp]s ( ?is c\ntry ought to be able to turn out good "w at all times ( ! ye>2 inde$1 ! be/ firms d4 ,= ?is & = o!r processes 9 :i* photographs =m ! orig9als to be reproduc$1 au?ors %\ld s5d ! negative to ! collotyp]2 if ?is be impossible1 positives ( ! be/ possible quality1 pr9t$ on ord9>y ,p4,o4,p4 pap]1 ton$ to v>i\s %ades ( purple1 & also on smoo? bromide pap]1 9 ord9>y black tones1 %\ld be provid$ 9 ord] t ! collotyp] c *oose ! pr9t he mo/ pref]s to "w )4 ,also1 x is usual to glaze ! pr9ts4 ,! me?od is z foll[s4 ,a piece ( briti% plate glass1 ab\t half-an-in* 9 ?ickness1 is gr\nd on "o side ) f9e em]y p[d]1 & !n ?or\ghly wa%$ & dri$4 ,! plate is cov]$ ) a filt]$ mixture ( ! colloids sodium silicate & dextr9e or album91 & plac$ 9 a w>m ov5 to dry4 ,if metal plates are us$1 su* z z9c or copp]1 ?is prelim9>y coat+ is unnecess>y2 glass plates1 h[ev]1 mu/ h ! sub/ratum 9 ord] t ! s5sitis$ gelat9e--:i* is next put on--may /ick4 ,:5 ! plate is dry1 x is ?or\ghly wa%$ ) wat] 9 ord] to remove any free silicate2 x is !n dri$ & put away until requir$ = use4 ,! s5sitis+ solution is made up ( gelat9e & bi*romate ( pota% dissolv$ 9 wat]2 be=e use x is filt]$1 fre$ f air bubbles & heat$ to n m ?an #abj deg4 ,f4 ,! plate is n[ plac$ on a /&1 :i* is provid$ ) levell+ screws1 9 ! ov51 &1 :5 ! temp]ature has rea*$ #abj deg4 ,f41 an am\nt ( ! bi*romate gelat9e solution suffici5t to make a ?ickness ( film prop] = ! mode ( pr9t+ to be employ$ is p\r$ ^u ! plate4 ,! ov5 is kept at a con/ant temp]ature1 #abj deg4 ,f41 until ! gelat9e is dry1 :5 x is all[$ to cool gradually4 ,:il/ ! gelat9e is sett+1 precautions aga9/ vibration mu/ be tak5 else ! plate w be spoilt4 ,:5 dry1 ! collotype plate is s5sitive to light & moi/ure2 its surface %[s a m or less regul> s]ies ( convolutions :i* resemble ^? ( ! out] surface ( ! human bra91 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 v mu* small]4 ,! "* ( ! gra9 is v important1 = if x be too f9e x w n take up a suffici5cy ( ink1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 if too co>se x w yield co>se impressions4 ,a rev]s$ negative1 ( a quality beyond reproa*1 mu/ be made ( ! orig9al2 if ! subject is d>k or has heavy %ad[s ! negative is frequ5tly slightly ov] expos$ s z to s(t5 !m4 ,! collotype plate is !n expos$ "u ! negative & wa%$ 9 cold wat] until ! yell[ bi*romate no long] comes away4 ,x is !n dri$4 ,9 pr9t+1 ! plate is damp$ & roll$ up ) ink z 9 li?ographic pr9t+2 ! am\nt ( ink adh]+ to ! film dep5ds on ! ext5t to :i* ! diff]5t p>ts h be5 act$ on by ! light1 z has already be5 m5tion$4 ,! moi/5+ ( ! plate--mis-t]m$ et*+--is be/ done ) dilute glyc]9e conta9+ #ge p] c5t4 ( wat]1 :i* :5 fir/ appli$ %\ld be all[$ to rema9 on = ab\t half-an-h\r4 ,! excess ( moi/ure is tak5 up ) a sponge or a ball ( rag1 & !n ! plate is ink$ & pr9t$ 9 a li?ographic or a collotype press4 ,! picture is usually mask$ ) t9 foil 9 ord] t its edges may be q clean4 ,( ! faults :i* may occur1 ! foll[+ may be allud$ to4 ,a mottl$ appe>ance may obta9 9 ! high lights2 ?is is due to ! coat+ ( gelat9e be+ too ?ick4 ,m commonly1 ! reproductions may appe> flat ow+ to ! degradation ( ! high lights2 ?is is a sign t ! s5sitive film has be5 act$ ^u by moi/ure dur+ its critical exi/5ce betwe5 ! dry+ & ! wa%+ out ( ! potassium bi*romate1 or t ! temp]ature has be5 too l[4 ,! foll[+ conta9 good examples ( collotype4 ,k>/5 & ,s*5ck3 ,vegetationsbild]1 ,j5a4 ,oliv]3 ,notes on ,trigonoc>pus & ,polylophosp]mum4 ,new ,phytologi/1 ,vol4 #c1 #aijd4 ,semon3 ,zoologis*e ,=s*ungsreis5 9 ,au/rali54 ,j5a4 #aiab4 ,?ompson3 ,! ,anatomy & ,relation%ips ( ! ,gnetales4 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 #bf1 #aiab4 ,see also ,plates #c1 #d1 #e & #i 9 ! pres5t "w4 ,,! ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,illu/rat$ ,,pages4 ,( ! processes dealt )1 photogravure li?ography & collotype are ^? mo/ g5]ally us$ at ! pres5t day = ! pr9t+ ( plates or insets4 ,half-tone also is employ$1 a process :i* w be consid]$ lat] s9ce x is ess5tially relief pr9t+4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a conv5i5t opportunity to make a few g5]al obs]vations on plates4 ,plates %\ld only be employ$ = ! reproduction ( subjects ( su* complexity t _c be reproduc$ satisfactorily by figures 9 ! text4 ,a plate or page made up ( sev]al illu/rations %\ld look well z a :ole2 9 o!r words1 x %\ld n outrage all ! canons ( composition1 x %\ld h "s pictorial effect4 ,at ! same "t1 = facility ( ref]5ce1 ! individual figures %\ld run 9 a conv5i5t sequ5ce4 ,?is latt] po9t is s important t a plate compos$ really well is di/9ctly r>e1 = a compromise ne>ly always has to be made4 ,at ! same "t !re are1 app>5tly1 comp>atively few au?ors :o pay mu* att5tion to plate design4 ,al?\gh x is n desir$ to write ( ! laws ( pictorial composition1 att5tion may be drawn to a few po9ts :i* are among/ ^? g5]ally neglect$4 ,! figures %\ld n be cr[d$ toge!r2 a reasonable am\nt ( m>g9 %\ld be left ar\nd ea*4 ,!y %\ld be arrang$1 z f> z possible1 9 su* a way t a s5se ( balance is ma9ta9$4 ,z to h[ ?is is to be accompli%$ w dep5d ^u ! nature ( ! illu/rations2 if !y are all ab\t equal 9 tone1 ! l>ge/ ones %\ld prepond]ate t[>ds ! base ( ! plate1 & n vice v]sa4 ,! diff]5ce :i* ?is makes w be obvi\s if ! two accompany+ illu/rations 7,figs4 #a & #b1 ,plate #c7 be comp>$4 ,! fir/ is a r$uc$ copy ( ! plate z x 0 publi%$3 x w be notic$ t x has a top-heavy appe>ance1 :i* is correct$ 9 ! second figure by ! simple device ( turn+ x upside d[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #c4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! figures are "s light] & o!rs d>k]1 ! latt] %\ld =m ! base1 s9ce l[ tones give ! idea ( solidity2 ?is is s m>k$ t 9 cases :]e ! figures v>y mu* 9 size & tone1 ! d>k] ones may ne>ly always be situat$ at ! base or at any rate l[ d[n on ! plate unless !y are v mu* small] ?an ! light] ton$ ones4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,if1 ( c\rse1 ! read] und]/&s *i>oscuro1 he w take no notice ( ?is p>agraph1 b arrange 8 plates 9 accordance ) 8 ability4 ,an exam9ation ( ! figures on ,plates #d & #e w r\ghly illu/rate ^! po9ts4 ,! upp] figure ( ,plate #d is well design$1 & no improvem5t c\ld be made1 be>+ 9 m9d ! compromise allud$ to above4 ,! l[] figure is1 h[ev]1 n s good1 x 0 obvi\sly a difficult "o to arrange2 x w\ld h be5 improv$ if ,figs4 #bc1 #bf & #bh c\ld h be5 plac$ 9 ! top ti]1 b ?is w\ld h s]i\sly di/urb$ ! sequ5ce4 ,! fir/ illu/ration on ,plate #e is well design$2 x w\ld1 h[ev]1 h be5 improv$ by int]*ang+ #h;,a & #aa;,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #e4 ,we may n[ pass on to ! individual figures2 ^! %\ld %ew ! ess5tial features1 toge!r ) "s surr\nd+ & comp>atively extrane\s matt]2 (t5 !re is includ$ too mu* ( unimportance & its ret5tion means a wa/e ( valuable space4 ,! fir/ ?+ to d1 !re=e1 is to trim1 if ne$s be1 ! figures2 _! %ape is m or less immat]ial1 provid$ t 9 cases :]e !re are a l>ge numb] ( illu/rations on "o plate1 !y are n all alike4 ,! ,am]ican fa%ion ( circul> figures is p>ticul>ly displeas+1 at any rate to ! au?or4 ,hav+ trimm$ ! figures1 ! next po9t to decide is :e!r any require r$uction2 if !y d1 cut out pieces ( pap] 7ref]r$ to z patt]ns bel[7 ( ! size :i* ! figures w ultimately appe>3 on ! :ole1 x is bett] to avoid r$uction ( ! orig9als1 = )\t a good deal ( exp]i5ce x is v difficult to judge exactly :at ! result w be2 a good idea1 h[ev]1 may be ga9$ by ! use ( a dim9i%+ glass4 ,! size ( ! available surface ( ! plate %\ld n[ be rul$ on a :ite %eet ( fairly ?ick c>dbo>d1 & ! figures1 or _! patt]ns1 arrang$ s z to be easy ( ref]5ce1 to compose z well z may be1 & spac$ 9 su* a way t1 9 ! case ( a qu>to plate to be fold$ v]tically1 no figure is plac$ s t ! fold w pass ?r\gh its c5tre4 ,no?+ is m irritat+ ?an hav+ an illu/ration spoilt 9 ?is way4 ,all ?is may be done by arrang+ 9 diff]5t ways until a satisfactory result is obta9$1 a process :i* may take an h\r or two4 ,! figures %\ld !n be pa/$ d[n1 cov]$ ) sev]al %eets ( blott+ pap] & plac$ 9 a press4 ,a press is seldom available2 :5 su* is ! case1 a numb] ( heavy books s]ve equally well4 ,! lett]+ mu/ next be att5d$ to4 ,! individual figures are usually designat$ by numb]s2 ?is is a bad me?od1 s9ce x involves ref]r+ to ! description ( ! plate4 ,! be/ way is to use a numb]1 & aft] x to add ! "n ( ! plant or animal1 &1 if ne$s be1 a description z %ort z may be4 ,if ! au?or c pr9t or write reasonably well1 well & good2 if n1 x is bett] to atta* a slip to ! plate ) full directions relat+ to lett]+1 & to write 9 p5cil on ! plate ! titles1 etc41 requir$ 9 ! prop] places = ! guidance ( ! craftsman4 ,! typewrit] is sometimes employ$ = ?is purpose by au?ors2 x is purely a matt] ( ta/e1 b "s read]s feel a slight %ock :5 ?is me?od is resort$ to4 ,9 "s cases a key to ! plate pr9t$ on t\gh transluc5t tissue pap] & hav+ ! necess>y in=mation1 guide l9es1 etc41 is ins]t$ ) ! plate4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,k]n] & ,oliv]3 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,plants 7,fir/ ,edition7 ,london1 #ahid4 ,9 ! case ( glossy *romoli?ographs ?is practice is be/ avoid$1 = ! key is apt to /ick to ! plate if too mu* pressure is us$ :5 ! book is b\nd4 ,) reg>d to ! cat* lett]s us$ to indicate diff]5t p>ts3 ^! %\ld be z obvi\s z possible1 & ! guide l9es %\ld be ei!r 9 black or 9 :ite ink1 accord+ to ! g5]al tone ( ! illu/ration4 ,^! l9es %\ld be conspicu\s )\t be+ heavy4 ,n infrequ5tly !y1 toge!r ) ! lett]+1 are pr9t$ on ! plate by a second impression 9 r$ ink4 ,! =ego+ is prim>ily ! bus9ess ( ! au?or2 ) reg>d to editors & publi%]s1 all plates %\ld be m\nt$ 9 a mann] to facilitate ref]5ce & %\ld be pr9t$ on suitable pap]2 ! =m] is seldom or nev] done4 ,all plates :i* mu/ be con/antly ref]r$ to 9 read+ ! text %\ld h a selv$ge z broad z ! book1 s t :5 unfold$ ! :ole plate is visible1 no matt] :at page is be+ read4 ,?is w\ld1 no d\bt1 prove an additional exp5se1 b ?is %\ld n militate aga9/ ! sugge/ion "h made1 n by any means an innovation1 = 9 _m cases x w\ld save ! exp5se ( m\nt+ on gu>ds1 &1 fur!r1 ! additional exp5diture c\ld be sav$ sev]al times ov] 9 o!r ways4 ,) reg>d to pap]1 ?is g5]ally is satisfactory2 un=tunately1 highly glaz$ pap]1 mis-t]m$ art pap]1 ) an enamell$ or *romo surface1 & consi/+ *iefly ( *9a clay & size1 is g5]ally us$ = pr9t+ ! be/ half-tone reproductions4 ,= ?is purpose a pap] ) a suitable surface1 obta9$ by means o!r ?an ^? m5tion$ & n too co/ly1 is highly desirable1 s9ce art pap] has ! reputation ( be+ n at all p]man5t1 ow+ to ! delet]i\s action ( moi/ure1 & is some:at brittle4 ,:5 us$1 art pap]1 if fold$1 %\ld h a prop] pap] h+e along ! fold4 ,half-tones are occasionally pr9t$ on a k9d ( vegetable p>*m5t1 a pap] :i* %\ld be m ext5sively us$ s9ce x w sometimes1 b n always1 give z good a reproduction z art pap]1 & ! f9al result is m pleas+ f ! arti/ic po9t ( view4 ,illu/ration3 ,g4 ,oliv]1 del4 ,,relief ,,pr9t+ ,illu/ration3 ,little maid1 little maid1 ,:i!r goe/ ?\8 ,d[n 9 ! mead[ ,to milk my c[4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a wood engrav+1 by ,edmund ,evans1 f ! orig9al draw+ by ,kate ,gre5away4 ,reproduc$ by p]mission ( ! publi%]s1 ,fr$k4 ,w>ne ,co4 ,,relief ,,pr9t+ ,9 ord] t illu/rations may be incorporat$ 9 ! text1 ! blocks us$ mu/ be 9 relief ! same z ! type2 a mixture ( intaglio & relief is impossible1 = ! :ole surface mu/ be level 9 ord] to be ink$ by ! roll]s1 :i* deposit ! pigm5t ev5ly1 s t only "o tone ( col\r--t ( ! ink--is possible4 ,up to q rec5t times wood cuts & engrav+s 7 ! only means available = text-illu/rations1 s t ?is me?od may next be consid]$4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,treviranus1 ,c4,l43 ,die ,anw5dung des ,holtzs*nitts zur bildli*5 ,d>/ellung von ,pflanz54 ,leipzig1 #ahee4 ,,wood ,,cuts ,,& ,,engrav+s4 ,! inv5tion ( illu/rat+ by means ( wood blocks foll[$ closely on ! heels ( ! use ( moveable types = pr9t+4 ,! ,*9ese 7 ! fir/1 z f> z is kn[n1 to use ^! me?ods ( pr9t+ & illu/ration2 9 ! we/]n _w ! fir/ wood blocks date f ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,all ! e>li] cuts 7 made1 commonly on pe> wood1 on ! longitud9al face ( ! wood1 9 te*nical language on ! plank1 & seem+ly1 9 _m in/ances1 7 made f draw+s 9 ink4 ,by cutt+ on ! plank1 ! craftsm5 7 enabl$ to make l>ge blocks1 b 7 prohibit$ f do+ any?+ m ?an relatively simple & /raight=w>d "w4 ,su* blocks are kn[n z wood cuts2 wood engrav+s 7 n made until ! possibilities ( a h>d wood l box c>v$ ^u ! transv]se section 7 discov]$ at a mu* lat] date4 ,?is is1 /rictly speak+1 wood engrav+1 an art :i* almo/ entirely1 if n q1 sup]s$$ ! old] craft1 on acc\nt ( its great possibilities2 inde$1 wood engrav]s imitat$ metal engrav+ s closely z to deceive _m4 ,b su* "w 0 enorm\sly labori\s2 = in/ance1 9 ! case ( a fi%+ net1 if ! /r+ 7 to be pr9t$ black1 ! engrav] w\ld h to cut out hundr$s ( small diamond-%ap$ pieces ( wood 9 ord] t ! /r+ ( ! net %\ld be 9 relief4 ,b few arti/s w\ld d ?is ( _! own free w1 & g5]ally su* labori\s "w w only be f\nd 9 wood-engrav+s :i* 7 int5d$ = ! reproduction ( ink draw+s or o!r k9ds ( pictures :]e ! l9es1 %ad+1 etc41 _h to be fai?fully copi$4 ,?is po9t may be illu/rat$ by ! accompany+ cut 7,fig4 #b71 :i* 0 made by my fri5d ,mr4 ,ge(frey ,oliv]1 :o at ! "t 0 totally un9/ruct$ 9 ! art & knew no?+ ( its lit]ature4 ,x w be se5 t he1 q unconsci\sly1 treat$ 8 wood 9 ! same way z an engrav] w\ld 8 metal2 ! result1 ( c\rse1 is j ! opposite to metal engrav+ s9ce ! pr9t+ ( ! wood block is ! rev]se to intaglio4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,9 fact1 ! cut illu/rates ! ?ree fundam5tals ( wood engrav+2 ! :ite l9e made by cutt+ out ! wood s t no impression w be obta9$ :5 pr9t$2 ! :ite space :i* is simil>ly obta9$2 & ! black space1 :i* is made by leav+ ! wood unt\*$4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 necess>y to employ ! black l9e1 o!rwise ! tape ) :i* ! two m5--! arti/ & 8 fa!r--are measur+ ! trunk ( ! tree w\ld be invisible :]e x crosses ! sky4 ,9 a ^w1 ! little picture illu/rates v nicely ! legitimate use ( wood 9 ! graphic arts4 ,z already rem>k$1 ! majority ( ! e>li] wood cuts & engrav+s are reproductions ( l9e draw+s1 s t al?\gh we may admire & (t5 m>vel at ! te*nical ability ( ! engrav]1 ! cr$it = :at arti/ic m]it su* illu/rations may possess mu/1 9 ! majority ( cases1 g to ! draughtsman4 ,! "w ( ! e>li] wood engrav]s may be conv5i5tly /udi$ 9 ,a ,lyttel ,booke ( ,nons5se1 by ,r4 ,d41 ,london1 #aiab4 7,see also ! relevant works cit$ "u ,lit]ature1 p4 #id74 ,bewick1 ( c\rse1 is an out/&+ example ( an arti/ :o us$ wood engrav+ = illu/rat+ natural hi/ory2 ! me?ods he pursu$ may be /udi$ 9 ! tailpiece on p4 #aa1 :i* 0 pr9t$ f an electrotype ( ! orig9al block4 ,wood engrav+1 up to q rec5t times1 0 ! me?od ( reproduc+ text figures2 n only = sci5tific books & p]iodicals1 b also = g5]al lit]ature & j\rnals4 ,mu* ( ?is "w is ( out/&+ excell5ce2 = sci5tific "w ! foll[+ may be /udi$3 ,du*>tre3 ,elem5ts de ,botanique4 ,p>is1 #ahfg4 ,! draw+s 7 made by ,riocreux & engrav$ by ,leblanc4 ,baillon3 ,hi/oire des ,plantes1 ,p>is1 #ahhg4 ,?is "w conta9s "s beautiful wood engrav+s1 reproductions ( draw+s by ,faguet4 ,b5?am3 ,h&book ( ! ,briti% ,flora1 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,! engrav+s are f draw+s by ,w4 ,h4 ,fit*4 ,des*anel3 ,natural ,philosophy1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,! engrav+s1 _m ( :i* are ( excell5t quality1 are by ,laplante1 ,rap9e & o!rs4 ,9 _m cases1 notably 9 ! repres5tation ( ! rays ( light pass+ ?r\gh l5ses & also 9 ! illu/rations ( sn[ cry/als1 ! use ( ! :ite l9e is admirably demon/rat$4 ,k]n]3 ,pflanz5leb51 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,?is conta9s "s excell5t engrav+s by ,w9kl] & o!rs4 ,le ,ma\t et ,decaisne2 ,traite g5]al de ,botanique1 ,p>is1 #ahgf4 ,?is "w conta9s spl5did examples by ,riocreux & ,/e9heil 7see ,fig4 #h74 ,oliv]3 ,fir/ ,book ( ,indian ,botany1 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,?is conta9s "s *>act]i/ic "w ( ,w4 ,h4 ,fit*4 ,x does n appe> to be g5]ally kn[n t excell5t reproductions 9 col\r may be obta9$ f wood blocks by sup]pos$ pr9t+ 9 a mann] comp>able to t foll[$ 9 *romoli?ography al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 ! blocks are 9 relief 7,fig4 #a74 ,f ! =ego+ acc\nt x is obvi\s t ! engrav+ ev5 ( a small illu/ration1 except x be 9 m]e outl9e1 involves a consid]able am\nt ( lab\r2 9 fact1 if ! subject 7 l>ge x 0 usual to cut x up into areas & di/ribute betwe5 sev]al engrav]s1 ! f9i%$ blocks f9ally be+ jo9$ toge!r to make ! block ( ! :ole picture4 ,h5ce x is n surpris+ to f9d t :5 ! photo-me*anical processes 7 p]fect$1 ! old] me?ods ( reproduction 7 ou/$ by ! new]1 m especially s9ce !y are mu* less exp5sive2 ^!1 !re=e1 may next be consid]$4 ,,! ,,half ,,tone ,,process4--,= ! mak+ ( a relief block by photo-me*anical means1 ! ma9 difficulty is ! prop] r5dition ( ! tones int]m$iate betwe5 black & :ite2 ?is has be5 solv$1 at any rate 9 "p1 by ! discov]y ( ! half-tone process4 ,if an ord9>y photographic negative be highly magnifi$1 x w be se5 t ! high lights1 ! l[ lights1 & ! int]m$iate tones are made by ! v>y+ d5sity ( ! r$uc$ silv]4 ,9 ! light] p>ts ! small black p>ticles are surr\nd$ by col\rless areas1 :il/ 9 ! d>k regions small col\rless pat*es are surr\nd$ by black areas ow+ to ! clos5ess ( ! p>ticles ( silv] 7,plate #e1 ,fig4 #b74 ,:at is requir$1 !re=e1 is a relief block :i* w pr9t a numb] ( dots ( equal d5sity b ( unequal size4 ,v]vass] illu/rates ! po9t 9 an +5i\s way3 a plate1 cov]$ ) a numb] ( cones1 is suppos$ to be act$ ^u by light 9 su* a way t ! cones are truncat$ 9 v>y+ degrees accord+ to int5sity ( ! light fall+ ^u !m4 ,! section ( su* a plate w\ld !re=e %ew a curve 7,fig4 #c72 n[ if ! truncat$ cones be br\ght d[n to "o level & a pr9t tak5 f !m1 ! high lights w\ld be repres5t$ by black dots surr\nd$ by :ite areas & s on4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c ,?is illu/rates ! pr9ciple :i* obta9s 9 ! mak+ ( half-tones 9 :i* ! image is made up ( a l>ge numb] ( dots v>y+ 9 size b all equally d5se1 s t :5 view$ f a suitable di/ance ! dots are individually invisible b compose to give gradations ( light & %ade4 ,9 o!r words1 ! /ructure obta9+ 9 a photographic negative is1 9 a s5se1 realis$ by optical *emical means1 al?\gh ! dots 9 a half-tone block are mu* co>s] ?an ^? 9 a negative 7,plate #e1 ,fig4 #c74 ,?is result is obta9$ by int]pos+ betwe5 ! diaphragm ( ! cam]a & ! negative--= ! half-tone process is a photo-me*anical "o--a glass scre5 cov]$ ) int]sect+ engrav$ l9es 7,fig4 #d74 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ea* scre5 consi/s ( two plates ( glass simil>ly rul$ & cem5t$ face to face s t ! l9es int]sect4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d ,x may at fir/ be ?\ght t ! effect ( su* a scre5 plac$ 9 front ( ! negative w\ld be to produce m]ely a cross hat*+ on ! reproduction2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case2 if ! scre5 be plac$ 9 a prop] position relative to ! negative & ! size ( ! diaphragm ( ! cam]a1 ! picture w be reproduc$ 9 a s]ies ( dots ( v>y+ size4 ,! optical & o!r reasons = ?is ph5om5on mu/ be s\ght else:]e1,a b ! foll[+ brief consid]ation w s]ve to illu/rate :at happ5s4 ,! rays ( light :i* ultimately rea* ! s5sitive plate are act$ ^u by two l5ses1 t ( ! cam]a & ! me%es ( ! scre51 ea* "o ( :i* acts z a l5s on ! pr9ciple ( ! p9-hole cam]a4 ,ea* me%1 !re=e1 br+s ! image ( ! diaphragm to a focus on ! negative1 b ! l5s ( ! cam]a focusses ! picture z a :ole1 ?us ! am\nt ( light fall+ on ! diff]5t p9-holes w v>y 9 int5sity1 & h5ce ! dots produc$ w v>y 9 size1 = x is assum$1 ) good reason1 t ea* dot is built up f its c5tre & radially exp&s accord+ to ! am\nt ( light act+ ^u x4 ,footnote ,a3 ,see ,v]fass]1 loc4 cit41 p4 #id4 ,x is obvi\s t ! quality ( ! result+ picture w dep5d1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ^u ! co>s5ess ( ! scre5 employ$4 ,scre5s are rul$ ) l9es v>y+ f #ej to #djj to ! in*3 ! l[] rul+s give v co>se reproductions1 & are only us$ = po/]s1 :il/ ! high] rul+s yield v f9e impressions & are employ$ only = ! be/ "w4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k t ! f9] ! scre5 ! bett] mu/ be ! skill ( ! pr9t]4 ,to illu/rate ! diff]5ce 9 ! results obta9$ by ! use ( diff]5t scre5s1 ! two figures on ,plate #f h be5 prep>$2 bo? 7 made f ! same negative1 b = ! upp] figure a #ajj-l9e scre5 0 us$1 & = ! l[] a #bjj-l9e scre54 ,x w be obs]v$ t !re is m contra/ 9 ! =m]1 & m detail 9 ! latt]4 ,au?ors %\ld !re=e m5tion :5 s5d+ 9 _! orig9al pictures ! qualities !y require 9 ! reproduction2 x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ! blocks made f ! f9] rul$ scre5s w n pr9t satisfactorily except on m or less highly glaz$ pap]1 to ! use ( ! art v>ieties ( :i* !re are objections on ae/hetic & o!r gr\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #f4 ,half ,tone reproduction ( a photograph by ,mr4 ,w4 ,r[an4 ,"p ( a %+le bea* %ew+ plants ( ,sea ,blite 7,sua$a fruticosa7 & a r+ plov]'s ne/ ) f\r eggs4 ,be=e pass+ on x may be m5tion$ t scre5s ) patt]ns o!r ?an t repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #d are sometimes employ$2 = in/ance1 ! wavy-l9e scre5 gives ! impression ( co>se collotype4 ,! prep>ation ( ! blocks may n[ be briefly dealt )4 ,a negative ( ! picture1 us+ a scre5 suitable = ! purpose1 is tak5 on a special dry gelat9e plate 7process plates7 or on "s o!r =m ( negative1 e4g41 wet collodion :i* is mo/ commonly employ$4 ,?is negative requires v c>eful developm5t 9 ord] to get ! dots "r4 ,f ! negative a positive is made ^u a copp] or z9c plate1 suitably coat$ ) a s5sitive film4 ,! usual practice is to coat ! poli%$ metal plate ) a mixture ( wat]1 album51 fi% glue1 ammonium bi*romate1 *romic acid & ammonia2 ! plate is !n dri$ &1 :5 cool$1 expos$ "u ! negative4 ,! action ( ! light on su* a film1 ! ess5tials ( :i* are ! album51 ! glue or gelat9e & a *romate1 has already be5 describ$4 ,! mixture becomes m or less insoluble 9 wat]1 accord+ to ! int5sity ( ! light fall+ ^u x4 ,! positive is n[ r9s$ 9 wat]1 & is sometimes /a9$ ) an anil9e dye 9 ord] to r5d] ! film m visible4 ,next x is develop$ 9 a /ream ( wat] until ! surface ( ! metal is visible betwe5 ! dots1 ! la/ traces ( ! soluble gelat9e be+ remov$ ) w>m wat]4 ,aft] dry+1 ! plate is ev5ly heat$ ov] a ,buns5 burn] until ! dots ( gelat9e mixture turn *ocolate col\r1 :5 ! plate is all[$ to cool gradually4 ,?is is kn[n z burn+ 94 ,! plate1 if necess>y1 is n[ t\*$ up & ! back1 sides & m>g9s v>ni%$ 9 ord] to protect !m f ! acid3 :5 ! v>ni% is dry1 ! plate is et*$ 9 a weak solution 7ab\t #b-a_/b p] c5t47 ( nitric acid if ! metal be z9c2 if ! plate be copp]1 x is usually et*$ ) a solution ( iron p]*loride4 ,on tak+ a pro(1 !re is almo/ c]ta9 to be a lack ( contra/1 ! plate is !n f9e et*$1 by :i* means a consid]able improvem5t c be made2 &1 by cov]+ c]ta9 p>ts ) an acid-resi/+ sub/ance 7/opp+ out71 x is possible to f9e et* locally4 ,incid5tally x may be m5tion$ t ma*9e et*+1 by :i* a f9e spray ( ! et*+ fluid is di/ribut$ ov] ! plate1 has rec5tly come into vogue1 = x is claim$ t ! results pr9t bett] & are 9 o!r ways an improvem5t ^u ! old] me?od4 ,! plate may n[ pass ?r\gh ! h&s ( an engrav]1 :o removes any blemi%es1 z f> z is possible1 improves ! high lights1 & s on2 9 fact1 a skilful engrav] c improve ! plate consid]ably4 ,aft] ! plate is trimm$1 & ! sup]flu\s metal cut out by means ( a r\t+ ma*9e1 x is firmly tack$ to a wood5 m\nt1 usually ( oak1 b sometimes ( mahogany1 especially if ! plate is l>ge4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ! be/ results1 ! pr9t+1 9 a typographical ma*9e1 %\ld be done on highly cal5d]$ pap]--s-call$ art pap]2 9 fact1 ?is is absolutely ess5tial if a f9e scre5 has be5 us$2 x is only ! blocks made ) ! co>s] scre5s t w give fair pr9ts on ord9>y pap]4 ,= ?is reason reproductions made by ! half-tone process are v g5]ally treat$ z plates unless ! glaz$ pap] is us$ ?r\gh\t ! book4 ,! process is us$ pr9cipally = ! reproduction ( photographs1 & = p5cil or wa% draw+s4 ,) reg>d to photographs1 x has already be5 m5tion$ t au?ors %\ld s5d ! negative or two or ?ree pr9ts diff]5tly ton$1 9 ord] t ! op]ator c *oose ! "o mo/ likely to give ! be/ result4 ,x is sometimes difficult 9 a photograph ( a l&scape to obta9 a negative 9 :i* ! p>ticul> feature x is desir$ to repres5t--e4g41 9 photographs ( vegetation--/&s out ) ! requisite contra/4 ,?is is due to ! position ( ! sun at ! "t ( exposure1 or to ! use ( ord9>y plates4 ,! rem$y = ! fir/ is to take ! photograph :5 ! prop] light obta9s2 ) reg>d to ! second1 ! use ( col\r correct plates1 toge!r ) a col\r scre5 9 front ( ! l5s1 w obviate ! defect4 ,s9ce = sci5tific purposes ! correct int]pretation ( ! v>i\s tones ( ! vegetation1 = example1 may n be ess5tial1 v>i\sly col\r$ scre5s may be us$ 9 ord] to emphasise a p>ticul> feature4 ,= in/ance1 x w be notic$ h[ well ! bu%es 9 ,plate #g /& out4 ,?is effect 0 obta9$ by ! use ( a pan*romatic plate 9 conjunction ) a r$ col\r scre54 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #g4--;,half ,tone reproduction ( a photograph tak5 by ,dr4 ,mees ?r\gh a r$ scre54 ,) reg>d to draw+s 9 wa%1 *>coal or p5cil1 9 :i* !re are half-tones2 ^! are bett] drawn on an enl>g$ scale1 especially if ! au?or is n a skill$ draughtsman1 = improp] gradations 9 %ad+ & o!r imp]fections w n appe> s noticeable 9 ! r$uc$ reproduction4 ,orig9als %\ld all be made 9 "o col\r2 9 ! case ( wa% draw+s1 dilut$ ,indian ink 7really ,*9ese ink7 w give excell5t results4 ,9 mak+ p5cil draw+s1 a fairly /\t h&-made pap] ) n too mu* gra9 %\ld be us$4 ,if ! draw+ is to be ( "s size1 ! pap] may be damp$ & pa/$ by its edges on to ! draw+ bo>d1 x w !n be /ret*$ q flat & w n cockle :5 dry4 ,! outl9e ( ! object may fir/ be sket*$ 9 lightly ) a s(t p5cil & !n ! %ad+ may be proce$$ )4 ,to d ?is1 broad-po9t$ s(t p5cils1 #b ,b1 #c ,b1 or #d ,b1 %\ld be us$1 & x is bett] g5]ally to "w f ! high lights to ! %ad[s4 ,to avoid rubb+ f9i%$ p>ts1 ! "w %\ld proce$ f ! top ( ! bo>d d[nw>ds1 especially 9 ! case ( l>ge draw+s4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a nice gradation & a m smoo? appe>ance--m especially :5 a v co>se pap] has be5 us$--! "w may be gone ov] ) pap] /umps ( appropriate size & s(tness1 &1 ( c\rse1 ,india rubb] may be employ$ :]e x is desir$ to r$uce ! d5sity ( ! %ad+4 ,:5 f9i%$1 ! edges ( ! v>i\s p>ts may appe> woolly ow+ to ! rubb+ ( ! lead2 ?is may be cur$ by clean+ up ! edges ) a trimm$ piece ( ,india rubb]1 b 9 s do+ !re is always a risk ( rubb+ out "p ( ! %ad+1 especially if ! outl9e be at all intricate4 ,if pref]r$1 all ! %ad$ p>ts may be fix$ by pa9t+ !m ov] ) a suitable solution1 gelat9e = in/ance1 pay+ p>ticul> att5tion 9 foll[+ ! correct outl9e4 ,:5 dry1 ! application ( s(t india-rubb] w soon clean up ! blurr$ edges4 ,if *>coal be us$ ! same proc$ure may be foll[$4 ,*>coal & p5cil draw+s %\ld be fix$1 9 ord] to prev5t rubb+1 be=e s5d+ to ! block mak]s4 ,a suitable fixative may be pur*as$ or "o may be made by dissolv+ :ite res9 9 alcohol & apply+ x to ! pap] by means ( a sc5t spray or an atomiz]4 ,a v good fixative may be made by dissolv+ a little gelat9e 9 hot wat] & apply+ x :il/ hot by means ( a broad1 flat camel hair bru%1 or ord9>y milk may be us$ 9 a simil> way4 ,aft] ! fixative has be5 put on1 ! draw+ %\ld be p9n$ up by "o corn]--unless1 ( c\rse1 x 0 p9n$ up be=e ! fixative 0 employ$1 :i* is ! be/ way :5 ! fixative is an alcoholic solution--& all[$ to dry2 x may !n be plac$ "u pressure 9 ord] to flatt5 x1 = fix$ draw+s g5]ally %ew a t5d5cy to curl1 especially :5 ! prep>ation us$ = fix+ has only be5 appli$ to "o surface ( ! pap]4 ,9 mak+ draw+s = reproduction by means ( ! half-tone process1 !re are a few g5]al po9ts to :i* att5tion %\ld be paid4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t !re is n infrequ5tly a t5d5cy t[>ds flatness 9 ! reproduction2 x is !re=e important t ! orig9als %\ld be plucky1 &1 on ! :ole1 x is bett] to exagg]ate ) reg>d to high light & %ade1 especially if !re is mu* modell+ or p]spective4 ,f9ally1 ) reg>d to light+1 x is bett] = ! majority 9 draw+ _! objects--solid objects 9 relief are ref]r$ to--to use a m or less lat]al illum9ation & to repres5t only ! high lights1 %ades & %ad[s ref]able to ?is ma9 direction ( illum9ation4 ,a high relief w ?us be obta9$1 & ! effect w prove m satisfactory ?an if m9or s\rces ( illum9ation are unsuccessfully dealt )4 ,?is is especially important 9 draw+ complicat$ /ructures su* z models ( vascul> tissues1 embryos1 etc4 ,9 cases :]e _m su* figures are to occur on "o page1 x is highly desirable t ! light+ ( ea* %\ld be f ! same direction4 ,! use ( ! half-tone block is n[ almo/ univ]sal1 s t x is h>dly necess>y to m5tion examples1 m especially z !y are h>d to judge )\t see+ ! orig9al picture4 ,^? 9 ! pres5t book are all ( a high quality4 ,excell5t examples w also be f\nd 9 ,tansley's ,types ( ,briti% ,vegetation 7,cambridge1 #aiaa7 & 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,horticultural ,society4 ,pro(s %\ld be c>efully comp>$ ) ! orig9als1 p>ticul> att5tion be+ paid to ! r5d]+ ( ! tones2 z already rem>k$1 f9e et*+ w cle> up a block & w (t5 prove a rem$y to flatness4 ,an au?or w naturally consid] :e!r a photograph is to be reproduc$ by means ( photogravure1 collotype or half-tone4 ,x is impossible to lay d[n any laws on ! subject1 b ! foll[+ po9ts %\ld be consid]$4 ,if x is ess5tial to h ! reproduction 9 ! text1 a half-tone block mu/ be us$2 x mu/1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$ t ! pap] us$ = ! lett]press may be v unsuit$ = ! pr9t+ ( half-tones4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if x be immat]ial :]e ! picture is plac$1 !n ! relative m]its ( photogravure1 collotype & k9dr$ processes & half-tone mu/ be weigh$4 ,provid$ t exp5se ne$ n be consid]$1 photogravure w1 9 ! majority ( cases1 give ! be/ results2 on ! o!r h&1 if ?is process is too co/ly1 !n ! *oice lies betwe5 collotype & half-tone4 ,! latt] me?od w (t5 give a result ) m contra/ z comp>$ ) collotype1 :il/ collotype w give a tru] int]pretation ( ! tones4 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 ! be/ results ) half-tone blocks only are to be obta9$ by ! employm5t ( a pap] :i* seem+ly has no la/+ qualities2 x !re=e foll[s t if ! reproduction =ms an important record1 ! use ( collotype is indicat$1 s9ce _m v>ieties ( good pap] are available4 ,z a g5]al rule photo-micrographs are be/ reproduc$ by collotype4 ,9 ord] t ! respective qualities ( ^! ?ree processes--photogravure1 collotype & half-tone--may be comp>$1 ,plates #h1 #i1 & #aj h be5 made f ! same photograph1 a view tak5 by ,dr4 ,f4 ,f4 ,blackman ( ! ,b\*e d',erquy1 a salt m>% 9 ,brittany1 :i* 0 select$ *iefly on acc\nt ( ! l>ge numb] ( tones x conta9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #h4 ,photogravure ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #i4 ,collotype ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aj4 ,half ,tone ,^! ?ree plates are n entirely comp>able1 s9ce ! heavy %ad[s 9 ! "r h& bottom portion ( ! photogravure h be5 t\*$ up by ! engrav]4 ,?is 0 n int5d$ by ! au?or1 b ! plate 0 reta9$ z x %ews t directions reg>d+ ?is po9t %\ld n be omitt$ :5 s5d+ ! draw+ or photograph to be reproduc$4 ,x also indicates t = critical "w1 :5 an exact a facsimile z possible is requir$1 collotype %\ld be us$1 = ! plate _c be t\*$ up4 ,) reg>d to ! reproduction ( draw+s %ad$ by means ( wa% or p5cil1 ! same rem>ks apply1 ) ! addition t if x be possible to express :at is desir$ by o!r means1 suitable = reproduction by l9e block1 ^! latt] %\ld be employ$4 ,to illu/rate ?is po9t1 ,figures #e1 #f1 & ,plate #aa h be5 ins]t$2 all illu/rate ! vascul> skeleton ( a f]n 7,m>attia frax9ea71 ! fir/ "o is 9 outl9e & ! second is %ad$ by l9es ( v>y+ ?ickness2 bo? ( ^! are reproduc$ by means ( ! l9e block1 :il/ ! ?ird is a reproduction by half-tone ( a p5cil-%ad$ draw+4 ,9 ord] to obta9 a fair comp>ison1 ! half-tone is reproduc$ z a plate1 ow+ to ! fact t x w\ld n pr9t satisfactorily on ! pap] us$ = ! lett]press4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #aa ,,! ,,half-,,tone ,,?ree ,,col\r ,,process4--,?is process is mu* us$ = col\r reproductions ( v>i\s subjects2 &1 9 view ( ! fact t ! be/ results c only be obta9$ by ! be/ photography1 ! object %\ld1 if possible1 be s5t to speciali/s = reproduction4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 ?is is impossible1 e4g41 l&scapes & animal & plant portraits amid/ _! natural surr\nd+s1 s t ! sci5ti/1 if unable to make a wat] col\r draw+1 :i* w give by f> ! be/ result1 mu/ make 8 own negatives4 ,! fir/ ?+ to d is to pur*ase a set ( col\r-filt]s1 adapt$ to ! col\r-correct plates to be us$1 f firms :o specialize 9 ^! matt]s1 ,messrs4 ,paget or ,messrs4 ,wratt5 = in/ance1 & f !m ! inexp]i5c$ %\ld obta9 full in=mation reg>d+ exposure1 etc41 = x is ess5tial t ! exposure ( ! negatives %\ld be correlat$ 9 ord] t all may h ! same tone-value4 ,! col\r-scre5s1 blue1 gre5 & orange1 are made by dye+ gelat9e ) suitable /a9s2 ! films are /uck on to p]fectly plane glass & are m\nt$ 9 frames4 ,9 practice ^! scre5s are usually plac$ beh9d ! l5s1 9 :i* case a special cam]a is necess>y1 or !y may be adapt$ to fit on to ! front ( ! l5s4 ,9 ei!r case ! proc$ure is ! same2 ?ree negatives are tak5 "o aft] ! o!r ?r\gh ea* col\r filt]1 ! exposure be+ modifi$ 9 ord] t ! tones 9 ea* case may be ( equal value4 ,!re are ?us obta9$ ?ree negatives :i*1 ( c\rse1 yield positives :i* look v diff]5t "o f ! o!r4 ,^! pr9ts may be s5t to ! block mak]s1 b x is bett]1 on ! :ole1 to s5d ! negatives ) cle> indications z to ! col\r ( ea*4 ,f ea* negative !re is made by contact a transp>5cy1 & f ^! positives !re are prep>$ a set ( half-tone negatives f :i* are made ! half-tone blocks4 ,! reproductions are made by sup]pos$ pr9t+ ( ! ?ree blocks1 yell[ be+ pr9t$ fir/1 !n r$1 & f9ally blue 7,plate #ab74 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate #ab4--,?ree ,col\r ,half ,tone4 ,z indicat$ above1 x is h>dly wor? :ile to make negatives = ?is process unless ! op]ator is a really skilful or at lea/ an effici5t photograph]1 & ev5 !n ! f9al product may prove unsatisfactory4 ,bett] results are g5]ally to be obta9$ by s5d+ to ! block mak] a ,lumi]e col\r photograph ) full in/ructions reg>d+ any corrections 9 ! col\rs :i* may be necess>y4 ,examples3-- ,bateson3 ,m5del's ,pr9ciples ( ,h]$ity1 ,cambridge1 #aiji4 ,*ur*3 ,types ( ,floral ,me*anism1 ,ox=d1 #aijh4 ,sew>d3 ,d>w9 & ,mod]n ,sci5ce1 ,cambridge1 #aiji4 ,,photo-,,me*anical ,,l9e ,,blocks4--,! photo-me*anical l9e block1 commonly kn[n z a z9co1 is 9 a s5se ! l9eal desc5dant ( ! wood block4 ,z a means ( reproduction ! possibilities ( l9e blocks are v great1 = n only is x possible to reproduce by _! means all k9ds ( l9e draw+s1 b also draw+s 9 *>coal & crayon1 provid$ !y be suitably execut$ on a prop] gra9$ surface4 ,9 fact1 an arti/ or draughtsman :o has a ?or\gh k ( ! process & its capabilities c obta9 extraord9>y results4 ,! process has ! fur!r advantage ( be+ bo? quick & inexp5sive1 a few h\rs only be+ requir$ to make ! f9i%$ product4 ,_! mode ( manufacture is ! same 9 pr9ciple z = half-tone blocks2 9 ! case ( ! latt]1 ! me?od kn[n z ! enamel process 0 describ$2 9 ! pres5t in/ance a diff]5t proc$ure may be dealt )4 ,a photograph ( ! draw+ is tak5 on a negative1 ! wet collodion process be+ g5]ally foll[$1 al?\gh dry process plates may be us$4 ,a highly poli%$ z9c plate is s5sitis$ ) bi*romate ( pota% & gelat9e1 or by o!r means1 &1 :5 dry1 is expos$ "u ! negative4 ,! expos$ metal plate is !n tak5 into ! d>k room & ev5ly1 b ?9ly1 coat$ ) et*+ ink4 ,:5 ! ink is dry1 ! plate is develop$ 9 wat]2 ! unexpos$ gelat9e1 & ) x1 ! ink1 w come away1 its removal be+ help$ by ! judici\s application ( a dabb] ( wet cotton wool4 ,! plate may next be roll$ ov] ) an ink :i* w m /\tly resi/ ! action ( ! acid ?an t us$ 9 ! fir/ ink+1 b prior to ?is x is usual to soak ! plate 9 a mixture ( gallic acid1 phosphoric acid & gum4 ,?is second roll+ up mu/ be c>ri$ out z if ! plate 7 = li?ographic reproduction2 &1 :5 dry1 p[d]$ res9 may be appli$1 9 ord] to make a bett] acid-resi/1 z 9 ! prep>ation ( a li?ographic /one4 ,! plate is n[ et*$ slightly 9 a weak solution ( nitric acid2 x is !n r9s$1 dabb$ dry & plac$ ^u a hot plate until ! res9 has /uck well to ! ink4 ,:5 cool1 ! m>g9s1 sides & back are protect$ f ! action ( ! acid by means ( a v>ni% & ! plate is giv5 its fir/ real et*1 :i* is a v slight "o4 ,aft] r9s+ & dry+1 ! plate is aga9 heat$ until ! ink & res9 h melt$ & fl[$ d[n ! expos$ sides ( ! ridges ( metal produc$ 9 ! fir/ et*+4 ,?is application ( ink & res9 mu/ be repeat$ 9 ord] t ! expos$ sides ( ! ridges may be well cov]$ ) ! acid-resi/ & s w n be und]cut4 ,! plate is !n giv5 its second et*1 & ?is is done ) a /rong] acid1 aft] :i* ! sides ( ! l9es are aga9 protect$ ) res9\s mat]ial 9 ! same way z be=e4 ,! ?ird et* foll[s1 aft] :i* ! metal is ?or\ghly cleans$ f all ! ink1 etc4 ,9 ord] to smoo? ! %\ld]s ( ! l9es1 ! plate is giv5 a f9i%+ et*3 ! clean$ plate is w>m$ & roll$ up ) h>d et*+ ink2 ! metal is !n heat$ until ! ink becomes glaz$1 &1 :5 cool1 is plac$ 9 ! acid ba? = ! requisite am\nt ( "t4 ,if necess>y ! plate1 aft] clean+1 is t\*$ up ) a grav]1 & ! sup]flu\s metal is cut away4 ,f9ally x is m\nt$ on a block ( wood1 & aft] ! corn]s & sides h be5 trimm$ squ>e1 ! block is ready = ! press4 ,to illu/rate ! enorm\s improvem5t :i* may result f ! block pass+ ?r\gh ! h&s ( a skilful engrav]1 two l9e blocks ( a wood engrav+ by ,riocreux 7see p4 #cf7 h be5 prep>$4 ,fig4 #g is ! impression giv5 by ! block z ord9>ily turn$ out1 :il/ ,fig4 #h is a precisely simil> block :i* has be5 work$ up by an engrav]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h ,!re are sev]al o!r me?ods ( mak+ ! blocks1 b ! pr9ciples are ! same z 9 ! =ego+ process4 ,9 exam9+ ! pro(s x mu/ be rememb]$ t deletions are n ! only alt]ations t c be made 9 ! f9i%$ block2 n only c l9es be cut away1 or _! "* alt]$ by remov+ "p ( ! metal f !m1 b additions c be made 9 reason4 ,= in/ance1 l9es c be add$ across op5 spaces1 & if "p ( ! pr9t+ surface has be5 accid5tally remov$ 9 cutt+ away ! sup]flu\s metal1 ! damage c be made good by build+ up ) sold] & work+ on ?is ) ! grav]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! additions requir$ are at all ext5sive or complicat$1 x is bett] to h a new block made4 ,inasmu* z sci5tific illu/rations are to describe & expla9 def9ite facts1 ! draw+s mu/ ne$s be mat]iali/ic r ?an sugge/ive2 9 o!r words1 a m or less conv5tional sy/em mu/ be employ$4 ,9 mak+ _! draw+s = reproduction by l9e blocks1 au?ors h at _! disposal ! black l9e1 ! :ite l9e1 ! black space1 ! :ite space1 ! black dot & ! :ite dot1 all ( :i* may be comb9$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,no tones1 o!r ?an black & :ite1 are available2 if x be desir$ to repres5t half-tones1 !y mu/ be r5d]$ by ! above-m5tion$ means4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! orig9als %\ld be made ) black ink on :ite ,bri/ol bo>d or smoo? :ite pap]2 ord9>y lead p5cil draw+s on smoo? pap] are useless1 & lead p5cil1 black crayon or *>coal 9 comb9ation ) gra9$ pap] or bo>d %\ld n be employ$ unless ! draughtsman has ! requisite skill & kn[s exactly ! limitations ( ! l9e block4 ,= all ord9>y folk black ink & ,bri/ol bo>d _c be improv$ ^u4 ,! draw+ may be made fir/ ) a s(t lead p5cil1 us+ ! cam]a lucida or o!r optical aids to correct del9eation4 ,! p5cil l9es are !n gone ov] ) ink2 = ?is purpose a good black ink is necess>y4 ,wolff's ,indian ink1 ,higg9s' wat]pro( ink & ,/eub]'s wat]pro( draw+ ink are highly satisfactory1 & !re are _m o!rs4 ,) reg>d to p5s1 a suitable implem5t is all-important2 ,gillott's li?ographic p5s & ,br&au]'s ,no4 #eae are recomm5d$4 ,= /raight l9es ( an ev5 ?ickness a rul+ p5 is v useful1 & ^! may be obta9$ fitt$ ) an adju/m5t :i* enables ! work] to rule a l9e ( a def9ite ?ickness1 e4g41 4#e mm4 & s on4 ,all draw+s %\ld be made l>g] ?an x is int5d$ ! reproduction to be1 = slight inaccuracies1 ragg$ l9es1 & o!r blemi%es w ?us appe> less obvi\s4 ,?is draw+ on a l>ge scale is (t5 a /umbl+ block1 because ! "w appe>s too op5 & ! draughtsman is tempt$ to put 9 too mu*2 ?is mu/ be avoid$1 else ! cr[d$ l9es may jo9 toge!r 9 ! r$uc$ reproduction4 ,also x mu/ be rememb]$ n to draw too f9ely1 else ! "w 9 p>ts may disappe> entirely 9 ! reproduction4 ,9 draw+ on an enl>g$ scale a c]ta9 am\nt ( exagg]ation may be employ$1 9 ord] t :5 r$uc$ ! draw+ may n be q spiritless4 ,:5 repres5t+ a solid object1 su* z a plant or an animal1 to %ew ! ext]nal morphology1 x is to be borne 9 m9d t =m is ! ma9 ?+ to repres5t1 & ?is c be express$ by outl9e draw+ alone4 ,9 fact1 m or less primitive me?ods mu/ be employ$1 & bett] models _c be foll[$ ?an ! be/ wood cuts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,! ,less] ,cel&9e 7,ranunculus ,fic>ia74 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,hatton4 7,f ,hatton's ,craftsman's ,h&book74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,! ,less] ,cel&9e4 ,aft] ,fu*s4 7,f ,hatton's ,craftsman's ,h&book47 ,an exam9ation ( figures #aj & #ab w %ew t ,fu*s,a atta9$ 8 object by simple outl9e draw+s2 he nev] employ$ local col\r1 & %ad+ he us$ v sp>sely inde$1 & !n only to give expression to ! =m ( "s ?ick "p4 ,fu*s's cel&9e 7,fig4 #aj7 %\ld be comp>$ ) ! draw+ ( ! same plant 7,fig4 #i7 by ,r4 ,g4 ,hatton4 ,footnote ,a3 ,! me?ods foll[$ by ! illu/rators ( ! ,h]bals may be conv5i5tly /udi$ 9 ,hatton's ,! ,craftsman's ,plant ,book1 ,london1 #aiji1 & ,arb]'s ,h]bals1 ,cambridge1 #aiab4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,! ,apple 7,pyrus ,malus74 ,aft] ,mat?iolus4 7,f ,hatton's ,craftsman's ,h&book74 ,! me?ods ( ,mat?iolus 7,figs4 #aa & #ac7 7 some:at m advanc$1 = he us$ %ad+ n only to express =m b also to give a c]ta9 am\nt ( relief4 ,x w be notic$ t he %ad$ by l9es :i* foll[$ ! m\ld+ ( ! p>ts4 ,! "w ( ,riocreux 7,fig4 #h7 %\ld also be /udi$2 x w be obs]v$ t he manag$ to get a v high relief 9 8 draw+s by ! simple means ( /raight or curv$ l9es1 accord+ to ! %ape ( ! "p1 ( v>y+ ?icknesses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,*>lock 7,brassica ,s9apis74 ,aft] ,fu*s4 7,f ,hatton's ,craftsman's ,h&book7 ,!re is no necessity = keep+ all ! l9es ( ev5 ?ickness4 ,= in/ance1 provid$ ! "* ( ! =m is n alt]$1 ! outl9e on ! %ad$ side may be made ?ick] ?an on ! illum9at$ side2 also di/ance c be indicat$ by ! use ( ?9n] l9es1 = ^!1 al?\gh really black1 w give ! impression ( greyness4 ,!n aga91 a l9e may be drawn ) local increases & decreases 9 ?ickness1 z 9 ord9>y writ+1 & su* l9es drawn by a skill$ h& c be made to express a m>vell\s am\nt ( modell+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,sea ,lav5d] 7,/atice ,limonium74 ,aft] ,mat?iolus4 7,f ,hatton's ,craftsman's ,h&book47 ,! draughtsman1 h[ev]1 is n re/rict$ to l9es2 any m>ks :i* c be made ) a p5 & black ink may be employ$1 provid$ !y be suffici5tly firm & l>ge4 ,! accompany+ figure 7#ad7 :i* is a r$uction ( an illu/ration 9 ,*ur*'s ,floral ,me*anisms1 illu/rates ! use ( l9es ( v>y+ l5g?s = %ad+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,viola odorata3 ,floral morphology4 ,a r$uction ( a figure 9 ,*ur*'s ,floral ,me*anisms4 ,9 %ad+1 ! effect ( %ad[ may be obta9$ by increas+ ! ?ickness ( ! l9es1 b !y mu/ n be drawn too closely toge!r2 on ! o!r h&1 ! light] p>ts c be repres5t$ by ?9n] l9es plac$ fur!r & fur!r ap>t1 & ! lighte/ p>ts by ! :ite ( ! pap]4 ,cross hat*+ may also be employ$ 7see ,fig4 #ae71 b ! cross$ l9es mu/ n be too close toge!r1 = o!rwise !y w t5d to ?ick5 9 ! mak+ ( ! block & s w pr9t too black4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a ,se$l+ ( ,abronia villosa4 ,= v delicate %ad+ & t9t+1 /ipple may be employ$1 b ! dots mu/ be q def9ite1 suffici5tly l>ge to /& r$uction1 & n too close toge!r 7,figs4 #ah1 #bh;c1 & #cb74 ,a p>ticul>ly good example ( ?is me?od w be f\nd 9 ,butl]'s pap] on ,allomyces 9 ! ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiaa1 vol4 #be4 ,dots h also be5 employ$ 9 ,fig4 #bh;c 7p4 #fi74 ,) reg>d to local col\r2 ?is may be indicat$ by %ad+1 by a :ite space1 or by a black space4 ,hi!rto1 draw+ ) black ink on :ite pap] alone has be5 consid]$1 b ! rev]se is equally available2 mu* c be express$ by draw+ ) :ite ink on black pap]4 ,draw+ 9 :ite ^u a black gr\nd is n frequ5tly attempt$1 b an excell5t example by ,miss ,janet ,rob]tson is %ewn 9 figure #af1 :i* is well wor?y ( /udy1 s9ce x illu/rates to a nicety "s ( ! means at ! disposal ( ! draughtsman = l9e blocks4 ,! black surface is be/ obta9$ by ! use ( a wat]pro( ,indian ink appli$ ) a bru% to a :ite surface1 ! draw+ be+ made ) a d5se :ite ink1 us+ a p5 or a bru%4 ,! :ite ink may be made by dilut+ any good opaque :ite wat]-col\r pa9t1 or process :ite may be us$4 ,! composition ( ?is %\ld be z9c oxide or b>yta1 = ^! d n d>k5 ) age2 ! au?or once us$ = ?is purpose a :ite pigm5t :i* prov$ excell5t at ! "t2 ! draw+s1 h[ev]1 subsequ5tly turn$ d>k br[n ow+ to ! fact t ! basis ( ! pa9t 0 app>5tly a comp\nd ( silv]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,neuropt]is ,het]ophylla4 ,a l9e reproduction ( a draw+ by ,miss ,janet ,rob]tson4 ,! top "p ( ! draw+ 7,fig4 #af71 %ew+ ! g5]al morphology ( ! plant1 0 drawn ) a bru% *>g$ ) :ite ink ^u a black gr\nd4 ,9 ! simple/ possible way relief has be5 obta9$ by repres5t+ ! leaflets ( ! ne>] fronds by :ite spaces1 :il/ ^? fur!r away are repres5t$ by :ite outl9es4 ,an enl>gem5t ( a frond is %ewn on ! l[] "p ( ! picture1 & "h ! p>ts are repres5t$ 9 black on a :ite gr\nd4 ,! leaflets are 9 black outl9e & ! fruits are made to /& out1 z 9 ! upp] "p1 by ! use ( local col\r--9 ?is in/ance black--_! %ape be+ indicat$ by ! curve ( ! high] lights4 ,9 brief1 a v effective draw+ has be5 made by ! simple/ use ( ! :ite l9e1 ! :ite space1 ! black l9e & ! black space4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,fucus volubilis1 v>4 ,flexuosus1 a seawe$4 7,f a draw+ by ,miss ,bak]47 ,?is may be comp>$ ) figure #ag1 :i* 0 drawn by ,miss ,bak]2 ! me?od pursu$ is entirely diff]5t to ! la/1 x be+ a pure p5 & ink draw+ on :ite pap]4 ,no local col\r has be5 employ$1 & ! modell+ has be5 express$ by ! l9es us$ = %ad+ :i* h be5 made by %ort /rokes ) a f9e p54 ,! result is sugge/ive ( an engrav+ b ?is 0 n int5tional2 "u no circum/ances %\ld an attempt be made to imitate 9 a relief block effects :i* c only be obta9$ by intaglio4 ,f :at has be5 said x is obvi\s t ! photo-me*anical l9e block c be us$ = ! reproduction ( all k9ds ( draw+s 9 pure black & :ite2 to illu/rate ?is figures #ah-bf h be5 ins]t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,! ,l>kspur 7,delph9ium ajacis74 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,hatton4 7,hatton1 ,craftsman's ,h&book47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,hollyhock 7,al?aea rosea74 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,hatton4 7,hatton1 ,craftsman's ,h&book47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,a ,liv]wort 7,lepidozia reptans74 7,evans1 ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiab1 vol4 #bf47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,a ,se$l+ ( ,brugui]a gymnorhiza1 a mangrove4 ,drawn by ,mrs4 ,f4 ,e4 ,frits*4 7,tansley & ,frits*1 ,new ,phytologi/1 #aije1 vol4 #d47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb ,a diagrammatic sket* by ,mrs4 ,f4 ,e4 ,frits* ( ,rhizophora conjugata1 a mangrove4 7,tansley & ,frits*1 ,new ,phytologi/1 #aije1 vol4 #d47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc ,a %oot ( ,acan?us ilicifolia1 a mangrove4 ,drawn by ,mrs4 ,f4 ,e4 ,frits*4 7,tansley & ,frits*1 ,new ,phytologi/1 #aije1 vol4 #d47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd ,a longitud9al section ( a fossil se$1 ,cono/oma oblongum4 ,drawn by ,dr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,salisbury4 7,oliv] & ,salisbury1 ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiaa1 vol4 #be47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be ,! ,mead[sweet 7,spiraea ulm>ia71 %ew+ f\r ye>s' gr[?4 7,yapp1 ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiab1 vol4 #bf474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,! ,*esil ,bank4 7,oliv]1 ,new ,phytologi/1 #aiab1 vol4 #aa47 ,,! ,,draw+ ,,( ,,microscopic ,,details4 ,que/ions relat+ to ! draw+ ( microscope sections may n[ be dealt )4 ,usually ^! are drawn 9 p5cil & reproduc$ by means ( li?ography2 ?is is q wrong1 = 9 addition to its be+ an unnecess>y exp5se1 x is also an inconv5i5ce to a read]1 s9ce ! figures are necess>ily divorc$ f ! lett]press4 ,!re are v few hi/ological details :i* _c be repres5t$ by l9e blocks1 & ) a prop] co-op]ation betwe5 ! au?or1 ! block mak]1 ! pr9t] & ! publi%]1 ev5 ! delicacies ( k>yok9esis c\ld be reproduc$ 9 ! text4 ,= demon/ration purposes1 transv]se sections ( plant-/ructures may fir/ be tak54 ,! walls ( ! v>i\s elem5ts may be repres5t$ by l9es ( m or less equal bread?1 b 9 ^? cases :]e ! walls are p>ticul>ly ?ick1 e4g41 ! elem5ts ( ! wood1 ! ?ick5+ may be repres5t$ by an additional l9e4 ,?is is se5 9 ,fig4 #bg1 9 :i* x w be notic$ t ! middle lamellae ( ! wood-elem5ts are repres5t$ by black l9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 7,f ,butl]'s pap] on ,gummosis ( ,prunus & ,citrus4 ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiaa1 ,vol4 #be74 ,?is is a p>ticul>ly good draw+1 b1 un=tunately1 x has be5 ov] r$uc$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! v>i\s tissues may be repres5t$ by l9es ( v>y+ bread?s1 ! ?icke/ wall$ cells hav+ ! same d\ble cont\r z 9 ! above1 b ) ! addition ( local col\r 9 ! %ape ( diagonal %ad+4 ,?is is n uncommonly f\nd 9 pap]s deal+ ) ! anatomy ( plants by ,fr5* au?ors2 x is illu/rat$ 9 ,figure #bh a4 ,if pref]r$1 su* ?ick-wall$ elem5ts may be entirely repres5t$ by ?ick black l9es z 9 ,figure #bh;b1 & :5 su* cells are relatively few 9 numb]1 ?is me?od has mu* to recomm5d x s9ce a great] relief is obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh a b c ,a transv]se section to %ew ! vascul> cyl9d] ( ! root ( ! sp9a*1 c is some:at old] ?an a & b4 ,f9ally1 an attempt may be made to draw 9 a m detail$ fa%ion z 9 ,figure #bh;c4 ,"h ! ?ickness ( ! cells ( ! wood is repres5t$ by broad black l9es1 ! middle lamellae be+ left :ite4 ,! l9es m>k+ ! b\nd>ies ( ! o!r cells v>y slightly 9 ?ickness1 b ?is is to a great ext5t mask$ by ! repres5tation ( ! cell cont5ts1 :i* consi/ entirely ( dots 9 ! case ( ! protoplasm1 :il/ ! nuclei are repres5t$ by d>k ovals--black reliev$ ) small :ite areas4 ,by v>y+ ! size ( ! dots & _! di/ance ap>t1 v>y+ d5sities c be indicat$4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ above t x is possible to reproduce f9e detail by means ( ! l9e block2 ?is is illu/rat$ 9 ,figs4 #bi & #cj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi ,fig4 #bi1 :i* illu/rates a /age 9 ! division ( a nucleus1 0 drawn ) black crayon on a r\gh-gra9$ piece ( ,:atman's wat]-col\r pap]4 ,! cytologi/ w1 d\btless1 criticize its co>s5ess1 b x may be m5tion$ t ! r\ghe/ pap] at h& 0 design$ly employ$ 9 ord] to illu/rate ! po9t rais$4 ,t a f9] gra9$ pap] w give m delicate results is %ewn by ,fig4 #cj1 :i* is a reproduction ( a draw+1 k9dly l5t by ,dr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,ridewood1 made ) ord9>y lead p5cil on gra9$ ,bri/ol bo>d4 ,its delicacy is obvi\s1 & at fir/ sight x c\ld easily be mi/ak5 = a li?ograph4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,_m simil> examples w be f\nd 9 ,ridewood's memoir ,on ! ,cranial ,o/eology ( ! ,clupeoid ,fi%es1 ,proc4 ,zoo4 ,soc41 ,lond41 #aijd1 vol4 #aa1 p4 #ddh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj ,a half-tone c be put on to a l9e block dur+ its manufacture4 ,all t ! draughtsman has to d1 is to indicate by blue p5cil l9es ^? p>ts on :i* he requires ! dots1 :i* give ! half-tone1 to be plac$1 & to select ! patt]n ( ! /ipple he desires to be us$4 ,! result may appe> some:at me*anical s9ce ! dots are regul>ly arrang$1 b a draw+ sometimes may be consid]ably improv$ by ?is means if us$ ) judgm5t4 ,x is frequ5tly employ$ 9 repres5t+ drap]y1 & _m examples may be f\nd on ^? pages ( newspap]s devot$ to ladies' dress 7,fig4 #ca2 see also ,fig4 #cb74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,aft] a wat]-col\r design by ,miss ,w9ifr$ ,pe>se4 ,,! ,,draw+ ,,( ,,diagrams ,,& ,,app>atus4 ,mu* valuable in=mation may be convey$ by diagrams2 9 fact1 ^! c\ld be us$ m freely ?an !y are4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb ,! pr9ciples to be borne 9 m9d are ! same z = o!r ink draw+s4 ,!y %\ld always be drawn ^u an enl>g$ scale1 & ) z little detail z possible1 :i* g5]ally %\ld be indicat$ 9 ! mo/ conv5tional ways--dots1 black spaces1 l9es1 & s on 7,figures #cc & #cd74 ,! ma9 ?+ to be aim$ at is cle>ness1 s t x is (t5 necess>y to sacrifice true relative proportions 9 ord] to ga9 ?is end 7,fig4 #cd74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,a diagram by ,mr4 ,e4 ,lee4 7,annals ( ,botany1 #aiaa1 vol4 #be47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd ,a ,diagram f ! ,annals ( ,botany1 #aiab1 ,vol4 #bf4 ,9 c]ta9 cases x is possible to comb9e detail & diagram 9 "o draw+2 ?is is %ewn 9 ,fig4 #cb1 tak5 f ,dr4 ,ridewood's admirably illu/rat$ memoir on ! ,gills ( ,lamellibran*iata 7,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,london1 ,b4 vol4 #aie1 #aijc74 ,! %ad+ employ$ 0 ei!r done by ! draughtsman 7at * & 9 ! cells ) irregul>ly arrang$ dots71 or else 0 put on ! block dur+ its manufacture 7af74 ,if a l5s be us$1 ! diff]5ce w at once be obvi\s4 ,! f9i%$ draw+ %\ld be bold & neat1 & all lett]+ %\ld be v cle>4 ,if sev]al figures are includ$ 9 "o diagram !y may be sep>at$ "o f ! o!r by rul$ l9es1 & 9 no case %\ld "o ti] ( figures--tak+ ! frames z ! b\nd>ies--unev5ly ov]lap ano!r ti]1 o!rwise ! diagram1 to use an expressive phrase1 w look l a pig ) "o e>4 ,"u ! head+ ( diagrams mu/ be includ$ ! repres5tation ( app>atus4 ,!re are two ways ( draw+ app>atus2 ! objects may be drawn z a /udy 9 /ill life1 z1 = example1 9 _m ( ! figures illu/rat+ ,des*anel's ,natural ,philosophy 7,london1 #ahij7 or !y may be repres5t$ 9 a purely conv5tional fa%ion4 ,! latt] is ! bett] way1 & x is pref]able to draw = ! mo/ "p 9 section 9 ord] t all connections1 inlets1 outlets1 etc41 may be cle>ly %ewn4 ,a /udy ( a good example is inf9itely bett] ?an a writt5 description1 :]e=e ,figure #ce has be5 ins]t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce ,x w be obs]v$ t all glass vessels & tub+ are repres5t$ 9 section1 & 9 ! !rmomet]s1 ! f9e capill>y bores are repres5t$ by a s+le l9e 9 ea* case2 corks by diagonal %ad+2 wood by l9es 9 imitation ( its gra92 metal p>ts by v]tical %ad+ or dead black2 m or less /ill liquids by a s]ies ( l9es brok5 bel[ & cont9u\s at ! surface1 & gradually becom+ clos] & clos] toge!r t[>ds ! surface4 ,m]cury1 on ! o!r h&1 may be indicat$ by dead black reliev$ by a few :ite l9es to repres5t its reflect+ surface1 also its free surface may be drawn convex4 ,f9ally ?umb screws may be %ewn by a comb9ation ( black areas & v]tical %ad+4 ,^! conv5tionalities ne$ n all be foll[$2 = in/ance1 rubb] connexions may be indicat$ by broad black l9es & wood by diagonal %ad+4 ,! draw+ %\ld be v bold & ! diff]5t p>ts cle>ly & freely indicat$ by writ+ or pr9t+4 ,,! ,,draw+ ,,( ,,maps4 ,9 ! draw+ ( maps = reproduction by ! l9e block process1 if an exi/+ map s]ves ! purpose1 a trac+ may be made 9 ink on transluc5t l954 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! au?or has to make 8 own map1 ! problem becomes m difficult4 ,= ! obta9+ ( ! data = map mak+ in=mation mu/ be s\ght = else:]e1 s9ce we are only conc]n$ 9 ! prep>ation ( ! map = publication4 ,& z reg>ds ?is1 b few g5]al rules c be laid d[n s9ce ! "* ( maps is s div]se4 ,! am\nt ( detail 9 ! physical features repres5t$ dep5ds to a great ext5t ^u ! scale4 ,?us /reams ( a great] bread? ?an1 say1 #aj feet1 may 9 l>ge scale maps be repres5t$ by d\ble l9es1 :il/ no /ream less ?an #b feet 9 bread? w be %ewn 9 l[ scale maps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf a ,cont\r$4 b ,spot-levels4 c ,lay]$4 ,^! ?ree figures illu/rate 9 ?ree diff]5t ways ! v>y+ levels ( a piece ( gr\nd survey$ by ,pr(4 ,f4 ,w4 ,oliv] & ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley4 ,! indication ( hills is always a problem2 ! mo/ satisfactory way is by ! draw+ ( cont\rs 7,figure #cf;a71 & ?is :5ev] possible %\ld be foll[$1 s9ce x is sci5tifically ! mo/ correct me?od1 inasmu* z :5 prop]ly drawn ! =m ( ! hill is %ewn exactly2 fur!r1 cont\rs obscure ! detail to a mu* less ext5t ?an does %ad+1 & b little arti/ic tal5t is requir$ to draw !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 cont\r+ be impossible1 ! v>i\s heights above ! datum may be %ewn by spot levels 7,figure #cf;b7 or ! relative levels may be %ewn by lay]s2 t is to say1 by a sy/em ( %ad+ ea* k9d ( :i* indicates a c]ta9 level4 ,?us dots may be us$ = all p>ts n m ?an #ajj feet above sea level1 v]tical l9es = regions betwe5 #ajj & #bjj feet1 horizontal l9es = p>ts betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet1 & s on 7,figure #cf;c74 ,x is obvi\s t ?is me?od _c be pursu$ if vegetation also is to be %ewn4 ,! la/ *oice is to repres5t ! hill by %ad+ 9 mu* ! same way z _m ( u did :5 *ildr52 ! me?od ref]r$ to 0 kn[n z h]r+ bones or hairy cat]pill>s4 ,! sea or a broad expanse ( wat] may be indicat$ by f9e l9es :i* foll[ ! coa/-l9e & :i* may be plac$ at gradually increas+ di/ances ap>t4 ,if geological /rata are to be repres5t$1 ! accept$ symbols %\ld be us$2 if ! map is int5d$ to repres5t ! di/ribution ( soils1 conv5i5t signs may be employ$1 e4g41 l>ge dots = %+le or gravels1 small dots = s&1 black areas = clay1 & s on2 f9ally1 if ! di/ribution ( plants or ( animals is to be %ewn1 symbols aga9 may be employ$4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 mu/ be q simple & z f> z possible give an idea ( ! organism repres5t$4 ,?is1 9 ! case ( animals1 may be a difficulty1 b1 ) reg>d to plants1 simple signs are easily ins]t$ :i* give a v good idea ( ! plant x is int5d$ to repres5t4 ,_m ( ! signs us$ by ! ,ordnance ,survey are ready to h&1 & ^! c (t5 be us$ to designate plant associations4 ,! delimitation ( areas %\ld always be cle>ly %ewn1 & all names %\ld be v cle>ly pr9t$ inde$1 & if !y mu/ be plac$ on a d>k portion ( ! map1 !y %\ld h a good :ite bord] ar\nd !m4 ,! nor? %\ld always be indicat$4 ,?is may be done by draw+ 9 its prop] position a repres5tation ( a compass or m]ely an arr[ po9t+ to ! nor?4 ,unless o!rwise /at$1 ! arr[ is assum$ to po9t to ! magnetic nor?1 & if no nor? be actually %ewn x is tak5 = grant$ by an intellig5t read] t "o ( ! v]tical sides is a true nor? & s\? l9e1 ) ! nor? at ! top4 ,f9ally1 "u no circum/ances %\ld a scale be omitt$--x is ! fir/ ?+ a read] %\ld look =4 ,= a map to look well two ?+s are all-important1 neatness & cle>ness2 bo? ( ^! may ne>ly always be secur$ by draw+ on a l>ge scale1 be>+ 9 m9d :at has be5 said ab\t cr[d+ ! detail1 etc41 & c>efully consid]+ h[ mu* r$uction ! orig9al c /&4 ,?is la/ po9t is ( vital importance1 = an ov]-r$uc$ map is an abom9ation2 we h se5 really good maps absolutely ru9$ by ?is /upid error4 ,! inexp]i5c$ au?or %\ld /udy ! me?ods pursu$ by ,pr(4 ,yapp 9 ,figure #cg4 ,= comp>ison1 ! simpl] way adopt$ by ,mr4 ,wilson may be /udi$ 7,annals ( ,botany1 #aiaa1 ,vol4 #be74 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #cg4 ,a ,map ( ! ,f5l& by ,pr(4 ,yapp4 7,new ,phytologi/1 #aijh1 ,vol4 #g7 ,,graphs ,,or ,,curves4 ,simple ?\gh x be1 ! plott+ ( a curve = reproduction requires ?\ght & c>e4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! curve is drawn on squ>$ pap]1 & ! "q naturally arises--,to :at ext5t are ! squ>es to be repres5t$8 ,if x be desir$ to reproduce all ! l9es1 say ! pap] is rul$ 9 millimetres1 a half-tone may be employ$1 or all ^! l9es c be rul$ ov] 9 black ink :]e ! reproduction by l9e block is possible4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 seldom necess>y to repres5t all ! smalle/ squ>es2 x w g5]ally be f\nd t ! c5timetre squ>es are suffici5t4 ,if ! orig9al be plott$ on pap] :i* is rul$ 9 pale blue1 x c be reproduc$ by l9e block )\t re-draw+1 s9ce ! blue w photograph z :ite ) ! plates commonly us$2 all ! ess5tial l9es & curves mu/1 ( c\rse1 be 9 black4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! rul+s ( ! squ>$ pap] are 9 r$1 yell[1 or d>k blue1 a trac+ mu/ be made4 ,! horizontal & v]tical sides %\ld be rul$ ) a broad black l9e1 b ! int]nal int]sect+ l9es %\ld be mu* ?9n]4 ,! actual curve may be 9 a cont9u\s l9e if "o only be %ewn on ! graph2 if m are drawn1 !n ea* mu/ be diff]5t1 ! obvi\s v>iations be+ ! ?ick cont9u\s l9e ---- ! ?9 cont9u\s l9e ----1 da%es ei!r ?ick or ?9 ---- ---- ----1 dots 4 4 4 4 4 1 & f9ally comb9ations ( dots & da%es ---- 4 ---- 4 ---- 4 ,ow+ to ! difficulty :i* "s exp]i5ce 9 draw+ freeh& a cont9u\s l9e1 ! plot %\ld be made twice ! l9e> size ( ! int5d$ reproduction4 ,a good rule to foll[ 9 draw+ l9es is to keep ! eye fix$ on ! po9t :]e ! l9e is to end1 ! h& w !n guide ! p5 9 ! "r pa?1 especially aft] a little practice4 ,9 _m cases ! rul] may be us$1 n only = /raight b also = curv$ l9es1 = good curve rules may be pur*as$4 ,9 ord] t ! figure may look neat1 ! l9es %\ld be ( an ev5 ?ickness ?r\gh\t _! l5g?2 ?is is easily accompli%$ by means ( a rul+ p54 ,x has be5 /at$ above t ,bri/ol bo>d is ! be/ mat]ial to use = ! mak+ ( draw+s = l9e blocks2 o!r mat]ials may1 h[ev]1 be employ$1 al?\gh !y are n s nice to "w ^u4 ,= in/ance1 x may be necess>y to reproduce a map2 ?is1 z has already be5 m5tion$1 may be conv5i5tly done by p9n+ ov] ! map a %eet ( pale blue trac+ l951 & trac+ ! map on ?is ) ,indian ink4 ,! fact t ! l95 is blue does n matt]1 = x w photograph z if x 7 :ite4 ,!n aga91 _m subjects may be ( s complicat$ a nature z to be beyond ! skill ( ! au?or to draw4 ,9 su* a case a good plan is to take a photograph ( ! object & make a positive on smoo? bromide pap]1 :i* ne$ only be develop$ suffici5tly f> to give a pr9t :i* j %[s ! features4 ,! pr9t1 :5 dry1 c !n be work$ on ) fix$ ,indian ink4 ,! f9i%$ draw+1 :5 q dry1 may be imm]s$ 9 any solution :i* w dissolve out ! silv]2 a solution ( iod9e 9 potassium iodide answ]s suffici5tly well4 ,! pr9t w turn v d>k1 b x mu/ be all[$ to rema9 9 ! ba? until all ! silv] has dissolv$2 x is !n remov$1 r9s$ "u ! tap & plac$ 9 an ord9>y fix+ ba? ( hyposulphite ( soda4 ,all ! col\ration w be quickly remov$ s t ! ink draw+ w /& out well aga9/ ! :ite pap]4 ,all t x n[ requires is a ?or\gh wa%+ 9 wat]2 :5 dry x may be t\*$ up & !n plac$ "u pressure 9 ord] to make x q flat4,a ,footnote ,a3 ,! *ief disadvantage ( iod9e solution is its sl[ness ( action2 ! foll[+ me?ods are mu* quick]4 7a7 ,to a solution ( #d oz4 ( hyposulphite ( soda 9 "o p9t ( wat]1 add a #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( potassium f]ricyanide until ! mixture is lemon col\r$4 ,:5 ! silv] image has q disappe>$1 wa% ! pr9t ?or\ghly 9 wat]4 ,s9ce ! mixture does n keep1 ! f]ricyanide solution %\ld be add$ to ! hyposulphite solution imm$iately be=e use4 7b7 ,mix #abe ccs4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 alcoholic solution ( iod9e ) #ba ccs4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 aque\s solution ( potassium cyanide1 add to ! mixture #a litre ( wat]4 ,:5 ! image has disappe>$1 :i* w be 9 less ?an a m9ute1 wa% = five m9utes 9 wat] & dry4 ,?is me?od ( draw+ ov] photographic pr9ts w (t5 save a consid]able am\nt ( "t4 ,= in/ance1 x may be desir$ to reproduce a consecutive s]ies ( draw+s to illu/rate ! microscopic /ructure ( ! subject4 ,! ord9>y way ( do+ ?is is to make cam]a lucida draw+s ( ! sections1 :i* is a l5g?y & tiresome process2 a photograph ( ea* section w take mu* less "t & w give q z good results4 ,be=e s5d+ any l9e draw+s to press !y %\ld be c>efully exam9$2 p5cil m>ks may be rubb$ out1 l9es t\*$ up1 unnecess>y l9es remov$ by pa9t+ !m out ) :ite or black ink accord+ to ! backgr\nd1 &1 f9ally1 a frame rul$ ar\nd1 if necess>y4 ,! am\nt ( r$uction1 :i* %\ld be m>k$ cle>ly on ! m>g91 requires v c>eful consid]ation s9ce "u r$uction may cause ! reproduction to appe> too co>se :il/ ov]-r$uction may result 9 ! loss ( ! f9] detail & ! draw+ may1 moreov]1 appe> spiritless4 ,x mu/ also be rememb]$ t a r$uction (1 say1 #a_/b l9e> means t ! reproduction w be a qu>t] ! area ( ! orig9al4 ,! be/ way to indicate ! r$uction requir$ is to draw a v]tical or horizontal l9e1 p>allel to a side or ! base ( ! picture1 ( ! exact l5g?2 or1 ! l9e may be r\ghly drawn & its l5g? indicat$ by figures ?us ------------#b-a_/b--------- 4 ,! "q arises z to :5 l9e draw+s = reproduction by ! z9c block %\ld be employ$4 ,! answ] is1 ,:5ev] possible4 ,! advantages to a read] ( hav+ ! illu/rations 9 ! text has already be5 comm5t$ ^u4 ,x is ab\t ! only me?od commonly employ$ 9 :i* practically ev]y?+ dep5ds on ! draughtsman2 ! au?or ?us ex]cises ! greate/ control4 ,f9ally ! fact t x is v inexp5sive w appeal to editors & publi%]s4 ,z a matt] ( curiosity1 ! pres5t writ] pick$ out at r&om a rec5t volume ( a sci5tific j\rnal to exam9e ! illu/rations2 al?\gh !re 7 a numb] ( text figures1 an exam9ation ( ! plates--*iefly li?ographs & collotypes--%[$ t !re 7 a l>ge numb] ( figures :i* ought to h be5 9 ! text4 ,a m detail$ inspection ( ! plates 0 !re=e made1 ) ! result t ne>ly #bjj figures 7 f\nd :i* ) ! m9imum am\nt ( alt]ation--m]ely draw+ 9 ink in/ead ( p5cil 9 ! majority ( cases1 & leav+ out unnecess>y %ad+ 9 ! o!rs--c\ld h be5 reproduc$ by l9e blocks4 ,if ?is _h be5 done1 a sav+ ( ov] #bj p] c5t4 c\ld h be5 effect$ on ! plates4 ,"s ( ?is w\ld1 ( c\rse1 h be5 absorb$ 9 ! mak+ ( z9cos1 b n mu*1 s9ce l9e blocks ( excell5t quality c be obta9$ = #b-a_/b;d4 & #c;d4 p] squ>e in*4 ,! above relates only to ! mo/ obvi\s examples2 ! sav+ 9 plates w\ld h be5 enorm\s if ! au?ors _h drawn = ! l9e process4 ,,! ,,swell$ ,,gelat9e ,,process4 ,f ! =ego+ acc\nt ( ! l9e-block x may1 p]haps1 be ?\ght t a draw+ %ew+ ! f9e/ detail _c be reproduc$ 9 ! text by a relief block made by photo-*emical means4 ,?is is n ! case2 ! swell$ gelat9e process is su* t at its be/ ! v f9e/ "w c be s reproduc$4 ,! me?od is n ext5sively us$1 *iefly ow+ to ! rem>kable am\nt ( skill requir$ to produce ! be/ results & to ! facts t ! blocks take long] to make & are m exp5sive ?an ! ord9>y l9e block4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 %\ld n militate aga9/ its use1 = ! increas$ co/ is b v little1 & ! long] "t 9 mak+1 say two days1 %\ld n be ( any consequ5ce 9 a mon?ly or qu>t]ly p]iodical4 ,! great po9t 9 its fav\r is its great fidelity z comp>$ ) ! ord9>y photo-*emical relief blocks3 = in/ance1 a close cross-hat*+ reproduc$ by a l9e block w (t5 come out z a s]ies ( :ite dots ow+ to ! fact t at ! po9ts ( int]section ! black l9es t5d to ?ick52 h5ce1 on pr9t+1 ! :ite spaces1 in/ead ( be+ %>ply cut & diamond-%ap$1 are r\nd$4 ,?is w n occur 9 a good block made by ! swell$ gelat9e me?od4 ,fur!r1 ! process does n re/rict ! draughtsman to dead black ink2 ! draw+s may be made 9 p5cil1 crayon1 or 9 ord9>y writ+ ink3 x is ev5 claim$ t wa% draw+s & photographs c be reproduc$ satisfactorily by ?is me?od4 ,9 ! case ( p5cil draw+s1 ! be/ results w be giv5 :5 ! surface ( ! pap] us$ by ! draughtsman is slightly r\gh2 a p5cil draw+ on ,bri/ol bo>d1 = example1 w n be s well reproduc$ z "o on ord9>y smoo? draw+ pap]4 ,9 brief1 ! process is z foll[s3 a photographic negative ( ! draw+ is made1 & "u x is expos$ a bi*romate gelat9e plate4 ,?is plate is !n develop$ 9 wat]4 ,z already describ$1 ! gelat9e w swell up 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( light to :i* x 0 expos$4 ,! positive ?us obta9$ w be 9 relief1 ! high lights be+ at a high] level ?an ! %ad[s4 ,a wax m\ld ( ! gelat9e positive is !n tak51 cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( plumbago & electrically cov]$ ) copp]4 ,! ca/+ s obta9$ is built up ) metal & !n m\nt$ on wood 9 ! same way z a z9co or a half-tone4 ,! capabilities ( ! process may be judg$ by a /udy ( ,fig4 #ch1 :i* is an extremely fai?ful reproduction ( a li?ograph1 by ,s4 ,pr\t1 by ! swell$ gelat9e process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,a ,li?ograph by ,s4 ,pr\t reproduc$ by ! swell$ gelat9e process4 ,illu/ration ,,co/ ,,relative ,,co/ ,,( ,,blocks ,,& ,,plates ,! "q ( co/ is "o ( v great difficulty2 9 all probability no two firms w agree 9 _! quotations = diff]5t k9ds ( "w1 & ! reason = ?is lies 9 ! l>ge numb] ( factors involv$1 _m ( :i* are v difficult to compute exactly4 ,) respect to l9e engrav+s1 et*+1 mezzot9t1 wood cuts & wood engrav+s1 x is impossible to give any idea ( ! co/4 ,x dep5ds entirely on ! complexity ( ! subject & ! arti/ employ$4 ,z reg>ds li?ographic processes = reproduction 9 "o col\r ! co/ v>ies ) ! nature ( ! "w4 ,if an arti/ be commission$ to make an autoli?ograph1 ! fee w\ld be agre$ ^u be=eh&4 ,photoli?ography & collotype1 on ! o!r h&1 are processes :i* d n require ! h& ( an arti/1 & ^! me?ods ( reproduction are relatively inexp5sive4 ,! price quot$ by ! li?ograph] or collotyp] is = pr9t+ s _m copies1 h5ce ! relative co/ p] copy dep5ds ^u ! run & on ! quality ( ! pap] us$4 ,li?ography is *eap] ?an collotype2 b if sev]al illu/rations are s5t at ! same "t to be reproduc$ by collotype1 ! co/ = ea* w\ld be less ?an if s5t sep>ately4 ,9 *romoli?ography a sep>ate /one is necess>y = ea* col\r1 h5ce ! co/ dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( /ones us$1 & z sev]al may be necess>y to obta9 a fir/-rate reproduction1 x is obvi\s t ! process may prove v exp5sive4 ,turn+ to photome*anical processes1 ! prices v>y accord+ to ! grade ( "w requir$--! be/ possible1 good1 &1 la/ly1 *eap "w4 ,by be/ possible is meant ! be/ t c be made "u exi/+ conditions1 ! price be+ immat]ial2 9 good "w ! co/ w be a limit+ b n a prepond]at+ factor1 h5ce ! "w w be op5 to criticism2 f9ally1 9 *eap "w1 ! price is all important1 s t ! result is a block or a plate :i* w pr9t well b :i* mu/ n be criticiz$ z reg>ds its be+ a fai?ful reproduction ( ! orig9al4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 ! la/ two cases ! quality ( ! "w w dep5d ^u ! agre$ price1 :il/ 9 ! fir/ case ! co/ w dep5d on ! am\nt ( "t & skill requir$4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t a comp>ison ( co/ _c be made betwe5 ^! grades2 x is1 h[ev]1 possible to draw up a scale ( relative co/ ( ! processes "u consid]ation = "w ( ! same grade4 ,9 ! table giv5 bel[1 ,a repres5ts ! be/ possible "w1 ,b indicates good "w1 & ,c /&s = *eap "w4 ,s9ce ! l9e block is ! lea/ exp5sive x is tak5 z ! unit ( price2 t is to say1 if a l9e block co/s #c;d4 p] squ>e in* ! co/ ( half tone1 ?ree col\r half tone & photogravure w\ld be #g-a_/d;d41 #cs41 & #as4 #b-a_/b;d4 respectively4 ,a ,b ,c ,l9e #a #a #a ,half tone & swell$ gelat9e #b-a_/b #b-a_/d #b ,half tone ?ree col\r 7?ree plates requir$7 #i #ab #aj-a_/b ,photogravure #d-a_/b #d-c_/d #e ,x mu/ n be ?\ght t if ! area ( a block is #c squ>e in*es1 ! co/ w1 !re=e1 be #i;d4 ,!re is1 = obvi\s reasons1 a m9imum size at :i* ! block or plate is *>g$ al?\gh x may be small]4 ,^! m9ima v>y2 9 g5]al t]ms !y may be tak5 z #ab in*es = l9e1 half tone & swell$ gelat9e blocks1 & #bj in*es = half tone ?ree col\r blocks & photogravure plates4 ,! measurem5ts are ! areas ( ! et*$ surface1 ! actual plate or block may be l>g]1 b = ?is m>g9 no *>ge is made4 ,) reg>d to co/ ( pr9t+1 no?+ ne$ be said ab\t blocks :i* are set up ) ! type1 namely l9e1 swell$ gelat9e & co>se half tone blocks4 ,! price ( pr9t+ f9e half tones & ?ree col\r blocks dep5ds ^u ! quality ( ! pap] us$ & ! f95ess ( ! "w4 ,photogravure plates mu/ be h& pr9t$ 7photogravure pr9t+ on rot>y ma*9es is n consid]$ "h71 & skill is requir$2 = ord9>y pr9t+ on good plate pap] ! price w\ld be #ajs4 to #abs4 #f;d4 p] hundr$ copies1 :il/ = ,india pr9t+ ! co/ w\ld be ab\t #bes4 = ! same numb]4 ,,lit]ature ,b>nes3 ,illu/rat+ ,botanical ,pap]s1 ,botanical ,gazette1 ,vol4 #dc1 #aijg4 ,bock3 ,z9cography1 ,london1 #aiaj4 ,cumm+3 ,h&book ( ,li?ography1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,cundall3 ,a ,brief ,hi/ory ( ,wood-,engrav+ f its ,inv5tion1 ,london1 #ahie4 ,gamble3 ,l9e ,photo-engrav+1 ,london1 n4d4 ,ham]ton3 ,draw+ & ,engrav+1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,et*+ & ,et*]s1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,! ,graphic ,arts1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,p5nell3 ,li?ography & ,li?ograph]s1 ,london4 ,ri*mond3 ,gramm> ( ,li?ography1 ,london1 #aiji4 ,rob]tson3 ,! ,art ( ,et*+1 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,v]fass]3 ,! ,half-tone ,process1 ,london1 n4d4 ,wilk9son3 ,photo-me*anical ,processes1 ,london1 n4d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,note ,"s extrane\s ,head+s on o!rwise blank pages h be5 remov$4 ,ea* ,footnote has be5 ind5t$ & plac$ b5ea? ! p>agraph to :i* x ref]s4 ,! ,plates1 :i* 7 on un-numb]$ pages1 & "s ( ! ,figures1 h be5 mov$ to 7usually7 bel[ ! p>agraphs :i* fir/ ref] to !m4 page #ce3 'revelant' correct$ to 'relevant' 444 ,see also ! relevant works cit$ "u ,lit]ature page #ij3 ,! ,table ( ,co/+s does n appe> to make s5se1 b has be5 left z 9 ! orig9al4 ,hyph5ation is n consi/5t 9 ?is book4