,microsoft for their ,live ,search ,books site47 ,,the ,,hibbert ,,lectures1 #ahhd4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,growth ,,of ,,religion ,,as ,,illustrated ,,by ,,the ,,native ,,religions ,,of ,,mexico ,,and ,,peru4 ,,delivered ,,at ,,oxford ,,and ,,london1 ,,in ,,april ,,and ,,may1 #ahhd4 ,,by ,,albert ,,reville1 ,d4,d4 ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,religions ,,at ,,the ,,college ,,de ,,france4 ,,translated ,,by ,,philip ,h4 ,,wicksteed1 ,m4,a4 ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate1 #ad1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london2 ,,and #bj1 ,,south ,,frederick ,,street1 ,,edinburgh4 #ahhd4 ,all ,rights reserved4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,c4 ,,green ,,and ,,son1 #agh1 ,,strand4 ,,contents4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,introduction4--,,central ,,america ,,and ,,mexico4 ,,their ,,common ,,bases ,,of ,,civilization ,,and ,,religion4 ,,page ,importance of the history of ,religion #a ,the religions of ,mexico and ,peru1 and the special importance of studying them #g ,journey to another planet #h ,parallelism of religious history in the ,new ,world and in the ,old #i ,central ,america and ,mexico1 and the authorities as to their history and religion #ad ,area and general character of this civilization #ah ,the ,mayas #bj ,toltecs1 ,chichimecs and ,aztecs #bd ,the ,aztec empire #bi ,character of the religious conceptions common to ,central ,america and ,mexico #ce ,the serpent-god and the ,american cross #ch ,estimate of the character and significance of the parallelisms observed #ci ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,the ,,deities ,,and ,,myths ,,of ,,mexico4 ,,page ,the ,sun and ,moon #de ,the pyramidal ,mexican temples #dg ,the great temple of the city of ,mexico #dh ,the narrative of ,bernal ,diaz2 and the two great ,aztec deities1 ,uitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoca #ea ,mythical significance of ,uitzilopochtli #ed ,significance of ,tezcatlipoca #fj ,the serpent-god ,quetzalcoatl1 god of the east wind #fb ,netzalhuatcoyotl1 the philosopher-king of ,tezcuco #fi ,number of ,mexican deities #gj ,tlaloc1 god of rain #ga ,centeotl1 goddess of maize #gb ,xiuhtecutli1 god of fire #gd ,the ,mexican ,venus #ge ,other deities #gf ,the ,tepitoton #gg ,mictlan1 god of the dead #gh ,summary and reflections #gi ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sacrifices1 ,,sacerdotal ,,and ,,monastic ,,institutions1 ,,eschatology ,,and ,,cosmogony ,,of ,,mexico4 ,,page ,recapitulation #he ,original meaning of sacrifice #hf ,human sacrifices and cannibalism #hg ,importance attached to the suffering of the victims #ij ,tragic and cruel character of the ,mexican sacrifices #ia ,the victims of ,tezcatlipoca and ,centeotl #ic ,the children of ,tlaloc #if ,the roasted victims of the god of fire #ig ,mexican asceticism #ii ,mexican communion #aja ,religious ethics #ajb ,the priesthood #ajf ,convents1 monks and nuns of ancient ,mexico #aji ,mexican cosmogonies #aab ,the great jubilee #aaf ,the future life #aah ,conversion of the ,mexicans #aba ,the ,inquisition #abb ,conclusion #abc ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,peru4--,,its ,,civilization ,,and ,,constitution4--,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,the ,,incas3 ,,their ,,policy ,,and ,,history ,,page ,the ,peru of the ,incas #abg ,cortes and ,pizarro #aca ,the ,inca hierocracy #acb ,the ,quipos #acd ,authorities for the history and religion of ,peru #acf ,garcilasso el ,inca de la ,vega #acg ,peruvian civilization #aci ,huayna ,capac's taxation #adb ,social1 political and military organization of ,peru #adc ,education #aeb ,material well-being #aec ,the legend of the ,incas3 ,manco ,capac and ,mama ,ogllo #aef ,were the ,incas really the sole civilizers of ,peru8 #aei ,succession of the ,incas and character of their rule #afj ,free-thinking ,incas #afa ,huayna ,capac's departure from traditional maxims #aff ,,lecture ,v4 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,incas4--,,peruvian ,,mythology ,,priesthood4 ,,page ,recapitulation #aga ,atahualpa and ,pizarro #agb ,father ,valverde's discourse #agd ,atahualpa's imprisonment and death #agf ,inca pretenders #agi ,worship of the ,sun and ,moon #ahb ,viracocha1 god of fertilizing showers #ahd ,his consort1 ,mama ,cocha #ahf ,old ,peruvian hymn #ahg ,pachacamac1 god of internal fire #ahh ,the myth of ,pacari ,tambo #aia ,cuycha1 the rainbow #aid ,chasca1 the planet ,venus #aid ,worship of fire #aie ,worship of the thunder #aif ,worship of esculent plants #aig ,worship of animals #aih ,the ,huacas #aii ,peruvian priesthood #bjb ,the ,virgins of the ,sun #bjd ,punishment of faithless nuns #bjf ,independent parallelisms1 illustrated by the couvade #bjh ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,peruvian ,,cultus ,,and ,,festivals4--,,morals ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,life4--,,conclusions4 ,,page ,peruvian temples #bae ,sacrifices #bah ,columns of the ,sun #bbb ,hymns #bbc ,religious dances #bbd ,the four great festivals #bbe ,chasing the evil spirit #bbg ,occasional and minor festivals #bbi ,eclipses #bcj ,sorcerers and priests #bcj ,moral significance of the ,peruvian religion #bcb ,communion1 baptism and sacerdotal confession #bcc ,various ideas as to the future life #bce ,supay1 the god of the departed #bcg ,conversion of the ,peruvians #bci ,are the origins of the ,american civilizations to be sought in the ,old ,world8 #bda ,real significance and importance of analogies observed #bdc ,sacrifice #bde ,three stages of religious faith3 animistic nature-worship1 anthropomorphic polytheism and spiritual monotheism #bdf ,the genesis of the temple #bdi ,primitive independence and subsequent mutual interpenetration of religion and morals #bej ,human nature invincibly religious #beb ,the guiding principle #bed ,farewell #bee ,,addenda ,,et ,,corrigenda4 ,p4 #af1 note1 under ,acosta1 add1 ,edward ,grimstone's translation was edited1 with notes1 for the ,hakluyt ,society1 by ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 in #ahhj4 ,p4 #ag1 note1 lines #d and #e1 to ,english translation add in epitome4 lines #h and #i1 for ,ixtilxochitl read ,ixtlilxochitl4 line #g from below1 for note read notes4 ,p4 #cb1 line #aj from below1 for bases read basis4 ,p4 #cd1 line #a1 for lama read llama4 ,p4 #ce1 last line1 insert and after ,america4 ,p4 #gg1 note1 last line1 for caps4 read capp4 ,p4 #ib1 line #i from below1 omit to before which4 ,p4 #aac1 note1 last line1 for ,chichemeca read ,chichimeca4 ,p4 #abi1 line #c1 for ,east to ,west read ,west to ,east4 ,p4 #bbd1 note1 for ,rivero y ,tschudi1 l4c4 read ,rivero y ,tschudi3 ,antigueedades ,peruanas3 ,viena1 #ahea4 ,n4 ,b4 ,an ,english translation of this work by ,f4 ,l4 ,hawks appeared at ,new ,york in #ahec4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,,introduction4--,,central ,,america ,,and ,,mexico4 ,,common ,,bases ,,of ,,civilization ,,and ,,religion4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,my first duty is to acknowledge the signal honour which the ,hibbert ,trustees have done me in inviting me to follow such a series of eminent men as the previous occupiers of this ,chair1 and to address you1 in the free and earnest spirit of truth-loving and impartial research1 on those great questions of religious history which so justly pre-occupy the chosen spirits of ,european society4 ,our age is not1 as is sometimes said1 an age of positive science and of industrial discoveries alone1 but also1 and in a very high degree1 an age of criticism and of history4 ,it is to history1 indeed1 more than to anything else1 that it looks for the lights which are to guide it in resolving the grave difficulties presented by the problems of the hour1 in politics1 in organization1 and in social and religious life4 ,penetrated more deeply than the century that preceded it by the truth that the development of humanity is not arbitrary1 that the law of continuity is no less rigorously applicable to the successive evolutions of the human mind than to the animal and vegetable transformations of the physical world1 it perceives that the present can be no other than the expansion of germs contained in the past2 it attempts to pierce to the very essence of spiritual realities by investigating the methods and the laws of their historical development2 it strives1 here as elsewhere1 to separate the permanent from the transient1 the substance from the accident1 and is urged on in these laborious researches by no mere dilettante curiosity1 but rather by the hope of arriving at a more accurate knowledge of all that is true1 all that is truly precious1 all that can claim1 as the pure truth1 our deliberate adhesion and our love4 ,and in the domain of ,religion1 more especially1 we can never lose our confidence that1 if historical research may sometimes compel us to sacrifice illusions1 or even beliefs that have been dear to us1 it gives us in return the right to walk in the paths of the ,eternal with a firmer step1 and reveals with growing clearness the marvellous aspiration of humanity towards a supreme reality1 mysterious1 nay incomprehensible1 and yet in essential affinity with itself1 with its ideal1 with its all that is purest and sublimest4 ,the history of religion is not only one of the branches of human knowledge1 but a prophecy as well4 ,after having shown us whence we come and the path we have trodden1 it shadows forth the way we have yet to go1 or at the very least it effects the orientation by which we may know in which direction it lies4 ,gentlemen1 in these ,lectures ,i shall be loyal to the principles of impartial scholarship to which ,i understand this ,chair to be consecrated4 ,expect neither theological controversy nor dogmatic discussion of any kind from me4 ,it is as a historian that ,i am here1 and as a historian ,i shall speak4 ,only let me say at once1 that1 while retaining my own very marked preferences1 ,i place religion itself1 as a faculty1 an attribute1 a tendency natural to the human mind1 above all the forms1 even the most exalted1 which it has assumed in time and space4 ,i can conceive a ,templum ,serenum where shall meet in that love of truth1 which at bottom is but one of the forms of love of ,god1 all men of upright heart and pure will4 ,to me1 religion is a natural property and tendency1 and consequently an innate need of the human spirit4 ,that spirit1 accidentally and in individual cases1 may indeed be deprived of it2 but if so1 it is incomplete1 mutilated1 crippled4 ,but observe that the recognition of religion itself 7in distinction from the varied forms it may assume71 as a natural tendency and essential need of the human mind1 implies the reality of its object1 even if that sacred object should withdraw itself from our understanding behind an impenetrable veil1 even could we say nothing concerning it save this one word3 ,,it ,,is6 ,for it would be irrational to the last degree to lay down the existence of such a need and such a tendency1 and yet believe that the need corresponds to nothing1 that the tendency has no goal4 ,religious history1 by bringing clearly into light the universality1 the persistency and the prodigious intensity of religion in human life1 is therefore1 to my mind1 one unbroken attestation to ,god4 ,and now it remains for me to express my lively regret that ,i am unable to address you in your own tongue4 ,i often read your authors3 ,i profit much by them4 ,but ,i have emphatically not received the gift of tongues4 ,by such an audience as ,i am now addressing1 ,i am sure to be understood if ,i speak my mother-tongue2 but were ,i to venture on mutilating yours1 ,i should instantly become completely unintelligible6 ,let me throw myself1 then1 upon your kind indulgence4 ,i4 ,i am about to speak to you on a subject little known in general1 though it has already been studied very closely by specialists of great merit--,i mean the religions professed in ,mexico and ,peru when1 in the sixteenth century1 a handful of ,spanish adventurers achieved that conquest1 almost like a fairy tale1 which still remains one of the most extraordinary chapters of history4 ,but ,i shall perhaps do well at the outset briefly to explain the very special importance of these now vanished religions4 ,the intrinsic interest of all the strange1 original1 dramatic and even grotesque features that they present to the historian1 is in itself sufficiently great2 for they possessed beliefs1 institutions1 and a developed mythology1 which would bear comparison with anything known to antiquity in the ,old ,world4 ,but we have another very special and weighty reason for interesting ourselves in these religions of a demi-civilization1 brusquely arrested in its development by the ,european invasion4 ,to render this motive as clear as possible1 allow me a supposition4 ,suppose1 then1 that by a miracle of human genius we had found means of transporting ourselves to one of the neighbouring planets1 ,mars or ,venus for example1 and had found it to be inhabited1 like our earth1 by intelligent beings4 ,as soon as we had satisfied the first curiosity excited by those physical and visible novelties which the planetary differences themselves could not fail to produce1 we should turn with re-awakened interest to ask a host of such questions as the following3 ,do these intelligent inhabitants of ,mars or ,venus reason and feel as we do8 ,have they history8 ,have they religion8 ,have they politics1 arts1 morals8 ,and if it should happen that after due examination we found ourselves able to answer all these questions affirmatively1 can you not imagine what interest there would be in comparing the history1 politics1 arts1 morals and religion of these beings with our own8 ,and if we found that the same fundamental principles1 the same laws of evolution and transformation1 the same internal logic1 had asserted itself in ,mars1 in ,venus and on the ,earth1 is it not clear that the fact would constitute a grand confirmation of our theories as to the fundamental identity of spiritual being1 the conditions of its individual and collective genesis--in a word1 the universal character of the laws of mind8 ,and now consider this4 ,for the ,europeans of the early sixteenth century1 ,america1 especially continental ,america1 was absolutely equivalent to another planet upon which1 thanks to the presaging genius of ,christopher ,columbus1 the men of the ,old ,world had at last set foot4 ,at first they only found certain islands inhabited by men of another type and another colour than their own1 still close upon the savage state4 ,but before long they had reason to suspect that immense regions stretched to the west of the archipelago of the ,antilles2 they ventured ashore1 and returned with a vague notion that there existed in the interior of the unknown continent mighty empires1 whose wealth and military organization severed them widely indeed from the poor tribes of ,st4 ,domingo or ,cuba1 whom they had already discovered and had so cruelly oppressed4 ,it was then that a bold captain conceived the apparently insane project of setting out with a few hundred men to conquer what passed for the richest and most powerful of these empires4 ,his success demanded not only all his courage1 but all his cold cruelty and absolute unscrupulousness1 together with those favours which fortune sometimes reserves for audacity4 ,at any rate he succeeded1 and the rumours that had inflamed his imagination turned out to be true4 ,on his way he came upon great cities1 upon admirably cultivated lands1 upon a complete social and military organization4 ,he saw an unknown religion display itself before his eyes4 ,there were temples1 sacrifices1 magnificent ceremonies4 ,there were priests1 there were convents1 there were monks and nuns4 ,to his profound amazement1 he noticed the cross carved upon a great number of religious edifices1 and saw a goddess who bore her infant in her arms4 ,the natives had rites which closely recalled the ,christian baptism and the ,christian communion4 ,as for our captain1 neither he nor his contemporaries could see anything in all this parade of a religion1 now so closely approaching1 now so utterly remote1 from their own1 but a gigantic ruse of the devil1 who had led these unhappy natives astray in order to secure their worship4 ,but for us1 who know that the devil cannot help us to the genesis of ancient mythologies and ancient religions--who know likewise that the social and religious development of ,central ,america was in the strictest sense native and original1 and that all attempts to bring it into connection with a supposed earlier intercourse with ,asia or ,europe have failed--the question presents itself under a very different aspect4 ,in our ,old ,world1 the natural religious development of man has produced myths and mythologies1 sacrificial rites and priesthoods1 temples1 ascetics1 gods and goddesses2 and on the basis of the ,old ,world's experience we might already feel entitled to say1 ,such are the steps and stages of religious evolution2 such were the processes of the human spirit before the appearance of the higher religions which are in some sort grafted upon their elder sisters1 and have in their turn absorbed or spiritualized them4 ,but there would still be room to ask whether all this development had been natural and spontaneous1 whether successive imitations linking one contiguous people to another had not transformed some local and isolated phenomenon into an apparently general and international fact--much as took place with the use of tea or cotton--without our being compelled to recognize any necessary law of human development in it4 ,but what answer is possible to the argument furnished by the discovery of the new planet--,i mean to say of ,america8 ,how can we resist this evidence that the whole organism of mythologies1 gods1 goddesses1 sacrifices1 temples and priesthoods1 while varying enormously from race to race and from nation to nation1 yet1 wherever human beings are found1 develops itself under the same laws1 the same principles and the same methods of deduction2 that1 in a word1 given human nature anywhere1 its religious development is reared on the same identical bases and passes through the same phases8 ,mr4 ,max ,mueller1 one of my most honoured masters1 and one of those who have best deserved the gratitude of the learned world1 has declared1 with equal justice and penetration1 in his ,preface to ,mr4 ,wyatt ,gill's ,myths and ,songs1 that the possibility of studying the ,polynesian mythology is to the historian what an opportunity of spending a time in the midst of the plesiosauri and the megatherions would be to the zoologist1 or of walking in the shade of the vast arborescent ferns that lie buried under our present soil to the botanist4 ,polynesian mythology has in fact preserved1 down to our own day1 the pre-historic ages4 ,and1 similarly1 the religions of ,mexico and ,peru 7for the empire of the ,incas held the same surprises and the same lessons in store for its explorers as that of ,montezuma had done7 has enabled history to carry to the point of demonstration its fundamental thesis of the natural development1 in subjection to fixed laws1 of the religious tendency in man4 ,all those curious resemblances1 amidst the differences which we shall also bring out1 between the religious history of the ,new ,world and that of the ,old1 are not at bottom any more extraordinary than the fact that1 in spite of the differences of physical type which separated the natives from their conquerors1 they none the less saw with eyes1 walked on feet1 ate with a mouth and digested with a stomach4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall begin our study with ,mexico4 ,but a few preliminary ethnographical remarks are indispensable4 ,i spare you the catalogue of the numerous sources and documents from which a detailed knowledge of the ,mexican religion may be drawn4#a ,such a list is in place in a book rather than in a lecture4 ,i will only direct your attention to the noble collection made in #ahcj by one of your own compatriots1 ,lord ,kingsborough1 under the title of ,antiquities of ,mexico1 a work of extreme importance1 which reproduces1 in facsimile or engravings1 the monuments and ruins of ancient ,mexico2#b and the very remarkable work of ,mr4 ,h4 ,h4 ,bancroft1 ,native ,races of the ,pacific ,states of ,north ,america4#c ,,ii4 ,the region with which we are now to occupy ourselves comprises the space bounded on the ,south by the ,isthmus of ,panama1 washed ,east and ,west by the oceans1 and determined1 roughly speaking1 towards the ,north by a line starting from the head of the ,gulf of ,california1 and sweeping round to the mouths of the ,mississippi with a curve that takes in ,arizona and ,southern ,texas4 ,in our day1 this southern portion of ,north ,america is broken into two great divisions1 the first and most southern of which is known collectively as ,central ,america1 and embraces the republics of ,guatemala1 ,honduras1 ,nicaragua1 ,costa ,rica1 ,san ,salvador and ,panama4 ,the great peninsula of ,yucatan1 which is now ,mexican1 formerly belonged to this group of ,central ,american peoples4 ,the second portion of the territory we are to study corresponds to the present republic of ,mexico4 ,i shall presently explain the sense in which it might be called the ,mexican empire in the time of ,fernando ,cortes4 ,for the present1 let me ask you to remember that we are now about to speak1 in a general and preliminary manner1 of the region which pretty closely corresponds to the present ,central ,america and ,mexico4 ,to begin with1 we treat these two districts as a single whole1 because the ,europeans found them inhabited by a race which was divided1 it is true1 into several varieties1 but was distinguished clearly from the ,red-skins on the ,north1 and still more from the ,eskimos1 and alone of the native races of ,north ,america had proved itself capable of rising by its own strength to a veritable civilization4 ,the general physical type of the race is marked by a very brown skin1 a medium stature1 low brow1 black coarse hair1 prominent jaw1 heavy lips1 thick eyebrows1 and a nose generally large and often hooked4 ,the noble families as a rule had a clearer complexion4 ,the women are thick-set and squab1 but not without grace in their movements4 ,in their youth they are sometimes very pretty1 but they fade early4 ,we must leave it to ethnological specialists to decide whether this type is not the result of previous crossings4 ,so much is certain1 that at an epoch the date of which it is impossible to fix1 but which must have been remote1 this race1 cut off from all the world by the sea and the profoundest savagery1 developed a civilization sui generis1 to which the traditional reminiscences of the natives and a series of most remarkable ruins1 discovered especially in ,central ,america1 bear witness4 ,for it is in this southern district that we find the monumental ruins of ,palenque1 of ,chiapa1 of ,uxmal1 of ,utatlan1 and of other places1 the list of which has again begun to receive additions in recent years4 ,when the ,spaniards conquered the ,new ,world1 the centre of this civilization had shifted further north1 to ,mexico proper1 to the city of ,mexico1 to ,tezcuco and to ,cholula4 ,but the consciousness that the ,mexican civilization was affiliated to that of the isthmic region had by no means been lost4 ,it was a nation or race called ,maya1 the name of which seems to indicate that it considered itself indigenous1 and the proper centre of which lay in ,yucatan1 that produced this ,american civilization--capable of organizing states and priesthoods1 of rearing immense palaces1 of carving stone in great perfection and with a true artistic sense1 and of realizing a high degree of physical well-being4 ,there is reason to believe1 however1 that this civilization1 resembling in some respects that of ancient ,canaan1 had more refinement in its pursuit of material comfort than vigour in its morality4 ,a certain effeminacy1 and even the endemic practice of odious vices1 appears to have early enervated it4 ,when the ,spaniards arrived in ,america1 wars and devastating invasions had shattered the old and powerful monarchies of the central region and reduced the great monuments of antiquity to ruins1 and that too so long ago that the natives themselves1 while retaining a certain civilization1 had lost all memory of the ancient cities and the ancient palaces that the ,europeans rescued from oblivion4 ,we may still see figured amongst the monuments of ,mexico those beautiful ruins of ,palenque1 where stretches a superb gallery1 vaulted with the broad ogives that recal the ,moorish architecture of the ,alhambra2 while at ,tehuantepec an immense temple has been discovered1 hollowed out of a huge rock1 like certain temples in ,india4 ,the cultivation of maize was to this region what that of wheat was to ,egypt and ,mesopotamia1 or of rice to ,india and ,china1 the material condition1 namely1 of a precocious civilization4 ,for1 as has been remarked1 the primitive civilizations could not be developed except where an abundant cereal raised man above immediate anxiety for his subsistence1 and rescued him from the all-engrossing fatigues and the dangerous uncertainties of the hunter's life4 ,this ,maya race1 having adopted the agricultural and sedentary life1 multiplied so greatly as to send out many swarms of colonists towards the ,north1 where the ,nahuas1 that is to say1 the skilled ones or experts 7for so the emigrants from the ,maya land were called71 found men of the same race as themselves1 to whom they imparted their superior knowledge4 ,they kept on pushing northwards1 established themselves on the great plateau of ,anahuac1 or lake country1 where the city of ,mexico is situated1 and advanced up to the somewhat indefinite limit opposed to their progress by the ,red-skins4 ,this migratory movement towards the ,north was evidently not the affair of a day4 ,it must have continued for centuries2 and during its process the ,maya civilization may have experienced great developments and undergone numerous modifications2 so that1 without venturing to pronounce categorically upon a problem yet unsolved1 ,i should myself be inclined to ascribe to a population1 which either consisted of bands of emigrant ,mayas or was affected by this ,nahua movement1 those ,mounds which still throw their galling defiance at the modern methods of research1 powerless to explain their origin in regions which have since been under the reign of the most absolute savagery4 ,however this may be1 the movement by which in a remote antiquity the peoples of ,central ,america ascended towards the ,north1 carrying with them their relative civilization to ,mexico and even beyond1 was reversed at the epoch of our ,middle ,ages by a migration in the opposite direction4 ,in this case it was the peoples of the northern regions that tended to beat back upon the ,south4 ,they invaded1 conquered and brought into subjection the peoples who had established themselves along the path followed by the previous migrations2 and it is probably to invasions of this description that we must ascribe the fall of the ancient ,maya society of the isthmic region4 ,but the civilization of which it had sown the germs was not dead4 ,nay1 the peoples who descended upon the ,south had in great measure themselves adopted it2 and in the invaded districts there remained groups and nuclei of ,nahua populations who maintained its principles1 its arts and its spirit1 to which their conquerors readily conformed4 ,the last conquerors had been established as masters in the ,mexican district for more than a century when the ,spaniards arrived there4 ,they were the ,aztecs4 ,they had conquered or shattered what was called the ,chichimec empire1 which in its turn had destroyed1 some centuries earlier1 the ,toltec empire4 ,but it would be a mistake to think of three successive empires1 ,toltec1 ,chichimec and ,aztec1 one supplanting the other in the same way as the ,frankish empire1 for example1 took the place of that of ,rome1 which in its turn had replaced divers others more ancient yet4 ,what really took place was what follows4 ,the prolonged migrations of the ,nahuas towards the ,north had not spread civilization uniformly amongst all the tribes encountered on the route4 ,thus1 down to the sixteenth century1 there still existed in the heart of ,mexico tribes very little removed from the savage state1 such as the ,otomis or wanderers2 whereas1 in other districts1 the ,nahuas had established themselves on a footing of acknowledged supremacy and developed a brilliant civilization4 ,thus they founded at the extreme north of the present ,mexico the ancient city of ,tulan or ,tullan1 the name of which passed into that of its inhabitants1 the ,toltecs1 and this latter1 in its turn1 became the designation of everything graceful1 elegant1 artistically refined and beautiful4 ,ethnographically1 it simply indicates the most brilliant foci of the civilization imported from ,central ,america4 ,in fact1 there never was a ,toltec empire at all1 but simply a confederation of the three cities of ,tullan1 ,colhuacan and ,otompan1 all of which may be regarded as ,toltec in the social sense which ,i have just described4 ,many other small states existed outside this confederation4 ,it was destroyed by the revolt or invasion of more northern tribes1 hitherto held in vassalage and looked down upon as belonging to a lower level of culture and manners4 ,these tribes received or assumed the name of ,chichimecs or dogs1 which may have been a term of contempt converted into a title of honour1 like that of the ,gueux of the ,low ,countries4 ,thus arose a ,chichimec confederation1 of which ,colhuacan 7the name given for a time to ,tezcuco71 ,azcapulzalco1 the capital of the ,tepanecs1 and ,tlacopan1 were the principal cities4 ,at ,tezcuco the ,toltec element was still powerful4 ,cholula1 a sacred city1 remained essentially ,toltec1 and in general the ,chichimecs readily adopted the superior civilization of the ,toltecs4 ,this was so much the case that ,tezcuco became the seat of an intellectual and artistic development1 in virtue of which the ,europeans called it the ,athens of ,mexico4 ,it was from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries1 according to the historians1 that what may be called the ,chichimec era lasted4 ,at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 the ,aztecs--that is to say the white flamingos or herons 7from aztatl71 the last comers from the ,north1 who had long been a poor and wretched tribe1 and on reaching ,anahuac had been obliged to accept the suzerainty of ,tezcuco--began to assume great importance4 ,they had founded1 under the name of ,tenochtitlan1 upon an island that is now united to the mainland1 the city which was afterwards called ,mexico4 ,but originally the name of ,mexico belonged to the quarter of the city which was dedicated to the god of war1 ,mextli4 ,at once warlike and commercial1 the ,aztecs grew in numbers1 wealth and military power2 they saved ,tezcuco from the dominion of the ,tepanecs1 who tried to bring the whole ,chichimec confederation into subjection2 presently they threw off all vassalage1 and in the fifteenth century they stood at the head of the new confederation which took the place of that of the ,chichimecs1 and of which ,mexico1 ,tezcuco and ,tlacopan 7or ,tacuba71 were the three capitals4 ,there was no ,mexican empire1 then1 at the moment when ,fernando ,cortes disembarked near ,vera ,cruz1 but there was a federation4 ,on certain days of religious festivity a solemn public dance was celebrated in ,mexico1 in which the sovereign families of the three states1 together with their subjects of the highest rank1 took part4 ,it began at noon before the palace of the ,mexican king4 ,they stood three and three4 ,the king of ,mexico led the dance1 holding with his right hand the king of ,tezcuco1 and with his left the king of ,tlacopan1 and the three confederate sovereigns or emperors thus symbolized for several hours the union of their three states by the harmonious cadence of their movements4#d ,,iii4 ,the widely-spread error that makes ,montezuma1 the ,mexican sovereign that received ,fernando ,cortes1 the absolute master of the whole district of the present ,mexico1 is explained by the fact1 that of the three confederate states that of the ,aztecs was by far the strongest1 most warlike and most dreaded4 ,it was constantly extending its dominion by means of a numerous1 disciplined and admirably organized army1 and little by little the other two states were constantly approaching the condition of vassalage4 ,the ,aztecs were no more recalcitrant to civilization than the ,chichimecs1 but they were ruder1 more matter-of-fact and more cruel4 ,they did no sacrifices to the ,toltec graces1 but developed their civilization exclusively on its utilitarian and practical side4 ,they were no artists1 but essentially warriors and merchants4 ,and even their merchants were often at the same time spies whom the kings of ,mexico sent into the countries they coveted1 to study their resources1 their strength and their weakness4 ,their yoke was hard4 ,they raised heavy tributes4 ,their policy was one of extreme centralization1 and1 without destroying the religion of the peoples conquered by their arms1 they imposed upon them the worship and the supremacy of their own national deities4 ,their warlike expeditions bore a pronounced religious character4 ,the priests marched at the head of the soldiers1 and bore ,aztec idols on their backs4 ,on the eve of a battle they kindled fresh fire by the friction of wood2 and it was they who gave the signal of attack4 ,these wars had pillage and conquest as their object1 but also and very specially the capture of victims to sacrifice to the ,aztec gods4 ,for the ,aztecs pushed the superstitious practice of human sacrifice to absolute frenzy4 ,it was to these horrible sacrifices that they attributed their successes in war and the prosperity of their empire4 ,if they experienced a check or had suffered any disaster1 they redoubled their blood-stained offerings4 ,but note this trait1 so essentially pagan and in such perfect accord with the polytheistic ideas of the ancient world--they sacrificed to the gods of the conquered country too1 to show them that it was not against them they were contending1 and that the new regime would not rob them of the homage to which they were accustomed4 ,the ,aztec deities were not jealous4 ,they confined themselves to vindicating their own pre-eminence4 ,after each fresh conquest1 the ,aztecs raised a temple at ,mexico bearing the name of the conquered country1 and thither they transported natives of the place to carry on the worship after their own customs4 ,it seems that they did not consider even this precaution enough2 for they constructed a special edifice near the great temple of ,mexico1 where the supreme deities of the ,aztec people were enthroned1 and there they shut up the idols of the conquered countries4 ,this was to prevent their escape1 should the desire come over them to return to their own peoples and help them to revolt4#e ,all this will explain how it was that ,fernando ,cortes found numerous allies against ,montezuma's despotism amongst the native peoples4 ,for it is an error1 generally received indeed1 but contradicted by history1 that the ,spanish captain decided the fate of so redoubtable an empire1 and of a city so vigorously defended as ,mexico1 with the sole aid of his thousand ,europeans4 ,for the rest1 we are forced to acknowledge that the ,aztecs had developed their civilization1 in its political and material aspects1 in a way that does the greatest credit to their sagacity4 ,property was organized on the individual and hereditary basis for the noble families1 and on the collective basis for the people1 divided into communities4 ,the taxes were raised in kind1 according to fixed rules4 ,numbers of slaves were charged with the most laborious kinds of work4 ,the merchants1 assembled in the cities1 formed a veritable tiers-etat which exercised a growing political influence4 ,there were markets1 the abundance and wealth of which stupefied the ,spaniards4 ,the luxury of the court and of the great families was dazzling4 ,no one dared to address the sovereign save with lowered voice1 and--strange custom in our eyes6--no one appeared before him save with naked feet and clad in sordid garments1 in sign of humility4 ,mexico had been joined to the mainland by causeways1 along which an aqueduct conveyed the pure waters of distant springs to the city4 ,the irrigation works in the country were numerous and in good repair4 ,the streets were cleansed by day and lighted at night1 advantages in which none of the ,european capitals rejoiced in the sixteenth century4 ,and finally1 for we cannot dwell indefinitely upon this subject1 let us note the excellent roads that stretched from ,mexico to the limits of the ,aztec empire and the confederated states4 ,along these roads the sovereigns of ,mexico had established1 at intervals of two leagues1 courier posts for the transmission of important news to them4 ,montezuma heard of the disembarkment of ,fernando ,cortes three days after it took place4 ,and now imagine that this people was always averse to navigation--was ignorant of use of iron1 knowing only of gold1 silver and copper--had no beast of traction or burden1 neither horse1 nor ass1 nor camel1 nor elephant1 nor even the llama of ,peru--was without writing 7for though we find a kind of hieroglyph on the monuments of ,mexico and ,central ,america1 yet the system was not of the smallest avail for ordinary life7--and1 finally1 had no money except an inconsiderable number of silver crosses and cacao berries1 the mass of exchanges being effected by barter6 ,on the other hand1 they worked in stone with admirable skill4 ,in their knives and lance and arrow heads1 made of obsidian1 they achieved remarkable perfection1 and they excelled in the art of supplying the place of writing by pictures1 painted on a kind of aloe paper or on cotton stuffs1 representing the persons or things as to which they desired to convey information4 ,such1 then1 is the singular people that ,spain was destined to conquer in the sixteenth century1 and whose civilization1 though modified by the special ,aztec spirit1 rested after all upon the same bases that had sustained the more ancient civilization of ,central ,america4 ,and this is equally true of the religion1 which1 with all the varieties impressed upon it by the special genius or inclinations of the diverse peoples1 reveals itself as resting upon one common basis1 from the ,isthmus of ,panama to the ,gulf of ,california and the mouths of the ,rio del ,norte4 ,,iv4 ,one of the fundamental traits of this regional religion1 then1 is the pre-eminence of the ,sun1 regarded as a personal and animated being1 over all other divinities4 ,at ,guatemala1 amongst the ,lacandones1 he was adored directly1 without any images4 ,amongst their neighbours the ,itzas1 not far from ,vera ,paz1 he was represented as a round human head encircled by diverging rays and with a great open mouth4 ,this symbol1 indeed1 was very widely spread in all that region4 ,often the ,sun is represented putting out his tongue1 which means that he lives and speaks4 ,for in the ,american hieroglyphics1 a protruded tongue1 or a tongue placed by the side of any object1 is the emblem of life4 ,a mountain with a tongue represents a volcano4 ,the ,sun was generally associated with the ,moon as spouse1 and they were called ,grandfather and ,grandmother4 ,in ,central ,america1 and in the territory of ,mexico1 may be observed a number of stone columns which are likewise statues2 but the head is generally in the middle1 and is so overlaid with ornaments or attributes1 that it is not very easy to discover it4 ,these are ,sun-columns4 ,as he traced the shadow of these monoliths upon the soil day after day1 the ,sun appeared to be caressing them1 loving them1 taking them as his fellow-workers in measuring the time4 ,these same columns were also symbols of fructifying power4 ,often the ,sun has a child1 who is no other than a doublet of himself1 but conceived in human form as the civilizer1 legislator and conqueror1 bearing diverse names according to the peoples whose hero-god and first king he is represented as being4 ,and for that matter1 if we had but the time1 we might long dwell on the myths of ,yucatan1 of ,guatemala 7amongst the ,quiches71 of ,honduras1 and of ,nicaragua4 ,by the side of the ,sun and ,moon1 grandfather and grandmother1 there were a number of great and small deities 7some of them extremely vicious71 and amongst others a god of rain1 who was called ,tohil by the ,quiches and ,tlaloc at ,mexico1 where he took his place amongst the most revered deities4 ,his name signifies noise1 rumbling4 ,amongst the ,quiches he had a great temple at ,utatlan1 pyramidal in form1 like all others in this region of the world1 where he was the object of a perpetual adoration offered him by groups of from thirteen to eighteen worshippers1 who relieved each other in relays day and night4 ,human sacrifice was practised by all these peoples1 though not to such an extent as amongst the ,aztecs1 for they only resorted to it on rare occasions4 ,it was especially girls that they immolated1 with the idea of giving brides to the gods4 ,they were to exercise their conjugal influence in favourably disposing their divine consorts towards the sacrificers4 ,in this connection we find a tragi-comic story of a young victim whose forced marriage was not in the least to her taste1 and who threatened to pronounce the most terrible maledictions from heaven upon her slaughterers4 ,her threats had so much effect that they let her go1 and procured another and less recalcitrant bride for the deity4#f ,finally1 we will mention a most characteristic deity 7whom we shall presently recognize at ,mexico under yet another name71 variously known as ,cuculkan 7bird-serpent71 ,gucumatz 7feathered-serpent71 ,hurakan--whence our hurricane--,votan 7serpent71 c4 ,he is always a serpent1 and generally feathered or flying4 ,he is a personification of the wind1 especially of the east wind1 which brings the fertilizing rains in that district4 ,almost everywhere he is credited with gentle and beneficent dispositions1 and therefore with a certain hostility to human sacrifice4 ,it was this deity1 in one of his forms1 who was worshipped in the sacred island of ,cozumel1 situated close to ,yucatan1 to which pilgrimages were made from great distances4 ,it was there that the ,spaniards1 to their great surprise1 first observed a cross surmounting the temple of this god of the wind4 ,this was the starting-point of the legend according to which the ,apostle ,thomas had of old evangelized ,america4 ,it is a pure illusion4 ,the pagan cross of ,central ,america and ,mexico is nothing whatever but the symbol of the four cardinal points of the compass from which blow the four chief winds4 ,such is the common religious basis1 which we have simply sketched in its most general outlines1 and upon which the more elaborate and sombre religion of the ,aztecs1 which we shall examine at our next meeting1 was reared4 ,pray observe that we find in this group of connected beliefs and worships something quite analogous to the polytheism of the ancient world4 ,the only notable difference is1 that the god of ,heaven1 ,dyaus1 ,varuna1 ,zeus1 ,ahura ,mazda1 or 7in ,china7 ,tien1 does not occupy the same pre-eminent place in the ,american mythology that he takes in its ,european and ,asiatic counterparts4 ,for the rest1 the processes of the human spirit are absolutely identical in the two continents4 ,in both alike it is the phenomena of nature1 regarded as animated and conscious1 that wake and stimulate the religious sentiment and become the objects of the adoration of man4 ,at the same time1 and in virtue of the same process of internal logic1 these personified beings come to be regarded more and more as possessed of a nature superior in power indeed1 but in all other respects closely conforming1 to that of man4 ,if nature-worship1 with the animism that it engenders1 shapes the first law to which nascent religion submits in the human race1 anthropomorphism furnishes the second1 disengaging itself ever more and more completely from the zoomorphism which generally serves as an intermediary4 ,this is so everywhere4 ,and thus we may safely leave to ethnologists the task of deciding whether the whole human race descends from one original couple or from many2 for1 spiritually speaking1 humanity in any case is one4 ,it is one same spirit that animates it and is developed in it2 and this1 the incontestable unity of our race1 is likewise the only unity we need care to insist on4 ,let us recognize it1 then1 since indeed it imposes itself upon us1 and let us confess that the gospel did but anticipate the last word of science in proclaiming universal fraternity4 ,and here1 ,gentlemen1 we reach one of those grand generalizations which must finally win over even those who are still inclined to distrust the philosophical history of religions as a study that destroys the most precious possessions of humanity4 ,in setting forth the intellectual and moral unity of mankind1 everywhere directed by the same successive evolutions and the same spiritual laws1 it brings into light the great principle of human brotherhood4 ,in demonstrating that these evolutions1 in spite of all the influences of ignorance1 of selfishness and of grossness1 converge towards a sublime1 ideal goal1 and are no other than the mysterious but mighty and unbroken attraction to that unfathomable ,power of which the universe is the visible expression1 it founds on a basis of reason the august sentiment of the divine fatherhood4 ,brother-men and one ,father-,god6--what more does the thinker need to raise the dignity of our nature1 the promises of the future1 the sublimity of our destiny1 into a region where the inconstant waves of a superficial criticism can never reach them8 ,such is the vestibule of the eternal ,temple2 and in approaching the sanctuary--albeit ,i may not know the very title by which best to call the ,deity who reigns in it--,i bow my head with that union of humility and of filial trust which constitutes the pure essence of religion4 ,but from these general considerations we must return to our more immediate subject4 ,at our next meeting1 ,gentlemen1 we are to study the special beliefs and mythology of ancient ,mexico4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,the ,,deities ,,and ,,myths ,,of ,,mexico4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,it will be my task to-day to give an account of the ,mexican mythology and religion1 resting as it does on the foundation common to the peoples of ,central ,america1 but inspired by the sombre1 utilitarian1 matter-of-fact1 yet vigorous and earnest1 genius of the ,aztecs4 ,you will remember that this name belongs to the warlike and commercial people that enjoyed1 at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 a military and political supremacy in the region that is now called ,mexico1 after the ,aztec capital of that name4 ,i4 ,to begin with1 we must note that the ancient ,central-,american cultus of the ,sun and ,moon1 considered as the two supreme deities1 was by no means renounced by the ,aztecs4 ,ometecutli 7i4e4 twice ,lord7 and ,omecihuatl 7twice ,lady71 or in other words supreme ,lord and ,lady1 are the designations under which they are always indicated in the first rank in the religious formulae4 ,all the ,mexicans called themselves children of the ,sun1 and greeted him every morning with hymns and with trumpet peals1 accompanied with offerings4 ,four times by day and four times by night1 priests who were attached to the various temples addressed their devotions to him4 ,and yet he had no temple specially consecrated to him4 ,the fact was that all temples were really his1 much as in our own ,christian civilization all the churches are raised in honour of ,god1 though particular designations are severally given to them4 ,the ,sun was the teotl 7i4e4 the god7 par excellence4 ,i am informed that to this very day the inhabitants of secluded parts of ,mexico1 as they go to mass1 throw a kiss to the sun before entering the church4 ,notwithstanding all this1 we have to observe that1 by an inconsistency which again has its analogies in other religions1 the cultus of the supreme deity and his consort was pretty much effaced in the popular devotions and practices by that of divinities who were perhaps less august1 and in some cases were even derived from the substance of the supreme deity himself1 but in any case seemed to stand nearer to humanity than he did4 ,more especially1 the national deities of the ,aztecs1 the guardians of their empire1 whose worship they instituted wherever their arms had triumphed1 practically took the first place4 ,it is with these national deities that we are now to make acquaintance1 and we cannot do better than begin with the two great deities of the city of ,mexico1 whose colossal statues were enthroned on its principal temple4 ,but first we must form some notion of what a ,mexican temple was4 ,the word temple1 if held to imply an enclosed and covered building1 is very improperly applied to the kind of edifice in question4 ,indeed1 a ,mexican temple 7and the same may be said of most of the sanctuaries of ,central ,america7 was essentially a gigantic altar1 of pyramidal form1 built in several stages1 contracting as they approached the summit4 ,the number of these retreating stories or terraces might vary4 ,there were never less than three1 but there might be as many as five or six1 and in ,tezcuco some of these quasi-pyramids even numbered nine4 ,the one that towered over all the rest in the city of ,mexico was built in five stages4 ,it measured1 at its base1 about three hundred and seventy-five feet in length and three hundred in width1 and was over eighty feet high4 ,at a certain point in each terrace was the stair that sloped across the side of the pyramid to the terrace above2 but the successive ascents were so arranged that it was necessary to make the complete circuit of the edifice in order to mount from one stage to another1 and consequently the grand processions to which the ,mexicans were so much devoted must have encircled the whole edifice from top to bottom1 like a huge living serpent1 before the van could reach the broad platform at the top1 and this must have added not a little to the picturesque effect of these religious ceremonies4 ,such an erection was called a teocalli or abode of the gods4 ,the great teocalli of ,mexico commanded the four chief roads that parted from its base to unite the capital to all the countries beneath the sceptre of its rulers4 ,it was the palladium of the empire1 and1 as at ,jerusalem1 it was the last refuge of the defenders of the national independence4 ,the teocalli which ,fernando ,cortes and his companions saw at ,mexico1 and which the conqueror razed to the ground1 to replace it by a ,catholic church1 was not of any great antiquity4 ,it had been constructed thirty-four years before1 in the place of another much smaller one that dated from the time when the ,aztecs were but an insignificant tribe2 and it seems that frightful human hecatombs had ensanguined the foundations of this more recent teocalli4 ,some authorities speak of seventy-two or eighty thousand victims1 while more moderate calculations reduce the number to twenty thousand1 which is surely terrible enough4 ,in front of the temple there stretched a spacious court some twelve hundred feet square4 ,all around were smaller buildings1 which served as habitations for the priests1 and store-houses for the apparatus of worship1 as well as arsenals1 oratories for the sovereign and the grandees of the empire1 chapels for the inferior deities and so on4 ,amongst these buildings was the temple in which1 as ,i have said1 the gods of the conquered peoples were literally imprisoned4 ,in another the ,spaniards could count a hundred and thirty-six thousand symmetrically-piled skulls4 ,they were the skulls of all the victims that had been sacrificed since the foundation of the sanctuary4 ,and1 by a contrast no less than monstrous1 side by side with this monument of the most atrocious barbarism there were halls devoted to the care of the poor and sick1 who were tended gratuitously by priests4#g ,what a tissue of contradictions is man6 ,but the ,aztec religion does not allow us to dwell upon the note of tenderness4 ,in the centre of the broad platform at the summit stood the stone of sacrifices1 a monolith about three feet high1 slightly ridged on the surface4 ,upon this stone the victim was stretched supine1 and while sundry subordinate priests held his head1 arms and feet1 the sacrificing pontiff raised a heavy knife1 laid open his bosom with one terrific blow1 and tore out his heart to offer it all bleeding and palpitating to the deity in whose honour the sacrifice was performed4 ,and here you will recognize that idea1 so widely spread in the two ,americas1 and indeed almost everywhere amongst uncivilized peoples1 that the heart is the epitome1 so to speak1 of the individual--his soul in some sense--so that to appropriate his heart is to appropriate his whole being4 ,finally1 there rose on the same platform a kind of chapel in which were enthroned the two chief deities of the ,aztecs1 ,uitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoca4#h ,and here ,i will ask you to accompany ,captain ,bernal ,diaz in the retinue of his chief1 ,fernando ,cortes1 to whom the king ,montezuma himself had seen fit to do the honours of his cathedral4 ,for1 as you are aware1 ,montezuma1 divided between a rash confidence and certain apprehensions which ,i shall presently explain1 received ,cortes for a considerable time with the utmost distinction1 lodged him in one of his palaces1 and did everything in the world to please him4 ,this1 then1 is the narrative of ,bernal ,diaz3#i ,montezuma invited us to enter a little tower1 where in a kind of chamber1 or hall1 stood what appeared like two altars covered with rich embroidery4 7,what ,bernal ,diaz compared to altars were the two ,teoicpalli 7or seats of the gods71 which were wooden pedestals1 painted azure blue and bearing a serpent's head at each corner74444 ,the first idol1 placed on the right1 we were told represented ,huichilobos1 their god of war 7this was as near as ,bernal ,diaz could get to ,uitzilopochtli71 with his face and countenance very broad1 his eyes monstrous and terrible2 all his body was covered with jewels1 gold and pearls of various sizes4444 ,his body was girt with things like great serpents1 made with gold and precious stones1 and in one hand he held a bow1 and arrows in the other4 ,and another little idol who stood by him1 and1 as they said1 was his page1 carried a short lance for him1 and a very rich shield of gold and jewels4 ,and ,huichilobos had his neck hung round with faces of ,indians1 and what seemed to be the hearts of these same ,indians1 made of gold1 or some of them of silver1 covered with blue gems2 and there stood some brasiers there1 containing incense made with copal and the hearts of three ,indians who had been slain that same day2 and they were burning1 and with the smoke and incense they had made that sacrifice to him2 and all the walls of this oratory were so bathed and blackened with cakes of blood1 as was the very ground itself1 that the whole exhaled a very foul odour4 ,carrying our eyes to the left we perceived another great mass1 as high as ,huichilobos4 ,its face was like a bear's1 and its shining eyes were made of mirrors called ,tezcat4 ,its body was covered with rich gems like that of ,huichilobos1 for they said that they were brothers4 ,and this ,tescatepuca 7the mutilated form under which ,bernal ,diaz presents ,tezcatlipoca7 was the god of hell 7this is another mistake1 for ,tezcatlipoca was a celestial deity74444 ,his body was surrounded with figures like little imps1 with tails like serpents2 and the walls were so caked and the ground so saturated with blood1 that the slaughterhouses of ,castile do not exhale such a stench2 and indeed we saw the hearts of five victims who had been slaughtered that same day4444 ,and since everything smelt of the shambles1 we were impatient to escape from the foul odour and yet fouler sight4 ,,ii4 ,such was the impression made upon a ,spanish soldier and a good ,catholic by the sight of the two chief deities of the ,mexican people4 ,to him they were simply two abominable inventions of ,satan4 ,let us try to go a little further below the surface4 ,uitzilopochtli signifies ,humming-bird to the left1 from ,uizilin 7,humming-bird71 and opochtli 7to the left74 ,the latter part of the name is probably due to the position we have just seen noticed to the left of the other great deity1 ,tezcatlipoca4 ,but why ,humming-bird8 ,what can there be in common between this graceful little creature and the monstrous idol of the ,aztecs8 ,the answer is given by the ,american mythology1 in which the ,humming-bird is a divine being1 the messenger of the ,sun4 ,in the ,aztec language it is often called the sunbeam or the sun's hair4 ,this charming little bird1 with the purple1 gold and topaz sheen of its lovely plumage1 as it flits amongst the flowers like a butterfly1 darts out its long tongue before it to extract their juices1 with a burring of its wings like the humming of bees1 whence it derives its ,english name4 ,moreover1 it is extremely courageous1 and will engage with far larger birds than itself in defence of its nest4 ,in the northern regions of ,mexico1 the humming-bird is the messenger of spring1 as the swallow is with us4 ,at the beginning of ,may1 after a cold and dry season that has parched the soil and blighted all verdure1 the atmosphere becomes pregnant with rain1 the sun regains his power1 and a marvellous transformation sets in4 ,the land arrays itself1 before the very eyes1 with verdure and flowers1 the air is filled with perfumes1 the maize comes to a head1 and hosts of humming-birds appear1 as if to announce that the fair season has returned4 ,we may lay it down as certain that the humming-bird was the object of a religious cultus amongst the earliest ,aztecs1 as the divine messenger of the ,spring1 like the wren amongst our own peasantry1 the plover amongst the ,latins1 and the crow amongst many tribes of the ,red-skins4 ,it was the emissary of the ,sun4 ,it was in this capacity1 and under the law of anthropomorphism to which all the ,mexican deities were subject1 that the divine humming-bird1 as a revealing god1 the protector of the ,aztec nation1 took the human form more and more completely in the religious consciousness of his worshippers4 ,and indeed the ,mexican mythology gives form to this idea that the divine humming-bird 7of which those on earth were but the relatives or little brothers7 was a celestial man like an ,aztec of the first rank1 in the following legend of his incarnation4 ,near to ,coatepec1 that is to say the ,mountain of ,serpents1#aj lived the pious widow ,coatlicue or ,coatlantona 7the ultimate meaning of which is female serpent74 ,one day1 as she was going to the temple to worship the ,sun1 she saw a little tuft of brilliantly coloured feathers fall at her feet4 ,she picked it up and placed it in her bosom to present as an offering to the ,sun4 ,but when she was about to draw it forth1 she knew not what had come upon her4 ,soon afterwards she perceived that she was about to become a mother4 ,her children were so enraged that they determined to kill her1 but a voice from her womb cried out to her1 ,mother1 have no fear1 for ,i will save thee1 to thy great honour and my own great glory4 ,and in fact ,coatlicue's children failed in their murderous attempt4 ,in due time ,uitzilopochtli was born1 grasping his shield and lance1 with a plume of feathers shaped like a bird's beak on his head1 with humming-birds' feathers on his left leg1 and his face1 arms and legs barred with blue4 ,endowed from his birth with extraordinary strength1 while still an infant he put to death those who had attempted to slay his mother1 together with all who had taken their part4 ,he gave her everything he could take from them2 and after accomplishing mighty feats on behalf of the ,aztecs1 whom he had taken under his protection1 he re-ascended to heaven1 bearing his mother with him1 and making her henceforth the goddess of flowers4#aa ,you will be struck by the analogy between this myth and more than one ,greek counterpart4 ,there is the same method of reducing to the conditions of human life1 and concentrating at a single point of time and space1 a permanent or regularly recurrent and periodic natural phenomenon4 ,uitzilopochtli1 the humming-bird1 has come from the ,sun with the purpose of making himself man1 and he has therefore taken flesh in an ,aztec woman1 ,coatlicue1 the serpent1 who is no other than the spring florescence1 and therefore the ,mexican ,flora4 ,it is not only amongst the ,mexicans that the creeping progress of the spring vegetation1 stretching along the ground towards the ,north1 has suggested the idea of a divine serpent crawling over the earth4 ,the ,athenian myth of ,erichthonius is a conception of the same order4 ,the celestial humming-bird1 then1 offspring of the ,sun1 valiant and warlike from the day of his birth1 champion of his mother1 plundering and ever victorious1 is the symbol instinctively seized on by the ,aztec people2 for it1 too1 had sprung from humble beginnings1 had been despised and menaced by its neighbours1 and had grown so marvellously in power and in wealth as to have become the invincible lord of ,anahuac4 ,uitzilopochtli had grown with the ,aztec people4 ,he bears1 amongst other surnames1 that of ,mextli1 the warrior1 whence the name of ,mexico4 ,he protects his people and ever extends the boundaries of its empire4 ,and thus1 in spite of his bearing the name of a little bird1 his statue as an incarnate deity had become colossal4 ,yet the ,aztecs did not lose the memory of his original minuteness of stature4 ,did you observe1 in the account given by ,bernal ,diaz1 that there stood at the feet of the huge idol another quite small one1 that served1 according to the ,spanish ,captain1 as his page8 ,this was the ,uitziton1 or little humming-bird1 called also the ,paynalton1 or the little quick one1 whose image was borne by a priest at the head of the soldiers as they charged the enemy4 ,on the day of his festival1 too1 he was borne at full speed along the streets of the city4 ,he was1 therefore1 the diminutive ,uitzilopochtli1 or1 more correctly speaking1 the ,uitzilopochtli of the early days1 the portable idol of the still wandering tribe2 and in fidelity to those memories1 as well as to preserve the warlike rite to the efficacy of which they attached so much value1 the ,aztecs had kept the small statue by the side of the great one4 ,to sum up3 ,uitzilopochtli was a derivative form or determination of the ,sun1 and specifically of the ,sun of the fair season4 ,he had three great annual festivals4 ,the first fell in ,may1 at the moment of the return of the flowering vegetation4 ,the second was celebrated in ,august1 when the favourable season unfolded all its beauty4 ,the third coincided with our month of ,december4 ,it was the beginning of the cold and dry season4 ,on the day of this third festival they made a statue in ,uitzilopochtli's likeness1 out of dough concocted with the blood of sacrificed infants1 and1 after all kinds of ceremonies1 a priest pierced the statue with an arrow4 ,uitzilopochtli would die with the verdure1 the flowers and all the beauteous adornments of spring and summer4 ,but1 like ,adonis1 like ,osiris1 like ,atys1 and so many other solar deities1 he only died to live and to return again4#ab ,it was now his brother ,tezcatlipoca who took the direction of the world4 ,his name signifies ,shining ,mirror4 ,as the ,sun of the cold and sterile season1 he turned his impassive glance upon all the world1 or gazed into the mirror of polished crystal that he held in his hand1 in which all the actions of men were reflected4 ,he was a stern god of judgment1 with whose being ideas of moral retribution were associated4 ,he was therefore much dreaded4 ,up to a certain point he reminds us of the ,vedic ,varuna4 ,his statue was made of dark obsidian rock1 and his face recalled that of the bear or tapir4 ,suspended to his hair1 which was plaited into a tail and enclosed in a golden net1 there hung an ear1 which was likewise made of gold1 towards which there mounted flocks of smoke in the form of tongues4 ,these were the prayers and supplications of mortals4 ,maladies1 famines and death1 were the manifestations of ,tezcatlipoca's justice4 ,dry as the season over which he presided1 he was not easily moved4 ,and yet he was not absolutely inexorable4 ,the ardent prayers1 the sacrifices and the supplications of his priests might avert the strokes of his wrath4 ,but in spite of all1 he was pre-eminently the god of austere law4 ,and this is why he was regarded as the civilizing and organizing deity of the ,aztecs4 ,it was he who had established the laws that governed the people and who watched over their observance4 ,in this capacity he made frequent journeys of inspection1 like an invisible prefect of police1 through the city of ,mexico1 to see what was going on there4 ,stone seats had been erected in the streets for him to rest upon on these occasions1 and no mortal would have dared to occupy them4 ,at the same time a terrible and cruel subtlety in the means he employed to accomplish his ends was attributed to him2 and the legend about him1 which is far less brilliant than that of his brother ,uitzilopochtli1 led several ,europeans to believe that he was simply an ancient magician who had spread terror around him by his sorceries4 ,all this we see exemplified in his conflicts with a third great deity whom we shall next describe4 ,in any case we may define ,tezcatlipoca as another determination of the ,sun1 and specifically of the winter ,sun of the cold1 dry1 sterile season4#ac ,the third great deity is ,quetzalcoatl1 that is to say the feathered serpent1 or the serpent-bird2 and it is specially noteworthy1 in connection with the elevated rank which he occupied in the ,mexican pantheon1 that he was not an ,aztec deity1 but one of the ancient gods of the invaded country4 ,he was in fact a ,toltec deity1 and we recognize in his name1 as well as in the special notes in the legend concerning him1 that god of the wind whom we know already in ,central ,america under the varying names of ,cuculcan1 ,hurakan1 ,gucumatz1 ,votan and so forth4 ,he is almost always a serpent1 and a serpent with feathers4 ,his temple at ,mexico departed altogether from the pyramidal type that we have described4 ,it was dome-shaped and covered4 ,the entrance was formed by a great serpent-mouth1 wide open and showing its fangs1 so that the ,spaniards thought it represented a gate of hell4 ,quetzalcoatl's priests were clothed in white1 whereas the ordinary garb of the ,mexican priests was black4 ,there was something mysterious and occult about the priesthood of this deity1 as though it were possessed of divine secrets or promises1 the importance of which it would be dangerous to undervalue4 ,a special aversion to human sacrifice1 and especially to the frightful abuse of the practice amongst the ,aztecs1 was attributed to this god and his priests1 in passive protest1 as it were1 against the sanguinary rites to which the ,aztecs attributed the prosperity of their empire4 ,the legend of ,quetzalcoatl1 as the ,aztecs transmitted it to the ,spaniards1 is a motley concatenation of euhemerized myths4 ,its historical basis is the continuous retreat of the ,toltecs before the northern invaders1 with their god ,tezcatlipoca4 ,this latter deity becomes a magician1 cunning and malicious enough to get the better of the gentle ,quetzalcoatl on every occasion4 ,i regret that time will not allow me to tell in detail of the combat between ,tezcatlipoca and ,quetzalcoatl4 ,the latter was a sovereign who lived long ago at ,tulla1 the northern focus of ,toltec civilization4 ,under his sceptre men lived in great happiness and enjoyed abundance of everything4 ,he had taught them agriculture1 the use of the metals1 the art of cutting stone1 the means of fixing the calendar2 and being opposed to the sacrifice of human victims--note this--he had advised their replacement by the drawing of blood from the tongue1 the lips1 the chest1 the legs1 c4 ,tezcatlipoca succeeded by his enchantments in destroying this rule of peace and prosperity1 and forced ,quetzalcoatl to quit ,tulla1 which thereupon fell in ruins4 ,he then pursued him into ,cholula1 the ancient sacred city of the ,toltecs1 in which he had sought refuge1 and in which he had again made happiness and abundance reign4 ,finally1 he forced him to quit the continent altogether1 and embark in a mysterious vessel not far from ,vera ,cruz1 near to the very spot where ,cortes disembarked4 ,since then ,quetzalcoatl had disappeared2 ,but wait6 said his priests1 for he will return4 ,this expectation of ,quetzalcoatl's return furnishes a kind of parallel to the ,messianic hope1 or more closely yet to the early ,christian expectation of the parousia or second coming of the ,christ4 ,for when he returned1 it would be to punish his enemies1 to chastise the wicked1 the oppressors and the tyrants4 ,and that is why the ,aztecs dreaded his return1 and why they had not dared to proscribe his cultus1 but1 on the contrary1 recognized it and carried it on4 ,and if you would know the real secret of the success of ,fernando ,cortes in his wild enterprize--for1 after all1 the ,mexican sovereign could easily have crushed him and his handful of men1 by making a hecatomb of them before they had had time to entrench themselves and make allies--you will find it in the fact that ,montezuma1 whose conscience was oppressed with more crimes than one1 had a very lively dread of ,quetzalcoatl's return2 and when he was informed that at the very point where the dreaded god had embarked1 to disappear in the unknown ,east1 strange and terrible beings had been seen to disembark1 bearing with them fragments of thunderbolts1 in tubes that they could discharge whenever they would--some of them having two heads and six legs1 swifter of foot than the fleetest men--,montezuma could not doubt that--it was ,quetzalcoatl returning1 and instead of sending his troops against ,cortes1 he preferred to negotiate with him1 to allow him to approach1 and to receive him in his own palace4 ,and although doubts soon asserted themselves in his mind1 yet he long retained1 perhaps even to the last1 a superstitious dread of ,cortes1 that enabled the latter to secure a complete ascendancy over him4 ,this1 ,i repeat1 was the secret of the bold ,spaniard's success2 nor can we ever understand the matter rightly unless we take into consideration the significance of this worship of ,quetzalcoatl that the ,aztecs had continued to respect1 though all the while flattering themselves that their own god1 ,tezcatlipoca1 would be able once more to protect them against his ancient adversary4 ,years after the conquest1 ,father ,sahagun had still to answer the question of the natives1 who asked him what he knew of the country of ,quetzalcoatl4#ad ,what1 then1 was the fundamental significance of this feathered ,serpent that so pre-occupied the religious consciousness of the ,aztecs8 ,he was not the ,sun4 ,the ,sun does not disappear in the ,east4 ,he was a god of the wind1 as ,father ,sahagun perfectly well understood1 but of that wind in particular that brings over the parched land of ,mexico the tepid and fertilizing exhalations of the ,atlantic4 ,and this is why ,tezcatlipoca1 the god of the cold and dry season1 rather than ,uitzilopochtli1 is his personal enemy4 ,it is towards the end of the dry season that the fertilizing showers begin to fall on the eastern shores1 and little by little to reach the higher lands of the interior4 ,the flying ,serpent1 then1 the wind that comes like a huge bird upon the air1 bringing life and abundance with it1 is a benevolent deity who spreads prosperity wherever he goes4 ,but he does not always breathe over the land1 and does not carry his blessed moisture everywhere4 ,tezcatlipoca appears4 ,the lofty plateaux of ,tulla1 of ,mexico and of ,cholula1 are the first victims of his desolating force4 ,quetzalcoatl withdraws ever further and further to the ,east1 and at last disappears in the great ocean4 ,such is the natural basis of the myth of ,quetzalcoatl1 and the justification of my remark that we find in him the pendant of those deities1 serpents and birds in one1 who were adored in ,central ,america1 and who answered1 like ,quetzalcoatl1 to the idea of the ,atlantic wind4 ,he was1 in truth1 the ancient deity that the ,nahuas or ,mayas of the civilized immigrations brought with them when they settled in ,anahuac and still further ,north4 ,like all the other gods of these regions1 ,quetzalcoatl had assumed the human shape more and more completely4 ,we still possess1 especially in the ,trocadero ,museum at ,paris1 great blocks of stone on which he is represented as a serpent covered with feathers1 coiled up and sleeping till the time comes for him to wake4 ,but there are also statues of him in human form1 save that his body is surmounted by a bird's head1 with the tongue projected4 ,now in the ,mexican hieroglyphie this bird's head1 with the tongue put out1 is no other than the symbol of the wind4 ,hence1 too1 his names of ,tohil the hummer or the whisperer1 ,ehecatl the breeze1 ,nauihehecatl the lord of the four winds1 c4 ,the naturalistic meaning of ,quetzalcoatl1 then1 cannot admit of the smallest doubt4 ,it is probably to the more gentle and humane religious tendency which was kept alive by the priesthood of this deity1 that we must attribute the attempted reform of the king of ,tezcuco1 ,netzalhuatcoyotl 7the fasting coyote71 who has been called the ,mexican ,solomon4 ,he was a poet and philosopher as well as king1 and had no love either of idolatry or of sanguinary sacrifices4 ,he had a great pyramidal teocalli of nine stages erected in his capital for the worship of the god of heaven1 to whom he brought no offerings except flowers and perfumes4 ,he died in #adgb1 and1 as far as we can see1 his reformation made no progress4 ,the ever-increasing preponderance of the ,aztecs was as unfavourable as possible to this humane and spiritual tendency in religion4#ae ,yet one loves to dwell upon the fact1 that even in the midst of a religion steeped in blood1 a protest was inspired by the sentiment of humanity1 linked1 as it should always be1 with the progress of religious thought4 ,,iii4 ,we must now proceed with our review of the ,mexican deities1 but ,i must be content with indicating the most important amongst them2 for without admitting1 with ,gomara--who registered many names and epithets belonging to one and the same divinity as indicating so many distinct beings--that their number rose to two thousand1 we find that the most moderate estimate of the historians raises them to two hundred and sixty4 ,we shall confine ourselves1 then1 to the most significant4 ,the importance of rain in the regions of ,mexico1 so marked in the myths we have already considered1 prepares us to find amongst the great gods the figure of ,tlaloc1 whose name signifies the nourisher1 and who was the god of rain4 ,he was believed to reside in the mountains1 whence he sent the clouds4 ,he was also the god of fecundity4 ,lightning and thunder were amongst his attributes1 and his character was no more amiable than that of the ,mexican deities in general4 ,his cultus was extremely cruel4 ,numbers of children were sacrificed to him4 ,his statues were cut in a greenish white stone1 of the colour of water4 ,in one hand he held a sceptre1 the symbol of lightning2 in the other1 a thunderbolt4 ,he was a cyclops2 that is to say1 he had but one eye1 which shows that he must be ultimately identified as an ancient personification of the rainy sky1 whose one eye is the sun4 ,his huge mouth1 garnished with crimson teeth1 was always open1 to signify his greed and his sanguinary tastes4 ,his wife was ,chalchihuitlicue1 the lady ,chalchihuit1 whose name is identical with that of a soft green jade stone that was much valued in ,mexico4 ,her numerous offspring1 the ,tlalocs1 probably represent the clouds4 ,side by side with the hideous sacrifices of which ,tlaloc's festival was the occasion1 we may note the grotesque ceremony in which his priests flung themselves pell-mell into a pond1 imitating the action and the note of frogs4 ,this is but one of a thousand proofs that in the rites intended to conciliate the nature-gods1 it was thought well to reproduce in mimicry the actions of those creatures who were supposed to be their favourites or chosen servants4 ,the frogs were manifestly loved by the god of the waters1 and to secure his good graces his priests1 as was but natural1 transformed themselves into frogs likewise4 ,it was with this cultus especially that the symbol of the ,mexican cross was connected1 as indicating the four points of the horizon from which the wind might blow4 ,centeotl was another great deity1 a kind of ,mexican ,ceres or ,demeter4 ,she was the goddess of ,agriculture1 and very specially of maize4 ,indeed1 her name signifies maize-goddess1 being derived from centli 7maize7 and teotl 7divine being74 ,sometimes1 however1 inasmuch as this goddess had a son who bore the same name as herself1 ,centeotl stands for a male deity4 ,the female deity is often represented with a child in her arms1 like a ,madonna4 ,this child1 who is no other than the maize itself1 grows up1 becomes an adult god1 and is the masculine ,centeotl4 ,the feminine ,centeotl1 moreover1 bears many other names1 such as ,tonantzin 7our revered mother71 ,cihuatcoatl 7lady serpent71 and very often ,toci or ,tocitzin 7our grandmother74 ,she was sometimes represented in the form of a frog1 the symbol of the moistened earth1 with a host of mouths or breasts on her body4 ,she had also a daughter1 ,xilonen1 the young maize-ear1 corresponding to the ,persephone or ,kore of the ,greeks4 ,her face was painted yellow1 the colour of the maize4 ,her character1 at least amongst the ,aztecs1 had nothing idyllic about it1 and we shall have to return presently to the frightful sacrifices which were celebrated in her honour4 ,next comes the god of ,fire1 ,xiuhtecutli 7the ,lord ,fire71 a very ancient deity1 as we see by one of his many surnames1 ,huehueteotl 7the old god74 ,he is represented naked1 with his chin blackened1 with a head-dress of green feathers1 carrying on his back a kind of serpent with yellow feathers1 thus combining the different fire colours4 ,and inasmuch as he looked across a disk of gold1 called the looking-plate1 we may ask whether his primitive significance was not very closely allied to that of ,tezcatlipoca1 the shining mirror of the cold season4 ,sacrifice was offered to him daily4 ,in every house the first libation and the first morsel of bread were consecrated to him4 ,and finally1 as an instance of the astounding resemblance that is forced upon our attention between the religious development of the ,old ,world and that of the ,new1 only conceive that in ,mexico1 as in ancient ,iran and other countries of ,asia and ,europe1 the fire in every house must be extinguished on a certain day in every year1 and the priest of ,xiuhtecutli kindled fire anew by friction before the statue of his god4 ,you are aware that this rite1 with which so many customs and superstitions are connected1 rests on the idea that ,fire is a divine being1 of celestial and pure origin1 which is shut up in the wood1 and which is contaminated in the long run by contact with men and with human affairs4 ,hence it follows that in order for it to retain its virtues1 to continue to act as a purifier and to spread its blessings amongst men1 it must be brought down anew1 from time to time1 from its divine source4#af ,the ,aztecs also had a ,venus1 a goddess of ,love1 who bore the name of ,tlazolteotl 7the goddess of ,sensuality74#ag ,at ,tlascala she was known by the more elegant name of ,xochiquetzal 7the flowery plume74 ,she lived in heaven1 in a beautiful garden1 spinning and embroidering1 surrounded by dwarfs and buffoons1 whom she kept for her amusement4 ,we hear of a battle of the gods of which she was the object4 ,though the wife of ,tlaloc1 she was loved and carried off by ,tezcatlipoca4 ,this probably gives us the clue to her mythic origin4 ,she must have been the aquatic vegetation of the marsh lands1 possessed by the god of waters1 till the sun dries her up and she disappears4 ,the legend about her is not very edifying4 ,it was she--to mention only a single feat--who prevailed over the pious hermit ,yappan1 when he had victoriously resisted all other temptations4 ,after his fall he was changed into a scorpion2 and that is why the scorpion1 full of wrath at the memory of his fall and fleeing the daylight1 is so poisonous and lives hidden under stones4#ah ,we have still to mention ,mixcoatl1 the cloud-serpent1 whose name survives to our day as the designation of water-spouts in ,mexico1 and who was specially worshipped by the still almost savage populations of the secluded mountain districts1--,omacatl1 the double reed1 a kind of ,momus1 the god of good cheer1 who may very well be a secondary form of ,tlaloc1 and who avenged himself1 when defrauded of due homage1 by interspersing hairs and other disagreeable objects amongst the viands1--,ixtlilton1 the brown1 a sort of ,esculapius1 the healing god1 whose priest concocted a blackish liquid that passed as an efficacious remedy for every kind of disease1--,yacatecutli1 the lord guide1 the god of travellers and of commerce1 whose ordinary symbol was the stick with a carved handle carried by the ,mexicans when on a journey1 who was sedulously worshipped by the commercial and middle classes of ,mexico1 and in connection with whom we may note that every ,mexican1 when travelling1 would be careful to fix his stick in the ground every evening and pay his respectful devotions to it1#ai--;and1 finally1 ,xipe1 the bald1 or the flayed1 the god of goldsmiths1 probably another form of ,uitzilopochtli 7whose festival coincided with his71 deriving his name apparently from the polishing process to which gold 7no doubt regarded as belonging to the substance of the sun7 had to undergo to give it the required brilliance1 and to whose hideous cultus we shall have to return in our next ,lecture4 ,i must now be brief1 and will only speak further of the ,tepitoton1 that is to say1 the little tiny ones1 minute domestic idols1 the number of which was incalculable4 ,they insensibly lower to the level of animism and fetishism that religion which1 as we have seen1 bears comparison in its grander aspects with the most renowned mythologies of the ancient world4 ,i must1 however1 allow myself a few words on the god ,mictlan1 the ,mexican ,hades or ,pluto4 ,his name properly signifies region of the ,north2 but inasmuch as the ,north was regarded as the country of mist1 of barrenness and of death1 his name easily passed into the designation of the subterranean country of the dead4 ,the ,germanic ,helle has a similar history1 for it was first localized in the wintry ,north and then carried underground4 ,mictlan1 like ,hades1 was used as a name alike for the sojourn and for the god of the dead4 ,this deity had a consort who bore divers names1 and he also had at his command a number of genii or servants1 called ,tzitzimitles1 a sort of malicious demons held in great dread by the living4 ,of course both ,mictlan and his wives are always represented under a hideous aspect1 with huge open mouths1 or rather jaws1 often in the act of devouring an infant4#bj ,at last we have done6 ,in the next ,lecture we shall penetrate to the very heart of this singular religion1 as we discuss its terrible sacrifices1 its institutions1 and its doctrines concerning this world and the life to come4 ,and here1 again1 we shall find cause for amazement in the striking analogies it presents to the rites and institutions of other religions much nearer home4 ,meanwhile1 observe that in examining the purely mythological portion of the subject which we have passed in review to-day1 we have seen that there is not a single law manifested by the mythologies of the ancient world1 which had not its parallel manifestations in ,mexico before it was discovered by the ,europeans4 ,the great gods1 derived from a dramatized nature--animism1 with the fetishism that springs from it1 occupying the basement1 if ,i may so express myself1 beneath these mythological conceptions--in the midst of all a tendency manifested from time to time towards a purer and more spiritual conception of the adorable ,being--all re-appears and all is combined in ,mexico1 even down to something like an incarnation1 and the hope of the coming of the god of justice and of goodness who will restore all things4 ,indeed1 ,i know not where else one could look for so complete a resume of what has constituted in all places1 now the smallness and wretchedness1 now the grandeur and nobleness1 of that incomprehensible and irresistible factor of human nature which we call religion4 ,the eternally religious element in man had stamped its mark upon the unknown ,mexico as upon all other lands2 and when at last it was discovered1 evidence might have been found1 had men been able to appreciate it1 that there too1 however frightfully misinterpreted1 the ,divine breath had been felt4 ,it is the spiritually-minded who must learn the art of discerning the spirit wherever it reveals itself2 and when the horrors rise up before us of which religion has more than once in the course of history been the cause or the pretext1 and we are almost tempted to ask whether this attribute of human nature has really worked more good than ill in the destinies of our race1 we may remember that the same question might be asked of all the proudest attributes of our humanity4 ,take polity or the art of governing human societies4 ,to what monstrous aberrations has it not given birth6 ,take science4 ,through what lamentable and woful errors has it not pursued its way6 ,take art4 ,how gross were its beginnings1 and how often has it served1 not to elevate man1 but to stimulate his vilest and most degrading passions6 ,yet1 who would wish to live without government1 science or art8 ,let us apply the same test to religion4 ,the horrors it has caused cannot weigh against the final and overmastering good which it produces2 and its annals1 too often written in blood1 should teach us how to guide it1 how to purify it from all that corrupts and debases it4 ,we shall see at the close of our ,lectures what that directing1 normalizing1 purifying principle is that must hold the helm of religion and guide it in its evolution4 ,meanwhile1 let no imperfection1 no repulsiveness--nay1 no atrocity even--blind us to the ideal value of what we have been considering1 any more than we should allow the disasters that spring from the use of fire to make us cease to rank it amongst the great blessings of our earthly life4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sacrifices1 ,,sacerdotal ,,and ,,monastic ,,institutions1 ,,eschatology ,,and ,,cosmogony ,,of ,,mexico4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,in our last ,lecture we passed in review the chief gods and goddesses of ancient ,mexico1 and you might see how1 in spite of very characteristic differences1 the ,mexican mythology obeys the same law of formation that manifests itself among the peoples of the ,old ,world1 thereby proving once more that the religious development of humanity is not arbitrary1 that it proceeds in every case under the direction of the inherent and inalienable principles of the human mind4 ,to-day we are to complete the internal study of the ,mexican religion1 by dealing with its sacrifices1 its institutions1 and its eschatological and cosmogonical doctrines4 ,we begin with those sacrifices of which ,i have already spoken as so numerous and so horrible4 ,i4 ,we have some little difficulty in our times1 familiar as we are with spiritual conceptions of ,god and the divine purposes1 in comprehending the extreme importance which sacrifices1 offerings1 gifts to the divine being1 assumed in the eyes of peoples who were still enveloped in the darkness of polytheism and idolatry4 ,and perhaps we may find it more difficult yet to realize the primitive object and intention of these sacrifices4 ,there can be no doubt that they were originally suggested by the idea that the divine being1 whatever it may have been--whether a natural object1 an animal1 or a creature analogous to man--liked what we like1 was pleased with what pleases us1 and had the same tastes and the same proclivities as ours4 ,this is the fundamental idea that urged the polytheistic peoples along the path of religious anthropomorphism4 ,this principle once established1 and the object being to secure the goodwill and the protection of the divine beings1 what could be more natural than to offer them the things in which men themselves took pleasure1 such as viands1 drinks1 perfumes1 handsome ornaments1 slaves and wives8 ,we must not carry back to the origins of sacrifice the meta-physical and moral ideas which did not really appear until much later4 ,and since the necessity of eating1 and the pleasure of eating choice food1 take a foremost rank in the estimation of infant peoples1 it is not surprising that the food-offering was the most frequent and the most important amongst them1 so as in some sort to absorb all the rest4 ,and here we are compelled to bow before a fact which cannot possibly be disputed1 namely1 that traces of the primitive sacrifice of human victims meet us everywhere4 ,and this shows that cannibalism1 which is now restricted to a few of the savage tribes who have remained closest to the animal life1 was once universal to our race4 ,for no one would ever have conceived the idea of offering to the gods a kind of food which excited nothing but disgust and horror amongst men4 ,this being granted1 two rival tendencies must be reckoned with4 ,in the first place1 moral development1 with its influence on religious ideas1 worked towards the suppression of the horrible custom of human sacrifice1 whilst at the same time extirpating the taste and desire for human flesh4 ,for we must not forget that where cannibalism still reigns1 human flesh is regarded as the most delicious of foods2 and the ,greek mythology has preserved legends and myths that are connected with the very epoch at which human sacrifices first became an object of horror to gods and men4 ,but1 in the second place1 in virtue of the strange persistency of rites and usages connected with religion1 human sacrifices prevailed in many places when cannibalism had completely disappeared from the habits and tastes of the population4 ,thus the ,semites of ,western ,asia and the ,civaite ,hindus1 the ,celts1 and some of the populations of ,greece and ,italy1 long after they had renounced cannibalism1 still continued to sacrifice human beings to their deities4 ,and this gives us the clue to a third phase1 which was actually realized in ,mexico before the conquest4 ,cannibalism1 in ordinary life1 was no longer practised4 ,the city of ,mexico underwent all the horrors of famine during the siege conducted by ,fernando ,cortes4 ,when the ,spaniards finally entered the city1 they found the streets strewn with corpses1 which is a sufficient proof that human flesh was not eaten even in dire extremities4 ,and1 nevertheless1 the ,aztecs not only pushed human sacrifices to a frantic extreme1 but they were ritual cannibals1 that is to say1 there were certain occasions on which they ate the flesh of the human victims whom they had immolated4 ,this practice was connected with another religious conception1 grafted upon the former one4 ,almost everywhere1 but especially amongst the ,aztecs1 we find the notion that the victim devoted to a deity1 and therefore destined to pass into his substance and to become by assimilation an integral part of him1 is already co-substantial with him1 has already become part of him2 so that the worshipper in his turn1 by himself assimilating a part of the victim's flesh1 unites himself in substance with the divine being4 ,and now observe that in all religions the longing1 whether grossly or spiritually apprehended1 to enter into the closest possible union with the adored being is fundamental4 ,this longing is inseparable from the religious sentiment itself1 and becomes imperious wherever that sentiment is warm2 and this consideration is enough to convince us that it is in harmony with the most exalted tendencies of our nature1 but may likewise1 in times of ignorance1 give rise to the most deplorable aberrations4 ,note this1 again1 that immolation or sacrifice cannot be accomplished without suffering to the victim4 ,yet more3 the immense importance of sacrifice in the inferior religions raises the mere rite itself to a position of unrivalled efficacy as gauged by the childlike notions that have given it birth1 so that at last it acquires an intrinsic and magical virtue in the eyes of the sacrificers4 ,they have lost all distinct idea as to how their sacrifice gives pleasure to the gods1 but they retain the firm belief that as a matter of fact1 it is the appointed means of acting upon their dispositions and modifying their will4 ,the civilized ,greeks and ,romans no longer believed that their gods ate the flesh of the sacrifices1 but this did not prevent their continuing them as the indispensable means of appeasing the wrath or conciliating the favour of the deities4 ,to such a length was this carried in ,india and ,iran1 that sacrifice finally came to be regarded as a cosmic force1 a creative act4 ,the gods themselves sacrificed as a means of creation1 or of modifying the existing order of the world4 ,this idea of the intrinsic and magical virtue of sacrifice naturally re-acted on the importance attached to the sufferings of the victim so inseparably connected with it1 until the latter came to be regarded as amongst the prime conditions of an efficacious sacrifice4 ,for the rest1 ,i need not do more than mention the notions of substitution1 of compensation1 and of renunciation on the part of the sacrificer1 which so readily attach themselves to the idea of sacrifice1 and represent its moral aspects4 ,now all these considerations will help us to understand both the fearful intensity and the special significance of the practice of human sacrifice established among the ,aztecs4 ,and here ,i must ask you to harden your hearts for a few moments while ,i conduct you through this veritable chamber of horrors4 ,the ,mexican sacrifices were1 in truth1 of the most frightful description4 ,it was an axiom amongst the ,aztecs that none but human sacrifices were truly efficacious4 ,they were continually making war in order to get a supply of victims4 ,they regarded the victim1 when once selected1 as a kind of incarnation of the deity who was ultimately to consume his flesh1 or at any rate his heart4 ,they retained the practice of cannibalism as a religious rite1 and1 as though they had had some of the ,red-skins' blood in their veins1 they refined upon the tortures which they forced those victims1 whom they had almost adored the moment before1 to undergo at last4 ,these victims were regularly selected a considerable time in advance4 ,they were vigilantly watched1 but in other respects were well cared for and fed with the choicest viands--in a word1 fattened4 ,there was not a single festival upon which at least one of these victims was not immolated1 and in many cases great numbers of them were flung upon the stone of sacrifices1 where the priests laid their bosoms open1 tore out their hearts1 and placed them1 as the epitome of the men themselves1 in a vessel full of burning rezin or copal1 before the statue of the deity4 ,some few of these sacrifices it is my duty to describe to you4 ,for example3 ,to celebrate the close of the annual rule of ,tezcatlipoca1 which fell at the beginning of ,may1 they set apart a year beforehand the handsomest of the prisoners of war captured during the preceding year4 ,they clothed him in a costume resembling that of the image of the god4 ,he might come and go in freedom1 but he was always followed by eight pages1 who served at once as an escort and a guard4 ,as he passed1 ,i will not say that the people either knelt or did not kneel before him1 for in ,mexico the attitude expressive of religious adoration was that of squatting down upon the haunches4 ,as he passed1 then1 the people squatted all along the streets as soon as they heard the sound of the bells that he carried on his hands and feet4 ,twenty days before the festival1 they redoubled their care and attention4 ,they bathed him1 anointed him with perfume1 and gave him four beautiful damsels as companions1 each one bearing the name of a goddess1 and all of them instructed to leave nothing undone to make their divine spouse as happy as possible4 ,he then took part in splendid banquets1 surrounded by the great ,mexican nobles4 ,but the day before the great festival1 they placed him and his four wives on board a royal canoe and carried them to the other side of the lake4 ,in the evening the four goddesses quitted their unhappy god1 and his eight guardians conducted him to a lonely teocalli1 a league distant1 where he was flung upon the stone of sacrifices and his heart torn from his bosom4 ,he must disappear and die with the god whom he represented1 who must now make way for ,uitzilopochtli4 ,this latter deity likewise had his human counterpart1 who had to lead a war-dance in his name before being sacrificed4 ,he had the grotesque privilege of choosing the hour of his own immolation1 but under the condition that the longer he delayed it the less would his soul be favoured in the abode of ,uitzilopochtli4 ,for we must note that in the ,mexican order of ideas1 though the flesh of the victims was destined to feed the gods to whom they were sacrificed1 their souls became the blessed and favoured slaves or servants of these same gods4 ,centeotl1 or ,toci1 the goddess of the harvest1 had her human sacrifices also1 but in this case a woman figured as protagonist4 ,she1 too1 was dressed like the goddess1 and entrusted to the care of four midwives1 priestesses of ,centeotl1 who were commissioned to pet and amuse her4 ,a fortnight before the festival1 they celebrated the arm dance before her1 in which the dancers1 without moving their feet1 perpetually raised and lowered their arms1 as a symbol of the vegetation fixed at its roots1 but moving freely above4 ,then she had to take part in a mock combat1 after which she received the title of image of the mother of the gods4 ,the day before her execution1 she went to pay what was called her farewell to the market1 in which she was conducted to the market of ,mexico1 sowing maize all along the street as she went1 and reverenced by the people as ,toci1 our grandmother4 ,but the following midnight she was carried to the top of a teocalli1 perched upon the shoulders of a priest1 and swiftly decapitated4 ,then they flayed her without loss of time4 ,the skin of the trunk was chopped off1 and a priest1 wrapping himself in the bleeding spoil1 traversed the streets in procession1 and made pretence of fighting with soldiers who were interspersed in the cortege4 ,the skin of the legs was carried to the temple of ,centeotl1 the son1 where another priest made himself a kind of mask with it1 to represent his god1 and sacrificed four captives in the ordinary way4 ,after this1 the priest1 accompanied by some soldiers1 bore the hideous shreds to a point on the frontier1 where they were buried as a talisman to protect the empire4 ,the festivals of ,tlaloc1 god of rain1 were perhaps yet more horrible4 ,at one of them they sacrificed a number of prisoners of war1 one upon another1 clothed like the god himself4 ,they tore out their hearts in the usual way1 and then carried them in procession1 enclosed in a vase1 to throw them into a whirlpool of the lake of ,mexico1 which they imagined to be one of the favoured residences of the aquatic deity4 ,but it was worse still at the festival of this same ,tlaloc which fell in ,february4 ,on this occasion a number of young children were got together1 and decked with feathers and precious stones4 ,they put wings upon them1 to enable them to fly up1 and then placed them on litters1 and bore them through the city in grand procession and with the sound of trumpets4 ,the people1 says ,sahagun1#ba could not choose but weep to see these poor little ones led off to the sacrifice4 ,but if the children themselves cried freely1 it was all the better1 for it was a sign that the rain would be abundant4#bb ,i will not try your nerves by dwelling much longer on this dismal subject1 though there is no lack of material4 ,at the feast of ,xipe1 the flayed1 for example1 whole companies of men were wrapped in the skins of sacrificed captives1 and engaged in mock battles in that costume4 ,but the only further instance ,i am compelled to mention is connected with the festival of the god of fire1 ,xiuhtecutli1 which was celebrated with elaborate ceremonies4 ,at set of sun1 all who had prisoners of war or slaves to offer to the deity brought forward their victims1 painted with the colours of the god1 danced along by their side1 and shut them up in a building attached to the teocalli of ,fire4 ,then they mounted guard all round1 singing hymns4 ,at midnight1 each owner entered and severed a lock of the hair of his slave or slaves1 to be carefully preserved as a talisman4 ,at daybreak they brought out the victims and led them to the foot of the temple stair4 ,there the priests took them upon their shoulders and carried them up to the higher platform1 where they had prepared a great brazier of burning embers4 ,here each priest flung his human burden upon the fire1 and ,i leave you to imagine the indescribable scene that ensued4 ,nor is this all4 ,the same priests1 armed with long hooks1 fished out the poor wretches before they were quite roasted to death1 and despatched them in the usual fashion on the stone of sacrifices4#bc ,it was after these offerings of private devotion that family and friendly gatherings were held1 at which a part of the victim's flesh was eaten1 under the idea that by thus sharing the food of the deity his worshippers entered into a closer union with him4 ,we ought1 however1 to note that a master never ate the flesh of his own slave1 inasmuch as he had been his guest1 and as it were a member of his family4 ,he waited till his friends returned his attention4 ,,ii4 ,human sacrifice1 ,gentlemen1 appears to have been a universal practice2 but wherever the human sympathies developed themselves rapidly1 it was early superseded by various substituted rites which it was supposed might with advantage replace it4 ,such were flagellation1 mutilation of some unessential part of the body1 or the emission of a certain quantity of blood4 ,this last practice1 in particular1 might be regarded as an act of individual devotion1 a gift made to the gods by the worshipper himself out of his own very substance4 ,the priesthood of ,quetzalcoatl1 who had little taste for human sacrifices1 seem to have introduced this method of propitiating the gods by giving them one's own blood2 and the practice of drawing it from the tongue1 the lips1 the nose1 the ears or the bosom1 came to be the chief form of expression of individual piety and penitence in ,central ,america and in ,mexico4 ,the priests in particular owed it to their special character to draw their blood for the benefit of the gods1 and nothing could be stranger than the refined methods they adopted to accomplish this end4 ,for instance1 they would pass strings or splinters through their lips or ears and so draw a little blood4 ,but then a fresh string or a fresh splinter must be added every day1 and so it might go on indefinitely1 for the more there were1 the more meritorious was the act2 nor can we doubt that the idea of the suffering endured enhancing the merit of the deed itself1 was already widely spread in ,mexico4 ,there was a system of ,mexican asceticism1 too1 specially characterized by the long fasts which the faithful1 and more particularly the priests1 endured4 ,indeed1 fasting is one of the most general and ancient forms of adoration4 ,it rests1 in the first place1 on an instinctive feeling that a man is more worthy to present himself before the divine beings when fasting than when stuffed with food2 and1 in the second place1 on the fact that fasting is shown by experience to promote dreams1 hallucinations1 extasies and so forth1 which have always been considered as so many forms of communication with the deity4#bd ,it was only later that fasting became the sign and index of mourning1 and therefore of sincere repentance and profound sorrow4 ,mexico had its solitaries or hermits1 too1 who sought to enter into closer communion with the gods by living in the desert under conditions of the severest asceticism4 ,are we not once more tempted to exclaim that there is nothing new under the sun8 ,but the devotees of the ancient ,mexican religion had other methods of uniting themselves substantially and corporeally with their gods2 and in accordance with the notions which we have seen were accredited by their religion1 they had developed a kind 7or kinds7 of communion from which1 with a little theology1 a regular doctrine of transubstantiation might have been drawn4 ,thus1 at the third great festival in honour of ,uitzilopochtli 7celebrated at the time of his death71 they made an image of the deity in dough1 steeped it in the blood of sacrificed children1 and partook of the pieces4#be ,in the same way the priests of ,tlaloc kneaded statuettes of their god in dough1 cut them up1 and gave them to eat to patients suffering from the diseases caused by the cold and wet4#bf ,the statuettes were first consecrated by a small sacrifice4 ,and so1 too1 at the yearly festival of the god of fire1 ,xiuhtecutli1 an image of the deity1 made of dough1 was fixed in the top of a great tree which had been brought into the city from the forest4 ,at a certain moment the tree was thrown down1 on which of course the idol broke to pieces1 and the worshippers all scrambled for a bit of him to eat4 ,it has been asked how far any moral idea had penetrated this religion1 the repulsive aspects of which we have been describing4 ,the question is a legitimate one4 ,i believe1 ,gentlemen1 that in studying the religious origins of the different peoples of the earth1 we shall come to the conclusion that the fusion of the religious and moral life--which has long been an accomplished fact for us1 especially since the ,gospel1 so that we cannot admit the possibility of uniting immorality and piety for a single instant--is not primitive1 but is due to the development of the human spirit1 and to healthier1 more complete and more religious ideas concerning the moral law4 ,at the beginning of things1 and in our own day amongst savages1 nay1 even amongst the most ignorant strata of the population in civilized countries1 it is obvious that religion and morals have extremely little to do with each other4 ,some authors1 accordingly1 in the face of all the monstrous cruelty1 selfishness and inhumanity of the ,mexican religion1 have concluded that no element of morality entered into it at all1 but that all was self-seeking and fanaticism4 ,this is an exaggeration4 ,we have seen that amongst the nature-gods of ,mexico there was one1 ,tezcatlipoca1 who was looked upon as the austere guardian of law and morals4 ,if we are to believe ,father ,sahagun1--and even if we allow for strong suspicions as to the accuracy of his translations of the prayers and exhortations uttered under certain circumstances by parents and priests1--it is evident that the ,mexicans were taught to consider a decent and virtuous life as required by the gods4 ,indeed1 they had a system of confession1 in which the priest received the statement of the penitent1 laid a penance on him1 and assured him of the pardon of the gods4 ,generally the penitents delayed their confession till they were advanced in age1 for relapses were regarded as beyond the reach of pardon4#bg ,it would be nearer the truth to say that the religious ethics of the ,mexicans had entered upon that path of dualism#bh by which alone1 in almost every case1 the normal synthesis or rational reconciliation of the demands of physical nature and the moral life has been ultimately reached4 ,for inasmuch as fidelity to duty often involves a certain amount of suffering1 the suffering comes to be regarded as the moral act itself1 and artificial sufferings are voluntarily incurred under the idea that they are the appointed price of access to a higher and more perfect life1 in closer conformity with the divine will4 ,the cruel rites which entered into the very tissue of the ,mexican religion could hardly fail to strengthen the same ascetic tendency1 by encouraging the idea that pain itself was pleasant to the eyes of the gods4 ,but the truth is that in this matter we can discern no more than tendencies4 ,there are symptoms of men's minds being busy with the relation of the moral to the religious life1 but no fixed or systematic conclusions had been reached4 ,it might1 perhaps1 have been otherwise in the sequel1 and these tendencies might ultimately have taken shape in corresponding theories and doctrines1 had not the ,spanish conquest intervened to put an end for ever to the evolution of the ,mexican religion4 ,i have frequently spoken of the ,mexican priests1 and the time has now come for dwelling more explicitly on this priesthood4 ,it was very numerous1 and had a strong organization reared on an aristocratic basis1 into which political calculations manifestly entered4 ,the noblest families 7including that of the monarch7 had the exclusive privilege of occupying the highest sacerdotal offices4 ,the priests of ,uitzilopochtli held the primacy4 ,their chief was sovereign pontiff1 with the title of ,mexicatl-,teohuatzin1 ,mexican lord of sacred things1 and ,teotecuhtli1 divine master4 ,next to him came the chief priest of ,quetzalcoatl1 who had no authority1 however1 except over his own order of clergy4 ,he lived as a recluse in his sanctuary1 and the sovereign only sent to consult him on certain great occasions2 whereas the primate sat on the privy council and exercised disciplinary powers over all the other priests in the empire4 ,every temple and every quarter had its regular priests4 ,no one could enter the priesthood until he had passed satisfactorily through certain tests or examinations before the directors of the ,calmecac1 or houses of religious education1 of which we shall speak presently4 ,the power of the clergy was very great4 ,they instructed youth1 fixed the calendar1 preserved the knowledge of the annals and traditions indicated by the hieroglyphics1 sang and taught the religious and national hymns1 intervened with special ceremonies at birth1 marriage and burial1 and were richly endowed by taxes raised in kind upon the products of the soil and upon industries4 ,every successful aspirant to the priesthood1 having passed the requisite examinations1 received a kind of unction1 which communicated the sacred character to him4 ,all this indicates a civilization that had already reached a high point of development2 but the indelible stain of the ,mexican religion re-appears every moment even where it seems to rise highest above the primitive religions3 amongst the ingredients of the fluid with which the new priest was anointed was the blood of an infant6 ,the priests' costume in general was black4 ,their mantles covered their heads and fell down their sides like a veil4 ,they never cut their hair1 and the ,spaniards saw some of them whose locks descended to their knees4 ,probably this was a part of the solar symbolism4 ,the rays of the ,sun are compared to locks of hair1 and we very often find the solar heroes or the servants of the ,sun letting their hair grow freely in order that they may resemble their god4 ,their mode of life was austere and sombre4 ,they were subject to the rules of a severe asceticism1 slept little1 rose at night to chant their canticles1 often fasted1 often drew their own blood1 bathed every night 7in imitation of the ,sun again71 and in many of the sacerdotal fraternities the most rigid celibacy was enforced4 ,you will see1 then1 that ,i did not exaggerate when ,i spoke of the belief that the gods were animated by cruel wills and took pleasure in human pain as having launched the ,mexican religion on a path of a systematic dualism and very stern asceticism4#bi ,but the surprise we experience in noting all these points of resemblance to the religious institutions of the ,old ,world1 perhaps reaches its culminating point when we learn that the ,mexican religion actually had its convents4 ,these convents were often1 but not always1 places of education for both sexes1 to which all the free families sent their children from the age of six or nine years upwards4 ,there the boys were taught by monks1 and the girls by nuns1 the meaning of the hieroglyphics1 the way to reckon time1 the traditions1 the religious chants and the ritual4 ,bodily exercises likewise had a place in this course of education1 which was supposed to be complete when the children had reached the age of fifteen4 ,the majority of them were now sent back to their families1 while the rest stayed behind to become priests or simple monks4 ,for there were religious orders1 under the patronage of the different gods1 and convents for either sex4 ,the monastic rule was often very severe4 ,in many cases it involved abstinence from animal food1 and the people called the monks of these severer orders ,quaquacuiltin1 or herb-eaters4 ,there were likewise associations resembling our half-secular1 half-ecclesiastical fraternities4 ,thus we hear of the society of the ,telpochtiliztli1 an association of young people who lived with their families1 but met every evening at sunset to dance and sing in honour of ,tezcatlipoca4 ,and1 finally1 we know that ancient ,mexico had its hermits and its religious mendicants4#cj ,the latter1 however1 only took the vow of mendicancy for a fixed term4 ,these are the details which led von ,humboldt and some other writers to believe that ,buddhism must have penetrated at some former period into ,mexico4 ,not at all6 ,what we have seen simply proves that asceticism1 the war against nature1 everywhere clothes itself in similar forms1 suggested by the very constitution of man2 and there is certainly nothing in common between the gentle insipidity of ,buddha's religion and the sanguinary faith of the ,aztecs4 ,the girls were under a rule similar to that of the boys4 ,they led a hard enough life in the convents set apart for them1 fasting often1 sleeping without taking off their clothes1 and 7when it was their turn to be on duty7 getting up several times in the night to renew the incense that burned perpetually before the gods4 ,they learned to sew1 to weave1 and to embroider the garments of the idols and the priests4 ,it was they who made the sacred cakes and the dough idols1 whose place in the public festivals ,i have described to you4 ,at the age of fifteen1 the same selection took place among the girls as among the boys4 ,those who stayed in the convent became either priestesses1 charged with the lower sacerdotal offices1 or directresses of the convents set aside for instruction1 or simple nuns1 who were known as ,cihuatlamacasque1 lady deaconesses1 or ,cihuaquaquilli1 lady herb-eaters1 inasmuch as they abstained from meat4 ,the most absolute continence was rigorously enforced1 and breach of it was punished by death4#ca ,one cannot but ask whether a priesthood so firmly organized1 in which was centred the whole intellectual life and all that can he called the science of ,mexico1 had not elaborated any higher doctrines or cosmogonic theories such as we owe to the priesthoods of the ,old ,world1 especially when we know that they regulated the calendar1 which presupposes some astronomical conceptions4 ,but here we enter upon a region that has not yet been methodically reclaimed by the historians4 ,we have often enough been presented with ,mexican cosmogonies1 but the fundamental error of all these expositions is1 that they present as a fixed and established body of doctrine what was in reality a very loose and unformed mass of traditions and speculations4 ,the sponsors of these cosmogonies agree neither as to their number nor their order of succession1 and it is obvious that a mistaken zeal to bring them as near as possible to the ,biblical tradition has been at work4 ,an attempt has even been made to find a ,mexican ,noah1 coming out of the ark1 in a fish-god emerging from a kind of box floating on the waters4#cb ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 namely1 that these cosmogonies are not ,aztec4 ,the ,aztec deities proper play no part in them4 ,we may therefore suppose that they are of ,central ,american origin1 or are due to that priesthood of ,quetzalcoatl which continued its silent work in the depths of its mysterious retreats4 ,the contradictions of our authorities as to the number and order of these cosmogonies suggest the idea that their arrangement one after another is no more than a harmonizing attempt to bring various originally distinct cosmogonies into connection with each other4 ,the fact is that others yet are known1 in addition to those which have taken their place in what we may call the classical list established by ,humboldt and ,mueller4#cc ,in this classical list there are five ages of the world1 separated from each other by universal cataclysms1 something after the fashion of the successive creations of the school of ,cuvier4 ,each of these ages is called a ,sun1 and1 according to the elements that preponderate during their respective courses1 they are called1 #ast1 the ,sun of the ,earth2 #bnd1 the ,sun of ,fire2 #crd1 the ,sun of the ,air2 and #dth1 the ,sun of ,water4 ,the fifth ,sun1 which is the present one1 has no special name4 ,we cannot enter upon the details concerning each of these ,suns1 and they are not very interesting in any case4 ,they contain confused reminiscences of primitive life1 of the ancient populations of ,anahuac1 of old and bygone worships1 but nothing particularly characteristic or original4 ,the only specially striking feature in this mass of cosmogonic traditions is the sense of the instability of the established order alike of nature and society which pervades them4 ,what was it that inspired the ,mexicans with this feeling8 ,perhaps the mighty destructive forces for which tropical countries1 equatorial seas and volcanic regions1 so often furnish a theatre1 had shaken confidence in the permanence of the physical constitution of the world4 ,perhaps the numerous political and social revolutions1 the frequent successions of peoples1 rulers and subjects in turn1 had accustomed the mind to conceive and anticipate perpetual changes1 of which the successive ages of the world were but the supreme expression2 and finally1 perhaps that quasi-messianic expectation of the return of ,quetzalcoatl1 to be accompanied by a complete renewal of things1 may have given an additional point of attachment to this belief in the caducity of the whole existing order4 ,what is certain is that this sentiment itself was very widely spread4 ,it served as a consolation to the peoples who were crushed beneath the cruel yoke of the ,aztecs4 ,they might well cherish the thought that all this would not last for ever2 and even the ,aztecs themselves had no unbounded confidence in the stability of their empire4 ,the ,spaniards profited greatly by this vague and all but universal distrust4 ,after their victory they made much of pretended prodigies that had shadowed it forth1 and even of prophecies that had announced it4#cd ,but the state of mind of the populations concerned being given1 at whatever moment the ,spaniards had arrived they would have been able to appeal to auguries of a like kind1 by dint of just giving them that degree of precision and clearness which usually distinguishes predictions that are recorded after their fulfilment6 ,a further proof that the ,mexican religion helped to spread this sense of the instability of things is furnished by the grand jubilee festival which was celebrated every fifty-two years in the city of ,mexico and throughout the empire4 ,the ,mexican cycle1 marking the coincidence of four times thirteen lunar and four times thirteen solar years1#ce counted two-and-fifty years1 and was called a sheaf of years4 ,now whenever the dawn of the fifty-third year drew near1 the question was anxiously put1 whether the world would last any longer1 and preparations were made for the great ceremony of the ,toxilmolpilia1 or binding up of years4 ,the day before1 every fire was extinguished4 ,all the priests of the city of ,mexico marched in procession to a mountain situated at two leagues' distance4 ,the entire population followed them4 ,they watched the ,pleiades intently4 ,if the world was to come to an end1 if the sun was never to rise again1 the ,pleiades would not pass the zenith2 but the moment they passed it1 it was known that a new era of fifty-two years had been guaranteed to men4 ,fire was kindled anew by the friction of wood4 ,but the wood rested on the bosom of the handsomest of the prisoners1 and the moment it was lighted the victim's body was opened1 his heart torn out1 and both heart and body burned upon a pile that was lit by the new fire4 ,no sooner did the people1 who had remained on the plain below1 perceive the flame ascend1 than they broke into delirious joy4 ,another fifty-two years was before the world4 ,more victims were sacrificed in gratitude to the gods4 ,brands were lighted at the sacred flame on the mountain1 from which the domestic fires were in their turn kindled1 and swift couriers were despatched with torches1 replaced continually on the route1 to the very extremities of the empire4 ,it was in the year #aejg1 twelve years before ,cortes disembarked1 that the ,toxilmolpilia was celebrated for the last time4 ,in #aeei1 although the mass of the natives had meanwhile been converted to ,roman ,catholicism1 the ,spanish government had to take severe measures to prevent its repetition4#cf ,we have far firmer footing1 then1 than is furnished by the shifting ground of the cosmogonies1 when we insist upon the general prevalence of the feeling that the world might veritably come to an end as it had done before4 ,beyond this there was nothing fixed or generally accepted4 ,much the same might be said of the future life4 ,the ,mexicans believed in man's survival after death4 ,this we see from the practice of putting a number of useful articles into the tomb by the side of the corpse1 after first breaking them1 so that they too might die and their spirits might accompany that of the departed to his new abodes4 ,they even gave him some ,tepitoton1 or little household gods1 to take with him1 and as a rule they killed a dog to serve as his guide in the mysterious and painful journey which he was about to undertake4 ,sometimes a very rich man would go so far as to have his chaplain slaughtered1 that he might not be deprived of his support in the other world4 ,but in all this there is nothing to distinguish the ,mexican religion from the beliefs that stretched over the whole of ,america1 and there is no indication that any moral conception had as yet vivified and hallowed the prospect beyond the grave4 ,the mass of ordinary mortals remained in the sombre1 dreary1 monotonous realm of ,mictlan2 for in ,mexico1 as in ,polynesia1 a really happy immortality was a privilege reserved for the aristocracy4 ,there were several paradises1 including that of ,tlaloc1 and above all the mansion of the ,sun1 destined to receive the kings1 the nobles and the warriors4 ,there they hunt1 they dance1 they accompany the sun in his course1 they can change themselves into clouds or humming-birds4 ,an exception is made1 however1 irrespective of social rank1 in favour of warriors who fall in battle and women who die in child-bed1 as well as for the victims sacrificed in honour of the celestial deities and destined to become their servants4 ,so1 too1 the paradise of ,tlaloc1 a most beauteous garden1 is opened to all who have been drowned 7for the god of the waters has taken them to himself71 to all who have died of the diseases caused by moisture1 and to the children who have been sacrificed to him4 ,we recognize in these exceptions an unquestionable tendency to introduce the idea of justice as qualifying the desolating doctrine of aristocratic privilege2 and probably this principle of justice would have become preponderant1 here as elsewhere1 had not the destinies of the ,mexican religion been suddenly broken off4 ,nor is it easy to explain the asceticism and austerities of which we have spoken1 except on the supposition that those who practised them all their lives believed they were thereby acquiring higher rights in the future life4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that it is not in its doctrine of a future life that the ,mexican religion reached its higher developments4 ,we must postpone till we have examined the ,peruvian religion1 which presents so many analogies to that of ,mexico1 while at the same time differing from it so considerably1 the final considerations suggested by the strange compound of beliefs1 now so barbarous and now so refined1 which we have passed in review4 ,spanish monks1 as we all know1 succeeded within a few years in bringing the populations who had submitted to the hardy conquerors within the pale of their ,church4 ,it was no very difficult task4 ,the whole past had vanished4 ,the royal families1 the nobility1 the clergy1 all had perished4 ,faith in the national gods had been broken by events4 ,the new occupants laid a grievous yoke upon the subject peoples1 whom they crushed and oppressed with hateful tyranny2 but we must do the ,franciscan monks1 who were first on the field in the work of conversion1 the justice of testifying that they did whatever in them lay to soften the fate of their converts and to plead their cause before the ,court of ,spain4 ,nor were their efforts always unsuccessful4 ,they were rewarded by the unstinted confidence and affection of the unhappy natives1 who found little pity or comfort save at the hands of the good ,fathers4 ,let us add that many of the peoples1 especially those from whom the human tithes of which we have spoken had been exacted by the ,aztecs1 were sensible of the humane and charitable aspects of a religion that repudiated these hideous sacrifices in horror1 and raised up the hearts of the oppressed by its promises of a future bliss conditioned by neither birth nor social rank4#cg ,but the worthy monks could not give what they had not got4 ,and the religious education which they gave their converts reflected only too faithfully their own narrow and punctilious monastic spirit1 itself almost as superstitious1 though in another way1 as what it supplanted4 ,nay1 more3 in spite of the best dispositions on either side1 it was inevitable that the ancient habits and beliefs should long maintain themselves1 though more or less shrouded beneath the new orthodoxy4 ,in #aega1 the terrible ,inquisition of ,spain came and established itself in ,mexico to put an end to this state of things2 and alas6 it found as many heretics as it could wish to show that it had not come for nothing4 ,and when the natives saw the fearful tribunal at work1 when the fires of the autos-da-fe were kindled on the plain of ,mexico and consumed by tens or hundreds the victims condemned by the ,holy ,office1 do you suppose that the new converts felt well assured in their own hearts that the ,god of the ,gospel was1 after all1 much better than ,uitzilopochtli and ,tezcatlipoca8#ch ,but we are stepping beyond the domain of history we have marked out for ourselves4 ,the religion of ,mexico is dead1 and we cannot desire a resurrection for it4 ,but the memory it has left behind is at once mournful and instructive4 ,it has enriched history with its confirmatory evidence as to the genesis1 the power and the tragic force of religion in human nature2 and he who inspects its annals1 now so poetical and now so terror-laden1 pauses in pensive thought before the grotesque but imposing monument which thrills him with admiration even while he recoils with horror4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,peru4--,,its ,,civilization ,,and ,,constitution1 ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,the ,,incas3 ,,their ,,policy ,,and ,,history4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,we pass to-day from ,north to ,south ,america2 and as in the former we confined ourselves to the district which presented the ,europeans of the sixteenth century with the unlooked-for spectacle of a native civilization and religion in an advanced stage of development1 so in the latter we shall specially study that other indigenous civilization1 likewise supported and patronized by a very curious and original religion1 which established itself along the ,cordilleras on the immensely long but comparatively narrow strip of land between those mountains and the ocean4 ,peru1 like ,mexico1 was the country of an organized solar religion2 but the former1 even more than the latter1 displays this religion worked into the very tissues of a most remarkable social structure1 with which it is so completely identified as not to be so much as conceivable without it4 ,the empire of the ,incas is one of the most complete and absolute theocracies--perhaps the very most complete and absolute--that the world has seen4 ,but in order to get a clear idea of what the ,peruvian religion was1 we must first say a word as to the country itself1 its physical constitution and its history4 ,the ,peru of the ,incas1 as discovered and conquered by the ,spaniards1 transcended the boundaries of the country now so called1 inasmuch as it included the more ancient kingdom of ,quito 7corresponding pretty closely to the modern republic of ,ecuador71 and extended over parts of the present ,chili and ,bolivia4 ,we learn from our ordinary maps that this whole territory was narrowly confined between the mountains and the sea4 ,observe1 however1 that it was nearly two thousand five hundred miles in length1 four times as long as ,france1 and that its breadth varied from about two hundred and fifty to about five hundred miles4 ,from ,west to ,east it presents three very different regions4 #a4 ,a strip along the coast where rain hardly ever falls1 but where the night dews are very heavy and the produce of the soil tropical4 #b4 ,the ,sierra formed by the first spurs of the ,cordilleras1 and already high enough above the level of the sea to produce the vegetation of the temperate regions4 ,here maize was cultivated on a large scale1 and great herds of vicunias1 alpacas and llamas were pastured4 ,and here we may note a great point of advantage enjoyed by ,peru over ,mexico2 for the llama1 though not very strong1 serves as a beast of burden and traction1 its flesh is well flavoured and its wool most useful4 #c4 ,the ,montana1 consisting of a region even yet imperfectly known1 over which extend unmeasured forests1 the home of the jaguar and the chinchilla1 of bright-plumed birds and of dreaded serpents4 ,above these forests stretch the dizzy peaks and the volcanos4 ,the most remarkable natural phenomenon of the country is the lake ,titicaca1 about seven times as great as the lake of ,geneva1 not far distant from the ancient capital ,cuzco1 and serving1 like ,anahuac1 the lake district of ,mexico1 as the chief focus of ,peruvian civilization and religion4 ,the mysterious disappearance beneath the ground of the river by which it empties itself1 stimulated yet further the myth-forming imagination of the dwellers on its shores4 ,there is a remarkable difference between the ways in which the two civilizations of which we are speaking formed and consolidated themselves in ,mexico and ,peru respectively4 ,we have seen that in ,mexico the state of things to which the ,spanish conquest put an end was the result of a long series of revolutions and wars1 in which successive peoples had ruled and served in turn2 and the ,aztecs had finally seized the hegemony1 while adopting a civilization the origins of which must be sought in ,central ,america4 ,in ,peru things had followed a more regular and stable course4 ,the dynasty of the ,incas had maintained itself for about six centuries as the patron of social progress and of a remarkably advanced culture4 ,starting from its native soil on the shores of ,lake ,titicaca1 and long confined in its authority to ,cuzco and its immediate territory1 this family had finally succeeded in indefinitely extending its dominion between the mountains and the sea1 sometimes by successful wars and sometimes by pacific means2 for whole populations had more than once been moved to range themselves of their own free will under the sceptre of the ,incas1 so as to enjoy the advantages assured to their subjects by their equitable rule4 ,when ,pizarro and his companions disembarked in ,peru1 the great ,inca1 ,huayna ,capac1 had but recently completed the empire by the conquest of the kingdom of ,quito4 ,it has been asked1 which was the more marvellous feat1 the conquest of ,mexico by ,fernando ,cortes1 or that of ,peru by ,pizarro4 ,one consideration weighs heavily in favour of ,cortes4 ,it is that he was the first4 ,when ,francisco ,pizarro threw himself with his handful of adventurers upon ,peru in #aeca1 he had before him the example of his brilliant precursor1 to teach him how a few ,europeans might impose by sheer audacity on the amazed and superstitious peoples2 and in many respects he simply copied his model4 ,like him1 he took advantage of the divisions and rivalries of the natives2 like him1 he found means of securing the person of the sovereign1 and was thereby enabled to quell the subjects4 ,on the other hand1 he had even fewer followers than ,cortes4 ,his company scarcely numbered over two hundred men at first1 and the ,peruvian empire was more compact and more wisely organized than that of ,mexico4 ,we shall presently see the principal cause to which his incredible success must be ascribed2 but the net result seems to be1 that one hesitates to pronounce the feats of either adventurer more astounding than those of the other1 especially when we remember that ,pizarro was without the political genius of ,fernando ,cortes1 and was so profoundly ignorant that he could not so much as read6 ,the family of the ,incas1 whose scourge ,pizarro proved to be1 must have numbered many fine politicians in its ranks4 ,never has what is called a dynastic policy been pursued more methodically and ably4 ,the proofs assail us at every moment4 ,the ,incas were a family of priest-kings1 who reigned1 as children of the ,sun1 over the ,peruvian land1 and the ,sun himself was the great deity of the country4 ,to obey the ,incas was to obey the supreme god4 ,their person was the object of a veritable cultus1 and they had succeeded so completely in identifying the interests of their own family with those of religion1 of politics and of civilization1 that it was no longer possible to distinguish them one from another4 ,and yet it was this very method1 so essentially theocratic1 of insisting on the minute regulation of all the actions of human life in the name of religion1 which finally ruined the ,incas4 ,peru1 in the sixteenth century1 had become one enormous convent1 in which everything was mechanically regulated1 in which no one could take the smallest initiative1 in which everything depended absolutely upon the will of the reigning ,inca2 so that the moment ,pizarro succeeded in laying hold of this ,inca1 this father ,abbe1 everything collapsed in a moment1 and nothing was left of the edifice constructed with such sagacity but a heap of sand4 ,and indeed this is the fatal result of every theocracy1 for it can never really be anything but a hierocracy or rule of priests4 ,on the one hand it must be absolute1 for the sovereign priest rules in the name of ,god2 and on the other hand it is fatally impelled to concern itself with every minutest affair1 to interfere vexatiously in all private concerns 7since they too affect religious ethics and discipline71 and to multiply regulations against every possible breach of the ruling religion4 ,it is a general lesson of religious history that is illustrated so forcibly by the fate of the ,inca priest-kings4 ,i will not weary you in this case1 any more than in that of ,mexico1 with the enumeration of the authors to whom we must go for information on the political and religious history of the strange country with which we are dealing4 ,i must1 however1 say a few words concerning a certain writer who long enjoyed the highest of reputations1 and was regarded throughout the last century as the most trustworthy and complete authority in ,peruvian matters4 ,the ,peruvians1 far as their civilization had advanced in many respects1 were behind even the ,mexicans in the art of preserving the memory of the past2 for they had not so much as the imperfect hieroglyphics known to the latter4 ,they made use of ,quipus or ,quipos1 indeed1 which were fringes1 the threads of which were variously knotted according to what they were intended to represent2 but unfortunately the ,peruvians anticipated on a large scale what so often happens on the small scale amongst ourselves to those persons of uncertain memory who tie knots on their handkerchiefs to remind them of something important4 ,they find the knot1 indeed1 but have forgotten what it means6 ,and so with the ,peruvians4 ,they were not always at one as to the meaning of their ancient ,quipos1 and there were several ways of interpreting them4 ,moreover1 after the conquest1 the few ,peruvians who might still have made some pretension to a knowledge of them did not trouble themselves to initiate the ,europeans into their filiform writing4 ,all that is left of it is the practice of the ,peruvian women who preserve this method of registering the sins they intend to record against themselves in the confessional4#ci ,let us hope that they at least never experience any analogous infirmity to that which besets the knot-tiers amongst ourselves4#dj ,to return to the ,peruvian author of whom ,i intended to speak4 ,he is the celebrated ,garcilasso de la ,vega1 who published his ,commentarios reales in #afji and #afag4da ,garcilasso's father was a ,european1 but his mother was a ,peruvian1 and1 what is more1 a ,palla1 that is to say1 a princess of the family of the ,incas4 ,born in #aedj1 this ,garcilasso had received from his mother and a maternal uncle a great amount of information as to the family1 the history and the persons of the ancient sovereigns4 ,he was extremely proud of his origin2 so much so1 indeed1 that he issued his works under the name of ,garcilasso el ,inca de la ,vega1 though he had no real title to the name of ,inca1 which could not be transmitted by women4 ,a genuine fervour breathes through his accounts of the history of his ,peruvian country and his glorious ancestors1 and it is to him that we owe the knowledge of many facts that would otherwise have been lost4 ,the interest of his narrative explains the reputation so long enjoyed by his work1 but the more critical spirit of recent times has discovered that his filial zeal has betrayed him into lavish embellishments of the situation created by the clever and cautious policy of his forebears1 the ,incas4 ,he has passed in silence over many of their faults1 and has attributed more than one merit to them to which they have no just claim4 ,but in spite of all this1 when we have made allowance for his family weakness1 we may consult him with great advantage as to the institutions and sovereigns of ancient ,peru4 ,we must allow1 with ,garcilasso1 that from the year #ajjj ,a4,d4 onwards 7for he places the origin of their power at about this date7 the ,incas had accomplished a work that may well seem marvellous in many respects4 ,had there been any relations between ,peru and ,central ,america8 ,can we explain the ,peruvian civilization as the result of an emigration from the isthmic region1 or an imitation of what had already been realized there8 ,there is not the smallest trace of any such thing4 ,no doubt it would be difficult to justify a categorical assertion on a subject so obscure2 but it is certain that when they were discovered1 ,peru and the kingdom of ,quito were separated from ,north ,america by immense regions plunged in the deepest savagery4 ,beginning at the ,isthmus of ,panama1 this savage district stretched over the whole northern portion of ,south ,america1 broken only by the demi-civilization of the ,muyscas or ,chibchas 7,new ,granada72 and the ,peruvians knew nothing of the ,mexicans4 ,neither the one nor the other were navigators1 and nothing in the ,peruvian traditions betrays the least connection with ,central ,america4 ,the most probable supposition is1 that an indigenous civilization was spontaneously developed in ,peru by causes analogous to those which had produced a similar phenomenon in the ,maya country4 ,in ,peru1 as in ,central ,america1 the richness of the soil1 the variety of its products1 the abundance of vegetable food1 especially maize1 secured the first conditions of civilization4 ,the ,peruvian advance was further favoured by the fact that it was protected towards the ,east by almost impassable mountains1 and towards the ,west by the sea1 while to the ,north and ,south it might concentrate its defensive forces upon comparatively narrow spaces4 ,the whole territory of the empire was divided into three parts4 ,the first was the property of the ,sun1 that is to say of the priests who officiated in his numerous temples2 the second belonged to the reigning ,inca2 and the third to the people4 ,the people's land was divided out every year in lots apportioned to the needs of each family1 but the portions assigned to the ,curacas1 or nobles1 were of a magnitude suited to their superior dignity4 ,taxes were paid in days of labour devoted to the lands of the ,inca and those of the ,sun1 or in manufactured articles of various kinds1 for the cities contained a number of artizans4 ,indeed1 it was one of the maxims of the ,incas that no part of the empire1 however poor1 should be exempt from paying tribute of one kind or another4 ,to such a length was this carried1 that so grave a historian as ,herrera tells us how the ,inca ,huayna ,capac1 wishing to determine what kind of tribute the inhabitants of ,pasto were to pay1 and being assured that they were so entirely without resources or capacity of any kind that they could give him nothing at all1 laid on them the annual tribute of a certain measure of vermine1 preferring1 as he said1 that they should pay this singular tax rather than nothing4#db ,we cannot congratulate the officials commissioned to collect the tribute1 but we cite this sample in proof of the rigour with which the ,incas carried out the principles which they considered essential to the government of the country4 ,the special principle we have just illustrated was founded on the idea that the ,sun journeys and shines for every one1 and that accordingly every one should contribute towards the payment of his services4 ,for the rest1 the great herds of llamas1 which constituted a regular branch of the national wealth1 could only be owned by the temples of the ,sun and by the ,inca4 ,every province1 every town or village1 had the exact nature and the exact quantity of the products it must furnish assigned1 and the ,incas possessed great depots in which were stored provisions1 arms and clothes for the army4 ,all this was regulated1 accounted for and checked by means of official ,quipos4 ,the numerous body of officials charged with the general superintendence and direction of affairs was organized in a very remarkable manner1 well calculated to consolidate the ,inca's power4 ,all the officials held their authority from him1 and represented him to the people1 just as he himself represented the ,sun-god4 ,at the bottom of the scale was an official overseer for every ten families1 next above an overseer of a hundred families1 then another placed over a thousand1 and another over ten thousand4 ,each province had a governor who generally belonged to the family of the ,incas4 ,all this constituted a marvellous system of surveillance and espionage1 descending from the sovereign himself to the meanest of his subjects1 and founded on the principle that the rays of the ,sun pierce everywhere4 ,the lowest members of this official hierarchy1 the superintendents of ten families1 were responsible to their immediate superiors for all that went on amongst those under their charge1 and those superiors again were responsible to the next above them1 and so on up to the ,inca himself1 who thus held the threads of the whole vast net-work in the depths of his palace4 ,it was another maxim of the ,peruvian state that every one must work1 even old men and children4 ,infants under five alone were excepted4 ,it was the duty of the superintendents of ten families to see that this was carried out everywhere1 and they were armed with disciplinary powers to chastise severely any one who remained idle1 or who ordered his house ill1 or gave rise to any scandal4 ,individual liberty then was closely restrained4 ,no one could leave his place of residence without leave4 ,the time for marriage was fixed for both sexes--for women at eighteen to twenty1 for men at twenty-four or upwards4 ,the unions of the noble families were arranged by the ,inca himself1 and those of the inferior classes by his officers1 who officially assigned the young people one to another4 ,each province had its own costume1 which might not be changed for any other1 and every one's birthplace was marked by a ribbon of a certain colour surrounding his head4#dc ,in a word1 the ,jesuits appear to have copied the constitution of the ,peruvian society when they organized their famous ,paraguay missions1 and perhaps this fact may help us to trace the profound motives which in either case suggested so minutely precise a system of inserting individuals into assigned places which left no room for self-direction4 ,the ,incas and the ,jesuits alike had to contend against the disconnected1 incoherent turbulence of savage life1 and both alike were thereby thrown upon an exaggerated system of regulations1 in which each individual was swaddled and meshed in supervisions and ordinances from which it was impossible to escape4 ,having said so much1 we must acknowledge that1 generally speaking1 the ,incas made a very humane and paternal use of their absolute power4 ,they strove to moderate the desolating effects of war1 and generally treated the conquered peoples with kindness4 ,but we note that in the century preceding that of the ,european conquest1 they had devised a means of guarding against revolts exactly similar to the measures enforced against rebellious peoples by the despotic sovereigns of ,nineveh and ,babylon2 that is to say1 they transported a great part of the conquered populations into other parts of their empire1 and it appears that ,cuzco1 like ,babylon1 presented an image in miniature of the whole empire4 ,there1 as at ,babylon1 a host of different languages might be heard1 and it was amongst the children of the deported captives that ,pizarro1 like ,cyrus at ,babylon1 found allies who rejoiced in the fall of the empire that had crushed their fathers4 ,for the rest1 the ,incas endeavoured to spread the language of ,cuzco1 the ,quechua1 throughout their empire4#dd ,nothing need surprise us in the way of political sagacity and insight on the part of this priestly dynasty4 ,its monarchs seem to have hit upon every device which has been imagined elsewhere for attaching the conquered peoples to themselves or rendering their hostility harmless4 ,thus you will remember that at ,mexico there was a chapel that served as a prison for the idols of the conquered4 ,in the same way there stood in the neighbourhood of ,cuzco a great temple with seventy-eight chapels in it1 where the images of all the gods worshipped in ,peru were assembled4 ,each country had its altar there1 on which sacrifice was made according to the local customs4#de ,the ,spaniards1 amongst whom respect for the royal person was sufficiently profound1 were amazed by the marks of extreme deference of which the ,inca was the object4 ,they could not understand at first that actual religious worship was paid to him4 ,he alone had the inherent right to be carried on a litter1 and he never went out in any other way1 imitating the ,sun1 his ancestor1 who traverses the world without ever putting his foot to the ground4 ,some few men and women of the highest rank might rejoice in the same distinction1 but only if they had obtained the ,inca's sanction4 ,in the same way1 it was only the members of the ,inca family and the nobles of most exalted rank who were allowed to wear their hair long1 for this was a distinctive sign of the favourites of the ,sun4 ,none could enter the presence of the reigning ,inca save bare-footed1 clad in the most simple garments and bearing a burden on his shoulders1 all in token of humility2 nor must he raise his eyes throughout the audience1 for no man looks upon the face of the ,sun4 ,it seems that the ,incas possessed the art of royal majesty in a high degree4 ,they could retain the impassive air of indifference1 whatever might be going on before their eyes1 like the ,sun1 who passes without emotion over everything that takes place below4 ,it was thus that ,atahualpa appeared to the ,spaniards1 who remarked the all but stony fixity of the ,peruvian monarch's features in the presence of all the new sights--horses1 riding1 fire-arms--which filled his subjects with surprise and terror4#df ,and such was the superhuman character of the ,inca1 that even the base office of a spittoon--excuse such a detail--was supplied by the hand of one of his ladies4#dg ,the salute was given to the ,inca by kissing one's hand and then raising it towards the ,sun4 ,at his death the whole country went into mourning for a year4 ,the young ,incas were educated together1 under conditions of great austerity1 and were never allowed to mingle with young people of the inferior classes4#dh ,the army of the ,incas was the army of the ,sun4 ,the obligation to military service was universal1 since the ,sun shines for all men4 ,every sound man from twenty-five to fifty might be called on to serve in his company4 ,thus numerous and highly-disciplined armies were raised1 for the spirit of obedience had penetrated all classes of the people4 ,the ,incas had abolished the use of poisoned arrows1 which is so common amongst the natives of the ,new ,world4#di ,justice was organized after fixed laws1 and1 as is usually the case in theocracies1 these laws were severe4 ,for in theocracies1 to the social evil of the offence is added the impiety committed against the ,deity and his representative on earth4 ,the culprit has been guilty not only of crime1 but of sacrilege4 ,the penalty of death was freely inflicted even in the case of offences that implied no evil disposition4#ej ,the palanquin-bearer1 for instance1 who should stumble under his august burden when carrying the ,inca1 or any one who should speak with the smallest disrespect of him1 must die4 ,but we must also note certain principles of sound justice which the ,incas had likewise succeeded in introducing4 ,the judges were controlled1 and1 in case of unjust judgments1 punished4 ,the law was more lenient to a first offence than to a second1 to crimes committed in the heat of the moment than to those of malise prepense2 more lenient to children than to adults1 and 7mark this7 more lenient to the common people than to the great4#ea ,the members of the ,inca family alone were exempted from the penalty of death1 which in their case was replaced by imprisonment for life4 ,they alone might1 and indeed must1 marry their sisters1 for a reason that we shall see further on4 ,thus everything was calculated to set this divine family apart4 ,polygamy1 too1 was only allowed to the ,incas and to the families of next highest rank after them1 who1 however1 might not marry at all without the personal assent of the sovereign4#eb ,but the ,incas strove to make themselves loved4 ,herrera tells us of establishments in which orphans and foundlings were brought up at the ,inca's charges1 and of the alms he bestowed on widows who had no means of subsistence4#ec ,the same deliberate system shows itself in the attempts to spread education4 ,the ,incas founded schools1 but they were opened only to the children of the ,incas and of the nobility4 ,this is a genuine theocratic trait4 ,garcilasso tells us naively that his ancestor the ,inca ,roca 7#abjj--abdi7 in founding public schools had no idea of allowing the people to get information1 grow proud1 and disturb the state4#ed ,the instruction1 which was given by the amautas 7sages71 turned on the history or traditions of the country1 on the laws1 and on religion4 ,we have said that writing was unknown4 ,there were only the mnemonic ,quipos1 pictures on linen representing great events1 and some rudimentary attempts at hieroglyphics which the ,incas do not seem to have encouraged4 ,indeed1 there is reason to believe that the hieroglyphics found graven on the rocks of ,yonan are anterior to the ,inca supremacy2#ee and it is said that a certain amauta who had attempted to introduce a hieroglyphic alphabet1 was burned to death for impiety at the order of the ,inca4#ef ,the most remarkable results of the rule of the ,incas are seen in the material well-being which they secured to their people4 ,all the historians speak of the really extraordinary perfection to which ,peruvian agriculture had been carried1 though the use of iron was quite unknown4 ,the solar religion fits perfectly with the habits of an agricultural people1 and the ,incas thought it became them1 as children of the ,sun1 to encourage the cultivation of the soil4 ,they ordered the execution of great public works1 such as supporting walls to prevent the sloping ground from being washed away2 irrigation canals1 some of which measured five hundred miles1 and which were preserved with scrupulous care2 magazines of guano1 the fertilizing virtues of which were known in ,peru long before they were learned in ,europe4#eg ,the ,spaniards are far from having maintained ,peruvian agriculture at the level it had reached under the ,incas4 ,splendid roads stretched from ,cuzco towards the four quarters of heaven2 and ,humboldt still traced some of them1 paved with black porphyry1 or in other cases cemented or rather macadamized1 and often launched over ravines and pierced through hills with remarkable boldness4#eh ,the ,incas had established reservoirs of drinking water for the public use from place to place along these roads1 and likewise pavilions for their own accommodation when they were traversing their realms1 on which occasions they never travelled more than three or four leagues a day4 ,bridges were thrown across the rivers1 sometimes built of stone1 but more often constructed on the method1 so frequently described1 that consists in uniting the opposing banks by two parallel ropes1 along which a great basket is slung4#ei ,a system of royal courier posts measured the great roads as in ,mexico4 ,there were many important cities in ,peru1 and1 according to a contemporary estimate cited by ,prescott1 the capital1 ,cuzco1 even without including its suburbs1 must have embraced at least two hundred thousand inhabitants4#fj ,architecture was in a developed stage4 ,we shall have to speak of the temples presently4 ,the ,inca's palaces--and there was at least one in every city of any importance--were of imposing dimensions1 and a high degree of comfort and luxury was displayed within them4 ,gold glittered on the walls and beneath the roofs which were generally thatched with straw4 ,they were provided with inner courts1 spacious halls1 sculptures in abundance1 but inferior1 it would seem1 to those of ,central ,america1 and baths in which hot or cold water could be turned on at will4#fa ,in a word1 when we remember from how many resources the ,peruvians were still cut off by their ignorance and isolation1 we cannot but admit that a genuine civilization is opening before our eyes1 the defects of which must not blind us to its splendour4 ,and since this civilization was in great part due 7we shall see the force of the qualification presently7 to the continuous efforts of the ,incas1 our next task must be to ascend to the mythic origin of that family1 which we borrow from the narrative of their descendant1 ,garcilasso de la ,vega4#fb ,properly speaking1 this narrative is the local myth of the ,lake ,titicaca and of ,cuzco1 transformed into an imperial myth4 ,before the ,incas1 we are told1 men lived in the most absolute savagery4 ,they were addicted to cannibalism and offered human victims to gods who were gross like themselves4 ,at last the ,sun took pity on them1 and sent them two of his children1 ,manco ,capac and ,mama ,ogllo 7or ,oullo1 ,ocollo1 ,oolle1 c471 to establish the worship of the ,sun and alleviate their lot4 ,the two emissaries1 son and daughter of the ,sun and ,moon1 rose one day from the depths of the ,lake ,titicaca4 ,they had been told that a golden splinter which they bore with them would pierce the earth at the spot in which they were to establish themselves1 and the augury was fulfilled on the site of ,cuzco1 the name of which signifies navel4#fc ,observe that1 in classical antiquity1 ,babylon1 ,athens1 ,delphi1 ,paphos1 ,jerusalem1 and so forth1 each passed for the navel of the earth4 ,manco ,capac and ,mama ,ogllo1 then1 established the worship of the ,sun4 ,they taught the savage inhabitants of the place agriculture and the principal trades1 the art of building cities1 roads and aqueducts4 ,mama ,ogllo taught the women to spin and weave4 ,they appointed a number of overseers to take care that every one did his duty2 and when they had thus regulated everything in ,cuzco1 they re-ascended to heaven4 ,but they left a son and daughter to continue their work4 ,like their parents1 the brother and sister became husband and wife1 and from them descends the sovereign family of the ,incas1 that is to say1 the ,lord-rulers1 or ,master-rulers4 ,such is the legend1 from which the first deduction must be that the ,inca family has nothing in common with the other denizens of earth4 ,it is super-imposed1 as it were1 on humanity4 ,it is because of this difference of origin that the laws which restrain the rest of mankind are not always applicable to the ,incas4 ,for example1 they marry their sisters1 as ,manco ,capac did1 and as the ,sun does1 for the ,moon is at once his wife and his sister4 ,it is thus that they are enabled to preserve the divine character of their unique family4 ,for ourselves1 we can entertain no doubt that this is a cosmic myth4 ,mama ,ogllo1 or the mother egg1 and ,manco ,capac1 or the mighty man1 are two creators4 ,the myth indicates that there existed an ancient solar priesthood on one of the islands or on the shores of the ,lake of ,titicaca 7at an early date the focus of a certain civilization71 and that this priestly family became at a given period the ruling power at ,cuzco4 ,it was thence that it radiated over the small states which surrounded ,cuzco1 embracing them one after another under its prestige and its power1 until it had become the redoubtable dynasty that we know it4 ,manco ,capac and ,mama ,ogllo1 the creator and the cosmic egg1 have become the ,sun and ,moon1 represented by their ,inca high-priest and his wife4 ,there is no practice towards which a more wide-spread tendency exists in ,america than that of conferring the name of a deity on his chief priest4 ,and if ,garcilasso fixes the appearance of ,manco ,capac at about #ajjj ,a4,d41 it is simply because the historical recollections of his family mounted no higher1 and that about that time it began to rise out of its obscurity4 ,it had the advantage of numbering in its royal line both successful warriors and1 what is more1 consummate politicians1 instances of whose ability we have already seen and shall see again4 ,the point at which the legend preserved by ,garcilasso is clearly at fault1 is in its claim for the ,incas as the first and only civilizers of ,peru4 ,we shall presently meet with other ,peruvian myths of civilization which do not stand in the least connection with ,manco ,capac and the ,incas4 ,the kingdom of ,quito1 which the ,inca ,huayna ,capac had recently conquered when the ,spaniards arrived1 though not on the same level as ,peru proper1 was far removed from the savage state1 while as yet a stranger to the influence of the ,incas4 ,the country of the ,muyscas1 the present ,new ,granada or land of ,bogota1 though standing in no connection with ,peru1 was the theatre of another sacerdotal and solar religion sui generis1 which1 though very little known1 is highly interesting4 ,the valley of the ,rimac1 or ,lima1 and the coast lands in general1 were likewise centres of a pre-,inca civilization4 ,the ,chimus especially1 themselves dwellers on the coast1 were possessed of an original civilization differing from that of the ,incas4 ,they were the last to be conquered4 ,to sum up1 everything leads us to suppose that various centres of social development had long existed1 up and down the whole region1 but that1 under the presiding genius of the priesthood of ,manco ,capac1 the civilization of ,cuzco had gradually acquired the preponderance1 till it consecutively eclipsed and absorbed all the others4 ,garcilasso labours hard to impress us with the belief that the sovereigns of his family maintained an unbroken age of gold1 by dint of their wisdom and virtues4 ,but we know1 both from himself and from other sources1 that as a matter of fact the ,incas' sky was not always cloudless4 ,they had numbered both bad and incapable rulers in their line4 ,more than once they had had to suppress terrible insurrections1 and their palaces had witnessed more than one tragedy4#fd ,but after making all allowances1 we must admit that they succeeded in governing well1 and more especially in maintaining intact their own religious and political prestige4 ,now this very cleverness1 this conscious and often extremely deliberate and astutely calculated policy1 compels us to ask how far the ,incas themselves were sincere in their pretension to be descended from the ,sun1 and their faith in the very special favour in which the great luminary held them4 ,there is so much rationalism in their habitual tactics1 that one cannot help suspecting a touch of it in their beliefs4 ,and the truth is that their descendant1 ,garcilasso1 has recorded certain traditions to that effect1 which he has perhaps dressed up a little too much in ,european style1 with a view to convincing us that his ancestors were monotheistic philosophers1 but which nevertheless bear the marks of a certain authenticity4 ,for the reasoning which ,garcilasso puts into the mouth of the ,incas closely resembles what would naturally commend itself to the mind of a pagan who should once ask himself whether the visible phenomenon1 the ,sun1 which he adored1 was really as living1 as conscious1 as personal1 as they said4 ,thus the ,inca ,tupac ,yupanqui 7fifteenth century7 is said to have reasoned thus3#fe ,they say that the ,sun lives1 and that he does everything4 ,but when one does anything1 he is near to the thing he does2 whereas many things take place while the ,sun is absent4 ,it therefore cannot be he who does everything4 ,and again1 if he were a living being1 would he not be wearied by his perpetual journeyings8 ,if he were alive1 he would experience fatigue1 as we do2 and if he were free1 he would visit other parts of the heavens which he never traverses4 ,in truth1 he seems like a thing held to its task that always measures the same course1 or like an arrow that flies where it is shot and not where it wills itself4 ,note this line of reasoning1 ,gentlemen1 which must have repeated itself in many minds when once they had acquired enough independence and power of thought calmly to examine those natural phenomena which primitive naivete had animated1 personified and adored as the lords of destiny4 ,their fixity and their mechanical and unvarying movements1 when once observed1 could not fail to strike a mortal blow at the faith of which they were the object4 ,that faith was transformed without being radically changed when it was no longer the phenomenon itself1 but the personal and directing spirit1 the genius1 the deity that was behind the phenomenon1 but distinct from it and capable of detaching itself from it1 which drew to itself the worship of the faithful4 ,but in his turn this god1 shaped in the image of man1 must either be refined into pure spirit1 or must fall below the rational and moral ideal ultimately conceived by man himself4 ,when all is said and done1 ,gentlemen1 ,buddhism is still a religion of ,nature4 ,it is the last word of that order of religions1 and exists to show us that1 at any rate in its authentic and primitive form1 that last word is nothingness4 ,and that is why ,buddhism has never existed in its pure form as a popular religion4 ,for in religion1 and at every stage of religion1 mind seeks mind4 ,without that1 religion is nothing4 ,note1 too1 the observant ,inca's remark1 that if the ,sun were alive he must be dreadfully tired4 ,you may find the same idea in more than one ,european mythology1 in which the ,sun appears as an unhappy culprit condemned to a toilsome service for some previous fault2 or1 again1 an iron constitution is given him1 to explain why he is not worn out by his ceaseless journeying4 ,now ,tupac ,yupanqui would not be the only ,inca who cherished a certain scepticism concerning his ancestor the ,sun4 ,herrera tells us that the ,inca ,viracocha denied that the ,sun was ,god2#ff and according to a story preserved by ,garcilasso1#fg the ,inca ,huayna ,capac1 the conqueror of ,quito1 who died shortly after ,pizarro's first disembarkment1 must have been quite as much of a rationalist4 ,one day1 during the celebration of a festival in honour of the ,sun1 he is said to have gazed at the great luminary so long and fixedly that the chief priest ventured on some respectful remarks to the effect that so irreverent a proceeding must surprise the people4 ,i will ask you two questions1 replied the monarch4 ,i am your king and universal lord4 ,would any one of you have the hardihood to order me to rise from my seat and take a long journey for his pleasure8444 ,and would the richest and most powerful of my vassals dare to disobey if ,i should command him on the spot to set out in all speed for ,chili8 ,and when the priest answered in the negative1 the ,inca continued3 ,then ,i tell you there must be a greater and a more mighty lord above our father the ,sun1 who orders him to take the course he follows day by day4 ,for if he were himself the sovereign lord1 he would now and again omit his journey and rest1 for his pleasure1 even if he experienced no necessity for doing so4 ,once more3 ,i will not vouch for the exact form of these audacious speculations of the free-thinking ,inca4 ,but such reminiscences1 collected independently by various authors1 correspond to the conjectures forced upon us by the extreme political sagacity of the ,incas4 ,none but theocrats1 in whose own hearts faith in their central principle was waning1 could develop such astuteness and diplomacy4 ,a sincere and untried faith has not recourse to so many expedients dictated by policy and the fear lest the joint in the armour should be found4 ,it is to be presumed1 however1 that these heterodox speculations of the ,incas themselves never passed beyond the narrow circle of the family and its immediate surroundings4 ,nothing of the kind would ever be caught by the ear of the people4 ,but the evidence as to ,huayna ,capac's scepticism derives a certain confirmation from the fact that he was the first ,inca who departed 7to the woe of his empire1 as it turned out7 from some of the hereditary maxims that had always been scrupulously observed by his ancestors4 ,huayna ,capac had considerably extended the ,peruvian empire by the conquest of the kingdom of ,quito4 ,in the hope1 presumably1 of consolidating his conquest1 he resided for a long time in the newly-acquired territory1 and married the conquered king's daughter1 to whom he became passionately attached4 ,this was absolutely contrary to one of the statutes of the ,inca family1 no member of which was allowed to marry a stranger4 ,by his foreign wife he had a son called ,atahualpa1 and whether it was that he thought it good policy to allow a certain autonomy to the kingdom of ,quito1 or whether it was due to his tenderness towards ,atahualpa's mother and the son she had borne him1 certain it is that when he died at ,quito in #aebe1 he decided that ,atahualpa should reign over this newly-acquired kingdom1 whilst his other son ,huascar1 the unimpeachably legitimate ,inca1 was to succeed him as sovereign of ,peru proper4 ,this1 again1 was a violation of the maxim that the kingdom of the ,incas1 which was the kingdom of the ,sun1 was never to be parted4 ,it was in the midst of the struggles provoked by the hostility of the two brothers that ,pizarro fell like a meteor amongst the ,peruvians1 who did not so much as know of the existence of any other land than the one they inhabited4 ,but the hour warns me that ,i must pause4 ,when next we meet1 ,i shall have to recount the fall of the great religious dynasty of the ,incas1 and we shall then examine more closely that ,peruvian religion of which we have to-day but sketched the outline4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,incas4--,,peruvian ,,mythology1 ,,priesthood4 ,i4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,you will remember that when last we met we traced out the legendary origin of the royal house of the ,incas4 ,starting from the shores of the ,lake ,titicaca and the city of ,cuzco1 and progressively extending its combined religious and political dominion over the numerous countries situated west of the ,cordilleras1 it had welded them into one vast empire1 centralized and organized in a way that1 in spite of its defects1 extorts our admiration4 ,you had occasion to notice the extraordinary degree to which the consummate practical sagacity which distinguished the sacerdotal and imperial family of the ,sun for successive centuries1 was combined with purely mythological principles of faith2 and we were compelled to ask whether so much diplomacy was really consistent with unreserved belief4 ,finally we saw that1 according to the historians1 more than one of the ,incas had in fact expressed and justified a doubt as to the living and conscious personality of that ,sun-god whose descendants they were supposed to be4 ,the position of affairs when the ,spaniards disembarked on the shores of ,peru is already known to you4 ,the ,inca ,huayna ,capac1 conqueror of ,quito1 had broken with the constitutional maxims of his dynasty1 in the first place by marrying a stranger1 the daughter of a deposed king2 and in the second place by leaving the kingdom of ,quito to the son1 ,atahualpa1 whom she bore him2 while he allowed ,huascar1 the heir-apparent to the empire1 to succeed him in ,peru proper1 thus severing into two parts the kingdom of the ,sun1 in defiance of the principle hitherto recognized1 which forbad the division of that kingdom under any circumstances4 ,the war which speedily arose between ,atahualpa and his half-brother ,huascar was the great cause that made it possible for ,pizarro and his miniature army to get a footing in the ,peruvian territory4 ,the military forces of both sections of the empire were engaged with each other far away from the place of landing1 and the inhabitants1 wholly unaccustomed to take any initiative1 made no resistance to the strange invaders1 whose appearance1 arms and horses1 struck terror into their hearts1 and in whom 7like the ,mexicans in the case of ,cortes and his followers7 they thought they saw supernatural beings4 ,pizarro1 who knew how things stood1 had but one idea1 viz41 to imitate ,cortes in laying hold of the sovereign's person4 ,atahualpa returned victorious4 ,he had defeated ,huascar1 slaughtered many members of the ,inca family1 and thrown his conquered brother into prison1 so as to govern ,peru in his name1 for he was not sure that he himself would be recognized and obeyed as a legitimate descendant of the ,sun4 ,pizarro found means of making his arrival known to him1 and at the same time offered him his alliance against his enemies4#fh ,atahualpa was delighted with these overtures1 and invited his pretended allies to a conference near ,caxamarca1 where the ,spaniards had installed themselves4 ,the ,inca advanced1 parading all the pomp and splendour of his solar divinity4 ,four hundred richly-clad attendants preceded his palanquin1 which sparkled at a thousand points with gold and precious stones1 and was borne on the shoulders of officers drawn from amongst the highest nobles1 while troops of male and female dancers followed the child of the ,sun and plied their art4 ,then ensued one of those unique scenes of history upon which1 as indignation contends with amazement for the mastery in our minds1 we must pause for a moment to gaze4 ,pizarro's almoner1 ,father ,valverde1 drew near to the ,inca1 a crucifix in one hand and a missal in the other1 and by means of an interpreter delivered a regular discourse to him1 in which he announced that ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 had given all the lands of ,america to the ,king of ,spain1 which he had a right to do as the successor of ,st4 ,peter1 who was himself the ,vicar of the ,son of ,god4 ,then he expounded the chief articles of ,christian orthodoxy1 and summoned the ,inca there and then to abjure the religion of his ancestors1 receive baptism1 and submit to the sovereignty of the ,king of ,spain4 ,on these conditions he might continue to reign4 ,otherwise he must look for every kind of disaster4 ,atahualpa was literally stupefied4 ,much of the discourse1 no doubt1 he failed to follow1 but what he did understand filled him with indignation4 ,he answered that he reigned over his peoples by hereditary right1 and could not see how a foreign priest could dispose of lands that were not his4 ,he should remain faithful to the religion of his fathers1 especially1 he added1 as he pointed to the crucifix grasped by the monk1 since my god1 the ,sun1 is at any rate alive2 whereas the one you propose for my acceptance1 as far as ,i gather1 is dead4 ,finally1 he desired to know whence his interlocutor had derived all the strange things that he had told him4 ,hence6 cried ,valverde1 holding out his missal4 ,the ,inca1 who had never seen a book in all his life1 took this object1 so new to him1 in his hands1 opened it1 put it to his ear1 and finding that it said nothing1 flung it contemptuously on the ground4 ,pizarro saw the moment for striking the blow he contemplated4 ,crying out at the sacrilege1 he gave his soldiers the signal of attack4 ,their horses and fire-arms caused an instant panic4 ,in vain did some of his officers attempt to defend the ,inca4 ,pizarro broke through to him1 seized him by the arm and dragged him to his quarters4 ,all his escort fled in terror4 ,atahualpa1 then1 was in the immediate power of ,pizarro1 who 7still imitating ,cortes7 surrounded his prisoner with every comfort and attention1 though confining him strictly to one chamber1 and warning him that any attempt at escape or resistance would be the signal for his death4 ,atahualpa soon perceived that thirst for gold was the great motive that had impelled the ,spaniards to their audacious enterprize4 ,he hoped to disarm them by offering as ransom gold enough to fill the chamber in which he was confined up to the height of a man4 ,he gave the necessary orders for collecting the precious metal in the requisite amount1 and to secure the good reception of the emissaries whom ,pizarro despatched everywhere to receive it4 ,one of these detachments even entered into relations with the captive ,inca1 ,huascar1 and the latter hastened to offer the ,spaniards yet more gold than ,atahualpa was giving them if they would take his part4 ,atahualpa heard of this1 was alarmed1 regarded his conquered brother's attempts in the light of high-treason1 gave orders for his death--and was obeyed4#fi ,he was not aware how precarious was his own tenure of life4 ,pizarro saw more and more clearly that1 in order to become the real master of ,peru1 he must get rid of the reigning ,inca1 and put some child in his place1 who would be a passive instrument in his hands4 ,he was fairly alarmed by the religious obedience1 timid but absolute1 that the child of the ,sun1 even in his captivity1 received from all classes of his subjects4 ,he fancied that from the recesses of his prison1 and even while paying off his enormous ransom1#gj ,atahualpa had sent secret orders to the most distant populations to arm themselves and come to his rescue4 ,the interpreter through whom he communicated with his captive was out of temper with his master1 for his head had been so turned by ambition1 that he had demanded the hand of a coya1 that is to say1 one of the ,inca's women1 and had been haughtily refused4 ,in revenge1 he made malicious reports to ,pizarro4 ,but it was an accidental circumstance that brought the latter's ill-will towards his captive to a point4 ,the ,inca greatly admired the art of writing when he discovered all the uses the ,spaniards made of it4 ,one day it occurred to him to get one of the soldiers on guard over him to write the word ,dio upon his nail1 and he was delighted and astonished to find that every one to whom he showed it read it in the same way4 ,so they told him that every one a little above the common herd could read and write in ,europe4 ,his evil star would have it that he showed his thumb one day to ,pizarro1 who could make nothing of it4 ,pizarro1 then1 could not read6 ,atahualpa concluded that he was merely one of the common herd1 and found an opportunity of telling him so4 ,pizarro1 stung to the quick1 hesitated no longer4 ,a mock judgment condemned ,atahualpa to the extreme penalty for the crimes of idolatry1 polygamy1 usurpation1 fratricide and rebellion4 ,in vain he appealed to the ,king of ,spain4 ,he was led to the stake1 and ,father ,valverde made him purchase by a baptism in extremis the privilege of being strangled instead of burned alive4 ,from this moment the fate of ,peru was decided4 ,the head once struck from the great body1 long convulsions ensued1 but no serious resistance was possible4 ,pizarro set up as ,inca a young brother of ,huascar's1 who was at first a mere instrument in the hands of his country's bleeders1 but afterwards escaped and raised insurrections which ended in his total defeat4 ,the ,spaniards had been reinforced1 and had found allies amongst the peoples who had been torn from their native soils by the victorious ,incas4#ga ,other attempts1 still attaching themselves to the name of some ,inca1 failed in like manner4 ,and yet the mass of the ,peruvians1 in spite of their conversion to ,roman ,catholicism1 remained obstinately attached to the memory of their ,incas4 ,one of their real or pretended descendants1 in the eighteenth century1 did not shrink from serving as a domestic at ,madrid and ,rome1 as the only means of learning the secret of that ,european power which had so cruelly crushed his ancestors4#gb ,but on his return to ,peru 7#agdd ,a4,d47 his efforts only ended in his destruction4 ,but this did not prevent a certain ,tupac ,amarou1 who was descended from the ,incas through a female line1 from fomenting a rebellion in #aghj1 which it cost the ,spaniards an effort to suppress4#gc ,later on1 after the revolution that broke the bond of subjection to ,spain1 this stubborn hostility of the ,peruvians changed its character2 but in #ahfg1 ,bustamente still tried to make capital out of the historical attachment of the natives to the ,incas by declaring himself their descendant4 ,the opposition1 however1 had long lost all vestige of a religious character4 ,the legend of ,manco ,capac1 which is still current amongst the people1 has been euhemerized4 ,it is now no more than the story of a just and enlightened prince1 the benefactor of the country4 ,the natives1 it seems1 are fond of playing a kind of drama1 in which the trial and death of ,atahualpa are represented4 ,superstitious to the last degree1 they accept the practices of ,catholicism with a submission that has in it more of a melancholy and hopeless resignation than an ardent or trusting faith4 ,the glorious age of the ,incas is gone1 and will never return1 but it is still regretted4#gd ,,ii4 ,and now it is high time that we examined that religion which was so closely associated with the whole national life of ,peru4 ,from all that ,i have said already1 you will easily understand that the ,sun has never been worshipped more directly or with more devotion than in ,peru4 ,it was he whom the ,peruvians regarded as sovereign lord of the world1 king of the heaven and the earth4 ,his ,peruvian name was ,inti1 ,light4 ,the villages were usually built so as to look eastward1 in order that the inhabitants might salute the supreme god as soon as he appeared in the morning4 ,the most usual representation of him was a golden disk representing a human face surrounded by rays and flames4 ,in ,peru1 as everywhere else1 a feeling existed that there was a certain relation between the substance of gold and that of the great luminary4 ,in the nuggets torn from the mountain sides they thought they saw the ,sun's tears4#ge ,the great periodic fetes of the year1 the imperial and national festivals in which every one took part1 were those held in honour of the ,sun4 ,immediately after him came his sister and consort the ,moon1 ,mama ,quilla4 ,her image was a disk of silver bearing human features1 and silver played the same part in her worship that gold did in that of the ,sun4 ,it appears1 however1 that they performed fewer sacrifices to her than to her august consort1 which is quite in harmony with the inferior position assigned to woman in the ,peruvian civilization4#gf ,like ,selene amongst the ,greeks1 ,mama ,quilla1 and her incarnation in human form1 ,mama ,ogllo1 were weavers4 ,and that is why the latter was said to have taught the ,peruvian women the art of spinning and weaving4 ,this is a mythological conception suggested by likening the moonbeams to twisted threads1 out of which on fair clear nights the brilliant verdure in which the earth is clad is spun4 ,but before going on to the gods who form the usual retinue of these two official and imperial deities1 ,i must speak of two great ,peruvian gods whose worship was likewise widely spread1 but who nevertheless are not attached to the solar family1 or at least are only so attached by an after-thought and by dint of harmonizing efforts which the ,incas had their motives of policy for favouring3 ,i mean the two great deities1 ,viracocha and ,pachacamac4 ,the myth of ,viracocha is the first instance we shall cite of traces of a certain civilization prior to the ,incas1 or at any rate of a belief widely spread in some parts of ,peru that civilization had not really been1 as the legend of the ,incas would have it1 the sole work of that sacerdotal family4 ,the name of ,viracocha must be very ancient1 for it became a generic name to signify divine beings4 ,it was given to ,manco ,capac himself as a title of honour1 and the ,spaniards on their arrival passed as ,viracochas in the eyes of the people4 ,this name1 according to ,spanish authorities1 followed by ,prescott1#gg signifies ,foam of the sea or of the lake4 ,this would make the deity a male ,aphrodite4 ,he was represented with a long beard1 and human victims were sacrificed to him4 ,at the same time1 they said that he had neither flesh nor bone1 that he ran swiftly1 and that he lowered mountains and lifted up valleys4 ,the following legend was told of him4#gh ,there were men on the earth before the ,sun appeared1 and the temples of ,viracocha1 for instance1 on the shores of ,lake ,titicaca1 are older than the ,sun4 ,one day ,viracocha rose out of the lake4 ,he made the sun1 the moon1 the stars1 and prescribed their course for them4 ,then he made stone statues1 put life into them1 and commanded them to go out of the caverns in which he had made them and follow him to ,cuzco4 ,there he summoned the inhabitants1 and set a man over them called ,allca ,vica1 who was the common ancestor of the ,incas4 ,then he departed and disappeared in the water4 ,evidently this myth belongs to a different body of tradition from that of the ,incas4 ,when it says that the earth was peopled before the ,sun appeared1 it is only a mythical way of asserting that there were men and even cities in ,peru before the establishment of ,sun-worship by the ,incas4 ,now the latter claimed direct descent from the ,sun1 the supreme god1 and they would not have readily allowed that this supreme deity had been made by another4 ,one is rather tempted to find in this myth the echo of the claims put forward with equal resignation and persistency by a priesthood of ,viracocha1 that bowed its head before the supremacy acquired by the solar priesthood1 but insisted all the same upon the fact that it was itself its elder brother4 ,but to what element can we affiliate the god ,viracocha himself8 ,his aquatic name1 ,foam of the sea or lake1 in itself leads us to suppose that he was closely related to the water4 ,the supposition is confirmed by the saying that he had neither flesh nor bone1 and yet ran swiftly4 ,we can understand1 too1 why he lowers mountains and raises valleys4 ,he rises from the water and disappears in it4 ,he is bearded1 like all aquatic gods1 with their fringes of reeds4 ,finally1 his consort and sister ,cocha is the lake itself1 and also the goddess of rain4 ,an old ,peruvian hymn that was chanted under the ,incas1 and has fortunately been preserved1 raises the character we have assigned to ,viracocha above all doubt4#gi ,the goddess ,cocha is represented as carrying an urn full of water and snow on her head4 ,her brother ,viracocha breaks the urn1 that its contents may spread over the earth4 ,here is the hymn1 which is composed in nineteen short verses or lines3 #a4 ,fair ,princess1 #c4 ,thy urn #b4 ,thy brother #d4 ,shatters4 #e4 ,at the blow #f4 ,it thunders1 lightens #g4 ,flashes2 #h4 ,but thou1 ,princess1 #aj4 ,rainest down #i4 ,thy waters4 #aa4 ,at the same time #ab4 ,hailest1 #ac4 ,snowest4 #ad4 ,world-former1 #ae4 ,world-animator1 #af4 ,viracocha1 #ag4 ,to this office #ah4 ,thee has destined1 #ai4 ,consecrated4 ,it admits of no doubt1 therefore1 that ,viracocha held a place in the ,peruvian ,pantheon closely analogous to that of ,tlaloc1 the rain-god1 in its ,mexican counterpart4 ,the blow with which he breaks his sister's urn is the thunder-stroke4 ,inasmuch as rain is a fertilizing agent1 ,viracocha represents its generative force4 ,his resemblance to ,tlaloc extends to his demand for human victims1 in which he is less ferociously insatiable1 but quite as pronounced1 as his ,mexican analogue4 ,since his legend makes him rise out of the ,lake of ,titicaca1 we must think of him as the chief god of the religion in honour before that of the ,incas rose to supremacy4 ,when it is said that after accomplishing his task he disappeared1 we are reminded that the river ,desaguadero1 which carries off the waters of ,lake ,titicaca1 sinks into the earth and is lost to sight4 ,but there was yet another great deity whose pretensions the ,incas had allowed by making room for him in the official religion1 although he really belonged to a totally different group of mythical formations3 ,i refer to ,pachacamac1 whose name signifies animator of the earth1 from caman1 to animate1 and pacha1 earth4#hj ,the primitive centre of his worship was in the valley of ,lurin1 south of ,lima1 as well as in that valley of ,rimac which has given its name to the city of ,lima itself1 for the latter is but a transformation of ,rimac4 ,it was there that ,pachacamac's colossal temple rose4 ,it was left standing by the ,incas1 but is now in ruins4#ha ,the branch of the ,yuncas who resided there were already possessed of a certain civilization when the ,inca ,pachacutec annexed their country1 at the close of the fourteenth century1 partly by persuasion and partly by terror4 ,pachacamac was the divine civilizer who had taught this people the arts and crafts4#hb ,it would even seem that he had supplanted a still more ancient worship of ,viracocha in these same valleys1 for it is said that the latter was worsted in war by him and put to flight1 upon which the new god renewed the world by changing the people he found on the earth into jaguars and monkeys1 and creating a new and higher race4 ,this opposition to ,viracocha1 god of the waters1 puts us on the traces of ,pachacamac's original significance4 ,he must have been a god of fire1 and especially of the internal fire of the earth1 which displays itself in the volcanos and warms the spirit of man4 ,he was a kind of ,peruvian ,dionysus4 ,there was something gloomy and violent about his worship4 ,he demanded human victims4 ,the valley of ,rimac really means the valley of the ,speaker1 of him who answers when questioned4 ,there was a kind of oracle inspired by the god of internal fire there4 ,a certain feeling of mystery1 as though in ,pachacamac they had to do with a god less visible1 less palpable1 more spiritual than the rest1 seems to have impressed itself upon his ,peruvian worshippers4 ,garcilasso1 who perhaps exaggerates a little1 here as elsewhere1 goes near to making him a god who could only be adored in the heart1 without temple and without sacrifices4#hc ,thus1 if the myth of ,viracocha1 god of the waters1 makes the stars and the earth rise out of the moist element which he has fertilized and organized1 the myth of ,pachacamac makes him a kind of demiurge working within to form the world and enlighten mankind4 ,i need not stay to point out what close analogies these two conceptions find in several of the cosmogonies of the ,old ,world4 ,this confusion and rivalry of the ,peruvian gods has left its traces in the crude and obscure legend of the ,collas1 or mountaineers of ,pacari ,tambo1 to the south-west of ,cuzco4 ,from the caves of ,pacari ,tambo 7i4e4 'the house of the dawn'7 issued one day four brothers and four sisters4 ,the eldest ascended a mountain1 and flung stones towards the four cardinal points1 which was his way of taking possession of all the land4 ,this aroused the displeasure of the other three4 ,the youngest of all was the cunningest1 and he resolved to get rid of his three brothers and reign alone4 ,he persuaded his eldest brother to enter a cave1 and as soon as he had done so closed the mouth with an enormous stone1 and imprisoned him there for ever4 ,this seems to refer to the quasi-subterranean cultus of ,pachacamac1 the internal fire1 the first revelation of whom must have been a volcano hurling stones in every direction4--,the youngest brother then persuaded the second to ascend a high mountain with him1 to seek their lost brother1 and when they stood on the summit he hurled him down the precipice and changed him into a stone by a spell4 ,i cannot say to what special deity this part of the legend alludes1 unless it simply refers to an ancient worship of stones or rocks1 many vestiges of which remained under the ,incas1 though it ceased to have any official importance in presence of the radiant worship of the ,sun promulgated and favoured by the ruling family4--,then the third brother fled in terror4 ,this fleeing god must be ,viracocha1 the god of showers1 who flees before the ,sun4--,then the youngest brother built ,cuzco1 caused himself to be adored as child of the ,sun under the name of ,pirrhua ,manco1 and likewise built other cities on the same model4#hd ,this last trait puts it out of doubt that the legend is really an attempt to explain how the religion of ,manco ,capac established at ,cuzco had succeeded in eclipsing all others1 owing to the superior skill of its priesthood4 ,it is a formal confirmation of all that ,i have told you of the consummate art with which the ,incas gradually extended the circle of their political and religious dominion4 ,pirrhua is the contraction of ,viracocha1 taken in the generic sense of divine being4 ,pirrhua ,manco was an alternative name of ,manco ,capac4 ,of course this legend was not officially received under the ,incas4 ,the latter1 being unable or unwilling to abolish the worship of ,viracocha and of ,pachacamac1 took up a far more conciliatory attitude than that of the legends ,i have given4 ,the supreme god1 the ,sun1 was admitted to have had three sons1 ,kon or ,viracocha1 ,pachacamac and ,manco ,capac2 but the latter was declared to have been quite specially designed by the common father to instruct and govern men4 ,by this arrangement every one was satisfied1--and especially the ,incas4 ,,iii4 ,we may now return to the other deities who were officially incorporated in the family or retinue of the ,sun4 ,the rainbow1 ,cuycha1 was the object of great veneration as the servant of the ,sun and ,moon4 ,he had his chapel contiguous with the temple of the ,sun1 and his image was made of plates of gold of various shades1 which covered a whole wall of the edifice4 ,when a rainbow appeared in the clouds1 the ,peruvian closed his mouth for fear of having all his teeth spoilt4#he ,the planet ,venus1 ,chasca or the long-haired star1 so called from its extraordinary radiance1 was looked upon as a male being and as the page of the ,sun1 sometimes preceding and sometimes following his master4 ,the ,pleiades were next most venerated4 ,comets foreboded the wrath of the gods4 ,the other stars were the ,moon's maids of honour4#hf ,the worship of the elements1 too1 held a prominent place in this complicated system of nature-worship4 ,for example1 ,fire1 considered as derived from the ,sun1 was the object of profound veneration1 and the worship rendered it must have served admirably as a link between the religion of the ,incas and that of ,pachacamac4 ,strange as it may seem at first sight1 the symbols of fire were stones4 ,but our surprise will cease when we remember that stones were thought1 in a high antiquity1 to be animated by the fire that was supposed to be shut up within them1 since it could be made to issue forth by a sharp blow4 ,the ,peruvian religion likewise adds its testimony to that of all the religions of the ,old ,world1 as to the importance which long attached to the preservation amongst the tribes of men of that living fire which it was so difficult to recover if once it had been allowed to escape4 ,a perpetual fire burned in the temple of the ,sun and in the abode of the ,virgins of the ,sun1 of whom we shall have to speak presently4 ,the wide-spread idea that fire becomes polluted at last and loses its divine virtue by too long contact with men1 meets us once more4 ,the fire must be renewed from time to time1 and this act was performed yearly by the chief-priest of ,peru1 who kindled wood by means of a concave golden mirror4 ,this miracle is very easy for us to explain1 but we cannot doubt that the priests and people of ,peru saw something supernatural in the phenomenon4#hg ,the thunder1 likewise1 was personified and adored in certain provinces under the name of ,catequil1 but it is a peculiarity of the ,peruvian religion that it assigns a subordinate rank in the hierarchy to the god of thunder1 who elsewhere generally takes the supreme place4 ,in ,peru1 he was but one of the ,sun's servants1 though the most redoubtable of them all4 ,the ,peruvians are remarkable for their childish dread of thunder4 ,a great projecting rock1 often one that had been struck by the thunder1 passed for the deity's favoured residence4 ,catequil appears in three forms3 ,chuquilla 7thunder71 ,catuilla 7lightning71 and ,intiallapa 7thunderbolt74 ,his remaining name1 ,illapa1 also means thunder4 ,he had special temples1 in which he was represented as armed with a sling and a club4#hh ,they sacrificed children1 but more especially llamas1 to him4 ,twins were regarded as children of the lightning1 and if they died young their skeletons were preserved as precious relics4 ,and1 finally1 we find in ,peru the same idea that prevails in a great part of southern ,africa1 viz4 that a house or field that has been struck by lightning cannot be used again4 ,catequil has taken possession of it1 and it would be dangerous to dispute it with him4#hi ,we have seen how the element of water was adored under the names of ,viracocha and his sister ,mama ,cocha4 ,the earth was worshipped in grottos or caves1 often considered as the places whence men and gods had taken their origin1 and as giving oracles4#ij ,there were also trees and plants that were clothed with a divine character1 especially the esculent plants1 such as the maize1 personified as ,zarap ,conopa1 and the potato1 as ,papap ,conopa4 ,a female statue was often made of maize or coca leaves1 and adored as the mother of plants4#ia ,thus we descend quite gently from the official heights of the religion of the ,incas towards those substrata of religious thought which always maintain themselves beneath the higher religion that more or less expressly patronizes them1 but to which they are not really bound by any necessary tie4 ,they are the survivals of old superstitions1 to which the common people are often far more attached than they are to the exalted doctrines which they are taught officially4 ,and it is thus1 for example1 that we note in ,peru the very popular worship of numerous animals1 mounting1 without doubt1 to a much higher antiquity than was reached by the religion of the ,incas4 ,indeed1 ,i should be inclined to ascribe to the religious diplomacy of the children of the ,sun the ,peruvian belief which established a connection of origin between each kind of animal and a particular star4 ,the serpent1 especially1 seems to have been1 in ,peru as in ,africa1 the object of great veneration4 ,we find it reproduced in wood and stone on an enormous number of the greater and smaller relics of ,peruvian art4 ,the god of subterranean treasures1 ,urcaguay1 was a great serpent1 with little chains of gold at his tail1 and a head adorned with stag-like horns4 ,the dwellers by the shore worshipped the whale and the shark4 ,there were fish-gods1 too1 in the temple of ,pachacamac1 no doubt because of the enormous power of reproduction possessed by fishes4 ,the condor was a messenger of the ,sun1 and his image was graven on the sceptre of the ,incas4#ib ,it is remarkable that the llama does not appear amongst these divine animals1 probably because it was so completely domesticated and wholly subject to man4 ,and finally1 when we come to the ,guacas1 or ,huacas1 we reach the point where the ,peruvian religion sinks into absolute fetichism4 ,the meaning of the word ,guaca1 or ,huaca1 was not very precise in the mouths of the ,peruvians themselves4 ,on the one hand1 it was applied to everything that bore a religious character1 whether an object of worship1 the person of the priests1 a temple1 a tomb1 or what not4 ,the ,sun himself was ,huaca4 ,the chief priest of ,cuzco bore amongst other names that of ,huacapvillac1 he who converses with huaca beings4#ic ,on the other hand1 in ordinary language1 this same term was used to signify those wood1 stone and metal objects which were so abundant in ,peru1 of which we still possess numerous specimens1 and of which we must now say a few words4 ,some of these huacas1 especially the stone ones1 were of considerable size1 and no doubt dated from the pre-historic religion before the ,incas4 ,but as a rule they were small and portable1 were private and hereditary property1 and were regarded as veritable fetiches1 that is to say1 as the dwelling-places of spirits4 ,animism1 in fact1 never ceased to haunt the imaginations of the ,peruvians1 especially amongst the lower orders1 whether the spirits were dreaded as malevolent sprites1 or courted as protectors and revealers4 ,these huacas represented 7as true fetiches should7 forms which were sometimes animal1 sometimes human1 sometimes simply grotesque1 but always ugly and exaggerated4 ,every valley1 every tribe1 every temple1 every chief1 had a guardian spirit4 ,those which were analogous to paenates publici were recognized by the ,incas1 who endowed them with flocks and various presents4 ,often a stone in the middle of the village passed as the abode of the patron spirit of the place4 ,it was the huacacoal1 the stone of the huaca1 whereas the huacas of the family or house were distinguished as conopas4 ,meteorites or thunderbolts were in great demand as huacas1 and especially amongst lovers1 since they were supposed to inspire a reciprocity of affection4 ,the ,christian missionaries had more difficulty in rooting out the worship of the ,huacas than in abolishing that of the ,sun and ,moon1 and we may still detect numerous traces of this ancient superstition amongst the natives of ,peru4#id ,,iv4 ,let us now turn to the priesthood which presided over the worship of these numerous deities4 ,there was no sacerdotal caste in ,peru1 or1 to speak more correctly1 the ,inca family constituted the only sacerdotal caste in the strict sense of the word4 ,this family retained for itself all the highest positions in the priesthood1 as well as in the army and administration4 ,these priests of the higher rank bore special garments and insignia1 while the lower clergy wore the ordinary costume4 ,at the head of all the priests of the empire1 first after the reigning ,inca1 stood the ,villac ,oumau1 the chief sacrificer1 also1 as we have seen1 called the ,huacapvillac4 ,he was nominated by the reigning ,inca1 and in his turn nominated all his subordinates4 ,his name indicates that he was the living oracle1 the interpreter of the will of the ,sun4 ,you can understand1 therefore1 how important it was for the policy of the ,incas that he should himself be subject to the authority and discretion of the sovereign4 ,after him came the rest of the chief priests1 also members of the ,inca family1 whom he put in charge of the provincial temples of the ,sun4 ,at ,cuzco itself all the priests had to be ,incas4 ,they were divided into squadrons1 which attended in succession1 according to the quarters of the moon1 to the elaborate ritual of the service4 ,and here we must admire the consummate art with which the ,incas had planned everything in their empire to secure their supremacy against all attaint1 in religion as in all else1 while still leaving the successively annexed populations a certain measure of religious freedom4 ,in the provinces1 the ,inca family1 numerous as it was1 could not have provided priests for all the sanctuaries2 and1 moreover1 there would be local rites1 traditions1 perhaps even priesthoods1 which could not well be fitted into the framework of the official religion4 ,the ,incas therefore had decided that the priests of the local deities should be affiliated to the imperial priesthood1 but in such a way that the chief priests of the local deities should at the same time be subordinate priests of the deities of the empire4 ,what a wonderful stroke of political genius6 ,what happier method could have been found of teaching the subject populations1 while still maintaining their traditional forms of worship1 to regard the imperial cultus patronized by the reigning ,inca as superior to all others8 ,and what an invaluable guarantee of obedience was obtained by this association of the non-,inca priests with the official priesthood1 the honours and advantages of which they were thus made to share1 without any room for an aspiration after independence6 ,i regard this organization of the priesthood in ancient ,peru as one of the most striking proofs of the political genius of the ,incas1 and as one of the facts which best explain how a theocracy1 which was after all based on the absolute and exclusive pretensions of one special mythology1 was able to consolidate itself and endure for centuries1 while exercising a large toleration towards other traditions and forms of worship4#ie ,by the side of the priests there were also priestesses2 and they were clothed with a very special function4 ,i refer to those ,virgins of the ,sun 7acllia chosen ones71 those ,peruvian nuns1 who so much impressed the early historians of ,peru4 ,there were convents of these ,virgins at ,cuzco and in the chief cities of the empire4 ,at ,cuzco there were five hundred of them1 drawn for the most part from the families of the ,incas and the ,curacas or nobles1 although 7for a reason which will be apparent presently7 great beauty gave even a daughter of the people a sufficient title to enter the sacred abode4 ,they had a lady president--,i had almost said a mother abbess--who selected them while yet quite young2 and under her superior direction1 matrons1 or ,mamaconas1 superintended the young flock4 ,they lived encloistered1 in absolute retreat1 without any relationship with the outside world4 ,only the reigning ,inca1 his chief wife1 the ,coya1 and the chief priest1 were allowed to penetrate this sanctuary of the virgins4 ,now these visits of the ,inca's were not exactly disinterested4 ,the fact is1 that it was here he generally looked for recruits for his harem4 ,you will ask how that could be reconciled with the vow of chastity which the maidens had taken2 but their promise had been never to take any consort except the ,sun1 or him to whom the ,sun should give them4 ,now the ,inca1 the child of the ,sun1 his representative and incarnation upon earth1 began by assigning the most beautiful to himself1 after which he might give some of those who had not found special favour in his eyes to his ,curacas4 ,and thus the vow was kept intact4 ,in other respects1 the most absolute chastity was sternly enforced4 ,if any nun violated her vow1 or was unhappy enough to allow the sacred fire that burned day and night in the austere abode to be extinguished1 the penalty was death4 ,and the strange thing is1 that the mode of death was identical with that which awaited the ,roman vestal guilty of the same offences4 ,the culprit was buried alive4 ,this illustrates the value of the theories started by those authors who can never discover any resemblance of rites or beliefs between two peoples without forthwith setting about to inquire which of the two borrowed from the other6 ,it will hardly be maintained that the ,peruvians borrowed this cruel custom from the ancient ,romans1 and assuredly the ,romans did not get it from ,peru4 ,whence1 then1 can the resemblance spring8 ,from the same train of ideas leading to the same conclusion4 ,by the sacrilege of the culprit1 the gods of heaven and of light1 the protecting and benevolent deities1 were offended and incensed1 and the whole country would feel the tokens of their wrath4 ,to disarm their anger1 its unhappy cause must expiate her guilt1 and at the same time must be removed from their sight and given over to the powers of darkness1 for she was no longer worthy to see the light4 ,and that is why the dark tomb must swallow her4 ,she had betrayed her spouse the ,sun--let her henceforth be the spouse and the slave of darkness2 and let her be sent alive to those dark powers1 that they might do with her as they would4 ,we must add that the guilty nun's accomplice was strangled1 and that her whole family from first to last was put to death4 ,the ordinary occupations of the ,virgins of the ,sun consisted in making garments for the members of the imperial family and tapestries destined to adorn the temples and palaces1 in kneading and baking the sacred loaves1 preparing the sacred drinks1 and1 finally1 in watching and feeding the sacred fire4 ,you perceive that it was not exactly the ascetic principle which had given rise to these convents--as in the case of the ,buddhist and ,christian institutions1 for example--but rather the desire to do honour to the ,sun1 the supreme god1 by consecrating seraglios to him1 in which his numerous consorts1 protected by a severe rule1 could be kept from all except himself and those to whom he might give them2 accomplishing1 meanwhile1 those menial tasks which1 especially under the rule of polygamy1 woman is required to perform in the abode of her lord and master4#if ,all this shows us once more1 ,gentlemen1 how the same fundamental logic of the human mind asserts itself across a thousand diversities1 and re-appears under every conceivable form in every climate and every race4 ,only let us look close enough and with the requisite information1 and we shall find in every case that all is explained1 that all holds together1 that all is justified1 by some underlying principle1 and that that idiot of a word1 chance1 is never anything but a veil for our ignorance4 ,and thus1 when we notice anything paradoxical1 grotesque1 and unexplained by the resources we command at present1 we must be very careful not to pronounce it inexplicable4 ,we should rather suspend our judgment1 wait till wider reflection and renewed investigation have shown us the middle terms1 and meanwhile keep silence rather than attribute to chance or to influences which escape all human reason the phenomena that seem abnormal4 ,for instance1 you have heard sometimes of the strange custom in accordance with which the father of a new-born child goes to bed and is nursed as an invalid4 ,you are perhaps aware that this custom1 that appears so strange to us and is now restricted to a few savage tribes1 was noted in ancient times in ,europe itself1 and has been preserved almost to our own time in certain cantons of the ,pyrenees4 ,it must therefore have been extremely wide-spread4 ,yet for a long time it seemed inexplicable4 ,but now1 thanks to investigations and comparisons1 the explanation has been found4 ,there is no doubt that the custom in question rested on the idea that there was a close solidarity between the health of the father and that of the new-born babe1 so that if the father should fall sick1 his far weaker child would die4 ,the father1 therefore1 must be guarded from all over-exertion1 must abstain from all excess--in short1 was best in bed6 ,so1 too1 in the present case4 ,how are we to explain the resemblance between the treatment of the ,vestals at ,rome and the ,virgins of the ,sun at ,cuzco8 ,it was once impossible1 but now that we are better acquainted with the genesis1 the spirit1 the inner logic of the primitive religions1 and the modes of life1 the wants and the apprehensions proper to the pre-historic ages1 we have no difficulty in attaching two parallel customs to a single religious principle which had found acceptance alike in ,italy and ,peru4 ,and this is one of the chief tasks1 and one of the greatest charms1 of the branch of study which ,i have the honour of professing4 ,it shows us that even in human error1 human reason has never abdicated its throne4 ,we have still to speak of the temples1 the ritual and the chief festivals of ancient ,peru4 ,to these subjects we shall devote the first part of our sixth and last ,lecture1 reserving the closing portion for the conclusions and the general lessons suggested by our two-fold study of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,peruvian ,,cultus ,,and ,,festivals4--,,morals ,,and ,,the ,,future ,,life4--,,conclusions4 ,,ladies ,,and ,,gentlemen1 ,to complete my account of the native religion of ,peru1 ,i have still to speak of the cultus1 the festivals1 the religious ethics1 and the ideas of a future life4 ,i4 ,the ,peruvian cultus had given birth to the temple2 and1 indeed1 it is highly interesting to witness what one may call the genesis of the temple on this soil1 so different from those of the ,old ,world4 ,there were temples1 indeed1 before the ,incas1 but they differed both in style and in signification from those reared under their patronage4 ,in ,peru1 as in ,mexico1 the temples were originally neither more nor less than extremely lofty altars2 that is to say1 artificial elevations1 on the summit of which the sacrifices were presented1 while a little chapel served to contain the image of the god or gods adored4 ,round this great altar were grouped other chapels1 galleries and columns1 as though to accompany the great central altar formed by the eminence itself4 ,under the ,incas1 the crowning chapel increased so enormously that it encircled the altar and became the essential part of the sacred structure4 ,the ,inca temples were veritable palaces1 destined as abodes for the gods4 ,none of them remain2 but their ruins attest the fact that the architects aimed rather at colossal than at beautiful effects4 ,they contained gigantic stone statues1 gates cut out of monoliths1 and the well-known pyramidal structures of which we have spoken already4 ,the most imposing of the temples was the one at ,cuzco1 which consisted in a vast central edifice1 flanked with a number of adjacent buildings4 ,gold was so prodigally lavished on its interior that it bore the name of ,coricancha1 that is to say1 the place of gold4 ,the roof was formed by timber-work of precious woods plated with gold1 but was covered1 as in the case of all the houses of the land1 with a simple thatch of maize straw4 ,the doors opened to the ,east1 and at the far end1 above the altar1 was the golden disk of the ,sun1 placed so as to reflect the first rays of the morning on its brilliant surface1 and1 as it were1 reproduce the great luminary4 ,and note that the mummies of the departed ,incas1 children of the ,sun1 were ranged in a semicircle round the sacred disk on golden thrones1 so that the morning rays came day by day to shine on their august remains4 ,the adjacent buildings were abodes of the deities who formed the retinue of the ,sun4 ,the principal one was sacred to the ,moon1 his consort1 who had her disk of silver1 and ranged around her the ancient queens1 the departed ,coyas4 ,others served as the abodes of ,chaska1 our planet ,venus1 the ,pleiades1 the ,thunder1 the ,rainbow1 and finally the officiating priests of the temple4 ,in the provinces1 the ,incas reared a number of temples of the ,sun on the model of that at ,cuzco1 but on a smaller scale4#ig ,the ,incas1 however1 had been anticipated in this striking development of the temple by the religions anterior or adjacent to their own4 ,witness the great temple of ,pachacamac1 which they left standing in the valley of ,lurin1 and the remarkable ruins of another great temple situated at some miles distance from ,lake ,titicaca1 which has quite recently been made the subject of a careful reconstructive study by your compatriot ,mr4 ,inwards4#ih ,the offerings presented to the gods were very varied in kind4 ,flowers1 fragrant incense1 especially from preparations of coca1 vegetables1 fruits1 maize1 prepared drinks offered in cups of gold4 ,at some of the feasts the officiating priest moistened the tips of his fingers in the cup and flung the drops towards the ,sun4 ,we also find in ,peru a very special form of that remnant of self-immolation which enters1 in more or less reduced and restricted shape1 into the devotions of so many peoples and assumes such varied forms4 ,the ,red-skin offers his sweat2 the ,black offers his saliva or his teeth2 the more poetical ,greek1 a lock of his hair1 or even all of it4 ,the ,peruvian pulled out a hair from his eyebrow and blew it towards the idol6#ii ,but there were also sacrifices of blood4 ,a llama was sacrificed every day at ,cuzco4 ,before setting out on war1 the ,peruvians sacrificed a black llama that they had previously kept fasting1 that the heart of their enemies might fail as did his4 ,this was the ,peruvian application of the principle that lies at the base of all those superstitious ceremonies intended to provoke or stimulate a desired effect by reproducing its analogue in advance4 ,small birds1 rabbits1 and1 for the health of the ,inca1 black dogs1 were also sacrificed frequently4 ,all these offerings were as a rule burned1 that they might so be transmitted to the gods4#ajj ,it should be noted that they only sacrificed edible animals1#aja which is a clear proof that the intention was to feed the gods4 ,the sacrificing priest turned the animal's eyes towards the ,sun1 and opened its body to take out its heart1 lungs and viscera1 and offer them to the idols4 ,it is a characteristic fact that when the victim was not burned1 its flesh was divided amongst the sacrificers and eaten raw4 ,the ,peruvians had long learned to cook their meat1 but this rite carries us back to a high antiquity1 when cooking food was still an innovation which the power of tradition excluded from the ritual4 ,it is to analogous causes that we must attribute the continued use of stone instruments in the religious ceremonies of peoples who are acquainted with iron and use it in ordinary life4 ,in conclusion1 they smeared the idols and the doors of the temples with the blood of the victims in order to appease the gods4#ajb ,all this is sufficiently crude and material1 and rests upon the same premisses as those which drove the ,mexicans to the frightful excesses which ,i have previously described4 ,but humanity was far less outraged in the ,peruvian than in the ,mexican religion4 ,garcilasso deceives himself1 or is attempting to deceive his readers1 when he gives his ancestors1 the ,incas1 the honour of having put an end to human sacrifices4#ajc ,it is certain that in the religion of ,pachacamac more especially this kind of sacrifice was frequent1 and for that matter we know that it was universal in the primitive epochs4 ,all that we can allow to the descendant of the ,incas is1 that they did not encourage1 and were rather disposed to restrain1 human sacrifice4 ,but for all that1 when the reigning ,inca was ill1 they sacrificed one of his sons to the ,sun1 and prayed him to accept the substitution of the son for the father4 ,at certain feasts a young infant was immolated4 ,others were sacrificed to the subterranean spirits when a new ,inca was enthroned4 ,to the same category we must attach the custom which enjoined upon wives1 especially those of the ,incas1 the duty of burying themselves alive on the death of their husbands4 ,it is asserted that when ,huayna ,capac died1 a thousand members of his household incurred a voluntary death that they might go with him to serve him4 ,the widows1 however1 were not compelled to take this step1 and we know that the ,incas had organized the support of widows without resources4 ,but public opinion was not favourable to those who refused to follow their husbands to the tomb4 ,it was regarded as a species of infidelity4#ajd ,we see1 however1 from other well-established facts1 that the ,peruvian religion had been gradually softened4 ,in ,peru1 as in ,china1 instead of the living beings that they used formerly to bury with the dead1 they now placed statuettes of men and women with him in his tomb to represent his wives and his servants4#aje ,we must also mention those columns of the ,sun which appear never to have been absent in countries dominated by a solar worship4 ,we have already seen them in ,central ,america and in ,mexico1 and we also find them in ,egypt1 in ,syria1 in ,asia ,minor1 in ,palestine1 at ,carthage and elsewhere4 ,in these columns the idea of fertilization is associated with that of the pleasure the ,sun must feel in tracing out their shadows as he caresses their faces and summits with his rays4 ,the earliest quadrants were traced at the foot of these columns4 ,in ,peru1 they were levelled at the top1 and were regarded as seats of the ,sun1 who loved to rest upon them4 ,at the equinoxes and solstices they placed golden thrones upon them for him to sit upon4 ,those nearest to the equator were held in greatest veneration1 because the shadows were shorter there than elsewhere1 and the ,sun appeared to rest vertically upon them4#ajf ,prayer1 in the proper sense of the word1 asserted its place but feebly in the ,peruvian religion4 ,but hymns to the ,sun were chanted at the great festivals and by the people as they went to cultivate the lands of the ,sun4 ,every strophe ended with the cry1 ,hailly1 or triumph4 ,it was the ,peruvian ,io ,paean4 ,these chants1 as far as they are still known to us1 have something soft and sad about them4 ,the rule of the ,incas1 paternal indeed1 but monotonous in the extreme1 must have tended to produce melancholy4 ,in #aeee1 a ,spanish composer wrote a mass upon the themes of these indigenous airs4 ,it was sung in chorus1 and it is chiefly to it that we owe the preservation of these chants4#ajg ,but the grand form of religious demonstration among the ,peruvians was the dance4 ,they were very assiduous in this form of devotion1 and indeed we know what a large place the earliest of the arts occupied in the primitive religions generally4 ,the dance was the first and chief means adopted by pre-historic humanity of entering into active union with the deity adored4 ,the first idea was to imitate the measured movements of the god1 or at any rate what were supposed to be such4 ,afterwards1 this fundamental motive was more or less forgotten2 but the rite remained in force1 like so many other religious forms which tradition and habit sustained even when the spirit was gone4 ,in ,peru1 this tradition was still full of life4 ,the name of the principal ,peruvian festivals1 ,raymi1 signifies dance4 ,the performances were so animated1 that the dancers seemed to the ,europeans to be out of their senses4 ,it is noteworthy that the ,incas themselves took no part in these violent dances1 but had an ,incas' dance of their own1 which was grave and measured4#ajh ,there were four great official festivals in the year1 coinciding with the equinoxes and the solstices4 ,the first was the festival of the ,winter solstice1 which fell in ,june4 ,it was the ,raymi1 or festival par excellence1 the ,citoc ,raymi1 the feast of the diminished and 7henceforth7 growing ,sun4 ,it lasted nine days1 the first three of which were given up to fasting4 ,on the morning of the great day1 a grand procession1 led by the reigning ,inca and his family1 followed by the nobles and the people1 proceeded1 with insignia1 banners and symbolic masks1 towards the place of the dawn and the rising ,sun4 ,when the luminary appeared1 the crowd fell to the earth and threw him kisses4 ,the ,inca presented the sacred beverage to the ,sun1 drank some of it himself1 and passed it on to his suite4 ,this was a sort of solar communion4 ,then they went to the temple of the ,sun to sacrifice a black llama there4 ,after this1 they kindled the new fire by means of the concave mirror1 and slaughtered a number of llamas1 representing the ,sun's present to the people4 ,the pieces were distributed to the families1 where they were eaten with the sacred cakes prepared by the ,virgins of the ,sun4 ,this was the second act of communion with the luminary to whom the day was sacred4 ,the remaining days of the festival were passed in rejoicings1 when the people seem to have made themselves ample amends for the fast with which they had begun4#aji ,the second great festival1 that of ,spring1 which fell in ,september1 was the ,citua ,raymi1 the feast of ,purification4 ,but do not attach any essentially moral significance to the idea of purification4 ,the object in view was to purify the territory from all influences hostile to the health1 security and prosperity of the inhabitants4 ,ball-shaped cakes were eaten on this occasion1 in which was mixed the blood of victims or of young children1 who were not slaughtered however1 but bled above the nose1 which is evidence of a previous custom of far greater ferocity1 and of the gradual softening of the ,peruvian ritual4 ,with this bread the people rubbed their bodies all over1 and the doors of their houses likewise4 ,then1 a little before sunset1 a very strange ceremony was performed4 ,an ,inca1 clad in precious armour and lance in hand1 descended from the fortress of ,cuzco1 followed by four relatives whom the ,sun had specially charged with the task of chasing away by open force all the maladies from the city and its environs4 ,they traversed the chief streets of ,cuzco at full speed1 amid the acclamations of the inhabitants1 and then surrendered their lances to others1 who were relieved in their turn1 till the limits of the ancient state of ,cuzco were reached4 ,there the lances were fixed in the ground1 as so many talismans against evil influences4 ,at night there was a great torch-light procession1 at the close of which the torches were hurled into the river1 and thus the evil spirits of the night were expelled1 as those of the day had been by the lancers of the ,sun4#aaj ,observe that in ,africa1 amongst the ,blacks1 a kind of chase of the evil spirits is practised 7though accompanied with far fewer ceremonies than in ,peru71 in which the inhabitants of a village1 armed with sticks and uttering formulae of exorcism1 expel the evil spirits from their houses and from their streets1 and pursue them into the desert or the interior of a forest4 ,but notice here1 again1 with what art the ,incas had contrived to turn an old superstition to account in the interests of their own prestige4 ,if maladies did not decimate the people of ,cuzco1 it was to their ,incas that they owed their safety4 ,the third great festival1 the ,aymorai1 which fell in ,may1 celebrated the ,harvest4 ,a statue was constructed out of grains of corn glued together1 and was adored under the name of ,pirrhua1 which in this case may well be a contraction of ,viracocha1 the god of fertilizing moisture4 ,on this occasion a number of sacrifices were made at home by the householders4#aaa ,the fourth great feast fell in ,december4 ,it was the ,capac ,raymi1 the festival of ,power1 in which the god of thunder was the object of a special worship by the side of the ,sun4 ,on this occasion the young ,incas1 after fasts1 tournaments and other tests1 received the investiture of manhood by having their ears pierced1 and receiving a scarf1 an axe and a crown of flowers4 ,the young ,curacas of the same age were also admitted to the privileges and duties of their rank1 and shared with the ,inca the sacred bread in token of indissoluble communion with him4#aab ,there were also a number of other and less important feasts4 ,each month had one of its own4 ,then there were occasional feasts1 to celebrate the triumphal return of a victorious ,inca for example1 or when the tournaments of the young nobles1 to which a religious value was attached1 took place1 or when silent processions lasting a day and night1 and followed by dances1 were instituted to avert threatening calamities1 and so forth4#aac ,in ,peru1 as in so many other regions1 eclipses were the subject of great terror4 ,the eclipses of the ,sun were attributed to his own anger1 those of the ,moon to an illness caused by the attack of an evil spirit1 to frighten which away and put it to flight a hideous yelling was raised4#aad ,there were sorcerers in ,peru as everywhere else2 but in ,peru too1 as everywhere else where a priesthood has acquired a regular organization and made its authority respected1 sorcery was hardly resorted to save by the lower classes4#aae ,in fact1 the sorcerer is the priest of backward tribes1 and the priest is the developed sorcerer4 ,by his superior knowledge1 by the more stable guarantees which he can give as the member of an imposing organization1 by the nature of the religion of which he is the organ1 and which raises him above the incoherent puerilities of animism1 the priest eclipses the sorcerer and relegates him to the lower strata of society1 which is just where his own titles to superiority are least appreciated4 ,the sorcerer sinks in proportion as the priest rises4#aaf ,for the rest1 the official priesthood had its own diviners1 who could foretel the future1 the ,huacarimachi1 or they who make the gods speak4 ,the oracles of the valley of ,rimac or ,lima were much frequented2 and1 moreover1 the ,peruvians1 like so many peoples of the ,old ,world1 thought that they could read the future in the entrails of the victims offered in sacrifice4#aag ,this wide-spread belief rests on the idea that immolation unites the victim so closely to the deity that it enters into communion with his thoughts and intentions1 so that its heart1 liver1 and all other organs supposed to be affected by mental and moral dispositions1 receive the impress of the divine prevision4 ,is it not passing strange1 ,gentlemen1 that this mode of divination1 which appears so absurd to us1 which has no rational basis whatever1 which rests on a singularly subtle conception of the relations between the creature sacrificed and the being to whom it is offered1 has secured the prolonged confidence of the peoples of the ,old ,world1 and appears again in ,peru1 where it cannot have been imitated from any one8 ,,ii4 ,it has been asked whether the native religion of ,peru rested any system of elevated morals on its fundamental principles4 ,gentlemen1 ,i am persuaded that religion and morals unite together and interpenetrate each other in the higher regions of thought and life4 ,perhaps the most distinct result of our ,christian education is the full comprehension of the fact that what is moral is religious1 and that immorality cannot on any pretext be allowed as legitimately religious4 ,but we must certainly yield to the overwhelming evidence that in the lower stages of religion this union of the two sisters is present only in germ4 ,religion1 still quite selfish in its character1 pursues its own way and seeks its own satisfactions independently of all moral considerations1 and almost always lives in a state of separation from morality4 ,we ought therefore to expect that in systems such as that of ,peru--which have already risen much above the low level of the primitive religions1 but are still far below that of the higher ones--we should find a certain religious ethic1 a certain moral tendency in religion1 but likewise all kinds of inconsistencies1 and constant relapses towards the ancient separation of the two sisters4 ,as a general rule1 we may say that even where the ,peruvian religion seems to undertake the elevation and protection of morals1 it does so rather with a utilitarian and selfish view1 than with any real purpose of sanctifying the heart and will4 ,thus we have noted ceremonies which forcibly recal the ,communion4 ,but the great object in view was to secure to the communicants the safety and well-being that would result from their union with the ,sun or his representatives4 ,the moral idea occupies but a small place in this communion1 though it is but right to add that the great social laws were placed under the patronage and sanction of the ,sun1 whose legislation the ,incas were held responsible for enforcing4 ,in the same way we find in ,peru something that closely resembles baptism4 ,from fifteen to twenty days after birth the child received its first name1 after being plunged into water4 ,but this purification had nothing to do with the ideas of sin and regeneration4 ,it was but a form of exorcism1 destined to secure the child from the evil spirits and their malign influences4 ,between the ages of ten and twelve1 the child's definitive name was conferred4 ,on this occasion his hair and nails were cut off1 and offered to the ,sun and the guardian spirits4#aah ,this represented the consecration of his person1 but its main object was to secure him the protection of the divine power4 ,there was likewise a sacerdotal confession1 but it was an institution of state and of police rather than a sacrament with a moral purpose4 ,the great object was to discover all actions1 whether voluntary or not1 which might bring misfortune upon the state if not expiated by the appropriate penances and rites4 ,the father confessors of ,peru were inquisitors charged with the searching out of secret faults and the exaction of their avowal4 ,a refusal to confess might provoke severe measures4 ,a proof of the small influence of the moral element in the whole system of inquisition may be found in the fact that the priest relied on purely fortuitous tests in deciding whether or not to give absolution4 ,for instance1 he would take a pinch of maize grains1 and if the number turned out to be even1 he would declare the confession good1 and give absolution1 otherwise he would say the penitent must have concealed something1 and would make him confess again4#aai ,our conviction that the ,peruvian religion had but a very elementary moral significance1 receives a final confirmation from the beliefs concerning the future life4 ,it is clear that no very definite ideas on this point had become generally established4 ,in fact1 we find amongst the ,peruvians at the time of the conquest the underlying conceptions of the most widely severed peoples1 all mingled together4 ,thus the common people of ,peru1 like all savages1 thought of the future life as a continuation1 pure and simple1 of the present life4 ,this explains the custom of burying all kinds of useful and desirable objects with the dead--giving him an emigrant's outfit1 in short4 ,the worship of ancestors is easily grafted upon this conception of the life beyond the grave4 ,these ancestors may still succour1 protect and inspire their descendants4 ,i am assured at first hand that to this very day1 and in spite of the efforts of the ,catholic clergy1 the worship of ancestors is still widely practised by the native population4 ,there was not the least idea of a resurrection of the body4 ,if the corpse was preserved1 especially in the case of departed ,incas1 it was because the ,peruvians believed that the soul which had left it still retained a marked predilection for its ancient abode and liked to return to it from time to time2 and also because they attributed magic virtues to the remains thus preserved4 ,no idea of recompense is as yet associated with this purely animistic and primitive conception of the life beyond the tomb4#abj ,amongst the higher classes1 the ideas entertained on this same subject had become a little less naive4 ,the ,incas were supposed to be transported to the mansion of the ,sun1 their father1 where they still lived together as his family4 ,the ,curacas or nobles would either follow them there1 or would still live under the earth beneath the sceptre of the god of the dead1 ,supay1 the ,hades or ,pluto of the ,peruvian mythology4 ,do not identify this deity with a ,satan or ,ahriman of any kind4 ,he was not a wicked1 but rather a sinister god1 the conception of whom could wake no joyous or even serene emotions4 ,he was a voracious deity1 of insatiable appetite4 ,at ,quito1 at any rate before the conquest of the country by the ,incas1 a hundred children were sacrificed to him every year4 ,there is no idea of positive suffering inflicted on the wicked under his direction4 ,but the subterranean abode is gloomy and dismal1 like the place of shades in the ,odyssey4 ,exceptional considerations of birth1 rank or valour in war1 determine the passage of chosen souls to heaven1 where their lot will of course be far more brilliant and happy than that of the souls that remain in the subterranean regions4 ,thus the aristocratic point of view1 barely modified by the high importance attributed to the warlike virtues1 still dominates the ideas of a future life in ancient ,peru1 as in ,mexico1 in ,polynesia and in ,africa4 ,this is a final proof that the moral element was but feebly present in the ancient ,peruvian religion4 ,for wherever a clear and definite belief in a conscious life beyond the grave is united to a sense of the religious character of morality1 it is likewise held1 by an obvious connection of ideas1 that the lot of departed souls will depend completely upon their moral condition1 without distinction of birth or rank4#aba ,this ,peruvian religion1 then1 in spite of its elevation and refinement in some respects1 forcibly reminds us of the walls of its own temples1 all plated with gold1 but covered in with straw1 and poor and unvaried in architecture4 ,a monotonous1 unformed1 gloomy spirit seems to pervade the whole institution1 in spite of its brilliant exterior4 ,the air of the convent broods over it4 ,those thousands of functionaries who spent their lives in superintending the furniture1 the dress1 the work1 the very cookery1 of the families under their charge1 and inflicting corporal chastisement on those whom they surprised in a fault1 might succeed in forming a correct and regular society1 drilled like the bees in a hive1 might form a nation of submissive slaves1 but could never make a nation of men2 and this is the deep cause that explains the irremediable collapse of this ,peruvian society under the vigorous blows of a handful of unscrupulous ,spaniards4 ,it was a skilfully constructed machine1 which worked like a chronometer2 but when once the mainspring was broken1 all was over4 ,it is no part of our task to tell the story of the conversion of the natives to ,roman ,catholic ,christianity4 ,it was comparatively easily effected4 ,the fall of the ,incas was a mortal blow to the religious1 no less than to the political1 edifice in which they were the key-stone of the arch4 ,it was evident that the ,sun had been unable or unwilling to protect his children4 ,the conqueror imposed his religion on ,peru1 as on ,mexico1 by open force2 and the ,spanish ,inquisition1 though not giving rise to such numerous and terrible spectacles in the former as in the latter country1 yet carried out its work of terror and oppression there too4 ,the result was that peculiar character of the ,catholicism of the natives of ,peru which strikes every traveller1 and consists in a kind of timid and superstitious submission1 without confidence and without zeal1 associated with the obstinate preservation of customs which mount back to the former religious regime1 and with memories of the golden age of the ,inca rule under which their ancestors were privileged to live1 but which has gone to return no more4 ,,iii4 ,and now it only remains for us to draw the inferences and conclusions suggested by our examination of the ancient religions of ,mexico and ,peru1 so closely associated with the remarkable though imperfect civilizations to which the two nations had attained4 ,we have not stayed to discuss the hypotheses that have so often been put forward1 to attach these religions and civilizations to some immigration from the ,old ,world4 ,the fact is that all these attempts rest on the arbitrary selection of some few traits of resemblance1 on which exclusive stress is laid1 to the neglect of still more characteristic differences4 ,the best proof that the work of affiliation has been abortive1 in spite of the high authority of some of the names that have been lent to it1 may be found in the fact that every possible nation of the ,old ,world has in its turn been selected as the true parent of the ,peruvians and ,mexicans4 ,the ,carthaginians1 the ,greeks1 the ,chinese1 the ,hindus1 the ,buddhists of ,india and ,china1 the ,romans1 even the ,celts and the ,chaldeans1 have been put forward one after the other4 ,nay1 the ,english themselves have been tried6 ,there is a gratifying legend which brings the story of ,manco ,capac and ,mama ,ogllo into connection with the results of the shipwreck of an ,englishman1 whose national name was transformed into ,inga ,man1 which again1 in conjunction with ,cocapac1 the name of the father of the native wife whom the ,englishman had taken to himself1 made ,inca ,manco ,capac6 ,the sequel is obvious4 ,the two fair-skinned children that sprang from this union were of course the founders of the ,inca family and the state of ,cuzco4#abb ,i need not tell you that all this will not bear a moment's examination4 ,everything shows that the civilizations and religions of ,mexico and ,peru are autochthonous1 springing from the soil itself4 ,there is surely something very strange in this passion for localizing all origins at some single point of the globe4 ,why not admit that what took place there may have taken place elsewhere also1 that the same concourse of events which called forth such and such a result in a certain given place may have been reproduced somewhere else1 and consequently given rise to identical or closely analogous results there too8 ,does not our own experience teach us that the contact of a civilized with an uncivilized people is not enough in itself to ensure the adoption by the latter of the civilization that is brought to it8 ,it is the exception1 not the rule1 for the ,red-skin1 the ,kafir1 the ,australian or the ,papuan1 to become civilized4 ,civilization can only be handed on if the invaded race possesses a special disposition and aptitude for civilized life2 and this aptitude may have existed to such a degree as to be capable of independent development in the ,new-,world as we know it did in the ,old2 and if there were centres of such nascent civilization in ,central ,america1 in ,mexico and in ,peru1 it is absolutely superfluous to search elsewhere than in ,america itself for the origins of ,american civilization4 ,but the mistake into which so many historians and travellers have fallen is explained1 to a certain extent1 by the fact that1 in examining the beliefs1 the monuments and the customs of ,peru and ,mexico1 we come upon phenomena at every moment which are identical with or analogous to something we have observed in the ,old ,world4 ,the temples1 with their successive terraces1 remind us of ancient ,chaldea1 and the hieroglyphics of ancient ,egypt4 ,the convents recal the ,indian and ,chinese ,buddhism4 ,the cruel and bloody sacrifices and the preponderance of the ,sun-worship have a ,semitic tinge4 ,there are myths and curious resemblances of words which wake thoughts of ,hellenic civilization2 and sacerdotal castes and sacrificial rites which bring us round to the ,celts6 ,nay1 are there not even beliefs as to the arrival or return of a deity who will restore order and avenge outraged justice1 round which there breathes a kind of ,messianic air8 ,so much so1 indeed1 that ,i must add to the list of supposed ancestors of ,american civilization the ten lost tribes of ,israel1 who must have fled from the yoke of their ,ninevite oppressors right across ,asia into ,america6 ,the partizans of this ingenious hypothesis have1 it is true1 forgotten to inquire how far these ,israelites of the ,north1 whose enthusiasm for the house of ,judah was1 to say the least of it1 decidedly subdued1 had ever heard of the ,messianic hopes at all6 ,the real result of all these wild speculations1 however1 is to bring out the fact very clearly1 that in the native religions of ,mexico1 of ,central ,america and of ,peru1 we find a number of traits united which are scattered amongst the most celebrated religions of our own ancient world2 so that this new and well-defined region gives us a precious opportunity of testing the value of the explanations of religious ideas and practices deduced from the comparative study of religions4 ,let us take the question of sacrifice1 for instance4 ,in both religions sacrifice is frequent1 often cruel1--in ,mexico even frightful4 ,but it is easy to trace the original idea that inspired it4 ,it is by no means the sense of guilt1 or the idea that the culprit1 terrified by the account that he must render to the divine justice1 can transfer to a victim the penalty he has himself incurred4 ,it is simply the idea that by offering the gods the things they like--that is to say1 whatever will satisfy and gratify their senses--it is possible to secure their goodwill1 their protection and their favour1 while at the same time disarming their wrath1 if need be1 and appeasing their dangerous appetites4 ,it is only at a later stage that the extreme importance attributed to this rite1 the very essence of the worship rendered to the gods1 leads to the association of mystic and ultimately of moral ideas with the circumstance of the pain inseparably connected with sacrifice4 ,and when this stage is reached1 men will either refine upon the suffering with frantic intensity1 as they did in ,mexico1 or1 if the sentiment of humanity has made itself felt in religion1 as was the case in ,peru and in the special worship of ,quetzalcoatl1 they will try to restrain the number and mitigate the horror of the human sacrifices1 while still inflexibly maintaining the principle they involve4 ,again3 there is not the smallest trace of an earlier monotheism preceding the polytheism of either the one or the other nation4 ,on the other hand1 we may trace in both alike three stages of religious faith superimposed1 so to speak1 one upon the other4 ,at the bottom of all still lies the religion that we find to-day amongst peoples that are strangers to all civilization4 ,it is an incoherent and confused jumble of nature-worship and of animism or the worship of spirits1 but especially the latter2 for the primitive nature-worship has been developed1 enlarged and more or less organized1 on a higher level1 whereas animism has remained what it was4 ,the spirits of nature1 which may often be anonymous--spirits of forests1 of plants1 of rocks1 of waters1 of animals1 generally with the addition of the spirits of ancestors--make up a confused and inorganic mass that may assume almost any form4 ,fetichism is not the base1 as it has been called1 but the consequence and application of this animistic view4 ,it is enough to secure adoration for any worthless object1 natural or artificial1 if it strikes the ignorant imagination forcibly enough to induce the belief that it is the residence of a spirit4 ,magic1 founded on the pretension of certain individuals to stand in special relations with the spirits1 equips the priesthood of this lowest stage4 ,but above this1 through the action of the higher minds amongst the people1 nature-worship develops itself into the adoration of the most important1 most general and most imposing phenomena of nature4 ,in the tropical countries1 at once warm and fertile1 it is the ,sun that reigns supreme1 though not without leaving a very exalted place to other phenomena1 such as wind1 rain1 vegetation and so on1 personified as so many special deities4 ,but in all this there is no indication of an antecedent and primitive monotheism4 ,it is quite true that each one of these deities receives in his turn epithets which seem to attribute omnipotence to him and to make him the sole creator4 ,but this is the case in all polytheistic systems1 whether in ,greece1 ,persia1 and ,india1 or in ,mexico and ,peru4 ,it only proves that when man worships1 he never limits the homage he renders to the object of his adoration2 but if he is a polytheist1 he has no scruple in attributing the same omnipotence to each of his gods in turn4 ,it is much the same with the worthy cures in our rural districts1 whose sermons systematically exalt the saint of the day1 whoever he may be1 to the chief place in ,paradise6 ,and here in ,mexico and in ,peru1 as in ,greece and in ,india1 we observe the ever growing tendency towards anthropomorphism1 transforming into men1 of enormous strength1 stature and power1 those natural phenomena which at the earlier stage were rather assimilated to animals4 ,uitzilopochtli still bears the traces of his ancient nature as a humming-bird1 and ,tezcatlipoca of the time when he was no more than a celestial tapir4 ,their cultus1 like their functions in the order of nature1 must be regular and subject to fixed rules4 ,and thus the priesthood1 organized and regulated in its turn1 emerges from the earlier stage of sorcery1 and becomes a great institution to protect and foster the nascent civilization4 ,the third stage was not actually reached in ancient ,mexico and ,peru4 ,one can but divine its beginnings in the mysterious priesthood of ,quetzalcoatl1 or trace it in the traditions of the philosopher king of ,tezcuco1 and the sceptical ,incas of whom ,garcilasso and others tell us4 ,in such traits as these we may discover a certain dissatisfaction with the established polytheism1 striving to raise itself higher in the direction of a spiritual monotheism4 ,but this tendency is obviously the last term of the evolution1 and in no sense its first4 ,the history of the temple in ,mexico and ,peru suggests similar reflections4 ,its point of departure is the altar1 and not the tomb1--the altar on which1 as on a sacred table1 the flesh destined for their food was placed before the gods4 ,little by little1 as the developed and organized nature-worship substitutes gods of imposing might and greatness for the contemptible deities of the period when nature-worship and animism were confounded together1 these altars assumed huge and at last gigantic proportions2 and in ,mexico1 except in the case of ,quetzalcoatl1 there the development stopped1 save that a little chapel1 destined to serve as the abode of the national gods1 was reared on the summit4 ,peru passes through the same phases1 but goes further4 ,there the surmounting chapel grows1 assumes vast dimensions1 and ends by embracing the altar itself1 of which at first it was but an adjunct4 ,the two religions alike exhibit an initial penetration of religion by the moral idea4 ,they are at bottom two theocracies1 the laws and institutions of which rest upon the gods themselves1 though the theocratic form is far more prominent in ,peru than in ,mexico4 ,they share the advantages of a theocracy for a nascent civilization1 and its disadvantages for one that has already reached a certain development4 ,it was the theocratic and sacerdotal conception that maintained and enforced the religious butchery of which you have heard in ,mexico1 and which transformed ,peru into one enormous convent1 where no one had any will or any initiative of his own4 ,for the same reason1 asceticism1 the principle that confuses1 through an illusion we can easily understand1 the moral act itself with the suffering that accompanies it1 shows itself in both religions1 but especially in that of ,mexico2 and convents that startle us by their resemblance to those of ,buddhism and ,christianity rise in either realm4 ,but this mutual interpenetration of the religious and moral ideas is still quite rudimentary4 ,the prevailing tone of the religion is given by the self-seeking and purely calculating principle1 aiming no doubt at a certain mystic satisfaction 7for at every stage of religion this moving principle has been most powerful and fruitful71 but likewise seeking material advantages without any scruple as to the means2 and those monstrous forms of transubstantiation which the ,mexican thought he was bringing about when he ate of the same human flesh which he offered to his gods1 are typical of the period in which religion pursued its purpose of union with the deity1 regardless of the protests of the moral sense and of humanity4 ,it was reserved for the higher religions1 and especially for that of which our ,bible is the monument1 to realize the intimate alliance of the religious and moral sentiments1--that priceless alliance1 without which morals remain for the most part almost barren1 and religion falls into monstrous aberrations4 ,that the roots of religion pierce to the very cradles of humanity1 may now be taken as demonstrated4 ,its principle is found in the necessity we feel of surmounting the uncertainties and the limitations of destiny1 by attaching ourselves individually to the loftier ,spirit revealed by nature outside us and within2 and this principle has always remained the same2 nor am ,i one of those who hold that we must now renounce it in the name of philosophy and science4 ,for neither philosophy nor science can make us other than the poor creatures we are1 with an unquenchable thirst for blessedness and life1 yet constantly broken1 crushed at every moment1 by the very elements on the bosom of which we are forced to live4 ,philosophy and science may guide religion1 may reveal its true object in ever-growing purity1 may cleanse it from the pollutions in which ignorance and sin still plunge it1 but they cannot replace and they cannot destroy it4 ,there is a ,dutch proverb1 the profundity of which it would be difficult to exaggerate1 ,de natuur gaat boven de leer--,nature is too strong for doctrine4 ,the evolutions of philosophy may seem to make the heavens void1 and inspire man with the idea that all is over with the poetic or terrific visions that rocked the cradle of his infancy4 ,but stay6 ,nature1 human nature1 is still there2 and under the impulse of the indestructible thirst for religion1 human nature renews her efforts1 looks deeper and looks higher1 and finds her ,god once more4 ,jerusalem renait plus brillante et plus belle4 ,but let not this conclusion1 confirmed as it seems to me by the whole history of religion1 prevent our boldly declaring how much that is small1 puerile1 often even immoral and deplorable1 there is in the religious past of humanity4 ,it is no otherwise with art1 with legislation1 with science herself1 with all that constitutes the privilege1 the power1 the joy of our race4 ,it is just the knowledge of these aberrations which should serve to keep us from falling back into the errors and false principles of which they were the consequence4 ,and in this respect the study of the religions of ancient ,mexico and ,peru is profoundly instructive4 ,it teaches us that there is a principle1 bordering closely upon that of religion itself1 which must serve as the torch to guide the religious idea in its development--not to supplant it1 but to direct it to the true path4 ,it is the principle of humanity4 ,the truer a religion is1 the more absolute the homage it will render to the principle of humanity1 and the more will he who lives by its light feel himself impelled to goodness1 loving and loved1 trustful and free4 ,the last word of religious history is1 that there exists an affinity1 a mysterious relationship1 between our spirit and the ,spirit of the universe2 that this nobility of human nature embraces in itself all the promises1 all the hopes1 all the latent perfections1 all the infinite ideals of the future2 that1 in spite of all appearances to the contrary1 the ,supreme ,will is good to each one of the beings which it summons and draws to itself2 and that man1 in spite of his errors1 his failures1 his corruptions1 his miseries1 was never wrong in following the sacred instinct that raised him slowly from the mire1 was always right in renewing his efforts1 so constant1 so toilsome--often1 too1 so woful--to mount the rounds ,de cette echelle d'or qui va se perdre en ,dieu4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now1 ,ladies and ,gentlemen1 it only remains for me to bid you farewell1 while giving you my warmest thanks for the perseverance1 the encouragement and the sympathy1 with which you have supported me4 ,the reception you have given me has touched me deeply1 and my stay in #ahhd in your imposing and splendid capital will always remain amongst the most prized and the pleasantest recollections of my life4 ,you have been good enough to pardon my linguistic infirmity4 ,you have spared from your business or pleasure the time needed to listen to a stranger1 who has come to speak to you of matters having no direct utility1 and of purely historical and theoretical interest4 ,this is far more to your honour than to mine4 ,i thank you1 but at the same time ,i congratulate you2 for it is a trait in the nobleness in our human nature to be able thus to snatch ourselves from the vulgar pre-occupations of life1 to contemplate the truth on those serene heights where it reveals itself to all who seek it with an upright heart4 ,cease not to love these noble studies1 which touch upon all that is most exalted and most precious in us6 ,if we search history for light in politics and the higher interests of our fatherlands1 and learn thereby to understand1 to appreciate1 to love them more1 let us turn to history no less for light on the path which we must tread in that order of sublime realities1 necessities and aspirations1 in which the soul of each one of us becomes a temple and a sanctuary1 lying open to the ,eternal ,spirit that fills the universe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now to the ,eternal1 the ,invisible1 to ,him whose name we can but stammer1 whose infinite perfections we can but feel after1 be rendered all our homage and our hearts6 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the second1 third and fourth despatches 7the first is lost7 from ,fernando ,cortes to ,charles ,v41 written in #aebj1 #aebb and #aebd respectively4 ,original editions as follows3 ,carta de relacion embiada a su ,s4 majestad del emperador nuestro senor 444 por el capitan general de la nueva spana3 ,llamado fernando cortes1 c43 ,seville1 #aebb4 ,carta tercera de relacion3 embiada por ,fernando cortes1 c43 ,seville1 #aebc4 ,la quarta relacion que ,fernando cortes gouernador y capitan general 444 embio al muy alto 444 rey de ,espana1 c43 ,toledo1 #aebe4 ,recent edition1 with notes1 c43 ,cartas y ,relaciones de ,hernan ,cortes al ,emperador ,carlos ,v4 colegidas e ilustradas por ,don ,pascual de ,gayangos1 c43 ,paris1 #ahff4 ,english translation3 ,the ,despatches of ,hernando ,cortes1 c41 translated by ,george ,folsom3 ,new ,york and ,london1 #ahdc4--;,francisco ,lopez de ,gomara 7,cortes' chaplain73 ,hispania ,victrix4 ,primera y segunda parte de la historia general de las ,indias con todo el descubrimiento1 y cosas notables que han acaescido dende que se ganaron hasta el ano de #aeea4 ,con la conquista de ,mexico y dela nueva ,espana3 ,modina del ,campo1 #aeec4 ,also printed in ,vol4 ,,xxii4 of the ,biblioteca de ,autores ,espanoles3 ,madrid1 #aheb 7to the pagination of which references in future notes will be made74 ,there is an old ,english translation of ,part ,,ii4 of this work1 entitled1 ,the ,pleasant ,historie of the ,conquest of the ,weast ,india1 now called new ,spayne1 ,atchieved by the worthy ,prince ,hernando ,cortes1 ,marques of the ,valley of ,huaxacac1 most delectable to ,reade3 ,translated out of the ,spanishe tongue by ,t4 ,n4 ,thomas ,nicholas1 ,anno #aegh3 ,london4--,bernal ,diaz3 ,historia ,verdadera de la ,nueva ,espana escrita por el ,capitan ,bernal ,diaz del ,castillo1 ,uno de sus ,conquistadores4 ,sacada a luz por el ,p4 ,m4 ,fr4 ,alonso ,remon1 c43 ,madrid1 #afcb4 ,english translation3 ,the ,memoirs of the ,conquistador ,bernal ,diaz del ,castillo1 written by ,himself1 c43 translated by ,john ,ingram ,lockhart1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #b vols43 ,london1 #ahdd4 ,there is also a good ,french translation3 ,histoire ,veridique de la conquete 444 par le ,capitaine ,bernal ,diaz del ,castillo1 c41 by ,dr4 ,jourdanet4 ,second edition3 ,paris1 #ahgg4--,las ,casas4 ,numerous works collected by ,llorente3 ,collecion de las obras del ,venerable ,obispo de ,chiapa1 ,don ,bartolome de las ,casas1 ,defensor de la ,libertad de los ,americanos4 #b vols43 ,paris1 #ahbb4 ,also translated into ,french1 with some additional matter1 by the same ,llorente1 and published in the same year at ,paris4 ,his ,historia de las ,crueldades de los ,espanoles1 c41 was translated into ,english in #afee by ,j4 ,phillips1 under the title of ,the ,tears of the ,indians1 c41 and dedicated to ,oliver ,cromwell4 ,n4,b4 ,translations in full or epitomized of several of the above works1 together with others1 may be found in ,vols4 ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 of ,purchas his ,pilgimes1 c43 ,london1 #afbe-bf4--,sahagun's history of ,new ,spain1 a work of the utmost importance for the religious history of ,mexico1 remained unpublished till the present century1 and appeared almost simultaneously in ,mexico and ,london3 ,historia ,general de las ,cosas de ,nueva ,espana 444 escribio el ,r4 ,p4 ,fr4 ,bernardino de ,sahagun 444 uno de los primeros predicadores del santo evangelio en aquellas regiones1 c4 #c vols43 ,mexico1 #ahbi-cj4 ,the same work appeared in ,vols4 ,v4 and ,,vii4 of ,lord ,kingsborough's collection4 ,vid4 infr4 ,a ,french translation by ,jourdanet appeared in #ahhj4--;,acosta3 ,historia ,natural y ,moral de las ,indias 444 compuesta por el ,padre ,joseph de ,acosta ,religioso de la ,campania de ,jesus1 c43 ,seville1 #aeij4 ,english translation3 ,the ,naturall and ,morall ,historie of the ,east and ,west ,indies1 c43 translated by ,e4 ,g43 ,london1 #afjd4 ,edward ,grimstone's translation was edited1 with notes1 for the ,hakluyt ,society1 by ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 in #ahhj4--,torquemada3 ,los veynte y un libros ,rituales y ,monarchia ,yndiana 444 ,compuesto por ,fray ,ivan de ,torquemada1 c4 #c vols43 ,seville1 #afae4 ,printed again at ,madrid in #agbc4--;,herrera 7official historiographer of ,philip ,,ii473 ,historia ,general de los ,hechos de los ,castellanos en las ,islas i ,tierra ,firme del mar ,oceano1 c41 by ,antonio de ,herrera2 to which is prefixed1 ,descripcion de las ,indias ,ocidentales1 c41 by the same4 #d vols43 ,madrid1 #afja4 ,english translation in epitome by ,capt4 ,john ,stevens1 ,the ,general ,history of the vast ,continent and ,islands of ,america1 c4 #f vols43 ,london1 #agbe-bf4 ,the following native writers may also be consulted4 ,ixlilxochitl 7,fernando de ,alva73 ,historia ,chichimeca and ,relaciones1 in ,lord ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 7vid4 infr474 ,french translations in ,vols4 ,,viii4 ,,xii4 and ,,xiii4 of ,h4 ,ternaux-,compans' collection3 ,voyages1 ,relations et ,memoires originaux pour servir a l'histoire de la ,decouverte de l',amerique3 ,paris1 #ahcg-da4--;,camargo3 ,histoire de la ,republique de ,tlaxcallan1 par ,domingo ,munoz ,camargo1 ,indien1 natif de cette ville1 translated from the ,spanish ,,ms4 in ,vols4 ,,xcviii4 and ,,xcix4 of the ,nouvelles ,annales des ,voyages1 c43 ,paris1 #ahdc4--,pomar 7,j4 ,b4 de73 ,relacion de las ,antiquedades de los ,indios4 ,pomar was a descendant of the royal house of ,tezcuco1 and his memoirs were made use of in ,,ms4 by ,torquemada4 ,amongst later authorities may be mentioned 7in addition to ,prescott's well-known work1 and those cited in the following notes73 ,w4 ,robertson3 ,history of ,america4--,alx4 von ,humboldt3 ,vues des ,cordillieres et ,monuments des peuples de l',amerique3 ,paris1 #ahaj2 forming the ,atlas ,pittoresque of ,part ,,iii4 of ,voyage de ,humboldt et ,bonpland4--,francesco ,saverio ,clavigero3 ,storia antica del ,messico1 c4 #d vols43 ,cesena1 #aghj-ha4 ,english translation by ,charles ,cullen3 ,the ,history of ,mexico1 c4 #b vols43 ,london1 #aghg4--,th4 ,waitz3 ,anthropologie der ,naturvoelker1 ,vol4 ,,iv43 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4--;,brasseur de ,bourbourg3 ,histoire des ,nations civilisees du ,mexique et de ,l',amerique-centrale1 c4 #d vols3 ,paris1 #aheg-ei4--,mueller 7,joh4 ,george71 ,professor at ,bale3 ,geschichte der ,amerikanischen ,urreligionen4 ,second edition3 ,basel1 #ahfg4--,to these should be added the narratives and works of ,m4 ,d4 ,charnay1 still in the course of publication4 ,references will be given to the originals1 but in such a form1 wherever possible1 as to serve equally well for the ,english and ,french translations4 ,where1 as is not unfrequently the case1 the chapters or sections of the translations do not correspond to the originals1 a note of the vol4 and page of the former will generally be added4 #b ,the original collection is in seven magnificent folio volumes4 ,antiquities of ,mexico3 comprising ,facsimiles of ,ancient ,mexican ,paintings and ,hieroglyphics 444 together with ,the ,monuments of ,new ,spain1 by ,m4 ,dupaix 444 the whole illustrated by many valuable inedited ,manuscripts by ,augustine ,aglio3 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,two supplementary volumes1 on the title-page of which ,lord ,kingsborough's own name appears1 were added in #ahdh1 and a tenth volume was projected1 but only a small portion of it 7appended to ,vol4 ,,ix47 was printed4 #c ,five volumes3 ,new ,york1 #ahge-gf4 #d ,see ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #caa1 #cab4 #e ,see ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #bja1 ,appendix to ,lib4 ii4 7,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #agd1 in ,jourdanet's translation74 #f ,the story is given by ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #dga1 on the authority of ,lopez ,medel4 #g ,see ,torquemada1 ,lib4 viii4 cap4 xx4 at the end4 ,on the ,mexican temples in general1 see ,mueller1 pp4 #fdd-fdf4 #h ,on the great temple of ,mexico and its annexes1 see ,waitz1 ,,iv4 #adh sqq41 where the scattered data of ,sahagun1 ,acosta1 ,gomara1 ,bernal ,diaz1 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,clavigero1 c41 are drawn together4 ,see also ,bancroft1 ,,ii4 #egg-ehg1 ,,iii4 #dcj sq4 #i ,op4 cit4 cap4 xcii4 #aj ,compare the ,german ,schlangenberg and the old ,french ,guivremont4 #aa ,see the legend in ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4 #f4 #ab ,see ,mueller1 pp4 #fjb sqq41 and ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #a1 #bcg1 sqq41 ,lib4 i4 cap4 i41 and ,lib4 iii4 cap4 i41 c4 #ac ,see ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4 #b4 ,acosta1 pp4 #cbd sqq41 ,lib4 v4 cap4 ix4 7pp4 #cec sq4 in ,e4 ,g4's translation72 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #b sq41 #bda sq41 ,lib4 i4 cap4 iii41 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 ii4 ,see also ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xii4 p4 #ah4 #ad ,on ,quetzalcoatl1 see ,mueller1 pp4 #egg-eij2 ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #bci-bhg2 ,torquemada1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxiv41 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 vii42 ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4 #d2 ,ixtlilxochitl in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xii4 pp4 #e-h 7further1 pp4 #i-bg of the same volume on the ,toltecs72 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap1 iii41 ,bk4 iv4 chap1 v41 and elsewhere2 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #c-d1 #bde-f1 #bee-bei1 ,lib4 i1 cap4 v41 ,lib4 iii4 cap p4 iv4 xii4-xiv4 #ae ,see ,clavigero1 ,lib4 iv4 ,sec4,sec4 #d1 #ae1 ,lib4 vii4 ,sec4 #db2 ,humboldt1 pp4 #cai-bj1 cf4 p4 #ie2 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 i4 and elsewhere2 ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #dbg-dbi2 ,mueller1 pp4 #ebf sq4 #af ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4,sec4 #e1 #ae1 #cd2 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #af-ai1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xiii42 ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #che4 #ag ,see ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #aj-af1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xii4 #ah ,see ,boturini1 ,idea de una nueva historia general de la ,america ,septentrional1 c43 ,madrid1 #agdf1 pp4 #fc-fe4 #ai ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #djc-dag2 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #bb-be1 #bi-cc1 ,lib4 i4 capp4 xv4 xvi4 xix4 #bj ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #cif-djb2 ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4,sec4 #a1 #e4 #ba ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #hf 7cf4 p4 #hh71 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 xx4 #bb ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #ej1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 i4 #bc ,compare the detailed description of the festivals of the ancient religion of ,mexico in ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cjb-cda1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #big-cjj1 #ccj-cdh1 #ced-cfb1 #che-cif4 #bd ,amongst all the indigenous races of ,north ,america1 prolonged fasting is regarded as the means par excellence of securing supernatural inspiration4 ,the ,red-skin to become a sorcerer or to secure a revelation from his totem1 or the ,eskimo to become ,angekok1 will endure the most appalling fasts4 #be ,torquemada1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxxviii42 cf4 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 p4 #agd1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 xxiv4 #bf ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #ce--ci1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xxi4 #bg ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #aa-af1 ,tom4 ,,ii4 pp4 #eg-fd1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xii41 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 vii4 #bh ,elements were not wanting for the formation of a dualistic system analogous to ,mazdeism4 ,the ,tzitzimitles nearly corresponded to the ,iranian ,devas4 ,they were a kind of demon servants of ,mictlan1 who delighted in springing upon men to devour them1 and the protection of the celestial gods was needed to escape from their attacks4 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,,ii4 p4 #fg1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 viii4 7in the middle of a prayer to ,tlaloc74 ,cf4 also ,tom4 ,,ii4 pp4 #ad sqq41 ,lib4 v4 capp4 xi4-xiii4 #bi ,on the ,mexican priesthood1 see ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bjj-bjg1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #dcj-dda2 ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 ,sec4,sec4 #ac--ag2 cf4 ,lib4 iv4 ,sec4 #d2 ,humboldt1 pp4 #ih1 #aid1 #bij2 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii42 ,torquemada1 ,lib4 ix4 capp4 i4-xxxiv4 #cj ,camargo 7in ,nouv4 ,an4 d4 ,voy4 xcix471 pp4 #acd-e4 #ca ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bjd-bjf1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #dce-dcf2 ,torquemada1 ,lib4 ix4 capp4 xiv4 xv42 ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,i4 pp4 #bbg-h 7last section of ,appendix to ,lib4 ii472 ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xvi42 ,clavigero1 ,lib4 vi4 capp4 xvi4 xxii4 #cb ,see the ,cuadro historico-geroglifico1 c41 contributed by ,don ,jose ,fernando ,ramirez 7curator of the national ,museum at ,mexico7 to ,garcia y ,cubas1 ,altas geographico1 estadistico e historico de la ,republica ,mexicana1 ,entrega #bi;a 7#aheh74 #cc ,on all that concerns the ,mexican cosmogonies1 see ,mueller1 pp4 #dgg sq41 #eji--eai2 ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #eg--fe2 ,ixtlilxochitl1 ,historia ,chichimeca1 capp4 i4 ii42 ,kingsborough1 ,mexican ,antiquities1 ,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #afd-afg2 ,humboldt1 pp4 #bjb--baa4 #cd ,see ,sahagun1 ,tom4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bha--bhc1 ,lib4 viii4 cap4 vi4 #ce ,the sacerdotal year was lunar4 ,the civil year1 which was doubtless of later origin1 and had been adopted as better suited to the purposes of agriculture1 was solar4 ,every thirteenth year the two coincided4 ,the number four1 which plays an important part in ,mexican symbolism 7cf4 the ,mexican cross7 gave a kind of cosmic significance to #ac x #d #eb4 #cf ,see ,bancroft1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #cic-cif4 #cg ,compare the ,appendix to ,jourdanet's translation of ,bernal ,diaz1 pp4 #iab sqq4 #ch ,on the conversion of the ,mexicans1 c41 compare the anonymous treatise at the end of ,kingsborough's ,mexican ,antiquities1 ,vol4 ,,ix4 ,cf4 also ,torquemada1 ,lib4 xvii4 cap4 xx41 ,lib4 xix4 cap4 xxix4 #ci ,see ,p4 ,pauke1 ,reise in d4 ,missionen von ,paraguay3 ,vienna1 #ahbi1 p4 #aaa4 #dj ,in addition to the works of ,acosta1 ,gomara1 ,herrera1 ,humboldt1 ,waitz and ,mueller1 already cited in connection with ,mexico1 and ,prescott's ,conquest of ,peru1 we may mention the following authorities for the political and religious history of ,peru3 ,xeres 7,pizarro's secretary73 ,verdadera relacion de la conquista del ,peru y provincia del ,cuzco llamada la nueva ,castilla 444 por ,francisco de ,xeres1 c43 ,seville1 #aecd4 ,english translation by ,markham in ,reports on the ,discovery of ,peru3 printed for the ,hakluyt ,society1 ,london1 #ahgb4--,zarate 7official ,spanish auditor in ,peru73 ,historia del descubrimiento y conquista del ,peru4444 ,la qual escriua ,augustin de ,carate1 c43 ,antwerp1 #aeee4 ,english translation3 ,the strange and delectable ,history1 c43 translated out of the ,spanish ,tongue by ,t4 ,nicholas3 ,london1 #aeha4--;,cieza de ,leon 7served in ,peru for seventeen years73 ,parte ,primera ,dela chronica del ,peru1 c43 ,seville1 #aeec4 ,the second and third ,parts have never been printed4 ,english translation by ,markham3 ,hakluyt ,society1 #ahfd4 ,n4 ,b4 ,xeres 7or ,jeres71 ,cieza de ,leon and ,zarate1 are all contained in ,tom4 ,,xxvi4 of ,aribau's ,biblioteca de autores ,espanoles4--,diego ,fernandez of ,palencia 7historiographer of ,peru under the vice-royalty of ,mendoza73 ,primera1 y ,segunda ,parte1 de la ,historia del ,peru1 c43 ,seville1 #aega4--,miguel ,cavello ,balboa3 ,histoire du ,perou1 in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xv4--,arriaga3 ,extirpacion de la ,idolatria del ,piru 444 ,por el ,padre ,pablo ,joseph de ,arriaga de la ,compania de ,jesus3 ,lima1 #afba4 ,extracts are given in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4--,fernando ,montesinos3 ,memoires historiques sur l',ancien ,perou3 translated from the ,spanish ,,ms4 in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 ,montesinos rectifies ,garcilasso de la ,vega on more points than one4--,johannes de ,laet3 ,novus ,orbis1 c43 ,leiden1 #afcc4--,velasco3 ,historia del ,reino de ,quito1 c43 ,quito1 #ahdd4 ,this work is in three ,parts1 the second of which1 the ,historia ,antigua1 is the one referred to in future notes4 ,this second ,part is translated in ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vols4 ,,xviii4 ,,xix4 ,the ,abbe ,raynal's ,histoire philosophique et politique des etablissements 444 des ,europeens dans les deux ,indes 7#aj vols43 ,geneva1 #aggj7 made a great stir in its time1 the ,english translation by ,justamond reaching a third edition in #aggg2 but it is now completely forgotten1 and has no real value for our purposes4 ,i cannot refrain from a passing notice of a romance which is now almost as completely forgotten as the ,abbe ,raynal's ,history1 in spite of its long popularity3 ,i mean ,marmontel's ,les ,incas et la ,destruction de l'empire du ,perou3 ,paris1 #aggg4 ,the author derived his materials from ,garcilasso de la ,vega4 ,in spite of the florid style and innumerable offences against historical and psychological fact which characterize this work1 it cannot be denied that ,marmontel has disengaged with great skill the profound causes of the irremediable ruin of the ,peruvian state4 ,lacroix3 ,perou1 in ,vol4 ,,iv4 of ,l',amerique in ,l',univers ,pittoresque4--,paul ,chaix3 ,histoire de l',amerique meridionale au ,,xvie siecle1 ,part ,i43 ,geneva1 #ahec4--,wuttke3 ,geschichte des ,heidenthums1 ,theil ,i41 #aheb4--;,j4 ,j4 von ,tschudi3 ,peru4 ,reiseskizzen aus den ,jahren #ahch-ahdb3 ,st4 ,gallen1 #ahdf4--,thos4 ,j4 ,hutchinson3 ,two ,years in ,peru1 with explorations of its ,antiquities3 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,hutchinson had good reason to point out the exaggerations in which ,garcilasso indulges with reference to his ancestors the ,incas1 but he himself speaks too slightingly of their government4 ,had it not been in the main beneficent and popular1 it could not have left such affectionate and enduring memories in the minds of the native population4 ,for the method of citation1 see end of note on p4 #ah4 #da ,this work is in two ,parts1 the first of which 7,lisbon1 #afji7 gives an account of the native traditions1 customs and history prior to the ,spanish conquest1 while the second 7published under the separate title of ,historia ,general del ,peru3 ,cordova1 #afag7 deals with the ,spanish conquest1 c4 ,english translation by ,sir ,paul ,rycaut3 ,london1 #afhh1 not at all to be trusted2 both imperfect 7omitting and condensing in an arbitrary fashion7 and incorrect4 ,as it may be in the possession of some of my readers1 however1 reference will be made to it in future notes4 ,the earlier and more important part of ,garcilasso's work has recently been translated for the ,hakluyt ,society by ,clements ,r4 ,markham1 #b vols43 ,london1 #ahfi1 #ahga4 ,references are to the ,commentarios reales 7,part ,i471 unless otherwise stated4 #db ,herrera1 ,decada v4 ,libro iv4 cap4 ii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #cce1 in ,stevens's epitomized translation74 #dc ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 viii41 ,lib4 v4 capp4 vi4 vii4 viii4 xiii42 ,acosta1 ,lib4 vi4 capp4 xiii4 xvi42 ,montesinos1 p4 #eg4 #dd ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxxv4 #de ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xii42 ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 iv4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #cdd1 in ,stevens's translation74 ,see also ,hazart1 ,historie van ,peru1 ,part ,,ii4 chap4 iv42 in his ,kerckelijcke ,historie van de ,gheheele ,wereldt1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cae3 ,antwerp1 #afhb4 #df ,see ,gomara 7in ,vol4 ,,xxii4 of the ,bibliotheca de ,autores ,espanoles71 p4 #bbh;a2 ,garcillasso1 ,historia ,general1 c41 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xviii42 cf4 ,prescott1 ,bk4 iii4 chaps4 v4 vi41 and ,appendices viii4 ix4 #dg ,gomara1 p4 #bcb a4 #dh ,cf4 ,waitz1 ,theil ,,iv4 ,s4 #daa1 #dah4 #di ,cf4 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xiii42 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 ii4 #ej ,mueller1 p4 #djf4 #ea ,see ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 iii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #ccg sqq4 in ,stevens's translation72 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 capp4 xii4 xiii4 xiv4 7p4 #ce of ,rycaut's translation1 in which the passage is much shortened71 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xi42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #f4 #eb ,acosta1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xviii42 ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 i4 and end of cap4 iii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #cbi sq41 #cdb1 in ,stevens's translation74 #ec ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 vii42 ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iv4 capp4 ii4 iii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #ccd1 #cda1 in ,stevens's translation72 cf4 ,montesinos1 p4 #ef4 #ed ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 xix42 cf4 ,lib4 viii4 cap4 viii4 7ad fin474 #ee ,cf4 ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #chg2 ,hutchinson1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #age-f4 #ef ,montesinos1 p4 #aai1 cf4 pp4 #cc1 #ajh4 #eg ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 iii4 #eh ,humboldt1 pp4 #ajh1 #bid4 #ei ,gomara1 p4 #bgg b4 #fj ,prescott1 ,bk4 iii4 chap4 viii4 #fa ,cf4 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 iv4 #fb ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 i4 capp4 ix4-xvii42 cf4 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 ix41 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 xxv4 #fc ,such at least is the etymology proposed by ,garcilasso 7,lib4 i4 cap4 xviii474 ,modern ,peruvian scholars rather incline to refer ,cuzco to the same root as cuzcani 7to clear the ground74 #fd ,see the critical summary of the history of the ,incas in ,waitz1 ,theil4 ,,iv4 ,s4 #cif sq4 ,the following table of the successive ,incas follows ,garcilasso3 ,manco ,capac1 died about #ajjj ,sinchi ,roca1 #ajia ,lloque ,yupanqui1 #aabf ,mayta ,capac1 #aaef ,capac ,yupanqui1 #aaig ,inca ,roca1 #abdi ,yahuar ,huacac1 #abhi ,viracocha ,inca ,ripac1 #acdj ,inca ,urco1 who only reigned #aa days1 is omitted by ,garcilasso ,tito ,manco ,capac ,pachacutec1 #adjj ,yupanqui1 #adch ,tupac ,yupanqui1 #adge ,huayna ,capac1 #aebe ,huascar1 #aecb ,atahualpa1 #aecc #fe ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 viii4 cap4 viii4 ,garcilasso says that he translates this passage1 word for word1 from the ,latin ,,ms4 of the ,jesuit ,father1 ,blas ,valera4 #ff ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 iv4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #cdf1 in ,stevens's translation74 #fg ,lib4 ix4 cap4 x4 #fh ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 i4 capp4 ii4 iii41 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 xvii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #bdj sqq41 #cbe sqq41 in ,stevens's translation74 #fi ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 iii4 cap4 ii4 7,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #bff1 in ,stevens's translation72 ,gomara1 p4 #bca a4 #gj ,in the course of a few months1 ,pizarro amassed such immense wealth that1 after deducting the fifth for the king and a large sum for the reinforcements brought him by ,almagro1 he was still able to give ,l#djjj to each of his foot-soldiers1 and double that sum to each horseman4 ,the calculation is made by ,robertson1 who estimates the peso at a pound sterling4 ,to obtain the equivalent purchasing power in our own times1 these sums would have to be more than quadrupled6 #ga ,herrera1 ,dec4 v4 ,lib4 viii4 capp4 i4 sqq4 7,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #bc sqq4 in ,stevens's translation74 #gb ,see ,alcedo1 ,diccionario ,geografico-,historico de las ,indias ,occidentales1 c43 ,madrid1 #aghf-i3 article ,chunchos4 #gc ,see ,waitz1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #dgg-dig2 ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cdf-cea2 cf4 ,castelnau1 ,expedition dans les ,parties centrales de l',amerique du ,sud1 c43 ,paris1 #ahej1 c41 ,part ,i4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bhb4 #gd ,tschudi1 ibid4 #ge ,cf4 ,spanish ,,ms4 cited by ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #d1 sec4 #ae4 #gf ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #gg ,cf4 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xxi41 where the current etymology of the word is rejected4 #gh ,see ,mueller1 pp4 #cac sqq41 where all the views concerning him are collected and discussed4 #gi ,this hymn was found by ,garcilasso 7see ,lib4 ii4 cap4 xvii41 pp4 #ej1 #ea1 in ,rycaut's translation7 among the papers of ,father ,blas ,valera1 and has been freed by ,tschudi from the misprints1 c41 that disfigured it in the printed editions of ,garcilasso and all subsequent reproductions4 ,see ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cha4 #hj ,johannes de ,laet1 ,lib4 x4 cap4 i4 7p4 #cih1 ll4 #ea1 #eb74 #ha ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 i42 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxx4 #hb ,gomara1 p4 #bcc;a2 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #b1 sec4 #d4 #hc ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 capp4 ii4 iii4 #hd ,see ,montesinos1 pp4 #c sqq41 whose version of the legend has been mainly followed in the text4 ,cf4 however1 for some of the details1 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xviii4 7omitted by ,rycaut72 ,acosta1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xxv42 ,balboa1 pp4 #d sqq41 c4 #he ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #d1 sec4 #ag2 ,ph4 ,h4 ,kuelb in ,widenmann and ,hauff's ,reisen u4 ,laenderbeshreibungen1 ,lief1 xxvii43 ,stuttgart1 #ahdc1 pp4 #ahf-g4 #hf ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 iv42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #d1 sec4 #af2 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii42 ,kuelb1 ibid4 #hg ,prescott1 ibid4 ,in cloudy weather they had recourse to the method of friction4 #hh ,prescott1 ibid4 #hi ,arriaga1 pp4 #ag1 #cb2 ,kuelb1 ibid4 #ij ,cf4 ,arriaga1 pp4 #aj-ag1 c4 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 pp4 #ac1 #ad74 #ia ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 v42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #b2 ,arriaga1 ibid4 #ib ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cif-g4 #ic ,arriaga1 p4 #ah 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #ae74 #id ,cf4 ,arriaga1 pp4 #aj-ag 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 pp4 #ac1 #ad72 ,acosta1 ,lib4 v2 cap4 v42 ,montesinos1 pp4 #afa-b2 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #a4 #ie ,on the priesthood1 cf4 ,arriaga1 pp4 #ag sqq4 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #ae72 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii42 ,balboa1 p4 #bi2 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #h2 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 capp4 viii4 7ad fin47 xii4 xiii42 ,mueller1 p4 #chg2 ,kuelb1 l4c4 p4 #ahg4 #if ,cf4 ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xv42 ,montesinos1 p4 #ef2 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #ab1 ,sec4 #i1 sec4 #aj2 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 and elsewhere4 #ig ,cf4 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii42 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 iii4 capp4 xx4-xxiv42 ,paul ,chaix1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #bdi sqq4 ,on the temples of ,pachacamac1 which must have attained gigantic proportions before the time of the ,incas1 see ,hutchinson1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #adg-agf4 #ih ,richard ,inwards1 ,the ,temple of the ,andes3 ,london1 #ahhd4 #ii ,acosta1 ,lib1 v4 cap4 xviii42 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 viii4 7p4 #ca in ,rycaut71 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxi42 ,arriaga1 p4 #gg4 #ajj ,acosta1 ibid42 ,arriaga1 pp4 #bd-bg 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 pp4 #ae1 #af72 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #aja ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #d1 sec4 #bj4 #ajb ,acosta1 ibid42 ,arriaga1 ibid4 #ajc ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 i4 cap4 xi41 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 xviii41 ,lib4 iv4 cap4 xv41 and elsewhere 7pp4 #f1 c41 in ,rycaut1 who omits some of the passages74 #ajd ,montesinos1 p4 #aba2 ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 capp4 v4 xix41 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 xxii42 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chaps1 i4 ii42 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 v42 ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 vii42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 iii4 ,sec4 #a1 sec4 #a4 #aje ,gomara1 p4 #bcd a4 ,cf4 ,montesinos1 p4 #fh1 and ,poeppig in ,ersch u4 ,gruber's ,encyklopaedie1 art4 ,incas1 p4 #bhg b1 note #ce4 #ajf ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 capp4 xxii1 xxiii4 7pp4 #dc1 #dd1 in ,rycaut72 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iv42 ,acosta1 ,lib4 vi4 cap4 iii4 #ajg ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 ii42 ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #chb2 ,rivero y ,tschudi3 ,antigueedades ,peruanas3 ,viena1 #ahea4 pp4 #ace-ada4 ,n4 ,b4 ,an ,english translation of this work by ,f4 ,l4 ,hawks appeared at ,new ,york in #ahec4 #ajh ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #e1 secc4 #d1 #ag 7,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 pp4 #acg1 #adh-i72 ,kuelb1 l4c4 p4 #aij4 #aji ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 capp4 xx4-xxii42 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #aaj ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 cap4 xxviii4 wrongly numbered xxvii4 in the original edition2 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vii4 capp4 vi4 vii4 #aaa ,acosta1 ibid4 #aab ,acosta1 ibid42 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 vi4 capp4 xxiv4-xxvii4 #aac ,cf4 ,acosta1 ibid42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #e4 #aad ,gomara1 p4 #bcc b2 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 cap4 xxiii42 cf4 ,montesinos1 pp4 #fg1 #fh4 #aae ,balboa1 pp4 #bi1 #cj4 #aaf ,cf4 ,arriaga1 pp4 #ag-bc1 and passim 7,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #ae74 #aag ,see ,prescott1 ibid4 #aah ,cf4 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 secc4 #d1 #e4 #aai ,balboa1 p4 #c2 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #f2 ,arriaga1 pp4 #bh1 #bi 7,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 pp4 #af1 #ag74 #abj ,cf4 ,tschudi1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cee-f1 #cig-h4 #aba ,acosta1 ,lib4 v4 capp4 vi4 vii42 ,velasco1 ,lib4 ii4 ,sec4 #c1 sec4 #c2 ,arriaga1 p4 #ae 7cf4 ,ternaux-,compans1 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 p4 #ad72 ,garcilasso1 ,lib4 ii4 capp4 ii4 7,supay71 vii4 7omitted by ,rycaut72 ,prescott1 ,bk4 i4 chap4 iii4 #abb ,compare ,w4 ,b4 ,stevenson1 ,a ,historical and ,descriptive ,narrative of ,twenty ,years' ,residence in ,south ,america3 ,london1 #ahbe1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #cid sqq4 ,,printed ,,by ,c4 ,,green ,,son1 #agh1 ,,strand4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,changes listed in the ,addenda et ,corrigenda on page ix have been made4 ,spelling and spelling variations have been retained as in the original publication4