,,woodcraft ,by ,e4 ,h4 ,,kreps ,published by ,,peltries ,,publishing ,,co4 ,incorporated #ga ,w4 #bc;d ,street1 ,new ,york ,copyright #aiai by ,peltries ,publishing ,co41 ,inc4 ,,preface4 ,elmer ,h4 ,kreps was born in ,union county1 ,pa41 in #ahhj4 ,at that time large and small game of the various species common to ,central ,pennsylvania was plentiful in the neighborhood of his home4 ,from his early boyhood he took a great interest in hunting and trapping4 ,as he grew older he visited various parts of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and being a keen observer1 picked up a vast amount of information about life in the woods and fields4 ,mr4 ,kreps has written many articles on various subjects connected with hunting and trapping and this little booklet is a collection of ,woodcraft articles from his pen4 ,mr4 ,kreps is an accomplished artist as well as writer1 and the illustrations in ,woodcraft are reproduced from his sketches4 ,we feel sure that this collection of articles will prove of value to many men and boys who are interested in living in the woods and no one will be more happy than ,mr4 ,kreps if his work helps brighten the life of trappers and hunters1 in whom he is always interested4 ,,editor ,,fur ,,news4 ,,building ,,the ,,home ,,camp ,the first camp ,i remember making1 or remodeling1 was an old lumber camp1 one side of which ,i partitioned off and floored4 ,it was clean and neat appearing1 being made of boards1 and was pleasant in warm weather1 but it was cold in winter1 so ,i put up an extra inside wall which ,i covered with building paper4 ,then ,i learned the value of a double wall1 with an air space between1 a sort of neutral ground where the warmth from the inside could meet the cold from without1 and the two fight out their differences4 ,in this camp ,i had a brick stove with a sheet iron top1 and it worked like a charm4 ,but that was not really a wilderness camp1 and while ,i realize that in many of the trapping districts where it is necessary to camp1 there are often these deserted buildings to be found1 those who trap or hunt in such places are not the ones who must solve the real problems of camp building4 ,it is something altogether different when we get far into the deep1 silent forest1 where the sound of the axe has never yet been heard1 and sawed lumber is as foreign as a linen napkin in a trapper's shack4 ,but the timber is there1 and the trapper has an ax and the skill and strength to use it1 so nothing more is really needed4 ,let us suppose we are going to build a log cabin for a winter's trapping campaign4 ,while an axe is the only tool necessary1 when two persons work together1 a narrow crosscut saw is a great labor-saver1 and if it can be taken conveniently the trappers or camp builders will find that it will more than pay for the trouble4 ,other things very useful in this work are a hammer1 an auger1 a pocket measuring tape1 and a few nails1 large1 medium and small sizes4 ,then to make a really pleasant camp a window of some kind must be provided1 and for this purpose there is nothing equal to glass4 ,right here a question pops up before us4 ,we are going on this trip far back into the virgin forest1 and the trail is long and rough2 how then can we transport an unwieldy crosscut saw and such fragile stuff as glass8 ,we will remove the handles from the saw and bind over the tooth edge a grooved strip of wood4 ,this makes it safe to carry1 and while still somewhat unhandy it is the best we can do1 for we cannot shorten its length4 ,for the window1 we will take only the glass--six sheets of eight by ten or ten by fourteen size4 ,between each sheet we place a piece of corrugated packing board1 and the whole is packed in a case1 with more of the same material in top and bottom4 ,this makes a package which may be handled almost the same as any other merchandise1 and we can scarcely take into the woods anything that will give greater return in comfort and satisfaction4 ,if we are going to have a stove in this cabin we will also require a piece of tin or sheet iron about #ah inches square1 to make a safe stovepipe hole1 but are we going to have a stove or a fireplace8 ,let us consider this question now4 ,on first thought the fireplace seems the proper thing1 for it can be constructed in the woods where the camp is made1 but a fireplace so made may or may not be satisfactory4 ,if we know the principles of proper fireplace construction we can make one that will not smoke the camp1 will shed the proper amount of heat1 and will not consume more fuel than a well-behaved fireplace should1 but if one of these principles be violated1 trouble is sure to result4 ,moreover1 it is difficult to make a neat and satisfactory fireplace without a hammer for dressing the stones1 and a tool of this kind will weigh as much as a sheet iron stove1 therefore it is almost as difficult to take into the woods4 ,then there is one or two days' work1 perhaps more1 in making the fireplace and chimney1 with the added uncertainty of its durability1 for there are only a few kinds of stones that will stand heat indefinitely without cracking4 ,on the other hand the fireplace renders the use of a lamp unnecessary1 for it will throw out enough light for all ordinary needs4 ,the good points of the stove are that it can be made by anybody in a half day's time2 it does not smoke the camp1 does not black the cooking utensils1 gives the maximum amount of heat from the minimum quantity of fuel1 and will not give out or go bad unexpectedly in the middle of the winter4 ,if you leave it to me our camp will be equipped with a sheet iron stove4 ,while the stove itself is not now to be considered1 we must know before we commence to build what form of heating and cooking apparatus will be installed4 ,having decided on which part of the country is to be the centre of operations1 we look for a suitable site for our cabin4 ,we find it near a stream of clear water4 ,nearby is a stretch of burned land covered thinly with second growth saplings1 and near the edge of the evergreen forest in which we will build our camp stands plenty of dead timber1 tamarack1 white spruce1 and a few pine stubs1 all of which will make excellent firewood4 ,in the forest itself we find straight spruce trees1 both large and small1 balsam1 and a few white birches1 the loose bark of which will make the best kindling known4 ,within three rods of the stream and #ej yards from the burn is a rise of ground1 high enough to be safe from the spring freshets1 and of a gravelly ground which is firm and dry4 ,this is the spot on which we will construct our cabin1 for here we have good drainage1 shelter from the storms1 water and wood near at hand1 and material for the construction of the camp right on the spot4 ,illustration3 ,,chart ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,camp4 ,the first thing to settle is the size of the proposed building4 ,ten by fourteen feet1 inside measurement1 is a comfortable size for a home cabin for two men4 ,if it were to be used merely as a stopping camp now and then it should be much smaller1 for the small shack is easier warmed and easier to build4 ,i have used camps for this purpose measuring only six and a half by eight feet1 and found them plenty large for occasional use only4 ,but this cabin is to be our headquarters1 where we will store our supplies and spend the stormy days1 so we will make it ten by fourteen feet4 ,there is just one spot clear of trees where we can place a camp of this size1 and we commence here felling trees from which to make logs for the walls4 ,with the crosscut saw we can throw the straight spruce trees almost anywhere we want them1 and we drop them in places which will be convenient and save much handling4 ,as soon as a tree is cut we measure it off and saw it into logs4 ,these must be cut thirteen and seventeen feet long1 and as they will average a foot in diameter at the stump there will be an allowance of three feet for walls and overlap1 or #ah inches at each end4 ,we cut the trees as near the ground as we can conveniently1 and each tree makes two or three logs4 ,all tall trees standing near the camp site must be cut1 and used if possible1 for there is always danger that a tree will blow over on the camp some time1 if within reach4 ,on the spot chosen for the camp we now place two of the long logs1 parallel with each other and exactly ten feet apart4 ,we block them on the outside so they cannot be moved easily out of position4 ,then we place two of the short logs across the ends and in these we cut half-round notches directly over the places where they rest on the long logs1 and almost half through each piece4 ,after cutting these notches we turn the logs notched side down1 and these cuts1 if they have been properly done1 fit snugly over the long logs1 thus binding the four pieces together and forming the first round of the walls4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,corner ,,construction4 ,before going farther now we must decide just where we are going to have the doorway of our cabin4 ,we will place it on the south side1 for we like to have the warm sun rays come in when the door is open1 and if placed on the north or west sides it admits too much cold4 ,we will place it near one end and then we can also put our window in the same side4 ,about two or three feet from the corner we will cut out a section from the top of the log1 making the cut four inches deep and two and a half feet wide1 the bottom being hewn smooth and the ends sawed down square4 ,then we cut one of the balsam trees and saw a section from the butt the length of the proposed doorway4 ,this should be not less than five feet1 so we make it this length4 ,then we split through the centre with the axe and a pair of wooden wedges1 and hew the two halves into two smooth planks4 ,we also make a plank two and a half feet long4 ,when these planks are finished we stand the two long ones upright in the place cut in the log and nail them firmly4 ,we see that they stand perfectly plumb and in line with one another1 then we nail the short plank across the top1 thus completing our doorway4 ,on this side1 as the walls are laid up1 we saw each log off squarely at the proper place and push it up against the door frame1 fastening it there by nailing through the plank4 ,the notches are cut to such a depth at the corners that the logs fit one against the other and this leaves no large cracks to close4 ,to make our cabin comfortable it must have a floor and we have this in mind as we work4 ,before building the wall higher we will lay our sills for the floor1 for it is difficult to get these cut to the proper length and fitted in place after the walls are completed and the timber must be brought in through the doorway4 ,we cut three straight logs about eight inches thick in the middle and #ad feet long4 ,these are bedded into the ground in the cabin1 one along each side wall and the other in the centre4 ,they must be placed at an even height and this is determined by means of a straight ten-foot pole1 which when placed across these logs should rest on each4 ,if one of them is too high in spots we dress these places down with the axe4 ,we will now leave the floors and proceed with building the walls4 ,round by round the logs are notched and fitted into place1 until the walls have reached a height of about four feet4 ,then we make a window boxing of planks and fasten it in the wall in the same way we did the door frame4 ,the ends of the logs are butted against the window frame and fastened with large nails1 driven through the planks into the logs4 ,but before making the window frame the size of the proposed window must be determined1 and this is done by measuring the width of the glass and making the proper allowance for the sash4 ,when the logs are placed in the walls we try to select timbers of such a size that one round of logs will come within about three inches of the top of the window boxing1 and the next log is cut out to fit down over this window and the frame is nailed fast to this log4 ,the same thing is done when the top of the door frame is reached1 and this gives a greater degree of rigidity to the walls4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,gables4 ,when the walls have been raised to a height of about six and a half feet above the floor sills we commence work on the gables4 ,these are constructed by placing a full length log across the end1 a shorter one on top of this1 continuing thus until high enough4 ,this is best done by setting a pole up in the end of the camp exactly in the middle of the end wall1 the top being just the height of the proposed gable4 ,from the top of this straight pole1 poles are run down to each corner and these give the slope of the gables1 also of the roof4 ,the logs are then cut off on an incline at the ends to conform with the line of this pole1 and are fastened one on top of another by boring holes and driving wooden pins into them4 ,when both gables have been raised to half their height we cut two #ag-;foot binding poles1 each six inches thick in the middle1 and notch them into the logs of the gables4 ,these logs or poles not only give more stability to the gables1 but they also make a support for the roof1 and are a nice foundation for a loft on which to store articles after the camp is finished4 ,when the ends are brought up to within about eight inches of the required height a stout1 straight ridge pole of the same length as the binding poles is placed on top1 and notched lightly into the top log4 ,our camp is now ready for the roof1 and what are we to use for this most important part4 ,i have no doubt that camp roofs have caused more gray hairs for woodsmen than any of the other problems they have to solve4 ,if it were early summer when the bark could be peeled from cedar and spruce trees we would have no trouble1 but bark is not available now4 ,about the only style of roof that we can make now is what is called a scoop roof1 made from split logs4 ,we must find a straight-grained1 free-splitting wood for this1 and of the woods at hand we find balsam the best1 so we cut balsam trees about eight or ten inches in diameter1 and make logs from the butt of each1 about seven feet long1 so that they will reach from the top of the ridge-pole to the walls and extend a foot beyond4 ,these we split through the centre and hollow out each in a trough form1 by cutting notches in the flat side1 without cutting the edges1 and splitting out the sections between4 ,we place a layer of these the entire length of the roof1 hollow side up1 and notch each in place so that it cannot slip or rock4 ,between each set of these troughs we will place a three-inch pole1 and on top of the pole we place marsh moss4 ,then we place over these poles a second layer of the troughs1 hollow side down1 and over the ridge pole we place a large1 full-length trough4 ,this latter we must make by hewing a log flat on one side and then hollowing it out1 for we cannot find a tree with such a straight grain that we can split a #ag-;foot length without more or less of a twist4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,roof4 ,before completing our roof1 in fact when the first layer of scoops are placed on1 we must make provision for our stove pipe1 for it must have an outlet through the roof1 and the location the stove is to have in the cabin must be determined4 ,a hole #ab or #ad inches square is left in the roof1 by using a few short scoops1 and this hole is covered with the sheet of tin we brought for the purpose1 and a slightly oblong hole is cut in this for the stove pipe4 ,the edge of this hole we turn up with the hammer1 which makes it waterproof1 and when finished it is such a size that the pipe makes a snug fit4 ,the whole thing is so arranged that water cannot run under from the top1 but this is difficult to explain4 ,a roof like this causes a lot of work1 in fact as much as the remainder of the camp in some cases1 but if carefully made it is a good roof1 warm and waterproof4 ,it must be well mossed or snow will sift in1 and the lower ends of the troughs1 from where they cross the walls1 should be cut deeper than the portion above4 ,if this is not done the ice which forms in the ends of these troughs will back the water up until it runs over the edges and down the walls of the cabin4 ,it may even be necessary occasionally during the winter to clean the snow off the lower edge of the roof and clip the ice from the troughs with a hatchet4 ,the steeper the roof the less trouble there will be from this source4 ,with the roof completed our cabin becomes a real shelter and we can camp inside at night4 ,if necessary the flooring may be postponed for a few days1 but we may as well finish it at once1 so we clean out the chips and commence laying the floor4 ,this we make of straight spruce poles about four or five inches thick4 ,in the end of the camp where our beds are to be we leave them in their natural round state1 merely flattening them on the underside where they rest on the sills1 to make them fit and lie firmly in their places4 ,but when the floor has grown at this end to a width of about four feet we adopt a different plan4 ,we now hew the poles straight and smooth on one side their entire length1 and flatten the underside where they rest on the sills1 also straighten the sides so they fit up snugly against one another4 ,at the place where the stove is to be placed we leave an opening of two and a half by four feet1 and around this place we fasten smooth pieces of wood about four inches thick1 so that it makes of the opening a sort of box4 ,when our floor is completed we nail down along each wall1 a pole1 which covers the ends of the floor poles and holds them all firmly in place4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,door4 ,to complete our cabin now we need only a door1 a window1 and something to close the cracks4 ,for a door we split cedar or balsam wood into planks1 which we place on edge in notches cut in a log1 and hew down smoothly on both sides with the axe4 ,then we straighten the edges and measuring our door frame carefully we fit the boards into the opening1 binding them all together by nailing across near each end a narrow board4 ,we also place a strip diagonally across the door from near one corner to the opposite1 to stiffen the door and prevent warping4 ,hinges we make of wood1 fasten them together with a single large nail through each1 and fasten the door to the wall4 ,then on the outside we hew the ends of the logs until they are flush with the edges of the door frame1 and nail a flattened strip along both sides of the doorway4 ,this is not absolutely necessary1 but it gives the doorway a more finished appearance1 and increases the rigidity of the wall4 ,our window sash also makes considerable work4 ,for this we split soft1 dead cedar and hew it into three-inch strips4 ,from these we make a frame that will fit inside the window boxing1 and make the strips of this frame flush at the corners by cutting away half of each4 ,then at the proper places we fit our lighter cross strips1 sinking them into the wood at the ends1 and fastening with small nails4 ,grooves are then cut in the strips and the frame itself to receive the sheets of glass1 which are put in place and fastened with tacks4 ,the window is then placed in the wall and secured by nailing narrow strips of wood against it4 ,as a window at its best is apt to admit a lot of cold air it will pay well to spend some time at this work and make the window fit snugly4 ,all that now remains to be done is to close the cracks between the logs4 ,since our logs were of a uniform size and have been well notched down there are no large cracks1 and no blocking is needed4 ,the warmest chinking1 outside of rags1 which we do not have1 is woods moss4 ,that found growing on rocks and logs is best1 for it does not dry out and shrink as much as marsh moss1 and there is an abundance of this near at hand4 ,we gather a few bags of this moss and with a piece of wood we drive it into the cracks all around the walls4 ,we also keep a small quantity of this moss in the cabin1 for no matter how firmly it is driven into the cracks it will shrink and become loose after awhile1 and this must be tightened and more moss driven in4 ,our little cabin is now complete4 ,it has taken much hard work to build it1 but it is worth the effort for it is a comfortable1 home-like camp4 ,the cold winter winds may howl through the forest and the snow may fall to a depth of several feet1 but here we can live as comfortably as woodsmen can expect to live in the wilds4 ,,furnishing ,,the ,,home ,,camp ,a single day's work will do wonders towards making a cabin comfortable4 ,sometimes through press of more important work1 such as getting out a line of traps while the season is yet young1 the trapper may well neglect these touches of comfort1 and the simplest of camp furnishings will answer until a stormy day keeps him indoors1 when he can make good use of his time in making camp furniture4 ,a bed and a stove or fireplace are the only absolutely necessary furnishings to start with1 if other work demands immediate attention4 ,but in our own case such neglect is not at all necessary4 ,the preceding chapter saw our cabin completed1 that is the walls1 roof and floor1 all that can really be called cabin1 but much more work will be required before it is really comfortable and ready for occupancy4 ,providing the camp with suitable furniture and adding conveniences and comfort is the next step1 so while we have time and there is nothing to hinder the work we will push it along4 ,most important of all camp furnishings is the stove4 ,nothing else adds so much to the cheerfulness and home-like aspect of a camp as a properly enclosed1 well behaved fire1 which warms up the room1 enables us to cook our food indoors1 and dispenses the gloom of night by driving the darkness into the farthest corners4 ,if the weather is cold nothing in the camp is so indispensable4 ,for the lodge which we built in the preceding chapter we will make a stove of sheet iron4 ,i have made a number of camp stoves by riveting together four sections of new1 unbent stovepipe into a square sheet1 bending this into proper shape1 fitting ends1 and cutting holes for cooking utensils and for the pipe4 ,but for this camp we have secured from a hardware store a pipe of sheet iron three feet wide by four feet long4 ,we now place this on the floor of the cabin and measure off from each end #ag inches1 then on each edge at the #ag-;inch mark we make a three-inch cut4 ,this we do by holding the sheet metal on a block or flat topped stump1 placing the corner of the axe on the metal at the proper place1 and striking on the head with a billet of wood4 ,then we place a straight edged strip of wood across the end on the #ag-;inch mark1 and standing on this wood we pull the end of the metal upward1 bending it to a right angle4 ,the other end is treated the same way and this leaves the metal in the form of a box1 three feet long1 #ag inches high1 and #ad inches wide1 open on top and at both ends4 ,now we turn this upside down and in the top we cut two seven-inch holes1 as round as we can make them4 ,these are to hold the cooking utensils4 ,near one end we cut a small hole1 not more than three and a half inches in diameter4 ,the edge of this hole we cut at intervals all the way around1 making straight1 one-half inch cuts4 ,then we turn these edges up1 and we have a stovepipe hole1 with a collar to hold the pipe in place4 ,we now close the rear end of the stove by bending three inches of the sides into a right angle1 the same amount of the top being bent down4 ,this is the purpose of the three-inch cuts we made when we first commenced the work4 ,now we rivet a piece of sheet-iron into this end1 using for rivets the head ends of wire nails4 ,they must be cut short and riveted on the head of an axe4 ,beneath the top of the stove1 between the cooking holes we rivet a folded strip of metal2 this is to stiffen the top4 ,then we turn in three inches of the front of the stove and rivet the corners where they lap4 ,this leaves an eight-inch opening in front over which we will hinge a door4 ,this door must have some kind of fastening1 and a simple little twist of wire working in a punch hole is easily arranged and convenient4 ,we can make a very crude stove of this if we like1 but we do not want that kind1 so we take plenty of time and turn out a satisfactory article4 ,our stove is now completed except for the covers which are easily made4 ,we set it up in the box-shaped opening left in the floor and fill around it with sand to a height of six inches1 also fill the inside to that height4 ,while doing this we must see that the stove stands perfectly level1 and that the pipe hole is directly beneath the hole in the roof4 ,this makes a fireproof stove and the bed of sand holds it rigidly in place4 ,a draft is made beneath the door by scraping away a little sand4 ,the pipe is five-inch size and we fit it with a damper for that is the way to regulate the draft and keep the heat from going up the pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,stove4 ,our stove completed and in working order we next turn our attention to the bed1 since it ranks second in importance4 ,we set an upright post four inches thick and three feet long against the sidewall about five feet from the end of the room and nail it firmly in position4 ,then at a height of about two feet from the floor we fasten to the wall another four-inch piece1 this extending in a horizontal position from the post to the end wall4 ,then we set up a corner post at the foot of the bed1 placing it five feet from the end wall and nailing the top securely to the roof binding pole4 ,in line with this against the end wall we set up another three-foot post and spike it solidly to the logs of the wall4 ,then we cut notches in these two latter posts two feet above the floor and into this we fit and nail fast a four-inch cross strip4 ,we now have the foundation for our bed and we make the bottom of straight1 smooth poles1 nailed fast to the horizontal ends4 ,these poles must all be of about the same thickness to make a satisfactory bed1 otherwise some of them will bend or spring while the stiff ones will not4 ,if it were summer now we would line this bunk with bark to keep the balsam needles from falling through1 but since we cannot get bark at this time of year we cannot do this4 ,we make the side and end of the bed by nailing poles against the posts4 ,then we fill the bed with balsam boughs4 ,these are the ends of the branches and the heaviest stems are less than a fourth-inch thick4 ,we commence at the head and stand the boughs on end at an angle1 stems down4 ,when entirely filled we have a soft and fairly comfortable bed1 of course not equal to the spring bed we have at home1 but then we are not expecting home comforts in the big woods1 and we are always tired enough to rest well in a bough bed4 ,for pillows we use grain bags in which we place our extra clothing4 ,this bed is at its best when freshly filled4 ,each night's use reduces its softness1 and the comfort decreases at a like rate4 ,the only way to keep a bough bed in good condition is to replace the bough filling occasionally with fresh evergreens4 ,when we kill some big game animal1 a deer or caribou1 we will dry the skin and place it on our bed1 hair side up1 for this will make the bed warmer and softer4 ,the table is next in order4 ,many trappers think a table too much of a luxury and accordingly dispense with it1 but a home camp is far from complete without it and it is an easy piece of furniture to make4 ,it should be placed on the south side of the cabin before the window1 so that we can get the advantage of the light4 ,we will stand up two posts of the proper height about two feet from the wall and six feet apart4 ,these we secure in place by nailing them to the floor4 ,from the tops of these posts to the wall we place flattened pieces of wood and secure them by nailing to the wall and to the posts4 ,this is the foundation or framework for our table4 ,the top we will make of three straight eight-inch logs hewn on one side to the center1 and flattened on the other side at the ends4 ,when placed on the supports1 flat side up1 and fastened by nailing at the ends1 we have the table completed4 ,it is rough1 but it answers our purpose as well as a more finished one4 ,illustration3 ,,camp ,,furniture4 ,in front of the table we will place a bench4 ,this we will make from a hewn log1 half round1 and in the round side near each end we bore holes for the legs4 ,these are bored at such an angle that the legs will stand about #bj inches apart at the base4 ,the legs are made of two-inch sticks whittled to fit the holes and driven in1 the lower ends being cut off afterwards at the proper length to make the bench stand firmly1 and at the right height4 ,we will also make another shorter bench which we will place by the side of the stove4 ,perhaps when a stormy day comes we will make a couple of chairs1 but for the present at least these two benches will serve very well4 ,we cannot be long in the woods until we realize the need of some means of securing our food where it will be inaccessible to woods mice4 ,these little creatures are a serious pest and can soon ruin a bag of flour or a side of bacon if they are able to get at it4 ,in an effort to place my flour where they could not reach it ,i suspended it from the ridgepole with a piece of codfish line1 but the nimble mice went up and down that cord like monkeys4 ,then ,i made a platform and suspended it from the roof with four pieces of hay baling wire4 ,on this ,i placed my food2 but even here ,i found it was not safe1 for the mice dropped onto the platform from the roof poles4 ,the only way ,i found that was perfectly satisfactory was to make a tight box with a well fitted cover in which to keep the food supply4 ,as a result ,i made a food box for each camp4 ,we have now found that it is necessary to have some means of preserving our food from the ravages of mice1 and profiting by experience we do not waste our time on theories1 but set to work to make a tight wooden box4 ,if it were a time of the year when bark would peel we would make a frame of poles and cover it with bark4 ,but this is impossible now1 so we split boards from balsam and cedar and hew them flat and smooth4 ,for the ends we make these boards two feet long and fasten them together by nailing strips across the ends of the boards after they have been placed side by side with the edges fitting one against another4 ,the boards for the bottom and sides are made three feet long and these we nail to the ends4 ,the cover is fitted to the top1 but is not fastened4 ,luxuries become necessities through use4 ,the furnishings which we have so far brought into our cabin may be considered as coming properly under the heading of necessities4 ,but there are many little extra pieces that may be added which may be called luxuries at first1 but through use they become almost indispensable4 ,on the walls we will build shelves and we find them very useful places for storing odds and ends4 ,a small shelf is placed on the wall near the stove to hold the lamp1 and another similar shelf for the same purpose is placed above the left end of the table4 ,then there are two or three longer shelves placed in convenient locations4 ,these shelves are all made of hewn boards supported by stout pins driven into auger holes4 ,if we are not by this time too tired of making boards with an axe1 we will make a wooden tub in which to wash our clothes4 ,since we have a saw this is not as difficult as it first appears4 ,it is made square with sloping sides4 ,the boards must be carefully fitted and securely nailed4 ,then1 after we have made it as tight as possible by nailing we will gather a small quantity of spruce gum and run it into the cracks from the inside by means of a hot iron1 in much the same way that we would solder tin plate4 ,a wash basin can be made in the same way1 but we have a tin basin in our outfit so we'll not need to make one4 ,behind the stove we nail a slender pole1 horizontally1 onto wooden pins driven into auger holes1 so that the pole is parallel with the wall and about six or eight inches from it4 ,on this pole we place our socks and mitts to dry when we come in from the day's tramp4 ,we hang our coats on nails driven into the wall4 ,our snowshoes we suspend from the roof with snare wire in the coolest part of the camp1 so that the mice cannot eat the filling or the heat make it brittle4 ,perhaps you would be interested in our camp outfit1 for it is adapted to use in a camp of this kind4 ,we have come into the woods for the fall and winter1 and while we will go out occasionally for supplies of food1 our outfit is supposed to be complete1 and in it are all the articles needed for an entire winter's stay in the wilds4 ,the following are the articles which we have brought with us as camp outfit3 ,two rabbit skin blankets1 two large all-wool blankets1 one large and one medium enameled kettle1 two tea pails1 one water pail1 one large frying pan and two small ones1 with sockets for handles1 three enameled plates1 two enameled cups1 two table knives1 two forks1 two table spoons1 two tea spoons1 one reflecting baker1 one wash basin1 one small mirror1 four towels1 one alarm clock1 one small oil lamp 7bottom portion of a railroad lantern71 three small axes with long handles1 one cross-cut saw1 one hand saw1 two flat files1 two sharpening stones 7pocket size71 one auger1 one hammer1 assorted nails1 a dozen small bags for holding food1 a small box of medicines1 and a repair kit1 consisting of needles1 thread1 wax1 scissors1 awl and small pliers4 ,the above is the actual camp outfit and does not include personal belongings1 such as guns1 traps1 toilet articles1 compasses clothing1 snowshoes1 etc41 things which are used more on the trail than in camp1 and while necessary in our business cannot rightfully be considered a part of the camp equipment4 ,even some of the articles mentioned1 for instance the two small frying pans1 are more for use on the trail than in the home cabin4 ,this1 and the preceding chapter1 describe what to my mind is an ideal camp for two persons and a perfect equipment for same4 ,the camp site described could not be improved upon1 and it is seldom that we find all of the requirements in any one place1 yet the description is that of one of my own camp sites1 and except for the size of camp and a few details of furnishings and outfit1 also describes one of my cabins1 one which ,i constructed and used while trapping in ,canada4 ,,outdoor ,,foods ,that foods for outdoor men should differ from those eaten by people who work indoors may appear strange to some of us1 but it is a fact that foods of the same class are not1 as a rule1 practical for both outdoor and indoor consumption4 ,the requirements of people who work in the open air differ but little from those of the indoor workers1 but it is mainly the source of supply that necessitates a different class of foods4 ,the indoor man lives in the midst of plenty4 ,almost anything his appetite demands he may have4 ,the telephone makes it unnecessary for him to go to the store to place his order and the delivery man brings the goods to his back door4 ,his better half or perhaps a hired cook1 prepares the food for him and he need not even worry about the time required for cooking or the work necessary to prepare and place the viands before him4 ,but with the outdoor man1 by which ,i mean woodsman and others who are employed outdoors and do their own cooking far from a base of supplies1 the conditions are altogether different4 ,perhaps the outer has carried his food a long distance on his back or it may have been brought to his camp in a boat or canoe1 or by team over a long and rough road1 or even packed on horseback from #ej to #ajj miles into the rough mountains4 ,in either case it was necessary for him to select foods having certain qualities4 ,in order to keep the bulk and weight down to a reasonable level all bulky1 heavy1 watery foods had to be eliminated4 ,such foods as would freeze in cold weather1 decay1 become rancid1 or otherwise spoil if kept a long time without special care1 had to be kept out of the list4 ,also such articles as do not contain much nutriment must be avoided1 as well as those which are apt to prove harmful when used regularly4 ,not only that1 but the entire outfit of food must be well balanced1 that is1 it must have about the right proportions of the various food elements required by the human body4 ,too much salt pork and other preserved foods1 with too little fresh food1 may cause scurvy2 various articles which are known to be difficult of digestion may cause chronic dyspepsia1 while many constipating foods may in a different way lead to the same trouble4 ,in addition nothing should be taken which is difficult to transport or apt to get broken and cause trouble while en route4 ,to sum it all up1 the requirements in outdoor foods that are to be taken some distance to camp are as follows3 ,first1 reasonably light weight and small bulk2 second1 good keeping qualities2 third1 a high per cent4 of nutrition2 fourth1 balance and total absence of injurious properties2 fifth1 adaptability to packing and transportation requirements4 ,we might add to this the quality of being quickly and easily prepared1 for1 while this is not required in all of the food1 it is necessary for all outdoor men to have a number of articles which may be prepared on short notice4 ,breakfast in the woods is usually an early meal1 in winter being invariably eaten before daylight1 and this requires either quickly prepared foods or very early rising4 ,often1 too1 the woodsman comes in from a tramp long after dark4 ,he has had a long1 hard journey1 perhaps having had only a lunch since daybreak1 maybe not even that1 and the cold1 along with the exertion1 has given him a marvelous appetite4 ,on such occasions every minute that can be gained in cooking a nourishing meal is that much to the good4 ,but short-order meals are not the thing for regular fare1 for in time they will ruin any stomach4 ,considering the first requisite1 light weight and little bulk1 we may include in our list as meeting these requirements1 all kinds of dried fruits1 vegetables1 and meats1 tea1 coffee and condensed foods4 ,fresh vegetables and fruits are excluded from the list1 for they are heavy and bulky and fail also in the second requirement1 for they freeze easily in cold weather and sometimes do not keep well when it is warm4 ,to make up for the lack of fresh fruits and vegetables we must take plenty of the dry kind1 and it is also a good plan to have in the outfit a bottle of vinegar or fruit juice--lime juice is an excellent tonic for use in the woods and is a sure preventative of scurvy4 ,vegetables and fruit in tin or glass are also prohibitive except in a small way1 as1 for instance1 the fruit juice1 vinegar1 pickles and condensed milk1 all of which may be taken in small quantities4 ,in general1 however1 canned goods should be avoided unless the trip is made by wagon or other means that does not prohibit taking heavy goods1 in which case a quantity of food in tins may be taken4 ,eggs and other ultra-perishable goods are strictly prohibited4 ,the taking of eggs and food in glass also violates requisite number five1 for all such articles require far more care in handling than is practical on the bush trail4 ,not only does the woodsman have to consider cooking and eating in camp but he must think as well of the many days that he will spend on the trail and there his food must be of the most condensed1 light1 nutritious and otherwise perfect form4 ,he must therefore take with him to his home camp sufficient of this quality of food to fill his needs when he makes his long trips away from camp over the trap line or elsewhere1 but always carrying with him his equipment and food for the trip4 ,a man can depend to some extent on game and fish1 but if he is going far back into the wilderness where he cannot retreat in a day or two to civilization and a source of food supply he should be very sure that the game and fish are actually found in the place where he is going1 that such game and fish will be available at all seasons1 and that there will be no uncommon difficulty in securing it4 ,some kinds of big game animals migrate periodically or spasmodically2 fish are sometimes hard to find in winter1 and the hunting equipment may for one reason or another go wrong4 ,for instance1 the capsizing of a canoe may mean the loss of the only gun or all the ammunition in the party1 and even a broken gun mainspring may cause great hardship4 ,of course a resourceful and expert woodsman would not starve even if turned adrift in the forest without food or gun1 but few care to make the experiment or to risk going hungry4 ,therefore ,i advise taking enough food1 so that it will not be necessary to depend on game4 ,if there is game to be had it should1 of course1 be secured1 for fresh meat is a great relief from the everlasting bacon and bannock and it tends to neutralize the constipating properties of such food4 ,it is possible for one to live indefinitely on fresh meat and fish alone if forced to it2 but the civilized appetite does not accept gracefully any such radical departures from what has now become the natural line of food4 ,moreover1 the man who elects to live on game and fish alone must of necessity go hungry for long periods1 in fact may be forced to face starvation when game is scarce and for one reason or another difficult to secure4 ,therefore the woodsman should not attempt to live wholly on fresh meat or to make so much allowance for game that he will suffer from hunger if the game is not procurable4 ,no such sacrifice should be made merely to reduce the weight of the outfit4 ,coming now to the matter of keeping qualities we find that any of the evaporated1 dried or condensed foods on the market meet all requirements4 ,bacon1 cured for winter use1 may not remain in a perfectly sweet condition1 and it is well to make sure before purchasing that the meat is well salted and smoked4 ,butter may become strong unless the weather is cold1 but ,i have found that first-class creamery butter will keep nicely for a period of two and a half months in fairly cold weather4 ,for a longer trip canned butter should be procured4 ,it may be purchased in ,canada from almost any grocer located in an outfitting point4 ,while potatoes and other fresh vegetables are prohibited because of weight and bulk they are also eliminated from the list because they freeze in cold weather4 ,a trapper must often be away from camp for a period of time varying from a few days to a week or more and anything that can freeze will surely do so in one night of #dj below weather4 ,as an exception to this rule ,i advise taking a few onions1 for in spite of their weight they are a food worth considering4 ,they freeze as readily as potatoes1 but if they are kept frozen until time for use it will not hurt them in the least4 ,there are many dishes that are greatly improved by an onion flavor and ,i am very fond of this evil-smelling vegetable when sliced and fried with steak4 ,ordinary canned goods containing water are tabooed in cold weather1 for they freeze and burst the cans1 besides falling short in the first requirement of camp foods1 namely1 light weight4 ,nutrition in foods is a quality which needs but little expenditure of gray matter if one does not attempt to live a long period on an unvaried line4 ,by taking a variety of foods and changing the menu frequently danger from lack of nutriment is reduced to the minimum4 ,condensed and dried foods are invariably very nutritious4 ,with fresh meat occasionally the foods which ,i recommend will meet all requirements in this particular4 ,what has been said on the subject of nutrition in camp foods will suffice for the fourth requisite--perfect balance and lack of injurious elements4 ,while ,i would not advise the use of one or two articles of food as a steady diet the kind ,i name in the lists given herewith1 if used in the proportions given and a little fresh meat or fish can be sandwiched in here and there1 no bad results will follow4 ,on the other hand1 if any of the articles1 or especially a line of articles like the dried fruits1 are omitted1 ,i would not be responsible for the good health of the user4 ,within the borders of civilization1 and especially with those people doing office work or following any indoor occupation which does not require plenty of bodily exertion1 constipation is a serious menace1 in fact ,i think it is the cause of many ills which are generally attributed to other sources4 ,in the woods it is somewhat different1 for the long tramps and other violent exercises tend to keep the bowels open1 but it is not so with all men1 and especially with those who hail from the city4 ,even the seasoned woodsman should not trifle with anything of so serious a nature1 for even to him chronic constipation may come as the result of a steady diet of white flour and other constipating foods4 ,in the lists which ,i give the foods most harmful in this way are wheat flour1 especially when used in baking powder bread1 cheese1 rice1 beans and peas4 ,the foods most valuable for offsetting the bad effects of the above are the dried fruits1 especially prunes1 and cornmeal4 ,fresh meat and onions act as laxatives also1 but too much of any of these foods may cause the system to fortify itself against them and their good effects are reduced greatly4 ,many kinds of food are difficult to digest2 but it should be remembered that all stomachs are not alike and what is indigestible for one man is easily assimilated by another4 ,the only way to learn what foods are harmful and which ones are not is by trying them1 but this should be done and the results known before going into the woods4 ,tea and coffee are used extensively in the woods because they are very refreshing to tired travelers4 ,tea is especially invigorating4 ,but both of these drinks1 if used in excess1 are harmful4 ,coffee injures the nervous system directly1 while indirectly it works on other organs1 and tea is injurious to the stomach1 also the nerves4 ,taken in reasonable amount these drinks will do no harm1 but they should never be used to the exclusion of water4 ,the latter is the natural drink and we cannot use too much4 ,the fifth requirement in camp foods is one that must not be forgotten4 ,on a long trip into the bush the outfit is sure to get a certain amount of rough usage2 a pack strap may give way or the packer may stumble or slip and down goes the pack4 ,with but few exceptions1 then1 everything which will not stand a reasonable amount of rough handling has no right to a place on the outer's list4 ,the exceptions are a few articles which when taken in small quantities must be put up in glass and these few foods are pickles1 vinegar and others of similar nature4 ,if any other less breakable container can be found for these it is better to use it1 but if these foods are in bottle same must be carefully packed to prevent breakage4 ,eggs are the most unsatisfactory of all foods for transportation into the wilds1 for they are easily broken1 cannot be kept during cold weather and spoil quickly when the weather is mild4 ,this is not an article on packing or otherwise transporting outfits into the bush1 but ,i wish to say this in regard to packing foods1 that all packages and containers should be as light as possible consistent with strength and durability4 ,paper sacks are not the proper thing1 for they are so easily torn4 ,it is by far the better plan to have small duck or muslin bags for all dry foods4 ,nothing should be taken if put up in wooden boxes or other containers having sharp edges or corners1 but all such articles should be removed and placed in the cloth sacks4 ,if this is impossible it is better to eliminate such goods from the list4 ,to give a list of foods which are suitable for steady diet in the wilds is easy1 and it may be a perfect list1 well balanced1 nourishing and having all the other desirable qualities1 yet it may not be satisfactory for general use4 ,individual tastes do not all follow the same channels and there are no end of people who could pick from any list of foods that ,i might give a number of articles which they cannot eat or which are not received kindly by their respective systems4 ,another thing is the difference in quantity of food consumed by different men4 ,while a life in the open air with continuous physical exercise from before daylight until after dark develops an appetite in any man1 with some men their appetites seem absolutely insatiable and they consume enormous quantities of food4 ,it is therefore difficult to give a list which may be taken as an accurate guide and approximate quantities only can be given1 these being in the present time based on what ,i consider a normal woodsman's appetite4 ,note in the following lists quantities intended for one man one month's use and if the lists look good they may be used for a basis on which to figure the amounts of food required for the length of time4 ,list ,no4 #a4--,twenty pounds wheat flour and ten pounds cornmeal1 or #be pounds wheat flour and five pounds cornmeal2 one and a half pounds best baking powder1 free of alum2 three pounds table salt 7this is more than necessary for food1 but allows for preserving game72 ten pounds bacon or five pounds bacon and five pounds salt pork2 one pound lard or ,crisco 7this is seldom needed if all bacon grease is saved and used for cooking72 three pounds creamery or canned butter2 #aj pounds beans1 small or large1 as preferred2 four pounds split peas2 five pounds evaporated fruit1 either apples1 apricots or peaches1 assorted if desired2 four pounds prunes2 six pounds sugar 7seven pounds if used in tea and coffee72 two pounds tea 7black1 green or mixed7 or three pounds ground coffee in airtight tins2 one bottle1 about two pounds1 sour pickles2 four pounds evaporated1 unsweetened milk in small size tins2 two pounds cheese2 one ounce black pepper4 ,eighty-seven and a half to #hi #a_/b pounds total weight4 ,the foregoing is my standard list on which ,i have based many a purchase of supplies1 and while ,i vary quantities sometimes1 and add luxuries now and then1 the list alone1 just as given1 makes an excellent one for real woods trips4 ,in the following ,i have cut down the quantities of some articles and added the equivalent in other goods1 thus giving greater variety and making a ration that is less apt to grow tiresome in time4 ,list ,no4 #b4--;,eighteen pounds wheat flour and five pounds cornmeal2 two pounds crackers or soda biscuits2 one pound of best baking powder2 three pounds table salt2 six pounds bacon and four pounds salt pork2 three and a half pounds creamery or canned butter2 seven pounds beans2 three pounds split peas2 five pounds evaporated fruits1 assorted as desired2 four pounds prunes2 eight pounds sugar2 two pounds tea or three pounds coffee1 ground and in airtight tins2 two-pound bottle sour pickles2 five pounds evaporated milk in small tins2 four pounds rice2 one pound seeded raisins2 two ounces cinnamon2 one ounce black pepper2 two pounds cheese2 five pounds ,bermuda onions4 ,ninety and a half pounds to #ia #a_/b pounds total weight4 ,i think the above list will be more generally satisfactory than the first1 but if the camper has preferences in regard to the kind of food selected he may use these lists only as a basis on which to figure4 ,the weights given are net and do not include extra containers4 ,it will be noted that the total weight is nearly the same in both2 but the second allows for a more varied menu4 ,i have added to this one four pounds of rice4 ,the raisins1 with the additional sugar and milk1 are mainly for this dish4 ,i have also added an extra half-pound of butter1 for it will be needed to make rice pudding4 ,the cinnamon is for use in apple sauce and on rice4 ,by eliminating the crackers and half the salt a couple of pounds of oatmeal and a brick of maple sugar may be added1 thereby again increasing the number of items without additional weight and making a good wholesome breakfast dish 7oatmeal porridge71 or one that can be prepared quickly1 also providing syrup for the pancakes--white hopes1 as one of my camping companions called them4 ,some of the above-named foods can be cooked satisfactorily only in the permanent camp1 while others are suitable for use in camp or on the trail4 ,when making long tramps away from my cabin and camping out at night by the side of a fire ,i like to travel as lightly equipped as possible without sacrificing comfort1 therefore ,i carry very little camp equipment and especially few cooking utensils4 ,this necessitates the use of very simple1 easily prepared dishes4 ,ordinarily ,i carry only the following foods3 ,flour mixed with the proper amount of baking powder and salt2 bacon1 sliced and with the rind removed2 oatmeal1 sugar1 butter1 tea1 and a small sack containing a few ounces of salt4 ,the latter is for use in cooking game killed during the day4 ,it will be obvious then that if the camper follows my plan he must base his quantities of these articles on the proportion of time which he believes will be spent on the trail or camping out4 ,if the time so spent will be limited he can cut down slightly on the amounts of these foods and add others more to his liking if he wishes1 but1 on the other hand1 if he expects to do much camping out he must increase the quantity of such foods as can be used on the trail4 ,judging from my own experience it is easier to choose good camp foods than to know which to use from the list for a meal and how to prepare them4 ,on stormy days1 or when for any other reason the camper is spending sufficient time at the main cabin1 he can cook such foods as beans1 split peas1 rice1 game1 salt pork and dried fruits1 also can make good use of the maple syrup and other luxuries4 ,for short order meals1 as1 for instance1 when returning to camp long past meal time and in a half famished condition1 oatmeal porridge1 bannock 7baking powder bread71 bacon and tea or coffee will generally satisfy4 ,here1 for instance1 is a good menu for a day when the hunter or trapper wants to make a journey away from the main camp1 returning late in the afternoon4 ,he rises early in the morning and prepares breakfast of coffee1 pancakes1 maple syrup and bacon1 or1 perhaps1 has fried venison1 moose or caribou steak4 ,immediately after breakfast he places over the fire a kettle of beans with a piece of salt pork and he boils this until he is ready to leave camp1 which may be an hour later4 ,while the beans are cooking and he is waiting for daylight he prepares the outfit which he will take with him for the day4 ,his lunch will be crackers1 or if not too cold a piece of bannock1 a few slices of bacon1 a small piece of cheese and tea4 ,the bushman always carries a small tea pail with him1 if only a tin can fitted with a wire bail4 ,he returns about sunset and as soon as he has made a fire he places over it the partly cooked pork and beans4 ,by the time they have finished cooking he has baked a bannock1 stewed some fruit or prunes1 or made rice pudding4 ,thus he goes on day after day1 varying his menu as far as possible1 as well as his methods of preparing the foods4 ,in the lists which ,i have given ,i have purposely refrained from naming the many prepared and condensed camp foods1 because my experience with most of them has been limited and many of them ,i have never even tasted4 ,i refer to such articles as desiccated vegetables1 dried eggs1 milk powder1 erbswurst1 pemmican1 saccarine1 tea tablets1 soup tablets1 etc4 ,before closing ,i would like to say a few words in regard to game and fish as food4 ,while ,i do not advise making much allowance for them when purchasing supplies the man who goes into the wilds to camp should avail himself of any opportunity which offers to secure game and fish for his use1 but he should1 of course1 never kill more than is needed1 and unless driven to it by hunger should not kill protected game out of season4 ,if he kills more than he can use at the time and the weather is too warm to keep it without curing he should dry the meat and he will find it an excellent article for lunches and when camping out4 ,but what ,i wanted to get at is this1 that many animals which are seldom considered as fit for food and are generally thrown away or used for bait are really fine food and by using them there will be less need of violating the game laws4 ,among the animals which are trapped and may be used for food are bears 7when killed in fall or winter71 muskrats1 raccoons1 opossums and beavers4 ,woodchucks are not bad eating if properly cooked1 but they can only be secured in summer4 ,the porcupine is another animal which may be eaten1 although ,i cannot say that the meat is palatable4 ,many people in ,canada eat the flesh of lynx1 but ,i draw the line on carnivorous animals4 ,i have tried it1 in fact1 ,i have eaten all the animals named above4 ,my parting advice is to practice economy4 ,the food which has been transported over so many miles of rough trail by the hardest kind of toil should never be wasted4 ,the saving habit is a good one to grow into and it can be practiced as well in the woods as in our own homes4 ,,fires ,,for ,,various ,,uses ,most fires to-day are started by means of matches1 so1 as a starting place we will first consider the match4 ,insignificant little stick--#ejj for five cents--yet that tiny match can start a fire that would destroy a city or lay a hundred miles of forest in ruin6 ,many a life has been saved by a match1 and many millions1 yes billions of dollars worth of property has been destroyed by the same insignificant little stick4 ,it is on one hand one of the greatest providers of comfort that science has produced1 and on the other the most powerful destroyer known to man4 ,there are various kinds of matches1 each having properties peculiar to itself1 but we will compare only the most common kinds and judge them from the woodsman's standpoint4 ,i believe the first matches to come into use were made of a sulfurous compound and such matches are still used in large quantities in ,canada4 ,they are generally considered superior to ordinary parlor matches for woodsman's use1 but ,i cannot see that they possess any advantages whatever4 ,they are just as difficult to light as parlor matches1 if not more so1 just as easily blown out1 and just as susceptible to dampness4 ,they are noiseless1 which is in their favor1 but they throw off disagreeable fumes when lighted4 ,they are reliable matches for the woodsman1 although ,i would take parlor matches in preference4 ,we have also the little1 so-called safety matches now so much used by smokers4 ,they are convenient for carrying and get their name from their refusal to light when struck on any surface other than the side of the box in which they are packed4 ,but this very quality makes them unfit to light a fire in a wind if one must hold in his hand the match-box as well as the burning match1 for he cannot cup his hands perfectly4 ,this is worth remembering1 for out of doors1 there is nearly always enough wind to make trouble when building a fire4 ,another fault of the safety match is its small size2 it is apt to be entirely consumed before the fire can be started4 ,the parlor match then is the match for the woodsman1 and he should have a bountiful supply when he turns his back on civilization4 ,the stock of matches should be kept in a waterproof case of some kind4 ,a screw top jar is very good if one has it in camp1 but glassware is not practical for camping trips and something less fragile but equally waterproof should be found4 ,i have a kodak tank developing outfit1 the metal tank of which is excellent for holding matches4 ,the cover locks on by a partial turn and is watertight1 while the tank holds enough matches for a whole winter's use4 ,of course the woodsman will carry with him on his sojourns from camp only a small quantity of matches and at least a few of them should either be so treated as to render them impervious to water1 or be carried in a watertight box4 ,it sometimes happens that the traveler in the woods gets caught in a drenching rain1 or he may fall into the water1 and unless some provision has been made for keeping the matches dry there will be no more smokes or tea until he gets back to camp4 ,sometimes more serious consequences may follow such negligence2 for instance1 the traveler may break through the ice and without a fire may freeze to death4 ,almost every outdoor man can recall instances where dry matches would at least have added materially to his comfort4 ,there are various ways of waterproofing matches4 ,they may be dipped in melted paraffine1 which will keep them perfectly dry1 and when the protecting wax is removed they will be in first class condition4 ,varnishes of one kind or another will serve the same purpose4 ,but a waterproof box is more reliable and convenient4 ,there is one match-box on the market that is very efficient4 ,it is somewhat difficult to open1 especially when one's hands are cold1 but for all of that it is the best thing ,i know of1 and as its contents are to be used only in emergency cases the woodsman may be content with the box as it is4 ,i have seen match-boxes made from brass shotgun shells which were practically waterproof if kept tightly closed1 but sometimes it is difficult to remove the cover4 ,a small glass bottle is also good for carrying matches and is frequently used for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,lighting ,a ,,match ,,in ,,the ,,wind4 ,it is an easy matter to light a match2 but to start a fire is something different1 and to build a fire when the wind is blowing is often difficult4 ,even the simple lighting of a pipe in the wind is very uncertain with many smokers4 ,i have seen men out in an exposed place strike match after match in a vain endeavor to light a pipe4 ,yet rightly done the trick is easy4 ,it is all right to get behind a tree if one is near2 but it is not at all necessary4 ,in all cases the man should turn his face towards the wind and as soon as he strikes the match1 form a cup of his hands and thus shelter the burning match4 ,then it is easy to thrust the bowl of the pipe into his hands to the burning match4 ,a fire can be started in the same way1 but it is a little more difficult and less certain4 ,the kindling must be properly arranged with the part to be lighted projecting towards the breeze1 and sufficiently separated from other objects1 so that the fire builder may enclose this part in the shelter of his hands1 along with the match1 and thus protect the flame until the kindling is fairly lighted4 ,often a sheet of bark dropped against the tiny flame will protect it until it gathers strength4 ,a dry surface on which to strike a match is essential and the woodsman must use his knowledge of suitable surfaces to help him out of his trouble4 ,a pocket match-box usually has one side roughened for this purpose4 ,a very practical idea is to sew a small strip of emery cloth on the inside of the coat1 the upper half being loose so that it folds down over the other half and thus keeps the rough surface from contact with the clothing4 ,the back of a pocket-knife1 the butt plate of a gun1 or a key may also be made to answer4 ,of natural surfaces the side of a stone or the dry trunk of a tree may serve4 ,but the most common scheme is to utilize the trouser leg for striking matches and as long as the clothing is dry it is certainly the most convenient surface for this purpose4 ,when a match gets wet1 if the head is not so much softened that it rubs off the stick1 there is hope4 ,rubbing the match through the hair will dry it in an amazingly short time4 ,there is no right or wrong way to make a fire unless it is to be used for some special purpose1 in which case we must know how the fire is to be used and build it accordingly4 ,as a rule a cooking fire is built differently from one that is designed merely to give warmth4 ,but we must always take into consideration the strength of the wind1 whether the fire is for boiling1 baking or frying food1 and whether a quick or slow heat is wanted1 for each and all call for a different kind of fire4 ,the variety of wood and its condition must also be considered4 ,for most kinds of cooking only a small fire is required1 in fact we get better results from a small flame4 ,but it is essential that we have some arrangement whereby the cooking utensils will be held steadily and securely4 ,the most common practice is to place the kettle or frying pan on top of the fuel1 shifting the wood about until the utensils set level4 ,it is about the most unsatisfactory method1 outside of holding them by hand1 and many a meal has been upset into the fire simply because the cook would not take the trouble to provide a suitable place to prepare the meal4 ,the simplest way of suspending a kettle over the fire is by hanging it from the end of a stick which has been thrust into the ground at an angle of about #bj degrees4 ,in the woods of the north this method is used generally for boiling4 ,when the bushman stops for tea1 which is always the most essential and important part of his repast1 he builds a fire1 then cuts a stick an inch or a little more in thickness and about four feet long1 and thrusts it into the ground in such a way that when the tea-pail is suspended from the end it hangs at just the right height above the fire4 ,only a small fire is required1 but it should give a clear1 steady flame1 for the water should be brought to a boil quickly4 ,for frying1 baking1 etc41 ,i find an arrangement of two small green logs1 flattened on top and bottom1 and placed side by side about a half foot apart1 the most satisfactory thing for holding the utensils securely4 ,between these logs a small fire is made1 and there is no danger of the food spilling into the fire1 or the handles of the utensils becoming so hot that they have to be moved with sticks4 ,for a single utensil1 like a frying pan1 ,i find two straight-sided stones placed the right distance apart1 fully as good as the logs1 and only a few embers from the camp fire will be needed for the cooking4 ,illustration3 ,,fires ,,for ,,cooking4 ,almost everybody who camps for the night builds a campfire1 in fact1 without it a camp would seem far from complete1 even though the night is a warm one4 ,cooking1 however1 should be done over a smaller fire placed nearby4 ,there are a lot of little helpful wrinkles regularly used by woodsmen that can hardly be imparted to the green-hand because of their number1 their insignificance1 and the fact that each must be adapted to the prevailing condition1 but they immediately brand the user as an old hand at the game4 ,they are simply the result of experience and are used almost unconsciously4 ,i refer to such things as the manner of placing wood on the fire1 handling embers1 moving cooking utensils1 etc4 ,it is the knowledge of how to do such little things as this that makes the work of the expert look so easy and run along so smoothly1 while ,mr4 ,amateur is having all kinds of trouble4 ,there is no way to acquire this knowledge except by long experience1 or by working in company with one who has been there4 ,i know a way of building a very good combination heating and cooking fire1 which may be used during rainy weather more satisfactorily than any other kind with which ,i am acquainted4 ,two small green logs about five feet long1 are placed side by side about #bj inches apart4 ,two shorter logs are then placed across the ends and another five-foot log laid lengthwise on top4 ,the fire is built between the two bottom logs and directly under the one which has been placed on top4 ,then pieces of green wood are stood up against one side so that they rest against the top and one of the bottom logs4 ,this forms a roof over the fire and the cooking is done over the open front1 between the logs4 ,the roof burns away slowly on the under side and as the sticks burn off they are added to the fire beneath and others placed on top to keep the roof built up4 ,this is a good style of fire to reflect heat into the camp and is excellent for use with a metal baker4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,fire ,,for ,,rainy ,,days4 ,the regulation method of building a fire for heating an open-camp is to place it against a large green log1 or against a ledge of rock1 a wall of stones built up artificially1 or a pile of short green logs resting against two stakes which have been driven at a slight incline4 ,the fire burns best when there are two short pieces of wood placed crosswise on the ground on which the fuel may rest and leave an opening for draft beneath4 ,green wood is best for holding fire2 but it must be mixed with good dry wood1 or it will not burn well4 ,the selection of wood for the camp-fire is important4 ,standing dead trees are always drier than those which have fallen1 unless the fallen trees are held up sufficiently above the ground to keep them well dried4 ,wood cut on low1 damp ground is not as good as that found on higher places and usually pops and throw sparks into the blankets1 which make it objectionable4 ,almost all kinds of dry1 hard wood burn readily and throw off plenty of heat4 ,they also burn to embers and hard wood therefore should be selected when a bed of live coals is needed4 ,of the soft wood dry pine and cedar burn freely1 but are consumed quickly1 leave no embers and make a lot of smoke4 ,they are excellent wood for kindling and for use in connection with green1 hard wood4 ,green pine1 cedar1 fir and tamarack burn slowly and require much dry wood to help keep them burning4 ,white birch is excellent for camp-fires2 dry or green and dry tamarack is one of the best of camp-fire woods4 ,there are various woods that answer well for kindling and the camper must always find something that will be good for this purpose4 ,dry white-pine and cedar shavings and splints light readily from the match1 but dead fat pine is much better4 ,pine knots1 remaining after the log has rotted away1 when split are heavy and yellow with dried pitch and if split into splinters will burn like oil4 ,an old pine log is often in the same condition1 and if the camper can find any wood of this kind he should take some to camp so that he will not need to hunt about for a suitable wood for starting a fire4 ,in the north where there is little pine timber such kindling is scarce2 but nature has provided an excellent substitute in white-birch bark4 ,the loose bark hanging to the tree trunks contains an oil which causes it to light readily from the match and burn with a bright flame and a hissing noise4 ,when traveling in the northern bush during cold weather ,i frequently carried a bunch of birch bark in the top of my pack1 so that if ,i wanted to build a fire quickly ,i would not have to hunt for kindling4 ,there is one more woodcraft trick that ,i think everybody who goes into the woods should know4 ,while the woodsman invariably carries an axe with which to cut firewood1 there may come a time when he has no axe and is obliged to camp out over night4 ,then getting together sufficient wood to keep fire over night is a real problem4 ,sometimes he can find a place where one tree has fallen across another1 or if not1 perhaps he can throw one over the other1 and at the place where they cross he should build his fire4 ,then when the logs burn through he can move them and either keep shoving the ends into the fire as they burn away1 or perhaps cross the pieces again and burn them into shorter and lighter pieces which can be handled readily4 ,in building any kind of a fire the camper should remember that flame naturally moves upward1 so that the wood should be lighted from beneath4 ,it is hard to get a fire started in any other way4 ,he should also remember that the wind drives the fire forward and should light the wood under the windward side4 ,the finest kindling should be placed first1 then finely split dry wood on top1 coarser wood on top of this1 etc4 ,the heavy wood should never rest too much on the kindling or the latter will be crushed down into such a dense mass that it will not burn and the wood must never be placed so that the sticks fit closely together2 a criss-cross style is much better4 ,these are all simple little rules and easy to remember1 but it is necessary to know them that camp-fire troubles may be avoided4 ,,fire ,the most common way of building a fire among savages who have not adopted the ways of civilization is by means of a bow1 spindle and block4 ,this way of making fire has been exploited by writers on woodcraft subjects2 but the reader should not be deceived into the belief that if he becomes lost in the woods and night coming on finds him without matches1 he can build a fire by this means4 ,while any boy scout can demonstrate the method and can produce fire in a very few minutes1 he can do so only by having prepared the necessary materials long in advance4 ,the wood must be as dry as wood can be made1 and such wood is never found in the forest4 ,to get wood into the proper condition for fire making by the friction method requires the selection first of the proper kind of wood1 and then a thorough drying indoors for weeks or even months4 ,only certain kinds of woods are really good for the purpose and among these kinds cedar1 balsam and ,cottonwood seem to be the best4 ,spindle and block must be of the same kind of wood and equally dry4 ,the materials needed for making a fire are the bow1 spindle1 block1 tinder1 and a shell1 a stone with a small cavity1 or other similar object which can be used as a bearing or cap on top of the spindle4 ,a mussel shell is the best natural object for the purpose1 as it is light and has a hollow side which is smooth and makes an excellent bearing for the spindle end4 ,illustration3 ,,using ,,the ,,bow ,,drill ,,in ,,making ,,fire4 ,the bow1 about two feet long1 may be made of hickory or any springy wood1 strung with a stout1 hard laid twine4 ,the spindle1 of any of the favorite woods1 should be about sixteen inches long by three-fourths or one inch in thickness4 ,the top should be rounded and the lower end shaped to a blunt1 smooth point4 ,it must be very dry4 ,the block should be an inch or a little more in thickness and of any width and length found convenient1 but it should be large enough to be easily held down firmly with the knees when in the kneeling position assumed when working the drill4 ,it should be of the same kind of wood as the spindle4 ,the tinder may be any inflammable material which can easily be fired from the burning dust1 such as the shredded inner bark of a cedar tree1 very dry and fine1 mixed with shreds of white cotton cloth4 ,to use the outfit the operator cuts a ,v-shaped notch about three-quarters of an inch deep in the edge of the block4 ,on the flat side of the block at the apex of the notch he then makes a small hole with the point of a knife as a starting place for the spindle4 ,around this notch he places a small quantity of the tinder4 ,then1 giving the string of the bow a turn around the spindle he kneels on the block1 places the point of the spindle on the mark at the point of the notch1 places the shell over the other end1 and throwing his weight upon the spindle he works the bow back and forth quickly and steadily4 ,the spindle1 revolving rapidly1 bores its way down into the block1 the dust which is worn from the block and spindle filtering down through the notch among the dry tinder4 ,an increasing heat develops from the friction of the dry wood1 and soon an odor of scorching wood will be noticed2 then a thin wisp of smoke arises from the dust in the notch and this grows stronger1 after awhile the smoldering fire itself is visible in the dust which has accumulated in the notch and about the base of the spindle4 ,at this stage the operator stops the drill and blows the fire into flame4 ,all that is necessary then is to place fine1 dry twigs over the tinder and then coarser wood1 and this wonderful feat of building a fire without matches is accomplished4 ,matches are a comparatively recent invention4 ,when this country was first settled they were unknown and fires generally were made by means of flint and steel4 ,by striking glancing blows with a steel object along the edge of a piece of flint1 showers of sparks were thrown into a little pile of tinder to be blown into a flame by the fire-kindler4 ,it is said that for an expert the trick was not at all difficult1 and that fire could be produced very quickly2 but it is obvious that very dry materials were necessary4 ,to the unfortunate who is cast away on a desert island1 like the hero of fiction1 this latter method of fire making is the most promising1 for he usually has some steel object1 even if only a pocket knife and a piece of his coat lining picked into shreds may answer as tinder4 ,the difficulty will be in finding the flint2 but that is easy in the story4 ,illustration3 ,,using ,,the ,,flint ,,and ,,steel ,,to ,,start ,a ,,fire4 ,but the easiest of all ways to make a fire without matches is by means of a magnifying glass or other lens4 ,a reading glass1 if the sun is bright1 will produce a fire almost as quickly as it can be made with a match1 providing1 of course1 that it is used the right way4 ,in the absence of a reading glass1 a watch or compass crystal1 an eye glass1 the lens from a field glass or camera1 or even a bottle1 may be used for concentrating the sun's rays onto a pile of tinder and thus producing a fire4 ,if you are skeptical as to the heat caused by a concentrated light ray1 just hold a reading glass a few inches above your hand and turn the glass towards the sun so that a tiny point of intense light is thrown onto your hand and you will be surprised to see how quickly it will burn a blister4 ,a pipe may be lighted that way very easily1 something that is worth knowing if one happens to get caught in the woods without matches and with a magnifying glass in his pocket4 ,illustration3 ,,starting ,a ,,fire ,,with ,a ,,magnifying ,,glass4 ,but he may not have a glass of any description and then--well here is another way3 ,a man traveling in the woods nearly always carries a gun of some kind4 ,let him remove the bullet from a cartridge and substitute a small bunch of dry tinder2 shredded dry cotton cloth is as good as anything1 and loading this cartridge into the gun1 fire it into another small pile of tinder and blow the smoldering pile into a flame4 ,the safest and most convenient way of all is1 of course1 to carry matches1 and to have a portion of them in a waterproof box4 ,matches are cheap and a waterproof box will not bankrupt a woodsman4 ,i always1 when in the woods1 carry matches in a waterproof match box1 and ,i never use them except in emergency1 carrying my regular supply loose in a small pocket4 ,there was one time that ,i well remember when that box of dry matches was to me about the most valuable thing in the world4 ,that was the time when ,i broke through the ice of a lake in the northern wilderness1 far from camp1 and my clothes froze stiff before ,i had gone a hundred paces4 ,the dry matches enabled me to make a fire quickly and dry my frozen clothes4 ,what could ,i have done without the waterproof match box8 ,fire is as useful to the modern woodsman as it was to the prehistoric man and in the far north it stands between him and death when ,king ,boreas reigns4 ,but it can also do a world of mischief4 ,is it not strange that the great forces which are so terribly destructive when let loose in all their strength are the most beneficial and useful to mankind8 ,we could not exist more than a few days without water1 yet floods destroy each year millions of dollars worth of property and thousands of lives4 ,electricity is1 perhaps1 the most useful power in the world and we have grown so used to it that to give up its comfort1 which we derive in the form of light1 power and heat1 would be an awful hardship1 and yet electricity is the most dangerous and deadly element known4 ,fire also is so needful that we could no longer exist without it4 ,it alone can make our homes comfortable when the winter winds howl without4 ,its heat is necessary for the preparation of the greater portion of our food4 ,yet fire is a dangerous and destructive element1 and must be closely watched at all times to prevent it from breaking out of bounds4 ,from the harmless comforter of the home it becomes the relentless destroyer4 ,the loss by fire would be reduced greatly if all persons would observe a few simple rules and in the hope that some of the readers may become just a little more careful in this respect ,i will give these rules here3 7#a7 ,use only safety matches4 ,they will ignite only by friction on the preparation found on the side of the box in which they are purchased4 ,if one of these matches falls on the floor it is harmless since it cannot light accidentally and thus cause a fire4 ,if they fall into the hands of children they are also harmless as far as starting a fire is concerned4 7#b7 ,do not throw a lighted match onto the floor1 or among rubbish4 ,burned matches should always be placed somewhere where they cannot possibly ignite anything in case a little fire still smolders in the burned wood4 7#c7 ,don't drop cigarettes or cigar ends into places where they can do harm1 and if there appears to be the least possible danger they should be carefully extinguished4 ,a pipe dumped into a waste basket has many times started costly fires4 7#d7 ,be sure that there is no woodwork so near the stove that it grows scorching hot when the stove is overheated4 ,likewise make sure that no rubbish is thrown near the stove or fireplace and that there is no danger of fire dropping out onto the floor4 7#e7 ,never leave the house with a fire burning in the stove1 or fireplace4 7#f7 ,kerosene and similar substances should never be used for kindling fires2 their use is exceedingly dangerous4 ,gasoline especially is very dangerous1 not alone through the fact that it is very inflammable but even more so from the fact that the fumes of gasoline explode with great violence4 ,it should never be used in a house where there is a fire or a lighted lamp1 and a fire should never be lighted in a room where it has been used until the fumes are completely cleared from the room4 ,burning oil can be extinguished by smothering with woolen blankets1 or by throwing sand on it4 ,water merely spreads the fire4 ,while fires in settled communities do the most damage1 a dry season may see many destructive forest fires4 ,such conflagrations destroy the forests and kill game and song birds1 besides being a menace to settlers4 ,this country suffers great losses through forest fires1 many of which could be prevented by an observance of the rules already given1 especially those relating to smoking4 ,campers are also responsible for many fires of this kind by failing to extinguish camp fires1 or by building them in places where rubbish abounds4 ,a camp fire should never be made except on a spot of clean ground and if necessary a spot should be cleared before building the fire1 digging away the vegetable matter on the surface1 if need be4 ,likewise the camper should be certain that there is no danger from the fire spreading before he leaves it4 ,ordinarily he can feel sure of this only when he has completely extinguished the fire by pouring water upon it4 ,,blankets ,one of the first things to learn is that blankets1 no matter how good1 are not warm1 they don't generate heat4 ,wrap a jar of water in the warmest1 thickest1 softest woolen blanket you can find and place it out of doors over night in a zero temperature and see what you have in the morning4 ,no1 there is no warmth coming from the blankets1 but the warmth comes from the human body and the purpose of the blanket is to retain this warmth1 to prevent its escape4 ,it must therefore be a non-conductor of heat4 ,and remember that there is no such thing as cold1 for what we call cold is merely an absence of heat1 and we call it cold for convenience4 ,suppose you are sleeping1 or attempting to sleep out of doors on a night so cold that the trees pop like pistols4 ,you are wrapped in a pair of woolen blankets and it is only this wrapping that is between you and the frosty1 chilling air4 ,but inside of those blankets your body is giving out heat waves1 the air on the inside becomes warm1 and you are comfortable4 ,suppose again that the blankets are not the right kind1 they will not retain heat1 and as a consequence you become cold4 ,you sit up1 replenish the fire and swear to yourself1 but you don't know why you can't keep warm4 ,you say the cold gets through your blankets and you firmly believe this4 ,as a matter of fact it is the heat that gets through1 not the cold4 ,outside of fur the best heat-retaining material used for blankets is pure wool4 ,a little cotton may do no noticeable harm1 if properly used in conjunction with the wool1 but it certainly does no good1 and it really decreases the warmth of the blanket in direct proportion to the quantity used1 therefore ,i say the best blankets are made of pure wool4 ,and there is a difference in wool1 too4 ,scotch wool is generally admitted to be the finest produced4 ,it has always been my belief that wool loosely woven1 so that it forms a soft1 thick cloth1 is a better heat retainer than the same quantity of wool tightly woven1 so that it makes a thinner1 tighter and harder material4 ,anyway1 ,i think the surface should be as woolly as it is possible to make it4 ,now it is not difficult to get together a quantity of blankets that will keep a man warm on the coldest night1 but the trouble will come when he wants to transport them4 ,i have slept out on nights when it would have required a half-dozen or more of the heaviest woolen blankets made to keep me near-comfortable1 but a bed of this kind would have made a pack that would discourage a bush ,indian4 ,no1 you can't carry with you enough woolen blankets to keep you comfortably warm when traveling the northern trails in midwinter4 ,now think it over and it will become obvious that either a man cannot be comfortable in the woods during zero weather unless he has a way of transporting his camp duffle other than by back-packing1 or he must find a lighter1 warmer blanket than can be made of wool4 ,the latter is the solution4 ,woolen blankets are good1 in fact the best thing made1 for camping in spring1 summer and fall4 ,as long as the spirits do not go lower than #aj or #bj degrees above zero and a fire may be kept burning all night a pair of ,hudson ,bay blankets are hard to beat4 ,but when the temperature falls lower the shivering spells preceding each fire-fixing become too frequent and the cat-naps too short4 ,the blankets we buy for use on the bed are double1 but for camp use single blankets are preferable4 ,they should be of generous size1 for a white man cannot sleep comfortably if he must draw his knees up against his chin4 ,what is more1 the blankets should cover his head as well as his feet1 so they should be a foot and a half longer than the user's height4 ,they should also be wide--six feet will do1 but nothing less4 ,with such blankets a man can lie on one-half and pull the other half over him1 and by suddenly elevating his pedal extremities he can drop the lower edge of the blankets under them1 while the upper part can be drawn tightly around his head and shoulders4 ,thus he can sleep in real comfort while the fire burns4 ,never use a cotton blanket in the woods4 ,blankets made of cotton are cold to the touch1 and do not retain the heat of the body as well as those made of wool4 ,in addition to this they have the bad fault of not being as nearly impervious to sparks as woolen blankets4 ,now a man of the trail does not sleep with his feet towards the fire like the pioneer scout of border fiction1 but he lies by the side of the fire1 where he will get the benefit of its heat1 and sometimes he rolls closer than he should for safety4 ,this ,i learned from actual experience about the first time ,i ever tried camping out4 ,i believed firmly that ,i couldn't afford to buy woolen blankets1 so ,i used a pair made of cotton4 ,i was sleeping by the side of a fire and as it was quite cold ,i snuggled close4 ,i awoke to find a decidedly warm feeling about my knee1 and on hasty examination found a large section of one trouser leg burned away and a hole in the blanket over a foot in diameter4 ,i then decided that ,i could afford woolen blankets and have stood by that decision ever since4 ,one of the best blankets for camping purposes that ,i ever owned was a square horse blanket1 from which ,i removed the trimmings4 ,its thick all-wool body and generous size made it ideal for camp use4 ,the ,hudson's ,bay blankets are excellent1 being heavy and of large size4 ,then there are many camp blankets of less note1 most of which are good4 ,really good1 heavy1 all-wool blankets of a size #gbx#hd inches will cost from #e4jj to #aj4jj each for single blankets1 and twice that much for the double kind1 if you can get them4 ,these single blankets should weigh from four and a half to five pounds each4 ,color is immaterial--if you fancy the bright scarlet kind buy it1 for it will give as good service as a gray one4 ,but a white blanket is almost sure to contain all good wool1 for it is harder to conceal shoddy stuff that is not dyed4 ,white is not a good color for camping purposes1 but it is not a difficult task to dye a white blanket4 ,a woolen blanket is neither heavy1 bulky1 nor stiff4 ,it is easily folded to fit the pack1 and when properly arranged it forms a pad which protects the back of the packer from the corners of the cooking utensils and the ever-gouging steel traps and other hardware4 ,if the packer has no pack cloth he can use the blanket for this purpose1 although it is none too good for the blanket4 ,if it gets wet it is easily dried without danger of burning1 and if it does not get thoroughly dry it is warmer still than a cotton blanket4 ,but when zero weather is to be contended with woolen blankets must take a back seat for the ,indian's kind1 woven from strips of rabbit fur4 ,nothing that ,i have ever found will equal or even approach in warmth a rabbit skin blanket4 ,one such blanket1 weighing eight or ten pounds1 is all that a man requires for sleeping out of doors in a temperature of #dj below zero4 ,yes1 ,i know that it sounds far-fetched2 but a trial will convince the most skeptical4 ,many a morning ,i have found my nose almost frozen when ,i awoke1 but otherwise ,i was perfectly comfortable2 the reason being that my nose was the only part of my anatomy not enveloped in the rabbit skin blanket4 ,i couldn't believe that it was so cold until ,i emerged from the folds of the covering to kindle a fire4 ,with one of these fur blankets ,i have slept comfortably off and on during an entire winter north of ,lake ,superior1 in a cabin which had the cracks chinked on two sides only1 the other two sides having openings between the logs through which ,i could put my hand1 and ,i never had a fire at night4 ,these blankets are made by all northern ,indian tribes4 ,they are woven from the skins of the snowshoe rabbit1 or varying hare1 cut into strips for the purpose4 ,the animals producing these skins are found in almost incredible numbers in most of the wilder parts of ,canada1 as well as in parts of the northern ,states4 ,the blankets can be made only in winter1 when the fur is white and in good condition4 ,the rabbits are taken in snares1 case skinned1 and the skins are cut into strips while green4 ,this work is done by the squaws4 ,the method is to trim the open end of the skin1 then starting at this end with a sharp knife the entire skin is cut into a single strip about an inch wide by holding it on the knee and cutting around and around4 ,each skin will make a strip #aj or #ab feet long4 ,as soon as it is cut the skin rolls up like a cord1 fur on all sides4 ,these strips of green fur are wound into a ball and placed out of doors1 where they will freeze and remain frozen1 each day's accumulation being added to the ball until a sufficient number have been secured to make a blanket4 ,i cannot say how many skins are required1 but believe about #ej or #fj1 perhaps more4 ,of course the number needed would depend partly on the size of blanket desired4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,rabbit ,,skin ,,blanket ,,is ,,made4 ,now when ,mrs4 ,indian has secured enough skins to form the desired blanket she makes a square frame of poles1 about the size the finished blanket is to be1 and fastens around the inside a piece of heavy twine4 ,then sewing the end of a fur strip to the cord at one of the upper corners she weaves this strip across the end of the frame by looping it around the cord in a succession of simple loops1 using her finger as a gauge to make the mesh a uniform size4 ,when a gauge reaches the end of the strip she sews on another and weaves it as before4 ,when she has made such a row of little loops all across the top of the frame she passes the fur strip around the side cord a few times and then starts another row backward1 looping the strip into the row of loops already formed4 ,thus she weaves the strips of fur back and forth across the frame until the robe is finished4 ,these simple loops will not slip after the fur has become dry4 ,the entire blanket must be perfectly dry before it is removed from the frame1 and it must never be allowed to become wet4 ,the skins are not tanned1 simply dried4 ,these blankets are usually wider at one end than at the other1 so that there will be sufficient width to wrap around the shoulders of the user and yet no more material1 bulk and weight than necessary4 ,i find it most satisfactory to double the blanket lengthwise and loop a cord through the edges across the foot and a third of the way up the side1 thus fastening the edges firmly together and making it somewhat like a sleeping bag4 ,so made ,i do not get my feet uncovered at night1 and yet it is easy to get into and out of it4 ,these blankets1 or robes as they are sometimes called1 are so loosely woven that a man can put his fingers through anywhere1 yet for their weight they are the warmest bedding ,i know of4 ,i believe an ordinary rabbit blanket will weigh about eight pounds4 ,it appears bulky1 for with fur on both sides it is quite thick1 but it can be tied up into a fairly small package4 ,i used to roll mine into a package measuring about #aj inches in diameter by #bj inches in length1 and this could be placed in the bottom of a common packsack4 ,there it formed a soft pad for the back and the heavy articles were thrown higher up in the pack1 where the weight should be1 if weight is ever really needed in a pack4 ,i fancy ,i hear somebody asking how this species of bedding is to be kept dry in rainy weather4 ,if it is warm enough for rain a rabbit robe is not needed--that is the time to use the woolen blanket4 ,it never rains during cold weather4 ,in the north1 where these fur blankets are needed and used1 the weather turns cold in ,november1 remaining so until ,march or ,april1 and during this time it is considered remarkable if it ever becomes warm enough to rain4 ,i have never had one of these blankets wet1 except that nearly every morning the fur on the outside will be more or less wet1 presumably from the moisture which it throws out to the surface4 ,this is only on the outside fur and will soon dry off if the blanket is hung where the warmth from the fire can reach it4 ,the only fault ,i find with these fur blankets is that they are continually shedding the hair1 and rabbit hair is apt to appear in the biscuits1 and is certain to be sprinkled plentifully over the clothing4 ,this is not so objectionable to outdoor men1 but it prohibits the use of the article in the house4 ,any trapper living in the northern forest should be able to make a rabbit skin blanket for his own use4 ,a few days setting and tending snares will provide the necessary number of rabbits1 and the weaving of the blanket may be done on a cold day or in the evenings4 ,i have never made one1 for ,i have been able to buy them from the ,indians at prices ranging from #f4jj to #aj4jj each1 and that is cheaper than ,i could make one myself4 ,the camp bed that is generally unloaded on the unsuspecting tender foot is some form of sleeping bag4 ,there may be good sleeping bags and it is possible that ,i am unduly prejudiced against this form of camp bed1 for ,i have given only two styles a real tryout1 but ,i can say emphatically that the kinds ,i used were no good4 ,my first sleeping bag was made of heavy canvas1 inside of which was a separate bag made of a blanket4 ,it was very unsatisfactory1 for in addition to being exceedingly stiff and inconvenient for handling1 getting into and out of it1 it was also a very poor protection against the cold4 ,the next investment along this line was one of the sheepskin-lined bags advertised so much about #aj or #ae years ago4 ,it was made of heavy duck with a lining of sheepskin with the wool on4 ,inside of this was a blanket bag and this was also fitted with a removable drill sack1 which could be washed4 ,if weight and thickness were sure indications of warmth this should have been all right for the polar regions1 for the complete outfit must have weighed #be pounds4 ,i found it very little warmer than the bag with the blanket lining1 and ,i was not long in getting rid of it4 ,this is the extent of my experience with sleeping bags1 but it is sufficient to turn me against the entire family4 ,as ,i said before there may be good ones1 but ,i am from ,missouri4 ,the plain1 heavy1 all-wool blanket for me as long as the weather is not bitterly cold1 for when zero temperature comes ,i want a rabbit fur blanket if ,i am to do much camping out4 ,these are good enough for me until ,i find something better1 and ,i don't expect to find it4 ,they have been with me under the most trying conditions and have proved their worth4 ,what is needed by the trapper1 or by anybody who finds occasion to camp out1 is something light with little bulk that will keep him as warm and comfortable as he can hope to be under the circumstances4 ,this he finds in the articles recommended4 ,other furs than that of the rabbit have been tried out for blankets1 but ,i am told that they are not as good4 ,lynx and wolf fur are perhaps the best kinds1 as they are long and dense1 while the skin is relatively light4 ,but they are all heavier than rabbit fur1 less warm and much more costly4 ,a deer skin makes a nice spread for the top of the camp bed to sleep on when the weather is cold1 for it stops much of the cold air that comes up through the bed from beneath and helps retain the heat generated by the body of the occupant4 ,the skin need not be tanned4 ,a man needs a night cap of some kind when sleeping out of doors4 ,i have slept quite comfortably when wearing a wool toque1 and ,i have also used the loose hood1 which is worn by most northern bushmen to keep the snow from getting inside of the clothing4 ,some men can get along very well with an ordinary hat or cap4 ,in the bushman's outfit1 as ,i see it1 the blanket is second in importance only to the ax4 ,how can good1 pure wool be used more advantageously than in the form of a blanket1 which will keep the owner comfortable eight or nine hours out of each #bd8 ,the worth of a blanket to the man of the woods can hardly be over-estimated4 ,and when its days of usefulness as a blanket are ended it will still bring him much more comfort by being converted into mittens1 hood1 and extra protection for the feet when the ,frost ,king reigns4 ,,the ,,woodsman',s ,,ax ,,and ,,its ,,use ,on the ax more than on anything else depends the comfort and success of the northern forest traveler1 whatever his calling4 ,he may1 to lighten his load1 discard all of the articles in his outfit which are not absolutely essential1 but never by any chance is the ax among those cast aside1 because this tool is the most necessary and the most useful article used by the bushman4 ,not a day passes that the ax is not put to strenuous use1 and on the trap line nearly every hour of the day finds the ax at work1 smoothing the rough path of the traveler and providing for his comfort and welfare4 ,how could the wilderness trapper exist without the aid of this most useful tool8 ,on it he must depend for his night's supply of firewood1 and when the weather is cold this means not only comfort1 but life itself1 for the hardiest trapper could not long survive a temperature of forty below without a good warm fire beside which to spread his bed4 ,with the ax he cuts poles for the frame work of his night's camp2 he uses it to blaze the trail that he may follow it again when he goes the rounds to glean his harvest from the traps which he has set2 he uses it when making the sets themselves2 for cutting the drooping1 snow-laden branches across his trail1 and many minor uses which cannot now be mentioned4 ,when making a hard trip he may leave his gun in camp1 and may even travel and camp without blankets1 shelter or cooking utensils1 but the ax must go with him on every trip4 ,we are told that in early days the ,indians paid fabulous prices for the most simple and common tools1 and it has been said that as much as a hundred dollars in furs has been paid by an ,indian hunter for an ax4 ,it seems like wholesale robbery1 but the bargain had two sides--two points of view4 ,the ,indian simply exchanged what was practically worthless to him for what was of priceless value1 and from his point of view he drove as shrewd a bargain as did the trader4 ,when we leave civilization behind us values change1 and utilitarian worth counts more than intrinsic value1 therefore1 the ax becomes more valuable than a whole season's catch of furs4 ,if any class of people need perfect goods it is the class who must depend on these goods for their existence4 ,the woodsman should have a perfect gun1 perfect traps1 perfect camp equipment1 the best food he can buy1 but above all a perfect ax4 ,it should be of the finest material and of the best temper1 tough but not hard4 ,when put to a great strain steel will do one of two things--it will bend or it will break4 ,if of good quality1 with the proper proportion of carbon1 it will stand an unusually severe test before it will do either1 but when it does give it should bend rather than break4 ,of this kind of steel the trapper's ax should be made1 and it should have a temper which will enhance these good qualities4 ,if the ax is tempered a little too hard the edge will break when cutting into hard knots or frozen wood1 or when the frost has not been drawn from the edge before using4 ,when once the edge becomes dulled it is difficult to sharpen1 for the trapper of the great woods has no grindstone1 and must depend on file and whetstone to keep his cutting tools in perfect condition4 ,a hard ax cannot be filed1 so that puts the taboo on the ax with high temper4 ,i have emphasized the necessity for perfection in the trapper's ax1 and that you may realize the seriousness of this1 ,i will repeat what ,i said at the beginning of this article1 that often the camper's life depends on the ax and its ability to stand the woodsman's test4 ,the northern or western trapper frequently finds it necessary to make long trips in terribly cold weather1 camping out night after night4 ,since the entire camp outfit and food supply must be carried on these journeys the outfit taken must of necessity be meager4 ,only a single blanket and a small1 light canvas shelter can be taken and to sleep without a fire under such conditions is out of the question4 ,a good hot fire must be kept going and such a fire will consume nearly half a cord of wood during the long northern night4 ,this must be cut into lengths that can be handled and what would become of the camper if his ax were to break before the night's wood was cut2 he far from the home camp1 darkness at hand1 and the temperature far below the zero mark4 ,freezing to death could be the only possible outcome1 unless he could retrace his steps in the dark and travel all the long night4 ,so you see it will pay you to test your ax well before you take it into the woods1 and take only one that will stand the most severe trial1 even if you break a dozen axes before you get one that is satisfactory4 ,what ,i have said of the material of the ax head applies with equal force to the ax handle4 ,it should be of sound1 strong1 straight-grained1 springy wood1 for sometimes a broken ax handle is as disastrous as a broken blade4 ,i have never found a better wood for ax handles than good second-growth hickory1 but young white oak1 the sapwood1 is almost as good4 ,even if the temper and material of the ax and handle leave nothing to be desired1 if the ax is not of the right pattern1 weight and length1 it will be unsatisfactory4 ,perhaps the most useful pattern for the wilderness trapper is that having a long narrow blade1 but this should not be carried to the extreme1 as a narrow blade is more easily broken4 ,the long blade is very useful when cutting holes into the sides of trees for setting marten traps or in making deadfalls1 and for many similar uses about camp where the simplicity of the outfit necessitates making of the ax a general utility tool4 ,if made extremely long and narrow1 however1 the consequent weakening and the fact that a narrow blade is not so satisfactory for hewing and for chopping in heavy wood more than offset the good qualities of the long blade4 ,the eye of the ax should be large1 so that the handle may be large in the eye of the ax and close by the head1 and it should be enlarged slightly at both edges4 ,this will make it possible to wedge the handle so that it will hold the head solidly1 and it will leave the handle if fitted well1 thickest where the greatest strain comes1 close to the eye of the ax4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,woodman',s ,,perfect ,,ax4 ,in the shaping of an ax blade there are some rules that must be remembered and adhered to if the maximum of efficiency is desired4 ,these same rules must be known to the user of the tool1 for in the grinding1 a bad chopping ax may often be made better1 while bad grinding makes it worse4 ,one of these rules1 and the most important1 is to have the blade or bit thinnest on the inside corner1 which is the end of the blade nearest to the user4 ,the hasty conclusion would be that if this corner were thinnest1 the opposite side of the blade should be thickest4 ,this is wrong4 ,the thickest part of the blade should be two-thirds of the way across from the inside corner1 the place marked ,x in the drawing of what ,i call the woodsman's perfect ax4 ,a blade so shaped will have the maximum chopping power1 will sink easily into the tree1 will burst the chip well1 and will not bind in the wood4 ,i think it best that the ax head be made of wrought iron1 split1 and a welded-in steel bit4 ,this gives the maximum strength4 ,the butt of the ax might also be of steel1 and would be more convenient for the trapper if it had a claw for drawing trap staples4 ,if the eye of the ax is not tempered in the least the entire head may be made of steel and will be almost1 if not fully1 as strong1 while the making is simplified4 ,you may wonder why a trapper need concern himself with the making of the ax if he can buy it ready made1 but if there is a trapper's perfect ax made1 ,i do not know of it4 ,i know1 however1 that many readers of this article have in their locality a blacksmith who is fully capable of making such an ax to order4 ,for the northern forest and the western mountain district the ax that ,i would recommend would weigh only about two pounds1 handle not included in the weight4 ,some of you may think this entirely too light1 but the northern ,indians use axes of only one and a half pounds1 and find them heavy enough for practical purposes1 while light to carry on the trail4 ,to make a light ax effective1 however1 it must have a long handle4 ,an ax like this should have a handle of from thirty to thirty-four inches over all1 and with such a tool you will be surprised to see what heavy work can be done4 ,as said before1 ,i do not know of a better wood for ax handles than hickory4 ,it is very strong and springy and it always stays smooth2 as cold to the touch as the ax head itself4 ,it is difficult to get ax handle wood when we reach the upper part of the northern tier of states or ,canada1 for hickory is not found there4 ,hard maple is used extensively for ax handles in these places2 but it does not compare well with hickory4 ,about the only way to get a handle of the proper length for the woodsman's ax is to remove the handle from a large ax and work it over into the proper shape and thickness4 ,the full size single bit axes usually have clubs of handles and there is plenty of wood on which to work4 ,did you ever wonder why an ax handle is curved in an ,s shape8 ,it is made to fit the hands of the user without strain on the arms or wrists1 and this curved shape enables him to hold the ax more solidly when striking a blow than could be done with a straight handle4 ,the handle should be quite thick and hand-fitting near the end where it is grasped by the left hand 7or right1 according to whether the user is right or left handed71 but the other part should be shaped so the hand can slide easily back and forth while chopping4 ,the handle should be fastened into the ax with a wedge1 which in turn is held in place by a screw4 ,the wedge has a head so that when the screw is removed it is easily pried out1 and then if it is necessary to remove the handle the ax can be driven into the top of a stump or into a log1 and the handle easily detached4 ,such wedges may be bought from almost any hardware company4 ,this is my idea of what a woodsman's ax should be1 and such a tool weighing two pounds1 with a well-shaped handle thirty or thirty-two inches long from the end to the ax eye makes an efficient tool of light weight and a great article for use on the trail or trap line4 ,i might say of it1 as ,davy ,crockett said of his knife3 ,it will jump higher1 dive deeper1 shave more hogs and stand more bending without breaking than any other made4 ,as nearly all woodsmen are good axmen1 it may seem superfluous to give advice regarding the care of an ax1 the way to grind it1 and how to use it1 but this article is not intended for those who know1 but for these who do not1 and are desirous to learn4 ,by a reckless1 careless blow at a hemlock knot ,i have seen the entire bit broken off an ax1 while other axes of no better temper but properly ground and well handled have gone through an entire season of bark peeling without a nick of any consequence4 ,i have seen axes ruined in a half day's work cutting brush close to the ground1 and have myself used an ax day after day at the same kind of work without making a nick which could not be whetted out in a few minutes with a small ax stone4 ,there is also a lot of danger in the careless use of an ax4 ,i have known of at least two men who have cut their heads by splitting wood under a clothes line4 ,the same thing may happen when working under a tree with low1 drooping branches4 ,in the woods it will pay double to make it a rule on every occasion to be sure that there is not even the smallest twig in the way to catch the ax before you make a stroke with it4 ,trim all brush away from around a tree before you commence to cut it1 and observe the same precautions when you cut it into lengths or when lopping the branches4 ,when cutting the fallen tree into lengths1 the common and most convenient way is to stand on the log and chop it half way through between the feet1 then turn and cut the other side in the same way4 ,use double precaution when doing this1 for ,i have known of an ax being deflected and a nasty cut being the result4 ,it seems that the smallest branch or sprout can turn the ax toward the foot of the chopper4 ,when chopping down timber the tree can nearly always be thrown either of three ways--the way the tree inclines or to either side1 but not the opposite way from its inclination4 ,in addition to the incline of the tree1 the influence of the wind and the weight of the branches must be considered1 and when all of these forces are brought to bear the timber cutter must be well onto his job to know just how to cut the tree to make it fall in the desired direction4 ,a good chopper1 however1 can throw the tree to any spot designated within the falling zone almost every time4 ,the wind is a great factor and must be considered1 especially when the breeze is strong or when the tree appears to stand perfectly straight4 ,a tree on a slope that appears to be perpendicular will1 in nearly every case1 fall down hill if free to fall as it wills1 providing there is no contrary wind4 ,if the tree really stands perfectly upright and there is no wind1 it will fall best toward the side that has the most branches1 or to the side having the greatest weight4 ,if allowance must be made1 however1 for both wind and gravity1 it is then the judgment of the chopper is put to the test4 ,if he can estimate accurately the power of each of these forces1 he can drop his tree exactly where he wants to1 but how8 ,it is very simple4 ,in cutting a tree a notch is cut on the side toward which the tree is to fall4 ,remember that this notch should be cut into the center of the tree1 and when finished1 should be exactly at a right angle to the line on which the tree is to fall4 ,a notch is then cut on the opposite side1 just a little higher on the tree1 and when this notch is cut in almost to the center the tree will fall4 ,if the tree is notched to fall the way it inclines and there is nothing to prevent it going that way1 the second notch should be cut exactly parallel to the first4 ,if1 however1 the tree leans a little to one side1 if there are more branches on that side1 or if the wind blows in that direction1 the second cut should not be parallel with the first1 but should be farther from it on the side from which the wind comes1 so that there will be more wood to break on that side4 ,in no case should the notches entirely meet on the other side1 for if they do1 should the tree be cut entirely off on one side1 it will settle farther over to that side4 ,just how near you dare cut it off on the one side and how much you must hold on the opposite side can be learned only from experience4 ,there are other little things that have a certain amount of influence4 ,for instance1 if there is nothing to interfere1 the tree in falling will draw slightly toward the high side of the notch first cut4 ,then1 too1 if the notch is not perfectly cut1 if it is more acute on one side than on the other1 as the tree falls the top and bottom of the notch will meet on one side before they do on the other1 and this is certain to swing the tree slightly toward the wide or obtuse side of the notch4 ,a heavy weight of branches1 too1 on one side may cause the tree to roll slightly in falling4 ,for your own safety it is always best to get back a safe distance from the tree when it starts to fall1 because if it falls over a rock1 a log1 or a little rise in the ground the butt of the tree will kick and may lift your head off1 which would be decidedly unpleasant4 ,if there are other trees in the way1 look out for falling branches4 ,i have already told how to cut the tree in sections1 but the branches must be trimmed off before it can be cut up entirely4 ,in trimming1 work from the butt toward the top1 as the branches usually grow that way1 cut easier1 and are not in the way while chopping4 ,hold the ax rigidly when trimming1 as the knots are likely to be hard and an ax that is not held firmly may break or bend4 ,make it a rule to do no more trimming than necessary on such woods as hemlock and fir1 which have very hard knots4 ,frozen wood is also likely to break the ax4 ,when splitting wood strike straight and don't try to spring the split open by prying with the ax1 for that is the easiest way ,i know to break an ax handle4 ,usually it is easier and better to merely start the split with the ax and finish opening it up with wooden wedges1 using the ax only to drive the wedges and to cut the contrary fibres4 ,just how to split a block easiest can be learned only from experience4 ,sometimes it is best to go right at a knot or the toughest place1 and sometimes you must attack the clearest place1 depending on circumstances4 ,ordinarily a piece of wood splits easiest by starting the end of the block with the ax and following up with a pair of wedges1 using the ax to cut the binding splints4 ,learn to cut close to the ground without striking the stones4 ,it requires care1 that is all1 but one careless stroke may mean a badly damaged ax and an hour or more of hard work to make it sharp again4 ,don't strike downward when cutting brush2 grasp the shrub1 if a small one1 with the left hand1 and cut it by a single stroke1 as illustrated1 using the ax with one hand only4 ,if the shrub is a large one1 handle the ax with both hands and cut close to the ground1 making a strong1 slashing blow4 ,grinding an ax requires some care1 but it is really quite easy and it is surprising how many axmen will not attempt to grind an ax4 ,i have known many good choppers1 working in log camps1 who could not grind an ax1 or at least thought they could not4 ,as the ax comes from the store it usually has a decided bevel on the edge1 and the first grinding means considerable work1 for this bevel must be ground entirely away4 ,start well back on the blade and grind it slightly rounding down to the edge1 until the edge is clean and even1 then grind the other side in the same way4 ,some axmen maintain that the ax cuts better1 or to use the woodsman's expression1 draws better if in finishing the grinding the ax is given a wabbling motion4 ,keep in mind what ,i said about the shape of the blade1 and if it is not already the proper form1 try to improve it each time you put it on the grindstone4 ,after grinding1 whet the edge thoroughly with a fine whetstone until the scratched effect caused by grinding has given place to a smooth surface and a clean keen edge4 ,if you do not whet it after grinding1 the edge will crumble away and the ax will cut dead4 ,the first grinding will tell you whether the ax is hard or soft4 ,you can tell by the sound of it and by its grip on the grindstone4 ,if it is soft it cuts rapidly1 grips the stone hard and gives a dull1 dead sound4 ,if hard1 it gives a ringing sound and the stone glides smoothly under it1 cutting slowly and wearing the steel bright4 ,the woodsman cannot take a grindstone into the woods and the best substitute is a file4 ,i always choose a flat mill file about eight inches long4 ,always push the file from well back on the bit down to the edge1 and never from the edge towards the eye of the ax1 or you will be almost certain to cut your hands before you have finished4 ,after the filing1 whet the ax until you have a smooth1 sharp edge4 ,it will be evident that an ax that must be kept sharp with a file and whetstone must not be too hard1 for a file will not cut hard steel4 ,the axes sold by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company to the ,indian trappers are very soft1 so that they may be filed easily1 and the ,indian files only on the edge1 so that the ax soon has a bevel almost equal to a chisel4 ,the average ,indian takes just about as much care of an ax as a woman does of a butcher knife4 ,as the minister says1 ,just one word more1 and that is in regard to carrying the ax on the trail4 ,i have tried many ways1 but do not find anything more satisfactory than having a leather pouch to slip over the head of the ax and tucking it head down in the pack4 ,when drawing a toboggan it is slipped under the binding cords4 ,if ,i am carrying my outfit and do not have a gun1 ,i carry the ax in my hand1 which is the most satisfactory way on such occasions4 ,the ,indian thrusts his ax through his sash1 handle to the rear and blade down1 but ,i never fancied that way of carrying an ax4 ,,snowshoes--,,how ,,to ,,make ,,them ,my first efforts at snowshoe making came about through trying to repair the broken filling of a pair of ,indian made snowshoes4 ,in removing the winding from the toe cord ,i accidentally discovered the place where the filling had been tied at the finish of the last round4 ,this filling was badly worn and ,i reasoned that if ,i could remove it in the reverse order from that in which it had been strung ,i would know how to weave the intricate web of a snowshoe4 ,i tried it out1 successfully filling the old frames1 and while it was far from perfect work ,i had at least learned the secret of snowshoe weaving4 ,removing the stringing from a pair of snowshoes1 carefully noting every turn1 twist and loop1 is the best way to learn how the filling is strung1 but not every person who has ambitions along this line has a pair of snowshoes so much worn that he would care to risk removing the rawhide strands4 ,clearly written instructions1 supplemented with working drawings1 are the next best4 ,when a pair of snowshoes are to be made the first thing is to plan the size1 shape and general character of the shoes4 ,the frames1 or bows1 are the first step of the actual making4 ,snowshoe frames are made of tough1 light wood4 ,many kinds of wood are used1 and while ,i am not prepared to say positively which kind is best ,i believe that young1 straight grained white ash is about as good a wood as can be found4 ,but my experience has been mostly with white birch1 and my instructions for making the frames apply to the use of this wood in particular1 for it is peculiar in many ways1 and cannot be split and worked as freely as certain other kinds of wood4 ,to find a suitable tree for this purpose is sometimes difficult4 ,i once went into the bush a distance of seven miles to get a tree which ,i had found1 split it1 and carried one half home4 ,i surely earned that wood1 but ,i made from it a pair of frames which were so light that old bushmen said ,i would break them on my first trip2 however1 ,i used them all winter1 then gave them to an old ,german who wore them until the filling was completely gone1 yet the frames were still good4 ,the tree from which the frames are to be made should be not more than eight inches in diameter1 and one of six inches is better4 ,it should have drooping branches1 and must have eight or ten feet of the trunk straight and clean1 free of limbs1 and absolutely without a particle of twist to the grain4 ,such trees may be found occasionally growing along the edge of a swamp4 ,after the tree has been felled and a section of the proper length cut off1 a groove about one and a half inches deep is carefully cut the entire length along one side1 care being used not to strike hard1 as that would injure the wood4 ,when the groove is finished a similar one is cut on the opposite side4 ,the stick should be split with wooden wedges1 and if it is properly done the split will follow the grooves4 ,the best half should then be chosen for the proposed snowshoe frames1 and this should be ripped lengthwise with a saw1 or split1 as desired4 ,each of the pieces will make a frame or bow4 ,illustration3 ,,making ,a ,,snowshoe ,,frame4 ,one side of the stick is then cut and planed until it is perfectly straight1 and its face at a right angle to the bark side1 or at least it must be so in the middle1 which forms the toe of the snowshoe1 for there should be nothing taken off the bark side1 not even the bark1 until after the wood is bent into shape for the snowshoe frame4 ,it is best if the entire stick is worked out from the bark side1 but the wood may be planed straight at all parts except in the middle1 where the greatest strain comes4 ,then the third side of the stick is marked off with a marking gauge and either cut or sawed to the mark4 ,the fourth side1 the inside of the stick1 which will be the inside of the finished frame1 is then cut down to the proper dimensions1 but on this side an even thickness is not maintained1 the toe portion being cut thinnest1 with the heel--ends of the stick--coming next4 ,for a snowshoe of average size1 say #dd inches in length and #ad inches wide1 the stick should measure eight and a half feet in length1 one inch in width1 seven-eighths inch thick at the parts which will become the middle of the shoe 7,b to ,c in figure one71 one-half inch at ,a1 and about five-eighths inch at the ends4 ,before anything more can be done with the wood a form for bending the frames must be made4 ,a convenient form is shown in figure two4 ,for steaming the wood properly it is necessary to have a steaming box1 which is merely a long case made of narrow boards1 open at both ends4 ,the stick is placed in this case and the steam from a boiling tea kettle turned in one end so that the hot steam travels the entire length4 ,the wood should be steamed thus an hour and then it is ready for bending4 ,figure two shows how the wood is bent and secured on the form4 ,the toe must be formed very carefully1 bending only a little at first1 then releasing1 then bending a little more1 and so on until the wood can be easily and safely bent to complete shape and secured by nailing blocks to the form4 ,the form should be made from two-inch planks1 so that it will accommodate the two frames4 ,the wood is allowed to dry thoroughly on the form before filling1 and this will require at least two weeks4 ,after the frames are dry they may be taken from the form1 the tail end of each fastened and the crossbars fitted into place4 ,the ends may be secured with a wood screw until after the frames have been strung1 but the screw should then be removed and the ends tied with rawhide1 through gimlet holes1 the part between being counter sunk so that the thongs will be protected from wear4 ,this is shown in figure four4 ,the crossbars are pieces of flat1 strong wood1 about one and a fourth inches wide and nearly a half inch thick1 with rounded edges4 ,these should be placed about #af or #ag inches apart1 measuring from center to center1 and so placed that when the frame is suspended on the hands midway between these two sticks the tail will outweigh the toe by just a few ounces4 ,these cross-bars should be carefully mortised into the frame as shown in the small diagram in center of figure three4 ,illustration3 ,,loop ,,to ,,fasten ,,thongs ,,to ,,the ,,frame4 ,in both sides of the frame from ,d to ,e1 also from ,f to ,g1 gimlet holes are bored through the bows from outside to inside at intervals of two inches1 or a little more1 the holes being in pairs obliquely placed1 and countersunk between4 ,three holes are also bored through each crossbar1 as shown4 ,the frames are now ready for filling4 ,regarding material for filling1 for ordinary use1 there is nothing equal to cowhide1 a fairly heavy skin4 ,the green hide should be placed under running water for a week or more1 until the hair can be pulled out easily4 ,the hair should then be pulled1 or scraped off1 but care must be used that the grain of the skin is not broken or scraped away4 ,the hide should then be thoroughly stretched and dried in an airy but shady place4 ,when dry it may be cut into strands4 ,a whole hide will fill several pairs of shoes4 ,the portion along the back is best and this should be used for filling the middle section4 ,the lighter parts from the edges of the skin will answer for stringing the heels and toes4 ,all strands should be cut length-wise of the skin1 and full length4 ,their width will depend on the thickness of the skin1 the weight of filling desired in the snowshoe1 the general character of the snow in which they will be used1 and the size of mesh in the web4 ,if cut while dry1 then soaked1 stretched1 and again allowed to dry1 as they will be when strung into the frames1 it will be found that the length of the strands will be increased greatly1 while the thickness will be much decreased4 ,it is well to cut several trial widths1 so that the proper weight of strand may be determined4 ,for a coarse webbed shoe the thongs1 after being stretched and dried1 should be about five-sixteenths of an inch wide for the middle portion of the shoe2 for the ends an eighth inch is sufficiently heavy4 ,these strands of hide should all be soaked and stretched thoroughly1 allowed to dry while stretched1 and then soaked again just before using1 and strung into the frames while wet4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,filling ,,the ,,toe ,,section4 ,the ends are filled first and as ,i always commence with the toe ,i will describe my method of stringing that part first4 ,a strand of the water-soaked rawhide is stretched tightly around the inside of the toe portion through the little gimlet holes1 as shown in figure five1 starting and finishing at one of the holes in the forward crossbar4 ,this thong is called the lanyard1 and its purpose is to hold the filling which is woven into the toe4 ,a small needle of very hard wood1 or bone1 is used for filling the ends4 ,i have shown in the drawing how the filling runs4 ,starting in the lower left-hand corner it goes up to the part marked #a1 passes around the lanyard1 twists back around itself about an inch and then goes down to #b1 there passing around the lanyard and again twisting around itself1 then around the lanyard at #c1 a single twist1 and then across to #d1 where it again turns around the lanyard1 then twists down around the first strand to the starting point1 under the lanyard at #e and up to #f4 ,from there the strand loops and twists the same as in the first round1 except that at the lower corners it loops back around the first round1 then twists around itself1 then around the lanyard1 and on the same as before4 ,this looping back of every second round is continued until the filling extends across the entire forward part of the toe1 when it is discontinued1 and each round is made like the first4 ,this looping back throws the filling alternately from side to side4 ,the filling must be stretched in very tightly and must not be allowed to slip4 ,when one strand is used up another is joined on in the manner shown4 ,care must be used to see that every round crosses the others in the proper way1 and all the twists must be made alike4 ,the amateur should keep these pictures before him for a guide4 ,occasionally he should look his work over carefully1 and if an error is discovered the stringing should be removed and made right4 ,it will be necessary to straighten out the completed portions occasionally1 and for this purpose ,i use a round-pointed hardwood stick4 ,the weave will finish at the center of the crossbar4 ,illustration3 ,,how ,,the ,,heel ,,section ,,is ,,strung4 ,the filling in the tail end or heel is very simple and is shown so plainly in the diagram that ,i think a description superfluous4 ,it starts at the upper right-hand corner and finishes in the middle of the crossbar4 ,i again advise that great care be used to get the twists and loops right1 and to see that the thongs cross in the proper way4 ,illustration3 ,,filling ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,the ,,snowshoe4 ,filling the middle section is also more simple than it appears at first glance1 for it is practically a repetition of the system used in the toe portion4 ,the edges of the wood should be rounded slightly to prevent them cutting the thongs4 ,the ,northern ,indians wind this part of the frame with a strip of cloth1 to make a sort of cushion for the tightly stretched thongs4 ,this cloth winding serves its purpose well1 but in a country where wet snows are common its use is not advised1 for the cloth holds the dampness and causes the rawhide to rot4 ,while the system of stringing this part may appear quite intricate it is in reality simple1 and it is the more elaborate arrangement of the forward portion that makes this section appear so complicated4 ,the stout bunch of thongs shown in the drawing1 known as the toe cord1 is strung in first1 the rawhide strand being tightly stretched and crossing the frame some four or five times1 a loop being thrown around the whole on the inside of the frame on both sides in the last round4 ,this should be so executed that the last loop will be on the right-hand side4 ,the thong then loops around this bunch of cords again about an inch from the frame1 from there being strung up around the cross-bar1 then twisting around itself back to the starting point1 from there passing down diagonally to the center of the rear cross-bar1 where it loops and twists again1 then up to the upper left-hand corner1 where it twists up the same as on the opposite side4 ,from here it will be noted the thong runs down a short distance and loops around the left side of the frame4 ,the simple loop used for this purpose is clearly shown in a small drawing4 ,from this loop the rawhide strand twists back about an inch1 then runs straight across the shoe to the right1 where the loop is repeated4 ,this completes the first round of the filling4 ,the second round starts in about the same way as the first1 goes up to the crossbar at the left of the first round1 twists back to the toe cord1 from there to the rear crossbar1 then up to the left-hand corner4 ,here the system changes1 for the strand is run up and twisted around the toe cord and first round of filling before it is looped to the frame4 ,after looping it is brought across to the right1 where it again loops and twists1 and then twists around the toe cord and first round of filling exactly as on the left1 after which it is run down to the rear crossbar4 ,in this way the stringing continues1 every second round twisting forward around the preceding two4 ,this binds the filling firmly and1 it will be noted1 also alternates the successive rounds from side to side4 ,when the process of filling has progressed so far that there are four twists around the forward crossbar1 on each side1 this twisting should be stopped and the remainder of the forward portion left open1 for this is where the foot of the wearer works through when walking4 ,this open space should measure about four and a half inches in width1 and if it does not the filling must be shifted4 ,in very coarse meshed shoes three twists on each side will be all that can be given4 ,an extra turn around the toe cord should also be made on each of these two twists of the filling1 for considerable strain is thrown onto this portion4 ,from this point on1 instead of running forward and twisting around the crossbar1 the filling simply twists around the toe cord4 ,but here care must be used to keep the filling smooth and the toe cord flat1 otherwise sore feet will result from wearing the shoes4 ,the weave finishes in the center of the toe cord and there the end of the thong should be securely and neatly fastened4 ,the last touch is to wind a strand of rawhide about the twisted thongs on each side of the foot opening and around the toe cord1 to make these parts smooth and protect them from wear4 ,in the drawings of the heel and toe sections it will be noted that ,i have shown the web tied to the crossbars with twine4 ,this is not a permanent feature1 for when the center of the shoe has been filled these strings may be removed4 ,after making one pair of snowshoes the workman will undoubtedly see wherein he can improve on the design of the shoe1 on the style of filling1 or in the method of making4 ,there are many labor-saving devices and ways of handling the material that make the work easier4 ,but these the amateur snowshoe maker will learn in time and ,i believe ,i have now given all the instructions necessary for those who want to make their own snowshoes4 ,,snowshoes--,,how ,,to ,,use ,,them ,snowshoes of one kind or another are used in all northern countries1 for they are a necessity to those who live in the snowy north1 and earn their living by outdoor work4 ,where or when they originated would be hard to say1 definitely1 but since it is in ,america that they have been perfected and were used by the ,indians when this country was first visited by white men1 it seems reasonable that the snowshoe is an invention of the early ,north ,american savages1 and probably was first used many thousands of years ago4 ,the snowshoe is copied from one of ,mother ,nature's many unpatented inventions4 ,she is the inventor of the snowshoe1 for she gave this gift to many of the northern animals1 for instance the marten1 the snowshoe rabbit1 and even the caribou4 ,the marten and the rabbit have large heavily furred feet1 especially large and furry during the winter1 and because these feet cover a large area of snow in proportion to the animals' weight1 they support their owners where animals unprovided with a snowshoe would sink1 and would have great difficulty in traveling4 ,the caribou has a highly split foot of large size2 its spreads gives down under the animal's weight until the dew claws also help in supporting it1 and thus cover so much surface that this big deer can walk on a snow crust that would not carry a man4 ,as a further illustration of nature's use of the snowshoe principle1 compare the foot of a ,canada lynx with that of a bobcat or bay lynx4 ,the former animal1 meant for an existence in the ,north and the high altitudes where deep snows prevail1 has a very large1 furry paw that supports the animal wonderfully on the loose snow1 whereas the more southern wildcat1 a very closely related species1 has a foot relatively small and with shorter fur4 ,the snowshoe therefore was merely copied from nature by mankind and no doubt it was a study of the natural animal snowshoe that gave the early-day savage the great idea and set him to work on a scheme by which he could increase the size of his feet in a convenient and practical manner1 and thus be able to walk on the snow instead of wading through it4 ,whatever may have been the style of the first snowshoes or the material used in them1 the first white visitors to the ,american continent found the ,indians using snowshoes with frames of wood1 strung with rawhide1 in fact1 exactly the same as are being used to-day4 ,while the white men may have sought to improve on materials and general form1 it is certain that they could find nothing better or even as good1 for the ,indians' snowshoe was adopted and is being used in its original form to-day where serious use is required4 ,snowshoes are often modified in form for the use of the white people in and near the settlements1 but for the rough1 wild country the ,indians' snowshoes cannot be surpassed1 unless it be in the selection of materials and in workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,bear ,,paw ,,snowshoes4 ,everybody knows that snow is not always of the same nature4 ,the character of the snow depends on weather conditions4 ,cold weather causes it to remain loose and fluffy2 warm days and cold nights settle the snow and form a crust1 while during midday it becomes wet and packy2 wind following a snowstorm makes drifts of more or less solidity4 ,these are all very different conditions of snow and a snowshoe that is perfect in form for one kind of travel or one kind of snow cannot be perfect for another1 although it may answer for all kinds of use4 ,in widely separated districts the prevailing weather conditions may cause one or another condition of snow to predominate the season through1 and as a consequence the proper snowshoes to use in any particular place are the ones adapted to the prevailing snow conditions4 ,likewise the nature of the country with respect to surface and vegetation greatly influence the styles of snowshoes4 ,the sporting goods catalogues show snowshoes of very different forms and proportions1 and the extreme conditions1 not for general use4 ,but the catalogues seldom give any information on this subject that will aid the tyro in selecting snowshoes adapted to his use1 and if uninformed on the subject he is all at sea4 ,long1 narrow snowshoes are used for fast travel in open1 fairly level country4 ,in general1 they are not good on rough ground1 in brushy districts1 or where the snow does not fall to a good depth4 ,if the toes are turned up somewhat and more or less pointed they are better for travel in loose1 powdery snow4 ,but the upturned toes render the shoes worthless for hill climbing1 as the frames will not take a grip on the snow1 while on hard trails or crusted snow1 such as we sometimes find on the frozen lakes1 they make the wearer's feet sore through lack of spring in the frames4 ,the most perfect type of snowshoes for general use is that shown in figure five4 ,it has the average dimensions and proportions1 all extremes being avoided4 ,it measures about #dd inches in length by #ad inches in width at the widest place1 and this is the proper size for the average person and general conditions4 ,a heavy man1 if of average height1 or taller1 can use larger shoes to advantage1 while for a smaller and lighter man slightly smaller snowshoes are better adapted4 ,the toe is round and flat4 ,it slips easily through the brush1 takes a good grip on the hard snow of the hillsides and covers enough snow to keep it up near the surface while the narrow heel cuts down4 ,the tail is short1 which adapts the shoe better for turning in brushy places and reduces liability of breakage when crossing logs4 ,the stringing1 it will be noted1 is heavy and coarse1 which makes the shoe better for damp1 sticky snow4 ,a fine mesh filling is all right where the snow is always in a loose1 dry condition1 but when the snow becomes packy it closes up on the web and makes continuous trouble4 ,the ends are filled with a finer material1 for here the stringing is subject to less strain4 ,illustration3 ,,northern ,,snowshoes4 ,the ,indians of ,canada frequently fill the heel and toe of their snowshoes with fine twine instead of rawhide4 ,this material wears much better than would be expected1 providing the snow is deep and the snags well covered1 as they are up there in winter4 ,but a twine filling is not nearly as good as rawhide and is used only because it is a more convenient material4 ,many kinds of raw skins are used for filling snowshoes1 but there is nothing better than cowhide4 ,horsehide is said to wear very well4 ,calfskin is a good material for stringing light shoes1 for use on broken trails or for women and children4 ,moose and caribou skin are much used in the ,north1 but are not as durable as cowhide4 ,except that the hair is removed from the hide it undergoes no other preparation for snowshoe filling1 no oiling nor tanning being permissible4 ,in the frames also various kinds of wood are used1 this depending partly on the woods obtainable where the snowshoes are made4 ,a tough1 light wood is required4 ,white men usually make use of white ash1 a very good material for the purpose4 ,black ash is also used1 but is a poor wood for snowshoe frames4 ,the ,canadian ,indians use white and yellow birch1 both very good if good judgment is used in selecting the trees4 ,in the far ,northwest snowshoe frames are sometimes made of spruce1 while in the ,west service wood is frequently employed4 ,there are many other woods that will answer very well4 ,in the illustration are shown two patterns of long1 narrow snowshoes4 ,one has a pointed1 upturned toe1 the frame being made in two pieces1 fastened together with rawhide at heel and toe4 ,this style of shoe ,i think originated in ,northwestern ,canada1 anyway it is used there by ,indians and whites alike4 ,snowshoes of this pattern are usually made five feet long and #ab inches wide4 ,the toe curves up seven or eight inches and the length from the toe cords on which the wearer's foot rests to the point of the upturned toe must exceed the length from the ball of his foot to his knee2 if it is not so1 the toe of the snowshoe will strike his knee when he lifts his foot4 ,the other long pattern is a style used in ,alaska and ,yukon4 ,it is so shaped that it gives the maximum of surface covering qualities for a shoe of that length and a practical width4 ,the stringing is very open and is put into the frame by a peculiar system1 quite unlike that used in other snowshoes4 ,this is an excellent snowshoe for fast travel in deep1 loose snow4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,snowshoe ,,of ,,standard ,,shape4 ,very short snowshoes made without tails are known as the bearpaw pattern4 ,i have shown two of these4 ,the one made without crossbars is used by the ,indians of ,washington4 ,it is a very simple1 easily made snowshoe1 and is especially useful in the rough1 brushy ground4 ,it works nicely in the mountains of ,pennsylvania and is probably as good for use in that place as in the ,northwest4 ,the other bearpaw shoe illustrated is a style that originated in the ,adirondack ,mountains4 ,it was designed for the use of the spruce gum hunters1 its short length making it a perfect snowshoe for use in gumming1 walking around trees1 turning and zigzagging here and there4 ,this pattern is one of the best for very brushy ground1 where rocks and fallen trees abound1 and it is the best shape for use in the ,north when the first snows come and the small underbrush1 snags1 rocks and logs are not yet deeply buried4 ,a pair of snowshoes like this may be carried in a packsack if the trapper is making a journey over his line when the first deep snow is due1 and he will not then be caught without snowshoes when a day's journey or two from camp4 ,this has happened to me1 so ,i can now see the importance of carrying a pair of snowshoes at that time4 ,snowshoes of all types have an opening in the forward part of the central section through which the wearer's toes move as he walks4 ,at the rear edge of this opening are the toe cords1 a bunch of five or six strands of rawhide1 and when in use this part is beneath the ball of the foot4 ,a toe-strap passes over the foot at this point4 ,there is always some other form of fastening used1 but this may be anything from the ,indian's hitch of soft caribou skin or lamp wicking to the harness leather fastening of the white man1 which buckles across the instep and above the heel4 ,in all cases the fastening must pass around the foot above the heel1 for it is this strap that supports the weight of the snowshoe as the foot is lifted2 it is moved forward by the toe strap1 and this piece also holds the foot in place on the shoe4 ,the ,indian's method of tying a snowshoe to the foot has some advantages over the white man's harness fastening1 but in other ways it is imperfect4 ,the principal advantage is that the fastening need not be opened for removing the snowshoes or attaching it4 ,i have used snowshoes a week at a time without opening the knot4 ,a simple twist of the foot with bended knee will serve to free the snowshoe from the foot and it is just as easily replaced4 ,but it does not hold the shoe as rigidly with respect to side motion as the strap and buckle adopted by white men generally1 and ,i think it is more likely to cause soreness of the feet4 ,the harness shown is one of the best styles and is easily made and adjusted4 ,for snowshoeing in ,northern districts1 where the weather is cold all through the winter and the snow remains in a loose1 dry condition1 buckskin moccasins are the best footwear4 ,by this ,i mean moccasins of any kind of deerskin1 tanned by the ,indian method4 ,such moccasins are not waterproof1 but that makes little difference1 for the dry snow never makes wet feet4 ,buckskin is soft and light and if the moccasins are large1 plenty of warm1 woolen socks may be worn4 ,for spring wear1 when the snow is more or less damp1 or for use anywhere when the snow is in this condition1 oil tanned moccasins or rubber overshoes may be worn4 ,rubber is somewhat hard on the filling of the snowshoes1 but if this is heavy and of good material it will stand a lot of wear4 ,ordinary rubber shoes should not be worn1 however1 without first removing the heels4 ,when walking the entire snowshoe is never lifted clear of the snow2 the tail always drags4 ,it is easy to learn to use them4 ,i walked #ab miles the first day ,i tried snowshoeing4 ,my greatest trouble was in keeping one shoe clear of the other1 but this is soon learned4 ,there may also be trouble in learning to turn1 especially in brushy places1 and in attempting to cross logs4 ,when crossing a log the foot itself must be placed on the log and the next step must be of sufficient length for the snowshoe to clear it1 or the foot must be turned sideways4 ,to get satisfactory service from a pair of snowshoes necessitates proper care4 ,the wearer should always avoid walking over snags1 or little hummocks1 which are certain indications of objects barely covered and which may injure the web of the shoes4 ,do not step on a place which will support one or both ends of the shoe solidly unless the middle portion is also thus supported1 for if the frames do not break the strain they will be weakened and will sooner or later take on a curved shape4 ,never step down from a high place with all of your weight on the snowshoes1 for the strain on filling and frame is great4 ,snowshoes require care1 not only while in use1 but at other times as well4 ,being strung with rawhide1 this material is very susceptible to heat and moisture4 ,if the shoes are not dried thoroughly after becoming damp or wet the stringing will rot1 while if dried too rapidly the filling becomes brittle and breaks when put to a strain4 ,in camp snowshoes should be suspended from the ceiling by a wire1 for mice will eat the filling if they can reach them4 ,shoes should be watched closely also for worn strands and when a string looks dangerously weak the shoe should be repaired at once4 ,it cannot be expected that after the most exhaustive book study the novice will know enough about snowshoes to discriminate between the ordinary bad and those without fault4 ,but there are points that if kept in mind will aid greatly in selecting snowshoes that will not only be desirable1 but also satisfactory in regard to size1 proportions and pattern4 ,the extreme styles1 as already pointed out1 are not for the use of the beginner1 for his snowshoeing is generally of the regulation kind4 ,the snowshoes which he should buy1 and which he will find in stock with most dealers1 are more or less on the lines of the pattern shown in figure #e4 ,the standard size1 or about #adx#dd inches1 will answer well in nearly all cases4 ,if the country is not too rough and hilly they may have the toes turned up an inch or two1 but otherwise they should be flat1 as shown4 ,it matters little whether the toe be round1 square or quite pointed1 but it should be rather large in area while the heel end should be narrow4 ,the long tail usually found on stock snowshoes is a nuisance and may as a rule be cut off to advantage1 for usually the balance of the snowshoe is improved by so doing4 ,a snowshoe should almost balance when suspended midway between the two cross-bars1 the tail end being just a little the heavier4 ,very few stock snowshoes are so made1 most of them being too heavy in the rear4 ,when buying snowshoes examine the frames with care1 for if they are not made of good1 straight grained wood they are apt to break4 ,the wood should be heaviest at the sides and thinnest at the toe4 ,there must be no knots1 cuts or other defects4 ,sometimes in bending the frames the makers split slivers loose and afterwards glue them down1 so look carefully for such places4 ,the filling should be clear and yellow4 ,it should be of almost equal thickness and there should be no splices close to the frame or in the centre4 ,see that the thongs are thoroughly stretched1 for poorly stretched filling is sure to stretch and sag the first time the shoes are used on damp snow4 ,if the thongs do not run perfectly straight across the shoe1 reject it1 for this is a sure sign of poorly stretched filling4 ,what are sold as first-class snowshoes bring prices ranging roughly from five to ten dollars per pair4 ,good snowshoes cannot be made and sold at less than five dollars1 and if they are large or have much work about them they cannot be made for this price4 ,i do not find any material difference between snowshoes of ,indian make and those made by white men4 ,the very best snowshoes ,i have ever found being made for sale are those made by a friend of mine living in the ,adirondacks4 ,he uses the best of material throughout and the stringing alone used in a pair of his best shoes will cost him as much as the price at which ordinary snowshoes are sold4 ,the best possible snowshoes are not available to many readers of this article unless they have learned to make them1 in which case they can use as much care and as good material as desired4 ,,winter ,,travel ,,in ,,the ,,woods ,what a change comes over the great forests of the ,north when winter reigns and holds all nature in his icy grip4 ,the fleecy mantle of white covers hill and vale1 stream and bush alike1 bending to the ground the lower branches of the spruces and hemlocks1 smoothing over the rough trails of the fall1 and burying the logs1 stumps and underbrush from view until the following spring4 ,the woods through which we traveled with ease and comfort when the ground was bare now has a forbidding appearance and it requires all the nerve we can muster to attempt to penetrate the dense1 snow-laden growth1 where we know that the first step will release a small avalanche of snow upon us4 ,the bended branches and smaller growths of the thickets give a different appearance to the woods and distances seem shorter so that we find it difficult to keep to the old course1 and wise is the trapper or other woods traveler who has blazed out his main trails before the coming of the snow4 ,in this winter woods it would seem that only the wild creatures inhabiting it would be at home and perfectly familiar with the changed surroundings4 ,but the seasoned woodsman does not hesitate to travel the winter trail4 ,if he is a trapper or spruce gummer the winter is his harvest time4 ,he feels little of the storms which in more exposed country would keep one close indoors much of the time4 ,on a still morning the cold may be intense and on all sides will be heard pistol-like reports from the freezing trees1 but if he cannot keep warm by rapid walking1 he treads down a spot of snow1 pulls some loose bark from a white birch tree1 places over it dead branches broken from the trunk of a nearby evergreen and applies a lighted match to the oily birch bark4 ,in a few seconds he has a roaring fire by the side of which he can rest and restore the chilled blood to its normal state4 ,the ,northern frost gives no warning2 it creeps cautiously through the clothing and at once commences to freeze the flesh beneath and at such times a fire cannot be lighted too quickly4 ,one cannot travel the snowy bush in comfort and safety unless he wisely prepares for such travel1 by wearing the proper clothing and carrying with him the most suitable equipment4 ,clothing must be of the correct weight2 just heavy enough to keep the wearer warm while traveling but no heavier1 as bulky clothing is tiresome to one who walks the trails4 ,a long coat is bad for travel2 it clings to the legs and interferes with stepping over logs4 ,the outer clothing should be of a kind to which the snow will not cling1 yet it must be soft4 ,wind proof cloth is not needed1 in fact a medium thick but loosely woven cloth is warmer in the woods than smooth1 closely woven fabrics4 ,the vest or waist coat is seldom worn in the forest1 at least not by woodsmen4 ,woolen clothing1 always1 is the choice4 ,what ,i know on this subject ,i have learned from actual experience1 and we are told that experience is the best teacher1 but we could often save ourselves much discomfort if we would profit by the advice of others4 ,however1 knowledge acquired at the expense of time1 health1 comfort and money is often less costly than ignorance4 ,the clothing and outfits ,i recommend are those ,i have found best for my own use1 but an article is most useful when properly used4 ,i consider the following the best dress for winter wear in the timbered country of the ,north and so dressed a healthy man may travel the wintry woods in comfort4 ,starting with underwear1 ,i advise wearing pure woolen goods1 always1 of medium weight1 and all in one piece4 ,the soft1 fine kind should be chosen4 ,,the ,,winter ,,trail ,wool absorbs the perspiration and is reasonably warm when damp or even wet4 ,it never gets cold and uncomfortable like cotton underwear does1 the nap does not flatten down1 and it keeps the skin warm and induces a healthy circulation of the blood near the surface4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,winter ,,trail4 ,wear woolen socks for the same reasons2 two or three pairs1 as required1 and a pair of heavy knit wool stockings1 knee length1 over them4 ,this is too much for warm weather1 but ,i am talking of clothing for wear when it is cold4 ,the amount of stockings required will depend somewhat on the constitution of the man who wears them2 for one traveler can keep the feet warm with what would not be sufficient for another4 ,do not at anytime wear more socks than necessary1 and wash them frequently1 as it freshens the wool and makes them warmer4 ,a number of pairs of medium weight socks are better than one pair of very heavy ones4 ,they are easier washed1 easier dried and more comfortable4 ,many bushmen wind a strip of woolen blanket about the foot1 and this has the advantage of being cheaper than extra socks4 ,i wear both the socks and the long stockings on the outside of the trousers1 and the stockings should be held by a strap at the top4 ,stretch out the toes of the socks and stockings a little before putting the shoes or moccasins on over them and it will keep them from binding the toes4 ,the only footwear for winter travel when the weather is cold1 especially for snowshoeing1 is the buckskin moccasin4 ,by buckskin ,i mean ,indian tanned moosehide1 deer or caribou skin1 or the white man's asbestol cordovan horsehide1 the latter being the best wearing material1 but not as soft and comfortable as the others4 ,caribou skin moccasins are my preference for snowshoeing1 and ,i like the ,ojibway pattern with pointed toe and cloth top2 they are not as likely to cause sore toes as the ,sioux pattern 7the regular factory made style7 and the cloth top is warm and holds the snowshoe strings better than the buckskin top does4 ,buckskin moccasins are not waterproof1 in fact water will go through them almost as readily as through cloth1 but waterproof qualities are not required in footwear for winter use in the ,north1 as the snow never becomes damp until spring1 and all water1 except the smooth rapids1 is well covered with ice4 ,the only time when the traveler is likely to get wet feet is when snowshoeing over the ice on the lakes2 then after a wind storm there is sure to be water under the snow on the ice4 ,a medium weight gray woolen shirt suits me best for woods wear4 ,trousers may be of almost any kind of strong1 soft woolen material1 and should be roomy1 but fit well at the waist4 ,i prefer to wear a belt rather than suspenders1 but this is immaterial4 ,if the snow clings to the trousers behind the knees1 when snowshoeing1 wear light overalls over them4 ,i have never found anything better in coats than those made of mackinaw cloth1 such as lumbermen wear4 ,i like the plain colors best1 blue black being my choice4 ,all outside pockets should be covered with flaps to keep the snow out4 ,mackinaw is a soft1 warm material and it will turn considerable rain4 ,it has only one objectionable feature--the snow will cling to it1 especially across one's back just above the pack sack1 which the woodsman nearly always has with him2 the warmth coming through the cloth causes it to collect the snow4 ,my choice of head dress is a good grade1 long wool toque which can be drawn down over the forehead and ears4 ,over this ,i sometimes wear a sort of hood made of thin woolen cloth1 which hangs down well over the collar of the coat and ties under the chin4 ,this hood is very desirable1 as it is a great protection from cold and snow4 ,when walking through a snow-laden evergreen bush there is a constant shower of snow being released from the boughs and this hood keeps the falling snow from getting inside of the clothing1 which it surely would do without this protection4 ,it is also a shield against the cold wind when crossing frozen lakes1 where the toque alone would not give sufficient protection4 ,i steer clear of fur caps4 ,they are too warm for walking1 and ,i think it best to have no covering over the face1 as any such arrangement will gather moisture from the breath and cause freezing4 ,unless one is exposed to a severe wind1 holding the mittened hands against the face occasionally will prevent freezing in the coldest weather1 providing we do not have to face the breeze4 ,the hands also need special protection from the cold and much could be written on this subject4 ,i know of nothing better than mittens1 not gloves1 made of heavy woolen cloth1 with a pair of cotton ones drawn over them4 ,they are easier dried than a single pair of heavy ones2 are easily made from old material1 costing nothing1 and are warm4 ,they should be loose enough to pull off quickly1 and the tops should come well up over the wrists inside the coat sleeves4 ,do not buy gauntlet gloves for the woods2 they collect dirt and snow continually4 ,no kind of leather gloves or mittens that ,i have ever worn will keep my hands warm unless they are very heavily lined and then they are stiff1 so ,i prefer the cloth ones4 ,so much for cold weather clothing1 but what shall we wear when the sun commences to travel his northern trail and the grip of ,jack ,frost weakens2 when the snow melts during midday and our clothing seems uncomfortably warm4 ,at such times we can discard the heavy shirt and substitute a lighter one2 leave the overalls in camp and put the hood in the pack or the coat pocket1 and wear fewer socks1 with oil-tanned shoe pacs instead of buckskin moccasins4 ,they are not as good for snowshoeing1 but are waterproof if kept well oiled4 ,rubber shoes wear the filling of the snowshoe badly4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,indian ,,snowshoe ,,hitch4 ,while ,i have been speaking of clothing for wear in the timbered districts of the ,far ,north ,i realize that there are more of those who read this living in a less frosty climate1 but for all of the ,northern ,states this clothing is quite suitable and proper1 with the exception of the hood and moccasins4 ,the former is seldom needed in more open hardwood forest1 and as snowshoes are not used much the shoe pac and rubber shoe are the footwear most often seen4 ,for walking on bare ground or in shallow snow1 both shoes have advantages and faults4 ,the rubbers are heavier than the pacs and more protection to tender feet1 but are more likely to tire the wearer1 especially since rubber clings so fondly to all brush and weeds with which it comes in contact4 ,but the pacs1 while lighter and softer1 will make tender feet sore on the bottoms1 and they slip in snow more than do rubbers4 ,my favorite rubber shoes for outdoor wear are those of ankle height1 fastening with a lace or with strap and buckle4 ,snowshoes can hardly be considered wearing apparel4 ,an ,italian who came over to ,canada1 when cold weather came1 began to inquire about clothing for wear in that climate4 ,when he asked what kind of footwear was best his informant told him that he thought snowshoes were the best when the snow came4 ,having no idea what snowshoes were he went to a store and asked to be shown some1 and he was considerably surprised when he saw what they were4 ,snowshoes1 however1 are a part of the ,northern woodsman's equipment1 and a very necessary part4 ,they are offered in a number of patterns by sporting goods dealers1 and there are other styles made and used that are seldom or never seen in stores4 ,some are good2 others are better1 but each kind is good in some section of the country4 ,it is not my object to go into detail in describing snowshoes1 but ,i feel that ,i must say something about the patterns best adapted for use in the woods4 ,they should be of about the standard shape1 either round or square toe1 as desired2 for the average man1 about #ad by #dh inches in size2 frames of good straight grained wood1 with the crossbars mortised in without weakening the bows4 ,the tail should be fastened with rawhide1 counter-sunk1 and not a screw or rivet2 and the filling throughout should be of good rawhide thoroughly stretched1 rather fine and close in the ends and coarse and open in the centers4 ,the toe should be large and quite broad1 the tail narrow1 and they should balance at a point just a few inches behind the center of the space between the crossbars4 ,with such shoes you can travel fast on loose snow or hard2 they turn easily2 the broad flat toe takes a good grip and makes hill climbing easy1 and it also stays nearly on the surface of the snow while the narrow tail cuts down and as a consequence they lift easily for the next step4 ,if the filling is too close in the center the snow will pack under the foot2 if the toes are too small they cut down and loose snow falls on top1 making them heavy to lift2 if the tail is too heavy it is difficult to turn with them2 if the toe is upturned they slip on a crust or hard trail1 make the feet sore1 and are not good for climbing hills4 ,unless you know just what you are doing it is a good rule to avoid extreme styles4 ,if you are a ,down ,east man you will undoubtedly select some kind of snowshoe boot1 harness1 fastening or whatever you choose to call it4 ,most of these give satisfaction1 but ,i have used the ,indians' method mostly1 the same being a tie or hitch with a piece of five-eighth-inch lamp wick1 about four feet long4 ,the toe strap is separate and is fastened by weaving the ends in and out of the filling at the sides of the toe opening4 ,the way of tying to the foot is shown in the illustration more plainly than ,i can describe it4 ,both strings are tied together above the heel1 and when properly adjusted it is not necessary to untie for putting the shoe on or removing it from the foot2 a simple twist will do it4 ,i have used snowshoes for a week or more without undoing the fastening1 and it is very nice in extreme cold weather to be able to put on or remove shoes without baring the hands4 ,if you are simply traveling through the woods aimlessly1 with no intention of making future use of the trail1 it makes little difference how you go1 but if you are a trapper and are breaking out a trap line you will1 of course1 aim to strike the good places for sets without walking farther than necessary1 and you should make your trail with a view of using it afterwards1 avoiding steep ascents and dense thickets4 ,if possible1 get over your trail the second time before the packed snow hardens and the trail will be smoother4 ,blaze your trail on trees and brush as you go along4 ,i think it best to mark the brush by cutting them half off and bending them away from the trail4 ,if you must mark trees1 mark two sides and then you can follow the marks either way1 and you can also indicate the turns in the path4 ,my objection to marks on trees are that they cannot be seen as plainly as cut brush1 especially after a driving snowstorm1 when the snow clings to the trunks of trees1 and that the drooping1 snow-laden branches often hide the spots just when you need to see them most4 ,a foot of fresh fallen snow may completely obliterate your trail1 but if it is well marked you can follow it still1 and the beaten bottom makes easier traveling1 no difference how much snow has fallen over it4 ,breaking out fresh trails is hard work1 and slow4 ,you can break trail away from camp six hours1 and return over the broken trail in two4 ,in a snowy climate it is advisable1 whenever possible1 to travel each permanent trail at least once in ten days to keep it in good condition2 but the trapper will want to get over the ground oftener than that anyway4 ,as snowshoes are costly and their life depends much on the care they receive ,i will give some rules covering this point that is always well to observe4 ,in breaking out a fresh trail avoid snags which show through the snow or little protuberances which indicate snags beneath the surface2 also beware of places where the snow appears to be held up by brush or sticks beneath4 ,i once broke a new snowshoe frame by stepping into a concealed hole2 the whole trail dropped down and my snowshoe caught on a snag of a nearby stump1 breaking a section out of the frame4 ,it is the stringing1 however1 that is usually cut out by the snags4 ,be careful also when crossing logs to see that the shoes are not supported solidly at the ends while the middle is free to go down2 such treatment will either break the frames or bend and strain them1 and if they assume a curved shape they are unsightly and tiring to the feet1 also hard to use in hill climbing4 ,i always like to get started on the trail as early in the morning as possible1 so that ,i can travel a few miles before daylight1 and ,i camp early in the evening so ,i can get wood and make a comfortable camp before dark4 ,in the early spring1 when the snow melts during the day and clings to the snowshoes the only time one can travel is in the morning until about ten o'clock1 and late in the evening4 ,at night1 if the moon shines1 one can make good time1 but through the day is the best time for resting at this season4 ,when the snow sticks1 the snowshoes get wet and heavy and damp snow packs on top and clings to them1 and when these troubles come it is best to cut wood1 build a good fire and camp by it until evening4 ,stand the snowshoes up in the snow where the sunshine and the warm wind will dry them1 make some tea and eat your lunch1 then roll into your blanket and rest until the sun gets low1 when you can resume your journey4 ,it is difficult traveling1 at the best1 and the strength of the traveler is heavily taxed4 ,always he has the heavy pack and the snowshoe trail seems endless4 ,the home camp is ever a welcome sight4 ,it means greater comfort and usually a day of rest to wash and mend the clothing1 and admire the drying furs1 the harvest of the traps4 ,there are days of awful cold1 and the deep1 loose snow seems almost too much to endure2 yet with all the hardships and privations there is an unexplainable fascination connected with the free1 wild life in the woods and in tramping the winter trail4 ,,traveling ,,in ,,the ,,pathless ,,woods ,,part ,i4 ,everybody admires the man who can travel in the woods without getting lost4 ,such a man always commands respect among his less accomplished associates4 ,the sportsman never ceases to wonder at the ability of his guide to find his way unfailingly through the dense bush1 and the white guide also admires and wonders at the ,indian's accomplishments in the same line4 ,to the uninitiated the feats of the woodsman seem like a sixth sense--instinct1 they call it4 ,but it is not instinct1 but simply the application of knowledge which comes to those who are forced by circumstances to be observing in such matters4 ,the man who can take an outfit on his back and travel a month in the wilderness1 living without a particle of aid from his fellow men1 is a woodsman1 and he possesses a knowledge of woodcraft which would make a better world if it could be imparted to all mankind4 ,i was born and grew to manhood in one of the wildest and roughest districts of ,pennsylvania4 ,northeast from my home ,i could travel #cj miles without seeing a human habitation1 and northward the wild1 uninhabited mountains reached a like distance1 broken at one place only by a narrow valley in which there were a few small farms4 ,little by little ,i learned to know these mountains and the narrow valleys between4 ,there was not a stream within #aj or #ae miles where ,i had not fished for trout and trapped for mink and 'coons1 and ,i had hunted every swamp and red brush flat for deer1 bears and grouse4 ,i knew every place where blueberries grew in sufficient numbers to make the gathering profitable1 and often ,i wandered long distances merely for the pleasure of mountain travel4 ,i soon got the reputation of being an accomplished woodsman1 an honor which ,i did not deserve1 for ,i knew nothing whatever about travel in real wilderness4 ,the long mountains paralleling one another made it easy to get about without losing the sense of direction1 and ,i kept my compass points merely by familiarity with the ground on which ,i traveled4 ,when at the age of #bc ,i went into the wilderness of ,canada1 ,i was up against an entirely different proposition4 ,before me were hundreds of miles of unbroken bush1 spotted with lakes that at first looked all alike to me1 and cut by small streams which flowed about from lake to lake in the most haphazard fashion imaginable4 ,i had never traveled with the sun as a guide and knew nothing regarding the use of a compass1 both of which are essential for wilderness travel4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,compass ,,of ,a ,,practical ,,type4 ,my first move was to file on a piece of government land4 ,the land guide helped to locate me and while we were looking about ,i saw him look at his compass1 then he remarked that it was just noon and we would make some tea4 ,i was surprised to see him get the time of day from a compass and asked him how he knew it was noon4 ,because the sun is directly south1 he answered1 and it is in that position only at noon4 ,and then he explained to me how a compass could be used as a watch1 with fair accuracy1 and how a watch could be made to answer very well as a compass4 ,the woodsman told me that ,i could not travel in that country without a compass1 and ,i soon found that such was the case4 ,i borrowed a compass from a friend1 a small1 slip-cover instrument with a stop to hold the needle stationary when not in use4 ,but ,i found that the slip-cover was inconvenient2 dust got in at the stop opening and hampered the movement of the needle2 and finally the compass slipped through a hole in my pocket and was lost4 ,by these experiences ,i learned that the most practical form of compass for a woodsman was an open-face1 watch-shaped instrument1 without a stop1 and with a ring by which it could be fastened to the coat or vest like a watch4 ,such an instrument does not have the long life of the finer stop compass1 but it costs only a dollar or thereabouts1 and after a year or two of use can be thrown away and a new one purchased4 ,of course1 if a stop compass can be found that has no outside opening to admit dust it is better still4 ,an ,indian seldom carries a compass1 but he travels mainly by the lay of the land4 ,he learns the country just as ,i learned the mountains of ,pennsylvania1 and as a rule he has little idea of direction4 ,sometimes he travels by sun1 in fact the sun answers for both watch and compass4 ,but when the sun is invisible and the ground unfamiliar he sometimes meets with trouble and loses his wigwam4 ,but he is much less apt to get lost than a white man1 under similar conditions1 for when he loses his bearings he doesn't lose his head1 in fact he doesn't consider it a serious matter at all4 ,he simply makes camp and the next day he travels on until he rights himself again4 ,the ,indian also1 when forced to it1 uses means of getting his bearings which only ,indians and veteran woodsmen know how to use4 ,for my own part ,i travel mostly by the sun when on strange ground1 verifying my directions occasionally by reference to the compass4 ,i also study landmarks and make use of them constantly1 for to travel by compass alone is slow and difficult4 ,comparatively few people who have never used a compass know how the instrument works2 indeed1 ,i once knew a man who thought that the needle pointed towards home when the owner lost his bearings4 ,but it doesn't do any such thing unless by chance the home lies north4 ,on the peninsula of ,boothia ,felix1 which juts into the ,arctic ,sea northwest of ,hudson's ,bay1 is the magnetic north pole1 and the needle of the compass1 when free to revolve1 points to this particular part of the earth4 ,it does not point directly towards the magnetic pole in all parts of the world1 for the magnetic currents which converge there do not flow in straight lines4 ,in fact1 there is an area in ,asia1 where the compass needle is deflected and points to a smaller local magnetic pole4 ,but for bush travel all that is necessary is to consider that the blue end of the compass needle points north1 and to call this point north always1 the opposite direction1 of course1 being south4 ,perhaps ,i should not say that the needle always points north1 for it may lose its magnetism with age or the pivot on which it swings may become dulled1 or again the needle may be deflected by a metal object being brought too near4 ,if the needle behaves queerly1 maybe you are holding it too near your gun1 or some metal object in your belt or pocket may be attracting it4 ,all objects of iron or steel become magnetized to a certain extent and will attract the needle if brought too near4 ,but aside from such outside influence1 and that of wear1 the compass is a perfectly reliable instrument4 ,sometimes it tells us that the sun rises in the northwest1 in which case we should believe it without question1 for if we go contrary to the teachings of the instrument we will find that #ii times out of #ajj the compass is right and we are dead wrong4 ,one of the greatest mistakes a man can make when he gets turned around in the big timber is to doubt his compass1 but many people will take a chance on their very unreliable instinct rather than to trust a perfectly trustworthy instrument which was brought into the woods to serve them on just such occasions4 ,but one need never be in doubt1 for if the needle swings freely and settles down in the same position each time1 he may be sure that the instrument is all right4 ,by referring to the drawing1 which shows a very common type of compass1 it will be noted that the dial is graduated in degrees1 on its outer edge1 with the principal points marked with letters4 ,these letters mean north1 east1 south1 west1 northeast1 southeast1 etc4 ,to make the compass work perfectly it must be held level and steady until the needle stops swinging1 then the compass can be turned easily1 so that the blue end of the needle stands over the letter ,n4 ,when this is done all the points of the compass are shown4 ,the only way a compass can be used is to show these directions1 and1 of course1 the user should know which way he wants to go4 ,usually a man in the woods knows some familiar landmark2 it may be a stream1 a lake1 a mountain1 or even the railroad which he left when he entered the woods1 and he will know whether he is north1 south1 east or west of this landmark1 so there is little excuse for getting completely lost4 ,but if he is so hopelessly muddled that he doesn't know for the life of him whether he is in the ,grand ,canyon or a ,canadian swamp the compass will not help him very much4 ,if he is traveling north of his landmark he can return to it by going south1 and the compass will tell him quickly which direction is south4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,route ,,traveled ,,by ,,compass4 ,suppose you have made a camp in the wilds and have set out to explore the surrounding country4 ,for the sake of illustration ,i have drawn a map of some of my old-time hunting ground1 showing the location of one of my camps4 ,the first move would be to learn the country in the immediate vicinity of camp4 ,the stream by the side of the camp flows east and this would be the first with which to get acquainted4 ,a trip along the stream both ways from camp will serve to familiarize one with the stream and nearby country1 so that he would have a good landmark1 and he could hardly cross this stream knowing that it was the same one which flows by the camp4 ,he would also know1 if he were to reach this creek1 whether the camp lay up stream or down4 ,this then would serve as a base from which to operate4 ,we will say now that he wishes to see some of the country north and northwest of camp4 ,he sees in the distance a high hill with a peculiar bunch of trees on its summit4 ,by referring to the compass he finds that the position of this hill is a little east of north4 ,then facing in that direction he notes that the sun is behind his right shoulder1 for it is morning and the sun is in the southeast4 ,replacing the compass in his pocket he starts toward the tree-crowned hill which he has chosen as an objective point4 ,as long as the hill is in sight he has clear sailing1 but when the forest hides his landmark from view he keeps traveling straight ahead1 maintaining his same position with reference to the sun4 ,but the sun is also moving and he dare not go far without again looking at the compass and noting the changed position of the sun4 ,this1 you will see1 is traveling by landmark1 by compass1 and by sun1 and it will be found a very practical way4 ,but a man cannot travel straight in the average wilderness country1 for nature imposes obstacles4 ,lakes1 swamps1 unfordable streams and other natural obstructions force detours1 all of which must be kept in mind and a general straight course maintained4 ,presuming that in spite of the unavoidable detours the traveler has kept a reasonable straight course and has reached the high hill with its peculiar clump of trees1 he will know now that since his course has been a little east of north his camp must be just that much west of south from this hill4 ,it would be an easy matter for him to retrace his steps to camp if he wished to do so4 ,from the top of the hill the explorer studies the topography of the surrounding country1 and notes the lakes2 the hollows1 which indicate water courses2 the swamp and clump of evergreen bush4 ,perhaps he sketches a map of what he sees1 the details to be added as the country is learned more thoroughly4 ,to the northwest he sees what appears to be a fairly large lake1 and as this looks interesting he sets out in that direction1 traveling as before1 by sun1 compass and marker4 ,sometimes he can pick a mark a half mile distant and at other times he must be content to make use of a dead tree standing a hundred yards or less away4 ,but near or far1 they all serve the same purpose4 ,having reached his objective he finds that what appeared to be a large lake is in reality a chain of small lakes or ponds and he draws them into his map4 ,then he sets out down stream1 noting that it flows in a southwesterly direction1 and occasionally he takes a compass bearing to make sure that this course has not changed4 ,after traveling about a mile he decides to return to camp4 ,by carefully considering the distance traveled in each direction he concludes that he is now about two and a half miles northwest of camp1 therefore he must travel southeast1 so he starts in that direction4 ,when about a quarter of a mile from camp he recognizes the surroundings and changes his course a little at the point marked by the arrow1 and goes straight to camp4 ,in the same way the camper would explore the country for a few miles east1 west and south1 and when he has become reasonably well acquainted with this ground he is ready to push his explorations to greater distance1 knowing that he can without difficulty return to familiar ground1 and then easily find his camp1 for he could not cross the section of country with which he is now familiar without recognizing it4 ,,traveling ,,in ,,the ,,pathless ,,woods ,part ,,ii4 ,to travel in a straight line by compass1 and to keep your bearings regardless of how or where you go1 is easy1 if the rules ,i have given are followed2 but people do not always know these rules1 or for one reason or another they do not observe them4 ,as a result they get lost4 ,what to do in such a case ,i can't tell2 but one thing that should not be done is to get frightened and travel desperately first in one direction1 then in another1 always more or less in circles1 as men do when they wander aimlessly4 ,i am a firm believer in that ounce of prevention adage1 for prevention is better than cure every time4 ,this policy has carried me through hundreds of miles of wilderness without once getting lost4 ,i have never been lost1 although many times ,i have lost my bearings for awhile when traveling in company with somebody who was leading the way1 or when trying to travel in unfamiliar country without using the methods ,i have been describing4 ,i have never gone astray when using a compass1 or when traveling by any of the other ways ,i have mentioned4 ,a short time ago ,i was talking about bush travel with a friend and after he had listened to my chatter for awhile he asked1 ,what would you do if you were to get lost8 ,i wouldn't get lost1 ,i answered1 for the rules ,i have been explaining to you are to prevent that and will always do so if followed4 ,i always follow them4 ,that sounds all right1 he argued1 but you know people do get lost sometimes and ,i want to know what a man should do if he gets lost4 ,you say that you first get acquainted with the country near camp1 then explore farther1 etc41 but here now is something different4 ,i go into the woods to hunt deer1 with a few fellows4 ,we know nothing of the country and are dependent on our guides4 ,they have led us into camp and we scarcely know how we came4 ,well1 the next day1 ,i set out to look for game1 alone1 intending to hunt close to camp4 ,i go first this way and then that way1 looking at the likely places1 and after awhile it dawns on me that ,i don't know which direction to go to reach camp4 ,in other words1 ,i am lost4 ,now what should ,i do8 ,i will confess that the question was too much for me4 ,having never been lost1 ,i had no experience of this kind from which to draw4 ,i recalled stories of people who were lost but couldn't think of anything that would help a lost man find his way4 ,there are many ways to find the compass points1 but when a man doesn't know what direction he wants to travel1 what good is there in knowing which is north and east8 ,i suggested to my friend that a man would surely always have some point in mind with which he was acquainted and would know approximately which direction this place lay4 ,if he does he isn't lost1 he replied4 ,and even if he knows that the railroad runs north and that he is east of it1 the railroad may be fifty or a hundred miles away1 while he may be only a mile or two from camp4 ,the only practical thing ,i could suggest was this3 ,when a man suddenly discovers that he has lost his bearings and doesn't know which way to go to reach camp or familiar ground1 he should above all things avoid getting excited and losing his head4 ,it is not at all a serious matter and if he will keep cool and use judgment he will come out all right4 ,first let him note carefully his surroundings so he will know the place when he sees it again4 ,then he can set out in what seems to be the most probable direction to familiar ground1 but he must travel in a straight line by the method ,i described in the last chapter4 ,after traveling a reasonable distance1 if no familiar ground is reached he should return to the starting point and try another direction4 ,if all this fails1 the various points of the compass having been tried1 he should come back to the starting point and camp there until his friends find him4 ,i am presuming that he has lost his bearings under the conditions named by my friend and that he has companions some where not many miles distant4 ,the campfire may help his friends find him and if he fires his gun it may also do some good4 ,it is a very good plan to agree on some sort of a signal to use in case some member of the party loses his way but ,i know this is seldom done1 for nobody cares to let his friends know that he feels the remotest possibility of getting lost4 ,i never leave camp without having with me a good quantity of matches4 ,i always carry a light ax and if the weather is cold ,i put a blanket in my packsack4 ,thus1 if anything happens to prevent my getting back to camp ,i am reasonably outfitted for camping out a night4 ,in my talk about travel by compass ,i have spoken of keeping direction by the sun and thus doing away to a great extent with frequent reference to the compass4 ,doubtless the reader has been wondering what he should do on days when the sun is invisible4 ,fortunately there are few such days unless it is during a rain when of course very little traveling is done4 ,but there are days when fog or clouds obscure the sun for hours and then travel is slow because one must make frequent reference to the compass4 ,the only safe way is to select some conspicuous object in the line of travel each time a compass bearing is taken and to take a new bearing when this object is reached4 ,a dense fog is the worst possible condition for then not only is the sun invisible but one cannot see far enough to choose objective points4 ,i seldom attempt to travel under such conditions but when ,i do1 if ,i make a half or three-quarters of a mile an hour1 providing ,i have no stream1 lake shore or trail to follow1 ,i consider that ,i am getting along very well4 ,blinding rain or snow storms also make travel very difficult4 ,i have traveled in a heavy snowstorm by making use of the wind as a guide1 in conjunction with the compass4 ,the wind seldom changes during a steady rain or snow storm1 and anyway the compass would apprise the wayfarer of a change in the wind before he had gone far out of his course4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,watch ,,as ,a ,,compass4 ,there are ways of learning the directions without a compass which may be used in case of emergency4 ,first there is the sun4 ,in theory it rises in the east and sets in the west2 but in reality it only behaves so on or very near the equator4 ,as we are in the northern hemisphere the sun is of course south of the east and west line all the time1 and in winter it is farther south than in summer1 because the earth wabbles back and forth throughout the seasons and the northern portion leans away from the path of the sun in winter4 ,as a consequence the sun rises somewhat south of the east in summer and sets a little south of west4 ,in winter it rises still farther south and its path across the sky is always to the south of us4 ,at noon it is straight south4 ,thus it will be seen that if one knows approximately the time of day he can easily figure out the compass points4 ,directions by the sun can be learned with much greater accuracy if one has a watch1 for knowing the time of day exactly he should know just how far the sun is from the zenith at that time and thus easily locate the true south4 ,having found it he has but to face in that direction and the north will then be behind him1 the east on his left and the west on his right side4 ,but there is a much better way of getting the compass directions by means of a watch and it is done in this way4 ,holding the watch so that the hour hand points to a line perpendicular to the sun1 count half way from this hour to twelve and this will be south2 in other words half way between the hour hand and the figure twelve is south4 ,count forward from the hour hand to twelve in the forenoon1 but in the afternoon the south is half way between the hour hand and twelve1 counting back towards twelve4 ,while ,i may not have made my point clear ,i believe that the drawing will convey the idea more distinctly4 ,the time shown is #h p4 m4 and with the hour hand pointed towards the sun1 south would be midway between #h and #ab or in line with the figure #aj4 ,when the sun is invisible and no compass or other ordinary means of locating directions is available it is advisable to stay in camp if possible4 ,but it is well to know means of finding directions under such conditions for one never knows what may happen and a little knowledge along this line can do no harm even if it is never used4 ,we sometimes read or hear from woodsmen of such means and usually they are given as safe and reliable methods4 ,but they should never be taken too seriously4 ,for instance we are told that moss grows only on the north side of trees1 while the larger branches are on the south side4 ,this is true in a general way but conditions have their effect and the shelter of the other trees or nearby hills may reverse the order more or less4 ,but the fact that the sun's rays never directly reach the north side of a tree encourages the growth of moss on that side1 while the almost constant sunshine by day1 on the south side1 causes the sap to flow there more vigorously and thus gives a greater growth to the branches on the south side4 ,in prairie country the prevailing wind1 usually from the north1 will give a permanent incline to the grass1 which may help one to locate directions4 ,it is seldom necessary to travel at night unless in the north when the snow is soft during the day and travel is better at night4 ,but then the traveler usually has a snowshoe trail to follow or he will have some other way of keeping his directions4 ,if not he can travel by the north star in the same way that he keeps his bearings by the sun during the day4 ,the difference is that the north star does not move across the sky as does the sun1 and it is always in the north4 ,to find this star first locate the group which constitute what is commonly known as the dipper4 ,the two stars forming the side of the bowl farthest from the handle are in line with the north star and it is above the open side or top of the dipper bowl4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,star ,,that ,,marks ,,the ,,true ,,north4 ,i have remarked that a man traveling without guidance of any kind always moves in a circle and ,i think the readers are all well acquainted with this fact4 ,i don't know why we do so1 but one theory is that one leg is longer than the other and naturally takes a longer step4 ,others think the trouble is caused by one leg being stronger than the other4 ,but whatever the cause it is a fact that a man wandering aimlessly in the woods will in a short time cross his own trail4 ,this fact was never brought home to me so forcibly as one time when ,i tried to travel without a compass on a cloudy day4 ,it was early spring and ,i was traveling on snowshoes1 so there was no danger of getting lost1 for ,i had my trail to follow back to camp4 ,i was trying to travel south and was setting a line of traps4 ,i had traveled quite a distance straight south as ,i supposed when ,i saw before me a fresh snowshoe trail4 ,i thought at once that some ,indian trapper must have invaded my trapping ground4 ,i stepped into the trail and was surprised to find that my snowshoes fitted perfectly into the tracks2 then the truth dawned upon me--,i had been traveling in a circle4 ,feeling very foolish ,i started forward again1 resolved to keep a straight course4 ,i found the place where ,i had made the first turn to the right and here ,i left the trail and started south again4 ,after traveling perhaps a half mile ,i again saw a fresh trail ahead and knew at once that ,i had made another circle4 ,once more ,i attempted to strike a straight course south and ,i traveled the remainder of the way without completing a circle4 ,when the time came to return to camp ,i had just one trap left and ,i set it at the end of the trail in a ravine which led down from a hillside4 ,a few days later when ,i went to look at the traps ,i climbed to the top of the hill where ,i had set the last trap1 a distance of about #ajj yards1 and was very much surprised to see below me the lake on which my camp was situated1 and the cabin itself not more than a mile away4 ,to travel straight by that questionable sense known as instinct is absolutely impossible1 notwithstanding the stories we hear of ,indians1 foresters and others who habitually travel this way4 ,instinct is a very unreliable guide and something more tangible is needed4 ,so when you hear stories of a man who can go anywhere and find his way without failure from one part of the woods to another1 it may be wise to pretend credulity1 but you may be sure that the story teller is either elaborating or his hero has a very thorough knowledge of the woods and a very reliable1 altogether scientific method of keeping his bearings4 ,the surest way to get lost is to try to travel on strange ground without any guidance whatever1 and this is perhaps most easily accomplished by letting some other person lead the way until you have completely lost your bearings4 ,it is a strange fact that few people pay any attention to where they are going if somebody else leads the way and this probably results in more cases of people losing their bearings than all other things combined4 ,i have lost all sense of direction in a very short time by letting some other person lead the way1 and this in a farming community4 ,another easy way to get lost is to follow a game trail1 for in such cases the trail and the probability of sighting the game so interests and completely fill one's thoughts that he seldom gives any thought to directions or distance traveled4 ,to sum up the whole matter of bush travel1 one thing stands out as being of the utmost importance and that is to keep the compass points constantly in mind and at the same time have familiar ground from which to start operations4 ,with these two essentials there will be no worry about getting lost to mar one's pleasure and he can travel anywhere he chooses in the big woods4 ,,packing ,the outfit needed for packing camp equipment is1 for each horse1 a pack saddle1 woolen blankets1 pack cinch1 #ce or #dj feet of one-half inch manila rope1 another rope of the same size1 #bj feet long1 a pair of alforjas1 a pair of hobbles1 and a bell to put on the horse when it is turned out for the night4 ,a pack saddle consists of two crosses of hardwood1 fastened to two flat1 round-end pieces of wood1 and to this is attached breeching1 breast straps and one or two cinches1 with the other necessary strap work4 ,a good pack saddle is strong and well made1 of good materials4 ,the leather is a peculiar kind that will not tighten when tied into knots1 for the cinch adjustments are usually tied instead of fastened with buckles4 ,when selecting a pack saddle be sure that the breeching and breast straps are long enough for any horse on which the saddle may be used1 for the makers frequently try to economize by skimping the rigging1 so that they may sell at a lower price4 ,be sure also that the saddle fits the horse reasonably well1 or it will cause trouble4 ,most of the pack horses used in the mountains are more or less hollow backed1 and the saddle base should not be too long or it will rest on the ends only4 ,on the other hand1 if too short it will not be so stable and will also hurt the horse4 ,the double cinch saddle1 such as shown in the illustration1 is by far the best4 ,alforjas are sacks to hang on the sides of the saddle1 in which to place all of the small articles of the outfit4 ,they are made of very heavy duck1 leather bound1 and have straps or loops of rope with which to suspend them from the saddle forks4 ,the proper size is about #bd inches wide1 #ah inches high1 and when opened out1 nine inches deep4 ,when packing an outfit the horse should be tied and the blanket should be folded and placed on the horse's back4 ,it should not be less than four folds thick and should extend a little ahead and a little behind the saddle base4 ,it must also come down far enough on the sides to form a pad for the alforjas and keep them from rubbing and chafing the animal4 ,the saddle should then be placed on the folded blanket4 ,now1 at this point1 if you want to be kind to the poor horse1 grasp the blanket between the two pieces of the saddle base and pull it up a little1 so that it is loose over the horse's back4 ,this will allow the saddle to settle down under the weight of the pack and not bind1 which it is sure to do if the blanket is not loosened a little as advised4 ,then both cinches should be tightened1 and the breeching and breast straps properly adjusted4 ,the alforjas are then filled with the small articles of the camp equipment and hung on the forks of the saddle4 ,if the packer is at all conscientious1 as he should be1 he will see that each sack is of the same weight and that there are no hard or sharp objects so placed that they will injure the animal4 ,articles which are too big to go into the sacks are then placed on top1 where they will rest firmly and not hurt the horse1 and the blankets and tent are folded and spread over the top of saddle and alforjas4 ,illustration3 ,,double ,,cinch ,,pack ,,saddle4 ,at this stage commences what is generally considered the trick of packing1 tying the pack to the horse4 ,there are many forms of pack hitch in use and any of them may be learned quite easily by an observing person1 nevertheless tying a pack properly can scarcely be done at the first attempt4 ,the most popular of pack ties is what is known as the diamond hitch and all things considered it is probably the best on the list4 ,illustration3 ,,pack ,,ties4 ,to throw the diamond hitch1 proceed as follows3 ,having tied one end of the long rope to the ring of the pack cinch1 go to the near side 7left7 of the horse and throw the cinch over the pack and horse1 then reach under the horse and pick up the cinch4 ,the hooked end of the cinch is now toward you4 ,draw back on the rope until you have all of the slack and pull the rope down on the near side to the hook of the cinch2 double it here and give it a twist1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 then hook the loop to the cinch4 ,now double the free portion of the rope and shove it through under the part marked by the arrow1 from the back1 forming loop ,a1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,now give this loop a twist as shown in ,fig4 #c1 to bring the free portion of the rope down farther towards the near side4 ,next grasp this rope at the place marked by the arrow in ,fig4 #c1 and draw up a part of the free rope forming loop ,b1 as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,all of this time you have been keeping the rope that crosses the pack fairly tight4 ,you now go to the off side and pull loop ,a down over and under the pack1 then come back and put loop ,b under the pack on the near side4 ,this will leave the hitch as in ,fig4 #e and it is ready for tightening4 ,commence first by pulling the rope at ,a1 then at ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g and ,h1 successively4 ,the end of the rope ,h is then tied to the ring in the pack cinch at the off side1 and the diamond hitch is completed4 ,the ropes should all be quite tight1 and if they grow loose after awhile they should be tightened again4 ,illustration3 ,,tying ,a ,,diamond ,,hitch4 ,there is another very simple way of tying a diamond hitch1 which though not quite like the one described in detail1 is the same in principle4 ,it is shown very plainly in the three diagrams reproduced here4 ,as in the first method the rope and cinch are thrown across the pack to the off side and the cinch is picked up from beneath the horse1 then the rope is drawn up and hooked to the cinch1 but the little twist is not put in the rope as in the first method4 ,the free portion of the rope is then thrown across the pack to the off side so that it is parallel with and behind the first rope4 ,then double this rope on the top of the pack and push it under the first rope from the rear1 as shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,now bring this loop back over and push it through again1 as in ,fig4 #i1 forming the small loop ,a4 ,now take the free end of the rope down under the pack on the near side1 back and up at the rear1 through the loop ,a again4 ,this is illustrated in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the free end of the rope then goes down under the pack from the rear on the off side and fastens to the cinch ring4 ,the rope is tightened the same as in the other method4 ,this hitch is as good as the other and is more easily remembered1 although not as easily tied as the one first described4 ,either of these pack ties may be managed easily by one man1 but they are tied more rapidly by two men1 one standing on the off side and the other on the near side1 so that neither need walk around the horse4 ,then there is the additional advantage in that the rope may be drawn up tight and there is no danger that it will slip1 as one or the other of the men can be holding the rope all the time the pack is being tied4 ,in addition to the pack ties described there is another hitch that should be learned as it is useful for securing packages to the pack saddle when alforjas are not used1 also for holding packs to the sides of the saddle while tying the diamond hitch4 ,there are several methods of fixing a sling rope and the mode ,i am going to describe is illustrated in ,fig4 #g4 ,for this purpose the shorter length of rope is brought into use4 ,it is doubled in the middle and looped around the front forks of the pack saddle1 then one-half of the rope is taken to the near side and the other is dropped on the off side4 ,taking either half of the rope1 you allow sufficient slack to hold the pack at the proper height then bring the rope around the rear forks1 then down to the centre of the slack portion1 where it is tied4 ,the pack is then fixed in this loop and the other side is arranged the same way4 ,after both packs are properly slung the ends of the rope are brought up on top and tied together4 ,there are many forms of pack hitches other than those described1 although the diamond hitch is most used and more popular than any of the others4 ,a pack horse should never be overloaded1 and the animal cannot carry as great a load as many people expect4 ,two hundred pounds is the limit for any pack1 and #aej is a more reasonable load4 ,for long journeys the pack1 per horse1 should not weigh this much4 ,a hundred or a #abe is all that should be allotted to any animal4 ,a pack train may consist of any number of pack animals1 and if there are enough riders in the party one man rides between each two pack horses4 ,i mean by that1 one rider goes ahead leading a horse behind him4 ,that horse is followed by another rider1 then another pack horse1 etc4 ,if there are not enough men in the party for this1 two pack animals are placed between two riders4 ,the men may lead the horses if they are inclined to wander from the route1 but ordinarily this is not necessary1 as the animals will keep in line4 ,but if you lead a pack horse do not grow tired of holding the rope and tie it to the horn of the saddle4 ,this is a dangerous practice and may result in serious injury to the one who is so thoughtless1 for the pack horse may become frightened and bolt or may swing around1 wrapping the rope around the rider4 ,pack horses are always more or less troublesome1 and the man who uses them should have a bountiful supply of patience4 ,at night the animals are hobbled1 which means that their front feet are fastened together with hobbles1 so that they cannot travel fast or far4 ,too much dependence should not be placed on these retarders1 for ,western horses soon learn to travel quite rapidly when thus impeded1 and will sometimes set out for home while the master sleeps4 ,a good practice is to picket one or two horses in the best spots of pasture to be found1 and hobble the remaining animals4 ,they are not so likely to leave if this is done1 and if they do1 the picketed horses must remain behind1 which insures at least a mount with which to follow the runaways4 ,also put a bell on each horse1 as this will aid in locating the animals in the morning4 ,horse feed cannot be carried1 and ,western horses seldom get any food except what they can find at night or while they are not in use1 and on the plains or in the mountains where vegetation is scanty they sometimes do not get as much as they require4 ,under such circumstances they should not be loaded too heavily1 or traveled too far in a day1 and it may even be necessary1 on a long journey to take an occasional day of rest to allow the horses to recuperate4 ,illustration3 ,,animal ,,tracks ,,end ,,of ,,woodcraft