,page numbers enclosed by curly braces 7example3 #be7 have been incorporated to facilitate the use of the ,table of ,contents4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,national ,,progress1 ,,including ,,that ,,of ,,morality4 ,g4 ,,gore1 ,l4,l4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,author of ,the ,art of ,scientific ,discovery2 ,the ,principles and ,practice of ,electro-deposition2 ,the ,art of ,electro-metallurgy2 c4 ,illustration ,,nations ,,advance ,,by ,,new ,,knowledge4 ,,williams ,,and ,,norgate1 #ad1 ,,henrietta ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden1 ,,london2 ,,and #bj1 ,,south ,,frederick ,,street1 ,,edinburgh4 #ahhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to the ,president 7the ,rev4 ,n4 ,watson1 ,f4,r4,s471 the ,vice ,presidents1 the ,council and ,members of the ,birmingham ,philosophical ,society1 ,i dedicate the following small treatise1 in appreciation of the fact1 that although only a young ,society1 they have certified in a substantial manner the views persistently advocated by me respecting the ,national importance of ,scientific ,investigation1 and have shown so intelligent an example of devotion to public welfare by establishing a ,fund for the ,endowment of original ,scientific ,research4 ,,george ,,gore4 ,the ,institute of ,scientific ,research1 ,birmingham4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,national ,,progress4 ------ ,,contents4 ------ ,,preface4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,material ,,progress #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,mental ,,and ,,moral ,,progress #hc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,new ,,truth1 ,,and ,,its ,,general ,,relation ,,to ,,human ,,progress #aeg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,original ,,scientific ,,research #agj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,national ,,progress4 ------ ,,new ,,knowledge ,,imparts ,,new ,,power4 ------ ,,preface4 ,as there exists at the present time in this country a considerable degree of uneasiness in the public mind respecting our ability to maintain our position in the race of progress1 and as our future success as a nation depends largely upon science1 it is desirable to call attention to the great public importance of new scientific knowledge1 and to the means of promoting its development4 ,although the illustrations given in this book of the importance of such knowledge to mankind1 constitute but a small fraction of the number which might be adduced1 they are sufficient to show that by the neglect of scientific investigation1 we are sacrificing our welfare as a nation to an enormous extent4 ,the greatest obstacle to the discovery of new knowledge in this country1 lies in a wide spread ignorance of the dependence of human welfare upon scientific research4 ,i propose therefore to show in a brief manner1 that the essential starting-point of human progress1 lies in scientific discovery2 also that new truths are evolved by original research made in accordance with scientific methods2 and to illustrate these statements by examples2 also to point out how such research can be encouraged4 ,the book is divided into four chapters1 viz43 #ast4 ,the ,scientific basis of ,material progress3 #bnd4 ,the ,scientific basis of ,mental and ,moral progress3 #crd4 ,new truth and its relation to ,human progress3 and #dth4 ,the ,promotion of original ,scientific ,research4 ,as the object of the book is only to call attention to the vast importance of new truth1 as as a fundamental source of advance1 and how to promote the discovery of it1 the essay is written as briefly as possible1 and is not offered in any sense as a complete exposition of the subject1 especially the section relating to the ,scientific basis of ,morality4 ,the leading idea of the ,book is that present knowledge only enables us to maintain our present state1 that national progress is the result of new ideas1 and that the chief source of new ideas is original research4#a ,that as advance has its origin in new knowledge2 unless new discoveries are made1 new inventions and improvements must sooner or later cease4 ,another prominent idea is1 that truth is essentially the same in all divisions of knowledge1 and that the mental powers and processes employed in detecting it are the same in all subjects4 ,for reasons stated in the text1 the influence of scientific discovery upon mental and moral progress are treated together4 ,notwithstanding the far greater importance of the mental and moral advantages of new truths1 the book treats chiefly of the pecuniary and material gains to mankind2 mainly because the latter are more easily understood and appreciated1 the chapter however on ,the ,scientific ,basis of ,mental and ,moral progress1 indicates in a very brief and imperfect manner1 the vast importance of new scientific knowledge to mankind1 as a source of mental and moral advancement4 ,the chief object of this book is to disseminate more correct ideas respecting the importance of new positive knowledge1 and the duties of society in relation to it2 and a further object is to assist in maintaining ,birmingham in the front rank of intellectual1 social and moral advance1 in accordance with its motto ,forward4 99 99 99 99 99 #a ,,chapter ,i4 ------ ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,material ,,progress4 ,during the last one hundred years this nation has advanced with unexampled speed4 ,more wealth has been accumulated by ,englishmen since the commencement of the present century1 than in all preceding time since the period of ,julius ,caesar2 one of the causes of this has been the discovery of new truths of science1 and their subservience to useful purposes by means of invention4 ,the great manufacturing success of this country has been largely due to those applications of science1 which have enabled us to utilise our abundant stores of coal and iron-ore1 in steam engines1 machinery1 and a multitude of mechanical1 physical1 and chemical processes2 also to the discovery of electro-magnetism and its application in the electric-telegraph1 etc4 ,and had it not been for these and other adaptations of scientific knowledge1 we should have competed in vain with the cheaper labour and longer days of toil of continental nations4 ,other great causes1 such as our insular position1 suitable climate1 freedom1 #b geographical position1 etc41 etc4 have1 however1 also contributed to the result4 ,commerce also in its turn has done vast things for mankind4 ,the purely scientific knowledge we possess was discovered almost entirely by means of original research1 and to only a small extent by persons engaged in industrial occupations4 ,probably not two per cent4 of all the important discoveries in pure science were made in manufactories2 the scientific experiments which are made in such establishments are usually of the nature of invention1 not of discovery1 and are not often published1 because it is a usual object with men of business to retain as much as possible of the pecuniary benefit of their labours to themselves4 ,whilst it is the object of a business man to monopolise special knowledge2 that of the scientific man is to diffuse it1 in order that all mankind may be benefited and helped to improve4 ,discoveries in science are1 however1 occasionally made by practical men engaged in technical employments4 ,the hydro-electric machine originated in this way1 a man at ,newcastle was attending to a steam boiler1 and found that he received electric shocks when he touched the boiler4 ,this circumstance was investigated by his employer1 ,mr4 ,armstrong1 a scientific man1 and led him to construct the hydro-electric machine4 ,the accumulation of electricity in submarine telegraph cables was first observed at the ,gutta-,percha ,company's works #c ,london4 ,it was noticed on testing a cable by means of a voltaic battery 7the cable being submerged in water7 that discharges of electricity flowed from the cable after the battery was removed2 this circumstance was investigated by ,faraday1 and led to improvements in submarine telegraphy4 ,in each of these instances the same general method as that used by scientific discoverers was however employed1 viz41 new experiments were made 7though not intentionally7 by putting matter and its forces under new conditions1 and new results were observed4 ,nearly all great modern scientific discoveries have been made by teachers of science and others1 who spend a large portion of their lives in experimental investigation1 searching for new truths1 and not by persons who have hit upon them by accident4 ,the greatest discoveries in physics and chemistry in modern times1 were made chiefly by such men as ,newton1 ,cavendish1 ,scheele1 ,priestley1 ,oersted1 ,volta1 ,davy and ,faraday3 all great workers in science4 ,it is either by observing matter and its forces under new conditions or from a new aspect1 that nearly all discoveries are made2 thus ,priestley placed some oxide of mercury in an inverted glass vessel1 and heated it by means of the ,sun's rays and a lens1 and discovered ,oxygen4 ,this substance was nearly discovered by ,eck de ,sulsbach three hundred years before2 he heated six pounds of an amalgam #d of silver and mercury1 and converted the latter metal into a red oxide like cinnabar1 and he remarked1 a spirit is united with the metal1 and what proves it is this1 that this artificial cinnabar submitted to distillation1 disengages that spirit4 ,the spirit was evidently oxygen4 ,some discoveries are made by observing the phenomena of bodies placed under special conditions by those operations of nature over which we have little or no control4 ,all our knowledge of ,astronomy1 and much of that of geology and physiology1 was acquired in this way4 ,nearly all modern discoveries of importance in physics or chemistry require long and difficult investigations to be made in order to completely establish their truth4 ,when ,crookes discovered ,thallium1 he saw the first sign of its existence in a momentary flash of green light in a spectroscope1 but he had to expend upon the subject several years of most difficult labour1 and a considerable sum of money1 in order to prove the correctness of his suspicion that he had discovered a new metal4 ,m4 ,lecocq de ,boisbaudran discovered the metal ,gallium and ,bunsen discovered ,rubidium and ,caesium in a similar manner4 ,discoveries in science1 are usually made1 not by trying to obtain some valuable commercial or technical result1 but by making new1 reliable1 and systematic investigations4 ,by investigating the chemical action of electricity upon saline bodies1 #e ,sir ,humphrey ,davy isolated sodium and magnesium1 which has led to the establishment at ,patricroft near ,manchester1 of the manufactures of those metals4 ,by the abstract researches of ,hofmann and others upon ,coal-tar1 many new compounds were discovered1 and the extremely profitable manufacture of the splendid coal-tar dyes was originated4 ,scientific discovery is the most valuable in its ultimate practical results when it is pursued from a love of truth as the ruling motive1 and any attempt to make it more directly and quickly remunerative by trying to direct it to immediately practical objects1 decreases the importance of its results1 diminishes the spirit of inquiry1 and sooner or later reduces it to the character of invention4 ,the greatest practical realities of this age had their origin in a search after important truths entirely irrespective of what utilities they might lead to4 ,i do not intend by these remarks to imply that any new trades or improvements in manufactures have been or can be effected without the labours of inventors and practical men1 but that there should be a more judicious division of labour3 one man to discover new truths1 another to put them into the form of practical inventions1 and the business man to work them2 because it is proved by experience1 that in nearly all cases these different kinds of labour require men of widely different habits of mind1 and #f that the faculties of discovery1 invention1 and practical working are very rarely united in one man4 ,scientific investigations however1 made in a manufactory1 for the purpose of ascertaining the various sources of loss of materials1 the circumstances which affect the amount or quality of the product2 or made with the object of substituting cheaper or more suitable materials1 or for varying their proportions1 or for many other kindred objects1 have in many cases resulted in great benefit to the manufacturer1 and have formed the basis of successful patents4 ,some of the large brewers1 chemical manufacturers1 candle companies1 and many others1 constantly employ scientific men in this way to examine their materials1 processes and products1 and keep them acquainted with the progress of discovery and invention in relation to their own particular trades4 ,no art or manufacture is so perfect as to be exempt from the influence of discovery and invention1 and no man can produce so perfect an article but that1 by the aid of science1 a better may be produced4 ,science and trade are mutually dependent1 without the assistance of science1 trade would be unable to supply our daily increasing wants1 and without the pecuniary support of trade1 science would languish and decay4 ,as long as arts and manufactures are left to be directed and improved by simple experience1 their progress is extremely slow1 but directly scientific knowledge is successfully applied to them1 they #g bound forward with astonishing speed4 ,look at the art of taking portraits2 for hundreds of years it remained entirely in the hands of oil and water-colour painters with but little progress in rapidity of production1 but directly science was applied to it in the form of photography1 its advance in this respect became amazing4 ,fifty years ago photography was almost unknown1 but immediately ,messrs4 ,daguerre and ,talbot1 in #ahdd1 made known their processes1 the new art began to advance1 and so rapid has been its progress1 that at the present time many thousand persons are employed in its exercise1 and millions of portraits have been taken with an accuracy and at a cost quite beyond the reach of the old method4 ,many persons hardly know the difference between science and art2 a still greater number cannot readily distinguish between a concrete science and a pure one2 and nearly all persons confound discovery with invention4 ,a science may be conveniently defined as a collection of facts and general principles which are to be learned2 an art as a collection of rules which are to be followed3--,art therefore is applied science2 and every art also has a basis in science1 whether that basis has been discovered or not4 ,scientific principles underlie not only manufacturing processes1 but also sculpture1 music1 poetry and painting4 ,discoveries differ also from inventions3 a scientific discovery is a newly found truth in science1 which in the great majority of cases is not in the form of #h applied knowledge4 ,an invention is usually a combination and application to some desired purpose1 of scientific truths which have been previously discovered4 ,when ,oersted first observed a magnetic needle move by means of a current of electricity1 he made a scientific discovery2 but when ,wheatstone and ,cooke applied ,oersted's discovery in their telegraph from ,paddington to ,slough1 they made an invention4 ,the success of the electro-plating process was dependent upon knowledge previously discovered4 ,mr4 ,wright1 a surgeon in ,birmingham1 was led to the invention of the use of cyanide of potassium in electro-plating and gilding1 by reading in ,scheele's ,chemical ,essay 7p4p4 #dje and #djf71 that if after these calces 7i4e41 the cyanides of gold and silver7 have been precipitated1 a sufficient quantity of precipitating liquor be added1 in order to redissolve them1 the solution remains clear in the open air1 and in this state the aerial acid 7i4e41 carbonic acid of the air7 does not reprecipitate the metallic calx4 ,immediately a discovery is effected it is made public1 and is afterwards incorporated in the ordinary text books of science1 ready for the use of inventors2 and in this way such books have become filled with valuable knowledge acquired by researches in past times4 ,all this knowledge 7which has cost millions of pounds and a vast amount of intellect and labour7 has been given by its discoverers freely to the nation4 ,some idea of the number of scientific #i researches which have been made since the year #ahjj1 may be obtained from the fact1 that a mere list of their titles1 with the names of the authors1 occupies eight large quarto volumes1 of about one thousand pages each1 compiled and published at a cost of about ten thousand pounds1 by the ,british ,government and the ,royal ,society4 ,in discovery we search for new phenomena1 their causes and relations2 in invention we seek to produce new effects1 or to produce known effects in an improved manner4 ,the objects of the scientific discoverer are1 new truth and greater accuracy2 whereas those of the inventor1 are increased usefulness and economy of results4 ,the ancients classed inventors with the gods1 because they considered them great benefactors to the human race4 ,discoverers may properly be viewed as priests and prophets of truth1 because they both reveal new knowledge to mankind1 and predict with certainty coming events4 ,a man cannot usually invent an improvement unless he possesses scientific knowledge1 and1 for that knowledge he must in nearly all cases resort to a scientific book or teacher4 ,the great practical value of new scientific knowledge is proved by the fact1 that when scientific discoveries are published1 there are numerous inventors and practical men1 who immediately endeavour to apply them to useful purposes4 ,since the first application of coal-tar to the production of dyes1 every discovery in that #aj branch of chemistry has been closely watched for a similar purpose4 ,a complete account of the growth and development of scientific discoveries and inventions would form an extensive history1 and would include numerous instances of experiments attended by results which1 sooner or later1 affected all mankind4 ,take that of phosphorus1 for example4 ,the first evidence of the existence of that substance was obtained by the ,saracens in the eighth century4 ,achild ,bechil distilled a powdered mixture of charcoal1 clay1 lime1 and dried extract of urine1 and obtained a substance which shone in the dark like a good moon2 that substance was phosphorus4 ,the discovery contained in the results of that little dirty and stinking experiment was the germ or seed of all the subsequent developments and applications of phosphorus4 ,about the year #affi ,bechil's experiment was further developed by ,brandt1 a merchant of ,hamburg1 and the publication of the wonderful properties of the substance produced a great sensation in his fellow-citizens4 ,there was then cried nothing but triumph and victory among the chymists4 ,those good people erected already in their thoughts so many hospitals and poor-houses that no beggar should more molest any man in the streets1 made great legacies1 and pious causes1 and what not else4 ,besides1 the other alchymists did encourage him yet more1 and desisted not to make him believe how this was the same fiery ghost of #aa ,moses that in the beginning moved upon the water1 yea1 his splendid shining face3 the fiery pillar in the desert1 that secret fire of the altar wherewith ,moses burned the golden calf before he strewed it upon the fire and made it potable4 ,the experiment of ,brandt was repeated by ,kunckel before the courts of ,saxony and ,brandenburg1 although it was not a very delicate or agreeable exhibition1 because the anctuous and daubing oyliness was not yet accurately separated from it1 and without doubt it was very stinking4 ,brandt's process was further developed by ,boyle1 and published in the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 in the year #afib-c2 and phosphorus was afterwards obtained in larger quantity and in a purer state by ,hanckwitz1 a chemist in ,southampton ,street1 ,strand1 and sold by him at three pounds sterling per ounce4 ,its price at present is less than three shillings per pound4 ,margraaf1 ,fourcroy1 ,vauquelin1 and ,dr4 ,slare also extended our knowledge of the substance2 ,gahn1 in #agfi1 made the important discovery of phosphorus in bones1 and ,scheele immediately devised the process now in use by our manufacturers for extracting it from that substance4 ,the commencement of the use of phosphorus for the purpose of getting a light occurred about the year #ahjc1 but it was not until the year #ahcc that the invention of phosphorus matches became commercially successful4 ,the use of such matches is now universal1 and it has #ab been estimated that the daily consumption of them in ,great ,britain alone amounts to two hundred and fifty millions1 or more than eight matches per day for each individual in the kingdom4 ,there is nothing on the ,earth so small that it may not produce great things4 ,the most abstract and apparently trivial experiments in original research have in some cases led to inventions and results of national and even world-wide importance4 ,the contractions of a frog's leg in the experiments of ,galvani1 and the movements of a magnetic needle in those of ,oersted1 have already led to the expenditure of hundreds of millions of pounds in laying telegraph wires all over the earth1 and to an immense extension of international intercourse4 ,but the original experiment of ,oersted was not discovered without labour1 it was only arrived at after many years of research4 ,the saying that all great things have had small beginnings1 is true1 not only of electric telegraphs1 but also of the great trade of electro-plating1 and of the magneto-electric machine which is now largely used instead of the voltaic battery4 ,after ,volta had made his small and apparently unimportant experiments on the electricity produced by metals and liquids1 various persons tried the effect of that electricity upon metallic solutions4 ,brugnatelli1 in #ahje1 found that two silver medals became gilded in a solution of gold by passing the electricity through them4 ,mr4 ,henry ,bessemer1 in #ahcd1 coated various #ac lead ornaments with copper by using a solution of copper in a similar manner4 ,and in #ahcf ,mr4 ,de la ,rue found that copies might be taken in copper of engraved copper-plates by the electro-depositing process4 ,faraday discovered magneto-electricity in the year #ahca1 by rotating a disc of copper between the poles of a magnet1 and he has stated that the first successful result he obtained was so small that he could hardly detect it4 ,this simple experiment was the origin of the magneto-electric machine1 and many of these machines are now used for producing the electric light1 and for depositing nickel1 copper1 silver1 and gold1 instead of by the voltaic battery4 ,these1 and other engines1 thermic1 magnetic1 electric1 c1 will probably1 ere long1 be constructed on as large a scale1 and as many in number1 as the present steam engine4 ,the discovery in olden times of the attractive properties of a fragment of iron ore1 was the basis of the invention of the mariner's compass1 which greatly improved navigation1 and led to nearly all the chief maritime discoveries which have since been made4 ,the sciences of magnetism and geometry form the basis of the art of navigation1 and have thus made our great foreign commerce possible4 ,the discovery of magnetism enabled sailing vessels to venture freely out of sight of land1 and to traverse the wide ocean with even greater safety than to sail near the shore4 ,by its means ,columbus crossed the ,atlantic ,ocean and discovered ,america4 ,by its #ad means also1 ,vasco de ,gama sailed round the ,cape of ,good ,hope and discovered a new route to ,india2 and in the year #aejj1 another ,portuguese ,captain1 ,cabral1 was driven across the ,atlantic1 discovered ,brazil1 and was enabled by the aid of the magnet1 to send back a ship to ,lisbon with news of the discovery4 ,by its assistance also ,magellan discovered ,patagonia and the ,south ,pacific ,ocean2 and by the completion of that voyage the ,earth was first circumnavigated and proved to be a globe4 ,the geographical discoveries of the ,portuguese1 made by means of the magnet1 produced great national results2 they profoundly changed the balance of power and wealth among ,european nations1 by changing the direction of navigation and of the great streams of commerce between ,europe and the ,east4 ,they gave a mortal blow to ,italy and the cities of the ,mediterranean1 by transferring ,eastern commerce to ,spain and ,portugal3 and ,egypt ceased to be the greatest route of commerce from ,europe to ,india4 ,a singular contract relating to geographical research was made in the fifteenth century1 between ,king ,alphonso1 of ,portugal1 and ,ferdinand ,gomez1 of ,lisbon1 by which the latter engaged to navigate a ship and explore the coast of ,africa1 and to discover not less than three hundred miles of coast every year1 the measurement to be made from ,sierra ,leone4 #ae ,scientific discovery has in all ages been a most powerful agent of civilization and human progress4 ,the discovery of the black liquid which a solution of nutgalls produces when mixed with green vitriol1 led to the invention of writing ink2 and a knowledge of the properties of ink and paper prepared the way for the invention of printing1 by means of which truth and learning have spread all over the earth4 ,the apparently insignificant property possessed by amber1 of attracting feathers immediately after it has been rubbed1 was known twenty-four hundred years ago1 and afterwards led to the discovery of electricity4 ,in later times1 ,dr4 ,franklin1 by means of a kite1 charged a bottle with lightning1 examined it1 and proved lightning and electricity to be identical4 ,this knowledge1 joined to the further discovery1 that electricity would pass freely through metals1 led to the modern invention of the lightning conductor1 by means of which all our great buildings1 ships1 lighthouses1 arsenals1 and powder magazines are protected from lightning4 ,coming events cast their shadows before them3 the discovery of the instant transmission of electricity along wires by ,stephen ,gray and ,wheeler1 about the year #agbi1 fore-shadowed the invention of the electric telegraph4 ,about the year #ahai1 ,oersted1 a ,danish philosopher1 after fifteen years of study and experiment1 to ascertain the relation of electricity to magnetism1 discovered that if a freely suspended magnetic needle was supported parallel and near to #af a wire1 and an electric current then passed through the wire1 the needle moved and placed itself at right angles to the current4 ,this discovery1 coupled with the previous one of the electric conductivity of metals1 formed the indispensable basis of all our electric telegraphs4 ,original research is very productive of new industries and inventions4 ,the discoveries made by ,volta1 ,faraday1 and many other investigators1 have led to the process of electro-plating1 the use of electric lights for lighthouses1 and for ocean steamships1 and the great system of telegraphs4 ,those of ,davy1 ,wedgwood1 and others1 respecting the action of light upon salts of silver1 have resulted in the modern processes of photography1 which are now in use almost everywhere4 ,the discovery of zinc1 by ,paracelsus1 has been followed by the use of that metal in galvanic batteries1 and the great use of galvanized iron for telegraph wires1 for roofing1 and many other purposes4 ,the discovery of nickel1 by ,cronstedt1 has led to the great modern use of that metal in electro-plating1 and to that of ,german silver in the construction of electro-plated and other articles4 ,the discovery of chlorine1 by ,scheele1 formed the basis of nearly all our modern processes of bleaching cotton and other fabrics4 ,the discovery of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine has led to the use of those substances in blasting rocks and in warfare4 ,the discovery of oxygen1 by ,priestley1 has enabled us to understand and improve in a great number of #ag ways the numerous manufacturing1 agricultural1 and other processes in which that substance operates4 ,priestley made many experiments also on the absorption of gases by water1 and proposed the resulting liquids as beverages2 and those apparently trifling experiments have since expanded into the large manufactures of aerated waters4 ,the discoveries of gutta-percha and india-rubber were indispensible to the great applications of those substances in telegraph cables1 and in a multitude of useful articles4 ,the discovery of chloroform and anaesthetics has led to their use for the purpose of alleviating human suffering4 ,the discovery1 by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 of the decomposition of light by means of a prism1 has led in recent times to the invention of the spectroscope2 to the use of that instrument in the ,bessemer steel process2 to the discovery of a number of new metals1 thallium1 rubidium1 caesium1 indium1 and several others1 and to the most wonderful discovery of the composition of the ,sun and distant heavenly bodies4 ,even the invention of the steam-engine was partly a consequence of previous researches made by scientific discoverers4 ,watt1 himself1 stated in his pamphlet1 entitled ,a plain ,story1 that he could not have perfected his engine had not ,dr4 ,black and others previously discovered what amount of heat was rendered latent by the conversion of water into steam4 ,each mechanical advance in the steam-engine has been preceded by and the result of the #ah discovery of some physical law or property of steam4 ,the first step in the invention of the steam-engine was the experimental research and the discoveries of the properties of steam by ,hooke1 ,boyle1 and ,papin4#b ,had not the steam-engine been developed1 it is clear that railways1 steamships1 machinery1 and all the other numerous uses to which that instrument is now applied1 would have been almost unknown4 ,the introduction of the steam-engine enabled abandoned ,cornish mines to be relieved of water1 and to be worked to much greater depths4 ,the discoveries of nitric acid1 hydrochloric acid1 oil of vitriol1 and washing soda1 by the alchemists and early chemists in their researches1 led to the erection of the numerous great manufactories of those substances which now exist in ,england and in other civilized countries4 ,there is probably not an art1 manufacture1 or process1 which is not largely due to scientific discovery1 and if we trace them back to their source we nearly always find them originate in scientific research4 ,so far has scientific discovery1 and its practical applications to human benefit by invention1 now progressed1 that every one considers this to be1 par excellence1 the scientific age4 ,and as discovery and invention continue to progress with accelerated speed1 we are encouraged to hope1 not only that scientific principles will ultimately be universally recognised as #ai the regulators of all technical industry1 but also as a fundamental basis of morality4#c ,it is true that some processes of manufacture have not been consequences of abstract scientific discovery--that they originally resulted from alterations made in the rudest appliances1 and that they have been directed and improved by the results of simple experience4 ,for ages past we derived the benefit of scientific principles without a knowledge of their existence4 ,we trod in the beaten paths of experience ignorant of the truth that we were acting in unison with fixed and certain laws4 ,numerous arts and processes were in extensive operation long before the principles involved in them were at all understood4 ,the arts of enamelling and of iron smelting were known hundreds of years before we were acquainted with the principles of chemistry4 ,in some rare instances also the recorded results of daily experience in practical matters1 tabulated and studied1 have ultimately led to the discovery of scientific laws2 but all this is merely the making use of our ordinary experience for the advancement of knowledge1 instead of making special experiments for the purpose4 ,many of our processes and manufactures1 those of glass and copper for example1 are of such great antiquity1 it is impossible to ascertain with certainty the special circumstances under which they originated2 but after we have fully considered the ways in which #bj various modern trades and manufactures have first arisen1 we shall come to the conclusion that all manufactures and improvements in manufacturing processes1 must have been first produced by the same general means1 viz41 new observations1 although the special circumstances connected with the origin of each were different4 ,let us consider ,german-silver and its manufacture4 ,that substance is an alloy of copper1 zinc1 and nickel2 it owes its peculiar whiteness or silver-like appearance to the latter metal1 and cannot be made without it2 it is certain1 therefore1 that by whatever means that metal or the alloy was discovered1 the discovery was the origin of the ,german-silver manufacture1 and was essential to all manufactures1 processes1 or appliances in which ,german-silver1 nickel1 or any of its compounds are used4 ,nickel was discovered by ,cronstedt during the year #agea1 and its compounds were chiefly investigated by ,english and foreign chemists4 ,cronstedt found it as a peculiar metal in the mineral called kupfernickel1 whilst chemically examining the properties of that substance4 ,the general method by which he discovered it was careful experiment1 observation1 and study of the properties of matter4 ,it is stated that the ,chinese and other nations made alloys of nickel long before nickel itself was known to be a distinct metal2 they had found1 by experiment1 that when ores of copper and zinc were mixed with a particular kind of mineral and smelted1 #ba a white alloy was obtained2 but this also proves the general statement already made1 that the ,german-silver manufacture was originated by means of new observations4 ,it was by a more skilful1 but similar mode of procedure that ,cronstedt isolated the metal itself1 and thus laid a definite basis of improvements in the manufacture of its alloys4 ,no art is probably more antique1 or remained longer exempt from the influence of science1 than that of match making and obtaining a light4 ,many adult persons can remember the primitive and old-fashioned tinder-box1 which had passed1 with its flint and steel1 from one generation to another without any material improvement4 ,phosphorus1 it is true1 was definitely discovered at least as early as the year #affi1 but it was not applied to match making till about #ahcc4 ,since then the progress of invention has been so rapid that there are now numerous manufactories which produce many millions per day of phosphorus matches2 for instance1 those of ,m4 ,pollak1 at ,vienna1 and of ,m4 ,fuerth1 in ,bohemia1 consume together more than #bj tons of phosphorus annually1 and give employment to about #f1jjj persons1 and as one pound of phosphorus suffices for about one million ,german matches 7or #fjj1jjj ,english ones71 those two makers alone produce the astonishing number of #dd1hjj millions of matches yearly4 ,judging by means of the experience already acquired1 we cannot reasonably expect that #bb discoveries fraught with such momentous consequences as those of magnetism or of galvanism and electro-magnetism1 will be made very often4 ,the progress of scientific discovery is gradual2 we have at present but mere glimpses of the new world of truth which is being revealed to us by means of research2 we are only at the very commencement of a knowledge of the inherent properties of matter and its forces1 and consequently the methods we employ to utilize them are extremely imperfect4 ,matter has a general property of subdividing and transmuting forces2 if we apply one force to a substance or machine1 it produces many effects1 not only those we want1 but those also we do not want2 when we heat a piece of iron1 the heat produces a number of changes1 mechanical1 electric1 magnetic1 and chemical1 and it is partly by means of what is termed the internal resistance of bodies that these effects are produced1 and we know but little of that property4 ,the explosive action in a gas engine produces not only the mechanical force we desire1 but also a quantity of heat we do not want1 and at a cost of a portion of the gas4 ,in a similar manner1 in the steam-engine the largest portion of the heat of the coal is converted into forces which are lost2 a large amount of it is uselessly expended in warming the machine itself and the surrounding atmosphere2 much also is lost by friction4 ,that knowledge is power is an old maxim1 but that new knowledge is new power is a new maxim #bc which scientific discovery has impressed upon us4 ,by means of discoveries we have acquired new powers2 by those of electricity we have acquired the ability of conversing with each other at unlimited distances1 and by means of those in optics we are enabled to analyse the composition1 and perceive some of the physical changes of the most distant heavenly bodies4 ,as our ignorance is probably much greater than our knowledge1 more inventions also1 and extensions of human power1 must ultimately result from discovering new qualities of bodies1 than by applying to useful purposes their already known properties4 ,experience in science has already shown that it is by means of invention based upon new discoveries that the greatest utilities are obtained1 rather than by the exercise of invention upon knowledge acquired long ago4 ,the information obtained by research in former times has been largely exhausted for the purposes of invention by modern inventors1 and what we very greatly require now is new knowledge4 ,experience in science also leads us to believe that the extent of possible discovery is as boundless as ,nature1 and that an immense amount of new knowledge may yet be discovered4 ,every discoverer of repute could supply a copious list of investigations yet to be made4 ,an infinite number of questions in pure science remain to be decided by means of research4 ,is ,electricity decomposible like radiant heat or light8 #bd ,are the elementary substances really compound bodies8 ,are they all compounds of ,hydrogen8 ,are they all decomposed by very high temperatures1 as compound substances are disassociated by less elevated temperatures8 ,under what conditions is ,fluorine isolated8 ,do gases transmit heat by conduction8 ,under what circumstances is ,light converted into ,electricity8 and into ,magnetism8 ,what is the actual size of an atom of ,hydrogen8 ,does ,light 7without heat7 expand bodies8 ,what is the actual molecular arrangement of the atoms of ,hydrogen at #fj ,fahrenheit8 ,what is the cause of the absence of metalloids in the ,sun8 ,what are the properties of ,fluorine8 ,what is the vapour density of ,caesium8 ,under what circumstances is heat wholly converted into mechanical power8 c41 c4 ,all these discoveries when made1 will probably1 sooner or later1 be productive of practical benefits to mankind4 ,nearly every manufacturer in this country is deriving1 from scientific discoveries1 advantages for which there has been little or no payment made to the discoverers4 ,the makers of coal-tar-dyes1 and dyers of wool and silk1 are using ,mitscherlich's discovery of nitro-benzine4 ,manufacturers of picric acid and ,french purple have enjoyed the fruits of the labours of ,dr4 ,stenhouse4 ,makers of chlorate of potash and cyanide of potassium are profiting largely by the discoveries of ,scheele1 ,gay-,lussac1 and others4 ,all the percussion cap makers #be are indebted to ,howard and ,brugnatelli for fulminating silver4 ,railway-contractors1 quarry-proprietors1 and others1 use nitro-glycerine discovered by ,sobrero4 ,iron smelters are benefiting by the discovery of ,bunsen1 that #db per cent4 of the heat of the fuel was lost as combustible gases--these gases are now utilized4 ,telegraphists and electro-platers are also indebted to him for his voltaic battery4 ,the producers of metallic magnesium owe the origin of their process to him as being the first to convert it into wire and make known its great light giving power4 ,multitudes of persons now use his well-known ,bunsen's burner for heating1 cooking1 and other operations4 ,the various telegraph companies1 copper smelters1 and makers of copper telegraph wire1 are using ,dr4 ,matthiessen's discovery of the influence of impurities on the electric conducting power of copper4 ,phosphorus-makers are reaping the reward of the labours of ,gahn and ,scheele4 ,the makers of electro-plate and ,german silver are deriving profits from the labours of ,faraday1 who investigated electrolysis2 of ,gay ,lussac1 who discovered cyanogen2 and of ,cronstedt1 who discovered nickel4 ,makers of ,bessemer steel enjoy advantages derived from the spectrum discoveries of ,kirchoff4 ,iron and copper smelters1 metallurgists in general1 dyers1 calico printers1 bleachers1 brewers1 makers of vinegar1 red lead1 varnishes1 colours1 soaps1 green vitriol1 phosphorus1 oil-of-vitriol1 and many others1 are deriving benefit from the discoveries of ,priestley and #bf ,scheele4 ,physicians and their patients are receiving the reward of the labours of ,soubeiran1 ,liebig1 and ,dumas1 in the discovery of chloroform2 of the researches of ,fourcroy1 ,vauquelin1 ,pelletier1 and others1 in the discovery of quinine2 and of many other chemists who discovered numerous remedial substances4 ,by means of the discoveries of ,oersted and others1 embodied in the telegraph1 manufacturers are enabled to anticipate the state of the markets and of the weather1 and editors are enabled to obtain the earliest news4 ,suppose that ,gay ,lussac1 in #ahae1 had not discovered cyanide of potassium1 and that it had never been discovered1 it is highly probable that the manufacturing returns of ,birmingham and ,sheffield would be much less in amount at the present time than they are1 simply because there is no other known substance with which the electro-plating of base metals with gold and silver can be satisfactorily effected4 ,or suppose that sal-ammoniac1 chloride of zinc1 or other soldering agents had not been discovered1 the extensive and so-called galvanizing process could not have been effected1 because without those substances the iron articles immersed in the melted zinc would not have received an adhesive metallic coating4 ,on the other hand1 science has in various cases rendered obsolete some manufactures and superseded old customs1 comforts and conveniences4 ,we have ceased1 or almost so1 to use tinder-boxes1 snuffers1 #bg sulphur matches1 rush-lights1 tallow candles1 sedan chairs1 stage coaches1 the ancient water-bucket and well1 and even the comparatively modern pump2 coal fires also are gradually being superseded by fires of gas1 and articles formed of solid silver are now being replaced by those of electro-plate2 canals have also to some extent been supplanted by railways4 ,but in all these cases science has supplied us either with something better or more suited to our present wants4 ,the great pecuniary benefits arising from the applications of science are generally reaped in the first instance by the great manufacturers1 agriculturists1 merchants1 and capitalists4 ,countless fortunes have been made by means of processes and manufactures based upon scientific discovery4 ,the pecuniary benefits of calico printing1 bleaching1 dyeing2 of the great manufactures of cotton1 iron1 pottery1 beer1 sugar1 glass1 spirits1 vinegar1 gutta-percha1 india-rubber1 gun cotton1 the numerous metals1 machinery1 electro-plate1 washing soda1 ,german silver1 brass1 phosphorus1 manures1 the common acids1 numerous chemicals1 and a multitude of other substances and articles1 have been extremely great4 ,more than eighteen hundred million pounds of sulphuric acid alone are manufactured in ,europe yearly4 ,the pecuniary advantages of the use of the electric telegraph and railways to merchants1 the gains of capitalists by monies invested in railways1 telegraphs1 steam-ships1 cotton-mills1 gas-works1 #bh iron shipbuilding1 engineering1 and other great applications of science1 have been enormous4 ,the annual gas rental of ,london alone amounts to more than two millions sterling2 and even in ,birmingham the produce of gas is more than twenty-five hundred millions of cubic feet yearly4 ,the amount of capital expended in the construction of railways only in this country1 has been estimated at more than seven hundred millions of pounds1 and the total receipts upon ,british railways has reached forty-three millions per annum4 ,in the year #ahge our railways carried #bjj million tons of goods1 and consumed ten million tons of coal2 the ,great ,northern ,railway alone consumes #e1jjj tons of coal each week4 ,in the year #ahgg there existed in the entire world about #aih1jjj miles of railway1 the whole having been constructed since the year #ahbe4 ,in the year #ahhj six hundred millions of journeys were made by passengers on ,british railways2 and the stock of those railways included #ac1agd locomotives2 #cfi1fid waggons1 #bh1gag passenger carriages1 and #bb1gab other vehicles4 ,the ,london and ,north-,western ,railway ,company alone possessed1 in the year #ahgc1 no less than #a1ijj locomotive engines1 each of a value of nearly two thousand pounds2 #d1jjj carriages and #cf1jjj waggons2 and it has been estimated by competent authorities1 that there are in the world #bjj1jjj steam-engines1 having a total power of twelve million horses1 or #ajj million men4 ,the number of cotton spindles on the whole ,earth is #bi estimated at about #gaa_/d millions4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america there are about five thousand telegraph stations1 and #ge1jjj miles of line1 which transmit yearly about #aa1ejj1jjj messages4--,the telegrams of ,great ,britain number about one-fourth of a million per week4 ,the world's telegrams during the year #ahgg numbered nearly #acj millions2 and the world's letters about #c1cjj millions1 or #ia_/d millions each day4 ,even the little phosphorus match is being manufactured and consumed at a rate estimated at more than ten thousand millions daily4 ,much of the wealth of this country1 resulting from science1 has been very easily obtained by its possessors4 ,that acquired by means of our coal has especially been obtained without commensurate effort4 ,the amount of that substance raised in ,great ,britain during the year #ahgf was #gcd millions of tons4 ,to draw upon a great stock of that mineral is like drawing money from a bank1 because coal1 unlike any other abundant substance 7except wood and petroline71 contains in itself an immense store of energy1 which is evolved as heat during combustion1 and may be utilized4 ,each piece of coal contains sufficient energy to lift its own weight twenty-three hundred miles1 but it costs only a small proportion of that power to extract and raise it from the mine4 ,i do not mean by these remarks to imply that the wealth accruing from this great store of power in coal is derived chiefly by the owners of coal mines4 #cj ,this acquisition of wealth without commensurate sacrifice is not an unqualified advantage2 it constitutes a debt to nature1 which upon the great principle of causation1 and of equivalency of action and reaction1 must sooner or later be repaid4 ,judging from the infallibility of the action of those laws1 and the signs of the times1 this nation is now beginning to repay in the form of emigration of trade to other lands1 and of relatively less rapid national advance1 the debt incurred by undue pecuniary success4 ,an excess of money or power obtained without equivalent effort1 fails to properly develop the intelligence of its possessors1 and nations have been hastened to ruin in this way4 ,our great success in getting money has attracted many from the pursuit of knowledge1 and our love of knowledge has not increased as fast as our wealth4 ,the wealth of the upper classes has1 by decoying from study undisciplined young men at our old ,universities1 kept down the general standard of scientific instruction throughout the country1 and1 by leading to neglect of scientific research1 is now retarding our progress in arts1 manufactures1 commerce1 and civilization4 ,the consequent relative poverty of the working classes is also producing similar effects by retarding education1 and contributing towards the great deficiency of skilled labour1 of which our inventors1 manufacturers1 and others so strongly complain in the working of their scientific processes4 ,had a just share of the great amount of money1 gained by the application of science to useful #ca purposes1 been applied to the payment and maintenance of scientific discoverers and inventors1 as it should have been1 the general standard of scientific education would have been higher1 the poor would have had more employment and money1 and the happiness and civilization of all would have been greater4 ,in a usual way the greatest pecuniary benefits1 arising from science1 sooner or later go to enrich the possessors of land4 ,the demand created for coal1 iron1 lime1 building-stone1 and all the metals1 by the industrial applications of science1 has greatly increased the value of land under which those substances lie4 ,the value of cultivated land has been everywhere increased by the discoveries of agricultural chemistry4 ,land has also been required for railways in nearly all parts of the kingdom1 and has thereby been considerably raised in value4 ,discoveries produce inventions1 inventions give rise to processes and manufactures1 the employment of workmen and others1 and the erection of workshops and dwellings1 and these have rapidly increased the value of building ground4 ,in ,lancashire the value of such ground has been greatly increased by the inventions of the steam-engine and machinery1 the discovery of chlorine1 and their application to cotton manufacture4 ,in all the great manufacturing districts1 and in all the chief centres of industry1 a similar result has occurred4 ,wherever a railway has been constructed1 the value of land has also increased in #cb consequence of the increased facilities of communication4 ,all these great additions to the value of land are largely due to the unpaid labours of scientific discoverers1 and it may be said that this nation has largely gained its wealth1 and is still living in a great degree on the products of those labours4 ,those great additions to the value of land are also permanent1 are continually increasing1 and are largely independent of any exertions on the part of the owners4 ,that many other influences1 besides that of science1 have contributed to the development of our manufacturing and commercial prosperity is also true1 but it would be foreign to the subject of the present chapter to point them out4 ,it is a fallacious argument to say that scientific discovery and increased value of land are only remotely connected together1 a cause as certainly produces its effect1 however many connections lie between them1 provided the connections are certain--the number of links in a chain makes no difference in the transmission of motion from one end of it to the other4 ,great causes are frequently distant and wide-spread in their effects4 ,persons in general can easily understand that an acorn planted in the ground will in the course of time become an oak1 because it is a palpable and visible effect2 but they cannot so readily perceive that the benefits resulting from a knowledge of science ramify through all our manufacturing1 artistic1 and commercial occupations1 our social and moral #cc relations1 and our every-day life1 not because the dependence of our welfare upon science is less real1 but partly because the connection between the two is less understood4 ,not only has science benefited manufacturers1 but also operatives1 because the extension of science to manufacturing purposes has compelled them to make themselves acquainted with intellectual subjects4 ,instead of remaining mere machines1 mechanically performing the work set before them1 they are obliged to exercise the faculties of observation and judgment in watching the results and directing the action of mechanical1 physical1 and chemical powers4 ,instead of following the blind path of experience1 using unknown forces to accomplish some definite result1 they pursue their labours with the aid of known and certain laws4 ,it is true that in many cases artisans who have acquired a little knowledge of science have thereby been rendered conceited and unfit for their special employment1 and this has made many manufacturers object to technical scientific education for their servants2 but this would not be so much the case if scientific knowledge were more generally and equally diffused4 ,arguments are not unfrequently adduced to support the opinion that ignorance has its advantages2 but1 however great the advantages of ignorance may be1 those of knowledge are greater4 ,in consequence of the labours of scientific discoverers and inventors1 the progress of science is #cd such that in a very few years a knowledge of it will be indispensible to all persons engaged in superintending or carrying out manufacturing operations1 and in all arts1 occupations and appointments in which man is dealing with matter4 ,science is fast penetrating into all our manufactures and occupations1 and those who are unscientific will have much less employment and will be left behind in the race of life4 ,england also will be compelled1 by the necessities of human progress and the advance of foreign intellect1 to determine and recognize the proper value of scientific research as a basis of progress4 ,national superiority can only be maintained by being first in the race1 and not by buying inventions of other nations4 ,the philosophy of matter is the foundation of all manufacturing arts and artistic processes2 technical education1 or the relation of science to manufactures1 c41 can only be properly imparted upon the basis of a sufficient knowledge of theoretical science4 ,science tends to abbreviate mental and bodily labour4 ,the use of our reason saves us the labour of using our senses1 because it enables us to know that under certain conditions a certain effect must occur4 ,the use of our reason and senses also saves us using our hands4 ,the properties of a single substance are so numerous that if a workman was to thoroughly study the whole of them1 he would become a scientific authority in the subjects of heat1 light1 electricity1 #ce magnetism1 and chemistry4 ,a blacksmith who knew all the physical and chemical properties and relations of iron and steel would be quite a scientific philosopher4 ,no man has more occasion to bless the introduction of the steam-engine1 machinery1 the galvanic battery1 and science in general1 than the working mechanic1 because it has mitigated his physical toil by giving him the duty of simply directing the labour instead of actually performing it2 whilst it has deprived him of one kind of employment it has provided him with something better4 ,but a few years ago the operatives in the silver-plating trade had to lay the silver on the articles with their hands1 with the aid of a soldering iron2 now they have simply to set their batteries in action and watch the electricity doing it for them4 ,in a similar manner the working engineer at his metal-turning lathe has merely to direct the action of his tools whilst the steam-engine performs the heavy labour of turning4 ,there is not a man in this kingdom who has not derived some advantage1 in one way or another1 from scientific research4 ,the advantages of gas light1 electric light1 rapid postal service and transmission of goods1 railway travelling1 steam-ships for navigation1 cotton apparel1 photography1 cheap pottery1 improved medicine and surgery1 telegraphic forecasts of weather1 ,australian preserved meats1 c41 c41 have been reaped more or less by everyone1 even the very paupers4 ,not only has travelling been #cf considerably cheapened and immensely increased1 but also rendered more safe3--in travelling by diligence in ,france the average number of persons injured was #a to every #cj1jjj carried2 and killed1 #a in every #cce1jjj2 but by railway1 notwithstanding the average length of the journey has greatly increased1 the former has been diminished to #a in #ehj1jjj1 and the latter to one in five millions2 safety in travelling by sea has also been greatly increased by means of improved lighthouses4 ,by the rapid transmission of messages by telegraphs and of commodities by steam-ships and railways1 the horrors of famine have been largely diminished2 the health of this nation has also been improved by greater variety of foods1 and the increasing cost of meat has been restrained4 ,it is well known that in periods of famine1 the great loss of life has arisen1 not from universal scarcity of food1 but from the loss of time in ordering and conveying it4 ,whilst also the steam-engine has been the means of relieving hundreds of thousands of men from mere animal toil2 it has1 with the aid of the printing-press1 supplied them with cheap daily intelligence4 ,science has also proved itself to be a great source of employment1 as well as wealth4 ,by developing new processes it has given employment to whole armies of workmen in numerous arts1 manufactures1 and occupations4 ,some of those employments necessitating scientific training4 ,about #cjj1jjj persons are employed on railways alone in ,great #cg ,britain1 besides those who were engaged in their construction2 and in the postal department alone of the telegraph service of this country more than fifteen thousand operatives are employed4 ,chemical works also find employment for twenty-six thousand1 and gasworks for ten thousand work people4 ,the telegraphs of the ,united ,states of ,america alone1 provide employment for about #g1jjj persons2 and the railways of the world employ about #a1ijj1jjj men4 ,it may be objected that the extension of science in this country1 instead of increasing employment for workmen has produced an opposite effect1 by so increasing the production of goods by machinery1 and by physical and chemical processes1 that we have glutted the markets of the world in years gone by1 and are now suffering the results of over-production4 ,this is a very limited view of the case2 over-production is only true of particular manufactures1 and is a result of ill-directed commercial energy1 to which manufacturing skill is only a servant4 ,the objection also contains its own reply2--that it is certainly much greater to our advantage to have supplied other nations with manufactured commodities1 than that other nations should have supplied us1 as they would have done had they the manufacturing skill4 ,at present1 however1 continental nations are gradually supplanting us in manufactures2 and gradually supplying us with the goods which we #ch formerly supplied them1 and our fear is that this is largely a result of our neglect of science4 ,in many cases instead of superseding labour1 science has changed its kind1 or its mode of distribution2--in the case of steam-ships1 instead of navigation being conducted entirely by nautical ability1 it is partly effected by the skill of the engineer2 conveyance of goods by road and canal has not been entirely supplanted1 but partly supplemented by conveyance by railways4 ,the diminution of labour which sometimes occurs in consequence of the progress of science is extremely small compared with its increase4 ,the number of waggoners and horses now employed1 merely to collect and deliver all the goods for railways1 is actually much greater than the whole of those employed for conveying all the goods of the country before railways were constructed4 ,it would be altogether a false argument to say that the practical benefits derived from the labour of scientific discoverers by the different classes of the community are uncertain or imaginary1 because the discoveries and the practical benefits are not in all cases immediately connected4 ,we know that the consumers of tea in this country derive benefit from the grower of that herb in ,china through the hands of a series of intervening agents1 as certainly as if they received the tea direct from his hands4 ,cause and effect are inseparable1 and the remote effect of a #ci series of connected causes is not less certain than the immediate ones4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that of the multitude of rich manufacturers1 merchants1 capitalists1 and land-owners in this country1 who have derived such great pecuniary benefits from original scientific research1 there is scarcely one who has ever given to a scientific society1 institution1 or investigator1 a single thousand pounds for the aid of pure research in experimental physics or chemistry2#d the nearest approach to exceptions are a very few wealthy persons who have devoted themselves personally to scientific discovery4 ,manufacturers have willingly reaped the advantages of the labours of unpaid discoverers1 but have not adequately sowed the means of future progress4 ,many of those manufacturers and others would1 however1 willingly give money towards such an object if they understood the value and the necessity of scientific research4 ,whilst also many millions of pounds are annually expended in this country upon religious1 philanthropic and other good objects1 there is scarcely a scientific society or institution 7with the exception of the ,royal ,society and the ,british ,association7 which expends even the small sum of five hundred pounds a year on pure experimental research in physics or #dj chemistry4 ,in the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 the average annual expenses relating to experimental research1 including salaries to assistants for research in the laboratory1 from the year #ahfg to #ahga1 did not amount to two hundred and fifty pounds4 ,on the other hand1 the total net receipts of the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society alone1 amount to about ,l#bac1jjj a year4 ,these circumstances strongly indicate extreme ignorance of the value and necessity of new scientific knowledge1 and an equally strong desire to aid any good object which is understood4 ,the money given to charitable and religious objects is largely a result of the unpaid labours of scientific investigators in the manner already described4 ,the fact that verifiable truth is seriously neglected1 whilst millions of pounds are annually devoted in this country to the support of dogmas and doctrines1 proves that the ,english nation is even now in a very imperfectly civilized state4 ,considering the multiplicity and variety of philanthropic institutions and bequests in this country1 and the great effect original scientific research has in ameliorating the condition of mankind1 and reducing the amount of human misery1 it is surprising that no wealthy philanthropic individual has bequeathed funds for the endowment of an institution for pure research in physics or chemistry4#e ,in #da ,america1 the ,smithsonian ,institution was founded at ,washington by benevolent and patriotic persons1#f for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men1 and one of the objects of that institution is to enlarge the existing stock of knowledge by the addition of new truths1 and a portion of its plan is to stimulate men of talent to make original researches by offering suitable rewards for memoirs containing new truths1 and to appropriate annually a portion of the income for particular researches4 ,what is the reason that scientific research is not sufficiently encouraged in ,england8 ,it is chiefly ignorance4 ,there are very few good and important subjects1 understood by the public1 which are not in this country greatly assisted1 nor many valuable public servants1 whose labours are understood1 who do not receive liberal payment and reward2 and scientific research and discoverers therefore are neglected1 not wilfully1 nor because persons are unwilling to encourage good objects1 but because scientific discovery and its great value to the nation are so little known4 ,scarcely a member of our legislature1 or of our ,universities1 is fully acquainted with the national importance of scientific discovery1#g and it #db would probably be impossible to find a subject of such great magnitude so little understood4 ,comparatively few persons have clear ideas of the essential differences between scientific instruction and research4 ,scientific research can only be successfully pursued by employing the highest motive--viz41 a love of truth in preference to all things2 and this is a condition which very few persons really understand1 and a principle which a still smaller number practise4 ,men in this country are so accustomed to be actuated by the less noble motive of immediate self-interest or of some apparent practical result1 that they cannot perceive that in scientific investigation the most valuable results can only be obtained by employing the highest motive4 ,however necessary and effective the motive of immediate self-interest or of apparent practical result may be in ordinary affairs of life1 it will not enable a man to make many discoveries1 because it leads him away from those which are possible to search for others which may or may not be possible4 ,the beginning of discoveries are often so very small1 that it requires acute senses and observation in order to perceive them2 and if the mind is preoccupied with a desire to discover some particular practical object1 new phenomena are overlooked4 ,in discovery1 man must follow where ,nature leads4 ,another cause of want of encouragement of research1 is the natural selfishness which exists1 #dc though in very different degrees1 in all men4 ,many wealthy persons wish things to remain as they are4 ,some manufacturers would not aid research unless they could monopolize its advantages4 ,students also generally prefer those subjects which are best rewarded1 and do not sufficiently consider their intrinsic value4 ,the love of truth for truth's sake alone is very weak in most men1 and but few men make the greatest good their chief object in life4 ,the extreme ignorance in this country of the value of scientific research1 is also largely due to the narrowness of the practical character of the ,english mind2 men cannot perceive the deep-seated and universal sources of their wealth1 and they prefer those occupations which yield the most obviously remunerative results4 ,it is also partly due to scientific investigators themselves not having pleaded their own cause2 such men have been so absorbed in the more important occupation of discovery1 that they have1 probably more than any other class of persons1 neglected to enforce the just claims of their own subject4 ,it is1 however1 chiefly caused by the influence of misapplied wealth1 operating through the old ,universities and large public schools4 ,the sons of the wealthy are most of them educated at those institutions1 and according to evidence supplied by ,university authorities to ,royal ,commissioners1 many persons send their sons to those places for other purposes than to acquire learning1 and allow them too much money4 ,the considerable wealth of #dd these young men supplies them with attractions which decoy them from industrious study1 and the wishes of the parents and students have been largely acquiesced in by the tutors and college authorities4 ,at our old ,universities also1 physical and chemical knowledge is very much less rewarded than some other subjects1 though latterly a considerable improvement has been made in this respect1 but even now there is not a ,university in the kingdom in which a knowledge in scientific research is necessary in order to obtain the highest scientific honour4#h ,in these various ways physical and chemical science has been kept very low in our chief seats of learning2 and scientific research is greatly neglected by the governing authorities4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that ,universities should be fountains of new theoretical scientific knowledge1 as well as be the disseminators of it1 and that they 7especially the old ones with their rich endowments7 would be certain to promote scientific research1 as being especially a part of their functions2 but such is not the case4 ,our old ,universities have not established any professorships of original research2 they make no payment for such labour1 nor reimburse any expenditure incurred in such occupation1 and afford but little facility for the prosecution of pure scientific inquiry4 ,further1 they discourage scientific discovery by giving the greatest emoluments1 and the #de highest honours in science they have to bestow1 to young men who have never made a single original research1 or discovered a new fact in science4 ,the money paid in the form of comparatively sinecure fellowships1 or retiring pensions to young men in ,oxford alone1 now amounts to about eighty or ninety thousand pounds a year4 ,it may be objected that young men are not capable of doing original research1 but as they do it in ,german ,universities1 they can also do it in ,england1 if they are properly disciplined1 and are not decoyed from industry by the possession or expectation of wealth4 ,a man who has never made a scientific research is not the most worthy recipient of the highest scientific honours1 and in ,germany it would not be given to him2 he is not properly disciplined in the detection of error or the discernment of truth in matters of science2 he is deficient in accuracy of scientific judgment1 and in the true spirit of scientific inquiry4 ,it is unnecessary to speak of what has been done during the last few years at our old ,universities and great public schools1 in the erection of laboratories1 and in other ways for the promotion of science1 because it has been for the purposes of instruction1 and not of original research4 ,no amount of ordinary instruction in science will remedy the evils caused by want of original inquiry1 because such instruction does not produce new knowledge1 but only disseminates that already possessed4 #df ,many persons in this country think that all scientific men are investigators1 and that a portion of the funds of scientific institutions generally are expended upon investigation1 but such is rarely the case4 ,many also consider that those scientific men who are applying new knowledge are discovering new truths4 ,and nearly all persons look upon inventors as the only really practical scientific men1 and upon discoverers as unpractical enthusiasts who spend their lives in pursuit of vague theories4 ,but whilst the inventor is a great and useful agent of civilization1 there is one behind him who is greater than he1 viz41 the man who provides him with the new knowledge upon which all his inventions must be based4 ,the general aspect in which scientific research is viewed by many persons in this country1 is that of a refined intellectual pursuit1 which may be encouraged and honoured for the purpose of maintaining the tone of society4 ,the question1 however1 is not whether this nation shall encourage research as a refined intellectual occupation1 but whether it will contribute towards its own welfare by aiding scientific discovery4 ,many persons also look upon scientific research as a hobby or as unpractical1 and upon discoverers as mere accumulators of knowledge1 but this is simply in consequence of their ignorance of the subject2 if discoveries were commercial commodities1 the practical character of research would be within their #dg comprehension4 ,a man who discovers knowledge for the use of invention is quite as practical a person as he who converts that knowledge into inventions fit for practical uses4 ,the men who thus lead practical men must be practical themselves4 ,scientific discoverers may be considered the most practical men in existence1 because their labours give rise to greater and more numerous practical results than those of any other persons4 ,the discovery of a single substance1 such as oil-of-vitriol1 or washing-soda1 has led to the formation of many valuable inventions1 patented or otherwise1 and to the establishment of thousands of manufactories4 ,it is well known also that scientific discoverers are ardent lovers of truth1 and are therefore very willing to communicate their knowledge for the good of mankind1 and that manufacturers1 men of business1 and others1 not unfrequently obtain from them and from their published researches1 information of great value to themselves without even expecting to pay for it2 forgetting that a scientific man may communicate in a passing remark1 information which cost him years of labour to obtain4 ,some persons also think that science is changeable and uncertain--that the discoveries of one generation are disproved by those of another1 because they occasionally see scientific theories altered and superseded4 ,but the real truth of the case is that the changes in the aspect of science which we continually witness do not often result from alterations in our #dh stock of positive knowledge1 but from additions made to it4 ,demonstrable truth is imperishable4 ,it is true that many theories have been invented and entertained for a while in the minds of scientific men1 and have then passed away1 but we must remember that these are only the scaffolding of science1 and no part of its real fabric4 ,they consist of ideas which1 whilst they assist us in understanding science1 and in making discoveries1 form no real part of our positive knowledge4 ,other persons seem to think that the laws of matter are different in the laboratory from what they are in the workshop2 that the principles which regulate a scientific experiment are different from those which govern a large manufacturing process2 but this is a wrong idea4 ,the laws of matter are universal1 substances have nearly the same properties in all places and in the hands of all men2 water boils at the same temperature whether in the retort of a chemist1 the saucepan of a kitchenmaid1 or the pan of a soap-boiler2 iron wire is as readily deprived of its rust in a chemist's acid bottle as in a wire-drawer's pickling tub2 a piece of phosphorus will as readily ignite in the hands of a chemist as in those of a match maker2 a galvanic battery yields the same quantity of electricity whether it be in the hands of an experimentalist or in those of a working electro-plater4 ,it is true that many things which have appeared very promising in theory or in experiment1 have #di failed altogether in practice1 but why is this8 it is not that the principles of nature operated in the one case and did not operate in the other1 but that we have imperfectly understood them1 that from some unforeseen circumstances we have been unable to apply them2 or that we have indolently abandoned them without sufficient or proper trial4 ,in many cases we are unable to obtain the same conditions of success upon the large scale that we have upon the small one4 ,in other cases a process fails because of its too great expense2 many attempts have been made to supersede steam as a motive power by means of electro-magnetism1 and engines driven by that force have been constructed of five or ten horse-power1 but the cost of driving them has been found to be at least ten times the amount of that of the steam-engine of equal strength4 ,and in other cases we fail because we attempt at once to carry out upon a large scale that which has only been the subject of limited experiment1 instead of enlarging the process by small degrees1 and adapting the apparatus1 the materials and the treatment1 to the size of the operation4 ,that also which appears very simple in the hands of an experimentalist1 almost invariably becomes much more complex when carried into practice in a manufactory1 simply because there is then a greater number of conditions to be fulfilled4 ,electro-plating a piece of steel with silver is to a chemist a very simple matter1 because it is of no importance to him #ej whether the silver adheres firmly1 is of good colour1 or is deposited at a certain cost2 but with a manufacturer unless all these conditions are fulfilled1 the process is a failure4 ,these matters1 however1 belong to invention and not to original discovery4 ,we should not condemn theoretical science because we are not able1 even with fair and persevering trial1 to apply it to any useful purpose1 but wait patiently until circumstances ripen for its application4 ,many inventions which are inapplicable in one state of knowledge become applicable by the progress of scientific research4 ,the idea of an electric telegraph1 attempted by ,mr4 ,ronalds1 in the year #ahaf1 with the aid of frictional electricity1 had to wait the development of the galvanic battery and the discovery of electro-magnetism before it could be successfully applied4 ,many manufacturers seem to think that because some of their operations are completely routine1 and have been handed down to them by their predecessors in nearly their present state1 they are not at all indebted to science2 but there is no manufacture1 especially among metals1 which has not in some degree been aided by scientific discovery4 ,in addition to the great benefits accruing from original research to all classes of society1 our ,governments have also derived immense advantages from the same source4 ,the revenues have been greatly increased by the universal advantages conferred upon all kinds of industry and commerce by #ea scientific knowledge4 ,the additional taxes upon increased incomes from agriculture1 arts1 manufactures1 mines2 increased value of land and rents2 investments in railway1 telegraph1 steam-ship and other companies1 have been extremely great4 ,from the sale of patents alone1 a surplus sum of nearly six hundred thousand pounds has already accumulated4 ,our ,governments are also indebted to original research for the use of percussion-powder1 gun-cotton1 improvements in cannon1 projectiles1 rifles1 armour-plated ships1 the ocean telegraph1 field telegraph1 the telephone1 rapid postal communication1 the speedy transport of troops and war-material1 and a multitude of other advantages4 ,the value of science to ,governments in the prevention of war by means of more ready correspondence through telegraph is incalculable4 ,mr4 ,sumner1 of ,america1 at the period when the ,atlantic telegraph was first employed1 stated that the use of that telegraph averted a probable rupture between ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,there was a period when we did not possess such evidence of the great value of science2 but that time has now passed away1 and our governing men have had abundant proof of the national importance of scientific discovery1 and of the essential dependence of the welfare of this country upon scientific research4 ,whilst vast sums of money are spent upon the applications of science in military and naval affairs1 research itself is neglected2 the superstructure is #eb attended to1 but the foundations are left to decay4 ,a very small proportion of the money which is expended upon military affairs would1 if devoted to research1 save a great deal of expense in warfare3-- ,were half the power1 that fills the world with terror1-- ,were half the wealth1 bestowed on camps and courts1 ,given to redeem the human mind from error1 ,there were no need of arsenals nor forts4--,,longfellow4 ,our ,government has as yet made but little payment for the labour of pure research in experimental physics or chemistry2 it has1 however1 given four thousand pounds a year for five years to be distributed by the ,royal ,society among scientific investigators1 partly as personal payment4 ,income tax is deducted from these grants4 ,want of recognition of the value of science has been so general in this country1 that it is quite pleasing to quote a somewhat different case from the ,illustrated ,london ,news1 ,january #dth1 #ahgc1 viz41 that of the late ,archibald ,smith1 ,l4,l4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,that gentleman was an investigator in pure mathematical science1 and devoted the latter part of his life to the application of mathematics in the computation1 reduction1 and discussion of the deviation of the mariners' compass in wooden and in iron ships1 and made practical deductions therefrom in the construction of those vessels4 ,he published those practical applications of his scientific knowledge in the form of an ,admiralty ,manual1 which was afterwards reprinted in various languages4 ,her ,majesty's ,government #ec subsequently requested his acceptance of a gift of two thousand pounds1 not as a reward1 but as a mark of appreciation of the value of his researches1 and of the influence they were exercising on the maritime interests of ,england and the world at large4 ,the kind of labour rewarded in this case was not scientific discovery1 but the practical application of previously existing scientific knowledge4 ,the case of the late ,dr4 ,stenhouse1 ,f4,r4,s41 is one of rather an opposite kind4 ,that gentleman devoted his life throughout to pure investigations in organic chemistry1 and published several of his researches in the ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4#i ,his discoveries are very numerous1 and although not much applied to practical uses by himself1 the result of his researches on ,lichens1 and the yellow gum of ,botany ,bay1 have been applied extensively by other persons in the manufacture of ,french purple and picric acid1 and will doubtless continue to be applied to valuable uses4 ,he held the ,government appointment of ,assayer to the ,royal ,mint1 ,london1 an office for several years unprofitable to him1 but of increasing remunerative value1 and which would have been subsequently worth ,l#a1bjj a year2 but after the decease of his colleague1 ,dr4 ,miller1 in #ahgj1 that office1 which was then worth to him about ,l#fjj a year1 was abolished by the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 and he lost the #ed appointment1 receiving1 however1 ,l#ejj as compensation4 ,an application was therefore made to the ,government1 and a partial recompense to him was obtained1 by ,her ,majesty granting him one hundred pounds a year for eminence in chemical attainments1 and on account of loss by suppression of office in the ,mint4 ,the only difference in these two instances1 was1 that in the second there was a very much greater amount of pure research and discovery1 and a much smaller degree of applied knowledge4 ,these instances illustrate the statement1 that however great an amount of valuable knowledge in pure science a man may discover and publish1 or however freely he may provide others with the materials of invention and wealth1 if he never invents anything1 nor applies his knowledge to useful purposes1 he is usually less rewarded even than an inventor4 ,the more intrinsically valuable the labour1 and the greater the degree of profound original thought required to direct it1 the less is it usually appreciated by the governing men of a nation4 ,absorbed in exciting questions relating to political emergencies1 and national matters requiring immediate attention1 even men of great administrative ability fail to appreciate the less direct though more fundamental sources of a nation's happiness and wealth4 ,in harmony with these instances also1 we find that it is not the pure sciences1 but the concrete and applied ones1 such as meteorology1 geology1 natural history1 c41 in the ,meteorological ,department1 the #ee ,geological ,survey1 the ,british and ,south ,kensington ,museums1 the ,geological ,museum1 c41 and the ,national ,gallery of ,art1 which have received the greatest degree of support from our ,governments4 ,that discoverers are not treated by us as we treat other valuable members of the community is quite clear2 either a physician1 a judge1 divine1 lawyer1 or railway superintendent of high ability1 obtain from one to many thousand pounds a year1 but a discoverer in pure physics or chemistry is1 in scarcely any case1 paid anything for his labour4 ,that most eminent discoverer1 ,faraday1 received for his scientific lectures at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain1 only ,l#bjj a year and apartments1 during many years1 and absolutely nothing for his great discoveries2 and during the remainder of his life he only received a few hundred pounds per annum1 including a pension of ,l#cjj pounds a year from ,government4 ,in contrast with this1 the general manager of the ,midland ,railway has ,l#d1jjj a year4 ,a ,general of our army receives ,l#b1jjj1 and a ,field ,marshal ,l#d1jjj a year 7,see ,whitaker's ,almanack1 #ahgc1 pp4 #aba and #ach74 ,a ,head ,master of either of the great public schools obtains from ,l#c1jjj a year upwards4 ,an ,archbishop of ,canterbury receives ,l#ae1jjj a year1 besides a great amount of influence and power in the form of patronage to #ahc livings1 a palatial residence1 and a seat in the ,house of ,peers4 ,a ,bishop of ,london has ,l#aj1jjj1 the patronage of #ih livings1 and a seat in the ,house of ,lords4 ,i do not1 #ef however1 mean to imply that these large emoluments are not deserved4 ,whilst also there are nearly #ac1jjj church benefices in ,england 7,see the ,clergy ,list1 also ,whitaker's ,almanack1 #ahgc1 pp4 #aec and #aee1 and ,walford's ,county ,families1 #ahgb1 pp4 #agc and #faj71 there is scarcely a single appointment entirely devoted to scientific discovery1 nor a single professorship in original research in science4 ,i leave my readers to judge to what extent these instances illustrate the statement that discoverers are not treated by us as we treat other valuable members of the community4 ,partly in consequence of the foregoing neglect1 the proportion of persons wholly devoted to scientific research in this country probably does not much exceed one in one million of the population4 ,it is scarcely credible that in a wealthy and civilized country1 whilst the non-productive classes are protected in the enjoyment of titles and material wealth which in many cases they have not earned1 the greatest scientific benefactors of the nation are constrained to live in straitened circumstances whilst working for the pecuniary and other advantages of those classes1 and of manufacturers1 capitalists1 land-owners1 and the nation in general4 ,by these remarks it is not intended to imply that discoverers are intentionally neglected2 but that the injustice they suffer is a disgrace to this country1 and reflects discredit upon the governing classes1 and especially upon those who reap the greatest advantage4 #eg ,the men who are rewarded highly in this country are not always those who yield the greatest service to the nation1 but frequently those who render the most immediate or most apparent benefit2 to stop short at this cannot produce the greatest degree of success4 ,the national services of a great discoverer are probably not equalled by those of any man4 ,who can estimate the value of the commercial1 social1 moral1 political1 and other great advantages to the world1 of ,oersted's discovery of the principle of electro-magnetism1 which enabled the invention of the electric telegraph to be made8 ,the men we reward the highest are not those who discover knowledge1 but those who use or apply it2 physicians1 judges1 bishops1 lawyers1 railway managers1 military and naval officers1 and head masters of schools1 all of them gentlemen who render great services to the nation1 by using1 diffusing1 and applying knowledge already possessed4 ,it requires less rare ability to apply knowledge to new purposes by means of invention1 than to discover it2 it is still less difficult to diffuse it by means of tuition and lectures1 because the labours of a teacher consist largely of a repitition of other men's discoveries and inventions2 and to use scientific knowledge in the ordinary business of every-day life1 requires a still more common degree of ability4 ,a chief reason why ordinary business capacity is paid for whilst original research is not1 is the fact that research is not considered a necessity2 many #eh persons do not perceive its immense future value4 ,men perform those duties first which they feel they must3 they are also willing to pay for the performance of those duties which press most urgently upon them1 and defer all other kinds of labour that they consider will bear postponement4 ,most men act upon this rule1 until they acquire a habit of sacrificing the future to the present1 of neglecting more important matters in order to attend to less1 and of living too much for money1 without sufficient regard for the more valuable condition1 viz41 individual and national improvement4 ,these circumstances also largely explain the fact that it requires more pressure to induce individuals or governing bodies to aid original research than to assist any other good object4 ,other chief reasons why persons in general cannot perceive the great practical value of new scientific truth are1 because the perception of it requires a scientifically trained mind4 ,the greatest truths are frequently the least obvious1 and are therefore valued the least4 ,it may be objected that research is not aided1 because it sometimes takes a long time to acquire a practical shape and make it pay4 ,we do not omit to plant an acorn because it requires many years to become an oak2 we do not neglect to rear a child because he may not live to become a man2 but we leave scientific discovery to take care of itself4 ,the intense desire which exists in this country for quick returns has shewn itself in the much greater readiness to aid technical education than to promote #ei permanent progress by means of original research4 ,but the discoveries made in such a place as the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain have had a vastly greater beneficial effect upon civilization than that of any technical institution which has ever existed4 ,in a letter received by me from the ,duke of ,somerset1 and which ,i have permission to publish1 the true state of things in this country in relation to pure research is stated with remarkable accuracy and brevity3-- ,the hindrances to scientific studies in this country are very many4 ,the gentry are almost invariably educated by the clergy1 and the clergy have seldom had time or opportunities for any scientific study4 ,they usually take pupils or become tutors as soon as they have taken their degrees1 and can only teach the ,latin and ,greek which they have themselves learned4 ,the commercial classes value what they call practical science2 this means some application of science for the purpose of making money4 ,competitive examinations may promote a superficial acquaintance with the elements of science1 but are unfavourable to the development of scientific culture4 ,the scientific associations tend to degrade science by exhibiting scientific men as candidates for applause from assemblies which seek amusement and startling results from lectures and experiments4 ,the advancement of science1 is therefore1 left to comparatively few men1 who are unregarded and unrewarded4 #fj ,to remedy this state of things we require a general encouragement of pure scientific inquiry by the ,state and ,universities4 ,it is thought by some persons who have given special attention to the subject1 that the ,state ought to encourage such research and science in general1 by appointing a ,minister of ,science possessing scientific knowledge and good administrative ability2 a ,scientific ,council to advise our ,governments in all important matters relating to science2 and by establishing ,state laboratories for pure scientific inquiry1 with discoverers of repute in them wholly engaged in research in their respective subjects4 ,there are also many new experiments1 investigations1 and explorations1 which neither private individuals1 nor even corporate bodies1 such as the ,royal ,society1 the ,british ,association1 ,geographical ,society1 can effectually make1 and which only a ,government can carry out1 such as ,arctic expeditions1 trigonometrical surveys1 deep sea dredging operations1 magnetic observations1 determinations of longitude1 meteorological and astronomical observations1 researches on tides1 observations of earthquakes1 determinations of the height of mountains and the density of the crust of the earth1 experiments on the best form of ships1 geographical explorations1 and many others4 ,it is clear from the enormous advantages which this nation has already derived from scientific discovery in physics and chemistry1 pursued with only #fa the aid of the very limited means of private persons1 that had research in those subjects been sufficiently supported1 the manufactures1 arts1 commerce1 wealth1 and civilization of this country would have been much greater than they are2 emigration also of the industrious classes1 disease1 pauperism1 crime1 the evil effects of famine1 etc41 would have been much less4 ,the amount of knowledge and riches obtainable by means of research and invention is practically unlimited1 and it is astonishing that this immense source of industry and wealth in a nation should have been so neglected by our ,governments4 ,the practical value of new scientific knowledge is vastly greater than that of all our goldfields or even of our coal supply1 because it would not only enable us to obtain from coal several times the amount of available heat and mechanical power we now secure1 but also to apply to our wants the numerous other materials composing the crust of our globe and the contents of our oceans2 also all terrestrial forces1 the internal heat1 the tidal energy and atmospheric currents1 and the immense amount of power this ,earth is continually receiving from the ,sun4 ,whilst at present vast amounts of materials and energy remain unutilized1 nearly all those terrestrial substances and forces might probably be rendered of service to us if we possessed sufficient knowledge4 ,that scientific research is a far greater source of wealth and wellbeing than our stores of coal is easily proved4 ,at present we obtain in our best #fb steam-engines only about one-seventh 7or less7 of the mechanical power producible by the combustion of the coal1 the remainder being lost in various ways4 ,and this occurs simply because we have not yet discovered a method of wholly converting heat into mechanical power4 ,in some other instances we are able to convert one force wholly into another without loss1 as for example3 the chemical action of a voltaic cell into electricity2 and by means of research we shall probably be enabled to effect a similar complete conversion of other powers into each other4 ,the effect of converting heat wholly into mechanical power would be equal to increasing our stock of coals for that purpose to seven times its present amount4 ,this instance is only one of the many thousand possible ways in which research may yet prove of value to mankind4 ,it is true that a very large amount of original research in physics and chemistry has been done in this country2 the contents of our scientific journals and of the publications of our various ,learned ,societies prove this4 ,it is also true that the ,english nation has been pre-eminently active in applying scientific knowledge to practical uses by means of inventions1 and has been generally the first in carrying out inventions on a large scale4 ,we have been either the first1 or nearly so1 in developing steam-engines1 railways1 locomotives1 rapid trains1 gas works1 flour mills1 blast-furnaces1 cotton machinery1 cheap postage1 light-houses1 electro-plating1 lucifer-matches1 #fc electric-telegraphs1 submarine electric cables1 great engineering establishments1 iron ship-building1 and many other important enterprises4 ,three out of four of all the great ocean steamers1 and three-fourths of all the locomotives of the world were constructed in this country4#aj ,by means of our enterprise and capital also1 the first railways1 telegraphs1 gas works1 cotton mills1 modern water works1 suspension bridges1 water wheels1 harbours1 lighthouses1 c41 c41 in nearly all parts of the world were constructed2 and foreign nations have been inducted into the practical methods of working our great manufacturing and technical applications of science4 ,by means of ,english enterprise and skill the cities of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,altona1 ,amsterdam1 ,antwerp1 ,berlin1 ,bordeaux1 ,brussels1 ,cologne1 ,frankfort-on-,maine1 ,ghent1 ,haarlem1 ,hanover1 ,lille1 ,rotterdam1 ,stolberg1 ,toulouse1 ,vienna1 and others were lighted with gas4 ,we formed ,water ,companies or ,waterworks in ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 and other cities1 and drained ,naples4 ,we utilized the falls of the ,rhone at ,bellegarde1 and thus obtained #aj1jjj horse-power for the use of the ,french manufacturers4 ,we also sent the first steam-boat to ,coblentz in #ahag1 and the first to ,america4 ,we laid the first ,atlantic cables4 ,and as a general truth1 we have been foremost in invention1 application and enterprise4 #fd ,recent ,international ,exhibitions however1 and the migration of various branches of our trade to the ,continent and ,america1 have shown that the degree of our relative superiority in manufacturing skill is diminishing4 ,other nations1 especially the ,german and ,american1 perceiving the dependence of invention upon research1 and the enormous pecuniary and other advantages gained by us1 by the application of scientific knowledge to manufacturing and other purposes1 have within the last few years aroused themselves1 and are now pursuing pure science much more energetically than ourselves4 ,a few years ago the relative number of original researches made per annum in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany were in the proportion #abg1 #bde1 and #ggg4 ,many of those made in ,germany were valuable ones1 and were made by ,students in order to obtain a degree4 ,other nations are rapidly gaining upon us in the application of science to industrial purposes1 and have even surpassed us in the extent of some of their manufacturing and technical operations4 ,many persons who have visited ,europe and ,america at intervals during the last twenty years have testified to this4 ,the ,vielle ,montagne ,zinc ,company in ,belgium employ #f1ejj workmen1 and produce annually #cb1jjj tons of zinc4 ,the ,john ,cockerill ,company1 engine-builders1 ,seraing1 near ,liege1 employ nearly #h1jjj men4 ,krupp1 the great engineer at ,essen1 near ,dusseldorf1 employs about #aj1jjj workmen2 his works at ,essen alone cover #dej acres1 and #a1jjj tons #fe of coal are consumed in them daily4 ,the ,anzin ,company 7,valenciennes7 is the largest coal company in the world1 producing no less than #a1bjj1jjj tons per annum1 and employs #h1jjj hands4 ,the ,chatillon and ,commentry ,iron and ,coal ,company 7,france71 produce annually from #cjj1jjj to #cej1jjj tons of coal and coke1 nearly #gj1jjj tons of iron and steel1 and employ nearly #i1jjj workmen4 ,at the ,creuzot ,ironworks 7,france71 the mineral concessions cover an area of nearly six square miles1 the coal-fields nearly twenty-five square miles1 the building #bif acres4 ,there are nearly forty-five miles of railway between various parts of the works1 upon which are generally running sixteen locomotives4 ,the galleries in the mines are more than twenty miles long4 #aj1jjj persons are employed in the works and the annual amount of wages paid equals ,l#djj1jjj4aa ,our practice with regard to original science has been very different from the plan carried out in ,germany4 ,within the last few years great laboratories have been erected in ,berlin1 ,leipzig1 ,aix la ,chapelle1 ,bonn1 ,carlsruhe1 ,stuttgardt1 and other places1 at the expense of the ,state1 and special provision has been made in them for original scientific research4 ,a glance at the frequently published list of scientific investigations made in different countries will shew us that the ,germans have been making a far greater number of discoveries in science than ourselves4 ,sir ,r4 ,b4 ,c4 ,brodie1 ,professor of ,chemistry at #ff ,oxford1 speaking of his experience when a student at ,geissen1 in ,germany1 states3 ,i say that the enthusiasm and earnestness of the young men in the laboratory was quite unparalleled in my experience at ,oxford4 ,the dilettante sort of way in which things go on there is very inferior indeed to the way the ,german students study4 ,at ,heidelberg1 ,i have been told1 there are about eighty professors1 and amongst those professors are some of the most eminent men in ,europe1 so that they have a staff quite unsurpassed4 ,the industry of the ,germans in scientific research is quite remarkable1 they are availing themselves of the great fountain of knowledge to a much greater extent than ourselves1 and are already beginning to reap the reward4 ,within the last few years they have succeeded1 by means of researches1 in making alizarine1 the colouring principle of madder4 ,england produces immense quantities of benzene1 the greatest part of which goes to ,germany1 there to be converted into aniline dyes1 a considerable quantity of which goes back to ,england4 ,no other country is so far advanced in the manufacture of the coal-tar colours as ,germany4 ,the quantity of alizarine manufactured by the ,german makers far surpasses the ,english production4 7,see ,alizarine1 ,natural and ,artificial1 by ,f4 ,versmann1 ,new ,york1 #ahgc74 ,statements of this kind are frequently published1 and made by our manufacturers and others1 of the departure of branch after branch of our manufactures to the ,continent1 and of continually increasing importation of foreign-made articles4 #fg ,some persons1 having become aware of the cosmopolitan nature of scientific research1 have suggested that it is a matter of no importance to us as a nation whether we make researches or not1 as foreigners would make them1 and we could apply them4 ,but no honourable man would1 after reflection1 seriously maintain such a proposition1 because it implies a willingness to obtain from the labours of other persons1 advantages without paying for them4 ,it is partly this absence of a desire to pay for the labour of investigation1 which is now damaging the manufacturing and commercial prosperity of this country4 ,it is also certain that however much we may have hitherto succeeded commercially1 without making payment for research1 we should have succeeded much better had we properly assisted investigators in pure science4 ,our success has hitherto been obtained1 not in consequence1 but in spite of the disadvantageous circumstances under which discoverers have laboured4 ,the commercial argument in favour of encouraging research1 although the most effective with the great mass of persons1 and therefore much dwelt upon in this chapter1 is however quite a secondary one2 the encouragement of truth for the sake of its own intrinsic worth1 in preference to the material or extrinsic value of its results1 should be the foundation of all aid to discovery4 ,justice1 also1 ought to come before all minor considerations1 and no upright man would wish for a moment that anyone1 and much less the greatest scientific intellects in the country1 should work for his benefit without being remunerated4 #fh ,it has been objected that ,continental nations1 the ,germans in particular1 have pirated our patents1 infringed our designs1 imitated our labels1 used our names1 and taken our improvements wholesale1 and this may be true4 ,but we still have had by far the largest portion of the reward of our greater energy and inventive skill2 we have had the great advantage of being first in the markets of the world2 and that advantage can only be retained by our being the first in the pursuit of original research1 as we have so long been in the application of science to industrial arts1 and not by purchasing foreign inventions1 nor by accepting gifts of unrecompensed researches4 ,nations as well as individuals are apt to push to an extreme the means by which they have succeeded in gaining either riches or power4 ,we have devoted ourselves relatively too much to the pursuit of money and too little to the pursuit of knowledge4 ,the desire for wealth is in this country so great1 that probably nothing but a loss of that wealth will ever make us properly encourage the pursuit of new knowledge4 ,whilst research is being neglected1 manufacturers and others in all directions are asking for improvements in their machines and processes2 employers of steam engines want to obtain more power from the coals2 makers of washing soda wish to recover their lost sulphur2 copper smelters1 want to utilize the copper smoke2 glass makers wish to prevent bad colour in their glass2 iron puddlers want to economise heat2 gas companies are desirous of diminishing the #fi leakage of gas2 iron smelters wish to avoid the evil effects of impurities in the iron2 manufacturers in general want to utilise their waste products and prevent their polluting our streams and atmosphere2 and so on without end4 ,and inventors are continually trying to supply these demands1 by exercising their skill in every possible way1 with the aid of scientific information contained in books2 but after putting manufacturers and themselves to great expense1 they very frequently fail1 not always through want of inventive skill1 but often through want of new knowledge attainable only by means of pure research4 ,judging from the vast amount of inventive skill already expended upon the steam engine1 and the small proportion of available mechanical power yet obtained from the coals consumed in it1 it is highly probable that a machine for completely converting heat into mechanical force cannot be invented until more scientific knowledge is discovered4 ,it must not be supposed from these remarks1 that discoveries which will enable a man to make any particular invention1 can be produced to order2 that is only true to a very limited extent4 ,men are beggars of nature1 and must not expect to be permitted to choose her gifts1 or dictate what secrets shall be disclosed4 ,we may however be certain that if we acquire a very much greater supply of new scientific knowledge1 we shall then be able to perfect many good inventions1 though not always of the kind we wish1 or in the way we expect4 ,the great sewage question #gj may perhaps be solved in quite an unexpected way1 possibly by the discovery of some substance capable of precipitating ammonia and organic matter from their solutions4 ,nearly all our manufacturing processes are full of imperfections2 thus the loss of gas by a single large provincial gas company1 after that substance has left the works1 amounts to nearly one hundred and fifty millions of cubic feet per annum1 and to a value of about ,l#ah1jjj2 and the soil of all our large cities and towns is permeated and rendered foetid by coal gas4 ,and it has been stated by an eminent authority in such matters that we might save #ejj1jjj tons of coal a year by economizing the waste heat of furnaces1 by purifying the coal1 coking it1 etc4 ,in a single chemical manufactory1 out of about two thousand tons of hydrochloric acid used per annum1 about eight hundred tons have been allowed to flow away as a polluting substance1 because it was not possible to utilise it4 ,the loss of material from a single large glass works equals fourteen hundred tons per annum1 and a value of ,l#h1jjj4 ,similar grave defects might be pointed out in nearly all our large manufactures1 by those acquainted with the subject4 ,inventions are wanted for quickening the process of vinegar making1 and diminishing the percentage of loss of the acid4 ,for bleaching discoloured fats4 ,for quickening the process of converting cast iron into malleable iron4 ,to easily separate nitrogen from the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,to economically convert #ga the nitrogen of the air into valuable products1 such as nitric acid and ammonia4 ,to find uses for the immense quantities of minerals which abound all over the earth2 to utilise wolfram and find applications for tungstic acid2 to apply titanic acid to great industrial purposes2 to produce aluminium on the large scale1 as we now produce iron4 ,to tan leather more quickly1 and without detriment to its quality4 ,to prevent the rusting of iron4 ,to more perfectly prevent smoke4 ,to collect and use the sulphuric acid of the salt cake consumed in the glass manufacture4 ,to make window glass by means of common salt4 ,to deodorise offensive substances4 ,to find larger uses for phosphorus1 sodium1 magnesium1 and common salt4 ,to remove phosphorus and sulphur from iron ores1 and sulphur from coal and coke4 ,to obtain a good white alloy as a cheaper substitute for ,german silver4 ,to convert white phosphorus into the red variety by a less dangerous process than the present one4 ,to prevent the putrefaction of peltries in glue making4 ,to obtain better and cheaper materials for colouring glass4 ,to more perfectly prevent animal food from change4 ,to obviate or prevent explosions in mines4 ,to perfectly purify ordinary red lead for making flint glass4 ,a cheaper process for converting common salt into washing soda2 and so on without end4 ,we also very badly require a method of recording our thoughts in readable forms upon paper1 without the slow and laborious process of writing4 ,an incalculable amount of brains and of intellect1 especially of #gb the greatest thinkers1 would be saved by such a discovery4 ,the curative arts also are permeated with empiricism1 and thousands of lives of persons of all classes of society1 are annually lost in this country through want of a more perfect scientific basis of medicine1 attainable only by means of experiment and observation4 ,in this country1 such great practical results have been obtained by means of invention1 that many persons suppose a sufficiency of inventive skill will enable us to effect every possible scientific object1 and are surprised that no one can invent a plan of utilising the entire heat of coals1 or a mode of overcoming the sewage difficulty1 or prevent the great leakage of coal gas1 or arrest epidemics1 or produce a steam engine which shall work without waste of power4 ,the progress of invention however depends upon that of discovery1 and these various inventions1 etc41 wanted by manufacturers and others probably cannot be perfected until suitable new knowledge is found4 ,every new invention has its own appropriate discoveries1 by means of which alone it can be perfected2 it was not possible to perfect the idea of an electric telegraph before the discoveries of ,volta and ,oersted were made4 ,according to scientific laws1 out of everything proceeds everything1 and out of nothing1 nothing can come1 even ideas are not created4 ,an unlimited number of inventions cannot be made by means of a limited amount of scientific knowledge2 and our present stock of such information applicable to #gc invention1 is very insufficient4 ,one great reason why only a small portion of patents are of practical value2 and so many useless ones are taken out is1 that in consequence of our so-called practical spirit1 we overestimate the power of invention and under-value the discovery of new abstract truths2 because also invention has done so much1 we think it will continue to do so1 but the latter depends upon a continued supply of discoveries4 ,nearly every manufacturer is aware by painful experience of the great and almost incessant variation that occurs in the quality and properties of the materials used in his trade1 and the frequent risk of failure of his process4 ,in the manufacture of iron1 for example1 the presence of much phosphorus1 sulphur1 or silicon in the ore is liable to be very detrimental to the quality of the iron produced from it2 in the manufacture of glass1 the least quantity of iron in the materials will seriously injure the colour of the product2 in the selection of copper for telegraph wire1 if it contains the least trace of arsenic1 the wire will not conduct the electricity properly4 ,the difficulties experienced in procuring suitable materials for a manufacturing process are in some cases very great2 and when they are procured1 additional difficulties arise from the inability of the manufacturer or his manager to analyse them4 ,every manufacturer is also aware that the difficulties encountered in manufactures are not limited to the substances employed1 but extend to all the different #gd processes and stages of processes through which these substances have to pass1 and to all the forces1 tools1 machinery1 and appliances employed in those processes2 in the manufacture of glass1 for example1 the greatest care has to be exercised in the making and gradual heating of the pots in which the glass is melted1 the proportions of the materials1 the construction of the furnaces1 the management of the heat1 and a whole host of minor conditions too numerous to mention1 all of which must be attended to with the greatest care4 ,in the manufacture of iron and steel1 the smelting of copper1 the refining of nickel1 the preparation and baking of porcelain1 and in many other trades1 innumerable difficulties1 all having their origin in the properties of matter and forces1 continually beset the manufacturers4 ,in some cases difficulties occur which perplex both the workman and the scientific man called in to his aid1 and so far from an unscientific workman being able to overcome them1 even with the aid of the scientific man1 he is unable to do so4 ,the hidden difficulties which beset a manufacturer are not unfrequently so inscrutable that the present state of knowledge in science fails to explain them4 ,who can tell why it is that wire-work of brass or ,german silver becomes gradually brittle by lapse of time8 ,or why varnish made in the open country has different properties from that made in a town8 ,or why silk dyed in ,lyons should possess a finer colour than the same silk dyed by the same process in ,coventry8 #ge ,with our present extremely imperfect knowledge of ,physical and ,chemical science1 we can perhaps hardly form an idea of the amount of knowledge yet to be discovered respecting the phenomena which manufactures present4 ,one of the inevitable results of these difficulties in manufacturing processes and of deficiency of knowledge1 is the production of a large amount of goods of an inferior quality2 and useless goods1 technically called wasters1 the cost of which has to be laid upon the saleable ones1 and thus the price of the latter is enhanced to the consumer4 ,for instance1 flint glass discoloured by iron has sometimes to be sold at a loss for making common enamel2 waste window glass has to be sold as rockery for ornamenting gardens1 and defective articles of glass or metal have to be re-melted4 ,in consequence of this want of new knowledge1 manufacturers continue to suffer losses which might be avoided2 high prices of useful articles are maintained2 defects in their quality are not improved2 preventable accidents still continue to happen2 the health of workmen continues to suffer2 many means of curing diseases remain unknown2 medical practice remains full of empiricism1 c41 c4 ,the great sewage question is apparently in this predicament2 we are probably trying to solve it without first discovering the requisite knowledge2 inventors1 engineers1 and consulting chemists have racked their brains1 and have not been able to devise a satisfactory #gf remedy1 and meanwhile the health of the entire population of this country is suffering4 ,if we so neglect the fundamental means of ameliorating our condition we deserve to suffer4 ,one would suppose that cholera1 contagious diseases1 colliery accidents1 pollution of air and water1 enormous waste of heat from fires1 and a multitude of other evils which depend upon physical and chemical conditions1 are of but little importance1 that we should so neglect one of the most effectual means of preventing them2 and it is perfectly clear that by neglecting to aid research1 those who gain so much money and advantage from original science1 and render no return1 are unwittingly sacrificing national interests upon a large scale to personal benefit4 ,the practice of some manufacturers using and deriving great profit from new knowledge evolved by research1 without recompensing the discoverers1 sometimes causes injury to the public welfare by preventing the publication of discoveries which have an immediate practical application4 ,experience of this kind has constrained me to postpone the publication of a method ,i have found of readily and quickly converting lumps of white phosphorus into the red variety in a state of powder without protracted heat or grinding4 ,what will be the next chapter of ,british enterprise and invention1 and who and where the men to perform the chief part in it8 ,as to the work to be done1 there can be no doubt or mystery1 for not a day passes #gg without loud complaints1 indignant remonstrances1 fatal oversights1 sad mis-calculations1 terrible shortcomings1 social or material evils to be remedied if possible1 whole masses of people1 indeed whole classes to be succoured and lifted out of the slough1 and enormous difficulties placed by nature in our way evidently that we may exercise our wit and our virtues in the attempt to overcome them4 ,here1 from all these ,isles1 there arises a despairing cry from agriculture1 as if it had really reached the end of its tether1 and had found itself landed in utter helplessness and insolvency--a bad speculation altogether4 ,here are countless problems1 and at the same time countless discoveries1 which if they lead to nothing else1 prove the inexhaustible nature of our dominion over the elements4 ,then1 for the sea1 with its terrible average of wreck and total loss running on without intermission and with but rare abatement1 who shall say there is here no work for the discoverer and inventor who will give his heart and soul and mind to it8 ,it is indeed high time1 that by means of discoveries which will enable us to predict with certainty the nature of coming seasons1 we shall be better enabled to cope with adversities in agriculture2 also1 that the numerous wrecks1 and the thousands of lives lost with them every year on our coasts1 should be diminished4 ,but these desirable results cannot be effected by invention based upon insufficient knowledge2 invention must be preceded by general as well as special research1 because the former often discloses important #gh truths which we cannot predict4 ,our present electric lights in light-houses and on large ocean steamers1 had their origin1 not in direct inventions or special researches for the purpose1 but in abstract researches on apparently remote subjects4 ,it is nothing less than a national crime that proper provision has not yet been made for investigating scientifically the causes of famine and pestilence1 also physiology and pathology1 and the discovery of the laws which regulate diseases and epidemics4 ,what can be more painful to behold than a mother and father deprived of a whole family of five or six children in rapid succession by scarlatina or other contagious disease1 and both the parents and medical men utterly unable to save them2 and this is a common occurrence4 ,persons who are ignorant of science look with an abject feeling of helplessness upon great national calamities1 and even upon private afflictions1 such as a local epidemic1 as if there was absolutely no remedy1 whilst scientific men believe that by extension of knowledge1 such evils might be largely avoided or prevented4 ,many persons however1 actuated by the very kindest of motives1 but insufficiently acquainted with the necessity1 conditions1 results1 and advantages of experiments1 unwittingly obstruct the discovery of new knowledge in physiology and pathology1 by attempting to prevent experiments being made upon animals4 ,we should not strain at a gnat and swallow a camel4 ,nearly every step in life involves a choice #gi between two alternatives1 and this is the case with experiments upon living creatures1 either such experiments must be made1 or the wholesale slaughter of men and other animals1 by pestilences1 epidemics1 small-pox1 foot and mouth disease1 c41 must continue4 ,many of the properties of living bodies1 like those of dead ones1 can only be ascertained by means of experiments1 no other course is possible2 and the knowledge so obtained enables us not only to prolong the lives but also to alleviate the sufferings of all kinds of living creatures4 ,nearly all our medical and surgical knowledge has been obtained by observation and study1 either of the results of experiments made by ourselves1 or by the course of nature for us2 and the former is often attended by immeasurably less pain and expence than the latter4 ,no one who has ever made in a proper manner new experiments1 would venture to assert that valuable knowledge is not gained by them2 and this statement is as correct of experiments in physiology as in all the other sciences4 ,the total amount of pain inflicted upon animals by vivisection experiments in this country is infinitesimally small--because1 firstly1 the proportion of experimentalists in so-called vivisection1 does not amount to one person in one million of our inhabitants3--secondly1 students cannot be induced to enter upon scientific research in physiology1 because such labour is unrewarded1 either by enabling them to obtain certificates1 degrees1 or money4 ,whatever pain also1 #hj is inflicted in such experiments1 is by men of the highest eminence in physiology1 and therefore by the most competent persons4 ,experimental research is an occupation requiring an exceptional kind of ability and experience2 and persons who have never made experiments1 nor studied their relation to human welfare1 are largely incompetent to determine when and how they should be made1 the real effects of them1 or the value of the knowledge they afford4 ,to persons inexperienced in scientific research1 many experiments appear useless1 which have great practical value1 either immediately or at a later period4 ,our greatest curse is ignorance2 and knowledge1 by enabling us to avoid the fatal effects of pestilences1 and epidemics1 is as necessary as food to mankind4 ,the ,anti-vivisection movement however is but one of the phases of the ever-existing conflict between the advancing and retarding sections of mankind4 ,greater sympathy with suffering accompanies greater civilization4 ,the increased humanity of the present age over that of previous ones1 is largely due to the discovery and extension of new scientific knowledge4 ,science1 by showing more clearly to man his true position in nature and in relation to his fellow-men and other animals1 has rendered more evident the concrete fact1 that the happiness of each depends upon the happiness of all1 and the happiness and welfare of all upon that of each individual4 ,it has also operated in a more apparent1 though less #ha important way1 by inculcating better systems of hygiene1 improved sanitary arrangements1 c1 c4 ,it is not to the zeal of anti-vivisectionists1 but to the well-directed labours of experimental medical men1 that mankind are indebted for the discovery and invention of nearly every known method of preventing and alleviating animal suffering and of prolonging human life4 ,this statement is true of vaccination1 the use of chloroform in general surgery1 dentistry1 and midwifery1 of carbolic acid spray in surgical operations2 the abolition of the practice of searing amputated limbs with a red-hot iron2 and many other improvements4 ,ferrier's comparatively recent vivisection experiments have already enabled medical men to treat more successfully those formidable diseases1 epilepsy and abcess of the brain4 ,what this nation badly requires1 is not less experimental research1 but more4 ,when famines result from insufficiency of ,solar heat1 instead of investigating the conditions of the ,sun's surface to enable us to predict their occurrence and provide accordingly1 we allow them to come upon us in our unprepared state and produce their fearful effects4 ,when contagious disease overtakes us1 what do we do8 ,instead of previously employing and paying scientific investigators to make experiments in physiological and chemical science1 to enable us to combat it successfully1 we vainly attempt to apply our present stock of chemical and physiological knowledge to ward off the difficulty4 ,when high price of fuel intervenes1 instead #hb of previously giving discoverers the means of finding new principles relating to heat1 and to chemical1 and electrical action1 we ineffectually endeavour by means of invention1 to economise fuel4 ,these are the pottering1 short-sighted1 and ignorant ways in which the great ,english nation temporises with great evils1 and permits national welfare to be sacrificed to private gain1 instead of employing for the discovery of new knowledge some of that superfluous wealth which in many instances is a curse to its possessors4 99 99 99 99 99 #hc ,,chapter ,,ii4 ------ ,,the ,,scientific ,,basis ,,of ,,mental ,,and ,,moral ,,progress4#ab ,it is not highly necessary after what has been already said in these pages1 to adduce much evidence to show that scientific discoveries1 either directly or through the medium of the inventions based upon them1 have been a great cause of mental and moral progress4 ,as however there are many persons who do not perceive the dependence of such progress1 and especially of moral advance1 upon science1 a few of the chief relations of those subjects to each other may be pointed out4 ,the dependence of mental progress upon science may be rendered manifest in several ways3--#ast4 ,by showing that new scientific knowledge is continually extending and modifying our views of existing things4 #bnd4 ,that inventions based upon scientific discoveries have aided and extended our mental powers3--#crd4 ,that mental phenomena may be made the subject of experiment1 observation1 analysis1 and #hd inference3--#dth4 ,that the criteria of truth1 and the mental powers and processes employed for discovering and detecting truth1 are the same in mental as in physical science1 and1 #eth4 ,that mental action is subject to the great principles and laws of science4 ,and moral progress may be proved to have a scientific basis3--#ast4 ,by shewing that moral actions are a class of mental actions1 and therefore subject to the same fundamental laws and influences3--#bnd4 ,that the discovery of new scientific knowledge1 and the use of inventions based upon it1 often conduce to morality3--#crd4 ,that moral phenomena may be made the subject of experiment1 observation1 analysis1 and inference3--#dth4 ,that the criteria of truth1 and the mental faculties and processes employed1 in discovering truth1 are the same in moral as in physical science3--#eth4 ,that the fundamental rules of morality are subject to the great principles of science3--#fth4 ,that moral improvement follows in the wake of scientific advance3--and #gth4 ,by showing the moral influence of experimental research in imparting the scientific spirit2 promoting a love of truth2 dispelling ignorance and superstition2 detecting error2 imparting certainty and accuracy to our knowledge2 inculcating obedience to law2 producing uniformity of belief2 aiding economy and cleanliness1 promoting humanity1 c1 c4 ,each of these will be treated with extreme brevity4 ,,mental ,,progress4 ,the chief object of this chapter is only to shew #he that mental action is largely consistent with the great principles of science2 not that in our present state of knowledge1 mental phenomena can be entirely explained by them1 or that mental actions involve nothing more than physical and chemical processes4 ,that mental progress is advanced by scientific discovery is a common circumstance4 ,our ideas of facts1 our knowledge of general principles1 our views of man1 of nature1 and of the ,universe2 and even our modes of thought1 have been gradually and profoundly changed by the new knowledge acquired by means of scientific research4 ,this truth is capable of being most extensively illustrated by a multitude of facts in the whole of the sciences1 and in the arts1 manufactures1 and other subjects dependent upon science4 ,for example1 in astronomy1 great changes1 produced by the results of scientific discovery have taken place in our ideas respecting the magnitude of ,space and of the ,heavenly bodies1 the constitution1 form1 and motion of the ,earth1 the functions of the ,sun and ,moon1 the distances of the ,sun and fixed ,stars1 the nature of eclipses and comets2 and a great many other matters4 ,in terrestrial physics1 the mental advances have been equally great in our ideas respecting the causes of tides and of winds1 the pressure of the atmosphere1 the existence and course of the ,gulf ,stream1 the physical conditions of the ,equator and ,poles1 the conditions upon which day and night1 summer and winter depend1 the depth of the ocean1 the height of the atmosphere1 the cause of rainbows1 of #hf rain1 hail1 snow1 mist and dew1 of thunder and lightning1 the composition of air1 water1 mineral1 and organic substances1 and other most numerous and varied phenomena4 ,in the subjects of heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 chemistry1 vegetable and animal physiology1 psychology and morality1 and the more concrete subjects depending upon them1 such as politics1 trade1 commerce1 government1 c41 our ideas have equally advanced1 in consequence of scientific research2 and to fully describe the mental progress resulting from discovery in nearly all branches of human knowledge would require a series of books to be written on the ,history of all the ,sciences4 ,other causes also1 which ,i need hardly mention1 besides scientific discovery1 have of course contributed to the mental progress of mankind4 ,we arrive at true ideas1 not only by the more certain and systematic process employed in scientific research1 but largely also by the uncertain method of trusting to instinct and habit1 by adopting dogmatic opinions1 and by the semi-scientific plan of following empirical rules4 ,dogma and empiricism1 in nearly all subjects1 has rendered immense service to mankind4 ,contemporaneously with the progress produced by new knowledge1 the mental condition of man has been maintained and prevented from receding1 by the combined influence of hereditary mental proclivity1 acquired habit1 promulgation of dogmatic opinions and empirical rules1 and by previously known verified truth4 ,religious #hg belief has thus been the forerunner of ,science4 ,dogma and empiricism are indispensable agents of civilization2 they cannot be dispensed with by the great mass of mankind1 who have not the time at command1 nor possess the other means1 necessary for acquiring verified knowledge4 ,they afford rough and ready guides and useful rule of thumb methods1 though less certain and less accurate than those afforded by verified and definite science4 ,that various inventions1 based upon scientific discoveries1 have greatly aided and extended our mental powers is quite certain4 ,the discovery of the properties of a mixture of solution of nutgalls and green vitriol1 has1 through the invention of ink1 exercised an immense influence in promoting the mental developement of mankind2 and the discovery of the properties of esparto grass and other materials for making paper has contributed to this result4 ,every discovery also resulting in inventions which facilitated the transmission of intelligence has had a similar effect4 ,amongst these are magnetism1 which1 in the mariner's compass greatly assisted navigation and the conveyance of letters by sea2 and the steam engine which facilitated the transmission of letters by land and by water2 the electric telegraph1 the telephone1 and other contrivances for transmitting ideas1 have also greatly promoted mental advance4 ,the steam engine1 by largely abolishing physical drudgery1 gave time for study and mental and moral improvement4 ,it has been said that it is impossible to lay down a #hh railway without creating an improved intellectual influence4 ,it is probable that ,watt and ,stephenson will eventually modify the opinions of mankind1 almost as profoundly as ,luther and ,voltaire4 ,photography has exercised an immense intellectual influence of an improved kind1 by making common to all mankind views of the beautiful scenery of all parts of our globe1 and portraits of individuals of all nations and of all classes of society4 ,processes of printing from electrotype plates1 pictures and letter-press1 upon the paper wrappers used by grocers and other tradesmen1 have also carried into the homes of millions of poor persons truthful ideas and an improved intellectual influence4 ,the invention of steel pens1 of which a thousand millions are made yearly in ,birmingham alone1 must also have considerably aided intellectual progress4 ,the various calculating machines used by merchants1 the copying presses1 papyrographs1 and the numerous inventions for copying and multiplying letters and circulars and for domestic printing1 have saved intellectual toil1 and promoted the diffusion of intelligence4 ,these are only a few of the numerous ways in which inventions based upon scientific discoveries1 have resulted in mental progress4 ,less perhaps has been done in the way of actual definite scientific experiments upon mental actions and processes than in almost any other department of science1 and this is partly accounted for by the fact that the other sciences require to be largely advanced before we can use them to examine mental action1 #hi and partly also because 7as occasionally happens7 the latter has been a neglected subject of research4 ,during the past few years however1 various experimental investigations have been made1 especially by ,donders in ,holland1 and ,mosso in ,turin1 for the purpose of elucidating the physical conditions of mental action2 and it has been found that instead of an act of thought being instantaneous1 as was formerly believed1 it requires a variable time4#ac ,numerous desultory experiments made upon dreamers1 and with drugs1 alcohol1 c41 upon persons in the waking state1 also prove that mental phenomena are amenable to scientific research4 ,f4 ,galton has even proposed experiments and methods for measuring the mental faculties of different persons4#ad ,the effects of exciting different parts of the brain of animals by means of electric currents1 and the localization of the functions of the brain effected by the experiments of ,ferrier1 ,hirtzig and others1 also tend to throw further light upon mental phenomena4 ,the fact alone that mental actions and conditions may be made the subject of experiment1 and consequently of observation1 comparison1 analysis and inference1 proves that they may be rendered sources of new facts and principles1 and are therefore within the domain of science4 ,as the dependence of mental phenomena upon physical conditions has been clearly demonstrated1 an extensive reduction of them to scientific laws is only a question of time and labour4 #ij ,the principles of nature and the modes of mental action are the same for all men4 ,it necessarily follows from the essential nature of truth and the invariability of the chief methods of detecting it1 that the criteria of truth in mental science1 and the mental powers and processes by which truth is arrived at and detected in that science1 are essentially the same as in the physiological1 chemical1 and physical ones4 ,in each of these subjects1 we first1 either with or without the aid of experiment1 make observations1 record facts1 compare them1 and draw conclusions from our comparisons2 we also group the facts1 and the conclusions1 in every possible way1 and then draw other conclusions2 we also analyse1 combine1 and permutate the various truths arrived at1 and cross examine the evidence in every possible manner in order to extract from it the greatest amount of new knowledge4 ,and in each case we employ as the criteria of truth1 the test of consistency with the whole of the evidence bearing upon the case1 and especially with the great principles of science4 ,we determine what is true1 chiefly by comparison with those principles1 because they are the most firmly established true ones and the most universal4 ,there is no royal road to truth1 and no special mental faculty for detecting it in any subject2 and it is in consequence of our mental faculties being so very finite that we have no easier way of arriving at truth4 ,no dogmatic teaching can ever1 except by accident1 fully explain to man the true nature of mind2 and #ia only in proportion as man becomes enlightened by extension of new scientific knowledge1 especially in physiology1 will he be able to view himself in a true aspect apart from his consciousness4 ,science penetrates deeper than metaphysical speculation1 into the nature of mental action1 chiefly because metaphysics deals only with old ideas1 whilst science furnishes us with new experience and therefore with new conceptions and wider evidence4 ,fallacies are very prevalent1 every subject of human study is liable to a very large class of errors arising from the extremely imperfect state of our knowledge1 and in very few subjects is our ignorance as great as in that of mental and moral phenomena4 ,every different subject of study also1 has1 in consequence of its special peculiarities1 its own peculiar class of fallacies1 into which the student of it is likely to be led1 unless he is previously guarded against them4 ,in accordance with this truth1 the study of man's nature1 especially the mental and moral portions1 is particularly liable to a class of errors arising from the circumstance1 that the phenomena to be observed and the observing power are intimately connected together1 each influencing and disturbing the other4 ,the obstacles to our arriving at truth in the study of mental and moral actions1 are greater and more frequent1 the more nearly and intimately related the phenomena to be observed and contemplated1 are to the observing and contemplating faculty1 or rather to the contemplative action4 ,when the two mental #ib actions are extremely intimate1 as when attention is directed to the action of will 7which is itself a conscious act of attention7 undisturbed thought becomes very difficult2 and when further1 the contemplative faculty attempts to contemplate itself1 as when consciousness attempts to observe consciousness1 in order to define it1 the attempt results in almost complete failure1 probably because the two actions 7observing and being observed7 being opposite in kind1 cannot coexist at the same time in the same structure4 ,knowledge of the exact nature of consciousness therefore1 will probably only be arrived at by indirect means1 when physiological and other knowledge is sufficiently advanced4 ,consciousness1 when uncorrected by sufficient knowledge and inference1 is a great source of error4 ,that which we feel1 we think exists whether it does or not1 until the subject is correctly explained to us4 ,the incessant and irresistible obtrusion of consciousness exercises dominion over every mind1 even of our greatest thinkers1 and causes disturbance and interruption in nearly every train of thought4 ,it is largely the cause of some of our most general ideas and emotions and insensibly influences our views of man and nature4 ,it produces true impressions as well as erroneous ones4 ,it is a cause of the feeling that an occult spirit exists within us independent of our material structure4 ,combined with the almost equally persistent impression of the uniformity of nature1 it largely produces the idea that the spirit within us1 #ic will live and be active for ever4 ,and by uniting with the frequent impressions of failure of our efforts and desire for more perfect enjoyment1 it largely originates the idea of everlasting happiness4 ,it is in accordance with modern scientific knowledge1 to view the mind1 not as a collection of distinct faculties1 but rather as a single kind of power1 like each of the physical forces1 having several different modes of action2 and as that which perceives1 thinks1 and wills4 ,its oneness is shewn by its inability to be simultaneously occupied by several diverse feelings1 thoughts1 or volitions1 and by our incapacity to think of many varied ideas at once2 the more ideas also or objects we attempt to perceive at once1 the less we realize of each4 ,in proportion as the mind is engaged upon one idea1 so is it also unable to be occupied with another4 ,strong feelings exclude intellectual action4 ,the mind can only execute several actions at a time1 provided they have been rendered more or less automatic by habit1 c41 but as all mental acts are in different degrees imperfectly automatic1 and require more or less attention1 and each individual mind is limited in its power1 every such act withdraws a portion of attention from the more engrossing ideas4 ,power of mind and power of maintaining attention are nearly synonymous4 ,the recognised fundamental elements of mind are ,receptivity and ,perception of impression3 ,retentiveness of impression3 ,perception of agreement 7or similarity7 of impression3 and ,perception of difference #id of impression4 ,all purely mental acts appear to be resolvable into these4 ,many persons still entertain the idea that mental actions are largely independent of the natural conditions to which physiological1 chemical1 and physical phenomena are subject4 ,the unscientific mind is readily beguiled by easy schemes of mental action1 or simple systems of mental and moral philosophy1 unaware that great abstract truths often require deep thought to discover them1 or even to perceive them when discovered and published4 ,a false notion1 which is clear and precise1 will always meet a greater number of adherents in the world than a true principle which is obscure4 ,it is not until unscientific persons have become used to advanced scientific ideas and nomenclature1 and knowledge as so far progressed as to enable thinking men to illustrate those ideas freely in familiar language1 that great abstract truths are believed by the public4 ,the ordinary and simple theory of the operations of the human mind is1 that they often arise without any cause1 and are frequently not obedient to ordinary influences1 and this idea is still entertained and promulgated even by some of our most popular ministers of truth4 ,it is therefore necessary in order to further prove that new scientific knowledge is really a basis of mental progress1 to point out a few of the chief ways in which mental action essentially depends on scientific principles1 and to adduce a few instances in which other substances than brain exhibit essentially similar phenomena4 ,to #ie shew this however in a more satisfactory manner would require a large treatise to be written upon the subject4 ,the human brain and mind are evidently subject to the ordinary laws of matter and energy4 ,receptivity and retentiveness of impression is not only a property of brain1 but of all solid matter without exception4 ,moser's pictures1 and ,chinese mirrors1 the impressions on each being reproducible by warm breath1 are examples of this4 ,and as these two properties are fundamental elements of mind1 they must be present in and essential to1 every mental action4 ,all phenomena require time and all matter occupies space2 thought and brain are no exception to this4 ,whilst all persons say ,i must have time to think1 many believe that thought is instantaneous4 ,time is a necessary condition of all thought1 and therefore of all comparison1 inference1 imagination1 and mental analysis2 it takes time even to form an idea1 or draw an inference from it1 and the two cannot be formed simultaneously4 ,professor ,donders1 of ,utrecht1 has invented what he terms a ,noematachograph for registering the amount of time occupied in mental processes1 and by the aid of that instrument has ascertained that the time required by a man of middle age to perform a single act of simple thought is about one twenty-fifth part of a second4 ,it has also been ascertained that the time required is longer in some persons than in others2 and longer if the #if subject of thought is one with which the thinker is not familiar4 ,mosso1 by means of an instrument which he calls a ,plethysmograph1 has shewn1 that during mental action1 either in the waking state1 or in dreaming1 there is a greater amount of blood determined to the brain1 and more during difficult than during easy mental action4 ,these are instances of scientific research casting a light upon mental processes4 ,coexistence of matter and energy is another great truth which appears to be applicable to all nature2 wherever there is matter1 there is either active or stored up power2 and as particular forms of energy are in some cases most exhibited by particular kinds of substance1 7as magnetism by iron71 so mind is associated with living brain4 ,as also we never see the physical powers exhibited except by material substance1 so have we never yet observed mental action in a space devoid of material4 ,the most perfect vacuum yet produced contains many millions of particles of substance in each cubic inch4 ,of all the countless number of scientific phenomena observed since men have been able to reliably investigate1 not one has afforded us conclusive evidence of mental action entirely independent of these conditions4 ,in accordance also with the usual truth in science1 that complicated action requires complex structures2 mind1 being the most intricate action1 is manifested by the most complicated body4 ,mind1 like each of the physical forces may be #ig viewed as a mode of energy2 it is essentially dynamic2 activity or change1 within or without us1 appears to be the original source of all our mental impressions1 and the cause of their re-excitement in an act of memory4 ,a man's mind1 being continually excited by circumstances1 must be active whether he will or no1 and if it does not possess sufficient truthful ideas entirely to occupy it1 it must be more or less occupied with erroneous ones4 ,we can neither feel1 nor know1 without a transition or change of state--and every cognition1 must be viewed as in relation to some other feeling1 or cognition1 7,bain4 ,mental and ,moral ,science1 p4 #hc72 i4e4 the mental effect of impressions upon us depends upon our immediately previous mental state2 consciousness and perception appear to be based upon cerebral change or activity2 after strong excitement of consciousness an increased amount of acid products is found in the secretions4 ,it is a general law of the mental constitution1 more or less recognised by inquirers into the human mind1 that change of impression is essential to consciousness in every form1 7,bain4 ,emotions and ,will1 #crd edi4 p4 #eej74 ,a sufficient degree also of such change is a necessary condition of conscious perception2 it is the stronger or more rapid only of mental changes that excite our consciousness4 ,we perceive nearly all things by means of a difference of impression which they make upon us2 by contrast4 ,that which makes no such difference of impression1 such as the great uniformities of time and #ih space1 makes no immediate impression upon us4 ,we only know of the existence of those uniformities by inference from our perceptions of sequences or of relative difference4 ,although the ,earth moves at the rate of #fb1jjj miles an hour in its orbit1 consciousness does not perceive it4 ,if also there was no error1 we should be less immediately able to discern truth1 without pain we should lose much of the enjoyment of pleasure4 ,without the contrast of imperfection we could not directly appreciate perfection4 ,this principle of relativity1 or of change of impression1 operates both in the phenomena of dead and living matter and in those of mind2 the selenium in a photophone is kept in a state of motion or activity1 not by a beam of uniform light1 but only by one which changes2 electrical action is excited by a relative difference of friction1 of temperature1 of chemical action1 c42 chemical action also often results from a relative difference of property of two bodies4 ,that the most inscrutable phenomenon of mind1 viz41 consciousness1 is largely dependent upon relative physical and chemical conditions1 is proved by the powerful influence which alcohol1 chloroform1 opium1 haschish1 and other substances1 have in exciting or depressing it4 ,these facts prove that excitement of consciousness or mental action depends upon precisely the same general condition1 viz43 change of impression1 as the excitement of some of the physical forces2 and that mind possesses a similar property to the physical forces of being changed by inequality of impression4 #ii ,whilst copious evidence is available to shew that the mind is excitable by physical causes1 no more conclusive proof exists that a mental impression arises without a natural cause1 than that a physical one1 such as a photographic impression1 arises in that way4 ,abundant evidence of non-creation of ideas out of nothing might be adduced2 even imagination and invention are subject to this limit1 because an unlimited number of new conceptions cannot be formed from a limited number of previous ideas4 ,the dependence of the mind 7like any other mode of energy7 upon physical conditions1 is further proved by the fact that the mental and moral states of a man are largely governed by sensation2 if the latter is unhealthy it makes the mind so1 and it makes some difference what the part of the body is in which the sensation exists2 most commonly it is the viscera4 ,the mind is also intimately dependent upon the physical condition of the brain1 and is largely affected by the quantity and quality of the blood in that organ4 ,the most fundamental principle which pervades every one of the sciences1 and agrees with the actions of every natural form of energy without exception1 including mind1 is1 that of consistency or non-contradiction4 ,no machine or scientific apparatus of any kind can perform two contradictory acts at the same time4 ,it is both a physiological and psychological fact1 that we cannot experience two contradictory sensations1 nor perceive two contradictory ideas at the #ajj same instant4 ,we can neither feel1 perceive1 nor observe1 one thing1 whilst we are feeling1 perceiving1 or observing1 one of a contradictory nature2 nor can we perform any two contradictory acts of comparison1 inference1 imagination1 or volition1 simultaneously4 ,as also two mental actions are often not exactly alike1 or entirely harmonious1 they must so far as they are really contradictory1 be mutually exclusive2 and one of them must partly prevent the other1 the strongest one prevailing1 and this general truth is commonly though not explicitly1 recognised in the maxim1 that to do anything well1 we must do only one thing at a time4 ,in accordance with the universal truth1 that contradictions cannot co-exist1 it is well-known that one disease frequently expels another from our frame1 and the action of counter-irritants is based upon the same principle4 ,the fortitude of martyrs may probably be explained by this power of one set of ideas and feelings to exclude another1 and the facts of mental physiology afford plenty of other examples4 ,it is probably because we cannot simultaneously perform two contradictory actions1 that we cannot contemplate consciousness1 or think of an idea and at the same time think of that act of thought4 ,in accordance with this1 even ,newton1 and other great geniuses1 have been unable to accurately describe the mental processes by means of which they arrived at their most difficult results4 ,in consequence also of this1 we cannot define consciousness1 and are often #aja unable to directly observe or analyse our mental actions1 especially those of a very abstruse or complex kind4 ,much of the knowledge of the operations of our mind1 we are therefore obliged to obtain by indirect means2 by analogies1 and inferences from the phenomena of nature1 c41 and in this way our knowledge of mental action largely depends upon our acquaintance with physical and chemical science1 and can only advance as it advances4 ,to clearly understand one subject we are often obliged to study several others4 ,ignorance of science in general1 and of cerebral physiology in particular1 is the chief obstacle to our acquiring a more accurate knowledge of mind4 ,next to consistency1 the great principle of causation constitutes the most essential part of all natural truth1 and to deny the operation of this principle in particular cases of mental action1 simply because we1 with our very finite powers1 cannot in the extremely imperfect state of our knowledge1 yet fully explain some of the most difficult1 complex1 transient1 and ever-changing phenomena of will and consciousness1 is contrary to the most weighty evidence4 ,the ,will is a conscious mental effort to effect an object1 the idea of which is already in the mind1 and being a mental effort it absorbs the mind and thereby incapacitates it at the moment from observing its own action4 ,if any phenomenon 7such as mental action7 is essentially dependent upon another1 it must be connected #ajb with it in a never-failing or indissoluble manner1 so that when the one occurs the other is always present1 otherwise it would not be essentially dependent4 ,the only known connections of this kind are those causation and continuity of phenomena1 according to which every phenomenon has a cause1 and all phenomena are indissolubly connected in endless series4 ,the evidence of the truth of these principles is so vast1 that even all mankind thinking through all ages1 and after having made an almost infinite number of definite experiments and observations1 have never yet met with a single well verified instance of their failure2 and we are therefore justified in inferring that they are universal4 ,there are however instances in the physical and chemical sciences1 as well as in mental action1 where the dependence of phenomena upon those principles is not very apparent1 and has not yet been sufficiently proved1 but it is probably in consequence of our imperfect knowledge and limited faculties1 that we are unable as yet to fully trace such dependence4 ,the history of science1 abundantly proves that we should not assume that a phenomenon arises without a natural cause1 simply for the reason that it is very difficult to trace its origin1 but wait patiently for more knowledge respecting it4 ,it is unphilosophic and contrary to reason to attribute to occult agencies1 effects which may be explicable by ordinary causes1 or to refuse to believe in more abstruse causes where the assumption of simple ones is contradicted by some of the evidence4 #ajc ,the principle of causation forms the basis of many minor ones1 such as selection1 evolution1 differentiation1 c4 ,plurality of causes also is a very common circumstance in all the sciences1 and especially in concrete phenomena1 and in the complex ones of animal life2 the arrival of a ship for example at a distant port1 is a result of many conditions4 ,similarly with most of our mental actions1 they are compounds of feeling and intellect1 and produced by many causes1 such as hereditary tendency1 acquired habit1 internal and external mental excitants1 dogmatic belief1 knowledge of empirical rules1 and occasionally of verified principles4 ,several of these causes also frequently conspire to produce a single idea or decision4 ,various general principles of lesser magnitude arise from the combined action of two or more of the greater ones1 and these also appear to operate in mental actions as well as in physical ones4 ,thus by the combined influence of causation and of the principle that every phenomenon occupies time1 effects often lag behind their causes2 and in some cases during a long period4 ,the greatest heat of summer for example usually occurs several weeks after mid-summer4 ,the mental effects of early mistakes are often not fully experienced until old age4 ,the decline of a nation also follows a long time behind the period of action of the chief causes which produce it4 ,although effects are indissolubly connected with their causes1 they frequently do not occur in an active form until a long period after them4 ,in such cases #ajd they are stored up in what is termed a potential or latent state1 ready for liberation at a future occasion1 when the suitable conditions are present2 the storage of chemical power in gunpowder1 of solar heat in coal1 and its subsequent liberation in our fires1 are suitable examples4 ,the principle of deferred activity and storing up of power1 occurs also in vital and mental phenomena2 potential heat is stored up in our food1 and is afterwards evolved by oxidation in our tissues4 ,muscular power is stored up during sleep1 ready to be evolved during labour4 ,the storage also of cerebral impressions1 and cerebral energy1 ready to call forth ideas1 and thereby powerful emotions1 by the exciting action of memory1 may also be viewed as an instance of similar kind belonging to mental phenomena4 ,a new and striking instance of the storage of energy has been shewn in ,faure's improved form of secondary voltaic battery1 in which the most powerful voltaic current may be 7at least practically7 stored up 7in a box containing lead plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid7 and conveyed to a distance with little loss1 and then liberated4 ,exciting causes operate very extensively in mental actions as well as in physical ones1 a mere look or word from an eloquent speaker will excite the passions and liberate the muscular power of a multitude4 ,every part of the human body1 especially the muscles and nerve centres1 is a store-house of power always ready to be set free by the slightest suitable causes2 this is strongly illustrated in the irrepressible activity #aje of children1 and in the excitable passions of young men and women4 ,the more immediate cause of this power is the oxidation of assimilated food2 and the source of power in the food is the heat of the ,sun stored up in the plants and animals they have eaten4 ,the subsequent liberation of power under the influence1 often of very slight causes1 long after the original cause has ceased to act1 has led us to conclude erroneously that causes are not always proportional to effects4 ,proportionality of effect to cause appears to be universal2 it probably operates in mental as well as in physical actions1 our faith in education as a means of intelligence is based upon this2 the more complete the education of a particular individual1 the greater usually is his degree of intelligence4 ,proportionality of cause to effect is apparently disobeyed not only in physical but also in mental phenomena4 ,throughout the whole realm of nature1 minute circumstances often act as exciting1 deflecting1 and guiding causes1 and contribute to the production of apparently disproportionate effects4 ,thus a spark will discharge the largest cannon2 a touch determine the most distant electric signal2 a word or look1 excite the strongest emotions2 the little change of position of a railway point will direct a train either to distant ,north or ,south2 the minute change of contact of the telegraph switch1 will determine the signal to places wide asunder2 one false idea also at a critical moment will often lead a man or woman to ruin2 and in all these classes of cases1 #ajf whilst trifling causes appear to produce great effects2 the real causes are the stored up latent powers set free or directed4 ,it is astonishing how small a circumstance will excite an idea1 and deflect the entire current of our thoughts2 and it is equally surprising what great physical and chemical effects are often started by most minute exciting or deflecting conditions2 the explosion of seven tons of dynamite at ,hell-gate1 near ,new ,york1 by the pressure of a child's finger closing an electric circuit is a suitable example4 ,every phenomenon therefore whether physical or mental1 is probably connected in an indissoluble manner with some preceding phenomenon1 either immediately in point of time1 or remotely through some static condition1 usually that of stored up power4 ,in this sense the great principle of continuity of phenomena appears to be universal1 and the present state of the ,universe is said to implicitly or potentially contain all the future states of the ,universe4 ,mind also in this way1 like each of the physical forces1 often acts as a link in an endless chain of causes and effects1 and is connected with non-mental phenomena in accordance with the great principles of science4 ,science has demonstrated what has been termed the ,convertibility of ,forces1 or1 that when one form of energy disappears1 another form 7or forms7 of energy1 and in precisely equivalent amount1 is produced in its stead1 either in a latent or active state4 ,the equivalent quantities of the various forms of #ajg energy have also been discovered by actual experiment and measurement4 ,a pound weight falling through #ggb feet gives forth as much energy as would 7in the form of heat7 raise the temperature of one pound of water one ,fahrenheit degree4 ,we know that so much mechanical power is equal also to so much electric current1 chemical action1 c41 and a large amount of evidence exists to show that these transformations of energy occur in all the organs of living creatures1 and in obedience to the law of their equivalents4 ,how far mental power is a mode of energy transformable1 and obedient to the laws of equivalence1 are interesting questions for future research4 ,the mechanical principle of action and reaction is another which can be traced in mental as well as in physical phenomena4 ,mental excitement is often succeeded by mental depression1 after pleasure follows pain4 ,the power of mental self-guidance and self-education is largely dependent upon the two well known scientific principles of latent energy1 and action and reaction4 ,we are able to liberate energy1 not only in cases where it will influence inanimate matter but also ourselves4 ,the principle of self-guidance is not restricted to living creatures1 nor is self-regulation limited to mental power4 ,the principle of self-regulation operates in clocks1 watches1 musical boxes1 the governors of steam engines1 water regulators1 gas regulators1 c41 c41 and upon an immense scale in the movements of the heavenly #ajh bodies4 ,with the electric locomotive1 the greater the load it has to draw1 or the steeper the incline it has to ascend1 the more strongly does it exert its strength1 up to the full limits of its power4 ,neither in physical nor in mental actions can a body or force usually act directly upon itself to change its state whether of activity or rest4 ,in both classes of cases however we meet with plenty of instances where1 a body by an almost imperceptible expenditure of energy on its own part either alters some surrounding conditions1 or excites a powerful liberation of energy in another body which then reacts upon it to change its state4 ,in this way the action of clock-work in the self-exploding apparatus of a torpedo liberates at a particular moment a spring1 and causes an explosion which destroys the apparatus4 ,similarly1 whilst a man1 in many cases1 is unable to directly alter his mental state1 to increase or diminish his mental activity1 to cause sleep1 c41 he is able indirectly to change his mental condition by drinking stimulants or by adopting means of self-education2 and to induce sleep by means of opium1 suitable exercise1 c4 ,the principles of indestructibility or conservation of matter and energy1 flow from the preceding ones1 and are exhibited in mental actions as well as in physical ones4 ,whilst the universal experience of mankind has not yet afforded us a single well verified instance of actual creation or destruction of matter or energy1 it has supplied us with plenty of examples of apparent destruction and creation of each of them4 #aji ,but scientific knowledge corrects the uncertain testimony of consciousness2 whilst we see coal burn and be apparently destroyed1 science proves to us that the elements composing it remain undiminished4 ,we observe also that the heat of the fire dissipates and is apparently lost for ever2 but science again proves that it is either stored up in the latent state1 ready to be again liberated at a future time1 or else converted into other forms of energy4 ,a given atom of matter or a portion of energy1 therefore1 to the best of our knowledge1 continues and persists for ever4 ,as we cannot either create or destroy matter so also can we not create or annihilate energy1 and this truth probably holds good with regard to mental as well as to physical and chemical power4 ,great changes of state in bodies 7as in the combustion of wood c47 have led us to erroneously think that the substances are destroyed2 and great apparent differences of property1 such as those of diamond and charcoal1 have led us similarly to conclude that they are entirely distinct and independent of each other when they are not4 ,as the cerebrum of man is composed of matter1 and during excitement1 its parts are active1 we might confidently predict that its particles obey the ,first law of ,motion1 viz43 that a body in a state of rest or motion will continue in that state of rest or motion until some cause arise to prevent it4 ,so it has been found that the action of the vital and mental forces have a degree of persistence1 like the physical ones4 ,it has been experimentally found that portions of #aaj living bone transplanted to fleshy parts of animals where there was no bone1 continued to grow for a time by a life of their own1 and increased by formation of additional bone1 like a crystal grows in its medium2 but after a time they diminished and disappeared4 ,in a similar manner we are all of us aware of the persistency of ideas1 even in opposition to the will1 after the cause of them has been removed4 ,sometimes we cannot retain an idea because of the persistence of others2 and at other times we cannot get rid of one1 for a similar reason4 ,our mental habits also have often very great persistence4 ,the principle of heredity may be viewed as a result of the ,first law of ,motion1 and appears as ,persistency of state1 either of structure1 form1 or mode of action4 ,it appears both in inanimate bodies1 living structures1 and in mental phenomena2 in the latter1 as hereditary mental peculiarities4 ,the principle of ,persistency of structure and ,heredity of form and property1 during repeated or even continual dissolution and aggregation of a material substance1 is more or less manifest nearly throughout the whole of nature4 ,in the formation of crystals it is clearly seen2 each crystallizable substance will only grow into its own shape or shapes2 each particle of common salt1 during an endless series of successive solutions and aggregations into the solid state1 always forms a more or less perfect cube2 that of silica a hexagon2 and so on throughout the entire series of thousands of different crystalline bodies4 ,as each #aaa form of crystal only produces crystals of like form and property 7or at most in certain cases a limited number of modified forms1 as in the instance of calcic carbonate1 c47 so also each seed1 both of animals and vegetables1 only produces its own particular essential shape and collection of functions4 ,the same principle shews itself in the transmission of particular types of disease1 and of eccentricities of organization1 from one generation to another of animals4 ,peculiar malformations of body and characteristics of mind often persist in families from generation to generation4 ,this persistency or heredity of structure and of property is not limited to solid bodies1 but exists also in liquids3 ,the effect of vaccine virus upon the liquid blood1 in producing a permanent and organic change in its constitution and character1 which continues to exercise a protective influence against small-pox1 in the great mass of cases1 through a long life1 during which time the blood must have undergone1 many thousands1 if not millions of changes and modifications4 7,f4 ,winslow4 ,obscure diseases of ,brain and ,mind1 page #dcb74 ,the same persistency of structure and property of structure1 has even been detected in vapours2 the vapour of red iodide of mercury for example1 deposits only crystals of red iodide1 whilst that of the yellow deposits only yellow 7see ,gmelin's ,handbook of ,chemistry1 vol4 #a1 p4 #ajj47 ,we often appear to mentally select when we only yield to causes acting upon us1 i4e41 to the strongest influence or motive4 ,that self-preservation is the #aab first law of nature1 is not only true of living creatures1 but largely also of dead substances4 ,inanimate as well as animate matter1 appears to usually select what is good for itself4 ,apparent selection1 which is manifested in the phenomena of instinct1 is exhibited not only by brain1 but by all material substances4 ,acids appear to select bases1 ,north magnetism rejects ,north and prefers ,south magnetism4 ,also if a piece of zinc is put into a mixed solution of the nitrates of silver1 magnesium1 calcium1 strontium1 barium1 lithium1 sodium1 potassium1 and rubidium1 it will select the silver only with which to form a metallic tree1 and reject all the other metals4 ,everything which aggregates or grows to a definite shape1 appears to select its material2 if a crystal of a particular salt is placed in a mixture of saturated solutions of different salts1 it will only select and assimilate to itself suitable material1 either particles of the same composition as itself1 or those which are isomorphous with it1 i4e4 belonging to the same crystalline system4 ,in living bodies also1 the same principle operates2 ,living tissues1 whether of animals or vegetables1 usually select from their nutrient fluids1 and assimilate1 particles only of those kinds of matter which are suitable for their structure2 in this way1 a bone assimilates lime and phosphoric acid from the multitude of different substances conveyed to it by the blood4 ,and in all these cases1 the selecting material appears to act as if it possessed the powers of instinct1 perception1 comparison1 judgment1 and #aac volition4 ,the act of self-repair is clearly connected with this1 and is not limited to living structures2 ,sir ,david ,brewster observed that if a portion of the surface of a perfect crystal of alum is very slightly abraded by dissolving a film from it1 and the crystal be then immersed during a very brief period in a saturated solution of alum1 the abraded portion repairs itself4 ,the subjects of malformation of crystals1 and diseases of crystals have been scientifically investigated4 ,the power of selection 7or rather of apparent selection7 is no doubt a result of the combined action of causation and of the inherent properties of bodies1 and depends1 like consciousness1 upon difference of impression1 the strongest suitable influence determining4 ,if apparent selection can thus be performed by inanimate matter1 we should not1 except for a very sufficient reason1 assume the existence in living creatures1 of a special occult power to perform the same function4 ,in the selection of ideas also the intellect acts according to the purely scientific method4 ,we frequently appear to mentally adapt ourselves to particular circumstances when we are really determined by causes2 and this apparent adaptation is also seen in ordinary physical and chemical phenomena4 ,the course of a river for instance1 adapts itself to the configuration of the country through which it flows1 and if it cannot pass wholly by one channel1 as in seasons of flood1 or on occasions of accidental obstruction1 it travels through several2 and a similar result #aad occurs with the flow of the blood when an artery is tied or becomes obstructed4 ,a plant when growing in a dark recess1 bends itself towards the light as if it preferred light2 and its roots adapt themselves to the forms of existing obstacles4 ,a decapitated frog jumps away from a source of irritation1 as if he still possessed sensation1 volition1 and choice4 ,a man seeking his way through a crowd avoids the course in which the throng is densest4 ,the human mind also1 chooses as it were1 the easiest way of solving a problem1 and usually adapts itself to altered circumstances4 ,the principle of evolution also operates both in physical and mental actions1 and is a result of that of causation4 ,complexity of structure and function is evolved out of simplicity of composition and property by plurality of causes and conditions4 ,for instance1 many complex forms of crystals of ice are produced from water4 ,calcspar crystallizes in more than one hundred varieties of form1 7all derived from an obtuse rhombohedron7 under the influence of a number of slightly different conditions of temperature1 impurities in the solution1 c4 ,the most complex bodies are evolved out of the simplest1 the bodily frame of man himself 7and that of other animals7 is constructed of less than twenty of the elementary substances4 ,the same simple substances are capable of yielding very different and more complex bodies under different conditions2 thousands of different chemical compounds are composed of hydrogen1 oxygen1 and carbon only4 ,in the development of #aae living forms from ova1 the ultimate form produced does not exist in the germ1 any more than a crystal exists in its solution1 but is a natural consequence of the forces acting in and upon the germ1 like the cubical form of a crystal of common salt is a result of the forces acting in its constituents under the conditions of its environment1 especially those of pressure and temperature4 ,the extent to1 and manner in which1 the force and principle operate1 depend upon the material substance1 and its conditions internal and external4 ,it is a common circumstance1 both in physical1 mental1 and moral subjects1 for the apparent to be the very opposite of the real4 ,this general truth has been repeatedly illustrated in an incidental manner in this book1 and need not be much further elucidated4 ,phenomena are none the less real1 however1 because they are not readily manifest2 our earth is as much tied to the sun by the invisible power of gravity1 as if it was attached to it by visible material chains4 ,mistaking the apparent for the real1 largely explains the persistency of certain beliefs1 and why it is that persons unacquainted with science1 cling to self-deception1 and resist some of the most firmly established truths4 ,the more evident but untrue explanation is believed1 whilst the less apparent but true one is rejected4 ,it is the chief cause of the belief that the will is a supernatural power4 ,to a scientific man however1 apparent contradictions are not unfrequently a sign of truth2 too accurate results sometimes #aaf indicate that they have been artificially made to appear correct4 ,sympathetic action or propagation of similar influence by immediate impulse1 is a property of all the natural forms of energy1 as well as of mind4 ,similar actions are propagated thus in all kinds of dead substances1 as well as in the living brain4 ,matter is sympathetic to sound in the phenomena of singing-flames1 and a vibrating string responds to a particular note in obedience to well-known laws4 ,iodide of nitrogen may be caused to explode by the influence of a particular note from a fiddle4 ,in the phenomena of light1 with a spectroscope1 a luminous gas is sympathetic with1 and emits and absorbs1 only particular kinds of luminous rays4 ,in chemical action also1 combustion excites combustion1 ferment excites ferment1 infection communicates infection1 and the similar chemical change is transmitted from molecule to molecule4 ,mental excitement and disease in one person1 often excite similar phenomena in another1 as is seen in religious revivals1 and well-known epidemics1 such as the dancing mania1 preaching epidemics1 the leaping ague1 the mewing contagion1 etc41 etc41 7,see ,epidemics of the ,middle ,ages1 by ,hecker2 ,sydenham ,society publications2 also ,carpenter's ,mental ,physiology1 p4 #cab47 ,like excites like in the actions of each of the forces of nature2 both in physical1 chemical1 and mental action1 the kind of impulse transmitted is similar1 unless conditions exist which transmute it4 ,dynamite1 #aag started into combustion by a flame1 burns slowly away2 but when started by a detonating substance1 detonates violently4 ,guthrie has also discovered that if a melted cryohydrate 7e4 g4 a chilled saturated aqueous solution of a solid salt7 is cooled to a certain greater extent1 it will not solidify--nothing separates out1 although the solution is four or five degrees below its proper solidifying point4 ,if a little crystal of ice be then thrown into it1 nothing separates but ice1 which comes to the surface4 ,if we throw in a little anhydrous salt1 nothing but the anhydrous salt separates out1 and that sinks to the bottom4 ,but if we throw into it a crystal of a previous crop of cryohydrate1 then nothing but the cryohydrate separates4 ,in this case also1 like evidently excites like only1 in obedience to physical laws4 7,addresses1 ,science ,conferences2 ,south ,kensington ,museum1 #ahgf2 ,vol4 #b1 p4 #ajh74 ,even two clocks1 when hung near each other1 against a board or surface which readily transmits vibrations1 have been known to exhibit1 by synchronous action1 an apparent sympathy1 which changed their rate of going4 ,periodical phenomena1 also1 brought about by definite causes1 occur in mental1 as well as in physical phenomena4 ,in the former we have the phenomena of sleep1 and in the latter1 definite causes produce summer and winter1 day and night1 the tides1 cycles of solar spots1 maxima and minima of magnetic intensity1 etc41 etc4 ,conversely to the manifestation of the principles of #aah inanimate matter by living bodies and in mental action1 so have modern inventions demonstrated the possibility of the performance by inanimate substances and apparatuses1 of the functions1 not only of our bodily organs1 7as of locomotion by the steam engine17 but also of our senses and intellect1 and in some cases1 to a degree far surpassing unaided human power4 ,apparatus1 sensitive to sound1 have been constructed1 as in the microphone and singing-flames2 others capable of reproducing articulate speech1 as in the phonograph1 telephone1 etc42 others again sensitive to light1 as in the production of visible images by photography1 and reproducing them at a distance through wires by means of the photophone2 the power of indicating or foretelling future events has also been embodied in instruments called tide predictors1 and that of evolving inferences has been shewn in ,jevon's ,logical machine4 ,the various facts mentioned in this chapter prove that mind agrees with the various forms of physical energy in many essential points1 and obeys many of the same laws or principles4 ,examine whatever general phenomena of the mind we may1 we can always detect some apparent or real connection of them with the great principles of inorganic nature2 and in order to prove the dependence of them upon the great principles of science it is not necessary to show that all such actions are subject to those principles4 ,until the whole is explained however1 there will always remain mysterious phenomena to cavil about4 #aai ,,moral ,,progress4 ,at the present time few competent persons have largely investigated the fundamental relations of morality to ,physical ,science1 consequently moral actions are usually considered not to have a scientific basis1 and the doctrine is still extensively taught that some moral phenomena are essentially supernatural4 ,as new scientific knowledge has increased1 belief in witchcraft1 sorcery1 demonology1 exorcism1 evil influences and omens1 unseen spirits1 a ,god of evil1 supernatural and occult powers1 supernatural sources of strange diseases1 evil presages from comets and eclipses1 fetishism1 worship of images and of the ,sun1 a belief that the ,earth is the chief body in the ,universe1 that man is the ,lord of ,creation1 c1 c4 have largely passed away1 and beliefs more consistent with facts and with true inferences drawn from them1 have taken their place4 ,belief in the supernatural nature of the human will however is still largely retained4 ,a writer on morality1 says--,in every genuine volition we have a phenomenon not law-determined1 law-regulated1 and law-explained4#ae ,a popular expositor of religion says--,the phenomena of the human soul are essentially different from the phenomena with which the student of science is most familiar1 and must be investigated on other principles and by other methods4 ,the voluntary activity of man lies beyond the limits of science4 ,every language man has ever spoken--no matter how #abj perfect or how rude--the literature of the ancient and the modern world1 the indestructible instincts of the human soul1 the testimony of consciousness1 unite to affirm that the human will is independent of natural law4 ,the will is a supernatural power4 ,i myself am not under the dominion of natural law2 my moral life is essentially a supernatural thing4 ,as soon as you approach the intellectual and moral life of man1 you enter a region in which you have to do with a new order of facts4 c4#af ,morality1 the subject of duty1 or of right and wrong-doing in conscious creatures1 is usually considered to relate only to those actions over which a man has or might have had control1 and which it was his duty either to perform or avoid1 and not to those which are entirely beyond his influence1 it is therefore essentially dependent upon the power of selection or choosing4 ,as then all moral actions require voluntary choice between right and wrong1 and every act of choice is a mental one of comparison of two or more things1 all moral actions are mental ones4 ,we cannot compare things which have not made any mental impression upon us4 ,we know further1 and the evidence already given proves1 that mental actions are intimately dependent upon the principles of nature operating within and around us4 ,if then all acts of morality 7or immorality7 are mental ones1 and if all mental actions are intimately dependent upon the great principles of nature2 then all acts of morality #aba are dependent upon those principles4 ,morality also cannot be properly understood without a knowledge of various sciences1 especially biology1 because it relates to human creatures1 all of whom are morally affected by the various forces and substances belonging to the physical and chemical sciences4 ,having shown that moral actions are mental ones1 and adduced evidence to prove that mental actions are largely subject to scientific principles2--it follows as a necessary consequence1 that moral actions also largely obey those principles1 and ,i need not repeat that evidence4 ,the extension of scientific knowledge conduces in a very general way to moral progress1 by diffusing the scientific spirit1 increasing our love of truth1 facilitating the attainment of greater certainty and accuracy1 enabling us to more perfectly avoid error1 reducing our ignorance1 dispelling superstition1 inculcating obedience to law1 diminishing difference of opinion and thereby lessening strife1 conducing to humility1 to greater economy of means1 to increased cleanliness1 c1 c4 ,scientific research also1 by disclosing to man his true position in nature1 enables him to act in harmony therewith1 and thus increase his morality and general happiness4 ,knowledge is as free as the air1 once diffused it becomes impressed upon the brains of men and cannot be easily destroyed or restrained2 and the greatest moral effects of science are cosmopolitan ones4 ,inventions based upon new scientific truths are gradually #abb breaking down the barriers between the various nations of the ,earth1 and infusing common interests amongst all mankind4 ,nothing is uniting the sympathies of different nations1 increasing the friendly feelings between them1 and diminishing the probability of war1 more than the increasing facilities of communication brought about in a great measure by the developments of science and art2 more particularly by ocean steam navigation1 rapid postal communication and the telegraph1 7see p4 #ea74 ,at the present time there are about six ,atlantic telegraph cables in use1 and an almost daily service of passenger steam ships across that ocean4 ,the use of inventions based upon scientific discovery has aided moral progress in various ways4 ,all inventions are made with the object of supplying some real or supposed want1 and nearly everything which supplies a common want1 conduces to contentment and happiness and the general progress of mankind4 ,no one can possibly measure or estimate the advantage of the inventions of writing and printing1 in helping men to avoid quarrels1 to settle differences of opinion1 to sympathise with suffering1 to give advice3 c4 ,similar moral functions are also performed by the electric telegraph1 and a few specimens of some of the messages sent through the wire would clearly illustrate this fact4 ,great moral progress has also resulted from cheap daily intelligence1 collected largely with the aid of the telegraph2 and of cheap books produced by means of the steam engine4 ,it is estimated that #bej millions #abc of copies of newspapers are yearly published in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,bible and ,religious ,tract ,societies could hardly have existed had not the properties of the ingredients of ink been discovered4 ,the present multiplicity of testaments1 prayer-books1 hymn-books1 c41 has also been rendered possible by the invention of printing4 ,as darkness is favourable to crime1 so the invention of gaslight has conduced to morality4 ,the numerous sources of intellectual and moral enjoyment1 developed by inventions based upon scientific discovery1 have attracted mankind from more sensual and less moral amusements1 and the invention of the piano-forte has operated largely in a similar manner4 ,in many respects1 the poor man of to-day can command social comforts1 conveniences1 and pleasures1 which an emperor could not in former times4 ,who can estimate the amount of beneficial moral influences of an indirect kind obtained by means of modern science8 ,the relief from pain by chloroform and other new medicines1 the diminution of domestic toil by the sewing machine2 the increased health and pleasure obtained by access to the country and seaside by means of railways2 the diminution of anxiety resulting from more speedy conveyance of letters1 and especially of messages by telegraphs1 the increased pleasure of life resulting from being surrounded by objects of beauty multiplied cheaply by means of scientific processes1 such as photography8 ,the human mind cannot greatly resist impression1 the various effects of scientific research necessarily #abd produce an influence upon it4 ,whilst great deep-seated truths make a powerful impression on the minds of philosophers1 the great practical effects of science in inventions1 c41 profoundly impress the mass of mankind4 ,one of the chief influences of the discovery of important scientific truths and of their practical application in some wonderful way1 such as in the telescope and microscope1 phosphorus matches1 photography1 electro-plating1 the electric light1 the spectroscope1 microphone1 telephone1 c41 is to produce a profound and wide-spread impression of the existence of a great and mysterious influence1 which produces 7or enables us to produce7 such striking effects4 ,whilst also the novelty of the practical effects of new scientific truths in inventions1 astonish persons in general2 the definiteness of scientific phenomena1 and the certainty with which they may be reproduced convince all competent persons who examine them1 that they are rigidly subject to definite laws4 ,in this way the antique belief that natural phenomena are produced by supernatural agencies1 is gradually being abandoned1 and the more moral conviction of the omnipresence and universality of law has been largely established in its stead4 ,every new scientific fact and invention thus becomes a new proof of the universality of law4 ,belief in the supernatural has diminished in proportion as scientific knowledge has advanced2 instead of natural phenomena being erroneously ascribed to demons1 spirits1 supernatural #abe powers1 and occult causes1 they have been proved to be results of natural powers1 acting in accordance with known principles4 ,assertions which have been made1 that the will is a supernatural power1 independent of natural law c41 are not supported by evidence at all equal in cogency to that in proof of the statement1 that our mental and moral powers as a whole act in accordance with the great principles of science4 ,that moral phenomena1 like those of the physical sciences1 are capable of being made the subject of experiment1 observation1 comparison1 analysis1 and inference1 is very manifest4 ,every case of bribery may be viewed as an experiment in morality4 ,the very common case where an employer tests the honesty of a servant by some contrivance1 is also a trial of a similar kind4 ,the dependence of the moral powers upon scientific conditions1 is clearly seen in the influences of intoxicating drinks4 ,a mere natural substance could not possibly overcome the influence of a power which exists entirely independent of it2 i4e41 a supernatural one4 ,even the greatest believer in the supernatural power of the human will1 deplores the serious injury which the abuse of alcoholic liquors produces upon mankind1 rendering the will powerless1 and debasing the moral sentiments4 ,the effects of opium1 haschisch1 c41 are other examples4 ,a vast number of experiments remain to be made of the effects of drugs and organic compounds1 both solid1 liquid and gaseous1 upon moral actions2 #abf which will probably prove a still greater degree of dependence of those actions upon purely physical and chemical conditions4 ,the order of facts in the subject of morality requires precisely similar mental treatment to those to which scientific investigation has been already applied with such great success1 and which include all phenomena admitting of observation1 comparison1 analysis and inference2 and not only those in which we are able1 but also those in which we are not able to produce by means of experiment1 the phenomena to be observed1 such as those of astronomy and geology4 ,different subjects also are experimental in different degrees1 physical science is more experimental1 physiology is more observational2 morality is partly experimental1 and therefore capable of reduction to scientific system by means of our intellectual powers4 ,in consequence of the essential nature of truth being the same in all subjects1 and of the fundamental processes of mental action in the determination of truth being also alike in all1 the essential modes of arriving at and detecting moral truth are the same as those employed in research in the physical sciences4 ,we possess therefore no special faculty1 call it conscience1 or what we may1 by which we are enabled to infallibly arrive at truth in moral questions4 ,what is right and good1 and what is wrong and evil1 are determined by precisely the same general means as what is true2 our much vaunted consciousness alone does not infallibly tell us2 reason alone1 #abg acting upon the evidence1 is the final arbiter in any doubtful or disputed case4 ,the truth of moral questions must be examined and tested by precisely the same mental faculties and processes as those employed in physical science1 viz3--by the faculties of perception1 observation1 comparison1 and inference1 acting upon the whole of the evidence2 and by the processes of observing facts1 comparing them1 inferring conclusions2 by analysing and cross-examining the evidence in every possible way1 and extracting from it the largest amount of consistent knowledge4 ,although we cannot detect moral truth by any other than intellectual processes1 we may however arrive at correct moral conduct in two ways1 viz3--either blindly or intelligently4 ,we arrive at it blindly or automatically by the process of trusting to our inherited and acquire tendencies and dogmatic beliefs2 and intelligently by the conscious use of our knowledge and intellectual powers2 and each of these methods has its advantages4 ,the former process being an empirical one1 is very uncertain and cannot be employed for the judicial detection of truth1 or the certain discrimination of it from error1 it has however to be trusted to in all cases where we are deficient in knowledge1 or have not time for investigation4 ,truthful ideas and correct conduct also1 which at first require the exercise of considerable intellect and much self-discipline1 in order to arrive at them1 become by habit so completely converted into acquired tendencies as to be automatic4 ,it is not improbable #abh that many of our truthful ideas and correct tendencies were originally arrived at by intellectual processes2 and have become incorporated into our mental and physical structure by habit1 education1 and inheritance4 ,the scientific basis of morality is further shewn and essentially proved by the fact that the fundamental rules of morality are dependent upon scientific principles4 ,according to ,dr4 ,clarke1 the two fundamental rules of righteousness which regulate our moral conduct are1 first1 that we should do unto another what we would1 under like circumstances1 have him do unto us2 and second1 that we should constantly endeavour to promote to the utmost of our power1 the welfare and happiness of all men 7to the latter might well be added1 the welfare of all sentient creatures74 ,the first of these rules is essentially dependent upon the scientific principle of causation1 viz3--that the same cause1 acting under the same circumstances1 always produces the same effect1 if what we did for another person under like circumstances might produce a different effect to what it would when done for ourself1 the rule could not be depended upon and would be of no use4 ,the second also agrees with the great principles of science1 for the more we obey those principles1 the more do we really promote the happiness and welfare of all men4 ,the first of these rules however in the form usually stated1 is incomplete1 because it does not provide for the circumstance1 that many persons desire to have done unto themselves1 not that which #abi is most right1 and really most for their welfare and that of mankind in general1 but that which would most please them4 ,the desire of immediate pleasure or consolation is greater than the love of truth in nearly all men1 and this is connected with another fact1 viz3--that persons unacquainted with the great principles of science1 have not the advantage of the moral sustaining power of those principles1 and are compelled in circumstances of trial to seek extraneous mental relief4 ,the desire to do right is not the primary source of morality2 there must be a cause for that desire1 and this fact also shews that moral phenomena are dependent upon the scientific principle of causation4 ,we can also much better understand a subject1 especially a complex one like that of morals1 when we can co ordinate its facts in a scientific manner1 by referring them to some general principle which governs or includes them4 ,referring moral actions to a verified scientific principle1 is more satisfactory than referring them to a less definite source such as conscience2 the testimony of consciousness2 or the indestructible instincts of the human soul1 because a principle affords a more consistent explanation than a dogmatic idea4 ,the fact also that the discoveries of science usually precede the developments of the moral advantages of science to mankind1 is in harmony with the general truth that effects follow their causes1 and with the conclusion that moral rules and moral progress have a scientific basis4 #acj ,in a general way1 the influence of science upon moral progress is connected with what has been termed1 the scientific spirit4 ,this characteristic consists mainly of an intense love of truth1 a desire to acquire new knowledge1 to arrive at certainty and accuracy2 also an obedience to law in general1 and a consequent philosophic resignation to inevitable ills4 ,science inculcates these qualities1 and it is well known that scientific discoverers have usually been highly moral persons1 truthful1 accurate1 law abiding1 patient1 persevering1 temperate1 c4 ,on the other hand1 the most lawless persons are usually those who are most ignorant of the great laws which govern their actions1 who over-estimate human power and ability1 and are impelled by ill-regulated enthusiasm or feeling4 ,belief in and obedience to law1 being a fundamental moral quality1 is in its turn the source of other moral qualities of less importance2 for instance1 it tends to produce calmness1 resignation1 contentment1 patience1 submission to the inevitable1 c4 ,no man can be highly moral who disobeys the great principles of nature4 ,we may however obey those laws either intelligently1 by acquiring a scientific knowledge of them2 empirically1 by obeying rules framed in accordance with them2 or blindly1 by obeying dogmas which happen to agree with them4 ,those who do not understand laws cannot of course intelligently obey them1 and those who most disobey them1 consist nearly wholly of those who do not understand them4 #aca ,superstition1 ignorance of natural law1 and a belief in occult powers1 encourages lawlessness1 injures the moral sentiments1 and is often attended by bigotry1 associated with strife1 schism1 and sectarian dispute4 ,probably the greatest influence which scientific discovery has had upon the moral progress of mankind1 has been by inculcating an intelligent love of truth on account of its own intrinsic goodness2 in this respect it stands pre-eminent4 ,love of truth is a fundamental virtue because it is the basis of many smaller ones4 ,it is more virtuous1 also1 to pursue truth on account of its own intrinsic and unqualified goodness in all respects1 than for any narrow extrinsic quality1 such as the personal pleasure or utility it may afford1 or on account of any personal gain or loss1 reward or punishment1 which may result from pursuing or neglecting it4 ,in the present imperfect state of civilization however1 the great bulk of mankind unavoidably employ less noble1 as well as the noblest motives1 as a means of improvement4 ,most men can only be moved to do right by means of inferior motives1 one of the most effectual of which in a commercial nation is small investments1 large profits1 and quick returns2 an expectation of great reward in return for small self-sacrifice4 ,the discovery and dissemination of verified scientific knowledge is a purer kind of occupation than the promulgation of any kind of dogma1 because the statements of verified science are usually capable of demonstration1 whilst those of doctrine1 being often #acb contradictory1 may1 or may not be true2 mere affirmation also1 when not based upon proof1 is often dangerous to morality4 ,in dogmatic subjects a man may tell untruths with impunity1 because no one can disprove or convict him2 but in demonstrable ones1 a man dare not utter falsehoods1 because others will prove his statements to be erroneous4 ,it is demonstration rather than doctrine that is of divine origin4 ,a man also who practises scientific research is largely compelled to adopt the most truthful views of nature1 in order to enable him to make discoveries4 ,real science is largely independent of opinion or faith4 ,whether we believe or not that a piece of clean iron immersed in a mixture of oil of vitriol and water1 evolves hydrogen gas1 the fact itself remains unaltered4 ,it is a great and glorious circumstance for mankind1 that human progress depends essentially upon a knowledge of new verified truth4 ,as verified experimental knowledge can only come from the great source of all that is good1 to doubt the value of new demonstrable truth1 is practical atheism4 ,those also who systematically investigate sources of verifiable truth1 are much more likely to ultimately arrive at the fountain of all truth1 than those who employ unsystematic methods1 or prefer unproved beliefs to verified knowledge4 ,another of the most powerful ways in which scientific discovery has promoted moral progress has been an indirect one1 viz41 by diminishing ignorance4 ,deficiency of knowledge is the parent of a vast #acc amount of evil and failure4 ,there is no instance on record of an active ignorant man1 who1 having good intentions1 and supreme power to enforce them1 has not done far more evil than good4 7,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization1 vol4 #a1 p4 #afg74 ,ignorance largely precludes happiness1 and intelligence is an indispensable condition of the highest morality4 ,there are plenty of difficult positions in life in which the desire to do right is not alone sufficient1 we must intelligently know what is the right course to pursue4 ,we are all of us ignorant in different degrees1 and must be content in many matters to walk by faith until we can walk by sight1 and to act according to rule and precept until we have discovered general principles to guide us3--blind dogmatic morality and rule of thumb method is vastly better than none1 and has rendered great services to mankind4 ,whether comforting doctrines are true or not1 the great bulk of mankind prefer them because they afford immediate relief2 and whether they be erroneous or truthful1 men will be benefited by them and continue to believe in them1 until their minds are sufficiently advanced to receive a knowledge of verified principles4 ,rules of morality however1 when presented to us with a basis of demonstrable truth1 come with a degree of divine authority1 and possess greater claim to our observance1 than the same rules presented to us as empirical or dogmatic statements only4 ,in proportion to our ignorance the more we dislike to be apprised of our defects and the more inclined are #acd we to continue uninformed2 because the less intelligent we are the less are we able to perceive the evil effects of our blindness or the advantages of knowledge4 ,as also the present state of civilization is very imperfect1 and unsolved problems exist in all directions1 ignorance and all its evil consequences are extremely prevalent4 ,it causes the great mass of mankind to neglect better objects for the sake of money4 ,it indirectly constrains lawyers to neglect moral evidence4 ,it induces medical men to withhold truth from ignorant patients4 ,it causes ministers of religion to prefer doctrine to demonstration4 ,it would therefore be comparatively easy to compose lists of our moral deficiencies1 and of improvements urgently needed in morality1 far more extensive than the very incomplete ones of our material shortcomings already given 7see pp4 #fh to #gh74 ,to enumerate however the imperfections in the moral conduct of mankind1 the frauds in trades1 the undue advantage taken of the defenceless1 the deceit and empiricism in professions1 the professional trading on human weakness1 the cruelty of field sports1 the hollow motives of social1 political1 and religious life1 the propagating as infallible truth1 doctrines which may be fallacious1 is not the object of this ,chapter2 but rather to make clear the fact1 that the extension of the domain of verified truth by means of scientific research is highly conducive to moral progress4 ,the extension of new scientific knowledge is influencing morality and gradually reducing the selfishness #ace of mankind1 by proving that there exist no royal roads to happiness1 and that the greatest amount of individual and national success can only be secured by a genuine pursuit of truth1 as an individual and cosmopolitan duty4 ,increased knowledge is gradually proving to mankind that the purest happiness is to be obtained by intelligent and virtuous conduct4 ,by shewing ,man the unreasonable character of some of his fears and hopes1 and substituting for them a greater variety and extent of intellectual pleasures1 science is slowly making him more satisfied with his lot on this ,earth4 ,meanwhile the great mass of mankind are still pursuing the ever retreating phantom of an easy way to happiness2 the great laws of nature however cannot be evaded1 the avoidance of evil and the attainment of good can only be secured by obeying all the great laws which govern our nature4 ,progress in morality is largely dependent upon the diffusion of belief in the universality of scientific laws4 ,when men understand those laws1 know that their action is irresistible1 and that they have no alternative but to obey them or suffer1 they acquire a habit of obeying them4 ,universality of law in moral actions is often considered to be incompatible with the existence of freedom of the will in selecting ideas1 and choosing courses of conduct2 but we are free or not1 according to circumstances1 both to think and to act4 ,all things are free to be active or not1 in accordance with their properties and surrounding conditions1 but not in #acf contradiction to them2 and the human will is no exception to this statement4 ,the will is only free within certain limits2 it cannot act in opposition to its strongest motives or causes of action4 ,we believe ourselves to be much more free than we are1 because we often do not know the causes which determine us1 and we frequently fail to detect those influences1 because we cannot think1 and at the same time clearly observe our act of thought and its motives4 ,freedom of the will does not enable us to set aside laws3 entire freedom from law in any instance is probably only apparent4 ,this limited degree of freedom of the will indicates the dependence of volition upon scientific laws1 because a supernatural power1 being entirely independent of natural law1 could not be limited by it4 ,to affirm without proof that the human will is a supernatural power is to implicitly deny the universality and constancy of natural laws4 ,new knowledge developed by ,science1 imparts to us liberty1 but not license2 and1 so far from diminishing the freedom of the will1 increases it by showing us what conditions we must fulfil and obey in order to effect our objects4 ,we acquire power by being first obedient2 and this is in accordance with the principles and facts of science2 we must obey nature before we can make nature obey us2 the elementary bodies1 also1 usually acquire the free state1 latent power1 and the ability to evolve heat and electric energy1 only by being first subjected in their crude state to a process of reduction and purification4 #acg ,few circumstances connected with the discovery of new truths of science1 have had a greater moral effect1 than the very high degree of certainty of such truths4 ,the moral result of this is a corresponding degree of confidence in the statements of science4 ,trustworthiness is a great moral quality4 ,uncertainty is a continual hindrance to action and enjoyment2 and many persons are driven to believe in error1 and hence to commit sin1 rather than remain in suspense4 ,contradictions of doctrine1 and the consequent uncertainty of belief1 in any subject1 are fertile sources of strife4 ,science consists1 not merely of opinions and words1 but also of the tangible realities which those opinions and words represent1 the forces1 substances and phenomena of the material ,universe4 ,some persons however fancy that the results of science are as uncertain as those of the undemonstrable subjects with which they are familiar4 ,another way in which science has contributed to moral progress1 has been by requiring greater accuracy in nearly all human actions1 and thereby diffusing greater exactitude of language and of conduct1 which has spread itself throughout all civilised society4 ,previous to the use of watches and clocks1 persons were no doubt much less exact in fulfilling their appointments2 the establishment also in our chief towns1 of electric time-keepers regulated from ,greenwich ,observatory1 is increasing exactitude in our large communities4 ,since the introduction of railways1 millions of persons have been compelled to be more #ach exact in their movements1 by the risk they incur of missing their train4 ,numerous inventions and processes based upon scientific discoveries could not be worked at all unless men possessed habits of greater accuracy than formerly4 ,workmen now require higher moral and intellectual education1 and their duties require more intelligence and involve greater responsibility4 ,science diminishes error1 and the avoidance of error is a large step towards the attainment of truth4 ,there is no tyranny equal to that of false ideas4 ,error often produces immoral acts1 and every act of immorality is a mental error4 ,the ignorant justice-loving man1 enamoured of the right1 is blinded by the speciousness of wrong4 ,inaccuracy of thought is the cause not only of the errors we meet with in the sciences1 but also of the majority of the offences which are committed in civil life1--of unjust quarrels1 unfounded law suits1 rash counsel1 and ill-arranged undertakings4 ,there are few of those which have not their origin in some error1 and in some fault of judgment1 so that there is no defect which it more concerns us to correct4#ag ,our senses and consciousness are often great deceivers1 and unless corrected by sufficient knowledge1 are frequently as great a source of error in moral questions as in mental ones4#ah ,their incessant influence is a cause of selfishness1 and of the fallacious tendency existing in nearly every man1 to exaggerate the importance of himself and of everything relating to him4 #aci ,it has led man to consider himself the ,lord of ,creation2--to believe that his volitions are not subject to natural laws c43--and has given rise to the comparatively narrow-minded idea the study of mankind is man4 ,the fact that consciousness frequently misleads men of energetic temperament who feel their energy1 indicates its connection with a physical basis4 ,consciousness is also an essential condition of what we term evil4 ,if we define evil as that which produces pain or discomfort in sentient creatures1 then evil is that influence only which unpleasantly affects consciousness4 ,and if we admit this1 then all evil is relative1 and there is no absolute evil2 because1 if there were no sentient creatures1 there would be no evil4 ,it is manifest also1 that if the existence of evil is dependent upon that of sentient creatures1 and if the existence of such creatures depends upon physical conditions1 and upon the operations of the great principles of science1 then the existence of evil must itself depend to that extent upon those conditions and principles4 ,what we term ,evil1 is caused1 not only by the actions of man1 but also on a large scale by the operation of the simplest forces of matter1 in earth-quakes1 storms1 volcanic outbursts1 droughts and famines1 pestilences1 etc4 ,evil 7as well as good7 may therefore be viewed as a result1 to some extent1 of the operation of the laws of the ,universe2 and here again we are compelled to recognise a scientific basis of morality4 #adj ,that the same causes1 acting under different conditions1 produce different and even opposite effects1 is a well-known scientific truth4 ,the same heat of summer which causes our foods to decay1 promotes the growth of plants in the soil2 the same cold of winter which increases the pain of bronchial affections1 and cuts short the lives of aged and infirm persons1 acts as a stimulant and a source of pleasure to the young and healthy4 ,we need not therefore be surprised1 that the same physical conditions and principles of nature1 act as causes or conditions both of what we term evil and what we term good4 ,if1 also the theory of relativity in physical and mental action is true1 that change of impression is a necessary cause or condition of consciousness1 and that previous experience of pain increases the perception of pleasure1 we possess in that theory1 as one of the general ideas of science1 a partial basis of morality4 ,all these remarks tend to shew1 that in order to obtain a truly scientific view of the nature of man1 and of man's position and duties in the ,universe1 we must avoid the errors caused by uncorrected consciousness4 ,another great moral effect of the continual discovery of new truth in science1 is the gradual production and diffusion of uniformity of belief1 first amongst scientific men1 and then amongst the mass of mankind4 ,this uniformity of belief is a necessary result of the invariability of fact and law2 it does not extend to scientific opinions1 hypotheses or theories1 because they are not necessarily facts1 and may be #ada erroneous4 ,a knowledge of science tends to remove differences of opinion between man and man1 because it enables every honest examiner to obtain essentially similar results4 ,scientific research will gradually disclose what is true and what is untrue in doctrine and empirical rules2 and what is true will be retained4 ,a universal religion or a scientific philosophy which is composed of contradictory creeds cannot be wholly true4 ,science is gradually superseding unreasonable beliefs1 and inaugurating a true universal gospel in which all men will eventually think alike in fundamental matters4 ,the continued discovery of new truth must of necessity sooner or later lead mankind to the source of all truth and to universal satisfaction and happiness4 ,it has been frequently stated that science is antagonistic to religion2 it is evident however that as science is so conducive to morality1 it cannot be opposed to true religion1 but only to false or unfounded beliefs4 ,nothing shews more plainly a weakness of moral confidence and a deficiency of faith in an over-ruling power1 than a fear that the pursuit of scientific truth will lead to results injurious to mankind4 ,what we most need to fear is1 not that our most cherished doctrinal beliefs may be proved to be mistakes1 but that we through deficiency of knowledge may be led to do wrong4 ,there are plenty of questions1 especially in matters of theory and doctrine in concrete subjects1 which science cannot directly and absolutely decide either one way or the other1 but respecting which1 by the #adb aid of new knowledge and of inference based upon it1 science gradually accumulates so large a preponderence of evidence as conclusively settles them to the conviction of every unprejudiced and reasonable person4 ,many of the most deeply interesting questions in mental science and morality are of this kind2 and will probably be settled in this manner4 ,it is well-known also to scientific men that the indirect conclusions of the intellect and reasoning power are often more certain than the direct evidence of the senses and consciousness2 we are more certain for instance that the ,earth is a sphere than that it is a plane1 although the former conclusion is arrived at largely by inference1 whilst the latter is the direct testimony of uneducated consciousness4 ,whilst our senses and consciousness inform us that the ,earth is a fixed body1 inference proves to us that it is rushing through space at an immense velocity4 ,sense and consciousness are not intellect1 although they are often treated as such4 ,their functions are to perceive and observe1 to act as witnesses1 to supply evidence to the judgment1 and not to usurp the reasoning power4 ,even the universal consciousness of all mankind is insufficient to overthrow the final decisions of the intellect1 or to decide what is true or false1 because the senses and consciousness cannot compare or infer4 ,as it is the force and repitition1 and not the truthfulness of mental impressions1 which largely determines belief1 we are capable of believing error as well as truth1 and we believe much that is erroneous until the #adc corrections of the intellect are applied to the evidence of the senses and feelings4 ,the correctness or otherwise of our present beliefs will be tested in the future as others have been in the past1 and the new experiences requisite for the purpose will probably be obtained by means of original research4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that the warrantable inferences deduced from scientific knowledge will not sooner or later profoundly influence questions relating to the highest hopes and aspirations of the human race1 such as the independent existence and immortality of the human soul2 that of a personal ,ruler of the ,universe2 freedom of the will2 the origin of evil2 future reward and punishment2 c4 ,by extension of knowledge a scientific system of morality will be formed4 ,the great principles which govern the phenomena of all bodies are gradually being discovered1 and when found we deductively apply them to ourselves1 and thus arrive at a knowledge of our true position in nature1 our duties1 our proper course of conduct1 c4 ,science also by disclosing to us the true relations of matter to mind in the human brain1 will probably not only make known to us the true limits of our mental powers and of the knowable1 but also help to solve the problems of the relations of the ,universe and of ,man to an intelligent ,creator4 ,it will decide such questions1 largely by shewing us whether or not the ideas we entertain respecting them are consistent with the more extensive knowledge evolved by research4 ,a part of the data from which we may #add safely predict that science will in the future exercise so great a moral influence over mankind1 is the fact that its chief principles are fundamental guides and regulators of human action4 ,probably nothing has a greater effect in making a man humble and reverent than a thorough knowledge of science4 ,by the inventions of the telescope1 microscope1 spectroscope1 telegraph1 microphone1 telephone1 c41 the extremely finite extent of all our faculties has been abundantly demonstrated4 ,whilst the wonders of the telescope have developed an intelligent sentiment of reverence1 by revealing to us a portion of the vast amount of the ,universe of matter and energy1 those of the microscope have strengthened that sentiment by affording us an insight into the almost endless complexity of minute creatures1 substances and actions4 ,whilst also these and other scientific instruments and appliances have proved the excessively limited extent of our senses2 the inscrutable character and immense number and variety of problems of nature yet unsolved1 equally demonstrate the extreme feebleness of our mental powers4 ,to obtain an accurate acquaintance with science also1 and especially to discover new scientific truths1 it is absolutely necessary to set aside human pride1 and approach the subject like a little child2 no other course is possible4 ,a knowledge of geology and astronomy also makes a man humble and reverent4 ,the fact that this globe must have existed myriads of years2 and is always moving at the immense velocity of more than #fb1jjj #ade miles an hour in its orbit1 is sufficient to convince any unprejudiced person of his own transient physical existence and his comparative physical feebleness and insignificance4 ,hitherto1 man has largely been accustomed1 through the influence of uncorrected impressions and other causes1 to view all nature as having been expressly provided for him1 but science informs us that whilst this ,earth is suitable for his abode1 and ,nature ministers to his necessities and pleasures1 it is only on condition that he first obeys the great laws of matter and energy1 and adapts himself to their requirements4 ,the operation of those laws often ruthlessly destroys thousands of men by pestilence1 famine1 drought1 and other great calamities1 and man can do nothing which is incompatible with them without suffering a penalty4 ,science shews that man is but one out of at least #cbj1jjj different species of animals2 it also discloses the fact that the entire human population of this globe constitute only about one #ej1ege1ghe millionth part of the ,earth1 and proves to us that the ,earth itself is but a speck in the ,universe1 one out of at least #ge millions of worlds2 and that not only is it merely a planet revolving round the ,sun1 but that the ,sun is only one of a multitude of ,suns1 and is itself1 with all its planets1 revolving round a still more distant centre in space4 ,there is scarcely a faculty man possesses1 which is not immeasurably limited in comparison with the powers and capabilities of inanimate nature4 ,his physical energy1 when compared with that of the #adf momentum of this ,earth1 is so exceedingly small that it can hardly be conveyed to our minds by means of figures2 even the steam engine1 excessively wasteful as it is of power1 far surpasses him in strength4 ,the duration of his existence is to that of the world he inhabits1 as nothing to infinity4 ,his power and speed of locomotion are also very limited2 the globe to which he is fixed by gravity1 moves in one hour through a distance greater than he could walk in twenty years4 ,practically1 by circumstances1 he is almost rooted like a vegetable to the locality where he exists2 comparatively few men have walked even a hundred miles from their homes1 or have been conveyed round this little globe by the aid of all our improved means of transport4 ,a balloon can ascend in the air1 but a man cannot2 without the aid of that apparatus he is absolutely fixed to the surface of the ,earth1 and with the assistance of all the appliances of science1 he cannot yet ascend even ten miles into the atmosphere1 nor dive more than a few fathoms into the sea4 ,his senses are equally contracted2 his perceptions of touch and sound are far less delicate than that of the microphone2 a photographic surface will detect vibrations of light which he cannot at all perceive1 and record images more quickly than his brain2 and for the detection of magnetism and the chemical rays of light he possesses no sense whatever3--electrometers and galvanometers can detect thousands of times smaller quantities of electricity than he can perceive3--whilst a bolometer renders manifest a one #adg hundred-thousandth of a ,centigrade degree change of temperature1 he can hardly detect a difference of an entire degree2 and whilst carbon and platinum may be heated to whiteness without material change1 a rise or fall of about five ,fahrenheit degrees in his temperature endangers his life4 ,his mental and intellectual powers are as limited as his senses2 he can hardly reckon without making an error even a single million1 nor can he conceive an adequate idea of a billion2 a million miles or a millionth of an inch are each quite beyond his immediate perception2 an extremely minute circumstance also is capable of disturbing and entirely diverting his train of thought4 ,he cannot create or destroy even a particle of dust1 nor form out of nothing a single idea4 ,the velocity of transmission of his nervous power1 and the speed of his execution of will1 are also extremely slow in comparison with that of an electric current in a copper wire4 ,every person is aware that he can only very slowly receive and understand a new idea4 ,his mental advance is as tardy as his locomotion1 a sixth part of his life is spent in acquiring the merest rudiments of universal knowledge4 ,whilst his reasoning power1 when applied to actual and truthfully stated experience1 is truly the great guide of his life1 it only renders explicit what was already contained in that experience2 for when he draws an inference1 he usually only states in one form of words1 what he has already implicitly included in the propositions2 and if the inference contains more than this it is #adh unwarranted4 ,his mental helplessness in the absence of knowledge1 is equal to his physical incapacity in the absence of light4 ,nearly every problem of nature also is so complex1 and affected by so many conditions1 that his reasoning power only enables him to advance a very minute step at a time in the discovery of new knowledge2 he is then obliged to halt1 and have recourse to new experiences obtained either by means of experiment and observation1 or by the latter alone4 ,man's moral actions are largely the effect of circumstances2 his thoughts and actions are probably the whole of them limited by law4 ,he is never free from the influence of causation4 ,his mental and moral freedom are limited by the epoch in which he lives1 by the customs of his nation1 by the individuals by whom he is immediately surrounded1 by the alcoholic stimulants of which he partakes1 and by his own physical and mental constitution1 his degree of intelligence1 c41 c4 ,whether he is willing or not1 he is incessantly compelled to receive sensuous and mental impressions1 and be influenced by an almost infinite number and variety of agencies acting upon him both from within and without3--,to be mentally and physically active1 and perform all the bodily functions and acts necessary to his existence3--,to live on this globe in presence of all its phenomena1 and be carried through space at an immense velocity3--,to undergo through a long series of generations a progressive existence and development of civilization1 c41 c4 #adi ,he is more subject to the laws of the ,universe than those laws are subject to him2 and he can only exercise his will successfully and become their master by first obeying them4 ,under the influence of the light and heat of the ,sun1 the entire population of this planet 7about fifteen hundred millions7 are renewed out of the crust of the ,earth every few years1 by breathing the air1 drinking the water1 feeding upon plants which take their constituents from the ,earth1 water and air2 or by eating animals which have lived upon plants2 and if that heat and light1 or that supply of food and air1 were to cease1 all those human beings would die1 and all the moral phenomena of man on this globe would terminate4 ,whilst man cannot exist without the support of inanimate nature and the operation of its laws1 inanimate nature and its laws can exist without him4 ,that also which is naturally ordained by ,creative power to be dependent1 cannot be essentially more important than that upon which it depends for its existence4 ,the essential importance of man in relation to the ,universe1 exists only in his own imagination4 ,these facts shew that the principles of science1 and the physical and chemical properties of substances1 lie at the very basis of man's existence and activity and it would therefore be incorrect to say that the physical system of the ,universe is unimportant in comparison with the moral phenomena of mankind4 ,that science conduces to humanity by preventing #aej and alleviating animal suffering has been already alluded to 7p4 #hj-ha74 ,true humanity consists not in the abolition of experiments upon living creatures1 but in the judicious employment of them4 ,instead of barbarously treating our suffering fellow creatures by indolently and ignorantly allowing causes of disease and pain to continually occur and take their course1 it urgently enforces upon us the duty of extending our knowledge of physiology by means of new experiments1 observations and study4 ,it would be untruthful to say that experiments purposely made upon men and other animals do not yield new and valuable information2--,pharmacopoeias and ,materia-,medicaes are full of descriptions of the properties of curative agents discovered by these and other scientific methods4 ,amongst the lesser virtues which have been greatly promoted by means of scientific research is that of cleanliness4 ,the origin of soap was the discovery of the detergent properties of a boiled mixture of fat and alkali4 ,the numerous inventions which have cheapened the most important soap-producing material1 viz41 washing soda1 and those which have cheapened oil of vitriol1 the chief substance consumed in making washing-soda1 have all contributed to the cleanliness of mankind2 and it has been stated that the degree of civilization of a nation might be ascertained by the amounts consumed of those substances4 ,even the minor virtue of economy has been greatly promoted by the results of scientific research4 ,new #aea scientific truth has through inventions taught us how to obtain greater effects with less expenditure of space1 of time1 of materials1 and forces4 ,it has enabled us to effect our objects quicker and with a diminution of waste4 ,in the sugar manufacture for example1 by means of the centrifugal machine1 the sugar is deprived as perfectly of molasses in three minutes1 as it was previously in three days1 and the necessary manufacturing apparatus has been so much reduced in magnitude as not to require more than one half the space4 ,the process of bleaching linen1 which formerly required weeks1 has by the discovery of chlorine been reduced to hours4 ,journeys which at one time occupied weeks now only require days4 ,messages are now transmitted in hours which formerly required months4 ,multitudes of instances might be adduced of the diminished cost of the comforts and conveniences of life1 resulting in consequence of discovery of new scientific knowledge4 ,ultramarine for example1 which at one time cost from ten to twenty pounds an ounce1 has by means of chemical research been reduced in price to a few pence per pound2 phosphorus1 which formerly cost several guineas an ounce1 now costs only as many pence4 ,numerous substances which were formerly thrown away1 destroyed1 or neglected1 are now utilized4 ,coal tar and gas-water1 which were at one time waste products in the making of gas1 and which when thrown away were the causes of costly litigation to gas-companies1 by polluting streams and wells1 c41 #aeb are now sources of very large income to those companies4 ,those substances yield great quantities of salts of ammonia1 the beautiful aniline dyes1 paraffin1 benzene1 napthaline1 alizarine1 and other valuable products4 ,glycerine also1 which formerly was a most offensive waste product in soap-making1 is now purified and used1 to an extent of twenty millions of pounds annually1 for a great number of purposes2 as an emollient for the skin2 as a source of nitro-glycerine and dynamite1 used in blasting rocks1 in warfare1 c4 ,the immense beds of native sulphide of iron also1 notably those of ,tharsis and ,rio ,tinto in ,spain1 and of many other places1 are now utilized1 literally in millions of tons1 for the production of sulphur1 copper1 oxide of iron1 c4 ,a long list of instances of this class might be adduced if it were necessary1 some of them of very great importance4#ai ,the promotion of morality by enabling us to detect crime1 is one of the smaller influences of scientific research1 and may be referred to as a set-off against the bad uses sometimes made of scientific knowledge4 ,the telegraph is very commonly employed to assist in tracking and capturing criminals4 ,photography is also largely used in our gaols as a means of recognising offenders4 ,knowledge of science conduces also to self-discipline and self-mastery1 it tends to bridle our vicious passions by making known to us the penalties which must be paid for their indulgence2 it limits our self-will by shewing us that we must respect and obey the #aec laws of nature whether we are willing or not1 no man can improperly manipulate dangerous substances or forces with impunity2 it moderates our bigotry by exhibiting to us the great uncertainty of unproved opinions2 it restrains undue credulity in men's assertions1 by shewing us their frequent fallacy2 it gives us confidence in the laws of nature1 by proving to us their uniformity2 it withdraws us from self-deception by compelling us to accept the truths of nature as they exist ready made for us1 whether they harmonise with our preconceived ideas or not2 men cannot argue with nature1 as they can with their fellow-men1 but must submit to the influence of verified truth4 ,it supplies us with principles instead of empirical rule of thumb methods as guides of morality4 ,whilst it liberates us from the terror of irrational fears1 it cautions us against entertaining unreasonable hopes4 ,it substitutes for ignorant wonder and awe1 an intelligent appreciation of created things2 and when fully developed it will probably satisfy all the reasonable instincts and desires of men4 ,whilst law1 medicine and divinity1 direct man's attention almost exclusively to matters concerning himself1 and thus tend to limit his sphere of perception and knowledge1 and unconsciously impress him with the idea that all other existences are less important than himself1 science not only enlightens him respecting all the departments of his own nature1 but extends his mental vision in all directions by exciting his mind to observe and reflect upon all other bodies #aed and actions throughout the ,universe4 ,whilst also music1 painting1 sculpture1 poetry and the drama1 afford excitement and pleasure to his senses1 feelings and sentiments1 and are largely personal2 science not only constitutes the basis of those arts1 but shews the relations of them to ,man and to the external ,universe1 and thus more largely cultivates the intellect and corrects and refines the senses1 feelings and sentiments4 ,new scientific knowledge affords advantages to all classes of men2 to the minister of religion1 by supplying him with new illustrations of ,creative power1 in the greatness1 smallness1 and vast variety of nature2 to the physician1 by explaining to him more perfectly the structure and phenomena of the human body1 and by providing him with new remedies2 to the statesman and politician1 by making known to him the great and increasing relations of science to national progress1 by its influence upon wages1 capital1 the employment of workmen1 the art of war1 the means of communication with foreign countries1 c42 to the philanthropist1 as an endless source of employment for poor persons1 by the development of new discoveries1 inventions1 and improvements in arts and manufactories2 to the military man1 by affording him new engines and materials for warfare and defence2 to the inventor1 by supplying him with new discoveries upon which to found inventions2 to the merchant and man of trade1 by the influence of new products and processes upon the prices of his commodities2 to the manufacturer1 as a means of improving his materials1 #aee apparatus1 and processes2 and to the investor of money1 by assisting him to judge what new technical schemes are likely to succeed4 ,as the domain of rational enjoyment afforded by means of science gradually enlarges1 that derivable from less intellectual sources will probably be modified2 indeed this change is already progressing1 and is manifested in the alterations occurring in theological views1 and in the extensive adoption of scientific entertainments by religious bodies4 ,the recognition of science by professors of religion is also shewn by the already extensive use of railways on ,sundays as a means of conveyance to churches and chapels2 also by the publication by the ,society for ,promoting ,christian ,knowledge1 of ,manuals of ,electricity1 ,astronomy1 ,botany1 ,chemistry1 ,crystallography1 ,geology1 ,physiology1 ,zoology1 ,matter and ,motion1 the ,spectroscope1 c4 ,having shewn some of the chief modes in which new scientific truth is a basis of mental and moral progress1 it is not necessary to say much respecting the evil uses sometimes made of science1 because every good thing is liable to be abused by ignorant or ill-intentioned persons4 ,the abuses of scientific knowledge do not arise from the true spirit of research1 viz41 a desire for new knowledge on account of its intrinsic goodness and value to man1 but from an absence of that sentiment4 ,the ,bremerhaven explosion1 the assassination of the ,czar1 the uses of photography to forge letters of credit1 and of the #aef telegraph in swindling operations1 the employment of electro-gilding and silvering in coining base money1 c41 c41 are all attributable to motives other than a love of science4 ,all the facts mentioned in this chapter1 and the various points of essential similarity between physical1 physiological1 and mental phenomena1 justify the conclusion that both moral and other mental actions1 like physical and chemical ones1 are obedient to the great principles of science4 ,and from the evidence here adduced and alluded to1 it is certain that those principles influence human progress1 not only in a few conspicuous direct ways1 but in a multitude of varied1 deep-seated1 and indirect ones4 ,if the statements made in this ,chapter are true1 that the innate properties of matter really are motive powers of the human organism1 and the principles of science are regulators of mental and moral action2 that ,man is a feeble epitome of the principles and powers of inorganic matter2 that the laws of ,nature operate in utter disregard of his erroneous beliefs2 that nearly all man's sins and sufferings are traceable to his ignorance and limited powers2 that in proportion to his ignorance of science so is he unable to foresee the more remote consequences of his thoughts and acts2 and if new knowledge does correct erroneous beliefs and purify human thought and action1 it behoves teachers of morality to make themselves adequately acquainted with the principles and newest developments of science4 99 99 99 99 99 #aeg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ------ ,,new ,,truth1 ,,and ,,its ,,general ,,relation ,,to ,,human ,,progress4 ,the great source of the success of applying science to trade1 and of the beneficent effect of science upon human welfare in general1 is simply the influence of demonstrable truth4 ,we know that if we have once discovered all the principles1 laws1 and conditions of some scientific phenomenon1 or of some improved process or result in a manufacture1 the reproduction of exactly the same conditions will hereafter enable us to invariably produce the same result4 ,in this respect science differs from dogma1 the truth or falsity of which cannot be demonstrated2 it also differs from empiricism1 because when empirically working a process we are ignorant of the principles or laws which are operating1 whilst with a scientific knowledge we understand those laws1 and can direct them to our particular purposes4 ,in the process of electro-plating for example1 we understand the laws of the phenomena1 and can direct them so as to obtain silver of a hard or soft quality1 brittle or tough1 crystalline silver1 c41 according to our wish2 but if we had only an empirical knowledge of the subject we could not thus vary the process4 #aeh ,the highest test of truth is verified prediction2 if we calculate beforehand that an eclipse of the ,sun will occur at a certain hour and minute1 and that eclipse occurs accurately at the predicted moment1 we may rest assured that our knowledge upon that point is true and complete4 ,if we say that a piece of clean iron1 immersed in a solution of blue vitriol1 will become covered with a layer of metallic copper1 and we find upon trial that this result invariably occurs when we fulfil those conditions1 we may be certain that our knowledge of this phenomenon and its conditions is also of a definite and certain character4 ,similarly1 when we become able to predict with certainty the conditions of the ,sun's surface1 we shall probably also be able to predict severe winters1 famines1 c41 and therefore be prepared to suggest precautions to be taken against them4 ,even now the new truth necessary for this purpose is beginning to be evolved by means of scientific research4#bj ,amongst the great axioms and principles of science1 possessing great certainty1 and which enable us to predict1 are1 #ast4 the general truth known as the ,principle of ,causation1 that every effect has a cause2 that the same cause1 acting under the same conditions1 always produces the same effect2 and that causation acts through all time and all space3--#bnd4 the great truth1 that every phenomenon requires time2 and every substance occupies space3--#crd4 the ,principles of ,conservation and ,persistency of ,matter #aei and ,energy2 that out of nothing1 nothing comes2 and out of everything1 everything proceeds2 that all the future states of the ,universe are implicitly contained in and will be evolved out of the present state of the ,universe2 that we have no experience and possess no verified knowledge either of creation or annihilation of ,matter or ,energy2 that we cannot absolutely create or destroy even an idea2#ba and that ,matter and ,energy appear to be eternal3--#dth4 the ,principle of ,convertibility and ,equivalency of the different forms of ,energy1 according to which the various forces known as mechanical power1 heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 chemical action1 c41 being modes of motion1 are convertible into each other in equivalent quantities and without addition or loss4 ,these and other great principles constitute the basis of physical and chemical science1 by obeying which1 we have been enabled to evolve all the wonderful practical realities of science of the present day4#bb ,to these great principles may be added the more concrete truth called the ,law of ,progress1 the essential idea of which is time1 a time-rate2 which regulates the speed of increase of civilization1 and is evidently connected with the great truth that every phenomenon occupies time4 ,the ,principle of ,gravitation1 demonstrated by ,newton1 explains a vast number of facts relating to the motions of the ,heavenly bodies3--the #afj ,undulatory ,theory of ,light1 largely developed by the labours of ,fresnel1 renders equally clear and systematic an almost endless number and variety of optical phenomena2 ,oersted's law of ,electro-magnetism similarly explains and renders consistent a multitude of facts respecting the movements of magnets and electric conductors1 which would otherwise be confusing to remember and impossible to satisfactorily explain4 ,and the great mental value of these comprehensive ideas to mankind1 consists largely in relieving the memory and diminishing mental confusion1 by co-ordinating a large number of different facts and apparently inconsistent phenomena by means of a general conception which embraces the whole of them4 ,thus a knowledge of the ,principle of ,gravitation informs us that both the ascent of a balloon in the air1 and the descent of a stone in water1 are alike due to the same force of gravity2 and that of ,chemical ,affinity proves to us that the apparently unlike phenomena of slow rusting of iron and vivid combustion of phosphorus are essentially alike and due to the same cause4 ,all bodies1 whether living or dead1 and all forms of energy1 appear to be absolutely subject to the great laws of ,causation1 ,progress1 ,conservation1 c41 no one can escape them2 the man who transgresses the ,law of ,progress by being too much in advance of his epoch1 is punished as certainly as he who lags behind it2 all must advance together1 and at approximately the prescribed rates4 #afa ,the real source of all that is good in new scientific knowledge arises from its verified and verifiable character1 its high degree of certainty1 and its capacity of withstanding all the tests which can be applied to it4 ,by the term scientific knowledge in this case ,i mean that only that which has been verified1 and ,i purposely exclude all matters of hypothesis1 mere opinion or belief4 ,scientific research is the chief basis of national progress1 not only because it is continually disclosing new truths to us1 but also because the truths it reveals are frequently of the most definite kind4 ,as the term verified truth may appear vague1 the questions may well be asked1 what is truth8 ,and how may we best detect it8 ,and especially what is new truth8 and how may it best be recognised8 ,truth may be conveniently defined as universal consistency2 or that which perfectly conforms to facts1 and agrees with the widest experience1 when tested by means of all our intellectual powers1 the reasoning faculty in particular4 ,the usual modern criterion of it1 is consistency with the fundamental axioms of logic1 and with all the great principles of nature as established by means of scientific research1 such as the universality of causation1 the continuity of phenomena1 the indestructibility of matter and energy1 the convertibility and equivalency of forces1 c4 ,all truth whatever is one in character by possessing the inseparable attribute of complete consistency4 ,the truthfulness of scientific knowledge is proved by its agreement with universal experience and with the #afb fundamental logical axioms3--a thing either is or is not3--a thing cannot both be and not be3--a thing must either be or not be3--things equal to the same are equal to each other2 c4 ,it is chiefly by means of knowledge of these axioms and of the above principles of science1 and of their varied and numerous modes of operation and application1 that the man of science explains the multitudinous phenomena of nature1 predicts future events1 and is enabled to discover new truths and develope new inventions in the arts4 ,unlike other persons2 when he sees a new effect1 or hears of a new phenomenon1 he at once refers it to these principles1 in order to test its correctness or to explain it4 ,with regard to the detection of truth1 that is often a difficult and complex process4 ,there exists no royal or easy method2 usually it can only be recognised by means of laborious and critical examination of the whole of the evidence obtainable in the case2 and even then we are often obliged to be satisfied with only an approximation1 or it may be with even a mere probability4 ,frequently also the truthfulness or otherwise of a statement cannot be decided in any degree in consequence of the absence of suitable or sufficient evidence1 and for that we may have to wait for ages4 ,we are now waiting for evidence necessary to decide many questions respecting the human mind4 ,with regard to the question1 what is new truth82 that also is a difficult one to solve4 ,the forms in which different truths appear are so various1 and those #afc also in which even the same truth may shew itself are so diverse1 that it is often impossible to discriminate new truth from old ideas clothed in a new form of words4 ,the newness of an idea is entirely a question of evidence1 and to determine it1 usually requires a complete knowledge of all the circumstances affecting the particular case4 ,new truth appears to be usually derived from new physical or mental experiences of phenomena external to our perceiving faculty2 either by observing matter or its forces under new conditions or from a new aspect2 and the knowledge comes to us either through the avenues of our feelings and senses1 or by means of direct observations1 by comparison of such impressions1 or by inferences drawn from them4 ,from the results of such mental operations1 additional new truths are evolved by the more complex process of analysis1 combination and permutation of ideas4 ,new truths are also evolved from old ones by each of these latter methods2 but sooner or later the implicit contents of our stock of old knowledge becomes exhausted when used for such a purpose1 and we are then obliged to seek new experience4 ,as new truths may be acquired in the more direct manner1 by acquisition of new experience2 and less directly1 by mental operations upon old ideas1 other subjects of less fundamental and more concrete nature than the simple sciences1 such as sociology1 c41 are also sources of progress1 when treated in these ways4 #afd ,of all subjects1 the simple sciences of physics and chemistry1 are at the present time1 apparently making the most rapid advance1 and the chief reasons for this probably are1 #ast4 they treat of facts and principles which can be verified1 and #bnd4 because the more complex sciences1 together with the arts and manufactures based upon them1 can only improve in proportion as they are developed4 ,all the essentially human subjects1 such as sociology1 politics1 morality1 religious worship1 c41 are in this position1 and are probably results partly of the operation of the great principles of nature acting through the body and mind of man4 ,the chief method of discovering new truth is that of observation1 experiment1 and study1 and further mental treatment of the results4 ,the most systematic methods also of evolving new truths are those employed by scientific men in making discoveries1 and when any person arrives at a new idea1 he usually 7either consciously or unconsciously7 employs them4 ,the acquisition of new knowledge must of necessity precede its diffusion4 ,immediately a new truth1 especially an important one1 is discovered1 its influence begins to permeate the existing mass of knowledge in various directions1 causing us to view many of our old ideas in a new aspect2 giving rise also by comparison and inference1 and by processes of combination1 permutation and analysis of ideas1 to a multitude of other new truths1 usually less important ones1 which themselves also affect previous knowledge in similar ways1 #afe and by analogous treatment give rise to additional new conceptions4 ,but although we evolve truthful new conceptions from previous ones by these purely mental methods1 there is a limit to the number capable of being evolved from a limited stock of ideas1 because the number of combinations and permutations of such a stock1 though usually large1 are themselves limited4 ,the number however is large in proportion to the degree of essential importance of the ideas1 and is greatest when we employ those of the fundamental principles of nature1 already referred to2 for instance a greater number of new ideas have been evolved by means of appropriate mental processes from the law of gravitation and from that of electro-magnetism than from any minor truth in science4 ,persons therefore who are the least familiar with great demonstrable principles are usually the least able to conceive new truthful ideas of intrinsic importance1 or to draw new verifiable inferences of much theoretical value4 ,every inventor and student knows that he continually requires new materials of thought1 and if he does not obtain them1 an obstacle1 like a wall of adamant1 rises before his mind in all directions1 and prevents his forming new ideas4 ,that also which is true of each individual is true of the collection of individuals1 mankind2 if new truths are not obtained1 the thoughts of men flow in circles1 and mental progress ceases4 ,the mental characteristics of sequestered communities in remote isolated districts1 are examples of this #aff fact4 ,the influence of printing1 railways1 telegraphs1 postal communication and other scientific developments1 in aiding mental progress1 afford other illustrations4 ,a multitude of facts of this kind1 and many others1 leads us to the conclusion that each new idea requires a cause to produce it1 and that human knowledge is subject to the great law of causation2 also that the creation of an idea out of nothing would be a miracle1 a phenomenon without a cause4 ,our present knowledge was not created by us1 but was originated by previous knowledge and experience1 including of course inherited impressions4 ,even in what is termed the noblest effort of the mind1 an act of reasoning or inference1 we do not create an idea1 but only render explicit in a new form of words1 ideas already implicitly contained in the words of the propositions employed1 as may easily be rendered manifest by mechanical means in ,jevons's ,logical ,machine2 a proper inference never contains more than its data4 ,in the so-called creation of ideas by the imagination also1 the new ideas are evolved from old ones1 and rendered explicit by mental processes of analysis1 combination1 permutation1 c4 ,our scientific inventions also1 being mental conceptions1 an unlimited number of them cannot be made by means of a limited stock of old knowledge4 ,it was in consequence of this limit1 viz41 the impossibility of actually creating ideas out of nothing1 that human knowledge was not more advanced by metaphysical speculations until science with its experiments and #afg observations came to its assistance4 ,these various facts prove the statement made in the ,preface of this book1 that present knowledge only enables mankind to maintain its present state4 ,not only the mental1 but also the physical advance of mankind is essentially dependent upon the discovery of new truths4 ,men's physical actions are determined not alone by their inherited and acquired tendencies and the influence of external nature upon them1 but also by their ideas2 as a man thinks1 so also to a large extent does he act4 ,nations who do not adopt new ideas do not either mentally or physically advance1 but change only so far as their immediate surroundings change2 the ,chinese are a remarkable example of this2 even the tendencies which men inherit1 were largely produced in their ancestors by the influence of ideas4 ,the great fact of the essential dependence of human progress upon new knowledge1 is a truth1 the importance of which to man cannot be over-estimated1 and is one which statesmen1 ministers of religion1 and philanthropists should seriously study4 ,much of the apparent advance of this nation however is not real4 ,the great bulk of our newly published knowledge1 even that which is scientific1 and considered by the public to be new1 consists1 not of new truths1 but of old ones dressed in new forms of expression3-- ,the tale repeated o'er and o'er1 ,with change of place and change of name4 ,disguised1 transformed1 and yet the same ,we've heard a hundred times before4--,longfellow4 #afh ,it falls to the lot of but comparatively few men to discover or evolve important new truths4 ,the great majority of learned men also1 have through all historic time been occupied1 and are still1 not in evolving new ideas1 but in re-expressing old ones in different forms of words2 the literary spirit1 is in civilised nations1 almost universal4 ,in ordinary writings it is a rare circumstance to meet with an important and really new idea2 it is usually in books written by men who are acquainted or imbued with the great principles and truths of science1 that the newest demonstrable ideas are most frequently found4 ,the difference between evolving new ideas1 and re-expressing and permutating old ones2 largely characterises the dissimilarity of the scientific and the literary and theological minds4 ,all however are necessary to the welfare of mankind1 the former to advance and the other to maintain the condition of man4 ,if all were not necessary they would probably not exist4 ,there are two great artificial divisions of scientific knowledge also1 upon the development of which national progress largely depends1 viz41 knowledge of inanimate matter and knowledge of man2 the latter we have largely cultivated but the former we have greatly neglected3--and even our study of man has been largely one-sided and literary4 ,it is far less important to know what is man1 than to know what are the great principles which underlie the actions of all living creatures1 and in obedience to which man is compelled to work out his destiny in the ,universe and the infinite future4 #afi ,it is evident from this1 that much of the mental activity around us is not progress1 but rather a process of maintaining present state1 a prevention of decline1 a continually going round and round in conventional varied step1 a kind of intellectual mill4 ,under these circumstances it is not the original discoverer1 but he who in this occupation1 can best express old ideas1 in the most varied forms and choicest language1 who is most generally considered to be the greatest intellectual chief4 ,although originality even in literature and art is very imperfectly encouraged in this country1 both art and literature are much more readily understood and appreciated than scientific research1 and treated as if they were more important4 ,whilst most persons can understand and appreciate the gift of a work of art to a public art collection1 few can understand or properly value the discovery and gift of a new scientific truth of far greater intrinsic value to the public stock of knowledge2 the treatment received by ,priestley and other discoverers in comparison with that of local donors1 sufficiently illustrates this4 ,even publishers of lucrative newspapers prefer to give prizes and pay liberally for sensational tales1 than to pay for articles on the public advantages of new scientific knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 #agj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ------ ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,scientific ,,research4 ,nearly the whole of the most distinguished mathematicians1 physicists1 chemists1 biologists1 and physiologists of ,great ,britain1 also the ,earl of ,derby1 the ,marquis of ,salisbury1 ,sir ,stafford ,northcote and many other eminent men1 have given evidence before the ,royal ,commissioners on ,scientific ,instruction and the ,advancement of ,science#bc to the following effect3--#ast4 ,that the promotion of original scientific research is neglected in this country4 #bnd4 ,that such research is encouraged more by the ,state in ,germany than here4 ,and #crd4 ,that much greater encouragement of it by our ,government1 by the ,universities and the ,public1 is highly necessary to our commercial prosperity4 ,they have also stated in evidence their opinions as to the best ways in which they consider it may be assisted4 ,the additional fact that all the greatest scientific men who have ever existed have pursued research1 and sacrificed much for it1 is a practical proof that they also approved of its encouragement4 ,that research should be promoted is further the opinion of many men learned in politics1 literature1 art1 and science4 ,the views expressed in numerous letters on the subject1 received by me from ,members #aga of the ,privy ,council1 and of both ,houses of ,parliament1 and from other eminent persons1 confirm this4 ,it has also been adopted as a chief part of the programme of the ,association for the ,organization of ,academical ,study4#bd ,m4 de ,candolle1 ,corresponding ,member of the ,academy of ,science1 ,paris1 is a strong advocate for the encouragement of a class of sinecurists like the non-working ,fellows of our ,colleges1 who should have leisure to investigate and not be pestered by the petty mechanical work of continued teaching and examining4 ,the modern ideas of democracy are adverse to places to which definite work is not attached1 and from which definite results do not flow4 ,this principle is a wise one for the mass of mankind2 but is utterly misplaced when applied to those who have the zeal for investigation1 and who work best when left quite alone4 ,the correctness of the principle of promoting research is also recognised by our ,governments in their yearly grants of money to the ,royal ,society1 and to the ,royal ,irish ,academy#be to aid research1 also by the ,council of the ,chemical ,society1 which has established a fund for the same purpose2 and by the ,british ,association in their annual grants for the promotion of scientific enquiry4 ,the ,fishmonger's ,company also presented to ,mr4 ,w4 ,r4 ,parker1 ,f4,r4,s41 the sum of ,l#ej1 followed by an annual gift of ,l#bj for #agb the three years1 to assist him in bearing the expenses of his researches on the skulls of vertebrate animals4 ,and the ,british ,pharmaceutical ,conference voted the sum of ,l#hj from the ,bell and ,hills fund1 during the period of three years1 in aid of research in connection with pharmaceutical science4 ,a small fund for the purpose of research exists also at the ,royal ,institution4 ,fellowships also with a similar object have been founded at the ,victoria ,university4 ,dr4 ,priestley also was aided in his researches by contributions from a small circle of friends4 ,in recognition of the same principle1 nearly all of the most eminent scientific men on the ,continent have been assisted by their respective ,governments4 ,the total amount of aid to research in this country is however very small1 and to one acquainted with the great commercial and other any valuable results of such labour1 it is simply astounding that we have not systematically organized a powerful means of promoting discovery4 ,a few scientific persons however still continue to oppose aid to research2 quite recently1 scientific investigators have been spoken of as a class of men amusing themselves without any result whatever4#bf ,that idea however abundantly refuted in the foregoing pages4 ,it has also been remarked#bg that practically1 endowment of research comes to the creation of positions where there is payment without corresponding labour4 ,in ,england above all countries in the world1 there will always be plenty of #agc amateurs ready and willing to assist in research1 and it is notorious that in ,england1 almost without exception1 all the great advances in science have been made by such amateurs4 ,therefore ,i do not think it at all desirable that the ,british tax-payer should be required to put his hand in his pocket to provide salaries for gentlemen who might be working rightly or wrongly4 ,he could not control them1 and while there are such a body of amateurs in the country1 ,i think the researches may be very well left to them4 ,the first of these statements is not correct2 the endowment of research does not amount to payment without corresponding labour4 ,scientific discoverers have always been distinguished as a body of men intensely devoted to their labours1 and willing to perform much work for small payment4 ,most of the great advances in science also in ,england1 have been made not by amateurs1 but by men of great experience1 such as ,newton1 ,herschel1 ,priestley1 ,davy1 ,faraday1 ,graham1 and many others4 ,endowment of research is not desired for wealthy amateurs1 but for investigators of proved ability and small pecuniary means and who require assistance4 ,such men1 although not infallible1 are the least likely to work wrongly1 and much less likely to do so than amateurs4 ,many scientific investigators also of repute1 object to give their services wholly to a wealthy nation1 because they cannot afford to do so1 and because it is only just that the nation should make them some pecuniary return for their skill and labour4 ,the great evils #agd in this country requiring new knowledge to remedy them#bh also prove that there are not plenty of amateurs ready and willing to assist in research here1 or that the researches may be very well left to them4 ,whilst some investigators have had abundant means to carry on research1 and have excelled in that occupation1 many of the most eminent have been persons of limited circumstances2 and their insufficient pecuniary means has often restricted their degree of success4 ,the argument also that insufficiency of means stimulates research1 is only employed by persons who are not making investigations under such a condition4 ,the ,president of the ,royal ,society1 ,dr4 ,spottiswoode1 in his recent address#bi also remarked3--,the question has been raised whether it be wise1 even in the interests of science1 to encourage any one not yet of independent income1 to interrupt the main business of his life4 ,it is too often assumed that a profession or a business may be worked at half speed1 or may be laid down and taken up again1 whenever we like4 ,but this is not so1 and a profession temporarily1 or even partially laid aside1 may prove irrecoverable1 and the temptation to diverge from the dull and laborious path of business may prove to have been a snare4 ,each of these remarks appears to be made upon the assumption that it is still a doubtful question whether persons qualified for research should be encouraged or not to abandon occupations they reluctantly follow1 and for which they are less fitted1 in order to become scientific #age discoverers4 ,as it is a fact that the welfare of this country is suffering through deficiency of encouragement of research1 it is certainly desirable to encourage1 by every proper means1 qualified persons to occupy themselves in such labour4 ,some of the greatest discoveries have been made by men not yet of independent income1 for instance1 those made by ,scheele1 ,priestley1 ,dalton1 ,faraday1 ,w4 ,herschel1 and many others4 ,the late ,astronomer ,royal1 also1#cj who has made many researches1 and was a scientific official paid by the ,state1 says3--,i think that successful researches have in nearly every instance originated with private persons1 or with persons whose positions were so nearly private that the investigators acted under private influence1 without incurring the danger attending connection with the ,state4 ,certainly ,i do not consider a ,government is justified in endeavouring to force1 at public expense1 investigations of undefined character1 and1 at best1 of doubtful utility2 and ,i think it probable that any such attempt will lead to consequences disreputable to science4 ,the very utmost1 in my opinion1 to which the ,state should be expected to contribute1 is exhibited in the large grants intrusted to the ,royal ,society4 ,the world1 ,i think1 is not unanimous in believing that they have been useful4 ,he then enumerates what he considers the proper foundations of claims upon the ,state1 which he illustrates1 and substantially includes in and #agf limits by1 the kinds of scientific research done under his direction at the ,royal ,observatory4 ,he further adds--,the ,royal ,observatory was founded expressly for a definite utilitarian purpose 7the promotion of navigation7 necessarily connected with the highest science4 ,and this utilitarian purpose has been steadily kept in view for two centuries1 and is now followed with greater vigour than ever before4 ,to its original plan have also been added--but still in the utilitarian sense--the publication of time1 the broader observation of terrestrial magnetism1 and local meteorology4 ,his views therefore appear to be1 that ,state aid to research should be limited to utilitarian objects2 and that it is with propriety given to his own department1 which is connected with the ,state4 ,it has however been abundantly proved that nearly all the great scientific utilities of every-day life1 had their origin in the pursuit1 not of utilities1 but of pure truth1 and that immediate usefulness is neither the most successful nor the highest motive in scientific research1 nor should research be limited by so narrow a condition4 ,the investigations also made by the aid of ,government ,grants possess the usual degree of definiteness and of utility of such labours1 and it cannot be reasonably expected that the world would be unanimous respecting any measure1 especially respecting a subject so little understood by the public as the ,endowment of ,research4 ,if investigators were to limit their researches to utilities1 or what appeared to be such1 scarcely any #agg essentially new experiments or new discoveries of importance would be made4 ,no attempts would be made to discover essentially novel facts1 nor would many trials be made to test fundamental abstract questions which affect the very basis of scientific knowledge4 ,the principles of electro-magnetism1 of magneto-electric action1 and of the magnetic rotation of polarized light1 were each discovered by means of perfectly novel experiments1 in which immediate utility was not the motive4 ,it is worthy of notice that of the very small proportion of scientific investigators who disapprove of ,state aid to ,research1 nearly every one already possesses sufficient pecuniary means to carry on investigations1 and therefore cannot adequately appreciate the position and necessities of investigators having only small incomes4 ,in some cases also the objections to aid investigators come from scientific men who have attempted to make discoveries but have not succeeded4 ,dr4 ,robinson of ,armagh1 a well-known investigator1 has very properly pointed out#ca what has been done in this country towards giving assistance to those engaged in the pursuit of science1 and mentions the ,observatories maintained by the ,universities and by the ,nation4 ,he says also that if anything more were to be done in increasing the amount of grants of money to assist scientific work1 he thinks it might be best applied in establishing in the great commercial #agh centres of the realm1 physical and chemical laboratories such as that which the ,duke of ,devonshire has established at ,cambridge1 provided with the most refined apparatus1 and accessible to all who are considered privileged by a competent tribunal4 ,he also says when there is found a man so far surpassing his fellows in any department of science that he may be expected to do work beyond their power1 he ought to be made independent of any other pursuit1 so that none of his time and energy may be lost1 such a case is exceptional1 and when it occurs it should be exceptionally provided for4 ,original research will for a long time to come1 be opposed by a large section of the non-scientific public3--by the numerous persons whose source of income depends upon the ignorance of their fellow-men3--by those who are deficient of faith in demonstrable truth1 and fear that their most cherished beliefs are endangered by it3--and by many of those who are insufficiently acquainted with it to perceive its great value to mankind4 ,with regard to the fears of many objectors that the ,endowment of ,research would lead to jobbery and abuses1 and thus retard the progress of discovery instead of promoting it2 it is evident that such a risk is an inseparable concomitant of every remunerated office and is not peculiar to that of research1 and must therefore be accepted as unavoidable and be provided against in the usual ways4 ,it does not however appear probable that the risk in this respect is at all greater #agi than that already existing and provided against in many other appointments4 ,many persons1 not clearly perceiving the difference between pure research and other scientific occupations1 suppose that because science is encouraged in various ways in this country2 and because sums of money are occasionally given to scientific institutions1 and some scientific men are evidently receiving good incomes1 that discoverers are remunerated1 but this is a great mistake2 there is probably not a scientific man in the kingdom who is wholly employed in such work in abstract physics or chemistry1 and paid for his entire skill1 time1 and labour4 ,wherever payment is made for scientific labour1 it is nearly always for that performed with a view to some immediate practical application4 ,inventors and expositors are remunerated1 but discoverers are not4 ,at the present time in this country scientific men are paid for teaching1 lecturing1 writing popular scientific articles1 compiling scientific books1 editing scientific journals1 making chemical analyses and experiments for manufacturers1 companies1 and others1 for practical purposes1 or to obtain evidence for legal cases1 giving evidence on scientific subjects in courts of law1 with consultations and advice to manufacturers and others1 superintending scientific commercial undertakings1 c4 ,some also unfortunately obtain an income and cheap publicity by the empirical contrivance of selling to tradesmen1 their scientific opinions in the form of testimonials which are extensively #ahj advertised at the cost of the purchasers4 ,but not one of these occupations constitutes pure research1 or is an immediate source of new discoveries4 ,payment is made for all kinds of scientific labour which will immediately benefit individuals or corporations1 but very little for pure investigation1 and nearly every inducement exists to attract men of science from pursuing such labour4 ,it might be supposed that investigators would patent or sell their discoveries2 but discoveries in pure science cannot usually be patented or sold1 because they have not been converted by invention into commercial commodities4 ,new scientific truth is utterly unsaleable2 no one will purchase it4 ,whilst the real or intrinsic value of it is great1 its extrinsic value is small and is the sum of money it will sell for in the market4 ,no one would have purchased ,oersted's great discovery of electro-magnetism4 ,it would also be less to public advantage if investigators were to neglect discovering new knowledge in order to apply that knowledge to practical uses4 ,it requires a different training of mental power to discover new truths1 than to utilize them by means of invention1 teaching or lecturing2 and men who can invent and instruct are far more numerous than those who are able to discover4 ,discoveries are also generally much more valuable than inventions1 because a single discovery 7that of gutta percha for example7 not unfrequently forms the basis of many inventions4 ,discoverers not unfrequently meet with new facts #aha which they perceive might be applied to valuable technical uses1 but they hesitate to patent them because the process of invention1 taking out a patent1 seeking a manufacturer to work it1 and protecting their patent from piracy1 would occupy a large portion of their time1 and take them away from research4 ,sir ,d4 ,brewster got no money by patenting his kaleidoscope because the patent was instantly pirated in all directions4 ,some persons have suggested that scientific men should keep their discoveries secret1 but this would usually be a greater disadvantage to the investigator even than publishing them1 and no one would then derive any benefit2 discoveries also1 being often capable of numerous applications1 and not being in a saleable shape1 cannot usually be monopolised by any one4 ,new scientific knowledge is like a powerful light1 it cannot be hidden4 ,discoveries are eminently national knowledge1 and research should therefore be national employment4 ,other persons suppose that investigators should be satisfied with the fame of their discoveries1 and not require any payment2 but this is a most unfair supposition1 because no man can live without means1 and every useful person deserves to be paid for his labour4 ,ought the late ,duke of ,wellington to have been satisfied with the fame alone of his exploits1 without being paid any salary8 ,ought a ,bishop to be content with the renown of his eloquence1 without receiving any payment for his services8 ,genius alone is #ahb appropriately rewarded by fame1 but time1 unusual skill1 labour and expenditure1 should be repaid by money4 ,it has been suggested that an investigator1 if he is a man of practical ability1 is very often put into an office1 the duties of which he can efficiently discharge1 and yet have leisure for original research1 as in the case of the late ,dr4 ,graham1 the eminent ,master of the ,mint1#cb our ,astronomers ,royal1 c41 and thus obtain his reward4 ,but this is a very imperfect plan1 because research is very difficult1 and to be carried out effectually1 requires the whole of a man's time and attention2 the investigator would also be taken from more important work to do that which is of less value to the nation1 and which might be performed by a more suitable person2 appointments also of the kind referred to are much too few in number4 ,such a plan as this1 of relegating important national work to odd hours spared from official duties1 is a makeshift1 and quite unworthy of this nation4 ,entire occupation in research1 combined with efficient publication of the results1 is the only satisfactory plan of procedure4 ,probably one of the most satisfactory ways of rewarding scientific discoverers and serving national interests at the same time1 would be to create salaried professorships of original research1 and appoint discoverers of repute to fill them4 ,the time is near at hand when this nation will be compelled by the injurious consequences arising from its neglect of scientific research1 to acquire a #ahc knowledge of the relations of science to national existence and welfare1 and to adopt some means of encouraging discovery4 ,the greatest difficulty1 probably1 which has to be overcome1 is not so much how to obtain funds for the purpose1 as how to employ them successfully1 and especially how to prevent their getting into the hands of unsuitable persons4 ,but1 as methods have been found of remunerating all other classes of persons1 ways may be devised of remunerating scientific investigators4 ,it is only because the case is novel that it seems difficult2 it is probably no more intrinsically difficult to establish a professorship of research than to found an ecclesiastical benefice4 ,the great difficulty of determining from what source discoverers should be paid for their labours1 arises from the fact that all classes of the community share in the benefit4 ,it is evident they should in some measure be paid from a source towards which all classes either directly or indirectly contribute1 and therefore from some public fund4 ,the persons who first use scientific knowledge are the compilers of scientific books1 and teachers of science2 but these only disseminate the knowledge1 and do not derive from it any great pecuniary advantage1 they are only the agents for supplying the knowledge to others4 ,the persons who first convert such knowledge into valuable commercial commodities are inventors and manufacturers who have received scientific education or advice2 but those who derive the greatest pecuniary benefit from it1 and who should therefore either #ahd directly or indirectly pay in the largest degree for it1 are the great manufacturers1 capitalists1 and landowners4 ,whilst the question is being settled as to what class of persons shall primarily bear the expense of research1 discoverers themselves are suffering great injustice1 and our manufactures and commerce are passing into the hands of foreign nations4 ,what the amount of loss and disadvantage suffered by this nation1 through want of encouragement of scientific enquiry is1 cannot be estimated1 but it is certainly enormous4 ,had even a very moderate amount of payment been made for such labour1 and the expenses out of pocket paid in full1 the amount of research performed would have been greatly increased4 ,under present circumstances1 many promising young men1 fitted to become good investigators1 have been driven out of science altogether4 ,i have found by long experience and persistent enquiry1 that there are many young men distributed over this country1 who are very desirous of engaging in scientific research1 and likely to make good investigators1 but are entirely prevented by the non-remunerative character of the labour1 every one wishes to know what will it lead to8 ,even amongst our most able discoverers1 scarcely one who has not possessed private means has continued research beyond the middle age of life1 because such labour enables no provision to be made for old age2 and all those who have left have devoted themselves to less important but more lucrative occupations4 ,most of these gentlemen have been #ahe obliged to abandon research at a period of life when their faculties were in the most perfect state for continuing it4 ,where one young beginner in science meets with the fortunate circumstance of a helping hand1 as ,scheele did in ,bergmann1 and ,faraday in ,davy1 many are crushed out4 ,the want of encouragement to scientific discovery in this country is so very great that extremely few men are able to struggle through it1 and this is one reason why we have had so few discoveries4 ,some persons have argued that the very difficulties and discouragements offered are an advantage to science by producing only men of the very highest eminence in discovery2 but it is manifest that however great the amount of ability may be that is developed by discouragement1 that amount would probably be still greater by judicious assistance4 ,moreover1 progress in the developement of the national scientific intellect is not so much to be reckoned by the few great successes which have occurred in spite of all obstacles1 but rather by the much more numerous ones which would have resulted from proper encouragement4 ,the advocates of such an argument can have no idea of the heart-sickening feeling of long deferred hope experienced by the young beginner in science2 or the disgust gradually engendered in his mind at the injustice of other men taking all the profits of his labours and leaving him without means of support2 or they would never adduce it4 ,in this country the success of the few #ahf eminent men of science has resulted from the accidental combination of a few more or less fortuitous circumstances1 and their own great natural determination1 and not from legitimate and just support4 ,how many investigators we have lost from the above causes it is impossible to tell4 ,the encouragement also of unusual ability should not be left to accident4 ,as scientific research has proved itself to be of such great value to this nation1 the question naturally arises1 how can it best be promoted8 ,a number of plans have been proposed4 ,amongst these may be mentioned4 #ast4 ,by founding ,state ,laboratories1 in which discoverers of established repute1 supplied with every aid and appliance1 should be wholly engaged in research in their respective subjects1 and be paid by the ,state4 #bnd4 ,by founding colleges or ,professorships of original research in each of the ,universities1 and appointing professors similarly4 #crd4 ,by founding provincial colleges or ,professorships of research1 the funds being raised locally by means of subscriptions1 donations1 and endowments1 with or without ,state assistance4 #dth4 ,by ,state or ,local aid1 in the form of additional salary1 to ,professors in colleges1 to enable them to pursue research4 #eth4 ,by an extension of the present ,government grants distributed by the ,royal ,society4 #fth4 ,by making it a condition at each of our ,universities that every student entering for a degree in science1 should previously make an original research4 #gth4 ,by the formation by learned societies1 of ,endowment of #ahg ,research ,funds1 and making grants of money therefrom to recognised investigators4 #hth4 ,by aid to local scientific investigators by ,municipal bodies out of the rates4 ,and #ith4 ,the support of ,institutes of ,scientific ,research by private munificence4 ,aid to research1 in ,germany1 has been chiefly been made by the ,state1 by affording means to the ,professors in the ,universities2 in ,america1 more by munificence of wealthy individuals2 and in this country1 chiefly in the form of ,government grants of money to investigators4 ,the greatest difficulty to be surmounted in carrying out any of these schemes1 is the very general ignorance in this country of the value and necessity of research2 and this can only be overcome by scientific men themselves performing their duty of enlightening the public on the subject4 #ast4 ,by founding ,state ,laboratories4 ,one of the first duties of a ,government is to protect its subjects in the enjoyment of their property2 but as no law reserves to discoverers the fruits of their ability1 it is clearly a duty of the ,state to protect them in other ways4 ,it is believed to be a duty of the ,state to provide and pay for pure scientific research1 for the following reasons3--because research is eminently national work2 because the results of such labour are indispensable to national welfare and progress1 and are of immense value to the nation1 and especially to the ,government2 because nearly the whole pecuniary benefit of it goes to the nation1 and scarcely any to the discoverer2 because research is not sufficiently #ahh provided for by means of voluntary effort1 nor can its benefits be restricted to a locality2 and because there appears to be scarcely any other way 7except by application of ,university revenues7 in which discoverers can be satisfactorily recompenced for their labour4 ,also ,government should for its own sake honour the men who do honour and service to the country4 7,faraday47 ,the founding of ,state laboratories for original research was proposed and advocated by the late ,lieutenant-,colonel ,strange1 ,f4,r4,s41 in communications read before the ,british ,association1 and in evidence given before the ,royal ,commissioners4#cc ,as the erection and maintenance of ,state laboratories would require a large sum of money1 and as all classes of the community would share in the benefit1 it is reasonable to suggest that the money should come from some source towards which all classes of the community1 either directly or indirectly contribute1 and therefore from some national fund4 ,in national improvements1 expense is quite a secondary consideration2 the funds however for providing ,state laboratories already exist2 the sum of nearly ,l#fjj1jjj has accumulated in the form of fees received by ,government for the granting of patents for inventions2 and as the discoveries made by scientific men form the materials by means of which those inventions were made1 the money thus accumulated may be justly claimed by scientific discoverers as a suitable #ahi source from which their labours should be remunerated by the ,state4 ,strong arguments might be adduced both against and in favour of the application of this money for the purpose4 ,inventors are a great wealth-producing class of the community2 they are at present very highly taxed1 and receive but little advantage in return2 to tax them without giving them equivalent advantages1 strikes very near to the root of commercial prosperity1 by diminishing improvements in arts and manufactures4 ,if an inventor is poor and his patent is valuable1 he is also frequently harassed out of it by litigation4 ,inventors are usually poor1 and but little able to pay taxes on patents at all2 their pecuniary position in this country is not greatly better than that of discoverers2 they are largely at the mercy of manufacturers and capitalists2 and the injustice to which they are sometimes subjected is notorious and disgraceful4 ,on the other hand1 the fund already exists2 inventors also receive an equivalent from investigators1 discovery is the indispensable basis of nearly all invention2 patented inventions are formed by means of the knowledge obtained by pure scientific research4 ,the poverty of a man does not justify his taking the fruits of the labours of another man without paying for them4 ,if also the patent fees were thus applied1 the cost of research would then be paid for by all classes of the community1 somewhat in proportion to the benefit derived1 because the cost of patents in general ultimately falls upon the public at #aij large1 in the shape of an increased price put upon the commodity1 in order to pay the cost of the patent1 like the grower of wheat is paid by the consumers of bread1 through the medium of the baker1 the miller1 and corn merchant4 ,whilst the benefits derived from the labours of discoverers1 flows chiefly in the form of money into the hands of wealthy manufacturers1 and finally gets locked up in the possession of capitalists and landowners1 it is hardly to be expected that the ,government will be in possession of funds necessary to promote research unless some such plan as this is adopted4 ,should the wealthy and governing classes however become sufficiently acquainted with the value of research1 and of the essential and permanent dependence of their material prosperity upon it1 there will then be some hope that they will be willing to contribute in a more direct manner their just share towards paying the expenses4 ,there is1 however1 but little prospect of this whilst the influence of wealth so depresses the scientific education of those classes at the ,universities4 ,the fundamental object in founding ,state laboratories should be to keep a staff of the most competent men wholly engaged in original research in pure science1 and a secondary object might be to train assistants to become investigators4 ,such laboratories would doubtless be located in ,london1 and be on a scale of magnitude creditable to science and the nation4 ,they might very suitably include #aia departments for the simpler pure sciences and even for biology4 ,it is manifest that the arguments which support the proposition for professorships of original research in those sciences apply in a greater or less degree to other sciences2 and it has been stated that there is no ground upon which the scheme can be limited to the subject of natural philosophy4 ,in reference to this remark1 7which1 like most objections1 contains some truth71 it must be remembered that there is a natural order of dependence of the sciences upon each other1 in which order also they are being evolved4 ,it is a general truth that the physical sciences of light and heat are based upon mechanical conditions of the particles of matter2 that the science of chemistry is founded upon physics2 that biological phenomena are dependent upon physical and chemical conditions2 that psychological subjects are based upon biology2 and that biological science cannot progress excepting in proportion to the advance of the sciences on which it is based4 ,in addition to this general order of precedence of evolution in point of time1 the various sciences are so mutually related that all must advance together1 the simple ones taking the lead1 and the concrete and more complex sciences1 with their attendant arts1 following behind4 ,as this natural order of dependence and development of the sciences is a great fact of nature1 over which we have little or no control1 and as a scheme for the simultaneous establishment of professorships of research in all the sciences1 simple1 complex1 and #aib concrete1 would probably be too great an undertaking1 the most proper course would be to commence with the simpler ones1 such as those of mathematics1 mechanics1 physics1 and chemistry1 and perhaps biology4 ,if it be argued that it would be unadvisable to commence with the simple and purely experimental sciences1 it would be still more unadvisable to commence with the concrete subjects of natural history1 medicine1 civil history1 law1 and theology1 or with the arts which also depend upon science4 ,the number of investigators in such an institution would not be large1 because few of high repute could be obtained1 many of our ablest ones abandon research for remunerative pursuits4 ,in order to make the plan succeed1 the conditions of the appointments should be such as to limit the election to the most competent persons4 ,in the selection of such gentlemen1 the verdict of opinion of scientific men generally1 upon the published researches of the candidates1 would have previously determined who were qualified for the office4 ,any man who had published reliable papers in the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society1 might very properly be considered a fit candidate1 and the selection and appointment might be made by the ,government1 with the advice of the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,probably there exists no class of persons upon whom the country might more rely for industry in office than eminent investigators1 because they have pursued truth for its good effects alone4 ,men who had #aic previously exercised the degree of self-sacrifice necessary to make a number of long and difficult experimental researches1 with only very limited pecuniary means1 must necessarily be possessed of great enthusiasm in their calling1 and would therefore be extremely unlikely persons to become idle by being supplied with a sufficiency only of means to carry on their labours4 ,further1 such men might at present obtain a much larger income than they would receive in such a post1 by abandoning research and devoting themselves to the various profitable engagements which are open to every man of scientific ability who is willing to devote himself to applied science4 ,the actual work of research is much too arduous and difficult to permit such an office to become an object of desire to a place-seeking or idle person4 ,but in order to exclude with certainty those who might devote themselves to research solely or primarily for the purpose of subsequently obtaining a well paid appointment1 7as persons sometimes devote themselves to learning1 with the object of getting an idle ,fellowship17 and to ensure in all cases a reasonable continuance of industry1 it would be necessary1 that whilst the salaries paid should be sufficient to render the professors free from care1 if expended with a reasonable degree of economy1 they should not be so large as to conduce to idleness4 ,the professors should undertake not to engage in any other remunerative employment1 and provision should be made1 that in case a professor persistently failed to make1 complete1 or publish his #aid researches1 or devoted less than the stipulated amount of time to such labour in the ,institution1 without reasonable cause1 he should be removed4 ,many persons fancy that it must be very nice to be always making experiments1 and that they should be delighted with such an occupation if they could only spare the time4 ,but such an idea is only another illustration of the general ignorance of the subject1 and it is only expressed by those who have never made a laborious and difficult research4 ,pure research is by far the most difficult of all scientific occupations1 and this is another chief reason why discoverers are few1 and why they will probably remain so4 ,to succeed in research1 a man must set aside all human pride1 and approach the subject with perfect humility2 and this is not an easy task1 men cannot so readily abandon preconceived and cherished notions4 ,many researches are moreover extremely dangerous4 ,thilorier was killed by the explosion of a vessel of liquefied carbonic anhydride2 ,dulong lost an eye and finger1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,davy was wounded by an explosion of chloride of nitrogen4 ,faraday was near being blinded by an experiment with oxygen4 ,nickles of ,nancy1 and ,louyet of ,brussels1 lost their lives1 and two other chemists were seriously injured in health by exposure to the excessively dangerous fumes of hydrofluoric acid4 ,bunsen lost the sight of an eye and was nearly poisoned by an explosion whilst analysing cyanide of cacodyl4#cd ,hennel was killed by an #aie explosion of fulminate of silver1 and ,chapman by one of nitrate of methyl2 and nearly every chemical investigator could tell of some narrow escape of life in his own experience4 ,any one who wishes to know whether it is very nice to be always making experiments should attempt the isolation of fluorine1 the chemical examination of some offensive substance1 or the determination of some difficult physical1 or chemical problem4 ,that a professorship of original research would involve substantial work does not admit of doubt1 and therefore there would be some security that it would be worthily bestowed4 ,it would not become an ornamental sinecure1 in which there is pay but no work1 unless1 by assigning to it too large a stipend1 inducement was held out to that numerous class of persons whose love of money is stronger than their love of truth1 to seek the office2 to say the utmost1 it could hardly become so largely a sinecure as many offices now held by ecclesiastics4 ,jobbery and abuse of patronage would be still further prevented by making the duties sufficiently heavy4 ,the appointment1 and remuneration by salary1 of professor of research1 would not lessen the independence of scientific men if the office was not placed under the superintendence of active and interfering officials ignorant of science4 ,although the professors might not be highly paid1 the appointment would increase their independence because it would be one of the most honourable to which scientific men could #aif attain1 and because they would thereby be put into a sphere in which they could exercise their talents to the fullest extent1 and render the greatest service and honour to the nation4 ,if also the salaries offered were not too great1 those persons only would become candidates who at present have insufficient means to defray the considerable cost of experiments4 ,it would be necessary to appoint only persons who would undertake to devote their time solely to the discovery of new facts and principles in science1 and the determination of purely scientific questions1 and not to the making of inventions2 because discovery is of far greater national value than invention2 and because inventions would immediately on their publication be seized1 modified1 and patented by individuals for their own personal benefit4 ,discoveries1 on the other hand1 would require a large additional amount of labour expended upon them by inventors before they could be converted into saleable commodities4 ,each professor should be allowed perfect freedom to choose his own special subjects of research in the sciences he had been accustomed to study1 because each investigator is usually the best judge of what researches are the most likely to yield him important results4 ,no discoverer of repute would be very likely to trespass on another man's sphere of research1 because he would usually have an abundance of good subjects of his own2 and every honourable man would purposely avoid doing so2 and we find this practically to be the case at the present time4 ,separate sets of #aig rooms would be necessary for each investigator in order to keep the researches private and distinct4 ,the whole of the new knowledge obtained by research should be treated as national property1 and all of it worthy of publication should be made known without the least reserve1 it would also be desirable to publish the results at reasonable intervals of time4 ,the publication might take place1 as at present1 in the journals of the learned ,societies1 or in the leading scientific magazines1 and the value of the work would be largely guaranteed by such a mode of publication4 ,the professors should also engage not to sell1 patent1 or prematurely disclose any of the knowledge obtained4 ,by electing to such offices only discoverers of repute1 the nation might reasonably depend for the results upon the known ability and industry of the men4 ,that the results obtained would1 many of them1 be highly valuable1 does not admit of doubt1 because long experience has uniformly proved it2 but no discoverer can tell beforehand what results he will obtain1 otherwise research would hardly be needed4 ,an objection has been made that no one can tell how long it will be after a discovery is made before the nation will derive the chief benefit4 ,the length of time which elapses between the publication of discoveries and their practical fruits is very variable4 ,usually benefit commences at once and gradually widens2 directly discoveries are published they begin to be used by compilers of scientific books1 and by teachers and lecturers in science1 and are thus diffused #aih amongst the public in general1 and begin to produce beneficial effects4 ,inventors1 manufacturers1 medical men1 and others1 also begin to apply them to their respective purposes4 ,in some cases striking applications are immediately made of them1 and public attention is thus directed to the useful result2 but in many cases the beneficial effects are small1 numerous1 and indirect1 and it is difficult to trace and describe them4 ,the objection also is deficient in force1 because expenditure in any other occupation1 and receipt of the profit upon it1 are rarely simultaneous4 ,many of the wisest reforms in this country have been a long time in producing their results4 ,we must therefore be content1 as in all ordinary cases of investment1 with the conviction that the expenditure will be profitable1 and we must wait patiently for the certain harvest4 ,in research1 as in many other human enterprises1 a man who will not move until he is absolutely certain that what he intends to do will at at once succeed1 must sit still and perish4 ,suggestions have also been made to appoint a ,government ,committee1 or ,council1 whose function should be to value scientific discoveries1 and make corresponding amounts of reward to the discoverers4 ,but this appears to be a less feasible plan1 because no man can1 at the period of discovery1 determine what amount of practical result a discovery will ultimately produce4 ,who could have foretold with certainty at the date of ,oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism1 that this discovery would result in #aii the expenditure of hundreds of millions of pounds upon telegraphs alone8#ce ,objections have been made to definite payment for labour in research1 on the ground of indefiniteness of the results1 and the impossibility of measuring their value4 ,can we expect to buy new scientific knowledge at so much a pound1 or to retail discovery by the pint8 ,the work of discoverers is as definite as that of many other persons who are paid4 ,who can measure the value of the cure of souls1 of the duties of a judge1 or of those of a field-marshal8 ,instead of paying for the labour of research in a definite way1 we have adopted unsatisfactory makeshifts4 ,exceptional gifts1 and semi-charitable pensions1 have been with difficulty obtained in a few cases for scientific men2 most often for those who applied scientific knowledge to practical uses than for those who discovered that knowledge4 ,in this country1 neither lawyers1 medical men1 military persons1 nor clergymen are paid definitely by results1 but by time and labour1 in accordance with the reputation of the man1 and there is no sufficient reason why investigators should not be similarly remunerated4 ,the differences in the cases are only ones of degree4 ,the time has arrived when this great evil should be made known and remedied1 and men of science should press upon our ,government1 as a matter of justice to themselves1 and necessary for the nation's welfare1 that the accumulated fees from patents should be applied to the establishment of a ,scientific #bjj department of the ,state1 the erection of ,state laboratories1 and the payment of discoverers for the national work of research4 #bnd4 ,professorships of ,research at the ,universities4 ,most of the remarks already made respecting the appointment and maintenance of professors of research in ,state laboratories1 would apply equally to those proposed in connection with the ,universities4 ,amongst the reasons which may be adduced in favour of the establishment of such professorships the following may be selected4 ,because the advancement of learning is peculiarly the function of a ,university1 and one of the chief objects for which such institutions were founded4 ,the word ,university implies a seat of universal knowledge1 and it is reasonable to assume that ,universities should act as fountains of new theoretical knowledge1 as well as perform the function of diffusing it2 such an addition would also raise their intellectual position1 and make them much more respected1 both at home and abroad4 ,with regard to such professorships1 the ,association for the ,organization of ,academical ,study1 consisting of a number of learned men belonging to the ,universities1 the ,royal ,society1 and other learned bodies1 adopted the following resolutions3-- ,that the chief end to be kept in view in any redistribution of the revenues of ,oxford and ,cambridge is the adequate maintenance of ,mature ,study and ,scientific ,research1 as well for their own sake as with the view of bringing the higher education within the #bja reach of all who are desirous of profiting by it4 ,that to have a class of men whose lives are devoted to research is a national object4 ,that it is desirable1 in the interest of national progress and education1 that ,professorships and special institutions shall be founded in the ,universities for the promotion of ,scientific ,research4 ,that the present mode of awarding ,fellowships as prizes1 has been unsuccessful as a means of promoting ,mature ,study and ,original ,research1 and that it is therefore desirable that it should be discontinued4 ,with regard to the funds necessary3--,it has been estimated that the money paid in the form of sinecure fellowships or retiring pensions1 to young men in ,oxford alone now amounts to about ,l#hj1jjj or ,l#ij1jjj a year2 and it has been suggested that this money be applied to the purpose4 ,these funds were originally intended for promoting knowledge1 but vested interests prevent their being used for discovering new truths4 ,the chief object of such professorships would be the same as that in the proposed ,state laboratories1 viz4--to keep a staff of the most competent men wholly engaged upon research in pure science4 ,the professors of physical and chemical research might be selected in accordance with the suggestions already made1 and be appointed by the ,senate or other governing body1 with the advice of the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 ,all the precautions which have been already suggested under the head of ,state laboratories1 would #bjb have to be taken in order to exclude unsuitable persons1 and to secure industry in the professors4 ,the remarks also1 already made respecting the limitation of the duties of the professors to research in pure science1 the exclusion of invention1 the publication of results1 the class of sciences with which a commencement might best be made1 etc41 apply equally in this case4 ,i do not however mean by these remarks to suggest the disendowment of research in the more complex or concrete subjects1 in order to make a commencement with the simpler sciences4 ,the existence within the ,universities of offices in which the faculties of scientific men might be developed to their fullest extent1 would induce those engaged in the work of scientific instruction in those institutions to devote more time to research1 in order that they might improve their scientific talents1 and in their turn become fitted to occupy such posts4 ,it has been suggested that discoverers should teach as well as investigate2 but this would be an imperfect plan1 and would largely convert the position of a professor into that of one at an ordinary college4 ,every person who has had much experience in experimental investigation also knows1 that to carry it out effectually1 requires the whole of his time and attention4 ,if1 therefore1 teaching or lecturing constitutes a part of the duties1 a portion of the professor's time must be taken from the more important occupation of research1 and the fundamental object of the institution will be frustrated4 ,research evolves new knowledge2 #bjc teaching simply distributes it4 ,the labours of a scientific teacher or lecturer consist essentially of a continued series of repetitions of other men's discoveries4 ,for each single man who can discover1 there exist many who can teach4 ,with teaching in addition to research1 all the usual educational machinery1 lecture theatres and apparatus1 diagrams1 audiences1 pupils1 registration of students1 receipt of fees1 examinations1 marking of papers1 valuing of answers1 attending annual meetings1 etc41 would be brought into requisition1 and the result would probably be1 as it is at present1 the duties of teaching would1 in nearly all cases1 swallow up the time1 and prevent the freedom from interruption necessary for successful research ,under present circumstances1 it is the testimony of nearly every teacher and lecturer in science1 that he has no time for research4 ,if teaching is also carried on1 the ,research laboratories will compete with educational institutions1 established and carried on by private enterprize1 and place them at a disadvantage1 and thus discourage voluntary effort in the diffusion of science2 but by limiting the functions of the professors entirely to pure research1 there will be no competition with any private interests1 because no persons gain a livelihood entirely by means of such occupation4 ,that the practice of teaching is however of very great use in preparing the mind of a scientific man for research is quite certain1 because it compels him to study all parts of his subject1 and whilst doing so1 many questions for investigation occur to his mind4 #bjd ,many of our most eminent discoverers have also been teachers4 ,but teaching is not a necessary condition of success in research1 nor even a necessary preparation for it2 the examples of various able discoverers prove this4 ,in some cases discoverers have devoted themselves to teaching1 only after having attained high repute in research2 in others they have not been teachers at all4 ,original research itself usually suggests plenty of new subjects of investigation1 without the additional ones suggested by teaching4 ,in order that self improvement in a man of science might never stagnate1 there should exist a continuous and complete series of steps of preferment1 by which the merest beginners in scientific knowledge1 might be enabled to attain to the highest scientific position2 and finally become wholly occupied in that kind of labour by which their scientific faculties would be developed to their fullest extent1 but this last step is wanting4 ,by the proposed plan however a student would become a teacher2 the teacher develope into a professor2 and a professor might employ for a period a portion of his time in research1 and thus become qualified for entire devotion to original investigation and discovery4 ,after a scientific teacher has acquired a thorough knowledge of his subjects1 and a high position in his profession1 his occupation becomes to him a species of intellectual routine1 in which he is continually going through the same courses of lectures and examinations over and over again1 and his personal improvement stagnates4 ,but if there was remuneration for research1 #bje or there existed some post or employment1 to which those who had acquired the ability to investigate might be appointed1 there would be an inducement to continued intellectual improvement1 and a sphere in which the most valuable faculties of scientific men might be developed for national benefit to their fullest extent4 #crd4 ,provincial ,colleges of ,research4--,the success of this plan would depend essentially upon the diffusion of a knowledge of the importance of scientific research amongst the richer classes4 ,there are at present a very few wealthy persons in this country who perceive to some extent the value of such research1 and the dependence of their wealth upon it1 who would be willing to contribute to a fund for the purpose2 and there are many more who would assist if the importance of the subject was properly explained to them4 ,the chief argument in favour of provincial colleges of research is1 that it is a duty of wealthy persons to aid research1 because they have derived1 and are continually deriving great benefits from it1 for which they make no payment4 ,the ways in which some of those benefits have been derived have been already briefly stated4 ,as the large manufacturers and capitalists are generally the persons who derive great pecuniary benefit from the progress of science1 it might be reasonably urged that they should contribute freely towards its advancement4 ,such an institution might be located in each of the #bjf largest centres of industry4 ,the objects of the institution2 the branches of science to be investigated in it2 the number of professors1 the mode of selecting them1 and of excluding unsuitable candidates for the office2 the means by which industry might be secured and jobbery prevented2 the exclusion of invention1 and of teaching and lecturing2 the publication of results1 removal of professors1 etc41 have already been treated of under the head of ,state laboratories4 ,the chief difficulties to be overcome in this1 as in all other plans of aiding research1 are to find a sufficient number of influential persons acquainted with the subject to practically carry out the plan2 to secure investigators of high ability2 and to prevent the offices being filled by incompetent persons4 #dth4 ,aid to ,professors of ,science in ,colleges4--,another way by which research might be promoted1 would be by giving assistance in the form of a definite amount of additional salary1 for the purpose of pure research1 to professors and teachers in colleges and institutions2 the money being supplied by the ,state or from the funds of the ,institution4 ,in carrying out this plan1 it would be necessary to assist only those persons who had already published a good research1 and thus proved their ability2 and who would engage to devote a definite portion of their time to the labour as a part of their duty4 ,the selection of suitable men might be made with the advice of the ,council of the ,royal ,society4 #bjg ,the additional salary should be entirely in the form of remuneration for labour1 time1 and materials1 etc41 expended upon research in pure science1 and not in effecting inventions4 ,the knowledge obtained should be treated as public property1 and be published in the usual manner1 and the investigator should not be permitted to sell or patent it4 ,it would be necessary to provide that in case the investigator failed to make or publish a reasonable amount of good research1 the additional salary should cease4 ,publication in the journals of the ,royal ,society1 or in a leading scientific magazine1 might be considered a sufficient proof of the satisfactory quality of the labour4 ,it is very desirable that all the higher teachers and professors of science in our educational institution should devote a portion of their time to original research4 ,it would make their lectures more reliable1 because research yields experience in the detection of error2 whilst there is usually only one way of succeeding in making an experiment1 there are always many ways of failing1 and in the directions given in books1 the latter are usually omitted4 ,it would also induce the students to take a greater interest in the subject1 and feel more respect for the teacher4 ,the special excellence of the ,german system of teaching consists in the union of teaching and original research4 ,this plan of aiding research would induce some of our teachers of science who have not yet made researches1 to attempt such labour1 it would also develope a superior class of scientific teachers generally2 and produce a supply of candidates for professorships of research4 #bjh ,a great obstacle to the carrying out of this plan lies in the fact that in consequence of the ignorance of the value of original research by the founders of such ,institutions1 no definite provision usually exists in the ,trust deeds to authorise the ,trustees to devote any of the funds to such a purpose4 #eth4 ,extension of the ,government ,grant ,system4--,during a number of years the ,british ,government has entrusted to the ,royal ,society the annual sum of ,l#a1jjj for the purpose of aiding science2 and that sum has been given in varying portions to different investigators who have applied for grants in aid of their expenses in making investigations4 ,although the total amount to be disbursed annually was not large1 very few persons1 qualified to make good researches1 usually applied for its assistance1 and it was difficult to dispose of the whole4 ,the chief causes of this difficulty were3--a grant from the fund was an unprofitable gift to accept1 because it was only sufficient to partly pay the expenses out of pocket for chemicals and apparatus1 and allowed nothing for the skill1 time1 or labour1 nor for payments made to assistants4 ,further1 ,by order of the ,council1 all instruments1 apparatus1 and drawings1 made or obtained by aid of the ,government ,grants1 shall1 after serving the purpose for which they were procured1 and in the absence of any specific understanding to the contrary1 be delivered into the custody of the ,royal ,society4 ,by far the greater part of the expense of an investigation in physics or chemistry is the exceedingly large #bji amount of time it occupies4 ,many necessary preliminary experiments have to be made1 which yield either negative1 unsuccessful1 or incomplete results1 and make the undertaking expensive4 ,a good investigation in chemistry also not unfrequently costs the investigator a sovereign a day if he is wholly employed upon it4 ,in some cases1 for each ,l#ajj received as a grant1 at least a ,l#a1jjj1 was directly and indirectly expended4 ,any person therefore who undertook a research became a loser1 and aid from the ,government ,grant fund did not entirely cover his loss4 ,only scientific men who had other sources of income were able to avail themselves of the grants4 ,the existence of the grants also was not widely known4 ,the advantages of the plan were1 it diminished the loss to the investigator1 and the fact of being allotted a sum from the fund was considered highly creditable to the recipient4 ,in consequence largely of the evidence collected from eminent men of science from all parts of ,great ,britain1 and the recommendations based upon it1 by the ,royal ,commission for the ,advancement of ,science1 the ,grant system has been extended2 our ,government recently placed an additional amount of ,l#d1jjj a year1 for five years1 to be distributed in sums at the recommendation of the ,royal ,society to suitable applicants1 and the five years have now elapsed4 ,this extension of the ,grant system has been an #baj improvement4 ,it has resulted both in a large increase in the number of applicants and of researches2 and has shown that there exists in this country a large amount of scientific ability in need of encouragement4 ,the amounts granted were increased in magnitude so as to cover in some cases payments made to assistants and the entire outlay made for experiments1 also a small payment for a portion of the time occupied in actual research4 ,the plan of awarding the grants has been for work proposed by the applicants to be done1 and not for that already performed4 ,how far a retrospective method might be worthy of trial1 is difficult to decide4 ,it has been objected to it that the claims of scientific investigators for researches already made1 would be so great and so convincing that it would be impossible to resist them1 and the funds required to satisfy those claims would be so large as to render the plan quite impracticable2 if however the retrospective period was limited to a short time1 a year for example1 the difficulty would be lessened4 ,there would still however remain the great difficulty of valuing the results4 ,this might probably be overcome by regulating the money payment according to the time1 labour1 pecuniary expenditure1 and scientific status of the particular investigator1 and leaving genius to be rewarded by the fame and honour of the results4 ,no system of aid however can place scientific investigation in a satisfactory position in this country1 which does not include certain remuneration for time1 #baa money and labour expended2 and no sound argument can be adduced why investigators should not be adequately recompenced4 ,the genius alone of a discoverer should be rewarded by fame1 and his time1 labour1 and expenditure1 in accordance with his professional reputation1 be repaid by money1 as in all other intellectual occupations4 ,the same amount of time and labour expended in any ordinary profession1 requiring an equal1 or even less amount of preparatory education and experience1 and less rare ability1 would yield an income of several thousand pounds a year4 ,although the lives of a few eminent discoverers have proved that it has been possible for them to do a considerable amount of research under the conditions which have existed1 that is no reason why they should not be remunerated4 ,previous success in research has been due to the unusually great perseverance1 industry1 and self-denial of the men1 and but little to any pecuniary encouragement received4 ,the fewness of such men1 supports this view of the case4 ,the plan of aiding research by grants which include no certain payment for time or labour1 is quite incommensurate with the importance of the subject and entirely unworthy of the reputation of a great nation4 #fth4 ,students pursuing ,research at the ,universities4 ,in the ,german ,universities each student is required to make an original research before he can obtain a degree in ,science1 and the plan has worked successfully2 also in the ,victoria ,university1 ,manchester1 #bab several ,fellowships have recently been established for the encouragement of students in original investigation4 ,if this plan could be carried out in our old ,universities it would produce most valuable results1 because the governing1 wealthy1 and influential classes of this nation are chiefly educated at those institutions1 and they would then acquire habits of more accurate scientific thought1 and some knowledge of the nature and importance of scientific research1 and of the essential dependence of national welfare upon it4 ,but a great and probably insuperable obstacle exists to the carrying out of such a plan1 viz41 the wealth possessed by the parents of students4 ,an original research cannot be made without considerable industry1 and the greatest opponent of industry1 especially with young men1 is the possession or expectation of wealth4 ,according to college tutors at our old ,universities1 there is no large class of industrious students at those institutions4 ,the greatest cause of the idleness of the students is parental neglect and the habits of wealthy society4 ,many parents allow their sons too much money1 and over-look too readily their idleness and frivolity2 the young men also know their parents are rich1 and act accordingly4 ,many persons send their sons to those places chiefly to form aristocratic acquaintances1 and for other purposes than those of educational discipline and learning4 ,the college authorities have also largely acquiesced in the wishes of the parents and students4 ,and in this way #bac scientific research has been almost entirely excluded from our old ,universities4 ,if the present tutors and governing bodies of those ,institutions cannot induce students generally to be industrious1 by what means can it be expected that these young men can be persuaded to exercise the still greater degree of industry and intelligence requisite to prosecute research1 whilst they are decoyed from it by the attractions of wealth8 ,in ,germany the conditions are very different1 the students in the ,universities of that country have much less money at their disposal4 ,nearly the whole of the educational courses also at the ,grammar schools and other educational institutions in this country1 are formed upon the plan of sending all the superior scholars to our ,universities1 and thus the defective state of scientific training at the ,universities operates through our whole scholastic system1 and depresses the entire scientific instruction of the nation4 ,it is evident that in this way the undue wealth of this country largely retards national progress4 #gth4 ,local ,endowment of ,research ,funds4 ,in addition to the foregoing means1 local efforts might be made to encourage research in each great centre of industry2 through the medium of the local scientific societies4 ,nearly as early as the year #affj1 ,cowley in a treatise1 proposed a ,philosophical ,society to be established near ,london1 with liberal salaries to learned men to make experiments2 but he could not get the money raised4 ,a plan of this kind is in operation in ,birmingham and carried out by the #bad ,council of the ,birmingham ,philosophical ,society in accordance with the following3-- ,,scheme ,,for ,,establishing ,,and ,,administering ,a ,,fund ,,for ,,the ,,endowment ,,of ,,research ,,in ,,birmingham4 ,the ,council are of opinion that this ,society would be omitting a principal means of the advancement of ,science--the end for which all such associations exist--if it neglected the question of the ,endowment of ,research4 ,to maintain a successful investigator in his labours1 even though no results of immediate or obvious utility can be shown to spring out of them1 is of interest to the community at large4 ,indeed1 it is just because the practical usefulness of such work is not immediate or obvious that it becomes necessary to give it special support1 for otherwise it would have its own market value1 and endowment would be superfluous4 ,but the proper and effectual administration of an ,endowment ,fund is perceived to be so beset with difficulty1 as often to deter even those who recognise the principle from advocating it in practice4 ,most of the dangers usually foreseen would1 however1 as a rule be avoided1 simply by the distribution of such funds from local centres1 under such a scheme as is now proposed4 ,the ,council1 are therefore1 anxious to establish a ,fund1 in connection at once with the ,society and the ,town1 for the direct ,endowment of ,scientific ,research4#cf #bae #hth4 ,local ,laboratories of ,research4 ,another plan would be for local scientific societies to raise money by soliciting subscriptions and donations for the support of local laboratories2 a prospectus of the following kind being issued3-- ,,proposal ,,to ,,found ,a ,,laboratory ,,of ,,pure ,,scientific ,,research ,,in ----4 ,as the manufacturers1 merchants1 capitalists1 land-owners1 and the public generally1 of this town and district1 have derived and are still deriving great pecuniary and other benefits from the discovery of new knowledge by means of pure research in the sciences of ,physics and ,chemistry2 and as in consequence of the great neglect of such research in this country1 and the increased cultivation of it in other lands1 our commerce is suffering1 and a great many evils in manufacturing and other operations1 in sanitary and many other matters dependant upon physical and chemical conditions1 remain unremedied2 it is proposed to found a ,local ,laboratory of original research in those sciences1 with every suitable appliance in it2 and to employ one or more investigators of repute1 with assistants1 who shall be wholly engaged in such labour in their respective sciences4 ,as it is largely the custom in this country to effect great objects by means of individual liberality and corporate enterprise1 instead of trusting to ,state assistance1 it is not improbable that when the great importance of scientific research and its claims #baf to encouragement have become more generally known1 that aid which has hitherto been with-held from it will be rendered by private generosity2 and local institutions1 wholly for the purpose of original scientific research will be established and supported by public-spirited wealthy persons4 ,an institution of this kind upon a small scale1 and called ,the ,institute of ,scientific ,research has already been established in ,birmingham1 7see ,note p4 #dj74 ,by founding local institutions of this kind there exist opportunities for wealthy persons to do great good to mankind1 and acquire renown as philanthropists by the action4 ,and #ith4 ,in consequence of the great benefit derived from scientific research by the inhabitants of each locality1 it has become a duty of each large community to promote it1 and local ,town ,councils might with advantage and perfect justice to the public1 devote a portion of municipal funds to the purpose of aiding local scientific research4 ,to this plan it may be objected1 that as the results of research are cosmopolitan1 diffusing themselves everywhere1 and this diffusion cannot be prevented2 the benefits arising from research cannot be restricted even to a large community4 ,in reply to this3--,as knowledge and its advantages are cosmopolitan1 the duty of promoting research must be equally extensive4 ,there is also a real return received by the public for expenditure of money in research1 in the free liberty to use all new knowledge developed everywhere by such labour1 and although the money expended by a #bag community upon particular researches or upon an individual investigator1 does not directly produce an immediate return2 practically an immediate and direct benefit is received by that community1 because new scientific knowledge for the use of teachers and popular lecturers1 and new inventions based upon it1 of local value to that society1 continually become public4 ,every civilized community has also received beforehand such benefits to an enormous extent2 and each investigator may reasonably claim public support on the ground that he contributes to the general stock of new knowledge4 ,some persons however1 who have not fully considered the subject1 wish to receive not only the advantages accruing from the common stock of knowledge1 but also to reserve to themselves the entire benefit arising from their own special contributions4 ,experience alone will prove which of the foregoing schemes is the most suitable in this country1 or in particular cases4 ,at present the plan largest in operation is the system of ,government ,grants1 next in magnitude are the other funds distributed by the ,royal ,society1 the ,british ,association1 the ,chemical ,society1 the ,royal ,institution1 the ,birmingham ,philosophical ,society1 and those provided by the munificence of private individuals4 ,it is greatly to be hoped that the liberal spirit of private individuals will yet further remove the great blot which lies upon the reputation of the wealthy manufacturers1 capitalists1 and land-owners1 who have derived such great profits from #bah scientific research and have scarcely aided it at all in return4 ,it is also to be desired that the ,corporations of manufacturing towns will recognise the value of original scientific enquiry to their fellow townsmen1 and will undertake the responsibility of voting money from municipal funds to promote it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notes #a ,see p4p4 #afe to #afg4 #b ,essays and ,addresses1 ,owen's ,college1 #ahgd1 pp4 #agb-ahb4 #c ,see ,chapter #b1 ,section ,b4 #d ,in the year #ahgj1 a gentleman of the name of ,davis bequeathed ,l#b1jjj to the ,royal ,institution1 ,london1 to aid original scientific research4 #e ,as a notable exception to the above statement3--,scientific research has now an ,institute of its own in ,birmingham1 without being indebted to the public funds4 ,a fund has already been collected for carrying on the work4 ,the building is called ',the ,institute of ,scientific ,research4' ,see ,nature1 ,january #gth1 #ahha1 p4 #cff2 the ,athenaeum1 ,february #eth1 #ahha1 p4 #bjd2 the ,english ,mechanic1 p4 #ecg1 ,february #aath1 #ahha4 #f ,professor ,bache left #ej1jjj dollars1 and ,smithson bequeathed #eda1jjj dollars to this ,institution4 #g ,respecting the ,members of our ,houses of ,legislature1 a former ,postmaster-,general remarked to me1 that a dose of scientific research would be too much for them4 #h ,the ,victoria ,university has recently become a partial exception to this statement4 #i ,see ,royal ,society ,catalogue of ,scientific ,papers1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #gai and #hij2 and vol4 #h1 p4 #a1jaj4 #aj ,see ,nature1 ,april #bdth and ,may #ast1 #ahgc1 pp4 #dhe and #ac2 also ,work and ,wages1 by ,brassey1 pp4 #agj and #agh4 #aa ,,note4--,see ,work and ,wages1 by ,brassey1 p4p4 #ae-aca and #acb2 also the ,laboratory1 vol4 #a1 p4p4 #cac-caf1 #cgh and #chj4 #ab ,,note4--,the whole of this chapter1 especially the ,moral ,section1 is capable of great amplification and much more copious illustration4 #ac ,,note4--,see also p4 #ie4 #ad ,,note4--,athenaeum1 ,aug4 #c1 #ahgg4 p4 #bdb4 #ae ,wish and ,will1 by ,l4 ,turner1 ,m4,a4 #af ,the ,mutual ,relations of ,physical ,science and ,religious ,faith4 #ag ,port ,royal ,logic1 ,discourse #a4 #ah ,see p4 #ia-ib4 #ai ,see ,waste ,products and ,undeveloped ,substances1 by ,p4 ,w4 ,simmonds4 #bj ,see ,barometer ,cycles1 by ,balfour ,stewart1 ,f4,r4,s4--,nature1 ,jan4 #ac1 #ahha1 p4 #bcg4 #ba ,see p4 #afe1 et seq4 #bb ,it would ,i consider be an improvement in our educational arrangements1 if a ,professorial chair1 solely devoted to teaching those laws and principles1 existed in each ,scientific ,college4 #bc ,see vols4 #a 7#ahgb7 #b 7#ahgd7 of the ,reports of that ,commission4 #bd ,see pages #ajj and #aja4 #be ,nature1 ,april #crd1 #ahgc4 p4 #dca4 #bf ,sir ,edmund ,beckett1 ,english ,mechanic1 #ahha1 ,no4 #hcj1 p4 #efj4 #bg ,the ,earl of ,craufurd1 ,english ,mechanic1 #ahha1 ,no4 #hcj1 p4 #efj4 #bh ,see page #fh1 et seq4 p4 #acd4 #bi ,see ,nature1 ,dec4 #bnd1 #ahhj1 p4 #aab4 #cj ,english ,mechanic1 #ahha1 ,no4 #hca1 pp4 #ehf1 #ehg4 #ca ,english ,mechanic1 ,august #agth1 #ahha1 p4 #hc4 #cb ,the ,mastership of the ,mint is no longer given to scientific men4 #cc ,see ,reports of ,royal ,commission on ,scientific ,instruction and ,advancement of ,science1 ,vol #b1 pp4 #ge-ib4 #cd ,see ,nature ,no4 #fjj1 p4 #eig1 ,april #bhth1 #ahha4 #ce ,a fleet of thirty ships1 varying in size from #ejj to #ejjj tons each1 is employed in laying and repairing telegraph cables1 and #be millions of pounds have already been invested in submarine cable enterprises4 #cf ,see ,nature1 vol4 ,,xxii1 page #bjc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,changes made against printed original4 ,page #aa4 our knowledge of the substance3 'knowwledge' in original4 ,page #bd4 ,nearly every manufacturer3 'ever' in original4 ,page #cb4 ,persons in general can easily understand3 'ean easily' in original4 ,page #ci4 wealthy persons who have devoted themselves3 'themselver' in original4 ,page #fb4 also all terrestrial forces3 'terrestial' in original4 ,page #ha4 better systems of hygiene3 'hygeine' in original4 ,page #aad4 course in which the throng is densest3 'the' repeated across line break in original4 ,ibid4 thousands of different chemical compounds3 'compouuds' in original4 ,page #aaf4 emits and absorbs3 'aborbs' in original4 ,page #aai4 ,in every genuine volition3 'volitition' in original4 ,page #abf4 purely physical and chemical conditions43 'physicial' in original4 ,page #abg4 the judicial detection of truth3 'judical' in original4 ,ibid4 completely converted into acquired tendencies3 'completly 444 tendences' in original4 ,page #acd4 the present state of civilization3 'civilzation' in original4 ,ibid4 to withhold truth from ignorant patients3 'withold' in original4 ,ibid4 lists of our moral deficiencies3 'deficiences' in original4 ,page #ace4 there exist no royal roads to happiness3 'their exist' in original4 ,page #aea4 a diminution of waste3 'dimunition' in original4 ,page #aeb4 twenty millions of pounds annually3 'anually' in original4 ,ibid4 ,photography is also largely used in our gaols3 'in our goals' in original4 ,page #aeh4 acting under the same conditions3 'conitions' in original4 ,ibid4 every phenomenon requires time3 'requiries' in original4 ,page #ahb4 to be carried out effectually3 'effectualy' in original4 ,page #ahd4 been driven out of science altogether3 'althogether' in original4 ,page #ahf4 more or less fortuitous circumstances3 'fortuitious' in original4 ,page #ahi4 their labours should be remunerated by the ,state43 'remuerated' in original4 ,page #aii4 should not be similarly remunerated3 'similarily' in original4 ,page #bjc4 consist essentially of a continued series of repetitions3 'esssentially' in original4 ,page #bag4 of local value to that society3 'of' repeated across line break in original4