,a                                      
,biographical ,dictionary               
of                                      
,,freethinkers                          
of                           ,all ,ages 
and ,nations4                           
,by                               ,j4   
,m4 ,,wheeler4                          
,london3                                
,progressive ,publishing ,company1      
#bh ,stonecutter ,street1 ,e4,c4        
#ahhi4          ,,preface4      ,john   
,stuart ,mill in his ,autobiography     
declares with truth that  the world     
would be astonished if it knew how great
 a proportion  of its brightest         
ornaments1 of those most distinguished  
even in  popular estimation for wisdom  
and virtue are complete sceptics in     
religion4 ,many of these1 as ,mill      
points out1 refrain from various        
motives from speaking out4 ,the work ,i 
have undertaken will1 ,i trust1  do     
something to show how many of the       
world's worthiest men and women  have   

been ,freethinkers4    ,my ,dictionary  
does not pretend to be a complete list  
of those who  have rendered services to 
,freethought4 ,to form such a           
compilation  would rather be the task of
 an international society than of an    
individual4 ,moreover details concerning
 many worthy workers are now            
inaccessible4 ,freethought boasts its   
noble army of martyrs of whom  the world
 was not worthy1 and who paid the       
penalty of their freedom  in prison or  
at the stake4 ,some of the names of     
these are only known  by the            
vituperation of their adversaries4 ,i   
have done my best to  preserve some     
trustworthy record of as many as        
possible4    ,the only complete work    
with a similar design of which ,i have  
any  knowledge1 is the ,dictionnaire des
 ,athes anciens et modernes1  by        
,sylvain ,marchal with its supplements  
by ,jerome de ,lalande the  ,astronomer1
 ,an4 ,,viii4 7#ahjj7-ahje4 ,that work1 
which is now extremely  rare1 gave      

scarcely any biographical details1 and  
unfortunately  followed previous        
orthodox atheographers1 such as         
,buddeus1 ,reimmann1  ,hardouin1        
,garasse1 ,mersenne1 in classing as     
,atheists those to whom  the title was  
inapplicable4 ,i have taken no names    
from these sources  without examining   
the evidence4    ,a work was issued by  
,richard ,carlile in #ahbf1 entitled ,a 
,dictionary of  ,modern                 
,anti-,superstionists2 or1 an account1  
arranged alphabetically1  of those who1 
whether called ,atheists1 ,sceptics1    
,latitudinarians1  ,religious           
,reformers1 or etc41 have during the    
last ten centuries  contributed towards 
the diminution of superstition4         
,compiled by  a searcher after ,truth4  
,the compiler1 as ,i have reason to     
know1  was ,julian ,hibbert1 who brought
 to his task adequate scholarship  and  
leisure4 ,it was1 however1 conceived on 
too extensive a scale1  and in #abh     
pages1 all that was issued1 it only     

reached to the name of  ,annet4 ,julian 
,hibbert also compiled chronological    
tables of ,english  ,freethinkers1 which
 were published in the ,reasoner for    
#ahee4    ,of the ,anti-,trinitarian    
,biography of the ,rev4 ,robert         
,wallace1 or of  the previous           
compilations of ,saudius and ,bock1 ,i  
have made but little  use4 ,to include  
the names of all who reject some of the 
,christian  dogmas was quite beside my  
purpose1 though ,i have included those  
of  early ,unitarians and ,universalists
 who1 ,i conceive1 exhibited the true   
spirit of free inquiry in the face of   
persecution4 ,to the ,freydenker        
,lexikon of ,j4 ,a4 ,trinius 7#agei7 my 
obligations are slight1 but should  be  
acknowledged4 ,to ,bayle's ,dictionary1 
,hoefer's ,nouvelle ,biographie         
,generale1 ,meyer's ,konversations      
,lexikon1 ,franck's ,dictionnaire des   
,sciences ,philosophiques1 and to       
,larousse's ,grand ,dictionnaire        
,universel  ,i must also express my     

indebtedness4 ,in the case of disputed  
dates  ,i have usually found ,haydn's   
,dictionary of ,biography 7#ahhf7 most  
trustworthy1 but ,i have also consulted 
,oettinger's valuable ,moniteur  des    
,dates4    ,the particulars have in all 
cases been drawn from the best available
  sources4 ,i have not attempted to give
 a full view of any of the lives  dealt 
with1 but merely sought to give some    
idea of their services and  relation to 
,freethought4 ,nor have ,i enumerated   
the whole of the works  of authors who  
have often dealt with a variety of      
subjects4 ,as full  a list as is        
feasible has1 however1 been given of    
their distinctive  ,freethought works2  
and the book will1 ,i hope1 be useful to
 anyone  wishing information as to the  
bibliography of ,freethought4 ,the only 
work of a bibliographical kind is the   
,guide du ,libre ,penseur1 by  ,m4      
,alfred ,verlire1 but his list is very  
far from complete even of  the ,french  
authors1 with whom it is almost entirely

 occupied4 ,i should  also mention ,la  
,lorgnette ,philosophique1 by ,m4       
,paquet1 as giving lively  sketches1    
though not biographies1 of some modern  
,french ,freethinkers4    ,in the       
compilation of my list of names ,i have 
received assistance  from my friends1   
,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,foote 7to whom ,i am also 
indebted for  the opportunity of        
publication71 ,mr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,birch1 ,mr4 
,e4 ,truelove and  ,mr4 ,f4 ,malibran4  
,for particulars in regard to some      
,english ,freethinkers  ,i am indebted  
to ,mr4 ,charles ,bradlaugh1 ,mr4       
,george ,jacob ,holyoake and  ,mr4 ,e4  
,t4 ,craig1 while ,professor ,dalla     
,volta1 of ,florence1 has kindly        
assisted me with some of the ,italian   
names4 ,i must also express my          
indebtedness to ,a4 de ,gubernatis1     
whose ,dizionario ,biografico degli     
,scrittori ,contemporanei ,i have found 
of considerable service4 ,my thanks  are
 also due to ,g4 ,k4 ,fortescue1 ,esq41 
for permission to examine the  titles of

 all ,freethought works in the ,british 
,museum4    ,some readers may think my  
list contains names better omitted1     
while  omitting others well deserving a 
place4 ,i have1 for instance1 omitted   
many foreign ,liberal ,protestants while
 including ,bishop ,colenso1 who1       
ostensibly1 did not go so far4 ,but my  
justification1 if any1 must be  found in
 my purpose1 which is to record the     
names of those who have  contributed in 
their generation to the advance of      
,freethought4 ,no one  can be more      
conscious of the imperfections of my    
work than myself1  but ,i console myself
 with the reflection of ,plato1 that    
though it  be the merit of a good       
huntsman to find game in a wide wood1 it
 is  no discredit if he do not find it  
all2 and the hope that what ,i have     
attempted some other will complete4     
,the most onerous part of my task has   
been the examination of the  claims of  
some thousand names1 mostly foreign1    
which find no place in  this dictionary4

 ,but the work throughout has been a    
labor of love4 ,i  designed it as my    
humble contribution to the cause of     
,freethought1 and  leave it with the    
hope that it will contribute towards the
 history of  the good old cause2 a      
history which has yet to be written1 and
 for  which1 perhaps1 the time is not   
yet ripe4    ,should this volume be     
received with an encouraging share of   
favor1  ,i hope to follow it with a     
,history of ,freethought in ,england1   
for  which ,i have long been collecting 
materials4              ,a              
,,biographical ,,dictionary ,,of        
,,freethinkers4      ,ablardus          
7,petrus71 b4 #ajgi4 ,a teacher of      
philosophy at ,paris1 renowned  for     
being loved by the celebrated ,eloise4  
,he was accused of teaching  erroneous  
opinions1 chiefly about the ,creation   
and the ,trinity1 and was  condemned by 
a council at ,soissons in #aaba and by  
that of ,sens #aadj1  at the instigation
 of ,st4 ,bernard4 ,he was hunted about1

 but spent  his last days as a monk at  
,cluni4 ,he died #ba ,april1 #aadb4     
,abelard1  observes ,hallam1 was almost 
the first who awakened mankind1 in the  
age of darkness1 to a sympathy with     
intellectual excellence4    ,abano      
7,petrus de74 ,see ,petrus1 de ,abano4  
,abauzit 7,firmin71 a ,french writer1   
descended from an ,arabian family  which
 settled in the ,south of ,france early 
in the ninth century1  b4 ,uzes1 #aa    
,nov4 #afgi4 ,he travelled in ,holland  
and became acquainted  with ,bayle1     
attained a reputation for philosophy1   
and was consulted by  ,voltaire and     
,rousseau4 ,among his works are1        
,reflections on the ,gospels1  and an   
essay on the ,apocalypse1 in which he   
questions the authority  of that work4  
,died at ,geneva #bj ,march1 #agfg4 ,his
 ,miscellanies were  translated in      
,english by ,e4 ,harwood1 #aggd4        
,abbot 7,francis ,ellingwood74 ,american
 ,freethinker1 b4 ,boston1 #f  ,nov4    
#ahcf4 ,he graduated at ,harvard        

,university #ahei1 began life as a      
,unitarian minister1 but becoming too   
broad for that ,church1 resigned  in    
#ahfi4 ,he started the ,index1 a journal
 of free religious inquiry  and         
anti-supernaturalism1 at ,toledo1 but   
since #ahgd at ,boston4 ,this he  edited
 #ahgj-hj4 ,in #ahgb appeared his       
,impeachment of ,christianity4 ,in      
addition to his work on the ,index1 ,mr4
 ,abbot has lectured a great  deal1 and 
has contributed to the ,north ,american 
,review and other  periodicals4 ,he was 
the first president of the ,american    
,national  ,liberal ,league4 ,mr4 ,abbot
 is an evolutionist and ,theist1 and    
defends  his views in ,scientific       
,theism1 #ahhf4    ,ablaing van         
,giessenburg 7,r4,c47 ,see ,giessenburg4
    ,abu ,bakr ,ibn ,al-,tufail 7,abu   
,j'afar7 ,al ,isbili4 ,spanish ,arabian 
philosopher1 b4 at ,guadys1 wrote a     
philosophical romance of pantheistic    
tendency ,hai ,ibn ,yakdan1 translated  
into ,latin by ,pocock1 ,oxford #afga1  

and into ,english by ,s4 ,ockley1 #agaa1
 under the title of ,the ,improvement   
of ,human ,reason4 ,died at ,morocco    
#aahe4    ,abu-,fazil 7,abu al ,fadhl   
ibn ,mubarak1 called ,al ,hindi71 vizier
 to  the great ,emperor ,akbar from     
#aegb4 ,although by birth a ,muhammadan1
  his investigations into the religions 
of ,india made him see equal  worth in  
all1 and1 like his master1 ,akbar1 he   
was tolerant of all  sects4 ,his chief  
work is the ,ayin ,akbary1 a statistical
 account of  the ,indian ,empire4 ,it   
was translated by ,f4 ,gladwin1 #aggg4  
,he was  assassinated #afjd4            
,abul-,abbas-,abdallah ,,iii4 7,al      
,mamoun71 the seventh ,abbasside1       
caliph1  son of ,haroun al ,rashid1 was 
b4 at ,bagdad #af ,sept4 #ghf4 ,he was a
 patron  of science and literature1     
collected ,greek and ,hebrew            
manuscripts1  and invited the scholars  
of all nations to his capital4 ,he wrote
  several treatises and poems4 ,died in 
war near ,tarsus1 #i ,aug4 #hcc4        

,abul-,ola 7,ahmad ibn ,abd ,allah ibn  
,sulaiman71 celebrated ,arabian poet1   
b4 at ,maari1 in ,syria1 ,dec41 #igc4   
,his free opinions gave much scandal  to
 devout ,moslems4 ,he was blind through 
small-pox from the age of  four years1  
but his poems exhibit much knowledge4   
,he called himself  the doubly          
imprisoned captive1 in allusion to his  
seclusion and  loss of sight4 ,he took  
no pains to conceal that he believed in 
no  revealed religion4 ,died ,may1      
#ajeg1 and ordered the following verse  
to be written on his tomb3--,i owe this 
to the fault of my father3  none owe the
 like to mine4    ,abu ,tahir 7al       
,karmatti71 the chief of a freethinking 
sect at ,bahrein1  on the ,persian      
,gulf1 who with a comparatively small   
number of followers  captured ,mecca    
7#icj71 and took away the black stone4  
,he suddenly  attacked1 defeated1 and   
took prisoner ,abissaj whom1 at the head
 of  thirty thousand men1 the caliph had
 sent against him4 ,died in #idc4       

,achillini 7,alessandro71 ,italian      
physician and philosopher b4 ,bologna   
#bi  ,oct4 #adfc4 ,he expounded the     
doctrines of ,averroes1 and wrote       
largely  upon anatomy4 ,died #b ,aug4   
#aeab4 ,his collected works were        
published  at ,venice1 #aede4           
,ackermann 7,louise-,victorine1 ne      
,choquet71 ,french poetess1 b4 ,paris   
#cj  ,nov4 #ahac4 ,she travelled to     
,germany and there married 7#ahec7 a    
young  theologian1 ,paul ,ackerman1 who 
in preparing for the ministry lost his  
,christian faith1 and who1 after        
becoming teacher to ,prince ,frederick  
,william 7afterwards ,frederick ,,iii471
 died at the age of thirty-four         
7#ahdf74 ,both were friends of          
,proudhon4 ,madame ,ackermann's poems   
7,paris #ahfc-gd and #he7 exhibit her as
 a philosophic pessimist and  ,atheist4 
,god is dethroned1 says ,m4 ,caro of her
 poems 7,revue des  ,deux ,mondes1 #ae  
,may1 #ahgd74 ,she professes hatred of  
,christianity  and its interested       

professors4 ,she has also published     
,thoughts of a  ,solitary4 ,sainte      
,beuve calls her the learned solitary of
 ,nice4    ,acollas 7,pierre ,antoine   
,ren ,paul ,emile71 ,french jurisconsult
 and  political writer1 b4 ,la ,chtre   
#be ,june1 #ahbf1 studied law at ,paris4
 ,for  participating in the ,geneva     
congress of the ,international ,society 
in #ahfg he was condemned to one year's 
imprisonment4 ,in #ahga he was          
appointed head of the law faculty by the
 ,commune4 ,he has published  several   
manuals popularising the legal rights of
 the people1 and has  written on        
,marriage its ,past1 ,present1 and      
,future1 #ahhj4 ,mrs4 ,besant  has      
translated his monograph on ,the ,idea  
of ,god in the ,revolution1  published  
in the ,droits de l',homme4    ,acontius
 7,jacobus--,italian1 ,giacomo          
,aconzio74 ,born at ,trent early  in    
sixteenth century4 ,after receiving     
ordination in the ,church of  ,rome he  
relinquished that faith and fled to     

,switzerland in #aeeg4 ,he  subsequently
 came to ,england and served ,queen     
,elizabeth as a military  engineer4 ,to 
her he dedicated his ,strategems of     
,satan1 published at  ,basle #aefe4     
,this was one of the earliest           
latitudinarian works1 and  was placed   
upon the ,index4 ,it was also bitterly  
assailed by ,protestant  divines1 both  
in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,an  
,english translation  appeared in #afdh4
 ,some proceedings were taken against   
,acontius before  ,bishop ,grindall1 of 
the result of which no account is given4
 ,some  passages of ,milton's           
,areopagitica may be traced to          
,acontius1 who1  ,cheynell informs us1  
lived till #afbc4 ,stephen's ,dictionary
 of ,national  ,biography says he is    
believed to have died shortly after     
#aeff4    ,acosta 7,uriel74 ,born at    
,oporto #aeig1 the son of a             
,christianised ,jew2  he was brought up 
as a ,christian1 but on reaching        
maturity1 rejected  that faith4 ,he went

 to ,holland1 where he published a work 
equally  criticising ,moses and ,jesus4 
,for this he was excommunicated by the  
,synagogue1 fined and put in prison by  
the ,amsterdam authorities1  and his    
work suppressed4 ,after suffering many  
indignities from both  ,jews and        
,christians1 he committed suicide #afdg4
    ,adams 7,george71 of ,bristol1      
sentenced in #ahdb to one month's       
imprisonment for selling the ,oracle of 
,reason4    ,adams 7,robert ,c471       
,canadian ,freethought writer and       
lecturer4 ,author  of ,travels in ,faith
 from ,tradition to ,reason 7,new ,york1
 #ahhd71 also  ,evolution1 a ,summary of
 ,evidence4    ,adler 7,felix7 ,ph4 ,d4 
,american ,freethinker1 the son of a    
,jewish rabbi1  was b4 in ,alzey1       
,germany1 #ac ,aug4 #ahea4 ,he graduated
 at ,columbia  ,college1 #ahgj1 was     
professor of ,hebrew and ,oriental      
literature  at ,cornell ,university from
 '#gd to ,may '#gf1 when he established 
in  ,new ,york the ,society of ,ethical 

,culture1 to which he discourses on     
,sundays4 ,in #ahgg he published a      
volume entitled ,creed and ,deed1 in    
which he rejects supernatural religion4 
,dr4 ,adler has also contributed  many  
papers to the ,radical literature of    
,america4    nesidemus4 ,a ,cretan      
sceptical philosopher of the first      
century4 ,he  adopted the principle of  
,heraclitus1 that all things were in    
course  of change1 and argued against   
our knowledge of ultimate causes4       
,airy 7,sir ,george ,biddell74 ,english 
,astronomer ,royal1 b4 ,alnwick  #bg    
,july1 #ahja4 ,educated at ,cambridge1  
where he became senior  wrangler #ahbc4 
,during a long life ,professor ,airy did
 much to advance  astronomical science4 
,his ,notes on the ,earlier ,hebrew     
,scriptures #ahgf1  proves him to have  
been a thorough-going ,freethinker4     
,aitkenhead 7,thomas71 an ,edinburgh    
student aged eighteen1 who was  indicted
 for blasphemy1 by order of the ,privy  
,council1 for having  called the ,old   

,testament ,ezra's ,fables1 and having  
maintained  that ,god and nature were   
the same4 ,he was found guilty #bd ,dec4
 #afif1  and hanged for blasphemy1 #h   
,jan4 #afig4    ,aitzema 7,lieuwe van71 
a nobleman of ,friesland1 b4 at ,dorckum
 #ai  ,nov4 #afjj1 author of a          
suppressed ,history of the ,netherlands1
 between  #afba-fh4 ,is classed by      
,reimmann as an ,atheist4 ,died at the  
,hague #bc  ,feb4 #affi4    ,akbar      
7,jalal-ed-din ,muhammad71 the greatest 
of the emperors of  ,hindostan1 b4 #ae  
,oct4 #aedb1 was famous for his wide    
administration and  improvement of the  
empire4 ,akbar showed toleration alike  
to ,christians1  ,muhammadans1 and to   
all forms of the ,hindu faith4 ,he had  
the ,christian  gospels and several     
,brahmanical treatises translated into  
,persian4 ,the  result of his many      
conferences on religion between learned 
men of  all sects1 are collected in the 
,dabistan4 ,akbar was brought up as a   
,muhammadan1 but became a ,theist1      

acknowledging one ,god1 but rejecting   
all other dogmas4 ,died ,sept4 #afje4   
,alberger 7,john74 ,american author of  
,monks1 ,popes1 and their ,political    
,intrigues 7,baltimore1 #ahga7 and      
,antiquity of ,christianity 7,new ,york1
  #ahgd74    ,albini 7,giuseppe74       
,italian physiologist1 b4 ,milan4 ,in   
#ahde he  studied medicine in ,paris4   
,he has written on embryology and many  
other physiological subjects4           
,alchindus4 ,yakub ibn ,is'hak ibn      
,subbah 7,ab ,ysuf7 called ,al ,kindi1  
,arab physician and philosopher1 the    
great grandson of one of the  companions
 of ,muhammad1 the prophet1 flourished  
from #had to about  #hdj4 ,he was a     
rationalist in religion1 and for his    
scientific studies  he was set down as a
 magician4    ,alciati 7,giovanni       
,paolo74 ,a ,milanese of noble family4  
,at first  a ,romanist1 he resigned that
 faith for ,calvinism1 but gradually    
advanced to ,anti-trinitarianism1 which 
he defends in two letters  to ,gregorio 

,pauli1 dated ,austerlitz #aefd and     
#aefe4 ,beza says that  ,alciati        
deserted the ,christian faith and became
 a ,muhammadan1 but  ,bayle takes pains 
to disprove this4 ,died at ,dantzic     
about #aegj4    ,aleardi 7,gaetano74    
,italian poet1 known as ,aleardo        
,aleardi1 b4 ,verona1 #d  ,nov4 #ahab4  
,he was engaged in a life-long struggle 
against the ,austrian  dominion1 and his
 patriotic poems were much admired4 ,in 
#ahei he was  elected deputy to         
,parliament for ,brescia4 ,died ,verona1
 #af ,july1 #ahgh4    ,alembert 7,jean  
le ,rond d'71 mathematician and         
philosopher1 b4 at  ,paris #af ,nov4    
#agag4 ,he was an illegitimate son of   
,canon ,destouches  and ,mme4 ,tencin1  
and received his ,christian name from a 
church  near which he was exposed as a  
foundling4 ,he afterwards resided  for  
forty years with his nurse1 nor would he
 leave her for the most  tempting       
offers4 ,in #agda1 he was admitted a    
member of the ,academy of  ,sciences4   

,in #agdi1 he obtained the prize medal  
from the ,academy of  ,berlin1 for a    
discourse on the theory of winds4 ,in   
#agdi1 he solved the  problem of the    
procession of the equinoxes and         
explained the mutation  of the earth's  
axis4 ,he next engaged with ,diderot1   
with whose opinions  he was in complete 
accord1 in compiling the famous         
,encyclopdie1 for  which he wrote the   
preliminary discourse4 ,in addition to  
this great  work he published many      
historical1 philosophical and scientific
 essays1  and largely corresponded with 
,voltaire4 ,his work on the ,destruction
  of the ,jesuits is a caustic and      
far-reaching production4 ,in a letter   
to ,frederick the ,great1 he says3 ,as  
for the existence of a supreme          
intelligence1 ,i think that those who   
deny it advance more than they  can     
prove1 and scepticism is the only       
reasonable course4 ,he goes on  to say1 
however1 that experience invincibly     
proves the materiality of  the soul4    

,died #bi ,oct4 #aghc4 ,in #agii two    
volumes of his posthumous  essays were  
printed in ,paris4 ,his works prove     
d',alembert to have been  of broad      
spirit and of most extensive knowledge4 
,alfieri 7,vittorio71 ,count4 ,famous   
,italian poet and dramatist1 b4 ,asti1  
,piedmont1 #ag ,jan4 #agdi1 of a noble  
family4 ,his tragedies are justly       
celebrated1 and in his ,essay on        
,tyranny he shows himself as favorable  
to religious as to political liberty4   
,written in his youth1 this work  was   
revised at a more advanced age1 the     
author remarking that if he  had no     
longer the courage1 or rather the fire1 
necessary to compose  it1 he            
nevertheless retained intelligence1     
independence and judgment  enough to    
approve it1 and to let it stand as the  
last of his literary  productions4 ,his 
attack is chiefly directed against      
,catholicism1  but he does not spare    
,christianity4 ,born among a people1 he 
says1  slavish1 ignorant1 and already   

entirely subjugated by priests1 the     
,christian religion knows only how to   
enjoin the blindest obedience1  and is  
unacquainted even with the name of      
liberty4 ,alfieri's tragedy  of ,saul   
has been prohibited on the ,english     
stage4 ,died ,florence1  #h ,oct4 #ahjc4
    ,alfonso ,x41 surnamed the ,wise1   
,king of ,castillo and of ,leon2 b4 in  
#abbc1 crowned #abeb4 ,a patron of      
science and lover of astronomy4 ,he     
compiled a complete digest of ,roman1   
feudal and canon law1 and  had drawn up 
the astronomical tables called          
,alfonsine ,tables4 ,by  his liberality 
and example he gave a great impulse to  
,spanish  literature4 ,for his          
intercourse with ,jews and ,arabians1   
his  independence towards the ,pope and 
his free disposal of the clerical       
revenues1 he has been stigmatised as an 
,atheist4 ,to him is attributed  the    
well-known remark that had he been      
present at the creation of the  world he
 would have proposed some improvements4 

,father ,lenfant adds  the pious lie    
that ,the king had scarcely pronounced  
this blasphemy  when a thunderbolt fell 
and reduced his wife and two children to
  ashes4 ,alfonso ,x4 died #d ,april1   
#abhd4    ,algarotti 7,francesco71      
,count4 ,italian writer and art critic1 
b4 at  ,venice1 #aa ,dec4 #agab4 ,a     
visit to ,england led him to write      
,newtonianism  for the ,ladies4 ,he     
afterwards visited ,berlin and became   
the friend  both of ,voltaire and of    
,frederick the ,great1 who appointed him
 his  ,chamberlain4 ,died with          
philosophical composure at ,pisa1 #c    
,may1 #agfd4    ,alger 7,william        
,rounseville71 b4 at ,freetown1         
,massachusetts1 #cj  ,dec4 #ahbb1       
educated at ,harvard1 became a          
,unitarian preacher of the  advanced    
type4 ,his ,critical ,history of the    
,doctrine of a ,future  ,life1 with a   
complete bibliography of the subject by 
,ezra ,abbot1  is a standard work1      
written from the ,universalist point of 

view4    ,allen 7,charles ,grant        
,blairfindie71 naturalist and author1 b4
 in  ,kingston1 ,canada1 #bd ,feb4      
#ahdh4 ,he studied at ,merton ,college1 
,oxford1  and graduated with honors     
#ahga4 ,in #ahgc appointed ,professor of
 ,logic  in ,queen's ,college1 ,spanish 
town1 ,jamaica2 from #ahgd to '#gg he   
was  its principal4 ,since then he has  
resided in ,england1 and become  known  
by his popular expositions of           
,darwinism4 ,his published works        
include ,physiological sthetics 7#ahgg71
 ,the ,evolutionist at ,large  7#ahha71 
,nature ,studies 7#ahhc71 ,charles      
,darwin 7#ahhe71 and several  novels4   
,grant ,allen has also edited the       
miscellaneous works of ,buckle1  and has
 written on ,force and ,energy 7#ahhh74 
,allen 7,ethan7 ,col41 ,american        
soldier1 b4 at ,litchfield1             
,connecticut1  #aj ,jan4 #agcg4 ,one of 
the most active of the revolutionary    
heroes1  he raised a company of         
volunteers known as the ,green ,mountain

 ,boys1  and took by surprise the       
,british fortress of ,ticonderoga1      
capturing  #ajj guns1 #aj ,may1 #agge4  
,he was declared an outlaw and #ajj     
offered  for his arrest by ,gov4 ,tryon 
of ,new ,york4 ,afterwards he was taken 
prisoner and sent to ,england4 ,at first
 treated with cruelty1 he was           
eventually exchanged for another        
officer1 #f ,may1 #aggh4 ,he was a      
member  of the state legislature1 and   
succeeded in obtaining the recognition  
of ,vermont as an independent state4 ,he
 published in #aghd ,reason  the only   
,oracle of ,man1 the first publication  
in the ,united ,states  openly directed 
against the ,christian religion4 ,it has
 been frequently  reprinted and is still
 popular in ,america4 ,died ,burlington1
 ,vermont1  #ac ,feb4 #aghi4 ,a statue  
is erected to him at ,montpelier1       
,vermont4    ,allsop 7,thomas74 ,the    
favorite disciple of ,coleridge1 b4 #aj 
,april1  #agid1 near ,wirksworth1       
,derbyshire1 he lived till #ahhj4 ,a    

friend  of ,robert ,owen and the        
,chartists4 ,he was implicated in the   
attempt  of ,orsini against ,napoleon   
,,iii4 ,in his ,letters1 ,conversations 
and  ,recollections of ,samuel ,taylor  
,coleridge1 he has imported many of  his
 ,freethought views4    ,alm 7,richard  
von der74 ,see ,ghillany 7,f4 ,w47      
,alpharabius 7,muhammad ibn ,muhammad   
ibn ,tarkhan7 7,abu ,nasr71 called  ,al 
,farabi1 ,turkish philosopher1 termed by
 ,ibn ,khallikan the greatest           
philosopher the ,moslems ever had1      
travelled to ,bagdad1 mastered  the     
works of ,aristotle1 and became master  
of ,avicenna4 ,al ,farabi is  said to   
have taught the eternity of the world   
and to have denied the  permanent       
individuality of the soul4 ,his         
principal work is a sort  of            
encyclopdia4 ,rnan says he expressly    
rejected all supernatural  revelation4  
,died at ,damascus ,dec4 #iej1 aged     
upwards of eighty4    ,amaury or        
,amalric de ,chartres1 a heretic of the 

thirteenth century1  was a native of    
,bene1 near ,chartres1 and lived at     
,paris1 where he gave  lessons in logic4
 ,in a work bearing the title of        
,physion1 condemned  by a bull of ,pope 
,innocent ,,iii4 7#abjd71 he is said to 
have taught a  kind of ,pantheism1 and  
that the reign of the ,father and ,son  
must give  place to that of the ,holy   
,spirit4 ,ten of his disciples were     
burnt at  ,paris #bj ,dec4 #abaj1 and   
the bones of ,amaury were exhumed and   
placed  in the flames4    ,amberley     
7,john ,russell7 ,viscount1 eldest son  
of ,earl ,russell1  b4 #ahdc4 ,educated 
at ,harrow1 ,edinburgh and ,trinity     
,college1  ,cambridge1 where ill-health 
prevented him reading for honors4 ,he   
entered ,parliament in #ahff as ,radical
 member for ,nottingham4 ,lord          
,amberley contributed thoughtful        
articles to the ,north ,british1  the   
,fortnightly and ,theological ,reviews1 
and will be remembered by  his bold     
,analysis of ,religious ,belief 7#ahgf71

 in which he examines1  compares and    
criticises the various faiths of the    
world4 ,lord ,amberley  left his son to 
be brought up by ,mr4 ,spalding1 a      
self-taught man of  great ability and   
force of character2 but the will was set
 aside1 on  appeal to the ,court of     
,chancery1 in consideration of ,mr4     
,spalding's  heretical views4 ,died #h  
,jan4 #ahgf4    ,amman 7,hans ,jacob71  
,german surgeon and traveller1 b4 ,lake 
,zurich  #aehf4 ,in #afab he went to    
,constantinople1 ,palestine and ,egypt1 
and  afterwards published a curious book
 called ,voyage in the ,promised  ,land4
 ,died at ,zurich1 #afeh4    ,ammianus  
7,marcellinus74 ,roman soldier-historian
 of the fourth century1  b4 at ,antioch4
 ,he wrote the ,roman history from the  
reign of ,nerva to  the death of ,valens
 in thirty-one books1 of which the first
 thirteen  are lost4 ,his history is    
esteemed impartial and trustworthy4 ,he 
served  under ,julian1 and compares the 
rancor of the ,christians of the period 

to that of wild beasts4 ,gibbon calls   
him an accurate and faithful  guide4    
,died about #cie ,a4,d4    ,ammonius1   
surnamed ,saccas or the ,porter1 from   
his having been obliged  in the early   
part of his life to adopt that calling1 
was born of  ,christian parents in      
,alexandria during the second century4  
,he1  however1 turned ,pagan and opened 
a school of philosophy4 ,among his      
pupils were ,origen1 ,longinus and      
,plotinus4 ,he undoubtedly originated   
the ,neo-,platonic movement1 which      
formed the most serious opposition  to  
,christianity in its early career4      
,ammonius died ,a4,d4 #bdc1 aged  over  
eighty years4    ,anaxagoras1 a ,greek  
philosopher of the ,ionic school1 b4    
about #dii ,b4,c41  lived at ,athens and
 enjoyed the friendship of ,pericles4   
,in #dej ,b4,c4 he  was accused of      
,atheism for maintaining the eternity of
 matter and was  banished to ,lampsacus1
 where he died in #dbh ,b4,c4 ,it is    
related that1  being asked how he       

desired to be honored after death1 he   
replied1  ,only let the day of my death 
be observed as a holiday by the boys  in
 the schools4 ,he taught that generation
 and destruction are only  the union and
 separation of elements which can       
neither be created  nor annihilated4    
,andre-,nuytz 7,louis71 author of       
,positivism for ,all1 an elementary     
exposition of ,positive philosophy1 to  
which ,littr wrote a preface1  #ahfh4   
,andrews 7,stephen ,pearl74 ,american   
,sociologist1 b4 ,templeton1 ,mass41    
#bb ,march1 #ahab4 ,he was an ardent    
,abolitionist1 an eloquent speaker1  and
 the inventor of a universal language   
called ,alwato4 ,his principle  work is 
entitled ,the ,basic ,outline of        
,universology 7,n4 ,y41 #ahgb74 ,he     
also wrote ,the ,church and ,religion of
 the ,future 7#ahhf74 ,he was a         
prominent member and vice-president of  
the ,liberal ,club of ,new ,york1  a    
contributor to the ,london ,times1 the  
,new ,york ,truthseeker1 and many  other

 journals4 ,died at ,new ,york1 #ba     
,may1 #ahhf4    ,andrieux 7,louis74     
,french deputy1 b4 ,trvoux #bj ,july1   
#ahdj4 ,was  called to the bar at       
,lyons1 where he became famous for his  
political  pleading4 ,he took part in   
the ,freethought ,congress at ,naples in
 #ahfi1  and in ,june of the following  
year he was imprisoned for three months 
for his attack on the ,empire4 ,on the  
establishment of the ,republic he  was  
nominated procureur at ,lyons4 ,he was  
on the municipal council of  that city1 
which he has also represented in the    
,chamber of ,deputies4 ,in  #ahgi he    
became ,prefect of ,police at ,paris1   
but retired in #ahha and was  elected   
deputy by his constituents at ,lyons4   
,he has written ,souvenirs  of a        
,prefect of ,police 7#ahhe74            
,angelucci 7,teodoro74 ,italian poet and
 philosopher1 b4 near ,tolentino  #aedi4
 ,he advocated ,aristotle against ,f4   
,patrizi1 and was banished  from ,rome4 
,one of the first emancipators of modern

 thought in ,italy1  he also made an    
excellent translation of the neid of    
,virgil4 ,died  ,montagnana1 #afjj4     
,angiulli 7,andrea74 ,italian           
,positivist1 b4 ,castellana #ab ,feb4   
#ahcg1  author of a work on philosophy  
and ,positive research1 ,naples #ahfh4  
,he  became professor of ,anthropology  
at ,naples in #ahgf1 and edits a        
philosophical review published in that  
city since #ahha4    ,annet 7,peter74   
,one of the most forcible writers among 
the ,english  ,deists1 b4 at ,liverpool 
in #afic4 ,he was at one time a         
schoolmaster  and invented a system of  
shorthand4 ,priestley learnt it at      
school  and corresponded with ,annet4   
,in #agci he published a pamphlet on    
,freethinking the ,great ,duty of       
,religion1 by ,p4 ,a41 minister of      
religion4 ,this was followed by the     
,conception of ,jesus as the            
,foundation of the ,christian ,religion1
 in which he boldly attacks  the        
doctrine of the ,incarnation as a legend

 of the ,romanists1  and ,the           
,resurrection of ,jesus ,considered     
7#agdd7 in answer to ,bishop            
,sherlock's ,trial of the ,witnesses4   
,this controversy was continued in  ,the
 ,resurrection ,reconsidered and ,the   
,resurrection ,defenders ,stript  of all
 ,defence4 ,in ,an ,examination of the  
,history and ,character of  ,st4 ,paul  
he attacks the sincerity of the apostle 
to the ,gentiles and  even questions the
 authenticity of his epistles4 ,in      
,supernaturals  ,examined 7#agdg7 he    
argues that all miracles are incredible4
 ,in #agfa  he issued nine numbers of   
the ,free ,inquirer1 in which he        
attacked  the authenticity and          
credibility of the ,pentateuch4 ,for    
this he was  brought before the ,king's 
,bench and sentenced to suffer one      
month's  imprisonment in ,newgate1 to   
stand twice in the pillory1 once at     
,charing ,cross and once at the         
,exchange1 with a label ,for ,blasphemy1
  then to have a year's hard labor in   

,bridewell and to find sureties  for    
good behavior during the rest of his    
life4 ,it is related that  a woman      
seeing ,annet in the pillory said1      
,gracious6 pilloried for  blasphemy4    
,why1 don't we blaspheme every day6     
,after his release ,annet  set up a     
school at ,lambeth4 ,being asked his    
views on a future life  he replied by   
this apologue3 ,one of my friends in    
,italy1 seeing the  sign of an inn1     
asked if that was the ,angel4 ,no1 was  
the reply1  do you not see it is the    
sign of a dragon4 ,ah1 said my friend1  
as ,i have never seen either angel or   
dragon1 how can ,i tell whether  it is  
one or the other8 ,died #ah ,jan4 #agfi4
 ,the ,history of the ,man  after ,god's
 ,own ,heart 7#agfa7 ascribed to ,annet1
 was more probably  written by          
,archibald ,campbell4 ,the ,view of the 
,life of ,king ,david  7#agfe7 by ,w4   
,skilton1 ,horologist1 is also falsely  
attributed to ,annet4    ,anthero de    
,quental1 ,portuguese writer1 b4 ,san   

,miguel #ahdc4 ,educated  for the law at
 the ,university of ,coimbra1 he has    
published both poetry  and prose1       
showing him to be a student of          
,hartmann1 ,proudhon and ,rnan1  and one
 of the most advanced minds in          
,portugal4    ,anthony 7,susan          
,brownell74 ,american reformer1 b4 of a 
,quaker family  at ,south ,adams1       
,massachusetts1 #ae ,feb4 #ahbj4 ,she   
became a teacher1  a temperance         
reformer1 an opponent of slavery1 and an
 ardent advocate  of women's rights4 ,of
 the last movement she became secretary4
 ,in  conjunction with ,mrs4 ,e4 ,c4    
,stanton and ,parker ,pillsbury she     
conducted  ,the ,revolutionist founded  
in ,new ,york in #ahfh1 and with ,mrs4  
,stanton  and ,matilda ,joslyn ,gage she
 has edited the ,history of ,woman's    
,suffrage1  #ahha4 ,miss ,anthony is a  
declared ,agnostic4    ,antoine         
7,nicolas74 ,martyr4 ,denied the        
,messiahship and divinity of  ,jesus1   
and was strangled and burnt at ,geneva1 

#bj ,april1 #afcb4    ,antonelle        
7,pierre ,antoine7 ,marquis d'1 ,french 
political economist1  b4 ,arles #agdg4  
,he embraced the revolution with ardor1 
and his article  in the ,journal des    
,hommes ,libres occasioned his arrest   
with ,baboeuf4 ,he  was1 however1       
acquitted4 ,died at ,arles1 #bf ,nov4   
#ahag4    ,antoninus 7,marcus           
,aurelius74 ,see ,aurelius4    ,apelt   
7,ernst ,friedrich71 ,german            
philosopher1 b4 ,reichenau #c ,march1   
#ahab4 ,he criticised the philosophy of 
religion from the standpoint  of reason1
 and wrote many works on metaphysics4   
,died near ,gorlitz1  #bg ,oct4 #ahei4  
,aquila1 a ,jew of ,pontus1 who became a
 proselyte to ,christianity1 but        
afterwards left that religion4 ,he      
published a ,greek version of the       
,hebrew scriptures to show that the     
prophecies did not apply to ,jesus      
7,a4,d4 #abh74 ,the work is lost4 ,he   
has been identified by ,e4 ,deutsch     
with the author of the ,targum of       

,onkelos4    ,arago 7,dominique ,franois
 ,jean71 ,french academician1           
politician1  physicist and astronomer1  
b4 ,estagel1 #bf ,feb4 #aghf4 ,he was   
elected to  the ,french ,academy of     
,sciences at the age of twenty-three4   
,he made  several optical and           
electro-magnetic discoveries1 and       
advocated  the undulatory theory of     
light4 ,he was an ardent ,republican and
  ,freethinker1 and took part in the    
provisional ,government of #ahdh4 ,he   
opposed the election of ,louis          
,napoleon1 and refused to take the  oath
 of allegiance after the coup d'tat of  
,december1 #ahea4 ,died #b  ,oct4 #ahec4
 ,humboldt calls him a zealous defender 
of the interests  of ,reason4    ,ardigo
 7,roberto71 ,italian philosopher1 b4 at
 ,casteldidone 7,cremona7  #bh ,jan4    
#ahbh1 was intended for the ,church1 but
 took to philosophy4 ,in  #ahfi he      
published a discourse on ,peitro        
,pomponazzi1 followed next year  by     
,psychology as a ,positive ,science4    

,signor ,ardigo has also written on  the
 formation of the solar system and on   
the historical formation of  the ideas  
of ,god and the soul4 ,an edition of his
 philosophical works  was commenced at  
,mantua in #ahhb4 ,ardigo is one of the 
leaders of the  ,italian ,positivists4  
,his ,positivist ,morals appeared in    
,padua #ahhe4    ,argens 7,jean         
,baptiste de ,boyer7 ,marquis d'1       
,french writer1 b4 at  ,aix1 in         
,provence1 #bd ,june #agjd4 ,he adopted 
a military life and  served with        
distinction4 ,on the accession of       
,frederick the ,great  he invited       
d',argens to his court at ,berlin1 and  
made him one of his  chamberlains4 ,here
 he resided twenty-five years and then  
returned to  ,aix1 where he resided till
 his death #aa ,june1 #agga4 ,his works 
were  published in #agfh in twenty-four 
volumes4 ,among them are ,lettres       
,juives1 ,lettres ,chinoises and        
,lettres ,cabalistiques1 which were     
joined to ,la ,philosophie du bon sens4 

,he also translated ,julian's  discourse
 against ,christianity and ,ocellus     
,lucanus on the ,eternity  of the       
,world4 ,argens took ,bayle as his      
model1 but he was inferior to  that     
philosopher4    ,argental 7,charles     
,augustin de ,ferriol7 ,count d'1       
,french diplomat1  b4 ,paris #bj ,dec4  
#agjj1 was a nephew of ,mme4 de ,tencin1
 the mother  of ,d',alembert4 ,he is    
known for his long and enthusiastic     
friendship  for ,voltaire4 ,he was said 
to be the author of ,mmoires du ,comte  
de  ,comminge and ,anecdotes de la cour 
d',edouard4 ,died #e ,jan4 #aghh4       
,aristophanes1 great ,athenian comic    
poet1 contemporary with ,socrates1      
,plato1 and ,euripides1 b4 about #ddd   
,b4,c4 ,little is known of his life4 ,he
  wrote fifty-four plays1 of which only 
eleven remain1 and was crowned  in a    
public assembly for his attacks on the  
oligarchs4 ,with the utmost  boldness he
 satirised not only the the political   
and social evils  of the age1 but also  

the philosophers1 the gods1 and the     
theology  of the period4 ,plato is said 
to have died with ,aristophanes' works  
under his pillow4 ,died about #chj      
,b4,c4    ,aristotle1 the most          
illustrious of ancient philosophers1 was
 born at  ,stagyra1 in ,thrace1 #chd    
,b4,c4 ,he was employed by ,philip of   
,macedon  to instruct his son           
,alexander4 ,his inculcation of ethics  
as apart  from all theology1 justifies  
his place in this list4 ,after the death
  of ,alexander1 he was accused of      
impiety and withdrew to ,chalcis1  where
 he died ,b4,c4 #cbb4 ,grote says3 ,in  
the published writings of  ,aristotle   
the accusers found various heretical    
doctrines suitable for  sustaining their
 indictment2 as1 for example1 the       
declaration that  prayer and sacrifices 
to the gods were of no avail4 ,his      
influence  was predominant upon         
philosophy for nearly two thousand      
years4 ,dante  speaks of him as the     
master of those that know4    ,arnold of

 ,brescia1 a pupil of ,abelard4 ,he     
preached against the papal  authority   
and the temporal power1 and the vices of
 the clergy4 ,he  was condemned for     
heresy by a ,lateran ,council in #aaci1 
and retired  from ,italy4 ,he afterwards
 returned to ,rome and renewed his      
exertions  against sacerdotal           
oppression1 and was eventually seized   
and burnt at  ,rome in #aaee4 ,baronius 
calls him the patriarch of political    
heretics4    ,arnold 7,matthew71        
,,ll4,d4 poet and critic1 son of ,dr4   
,arnold of ,rugby1  b4 at ,laleham #bd  
,dec4 #ahbb4 ,educated at ,winchester1  
,rugby1 and ,oxford1  where he won the  
,newdigate prize4 ,in #ahdh he published
 the ,strayed  ,reveller1 and other     
,poems1 signed ,a4 ,in #ahea he married 
and became  an inspector of schools4 ,in
 #ahec appeared ,empedocles on ,etna1 a 
poem  in which1 under the guise of      
ancient teaching he gives much secular  
philosophy4 ,in #aheg he was elected    
,professor of ,poetry at ,oxford4 ,in   

#ahga he published an essay entitled    
,st4 ,paul and ,protestantism2 in #ahgc 
,literature and ,dogma1 which1 from its 
rejection of supernaturalism1           
occasioned much stir and was followed by
 ,god and the ,bible4 ,in #ahgg  ,mr4   
,arnold published ,last ,essays on      
,church and ,state4 ,mr4 ,arnold  has a 
lucid style and is abreast of the       
thought of his age1 but he  curiously   
unites rejection of supernaturalism1    
including a personal  ,god1 with a fond 
regard for the ,church of ,england4 ,he 
may be said  in his own words to wander 
between two worlds1 one dead1 the other 
powerless to be born4 ,died #ae ,april1 
#ahhh4    ,arnould 7,arthur71 ,french   
writer1 b4 ,dieuze #g ,april1 #ahcc4 ,as
  journalist he wrote on l',opinion     
,nationale1 the ,rappel1 ,reforme and   
other papers4 ,in #ahfd he published a  
work on ,beranger1 and in '#fi a        
,history of the ,inquisition4 ,in ,jan4 
#ahgj he founded ,la ,marseillaise  with
 ,h4 ,rochefort1 and afterwards the     

,journal du ,peuple with ,jules         
,valles4 ,he was elected to the         
,national ,assembly and was member of   
the ,commune1 of which he has written a 
history in three volumes4 ,he  has also 
written many novels and dramas4         
,arnould 7,victor71 ,belgian            
,freethinker1 b4 ,maestricht1 #g ,nov4  
#ahch1  advocate at the ,court of       
,appeal1 ,brussels4 ,author of a        
,history of the  ,church #ahgd1 and a   
little work on the ,philosophy of       
,liberalism #ahgg4    ,arouet 7,franois 
,marie74 ,see ,voltaire4    ,arpe       
7,peter ,friedrich74 ,philosopher1 b4   
,kiel1 ,holstein1 #aj ,may1  #afhb4     
,wrote an apology for ,vanini dated     
,cosmopolis 7i4e41 ,rotterdam1  #agab74 
,a reply to ,la ,monnoye's treatise on  
the book ,de ,tribus  ,impostoribus is  
attributed to him4 ,died1 ,hamburg1 #d  
,nov4 #agdj4    ,arthur 7,john7 is      
inserted in ,marchal's ,dictionnaire des
 ,athes  as a mechanic from near        
,birmingham1 who took a prize at ,paris 

and  republished the ,invocation to     
,nature in the last pages of the ,system
  of ,nature4 ,julian ,hibbert inserted 
his name in his ,chronological  ,tables 
of ,anti-,superstitionists1 with the    
date of death #agib4    ,asseline       
7,louis74 ,french writer1 b4 at         
,versailles in #ahbi1 became an         
advocate in #ahea4 ,in #ahff he         
established ,la ,libre ,pense1 a weekly 
journal of scientific materialism1 and  
when that was suppressed  ,la ,pense    
,nouvelle4 ,he was one of the founders  
of the ,encyclopdie  ,gnrale4 ,he wrote 
,diderot and the ,nineteenth ,century1  
and contributed  to many journals4      
,after the revolution of #d ,sept4 #ahgj
 he was elected  mayor of the fourteenth
 arrondissement of ,paris1 and was      
afterwards  one of the ,municipal       
,council of that city4 ,died #f ,april1 
#ahgh4    ,assezat 7,jules74 ,french    
writer1 b4 at ,paris #ba ,jan4 #ahcb was
 a son  of a compositor on the ,journal 
des ,debats1 on which ,jules obtained a 

position and worked his way to the      
editorial chair4 ,he was secretary of   
the ,paris ,society of ,anthropology1   
contributed to ,la ,pense ,nouvelle1    
edited the ,man ,machine of ,lamettrie1 
and edited the complete works  of       
,diderot in twenty volumes4 ,died #bd   
,june1 #ahgf4    ,assollant 7,jean1     
,baptiste ,alfred74 ,french novelist1 b4
 #bj ,march1  #ahbg4 ,larousse says he  
has all the scepticism of ,voltaire4    
,ast 7,georg ,anton ,friedrich74 ,german
 ,platonist1 b4 ,gotha #bi  ,dec4 #aggh4
 ,was professor of classical literature 
at ,landshut and  ,munich4 ,wrote       
,elements of ,philosophy1 #ahji1 etc4   
,died ,munich #ca  ,dec4 #ahda4         
,atkinson 7,henry ,george74 ,philosophic
 writer1 b4 in #ahah4 ,was educated  at 
the ,charterhouse1 gave attention to    
mesmerism1 and wrote in  the ,zoist4 ,in
 #ahea he issued ,letters on the ,laws  
of ,man's ,nature  and ,development1 in 
conjunction with ,harriet ,martineau1 to
 whom he  served as philosophic guide4  

,this work occasioned a considerable    
outcry4 ,mr4 ,atkinson was a frequent   
contributor to the ,national  ,reformer 
and other ,secular journals4 ,he died   
#bh ,dec4 #ahhd1 at ,boulogne1  where he
 had resided since #ahgj4    ,aubert de 
,verse 7,noel74 ,a ,french advocate of  
the seventeenth century1  who wrote a   
history of the ,papacy 7#afhe7 and was  
accused of blasphemy4    ,audebert      
7,louise74 ,french authoress of the     
,romance of a ,freethinker  and of an   
able ,reply of a ,mother to the ,bishop 
of ,orleans1 #ahfh4    ,audifferent     
7,georges74 ,positivist and executor to 
,auguste ,comte1  was born at ,saint    
,pierre 7,martinque7 in #ahbc1 settled  
at ,marseilles1  and is the author of   
several medical and scientific works4   
,aurelius 7,marcus ,antoninus74 ,roman  
,emperor and ,stoic philosopher1 b4 at  
,rome #bf ,april1 #aba4 ,was carefully  
educated1 and lived a laborious1        
abstemious life4 ,on the death of his   
uncle ,antoninus ,pius1 #afa1 the       

,senate obliged him to take the         
government1 but he associated with      
himself ,l4 ,verus4 ,on the death of    
,verus in #afi ,antoninus possessed     
sole authority1 which he exercised with 
wise discretion and great  glory4 ,much 
of his time was employed in defending   
the northern  frontiers of the empire   
against ,teutonic barbarians4 ,he had no
  high opinion of ,christians1 speaking 
of their obstinacy1 and it is  pretended
 many were put to death in the reign of 
one of the best  emperors that ever     
ruled4 ,if so we may be assured it was  
for their  crimes4 ,ecclesiastical      
historians have invented another pious  
miracle  in a victory gained through the
 prayers of the ,christians4 ,antoninus 
held that duty was indispensable even   
were there no gods4 ,his  ,meditations1 
written in the midst of a most active   
life1 breathe a  lofty morality1 and are
 a standing refutation of the view that 
pure  ethics depend upon ,christian     
belief4 ,died #ag ,march1 #ahj4         

,austin 7,charles71 lawyer and disciple 
of ,bentham1 b4 ,suffolk #agii4 ,at     
,cambridge1 where he graduated ,b4,a4 in
 #ahbd and ,m4,a4 in #ahbg1 he won1     
much to the amazement of his friends1   
who knew his heterodox opinions1  the   
,hulsean prize for an essay on          
,christian evidences4 ,for this he  was 
sorry afterwards1 and told ,lord        
,stanley of ,alderley ,i could  have    
written a much better essay on the other
 side4 ,he afterwards  wrote on the     
other side in the ,westminster ,review4 
,successful as a  lawyer1 he retired in 
ill-health4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill writes highly 
of his  influence4 ,the ,hon4 ,l4 ,a4   
,tollemache gives a full account of his 
heretical opinions4 ,he says ,he        
inclined to ,darwinism1 because as he   
said1 it is so antecedently probable2   
but1 long before this theory  broke the 
back of final causes1 he himself had    
given them up4 ,died  #ba ,dec4 #ahgd4  
,austin 7,john71 jurist1 brother of     
above1 was born #c ,march1 #agij4 ,a    

friend of ,james ,mill1 ,grote and      
,bentham1 whose opinions he shared1  he 
is chiefly known by his profound works  
on jurisprudence4 ,died #ag  ,dec4      
#ahei4    ,avempace1 i4e41 ,muhammad ibn
 ,yahya ibn ,bajjat 7,abu ,bekr71 called
  ,ibn al-,saigh 7the son of the        
goldsmith71 ,arabian philosopher and    
poet1 b4 at ,saragossa1 practised       
medicine at ,seville #aaah1 which he    
quitted about #aabj1 and became vizier  
at the court of ,fez1 where he  died    
about #aach4 ,an admirer of ,aristotle1 
he was one of the teachers  of          
,averroes4 ,al-,fath ,ibn ,khkn         
represents him as an infidel and        
,atheist1 and says3 ,faith disappeared  
from his heart and left not a  trace    
behind2 his tongue forgot the ,merciful1
 neither did the holy  name cross his   
lips4 ,he is said to have suffered      
imprisonment for  his heterodoxy4       
,avenel 7,georges71 ,french writer1 b4  
at ,chaumont #ca ,dec4 #ahbh4 ,one of   
the promoters of the ,encyclopdie       

,gnrale4 ,his vindication of ,cloots    
7#ahfe7 is a solid work of erudition4   
,he became editor of la ,rpublique      
,franaise and edited the edition of     
,voltaire published by ,le ,sicle       
7#ahfg-gj74 ,died at ,bougival1 near    
,paris1 #a ,july1 #ahgf1 and was1  by   
his express wish1 buried without        
religious ceremony4    ,averroes        
7,muhammad ,ibn-,ahmad ,ibn ,rushd71    
,abu al ,walid1 ,arabian  philosopher1  
b4 at ,cordova in #aabf1 and died at    
,morocco #aj  ,dec4 #aaih4 ,he          
translated and commented upon the works 
of ,aristotle1  and resolutely placed   
the claims of science above those of    
theology4 ,he  was prosecuted for his   
heretical opinions by the ,muhammadan   
doctors1  was spat upon by all who      
entered the mosque at the hour of       
prayer1  and afterwards banished4 ,his  
philosophical opinions1 which incline   
towards materialism and pantheism1 had  
the honor of being condemned  by the    
,university of ,paris in #abdj4 ,they   

were opposed by ,st4 ,thomas  ,aquinas1 
and when profoundly influencing ,europe 
at the ,renaissance  through the ,paduan
 school were again condemned by ,pope   
,leo ,x4 in #aeac4    ,avicenna 7,husain
 ,ibn ,abdallah1 called ,ibn ,sina71    
,arabian physician and  philosopher1 b4 
,aug4 #ihj in the district of ,bokhara4 
,from his early  youth he was a         
wonderful student1 and at his death #ae 
,june1 #ajcg1  he left behind him above 
a hundred treatises4 ,he was the        
sovereign  authority in medical science 
until the days of ,harvey4 ,his         
philosophy  was pantheistic in tone1    
with an attempt at compromise with      
theology4    ,aymon 7,jean71 ,french    
writer1 b4 ,dauphin #affa4 ,brought up  
in the  ,church1 he abjured ,catholicism
 at ,geneva1 and married at the ,hague4 
,he  published ,metamorphoses of the    
,romish ,religion1 and is said to have  
put forward a version of the ,esprit de 
,spinoza under the famous title         
,treatise of ,three ,impostors4 ,died   

about #agcd4    ,bagehot 7,walter71     
economist and journalist1 b4 of         
,unitarian parents1  ,langport1         
,somersetshire1 #c ,feb4 #ahbf2 he died 
at the same place #bd  ,march1 #ahgg4   
,he was educated at ,london ,university1
 of which he became  a fellow4 ,for the 
last seventeen years of his life he     
edited the  ,economist newspaper4 ,his  
best-known works are ,the ,english      
,constitution1  ,lombard ,street and    
,literary ,studies4 ,in ,physics and    
,politics 7#ahgb71  a series of essays  
on the ,evolution of ,society1 he       
applies ,darwinism  to politics4        
,bagehot was a bold1 clear1 and very    
original thinker1  who rejected historic
 ,christianity4    ,baggesen 7,jens     
,immanuel71 ,danish poet1 b4 ,ksor1     
,zealand4 #ae  ,feb4 #agfd4 ,in #aghi he
 visited ,germany1 ,france1 and         
,switzerland2 at  ,berne he married the 
grand-daughter of ,haller4 ,he wrote    
popular poems  both in ,danish and      
,german1 among others ,adam and ,eve1 a 

humorous mock  epic 7#ahbf74 ,he was an 
admirer of ,voltaire4 ,died ,hamburg1 #c
 ,oct4 #ahbf4    ,bahnsen 7,julius      
,friedrich ,august71 pessimist1 b4      
,tondern1  ,schleswig-,holstein1 #cj    
,mar4 #ahcj4 ,studied philosophy at     
,keil1  #ahdg4 ,he fought against the   
,danes in '#di1 and afterwards studied  
at  ,tbingen4 ,bahnsen is an independent
 follower of ,schopenhauer and          
,hartmann1 joining monism to the        
idealism of ,hegel4 ,he has written     
several works1 among which we mention   
,the ,philosophy of ,history1  ,berlin1 
#ahgb1 and ,the ,contradiction between  
the ,knowledge and the  ,nature of the  
,world 7#b vols71 ,berlin #ahhj-hb4     
,bahrdt 7,karl ,friedrich71 ,german     
deist1 b4 in ,saxony1 #be  ,aug4 #agda4 
,educated for the ,church1 in #agff he  
was made professor  of biblical         
philology4 ,he was condemned for heresy1
 and wandered  from place to place4 ,he 
published a kind of expurgated ,bible1  
called  ,new ,revelations of ,god3 ,a   

,system of ,moral ,religion for         
,doubters and  ,thinkers1 ,berlin1      
#aghg1 and a ,catechism of ,natural     
,religion1 ,halle1  #agij4 ,died near   
,halle1 #bc ,april1 #agib4    ,bailey   
7,james ,napier71 ,socialist1 edited the
 ,model ,republic1 #ahdc1 the  ,torch1  
and the ,monthly ,messenger4 ,he        
published ,gehenna3 its ,monarch  and   
,inhabitants2 ,sophistry ,unmasked1 and 
several other tracts in the  ,social    
,reformer's ,cabinet ,library1 and some 
interesting ,essays on  ,miscellaneous  
,subjects1 at ,leeds1 #ahdb4    ,bailey 
7,samuel71 philosophical writer1 of     
,sheffield1 b4 in #agia4 ,his  essay on 
the ,formation and ,publication of      
,opinions appeared in #ahba4 ,he        
vigorously contends that man is not     
responsible for his opinions  because   
they are independent of his will1 and   
that opinions should  not be the subject
 of punishment4 ,another anonymous      
,freethought work  was ,letters from an 
,egyptian ,kaffir on a ,visit to        

,england in ,search  of ,religion4 ,this
 was at first issued privately #ahci1   
but afterwards  printed as a ,reasoner  
tract4 ,he also wrote ,the ,pursuit of  
,truth1  #ahbi1 and a ,theory of        
,reasoning1 #ahea4 ,he was acquainted   
with both  ,james and ,john ,stuart     
,mill1 and shared in most of the views  
of the  philosophical ,radicals of the  
period4 ,died #ah ,jan4 #ahgj1 leaving  
#ij1jjj to his native town4    ,bailey  
7,william ,s471 editor of the ,liberal1 
published in ,nashville1  ,tennessee1   
was an ,atheist up till the day of      
death1 ,march1 #ahhf4 ,in  a            
slave-holding ,state1 he was the earnest
 advocate of abolition4    ,baillie     
7,george71 of ,garnet ,hill1 ,glasgow4  
,had been a sheriff in one  of the      
,scotch counties4 ,he was a liberal     
subscriber to the ,glasgow  ,eclectic   
,institute4 ,in #ahed he offered a prize
 for the best essay on  ,christianity   
and ,infidelity1 which was gained by    
,miss ,sara ,hennell4 ,in  #aheg another

 prize was restricted to the question   
whether ,jesus  prophesied the coming of
 the end of the world in the life-time  
of his  followers4 ,it was gained by    
,mr4 ,e4 ,p4 ,meredith1 and is          
incorporated  in his ,prophet of        
,nazareth4 ,in #ahfc ,mr4 ,baillie      
divested himself  of his fortune        
7#ah1jjj7 which was to be applied to the
 erection  and endowment of an          
institution to aid the culture of the   
operative  classes by means of free     
libraries and unsectarian schools1      
retaining  only the interest for himself
 as curator4 ,he only survived a few    
years4    ,baillire 7,gustave-,germer71 
,french scientific publisher1 b4 at     
,paris  #bf ,dec4 #ahcg4 ,studied       
medicine1 but devoted himself to        
bringing out  scientific publications   
such as the ,library of ,contemporary   
,philosophy1  and the ,international    
,scientific ,series4 ,he was elected #bi
 ,nov4 #ahgd as  ,republican and        
anti-clerical member of the ,municipal  

,council of ,paris4    ,bain            
7,alexander7 ,,ll4,d4 ,scotch           
philosopher1 b4 at ,aberdeen in #ahah4  
,he  began life as a weaver but studied 
at ,marischal ,college #ahcf-dj1 and    
graduated ,m4,a4 in #ahdj4 ,he then     
began to contribute to the ,westminster 
,review1 and became acquainted with     
,john ,stuart ,mill1 whose ,logic  he   
discussed in manuscript4 ,in #ahee he   
published ,the ,senses and  ,the        
,intellect1 and in #ahei ,the ,emotions 
and the ,will1 constituting  together a 
systematic exposition of the human mind4
 ,from #ahfj to  #ahhj he occupied the  
,chair of ,logic in the ,university of  
,aberdeen1  his accession being most    
obnoxious to the orthodox1 and provoking
  disorder among the students4 ,in #ahfi
 he received the degree of  ,,ll4,d4 ,in
 addition to numerous educational works 
,dr4 ,bain published a  ,compendium of  
,mental and ,moral ,science 7#ahfh71    
,mind and ,body 7#ahge71  and ,education
 as a ,science 7#ahgi71 for the         

,international ,scientific  ,series4 ,in
 #ahhb he published ,james ,mill1 a     
,biography1 and ,john ,stuart  ,mill3 a 
,criticism1 with ,personal              
,recollections4 ,in #ahha he was elected
  ,lord ,rector of the ,university of   
,aberdeen1 and this honor was renewed   
in #ahhd1 in which year he published    
,practical ,essays4    ,bainham         
7,james71 martyr4 ,he married the widow 
of ,simon ,fish1 author  of the         
,supplycacion of ,beggars1 an attack    
upon the clergy of the  period4 ,in     
#aeca he was accused of heresy1 having  
among other things  denied              
transubstantiation1 the confessional1   
and the power of the  keys4 ,it was     
asserted that he had said that he would 
as lief pray  to his wife as to our     
lady1 and that ,christ was but a man4   
,this  he denied1 but admitted holding  
the salvation of unbelievers4 ,he was   
burnt #cj ,april1 #aecb4    ,baissac    
7,jules71 ,french littrateur1 b4 ,vans1 
#ahbg1 author of several  studies in    

philology and mythology4 ,in #ahgh he   
published ,les ,origines  de la         
,religion in three volumes1 which have  
the honor of being put  upon the ,roman 
,index4 ,this was followed by l',age de 
,dieu1 a study  of cosmical periods and 
the feast of ,easter4 ,in #ahhb he began
 to  publish ,histoire de la ,diablerie 
,chrtienne1 the first part of which  is 
devoted to the person and personnel of  
the devil4    ,bakunin 7,mikhail        
,aleksandrovich71 ,russian ,nihilist1 b4
 ,torshok  7,tver7 #ahad1 of an ancient 
aristocratic family4 ,he was educated at
  ,st4 ,petersburg1 and entered as an   
ensign in the artillery4 ,here he       
became embued with revolutionary ideas4 
,he went to ,berlin in #ahda1  studied  
the ,hegelian philosophy1 and published 
some philosophical  writings under the  
name of ,jules ,elisard4 ,in '#dc he    
visited ,paris and  became a disciple of
 ,proudhon4 ,in '#dh he was expelled    
from ,france  at the demand of ,russia1 
whose government set the price of       

#aj1jjj  silver roubles on his head1    
went to ,dresden and became a member of 
the  insurrectionary government4 ,he was
 arrested and condemned to death1  ,may 
'#ej1 but his sentence was commuted to  
imprisonment for life4 ,he  escaped into
 ,austria1 was again captured and       
sentenced to death1  but was handed over
 to ,russia and deported to ,siberia4   
,after several  years' penal servitude  
he escaped1 travelled over a thousand   
miles  under extreme hardship1 reached  
the sea and sailed to ,japan4 ,thence he
  sailed to ,california1 thence to ,new 
,york and ,london1 where with ,herzen   
he published the ,kolokol4 ,he took part
 in the establishment of the            
,international ,society1 but being at   
issue with ,karl ,marx abandoned  that  
body in #ahgc4 ,he died at ,berne #a    
,july #ahgf1 leaving behind a  work on  
,god and the ,state1 both being         
vigorously attacked4 ,laveleye  writes  
of him as the apostle of universal      
destruction4    ,ball 7,william ,platt71

 b4 at ,birmingham #bh ,nov4 #ahdd4     
,educated at  ,birkbeck ,school1        
,london4 ,became schoolmaster but       
retired rather  than teach religious    
doctrines4 ,matriculated at ,london     
,university  #ahff4 ,taught pyrotechny  
in the ,sultan's service #ahgj-ga4      
,received  the order of the ,medjidieh  
after narrow escape from death by the   
bursting of a mortar4 ,upon his return  
published ,poems from ,turkey  7#ahgb74 
,mr4 ,ball has contributed to the       
,national ,reformer since #ahgh  and    
since #ahhd has been on the staff of the
 ,freethinker4 ,he has  published       
pamphlets on ,religion in ,schools1 the 
,ten ,commandments  and ,mrs ,besant's  
,socialism1 and has compiled with ,mr4  
,foote the  ,bible ,handbook4 ,mr4 ,ball
 is a close thinker and a firm supporter
 of  ,evolutional ,malthusianism1 which 
he has ably defended in the pages  of   
,progress4 ,he has of late been engaged 
upon the question3 ,are the  ,effects of
 ,use and ,disuse ,inherited8           

,ballance 7,john71 ,new ,zealand        
statesman1 b4 ,glenary1 ,antrim1        
,ireland1  ,march #ahci4 ,going out to  
,new ,zealand he became a journalist and
 started  the ,wanganui ,herald4 ,he    
entered ,parliament in #ahge and became 
,colonial  ,treasurer in '#gh4 ,with    
,sir ,robert ,stout he has been a great 
support  to the ,freethought cause in   
,new ,zealand4    ,baltzer 7,wilhelm    
,eduard74 ,german rationalist1 b4 #bd   
,oct4 #ahad1 at  ,hohenleine in ,saxony4
 ,he was educated as a ,protestant      
minister1 but  resigned and founded at  
,nordhausen in #ahdg a free community4  
,he took  part in the ,parliament of    
,frankfort in '#dh2 has translated the  
life  of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 and is  
the author of a history of religion  and
 numerous other works4 ,died #bd ,june1 
#ahhg4    ,bancel 7,franois ,dsir74     
,french politician1 b4 ,le ,mastre1  #b 
,feb4 #ahbb4 ,became an advocate4 ,in   
#ahdi1 he was elected to the            
,legislative ,assembly4 ,after the coup 

d'tat he retired to ,brussels1  where he
 became ,professor at the ,university4  
,in #ahfi he was elected  deputy at     
,paris in opposition to ,m4 ,ollivier4  
,he translated the work  on ,rationalism
 by ,ausonio ,franchi1 and wrote on     
,mysteries1 #ahga1  besides many        
political works4 ,died #bc ,june1 #ahga4
    ,barbier 7,edmond74 ,french         
translator of the works of ,darwin1     
,lubbock1  and ,tylor4 ,died #ahhc4     
,barbier d',aucour 7,jean74 ,french     
critic and academician1 b4 ,langres1    
#afdb4 ,most of his writings are        
directed against the ,jesuits4 ,died    
,paris1 #ac ,sept4 #afid4    ,barlow    
7,george74 ,poet1 b4 in ,london1 #ai    
,june1 #ahdg4 ,in his volumes1  ,under  
the ,dawn and ,poems1 ,real and ,ideal1 
he gives utterance to many  ,freethought
 sentiments4    ,barlow 7,joel74        
,american statesman1 writer and poet1 b4
 ,reading1  ,connecticut1 #bd ,march1   
#aged4 ,served as a volunteer in the    
revolutionary war1 became a chaplain1   

but resigned that profession1  taking to
 literature4 ,in ,england1 in #agia1 he 
published ,advice to the  ,privileged   
,orders4 ,in ,france he translated      
,volney's ,ruins of ,empires1  and      
contributed to the political literature 
of the ,revolution4 ,paine  entrusted   
him with the ,,ms4 of the first part of 
the ,age of ,reason4 ,his  chief work is
 entitled the ,columbiad1 #ahjh4 ,he was
 sent as minister  to ,france1 #ahaa1   
and being involved in the misfortunes   
following the  retreat from ,moscow1    
died near ,cracow1 ,poland1 #bd ,dec4   
#ahab4    ,barni 7,jules ,romain74      
,french philosophic writer1 b4 ,lille1  
#a ,june1  #ahah4 ,he became secretary  
to ,victor ,cousin1 and translated the  
works  of ,kant into ,french4 ,he       
contributed to ,la ,libert de ,penser   
7#ahdg-ea7  and to l',avenir 7#ahee74   
,during the ,empire he lived in         
,switzerland  and published ,martyrs de 
la ,libre ,pense 7#ahfb71 ,la ,morale   
dans  la ,dmocratie 7#ahfd71 and a work 

on the ,french ,moralists of the        
,eighteenth ,century 7#ahgc74 ,he was   
elected to the ,national ,assembly1     
#ahgb2 and to the ,chamber of ,deputies1
 #ahgf4 ,died at ,mers1 #d ,july1       
#ahgh4 ,a statue is erected to him at   
,amiens4    ,barnout 7,hippolyte74      
,french architect and writer1 b4 ,paris 
#ahaf1  published a ,rational ,calendar 
#ahei and #ahfj4 ,in ,may #ahgj he      
established  a journal entitled         
,l',athe1 the ,atheist1 which the       
clerical journals  declared drew ,god's 
vengeance upon ,france4 ,he is also     
author of a  work on aerial navigation4 
,barot 7,franois ,odysse74 ,french      
writer1 b4 at ,mirabeau #ahcj4 ,he  has 
been a journalist on several ,radical   
papers1 was secretary to  ,gustave      
,flourens1 and has written on the ,birth
 of ,jesus 7#ahfd7 and  ,contemporary   
,literature in ,england 7#ahgd74        
,barrett 7,thomas ,squire74 ,born #i    
,sept4 #ahdb1 of ,quaker parents1 both  
grandfathers being ministers of that    

body2 educated at ,queenwood  ,college1 
obtained diploma of ,associate in ,arts 
from ,oxford with honors  in ,natural   
,science and ,mathematics1 contributed  
to the ,national  ,reformer between     
#ahfe and #ahgj1 published an acute     
examination of  ,gillespie's argument1  
priori1 for the existence of ,god       
7#ahfi71  which in #ahga reached a      
second edition4 ,he also wrote ,a ,new  
,view  of ,causation 7#ahga71 and an    
,introduction to ,logic and ,metyphysics
  7#ahgg74 ,mr4 ,barrett has been hon4  
sec4 of the ,london ,dialectical        
,society1 and edited a short-lived      
publication1 ,the ,present ,day1 #ahhf4 
,barrier 7,f4 ,m474 ,french ,fourierist1
 b4 ,saint ,etienne #ahae1 became       
professor of medicine at ,lyons1 wrote  
,a ,sketch of the ,analogy of ,man  and 
,humanity 7,lyons #ahdf71 and           
,principles of ,sociology 7,paris       
#ahfg71  and an abridgment of this      
entitled ,catechism of ,liberal and     
,rational  ,socialism4 ,died            

,montfort-,l',amaury #ahgj4             
,barrillot 7,franois74 ,french author1  
b4 of poor parents at ,lyons in  #ahah4 
,an orphan at seven years of age1 he    
learnt to read from shop  signs1 and    
became a printer and journalist4 ,many  
of his songs and  satires acquired      
popularity4 ,he has also wrote a letter 
to ,pope ,pius  ,,ix4 on the            
,o,ecumenical ,council 7#ahga71 signed  
,jean ,populus1 and a  philosophical    
work entitled ,love is ,god4 ,died at   
,paris1 #aa ,dec4 #ahgd4    ,barthez    
7,paul ,joseph71 ,french physician1 b4  
,montpelier #aa ,dec4 #agcd4 ,a  friend 
of ,d',alembert1 he became associate    
editor of the ,journal des  ,savants and
 ,encyclopdie ,mthodique4 ,he was made  
consulting physician  to the king and a 
councillor of ,state4 ,shown by the     
,archbishop of  ,sens a number of works 
relating to the rites of his see he     
said1  ,these are the ceremonies of     
,sens1 but can you show me the sense    
,sens of ceremonies4 ,his principal work

 is ,new ,elements of the  ,science of  
,man4 ,died #ae ,oct4 #ahjf4    ,basedow
 7,johann ,bernhard71 ,german           
,rationalist and educational reformer1  
b4 at ,hamburg #aa ,sept4 #agbc4 ,he    
studied theology at ,leipsic1 became    
professor at the ,academy of ,sora1 in  
,denmark1 #agec-agfa1 and at  ,altona1  
#agfa-agfh4 ,while here he published    
,philalethea1 the ,grounds of           
,religion1 and other heterodox works1   
which excited so much prejudice  that he
 was in danger of being stoned4 ,he     
devoted much attention to  improving    
methods of teaching4 ,died at ,magdeburg
 #be ,july1 #agij4    ,baskerville      
7,john71 famous printer1 b4 ,sion ,hill1
 ,wolverley1  ,worcestershire1 #bh ,jan4
 #agjf4 ,lived at ,birmingham4 ,he was  
at  first a stone-mason1 then made money
 as an artistic japanner1 and  devoted  
it to perfecting the art of             
type-founding and printing4 ,as  a      
printer-publisher he produced at his own
 risk beautiful editions  of ,milton1   

,addison1 ,shaftesbury1 ,congreve1      
,virgil1 ,horace1 ,lucretius1  ,terence1
 etc4 ,he was made printer to ,cambridge
 ,university #ageh4 ,wilkes  once       
visited him and was shocked at his      
infidelity 767 ,he died  #h ,jan4 #agge1
 and was buried in a tomb in his own    
garden4 ,he had  designed a monumental  
urn with this inscription3 ,stranger1   
beneath  this cone in unconsecrated     
ground a friend to the liberties of     
mankind directed his body to be inurned4
 ,may the example contribute  to        
emancipate thy mind from the idle fears 
of superstition and the  wicked arts of 
priesthood4 ,his will expresses the     
utmost contempt  for ,christianity4 ,his
 type was appropriately purchased to    
produce a  complete edition of          
,voltaire4    ,bassus 7,aufidus74 ,an   
,epicurean philosopher and friend of    
,seneca in  the time of ,nero4 ,seneca  
praises his patience and courage in the 
presence of death4    ,bate             
7,frederick71 ,socialist1 author of ,the

 ,student #ahdb1 a drama  in which the  
author's sceptical views are put        
forward4 ,mr4 ,bate  was one of the     
founders of the social experiment at    
,new ,harmony1  now ,queenswood         
,college1 ,hants1 and engraved a view   
representing the  ,owenite scheme of    
community4    ,baudelaire 7,charles     
,pierre71 ,french poet1 b4 ,paris1 #i   
,april #ahba1  the son of a             
distinguished friend of ,cabanis and    
,condorcet4 ,he  first became famous by 
the publication of ,fleurs du ,mal1     
#aheg1 in  which appeared ,les ,litanies
 de ,satan4 ,the work was prosecuted and
  suppressed4 ,baudelaire translated    
some of the writings of ,e4 ,a4 ,poe1  a
 poet whom he resembled much in life and
 character4 ,the divine  beauty of his  
face has been celebrated by the ,french 
poet1 ,thodore  de ,banville1 and his   
genius in some magnificent stanzas by   
the ,english  poet1 ,algernon           
,swinburne4 ,died ,paris #ca ,aug4      
#ahfg4    ,baudon 7,p4 ,l471 ,french    

author of a work on the ,christian      
,superstition1  published at ,brussels  
in #ahfb and dedicated to ,bishop       
,dupanloup under  the pseudonym of      
,aristide4    ,bauer 7,bruno71 one of   
the boldest biblical critics of         
,germany1  b4 ,eisenberg1 #f ,sept4     
#ahji4 ,educated at the ,university of  
,berlin1  in #ahcd he received a        
professorship of theology4 ,he first    
attained  celebrity by a review of the  
,life of ,jesus by ,strauss 7#ahce74    
,this  was followed by his ,journal of  
,speculative ,theology and ,critical    
,exposition of the ,religion of the ,old
 ,testament4 ,he then proceeded  to a   
,review of the ,gospel ,history1 upon   
the publication of which  7#ahdj7 he was
 deprived of his professorship at ,bonn4
 ,to this followed  ,christianity       
,unveiled 7#ahdc71 which was destroyed  
at ,zurich before  its publication4     
,this work continued his opposition to  
religion1  which was carried still      
further in ironical style in his        

,proclamation  of the ,day of ,judgement
 concerning ,hegel the ,atheist4        
,bauer's heresy  deepened with age1 and 
in his ,review of the ,gospels and      
,history of  their ,origin 7#ahej71 to  
which ,apostolical ,history is a        
supplement1  he attacked the historical 
truth of the ,new ,testament narratives4
 ,in  his ,review of the ,epistles      
attributed to ,st4 ,paul 7#aheb7 he     
tries to  show that the first four      
epistles1 which had hardly ever before  
been  questioned1 were not written by   
,paul1 but are the production of the    
second century4 ,in his ,christ and the 
,csars he shows the influence  of       
,seneca and ,greco-,roman thought upon  
early ,christianity4 ,he died  near     
,berlin1 #ac ,april1 #ahhb4    ,bauer   
7,edgar71 b4 ,charlottenburg1 #g ,oct4  
#ahbj1 brother of the  preceding1       
collaborated in some of his works4 ,his 
brochure entitled  ,bruno ,bauer and his
 ,opponents 7#ahdb7 was seized by the   
police4 ,for  his next publication1 ,the

 ,strife of ,criticism with ,church and 
,state  7#ahdc71 he was imprisoned for  
four years4 ,he has also written on     
,english freedom1 ,capital1 etc4        
,baume-,desdossat 7,jacques ,franois1 de
 la71 b4 #agje1 a ,canon of  ,avignon   
who wrote ,la ,christiade 7#agec71 a    
satire on the gospels1  in which ,jesus 
is tempted by ,mary ,magdalene4 ,it was 
suppressed by  the ,french ,parliament  
and the author fined4 ,he died #cj      
,april1 #agef4    ,baur 7,ferdinand     
,christian von71 distinguished          
theological critic1 b4 #ba  ,june1      
#agib1 near ,stuttgart4 ,his father was 
a clergyman4 ,he was educated  at       
,tbingen1 where in #ahbf he became      
professor of ,church history4 ,baur  is 
the author of numerous works on dogmatic
 and historic theology1 in  which he    
subverts all the fundamental positions  
of ,christianity4 ,he was  an ,hegelian 
,pantheist4 ,among his more important   
works are ,christianity  and the ,church
 in the ,first ,three ,centuries and    

,paul3 ,his ,life and  ,works4 ,these   
are translated into ,english4 ,he       
acknowledges only four  of the epistles 
of ,paul and the ,revelation as genuine 
products of  the apostolic age1 and     
shows how very far from simplicity were 
the  times and doctrines of primitive   
,christianity4 ,after a life of great   
literary activity he died at ,tbingen1  
#b ,dec4 #ahfj4    ,bayle 7,pierre71    
learned ,french writer1 b4 #ah ,nov4    
#afdg1 at ,carlat1  ,france1 where his  
father was a ,protestant minister4 ,he  
was converted  to ,romanism while       
studying at the ,jesuit ,college1       
,toulouse1 #affi4 ,his  ,romanism only  
lasted seventeen months4 ,he abjured1   
and fled to  ,switzerland1 becoming a   
sceptic1 as is evident from ,thoughts on
 the  ,comet1 in which he compares the  
supposed mischiefs of ,atheism with     
those of fanaticism1 and from many      
articles in his famous ,dictionnaire    
,critique1 a work still of value for its
 curious learning and shrewd            

observation4 ,in his journal ,nouvelles 
de la ,rpublique des ,lettres  he       
advocates religious toleration on the   
ground of the difficulty of             
distinguishing truth from error4 ,his   
criticism of ,maimbourg's ,history  of  
,calvinism was ordered to be burnt by   
the hangman4 ,jurieu persecuted  him1   
and he was ordered to be more careful in
 preparing the second  edition of his   
dictionary4 ,he died at ,rotterdam1 #bh 
,dec4 #agjf4 ,bayle  has been called the
 father of free discussion in modern    
times4    ,bayrhoffer 7,karl ,theodor71 
,german philosopher1 b4 ,marburg1 #ad   
,oct41  #ahab1 wrote ,the ,idea and     
,history of ,philosophy 7#ahch71 took   
part in  the revolution of '#dh1        
emigrated to ,america1 and wrote many   
polemical  works4 ,died near ,monroe1   
,wisconsin1 #c ,feb4 #ahhh4             
,beauchamp 7,philip74 ,see ,bentham and 
,grote4    ,beausobre 7,louis de71 b4 at
 ,berlin1 #bb ,aug4 #agcj1 was adopted  
by  ,frederick the ,great out of esteem 

for his father1 ,isaac ,beausobre1  the 
author of the ,history of ,manicheanism4
 ,he was educated first at              
,frankfort-on-,oder1 then at ,paris4 ,he
 wrote on the scepticism of the  wise   
7,pyrrhonisme du ,sage1 ,berlin1 #aged71
 a work condemned to be burnt  by the   
,parliament of ,paris4 ,he also wrote   
anonymously ,the ,dreams of  ,epicurus1 
and an essay on ,happiness 7,berlin1    
#ageh71 reprinted with  the ,social     
,system of ,holbach in #agie4 ,died at  
,berlin1 #c ,dec4 #aghc4    ,bebel      
7,ferdinand ,august74 ,german           
,socialist1 b4 ,cologne1 #bb  ,feb4     
#ahdj4 ,brought up as a turner in       
,leipsic4 ,since '#fc1 he became        
distinguished as an exponent of social  
democracy1 and was elected to  the      
,german ,reichstag in '#ga4 ,in the     
following year he was condemned 7#f     
,march7 to two years' imprisonment for  
high treason4 ,he was re-elected  in    
'#gd4 ,his principal work is ,woman in  
the ,past1 ,present and ,future  which  

is translated by ,h4 ,b4 ,a4 ,walther1  
#ahhe4 ,he has also written on  the     
,mohammedan ,culture ,period 7#ahhd7 and
 on ,christianity and ,socialism4       
,beccaria 7,bonesana ,cesare71 an       
,italian marquis and writer1 b4 at      
,milan1  #ae ,march1 #agch4 ,a friend of
 ,voltaire1 who praised his treatise on 
,crimes and ,punishments 7#agfi71 a work
 which did much to improve the  criminal
 codes of ,europe4 ,died ,milan1 #bh    
,nov4 #agid4    ,beesly 7,edward        
,spencer71 ,positivist1 b4 ,feckenham1  
,worcestershire1  #ahca4 ,educated at   
,wadham ,college1 ,oxford1 where he took
 ,b4,a4 in #ahed1  and ,m4,a4 in '#eg4  
,appointed ,professor of ,history1      
,university ,college1  ,london1 in      
#ahfj4 ,he is one of the translators of 
,comte's ,system of  ,positive ,polity1 
and has published several pamphlets on  
political  and social questions4        
,beethoven 7,ludwig van71 one of the    
greatest of musical composers1  b4 ,bonn
 #af ,dec4 #aggj4 ,his genius early     

displayed itself1 and at the  age of    
five he was set to study the works of   
,handel and ,bach4 ,his many            
compositions are the glory of music4    
,they include an opera ,fidelio1  two   
masses1 oratorios1 symphonies1          
concertos1 overtures and sonatas1  and  
are characterised by penetrating power1 
rich imagination1 intense  passion1 and 
tenderness4 ,when about the age of forty
 he became totally  deaf1 but continued 
to compose till his death at ,vienna1   
#bf ,march1  #ahbg4 ,he regarded ,goethe
 with much the same esteem as ,wagner   
showed  for ,schopenhauer1 but he       
disliked his courtliness4 ,his          
,republican  sentiments are well known1 
and ,sir ,george ,macfarren1 in his life
 in  the ,imperial ,dictionary of       
,universal ,biography1 speaks of him as 
a  ,freethinker1 and says the remarkable
 mass in ,c4 might scarcely  have       
proceeded from an entirely orthodox     
thinker4 ,sir ,george ,grove1  in his   
,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1   

says3 ,formal religion he  apparently   
had none1 and the ,bible does not appear
 to have been one  of his favorite      
books4 ,at the end of his arrangement of
 ,fidelio  ,moscheles had written1      
,fine4 ,with ,god's help4 ,to this      
,beethoven  added1 ,o man1 help thyself4
    ,bekker 7,balthasar71 ,dutch        
,rationalist1 b4 ,metslawier            
7,friesland7  #bj ,march1 #afcd4 ,he    
studied at ,gronigen1 became a doctor of
 divinity1  and lived at ,francker1 but 
was accused of ,socinianism1 and had to 
fly  to ,amsterdam1 where he raised     
another storm by his ,world ,bewitched  
7#afia71 a work in which witchcraft and 
the power of demons are  denied4 ,his   
book1 which contains much curious       
information1 raised  a host of          
adversaries1 and he was deposed from his
 place in the  ,church4 ,it appeared in 
,english in #afie4 ,died1 ,amsterdam1   
#aa ,june1  #afih4 ,bekker was          
remarkably ugly1 and he is said to have 
looked like  the devil1 though he did   

not believe in him4    ,belinsky        
7,vissarion ,grigorevich71 ,russian     
critic1 b4 ,pensa #ahaa1  educated at   
,pensa and ,moscow1 adopted the         
,pantheistic philosophy of  ,hegel and  
,schelling4 ,died ,st4 ,petersburg1 #bh 
,may1 #ahdh4 ,his works  were issued in 
#ab volumes1 #aheg-fa4    ,bell 7,thomas
 ,evans71 ,major in ,madras ,army1 which
 he entered in #ahdb4 ,he  was employed 
in the suppression of ,thugee4 ,he wrote
 the ,task of ,to-,day1  #aheb1 and     
assisted the ,reasoner1 both with pen   
and purse1 writing over  the signature  
,undecimus4 ,he contemplated selling his
 commission to  devote himself to       
,freethought propaganda1 but by the     
advice of his  friends was deterred4 ,he
 returned to ,india at the ,mutiny4 ,in 
,january1  #ahfa1 he became             
,deputy-,commissioner of ,police at     
,madras4 ,he retired  in ,july1 #ahfe1  
and has written many works on ,indian   
affairs4 ,died #ab  ,sept4 #ahhg4       
,bell 7,william ,s471 b4 in ,allegheny  

city1 ,pennsylvania1 #aj  ,feb4 #ahcb4  
,brought up as a ,methodist minister1   
was denounced for  mixing politics with 
religion1 and for his anti-slavery      
views4 ,in  #ahgc he preached in the    
,universalist ,church of ,new ,bedford1 
but in  ,dec4 '#gd1 renounced           
,christianity and has since been a      
,freethought  lecturer4 ,he has         
published a little book on the ,french  
,revolution1  and some pamphlets4       
,bender 7,wilhelm71 ,german             
,rationalist1 professor of theology at  
,bonn1  b4 #ae ,jan4 #ahde1 who created 
a sensation at the ,luther centenary1   
#ahhc1 by declaring that the work of the
 ,reformation was incompleted  and must 
be carried on by the ,rationalists4     
,bennett 7,de ,robigne ,mortimer71      
founder and editor of the ,new ,york    
,truthseeker1 b4 of poor parents1       
,springfield 7,n4,y471 #bc ,dec4 #ahah4 
,at  the age of fifteen he joined the   
,shaker ,society in ,new ,lebanon4 ,here
  he stayed thirteen years and then     

married4 ,having lost faith in the      
,shaker creed1 he went to ,louisville1  
,kentucky1 where he started a  drug     
store4 ,the perusal of ,paine1 ,volney1 
and similar works made him  a           
,freethinker4 ,in #ahgc1 his letters to 
a local journal in answer to  some      
ministers having been refused1 he       
resolved to start a paper of  his own4  
,the result was the ,truthseeker1 which 
in ,january1 #ahgf became  a weekly1 and
 has since become one of the principal  
,freethought organs  in ,america4 ,in   
#ahgi he was sentenced to thirteen      
months' imprisonment  for sending       
through the post a pamphlet by ,ezra ,h4
 ,heywood on the  marriage question4 ,a 
tract1 entitled ,an ,open ,letter to    
,jesus ,christ1  was read in court to   
bias the jury4 ,a petition bearing      
#bjj1jjj  names was presented to        
,president ,hayes asking his release1   
but was  not acceded to4 ,upon his      
release his admirers sent him for a     
voyage  round the world4 ,he wrote ,a   

,truthseeker's ,voyage ,round the       
,world1  ,letters from ,albany          
,penitentiary1 ,answers to ,christian   
,questions and  ,arguments1 two large   
volumes on ,the ,gods1 another on the   
,world's ,sages1  ,infidels and         
,thinkers1 and published his discussions
 with ,humphrey1  ,mair1 and ,teed1 and 
numerous tracts4 ,he died #f ,dec4      
#ahhb4    ,bentham 7,jeremy71 writer on 
ethics1 jurisprudence1 and political    
economy1 b4 #ae ,feb4 #agdh4 ,a grand   
uncle named ,woodward was the  publisher
 of ,tindal's ,christianity as ,old as  
the ,creation4 ,was educated  at        
,westminster and ,oxford1 where he      
graduated ,m4,a4 #agfg4 ,bentham  is    
justly regarded as the father of the    
school of philosophical  ,radicalism4   
,in philosophy he is the great teacher  
of ,utilitarianism2  as a jurist he did 
much to disclose the defects of and     
improve our  system of law4 ,macaulay   
says he found jurisprudence a gibberish 
and  left it a science4 ,his most       

pronounced ,freethought work was that   
written in conjunction with ,grote1     
published as ,an ,analysis of the       
,influence of ,natural ,religion1 by    
,philip ,beauchamp1 #ahbb4 ,among his   
numerous other works we can only mention
 ,deontology1 or the ,science  of       
,mortality1 an exposition of            
utilitarianism2 ,church of ,englandism  
and its ,catechism ,examined2 ,not      
,paul1 but ,jesus1 published under the  
pseudonym of ,gamaliel ,smith4 ,died #f 
,june1 #ahcb1 leaving his body for  the 
purposes of science4    ,branger 7,jean 
,pierre de71 celebrated ,french lyrical 
poet1  b4 ,paris1 #ai ,aug4 #aghj4 ,his 
satire on the ,bourbons twice ensured   
for him imprisonment4 ,he was elected to
 the ,constituant ,assembly  #ahdh4     
,branger has been compared not inaptly  
to ,burns4 ,all his songs  breathe the  
spirit of liberty1 and several have been
 characterised  as impious4 ,he died #af
 ,july1 #aheg4    ,bergel 7,joseph71    
,jewish ,rationalist1 author of ,heaven 

and ,its ,wonders1  ,leipsic1 #ahha1 and
 ,mythology of the ,ancient ,hebrews1   
#ahhb4    ,berger 7,moriz71 author of a 
work on ,materialism in ,conflict with  
,spiritualism and ,idealism1 ,trieste1  
#ahhc4    ,bergerac de 7,savinien       
,cyrano74 ,see ,cyrano4    ,bergk       
7,johann ,adam71 ,german philosopher1 b4
 ,hainechen1 ,zeitz1 #bg ,june1  #agfi2 
became a private teacher at ,leipsic and
 wrote many works1 both  under his own  
name and pseudonyms4 ,he published the  
,art of ,thinking1  ,leipsic1 #ahjb1    
conducted the ,asiatic ,magazine1 #ahjf1
 and wrote under  the name of ,frey the 
,true ,religion1 recommended to         
rationalists  and destined for the      
,radical cure of supernaturalists1      
mystics1  etc4 ,died ,leipsic1 #bg ,oct4
 #ahcd4    ,bergk 7,theodor71 ,german   
humanist1 son of the above1 b4 ,leipsic1
  #bb ,may1 #ahab1 author of a good     
,history of ,greek ,literature1 #ahgb4  
,berigardus 7,claudius71 or ,beauregard 
7,claude ,guillermet71 ,french          

physician and philosopher1 b4 at        
,moulins about #aeia4 ,he became a      
professor at ,pisa from #afbh till      
#afdj1 and then went to ,padua4 ,his    
,circulus ,pisanus1 published in #afdc1 
was considered an ,atheistic  work4 ,in 
the form of a dialogue he exhibits the  
various hypotheses  of the formation of 
the world4 ,the work was forbidden and  
is very  rare4 ,his book entitled       
,dubitationes in ,dialogum ,galili1 also
 brought  on him a charge of scepticism4
 ,died in #affd4    ,berkenhout 7,dr4   
,john71 physician and miscellaneous     
writer1 b4 #agca1  the son of a ,dutch  
merchant who settled at ,leeds4 ,in     
early life he  had been a captain both  
in the ,prussian and ,english service1  
and  in #agfe took his ,m4,d4 degree at 
,leyden4 ,he published many books on    
medical science1 a synopsis of the      
natural history of ,great ,britain  and 
,ireland1 and several humorous pieces1  
anonymously4 ,his principal  work is    
entitled ,biographia ,literaria1 a      

biographical history of  ,english       
literature1 #aggg4 ,throughout the work 
he loses no opportunity  of displaying  
his hostility to the theologians1 and is
 loud in his  praises of ,voltaire4     
,died #c ,april1 #agia4    ,berlioz     
7,louis ,hector74 ,the most original of 
,french musical composers1  b4 ,isre1   
#aa ,dec4 #ahjc4 ,he obtained fame by   
his dramatic symphony  of ,romeo and    
,juliet 7#ahci71 and was made chevalier 
of the ,legion  of ,honor4 ,among his   
works is one on the ,infancy of ,christ4
 ,in his  ,memoirs he relates how he    
scandalised ,mendelssohn by laughing at 
the ,bible4 ,died ,paris1 #i ,march1    
#ahfi4    ,bernard 7,claude71 ,french   
physiologist1 b4 ,saint ,julien #ab     
,july1  #ahac4 ,went to ,paris #ahcb1   
studied medicine1 became member of the  
,institute and professor at the ,museum 
of ,natural ,history1 wrote  ,la        
,science ,experimentale1 and other works
 on physiology4 ,died #aj  ,feb4 #ahgh1 
and was buried at the expense of the    

,republic4 ,paul ,bert  calls him the   
introducer of determinism in the domain 
of physiology4    ,bernier 7,abb74 ,see 
,holbach4    ,bernier 7,franois71       
,french physician and traveller1 b4     
,angers about  #afbe4 ,he was a pupil of
 ,gassendi1 whose works he abridged1 and
 he  defended ,descartes against the    
theologians4 ,he is known as le joli    
philsophe4 ,in #afed he went to ,syria  
and ,egypt1 and from thence to  ,india1 
where he became physician to            
,aurungzebe4 ,on his return he          
published an account of his travels and 
of the ,empire of the ,great  ,mogul1   
and died at ,paris #bb ,sept4 #afhh4    
,bernstein 7,aaron71 a rationalist1 b4  
of ,jewish parents ,dantzic  #ahab4 ,his
 first work was a translation of the    
,song of ,songs1 published  under the   
pseudonym of ,a4 ,rebenstein 7#ahcd74   
,he devoted himself  to natural science 
and published works on ,the ,rotation of
 ,planets1  ,humboldt and the ,spirit of
 the ,time1 etc4 ,his essay on ,the     

,origin of  the ,legends of ,abraham1   
,isaac1 and ,jacob was translated by a  
,german  lady and published by ,thomas  
,scott of ,ramsgate 7#ahgb74 ,died      
,berlin1  #ab ,feb4 #ahhd4    ,berquin  
7,louis de71 ,french martyr1 b4 in      
,artois1 #adhi4 ,erasmus1  his friend1  
says his great crime was openly         
professing hatred of  the monks4 ,in    
#aebc his works were ordered to be      
burnt1 and he was  commanded to abjure  
his heresies4 ,sentence of perpetual    
banishment  was pronounced on him on    
,april #af1 #aebi4 ,he immediately      
appealed to  the ,parliament4 ,his      
appeal was heard and rejected on the    
morning of  the #agth4 ,the ,parliament 
reformed the judgment and condemned him 
to  be burnt alive1 and the sentence was
 carried out on the same afternoon  at  
the ,place de la ,grve4 ,he died with   
great constancy and resolution4    ,bert
 7,paul71 ,french scientist and         
statesman1 b4 at ,auxerre1 #ag  ,oct4   
#ahcc4 ,in ,paris he studied both law   

and medicine1 and after  being          
,professor in the ,faculty of ,science  
at ,bordeaux1 he in #ahfi  obtained the 
chair of physiology in the ,faculty of  
,science at ,paris1  and distinguished  
himself by his scientific experiments4  
,in '#gj he  offered his services to the
 ,government of ,national ,defence1 and 
in  '#gb was elected to the ,national   
,assembly1 where he signalised himself  
by his ,radical opinions4 ,gambetta     
recognised his worth and made him       
,minister of ,public ,instruction1 in   
which capacity he organised ,french     
education on a ,secular basis4 ,his     
,first ,year of ,scientific ,instruction
  is almost universally used in the     
,french primary schools4 ,it has been   
translated into ,english by ,josephine  
,clayton 7,madame ,paul ,bert74 ,his    
strong anti-clerical views induced much 
opposition4 ,he published  several      
scientific and educational works and    
attacked ,the ,morality of  the         
,jesuits1 '#hj4 ,in '#hf he was         

appointed ,french ,resident ,minister at
  ,tonquin1 where he died #aa ,nov4     
'#hf4 ,his body was brought over to     
,france  and given a ,state funeral1 a  
pension being also accorded to his      
widow4    ,bertani 7,agostino71 ,italian
 patriot1 b4 #ai ,oct4 #ahab1 became a  
physician at ,genoa1 took part with     
,garibaldi and ,mazzini1 organising  the
 ambulance services4 ,a declared        
,freethinker1 he was elected deputy  to 
the ,italian ,parliament4 ,died ,rome   
#cj ,april1 '#hf4    ,berti 7,antonio71 
,italian physician1 b4 ,venice #bj      
,june1 #ahaf4 ,author  of many          
scientific works1 member of the ,venice 
,municipal ,council and  of the ,italian
 ,senate4 ,died ,venice #bd ,march1     
#ahgi4    ,bertillon 7,louis ,adolphe71 
,french ,anthropologist and physician1  
b4 ,paris #a ,april1 #ahba4 ,his        
principal work is a statistical study   
of the ,french population1 ,paris '#gd4 
,he edits in conjunction with  ,a4      
,hovelacque and others1 the ,dictionary 

of the ,anthropological  ,sciences 7'#hc
 etc47 ,his sons1 ,jacques 7b4 '#ea7 and
 ,alphonse 7b4 '#ec71  prosecute similar
 studies4    ,bertrand de               
,saint-,germain 7,guillaume ,scipion71  
,french physician1  b4 ,puy-en-,velay   
#be ,oct4 #ahaj4 ,became ,m4,d4 #ahdj1  
wrote on ,the  ,original ,diversity of  
,human ,races 7#ahdg71 and a            
materialistic work  on ,manifestation of
 ,life and ,intelligence through        
,organisation1  #ahdh4 ,has also written
 on ,descartes as a ,physiologist1      
#ahfi4    ,berwick 7,george ,j47 ,m4,d41
 appointed surgeon to the ,east ,india  
,company  in #ahbh1 retired in '#eb4    
,author of ,awas-i-hind1 or a ,voice    
from the  ,ganges2 being a solution of  
the true source of ,christianity4 ,by an
  ,indian ,officer2 ,london1 #ahfa4     
,also of a work on ,the ,forces of the  
,universe1 '#gj4 ,died about #ahgb4     
,besant 7,annie7 ne ,wood4 ,b4 ,london1 
#a ,oct4 #ahdg4 ,educated in            
,evangelicalism by ,miss ,marryat1      

sister of novelist1 but turned  to the  
,high ,church by reading ,pusey and     
others4 ,in ,holy ,week  of #ahff she   
resolved to write the story of the week 
from the  gospel4 ,their contradictions 
startled her but she regarded her doubts
  as sin4 ,in ,dec4 '#fg she married the
 ,rev4 ,f4 ,besant1 and read and  wrote 
extensively4 ,the torment a child       
underwent in whooping-cough  caused     
doubts as to the goodness of ,god4 ,a   
study of ,greg's ,creed  of ,christendom
 and ,arnold's ,literature and ,dogma   
increased her  scepticism4 ,she became  
acquainted with the ,rev4 ,c4 ,voysey   
and ,thomas  ,scott1 for whom she wrote 
an ,essay on the ,deity of ,jesus of    
,nazareth1  by the wife of a beneficed  
clergyman4 ,this led to her husband     
insisting on her taking communion or    
leaving4 ,she chose the latter  course1 
taking by agreement her daughter with   
her4 ,thrown on her own  resources1 she 
wrote further tracts for ,mr4 ,scott1   
reprinted in ,my ,path  to ,atheism     

7'#gg74 ,joined the ,national ,secular  
,society1 and in '#gd wrote  in the     
,national ,reformer over the signature  
of ,ajax4 ,next year she  took to the   
platform and being naturally eloquent   
soon won her way to  the front rank as a
 ,freethought lecturess1 and became     
joint editor  of the ,national          
,reformer4 ,some lectures on the ,french
 ,revolution  were republished in book  
form4 ,in ,april1 '#gg1 she was arrested
  with ,mr4 ,bradlaugh for publishing   
the ,fruits of ,philosophy4 ,after a    
brilliant defence1 the jury exonerated  
the defendants from any corrupt         
motives1 and although they were         
sentenced the indictment was quashed  in
 ,feb4 '#gh1 and the case was not       
renewed4 ,in ,may1 '#gh1 a petition  in 
,chancery was presented to deprive ,mrs4
 ,besant of her child on the  ground of 
her ,atheistic and ,malthusian views4   
,sir ,g4 ,jessell granted  the petition4
 ,in '#hj ,mrs4 ,besant matriculated at 
the ,london ,university  and took #ast  

,b4,sc4 with honors in '#hb4 ,she has   
debated much and issued  many pamphlets 
to be found in ,theological ,essays and 
,debates4 ,she  wrote the second part of
 the ,freethinkers' ,text ,book dealing 
with  ,christian evidence2 has written  
on the ,sins of the ,church1 #ahhf1 and 
the ,evolution of ,society4 ,she has    
translated ,jules ,soury's ,religion  of
 ,israel1 and ,jesus of the ,gospels2   
,dr4 ,l4 ,bchner on the ,influence  of  
,heredity and ,mind in ,animals1 and    
from the fifteenth edition of  ,force   
and ,matter4 ,from '#hc to '#hh she     
edited ,our ,corner1 and since  '#he has
 given much time to ,socialist          
propaganda1 and has written many        
,socialist pamphlets4 ,in ,dec4 '#hh1   
,mrs4 ,besant was elected a member  of  
the ,london ,school ,board4             
,beverland 7,hadrianus71 ,dutch         
classical scholar and nephew of ,isaac  
,vossius1 b4 ,middleburg #afed4 ,he took
 the degree of doctor of law and  became
 an advocate1 but devoted himself to    

literature4 ,he was at the  university  
of ,oxford in #afgb4 ,his treatise on   
,original ,sin1 ,peccatum  ,originale   
7,eleutheropoli1 #afgh71 in which he    
contends that the sin  of ,adam and ,eve
 was sexual inclination1 caused a great 
outcry4 ,it  was burnt1 ,beverland was  
imprisoned and his name struck from the 
rolls of ,leyden ,university4 ,he wrote 
some other curious works and  died about
 #agab4    ,bevington 7,louisa ,s471    
afterwards ,guggenberger2 ,english      
poetess and  authoress of ,key ,notes1  
#ahgi2 ,poems1 ,lyrics and ,sonnets1    
'#hb2 wrote  ,modern ,atheism and ,mr4  
,mallock in the ,nineteenth ,century    
7,oct4 and  ,dec4 '#gi71 and on ,the    
,moral ,demerits of ,orthodoxy in       
,progress1  ,sept4 '#hd4    ,beyle      
7,marie ,henri71 ,french man of letters1
 famous under the  name of de ,stendhal1
 b4 ,grenoble1 #bc ,jan4 #aghc4         
,painter1 soldier1  merchant and consul1
 he travelled largely1 a wandering life 
being  congenial to his broad and       

sceptical spirit4 ,his book1 ,de        
l',amour  is his most notable work4 ,he 
was an original and gifted critic and   
romancer4 ,balzac esteemed him highly4  
,he died at ,paris1 #bc ,march1  #ahdb4 
,prosper ,merime has published his      
correspondence4 ,one of his  sayings was
 ,ce qui excuse ,dieu1 c'est qu'il      
n'existe pas--,god's  excuse is that he 
does not exist4    ,bianchi 7,angelo71  
known as ,bianchi-,giovini 7,aurelio7   
,italian man  of letters1 b4 of poor    
parents at ,como1 #be ,nov4 #agii4 ,he  
conducted  several papers in various    
parts of ,piedmont and ,switzerland4    
,his ,life  of ,father ,paoli ,sarpi1   
#ahcf1 was put on the ,index1 and       
thenceforward  he was in constant strife
 with the ,roman ,church4 ,for his      
attacks on  the clergy in ,il           
,republicano1 at ,lugano1 he was        
proscribed1 and had to  seek refuge at  
,zurich1 #ahci4 ,he went thence to      
,milan and there wrote  a ,history of   
the ,hebrews1 a monograph on ,pope      

,joan1 and an account  of the           
,revolution4 ,his principal works are   
the ,history of the ,popes  until the   
great schism of the ,west 7,turin1      
#ahej-fd7 and a ,criticism  of the      
,gospels1 #ahec1 which has gone through 
several editions4 ,died  #af ,may1      
#ahfb4    ,biandrata or ,blandrata      
7,giorgio71 ,italian anti-trinitarian   
reformer1  b4 ,saluzzo about #aeae4     
,graduated in arts and medicine at      
,montpellier1  #aecc4 ,he was thrown    
into the prison of the ,inquisition at  
,pavia1  but contrived to escape to     
,geneva1 where he become obnoxious to   
,calvin4 ,he left ,geneva in #aeeh and  
went to ,poland where he became a       
leader of the ,socinian party4 ,he was  
assassinated #aeia4    ,bichat 7,marie  
,franois ,xavier71 a famous ,french     
anatomist and  physiologist1 b4         
,thoirette 7,jura71 #aa ,nov4 #agga4    
,his work on the  ,physiology of ,life  
and ,death was translated into ,english4
 ,he died a  martyr to his zeal for     

science1 #bb ,july1 #ahjb4    ,biddle or
 ,bidle 7,john71 called the father of   
,english ,unitarianism1  b4             
,wotton-under-,edge1 ,gloucestershire1  
#ad ,jan4 #afae4 ,he took his  ,m4,a4   
degree at ,oxford1 #afda1 and became    
master of the ,gloucester  ,grammar     
,school1 but lost the situation for     
denying the ,trinity4 ,he  was also     
imprisoned there for some time1 and     
afterwards cited at  ,westminster4 ,he  
appealed to the public in defence1 and  
his pamphlet  was ordered to be burnt by
 the hangman1 #f ,sept4 #afdg4 ,he was  
detained  in prison till #afeb1 after   
which he published several pamphlets1   
and  was again imprisoned in #afed4 ,in 
,oct4 #afee1 ,cromwell banished him to  
the ,scilly ,isles1 making him an       
allowance4 ,he returned to ,london      
#afeh1  but after the publication of the
 ,acts of ,uniformity was again seized1 
and died in prison #bb ,sept4 #affb4    
,bierce 7,m4 ,h47 see ,grile 7,dod74    
,billaud-,varenne 7,jean ,nicolas71     

,french conventionalist b4 ,la          
,rochelle1  #bc ,april1 #agef4 ,about   
#aghe became advocate to ,parliament2   
denounced  the government and clergy    
#aghi4 ,proposed abolition of the       
monarchy  #a ,july1 #agia1 and wrote    
,elements of ,republicanism1 #agic4     
,withdrew  from ,robespierre after the  
feast of the ,supreme ,being1 saying    
,thou  beginnest to sicken me with thy  
,supreme ,being4 ,was exiled #a ,april1 
#agie1 and died at ,st4 ,domingo1 #c    
,june1 #ahai4    ,bion1 of ,borysthenes1
 near the mouth of the ,dneiper4 ,a     
,scythian  philosopher who flourished   
about #bej ,b4,c4 ,he was sold as a     
slave  to a rhetorician1 who afterwards 
gave him freedom and made him his  heir4
 ,upon this he went to ,athens and      
applied himself to the study  of        
philosophy4 ,he had several teachers1   
but attached himself to  ,theodorus the 
,atheist4 ,he was famous for his        
knowledge of music1  poetry1 and        
philosophy4 ,some shrewd sayings of his 

are preserved1  as that only the votive 
tablets of the preserved are seen in the
  temples1 not those of the drowned and 
it is useless to tear our  hair when in 
grief since sorrow is not cured by      
baldness4    ,birch 7,william ,john71   
,english ,freethinker1 b4 ,london #d    
,jan4 #ahaa4 ,educated at ,baliol       
,college1 ,oxford1 graduated ,m4,a4 at  
,new ,inn ,hall4 ,author of ,an ,inquiry
 into the ,philosophy and ,religion  of 
,shakespeare1 #ahdh2 ,an ,inquiry into  
the ,philosophy and ,religion  of the   
,bible1 #ahef2 this work was translated 
into ,dutch by ,rudolf  ,charles2 ,paul 
an ,idea1 not a ,fact2 and the ,real and
 ,ideal4 ,in the  stormy time of '#db   
,mr4 ,birch did much to support the     
prosecuted  publications4 ,he brought   
out the ,library of ,reason and         
supported  ,the ,reasoner and           
,investigator with both pen and purse4  
,mr4 ,birch has  resided much in ,italy 
and proved himself a friend to ,italian 
unity  and ,freedom4 ,he is a member of 

the ,italian ,asiatic ,society4 ,mr4    
,birch  has been a contributor to ,notes
 and ,queries and other journals1  and  
has devoted much attention to the early 
days of ,christianity1  having many     
manuscripts upon the subject4           
,bithell 7,richard71 ,agnostic1 b4      
,lewes1 ,sussex1 #bb ,march #ahba1 of   
pious  parents4 ,became teacher of      
mathematics and chemistry4 ,is ,ph4,d4  
of  ,gottingen and ,b4,sc4 of ,london   
,university4 ,in '#fe he entered the    
service of the ,rothschilds4 ,has       
written ,creed of a ,modern ,agnostic1  
#ahhc2 and ,agnostic ,problems1 #ahhg4  
,bjrnson 7,bjrnstjerne71 ,norwegian     
writer1 b4 ,quickne #h ,dec4 #ahcb4 ,his
  father was a ,lutheran clergyman4 ,has
 done much to create a national         
literature for ,norway4 ,for his        
freethinking opinions he was obliged  to
 leave his country and reside in ,paris4
 ,many of his tales have been           
translated into ,english4 ,in #ahhb     
,bjrnson published at ,christiania1     

with a short introduction1 a resum of   
,c4 ,b4 ,waite's ,history of the        
,christian ,religion1 under the title of
 ,whence come the ,miracles of the  ,new
 ,testament8 ,this was the first attack 
upon dogmatic ,christianity  published  
in ,norway1 and created much discussion4
 ,the following year  he published a    
translation of ,colonel ,ingersoll's    
article in the ,north  ,american ,review
 upon the ,christian ,religion1 with a  
long preface1  in which he attacks the  
,state ,church and ,monarchy4 ,the      
translation  was entitled ,think for    
,yourself4 ,the first edition rapidly   
sold out  and a second one appeared4 ,he
 has since1 both in speech and writing1 
repeatedly avowed his ,freethought1 and 
has had several controversies  with the 
clergy4    ,blagosvyetlov 7,grigorevich 
,e471 ,russian author1 b4 in the        
,caucasus1  #ahbf4 ,has written on      
,shelley1 ,buckle1 and ,mill1 whose     
,subjection  of ,women he translated    
into ,russian4 ,he edited a magazine    

,djelo  7,cause74 ,died about #ahhe4    
,blanqui 7,louis ,auguste71 ,french     
politician1 b4 near ,nice1 #g ,feb4     
#ahje1  a younger brother of ,jerome    
,adolphe ,blanqui1 the economist4       
,becoming  a ,communist1 his life was   
spent in conspiracy and imprisonment    
under successive governments4 ,in '#ci  
he was condemned to death1 but  his     
sentence commuted to imprisonment for   
life1 and was subject to  brutal        
treatment till the revolution of '#dh   
set him at liberty4 ,he  was soon again 
imprisoned4 ,in '#fe he wrote some      
remarkable articles  on ,monotheism in  
,le ,candide4 ,after the revolution of  
#d ,sept4 '#gj1  ,blanqui demanded the  
suppression of worship4 ,he was again   
imprisoned1  but was liberated and      
elected member of the ,commune1 and     
arrested by  ,thiers4 ,in his last      
imprisonment he wrote a curious book1   
,eternity  and the ,stars1 in which he  
argues from the eternity and infinity of
  matter4 ,died ,paris1 #ca ,dec4 #ahhj4

 ,blanqui took as his motto ,ni ,dieu   
ni matre--,neither ,god nor master4     
,blasche 7,bernhard ,heinrich71 ,german 
,pantheist1 b4 ,jena #i ,april1  #aggf4 
,his father was a professor of theology 
and philosophy4 ,he wrote  ,kritik des  
,modernen ,geisterglaubens 7,criticism  
of ,modern ,ghost ,belief71             
,philosophische ,unsterblichkeitslehre  
7,teaching of ,philosophical            
,immortality71 and other works4 ,died   
near ,gotha #bf ,nov4 #ahcb4            
,blignieres 7,clestin de71 ,french      
,positivist1 of the ,polytechnic        
school4 ,has written a popular          
exposition of ,positive philosophy and  
religion1 ,paris #aheg2 ,the ,positive  
,doctrine1 #ahfg2 ,studies of ,positive 
,morality1 #ahfh2 and other works4      
,blind 7,karl71 ,german ,republican1 b4 
,mannheim1 #d ,sept4 #ahbf4 ,studied  at
 ,heidelberg and ,bonn4 ,in #ahdh he    
became a revolutionary leader  among the
 students and populace1 was wounded at  
,frankfort1 and  proscribed4 ,in ,sept4 

'#dh he led the second republican       
revolution in  the ,black ,forest4 ,he  
was made prisoner and sentenced to eight
 year's  imprisonment4 ,in the spring of
 '#di he was liberated by the people    
breaking open his prison4 ,being sent on
 a mission to ,louis ,napoleon1  then   
president of the ,french ,republic at   
,paris1 he was arrested and  banished   
from ,france4 ,he went to ,brussels1 but
 since '#eb has lived  in in ,england1  
where he has written largely on         
politics1 history1  and mythology4 ,his 
daughter ,mathilde1 b4 at ,mannheim1    
opened her  literary career by          
publishing a volume of poems in #ahfg   
under the  name of ,claude ,lake4 ,she  
has since translated ,straus's ,old     
,faith and  the ,new1 and written the   
volumes on ,george ,eliot and ,madame   
,roland  in the ,eminent ,women series4 
,blount 7,charles71 ,english ,deist of  
noble family1 b4 at ,holloway #bg       
,april1 #afed4 ,his father1 ,sir ,henry 
,blount1 probably shared in his         

opinions1 and helped him in his         
anti-religious work1 ,anima ,mundi1     
#afgh4 ,this work ,bishop ,compton      
desired to see suppressed4 ,in #afhj he 
published ,great is ,diana of the       
,ephesians1 or the ,origin of ,idolatry1
  and the two first books of ,apollonius
 ,tyanius1 with notes1 in which  he     
attacks priestcraft and superstition4   
,this work was condemned and            
suppressed4 ,blount also published ,the 
,oracles of ,reason1 a number  of       
,freethought ,essays4 ,by his           
,vindication of ,learning and ,liberty  
of the ,press1 and still more by his    
hoax on ,bohun entitled ,william  and   
,mary ,conquerors1 he was largely       
instrumental in doing away with  the    
censorship of the press4 ,he shot       
himself1 it is said1 because  he could  
not marry his deceased wife's sister    
7,august1 #afic74 ,his  miscellaneous   
works were printed in one volume1 #afie4
    ,blumenfeld 7,j4 ,c471 wrote ,the   
,new ,ecce ,homo or the ,self           

,redemption of  ,man1 #ahci4 ,he is also
 credited with the authorship of ,the   
,existence of  ,christ ,disproved in a  
series of ,letters by ,a ,german ,jew1  
,london1  #ahda4    ,boerne 7,ludwig71  
,german man of letters and politician1  
b4 ,frankfort  #bb ,may1 #aghf4 ,in     
#ahah he gave up the ,jewish religion1  
in which he had  been bred1 nominally   
for ,protestantism1 but really he had1  
like his  friend ,heine1 become a       
,freethinker4 ,he wrote many works in   
favor of  political liberty and         
translated ,lammenais' ,paroles d'un    
,croyant4 ,died  #ab ,feb4 #ahcg4       
,bodin 7,jean71 ,french political       
writer1 b4 ,angers #aecj4 ,he studied   
at ,toulouse and is said to have been a 
monk but turned to the law1  and became 
secretary to the ,duc d',alenon4 ,his   
book ,de la ,republique  is highly      
praised by ,hallam1 and is said to have 
contained the germ of  ,montesquieu's   
,spirit of the ,laws4 ,he wrote a work  
on demonomania1 in  which he seems to   

have believed1 but in his ,colloquium   
,heptaplomeron  coloquies of seven      
persons3 a ,catholic1 a ,lutheran1 a    
,calvinist1 a  ,pagan1 a ,muhammadan1 a 
,jew1 and a ,deist1 which he left in    
manuscript1  he put some severe attacks 
on ,christianity4 ,died of the plague at
  ,laon in #aeif4    ,boggis 7,john7 is 
mentioned by ,edwards in his ,gangrena1 
#afde1 as an  ,atheist and disbeliever  
in the ,bible4    ,boichot 7,jean       
,baptiste71 b4 ,villier sur ,suize #bj  
,aug4 #ahbj1 entered  the army4 ,in '#di
 he was chosen representative of the    
people4 ,after  the coup d'tat he came  
to ,england1 returned to ,france in     
'#ed1  was arrested and imprisoned at   
,belle ,isle4 ,since then he has lived  
at ,brussels1 where he has written      
several works and is one of the  council
 of ,international ,freethinkers4       
,boindin 7,nicolas7 ,french litterateur1
 wit1 playwright and academician1  b4   
,paris #bi ,may1 #afgf4 ,he publicly    
professed ,atheism1 and resorted  with  

other ,freethinkers to the famous caf   
,procope4 ,there1 in order to  speak    
freely1 they called the soul ,margot1   
religion ,javotte1 liberty  ,jeanneton1 
and ,god ,m4 de l',etre4 ,one day a spy 
asked ,boindin1 ,who  is this ,m4 de    
l',etre with whom you seem so           
displeased8 ,monsieur1  replied         
,boindin1 he is a police spy4 ,died #cj 
,nov4 #agea4 ,his corpse  was refused   
,christian burial4    ,boissiere 7,jean 
,baptiste ,prudence71 ,french writer1 b4
 ,valognes  ,dec4 #ahjf1 was for a time 
teacher in ,england4 ,he compiled an    
analogical  dictionary of the ,french   
language4 ,under the name of ,sirebois  
he  has published the ,autopsy of the   
,soul and a work on the foundations  of 
morality1 which he traces to interest4  
,he has also written a book  entitled   
,the ,mechanism of ,thought1 '#hd4      
,boissonade 7,j4 ,a471 author of ,the   
,bible ,unveiled1 ,paris1 #ahga4        
,boito 7,arrigo71 ,italian poet and     
musician1 b4 at ,padua1 whose opera     

,mefistofele1 has created considerable  
sensation by its boldness4              
,bolingbroke 7,henry ,saint ,john7      
,lord1 ,english statesman and           
philosopher1  b4 at ,battersea1 #a ,oct4
 #afgb4 ,his political life was a stormy
  one4 ,he was the friend of ,swift and 
of ,pope1 who in his ,essay on ,man     
avowedly puts forward the views of      
,saint ,john4 ,he died at ,battersea    
#ab ,dec4 #agea1 leaving by will his    
,,mss4 to ,david ,mallet1 who in #aged  
published his works1 which included     
,essays ,written to ,a4 ,pope1 ,esq41   
on ,religion and ,philosophy1 in which  
he attacks ,christianity with  both wit 
and eloquence4 ,bolingbroke was a       
,deist1 believing in ,god  but          
scornfully rejecting revelation4 ,he    
much influenced ,voltaire1  who regarded
 him with esteem4    ,bonavino          
7,francesco ,cristoforo7 see ,franchi   
7,ausonio74    ,boni 7,filippo de71     
,italian man of letters1 b4 ,feltre1    
#ahbj4 ,editor of  a standard ,biography

 of ,artists1 published at ,venice1     
#ahdj4 ,he also  wrote on the ,roman    
,church and ,italy and on ,reason and   
,dogma1 ,siena1  '#ff1 and contributed  
to ,stefanoni's ,libero ,pensiero4 ,de  
,boni was  elected deputy to the        
,italian ,parliament4 ,he has written on
 ,italian  ,unbelief in the ,middle     
,ages in the ,annuario ,filosofico del  
,libero  ,pensiero1 '#fh4    ,boniface  
,,viii41 ,pope 7,benedetto ,gaetano71   
elected head of ,christendom1  #bd ,dec4
 #abid4 ,during his quarrel with ,philip
 the ,fair of ,france charges  were     
sworn on oath against ,pope ,boniface   
that he neither believed in  the        
,trinity nor in the life to come1 that  
he said the ,virgin ,mary  was no more a
 virgin than my mother2 that he did not 
observe the  fasts of the ,church1 and  
that he spoke of the cardinals1 monks1  
and friars as hypocrites4 ,it was in    
evidence that the ,pope had said  ,god  
may do the worst with me that he pleases
 in the future life2 ,i  believe as     

every educated man does1 the vulgar     
believe otherwise4 ,we  have to speak as
 they do1 but we must believe and think 
with the  few4 ,died #aa ,oct4 #acjc4   
,bonnycastle 7,john71 mathematician1 b4 
,whitchurch1 ,bucks1 about  #agej4 ,he  
wrote several works on elementary       
mathematics and became  ,professor of   
mathematics at the ,royal ,military     
,academy1 ,woolwich1  where he died #ae 
,may1 #ahba4 ,he was a friend of        
,fuseli1 and private  information       
assures me he was a ,freethinker4       
,booms 7,marinus ,adriaansz71 ,dutch    
,spinozist1 a shoemaker by trade1  who  
wrote early in the eighteenth century1  
and on #a ,jan4 #agad1  was banished4   
,bonnot de ,condillac 7,etienne7 see    
,condillac4    ,bonstetten 7,karl       
,victor von71 ,swiss ,deist1 b4 ,berne1 
#c ,sept  #agde4 ,acquainted with       
,voltaire and ,rousseau he went to      
,leyden and  ,england to finish his     
education4 ,among his works are         
,researches on  the ,nature and ,laws of

 the ,imagination1 #ahjg2 and ,studies  
on ,man1  #ahba4 ,died ,geneva1 #c ,feb4
 #ahcb4    ,borde 7,frdric71 editor of  
,la ,philosophie de l',avenir1 ,paris1  
#ahge1  etc4 ,born ,la ,rochelle #ahda4 
,has written on ,liberty of             
,instruction1 etc4    ,born 7,ignaz von7
 baron1 b4 ,carlsruhe1 #bf ,dec4 #agdb4 
,bred by the  ,jesuits1 he became an    
ardent scientist and a favorite of the  
,empress ,marie ,theresa1 under whose   
patronage he published works  on        
,mineralogy4 ,he was active as a        
,freemason1 and ,illuminati1 and        
published with the name ,joannes        
,physiophilus a stinging illustrated    
satire entitled ,monchalogia1 or the    
natural history of monks4    ,bosc      
7,louis ,augustin ,guillaume71 ,french  
naturalist1 b4 ,paris1 #bi  ,jan4 #agei2
 was tutor and friend to ,madame ,roland
 whose ,memoirs he  published4 ,he wrote
 many works on natural history4 ,died   
#aj ,july1 #ahbh4    ,boucher 7,e4      
,martin71 ,french writer1 b4 ,beaulieu1 

#ahji2 contributed to  the ,rationalist 
of ,geneva1 where he died #ahhb4 ,author
 of a work on  ,revelation and          
,rationalism1 entitled ,search for the  
,truth1 ,avignon1  #ahhd4               
,bougainville 7,louis ,antoine de7      
,count1 the first ,french voyager  who  
made the tour around the world2 b4      
,paris1 #aa ,nov4 #agbi4 ,died #ca      
,aug4 #ahaa4 ,he wrote an interesting   
account of his travels4    ,bouillier   
7,francisque71 ,french philosopher1 b4  
,lyons #ab ,july #ahac1 has  written    
several works on psychology1 and        
contributed to la ,libert de  ,penser4  
,his principal work is a ,history of the
 ,cartesian ,philosophy4 ,he  is a      
member of the ,institute and writes in  
the leading reviews4    ,bouis          
7,casimir71 ,french journalist1 b4      
,toulon #ahdh1 edited ,la ,libre  ,pense
 and wrote a satire on the ,jesuits     
entitled ,calottes et ,soutanes1  #ahgj4
 ,sent to ,new ,caledonia for his       
participation in the ,commune1 he  has  

since his return published a volume of  
political verses entitled  ,aprs le     
,naufrage1 ,after the ,shipwreck1 #ahhj4
    ,boulainvilliers 7,henri de71 ,comte
 de ,st4 ,saire1 ,french historian and  
philosopher1 b4 #aa ,oct4 #afeh4 ,his   
principal historical work is an  account
 of the ancient ,french ,parliaments4   
,he also wrote a defence of  ,spinozism 
under pretence of a refutation of       
,spinoza1 an analysis of  ,spinoza's    
,tractus ,theologico-,politicus1 printed
 at the end of ,doubts  upon ,religion1 
,londres1 #agfg4 ,a ,life of ,muhammad1 
the first ,european  work doing justice 
to ,islam1 and a ,history of the ,arabs 
also proceeded  from his pen1 and he is 
one of those to whom is attributed the  
treatise  with the title of the ,three  
,impostors1 #agee4 ,died #bc ,jan4      
#agbb4    ,boulanger                    
7,nicolas-,antoine71 ,french ,deist1 b4 
#aa ,nov4 #agbb4 ,died  #af ,sept4      
#agei4 ,he was for some time in the army
 as engineer1 and  afterwards became    

surveyor of public works4 ,after his    
death his works  were published by      
,d',holbach who rewrote them4 ,his      
principal works  are ,antiquity         
,unveiled and ,researches on the ,origin
 of ,oriental  ,despotism4 ,christianity
 ,unveiled1 attributed to him and said  
by  ,voltaire to have been by           
,damilavile1 was probably written by    
,d',holbach1  perhaps with some         
assistance from ,naigeon4 ,it was burnt 
by order of  the ,french ,parliament #ah
 ,aug4 #aggj4 ,a ,critical ,examination 
of the  ,life and ,works of ,st4 ,paul1 
attributed to ,boulanger1 was really    
made  up by d',holbach from the work of 
,annet4 ,boulanger wrote dissertations  
on ,elisha1 ,enoch and ,st4 ,peter1 and 
some articles for the ,encyclopdie4     
,bourdet 7,dr47 ,eugene1 ,french        
,positivist1 b4 ,paris1 #ahah4 ,author  
of  several works on medicine and       
,positivist philosophy and education4   
,boureau-,deslands 7,a4 ,f47 ,see       
,deslandes4    ,bourget 7,paul71 ,french

 littrateur1 b4 at ,amiens in #aheb4    
,has made  himself famous by his novels1
 essays on contemporary psychology1     
studies of ,m4 ,rnan1 etc4 ,he belongs  
to the ,naturalist ,school1 but  his    
methods are less crude than those of    
some of his colleagues4 ,his  insight is
 most subtle1 and his style is          
exquisite4    ,boutteville 7,marc       
,lucien71 ,french writer1 professor at  
the ,lyce  ,bonaparte2 has made         
translations from ,lessing and published
 an  able work on the ,morality of the  
,church and ,natural ,morality1 #ahff1  
for which the clergy turned him out of a
 professorship he held at               
,sainte-,barbe4    ,bovio 7,giovanni71  
,professor of ,political ,economy in the
 ,university  of ,naples and deputy to  
the ,italian parliament2 is an ardent   
,freethinker4 ,both in his writings and 
in parliament ,prof4 ,bovio  opposes the
 power of the ,vatican and the          
reconciliation between  ,church and     
,state4 ,he has constantly advocated    

liberty of conscience  and has promoted 
the institution of a ,dante chair in the
 ,university  of ,rome4 ,he has written 
a work on ,the ,history of ,law1 a copy 
of which  he presented to the           
,international ,congress of             
,freethinkers1 #ahhg4    ,bowring 7,sir 
,john1 ,k4,b41 ,,ll ,d471 politician1   
linguist and writer1  b4 ,exeter1 #ag   
,oct41 #agib4 ,in early life a pupil of 
,dr4 ,lant  ,carpenter and later a      
disciple of ,jeremy ,bentham1 whose     
principles  he maintained in the        
,westminster ,review1 of which he was   
editor1  #ahbe4 ,arrested in ,france in 
#ahbb1 after a fortnight's imprisonment 
he was released without trial4 ,he      
published ,bentham's ,deontology        
7#ahcd71 and nine years after edited a  
complete collection of the  works of    
,bentham4 ,returned to ,parliament in   
'#ce1 and afterwards was  employed in   
important government missions4 ,in '#ee 
he visited ,siam1  and two years later  
published an account of ,the ,kingdom   

and ,people  of ,siam4 ,he translated   
,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,heine1 and the     
poems of  many countries2 was an active 
member of the ,british ,association and 
of the ,social ,science ,association1   
and did much to promote rational  views 
on the ,sunday question4 ,died #bc ,nov4
 #ahgb4    ,boyle 7,humphrey71 one of   
the men who left ,leeds for the purpose 
of  serving in ,r4 ,carlile's shop when 
the right of free publication was       
attacked in #ahba4 ,boyle gave no name1 
and was indicted and tried as  a man    
with name unknown for publishing a      
blasphemous and seditious  libel4 ,in   
his defence he ably asserted his right  
to hold and publish  his opinions4 ,he  
read portions of the ,bible in court to 
prove he was  justified in calling it   
obscene4 ,upon being sentenced1 #bg     
,may1 #ahbb1  to eighteen months'       
imprisonment and to find sureties for   
five years1  he remarked ,i have a mind1
 my lord1 that can bear such a sentence 
with fortitude4    ,bradlaugh           

7,charles74 ,born ,east ,london1 #bf    
,sept4 #ahcc4 ,educated  in ,bethnal    
,green and ,hackney4 ,he was turned from
 his ,sunday-school  teachership and    
from his first situation through the    
influence of the  ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,packer1
 and found refuge with the widow of ,r4 
,carlile4 ,in  ,dec4 #ahej he entered   
the ,dragoon ,guards and proceeded to   
,dublin4 ,here  he met ,james ,thomson1 
the poet1 and contracted a friendship   
which  lasted for many years4 ,he got   
his discharge1 and in '#ec returned to  
,london and became a solicitor's clerk4 
,he began to write and lecture  under   
the nom de guerre of ,iconoclast1 edited
 the ,investigator1 '#ei2  and had      
numerous debates with ministers and     
others4 ,in #ahfj he began  editing the 
,national ,reformer1 which in '#fh-i he 
successfully defended  against a        
prosecution of the ,attorney ,general1  
who wished securities  against          
blasphemy4 ,in '#fh he began his efforts
 to enter ,parliament1  and in #ahhj was

 returned for ,northampton4 ,after a    
long struggle  with the ,house1 which   
would not admit the ,atheist1 he at     
length took  his seat in #ahhe4 ,he was 
four times re-elected1 and the          
litigation  into which he was plunged   
will become as historic as that of ,john
  ,wilkes4 ,prosecuted in '#gf for      
publishing ,the ,fruits of ,philosophy1 
he  succeeded in quashing the           
indictment4 ,mr4 ,bradlaugh has had     
numerous  debates1 several of which are 
published4 ,he has also written many    
pamphlets1 of which we mention ,new     
,lives of ,abraham1 ,david1 and  other  
saints1 ,who was ,jesus ,christ8 ,what  
did ,jesus ,teach8 ,has ,man  a ,soul1  
,is there a ,god8 etc4 ,his ,plea for   
,atheism reached its #bjth  thousand in 
#ahhj4 ,mr4 ,bradlaugh has also         
published ,when were our  ,gospels      
,written81 #ahfg2 ,heresy1 its ,utility 
and ,morality1 #ahgj2  ,the ,inspiration
 of the ,bible1 #ahgc2 ,the             
,freethinker's ,text ,book1  part i41   

dealing with natural religion1 #ahgf2   
,the ,laws ,relating to  ,blasphemy and 
,heresy1 #ahgh2 ,supernatural and       
,rational ,morality1  #ahhf4 ,in #aheg  
,mr4 ,bradlaugh commenced a commentary  
on the ,bible1  entitled ,the ,bible1   
,what is it8 ,in #ahfe this appeared in 
enlarged form1  dealing only with the   
,pentateuch4 ,in #ahhb he published     
,genesis1 ,its  ,authorship and         
,authenticity4 ,in ,parliament ,mr4     
,bradlaugh has become  a conspicuous    
figure1 and has introduced many         
important measures4 ,in  #ahhh he       
succeeded in passing an ,oaths ,bill1   
making affirmations  permissible instead
 of oaths4 ,his elder daughter1 ,alice1 
b4 #cj  ,april1 #ahef1 has written on   
,mind ,considered as a ,bodily          
,function1  #ahhd4 ,died #b ,dec4 #ahhh4
 ,his second daughter1 ,hypatia         
,bradlaugh ,bonner1  b4 #ca ,march1     
#aheh1 has written ,princess ,vera and  
other stories1  ,chemistry of ,home1    
etc4    ,brkstad 7,hans ,lien71 b4      

,throndhjem1 ,norway1 #g ,sept4 #ahde4  
,has made  ,english translations from   
,bjrnson1 ,asbjrnsen1 ,andersen1 etc41  
and  has contributed to ,harper's       
,magazine and other periodical          
literature4    ,brandes 7,georg ,morris 
,cohen71 ,danish writer1 by birth a     
,jew1  b4 ,copenhagen1 #d ,feb4 #ahdb4  
,in #ahfi he translated ,j4 ,s4 ,mills' 
,subjection of ,women1 and in the       
following year took a doctor's  degree  
for a philosophical treatise4 ,his chief
 work is entitled the  ,main ,current of
 ,literature in the ,nineteenth         
,century4 ,his brother1  ,dr4 ,edvard   
,brandes1 was elected to the ,danish    
,parliament in #ahha1  despite his      
declaration that he did not believe     
either in the ,god of  the ,christians  
or of the ,jews4    ,bray 7,charles71   
philosophic writer1 b4 ,coventry1 #ca   
,jan4 #ahaa4 ,he was  brought up as an  
,evangelical1 but found his way to      
,freethought4 ,early  in life he took an
 active part in promoting unsectarian   

education4 ,his  first work 7#ahce7 was 
on ,the ,education of the ,body4 ,this  
was followed  by ,the ,education of the 
,feelings1 of which there were several  
editions4 ,in #ahcf he married ,miss    
,hennell1 sister of ,c4 ,c4 ,hennell1   
and took the ,system of ,nature and     
,volney's ,ruins of ,empires to  enliven
 the honeymoon4 ,among his friends was  
,mary ,ann ,evans 7,george  ,eliot71 who
 accompanied ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,bray to    
,italy4 ,his works on  ,the ,philosophy 
of ,necessity 7#ahda7 and ,cerebral     
,psychology 7#ahge7  give the key to all
 his thought4 ,he wrote a number of     
,thomas ,scott's  series of tracts3     
,illusion and ,delusion1 ,the ,reign of 
,law in ,mind as  in ,matter1           
,toleration with remarks on ,professor  
,tyndall's ,address1  and a little book1
 ,christianity in the ,light of our     
,present ,knowledge  and ,moral ,sense  
7#ahgf74 ,he also wrote ,a ,manual of   
,anthropology and  similar works4 ,in a 
postscript to his last volume1 ,phases  

of ,opinion  and ,experience ,during a  
,long ,life1 dated #ah ,sept4 #ahhd1 he 
stated  that he has no hope or          
expectation or belief even in the       
possibility  of continued individuality 
after death1 and that as his opinions   
have  done to live by they will do to   
die by4 ,he died #e ,oct4 #ahhd4        
,bresson 7,lopold71 ,french ,positivist1
 b4 ,lamarche1 #ahag4 ,educated at  the 
,polytechnic ,school1 which he left in  
#ahdj and served on public  works4 ,for 
seventeen years was director of an      
,austrian ,railway  ,company4 ,wrote    
,ides ,modernes1 #ahhj4    ,bridges     
7,john ,henry71 ,m4,d4 ,english         
,positivist1 b4 #ahcc1 graduated  ,b4,a4
 at ,oxford #ahee1 and ,b4,m4 #ahei2 has
 written on ,religion and  ,progress1   
contributed to the ,fortnightly ,review1
 and translated ,comte's  ,general ,view
 of ,positivism 7#ahfe7 and ,system of  
,positive ,polity 7#ahgc74    ,bril     
7,jakob71 ,dutch mystical ,pantheist1 b4
 ,leyden1 #ba ,jan4 #afci4 ,died  #agjj4

 ,his works were published at           
,amsterdam1 #agje4    ,brissot 7,jean   
,pierre7 de ,warville1 active ,french   
revolutionist1  b4 ,chartres1 #ad ,jan4 
#aged4 ,he was bred to the law1 but took
 to  literature4 ,he wrote for the      
,courier de l',europe1 a revolutionary  
paper suppressed for its boldness1      
published a treatise on ,truth1  and    
edited a ,philosophical ,law ,library1  
#aghb-he4 ,he wrote against the  legal  
authority of ,rome1 and is credited with
 ,philosophical ,letters  upon ,st4     
,paul and the ,christian ,religion1     
,neufchatel1 #aghc4 ,in #aghd  he was   
imprisoned in the ,bastille for his     
writings4 ,to avoid a second            
imprisonment he went to ,england and    
,america1 returning to ,france  at the  
outbreak of the ,revolution4 ,he wrote  
many political works1  became member of 
the ,legislative ,assembly1 formed the  
,girondist party1  protested against the
 execution of ,louis ,,xvi41 and upon   
the triumph  of the ,mountain was       

executed with twenty-one of his         
colleagues1  #ca ,oct41 #agic4 ,brissot 
was a voluminous writer1 honest1        
unselfish1  and an earnest lover of     
freedom in every form4    ,bristol      
7,augusta71 ne ,cooper1 ,american       
educator1 b4 ,croydon1 ,new  ,haven1 #ag
 ,april1 #ahce4 ,in #ahej became teacher
 and gained repute by  her ,poems4 ,in  
,sept4 #ahhj1 she represented ,american 
,freethinkers at  the ,international    
,conference at ,brussels4 ,she has      
written on ,science  and its ,relations 
to ,human ,character and other works4   
,broca 7,pierre ,paul71 ,french         
anthropologist1 b4 #bh ,june1 #ahbd4 ,a 
hard-working scientist1 he paid special 
attention to craniology4 ,in  #ahge he  
founded the ,school of ,anthropology and
 had among his pupils  ,gratiolet1      
,topinard1 ,hovelacque and ,dr4 ,carter 
,blake1 who translated  his treatise on 
,hybridity4 ,he established ,the ,review
 of ,anthropology1  published numerous  
scientific works and was made a member  

of the  ,legion of ,honor4 ,in          
philosophy he inclined to ,positivism4  
,died ,paris1  #i ,july1 #ahhj4         
,brooksbank 7,william71 b4 ,nottingham  
#f ,dec4 #ahja4 ,in #ahbd he wrote  in  
,carlile's ,lion1 and has since         
contributed to the ,reasoner1 the       
,pathfinder1 and the ,national          
,reformer4 ,he was an intimate friend   
of ,james ,watson4 ,he wrote ,a ,sketch 
of the ,religions of the ,earth1        
,revelation ,tested by ,astronomy1      
,geography1 ,geology1 etc41 #ahef1 and  
some other pamphlets4 ,mr4 ,brooksbank  
is still living in honored age  at      
,nottingham4    ,brothier 7,lon71 author
 of a ,popular ,history of ,philosophy1 
#ahfa1  and other works in the          
,bibliothque ,utile4 ,he contributed to 
the  ,rationalist of ,geneva4           
,broussais 7,franois ,joseph ,victor71  
,french physician and philosopher1  b4  
,saint ,malo1 #ag ,dec4 #aggb4 ,educated
 at ,dinan1 in #agib he served  as      
volunteer in the army of the ,republic4 

,he studied medicine at  ,st4 ,malo and 
,brest1 and became a naval surgeon4 ,a  
disciple of ,bichat1  he did much to    
reform medical science by his           
,examination of ,received  ,medical     
,doctrines and to find a basis for      
mental and moral science in  physiology 
by his many scientific works4 ,despite  
his bold opinions1 he  was made         
,commander of the ,legion of ,honor4 ,he
 died poor at ,st4 ,malo #ag  ,nov4     
#ahch1 leaving behind a profession of   
faith1 in which he declares  his        
disbelief in a creator and his being    
without hope or fear of  another life4  
,brown 7,george ,william71 ,dr41 of     
,rockford1 ,illinois1 b4 in ,essex ,co41
  ,n4,y41 ,oct4 #ahbj1 of ,baptist      
parents4 ,at #ag years of age he was    
expelled  the church for repudiating the
 dogma of an endless hell4 ,dr4 ,brown  
edited the ,herald of ,freedom1 ,kansas4
 ,in #ahef his office was destroyed  by 
a pro-slavery mob1 his type thrown into 
the river1 and himself  and others      

arrested but was released without trial4
 ,dr4 ,brown has  contributed largely to
 the ,ironclad ,age and other ,american 
,freethought  papers1 and is bringing   
out a work on the ,origin of            
,christianity4    ,brown 7,titus ,l471  
,dr41 b4 #af ,oct4 #ahbc1 at ,hillside  
7,n4,y474 ,studied  at the ,medical     
,college of ,new ,york and graduated at 
the ,homoeopathic  ,college1            
,philadelphia4 ,he settled at           
,binghamton where he had a large        
practice4 ,he contributed to the ,boston
 ,investigator and in #ahgg was  elected
 ,president of the ,freethinkers        
,association4 ,died #ag ,aug4 #ahhg4    
,browne 7,sir ,thomas71 physician and   
writer1 b4 ,london1 #ai ,oct4 #afje4 ,he
  studied medicine and travelled on the 
,continent1 taking his doctor's  degree 
at ,leyden 7#afcc74 ,he finally settled 
at ,norwich1 where he had  a good       
practice4 ,his treatise ,religio        
,medici1 famous for its fine  style and 
curious mixture of faith and scepticism1

 was surreptitiously  published in      
#afdb4 ,it ran through several editions 
and was placed on  the ,roman ,index4   
,his ,pseudodoxia ,epidemica2 ,enquiries
 into ,vulgar  and ,common ,errors1     
appeared in #afdf4 ,while disputing many
 popular  superstitions he showed he    
partook of others4 ,this curious work   
was followed by ,hydriotaphia1 or       
,urn-,burial1 in which he treats  of    
cremation among the ancients4 ,to this  
was added ,the ,garden of  ,cyrus4 ,he  
died #ai ,oct4 #afhb4    ,bruno         
7,giordano71 ,freethought martyr1 b4 at 
,nola1 near ,naples1 about  #aedh4 ,he  
was christened ,filippo which he changed
 to ,filoteo1 taking  the name of       
,giordano when he entered the ,dominican
 order4 ,religious  doubts and bold     
strictures on the monks obliged him to  
quit ,italy1  probably in #aehj4 ,he    
went to ,geneva but soon found it no    
safe abiding  place1 and quitted it for 
,paris1 where he taught1 but refused to 
attend  mass4 ,in #aehc he visited      

,england1 living with the ,french       
ambassador  ,castelnau4 ,having formed a
 friendship with ,sir ,philip ,sidney1  
he  dedicated to him his ,spaccio della 
,bestia ,triomfante1 a satire on all    
mythologies4 ,in #aehe he took part in a
 logical tournament1 sustaining  the    
,copernican theory against the doctors  
of ,oxford4 ,the following year  he     
returned to ,paris1 where he again      
attacked the ,aristotelians4 ,he  then  
travelled to various cities in ,germany1
 everywhere preaching  the broadest     
heresy4 ,he published several           
,pantheistic1 scientific and            
philosophical works4 ,he was however    
induced to return to ,italy1 and        
arrested as an heresiarch and apostate  
at ,venice1 ,sept4 #aeib4 ,after  being 
confined for seven years by the         
,inquisitors1 he was tried1  and burnt  
at ,rome #ag ,feb4 #afjj4 ,at his last  
moments a crucifix was  offered him1    
which he nobly rejected4 ,bruno was     
vastly before his age  in his conception

 of the universe and his rejection of   
theological  dogmas4 ,a statue of this  
heroic apostle of liberty and light1    
executed  by one of the first sculptors 
of ,italy1 is to be erected on the spot 
where he perished1 the ,municipal       
,council of ,rome having granted the    
site in face of the bitterest opposition
 of the ,catholic party4 ,the  list of  
subscribers to this memorial comprises  
the principal advanced  thinkers in     
,europe and ,america4    ,brzesky       
7,casimir ,liszynsky ,podsedek74 ,see   
,liszinski4    ,bucali or ,busali       
7,leonardo71 a ,calabrian abbot of      
,spanish descent1  who became a follower
 of ,servetus in the sixteenth century1 
and had  to seek among the ,turks the   
safety denied him in ,christendom4 ,he  
died  at ,damascus4    ,buchanan        
7,george71 ,scotch historian and        
scholar1 b4 ,killearn1  ,feb4 #aejf4    
,evincing an early love of study1 he was
 sent to  ,paris at the age of fourteen4
 ,he returned to ,scotland and became   

distinguished for his learning4 ,james  
,v4 appointed him tutor to his  natural 
son4 ,he composed his ,franciscanus et  
,fratres1 a satire on the  monks1 which 
hastened the ,scottish reformation4     
,this exposed him to  the vengeance of  
the clergy4 ,not content with calling   
him ,atheist1  ,archbishop ,beaton had  
him arrested and confined in ,st4       
,andrew's  ,castle1 from whence he      
escaped and fled to ,england4 ,here he  
found1  as he said1 ,henry ,,viii4      
burning men of opposite opinions at the 
same  stake for religion4 ,he returned  
to ,paris1 but was again subjected to   
the persecution of ,beaton1 the         
,scottish ,ambassador4 ,on the death of 
a patron at ,bordeaux1 in #aedh1 he was 
seized by the ,inquisition and  immured 
for a year and a half in a monastery1   
where he translated  the ,psalms into   
,latin4 ,he eventually returned to      
,scotland1 where he  espoused the party 
of ,moray4 ,after a most active life1 he
 died #bh  ,sept4 #aehb1 leaving a      

,history of ,scotland1 besides numerous 
poems1  satires1 and political writings1
 the most important of which is a  work 
of republican tendency1 ,de ,jure       
,regni1 the ,rights of ,kings4          
,buchanan 7,robert71 ,socialist1 b4     
,ayr1 #ahac4 ,he was successively a     
schoolmaster1 a ,socialist missionary   
and a journalist4 ,he settled in        
,manchester1 where he published works on
 the ,religion of ,the ,past and        
,present1 #ahci2 the ,origin and ,nature
 of ,ghosts1 #ahdj4 ,an ,exposure  of   
,joseph ,barker1 and a ,concise ,history
 of ,modern ,priestcraft also  bear the 
latter date4 ,at this time the          
,socialists were prosecuted for         
lecturing on ,sunday1 and ,buchanan was 
fined for refusing to take the  oath of 
supremacy1 etc4 ,after the decline of   
,owenism1 he wrote for  the ,northern   
,star1 and edited the ,glasgow          
,sentinel4 ,he died at the  home of his 
son1 the poet1 at ,bexhill1 ,sussex1 #d 
,march1 #ahff4    ,buchanan 7,joseph    

,rhodes71 ,american physician1 b4       
,frankfort1 ,kentucky1  #aa ,dec4 #ahad4
 ,he graduated ,m4,d4 at ,louisville    
,university1 #ahdb1 and  has been the   
teacher of physiology at several        
colleges4 ,from #ahdi-ef  he published  
,buchanan's ,journal of ,man1 and has   
written several works  on ,anthropology4
    ,buchner 7,ludwig74 ,see ,buechner4 
,buckle 7,henry ,thomas71 philosophical 
historian1 b4 ,lee1 ,kent1 #bd  ,nov4   
#ahba4 ,in consequence of his delicate  
health he was educated at  home4 ,his   
mother was a strict ,calvinist1 his     
father a strong ,tory1  but a visit to  
the ,continent made him a ,freethinker  
and ,radical4 ,he  ever afterwards held 
travelling to be the best education4 ,it
 was his  ambition to write a ,history  
of ,civilisation in ,england1 but so    
vast was  his design that his three     
notable volumes with that title form    
only  part of the introduction4 ,the    
first appeared in #aheh1 and created a  
great sensation by its boldness4 ,in the

 following year he championed  the cause
 of ,pooley1 who was condemned for      
blasphemy1 and dared the  prosecution of
 infidels of standing4 ,in #ahfa he     
visited the ,east1  in the hope of      
improving his health1 but died at       
,damascus1 #bi ,may1  #ahfb4 ,much of   
the material collected for his ,history 
has been published  in his              
,miscellaneous and ,posthumous ,works1  
edited by ,helen ,taylor1  #ahgb4 ,an   
abridged edition1 edited by ,grant      
,allen1 appeared in #ahhf4    ,buechner 
7,friedrich ,karl ,christian ,ludwig71  
,german materialist1  b4 ,darmstadt1 #bi
 ,march1 #ahbd4 ,studied medicine in    
,geissen1 ,strassburg  and ,vienna4 ,in 
'#ee he startled the world with his bold
 work on  ,force and ,matter1 which has 
gone through numerous editions and been 
translated into nearly all the ,european
 languages4 ,this work lost  him the    
place of professor which he held at     
,tbingen1 and he has  since practised in
 his native town4 ,bchner has developed 

his ideas  in many other works such as  
,nature and ,spirit 7#aheg71            
,physiological  ,sketches1 '#fa2 ,nature
 and ,science1 '#fb2 ,conferences on    
,darwinism1  '#fi2 ,man in the ,past1   
,present and ,future1 '#fi2 ,materialism
 its ,history  and ,influence on        
,society1 '#gc2 ,the ,idea of ,god1     
'#gd2 ,mind in ,animals1  '#hj2 and     
,light and ,life1 '#hb4 ,he also        
contributes to the ,freidenker1  the    
,dageraad1 and other journals4          
,buffon 7,georges ,louis ,leclerc71     
,count de1 ,french naturalist1  b4      
,montford1 ,burgundy1 #g ,sept4 #agjg4  
,an incessant worker4 ,his ,natural     
,history in #cf volumes bears witness to
 the fertility of his mind  and his     
capacity for making science attractive4 
,buffon lived much in  seclusion1 and   
attached himself to no sect or religion4
 ,some of his  sentences were attacked  
by the ,sorbonne4 ,hrault de ,schelles  
says  that ,buffon said3 ,i have named  
the ,creator1 but it is only necessary  

to take out the word and substitute the 
power of nature4 ,died at  ,paris #af   
,april1 #aghh4    ,buitendijk or        
,buytendyck 7,gosuinus van71 ,dutch     
,spinozist1 who wrote an  ,apology at   
the beginning of the eighteenth century 
and was banished  #agaf4    ,bufalini   
7,maurizio71 ,italian doctor1 b4 ,cesena
 #b ,june1 #aghg4 ,in #ahac he          
published an essay on the ,doctrine of  
,life in opposition to vitalism1  and   
henceforward his life was a conflict    
with the upholders of that  doctrine4   
,he was accused of materialism1 but     
became a professor at  ,florence and a  
member of the ,italian ,senate in #ahfj4
 ,died at ,florence  #ca ,march1 #ahge4 
,burdach 7,karl ,friedrich71 ,german    
physiologist1 b4 ,leipsic #ab ,june1    
#aggf4 ,he occupied a chair at the      
,university of ,breslau4 ,his works on  
physiology and anthropology did much to 
popularise those sciences1  and the     
former is placed on the ,index ,librorum
 ,prohibitorum for its  materialistic   

tendency4 ,he died at ,konigsberg1 #af  
,july1 #ahdg4    ,burdon 7,william71    
,m4,a41 writer1 b4 ,newcastle1 #aa      
,sept4 #agfd4 ,graduated  at ,emmanuel  
,college1 ,cambridge1 #aghh4 ,he was    
intended for a clergyman1  but want of  
faith made him decline that profession4 
,his principal work  is entitled        
,materials for ,thinking4 ,colton       
largely availed himself of  this work in
 his ,lacon4 ,it went through five      
editions in his lifetime1  and portions 
were reprinted in the ,library of       
,reason4 ,he also addressed  ,three     
,letters to the ,bishop of ,llandaff1   
wrote a ,life and ,character of         
,bonaparte1 translated an account of the
 ,revolution in ,spain1 edited the      
,memoirs of ,count ,boruwlaski1 and     
wrote some objections to the annual     
subscription to the ,sons of the        
,clergy4 ,died in ,london1 #cj ,may1    
#ahah4    ,burigny 7,jean ,levesque de71
 ,french writer1 b4 ,rheims1 #afib4 ,he 
became  a member of the ,french         

,academy1 wrote a treatise on the       
,authority  of the ,pope1 a ,history of 
,pagan ,philosophy and other works1 and 
is credited with the ,critical          
,examination of the ,apologists of the  
,christian ,religion1 published under   
the name of ,freret by ,naigeon1  #agff4
 ,levesque de ,burigny wrote a letter in
 answer to ,bergier's  ,proofs of       
,christianity1 which is published in    
,naigeon's ,recueil  ,philosophique4    
,died at ,paris1 #h ,oct4 #aghe4        
,burmeister 7,hermann71 ,german         
naturalist1 b4 ,stralsund1 #ae ,jan4    
#ahjg4 ,in  #ahbg he became a doctor at 
,halle4 ,in '#dh he was elected to the  
,national  ,assembly4 ,in #ahej he went 
to ,brazil4 ,his principal work is ,the 
,history  of ,creation1 #ahdc4          
,burmeister or ,baurmeister 7,johann    
,peter ,theodor7 a ,german ,rationalist 
and colleague of ,ronge4 ,born at       
,flensburg1 #ahje4 ,he resided in       
,hamburg1 and wrote in the middle of the
 present century under the  name of ,j4 

,p4 ,lyser4    ,burnet 7,thomas71 b4    
about #afce at ,croft1 ,yorkshire4      
,through the  interest of a pupil1 the  
,duke of ,ormonde1 he obtained the      
mastership  of the ,charterhouse1 #afhe4
 ,in #afha the first part of his        
,telluris  ,theoria ,sacra1 or ,sacred  
,theory of the ,earth1 appeared in      
,latin1 and  was translated and modified
 in #afhd4 ,in #afib ,burnet published1 
both  in ,english and in ,latin1 his    
,archologi ,philosophic1 or the ,ancient
  ,doctrine of the ,origin of ,things4  
,he professes in this to reconcile  his 
theory with ,genesis1 which receives a  
figurative interpretation2  and a       
ludicrous dialogue between ,eve and the 
serpent gave great  offence4 ,in a      
popular ballad ,burnet is represented as
 saying--                      ,that all
 the books of ,moses                    
,were nothing but supposes4      ,he had
 to resign a position at court4 ,in     
later life he wrote ,de ,fide  et       
,officiis ,christianorum 7on ,christian 

,faith and ,duties71 in which  he       
regards historical religions as based on
 the religion of nature1  and rejects   
original sin and the magical theory of  
sacraments2  and ,de ,statu ,mortuorum  
et ,resurgentium1 on the ,state of the  
,dead and  ,resurrected1 in which he    
opposed the doctrine of eternal         
punishment  and shadowed forth a scheme 
of ,deism4 ,these books he kept to      
himself  to avoid a prosecution for     
heresy1 but had a few copies printed for
  private friends4 ,he died in the      
,charterhouse #bg ,sept4 #agae4 ,a tract
  entitled ,hell ,torments not ,eternal 
was published in #agci4    ,burnett     
7,james71 ,lord ,monboddo1 a learned    
,scotch writer and judge1  was b4       
,monboddo1 ,oct4 #agad4 ,he adopted the 
law as his profession1  became a        
celebrated advocate1 and was made a     
judge in #agfg4 ,his  work on the       
,origin and ,progress of ,language      
7published anonymously  #aggc-ib71      
excited much derision by his studying   

man as one of the  animals and          
collecting facts about savage tribes to 
throw light on  civilisation4 ,he first 
maintained that the orang-outang was    
allied  to the human species4 ,he also  
wrote on ,ancient ,metaphysics4 ,he was 
a keen debater and discussed with ,hume1
 ,adam ,smith1 ,robertson1 and  ,lord   
,kames4 ,died in ,edinburgh1 #bf ,may1  
#agii4    ,burnouf 7,emile ,louis71     
,french writer1 b4 ,valonges1 #be ,aug4 
#ahba4 ,he  became professor of ancient 
literature to the faculty of ,nancy4    
,author  of many works1 including a     
translation of selections from the      
,novum  ,organum of ,bacon1 the         
,bhagvat-,gita1 an ,introduction to the 
,vedas1  a history of ,greek            
,literature1 ,studies in ,japanese1 and 
articles  in the ,revue des deux        
,mondes4 ,his heresy is pronounced in   
his work  on the ,science of ,religions1
 #ahgh1 in his ,contemporary            
,catholicism1  and ,life and ,thought1  
#ahhf4    ,burnouf 7,eugne71 ,french    

,orientalist1 cousin of the preceding2  
b4 ,paris1 #ab ,aug4 #ahja4 ,he opened  
up to the ,western world the ,pali      
language1 and with it the treasures of  
,buddhism1 whose essentially  ,atheistic
 character he maintained4 ,to him also  
we are largely indebted  for a knowledge
 of ,zend and of the ,avesta of the     
,zoroastrians4 ,he  translated numerous 
,oriental works and wrote a valuable    
,introduction  to the ,history of       
,indian ,buddhism4 ,died at ,paris1 #bh 
,may1 #aheb4    ,burns 7,robert71       
,scotland's greatest poet1 b4 near ,ayr1
 #be  ,jan4 #agei4 ,his father was a    
small farmer1 of enlightened views4 ,the
  life and works of ,burns are known    
throughout the world4 ,his  ,freethought
 is evident from such productions as the
 ,holy ,fair1  ,the ,kirk's ,alarm1 and 
,holy ,willie's ,prayer1 and many       
passages in  private letters to his most
 familiar male friends4 ,died at        
,dumfries1  #ba ,july1 #agif4    ,burr  
7,william ,henry71 ,american author1 b4 

#ahai1 ,gloversville1 ,n4,y41  graduated
 at ,union ,college1 ,schenectady1      
became a shorthand reporter  to the     
,senate4 ,in #ahfi he retired and       
devoted himself to literary  research4  
,he is the anonymous author of          
,revelations of ,antichrist1 a  learned 
book which exposes the obscurity of the 
origin of ,christianity1  and seeks to  
show that the historical ,jesus lived   
almost a century  before the ,christian 
era4 ,he has also written several       
pamphlets3  ,thomas ,paine was ,junius1 
#ahhj3 ,self ,contradictions of the     
,bible2  ,is the ,bible a ,lying        
,humbug8 ,a ,roman ,catholic ,canard1   
etc4 ,he has  also frequently           
contributed to the ,boston              
,investigator1 the ,new ,york           
,truthseeker1 and the ,ironclad ,age of 
,indianapolis4    ,burton 7,sir ,richard
 ,francis71 traveller1 linguist1 and    
author1  b4 ,barham ,house1 ,herts1 #ai 
,march1 #ahba4 ,intended for the        
,church1  he matriculated at ,oxford1   

but in #ahdb entered the ,east ,india   
,company's service1 served on the staff 
of ,sir ,c4 ,napier1 and soon  acquired 
reputation as an intrepid explorer4 ,in 
'#ea he returned to  ,england and       
started for ,mecca and ,medina1 visiting
 those shrines  unsuspected1 as a       
,moslem pilgrim4 ,he was chief of the   
staff of the  ,osmanli cavalry in the   
,crimean war1 and has made many         
remarkable and  dangerous expeditions in
 unknown lands2 he discovered and opened
  the lake regions in ,central ,africa  
and explored the highlands of  ,brazil4 
,he has been consul at ,fernando ,po1   
,santos1 ,damascus1 and  since #ahgb at 
,trieste1 and speaks over thirty        
languages4 ,his latest  work is a new   
translation of ,the ,thousand ,nights   
and a ,night in #aj  vols4 ,being       
threatened with a prosecution1 he       
intended justifying  literal naturalism 
from the ,bible4 ,burton's knowledge of 
,arabic is  so perfect that when he used
 to read the tales to ,arabs1 they would

  roll on the ground in fits of         
laughter4    ,butler 7,samuel71 poet1 b4
 in ,strensham1 ,worcestershire1 ,feb4  
#afab4 ,in  early life he came under the
 influence of ,selden4 ,he studied      
painting1  and is said to have painted a
 head of ,cromwell from life4 ,he became
  clerk to ,sir ,samuel ,luke1 one of   
,cromwell's ,generals1 whom he has      
satirised as ,hudibras4 ,this celebrated
 burlesque poem appeared in #affc  and  
became famous1 but1 although the king   
and court were charmed with  its wit1   
the author was allowed to remain in     
poverty and obscurity  till he died at  
,covent ,garden1 ,london1 #be ,sept4    
#afhj4 ,butler expressed  the opinion   
that              ,religion is the      
interest of churches          ,that sell
 in other worlds in this to purchase4   
,buttmann 7,philipp ,karl71 ,german     
philologist1 b4 ,frankfort1 #e  ,dec4   
#agfd4 ,became librarian of the ,royal  
,library at ,berlin4 ,he edited  many of
 the ,greek ,classics1 wrote on the     

,myth of the ,deluge1 #ahai1  and a     
learned work on ,mythology1 #ahbh4 ,died
 ,berlin1 #ba ,june1 #ahbi4    ,buzot   
7,franois ,lonard ,nicolas71 ,french    
,girondin1 distinguished as  an ardent  
,republican and a friend and lover of   
,madame ,roland4 ,born  at ,evreux1 #a  
,march1 #agfj2 he died from starvation  
when hiding after  the suppression of   
his party ,june1 #agic4    ,byelinsky   
7,vissarion ,g47 ,see ,belinsky4        
,byron 7,george ,gordon ,noel7 ,lord1 b4
 ,london1 #bb ,jan4 #aghh4 ,he succeeded
  his grand-uncle ,william in #agih2 was
 sent to ,harrow and ,cambridge4 ,in    
#ahjg he published his ,hours of        
,idleness1 and awoke one morning to find
  himself famous4 ,his power was1       
however1 first shown in his ,english    
,bards and ,scotch ,reviewers1 in which 
he satirised his critics1 #ahji4 ,he    
then travelled on the ,continent1 the   
result of which was seen in his  ,childe
 ,harold's ,pilgrimage and other works4 
,he married #b ,jan4 #ahae1  but a      

separation took place in the following  
year4 ,lord ,byron then  resided in     
,italy1 where he made the acquaintance  
of ,shelley4 ,in #ahbc  he devoted his  
name and fortune to the cause of the    
,greek revolution1  but was seized with 
fever and died at ,missolonghi1 #ai     
,april1 #ahbd4 ,his  drama of ,cain3 a  
,mystery1 #ahbb1 is his most serious    
utterance1  and it shows a profound     
contempt for religious dogma4 ,this     
feeling  is also exhibited in his       
magnificent burlesque poem1 ,the ,vision
  of ,judgment1 which places him at the 
head of ,english satirists4 ,in  his    
letters to the ,rev4 ,francis ,hodgson1 
#ahaa1 he distinctly says3  ,i do not   
believe in any revealed religion4444 ,i 
will have nothing  to do with your      
immortality2 we are miserable enough in 
this life1  without the absurdity of    
speculating upon another4444 ,the basis 
of  your religion is injustice2 the ,son
 of ,god1 the pure1 the immaculate1  the
 innocent1 is sacrificed for the guilty1

 etc4    ,cabanis 7,pierre ,jean        
,george71 called by ,lange the father of
 the  materialistic physiology1 b4      
,conac1 #e ,june1 #ageg4 ,became pupil  
of ,condillac and friend of ,mirabeau1  
whom he attended in his last  illness1  
of which he published an account #agia4 
,he was also intimate  with ,turgot1    
,condorcet1 ,holbach1 ,diderot1 and     
other distinguished  ,freethinkers1 and 
was elected member of the ,institute and
 of the  ,council of ,five ,hundred in  
the ,revolution4 ,his works are mostly  
medical1 the chief being ,des ,rapports 
du ,physique et du ,morale de  l',homme1
 in which he contends that thoughts are 
a secretion of the  brain4 ,died ,rueil1
 near ,paris1 #e ,may1 #ahjh4           
,csalpinus 7,andreas71 ,italian         
philosopher of the ,renaissance1  b4    
,arezzo1 ,tuscany1 #aeai4 ,he became    
,professor of ,botany at ,pisa1 and     
,linnus admits his obligations to his   
work1 ,de ,plantis1 #aehc4 ,he also     
wrote works on metals and medicine1 and 

showed acquaintance with the            
circulation of the blood4 ,in a work    
entitled ,demonum ,investigatio1  he    
contends that possession by devils is   
amenable to medical  treatment4 ,his    
,qustionum ,peripateticarum1 in five    
books1 ,geneva1  #aefh1 was condemned as
 teaching a ,pantheistic doctrine       
similar to  that of ,spinoza4 ,bishop   
,parker denounced him4 ,died #bc ,feb4  
#afjc4    ,csar 7,caius ,julius71 the   
foremost man of all this world1 equally 
renowned as soldier1 statesman1 orator1 
and writer1 b4 #ab ,july1  #ajj ,b4,c41 
of noble family4 ,his life1 the         
particulars of which are  well known1   
was an extraordinary display of         
versatility1 energy1  courage1 and      
magnanimity4 ,he justified the          
well-known line of ,pope1  ,csar the    
world's great master and his own4 ,his  
military talents  elevated him to the   
post of dictator1 but this served to    
raise against  him a band of            
aristocratic conspirators1 by whom he   

was assassinated1  #ae ,march1 #dd      
,b4,c4 ,his ,commentaries are a model of
 insight and clear  expression4 ,sallust
 relates that he questioned the         
existence of  a future state in the     
presence of the ,roman senate4 ,froude  
says3  ,his own writings contain nothing
 to indicate that he himself had any    
religious belief at all4 ,he saw no     
evidence that the gods practically      
interfered in human affairs4444 ,he held
 to the facts of this life and  to his  
own convictions2 and as he found no     
reason for supposing that  there was a  
life beyond the grave he did not pretend
 to expect it4    ,cahuac 7,john71      
bookseller1 revised an edition of       
,palmer's ,principles  of ,nature1      
#ahai4 ,for this he was prosecuted at   
the instance of the  ,vice ,society1 but
 the matter was compromised4 ,he was    
also prosecuted  for selling the        
,republican1 #ahbj4    ,calderino       
7,domizio71 a learned writer of the     
,renaissance1 b4 in #adde1  in the      

territory of ,verona1 and lived at      
,rome1 where he was professor  of       
literature1 in #adgg4 ,he edited and    
commented upon many of the  ,latin      
poets4 ,bayle says he was without       
religion4 ,died in #adgh4    ,calenzio  
7,eliseo71 an ,italian writer1 b4 in the
 kingdom of ,naples about  #addj4 ,he   
was preceptor to ,prince ,frederic1 the 
son of ,ferdinand1 the  ,king of        
,naples4 ,he died in #aejc1 leaving     
behind a number of satires1  fables and 
epigrams1 some of which are directed    
against the ,church4    ,call 7,wathen  
,mark ,wilks71 ,english author1 b4 #g   
,june1 #ahag4 ,educated at  ,cambridge1 
entered the ministry in #ahdc1 but      
resigned his curacy about  #ahef on     
account of his change of opinions1 which
 he recounts in his  preface to         
,reverberations1 #ahgf4 ,mr4 ,call is of
 the ,positivist school1  and has       
contributed largely to the ,fortnightly 
and ,westminster ,reviews4    ,callet   
7,pierre ,auguste71 ,french politician1 

b4 ,st4 ,etienne1 #bg  ,oct4 #ahab2     
became editor of the ,gazette of ,france
 till #ahdj4 ,in #ahdh  he was nominated
 ,republican representative4 ,at the    
coup d'tat of #b  ,dec4 #ahea1 he took  
refuge in ,belgium4 ,he returned to     
,france1 but was  imprisoned for writing
 against the ,empire4 ,in #ahga1 ,callet
 was again  elected representative for  
the department of the ,loire4 ,his chief
  ,freethought work is ,l',enfer1 an    
attack upon the ,christian doctrine  of 
hell1 #ahfa4    ,camisani 7,gregorio71  
,italian writer1 b4 at ,venice1 #ahaj4  
,a ,professor  of ,languages in ,milan4 
,he has translated the ,upas of ,captain
 ,r4 ,h4 ,dyas  and other works4        
,campanella 7,tommaso71 ,italian        
philosopher1 b4 ,stilo1 ,calabria1  #e  
,sept4 #aefh4 ,he entered the ,dominican
 order1 but was too much  attracted by  
the works of ,telesio to please his     
superiors4 ,in #aeij  his ,philosophia  
,sensibus ,demonstratio was printed at  
,naples4 ,being  prosecuted1 he fled to 

,rome1 and thence to ,florence1 ,venice1
  and ,padua4 ,at ,bologna some of his  
,,ms4 fell into the hands of the        
,inquisition1 and he was arrested4 ,he  
ably defended himself and was           
acquitted4 ,returning to ,calabria in   
#aeii1 he was arrested on charges  of   
heresy and conspiracy against the       
,spanish ,government of ,naples1  and   
having appealed to ,rome1 was sentenced 
to perpetual imprisonment  in the prison
 of the ,holy ,office4 ,he was put to   
the torture seven  times1 his torments  
on one occasion extending over forty    
hours1 but  he refused to confess4 ,he  
was dragged from one prison to another  
for  twenty-seven years1 during which he
 wrote some sonnets1 a history of  the  
,spanish monarchy1 and several          
philosophical works4 ,on #ae ,may1      
#afbf1 he was released by the           
intervention of ,pope ,urban ,,viii4 ,he
  was obliged to fly from ,rome to      
,france1 where he met ,gassendi4 ,he    
also visited ,descartes in ,holland4    

,julian ,hibbert remarked that  his     
,atheismus ,triumphatus--,atheism       
,subdued1 #afca1 would be better        
entitled ,atheismus                     
,triumphans--,atheism ,triumphant--as   
the author puts  his strongest arguments
 on the heterodox side4 ,in his ,city of
 the ,sun1  ,campanella follows ,plato  
and ,more in depicting an ideal republic
 and a  time when a new era of earthly  
felicity should begin4 ,hallam says ,the
  strength of ,campanella's genius lay  
in his imagination4 ,his ,sonnets  have 
been translated by ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds4    
,died ,paris1 #ba ,may1 #afci4          
,campbell 7,alexander71 ,socialist of   
,glasgow1 b4 about the beginning  of the
 century4 ,he early became a ,socialist1
 and was manager at  the experiment at  
,orbiston under ,abram ,combe1 of whom  
he wrote  a memoir4 ,upon the death of  
,combe1 #ahbg1 he became a ,socialist   
missionary in ,england4 ,he took an     
active part in the co-operative         
movement1 and in the agitation for an   

unstamped press1 for which he  was tried
 and imprisoned at ,edinburgh1 #ahcc-d4 
,about #ahdi he returned  to ,glasgow   
and wrote on the ,sentinel4 ,in #ahfg he
 was presented with  a testimonial and  
purse of #ij sovereigns by admirers of  
his exertions  in the cause of progress4
 ,died about #ahgc4    ,campion         
7,william71 a shoemaker1 who became one 
of ,r4 ,carlile's  shopmen2 tried #h    
,june1 #ahbd1 for selling ,paine's ,age 
of ,reason4 ,after  a spirited defence  
he was found guilty and sentenced to    
three years'  imprisonment4 ,in prison  
he edited1 in conjunction with ,j4      
,clarke1  ,e4 ,hassell1 and ,t4 ,r4     
,perry1 the ,newgate ,monthly ,magazine1
 to which  he contributed some          
thoughtful papers1 from ,sept4 #ahbd1 to
 ,aug4 #ahbf1  when he was removed to   
the ,compter4    ,canestrini            
7,giovanni71 ,italian naturalist1 b4    
,rer1 #ahce4 ,he studied  at ,vienna1   
and in '#fj was nominated ,professor of 
,natural ,history at  ,geneva4 ,signor  

,canestrini contributed to the ,annuario
 ,filosofico del  ,libero ,pensiero1 and
 is known for his popularisation of the 
works  of ,darwin1 which he has         
translated into ,italian4 ,he has       
written  upon the ,origin of ,man1 which
 has gone through two editions1 ,milan1 
'#ff-'gj1 and on the ,theory of         
,evolution1 ,turin1 '#gg4 ,he was       
appointed  ,professor of ,zoology1      
,anatomy and ,comparative ,physiology at
 ,padua1  where he has published a      
,memoir of ,charles ,darwin1 '#hb4      
,cardano 7,girolamo71 better known as   
,jerome ,cardan1 ,italian               
mathematician1 and physician1 b4 ,pavia1
 #bd ,sept4 #aeja4 ,he studied          
medicine1 but was excluded from the     
,milan ,college of ,physicians on       
account of illegitimate birth4 ,he and  
his young wife were at one time         
compelled to take refuge in the         
workhouse4 ,it is not strange that his  
first work was an exposure of the       
fallacies of the faculty4 ,a fortunate  

cure brought him into notice and he     
journeyed to ,scotland as the  medical  
adviser of the ,archbishop of ,st4      
,andrews1 #aeea4 ,in #aefc he was       
arrested at ,bologna for heresy1 but was
 released1 although deprived of  his    
professorship4 ,he died at ,rome1 #bj   
,sept4 #aegf1 having1 it is said1       
starved himself to verify his own       
prediction of his death4 ,despite  some 
superstition1 ,cardano did much to      
forward science1 especially  by his work
 on ,algebra1 and in his works ,de      
,subtilitate ,rerum and ,de  ,varietate 
,rerum1 amid much that is fanciful1     
perceived the universality  of natural  
law and the progressive evolution of    
life4 ,scaliger accused  him of         
,atheism4 ,pnjer says ,cardanus deserves
 to be named along with  ,telesius as   
one of the principal founders of        
,natural ,philosophy4    ,carducci      
7,giosu71 ,italian poet and ,professor  
of ,italian ,literature at  the         
,university of ,bologna1 b4             

,pietrasantra1 in the province of       
,lucca1  #bg ,july1 #ahcf4 ,as early as 
'#di he cried1 ,abasso tutti i re6 viva 
la  republica--,down with all kings6    
,long live the republic6 ,sprung into   
fame by his ,hymn to ,satan1 '#fi1 by   
which he intended the spirit of         
resistance4 ,he has written many poems  
and satires in which he exhibits        
himself an ardent ,freethinker and      
,republican4 ,at the end of '#eg he     
wrote his famous verse ,il secoletto vil
 che cristianeggia--,this  vile         
christianising century4 ,in '#fj he     
became professor of ,greek  in ,bologna 
,university1 being suspended for a short
 while in '#fg for  an address to       
,mazzini4 ,in '#gf he was elected as    
republican deputy to  the ,italian      
,parliament for ,lugo di ,romagna4      
,carlile 7,eliza ,sharples71 second wife
 of ,richard ,carlile1 came from        
,lancashire during the imprisonment of  
,carlile and ,taylor1 #ahca1  delivered 
discourses at the ,rotunda1 and started 

a journal1 the ,isis1  which lasted from
 #aa ,feb4 to #ae ,dec4 #ahcb4 ,the     
,isis was dedicated  to the young women 
of ,england until superstition is       
extinct1  and contained ,frances        
,wright's discourses1 in addition to    
those  by ,mrs4 ,carlile1 who survived  
till '#fa4 ,mr4 ,bradlaugh lodged with  
,mrs4 ,carlile at the ,warner ,place    
,institute1 in #ahdi4 ,she had three    
children1 ,hypatia1 ,theophila and      
,julian1 of whom the second is  still   
living4    ,carlile 7,jane71 first wife 
of ,r4 ,carlile1 who carried on his     
business  during his imprisonment1 was  
proceeded against1 and sentenced to two 
years' imprisonment1 #ahba4 ,she had    
three children1 ,richard1 ,alfred1  and 
,thomas ,paine ,carlile1 the last of    
whom edited the ,regenerator1  a        
,chartist paper published at            
,manchester1 #ahci4    ,carlile         
7,richard71 foremost among the brave    
upholders of an ,english  free press1 b4
 ,ashburton1 ,devon1 #h ,dec4 #agij4 ,he

 was apprenticed to a  tin-plate worker1
 and followed that business till he was 
twenty-six1  when1 having read the works
 of ,paine1 he began selling works like 
,wooler's ,black ,dwarf1 which          
,government endeavored to suppress4     
,sherwin  offered him the dangerous post
 of publisher of the ,republican1 which 
he accepted4 ,he then published         
,southey's ,wat ,tyler1 reprinted the   
political works of ,paine and the       
parodies for which ,hone was tried1 but 
which cost ,carlile eighteen weeks'     
imprisonment4 ,in #ahah he published    
,paine's ,theological ,works4 ,the      
prosecution instituted induced him to   
go on printing similar works1 such as   
,palmer's ,principles of ,nature1       
,watson ,refuted1 ,jehovah ,unveiled1   
etc4 ,by ,oct4 #ahai1 he had six        
indictments to answer1 on two of which  
he was tried from #ab to #af  ,october4 
,he read the whole of the ,age of       
,reason in his defence1 in  order to    
have it in the report of the trial4 ,he 

was found guilty and  sentenced 7#af    
,nov47 to fifteen hundred pounds fine   
and three years'  imprisonment in       
,dorchester ,gaol4 ,during his          
imprisonment his business  was kept on  
by a succession of shopmen4 ,refusing to
 find securities  not to publish1 he was
 kept in prison till #ah ,nov4 #ahce1   
when he  was liberated unconditionally4 
,during his imprisonment he edited  the 
,republican1 which extended to fourteen 
volumes4 ,he also edited  the ,deist1   
the ,moralist1 the ,lion 7four volumes71
 the ,prompter 7for  ,no4 #c of which he
 again suffered thirty-two months'      
imprisonment71  and the ,gauntlet4      
,amongst his writings are ,an ,address  
to ,men of  ,science1 ,the ,gospel      
according to ,r4 ,carlile1 ,what is     
,god8 ,every  ,woman's ,book1 etc4 ,he  
published ,doubts of ,infidels1 ,janus  
on ,sion1  ,sepher ,toldoth ,jeshu1     
,d',holbach's ,good ,sense1 ,volney's   
,ruins1 and  many other ,freethought    
works4 ,he died #aj ,feb4 #ahdc1        

bequeathing his  body to ,dr4 ,lawrence 
for scientific purposes4    ,carlyle    
7,thomas71 one of the most gifted and   
original writers of the  century1 b4 #d 
,dec4 #agie1 at ,ecclefechan1           
,dumfriesshire1 where his  father1 a man
 of intellect and piety1 held a small   
farm4 ,showing early  ability he was    
intended for the ,kirk1 and educated at 
the ,university  of ,edinburgh4 ,he1    
however1 became a tutor1 and occupied   
his leisure  in translating from the    
,german4 ,he married ,jane ,welsh #ag   
,oct4 #ahbf1  and wrote in the ,london  
,magazine and ,edinburgh ,review many   
masterly  critical articles1 notably on 
,voltaire1 ,diderot1 ,burns1 and ,german
  literature4 ,in #ahcc-d his ,sartor   
,resartus appeared in ,fraser's         
,magazine4 ,in '#cd he removed to       
,london and began writing the ,french   
,revolution1 the ,,ms4 of the first vol4
 of which he confided to ,mill1  with   
whom it was accidentally burnt4 ,he     
re-wrote the work without  complaint1   

and it was published in '#cg4 ,he then  
delivered a course  of lectures on      
,german ,literature and on ,heroes1     
,hero-,worship1 and  the ,heroic in     
,history1 in which he treats ,mahomet as
 the prophet  we are freest to speak of4
 ,his ,past and ,present was published  
in  '#dc4 ,in '#de appeared ,oliver     
,cromwell's ,letters and ,speeches4 ,in 
'#ej he published ,latter-,day          
,pamphlets1 which contains his most     
distinctive political and social        
doctrines1 and in the following year    
his ,life of ,john ,sterling1 in which  
his heresy clearly appears4 ,his        
largest work is his ,history of the     
,life and ,times of ,frederick the      
,great1 in #aj vols4 ,he was elected    
rector of ,edinburgh ,university in     
'#fe4 ,died #e ,feb4 #ahha4 ,mr4        
,froude1 in his ,biography of ,carlyle1 
says1  ,we have seen him confessing to  
,irving that he did not believe as his  
friend did in the ,christian religion4  
444 the special miraculous  occurrences 

of sacred history were not credible to  
him4    ,carneades1 sceptical           
philosopher1 b4 ,cyrene about ,b4,c4    
#bac4 ,he went  early to ,athens1 and   
attended the lectures of the ,stoics1   
learning  logic from ,diogenes4 ,in the 
year #aee1 he was chosen with other     
deputies to go to ,rome to deprecate a  
fine which had been placed on  the      
,athenians4 ,during his stay at ,rome he
 attracted great attention  by his      
philosophical orations4 ,carneades      
attacked the very idea of  a ,god at    
once infinite and an individual4 ,he    
denied providence and  design4 ,many of 
his arguments are preserved in ,cicero's
 ,academics  and ,de ,natura ,deorum4   
,carneades left no written works2 his   
views  seem to have been systematised by
 his follower ,clitomachus4 ,he died    
,b4,c4 #abi4 ,carneades is described as 
a man of unwearied industry4 ,his       
ethics were of elevated character4      
,carneri 7,bartholomus von71 ,german    
writer1 b4 ,trieste1 #c  ,nov4 #ahba4   

,educated at ,vienna4 ,in #ahgj he sat  
in the ,austrian  ,parliament with the  
,liberals4 ,author of an able work on   
,morality and  ,darwinism1 ,vienna1     
#ahga4 ,has also written ,der ,mensch   
als ,selbstweck1  ,humanity as its own  
proper object1 #ahgg2 ,grundlegung der  
,ethik1  ,foundation of ,morals1 #ahha2 
and ,ethical ,essays on ,evolution and  
,happiness1 ,stuttgart1 #ahhf4    ,carra
 7,jean ,louis71 ,french man of letters 
and ,republican1 b4 #agdc at  ,pont de  
,veyle4 ,he travelled in ,germany1      
,italy1 ,turkey1 ,russia1 and           
,moldavia1 where he became secretary to 
the hospodar4 ,on returning to  ,france 
he became employed in the ,king's       
library and wrote a ,history  of        
,moldavia and an ,essay on ,aerial      
,navigation4 ,he warmly espoused  the   
revolution and was one of the most      
ardent orators of the ,jacobin  club4   
,in the ,national ,assembly he voted for
 the death of ,louis ,,xvi41  but was   
executed with the ,girondins1 #ca ,oct4 

#agic4 ,his ,freethought  sentiments are
 evident from his ,system of ,reason1   
#aggc2 his ,spirit  of ,morality and    
,philosophy1 #aggg2 ,new ,principles of 
,physic1 #aghb-c1  and other works4     
,carrel 7,jean ,baptiste ,nicolas       
,armand71 called by ,saint ,beuve the   
,junius of the ,french press1 b4 ,rouen1
 #h ,may1 #ahjj4 ,he became a  soldier1 
but1 being a ,republican1 fought on     
behalf of the ,spanish  revolution4     
,being taken prisoner1 he was condemned 
to death1 but  escaped through some     
informality4 ,he became secretary to    
,thierry1  edited the works of ,p4 ,l4  
,courier1 and established the ,nation in
  conjunction with ,thiers and ,mignet4 
,j4 ,s4 ,mill writes of him in terms  of
 high praise4 ,the leading journalist of
 his time1 his slashing  articles led to
 several duels1 and in an encounter with
 ,emile de  ,girardin 7#bb ,july1 #ahcf7
 he was fatally wounded4 ,on his        
death-bed1  says ,m4 ,littr1 he said    
,point de prtres1 point d'glise--no     

priests nor church4 ,died #bd ,july1    
#ahcf4 ,he wrote a ,history of the      
,counter-,revolution in ,england1 with  
an eye to events in his own  country4   
,carus 7,julius ,viktor71 ,german       
zoologist1 b4 ,leipsic1 #be ,aug4 #ahbe4
 ,has  been keeper of anatomical museum 
at ,oxford1 and has translated ,darwin's
  works and the philosophy of ,g4 ,h4   
,lewes4    ,carus 7,karl ,gustav71      
,german physiologist and ,pantheist1 b4 
,leipsic1  #c ,jan4 #aghi4 ,he taught   
comparative anatomy at the university of
 that  town1 and published a standard   
introduction to that subject4 ,he also  
wrote ,psyche1 a history of the         
development of the human soul1 #ahdf1   
and ,nature and ,idea1 #ahfa4 ,died at  
,dresden1 #bh ,july1 #ahfi4    ,castelar
 y ,ripoll 7,emilio71 ,spanish          
statesman1 b4 ,cadiz1  #h ,sept4 #ahcb4 
,he began as a journalist1 and became   
known by his  novel ,ernesto1 #ahee4 ,as
 professor of history and philosophy1 he
  delivered lectures on ,civilisation   

during the first three centuries of     
,christendom4 ,la ,formula del          
,progresso contains a sketch of         
democratic  principles4 ,on the outbreak
 of the revolution of '#fh he advocated 
a ,federal ,republic in a magnificent   
oration4 ,the ,crown was however        
offered to ,amadeus of ,savoy4 ,glass1  
with care1 was ,castelar's verdict  on  
the new dynasty1 and in ,feb4 '#gc      
,castelar drew up a ,republican         
,constitution2 and for a year was       
,dictator of ,spain4 ,upon his          
retirement  to ,france he wrote a       
sketchy ,history of the ,republican     
,movement in  ,europe4 ,in '#gf he      
returned to ,spain and took part in the 
,cortes1  where he has continued to     
advocate ,republican views4 ,his ,old   
,rome and  ,new ,italy1 and ,life of    
,lord ,byron have been translated into  
,english4    ,castelli 7,david71        
,italian writer1 b4 ,livorno1 #cj ,dec4 
#ahcf4 ,since  #ahgc he has held the    
chair of ,hebrew in the ,institute of   

,superior  ,studies at ,florence4 ,he   
has translated the book of ,ecclesiastes
 with  notes1 and written rationalistic 
works on ,talmudic ,legends1 #ahfi2     
,the ,messiah ,according to the         
,hebrews1 '#gd2 the ,bible ,prophets1   
'#hb2  and ,the ,history of the         
,israelites1 #ahhg4    ,castilhon 7,jean
 ,louis71 ,french man of letters1 b4 at 
,toulouse in  #agbj4 ,he wrote in       
numerous publications1 and edited the   
,journal of  ,jurisprudence4 ,his       
history of dogmas and philosophical     
opinions had  some celebrity1 and he    
shows himself a ,freethinker in his     
,essay  on ,ancient and ,modern ,errors 
and ,superstitions1 ,amsterdam1 #agfe2  
his ,philosophical ,almanack1 #agfg2 and
 his ,history of ,philosophical         
,opinions1 #agfi4 ,died #agic4          
,cattell 7,christopher ,charles71 writer
 in ,english ,secular journals1  author 
of ,search for the ,first ,man2 ,against
 ,christianity2 ,the ,religion  of this 
,life1 etc4    ,caumont 7,georges71     

,french writer of genius1 b4 about      
#ahde4 ,suffering  from consumption1 he 
wrote ,judgment of a ,dying ,man upon   
,life1  and humorous and familiar       
,conversations of a ,sick ,person with  
the  ,divinity4 ,died at ,madeira1      
#ahge4    ,cavalcante 7,guido71 noble   
,italian poet and philosopher1 b4       
,florence1  #abcj4 ,a friend of ,dante1 
and a leader of the ,ghibbelin party4   
,he  married a daughter of ,farinata    
delgi ,uberti4 ,bayle says1 it is said  
his speculation has as their aim to     
prove there is no ,god4 ,dante places   
his father in the hell of ,epicureans1  
who denied the immortality of  the soul4
 ,guido died in #acjj4 ,an edition of   
his poems was published  in #ahac4      
,cavallotti 7,felice ,carlo ,emanuel71  
,italian poet and journalist1  b4       
,milan1 #f ,nov4 #ahdb1 celebrated for  
his patriotic poems2 is a  pronounced   
,atheist4 ,he was elected member of the 
,italian parliament  in #ahgc4    ,cayla
 7,jean ,mamert71 ,french man of letters

 and politician b4 ,vigan  7,lot7 #ahab4
 ,became in '#cg editor of the          
,emancipator of ,toulouse1  a city of   
which he wrote the history4 ,at ,paris  
he wrote to the  ,sicle1 the ,rpublique 
,franaise and other journals1 and       
published  ,european ,celebrities and   
numerous anti-clerical brochures1 such  
as  ,the ,clerical ,conspiracy1 '#fa2   
,the ,devil1 his ,grandeur and ,decay1  
'#fd2 ,hell ,demolished1 '#fe2          
,suppression of ,religious ,orders1     
'#gj2  and ,the ,history of the         
,mass1'#gd4 ,he died #b ,may1 #ahgg4    
,cazelles 7,emile71 ,french translator  
of ,bentham's ,influence of ,natural    
,religion1 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,has also     
translated ,mill's ,subjection of ,women
  and his ,autobiography and ,essays on 
,religion4    ,cecco d',ascoli1 i4e41   
,stabili 7,francesco degli71 ,italian   
poet1  b4 ,ascoli1 #abeg4 ,he taught    
astrology and philosophy at ,bologna4   
,in  #acbd he was arrested by the       
,inquisition for having spoken against  

the  faith1 and was condemned to fine   
and penitence4 ,he was again accused  at
 ,florence1 and was publicly burnt as an
 heretic #af ,sept4 #acbg4 ,his  best   
known work is entitled ,acerba1 a sort  
of encyclopdia in rhyme4    ,cellarius  
7,martin71 ,anabaptist1 who deserves    
mention as the first  avowed ,protestant
 ,anti-trinitarian4 ,he studied         
,oriental languages  with ,reuchlin and 
,melancthon1 but having discussed with  
,anabaptists  acknowledged himself      
converted1 #aebb1 and afterwards gave up
 the deity  of ,christ4 ,he was         
imprisoned1 and on his release went to  
,switzerland1  where he died #aa ,oct4  
#aefd4    ,celsus1 a ,pagan philosopher1
 who lived in the second century4 ,he   
was  a friend of ,lucian1 who dedicated 
to him his treatise on the ,false       
,prophet4 ,he wrote an attack on        
,christianity1 called ,the ,true ,word4 
,the  work was destroyed by the early   
,christians4 ,the passages given by  his
 opponent1 ,origen1 suffice to show that

 he was a man of high  attainments1 well
 acquainted with the religion he        
attacked1 and that  his power of logic  
and irony was most damaging to the      
,christian faith4    ,cerutti 7,giuseppe
 ,antonio ,gioachino71 poet1 converted  
,jesuit1  b4 ,turin1 #ac ,june1 #agch4  
,he became a ,jesuit1 and wrote a       
defence of  the ,society4 ,he afterwards
 became a friend of ,mirabeau1 adopted  
the  principles of #aghi1 wrote in      
defence of the ,revolution1 and wrote   
and published a ,philosophical          
,breviary1 or history of ,judaism1      
,christianity1 and ,deism1 which he     
attributed to ,frederick of  ,prussia4  
,his opinions may also be gathered from 
his poem1 ,les ,jardins  de ,betz1      
#agib4 ,died ,paris1 #c ,feb4 #agib4    
,chaho 7,j4 ,augustin71 ,basque man of  
letters1 b4 ,tardets1  ,basses-,pyrnes1 
#aj ,oct4 #ahaa4 ,his principal works   
are a ,philosophy of  ,comparative      
,religion1 and a ,basque dictionary4 ,at
 ,bayonne he edited  the ,ariel4 ,in    

#aheb this was suppressed and he was    
exiled4 ,died #bc  ,oct4 #aheh4         
,chaloner 7,thomas71 ,m4,p41 ,regicide1 
b4 ,steeple ,claydon1 ,bucks1  #aeie4   
,educated at ,oxford1 he became member  
for ,richmond 7,yorks71  #afde4 ,was a  
witness against ,archbishop ,laud1 and  
one of ,king ,charles's  ,judges4 ,in   
#afea he was made ,councillor of ,state4
 ,wood says he was as  far from being a 
,puritan as the east is from the west1  
and that he  was of the natural         
religion4 ,he wrote a pretended ,true   
and ,exact  ,relation of the ,finding of
 ,moses ,his ,tomb1 #afeg1 being a      
satire  directed against the            
,presbyterians4 ,upon the ,restoration  
he fled to  the ,low ,countries1 and    
died at ,middelburg1 ,zeeland1 in #affa4
    ,chambers 7,ephraim71 originator of 
the ,cyclopdia of ,arts and ,sciences1  
b4 ,kendal about #afhj4 ,the first      
edition of his work appeared in #agbh1  
and procured him admission to the ,royal
 ,society4 ,a ,french translation  gave 

rise to ,diderot and ,d',alembert's     
,encyclopdie4 ,chambers also  edited the
 ,literary ,magazine1 #ahcf1 etc4 ,his  
infidel opinions were  well known1 and  
the ,cyclopdia was placed upon the      
,index1 but he was  buried in the       
cloisters of ,westminster ,abbey4 ,died 
#ae ,may1 #agdj4    ,chamfort 7,sbastien
 ,roch ,nicolas71 ,french man of        
letters1 b4 in  ,auvergne1 near         
,clermont1 #agda4 ,he knew no parent but
 his mother1  a peasant girl1 to supply 
whose wants he often denied himself     
necessaries4 ,at ,paris he gained a     
prize from the ,academy for his  eulogy 
on ,molire4 ,about #aggf he published a 
,dramatic ,dictionary  and wrote several
 plays4 ,in #agha he obtained a seat in 
the ,academy1  being patronised by ,mme4
 ,helvetius4 ,he became a friend of     
,mirabeau1  who called him une tte      
lectrique4 ,in #agij he commenced a work
 called  ,pictures of the ,revolution4  
,in the following year he became        
secretary  of the ,jacobin ,club and    

,national ,librarian4 ,arrested by      
,robespierre1  he desperately1 but      
vainly1 endeavored to commit suicide4   
,he died #ac  ,april1 #agid1 leaving    
behind numerous works and a collection  
of ,maxims1  ,thoughts1 ,characters1 and
 ,anecdotes1 which show profound genius 
and  knowledge of human nature4         
,chapman 7,john71 ,m4,r4,c4,s41 b4      
#ahci4 ,has written largely in the      
,westminster ,review1 of which he is    
proprietor4    ,chappellsmith           
7,margaret71 ne ,reynolds1 b4 ,aldgate1 
#bb ,feb4 #ahjf4 ,early  in life she    
read the writings of ,cobbett4 ,in '#cf 
she began writing  political articles in
 the ,dispatch1 and afterwards became a 
,socialist  and ,freethought lecturess4 
,she married ,john ,chappellsmith in    
'#ci1  and in '#db she began business as
 a bookseller4 ,in '#cg she expressed  a
 preference for the development theory  
before that of creation4 ,in  '#ej they 
emigrated to the ,united ,states1 where 
,mrs4 ,chappellsmith  contributed many  

articles to the ,boston ,investigator4  
,charles 7,rudolf74 ,see ,giessenburg4  
,charma 7,antoine71 ,french philosopher1
 b4 #ae ,jan4 #ahja4 ,in '#cj he was    
nominated to the ,chair of ,philosophy  
at ,caen4 ,he was denounced for  his    
impiety by the ,count de ,montalembert  
in the ,chamber of peers1  and an       
endeavor was made to unseat him4 ,he    
wrote many philosophical  works1 and an 
account of ,didron's ,histoire de ,dieu4
 ,died #e ,aug4 #ahfi4    ,charron      
7,pierre71 ,french priest and sceptic1  
b4 ,paris1 #aeac4 ,he was  an intimate  
friend of ,montaigne4 ,his principal    
work is a ,treatise on  ,wisdom1 #afja1 
which was censured as irreligious by the
 ,jesuits4 ,franck  says the scepticism 
of ,charron inclines visibly to         
'sensualisme'  and even to materialism4 
,died ,paris1 #af ,nov4 #afjc4          
,chasseboeuf de ,volney 7,constantin    
,franois74 ,see ,volney4    ,chastelet  
du or ,chatelet ,lomont 7,gabrielle     
,emilie le ,tonnelier de  ,breteuil71   

,marquise1 ,french savante1 b4 ,paris1  
#ag ,dec #agjf4 ,she was  learned in    
mathematics and other sciences1 and in  
,latin1 ,english  and ,italian4 ,in     
#agdj she published a work on physical  
philosophy  entitled ,institutions de   
,physique4 ,she afterwards made a good  
,french  translation of ,newton's       
,principia4 ,she lived some years with  
,voltaire  at ,cirey between #agce and  
#agdg1 and addressed to him ,doubts on  
,revealed  ,religions1 published in     
#agib4 ,she also wrote a ,treatise on   
,happiness1  which was praised by       
,condorcet4    ,chastellux 7,franois    
,jean de71 ,marquis4 ,a soldier1        
traveller and  writer1 b4 ,paris #agcd4 
,wrote ,on ,public ,happiness 7#b vols41
 ,amst4 #aggf71  a work ,voltaire       
esteemed highly4 ,he contributed to the 
,encyclopdie2  one article on           
,happiness1 being suppressed by the     
censor because  it did not mention ,god4
 ,died ,paris1 #bh ,oct4 #aghh4         
,chatterton 7,thomas71 the marvellous   

boy poet1 b4 ,bristol1 #bj ,nov1  #ageb4
 ,his poems1 which he pretended were    
written by one ,thomas ,rowley  in the  
fourteenth century and discovered by him
 in an old chest in  ,redcliffe ,church1
 attracted much attention4 ,in #agfi he 
visited ,london  in hopes of rising by  
his talents1 but after a bitter         
experience of  writing for the          
magazines1 destroyed himself in a fit of
 despair #be  ,aug4 #aggj4 ,several of  
his poems betray deistic opinions4      
,chaucer 7,geoffrey71 the morning star  
of ,english poetry and first  ,english  
,humanist1 b4 ,london about #acdj4 ,in  
#aceg he was attached to  the household 
of ,lionel1 third son of ,edward ,,iii4 
,he accompanied the  expedition to      
,france #acei-fj1 was captured by the   
,french1 and ransomed  by the king4 ,he 
was patronised by ,john of ,gaunt1 and  
some foreign  missions were entrusted to
 him1 one of them being to ,italy1 where
 he  met ,petrarch4 ,all his writings   
show the influence of the ,renaissance1 

and in his ,canterbury ,pilgrims he     
boldly attacks the vices of the         
ecclesiastics4 ,died #be ,oct4 #adjj1   
and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4  
,chaumette 7,pierre ,gaspard71          
afterwards ,anaxagoras1 ,french         
revolutionary1 b4 ,nevers1 #bd ,may1    
#agfc4 ,the son of a shoemaker1 he was  
in turn cabin boy1 steersman1 and       
attorney's clerk4 ,in early youth he    
received lessons in botany from         
,rousseau4 ,he embraced the revolution  
with ardor1 was the first to assume the 
tri-color cockade1 became  popular      
orator at the club of the ,cordeliers1  
and was associated with  ,proudhomme in 
the journal ,les ,revolutions de ,paris4
 ,nominated member  of the ,commune #aj 
,aug4 #agib1 he took the name of        
,anaxagoras to show  his little regard  
for his baptismal saints4 ,he was       
elected ,procureur  ,syndic1 in which   
capacity he displayed great activity4   
,he abolished  the rod in schools1      
suppressed lotteries1 instituted        

workshops for  fallen women1 established
 the first lying-in-hospital1 had books 
sent to the hospitals1 separated the    
insane from the sick1 founded  the      
,conservatory of ,music1 opened the     
public libraries every day  7under the  
ancien rgime they were only open two    
hours per week71  replaced books of     
superstition by works of morality and   
reason1 put  a graduated tax on the rich
 to provide for the burial of the poor1 
and was the principal mover in the      
feasts of ,reason and closing of  the   
churches4 ,he was accused by            
,robespierre of conspiring with ,cloots 
to efface all idea of the ,deity1 and   
was guillotined #ac ,april1 #agid4      
,chaussard 7,pierre ,jean ,baptiste71   
,french man of letters1 b4 ,paris1  #h  
,oct4 #agff4 ,at the ,revolution he took
 the name of ,publicola1 and  published 
patriotic odes1 ,esprit de ,mirabeau1   
and other works4 ,he was  preacher to   
the ,theophilanthropists1 and became    
professor of belles  lettres at         

,orleans4 ,died #i ,jan4 #ahbc4         
,chemin-,dupontes 7,jean ,baptiste71 b4 
#agfa4 ,one of the founders of  ,french 
,theophilanthropy2 published many       
writings1 the best known of  which is   
entitled ,what is ,theophilanthropy8    
,chenier 7,marie ,andr de71 ,french     
poet1 b4 ,constantinople1 #bi  ,oct4    
#agfb4 ,his mother1 a ,greek1 inspired  
him with a love for ancient  ,greek     
literature4 ,sent to college at ,paris1 
he soon manifested his  genius by       
writing eclogues and elegies of antique 
simplicity and  sensibility4 ,in #aghg  
he came to ,england as ,secretary of    
,legation4 ,he  took part in the legal  
defence of ,louis ,,xvi41 eulogised     
,charlotte  ,corday1 and gave further   
offence by some letters in the ,journal 
de  ,paris4 ,he was committed to prison1
 and here met his ideal in the          
,comtesse de ,coigny4 ,confined in the  
same prison1 to her he addressed  the   
touching verses1 ,the ,young ,captive   
7,la jeune ,captive74 ,he was  executed 

#be ,july1 #agid1 leaving behind1 among 
other poems1 an imitation  of           
,lucretius1 entitled ,hermes1 which     
warrants the affirmation of de          
,chnedolle1 that ,andr ,chnier tait athe
 avec dlices4    ,chenier 7,marie       
,joseph de71 ,french poet and           
miscellaneous writer1  brother of the   
preceding1 b4 ,constantinople1 #bh ,aug4
 #agfd4 ,he served  two years in the    
army1 and then applied himself to       
literature4 ,his  first successful      
drama1 ,charles ,,ix41 was produced in  
#aghi1 and was  followed by others4 ,he 
wrote many patriotic songs1 and was made
 member  of the ,convention4 ,he was a  
,voltairean1 and in his ,nouveaux       
,saints  7#ahja7 satirised those who    
returned to the old faith4 ,he wrote    
many  poems and an account of ,french   
literature4 ,died ,paris1 #aj ,jan4     
#ahaa4    ,chernuishevsky or            
,tchernycheiosky 7,nikolai              
,gerasimovich71  ,russian ,nihilist1 b4 
,saratof1 #ahbi4 ,educated at the       

,university of  ,st4 ,petersburg1       
translated ,mill's ,political ,economy1 
and wrote on  ,superstition and the     
,principles of ,logic1 '#ei4 ,his bold  
romance1  ,what is to be ,done8 was     
published '#fc4 ,in the following year  
he was  sentenced to the ,siberian      
mines1 where1 after heartrending        
cruelties1  he has become insane4       
,chesneau ,du ,marsais 7,csar74 ,see    
,dumarsais4    ,chevalier 7,joseph      
,philippe71 ,french chemist1 b4 ,saint  
,pol1 #ba ,march1  #ahjf1 is the author 
of an able book on ,the ,soul from the  
standpoint  of ,reason and ,science1    
,paris1 '#fa4 ,he died at ,amiens in    
#ahfe4    ,chies y ,gomez 7,ramon71     
,spanish ,freethinker1 b4 ,medina de    
,pomar1  ,burgos1 #ac ,oct4 #ahde4 ,his 
father1 a distinguished ,republican1    
educated him without religion4 ,in '#fe 
,chies went to ,madrid1 and  followed a 
course of law and philosophy at the     
,university1 and soon  after wrote for a
 ,madrid paper ,la ,discusion4 ,he took 

an active part  in the ,revolution of   
'#fe1 and at the proclamation of the    
,republic1  '#gc1 became civil governor 
of ,valencia4 ,in '#ha he founded a     
newspaper  ,el ,voto ,nacional1 and     
since '#hc has edited ,las ,dominicales 
del ,libre  ,pensamiento1 which he also 
founded4 ,ramon ,chies is one of the    
foremost  ,freethought champions in     
,spain and lectures as well as writes4  
,child 7,lydia ,maria7 ne ,francis1     
,american authoress1 b4 ,medford1       
,mass41  #aa ,feb4 #ahjb4 ,she early    
commenced writing1 publishing ,hobomok1 
a ,tale  of ,early ,times1 in '#ba4     
,from '#be she kept a private school in 
,watertown  until '#bh1 when she married
 ,david ,lee ,child1 a ,boston lawyer4  
,she1 with  him1 edited the             
,anti-,slavery ,standard1 '#da1 etc41   
and by her numerous  writings did much  
to form the opinion which ultimately    
prevailed4 ,she  was1 however1 long     
subjected to public odium1 her          
heterodoxy being well  known4 ,her      

principal work is ,the ,progress of     
,religious ,ideas1 #c vols42  '#ee4     
,died ,wayland1 ,mass41 #bj ,oct4 #ahhj4
 ,she was highly eulogised by  ,wendell 
,phillips4    ,chilton 7,william71 of   
,bristol1 was born in #ahae4 ,in early  
life he was  a bricklayer1 but in '#da  
he was concerned with ,charles          
,southwell in  starting the ,oracle of  
,reason1 which he set up in type1 and of
 which  he became one of the editors4   
,he contributed some thoughtful articles
  on the ,theory of ,development to the 
,library of ,reason1 and wrote in  the  
,movement and the ,reasoner4 ,died at   
,bristol1 #bh ,may1 #ahee4    ,chubb    
7,thomas71 ,english ,deist1 b4 ,east    
,harnham1 near ,salisbury1 #bi  ,sept4  
#afgi1 was one of the first to show     
,rationalism among the common  people4  
,beginning by contending for the        
,supremacy of the ,father1 he  gradually
 relinquished supernatural religion1 and
 considered that ,jesus  ,christ was of 
the religion of ,thomas ,chubb4 ,died #h

 ,feb4 #agdg1 leaving  behind two vols4 
which he calls ,a ,farewell to his      
,readers1 from which  it appears that he
 rejected both revelation and special   
providence4    ,church 7,henry ,tyrell71
 lecturer and writer1 edited ,tallis's  
,shakespeare1 wrote ,woman and her      
,failings1 #aheh1 and contributed to    
the ,investigator when edited by ,mr4   
,bradlaugh4 ,died #ai ,july1 #ahei4     
,clapiers 7,luc de74 ,see ,vauvenargues4
    ,claretie 7,jules ,armand ,arsne71  
,french writer1 b4 ,limoges1 #c  ,dec4  
#ahdj4 ,a prolific writer1 of whose     
works we only cite ,free ,speech1  '#fh2
 his biographies of contemporary        
celebrities2 and his work ,camille      
,desmoulins1 '#ge4    ,clarke 7,john71  
brought up in the ,methodist connection1
 changed his  opinion by studying the   
,bible1 and became one of ,carlile's    
shopmen4 ,he  was tried #aj ,june1      
#ahbd1 for selling a blasphemous libel  
in number #ag1  vol4 ix41 of ,the       
,republican1 and after a spirited       

defence1 in which  he read many of the  
worst passages in the ,bible1 was       
sentenced to  three years' imprisonment1
 and to find securities for good        
behavior  during life4 ,he wrote while  
in prison1 ,a ,critical ,review of the  
,life1  ,character1 and ,miracles of    
,jesus1 a work showing with some        
bitterness  much bold criticism and     
,biblical knowledge4 ,it first appeared 
in the  ,newgate ,magazine and was      
afterwards published in book form1 #ahbe
 and  '#ci4    ,clarke 7,marcus71       
,australian writer1 b4 ,kensington1     
#ahdg4 ,went to  ,victoria1 '#fc2 joined
 the staff of ,melbourne ,argus4 ,in    
'#gf was made  assistant librarian of   
the ,public ,library4 ,he has compiled a
 history of  ,australia1 and written    
,the ,peripatetic ,philosopher 7a series
 of clever  sketches71 ,his ,natural    
,life 7a powerful novel71 and some      
poems4 ,an able  ,freethought paper1    
,civilisation without ,delusion1 in the 
,victoria  ,review1 ,nov4 '#gi1 was     

replied to by ,bishop ,moorhouse4 ,the  
reply1 with  ,clarke's answer1 which was
 suppressed1 was published in '#hj4     
,died #ahhd4    ,claude-,constant1      
author of a ,freethinkers' ,catechism   
published at  ,paris in #ahge4          
,clavel 7,adolphe71 ,french ,positivist 
and physician1 b4 ,grenoble1  #ahae4 ,he
 has written on the ,principles of      
#aghi1 on those of the  nineteenth      
century1 on ,positive ,morality1 and    
some educational works4    ,clavel 7,f4 
,t4 ,b471 ,french author of a           
,picturesque ,history of  ,freemasonry1 
and also a ,picturesque ,history of     
,religions1 #ahdd1  in which            
,christianity takes a subordinate place4
    ,clayton 7,robert71 successively    
,bishop of ,killala1 ,cork1 and         
,clogher1  b4 ,dublin1 #afie4 ,by his   
benevolence attracted the friendship of 
,samuel ,clarke1 and adopted ,arianism1 
which he maintained in several          
publications4 ,in #agef he proposed1 in 
the ,irish ,house of ,lords1 the        

omission of the ,nicene and ,athanasian 
,creeds from the ,liturgy1 and  stated  
that he then felt more relieved in his  
mind than for twenty  years before4 ,a  
legal prosecution was instituted1 but he
 died1 it  is said1 from nervous        
agitation 7#bf ,feb4 #ageh7 before the  
matter  was decided4    ,cleave 7,john71
 bookseller1 and one of the pioneers of 
a cheap  political press4 ,started the  
,london ,satirist1 and ,cleave's ,penny 
,gazette of ,variety1 ,oct4 #ad1 #ahcg1 
to ,jan4 #bj1 '#dd4 ,he published  many 
,chartist and ,socialistic works1 and an
 abridgment of ,howitt's  ,history of   
,priestcraft4 ,in ,may1 '#dj1 he was    
sentenced to four months'  imprisonment 
for selling ,haslam's ,letters to the   
,clergy4    ,clemenceau 7,georges       
,benjamin ,eugene71 ,french politician1 
b4 ,moulleron-en-,pareds1 #bh ,sept4    
#ahda4 ,educated at ,nantes and ,paris1 
he took his doctor's degree in '#fe4    
,his activity as ,republican  ensured   
him a taste of gaol4 ,he visited the    

,united ,states and acted  as           
correspondent on the ,temps4 ,he        
returned at the time of the war  and was
 elected deputy to the ,assembly4 ,in   
,jan4 #ahhj he founded ,la  ,justice1   
having as collaborateurs ,m4 ,c4        
,pelletan1 ,prof4 ,acollas and  ,dr4 ,c4
 ,letourneau4 ,as one of the chiefs of  
the ,radical party he was  largely      
instrumental in getting ,m4 ,carnot     
elected ,president4    ,clemetshaw      
7,c471 ,french writer1 using the name   
,cilwa4 ,b4 #ad ,sept4 #ahfd  of        
,english parents2 has contributed to    
many journals1 was delegate to  the     
,international ,congress1 ,london1 of   
'#hg1 and is editor of ,le ,danton4     
,clemens 7,samuel ,langhorne71 ,american
 humorist1 better known as  ,mark       
,twain1 b4 ,florida1 ,missouri1 #cj     
,nov4 #ahce4 ,in '#ee he served  as     
,mississippi pilot1 and takes his pen   
name from the phrase used  in sounding4 
,in ,innocents ,abroad1 or the ,new     
,pilgrim's ,progress1  '#fi1 by which he

 made his name1 there is much jesting   
with sacred  subjects4 ,mr4 ,clemens is 
an ,agnostic4    ,clifford 7,martin71   
,english ,rationalist4 ,was ,master of  
the ,charterhouse1  #afga1 and published
 anonymously a treatise of ,human       
,reason1 ,london1  '#gd1 which was      
reprinted in the following year with the
 author's  name4 ,a short while after   
its publication ,laney1 ,bishop of ,ely1
 was  dining in ,charterhouse and       
remarked1 not knowing the author1 'twas 
no  matter if all the copies were burnt 
and the author with them1 because  it   
made every man's private fancy judge of 
religion4 ,clifford died #aj  ,dec4     
#afgg4 ,in the ,nouvelle ,biographie    
,gnrale ,clifford is amusingly          
described as an ,english theologian of  
the order des ,chartreux1 who1  it is   
added1 was prior of his order4          
,clifford 7,william ,kingdon71          
mathematician1 philosopher1 and         
moralist1  of rare originality and      
boldness1 b4 ,exeter #d ,may1 #ahde4 ,at

 the age  of fifteen he was sent to     
,king's ,college1 ,london1 where he     
showed an  early genius for mathematics1
 publishing the ,analogues of ,pascal's 
,theorem at the age of eighteen4        
,entered ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 
in '#fc4 ,in '#fg he was second         
wrangler4 ,elected fellow of his        
college1  he remained at ,cambridge till
 #ahgj1 when he accompanied the eclipse 
expedition to the ,mediterranean4 ,the  
next year he was appointed  ,professor  
of mathematics at ,london ,university1 a
 post he held till  his death4 ,he was  
chosen ,f4,r4,s4 '#gd4 ,married ,miss   
,lucy ,lane in ,april1  '#ge4 ,in the   
following year symptoms of consumption  
appeared1 and he  visited ,algeria and  
,spain4 ,he resumed work1 but in '#gi   
took a voyage to  ,madeira1 where he    
died #c ,march4 ,not long before his    
death appeared the  first volume of his 
great mathematical work1 ,elements of   
,dynamic4 ,since  his death have been   
published ,the ,common ,sense of the    

,exact ,sciences1  and ,lectures and    
,essays1 in two volumes1 edited by      
,leslie ,stephen and  ,mr4 ,f4 ,pollock4
 ,these volumes include his most        
striking ,freethought  lectures and     
contributions to the ,fortnightly and   
other reviews4 ,he  intended to form    
them into a volume on ,the ,creed of    
,science4 ,clifford  was an outspoken   
,atheist1 and he wrote of ,christianity 
as a religion  which wrecked one        
civilisation and very nearly wrecked    
another4    ,cloots or ,clootz 7,johann 
,baptist1 afterwards ,anacharsis7 ,baron
 du ,val  de ,grce1 ,prussian           
enthusiast1 b4 near ,cleves1 #bd ,june1 
#agee1 was a  nephew of ,cornelius de   
,pauw4 ,in #aghj he published the ,the  
,certainty  of the ,proofs of           
,mohammedanism1 under the pseudonym of  
,ali-gier-ber1  an anagram of ,bergier1 
whose ,certainty of the ,proofs of      
,christianity  he parodies4 ,he         
travelled widely1 but became a resident 
of ,paris  and a warm partisan of the   

,revolution1 to which he devoted his    
large  fortune4 ,he wrote a reply to    
,burke1 and continually wrote and spoke 
in favor of a ,universal ,republic4 ,on 
#ai ,june1 #agij1 he1 at the head  of   
men of all countries1 asked a place at  
the feast of ,federation1  and          
henceforward was styled orator of the   
human race4 ,he was1 with  ,paine1      
,priestley1 ,washington and ,klopstock1 
made a ,french citizen1  and in #agib   
was elected to the ,convention by two   
departments4 ,he  debaptised himself1   
taking the name ,anacharsis1 was a prime
 mover  in the ,anti-,catholic party1   
and induced ,bishop ,gobel to resign4   
,he  declared there was no other ,god   
but ,nature4 ,incurring the enmity of   
,robespierre1 he and ,paine were        
arrested as foreigners4 ,after two  and 
a half months' imprisonment at ,st4     
,lazare1 he was brought to  the scaffold
 with the ,hbertistes1 #bd ,march1      
#agid4 ,he died calmly1  uttering       
materialist sentiments to the last4     

,clough 7,arthur ,hugh71 poet1 b4       
,liverpool1 #a ,jan4 #ahai4 ,he was     
educated at ,rugby1 under ,dr4 ,arnold1 
and at ,oxford1 where he showed  himself
 of the ,broad ,school4 ,leslie ,stephen
 says1 ,he never became  bitter against 
the ,church of his childhood1 but he    
came to regard its  dogmas as imperfect 
and untenable4 ,in '#dh he visited      
,paris1 and the  same year produced his 
,bothie of ,toper-na-,fuosich3 a        
,long-,vacation  ,pastoral4 ,between    
'#di and '#eb he was professor of       
,english literature  in ,london         
,university4 ,in '#eb he visited the    
,united ,states1 where  he gained the   
friendship of ,emerson and ,longfellow1 
and revised  the ,dryden translation of 
,plutarch's ,lives4 ,died at ,florence1 
#ac  ,nov4 #ahfa4 ,his ,remains are     
published in two volumes1 and include   
an essay on ,religious ,tradition and   
some notable poems4 ,he is the  ,thyrsis
 of ,matthew ,arnold's exquisite        
,monody4    ,cnuzius 7,matthias74 ,see  

,knutzen4    ,coke 7,henry71 author of  
,creeds of the ,day1 or collated        
opinions of  reputable thinkers1 in #b  
vols1 ,london1 #ahhc4    ,cole 7,peter71
 a tanner of ,ipswich1 was burnt for    
blasphemy in the  castle ditch1         
,norwich1 #aehg4 ,a ,dr4 ,beamond       
preached to him before the  mayor1      
sheriffs1 and aldermen1 but he would not
 recant4 ,see ,hamont4    ,colenso      
7,john ,william71 b4 #bd ,jan4 #ahad4   
,was educated at ,st4 ,john's1          
,cambridge1 and became a master at      
,harrow4 ,after acquiring fame by his   
valuable ,treatise on ,algebra1 '#di1 he
 became first ,bishop of ,natal1  '#ed4 
,besides other works1 he published ,the 
,pentateuch and ,book of  ,joshua       
,critically ,examined1 #ahfb-gi1 which  
made a great stir1 and  was condemned by
 both ,houses of ,convocation and its   
author declared  deposed4 ,the ,privy   
,council1 ,march '#fe1 declared this    
deposition  null and void in law4       
,colenso pleaded the cause of the       

natives at  the time of the ,zulu ,war4 
,he died #bj ,june1 #ahhc4    ,colins   
7,jean ,guillaume ,csar ,alexandre      
,hippolyte7 ,baron de1  ,belgian        
,socialist and founder of ,collectivism1
 b4 ,brussels1 #bd  ,dec4 #aghc4 ,author
 of nineteen volumes on ,social         
,science4 ,he denied  alike ,monotheism 
and ,pantheism1 but taught the natural  
immortality of  the soul4 ,died at      
,paris1 #ab ,nov4 #ahei4 ,a number of   
disciples propagate  his opinions in the
 ,philosophie de l',avenir4    ,collins 
7,anthony71 ,english ,deist1 b4 ,heston1
 ,middlesex1 #ba ,june1  #afgf4 ,he     
studied at ,cambridge and afterwards at 
the ,temple1 and  became ,justice of the
 ,peace and ,treasurer of the ,county of
 ,essex4 ,he  was an intimate friend of 
,locke1 who highly esteemed him and made
  him his executor4 ,he wrote an ,essay 
on ,reason1 #agjg2 ,priestcraft  in     
,perfection1 #agaj2 a ,vindication of   
the ,divine ,attributes1 and a          
,discourse on ,freethinking1 #agac4     

,this last occasioned a great outcry1   
as it argued that all belief must be    
based on free inquiry1 and  that the use
 of reason would involve the abandonment
 of supernatural  revelation4 ,in #agai 
he published ,an ,inquiry ,concerning   
,human ,liberty1  a brief1 pithy defence
 of necessitarianism1 and in #agbi ,a   
,discourse  on ,liberty and ,necessity4 
,in #agbd appeared his ,discourse on the
  ,grounds and ,reasons of the          
,christian ,religion1 and this was      
followed  by ,the ,scheme of ,literal   
,prophecy ,considered1 #agbf4 ,he was a 
skilful  disputant1 and wrote with great
 ability4 ,he is also credited with ,a  
,discourse ,concerning ,ridicule and    
,irony in ,writing4 ,died at ,london1   
#ac ,dec4 #agbi4 ,collins1 says ,mr4    
,leslie ,stephen1 appears to have been  
an amiable and upright man1 and to have 
made all readers welcome to  the use of 
a free library4 ,professor ,fraser calls
 him a remarkable  man1 praises his love
 of truth and moral courage1 and allows 

that in  answering ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke 
on the question of liberty and necessity
  he states the arguments against human 
freedom with a logical force            
unsurpassed by any necessitarian4 ,a    
similar testimony to ,collins as  a     
thinker and dialectician is borne by    
,professor ,huxley4    ,colman 7,lucy   
,n471 ,american reformer1 b4 #bf ,july1 
#ahag1 has spent  most of her life      
advocating the abolition of slavery1    
women's rights1  and ,freethought4 ,she 
has lectured widely1 written            
,reminisences in the  ,life of a        
,reformer of ,fifty ,years1 and         
contributed to the ,truthseeker  and    
,boston ,investigator4    ,colotes1 of  
,lampsacus1 a hearer and disciple of    
,epicurus1 with whom he  was a favorite4
 ,he wrote a work in favor of his       
master's teachings4 ,he  held it was    
unworthy of a philosopher to use fables4
    ,combe 7,abram71 one of a noted     
,scotch family of seventeen1 b4         
,edinburgh1  #ae ,jan4 #aghe4 ,he traded

 as a tanner1 but1 becoming acquainted  
with  ,robert ,owen1 founded a community
 at ,orbiston upon the principle of     
,owen's ,new ,lanark1 devoting nearly   
the whole of his large fortune  to the  
scheme4 ,but his health gave way and he 
died #aa ,aug4 #ahbg4 ,he  wrote        
,metaphysical ,sketches of the ,old and 
,new ,systems and other  works          
advocating ,owenism4    ,combe          
7,andrew71 physician1 brother of the    
above1 b4 ,edinburgh1  #bg ,oct4 #agig2 
studied there and in ,paris2 aided his  
brother ,george  in founding the        
,phrenological ,society2 wrote popular  
works on the  ,principles of ,physiology
 and the ,management of ,infancy4 ,died 
near  ,edinburgh1 #i ,aug4 #ahdg4       
,combe 7,george71 phrenologist and      
educationalist1 b4 ,edinburgh1  #ba     
,oct4 #aghh4 ,he was educated for the   
law4 ,became acquainted with            
,spurzheim1 and published ,essays on    
,phrenology1 #ahai1 and founded the     
,phrenological ,journal4 ,in '#bh he    

published the ,constitution of ,man1    
which excited great controversy         
especially for removing the chimeras of 
special providence and efficacy of      
prayer4 ,in '#cc he married a daughter  
of ,mrs4 ,siddons4 ,he visited the      
,united ,states and lectured on ,moral  
,philosophy and ,secular ,education4    
,his last work was ,the ,relations      
between ,science and ,religion1 '#eg1 in
 which he continued to uphold  ,secular 
,theism4 ,he also published many        
lectures and essays4 ,among his  friends
 were ,miss ,evans 7,george ,eliot71 who
 spent a fortnight with him  in '#eb4   
,he did more than any man of his time1  
save ,robert ,owen1 for the  cause of   
,secular education4 ,died at ,moor      
,park1 ,surrey1 #ad ,aug4 #aheh4        
,combes 7,paul71 ,french writer1 b4     
,paris1 #ac ,june1 #ahef4 ,has written  
on ,darwinism1 '#hc1 and other works    
popularising science4    ,commazzi      
7,gian-,battista71 ,count author of     
,politica e religione trovate  insieme  

nella persona di ,gies ,cristo1         
,nicopoli ,vienna #d vols41  #agjf-g1 in
 which he makes ,jesus to be a political
 impostor4 ,it was  rigorously          
confiscated at ,rome and ,vienna4       
,comparetti 7,domenico71 ,italian       
philologist1 b4 ,rome in #ahce4 ,signor 
,comparetti is ,professor at the        
,institute of ,superior ,studies1 ,rome1
  and has written many works on the     
classic writers1 in which he evinces    
his ,pagan partialities4    ,comte      
7,isidore ,auguste ,marie ,franois      
,xavier71 ,french philosopher1          
mathematician and reformer1 b4 at       
,montpelier1 #ab ,jan4 #agih4 ,educated 
at  ,paris in the ,polytechnic ,school1 
where he distinguished himself by his   
mathematical talent4 ,in #ahag he made  
the acquaintance of ,st4 ,simon1        
agreeing with him as to the necessity of
 a ,social renovation based  upon a     
mental revolution4 ,on the death of ,st4
 ,simon 7'#be7 ,comte  devoted himself  
to the elaboration of an original system

 of scientific  thought1 which1 in the  
opinion of some able judges1 entitles   
him to  be called the ,bacon of the     
nineteenth century4 ,mill speaks of him 
as  the superior of ,descartes and      
,leibniz4 ,in '#be he married1 but the  
union proved unhappy4 ,in the following 
year he lectured1 but broke  down under 
an attack of brain fever1 which         
occasioned his detention  in an asylum4 
,he speedily recovered1 and in '#bh     
resumed his lectures1  which were       
attended by men like ,humboldt1         
,ducrotay1 ,broussais1 ,carnot1  etc4   
,in '#cj he put forward the first       
volumes of his ,course of ,positive     
,philosophy1 which in '#db was completed
 by the publication of the sixth        
volume4 ,a condensed ,english version of
 this work was made by ,harriet         
,martineau1 '#ec4 ,in '#de ,comte formed
 a passionate ,platonic attachement  to 
,mme4 ,clotilde de ,vaux1 who died in   
the following year1 having  profoundely 
influenced ,comte's life4 ,in           

consequence of his opinions1  he lost   
his professorship1 and was supported by 
his disciples--,mill1  ,molesworth and  
,grote1 in ,england1 assisting4 ,among  
other works1 ,comte  published ,a       
,general ,view of ,positivism1 '#dh1    
translated by ,dr4 ,bridges1  '#fe2 ,a  
,system of ,positive ,polity1 '#ea1     
translated by ,drs4 ,bridges1  ,beesley1
 ,f4 ,harrison1 etc41 '#ge-gi2 and ,a   
,positive ,catechism1 '#ed1  translated 
by ,dr4 ,congreve1 '#eh4 ,he also wrote 
on ,positive ,logic1  which he intended 
to follow with ,positive ,morality and  
,positive  ,industrialism4 ,comte was a 
profound and suggestive thinker4 ,he    
resolutely sets aside all theology and  
metaphysics1 coordinates  the sciences  
and substitutes the service of man for  
the worship of  ,god4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,cotter  
,morison says ,he belonged to that small
 class  of rare minds1 whose errors are 
often more valuable and stimulating     
than other men's truths4 ,he died of    
cancer in the stomach at ,paris1  #e    

,sept4 #aheg4    ,condillac 7,etienne   
,bonnot de71 ,french philosopher1 b4    
,grenoble1  about #agae4 ,his life was  
very retired1 but his works show much   
acuteness4 ,they are in #bc vols41 the  
principal being ,a ,treatise on the     
,sensations1 #agfd2 ,a ,treatise on     
,animals1 and ,an ,essay on the ,origin 
of ,human ,knowledge4 ,in the           
first-named he shows that all mental    
life  is gradually built up out of      
simple sensations4 ,died #c ,aug4 #aghj4
    ,condorcet 7,marie ,jean ,antoine   
,nicolas ,caritat1 ,marquis de71        
,french philosopher and politician1 b4  
,ribemont1 ,picardy1 #ag  ,sept4 #agdc4 
,dedicated to the ,virgin by a pious    
mother1 he was kept  in girl's clothes  
until the age of #aa4 ,sent to a        
,jesuit's school1  he soon gave up      
religion4 ,at sixteen he maintained a   
mathematical  thesis in the presence of 
,alembert4 ,in the next year he         
dedicated  to ,turgot a ,profession of  
,faith4 ,after some mathematical works1 

he  was made member of the ,academy1 of 
which he was appointed perpetual        
secretary1 #aggc4 ,in #aggf he published
 his atheistic ,letters of a            
,theologian4 ,he also wrote biographies 
of ,turgot and ,voltaire1 and  in favor 
of ,american independence and against   
negro slavery4 ,in  #agia he represented
 ,paris in the ,national ,assembly1 of  
which he  became ,secretary4 ,it was on 
his motion that1 in the following year1 
all orders of nobility were abolished4  
,voting against the death of  the king  
and siding with the ,gironde drew on him
 the vengeance of  the extreme party4   
,he took shelter with ,madame ,vernet1  
but fearing to  bring into trouble her  
and his wife1 at whose instigation he   
wrote his  fine ,sketch of the ,progress
 of the ,human ,mind while in hiding1 he
 left1  but1 being arrested1 died of    
exhaustion or by poison                 
self-administered1  at ,bourg la ,reine1
 #bg ,march1 #agid4    ,condorcet       
7,sophie de ,grouchy ,caritat1 ,marquise

 de71 wife of above1  and sister of     
,general ,grouchy and of ,mme4 ,cabanis1
 b4 #agfe4 ,she  married ,condorcet     
#aghf1 and was considered one of the    
most beautiful  women of her time4 ,she 
shared her husband's sentiments and     
opinions  and1 while he was proscribed1 
supported herself by portrait  painting4
 ,she was arrested1 and only came out of
 prison after the  fall of ,robespierre4
 ,she translated ,adam ,smith's ,theory 
of the ,moral  ,sentiments1 which she   
accompanied with eight letters on       
,sympathy1  addressed to ,cabanis4 ,she 
died #h ,sept4 #ahbb4 ,her only daughter
 married  ,gen4 ,arthur ,o',connor4     
,confucius 7,kung ,kew7 or              
,kung-foo-tsze1 the philosopher ,kung1 a
  ,chinese sage1 b4 in the ,state of    
,loo1 now part of ,shantung1 about      
,b4,c4 #eea4 ,he was distinguished by   
filial piety and learning4 ,in his      
nineteenth year he married1 and three   
years after began as a teacher1         
rejecting none who came to him4 ,he     

travelled through many states4 ,when    
past middle age he was appointed chief  
minister of ,loo1 but finding  the ,duke
 desired the renown of his name without 
adopting his counsel1  he retired1 and  
devoted his old age to editing the      
sacred classics  of ,china4 ,he died    
about ,b4,c4 #dgh4 ,his teaching1       
chiefly found in the  ,lun-,yu1 or      
,confucian ,analects1 was of a practical
 moral character1  and did not include  
any religious dogmas4    ,congreve      
7,richard71 ,english ,positivist1 born  
in #ahai4 ,educated at  ,rugby under ,t4
 ,arnold1 and ,oxford #ahdj1 ,m4,a4     
#ahdc2 was fellow of  ,wadham ,college  
#ahdd-ed4 ,in '#ee he published his     
edition of ,aristotle  ,politics4 ,he   
became a follower of ,comte and         
influenced many to embrace  ,positivism4
 ,translated ,comte's ,catechism of     
,positive ,philosophy1 #aheh1  and has  
written many brochures4 ,dr4 ,congreve  
is considered the head  of the strict or
 ,english ,comtists1 and has long       

conducted a small  ,church of ,humanity4
    ,connor 7,bernard71 a physician1 b4 
,co4 ,kerry1 of ,catholic family1       
#afff4 ,he travelled widely1 and was    
made court physician to ,john           
,sobieski1 ,king of ,poland4 ,he wrote a
 work entitled ,evangelium ,medici      
7#afig71 in which he attempts to account
 for the ,christian miracles  on natural
 principles4 ,for this he was accused of
 ,atheism4 ,he died  in ,london #bg     
,oct4 #afih4    ,constant de ,rebecque  
7,henri ,benjamin71 ,swiss writer1 b4   
,lausanne1  #be ,oct4 #agfg1 and        
educated at ,oxford1 ,erlangen and      
,edinburgh4 ,in  #agie he entered ,paris
 as a protg of ,mme4 de ,stael1 and in  
#agii  became a member of the ,tribunal4
 ,he opposed ,buonaparte and wrote  on  
,roman ,polytheism and an important work
 on ,religion ,considered in  its       
,source1 its ,forms and its             
,developments 7#f vols42 #ahbd-cb74     
,died  #h ,dec4 #ahcj4 ,constant        
professed ,protestantism1 but was at    

heart a  sceptic1 and has been called a 
second ,voltaire4 ,a son was executor   
to ,auguste ,comte4    ,conta 7,basil71 
,roumanian philosopher1 b4 ,neamtza #bg 
,nov4 #ahde4 ,studied  in ,italy and    
,belgium1 and became professor in the   
,university of ,jassy1  ,moldavia4 ,in  
'#gg he published in ,brussels1 in      
,french1 a theory of  fatalism1 which   
created some stir by its boldness of    
thought4    ,conway 7,moncure ,daniel71 
author1 b4 in ,fredericksburg1 ,stafford
  co4 ,virginia1 #ag ,march1 #ahcb4 ,he 
entered the ,methodist ministry '#ej1   
but changing his convictions through the
 influence of ,emerson and  ,hicksite   
,quakers1 entered the divinity school at
 ,cambridge1 where  he graduated in '#ed
 and became pastor of a ,unitarian      
church until  dismissed for his         
anti-slavery discourses4 ,in '#eg he    
preached in  ,cincinnati and there      
published ,the ,natural ,history of the 
,devil1 and  other pamphlets4 ,in '#fc  
,mr4 ,conway came to ,england and was   

minister  of ,south ,place from the     
close of '#fc until his return to the   
,states  in '#hd4 ,mr4 ,conway is a     
frequent contributor to the press4 ,he  
has  also published ,the ,earthward     
,pilgrimage1 #ahgj1 a theory reversing  
,bunyan's ,pilgrim's ,progress2         
collected a ,sacred ,anthology from the 
various sacred books of the world #ahgc1
 which he used in his pulpit2  has      
written on ,human ,sacrifices1 #ahgf1   
and ,idols and ,ideals1 #ahgg4 ,his     
principal work is ,demonology and ,devil
 ,lore1 #ahgh1 containing much          
information on mythology4 ,he also      
issued his sermons under the title of   
,lessons for the ,day1 two vols41 #ahhc1
 and has published a monograph on  the  
,wandering ,jew1 a biography of         
,emerson1 and is at present engaged  on 
a life of ,thomas ,paine4    ,cook      
7,kenningale ,robert71 ,,ll4,d41 b4 in  
,lancashire #bf ,sept4 #ahde1 son  of   
the vicar of ,stallbridge4 ,when a boy  
he used to puzzle his mother  by such   

questions as1 ,if ,god was omnipotent   
could he make what had  happened not    
have happened4 ,he was intended for the 
,church1 but  declined to subscribe the 
articles4 ,graduated at ,dublin in '#ff1
 and  took ,,ll4,d4 in '#ge4 ,in '#gg he
 became editor of the ,dublin           
,university  ,magazine1 in which        
appeared some studies of the lineage of 
,christian  doctrine and traditions     
afterwards published under the title of 
,the  ,fathers of ,jesus4 ,dr4 ,cook    
wrote several volumes of choice poems4  
,died  ,july1 #ahhf4    ,cooper         
7,anthony ,ashley71 see ,shaftesbury4   
,cooper 7,henry71 barrister1 b4 ,norwich
 about #aghd4 ,he was a schoolfellow  of
 ,wm4 ,taylor of ,norwich4 ,he served as
 midshipman at the battle of the  ,nile1
 but disliking the service became a     
barrister1 and acquired some  fame by   
his spirited defence of ,mary ,ann      
,carlile1 #ba ,july1 #ahba1 for  which  
the report of the trial was dedicated to
 him by ,r4 ,carlile4 ,he  was a friend 

of ,lord ,erskine1 whose biography he   
commenced4 ,died #ai  ,sept4 #ahbd4     
,cooper 7,john ,gilbert71 poet1 b4      
,thurgaton ,priory1 ,notts1 #agbc4      
,educated  at ,westminster ,school and  
,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,an      
enthusiastic  disciple of ,lord         
,shaftesbury4 ,under the name of        
,philaretes he  contributed to          
,dodsley's ,museum4 ,in #agdi he        
published a ,life of  ,socrates1 for    
which he was coarsely attacked by       
,warburton4 ,he wrote  some poems under 
the signature of ,aristippus4 ,died     
,mayfair1 ,london1  #ad ,april1 #agfi4  
,cooper 7,peter71 a benevolent          
manufacturer1 b4 ,n4 ,york1 #ab ,feb4   
#agia4 ,he  devoted over half a million 
dollars to the ,cooper ,institute1 for  
the secular instruction and elevation of
 the working classes4 ,died  #d ,april1 
#ahhc4    ,cooper 7,robert71 ,secularist
 writer and lecturer1 b4 #bi ,dec4      
#ahai1  at ,barton-on-,irwell1 near     
,manchester4 ,he had the advantage of   

being  brought up in a ,freethought     
family4 ,at fourteen he became teacher  
in the ,co-operative ,schools1 ,salford1
 lectured at fifteen1 and  by seventeen 
became an acknowledged advocate of      
,owenism1 holding a  public discussion  
with the ,rev4 ,j4 ,bromley4 ,some of   
his lectures were  published--one on    
,original ,sin sold twelve thousand     
copies--when he was  scarcely eighteen4 
,the ,holy ,scriptures ,analysed 7#ahcb7
 was denounced  by the ,bishop of       
,exeter in the ,house of ,lords4 ,cooper
 was dismissed  from a situation he had 
held ten years1 and in #ahda became a   
,socialist  missionary in the ,north of 
,england and ,scotland4 ,at ,edinburgh  
7#ahde7  he wrote ,free ,agency and     
,orthodoxy1 and compiled the ,infidel's 
,text  ,book4 ,about '#ej he came to    
,london1 lecturing with success at ,john
  ,street ,institution4 ,in '#ed he     
started the ,london ,investigator1 which
  he edited for three years4 ,in it     
appears his lectures on ,science  v4    

,theology1 ,admissions of ,distinguished
 ,men1 etc4 ,failing health  obliged him
 to retire leaving the ,investigator to 
,anthony ,collins  7,w4 ,h4 ,johnson71  
and afterwards to ,iconoclast 7,c4      
,bradlaugh74 ,at  his last lecture he   
fainted on the platform4 ,in #aheh he   
remodelled  his ,infidel ,text-,book    
into a work on ,the ,bible and ,its     
,evidences4 ,he  devoted himself to     
political reform until his death1 #c    
,may1 #ahfh4    ,cooper 7,thomas71      
,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 natural philosopher1  
politician1  jurist and author1 b4      
,london1 #bb ,oct4 #agei4 ,educated at  
,oxford1 he  afterwards studied law and 
medicine2 was admitted to the bar and   
lived  at ,manchester1 where he wrote a 
number of tracts on ,materialism1       
,whether ,deity be a ,free ,agent1 etc41
 #aghi4 ,deputed with ,james  ,watt1 the
 inventor1 by the ,constitutional clubs 
to congratulate  the ,democrats of      
,france 7,april1 #agib71 he was attacked
 by ,burke  and replied in a vigorous   

pamphlet4 ,in '#id he published         
,information  ,concerning ,america1 and 
in the next year followed his friend    
,priestly  to ,philadelphia1 established
 himself as a lawyer and was made judge4
 ,he  also conducted the ,emporium of   
,arts and ,sciences in that city4 ,he   
was  ,professor of ,medicine at         
,carlisle ,college1 '#ab1 and afterwards
 held  the chairs both of ,chemistry and
 ,political ,economy in ,south ,carolina
  ,college1 of which he became          
,president1 #ahbj-cd4 ,this position he 
was  forced to resign on account of his 
religious views4 ,he translated  from   
,justinian and ,broussais1 and digested 
the ,statutes of ,south  ,carolina4 ,in 
philosophy a ,materialist1 in religion a
 ,freethinker1  in politics a ,democrat1
 he urged his views in many pamphlets4  
,one on  ,the ,right of ,free           
,discussion1 and a little book on       
,geology and the  ,pentateuch1 in reply 
to ,prof4 ,silliman1 were republished in
 ,london  by ,james ,watson4 ,died at   

,columbia1 #aa ,may1 #ahdj4 #a    #a ,so
 varied was the activity of ,t4 ,cooper 
during his long life that  his works in 
the ,british ,museum were catalogued as 
by six different  persons of the same   
name4 ,i pointed this out1 and the six  
single  gentlemen will be rolled into   
one4    ,coornhert 7,dirk               
,volkertszoon71 ,dutch humanist1 poet   
and writer1  b4 ,amsterdam1 #aebb4 ,he  
travelled in his youth through ,spain   
and ,portugal4 ,he set up as an engraver
 at ,haarlem1 and became  thereafter    
notary and secretary of the city of     
,haarlem4 ,he had a  profound horror of 
intolerance1 and defended liberty       
against ,beza and  ,calvin4 ,the clergy 
vituperated him as a ,judas and as      
instigated by  ,satan1 etc4 ,bayle1 who 
writes of him as ,theodore ,koornhert1  
says he  communed neither with          
,protestants nor ,catholics4 ,the       
magistrates of  ,delft drove him out of 
their city4 ,he translated ,cicero's ,de
 ,officiis1  and other works4 ,died at  

,gouda1 #bj ,oct4 #aeij4    ,cordonnier 
de ,saint ,hyacinthe4 ,see              
,saint-,hyacinthe 7,themiseuil de74     
,corvin-,wiersbitski 7,otto ,julius     
,bernhard von71 ,prussian ,pole of noble
  family1 who traced their descent from 
the ,roman ,corvinii1 b4 ,gumbinnen1    
#ab ,oct4 #ahab4 ,he served in the      
,prussian army1 where he met his friend 
,friedrich von ,sallet2 retired into the
 ,landwehr #ahce1 went to ,leipsic  and 
entered upon a literary career1 wrote   
the ,history of the ,dutch  ,revolution1
 #ahda2 the ,history of ,christian      
,fanaticism1 #ahde1 which  was          
suppressed in ,austria4 ,he took part   
with the democrats in '#dh2  was        
condemned to be shot #ae ,sept4 '#di1   
but the sentence was commuted2  spent   
six years' solitary confinement in      
prison2 came to ,london1  became        
correspondent to the ,times2 went       
through ,american ,civil ,war1  and     
afterwards ,franco-,prussian ,war1 as a 
special correspondent4 ,he  has written 

a ,history of the ,new ,time1 #ahdh-ga4 
,died since #ahhf4    ,cotta            
7,bernhard71 ,german geologist1 b4      
,little ,zillbach1 ,thuringia1  #bd     
,oct4 #ahjh4 ,he studied at the ,academy
 of ,mining1 in ,freiberg1  where he was
 appointed professor in '#db4 ,his first
 production1 ,the  ,dendroliths1 '#cb1  
proved him a diligent investigator4 ,it 
was followed  by many geological        
treatises4 ,cotta did much to support   
the nebular  hypothesis and the law of  
natural development without miraculous  
agency4 ,he also wrote on phrenology4   
,died at ,freiburg1 #ac ,sept #ahgi4    
,cotta 7,c4 ,aurelius71 ,roman          
philosopher1 orator and statesman1  b4  
,b4,c4 #abd4 ,in '#ge he became ,consul4
 ,on the expiration of his  office he   
obtained ,gaul as a province4 ,cicero   
had a high opinion of  him and gives his
 sceptical arguments in the third book  
of his ,de  ,natura ,deorum4    ,courier
 7,paul ,louis71 ,french writer1 b4     
,paris1 #d ,jan4 #aggb4 ,he entered  the

 army and became an officer of          
artillery1 serving with distinction  in 
the ,army of the ,republic4 ,he wrote   
many pamphlets1 directed against  the   
clerical restoration1 which place him   
foremost among the literary  men of the 
generation4 ,his writings are now       
classics1 but they brought  him nothing 
but imprisonment1 and he was apparently 
assassinated1  #aj ,april1 #ahbe4 ,he   
had a presentiment that the bigots would
 kill him4    ,coventry 7,henry71 a     
native of ,cambridgeshire1 b4 about     
#agaj1 ,fellow  of ,magdalene ,college1 
author of ,letters of ,philemon to      
,hydaspus on  ,false ,religion 7#agcf74 
,died #bi ,dec4 #ageb4    ,coward       
7,william71 ,m4,d41 b4 ,winchester1     
#afef4 ,graduated at ,wadham  ,college1 
,oxford1 #afgg4 ,settled first at       
,northampton1 afterwards  at ,london4   
,published1 besides some medical works1 
,second ,thoughts  ,concerning ,human   
,soul1 which excited much indignation by
 denying  natural immortality4 ,the     

,house of ,commons 7#ag ,march1 #agjd7  
ordered  his work to be burnt4 ,he died 
in #agbe4    ,cox 7the ,right ,rev4 ,sir
 ,george ,william71 b4 #ahbg1 was       
educated at  ,rugby and ,oxford1 where  
he took ,b4,c4,l4 in #ahdi4 ,entered the
 ,church1  but has devoted himself to   
history and mythology4 ,his most        
pretentious  work is ,mythology of the  
,aryan ,nations 7#ahgj74 ,he has also   
written  an ,introduction to            
,comparative ,mythology and several     
historical  works4 ,in #ahhf he became  
,bishop of ,bloemfontein4 ,he is        
credited with  the authorship of the    
,english ,life of ,jesus1 published     
under the name  of ,thomas ,scott4 ,at  
the ,church ,congress of #ahhh he read  
an heretical  paper on ,biblical        
,eschatology4 ,his last production is a 
,life of ,bishop  ,colenso1 #b vols1    
#ahhh4    ,coyteux 7,fernand71 ,french  
writer1 b4 ,ruffec1 #ahjj4 ,author of a 
materialistic system of philosophy1     
,brussels1 #ahec ,studies on            

physiology1 ,paris1 #ahge1 etc4         
,craig 7,edward ,thomas71 social        
reformer1 b4 at ,manchester #d  ,aug4   
#ahjd4 ,he was present at the ,peterloo 
massacre '#ai2 helped to form  the      
,salford ,social ,institute and became a
 pioneer of co-operation4 ,in  '#ca he  
became editor of the ,lancashire        
,co-operator4 ,in ,nov4 of the same     
year he undertook the management of a   
co-operative farm at ,rahaline1  co4    
,clare4 ,of this experiment he has      
written an history1 '#gb4 ,mr4 ,craig   
has edited several journals and         
contributed largely to ,radical and     
co-operative literature4 ,he has        
published a memoir of ,dr4 ,travis and  
at the age of #hd he wrote on ,the      
,science of ,prolonging ,life4          
,cramer 7,johan ,nicolai71 ,swedish     
writer1 b4 ,wisby1 ,gottland1 #ah  ,feb4
 #ahab4 ,he studied at ,upsala and      
became ,doctor of ,philosophy  '#cf2    
ordained priest in '#db2 he resigned in 
'#eh4 ,in religion he  denies revelation

 and insists on the separation of       
,church and  ,state4 ,among his works we
 mention ,separation from the ,church1 a
  ,freethinker's annotations on the     
reading of the ,bible1 ,stockholm1      
#ahei4 ,a ,confession of ,faith2        
,forward or ,back8 7#ahfb74 ,he has also
  written on the ,punishment of ,death  
7#ahfh71 and other topics4    ,cranbrook
 7,rev4 ,james47 ,born of strict        
,calvinistic parents about  #ahag4 ,mr4 
,cranbrook gradually emancipated himself
 from dogmas1 became  a teacher1 and for
 sixteen years was minister of an       
,independent ,church  at ,liscard1      
,cheshire4 ,he also was professor at the
 ,ladies' ,college1  ,liverpool1 some of
 his lectures there being published     
'#eg4 ,in ,jan4 '#fe1  he went to       
,albany ,church1 ,edinburgh1 but his    
views being too broad  for that         
congregation1 he left in ,feb4 '#fg but 
continued to give  ,sunday lectures     
until his death1 #f ,june1 #ahfi4 ,in   
'#ff he published  ,credibilia3 an      

,inquiry into the grounds of ,christian 
faith and two  years later ,the         
,founders of ,christianity1 discourses  
on the origin of  ,christianity4 ,other 
lectures on ,human ,depravity1 ,positive
 ,religion1  etc41 were published by    
,thomas ,scott4    ,cranch 7,christopher
 ,pearse71 ,american painter and poet1  
b4 ,alexandria1  ,virginia1 #h ,march1  
#ahac1 graduated at divinity school1    
,cambridge1  ,mass4 '#ce1 but left the  
ministry in '#db4 ,he shows his         
,freethought  sentiments in ,satan1 a   
,libretto1 ,boston1 '#gd1 and other     
works4    ,craven 7,m4 ,b471 ,american1 
author of a critical work on the ,bible 
entitled ,triumph of ,criticism1        
published at ,philadelphia1 #ahfi4      
,cremonini 7,cesare71 ,italian          
philosopher1 b4 ,cento1 ,ferrara1 #aeej1
 was  professor of philosophy at ,padua 
from #aeia to #afca1 when he died4 ,a   
follower of ,aristotle1 he excited      
suspicion by his want of religion and   
his teaching the mortality of the soul4 

,he was frequently ordered by  the      
,jesuits and the ,inquisition to refute 
the errors he gave currency  to1 but he 
was protected by the ,venetian ,state1  
and refused4 ,like most  of the         
philosophers of his time1 he            
distinguished between religious  and    
philosophic truth4 ,bayle says4 ,il a   
pass pour un esprit fort1  qui ne       
croyait point l'immortalit de l'me4     
,larousse says1 ,on peut  dire qu'il    
n'tait pas chrtien4 ,ladvocat says his  
works contain  many things contrary to  
religion4    ,cross 7,mary ,ann74 ,see  
,eliot 7,george74    ,crousse 7,louis   
,d471 ,french ,pantheistic philosopher1 
author of  ,principles1 or ,first       
,philosophy1 #ahci1 and ,thoughts1      
#ahde4    ,curtis 7,s4 ,e471 ,english   
,freethinker1 author of ,theology       
,displayed1  #ahdb4 ,he has been        
credited with ,the ,protestant's        
,progress to  ,infidelity4 ,see         
,griffith 7,rees74 ,died #ahdg4         
,croly 7,david ,goodman71 ,american     

,positivist1 b4 ,new ,york1 #c  ,nov4   
#ahbi4 ,he graduated at ,new ,york      
,university in '#ed1 and was            
subsequently a reporter on the ,new     
,york ,herald4 ,he became editor of  the
 ,new ,york ,world until '#gb4 ,from    
'#ga to '#gc he edited ,the ,modern     
,thinker1 an organ of the most advanced 
thought1 and afterwards the  ,new ,york 
,graphic4 ,mr4 ,croly has written a     
,primer of ,positivism1 '#gf1  and has  
contributed many articles to            
periodicals4 ,his wife1 ,jane           
,cunningham1 who calls herself ,jennie  
,june1 b4 #ahca1 also wrote in  ,the    
,modern ,thinker4    ,cross 7,mary      
,ann71 see ,eliot 7,george74    ,crozier
 7,john ,beattie71 ,english writer of   
,scottish border parentage1  b4 ,galt1  
,ontario1 ,canada1 #bc ,april1 #ahdi4   
,in youth he won a scholarship  to the  
grammar school of the town1 and thence  
won another scholarship  to the ,toronto
 ,university1 where he graduated '#gb1  
taking the  ,university and ,starr      

medals4 ,he then came to ,london        
determined to study  the great problems 
of religion and civilisation4 ,he took  
his diploma  from the ,london ,college  
of ,physicians in '#gc4 ,in '#gg he     
wrote his first  essay1 ,god or ,force1 
which1 being rejected by all the        
magazines1 he  published as a pamphlet4 
,other essays on the ,constitution of   
the ,world1  ,carlyle1 ,emerson1 and    
,spencer being also rejected1 he        
published them in  a book entitled ,the 
,religion of the ,future1 '#hj1 which   
fell flat4 ,he  then started his work   
,civilisation and ,progress1 which      
appeared in  '#he1 and was also         
unsuccessful until republished with a   
few notices  in '#hg1 when it received a
 chorus of applause1 for its clear and  
original thoughts4 ,mr4 ,crozier is now 
engaged on his ,autobiography1  after   
which he proposes to deal with the      
,social question4    ,cuffeler 7,abraham
 ,johann71 a ,dutch philosopher and     
doctor of law1  who was one of the first

 partizans of ,spinoza4 ,he lived at    
,utrecht  towards the end of the        
seventeenth century1 and wrote a work on
  logic in three parts entitled         
,specimen ,artis ,ratiocinandi1 etc41   
published ostensibly at ,hamburg1 but   
really at ,amsterdam or ,utrecht1       
#afhd4 ,it was without name but with the
 author's portrait4    ,cuper 7,frans71 
,dutch writer1 b4 ,rotterdam4 ,cuper is 
suspected to have  been one of those    
followers of ,spinoza1 who under        
pretence of refuting  him1 set forth and
 sustained his arguments by feeble      
opposition4 ,his  work entitled ,arcana 
,atheismi ,revelata1 ,rotterdam #afgf1  
was denounced  as written in bad faith4 
,cuper maintained that the existence of 
,god  could not be proved by the light  
of reason4    ,cyrano de ,bergerac      
7,savinien71 ,french comic writer1 b4   
,paris #f ,march1  #afai4 ,after        
finishing his studies and serving in the
 army in his youth  he devoted himself  
to literature4 ,his tragedy ,agrippine  

is full of  what a bookseller called    
belles impits1 and ,la ,monnoye relates 
that  at its performance the pit shouted
 ,oh1 the wretch6 ,the ,atheist6 ,how   
he mocks at holy things6 ,cyrano knew   
personally ,campanella1 ,gassendi1      
,lamothe ,le ,vayer1 ,linire1 ,rohault1 
etc4 ,his other works consist of  a     
short fragment on ,physic1 a collection 
of ,letters1 and a ,comic  ,history of  
the ,states and ,empires of the ,moon   
and the ,sun4 ,cyrano  took the idea of 
this book from ,f4 ,godwin's ,man in the
 ,moon1 #aehc1  and it in turn gave rise
 to ,swift's ,gulliver's ,travels and   
,voltaire's  ,micromegas4 ,died ,paris1 
#afee4    ,czolbe 7,heinrich71 ,german  
,materialist1 b4 near ,dantzic1 #cj     
,dec4 #ahai1  studied medicine at       
,berlin1 writing an inaugural           
dissertation on  the ,principles of     
,physiology1 '#dd4 ,in '#ee he published
 his ,new  ,exposition of               
,sensationalism1 in which everything is 
resolved into  matter and motion1 and in

 '#fe a work on ,the ,limits and ,origin
 of ,human  ,knowledge4 ,he was an      
intimate friend of ,ueberweg4 ,died at  
,knigsberg1  #ai ,feb4 #ahgc4 ,lange    
says his life was marked by a deep and  
genuine  morality4    ,d',ablaing4 ,see 
,giessenburg4    ,dale 7,antonius van71 
,dutch writer1 b4 ,haarlem1 #h ,nov4    
#afch4 ,his work  on oracles was erudite
 but lumbersome1 and to it ,fontenelle  
gave the  charm of style4 ,it was       
translated into ,english by ,mrs4 ,aphra
 ,behn1  under the title of ,the        
,history of ,oracles and the ,cheats of 
,pagan  ,priests1 #afii4 ,van ,dale1 in 
another work on ,the ,origin and        
,progress  of ,idolatry and             
,superstition1 applied the historical   
method to his  subject1 and showed that 
the belief in demons was as old and as  
extensive as the human race4 ,he died at
 ,haarlem1 #bh ,nov4 #agjh4             
,damilaville 7,etienne ,nol71 ,french   
writer1 b4 at ,bordeaux1 #agba4 ,at     
first a soldier1 then a clerk1 he did   

some service for ,voltaire1 who  became 
his friend4 ,he also made the friendship
 ,diderot1 d',alembert1  ,grimm1 and    
d',holbach4 ,he contributed to the      
,encyclopdie1 and in  #agfg published an
 attack on the theologians1 entitled    
,theological  ,honesty4 ,the book       
entitled ,christianity ,unveiled see    
,boulanger and  ,holbach was attributed 
by ,voltaire1 who called it ,impiety    
,unveiled1  and by ,la ,harpe and       
,lalande to ,damilaville4 ,voltaire     
called him  one of our most learned     
writers4 ,larousse says he was an ardent
  enemy of ,christianity4 ,he has also  
been credited with a share in  the      
,system of ,nature4 ,died #ae ,dec4     
#agfh4    ,dandolo 7,vincenzo7 ,count1  
,italian chemist1 b4 ,venice1 #bf ,oct4 
#ageh1  wrote ,principles of ,physical  
,chemistry1 a work in ,french on ,the   
,new  ,men1 in which he shows his       
antagonism to religion1 and many useful 
works on vine1 timber1 and silk culture4
 ,died ,varessa1 #ac ,dec4 #ahai4       

,danton 7,georges ,jacques71 ,french    
revolutionist1 b4 ,arcis sur ,aube1 #bh 
,oct4 #agei4 ,an uncle wished him to    
enter into orders1 but he preferred  to 
study law4 ,during the ,revolution his  
eloquence made him conspicuous  at the  
,club of ,cordeliers1 and in ,feb4      
#agia1 he became one of the             
administrators of ,paris4 ,one of the   
first to see that after the flight  of  
,louis ,,xvi4 he could no longer be     
king1 he demanded his suspension1  and  
became one of the chief organisers of   
the ,republic4 ,in the alarm  caused by 
the invasion he urged a bold and        
resolute policy4 ,he was a  member of   
the ,convention and of the ,committee of
 ,public ,safety4 ,at the  crisis of the
 struggle with ,robespierre1 ,danton    
declined to strike  the first blow and  
disdained to fly4 ,arrested ,march1     
#agid1 he said  when interrogated by the
 judge1 ,my name is ,danton1 my dwelling
 will  soon be in annihilation2 but my  
name will live in the ,pantheon of      

history4 ,he maintained his lofty       
bearing on the scaffold1 where he       
perished #e ,april1 #agid4 ,for his     
known scepticism ,danton was called     
fils de ,diderot4 ,carlyle calls him a  
very ,man4    ,dapper 7,olfert71 ,dutch 
physician1 who occupied himself with    
history and  geography1 on which he     
produced important works4 ,he had no    
religion  and was suspected of ,atheism4
 ,he travelled through ,syria1          
,babylonia1  etc41 in #afej4 ,he        
translated ,herodotus 7#affd7 and the   
orations of  the late ,prof4 ,caspar v4 
,baerli 7#affc71 and wrote a ,history of
 the  ,city of ,amsterdam1 #affc4 ,died 
at ,amsterdam #afij4    ,darget         
7,etienne71 b4 ,paris1 #agab2 went to   
,berlin in #agdd and became  reader and 
private secretary to ,frederick the     
,great 7#agde-eb71 who  corresponded    
with him afterwards4 ,died #aggh4       
,darwin 7,charles ,robert71 ,english    
naturalist1 b4 ,shrewsbury1  #ab ,feb4  
#ahji4 ,educated at ,shrewsbury1        

,edinburgh ,university1 and  ,cambridge4
 ,he early evinced a taste for          
collecting and observing  natural       
objects4 ,he was intended for a         
clergyman1 but1 incited by  ,humboldt's 
,personal ,narrative1 resolved to       
travel4 ,he accompanied  ,captain       
,fitzroy in the ,beagle on a voyage of  
exploration1 '#ca-cf1  which he narrated
 in his ,voyage of a ,naturalist ,round 
the ,world1 which  obtained great       
popularity4 ,in '#ci he married1 and in 
'#db left ,london  and settled at ,down1
 ,kent4 ,his studies1 combined with the 
reading of  ,lamarck and ,malthus1 led  
to his great work on ,the ,origin of    
,species  by means of ,natural          
,selection1 '#ei1 which made a great    
outcry and  marked an epoch4 ,darwin    
took no part in the controversy raised  
by the  theologians1 but followed his   
work with ,the ,fertilisation of        
,orchids1  '#fb2 ,cross and ,self       
,fertilisation of ,plants1 '#fg2        
,variations of  ,plants and ,animals    

under ,domestication1 '#fe2 and in '#ga 
,the ,descent  of ,man and ,selection in
 relation to ,sex1 which caused yet     
greater  consternation in orthodox      
circles4 ,the following year he issued  
,the  ,expression of the ,emotions of   
,men and ,animals4 ,he also published   
works on the ,movements of ,plants1     
,insectivorous ,plants1 the ,forms of   
,flowers1 and ,earthworms4 ,he died #ai 
,april1 #ahhb1 and was buried in        
,westminster ,abbey1 despite his        
expressed unbelief in revelation4 ,to  a
 ,german student he wrote1 in '#gi1     
,science has nothing to do with         
,christ1 except in so far as the habit  
of scientific research makes  a man     
cautious in admitting evidence4 ,for    
myself ,i do not believe  that there    
ever has been any revelation4 ,in his   
,life and ,letters  he relates that     
between #ahcf and #ahdb he had come to  
see that the  ,old ,testament was no    
more to be trusted than the sacred books
 of the  ,hindoos4 ,he rejected design  

and said ,i for one must be content to  
remain an ,agnostic4    ,darwin         
7,erasmus71 ,dr41 poet1 physiologist and
 philosopher1 grandfather  of the above1
 was born at ,elston1 near ,newark1 #ab 
,dec4 #agca4 ,educated  at ,chesterfield
 and ,cambridge he became a physician1  
first at ,lichfield  and afterwards at  
,derby4 ,he was acquainted with         
,rousseau1 ,watt and  ,wedgwood4 ,his   
principal poem1 ,the ,botanic ,garden   
was published in #agia1  and ,the       
,temple of ,nature in #ahjc4 ,his       
principal work is ,zoomania1  or the    
laws of organic life 7#agid71 for which 
he was accused of  ,atheism4 ,he was    
actually a ,deist4 ,he also wrote on    
female education  and some papers in the
 ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,died at 
,derby1  #ah ,april1 #ahjb4             
,daubermesnil 7,franois ,antoine71      
,french conventionalist4 ,elected       
deputy of ,tarn in #agib4 ,afterwards   
became a member of the ,council of      
,five ,hundred4 ,he was one of the      

founders of ,theophilanthropy4 ,died  at
 ,perpignan #ahjb4    ,daudet           
7,alphonse71 ,french novelist1 b4 at    
,nmes1 #ac ,may #ahdj1 author  of many  
popular romances1 of which we mention   
,l',evangeliste1 '#hb1  which has been  
translated into ,english under the title
 ,port ,salvation4    ,daunou 7,pierre  
,claude ,franois71 ,french politician   
and historian1  b4 ,boulogne1 #ah ,aug4 
#agfa4 ,his father entered him in the   
congregation  of the ,fathers of the    
,oratory1 which he left at the          
,revolution4 ,the  department of ,calais
 elected him with ,carnot and ,thomas   
,paine to  the ,convention4 ,after the  
,revolution he became librarian at the  
,pantheon4 ,he was a friend of ,garat1  
,cabanis1 ,chenier1 ,destutt ,tracy1    
,ginguen and ,benj4 ,constant4 ,wrote   
,historical ,essay on the ,temporal     
,power of the ,popes1 #ahaj4 ,died at   
,paris1 #bj ,june1 #ahdj1 noted for  his
 benevolence4    ,davenport 7,allen71   
social reformer1 b4 #aggc4 ,he          

contributed to  ,carlile's ,republican2 
wrote an account of the ,life1 ,writings
 and  ,principles of ,thomas ,spence1   
the reformer 7#ahbf72 and published a   
volume of verse1 entitled ,the ,muses'  
,wreath 7#ahbg74 ,died at ,highbury1    
,london1 #ahdf4    ,davenport 7,john71  
,deist1 b4 ,london1 #h ,june1 #aghi1    
became a teacher4 ,he  wrote ,an        
,apology for ,mohammed and the ,koran1  
#ahfi2 ,curiositates  ,eroticoe         
,physiolog1 or ,tabooed ,subjects       
,freely ,treated1 and several           
educational works4 ,died in poverty #aa 
,may1 #ahgg4    ,david of ,dinant1 in   
,belgium1 ,pantheistic philosopher of   
the twelfth  century4 ,he is said to    
have visited the ,papal ,court of       
,innocent  ,,iii4 ,he shared in the     
heresies of ,amalric of ,chrtres1 and   
his work  ,quaterini was condemned and  
burnt 7#abji74 ,he only escaped the     
stake  by rapid flight4 ,according to   
,albert the ,great he was the author of 
a philosophical work ,de ,tomis1 ,of    

,subdivisions1 in which he taught  that 
all things were one4 ,his system was    
similar to that of ,spinoza4    ,david  
7,jacques ,louis71 ,french painter1 born
 at ,paris1 #ca ,aug4 #agdh1  was made  
painter to the king1 but joined the     
,jacobin ,club1 became  a member of the 
,convention1 voted for the king's death 
and for the  civic festivals1 for which 
he made designs4 ,on the restoration he 
was banished4 ,died at ,brussels1 #bi   
,dec4 #ahbe4 ,david was an honest       
enthusiast and a thorough ,freethinker4 
,davidis or ,david 7,ferencz71 a        
,transylvanian divine1 b4 about  #aeaj4 
,he was successively a ,roman ,catholic1
 a ,lutheran and an  ,antitrinitarian4  
,he went further than ,f4 ,socinus and  
declared there  was as much foundation  
for praying to the ,virgin ,mary and    
other  dead saints as to ,jesus ,christ4
 ,he was in consequence accused of      
,judaising and thrown into prison at    
,deva1 where he died #f ,june1 #aegi4   
,davies 7,john ,c471 of ,stockport1 an  

,english ,jacobin1 who in #agig         
published a list of contradictions of   
the ,bible under the title of ,the      
,scripturian's ,creed1 for which he was 
prosecuted and imprisoned4 ,the  work   
was republished by ,carlile1 #ahbb1 and 
also at ,manchester1 #ahci4    ,davidson
 7,thomas71 bookseller and publisher1   
was prosecuted by the ,vice  ,society in
 ,oct4 #ahbj1 for selling the           
,republican and a publication  of his   
own1 called the ,deist's ,magazine4 ,for
 observations made in  his defence he   
was summoned and fined #ajj1 and he was 
sentenced to  two years' imprisonment in
 ,oakham ,gaol4 ,he died #af ,dec4      
#ahbf4    ,debierre 7,charles71 ,french 
writer1 author of ,man ,before ,history1
 #ahhh4    ,de ,dominicis4 ,see         
,dominicis4    ,de ,felice 7,francesco71
 ,italian writer1 b4 ,catania1 ,sicily1 
#ahba1  took part in the revolution of  
'#dc1 and when ,garibaldi landed in     
,sicily was appointed president of the  
provisional council of war4 ,has        

written on the reformation of elementary
 schools4    ,de ,greef 7,guillaume     
,joseph71 advocate at ,brussels ,court  
of ,appeal1  b4 at ,brussels1 #i ,oct4  
#ahdb4 ,author of an important          
,introduction to  ,sociology1 #ahhf4    
,wrote in ,la ,libert1 #ahfg-gc1 and now
 writes in ,la  ,societ ,nouvelle4      
,de ,gubernatis 7,angelo71 ,italian     
,orientalist and writer1 b4 ,turin1  #g 
,april1 #ahdj2 studied at ,turin        
,university and became doctor of        
philosophy4 ,he studied ,sanskrit under 
,bopp and ,weber at ,berlin4 ,sig4 de   
,gubernatis has adorned ,italian        
literature with many important  works1  
of which we mention his volumes on      
,zoological ,mythology1  which has been 
translated into ,english1 '#gb3 and on  
the ,mythology of  ,plants4 ,he has     
compiled and in large part written a    
,universal ,history  of ,literature1 #ah
 vols4 '#hb-he2 edited ,la ,revista     
,europea and the  ,revue                
,internationale1 and contributed to many

 publications4 ,he is a  brilliant      
writer and a versatile scholar4    ,de  
,harven 7,emile ,jean ,alexandre71 b4   
,antwerp1 #bc ,sept4 #ahcg1 the         
anonymous author of a work on ,the      
,soul3 its ,origin and ,destiny         
7,antwerp1 #ahgi74    ,dekker 7,eduard  
,douwes71 the greatest ,dutch writer and
 ,freethinker of  this century1 b4      
,amsterdam1 #b ,march1 #ahbj4 ,in '#ci  
he accompanied his  father1 a ship's    
captain1 to the ,malayan ,archipelago4  
,he became officer  under the ,dutch    
government in ,sumatra1 ,amboina1 and   
,assistant-,resident  at ,lebac1 ,java4 
,he desired to free the ,javanese from  
the oppression of  their princes1 but   
the government would not help him and he
 resigned  and returned to ,holland1    
'#ef4 ,the next four years he spent1 in 
poverty1  vainly seeking justice for the
 ,javanese4 ,in '#fj he published under 
the  pen name of ,multatuli ,max        
,havelaar1 a masterly indictment of the 
,dutch rule in ,india1 which has been   

translated into ,german1 ,french  and   
,english4 ,then follow his choice       
,minnebrieven 7,love ,letters71  '#fa2  
,vorstenschool 7,a ,school for          
,princes71 and ,millioenen ,studin      
7,studies on ,millions74 ,his ,iden1 #g 
vols4 '#fb-gi1 are full of the  boldest 
heresy4 ,in most of his works religion  
is attacked1 but in the  ,ideas faith is
 criticised with much more pungency and 
satire4 ,he wrote  ,faith is the        
voluntary prison-cell of reason4 ,he was
 an honorary  member of the ,freethought
 ,society1 ,de ,dageraad1 and           
contributed to its  organ4 ,during the  
latter years of his life he lived at    
,wiesbaden1 where  he died #ai ,feb4    
#ahhg4 ,his corpse was burned in the    
crematory at ,gotha4    ,de ,lalande    
7see ,lalande74    ,delambre 7,jean     
,baptiste ,joseph71 ,french astronomer1 
b4 ,amiens1  #ai ,sept4 #agdi1 studied  
under ,lalande and became1 like his     
master1  an ,atheist4 ,his ,tables of   
the ,orbit of ,uranus were crowned by   

the  ,academy1 #agij4 ,in #ahjg he      
succeeded ,lalande as ,professor of     
,astronomy  at the ,collge de ,france4  
,he is the author of a ,history of      
,astronomy  in five volumes1 and of a   
number of astronomical tables and other 
scientific works ,he was appointed      
perpetual secretary of the ,academy of  
,sciences4 ,died #ai ,aug4 #ahbb1 and   
was buried at ,pre la ,chaise4 ,cuvier  
pronouncing a discourse over his grave4 
,de la ,ramee4 ,see ,rame4    ,delboeuf 
7,joseph ,remi ,lopold71 ,belgian       
writer1 b4 ,lige1 #cj  ,sept4 #ahca2 is 
,professor at the ,university of ,lige1 
and has  written ,psychology as a       
,natural ,science1 its ,present and its 
,future2  ,application of the           
,experimental ,method to the ,phenomena 
of the ,soul1  '#gc1 and other works4   
,in his ,philosophical ,prolegomena to  
,geometry  he suggests that even        
mathematical axioms may have an         
empirical origin4    ,delbos 7,lon71    
linguist1 b4 #bj ,sept4 #ahdi of        

,spanish father and ,scotch  mother4    
,educated in ,paris1 ,lyce ,charlemagne4
 ,is an ,m4,a4 of ,paris and  officier  
d',acadmie4 ,speaks many languages1 and 
is a good ,arabic and  ,sanskrit        
scholar4 ,has travelled widely and      
served in the ,franco-,german  ,war4    
,besides many educational works1 ,m4    
,delbos has written ,l',athe1  the      
,atheist1 a ,freethought romance '#gi1  
and in ,english ,the ,faith in  ,jesus  
not a ,new ,faith1 '#he4 ,he has        
contributed to the ,agnostic ,annual1   
and is a decided ,agnostic4             
,delepierre 7,joseph ,octave71 ,belgian 
bibliophile1 b4 ,bruges1 #ab ,march1    
#ahjb4 ,was for thirty-five years       
secretary of ,legation to ,england4 ,his
  daughter married ,n4 ,truebner1 who   
published his work ,l',enfer1 #ahgf1    
and many other bibliographical studies4 
,died ,london1 #ah ,aug4 #ahgi4         
,delescluze 7,louis ,charles71 ,french  
journalist and revolutionary1  b4       
,dreux1 #b ,oct4 #ahji1 was arrested in 

'#cd for sedition4 ,implicated in  a    
plot in '#ce1 he took refuge in         
,belgium4 ,in '#dh he issued at ,paris  
,la  ,revolution ,dmocratique et        
,sociale1 but was soon again in prison4 
,he  was banished1 came to ,england with
 ,ledru ,rollin1 but returning to       
,france in '#ec was arrested4 ,in '#fh  
he published the ,rveil1 for  which he  
was again fined and sentenced to prison 
for ten years4 ,in  '#ei he was         
amnestied and imprisoned4 ,he became    
head of the ,commune  ,committee of     
,public ,safety1 and died at the        
barricade1 #be ,may1 #ahga4    ,deleyre 
7,alexandre71 ,french writer1 b4        
,porbats1 near ,bordeaux1 #f  ,jan4     
#agbf4 ,early in life he entered the    
order of ,jesuits1 but changed  his     
faith and became the friend of ,rousseau
 and ,diderot4 ,he contributed  to the  
,encyclopdie1 notably the article       
,fanatisme1 and published  an analysis  
of ,bacon and works on the genius of    
,montesquieu and ,saint  ,evremond1 and 

a ,history of ,voyages4 ,he embraced the
 ,revolution with  ardor1 was made      
deputy to the ,convention1 and in #agie 
was made member  of the ,institute4     
,died at ,paris1 #bg ,march1 #agig4     
,delisle de ,sales4 ,see ,isoard        
,delisle 7,j4 ,b4 ,c47    ,dell 7,john  
,henry71 artist and poet1 b4 #aa ,aug4  
#ahcb4 ,contributed  to ,progress1 wrote
 ,nature ,pictures1 '#ga1 and ,the      
,dawning ,grey1 '#he1  a volume of      
vigorous verse1 imbued with the spirit  
of democracy and  freethought4 ,died #ca
 ,jan4 #ahhh4    ,deluc 7,adolphe71     
,professor of ,chemistry at ,brussels1  
b4 ,paris1  #a ,sept4 #ahaa4            
,collaborated on ,la ,libre ,recherche4 
,de ,maillet4 ,see ,maillet 7,benot de74
    ,democritus1 a wealthy ,atheistic   
philosopher1 b4 ,abdera1 ,thrace1       
,b4,c4 #dfj4 ,he travelled to ,egypt and
 over a great part of ,asia1  and is    
also said to have visited ,india4 ,he is
 supposed to have  been acquainted with 
,leucippus1 and sixty works were        

ascribed to  him4 ,died ,b4,c4 #ceg4 ,he
 taught that all existence consisted of 
atoms1  and made the discovery of causes
 the object of scientific inquiry4 ,he  
is said to have laughed at life in      
general1 which ,montaigne says  is      
better than to imitate ,heraclitus and  
weep1 since mankind are  not so unhappy 
as vain4 ,democritus was the forerunner 
of ,epicurus1  who improved his system4 
,demonax1 a cynical philosopher who     
lived in the second century of  the     
,christian era and rejected all         
religion4 ,an account of him was        
written by ,lucian4    ,demora          
7,gianbattista71 director of the ,libero
 ,pensatore of ,milan1  and author of   
some dramatic works4    ,denis          
7,hector71 ,belgian advocate and        
professor of political economy  and     
philosophy at ,brussels ,university1 b4 
,braine-le-,comte1 #bi ,april1  #ahdb4  
,has written largely on social questions
 and contributed to ,la  ,libert1 la    
,philosophie ,positive1 etc4 ,is one of 

the ,council of the  ,international     
,federation of ,freethinkers4           
,denslow 7,van ,buren71 ,american       
writer1 author of essays on ,modern     
,thinkers1 #ahhj1 to which ,colonel     
,ingersoll wrote an introduction4 ,he   
contributed a paper on the value of     
irreligion to the ,religio  ,philosophic
 journal of ,america1 ,jan4 '#gh1 and   
has written in the  ,truthseeker and    
other journals4    ,denton 7,william    
,f471 poet1 geologist1 and lecturer1 b4 
,darlington1  ,durham1 #h ,jan4 #ahbc4  
,after attaining manhood he emigrated to
 the  ,united ,states1 '#dh1 and in '#ef
 published ,poems for ,reformers4 ,he   
was  a prolific writer1 and constant    
lecturer on temperance1 psychology1     
geology1 and ,freethought4 ,in '#gb he  
published ,radical ,discourses  on      
,religious ,subjects 7,boston1 '#gb71   
and ,radical ,rhymes1 '#gi4 ,he         
travelled to ,australasia1 and died of a
 fever while conducting  scientific     
explorations in ,new ,guinea #bf ,aug4  

#ahhc4    ,de ,paepe 7,csar7 ,dr41      
,belgian ,socialist1 b4 ,ostend1 #ab    
,july1 #ahdb4 ,he  was sent to the      
college of ,st4 ,michel1 ,brussels4 ,he 
obtained the  ,diploma of ,candidate of 
,philosophy1 but on the death of his    
father  became a printer with ,dsir     
,brisme 7founder of ,les ,solidaires1  a
 ,rationalist society74 ,proudhon       
confided to him the correction of  his  
works4 ,he became a physician and is    
popular with the workmen's  societies4  
,he was one of the foremost members of  
the ,international and  attended all its
 congresses1 as well as those of the    
,international  ,federation of          
,freethinkers4 ,he has written much on  
public hygiene1  political economy1 and 
psychology1 collaborating in a great    
number of  the most advanced journals4  
,dr4 ,de ,paepe is a short1 fair1       
energetic  man1 capable both as a       
speaker and writer4    ,depasse         
7,hector71 ,french writer1 b4 at        
,armentires in #ahdc1 is  editor of ,la 

,rpublique ,franaise1 and member of the 
,paris ,municipal  ,council4 ,he has    
written a striking work on ,clericalism1
 in which he  urges the separation of   
,church and ,state1 #ahgg2 and is author
 of many  little books on ,contemporary 
,celebrities1 among them are ,gambetta1 
,bert1 ,ranc1 etc4    ,de ,ponnat4 ,see 
,ponnat 7--de71 ,baron4    ,de ,pontan4 
,see ,ponnat4    ,de ,potter 7,agathon  
,louis71 ,belgian economist1 b4         
,brussels1 #aa  ,nov4 #ahbg4 ,has       
written many works on ,social ,science1 
and has  collaborated to ,la ,ragione   
7,reason71 '#ef1 and ,la ,philosophie de
  l',avenir4    ,de ,potter 7,louis     
,antoine ,joseph71 ,belgian politician  
and writer1  father of the above1 b4 of 
noble family1 ,bruges1 #bf ,april1      
#aghf4 ,in  #ahaa he went to ,italy and 
lived ten years at ,rome4 ,in '#ba he   
wrote the  ,spirit of the ,church1 in #f
 vols41 which are put on the ,roman     
,index4 ,a  strong upholder of secular  
education in ,belgium1 he was arrested  

more than once for his radicalism1 being
 imprisoned for eighteen  months in     
'#bh4 ,in ,sept4 '#cj he became a member
 of the provisional  government4 ,he was
 afterwards exiled and lived in ,paris1 
where he wrote  a philosophical and     
anti-clerical ,history of ,christianity1
 in #h vols41  #ahcf-cg4 ,he also wrote 
a ,rational ,catechism1 #ahed1 and a    
,rational  ,dictionary1 #ahei1 and      
numerous brochures4 ,died ,bruges1 #bb  
,july1 #ahei4    ,deraismes 7,maria71   
,french writer and lecturer1 b4 ,paris1 
#ae  ,aug4 #ahce4 ,she first made her   
name as a writer of comedies4 ,she wrote
  an appeal on behalf of her sex1 ,aux  
,femmes ,riches1 '#fe4 ,the ,masonic    
,lodge of ,le ,pecq1 near ,paris1       
invited her to become a member1 and she 
was duly installed under the ,grand     
,orient of ,france4 ,the first female   
,freemason1 was president of the ,paris 
,anti-clerical ,congress of #ahha1  and 
has written much in her journal1 ,le    
,rpublicain de ,seine et ,oise4    ,de  

,roberty 7,eugene74 ,see ,roberty4      
,desbarreaux 7,jacques ,valle71         
,seigneur1 ,french poet and sceptic1  b4
 ,paris1 #afjb1 great-nephew of         
,geoffrey ,valle1 who was burnt in      
#aegd4 ,many stories are related of his 
impiety1 e4g4 the well-known  one of his
 having a feast of eggs and bacon4 ,it  
thundered1 and ,des  ,barreaux1 throwing
 the plate out of window1 exclaimed1    
,what an amount  of noise over an       
omelette4 ,it was said he recanted and  
wrote a poem  beginning1 ,great ,god1   
how just are thy chastisements4         
,voltaire1  however1 assigns this poem  
to the ,abb ,levau4 ,died at ,chalons1  
#i ,may1 #afgc4    ,descartes 7,ren71   
,french philosopher1 b4 at ,la ,haye1   
#ca ,march1  #aeif4 ,after leaving      
college he entered the army in '#af1 and
 fought  in the battle of ,prague4 ,he  
travelled in ,france and ,italy1 and in 
'#bi settled in ,holland4 ,in '#cg he   
produced his famous ,discourses upon    
the ,method of ,reasoning ,well1 etc41  

and in '#da his ,meditations upon       
,first ,philosophy4 ,this work gave such
 offence to the clergy that he  was     
forced to fly his country parce qu'il y 
fait trop chaud pour  lui4 ,he burnt his
 ,traite du ,monde 7,treatise on the    
,world7 lest  he should incur the fate  
of ,gallilei4 ,though a ,theist1 like   
,bacon1  he puts aside final causes4 ,he
 was offered an asylum by ,christina1   
,queen of ,sweden1 and died at          
,stockholm #aa ,feb4 #afej4             
,deschamps 7,lger-,marie71 known also as
 ,dom ,deschamps1 a ,french             
philosopher1 b4 ,rennes1 ,poitiers1 #aj 
,jan4 #agaf4 ,he entered the ,order  of 
,benedictines1 but lost his faith by    
reading an abridgment of  the ,old      
,testament4 ,he became correspondent of 
,voltaire1 ,rousseau1  d',alembert1     
,helvetius1 and other philosophers4 ,ce 
prtre athe1  as ,ad4 ,franck calls him1 
was the author of a treatise entitled   
,la  ,vrit1 ou le ,vrai ,systme1 in     
which he appears to have anticipated    

all the leading ideas of ,hegel4 ,god1  
he says1 as separated from  existing    
things1 is pure nothingness4 ,an        
analysis of his remarkable  work1 which 
remained in manuscript for              
three-quarters of a century1  has been  
published by ,professor ,beaussire      
7,paris1 #ahee74 ,died at               
,montreuil-,bellay1 #ai ,april #aggd4   
,deslandes 7,andr ,franois ,boureau71 b4
 ,pondichery1 #afij4 ,became member  of 
the ,berlin ,academy and wrote numerous 
works1 mostly under the veil  of        
anonymity1 the principal being ,a       
,critical ,history of ,philosophy1  #c  
vols7#agcg74 ,his ,pygmalion1 a         
philosophical romance1 was condemned by 
the parliament of ,dijon1 #agdb4 ,his   
,reflexions sur les grands hommes  qui  
sont mort en ,plaisantant 7,amsterdam1  
#agcb7 was translated into  ,english and
 published in #agde under the title1    
,dying ,merrily4 ,another  work directed
 against religion was ,on the certainty 
of ,human ,knowledge1  a philosophical  

examination of the different            
prerogatives of reason  and faith       
7,london1 #agda74 ,died ,paris1 #aa     
,april1 #ageg4    ,des ,maizeaux        
7,pierre71 miscellaneous writer1 b4     
,auvergne1 #afgc4 ,he  studied at ,berne
 and ,geneva1 and became known to ,bayle
 who introduced  him to ,lord           
,shaftesbury1 with whom he came to      
,london1 #afii4 ,he edited  the works of
 ,bayle1 ,saint ,evremond and ,toland1  
whose lives he wrote1  as well as those 
of ,hales and ,chillingworth4 ,anthony  
,collins was his  friend1 and at his    
death left him his manuscripts4 ,these  
he transferred  to ,collins's widow and 
they were burnt4 ,he repented and       
returned the  money1 #f ,jan4 #agcj1 as 
the wages of iniquity4 ,he became       
,secretary of  the ,royal ,society of   
,london1 where he died1 #aa ,july1      
#agde4    ,desmoulins 7,luci ,simplice  
,camille ,benit71 ,french revolutionary 
writer1 b4 ,guise1 #b ,march1 #agfj4 ,he
 was a fellow-student of ,robespierre   

at ,paris1 and became an advocate and an
 enthusiastic reformer4 ,in  ,july '#hi 
he incited the people to the siege of   
the ,bastille1  and thus began the      
,revolution4 ,on #bi ,dec4 #agij he     
married ,lucile  ,laridon-,duplessis4   
,he edited ,le ,vieux ,cordelier and the
 ,rvolutions  de ,france et de ,brabant1
 in which he stated that ,mohammedanism 
was  as credible as ,christianity4 ,he  
was a ,deist1 preferring ,paganism to   
,christianity4 ,both creeds were more or
 less unreasonable2 but1 folly  for     
folly1 he said1 ,i prefer ,hercules     
slaying the ,erymanthean boar  to ,jesus
 of ,nazareth drowning two thousand     
pigs4 ,he was executed  with ,danton1 #e
 ,april #agid4 ,his amiable wife1       
,lucile1 who was an  ,atheist 7b4       
#aggj71 in a few days shared his fate   
7,april #ac74 ,carlyle  calls           
,desmoulins a man of genius1 a fellow of
 infinite shrewdness1  wit--nay1 humor4 
,des ,periers 7,jean ,bonaventure71     
,french poet and sceptic1  b4 ,arnay le 

,duc1 about #aeaj4 ,he was brought up in
 a convent1  only to detest the vices of
 the monks4 ,in #aece he lived in ,lyons
  and assisted ,dolet4 ,he probably knew
 ,rabelais1 whom he mentions as         
,francoys ,insigne4 ,attached to the    
court of ,marguerite of ,valois1  he    
defended ,clement ,marot when persecuted
 for making a ,french version  of the   
,psalms4 ,he wrote the ,cymbalum ,mundi1
 a satire upon religion1  published     
under the name of ,thomas de ,clenier   
,pierre ,tryocan1  i4e41 ,thomas        
,incrdule  ,pierre ,croyant1 #aecg4 ,it 
was suppressed  and the printer1 ,jehan 
,morin1 imprisoned4 ,des ,periers fled  
and  died 7probably by suicide1 to      
escape persecution7 #aedd4 ,an ,english 
version of ,cymbalum ,mundi was         
published in #agab4 ,p4 ,g4 ,brunet1 the
  bibliographer1 conjectures that ,des  
,periers was the author of the  famous  
,atheistic treatise1 ,the ,three        
,impostors4    ,destriveaux 7,pierre    
,joseph71 ,belgian lawyer and           

politician1 b4 ,lige1  #ac ,march1      
#aghj4 ,author of several works on      
public right4 ,died  ,schaerbeck        
7,brussels71 #c ,feb4 #ahec4    ,destutt
 de ,tracy 7,antoine ,louis de ,claude7 
,count1 ,french materialist             
philosopher1 b4 #bj ,july1 #aged4 ,his  
family was of ,scotch origin4 ,at  first
 a soldier1 he was one of the first     
noblemen at the ,revolution  to despoil 
himself of his title4 ,a friend of      
,lafayette1 ,condorcet1  and ,cabanis1  
he was a complete sceptic in religion2  
made an analysis  of ,dupuis' ,origine  
de tous les ,cultes 7#ahjd71 edited     
,montesquieu and  ,cabanis1 was made a  
member of the ,french ,academy 7#ahjh71 
and wrote  several philosophical works1 
of which the principal is ,elements of  
,ideology4 ,he was a great admirer of   
,hobbes4 ,died ,paris1 #i ,march1 #ahcf4
    ,des ,vignes 7,pietro71 secretary to
 ,frederick ,,ii4 7#abde-di74           
,mazzuchelli  attributes to him the     
treatise ,de ,tribus ,impostoribus4     

,detrosier 7,rowland71 social reformer  
and lecturer1 b4 #agif1 the             
illegitimate son of a ,manchester man   
named ,morris and a ,frenchwoman4 ,in   
his early years he was for whole days   
without food4 ,self-educated1  he       
established the first ,mechanics'       
,institute in ,england at ,hulme1  gave 
,sunday scientific lectures1 and        
published several discourses  in favor  
of secular education4 ,he became        
secretary of the ,national  ,political  
,union4 ,he was a ,deist4 ,like         
,bentham1 who became his friend1  he    
bequeathed his body for scientific      
purposes4 ,died in ,london1  #bc ,nov4  
#ahcd4    ,deubler 7,konrad74 ,the son  
of poor parents1 b4 ,goisern1 near      
,ischl1  ,upper ,austria1 #bf ,nov4     
#ahad4 ,self-taught amid difficulties1  
he became the friend of ,feuerbach and  
,strauss1 and was known as  the ,peasant
 ,philosopher4 ,in #ahed he was indicted
 for blasphemy1  and was sentenced to   
two years' hard labor and imprisonment  

during  pleasure4 ,he was incarcerated  
from #g ,dec4 '#ed1 till ,nov4 '#ef at  
,brnn1  and afterwards at ,olmutz1 where
 he was released #bd ,march1 #aheg4 ,he 
returned to his native place1 and was   
visited by ,feuerbach4 ,in '#gj  he was 
made ,burgomaster by his                
fellow-townsmen4 ,died #cj ,march1      
#ahhd4    ,deurhoff 7,willem71 ,dutch   
writer1 b4 ,amsterdam1 ,march #afej4    
,educated  for the ,church1 he gave     
himself to philosophy1 translated the   
works of  ,descartes1 and was accused of
 being a follower of ,spinoza4 ,forced  
to  leave his country1 he took refuge in
 ,brabant1 but returned to ,holland1    
where he died #aj ,oct4 #agag4 ,he left 
some followers4    ,de ,wette4 7,see    
,wette ,m4 ,l4 de74    ,d',holbach4 ,see
 ,holbach 7,p4 ,h4 ,d4 von71 ,baron4    
,diagoras1 ,greek poet1 philosopher1 and
 orator1 known as the ,atheist1  b4     
,melos4 ,a pupil of ,democritus1 who is 
said to have freed him from  slavery4 ,a
 doubtful tradition reports that he     

became an ,atheist after  being the     
victim of an unpunished perjury4 ,he was
 accused 7,b4,c4 #daa7  of impiety1 and 
had to fly from ,athens to ,corinth1    
where he died4 ,a  price was put upon   
the ,atheist's head4 ,his works are not 
extant1  but several anecdotes are      
related of him1 as that he threw a      
wooden  statue of ,hercules into the    
fire to cook a dish of lentils1 saying  
the  god had a thirteenth task to       
perform2 and that1 being on his flight  
by sea overtaken by a storm1 hearing his
 fellow-passengers say it  was because  
an ,atheist was on board1 he pointed to 
other vessels  struggling in the same   
storm without being laden with a        
,diagoras4    ,di ,cagno ,politi        
7,niccola ,annibale71 ,italian          
,positivist1 b4 ,bari1  #aheg4 ,studied 
at ,naples under ,angiulli1 has written 
on modern culture  and on experimental  
philosophy in ,italy1 and contributed   
articles on  ,positivism to the ,rivista
 ,europea4    ,diderot 7,denis71 ,french

 philosopher1 b4 ,langres1 #f ,oct4     
#agac4 ,his  father1 a cutler1 intended 
him for the ,church4 ,educated by       
,jesuits1  at the age of twelve he      
received the tonsure4 ,he had a passion 
for  books1 but1 instead of becoming a  
,jesuit1 went to ,paris1 where he       
supported himself by teaching and       
translating4 ,in #agdf he published     
,philosophic ,thoughts1 which was       
condemned to be burnt4 ,it did much  to 
advance freedom of opinion4 ,three years
 later his ,letters on the  ,blind      
occasioned his imprisonment at          
,vincennes for its materialistic        
,atheism4 ,rousseau1 who called him a   
transcendent genius1 visited  ,diderot  
in prison1 where he remained three      
years4 ,diderot projected the  famous   
,encyclopdie1 which he edited with      
,alembert1 and he contributed  some of  
the most important articles4 ,with very 
inadequate recompense1  and amidst      
difficulties that would have appalled an
 ordinary editor1  ,diderot             

superintended the undertaking for many  
years 7#agea-fe74 ,he also  contributed 
to other important works1 such as       
,raynal's ,philosophic  ,history1       
,l',esprit1 by ,helvetius1 and ,the     
,system of ,nature and other  works of  
his friend ,d',holbach4 ,diderot's      
fertile mind also produced  dramas1     
essays1 sketches1 and novels4 ,died #cj 
,july1 #aghd4 ,comte calls  ,diderot the
 greatest thinker of the eighteenth     
century4    ,diercks 7,gustav71 ,german 
author of able works on the ,history of 
the  ,development of ,human ,spirit     
7,berlin1 #ahha-b7 and on ,arabian      
,culture  in ,spain1 #ahhg4 ,is a member
 of the ,german ,freethinkers' ,union4  
,dilke 7,ashton ,wentworth71 b4 #ahej4  
,educated at ,cambridge1 travelled  in  
,russia and ,central ,asia1 and         
published a translation of ,turgenev's  
,virgin ,soil4 ,he purchased and edited 
the ,weekly ,dispatch2 was returned  as 
,m4,p4 for ,newcastle in #ahhj1 but1    
owing to ill health1 resigned in  favor 

of ,john ,morley1 and died at ,algiers  
#ab ,march1 #ahhc4    ,dinter 7,gustav  
,friedrich71 ,german educationalist1 b4 
,borna1 near  ,leipsic1 #bi ,feb4 #agfj4
 ,his ,bible for ,schoolmasters is his  
best-known  work4 ,it sought to give    
rational notes and explanations of the  
,jew  books1 and excited much           
controversy4 ,died at ,konigsberg1 #bi  
,may1 #ahca4    ,dippel 7,johann        
,konrad71 ,german alchemist and         
physician1 b4 #aj  ,aug4 #afgb1 at      
,frankenstein1 near ,darmstadt4 ,his    
,papismus vapulans  ,protestantium      
7#afih7 drew on him the wrath of the    
theologians of  ,giessen1 and he had to 
flee for his life4 ,attempting to find  
out the  philosopher's stone1 he        
discovered ,prussian blue4 ,in #agje he 
published  his satires against the      
,protestant ,church1 ,hirt und eine     
,heerde1  under the name of ,christianus
 ,democritos4 ,he denied the inspiration
  of the ,bible1 and after an           
adventurous life in many countries died 

#be ,april1 #agcd4    ,dobrolyubov      
7,nikolai ,aleksandrovich71 ,russian    
author1 b4 #ahcf1 at  ,nijni ,novgorod1 
the son of a priest4 ,educated at ,st4  
,petersburg1 he  became a radical       
journalist4 ,his works were edited in   
four vols4 by  ,chernuishevsky4 ,died   
#ag ,nov4 #ahfa4    ,dodel-,port 7,prof4
 ,arnold71 ,swiss scientist1 b4         
,affeltrangen1 ,thurgau1  #af ,oct4     
#ahdc4 ,educated at ,kreuzlingen1 he    
became in '#fc teacher in  the          
,oberschule in ,hauptweil2 then studied 
from '#fd-'fi at ,geneva1  ,zrich1 and  
,munich1 becoming privat docent in the  
,university of  ,zrich1 '#gj4 ,in '#ge  
he published ,the ,new ,history of      
,creation4 ,in  '#gh he issued his      
world-famous ,botanical ,atlas1 and was 
in '#hj made  ,professor of ,botany in  
the ,zrich ,university and ,director of 
the  ,botanical ,laboratory4 ,he has    
also written ,biological ,fragments     
7#ahhe71  the ,life and ,letters of     
,konrad ,deubler1 the peasant           

philosopher  7#ahhf71 and has just      
published ,moses or ,darwin8 a ,school  
,question1  #ahhi4 ,dr4 ,dodel-,port is 
an hon4 member of the ,london ,royal    
,society  and ,vice-,president of the   
,german ,freethinkers' ,union4          
,dodwell 7,henry71 eldest son of the    
theologian of that name1 was  b4        
,shottesbrooke1 ,berkshire1 about the   
beginning of the eighteenth  century4   
,he was educated at ,magdalen ,hall1    
when he proceeded ,b4,a41  #i ,feb4     
#agbf4 ,in '#db he published a pamphlet 
entitled ,christianity  not ,founded on 
,argument1 which in a tone of grave     
irony contends that  ,christianity can  
only be accepted by faith4 ,he was      
brought up to the  law and was a zealous
 friend of the ,society for the         
,promotion of ,arts1  ,manufactures1 and
 ,commerce4 ,died #aghd4    ,doebereiner
 7,johann ,wolfgang71 ,german chemist1  
b4 ,bavaria1 #ae  ,dec4 #aghj4 ,in #ahaj
 he became ,professor of ,chemistry at  
,jena1 where  he added much to science4 

,died #bd ,march1 #ahdi4 ,he was friend 
and  instructor to ,goethe4    ,dolet   
7,etienne71 a learned ,french humanist1 
b4 ,orleans #c ,aug4 #aeji4 ,he  studied
 in ,paris1 ,padua and ,venice4 ,for his
 heresy he had to fly  from ,toulouse   
and lived for some time at ,lyons1 where
 he established  a printing-press and   
published some of his works1 for which  
he was  imprisoned4 ,he was acquainted  
with ,rabelais1 ,des ,periers1 and other
  advanced men of the time4 ,in #aedc   
the ,parliament condemned his books  to 
be burnt1 and in the next year he was   
arrested on a charge of  ,atheism4      
,after being kept two years in prison he
 was strangled and  burnt1 #c ,aug4     
#aedf4 ,it is related that seeing the   
sorrow of the crowd1  he said3 ,non     
dolet ipe ,dolet1 sed pia turba         
dolet4--,dolet grieves  not1 but the    
generous crowd grieves4 ,his goods being
 confiscated1  his widow and children   
were left to beggary4 ,the ,french      
language1  says ,a4 ,f4 ,didot1 owes him

 much for his treatises1 translations1  
and poesies4 ,dolet's biographer1 ,m4   
,joseph ,boulmier1 calls him le  ,christ
 de la pense libre4 ,philosophy has     
alone the right1 says  ,henri ,martin1  
to claim ,dolet on its side4 ,his       
,english biographer1  ,r4 ,c4 ,christie1
 says he was neither a ,catholic nor a  
,protestant4    ,dominicis 7,saverio    
,fausto de71 ,italian ,positivist       
philosopher1  b4 ,buonalbergo1 #ahdf4   
,is ,professor of ,philosophy at ,bari1 
and has  written on ,education and      
,darwinism4    ,dondorf 7,dr4 ,a471 ,see
 ,anderson 7,marie7 in ,supplement4     
,doray de ,longrais 7,jean ,paul71      
,french man of letters4 b4 ,manvieux1   
#agcf4 ,author of a ,freethought        
romance1 ,faustin1 or the ,philosophical
  ,age4 ,died at ,paris1 #ahjj4         
,dorsch 7,eduard71 ,german ,american    
,freethinker1 b4 ,warzburg #aj  ,jan4   
#ahbb4 ,he studied at ,munich and       
,vienna4 ,in '#di he went to ,america   
and settled in ,monroe1 ,michigan1 where

 he published a volume of poems1  some  
being translations from ,swinburne4     
,died #aj ,jan4 #ahhg4    ,dorsey 7,j4  
,m471 author of the ,the ,true ,history 
of ,moses1 and others1  an attack on the
 ,bible1 published at ,boston in #ahee4 
,draparnaud 7,jacques ,philippe         
,raymond71 ,french doctor1 b4 #c ,june1 
#aggb1  at ,montpelier1 where he became 
,professor of ,natural ,history4 ,his   
discourses on ,life and ,vital          
,functions1 and on the ,philosophy of   
the ,sciences and ,christianity 7#ahja71
 show his scepticism4 ,died #a  ,feb4   
#ahje4    ,draper 7,john ,william71     
scientist and historian1 b4 ,st4        
,helens1  near ,liverpool1 #e ,may      
#ahaa4 ,the son of a ,wesleyan minister1
 he was  educated at ,london            
,university4 ,in '#cb he emigrated to   
,america1  where he was ,professor of   
,chemistry and ,natural ,history in ,new
  ,york ,university4 ,he was one of the 
inventors of photography and the  first 
who applied it to astronomy4 ,he wrote  

many scientific works1  notably on      
,human ,physiology4 ,his history of the 
,american ,civil ,war  is an important  
work1 but he is chiefly known by his    
,history of the  ,intellectual          
,development of ,europe and ,history of 
the ,conflict of  ,religion and         
,science1 which last has gone through   
many editions and  been translated into 
all the principal languages4 ,died #d   
,jan4 #ahhb4    ,dreyfus 7,ferdinand    
,camille71 author of an able work on the
 ,evolution  of ,worlds and ,societies1 
#ahhh4    ,droysen 7,johann ,gustav71   
,german historian1 b4 ,treptoir1 #f     
,july1  #ahjh4 ,studied at ,berlin2     
wrote in the ,hallische ,jahrbcher2 was 
,professor of ,history at ,keil1 #ahdj2 
,jena '#ea and ,berlin '#ei4 ,has edited
  ,frederick the ,great's               
,correspondence1 and written other      
important  works1 some in conjunction   
with his friend ,max ,duncker4 ,died #ae
  ,june1 #ahhb4    ,drummond 7,sir      
,william71 of ,logie ,almond1 antiquary 

and author1  b4 about #aggj2 entered    
,parliament as member for ,st4 ,mawes1  
,cornwall1  #agie4 ,in the following    
year he became envoy to the court of    
,naples1  and in #ahja ambassador to    
,constantinople4 ,his principal work is 
,origines1 or ,remarks on the ,origin of
 several ,empires1 ,states1  and ,cities
 7#d vols4 #ahbd-bi74 ,he also printed  
privately ,the ,o,edipus  ,judaicus1    
#ahaa4 ,it calls in question1 with much 
boldness and learning1  many legends of 
the ,old ,testament1 to which it gave an
 astronomical  signification4 ,it was   
reprinted in '#ff4 ,sir ,william        
,drummond also  wrote anonymously       
,philosophical ,sketches of the         
,principles of ,society1  #agie4 ,died  
at ,rome1 #bi ,march1 #ahbh4    ,duboc  
7,julius7 ,german writer and doctor of  
philosophy b4 ,hamburg1 #aj  ,oct4      
#ahbi4 ,educated at ,frankfurt and      
,giessen1 is a clever journalist1  and  
has translated the ,history of the      
,english ,press4 ,has written  an       

,atheistic work1 ,das ,leben ,ohne ,gott
 7,life without ,god71 with the  motto  
from ,feuerbach ,no religion is my      
religion1 no philosophy my  philosophy1 
#ahge4 ,he has also written on the      
,psychology of ,love1  and other        
important works4    ,dubois 7,pierre71 a
 ,french sceptic1 who in #ahce published
 ,the ,true  ,catechism of ,believers--a
 work ordered by the ,court of ,assizes 
to  be suppressed1 and for which the    
author 7,sept4 '#ce7 was condemned to   
six months' imprisonment and a fine of  
one thousand francs4 ,he also  wrote    
,the ,believer ,undeceived1 or ,evident 
,proofs of the ,falsity and  ,absurdity 
of ,christianity2 a work put on the     
,index in '#cf4    ,du ,bois-,reymond   
7,emil71 biologist1 of ,swiss father and
 ,french  mother1 b4 ,berlin1 #g ,nov4  
#ahah4 ,he studied at ,berlin and ,bonn 
for  the ,church1 but left it to follow 
science1 '#cg4 ,has become famous as  a 
physiologist1 especially by his         
,researches in ,animal ,electricity1    

'#dh-fj4 ,with ,helmholtz he has done   
much to establish the new era  of       
positive science1 wrongly called by     
opponents ,materialism4 ,du             
,bois-,reymond holds that thought is a  
function of the brain and nervous       
system1 and that soul has arisen as the 
gradual results of natural              
combinations1 but in his ,limits of the 
,knowledge of ,nature1 '#gb1 he         
contends that we must always come to an 
ultimate incomprehensible4 ,du          
,bois-,reymond has written on ,voltaire 
and ,natural ,science1 '#fh2 ,la        
,mettrie1 '#ge2 ,darwin versus ,galiani1
 '#gh2 and ,frederick ,,ii4 and         
,rousseau1 '#gi4 ,since '#fg he has been
 perpetual secretary of the  ,academy of
 ,sciences1 ,berlin4    ,dubuisson      
7,paul ,ulrich71 ,french dramatist and  
revolutionary1 b4 ,lauat1  #agdf4 ,a    
friend of ,cloots he suffered with him  
on the scaffold1 #bd  ,march1 #agid4    
,dubuisson 7,paul71 living ,french      
,positivist1 author of ,grand ,types  of

 ,humanity4    ,du ,chatelet ,lomont4   
,see ,chastelet4    ,duclos 7,charles   
,pinot71 witty ,french writer1 b4       
,dinan1 #ab ,feb4 #agjd4 ,he  was       
admitted into the ,french ,academy1     
#agdg and became its secretary1  #agee4 
,a friend of ,diderot and d',alembert4  
,his ,considerations sur les  ,moeurs is
 still a readable work4 ,died #bg       
,march1 #aggb4    ,ducos 7,jean         
,franois71 ,french ,girondist1 b4       
,bordeaux in #agfe4 ,elected  to the    
,legislative ,assembly1 he1 on the #bfth
 ,oct4 #agia1 demanded  the complete    
separation of the ,state from religion4 
,he shared the  fate of the ,girondins1 
#ca ,oct4 #agic1 crying with his last   
breath1  ,vive la ,republique6    ,du   
,deffand 7,marie71 ,marchioness1 witty  
literary ,frenchwoman1  b4 #afig4       
,chamfort relates that when young and in
 a convent she preached  irreligion to  
her young comrades4 ,the abbess called  
in ,massillon1 to  whom the little      
sceptic gave her reasons4 ,he went away 

saying ,she  is charming4 ,her house in 
,paris was for fifty years the resort of
  eminent authors and statesmen4 ,she   
corresponded for many years with        
,horace ,walpole1 ,d',alembert and      
,voltaire4 ,many anecdotes are told of  
her2 thus1 to the ,cardinal de          
,polignac1 who spoke of the miracle of  
,st4 ,denis walking when beheaded1 she  
said ,il n'y a que le premier  pas qui  
cote4 ,died #bd ,sept4 #aghj4 ,to the   
cur of ,saint ,sulpice1  who came to her
 death-bed1 she said ,ni questions1 ni  
raisons1 ni  sermons4 ,larousse calls   
her ,belle1 instruite1 spirituelle mais 
sceptique et materialiste4    ,dudgeon  
7,william71 a ,berwickshire ,deist1     
whose works were published  7privately  
printed at ,edinburgh7 in #agfe4        
,dudnevant 7,a4 ,l4 ,a4 ,dupin71        
,baroness4 ,see ,sand 7,georges74       
,duehring 7,eugen ,karl71 ,german       
writer1 b4 ,berlin1 #ab ,jan4 #ahcc2    
studied  law4 ,he has1 though blind1    
written many works on science and       

political  economy1 also a ,critical    
,history of ,philosophy1 '#fi-gh1 and   
,science  ,revolutionized1 '#gh4 ,in    
,oct4 #ahgi1 his death was maliciously  
reported4    ,dulaure 7,jacques         
,antoine71 ,french archologist and      
historian1  b4 ,clermont-,ferrand1 #c   
,dec4 #agee4 ,in #aghh-ij he published  
six volumes  of a description of        
,france4 ,he wrote many pamphlets1      
including one  on the private lives of  
ecclesiastics4 ,elected to the          
,convention in  #agib1 he voted for the 
death of the ,king4 ,proscribed as a    
,girondist1  ,sept4 #agic1 he fled to   
,switzerland4 ,he was one of the        
,council of ,five  ,hundred1 #agif-ih4  
,dulaure wrote a learned ,treatise on   
,superstitions1  but he is best known by
 his ,history of ,paris1 and his ,short 
,history  of ,different ,worships1      
#ahbe1 in which he deals with ancient   
fetishism  and phallic worship4 ,died   
,paris1 #i ,aug4 #ahce4    ,dulaurens   
7,henri ,joseph74 ,french satirist1 b4  

,douay1 #bg ,march1 #agai4 ,he  was     
brought up in a convent1 and made a     
priest #ab ,nov4 #agbg4 ,published  a   
satire against the ,jesuits1 #agfa1 he  
was compelled to fly to  ,holland1 where
 he lived in poverty4 ,he edited        
,l',evangile de la ,raison1  a          
collection of anti-,christian tracts by 
,voltaire and others1 and  wrote        
,l',antipapisme rvel in #agfg4 ,he was  
in that year condemned  to perpetual    
imprisonment for heresy1 and shut in the
 convent of  ,mariabaum1 where he died  
#agig4 ,dulaurens was caustic1 cynical  
and  vivacious4 ,he is also credited    
with the ,portfolios of a ,philosopher1 
mostly taken from the ,analysis of      
,bayle1 ,cologne1 #aggj4    ,dulk       
7,albert ,friedrich ,benno71 ,german    
poet and writer1 b4 ,konigsberg1  #ag   
,june1 #ahai2 he became a physician1 but
 was expelled for aiding  in the        
,revolution of '#dh4 ,he travelled in   
,italy and ,egypt4 ,in '#fe  he         
published ,jesus der ,christ1 embodying 

rationalism in prose and  verse4 ,he has
 also written ,stimme der ,menschheit1  
#b vols41 '#gf1  '#hj1 and ,der ,irrgang
 des ,lebens ,jesu1 '#hd1 besides       
numerous plays  and pamphlets4 ,died #bi
 ,oct4 #ahhd4    ,dumont 7,lon71 ,french
 writer1 b4 ,valenciennes1 #ahcg4       
,studied for  the bar1 but took to      
philosophy and literature4 ,he early    
embraced  ,darwinism1 and wrote on      
,hckel and the ,theory of ,evolution1   
'#gc4 ,he  wrote in ,la ,revue          
,philosophique1 and other journals4     
,died ,valenciennes1  #ag ,jan4 #ahgg4  
,dumarsais 7,csar ,chesneau71 ,french   
grammarian and philosopher1  b4         
,marseilles1 #ag ,july1 #afgf4 ,when    
young he entered the congregation  of   
the oratory4 ,this society he soon      
quitted1 and went to ,paris1  where he  
married4 ,a friend of ,boindin and      
,alembert1 he wrote against  the        
pretensions of ,rome and contributed to 
the ,encyclopdie4 ,he is  credited with 
,an ,analysis of the ,christian         

,religion and with the  celebrated      
,essai sur les ,prjugs1 par ,mr4 ,d4    
,m41 but the latter was  probably       
written by ,holbach1 with notes by      
,naigeon4 ,le ,philosophe1  published in
 ,l',evangile de la ,raison by          
,dulaurens1 was written by  ,voltaire4  
,died #aa ,june1 #agef4 ,dumarsais was  
very simple in character1  and was      
styled by ,d',alembert the ,la ,fontaine
 of philosophers4    ,dumont 7,pierre   
,etienne ,louis71 ,swiss writer1 b4     
,geneva1 #ah ,july1  #agei4 ,was brought
 up as a minister1 but went to ,france  
and became  secretary to ,mirabeau4     
,after the ,revolution he came to       
,england1 where  he became acquainted   
with ,bentham1 whose works he           
translated4 ,died  ,milan1 #bi ,sept4   
#ahbi4    ,duncker 7,maximilian         
,wolfgang71 ,german historian1 b4       
,berlin1 #ae  ,oct4 #ahaa4 ,his chief   
work1 the ,history of ,antiquity1       
#aheb-eg1  thoroughly abolishes the old 
distinction of sacred and profane       

history1 and freely criticises the      
,jewish records4 ,a translation in  six 
volumes has been made by ,e4 ,abbot4    
,duncker took an active part  in the    
events of '#dh and '#ej1 and was        
appointed ,director-,general of  the    
,state ,archives4 ,died #bd ,july1      
#ahhf4    ,dupont 7,jacob ,louis71 a    
,french mathematician and member of the 
,national ,convention1 known as the ,abb
 ,dupont1 who1 #ad ,dec4 #agib1         
declared himself an ,atheist from the   
tribune of the ,convention4 ,died  at   
,paris in #ahac4    ,dupont de ,nemours 
7,pierre ,samuel71 ,french economist1 b4
 ,paris1 #ad  ,dec4 #agci4 ,he became   
,president of the ,constituent          
,assembly1 and was  a                   
,theophilantrophist4 ,died ,delaware1   
,u4,s4,a41 #f ,aug4 #ahag4    ,dupuis   
7,charles ,franois71 ,french astronomer 
and philosopher1  b4 ,trie-le-,chateau1 
#af ,oct4 #agdb4 ,he was educated for   
the ,church1 which  he left1 and married
 in #agge4 ,he studied under ,lalande1  

and wrote on  the origin of the         
constellations1 #agha4 ,in #aghh he     
became a member of  the ,academy of     
,inscriptions4 ,at the ,revolution he   
was chosen a member  of the ,convention4
 ,during the ,reign of ,terror he saved 
many lives at  his own risk4 ,he was    
afterwards one of the ,council of ,five 
,hundred1 and  president of the         
legislative body4 ,his chief work is on 
the ,origin of  ,religions1 #g vols41   
#agie1 in which he traces solar worship 
in various  faiths1 including           
,christianity4 ,this has been described 
as a monument  of the erudition of      
unbelief4 ,dupuis died near ,dijon1 #bi 
,sept4 #ahji4    ,dutrieux 7,pierre     
,joseph71 ,belgian physician1 b4        
,tournai1 #ai ,july1  #ahdh4 ,went to   
,cairo and became a ,bey4 ,died #a ,jan4
 #ahhi4    ,dutton 7,thomas71 ,m4,a41   
theatrical critic1 b4 ,london1 #agfg4   
,educated  by the ,moravians4 ,in #agie 
he published a ,vindication of the ,age 
of  ,reason by ,thomas ,paine4 ,he      

translated ,kotzebue's ,pizarro in      
,peru1  #agii1 and edited the ,dramatic 
,censor1 #ahjj1 and the ,monthly        
,theatrical  ,reporter1 #ahae4          
,duvernet 7,thophile ,imarigeon71       
,french writer1 b4 at ,ambert  #agcj4   
,he was brought up a ,jesuit1 became an 
,abb1 but mocked at  religion4 ,duvernet
 became tutor to ,saint ,simon4 ,for a  
political  pamphlet he was imprisoned in
 the ,bastille4 ,while here he wrote a  
curious and rare romance1 ,les          
,devotions de ,mme4 de ,bethzamooth4 ,he
  wrote on ,religious ,intolerance1     
#aghj1 and a ,history of the ,sorbonne1 
#agij1 but is best known by his ,life of
 ,voltaire 7#aghg74 ,in #agic  he wrote 
a letter to the ,convention1 in which he
 declares that  he renounces the        
religion born in a stable between an ox 
and an  ass4 ,died in #agif4    ,dyas   
7,richard ,h471 captain in the army4    
,author of ,the ,upas4 ,he resided  long
 in ,italy and translated several of the
 works of ,c4 ,voysey4    ,eaton        

7,daniel ,isaac71 bookseller1 b4 about  
#ageb1 was educated at the  ,jesuits'   
,college1 ,st4 ,omer4 ,being advised to 
study the ,bible1 he did  so1 with the  
result of discarding it as a revelation4
 ,in #agib he was  prosecuted for       
publishing ,paine's ,rights of ,man1 but
 the prosecution  fell through4 ,he     
afterwards published ,politics for the  
,people1 which  was also prosecuted1    
#agic1 as was his ,political            
,dictionary1 #agif4 ,to  escape         
punishment1 he fled to ,america1 and    
lived there for three years  and a half4
 ,upon returning to ,england1 his person
 and property were  seized4 ,books to   
the value of #b1hjj were burnt1 and he  
was imprisoned  for fifteen months4 ,he 
translated from ,helvetius and sold at  
his  ,rationcinatory or ,magazine for   
,truths and ,good ,sense1 #h ,cornhill1 
in #ahaj1 ,the ,true ,sense and ,meaning
 of the ,system of ,nature4 ,the ,law   
of ,nature had been previously          
translated by him4 ,in '#aa he issued   

the first and second parts of ,paine's  
,age of ,reason1 and on #f ,march1      
'#ab1 was tried before ,lord            
,ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy  
for issuing the third and last part4 ,he
 was sentenced to eighteen  months'     
imprisonment and to stand in the        
pillory4 ,the sentence evoked           
,shelley's spirited ,letter to ,lord    
,ellenborough4 ,eaton translated and    
published ,freret's ,preservative       
against ,religious ,prejudices1 #ahab1  
and shortly before his death1 at        
,deptford1 #bb ,aug4 #ahad1 he was again
  prosecuted for publishing ,george     
,houston's ,ecce ,homo4    ,eberhard    
7,johann ,august71 ,german ,deist1 b4   
,halberstadt1 #ca ,aug4 #agci1  was     
brought up in the church1 but persecuted
 for heresy in his ,new  ,apology for   
,socrates1 #aggb1 was patronised by     
,frederick the ,great1  and appointed   
,professor of ,philosophy at ,halle1    
where he opposed  the idealism of ,kant 
and ,fichte4 ,he wrote a ,history of    

,philosophy1  #aghh4 ,died ,halle1 #g   
,jan4 #ahji4    ,eberty 7,gustav71      
,german ,freethinker1 b4 #b ,july1      
#ahjf4 ,author of some  controversial   
works4 ,died ,berlin1 #aj ,feb4 #ahhg4  
,echtermeyer 7,ernst ,theodor71 ,german 
critic1 b4 ,liebenwerda1 #ahje4 ,he     
studied at ,halle and ,berlin1 and      
founded1 with ,a4 ,ruge1 the ,hallische 
,jahrbcher1 which contained many        
,freethought articles1 #ahcg-db4 ,he    
taught at ,halle and ,dresden1 where he 
died1 #f ,may1 #ahdd4    ,edelmann      
7,johann ,christian71 ,german ,deist1 b4
 ,weissenfels1 ,saxony1  #i ,july1      
#afih2 studied theology in ,jena1 joined
 the ,moravians1  but left them and     
every form of ,christianity1 becoming an
 adherent  of ,spinozism4 ,his principal
 works are his ,unschuldige ,wahrheiten1
  #agce 7,innocent ,truths71 in which he
 argues that no religion is of          
importance1 and ,moses mit ,aufgedecktem
 ,angesicht 7,moses ,unmasked71  #agdj1 
an attack on the ,old ,testament1 which1

 he believed1 proceeded  from ,ezra2    
,die ,gttlichkeit der ,vernunft 7,the   
,divinity of ,reason71  #agda1 and      
,christ and ,belial4 ,his works excited 
much controversy1 and  were publicly    
burnt at ,frankfort1 #i ,may1 #agej4    
,edelmann was chased  from ,brunswick   
and ,hamburg1 but was protected by      
,frederick the ,great1  and died at     
,berlin1 #ae ,feb4 #agfg4 ,mirabeau     
praised him1 and ,guizot  calls him a   
fameux esprit fort4    ,edison 7,thomas 
,alva71 ,american inventor1 b4 ,milan1  
,ohio1 #aj  ,feb4 #ahdg4 ,as a boy he   
sold fruit and papers at the trains4 ,he
 read1  however1 ,gibbon1 ,hume and     
other important works before he was ten4
 ,he  afterwards set up a paper of his  
own1 then became telegraph operator1    
studied electricity1 invented electric  
light1 the electric pen1  the telephone1
 microphone1 phonograph1 etc4 ,edison is
 known to be an  ,agnostic and to pay no
 attention to religion4    ,eenens      
7,ferdinand71 ,belgian writer1 b4       

,brussels1 #g ,dec4 #ahaa4 ,eenens  was 
an officer in the ,belgian army1 and    
wrote many political and  anti-clerical 
pamphlets4 ,he also wrote ,la ,vrit1 a  
work on the  ,christian faith1 #ahei2   
,le ,paradis ,terrestre1 '#fj1 an       
examination of  the legend of ,eden1 and
 ,du ,dieu ,thaumaturge1 '#gf4 ,he used 
the pen  names ,le ,pre ,nicaise1       
,nicodme ,polycarpe and ,timon ,,iii4   
,died  at ,brussels in #ahhc4    ,effen 
7,justus van71 ,dutch writer1 b4        
,utrecht1 #aa ,feb4 #afhd4 ,edited the  
,misanthrope1 ,amsterdam1 #agab-af2     
translated ,robinson ,crusoe1 ,swift's  
,tale of a ,tub1 and ,mandeville's      
,thoughts on ,religion1 #agbb2 published
  the ,dutch ,spectator1 #agca-ce4 ,died
 at ,bois-le-,duc1 #ah ,sept4 #agce4    
,eichhorn 7,johann ,gottfried71 ,german 
,orientalist and rationalist1 b4 #af    
,oct4 #ageb1 became ,professor of       
,oriental ,literature and afterwards    
,professor of ,theology at ,gottingen4  
,he published ,introductions to  the    

,old and ,new ,testaments and ,a        
,commentary on the ,apocalypse1 in      
which his criticism tends to uproot     
belief in the ,bible as a divine        
revelation4 ,he lectured every day for  
fifty-two years4 ,died #be ,june1       
#ahbg4    ,elborch 7,conrad von71 the   
pseudonym of a living learned ,dutch    
writer1  whose position does not permit 
him to reveal his true name4 ,born  #ad 
,jan4 #ahfe1 he has contributed to ,de  
,dageraad 7,the ,daybreak71  under      
various pen-names1 as ,fra ,diavolo1    
,denis ,bontemps1 ,j4 ,van  den ,ende1  
etc4 ,he has given1 in '#hh1 a          
translation of the rare and  famous     
,latin treatise1 ,de ,tribus            
,impostoribus 7,on ,three ,impostors7   
,jesus1 ,moses1 and ,muhammad1 with an  
important bibliographic and  historical 
introduction4    ,eliot 7,george71 the  
pen-name of ,mary ,ann ,lewes 7ne       
,evans7 one of  the greatest novelists  
of the century1 b4 at ,arbury ,farm1    
near ,griff1  ,warwickshire1 #bb ,nov4  

#ahai4 ,in '#da the family removed to   
,foleshill1  near ,coventry4 ,here she  
made the friendship of the household of 
,charles ,bray1 and changed her views   
from ,evangelical ,christianity  to     
philosophical scepticism4 ,influenced by
 ,the ,inquiry into the  ,origin of     
,christianity1 by ,c4 ,c4 ,hennell      
7,bray's brother-in-law71  she made an  
analysis of that work4 ,her first       
literary venture was  translating       
,strauss' ,leben ,jesu1 published in    
#ahdf4 ,after the death  of her father  
7'#di7 she travelled with the ,brays    
upon the ,continent1  and upon her      
return assisted ,dr4 ,chapman in the    
editorship of the  ,westminster ,review1
 to which she contributed several       
articles4 ,she  translated ,feuerbach's 
,essence of ,christianity1 '#ed1 the    
only work  published with her real name1
 and also translated from ,spinoza's    
,ethics4 ,introduced by ,herbert        
,spencer to ,george ,henry ,lewes1 she  
linked her life with his in defiance of 

the conventions of society1  ,july1     
'#ed4 ,both were poor1 but by his advice
 she turned to fiction1  in which she   
soon achieved success4 ,her ,scenes of  
,clerical ,life1 ,adam  ,bede1 ,mill on 
the ,floss1 ,silas ,marner1 ,romola1    
,felix ,holt1 ,middlemarch1  ,daniel    
,deronda1 and ,theophrastus ,such have  
become classics4 ,as a poet1  ,george   
,eliot does not rank so high1 but her   
little piece1 ,oh1  may ,i join the     
choir invisible1 well expresses the     
emotion of the  ,religion of ,humanity1 
and her ,spanish ,gipsy she allowed was 
a mass  of ,positivism4 ,lewes died in  
#ahgh1 and within two years she married 
his friend1 ,j4 ,w4 ,cross4 ,her new    
happiness was short-lived4 ,she died    
#bb ,dec4 #ahhj1 and is buried with     
,lewes at ,highgate4    ,ellero         
7,pietro7 ,italian jurisconsult1 b4     
,pordenone1 #h ,oct4 #ahcc1  ,counsellor
 of the ,high ,court of ,rome1 has been 
,professor of ,criminal  ,law in the    
,university of ,bologna4 ,author of many

 works on legal and  social questions4  
,his ,scritti ,minori1 ,scritti         
,politici and ,la ,question  ,sociale   
have the honor of a place on the ,roman 
,index4    ,elliotson 7,john1 ,m4,d41   
,f4,r4,s471 an eminent medical man1 b4  
,london1  #agia4 ,he became physician at
 ,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital in #ahbb1 and 
made  many contributions to medical     
science4 ,by new prescriptions of       
quinine1  creasote1 etc41 he excited    
much hostility in the profession4 ,he   
was  the first in this country to       
advocate the use of the stethoscope4 ,he
  was also the first physician to       
discard knee-breeches and silk          
stockings1 and to wear a beard4 ,in '#ca
 he was chosen ,professor at            
,university ,college1 but1 becoming an  
advocate of curative mesmerism1  he     
resigned his appointments1 '#ch4 ,he was
 founder and ,president of the  ,london 
,phrenological ,society1 and1 in        
addition to many medical works1  edited 
the ,zoist 7thirteen vols471 translated 

,blumenbach's ,physiology1  and wrote an
 introduction to ,engledue's ,cerebral  
,physiology1 defending  materialism4    
,thackeray dedicated ,pendennis to him1 
'#ej1 and he received  a tribute of     
praise from ,dickens4 ,died at ,london1 
#bi ,july1 #ahfh4    ,eichthal 7,gustave
 d'71 ,french writer1 b4 of ,jewish     
family1 ,nancy1  #bb ,march1 #ahjd4 ,he 
became a follower of ,saint ,simon1 was 
one of the  founders of the ,socit      
d',ethnologie1 and published ,les       
,evangiles1 a  critical analysis of the 
gospels1 #b vols1 ,paris1 '#fc4 ,this he
 followed  by ,the ,three ,great        
,mediterranean ,nations and             
,christianity and ,socrates  and our    
,time1 '#hd4 ,he died at ,paris1 ,april1
 #ahhf1 and his son published  his      
,mlanges de ,critique ,biblique         
7,miscellanies of ,biblical ,criticism71
  in which there is an able study on the
 name and character of ,jahveh4         
,emerson 7,ralph ,waldo71 ,american     
essayist1 poet1 and philosopher1  b4    

,boston #be ,may1 #ahjc4 ,he came of a  
line of ministers1 and was  brought up  
like his father1 educated at ,harvard   
,college1 and ordained  as a ,unitarian 
minister1 #ahbi4 ,becoming too broad for
 the ,church1  he resigned in '#cb4 ,in 
the next year he came to ,europe1       
visiting  ,carlyle4 ,on his return he   
settled at ,concord1 giving occasional  
lectures1 most of which have been       
published4 ,he wrote to the ,dial1 a    
transcendentalist paper4 ,tending to    
idealistic pantheism1 but without       
systematic philosophy1 all his writings 
are most suggestive1 and he  is always  
the champion of mental freedom1         
self-reliance1 and the free  pursuit of 
science4 ,died at ,concord1 #bg ,april1 
#ahhb4 ,matthew ,arnold  has pronounced 
his essays the most important work done 
in prose  in this century4    ,emerson  
7,william71 ,english mathematician1 b4  
,hurworth1 near ,darlington1  #ad ,may1 
#agja4 ,he conducted a school and wrote 
numerous works on  ,mathematics4 ,his   

vigorous1 if eccentric1 individuality   
attracted  ,carlyle1 who said to ,mrs4  
,gilchrist1 ,emerson was a ,freethinker 
who  looked on his neighbor1 the parson1
 as a humbug4 ,he seems to have         
defended himself in silence the best way
 he could against the noisy  clamor and 
unreal stuff going on around him4 ,died 
#ba ,may1 #aghb4 ,he  compiled a list of
 ,bible contradictions4    ,emmet       
7,robert71 ,irish revolutionist1 b4 in  
,dublin #aggh1 was educated  as a       
barrister4 ,expelled from ,dublin       
,university for his sympathy with  the  
,national ,cause in #agih2 he went to   
the ,continent1 but returned in  #ahjb  
to plan an ill-starred insurrection1 for
 which he was executed #bj  ,sept4      
#ahjc4 ,emmet made a thrilling speech   
before receiving sentence1  and on the  
scaffold refused the services of a      
priest4 ,it is well  known that his     
desire to see once more his sweetheart1 
the daughter  of ,curran1 was the cause 
of his capture and execution4           

,engledue 7,william ,collins71 ,m4,d41  
b4 ,portsea #ahac4 ,after taking his    
degree at ,edinburgh1 he became         
assistant to ,dr4 ,lizars and was       
elected  ,president of the ,royal       
,medical ,society of ,edinburgh4 ,he    
returned  to ,portsmouth in #ahce2      
originated the ,royal ,portsmouth       
,hospital and  established public baths 
and washhouses4 ,he contributed to the  
,zoist  and published an exposition of  
materialism under the title of ,cerebral
  ,physiology1 #ahdb1 republished by ,j4
 ,watson1 #aheg4 ,died ,jan4 #ahei4     
,english 7,george ,bethune71 ,american  
writer and linguist1 b4 ,cambridge1     
,mass41 #g ,march1 #aghg4 ,he studied   
law and divinity1 and graduated  at     
,harvard1 #ahjg1 but becoming sceptical 
published ,grounds of  ,christianity    
,examined1 #ahac4 ,the work excited some
 controversy1  and has been reprinted at
 ,toronto1 #ahci4 ,he joined the        
,egyptian  service and became ,general  
of ,artillery4 ,he had a variable genius

  and a gift of languages4 ,at          
,marseilles he passed for a ,turk with  
a ,turkish ambassador2 and at           
,washington he surprised a delegation   
of ,cherokees by disputing with them in 
their own tongue4 ,he wrote a  reply to 
his critics1 entitled ,five ,smooth     
,stones out of the ,brook1  and two     
letters to ,channing on his sermons     
against infidelity4 ,died  at           
,washington1 #bj ,sept4 #ahbh4    ,ense 
7,varnhagen von74 ,see ,varnhagen4      
,ensor 7,george71 an ,irish writer1 b4  
,loughgall1 #agfi4 ,educated at         
,trinity ,college2 he became ,b4,a4     
#agij4 ,he travelled largely1 and was  a
 friend of liberty in every country4    
,besides other political works  he      
published1 ,the ,independent ,man1      
#ahjf2 ,on ,national ,government1       
#ahaj2 ,a ,review of the ,miracles1     
,prophecies and ,mysteries of the  ,old 
and ,new ,testaments1 first printed as  
,janus on ,sion1 #ahaf1 and  republished
 #ahce2 and ,natural ,theology          

,examined1 #ahcf1 the last being        
republished in ,the ,library of ,reason4
 ,bentham described him as clever  but  
impracticable4 ,died ,ardress1 ,co4     
,armagh1 #c ,dec4 #ahdc4    ,epicurus1  
,greek philosopher1 b4 ,samos1 ,b4,c4   
#cdb4 ,he repaired to  ,athens1 ,b4,c4  
#cbc4 ,influenced by the works of       
,demokritos1 he occupied  himself with  
philosophy4 ,he purchased a garden in   
,athens1 in which he  established his   
school4 ,although much calumniated1 he  
is now admitted  to have been a man of  
blameless life4 ,according to ,cicero1  
he had no  belief in the gods1 but did  
not attack their existence1 in order not
  to offend the prejudices of the       
,athenians4 ,in physics he adopted the  
atomic theory1 and denied immortality4  
,he taught that pleasure is the         
sovereign good2 but by pleasure he meant
 no transient sensation1 but  permanent 
tranquility of mind4 ,he wrote largely1 
but his works are  lost4 ,his principles
 are expounded in the great poem of     

,lucretius1  ,de ,rerum ,natura4 ,died  
,b4,c4 #bgj1 leaving many followers4    
,erdan 7,alexandre71 the pen-name of    
,alexandre ,andre ,jacob1 a ,french     
writer1 b4 ,angles #ahbf4 ,he was the   
natural son of a distinguished  prelate4
 ,educated at ,saint ,sulpice for the   
,church1 he read ,proudhon1  and refused
 to take holy orders4 ,he became a      
journalist and an advocate  of          
phonography4 ,his work1 ,la ,france     
,mystique 7#ahee71 in which he  gives an
 account of ,french religious           
eccentricities1 was condemned  for its  
scepticism which appears on every page4 
,sentenced to a year's  imprisonment and
 a fine of three thousand francs1 he    
took refuge in  ,italy4 ,died at        
,frascati1 near ,rome1 #bd ,sept4 #ahgh4
    ,ernesti 7,johann ,august71 ,german 
critic1 b4 ,tennstadt1 #d  ,aug4 #agjg4 
,studied at ,wittenberg and ,leipsic1   
where he was appointed  professor of    
classical literature4 ,renowned as a    
philologist1 he  insisted that the      

,bible must be interpreted like any     
other book4 ,died  ,leipsic1 #aa ,sept4 
#agha4    ,escherny 7,franois ,louis d'7
 ,count1 ,swiss litterateur1 b4         
,neufchatel1  #bd ,nov4 #agcc4 ,he spent
 much of his life in travel4 ,at ,paris 
he became  the associate of ,helvetius1 
,diderot1 and particularly ,rousseau1   
whom he  much admired4 ,he wrote        
,lacunes de la ,philosophie 7,amsterdam1
 #aghc7 and  a work on ,equality        
7#agie71 in which he displays his       
,freethought4 ,died  at ,paris1 #ae     
,july1 #ahae4    ,espinas 7,alfred71    
,french philosopher1 b4                 
,saint-,florentin1 #ahdd4 ,has          
translated1 with ,th4 ,ribot1 ,h4       
,spencer's ,principles of ,psychology1  
and has written studies on ,experimental
 ,philosophy in ,italy1 and on  ,animal 
,societies 7#ahgg74    ,espronceda      
7,jos71 popular ,spanish poet1 b4       
,almendralejo 7,estremadura7  in #ahaj4 
,after the ,war of ,independence he went
 to ,madrid and studied  under ,alberto 

,lista1 the poet and mathematician4 ,he 
became so obnoxious  to the government  
by his radical principles that he was   
imprisoned  about the age of fifteen1   
and banished a few years later4 ,he     
passed  several years in ,london and    
,paris1 and was brought under the       
influence  of ,byron and ,hugo4 ,he     
fought with the people in the ,paris    
,revolution  of ,july1 #ahcj4 ,on the   
death of the ,spanish ,king in '#cc he  
returned  to ,madrid1 but was again     
banished for too free expression of his 
opinions4 ,he returned and took part in 
the revolutionary contest of  '#ce-cf4  
,he was elected to the ,cortes in '#da1 
and appointed secretary  of embassy to  
,the ,hague4 ,died #bc ,may1 #ahdb4     
,among his works are  lyrical poems1    
which often remind us of ,heine2 an     
unfinished epic1  ,el ,pelayo2 and ,el  
,diablo-,mundo 7the ,devil-,world71 a   
fine poem1 due  to the inspiration of   
,faust and ,don ,juan4 ,espronceda was a
 thorough  sceptic4 ,in his ,song of the

 ,pirate he asks1 ,who is my            
,god8--,liberty2  and in his concluding 
lines to a star he says3                
,i unheedingly follow my path1          
,at the mercy of winds and of waves4    
,wrapt thus within the arms of ,fate1   
,what care ,i if lost or saved4         
,estienne 7,henri71 the ablest of a     
family of learned ,french printers1     
known in ,england as ,stephens2 b4      
,paris1 #aebh4 ,at the age of  eighteen 
he assisted his father in collating the 
,,mss4 of ,dionysius  of ,halicarnassus4
 ,in #aeeg he established a printing    
office of his  own1 and issued many     
,greek authors2 and in #aegb the        
,thesaurus ,lingu  ,grc4 ,his ,apologie 
pour ,herodote 7,englished as a ,world  
of ,wonders7  is designed as a satire on
 ,christian legends1 and directed       
against  priests and priestcraft4 ,he   
was driven from place to place4 ,sir    
,philip ,sidney highly esteemed him1 and
 kindly entertained him in  his         
travaile4 ,died #aeih4 ,garasse classes 

him with ,atheists4    ,esteve          
7,pierre71 ,french writer1 b4           
,montpelier at the beginning of the     
eighteenth century4 ,he wrote a ,history
 of ,astronomy and an anonymous  work on
 the ,origin of the ,universe explained 
from a ,principle of  ,matter2 ,berlin1 
#agdh4    ,ettel 7,konrad71 ,austrian   
,freethinker1 b4 #ag ,jan4 #ahdg1 at    
,neuhof1  ,sternberg4 ,studied at the   
,gymnasium ,kremsier1 and at the wish of
 his  parents at the ,theological       
,seminary ,olmtz1 which he left to study
  philosophy at ,vienna4 ,he has written
 many poems and dramas4 ,his  ,grundzuge
 der ,natrlichen ,weltanschauung        
7,sketch of a ,natural ,view  of the    
,world71 a ,freethinker's catechism1    
#ahhf1 has reached a fourth  edition4   
,evans 7,george ,henry71 b4 at          
,bromyard1 ,herefordshire1 #be ,march1  
#ahjc4 ,while a child1 his parents      
emigrated to ,new ,york4 ,he set up  as 
a printer1 and published the            
,correspondent1 the first ,american     

,freethought paper4 ,he also published  
the ,working ,man's ,advocate1 ,man1    
,young ,america1 and the ,radical4 ,he  
labored for the transportation  of mails
 on ,sundays1 the limitation of the     
right to hold lands1  the abolition of  
slavery1 and other reforms4 ,his brother
 became one  of the chief elders of the 
,shakers4 ,died in ,granville1 ,new     
,jersey1  #b ,feb4 #ahee4    ,evans     
7,william71 b4 ,swansea1 #ahaf1 became a
 follower of ,robert  ,owen4 ,he        
established ,the ,potter's ,examiner and
 ,workman's ,advocate1  '#dc1 and wrote 
in the ,co-operative journals under the 
anagram of  ,millway ,vanes4 ,died #ad  
,march1 #ahhg4    ,evanson 7,edward71   
theological critic1 b4 ,warrington1     
,lancashire1  #ba ,april1 #agca4 ,he    
graduated at ,cambridge1 became vicar of
 ,south  ,mimms1 and afterwards rector  
of ,tewkesbury4 ,entertaining doubts  on
 the ,trinity1 he submitted them to the 
,archbishop of ,canterbury  without     
obtaining satisfaction4 ,he made some   

changes in reading the  ,litany1 and for
 expressing heretical opinions in a     
sermon in #agga1  he was prosecuted1 but
 escaped in consequence of some         
irregularity  in the proceedings4 ,in   
#aggb he published an anonymous tract on
 the  ,trinity4 ,in #agig he addressed a
 letter to the ,bishop of ,lichfield  on
 the ,prophecies of the ,new ,testament1
 in which he tried to show  that either 
,christianity was false or the orthodox 
churches4 ,in the  following year he    
resigned both his livings and took      
pupils4 ,in  #agib he published his     
principal work1 ,the ,dissonance of the 
,four  ,generally-,received             
,evangelists1 in which he rejected all  
the gospels1  except ,luke1 as          
unauthentic4 ,this work involved him in 
a controversy  with ,dr4 ,priestley1 and
 brought a considerable share of obloquy
 and  persecution from the orthodox4    
,died #be ,sept4 #ahje4    ,eve'merus or
 ,euhemerus1 a ,sicilian author of the  
time of ,alexander  the ,great1 who     

sought to rationalise religion1 and     
treated the gods  as dead heroes4 ,he is
 usually represented as an ,atheist4    
,eudes 7,emile ,franois ,dsir71 ,french 
,communist1 b4 ,roncey1 #ahdd4 ,he      
became a chemist1 and was condemned1    
with ,rgnard1 to three months'          
imprisonment for writing in ,la ,libre  
,pense1 '#fg1 of which he was  director4
 ,he joined the ranks of the ,commune   
and became a general4 ,when  the        
,versailles troops entered ,paris he    
escaped to ,switzerland4 ,on  his return
 after the ,amnesty1 he wrote with      
,blanqui4 ,died at a public  meeting in 
,paris1 #e ,aug4 #ahhh4    ,ewerbeck    
7,august ,hermann71 ,dr41 b4 ,dantzic4  
,after the events of #ahdh1  he lived at
 ,paris4 ,he translated into ,german    
,cabet's ,voyage en ,icarie1  and in an 
important work entitled ,qu'est ce que  
,la ,religion8 7,what  is ,religion71   
'#ej1 translated into ,french           
,feuerbach's ,essence of  ,religion1    
,essence of ,christianity1 and ,death   

and ,immortality4 ,in  a succeeding     
volume ,what is the ,bible8 he          
translated from ,daumer1  ,ghillany1    
,luetzelberger and ,b4 ,bauer4 ,ewerbeck
 also wrote in ,french  an historical   
work on ,germany and the ,germans2      
,paris1 #ahea4    ,fabre ,d',eglantine  
7,philippe ,franois ,nazaire71 ,french  
revolutionist and  playwriter1 b4       
,carcassonne1 #bh ,dec4 #agee4 ,after   
some success as a poet  and playwright  
he was chosen as deputy to the ,national
 ,convention4 ,he  voted for the death  
of ,louis ,,xvi41 and proposed the      
substitution of  the republican for the 
,christian calendar1 ,sept4 #agic4 ,he  
was executed  with his friend ,danton1  
#e ,april1 #agid4    ,fabricatore       
7,bruto71 ,italian writer1 b4 ,sarno1   
,naples1 #ahbd4 ,his father  ,antonio   
had the honor of having a political work
 placed on the ,index1  #ahba4 ,he took 
part in the anti-papal ,freethought     
,council of #ahfi1  and has written     
works on ,dante1 etc4    ,farinata4 ,see

 ,uberti 7,farinata degli74    ,fauche  
7,hippolyte71 ,french ,orientalist1 b4  
,auxerre1 #bb ,may1  #agig4             
,translations of the ,mahabharata1 the  
,ramayana1 and the plays  of ,kalidasa1 
attest his industry and erudition4 ,he  
contributed to ,la  ,libert de ,penser4 
,died at ,juilly1 #bh ,feb4 #ahfi4      
,fausto 7,sebastiano71 ,da ,longiano1   
,italian of the beginning of the #afth  
century1 who is said to have projected a
 work ,the ,temple of ,truth1  with the 
intention of overturning all religions4 
,he translated the  ,meditations of     
,antoninus1 also wrote observations on  
,cicero1 #aeff4    ,feer 7,henri ,lon71 
,french ,orientalist1 b4 ,rouen1 #bg    
,nov4 #ahcj1 is  chiefly known by his   
,buddhistic ,studies1 #ahga-ge4         
,fellens 7,jean ,baptiste71 ,professor  
of ,history1 b4 ,bar-sur-,aube1  #agid4 
,author of a work on ,pantheism1 ,paris1
 #ahgc4    ,fellowes 7,robert71         
,,ll4,d41 b4 ,norfolk #agga1 educated at
 ,oxford4 ,he  took orders in #agie1 and

 wrote many books1 but gradually quitted
 the  doctrines of the ,church and      
adopted the ,deistic opinions maintained
 in  his work entitled ,the ,religion of
 the ,universe 7#ahcf74 ,dr4 ,fellowes  
was proprietor of the ,examiner and a   
great supporter of the ,london          
,university4 ,died #e ,feb4 #ahdg4      
,fenzi 7,sebastiano71 ,italian writer1  
b4 ,florence1 #bb ,oct4 #ahbb4 ,educated
  by the ,jesuits in ,vienna1 ,england  
and ,paris4 ,founded in '#di the        
,revista  ,britannica1 writer on the    
journal ,l',italiano1 and has written a 
credo  which is a non-credo4    ,feringa
 7,frederik71 ,dutch writer1 b4         
,groningen1 #af ,april1 #ahdj4 ,studied 
mathematics4 ,a contributor to ,de      
,dageraad 7,the ,daybreak7 over the     
signature1 ,muricatus2 he has written   
important studies1 entitled  ,democratie
 en ,wetenschap 7,democracy and         
,science71 #ahga1 also wrote  in ,de    
,vrije ,gedachte 7,freethought74        
,fernau 7,rudolf71 ,dr41 ,german author 

of ,christianity and ,practical  ,life1 
,leipsic1 #ahfh2 ,the ,alpha and ,omega 
of ,reason1 ,leipsic1 #ahgj2  ,zoologica
 ,humoristica1 #ahhb2 and a recent work 
on ,religion as ,ghost  and ,god        
,worship4    ,feron 7,emile71 ,belgian  
advocate1 b4 ,brussels1 #aa ,july1      
#ahda4 ,councillor  of the              
,international ,freethought ,federation4
    ,ferrari 7,giuseppe71 ,italian      
philosopher1 b4 ,milan #g ,march1 #ahaa4
 ,a  disciple of ,romagnosi1 a study of 
whose philosophical writings he         
published '#ce4 ,he also published the  
works of ,vico1 and in '#ci a work      
entitled ,vico and ,italy1 and in the   
following year another on the           
,religious ,opinions of ,campanella4    
,attacked by the ,catholic party1  he   
was exiled1 living in ,paris1 where he  
became a collaborator with  ,proudhon   
and a contributor to the ,revue de ,deux
 ,mondes4 ,in '#db he  was made         
,professor of ,philosophy at            
,strasbourg1 but appointment was  soon  

cancelled on account of his opinions4   
,he wrote a ,history of the  ,revolution
 of ,italy1 '#ee1 and a work on ,china  
and ,europe4 ,his history  of the       
,reason of the ,state1 '#fj1 is his most
 pronounced work4 ,in '#ei1  he was     
elected to the ,italian ,parliament1    
where he remained one of  the most      
radical members until his death at ,rome
 #a ,july1 #ahgf4    ,ferri 7,enrico71  
,member of the ,italian ,parliament1    
formerly professor  of criminal law at  
the ,university of ,siena1 studied at   
,mantua under  ,professor ,ardigo4 ,has 
written a large work on the             
,non-,existence of  ,free ,will1 and is 
with ,professor ,lombroso1 leader of the
 new ,italian  school of criminal law   
reform4    ,ferri 7,luigi71 ,italian    
philosopher1 b4 ,bologna1 #ae ,june     
#ahbf4 ,studied  in ,paris and became   
licentiate of letters in #ahej4 ,author 
of ,history  of ,philosophy in ,italy1  
,paris #ahfh2 ,the ,psychology of       
,pomponazzi1 etc4    ,ferrire 7,emile71 

,french writer and licentiate of        
letters1 b4 ,paris1  #ahcj2 author of   
,literature and ,philosophy1 #ahfe2     
,darwinism1 #ahgb1  which has gone      
through several editions2 ,the          
,apostles1 a work  challenging early    
,christian ,morality1 #ahgi2 ,the ,soul 
the ,function  of the ,brain1 a         
scientific work of popular character in 
two vols41  #ahhc2 and ,paganism of the 
,hebrews until the ,babylonian          
,captivity1  #ahhd4 ,all these are works
 of pronounced ,freethought4 ,m4        
,ferrire has  also announced a work     
,jesus bar ,joseph4    ,feuerbach       
7,friedrich ,heinrich71 son of a famous 
,german jurist1 was  b4 at ,ansbach #bi 
,sept4 #ahjf4 ,he studied philology1 but
 set himself to  preach what his brother
 ,ludwig taught4 ,he wrote              
,theanthropos1 a series  of ,aphorisms  
7,zurich1 '#ch71 and an able work on the
 ,religion of the  ,future1 '#dc-dg2 and
 ,thoughts and ,facts1 ,hamburg1 '#fb4  
,died ,nurenberg1  #bd ,jan4 #ahhj4     

,feuerbach 7,ludwig ,andreas71 brother  
of the preceding1 b4 ,landshut1         
,bavaria1 #bh ,july #ahjd4 ,he studied  
theology with a view to the ,church1    
but under the influence of ,hegel       
abandoned it for philosophy4 ,in '#bh   
he was made professor at ,erlangen1 but 
was dismissed in consequence  of his    
first published work1 ,thoughts upon    
,death and ,immortality1  '#cj1 in which
 he limited immortality to personal     
influence on the  human race4 ,after a  
wandering life he married in '#cg1 and  
settled  near ,anspach4 ,he published   
there a history of modern philosophy    
from  ,bacon to ,spinoza4 ,this was     
followed by a work on ,peter ,bayle4 ,in
 '#ch  he wrote on philosophy and       
,christianity1 and in '#da his work     
called  the ,the ,essence of            
,christianity1 in which he resolves     
theology  into anthropology4 ,this book 
was translated by ,mary ,ann ,evans1    
'#ec4 ,he also wrote ,principles of the 
,philosophy of the ,future4 ,after  the 

revolution of '#dh he was invited to    
lecture by the students of  ,heidelberg1
 and gave his course on ,the ,essence of
 ,religion1 published  in '#ea4 ,in '#eg
 he published ,theogony from the        
,sources of ,classical1  ,hebrew1 and   
,christian ,antiquity1 and in '#ff      
,theism1 ,freedom1 and  ,immortality    
from the ,standpoint of ,anthropology4  
,died at ,rechenberg1  near ,nurenberg1 
#ac ,sept4 #ahgb4 ,his complete works   
were published at  ,leipsic in #ahgf4   
,he was a deep thinker and lucid writer4
    ,fichte 7,johann ,gottlieb71 one of 
the greatest ,german thinkers1  b4 #ai  
,may1 #agfb4 ,he studied at the         
,universities of ,jena1 ,leipsic1  and  
,wittenberg1 embraced determinism1      
became acquainted with ,kant1  and      
published anonymously1 ,a ,criticism of 
all ,revelation4 ,he obtained  a chair  
of philosophy at ,jena1 where he        
developed his doctrines  of science1    
asserting that the problem of philosophy
 is to seek  on what foundations        

knowledge rests4 ,he gave moral         
discourses in  the lecture-room on      
,sunday1 and was accused of holding     
atheistical  opinions4 ,he was in       
consequence banished from ,saxony1      
#agii4 ,he appears  to have held that   
,god was not a personal being1 but a    
system of  intellectual1 moral1 and     
spiritual laws4 ,fichte took deep       
interest in  the cause of ,german       
independence1 and did much to rouse his 
countrymen  against the domination of   
the ,french during the conquest which   
led to  the fall of ,napoleon4 ,besides 
many publications1 in which he expounds 
his philosophy1 he wrote eloquent       
treatises on ,the ,vocation of ,man1    
,the ,nature and ,vocation of the       
,scholar1 ,the ,way ,towards the        
,blessed  ,life1 etc4 ,died ,berlin #bg 
,jan4 #ahad4    ,figaro4 ,see ,larra    
7,mariano ,jos de74    ,figuiera        
7,guillem71 ,provenal troubadour and    
precursor of the  ,renaissance1 b4      
,toulouse about #aaij4 ,his poems were  

directed against  the priests and ,court
 of ,rome4    ,filangieri 7,gaetano71 an
 ,italian writer on legislation1 b4     
,naples1  #ah ,aug4 #ageb4 ,he was      
professor at that city4 ,his principal  
work is  ,la ,scienza della             
,legislazione1 #aghj4 ,in the fifth     
volume he deals  with pre-,christian    
religions4 ,the work was put on the     
,index4 ,died #ba  ,july1 #aghh4        
,fiorentino 7,francesco71 ,italian      
philosopher1 b4 ,sambiasa1 ,nicastro1   
#a ,may1 #ahcd4 ,in #ahfj he became     
,professor of ,philosophy at ,spoletto1 
in '#fb at ,bologna1 and in '#ga at     
,naples4 ,he was elected deputy  to     
,parliament1 ,nov4 '#gj4 ,a disciple of 
,felice ,tocco1 he paid  special        
attention to the early ,italian         
,freethinkers1 writing upon  ,the       
,pantheism of ,giordano ,bruno1 ,naples1
 '#fa2 ,pietro ,pomponazzi1  ,florence1 
'#fh2 ,bernardius ,telesio1 ,florence1  
#b vols41 '#gb-gd4 ,he  has also written
 on ,strauss and ,spinoza4 ,in the      

,nuova ,antologia he  wrote on ,j4 ,c4  
,vanini1 and on ,csalpinus1 ,campanella1
 and ,bruno4 ,a  friend of ,bertrando   
,spaventa1 he succeeded to his chair at 
,naples in  '#hc4 ,died #bb ,dec4 #ahhd4
    ,fischart 7,johann71 ,german        
satirist called ,mentzer1 b4 ,strasbourg
 about  #aede4 ,his satires in prose and
 verse remind one of ,rabelais1 whom he 
in part translated1 and are often       
directed against the ,church4 ,died  at 
,forbach in #afad4    ,fischer 7,j4     
,c471 ,german materialist1 author of a  
work on the freedom of  the will #aheh1 
a criticism of ,hartmann's ,philosophy  
of the ,unconscious1  '#gb2 ,das        
,bewusstsein1 '#gd4 ,died #ahhh4        
,fischer 7,kuno71 ,german philosopher1  
b4 #bc ,july1 #ahbd1 at ,sandewald1     
,silesia4 ,educated at ,leipsic and     
,halle1 in #ahef he was appointed       
,professor of ,philosophy at ,jena4 ,his
 chief works are ,history of ,modern    
,philosophy1 '#eb-gb2 ,life and         
,character of ,spinoza2 ,francis ,bacon1

  '#ef2 and ,lessing1 '#ha4    ,fiske   
7,john71 ,american author1 b4 ,hartford1
 ,connecticut1 #cj ,march1  #ahdb4      
,graduated at ,harvard1 '#fc4 ,in       
'#fi-ga was ,lecturer on ,philosophy  at
 that ,university1 and from '#gb-i      
,librarian4 ,mr4 ,fiske has lectured    
largely1 and has written ,myths and     
,mythmakers1 '#gb2 ,outlines of  ,cosmic
 ,philosophy1 #b vols4 '#gd2 ,darwinism1
 and other essays1 '#gi2  ,excursions of
 an ,evolutionist1 '#hc2 ,the ,idea of  
,god as ,affected by  ,modern           
,knowledge1 '#he4    ,flaubert          
7,gustave71 ,french novelist1 b4 ,rouen1
 #ab ,dec4 #ahba4 ,the son  of a        
distinguished surgeon1 he abandoned his 
father's profession for  literature4    
,his masterpiece1 ,madame ,bovary1      
published in '#ef in the  ,revue de     
,paris1 drew a prosecution upon that    
journal which ended  in a triumph for   
the author4 ,for his next great work1   
,salammb1  '#fb1 an epic of ,carthage1  
he prepared himself by long antiquarian 

studies4 ,his intellectual tendencies   
are displayed in ,the ,temptation  of   
,saint ,anthony4 ,he stands eminent     
among the naturalist school for  his    
artistic fidelity4 ,he was a friend of  
,thophile ,gautier1 ,ivan  ,turgenev1   
,emile ,zola and ,george ,sand4 ,his    
correspondence with the  last of these  
has been published4 ,he distinctly      
states therein that  on subjects like   
immortality men cheat themselves with   
words4 ,died  at ,rouen1 #i ,may1 #ahhj4
    ,flourens 7,marie ,jean ,pierre71   
,french scientist1 b4 near ,bziers1 #ae 
,april1 #agid4 ,in #ahbh he was admitted
 into the ,academy of ,sciences1  after 
having published a work on the nervous  
system of vertebrates2  he became       
perpetual secretary in '#cc4 ,a work on 
,human ,longevity and  the ,quantity of 
,life on the ,globe was very popular4   
,died near ,paris1  #f ,dec4 #ahfg4     
,flourens 7,gustave71 eldest son of the 
preceding1 b4 ,paris1  #d ,aug4 #ahch4  
,in '#fc he took his father's chair at  

the ,college of  ,france1 and his course
 on ,ethnography attracted much         
attention4 ,in  the following year he   
published his work on ,the ,science of  
,man4 ,his  bold heresy lost him his    
chair1 and he collaborated on           
,larousse's  ,grand ,dictionnaire4 ,in  
'#fe he left ,france for ,crete1 where  
for three  years he fought in the       
mountains against the ,turkish troops4  
,upon  his return he was arrested for   
presiding at a political meeting4 ,he   
showed himself an ardent ,revolutionist1
 and was killed in a skirmish  near     
,nanterre1 #c ,april1 #ahga4            
,fonblanque 7,albany ,william71 ,english
 journalist1 b4 ,london1 #agic2  the son
 of an eminent lawyer4 ,in #ahbj he was 
on the staff of the  ,times1 and        
contributed to the ,westminster ,review4
 ,in '#cj he became  editor of the      
,examiner1 and retained his post until  
'#dg4 ,his caustic  wit and literary    
attainments did much to forward advanced
 liberal  views4 ,a selection of his    

editorials was published under the      
title1  ,england under ,seven           
,administrations4 ,died #ac ,oct4 #ahgb4
    ,fontanier 7,jean71 ,french writer1 
who was burnt at the ,place  de ,grve1  
#afba1 for blasphemies in a book        
entitled ,le ,tresor  ,inestimable4     
,garasse1 with little reason1 calls him 
an ,atheist4    ,fontenelle 7,bernard le
 ,bovier de71 nephew of ,corneille1     
called  by ,voltaire the most universal 
genius of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv41   
b4 ,rouen1 #aa ,feb4 #afeg4 ,dedicated  
to the ,virgin and ,st4 ,bernard1  he   
was educated at the ,jesuits' ,college4 
,he went to ,paris in #afgd2  wrote some
 plays and ,dialogues of the ,dead1     
#afhc4 ,in #afhf appeared  his          
,conversations on the ,plurality of     
,worlds1 and in the following  year his 
,history of ,oracles1 based on the work 
of ,van ,dale1 for which  he was warmly 
attacked by the ,jesuit ,baltus1 as     
impugning the ,church  ,fathers4 ,he was
 made secretary to the ,academy of      

,sciences in #afii1  a post he held     
forty-two years4 ,he wrote ,doubts on   
the ,physical  ,system of ,occasional   
,causes1 and is also credited with a    
letter  on the ,resurrection of the     
,body1 a piece on ,the ,infinite1 and a 
,treatise on ,liberty2 but1 says l',abb 
,ladvocat1 as these books  contain many 
things contrary to religion1 it is to be
 hoped they are  not his4 ,fontenelle   
nearly reached the age of one hundred4  
,a short  time before he died 7#i ,jan4 
#ageg71 being asked if he felt any pain1
  ,i only feel1 he replied1 a difficulty
 of existing4    ,foote 7,george        
,william71 writer and orator1 b4        
,plymouth1 #aa  ,jan4 #ahej4 ,was       
converted in youth1 but became a        
,freethinker by  reading and independent
 thought4 ,came to ,london in #ahfh1 and
 was soon a  leading member of the      
,young ,men's ,secular ,association4 ,he
 taught in the  ,hall of ,science       
,sunday ,school1 and became secretary of
 the ,republican  ,league4 ,devoting his

 time to propagating his principles1 he 
wrote  in the ,secular ,chronicle and   
,national ,reformer1 and in '#gf started
  the ,secularist in conjunction with   
,mr4 ,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake1 and after  the  
ninth number conducting it alone4 ,this 
afterwards merged in the  ,secular      
,review4 ,in '#gi ,mr4 ,foote edited the
 ,liberal1 and in ,sept4 '#ha1  started 
the ,freethinker1 which he still edits4 
,in the following year  a prosecution   
was commenced by the ,public            
,prosecutor1 who attempted  to connect  
,mr4 ,bradlaugh with it4 ,undaunted1    
,mr4 ,foote issued a  ,christmas number 
with an illustrated ,comic ,life of     
,christ4 ,for  this a prosecution was   
started by the ,city authorities against
 him  and his publisher and printer1 and
 the trial came on first in ,march1     
'#hc4 ,the jury disagreed1 but ,judge   
,north refused to discharge the         
prisoners1 and they were tried again on 
the #eth ,march2 ,judge ,north          
directing that a verdict of guilty must 

be returned1 and sentencing  ,mr4 ,foote
 to one year's imprisonment as an       
ordinary criminal subject  to the same  
discipline as burglars4 ,i thank you1 my
 lord2 your  sentence is worthy of your 
creed1 he remarked4 ,on #bd ,april1     
'#hc1  ,mr4 ,foote was brought from     
prison before ,lord ,coleridge and a    
special  jury on the first charge1 and  
after a splendid defence1 upon which  he
 was highly complimented by the judge1  
the jury disagreed4 ,he has  debated    
with ,dr4 ,mc,cann1 ,rev4 ,a4 ,j4       
,harrison1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,howard1  the  
,rev4 ,h4 ,chapman1 and others4 ,mr4    
,foote has written much1  and lectures  
continually4 ,among his works we mention
 ,heroes and  ,martyrs of ,freethought  
7#ahgf72 ,god1 the ,soul1 and a ,future 
,state2  ,secularism the ,true          
,philosophy of ,life 7#ahgi72 ,atheism  
and ,morality2  ,the ,futility of       
,prayer2 ,bible ,romances2 ,death's     
,test1 afterwards  enlarged into        
,infidel ,death-,beds2 ,the ,god        

,christians ,swear by2 ,was  ,jesus     
,insane8 ,blasphemy ,no ,crime2 ,arrows 
of ,freethought2 ,prisoner  for         
,blasphemy 7#ahhd72 ,letters to ,jesus  
,christ2 ,what ,was ,christ8 ,bible     
,heroes2 and has edited ,the ,bible     
,hand-book with ,mr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,ball1 and 
the ,jewish ,life of ,christ with the   
present writer1 in conjunction  with    
whom he has written ,the ,crimes of     
,christianity4 ,from #ahhc-hg  he edited
 ,progress1 in which appeared many      
important articles from  his pen4 ,mr4  
,foote is ,president of the ,london     
,secular ,federation1  and a            
,vice-,president of the ,national       
,secular ,society4    ,fouillee         
7,alfred71 ,french philosopher1 b4 ,la  
,pouze1 near ,angers1  #ah ,oct4 #ahch4 
,has been teacher at several lyceums1   
notably at  ,bordeaux4 ,he was crowned  
by the ,academy of ,moral ,sciences for 
two  works on the ,philosophy of ,plato 
and ,socrates4 ,elected ,professor  of  
,philosophy at the ,superior ,normal    

,school1 ,paris1 he sustained  a thesis 
at the ,sorbonne on ,liberty and        
,determinism1 which was  violently      
attacked by the ,catholics4 ,this work  
has gone through  several editions4 ,m4 
,fonille has also written an able       
,history of  ,philosophy1 #ahge1        
,contemporary ,social ,science1 and an  
important  ,critique of ,contemporary   
,moral ,systems 7#ahhc74 ,he has written
 much  in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 
and is considered1 with ,taine1 ,ribot1 
and ,renan1 the principal representative
 of ,french philosophy4 ,his  system is 
known as that of ides-forces1 as he     
holds that ideas are  themselves forces4
 ,his latest work expounds the views of 
,m4 ,guyau4    ,forberg 7,friedrich     
,karl71 ,german philosopher1 b4         
,meuselwitz1 #cj  ,aug4 #aggj1 studied  
theology at ,leipsic1 and became private
 docent  at ,jena4 ,becoming attached to
 ,fichte's philosophy1 he wrote with    
,fichte in ,niethammer's ,philosophical 
,journal on ,the ,development  of       

,religious ,ideas1 and an article on    
,the ,ground of our ,faith in  ,divine  
,providence1 which brought on them a    
charge of ,atheism1 and  the journal was
 confiscated by the ,electorate of      
,saxony4 ,forberg held  religion to     
consist in devotion to morality1 and    
wrote ,an ,apology  for ,alleged        
,atheism1 #agii4 ,in #ahjg he became    
librarian at ,coburg1  and devoted      
himself to the classics1 issuing a      
,manuel d',erotologie  ,classique4 ,died
 ,hildburghausen #a ,jan4 #ahdh4        
,forder 7,robert71 b4 ,yarmouth1 #ad    
,oct4 #ahdd4 ,coming to to ,woolwich1   
he became known as a political and      
,freethought lecturer4 ,he took part  in
 the movement to save ,plumstead ,common
 from the enclosers1 and was  sent to   
trial for riotous proceedings1 but was  
acquitted4 ,in '#gg he  was appointed   
paid secretary to the ,national ,secular
 ,society1 a post  he has ever since    
occupied4 ,during the imprisonment of   
,messrs4 ,foote1  ,ramsey1 and ,kemp1 in

 '#hc1 ,mr4 ,forder undertook charge of 
the publishing  business4 ,he has       
lectured largely1 and written some      
pamphlets4    ,forlong 7,james ,george  
,roche74 ,major ,general1 ,h4,b4,a41 b4 
,lanarkshire1  ,scotland1 ,nov4 #ahbd4  
,educated as an engineer1 joined the    
,indian  army '#dc1 fought in the ,s4   
,mahrata campaign '#de-f1 and in the    
second  ,burmese war4 ,on the annexation
 of ,barma he became head of the        
,survey1  ,roads and canal branches4 ,in
 '#eh-i he travelled extensively through
  ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,turkey1 ,greece1 
,italy1 ,spain1 etc4 ,from '#fa-ga was  
a superintending engineer of ,calcutta1 
and in ,upper ,bengal1 ,north-west      
,provinces1 and ,rajputana1 and '#gb-gf 
was ,secretary and ,chief ,engineer  to 
the ,government of ,oudh4 ,he retired in
 '#gg after an active service of  #cc   
years1 during which he frequently       
received the thanks of the ,indian  and 
,home ,governments4 ,in his youth he was
 an active ,evangelical1  preaching to  

the natives in their own tongues4 ,he   
has1 however1  given his testimony that 
during his long experience he has known 
no  one converted solely by force of    
reasoning or ,christian evidences4 ,a   
great student of ,eastern religions1    
archology1 and languages1 he has        
written in various periodicals of the   
,east and ,west1 and has embodied  the  
result of many years researches in two  
illustrated quarto volumes  called      
,rivers of ,life1 setting forth the     
evolution of all religions  from their  
radical objective basis to their present
 spiritualised  developments4 ,in an    
elaborate chart he shows by streams of  
color the  movements of thought from    
#aj1jjj ,b4,c4 to the present time4     
,fourier 7,franois ,marie ,charles71    
,french socialist1 b4 ,besanon1 #g      
,april1 #aggb4 ,he passed some of the   
early years of his life as a common     
soldier4 ,his numerous works amid much  
that is visionary have valuable         
criticisms upon society1 and suggestions

 for its amelioration4 ,he  believed in 
the transmigration of souls4 ,died at   
,paris1 #h ,oct4 #ahcg4    ,fox         
7,william ,johnson71 orator and         
political writer1 b4 near ,wrentham1    
,suffolk1 #aghf4 ,intended for the      
,congregational ,ministry1 he became  a 
,unitarian1 and for many years preached 
at ,south ,place1 ,finsbury1  where he  
introduced the plan of taking texts from
 other books  besides the ,bible4 ,one  
of his first published sermons was on   
behalf of  toleration for ,deists at the
 time of the ,carlile prosecutions      
#ahai4 ,he  gradually advanced from the 
acceptance of miracles to their complete
  rejection4 ,during the ,anti-,corn    
,law agitation he was a frequent  and   
able speaker4 ,in #ahdg he became ,m4,p4
 for ,oldham1 and retained  his seat    
until his retirement in '#fa4 ,he was a 
prominent worker for  ,radicalism1      
contributing to the ,westminster        
,review1 ,weekly ,dispatch1  and ,daily 
,news4 ,for some years he edited the    

,monthly ,repository4 ,his  works1 which
 include spirited ,lectures to the      
,working ,classes1 and a  philosophical 
statement of ,religions ,ideas1 were    
published in twelve  volumes1 '#fe-fh4  
,died #c ,june1 #ahfd4    ,franchi      
7,ausonio71 the pen name of ,francesco  
,cristoforo ,bonavino1  ,italian        
ex-priest1 b4 ,pegli1 #bd ,feb4 #ahba4  
,brought up in the ,church  and ordained
 priest in '#dd1 the practice of the    
confessional made  him sceptical and he 
quitted it for philosophy1 having ceased
 to  believe in its dogmas1 '#di4 ,in   
'#eb he published his principal work1   
entitled ,the ,philosophy of the        
,italian ,schools4 ,the following year  
he published ,the ,religion of the      
,nineteenth ,century4 ,he established   
,la ,razione 7,reason7 and ,il ,libero  
,pensiero at ,turin1 '#ed-eg2 wrote  on 
the ,rationalism of the ,people1        
,geneva1 '#ef1 and became an active     
organiser of anti-clerical societies4   
,in '#ff he published a criticism  of   

,positivism1 and has since written      
,critical and ,polemical ,essays1  #c   
vols4 ,milan1 '#gj-gb4 ,in '#fh was     
appointed ,professor of ,philosophy  in 
the ,academy of ,milan by ,terenzio     
,mamiani4    ,francis 7,samuel71 ,m4,d41
 author of ,watson ,refuted1 published  
by  ,carlile1 #ahai4    ,francois de    
,neufchateau 7,nicolas ,louis71 ,count1 
,french statesman1  poet1 and           
academician1 b4 ,lorraine1 #ag ,april1  
#agej4 ,in his youth he  became         
secretary to ,voltaire1 who regarded him
 as his successor4 ,he  favored the     
,revolution1 and was elected to the     
,legislative ,assembly  in '#ia4 ,as    
,member of the ,directory1 '#ig1 he     
circulated d',holbach's  ,contagion     
,sacre4 ,he became ,president of the    
,senate1 '#ad-af4 ,he wrote  numerous   
pieces4 ,died at ,paris #aj ,jan4 #ahbh4
    ,franklin 7,benjamin71 ,american    
patriot and philosopher1 b4 ,boston #ag 
,jan4 #agjf4 ,he was apprenticed to his 
uncle as a printer1 came to  ,england   

and worked at his trade '#bd-bf2        
returned to ,philadelphia1  where he    
published a paper and became known by   
his ,poor ,richard's  ,almanack4 ,he    
founded the public library at           
,philadelphia1 and  made the discovery  
of the identity of lightning with the   
electric  fluid4 ,he became member of   
the ,provincial ,assembly and was sent  
to  ,england as agent4 ,when examined   
before the ,house of ,commons he spoke  
boldly against the ,stamp ,act4 ,he was 
active during the war with this         
country1 and was elected member of      
,congress4 ,became envoy to ,france1    
and effected the treaty of alliance with
 that country1 #f ,feb4 '#gh1  which    
secured the independence of the         
,american colonies4 ,turgot summed  up  
his services in the fine line ,eripuit  
clo fulmen1 sceptrumque  tyrannis4 ,he  
wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and 
the sceptre  from kings4 ,died at       
,philadelphia1 #ag ,april1 #agij4       
,fransham 7,john71 a native of ,norwich1

 b4 #agcj1 became a teacher of          
mathematics1 renounced the ,christian   
religion1 and professed ,paganism1      
writing several treatises in favor of   
disbelief4 ,died #ahaj4    ,frauenstaedt
 7,christian ,martin ,julius71 ,dr41    
philosopher and disciple  of            
,schopenhauer1 b4 #ag ,april1 #ahac1 at 
,bojanowo1 ,posen4 ,he studied          
philosophy and theology at ,berlin1 but 
meeting ,schopenhauer at  ,frankfort in 
'#dg he adopted the views of the        
pessimist1 who made  him his literary   
executor4 ,among ,frauenstdt's works are
 ,letters on  ,natural ,religion1 '#eh1 
,the ,liberty of ,men and the           
,personality of ,god1  '#ch2 ,letters on
 the ,philosophy of ,schopenhauer1 '#ed1
 etc4 ,died at  ,berlin1 #ac ,jan4      
#ahgi4    ,frederick ,,ii4 7,emperor of 
,germany71 the greatest man of the      
thirteenth  century and founder of the  
,renaissance1 b4 #bf ,dec4 #aaid4 ,was  
elected  to the throne in #abaj4 ,he    
promoted learning1 science1 and art1    

founded  the ,universities of ,vienna   
and ,naples1 had the works of ,aristotle
  and ,averroes translated1 and was the 
patron of all the able men of  his time4
 ,for his resistance to the tyranny of  
the ,church he was  twice               
excommunicated4 ,he answered by a letter
 attacking the ,pope  7,gregory ,,ix471 
whom he expelled from ,rome in '#bh4 ,he
 made a treaty  with the ,sultan of     
,egypt1 by which he became master of    
,jerusalem4 ,for  some heretical words  
in his letter1 in which he associates   
the names  of ,christ1 ,moses1 and      
,mohammed1 he was reported author of the
 famous  work ,de ,tribus ,impostoribus4
 ,he addressed a series of philosophical
  questions to ,ibn ,sabin1 a ,moslem   
doctor4 ,he is said to have called  the 
,eucharist truffa ista1 and is credited 
also with the saying  ,ignorance is the 
mother of devotion4 ,died at ,florence1 
#ac ,dec4 #abej4    ,frederick the      
,great 7,king of ,prussia71 b4 #bd ,jan4
 #agab1 was educated in  a very rigid   

fashion by his father1 ,frederick       
,william ,i4 ,he ascended  the throne   
and soon displayed his political and    
military ability4 ,by  a war with       
,austria he acquired ,silesia4 ,he wrote
 several deistical  pieces1 and         
tolerated all religions and no religion 
saying every man  must get to heaven his
 own way4 ,he attracted to his court men
 like  ,lamettrie1 ,d',argens1          
,maupertuis1 and ,voltaire1 who1 says   
,carlyle1  continued all his days       
,friedrich's chief thinker4 ,in #agef   
,france1  ,austria1 ,sweden1 and ,russia
 united against him1 but he held his own
  against a world in arms4 ,after a most
 active life ,frederick died  at        
,potsdam1 #ag ,aug4 #aghf4 ,the         
,philosophical ,breviary attributed to  
him was really written by ,crutti4      
,fredin 7,nils ,edvard71 ,swedish       
writer1 b4 #aheg4 ,has published        
translation of modern poets1 and also of
 ,col4 ,ingersoll's writings4 ,in  '#hj 
he was awarded first prize by the       

,swedish ,academy for an original  poem4
    ,freeke 7,william71 b4 about #affc1 
wrote ,a ,brief but ,clear ,confutation 
of the ,trinity1 which being brought    
before the notice of the ,house of      
,lords it was on #c ,jan4 #afic ordered 
to be burnt by the common hangman1  and 
the author being prosecuted by the      
,attorney ,general was fined #ejj4      
,freiligrath 7,ferdinand7 ,german poet1 
b4 ,detmold #ag ,june1 #ahaj4 ,in  '#ce 
he acquired notice by some poems4 ,in   
'#dd he published his  profession of    
faith ,mein ,glaubensbekenntniss1 and   
was forced to  fly the country4 ,in '#dh
 he returned and joined ,karl ,marx on  
the  ,neue ,rheinische ,zeitung4 ,again 
prosecuted he took refuge in ,london1   
devoting his leisure to poetry and      
translation4 ,freiligrath holds a  high 
place among the poets of his time4 ,died
 ,kannstadt1 near ,stuttgart1  #ah      
,march #ahgf4    ,frret 7,nicolas71     
,french historical critic1 b4 #ae ,feb4 
#afhh4 ,he was a  pupil of ,rollin1 and 

was patronised by ,boulainvilliers4     
,distinguished  by his attainments in   
ancient history1 philosophy and         
chronology1  he became member of the    
,academy of ,inscriptions #agad4 ,for a 
,discourse  on the ,origin of the       
,franks1 he was incarcerated for four   
months in  the ,bastille4 ,while here he
 read ,bayle so often that he could     
repeat  much from memory4 ,he was an    
unbeliever1 and the author of the       
atheistic  ,letters from ,thrasybulus to
 ,leucippe on ,natural and ,revealed    
,religion1  and perhaps of ,la ,moisade1
 a criticism of the ,pentateuch1        
translated  by ,d4 ,i4 ,eaton1 as ,a    
,preservative against ,religious        
,prejudices4 ,the  ,letters to ,eugenie1
 attributed to ,frret1 were written by  
,d',holbach1  and the ,critical         
,examination of the ,apologists of the  
,christian  ,religion by ,j4 ,levesque  
de ,burigny4 ,a ,critical ,examination  
of the ,new  ,testament1 #aggg which    
long circulated in ,,ms4 has also been  

wrongly  attributed to ,frret4 ,died at 
,paris1 #h ,march1 #agdi4    ,frey      
7,william71 the adopted name of a       
,russian ,positivist  and               
philanthropist1 b4 of noble family1 the 
son of a general1  #ahci4 ,educated at  
the higher military school1 ,st4        
,petersburg1 he  became teacher in a    
,government ,high ,school1 and disgusted
 with the  oppression and degradation of
 his country he went to ,new ,york in   
#ahff where he established co-operative 
communities and also ,russian  colonies 
in ,kansas and ,oregon4 ,in #ahhd he    
came to ,london in order to  influence  
his countrymen4 ,in '#hg he revisited   
,russia4 ,died #f ,nov4 #ahhh4    ,fries
 7,jacob ,friedrich71 ,german           
philosopher1 b4 ,barby1 #bc  ,aug4      
#aggc4 ,brought up as a ,moravian1 he   
became a ,deist4 ,fries is of  the      
,neo-,kantian rationalistic school4     
,among his writings are a ,system  of   
,metaphysics1 #ahbd2 a ,manual of the   
,philosophy of ,religion and            

,philosophical sthetics1 ,heidelberg    
'#cb2 in which he resolves religion     
into poetry4 ,he criticised ,kant's     
proofs of ,god and immortality1  and    
wrote a ,history of ,philosophy4 ,died  
,jena1 #aj ,aug4 #ahdc4    ,frothingham 
7,octavius ,brooks71 ,american author1  
b4 ,boston1 #bf  ,nov4 #ahbb4 ,graduated
 at ,harvard1 '#dc1 and became          
,unitarian minister4 ,in  '#fj he became
 pastor of the most radical ,unitarian  
congregation in  ,new ,york4 ,in '#fg he
 became first president of the ,free    
,religious  ,association1 but1 becoming 
too advanced1 resigned in '#gi and came 
to ,europe4 ,since his return to        
,boston1 '#ha1 he has devoted himself   
to literature4 ,he has published ,the   
,religion of ,humanity1 ,n4,y41  '#gc2  
,life of ,theodore ,parker1 '#gd2 ,the  
,cradle of the ,christ1 '#gg2  ,life of 
,gerrit ,smith1 #gh2 and numerous       
sermons4    ,froude 7,james ,anthony71  
man of letters and historian1 the son of
 an  ,archdeacon of ,totnes1 was b4     

,dartington1 ,devon1 #bc ,april1 #ahah1 
and  educated at ,westminster and       
,oxford1 where he took his degree in    
'#dj1  was elected fellow of ,exeter    
,college and received deacon's orders4  
,at  first1 under the influence of the  
,romanising movement1 he became  a      
rationalist and abandoned his fellowship
 and clerical life4 ,his  ,nemesis of   
,faith1 '#dh1 showed the nature of his  
objections4 ,mr4 ,froude  devoted his   
abilities to a literary career1 and fell
 under the  influence of ,carlyle4 ,for 
many years he edited ,fraser's          
,magazine1  in which he wrote largely4  
,his essays are collected under the     
title  of ,short ,studies on ,great     
,subjects1 '#ga-hc4 ,his largest work is
 the  ,history of ,england1 from the    
,fall of ,wolsey to the ,defeat of the  
,spanish ,armada1 '#ef-gf4 ,his ,life of
 ,carlyle1 '#hb1 and publication  of    
,carlyle's ,reminiscenses provoked much 
controversy4 ,his magical  translation  
of ,lucian's most characteristic        

,dialogue of the ,gods  is done with too
 much verve to allow of the supposition 
that the  translator is not in sympathy 
with his author4    ,fry 7,john71 a     
colonel in the ,parliamentary army4 ,in 
#afdj he was  elected one of the        
burgesses of ,shaftesbury1 but his      
return was  declared void4 ,after       
serving with distinction in the army1 he
 was  called to the ,house of ,commons  
by the ,independents in #afdh4 ,he voted
  for ,charles ,i4 being put on trial2  
and sat in judgment when sentence  was  
passed on him4 ,he was charged with     
blasphemy and wrote ,the ,accuser       
,shamed1 #afdi1 which was ordered to be 
burnt for speaking against  that chaffie
 and absurd opinion of three persons in 
the ,godhead4 ,he  also wrote ,the      
,clergy in their ,colors1 #afej4        
,fuller 7,sarah ,margaret71 ,american   
authoress1 b4 ,cambridgeport1           
,massachusetts1 #bc ,may1 #ahaj4 ,in    
'#dj-db she edited the ,dial4 ,she  also
 published ,woman in the ,nineteenth    

,century1 '#dd4 ,among friends  she     
counted ,emerson1 ,hawthorne1 ,channing1
 and ,mazzini4 ,she visited  ,europe and
 married at ,rome the ,marquis          
,d',ossoli4 ,returning she was          
shipwrecked and drowned off the coast of
 ,new ,jersey1 #af ,july1 #ahej4        
,furnemont 7,lon71 ,belgian advocate1 b4
 ,charleroi1 #ag ,april1  #ahfa4        
,entered the school of ,mines ,lige in  
'#gf1 and founded the ,circle  of       
,progressive ,students4 ,became         
president of ,international ,congress   
of ,students1 '#hd1 and represented     
,young ,belgium at the funeral of       
,victor ,hugo4 ,radical candidate at the
 ,brussels municipal elections1  he     
obtained #c1ejj votes1 but was not      
elected4 ,he is a ,councillor  of the   
,international ,federation of           
,freethinkers and director of a  monthly
 journal1 ,la ,raison1 #ahhi4           
,gabarro 7,bartolom7 ,dr41 ,spanish     
writer1 b4 ,ygualade1 ,barcelona1  #bg  
,sept4 #ahdf1 was educated in a clerical

 college with a view to  taking the     
clerical habit1 he refused and went to  
,america4 ,after  travelling much1 he   
established a day school in ,barcelona  
and founded  an ,anti-clerical ,league  
of ,freethinkers pledged to live without
  priests4 ,this induced much clerical  
wrath1 especially when ,dr4 ,gabarro    
founded some #bjj ,anti-clerical groups 
and over #ajj lay schools4 ,for         
denouncing the assassins of a           
,freethinker he was pursued for libel1  
sentenced to four years' imprisonment1  
and forced to fly to ,cerbere  on the   
frontier1 where he continues his        
anti-clerical journal ,la  ,tronada4 ,he
 has written many anti-clerical         
brochures and an important  work on     
,pius ,,ix4 and ,history4    ,gabelli   
7,aristide71 ,italian writer1 b4        
,belluno1 #bb ,march1 #ahcj4 ,author  of
 ,the ,religious ,question in ,italy1   
'#fd1 ,man and the ,moral ,sciences1    
'#fi1 in which he rejects all           
metaphysics and supernaturalism1 and    

,thoughts1 #ahhf4    ,gage 7,matilda    
,joslyn71 ,american reformer1 b4        
,cicero1 ,new  ,york1 #bd ,march1 #ahbf4
 ,her father1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,joslyn1 was an  
active  abolitionist4 ,educated at ,de  
,peyster and ,hamilton1 ,n4,y41 in '#de 
she  married ,henry ,h4 ,gage4 ,from    
'#eb till '#fa she wrote and spoke      
against  slavery4 ,in '#gb she was made 
,president of the ,national ,woman's    
,suffrage ,association4 ,she is joint   
author of ,the ,history of ,woman       
,suffrage with ,miss ,anthony and ,mrs4 
,stanton1 and with them considers  the  
,church the great obstacle to woman's   
progress4    ,gagern 7,carlos von71 b4  
,rehdorf1 ,neumark1 #ab ,dec4 #ahbf4    
,educated at  ,berlin1 travelled in '#dg
 to ,paris where he became acquainted   
with  ,humboldt4 ,he went to ,spain and 
studied ,basque life in the ,pyrenees2  
served in the ,prussian army1 became a  
friend of ,wislicenus and the           
free-religious movement4 ,in '#eb he    
went to ,mexico2 here he had an         

appointment under ,general ,miramon4 ,in
 the ,french-,mexican expedition  he was
 taken prisoner in '#fc2 released in    
'#fe he went to ,new ,york4 ,he  was    
afterwards military attach for ,mexico  
at ,berlin4 ,his freethought  appears in
 his memoirs entitled ,dead and ,living1
 #ahhd1 and in his  volume ,sword and   
,trowel1 #ahhh4 ,died ,madrid #ai ,dec4 
#ahhe4    ,gall 7,franz ,joseph71       
founder of phrenology1 b4 ,baden1 #f    
,march1 #ageh4 ,he  practised as a      
physician in ,vienna1 devoting much time
 to the study of  the brain1 and began  
to lecture on craniology in that city4  
,in #ahjb he  was prohibited from       
lecturing4 ,he joined ,dr4 ,spurzheim   
and they taught  their system in various
 cities of ,europe4 ,died at ,paris1 #bb
 ,aug4 #ahbh4    ,galton 7,francis71    
grandson of ,erasmus ,darwin1 was born  
in  #ahbb4 ,educated at ,birmingham1 he 
studied medicine at ,king's ,college1   
,london1 and graduated at ,cambridge1   
'#bd4 ,in '#dh and '#ej he travelled in 

,africa4 ,he wrote a popular ,art of    
,travel1 and has distinguished himself  
by many writings bearing on heredity1 of
 which we name ,hereditary  ,genius1    
'#fi1 ,english ,men of ,science1 '#gj4  
,in his ,inquiries into ,human  ,faculty
 and ,developement1 '#hc1 he gives      
statistical refutation of the  theory of
 prayer4 ,mr4 ,galton was ,secretary of 
the ,british ,association  from '#fc-fh1
 ,president of the ,geographical        
,section in '#fb and '#gb1  and of the  
,anthropological ,section in '#gg and   
'#he4 ,he is ,president  of the         
,anthropological ,institute4            
,gambetta 7,lon ,michel71 ,french orator
 and statesman1 b4 ,cahors1 #cj  ,oct4  
#ahch4 ,his uncle was a priest and his  
father wished him to become  one4       
,educated at a clerical seminary1 he    
decided to study for the  law4 ,in '#ei 
he was enrolled at the bar4 ,his defence
 of ,delescluze  7#ad ,nov4 #ahfh71 in  
which he vigorously attacked the        
,empire1 made  him famous4 ,elected to  

the ,assembly by both ,paris and        
,marseilles1 he  became the life and    
leader of the ,opposition4 ,after ,sedan
 he proclaimed  the ,republic and       
organised the national defences1 leaving
 ,paris1 then  invested by the ,germans1
 in a balloon4 ,from ,tours he          
invigorated every  department1 and was  
the inspiration of the few successes won
 by the  ,french4 ,gambetta preserved   
the ,republic against all machinations1 
and compelled ,mac,mahon to accept the  
second of the alternatives1  ,se        
soumettre ou se demettre4 ,he founded   
the ,republique ,franaise1  and became  
,president of the ,chamber4 ,gambetta   
was a professed  disciple of ,voltaire1 
an admirer of ,comte1 and an open       
opponent of  clericalism4 ,all the      
members of his ,cabinet were            
,freethinkers4 ,died  #ca ,dec4 #ahhb4  
,his public secular funeral was one of  
the largest  gatherings ever witnessed4 
,gambon 7,ferdinand ,charles71 ,french  
,communist1 b4 ,bourges1 #ai ,march1    

#ahbj4 ,in #ahci he became an ,advocate1
 and he founded the ,journal des        
,ecoles4 ,in '#dh he was elected        
representative4 ,the ,empire drove him  
into exile1 he returned at amnesty of   
'#ei4 ,in '#fi he refused to pay  taxes4
 ,in '#ga was elected deputy at ,paris1 
and was one of the last  defenders of   
the ,commune4 ,imprisoned1 he was       
released in '#hb4 ,formed  a ,league for
 abolishing standing army4 ,died #ag    
,sept4 #ahhg4    ,garat 7,dominique     
,joseph71 ,count1 ,french revolutionist1
 orator and  writer1 b4 near ,bayonne1  
#h ,september1 #agdi4 ,he became a      
friend of  d',alembert1 ,diderot and    
,condercet1 and in #aghi was elected to 
the  ,assembly1 where he spoke in favor 
of the abolition of religion4 ,as       
minister of justice he had to notify to 
,louis ,,xvi his condemnation4 ,he      
afterwards taught at the ,normal        
,school1 and became a senator1 count1   
and president of the ,institute4 ,died  
at ,urdains #i ,december1 #ahcc4        

,garborg 7,arne71 b4 ,western ,coast of 
,norway1 #be ,jan4 #ahea4 ,brought  up  
as a teacher at the public schools1 he  
entered the ,university of  ,christiania
 in #ahge4 ,founded a weekly paper      
,fedraheimen1 written in  the dialect of
 the peasantry4 ,held an appointment for
 some years  in the ,government ,audit  
,office4 ,in '#ha he published a        
powerfully  written tale1 ,a            
,freethinker1 which created a deal of   
attention4 ,since  he has published     
,peasant ,students1 ,tales and ,legends1
 ,youth1 ,men1  etc4 ,he is one of the  
wittiest and cleverest controversialists
 on  the ,norwegian press4              
,garcia-,vao 7,antonio ,rodriguez71     
,spanish poet and miscellaneous  writer1
 b4 ,manzanares1 #ahfb4 ,educated at the
 institute of ,cardinal  ,cisneros1     
where he made brilliant studies4 ,he    
afterwards studied  at the ,madrid      
,university and became a lawyer4 ,after 
editing several  papers1 he attached    
himself to the staff of ,las            

,dominicales del ,libre  ,pensiamento4  
,among his numerous works are a volume  
of poems1 ,echoes  of a ,free ,mind1    
,love and the ,monks1 a satire1 a study 
of ,greco-,roman  philosophy1 etc4 ,this
 promising student was stabbed in the   
back at  ,madrid1 #ah ,december1 #ahhf4 
,garde 7,jehan de la71 bookseller1 burnt
 together with four little  blasphemous 
books at ,paris in #aecg4    ,garibaldi 
7,guiseppe71 ,italian patriot and       
general1 b4 ,nice1 #d  ,july1 #ahjg4    
,his father1 a small shipmaster1 hoped  
he would become a  priest4 ,young       
,garibaldi objected1 preferring a       
sailor's life4 ,a trip to  ,rome made   
him long to free his country4 ,he joined
 ,mazzini's movement1  ,young ,italy1   
and being implicated in the ,genoese    
revolt of '#cc1  he fled at risk of his 
life to ,marseilles1 where he learnt he 
was  sentenced to death4 ,he went to    
,south ,america and fought on behalf of 
the republic of ,uruguay4 ,here he met  
,anita ,rivera1 his beautiful and  brave

 wife1 who accompanied him in numerous  
adventures4 ,returning to  ,italy he    
fought against the ,austrians in '#dh1  
and next year was the  soul of          
resistance to the ,french troops1 who   
came to restore ,papal  authority4      
,garibaldi had to retire2 his wife died1
 and he escaped  with difficulty to     
,genoa1 whence he went to ,new ,york1   
working for  an ,italian soap and       
candlemaker at ,staten ,island4 ,in '#ed
 he returned  and bought a farm on the  
isle of ,caprera4 ,in '#ei he again     
fought the  ,austrians1 and in ,may1    
'#fj1 landed at ,marsala1 ,sicily1 took 
,palermo1  and drove ,francis ,,ii4 from
 ,naples4 ,though a ,republican he      
saluted  ,victor ,emanuel as ,king of   
,italy4 ,vexed by the cessation of ,nice
 to  ,france1 he marched to ,rome1 but  
was wounded by ,victor ,emanuel's       
troops1 and taken prisoner to           
,varignaro4 ,here he wrote his ,rule  of
 the ,monk1 a work exhibiting his love  
of liberty and hatred of  the           

priesthood4 ,in '#fd he visited         
,england1 and was enthusiastically      
received4 ,in '#fg he again took part in
 an attempt to free ,rome from  the     
,papal government4 ,in '#ga he placed   
his sword at the service of  the ,french
 ,republic1 and the only standard taken 
from the ,germans was  captured by his  
men4 ,elected ,member of the ,italian   
,parliament in his  later years he did  
much to improve the city of ,rome4 ,in  
one of his  laconic letters of '#hj1 he 
says ,dear ,friend1--,man has created   
,god1  not ,god man1--,yours ever1      
,garibaldi4 ,he died #b ,june1 '#hb1 and
 directed  in his will that he should be
 cremated without any religious         
ceremony4    ,garrison 7,h4 ,d471 ,dr4  
of ,chicago4 ,author of an able pamphlet
 on ,the  ,absence of ,design in        
,nature1 #ahgf4    ,garth 7,sir         
,samuel71 ,english poet1 wit1 and       
physician1 b4 ,yorkshire1  #afgb1 and   
educated at ,cambridge4 ,he helped to   
establish dispensaries1  and lashed the 

opposition in his poem ,the ,dispensary4
 ,he was made  physician to ,king       
,george ,i4 ,died #ah ,june #agai4      
,gaston 7,h471 ,french author of a      
brochure with the title ,dieu1 voila1   
l'ennemi1 ,god the enemy1 #ahhb4        
,gattina 7,f4 ,p4 della74 ,see          
,petruccelli4    ,gautama 7called also  
,gotama1 ,buddha1 and ,sakyamuni71 great
 ,hindu  reformer and founder of        
,buddhism1 b4 ,kapilavastu1 #fbd ,b4,c4 
,many  legends are told of his birth and
 life4 ,he is said to have been a       
prince1 who1 pained with human misery1  
left his home to dedicate  himself to   
emancipation4 ,his system was rather a  
moral discipline  than a religion4      
,though he did not deny the ,hindu gods 
he asserted  that all beings were       
subject to ,karma1 the result of        
previous  actions4 ,he said1 ,if a man  
for a hundred years worship ,agni in the
  forest1 and if he but for one moment  
pay homage to a man whose soul  is      
grounded in true knowledge1 better is   

that homage than sacrifice  for a       
hundred years4 ,according to ,ceylonese 
writers ,gautama ,buddha  died at       
,kusinagara1 ,b4,c4 #edc4    ,gautier   
7,thophile71 exquisite ,french poet and 
prose writer1 b4 ,tarbes1  #ca ,aug4    
#ahaa4 ,he wrote no definite work       
against priestcraft or  superstition1   
but the whole tendency of his writings  
is ,pagan4 ,his  romanticism is not     
,christian1 and he made merry with      
sacred themes  as well as conventional  
morality4 ,baudelaire called him an     
impeccable  master of ,french           
literature1 and ,balzac said that of the
 two men who  could write ,french1 one  
was ,thophile ,gautier4 ,died #bb ,oct4 
#ahgb4    ,geijer 7,erik ,gustaf71      
eminent ,swedish historian1 poet1 and   
critic1  b4 ,wermland1 #ab ,jan4 #aghc4 
,at the age of #bj he was awarded the   
,swedish  ,academy's first prize for a  
patriotical poem4 ,at first a           
,conservative  in religious1            
philosophical1 and political matters he 

became through  his historical          
researches an ardent adherent of the    
principles of the  ,french revolution4  
,his historical work and indictment     
against ,the  ,protestant creed was     
published in #ahbj in a philosophical   
treatise1  ,thorild1 which was          
prosecuted4 ,his acquittal by an        
enlightened jury  stayed religious      
prosecutions in ,sweden for over sixty  
years4 ,he  died #bc ,april #ahdg4 ,a   
monument was erected to him last year at
 the  ,university of ,upsala1 where he  
was professor of history4 ,his works    
have been republished4    ,geijerstam   
7,gustaf71 ,swedish novelist1 b4 #aheh4 
,is one of the  ,freethinking group of  
,young ,sweden4    ,geismar 7,martin    
von71 editor of a ,library of ,german   
,rationalists of  the eighteenth        
century1 in five parts1 including some  
of the works  of ,bahrdt1 ,eberhardt1   
,knoblauch1 etc1 #ahdf-g4 ,he also added
 pamphlets  entitled ,germany in the    
,eighteenth ,century4                   

,gellion-,danglar 7,eugne71 ,french     
writer1 b4 ,paris1 #ahbi4 ,became       
,professor of ,languages at ,cairo1     
wrote in ,la ,pense ,nouvelle1 was  made
 sous prfect of ,compigne1 '#ga1 wrote  
,history of the ,revolution  of #ahcj1  
and ,a ,study of the ,semites1 '#hb4    
,gemistos 7,georgios71 surnamed         
,plethon1 a philosophic reviver of      
,pagan  learning1 b4 of noble parents at
 ,byzantium about #acee4 ,he early lost 
his faith in ,christianity1 and was     
attracted to the ,moslem court  at      
,brusa4 ,he went to ,italy in the train 
of ,john ,pallogus in #adch1  where he  
attracted much attention to the         
,platonic philosophy1 by  which he      
sought to reform the religious1         
political and moral life of  the time4  
,gennadius1 the patriarch of            
,constantinople1 roundly accused  him of
 ,paganism4 ,died #adej4    ,genard     
7,franois71 ,french satirist1 b4 ,paris 
about #agbb4 ,he wrote  an irreligious  
work called ,a ,parallel of the         

,portraits of the ,age1  with the       
,pictures of the ,holy ,scriptures1 for 
which he was placed in  the ,bastille1  
where it is believed he finished his    
days4    ,gendre 7,barbe71 ,russian     
writer in ,french1 b4 ,cronstadt1 #ae   
,dec4 #ahdb4 ,she was well educated at  
,kief1 where she obtained a  gold medal4
 ,by reading the works of ,bchner1      
,buckle1 and ,darwin  she became a      
,freethinker4 ,settling in ,paris1 she  
contributed  to the ,revue              
,internationale des ,sciences1 to ,la   
,justice and the  ,nouvelle ,revue1 etc4
 ,some of her pieces have been reprinted
 under  the title ,etudes ,sociales     
7,social ,studies1 ,paris1 #ahhf71      
edited by  ,dr4 ,c4 ,letourneau4 ,died  
,dec4 #ahhd4    ,gener 7,pompeyo71      
,spanish philosopher1 b4 ,barcelona1    
#ahdi1 is a member  of the ,society of  
,anthropology1 and author of a study of 
the evolution  of ideas entitled ,death 
and the ,devil1 ,paris1 '#hj4 ,this able
 work is  dedicated to ,renan and has a 

preface by ,littr4 ,the author has since
  translated it into ,spanish4          
,genestet 7,petrus ,augustus de71 ,dutch
 poet and ,agnostic1 b4 ,amsterdam1  #ba
 ,nov4 #ahbi4 ,he studied theology1 and 
for some years was a ,protestant        
minister4 ,his verses show him to be a  
,freethinker4 ,died at ,rozendaal1  #b  
,july1 #ahfa4    ,genin 7,franois71     
,french philologist1 b4 ,amiens1 #af    
,feb4 #ahjc4 ,he  became one of the     
editors of the ,national1 of ,paris1    
about '#cg1 and  wrote for it spirited  
articles against the ,jesuits4 ,he      
published works  on ,the ,jesuits and   
the ,universities1 ,the ,church or the  
,state1 etc4 ,in  '#de the ,french      
,academy awarded a prize to his ,lexicon
 of the ,language  of ,molire4 ,he      
edited ,diderot1 '#dg1 and is known for 
his researches  into the origin of the  
,french language and literature4 ,died  
,paris1  #bj ,dec4 #ahef4    ,genovesi  
7,antonio71 ,italian philosopher1 b4    
,castiglione1 #a  ,nov4 #agab4 ,he read 

lectures in philosophy at ,naples1 but  
by his  substitution of doubt for       
traditional belief he drew upon himself 
many attacks from the clergy4 ,the book 
by which he is best known is  his       
,italian ,morality4 ,died at ,naples1   
#bj ,sept4 #agfi4    ,gensonne          
7,armand71 ,french lawyer and one of the
 leaders of the  ,girondists1 b4        
,bordeaux1 #aj ,aug4 #ageh4 ,he was     
elected to the  ,legislative ,assembly  
in #agia1 and to the ,convention in     
#agib4 ,in the  struggle with the       
,jacobins1 ,gensonn was one of the most 
active and  eloquent champions of his   
party4 ,he was executed with his        
colleagues  #ca ,oct4 #agic4            
,gentilis 7,giovanni ,valentino71       
,italian heretic1 b4 ,consenza1 ,naples1
  about #aebj4 ,he fled to avoid        
persecution to ,geneva1 where in #aeeh  
he was thrown into prison at the        
instigation of ,calvin4 ,fear of        
sharing the fate of ,servetus made him  
recant4 ,he wandered to ,poland1  where 

he joined ,alciati and ,biandrata1 but  
he was banished for his  innovations4   
,upon the death of ,calvin he returned  
to ,switzerland1  where he was arrested 
for heresy1 #aa ,june1 #aeff4 ,after a  
long trial  he was condemned for        
attacking the ,trinity1 and beheaded at 
,berne1  #bf 787 ,sept4 #aeff4 ,ladvocat
 says ,he died very impiously1 saying he
  thought himself honored in being      
martyred for the glory of the ,father1  
whereas the apostles and other martyrs  
only died for the glory of  the ,son4   
,geoffrin 7,marie ,therse1 ne ,rodet71 a
 ,french lady distinguished as a        
patroness of learning and the fine arts1
 b4 ,paris1 #b ,june1 #afii4 ,she  was a
 friend of ,alembert1 ,voltaire1        
,marmontel1 ,montesquieu1 ,diderot1  and
 the encyclopdists1 and was noted for   
her benevolence4 ,died at  ,paris1 #f   
,oct4 #aggg4    ,gerhard 7,h471 ,dutch  
socialist1 b4 ,delft1 #aa ,june1 #ahbi4 
,educated at  an orphanage he became a  
tailor1 travelled through ,france1      

,italy1  and ,switzerland1 and in '#fa  
returned to ,amsterdam4 ,he wrote for   
,de  ,dageraad1 and was correspondent of
 the ,internationale4 ,died #e ,july1   
#ahhf4    ,gerhard 7,a4 ,h471 son of    
foregoing1 b4 ,lausanne1 ,switzerland1  
#g ,april1  #aheh4 ,is headmaster of a  
public school1 and one of the editors of
  ,de ,dageraad4    ,germond 7,j4 ,b4   
,l471 editor of ,marchal's ,dictionnaire
 des ,athes1  ,brussels1 #ahcc4         
,gertsen 7,aleksandr ,ivanovich74 ,see  
,herzen4    ,ghillany 7,friedrich       
,wilhelm71 ,german critic1 b4 at        
,erlangan1 #ah  ,april1 #ahjg4 ,in '#ce 
he became ,professor of ,history at     
,nurenberg4 ,his  principal work is on  
,human ,sacrifices among the ,ancient   
,jews1 ,nurnberg1  '#db4 ,he also wrote 
on the ,pagan and ,christian writers of 
the first  four centuries4 ,under the   
pseudonym of ,richard von der ,alm he   
wrote  ,theological ,letters1 #ahfb2    
,jesus of ,nazareth1 #ahfh2 and a       
collection of  the opinions of heathen  

and ,jewish writers of the first four   
centuries  upon ,jesus and              
,christianity4 ,died #be ,june1 #ahgf4  
,giannone 7,pietro71 ,italian historian1
 b4 ,ischitella1 ,naples1 #g ,may1      
#afgf4 ,he devoted many years to a      
,history of the ,kingdom of ,naples1  in
 which he attacked the papal power4 ,he 
was excommunicated and fled  to ,vienna1
 where he received a pension from the   
,emperor1 which was  removed on his     
avowal of heterodox opinions4 ,he was   
driven from ,austria  and took refuge in
 ,venice3 here also was an ,inquisition4
 ,giannone  was seized by night and cast
 before sunrise on the papal shore4 ,he 
found means1 however1 of escaping to    
,geneva4 ,having been enticed  into     
,savoy in #agcf1 he was arrested by     
order of the ,king of ,sardinia1  and   
confined in prison until his death1 #g  
,march1 #agdh4    ,gibbon 7,edward71    
probably the greatest of historians1 b4 
,putney1  #bg ,april #agcg4 ,at ,oxford 
be became a ,romanist1 but being sent to

 a  ,calvinist at ,lausanne1 was brought
 back to ,protestantism4 ,when visiting 
the ruins of the ,capitol at ,rome1 he  
conceived the idea of writing  the      
,decline and ,fall of that empire4 ,for 
twenty-two years before the  appearance 
of his first volume he was a prodigy of 
arduous application1  his investigations
 extending over the whole range of      
intellectual and  political activity for
 nearly fifteen hundred years4 ,his     
monumental  work1 bridging the old world
 and the new1 is an historic exposure   
of the crimes and futility of           
,christianity4 ,gibbon was elected to   
,parliament in '#gd1 but did not        
distinguish himself4 ,he died of dropsy1
  in ,london1 #af ,jan4 #agid4          
,gibson 7,ellen ,elvira71 ,american     
lecturess1 b4 ,winchenden1 ,mass4 #h    
,may1  #ahba1 and became a public school
 teacher4 ,study of the ,bible brought  
her to the ,freethought platform4 ,at   
the outbreak of the ,american ,civil    
,war she organised ,ladies' ,soldiers'  

,aid ,societies1 and was elected        
chaplain to the #ast ,wisconsin         
,volunteer ,artillery4 ,president       
,lincoln  endorsed the appointment1     
which was questioned4 ,she has written  
anonymously ,godly ,women of the ,bible1
 and has contributed to the             
,truthseeker1 ,boston ,investigator1 and
 ,ironclad ,age1 under her own          
signature and that of ,lilian4          
,giessenburg 7,rudolf ,charles          
d',ablaing van71 one of the most notable
 of  ,dutch ,freethinkers1 b4 of noble  
family1 #bf ,april1 #ahbf4 ,an          
unbeliever  in youth1 in '#dg he went to
 ,batavia1 and upon his return set up as
 a  bookseller under the name of ,r4 ,c4
 ,meijer4 ,with ,junghuhn and ,gnst1  he
 started de ,dageraad1 and from '#ef-fh 
was one of the contributors1  usually   
under his name ,rudolf ,charles4 ,he is 
a man of great  erudition1 has written  
,het verbond der vrije gedachte 7,the   
,alliance of  ,freethought72 de         
,tydgenoot op het gebied der ,rede 7,the

 ,contemporary  in the ,field of        
,reason72 ,de ,regtbank des ,onderzoeks 
7,the ,tribunal  of ,inquiry72          
,zedekunde en ,christendom 7,ethics and 
,christianity72  ,curiositeiten van     
allerlei aard 7,curiosities of ,various 
,kinds74 ,he has  also published the    
,religion and ,philosophy of the ,bible 
by ,w4 ,j4 ,birch  and ,brooksbank's    
work on ,revelation4 ,he was the first  
who published  a complete edition of the
 famous ,testament du ,cur ,jean        
,meslier in  three parts 7'#fd71 has    
published the works of ,douwes ,dekker  
and other  writers1 and also ,curieuse  
,gebruiken4    ,gilbert 7,claude71      
,french advocate1 b4 ,dijon1 #g ,june1  
#afeb4 ,he had  printed at ,dijon1 in   
#agjj1 ,histoire de ,calejava1 ou de    
l'isle  des hommes raisonables1 avec le 
paralelle de leur ,morale et du         
,christianisme4 ,the book has neither   
the name of author or printer4 ,it  was 
suppressed1 and only one copy escaped   
destruction1 which was bought  in #aghd 

by the ,duc de ,la ,vallire for #abj    
livres4 ,it was in form of a  dialogue  
7#cbi pp471 and attacked both ,judaism  
and ,christianity4 ,gilbert  married in 
#agjj1 and died at ,dijon #ah ,feb4     
#agbj4    ,gill 7,charles71 b4 ,dublin1 
#h ,oct4 #ahbd1 was educated at the     
,university  of that city4 ,in '#hc he  
published anonymously a work on ,the    
,evolution  of ,christianity4 ,it was   
quoted by ,mr4 ,foote in his defences   
before  ,judge ,north and ,lord         
,coleridge1 and in the following year he
 put his  name to a second edition4 ,mr4
 ,gill has also written a pamphlet on   
the ,blasphemy ,laws1 and has edited1   
with an introduction1 ,archbishop       
,laurence's ,book of ,enoch1 #ahhc4     
,giles 7,rev4 ,john ,allen1 ,d4,ph471 b4
 ,mark1 ,somersetshire1 #bf  ,oct4      
#ahjh4 ,educated at the ,charterhouse   
and ,oxford1 where he  graduated ,b4,a4 
as a double first-class in '#bh4 ,he was
 appointed  head-master of the ,city of 
,london ,school1 which post he left for 

the ,church4 ,the author of over #aej   
volumes of educational works1  including
 the ,keys to the ,classics2 privately  
he was a confirmed  ,freethinker1       
intimate with ,birch1 ,scott1 etc4 ,his 
works bearing on  theology show his     
heresy1 the principal being ,hebrew     
,records #ahej1  ,christian ,records    
#ahed4 ,these two were published        
together in amended  form in #ahgg4 ,he 
also wrote ,codex ,apocryphus ,novi     
,testamenti #aheb1  ,writings of the    
,early ,christians of the ,second       
,century #aheg1 and  ,apostolic         
,records1 published posthumously in     
#ahhf4 ,died #bd ,sept #ahhd4           
,ginguene 7,pierre ,louis71 ,french     
historian b4 ,rennes1 #be ,april1       
#agdh4 ,educated1 with ,parny1 by       
,jesuits4 ,at ,paris he became a        
teacher1 embraced the ,revolution1 wrote
 on ,rousseau and ,rabelais1  and       
collaborated with ,chamfort in the      
,historic ,pictures of the ,french      
,revolution4 ,thrown into prison during 

the ,terror1 he escaped on the  fall of 
,robespierre1 and became ,director of   
,public ,instruction4 ,his  principal   
work is a ,literary ,history of ,italy4 
,died ,paris1 #aa  ,nov4 #ahaf4         
,gilliland 7,m4 ,s47 ,miss1 b4          
,londonderry #ahec1 authoress of a      
little  work on ,the ,future of         
,morality1 from the ,agnostic           
standpoint1 #ahhh4    ,gioja            
7,melchiorre71 ,italian political       
economist1 b4 ,piazenza1 #bj  ,sept4    
#agfg4 ,he advocated republicanism1 and 
was appointed head of a  bureau of      
statistics4 ,for his brochure ,la       
,scienza del ,povero ,diavolo  he was   
expelled from ,italy in #ahji4 ,he      
published works on ,merit and  ,rewards 
and ,the ,philosophy of ,statistics4    
,died at ,milan #b ,jan4 #ahbi4         
,girard 7,stephen71 ,american           
philanthropist1 b4 near ,bordeaux       
,france1  #bd ,may1 #agej4 ,he sailed as
 cabin boy to the ,west ,indies about   
#agfj2  rose to be master of a coasting 

vessel and earned enough to settle  in  
business in ,philadelphia in #agfi4 ,he 
became one of the richest  merchants in 
,america1 and during the war of #ahab he
 took the whole  of a ,government loan  
of five million dollars4 ,he called his 
vessels  after the names of the         
philosophers ,helvetius1 ,montesquieu1  
,voltaire1  ,rousseau1 etc4 ,he         
contributed liberally to all public     
improvements  and radical movements4 ,on
 his death he left large bequests to    
,philadelphia1 the principal being a    
munificent endowment of a college  for  
orphans4 ,by a provision of his will1 no
 ecclesiastic or minister  of any sect  
whatever is to hold any connection with 
the college1 or  even be admitted to the
 premises as a visitor2 but the officers
 of the  institution are required to    
instruct the pupils in secular morality 
and leave them to adopt their own       
religious opinions4 ,this will has  been
 most shamefully perverted4 ,died       
,philadelphia1 #bf ,dec4 #ahca4         

,glain 7,d4 de ,saint74 ,see ,saint     
,glain4    ,glennie 7,john ,stuart      
,stuart71 living ,english barrister and 
writer1 author of ,in the ,morningland1 
or the law of the origin and            
transformation of ,christianity1 #ahgc1 
the most important chapter  of which was
 reprinted by ,thomas ,scott1 under the 
title1 ,christ and  ,osiris4 ,he has    
also written ,pilgrim ,memories1 or     
travel and discussion  in the           
birth-countries of ,christianity with   
the late ,h4 ,t4 ,buckle1  #ahge4       
,glisson 7,francis71 ,english anatomist 
and physician1 b4 ,rampisham1           
,dorsetshire1 #aeig4 ,he took his degree
 at ,cambridge1 and was there  appointed
 ,regius ,professor of ,physic1 an      
office he held forty years4 ,he         
discovered ,glisson's capsule in the    
liver1 and was the first to  attribute  
irritability to muscular fibre4 ,in his 
,tractatus de natura  substanti         
energetica1 #afgb1 he anticipates the   
natural school in  considering matter   

endowed with native energy sufficient to
 account  for the operations of nature4 
,dr4 ,glisson was eulogised by ,harvey1 
and ,boerhaave called him the most      
accurate of all anatomists that  ever   
lived4 ,died in #afgg4    ,godwin       
7,mary74 ,see ,wollstonecraft4          
,godwin 7,william71 ,english historian1 
political writer and novelist1  b4      
,wisbeach1 ,cambridgeshire1 #c ,march1  
#agef4 ,the son of a ,dissenting        
minister1 he was designed for the same  
calling4 ,he studied at ,hoxton         
,college1 and came out1 as he entered1 a
 ,tory and ,calvinist2 but making  the  
acquaintance of ,holcroft1 ,paine1 and  
the ,english ,jacobins1 his  views      
developed from the ,unitarianism of     
,priestley to the rejection  of the     
supernatural4 ,in '#ic he published his 
republican work on  ,political ,justice4
 ,in the following year he issued his   
powerful  novel of ,caleb ,williams4 ,he
 married ,mary ,wollstonecraft1 '#if2   
wrote1  in addition to several novels   

and educational works1 ,on ,population1 
in answer to ,malthus1 #ahbj2 a ,history
 of the ,commonwealth1 '#bd-bh2         
,thoughts on ,man1 '#ca2 ,lives of the  
,necromancers1 '#cd4 ,some ,freethought 
essays1 which he had intended to form   
into a book entitled ,the ,genius  of   
,christianity ,unveiled1 were first     
published in '#gc4 ,they comprise       
papers on such subjects as future       
retribution1 the atonement1 miracles1   
and character of ,jesus1 and the history
 and effects of the ,christian          
religion4 ,died #g ,april1 #ahcf4       
,goethe 7,johann ,wolfgang von71        
,germany's greatest poet1  b4           
,frankfort-on-,main1 #bh ,aug4 #agdi4   
,he records that early in his  seventh  
year 7#a ,nov4 #ageh7 the great ,lisbon 
earthquake filled his  mind with        
religious doubt4 ,before he was nine he 
could write several  languages4         
,educated at home until sixteen1 he then
 went to ,leipsic  ,university4 ,at     
,strasburg he became acquainted with    

,herder1 who directed  his attention to 
,shakespeare4 ,he took the degree of    
doctor in #agga1  and in the same year  
composed his drama ,goetz von           
,berlichingen4 ,he  went to ,wetzlar1   
where he wrote ,sorrows of ,werther1    
#aggd1 which at  once made him famous4  
,he was invited to the court of the     
,duke of  ,saxe-,weimar and loaded with 
honors1 becoming the centre of a galaxy 
of distinguished men4 ,here he brought  
out the works of ,schiller and  his own 
dramas1 of which ,faust is the greatest4
 ,his chief prose work  is ,wilhelm     
,meister's ,apprenticeship4 ,his works  
are voluminous4 ,he  declared himself   
decidedly non-,christian1 and said his  
objects of  hate were the cross and     
bugs4 ,he was averse to abstractions and
  refused to recognise a ,deity distinct
 from the world4 ,in philosophy  he     
followed ,spinoza1 and he disliked and  
discountenanced the popular  creed4     
,writing to ,lavater in #aggb he said3  
,you look upon the gospel as  it stands 

as the divinest truth3 but even a voice 
from heaven would not  convince me that 
water burns and fire quenches1 that a   
woman conceives  without a man1 and that
 a dead man can rise again4 ,to you1    
nothing is  more beautiful than the     
,gospel2 to me1 a thousand written pages
 of  ancient and modern inspired men are
 equally beautiful4 ,goethe was  opposed
 to asceticism1 and ,pfleiderer admits  
stood in opposition  to ,christianity   
not merely on points of theological     
form1 but to  a certain extent on points
 of substance too4 ,goethe devoted much 
attention to science1 and he attempted  
to explain the metamorphosis  of plants 
on evolutionary principles in #agij4    
,died #bb ,march1 #ahcb4                
,goldstuecker 7,theodor71 ,sanskrit     
scholar1 of ,jewish birth1 but a        
,freethinker by conviction1 b4          
,konigsberg #ah ,jan4 #ahba2 studied at 
,bonn  under ,schlegel and ,lassen1 and 
at ,paris under ,burnouf4 ,establishing 
himself at ,berlin1 he was engaged as   

tutor in the ,university and  assisted  
,humboldt in the matter of ,hindu       
philosophy in the ,cosmos4 ,a  democrat 
in politics1 he left ,berlin at the     
reaction of '#di and came  to ,england1 
where he assisted ,professor ,wilson in 
preparing his  ,sanskrit-,english       
,dictionary4 ,he contributed important  
articles on  ,indian literature to the  
,westminster ,review1 the ,reader1 the  
,athenum  and ,chambers' ,encyclopdia4  
,died in ,london1 #f ,march1 #ahgb4     
,goldziher 7,ignacz71 ,hungarian        
,orientalist1 b4 ,stuhlweissenburg1     
#ahej4 ,is since #ahgf ,doctor of       
,semitic ,philology in ,buda-pesth2 is  
author of ,mythology ,among the         
,hebrews1 which has been translated  by 
,russell ,martineau1 '#gg1 and has      
written many studies on ,semitic        
theology and literature4    ,gordon     
7,thomas71 ,scotch ,deist and political 
reformer1 was b4 ,kells1                
,kirkcudbright1 about #afhd1 but settled
 early in ,london1 where he  supported  

himself as a teacher and writer4 ,he    
first distinguished  himself by two     
pamphlets in the ,bangorian controversy1
 which  recommended him to ,trenchard1  
to whom he became amanuensis1 and  with 
whom he published ,cato's ,letters and a
 periodical entitled ,the  ,independent 
,whig1 which he continued some years    
after ,trenchard's  death1 marrying that
 writer's widow4 ,he wrote many         
pamphlets1 and  translated from         
,barbeyrac ,the ,spirit of the          
,ecclesiastics of ,all  ,ages4 ,he also 
translated the histories of ,tacitus and
 ,sallust4 ,he died  #bh ,july1 #agej1  
leaving behind him posthumous works     
entitled ,a ,cordial  for ,low ,spirits 
and ,the ,pillars of ,priestcraft and   
,orthodoxy ,shaken4    ,gorlus 7,david71
 a ,dutch philosopher1 b4 at ,utrecht1  
towards the end  of the sixteenth       
century1 has been accused of ,atheism on
 account  of his speculations in a work 
published after his death entitled      
,exercitationes ,philosophic1 ,leyden   

#afbj4    ,govea or ,gouvea ,latin      
,goveanus 7,antonio71 ,portugese jurist 
and poet1  b4 #aeje1 studied in ,france 
and gained great reputation by his legal
  writings4 ,calvin classes him with    
,dolet1 ,rabelais1 and ,des ,periers1   
as an ,atheist and mocker4 ,he wrote    
elegant ,latin poems4 ,died at ,turin1  
#e ,march1 #aefe4    ,gratiolet         
7,louis-,pierre71 ,french naturalist1 b4
 ,sainte ,foy1 #f ,july  #ahae1 noted   
for his researches on the comparative   
anatomy of the  brain4 ,died at ,paris  
#ae ,feb4 #ahfe4    ,graves 7,kersey71  
,american1 author of ,the ,biography of 
,satan1 #ahfe1  and ,the ,world's       
,sixteen ,crucified ,saviors1 #ahgf4    
,works of some vogue1  but little value4
    ,gray 7,asa71 ,american naturalist1 
b4 #ah ,nov4 #ahaj1 ,paris1 ,oneida     
,co41  ,new ,york4 ,studied at          
,fairfield and became physician #ahca4  
,wrote  ,elements of ,botany1 #ahcf1    
became ,professor of ,nat4 ,hist4 at    
,harvard1  and was the first to         

introduce ,darwinism to ,america4 ,wrote
 an  ,examination of ,darwin's ,treatise
 #ahfa4 ,succeeded ,agassiz as ,governor
 of  ,smithsonian ,institute1 and worked
 on ,american ,flora4 ,died at          
,cambridge1  ,mass41 #cj ,jan4 #ahhh4   
,green 7,h4 ,l471 ,american             
,freethinker1 b4 #ah ,feb4 #ahbh4 ,edits
 the  ,freethinker's ,magazine published
 at ,buffalo1 ,new ,york4    ,greg      
7,william ,rathbone71 ,english ,writer1 
b4 ,manchester #ahji4 ,educated  at     
,edinburgh university1 he became        
attracted to economic studies  and      
literary pursuits4 ,he was one of the   
founders of the ,manchester             
,statistical ,society1 a warm supporter 
of the ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1  and   
author of one of its prize essays4 ,in  
'#dj he wrote on ,efforts for  the      
,extinction of the ,african ,slave      
,trade4 ,in '#ej he published his       
,creed of ,christendom1 which has gone  
through eight editions1 and in  #ahgb   
his ,enigmas of ,life1 of which there   

were thirteen editions in  his life4 ,he
 published also ,essays on ,political   
and ,social ,science1  and was a regular
 contributor to the ,pall ,mall         
,gazette4 ,his works  exhibit a careful 
yet bold thinker and close reasoner4    
,died at  ,wimbledon #ae ,nov4 #ahha4   
,grenier 7,pierre ,jules71 ,french      
,positivist1 b4 ,beaumont1 ,perigord1   
#ahch1 author of a medical examination  
of the doctrine of free will1  '#fh1    
which drew out letter from ,mgr4        
,dupanloup1 ,bishop of ,orleans1        
imploring him to repudiate his impious  
doctrines4 ,also author of  ,aphorisms  
on the ,first ,principles of ,sociology1
 #ahgc4    ,grile 7,dod71 pen name of   
,ambrose ,bierce1 ,american humorist1   
who  wrote on the ,san ,francisco       
,news-,letter4 ,his ,nuggets and ,dust  
and  ,fiend's ,delight1 were            
blasphemous2 has also written in ,fun1  
and  published ,cobwebs from an ,empty  
,skull1 #ahgc4    ,grimm 7,friedrich    
,melchior von71 ,baron4 ,german         

philosophic writer in  ,french1 b4      
,ratisbon1 #bf ,dec4 #agbc4 ,going to   
,france he became acquainted  with      
,d',holbach and with ,rousseau1 who was 
at first his friend1 but  afterwards his
 enemy4 ,he became secretary to the     
,duke of ,orleans1  and wrote in        
conjunction with ,diderot and ,raynal   
caustic literary  bulletins containing  
criticisms on ,french literature and    
art4 ,in  #aggf he was envoy from the   
,duke of ,saxe ,gotha to the ,french    
,court1  and after the ,french          
,revolution was appointed by ,catherine 
of ,russia  her minister at ,hamburg4   
,grimm died at ,gotha1 #ai ,dec4 #ahjg4 
,he is  chiefly known by his literary   
correspondence with ,diderot published  
in seventeen vols4 #ahab-ahac4          
,gringore 7,pierre71 ,french poet and   
dramatist1 b4 about #adge1 satirised    
the pope and clergy as well as the early
 reformers4 ,died about #aedd4          
,grisebach 7,eduard71 ,german writer1 b4
 ,gottingen #i ,oct4 #ahde4 ,studied    

law1 but entered the service of the     
,state and became ,consul at            
,bucharest1 ,petersburg1 ,milan and     
,hayti4 ,has written many poems1 of     
which the best known is ,the ,new       
,tanhuser1 first published anonymously  
in '#fi1 and followed by ,tanhuser in   
,rome1 '#ge4 ,has also translated  ,kin 
,ku ,ki ,kuan1 ,chinese novels4 ,is a   
follower of ,schopenhauer1 whose        
bibliography he has compiled1 #ahhh4    
,grote 7,george71 the historian of      
,greece1 b4 near ,beckenham1 ,kent1  #ag
 ,nov4 #agid4 ,descended from a ,dutch  
family4 ,he was educated for  the       
employment of a banker and was put to   
business at the age of  sixteen4 ,he was
 however addicted to literary pursuits1 
and became  a friend and disciple of    
,james ,mill and ,jeremy ,bentham4 ,in  
#ahbj he  married a cultured lady1      
,harriet ,lewin1 and in '#bb his        
,analysis of  the ,influence of ,natural
 ,religion was published by ,carlile1   
under  the pen name of ,philip          

,beauchamp4 ,he also wrote in the       
,westminster  ,review4 ,in '#cc he was  
elected as ,radical ,m4,p4 for the ,city
 of ,london  and retained his seat till 
'#da4 ,he was chiefly known in          
,parliament  for his advocacy of the    
ballot4 ,in '#df-'ef he published his   
famous  ,history of ,greece1 which cost 
him the best years of his life2 this was
  followed by ,plato and the other      
,companions of ,socrates4 ,his review   
of ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,examination of ,sir 
,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy1  '#fa1
 showed he retained his ,freethought    
until the end of his life4 ,he  died #ah
 ,june '#ga1 and was buried in          
,westminster ,abbey4    ,grote          
7,harriet7 nee ,lewin1 wife of the      
above1 b4 #agib1 shared in his  opinions
 and wrote his life4 ,died #bi ,dec4    
#ahgh4    ,gruen 7,karl7 ,german author1
 b4 #cj ,sept4 #ahag1 ,ldenschied1      
,westphalia1  studied at ,bonn and      
,berlin4 ,in '#dd he came to ,paris1 was
 a friend  to ,proudhon and translated  

his ,philosophy of ,misery1 was arrested
 in  '#di and condemned to exile2 lived 
at ,brussels till '#fb1 when he was     
made professor at ,frankfort4 ,he became
 professor of ,english at the  ,college 
of ,colmar1 established a ,radical      
journal the ,mannheim ,evening  ,news   
and he wrote ,biographical ,studies of  
,schiller1 '#dd1 and ,feuerbach1  '#ga4 
,a ,culture ,history of the #afth-#agth 
,centuries1 and ,the ,philosophy  of the
 ,present1 '#gf4 ,died at ,vienna #ag   
,february1 #ahhg4    ,gruet 7,jacques71 
,swiss ,freethinker1 tortured and put to
 death for  blasphemy by order of       
,calvin at ,geneva1 #bf ,july1 #aedg4   
,after his death  papers were found in  
his possession directed against         
religion4 ,they  were burnt by the      
common hangman1 ,april1 #aeej4          
,gruyer 7,louis ,auguste ,jean          
,franois-,philippe71 ,belgian           
philosopher1  b4 ,brussels1 #ae ,nov4   
#aggh4 ,he wrote an ,essay of ,physical 
,philosophy1  #ahbh1 ,tabletts          

,philosophiques1 '#db4 ,principles of   
,physical  ,philosophy1 '#de1 etc4 ,he  
held the atomic doctrine1 and that      
matter  was eternal4 ,died ,brussels #ae
 ,oct4 #ahff4    ,guadet 7,marguerite   
,elie71 ,girondin1 b4 ,saint ,emilion   
7,gironde71  #bj ,july1 #ageh4 ,he      
studied at ,bordeaux1 and became an     
advocate in  '#ha4 ,he threw himself    
enthusiastically into the ,revolution1  
and was  elected ,deputy for the        
,gironde4 ,his vehement attacks on the  
,jacobins  contributed to the           
destruction of his party1 after which he
 took  refuge1 but was arrested and     
beheaded at ,bordeaux1 #ae ,june1 #agid4
    ,gubernatis 7,angelo de71 see ,de   
,gubernatis4    ,gupin 7,ange71 ,french 
physician1 b4 ,pontivy1 #cj ,aug4 #ahje4
 ,he became  ,m4,d4 in '#bh4 ,after the 
revolution of ,july1 '#cj1 ,dr4 ,gupin  
was made  ,professor at the ,school of  
,medicine at ,nantes4 ,he formed the    
first  scientific and philosophical     
congress1 held there in '#cc4 ,in '#dh  

he  became ,commissaire of the ,republic
 at ,nantes1 and in '#ej was deprived   
of his situation4 ,in '#ed he published 
his ,philosophy of the ,nineteenth      
,century4 ,after the fall of the        
,empire1 ,m4 ,gupin became ,prefet of   
,la  ,loire ,infrieure1 but had to      
resign from ill-health4 ,died at        
,nantes1  #ba ,may1 #ahgc1 and was      
buried without any religious ceremony4  
,gueroult 7,adolphe71 ,french author1 b4
 ,radepont 7,eure71 #bi  ,jan4 #ahaj4   
,early in life he became a follower of  
,saint ,simon4 ,he wrote  to the        
,journal des ,debats1 the ,republique1  
,credit and ,industrie1 and  founded    
l',opinion ,national4 ,he was elected to
 the ,legislature in '#fc1  when he     
advocated the separation of ,church and 
,state4 ,died at ,vichy1  #ba ,july1    
#ahgb4    ,guerra ,junqueiro4           
,portuguese poet1 b4 #ahej4 ,his        
principal work is a  poem on ,the ,death
 of ,don ,juan1 but he has also written 
,the ,death of  ,jehovah1 an assault    

upon the ,catholic faith from the       
standpoint of  ,pantheism4 ,portuguese  
critics speak highly of his powers4     
,guerrini 7,olindo71 ,italian poet1 b4  
,forli1 #d ,oct4 #ahde4 ,educated  at   
,ravenna1 ,turin1 and ,bologna          
,university2 he has written many fine   
poems under the name of ,lorenzo        
,stecchetti4 ,in the preface to ,nova   
,polemica he declares ,primo di tutto   
dice1 non credo in ,dio 7,first  of all 
,i say do not believe in ,god47         
,gueudeville 7,nicolas71 ,french writer1
 b4 ,rouen1 #afed4 ,he became a         
,benedictine monk1 and was distinguished
 as a preacher1 but the boldness  of his
 opinions drew on him the punishment of 
his superiors4 ,he escaped  to ,holland1
 and publicly abjured ,catholicism4 ,he 
taught literature  and philosophy at    
,rotterdam1 wrote the ,dialogue of the  
,baron de la  ,hontan with an ,american 
,savage ,amst4 #agjd1 appended to the   
,travels  of ,la ,hontan1 #agbd1 edited 
by ,gueudeville4 ,this dialogue is a    

bitter  criticism of ,christian usages4 
,he translated ,erasmus's ,praise of    
,folly  7#agac71 ,more's ,utopia        
7#agae71 and ,c4 ,agrippa1 ,of the      
,uncertainty and  ,vanity of ,sciences  
7#agbf74 ,died at the ,hague1 #agbj4    
,guichard 7,victor71 ,french writer1 b4 
,paris1 #ae ,aug4 #ahjc4 ,he became     
,mayor of ,sens1 and was elected deputy 
for the ,yonne department4 ,he  was     
exiled in '#eb1 but again elected in    
'#ga4 ,his principal work is  ,la       
,libert de ,penser1 fin du ,pouvoir     
,spirituel 7#ahfh74 ,died at ,paris1    
#aath ,nov4 #ahhd4    ,guild 7,e4 ,e471 
b4 in ,connecticut1 #f ,may1 #ahaa4 ,in 
'#ce he became  a ,christian minister1  
but after numerous debates became turned
  ,universalist4 ,in '#dd he published  
,the ,universalist ,book of ,reference1 
which went through several editions4 ,it
 was followed by ,pro and ,con1  in     
which he gives the arguments for and    
against ,christianity4    ,guirlando    
7,giulio7 di ,treviso4 ,italian heretic1

 put to death at ,venice  for           
anti-trinitarian heresy1 #ai ,oct4      
#aefb4    ,gundling 7,nicolaus          
,hieronymus71 ,german scholar and       
,deistic philosopher1  b4 near          
,nuremberg1 #be ,feb4 #afga4 ,he wrote a
 ,history of the ,philosophy  of        
,morals1 #agjf1 and ,the ,way to ,truth1
 #agac4 ,one of the first ,german       
eclectics1 he took much from ,hobbes and
 ,locke1 with whom he derived  all ideas
 from experience4 ,died at ,halle1 #af  
,dec4 #agbi4    ,gunning 7,william ,d471
 ,american scientific professor1 b4     
,bloomingburg1  ,ohio4 ,graduated at    
,oberlin and studied under ,agassiz4 ,he
 wrote ,life  ,history of our ,planet1  
,chicago1 #ahgf1 and contributed to ,the
 ,open  ,court4 ,died ,greeley1         
,colorado1 #h ,march1 #ahhh4    ,gnst   
7,dr4 ,frans ,christiaan71 ,dutch writer
 and publisher1 b4 ,amsterdam1  #ai     
,aug4 #ahbc4 ,he was intended for a     
,catholic clergyman2 studied  at ,berne1
 where he was promoted '#dg4 ,returning 

to ,holland he became  bookseller and   
editor at ,amsterdam4 ,he was for many  
years secretary of  the ,city ,theatre4 
,gnst contributed to many periodicals1  
and became  a friend of ,junghuhn1 with 
whom he started ,de ,dageraad1 the organ
 of  the ,dutch ,freethinkers1 which he 
edited from '#ee to '#fg4 ,he usually   
contributed under pseudonyms as         
,mephistho or 7therefore74 ,he was  for 
many years ,president of the            
,independent ,lodge of ,freemasons1     
,post ,nubila ,lux1 and wrote on ,adon  
,hiram1 the oldest legend of  the       
,freemasons4 ,he also wrote ,wijwater   
voor ,roomsch ,katholieken  7,holy      
,water for the ,roman ,catholics72 ,de  
,bloedgetuigen der ,spaansche           
,inquisitie 7,the ,martyrs of the       
,spanish ,inquisition1 '#fc72 and       
,heidenen  en ,jezuieten1 eene          
vergelijking van hunne zedeleer 7,pagans
 and ,jesuits1  a comparison of their   
morals1 '#fg74 ,in his life and         
conversation he  was frater gaudens4    

,died #bi ,dec4 #ahhf4    ,guyau 7,marie
 ,jean71 ,french philosopher1 b4 #ahed1 
was crowned at the  age of #ai by the   
,institute of ,france for a monograph on
 ,utilitarian  morality4 ,in the        
following year he had charge of a course
 of philosophy  at the ,condorcet lyce  
at ,paris4 ,ill health1 brought on by   
excess of  work1 obliged him to retire  
to ,mentone1 where he occupied himself  
with literature4 ,his principal works   
are ,la ,morale d',epicure 7the         
morality of ,epicurus71 in relation to  
present day doctrines1 #ahgh1  ,la      
,morale ,anglaise ,contemporaine        
7,contemporary ,english ,ethics71 '#gi1 
crowned by the ,academy of ,moral       
,sciences4 ,verses of a philosopher1    
'#ha4 ,esquisse d'une morale sans       
obligation ni sanction 7,sketch of      
morality without obligation or          
sanction17 '#hd1 and ,l',irreligion de  
l',avenir 7the ,irreligion of the       
,future7 '#hg4 ,m4 ,guyau was a follower
 of  ,m4 ,fouille1 but all his works    

bear the impress of profound thought and
  originality4 ,a chief doctrine is the 
expansion of life4 ,died ,mentone1  #ca 
,march1 #ahhh4    ,guyot 7,yves71       
,french writer and statesman1 b4 ,dinan1
 #ahdc4 ,he wrote  with ,sigismond      
,lacroix a ,study of the ,social        
,doctrines of ,christianity1  '#gc1 and 
a work on morality in the ,bibliothque  
,matrialiste4 ,elected  on the          
,municipal ,council of ,paris '#gd-gh1  
he has since been a deputy  to the      
,chamber1 and is now a member of the    
government4 ,he has written  the        
,principles of ,social ,economy1 '#hd1  
and many works on that topic2  has      
edited ,diderot's ,la ,religieuse and   
the journals ,droits de l'homme  and le 
,bien public4    ,gwynne 7,george71     
,freethought writer in the ,reasoner and
 ,national  ,reformer1 under the        
pen-name of ,aliquis4 ,his reply to ,j4 
,h4 ,newman's  ,grammar of ,assent      
shewed much acuteness4 ,he served the   
cause both by  pen and purse4 ,died #be 

,sept4 #ahgc4    ,gyllenborg 7,gustaf   
,fredrik71 ,count4 ,swedish poet1 b4 #f 
,dec4 #agca1 was  one of the first      
members of the ,academy of ,stockholm   
and ,chancellor  of ,upsala ,university4
 ,he published satires1 fables1 odes1   
etc41  among which may be named ,the    
,passage of the ,belt4 ,his opinions    
were  ,deistic4 ,died #cj ,march1 #ahjh4
    ,haeckel 7,ernst ,heinrich ,philipp 
,august71 ,german scientist1 b4         
,potsdam1  #af ,feb4 #ahcd2 studied     
medicine and science at ,wrzburg1       
,berlin1  and ,vienna4 ,in '#ei he went 
to ,italy and studied zoology at        
,naples1  and two years later was made  
,professor of ,zoology at ,jena4        
,between  '#ff and '#ge he travelled    
over ,europe besides visiting ,syria and
 ,egypt1  and later he visited ,india   
and ,ceylon1 writing an interesting     
account  of his travels4 ,he is the     
foremost ,german supporter of evolution2
 his  ,natural ,history of ,creation1   
'#fh1 having gone through many editions1

  and been translated into ,english     
'#gf1 as have also his ,evolution  of   
,man1 #b vols4 '#gi1 and ,pedigree of   
,man1 '#hc4 ,besides numerous           
monographs and an able work on ,cellular
 ,psychology1 ,professor ,haeckel  has  
published important ,popular ,lectures  
on ,evolution1 '#gh1 and on  ,freedom in
 ,science and ,teaching1 published with 
a prefatory note by  ,professor ,huxley1
 '#gi4    ,hagen 7,benjamin ,olive71    
,socialist1 b4 #be ,june1 #agia4 ,about 
the year  #ahda his attention was       
attracted to the ,socialists by the     
abuse they  received4 ,led thus to      
inquire1 he embraced the views of       
,robert ,owen1  and was their chief     
upholder for many years in the town of  
,derby1  where he lived to be upwards of
 seventy years of age4 ,his wife also   
deserves mention as an able lady of     
,freethought views4    ,halley          
7,edmund71 eminent ,english astronomer1 
known in his lifetime  as the ,infidel  
,mathematician1 b4 ,haggerston1 ,london1

 #bi ,oct4 #afef2  educated at ,oxford4 
,at twenty he had made observations of  
the planets  and of the spots on the    
sun4 ,in ,nov4 '#gf he went to ,st4     
,helena  where he prepared his          
,catalogue of ,southern ,stars1 '#gi4   
,he also  found how to take the sun's   
parallax by means of the transits of    
,mercury or ,venus4 ,in '#gh he was     
elected a ,f4,r4,s4 ,two years later  he
 made observation on ,halley's comet1   
and in '#hc published his  theory of the
 variation of the magnet4 ,he became a  
friend of ,sir  ,isaac ,newton1 whom he 
persuaded to publish his ,principia4 ,in
 '#ih he  commanded a scientific        
expedition to the ,south ,atlantic4 ,in 
#agac he  was made sec4 of the ,royal   
,society and in #agbj ,astronomer-royal4
 ,he  then undertook a task which       
required nineteen years to perform1 viz3
  to observe the moon throughout an     
entire revolution of her nodes4 ,he     
lived to finish this task4 ,died #ad    
,jan4 #agdb4 ,halley was the first who  

conceived that fixed stars had a proper 
motion in space4 ,chalmers in  his      
,biographical ,dictionary says1 ,it must
 be deeply regretted that  he cannot be 
numbered with those illustrious         
characters who thought  it not beneath  
them to be ,christians4    ,hammon      
7,w471 pseudonym of ,turner ,william1 q4
 v4    ,hamond or ,hamont 7,matthew71   
,english heretic1 by trade a            
ploughwright1  of ,hethersett1 ,norfolk1
 burnt at ,norwich1 ,may #aegi1 for     
holding  that the ,new ,testament and   
the ,gospel of ,christ were pure folly1 
a human invention1 a mere fable4 ,he had
 previously been set in the  pillory and
 had both his ears cut off4    ,hannotin
 7,emile71 ,french ,deist1 b4 ,bar le   
,duc in #ahab1 and some  time editor of 
the ,journal de la ,meuse4 ,author of   
,new ,philosophical  ,theology1 '#df2   
,great ,questions1 '#fg2 ,ten ,years of 
,philosophical  ,studies1 '#gb2 and an  
,essay on ,man1 in which he seeks to    
explain life  by sensibility4    ,hanson

 7,sir ,richard ,davies71 ,chief        
,justice of ,south ,australia1  b4      
,london1 #e ,dec4 #ahje4 ,he practised  
as attorney for a short time in         
,london1 and wrote for the ,globe and   
,morning ,chronicle4 ,in #ahcj he took  
part in the attempt to found a colony in
 ,south ,australia4 ,in #ahea he  became
 ,advocate-,general of the colony1 and  
subsequently in #ahfa ,chief  ,justice4 
,in #ahfi he was knighted4 ,he wrote on 
,law in ,nature #ahfe1  ,the ,jesus of  
,history #ahfi1 and ,st4 ,paul #ahge4   
,hanson wrote ,letters  to and from     
,rome ,a4,d4 #fa1 #fb and #fc4 ,selected
 and translated by  ,c4,v4,s4 #ahgc4    
,died at ,adelaide #aj ,mar4 #ahgf4     
,hardwicke 7,edward ,arthur71 ,m4,d41   
eldest son of ,junius ,hardwicke1       
,f4,r4,c4,s41 of ,rotherham1 ,yorks4 ,in
 '#ge he qualified as a surveyor1 and   
in '#hf as a physician4 ,for twelve     
years he was ,surgeon ,superintendent   
of the ,government ,emigration ,service4
 ,he is an ,agnostic of the school  of  

,herbert ,spencer1 and has contributed  
to ,freethought and scientific          
periodicals4    ,hardwicke 7,herbert    
,junius71 ,m4,d41 brother of above1 b4  
,sheffield1 #bf  ,jan4 #ahej4 ,studied  
at ,london1 ,edinburgh and ,paris4 ,in  
'#gh he became a  member of the         
,edinburgh ,college of ,physicians4     
,next year he was the  principal agent  
in establishing the ,sheffield ,public  
,hospital for  ,skin ,diseases4 ,besides
 numerous medical works1 ,dr4 ,hardwicke
 set up  a press of his own in order to 
print ,the ,popular ,faith ,unveiled1   
the  publishers requiring guarantee in  
consequence of the prosecution of  ,mr4 
,foote 7'#hd71 and ,evolution and       
,creation 7'#hg74 ,he has contributed   
to the ,agnostic ,annual1 and has       
recently written ,rambles in ,spain1    
,italy and ,morocco 7'#hi74    ,harriot 
7,thomas71 ,english mathematician1 b4   
,oxford1 #aefj1 accompanied  ,raleigh to
 ,virginia and published an account of  
the expedition4 ,he was  noted for his  

skill in algebra1 and ,a4 ,wood says ,he
 was a ,deist4 ,died  #ba ,july #afba4  
,harrison 7,frederic71 ,m4,a41 ,english 
,positivist1 b4 ,london #ah ,oct4 #ahca1
  educated at ,london and ,oxford1 when 
he was #ast class in classics4 ,he  was 
called to the bar in '#eh4 ,he has since
 been appointed ,professor  of          
,jurisprudence and ,international ,law4 
,he has written many important  articles
 in the high-class reviews1 and has     
published ,the ,meaning  of ,history1   
,order and ,progress1 and on ,the       
,choice of ,books and ,other  ,literary 
,pieces1 '#hf1 and has translated vol4  
ii of ,comte's ,positive  ,polity4 ,he  
was one of the founders of the          
,positivist school1 '#gj1  and of       
,newton ,hall in '#ha4 ,a fine stylist1 
his addresses and magazine  articles    
bear the stamp of a cultured man of     
letters4    ,hartmann 7,karl ,robert    
,eduard71 ,german pantheistic pessimist 
philosopher1 b4 ,berlin1 #bc ,feb4      
#ahdb4 ,in '#eh he entered the ,prussian

  army1 but an affection of the knee    
made him resign in '#fe4 ,by the        
publication of his ,philosophy of the   
,unconscious in '#fi1 he became  famous1
 though it was not translated into      
,english until '#hd4 ,he  has since     
written numerous works of which we name 
,self-,dissolution  of ,christianity and
 ,the ,religion of the ,future1 '#ge1   
,the ,crisis of  ,christianity in       
,modern ,theology1 '#hj1 ,the ,religious
 ,consciousness of  ,mankind1 '#ha1 and 
,modern ,problems1 '#hf4 ,latterly      
,hartmann has turned  his attention to  
the philosophy of politics4    ,hartogh 
,heys van ,zouteveen 7,dr4 ,herman71 a  
learned ,dutch writer1  b4 ,delft #ac   
,feb4 #ahda4 ,he studied law and natural
 philosophy at ,leyden1  and graduated  
doctor of law in '#fd and doctor of     
natural philosophy in  '#ff4 ,in '#ff he
 received a gold medal from the king of 
,holland for a  treatise on the         
synthesis of organic bodies4 ,dr4       
,hartogh was some time  professor of    

chemistry and natural history at the    
,hague1 but lived at  ,delft1 where he  
was made city councillor and in '#fi and
 '#gj travelled  through ,egypt and     
,nubia as correspondent of ,het         
,vaderland and was the  guest of the    
,khedive4 ,he translated into ,dutch    
,darwin's ,descent of  ,man and         
,expressions of the ,emotions1 both with
 valuable annotations  of his own4 ,he  
has also translated and annotated some  
of the works  of ,ludwig ,bchner and    
,carus ,sterne1 from the ,german1 and   
works from  the ,french1 besides writing
 several original essays on             
anthropology1  natural history1 geology1
 and allied sciences1 contributing      
largely  to the spread of ,darwinian    
ideas in ,holland4 ,in '#gb he visited  
the  ,united ,states and the ,pacific   
coast4 ,since '#gc he has resided at    
,assen1 of which he was named member of 
the city council1 but could  not take   
his seat because he refused the oath4   
,he is a director of  the ,provincial   

,archological ,museum at ,assen1 and a  
member of the  ,dutch ,literary ,society
 the ,royal ,institution of             
,netherlands1 ,india1  and other        
scientific associations4 ,for a long    
while he was a member  of the ,dutch    
,freethinkers' ,society1 ,de ,dageraad1 
of which he became  president4 ,to the  
organ ,de ,dageraad he contributed      
important works1  such as ,jewish       
,reports ,concerning ,jesus of ,nazareth
 and the ,origin  of ,religious ,ideas1 
the last of which has been published    
separately4    ,haslam 7,charles        
,junius71 b4 ,widdington1               
,northumberland1 #bd ,april1  #ahaa4 ,he
 spent most of his life near            
,manchester1 where he became a          
,socialist and published ,letters to the
 ,clergy of all ,denominations1  showing
 the errors1 absurdities1 and           
irrationalities of their  doctrines1    
'#ch4 ,this work went through several   
editions1 and the  publishers were      
prosecuted for blasphemy4 ,he followed  

it by ,letters to  the ,bishop of       
,exeter1 containing materials for       
deciding the question  whether or not   
the ,bible is the word of ,god1 '#da1   
and a pamphlet ,who  are the ,infidels8 
,in '#fa he removed to ,benton1 where he
 has since  lived4 ,in '#he he issued a 
pamphlet entitled ,the ,suppression of  
,war4    ,hassell 7,richard71 one of    
,carlile's shopmen1 sentenced to two    
years  imprisonment in ,newgate for     
selling ,paine's ,age of ,reason1 #bh   
,may1  #ahbd4 ,he died in ,october      
#ahbf4    ,hattem 7,pontiaam van71      
,dutch writer1 b4 ,bergen #afda4 ,he was
 a  follower of ,spinoza1 inclined to   
,pantheistic mysticism1 and had  several
 followers4 ,died #agjf4    ,haureau    
7,jean ,barthelemy71 ,french historian1 
b4 ,paris #ahab4 ,at the  age of twenty 
he showed his sympathy with the         
,revolution by a work  on ,the          
,mountain4 ,in turn journalist and      
librarian he has produced  many         
important works1 of which we name his   

,manual of the ,clergy1  '#dd1 which    
drew on him attacks from the clericals1 
and his erudite  ,critical ,examination 
of the ,scholastic ,philosophy1 '#ej4   
,hauy 7,valentine71 ,french             
philanthropist1 b4 ,saint-,just #ac     
,nov4 #agde4 ,he  devoted much attention
 to enabling the blind to read and      
founded the  institute for the young    
blind in #aghd4 ,he was one of the      
founders  of ,theophilantropy4 ,in #ahjg
 he went to ,russia1 where he stayed    
till  #ahag1 devoting himself to the    
blind and to telegraphy4 ,died at ,paris
  #ah ,march1 #ahbb4    ,havet 7,ernest 
,august ,eugne71 ,french scholar and    
critic1 b4 ,paris1  #aa ,april1 #ahac4  
,in '#dj he was appointed professor of  
,greek literature  at the ,normal       
,school4 ,in '#ee he was made professor 
of ,latin eloquence  at the ,collge de  
,france4 ,in '#fc an article on ,renan's
 ,vie de ,jesus in  the ,revue des ,deux
 ,mondes excited much attention1 and was
 afterwards  published separately4 ,his 

work on ,christianity and its ,origins1 
#d vols4 #ahgb-hd1 is a masterpiece of  
rational criticism4    ,hawkesworth     
7,john71 ,english essayist and novelist1
 b4 in ,london about  #agae4 ,became    
contributor to the ,gentleman's         
,magazine and editor of  the            
,adventurer4 ,in '#fa he edited ,swift's
 works with a life of that  author4 ,he 
compiled an account of the voyages of   
,byron1 ,wallis1  ,carteret1 and ,cook  
for government1 for which he received   
#f1jjj2  but the work was censured as   
incidentally attacking the doctrine of  
,providence4 ,his novel ,almoran and    
,hamet was very popular4 ,died at       
,bromley1 ,kent1 #ag ,nov4 #aggc4       
,hawley 7,henry71 a ,scotch             
major-general1 who died in #agfe1 and by
 the  terms of his will prohibited      
,christian burial4    ,hebert 7,jacques 
,ren71 ,french revolutionist1 b4 ,alenon
 #ae ,nov4 #ageg1  published the        
notorious ,pre ,duchsne1 and with       
,chaumette instituted  the ,feasts of   

,reason4 ,he was denounced by ,saint    
,just1 and guillotined  #b ,march #agid4
 ,his widow1 who had been a nun1 was    
executed a few  days later4    ,hegel   
7,georg ,wilhelm ,friedrich71 ,german   
metaphysician b4 ,stuttgart1  #bg ,aug4 
#aggj4 ,he studied theology at ,tbingen1
 but1 becoming acquainted  with         
,schelling1 devoted his attention to    
philosophy4 ,his ,encyclopdia  of the   
,philosophical ,sciences made a deep    
impression in ,germany1 and  two schools
 sprang up1 one claiming it as a        
philosophical statement  of             
,christianity1 the other as ,pantheism  
hostile to revelation4 ,hegel  said     
students of philosophy must begin with  
,spinozism4 ,he is said to  have        
remarked that of all his many disciples 
only one understood him1  and he        
understood him falsely4 ,he was         
professor at ,jena1 ,heidelberg1  and   
,berlin1 in which last city he died #ad 
,nov4 #ahca1 and was buried  beside     
,fichte4    ,heine 7,heinrich71 ,german 

poet and littrateur1 b4 of ,jewish      
parents  at ,dusseldorf1 #ca ,dec4      
#agig4 ,he studied law at ,bonn1        
,berlin1 and  ,gttingen2 became         
acquainted with the philosophy of       
,spinoza and  ,hegel2 graduated         
,,ll4,d41 and in ,june #ahbe renounced  
,judaism and  was baptised4 ,the change 
was only formal4 ,he satirised all forms
  of religious faith4 ,his fine         
,pictures of ,travel was received with  
favor and translated by himself into    
,french4 ,his other principal  works are
 the ,book of ,songs1 ,history of       
,recent ,literature in ,germany1  ,the  
,romantic ,school1 ,the ,women of       
,shakespeare1 ,atta ,troll and other    
poems4 ,in #ahce he married a ,french   
lady1 having settled in ,paris1  where  
the ,voltaire of ,germany became more   
,french than ,german4 ,about  #ahdh he  
became paralysed and lost his eyesight1 
but he still employed  himself in       
literary composition with the aid of an 
amanuensis4 ,after  an illness of eight 

years1 mostly passed in extreme         
suffering on his  mattress grave1 he    
died #ag ,feb4 #ahef4 ,heine was the    
greatest and  most influential ,german  
writer since ,goethe4 ,he called himself
 a  ,soldier of ,freedom1 and his       
far-flashing sword played havoc with the
  forces of reaction4    ,heinzen 7,karl
 ,peter7 ,german-,american poet1 orator 
and politician1  b4 near ,dusseldorf1   
#bb ,feb4 #ahji4 ,he studied medicine at
 ,bonn1  and travelled to ,batavia1 an  
account of which he published 7,cologne 
#ahdb74 ,a staunch democrat1 in #ahde he
 published at ,darmstadt a work  on the 
,prussian ,bureaucracy1 for which he was
 prosecuted and had to  seek shelter in 
,switzerland4 ,at ,zurich he edited the 
,german ,tribune  and the ,democrat4 ,at
 the beginning of '#dh he visited ,new  
,york but  returned to participate in   
the attempted ,german ,revolution4      
,again  the regicide had to fly and in  
,august '#ej returned to ,new ,york4 ,he
  wrote on many papers and established  

the ,pioneer 7now ,freidenker71  first  
in ,louisville1 then in ,cincinnati1    
then in ,new ,york1 and from  '#ei in   
,boston4 ,he wrote many works1 including
 ,letters on ,atheism1  which appeared  
in ,the ,reasoner #ahef1 ,poems1 ,german
 ,revolution1 ,the  ,heroes of ,german  
,communism1 ,the ,rights of ,women1     
,mankind the ,criminal1  ,six ,letters  
to a ,pious ,man 7,boston #ahfi71       
,lessons of a ,century1  and ,what is   
,humanity8 7#ahgg47 ,died ,boston #ab   
,nov4 #ahhj4    ,hellwald 7,friedrich   
von71 ,german geographer1 b4 ,padua #bi 
,march #ahdb1  and in addition to many  
works on various countries has written  
an  able ,culture ,history1 #ahge4      
,helmholtz 7,hermann ,ludwig ,ferdinand 
von7 ,german scientist1 b4 ,potsdam  #ca
 ,aug4 #ahba4 ,distinguished for his    
discoveries in acoustics1 optics  and   
electricity1 he is of the foremost rank 
among natural philosophers  in ,europe4 
,among his works we mention ,the        
,conservation of ,force 7#ahdg71  and   

,popular ,scientific ,lectures          
7#ahfe-gf47 ,professor ,helmholtz       
rejects  the design hypothesis4         
,helvetius 7,claude ,adrien7 ,french    
philosopher1 b4 ,paris #ah  ,jan4 #agae4
 ,descended from a line of celebrated   
physicians1 he had a  large fortune     
which he dispensed in works of          
benevolence4 ,attracted  by reading     
,locke he resigned a lucrative situation
 as farmer-general  to devote himself to
 philosophy4 ,in ,august #ageh he       
published a work  ,on the ,mind 7,de    
,l',esprit7 which was condemned by ,pope
 ,clement ,,xiii1  #ca ,jan4 #agei1 and 
burnt by the order of ,parliament #f    
,feb4 #agei for the  hardihood of his   
materialistic opinions4 ,mme4 ,du       
,deffand said he told  everybody's      
secret4 ,it was republished at          
,amsterdam and ,london4 ,he  also wrote 
a poem ,on ,happiness and a work on ,man
 his ,faculties and  ,education4 ,he    
visited ,england and ,prussia and became
 an honored guest  of ,frederick the    

,great4 ,died #bf ,dec4 #agga4 ,his     
wife1 ne ,anne ,catherine  ,de          
,lingville1 b4 #agai1 after his death   
retired to ,auteuil1 where her  house   
was the rendezvous of ,condillac1       
,turgot1 d',holbach1 ,morellet1         
,cabanis1 ,destutt de ,tracy1 etc4 ,this
 re-union of ,freethinkers was  known as
 the ,socit d',auteuil4 ,madame         
,helvetius died #ab ,august #ahjj4      
,henault1 or ,hesnault 7,jean71 ,french 
,epicurean poet of the #agth century1   
son of a ,paris baker1 was a pupil of   
,gassendi1 and went to ,holland to  see 
,spinoza4 ,bayle says he professed      
,atheism1 and had composed three        
different systems of the mortality of   
the soul4 ,his most famous sonnet  is on
 ,the ,abortion4 ,died ,paris1 #afhb4   
,henin de ,cuvillers 7,etienne ,felix71 
,baron1 ,french general and writer1  b4 
,balloy1 #bg ,april1 #agee4 ,he served  
as diplomatist in ,england1 ,venice1    
and ,constantinople4 ,employed in the   
army of ,italy1 he was wounded at       

,arcola1 #bf ,sept4 '#if4 ,he was made  
,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor in  
#ahaa4 ,he wrote much1 particularly on  
magnetism4 ,in the #hth vol4 of  his    
,archives du ,magntisme ,animal1 he     
suggests that the miracles of  ,jesus   
were not supernatural1 but wrought by   
means of magnetism learnt  in ,egypt4   
,in other writings1 especially in       
reflections on the crimes  committed in 
the name of religion1 '#bb1 he shows    
himself the enemy  of fanaticism and    
intolerance4 ,died #b ,august1 #ahda4   
,hennell 7,charles ,christian71 ,english
 ,freethinker1 b4 #i ,march1 #ahji1     
author of an able ,inquiry concerning   
the ,origin of ,christianity1  first    
published in '#ch1 a work which         
powerfully influenced ,george  ,eliot1  
and a translation of which was          
introduced to ,german readers  by ,dr4  
,d4 ,f4 ,strauss4 ,it was ,hennell who  
induced ,george ,eliot  to translate    
,strauss's ,life of ,jesus4 ,he also    
wrote on ,christian  ,theism4 ,hennell  

lived most of his time in ,coventry4 ,he
 was married  at ,london in '#ci1 and   
died #b ,sept4 #ahej4    ,herault de    
,sechelles 7,marie ,jean71 ,french      
revolutionist1 b4 of  noble family1     
,paris1 #agfj4 ,brought up as a friend  
of ,buffon and  ,mirabeau1 he gained    
distinction as a lawyer and orator      
before the  ,revolution4 ,elected to the
 ,legislative ,assembly in '#ia1 he was 
made  ,president of the ,convention1 #b 
,nov4 #ib4 ,he edited the document known
  as the ,constitution of #agic1 and was
 president and chief speaker at  the    
national festival1 #aj ,aug4 '#ic4 ,he  
drew on himself the enmity  of          
,robespierre1 and was executed with     
,danton and ,camille ,desmoulins1  #e   
,april1 #agid4    ,herbart 7,johann     
,friedrich71 b4 ,oldenburg #d ,may      
#aggf4 ,in #ahje he was  made professor 
of philosophy at ,gttingen1 and in #ahjh
 became ,kant's  successor at ,knigsberg
 and opposed his philosophy4 ,though    
religiously  disposed1 his philosophy   

has no room for the notion of a ,god4   
,he was  recalled to ,gttingen1 where he
 died #ad ,aug4 #ahda4    ,herbert      
7,edward71 ,lord of ,cherbury1 in       
,shropshire1 b4 ,montgomery  ,castle1   
#aeha4 ,educated at ,oxford1 after which
 he went on his  travels4 ,on his return
 he was made one of the king's          
counsellors1  and soon after sent as    
ambassador to ,france to intercede for  
the  ,protestants4 ,he served in the    
,netherlands1 and distinguished himself 
by romantic bravery4 ,in #afbe he was   
made a peer of ,ireland1 and in  '#ca an
 ,english peer4 ,during the civil wars  
he espoused the side of  ,parliament4   
,his principal work is entitled ,de     
,veritate1 the object of  which was to  
assert the sufficiency of natural       
religion apart from  revelation4 ,he    
also wrote ,lay ,religion1 his own      
,memoirs1 a ,history  of ,henry ,,viii41
 etc4 ,died #bj ,aug4 #afdh4    ,hertell
 7,thomas71 judge of the ,marine ,court 
of ,new ,york1 and for some  years      

,member of the ,legislature of his      
,state4 ,he wrote two or three  small   
works criticising ,christian ,theology1 
and exerted his influence  in favour of 
,state secularization4    ,hertzen or   
,gertsen 7,aleksandr ,ivanovich71       
,russian patriot1 chief of  the         
revolutionary party1 b4 ,moscow1 #be    
,march1 #ahab4 ,he studied at  ,moscow  
,university1 where he obtained a high   
degree4 ,in '#cd he was  arrested for   
,saint ,simonian opinions and soon      
afterwards banished  to ,viatka1 whence 
he was permitted to return in '#cg4 ,he 
was expelled  from ,russia in '#db1     
visited ,italy1 joined the ,reds at     
,paris in '#dh1  took refuge at ,geneva1
 and soon after came to ,england4 ,in   
'#eg he set  up in ,london a ,russian   
printing press for the publication of   
works  prohibited in ,russia1 and his   
publications passed into that country in
  large numbers4 ,among his writings are
 ,dilettantism in ,science1 '#db2       
,letters on the ,study of ,nature1      

'#de-df2 ,who's to ,blame8 '#eg2        
,memoirs  of the ,empress ,catherine1   
and ,my ,exile1 '#ee4 ,in '#eg ,herzen  
started the  magazine the ,kolokol or   
,bell4 ,died at ,paris1 #ba ,jan4 #ahgj4
 ,his son1  ,alessandro ,herzen1 b4     
,wladimar1 #ahci1 followed his father's 
fortunes1  learnt most of the ,european 
languages and settled at ,florence1     
where  he did much to popularise        
physiological science4 ,he has          
translated  ,maudsley's ,physiology of  
,mind1 and published a physiological    
analysis  of human free will4           
,herwegh 7,georg71 ,german ,radical and 
poet1 b4 ,stuttgart1 #ca  ,may1 #ahag4  
,intended for the ,church1 he left that 
business for  ,literature4 ,his         
,gedichte eines ,lebendigen 7,poems of a
 ,living ,man7  aroused attention by    
their boldness4 ,in '#dh he raised a    
troop  and invaded ,baden1 but failed1  
and took refuge in ,switzerland and     
,paris4 ,died at ,baden-,baden1 #g      
,april1 #ahge4    ,hetherington         

7,henry71 ,english upholder of a free   
press1 b4 ,soho1  ,london1 #agib4 ,he   
became a printer1 and was one of the    
most energetic  of working men engaged  
in the foundation of mechanics'         
institutes4 ,he  also founded the       
,metropolitan ,political ,union in      
,march1 #ahcj1 which  was the germ both 
of trades' unionism and of the ,chartist
 movement4 ,he  resisted the taxes upon 
knowledge by issuing unstamped ,the     
,poor ,man's  ,guardian1 a weekly       
newspaper for the people1 established1  
contrary to  law1 to try the power of   
might against right1 '#ca-ce4 ,for this 
he twice suffered sentences of six      
months' imprisonment4 ,he afterwards    
published ,the ,unstamped1 and his      
persistency had much to do in removing  
the taxes4 ,while in prison he wrote his
 ,cheap ,salvation in consequence  of   
conversation with the chaplain of       
,clerkenwell ,gaol4 ,on ,dec4 #h1 '#dj1 
he was tried for blasphemous libel for  
publishing ,haslam's ,letters  to the   

,clergy1 and received four month's      
imprisonment4 ,hetherington  published  
,a ,few ,hundred ,bible ,contradictions1
 and other ,freethought  works4 ,much of
 his life was devoted to the propaganda 
of ,chartism4 ,he  died #bd ,aug4 #ahdi1
 leaving a will declaring himself an    
,atheist4    ,hetzer 7,ludwig71         
anti-,trinitarian martyr1 b4            
,bischopzell1 ,switzerland2  was an     
,anabaptist minister at ,zurich4 ,he    
openly denied the doctrine of  the      
,trinity1 and was condemned to death by 
the magistrates of ,constance  on a     
charge of blasphemy4 ,the sentence was  
carried out #d ,feb4 #aebi4    ,heusden 
7,c4 ,j4 van71 ,dutch writer in ,de     
,dageraad4 ,has written several  works1 
,thoughts on a ,coming ,more ,universal 
,doctrine1 by a ,believer1  etc4        
,hibbert 7,julian71 ,freethought        
philanthropist1 b4 #ahja4 ,during the   
imprisonment of ,richard ,carlile he was
 active in sustaining his  publications4
 ,learning that a distinguished         

political prisoner had  received a gift 
of #a1jjj1 he remarked that a           
,freethinking prisoner  should not want 
equal friends1 and gave ,carlile a      
cheque for the same  amount4 ,julian    
,hibbert spent nearly #a1jjj in fitting 
up ,carlile's  shop in ,fleet ,street4  
,he contributed ,theological ,dialogues 
to the  ,republican1 and also           
contributed to the ,poor ,man's         
,guardian4 ,hibbert  set up a private   
press and printed in uncial ,greek the  
,orphic ,hymns1  '#bg1 and also         
,plutarch and ,theophrastus on          
,superstition1 to which  he wrote a life
 of ,plutarch and appended valuable     
essays on the  supposed necessity of    
deceiving the vulgar2 various           
definitions  of an important word ,god1 
and a catalogue of the principal  modern
 works against ,atheism4 ,he also       
commenced a ,dictionary  of             
,anti-,superstitionists1 and            
,chronological ,tables of ,british      
,freethinkers4 ,he wrote a short life of

 ,holbach1 published by ,james  ,watson1
 to whom1 and to ,henry ,hetherington1  
he left #ejj each4 ,died  ,december     
#ahcd4    ,hedin 7,sven ,adolph71       
,swedish member of the ,andra ,kammaren 
,house  of ,commons1 b4 #ahcd4 ,studied 
at ,upsala and became philosophical     
candidate1 '#fa4 ,edited the            
,aftonbladet1 '#gd-gf4 ,has written many
  radical works4    ,higgins 7,godfrey71
 ,english archologist1 b4 ,skellow      
,grange1 near  ,doncaster1 #agga4       
,educated at ,cambridge and studied for 
the bar1  but never practised4 ,being   
the only son he inherited his father's  
property1 married1 and acted as         
magistrate1 in which capacity he        
reformed the treatment of lunatics in   
,york ,asylum4 ,his first work was      
entitled ,hor ,sabbatic1 #ahac1 a manual
 on the ,sunday ,question4 ,in  '#bi he 
published ,an ,apology for the ,life and
 ,character of ,mohammed and  ,celtic   
,druids1 which occasioned some stir on  
account of the exposure  of priestcraft4

 ,he died #i ,aug4 #ahcc1 leaving behind
 a work on the  origin of religions1 to 
the study of which he devoted ten hours 
daily  for about twenty years4 ,the work
 was published in two volumes in #ahbf1 
under the title of ,anacalypsis1 an     
attempt to draw aside the veil of  the  
,saitic ,isis2 or an ,inquiry into the  
,origin of ,languages1 ,nations1  and   
,religions4    ,hillebrand 7,karl71     
cosmopolitan writer1 b4 #ag ,sept4      
#ahbi1 at  ,giessen4 ,his father1       
,joseph ,hillebrand1 succeeded ,hegel as
 professor  at ,heidelberg4 ,involved in
 the revolutionary movement in ,germany1
  ,karl was imprisoned in the fortress  
of ,rastadt1 whence he escaped to       
,france4 ,he taught at ,strasbourg and  
,paris1 where he became secretary  to   
,heine4 ,on the poet's death he removed 
to ,bordeaux1 where he became a         
naturalised ,frenchman4 ,he became      
professor of letters at ,douay4 ,during 
the ,franco-,prussian war he was        
correspondent to the ,times1 and was    

taken for a ,prussian spy4 ,in #ahga he 
settled at ,florence1 where he          
translated the poems of ,carducci4      
,hillebrand was a contributor to  the   
,fortnightly ,review1 ,nineteenth       
,century1 ,revue des deux ,mondes1      
,north ,american ,review1 etc4 ,his best
 known work is on ,france and the       
,french in the second half of the       
nineteenth century4 ,died at ,florence1 
#ah ,oct4 #ahhd4    ,hins 7,eugne71     
,belgian writer1 ,dr4 of ,philosophy1   
,professor at ,royal  ,athenum1         
,charleroi1 b4 ,st4 ,trond1 #ahdb4 ,as  
general secretary of the                
,international1 he edited               
,l',internationale1 in which he laid    
stress  on anti-religious teaching4 ,he 
contributed to ,la ,libert1 and was  one
 of the prominent lecturers of the      
,societies ,les ,solidaires1 and  ,la   
,libre-pense of ,brussels4 ,he has      
written ,la ,russie d voile au  moyen de
 sa littrature populaire1 #ahhc1 and    
other works4    ,hippel 7,theodor       

,gottlieb von71 ,german humoristic poet1
 b4 ,gerdauen1  ,prussia1 #ca ,jan4     
#agda4 ,he studied theology1 but        
resigned it for law1  and became in     
#aghj burgomaster of ,knigsberg4 ,his   
writings1 which were  published         
anonymously1 betray his advanced        
opinions4 ,died ,bromberg1  #bc ,april1 
#agif4    ,hittell 7,john ,s471         
,american ,freethinker1 author of the   
,evidences  against ,christianity 7,new 
,york1 #aheg73 has also written ,a ,plea
 for  ,pantheism1 ,a ,new ,system of    
,phrenology1 ,the ,resources of         
,california1  a ,history of ,san        
,francisco1 ,a ,brief ,history of       
,culture 7,new ,york1  #ahge71 and ,st4 
,peter's ,catechism 7,geneva1 #ahhc74   
,hoadley 7,george71 ,american jurist1 b4
 ,new ,haven1 ,conn41 #ca ,july1  #ahcf4
 ,he studied at ,harvard1 and in '#dg   
was admitted to the bar1  and in '#ea   
was elected judge of the superior court 
of ,cincinnati4 ,he  afterwards resigned
 his place and established a law firm4  

,he was one  of the counsel that        
successfully opposed compulsory ,bible  
reading in  the public schools4         
,hobbes 7,thomas71 ,english philosopher1
 b4 ,malmesbury1 #e ,april1  #aehh4 ,in 
#afjh he became tutor to a son of the   
,earl of ,devonshire1  with whom he made
 the tour of ,europe4 ,at ,pisa in #afbh
 he made the  acquaintance of ,galileo4 
,in #afdb he printed his work ,de ,cive4
 ,in #afej  appeared in ,english his    
work on ,human ,nature1 and in the      
following  year his famous ,leviathan4  
,at the ,restoration he received a      
pension1  but in #afff ,parliament1 in a
 ,bill against ,atheism and profaneness1
  passed a censure on his writings1     
which much alarmed him4 ,the latter     
years of his life were spent at the seat
 of the ,duke of ,devonshire1           
,chatsworth1 where he died #d ,dec4     
#afgi4    ,hodgson 7,william1 ,m4,d471  
,english ,jacobin1 translator of        
d',holbach's  ,system of ,nature        
7#agie74 ,in #agid he was confined in   

,newgate for two  years for drinking to 
the success of the ,french ,republic4   
,in prison  he wrote ,the ,commonwealth 
of ,reason4    ,hoelderlin 7,johann     
,christian ,friedrich71 ,german         
pantheistic poet1  b4 ,laufen1 #bj      
,march1 #aggj4 ,entered as a theological
 student at  ,tbingen1 but never took to
 the business4 ,he wrote ,hyperion1 a   
fine romance 7#agig-ii71 and ,lyric     
,poems1 admired for their depth of      
thought4 ,died ,tbingen1 #g ,june1      
#ahdc4    ,hoijer 7,benjamin ,carl      
,henrik71 ,swedish philosopher1 b4      
,great ,skedvi1  ,delecarlia1 #a ,june1 
#agfg4 ,was student at ,upsala          
,university '#hc1  and teacher of       
philosophy '#ih4 ,his promotion was     
hindered by his  liberal opinions4 ,by  
his personal influence and published    
treatises he  contributed much to       
,swedish emancipation4 ,in #ahjh he     
became ,professor  of ,philosophy at    
,upsala4 ,died #h ,june1 #ahab4         
,holbach 7,paul ,heinrich ,dietrich von7

 ,baron1 b4 ,heidelsheim  ,jan4 #agbc4  
,brought up at ,paris where he spent    
most of his life4 ,rich  and generous he
 was the patron of the ,encyclopdists4  
,buffon1 ,diderot1  d',alembert1        
,helvetius1 ,rousseau1 ,grimm1 ,raynal1 
,marmontel1 ,condillac1  and other      
authors often met at his table4 ,hume1  
,garrick1 ,franklin1  and ,priestley    
were also among his visitors4 ,he       
translated from the  ,german several    
works on chemistry and mineralogy1 and  
from the ,english1  ,mark ,akenside's   
,pleasures of the ,imagination4 ,he     
contributed many  articles to the       
,encyclopdie4 ,in #agfe he visited      
,england1 and from  this time was       
untiring in his issue of ,freethought   
works1 usually put  out under           
pseudonyms4 ,thus he wrote and had      
published at ,amsterdam  ,christianity  
,unveiled1 attributed to ,boulanger4    
,the ,spirit of the  ,clergy1           
translated1 from the ,english of        
,trenchard and ,gordon1 was  partly     

rewritten by d',holbach1 #agfg4 ,his    
,sacred ,contagion or ,natural  ,history
 of ,superstition1 was also wrongly     
attributed to ,trenchard  and ,gordon4  
,this work was condemned to be burnt by 
a decree of the  ,french parliament1 #h 
,aug4 #aggj4 ,d',holbach also wrote and 
published  ,the ,history of ,david1     
#agfh1 ,the ,critical ,history of ,jesus
 ,christ1  ,letters to ,eugenia1        
attributed to ,freret1 ,portable        
,theology1 attributed  to ,bernier1 an  
,essay on ,prejudices1 attributed to ,m4
 ,du ,m arsais1  ,religious ,cruelty1   
,hell ,destroyed1 and other works1 said 
to be from  the ,english4 ,he also      
translated the ,philosophical ,letters  
of ,toland1  and ,collins's ,discourses 
on ,prophecy1 and attributed to the     
latter a  work with the title ,the      
,spirit of ,judaism4 ,these works were  
mostly  conveyed to the printer1 ,m4    
,rey1 at ,amsterdam1 by ,naigeon1 and   
the  secret of their authorship was     
carefully preserved4 ,hence d',holbach  

escaped persecution4 ,in #aggj he       
published his principal work ,the       
,system of ,nature1 or ,the ,laws of the
 ,physical and ,moral ,world4 ,this     
text-book of atheistic philosophy1 in   
which d',holbach was assisted  by       
,diderot1 professed to be the posthumous
 work of ,mirabaud4 ,it made  a great   
sensation4 ,within two years he         
published a sort of summary  under the  
title of ,good ,sense1 attributed to the
 cur ,meslier4 ,in  #aggc he wrote on   
,natural ,politics and the ,social      
,system4 ,his last  important work was  
,universal ,morality2 or the ,duties of 
,man founded  upon ,nature4 ,d',holbach1
 whose personal good qualities were     
testified to  by many1 was depicted in  
,rousseau's ,nouvelle ,hloise as the    
benevolent  ,atheist ,wolmar4 ,died #ba 
,jan4 #aghi4    ,holcroft 7,thomas71    
,english author1 b4 #aj ,dec4 #agde1 was
 successively  a groom1 shoemaker1      
schoolmaster1 actor and author4 ,his    
comedies  ,duplicity1 #agha1 and ,the   

,road to ,ruin1 #agib1 were very        
successful4 ,he translated the          
,posthumous ,works of ,frederick the    
,great1 #aghi4 ,for his active sympathy 
with the ,french ,republicans he  was   
indicted for high treason with ,hardy   
and ,horne ,tooke in #agid1  but was    
discharged without a trial4 ,died #bc   
,march1 #ahji4    ,holland 7,frederic   
,may71 ,american author1 b4 ,boston1 #b 
,may1 #ahcf1  graduated at ,harvard in  
'#di1 and in '#fc was ordained          
,unitarian minister  at ,rockford1 ,ill4
 ,becoming broader in his views1 he     
resigned1 and has  since written in the 
,truthseeker1 the ,freethinkers'        
,magazine1 etc4 ,his  principal work is 
entitled ,the ,rise of ,intellectual    
,liberty1 #ahhe4    ,hollick 7,dr4      
,frederick71 ,socialist1 b4 ,birmingham1
 #bb ,dec4 #ahac4 ,he was  educated at  
the ,mechanics' ,institute of that town1
 and became one of  the ,socialist      
lecturers under ,robert ,owen4 ,he held 
a public discussion  with ,j4 ,brindley 

at ,liverpool1 in #ahdj1 on ,what is    
,christianity8 ,on  the failure of      
,owenism he went to ,america1 where some
 of his works  popularising medical     
science have had a large circulation4   
,hollis 7,john71 ,english sceptic1 b4   
#ageg4 ,author of ,sober and ,serious   
,reasons for ,scepticism1 #agif2 ,an    
,apology for ,disbelief in ,revealed    
,religion1 #agii2 and ,free ,thoughts1  
#ahab4 ,died at ,high ,wycombe1 ,bucks  
#bf ,nov4 #ahbd4 ,hollis1 who came of an
 opulent dissenting family1 was         
distinguished by his love of truth1 his 
zeal in the cause of freedom1  and by   
his beneficence4    ,holmes 7,william   
,vamplew71 one of ,carlile's brave      
shopmen who came up  from ,leeds to     
uphold the right of free publication4   
,he was sentenced  to two years'        
imprisonment1 #a ,march1 '#bb1 for      
selling blasphemous  and seditious      
libels in ,an ,address to the ,reformers
 of ,great ,britain1  and when in prison
 was told that if hard labor was not    

expressed in  his sentence1 it was      
implied4 ,on his release ,holmes went to
 ,sheffield  and commenced the open sale
 of all the prohibited publications4    
,holwell 7,john ,zephaniah71 noted as   
one of the survivors of the ,black      
,hole of ,calcutta1 b4 ,dublin1 #g      
,sept4 #agaa4 ,he practised as a        
surgeon1  went to ,india as a clerk1    
defended a fort at ,calcutta against    
,surajah  ,dowlah1 was imprisoned with  
one hundred and forty-five others in the
  ,black ,hole1 #bjth ,june1 #agef1 of  
which he published a ,narrative4 ,he    
succeeded ,clive as governor of ,bengal4
 ,on returning to ,england  he published
 a dissertation directed against belief 
in a special  providence1 and advocating
 the application of church endowments to
  the exigencies of the ,state 7,bath1  
#aghf74 ,died #e ,nov4 #agih4           
,holyoake 7,austin71 ,english           
,freethinker1 b4 ,birmingham1 #bg  ,oct4
 #ahbf4 ,his mental emancipation came   
from hearing the lectures of  ,robert   

,owen and his disciples4 ,he took part  
in the agitation for the  abolition of  
the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk
 and danger had  to be met--and he      
co-operated with his brother in the     
production of  the ,reasoner and other  
publications from '#de till '#fb4 ,soon 
after  this he printed and sub-edited   
the ,national ,reformer1 in which  many 
of his ,freethought articles appeared4  
,among his pamphlets may  be mentioned  
,heaven and ,hell1 ,ludicrous ,aspects  
of ,christianity1  ,thoughts on         
,atheism1 the ,book of ,esther1 and     
,daniel the ,dreamer4 ,he  also composed
 a ,secular ,burial ,service4 ,austin   
,holyoake took pride  in the character  
of ,freethought1 and was ever zealous in
 promoting  its welfare4 ,his amiable   
spirit endeared him to all who knew him4
 ,he  died #aj ,april1 #ahgd1 leaving   
behind thoughts written on his deathbed1
  in which he repudiated all belief in  
theology4    ,holyoake 7,george ,jacob71
 b4 ,birmingham1 #ac ,april #ahag4      

,became  mathematical teacher of the    
,mechanics' ,institution4 ,influenced by
 ,combe  and ,owen he became a          
,freethinker1 and in '#dj a ,socialist  
missionary4 ,in  '#db1 when ,southwell  
was imprisoned for writing in the       
,oracle of ,reason1  ,mr4 ,holyoake took
 charge of that journal1 and wrote ,the 
,spirit of  ,bonner in the ,disciples of
 ,jesus4 ,he was soon arrested for a    
speech  at ,cheltenham1 having said1 in 
answer to a question1 that he would put 
the ,deity on half-pay4 ,tried ,aug4    
'#db1 he was sentenced to six months    
imprisonment1 of which he gave a full   
account in his ,last ,trial by  ,jury   
for ,atheism in ,england4 ,in ,dec4 '#dc
 he edited with ,m4 ,q4 ,ryall  the     
,movement1 bearing the motto from       
,bentham1 ,maximise morals1  minimise   
religion4 ,the same policy was pursued  
in ,the ,reasoner1  which he edited from
 #ahdf till #ahfa4 ,among his many      
pamphlets we must  notice the ,logic of 
,death1 '#ej1 which went through        

numerous editions1  and was included in 
his most important ,freethought work1   
,the ,trial  of ,theism4 ,in '#di he    
published a brief memoir of ,r4         
,carlile4 ,in  '#ea he first used the   
term ,secularist1 and in ,oct4 '#eb the 
first  ,secular ,conference was held at 
,manchester ,mr4 ,holyoake presiding4   
,in  ,jan4 '#ec he held a six nights    
discussion with the ,rev4 ,brewin       
,grant1  and again in ,oct4 '#ed4 ,he   
purchased the business of ,james        
,watson1  and issued many ,freethought  
works1 notably ,the ,library of         
,reason--a  series1 ,the ,cabinet of    
,reason1 his own ,secularism1 ,the      
,philosophy of  the ,people1 etc4 ,in   
'#fj he was ,secretary to the ,british  
,legion sent out  to ,garibaldi4 ,mr4   
,holyoake did much to remove the taxes  
upon knowledge1  and has devoted much   
attention to ,co-operation1 having      
written a  history of the movement and  
contributed to most of its journals4    
,home 7,henry71 ,scottish judge1 was b4 

#afif4 ,his legal ability was  made     
known by his publication of ,remarkable 
,decisions of the ,court of  ,session1  
#agbh4 ,in #ageb he was raised to the   
bench as ,lord ,kames4 ,he  published   
,essays on the ,principles of ,morality 
and ,natural ,religion  7#agea71        
,elements of ,criticism 7#agfb71 and    
,sketches of the ,history  of ,man1 in  
which he proved himself in advance of   
his age4 ,died #bg  ,dec4 #aghb4        
,hon1 ,le 7,henri74 ,see ,le ,hon4      
,hooker 7,sir ,joseph ,dalton71 ,english
 naturalist1 b4 #ahag4 ,he  studied     
medicine at ,glasgow1 graduating ,m4,d  
'#ci4 ,in '#ee he  became               
assistant-director of ,kew ,gardens1 and
 from '#fe-he sole  director4 ,renowned 
as a botanist1 he was the first eminent 
man of  science to proclaim his adoption
 of ,darwinism4    ,hope 7,thomas71     
novelist and antiquarian1 b4 #aggj4     
,famous for his  anonymous ,anastasius1 
or ,memories of a ,modern ,greek1 he    
also wrote an  original work on ,the    

,origin and ,prospects of ,man '#ca4    
,died at ,london  #c ,feb4 #ahca4       
,houten 7,samuel van71 ,dutch           
,freethinker1 b4 ,groningen4 #ag ,feb4  
#ahcg2  he studied law and became a     
lawyer in that city4 ,in '#fi he was    
chosen member of the ,dutch ,parliament4
 ,has published many writings on        
political economy4 ,in '#hh he wrote a  
book entitled ,das ,causalittgesetz     
7,the ,law of ,causality74    ,houston  
7,george74 ,was the translator of       
d',holbach's ,ecce ,homo1 first         
published in ,edinburgh in #agii1 and   
sometimes ascribed to ,joseph  ,webb4 ,a
 second edition was issued in #ahac4    
,houston was prosecuted and  was        
imprisoned two years in ,newgate1 with a
 fine of #bjj4 ,he afterwards  went to  
,new ,york1 where he edited the ,minerva
 7#ahbb74 ,in ,jan4 #ahbg1  he started  
,the ,correspondence1 which1 we believe1
 was the first weekly  ,freethought     
journal published in ,america4 ,it      
lasted till ,july #ahbh4 ,he  also      

republished ,ecce ,homo4 ,houston helped
 to establish in ,america a  ,free      
,press ,association and a ,society of   
,free ,inquirers4    ,hovelacque        
7,abel71 ,french scientist1 b4 ,paris   
#ad ,nov4 #ahdc4 ,he studied  law and   
made part of the groupe of la ,pense    
,nouvelle1 with ,asseline1  ,letourneau1
 ,lefevre1 etc4 ,he also studied        
anthropology under ,broca  and published
 many articles in the ,revue            
d',anthropologie4 ,he founded  with     
,letourneau1 ,thuli1 ,asseline1 etc4    
,the ,bibliothque des sciences          
contemporains and published therein ,la 
,linguistique4 ,he also founded  with   
the same the library of anthropological 
science and published in  collaboration 
with ,g4 ,herv a prcis of ,anthropology 
and a study of  the ,negroes of ,africa4
 ,he has also contributed to the        
,dictionary of  ,anthropology4 ,for the 
,bibliothque ,materialiste he wrote a   
work on  ,primitive man4 ,he has also   
published choice extracts from the works

  of ,voltaire1 ,diderot and ,rousseau1 
a grammar of the ,zend language1  and a 
work on the ,avesta ,zoroaster and      
,mazdaism4 ,in '#gh he was made a       
member of the municipal council of      
,paris1 and in '#ha was elected deputy  
to the chamber where he sits with the   
autonomist socialist group4    ,howdon  
7,john71 author of ,a ,rational         
,investigation of the ,principles  of   
,natural ,philosophy1 ,physical and     
,moral1 printed at ,haddington1  #ahdj1 
in which he attacks belief in the       
,bible4    ,huber 7,marie71 ,swiss      
,deist1 b4 of ,protestant parents1      
,geneva1  #afid4 ,in a work on the      
,system of ,theologians1 #agca1 she     
opposed  the dogma of eternal           
punishment4 ,in '#ch published ,letters 
on the  ,religion essential to ,man4    
,this was translated into ,english in   
the  same year4 ,other works show       
,english reading4 ,she translated       
selections  from the ,spectator4 ,died  
at ,lyons1 #ac ,june1 #agec4    ,hudail 

7,abul74 ,see ,muhammad ibn ,hudail 7,al
 ,allaf47    ,huet 7,coenraad ,busken71 
,dutch writer1 b4 the ,hague1 #bh ,dec4 
#ahbf4 ,he  became minister of the      
,walloon ,church at ,haarlem1 but       
through his  ,freethought left the      
church in '#fc1 and became editor of    
various  newspapers1 afterwards living  
in ,paris4 ,he wrote many works of      
literary  value1 and published ,letters 
on the ,bible1 '#eg1 etc4 ,died #ahhg4  
,hugo 7,victor ,marie71 ,french poet and
 novelist1 b4 ,besanon1 #bf  ,feb4      
#ahjb4 ,was first noted for his ,odes1  
published in '#ba4 ,his dramas          
,hernani1 '#cj1 and ,marion ,delorme1   
'#ca1 were highly successful4 ,he  was  
admitted into the ,french ,academy in   
'#da1 and made a peer in  '#de4 ,he gave
 his cordial adhesion to the ,republic  
of '#dh1 and was  elected to the        
,assembly by the voters of ,paris4 ,he  
attacked ,louis  ,napoleon1 and after   
the coup d'tat was proscribed4 ,he first
 went to  ,brussels1 where he published 

,napoleon the ,little1 a biting satire4 
,he  afterwards settled at ,guernsey1   
where he remained until the fall of  the
 ,empire1 producing ,the ,legend of the 
,ages1 '#ei1 ,les ,miserables1 '#fb1    
,toilers of the ,sea1 '#fi1 and other   
works4 ,after his return to ,paris he   
produced a new series of the ,legend of 
the ,ages1 ,the ,pope1 ,religions  and  
,religion1 ,torquemada1 and other poems4
 ,he died #bb ,may1 #ahhe1  and it being
 decided he should have a national      
funeral1 the ,pantheon  was secularised 
for that purpose1 the cross being       
removed4 ,since his  death a poem       
entitled ,the ,end of ,satan has been   
published4    ,hugues 7,clovis71 ,french
 ,socialist1 poet1 and deputy1 b4       
,menerbes1  #c ,nov4 #ahej4 ,in youth he
 desired to become a priest1 but under  
the  influence of ,hugo left the black  
business4 ,in '#ga he became head  of   
the ,communist movement at ,marseilles4 
,he was sentenced to three  years'      
imprisonment4 ,in '#ha he was elected   

deputy1 and sits on the  extreme left4  
,humboldt 7,friedrich ,heinrich         
,alexander von71 illustrious ,german    
naturalist and traveller1 b4 ,berlin1   
#ad ,sept4 #agfi4 ,he studied under     
,heyne and ,blumenbach1 travelled in    
,holland1 ,france and ,england  with    
,george ,forster1 the naturalist1 and   
became director-general  of mines4 ,in  
#agii he set out to explore ,south      
,america and ,mexico1  and in #ahjd     
returned with a rich collection of      
animals1 plants and  minerals4 ,humboldt
 became a resident of ,paris1 where he  
enjoyed  the friendship of ,lalande1    
,delambre1 ,arago1 and all the living   
distinguished ,french scientists4 ,after
 numerous important contributions  to   
scientific knowledge1 at the age of     
seventy-four he composed his  celebrated
 ,cosmos1 the first volume of which     
appeared in '#de and the  fourth in     
'#eh4 ,to ,varnhagen von ,ense he wrote 
in #ahda3 ,bruno ,bauer  has found me   
pre-adamatically converted4 ,many years 

ago ,i wrote1  ',toutes les rligions    
positives offrent trois parties         
distinctes2  un trait de moeurs partout 
le mme et trs pur1 un rve gologique1  et
 un mythe ou petit roman historique2 le 
dernier lment obtient  le plus          
d'importance4' ,later on he says that   
,strauss disposes of  the ,christian    
myths4 ,humboldt was an unwearied       
student of science1  paying no attention
 to religion1 and opposed his brother in
 regard to  his essay ,on the ,province 
of the ,historian1 because he considered
 it  to acknowledge the belief in the   
divine government of the world1 which   
seemed to him as complete a delusion as 
the hypothesis of a principle  of life4 
,he died in ,berlin1 #f ,may1 #ahei1 in 
his ninetieth year4    ,humboldt 7,karl 
,wilhelm von71 ,prussian statesman and  
philosopher1  b4 ,potsdam1 #bb ,june1   
#agfg4 ,he was educated by ,campe4 ,went
 to ,paris in  #aghi1 and hailed the    
revolution with enthusiasm4 ,in '#ib he 
published  ,ideas on the ,organization  

of the ,state4 ,he became a friend of   
,schiller  and ,goethe1 and in #ahji was
 ,minister of ,public ,instruction4 ,he 
took  part in founding the ,university  
of ,berlin4 ,he represented ,prussia at 
the ,congress of ,vienna1 '#ad4 ,he     
advocated a liberal constitution1 but   
finding the ,king averse1 retired at the
 end of '#ai1 and devoted himself  to   
the study of comparative philology4 ,he 
said there were three things  he could  
not comprehend--orthodox piety1 romantic
 love1 and music4 ,he  died #h ,april1  
#ahce4 ,his works were collected and    
edited by his brother4    ,hume         
7,david71 philosopher and historian1 b4 
,edinburgh1 #bf ,april1  #agaa4 ,in     
#agce he went to ,france to study1 and  
there wrote his ,treatise  on ,human    
,nature1 published in #agci4 ,this work 
then excited no interest  friendly or   
hostile4 ,hume's ,essays ,moral and     
,political appeared in  #agdb1 and in   
#ageb his ,inquiry ,concerning the      
,principles of ,morals which  of all his

 writings he considered the best4 ,in   
#agee he published his  ,natural        
,history of ,religion1 which was        
furiously attacked by ,warburton  in an 
anonymous tract4 ,in #aged he published 
the first volume of his  ,history of    
,england1 which he did not complete till
 #agfa4 ,he became  secretary to the    
,earl of ,hertford1 ambassador at       
,paris1 where he was  cordially welcomed
 by the philosophers4 ,he returned in   
#agff1 bringing  ,rousseau with him4    
,hume became ,under ,secretary of ,state
 in #agfg1  and in #agfi retired to     
,edinburgh1 where he died #be ,aug4     
#aggf4 ,after  his death his ,dialogues 
on ,natural ,religion were published1   
and also  some unpublished essays on    
,suicide1 the ,immortality of the ,soul1
  etc4 ,hume's last days were singularly
 cheerful4 ,his friend1 the famous  ,dr4
 ,adam ,smith1 considered him as        
approaching as nearly to the idea  of a 
perfectly wise and virtuous man as      
perhaps the nature of human  frailty    

will permit4    ,hunt 7,james71 ,ph4,d41
 physiologist1 b4 #ahcc1 was the founder
 of the  ,anthropological ,society1 of  
which he was the first president1 '#fc4 
,he  was the author of the ,negro's     
,place in ,nature1 a work on            
,stammering1  etc4 ,died #bh ,aug4      
#ahfi4    ,hunt 7,james ,henry ,leigh71 
poet1 essayist and critic1 b4           
,southgate1  ,middlesex1 #ai ,oct4      
#aghd4 was educated with ,lamb and      
,coleridge at  ,christ's ,hospital1     
,london4 ,he joined his brother ,john in
 editing  first the ,sunday ,news1      
#ahje1 and then the ,examiner1 #ahjh4   
,they were  condemned to pay a fine1    
each of #ejj1 and to be imprisoned for  
two years1 #ahab-ad1 for a satirical    
article1 in which the prince  regent was
 called an ,adonis of fifty4 ,this      
imprisonment procured  him the          
friendship of ,shelley and ,byron1 with 
whom1 after editing  the ,indicator he  
was associated in editing the ,liberal4 
,he wrote many  choice books of poems   

and criticisms1 and in his ,religion of 
the ,heart1  '#ec1 repudiates orthodoxy4
 ,died #bh ,aug4 #ahei4    ,hutten      
7,ulrich von71 ,german poet and         
reformer1 b4 of noble family            
,steckelberg1 ,hesse ,cassel1 #bb ,april
 #adhh4 ,he was sent to ,fulda  to      
become a monk1 but fled in #aejd to     
,erfurt1 where he studied  humaniora4   
,after some wild adventures he went to  
,wittenberg in #aeaj1  and ,vienna      
#aeab1 and also studied at ,pavia and   
,bologna4 ,he returned to  ,germany in  
#aeag as a common soldier in the army of
 ,maximilian4 ,his  great object was to 
free his country from sacerdotalism1 and
  most of his writings are satires      
against the ,pope1 monks and  clergy4   
,persecution drove him to ,switzerland1 
but the ,council of  ,zurich drove him  
out of their territory and he died on   
the isle of  ,ufnau1 ,lake ,zrich1 #bi  
,aug4 #aebc4    ,hutton 7,james71       
,scotch geologist and philosopher1 b4 at
 ,edinburgh #c  ,june1 #agcf4 ,he       

graduated as ,m4,d4 at ,leyden in #agdi1
 and investigated  the strata of the    
north of ,scotland4 ,he published a     
dissertation  on ,light1 ,heat1 and     
,fire1 and in his ,theory of the ,world1
 #agie1  attributes geological phenomena
 to the action of fire4 ,he also wrote  
a work entitled ,an ,investigation of   
the ,principles of ,knowledge1  the     
opinions of which1 says ,chalmers1      
abound in sceptical boldness  and       
philosophical infidelity4 ,died #bf     
,march #agig4    ,huxley 7,thomas       
,henry71 ,,ll4,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41  
b4 ,ealing1 #d ,may1 #ahbe4 ,he  studied
 medicine1 and in '#df took             
,m4,r4,c4,s41 and was appointed         
assistant  naval surgeon4 ,his cruises  
afforded opportunities for his studies  
of  natural history4 ,in '#ea he was    
elected ,fellow of the ,royal ,society1 
and  in '#ed was made ,professor at the 
,school of ,mines4 ,in '#fj he lectured 
on  ,the ,relation of ,man to the ,lower
 ,animals1 and afterwards published     

,evidence as to ,man's ,place in ,nature
 7#ahfc74 ,in addition to numerous      
scientific works1 ,professor ,huxley has
 written numerous forcible  articles1   
addresses1 etc41 collected in ,lay      
,sermons1 '#gj2 ,critiques  and         
,addresses1 '#gc2 and ,american         
,addresses1 '#gi4 ,a vigorous writer1   
his ,hume in the ,english ,men of       
,letters series is a model of clear     
exposition4 ,in his controversies with  
,mr4 ,gladstone1 in his articles  on the
 ,evolution of ,theology1 and in his    
recent polemic with the  ,rev4 ,mr4     
,wace in the ,nineteenth ,century1      
,professor ,huxley shows all  his       
freshness1 and proves himself as ready  
in demolishing theological  fictions as 
in demonstrating scientific facts4 ,he  
states as his own  life aims ,the       
popularising of science and untiring    
opposition to  that ecclesiastical      
spirit1 that clericalism1 which in      
,england1  as everywhere else1 and to   
whatever denomination it may belong1  is

 the deadly enemy of science4           
,hypatia1 ,pagan philosopher and martyr1
 b4 ,alexandria early in  the second    
half of the fourth century4 ,she became 
a distinguished  lecturer and head of   
the ,neo-,platonic school 7c4 #djj74    
,the charms of  her eloquence brought   
many disciples4 ,by a ,christian mob1   
incited by  ,st4 ,cyril1 she was in     
,lent #dae torn from her chariot1       
stripped naked1  cut with oyster-shells 
and finally burnt piecemeal4 ,this true 
story  of ,christian persecution has    
been disguised into a legend related of 
,st4 ,catherine in the ,roman breviary  
7,nov4 #be74    ,ibn ,bajjat4 ,see      
,avenpace4    ,ibn ,massara4 ,see       
,massara in ,supplement4    ,ibn ,rushd4
 ,see ,averroes4    ,ibn ,sabn4 ,see    
,sabin4    ,ibn ,sina4 ,see ,avicenna4  
,ibn ,tofail4 ,see ,abu ,bakr4    ,ibsen
 7,henrik71 an eminent ,norwegian       
dramatist and poet1 b4 ,skien1  #bj     
,march1 #ahbh4 ,at first he studied     
medicine1 but he turned his  attention  

to literature4 ,in '#eb1 through the    
influence of ,ole ,bull1  he became     
director of the theatre at ,bergen1 for 
which he wrote a  great deal4 ,from '#eg
 to '#fc he directed the theatre at     
,christiania4 ,in  the following year he
 went to ,rome4 ,the ,storthing accorded
 him an  annual pension for his services
 to literature4 ,his dramas1 ,brand1    
7,peer ,gynt71 ,kejser og ,galilr 7,csar
 ,julian and the ,galilean71  ,nora1 and
 ,samfundets ,stotler 7the ,pillars of  
,society71 and ,ghosts  exhibit his     
unconventional spirit4 ,ibsen is an open
 unbeliever in  ,christianity4 ,he looks
 forward to social regeneration through 
liberty1  individuality1 and education  
without superstition4    ,ilive         
7,jacob71 ,english printer and letter   
founder1 b4 ,bristol about  #agaj4 ,he  
published a pretended translation of the
 ,book of ,jasher1 #agea1  and some     
other curious works4 ,he was prosecuted 
for blasphemy in ,some  ,modest ,remarks
 on the late ,bishop ,sherlock's        

,sermons1 and sentenced to  two years'  
imprisonment1 #ae ,june1 #agef-aj ,june1
 #ageh4 ,he was confined  in the        
,clerkenwell ,house of ,correction and  
published some pamphlets  exposing the  
bad condition of the prison and         
suggesting means for  its improvement4  
,he died in #agfh4    ,imray 7,i4 ,w471 
author1 b4 #ahjb4 ,wrote in ,carlile's  
,republican and ,lion1  and published   
,altamont1 an atheistic drama1 in #ahbh4
    ,ingersoll 7,robert ,green71        
,american orator1 b4 ,dresden1 ,new     
,york1  #aa ,aug4 #ahcc4 ,his father was
 a ,congregationalist clergyman4 ,he    
studied law1 and opened an office in    
,shawneetown1 ,illinois4 ,in '#fb he    
became colonel of the #aath ,illinois   
,cavalry1 and served in the war1  being 
taken prisoner4 ,in '#ff he was         
appointed attorney-general for          
,illinois4 ,at the ,national ,republican
 ,convention1 '#gf1 he proposed  ,blaine
 for ,president in a speech that        
attracted much attention4 ,in  '#gg he  

refused the post of ,minister to        
,germany4 ,he has conducted  many       
important cases1 and defended ,c4 ,b4   
,reynolds when tried for  blasphemy in  
'#hf4 ,col4 ,ingersoll is the most      
popular speaker in  ,america4           
,eloquence1 humor1 and pathos are alike 
at his command4 ,he is  well known by   
his books1 pamphlets1 and speeches      
directed against  ,christianity4 ,he had
 published the ,gods1 ,ghosts1 ,some    
,mistakes  of ,moses1 and a collection  
of his ,lectures1 '#hc1 and ,prose      
,poems  and ,extracts1 '#hd4 ,most of   
his lectures have been republished in   
,england4 ,we mention ,what must ,i do  
to be ,saved8 ,hell1 ,the ,dying ,creed1
  ,myth and ,miracle1 ,do ,i ,blaspheme8
 ,real ,blasphemy4 ,in the pages of the 
,north ,american ,review ,col4          
,ingersoll has defended ,freethought    
against  ,judge ,black1 the ,rev4 ,h4   
,field1 ,mr4 ,gladstone1 and ,cardinal  
,manning4    ,inman 7,thomas71 ,b4,a41  
physician and archologist1 b4 #ahbj4    

,educated  at ,london ,university1 he   
settled at ,liverpool1 being connected  
with  the well-known shipping family of 
that port4 ,he is chiefly known by  his 
work on ,ancient ,faiths ,embodied in   
,ancient ,names1 in which he  deals with
 the evidences of phallic worship       
amongst ,jews and other  nations4 ,it   
was first published in '#fi4 ,a second  
edition appeared in  '#gc4 ,he also     
wrote ,ancient ,pagan and ,modern       
,christian ,symbolism ,exposed  and     
,explained1 '#fi1 and a controversial   
,freethought work1 entitled  ,ancient   
,faiths and ,modern1 published at ,new  
,york '#gf4 ,dr4 ,inman was  for some   
time ,president of the ,liverpool       
,literary and ,philosophical  ,society1 
and was physician to the ,royal         
,infirmary of that city4 ,his           
professional life was one of untiring   
industry4 ,he wrote several  medical    
works1 including two volumes on the     
,preservation and  ,restoration of      
,health4 ,died at ,clifton1 #c ,may4    

#ahgf4    ,iron 7,ralph71 pseudonym of  
,olive ,schreiner1 q4v4    ,isnard      
7,felix71 ,french physician1 b4 ,grasse 
#ahbi4 ,author of a work  on            
,spiritualism and ,materialism1 #ahgi4  
,isnard 7,maximin71 ,girondin           
revolutionist1 b4 ,grasse #af ,feb4     
#agea4 ,he  was made a member of the    
,assembly1 in which he declared1 ,the   
,law1  behold my ,god4 ,i know no other4
 ,he voted for the death of the  ,king1 
and was nominated president of the      
,convention4 ,on the fall of  the       
,girondins he made his escape1 and      
reappeared after the fall of            
,robespierre4 ,in #agif he was one of   
the ,council of ,five ,hundred4 ,died   
#ahcj4    ,isoard 7,eric ,michel        
,antoine71 ,french writer1 b4 ,paris1   
#ahbf4 ,was naval  officer in '#dh but  
arrested as socialist in '#di4 ,in '#gj 
he was made  sous-prefet of ,cambrai and
 wrote ,guerre aux ,jsuites4    ,isoard 
,delisle 7,jean ,baptiste ,claude71     
called also ,delisle de ,sales1  ,french

 man of letters1 b4 ,lyons #agdc4 ,when 
young he entered the  ,congregation of  
the ,oratory1 but left theology for     
literature4 ,in #agfi  he published the 
,philosophy of ,nature1 which in #agga  
was discovered to  be irreligious1 and  
he was condemned to perpetual           
banishment4 ,while in  prison he was    
visited by many of the philosophers1 and
 a subscription  was opened for him1 to 
which ,voltaire gave five hundred       
francs4 ,he  went to the court of       
,frederick the ,great1 and subsequently 
published  many works of little         
importance4 ,died at ,paris #bb ,sept4  
#ahaf4    ,jacob 7,andre ,alexandre74   
,see ,erdan 7,a47    ,jacobson          
7,augustus71 ,american1 author of ,why  
,i do not ,believe1  ,chicago #ahha1 and
 ,the ,bible ,inquirer4    ,jacobus     
7,dom7 ,pseudonym of ,potvin 7,charles7 
q4v4    ,jacoby 7,leopold7 ,german      
author of ,the ,idea of ,development4 #b
  vols4 ,berlin #ahgd-gf4    ,jacolliot 
7,louis71 ,french orientalist1 b4 ,saint

 ,etienne1 #ahjf4 ,brought  up to the   
law1 in '#dc he was made judge at       
,pondichery4 ,he first aroused          
attention by his work1 ,the ,bible in   
,india1 '#gj4 ,he also has written  on  
,genesis of ,humanity1 '#gf4 ,the       
,religions ,legislators1 ,moses1 ,manu  
and ,muhammad1 '#hj1 and ,the ,natural  
and ,social ,history of ,humanity1      
'#hd1 and several works of travel4      
,jantet 7,charles and ,hector71 two     
doctors of ,lyons1 b4 the first  in     
#ahbf1 the second in '#bh1 have         
published together able ,aperus         
,philosophiques on ,rnan's ,life of     
,jesus1 '#fd1 and ,doctrine ,medicale   
,matrialiste1 #ahff4    ,jaucourt       
7,louis de71 ,chevalier1 ,french scholar
 and member of the  ,royal ,society of  
,london and of the academies of ,berlin 
and ,stockholm1  b4 ,paris #bg ,sept4   
#agjd4 ,he studied at ,geneva1          
,cambridge1 and ,leyden1  furnished the 
,encyclopdie with many articles1 and    
conducted the  ,bibliothque ,raisonne4  

,died at ,compigne1 #c ,feb4 #aggi4     
,jefferies 7,richard71 ,english writer1 
b4 #ahdh1 famous for his  descriptions  
of nature in ,the ,gamekeeper at ,home1 
,wild ,life in a  ,southern ,country1   
etc4 ,in his autobiographical ,story of 
,my ,heart  7#ahhc7 ,mr4 ,jefferies     
shows himself a thorough ,freethinker4  
,died  ,goring-on-,thames1 #ad ,aug4    
#ahhg4    ,jefferson 7,thomas71         
,american statesman1 b4 ,shadwell1      
,virginia1 #b ,april  #agdc4 ,he studied
 law and was admitted to the bar in     
#agfg4 ,he became  a member of the      
,house of ,burgesses1 #agfi-ge4 ,in     
#aggd he published  his ,summary ,views 
of the ,rights of ,british-,americans4  
,he drafted  and reported to ,congress  
the ,declaration of ,independence which 
was unanimously adopted1 #d ,july #agff4
 ,he was ,governor of ,virginia  from   
#agai to #agha1 and originated a system 
of education in the  ,state4 ,he was    
,ambassador to ,paris from #aghe-hi1    
secretary of state  from #aghi-ic1      

vice-president #agia-ahja and third     
president of the  ,united ,states       
#ahja-i4 ,in '#ai he founded the        
,university of ,virginia1 of  which he  
was rector till his death1 #d ,july     
#ahbf4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,thomas in his          
,dictionary of ,biography says ,in      
religion he was what is denominated a   
freethinker4 ,he spoke in old age of the
 hocus-pocus phantom of ,god1  which    
like another ,cerberus had one body and 
three heads4 ,see his  life by ,j4      
,parton4    ,johnson 7,richard ,mentor71
 ,colonel1 ,american soldier and        
statesman1  b4 ,bryant's ,station1      
,kentucky1 #ag ,oct4 #agha4 ,was        
educated at ,lexington1  studied law1   
and practiced with success4 ,became     
member of the ,kentucky  ,legislature in
 #ahje1 and raised a regiment of cavalry
 '#ab4 ,fought  with distinction against
 ,british and ,indians4 ,was member of  
,congress  from #ahjg-ai1 and from      
'#bi-cg2 a ,united ,states ,senator from
 '#ai-bi1  and ,vice-,president of the  

,united ,states1 '#cg-dj4 ,is remembered
 by his  report against the suspension  
of ,sunday mails and his speeches in    
favor  of rights of conscience4 ,died at
 ,frankfort1 ,kentucky1 #ai ,nov4 #ahej4
    ,johnson 7,samuel71 ,american       
author1 b4 ,salem1 ,massachusetts1 #aj  
,oct4 #ahbb4 ,he was educated at        
,harvard1 and became pastor of a ,free  
,church at ,lynn in '#ec4 ,he never     
attached himself to any denomination1   
although in some points his views were  
like those of the ,unitarians  and      
,universalists4 ,about '#df he          
published1 in conjunction with  ,s4     
,longfellow1 brother of the poet1 ,hymns
 of the ,spirit1 ,oriental  ,religions  
in relation to ,universal ,religion1 of 
which the volume  on ,india appeared in 
'#gb1 ,china '#gg1 and ,persia '#hd4    
,died ,andover1  #ai ,feb4 #ahhb4       
,jones 7,ernest ,charles71 barrister and
 political orator1 b4 ,berlin1  #be     
,jan4 #ahai4 ,his father was in the     
service of the ,king of ,hanover1  who  

became his godfather4 ,called to the bar
 in '#dd in the following  year he      
joined the ,chartist movement1 editing  
the ,people's ,paper1 ,notes  to the    
,people1 and other ,chartist            
periodicals4 ,in '#dh he was tried for  
making a seditious speech1 and condemned
 to two years' imprisonment1  during    
which he wrote ,beldagon ,church and    
other poems4 ,he stood for  ,halifax in 
'#dg1 and ,nottingham in '#ec and '#eg1 
without success4 ,he  was much esteemed 
by the working classes in ,manchester1  
where he died  #bf ,jan4 #ahfi4         
,jones 7,john ,gale71 ,political orator1
 b4 #agga4 ,at the time of the ,french  
,revolution he became a leading member  
of the ,london ,corresponding  ,society4
 ,arrested at ,birmingham for sedition1 
he obtained a verdict of  acquittal4 ,he
 was subsequently committed to ,newgate 
in ,feb4 #ahaj1 for  impugning the      
proceedings of the ,house of ,commons1  
and there remained  till his liberation 
was effected by the prorogation of      

,parliament1  ,june #ba4 ,on #bf ,dec4  
'#aa he was again convicted for a       
seditious and  blasphemous libel4 ,he   
was a resolute advocate of the rights of
 free  publication during the trials of 
,carlile and his shopmen4 ,died ,somers 
,town1 #d ,april1 #ahch4    ,jones      
7,lloyd71 ,socialist1 b4 of ,catholic   
parents at ,brandon1 co4 ,cork1         
,ireland1 in ,march1 #ahaa4 ,in '#bg he 
came over to ,manchester1 and  in '#cb  
joined the followers of ,robert ,owen4  
,he became a social  missionary1 and had
 numerous debates with ministers1       
notably one on  ,the ,influence of      
,christianity with ,j4 ,barker1 then a  
,methodist1 at  ,manchester1 in '#ci4   
,lloyd ,jones was an active supporter of
 co-operation  and trades-unionism1 and 
frequently acted as arbitrator in       
disputes  between masters and men4 ,he  
contributed to the ,new ,moral ,world1  
,spirit  of the ,age1 ,glasgow          
,sentinel1 ,leeds ,express1 ,north      
,british ,daily ,mail1  ,newcastle      

,chronicle1 and ,co-operative ,news4    
,died at ,stockwell1 #bb ,may1  #ahhf1  
leaving behind a ,life of ,robert ,owen4
    ,joseph ,,ii41 ,emperor of ,germany1
 son of ,francis ,i4 and ,maria         
,theresa1  b4 ,vienna #ac ,march #agda4 
,in #agfd he was elected king of the    
,romans1 and  in the following year     
succeeded to the throne of ,germany4 ,he
 wrought  many reforms1 suppressed the  
,jesuits #aggc1 travelled in ,france as 
,count  ,falkenstein1 saw d',alembert   
but did not visit ,voltaire4 ,he        
abolished  serfdom1 allowed liberty of  
conscience1 suppressed several convents1
  regulated others1 abridged the power  
of the pope and the clergy1  and        
mitigated the condition of the ,jews4   
,carlyle says a mighty  reformer he had 
been1 the greatest of his day4 ,austria 
gazed on him1  its admiration not       
unmixed with terror4 ,he rushed         
incessantly about1  hardy as a ,charles 
,twelfth2 slept on his bearskin on the  
floor of any  inn or hut2--flew at the  

throat of every absurdity1 however broad
  and based or dangerously armed4       
',disappear ,i say4' ,a most prompt1    
severe1 and yet beneficent and          
charitable kind of man4 ,immensely      
ambitious1 that must be said withal4 ,a 
great admirer of ,friedrich2  bent to   
imitate him with profit4 ',very clever  
indeed' says ,friedrich1  'but has the  
fault 7a terribly grave one67 of        
generally taking the  second step       
without having taken the first4' ,died  
,vienna #bj ,feb4 #agij4    ,jouy       
7,victor ,joseph ,etienne de71 ,french  
author b4 ,jouy near ,versailles  #agfd4
 ,he served as soldier in ,india and    
afterwards in the wars of  the          
,republic4 ,a disciple of ,voltaire to  
whom he erected a temple1  he was a     
prolific writer1 his plays being much   
esteemed in his own  day4 ,died #d      
,sept4 #ahdf4    ,julianus 7,flavius    
,claudius71 ,roman ,emperor1 b4         
,constantinople #ag  ,nov4 #cca4 ,in the
 massacre of his family by the sons of  

,constantine  he escaped4 ,he was       
educated in the tenets of ,christianity 
but  returned to an eclectic ,paganism4 
,in #ced he was declared ,csar4 ,he     
made successful campaigns against the   
,germans who had overrun ,gaul  and in  
#cfa was made ,emperor4 ,he proclaimed  
liberty of conscience  and sought to    
uproot the ,christian superstition by   
his writings1 of  which only fragments  
remain4 ,as ,emperor he exhibited great 
talent1  tact1 industry1 and skill4 ,he 
was one of the most gifted and learned  
of the ,roman ,emperors1 and his short  
reign 7,dec4 #cfa--bf ,june1 #cfc71     
comprehended the plans of a life-long   
administration4 ,he died while  seeking 
to repel a ,persian invasion1 and his   
death was followed by  the triumph of   
,christianity and the long night of the 
dark ages4    ,junghuhn 7,franz         
,wilhelm71 traveller and naturalist1 b4 
,mansfeld1  ,prussia #bi ,oct #ahab4    
,his father was a barber and surgeon4   
,franz  studied at ,halle and ,berlin4  

,he distinguished himself by love for   
botany and geology4 ,in a duel with     
another student he killed him and  was  
sentenced to imprisonment at            
,ehrenbreitster for #bj years4 ,there   
he simulated madness and was removed to 
the asylum at ,coblentz1  whence he     
escaped to ,algiers4 ,in '#cd he joined 
the ,dutch ,army in the  ,malay         
,archipelago4 ,he travelled through the 
island of ,java making  a botanical and 
geological survey4 ,in '#ed he published
 his ,licht  en ,schaduwbeelden uit de  
binnenlanden van ,java 7,light and      
,shadow  pictures from the interior of  
,java71 which contains his ideas of     
,god1  religion and science1 together   
with sketches of nature and of the      
manners of the inhabitants4 ,this book  
aroused much indignation from  the      
pious1 but also much agreement among    
freethinkers1 and led to  the           
establishment of ,de ,dageraad 7,the    
,daybreak17 the organ of the  ,dutch    
,freethinkers ,union4 ,junghuhn         

afterwards returned to ,java and  died  
#ba ,april1 '#fd at ,lemberg1 ,preanges1
 ,regentsch4 ,his ,light and  ,shadow   
pictures have been several times        
reprinted4    ,kalisch 7,moritz         
,marcus71 ,ph4,d41 b4 of ,jewish parents
 in ,pomerania1  #af ,may1 #ahbh4       
,educated at the ,university of ,berlin1
 where he  studied under ,vatke and     
others4 ,early in '#di he came to       
,england as a  political refugee1 and   
found employment as tutor to the        
,rothschild  family4 ,his critical      
,commentary on the ,pentateuch commenced
 with a  volume on ,exodus1 '#ee1       
,genesis '#eh1 ,leviticus in two vols4  
in '#fg  and '#gb respectively4 ,his    
rational criticism anticipated the      
school  of ,wellhausen4 ,he published   
,bible ,studies on ,balaam and ,jonah   
'#gg1  and discussions on philosophy and
 religion in a very able and learned    
work entitled ,path and ,goal1 '#hj4    
,kalisch also contributed to ,scott's   
series of ,freethought tracts4 ,died at 

,baslow1 ,derbyshire1 #bc ,aug4 #ahhe4  
,kames 7,lord74 ,see ,home 7,henry74    
,kant 7,immanuel71 ,german critical     
philosopher1 b4 ,knigsberg1 #bb  ,april1
 #agbd4 ,he became professor of         
mathematics in #aggj4 ,in #agha he      
published his great work1 ,the ,critick 
of ,pure ,reason1 which denied  all     
knowledge of the ,thing itself1 and     
overthrew the dogmatism of  earlier     
metaphysics4 ,in #agib the philosopher  
fell under the royal  censorship for his
 ,religion within the ,limits of ,pure  
,reason4 ,kant  effected a complete     
revolution in philosophy1 and his       
immediate  influence is not yet         
exhausted4 ,died at ,knigsberg1 #ab     
,feb4 #ahjd4    ,kapila4 ,one of the    
earliest ,hindu thinkers4 ,his system is
 known as  the ,atheistic philosophy4   
,it is expounded in the ,sankhya        
,karika1 an  important relic of bold    
rationalistic ,indian thought4 ,his     
aphorisms  have been translated by ,j4  
,r4 ,ballantyne4    ,karneades4 ,see    

,carneades4    ,keeler 7,bronson ,c47   
,american author of an able ,short      
,history of the  ,bible1 being a popular
 account of the formation and           
development of  the canon1 published at 
,chicago #ahha4    ,keim 7,karl         
,theodor71 ,german rationalist1 b4      
,stuttgart1  #ag ,dec4 #ahbe4 ,was      
educated at ,tbingen1 and became        
professor of  theology at ,zrich4 ,is   
chiefly known by his ,history of ,jesus 
of ,nazara  7'#fg-'gb74 ,he also wrote a
 striking work on ,primitive            
,christianity  7'#gh71 and endeavored to
 reproduce the lost work of ,celsus4    
,his  rationalism hindered his          
promotion1 and he was an invalid most of
  his days4 ,died at ,giessen1 where he 
was professor1 #ag ,nov4 #ahgh4         
,keith 7,george71 ,lord ,marshall1      
,scotch soldier1 b4 ,kincardine #afhe1  
was appointed by ,queen ,anne captain of
 ,guard4 ,his property being            
confiscated for aiding the ,pretender1  
he went to the ,continent1 and  like his

 brother1 was in high favor with        
,frederick the ,great4 ,died  ,berlin1  
#be ,may1 #aggh4    ,keith 7,james      
,francis ,edward71 eminent military     
commander1 b4 ,inverugie1  ,scotland1   
#aa ,june1 #afif4 ,joined the army of   
the ,pretender and was  wounded at      
,sheriffmuir1 #agae4 ,he afterwards     
served with distinction  in ,spain and  
in ,russia1 where he rose to high favor 
under the  ,empress ,elizabeth4 ,in     
#agdg he took service with ,frederick   
the ,great  as field-marshal1 and became
 ,governor of ,berlin4 ,carlyle calls   
him  a very clear-eyed1 sound observer  
of men and things4 ,frederick1 the  more
 he knows him1 likes him the better4    
,from their correspondence  it is       
evident ,keith shared the sceptical     
opinions of ,frederick4 ,after          
brilliant exploits in the seven years'  
war at ,prague1 ,rossbach1 and  ,olmutz1
 ,marshal ,keith fell in the battle of  
,hochkirch1 #ad ,oct4 #ageh4    ,kenrick
 7,william71 ,,ll4,d41 ,english author1 

b4 near ,watford1 ,herts1  about #agbj4 
,in #agea he published1 at ,dublin1     
under the pen-name of  ,ontologos1 an   
essay to prove that the soul is not     
immortal4 ,his first  poetic production 
was a volume of ,epistles1              
,philosophical and ,moral  7#agei71     
addressed to ,lorenzo2 an avowed defence
 of scepticism4 ,in  #agge he commenced 
the ,london ,review1 and the following  
year attacked  ,soame ,jenyns's work on 
,christianity4 ,he translated some of   
the works  of ,buffon1 ,rousseau1 and   
,voltaire4 ,died #aj ,june #aggi4       
,kerr 7,michael ,crawford7 ,american    
statesman1 b4 ,titusville1 ,western     
,pennsylvania1 #ae ,march #ahbg4 ,he was
 member of the ,indiana ,legislature    
'#ef1 and elected to ,congress in '#gd  
and endeavoured to revise the  tariff in
 the direction of free-trade4 ,died     
,rockbridge1 ,virginia1  #ai ,aug4      
#ahgf1 a confirmed ,freethinker and     
,materialist4    ,ket1 ,kett1 or ,knight
 7,francis71 of ,norfolk1 a relative of 

the  rebellious tanner4 ,he was of      
,windham and was an ,m4,a4 ,he was      
prosecuted  for heresy and burnt in the 
castle ditch1 ,norwich1 #ad ,jan4 #aehh4
 ,stowe  says he was burnt for divers   
detestable opinions against ,christ  our
 ,saviour4    ,khayyam 7,omar7 or ,umar 
,khaiyam1 ,persian astronomer1 poet1 b4 
,naishapur  ,khorassan1 in the second   
half of the eleventh century1 and was   
distinguished by his reformation of the 
calendar as well as by his  verses      
7,rubiyat71 which ,e4 ,fitzgerald has so
 finely rendered in  ,english4 ,he      
alarmed his contemporaries and made     
himself obnoxious to  the ,sufis4 ,died 
about #aabc4 ,omar laughed at the       
prophets and priests1  and told men to  
be happy instead of worrying themselves 
about ,god and  the ,hereafter4 ,he     
makes his soul say1 ,i myself am ,heaven
 and ,hell4    ,kielland 7,alexander    
,lange71 ,norwegian novelist1 b4        
,stavanger1 #ah  ,feb4 #ahdi4 ,he       
studied law at ,christiania1 but never  

practised4 ,his  stories1 ,workpeople1  
,skipper ,worse1 ,poison1 and ,snow     
exhibit his  bold opinions4             
,kleanthes4 ,see ,cleanthes4    ,klinger
 7,friedrich ,maximilian von71 ,german  
writer1 b4 ,frankfort1 #ai  ,feb4 #agec4
 ,went to ,russia in #aghj1 and became  
reader to the ,grand  ,duke ,paul4      
,published poems1 dramas1 and romances1 
exhibiting the  revolt of nature against
 conventionality4 ,goethe called him a  
true  apostle of the ,gospel of nature4 
,died at ,petersburg1 #be ,feb4 #ahca4  
,kneeland 7,abner71 ,american writer1 b4
 ,gardner1 ,mass41 #g ,april1 #aggd1    
became a ,baptist and afterwards a      
,universalist minister4 ,he invented  a 
new system of orthography1 published a  
translation of the ,new  ,testament1    
#ahbc1 ,the ,deist 7#b ,vols471 '#bb1   
edited the ,olive ,branch  and the      
,christian ,inquirer4 ,he wrote ,the    
,fourth ,epistle of ,peter1  '#bi1 and a
 ,review of the ,evidences of           
,christianity1 being a series  of       

lectures delivered in ,new ,york in     
'#bi4 ,in that year he removed to       
,boston1 and in ,april '#ca commenced   
the ,boston ,investigator1 the oldest   
,freethought journal4 ,in '#cc he was   
indicted and tried for blasphemy  for   
saying that he did not believe in the   
,god which ,universalists  did4 ,he was 
sentenced #ba ,jan4 '#cd1 to two months'
 imprisonment and  fine of five hundred 
dollars4 ,the verdict was confirmed in  
the ,courts  of ,appeal in '#cf1 and he 
received two months' imprisonment4      
,kneeland  was a ,pantheist4 ,he took   
,frances ,wright as an associate editor1
 and  soon after left the ,boston       
,investigator in the hands of ,p4       
,mendum and  ,seaver1 and retired to a  
farm at ,salubria1 where he died #bg    
,august1  #ahdd4 ,his edition1 with     
notes1 of ,voltaire's ,philosophical    
,dictionary1  was published in two      
volumes in #aheb4    ,knoblauch 7,karl  
von71 ,german author1 b4 ,dillenburg1 #c
 ,nov4 #ageg4 ,he  was a friend of      

,mauvillon and published several works  
directed against  supernaturalism and   
superstition4 ,died at ,bernburg1 #f    
,sept4 #agid4    ,knowlton 7,charles7   
,dr41 ,american physician and author1 b4
 ,templeton1  ,mass41 #aj ,may1 #ahjj4  
,he published the ,fruits of            
,philosophy1 for which  he was          
imprisoned in '#cb4 ,he was a frequent  
correspondent of the ,boston            
,investigator1 and held a discussion on 
the ,bible and ,christianity with  the  
,rev4 ,mr4 ,thacher of ,harley4 ,about  
'#bi he published ,the ,elements  of    
,modern ,materialism4 ,died in          
,winchester1 ,mass41 #bj ,feb4 #ahej4   
,knutzen 7,matthias71 b4 ,oldensworth1  
in ,holstein1 #afde4 ,he early lost  his
 parents1 and was brought to an uncle at
 ,knigsberg1 where he  studied          
philosophy4 ,he took to the adventurous 
life of a wandering  scholar and        
propagated his principles in many       
places4 ,in #afgd he  preached ,atheism 
publicly at ,jena1 in ,germany1 and had 

followers who  were called ,gewissener1 
from their acknowledging no other       
authority  but conscience4 ,it is said  
there were seven hundred in ,jena alone4
 ,what  became of him and them is       
unknown4 ,a letter dated from ,rome     
gives his  principles4 ,he denied the   
existence of either ,god or ,devil1     
deemed  churches and priests useless1   
and held that there is no life beyond   
the present1 for which conscience is a  
sufficient guide1 taking the  place of  
the ,bible1 which contains great        
contradictions4 ,he also  wrote two     
dialogues4    ,koerbagh 7,adriaan71     
,dutch martyr1 b4 ,amsterdam1 #afcb or  
#afcc4 ,he became  a doctor of law and  
medicine4 ,in #affh he published ,a     
,flower ,garden  of all ,loveliness1 a  
dictionary of definitions in which he   
gave bold  explanations4 ,the work was  
rigidly suppressed1 and the writer fled 
to ,culemborg4 ,there he translated a   
book ,de ,trinitate1 and began a  work  
entitled ,a ,light ,shining in ,dark    

,places1 to illuminate the chief  things
 of theology and religion by ,vrederijk 
,waarmond1 inquisitor of  truth4        
,betrayed for a sum of money1 ,koerbagh 
was tried for blasphemy1  heavily fined 
and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten  
years1 to be  followed by ten years     
banishment4 ,he died in prison1 ,oct4   
#affi4    ,kolb 7,georg ,friedrich71    
,german statistician and author1 b4     
,spires #ad  ,sept4 #ahjh1 author of an 
able ,history of ,culture1 #ahfi-gj4    
,died at  ,munich #ae ,may1 #ahhd4      
,koornhert 7,theodore74 ,see ,coornhert 
7,dirk ,volkertszoon47    ,korn         
7,selig71 learned ,german ,orientalist  
of ,jewish birth1 b4 ,prague1  #bf      
,april1 #ahjd4 ,a convert to            
,freethought1 under the name of ,f4     
,nork1  he wrote many works on mythology
 which may still be consulted with      
profit4 ,a list is given in ,fuerst's   
,bibliotheca ,judaica4 ,we mention      
,christmas and ,easter ,explained by    
,oriental ,sun ,worship1 ,leipsic1 '#cf2

  ,brahmins and ,rabbins1 ,weissen1     
'#cf2 ,the ,prophet ,elijah as a ,sun   
,myth1  '#cg2 ,the ,gods of the         
,syrians1 '#db2 ,biblical ,mythology of 
the ,old and  ,new ,testament1 #b vols4 
,stuttgart1 '#db-'dc4 ,died at ,teplitz1
 ,bohemia1  #af ,oct4 #ahej4    ,krause 
7,ernst ,h4 ,ludwig71 ,german scientific
 writer1 b4 ,zielenzig  #bb ,nov4 #ahci4
 ,he studied science and contributed to 
the ,vossische  ,zeitung and            
,gartenlaube4 ,in '#fc he published1    
under the pen-name of  ,carus ,sterne1 a
 work on ,the ,natural ,history of      
,ghosts1 and in  '#gf a work on ,growth 
and ,decay1 a history of evolution4 ,in 
'#gg he  established with ,hckel1 ,dr4  
,otto ,caspari1 and ,professor ,gustav  
,jaeger1  the monthly magazine ,kosmos1 
devoted to the spread of ,darwinism4    
,this  he conducted till '#hb4 ,in      
,kosmos appeared the germ of his little 
book  on ,erasmus ,darwin1 '#gi1 to     
which ,charles ,darwin wrote a          
preliminary  notice4 ,as ,carus ,sterne 

he has also written essays entitled     
,prattle  from ,paradise1 ,the ,crown of
 ,creation1 '#hd1 and an illustrated    
work  in parts on ,ancient and ,modern  
,ideas of the ,world1 '#hg1 etc4        
,krekel 7,arnold71 ,american judge1 b4  
,langenfield1 ,prussia #ad ,march1      
#ahae4 ,went with parents to ,america in
 '#cb and settled in ,missouri4 ,in     
'#db he was elected ,justice of the     
,peace and afterwards county  attorney4 
,in '#eb he was elected to the ,missouri
 ,state ,legislature4 ,he  served in the
 civil war being elected colonel1 was   
president of  the constitutional        
convention of '#fe and signed the       
ordinance of  emancipation by which the 
slaves of ,missouri were set free4 ,he  
was  appointed judge by ,president      
,lincoln #i ,march1 '#fe4 ,a pronounced 
,agnostic1 when he realized he was about
 to die he requested his wife  not to   
wear mourning1 saying that death was as 
natural as birth4 ,died  at ,kansas #ad 
,july1 #ahhh4    ,krekel 7,mattie ,h4   

,hulett71 b4 of freethinking parents1   
,elkhart ,indiana  #ac ,april1 #ahdj4   
,educated at ,rockford1 ,illinois1 in   
her #afth year became  a teacher4       
,married ,judge ,krekel1 after whose    
death1 she devoted her  services to the 
,freethought platform4    ,kropotkin    
7,petr ,aleksyeevich7 ,prince1 ,russian 
anarchist1 b4 ,moscow  #i ,dec #ahdb4   
,after studying at the ,royal ,college  
of ,pages he went to  ,siberia for five 
years to pursue geological researches4  
,in '#ga he went  to ,belgium and       
,switzerland and joined the             
,international4 ,arrested  in ,russia1  
he was condemned to three years         
imprisonment1 escaped  '#gf and came to 
,england4 ,in '#gi he founded at        
,geneva1 ,le ,rvolt was  expelled4      
,accused in ,france in '#hc of          
complicity in the outrage at  ,lyons1 he
 was condemned to five years            
imprisonment1 but was released in  '#hf1
 since which he has lived in ,england4  
,a brother who translated  ,herbert     

,spencer's ,biology into ,russian1 died 
in ,siberia in the  autumn of #ahhf4    
,laas 7,ernst7 ,german writer1 b4       
,furstenwalde1 #af ,june1 #ahcg4 ,he has
  written three volumes on ,idealism and
 ,positivism1 #ahgi-'hd1 and also  on   
,kant's ,place in the ,history of the   
,conflict between ,faith and  ,science1 
,berlin1 #ahhb4 ,he was professor of    
philosophy at ,strassburg1  where he    
died #be ,july1 #ahhe4    ,labanca      
7,baldassarre71 professor of moral      
philosophy in the ,university  of ,pisa1
 b4 ,agnone1 #ahbi4 ,he took part in the
 national movement of  '#dh1 and in '#ea
 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled 
from ,naples4 ,he  has written on       
progress in philosophy and also a study 
on primitive  ,christianity1 dedicated  
to ,giordano ,bruno1 the martyr of      
,freethought1  '#hf4    ,lachatre       
7,maurice71 ,french writer1 b4 ,issoudun
 #ahad1 edits a ,library  of ,progress1 
in which has appeared his own ,history  
of the ,inquisition1  and ,history of   

the ,popes1 '#hc4    ,lacroix           
7,sigismund71 the pen name of ,sigismund
 ,julien ,adolph  ,krzyzanowski1 b4     
,warsaw #bf ,may1 #ahde4 ,his father was
 a refugee4 ,he  wrote with ,yves ,guyot
 ,the ,social ,doctrines of             
,christianity4 ,in '#gd he  was elected 
a municipal councillor of ,paris4 ,in   
'#gg he was sentenced  to three months' 
imprisonment for calling ,jesus enfant  
adulterin  in ,le ,radical4 ,in ,feb4   
'#ha he was elected president of the    
municipal  council1 and in '#hc deputy  
to the ,french parliament4    ,laffitte 
7,pierre71 ,french ,positivist          
philosopher1 b4 #ba ,feb4 #ahbc  at     
,beguey 7,gironde71 became a disciple of
 ,comte and one of his  executors4 ,he  
was professor of mathematics1 but since 
the death of  his master has given a    
weekly course of instruction in the     
former  apartment of ,comte4 ,m4        
,laffitte has published discourses on   
,the  ,general ,history of ,humanity1   
'#ei1 and ,the ,great ,types of         

,humanity1  '#ge-f4 ,in '#gh he founded 
,la ,revue ,occidentale4    ,lagrange   
7,joseph ,louis71 ,count1 eminent       
mathematician1 b4 ,turin1 #be  ,jan4    
#agcf4 ,he published in #aghh his       
,analytical ,mechanics1 which is        
considered one of the masterpieces of   
the human intellect4 ,he became  a      
friend of ,d',alembert1 ,diderot1       
,condorcet1 and ,delambre4 ,he said he  
believed it impossible to prove there   
was a ,god4 ,died #aj ,april #ahac4     
,la ,hontan 7,jean71 early ,french      
traveller in ,canada1 b4 #afff4 ,in  his
 account of ,dialogues with an ,american
 ,savage1 #agjd1 which was  translated  
into ,english1 he states objections to  
religion4 ,died in  ,hanover1 #agae4    
,lainez 7,alexandre71 ,french poet1 b4  
,chimay1 ,hainault1 #afej1 of the same  
family with the general of the ,jesuits4
 ,he lived a wandering ,bohemian  life  
and went to ,holland to see ,bayle4     
,died at ,paris #ah ,april1 #agaj4      
,laing 7,samuel71 politician and writer1

 b4 ,edinburgh #ahab1 the son of  ,s4   
,laing of ,orkney4 ,educated at         
,cambridge1 where he took his degree    
'#cb2 called to the bar '#db2 became    
secretary of the railway department  of 
the ,board of ,trade2 returned as       
,liberal ,m4,p4 for ,kirkwall '#eb2     
helped repeal duty on advertisements in 
newspapers4 ,in '#fj he became  finance 
minister for ,india4 ,his ,modern       
,science and ,modern ,thought1  '#he1 is
 a plain exposition of the              
incompatibility of the old and  new view
 of the universe4 ,in the ,modern       
,zoroastrian1 '#hg1 he gives  the       
philosophy of polarity1 in which1       
however1 he was anticipated by  ,mr4    
,crozier1 who in turn was anticipated by
 ,emerson4 ,in '#hh he entered  into a  
friendly correspondence with ,mr4       
,gladstone on the subject of            
,agnosticism his portion of which has   
been published4    ,lakanal 7,joseph71  
,french educator1 b4 ,serres1 #ad ,july1
 #agfb4 ,studied  for priesthood1 but   

gave up that career4 ,he entered with   
ardor into the  ,revolution1 was a      
member of the ,convention #agib-e1 and  
there protected  the interests of       
science4 ,at the restoration in #ahad he
 retired to  ,america1 and was welcomed 
by ,jefferson and became president of   
the  ,university of ,louisiana4 ,he     
returned to ,france after the           
,revolution of  '#cj1 and died in ,paris
 #ad ,feb4 #ahde4    ,lalande 7,joseph  
,jrome le ,francais de71 distinguished  
,french  astronomer1 b4 ,bourg en       
,bresse1 #aa ,july #agcb4 ,educated by  
the ,jesuits1  he was made a member of  
the ,academy of ,sciences in his #bjth  
year4 ,in  #agfb he became ,professor of
 ,astronomy at the ,college of ,france4 
,in  #agfd he published his ,treatise of
 ,astronomy1 to which ,dupuis subjoined 
a memoir1 which formed the basis of his 
,origin of all ,religions1 the  idea of 
which he had taken from ,lalande4 ,in   
,aug #agic ,lalande hazarded  his own   
life to save ,dupont de ,nemours1 and   

some priests whom he  concealed in the  
observatory of ,mazarin college4 ,it was
 upon ,lalande's  observations that the 
,republican calender was drawn up4 ,at  
,lalande's  instigation ,sylvain        
,marchal published his ,dictionary of   
,atheists1  to which the astronomer     
contributed supplements after ,marchal's
  death4 ,lalande professed himself     
prouder of being an ,atheist than  of   
being an astronomer4 ,his ,bibliographie
 ,astronomique is called by  ,prof4 de  
,morgan a perfect model of scientific   
bibliography4 ,it was  said that never  
did a young man address himself to      
,lalande without  receiving proof of his
 generosity4 ,he died at ,paris #d      
,april1 #ahjg4    ,lamarck 7,jean       
,baptiste ,pierre ,antoine de ,monet7   
,french naturalist1  b4 ,picardy #a     
,aug4 #agdd1 educated for the ,church1  
but entered the army  in #agfa1 and     
fought with distinction4 ,having been   
disabled1 he went  to ,paris1 studied   
,botany1 and published ,french ,flora in

 #aghh1 which  opened to him the        
,academy of ,sciences4 ,he became       
assistant at the  ,museum of ,natural   
,history1 and in #ahji propounded1 in   
his ,zoological  ,philosophy1 a theory  
of transmutation of species4 ,his       
,natural ,history  of ,invertebrate     
,animals 7#ahae-bb7 was justly          
celebrated4 ,he became  blind several   
years before his death1 #ah ,dec4 #ahbi4
    ,lamborelle 7,louis74 ,belgian      
author of books on ,the ,good ,old      
,times1  ,brussels1 #ahgd2 ,the         
,apostles and ,martyrs of ,liberty of   
,conscience1  ,antwerp1 #ahhb1 and other
 anti-clerical works4 ,lamborelle lost a
 post  under government through his     
anticlerical views1 and is one of the   
council of the ,belgian ,freethought    
party4    ,lamettrie 7,julian ,offray   
de74 ,french physician and philosopher1 
b4 ,st4 ,malo1 #be ,dec4 #agji4         
,destined for the ,church1 he was       
educated  under the ,jesuits at ,caen4  
,he1 however1 became a physician1       

studying  under ,boerhaave1 at ,leyden4 
,returning to ,france1 he became surgeon
  to the ,french ,guard1 and served at  
the battles of ,fontenoy and            
,dettingen4 ,falling ill1 he noticed    
that his faculties fluctuated with  his 
physical state1 and drew therefrom      
materialistic conclusions4 ,the         
boldness with which he made his ideas   
known lost him his place1 and he  took  
refuge in ,holland4 ,here he published  
,the ,natural ,history of the  ,soul1   
under the pretence of its being a       
translation from the ,english  of ,charp
 ,sharp1 #agde4 ,this was followed by   
,man a ,machine 7#agdh71  a work which  
was publicly burnt at ,leyden1 and      
orders given for the  author's arrest4  
,it was translated into ,english1 and   
reached a second  edition 7,london1     
#agej74 ,it was often attributed to     
,d',argens4 ,lamettrie  held that the   
senses are the only avenues to          
knowledge1 and that it  is absurd to    
assume a god to explain motion4 ,only   

under ,atheism will  religious strife   
cease4 ,lamettrie found an asylum with  
,frederick the  ,great1 to whom he      
became physician and reader 7,feb4      
#agdh74 ,here he  published             
,philosophical ,reflections on the      
,origin of ,animals 7#agej71  translated
 ,seneca on ,happiness1 etc4 ,he died   
#aa ,nov4 #agea1 and desired  by his    
will to be buried in the garden of ,lord
 ,tyrconnel4 ,the great  king thought so
 well of him that he composed his       
funeral eulogy4    ,la ,mothe ,le ,vayer
 7,franois de74 ,french sceptical       
philosopher1  b4 ,paris1 #aehh1 was     
patronised by ,louis ,,xiv41 and was    
preceptor to  the ,duke of ,anjou4      
,published ,the ,virtue of ,pagans and  
,dialogues  after the ,manner of the    
,ancients1 in which he gave scope to his
  scepticism4 ,two editions of his      
collected works appeared1 but neither   
of these contains ,the ,dialogues of    
,orasius ,tubero 7,frankfort #afjf1     
probably a false date74 ,died #afgb4    

,lancelin 7,pierre ,f471 ,french        
materialist1 b4 about #aggj4 ,became a  
constructive engineer in the ,french    
navy1 wrote an able ,introduction  to   
the ,analysis of ,science1 #c vols4     
#ahja-c1 and a physico-mathematical     
theory of the organisation of worlds1   
#ahje4 ,died ,paris1 #ahji4    ,land    
7,jan ,pieter ,nicolaus71 ,dutch writer1
 b4 ,delft1 #bc ,april1 #ahcd4 ,has     
written critical studies on ,spinoza1   
and brought out an edition of  the      
philosopher's works in conjunction with 
,j4 van ,vloten4    ,landesmann         
7,heinrich74 ,see ,lorm4    ,landor     
7,walter ,savage71 ,english poet1 b4    
,ipsley ,court1 ,warwickshire1  #cj     
,jan4 #agge4 ,he was educated at ,rugby 
and ,oxford1 and1 inheriting  a fortune1
 could indulge his tastes as an author4 
,he published a  volume of poems in     
#agie1 and ,gebir in #agih4 ,an ardent  
,republican1 he  served as a volunteer  
colonel in the ,spanish ,army against   
,napoleon  from #ahjh to #ahad1 besides 

devoting a considerable sum of money to 
the ,spanish cause4 ,he became a        
resident of ,florence about #ahaf4 ,his 
reputation chiefly rests on his great   
,imaginary ,conversations1 in  which    
many bold ideas are presented in        
beautiful language4 ,landor  was        
unquestionably the greatest ,english    
writer of his age4 ,while  nominally a  
,christian1 he has scattered many       
,freethought sentiments  over his       
various works4 ,died at ,florence1 #ag  
,sept4 #ahfd4    ,lanessan 7,jean ,louis
 de71 ,french naturalist1 b4 at ,saint  
,andr de  ,cubzac 7,gironde71 #ac ,july1
 #ahdc4 ,at #ai he became a naval       
physician1 and  ,m4,d4 in '#fh4 ,he was 
elected in '#gi as ,radical member of   
the ,municipal  ,council of ,paris1 and 
re-elected in '#ha4 ,in ,august of the  
same year  he was elected ,deputy for   
the ,department of the ,seine4 ,he      
founded  ,le ,reveil1 edited the        
,marseillaise1 and started the          
,international  ,biological ,library1 to

 which he contributed a study on the    
doctrine  of ,darwin4 ,he has written a 
standard work on botany1 and has written
  vol4 iii4 of the ,materialists'       
,library1 on the ,evolution of ,matter4 
,lanfrey 7,pierre71 ,french author and  
senator1 b4 ,chambry1 #bf ,oct4 #ahbh1  
became known by a book on ,the ,church  
and the ,philosophers of the            
,eighteenth ,century1 '#ee1 and         
celebrated by his ,history of ,napoleon 
,i4 '#fg-ge4 ,m4 ,lanfrey also wrote    
,the ,political ,history of the ,popes1 
a work placed on the ,index4 ,died at   
,pau1 #ae ,nov4 #ahgg4    ,lang         
7,andrew71 man of letters1 b4 ,selkirk1 
#ca ,march1 #ahdd4 ,educated  at ,st4   
,andrews and ,oxford4 ,mr4 ,lang made   
his name by his translation  of the     
,odyssey with ,mr4 ,butcher1 and by his 
graceful poems and  ballads4 ,he has    
written ,in the ,wrong ,paradise1 and   
many other  pleasant sketches4 ,more    
serious work is shown in ,custom and    
,myth1  '#hd1 and ,myth1 ,ritual and    

,religion1 '#hg4 ,a disciple of ,e4 ,b4 
,tylor1  ,mr4 ,lang successfully upholds
 the evolutionary view of mythology4    
,lang 7,heinrich71 ,german ,rationalist1
 b4 #ad ,nov4 #ahbf4 ,studied theology  
under ,baur at ,tbingen1 and became     
teacher at ,zrich1 where he died1  #ac  
,jan4 #ahgf4    ,lange 7,friedrich      
,albert71 ,german philosopher and       
writer1 b4 ,wald1  near ,solix1 #bh     
,sept4 #ahbh4 ,he studied at ,bonn1 and 
became teacher in  the gymnasium of     
,cologne1 '#eb4 ,in '#ec he returned to 
,bonn as teacher  of philosophy1 and    
there enjoyed the friendship of         
,ueberweg4 ,he became  proprietor and   
editor of the democratic ,landbote1 and 
filled various  municipal offices4 ,in  
'#gj he was called to the chair of      
philosophy at  ,zrich1 but resigned in  
'#gb and accepted a similar post at     
,marburg1  where he died #ba ,nov4      
#ahge4 ,his fame rests on his important 
,history  of ,materialism1 which has    
been translated into ,english4          

,langsdorf 7,karl ,christian71 ,german  
,deist1 b4 #ah ,may1 #ageg1 author  of  
,god and ,nature1 a work on the         
immortality of the soul1 and some       
mathematical books4 ,died ,heidelberg1  
#aj ,june1 #ahcd4    ,lankester 7,edwin 
,ray71 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,ll4,d41 ,english    
scientist1 b4 ,london1 #ae  ,may1 #ahdg1
 and educated at ,st4 ,paul's ,school   
and ,oxford4 ,has published  many       
scientific memoirs1 revised the         
translation of ,haeckel's ,history  of  
,creation1 and has done much to forward 
evolutionary ideas4 ,in #ahgf  he       
exposed the spiritist medium ,slade1 and
 procured his conviction4 ,he  is       
,professor of ,zoology and ,natural     
,history in the ,university of  ,london4
    ,la ,place 7,pierre ,simon74 ,one of
 the greatest astronomers1  b4          
,beaumont-en-,auge1 #bc ,march1 #agdi4  
,his father was a poor  peasant4        
,through the influence of ,d',alembert1 
,la ,place became professor  of         
mathematics in the military school1     

#agfh4 ,by his extraordinary  abilities 
he became in #aghe member of the        
,academy of ,science1 which  he enriched
 with many memoirs4 ,in #agif he        
published his ,exposition  of the       
,system of the ,universe1 a             
popularisation of his greater work  on  
,celestial ,mechanics1 #agii-ahbe4      
,among his sayings were1 ,what we  know 
is but little1 what we know not is      
immense4 ,there is no need  for the     
hypothesis of a ,god4 ,died ,paris1 #e  
,march1 #ahbg4    ,larevelliere-,lepaux 
7,louis ,marie ,,de71 ,french           
politician1 b4 ,montaigu  #be ,aug4     
#agec4 ,attached from youth to the ideas
 of ,rousseau1 he was  elected with     
,volney to represent ,angers in the     
national assembly4 ,he  was a moderate  
,republican1 defended the proscribed    
,girondins1 was  doomed himself but     
escaped by concealment1 and             
distinguished himself  by seeking to    
replace ,catholicism with               
theophilanthropy or natural  religion4  

,he wrote ,reflections on ,worship and  
the ,national ,ftes4 ,he  became        
,president of the ,directory1 and after 
the #ah ,brumaire retired1  refusing to 
swear fealty to the empire though       
offered a pension by  ,napoleon4 ,died  
,paris1 #bg ,march1 #ahbd4    ,larousse 
7,pierre ,athanase71 ,french            
lexicographer1 b4 of poor parents1  #bc 
,oct4 #ahag1 at ,toucy1 ,yonne1 where he
 became teacher4 ,he edited  many school
 books and founded the ,grand           
,dictionnaire ,universel du  ,x,i,xe4   
,siecle1 #ahfd-gg4 ,this is a collection
 of dictionaries1 and may  be called the
 ,encyclopedie of this century4 ,most of
 ,m4 ,larousse's  colleagues were also  
,freethinkers4 ,died at ,paris1 #c ,jan4
 #ahge4    ,larra 7,mariano ,jos de71   
distinguished ,spanish author1 b4       
,madrid1  #d ,march1 #ahji4 ,he went    
with his family to ,france and completed
 his  education4 ,he returned to ,spain 
in '#bb4 ,at eighteen he published  a   
collection of poems1 which was followed 

by ,el ,duende ,satirico  7,the         
,satirical ,goblin74 ,in '#ca appeared  
his ,pobrecito ,hablador 7,poor         
,gossip71 a paper in which he           
unmercifully satirised the public       
affairs  and men of ,spain4 ,it was     
suppressed after its fourteenth number4 
,he  edited in the following year the   
,revista ,espaola1 signing his articles 
,figaro4 ,he travelled through ,europe1 
and on his return to ,madrid  edited ,el
 ,mundo4 ,larra wrote also some dramas  
and translated ,lamennais'  ,paroles    
d'un ,croyant4 ,being disappointed in   
love he shot himself1  #ac ,april1      
#ahcg4 ,ch4 de ,mazade1 after speaking  
of ,larra's scepticism1  adds1 ,larra   
could see too deep to possess any faith 
whatever4 ,all  the truths of this      
world1 he was wont to say1 can be       
wrapped in a  cigarette paper6          
,larroque 7,patrice71 ,french           
philosopher1 b4 ,beaume1 #bg ,march1    
#ahja4 ,he  became a teacher and was    
inspector of the academy of ,toulouse1  

#ahcj-cf1  and rector of the academies  
of ,cahors1 ,limoges1 and ,lyons1       
#ahcf-di4 ,in  the latter year he was   
denounced for his opposition to clerical
 ideas  and lost his place4 ,among his  
numerous works we mention ,de           
l',esclavage  chez les ,nations         
,chrtiennes1 '#eg1 in which he proves   
that ,christianity  did not abolish     
slavery4 ,this was followed by an       
,critical ,examination  of the          
,christian ,religion1 '#ei1 and a work  
on ,religious ,renovation1  '#ei1 which 
proposes a moral system founded upon    
pure deism4 ,both were  for a while     
prohibited in ,france4 ,m4 ,larroque    
also wrote on ,religion  and ,politics1 
'#gh4 ,died at ,paris1 #ae ,june1 #ahgi4
    ,lassalle 7,ferdinand ,johann       
,gottlieb71 founder of ,german ,social  
,democratic party1 b4 of ,jewish        
parents1 #aa ,april1 #ahbe1 in ,breslau1
  studied philosophy and law at ,breslau
 and ,berlin4 ,he became a  follower of 
,hegel and ,feuerbach4 ,heine1 at       

,paris1 '#df1 was charmed  with him4    
,humboldt called him ,wunderkind4 ,in   
#aheh he published  a profound work on  
the philosophy of ,heraclitus4 ,for     
planning an  insurrection against the   
,prussian ,government he was arrested1  
but  won his acquittal4 ,died through a 
duel1 #ca ,aug4 #ahfd4    ,lastarria    
7,jos ,victorino71 ,chilian statesman   
and ,positivist1  b4 ,rancagua1 #ahab4  
,from youth he applied himself to       
teaching  and journalism1 and in '#ch   
was appointed teacher of civil law and  
literature in the ,national ,institute4 
,he has founded several journals  and   
literary societies4 ,from '#dc he has   
been at different times deputy  to the  
legislature and secretary to the        
republic of ,chili4 ,he has  also served
 as minister to ,peru and ,brazil4 ,in  
'#gc he founded the  ,santiago ,academy 
of ,science and ,literature2 has written
 many works1  and his ,lecciones de     
,politicia ,positiva has been translated
 into  ,french by ,e4 de ,rivire and    

others1 #ahgi4    ,lau 7,theodor        
,ludwig71 ,german philosopher1 b4 at    
,knigsberg1 #ae ,june  #afgj1 studied at
 ,knigsberg and ,halle1 and about #afie 
travelled  through ,holland1 ,england1  
and ,france4 ,in #agag he published in  
,latin1  at ,frankfort1 ,philosophical  
,meditations on ,god1 the ,world1 and   
,man1  which excited an outcry for its  
materialistic tendency and was          
suppressed4 ,he was a follower of       
,spinoza1 and held several official     
positions from which he was deposed on  
account of his presumed  atheism4 ,died 
at ,altona1 #h ,feb4 #agdj4    ,laurent 
7,franois71 ,belgian jurisconsult1 b4   
,luxembourg1 #h ,july1  #ahaj4 ,studied 
law and became an advocate4 ,in '#ce he 
was made  ,professor of ,civil ,law in  
the ,university of ,ghent1 a post he    
held1  despite clerical protests1 till  
his retirement in '#hj4 ,a voluminous   
author on civil and international law1  
his principal work is entitled  ,studies
 in the ,history of ,humanity4 ,he was a

 strong advocate of the  separation of  
,church and ,state1 upon which he wrote1
 #aheh-fj4 ,he also  wrote ,letters on  
the ,jesuits1 '#fe4 ,died in #ahhg4     
,law 7,harriet71 ,english lecturess1 who
 for many years occupied the  secular   
platform1 and engaged in numerous       
debates4 ,she edited the  ,secular      
,chronicle1 #ahgf-ahgi4    ,lawrence    
7,james71 ,knight of ,malta1 b4         
,fairfield1 ,jamaica1 #aggc1 of good    
,lancashire family4 ,educated at ,eton  
and ,gottingen2 became acquainted  with 
,schiller and ,goethe at ,stuttgart and 
,weimar1 was detained with  ,english    
prisoners at ,verdun4 ,in #ahjg he      
published his ,the ,empire of  the      
,nairs1 or the ,rights of ,women1 a     
free-love romance which he wrote  in    
,german1 ,french1 and ,english4 ,he also
 wrote in ,french and ,english1  a      
curious booklet ,the ,children of ,god1 
,london1 #ahec4 ,he addressed a  poem on
 ,tolerance to ,mr4 ,owen1 on the       
occasion of his denouncing the          

religions of the world4 ,it appears in  
,the ,etonian ,out of ,bounds4 ,died  at
 ,london #bf ,sept4 #ahda4    ,lawrence 
7,sir ,william71 surgeon1 b4            
,cirencester1 #aghc4 ,admitted          
,m4,r4,c4,s41 #ahje1 in '#ac he was     
chosen1 ,f4,r4,s41 and two years later  
was named ,professor of ,anatomy and    
,surgery at the ,royal ,college of      
,surgeons4 ,while he held that chair he 
delivered his ,lectures on ,man1  which 
on their publication in #ahai roused a  
storm of bigotry4 ,in his  early        
manhood1 ,lawrence was an earnest       
advocate of radical reform2  but        
notwithstanding his early unpopularity1 
he acquired a lucrative  practice4 ,died
 ,london1 #e ,july1 #ahfg4    ,layton   
7,henry71 educated at ,oxford1 and      
studied at ,gray's ,inn1 being  called  
to the bar4 ,he wrote anonymously       
observations on ,dr4 ,bentley's         
,confutation of ,atheism 7#afic71 and a 
,search ,after ,souls1 and ,spiritual   
,observations in ,man 7#agjj74          

,leblais 7,alphonse71 ,french professor 
of mathematics1 b4 ,mans1  #ahbj4       
,author of a study in ,positivist       
philosophy entitled ,materialism  and   
,spiritualism 7#ahfe71 to which ,littr  
contributed a preface4    ,le ,bovier de
 ,fontenelle4 ,see ,fontenelle4         
,lecky 7,william ,edward ,hartpole71    
historian1 b4 near ,dublin1 #bf ,march1 
#ahch4 ,educated at ,trinity ,college1  
,dublin4 ,his works1 which are          
characterised by great boldness and     
originality of thought1 are  ,a ,history
 of the ,rise and ,spirit of            
,rationalism in ,europe 7'#fe71  ,a     
,history of ,european ,morals from      
,augustus to ,charlemagne 7'#fi71  and  
,a ,history of ,england in the          
,eighteenth ,century 7#ahgh-hg74        
,leclerc 7,georges ,louis74 ,see        
,buffon4    ,leclerc de ,septchenes     
7,n471 b4 at ,paris4 ,became secretary  
to ,louis  ,,xvi41 translated the first 
three vols4 of ,gibbon1 and wrote an    
essay  on the religion of the ancient   

,greeks 7#aghg74 ,a friend of ,lalande1 
he prepared an edition of ,freret1      
published after his death4 ,died at     
,plombieres1 #i ,june1 #aghh4           
,leconte de ,lisle 7,charles ,marie     
,ren71 ,french poet1 b4 ,isle of        
,bourbon1  #bc ,oct4 #ahah4 ,after      
travelling in ,india1 returned to       
,paris1 and took  part in the revolution
 of '#dh1 but has since devoted himself 
mainly  to poetry1 though he has written
 also ,a ,republican ,catechism and ,a  
,popular ,history of ,christianity      
7'#ga74 ,one of his finest poems is     
,kain4 ,on being elevated to the seat of
 ,victor ,hugo at the ,academy in  '#hg1
 he gave umbrage to ,jews and ,catholics
 by incidentally speaking  of ,moses as 
the chief of a horde of ferocious       
nomads4    ,lecount 7,peter71 lieutenant
 in the ,french navy4 ,he was engaged in
  the battle of ,navarino4 ,came to     
,england as a mathematician in the      
construction of the ,london and         
,birmingham ,railway1 of which he wrote 

a history 7#ahci74 ,he wrote a curious  
book in three volumes entitled ,a  ,few 
,hundred ,bible ,contradictions2 ,a     
,hunt ,after the ,devil and other ,old  
,matters1 by ,john ,p4 ,y41 ,m4,d42     
published by ,h4 ,hetherington 7'#dc74  
,the  author's name occurs on p4 #add1  
vol i41 as the ,rev4 ,peter ,lecount4   
,leenhof 7,frederick van71 b4           
,middelburg 7,zealand71 ,aug4 #afdg4    
,became  a minister of ,zwolle1 where he
 published a work entitled ,heaven on   
,earth 7#agjc71 which subjected him to  
accusations of ,atheism4 ,it was        
translated into ,german in #agjf4       
,lefevre 7,andr71 ,french writer1 b4    
,provins1 #i ,nov4 #ahcd4 ,he became1   
at the age of twenty-three1 one of the  
editors of the ,magasin  ,pittoresque4  
,he wrote much in ,la ,libre ,pense and 
,la ,pense ,nouvelle2  has translated   
,lucretius in verse 7'#gf71 and written 
,religions and  ,mythologies ,compared  
7'#gg72 contributed a sketchy ,history  
of ,philosophy  to the ,library of      

,contemporary ,science 7'#gh72 has      
written ,man ,across  the ,ages 7'#hj7  
and the ,renaissance of ,materialism    
7'#ha74 ,he has also  edited the        
,lettres ,persanes of ,montesquieu1 some
 ,dialogues of ,voltaire1  and          
,diderot's ,la ,religieuse 7'#hf74      
,lefort 7,csar71 disciple of ,comte4    
,has published a work on the method  of 
modern science 7,paris1 #ahfd74         
,lefrancais de ,lalande4 ,see ,lalande4 
,legate 7,bartholomew71 ,antitrinitarian
 native of ,essex1 b4 about #aegb1  was 
thrown into prison on a charge of       
heresy1 #afaa4 ,king ,james had  many   
personal interviews with him4 ,on one   
occasion the king asked him  if he did  
not pray to ,jesus ,christ4 ,he replied 
that he had done so in  the days of his 
ignorance1 but not for the last seven   
years4 ,away1  base fellow6 said ,his   
,majesty1 ,it shall never be said that  
one  stayeth in my presence who hath    
never prayed to the ,savior for seven   
years together4 ,he was burnt at        

,smithfield by the ,king's writ1 ,de    
,hretico ,comburendo1 #ah ,march1 #afab1
 being one of the last persons  so      
punished in ,england4    ,leguay de     
,premontval4 ,see ,premontval4    ,le   
,hon 7,henri7 ,belgian scientist1 b4    
,ville-,pommeroeul 7,hainault7 #ahji1   
was captain in the ,belgian army1       
professor at the military school of     
,brussels1 and ,chevalier of the ,order 
of ,leopold4 ,author of ,l',homme       
,fossile en ,europe1 '#ff4 ,translated  
,professor ,omboni's exposition of      
,darwinism4 ,died at ,san ,remo1 #ahgb4 
,leidy 7,joseph71 ,m4,d41 ,american     
naturalist1 b4 ,philadelphia1 #i  ,sept4
 #ahbc4 ,he became professor of biology 
at the ,university of  ,philadelphia1   
and is eminent for his contributions to 
,american  palontology4    ,leigh       
7,henry ,stone71 ,english author of a   
,deistic work on the ,religions  of the 
,world1 #ahfi4    ,leland 7,theron ,c471
 ,american journalist1 b4 #i ,april1    
#ahba4 ,he edited  with ,wakeman the    

journal ,man4 ,died #b ,june1 #ahhe4    
,lemaire 7,charles71 member of the      
,academical ,society of ,saint ,quentin1
  author of an atheistic philosophical  
work1 in two vols41 entitled            
,initiation to the ,philosophy of       
,liberty1 ,paris1 #ahdb4    ,lemonnier  
7,camille71 ,belgian writer1 b4 ,ixel   
les ,bruxelles1 #ahde1  author of       
stories and works on ,hysteria1 ,death1 
etc41 in which he  evinces his          
freethought sentiments4    ,lenau       
7,nicolaus71 i4e4 ,nicolaus ,franz      
,niembsch von ,strehlenau1  ,hungarian  
poet1 b4 ,czatad1 #ae ,aug4 #ahjb4 ,his 
poems1 written in ,german1  are         
pessimistic1 and his constitutional     
melancholy deepened into  insanity4     
,died ,ober-,dbling1 near ,vienna1 #bb  
,aug4 #ahej4    ,lennstrand 7,viktor    
,e471 ,swedish writer and orator1 b4    
,gefle1  #cj ,jan4 #ahfa4 ,educated at  
,upsala ,university4 ,founded the       
,swedish  ,utilitarian ,society1 ,march 
'#hh1 and in ,may was sentenced to a    

fine of  #bej crowns for denial of the  
,christian religion4 ,on the #bith ,nov4
 he  was imprisoned for three months for
 the same offence4 ,has written  several
 pamphlets and has incurred several     
fresh prosecutions4 ,in  company with   
,a4 ,lindkvist he has founded the       
,fritankaren as the organ  of ,swedish  
freethought4    ,leontium1 ,athenian    
,hetra1 disciple and mistress of        
,epicurus 7q4v47 ,she  acquired         
distinction as a philosopher1 and wrote 
a treatise against  ,theophrastus1 which
 is praised by ,cicero as written in a  
skilful and  elegant manner4            
,leopardi 7,giacomo71 count1 ,italian   
pessimist poet1 b4 ,recanati  7,ancona71
 #bi ,june1 #agih4 ,in #ahah he won a   
high place among poets by  his lines    
addressed ,to ,italy4 ,his ,canti1 '#ca1
 are distinguished by  eloquence and    
pathos1 while his prose essays1         
,operette ,morali1 '#bg1 are  esteemed  
the finest models of ,italian prose of  
this century4 ,leopardi's  short life   

was one long disease1 but it was full of
 work of the  highest character4 ,as a  
poet1 philologist1 and philosopher1 he  
is  among the greatest of modern        
,italians4 ,died at ,naples1 #ad ,july1 
#ahcg4    ,lequinio 7,joseph ,marie71   
,french writer and ,conventionnel1 b4   
,sarzeau1  #agdj4 ,elected ,mayor of    
,rennes1 #agij1 and ,deputy from        
,morbihar to  the ,legislative          
,assembly4 ,he then professed ,atheism4 
,he voted the  death of ,louis ,,xvi4   
regretting that the safety of the state 
did not  permit his being condemned to  
penal servitude for life4 ,in #agib he  
published ,prejudices ,destroyed1 signed
 ,citizen of the ,world1 in  which he   
considered religion as a political      
chain4 ,he took part in the  ,feasts of 
,reason1 and wrote ,philosophy of the   
,people1 #agif4 ,died #ahac4    ,lermina
 7,jules ,hippolyte71 ,french writer1 b4
 #bg ,march1 #ahci4 ,founded  the       
,corsair and ,satan1 and has published  
an illustrated biographical  dictionary 

of contemporary ,france1 #ahhd-e4       
,lermontov 7,mikhail ,yur'evich71       
,russian poet and novelist1 b4 ,moscow1 
#c ,oct4 #ahad4 ,said to have come of a 
,scotch family1 he studied at ,moscow   
,university1 from which he was expelled4
 ,in '#cb he entered the ,military      
,academy at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and       
afterwards joined the ,hussars4 ,in     
'#cg some verses on the death of        
,pushkin occasioned his being sent to   
the ,caucasus1 which he describes in a  
work translated into ,english1  '#ec4   
,his poems are much admired4 ,the       
,demon1 exhibiting ,satan in love1  has 
been translated into ,english1 and so   
has his romance entitled ,a  ,hero of   
,our ,times4 ,he fell in a duel in the  
,caucasus1 #ae ,july1 #ahdj4    ,leroux 
7,pierre71 ,french ,socialist and       
philosophic writer1 b4 ,bercy1  near    
,paris1 #f ,april1 #agig4 ,at first a   
mason1 then a typographer1 he  invented 
an early composing machine which he     
called the pianotype4 ,in  #ahbd he     

became editor of the ,globe4 ,becoming a
 ,saint ,simonian1  he made this paper  
the organ of the sect4 ,he started with 
,reynaud  ,l',encyclopdie ,nouvelle1 and
 afterwards with ,l4 ,viardot and ,mme4 
,george  ,sand the ,revue ,indpendante  
7'#da71 which became noted for its      
pungent  attacks on ,catholicism4 ,his  
principal work is ,de l',humanite       
7'#dj74 ,in  ,june '#dh ,m4 ,leroux was 
elected to the ,assembly4 ,after the    
coup d'tat  he returned to ,london and  
,jersey4 ,died at ,paris1 #ab ,april1   
#ahga4    ,leroy 7,charles ,georges71   
lieutenant ranger of the park of        
,versailles1  b4 #agbc1 one of the      
writers on the ,encyclopdie4 ,he        
defended the work  of ,helvetius on the 
,mind against ,voltaire1 and wrote      
,philosophical  ,letters on the         
,intelligence and ,perfectibility of    
,animals 7#agfh71  a work translated    
into ,english in #ahgj4 ,died at ,paris 
#aghi4    ,lespinasse 7,adolf ,frederik 
,henri de74 ,dutch writer1 b4 ,delft1   

#ad ,may1  #ahai4 ,studied medicine1 and
 established himself first at ,deventer 
and  afterwards at ,zwartsluis1         
,vaassen1 and ,hasselt4 ,in the         
,dageraad he  wrote many interesting    
studies under the pen-name of ,titus1   
and  translated the work of ,dupuis into
 ,dutch4 ,in #ahgj he emigrated to      
,america and became director of a large 
farm in ,iowa4 ,died in ,orange  ,city  
7,iowa7 #ahha4    ,l',espinasse 7,julie 
,jeanne ,elonore de74 ,french beauty and
 wit1  b4 ,lyons1 #i ,nov4 #agcb4 ,she  
became the protg of ,madame du ,deffand1
 and  gained the favor of ,d',alembert4 
,her letters are models of sensibility  
and spirit4 ,died ,paris1 #bc ,may1     
#aggf4    ,lessing 7,gotthold ,ephraim74
 ,german critic and dramatic poet1 b4   
,kamenz1  #bb ,jan4 #agbi4 ,he studied  
at ,leipsic1 and at ,berlin became      
acquainted  with ,voltaire and          
,mendelssohn4 ,made librarian at        
,wolfenbttel he  published ,fragments of
 an ,unknown 7#aggg71 really the        

,vindication of  ,rational ,worshippers 
of ,god1 by ,reimarus1 in which it was  
contended  that ,christian evidences are
 so clad in superstition as to be       
unworthy  credence4 ,among his writings 
were ,the ,freethinker and ,nathan the  
,wise1 his noblest play1 in which he    
enforces lessons of toleration  and     
charity to all faiths4 ,the effect of   
his writings was decidedly  sceptical4  
,heine calls ,lessing1 after ,luther1   
the greatest ,german  emancipator4 ,died
 at ,brunswick #ae ,feb4 #agha4         
,lessona 7,michele74 ,italian           
naturalist1 b4 #bj ,sept41 #ahbc2 has   
translated some of the works of ,darwin4
    ,leucippus4 ,greek founder of the   
atomic philosophy4    ,l',estrange      
7,thomas71 writer1 b4 #ag ,jan4 #ahbb4  
,with a view to entering  the ,church he
 graduated at ,trinity ,college1        
,dublin1 #bf ,feb4 '#dd1  but became an 
attorney4 ,having read ,f4 ,a4 ,paley's 
,introduction to the  ,iliad1 he became 
convinced that the cooking process there

 described1  has been undergone by all  
sacred books now extant4 ,he wrote for  
,thomas  ,scott's series valuable tracts
 on ,our ,first ,century1 ,primitive    
,church  ,history1 ,irenus1 ,order1 ,the
 ,eucharist4 ,he also edited ,hume's    
,dialogues  on ,natural ,religion1 and  
wrote ,the ,first ,ten ,alleged         
,persecutions4    ,levallois 7,jules71  
,french writer1 b4 ,rouen #ah ,may1     
#ahbi4 ,in '#ee he  became secretary to 
,sainte ,beuve4 ,wrote ,disme et        
,christianisme1 #ahff4    ,lewes        
7,george ,henry71 ,english man of       
letters1 b4 in ,london1 #ah  ,april1    
#ahag1 he became a journalist and       
dramatic critic4 ,in #ahde-f  appeared  
his ,biographical ,history of           
,philosophy1 which showed higher  power4
 ,this has been republished as ,history 
of ,philosophy from ,thales  to ,comte4 
,lewes was one of the first to introduce
 ,english readers to  ,comte in his     
account of ,comte's ,philosophy of the  
,sciences1 '#dg4 ,in  '#di he became one

 of the founders of the ,leader1 for    
which he wrote  till '#ed4 ,in that year
 he began his association with ,george  
,eliot  7q4v474 ,his ,life of ,goethe   
appeared in '#ee1 and from this time he 
began to give his attention to          
scientific1 especially biological1      
studies4 ,in '#fd he published an       
important essay on ,aristotle4 ,on  the 
foundation of the ,fortnightly ,review1 
'#fe1 ,lewes was appointed  editor4 ,his
 last work1 ,problems of ,life and      
,mind1 #e vols4 '#gd-gi1  was never     
completed owing to his death1 #bh ,nov4 
#ahgh4 ,he bequeathed  his books to ,dr4
 ,williams's library4    ,lichtenberg   
7,georg ,christoph71 ,german satirical  
writer and scientist1  b4               
,ober-,ramstdt1 #a ,july1 #agdb2 a      
friend of ,g4 ,forster1 he left many    
thoughts showing his advanced opinions4 
,died ,gttingen1 #bd ,feb4 #agii4       
,lick 7,james71 ,american               
philanthropist1 b4 ,fredericksburg1     
,pa41 #be  ,aug4 #agif4 ,in #ahdg he    

settled in ,california and made a large 
fortune  by investing in real estate4   
,he was a ,materialist and bequeathed   
large sums to the ,lick ,observatory1   
,mount ,hamilton1 and for other         
philanthropic purposes4 ,died ,san      
,francisco1 #a ,oct4 #ahgf4    ,lilja   
7,nicolai71 ,swedish writer1 b4         
,rostanga1 #ah ,oct4 #ahjh4 ,studied  at
 ,lund and became parish clerk in the   
,lund diocese4 ,he wrote1 on ,man2  his 
,life and ,destiny4 ,died ,lund #ahgj4  
,lincoln 7,abraham71 sixteenth          
,president of the ,united ,states1  b4  
,kentucky1 #ab ,feb4 #ahji4 ,an         
uncompromising opponent of slavery1  his
 election 7,nov4 '#fj7 led to the civil 
war and the emancipation  of slaves4    
,ward ,h4 ,lamon1 who knew him well1    
says he read ,volney  and ,paine and    
then wrote a deliberate and labored     
essay1 wherein  he reached conclusions  
similar to theirs4 ,the essay was burnt1
 but  he never denied or regretted its  
composition4 ,mrs4 ,lincoln said1  ,mr4 

,lincoln had no hope and no faith in the
 usual acceptance of those  words4      
,assassinated #ad ,april1 #ahfe1 he     
expired the following morning4          
,lindet 7,robert ,thomas71 apostate     
,french bishop1 b4 ,bernay1 #agdc4 ,was 
elected to the ,states-,general by the  
clergy of his district4 ,he  embraced   
,republican principles1 and in ,march1  
#agia1 was made ,bishop  of ,l',eure4   
,in ,nov4 #agib he publicly married4 ,on
 #g ,nov4 #agic1 renounced  his         
bishopric4 ,he proposed that civil      
festivals should take the place  of     
religious ones4 ,he became member of the
 ,conseil des ,anciens4 ,died  ,bernay1 
#aj ,aug4 #ahbc1 and was buried without 
religious service4    ,lindh 7,theodor  
,anders71 b4 ,borgo 7,finland71 #ac     
,jan4 #ahcc4 ,studied  at ,helsingfors  
,university1 '#ea-eg2 became lawyer in  
'#ga1 and is  now a member of the       
,municipal ,council of ,borgo4 ,he has  
written many  poems in ,swedish1 and    
also translated from the ,english poets1

 and has  published ,freethought essays1
 which have brought him into controversy
  with the clergy4    ,lindkvist        
7,alfred71 ,swedish writer1 b4 ,gefle1  
#ba ,oct4 #ahfj1 of  pious parents4 ,at 
the ,university of ,upsala he studied   
,european  literature1 and became       
acquainted with the works of ,mill1     
,darwin1  and ,spencer4 ,he has         
published two volumes of poems1 ,snow   
,drops and  ,april ,days1 and lost a    
stipend at the ,university by           
translating  from the ,danish a         
rationalistic life of ,jesus entitled   
,the ,reformer  from ,galilee4 ,mr4     
,lindkvist has visited ,paris1 and      
collaborated on  a ,stockholm daily     
paper4 ,in '#hh he joined his friend    
,lennstrand in  propagating             
,freethought1 and in ,nov4 received a   
month's imprisonment  for having        
translated one of ,j4 ,symes's          
anti-,christian pamphlets4 ,he  now     
edits ,fritankaren in conjunction with  
,mr4 ,lennstrand4    ,lindner 7,ernst   

,otto ,timotheus71 ,german physician1 b4
 ,breslau1 #bh  ,nov4 #ahbj4 ,a friend  
of ,schopenhauer1 whose philosophy he   
maintained  in several works on music4  
,he edited the ,vossische ,zeitung from 
'#fc4 ,died at ,berlin1 #g ,aug4 #ahfg4 
,liniere 7,franois ,payot de71 ,french  
satiric poet1 b4 ,paris1 #afbh2  known  
as the ,atheist of ,senlis4 ,boileau    
says the only act of piety  he ever did 
was drinking holy water because his     
mistress dipped her  finger in it4      
,wrote many songs and smart epigrams1   
and is said to have  undertaken a       
criticism of the ,new ,testament4 ,died 
at ,paris in #agjd4    ,linton 7,eliza1 
ne ,lynn7 novelist and journalist1      
daughter of vicar  of ,crosthwaite1     
,cumberland1 b4 ,keswick1 #ahbb4 ,has   
contributed largely  to the leading     
,radical journals1 and has written      
numerous works of  fiction1 of which we 
must mention ,under which ,lord8 and    
,the ,rebel of  the ,family4 ,in '#gb   
she published ,the ,true ,history of    

,joshua ,davidson1  ,christian and      
,communist1 and in '#he the             
,autobiography of ,christopher          
,kirkland4 ,she has also written on the 
woman question1 and contributed  largely
 to periodical literature4    ,linton   
7,william ,james71 poet1 engraver1 and  
author1 b4 at ,london1  #ahab4 ,a       
,chartist in early life1 he was         
intimately associated with  the chief   
political refugees4 ,he contributed to  
the democratic press1  and also1 we     
believe1 to the ,oracle of ,reason4 ,he 
wrote the ,reasoner  tract on ,the      
,worth of ,christianity4 ,he was one of 
the founders of  the ,leader1 has edited
 the ,truthseeker1 the ,national and the
 ,english  ,republic1 and has published 
,famine a ,masque1 a ,life of ,paine1   
and a  memoir of ,james ,watson and some
 volumes of poems4 ,in '#fg he went to  
,america1 but has recently returned4    
,liscow 7,christian ,ludwig71 one of the
 greatest ,german satirists1  b4        
,wittenberg1 #bi ,april1 #agja4 ,he     

studied law in ,jena1 and became        
acquainted with ,hagedorn in ,hamburg4  
,in #agde he was ,councillor of ,war  at
 ,dresden4 ,this post he abandoned1     
occupying himself with literature  until
 his death1 #cj ,oct4 #agfj4 ,liscow's  
principal satires are ,the  ,uselessness
 of ,good ,works for our ,salvation and 
,the ,excellence and  ,utility of ,bad  
,writers4 ,he has been called the       
,german ,swift1 and his  works show him 
to have been an outspoken ,freethinker4 
,lisle 7,lionel71 author of ,the ,two   
,tests3 the ,supernatural ,claims of    
,christianity ,tried by ,two of its own 
,rules 7,london1 #ahgg74    ,liszinski  
7,casimir71 ,polish martyr of noble     
birth4 ,denounced as an  ,atheist in    
#afhh by the ,bishop of ,wilna and      
,posnovia1 he was decapitated  and burnt
 at ,grodno #cj ,march1 #afhi4 ,his     
ashes were placed in a cannon  and      
scattered abroad4 ,among the statements 
in ,liszinski's papers was  that man was
 the creator of ,god1 whom he had formed

 out of nothing4    ,littre 7,maximilian
 ,paul ,emile71 ,french philologist and 
philosopher1  b4 ,paris1 #a ,feb4 #ahja4
 ,he studied medicine1 literature and   
most of  the sciences4 ,an advanced     
,republican1 he was one of the editors  
of  the ,national4 ,his edition of the  
works of ,hippocrates 7#ahci-fa7 proved 
the thoroughness of his learning4 ,he   
embraced the doctrines of ,comte1  and  
in '#de published a lucid analysis of   
the ,positive ,philosophy4 ,he          
translated the ,life of ,jesus1 by      
,strauss1 and wrote the ,literary       
,history of ,france4 ,his ,dictionary of
 the ,french ,language1 in which he     
applied the historical method to        
philology1 is one of the most colossal  
works ever performed by one man4 ,he    
wrote on ,comte and ,positive           
,philosophy1 ,comte and ,mill1 etc41 but
 refused to follow ,comte in his  later 
vagaries4 ,from '#fg till his death he  
conducted ,la ,philosophie  ,positive4  
,littr also wrote ,science from the     

,standpoint of ,philosophy1  '#gc2      
,literature and ,history1 '#ge2         
,fragments of ,positive ,philosophy  and
 ,contemporary ,sociology1 '#gf4 ,he was
 proposed for the ,academy in  '#fc1 but
 was bitterly opposed by ,bishop        
,dupanloup1 and was elected in  '#ga4   
,in the same year he was elected to the 
,national ,assembly1 and in  '#ge was   
chosen senator4 ,under the ,empire he   
twice refused the ,legion  of ,honor4   
,after a long life of incessant labor1  
he died at ,paris1  #b ,june #ahha4     
,lloyd 7,john ,william71 ,american poet 
and writer1 b4 of ,welsh-,english  stock
 at ,westfield1 ,new ,jersey1 #d ,june1 
#aheg4 ,is mostly  self-educated4 ,after
 serving apprenticeship as a carpenter1 
became  assistant to ,dr4 ,trall4       
,brought up as an orthodox ,christian he
 became  an ,agnostic and ,anarchist1   
and has written much in ,liberty and    
,lucifer4    ,lohmann 7,hartwic71 a     
native of ,holstein1 who in #afaf       
occupied a  good position in ,flensburg4

 ,he was accused of ,atheism4 ,in #afce 
he  practised medicine at ,copenhagen4  
,he wrote a work called the ,mirror  of 
,faith4 ,died #afdb4    ,lollard        
7,walter71 heretic and martyr1 b4       
,england1 towards end of  thirteenth    
century1 began to preach in ,germany in 
#acae4 ,he rejected  the sacraments and 
ceremonies of the ,church4 ,it is said  
he chose  twelve apostles to propagate  
his doctrines and that he had many      
followers4 ,arrested at ,cologne in     
#acbb1 he was burnt to death1 dying     
with great courage4    ,loman 7,abraham 
,dirk71 ,dutch rationalist1 b4 ,the     
,hague #af ,sep4 #ahbc4 ,he  holds the  
entire ,new ,testament to be            
unhistorical1 and the ,pauline          
,epistles to belong to the second       
century1 and has written many  critical 
works4    ,lombroso 7,cesare74 ,italian 
writer and scientist1 b4 ,nov4 #ahcf1   
has been a soldier and military         
physician4 ,introduced ,darwinism to    
,italy4 ,has written several works1     

mostly in relation to the physiology  of
 criminals4    ,longet 7,franois        
,achille71 ,french physiologist1 b4 ,st4
 ,germain-en-,laye1  #ahaa1 published a 
,treatise on ,physiology in #c vols4 and
 several  medical works4 ,died          
,bordeaux1 #bj ,april1 #ahga4           
,longiano 7,sebastiano74 ,see ,fausto4  
,longue 7,louis ,pierre de71 ,french    
,deist1 writer in the service of  the   
house of ,conti2 wrote ,les ,princesses 
de ,malabares1 ,adrianople1  #agcd1 in  
which he satirised religion4 ,it was    
condemned to be burnt  #ca ,dec4 #agcd1 
and a new edition published in ,holland 
with the imprint  ,tranquebar1 #agce4   
,lorand 7,georges71 ,belgian journalist1
 b4 ,namur1 #ahea1 studied  law at      
,bologna 7,italy7 and soon became an    
active propagator of  ,atheistic        
doctrines among the youth of the        
,university and in workmen              
associations4 ,he edits ,la ,rforme at  
,brussels1 the ablest daily  exponent of
 ,freethought and ,democratic doctrines 

in ,belgium4 ,he has  lately headed an  
association for the suppression of the  
standing army4    ,lorm 7,hieronymus71  
the pen name of ,heinrich ,landesmann4  
,german  pessimistic poet1 b4           
,nikolsberg1 #i ,aug4 #ahba4 ,in        
addition to many  philosophical poems1  
he has written essays entitled ,nature  
and ,spirit1  ,vienna1 '#hd4    ,lozano 
7,fernando71 ,spanish writer in ,las    
,dominicales dal ,libre  ,pensamiento1  
where he uses the signature ,demofilo4  
,he has written  ,battles of            
,freethought1 ,possessed by the ,devil1 
,the ,church and  ,galeote1 etc4        
,lubbock 7,sir ,john71 banker1          
archologist1 scientist and statesman1   
b4 in ,london1 #cj ,april1 #ahcd4       
,educated at ,eton1 he was taken into   
his father's bank at the age of         
fourteen1 and became a partner in  '#ef4
 ,by his archological works he has most 
distinguished himself4 ,he  has written 
,prehistoric ,times as ,illustrated by  
,ancient ,remains1  and the ,manners and

 ,customs of ,modern ,savages 7'#fe71   
and ,the ,origin  of ,civilisation and  
the ,primitive ,condition of ,man       
7'#gj74    ,lucretius ,carus 7,titus74  
,roman philosophical poet1 b4 about     
,b4,c4 #ii4 ,little is known of his     
life1 but his name is immortalised  by  
his atheistic work1 ,de ,rerum ,natura1 
in six books1 which is the  finest      
didactic poem in any language4          
,lucretius has been said to  have       
believed in one god1 ,epicurus1 whose   
system he expounds4 ,full  of animation1
 dignity1 and sublimity1 he invests     
philosophy with the  grace of genius4   
,is said to have died by his own hand   
,b4,c4 #ee4    ,luetzelberger 7,ernst   
,karl ,julius71 ,german controversialist
  b4 ,ditterswind1 #ai ,oct4 #ahjb4 ,he 
was a friend of the ,feuerbachs4 ,he    
wrote on ,the ,church ,tradition of the 
,apostle ,john4 ,he also wrote a  work  
on ,jesus1 translated in ,ewerbeck's    
,qu'est ce que la ,religion4 ,in  '#ef  
he was appointed town librarian at      

,nuremberg4    ,lunn 7,edwin71 ,owenite 
lecturer4 ,published pamphlets ,on      
,prayer1 its  ,folly1 ,inutility1 etc4  
#ahci1 and ,divine ,revelation          
,examined1 #ahda4    ,luys 7,jules      
,bernard71 ,french alienist1 b4 ,paris1 
#ahbh4 ,is physician  at l',hopital de  
la ,charit1 ,paris1 and author of a work
 on ,the ,brain  and its ,functions in  
the ,international ,scientific ,series4 
,lyell 7,sir ,charles71 geologist1 b4   
,kinnordy1 ,forfarshire1 #ad  ,nov4     
#agig4 ,was educated at ,exeter         
,college1 ,oxford1 and devoted himself  
to geology4 ,in #ahcj-cc appeared his   
great work1 ,the ,principles of         
,geology1 which went through numerous   
editions4 ,his last important  work was 
,geological ,evidences of the ,antiquity
 of ,man1 in which he  accepts the      
,darwinian theory4 ,died #bb ,feb4      
#ahge4    ,maccall 7,william71 writer1  
b4 ,largs4 ,scotland1 #ahab4 ,educated  
at  ,glasgow1 he found his way to the   
,unitarian ,church which he left  as    

insufficiently broad4 ,he wrote         
,elements of ,individualism 7'#dg71     
translated ,spinoza's ,treatise on      
,politics 7'#ed71 wrote to the ,critic  
as  ,atticus1 contributed to the        
,national ,reformer1 ,secular ,review1  
etc41  published ,foreign ,biographies  
7'#gc71 and translated ,dr4             
,letourneau's  ,biology and other works4
 ,maccall was an idealistic ,pantheist  
of strong  individual character4 ,died  
at ,bexley1 #ai ,nov4 #ahhh4    ,macchi 
7,mauro71 ,italian writer1 b4 ,milan1 #a
 ,july1 #ahah4 ,became  professor of    
rhetoric at the age of twenty-four1     
when1 becoming  obnoxious to the        
,austrians by the liberty of his        
opinions1 he was  deprived of his       
position4 ,he betook himself to radical 
journalism1  founded l',italia1 a       
,republican journal1 for which he was   
exiled4 ,he  was associated with        
,ausonio ,franchi and ,luigi ,stefanoni 
in the ,libero  ,pensiero and the       
,libero ,pensatore1 and founded an      

,italian ,association  of ,freethinkers4
 ,in '#fa he was elected deputy to      
,parliament for  ,cremona1 and in '#gi  
was elevated to the ,senate4 ,died at   
,rome1 #bd  ,dec4 #ahhj4 ,one of his    
principal works is on the ,council of   
,ten4    ,macdonald 7,eugene ,montague71
 editor of the ,new ,york ,truthseeker1 
b4 ,chelsea1 ,maine1 #d ,feb4 #ahee4 ,he
 learned the printer's trade in  ,new   
,york1 where he became foreman to ,d4   
,m4 ,bennett1 and contributed  to the   
paper1 which he has conducted since ,mr4
 ,bennett's death4    ,macdonald        
7,george71 brother of the preceding4    
,wrote on the ,truthseeker1  and now    
conducts ,freethought1 of ,san          
,francisco1 in company with  ,s4 ,p4    
,putnam4 ,george ,macdonald is a genuine
 humorist and a sound  ,freethinker4    
,mc,donnell 7,william71 ,american       
novelist1 b4 #ae ,sept4 #ahbd4 ,author  
of ,the  ,heathens of the ,heath and    
,exeter ,hall1 '#gc1 both ,freethought  
romances4    ,mackay 7,robert ,william71

 author of ,the ,progress of the        
,intellect1  #ahej1 ,sketch of the ,rise
 and ,progress of ,christianity1 '#ec1  
and ,the  ,tubingen ,school1 '#fc4      
,mackey 7,sampson ,arnold71 astronomer  
and shoemaker1 of ,norwich1  who is said
 to have constructed an orrery out of   
leather4 ,he wrote  ,the ,mythological  
,astronomy of the ,ancients1 ,norwich1  
#ahbb-bd1  ,pious ,frauds1 '#bf1 ,a     
,lecture on ,astronomy and ,geology1    
edited by  ,w4 ,d4 ,saull1 '#cb1        
,urania's ,key to the ,revelation1 '#cc1
 and ,the ,age  of ,mental              
,emancipation1 '#cf-ci4 ,mackey also    
wrote the ,sphinxiad1  a rare book4     
,died #ahdf4    ,mackintosh 7,thomas    
,simmons71 author of ,the ,electrical   
,theory of the  ,universe1 #ahdh1 and   
,an ,inquiry into the ,nature of        
,responsibility4 ,died  #ahej4          
,mac,sweeney 7,myles71 mythologist1 b4  
at ,enniskillen #ahad4 ,he came to      
,london1 and hearing ,robert ,taylor at 
the ,rotunda in #ahcj1 adopted his      

views4 ,he held that ,jesus never       
existed1 and wrote in the ,national     
,reformer1 ,secular ,chronicle1 and     
other papers4 ,he published a pamphlet  
on ,moses and ,bacchus in #ahgd4 ,died  
,jan4 #ahha4    ,madach 7,imr71         
,hungarian patriot and poet1 b4 #ba     
,jan4 #ahbc1 at  ,sztregova1 studied at 
the ,university of ,buda ,pesth1 and    
afterwards  lived at ,cseszlova4 ,he was
 in '#eb incarcerated for a year for    
having  given asylum at his castle to a 
political refugee4 ,he became in '#fa   
delegate at ,pesth4 ,in this year he    
published his fine poem ,az ,ember      
,tragdija 7,the ,human ,tragedy71 in    
which mankind is personified as  ,adam1 
with ,lucifer in his company4 ,many     
,freethought views occur in  this poem4 
,died #e ,oct4 #ahfd4 ,his works were   
published in #c vols41 #ahhj4    ,maier 
7,lodewyk74 ,see ,meyer4    ,maillet    
7,benit de74 ,french author1 b4 ,saint  
,michiel1 #ab ,april1  #afef4 ,he was   
successively consul in ,egypt and at    

,leghorn2 and died at  ,marseilles1 #cj 
,jan4 #agch4 ,after his death was       
published ,telliamed  7the anagram of   
his name71 in which he maintained that  
all land  was originally covered with   
water and that every species of animal1 
man included1 owes its origin to the    
sea4    ,mainlaender 7,philipp71        
pseudonym of ,philipp ,batz1 ,german    
pessimist1  author of a profound work   
entitled the ,philosophy of ,redemption1
  the first part of which was published 
in #ahgf4 ,it was said that  ,mainlnder 
committed suicide in that year1 but the 
second part of  his work has come out   
#ahhb-hf4 ,he holds that ,polytheism    
gives place  to ,monotheism and         
,pantheism1 and these again to ,atheism4
 ,god is dead1  and his death was the   
life of the world4    ,malherbe         
7,franois de74 ,french poet1 b4 ,caen1  
#aeee4 ,he served in  the civil wars of 
the ,league1 and enjoyed the patronage  
of ,henry  ,,iv4 ,he was called the     
prince of poets and the poet of princes4

 ,many  stories are told illustrating   
his sceptical raillery4 ,when told upon 
his death-bed of paradise and hell he   
said he had lived like others  and would
 go where others went4 ,died ,paris1 #af
 ,oct4 #afbh4    ,mallet 7,mme4         
,josephine74 ,french authoress of a work
 on ,the ,bible1  its origin1 errors and
 contradictions 7#ahhb74    ,malon      
7,benot74 ,french ,socialist1 b4 near   
,st4 ,etienne1 #ahda4 ,one  of the      
founders of the ,international2 he has  
written a work on that  organisation1   
its history and principles 7,lyons1     
#ahgb74 ,he is editor  on               
,l',intransigeant1 conducted the ,revue 
,socialiste1 and has written  on the    
religion and morality of the ,socialists
 and other works4    ,malvezin          
7,pierre74 ,french journalist1 b4       
,junhac1 #bf ,june #ahda4 ,author  of   
,la ,bible ,farce 7,brussels1 #ahgi47   
,this work was condemned  and           
suppressed1 #ahhj1 and the author       
sentenced to three month's              

imprisonment4 ,he conducts the review   
,la ,fraternit4    ,mandeville          
7,bernhard71 b4 ,dort4 #afgj4 ,he       
studied medicine1 was made  a doctor in 
,holland1 and emigrated to ,london4 ,in 
#agje he published  a poetical satire1  
,the ,grumbling ,hive1 or ,knaves       
,turned ,honest4 ,in  #agji1 he         
published ,the ,virgin ,unmasked1 and in
 #agbc1 ,free ,thoughts on  ,religion   
the ,church and ,national ,happiness4   
,in the same year appeared  his ,fables 
of the ,bees or ,private ,vices1 ,public
 ,benefits4 ,this work  was presented by
 the grand jury of ,middlesex1 #agbc and
 #agbh4 ,it was  attacked by ,law1      
,berkeley1 and others4 ,mandeville      
replied to ,berkeley  in ,a ,letter to  
,dion1 occasioned by a book called      
,alciphron1 or the  ,minute             
,philosopher1 #agcb4 ,he also wrote ,an 
,inquiry of ,honor1 and  ,usefulness of 
,christianity in ,war1 #agca4 ,died1    
,london1 #ai ,jan4 #agcc4    ,mantegazza
 7,paolo71 ,italian anthropologist1 b4  

,monza1 #ca  ,oct4 #ahca4 ,studied      
medicine at ,milan1 ,pisa1 and ,paria1  
and travelled  considerably through     
,europe1 and produced at ,paris in #ahed
 his first  book ,the ,physiology of    
,pleasure4 ,he has also written on the  
physiology  of pain1 spontaneous        
generation1 anthropological works on    
,ecstacy1  ,love and other topics1 and a
 fine romance ,il ,dio ,ignoto1 the     
unknown  god 7#ahgf74 ,mantegazza is one
 of the most popular and able of        
,italian  writers4    ,manzoni 7,romeo71
 ,dr4 ,italian physician1 b4 ,arogno1   
#ahdg1 studied  philosophy at ,milan1   
and graduated at ,naples4 ,he has       
written on the  doctrine of love of     
,bruno and ,schopenhauer ,a ,life of    
,jesus1 also ,il  ,prete1 a work        
translated into ,german with the title  
,religion as a  ,pathological           
,phenomenon1 etc4    ,marchena 7,jos71  
,spanish writer1 b4 ,utrera1 ,andalusia1
 #agfh4 ,brought  up for the church1    
reading the writings of the ,french     

philosophers  brought on him the        
,inquisition4 ,he fled to ,france where 
he became  a friend of ,brissot and the 
,girondins4 ,he wrote a pronounced      
,essai  de ,thologie1 #agig1 and        
translated into ,spanish ,molire's      
,tartufe1  and some works of ,voltaire4 
,he translated ,dupuis' ,origine de tous
  les ,cultes1 became secretary to      
,murat1 and died #aj ,jan4 #ahba4       
,marechal 7,pierre ,sylvain71 ,french   
author1 b4 ,paris1 #ae ,aug4 #agej2  was
 brought up to the ,bar1 which he       
quitted for the pursuit of  literature4 
,he was librarian to the ,mazarin       
,college1 but lost his  place by his    
,book ,escaped from the ,deluge1        
,psalms1 by ,s4 ,ar4 ,lamech  7anagram71
 #aghd4 ,this was a parody of the style 
of the prophets4 ,in  #agha he wrote ,le
 ,nouveau ,lucrece4 ,in #aghh appeared  
his ,almanack of  ,honest ,people1 in   
which the name of ,jesus ,christ was    
found beside  that of ,epicurus4 ,the   
work was denounced to ,parliament1 burnt

 at the  hands of the hangman1 and      
,marchal imprisoned for four months4 ,he
  welcomed the ,revolution1 and         
published a republican almanack1 #agic4 
,in  #agig and #agih he published his   
,code of a ,society of ,men without     
,god1  and ,free ,thoughts on the       
,priests4 ,in #agii appeared his most   
learned  work1 ,travels of ,pythagoras  
in ,egypt1 ,chaldea1 ,india1 ,rome1     
,carthage1  ,gaul1 etc4 #f vols4 ,into  
this fiction ,marchal puts a host of    
bold  philosophical1 political1 and     
social doctrines4 ,in #ahjj he published
  his famous ,dictionary of ,atheists1  
which the ,government prohibited and    
interdicted journals from noticing4 ,in 
the following year appeared  his ,for   
and ,against the ,bible4 ,died at       
,montrouge1 #ah ,jan4 #ahjc4 ,his       
beneficence is highly spoken of by      
,lalande4    ,maret 7,henry71 ,french   
journalist and deputy1 b4 ,santerre1 #d 
,march1  #ahch4 ,he ably combatted      
against the ,empire1 and edits ,le      

,radical2  was elected deputy in '#ha4  
,marguerite1 of ,valois1 ,queen of      
,navarre1 sister to ,francis ,i4 b4 at  
,angouleme1 #aa ,april1 #adib4 ,deserves
 place for her protection to  religious 
reformers4 ,died #ba ,dec4 #aedi4       
,marguetel de ,saint ,denis4 ,see ,saint
 ,evremond 7,c47    ,mario 7,alberto71  
,italian patriot1 b4 #c ,june1 #ahbe4   
,he edited the  ,tribune and ,free      
,italy1 became aide-de-camp to          
,garibaldi and married  ,jessie ,white1 
an ,english lady4 ,in '#fj he wrote a   
polemic against the  papacy entitled    
,slavery and ,thought4 ,died #b ,june1  
#ahhc4    ,marlow 7,christopher71       
,english poet and dramatist1 b4         
,canterbury1  #h ,feb4 #aefd4 ,educated 
at ,benet ,college1 ,cambridge1 where he
 took his  degree in #aehg4 ,he devoted 
himself to dramatic writing and         
according  to some became an actor4 ,he 
was killed in a brawl at ,deptford1 #a  
,june1  #aeic1 in time to escape being  
tried on an information laid against him

  for ,atheism and blasphemy4 ,the      
audacity of his genius is displayed in  
,tamburlaine and ,dr4 ,faustus4 ,of the 
latter1 ,goethe said ,how greatly  is it
 all planned4 ,swinburne says ,he is the
 greatest discoverer1  the most daring  
and inspired pioneer in all our poetic  
literature4    ,marr 7,wilhelm71 ,german
 socialist1 author of ,religious        
,excursions1  #ahgf1 and several        
anti-,semitic tracts4    ,marsais       
7,cesar ,chesneau du74 ,see ,du         
,marsais4    ,marselli 7,niccola71      
,italian writer1 b4 ,naples1 #e ,nov4   
#ahcb4 ,author  of advanced works on the
 ,science of ,history1 ,nature and      
,civilisation1  the ,origin of          
,humanity1 the ,great ,races of         
,humanity1 etc4    ,marston 7,philip    
,bourke71 ,english poet1 b4 ,london1 #ac
 ,aug4 #ahej4 ,he  became blind in      
childhood1 and devoted to poetry4 ,a    
friend of  ,d4 ,g4 ,rossetti1           
,swinburne1 and ,thomson1 his poems are 
sad and  sincere4 ,died #ad ,feb4 #ahhg1

 and was buried in accordance with his  
own wishes in unconsecrated ground at   
,highgate1 and without religious        
service4    ,marsy 7,franois ,marie de71
 b4 ,paris1 #agad1 educated as a        
,jesuit4 ,he  brought out an analysis of
 ,bayle1 #agee1 for which he was        
confined in  the ,bastile4 ,died #af    
,dec4 #agfc4    ,marten 7,henry71       
regicide1 b4 ,oxford1 #afjb4 ,educated  
at ,oxford1 where  he proceeded ,b4,a41 
#afai4 ,he was elected to ,parliament in
 #afdj1 and  expelled for his republican
 sentiments in #afdc4 ,he resumed his   
seat  #f ,jan4 #afdf1 took part in the  
civil war1 sat as one of ,king          
,charles's  judges1 and became one of   
the ,council of ,state4 ,he proposed the
 repeal  of the statute of banishment   
against the ,jews1 and when it was      
sought  to expel all profane persons1   
proposed to add the words and all       
fools4 ,tried for regicide #aj ,oct4    
#affj1 he was kept in ,chepstow  ,castle
 till his death1 ,sep4 #afhj4 ,carlyle  

calls him sworn foe of  ,cant in all its
 figures2 an indomitable little ,pagan  
if not better4    ,martin 7,emma71      
,english writer and lecturess1 b4       
,bristol1 #ahab4 ,brought  up as a      
,baptist1 she1 for a time1 edited the   
,bristol ,magazine4 ,she  wrote the     
,exiles of ,piedmont and translated from
 the ,italian the ,maxims  of           
,guicciardini4 ,the trials of ,holyoake 
and ,southwell for blasphemy  led her to
 inquire and embrace the ,freethought   
cause4 ,while ,holyoake  and ,paterson  
were in gaol1 ,mrs4 ,martin went about  
committing the  crime for which they    
were imprisoned4 ,in '#dc she published 
,baptism ,a  ,pagan ,rite4 ,this was    
followed by ,tracts for the ,people on  
the ,bible no  ,revelation1 ,religion   
,superseded1 ,prayer1 ,god's ,gifts and 
,men's ,duties1  a conversation on the  
being of ,god1 etc4 ,she also lectured  
and wrote  on the ,punishment of ,death1
 to which she was earnestly opposed4    
,died  ,oct4 #ahea4    ,martin 7,bon    

,louis ,henri71 ,french historian1 b4   
,st4 ,quentin1 #bj  ,feb4 #ahaj4 ,he was
 sent to ,paris to study law1 but       
abandoned it for  history4 ,his ,history
 of ,france1 in nineteen vols4          
7#ahch-ec71 is  a monumental work of    
erudition4 ,a confirmed ,republican1 he 
warmly  opposed the ,second ,empire and 
after its fall became member of the     
,national ,assembly1 '#ga1 and senator1 
'#gf4 ,he was elected member of  the    
,academy1 '#gh4 ,in addition to his     
historical works he contributed  to le  
,siecle1 la ,libert de penser1 and      
l',encyclopdie ,nouvelle1  etc4 ,died   
#ad ,dec4 #ahhc4    ,martin 7,louis71   
author of ,les ,evangiles ,sans ,dieu   
7called by ,victor  ,hugo cette noble   
page71 ,paris1 #ahhg1 describes himself 
as an ,atheist  ,socialist4    ,martin  
7,louis ,auguste74 ,french writer1 b4   
,paris1 #be ,april1 #ahaa1  editor of   
the ,morale ,independante and member of 
the ,institute of  ,geneva4 ,for his    
,true and ,false ,catholics 7'#eh71 he  

was fined three  thousand francs and    
imprisoned for six months4 ,he published
 the  ,annuaire ,philosophique4 ,several
 of his works are placed on the ,roman  
,index4 ,died ,paris1 #f ,april1 #ahge4 
,martinaud 7,m471 an ex-abb who refused 
ordination1 and wrote ,letters  of a    
young priest1 who is an ,atheist and    
,materialist1 to his bishop1  ,paris1   
#ahfh1 in which he says1 ,religion is   
the infancy of peoples1  ,atheism their 
maturity4    ,martineau 7,harriet71 b4  
,norwich #ab ,june1 #ahjc1 descended    
from  a ,huguenot family4 ,brought up as
 a ,unitarian1 she began writing        
,devotional ,exercises for ,young       
,persons1 and1 taking to literature  as 
a means of living1 distinguished herself
 by popularisations  of political       
economy4 ,the ,letters on the ,laws of  
,man's ,nature and  ,development1 which 
passed between her and ,h4 ,g4          
,atkinson1 appeared in  '#ea1 and       
disclosed her advance to the ,positivist
 school of ,thought4 ,in  '#ec she      

issued a condensed account of ,comte's  
philosophy4 ,she wrote  a ,history of   
,england during the ,thirty ,years'     
,peace1 and numerous  other works4 ,died
 at ,ambleside #bg ,june1 #ahgf4 ,her   
,autobiography1  published after her    
death1 shows the full extent of her     
unbelief4    ,masquerier 7,lewis71      
,american land reformer of ,huguenot    
descent1 b4 #a  ,march1 #ahjb4 ,wrote   
,the ,sataniad1 established ,greenpoint 
,gazette1  and contributed to the       
,boston ,investigator4 ,died #g ,jan4   
#ahhh4    ,massenet 7,jules ,emile      
,frderic71 ,french musical composer1 b4 
,montard1  #ab ,may1 #ahdb4 ,has written
 a daring and popular oratorio on ,marie
  ,magdeleine1 and an opera1 ,herodiade4
    ,massey 7,gerald71 poet and         
archologist1 b4 of poor parents at      
,tring1 in ,herts1 #bi ,may1 #ahbh4 ,at 
eight years of age he was sent  to a    
factory to earn a miserable pittance4   
,at the age of fifteen  he came to      
,london as an errand boy1 read all that 

came in his way1  and became a          
,freethinker and political reformer4    
,inspired by the  men of '#dh1 he       
started ,the ,spirit of ,freedom1 '#di4 
,it cost him five  situations in eleven 
months4 ,in '#ec his ,ballad of ,babe   
,christabel1  with other ,lyrical ,poems
 at once gave him position as a poet of 
fine  taste and sensibility4 ,mr4       
,massey devoted himself to the study of 
,egyptology1 the result of which is seen
 in his ,book of ,beginnings  and       
,natural ,genesis1 '#ha-hc1 in which he 
shows the mythical nature of            
,christianity4 ,mr4 ,massey has also    
lectured widely on such subjects as     
,why ,don't ,god ,kill the ,devil8 ,the 
,historical ,jesus and the ,mythical    
,christ1 ,the ,devil of ,darkness in the
 ,light of ,evolution1 ,the ,coming     
,religion1 etc4 ,his poems are being    
re-published under the title ,my        
,lyrical ,life4    ,massey 7,james74    
,see ,tyssot4 7,s47    ,massol 7,marie  
,alexandre71 ,french writer1 b4         

,beziers1 #ah ,march1  #ahje4 ,he       
studied under ,raspail1 went to ,paris  
in '#cj and became a ,saint  ,simonian4 
,in '#dh he wrote on ,lamennais' ,la    
,rforme1 and on the ,voix  du ,peuple   
with his friend ,proudhon1 to whom he   
became executor4 ,in  '#fe he           
established ,la ,morale ,independante   
with the object of showing  morality had
 nothing to do with theology4 ,died at  
,paris #bj ,april1 #ahge4    ,maubert de
 ,gouvest 7,jean ,henri71 ,french       
writer1 b4 ,rouen1 #bj  ,nov4 #agba4    
,brought up as a monk1 he fled and took 
service in the ,saxon  army4 ,he was    
thrown into prison by the ,king of      
,poland1 but the ,papal  nuncio procured
 his release on condition of retaking   
his habit4 ,this  he did and went to    
,rome to be relieved of his vows4       
,failing this  he went to ,switzerland  
and ,england1 where he was well received
 by  ,lord ,bolingbroke4 ,he published  
,lettres ,iroquoises1 ,irocopolis1      
#ageb1  and other anonymous works4 ,at  

,frankfort in #agfd he was arrested as  
a fugitive monk and vagabond1 and was   
imprisoned eleven months4 ,died  at     
,altona1 #ba ,nov4 #agfg4    ,maudsley  
7,henry71 ,m4,d41 b4 near ,giggleswick1 
,yorkshire1 #e  ,feb4 #ahce4 ,educated  
at ,london ,university1 where he        
graduated  ,m4,d4 in #aheg4 ,taking     
mental pathology as his speciality1 he  
soon  reached eminence in his           
profession4 ,from '#fi-'gi he was       
professor  of medical jurisprudence at  
,university ,college1 ,london4 ,his     
works on  ,the ,physiology and          
,pathology of the ,mind 7'#fg71 ,body   
and ,mind 7'#gj71  ,responsibility in   
,mental ,disease 7'#gc71 and ,body and  
,will 7'#hc7 have  attracted much       
attention4 ,his ,natural ,laws and      
,supernatural ,seemings  7'#hj7 is a    
powerful exposure of the essence of all 
superstition4    ,mauvillon 7,jakob     
von71 b4 ,leipzig1 #h ,march1 #agdc4    
,though feeble in  body1 he had a       
penchant for the army1 and joined the   

engineer corps of  ,hanover1 and        
afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in 
the service of the  ,duke of ,brunswick4
 ,a friend and admirer of ,mirabeau1 he 
defended the  ,french ,revolution in    
,germany4 ,he wrote anonymously         
,paradoxes ,moraux  7,amsterdam1 #agfh7 
and ,the ,only ,true ,system of the     
,christian ,religion  7,berlin1 #aghg71 
at first composed under the title of    
,false ,reasonings  of the ,christian   
,religion4 ,died in ,brunswick1 #aa     
,jan4 #agid4    ,mazzini 7,giuseppe71   
,italian patriot1 b4 ,genoa1 #bh ,june  
#ahjh4 ,in '#bf he  graduated ,,ll4,d41 
in the ,university of ,genoa1 and       
plunged into politics1  becoming the    
leader of ,young ,italy1 with the object
 of uniting the  nation4 ,condemned to  
death in '#cc1 he went to ,switzerland  
and was  expelled1 then came to ,england
 in '#cg4 ,in '#dh he returned1 and in  
,march  '#di was made triumvir of ,rome 
with ,saffi and ,armellini4 ,compelled1 
after a desperate resistance1 to retire1

 he returned to ,london4 ,he  wrote in  
the ,westminster ,review and other      
periodicals and his works are  numerous 
though mostly of a political character4 
,they are distinguished  by             
highmindedness1 love of toleration and  
eloquence4 ,carlyle called  ,mazzini a  
man of genius and virtue1 a man of      
sterling veracity1  humanity and        
nobleness of mind4 ,died at ,pisa #aj   
,march1 #ahgb4 ,he was  a ,deist4       
,meissner 7,alfred71 ,german poet1 b4   
,teplitz1 #ae ,oct4 #ahbb4 ,has written 
,ziska1 an epic poem1 ,the ,son of ,atta
 ,troll1 ,recollections of ,heine1  etc4
 ,died ,teplitz1 #bj ,may1 #ahhe4       
,meister 7,jacques ,henri71 ,swiss      
writer1 b4 ,bckeburg1 #f  ,aug4 #agdd4  
,intended for a religious career1 he    
went to ,france1 and  became acquainted 
with ,d',holbach and ,diderot1 of whom  
he wrote a short  life1 and was         
secretary to ,grimm4 ,he wrote the      
,origin of ,religious  ,principles1     
#agfb1 and ,natural ,morality1 #aghg4   

,menard 7,louis71 ,french author and    
painter1 b4 ,paris1 #ahbb4 ,in  '#dh-'di
 he wrote ,prologue of a ,revolution1   
for which he was obliged  to leave      
,france4 ,has written on ,morality      
before the ,philosophers1  '#fj1        
,studies on the ,origin of              
,christianity1 '#fg1 and ,freethinkers' 
,religious ,catechism1 '#ge4    ,mendoza
 7,diego ,hurtado de71 famous and       
learned ,spanish author1 b4 of          
distinguished family1 ,granada1 #aejc4  
,intended for the church1 he  studied   
,latin1 ,greek1 ,arabic1 and ,hebrew1   
but on leaving the university  he joined
 the army4 ,at school he wrote his well 
known comic novel1  ,lazarillo de       
,tormes1 which was condemned by the     
,inquisition4 ,sent  on an embassy to   
,pope ,paul ,,iii41 the latter was      
greatly shocked at  his audacity and    
vehemence of speech4 ,his chief work is 
his ,history  of the ,moorish ,wars1    
which remained unprinted thirty years1  
through  the intolerant policy of       

,philip ,,ii4 ,mendoza's satires and    
burlesques  were also prohibited by the 
,inquisition4 ,he commented ,aristotle  
and  translated his ,mechanics4 ,died at
 ,valladolid1 ,april1 #aege4    ,mendum 
7,josiah ,p471 publisher and proprietor 
of the ,boston  ,investigator1 b4       
,kennebunk1 ,maine1 #g ,july1 #ahaa4 ,he
 became a printer1  and in #ahcc became 
acquainted with ,abner ,kneeland and    
after his  imprisonment engaged to print
 the ,investigator1 and when ,kneeland  
left ,boston for the ,west to recruit   
his health1 he carried on the  paper    
together with ,mr4 ,horace ,seaver4 ,mr4
 ,mendum was one of the  founders of the
 ,paine ,memorial ,hall1 ,boston1 and a 
chief support of  ,freethought in that  
city4    ,mentelle 7,edme71 ,french     
geographer and historian1 b4 ,paris1 #aa
  ,oct4 #agcj4 ,studied at the ,college 
de ,beauvais under ,crvier4 ,his  ,prcis
 de l',histoire des ,hbreux 7#agih71 and
 ,prcis de l',histoire  ,universelle are
 thoroughly anti-,christian4 ,he doubted

 if ,jesus ever  existed4 ,he was a     
member of the ,institute and ,chevalier 
of the ,legion  of ,honor4 ,died at     
,paris1 #bh ,dec4 #ahae4    ,mercier    
7,l4 ,a471 author of ,la ,libre ,pense1 
,brussels1 #ahgi4    ,meredith 7,evan   
,powell71 ,welsh writer1 author of ,the 
,prophet of ,nazareth  7#ahfd71 an able 
work exposing the prophecies of ,jesus1 
and ,amphilogia1  a reply in to the     
,bishop of ,landaff and the ,rev4 ,j4   
,f4 ,francklin1 '#fg4    ,meredith      
7,george71 philosophical poet and       
novelist1 b4 ,hampshire1  #ahbh1 and    
educated partly on the ,continent4      
,intended for the law1  he adopted      
literature in preference4 ,he first     
appeared as a poet  with ,poems 7'#ea74 
,of his powerful novels we mention the  
,ordeal of  ,richard ,feveril 7'#ei71   
,emilia in ,england 7'#fd71 now ,sandra 
,belloni1  with ,vittoria 7'#ff7 for a  
sequel4 ,rhoda ,fleming1 ,beauchamp's   
,career  7'#gf71 ,the ,egoist 7'#gi71   
,the ,tragic ,comedians 7'#ha7 and      

,diana of  the ,crossways 7'#he74 ,deep 
thought and fine grace characterise his 
writings4 ,as a poet ,mr4 ,meredith is  
not popular1 but his volumes of  verse  
are marked by the highest qualities1 and
 give him a place apart  from the throng
 of contemporary singers4    ,merimee   
7,prosper71 learned ,french writer1 b4  
,paris1 #bh ,sept4 #ahjh1  author of    
numerous essays and romances4 ,was made 
,inspector ,general  of ,historic       
,monuments and was admitted to the      
,academy in '#dd4 ,in his  anonymous    
brochure on ,h7enri7 ,b7eyle71          
,eleutheropolis 7,brussels71 '#fd1      
there is an open profession of ,atheism4
 ,died at ,cannes1 #bc ,sept4 #ahgj4    
,merritt 7,henry71 ,english painter and 
writer1 b4 ,oxford1 #h ,june1  #ahbb4   
,on coming to ,london he lived with ,mr4
 ,holyoake1 and contributed  to the     
,reasoner1 using the signature          
,christopher4 ,he wrote on ,dirt  and   
,pictures and ,robert ,dalby and his    
,world of ,troubles1 etc4 ,died  in     

,london1 #aj ,july1 #ahgg4    ,meslier  
or ,mellier 7,jean71 cur of ,etrepigny1 
,champagne1 b4 ,mazerny1  ,rethelois1   
#ae ,june1 #affd4 ,died in #agbi4 ,after
 his death a will was  discovered of    
which he had made three copies1 in which
 he repudiated  ,christianity and       
requested to be buried in his own       
garden4 ,his  property he left to his   
parishioners4 ,voltaire published it    
under  the title of ,extract from the   
sentiments of ,jean ,meslier4 ,to       
,meslier  has been attributed the work  
entitled ,le ,bon ,sens1 written by     
,baron  ,d',holbach4 ,le ,testament de  
,jean ,meslier has been published in    
three  volumes at ,amsterdam1 #ahfd1    
preceded by a study by ,rudolf ,charles 
7,r4 ,c4 d',ablaing van ,giessenburg74  
,it calls in question all the dogmas  of
 ,christianity4 ,anacharsis ,clootz     
proposed to the ,national ,convention   
to erect a statue to this honest priest4
    ,metchnikov 7,lon71 ,russian writer 
in ,french2 author of a work on  ,japan 

and of able articles1 notably one on    
,christian ,communion in  the ,revue    
,internationale des ,sciences           
,biologiques1 tome #ab4    ,metrodorus  
of ,lampsacus4 ,greek philosopher1 b4   
#ccj ,b4,c41 a disciple  and intimate   
friend of ,epicurus4 ,he wrote numerous 
works1 the titles  of which are         
preserved by ,diogenes ,laertius4 ,died 
,b4,c4 #bgg4    ,mettrie1 see ,la       
,mettrie4    ,meunier 7,amde ,victor71  
,french writer1 b4 ,paris1 #b ,may1     
#ahag4 ,has  done much to popularise    
science by his ,scientific ,essays1     
#ahea-eh1  the ,ancestors of ,adam1     
'#ge1 etc4    ,meyer 7,lodewijk71 a     
,dutch physician1 a friend and follower 
of  ,spinoza1 who published ,exercitatio
 ,paradoxa on the philosophical         
interpretation of scripture1            
,eleutheropoli 7,amst471 #afff4 ,this   
has  been wrongly attributed to         
,spinoza4 ,it was translated into ,dutch
  in #affg4 ,he is also credited with   
,lucii ,antistic ,constantes1 de  jure  

ecclesiasticorum4 ,alethopoli 7,amst471 
#affe4 ,this work is also  attributed to
 another writer1 viz4 ,p4 de la ,court4 
,mialhe 7,hippolyte71 ,french writer1 b4
 ,roquecourbe 7,tarn71 #ahcd4 ,from     
'#fj-fb he was with the ,french army of 
occupation at ,rome4 ,he has  organised 
federations of ,freethinkers in ,france1
 edited ,l',union  des                  
,libres-,penseurs1 and has written      
,mmoires d'un libre ,penseur  7,nevers1 
#ahhh74    ,michelet 7,jules71 ,french  
historian1 b4 ,paris1 #ba ,aug4 #agih4  
,became  a ,professor of ,history in    
#ahba4 ,has written a ,history of       
,france and  of the ,french ,revolution2
 ,the ,jesuits1 with his friend ,quinet1
 '#dc2  ,the ,priest1 ,woman and the    
,family1 '#dd2 ,the ,sorceress1 dealing 
with  witchcraft in the ,middle ,ages1  
'#fb2 ,the ,bible of ,humanity1 '#fd4   
,his  lectures were interdicted by the  
,government of ,louis ,phillippe1 and   
after the coup d'tat he was deprived of 
his chair4 ,all ,michelet's  works glow 

with eloquence and imagination4 ,he     
never forgot that he  was a republican  
and ,freethinker of the nineteenth      
century4 ,died at  ,hyres1 #i ,feb4     
#ahgd4    ,michelet 7,karl ,ludwig71    
,german philosopher of ,french family1  
b4 ,berlin1  #d ,dec4 #ahja4 ,in '#bi he
 became ,professor of ,philosophy4 ,a   
disciple  of ,hegel1 he edited his      
master's works1 '#cb4 ,his principle    
work is ,a  ,system of ,philosophy as an
 ,exact ,science1 '#gf-ha4 ,he has also 
written  on the relation of ,herbert    
,spencer to ,german philosophy4         
,middleton 7,conyers71 ,freethinking    
clergyman1 b4 ,york #afhc4 ,his ,letters
  from ,rome1 #agbi1 showed how much    
,roman ,christianity had borrowed from  
,paganism1 and his ,free ,inquiry into  
the ,miraculous ,powers supposed  to    
have subsisted in the ,christian        
,church1 #agdi1 was a severe blow  to   
hitherto received ,christian ,evidences4
 ,he also wrote a classic  ,life of     
,cicero4 ,died at ,hildersham near      

,cambridge1 #bh ,july1 #agej4           
,mignardi 7,g471 ,italian writer1 who in
 #ahhd published ,memorie di un  ,nuovo 
,credente 7,memoirs of a ,new           
,believer74    ,milelli 7,domenico71    
,italian poet1 b4 ,catanzaro1 ,feb4     
#ahda4 ,his family  intended to make him
 a priest1 but he turned out a rank     
,pagan1 as  may be seen in his ,odi     
,pagane1 '#gi1 ,canzonieri1 '#hd1 and   
other works4    ,mill 7,james71         
philosopher and historian1 b4           
,northwaterbridge1 ,montrose1  #f       
,april1 #aggc4 ,studied at ,edinburgh1  
and distinguished himself by his        
attainments in ,greek and moral         
philosophy4 ,he was licensed as preacher
  in the ,scotch ,church1 but removed to
 ,london in #ahjj1 and became editor  of
 the ,literary ,review1 and contributed 
to the reviews4 ,he published1          
'#ag-'ai1 his ,history of ,british      
,india4 ,he contributed many articles to
  the fifth edition of the ,encyclopdia 
,britannica4 ,a friend of ,bentham1  he 

wrote largely in the ,westminster       
,review1 and did much to forward  the   
views of ,philosophic ,radicalism4 ,his 
,analysis of the ,human ,mind1  '#ci1 is
 a profound work4 ,in religion he was a 
complete sceptic4 ,reading  ,bishop     
,butler's ,analogy made him an ,atheist4
 ,died #bc ,june1 #ahcf4    ,mill 7,john
 ,stuart71 eminent ,english writer1 son 
of the preceding1  b4 ,london1 #bj ,may1
 #ahjf4 ,educated by his father without 
religion1 he  became clerk in the ,east 
,india ,house1 and early in life        
contributed to  the ,westminster and    
,edinburgh ,reviews4 ,of the first he   
became joint  editor in '#ce4 ,his      
,system of ,logic1 '#dc1 first made him 
generally  known4 ,this was followed by 
his ,principles of ,political ,economy4 
,in  '#ei appeared his small but        
valuable treatise ,on ,liberty1 in which
 he  defends the unrestricted free      
discussion of religion4 ,among          
subsequent  works were ,utilitarianism1 
'#fc2 ,auguste ,comte and ,positivism1  

'#fg2  ,examination of ,sir ,william    
,hamilton's ,philosophy '#fe2           
,dissertations  and ,discussions1       
'#ei-'ge2 and the ,subjection of ,women1
 '#fi4 ,in '#fe  he was elected to      
,parliament for ,westminster1 but lost  
his seat in  '#fh4 ,in '#fg he was      
chosen ,rector of ,st4 ,andrews1 and    
delivered the  students an able address4
 ,prof4 ,bain says in everything        
characteristic  of the creed of         
,christendom he was a thorough-going    
negationist4 ,he  admitted neither its  
truth nor its utility4 ,died at         
,avignon1 #h ,may1  #ahgc1 leaving      
behind his interesting ,autobiography   
and three essays on  ,nature1 ,theism1  
and ,religion4    ,mille 7,constantin71 
,roumanian writer1 b4 at ,bucharest1    
educated at  ,paris4 ,he lectured at    
,jassy and ,bucharest on the ,history of
 ,philosophy1  from a ,materialistic    
point of view4 ,he was also active with 
,codreano1  and after the latter's death
 7'#gg71 in spreading ,socialism4 ,mill 

contributes to the ,rivista ,sociala and
 the ,vtorul1 edited by  ,c4 ,pilitis4  
,milliere 7,jean ,baptiste71 ,socialist1
 b4 of poor parents1 ,lamarche  7,cte   
d',or71 #ac ,dec4 #ahag4 ,he became an  
advocate1 and founded the  ,proletaire  
at ,clermont ,ferrand4 ,for writing     
,revolutionary ,studies he  was1 after  
the coup d'tat1 banished to ,algeria    
until the amnesty of  '#ei4 ,in '#fi    
,millire started1 with ,rochefort1 the  
,marseillaise1 of  which he became one  
of the principal directors4 ,at the     
election for the  ,national ,assembly he
 was elected for ,paris by #gc1jjj      
votes4 ,although  he took no part in the
 ,commune1 but sought to act as an      
intermediary1  he was arrested and      
summarily shot near the ,pantheon1      
,paris1 #bf ,may1  #ahga4 ,he died      
crying ,vive l',humanit4    ,mirabaud   
7,jean ,baptiste de71 ,french writer1 b4
 ,paris1 #afge4 ,he  translated ,tasso  
and ,ariosto1 and became perpetual      
secretary to the  ,french ,academy4 ,he 

wrote ,opinions of the ,ancients on the 
,jews1 a  ,critical ,examination of the 
,new ,testament1 7published under the   
name  of ,frret71 ,the ,world3 its      
,origin and ,antiquity1 #agea1          
,sentiments of  a ,philosopher on the   
,nature of the ,soul inserted in the    
collection  entitled ,nouvelle liberts  
de ,penser1 ,amst4 7,paris7 #agdc4 ,the 
,system  of ,nature1 attributed to      
,mirabaud1 was written by d',holbach4   
,mirabaud  died #bd ,june1 #agfj4       
,mirabeau 7,honor ,gabriel ,riquetti    
,comte de71 ,french statesman  and      
orator1 b4 at the ,chateau de ,bignon   
7,loiret7 #i ,march1 #agdi4 ,he         
inherited a passionate nature1 a frank  
strong will1 generous temper1  and a    
mind of prodigious activity4 ,he entered
 the army in #agfg1  but by an amorous  
intrigue provoked the ire of his father1
 by whom  he was more than once         
imprisoned4 ,in #aggf he went to        
,amsterdam and  employed himself in     
literary work4 ,in #aghc appeared       

anonymously his  ,erotika ,biblion1     
dealing with the obscenity of the       
,bible4 ,in #aghf he  was sent to       
,berlin1 where he met ,frederick and    
collected materials  for his work on    
,the ,prussian ,monarchy4 ,he returned  
to the opening of  the ,states ,general 
and soon became leader of the           
,revolution1 being  in ,jan4 #agia      
chosen ,president of the ,national      
,assembly4 ,he advocated  the abolition 
of the double aristocracy of ,lords and 
bishops1 the  spoliation of the ,church 
and the ,national ,guard4 ,carlyle calls
 him  far the strongest1 best practical 
intellect of that time4 ,he died  #b    
,april1 #agia4 ,among his last words    
were1 ,envelop me with perfumes  and    
crown me with flowers that ,i may pass  
away into everlasting sleep4    ,miranda
 7,don ,francisco74 ,south ,american    
patriot and general1 b4 ,caracas  #agej1
 aided the ,americans in their ,war of  
,independence1 tried to free            
,guatimalaus from the ,spanish1 allied  

himself to the ,girondins and  became   
second in command in the army of        
,dumouriez4 ,he was a friend  of ,thomas
 ,paine4 ,in #ahjf-aa he was engaged    
seeking to free ,peru from  the         
,spaniards1 by whom he was made         
prisoner1 and died in a dungeon  at     
,cadiz1 #af ,jan4 #ahaf4 ,it was said   
,general ,miranda made a sceptic  of    
,james ,mill4    ,miron4 ,see ,morin    
7,andr ,saturnin47    ,mitchell 7,j4    
,barr71 ,dr41 anonymous author of ,dates
 and ,data 7#ahgf7  and ,chrestos2 a    
,religious ,epithet 7#ahhj74 ,dr4       
,mitchell has also  written in the      
,national ,reformer1 using his initials 
only4    ,mitchell 7,logan71 author of  
,lectures published as ,the ,christian  
,mythology ,unveiled4 ,this work was    
also issued under the title             
,superstition ,besieged4 ,it is said    
that ,mitchell committed suicide in     
,nov4 #ahda4 ,he left by his will a sum 
of #ejj to any bookseller who had  the  
courage to publish his book4 ,it was    

first published by ,b4 ,cousens1  and   
was republished in '#ha4    ,mittermaier
 7,karl ,josef ,anton von71 ,german     
jurisconsult1 b4 ,munich1  #e ,aug4     
#aghg4 ,studied law and medicine at     
,landshut1 where he became  professor4  
,his works on ,law gained him a high    
reputation4 ,he obtained  a chair at the
 ,heidelberg ,university4 ,in #ahca he  
represented ,baden in  ,parliament4 ,he 
advocated the unity of ,germany and took
 an active part  in the ,radical        
movement of '#dh4 ,his writings are all 
in the direction  of freedom4 ,died #bh 
,aug4 #ahfg4    ,mittie 7,stanilas71 in 
#aghi proposed the taking of church     
bells to make  money and cannon1 and    
during the revolution distinguished     
himself by  other anti-clerical         
suggestions4 ,died #ahaf4    ,mocenicus 
7,philippus71 ,archbishop of ,nicosia1  
,cyprus1 a ,venetian  philosopher1 whose
 heretical ,contemplations were printed 
at ,geneva1  #aehh1 with the            
,peripatetic ,question of ,csalpinus and

 the books of  ,telesio on ,the ,nature 
of ,things in the volume entitled       
,tractationum  ,philosophicarum4        
,moleschott 7,jacob71 scientific        
,materialist1 b4 of ,dutch parents at 's
  ,hertogenbosch1 #i ,aug4 #ahbb2       
studied at ,heidelburg where he         
graduated  ,m4,d4 ,became ,professor of 
,physiology at ,zurich and afterwards at
  ,turin4 ,becoming a naturalised       
,italian he was in '#gf made a senator1 
and in '#gh ,professor of ,physiology at
 the ,university of ,rome4 ,he has      
written ,circulation of ,life1 ,light   
and ,life1 ,physiological ,sketches1    
and other medical and scientific works4 
,lange calls him the father  of the     
modern ,materialistic movement4         
,molesworth 7,sir ,william71 statesman  
and man of letters1 the eighth  baronet 
of his family1 b4 ,cornwall1 #bc ,may1  
#ahaj4 ,in '#cb he was  returned ,m4,p4 
for ,east ,cornwall1 and from '#cg-da   
sat for ,leeds4 ,in  '#ec he was ,first 
,commissioner of ,public ,works1 and in 

'#ee was ,secretary  for the ,colonies4 
,he was for some time proprietor and    
conductor of the  ,westminster ,review1 
in which he wrote many articles4 ,a     
noble edition  of ,hobbes was produced  
at his expense1 '#ci-de1 and he         
contributed to  the support of ,auguste 
,comte4 ,died #bb ,oct4 #ahee4          
,mommsen 7,theodor71 historian1 b4      
,garding 7,schleswig71 #cj  ,nov4 #ahag4
 ,studied at ,kiel1 and travelled from  
'#dd to #dg4 ,he became  ,professor of  
,law of ,leipsic1 ,zrich and ,berlin4   
,is best known by his  ,history of      
,rome1 '#ec-he1 a work of great research
 and suggestiveness  in which he        
expresses the opinion that it is        
doubtful if the world  was improved by  
,christianity4    ,monboddo 7,lord74    
,see ,burnett 7,james74    ,monge       
7,gaspard71 ,french scientist1 b4 at    
,beaume1 #aj ,may #agdf4 ,taught        
physics and mathematics at the military 
school of ,mezieres1 became a  member of
 the ,academy of ,sciences in #aghj1 and

 through the influence  of ,condorcet   
was made ,minister of the ,marine in    
#agib4 ,he was one of  the founders of  
the ,polytechnic ,school4 ,napoleon made
 him a senator1  created him ,count of  
,pelusium1 and gave him an estate for   
his many  services to the ,french       
nation4 ,on the return of the ,bourbons 
he was  deprived of all his emoluments4 
,died #bh ,july1 #ahah4 ,marchal and    
,lalande insert his name in their list  
of ,atheists4    ,mongez 7,antoine71    
,french archologist1 b4 ,lyons1 #cj     
,june  #agdg4 ,distinguished by his     
studies1 he became a member of the      
,academy  of ,inscriptions and of the   
,institute1 before which he said he had 
the honor to be an ,atheist4 ,he was one
 of the most ardent members of  the     
,convention1 and wrote many memoirs4    
,died at ,paris1 #cj ,july1 #ahce4      
,monroe 7,j4 ,r471 ,dr41 editor and     
proprietor of the ,ironclad ,age1  b4   
,monmouth1 co4 ,new ,jersey1 about      
#ahbe4 ,in '#ej he went to ,rochford1   

where he had a good practice as a       
doctor4 ,in '#ee he started the         
,rochford ,herald1 and in ,july1 '#eg1  
the ,seymour ,times4 ,during the ,civil 
,war he was appointed surgeon to the    
#aejth regiment1 and after some  hard   
service his own health broke down4 ,in  
'#ge ,dr4 ,monroe published  his dramas 
and poems in a volume4 ,from this time  
his paper became  more ,freethought and 
less political4 ,in ,april1 '#hb1 he    
removed to  ,indianapolis1 ,indiana1 and
 changed the name to ,the ,age1         
afterwards  ,monroe's ,ironclad ,age4   
,dr4 ,monroe is a clever writer and a   
modest man1  with a remarkable fund of  
natural humor4 ,among his publications  
are  poems on ,the ,origin of ,man1     
etc41 ,genesis ,revised1 and ,holy      
,bible  ,stories4    ,montaigne 7,michel
 de71 ,french philosophic essayist1 b4  
at the family  castle in ,perigord1 #bh 
,feb4 #aecc4 ,he studied law and became 
a judge  at ,bordeaux about #aeed4 ,in  
#aehj he produced his famous ,essays1   

which indicate a sprightly humor allied 
to a most independent  spirit4 ,the     
,essays1 ,hallam says1 make in several  
respects an epoch in  literature4       
,emerson says1 ,montaigne is the        
frankest and honestest  of all writers4 
,montaigne took as his motto3 ,que      
sais-je8 ,what  know ,i8 and said that  
all religious opinions are the result of
  custom4 ,buckle says1 ,under the guise
 of a mere man of the world1  expressing
 natural thoughts in common language1   
,montaigne concealed a  spirit of lofty 
and audacious inquiry4 ,montaigne seems 
to have been  the first man in ,europe  
who doubted the sense and justice of    
burning  people for a difference of     
opinion4 ,his denunciation of the       
conduct of  the ,christians in ,america 
does him infinite honor4 ,died #ac      
,sept4 #aeib4    ,monteil 7,charles     
,franois ,louis ,edgar71 ,french        
journalist1 b4 ,vire1  #bf ,jan4 #ahde4 
,fought against the ,empire1 writing in 
,le ,rappel4 ,during  the ,commune he   

was secretary to ,delescluze4 ,for his  
,histoire d'un  ,frre ,ignorantin1 '#gd1
 he was prosecuted by the ,christian    
,brothers1  and condemned to one year's 
imprisonment1 #b1jjj francs fine1 and   
#aj1jjj  francs damages4 ,in '#gg he    
wrote a ,freethinker's ,catechism1      
published  at ,antwerp1 and in '#gi an  
edition of ,la ,rpublique ,franaise4 ,in
 '#hj  he was made a member of the      
,municipal ,council of ,paris1 and      
re-elected  in '#hd4 ,in '#hc he was    
made ,chevalier of the ,legion of       
,honor4 ,he has  compiled an excellent  
secular ,manual of ,instruction for     
schools4    ,montesquieu 7,charles de   
,secondat71 ,baron1 eminent ,french     
writer1  b4 near ,bordeaux1 #ah ,jan4   
#afhi4 ,his first literary performance  
was  entitled ,persian ,letters1 #agba4 
,in #agbh he was admitted a member of   
the ,french ,academy1 though opposed by 
,cardinal ,fleury on the ground  that   
his writings were dangerous to religion4
 ,his chief work is the  ,spirit of     

,laws1 #agdh4 ,this work was one of the 
first-fruits of the  positive spirit in 
history and jurisprudence4 ,the chapters
 on ,slavery  are written in a vein of  
masterly irony1 which ,voltaire         
pronounced  to be worthy of ,molire4    
,died #aj ,feb4 #agee4    ,montgomery   
7,edmund71 ,dr4 philosopher1 b4 of      
,scotch parents1 ,edinburgh  #ahce4 ,in 
youth he lived at ,frankfort1 where he  
saw ,schopenhauer1  and afterwards      
attended at ,heidelberg the lectures of 
,moleschott and  ,kuno ,fischer4 ,he    
became a friend of ,feuerbach4 ,he wrote
 in ,german and  published at ,munich in
 '#ga1 ,the ,kantian ,theory of         
,knowledge refuted  from the ,empirical 
,standpoint4 ,in '#fg he published a    
small book ,on  the ,formation of       
so-called ,cells in ,animal ,bodies4 ,in
 '#ga he went to  ,texas and prosecuted 
his scientific studies on life4 ,he has 
written  in the ,popular ,science       
,monthly1 ,the ,index1 and ,the ,open   
,court and  ,mind4 ,dr4 ,montgomery     

holds not only that there is no evidence
 of a ,god1  but that there is evidence 
to the contrary4    ,montgolfier        
7,michel ,joseph71 aeronaut1 b4 ,aug4   
#agdj4 ,he was the first  to ascend in  
an air balloon1 #e ,june #aghc4 ,a      
friend of ,delambre and  ,la ,lalande1  
he was on the testimony of this last an 
atheist4 ,died #bf  ,june #ahaj4        
,mook 7,friedrich7 ,german writer1 b4   
,bergzabern1 #bi ,sept4 #ahdd1 studied  
philosophy and theology at ,tbingen1 but
 gave up the latter to study  medicine4 
,he lived as a writer at ,heidelberg and
 became lecturer to  a free congregation
 at ,nrenburg1 and wrote a popular ,life
 of ,jesus1  published at ,zrich1       
'#gb-c4 ,he travelled abroad and was    
drowned in  the river ,jordan1 #ac ,dec4
 #ahhj4 ,his brother ,kurt1 b4 #ab ,feb4
 #ahdg1  is a physician who has         
published some poems4    ,moor          
7,edmund71 ,major in the ,east ,indian  
,company1 author of the ,hindu          
,pantheon1 #ahaj and ,oriental          

,fragments1 '#cd4 ,died #ahdj4          
,moreau 7,hgsippe71 ,french poet1 b4    
,paris #i1 ,april #ahaj4 ,a radical  and
 freethinker1 he fought in the          
barricades in '#cj4 ,wrote songs and    
satires of considerable merit1 and a    
prose work entitled ,the ,mistletoe  and
 the ,oak4 ,his life1 which was a       
continual struggle with misery1         
terminated in a hospital1 #bj ,dec4     
#ahch4 ,his works have been collected1  
with an introduction by ,sainte-,beuve4 
,moreau 7,jacques ,joseph71 ,dr4 of     
,tours1 b4 ,montresor1 #ahjd4 ,he became
 a  distinguished alienist of the       
materialist school1 and wrote on ,moral 
,faculties from a medical point of view1
 '#cf1 and many physiological  works4   
,morelly1 ,french socialist of the      
eighteenth century1  b4                 
,vitry-le-,franais1 author of a work    
called ,code de la ,nature1  sometimes  
attributed to ,diderot4 ,it was         
published in #agee1 and urges  that man 
should find circumstances in which      

depravity is minimised4    ,morgan      
7,thomas71 ,welsh ,deist1 known by the  
title of his book as ,the  ,moral       
,philosopher1 #agcg4 ,was a             
,presbyterian1 but was deposed for      
,arianism about #agbc1 and practised    
medicine at ,bristol4 ,he edited        
,radicati's ,dissertation on ,death1    
#agca4 ,his ,moral ,philosopher seeks   
to substitute morality for religion4 ,he
 calls ,moses a more fabulous  romantic 
writer than ,homer or ,ovid1 and attacks
 the evidence of  miracles and prophecy4
 ,this was supplemented by ,a ,further  
,vindication  of ,moral ,truth and      
,reason1 #agci1 and ,superstition and   
,tyranny  ,inconsistent with ,theocracy1
 #agdj4 ,he replied to his opponents    
over  the signature ,philalethes4 ,his  
last work was on ,physico-,theology1    
#agda4 ,lechler calls ,morgan the modern
 ,marcion4 ,died at ,london1  #ad ,jan4 
#agdc4    ,morgan 7,sir ,thomas         
,charles71 ,m4,d41 b4 #aghc4 ,educated  
at ,cambridge4 ,in  #ahaa he was made a 

baronet1 and married ,miss ,sidney      
,owensen4 ,a warm  friend of civil and  
religious liberty and a sceptic1 he is  
author of  ,sketches of the ,philosophy 
of ,life1 '#ah1 and the ,philosophy of  
,morals1  '#ai4 ,the ,examiner says1 ,he
 was never at a loss for a witty or wise
  passage from ,rabelais or ,bayle4     
,died #bh ,aug4 #ahdc4    ,morin 7,andr 
,saturnin71 ,french writer1 b4 ,chatres1
 #bh  ,nov4 #ahjg4 ,brought up to the   
law1 and became an advocate4 ,in '#cj   
he wrote defending the revolution       
against the restoration4 ,in '#dh  he   
was made sous-prefet of ,nogent4 ,during
 the ,empire he combated  vigorously for
 ,republicanism and ,freethought1       
writing under the  signature ,miron1 in 
the ,rationaliste of ,geneva1 the ,libre
 ,pense  of ,paris1 the ,libero-pensiero
 of ,milan1 and other papers4 ,he was   
intimately associated with ,ausonio     
,franchi1 ,trezza1 ,stefanoni1  and the 
,italian ,freethinkers4 ,his principal  
work is an ,examination  of             

,christianity1 in three volumes1 '#fb4  
,his ,jesus ,reduced to his  ,true      
,value has gone through several         
editions4 ,his ,essai de ,critique      
,religieuse1 '#he1 is an able work4 ,m4 
,morin was one of the founders  of the  
,bibliothque ,dmocratique1 to which he  
contributed several  anti-clerical      
volumes1 the one on ,confession being   
translated into  ,english by ,dr4 ,j4   
,r4 ,beard4 ,in '#gf he was elected on  
the ,municipal  ,council of ,paris1     
where he brought forward the question of
 establishing  a crematorium4 ,died at  
,paris1 #e ,july1 #ahhh1 and was        
cremated at ,milan4    ,morison 7,james 
,augustus ,cotter71 ,english ,positivist
 and man of letters1  b4 ,london1 #ahca4
 ,graduated at ,lincoln ,coll4 ,oxford1 
,m4,a41 '#ei4 ,in  '#fc he published the
 ,life and ,times of ,saint ,bernard4   
,he was one of  the founders of the     
,fortnightly ,review1 in which he wrote1
 as well as  in the ,athenum4 ,he       
contributed monographs on ,gibbon and   

,macaulay to  ,morley's ,men of ,letters
 ,series4 ,in '#hf he published his     
striking work  ,the ,service of ,man1 an
 ,essay towards the ,religion of the    
,future1 which  shows that the benefits 
of ,christianity have been much         
exaggerated and  its evils palpable4    
,all his writings are earnest and       
thoughtful4 ,he  collected books and    
studied to write a ,history of ,france1 
which would  have been a noble          
contribution to literature2 but the     
possession of  a competence seems to    
have weakened his industry1 and he never
 did  justice to his powers4 ,even the  
,service of ,man was postponed until  he
 was no longer able to complete it as he
 intended4 ,morison was a  brilliant    
talker1 and the centre of a wide circle 
of friends4 ,george  ,meredith dedicated
 to him a volume of poems4 ,died at     
,hampstead1  #bf ,feb4 #ahhh4    ,morley
 7,john71 ,english writer and statesman1
 b4 ,blackburn1  #bd ,dec4 #ahch1       
educated at ,oxford4 ,among his fellow  

students was  ,j4,c4 ,morison4 ,he      
contributed to ,the ,leader and the     
,saturday ,review1  edited the ,morning 
,star1 and the ,fortnightly ,review1    
'#fg-hb1 in which  appeared the germs of
 most of his works1 such as ,on         
,compromise1  ,voltaire1 '#gb2          
,rousseau1 '#gc2 ,diderot and the       
,encyclopdists  '#gh4 ,during his       
editorship important ,freethought papers
 appeared in  that review4 ,from ,may1  
'#hj till ,aug4 '#hc he edited the ,pall
 ,mall  ,gazette4 ,upon the death of    
,ashton ,dilke1 ,m4,p41 he was elected  
to ,parliament for ,newcastle1 and in   
,feb4 '#hf was appointed by  ,mr4       
,gladstone ,chief ,secretary for        
,ireland4    ,morselli 7,enrico         
,agostino71 ,italian doctor and         
scientist1 b4 ,modena1  #aheb4 ,has     
written many anthropological works1     
notably one on ,suicide  in the         
,international ,scientific ,series1 and 
a study on ,the ,religion  of ,mazzini4 
,he edits the ,rivista di ,filosofia    

,scientifica1 and has  translated       
,herbert ,spencer on the past and future
 of religion4    ,mortillet 7,louis     
,laurent ,gabriel de71 ,french          
scientist1 b4 ,meylan  7,isre71 #bi     
,aug4 #ahba1 and was educated by        
,jesuits4 ,condemned in  '#di for his   
political writings he took refuge in    
,switzerland4 ,he  has done much to     
promote prehistoric studies in ,france4 
,has written  ,materials to serve for   
the positive and philosophical history  
of man1  '#fd4 ,the ,sign of the ,cross 
before ,christianity1 '#ff1             
,contribution  to the ,history of       
,superstition1 and ,prehistoric         
,antiquity of ,man1  '#hb4 ,he          
contributed to the ,revue ,indpendante1 
,pense ,nouvelle1  etc4 ,m4 de          
,mortillet is curator of the ,museum of 
,st4 ,germain and was  elected ,deputy  
in #ahhe4    ,moss 7,arthur ,b471       
lecturer and writer1 b4 #h ,may1 #ahee4 
,has written  numerous pamphlets1 a     
number of which are collected in ,waves 

of  ,freethought1 '#he4 ,others are     
,nature and the ,gods1 ,man and the     
,lower  ,animals1 ,two ,revelations1    
etc4 ,mr4 ,moss has been a contributor  
to  the ,secular ,chronicle1 ,secular   
,review1 ,freethinker1 ,truthseeker1    
and other journals1 and has had a       
written debate on ,was ,jesus ,god  or  
,man4 ,a ,school ,board officer1 he was 
for a time prohibited from  lecturing on
 ,sunday4 ,a collection of his ,lectures
 and ,essays has been  published1 #ahhi4
    ,mothe ,le ,vayer4 ,see ,la ,mothe  
,le ,vayer4    ,mott 7,lucretia71       
,american reformer1 nee ,coffin1 b4     
,nantucket1 #c  ,jan4 #agic4 ,she was a 
,quakeress1 but on the division of the  
,society  in #ahbg went with the party  
who preferred conscience to revelation4 
,a  strong opponent of slavery1 she took
 an active part in the abolitionist     
movement4 ,she was delegated to the     
,world's ,anti-slavery ,convention  in  
,london in #ahdj1 but excluded on       
account of her sex4 ,a friend of  ,mrs4 

,rose and ,mrs4 ,stanton4 ,took an      
active part in ,women's ,rights         
conventions4 ,died at ,philadelphia1 #aa
 ,nov4 #ahhj4    ,muhammad ibn al       
,hudail al ,basri1 philosopher of ,asia 
,minor1 founder  of the ,muhammadan     
,freethinking sect of ,mutazilah1 b4    
about #geg4 ,died  about #hdi4          
,muhammad ,ibn ,muhammad ,ibn ,tarkhan  
7,abu ,nasr47 ,see ,alpharabius4        
,muhammad ,ibn ,yahya ,ibn ,bajjat4 ,see
 ,avempace4    ,muhammad ,jalal ed din4 
,see ,akbar4    ,muller 7,dr4 ,h4 ,c47  
,dutch writer1 b4 #ca ,oct4 #ahee4 ,has 
contributed  good articles to de        
,dageraad 7the ,daybreak71 and is now   
teacher of  modern ,greek at the        
,university of ,amsterdam4    ,murger   
7,henri71 ,french author1 b4 ,paris1    
#ahbb1 contributed to the ,revue  des   
,deux ,mondes1 tales poems and dramas4  
,in his poem ,le ,testament in  ,winter 
,nights he says in answer to the        
inquiring priest ,reponds  lui que j'ai 
lu ,voltaire4 ,his most popular work is 

entitled ,scenes  of ,bohemian ,life4   
,died ,paris1 #bh ,jan4 #ahfa4          
,musset 7,louis ,charles ,alfred de71   
,french poet1 b4 ,paris1 #aa  ,nov4     
#ahaj4 ,before the age of twenty he     
became one of the leaders of the        
,romantic school4 ,his prose romance1   
,confession d'un ,enfant du ,sicle1     
'#cf1 exhibits his intellectual         
development and pessimistic moods4      
,among  his finest works are four poems 
entitled ,nuits4 ,he contributed to  the
 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 and was      
admitted into the ,academy in  '#eb4    
,died at ,paris #a ,may1 #aheg4         
,naber 7,samuel ,adriaan71 learned      
,dutch writer1 b4 ,gravenhage1 #af      
,july1  #ahbh4 ,studied at ,leyden and  
became rector of the ,haarlem gymnasium1
  and head teacher at the ,amsterdam    
,athenum4 ,he has edited a journal  of  
literature1 and is joint author with    
,dr4 ,a4 ,pierson of ,verisimilia       
7#ahhf71 a ,latin work showing the      
fragmentary and disjointed character  of

 the ,epistles attributed to ,paul4     
,nachtigal 7,gustav471 ,dr41 ,german    
traveller1 b4 ,eichstadt1 #bc  ,feb4    
#ahcd4 ,he studied medicine1 went to    
,algiers and ,tunis1 became  private    
physician to the ,bey of ,tunis1        
explored ,north ,africa1 and  wrote an  
account thereof1 ,sahara und ,sudan4 ,he
 became ,german ,consul  ,general at    
,tunis1 and died #bj ,april1 #ahhe4     
,naigeon 7,jacques ,andr71 ,french      
atheist1 b4 ,dijon #agbh4 ,at first an  
art student1 he became a disciple and   
imitator of ,diderot4 ,he became        
copyist to and collaborator with        
,holbach and conveyed his works to      
,amsterdam to be printed4 ,he           
contributed to the ,encyclopdie1 notably
  the articles ,ame and ,unitaires and  
composed the ,militaire ,philosophe1  or
 difficulties on religion proposed to   
,father ,malebranche1 #agfh4 ,this  was 
his first work1 the last chapter being  
written by ,holbach4 ,he  took some     
share in several of the works of that   

writer1 notably in the  ,theologie      
,portative4 ,he published the ,recuil   
,philosophique1 #b vols41  ,londres     
7,amst471 #aggj2 edited ,holbach's      
,essay on ,prejudices and his  ,morale  
,universelle4 ,he also edited the works 
of ,diderot1 the essays  of ,montaigne  
and a translation of ,toland's          
philosophical letters4 ,his  principal  
work is the ,dictionary of ,ancient and 
,modern ,philosophy in  the ,encyclopdie
 ,mthodique 7,paris #agia-id47 ,he      
addressed the ,national  ,assembly on   
,liberty of ,opinion1 #agij1 and asked  
them to withhold  the name of ,god and  
religion from their declaration of the  
rights of  man4 ,naigeon was of         
estimable character4 ,died at ,paris1   
#bh ,feb4 #ahaj4    ,naquet 7,joseph    
,alfred74 ,french materialist1 b4       
,carpentras1 #f ,oct4 #ahcd1  became    
,m4,d4 in '#ei4 ,in '#fg he received    
fifteen months imprisonment for         
belonging to a secret society4 ,he      
founded1 with ,m4 ,regnard1 the ,revue  

,encyclopdique1 which was suppressed at 
once for containing an attack  on       
theism4 ,in '#fi he issued a work on    
,religion1 ,property1 and ,family1      
which was seized and the author         
condemned to four months imprisonment1  
a fine of five hundred francs1 and the  
perpetual interdict of civil  rights4   
,he represented ,vaucluse in the        
,national ,assembly1 where he  has voted
 with the extreme left4 ,he was         
re-elected in '#ha4 ,the new  law of    
divorce in ,france has been passed      
chiefly through ,m4 ,naquet's  energetic
 advocacy4 ,in '#hc he was elected to   
the ,senate1 and of late  has           
distinguished himself by his advocacy of
 ,general ,boulanger4    ,nascimento    
7,francisco ,manuel do74 ,portuguese    
poet1 b4 ,lisbon1 #bc  ,dec1 #agcd4 ,he 
entered the ,church1 but having         
translated ,molire's  ,tartuffe1 was    
accused of heresy 7#aggh71 and had to   
fly for his life  from the ,inquisition4
 ,he wrote many poems and satires under 

the name of  ,filinto ,elysio4 ,died #be
 ,feb4 #ahai4    ,navez 7,napoleon71    
,belgian ,freethinker1 president of ,la 
,libre ,pense1  of ,antwerp1 and active 
member of the ,council of the           
,international  ,federation of          
,freethinkers4    ,nelson 7,gustave71 a 
writer in the ,new ,york ,truthseeker1  
conjectured to  be the author of ,bible 
,myths and their ,parallels in other    
,religions1  a large and learned work1  
showing how much of ,christianity has   
been  taken from ,paganism4    ,newcomb 
7,simon71 ,,ll4,d41 ,american           
astronomer1 b4 ,wallace1 7,nova         
,scotia71 #ab ,march1 #ahce4 ,went to   
the ,united ,states in '#ec1 and was    
appointed computor on the ,nautical     
,almanack4 ,in '#gg he became senior    
professor of mathematics in the ,u4 ,s4 
navy4 ,he has been associated  with the 
equipment of the ,lick observatory1 and 
has written many  works on mathematics  
and astronomy1 as well as ,principles of
 ,political  ,economy1 #ahhe4    ,newman

 7,francis ,william7 brother of         
,cardinal ,newman1 b4 ,london  #ahje4   
,educated at ,oxford1 he was elected to 
a fellowship at ,balliol  ,college '#bf1
 but resigned in '#cj1 being unable     
conscientiously to  comply with the     
regulations of the ,test ,act then in   
force4 ,he then  went to ,bagdad with   
the object of assisting in a ,christian 
mission1  but his further studies       
convinced him he could not              
conscientiously  undertake the work4 ,he
 returned to ,england and became        
classical  teacher in ,bristol ,college1
 and subsequently ,latin ,professor at  
,london ,university4 ,in ,the ,soul3 its
 ,sorrows and ,aspirations1 '#di1  he   
states his ,theistic position1 and in   
,phases of ,faith1 '#ej1 he  explains   
how he came to give up ,christianity4   
,he has also written ,a  ,history of the
 ,hebrew ,monarchy1 '#dg1 ,theism3      
,doctrinal and ,practical1  '#eh1 and a 
number of ,scott's tracts on the        
,defective ,morality of  the ,new       

,testament1 the ,historical ,depravation
 of ,christianity1 the  ,religious      
,weakness of ,protestantism1 etc4 ,also 
,religion not ,history1  '#gg2 ,what is 
,christianity without ,christ8 '#ha2    
,christianity in its  ,cradle1 '#hd2 and
 ,life after ,death1 '#hf4    ,neymann  
7,clara71 ,german ,american ,freethought
 lecturess1 friend and  colleague of    
,frau ,hedwig ,henrich ,wilhelmi4       
,nicholson 7,william71 ,english writer  
on chemistry and natural  philosophy1 b4
 ,london #agec4 ,he went to ,india at an
 early age1 and upon  returning settled 
at ,london as a ,mathematical teacher4  
,he published  useful introductions to  
chemistry and natural philosophy4       
,conducted  the ,british ,encyclopedia1 
and the ,journal of ,natural            
,philosophy4 ,he  also wrote ,the       
,doubts of the ,infidels1 submitted to  
the ,bench of  ,bishops by a weak       
,christian1 #agha1 a work republished by
 ,carlile and  also by ,watson4 ,he died
 in poor circumstances #ba ,may1 #ahae4 

,nicolai 7,christoph ,friedrich71       
,german writer1 b4 ,berlin1 #ah ,march1 
#agcc4 ,a friend of ,lessing1 and ,moses
 ,mendelssohn2 he was noted  for        
founding ,the ,universal ,german        
,library4 ,he wrote anecdotes of        
,friedrich ,,ii41 and many other works4 
,died at ,berlin1 #h ,jan4 #ahaa4       
,nietzsche 7,friedrich ,wilhelm71       
,german writer1 b4 ,lutzen1 #ae ,oct4   
#ahdd1  author of sketches of ,strauss1 
,schopenhauer1 and ,wagner1 and of      
,morgenrthe1 and other philosophical    
works4 ,died #ahhi4    ,nieuwenhuis     
7,ferdinand ,jakob ,domela71 ,dutch     
publicist1 b4 ,utrecht1  #c ,may1 #ahdh4
 ,at first a minister of the ,lutheran  
church1 on ,nov4 #be1  '#gg1 he told his
 congregation that he had ceased to     
believe in  ,christianity1 and as an    
honest man resigned4 ,he then           
contributed  to ,de ,banier 7,banner7 de
 ,dageraad 7,dawn7 and de ,vragen des   
,tijds  7,questions of the time47 ,on   
#ast ,march1 '#gi he started a          

,socialist  paper ,recht voor ,allen1   
now an important daily organ of         
,socialism and  ,freethought4 ,his      
principle writings are--,with ,jesus1   
,for or against  ,socialism1 ,the       
,religious ,oath ,question1 ,the        
,religion of ,reason1  ,the ,religion of
 ,humanity4 ,on ,jan4 #ai1 '#hg1 he was 
sentenced to one  years' solitary       
confinement for an article he had not   
written1 and  was harshly treated till  
upon pressure of public opinion1 he was 
liberated #cj ,aug4 #ahhg4 ,he is now   
member of the ,dutch ,parliament4       
,noeldeke 7,theodor71 ,german           
,orientalist1 b4 ,harburg1 #b ,march1   
#ahcf4 ,studied at ,gottingen1 ,vienna1 
,leyden1 and ,berlin1 and has been      
professor of oriental studies at        
,gottingen1 ,kiel1 and ,strasburg4 ,he  
has written a ,history of the ,koran1   
'#ef2 a ,life of ,mahomet1 '#fc2 and  a 
,literary ,history of the ,old          
,testament1 which has been translated   
into ,french by ,,mm4 ,derembourg and   

,j4 ,soury1 '#gc4    ,noire 7,ludwig71  
,german monist1 b4 #bf ,march1 #ahbi4   
,studied at ,geissen1  and became a     
teacher at ,mainz4 ,his works show the  
influence of  ,spinoza and              
,schopenhauer4 ,he is the author of     
,aphorisms on the ,monist  philosophy1  
'#gg1 and a work on the ,origin of      
,speech1 '#gg4 ,he contends  that       
language originates in instinctive      
sounds accompanying will in  associative
 actions4 ,died #bf ,march1 #ahhi4      
,noorthouck 7,john71 author of a        
,history of ,london1 #aggc1 and an      
,historical and ,classical ,dictionary1 
#aggf4 ,has been credited with  the     
,life of the ,man ,after ,god's ,own    
,heart4 ,see ,annet4    ,nordau 7,max   
,simon71 b4 of ,jewish parents at       
,pesth1 #bi ,july1 #ahdi4 ,he  became a 
physician in '#gc4 ,he has written      
several books of travels  and made some 
noise by his trenchant work on          
,convential ,lies of our  ,civilisation4
 ,he has since written on ,the ,sickness

 of the ,century4    ,nork 7,felix74    
,see ,korn 7,selig74    ,nott 7,josiah  
,clark71 ,dr41 ,american ethnologist1 b4
 ,columbia1 ,south  ,carolina1 #bd      
,march1 #ahjd4 ,he wrote ,the ,physical 
,history of the ,jewish  ,race1 ,types  
of ,mankind1 '#ed1 and ,indigenous      
,races of the ,earth1 '#ee2  the last   
two conjointly with ,g4 ,r4 ,gliddon1   
and with the object of  disproving the  
theory of the unity of the human race4  
,died at ,mobile1  #ca ,march1 #ahgc4   
,noun 7,paul71 ,french author of ,the   
,scientific ,errors of the ,bible1      
#ahha4    ,noyes 7,thomas ,herbert71    
author of ,hymns of ,modern ,man1 #ahgj4
    ,nunez 7,rafael71 ,president of     
,columbia1 b4 ,carthagena1 #bh ,sept4   
#ahbe4 ,he  has written many poems and  
political articles1 and in philosophy is
  a follower of ,mill and ,spencer4     
,nuytz 7,louis ,andr74 ,see             
,andre-,nuytz4    ,nystrom 7,anton      
,christen71 ,dr4 ,swedish ,positivist1  
b4 #ae  ,feb4 #ahdb4 ,studied at ,upsala

 and became a medical doctor in ,lund1  
'#fh4 ,he served as assistant and field 
doctor in the ,dano-,prussian  war of   
'#fg1 and now practises an alienist in  
,stockholm1 where he has  established a 
,positivist ,society and ,workmen's     
,institute4 ,has written  a ,history of 
,civilisation4    ,ocellus ,lucanus1    
early ,greek philosopher1 who maintained
 the  eternity of the cosmos4 ,an       
edition of his work was published with a
  translation by the ,marquis d',argens1
 and ,thomas ,taylor published an       
,english version4    ,ochino            
7,bernardino ,tommasini71 ,italian      
reformer1 b4 ,sienna1 #adhg4 ,a  popular
 preacher1 he was chosen general of the 
,capuchins4 ,converted to  the          
,reformation by ,jean ,valdez1 he had to
 fly to ,geneva1 #aedb4 ,invited  to    
,england by ,cranmer1 he became prebend 
of ,canterbury and preached  in ,london 
until the accession of ,mary1 when he   
was expelled and went  to ,zurich4 ,here
 he became an ,antitrinitarian1 and was 

banished about  #aefb for ,thirty       
,dialogues1 in one of which he shows    
that neither in the  ,bible nor the     
,fathers is there any express           
prohibition of polygamy4 ,he  went to   
,poland and joined the ,socinians1 was  
banished thence also1  and died         
,slaukau1 ,moravia1 in #aefd4 ,beza     
ascribes the misfortunes of  ,ochinus1  
and particularly the accidental death of
 his wife1 to the  special interposition
 of ,god on account of his erroneous    
opinions4    ,o',connor 7,arthur1       
afterwards ,condorcet71 ,general1 b4    
,mitchells1 near  ,bandon 7,cork71 #d   
,july1 #agfh4 ,joined the ,united       
,irishmen and went  to ,france to       
negotiate for military aid4 ,in ,may    
#agih he was tried  for treason and     
acquitted4 ,he entered the ,french      
service and rose to  distinction4 ,in   
#ahjg he married ,elisa1 the only       
daughter of ,condorcet1  whose name he  
took1 and whose works he edited4 ,he    
also edited the  ,journal of ,religious 

,freedom4 ,died at ,bignon1 #be ,april1 
#aheb4    ,o',donoghue 7,alfred ,h47    
,irish ,american counsellor at law1 b4  
about  #ahdj4 ,educated for the         
,episcopal ministry at ,trinity         
,college1 ,dublin1  but became a sceptic
 and published ,theology and ,mythology1
 an inquiry  into the claims of         
,biblical inspiration and the           
supernatural element  in religion1 at   
,new ,york1 #ahhj4    ,oest 7,johann    
,heinrich7 ,german poet1 b4 ,cassel     
#agbg4 ,wrote poems  published at       
,hamburg1 #agea1 and was accused of     
materialism4    ,offen 7,benjamin71     
,american ,freethinker1 b4 in ,england1 
#aggb4 ,he  emigrated to ,new ,york1    
where he became lecturer to the ,society
 of  ,moral ,philantropists at ,tammany 
,hall4 ,he wrote ,biblical ,criticism   
and ,a ,legacy to the ,friends of ,free 
,discussion1 and supported the          
,correspondent1 ,free ,inquirer1 and    
,boston ,investigator4 ,died ,new ,york1
  #ab ,may1 #ahdh4    ,offray de la     

,mettrie 7,julian74 ,see ,lamettrie4    
,o',keefe 7,j4 ,a471 ,m4,d4 ,educated in
 ,germany2 author of an essay ,on  the  
,progress of the ,human ,understanding1 
#agie1 in which he speaks  disparagingly
 of ,christianity4 ,he was a follower of
 ,kant1 and was  classed with ,living   
,authors of ,great ,britain in #ahaf4   
,o',kelly 7,edmund de ,pentheny71 a     
descendant of the ,o',kelly's2 author   
of ,consciousness1 or the ,age of       
,reason1 #ahec2 ,theological ,papers1   
published by ,holyoake2 and ,theology   
for the ,people1 '#ee1 a series of      
short papers suggestive of religious    
,theism4    ,oken 7,lorenz71 ,german    
morphologist and philosopher1 b4        
,offenburg1  #b ,aug4 #aggi4 ,he studied
 at ,gttingen and became a privat-docent
 in  that university4 ,in a remarkable  
,sketch of ,natural ,philosophy1 #ahjb1 
he advanced a scheme of evolution4 ,he  
developed his system in a work  on      
,generation1 #ahje1 and a ,manual of    
,natural ,philosophy1 #ahji4 ,he  was   

professor at ,jena1 but dismissed for   
his liberal views4 ,from  '#ag till '#dh
 he edited the scientific journal ,isis4
 ,in '#cb he became  a professor at     
,zrich1 where he died1 #aa ,aug4 #ahea4 
,oliver 7,william71 ,m4,d41 of ,bath1   
who was accused of ,atheism4 ,died      
#agfd4    ,omar ,khayyam4 ,see ,khayyam4
    ,omboni 7,giovanni71 ,lombard       
naturalist1 b4 ,abbiategrasso1 #bi      
,june1  #ahbi4 ,is professor of geology 
at ,padua1 and author of many scientific
  works4    ,onimus 7,ernest ,nicolas   
,joseph71 ,dr41 ,french ,positivist1 b4 
near  ,mulhouse1 #f ,dec4 #ahdj4        
,studied medicine at ,strasburg and     
,paris1  and wrote a treatise on ,the   
,dynamical ,theory of ,heat in          
,biological  ,sciences1 #ahff4 ,in '#gc 
he was one of the jury of the ,vienna   
,exhibition1  and obtained the ,cross of
 the ,legion of ,honor4 ,is author of   
the  ,psychology in the ,plays of       
,shakespere1 '#gh1 and has written in   
the  ,revue ,positive and other         

periodicals4    ,oort 7,henricus71      
,dutch rationalist1 b4 ,eemnes1 #bg     
,dec4 #ahcf4 ,studied  theology at      
,leyden1 and became teacher at          
,amsterdam4 ,has written many  works1 of
 which we mention ,the ,worship of      
,baalim in ,israel1 translated  by ,bp4 
,colenso1 #ahfe1 and ,the ,bible for    
,young ,people1 written with  ,drs4     
,hooykaas and ,kuenen1 and translated by
 ,p4 ,h4 ,wickstead1 #ahgc-gi4          
,orelli 7,johann ,kaspar von71 learned  
,swiss critic1 b4 ,zrich1  #ac ,feb4    
#aghi4 ,edited many classics1 and wrote 
a letter in favor of  ,strauss at the   
time when there was an outcry at his    
being appointed  ,professor at ,zrich4  
,died #f ,jan4 #ahdi4    ,osborne       
7,francis71 ,english writer1 b4         
,clucksand1 ,beds4 #aehi4 ,was an       
adherent of ,cromwell in the ,civil     
,war4 ,his ,advice to a ,son1 #afef1 was
  popular though much censured by the   
,puritans who drew up a complaint       
against his works and proposed to have  

them burnt1 and an order was  passed #bg
 ,july1 #afeh1 forbidding them to be    
sold4 ,died #afei4    ,oscar 7,l471     
,swiss writer1 author of ,religion      
,traced ,back to its  ,source1 ,basel1  
#ahgd4 ,he considers religion a belief  
in conflict  with experience and resting
 on exaggerated fancies of animism and  
mythology4 ,one of his chapters is      
entitled ,the ,crucifixion of the  ,son 
of ,god as ,christian mythology4        
,ossoli 7,countess d'74 ,see ,fuller    
7,margaret74    ,oswald 7,eugen71       
,german teacher in ,england4 ,author of 
many popular  school books1 and a ,study
 of ,positivism in ,england1 #ahhd4     
,oswald 7,felix ,leopold71 ,american    
writer1 b4 ,belgium1 #ahde4 ,educated   
as a physician1 he has devoted his      
attention to natural history1  and in   
pursuit of his studies has travelled    
extensively4 ,he has  contributed to the
 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,the       
,truthseeker and other  journals1 and   
has published ,summerland ,sketches1 or 

,rambles in the  ,backwoods of ,mexico  
and ,central ,america1 '#ha2 ,physical  
,education1  '#hb2 ,the ,secrets of the 
,east1 '#hc1 which argues that          
,christianity  is derived from          
,buddhism1 and ,the ,bible of ,nature or
 the ,principles  of ,secularism1 '#hh4 
,dr4 ,oswald is now employed as ,curator
 of ,natural  ,history in ,brazil4      
,o',toole 7,adam ,duff71 ,irish         
,freethought martyr1 burnt to death at  
,hogging 7now ,college7 ,green1 ,dublin1
 in #acbg4 ,holinshed says he  denied   
obstinatelie the incarnation of our     
savior1 the trinitie  of persons in the 
vnitie of the ,godhead and the          
resurrection of the  flesh2 as for the  
,holie ,scripture1 he said it was but a 
fable2 the  ,virgin ,marie he affirmed  
to be a woman of dissolute life1 and the
  ,apostolic see erronious4    ,ouida1  
,see ,rame 7,louise de la74    ,ouvry   
7,henry ,aim71 ,col41 translator of     
,feuchterslebens1 ,dietetics  of the    
,soul and ,rau's ,unsectarian           

,catechism1 and author of several  works
 on the land question4    ,overton      
7,richard71 ,english ,republican1 who   
wrote a satire on relics1  #afdb1 and a 
treatise on ,man's ,mortality 7,london1 
#afdc1 ,amsterdam1  #afdd7 a work       
designed to show man is naturally       
mortal4    ,owen 7,robert71 social      
reformer1 b4 ,newton1 ,montgomeryshire1 
,wales1 #ad  ,march1 #agga4 ,at #ah he  
was so distinguished by his business    
talents that  he became partner in a    
cotton mill4 ,in #agig he married the   
daughter  of ,david ,dale1 and soon     
afterwards became partner and sole      
manager  at ,new ,lanark ,mills1 where  
he built the first infant schools and   
improved the dwellings of the workmen4  
,from #ahaj-ae he published ,new  ,views
 on ,society1 or1 ,essays on the        
,formation of ,character4 ,in '#ag he   
caused much excitement by proclaiming   
that the religions of the world  were   
all false1 and that man was the creature
 of circumstances4 ,in  '#bd he went to 

,america and purchased ,new ,harmony1   
,indiana1 from the  ,rappists to found a
 new community1 but the experiment was a
 failure1  as were also others at       
,orbiston1 ,laner1 and ,queenswood1     
,hants4 ,in  '#bh he debated at         
,cincinatti with ,alex4 ,campbell on the
 ,evidences of  ,christianity4 ,he      
published a numerous series of tracts1  
,robert ,owen's  ,journal1 and ,the ,new
 ,moral ,world1 '#ce4 ,he debated on his
 ,social  ,system with the ,rev4 ,j4 ,h4
 ,roebuck1 ,r4 ,brindley1 etc4 ,as his  
mind  began to fail he accepted the     
teachings of ,spiritism4 ,died ,newton1 
#ag ,nov4 #aheh4 ,owen profoundly       
influenced the thought of his time in   
the direction of social amelioration1   
and he is justly respected for  his     
energy1 integrity and disinterested     
philanthropy4    ,owen 7,robert ,dale71 
son of the above1 b4 ,glasgow #i ,nov4  
#ahjj4 ,was  educated by his father till
 #ahbj1 when he was sent to             
,fellenberg's  school1 near ,berne1     

,switzerland4 ,in '#be he went to       
,america to aid  in the efforts to found
 a colony at ,new ,harmony1 ,indiana4   
,on the  failure of that experiment he  
began with ,frances ,wright1 in ,nov4   
'#bh1  the publication of the ,free     
,inquirer1 which was continued till     
'#cb4 ,in that year he had a written    
discussion with ,o4 ,bachelor on  the   
existence of ,god1 and the authenticity 
of the ,bible1 in which he  ably        
championed the ,freethought cause4 ,he  
wrote a number of tracts  of which we   
mention ,situations1 #ahci2 ,address on 
,free ,inquiry1 #ahdj2  ,prossimo's     
,experience1 ,consistency1 ,galileo and 
the ,inquisition4 ,he  was elected to   
,congress in '#dc4 ,after fifteen years 
of labor he  secured the women of       
,indiana independent rights of property4
 ,he  became charge d'affaires at       
,naples in '#ec4 ,during the civil war  
he  strongly advocated slave            
emancipation4 ,like his father he became
 a  ,spiritualist4 ,died at ,lake       

,george1 #ag ,june1 #ahgg4    ,paalzow  
7,christian ,ludwig71 ,german jurist1 b4
 ,osterburg 7,altmark71  #bf ,nov4      
#agec1 translated ,voltaire's           
commentaries on ,the ,spirit of  the    
,laws and ,burigny's ,examination of the
 ,apologists of ,christianity           
7,leipzic1 #agic71 and wrote a ,history 
of ,religious ,cruelty 7,mainz1  #ahjj74
 ,died #bj ,may1 #ahbd4    ,paepe       
7,cesar de74 ,see ,de ,paepe4    ,pagano
 7,francisco ,mario ,saverio ,antonio   
,carlo ,pasquale74 ,italian  jurist1    
philosopher and patriot1 b4 ,brienza1   
#agdh4 ,he studied at  ,naples1 and     
became the friend of ,filangieri4 ,was  
made professor  of criminal law in      
#aghg4 ,for his ,political ,essays in   
three volumes  7#aghc-ib7 he was accused
 of ,atheism and impiety4 ,he wrote on  
,criminal  ,process and a work on ,god  
and ,nature4 ,taking part in the        
,provisional  ,government of the        
,neapolitan ,republic in #agia1 he was  
taken prisoner  by the royalists and    

executed #f ,oct4 #ahjj4    ,page       
7,david74 ,scotch geologist1 b4 #bi     
,aug4 #ahad4 ,author of  introductory   
and advanced text-books of geology1     
which went through  many editions4 ,he  
gave advanced lectures in ,edinburgh1   
and edited  ,life ,lights of ,song1     
'#fd4 ,his ,man ,where1 ,whence1 and    
,whither81  '#fg1 advocating ,darwinian 
views1 made some stir in ,scotland4 ,he 
became professor of geology at ,durham  
,university4 ,a friend of ,robert       
,chambers1 he was for some time credited
 with that writer's ,vestiges  of       
,creation1 in the scientific details of 
which he assisted4 ,died at             
,newcastle-on-,tyne1 #i ,march1 #ahgi4  
,paget 7,violet74 ,english authoress1   
who1 under the pen-name of ,vernon      
,lee1 has written ,studies of the       
,eighteenth ,century in ,italy and      
,baldwin1 dialogues on views and        
aspirations #ahhf4 ,since '#ga she has  
lived chiefly in ,florence1 and         
contributes to the principal reviews1   

an article in the ,contemporary 7,may   
'#hc7 on ,responsibilities of  ,unbelief
 being particularly noticeable4 ,miss   
,paget's writings show  a cultivated    
mind and true literary instinct4        
,pageze 7,l47 ,french ,socialist2 has   
written on the ,concordat and the       
,budget des ,cultes1 '#hf1 ,separation  
of ,church and ,state1 '#hg1 etc4       
,paine 7,thomas71 ,deist1 b4 ,thetford1 
,norfolk1 #bi ,jan41 #agcg4 ,his father 
was a ,quaker and staymaker1 and ,paine 
was brought up to the trade4 ,he  left  
home while still young1 went to ,london 
and ,sandwich1 where he  married the    
daughter of an exciseman1 and entered   
the excise4 ,he  was selected by his    
official associates to embody their     
wants in a  paper1 and on this work he  
displayed such talent that ,franklin1   
then  in ,london1 suggested ,america as 
a good field for his abilities4 ,paine  
went in #aggd1 and soon found work for  
his pen4 ,he became editor of the       
,pennsylvanian ,magazine and contributed

 to the ,pennsylvanian journal  a strong
 anti-slavery essay4 ,common ,sense1    
published early in #aggf1  advocating   
absolute independence for ,america1 did 
more than anything  else to precipitate 
the great events of that year4 ,each    
number of  the ,crisis1 which appeared  
during the war1 was read by             
,washington's  order to each regiment in
 the service4 ,paine subscribed largely 
to the army1 and served for a short time
 himself4 ,after peace was  declared1   
congress voted him three thousand       
dollars1 and the state  of ,new ,york   
gave him a large farm4 ,paine turned his
 attention to  mechanics1 and invented  
the tubular iron bridge1 which he       
endeavored  to introduce in ,europe4    
,reaching ,france during the            
,revolution1  he published a pamphlet   
advocating the abolition of royalty4 ,in
  #agia he published his ,rights of     
,man1 in reply to ,burke4 ,for this  he 
was outlawed4 ,escaping from ,england1  
he went to ,france1 where he  was       

elected to the ,convention4 ,he stoutly 
opposed the execution of  the king1 and 
was thrown by ,robespierre into the     
,luxembourg prison1  where for nearly a 
year he awaited the guillotine4 ,during 
this time  he wrote the first part of   
the ,age of ,reason1 which he completed 
on his release4 ,this famous book1      
though vulnerable in some minor  points 
of criticism1 throws a flood of light on
 ,christian dogmas1  and has had a more 
extended sale than any other            
,freethought work4 ,as  a natural       
consequence1 ,paine has been an object  
of incessant slander  by the clergy4    
,paine died at ,new ,york #h ,june1     
#ahji1 and1 by his own  direction was   
buried on his farm at ,new ,rochelle4   
,cobbett is said to  have disinterred   
him and brought his bones to ,england4  
,pajot 7,franois74 ,see ,liniere4       
,paleario 7,aonio71 i4e41 ,antonio1     
della ,paglia1 ,italian humanist and    
martyr1 b4 about #aejj at ,vroli in the 
,roman ,campagna4 ,in #aebj he  went to 

,rome and took place among the brilliant
 men of letters of  court of ,leo ,x4   
,after the taking of ,rome by ,charles  
,v4 he retired  to ,sienna4 ,in #aecf he
 published at ,lyons an elegant ,latin  
poem on  the ,mortality of the          
,soul--modeled on ,lucretius4 ,he was   
,professor  of ,eloquence at ,milan for 
ten years1 but was accused of heresy4   
,he  had called the ,inquisition a      
poignard directed against all men of    
letters4 ,on #c ,july1 #aegj1 he was    
hung and his body thrown into the       
flames4 ,a work on the ,benefit of      
,christ's ,death has been attributed to 
him on insufficient grounds4 ,it is     
attributed to ,benedetto da ,mantova4   
,pallas 7,peter ,simon71 ,german        
naturalist and traveller1 b4 ,berlin1   
#bb ,sept4 #agda4 ,educated as a        
physician at ,gottingen and ,leyden1  he
 was invited by ,catherine ,,ii4 to     
become ,professor of ,natural  ,history 
at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,he travelled      
through ,siberia and settled  in the    

,crimea4 ,in #ahaj he returned to       
,berlin1 where he died #h  ,sept4 #ahaa4
 ,lalande spoke highly of him1 and      
,cuvier considered him  the founder of  
modern geology4    ,pallavicino         
7,ferrante71 ,italian poet and wit1 b4  
,piacenza #afaf4 ,he  became a canon of 
the ,lateran congregation1 but for      
composing some  satirical pieces against
 ,pope ,urban ,,viii4 had a price set on
 his  head4 ,he fled to ,venice1 but a  
false friend betrayed him to the        
,inquisition1 and he was beheaded at    
,avignon1 #e ,march1 #afdd4    ,palmer  
7,courtlandt71 ,american reformer1 b4   
,new ,york1 #be ,march1  #ahdc1         
graduated at the ,columbia law-school in
 '#fi4 ,he was brought  up in the ,dutch
 ,reformed ,church1 but became a        
,freethinker while  still young4 ,mr4   
,palmer did much to promote ,liberal    
ideas4 ,in '#hj  he established and     
became ,president of the ,nineteenth    
,century ,club1  for the utmost liberty 
of public discussion4 ,he contributed to

 the  ,freethinker's ,magazine1         
,truthseeker1 etc4 ,a sister married    
,prof4 ,draper  with whom he was        
intimate4 ,died at ,new ,york1 #bc      
,july1 #ahhh1 and was  cremated at      
,fresh ,pond1 his friend ,col4 ,r4 ,g4  
,ingersoll delivering  an eulogium4     
,palmer 7,elihu71 ,american author1 b4  
,canterbury1 ,connecticut1  #agfd4 ,he  
graduated at ,dartmouth in #aghg1 and   
studied divinity but  became a deist in 
#agia4 ,in #agic he became totally blind
 from an  attack of yellow fever4 ,in   
#agig he lectured to a ,deistical       
,society  in ,new ,york4 ,after this he 
dictated his ,principles of ,nature1    
#ahjb1  a powerful anti-,christian work1
 reprinted by ,carlile in '#ai4 ,he also
  wrote ,prospect or ,view of the ,moral
 ,world from the year #ahjd4 ,palmer    
was the head of the ,society of         
,columbian ,illuminati founded in ,new  
,york in #ahja4 ,he died in             
,philadelphia1 #g ,april1 #ahjf4        
,panaetius1 ,stoic philosopher1 b4      

,rhodes1 a pupil of ,diogenes the       
,stoic1  and perhaps of ,carneades4     
,about #aej ,b4,c4 he visited ,rome and 
taught a  moderate stoicism1 denying the
 doctrine of the conflagration of the   
world1 and placing physics before       
dialectics4 ,he wrote a work ,on        
,duties1 to which ,cicero expresses his 
indebtedness in his ,de ,officiis4      
,died in ,athens #aaa ,b4,c4            
,pancoucke 7,charles ,joseph71 eminent  
,french publisher1 b4 ,lille1 #bf  ,nov4
 #agcf4 ,he settled at ,paris and became
 acquainted with d',alembert1  ,garat1  
etc41 and was a correspondent of        
,rousseau1 ,buffon and ,voltaire1  whose
 works he brought out4 ,he translated   
,lucretius1 #agfh1 brought out  the     
,mercure de ,france1 projected in #agha 
the important ,encyclopdie  ,mthodique1 
of which there are #aff vols41 and      
founded the ,moniteur1  #aghi4 ,died at 
,paris1 #ai ,dec4 #agih4    ,pantano    
7,eduardo71 ,italian author of a little 
book on the ,sicilian  ,vespers and the 

,commune1 ,catania1 #ahhb4    ,papillon 
7,j4 ,henri ,fernand71 ,french          
philosophic writer1 b4 ,belfort1  #e    
,june1 #ahdg4 ,he wrote an ,introduction
 to ,chemical ,philosophy1  '#fe2       
contributed to the ,revue de            
,philosophie ,positive and the ,revue   
des ,deux ,mondes4 ,his principal work  
is entitled ,nature and ,life1  '#gc4   
,died at ,paris #ca ,dec4 #ahgc4        
,paquet 7,henri ,remi ,ren71 ,french    
writer1 b4 ,charleville1 #bi  ,sep4     
#ahde4 ,after studying under the        
,jesuits he went to ,paris1  where he   
became an advocate1 but devoted his main
 attention to  literature4 ,under the   
anagram of ,nre ,qupat he has published 
,la  ,lorgnette ,philosophique1 '#gb1 a 
dictionary of the great and little      
philosophers of our time1 a study of ,la
 ,mettrie entitled ,materialist         
,philosophy in the ,eighteenth ,century 
and other works4    ,pare 7,william71   
,owenite ,social reformer1 b4           
,birmingham1 #aa  ,aug4 #ahje4 ,wrote an

 abridgment of ,thompson's ,distribution
 of ,wealth1  also works on ,capital and
 ,labor '#ed1 ,co-operative             
,agriculture1 at  ,rahaline1 '#gj1 etc4 
,he compiled vol4 #a of the ,biography  
of ,robert  ,owen4 ,died at ,croydon1   
#ah ,june1 #ahgc4    ,parfait 7,noel71  
,french writer and politician1 b4       
,chartres1 #cj  ,nov4 #ahad4 ,took part 
in the revolution of '#cj1 and wrote    
many radical  brochures4 ,after the coup
 d'tat he took refuge in ,belgium4 ,in  
'#ga  was elected deputy and sat on the 
extreme left4    ,parfait 7,paul71 son  
of the foregoing1 b4 ,paris1 #ahda4     
,author of  ,l',arsenal de la ,dvotion1 
'#gf1 ,notes to serve for a history of  
superstition1 and a supplement ,le      
,dossier des ,plerinages1 '#gg1  and    
other pieces4 ,died #ahha4    ,parisot  
7,jean ,patrocle71 a ,frenchman who     
wrote ,la ,foy devoile par  la raison1  
#afha ,faith ,unveiled by ,reason1 a    
work whose title seems  to have         
occasioned its suppression4    ,parker  

7,theodore71 ,american rationalist1 b4  
,lexington1 ,mass41 #bd  ,aug4 #ahaj4   
,from his father--a ,unitarian--he      
inherited independence  of mind1        
courage1 and love of speculation4       
,brought up in poverty he  studied hard1
 and acquired a ,university education   
while laboring on the  farm4 ,in ,march1
 '#ca1 he became an assistant teacher at
 ,boston4 ,in ,june1  '#cg1 he was      
ordained ,unitarian minister4 ,parker   
gradually became known  as an           
iconoclast1 and study of the ,german    
critics made him a complete             
rationalist1 so that even the ,unitarian
 body rejected him4 ,a society  was     
established to give him a hearing in    
,boston1 and soon his fame  was         
established4 ,his ,discourse on ,matters
 ,pertaining to ,religion1  '#dg1       
exhibited his fundamental views4 ,he    
translated and enlarged  ,de ,wette's   
,critical ,introduction to the ,old     
,testament4 ,a fearless  opponent of the
 ,fugitive ,slave ,law1 he sheltered    

slaves in his own  house4 ,early in '#ei
 failing health compelled him to        
relinquish his  duties4 ,died at        
,florence1 #aj ,may1 #ahfj4 ,he         
bequeathed his library of  #ac1jjj      
volumes to the ,boston ,public ,library4
    ,parmenides1 a ,greek philosopher1  
b4 ,elea1 ,italy1 #eah ,b4,c4 ,is said  
to have been a disciple of ,xenophanes4 
,he developed his philosophy  about #dgj
 ,b4,c4 in a didactic poem ,on ,nature1 
fragments of which are  preserved by    
,sextus ,empiricus4 ,he held to ,reason 
as our guide1 and  considered nature    
eternal4    ,parny 7variste ,dsir de    
,forges de71 ,viscount4 ,french poet1   
b4 ,st4 ,paul1 ,isle of ,bourbon1 #f    
,feb4 #agec4 ,educated in ,france1 he   
chose the military profession4 ,a       
disappointed passion for a creole       
inspired his ,amatory ,poems1 and he    
afterwards wrote the audacious  ,war of 
the ,gods1 ,paradise ,lost1 and ,the    
,gallantries of the ,bible4 ,his  poems1
 though erotic1 are full of elegant     

charm1 and he has been  named the       
,french ,tibullus4 ,he was admitted into
 the ,french ,academy  in #ahjc4 ,died  
at ,paris1 #e ,dec4 #ahad4    ,parton   
7,james71 author1 b4 ,canterbury1       
,england1 #i ,feb4 #ahbb4 ,was taken  to
 the ,united ,states when a child and   
educated at ,new ,york4 ,he married     
,miss ,willis1 ,fannie ,fern1 and has   
written many biographies1 including     
,lives of ,thomas ,jefferson1 '#gd1 and 
of ,voltaire1 '#ha4 ,he has also        
written on ,topics of the ,time1 '#ga1  
and ,church ,taxation4 ,he resided  in  
,new ,york till '#ge when he removed to 
,newburyport1 ,massachusetts4           
,parvish 7,samuel71 ,deistic author of  
,an ,inquiry into the ,jewish and       
,christian ,revelation 7,london1 #agci71
 of which a second edition was  issued  
in #agdf4    ,pasquier 7tienne74 ,french
 journalist1 b4 #g ,april1 #aebi1 at    
,paris4 ,brought up to the bar he became
 a successful pleader4 ,he  defended the
 ,universities against the ,jesuits1    

whom he also attacked  in a bitter      
satire1 ,catchisme des ,jsuites4 ,died  
,paris1 #cj ,aug4 #afae4    ,passerano  
7,alberto ,radicati di7 count4 ,italian 
philosopher of last  century1 attached  
to the court of ,victor ,amede ,,ii4    
,for some pamphlets  written against the
 ,papal power he was pursued by the     
,inquisition and  his goods seized4 ,he 
lived in ,england and made the          
acquaintance of  ,collins1 also in      
,france and ,holland1 where he died     
about #agcf1 leaving  his goods to the  
poor4 ,in that year he published at     
,rotterdam ,recueil  de ,pices curieuses
 sur les matieres les plus ntressantes1 
etc41  which contains a ,parallel       
between ,mahomet and ,sosem 7anagram of 
,moses71  an abridged history of the    
,sacerdotal ,profession1 and a ,faithful
 and  comic recital of the religion of  
modern cannibals1 by ,zelin ,moslem2    
also a ,dissertation upon ,death1 which 
was published separately in  #agcc4 ,the
 ,recueil was republished at ,london in 

#agdi4 ,he also wrote a  pretended      
translation from an ,arabic work on     
,mohammedanism1 satirising  the ,bible1 
and a pretended sermon by ,elwall the   
,quaker4    ,pasteur 7,louis74 ,french  
scientist b4 ,dle1 #bg ,dec #ahbb1      
became doctor  in '#dg and professor of 
physic at ,strassburg in '#dh4 ,he      
received  the ,rumford medal of the     
,royal ,society in '#ef for his         
discoveries  in polarisation and        
molecular chemistry4 ,decorated with the
 ,legion  of honor in '#ec1 he was made 
commander '#fh and grand officer '#gh4  
,his  researches into innoculation have 
been much contested1 but his admirers   
have raised a large institute for the   
prosecution of his treatment4 ,he  was  
elected to the ,academy as successor of 
,littr4 ,he gave his name  as           
,vice-,president of the ,british        
,secular ,union4    ,pastoret 7,claude  
,emmanuel ,joseph ,pierre de71 ,marquis1
 ,french statesman  and writer1 b4 of   
noble family at ,marseilles1 #be ,oct4  

#agef4 ,educated by  the ,oratorians at 
,lyons1 in #aggi he published an ,elege 
de ,voltaire4 ,by  his works on         
,zoroaster1 ,confucius and ,mahomet     
7#aghg7 and on ,moses  ,considered as   
,legislator and ,moralist 7#aghh7 he did
 something for the  infant science of   
comparative religion4 ,his principal    
work is a learned  ,history of          
,legislation1 in #aa vols4 7#ahag-cg71  
in which he passes in  review all the   
ancient codes4 ,he embraced the         
,revolution1 and became  ,president of  
the ,legislative ,assembly 7#c ,oct4    
#agia74 ,he proposed the  erection of   
the ,column of ,july on the ,place of   
the ,bastille1 and the  conversion of   
the church of ,ste ,genevive into the   
,pantheon4 ,on the  #aith ,june1 #agib1 
he presented a motion for the complete  
separation of  the state from religion4 
,he fled during the ,terror1 but        
returned as  deputy in #agie4 ,in #ahbj 
he succeeded his friend ,volney as      
member of  the ,french ,academy1 in '#bc

 received the cross of the ,legion of   
,honor1  and in '#bi became ,chancellor 
of ,france4 ,died at ,paris1 #bh ,sept4 
#ahdj4    ,pater 7,walter ,horatio71    
,english writer1 b4 ,london1 #d ,aug4   
#ahci4 ,b4,a4 at  ,oxford in '#fb1      
,m4,a4 in '#fe4 ,has written charming   
essays in the  ,westminster ,review1    
,macmillan1 and the ,fortnightly        
,review4 ,in '#gc  he published ,the    
,renaissance1 and in '#he ,marius the   
,epicurean1 ,his  ,sensations and       
,ideas4    ,paterson 7,thomas71 b4 near 
,lanark early in this century4 ,after   
the imprisonment of ,southwell and      
,holyoake he edited the ,oracle of      
,reason4 ,for exhibiting profane        
placards he was arrested and sentenced  
#bg ,jan4 #ahdc to three months'        
imprisonment4 ,his trial was reported   
under the title ,god v4 ,paterson       
7'#dc47 ,he insisted on considering     
,god as the plaintiff and in quoting    
from the ,jew book to show  the         
plaintiff's bad character4 ,when        

released he went to ,scotland to  uphold
 the right of free publication1 and was 
sentenced #h ,nov4 '#dc to  fifteen     
months' imprisonment for selling        
blasphemous publications  at ,edinburgh4
 ,on his release he was presented with a
 testimonial #f  ,april1 #ahde1 ,h4     
,hetherington presiding4 ,paterson went 
to ,america4    ,patin 7,gui71 ,french  
physician1 writer1 and wit1 b4 near     
,beauvais  #ca ,aug4 #afjb4 ,he became  
professor at the college of ,france4    
,his  reputation is chiefly founded on  
his ,letters1 in which he attacked      
superstition4 ,larousse says ,c'tait un 
libre penseur de la famille  de         
,rabelais4 ,died at ,paris #cj ,aug4    
#afgb4    ,patot4 ,see ,tyssot de ,patot
 7,s47    ,pauw 7,cornelius71 learned   
,dutch writer1 b4 ,amsterdam1 #agci4 ,he
 wrote  philosophical researches on the 
,americans1 and also on the ,egyptians1 
,chinese1 and ,greeks4 ,was esteemed by 
,frederick the ,great for his  ingenuity
 and penetration4 ,died at ,xanten1 #g  

,july1 #agii4 ,he was the  uncle of     
,anacharsis ,clootz4    ,peacock 7,john 
,macleay71 ,scotch poet1 b4 #ba ,march1 
#ahag4 ,he wrote  many poems in the     
,national ,reformer1 and in '#fg        
published ,hours of  ,reverie4 ,died #d 
,may1 #ahgg4    ,peacock or ,pecock     
7,reginald71 the father of ,english     
rationalism1  b4 about #acij1 and       
educated at ,oriel ,college ,oxford1 of 
which he  was chosen fellow in #adag4   
,was successively ,bishop of ,st ,asaph1
  #addd1 and ,chichester1 #adej1 by the 
favor of ,humphrey1 the good  ,duke of  
,gloster4 ,he declared that ,scripture  
must in all cases be  accommodated to   
the doom of reason4 ,he questioned the  
genuineness  of the ,apostles' ,creed4  
,in #adeg he was accused of heresy1     
recanted  from fear of martyrdom1 was   
deprived of his bishopric1 and          
imprisoned  in a monastery at           
,canterbury1 where he used to repeat to 
those who  visited him1                 
,wit hath wonder1 that reason cannot    

skan1              ,how a ,moder is     
,mayd1 and ,god is ,man4      ,his books
 were publicly burnt at ,oxford4 ,he    
died in #adfj4 ,his influence  doubtless
 contributed to the ,reformation4       
,pearson 7,karl71 author of a volume of 
essays entitled ,the ,ethic of          
,freethought1 #ahhh4 ,educated at       
,cambridge2 ,b4,a4 '#gi1 ,m4,a4 '#hb4   
,pechmeja 7,jean de71 ,french writer4 ,a
 friend of ,raynal1 he wrote a          
socialistic romance in #ab books in the 
style of ,telemachus1 called  ,tlphe1   
#aghd4 ,died #aghe4    ,peck 7,john71   
,american writer in the ,truthseeker4   
,has published ,miracles  and ,miracle  
,workers1 etc4    ,pecqueur 7,a471      
contributor to the ,rationaliste of     
,geneva1 #ahfd4    ,pelin 7,gabriel71   
,french author of works on ,spiritism   
,explained and  ,destroyed1 #ahfd1 and  
,god or ,science1 '#fg4    ,pelletan    
7,charles ,camille71 ,french journalist 
and deputy1 son of  the following2 b4   
,paris1 #bc ,june1 #ahdf4 ,studied at   

the ,lyce ,louis  le ,grand4 ,he wrote  
in ,la ,tribune ,franaise1 and ,le      
,rappel1 and since  '#hj has conducted  
,la ,justice with his friend ,clmenceau1
 of whom he  has written a sketch4      
,pelletan 7,pierre ,clement ,eugne71    
,french writer1  b4                     
,saint-,palais-sur-,meir1 #bj ,oct4     
#ahac4 ,as a journalist he wrote in  ,la
 ,presse1 under the name of ,un         
,inconnu1 articles distinguished  by    
their love of liberty and progress4 ,he 
also contributed to the  ,revue des     
,deux ,mondes4 ,in '#eb he published his
 ,profession of ,faith  of the          
,nineteenth ,century1 and in '#eg ,the  
,law of ,progress and ,the              
,philosophical ,kings4 ,from '#ec-'ee he
 opposed ,napoleon in the ,sicle1  and  
afterwards established ,la ,tribune     
,franaise4 ,in '#fc he was  elected     
deputy1 but his election being annulled1
 he was re-elected in  '#fd4 ,he took   
distinguished rank among the democratic 
opposition4 ,after  the battle of ,sedan

 he was made member of the ,committee of
 ,national  ,defence1 and in '#gf of the
 ,senate1 of which he became            
vice-president  in '#gi4 ,in '#gh he    
wrote a study on ,frederick the ,great  
entitled ,un  ,roi ,philosophe1 and in  
'#hc ,is ,god ,dead8 ,died at ,paris1   
#ad ,dec4 #ahhd4    ,pemberton 7,charles
 ,reece74 ,english actor and author1 b4 
,pontypool1  ,s4 ,wales1 #bc ,jan4      
#agij4 ,he travelled over most of the   
world and  wrote ,the ,autobiography of 
,pel ,verjuice1 which with other remains
  was published in #ahdc4 ,died #c      
,march1 #ahdj4    ,pennetier 7,georges71
 ,dr41 b4 ,rouen1 #ahcf1 ,director of   
the ,museum of  ,natural ,history at    
,rouen4 ,author of a work on the ,origin
 of ,life1  '#fh1 in which he contends  
for spontaneous generation4 ,to this    
work  ,f4 ,a4 ,pouchet contributed a    
preface4    ,perfitt 7,philip ,william71
 ,theist1 b4 #ahbj1 edited the          
,pathfinder1  '#ei-fa4 ,preached at     
,south ,place ,chapel4 ,wrote ,life and 

,teachings of  ,jesus of ,nazareth1     
'#fa4    ,periers 7,bonaventure des74   
,see ,desperiers4    ,perot 7,jean      
,marie ,albert71 ,french banker1 author 
of a work on ,man  and ,god1 which has  
been translated into ,english1 #ahha1   
and ,moral and  ,philosophical          
,allegories 7,paris1 #ahhc74    ,perrier
 7,edmond71 ,french zoologist1 ,curator 
at ,museum of ,natural  ,history1       
,paris1 b4 ,tulle1 #ahdd4 ,author of    
numerous works on ,natural  ,history1   
and one on ,transformisme1 '#hh4        
,perrin 7,raymond ,s471 ,american author
 of a bulky work on ,the ,religion  of  
,philosophy1 or the ,unification of     
,knowledge3 a comparison of the  chief  
philosophical and religious systems of  
the world1 #ahhe4    ,perry 7,thomas    
,ryley71 one of ,carlile's shopmen1     
sentenced #ahbd to  three years'        
imprisonment in ,newgate for selling    
,palmer's ,principles  of ,nature4 ,he  
became a chemist at ,leicester and in   
#ahdd petitioned  ,parliament for the   

prisoners for blasphemy1 ,paterson and  
,roalfe1  stating that his own          
imprisonment had not fulfilled the      
judge's hope  of his recantation4       
,petit 7,claude71 ,french poet1 burnt on
 the ,place de ,grve in #affe as  the   
author of some impious pieces4          
,petronius1 called ,arbiter 7,titus71   
,roman ,epicurean poet at the ,court  of
 ,nero1 in order to avoid whose         
resentment he opened his veins and  bled
 to death in ,a4,d4 #ff1 conversing     
meanwhile with his friends on the       
gossip of the day4 ,to him we owe the   
lines on superstition1 beginning        
,primus in orbe ,deos fecit timor4      
,petronius is famous for his pure       
,latinity4 ,he is as plain-spoken as    
,juvenal1 and with the same excuse1  his
 romance being a satire on ,nero and his
 court4    ,petruccelli della ,gattina  
7,ferdinando7 ,italian writer1 b4       
,naples1  #ahaf1 has travelled much and 
written many works4 ,he was deputy to   
the ,naples ,parliament in '#dh1 and    

exiled after the reaction4    ,petrus de
 ,abano4 ,a learned ,italian physician1 
b4 ,abano #abej4 ,he  studied at ,paris 
and became professor of medicine at     
,padua4 ,he wrote  many works and had a 
great reputation4 ,he is said to have   
denied the  existence of spirits1 and to
 have ascribed all miracles to natural  
causes4 ,cited before the ,inquisition  
in #acjf as a heretic1 a magician  and  
an ,atheist1 he ably defended himself   
and was acquitted4 ,he was  accused a   
second time but dying 7#acbj7 while the 
trial was preparing1  he was condemned  
after death1 his body disinterred and   
burnt1 and he  was also burnt in effigy 
in the public square of ,padua4         
,peypers 7,h4 ,f4 ,a471 ,dutch writer1  
b4 ,de ,rijp1 #b ,jan4 #ahef1 studied   
medicine1 and is now ,m4,d4 at          
,amsterdam4 ,he is a man of erudition   
and  good natured though satirical turn 
of mind4 ,he has contributed much  to   
,de ,dageraad1 and is at present one of 
the five editors of that  ,freethought  

monthly4    ,peyrard 7,franois71 ,french
 mathematician1 b4 ,vial 7,haute ,loire7
  #agfj4 ,a warm partisan of the        
revolution1 he was one of those who 7#g 
,nov4 #agic7 incited ,bishop ,gobel to  
abjure his religion4 ,an intimate       
friend of ,sylvian ,marchal1 ,peyrard   
furnished him with notes for  his       
,dictionnaire des ,athes4 ,he wrote a   
work on ,nature and its ,laws1  #agic-d1
 and proposed the piercing of the       
,isthmus of ,suez4 ,he translated  the  
works of ,euclid and ,archimedes4 ,died 
at ,paris #c ,oct4 #ahbb4    ,peyrat    
7,alphonse71 ,french writer1 b4         
,toulouse1 #ba ,june1 #ahab4 ,he  wrote 
in the ,national and la ,presse1 and    
combated against the ,second  ,empire4  
,in '#fe he founded l',avenir ,national1
 which was several  times condemned4 ,in
 ,feb4 '#ga1 he was elected deputy of   
the ,seine1  and proposed the           
proclamation of the ,republic4 ,in '#gf 
he was chosen  senator4 ,he wrote a     
,history of the ,dogma of the           

,immaculate ,conception1  '#ee2 ,history
 and ,religion1 '#eh2 ,historical and   
,religious ,studies1 '#eh2  and an able 
and scholarly ,elementary and ,critical 
,history of ,jesus1  '#fd4    ,peyrere  
7,isaac de la71 ,french writer1 b4      
,bordeaux1 #aeid1 and brought up  as a  
,protestant4 ,he entered into the       
service of the house of ,cond1 and      
became intimate with ,la ,mothe de      
,vayer and ,gassendi4 ,his work entitled
  ,pradamit1 #afec1 in which he         
maintained that men lived before ,adam1 
made a great sensation1 and was burnt by
 the hangman at ,paris4 ,the  bishop of 
,namur censured it1 and la ,peyrre was  
arrested at ,brussels1  #afef1 by order 
of the ,archbishop of ,malines1 but     
escaped by favor of  the ,prince of     
,cond on condition of retracting his    
book at ,rome4 ,the  following epitaph  
was nevertheless made on him3           
,la ,peyrere ici gt1 ce bon ,israelite1 
,hugenot1 ,catholique1 enfin            
,pre-adamite3              ,quatre      

religions lui plurent  la fois3         
,et son indiffrence tait si peu commune 
,qu'aprs #hj ans qu'il eut  faire un    
choix                ,le bon homme      
partit1 et n'en choisit pas une4        
,died near ,paris1 #cj ,jan4 #afgf4     
,pfeiff 7,johan ,gustaf ,viktor71       
,swedish baron1 b4 ,upland1 #ahbi4      
,editor  of the free religious          
periodical1 ,the ,truthseeker1 since    
#ahhb4 ,he has  also translated into    
,swedish some of the writings of        
,herbert ,spencer4    ,pharmacopulo     
7,a4,p47 ,greek translator of ,bchner's 
,force and ,matter1 and  corresponding  
member of the ,international ,federation
 of ,freethinkers4    ,phillips 7,sir   
,richard71 industrious ,english writer1 
b4 ,london1 #agfg4 ,he  was hosier1     
bookseller1 printer1 publisher1         
republican1 ,sheriff of  ,london        
7#ahjg-h71 and ,knight4 ,he compiled    
many schoolbooks1 chiefly  under        
pseudonyms1 of which the most popular   
were the ,rev4 ,j4 ,goldsmith  and ,rev4

 ,d4 ,blair4 ,his own opinions are seen 
most in his ,million of  ,facts4 ,died  
at ,brighton #b ,april1 #ahdj4          
,phillippo 7,william ,skinner71 farmer1 
of ,wood ,norton1 near ,thetford1       
,norfolk4 ,a deist who wrote an ,essay  
on ,political and ,religious            
,meditations1 #ahfh4    ,pi-y ,margall  
7,francisco71 ,spanish philosopher and  
,republican statesman1  b4 ,barcelona1  
#ahbj4 ,the first book he learnt to read
 was the ,ruins  of ,volney4 ,studied   
law and became an advocate4 ,he has     
written many  political works1 and      
translated ,proudhon1 for whom he has   
much  admiration1 into ,spanish4 ,he has
 also introduced the writings and       
philosophy of ,comte into his own       
country4 ,he was associated with        
,castelar and ,figueras in the attempt  
to establish a ,spanish ,republic1      
being ,minister of the ,interior1 and   
afterwards ,president in #ahgc4         
,pichard 7,prosper74 ,french            
,positivist1 author of ,doctrine of     

,reality1  a catechism for the use of   
people who do not pay themselves with   
words1 to which ,littr wrote a preface1 
#ahgc4    ,pierson 7,allard74 ,dutch    
rationalist critic1 b4 ,amsterdam #h    
,april1  #ahca4 ,educated in theology1  
he was minister to the ,evangelical     
congregation at ,leuven1 afterwards at  
,rotterdam and finally professor  at    
,heidelberg4 ,he resigned his connection
 with the ,church in '#fd4 ,he  has     
written many works of theological and   
literary value of which we  mention his 
,poems '#hb1 ,new ,studies on ,calvin1  
'#hc1 and ,verisimilia1  written in     
conjunction with ,s4 ,a4 ,naber1 '#hf4  
,pigault-,lebrun 7,guillaume ,charles   
,antoine71 witty ,french author1  b4    
,calais1 #h ,april1 #agec4 ,he studied  
under the ,oratorians of  ,boulogne4 ,he
 wrote numerous comedies and romances1  
and ,le ,citateur1  #ahjc1 a collection 
of objections to ,christianity1 borrowed
 in part  from ,voltaire1 whose spirit  
he largely shared4 ,in #ahaa ,napoleon  

threatened the priests he would issue   
this work wholesale4 ,it  was suppressed
 under the ,restoration1 but has been   
frequently  reprinted4 ,pigault-,lebrun 
became secretary to ,king ,jerome       
,napoleon1  and died at ,la             
,celle-,saint-,cloud1 #bd ,july1 #ahce4 
,pike 7,j4 ,w47 ,american lecturer1 b4  
,concord 7,ohio71 #bg ,june1 #ahbf1     
wrote ,my ,religious ,experience and    
,what ,i found in the ,bible1 #ahfg4    
,pillsbury 7,parker71 ,american         
reformer1 b4 ,hamilton1 ,mass41 #bb     
,sep4 #ahji4 ,was employed in farm work 
till '#ce1 when he entered  ,gilmerton  
theological seminary4 ,he graduated in  
'#ch1 studied a year  at ,andover1 was  
congregational minister for one year1   
and then1  perceiving the churches were 
the bulwark of slavery1 abandoned the   
ministry4 ,he became an abolitionist    
lecturer1 edited the ,herald  of        
,freedom1 ,national ,anti-,slavery      
,standard1 and the ,revolution4 ,he     
also preached for free religious        

societies1 wrote ,pious ,frauds1 and    
contributed to the ,boston ,investigator
 and ,freethinkers' ,magazine4 ,his     
principal work is ,acts of the          
,anti-,slavery ,apostles1 #ahhc4        
,piron 7,alexis71 ,french comic poet1 b4
 ,dijon1 #i ,july1 #afhi4 ,his  pieces  
were full of wit and gaiety1 and many   
anecdotes are told of  his profanity4   
,among his sallies was his reply to a   
reproof for being  drunk on ,good       
,friday1 that failing must be excused on
 a day when even  deity succumbed4      
,being blind in his old age he affected 
piety4 ,worried  by his confessor about 
a ,bible in the margin of which he had  
written  parodies and epigrams as the   
best commentary1 he threw the whole book
  in the fire4 ,asked on his death-bed  
if he believed in ,god he answered      
,parbleu1 ,i believe even in the        
,virgin4 ,died at ,paris1 #ba ,jan4     
#aggc4    ,pisarev 7,dmitri ,ivanovich7 
,russian critic1 journalist1 and        
materialist1  b4 #ahdj4 ,he first became

 known by his criticism on the          
,scholastics of  the nineteenth century4
 ,died ,baden1 near ,riga1 ,july #ahfh4 
,his works  are published in ten vols4  
,petersburg1 #ahgj4    ,pitt 7,william74
 ,earl of ,chatham1 an illustrious      
,english statesman  and orator1 b4      
,boconnoc1 ,cornwall1 #ae ,nov4 #agjh4  
,the services to his  country of the    
,great ,commoner1 as he was called1 are 
well known1  but it is not so generally 
recognised that his ,letter on          
,superstition1  first printed in the    
,london ,journal in #agcc1 entitles him 
to be ranked  with the ,deists4 ,he says
 that the more superstitious people are1
  always the more vicious2 and the more 
they believe1 the less they  practice4  
,atheism furnishes no man with arguments
 to be vicious2  but superstition1 or   
what the world made by religion1 is the 
greatest  possible encouragement to     
vice1 by setting up something as        
religion1  which shall atone and commute
 for the want of virtue4 ,this          

remarkable  letter ends with the words  
,remember that the only true divinity   
is humanity4    ,place 7,francis71      
,english ,radical reformer and tailor2  
b4 #aggi at  ,charing ,cross4 ,he early 
became a member of the ,london1         
,corresponding  ,society4 ,he wrote to  
,carlile's ,republican and ,lion4 ,a    
friend of  ,t4 ,hardy1 ,h4 ,tooke1      
,james ,mill1 ,bentham1 ,roebuck1       
,hetherington1 and  ,hibbert 7who puts  
him in his list of ,english             
,freethinkers74 ,he was  connected with 
all the advanced movements of his time  
and has left  many manuscripts          
illustrating the politics of that       
period1 which are  now in the ,british  
,museum4 ,he always professed to be an  
,atheist--see  ,reasoner1 #bf ,march1   
'#ed4 ,died at ,kensington1 #a ,jan4    
#ahed4    ,platt 7,james71 ,f4,s4,s41 a 
woolen merchant and ,deistic author of  
popular works on ,business1 '#ge2       
,morality1 '#gh2 ,progress1 '#hj2 ,life1
  '#ha2 ,god and ,mammon1 etc4    ,pliny

 7,caius ,plinius ,secundus71 the elder1
 ,roman naturalist1 b4 ,verona1  ,a4,d4 
#bb4 ,he distinguished himself in the   
army1 was admitted into the  college of 
,augurs1 appointed procurator in ,spain1
 and honored with  the esteem of        
,vespasian and ,titus4 ,he wrote the    
history of his own  time in #ca books1  
now lost1 and a ,natural ,history in #cg
 books1 one  of the most precious       
monuments of antiquity1 in which his    
,epicurean  ,atheism appears4 ,being    
with the fleet at ,misenum1 #bd ,aug4   
,a4,d4 #gi1  he observed the eruption of
 ,mount ,vesuvius1 and landing to assist
  the inhabitants was himself suffocated
 by the noxious vapors4    ,plumacher   
7,olga71 ,german pessimist1 follower of 
,hartmann1 and authoress  of a work on  
,pessimism in the ,past and ,future1    
,heidelberg1 #ahhd4 ,she  has also      
defended her views in ,mind4    ,plumer 
7,william7 ,american senator1 b4        
,newburyport1 ,mass4 #be ,june1  #agei4 
,in #aghj he became a ,baptist preacher1

 but resigned on account  of scepticism4
 ,he remained a deist4 ,he served in the
 ,legislature  eight terms1 during two  
of which he was ,speaker4 ,he was       
governor  of ,new ,hampshire1 #ahab-ah1 
wrote to the press over the signature   
,cincinnatus1 and published an ,address 
to the ,clergy1 '#ad4 ,he lived  till   
#bb ,june1 #ahej4    ,plutarch4 ,greek  
philosopher and historian1 b4 ,cherona  
in ,boetia1 about  ,a4,d4 #ej4 ,he      
visited ,delphi and ,rome1 where he     
lived in the reign of  ,trajan4 ,his    
,parallel ,lives of forty-six ,greeks   
and ,romans have made  him immortal4 ,he
 wrote numerous other anecdotal and     
ethical works1  including a treatise on 
,superstition4 ,he condemned the vulgar 
notions  of ,deity1 and remarked1 in    
connection with the deeds popularly     
ascribed  to the gods1 that he would    
rather men said there was no ,plutarch  
than  traduce his character4 ,in other  
words1 superstition is more impious     
than ,atheism4 ,died about ,a4,d4 #abj4 

,poe 7,edgar ,allan71 ,american poet1   
grandson of ,general ,poe1 who figured  
in the war of independence1 b4 ,boston1 
#ai ,jan4 #ahji4 ,his mother was  an    
actress4 ,early left an orphan4 ,after  
publishing ,tamerlane and other  ,poems1
 '#bg1 he enlisted in the ,united       
,states ,army1 but was cashiered in     
'#ca4 ,he then took to literary         
employment in ,baltimore and wrote many 
stories1 collected as the ,tales of     
,mystery1 ,imagination1 and ,humor4 ,in 
'#de appeared ,the ,raven and other     
,poems1 which proved him the most       
musical and dextrous of ,american poets4
 ,in '#dh he published ,eureka1  a      
,prose ,poem1 which1 though             
comparatively little known1 he esteemed 
his greatest work4 ,it indicates        
pantheistic views of the universe4 ,his 
personal appearance was striking and one
 of his portraits is not  unlike that of
 ,james ,thomson4 ,died in ,baltimore1  
#g ,oct4 #ahdi4    ,poey 7,andrs71      
,cuban meteorologist and ,positivist of 

,french and ,spanish  descent1 b4       
,havana1 #ahbf4 ,wrote in the ,modern   
,thinker1 and is author  of many        
scientific memoirs and a popular        
exposition of ,positivism  7,paris1     
#ahgf71 in which he has a chapter on    
,darwinism and ,comtism4    ,pompery    
7,edouard71 ,french publicist1 b4       
,courcelles1 #ahab4 ,a follower  of     
,fourier1 he has written on ,blanquism  
and opportunism1 '#gi1 and a  ,life of  
,voltaire1 '#hj4    ,pomponazzi         
7,pietro7 ,lat4 ,pomponatius1 ,italian  
philosopher1  b4 ,mantua1 of noble      
family1 #af ,sept4 #adfb4 ,he studied at
 ,padua1  where he graduated #adhg as   
laureate of medicine4 ,next year he was 
appointed professor of philosophy at    
,padua1 teaching in concurrence  with   
,achillini4 ,he afterwards taught the   
doctrines of ,aristotle at  ,ferrara and
 ,bologna4 ,his treatise ,de            
,immortalitate ,anim1 #aeaf1 gave  great
 offence by denying the philosophical   
foundation of the doctrine  of the      

immortality of the soul4 ,the work was  
burnt by the hangman at  ,venice1 and it
 is said ,cardinal ,bembo's intercession
 with ,pope ,leo  ,x4 only saved        
,pomponazzi from ecclesiastical         
procedure4 ,among his works  is a       
treatise on ,fate1 ,free ,will1 etc4    
,pomponazzi was a diminutive  man1 and  
was nicknamed ,peretto4 ,he held that   
doubt was necessary  for the development
 of knowledge1 and left an unsullied    
reputation  for upright conduct and     
sweet temper4 ,died at ,bologna1 #ah    
,may1 #aebe1  and was buried at ,mantua1
 where a monument was erected to his    
memory4    ,ponnat 7de71 ,baron1 ,french
 writer1 b4 about #ahaj4 ,educated by   
,jesuits1 he became a thorough          
,freethinker and democrat and a friend  
of ,a4 ,s4 ,morin1 with whom he         
collaborated on the ,rationaliste of    
,geneva4 ,he wrote many notable articles
 in ,la ,libre ,pense1 ,le ,critique1   
and ,le ,candide1 for writing in which  
last he was sentenced to one  year's    

imprisonment4 ,he published1 under the  
anagram of ,de ,pontan1  ,the ,cross or 
,death1 a discourse to the bishops who  
assisted at the  ,ecumenical ,council at
 ,rome 7,brussels1 '#fb74 ,his principal
 work is  a history of the variations   
and contradictions of the ,roman ,church
  7,paris1 '#hb74 ,died in #ahhd4       
,porphyry1 ,greek philosoper of the ,new
 ,platonic school1 b4 ,sinia1  #bcc     
,a4,d4 ,his original name was ,malchus  
or ,melech--a ,king4 ,he was  a pupil of
 ,longinus and perhaps of ,origen4 ,some
 have supposed that  he was of ,jewish  
faith1 and first embraced and then      
afterwards  rejected ,christianity4 ,it 
is certain he was a man of learning and 
intelligence2 the friend as well as the 
disciple of ,plotinus4 ,he wrote  7in   
,greek7 a famous work in fifteen books  
against the ,christians1 some  fragments
 of which alone remain in the writings  
of his opponents4 ,it  is certain he    
showed acquaintance with the ,jewish and
 ,christian  writings1 exposed their    

contradictions1 pointed out the dispute 
between  ,peter and ,paul1 and referred 
,daniel to the time of ,antiochus       
,epiphanes4  ,he wrote many other works1
 among which are lives of ,plotinus and 
,pythagorus4 ,died at ,rome about #cje4 
,porzio 7,simone71 a disciple of        
,pomponazzi1 to whom1 when lecturing  at
 ,pisa1 the students cried ,what of the 
soul8 ,he frankly professed  his belief 
that the human soul differed in no      
essential point from  the soul of a lion
 or plant1 and that those who thought   
otherwise  were prompted by pity for our
 mean estate4 ,these assertions are in  
his treatise ,de ,mente ,human4         
,posos 7,juan de71 an undiscovered      
author using this pen-name1  expressed  
atheistic opinions in a book of         
imaginary travels1 published  in ,dutch 
at ,amsterdam in #agjh1 and translated  
into ,german at ,leipsic1  #agba4       
,post 7,amy71 ,american reformer1 b4    
#ahjc4 ,from '#bh she was a leading     
advocate of slavery abolition1          

temperance1 woman's suffrage and        
religious reform4 ,died ,rochester1 ,new
 ,york1 #bi ,jan4 #ahhi4    ,potter     
7,agathon ,louis de74 ,see ,de ,potter  
7,a4 ,l47    ,potter 7,louis ,antoine   
,joseph de74 ,see ,de ,potter 7,l4 ,a4  
,j47    ,potvin 7,charles71 ,belgian    
writer b4 ,mons4 #b ,dec4 #ahah1 is     
member of the  ,royal ,academy of       
,letters1 and professor of the history  
of literature  at ,brussels4 ,he wrote  
anonymously ,poesie et ,amour '#eh1 and 
,rome and  the ,family4 ,under the name 
of ,dom ,jacobus he has written an able 
work in two volumes on ,the ,church and 
,morality1 and also ,tablets of  a      
,freethinker4 ,he was president of ,la  
,libre ,pense of ,brussels from  '#gh to
 '#hc1 is director of the ,revue de     
,belgique and has collaborated  on the  
,national and other papers4    ,pouchet 
7,felix ,archimde71 ,french naturalist1 
b4 ,rouen #bf  ,aug4 #ahjj4 ,studied    
medicine under ,dr4 ,flaubert1 father of
 the author  of ,mme4 ,bovary1 and      

became doctor in '#bg4 ,he was made     
professor of  natural history at the    
,museum of ,rouen1 and by his           
experiments enriched  science with many 
discoveries4 ,he defended spontaneous   
generation and  wrote many monographs   
and books of which the principal is     
entitled  ,the ,universe1 '#fe4 ,died at
 ,rouen1 #f ,dec4 #ahgb4    ,pouchet    
7,henri ,charles ,george71 ,french      
naturalist1 son of the  proceeding1 b4  
,rouen1 #ahcc1 made ,m4,d4 in '#fd1 and 
in '#gi professor  of comparative       
anatomy in the museum of ,natural       
,history at ,paris4 ,in  '#hj he was    
decorated with the ,legion of ,honor4   
,he has written on ,the  ,plurality of  
the ,human ,race1 '#eh1 and collaborated
 on the ,sicle1  and the ,revue des     
,deux ,mondes and to la ,philosophie    
,positive4    ,pouchkine 7,a471 see     
,pushkin4    ,pougens 7,marie ,charles  
,joseph de71 ,french author1 a natural  
son of the  ,prince de ,conti1 b4       
,paris1 #ae ,aug4 #agee4 ,about the age 

of #bd he was  blinded by small pox4 ,he
 became an intimate friend of the       
philosophers1  and1 sharing their views1
 embraced the revolution with ardor1    
though  it ruined his fortunes4 ,he     
wrote ,philosophical ,researches1 #aghf1
 edited  the posthumous works of        
,d',alembert1 #agii1 and worked at a    
dictionary of  the ,french language4    
,his ,jocko1 a tale of a monkey1        
exhibits his keen  sympathy with animal 
intelligence1 and in his ,philosophical 
,letters1  #ahbf1 he gives anecdotes of 
,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,d',alembert1     
,pechmeja1  ,franklin1 etc4 ,died at    
,vauxbuin1 near ,soissons1 #ai ,dec4    
#ahcc4    ,poulin 7,paul71 ,belgian     
follower of ,baron ,colins and author of
 ,what  is ,god8 ,what is ,man8 a       
scientific solution of the religious    
problem  7,brussels1 #ahfe71 and        
re-issued as ,god ,according to         
,science1 '#ge1  in which he maintains  
that man and ,god exclude each other1   
and that  the only divinity is moral    

harmony4    ,poultier ,d',elmolte       
7,franois ,martin71 b4                  
,montreuil-sur-,mer1 #ca  ,oct4 #agec4  
,became a ,benedictine monk1 but cast   
aside his frock  at the ,revolution1    
married1 and became chief of a battalion
 of  volunteers4 ,elected to the        
,convention he voted for the death of   
the ,king4 ,he conducted the journal1   
,l',ami des lois1 and became  one of the
 ,council of ,ancients4 ,exiled in      
#ahaf1 he died at ,tournay  in ,belgium1
 #af ,feb4 #ahbg4 ,he wrote ,morceaux   
,philosophiques in the  ,journal        
,encyclopdique2 ,victoire1 or the       
,confessions of a ,benedictine2         
,discours ,dcadaires1 for the use of    
,theophilantropists1 and ,conjectures   
on the ,nature and ,origin of ,things1  
,tournay1 #ahba4    ,powell 7,b4 ,f471  
compiler of the ,bible of ,reason1 or   
,scriptures of  ,ancient ,moralists2    
published by ,hetherington in #ahcg4    
,prades 7,jean ,martin de71 ,french     
theologian b4 ,castel-,sarrasin1 about  

#agbj4 ,brought up for the church1 he   
nevertheless became intimate with       
,diderot and contributed the article    
,certitude to the ,encyclopdie4 ,on  the
 #ahth ,nov4 #agea he presented to the  
,sorbonne a thesis for the  doctorate1  
remarkable as the first open attack on  
,christianity by  a ,french theologian4 
,he maintained many propositions on the 
soul1  the origin of society1 the laws  
of ,moses1 miracles1 etc41 contrary  to 
the dogmas of the ,church1 and compared 
the cures recorded in the  ,gospels to  
those attributed to ,esculapius4 ,the   
thesis made a great  scandal4 ,his      
opinions were condemned by ,pope        
,benedict ,,xiv41 and he  fled to       
,holland for safety4 ,recommended to    
,frederick the ,great by  d',alembert he
 was received with favor at ,berlin1 and
 became reader to  that monarch1 who    
wrote a very anti-,christian preface to 
de ,prades'  work on ecclesiastical     
history1 published as ,abrge de         
l',histoire  ecclesiastique de ,fleury1 

,berne 7,berlin7 #agff4 ,he retired to a
 benefice  at ,glogau 7,silesia71 given 
him by ,frederick1 and died there in    
#aghb4    ,prater 7,horatio71 a         
gentleman of some fortune who devoted   
himself to  the propagation of          
,freethought ideas4 ,born early in the  
century1 he  wrote on the ,physiology of
 the ,blood1 #ahcb4 ,he published       
,letters to  the ,american ,people1 and 
,literary ,essays1 '#ef4 ,died #bj      
,july1 #ahhe4 ,he  left the bulk of his 
money to benevolent objects1 and ordered
 a deep  wound to be made in his arm to 
insure that he was dead4    ,preda      
7,pietro71 ,italian writer of ,milan1   
author of a work on ,revelation  and    
,reason1 published at ,geneva1 #ahfe1   
under the pseudonym of  ,padre ,pietro4 
,premontval 7,andre ,pierre ,le ,guay   
de71 ,french writer1 b4 ,charenton1 #af 
,feb4 #agaf4 ,at nineteen years of age1 
while in the college of ,plessis        
,sorbonne1 he composed a work against   
the dogma of the ,eucharist4 ,he        

studied mathematics and became member of
 the ,academy of ,sciences  at ,berlin4 
,he wrote ,le ,diogene de ,d',alembert1 
or ,freethoughts on  ,man1 #aged1       
,panangiana ,panurgica1 or the false    
,evangelist1 and ,vues  ,philosophiques1
 ,amst41 #b vols41 #ageg4 ,he also wrote
 ,de la ,thologie  de ,l',etre1 in which
 he denies many of the ordinary proofs  
of the  existence of a ,god4 ,died      
,berlin1 #agfg4    ,priestley 7,joseph71
 ,,ll4,d41 ,english philosopher1 b4     
,fieldhead1 near  ,leeds1 #ah ,march1   
#agcc4 ,brought up as a ,calvinist1 he  
found his way  to broad ,unitarianism4  
,famous as a pneumatic chemist1 he      
defended the  doctrine of philosophical 
necessity1 and in a dissertation annexed
 to  his edition of ,hartley expressed  
doubts of the immateriality of the      
sentient principal in man4 ,this        
doctrine he forcibly supported in  his  
,disquisitions on ,matter and ,spirit1  
#aggg4 ,through the obloquy  these works
 produced1 he lost his position as      

librarian to ,lord  ,shelburne4 ,he then
 removed to ,birmingham1 and became     
minister of  an independent ,unitarian  
congregation1 and occupied himself on   
his  ,history of the ,corruptions of    
,christianity and ,history of the ,early
  ,opinions ,concerning ,jesus ,christ1 
which involved him in controversy  with 
,bishop ,horsley and others4 ,in        
consequence of his sympathy with  the   
,french ,revolution1 his house was burnt
 and sacked in a riot1  #ad ,july1      
#agia4 ,after this he removed to        
,hackney1 and was finally  goaded to    
seek an asylum in the ,united ,states1  
which he reached in  #agid4 ,even in    
,america he endured some uneasiness on  
account of his  opinions until          
,jefferson became president4 ,died #f   
,feb4 #ahjd4    ,pringle 7,allen71      
,canadian ,freethinker1 author of       
,ingersoll in ,canada1  #ahhj4          
,proctor 7,richard ,anthony71 ,english  
astronomer1 b4 ,chelsea1 #bc ,march1    
#ahcg4 ,educated at ,king's ,college1   

,london1 and at ,st4 ,john's1           
,cambridge1  where he became ,b4,a4 in  
'#fj4 ,in '#ff he became ,fellow of the 
,royal  ,astronomical ,society1 of which
 he afterwards became hon4 sec4 ,he     
maintained in '#fi the since-established
 theory of the solar corona4 ,he  wrote1
 lectured1 and edited1 far and wide1 and
 left nearly fifty  volumes1 chiefly    
popularising science4 ,attracted by     
,newman1 he was for  a while a          
,catholic1 but thought out the question 
of ,catholicism and  science1 and in a  
letter to the ,new ,york ,tribune1 ,nov4
 '#ge1 formally  renounced that religion
 as irreconcilable with scientific      
facts4 ,his  remarks on the so-called   
,star of ,bethlehem in ,the ,universe of
 ,suns1  and other ,science ,gleanings1 
and his ,sunday lectures1 indicated his 
heresy4 ,in '#ha he started ,knowledge1 
in which appeared many valuable  papers1
 notably one 7,jan4 '#hg71 ,the         
,beginning of ,christianity4 ,he        
entirely rejected the miraculous        

elements of the gospels1 which he       
considered largely a rechauff of solar  
myths4 ,in other articles  in the       
,freethinkers' ,magazine and the ,open  
,court he pointed out the  coincidence  
between the ,christian stories and solar
 myths1 and also  with stories found in 
,josephus4 ,the very last article he    
published  before his untimely death was
 a vindication of ,colonel ,ingersoll   
in his controversy with ,gladstone in   
the ,north ,american ,review4 ,in  '#hd 
he settled at ,st4 ,josephs1 ,mobille1  
where he contracted yellow  fever and   
died at ,new ,york1 #ab ,sep4 #ahhh4    
,proudhon 7,pierre ,joseph71 ,french    
anarchist and political thinker1  b4    
,besanon1 #ae ,jan4 #ahji4              
,self-educated he became a printer1  and
 won a prize of #a1ejj francs for the   
person best fitted for a  literary or   
scientific career4 ,in '#dj appears his 
memoir1 ,what is  ,property8 in which he
 made the celebrated answer ,c'est le   
vol4 ,in  '#dc the ,creation of ,order  

in ,humanity appeared1 treating of      
religion1  philosophy and logic4 ,in    
'#df he published his ,system of        
,economical  ,contradictions1 in which  
appeared his famous aphorism1 ,dieu1    
c'est le mal4 ,in '#dh he introduced his
 scheme of the organisation  of credit  
in a ,bank of the ,people1 which failed1
 though ,proudhon  saw that no one lost 
anything4 ,he attacked ,louis ,bonaparte
 when  ,president1 and was sentenced to 
three years' imprisonment and a fine  of
 #aj1jjj francs4 ,on #b ,jan4 '#ej he   
married by private contract while  in   
prison4 ,for his work on ,justice in the
 ,revolution and in the ,church  he was 
condemned to three years' imprisonment  
and #d1jjj francs fine in  '#eh4 ,he    
took refuge in ,belgium and returned in 
'#fc4 ,died at ,passy1  #ai ,jan4 #ahfe4
 ,among his posthumous works was ,the   
,gospels ,annotated1  '#ff4 ,proudhon   
was a bold and profound thinker of noble
 aspirations1  but he lacked the sense  
of art and practicability4 ,his complete

 works  have been published in #bf vols4
    ,protagoras1 ,greek philosopher1 b4 
,abdera1 about #dhj ,b4,c4 ,is said to  
have been a disciple of ,democritus1 and
 to have been a porter before  he       
studied philosophy4 ,he was the first to
 call himself a sophist4 ,he  wrote in a
 book on the gods1 ,respecting the gods1
 ,i am unable to  know whether they     
exist or do not exist4 ,for this he was 
impeached  and banished1 and his book   
burnt4 ,he went to ,epirus and the      
,greek  ,islands1 and died about #daa4  
,he believed all things were in flux1   
and summed up his conclusions in the    
proposition that man is the  measure of 
all things1 both of that which exists   
and that which does  not exist4 ,grote1 
who defends the ,sophists1 says his     
philosophy had  the merit of bringing   
into forcible relief the essentially    
relative  nature of cognition4          
,prudhomme 7,sully74 ,see ,sully        
,prudhomme4    ,pckler ,muskau 7,hermann
 ,ludwig ,heinrich71 ,prince1 a ,german 

writer1  b4 ,muskau1 #cj ,oct4 #aghe4   
,he travelled widely and wrote his      
observations  in a work entitled        
,letters of a ,defunct1 #ahcj2 this was 
followed by  ,tutti ,frutti1 '#cb2      
,semilasso in ,africa1 '#cf1 and other  
works4 ,died  #d ,feb4 #ahga4           
,pushkin 7,aleksandr ,sergyeevich71     
eminent ,russian poet1 often  called the
 ,russian ,byron1 b4 ,pskow1 #bf ,may1  
#agii4 ,from youth he  was remarkable   
for his turbulent spirit1 and his first 
work1 which  circulated only in         
manuscript1 was founded on ,parny's     
,guerre des  ,dieux1 and entitled the   
,gabrielade1 the archangel being the    
hero4 ,he  was exiled by the ,emperor1  
but1 inspired largely by reading        
,voltaire  and ,byron1 put forward      
numerous poems and romances1 of which   
the most  popular is ,eugene ,onguine1  
an imitation of ,don ,juan4 ,he also    
wrote  some histories and founded the   
,sovremennik 7,contemporary71 #ahcf4 ,in
  ,jan4 #ahcg he was mortally wounded in

 a duel4    ,putnam 7,samuel ,p471      
,american writer and lecturer1 brought  
up as a  minister4 ,he left that        
profession for ,freethought1 and became 
secretary  to the ,american ,secular    
,union1 of which he was elected         
president in  ,oct4 #ahhg4 ,in '#hh he  
started ,freethought at ,san ,francisco 
in company  with ,g4 ,macdonald4 ,has   
written poems1 ,prometheus1 ,ingersoll  
and ,jesus1  ,adami and ,heva2 romances 
entitled ,golden ,throne1 ,waifs and    
,wanderings1  and ,gottlieb1 and        
pamphlets on the ,problem of the        
,universe1 ,the ,new  ,god1 and ,the    
,glory of ,infidelity4    ,putsage      
7,jules71 ,belgian follower of ,baron   
,colins1 founder of the  ,colins        
,philosophical ,society at ,mons2 has   
written on ,determinism and  ,rational  
,science1 ,brussels #ahhe1 besides many 
essays in ,la ,philosophie  de          
,l',avenir of ,paris and ,la ,societe   
,nouvelle of ,brussels4    ,pyat        
7,felix7 ,french socialist1 writer and  

orator1 b4 ,vierzon1 #d  ,oct4 #ahaj4   
,his father was religious and sent him  
to a ,jesuit college  at ,bourges1 but  
he here secretly read the writings of   
,beranger and  ,courier4 ,he studied    
law1 but abandoned it for literature1   
writing in  many papers4 ,he also wrote 
popular dramas1 as ,the ,rag-picker of  
,paris1  '#dg4 ,after '#eb he lived in  
,england1 where he wrote an apology for 
the attempt of ,orsini1 published by    
,truelove1 '#eh4 ,in '#ga he founded    
the journal le ,combat4 ,elected to the 
,national ,assembly he protested        
against the treaty of peace1 was named  
member of the ,commune and  condemned to
 death in '#gc4 ,he returned to ,france 
after the armistice1  and has sat as    
deputy for ,marseilles4 ,died1 ,saint   
,gerainte near ,nice1  #c ,aug4 #ahhi4  
,pyrrho4 ,greek philosopher1 a native of
 ,elis1 in ,peloponesus1 founder of  a  
sceptical school about the time of      
,epicurus2 is said to have been         
attracted to philosophy by the books of 

,democritus4 ,he attached himself  to   
,anaxarchus1 and joined her in the      
expedition of ,alexander the ,great1    
and became acquainted with the          
philosophy of the ,magi and the ,indian 
,gymnosophists4 ,he taught the wisdom of
 doubt1 the uncertainty of all  things1 
and the rejection of speculation4 ,his  
disciples extolled his  equanimity and  
independence of externals4 ,it is       
related that he kept  house with his    
sister1 and shared with her in all      
domestic duties4 ,he  reached the age of
 ninety years1 and after his death the  
,athenians  honored him with a statue4  
,he left no writings1 but the tenets of 
his  school1 which were much            
misrepresented1 may be gathered from    
,sextus  and ,empiricus4    ,quental4   
,see ,anthero de ,quental4    ,quepat   
7,nre47 ,see ,paquet 7,ren74    ,quesnay
 7,franois71 ,french economist1 b4      
,mrey1 #d ,june #afid4 ,self  educated  
he became a physician1 but is chiefly   
noted for his ,tableau  ,economique1    

#agjh1 and his doctrine of ,laissez     
,faire4 ,he derived moral  and social   
rules from physical laws4 ,died         
,versailles1 #af ,dec4 #aggd4    ,quinet
 7,edgar71 ,french writer1 b4 ,bourgen  
,bresse1 #ag ,feb4 #ahjc4 ,he  attracted
 the notice of ,cousin by a translation 
of ,herder's ,the  ,philosophy of       
,history4 ,with his friend ,michelet he 
made many attacks  on ,catholicism1 the 
,jesuits being their joint work4 ,he    
fought in  the ,revolution of '#dh1 and 
opposed the ,second ,empire4 ,his work  
on  ,the ,genius of ,religion1 '#db1 is 
profound1 though mystical1 and his      
historical work on ,the ,revolution1    
'#fe is a masterpiece4 ,died at         
,versailles1 #bg ,march1 #ahge4         
,quintin 7,jean71 ,heretic of ,picardy1 
and alleged founder of the  ,libertines4
 ,he is said to have preached in        
,holland and ,brabant in  #aebe1 that   
religion was a human invention4 ,quintin
 was arrested and  burnt at ,tournay in 
#aecj4    ,quris 7,charles71 ,french    

advocate of ,angers1 who has published  
some  works on law and ,la ,dfense      
,catholique et la ,critique1 ,paris1    
#ahfd4    ,rabelais 7,franois71 famous  
and witty ,french satirist and          
philosopher1  b4 ,chinon1 ,touraine1 #g 
,jan4 #adie4 ,at an early age he joined 
the order  of ,franciscans1 but finding 
monastic life incompatible with his     
genial  temper1 quitted the convent     
without the leave of his superior4 ,he  
studied medicine at ,montpelier about   
#aecj1 after which he practised  at     
,lyons4 ,his great humorous work1       
published anonymously in #aece1 was     
denounced as heretical by the clergy for
 its satires1 not only on their  order  
but their creed4 ,the author was        
protected by ,francis ,i4 and was       
appointed cur of ,meudon4 ,died at      
,paris1 #i ,april1 #aeec4 ,his writings 
show surprising fertility of mind1 and  
,coleridge says1 ,beyond a  doubt he was
 among the deepest as well as boldest   
thinkers of his age4    ,radenhausen    

7,christian71 ,german philosopher1 b4   
,friedrichstadt1 #c  ,dec4 #ahac4 ,at   
first a merchant and then a             
lithographer1 he resided  at ,hamburg1  
where he published ,isis1 ,mankind and  
the ,world 7#d vols471  '#gj-gb2        
,osiris1 '#gd2 ,the ,new ,faith1 '#gg2  
,christianity is ,heathenism1  '#ha2    
,the ,true ,bible and the ,false1 '#hg2 
,esther1 '#hg4    ,radicati 7,alberto   
di71 ,count4 ,see ,passerano4    ,ragon 
7,jean ,marie de71 ,french ,freemason1  
b4 ,bray-sur-,seine1 #agha4 ,by         
profession a civil engineer at ,nancy1  
afterwards ,chief of ,bureau to  the    
,minister of the ,interior4 ,author of  
many works on ,freemasonry1  and ,the   
,mass and its ,mysteries ,compared with 
the ,ancient ,mysteries1  #ahdd4 ,died  
at ,paris1 #ahfb4    ,ram 7,joachim     
,gerhard71 ,holstein philosopher of the 
seventeenth century1  who was accused of
 ,atheism4    ,ramaer 7,anton ,gerard   
,willem71 ,dutch writer b4 ,jever1 ,east
 ,friesland1  #b ,aug4 #ahab4 ,from '#bi

 he served as officer in the ,dutch     
army4 ,he  afterwards became a tax      
collector1 and in '#fj was pensioned4   
,he wrote  on ,schopenhauer and other   
able works1 and also contributed largely
  to ,de ,dageraad1 often under the     
pseudonym of ,lahm4 ,he had a noble     
mind and sacrificed much for his friends
 and the good cause4 ,died #af  ,feb4   
#ahfg4    ,ramee 7,louise de la71       
,english novelist1 b41 of ,french       
extraction1  ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 #ahdj4
 ,under the name of ,ouida1 a little    
sister's  mispronunciation of ,louisa1  
she has published many popular novels1  
exhibiting her free and pessimistic     
opinions4 ,we mention ,tricotin1  ,folle
 ,farine1 ,signa1 ,moths and ,a ,village
 ,commune4 ,she has lived much  in      
,italy1 where the scenes of several     
novels are placed4    ,ramee 7,pierre de
 la7 called ,ramus1 ,french humanist1 b4
 ,cuth  7,vermandois7 #aeae4 ,he        
attacked the doctrines of ,aristotle1   
was accused  of impiety1 and his work   

suppressed #aedc4 ,he lost his life in  
the  massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 #bf 
,aug4 #aegb4    ,ramsey 7,william       
,james71 b4 ,london1 #h ,june1 #ahdd4   
,becoming a ,freethinker  early in life1
 he for some time sold literature at the
 ,hall of ,science  and became manager  
of the ,freethought ,publishing ,co4    
,starting in  business for himself he   
published the ,freethinker1 for which in
 '#hb  he was prosecuted with ,mr4      
,foote and ,mr4 ,kemp4 ,tried in ,march 
'#hc1  after a good defence1 he was     
sentenced to nine months' imprisonment1 
and on ,mr4 ,foote's release acted as   
printer of the paper4    ,ranc          
7,arthur71 ,french writer and deputy1 b4
 ,poitiers1 #aj ,dec4 #ahca1  and was   
brought up a ,freethinker and           
,republican by his parents4 ,he  took   
the prize for philosophy at the ,college
 of ,poitiers1 and studied  law at      
,paris4 ,he conspired with ,c4          
,delescluze against the ,second  ,empire
 and was imprisoned1 but escaped to     

,geneva4 ,he collaborated on  ,la       
,marseillaise1 was elected on the       
,municipal ,council of ,paris in  '#ga1 
and ,deputy1 '#gc4 ,has written ,under  
the ,empire and many other  political   
works4    ,randello 7,cosimo71 ,italian 
author of ,the ,simple ,story of a      
,great  ,fraud1 being a criticism of the
 origin of ,christianity1 directed      
against ,pauline theology1 published at 
,milan1 #ahhb4    ,rapisardi 7,mario71  
,italian poet1 b4 ,catania1 ,sicily1    
#ahdc4 ,has  translated ,lucretius1     
'#hj1 and published poems on ,lucifer1  
and ,the  ,last ,prayer of ,pius ,,ix41 
'#ga1 etc4    ,raspail 7,franois        
,vincent71 ,french chemist and          
politician b4 ,carpentras  #bd ,jan4    
#agid1 was brought up by ecclesiastics  
and intended for the  ,church4 ,he      
became1 while quite young1 professor of 
philosophy at the  theological seminary 
of ,avignon but an examination of       
theological  dogmas led to their        
rejection4 ,he went to ,paris1 and from 

#ahae-bd gave  lessons1 and afterwards  
became a scientific lecturer4 ,he took  
part  in the ,revolution of '#cj4 ,louis
 ,philippe offered him the ,legion of   
,honor but he refused4 ,taking part in  
all the revolutionary outbreaks  he was 
frequently imprisoned4 ,elected to the  
chamber in '#fi and sat  on the extreme 
left4 ,died at ,arcueil #f ,jan4 #ahgh4 
,rau 7,herbert71 ,german rationalist b4 
,frankfort #aa ,feb4 #ahac4 ,he studied 
theology and became preacher to free    
congregations in ,stuttgart and         
,mannheim4 ,he wrote ,gospel of ,nature1
 ,a ,catechism of the ,religion of  the 
,future1 and other works4 ,died         
,frankfort #bf ,sept4 #ahgf4    ,rawson 
7,albert ,leighton7 ,,ll4,d4 ,american  
traveller and author1  b4 ,chester1     
,vermont #ae ,oct4 #ahbi4 ,after        
studying law1 theology1 and  art1 he    
made four visits to the ,east1 and made 
in '#ea-b a pilgrimage  from ,cairo to  
,mecca1 disguised as a ,mohammedan      
student of medicine4 ,he  has published 

many maps and typographical and         
philological works1  and illustrated    
,beecher's ,life of ,jesus4 ,has also   
written on  the ,antiquities of the     
,orient1 ,new ,york1 '#gj1 and          
,chorography of  ,palestine1 ,london1   
'#hj4 ,has written in the ,freethinkers'
 ,magazine1  maintaining that the ,bible
 account of the twelve tribes of ,israel
  is non-historical4    ,raynal         
7,guillaume ,thomas ,franois7 l'abb1    
,french historian and  philosopher1 b4  
,saint ,geniez1 #ab ,april1 #agac4 ,he  
was brought up as a  priest but         
renounced that profession soon after his
 removal to ,paris1  #agdg1 where he    
became intimate with ,helvetius1        
,holbach1 etc4 ,with  the assistance of 
these1 and ,diderot1 ,pechmeja1 etc41 he
 compiled a  philosophical ,history of  
,european establishments in the two     
,indies  7#d vols4 #aggj and #aghj71 a  
work full of reflections on the         
religious  and political institutions of
 ,france4 ,it made a great outcry1 was  

censured by the ,sorbonne1 and was burnt
 by order of ,parliament #bi ,may1      
#agha4 ,raynal escaped and passed about 
six years in exile4 ,died near  ,paris1 
#f ,march1 #agif4    ,reade 7,william   
,winwood71 ,english traveller and       
writer1 nephew of  ,charles ,reade the  
novelist1 b4 ,murrayfield1 near ,crieff1
 ,scotland1  #bf ,dec4 #ahbd4 ,he       
studied at ,oxford1 then travelled much 
in the heart  of ,africa1 and wrote     
,savage ,africa1 '#fc1 ,the ,african    
,sketch ,book1  and in '#gc1 ,the ,story
 of the ,ashantee ,campaign2 which he   
accompanied  as ,times correspondent4   
,in the ,martyrdom of ,man 7'#gb71 he   
rejects  the doctrine of a personal     
creator4 ,it went through several       
editions  and is still worth reading4   
,he also wrote ,liberty ,hall1 a novel1 
'#fj2 ,the ,veil of ,isis1 '#fa1 and    
,see ,saw1 a novel1 '#fe4 ,he wrote his 
last work ,the ,outcast1 a ,freethought 
novel1 with the hand of death  upon him4
 ,died #bd ,april1 #ahge4    ,reber     

7,george71 ,american author of ,the     
,christ of ,paul1 or the ,enigmas  of   
,christianity 7,new ,york1 #ahgf71 a    
work in which he exposes the  frauds and
 follies of the early fathers4          
,reclus 7,jean ,jacques ,elise71 ,french
 geographer and socialist1 the  son of a
 ,protestant minister1 b4               
,sainte-,foy-la-,grande 7,gironde71 #ae 
,march1 #ahcj1 and educated by the      
,moravian brethren1 and afterwards at   
,berlin4 ,he early distinguished himself
 by his love for liberty1 and  left     
,france after the coup d'tat of #b ,dec4
 '#ea1 and travelled till '#eg  in      
,england1 ,ireland1 and the ,north and  
,south ,america1 devoting himself  to   
studying the social and political as    
well as physical condition of  the      
countries he visited1 the results being 
published in the ,tour du  monde1 and   
,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 in which he   
upheld the cause of the  ,north during  
the ,american war4 ,in '#ga he supported
 the ,commune and was  taken prisoner   

and sentenced to transportation for     
life4 ,many eminent  men in ,england and
 ,america interceded and his sentence   
was commuted  to banishment4 ,at the    
amnesty of ,march '#gi1 he returned to  
,paris1  and has devoted himself to the 
publication of a standard ,universal    
,geography in #ac vols4 ,in '#hb he gave
 two of his daughters in marriage       
without either religious or civil       
ceremony4 ,he has written a preface  to 
,bakounin's ,god and the ,state1 and    
many other works4    ,reddalls 7,george 
,holland71 ,english ,secularist1 b4     
,birmingham1  ,nov4 #ahdf4 ,he became a 
compositor on the ,birmingham ,daily    
,post1 but  wishing to conduct a        
,freethought paper started in business  
for himself1  and issued the ,secular   
,chronicle1 '#gc1 which was contributed 
to by  ,francis ,neale1 ,h4 ,v4 ,mayer1 
,g4 ,standring1 etc4 ,he died #ac ,oct4 
#ahge4    ,reghillini de ,schio 7,m471  
,professor of ,chemistry and            
,mathematics1  b4 of ,venetian parents  

at ,schio in #agfj4 ,he wrote in ,french
 an  able exposition of ,masonry1 #ahcc1
 which he traced to ,egypt2 and an      
,examination of ,mosaism and            
,christianity1 '#cd4 ,he was mixed in   
the  troubles of ,venice in '#dh1 and   
fled to ,belgium1 dying in poverty at   
,brussels ,aug4 #ahec4    ,regnard      
7,albert ,adrien71 ,french doctor and   
publicist1 b4 ,lachante  7,nivre71 #bj  
,march1 #ahcf1 author of ,essais        
d',histoire et de  ,critique            
,scientifique 7,paris1 '#fe7--;a work   
for which he could  find no publisher1  
and had to issue himself--in which he   
proclaimed  scientific materialism4     
,losing his situation1 he started1 with 
,naquet  and ,clemenceau1 the ,revue    
,encyclopdique1 which being suppressed  
on its first number1 he started ,la     
,libre ,pense with ,asseline1           
,condereau1 etc4 ,his articles in this  
journal drew on him and ,eudes  a       
condemnation of four months'            
imprisonment4 ,he wrote ,new ,researches

  on ,cerebral ,congestion1 '#fh1 and   
was one of the ,french delegates to  the
 anti-,council of ,naples1 '#fi4 ,has   
published ,atheism1 studies of          
political science1 dated ,londres1 '#gh2
 a ,history of ,england since #ahae2    
and has translated ,bchner's ,force and 
,matter1 '#hd4 ,he was delegate  to the 
,freethinkers' ,international ,congress 
at ,antwerp1 '#he4    ,regnard 7,jean   
,franois71 ,french comic poet1 b4       
,paris4 #h ,feb4 #afee4 ,he  went to    
,italy about #afgf1 and on returning    
home was captured by an  ,algerian      
corsair and sold as a slave4 ,being     
caught in an intrigue  with one of the  
women1 he was required to turn          
,muhammadan4 ,the ,french  consul paid  
his ransom and he returned to ,france   
about #afha4 ,he wrote  a number of     
successful comedies and poems1 and was  
made a treasurer  of ,france4 ,he died  
as an ,epicurean1 #d ,sept4 #agji4      
,regnier 7,mathurin71 ,french satirical 
poet1 b4 ,chartres1 #ba  ,dec4 #aegc4   

,brought up for the ,church1 he showed  
little inclination for  its austerities1
 and was in fact a complete ,pagan1     
though he obtained  a canonry in the    
cathedral of his native place4 ,died at 
,rouen1 #bb  ,oct4 #afac4    ,reich     
7,eduard7 ,dr41 ,german physician and   
anthropologist of ,sclav  descent on his
 father's side1 b4 ,olmtz1 #f ,march    
#ahci4 ,he studied at  ,jena and has    
travelled much1 and published over      
thirty volumes besides  editing the     
,athenum of ,jena '#ge1 and             
,universities of ,grossenbain1  '#hc4   
,of his works we mention ,man and the   
,soul1 '#gb2 ,the ,church of  ,humanity1
 '#gd2 ,life of ,man as an ,individual1 
'#ha2 ,history of the ,soul1  '#hd2 ,the
 ,emancipation of ,women1 '#hd4    ,reil
 7,johann ,christian71 ,german          
physician1 b4 ,rauden1 ,east ,friesland1
  #bj ,feb4 #ageh4 ,intended for the    
,church1 he took instead to medicine2   
after practising some years in his      
native town he went in #aghg  to ,halle1

 and in #ahaj he was made ,professor of 
,medicine at ,berlin  ,university4 ,he  
wrote many medical works1 and much      
advanced medical  science1 displacing   
the old ideas in a way which brought on 
him the  accusation of pantheism4       
,attending a case of typhus fever at    
,halle  he was attacked by the malady1  
and succumbed #bb ,nov4 #ahac4          
,reimarus 7,hermann ,samuel71 ,german   
philologist1 b4 ,hamburg1 #bb  ,dec4    
#afid4 ,he was a son-in-law of ,j4 ,a4  
,fabricus4 ,studied at ,jena and        
,wittenberg2 travelled in ,holland and  
,england2 and was appointed rector  of  
the gymnasium in ,weimar1 #agbc1 and in 
,hamburg1 #agbi4 ,he was one of  the    
most radical among ,german rationalists4
 ,he published a work on  ,the          
,principle ,truths of ,natural          
,religion1 #aged1 and left behind the   
,wolfenbttel ,fragments1 published by   
,lessing in #aggg4 ,died at ,hamburg1   
#a ,march1 #agfh4 ,strauss has written  
an account of his services1 #ahfb4      

,reitzel 7,robert71 ,german ,american   
revolutionary1 b4 ,baden1 #ahdi4 ,named 
after ,blum1 studied theology1 went to  
,america1 walked from ,new  ,york to    
,baltimore1 and was minister to an      
independent ,protestant  church4        
,studied biology and resigned as a      
minister1 and became speaker  of a      
,freethought congregation at ,washington
 for seven years4 ,is now  editor of    
,der ,arme ,teufel of ,detroit1 and says
 he shall be a poor  man and a          
,revolutionaire all my life4            
,remsburg 7,john ,e471 ,american        
lecturer and writer1 b4 #ahdh4 ,has     
written a series of pamphlets entitled  
,the ,image ,breaker1 ,false  ,claims of
 the ,christian ,church1 '#hc1 ,sabbath 
,breaking1 ,thomas ,paine1  and a       
vigorous onslaught on ,bible ,morals1   
instancing twenty crimes  and vices     
sanctioned by scripture1 '#he4    ,renan
 7,joseph ,ernest71 learned ,french     
writer1 b4 ,trguier 7,brittany7  #bg    
,feb4 #ahbc4 ,was intended for the      

,church and went to ,paris to  study4   
,he became noted for his linguistic     
attainment1 but his  studies and        
independence of thought did not accord  
with his intended  profession4 ,my      
faith1 he says was destroyed not by     
metaphysics  nor philosophy but by      
historical criticism4 ,in '#de he gave  
up all  thoughts of an ecclesiastic     
career and became a teacher4 ,in '#dh   
he gained the ,volney prize1 for a      
memoir on the ,semitic ,languages1      
afterwards amplified into a work on that
 subject4 ,in '#eb he published  his    
work on ,averros and ,averrosm4 ,in '#ef
 was elected member of  the ,academy of 
,inscriptions1 and in '#fj sent on a    
mission to ,syria2  having in the       
meantime published a translation of ,job
 and ,song of  ,songs4 ,here he wrote   
his long contemplated ,vie de ,jesus1   
'#fc4 ,in  '#fa he had been appointed   
,professor of ,hebrew in the ,institute 
of  ,france1 but denounced by bishops   
and clergy he was deprived of his       

chair1 which was1 however1 restored in  
'#gj4 ,the ,pope did not disdain  to    
attack him personally as a ,french      
blasphemer4 ,the ,vie de ,jesus  is part
 of a comprehensive ,history of the     
,origin of ,christianity1 in  #h vols41 
'#fc-hc1 which includes ,the ,apostles1 
,st ,paul1 ,anti-,christ1  ,the         
,gospels1 ,the ,christian ,church1 and  
,marcus ,aurelius1 and the end  of the  
,antique ,world4 ,among his other works 
we must mention ,studies on  ,religious 
,history 7'#eh71 ,philosophical         
,dialogues and ,fragments 7'#gf71       
,spinoza 7'#gg71 ,caliban1 a satirical  
drama 7'#hj71 the ,hibbert ,lecture  on 
the ,influence of ,rome on ,christians1 
,souvenirs1 '#hd2 ,new ,studies  of     
,religious ,history1'#hd2 ,the ,abbess  
of ,jouarre1 a drama which made  a great
 sensation in '#hf2 and ,the ,history of
 the ,people of ,israel1  '#hg-hi4      
,renand 7,paul71 ,belgian author of a   
work entitled ,nouvelle ,symbolique1  on
 the identity of ,christianity and      

,paganism1 published at ,brussels  in   
#ahfa4    ,rengart 7,karl ,fr471 of     
,berlin1 b4 #ahjc1 democrat and         
freethought  friend of ,c4 ,deubler4    
,died about #ahgi4    ,renard           
7,georges71 ,french professor of the    
,academie of ,lausanne2  author of ,man1
 is he ,free8 #ahha1 and a ,life of     
,voltaire1 '#hc4    ,renouvier 7,charles
 ,bernard71 ,french philosopher1 b4     
,montpellier1  #ahae4 ,an ardent        
,radical and follower of the critical   
philosophy4 ,among  his works are       
,manual of ,ancient ,philosophy 7#b     
vols41 '#dd72 ,republican  ,manual1     
'#dh2 ,essays of ,general ,criticism1   
'#ed2 ,science of ,morals1 '#fi2  a     
translation1 made with ,f4 ,pillon1 of  
,hume's ,psychology1 '#gh2 and ,a       
,sketch of a ,systematic ,classification
 of ,philosophical ,doctrines1 '#he4    
,renton 7,william71 ,english writer1 b4 
,edinburgh1 #aheb4 ,educated in         
,germany4 ,wrote poems entitled ,oil and
 ,water ,colors1 and a work on ,the     

,logic of ,style1 '#gd4 ,at ,keswick he 
published ,jesus1 a psychological       
estimate of that hero1 '#gf4 ,has since 
published a romance of the last         
generation called ,bishopspool1 '#hc4   
,rethore 7,franois71 ,french professor  
of philosophy at the ,lyceum of         
,marseilles1 b4 ,amiens1 #ahbb4 ,author 
of a work entitled ,condillac1  or      
,empiricism and ,rationalism1 '#fd4 ,has
 translated ,h4 ,spencer's              
,classification of ,sciences4           
,reuschle 7,karl ,gustav71 ,german      
geographer1 b4 ,mehrstetten1 #ab  ,dec4 
#ahab4 ,he wrote on ,kepler and         
,astronomy1 '#ga1 and ,philosophy and   
,natural ,science1 '#gd1 dedicated to   
the memory of ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss4 ,died   
at ,stuttgart1 #bb ,may1 #ahge4         
,revillon 7,antoine1 called ,tony71     
,french journalist and deputy1  b4      
,saint-,laurent-les ,mcon 7,ain71 #bi   
,dec4 #ahcb4 ,at first a lawyer in      
'#eg1 he went to ,paris1 where he has   
written on many journals1 and  published

 many romances and brochures4 ,in '#ha  
he was elected deputy4    ,rey 7,marc   
,michel71 printer and bookseller of     
,amsterdam4 ,he printed  all the works  
of d',holbach and ,rousseau and some of 
,voltaire's1  and conducted the ,journal
 des ,savans4    ,reynaud 7,antoine     
,andre ,louis71 ,baron1 ,french         
mathematician1 b4 ,paris1  #ab ,sept4   
#aggg4 ,in #agij he became one of the   
,national ,guard of ,paris4 ,he  was    
teacher and examiner for about thirty   
years in the ,polytechnic  ,school4 ,a  
friend of ,lalande4 ,died ,paris1 #bd   
,feb4 #ahdd4    ,reynaud 7,jean         
,ernest71 ,french philosopher1 b4       
,lyons1 #ad ,feb4 #ahjf4 ,for  a time he
 was a ,saint ,simonian4 ,in '#cf he    
edited with ,p4 ,leroux the             
,encyclopdie ,nouvelle4 ,he was a       
moderate ,democrat in the ,assembly  of 
'#dh4 ,his chief work1 entitled ,earth  
and ,heaven1 '#ed1 had great  success4  
,it was formally condemned by a clerical
 council held at  ,prigueux4 ,died      

,paris1 #bh ,june1 #ahfc4    ,reynolds  
7,charles ,b471 ,american lecturer1 b4  
#d ,aug4 #ahcb4 ,was  brought up        
religiously1 and became a ,seventh ,day 
,baptist preacher1  but was converted to
 ,freethought4 ,he was prosecuted for   
blasphemy  at ,morristown1 ,new ,jersey1
 ,may #ai1 #bj1 #ahhg1 and was defended 
by  ,col4 ,ingersoll4 ,the verdict was  
one of guilty1 and the sentence was  a  
paltry fine of #be dollars4 ,has written
 in the ,boston ,investigator1          
,truthseeker1 and ,ironclad ,age4       
,reynolds 7,george ,william             
,mac,arthur71 ,english writer2 author of
 many  novels4 ,wrote ,errors of the    
,christian ,religion1 #ahcb4    ,rialle 
7,j4 ,girard de71 ,french               
anthropologist1 b4 ,paris #ahda4 ,he    
wrote in ,la ,pense ,nouvelle1 conducted
 the ,revue de ,linguistique et  de     
,philologie compare1 and has written on 
,comparative ,mythology1  dealing with  
fetishism1 etc41 '#gh1 and works on     
,ethnology4    ,ribelt 7,lonce71 ,french

 publicist1 b4 ,bordeaux #ahbd1 author  
of several  political works and         
collaborator on ,la ,morale             
,indpendante4    ,ribeyrolles 7,charles 
de71 ,french politician1 b4 near ,martel
 7,lot7  #ahab4 ,intended for the       
,church1 he became a social democrat2   
edited the  ,emancipation of ,toulouse1 
and ,la ,rforme in '#dh4 ,a friend of   
,v4 ,hugo1  he shared in his exile at   
,jersey4 ,died at ,rio-,janeiro1 #ac    
,june1 #ahfa4    ,ribot 7,thodule71     
,french philosopher1 b4 ,guingamp 7,ctes
 du-,nord7  #ahci2 has written          
,contemporary ,english ,psychology '#gj1
 a resume of  the views of ,mill1 ,bain1
 and ,spencer1 whose ,principles of     
,psychology  he has translated4 ,has    
also written on ,heredity1 '#gc2 ,the   
,philosophy  of ,schopenhauer1 '#gd2    
,the maladies of ,memory1 personality   
and ,will1  #c vols42 and ,contemporary 
,german ,psychology4 ,he conducts the   
,revue  ,philosophique4    ,ricciardi   
7,giuseppe ,napoleone71 ,count1 ,italian

 patriot1 b4 ,capodimonte  7,naples71   
#ai ,july1 #ahjh1 son of ,francesco     
,ricciardi1 ,count of  ,camaldoli1      
#ageh-ahdb4 ,early in life he published 
patriotic poems4 ,he  says that never   
after he was nineteen did he kneel      
before a priest4 ,in  '#cb he founded at
 ,naples ,il ,progresso1 a review of    
science1 literature1  and art4 ,arrested
 in '#cd as a ,republican conspirator1  
he was imprisoned  eight months and then
 lived in exile in ,france until '#dh4  
,here he  wrote in the ,revue           
,indpendante1 pointing out that the     
,papacy from  its very essence was      
incompatible with liberty4 ,elected     
deputy to the  ,neapolitan ,parliament1 
he sat on the extreme left4 ,he wrote a 
,history  of the ,revolution of ,italy  
in '#dh 7,paris '#di74 ,condemned to    
death in  '#ec1 his fortune was seized4 
,he wrote an ,italian ,martyrology from 
#agib-ahdg 7,turin '#ef71 and ,the ,pope
 and ,italy1 '#fb4 ,at the time of the  
,ecumenical ,council he called an       

,anti-council of ,freethinkers at       
,naples1  '#fi4 ,this was dissolved by  
the ,italian government1 but it led to  
the  ,international ,federation of      
,freethinkers4 ,count ,ricciardi        
published  an account of the congress4  
,his last work was a life of his friend 
,mauro ,macchi1 '#hb4 ,died #ahhd4      
,richepin 7,jean71 ,french poet1        
novelist1 and dramatist1 b4 ,mdah       
7,algeria7 in #ahdi4 ,he began life as a
 doctor1 and during the  ,franco-,german
 war took to journalism4 ,in '#gf he    
published the ,song  of the ,beggars1   
which was suppressed4 ,in '#hd appeared 
,les ,blasphmes1  which has gone through
 several editions4    ,richer 7,lon71   
,french ,deist and journalist1 b4       
,laigh1 #ahbd4 ,he was  with ,a4        
,guroult editor of l',opinion           
,nationale1 and in '#fi founded and     
edits ,l',avenir des ,femmes4 ,in '#fh  
he published ,letters of a ,freethinker 
to a ,village ,priest1 and has written  
many volumes in favor of the            

emancipation of women1 collaborating    
with ,mdlle4 ,desraismes in the         
,women's ,rights congresses held in     
,paris4    ,rickman 7,thomas ,clio71    
,english ,radical4 ,he published several
 volumes  of poems and a life of his    
friend ,thomas ,paine1 #ahai1 of whom he
  also published an excellent portrait  
painted by ,romney and engraved  by     
,sharpe4    ,riem 7,andreas71 ,german   
rationalist b4 ,frankenthal #agdi4 ,he  
became  a preacher1 and was appointed by
 ,frederick the ,great chaplain of a    
hospital at ,berlin4 ,this he quitted in
 order to become secretary of the       
,academy of ,painting4 ,he wrote        
anonymously on the ,aufklaring4 ,died   
#ahjg4    ,ritter 7,charles71 ,swiss    
writer b4 ,geneva #ahch1 and has        
translated into  ,french ,strauss's     
,essay of ,religious ,history1 ,george  
,eliot's ,fragments  and ,thoughts1 and 
,zeller's ,christian ,baur and the      
,tbingen ,school4    ,roalfe 7,matilda71
 a brave woman1 b4 #ahac4 ,at the time  

of the blasphemy  prosecutions in #ahdc1
 she went from ,london to ,edinburgh to 
uphold  the right of free publication4  
,she opened a shop and circulated a     
manifesto setting forth her             
determination to sell works she deemed  
useful whether they did or did not bring
 into contempt the ,holy  ,scriptures   
and the ,christian ,religion4 ,when     
prosecuted for selling ,the  ,age of    
,reason1 ,the ,oracle of ,reason1 etc41 
she expressed her intention  of         
continuing her offence as soon as       
liberated4 ,she was sentenced to  two   
months imprisonment #bc ,jan4 '#dd1 and 
on her liberation continued  the sale of
 the prosecuted works4 ,she afterwards  
married ,mr4 ,walter  ,sanderson and    
settled at ,galashiels1 where she died  
#bi ,nov4 #ahhj4    ,robert 7,pierre    
,franois ,joseph71 ,french conventionnel
 and friend of  ,brissot and ,danton1 b4
 ,gimne 7,ardennes7 #ba ,jan4 #agfc4    
,brought up  to the law he became       
professor of public law to the          

philosophical  society4 ,he was         
nominated deputy for ,paris1 and wrote  
,republicanism  adapted to ,france1     
#agij1 became secretary to ,danton1 and 
voted for the  death of the king4 ,he   
wrote in ,prudhomme's ,rvolutions de    
,paris4 ,died  at ,brussels #ahbf4      
,robertson 7,a4 ,d471 editor of the     
,free ,enquirer1 published at ,new      
,york1 #ahce4    ,robertson 7,john      
,mackinnon71 ,scotch critic1 b4 ,arran1 
#ad ,nov4 #ahef4 ,he  became journalist 
on the ,edinburgh ,evening ,news1 and   
afterwards on  the ,national ,reformer4 
,mr4 ,robertson has published a study of
 ,walt  ,whitman in the ,round ,table   
,series4 ,essays towards a ,critical    
,method1  '#hi1 and has contributed to  
,our ,corner1 ,time1 notably an article 
on  ,mithraism1 ,march1 '#hi1 ,the      
,westminster ,review1 etc4 ,he has also 
issued  pamphlets on ,socialism and     
,malthusianism1 and ,toryism and        
,barbarism1  '#he1 and edited ,hume's   
,essay on ,natural ,religion1 '#hi4     

,roberty 7,eugne de71 ,french positivist
 writer1 of ,russian birth1  b4 ,podolia
 7,russia71 #ahdc2 author of works on   
,sociology1 ,paris1 '#ha1  and ,the ,old
 and the ,new ,philosophy1 an essay on  
the general laws of  philosophic        
development1 '#hg4 ,he has recently     
written a work entitled  ,the           
,unknowable1 '#hi4    ,robin 7,charles  
,philippe71 ,french physician1 senator  
member of the  ,institute and of the    
,academy of ,medecine1 b4 ,jasseron     
7,aix71 #d ,june1  #ahba4 ,became ,m4,d4
 in '#df1 and ,d4,sc4 '#dg4 ,in company 
with ,littr he  refounded ,nysten's     
,dictionary of ,medicine1 and he has    
written many  important medical works1  
and one on ,instruction4 ,in '#gb his   
name was  struck out of the list of     
jurors on the ground of his unbelief in 
,god1  and it thus remained despite many
 protests until '#gf4 ,in the same  year
 he was elected ,senator1 and sits with 
the ,republican ,left4 ,he  has been    
decorated with the ,legion of ,honor4   

,robinet 7,jean ,baptiste ,ren71 ,french
 philosopher1 b4 ,rennes1 #bc ,june1    
#agce4 ,he became a ,jesuit1 but gave it
 up and went to ,holland to publish  his
 curious work1 ,de la ,nature1 #aggf1 by
 some attributed to ,toussaint  and to  
,diderot4 ,he continued ,marsy's        
,analysis of ,bayle1 edited the  ,secret
 ,letters of ,voltaire1 translated      
,hume's ,moral ,essays1 and took  part  
in the ,recueil ,philosophique1         
published by ,j4 ,l4 ,castilhon4 ,died  
at ,rennes1 #bd ,march1 #ahbj4          
,robinet 7,jean ,eugne ,franois71       
,french physician and publicist1  b4    
,vic-sur-,seille1 #ahbe4 ,he early      
attached himself to the person  and     
doctrine of ,auguste ,comte1 and became 
his physician and one of  his executors4
 ,during the war of '#gj he was made    
,mayor of the ,sixth  ,arrondissement of
 ,paris4 ,he has written a ,notice of   
the ,work and  ,life of ,a4 ,comte1     
'#fj1 a memoir of the private life of   
,danton1 '#fe1  ,the ,trial of the      

,dantonists1 '#gi1 and contributed an   
account of the  ,positive ,philosophy of
 ,a4 ,comte and ,p4 ,lafitte to the     
,bibliothque  ,utile1 vol4 #ff1 '#ha4   
,roell 7,hermann ,alexander71 ,german   
theologian1 b4 #afec1 author of a       
,deistic dissertation on natural        
religion1 published at ,frankfort in    
#agjj4 ,died ,amsterdam1 #ab ,july1     
#agah4    ,rogeard 7,louis ,auguste71   
,french publicist1 b4 ,chartres1 #be    
,april1  #ahbj4 ,became a teacher but   
was dismissed for refusing to attend    
mass4 ,in '#di he moved to ,paris and   
took part in the revolutionary          
movement4 ,he was several times         
imprisoned under the ,empire1 and in    
'#fe was sentenced to five years'       
imprisonment for writing ,les ,propos   
de ,labienus 7,london1 i4e4 ,zrich71    
'#fe4 ,he fled to ,belgium and wrote    
some excellent criticism on the ,bible  
in the ,rive ,gauche4 ,in '#ga  he      
assisted ,pyat on ,le ,vengeur1 and was 
elected on the ,commune but  declined to

 sit4 ,an incisive writer1 he signed    
himself ,atheist4 ,is  still living in  
,paris4    ,rokitansky 7,karl71 ,german 
physician and scientist1 founder of the 
,viennese school in medicine1 b4        
,kniggrtz 7,bohemia7 #aa ,feb4 #ahjd1   
studied medicine at ,prague and ,vienna1
 and received his degree of  ,doctor in 
'#bh4 ,his principal work is a ,manual  
of ,practical ,anatomy1  '#db-f4 ,died  
,vienna1 #bc ,july1 #ahgh4    ,roland   
7,marie ,jeanne71 ne ,phlipon1 ,french  
patriot1 b4 ,paris1 #ag ,march1  #aged4 
,fond of reading1 ,plutarch's ,lives    
influenced her greatly4 ,at  a convent  
she noted the names of sceptics attached
 and read their  writings1 being1 she   
says1 in turn ,jansenist1 stoic1        
sceptic1 atheist1  and deist4 ,the last 
she remained1 though ,miss ,blind       
classes her with  ,agnostics4 ,after her
 marriage in #aggi with ,jean ,marie    
,roland de la  ,platire 7b4 ,lyons1     
#agcb71 ,madame ,roland shared the tasks
 and studies  of her husband1 and the   

,revolution found her an ardent consort4
 ,on  the appointment of her husband to 
the ministry1 she became the centre  of 
a ,girondist circle4 ,carlyle calls her 
the creature of ,simplicity  and        
,nature1 in an age of ,artificiality1   
,pollution1 and ,cant1 and  the noblest 
of all living ,frenchwomen4 ,on the fall
 of her party  she was imprisoned1 and  
finally executed1 #h ,nov4 #agic4 ,her  
husband1  then in hiding1 hearing of her
 death1 deliberately stabbed himself1   
#ae ,nov4 #agic4    ,rolph 7,william    
,henry71 ,german philosopher1 b4 of     
,english father1  ,berlin1 #bf ,aug4    
#ahdg4 ,he became privat-docent of      
,zoology in the  ,university of         
,leipsic1 and wrote an able work on     
,biological ,problems1  '#hd1 in which  
he accepts evolution1 discards theology1
 and places  ethics on a natural basis4 
,died #a ,aug4 #ahhc4    ,romagnosi     
7,giovanni ,domenico71 ,italian         
philosopher and jurist1  b4 ,salso      
,maggiore1 #ac ,dec4 #agfa4 ,he         

published in #agia an able work  on     
penal legislation1 ,genesis of ,penal   
,law1 many pages of which are  borrowed 
from d',holbach's ,system of ,nature4   
,he became ,professor of  ,law in       
,parma1 ,milan1 and ,pavia4 ,a member of
 the ,italian ,academy1  he was named   
professor at ,corfu1 where he died #h   
,june1 #ahce4 ,in  '#ba he wrote        
,elements of ,philosophy1 followed by   
,what is a ,sound  ,mind8 7'#bg7 and    
,ancient ,moral ,philosophy1 '#cb4 ,a   
somewhat obscure  writer1 he            
nevertheless contributed to the positive
 study of sociology4    ,romiti         
7,guglielmo71 ,italian ,positivist4     
,professor of ,anatomy in the           
,university of ,siena4 ,has published   
,anatomical ,notes1 and a ,discourse    
which excited some commotion among the  
theologians4    ,romme 7,gilbert71      
,french ,mathematician1 b4 ,riou1 #agej1
 became deputy  to the ,legislative     
,assembly in #agia1 and to the          
,convention in #agib4 ,in  ,sept4 #agic 

he introduced the new ,republican       
,calendar1 the plan of which  was drawn 
by ,lalande1 and the names assigned by  
,fabre d',eglantine4 ,he  advocated the 
,ftes of ,reason4 ,being condemned to   
death1 he committed  suicide1 #ah ,june1
 #agie4 ,his brother ,charles1 b4 #agdd1
 was also an  eminent geometrician1 and 
a friend of ,laland4 ,he died #ae ,june1
 #ahje4    ,ronge 7,johannes71 ,german  
religious reformer1 b4 ,bischopwalde    
7,silesia71 #af ,oct4 #ahac4 ,he entered
 the seminary of ,breslau1  and became a
 ,catholic priest in '#dj4 ,his liberal 
views and bold  preaching soon led to   
his suspension4 ,in '#dd his letter     
denouncing the  worship of the holy     
coat1 exhibited by ,arnoldi1 ,bishop of 
,treves1  made much clamor4             
,excommunicated by the ,church1 he found
 many free  congregations1 but was      
proscribed after the revolution of '#di 
and took  refuge in ,england4 ,in '#ea  
he issued a revolutionary manifesto4 ,in
  '#fa he returned to ,frankfort1 and in

 '#gc settled at ,darmstadt4 ,died  at  
,vienna1 #be ,oct4 #ahhg4    ,ronsard   
7,pierre71 ,french poet1 b4 of noble    
family #aa ,sept4 #aebd4 ,he  became    
page to the ,duke of ,orleans1 and      
afterwards to ,james ,v4 of  ,scotland4 
,returning to ,france1 he was a great   
favorite at the ,french  ,court4 ,died  
#bg ,dec4 #aehe4    ,roorda van ,eysinga
 7,sicco ,ernst ,willem71 ,dutch        
positivist1 b4 ,batavia  7,java71 #h    
,aug4 #ahbe4 ,he served as engineer at  
,java1 and was expelled  about '#fd for 
writing on behalf of the ,javanese4 ,he 
contributed  to the ,de ,dageraad and   
,revue ,positive4 ,died ,clarens        
7,switzerland71  #bc ,oct4 #ahhg4       
,roquetaillade 7,jean de la71 also known
 as ,rupescina1 early ,french  reformer 
of ,auvillac 7,auvergne71 who entered   
the order of the  ,franciscans4 ,his    
bold discourses led to his imprisonment 
at ,avignon  #acef1 by order of         
,innocent ,,vi41 when he wrote an       
apology4 ,accused  of ,magic1           

,nostradamus says he was burnt at       
,avignon in #acfb1 but this  has been   
disputed4    ,rose 7,charles ,h471      
formerly of ,adelaide1 ,australia1      
author of ,a ,light  to ,lighten the    
,gentiles1 #ahha4    ,rose 7,ernestine  
,louise7 ne ,ssmond ,potowsky1 ,radical 
reformer  and orator1 b4 ,peterkov      
7,poland71 #ac ,jan4 #ahaj4 ,her father 
was  a ,jewish ,rabbi4 ,from early life 
she was of a bold and inquiring         
disposition4 ,at the age of #ag she went
 to ,berlin4 ,she was in ,paris  during 
the ,revolution of '#cj4 ,soon after she
 came to ,england where she  embraced   
the views of ,robert ,owen1 who called  
her his daughter4 ,here  she married    
,mr4 ,william ,e4 ,rose1 a gentleman of 
broad ,liberal views4 ,in  ,may '#cf1   
they went to the ,united ,states and    
became citizens of the  ,republic4 ,mrs4
 ,rose lectured in all the states on the
 social system1  the formation of       
character1 priestcraft1 etc4 ,she       
lectured against  slavery in the        

slave-owning states and sent in '#ch the
 first petition  to give married women  
the right to hold real estate4 ,she was 
one  of the inaugurators of the ,woman's
 ,rights ,movement1 and a constant      
champion of ,freethought4 ,an eloquent  
speaker1 some of her addresses  have    
been published4 ,defence of ,atheism1   
,women's ,rights and ,speech  at the    
,hartford ,bible ,convention in '#ed4   
,about '#gc she returned to  ,england   
where she still lives4 ,one of her last 
appearances at public  was at the       
,conference of ,liberal ,thinkers at    
,south ,place ,chapel in  '#gf1 where   
she delivered a pointed speech4 ,mrs4   
,rose has a fine face  and head1 and    
though aged and suffering1 retains the  
utmost interest  in the ,freethought    
cause4    ,roskoff 7,georg ,gustav71    
,german rationalist1 b4 ,presburg1      
,hungary1 #cj  ,aug4 #ahad4 ,he studied 
theology and philosophy at ,halle1 and  
has written  works on ,hebrew           
,antiquity1 '#eg4 ,the ,samson legend   

and ,herakles myth1  '#fj1 and a        
standard ,history of the ,devil in #b   
vols41 ,leipzig1 '#fi4    ,ross         
7,william ,stewart71 ,scotch writer1 b4 
#bj ,mar4 #ahdd4 ,author of  poems and  
educational works1 and editor of        
,secular ,review1 now ,the  ,agnostic   
,journal4 ,wrote ,god and his ,book1    
'#hg1 and several brochures  published  
under the pen name of ,saladin4         
,rosseau 7,leon71 ,french writer in the 
,rationalist of ,geneva under the  name 
of ,l4 ,russelli4 ,he published         
separately the ,female ,followers of    
,jesus1 founded the ,horizon1           
contributed to la ,libre ,pense1 and was
  editor of l',athe4 ,died #ahgj4       
,rossetti 7,dante ,gabriel71 poet and   
painter1 b4 of ,italian parents1        
,london1 #ab ,may1 #ahbh4 ,educated at  
,king's ,college1 he became a student   
at the ,royal ,academy and joined the   
pre-,raphaelites4 ,as a poet  artist he 
exhibited the richest gifts of          
originality1 earnestness1  and splendour

 of expression4 ,died at ,westgate on   
,sea1 #i ,april1 #ahhb4    ,rossetti    
7,william ,michael7 critic and man of   
letters1 brother of  the preceding1 b4  
,london1 #be ,sep4 #ahbi4 ,educated at  
,king's ,college1  he became assistant  
secretary in the ,inland ,revenue       
,office4 ,he has  acted as critic for   
many papers and edited many works1 the  
chief being  an edition of ,shelley1    
'#gj1 with a memoir and numerous notes4 
,he is  ,chairman of the ,committee of  
the ,shelley ,society4    ,rossmaessler 
7,emil ,adolf71 ,german naturalist b4   
,leipsic #c ,march1  #ahjf4 ,studied    
theology1 but abandoned it for science1 
and wrote many  scientific works of     
repute4 ,in '#dh he was elected to      
,parliament4 ,among  his writings are   
,man in the ,mirror of ,nature4 '#di-ee4
 ,the ,history of  the ,earth1 '#fh4    
,died as a philosopher #h ,april1 #ahfg4
    ,roth 7,julius71 ,dr41 ,german      
author of ,religion and ,priestcraft1   
,leipzig1  #ahfi2 ,jesuitism1 '#ga4     

,rothenbuecher 7,adolph71 ,dr41 ,german 
author of an able little ,handbook  of  
,morals1 written from the ,secular      
standpoint1 ,cottbus1 #ahhd4    ,rotteck
 7,karl ,wenceslaus von71 ,german       
historian and statesman  b4 ,freiburg   
#ah ,july1 #agge4 ,studied in his native
 town1 where in  #agih be became        
,professor of ,history4 ,in #ahai he    
represented his  ,university in the     
,states of ,baden1 where he             
distinguished himself by  his liberal   
views4 ,he was forbidden by government  
to edit any paper  and was deprived of  
his chair4 ,this persecution hastened   
his death1  which occurred #bf ,nov     
#ahdj4 ,rotteck's ,general ,history of  
the ,world  7#i vols41 #ahbg7 was very  
popular and gave one of the broadest    
views  of history which had then        
appeared4    ,rousseau 7,jean ,jacques71
 ,swiss philosopher1 b4 ,geneva1 #bh    
,june1  #agab4 ,after a varied career he
 went to ,paris in #agda and supported  
himself4 ,in #agea he obtained a prize  

from the academy of ,dijon for  negative
 answer to the question whether the     
re-establishment of the  arts and       
sciences has conduced to the purity of  
morals4 ,this success  prompted further 
literary efforts4 ,he published a       
dictionary of music1  the ,new ,heloise 
7#agei71 a love story in the form of    
letters1 which  had great success1 and  
,emilius 7,may #agfb71 a moral romance1 
in which  he condemns other education   
than that of following nature4 ,in this 
work occurs his ,confession of ,faith of
 a ,savoyard ,vicar1 discarding  the    
supernatural element in ,christianity4  
,the ,french parliament  condemned the  
book #i ,june1 #agfb1 and prosecuted the
 writer1 who fled  to ,switzerland4     
,pope ,clement ,,xviii fulminated       
against ,emile1 and  ,rousseau received 
so many insults on account of his       
principles that  he returned to ,paris  
and on the invitation of ,hume came to  
,england  in ,jan4 #agff4 ,he knew      
little ,english and soon took offence   

with  ,hume1 and asked permission to    
return to ,paris1 which he obtained on  
condition of never publishing anything  
more4 ,he however completed his         
,confessions1 of which he had previously
 composed the first six books  in       
,england4 ,rousseau was a sincere       
sentimentalist1 an independent  and     
eloquent1 but not deep thinker4 ,his    
captious temper spoiled his  own life1  
but his influence has been profound and 
far-reaching4 ,died  near ,paris1 #b    
,july1 #aggh4    ,rouzade 7,leonie7     
,madame1 ,french ,freethought lecturess4
 ,has written  several brochures and    
novels1 notably ,le ,monde ,renvers1    
#ahgb1  and ,ci et ca1 ca et la1 ideas  
upon moral philosophy and social        
progress4 ,writes in ,malon's ,revue    
,socialiste1 and is one of the  editors 
of ,les ,droits des ,femmes4    ,roy    
7,joseph71 ,french translator of        
,feuerbach's ,essence of ,christianity1 
#ahfd1 and ,religion1 ,death1           
,immortality1 '#ff4 ,has also translated

  ,marx's ,capital4    ,royer 7,clemence
 ,auguste71 ,french authoress1 b4       
,nantes1 #bd ,april1 #ahcj1  of         
,catholic royalist family4 ,visiting    
,england in '#ed1 she studied our       
language and literature4 ,going to      
,switzerland1 in '#ei she opened at     
,lausanne a course of logic and         
philosophy for women4 ,in '#fj she      
shared  with ,proudhon in a prize       
competition on the subject of taxation4 
,in  '#fb she translated ,darwin's      
,origin of ,species1 with a bold preface
  and notes4 ,in '#fd her philosophical 
romance ,the ,twins of ,hellas  appeared
 at ,brussels1 and was interdicted in   
,france4 ,her ablest work  is on ,the   
,origin of ,man and of ,societies1 '#fi4
 ,in this she states  the scientific    
view of human evolution1 and challenges 
the ,christian  creed4 ,this was        
followed by many memoirs1 ,pre-historic 
,funeral ,rites1  '#gf2 ,two ,hypotheses
 of ,heredity1 '#gg2 ,the ,good and the 
,moral ,law1  '#ha4 ,mdlle4 ,royer has  

contributed to the ,revue ,moderne1     
,revue de  ,philosophie1 ,positive1     
,revue d',anthropologie1 etc41 and has  
assisted  and spoken at many political1 
social1 and scientific meetings4    ,rdt
 7,p4 ,a471 ,ph4 ,d41 ,german lecturer  
and apostle of unbelief1  b4 ,mannheim1 
#h ,dec4 #ahdd4 ,educated at ,mannheim  
and ,carlsruhe1 he  studied philosophy1 
philology1 and jurisprudence at         
,heidelberg  ,university1 '#fe-fi4 ,dr4 
,rdt became acquainted with ,lassalle1  
and started a paper1 ,die ,waffe1 and in
 '#gj was imprisoned for  participation 
in social democratic agitation4 ,from   
'#gd to '#hf he  lived in ,st4          
,petersburg as teacher1 and has since   
devoted himself to  ,freethought        
propaganda4 ,several of his addresses   
have been published4    ,ruelle         
7,charles ,claude71 ,french writer1 b4  
,savigny1 #ahaj4 ,author of  ,the       
,history of ,christianity1 '#ff1 and ,la
 ,schmita1 '#fi4    ,ruge 7,arnold71    
,german reformer1 b4 ,bergen 7,isle     

,rgen71 #ac  ,sept4 #ahjb4 ,studied at  
,halle1 ,jena1 and ,heidelberg1 and as a
 member of  the ,tugenbund was          
imprisoned for six years4 ,after his    
liberation in  '#cj he became professor 
at ,halle1 and with ,echtermeyer founded
 the  ,hallische ,jahrbcher1 '#ch1 which
 opposed ,church and ,state4 ,in '#dh he
  started ,die ,reform4 ,elected to the 
,frankfort ,assembly1 he sat on the     
,extreme ,left4 ,when compelled to fly  
he came to ,england1 where he wrote     
,new ,germany in ,cabinet of ,reason    
series1 and translated ,buckle's        
,history of ,civilisation4 ,he acted as 
visiting tutor at ,brighton1  where he  
died #cj ,dec4 #ahhj4    ,ruggieri      
7,cosmo71 ,florentine philosopher and   
astrologer1 patronised  by ,catherine de
 ,medicis4 ,he began to publish         
,almanachs in #afjd1 which  he issued   
annually4 ,he died at ,paris in #afae1  
declaring himself an  ,atheist1 and his 
corpse was in consequence denied        
,christian burial4    ,rumpf 7,johann   

,wilhelm71 ,swiss author of ,church1    
,faith1 and ,progress1  and ,the ,bible 
and ,christ1 a criticism 7,strasburg1   
#aheh74 ,edited ,das  ,freire ,wort     
7,basle1 '#ef74    ,russell 7,john74    
,see ,amberley4    ,ryall 7,malthus     
,questell71 was secretary of the        
,anti-,persecution ,union1  #ahdb1 and  
assisted his friend ,mr4 ,holyoake on   
,the ,oracle of ,reason  and ,the       
,movement4 ,died #ahdf4    ,rydberg     
7,abraham ,viktor71 ,swedish man of     
,letters1 b4 ,jnkping1 #ah  ,dec4 #ahbi4
 ,he has written many works of which we 
mention ,the ,last  ,athenian ,roman    
,days1 and ,the ,magic of the ,middle   
,ages1 which have  been translated into 
,english4    ,rystwick 7,herman van71   
early ,dutch heretic who denied hell and
  taught that the soul was not immortal1
 but the elements of all  matter        
eternal4 ,he was sent to prison in      
#adii1 and set at liberty  upon abjuring
 his opinion1 but having published them 
a second time1  he was arrested at the  

,hague1 and burnt to death in #aeaa4    
,sabin 7,ibn71 ,al ,mursi1 ,spanish     
,arabian philosopher1 b4 ,murcia about  
#abah of noble family4 ,about #abdi he  
corresponded with ,frederick ,,ii41     
replying to his philosophical questions4
 ,committed suicide about #abga4        
,sadoc1 a learned ,jewish doctor in the 
third century ,b4,c4 ,he denied  the    
resurrection1 the existence of angels1  
and the doctrine  of predestination1 and
 opposed the idea of future rewards and 
punishments4 ,his followers were named  
after him1 ,sadducees4    ,saga         
7,francesco7 de ,rovigo1 ,italian       
heretic1 put to death for               
,anti-,trinitarianism at ,venice1 #be   
,feb4 #aeff4    ,saigey 7,emile71       
,french inspector of telegraph wires4   
,wrote ,modern  ,physics1 #ahfg1 and    
,the ,sciences in the ,eighteenth       
,century3 ,physics  of ,voltaire1 '#gd4 
,died #ahge4    ,saillard 7,f471 ,french
 author of ,the ,revolution and the     
,church 7,paris1  '#fi71 and ,the       

,organisation of the ,republic1 '#hc4   
,sainte ,beuve 7,charles ,augustin71    
,french critic and man of letters  b4   
,boulogne1 #bc ,dec4 #ahjd4 ,educated in
 ,paris1 he studied medicine1  which he 
practised several years4 ,a favorable   
review of ,v4 ,hugo's  ,odes and        
,ballades gained him the intimacy of the
 ,romantic school4 ,as  a critic he made
 his mark in '#bh with his ,historical  
and ,critical  ,picture of ,french      
,poetry in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,his
 other principal  works are his ,history
 of ,port ,royal1 '#dj-fb2 ,literary    
,portraits1  '#cb-ci2 and ,causeries du 
,lundi1 '#ea-eg4 ,in '#de he was elected
 to the  ,academy1 and in '#fe was made 
a senator4 ,as a critic he was          
penetrative1  comprehensive1 and        
impartial4    ,saint ,evremond 7,charles
 de ,marguetel de ,saint ,denis7        
seigneur de1  ,french man of letters1 b4
 ,st4 ,denys-le-,guast 7,normandy71 #a  
,april1  #agac4 ,he studied law1 but    
subsequently entered the army and became

  major-general4 ,he was confined in the
 ,bastile for satirising ,cardinal      
,mazarin4 ,in ,england he was well      
received at the court of ,charles  ,,ii4
 ,he died in ,london1 #bj ,sept4 #agjc1 
and was buried in ,westminster  ,abbey4 
,asked on his death-bed if he wished to 
reconcile himself to ,god1  he replied1 
he desired to reconcile himself to      
appetite4 ,his works1  consisting of    
essays1 letters1 poems1 and dramas1 were
 published in  #c vols4 #agje4          
,saint-,glain 7,dominique de71 ,french  
,spinozist1 b4 ,limoges1 about  #afbj4  
,he went into ,holland that he might    
profess the ,protestant  religion more  
freely2 was captain in the service of   
the ,states1  and assisted on the       
,rotterdam ,gazette4 ,reading ,spinoza1 
he espoused  his system1 and translated 
the ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus   
into  ,french1 under the title of ,la   
,clef du ,sanctuaire1 #afgh4 ,this      
making  much noise1 and being in danger 
of prosecution1 he changed the title to 

,ceremonies ,superstitieuses des ,juifs1
 and also to ,reflexions ,curieuses     
d'un ,esprit ,desintress1 #afgh4        
,saint-,hyacinthe 7,themiseul de        
,cordonnier de71 ,french writer1  b4    
,orleans1 #bd ,sept4 #afhd4 ,author of  
,philosophical ,researches1  published  
at ,rotterdam1 #agdc4 ,died near ,breda 
7,holland71 #agdf4 ,voltaire  published 
his ,diner ,du ,comte de                
,boulainvilliers under the name of  ,st4
 ,hyacinthe4    ,saint ,john 7,henry74  
,see ,bolingbroke1 ,lord4    ,saint     
,lambert 7,charles1 or rather ,jean     
,franois de71 ,french writer1  b4       
,nancy1 #af ,dec4 #agag4 ,after being   
educated among the ,jesuits he  entered 
the army1 and was admired for his wit   
and gallantry4 ,he became  a devoted    
adherent of ,voltaire and an admirer of 
,madame du ,chatelet4 ,he  wrote some   
articles in the ,encyclopdie1 and many  
fugitive pieces and  poems in the       
literary journals4 ,his poem1 the       
,seasons1 #agfi procured  him admission 

to the ,academy4 ,he published essays on
 ,helvetius and  ,bolingbroke1 and ,le  
,catchisme ,universel4 ,his             
,philosophical ,works  were published in
 #ahja4 ,died ,paris1 #i ,feb4 #ahjc4   
,sale 7,george71 ,english ,oriental     
scholar1 b4 ,kent1 #afhj1 educated  at  
,canterbury4 ,he was one of a society   
which undertook to publish a  ,universal
 ,history1 and was also one of the      
compilers of the ,general  ,dictionary4 
,his most important work was a          
translation of the ,koran1  with a      
preliminary discourse and explanatory   
notes1 #agcd4 ,he was one  of the       
founders of the ,society for the        
,encouragement of ,learning4 ,died  #ad 
,nov4 #agcf4    ,salieres 7,a471        
contributor to l',athe1 #ahgj4 ,has     
written a work on  ,patriotism1 #ahha4  
,sallet 7,friedrich von71 ,german       
pantheist poet of ,french descent1  b4  
,neisse 7,silesia71 #bj ,april1 #ahab4  
,an officer in the army1 he was         
imprisoned for writing a satire on the  

life of a trooper4 ,in '#cd he  attended
 ,hegel's lectures at ,berlin1 and in   
'#ch quitted the army4 ,he  wrote a     
curious long poem entitled the ,layman's
 ,gospel1 in which he  takes ,new       
,testament texts and expounds them      
pantheistically--the ,god  who is made  
flesh is replaced by the man who becomes
 ,god4 ,died ,reichau  7,silesia71 #ba  
,feb4 #ahdc4    ,salmeron y ,alonso     
7,nicolas71 ,spanish statesman1 b4      
,alhama lo ,seco1  #ahch4 ,studied law1 
and became a ,democratic journalist2 a  
deputy to the  ,cortes in #ahga1 and    
became ,president thereof during the    
,republic of  '#gc4 ,he wrote a prologue
 to the work of ,giner on ,philosophy   
and ,arts1  '#gh1 and his own works were
 issued in #ahha4    ,salt 7,henry      
,stephens71 ,english writer1 b4 ,india1 
#bj ,sept4 #ahea2  educated at ,eton1   
where he became assistant master4 ,a    
contributor  to ,progress1 he has       
written ,literary ,sketches1 '#hh4 ,a   
monograph on  ,shelley1 and a ,life of  

,james ,thomson1 ,b4,v41 #ahhi4         
,saltus 7,edgar ,evertson71 ,american   
author1 b4 ,new ,york #h ,june  #aheh4  
,studied at ,concord1 ,paris1           
,heidelberg and ,munich4 ,in '#hd he    
published a sketch of ,balzac4 ,next    
year appeared ,the ,philosophy of       
,disenchantment1 appreciative and well  
written views of ,schopenhauer  and     
,hartmann4 ,this was followed by ,the   
,anatomy of ,negation1 a sketchy        
account of some atheists and sceptics   
from ,kapila to ,leconte de ,lisle1     
'#hf4 ,has also written several novels1 
and ,eden1 an episode1 '#hi4 ,his       
brother ,francis is the author of ,honey
 and ,gall1 a book of poems             
7,philadelphia1 '#gc47    ,salverte     
7,anne ,joseph ,eusbe ,baconniere de71  
,french philosopher1  b4 ,paris1 #ah    
,july1 #agga4 ,he studied among the     
,oratorians4 ,wrote ,epistle  to a      
,reasonable ,woman1 an ,essay on ,what  
should be ,believed1 #agic1  contributed
 to ,marchal's ,dictionnaire des ,athes1

 published an eloge  on ,diderot1 #ahja1
 and many brochures1 among others a     
tragedy on the  ,death of ,jesus        
,christ4 ,elected deputy in '#bh1 he was
 one of the warm  partisans of liberty1 
and in '#cj1 demanded that ,catholicism 
should not  be recognised as the state  
religion4 ,he is chiefly remembered by  
his  work on ,the ,occult ,sciences1    
'#bi1 which was translated into         
,english1  '#df4 ,to the ,french edition
 of '#ef ,littr wrote a ,preface4 ,he   
died #bg  ,oct4 #ahci4 ,on his death bed
 he refused religious offices4    ,sand 
7,george71 the pen name of ,amandine    
,lucile ,aurore ,dupin1 afterwards      
baroness ,dudnevant1 ,french novelist1  
b4 ,paris1 #a ,july1 #ahjd1 and  brought
 up by her grandmother at the ,chteau de
 ,nohant4 ,reading  ,rousseau and the   
philosophers divorced her from          
,catholicism4 ,she  remained a          
,humanitarian4 ,married ,sept4 #ahbb1   
,baron ,dudnevant1 an  elderly man who  
both neglected and ill-treated her1 and 

from whom  after some years she was glad
 to separate at the sacrifice of her    
whole fortune4 ,her novels are too many 
to enumerate4 ,the ,revolution of  '#dh 
drew her into politics1 and she started 
a journal and translated  ,mazzini's    
,republic and ,royalty in ,italy1 ,died 
at her ,chateau of ,nohant1  #h ,june1  
#ahgf4 ,her name was long obnoxious in  
,england1 where she was  thought of as  
an assailant of marriage and religion1  
but a better  appreciation of her work  
and genius is making way4    ,sarcey    
7,franscique71 ,french critic1 b4       
,dourdan1 #h ,oct4 #ahbh1 editor  of ,le
 ,x,i,xe4 ,sicle1 has written plays1    
novels1 and many anti-clerical          
articles4    ,sarrasi1 pseudonym of ,a4 
de ,c44442 ,french ,orientalist b4      
,department  of ,tarn1 #ahcg1 author of 
,l',orient ,devoil1 '#hj1 in which he   
shows  the mythical elements in         
,christianity4    ,saull 7,william      
,devonshire71 ,english geologist1 b4    
#aghc4 ,he established  a free          

geological museum1 contributed to the   
erection of the ,john  ,street          
,institute1 and was principally         
instrumental in opening the  old ,hall  
of ,science1 ,city ,road4 ,he wrote on  
the connection between  astronomy1      
geology1 etc4 ,he died #bf ,april1      
#ahee1 and is buried in  ,kensal ,green1
 near his friends1 ,allen ,davenport and
 ,henry ,hetherington4    ,saunderson   
7,nicholas71 ,english mathematician b4  
,thurleston 7,yorkshire71  #b ,jan4     
#afhb4 ,he lost both his eyes and his   
sight by small pox when  but a year old1
 yet he became conversant with ,euclid1 
,archimedes1  and ,diophantus1 when read
 to him in ,greek4 ,he lectured at      
,cambridge  ,university1 explaining     
,newton's ,mathematical ,principles of  
,natural  ,philosophy1 and even his     
works on light and color4 ,it was said1 
,they have turned out ,whiston for      
believing in but one ,god1 and put  in  
,saunderson1 who believes in no ,god at 
all4 ,saunderson said that  to believe  

in ,god he must first touch him4 ,died  
#ai ,april1 #agci4    ,sauvestre        
7,charles71 ,french journalist1 b4      
,mans4 #ahah1 one of  the editors of    
,l',opinion ,nationale4 ,has written on 
,the ,clergy and  ,education 7'#fa71    
,monita ,secreta ,societatis ,jesu2     
,secret ,instructions  of the ,jesuits  
7'#fe71 ,on the ,knees of the ,church   
7'#fh71 ,religious  ,congregations      
,unveiled 7'#gj71 and other             
anti-clerical works4 ,he died  at ,paris
 in #ahhc4    ,saville 7,sir ,george71  
,marquis of ,halifax1 ,english          
statesman1  b4 ,yorkshire1 #afcj4 ,he   
became ,president of the ,council in the
 reign  of ,james ,,ii41 but was        
dismissed for opposing the repeal of the
 ,test  ,acts4 ,he wrote several pieces 
and memoirs4 ,burnet gives a curious    
account of his opinions1 which he       
probably tones down4    ,sawtelle 7,c4  
,m471 ,american author of ,reflections  
on the ,science of  ,ignorance1 or the  
art of teaching others what you don't   

know yourself1  ,salem1 ,oregon1 #ahfh4 
,sbarbaro 7,pietro71 ,italian publicist 
and reformer1 b4 ,savona1 #ahch2        
studied jurisprudence4 ,he published a  
work on ,the ,philosophy of  ,research1 
'#ff4 ,in '#gj he dedicated to ,mauro   
,macchi a book on ,the ,task  of the    
,nineteenth ,century1 and presided at a 
congress of ,freethinkers  held at      
,loreto4 ,has written popular works on  
the ,conditions of ,human  ,progress1   
the ,ideal of ,democracy1 and an essay  
entitled ,from ,socino  to ,mazzini1    
'#hf4    ,schade 7,georg71 ,german      
,deist1 b4 ,apenrade1 #agab4 ,he        
believed in the  immortality of brutes4 
,in #aggj he was imprisoned for his     
opinions  on the ,isle of ,christiansoe4
 ,he settled at ,kiel1 ,holstein1 in    
#agge1  where he died in #agie4         
,scherer 7,edmond71 ,french critic and  
publicist1 b4 ,paris #h ,april1  #ahae4 
,of ,protestant family1 he became       
professor of exegesis at ,geneva1  but  
his views becoming too free1 he resigned

 his chair and went to  ,strasburg1     
where he became chief of the ,school of 
,liberal ,protestants1  and in the      
,revue de ,thologie et de ,philosophie  
,chrtienne1 '#ej-fj1  put forward views 
which drew down a tempest from the      
orthodox4 ,he also  wrote in the        
,bibliotheque ,universelle and ,revue   
des ,deux-,mondes4 ,some  of his        
articles have been collected as ,mlanges
 de ,critique ,religieuse1  '#fj2 and   
,mlanges d',histoire ,religieuse1 '#fd4 
,he was elected deputy in  '#ga1 and sat
 with the ,republicans of the ,left4    
,died #ahhi4    ,scherr 7,johannes71    
,german author1 b4 ,hohenrechberg1 #c   
,oct4 #ahag4 ,educated at ,zrich and    
,tbingen1 he wrote in '#dc with his     
brother ,thomas a ,popular ,history of  
,religious and ,philosophical ,ideas1   
and in '#eg a ,history of ,religion1 in 
three parts4 ,in '#fj he became         
,professor of ,history and ,literature  
at ,zrich1 and has written many  able   
literary studies1 including histories of

 ,german and ,english  literature4 ,died
 at ,zrich1 #ba ,nov4 #ahhg4    ,schiff 
7,johan ,moriz71 ,german physiologist1  
b4 ,frankfort1 #ahbc4 ,educated  at     
,berlin and ,gottingen1 he became       
,professor of ,comparative ,anatomy at  
,berne1 '#ed-fc2 of ,physiology at      
,florence1 '#fc-gf1 and at ,genoa4 ,has 
written many physiological treatises1   
which have been attacked as             
materialistic4    ,schiller 7,johann    
,christoph ,friedrich von71 eminent     
,german poet and  historian1 b4         
,marbech1 #aj ,nov4 #agei4 ,his mother  
wished him to become a  minister1 but   
his tastes led him in a different       
direction4 ,a friend of  ,goethe1 he    
enriched ,german literature with        
numerous plays and poems1  a ,history of
 the ,netherlands ,revolt1 and of the   
,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,he  died in the  
prime of mental life at ,weimar1 #i     
,may1 #ahje4    ,schmidt 7,eduard       
,oskar71 ,german zoologist1 b4 ,torgau1 
#ba ,feb4 #ahbc4 ,he  travelled widely1 

and became professor of natural history 
at  ,jena4 ,among the first of ,germans 
to accept ,darwinism1 he has            
illustrated its application in many     
directions1 and published an able  work 
on ,the ,doctrine of ,descent and       
,darwinism in the ,international        
,scientific ,series4 ,died at           
,strasburg1 #ag ,jan4 #ahhf4    ,schmidt
 7,kaspar71 ,german philosopher1 b4     
,bayreuth1  #be ,oct4 #ahjf4 ,studied at
 ,berlin1 ,erlangen1 and ,knigsberg1    
first  theology1 then philosophy4 ,under
 the pseudonym of ,max ,stirner  he     
wrote a system of individualism ,the    
,only ,one1 and ,his ,possession  7,der 
,einzige und sein ,eigenthum71 '#de4 ,he
 also wrote a ,history of  ,reaction in 
two parts 7,berlin1 '#eb71 and          
translated ,smith's ,wealth  of ,nations
 and ,say's ,text-book of ,political    
,economy4 ,died at ,berlin1  #be ,june1 
#ahef4    ,schneeberger 7,f4 ,j471      
,austrian writer1 b4 ,vienna1 #g ,sept1 
#ahbg4 ,has  written some popular novels

 under the name of ,arthur ,storch1 and 
was one of the founders of the ,german  
,freethinkers' ,union4    ,schoelcher 7 
,victor71 ,french philosophist1 b4      
,paris1 #ba ,july  #ahjd4 ,while still  
young he joined the secret society      
,aide-toi1 le ciel  t'aidera1 and       
studied social questions4 ,he devoted   
himself from about  '#bf to advocating  
the abolition of slavery1 and wrote many
 works  on the subject4 ,on #c ,march1  
'#dh1 he was made ,under ,secretary of  
the  ,navy1 and caused a decree to be   
issued by the ,provisional ,government  
enfranchising all slaves on ,french     
territory4 ,he was elected ,deputy for  
,martinique '#dh and '#di4 ,after #b    
,dec4 '#ea1 he came to ,london1 where he
  wrote occasionally in the ,reasoner   
and ,national ,reformer4 ,he returned   
to ,france during the war1 and took part
 in the defence of ,paris4 ,in  '#ga he 
was again returned for ,martinique1 and 
in '#ge he was elected  a life senator4 
,scholl 7,aurlien71 ,french journalist1 

b4 ,bordeaux1 #ad ,july1 #ahcc4 ,he     
began life as a writer on the ,corsaire1
 founded ,satan1 ,le ,nain ,jaune1      
etc41 and writes on l',evnement4 ,has   
written several novels1 and le  ,procs  
de ,jsus ,christ1 '#gg4    ,scholl      
7,karl71 ,german writer and preacher to 
the ,free religious bodies  of ,mannheim
 and ,heidelberg1 b4 ,karlsruhe1 #ag    
,aug4 #ahbj4 ,he became  a minister     
'#dd1 but was suspended for his free    
opinions in '#de4 ,his  first important 
work was on the ,messiah ,legend of the 
,east 7,hamburg1  '#eb71 and in '#fa he 
published a volume on ,free ,speech1 a  
collection  of extracts from ,french1   
,english1 and ,american ,freethinkers4  
,in '#gj  he started a monthly journal  
of the ,religion of ,humanity1 ,es      
,werde  ,licht6 which continued for many
 years4 ,has published many discourses1 
and written ,truth from ,ruins1 '#gc1   
and on ,judaism and the ,religion  of   
,humanity1 '#gi4    ,schopenhauer       
7,arthur71 ,german pessimist            

philosopher1 b4 ,danzig1  #bb ,feb4     
#aghh4 ,the son of a wealthy and        
well-educated merchant and a  vivacious 
lady1 he was educated in ,french and    
,english1 and studied  at ,gttingen     
science1 history1 and the religions and 
philosophies of  the ,east4 ,after two  
visits to ,italy1 and an unsuccessful   
attempt to  obtain pupils at ,berlin1 he
 took up his abode at ,frankfort4 ,in   
#ahae  he wrote his chief work1 ,the    
,world as ,will and ,idea1 translated   
into  ,english in '#hc4 ,his philosophy 
is expressed in the title1 will is  the 
one reality1 all else appearance4 ,he   
also wrote ,the ,two ,ground  ,problems 
of ,ethics1 '#fa1 ,on the ,freedom of   
,will1 and a collection  of essays      
entitled ,parega and ,paralipomena      
7'#ea74 ,died at ,frankfort1  #ba ,sept4
 #ahfj4 ,schopenhauer was a pronounced  
,atheist1 and an enemy of  every form of
 superstition4 ,he said that religions  
are like glow-worms2  they require      
darkness to shine in4    ,schroeter     

7,eduard71 ,german ,american writer1 b4 
,hannover1 #d ,june1  #ahaj1 studied    
theology at ,jena2 entered the          
,free-religious communion  in '#de4 ,in 
'#ej1 he went to ,america1 living since 
'#ec in ,sauk ,city1  and frequently    
lecturing there4 ,in '#ha1 he attended  
the ,international  ,conference of      
,freethinkers at ,brussels4 ,he was a   
constant contributor  to the            
,freidenker1 of ,milwaukee1 until his   
death #b ,april1 #ahhh4    ,schroot     
7,a471 ,german author of ,visions and   
,ideas 7,berlin1 #ahfe71  ,natural ,law 
and ,human ,will2 ,creation and ,man1   
and ,science and ,life  7,hamburg1      
#ahgc74    ,schuenemann ,pott           
7,friedrich71 ,german ,american1 b4     
,hamburg1 #c ,april1  #ahbf4 ,he joined 
the ,freie ,gemeinde1 and was expelled  
from ,prussia  in '#dh4 ,after the      
,revolution he returned to ,berlin and  
took part  in democratic agitation1 for 
which he was tried for high treason1    
but acquitted4 ,in '#ed he removed to   

,america1 where he made lecturing  tours
 over the ,states settling at ,san      
,francisco4    ,schultze 7,karl ,august 
,julius ,fritz71 ,german writer1 b4     
,celle1 #g ,may1  #ahdf1 studied at     
,jena1 ,gttingen and ,mnich1 has written
 an able study  on ,fetishism1 ,leipzig 
'#ga1 a pamphlet on ,religion in ,german
 ,schools1  '#gb1 a ,history of the     
,philosophy of the ,renaissance1 '#gd1  
and ,kant  and ,darwin1 '#ge4 ,in '#gf1 
he was appointed ,professor of          
,philosophy in  ,jena1 since which he   
has written ,the ,elements of           
,materialism1 '#hj1  ,philosophy of the 
,natural ,sciences1 #b vols4 '#ha-hb1   
and ,elements of  ,spiritualism1 #ahhc4 
,schumann 7,robert ,alexander71 ,german 
musical composer1 b4 ,nekau1 #h  ,july1 
#ahaj4 ,he studied law at ,leipsic1 but 
forsook it for music4 ,he  started a    
musical journal '#cd1 which he edited   
for some years4 ,his  lyrical           
compositions are unsurpassed1 and he    
also composed a profane  oratorio1      

,paradise and the ,peri 7'#dj74 ,his    
character and opinions  are illustrated 
by his ,letters4 ,died #bi ,july1 #ahef4
    ,schweichel 7,georg ,julius         
,robert71 ,german writer1 b4 ,knigsberg1
 #ab  ,july1 #ahba4 ,he studied         
jurisprudence1 but took to literature4  
,taking  part in the events of '#dh1    
after the reaction he went to           
,switzerland4 ,has written several      
novels dealing with ,swiss life1  also a
 ,life of ,auerbach4 ,he wrote the      
preface to ,dulk's ,irrgang des         
,leben's ,jesu1 #ahhd4    ,schweitzer   
7,jean ,baptista von71 ,german          
,socialist poet1 b4 ,frankfort1  #ab    
,july1 #ahcc4 ,he studied law in ,berlin
 and ,heidelberg2 became after          
,lassalle's death president of the      
,german ,workmen's ,union1 and was  sent
 to ,parliament in '#fg4 ,he wrote the  
,zeitgeist and ,christianity1  '#fb1    
,the ,darwinians1 '#ge1 and several     
other works4 ,died #bh ,july1 #ahge4    
,scot 7,reginald71 ,english rationalist1

 author of ,the ,discoverie of          
,witchcraft1 #aehd1 the first ,english  
work to question the existence of       
witches4 ,it was burnt by order of ,king
 ,james ,i1 and was republished  in     
#ahhf4 ,scot died in #aeii4    ,scott   
7,thomas71 ,english scholar1 b4 #bh     
,april #ahjh4 ,in early life he         
travelled widely1 lived with ,indians   
and had been page to ,chas4 ,x1  of     
,france4 ,having investigated           
,christianity1 he in later life devoted 
himself to ,freethought propaganda by   
sending scholarly pamphlets among  the  
clergy and cultured classes4 ,from      
'#fb-gg1 he issued from ,mount          
,pleasant1 ,ramsgate1 over a hundred    
different pamphlets by ,bp4 ,hinds1  ,f4
 ,w4 ,newman1 ,kalisch1 ,lestrange1     
,willis1 ,strange1 etc41 most of which  
were given away4 ,he issued a challenge 
to the ,christian ,evidence  ,society1  
and wrote with ,sir ,g4 ,w4 ,cox1 ,the  
,english ,life of ,jesus  '#ga4         
,altogether his publications extend to  

twenty volumes4 ,little  known outside  
his own circle1 ,thomas ,scott did a    
work which should  secure him lasting   
honor4 ,died at ,norwood1 #cj ,dec4     
#ahgh4    ,seaver 7,horace ,holley71    
,american journalist1 b4 ,boston1 #be   
,aug4 #ahaj4 ,in '#cg he became a       
compositor on the ,boston ,investigator1
  and during ,kneeland's imprisonment   
took the editorship1 which  he continued
 for upwards of fifty years during which
 he battled  strenuously for            
,freethought in ,america4 ,his articles 
were always  very plain and to the      
point4 ,a selection of them has been    
published  with the title ,occasional   
,thoughts 7,boston1 '#hh74 ,with ,mr4   
,mendum1 he  helped the erection of the 
,paine ,memorial ,hall1 and won the     
esteem of  all ,freethinkers in         
,america4 ,died1 #ba ,aug4 #ahhi4 ,his  
funeral oration  was delivered by       
,colonel ,ingersoll4    ,sebille        
7,adolphe71 ,french writer1 who1 under  
the pseudonym  of ,dr4 ,fabricus1       

published ,god1 ,man1 and his latter    
end1 a  medico-psychological study1     
#ahfh1 and ,letters from a ,materialist 
to  ,mgr4 ,dupanloup1 #ahfh-i4          
,sechenov or ,setchenoff 7,ivan71       
,russian philosopher1 who1 in #ahfc1    
published ,psychological ,studies1      
explaining the mind by physiology4 ,the 
work made a great impression in ,russia1
 and has been translated into  ,french  
by ,victor ,derly1 and published in '#hd
 with an introduction  by ,m4 ,g4       
,wyrouboff4    ,secondat 7,charles de74 
,see ,montesquieu4    ,seeley 7,john    
,robert71 ,english historian and man of 
letters1 b4 ,london1  #ahcd1 educated at
 ,city of ,london ,school and           
,cambridge1 where he  graduated in '#eg4
 ,in '#fc1 he was appointed ,professor  
of ,latin in  ,london ,university4 ,in  
'#ff1 appeared his ,ecce ,homo1 a survey
 of the  ,life and ,work of ,jesus      
,christ1 published anonymously1 and     
which ,lord  ,shaftesbury denounced in  
unmeasured terms as vomitted from the   

pit of  hell4 ,in '#fi1 he became       
professor of modern history at          
,cambridge1 and  has since written some 
important historical works as well as   
,natural  ,religion 7'#hb74 ,prof4      
,seeley is president of the ,ethical    
,society4    ,segond 7,louis ,august71  
,french physician and ,positivist1      
author of  a plan of a positivist school
 to regenerate medicine1 #ahdi1 and of  
several medical works4    ,seidel       
7,martin71 ,silesian ,deist1 of ,olhau1 
lived at the end of the  sixteenth      
century4 ,he held that ,jesus was not   
the predicted ,messiah1  and endeavored 
to propagate his opinion among the      
,polish ,socinians4 ,he  wrote three    
,letters on the ,messiah1 ,the          
,foundations of the ,christian          
,religion1 in which he considered the   
quotation from the ,old ,testament  in  
the new1 and pointed out the errors of  
the latter4    ,sellon 7,edward71       
,english archologist1 author of ,the    
,monolithic  ,temples of ,india2        

,annotations on the ,sacred ,writings of
 the ,hindus1  #ahfe1 and other scarce  
works1 privately printed4    ,semerie   
7,eugne71 ,french ,positivist1 b4 ,aix1 
#f ,jan4 #ahcb4 ,becoming  physician at 
,charenton1 he studied mental maladies1 
and in '#fg  published a work on        
,intellectual ,symptoms of ,madness1 in 
which  he maintained that the disordered
 mind went back from ,positivism  to    
metaphysics1 theology1 and then to      
fetishism4 ,this work was  denounced by 
the ,bishop of ,orleans4 ,dr4 ,semerie  
wrote ,a ,simple ,reply  to ,m4         
,dupanloup1 '#fh4 ,during the sieges of 
,paris he acted as surgeon  and director
 of the ambulance4 ,a friend of ,pierre 
,lafitte1 he edited  the ,politique     
,positive1 and wrote ,positivists and   
,catholics1 '#gc1  and ,the ,law of the 
,three ,states1 '#ge4 ,died at ,grasse1 
,may1 #ahhd4    ,semler 7,johann        
,salomo71 ,german critic1 b4 ,saalfeld1 
#ah ,dec4 #agbe4 ,he  was professor of  
theology at ,halle and founder of       

historical ,biblical  criticism there4  
,he translated ,simon's ,critical       
,history of the ,new  ,testament1 and by
 asserting the right of free discussion 
drew down  the wrath of the orthodox4   
,died at ,halle1 #d ,march1 #agia4      
,serafini 7,maria ,alimonda71 ,italian  
authoress of a ,catechism for  ,female  
,freethinkers 7,geneva1 #ahfi71 and a   
work on ,marriage and ,divorce          
7,salerno1 '#gc74    ,serveto y ,reves  
7,miguel71 better known as ,michael     
,servetus1 ,spanish  martyr1 b4         
,villanova 7,aragon71 #aeji4 ,intended  
for the ,church1 he  left it for law1   
which he studied at ,toulouse4 ,he      
afterward studied  medicine at ,paris1  
and corresponded with ,calvin on the    
subject  of the ,trinity1 against which 
he wrote ,de ,trinitatis ,erroribus  and
 ,christianismi ,restitutio1 which      
excited the hatred of both  ,catholics  
and ,protestants4 ,to ,calvin ,servetus 
sent a copy of his  last work4 ,calvin1 
through one ,trie1 denounced him to the 

,catholic  authorities at ,lyons4 ,he   
was imprisoned1 but escaped1 and to get 
to  ,naples passed through ,geneva1     
where he was seized at the instance of  
,calvin1 tried for blasphemy and heresy1
 and burnt alive at a slow fire1  #bf   
,oct4 #aeec4    ,seume 7,johann         
,gottfried71 ,german poet1 b4 near      
,weissenfels1 #bi  ,jan4 #agfc4 ,he was 
sent to ,leipsic1 and intended for a    
theologian1  but the dogmas disgusted   
him1 and he left for ,paris4 ,he lived  
an  adventurous life1 travelled         
extensively1 and wrote ,promenade to    
,syracuse1 #ahjb1 and other works4 ,died
 at ,teplitz1 #ac ,june1 #ahaj4         
,sextus ,empiricus1 ,greek sceptical    
philosopher and physician1 who  probably
 lived early in the third century of the
 ,christian era4 ,he  left two works1   
one a summary of the doctrines of the   
sceptics in  three books2 the other an  
attack on all positive philosophy4      
,shadwell 7,thomas71 ,english dramatist1
 b4 ,straton ,hall1 ,norfolk1  #afdj4   

,although damned by ,dryden in his ,mac 
,flecknoe1 ,shadwell's plays  are not   
without merit1 and illustrate the days  
of ,charles ,,ii4 ,died  #f ,dec4 #afib4
    ,shaftesbury 7,anthony ,ashley      
,cooper71 third ,earl1 b4 ,london1 #bf  
,feb4 #afga4 ,educated by ,locke1 in    
#afic he was elected ,m4,p4 for ,poole1 
and proposed granting counsel to        
prisoners in case of treason4 ,his      
health suffering1 he resigned and went  
to ,holland1 where he made the          
acquaintance of ,bayle4 ,the excitement 
induced by the ,french ,prophets        
occasioned his ,letters upon            
,enthusiasm1 #agjh4 ,this was followed1 
by his ,moralists and ,sensus ,communis4
 ,in #agaa he removed to ,naples1  where
 he died #d ,feb4 #agac4 ,his collected 
works were published under  the title of
 ,characteristics1 #agcb4 ,they went    
through several editions1  and did much 
to raise the character of ,english      
,deism4    ,shakespeare 7,william74 ,the
 greatest of all dramatists1  b4        

,stratford-on-,avon1 #bc ,april1 #aefd4 
,the materials for writing his  life are
 slender4 ,he married in his #aith year1
 went to ,london1 where he  became an   
actor and produced his marvellous plays1
 the eternal honor  of ,english         
literature4 ,shakespeare gained wealth  
and reputation and  retired to his      
native town1 where he died ,april #bc1  
#afaf4 ,his dramas  warrant the         
inference that he was a ,freethinker4   
,prof4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green  says1 ,often as  
his questionings turned to the riddle of
 life  and death1 and leaves it a riddle
 to the last without heeding the  common
 theological solutions around him4 ,his 
comprehensive mind  disdained           
endorsement of religious dogmas and his 
wit delighted in  what the ,puritans    
call profanity4 ,mr4 ,birch in his      
,inquiry into the  ,philosophy and      
,religion of ,shakespeare1 sustains the 
position that  he was an ,atheist4      
,shaw 7,james ,dickson71 ,american      
writer1 b4 ,texas1 #bg ,dec4 #ahda4     

,brought  up on a cattle farm1 at the   
,civil ,war he joined the ,southern     
,army1  took part in some battles1 and  
was wounded4 ,he afterwards entered the 
,methodist ,episcopal ministry1 '#gj2   
studied biblical criticism to answer    
sceptics1 and his own faith gave way4   
,he left the ,church in ,march1  '#hc1  
and started the ,independent ,pulpit at 
,waco1 ,texas1 in which he  publishes   
bold ,freethought articles4 ,he rejects 
all supernaturalism1  and has written   
,the ,bible1 ,what ,is ,it81 ,studies in
 ,theology1 ,the  ,bible ,against       
,itself1 etc4    ,shelley 7,percy       
,bysshe71 ,english poet1 b4 ,field      
,place 7,sussex71 #d  ,aug4 #agib4 ,from
 ,eton1 where he refused to fag1 he went
 to ,oxford4 ,here  he published a      
pamphlet on the necessity of ,atheism1  
for which he  was expelled from the     
,university4 ,his father1 ,sir ,timothy 
,shelley1  also forbade him his house4  
,he went to ,london1 wrote ,queen ,mab1 
and  met ,miss ,westbrook1 whom1 in     

#ahaa1 he married4 ,after two children  
had been born1 they separated4 ,in '#af 
,shelley learned that his wife  had     
drowned herself4 ,he now claimed the    
custody of his children1  but1 in       
,march1 '#ag1 ,lord ,eldon decided      
against him1 largely on  account of his 
opinions4 ,shelley had previously       
written ,a ,letter  to ,lord            
,ellenborough1 indignantly attacking the
 sentence the judge  passed on ,d4 ,i4  
,eaton for publishing ,paine's ,age of  
,reason4 ,on #cj  ,dec4 '#af1 ,shelley  
married ,mary1 daughter of ,william     
,godwin and ,mary  ,wollstonecraft4 ,in 
'#ah1 fearing their son might also be   
taken from him1  he left ,england never 
to return4 ,he went to ,italy1 where he 
met ,byron1  composed ,the ,cenci1 the  
,witch of ,atlas1 ,prometheus ,unbound1 
,adonais1  ,epipsychidion1 ,hellas1 and 
many minor poems of exquisite beauty1   
the glory of our literature4 ,he was    
drowned in the ,bay of ,spezzia1  #h    
,july1 #ahbb4 ,shelley never wavered in 

his ,freethought4 ,trelawny1  who knew  
him well1 says he was an ,atheist to the
 last4    ,siciliani 7,pietro71         
,professor in the ,university of        
,bologna b4 ,galatina1  #ai ,sep4 #ahce1
 author of works on ,positive           
,philosophy1 ,socialism1  ,darwinism1   
and ,modern ,sociology1 '#gi2 and       
,modern ,psychogeny1 with a  preface by 
,j4 ,soury1 '#hb4 ,died #bh ,dec4 '#he4 
,sidney 7,algernon71 ,english           
,republican1 and second son of ,robert1 
,earl  of ,leicester1 b4 #afag4 ,he     
became a colonel in the ,army of        
,parliament1  and a member of the ,house
 of ,commons4 ,on the ,restoration he   
remained  abroad till #afgg1 but being  
implicated in the ,rye ,house ,plot1 was
  condemned by ,judge ,jeffreys to be   
executed on ,tower ,hill1 #g ,dec4      
#afgh4    ,sierebois 7,p474 ,see        
,boissire4    ,siffle 7,alexander       
,franois71 ,dutch writer1 b4            
,middleburg1 #aa ,may1  #ahja4 ,studied 
law at ,leyden1 and became notary at    

,middleburg4 ,he  wrote several poems   
and works of literary value1 and        
contributed  to de ,dageraad4 ,he was a 
man of wide reading4 ,died at           
,middleburg1  #g ,oct4 #ahgb4           
,sigward 7,m471 b4 ,st4                 
,leger-sur-,dhume1 ,france1 #ae ,april1 
#ahag4 ,an  active ,french democrat and 
,freethinker1 and compiler of a         
,republican  calendar4 ,he took part in 
the ,international ,congress at ,paris  
'#hi1  and is one of the editors of ,le 
,danton4    ,simcox 7,edith71 author of 
,natural ,law in the ,english and       
,foreign  ,philosophical ,library2 also 
wrote on the ,design ,argument in the   
,fortnightly ,review1 #ahgb1 under the  
signature ,h4 ,lawrenny4    ,simon de   
,tournai1 a ,professor at ,paris        
,university early in the ,x,i,i,ith     
century4 ,he said that ,three seducers1 
,moses1 ,jesus1 and ,muhammad1  have    
mystified mankind with their doctrines4 
,he was said to have  been punished by  
,god for his impiety4    ,simon         

7,richard71 learned ,french theological 
critic1 b4 ,dieppe1 #ae ,may1  #afch4   
,brought up by the ,congregation of the 
,oratory1 he distinguished  himself by  
bold erudition4 ,his ,critical ,history 
of the ,old ,testament1  #afgh1 was     
suppressed by ,parliament4 ,he followed 
it with a ,critical  ,history of the    
,new ,testament1 which was also         
condemned4 ,died at ,dieppe1  #aa       
,april1 #agab4    ,simonis4--,a         
physician1 b4 at ,lucques and persecuted
 in ,poland for  his opinions given in  
an ,atheistic work1 entitled ,simonis   
,religio1  published at ,cracow1 #aehh4 
,simpson 7,george71 of the ,glasgow     
,zetetic ,society1 who in #ahch put     
forward a ,refutation of the ,argument a
 priori for the being and  attributes of
 ,god1 in reply to ,clarke and          
,gillespie4 ,he used the  signature     
,antitheos4 ,died about #ahdd4          
,sjoberg 7,walter71 b4 #bd ,may1 #ahfe1 
at ,borgo 7,finland71 lives near        
,helsingfors1 and took part in founding 

the ,utilistiska ,samfundet  there4     
,during the imprisonment of ,mr4        
,lennstrand he gave bold lectures  at   
,stockholm4    ,skinner 7,william71 of  
,kirkcaldy1 ,deist1 author of ,thoughts 
on  ,superstition or an attempt to      
,discover ,truth 7,cupar1 #ahbb71 was   
credited also with ,jehovah ,unveiled or
 the ,god of the ,jews1 published  by   
,carlile in #ahai4    ,slater 7,thomas71
 ,english lecturer1 b4 #ae ,sept4 #ahbj4
 ,has for many  years been an advocate  
of ,secularism and ,co-operation4 ,he   
was on the  ,town ,council of ,bury1 and
 now resides at ,leicester4    ,slenker 
7,elmina71 ne ,drake1 ,american         
reformer1 b4 of ,quaker parents1  #bc   
,dec4 #ahbg4 ,at fourteen1 she began    
notes for her work1 ,studying  the      
,bible1 afterwards published at ,boston1
 '#gj2 she conducts the  ,children's    
,corner in the ,boston ,investigator1   
and has contributed  to most of the     
,american ,freethought papers4 ,has     
written ,john's ,way  7'#gh71 ,mary     

,jones1 ,the ,infidel ,teacher 7'#he71  
,the ,darwins 7'#gi71  ,freethought     
stories4 ,resides at ,snowville1        
,virginia4    ,smith 7,geritt71         
,american reformer1 b4 ,utica 7,n4,y471 
#f ,march1 #agii1  graduated at         
,hamilton's ,college4 ,he was elected to
 ,congress in #ahej1  but only served   
one ,session4 ,though of a wealthy      
slaveholding family1  he largely devoted
 his fortune to the ,anti-,slavery      
cause4 ,in religion1  originally a      
,presbyterian1 he came to give up all   
dogmas1 and wrote  ,the ,religion of    
,reason1 '#fd1 and ,nature the base of a
 ,free ,theology1  '#fg4 ,died1 ,new    
,york1 #bh ,dec4 #ahgd4    ,snoilsky    
7,karl ,johan ,gustav71 ,count1 ,swedish
 poet1 b4 ,stockholm1  #h ,sept4 #ahda4 
,studied at ,upsala1 '#fj4 ,displays his
 ,freethought in  his poems published   
under the name of ,sventrst4    ,socinus
 ,ital4 ,sozzini 7,fausto71             
anti-trinitarian1 b4 ,siena1 #e  ,dec4  
#aeci4 ,he adopted the views of his     

uncle1 ,laelio1 7#aebe-aefb71  and      
taught them with more boldness4 ,in     
#aegd he went to ,switzerland1  and     
afterwards to ,poland1 where he made    
many converts1 and died #c  ,march1     
#afjd4    ,sohlman 7,per ,august        
,ferdinand71 ,swedish publicist1 b4     
,nerika1 #ahbd4 ,he  edited the         
,aftonbladet1 of ,stockholm1 from '#eg1 
and was a distinguished  ,liberal       
politician4 ,died at ,stockholm1 #ahgd4 
,somerby 7,charles ,pomeroy71 ,american 
publisher1 b4 #ahdc4 ,has issued  many  
important ,freethought works1 and is    
business manager of the  ,truthseeker4  
,somerset 7,edward ,adolphus ,saint     
,maur71 #abth ,duke of1 b4 #bj  ,dec4   
#ahjd4 ,educated at ,eton and ,oxford4  
,he married a daughter of  ,thomas      
,sheridan4 ,sat as ,m4,p4 for ,totnes1  
'#cd-ce1 and was ,lord of the           
,treasury1 '#ce-ci1 and ,first ,lord of 
the ,admiralty1 '#ei-ff4 ,in '#gb he    
startled the aristocratic world by a    
trenchant attack on orthodoxy  entitled 

,christian ,theology and ,modern        
,scepticism4 ,he also wrote on          
mathematics and on ,monarchy and        
,democracy4 ,died #bh ,nov4 #ahhe4      
,soury 7,auguste ,jules71 ,french       
philosopher1 b4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 ,in '#fe 
he  became librarian at the ,bibliothque
 ,nationale4 ,he has contributed  to the
 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,revue       
,nouvelle1 and other journals1  and has 
published important works on ,the ,bible
 and ,archology1 '#gb2  ,historical     
,studies on ,religions1 '#gg2 ,essays of
 ,religious ,criticism1  '#gh2 ,jesus   
and the ,gospels1 '#gh1 a work in which 
he maintains that  ,jesus suffered from 
cerebral affection1 and which has been  
translated  into ,english1 together with
 an essay on ,the ,religion of ,israel  
from  his ,historical ,studies4 ,studies
 of ,psychology1 '#gi1 indicated a new  
direction in ,m4 ,soury's ,freethought4 
,he has since written ,a ,breviary  of  
the ,history of ,materialism1 '#hj2     
,naturalist ,theories of the ,world  and

 of ,life in ,antiquity1 '#ha2 ,natural 
,philosophy1 '#hb2 ,contemporary        
,psychological ,doctrines1 '#hc4 ,he has
 translated ,noeldeke's ,literary       
,history of the ,old ,testament1 #gc2   
,haeckel's ,proofs of ,evolution1  '#gi2
 and ,preyer's ,elements of ,general    
,physiology1 '#hd4    ,southwell        
7,charles71 ,english orator1 b4 ,london1
 #ahad4 ,he served  with the ,british   
,legion in ,spain1 and became an actor  
and social  missionary4 ,in ,nov4 '#da  
he started ,the ,oracle of ,reason at   
,bristol1  for an article in which on   
,the ,jew ,book he was tried for        
blasphemy  #ad ,jan4 '#db1 and after an 
able defence sentenced to twelve months'
  imprisonment1 and a fine of one       
hundred pounds4 ,after coming out he    
edited the ,lancashire ,beacon4 ,he also
 lectured and debated both in  ,england 
and ,scotland2 wrote ,christianity      
,proved ,idolatry1 '#dd2 ,apology  for  
,atheism1 '#df2 ,difficulties of        
,christianity1 '#dh2 ,superstition      

,unveiled2 ,the ,impossibility of       
,atheism which he held on the ground    
that ,theism was unproved1 and ,another 
,fourpenny ,wilderness1 in answer  to   
,g4 ,j4 ,holyoake's criticism of the    
same4 ,he also wrote about '#de1        
,confessions of a ,freethinker1 an      
account of his own life4 ,in '#ef he    
went to ,new ,zealand1 and died at      
,auckland #g ,aug4 #ahfj4    ,souverain 
7,n471 ,french author of ,platonism     
,unveiled #agjj1 a posthumous  work4 ,he
 had been a minister in ,poitou and was 
deposed on account of  his opinions4    
,sozzini4 ,see ,socinus4    ,spaink     
7,pierre ,franois71 ,dutch physician1 b4
 ,amsterdam1 #ac ,dec4 #ahfb1  and      
studied at the city1 wrote for a time on
 ,de ,dageraad1 with the pen  names ,a4 
,th4 ,eist4 and ,f4,r4,s4 ,has          
translated ,romanes' ,scientific        
,evidences of ,organic ,evolution4      
,spaventa 7,bertrando71 ,italian        
philosopher1 b4 #ahag4 ,since '#fa he   
has been professor of philosophy at     

,naples4 ,has written upon the          
,philosophy of ,kant1 ,gioberti1        
,spinoza1 ,hegel1 etc4 ,died #ahhh4     
,specht 7,karl ,august71 ,dr4 ,german   
writer1 b4 ,lhweina1 #b ,july1  #ahde4  
,has been for many years editor of      
,menschenthum at ,gotha1 and  has       
written on ,brain and ,soul1 ,theology  
and ,science and a ,popular  ,history of
 the ,world's ,development1 which has   
gone through several  editions4 ,dr4    
,specht is a leading member of the      
,german ,freethinkers'  ,union4         
,spencer 7,herbert71 ,english           
philosopher1 b4 ,derby1 #ahbj4 ,he was  
articled to a civil engineer1 but       
drifted into literature4 ,he  wrote in  
the ,westminster ,review1 and at the    
house of ,dr4 ,chapman  met ,mill1      
,lewes and ,george ,eliot4 ,his first   
important work was  ,social ,statistics1
 '#ea4 ,four years later appeared his   
,principles of  ,psychology1 which with 
,first ,principles1 '#fb2 ,principles of
 ,biology1  '#fd2 ,principles of        

,sociology1 '#gf-he1 and ,data of       
,ethics1 '#gi1 form  part of his        
,synthetic ,philosophy in which he      
applies the doctrines  of evolution to  
the phenomena of mind and society no    
less than to  animal life4 ,he has also 
published ,essays1 #c vols1 '#eh-gd2 a  
work on  ,education '#fa2 ,recent       
,discussions on ,science1 ,philosophy   
and ,morals1  '#ga2 ,the ,study of      
,sociology1 '#gb2 ,descriptive          
,sociology1 '#gb-hf1  an immense work   
compiled under his direction4 ,also     
papers directed  against ,socialism2    
,the ,coming ,slavery1 '#hd2 and ,man   
and the ,state1  '#he1 and has          
contributed many articles to the best   
reviews4    ,spinoza 7,baruch71         
,pantheistic philosopher1 b4 of ,jewish 
parents1  ,amsterdam1 #bd ,nov4 #afcb4  
,he early engaged in the study of       
theology and  philosophy1 and1 making no
 secret of his doubts1 was              
excommunicated  by the ,synagogue1 #bg  
,july1 #afef4 ,about the same time he   

narrowly  escaped death by a fanatic's  
dagger4 ,to avoid persecution1 he       
retired  to ,rhinsburg1 and devoted     
himself to philosophy1 earning his      
living by  polishing lenses4 ,about     
#afgj he settled at the ,hague1 where he
 remained  until his death4 ,in #afgj he
 issued his ,tractatus                  
,theologico-politicus1  which made a    
great outcry2 and for more than a       
century this great  thinker1 whose life 
was gentle and self-denying1 was        
stigmatized as  an atheist1 a monster1  
and a blasphemer4 ,a re-action followed1
 with  ,lessing and ,goethe1 upon whom  
he had great influence4 ,though formerly
  stigmatized as an atheist1 ,spinoza is
 now generally recognised as  among the 
greatest philosophers4 ,he died in      
poverty at the ,hague1  #ba ,feb4 #afgg4
 ,his ,ethics was published with his    
,opera ,posthuma4 ,the  bi-centenary of 
his death was celebrated there by an    
eloquent address  from ,m4 ,rnan4       
,spooner 7,lysander71 ,american writer1 

b4 ,athol 7,mass471 #ai  ,jan4 #ahjh4   
,his first pamphlet was ,a ,deist's     
,reply to the alleged  ,supernatural    
,evidences of ,christianity4 ,he started
 letter-carrying from  ,boston to ,new  
,york1 but was overwhelmed with         
prosecutions4 ,he published  many works 
against slavery1 and in favor of        
,individualism4 ,died at  ,boston1 #ad  
,may1 #ahhg4    ,stabili 7,francesco71  
see ,cecco' d',ascoli4    ,stamm        
7,august ,theodor71 ,german ,humanist1  
wrote ,the ,religion of ,action1        
translated into ,english1 #ahfj4 ,after 
the events of '#dh1 he came to          
,england1 went to ,america1 ,aug4 '#ed4 
,standring 7,george71 ,english lecturer 
and writer1 b4 #ah ,oct4 #ahee1  was for
 some years chorister at a ,ritualistic 
,church1 but discarded  theology after  
independent inquiry in '#gc4 ,he became 
hon4 sec4 of the  ,national ,secular    
,society about '#ge1 resigning on       
appointment of paid  sec41 was auditor  
and subsequently vice-president4        

,started ,republican  ,chronicle1       
,april1 #ahge1 this was afterwards      
called ,the ,republican1 and  in ,sept4 
'#hh ,the ,radical4 ,he is sec4 of the  
,london ,secular ,federation1  and has  
contributed to the ,national ,reformer1 
,freethinker1 ,progress1  ,our ,corner1 
,reynolds's and ,pall ,mall ,gazette4   
,his brother1 ,sam41  b4 #bg ,july1     
#ahec1 is also an active ,freethinker4  
,stanley 7,f4 ,lloyd71 ,american author 
of ,an ,outline of the ,future          
,religion of the ,world 7,new ,york and 
,london1 #ahhd71 a ,deistic work in     
which he criticises preceding religions4
    ,stanton 7,elizabeth1 ne ,cady71    
,american reformer1 b4 ,johnstone1 ,new 
,york1 #ab ,nov4 #ahae4 ,a friend of    
,ernestine ,rose and ,lucretia ,mott1   
she  was associated with them in the    
,anti-,slavery and the ,woman's ,rights 
crusades1 of which last the first       
convention was held at her home in      
,seneca ,falls1 ,july '#dh4 ,she edited 
with her friends1 ,susan ,anthony  and  

,parker ,pilsbury1 ,the ,revolution1 and
 is joint author of ,history  of        
,woman's ,suffrage 7'#hj-hf74 ,she has  
written in the ,north ,american  ,review
 notably on ,has ,christianity          
,benefited ,woman1 ,may1 #ahhe4    ,stap
 7,a471 author of ,historic ,studies on 
the origins of  ,christianity4          
,bruxelles1 #ahfd1 and ,the ,immaculate 
,conception1 #ahfi4    ,starcke 7,carl  
,nicolay71 ,dr4 and teacher of          
philosophy in the  ,university of       
,copenhagen1 b4 #bi ,march1 #aheh4 ,a   
decided disciple  of ,feuerbach on whom 
he published a dissertation in '#hc4    
,this able  ,monograph on the whole     
doctrine of the ,german philosopher was 
in '#he1  published in a ,german        
edition4 ,prof4 ,starcke has since      
published in  the ,international        
,scientific ,series1 a work on ,the     
,primitive ,family1  in which he        
critically surveys the views of         
,lubbock1 ,maine1 ,mc,lennan1  etc4 ,he 
is now engaged on a work on ,ethics     

based on the doctrines of  ,ludwig      
,feuerbach4    ,stecchetti 7,lorenzo74  
,see ,guerrini 7,o47    ,stefanoni      
7,luigi74 ,italian writer and publicist1
 b4 ,milan1 #ahdb4 ,in  '#ei1 his first 
,romance1 ,the ,spanish in ,italy was   
suppressed by  the ,austrians4 ,he      
joined ,garibaldi's volunteers and      
contributed  to ,unita ,italiana4 ,in   
'#ff1 he founded at ,milan the ,society 
of  ,freethinkers and the organ ,il     
,libero ,pensiero1 in which he wrote ,a 
critical ,history of ,superstition1     
afterwards published separately  #b     
vols4 '#fi4 ,he also compiled a         
,philosophical ,dictionary1 '#gc-ge2    
and wrote several romances as           
,l',inferno1 ,the ,red and ,black of    
,rome1  etc4 ,he translated ,bchner's   
,force and ,matter1 ,morin's ,jesus     
rduit1  ,la ,mettrie's ,man-machine1    
,letourneau's ,physiology of the        
,passions1  and ,feuerbach's ,essence of
 ,religion4    ,steinbart 7,gotthelf1   
,samuel71 ,german rationalist1 b4       

,zllichau1 #ba  ,sept4 #agch4 ,brought  
up in a pietist school1 he became a     
,freethinker  through reading ,voltaire4
 ,in '#gd1 he became ,prof4 of          
,philosophy  at ,frankfurt-on-the-,oder1
 and wrote a ,system of ,pure           
,philosophy1  '#gh4 ,died1 #c ,feb4     
#ahji4    ,steinthal 7,hajjim71 ,german 
philologist1 b4 ,grbzig1 #af ,may1      
#ahbc1  has written many works on       
language and mythology4    ,steller     
7,johann71 ,advocate at ,leipsic1       
published an heretical work1  ,pilatus  
liberatoris ,jesu subsidio defensus1    
,dresden1 #afgd4    ,stendhal 7,m4 de71 
,pseud1 see ,beyle 7,m4 ,h47    ,stephen
 7,sir ,james ,fitz,james71 ,english    
judge and writer1 b4 ,london1 #c        
,march1 #ahbi4 ,studied at ,cambridge1  
graduated ,b4,a4 '#eb1 and was called   
to the bar in '#ed4 ,he was counsel for 
the ,rev4 ,rowland ,williams when  tried
 for heresy for writing in ,essays and  
,reviews1 and his speech  was reprinted 
in '#fb4 ,he wrote in the ,saturday     

,review1 and reprinted  ,essays by a    
,barrister4 ,from ,dec4 '#fi1 to ,april1
 '#gb1 he was ,legal  ,member of the    
,indian ,council1 and in '#gi was       
appointed judge4 ,he is  author of      
,liberty1 ,equality1 and ,fraternity1   
'#gc1 and some valuable  legal works4   
,he has written much in the ,nineteenth 
,century1 notably  on the ,blasphemy    
,law '#hc1 and ,modern ,catholicism1    
,oct4 '#hg4    ,stephen 7,leslie71      
,english man of letters1 brother of     
preceding1  b4 ,london1 #bh ,nov4 #ahcb4
 ,educated at ,cambridge where he       
graduated ,m4,a41  '#eg4 ,he married a  
daughter of ,thackeray1 and became      
editor of the  ,cornhill ,magazine from 
'#ga-hb1 when he resigned to edit the   
,dictionary  of ,national ,biography4   
,mr4 ,stephen also contributed to       
,macmillan1 the  ,fortnightly1 and other
 reviews4 ,some of his boldest writing  
is found  in ,essays on ,freethinking   
and ,plainspeaking1 '#gc4 ,he has also  
written  an important ,history of       

,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth    
,century1  '#gf1 dealing with the       
,deistic movement1 and ,the ,science of 
,ethics1  '#hb1 besides many literary   
works4    ,stern 7,j741 ,rabbiner1      
,german writer1 b4 of ,jewish parents1  
,liederstetten 7,wurtemburg71 his father
 being ,rabbi of the town4 ,in  '#eh he 
went to the ,talmud ,high ,school1      
,presburg and studied the  ,kabbalah1   
which he intended to translate into     
,german4 ,to do this he  studied        
,spinoza1 whose philosophy converted    
him4 ,in '#fc he graduated at           
,stuttgart4 ,he founded a society1 to   
which he gave discourses collected  in  
his first book1 ,gottesflamme1 '#gb4    
,his ,old and ,new ,faith ,among the    
,jews1 '#gh1 was much attacked by the   
orthodox ,jews4 ,in ,women in the       
,talmud1 '#gi1 he pleaded for mixed     
marriages4 ,he has also written ,jesus  
as a ,jewish ,reformer1 ,the ,egyptian  
,religion and ,positivism1 and ,is the  
,pentateuch by ,moses8 ,in '#ha he went 

to live at ,stuttgart1 where he has     
translated ,spinoza's ,ethics1 and is   
engaged on a history of ,spinozism4     
,sterne 7,carus72 pseud4 ,see ,krause   
7,e74    ,stevens 7,e4 ,a471 of         
,chicago1 late secretary of ,american   
,secular ,union1  b4 #h ,june1 #ahdf4   
,author of ,god in the ,state1 and      
contributor to the  ,american           
,freethought journals4    ,stewart      
7,john71 commonly called ,walking       
,stewart1 b4 ,london before  #agej4 ,was
 sent out in #agfc as a writer to       
,madras4 ,he walked through  ,india1    
,africa1 and ,america4 ,he was a        
,materialist4 ,died in ,london1  #bj    
,feb4 #ahbb4    ,stirner 7,max74 ,see   
,schmidt 7,kaspar74    ,stosch          
7,friedrich ,wilhelm71 called also      
,stoss 7,johann ,friedrich71  b4        
,berlin1 #afdf1 and studied at          
,frankfort-on-the-,oder4 ,in #afib he   
published a little book1 ,concordia     
rationis et fidei1 ,amst4 or rather     
,berlin4 ,it was rigorously suppressed1 

and the possession of the work  was     
threatened with a penalty of five       
hundred thalers4 ,lange classes  him    
with ,german ,spinozists1 and says      
,stosch curtly denies not only  the     
immateriality1 but also the immortality 
of the soul4 ,died #agjd4    ,stout     
7,sir ,robert71 ,new ,zealand statesman1
 b4 ,lerwick 7,shetland ,isles71  #ahde4
 ,he became a pupil teacher1 and in '#fc
 left for ,new ,zealand4 ,in  '#fg he   
began the study of the law1 was elected 
to the ,general ,assembly  in '#ge1 and 
became ,attorney-,general in ,march1    
'#gh4 ,he has since been  ,minister of  
,education of the ,colony4    ,strange  
7,thomas ,lumsden71 late ,madras ,civil 
,service1 and for many  years a judge of
 the ,high ,court1 ,madras4 ,a highly   
religious man1 and  long an ,evangelical
 ,christian1 he joined the ,plymouth    
,brethren1 and  ended in being a strong1
 and then weak ,theist1 and always an   
earnest  advocate of practical piety in 
life and conduct1 and a diligent        

student and writer4 ,when judge1 he     
sentenced a ,brahmin to death1  and     
sought to bring the prisoner to ,jesus4 
,he professed himself  influenced1 but  
at the gallows he proclaimed his trust  
to be in  ,rama and not in ,christ4     
,this set the judge thinking4 ,he       
investigated  ,christianity's claims1   
and has embodied the result in his      
works4 ,the  ,bible1 ,is it the ,word of
 ,god8 '#ga2 ,the ,speaker's ,commentary
 ,reviewed1  '#ga2 ,the ,development of 
,creation on the ,earth1 '#gd2 ,the     
,legends of the  ,old ,testament1 '#gd2 
and ,the ,sources and ,development of   
,christianity1  '#ge4 ,a friend of ,t4  
,scott and ,general ,forlong1 he died at
 ,norwood1  #d ,sept4 #ahhd4    ,strauss
 7,david ,friedrich71 ,german critic1 b4
 ,ludwigsburg 7,wurtemburg71  #bg ,jan4 
#ahjh4 ,he studied ,theology at         
,tbengen1 was ordained in '#cj1 and  in 
'#cb became assistant-teacher4 ,his     
,life of ,jesus ,critically ,treated1   
'#ce1 in which he shows the mythical    

character of the ,gospels1 aroused  much
 controversy1 and he was deprived of his
 position4 ,in '#ci the  ,zrich         
,government appointed him professor of  
church history1 but they  were obliged  
to repeal their decision before the     
storm of ,christian  indignation4 ,his  
next important work was on the          
,christian ,doctrines  7#b vols471 '#dj4
 ,in '#dg he wrote on ,julian the       
,apostle1 and in '#eh an  account of the
 ,life and ,time of ,ulrich von ,hutten4
 ,he prepared a ,new  ,life of ,christ  
for the ,german ,people1 '#fd1 followed 
by the ,christ of  the ,creeds and the  
,jesus of ,history4 ,in '#gj he         
published his lectures  on ,voltaire1   
and two years later his last work ,the  
,old ,faith and the  ,new1 in which he  
entirely breaks not only with           
,christianity but with  the belief in a 
personal ,god and immortality4 ,a       
devoted servant of  truth1 his mind was 
always advancing4 ,he died at his native
 place1  #h ,feb4 #ahgd4    ,strindberg 

7,johan ,august71 ,swedish writer1 known
 as the ,scandinavian  ,rousseau1 b4    
,stockholm1 #bb ,jan4 #ahdi4 ,he has    
published many prominent  rationalistic 
works1 as ,the ,red ,chamber and        
,marriage4 ,the latter  was confiscated4
 ,he is one of the most popular poets   
and novelists  in ,sweden4    ,stromer  
7,hjalmar71 ,swedish astronomer1 b4     
#ahdi4 ,he lectured on  astronomy and   
published several works thereon1 and    
also wrote  ,confessions of a           
,freethinker4 ,died #ahhg4    ,strozzi  
7,piero71 ,italian general in the       
service of ,france1 b4 of  noble        
,florentine family #aejj4 ,intended for 
the ,church he abandoned  it for a      
military career1 and was created marshal
 of ,france by ,henry  ,,ii4 about      
#aeee4 ,he was killed at the siege of   
,thionville1 #bj ,june  #aeeh1 and being
 exhorted by the ,duc de ,guise to think
 of ,jesus1  he calmly declared himself 
an ,atheist4    ,suard 7,jean ,baptiste 
,antione71 ,french writer1 b4 ,besanon1 

#ae ,jan1  #agcd4 ,he became a devoted  
friend of ,baron d',holbach and of      
,garat1  and corresponded with ,hume and
 ,walpole4 ,he wrote ,miscellanies of   
,literature1 etc4 ,he had the post of   
censor of theatres4 ,died at ,paris  #bj
 ,july1 #ahag4    ,sue 7,marie ,joseph1 
called ,eugne71 ,french novelist1 b4    
,paris1 #aj  ,dec4 #ahjd4 ,he wrote many
 romances1 of which ,the ,mysteries of  
,paris  and ,the ,wandering ,jew1       
'#db-de1 were the most popular4 ,in '#ej
 he was  elected deputy and sat at the  
extreme left1 but was exiled by the     
coup d'etat4 ,he died as a ,freethinker 
at ,annecy 7,savoy71 #c ,july #aheg4    
,sullivan 7,j471 author of ,search for  
,deity1 an inquiry as to the origin  of 
the conception of ,god 7,london1 #ahei74
    ,sully ,prudhomme 7,ren ,franois    
,armand71 ,french poet1 b4 ,paris1 #af  
,march #ahci4 ,he studied law but took  
to poetry and has published many        
volumes4 ,in '#gh he was made ,chevalier
 of ,honor1 and in '#hb member of  the  

,academy4 ,his poems are of pessimistic 
cast1 and full of delicacy  of          
philosophical suggestion4    ,sunderland
 7,la ,roy71 ,american author and       
orator1 b4 ,exeter 7,rhode  ,island71   
#ah ,may1 #ahjc4 ,he became a ,methodist
 preacher and was prominent  in the     
temperance and anti-slavery movements4  
,he came out of the ,church  as the     
great bulwark of slavery and opposed    
,christianity during the  forty years   
preceding his death4 ,he wrote many     
works against slavery  and ,pathetism1  
'#dg2 ,book of ,human ,nature1 '#ec1 and
 ,ideology1 #c vols41  '#hf-i4 ,died in 
,quincy 7,mass47 #ae ,may1 #ahhe4       
,suttner 7,bertha von71 ,baroness1      
,austrian author of ,inventory of a     
,soul1  #ahhf1 and of several novels4   
,sutton 7,henry ,s471 anonymous author  
of ,quinquenergia2 or1 ,proposals  for a
 ,new ,practical ,theology1 and ,letters
 from a ,father to a ,son on  ,revealed 
,religion4    ,swinburne 7,algernon     
,charles71 ,english poet and critic1 b4 

,london1  #e ,april1 #ahcg1 educated at 
,oxford1 and went to ,florence1 where he
  spent some time with ,w4 ,s4 ,landor4 
,atalanta in ,calydon1 a splendid       
reproduction of ,greek tragedy1 first   
showed his genius4 ,poems and  ,ballads1
 #ahff1 evinced his unconventional      
lyrical passion and power1  and provoked
 some outcry4 ,in his ,songs before     
,sunrise1 #ahga1 he  glorifies          
,freethought and ,republicanism1 with   
unsurpassed wealth  of diction and      
rhythm4 ,mr4 ,swinburne has put forward 
many other  volumes of melodious and    
dramatic poems1 and also essays1        
studies1  and prose miscellanies4       
,symes 7,joseph71 ,english lecturer and 
writer1 b4 ,portland1 #bi ,jan4 #ahda1  
of pious ,methodist parents4 ,in '#fd he
 offered himself as candidate for  the  
ministry1 and was sent to the ,wesleyan 
,college1 ,richmond1 and in  '#fg went  
on circuit as preacher4 ,having come to 
doubt orthodoxy1  he resigned in '#gb1  
preached his first open ,freethought    

lecture  at ,newcastle1 #ag ,dec4 '#gf4 
,had several debates1 wrote ,philosophic
  ,atheism1 ,man's ,place in ,nature1   
,hospitals not of ,christian ,origin1   
,christianity a ,persecuting ,religion1 
,blows at the ,bible1 etc4 ,he          
contributed to the ,freethinker1 and was
 ready to conduct it during  ,mr4       
,foote's imprisonment4 ,he went to      
,melbourne1 ,dec4 '#hc1 and there       
established the ,liberator1 and has     
written ,life and ,death of ,my         
,religion1 '#hd2 ,christianity and      
,slavery1 ,phallic ,worship1 etc4       
,symonds 7,john ,addington71 ,english   
poet and author1 b4 ,bristol1  #e ,oct4 
#ahdj1 educated at ,harrow and ,oxford1 
and was elected in  '#fb to a           
,fellowship at ,magdalen ,college1 which
 he vacated on his  marriage4 ,his chief
 work is on the ,renaissance in ,italy1 
#g vols41  completed in '#hf4 ,he has   
also written critical sketches1 studies1
  and poems4 ,ill health compels his    
living abroad4    ,taine 7,hippolyte    

,adolphe71 ,d4,c4,l41 brilliant ,french 
man of letters1  b4 ,vouziers1 #ba      
,april1 #ahbh4 ,educated at the ,college
 ,bourbon 7now the  ,condorcet ,lyceum71
 in '#ec he took the degree of ,doctor  
of ,letters4 ,in  '#ef appears his      
,french ,philosophers of the ,nineteenth
 ,century1 in which  he sharply         
criticised the spiritualist and         
religious school4 ,he came  to ,england 
and studied ,english ,literature2 his   
,hand ,history of which  was sent in for
 the ,academy prize1 '#fc1 but rejected 
on the motion of  ,bishop ,dupanloup on 
account of its materialist opinions4    
,also wrote  on ,english ,positivism1 a 
study of ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,in '#ga ,oxford
 made  him ,d4,c4,l41 and in ,nov4 '#gh1
 he was elected to the ,french ,academy2
  his latest work is ,the ,origins of   
,contemporary ,france4    ,talandier    
7,alfred71 ,french publicist1 b4        
,limoges1 #g ,sept4 #ahbh4 ,after       
entering the bar1 he became a socialist 
and took part in the revolution  of     

'#dh4 ,proscribed after #ab ,dec4 he    
came to ,england1 started trades  unions
 and co-operation1 translated ,smiles's 
,self-,help1 and wrote in  the ,national
 ,reformer4 ,returned to ,paris in '#gj 
and became professor at  the ,lyce      
,henri ,,iv4 ,in '#gd he was deprived of
 his chair1 but elected on  the         
,municipal council of ,paris1 and two   
years later chosen as deputy1  and was  
re-elected in '#ha4 ,in '#hc he         
published a ,popular ,rabelais  and has 
written in ,our ,corner on that great   
,freethinker4    ,taubert 7,a471 the    
maiden name of ,dr4 ,hartmann's first   
wife4 ,she wrote  ,the ,pessimists and  
their ,opponents1 #ahgc4    ,taule      
7,ferdinand71 ,m4,d41 of ,strassburg1   
author of ,notions on the  ,nature and  
,properties of ,organised ,matter4      
,paris1 #ahff4    ,taurellus            
7,nicolaus71 ,german physician and      
philosopher1 b4 ,montbhard1  #bf ,nov4  
#aedg1 studied medicine at ,tbingen and 
,basle4 ,for daring to  think for       

himself1 and asking how the             
,aristotelian doctrine of the  eternity 
of the world could be reconciled with   
the dogma of creation1  he was          
stigmatised as an atheist4 ,wrote many  
works in ,latin1 the  principal of which
 is ,philosophi ,triumphans1 #aegc4 ,he 
died of the  plague #bh ,sept4 #afjf4   
,taylor 7,robert71 ex-minister1 orator1 
and critic1 b4 ,edmonton1  #ah ,aug4    
#aghd4 ,in #ahje he walked ,guy's and   
,st4 ,thomas's ,hospital1  and became   
,m4,r4,c4,s41 #ahjg4 ,persuaded to join 
the ,church1 he entered  ,st4 ,john's1  
,cambridge1 ,oct4 #ahji1 in ,jan4 '#ac  
graduated ,b4,a41 and  soon after took  
holy orders4 ,he was curate at ,midhurst
 till '#ah1 when  he first became       
sceptical through discussions with a    
tradesman4 ,he  preached a sermon on    
,jonah which astonished his flock1 and  
resigned4 ,he  then went to ,dublin and 
published ,the ,clerical ,review and    
started  ,the ,society of ,universal    
,benevolence4 ,in '#bd he came to       

,london and  started ,the ,christian    
,evidence ,society1 and delivered       
discourses with  discussion2 also edited
 the ,philalethian4 ,in '#bg he was     
indicted for  blasphemy1 tried ,oct4    
#bd1 after an able defence he was found 
guilty1  and on #g ,feb4 '#bh sentenced 
to one year's imprisonment in ,oakham   
,gaol4 ,here he wrote his ,syntagma on  
the ,evidences of ,christianity1  and   
his chief work1 ,the ,diegesis1 being a 
discovery of the origins1  evidences1   
and early history of ,christianity4 ,he 
also contributed a  weekly letter to    
,the ,lion1 which ,r4 ,carlile started  
on his behalf4 ,on  his liberation they 
both went on an infidel mission about   
the  country1 and on ,may #cj the       
,rotunda1 ,blackfriars1 was taken1 where
  ,taylor attired in canonicals         
delivered the discourses published in   
,the ,devil's ,pulpit4 ,he was again    
prosecuted1 and on #d ,july1 '#ca1 was  
sentenced to two year's imprisonment4   
,he was badly treated in gaol1  and soon

 after coming out married a wealthy lady
 and retired4 ,died  at ,jersey1 #e     
,june1 #ahdd4    ,taylor 7,thomas71     
known as ,the ,platonist1 b4 ,london1   
#ageh4 ,he  devoted his life to the     
elucidation and propagation of the      
,platonic  philosophy4 ,he translated   
the works of ,plato1 ,aristotle1        
,porphyry1 five  books of ,plotinus1 six
 books of ,proclus1 ,gamblichus on the  
,mysteries1  ,arguments of ,celsus taken
 from ,origen1 ,arguments of ,julian    
against  the ,christians1 ,orations of  
,julian1 etc4 ,he is said to have been  
so  thorough a ,pagan that he sacrificed
 a bull to ,zeus4 ,died in ,walworth1   
#a ,nov4 #ahce4    ,taylor 7,william71  
of ,norwich1 b4 #g ,nov4 #agfe4 ,he     
formed an acquaintance  with ,southey1  
with whom he corresponded4 ,his         
translations from  the ,german1 notably 
,lessing's ,nathan the ,wise1 brought   
him some  repute4 ,he also wrote a      
,survey of ,german ,poetry and ,english 
,synonyms1  #ahcj4 ,he edited the       

,norwich ,iris1 #ahjb1 which he made the
 organ of his  political and religions  
views4 ,in '#aj he published anonymously
 ,a ,letter  ,concerning the ,two ,first
 ,chapters of ,luke1 also entitled ,who 
was the  ,father of ,jesus ,christ8     
#ahaj1 in which he argues that          
,zacharias was  the father of ,jesus    
,christ4 ,also wrote largely in the     
,monthly ,review1  replying therein to  
the ,abb ,barruel2 and the ,critical    
,review when  edited by ,fellowes1 in   
which he gave an account of the         
rationalism  of ,paulus4 ,died at       
,norwich1 #e ,march1 #ahcf4             
,tchernychewsky 7,n4 ,g47 ,see          
,chernuishevsky4    ,tela 7,josephus71  
the ,latinised name of ,joseph ,webbe   
who in #ahah  edited the ,philosophical 
,library1 containing the ,life and      
,morals of  ,confucius1 ,epicurus1      
,isoscrates1 ,mahomet1 etc41 and other  
pieces4 ,webbe  is also thought to have 
been concerned in the production of     
,ecce ,homo1  '#ac4 ,cushing1 in his    

,initials and ,pseudonyms1 refers ,tela 
to ,joseph  ,webb1 #agce-hg2 an         
,american writer2 ,grand ,master of     
,freemasons in  ,america2 died in       
,boston4 ,i am not satisfied that this  
is the same  person4    ,telesio        
7,bernardino71 ,italian philosopher1 b4 
of noble family at  ,cosenza1 #aeji4 ,he
 studied at ,padua1 and became famous   
for his learning1  optical discoveries1 
and new opinions in philosophy4 ,he     
wrote in  ,latin ,on the ,nature of     
,things according to ,proper            
,principles1 #aefe4 ,he  opposed the    
,aristotelian doctrine in physics1 and  
employed mathematical  principles in    
explaining nature1 for which he was     
prosecuted by the  clergy4 ,he died     
,oct4 #aehh4 ,his works were placed in  
the ,index1 but  this did not prevent   
their publication at ,venice1 #aeij4    
,telle 7,reinier71 or ,regnerus         
,vitellius1 ,dutch ,humanist1 b4        
,zierikzee1  #aegh4 ,he translated      
,servetus ,on the ,errors of the        

,trinity1 published  #afbj4 ,died at    
,amsterdam1 #afah4    ,testa            
7,giacinto71 of ,messina1 ,italian      
author of a curious ,storia di  ,ges di 
,nazareth1 #ahgj1 in which he maintains 
that ,jesus was the son  of ,giuseppe   
,pandera1 a ,calabrian of ,brindisi4    
,thaer 7,albrecht ,daniel74 ,german     
agriculturist1 b4 ,celle1 #ad ,may1     
#ageb4 ,studied at ,gottingen1 and is   
said to have inspired ,lessing's  work  
on ,the ,education of the ,human ,race4 
,died #bh ,oct4 #ahbh4    ,theodorus of 
,cyrene1 a ,greek philosopher1 whose    
opinions resembled  those of ,epicurus4 
,he was banished for ,atheism from his  
native city4 ,he  resided at ,athens    
about #cab ,b4,c4 ,when threatened with 
crucifixion1 he  said it mattered little
 whether he rotted in the ground or in  
the air4    ,theophile de ,viau1 ,french
 satiric poet1 b4 ,clerac1 #aeij4 ,for  
the  alleged publication of ,le         
,parnasse ,satyriques1 he was accused of
  ,atheism1 condemned to death1 and     

burnt in effigy4 ,he fled1 and was      
received by the ,duc de ,montmorency at 
,chantilly1 where he died1  #be ,sept4  
#afbf4    ,thompson 7,daniel            
,greenleaf71 ,american author of works  
on ,the ,problem  of ,evil1 '#hg2 ,the  
,religious ,sentiments1 etc4 ,he is     
,president of the  ,nineteenth ,century 
,club4    ,thomson 7,charles ,otto71    
,captain1 b4 ,stockholm1 #c ,jan4 #ahcc4
 ,went to  sea in '#di and became a     
merchant captain in '#eg1 and was       
subsequently  manager of the ,eskilstuna
 gas works4 ,at ,eskilstuna he started a
  ,utilitarian ,society in '#hh1 of     
which he is president4 ,he has done     
much to support ,mr4 ,lennstrand in his 
,freethought work in ,sweden2 has       
translated articles by ,ingersoll1      
,foote and others1 and has lectured  on 
behalf of the movement4 ,he shares in   
the conduct of ,fritnkaren4    ,thomson 
7,james71 ,pessimistic poet1 b4 ,port   
,glasgow1 #bc  ,nov4 #ahcd4 ,educated at
 the ,caledonian ,asylum1 ,london1 he   

became  a schoolmaster in the army1     
where he met ,mr4 ,bradlaugh1 whom he   
afterwards assisted on the ,national    
,reformer4 ,to this paper he            
contributed many valuable essays1       
translations1 and poems1 including  his 
famous ,city of ,dreadful ,night1 the   
most powerful pessimistic  poem in the  
,english language1 7,april1 '#gd1       
afterwards published with  other poems  
in '#hj74 ,vane's ,story with other     
poems was issued in  '#ha1 and ,a ,voice
 from the ,nile1 and ,shelley 7privately
 printed in  '#hd74 ,thomson also       
contributed to the ,secularist and      
,liberal1 edited  by his friend ,foote1 
who has published many of his articles  
in a  volume entitled ,satires and      
,profanities1 which includes ,the ,story
 of  a ,famous ,old ,jewish ,firm1 also 
published separately4 ,thomson employed 
much of his genius in the service of    
,freethought4 ,died #c ,june1 #ahhb4    
,thomson 7,william71 of ,cork4 ,a       
disciple of ,bentham1 and author of ,the

  ,distribution of ,wealth1 #ahbd2      
,appeal for ,women1 '#be2 ,labor        
,reward1  '#bg1 and in the ,co-operative
 ,magazine4    ,thorild 7,thomas71 or   
,thoren1 ,swedish writer1 b4 ,bohuslau1 
#ah ,april1  #agei4 ,in #agge he studied
 at ,lund1 and in #aggi went to         
,stockholm1  and published many poems   
and miscellaneous pieces in ,swedish1   
,latin1  ,german1 and ,english1 in which
 he wrote ,cromwell1 an epic poem4 ,in  
#aghf he wrote ,common ,sense on        
,liberty1 with a view of extending the  
liberty of the press4 ,he was a partisan
 of the ,french ,revolution1  and for a 
political work was imprisoned and       
exiled4 ,he also wrote a  ,sermon of    
,sermons1 attacking the clergy1 and a   
work maintaining the  rights of women4  
,died at ,greifswald2 #a ,oct4 #ahjh4   
,he was a man far  in advance of his    
time1 and is now becoming appreciated4  
,thulie 7,jean ,baptiste ,henri71       
,french physician and anthropologist1   
b4 ,bordeaux1 #ahcb4 ,in '#ef he founded

 a journal1 ,realism4 ,in '#ff he       
published a work on ,madness and the    
,law4 ,he contributed to ,la ,pense     
,nouvelle1 defending the views of       
,bchner4 ,he has written an able study1 
,la ,femme1 ,woman1 published in '#he4  
,m4 ,thulie has been ,president of  the 
,paris ,municipal ,council4    ,tiele   
7,cornelis ,petrus71 ,dutch scholar1 b4 
,leyden1 #af  ,dec4 #ahcj4 ,although    
brought up in the ,church1 his works all
 tell in  the service of ,freethought1  
and he has shown his liberality of views
  in editing the poems of ,genestet     
together with his life1 '#fh4 ,he has   
written many articles on comparative    
religion1 and two of his works  have    
been translated into ,english1 viz41    
,outlines of the ,history of  ,religion1
 a valuable sketch of the old faiths1   
fourth ed4 '#hh2 and  ,comparative      
,history of the ,egyptian and           
,mesopotamian ,religions1 '#hb4         
,tillier 7,claude71 ,french writer1 b4  
of poor parents1 ,clamecy1  #aa ,april1 

#ahja4 ,he served as a conscript1 and   
wrote some telling  pamphlets directed  
against tyranny and superstition1 and   
some novels1  of which we note ,my      
,uncle ,benjamin4 ,died at ,nevers1 #ab 
,oct4 #ahdd4 ,his  works were edited by 
,f4 ,pyat4    ,tindal 7,matthew71       
,,ll4,d41 ,english ,deist1 b4           
,beer-ferris1 ,devon1  #afeg4 ,educated 
at ,oxford1 and at first a ,high        
,churchman1 he was  induced to turn     
,romanist in the reign of ,james ,,ii41 
but returned to  ,protestantism and     
wrote ,the ,rights of the ,christian    
,church4 ,this work  was much attacked  
by the clergy1 who even indicted the    
vendors4 ,a  defence which he published 
was ordered to be burnt by the ,house of
  ,commons4 ,in #agcj he published      
,christianity as ,old as the ,creation1 
to  which no less than #aej answers were
 published4 ,he died #af ,aug4 #agcc1   
and a second volume1 which he left in   
,,ms41 was destroyed by order of        
,gibson1 ,bishop of ,london4    ,toland 

7,john71 ,irish writer1 b4 ,redcastle1  
near ,londonderry1 #cj  ,nov4 #affi4    
,educated as a ,catholic1 he renounced  
that faith in early  youth1 went to     
,edinburgh ,university1 where he became 
,m4,a4 in #afij1  and proceeded to      
,leyden1 studying under ,spanheim1 and  
becoming a  sceptic4 ,he also studied at
 ,oxford1 reading deeply in the         
,bodleian  ,library1 and became the     
correspondent of ,le ,clerc and ,bayle4 
,in  #afif he startled the orthodox with
 his ,christianity not ,mysterious1     
which was presented by the ,grand ,jury 
of ,middlesex and condemned by  the     
,lower ,house of ,convocation4 ,the work
 was also burnt at ,dublin1  ,sept4     
#afig4 ,he wrote a ,life of ,milton     
7#afih71 in which1 mentioning  ,eikon   
,basilike1 he referred to the           
suppositious pieces under the  name of  
,christ1 his apostles and other great   
persons4 ,for this he was  denounced by 
,dr4 ,blackhall before ,parliament4 ,he 
replied with ,amytor1  in which he gives

 a catalogue of such pieces4 ,he went   
abroad and  was well received by the    
,queen of ,prussia1 to whom he wrote    
,letters  to ,serena 7#agjd71 which1    
says ,lange1 handles the kernel of the  
whole question of ,materialism4 ,in     
#agji he published ,adeisidnon and      
,origines ,judaic4 ,in #agah ,nazarenus1
 on ,jewish1 ,gentile and ,mahommedan   
,christianity1 in which he gave an      
account of the ,gospel of ,barnabus4 ,he
  also wrote four pieces entitled       
,tetradymus and ,pantheisticon1 which   
described a society of ,pantheists with 
a liturgy burlesquing that  of the      
,catholics4 ,toland died with the       
calmness of a philosopher1  at ,putney1 
#aa ,march1 #agbb4 ,lange praises him   
highly4    ,tollemache 7,hon4 ,lionel   
,arthur71 b4 #ahch1 son of ,baron       
,tollemache1  a friend of ,c4 ,austin1  
of whom he has written4 ,wrote many     
articles  in ,fortnightly ,review1      
reprinted 7privately7 as ,stones of     
,stumbling1  '#hd4 ,has also written    

,safe ,studies1 '#hd2 ,recollections of 
,pallison1  '#he2 and ,mr4 ,romanes's   
,catechism1 '#hg4    ,tone 7,theobald   
,wolfe71 ,irish patriot1 b4 ,dublin1 #bj
 ,june1  #agfc4 ,educated at ,trinity   
,college in #aghd1 he obtained a        
scholarship  in #aghf1 ,b4,a4 ,he       
founded the ,society of ,united         
,irishmen1 #agia4 ,kept  relations with 
the ,french revolutionists1 and in #agif
 induced the  ,french ,directory to send
 an expedition against ,england4 ,he was
 taken  prisoner and committed suicide  
in prison1 dying #ai ,nov4 #agih4       
,topinard 7,paul71 ,m4,d41 ,french      
anthropologist1 b4 ,isle-,adam #ahcj4   
,editor  of the ,revue d',anthropologie1
 and author of a standard work on that  
subject published in the ,library of    
,contemporary ,science4    ,toulmin     
7,george ,hoggart71 ,m4,d41 of          
,wolverhampton4 ,author of ,the         
,antiquity and ,duration of the ,world1 
#aghe2 ,the ,eternity of the  ,universe1
 #aghi2 the last being republished in   

#ahbe4    ,tournai 7,simon de74 ,see    
,simon4    ,traina 7,tommaso71 ,italian 
jurist4 ,author of a work on ,the       
,ethics of  ,herbert ,spencer1 ,turin1  
#ahha4    ,travis 7,henry71 ,dr41 b4    
,scarborough1 #ahjg4 ,he interested     
himself  in the socialistic aspect of   
co-operation1 and became a friend and   
literary executor to ,robert ,owen4 ,in 
'#ea-ec he edited ,robert ,owen's       
,journal4 ,he also wrote on ,effectual  
,reform1 ,free ,will and ,law1 ,moral   
,freedom and ,causation1 and ,a ,manual 
of ,social ,science1 and contributed  to
 the ,national ,reformer4 ,died #d ,feb4
 #ahhd4    ,trelawny 7,edward ,john71 b4
 ,cornwall1 ,nov4 #agib4 ,became        
intimate in  ,italy with ,shelley1 whose
 body he recovered and cremated in      
,august1  #ahbb4 ,he accompanied ,byron 
on his ,greek expedition1 and married a 
daughter of a ,greek chief4 ,he wrote   
,adventures of a ,younger ,son1  '#ca2  
and ,records of ,shelley1 ,byron1 and   
the ,author1 '#gh4 ,he died #ac  ,aug4  

#ahha1 and was cremated at ,gotha1 his  
ashes being afterwards placed  beside   
those of ,shelley4 ,trelawny was a      
vehement ,pagan despising the  creeds   
and conventions of society4 ,swinburne  
calls him ,world-wide  liberty's        
lifelong lover4    ,trenchard 7,john71  
,english ,deist and political writer1 b4
 ,somersetshire1  #affi4 ,he studied    
law1 but abandoned it1 and was appointed
 ,commissioner  of ,forfeited ,estates  
in ,ireland4 ,in conjunction with       
,gordon he  wrote ,cato's ,letters on   
civil and religious liberty1 and        
conducted  ,the ,independent ,whig4 ,he 
sat in the ,house of ,commons as ,m4,p4 
for  ,taunton2 he also wrote the        
,natural ,history of ,superstition1     
#agji2 but  ,la ,contagion ,sacree1     
attributed to him1 is really by         
d',holbach4 ,died  #ag ,dec4 #agbc4     
,trevelyan 7,arthur71 of ,tyneholm1     
,tranent1 ,n4,b41 a writer in the       
,reasoner and ,national ,reformer4      
,published ,the ,insanity of ,mankind   

7,edinburgh1 #ahej71 and some tracts4   
,he was a ,vice-,president of the       
,national ,secular ,society4 ,died at   
,tyneholm1 #f ,feb4 #ahgh4    ,trezza   
7,gaetano71 ,italian writer1 b4 ,verona1
 ,dec4 #ahbh4 ,was brought  up and      
ordained a priest1 and was an eloquent  
preacher4 ,study led him  to resign the 
clerical profession4 ,he has published  
,confessions of a  ,sceptic1 '#gh2      
,critical ,studies1 '#gh2 ,new ,critical
 ,studies1 '#ha4 ,he is  ,professor of  
,literature at the ,institute of ,high  
,studies1 ,florence4 ,to  the first     
number of the ,revue ,internationale    
'#hc1 he contributed ,les  ,dieux s'en  
vont4 ,he also wrote ,religion and      
,religions1 '#hd2 and a work  on ,st4   
,paul4 ,a study on ,lucretius has       
reached its third edition1 '#hg4        
,tridon 7,edme ,marie1 ,gustave71       
,french publicist1 b4 ,chatillon sur    
,seine1 ,burgundy1 #e ,june1 #ahda4     
,educated by his parents who were rich1 
he became a doctor of law but never     

practised4 ,in '#fd he published in  ,le
 ,journal des ,ecoles1 his remarkable   
study of revolutionary history  ,les    
,hbertistes4 ,in ,may1 '#fe he founded  
with ,blanqui1 etc41 ,le ,candide1  the 
precursor of ,la ,libre ,pense1 '#ff1 in
 both of which the doctrines  of        
materialism were expounded4 ,delegated  
in '#fe to the ,international  ,students
 ,congress at ,lige his speech was      
furiously denounced by ,bishop          
,dupanloup2 he got more than two years' 
imprisonment for articles in  ,le       
,candide and ,la ,libre ,pense1 and in  
,ste ,pelagie contracted the  malady    
which killed him4 ,while in prison he   
wrote the greater part  of his work ,du 
,molochisme ,juif1 critical and         
philosophical studies  of the ,jewish   
religion1 only published in '#hd4 ,after
 #d ,sept4 '#gj1  he founded ,la ,patrie
 en ,danger4 ,in ,feb4 '#ga he was      
elected deputy to  the ,bordeaux        
,assembly1 but resigned after voting    
against declaration  of peace4 ,he then 

became a member of the ,paris ,commune1 
retiring after  the collapse to         
,brussels where he died #bi ,aug4 #ahga4
 ,he received the  most splendid        
,freethinker's funeral witnessed in     
,belgium4    ,truebner 7,nicolas71      
publisher1 b4 ,heidelberg1 #ag ,june1   
#ahag4 ,after  serving with ,longman and
 ,co41 he set up in business1 and       
distinguished  himself by publishing    
works on ,freethought1 religions1       
philosophy  and ,oriental literature4   
,died ,london1 #cj ,march1 #ahhd4       
,truelove 7,edward71 ,english publisher1
 b4 #bi ,oct4 #ahji4 ,early in  life he 
embraced the views of ,robert ,owen1 and
 for nine years was  secretary of the   
,john ,street ,institution4 ,in '#dd and
 '#de he threw  in his lot with the ,new
 ,harmony ,community1 ,hampshire4 ,in   
'#eb he  took a shop in the ,strand1    
where he sold advanced literature4 ,he  
published ,voltaire's ,philosophical    
,dictionary and ,romances1 ,paine's     
complete works1 ,d',holbach's ,system of

 ,nature1 and ,taylor's ,syntagma  and  
,diegesis4 ,in '#eh he was prosecuted   
for publishing a pamphlet on            
,tyrannicide1 by ,w4 ,e4 ,adams1 but the
 prosecution was abandoned4 ,in  '#gh he
 was1 after two trials1 sentenced to    
four months' imprisonment  for          
publishing ,r4 ,d4 ,owen's ,moral       
,physiology4 ,upon his release he  was  
presented with a testimonial and purse  
of #bjj sovereigns4    ,trumbull        
7,matthew ,m471 ,american general1 a    
native of ,london1  b4 #ahbf4 ,about the
 age of twenty he went to ,america1     
served in the  army in ,mexico1 and     
afterwards in the ,civil ,war4 ,general 
,grant made  him ,collector of ,revenue 
for ,iowa4 ,he held that office eight   
years1  and then visited ,england4 ,in  
#ahhb he went to ,chicago1 where he     
exerted  himself on behalf of a fair    
trial for the ,anarchists4              
,tschirnhausen 7,walthier ,ehrenfried71 
,german ,count1 b4 #afea4 ,he was a     
friend of ,leibniz and ,wolff1 and in   

philosophy a follower of ,spinoza1      
though he does not mention him4 ,died   
#agjh4    ,tucker 7,benjamin ,r471      
,american writer1 b4 ,dartmouth1 ,mass41
 #ag ,april1  #ahed4 ,edits ,liberty1 of
 ,boston4    ,turbiglio 7,sebastiano71  
,italian philosopher1 b4 ,chiusa1 #g    
,july1 #ahdb1  author of a work on      
,spinoza and the ,transformation of his 
,thoughts1  #ahge4    ,turgenev 7,ivan  
,sergyeevich71 ,russian novelist1 b4    
,orel1 #bh  ,oct4 #ahah4 ,in his novels1
 ,fathers and ,sons and ,virgin ,soil he
 has  depicted characters of the        
,nihilist movement4 ,died at ,bougival1 
near ,paris1 #c ,sept4 #ahhc4    ,turner
 7,william71 a surgeon of ,liverpool1   
who1 under the name of  ,william        
,hammon1 published an ,answer to ,dr4   
,priestley's ,letters to a              
,philosophical ,unbeliever1 #aghb1 in   
which he avows himself an ,atheist4     
,tuuk 7,titia1 ,van der71 ,dutch lady1  
b4 ,zandt1 #bg ,nov4 #ahed4 ,was        
converted to ,freethought by reading    

,dekker1 and is now one of the  editors 
of ,de ,dageraad4    ,twesten 7,karl71  
,german publicist and writer1 b4 ,kiel1 
#bb ,april1  #ahbj4 ,studied law1       
'#ch-da1 in ,berlin and ,heidelberg1 and
 became  magistrate in ,berlin and one  
of the founders of the ,national        
,liberal  ,party4 ,wrote on the         
religious1 political1 and social ideas  
of ,asiatics  and ,egyptians 7#b vols471
 '#gb4 ,died ,berlin1 #ad ,oct4 #ahgj4  
,tylor 7,edward ,burnet71 ,d4,c4,l41    
,f4,r4,s41 ,english anthropologist1  b4 
,camberwell1 #b ,oct4 #ahcb4 ,he has    
devoted himself to the study  of the    
races of mankind1 and is the first      
living authority upon  the subject4 ,he 
has wrote ,anahuac1 or ,mexico and the  
,mexicans1 '#fa2  ,researches into the  
,early ,history of ,mankind1 '#fe2      
,primitive ,culture2  being researches  
into the development of mythology1      
philosophy1  religion1 art1 and custom  
7#b vols471 '#ga4 ,in this splendid work
 he  traces religion to animism1 the    

belief in spirits4 ,he has also written 
an excellent handbook of ,anthropology1 
an introduction to the ,study  of ,man  
and ,civilisation1 '#ha2 and contributed
 to the ,encyclopdia  ,britannica1 as   
well as to periodical literature4 ,he is
 ,president of  the ,anthropological    
,society4    ,tyndall 7,john71 ,,ll4,d41
 ,f4,r4,s41 ,irish scientist1 b4 near   
,carlow1  #ahbj4 ,in '#dg he became a   
teacher in ,queenswood ,college         
7,hants71 and  afterwards went to       
,germany to study4 ,in '#ef he went to  
,switzerland  with ,professor ,huxley1  
and they wrote a joint work on glaciers4
 ,he  contributed to the ,fortnightly   
,review1 notably an article on ,miracles
  and ,special ,providence1 '#ff4 ,in   
'#gb he went on a lecturing tour in  the
 ,united ,states1 and two years later   
was president of the ,british           
,association4 ,his address at ,belfast  
made a great stir1 and has been         
published4 ,in addition to other        
scientific works he has published       

popular ,fragments of ,science1 which   
has gone through several editions4      
,tyrell 7,henry74 ,see ,church4         
,tyssot de ,patot 7,simon71 b4 of       
,french family in ,delft1 #afee4 ,he    
became professor of mathematics at      
,deventer4 ,under the pen name of       
,jacques ,mass he published ,voyages and
 ,adventures1 ,bordeaux1 #agaj1  a work 
termed atheistic and scandalous by      
,reimmann4 ,it was translated  into     
,english by ,s4 ,whatley1 #agcc1 and has
 been attributed to ,bayle4    ,ueberweg
 7,friedrich71 ,german philosopher1 b4  
,leichlingen #bb ,jan4 #ahbf2  studied  
at ,gttingen and ,berlin1 and became    
,professor of ,philosophy at            
,knigsberg1 where he died #i ,june1     
#ahga4 ,his chief work is a ,history  of
 ,philosophy4 ,lange cites ,czolbe as   
saying ,he was in every way  distinctly 
an ,atheist and ,materialist4    ,uhlich
 7,johann ,jacob ,marcus ,lebericht71   
,german religious reformer1  b4 ,kthen  
#bg ,feb4 #agii4 ,he studied at ,halle  

and became a preacher4 ,for  his        
rationalistic views he was suspended in 
#ahdg1 and founded the  ,free           
,congregation at ,magdeburg4 ,he wrote  
numerous brochures defending  his       
opinions4 ,his ,religion of ,common     
,sense has been translated and          
published in ,america4 ,died at         
,magdeburg1 #bc ,march1 #ahgb4    ,ule  
7,otto71 ,german scientific writer1 b4  
,lossow #bb ,jan4 #ahbj4 ,studied  at   
,halle and ,berlin4 ,in '#eb he started 
the journal ,die ,natur1 and  wrote many
 works popularising science4 ,died at   
,halle #f ,aug4 #ahgf4    ,underwood    
7,benjamin ,f474 ,american lecturer and 
writer1 b4 ,new ,york  #f ,july1 #ahci4 
,has been a student and a soldier in the
 ,civil ,war4 ,he  fought at ,ball's    
,bluff1 ,virginia1 #ba ,oct4 '#fa1 was  
wounded and held  prisoner in ,richmond 
for nine months4 ,in '#ha he edited the 
,index in  conjunction with ,mr4        
,potter1 and in '#hg started ,the ,open 
,court at  ,chicago4 ,he has had        

numerous debates2 those with the ,rev4  
,j4 ,marples  and ,o4 ,a4 ,burgess being
 published4 ,he has also published      
,essays and  ,lectures1 ,the ,religion  
of ,materialism1 ,influence of          
,christianity  on ,civilisation1 etc4   
,his sister1 ,sara ,a41 has written     
,heroines of  ,freethought1 ,new ,york1 
#ahgf4    ,vacherot 7,etienne71 ,french 
writer1 b4 ,langres1 #bi ,july1 #ahji4  
,in '#ci he  replaced ,victor ,cousin in
 the ,chair of ,philosophy at the       
,sorbonne4 ,for  his free opinions      
expressed in his ,critical ,history of  
the ,school  of ,alexandria1 a work in  
three vols4 crowned by the ,institute1  
'#df-ea1 he was much attacked by the    
clergy and at the ,empire lost  his     
position4 ,he afterwards wrote ,essays  
of ,critical ,philosophy1  '#fd1 and ,la
 ,religion1 '#fi4    ,vacquerie         
7,auguste71 ,french writer1 b4          
,villequier1 #ahai4 ,a friend of        
,victor ,hugo4 ,he has written many     
dramas and novels of merit1 and was     

director of ,le ,rappel4    ,vaillant   
7,edouard ,marie71 ,french publicist1 b4
 ,vierzon1 #bf  ,jan4 #ahdj4 ,educated  
at ,paris and ,germany4 ,a friend of    
,tridon he  took part in the ,commune1  
and in '#hd was elected ,muncipal       
,councillor  of ,paris4    ,vairasse    
7,denis7 d',alais1 ,french writer of the
 seventeenth century4 ,he  became both  
soldier and lawyer4 ,author of ,histoire
 des ,sevarambes1  #afgg2 imaginary     
travels in which he introduced free     
opinions and  satirised ,christianity4  
,vale 7,gilbert7 author1 b4 ,london1    
#aghh4 ,he was intended for the church1 
but abandoned the profession and went to
 ,new ,york1 where he edited  the       
,citizen of the ,world and the ,beacon4 
,he published ,fanaticism2  its ,source 
and ,influence1 ,n4,y4 #ahce1 and a     
,life of ,paine1 '#da4 ,died  ,brooklyn1
 ,n4,y4 #ag ,aug4 #ahff4    ,valk 7,t4  
,a4 ,f4 van der71 ,dutch ,freethinker1  
who1 after being a  ,christian          
missionary in ,java1 changed his        

opinions1 and wrote in ,de  ,dageraad   
between #ahfj-gj1 using the pen name of 
,thomas4    ,valla 7,lorenzo71 ,italian 
critic1 b4 ,piacenza1 #adae4 ,having    
hazarded  some free opinions respecting 
,catholic doctrines1 he was condemned to
  be burnt1 but was saved by ,alphonsus1
 ,king of ,naples4 ,valla was then      
confined in a monastery1 but ,pope      
,nicholas ,v4 called him to ,rome and   
gave him a pension4 ,he died there1 #a  
,aug4 #adeg4    ,vallee 7,geoffrey71    
,french martyr1 b4 ,orleans1 #aeef4 ,he 
wrote ,la  ,batitude des ,chrstiens ou  
le ,flo de la ,foy1 for which he was    
accused  of blasphemy1 and hanged on the
 ,place de ,grve1 ,paris1 #i ,feb4      
#aegd4    ,valliss 7,rudolph71 ,german  
author of works on ,the ,natural        
,history  of ,gods 7,leip41 #ahge72 ,the
 ,eternity of the ,world1 '#ge2         
,catechism of  ,human ,duty1 '#gf1 etc4 
,van ,cauberg 7,adolphe71 ,belgian      
advocate4 ,one of the founders and      
president of the ,international         

,federation of ,freethinkers4 ,died     
#ahhf4    ,van ,effen4 ,see ,effen4     
,vanini 7,lucilio1 afterwards ,julius   
,csar71 ,italian philosopher and        
martyr1 b4 ,taurisano 7,otranto71 #aehe4
 ,at ,rome and ,padua he studied        
,averroism1 entered the ,carmelite      
order1 and travelled in ,switzerland1   
,germany1 ,holland and ,france making   
himself admired and respected by  his   
rationalistic opinions4 ,he returned to 
,italy in #afaa1 but the  ,inquisition  
was on his track and he took refuge at  
,venice4 ,in #afab he  visited ,england1
 and in #afad got lodged in the ,tower4 
,when released  he went to ,paris and   
published a ,pantheistic work in ,latin 
,on the  ,admirable ,secrets of ,nature1
 the ,queen and ,goddess of ,mortals4   
,it was  condemned by the ,sorbonne and 
burnt1 and he fled to ,toulouse in      
#afag2  but there was no repose for     
,freethought4 ,he was accused of        
instilling  ,atheism into his scholars1 
tried and condemned to have his tongue  

cut  out1 his body burned and his ashes 
scattered to the four winds4 ,this  was 
done #ai ,feb4 #afai4 ,president        
,gramond1 author of ,history of ,france 
under ,louis ,,xiii41 writes ,i saw him 
in the tumbril as they led him  to      
execution1 mocking the ,cordelier who   
had been sent to exhort him  to         
repentance1 and insulting our ,savior by
 these impious words4 ',he  sweated with
 fear and weakness1 and ,i die          
undaunted4'    ,vapereau 7,louis        
,gustave71 ,french man of letters1 b4   
,orleans #d ,april1  #ahai4 ,in '#da he 
became the secretary of ,victor ,cousin4
 ,he collaborated  on the ,dictionnaire 
des ,sciences ,philosophiques and the   
,libert  de ,penser1 but is best known  
by his useful ,dictionnaire ,universel  
des ,contemporains4 ,in '#gj he was     
nominated prefect of ,cantal1 but  on   
account of the violent attacks of the   
clericals was suspended in  '#gc and    
resumed his literary labors1 compiling a
 ,universal ,dictionary  of ,writers1   

'#gf1 and ,elements of the ,history of  
,french ,literature1  #ahhc-he4         
,varnhagen von ,ense 7,earl ,august     
,ludwig ,philipp71 ,german author1  b4  
,dusseldorf1 #ba ,feb4 #aghe4 ,he       
studied medicine and philosophy1        
entered the ,austrian and ,russian      
armies1 and served in the ,prussian     
diplomatic service4 ,he was an intimate 
friend of ,alex4 von ,humboldt1  and    
shared his ,freethinking opinions4 ,died
 in ,berlin1 #aj ,oct4 #aheh4 ,he       
vividly depicts the men and events of   
his time in his ,diary4    ,vauvenargues
 7,luc de ,clapiers71 ,marquis2 ,french 
moralist1 b4 ,aix1  #f ,aug4 #agae4 ,at 
eighteen he entered the army1 and left  
the service  with ruined health in      
#agdc4 ,he published in #agdf an        
,introduction to  the ,knowledge of the 
,human ,mind1 followed by ,reflections  
and ,maxims1  which was deservedly      
praised by his friend ,voltaire4 ,died  
at ,paris #bh  ,may1 #agdg4 ,his work1  
which though but mildly deistic1 was    

rigorously  suppressed1 and was         
reprinted about #aggj4    ,velthuysen   
7,lambert71 ,dutch physician1 b4        
,utrecht1 #afbb4 ,he wrote  many works  
on theology and philosophy in ,latin4   
,his works1 ,de ,officio  ,pastorum and 
,de ,idolatria et ,superstitione were   
proceeded against in  #affh1 but he was 
let off with a fine4 ,died #afhe4       
,venetianer 7,moritz71 ,german          
,pantheist1 author of ,der ,allgeist1   
#ahgd1  and a work on ,schopenhauer as a
 ,scholastic4    ,vereschagin 7,vasily71
 ,russian painter1 b4 ,novgorod1 #ahdb4 
,he studied  at ,paris under ,gerome1   
took part in the ,russo-,turkish war1   
and has  travelled widely4 ,the         
realistic and anti-religious conceptions
 of his  ,holy ,family and ,resurrection
 were the cause of their being withdrawn
  from the ,vienna ,exhibition in ,oct4 
'#he1 by order of the archbishop4 ,in   
his ,autobiographical ,sketches1        
translated into ,english1 '#hg1 he shows
  his free opinions4    ,vergniaud      

7,pierre ,victurnien71 ,french          
,girondist orator1 b4 ,limoges1  #ca    
,may1 #agei4 ,he studied law1 and became
 an advocate4 ,elected to  the          
,legislative ,assembly in #agia1 he also
 became ,president of the  ,convention4 
,at the trial of the ,king he voted for 
the appeal to  the people1 but that     
being rejected1 voted death4 ,with      
,gensonn  and ,guadet1 he opposed the   
sanguinary measures of ,robespierre1    
and1  being beaten in the struggle1 was 
executed with the ,girondins1 #ca  ,oct4
 #agic4 ,vergniaud was a brilliant      
speaker4 ,he said3 ,reason thinks1      
,religion dreams4 ,he had prepared      
poison for himself1 but as there  was   
not enough for his comrades1 he resolved
 to suffer with them4    ,verlet        
7,henri71 ,french founder and editor of 
a journal1 ,la ,libre  ,pense1 #ahga1   
and author of a pamphlet on ,atheism and
 the ,supreme  ,being4    ,verliere     
7,alfred71 ,french author of a ,guide du
 ,libre-,penseur 7,paris1  #ahfi72      

collaborated ,la ,libre ,pense1         
,rationaliste1 etc4 ,to ,bishop         
,dupanloup's ,athisme et ,peril ,social 
he replied with ,deisme et ,peril       
,social1 for which he was condemned to  
several months' imprisonment4           
,vermersch 7,eugne71 ,french journalist1
 b4 ,lille about #ahdj4 ,took part  in  
the ,commune1 and has written on many   
,radical papers4    ,vernes 7,maurice71 
,french critic1 b4 ,mauroy1 #ahde4 ,has 
published  ,melanges de ,critique       
,religieuse1 and translated from ,kuenen
 and ,tiele4    ,veron 7,eugne71 ,french
 writer and publicist1 b4 ,paris1 #bi   
,may1 #ahbe4 ,he  wrote on many         
journals1 founded ,la ,france           
,republicaine at ,lyons1 and  l',art at 
,paris4 ,besides historical works he has
 written ,l',esthetique  in the ,library
 of ,contemporary ,science1 '#gh2 ,the  
,natural ,history  of ,religions1 #b    
vols41 in the ,bibliothque              
,materialiste1 '#hd2 and ,la  ,morale1  
'#hd4    ,viardot 7,louis71 ,french     

writer1 b4 ,dijon1 #ca ,july1 #ahjj4 ,he
 came  to ,paris and became an advocate1
 but after a voyage in ,spain1 left  the
 bar for literature1 writing on the     
,globe ,national and ,sicle4 ,in  '#da  
he founded the ,revue ,independante with
 ,george ,sand1 and ,pierre  ,leroux4   
,he made translations from the ,russian1
 and in addition to many  works on art  
he wrote ,the ,jesuits1 '#eg2 ,apology  
of an ,unbeliever1  translated into     
,english1 '#fi1 and republished as      
,libre ,examen1  '#ga4 ,died #ahhc4     
,vico 7,giovanni ,battista71 ,italian   
philosopher1 b4 ,naples #affh4 ,he      
became ,professor of ,rhetoric in the   
,university of that city1 and  published
 a ,new ,science of the ,common ,nature 
of ,nations1 #agbe1 in  which he argues 
that the events of history are          
determined by immutable  laws4 ,it      
presents many original thoughts4 ,died  
,naples1 #ba ,jan4 #agdc4    ,virchow   
7,rudolf71 ,german anthropologist1 b4   
,schivelbein ,pomerania1  #ac ,oct4     

#ahba4 ,studied medicine at ,berlin and 
became lecturer1 member  of the         
,national ,assembly of '#dh1 and        
,professor of ,pathological  ,anatomy at
 ,berlin4 ,his ,cellular ,pathology1    
'#eh1 established his  reputation4 ,he  
was chosen deputy and rose to the       
leadership of the  ,liberal opposition4 
,his scientific views are advanced      
although he  opposed the ,haeckel in    
regard to absolute teaching of          
evolution4    ,vischer 7,friedrich      
,theodor71 ,german art critic1 b4       
,ludwigsburg1  #cj ,june1 #ahjg4 ,was   
educated for the ,church1 became a      
minister1 but  renounced theology and   
became professor of  and is ,jahrbcher  
der  ,gegenwart1 '#dd1 was accused of   
blasphemy and for his ,freethinking     
opinions he was suspended two years4 ,at
 the revolution of '#dh he  was elected 
to the ,national ,assembly4 ,in '#ee he 
became ,professor  at ,zrich4 ,his work 
on sthetic1 or the ,science of the      
,beautiful1  '#df-ed1 is considered     

classic4 ,he has also written1 ,old and 
,new1  '#ha1 and several anonymous      
works4 ,died ,gmunden1 #ad ,sept4 #ahhg4
    ,vitry 7,guarin de7 ,french author  
of a ,rapid ,examination of ,christian  
,dogma1 addressed to the ,council of    
#ahfi4    ,vloten 7,johannes van71      
,dutch writer1 b4 ,kampen1 #ah ,jan4    
#ahah2 studied  theology at ,leiden and 
graduated ,d4,d4 in '#dc4 ,he has1      
however1 devoted  himself to literature1
 and produced many works1 translating   
plays of  ,shakespeare1 editing         
,spinoza1 and writing his               
life--translated into  ,english by ,a4  
,menzies4 ,he edited also ,de           
,levensbode1 #ahfe1 etc4    ,voelkel    
7,titus71 ,dr41 ,german lecturer and    
writer1 b4 ,wirsitz 7,prussian  ,poland7
 #ad ,dec4 #ahda4 ,studied 7'#ei-fe7    
theology1 natural philosophy1  and      
mathematics1 and spent some years in    
,france4 ,he returned '#gj1  and was for
 ten years employed as teacher at higher
 schools4 ,since  '#hj has been sprecher

 of ,freethought associations and since 
'#he  editor of the ,neues              
,freireligises ,sonntags-,blatt1 at     
,magdeburg4 ,in  '#hh he was several    
times prosecuted for blasphemy and each 
time  acquitted4 ,he represented several
 ,german societies at the ,paris        
,congress of ,freethinkers1 '#hi4       
,voglet 7,prosper71 ,belgian singer1 b4 
,brussels1 #ahbe4 ,he was blinded       
through his baptism by a ,catholic      
priest1 and has in consequence to  earn 
his living as a street singer4 ,his     
songs1 of his own composition1  are     
anti-religious4 ,many have appeared in  
,la ,tribune du ,peuple1  which he      
edited4    ,vogt 7,karl71 ,german       
scientist1 b4 ,giessen1 #e ,july1 #ahag1
 the  son of a distinguished naturalist4
 ,he studied medicine and became        
acquainted with ,agassiz4 ,in '#dh he   
was elected deputy to the ,national     
,assembly4 ,deprived of his chair and   
exiled1 he became professor  of ,natural
 ,history at ,geneva4 ,his lectures on  

,man1 ,his ,position in  ,creation and  
in the ,history of the ,earth1 '#fc1    
made a sensation by  their endorsement  
of ,darwinism4 ,they were translated    
into ,english  and published by the     
,anthropological ,society4 ,he has also 
written  a ,manual of ,geology1         
,physiological ,letters1 ,zoological    
,letters1  ,blind ,faith and ,science1  
etc41 and has contributed to the leading
  ,freethought journals of ,germany and 
,switzerland4    ,volkmar 7,gustav71    
,swiss critic1 b4 ,hersfeld1 #aa ,jan4  
#ahji4 ,studied at  ,marburg '#bi-cb2   
became privat docent at ,zurich1 '#ec1  
and professor  '#fc4 ,he has written    
rationalist works on the ,gospel of     
,marcion1  '#eb2 ,justin ,martyr1 '#ec2 
the ,origin of the ,gospels1 '#ff2      
,jesus and  the first ,christian ,ages1 
'#hb1 etc4    ,volney 7,constantin      
,franois ,chassebouf de71 ,count1       
,french philosopher1  b4 ,craon 7,anjou7
 #c ,feb4 #ageg4 ,having studied at     
,ancenis and ,angers1  he went to ,paris

 in #aggd4 ,here he met ,d',holbach and 
others4 ,in #aghc  he started for ,egypt
 and ,syria1 and in #aghg published an  
account of  his travels4 ,made ,director
 of ,commerce in ,corsica1 he resigned  
on  being elected to the ,assembly4     
,though a wealthy landlord1 he wrote    
and spoke for division of landed        
property4 ,in #agia his eloquent ,ruins 
appeared4 ,during the ,terror he was    
imprisoned for ten months4 ,in '#ie  he 
visited ,america4 ,returning to ,france1
 ,napoleon asked him to become          
colleague in the consulship but ,volney 
declined4 ,he remonstrated  with        
,napoleon when he re-established        
,christianity by the ,concordat1  ,april
 #ahjb4 ,among his other works was a    
,history of ,samuel and the  ,law of    
,nature4 ,died #be ,april1 #ahbj4       
,voltaire 7,franois ,marie4 ,arouet de71
 ,french poet1 historian and            
philosopher1 b4 ,paris #ba ,nov4 #afid4 
,educated by the ,jesuits1 he  early    
distinguished himself by his wit4 ,for a

 satirical pamphlet on  the death of    
,louis ,,xiv he was sent to the         
,bastille for a year and  was afterwards
 committed again for a quarrel with the 
,chevalier de  ,rohan4 ,on his          
liberation he came to ,england at the   
invitation of ,lord  ,bolingbroke1 and  
became acquainted with the ,english     
,freethinkers4 ,his  ,lettres           
,philosophiques translated as ,letters  
on the ,english1 #agcb1  gave great     
offence to the clergy and was condemned 
to be burnt4 ,about  #agce he retired to
 the estate of the ,marquise de ,chtelet
 at ,cirey1  where he produced many     
plays4 ,we may mention ,mahomet1        
dedicated  to the ,pope1 who was unable 
to see that its shafts were aimed at    
the pretences of the church4 ,in #agej  
he accepted the invitation  of          
,frederick ,,ii4 to reside at his court4
 ,but he could not help  laughing at the
 great king's poetry4 ,the last twenty  
years of his  life was passed at ,ferney
 near the ,genevan territory1 which     

through  his exertions became a thriving
 village4 ,he did more than any other   
man of his century to abolish torture   
and other relics of barbarism1  and to  
give just notions of history4 ,to the   
last he continued to wage  war against  
intolerance and superstition4 ,his works
 comprise over a  thousand pieces in    
seventy volumes4 ,over fifty works were 
condemned  by the ,index1 and ,voltaire 
used no less than one hundred and thirty
  different pen-names4 ,his name has    
risen above the clouds of detraction    
made by his clerical enemies4 ,died #cj 
,may1 #aggh4    ,voo 7,g4 ,w4 van der71 
,dutch writer1 b4 #f ,april1 #ahjf4 ,for
 more than  half a century he was       
schoolmaster and teacher of the ,french 
language  at ,rotterdam1 where he still 
lives4 ,he contributed many articles to 
,de ,dageraad4    ,vosmaer 7,carel71    
,dutch writer1 b4 the ,hague #bj ,march1
 #ahbf4 ,studied law  at ,leyden4 ,he   
edited the ,tydstroom 7#aheh-i7 and     
,spectator 7#ahfj-gc71  and wrote       

several works on ,dutch art and other   
subjects4 ,died at  ,montreux           
7,switzerland71 #ab ,june1 #ahhh4       
,voysey 7,charles71 ,english ,theist1 b4
 ,london #ah ,march1 #ahbh4 ,graduated  
,b4,a4 at ,oxford1 '#ea1 was vicar of   
,healaugh1 ,yorkshire1 '#fd-ga1 and     
deprived #aa ,feb4 '#ga for heresy in   
sermons published in ,the ,sling  and   
the ,stone4 ,he has since established a 
,theistic ,church in ,swallow  ,street1 
,piccadilly1 and his sermons are        
regularly published4 ,he has  also      
issued ,fragments from ,reimarus1 '#gi1 
edited ,the ,langham ,magazine  and     
published ,lectures on the ,bible and   
the ,theistic ,faith1 etc4    ,vulpian  
7,edme ,felix ,alfred71 ,french         
physician1 b4 #e ,jan4 #ahbf4 ,wrote    
several medical works and upon being    
appointed lecturer at the ,school  of   
,medicine1 '#fi1 was violently opposed  
on account of his ,atheism4 ,he  was    
afterwards elected to the ,academy of   
,sciences4 ,died #ag ,may1 #ahhg4       

,wagner 7,wilhelm ,richard71 ,german    
musical composer and poet1 b4 ,leipsic1 
#bb ,may1 #ahac4 ,from '#db-di he was   
conductor of the ,royal ,opera1         
,dresden1  but his revolutionary        
sentiments caused his exile to          
,switzerland1 where  he produced his    
,lohengrin4 ,in '#fd he was patronised  
by ,ludwig ,,ii4 of  ,bavaria1 and      
produced many fine operas1 in which he  
sought that poetry1  scenery1 and music 
should aid each other in making opera   
dramatic4 ,in  philosophy he expressed  
himself a follower of ,schopenhauer4    
,died at  ,venice1 #ac ,feb4 #ahhc4     
,waite 7,charles ,burlingame71 ,american
 judge1 b4 ,wayne county1 ,n4,y4 #bi    
,jan4 #ahbd4 ,educated at ,knox         
,college1 ,illinois1 he was admitted to 
the  ,bar in '#dg4 ,after successful    
practice in ,chicago1 he was appointed  
by ,president ,lincoln ,justice of the  
,supreme ,court of ,utah4 ,in '#ha he   
issued his ,history of the ,christian   
,religion to the year ,a4,d4 #bjj1  a   

rationalistic work1 which explodes the  
evangelical narratives4    ,wakeman     
7,thaddeus ,b471 ,american lawyer and   
,positivist1 b4 #bi ,dec4 #ahcd1  was   
one of the editors of ,man and a        
president of the ,new ,york ,liberal    
,club4 ,a contributor to the            
,freethinkers' ,magazine4    ,walferdin 
7,franois-,hippolyte71 b4 ,langres1 #h  
,june1 #agie4 ,a friend  of ,arago he   
contributed with him to the enlargement 
of science1 and  was decorated with the 
,legion of ,honor in #ahdd4 ,he         
published a fine  edition of the works  
of ,diderot in '#eg1 and left the bust  
of that  philosopher to the ,louvre4    
,died #be ,jan4 #ahhj4    ,walker 7,e471
 of ,worcester4 ,owenite author of ,is  
the ,bible ,true8 and  ,what is         
,blasphemy8 #ahdc4    ,walker 7,edwin   
,c471 editor of ,lucifer and ,fair      
,play1 ,valley ,falls1  ,kansas4        
,walker 7,thomas71 orator1 b4 ,preston1 
,lancashire1 #e ,feb4 #aheh4 ,went  to  
,america and at the age of sixteen took 

to the platform4 ,in  '#gg he went to   
,australia1 and for a while lectured at 
the ,opera1  ,melbourne4 ,in '#hb he    
started the ,australian ,secular        
,association1 of  which he was president
 for two years when he went to ,sydney4 
,in '#he  he was convicted for lecturing
 on ,malthusianism1 but the conviction  
was quashed by the ,supreme ,court4 ,in 
'#hg he was elected ,m4,p4 for          
,northumberland district4 ,is ,president
 of ,australian ,freethought ,union4    
,walser 7,george ,h471 ,american        
reformer1 b4 ,dearborn ,co4 ,indiana1   
#bf ,may1 #ahcd4 ,became a lawyer1 and a
 member of the legislature  of his      
,state4 ,he founded the town of ,liberal
 ,barton ,co4 ,missouri1  to try the    
experiment of a town without any priest1
 church1 chapel  or drinking saloon4    
,mr4 ,walser has also sought to         
establish there a  ,freethought         
,university4    ,ward 7,lester ,frank74 
,american botanist1 b4 ,joliet1         
,illinois1 #ah  ,june1 #ahda4 ,he served

 in the ,national ,army during the civil
 war and  was wounded4 ,in '#fe he      
settled at ,washington and became       
librarian  of the ,u4,s4 bureau of      
statistics4 ,he is now curator of botany
 and  fossil plants in the ,u4,s4       
national museum4 ,has written many works
  on paleo-botany1 and two volumes of   
sociological studies entitled  ,dynamic 
,sociology4 ,he has contributed to the  
,popular ,science ,monthly4    ,ward    
7,mary ,a471 translator of ,amiel's     
,journal1 and authoress of a  popular   
novel ,robert ,elsmere1 #ahhh4          
,warren 7,josiah74 ,american reformer1  
b4 #bf ,june1 #agih4 ,he took an  active
 part in ,robert ,owen's communistic    
experiment at ,new ,harmony1  ,indiana1 
in '#be-f4 ,his own ideas he illustrated
 by establishing a  time store at       
,cincinnati4 ,his views are given in a  
work entitled  ,true ,civilisation4     
,died ,boston1 ,mass4 #ad ,april1 #ahgd4
    ,washburn 7,l4 ,k471 ,american      
lecturer and writer1 b4 ,wareham1       

,plymouth1  ,mass41 #be ,march1 #ahdf4  
,in '#eg he went to ,barre4 ,was sent to
 a ,unitarian  school for ministers1 and
 was ordained in ,ipswich1 ,feb4 '#gj4  
,he read  from the pulpit extracts from 
,parker1 ,emerson1 and others instead   
of the ,bible4 ,he went to ,minneapolis1
 where he organised the first           
,freethought ,society in the ,state4 ,he
 afterwards resided at ,revere1  and    
delivered many ,freethought lectures1 of
 which several have been  published4 ,he
 now edits the ,boston ,investigator4   
,waters 7,nathaniel ,ramsey71 ,american 
author of ,rome v4 ,reason1 a memoir  of
 ,christian and extra ,christian        
experience4    ,watson 7,james71        
,english upholder of a free press1 b4   
,malton 7,yorks71  #ba ,sept4 #agii4    
,during the prosecution of ,carlile and 
his shopmen in  #ahbb he volunteered to 
come from ,london to ,leeds4 ,in ,feb4  
'#bc he was  arrested for selling       
,palmer's ,principles of ,nature1 tried 
#bc ,april1  and sentenced to twelve    

months' imprisonment1 during which he   
read  ,gibbon1 ,hume1 and ,mosheim4     
,when liberated he became a compositor  
on the  ,republican4 ,in '#ca ,julian   
,hibbert gave him his type and presses1 
and he  issued ,volney's ,lectures on   
,history4 ,in ,feb4 '#cc he was         
sentenced to  six months' imprisonment  
for selling ,the ,poor ,man's ,guardian4
 ,hibbert  left him #dej1 which he used 
in printing d',holbach's ,system of     
,nature1  ,volney's ,ruins1 ,f4         
,wright's ,lectures1 ,r4 ,d4 ,owen's    
pamphlets1 ,paine's  works1 and other   
volumes4 ,died at ,norwood1 #bi ,nov4   
#ahgd4    ,watson 7,thomas71 author of  
,the ,mystagogue1 ,leeds1 #ahdg4        
,watts 7,charles71 ,secularist orator1  
b4 ,bristol1 #bh ,feb4 #ahce4 ,converted
  to ,freethought by hearing ,charles   
,southwell1 he became a lecturer  and   
assistant editor on the ,national       
,reformer4 ,mr4 ,watts has had  numerous
 debates1 both in ,england and ,america1
 with ,dr4 ,sexton1  ,rev4 ,mr4         

,harrison1 ,brewin ,grant1 and others4  
,he started the ,secular  ,review with  
,g4 ,w4 ,foote1 and afterwards ,secular 
,thought of ,toronto4 ,he  wrote a      
portion of ,the ,freethinker's ,text    
,book1 and has published  ,christianity3
 its ,origin1 ,nature and ,influence2   
,the ,teachings of  ,secularism compared
 with ,orthodox ,christianity1 and other
 brochures4    ,watts 7,charles ,a471 a 
son of above1 b4 #bg ,may1 #aheh4       
,conducts ,watts's  ,literary ,gazette  
and edits the ,agnostic ,annual4        
,watts 7,john71 brother of ,charles1 b4 
,bedminster1 ,bristol1 #b  ,oct4 #ahcd4 
,his father was a ,wesleyan preacher1   
and he was converted  to ,freethought by
 his brother ,charles4 ,he became       
sub-editor of the  ,reasoner1 and       
afterwards for a time edited the        
,national ,reformer4 ,he  edited ,half  
,hours ,with ,freethinkers with         
,iconoclast1 and published  several     
pamphlets1 ,logic and ,philosophy of    
,atheism1 ,origin of ,man1  ,is ,man    

,immortal8 ,the ,devil1 ,who were the   
,writers of the ,new ,testament1  etc4  
,died #ca ,oct4 #ahff4    ,watts 7of    
,lewes1 ,sussex71 author of the ,yahoo1 
a satire in verse  7first published in  
#ahcc71 also ,the ,great ,dragon ,cast  
,out4    ,webber 7,zacharias71 ,dutch   
painter1 who in the seventeenth century 
wrote heretical works ,on the           
,temptation of ,christ and ,the         
,seduction  of ,adam and ,eve1 etc4 ,he 
defended ,bekker1 whom he surpassed in  
boldness4 ,under the pen name ,j4       
,adolphs he wrote ,the ,true ,origin1   
,continuance and ,destruction of ,satan4
 ,died in #afgi4    ,weber 7,karl       
,julius71 ,german author1 b4            
,langenburg1 #af ,april1  #agfg4        
,studied law at ,erlangen and ,gttingen4
 ,he lived for a while  in ,switzerland 
and studied ,french philosophy1 which   
suited his  satirical turn of mind4 ,he 
wrote a history of ,monkery1 #ahah-bj2  
,letters of ,germans ,travelling in     
,germany1 '#bf-bh2 and ,demokritos1  or 

the ,posthumous ,papers of a ,laughing  
,philosopher1 '#cb-cf4 ,died            
,kupferzell1 #ai ,july1 #ahcb4          
,weitling 7,wilhelm71 ,german social    
democrat1 b4 ,magdeburg1 #ahjh4 ,he  was
 a leader of ,der ,bund der ,gerechten1 
the ,league of the ,just1  and published
 at ,zrich ,the ,gospel of ,poor        
,sinners4 ,he also wrote  ,humanity1 ,as
 ,it ,is and ,as ,it ,should ,be4 ,he   
emigrated to ,america1  where he died   
#be ,jan4 #ahga4    ,wellhausen         
7,julius71 ,german critic1 b4 ,hameln   
#ag ,may1 #ahdd1 studied  theology at   
,gttingen1 and became professor in      
,griefswald1 ,halle1  and ,marburg4 ,is 
renowned for his ,history of ,israel in 
progress1 '#gh1  etc41 and his          
,prolegomena to the same1 and his       
contributions to the  ,encyclopdia      
,britannica4    ,westbrook 7,richard    
,brodhead71 ,dr41 ,american author1 b4  
,pike co41  ,pennsylvania1 #h ,feb4     
#ahbj4 ,he became a ,methodist preacher 
in '#dj1  and afterwards joined the     

,presbyterians1 but withdrew about '#fj1
  and has since written ,the ,bible3    
,whence and ,what8 and ,man3 ,whence and
  ,whither8 ,in '#hh ,dr4 ,westbrook was
 elected ,president of the ,american    
,secular ,union1 and has since offered a
 prize for the best essay on  teaching  
morality apart from religion4           
,westerman 7,w4 ,b47 ,during many years1
 from #ahef-fh1 an active  co-operator  
on ,de ,dageraad4    ,westra 7,p471     
,dutch ,freethinker1 b4 #af ,march1     
#ahea4 ,has for some years  been active 
secretary of the ,dutch ,freethought    
society1 ,de ,dageraad4    ,wettstein   
7,otto71 ,german ,american materialist1 
b4 ,barmen1 #g ,april1  #ahch4 ,about   
'#dh his parents emigrated4 ,in '#eh he 
set up in business as  a jeweller at    
,rochelle4 ,he contributed to the       
,freethinkers' ,magazine1  ,the         
,ironclad ,age1 and other journals1 and 
is treasurer of the ,national  ,secular 
,union4    ,white 7,andrew ,dickson71   
,american educator1 b4 ,homer1 ,n4,y41  

#g  ,nov4 #ahcb4 ,he studied at ,yale1  
where he graduated in '#ec2 travelled   
in ,europe1 and in '#eg was elected     
professor of history and ,english       
literature in the ,university of        
,michigan4 ,he was elected to the ,state
  ,senate1 and in '#fg became first     
president of ,cornell1 a university     
which he has largely endowed4 ,among his
 works we must mention ,the  ,warfare of
 ,science 7,n4,y41 '#gf7 and ,studies in
 ,general ,history and in  the ,history 
of ,civilisation1 '#he4    ,whitman     
7,walt71 ,american poet1 b4 ,west       
,hills1 ,long ,island1 ,n4,y41  #ca     
,may1 #ahai4 ,educated in public        
schools1 he became a printer1  and      
travelled much through the ,states4 ,in 
the civil war he served  as a volunteer 
army nurse4 ,his chief work1 ,leaves of 
,grass1 with  its noble preface1        
appeared in '#ee1 and was acclaimed by  
,emerson as  the most extraordinary     
piece of wit and wisdom that ,america   
has yet  contributed4 ,it was followed  

by ,drum ,taps1 ,november ,boughs and   
,sands  at ,seventy4 ,this good gray    
poet has also written prose essays      
called  ,democratic ,vietas and         
,specimen ,days and ,collect4           
,wicksell 7,knut71 ,swedish author and  
lecturer1 b4 ,stockholm1 #cj  ,dec4     
#ahea1 studied at ,upsala1 and became   
licentiate of philosophy in  '#he4 ,has 
written brochures on ,population1       
,emigration1 ,prostitution1  etc41 and  
anonymously a satirical work on ,bible  
,stories1 as by ,tante  ,malin4         
,represented ,sweden at the ,paris      
,conference of '#hi4    ,wieland        
7,christopher ,martin71 ,german poet and
 novelist1 b4 near  ,biberach1 #e ,sept4
 #agcc4 ,a voluminous writer1 he was    
called the  ,voltaire of ,germany4      
,among his works we notice ,dialogues of
 the  ,gods1 ,agathon1 a novel1 and     
,euthanasia1 in which he argues against 
immortality4 ,he translated ,horace1    
,lucian and ,shakespeare4 ,died ,weimer1
  #bj ,jan4 #ahac4 ,his last words were 

,to be or not to be4    ,wiener         
7,christian71 ,dr41 ,german author of a 
materialistic work on  the ,elements of 
,natural ,laws1 #ahfc4    ,wiessner     
7,alexander71 ,german writer1 author of 
an examination of  spiritualism         
7,leipsic1 #ahge74    ,wigand 7,otto    
,friedrich71 ,german publisher1 b4      
,gttingen1 #aj  ,aug4 #agie4 ,in #ahcb  
he established himself in ,leipsic1     
where he  issued the works of ,ruge1    
,bauer1 ,feuerbach1 ,scherr1 and other  
,freethinkers4 ,died #ca ,aug4 #ahgj4   
,wightman 7,edward71 ,english           
anti-,trinitarian martyr of             
,burton-on-,trent4 ,was burnt at        
,lichfield #aa ,april1 #afab1 being the 
last person burnt for heresy in         
,england4    ,wihl 7,ludwig71 ,german   
poet1 b4 #bd ,oct4 #ahjg4 ,died         
,brussels1 #af  ,jan4 #ahhb4            
,wilbrandt 7,adolf71 ,german author1 b4 
,rosbock1 #bd ,aug4 #ahcg4 ,has  written
 on ,heinrich von ,kleist1 ,hlderlin1   
the poet of ,pantheism1  and published  

many plays1 of which we may mention     
,giordano ,bruno1  #ahgd1 and also some 
novels4    ,wilhelmi 7,hedwig ,henrich71
 ,german lecturess and author of        
,vortrage1  published at ,milwaukee1    
#ahhi4 ,she attended the ,paris         
,congress of '#hi4    ,wilkinson        
7,christopher71 of ,bradford1 b4 #ahjc4 
,wrote with ,squire ,farrah  an able    
,examination of ,dr4 ,godwin's          
,arguments for the ,existence of ,god1  
published at ,bradford1 #ahec4          
,williams 7,david71 ,welsh deist1 b4    
,cardiganshire1 #agch4 ,he became a     
dissenting minister but after publishing
 two volumes of ,sermons on  ,religious 
,hypocrisy1 #aggd1 dissolved the        
connections4 ,in conjunction  with      
,franklin and others he founded a club  
and drew up a ,liturgy on  the          
,universal ,principles of ,religion and 
,morality1 which he used at a  ,deistic 
chapel opened in ,margaret ,street1     
,cavendish ,square1 #g ,april1  #aggf4  
,he wrote various political and         

educational works1 and established  the 
literary fund in #aghi4 ,died ,soho1    
,london1 #bi ,june1 #ahaf4    ,willis   
7,robert71 physician and writer1 b4     
,edinburgh1 #agii4 ,he studied  at the  
,university and became ,m4,d4 in #ahai4 
,he soon after came to  ,london1 and in 
'#bc became ,m4,r4,c4,s4 ,he became     
librarian to the ,college  of ,surgeons4
 ,besides many medical works he wrote a 
,life of ,spinoza1  '#gj1 and ,servetus 
and ,calvin1 '#gg4 ,he also wrote on    
,the ,pentateuch and  ,book of ,joshua  
in the face of the ,science and ,moral  
,senses of our ,age1  and ,a ,dialogue  
by ,way of ,catechism1 both published by
 ,t4 ,scott4 ,died  at ,barnes1 #ba     
,sept4 #ahgh4    ,wilson 7,john71       
,m4,a41 of ,trin4 ,coll41 ,dublin1      
author of ,thoughts on  ,science1       
,theology and ,ethics1 #ahhe4           
,wirmarsius 7,henrik71 ,dutch author of 
,den ,ingebeelde ,chaos1 #agaj4         
,wislicenus 7,gustav ,adolf71 ,german   
rationalist1 b4 ,saxony1 #bj  ,nov4     

#ahjc4 ,he studied theology at ,halle1  
and became a minister1  but in          
consequence of his work ,letter or      
,spirit 7#ahde7 was suspended  and      
founded the ,free ,congregation4 ,for   
his work on ,the ,bible in the  ,light  
of ,modern ,culture he was1 in ,sept4   
'#ec1 sentenced to prison  for two      
years4 ,he went to ,america1 and        
lectured in ,boston and ,new  ,york4 ,he
 returned to ,europe in '#ef1 and stayed
 in ,zrich1 where he  died #ad ,oct4    
#aghe4 ,his chief work1 ,the ,bible for 
,thinking ,readers1  was published at   
,leipsic in '#fc4    ,wittichius        
7,jacobus71 ,dutch ,spinozist1 b4 ,aken1
 #aa ,jan4 #afga4 ,wrote  on the ,nature
 of ,god1 #agaa4 ,died #ah ,oct4 #agci4 
,wixon 7,susan ,h471 ,american writer   
and editor of the ,children's ,corner   
in the ,truthseeker1 has for many years 
been an advocate of ,freethought1       
temperance1 and women's rights4 ,she was
 a school teacher and member  of the    
,board of ,education of the ,city of    

,fall ,river1 ,mass41 where  she        
resides4 ,she contributes to the ,boston
 ,investigator4    ,wollny 7,dr4 ,f471  
,german author of ,principles of        
,psychology 7,leipsic1  #ahhg71 in the  
preface to which he professes himself an
 ,atheist4    ,wollstonecraft 7,mary71  
,english authoress1 b4 ,hoxton1 #bg     
,april1  #agei4 ,she became a governess4
 ,in #agif she settled in ,london1 and  
began  her literary labors with         
,thoughts on the ,education of          
,daughters4 ,she  also wrote a          
,vindication of the ,rights of ,man1 in 
answer to ,burke1  and ,vindication of  
the ,rights of ,woman4 ,in #agig she    
married ,william  ,godwin1 and died in  
childbirth4    ,wooley 7,milton71 ,dr41 
,american author of ,science of the     
,bible #ahgg2  ,career of ,jesus        
,christ1 '#gg2 and a pamphlet on the    
name ,god4 ,died  ,aug4 #ahhe4          
,woolston 7,thomas71 ,rev4 ,english     
deist1 b4 ,northampton1 #affi4 ,he      
studied  at ,cambridge1 and became a    

,fellow at ,sydney ,college and a       
minister4 ,he  published in #agje ,the  
,old ,apology1 which was followed by    
other works in  favor of an allegorical 
interpretation of ,scripture4 ,in #agbf 
he began  his ,six ,discourses upon the 
,miracles1 which were assailed in       
forcible1  homely language4 ,thirty     
thousand copies are said to have been   
sold1  and sixty pamphlets were written 
in opposition4 ,woolston was tried for  
blasphemy and sentenced 7,march1 #agbi7 
to one year's imprisonment and  a fine  
of #ajj4 ,this he could not pay1 and    
died in prison #bi ,jan4 #agcc4         
,wright 7,elizur71 ,american reformer1  
b4 ,south ,canaan1 ,litchfield  ,co41   
,connecticut1 #ab ,feb4 #ahjd4 ,he      
graduated at ,yale ,college1  '#bf4     
,having warmly embraced the principles  
of the ,abolitionists1  he became       
secretary of the ,american              
,anti-,slavery ,society1  and edited the
 ,abolitionist and ,commonwealth4 ,he   
was a firm and  uncompromising ,atheist1

 and a contributor to the ,boston       
,investigator1  the ,freethinker's      
,magazine1 etc4 ,died at ,boston1 #ba   
,dec4 '#he4 ,his  funeral oration was   
delivered by ,col4 ,ingersoll4          
,wright 7,frances71 afterwards          
,d',arusmont1 writer and lecturess1  b4 
,dundee1 #f ,sept4 #agie4 ,at the age of
 eighteen she wrote ,a ,few ,days in    
,athens1 in which she expounds and      
defends the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,she 
visited the ,united ,states1 and wrote  
,views on ,society and ,manners  in     
,america1 #ahbj4 ,she bought #b1jjj     
acres in ,tennessee1 and peopled  it    
with slave families she purchased and   
redeemed4 ,she afterwards  joined       
,owen's experiment2 in part edited the  
,new ,harmony ,gazette1  and afterwards 
the ,free ,inquirer4 ,a ,course of      
,popular ,lectures was  published at    
,new ,york in '#bi1 in which she boldly 
gives her views on  religion4 ,she also 
wrote a number of fables and tracts1 and
 assisted  in founding the ,boston      

,investigator4 ,died at ,cincinnati1 #ad
 ,dec4 #aheb4    ,wright 7,henry        
,clarke71 ,american reformer1 b4        
,sharon1 ,litchfield  co4 ,connecticut1 
#bi ,aug4 #agig4 ,a conspicuous         
anti-slavery orator1  he was a friend of
 ,ernestine ,rose1 ,lucretia ,mott1 etc4
 ,he wrote ,the  ,living1 ,present and  
the ,dead ,past4 ,died ,pawtucket1      
,rhode ,island1  #af ,aug4 #ahgj4       
,wright 7,susannah71 one of ,carlile's  
shopwomen4 ,tried #ad ,nov4 #ahbb1  for 
selling pamphlets by ,carlile4 ,she made
 a good defence1 in the  course of which
 she was continually interrupted4       
,wundt 7,wilhelm ,max71 ,german         
scientist1 b4 ,neckaran 7,baden71  #af  
,aug4 #ahcb4 ,his father was a          
clergyman4 ,he studied medicine at      
,tbingen1 ,heidelberg1 and ,berlin1 and 
became professor of physiology at       
,heidelberg in '#fd1 and has since held 
chairs at ,zurich and ,leipsic4 ,his    
principal works are ,principles of      
,physiological ,psychology1 '#gd2       

,manual of ,human ,physiology2 ,logic1  
'#hc2 ,essays1 '#he2 ,ethik1 '#hf4      
,wuensch 7,christian ,ernest71 ,german  
physician1 b4 ,hohenstein1 #agdd4 ,was  
,professor of ,mathematics and ,physics 
in ,frankfort on the ,oder1 #ahbh4      
,wyrouboff 7,gr471 ,count2 ,russian     
,positivist1 who established the  ,revue
 de ,philosophie ,positive with ,littr1 
and edited it with him  from #ahfg-hc4  
,xenophanes1 ,greek philosopher1 b4     
,colophon1 about #fjj ,b4,c4 ,he founded
  the ,eleatic school1 and wrote a poem 
on ,nature and ,eleaticism1 in  which he
 ridiculed man making gods in his own   
image4    ,ximines 7,augustin ,louis71  
,marquis de1 ,french writer1 b4 ,paris1 
#bf  ,feb4 #agbf4 ,was an intimate      
friend of ,voltaire1 and wrote several  
plays4 ,died ,paris1 #ca ,may1 #ahag4   
,york 7,j4 ,l471 ,american lecturer1 b4 
,new ,york1 #ahcj4 ,he became a         
blacksmith1 then a ,methodist minister1 
then ,unitarian1 and finally            
,freethought advocate4 ,he was for some 

years member of the ,california         
,legislature1 and has made lecturing    
tours in ,australia and through  the    
,states4    ,yorke 7,j4 ,f471 author of 
able ,notes on ,evolution and           
,christianity1  ,london1 #ahhb4         
,youmans 7,edward ,livingstone71        
,american scientist1 b4 ,coeymans1      
,n4,y41  #c ,june1 #ahba4 ,though       
partially blind he was a great student4 
,he became  ,m4,d4 about #ahea1 and     
began to lecture on science1 popularly  
expounding  the doctrines of the        
conservation of energy and evolution4   
,he  popularised ,herbert ,spencer1     
planned the ,international ,scientific  
,series1 and in '#gb established the    
,popular ,science ,monthly1 in which  he
 wrote largely4 ,died at ,new ,york1 #ah
 ,jan4 #ahhg4    ,zaborowski ,moindrin  
7,sigismond71 ,french scientific writer1
 b4 ,la  ,crche1 #ahea4 ,has written on 
,the ,antiquity of ,man1 '#gd2          
,pre-historic  ,man1 '#gh2 ,origin of   
,languages1 '#gi2 ,the ,great ,apes1    

'#ha2 ,scientific  ,curiosities1 '#hc4  
,zambrini 7,francesco71 ,italian writer1
 b4 ,faenza1 #be ,jan4 #ahaj4 ,educated 
at ,ravenna and ,bologna4 ,he devoted   
himself to literature and produced  a   
great number of works4 ,died #i ,july1  
#ahhg4    ,zarco 7,francisco71 ,mexican 
journalist1 b4 ,durango1 #d ,dec4 #ahbi4
 ,edited  ,el ,siglo ,,xix and ,la      
,ilustracion1 in which he used the      
pen-name of  ,fortun4 ,he was elected to
 ,congress in '#ee1 and imprisoned by   
the  reactionaries in '#fj4 ,juarez made
 him ,secretary of ,state and ,president
  of ,council4 ,he was a friend of      
,gagern4 ,died ,mexico1 #bi ,dec4 #ahfi4
    ,zeller 7,eduard71 ,german critic1  
b4 ,kleinbottwar 7,wrtemberg71 #bb      
,jan4 #ahad4 ,studied theology at       
,tbingen and ,berlin1 became professor  
at ,berne1 '#dg4 ,he married a daughter 
of ,baur2 gave up theology for          
philosophy1 of which he has been        
professor at ,berlin since '#gb4 ,has   
written a memoir of ,strauss1 '#gd2     

,outlines of the ,history of ,greek     
,philosophy1 '#hc2 ,frederick the ,great
 as a ,philosopher1 '#hf2 and other     
important works4    ,zijde 7,karel van  
der71 ,dutch writer1 b4 ,overschie1 #ac 
,july1 #ahch4 ,has  been teacher at     
,rotterdam4 ,under the pen-name of ,m4  
,f4 ten ,bergen  he wrote ,the ,devil's 
,burial1 #ahgd4 ,besides this he has    
written many  literary articles1 and is 
now teacher of ,dutch and ,german at    
,zaandam4    ,zimmern 7,helen71 b4      
,hamburg1 #be ,march1 #ahdf4 ,has lived 
in ,england  since '#ej1 and is         
naturalised4 ,she has written lives of  
,schopenhauer  and ,lessing1 and a      
paraphrase of ,firdusi's ,shah ,nahmeh4 
,zola 7,emile71 ,french novelist1 b4 of 
,italian father1 ,paris1 #b ,april1     
#ahdj4 ,by his powerful collection of   
romances known as ,les ,rougon          
,macquart1 he made himself the leader of
 the naturalist school1  which claims to
 treat fiction scientifically1          
representing life as  it is without the 

ideal4    ,zorrilla 7,manuel ,ruiz71    
,spanish statesman1 b4 ,burgo-de-,osma1 
#ahcd1  became a lawyer1 and in '#ef was
 returned to the ,cortes by the         
,progressive party4 ,for a brochure     
against the ,neo-,catholics he was      
prosecuted4 ,in '#gj he became          
,president of the ,cortes1 and has since
  been exiled for his ,republicanism4   
,zouteveen 7,h4 ,h4 ,h4 van74 ,see      
,hartogh4    ,zuppetta 7,luigi71        
,italian jurist and patriot1 b4         
,castelnuovo1 #ba ,june1  #ahaj4 ,he    
studied at ,naples1 took part in the    
democratic movement of  '#dh1 was exiled
 and returned in #ahfj1 and has been    
,professor of ,penal  ,law in the       
,university of ,pavia4                  
,,supplement4      ,those which have    
already appeared are marked 99      ,abd
 al ,hakk ibn ,ibrahim ibn ,muhammad ibn
 ,sabin4 ,see ,sabin4    ,abu ,abd'allah
 ,muhammad ibn ,massara al ,jabali4     
,arabian pantheist  b4 #hha4 ,he lived  
at ,cordova in ,spain and studied the   

works of  ,empedocles and other ,greek  
philosophers4 ,accused of impiety1 he   
left ,spain and travelled through the   
,east4 ,returned to ,spain and          
collected disciples whom he led to      
scepticism4 ,he was the most eminent    
predecessor of ,ibn ,rushd or ,averroes4
 ,died ,oct4 #ica4 ,his works were      
publicly burned at ,seville4    99      
,acosta 7,uriel71 the name of his work  
was ,examen ,traditorum                 
,philosophicarum ad legem ,scriptam4    
,acuna 7,rosario de71 ,spanish writer   
and lecturess1 b4 ,madrid about  #ahed4 
,contributes to ,las ,dominicales of    
,madrid4 ,has written ,the ,doll's      
,house1 and other educational works4    
99 ,adams 7,robert ,c471 ,american      
,freethought writer and lecturer1  the  
son of the ,rev4 ,needham ,adams1 b4    
,boston #ahci4 ,he became a             
sea-captain1 and was afterwards shipper 
at ,montreal4 ,has written  in ,secular 
,thought1 the ,truthseeker and the      
,freethinker's ,magazine1  and published

 rational lectures under the title      
,pioneer ,pith1 '#hi4 ,in  '#hi he was  
elected ,president of the ,canadian     
,secular ,union4    ,admiraal 7,aart71  
,dutch writer1 b4 ,goedereede1 #ac ,oct4
 #ahcc4 ,at first  a schoolmaster1 he   
became in '#fj director of the telegraph
 bureau at  ,schoonhoven4 ,he wrote from
 '#ef for many years in ,de ,dageraad   
over  the anagram ,aramaldi4 ,in '#fg he
 published ,the ,religion of the        
,people under the pseudonym ,bato van   
der ,maas1 a name he used in  writing to
 many periodicals4 ,a good mind and     
heart with but feeble  constitution4 ,he
 died #ab ,nov4 #ahgh4    ,airoldi 7,j47
 ,italian lawyer1 b4 ,lugano            
7,switzerland71 #ahbi2 a poet  and      
writer of talent4    ,albaida 7,don     
,jose ,m4 ,orense71 ,spanish nobleman   
7marquis71 one of the  founders of the  
,republican party4 ,was expelled for his
 principles2  returned to ,spain1 and   
was president of the ,cortes in #ahfi4  
99 ,alchindus4 ,died about #hfd4    99  

,aleardi had better be deleted4 ,i am   
now told he was a ,christian4           
,alfarabi4 ,see ,alpharabius4    ,algeri
 7,pomponio71 a youth of ,nola4 ,studied
 at ,padua1 and was accused  of heresy  
and ,atheism1 and burnt alive in a      
cauldron of boiling oil1  pitch1 and    
turpentine at ,rome in #aeff4           
,alkemade 7,a4 de ,mey van71 ,dutch     
nobleman1 who contributed to  ,de       
,dageraad1 and also published a work    
containing many ,bible  contradictions1 
#ahfb2 and in '#ei a work on the ,bible 
under the pen name  ,alexander de ,m4   
,allais 7,denis de74 ,see ,vairasse4    
,allais 7,giovanni71 ,italian doctor1 b4
 ,casteldelfino1 #ahdg4    ,almquist    
7,herman71 ,swedish1 b4 #ahci1          
orientalist2 professor of  philology at 
the ,university of ,upsala4 ,an active  
defender of new  ideas and ,freethought4
    ,altmeyer 7,jean ,jacques71 ,belgian
 author1 b4 ,luxembourg1 #bj  ,jan4     
#ahjd4 ,was professor at the ,university
 of ,brussels4 ,he wrote an             

,introduction to the ,philosophical     
,study of the ,history of ,humanity1    
'#cf1 and other historical works4 ,died 
#ae ,sept4 #ahgg4    ,amari 7,michele71 
,sicilian historian and orientalist1 b4 
,palmero1 #g  ,july1 #ahjf4 ,in '#cb he 
produced a version of ,scott's ,marmion4
 ,he wrote  a standard ,history of the  
,musulmen in ,sicily4 ,after the landing
 of  ,garibaldi1 he was made head of    
public instruction in the island4 ,he   
took part in the anti-clerical council  
of '#fi4 ,died at ,florence1  ,july     
#ahhi4    99 ,amaury de ,chartres4      
,according to ,l',abb ,ladvocat his     
disciples  maintained that the          
sacraments were useless1 and that there 
was no  other heaven than the           
satisfaction of doing right1 nor any    
other hell  than ignorance and sin4     
,anderson 7,marie71 ,dutch lady         
,freethinker1 b4 the ,hague1 #b  ,aug4  
#ahdb4 ,she has written many good       
articles in de ,dageraad1 and  was for  
some time editress of a periodical ,de  

,twintigste ,eeuw 7the  twentieth       
century74 ,she has also written some    
novels4 ,she resides now  at ,wrzburg1  
,germany1 and contributes still to de   
,dageraad4 ,as pen-name  she formerly   
used that of ,mevrouw ,quarls and now   
,dr4 ,al4 ,dondorf4    99 ,anthero de   
,quental4 ,this name would be better    
under ,quental4    ,apono4 ,see ,petrus 
de ,abano4 ,this would probably be best 
under ,abano4    99 ,aquila4 ,justinian 
forbade the ,jews to read ,aquila's     
version of  the ,scriptures4    ,aranda 
7,pedro ,pablo ,abarca de ,bolea71      
,count1 ,spanish statesman1  b4 of      
illustrious family1 ,saragossa1 #ah     
,dec4 #agah4 ,was soldier and           
ambassador to ,poland4 ,he imbibed the  
ideas of the ,encyclopdists1  and       
contributed to the expulsion of the     
,jesuits from ,spain in #agfg4 ,he  also
 disarmed the ,inquisition4 ,in #agib he
 was elected ,spanish minister  to      
,france4 ,he was recalled and exiled to 
,aragon1 where he died in #agii4        

,argilleres 7,antoine71 at first a      
,jacobin monk and afterwards a          
,protestant preacher1 was tortured      
several times1 then decapitated and  his
 head nailed to a gibbet at ,geneva1    
#aefa-b1 for having eight years         
previously taken the part of ,servetus  
against ,calvin at ,pont-de-,veyle  in  
,bresse4    99 ,arnould 7,victor74 ,has 
continued his ,tableau in the           
,positivist  ,revue and ,la ,societ     
,nouvelle4 ,from #ahfh to '#gc he edited
 ,la ,libert1  in which many a battle   
for ,freethought has been fought4       
,ascarate 7,gumezindo de71 ,spanish     
professor of law at the ,university of  
,madrid and ,republican deputy1 b4 ,leon
 about #ahdd4 ,one of the ablest        
,radical parliamentary orators2 in      
philosophy1 he is a follower of         
,krause4 ,he has written ,social        
,studies1 ,self-,government and         
,monarchy1  and other political works4  
,aszo y ,del ,rio 7,ignacio ,jordan de71
 ,spanish jurist and naturalist1  b4    

,saragossa1 #agdb4 ,was professor at    
,madrid1 and left many important  works 
on various branches of science4 ,in his 
political works he  advocated the       
abolition of ecclesiastical power4 ,died
 #ahad4    99 ,aubert de ,verse 7,noel7 
had probably better be omitted1 although
  accused of blasphemy himself1 ,i find 
he wrote an answer to ,spinoza1  which  
,i have not been able to see4           
,auerbach 7,berthold71 ,german novelist 
of ,jewish extraction1  b4 ,nordstetten1
 #bh ,feb4 #ahab4 ,devoted to ,spinoza1 
in '#da he published  a life of the     
philosopher and a translation of his    
works1 having  previously published an  
historical romance on the same subject4 
,died  ,cannes1 #h ,feb4 #ahhb4    99   
,aymon 7,jean74 ,la vie et ,l',esprit de
 ,m4 ,benoit ,spinoza 7,la ,haye1       
#agai7 was afterwards issued under the  
famous title ,treatise of ,three        
,impostors4    99 ,bahrdt 7,karl        
,friedrich74 ,the writings of this      
enfant terrible of  the ,german         

,aufklarung fill #abj volumes4    99    
,bailey 7,william ,shreeve7 was born #aj
 ,feb4 #ahjf4 ,he suffered much  on     
account of his opinions4 ,died          
,nashville1 #bj ,feb #ahhf4 ,photius    
,fisk  erected a monument to his memory4
    99 ,bancel 7,francis ,dsir74 ,in his
 work ,les ,harangues de l',exil1 #c    
vols41 #ahfc1 his ,freethought views are
 displayed4 ,he also wrote in  ,la      
,revue ,critique4    ,barnaud           
7,nicolas71 of ,crest in ,dauphin4      
,lived during the latter half  of the   
sixteenth century4 ,he travelled in     
,france1 ,spain1 and ,germany1  and to  
him is attributed the authorship of a   
curious work entitled ,le  ,cabinet du  
,roy de ,france1 which is largely       
directed against the clergy4            
,barreaux4 ,see des ,barreaux4    ,barth
 7,ferdinand71 b4 ,mureck1 ,steyermark  
,austria1 #ahbh4 ,in '#dh he  attained  
reputation as orator to working men and 
took part in the  revolution4 ,when     
,vienna was retaken he went to ,leipzig 

and ,zurich1  where he died in #ahej1   
leaving a profession of his freethought4
    ,bartrina1 ,spanish ,atheistic poet1
 b4 ,barcelona1 #aheb1 where he died  in
 #ahhj4    ,bedingfield 7,richard1 ,w4  
,t471 ,pantheistic writer1 b4 ,may1     
#ahbc1  wrote in ,national ,reformer as 
,b4,t4,w4,r41 established ,freelight1   
'#gj4 ,died #ad ,feb4 #ahgf4    99      
,berigardus 7,claudius71 b4 #ae ,aug4   
#aegh4    99 ,bertillon 7,louis         
,adolphe74 ,in a letter to ,bp4         
,dupanloup1 ,april1 '#fh1  he said1 ,you
 hope to die a ,catholic1 ,i hope to die
 a ,freethinker4 ,died  #ahhc4    99    
,berwick 7,george ,j47 ,m4,d41 ,dr4     
,berwick1 ,i am informed1 was the author
  of the tracts issued by ,thomas ,scott
 of ,ramsgate with the signature of     
,presbyter ,anglicanus4    ,blein 7,f4  
,a4 ,a471 ,baron1 ,french author of     
,essais ,philosophiques1  ,paris1 #ahdc4
    ,blum 7,robert71 ,german patriot and
 orator1 b4 ,cologne1 #aj ,nov4 #ahjg4  
,he  took an active part in progressive 

political and religious movements1  and 
published the ,christmas ,tree and other
 publications4 ,in '#dh he  became      
deputy to the ,frankfort ,parliament and
 head of the ,republican  party4 ,he was
 one of the promoters at the            
insurrection of ,vienna1  and showed    
great bravery in the fights of the      
students with the  troops4 ,shot at     
,vienna1 #i ,nov4 #ahdh4    99          
,blumenfleld 7,j4 ,c471 this name ,i    
suspect to be a pseudonym4    ,bolin    
7,a4 ,w471 a philosophic writer of      
,finland1 b4 #b ,aug4 #ahce4 ,studied   
at ,helsingford1 '#eb1 and became       
,doctor of ,philosophy in '#ff1 and     
,professor in '#gc4 ,he has written on  
the ,freedom of the ,will1 ,the         
,political ,doctrines of ,philosophy1   
etc4 ,a subject of ,russian ,finland2   
he has been repeatedly troubled by the  
authorities for his radical  views on   
religious questions4    ,bolivar        
7,ignacio71 ,spanish professor of       
natural history at the  ,university of  

,madrid1 and one of the introducers of  
,darwinian ideas4    ,boppe 7,herman    
,c471 editor of ,freidenker of          
,milwaukee1 ,u4,s4,a4    ,borsari       
7,ferdinand71 ,italian geographer1 b4   
,naples1 author of a work  of the       
literature of ,american aborigines1 and 
a zealous propagator  of ,freethought4  
,bostrom 7,christopher ,jacob71 ,swedish
 ,professor at ,upsala1 b4 #d  ,jan4    
#agig4 ,besides many philosophical      
works1 published trenchant  criticism of
 the ,christian hell creed4 ,died #bb   
,march1 #ahff4    ,boucher 7,e4         
,martin71 b4 ,beaulieu #ahji4 ,conducted
 the ,rationaliste  at ,geneva1 where he
 died #ahhb4 ,his work ,search for the  
,truth was  published at ,avignon1      
#ahhd4    ,bourneville 7,magloire       
,dsir71 ,french deputy and physician1   
b4 ,garancires1 #ba ,oct4 #ahdj4        
,studied medicine at ,paris1 and in '#gi
  was appointed physician to the asylum 
of ,bictre4 ,he was ,municipal          
,councillor of ,paris from '#gf to '#hc4

 ,on the death of ,louis ,blanc he  was 
elected deputy in his place4 ,wrote     
,science and ,miracle1 '#ge2  ,hysteria 
in ,history1 '#gf2 and a discourse on   
,etienne ,dolet at the  erection of the 
statue to that martyr1 #ah ,may #ahhi4  
,boutteville 7,marc ,lucien71 ,french   
writer1 professor at the ,lycee         
,bonaparte4 ,wrote to ,dupanloup on his 
pamphlet against ,atheism1 #ahfg2  wrote
 in ,la ,pense ,nouvelle1 '#fh2 is      
author of a large and able work  on the 
,morality of the ,church and ,natural   
,morality1 '#ff2 and has  edited the    
posthumous works of ,proudhon1 #ahgj4   
99 ,bovio 7,giovanni71 b4 ,trani1 #ahch1
 ,dr4 of law and advocate4 ,author  of a
 dramatic piece1 ,cristo alla festa di  
,purim1 and of a ,history  of ,law in   
,italy4 ,signor ,bovio delivered the    
address at unveiling the  monument to   
,bruno at ,rome1 #i ,june1 #ahhi4       
,boyer4 ,see ,argens4    99 ,bradlaugh  
7,charles71 ,m4,p4 ,in ,april1 #ahhi1 he
 introduced a ,bill to  repeal the      

,blasphemy ,laws4    ,braga 7,teofilo71 
,portuguese ,positivist1 b4 #bd ,feb4   
#ahdc4 ,educated  at ,coimbra4 ,has     
written many poems1 and a ,history of   
,portuguese  ,literature4 ,is one of the
 ,republican leaders4    ,branting      
7,hjalmar71 ,swedish ,socialist1 b4     
#ahfj4 ,sentenced in '#hh  to three     
months' imprisonment for blasphemy in   
his paper ,social  ,democraten4         
,braun 7,eugen71 ,dr4 ,see ,f4 ,w4      
,ghillany4    ,braun 7,wilhelm von71    
,swedish humoristic poet1 b4 #ahac4 ,he 
satirised  many of the ,bible stories4  
,died #ahfj4    ,brewer 7,ebenezer      
,cobham71 ,english author4 ,has written 
numerous school  books1 and compiled a  
,dictionary of ,miracles1 #ahhd4        
,brismee 7,desir71 ,belgian printer1 b4 
,ghent1 #bg ,july1 #ahbb4 ,as editor  of
 ,le ,drapeau he underwent eighteen     
months' imprisonment4 ,the principle    
founder of ,les ,solidaires1 he was the 
life-long secretary of that  society1   
and his annual reports are a valuable   

contribution towards  the history of    
,freethought in ,belgium4 ,an eloquent  
speaker1 many of  his ,freethought      
orations were printed in ,la ,tribune du
 ,peuple4 ,died  at ,brussels #ah ,feb4 
#ahhh4    99 ,brothier 7,lon74 ,died    
about #ahgd4    99 ,brown 7,g4 ,w47 ,dr4
 ,brown's new work is published at      
,rockford1  ,illinois1 and entitled     
,researches in ,jewish ,history1        
including the rise  and development of  
,zoroastrianism and the derivation of   
,christianity4    99 ,bruno 7,giordano71
 b4 ,nola1 #ba ,march1 #aedh4 ,the      
,avisso di ,roma  of #ai ,feb4 #afjj1   
records the fact of his being burnt1 and
 that he  died impenitent4 ,signor      
,mariotti1 ,state ,secretary to the     
,minister  of ,public ,instruction1 has 
found a document proving that ,bruno was
  stripped naked1 bound to a pole1 and  
burnt alive1 and that he bore  his      
martyrdom with great fortitude4    ,buen
 7,odon de71 ,spanish writer on ,las    
,dominicales1 of ,madrid1  b4 ,aragon1  

#ahhd4 ,professor of ,natural ,history  
at the ,university of  ,barcelona4 ,has 
written an account of a scientific      
expedition ,from  ,christiania to       
,treggurt1 has translated ,memoirs of   
,garibaldi4 ,he  married civilly the    
daughter of ,f4 ,lozano1 and was        
delegate to the  ,paris ,freethought    
,conference1 #ahhi4    ,calderon        
7,alfredo71 ,spanish journalist and     
lawyer1 b4 #aheb4 ,he edits  ,la        
,justicia4 ,has written several books on
 law4    ,calderon 7,lauresmo71         
,professor of ,chemistry in the         
,university of  ,madrid1 b4 #ahdh4 ,is a
 propagator of ,darwinian ideas4        
,calderon 7,salvador71 ,spanish         
geologist and naturalist1 b4 #ahdf2     
professor at the ,university of         
,seville4 ,has made scientific travels  
in ,central ,america1 and written       
largely on geological subjects4         
,calvo 7,rafael71 ,spanish actor and    
dramatic author1 b4 #aheb4 ,a           
pronounced ,republican and ,freethinker4

    99 ,canestrini 7,giovanni71 b4 ,revo
 7,trente71 #bf ,dec4 #ahce4    ,cassels
 7,walter ,richard71 a nephew of ,dr4   
,pusey1 is the author of  ,supernatural 
,religion1 a critical examination of the
 worth of the  ,gospels 7two vols4 #ahgd
 and three '#gi74 ,has written under his
 own name  ,eidolon and other poems1    
#ahej1 and ,poems1 '#ef4 ,in '#hi he    
published  ,a ,reply to ,dr4            
,lightfoot's ,essays4    ,castro        
7,fernando71 ,spanish philosopher and   
historian4 ,he was a  priest1 and on his
 death-bed confessed himself a          
,freethinker1 and  had a secular burial4
 ,died about #ahgd1 aged #fj years4     
,cavia 7,mariano71 ,spanish journalist  
and critic1 b4 #ahei1 editor of  the    
,liberal of ,madrid4    99 ,coke        
7,henry71 author of ,creeds of the ,day1
 is the third son of the  first ,earl of
 ,leicester1 and was born #c ,jan4      
#ahbg4 ,he served in the  navy during   
the first ,china ,war1 #ahdj-db4        
,published accounts of the  siege of    

,vienna1 '#dh1 at which he was present1 
also ,ride over ,rocky  ,mountains1     
which he accomplished with great        
hardships in '#ej4 ,was  private        
secretary to ,mr4 ,horsman when ,chief  
,secretary for ,ireland in  '#ed-'eh4   
,married ,lady ,k4 ,egerton1 #ahfa4     
,cornette 7,henri ,arthur ,marie71      
,belgian professor of ,flemish          
literature  at ,antwerp1 b4 ,bruges1 #bg
 ,march1 #aheb4 ,a writer in ,l',avenir 
of  ,brussels and the ,revue ,socialite1
 he has published separate works  on    
,freemasonry1 #ahgh2 ,pessimism and     
,socialism1 '#hj2 ,freethought          
,darwinism1 etc4    ,curros 7,enriquez71
 living ,spanish poet1 who was          
prosecuted by the  ,bishop of ,santiago1
 of ,galicia1 for his collection of     
poems entitled  ,airs of my ,country1   
but he was acquitted by the jury4       
,czerski 7,johannes71 ,german reformer1 
b4 ,warlubien1 ,west ,prussia1 #ab      
,may1 #ahac4 ,he became a ,catholic     
priest in '#dd1 broke with the ,church1 

associated himself with ,ronge1 married1
 and was excommunicated4 ,has  written  
several works against ,roman            
,catholicism1 and is still living  at   
,schneidemkl-,posen4    ,d',ercole      
7,pasquale71 ,italian professor of      
philosophy in the ,university  of       
,turin1 author of a work on ,christian  
,theism1 in which he holds  that the    
principles of philosophic ,theism are   
undemonstrated and at  variance both    
with reality and with themselves4       
,deschanel 7,emile ,auguste71 ,french   
senator1 b4 ,paris1 #ai ,nov4 #ahai4 ,he
  wrote in the ,revue ,independante1    
,revue des ,deux ,mondes and ,libert de 
,penser2 for writing against clericalism
 in the last he was deprived  of his    
chair4 ,after #b ,dec4 he went to       
,belgium4 ,he has been ,professor  of   
,modern ,literature at the ,college of  
,france1 and written many  important    
works4    ,desnoiresterres 7,gustave le 
,brisoys71 ,frenchman of letters1  b4   
,bayeux1 #bj ,june1 #ahag1 author of    

,epicurienes et ,lettres ,,xvii4 and    
,,xviii4 ,sicles1 #ahha1 and ,voltaire  
et la ,socit ,franaise au  ,,xviii4     
,sicle1 an important work in eight vols4
    99 ,desraimes 7,maria71 b4 #ae ,aug4
 #ahce4    ,diogenes 7,apolloinates71 a 
,cretan1 natural philosopher1 who lived 
in the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,he is      
supposed to have got into trouble at    
,athens through his philosophical       
opinions being considered dangerous to  
the ,state4 ,he held that nothing was   
produced from nothing or reduced  to    
nothing2 that the earth was round and   
had received its shape from  whirling4  
,he made no distinction between mind and
 matter4    ,donius 7,augustinus71 a    
,materialist1 referred to by ,bacon4    
,his work1  ,de ,natura ,dominis1 in two
 books1 #aeha1 refers the power of the  
spirit1  to motion4 ,the title of his   
second book is ,omnes operationes       
spiritus  esse motum et semum4          
,dosamantes 7,jesus ,ceballos71 ,mexican
 philosopher2 author of works on        

,absolute ,perfection1 ,mexico1 #ahhh1  
and ,modern ,pharisees and ,sadducees   
7mystics and materialists71 '#hi4       
,druskowitz 7,helene71 ,dr41 b4 ,vienna1
 #b ,may1 #aheh4 ,miss ,druskowitz is   
,doctor of philosophy at ,dresden1 and  
has written a life of ,shelley1         
,berlin1 '#hd2 a little book on         
,freewill1 and ,the ,new ,doctrines1    
'#hc4    ,dufay 7,henri71 author of ,la 
,legende du ,christ1 #ahhj4    ,duller  
7,eduard71 ,german poet and historian1  
b4 ,vienna1 #ah ,nov4 #ahji4 ,he  wrote 
a ,history of the ,jesuits 7,leipsic1   
'#dj7 and ,the ,men of the ,people      
7,frankfort1 '#dg-'ej74 ,died at        
,wiesbaden1 #bd ,july1 #ahec4    99 ,du 
,marsais 7,csar ,chesneau74 ,he edited  
,mirabaud's anonymous work  on ,the     
,world and its ,antiquity and ,the ,soul
 and its ,immortality1  ,londres1 #agea4
    99 ,fellowes 7,r47 ,graduated ,b4,a4
 at ,oxford #agif1 ,m4,a4 #ahja4 ,died  
#f  ,feb4 #ahdg4    ,figueras-y-,moracas
 7,estanilas71 ,spanish statesman and   

orator1  b4 ,barcelona1 #ac ,nov4 #ahaj4
 ,studied law and soon manifested       
,republican  opinions4 ,in '#ea he was  
elected to the ,cortes1 was exiled in   
'#ff1 but  returned in '#fh4 ,he fought 
the candidature of the ,duc de          
,montpensir in  '#fi1 and became        
,president of the ,spanish ,republic #ab
 ,feb4 '#gc4 ,died  poor in #ahgi1 and  
was buried without religious ceremony1  
according  to his wish4    ,fitzgerald  
7,edward71 ,english poet and translator1
 b4 near ,woodbridge1  ,suffolk1 #ca    
,march1 #ahji4 ,educated at ,cambridge  
and took his degree in  '#cj4 ,he lived 
the life of a recluse1 and produced a   
fine translation  of ,calderon4 ,his    
fame rests securely on his fine         
rendering of the  ,quatrains of ,omar   
,khayyam4 ,died #ad ,june1 #ahhc4       
,galletti 7,baldassare71 cavalier       
,pantheist of ,palermo4 ,has translated 
,feuerbach on ,death and ,immortality1  
and also translated from  ,morin4 ,died 
,rome1 #ah ,feb4 #ahhg4    ,ganeval     

7,louis71 ,french professor in ,egypt1  
b4 ,veziat1 #ahae1 author  of a work on 
,egypt and ,jesus devant l'histoire n'a 
jamais vcu4 ,the  first part1 published 
in '#gd1 was prohibited in ,france1 and 
the second  part was published at       
,geneva in '#gi4    ,garrido            
7,fernando71 ,spanish writer1 author of 
,memoirs of a ,sceptic1  ,cadiz #ahdc1 a
 work on ,contemporary ,spain1 published
 at ,brussels in  '#fb1 ,the ,jesuits1  
and a large ,history of ,political and  
,religious  ,persecutions1 a work       
rendered into ,english in conjunction   
with  ,c4 ,b4 ,cayley4 ,died at ,cordova
 in #ahhd4    ,gerling 7,fr4 ,wilhelm71 
,german author of ,letter of a          
,materialist  to an ,idealist1 ,berlin  
#ahhh1 to which ,frau ,hedwig ,henrich  
,wilhelmi  contributes a preface4       
,geroult de ,pival1 ,french librarian at
 ,rouen2 probably the author of  ,doutes
 sur la ,religion1 ,londres1 #agfg4     
,died at ,paris about #aggb4    ,goffin 
7,nicolas71 founder of the ,society ,la 

,libre of ,lige and  ,president of ,la  
,libre ,pense of ,brussels1 and one of  
the ,general  ,council of the           
,international ,federation of           
,freethinkers4 ,died #bc  ,may1 #ahhd4  
,goldhawke 7,j4 ,h471 author of the     
,solar ,allegories1 proving that the    
greater number of personages mentioned  
in the ,old and ,new ,testaments  are   
allegorical beings1 ,calcutta #ahec4    
,gorani 7,giuseppe71 count1 b4 ,milan1  
#agdd4 ,he was intimate with  ,beccaria1
 ,d',holbach1 and ,diderot4 ,he wrote a 
treatise on ,despotism1  published      
anonymously1 #aggj2 defended the ,french
 ,revolution and was  made a ,french    
citizen4 ,died poor at ,geneva1 #ab     
,dec4 #ahai4    ,govett 7,frank71 author
 of the ,pains of ,life1 #ahhi1 a       
pessimistic  reply to ,sir ,j4          
,lubbock's ,pleasures of ,life4 ,mr4    
,govett rejects the  consolations of    
religion4    ,guimet 7,etienne ,emile71 
,french traveller1 musician1            
anthropologist  and philanthropist1 b4  

,lyons1 #b ,june1 #ahcf1 the son of the 
inventor  of ultramarine1 whose business
 he continued4 ,he has visited most     
parts of the world and formed a         
collection of objects illustrating      
religions4 ,these he formed into a      
museum in his native town1 where he     
also founded a library and a school for 
,oriental languages4 ,this fine  museum 
which cost several million francs1 he   
presented to his country1  and it is now
 at ,paris1 where ,m4 ,guimet acts as   
curator4 ,in #ahhj he  began publishing 
,annales du ,muse ,guimet1 in which     
original articles  appear on ,oriental  
,religions4 ,he has also written many   
works upon his  travels4 ,he attended   
the banquet in connection with the      
,international  ,congress of            
,freethinkers at ,paris1 #ahhi4         
,guynemer 7,a4 ,m4 ,a4 de71 ,french     
author of a dictionary of astronomy1    
#aheb1 and an anonymous unbelievers'    
dictionary1 '#fi1 in which many  points 
of theology are discussed in            

alphabetical order4    ,hamerling       
7,robert71 ,german poet1 b4 ,kirchberg  
am ,wald1 #bd ,march1  #ahcj4 ,author of
 many fine poems1 of which we mention   
,ahasuerus in ,rome  '#ff4 ,the ,king of
 ,sion2 ,danton and ,robespierre a      
tragedy4 ,he translated  ,leopardis'    
poems '#hf4 ,died at ,gratz1 #ac ,july1 
#ahhi4    ,heyse 7,paul ,johann         
,ludwig71 ,german poet and novelist1 b4 
,berlin1  #ae ,march1 #ahcj4 ,educated  
at the ,university1 after travelling to 
,switzerland and ,italy he settled at   
,munich in '#ed4 ,has produced many     
popular plays and romances1 of which we 
specially mention ,the ,children  of the
 ,world1 '#gc1 a novel describing social
 and religious life of  ,germany at the 
present day1 and ,in ,paradise1 #ahge4  
,hicks 7,l4 ,e47 ,american geologist1   
author of ,a ,critique of ,design       
,arguments4 ,boston1 #ahhc4    ,hitchman
 7,william71 ,english physician1 b4     
,northleach1 ,gloucestershire1  #ahai1  
became ,m4,r4,c4,s4 in '#da1 ,m4,d4 at  

,erlangen1 ,bavaria4 ,he established    
,freelight1 and wrote a pamphlet1 ,fifty
 ,years of ,freethought4 ,died #ahhh4   
,hoeffding 7,harald71 ,dr41 ,professor  
of ,philosophy at the ,university of    
,copenhagen1 b4 ,copenhagen1 #ahdc4 ,has
 been professor since '#hc4 ,is         
absolutely free in his opinion and has  
published works on the newer  philosophy
 in ,germany1 '#gb1 and in ,england1    
'#gd4 ,in the latter work  special      
attention is devoted to the works of    
,mill and ,spencer4 ,german  editions   
have been published of his works        
,grundlage der humanen  ,ethik 7,basis  
of ,human ,ethics '#hj71 ,psychologie im
 ,umriss 7,outlines  of ,psychology     
'#hg71 and ,ethik #ahhh4    ,holst      
7,nils ,olaf71 ,swedish geologist1 b4   
#ahdf4 ,chairman of the ,swedish        
,society for ,religious ,liberty4       
,ignell 7,nils71 ,swedish rationalist1  
b4 #ab ,july1 #ahjf4 ,brought  up as a  
priest1 his free views gave great       
offence4 ,he translated  ,renan's ,life 

of ,jesus1 and did much to arouse       
opposition to orthodox  ,christianity4  
,died at ,stockholm1 #c ,june1 #ahfd4   
,jacobsen 7,jens ,peter71 ,danish       
novelist and botanist1 b4 ,thistede1  #g
 ,april1 #ahdg4 ,he did much to spread  
,darwinian views in ,scandinavia1       
translating the ,origin of ,species and 
,descent of ,man4 ,among his  novels we 
may name ,fru ,marie ,grubbe1 scenes    
from the ,,xvii4 century1  and ,niels   
,lyhne1 in which he develops the        
philosophy of ,atheism4 ,this  able     
young writer died at his birth place1 #c
 ,april #ahhe4    ,kleist 7,heinrich    
von71 ,german poet1 b4                  
,frankfurt-on-,oder1 #ah  ,oct4 #aggg4  
,left an orphan at eleven1 he enlisted  
in the army in #agie1  quitted it in    
four years and took to study4 ,kant's   
,philosophy made  him a complete        
sceptic4 ,in #ahjj he went to ,paris to 
teach ,kantian  philosophy1 but the     
results were not encouraging4 ,committed
 suicide  together with a lady1 near    

,potsdam1 #ba ,nov4 #ahaa4 ,kleist is   
chiefly  known by his dramas and a      
collection of tales4    ,letourneau     
7,charles ,jean ,marie71 ,french        
scientist1 b4 ,auray  7,morbihan71      
#ahca4 ,educated as physician4 ,he wrote
 in ,la ,pense  ,nouvelle1 and has      
published ,physiology of the ,passions1 
'#fh2 ,biology1  '#ge1 translated into  
,english by ,w4 ,maccall2 ,science and  
,materialism1  '#gi2 ,sociology based on
 ,ethnography1 '#hj2 and the ,evolution 
of  ,marriage and the ,family1 '#he4 ,he
 has also translated ,bchner's ,man     
,according to ,science1 ,light and ,life
 and ,mental ,life of ,animals1         
,haeckel's ,history of ,creation1       
,letters of a ,traveller in ,india1  and
 ,herzen's ,physiology of the ,will4    
,lippert 7,julius71 learned ,german     
author of works on ,soul ,worship1      
,berlin1 #ahha2 ,the ,universal ,history
 of ,priesthoods1 '#hc2 and an          
important ,culture ,history of ,mankind1
 '#hf-g4    ,lloyd 7,william ,watkiss71 

author of ,christianity in the          
,cartoons1  ,london #ahfe1 in which he  
criticises ,rafael and the ,new         
,testament side  by side4 ,he has also  
written ,the ,age of ,pericles1 and     
several works  on ,shakespeare4         
,lucian1 witty ,greek writer1 b4 of poor
 parents1 ,samosata1 on  the ,euphrates1
 and flourished in the reign of ,marcus 
,aurelius and  ,commodus4 ,he was made a
 sculptor1 but applied himself to       
rhetoric4 ,he  travelled much1 and at   
,athens was intimate with ,demonax4 ,his
 principal  works are dialogues1 full of
 wit1 humor1 and satire1 often directed 
against the gods4 ,according to ,suidas 
he was named the ,blasphemer1  and torn 
to pieces by dogs for his impiety1 but  
on this no reliance  can be placed4 ,on 
the ground of the dialogue ,philopatris1
 he has  been supposed an apostate      
,christian1 but it is uncertain if that 
piece is genuine4 ,it is certain that he
 was sceptical1 truth-loving1  and an   
enemy of the superstition of the time   

which he depicts in his  account of     
,alexander1 the false prophet4          
,maglia 7,adolfo de71 ,spanish          
journalist1 b4 ,valencia1 #c ,june1     
#ahei1 began writing in ,la ,tronada at 
,barcelona1 and afterwards  published   
,l',union ,republicana4 ,he founded the 
,freethinking group  ,el ,independiente 
and edits ,el ,clamor ,setabense and ,el
 ,pueblo  ,soberano4 ,was secretary for 
,spain at the ,anticlerical ,congress at
 ,rome  in '#he1 and in '#hi at ,paris4 
,during this year he has been condemned 
to six years' imprisonment and a fine of
 #d1jjj francs for attacking  ,leo      
,,xiii4 and the ,catholic dogmas4       
disciples1 whom he conducted from faith 
to scepticism4 ,he was the most  eminent
 predecessor of ,ibn ,roschd or         
,averros4 ,died ,oct4-,nov4 #ica4 ,his  
works were publicly burned at ,seville4 
,mata 7,pedro71 ,spanish physician1     
professor at the ,university of         
,madrid4 ,author of a poem1 ,glory and  
,martyrdom1 #ahea2 a ,treatise on       

,human ,reason1 '#eh-fd2 and on ,moral  
,liberty and ,free ,will1 '#fh4         
,mendizabal 7,juan ,alvarez71 ,spanish  
,liberal statesman1 b4 ,cadiz1  #agij4  
,was minister during the reign of       
,cristina1 and contributed  to the      
subjugation of the clerical party4 ,he  
abolished the religious  orders and     
proclaimed their goods as national      
property4 ,died at ,madrid1  #c ,nov4   
#ahec4    99 ,meredith 7,evan ,powell71 
b4 #ahaa4 ,educated at ,pontypool       
,college1 he  became a ,baptist         
minister1 and was an eloquent preacher  
in the ,welsh  tongue4 ,he translated   
the ,bible into ,welsh4 ,investigation  
into the  claims of ,christianity made  
him resign his ministry4 ,in his        
,prophet  of ,nazareth he mentioned a   
purpose of writing a work on the        
gospels1  but it never appeared4 ,he    
died at ,monmouth #bc ,july1 #ahhi4     
,miralta 7,constancio71 the pen name of 
a popular ,spanish writer1  b4 about    
#ahdi4 ,has been a priest and doctor of 

theology1 and is one  of the writers on 
,las ,dominicales4 ,his most notable    
works are ,memoirs  of a ,poor          
,clerical1 ,the ,secrets of ,confession1
 and ,the ,sacrament  ,exposed4 ,his    
work on ,the ,doctrine of ,catholicism  
upon ,matrimony has  greatly encouraged 
civil marriages4    ,moraita 7,miguel71 
,spanish historian1 b4 about #ahde4 ,is 
,professor  of ,history at ,madrid1 and 
one of the most ardent enemies of       
clericalism4 ,has written many works1   
including a voluminous ,history  of     
,spain4 ,in '#hd he made a discourse at 
the ,university against  the pretended  
antiquity of the ,mosaic legends1 which 
caused his  excommunication by several  
bishops4 ,he was supported by the       
students1  against whom the military    
were employed4 ,he is ,grand ,master of 
the  ,spanish ,freemasons4    ,moya     
7,francisco ,xavier71 ,spanish          
statistician1 b4 about #ahbe4 ,was      
deputy to the ,cortes of #ahfi1 and has 
written several works on the            

infallibility of the ,pope and on the   
temporal power4    ,nakens 7,jos71      
,spanish journalist1 b4 #ahdf4 ,founder 
and editor of ,el  ,motin1 a ,republican
 and ,freethought paper of ,madrid1 in  
connection  with which there is a       
library1 in which he has written ,la    
,piqueta--the  ,pick-axe4    ,nees ,von 
,esenbeck 7,christian ,gottfried71      
,german naturalist1  b4 ,odenwald1 #ad  
,feb4 #aggf4 ,he became a doctor of     
medicine1 and was  ,professor of ,botany
 at ,bohn1 #ahai1 and ,breslau1 '#ca4   
,he was leader of  the free religious   
movement in ,silesia1 and in '#dh1 took 
part in the  political agitations1 and  
was deprived of his chair4 ,wrote       
several  works on natural philosophy4   
,died at ,breslau1 #af ,march1 #aheh4   
,nyblaus 7,claes ,gudmund71 ,swedish    
bookseller1 b4 #ahag1 has published     
some anti-,christian pamphlets4         
,offen 7,benjamin71 ,american lecturer1 
b4 ,england1 #aggb4 ,he emigrated to    
,america and became lecturer to the     

,society of ,moral ,philanthropists at  
,tammany ,hall1 ,new ,york1 and was     
connected ,with the ,free ,discussion   
,society4 ,he wrote ,a ,legacy to the   
,friends of ,free ,discussion1 a        
critical review of the ,bible4 ,died at 
,new ,york1 #ab ,may1 #ahdh4    ,palmaer
 7,bernhard ,henrik71 ,swedish satirist1
 b4 #ba ,aug4 #ahja4 ,author of  ,the   
,last ,judgment in the ,crow ,corner4   
,died at ,linkoping1 #g ,july1 #ahed4   
,panizza 7,mario74 ,italian physiologist
 and philosopher2 author of a           
materialist work on ,the ,philosophy of 
the ,nervous ,system1 ,rome1 #ahhg4     
,perez ,galdos 7,benito71 eminent living
 ,spanish novelist1 b4 ,canary          
,islands1 lived since his youth in      
,madrid4 ,of his novels we mention      
,gloria1 which has been translated into 
,english1 and ,la ,familia  de ,leon    
,roch1 #ahgh1 in which he stoutly       
attacks clericalism and  religious      
intolerance4 ,he has also written       
,episodes nacionales1  and many         

historical novels4    ,regenbrecht      
7,michael ,eduard71 ,german rationalist1
 b4 ,brannsberg1  #agib4 ,he left the   
,church with ,ronge1 and became leader  
of the free  religious movement at      
,breslau1 where he died #i ,june1 #ahdi4
    ,robert 7,roberto74 ,spanish        
anti-clerical satirist1 b4 #ahag4       
,became  famous by his mordant style1   
his most celebrated works being ,the    
,rogues of ,antonio1 ,the ,times of     
,mari ,casania1 ,the ,skimmer of the    
,centuries4 ,died in #ahgj4    ,rupp    
7,julius71 ,german reformer1 b4         
,knigsberg1 #ac ,aug4 #ahji4 ,studied   
philosophy and theology1 and became in  
'#db a minister4 ,he protested  against 
the creeds1 and became leader of the    
,free-religious movement  in ,east      
,prussia4    ,ryberg 7,y4 ,e471 ,swedish
 merchant captain1 b4 #af ,oct4 #ahbh4  
,he has  translated several of ,mr4     
,bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular
  literature4    ,sachse 7,heinrich     
,ernst71 ,german atheist1 b4 #ahab4 ,at 

,magdeburg he  did much to demolish the 
remains of theism in the ,free-religious
  communities4 ,died #ahhc4    ,sales y 
,ferre 7,manuel71 ,spanish scientist1 b4
 about #ahci4 ,professor  at the        
,university of ,seville4 ,has published 
several works on geology  and           
prehistoric times4    ,schneider 7,georg
 ,heinrich71 ,german naturalist1 b4     
,mannheim1  #ahed4 ,author of ,the      
,human ,will from the standpoint of the 
,new  ,development ,theory 7,berlin1    
#ahhb71 and other works4    ,schreiner  
7,olive71 the daughter of a ,german     
missionary in ,south  ,africa4          
,authoress of ,the ,story of an ,african
 ,farm1 #ahhc4    ,serre 7444 de la71   
author of an ,examination of ,religion1 
attributed to  ,saint ,evremond1 #agde4 
,it was condemned to be burnt by the    
,parliament  of ,paris4    ,suner y     
,capderila4 ,spanish physician of       
,barcelona1 b4 #ahbh4 ,became  deputy to
 the ,cortes in #ahbi1 and is famous for
 his discourses  against ,catholicism4  

,tocco 7,felice71 ,italian philosopher  
and anthropologist1 b4 ,catanzaro1  #ab 
,sept4 #ahde1 and studied at the        
,university of ,naples and ,bologna1    
and became ,professor of ,philosophy at 
,pisa4 ,he wrote in the  ,rivista       
,bolognese on ,leopardi1 and on         
,positivism in the ,rivista             
,contemporanea4 ,he has published works 
on ,a4 ,bain's ,theory of ,sensation1   
'#gb2 ,thoughts on the ,history of      
,philosophy1 '#gg2 ,the ,heresy of the  
,middle ,ages1 '#hd2 and ,giordano      
,bruno1 '#hf4    ,tommasi 7,salvatore71 
,italian evolutionist1 author of a work 
on  ,evolution1 ,science1 and           
,naturalism1 ,naples #ahgg1 and a little
 pamphlet  in commemoration of ,darwin1 
'#hb4    ,tubino 7,francisco ,maria71   
,spanish positivist1 b4 ,seville1 #ahch1
 took  part in ,garibaldi's campaign in 
,sicily1 and has contributed to the     
,rivista ,europea4    ,tuthill 7,charles
 ,a4 ,h471 author of ,the ,origin and   
,development of  ,christian ,dogma1     

,london1 #ahhi4    ,vernial 7,paul71    
,french doctor and member of the        
,anthropological  ,society of ,paris1   
author of a work on the ,origin of ,man1
 #ahha4    ,wheeler 7,joseph ,mazzini71 
atheist1 b4 ,london1 #bd ,jan41 #ahej4  
,converted  from ,christianity by       
reading ,newman1 ,mill1 ,darwin1        
,spencer1 etc4 ,has  contributed to the 
,national ,reformer ,secularist1        
,secular ,chronicle1  ,liberal1         
,progress1 and ,freethinker which he has
 sub-edited since  #ahhb1 using         
occasionally the signatures ,laon1      
,lucianus and other  pseudonyms4 ,has   
published ,frauds and ,follies of the   
,fathers '#hh1  ,footsteps of the ,past1
 a collection of essays in anthropology 
and  comparative religion '#hf2 and     
,crimes of ,christianity1 written in    
conjunction with ,g4 ,w4 ,foote1 with   
whom he has also edited ,sepher         
,toldoth ,jeshu4 ,the compiler of the   
present work is a willing drudge  in the
 cause he loves1 and hopes to empty many

 an inkstand in the  service of         
,freethought4