,illustration3 ,,houdan ,,chicks ,,with 
,,barred ,,plymouth ,,rock ,,mother4    
7,photograph by ,c4 ,e4 ,petersen7      
,,our ,,domestic ,,birds   ,,elementary 
,,lessons ,,in ,,aviculture   ,,by      
,,john ,h4 ,,robinson   ,,ginn ,,and    
,,company ,,boston 4 ,,new ,,york 4     
,,chicago 4 ,,london     ,,copyright1   
#aiac1 ,,by ,,john ,h4 ,,robinson  ,,all
 ,,rights ,,reserved  #dac4i   ,the     
,athenaeum ,press ,,ginn ,,and ,,company
 4 ,,proprietors 4 ,,boston 4 ,u4,s4,a4 
,,preface   ,ten years ago aviculture   
had hardly been thought of as a school  
subject4 ,to-day it is taught in        
thousands of schools1 and in some states
 instruction in poultry culture is      
required by law4 ,this rapid change in  
sentiment and situation has resulted    
from a combination of causes4 ,when     
agricultural colleges established       
poultry departments1 it was found that a
 large part of those applying for       
admission to them had neither the       
practical knowledge of poultry nor the  

general education that they needed to do
 work of college grade4 ,about this time
 also the interest in nature study began
 to take a more practical turn1 and     
attention was directed to the           
superiority of domesticated to wild     
animals and plants as material for      
school studies of the phenomena of      
physical life4 ,added to these special  
causes was a general cause more potent  
than either3 great numbers of people had
 reached the stage of experience in     
various lines of aviculture where they  
realized keenly that a little sound     
instruction in the subject in youth     
would have been of great value to them  
later in life1 saving them from costly  
mistakes4 ,to these people it seemed    
both natural and necessary that the     
schools should teach poultry and pigeon 
culture4  ,developing as the result of  
such a combination of causes1 the demand
 for an elementary textbook on poultry  
came with equal force from country      
schools1 where poultry might be kept on 

the school grounds as well as by every  
pupil at home1 from city schools1 in    
which all instruction must be by book1  
and from all types of schools and       
conditions of life between4 ,had there  
been only the extreme classes of schools
 to consider1 the natural way to supply 
the demand would be with a special book 
for each distinct type of school4 ,the  
idea of one book for all schools1 from  
which each might use what seemed to suit
 its requirements1 was dismissed as     
impractical while so large a proportion 
of teachers were but slightly acquainted
 with the subject4 ,it is believed that 
the plan of making an elementary reading
 course for general use1 and a secondary
 book of a more technical character for 
use where practice courses are given1 is
 the best solution of the problem under 
existing conditions4  ,in this first    
book the object is to tell in plain     
language the things that every one ought
 to know about poultry1 pigeons1 and    
cage birds2 to teach fundamental facts  

in such a way that they will be fixed in
 the mind2 to excite interest in the    
subject where none existed2 and to      
direct enthusiasm along right lines4    
,while the demand has been almost wholly
 for a poultry book1 pigeons and cage   
birds are included1 because they are of 
more interest than some kinds of poultry
 and better adapted than any other kind 
to the conditions of city life4  ,in    
regard to the time that should be given 
to this course1 one period a week for   
forty weeks is better than a period a   
day for forty days1 because the average 
person1 young or old1 retains a great   
deal more of what is read or heard about
 a diversified subject if the ground is 
covered by easy stages with             
comparatively long intervals between4   
,references for collateral readings and 
suggestions for original investigations 
are omitted1 because1 in the author's   
opinion1 what work of this kind it is   
desirable for a high-school pupil to do 
should be done by those taking practice 

work in the advanced course4            
,,john ,h4 ,,robinson  ,,reading1       
,,massachusetts     ,,contents          
,,chapter                               
,,page  ,i4 ,,birds ,,and ,,their       
,,relations ,,to ,,man                  
#a      ,definition of a bird2 ,place of
 birds in the animal kingdom2           
,flight of birds2 ,voices of birds2     
,social relations of     birds--,place  
of birds in domestication--,uses of     
birds in     domestication--,place of   
wild birds in civilization--,classes    
of domestic birds  ,,ii4 ,,characters   
,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,birds ,,related   
,,to ,,use                    #h        
,feathers--,structure of                
feathers--,arrangement of the           
feathers--,decorative feather           
forms--,color in     feathers--,growth  
and molting of                          
feathers--,flight--,mechanism     of the
 wing--,scratching--,swimming--,foods   
and mode of                             
digestion--,peculiarities of birds'     

eggs--,development of the     egg--,rate
 and amount of egg                      
production--,incubation--,development of
 the embryo in a     bird's egg  ,,iii4 
,,species ,,and ,,their ,,divisions ,,in
 ,,domestic ,,birds                  #bd
      ,definition of species--,origin of
 species--,natural                      
varieties--,varieties in                
domestication--,classification of       
domestic varieties of birds--,systematic
 mixtures of breeds     and             
varieties--,pure-bred1 thoroughbred1 and
 standard-bred  ,,iv4 ,,fowls           
#ca      ,description--,origin of the   
fowl--,appearance of the original       
wild species--,distribution of fowls in 
ancient     times--,development of      
principal races of fowls--,how fowls    
were kept in old times--,modern         
conditions and     methods--,native     
fowls in ,america--,old ,european races 
of     fowls--,italian fowls--,english  
races of fowls--,german and     ,dutch  
races--,french races--,spanish          

races--,asiatic races of                
fowls--,chinese races--,japanese        
races--,the hen-fever     period--,how  
the ,american breeds arose--,the modern 
,barred     ,plymouth ,rock--,other     
varieties of the ,plymouth ,rock--,the  
,wyandottes--,the ,rhode ,island        
,red--,the ,american idea in            
,england2 the ,orpington--,present      
distribution of improved                
races--,deformed and dwarf races--,silky
 fowls--,frizzled     fowls--,rumpless  
fowls--,bantams--,origin of             
,bantams--,varieties     of bantams  ,v4
 ,,management ,,of ,,fowls              
#gb      ,small flocks on town lots3    
,numbers in flocks--,houses and         
yards--,feeding--,growing chickens4     
,small flocks on ordinary     farms3    
,numbers in flocks--,single houses for  
farm     flocks--,feeding--,reproducing 
the flock--,the hatching                
season--,broody hens--,setting the      
hens--,care of sitting                  
hens--,attention at hatching            

time--,coops for broods--,feeding       
young chickens--,management of growing  
chicks4 ,large stocks     on general    
farms3 ,the colony system--,numbers of  
hens     kept--,feeding1 care1 and      
results--,how the chickens are          
grown--,adaptability of the colony      
system4 ,intensive poultry     farms3   
,reasons for                            
concentration--,concentration not       
profitable--,common type of intensive   
poultry farm4 ,broiler     growing3 ,the
 broiler craze--,present condition of   
broiler     growing4 ,roaster growing3  
,description of a good                  
roaster--,general and special           
supplies--,large roaster plants4        
,intensive egg farming--,poultry        
fanciers' farms  ,,vi4 ,,ducks          
#abd      ,description2 ,origin--,the   
common duck--,improved                  
races--,ornamental ducks--,place of     
ducks in domestication  ,,vii4          
,,management ,,of ,,ducks               
#acg      ,small flocks on town lots3   

,numbers--,houses and                   
yards--,feeding--,laying habits4        
,growing ducklings4 ,small     flocks on
 farms3 ,general conditions--,feeding4  
,market duck     farms3                 
,history--,description--,duck fanciers' 
methods  ,,viii4 ,,geese                
#aeg      ,description--,origin--,common
 geese--,improved     races--,ornamental
 varieties--,the ,canada ,goose1 or     
,american     ,wild ,goose--,place of   
geese in domestication  ,,ix4           
,,management ,,of ,,geese               
#afh      ,small farm flocks3 ,size of  
flock--,houses and                      
yards--,feeding--,laying season and     
habits--,hatching and     rearing       
goslings--,large flocks of geese on     
farms--,goose-fattening farms--,growing 
thoroughbred geese for                  
exhibition--,growing a few geese on a   
town lot--,growing wild     geese in    
captivity  ,x4 ,,turkeys                
#agi      ,description--,origin--,common
 turkeys--,improved                     

varieties--,bronze ,turkeys--,influence 
of the ,bronze ,turkey on     other     
varieties--,other varieties of the      
turkey--,place of the     turkey in     
domestication  ,,xi4 ,,management ,,of  
,,turkeys                               
#aij      ,size of flocks--,shelters and
 yards--,feeding--,breeding season      
and laying habits--,hatching and rearing
  ,,xii4 ,,guineas                      
#bja                                    
,description--,origin--,varieties--,plac
e in     domestication--,management of  
domestic guineas  ,,xiii4 ,,peafowls    
#bjf      ,description--,origin--,place 
in domestication--,management  ,,xiv4   
,,pheasants                             
#baa                                    
,description--,origin--,history in      
,america--,species and                  
varieties--,place in                    
domestication--,management of pheasants 
in confinement  ,,xv4 ,,swans           
#bbb      ,description--,origin and     
history in domestication--,place in     

domestication--,management  ,,xvi4      
,,ostriches                             
#bcj      ,description--,origin and     
history in domestication--,place in     
domestication--,management  ,,xvii4     
,,pigeons                               
#bci                                    
,description--,origin--,distribution in 
ancient times--,improved                
varieties--,the ,carrier ,pigeon--,the  
,antwerp ,homer--,tumbler     and       
,tippler ,pigeons--,the ,fantail        
,pigeon--,pouter     ,pigeons--,other   
important types--,history in            
domestication--,place in domestication  
,,xviii4 ,,management ,,of ,,pigeons    
#bee      ,size of flock--,quarters for 
pigeons--,ventilation and               
cleanliness--,handling pigeons--,mating 
pigeons--,feeding--,how     pigeons rear
 their young  ,,xix4 ,,canaries         
#bfi                                    
,description--,origin--,improvement in  
domestication--,place in                
domestication--,management of canaries3 

,cages--,position of     the            
,cage--,feeding--,care--,breeding  ,,xx4
 ,,distribution ,,of ,,market ,,products
                                #bge    
,producers1 consumers1 and              
middlemen--,how the middleman     enters
 local trade--,additional               
middlemen--,how the demand for          
poultry products stimulates             
production--,losses in                  
distribution--,cold storage of poultry  
products--,methods of     selling at    
retail--,volume of products  ,,xxi4     
,,exhibitions ,,and ,,the ,,fancy       
,,trade                                 
#bia      ,conditions in the fancy      
trade--,exhibitions--,rudiments of      
judging--,disqualifications--,methods of
 judging--,exhibition     quality and   
value--,why good breeders have much     
low-priced     stock--,fancy and utility
 types in the same variety  ,,xxii4     
,,occupations ,,related ,,to            
,,aviculture                            
#cjd      ,judging fancy poultry and    

pigeons--,journalism--,art--,invention--
,education and                          
investigation--,manufacturing and       
commerce--,legislation and              
litigation  ,,index                     
#caa     ,,our ,,domestic ,,birds       
,,chapter ,i  ,,birds ,,and ,,their     
,,relations ,,to ,,man   ,definition of 
a bird4 ,a bird is a feathered animal4  
,the covering of feathers is the only   
character common to all birds and not   
possessed by any other creature4 ,the   
other characters--the bill1 the wings1  
egg-laying1 etc4--by which we usually   
distinguish birds from animals of other 
kinds are not exclusive bird characters4
 ,turtles have beaks1 and there is one  
species of mammal 7the ornithorhynchus7 
which has a bill like that of a duck4   
,many insects and one species of mammal 
7the bat7 fly4 ,insects1 fishes1 and    
reptiles lay eggs1 and there are several
 rare species of mammals that lay eggs  
and incubate them4 ,on the other hand1  
some birds are deficient in one or more 

of the typical bird characters4 ,the    
ostrich cannot fly4 ,the penguin can    
neither fly nor run1 and cannot even    
walk well4 ,the cuckoo lays its eggs in 
the nests of other birds1 leaving to    
them the hatching and rearing of its    
young4 ,these exceptional cases are very
 interesting because they show that     
animals now quite different in structure
 and habits had a common origin1 but in 
no case is there such a combination of  
characters that any doubt arises whether
 the creature is a bird or a mammal4    
,the characters which typically belong  
to birds attain their highest           
development in them1 and in most cases  
this is due to peculiar adaptabilities  
of the feathers4  ,the ,anglo-,saxons'  
name for a bird was fugol 7the flying   
animal74 ,the young feathered creature  
they called bridd 7the thing brooded74  
,this name was also sometimes given to  
young mammals1 but it applied especially
 to the young of feathered creatures    
which were more dependent upon the      

parent for warmth than others4 ,our     
,english words fowl and bird come from  
these ,anglo-,saxon terms4 ,at first    
fowl was applied to large birds and bird
 to small ones1 but gradually the use of
 the name fowl was limited to the common
 domestic fowl1 and bird became the     
generic name for all feathered          
creatures4  ,place of birds in the      
animal kingdom4 ,zooelogists rank       
mammals higher than birds because man is
 a mammal and his general superiority to
 other creatures determines the rank of 
the class to which he belongs4 ,yet1    
while placing birds below mammals in a  
simple classification of animals1       
naturalists point out that birds are the
 most distinct class in the animal      
kingdom4 ,if we compare birds and the   
lower mammals1 and compare the relations
 of each class to man1 we see at once   
that nothing else could take the place  
of birds either in nature or in         
civilization4 ,among birds are found the
 highest developments of animal         

locomotion and of the natural voice1    
capacity for language far beyond that of
 other creatures 7except man71 and      
family and community relations          
resembling those of the human race4     
,hitherto in the history of the world   
mammals have been more useful to man    
than birds1 but birds have given him    
some of his best ideas1 and with the    
advance of civilization the lower       
mammals become less necessary and birds 
more necessary to him4  ,flight of      
birds4 ,it has been said that on the    
earth and on the sea man has attained to
 powers of locomotion with which1 in    
strength1 endurance1 and velocity1 no   
animal movement can compare4 ,but the   
air is an element on which he cannot    
travel1 an ocean which he cannot        
navigate4 ,the birds of heaven are still
 his envy1 and on the paths they tread  
he cannot follow4  ,since that was      
written practical flying machines have  
been invented1 but in these1 as in boats
 and ships1 man has merely devised a    

machine which under his control can do  
laboriously and at great risk what the  
bird does naturally and easily4 ,to     
birds man is indebted for his first     
lessons in navigating the water as well 
as for his ideas about airships4        
,voices of birds4 ,with few exceptions  
the different kinds of animals have     
natural languages through which         
individuals of the same species can to  
some extent hold communication with each
 other1 and which are partly            
intelligible to other creatures4 ,in all
 mammals except man1 and in most birds1 
the range of expression is very limited 
and the sound of the voice is           
disagreeable2 but a great many species  
of birds have very pleasing notes1 many 
have very beautiful natural songs1 and  
some readily learn the songs of other   
species4 ,man learned melody from the   
song birds4 ,there are also many species
 of birds that can imitate a great      
variety of sounds1 and even learn to    
speak words and short sentences4 ,birds 

that learn to talk often show           
intelligence in their use of words4     
,this is the more remarkable because the
 intelligence of birds is not of a high 
order1 but is distinctly inferior to    
that of the common domesticated mammals4
  ,social relations of birds4 ,in aerial
 birds 7except the cuckoos7 the male and
 female pair1 build a nest1 and both    
take part in the incubation of the eggs 
and the feeding of the young4 ,usually a
 pair once mated remain mated for life  
and are very devoted to each other4 ,in 
wild land birds the pairing habit is not
 of advantage to a species1 but still   
the tendency to single matings is very  
strong4 ,when land and water birds are  
domesticated man tries to break them of 
this habit because the males produce no 
eggs and he prefers to eat them while   
they are young and their flesh is       
tender4 ,but1 as will appear in detail  
when the different species of birds of  
this class are described1 he does not   
always succeed in doing this4 ,even the 

domestic fowl and duck1 in which pairing
 has been prevented for centuries1 often
 show a strong tendency to pair2 and the
 females with broods of young usually   
separate from the flock until the little
 ones no longer need their care4 ,with  
this separate family life there is still
 in most species of birds concerted     
action by communities in migrations1 in 
forming colonies1 in attacks on other   
creatures1 and in defense from enemies4 
,from the earliest times of which we    
have knowledge the devotion of birds to 
their mates and to their young has      
afforded the most common and most       
beautiful illustration of family life in
 nature4  ,place of birds in            
domestication4 ,the place of birds among
 domestic animals corresponds to that of
 garden vegetables1 small fruits1 and   
flowers among cultivated plants4 ,the   
great staple agricultural crops--corn1  
wheat1 oats1 barley1 hay1 apples1       
oranges1 horses1 cattle1 sheep1 hogs1   
etc4--are produced mostly by men who    

make farming and stock-growing their    
business4 ,but1 while large quantities  
of garden vegetables1 small fruits1     
flowers1 poultry1 pigeons1 etc4 are     
grown by people who specialize in them1 
the greater part of the supply in all   
lands comes from small gardens and small
 flocks on ordinary farms and in the    
back yards of town homes4  ,uses of     
birds in domestication4 ,with the       
exception of the cage birds and the     
ostrich1 all our domestic birds are     
valuable for their flesh2 but1 as some  
kinds can be produced more easily and   
cheaply than others1 people growing     
birds for the table give most attention 
to those that can be grown most         
profitably1 and the others are grown    
principally by those who prize them for 
rarity1 beauty1 or some peculiar        
quality4  ,the eggs of all birds are    
edible1 but birds differ greatly in the 
number of eggs that they lay and in the 
disposition to lay them in places       
provided for the purpose4 ,so1 nearly   

all who keep birds for their eggs keep  
fowls1 which are the most prolific and  
most docile1 and hens' eggs are the     
staple eggs in the markets4  ,the       
feathers of birds are used for pillows  
and beds1 for feather dusters1 and in   
various ways for ornament4 ,except in   
the case of the ostrich1 however1 the   
value of the feathers of domesticated   
birds is so small that no one grows     
birds primarily for their feathers4 ,on 
the other hand1 those who keep birds for
 pleasure find their greatest enjoyment 
in breeding them with colors and        
markings difficult to produce4 ,choice  
specimens of fancy-bred birds bring     
prices many times greater than the value
 of their flesh and eggs for food and of
 their feathers for use or ornament4    
,fancy feathers have no more value than 
others except on the living birds4      
,while those who keep birds for pleasure
 nowadays give most attention to        
breeding fancy stock for exhibition1    
several kinds of pigeons are kept to    

entertain by their flying performances2 
and--outside of the limited class of    
those who breed them especially for     
exhibition--canaries are valued         
according to ability to sing4 ,the      
brutal sport of cockfighting was a      
popular pastime with our ancestors until
 prohibited by law1 and is still        
prevalent in many lands4 ,in early times
 birds of prey were captured when very  
young and carefully trained to hunt for 
their masters4 ,under the feudal system 
there were regulations prescribing the  
kinds of birds which different classes  
of men might use in this way3 the eagle 
and vulture were for emperors only2 the 
gyrfalcon for kings2 the lesser falcons 
for nobles2 the harrier for esquires2   
the merlin for ladies2 the goshawk for  
yeomen2 the kestrel for servants2 the   
sparrow hawk for priests4  ,much of the 
value of various kinds of poultry comes 
from their ability to destroy insects   
which damage vegetation1 and to maintain
 themselves on these and on foods not   

available for the larger domestic       
mammals4 ,the services of poultry in    
this respect being limited to those     
insects that can be secured from the    
ground1 and to areas on which the birds 
can live safely and do no damage to     
crops1 we are dependent upon wild aerial
 birds to keep insect life in check on  
trees and high bushes and on land not   
occupied by poultry4  ,place of wild    
birds in civilization4 ,as no           
insect-eating aerial birds have been    
domesticated1 the preservation of wild  
birds that destroy insects is of as much
 importance to man as the production of 
domestic birds4 ,indeed1 the wild birds 
are much more valuable to us in the wild
 state than they would be if            
domesticated4  ,in nature species prey  
upon each other--the lowest forms of    
life upon inorganic and decayed matter1 
the higher forms upon the lower1 the    
larger creatures upon the smaller1 the  
savage upon the defenseless4 ,fertile   
lands not only produce luxuriant        

vegetation but teem with insect life1   
which1 if not kept in check1 would soon 
destroy that vegetation4 ,in tropical   
and semitropical regions there are      
mammals1 some of them quite large1 which
 feed upon insects4 ,in temperate       
regions where insects are not to be     
obtained during the winter1 there would 
be no adequate check upon their increase
 and the consequent destruction of      
vegetation if it were not for the vast  
numbers of insect-eating migratory birds
 which come to these regions for the    
summer4 ,necessary as these birds are to
 vegetation on uncultivated lands1 they 
are more necessary in cultivated fields1
 orchards1 and gardens where the crops  
are more attractive to insects than the 
mixed vegetation on wild lands4 ,as     
insect destroyers the domestic birds    
that are kept on cultivated lands only  
fill the place of the nonmigratory wild 
birds that have been driven away or     
exterminated4 ,so it is to the interest 
of every one to protect insect-eating   

wild birds1 for although these birds may
 do some damage to crops1 their service 
usually more than pays for it4  ,classes
 of domestic birds4 ,there are three    
classes of domestic birds--poultry1     
pigeons1 and cage birds4 ,the poultry   
class comprises land and water birds and
 contains nine kinds--fowls1 ducks1     
geese1 turkeys1 guineas1 peafowls1      
pheasants1 swans1 and ostriches4 ,the   
pigeon class has but one kind1 the      
pigeon1 which is the only aerial bird   
domesticated for economic purposes4 ,the
 cage-bird class has as its most        
important representative the canary4    
,the other birds of this class have     
never been popular in ,america4  ,the   
question of increasing the number of    
species of birds in domestication       
interests many people4 ,there is a      
general impression among those not      
familiar with the commercial aspect of  
aviculture that many more species might 
be domesticated4 ,while it is true that 
many birds capable of domestication have

 not been domesticated1 there are few of
 these that would serve any purpose not 
better served by some species already   
domesticated4 ,it will be shown as the  
different kinds and varieties of        
domestic birds are discussed that the   
most useful kinds are always the most   
popular1 and that many others are kept  
principally as ornaments4 ,the number of
 ornamental creatures that can be kept  
in domestication is limited1 for as a   
rule animals1 like people1 must earn    
their living4     ,,chapter ,,ii        
,,characters ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,birds
 ,,related ,,to ,,use   ,feathers4 ,the 
feathers of a bird are the most highly  
developed form of protective covering in
 animals1 serving other important       
functions in addition to the primary    
one4 ,compared with the hair of a mammal
 or the scale of a fish or of a reptile1
 a typical soft feather from the body of
 a bird is a very complex structure1    
partaking of the characters of both     
scales and hair4 ,the fact that birds   

have scales and hair as well as feathers
 shows their relation to these other    
forms of animal covering4 ,this is best 
observed on a fowl4 ,the legs of a fowl 
are normally smooth1 with scales on the 
front of the shank and on the upper     
surfaces of the toes4 ,in feather-legged
 fowls the feathers appear first along  
the outer sides of the shanks and toes4 
,as the number of feathers is increased 
they grow longer and more feathers      
appear1 until in the most heavily       
feathered specimens the soft skin is    
covered and the scales are almost       
hidden4  ,the face of a fowl is normally
 almost bare1 the skin being a bright   
red like the comb and wattles2 but at a 
distance of a few feet we can usually   
see some very small1 fine feathers on   
it1 and if we examine closely we see in 
addition still finer growths--hairs4    
,among the body feathers of a fowl1 too1
 are quite long hairs4 ,these are most  
easily observed after a bird is plucked4
 ,they do not come out with the         

feathers1 and are removed by singeing4  
,structure of feathers4 ,the smallest   
feather that to the naked eye appears as
 something more complex than a hair1    
looks like a little bunch of fuzzy      
filaments4 ,this is called down4  ,in   
the next higher form of feather a small 
round quill appears with filaments      
protruding from it like the hairs in an 
artist's brush4 ,such a feather is      
called a stub feather1 or simply a stub4
 ,the best place to find these is on the
 outside of the shank of a fowl with    
scantily feathered legs4  ,the first    
form of the complete feather is best    
observed either on the head of a fowl or
 at the hock joint4 ,the feathers in    
these places are very small1 yet        
complete4 ,the round quill is lengthened
 into a shaft4 ,extending from each side
 of this shaft is a single row of       
filaments1 called barbs1 the edges of   
which1 interlocked with little hooks1   
form the web of the feather4 ,on other  
parts of the body of the bird the       

feathers are larger1 but the general    
structure is always the same4 ,the size 
and special structure of the feather are
 always adjusted to suit the part on    
which it grows or the service which it  
has to perform4  ,as the first function 
of the feathers is to keep the bird dry 
and warm1 the body feathers are all soft
 as compared with the large stiff       
feathers of the wings and tail2 yet as  
we look at the feathers on different    
parts of the body of a bird we notice   
differences in their structure1 and also
 notice that the structure of a feather 
is not always the same throughout its   
length4 ,on the exposed parts of the    
feathers of the neck1 back1 wings1 and  
breast the web is perfect and the       
feathers overlap so closely that they   
present a smooth surface4 ,under the    
surface1 especially next the skin1 the  
barbs are not smoothly joined1 but are  
fluffy4 ,thus the same feathers which   
present a hard1 smooth surface to the   
weather provide a soft1 warm garment    

next the skin4 ,under the wings and on  
the underside of the body the feathers  
are quite fluffy throughout their whole 
length4  ,arrangement of the feathers4  
,as you look at a living bird the       
feathers appear to grow on all parts of 
the body4 ,when the feathers are removed
 from the bird you see that while the   
skin is nearly all rough1 with the      
little elevations where the feathers    
were removed1 there are quite large     
areas where the skin is perfectly       
smooth1 showing that no feathers grew   
there4 ,these places are bare because   
feathers on them would interfere with   
the movements of the bird4 ,the feathers
 on adjacent parts give the smooth areas
 sufficient protection4  ,decorative    
feather forms4 ,the natural decorative  
forms of plumage are found mostly in    
male birds and consist of extraordinary 
developments of the plumage of the neck 
and back1 where the male birds of some  
species always have feathers differing  
in form from the feathers on the same   

parts of the female4 ,when a feather    
appendage not common to a species is    
developed on some varieties1 as the     
crest and beard on fowls and the ruff on
 pigeons1 both sexes have it4 ,the most 
interesting feather decorations will be 
described particularly in the chapters  
on the species on which they occur4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,brown ,leghorn
 chick 7one day old7  ,color in         
feathers4 ,while colors in the plumage  
are distributed very differently in     
different species of birds1 often making
 combinations peculiar to a species1    
there is in all the same wonderful      
formation of patterns1 that depends for 
its effect in a section upon some       
overlapping feathers being marked alike 
and others having a different marking2  
and for the effect in a single feather1 
upon adjacent barbs being now alike1 now
 different1 in the distribution of the  
pigment in them4 ,the best common       
example of a pattern covering a series  
of feathers is found on the wing of a   

,mallard ,duck or of a ,rouen ,duck4    
,interesting examples of the formation  
of patterns on a single feather may be  
found in the plumage of barred1 laced1  
and penciled fowls1 and also in the     
lacings on the body feathers of the     
females of the varieties of ducks       
mentioned4 ,perhaps the most interesting
 illustrations of this kind1 however1   
are to be seen on the plain feathers of 
the guinea and the gorgeous tail of the 
peacock4  ,the pigment which colors the 
plumage may be found in soluble form in 
the quills of immature colored feathers4
 ,it is not conspicuous unless it is    
quite dark4 ,in black fowls it is often 
so abundant that a part remains in the  
skin when the feathers are removed4     
,after the pigment is deposited in the  
web of the feather the color is fast4   
,water does not affect it1 but it fades 
a little with age and exposure4 ,new    
plumage usually contains a great deal of
 oil1 a condition which is most         
conspicuous in white birds1 to whose    

plumage the oil gives a creamy tint4 ,in
 colored birds the presence of a large  
amount of oil in feathers is desirable  
because it gives greater brilliance to  
the plumage4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4  
,white ,leghorn chicks 7ten days old7   
,growth and molting of feathers4 ,the   
first covering of a young bird is down4 
,the young of birds which nest on the   
ground have the down covering when      
hatched2 others acquire it in a few     
days4 ,in small land birds which feather
 quickly1 as ,leghorn and ,hamburg      
chicks1 the largest wing feathers may   
have started to grow before the chick   
leaves the egg4 ,in most kinds of       
poultry1 however1 the young show no     
signs of feathers for some days4 ,the   
down is gradually replaced by small     
feathers1 and these by larger feathers  
as the bird grows4 ,as feathers in all  
stages of growth are found on the young 
bird at the same time1 it is not known  
whether all feathers are molted the same
 number of times4 ,in cases where some  

feathers were marked and watched1 or    
where the colors changed with the       
changing feathers1 it appeared that     
after the down three sets of feathers   
were grown in succession1 the third and 
last making the adult plumage of the    
bird4 ,this coat remains until the      
following summer or fall1 when it is    
molted and replaced by a new one4       
,flight4 ,the habit of flying is        
objectionable in domestic birds because 
it makes them more difficult to control4
 ,it has no direct use except in pigeons
 kept for flying4 ,there is1 however1 a 
very important connection between       
development for flying and the value of 
birds for the table4 ,the muscles of the
 wings furnish the greater part of the  
edible meat of most birds4 ,the most    
desirable birds for food purposes are   
those which have the wing muscles well  
developed1 yet not quite strong enough  
to enable them to fly easily4 ,in such  
birds the breast meat remains           
comparatively soft through life1 while  

in birds that fly well it becomes hard  
in a very short time4 ,that is why the  
breast meat of the pigeon is relatively 
tougher in an old bird than the breast  
meat of a fowl or turkey4  ,the balance 
between capacity for flight and neglect 
to use it1 which is desired in birds    
grown for the table1 is secured by      
giving them opportunity to exercise     
their wings moderately but not for      
progressive practice in flying1 which   
would soon enable them to fly easily    
over the fences used to confine them4   
,to regulate such exercise the perches  
for birds that roost are made low1 or in
 an ascending series in which each perch
 after the first is reached from the one
 below it1 while fences are made so much
 higher than the distance the bird is   
accustomed to fly that the failures of  
its first efforts to go over them       
discourage it4 ,ducks and geese1 which  
do not roost1 flap their wings a great  
deal1 and if they have room often       
exercise them by half running and half  

flying along the ground4  ,mechanism of 
the wing4 ,in its structure and in the  
muscular power that moves it1 the wing  
of a bird is a wonderful piece of       
mechanism4 ,a bird in flying strikes the
 air with its wings so rapidly that the 
movements cannot be accurately counted4 
,the heron1 which is a slow-flying bird1
 makes from one hundred twenty to one   
hundred fifty downward strokes of its   
wings a minute4 ,as each downward stroke
 must be preceded by an upward stroke1  
this means that the wings make from two 
hundred forty to three hundred separate 
movements a minute4 ,in such            
swift-flying birds as the pigeon the    
movements of the wings can be           
distinguished but cannot be counted4    
,the fastest movements of the wings are 
not made by the swiftest fliers4 ,in    
order to fly at all some land birds with
 comparatively small wings have to move 
them so fast that the movements make a  
blur and a whirring noise4 ,the         
partridge is an illustration of a bird  

of this class4  ,if the supporting      
surface of the wing of a bird were made 
of skin1 like the web of the foot of a  
swimming bird1 it would be necessary to 
fold the wing for each upward stroke4   
,it is here that the structure of       
feathers adapts itself to the rapid     
action required for movement in the air4
 ,the wing is not one surface but a     
series of narrow surfaces lapping in    
such a manner that they unite to form   
one broad surface when the downward     
stroke is made1 and with the upward     
stroke are separated so that the air    
passes between them4 ,greater power in  
the downward stroke and less resistance 
in the upward stroke are also secured by
 the curvature of the wing4 ,the under  
side is concave1 the upper side convex4 
,thus in the downward stroke the wing   
gathers the air under it and so         
increases the pressure1 while in the    
upward stroke it scatters the air and   
reduces the pressure4  ,if the wing were
 equally rigid throughout1 the movement 

of the bird would be mostly upward4 ,the
 bird in flying moves forward because   
the front of the wing is rigid and the  
tips of the feathers1 which are directed
 backward1 are flexible4 ,so the air    
compressed by the wing in the downward  
stroke escapes backward1 and in doing so
 propels the bird forward4 ,the         
principle is the same that is applied in
 the screw propeller of a boat or an    
airship1 except that the wing vibrates  
while the propeller revolves4  ,the most
 important function of the tail in      
flight is to balance the bird4 ,it is of
 some assistance in steering1 but a bird
 steers its course mostly by            
manipulation of the wings4  ,scratching4
 ,with the exception of the aquatic     
birds and the ostrich1 all the species  
of poultry belong to the group called by
 naturalists ,rasores or ,scratchers4   
,birds of this class have legs of       
moderate length and very strong1 with   
toes terminating in a stout claw4       
,normally they have three toes upon     

which the foot rests when they are      
standing on a flat surface1 and a fourth
 toe1 like a thumb1 which assists the   
other toes to grasp a perch4 ,some      
individual birds and some races of birds
 have the fourth or hind toe double4    
,the leg of a bird is so constructed    
that when it is bent as the bird sits on
 a narrow support the toes contract and 
grasp the support and hold it without   
any effort on the part of the bird4     
,thus the bird is as secure in its      
position on a limb when asleep as if    
wide awake and looking out for itself4  
,in proportion to their ability to      
scratch1 birds are able to find seeds   
and insects concealed among dead or     
living vegetation on the surface of the 
ground1 and also to dig below the       
surface4 ,scratching capacity is most   
highly developed in the fowl4 ,compared 
to it the other land birds are very     
feeble scratchers1 and do little damage 
by scratching if free to roam about4    
,for ages the scratching propensity of  

fowls was regarded as a vice in them1   
but since people began to give special  
attention to poultry they have learned  
that fowls are much more contented and  
thrifty in confinement if their food is 
given them in a litter of leaves1 straw1
 or shavings1 in which they must scratch
 for it1 and have also found that to    
some extent fowls may be used to        
cultivate crops while destroying insects
 and weeds among them4  ,swimming4      
,capacity for swimming has an economic  
value in domestic birds because it      
adapts those possessing it to places    
which land birds rarely frequent4 ,it   
will be shown when the different kinds  
of aquatic birds are described that each
 has its special place and use in       
domestication4  ,the swimming faculty in
 these birds is of further interest     
because of its relation to the          
development of the body plumage4 ,if a  
land bird is placed in the water1 the   
feathers are quickly saturated1 the     
water penetrating to the skin4 ,a duck  

or other swimming bird will remain in   
the water for hours without the water   
penetrating the feathers4 ,this is      
commonly supposed to be due to the      
presence of a large amount of oil in the
 feathers1 but the difference in the    
oiliness of the feathers of fowls and of
 ducks is not great enough to account   
for the difference in resistance to the 
penetration of water4 ,the peculiar     
quality of the plumage of swimming birds
 is its density4 ,if you take up a fowl 
and examine the plumage you will find   
that it is easy to part the feathers so 
that the skin can be seen4 ,it may be   
done with the fingers1 or even by       
blowing gently among the feathers with  
the mouth4 ,now try to separate the     
feathers of a duck so that the skin will
 be visible4 ,you find it much harder1  
because the feathers are so thick and   
soft and at the same time so elastic4   
,the familiar phrase like water from a  
duck's back is not especially           
appropriate4 ,the feathers on the back  

of most birds are a very effective      
protection against rain4 ,the feathers  
all over a duck are such poor conductors
 of water that it is hard to remove them
 by scalding4 ,the structure of the     
plumage of swimming birds adds to their 
buoyancy in the water4 ,they do not have
 to exert themselves to remain on the   
surface1 but float like cork4  ,foods   
and mode of digestion4 ,all kinds of    
poultry and most of our common wild     
birds are omnivorous eaters1 but the    
proportion of different foods usually   
taken is not the same in different kinds
 of birds4 ,some eat mostly grains1 some
 mostly animal foods4 ,some can subsist 
entirely on grass if they can get it in 
a tender state2 others eat very little  
grass4 ,the scratching birds like a diet
 of about equal parts of grain1 leaves1 
and insects4 ,pigeons and canaries live 
almost entirely on grains and seeds1 but
 like a little green stuff occasionally4
  ,domestic birds which produce many    
eggs require special supplies of food   

containing lime to make the shells4     
,until within a few years it was        
universally believed--and it is still   
commonly supposed--that birds needed    
grit to take the place of the teeth     
nature did not give them1 and assist in 
the grinding of the food in the gizzard4
 ,many close observers now reject this  
idea because they find that birds       
supplied with digestible mineral foods  
do not eat those that are not           
digestible4 ,a bird does not need teeth 
to grind its food1 because it is        
softened in the crop and the gastric    
juice acts upon it before the grinding  
process begins4  ,peculiarities of      
birds' eggs4 ,the only animal foodstuff 
produced in a natural package1 easily   
preserved and handled1 is the egg4 ,in  
the vegetable world we have a great many
 such things--fruits1 seeds1 roots1     
nuts1 with coverings of various textures
 to protect the contents from the air4  
,in all of these the material stored up 
is either for the nourishment of the    

seeds in the first stages of growth as  
plants1 or for the nourishment of a new 
or special growth4 ,an egg is the seed  
of an animal4 ,all animals produce eggs1
 but in mammals the new life originating
 from the egg goes through the embryonic
 stages within the body of the parent1  
while in insects1 fishes1 reptiles1 and 
birds the egg is laid by the creature   
producing it before the embryo begins to
 develop4  ,in mammals the embryo grows 
as a part of the body of the parent1 the
 substances which build it up coming    
from the parent form as they are needed4
 ,in birds a tiny germ--the true egg--is
 put1 with all the material needed for  
its development as an embryo1 in a      
sealed package1 which may be taken      
thousands of miles away from the parent1
 and1 after lying dormant for weeks1 may
 begin to grow as soon as the proper    
conditions of temperature are applied4  
,the food value of the germ of an egg is
 inappreciable4 ,we use the egg to get  
the material stored up in it for the    

young bird which would come from the    
germ4  ,development of the egg4 ,the    
method of the formation of an egg is    
very interesting4 ,it is the same in all
 birds1 but is most conveniently studied
 in fowls4 ,if a laying hen is killed   
and the body is opened so that the      
internal organs can all be seen1 one of 
the most conspicuous of these is a      
large1 convoluted duct having its outlet
 at the vent4 ,in this duct1 which is   
called the oviduct1 are eggs in various 
stages of formation4 ,at its upper      
extremity1 attached to the backbone1 is 
a bunch of globular yellow substances   
which are at once identified as yolks of
 eggs in all sizes4 ,the organ to which 
these are attached is the ovary4 ,the   
smallest yolks are so small that they   
cannot be seen without a powerful       
microscope4 ,these yolks are not germs1 
but as they grow the germ forms on one  
side of each yolk1 where it appears as a
 small white spot4  ,when a yolk is     
full-grown it drops into the            

funnel-shaped mouth of the oviduct4     
,here it is inclosed in a membranous    
covering1 called the chalazae1 and      
receives a coating of thick albumen4    
,the function of the chalazae is to keep
 the yolk suspended in the center of the
 egg4 ,it does not merely inclose the   
yolk1 but1 twisted into cords1 extends  
from either end and is attached to the  
outer membrane at the end of the egg4   
,after leaving the funnel the egg passes
 into a narrow part of the oviduct1     
called the isthmus1 where it receives   
the membranous coverings which are found
 just inside the shell4 ,from the       
isthmus it goes into the lowest part of 
the oviduct--the uterus4 ,here the shell
 is formed1 and at the same time a thin 
albumen enters through the pores of the 
shell and the shell membranes and       
dilutes the thick albumen first         
deposited4 ,after this process is       
completed the egg may be retained in the
 oviduct for some time4 ,it is1 however1
 usually laid within a few hours4  ,rate

 and amount of egg production4 ,in the  
wild state a bird1 if not molested after
 it begins laying1 produces a number of 
eggs varying in different kinds1        
according to the number of young that   
can be cared for1 and then incubates    
them4 ,if its first eggs are removed or 
destroyed1 the bird lays more1 usually  
changing the location of its nest4 ,in  
domestication the eggs of most kinds of 
birds are removed from the nests daily  
as laid1 and the birds lay many more    
eggs before they stop to incubate than  
they do in the wild state4  ,it is1 and 
has been for ages1 the common opinion   
that the wild birds and poultry1 when   
first domesticated1 were capable of     
laying only a small number of eggs each 
season1 and that laying capacity has    
been enormously increased in            
domestication2 but the oldest reports   
that we have of the amount of egg       
production indicate that the laying     
capacity of fowls was as great centuries
 ago as it is at the present time4      

,recent observations on wild birds in   
captivity show that even birds which    
pair and usually lay only a few eggs    
each season have a laying capacity at   
least equal to the ordinary production  
of hens4 ,quails in captivity have been 
known to lay about one hundred eggs in a
 season1 and an ,english sparrow from   
which the eggs were taken as laid       
produced over sixty4  ,the              
constitutional capacity to produce      
ovules is now known to be far greater   
than the power of any bird to supply the
 material for the nourishment of germs  
through the embryonic stage4 ,the       
principal factors in large egg          
production are abundance of food and    
great capacity for digesting and        
assimilating it4  ,incubation4 ,a bird  
before beginning to lay makes a nest4   
,some birds build very elaborate and    
curious nests2 others merely put        
together a few sticks1 or hollow out a  
little place on the ground4 ,in birds   
that pair1 the male and female work     

together to build the nest4 ,even in    
polygamous domestic birds like the fowl 
and the duck1 a male will often make a  
nest for the females of his family and  
coax them to it as a cock pigeon does   
his mate4  ,if the birds are left to    
themselves and the eggs are not         
molested1 an aerial bird will usually   
lay a number of eggs equal to the number
 of young the parents can feed as long  
as they require this attention1 while a 
terrestrial or aquatic bird will usually
 lay as many eggs as she can cover4 ,the
 desired number of eggs having been     
laid1 the process of incubation by the  
parents begins4  ,the incubation of     
their eggs by birds is one of the most  
remarkable things in nature4 ,we say    
that instinct leads birds to build their
 nests and to keep their eggs warm for a
 period varying from two weeks for small
 birds1 to six weeks for the ostrich2   
but instinct is only a term to describe 
the apparently intelligent actions of   
the lower animals1 which we say have not

 intelligence enough to know the reasons
 for the things that they do4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,sitting hen   
,the mother of a young mammal knows that
 it came from herself1 and she can see  
that it is like her and others of her   
kind4 ,it at once seeks her care and    
responds to her attentions4 ,the egg    
which a bird lays is as lifeless--to all
 appearances--as the stones which it    
often so closely resembles4 ,only after 
many days or weeks of tiresomely close  
attention does it produce a creature    
which can respond to the care lavished  
upon it4 ,the birds incubating eggs not 
only give them the most unremitting     
attention1 but those that fill their    
nests with eggs before beginning to     
incubate methodically turn the eggs and 
change their position in the nest1 this 
being necessary because otherwise the   
eggs at the center of the nest would get
 too much heat and those at the outside 
would not get enough4 ,a bird appears to
 know that if she begins to sit before  

she has finished laying1 some of the    
eggs would be spoiled or would hatch    
before the others2 and1 as noted above1 
aerial birds seem to know better than to
 hatch more young than they can rear4   
,but no bird seems to have any idea of  
the time required to hatch its eggs1 or 
to notice the lapse of time1 or to care 
whether the eggs upon which it sits are 
of its own kind or of some other kind1  
or to know whether the young when       
hatched are like or unlike itself4 ,if  
eggs fail to hatch1 domestic birds will1
 as a rule1 remain on the nest until the
 eggs are taken away or until sheer     
exhaustion compels them to abandon the  
hopeless task4 ,in domestication1       
however1 those birds which continue     
laying most freely when their eggs are  
removed as laid1 tend to lose the habit 
of incubation4 ,turkeys and geese will  
often begin to incubate after having    
laid about the number of eggs that they 
could cover4 ,many fowls will do the    
same1 but most fowls lay for several    

months before attempting to incubate1   
and in many races not more than two or  
three per cent of the hens ever         
incubate4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4     
,fresh egg#a  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4  
,infertile egg 7after twenty-four hours'
 incubation7  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4  
,fertile egg 7after twenty-four hours'  
incubation7  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4   
,embryo 7after seventy-two hours'       
incubation7  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4   
,embryo 7after seven days' incubation7  
#a ,photographs 7,figs4 #d-h7 from      
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,chick ready to
 break shell  ,development of the embryo
 in a bird's egg4 ,the condition        
required to produce a live bird from a  
fertile egg is the continuous           
application of a temperature of about   
#ajb or #ajc degrees ,fahrenheit from   
the time the heat is first applied until
 the embryo is fully developed and ready
 to emerge from the shell4 ,in nature   

the heat is applied by contact with the 
bodies of the parent birds4 ,development
 of life will start in an egg at about  
#aj degrees below the temperature       
required to maintain it1 but at this    
temperature the germ soon dies4 ,the    
temperature in incubation may           
occasionally go higher than #ajc degrees
 or may be as low as #gj degrees for a  
short time without injury to the germ4  
,some germs will stand greater extremes 
of temperature than others1 just as some
 living creatures will4  ,the first     
stages of the development of life in the
 egg of a bird may be observed by       
holding the eggs before a strong light  
in a darkened room4 ,white-shelled eggs 
are the best for this purpose4 ,in about
 thirty-six hours from the beginning of 
incubation it will be found that the    
germ has turned red1 and little red     
veins radiate from it somewhat like the 
legs of a spider4 ,for several days the 
egg is quite translucent and the yolk   
shows plainly4 ,as the germ grows1 the  

contents of the egg become clouded and  
dense1 and the air space at the large   
end of the egg is clearly defined1 the  
density being greatest near it4 ,from   
the time that the egg becomes dense1    
observations of development must be made
 by breaking one or more eggs daily or  
every few days1 according to the number 
available for observation4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,egg before   
exclusion and partially excluded chick  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,light ,brahma
 7day old7  ,the embryo grows until it  
fills the egg4 ,the mere application of 
heat to the egg has gradually           
transformed that little germ and the    
yellow and white of egg into bones1     
flesh1 skin 7and1 in some cases1 down71 
and all the organs of a living creature4
 ,when the embryo has filled the shell1 
it lies curled up1 usually with the head
 at the large end of the egg and the    
beak almost touching the shell1 at about
 one third of the distance from the     
large to the small end of the egg4 ,at  

the point of the beak of the young bird 
on the curved tip of the upper mandible 
is a small horny scale4 ,without this   
scale it would be hard for the embryo to
 break the shell because it cannot1 as  
it lies1 strike it a direct blow with   
the point of its beak4 ,this scale is a 
remarkable character4 ,its only use is  
to help the bird out of the shell4 ,a   
few days after exclusion it disappears4 
,if you take a hen's egg about the      
eighteenth or the nineteenth day of     
incubation and hold it closely in your  
hand1 you may be able to feel the chick 
move4 ,if your hand is a little bit     
cold1 the chick is much more likely to  
squirm in the egg and may utter a peep4 
,if1 with the egg in a warm hand1 you   
hold it to your ear1 you will about this
 time hear an occasional tap1 tap1      
caused by the chicken striking its beak 
against the shell4 ,the tapping is kept 
up more or less steadily until the shell
 cracks where the point of the beak     
strikes it and a little piece is broken 

out4 ,the chick usually rests awhile    
now1--perhaps for some hours1--then     
resumes the attack on the shell4 ,it    
turns in the shell1 breaking out little 
pieces as it turns1 until there is a    
crack nearly all the way around1 when1  
by pushing with its head and feet1 it   
forces the shell apart and sprawls out  
of it4  ,the process is the same for all
 birds1 except that those that take     
longest to develop in the shell take a  
longer rest after first breaking it4    
,the young of aerial birds1 which are   
naked when hatched1 are ugly little     
things4 ,young poultry1 too1 are almost 
repulsive with their sprawling forms and
 the wet down plastered to the skin1 but
 in a few hours they grow strong1 the   
down dries and becomes fluffy1 the      
bright little eyes seem to take in      
everything1 and they are the most       
attractive of all baby animals4         
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,species ,,and ,,their
 ,,divisions ,,in ,,domestic ,,birds    
,the three general classes of domestic  

birds include few species but many      
varieties1 and1 outside of the distinct 
varieties1 an indefinite number of      
individual types4 ,where varieties are  
as numerous as in the fowl1 which has   
about three hundred1 and the pigeon1    
which has a much greater number1 the    
differences between them are often very 
slight4 ,sometimes the form of a single 
small character is the only             
distinguishing feature4 ,but1 if this is
 a fixed character1 the variety is      
distinct4 ,where there are so many      
varieties it is hard to make short1     
appropriate descriptive names for all1  
if considered simply as varieties4 ,for 
such diversity there must be a more     
extended classification4 ,such a        
classification1 growing gradually with  
the increase in the number of varieties1
 will not be consistent throughout4     
,hence to understand clearly the        
relations of the artificial divisions of
 species in domestication we must know  
what a species is and how these         

divisions arise4  ,definition of        
species4 ,species are the natural       
divisions of living things4 ,each plant 
and animal species retains its          
distinctive character through long ages 
because the individuals composing it can
 produce perfect offspring only 7if     
asexual7 of themselves1 or 7if bisexual7
 with others of their species4  ,the    
self-isolation of species is well       
illustrated when similar plants grow    
together1 as grasses in the same field  
and practically on the same spot2 yet   
year after year all the old kinds are   
found and no new ones such as might come
 from a mixture of two kinds1 if they   
would mix4 ,in the higher animals1 where
 the parent forms are of different      
sexes1 they choose mates of their own   
kind1 and so each species remains       
distinct2 but if in a species there are 
many different types1 such as we find in
 domestic fowls1 the members of the     
species1 when free to do so1 mate as    
readily with types quite different from 

their own as with individuals exactly   
like them1 and produce offspring of     
intermediate types with all the         
essential characters of the species4 ,in
 domestication individuals of distinct  
yet similar species are sometimes mated 
and produce offspring called hybrids1   
but these are sterile4 ,the mule1 which 
is a hybrid between the ass and the     
mare1 is the most familiar animal of    
this kind4 ,hybrid1 or mule1 cage birds 
are produced by crossing the canary with
 several allied species4 ,among other   
domestic birds hybrids are almost       
unknown4  ,origin of species4 ,until    
near the close of the last century it   
was commonly believed that each species 
had been created in perfect form and    
that species were unchangeable2 but long
 before that time some keen students of 
the natural sciences and close observers
 of the changes that take place in      
plants and animals in domestication had 
discovered that species were not        
perfectly stable and were changing      

slowly4 ,geologists established the fact
 that the earth1 instead of being only a
 few thousand years old1 had existed for
 countless centuries4 ,among fossil     
remains of creatures unlike any now     
known they had found also other forms   
which appeared to be prototypes of      
existing species4 ,the idea that the    
forms of life now on the earth had come 
from earlier and somewhat different     
forms had occurred to several scientists
 more than a hundred years ago1 but it  
was not until about #ahfj that a        
satisfactory explanation of progressive 
development of forms of life was given  
to the world4 ,this mode of creation is 
called evolution4  ,the theory of       
evolution is that partly through their  
own inherent tendency to vary and partly
 through the influence of external      
things which affect them1 all organisms 
change slowly2 that things of the same  
kind1 separated and living under        
different conditions1 may in time so    
change that they become separate        

species2 and that this process may be   
repeated indefinitely1 the number of    
species constantly increasing and       
becoming more diversified and more      
highly developed4  ,such a theory would 
not be entitled to serious consideration
 unless it was known that the earth was 
millions of years old1 because we know  
that races of fowls separated for over  
three thousand years 7and perhaps twice 
as long7 and developed into quite       
different varieties will breed together 
as readily as those of the same variety4
 ,but when it is certain that the earth 
is so old that there has been ample time
 for changes in living forms that would 
require periods of time beyond our      
comprehension1 some of the relations of 
varieties and species of birds have an  
important bearing on the theory of      
evolution4  ,as in the case of fowls    
just noted1 we find that domestic ducks 
of the same species1 after a separation 
of several thousand years1 breed freely 
together4 ,but our domestic ducks are   

not1 like the fowls1 all of the same    
species1 and if individuals of different
 species are paired they produce only a 
few weak hybrids4 ,our domestic geese   
are probably descended from two wild    
varieties1 but races that were not      
brought together for thousands of years 
after they were domesticated are        
perfectly fertile together1 while when  
mated with the ,american ,wild ,goose1  
which is not domesticated but will breed
 in captivity1 they produce only        
hybrids4 ,the general resemblance       
between geese and ducks is very         
striking1 yet they will not breed       
together at all4  ,a comparison of these
 facts indicates that while three       
thousand1 or even five or six thousand1 
years of separation may not be enough to
 break down the natural affinity of     
varieties of the same species1          
separation and difference of development
 will eventually make of varieties      
distinct species1 a union of which will 
produce only hybrids1 while a longer    

separation and further increase of      
differences makes the break between the 
species absolute and they will not breed
 together at all4  ,natural varieties4  
,a species having developed as a variety
 of an earlier species will continue to 
develop as one variety or as several    
varieties1 according to conditions4 ,if 
a part of a species becomes so separated
 from the rest that intercourse ceases1 
each division of the species may become 
a well-defined variety4  ,varieties in  
domestication4 ,how a species when      
domesticated breaks up into varieties is
 well illustrated by the case of the    
fowl4 ,the original wild species has    
long disappeared1 but there is good     
reason to suppose that in size and color
 it was something between a ,brown ,pit 
,game and a ,brown ,leghorn4 ,the birds 
were smaller than most fowls seen in    
this country to-day4 ,the prevailing    
color was a dull brown1 because that    
color best conceals a small land bird   
from its enemies4 ,fowls that were      

domesticated and given good care and an 
abundance of food would usually grow    
larger than the wild stock4 ,thus if any
 person1 or the people generally in any 
community1 systematically gave their    
fowls good care1 a variety of unusual   
size would be developed4  ,different    
colors would also appear in the flocks  
of fowls1 because the birds of unusual  
colors would be protected and preserved1
 instead of being destroyed as they     
usually are in the wild state4 ,other   
peculiarities1 too1 such as large combs1
 crests1 and feathered legs1 would be   
developed in some lands and neglected in
 others4 ,this is how it happened that  
after thousands of years in             
domestication the races of fowls in     
different parts of the world were quite 
different in size and form1 but alike in
 being of many colors4  ,from a species 
in this condition modern poultry        
breeders have made hundreds of distinct 
varieties4 ,the easiest method of making
 a variety in domestication is to select

 specimens for breeding as near the     
desired type as possible1 and to breed  
only from a few individuals in each     
generation which come nearest to the    
ideal type4 ,in this way a variety that 
breeds quite true to the type may be    
established in from three or four to    
eight or ten years1 according to the    
number of characters to be established  
as distinctive of the variety4          
,varieties are also made by crossing    
unlike individuals4 ,this process is    
longer than the other1 and sometimes    
requires a series of crosses to produce 
specimens approximating the ideal       
sought4 ,after such specimens have been 
obtained the method is the same as in   
the first case4 ,a variety is commonly  
considered to be well established when  
the greater part of the specimens       
produced are easily identified as of    
that variety4 ,but no domestic variety  
is ever established in the sense that a 
species is4 ,all are artificial1        
produced by compulsory separation and   

preserved only as long as it is         
continued4  ,classification of domestic 
varieties of birds4 ,domestic varieties 
of all kinds of live stock were at first
 mostly shape-varieties2 that is1 the   
individuals of a variety were alike in  
shape but of various colors4 ,this is   
the case still with some varieties4     
,these shape-varieties are mostly the   
common types of certain countries or    
districts4 ,thus the ,leghorn fowl is   
the common fowl of ,italy1 and the      
,houdan is a type common in a small     
district in ,france4 ,such              
shape-varieties are called breeds4 ,when
 other types were made by crossing such 
breeds they also were called breeds4    
,when people first began to be          
interested in the improvement of live   
stock1 the popular idea of a breed was  
that it was a domestic species1 and     
there are still many people who hold    
this view4 ,this popular misconception  
of the nature of a breed is responsible 
for much of the inconsistency and       

confusion in the ordinary               
classifications of domestic varieties4  
,to it also is due the use of the term  
variety to apply especially to          
color-varieties1 which are the principal
 divisions of breeds4  ,in the          
classification of domestic birds a      
variety is properly a color-variety of a
 breed4 ,thus in the ,plymouth ,rock    
breed there are six                     
color-varieties--barred1 white1 buff1   
partridge1 silver-penciled1 and ermine  
7called ,columbian72 and in ,fantail    
,pigeons there are six                  
color-varieties--white1 blue1 black1    
red1 yellow1 and silver4 ,birds of the  
same breed 7shape7 and the same variety 
7color7 may differ in some other        
character1 as the form of the comb or   
the presence or absence of feathers in  
certain places4 ,in accordance with such
 differences varieties are divided into 
subvarieties4 ,thus1 in ,leghorn ,fowls 
the brown1 white1 and buff varieties    
have single-combed and rose-combed      

subvarieties4  ,in any breed1 variety1  
or subvariety certain families are      
sometimes distinguished for general or  
special excellence of form or color4    
,such a family is called a strain4      
,systematic mixtures of breeds and      
varieties4 ,although so many distinct   
varieties have been developed from      
common domestic stocks1 the improved    
races do not always displace the        
mongrels4 ,when the old mongrels        
disappear their place is often taken by 
a new mongrel stock produced by mixtures
 of the distinct breeds with each other 
and with the old mongrel race4 ,the     
greater part of such stock is so mixed  
that its relation to any established    
breed could not be determined or        
expressed1 but systematic mixtures are  
sometimes made1 and to describe these   
the following terms are used3           
,crossbred--having parents of different1
 distinct breeds1 varieties1 or         
subvarieties4 ,a ,leghorn male mated    
with a ,cochin female produces offspring

 each of which is in blood one half     
,leghorn and one half ,cochin4          
,grade--having more than half of the    
blood of a breed4  ,if the offspring of 
a cross such as is described in the     
preceding paragraph are mated with birds
 of one of the parent breeds1 the       
offspring of this mating will have three
 fourths of the blood of that breed4 ,if
 these in turn are mated to birds of the
 same pure breed1 the offspring will    
have seven eighths of the blood of that 
breed4 ,animals bred in this way are    
called grades until the process has been
 carried so far that they are           
practically pure-bred4 ,mongrel stock is
 often graded up in this way4 ,as a rule
 stock that is seven eighths pure is not
 distinguishable from average pure stock
 of the same breed4  ,pure-bred1        
thoroughbred1 and standard-bred4 ,a     
pure-bred animal is1 strictly speaking1 
one having the blood only of the variety
 to which it belongs4 ,from what has    
been said of the making of breeds and   

varieties it is plain that absolute     
purity of blood is not a universal      
attribute of well-bred domestic birds4  
,a thoroughbred animal is one that is   
thoroughly bred for some purpose or to  
some type4 ,a standard-bred animal is   
one that is bred especially to conform  
to requirements agreed upon by breeders 
and exhibitors4  ,a great deal of       
misapprehension and confusion in the use
 of these terms has been caused by the  
attitude of those who maintain that the 
term thoroughbred1 having been used as a
 name for highly bred running horses1   
cannot properly apply to any other kind 
of live stock1 and that pure-bred should
 apply to all thoroughly bred races4    
,the noun ,thoroughbred is the name of a
 breed of horses4 ,the adjective        
thoroughbred is common property4        
,writers on aviculture who wish to be   
accurate prefer it in many instances to 
pure-bred because absolute purity of    
blood is rare and is not of the         
importance in breeding that novices     

usually suppose4 ,not only are many new 
varieties made by crossing1 but in      
long-established breeds outcrosses are  
regularly made to restore or intensify  
characters4  ,to illustrate the use of  
the three terms in application to a     
single breed3 ,a stock of ,light        
,brahmas might be kept pure for half a  
century1 yet at the end of that period  
might have changed its type entirely4   
,it might be so deteriorated that it was
 worth less than common mongrels2 yet it
 is pure-bred stock4 ,another stock of  
the same variety might be bred for table
 qualities1 egg-production1 and the same
 principal color-characteristics of the 
variety1 but without attention to the   
fine points of fancy breeding4 ,such a  
stock is thoroughbred but not           
standard-bred4     ,,chapter ,,iv       
,,fowls   ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,pet
 fowls--,white ,wyandottes and ,game    
,bantams4 7,photograph from ,dr4 ,j4 ,c4
 ,paige1 ,amherst1 ,massachusetts7  ,the
 most useful of all birds is the common 

fowl1 seen on almost every farm and in  
the back yards of many city and village 
homes4 ,the fowl takes to the conditions
 of domestic life better than any other 
land bird4 ,it is more cleanly in its   
habits1 more productive1 more           
intelligent1 and more interesting than  
the duck1 which ranks next in           
usefulness4 ,fowls supply nearly all the
 eggs and the greater part of the       
poultry meat that we use4 ,their        
feathers are of less value than those of
 ducks1 geese1 and turkeys4 ,in the days
 when feather beds were common they were
 made usually of the body feathers of   
fowls4 ,now the feathers of fowls are   
used mostly for the cheaper grades of   
pillows and cushions1 and in the making 
of feather boas and like articles4 ,the 
wing and tail feathers have been much   
used for decorating ladies' hats1 and   
since the use of small wild birds in    
millinery decorations has been          
prohibited1 the hackle feathers of cocks
 are quite extensively used in trimming 

hats4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4        
,single-combed ,rhode ,island ,red      
male#b  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4       
,rose-combed ,rhode ,island ,red        
female#b  #b ,photograph from ,lester   
,tompkins1 ,concord1 ,massachusetts4    
,description4 ,ordinary fowls are rather
 small land birds4 ,the males at        
maturity weigh from four to five pounds 
each1 and the females about a pound     
less4 ,they are plump1 rugged1 and very 
active4 ,if treated well they are bold1 
and with a little attention can easily  
be made very tame4 ,if neglected and    
abused1 they become shy and wild4 ,the  
most striking peculiarities of the fowl 
are the fleshy comb and wattles which   
ornament the head1 and the full tail    
which is usually carried well up and    
spread perpendicularly4 ,the head       
appendages vary much in size and form4  
,they are sometimes very small1 but     
never entirely wanting4 ,the carriage of
 the tail also varies1 but except in a  
few breeds bred especially for low tails

 it is noticeably high as compared with 
that of other poultry4 ,fowls are       
readily distinguished from other birds  
by the voice4 ,the male crows1 the      
female cackles4 ,these are their most   
common calls1 but there are other       
notes--some common to both sexes1 some  
peculiar to one--which are the same in  
all races of fowls4 ,an abrupt1 harsh   
croak warns the flock that one of their 
number has discerned a hawk or noticed  
something suspicious in the air4 ,a     
slowly repeated cluck keeps the young   
brood advised of the location of their  
mother4 ,if she finds a choice morsel of
 food1 a rapid clicking sound calls them
 about her4 ,when she settles down to   
brood them she calls them with a        
peculiar crooning note4 ,the male also  
cackles when alarmed1 and when he finds 
food calls his mates in the same way    
that the female calls her young under   
the same circumstances4 ,other poultry  
and sometimes even cats and dogs learn  
this call and respond to it4 ,if the    

food discovered is something that a     
stronger animal wants1 the bird making  
the call may lose it because of his     
eagerness to share the treasure with the
 members of his family4  ,in adult fowls
 the male and female are readily        
distinguished by differences in         
appearance as well as by the voice4 ,the
 comb and wattles of the male are       
larger1 and after he has completed his  
growth are always of the same size and a
 bright red in color4 ,in the female the
 comb is much smaller than that of a    
male of the same family1 and both size  
and color vary periodically1 the comb   
and wattles being larger and the whole  
head brighter in color when the female  
is laying4 ,the tail of the male is also
 much larger than that of the female and
 has long plumelike coverts4 ,the       
feathers of his back and neck are long1 
narrow1 and flowing1 and in many        
varieties are much brighter in color    
than the corresponding feathers on the  
female4 ,the male has a short1 sharp    

spur on the inside of each leg1 a little
 above the hind toe4 ,occasionally a    
female has spurs1 but they are usually  
very small4 ,with so many differences   
between male and female the sex of an   
adult fowl is apparent at a glance4 ,in 
the young of breeds which have large    
combs the males begin to grow combs when
 quite small1 and so the sex may be     
known when they are only a few weeks    
old4 ,in other breeds the sex may not be
 distinguished with certainty until the 
birds are several months old1 or1 in    
some cases1 until they are nearly       
full-grown4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4  
,white ,polish male 7crowing7 and       
female4 7,photograph from ,leontine     
,lincoln ,jr41 ,fall ,river1            
,massachusetts7  ,the adult male fowl is
 called a cock1 and also1 in popular    
phrase1 a rooster4 ,the adult female    
fowl is called a hen4 ,the word hen is  
the feminine form of hana1 the          
,anglo-,saxon name for the cock4 ,it is 
likely that the name cock1 which it is  

plain was taken from the first syllable 
of the crow of the bird1 was gradually  
substituted for hana because it is      
shorter4 ,hana means the singer4 ,a     
young fowl is called a chicken until the
 sex can be distinguished4 ,after that  
poultry fanciers call the young male a  
cockerel and the young female a pullet4 
,the word pullet is also used by others1
 but the popular names for a cockerel   
are crower and young rooster4 ,the word 
cockerel1 as is seen at a glance1 is the
 diminutive of cock4 ,the word pullet1  
sometimes spelled poulet1 is a          
diminutive from the ,french poule1 a    
hen4  ,origin of the fowl4 ,of the      
origin of the fowl we have no direct    
knowledge4 ,it was fully domesticated   
long before the beginnings of history4  
,there is no true wild race of fowls    
known4 ,for a long time it was commonly 
held that the ,gallus ,bankiva1 found in
 the jungles of ,india1 was the ancestor
 of all the races of the domestic fowl1 
but this view was not accepted by some  

of the most careful investigators1 and  
the most recent inquiries into the      
subject indicate that the so-called     
,gallus ,bankiva is not a native wild   
species but a feral race1 that is1 a    
race developed in the wild from         
individuals escaped from domestication4 
,appearance of the original wild        
species4 ,the likeness of the fowls     
shown in ancient drawings to the        
ordinary unimproved stock in many parts 
of the world to-day shows that--except  
as by special breeding men have         
developed distinct races--fowls have not
 changed since the most remote times of 
which records exist4 ,from the constancy
 of this type through this long period  
it is reasonably inferred that no marked
 change in the size and shape of the    
fowl had occurred in domestication in   
prehistoric times1 and therefore that   
the original wild fowl very closely     
resembled fowls which may be seen       
wherever the influence of improved races
 has not changed the ordinary type4 ,the

 particular point in which the wild     
species differed from a flock of        
ordinary domestic fowls was color4      
,domestic fowls1 unless carefully bred  
for one color type1 are usually of many 
colors4 ,in the wild species1 as a rule1
 only one color would be found1 and that
 would be brown1 which is the prevailing
 color among small land birds4          
,distribution of fowls in ancient times4
 ,from drawings and descriptions on     
ancient tablets and from figures on old 
coins it appears that the fowl was      
familiar to the ,babylonians seven      
thousand years ago1 and that it was     
introduced into ,egypt about #dfjj      
,b4,c4 ,chinese tradition gives #adjj   
,b4,c4 as the approximate date of the   
introduction of poultry into ,china from
 the ,west4 ,at the time of the founding
 of ,rome the fowl was well known       
throughout ,northern ,africa1 and in the
 ,mediterranean countries of ,europe as 
far west as ,italy and ,sicily4 ,it was 
also known in ,japan at this time4      

,whether it was known in ,india is      
uncertain2 if not1 it was brought there 
soon after4 ,it is supposed that        
immediately following their conquests in
 ,central and ,western ,europe the      
,romans introduced their poultry into   
those regions4 ,thus1 at about the      
beginning of the ,christian ,era1 the   
fowl was known to all the civilized     
peoples of the ,old ,world and had been 
introduced to the less civilized races  
of ,europe4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4  
,light ,brahma cockerel  ,development of
 principal races of fowls4 ,there is no 
evidence that any of the ancient        
civilized peoples made any effort to    
improve the fowl1 nor have any improved 
races been produced in the lands where  
those civilizations flourished4 ,outside
 of this area many different types were 
gradually developed to suit the needs or
 the tastes of people in different      
countries and localities4 ,thus in the  
course of centuries were produced from  
the same original wild stock fowls as   

unlike as the massive ,brahma1 with     
feathered legs and feet1 and the        
diminutive ,game ,bantam2 the ,leghorn1 
with its large comb1 and the ,polish1   
with only the rudiments of a comb and in
 its place a great ball of feathers2 the
 ,spanish1 with monstrous development of
 the skin of the face1 and the ,silky1  
with dark skin and hairlike plumage4    
,except in a few limited districts these
 special types did not displace the     
ordinary type for many centuries4 ,until
 modern times they were hardly known    
outside of the districts or the         
countries where they originated4 ,of the
 details of their origin nothing is     
known4 ,they were not of the highly     
specialized and finished types such as  
are bred by fanciers now4 ,their        
distinctive features had been           
established1 but in comparatively crude 
form4 ,the refining and perfecting of   
all these types has been the work of    
fanciers in ,holland1 ,belgium1         
,england1 and ,america in modern times4 

,these fanciers have also developed new 
races of more serviceable types4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,light ,brahma
 hen  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,red    
,pile ,game ,bantam cock  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #ai4 ,red ,pile ,game ,bantam hen
  ,how fowls were kept in old times4    
,less than a century ago it was quite a 
common practice among the cottagers of  
,england and ,scotland to keep their    
fowls in their cottages at night4       
,sometimes a loft1 to which the birds   
had access by a ladder outside1 was     
fitted up for them4 ,sometimes perches  
for the fowls were put in the living    
room of the cottage4 ,such practices    
seem to us wrong from a sanitary        
standpoint1 but it is only within very  
recent times that people have given     
careful attention to sanitation1 and in 
old times1 when petty thieving was more 
common than it is now1 there was a      
decided advantage in having such small  
domestic animals as poultry and pigs    
where they could not be disturbed       

without the owner's knowing it4 ,the    
practice of keeping fowls in the owner's
 dwelling seems to have been confined to
 the poorer people1 who had no large    
domestic animals for which they must    
provide suitable outbuildings4 ,on large
 farms special houses were sometimes    
provided for poultry1 but they were     
probably oftener housed with other      
animals1 for few people thought it worth
 while to give them special attention4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,white-,faced 
,black ,spanish cockerel4 7,photograph  
from ,r4 ,a4 ,rowan1 ,los ,angeles1     
,california7  ,throughout all times and 
in all lands the common domestic birds  
have usually been the special charge of 
the women and children of a household4  
,in some countries long-established     
custom makes the poultry the personal   
property of the wife4 ,a traveler in    
,nubia about seventy years ago states   
that there the henhouse1 as well as the 
hens1 belonged to the wife1 and if a man
 divorced his wife1 as the custom       

permitted1 she took all away with her4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4               
,silver-,spangled ,polish cock and hen4 
7,photograph from ,leontine ,lincoln    
,jr41 ,fall ,river1 ,massachusetts7     
,the flocks of fowls were usually small 
in old times4 ,it was only in areas     
adjacent to large cities that a surplus 
of poultry or eggs could be disposed of 
profitably1 and as the fowls were almost
 always allowed the run of the dooryard1
 the barnyard1 and the outbuildings1 the
 number that could be tolerated1 even on
 a large farm1 was limited4 ,as a rule  
the fowls were expected to get their    
living as they could1 but in this they  
were not so much worse off than other   
live stock1 or than their owners4 ,but1 
while this was the ordinary state of the
 family flock of fowls1 there were      
frequent exceptions4 ,the housewife who 
is thrifty always manages affairs about 
the house better than the majority of   
her neighbors1 and in older poultry     
literature there are occasional         

statements of the methods of those who  
were most successful with their fowls1  
which we may well suppose were methods  
that had been used for centuries4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,black        
,langshan cock4 7,photograph from ,urban
 ,farms1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york7  ,modern 
conditions and methods4 ,about a hundred
 years ago people in ,england and       
,america began to give more attention to
 poultry keeping1 and to study how to   
make poultry 7especially fowls7 more    
profitable4 ,this interest in poultry   
arose partly because of the increasing  
interest in agricultural matters and    
partly because eggs and poultry were    
becoming more important articles of     
food4 ,those who studied the situation  
found that there were two ways of making
 poultry more profitable4 ,one way1     
which was open to all1 was to give the  
birds better care2 the other was to     
replace the ordinary fowls with fowls of
 an improved breed4 ,so those who were  
much interested began to follow the     

practices of the most successful poultry
 keepers that they knew1 and to         
introduce new breeds1 and gradually     
great changes were made in the methods  
of producing poultry and in the types of
 fowls that were kept in places where   
the interest in poultry was marked4     
,nearly all farmers now keep quite large
 flocks of fowls4 ,many farmers make the
 most of their living from poultry1 and 
in some places nearly every farm is     
devoted primarily to the production of  
eggs and of poultry for the table4      
,fowls receive most attention1 although1
 as we shall see1 some of the largest   
and most profitable farms are engaged in
 producing ducks4 ,in the suburbs of    
cities and in villages all over the land
 many people keep more fowls now than   
the average farmer did in old times4    
,these city poultry keepers often give a
 great deal of time to their fowls and  
still either lose money on them or make 
very small wages for the time given to  
this work1 because they try to keep too 

many in a small space1 or to keep more  
than they have time to care for         
properly4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4    
,black ,langshan hen4 7,photograph from 
,urban ,farms1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york7    
,the breeding of fancy fowls is also an 
important pursuit4 ,those who engage in 
this line on a large scale locate on    
farms1 but many of the smaller breeders 
live in towns1 and the greater number of
 the amateur fanciers who breed fine    
fowls for pleasure are city people4  ,on
 large poultry farms the work is usually
 done by men4 ,there are many small     
plants operated by women4 ,the ordinary 
farm and family flocks are cared for by 
women and children much oftener than by 
men1 because1 even when the men are     
interested in poultry1 other work takes 
the farmer away from the vicinity of the
 house1 and the city man away from home1
 so much that they cannot look after    
poultry as closely as is necessary to   
get the best results4 ,many women like  
to have the care of a small flock of    

fowls1 because it takes them outdoors   
for a few minutes at intervals every    
day1 and the eggs and poultry sold may  
bring in a considerable amount of pin   
money4 ,many boys1 while attending the  
grammar and high schools1 earn money by 
keeping a flock of fowls4 ,some have    
saved enough in this way to pay expenses
 at college for a year or more1 or to   
give them a start in a small business4  
,when there are both boys and girls in a
 family1 such outdoor work usually falls
 to the lot of a boy4 ,a girl can do    
just as well if she has the opportunity 
and takes an interest in the work4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,pit ,game    
cock4 7,photograph from ,w4 ,f4         
,liedtke1 ,meriden1 ,connecticut7       
,native fowls in ,america4 ,to          
appreciate the influence of improved    
races of fowls from various parts of the
 ,old ,world upon the development of    
poultry culture in ,america1 we must    
know what the fowls in this country were
 like when poultry keepers here began to

 see the advantages of keeping better   
stock1 and must learn something of the  
history of the improved races in the    
countries from which they came4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,dominique    
cockerel4 7,photograph from ,w4 ,h4     
,davenport1 ,coleraine1 ,massachusetts7 
,when we speak of native fowls in       
,america we mean fowls derived from the 
stocks brought here by the early        
settlers4 ,the fowl was not known in the
 ,western ,hemisphere until it was      
brought here by ,europeans4 ,britain1   
,france1 ,spain1 ,holland1 and ,sweden  
all sent colonists to ,america1 and from
 each of these countries came1 no doubt1
 some of the ordinary fowls of that     
country4 ,perhaps improved varieties    
came from some of these lands in early  
colonial times1 but the only breeds that
 retained their identity sufficiently to
 have distinctive names were the ,game  
,fowls1 which came mostly from ,england1
 and the ,dominiques 7bluish-gray barred
 fowls which probably came from ,holland

 or from the north of ,france1 where    
fowls of this type were common74        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,dominique    
hen4 7,photograph from ,skerritt and    
,son1 ,utica1 ,new ,york7  ,the ,game   
,fowls1 being prized for the sport of   
cockfighting1 were often bred with great
 care1 but the ,dominique fowls 7also   
called cuckoo fowls and hawk-colored    
fowls7 were mixed with other stock1 and 
the name was commonly given to any fowl 
of that color1 until after the          
improvement of fowls began4 ,then some  
people collected flocks of fowls of this
 color and bred them for uniformity in  
other characters4 ,well-bred fowls1     
however1 were comparatively rare4 ,most 
of the stock all through the country was
 of the little mongrel type until about 
the middle of the last century4 ,then   
that type began to disappear from ,new  
,england1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and 
eastern ,pennsylvania4 ,it remained     
longer in the ,northern states west of  
the ,allegheny ,mountains and a         

generation ago was still the most common
 type in the upper ,mississippi ,valley4
 ,it is now unknown outside of the      
,southern states1 and within ten or     
twenty years it will disappear entirely4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4             
,silver-,gray ,dorking cock             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,silver-,gray 
,dorking hen  ,old ,european races of   
fowls4 ,with the exception of the       
,leghorn1 most of the distinct breeds of
 ,european origin were brought from     
,england1 and the types introduced were 
not the types as developed in the places
 where the breeds 7other than ,english  
breeds7 originated1 but those types as  
modified by ,english fanciers4 ,in      
,america1 again1 most of these breeds   
have been slightly changed to conform to
 the ideas of ,american fanciers4 ,so1  
while the breed characters are still the
 same as in the original stocks1 the    
pupil looking at birds of these breeds  
to-day must not suppose that it was just
 such birds that came to this country   

from seventy to a hundred years ago1 or 
that1 if he went to the countries where 
those races originated1 he would find   
birds just like those he had seen at    
home4 ,except in the case of the        
distinctly ,english breeds1 such as the 
,dorking and the ,cornish ,indian ,game1
 which are bred to greater perfection in
 their native land than elsewhere1 he   
would find most of the ,european races  
not so highly developed in the countries
 where they originated as in ,england   
and ,america1 where fanciers are more   
numerous4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4    
,single-,comb ,brown ,leghorn cockerel4 
7,photograph from ,grove ,hill ,poultry 
,yards1 ,waltham1 ,massachusetts7       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,rose-,comb   
,buff ,leghorn hen4 7,photograph from   
,h4 ,j4 ,fisk1 ,falconer1 ,new ,york7   
,italian fowls4 ,strictly speaking1 the 
,italian fowls in ,italy are not an     
improved race4 ,the fowl which is known 
in this country as the ,leghorn fowl    
7because the first specimens brought    

here came from the port of ,leghorn7 is 
the common fowl of ,italy and has       
changed very little since it was        
introduced into that country thousands  
of years ago4 ,it is found there in all 
colors1 and mostly with a single comb4  
,the ,italian type is of particular     
interest1 not only because of its       
influence in modern times1 but because  
from it were probably derived most of   
the other ,european races4 ,italian     
fowls were first brought to this country
 about #ahce1 but did not attract       
popular attention until twenty-five or  
thirty years later4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ca4 ,silver-,spangled ,hamburg   
cock#c  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4       
,silver-,spangled ,hamburg hen#c  #c    
,photograph from ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,wolfe1   
,bloomfield1 ,new ,jersey4  ,english    
races of fowls4 ,it is supposed that    
fowls were introduced into ,britain from
 ,italy shortly after the ,roman        
conquest4 ,the type was probably very   
like that of ordinary ,leghorn fowls of 

our own time1 but with smaller combs4   
,from such stock the ,english developed 
two very different races1 the ,pit ,game
 and the ,dorking4 ,game fowls were bred
 in all parts of the kingdom1 but the   
,dorkings were a local breed developed  
by the people in the vicinity of the    
town of ,dorking1 where from very early 
times the growing of poultry for the    
,london market was an important local   
industry4 ,each in its way1 these two   
breeds represent the highest skill in   
breeding4 ,in the ,old ,english ,game   
,fowl1 symmetry1 strength1 endurance1   
and courage were combined to perfection4
 ,the ,dorking is the finest type of    
table fowl that has ever been produced4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4               
,white-,crested ,black ,polish cock#d   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4               
,white-,crested ,black ,polish hen#d  #d
 ,photograph from ,charles ,l4 ,seely1  
,afton1 ,new ,york4  ,german and ,dutch 
races4 ,the breeds now known as         
,hamburgs and ,polish are of peculiar   

interest to a student of the evolution  
of races of fowls1 because they present 
some characters not readily derived from
 the primitive type of the fowl4 ,the   
feather markings of some varieties of   
both these breeds are unlike those of   
other races1 and are markings which     
would not be likely to become           
established unless the fowls were bred  
systematically for that purpose4 ,so1   
too1 with the large crest of the ,polish
 fowl3 to carry it the structure of the 
head must be changed4 ,such changes     
require systematic breeding for a long  
period4 ,dutch and ,german artists of   
the sixteenth century painted many      
farmyard scenes showing fowls of both   
these types1 frequently in flocks with  
common fowls and with some that appear  
to be a mixture4 ,to any one versed in  
the breeding of poultry this indicates  
that these peculiar types had been made 
by very skillful breeders long before4  
,the most reasonable supposition is that
 these breeders were monks in the       

monasteries of ,central ,europe4        
,throughout the ,middle ,ages the monks 
of ,europe1 more than any other class of
 men1 worked for improvement in         
agriculture as well as for the          
advancement of learning4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #ce4 ,houdan cock4 7,photograph  
from the ,houdan ,yards1 ,sewickley1    
,pennsylvania7  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#cf4 ,white ,minorca hen4 7,photograph  
from ,tioga ,poultry ,farm1 ,apalachin1 
,new ,york7  ,french races4 ,the ,houdan
 is the only ,french breed well known in
 ,america4 ,it is of the ,polish type1  
but heavier1 and the plumage is mottled 
irregularly1 not distinctly marked as in
 the party-colored varieties of ,polish4
 ,the breed takes its name from the town
 of ,houdan1 the center of a district in
 which this is the common type of fowl4 
,spanish races4 ,the fowls of ,spanish  
origin well known outside of ,spain are 
the ,white-faced ,black ,spanish1 the   
,black ,minorca1 and the ,blue          
,andalusian4 ,the fowls of ,spain at the

 present time are mostly of the ,italian
 type1 with black 7or in some districts 
blue7 the predominant color4 ,the ,black
 ,spanish seems to have been known in   
,holland and ,england for two hundred   
years or more4 ,in ,spain the white face
 is but moderately developed4 ,the      
monstrous exaggeration of this character
 began in ,holland and was carried to   
the extreme by ,british fanciers who    
admired it4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4  
,black ,minorca cock4 7,photograph from 
,arthur ,trethaway1 ,wilkes-,barre1     
,pennsylvania7  ,the ,black ,minorca is 
supposed to have been brought to        
,england direct from ,spain about a     
century ago4 ,there it was bred to much 
greater size1 with the comb often so    
large that it was a burden to the fowl4 
,blue ,andalusians1 at first called     
,blue ,spanish and ,blue ,minorcas1 were
 first known in ,england about #ahej4   
,asiatic races of fowls4 ,the evolution 
of races of fowls in the ,orient gave   
some general results strikingly         

different from those in ,europe4 ,as far
 as is known1 after the introduction of 
fowls into ,china and ,india some       
thousand years ago the stock which went 
to those countries and that which       
descended from it was completely        
isolated from the fowls of ,western     
,asia1 ,africa1 and ,europe until the   
eighteenth century4 ,when commerce      
between ,europe1 ,india1 and the ,east  
,indies began1 the ,europeans found in  
these countries fowls of a much more    
rugged type than those of ,europe4 ,some
 of these fowls were much larger than   
any that the visitors had seen4 ,the    
,aseel of ,india was a small but very   
strong1 stocky type of ,game4 ,among the
 ,malayans the common fowl was a large1 
coarse type of ,game4 ,the hens of these
 breeds laid eggs of a reddish-brown    
color1 while hens of all the races of   
,europe laid white eggs4 ,birds of both 
these types were taken to ,england early
 in the last century1 and perhaps in    
small numbers before that time4         

,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,buff ,cochin 
hen#e  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,buff  
,cochin cock#e  #e ,photograph from     
,tienken and ,case1 ,rochester1         
,michigan4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4   
,dark ,brahma hen  ,chinese races4 ,in  
,china a type of fowl in some ways much 
like the ,malay1 in others quite        
different1 had been developed as the    
common stock of the country4 ,they were 
about as tall as the ,malays1 much      
heavier1 and very quiet and docile4     
,they were of various colors1 had       
feathers on the shanks and feet1 and    
laid brown eggs4 ,some of these fowls   
were brought to ,america in sailing     
vessels very early in the last century  
and occasionally after that until the   
middle of the century1 but attracted no 
attention1 for the birds were brought in
 small numbers for friends of sailors or
 for persons particularly interested in 
poultry1 and at that time there was no  
means of communication between fanciers 
in different localities4  ,illustration3

 ,fig4 #da4 ,dark ,brahma cockerel      
,japanese races4 ,although the ,japanese
 races of fowls had no particular       
influence on the development of poultry 
culture in ,america1 they are of great  
interest in a study of poultry types1   
because1 when intercourse between ,japan
 and ,western nations began1 it was     
found that the ordinary fowls of ,japan 
were much like the ordinary fowls of    
,europe and ,america1 and not1 as would 
be expected1 like the fowls of ,china4  
,this indicated that there had been no  
exchange of fowls between ,china and    
,japan after the type in ,china became  
changed4 ,it also affords strong        
evidence that the fowls of ,india and   
,china1 although so changed1 were       
originally like the ,european and       
,japanese common fowls4 ,the special    
races developed in ,japan were ,game    
,fowls1 more like the ,european than the
 ,malay type2 a long-tailed fowl1 very  
much like the ,leghorn in other         
respects2 and the very short-legged     

,japanese ,bantam4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #db4 ,long-,tailed ,japanese ,phoenix  
cockerel4 7,photograph from ,urban      
,farms1 ,buffalo1 ,new ,york7  ,the     
hen-fever period4 ,we are all familiar  
with the phrase the hen fever and with  
its application to persons intensely    
interested in poultry1 but few know how 
it originated4 ,the interest in better  
poultry that had been slowly growing in 
the ,eastern states culminated in #ahdi 
in an exhibition in the ,public ,garden 
in ,boston1 to which fanciers from      
eastern ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 
and eastern ,connecticut brought their  
choicest and rarest specimens4 ,this was
 the first poultry show held in         
,america4 ,nearly fifteen hundred birds 
were exhibited1 and the exhibitors      
numbered over two hundred4 ,there were a
 few birds of other kinds1 but fowls    
made by far the greater part of the     
show4 ,all the principal races of       
,europe and ,asia were represented4     
,most of the exhibitors lived in the    

immediate vicinity of ,boston4 ,about   
ten thousand people attended this       
exhibition4  ,such an event created a   
great sensation4 ,newspaper reports of  
it reached all parts of the country4    
,the ,chinese fowls1 so large when      
compared with others1 were most noticed4
 ,at once a great demand for these fowls
 and for their eggs arose1 and prices   
for fancy poultry1 which previously had 
been but little higher than prices for  
common poultry1 rose so high that those 
who paid such prices for fowls were     
commonly regarded as monomaniacs4 ,while
 the interest was not as great in other 
kinds of fowls as in the ,shanghais1    
,cochin ,chinas1 and ,brahmaputras1 as  
they were then called1 all shared in the
 boom1 and within a few years there was 
hardly a community in the northeastern  
part of the ,united ,states where there 
was not some one keeping highly bred    
fowls4 ,when the interest became        
general1 the famous showman1 ,p4 ,t4    
,barnum1 promoted a show of poultry in  

the ,american ,museum in ,new ,york     
,city4 ,many celebrated men became      
interested in fine poultry4 ,daniel     
,webster had been one of the exhibitors 
at the first show in #ahdi4 ,the noted  
temperance lecturer1 ,john ,b4 ,gough1  
was a very enthusiastic fancier4  ,after
 a few years the excitement began to    
subside1 and most people supposed that  
it was about to die1 never to revive4 ,a
 ,mr4 ,burnham1 who had been one of the 
most energetic promoters of ,asiatic    
fowls1 and had made a small fortune     
while the boom lasted1 had so little    
confidence in the permanence of the     
poultry fancy that he published a book  
called ,the ,history of the ,hen ,fever1
 which presented the whole movement as a
 humbug skillfully engineered by        
himself4 ,this book was very widely     
read1 and the phrase the hen fever1     
applying to enthusiastic amateur poultry
 keepers1 came into common use4         
,subsequent developments showed that    
those who had supposed that the interest

 in fine poultry was only a passing fad 
were wrong4 ,the true reason for its    
decline at that time was that the nation
 was approaching a crisis in its history
 and a civil war4 ,when the war was     
over1 the interest in poultry revived at
 once1 and has steadily increased ever  
since4 ,the prices for fine specimens1  
which were considered absurd in the days
 of the hen fever1 are now ordinary     
prices for stock of high quality4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,barred       
,plymouth ,rock cock4 7,photograph from 
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,how the ,american breeds arose4 ,it is 
natural to suppose that with such a     
variety of types of fowls1 from so many 
lands1 there was no occasion for        
,americans to make any new breeds4 ,if1 
however1 you look critically at the     
foreign breeds1 you may notice that not 
one of them had been developed with     
reference to the simple requirements of 
the ordinary farmer and poultry keeper4 

,it was the increasing demand for eggs  
and poultry for market that had given   
the first impulse to the interest in    
special breeds4 ,the first claim made   
for each of these was that it was a     
better layer than the ordinary fowl4 ,in
 general1 these claims were true1 but   
farmers and others who were interested  
primarily in producing eggs and poultry 
for the table were rather indifferent to
 the foreign breeds1 because1 among them
 all1 there was not one as well adapted 
to the ordinary ,american poultry       
keeper's needs as the old ,dominique or 
as the occasional flocks of the old     
native stock that had been bred with    
some attention to size and to uniformity
 in other characters4  ,to every foreign
 breed these practical poultry keepers  
found some objection4 ,the ,dorking was 
too delicate1 and its five-toed feet    
made it clumsy4 ,the ,hamburgs1 too1    
were delicate1 and the most skillful    
breeding was required to preserve their 
beautiful color markings4 ,the          

superfluous feathers on the heads of the
 crested breeds and on the feet of the  
,asiatics were equally objectionable4   
,all the ,european races except the     
,leghorns had white skin and            
flesh-colored or slate-colored feet1    
while in ,america there was a very      
decided popular preference for fowls    
with yellow skin and legs4 ,the         
,leghorns and the ,asiatics met this    
requirement1 but the former were too    
small and their combs were unnecessarily
 large1 while the latter were larger    
fowls than were desired for general use1
 and their foot feathering was a        
handicap in barnyards and on heavy1 wet 
soils4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4       
,barred ,plymouth ,rock hen4            
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,animal    
,industry1 ,united ,states ,department  
of ,agriculture7  ,so1 while fanciers   
and those who were willing to give their
 poultry special attention1 or who kept 
fowls for some special purpose which one
 of the foreign breeds suited1 took     

these breeds up eagerly1 farmers and    
other poultry keepers usually became    
interested in them only to the extent of
 using male birds of different breeds to
 cross with flocks of native and grade  
hens4 ,in consequence of this           
promiscuous crossing1 the stock in the  
country rapidly changed1 a new type of  
mongrel replacing the old native stock4 
,while the masses of poultry keepers    
were thus crossing new and old stock at 
random1 many breeders were trying       
systematically to produce a new breed   
that would meet all the popular         
requirements4 ,even before the days of  
the hen fever two local breeds had      
arisen1 probably by accident4 ,these    
were the ,jersey ,blue and the ,bucks   
,county ,fowl1 both of which continued  
down to our own time but never became   
popular4 ,at the first exhibition in    
,boston a class had been provided for   
crossbred fowls1 and in this was shown a
 new variety called the ,plymouth ,rock4
 ,from the descriptions of these birds  

now in existence it appears that they   
looked much like the modern ,partridge  
,plymouth ,rock4 ,those who brought them
 out hoped that they would meet the     
popular demand1 and for a short time it 
seemed that this hope might be realized1
 but interest in them soon waned1 and in
 a few years they were almost forgotten4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,white      
,plymouth ,rock hen 7,photograph from   
,c4 ,e4 ,hodgkins1 ,northampton1        
,massachusetts7  ,in the light of the   
history of ,american breeds which did   
afterwards become popular we can see now
 that the ideas of the masses of        
,american poultry keepers were not as   
strictly practical as their objections  
to the various foreign breeds appeared  
to show4 ,the three varieties that have 
just been mentioned1 and many others    
arising from time to time1 met all the  
expressed requirements of the practical 
poultry keeper quite as well as those   
which subsequently caught his fancy4    
,indeed1 as will be shown farther on1   

some of the productions of this period1 
after being neglected for a long time1  
finally became very popular4 ,usually   
this happened when their color became   
fashionable4  ,the modern ,barred       
,plymouth ,rock4 ,shortly after our     
,civil ,war two poultrymen in           
,connecticut--one a fancier1 the other a
 farmer--engaged in a joint effort to   
produce the business type of fowl that  
would meet the favor of ,american       
farmers4 ,a male of the old ,dominique  
type was crossed with some ,black       
,cochin hens4 ,this mating produced some
 chickens having the color of the sire1 
but larger and more robust4 ,another and
 more skillful fancier saw these        
chickens and persuaded the farmer to    
sell him a few of the best4 ,a few years
 later1 when1 by careful breeding and   
selection1 he had fixed the type and had
 specimens enough to supply eggs to     
other fanciers1 he took some of his new 
breed to a show at ,worcester1          
,massachusetts4 ,up to this time he had 

not thought of a name for them1 but as  
people who saw them would want to know  
what they were called1 a name was now   
necessary4 ,it occurred to this man that
 the name ,plymouth ,rock1 having once  
been given to a promising ,american     
breed1 would be appropriate4 ,so the    
birds were exhibited as ,plymouth       
,rocks4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,buff
 ,plymouth ,rock cock  ,this new breed  
caught the popular fancy at once1 for it
 had the color which throughout this    
country was supposed always to be       
associated with exceptional vigor and   
productiveness1 and it had greater size 
than the ,dominique4 ,the fame of the   
new breed spread rapidly4 ,it was       
impossible to supply the demand from the
 original stock1 and1 as there is       
usually more than one way of producing a
 type by crossing1 good imitations of   
the original were soon abundant4        
,farmers and market poultrymen by       
thousands took up the ,plymouth ,rock1  
while all over the land fanciers were   

trying to perfect the color which their 
critical taste found very poor4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4               
,silver-,penciled ,plymouth ,rock hen   
,other varieties of the ,plymouth ,rock4
 ,the success of the ,plymouth ,rock    
gave fresh impetus to efforts to make   
new breeds and varieties of the same    
general character4 ,great as was its    
popularity1 the new breed did not suit  
all4 ,some did not like the color2 some 
objected to the single comb1 thinking   
that a rose comb or a pea comb had      
advantages2 some preferred a shorter1   
blockier body2 others wanted a larger1  
longer body4 ,the off-colored birds     
which new races usually produce in      
considerable numbers1 even when the     
greater number come quite true1 also    
suggested to some who obtained them new 
varieties of the ,plymouth ,rock1 while 
to others it seemed better policy to    
give them new names and exploit them as 
new and distinct breeds4  ,both black   
and white specimens came often in the   

early flocks of ,barred ,plymouth       
,rocks4 ,the black ones were developed  
as a distinct breed1 called the ,black  
,java4 ,the white ones1 after going for 
a while under various names1 and after  
strong opposition from those who claimed
 that the name ,plymouth ,rock belonged 
exclusively to birds of the color with  
which the name had become identified1   
finally secured recognition as ,white   
,plymouth ,rocks4 ,almost immediately   
,buff ,plymouth ,rocks appeared4 ,for   
reasons which will appear later1 the    
origin of these will be given in another
 connection4 ,then came in rapid        
succession the ,silver-,penciled1 the   
,partridge1 or ,golden-,penciled 7which1
 as has been said1 is probably quite a  
close duplicate of the type to which the
 name ,plymouth ,rock was originally    
given71 and the ,columbian1 or ,ermine1 
,plymouth ,rock4 ,these were all of the 
general type of the ,barred variety1 but
 because in most cases they were made by
 different combinations1 and because    

fanciers are much more particular to    
breed for color than to breed for       
typical form1 the several varieties of  
the ,plymouth ,rock are slightly        
different in form4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #dh4 ,silver-,laced ,wyandotte pullet4 
,photographed in position showing lacing
 on back  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4     
,silver-,laced ,wyandotte cockerel  ,the
 ,wyandottes4 ,closely following the    
appearance of the ,barred ,plymouth     
,rock came the ,silver-,laced           
,wyandotte1 called at first simply the  
,wyandotte4 ,the original type was quite
 different in color from the modern     
type4 ,it had on each feather a small   
white center surrounded by a heavy black
 lacing4 ,this has been gradually       
changed until now the white center is   
large and the black edging narrow4 ,at  
first some of these ,wyandottes had rose
 combs and some had single combs4 ,the  
rose comb was preferred and the         
single-combed birds were discarded as   
culls4  ,strange as it seems in the case

 of an event so recent1 no one knows    
where the first ,wyandottes came from4  
,it is supposed that they were one of   
the many varieties developed either by  
chance or in an effort to meet the      
demand for a general-purpose fowl4 ,they
 appear to have come into the hands of  
those who first exploited them in some  
way that left no trace of their source4 
,they went under several different names
 until #ahhc1 when the name ,wyandotte  
was given them as an appropriate and    
euphonious name for an ,american breed4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,white        
,wyandotte cockerel4 7,photograph from  
,w4 ,e4 ,mack1 ,woodstock1 ,vermont7    
,next appeared a ,golden-,laced         
,wyandotte1 marked like the             
,silver-,laced variety but having golden
 bay where that had white4 ,this variety
 was developed from an earlier variety  
of unknown origin1 known in ,southern   
,wisconsin and ,northern ,illinois      
7about #ahgj and earlier7 under the name
 of ,winnebago4  ,the ,silver-,laced    

,wyandottes1 like the ,barred ,plymouth 
,rocks1 produced some black and some    
white specimens4 ,from these were made  
the ,black ,wyandottes and the ,white   
,wyandottes4 ,then came the ,buff       
,wyandottes 7from the same original     
source as the ,buff ,plymouth ,rocks71  
and after them ,partridge ,wyandottes1  
,silver-,penciled ,wyandottes1 and      
,columbian1 or ,ermine1 ,wyandottes4    
,from the three last-named varieties    
came the ,plymouth ,rock varieties of   
the corresponding colors1 the first     
stocks of these being the single-combed 
specimens from the flocks of breeders of
 these varieties of ,wyandottes4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4               
,silver-,penciled ,wyandotte cockerel4  
7,photograph from ,james ,s4 ,wason1    
,grand ,rapids1 ,michigan7              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,partridge    
,wyandotte pullet  ,the ,rhode ,island  
,red4 ,among the earliest of the local  
types developed in ,america was a red   
fowl which soon became the prevalent    

type in the egg-farming section of      
,rhode ,island and quite popular in the 
adjacent part of ,massachusetts4 ,most  
of the stock of this race was produced  
by a continuous process of grading and  
crossing which was systematic only in   
that it was the common practice to      
preserve none but the red males after   
introducing a cross of another color4 ,a
 few breeders in the district bred their
 flocks more carefully than others1 but 
the race as a whole was not really      
thoroughbred until after it became more 
widely popular4  ,although the formation
 of this race began about #ahej 7perhaps
 earlier71 it was fifty years before it 
became known outside of the limited area
 in which it was almost the only type to
 be seen4 ,indeed1 the first birds of   
this race to attract the attention of   
the public were exhibited about #ahij as
 ,buff ,plymouth ,rocks and ,buff       
,wyandottes4 ,at that time very few of  
the ,rhode ,island ,reds were as dark in
 color as the average specimen now seen 

in the showroom1 and buff specimens were
 numerous4 ,birds with rose combs1 birds
 with single combs1 birds with pea      
combs1 and birds with intermediate types
 of comb could often be found in the    
same flock4 ,so it was not a very       
difficult matter1 among many thousands  
of birds1 to pick out some that would   
pass for ,buff ,plymouth ,rocks and some
 that would pass for ,buff ,wyandottes4 
,these varieties were also made in other
 ways1 mostly by various crosses with   
the ,buff ,cochin1 but for some years   
breeders continued to draw on the ,rhode
 ,island supply4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#ec4 ,columbian ,wyandottes4            
7,photograph from ,r4 ,g4 ,richardson1  
,lowell1 ,massachusetts7  ,some people  
in the ,rhode ,island district thought  
that a breed which could thus furnish   
the foundation for varieties of two     
other breeds ought to win popularity on 
its own merits4 ,so they began to       
exhibit and advertise ,rhode ,island    
,reds4 ,at first they made little       

progress1 but as the breed improved1    
many more people became interested in   
it1 and soon it was one of the most     
popular breeds in the country4 ,the     
modern exhibition ,rhode ,island ,red is
 of a dark brownish red in color4  ,the 
,american idea in ,england2 the         
,orpington4 ,at the time that the       
,chinese fowls were attracting wide     
attention in ,america and ,england some 
were taken to other countries of        
,europe4 ,in almost every country they  
had some influence upon the native      
stock1 but as each of the old countries 
had one or more improved races that     
suited most of those giving special     
attention to poultry culture1 the       
influence of the ,asiatics was less     
marked than in our country4  ,when the  
,plymouth ,rock and the ,wyandotte      
became popular in ,america1 they were   
taken to ,england1 where1 in spite of   
the preference for white skin and       
flesh-colored legs1 they were soon in   
such favor that a shrewd ,english       

breeder saw the advantage of making     
another breed of the same general type  
but with skin and legs of the colors    
preferred in ,england4 ,he called his   
new breed the ,orpington1 giving it the 
name of the town in which he lived4 ,the
 first ,orpingtons were black and were  
made by crossing the black progeny of   
,plymouth ,rocks 7which in ,america had 
been used to make the ,black ,java71    
,black ,minorcas1 and ,black ,langshans4
 ,then the originator of the ,orpingtons
 put out a buff variety1 which he       
claimed was made by another particular  
combination of crosses1 but which others
 said was only an improvement of a local
 breed known as the ,lincolnshire ,buff4
 ,later ,white ,orpingtons and ,spangled
 ,orpingtons appeared4  ,present        
distribution of improved races4 ,having 
briefly traced the distribution of the  
fowl in ancient times1 and the movements
 which in modern times brought          
long-separated branches of the species  
together1 let us look at the present    

situation4  ,the ,plymouth ,rocks1      
,wyandottes1 ,rhode ,island ,reds1 and  
,orpingtons1 which are essentially one  
type1 the differences between them being
 superficial1 constitute the greater    
part of the improved fowls of ,america  
and ,england and are favorites with     
progressive poultry keepers in many     
other lands4 ,in many parts of this     
country one rarely sees a fowl that is  
not of this type1 either of one of the  
breeds named or a grade of the same     
type4 ,after the general-purpose type1  
the laying type1 which includes the     
,italian1 ,spanish1 ,german1 and ,dutch 
races1 is the most popular1 but in this 
type popularity is limited in most      
places to the ,leghorns and to a few    
breeds which1 though classed as distinct
 breeds1 are essentially the same4 ,the 
,ancona is really a ,leghorn1 and the   
,andalusian1 although it comes from     
,spain1 is1 like other races in that    
land1 distinctly of the same type as the
 fowls of ,italy4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 

#ed4 ,single-,combed ,buff ,orpington   
cock4 7,photograph from ,miss ,henrietta
 ,e4 ,hooker1 ,south ,hadley1           
,massachusetts7  ,with the growth of a  
general-purpose class1 interest in the  
,asiatic fowls rapidly declined4 ,they  
are now kept principally by fanciers and
 by market poultry growers who produce  
extra large fowls for the table4        
,deformed and dwarf races4 ,although    
some of the races of fowls that have    
been considered have odd characters     
which1 when greatly exaggerated1 are    
detrimental and bring the race to decay1
 such characters as large combs1 crests1
 feathered legs1 and the peculiar       
development of the face in the ,black   
,spanish fowl1 when moderately          
developed1 do not seriously affect the  
usefulness of fowls possessing them4    
,with a little extra care they usually  
do as well as fowls of corresponding    
plain types4 ,poultry keepers who admire
 such decorations and keep only a few   
birds do not find the extra care that   

they require burdensome1 and            
consequently all these races have become
 well established and at times popular4 
,it is notable that in all fowls of this
 class the odd character is added to the
 others or is an exaggeration of a      
regular character4 ,there are two other 
classes of odd types of fowls4 ,the     
first of these is made up of a small    
group of varieties defective in one     
character2 the second comprises the     
dwarf varieties1 most of which are      
miniatures of larger varieties4  ,silky 
fowls4 ,in all races of fowls           
individuals sometimes appear in which   
the web of the feathers is of a peculiar
 formation1 resembling hair4 ,such fowls
 are called silkies4 ,they are          
occasionally exhibited as curiosities   
but are not often bred to reproduce this
 character4 ,there is one distinct race 
of white fowls1 so small that it is     
usually classed as a bantam1 having     
feathers of this kind4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ee4 ,single-,combed ,white       

,orpington hen4 7,photograph from       
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,frizzled fowls4 ,the feathers of a fowl
 are sometimes curled at the tips1 like 
the short curls in the feathers which   
indicate the sex of a drake4 ,such birds
 are called frizzles or frizzled fowls4 
,true frizzles1 like true silkies from  
races having normal plumage1 are very   
rare4 ,many of the fowls exhibited at   
poultry shows as ,frizzles are ordinary 
birds the feathers of which have been   
curled artificially4  ,rumpless fowls4  
,the tail feathers of a fowl are borne  
on a fleshy protuberance at the lower   
end of the spine4 ,it sometimes happens 
that one or more of the lower vertebrae 
are missing4 ,in that case the fowl has 
no tail and the feathers on the back1   
which in a normal fowl divide and hang  
down at each side1 fall smoothly all    
around4 ,true rumpless fowls are rare4  
,many of the specimens exhibited are    
birds from which the rump was removed   

when they were very young4  ,bantams4   
,dwarf1 or bantam1 fowls1 on account of 
their diminutive size and pert ways1 are
 especially attractive to children4     
,breeding them to secure the minimum    
size1 the desired type1 and fine quality
 in plumage color has the same          
fascination for a fancier as the        
breeding of large fowls1 and as the     
small birds are better adapted to small 
spaces1 fanciers who have little room   
often devote themselves to the breeding 
of bantams4 ,the larger and hardier     
varieties of bantams are good for eggs  
and poultry for home use1 but are not   
often kept primarily for these products4
 ,most people who keep bantams keep only
 a few for pleasure1 and the eggs and   
poultry they furnish are but a small    
part of what the family consumes4       
,bantam keepers who have a surplus of   
such products can usually find customers
 in their own neighborhood4 ,the very   
small bantams and the very rare         
varieties are usually delicate and so   

hard to rear that amateurs who try them 
soon become discouraged and either give 
up bantams or take one of the hardy     
kinds4 ,it is better to begin with one  
of the popular varieties1 which are as  
interesting as any and1 on the whole1   
are the most satisfactory4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,white ,cochin
 ,bantam cockerel  ,origin of bantams4  
,after the explanation of the origin of 
varieties given in ,chapter ,,iii1 and  
the description of the evolution of the 
different races of fowls in the present 
chapter1 it is perhaps not really       
necessary to tell how dwarf races of    
fowls originated2 but the belief that   
such races were unknown until brought to
 ,europe from the city of ,bantam1 in   
the ,island of ,java1 is so widespread  
that it can do no harm to give the facts
 which disprove this and in doing so to 
show again how easily artificial        
varieties are made by skillful poultry  
fanciers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4    
,bantams make good pets  ,as has been   

stated1 people who do not understand the
 close relations of the different races 
of fowls1 and do not know how quickly   
new types may be established by careful 
breeding1 attach a great deal of        
importance to purity of breed4 ,hence1  
unscrupulous promoters of new breeds    
have often claimed that they received   
their original stock direct from some   
remote place or from some one who had   
long bred it pure4 ,the idea of         
assigning the town of ,bantam as the    
home of a true species of dwarf domestic
 fowl seems to have occurred to some one
 in ,england more than a hundred years  
ago1 and to have been suggested because 
of the resemblance of the name of this  
,asiatic city to the ,english word      
banty1 the popular name for a dwarf     
fowl4 ,it seems strange that such a     
fiction should be accepted as accounting
 for dwarf varieties of ,european races1
 but it was published by some of the    
early writers1 used by lexicographers1  
and1 having found a place in the        

dictionaries1 was accepted as           
authoritative by the majority of later  
writers on poultry1 even after some of  
the highest authorities had shown       
conclusively that this view of the      
origin of dwarf races was erroneous4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,black-,tailed
 ,white ,japanese ,bantams4 7,photograph
 from ,frederick ,w4 ,otte1 ,peekskill1 
,new ,york7  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4  
,white ,polish ,bantam hen              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,white ,polish
 ,bantam cock  ,no evidence of the      
existence of a dwarf race of fowls in   
,java has ever been produced4 ,the      
,chinese and ,japanese bantams did not  
come to ,europe and ,america until long 
after the name bantam came into use4    
,dwarfs occur and undoubtedly have      
occurred frequently in every race of    
fowls4 ,usually they are unsymmetrical  
and weakly1 and are called runts and put
 out of the way as soon as possible4    
,but occasionally an undersized         
individual is finely formed1 active1 and

 hardy4 ,by mating such a specimen with 
the smallest specimen of the other sex  
that can be found 7even though the      
latter is much larger71 and by repeated 
selection of the smallest specimens1 a  
dwarf race may be obtained4 ,it could be
 made1 though not so rapidly1 by        
systematic selection of the smallest    
ordinary specimens and by keeping the   
growing chicks so short of food that    
they would be stunted4 ,the latter      
process1 however1 is so tedious that no 
one is likely to adopt it4 ,usually the 
idea of making a new variety of bantams 
does not occur to a breeder until he    
sees a good dwarf specimen of a race of 
which there is no dwarf variety4 ,then1 
if he undertakes to make such a variety1
 he is likely to use in the process both
 small specimens of large races and     
birds of long-established dwarf races4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,black ,cochin
 ,bantam pullet#f  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#fb4 ,black ,cochin ,bantam cockerel#f  
#f ,photograph from ,dr4 ,j4 ,n4        

,mac,rae1 ,galt1 ,ontario4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,rose-,comb   
,black ,bantam cock  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #fd4 ,rose-,comb ,black ,bantam   
hen#g  #g ,photograph from ,grove ,hill 
,poultry ,yards1 ,waltham1              
,massachusetts4  ,dwarf types of most of
 the popular breeds have been made here 
and exhibited1 but the originators were 
given very little encouragement to      
perfect them4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fe4
 ,silver ,sebright ,bantam cockerel     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,silver       
,sebright ,bantam pullet  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #fg4 ,dark ,brahma ,bantam       
cockerel  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fh4     
,light ,brahma ,bantam hen with brood#h 
#h ,photograph from ,brook ,view ,farm1 
,newbury1 ,massachusetts4  ,varieties of
 bantams4 ,the most popular bantams in  
this country to-day are the ,cochin     
,bantams1 formerly called ,pekin        
,bantams because the first that were    
seen in ,europe and ,america had come   
from ,peking4 ,only the self-colored    

varieties--buff1 black1 and white--are  
natives of ,china4 ,the ,partridge      
variety was made in ,england1 where     
there are several other color varieties 
not known in this country4 ,the ,common 
,game ,bantam is a dwarf ,pit ,game     
fowl2 the ,exhibition ,game ,bantam is a
 dwarf type resembling the ,exhibition  
,game1 developed from the ,common ,game 
,bantam4 ,rose-,comb ,black and         
,rose-,comb ,white ,bantams are         
diminutive ,hamburg fowls2 ,polish      
,bantams are diminutive ,polish4 ,the   
,sebright ,bantams are of the same      
general type as the ,rose-,combs1 but in
 color they are laced like the large    
varieties of ,polish1 not spangled like 
the party-colored ,hamburgs4 ,they are  
further distinguished by being          
hen-tailed1 that is1 the males having   
tails like hens4 ,sebright ,bantams were
 made in ,england about a hundred years 
ago1 by ,sir ,john ,sebright1 for whom  
they were named4 ,although the large    
,brahmas and ,cochins are originally of 

the same stock1 no bantams of the colors
 of the ,brahmas have come from ,china4 
,the ,light and ,dark ,brahma ,bantams  
were made in ,england and ,america in   
very recent times4 ,from ,japan has come
 a peculiar type of bantam with very    
short legs1 a large tail carried very   
high1 and a large single comb4 ,in their
 native country the ,japanese ,bantams  
are not separated into distinct color   
varieties4 ,in ,england and ,america    
there are black1 white1 gray1           
black-tailed white1 and buff varieties4 
,,chapter ,v  ,,management ,,of ,,fowls 
,the methods of managing fowls vary     
according to the conditions under which 
they are kept and the time that the     
keeper can give them4 ,fowls ought to   
have an outdoor run1 and it is desirable
 that this should be large enough to be 
kept in sod2 but very few people in     
towns can give their fowls grass yards1 
and the advantages of an outdoor run    
will not in themselves compensate for   
neglect in other matters4 ,hence we     

often see fowls under poor conditions1  
with good care1 doing better than fowls1
 in a much more favorable environment1  
that are given indifferent care4 ,no    
absolute rules for keeping fowls under  
any given conditions can be made4 ,in   
general1 small flocks of fowls that have
 free range or large1 grassy yards need 
very little attention1 while those that 
are closely confined require a great    
deal4  ,with good care the egg          
production of fowls in close confinement
 is often better than that from fowls at
 liberty1 but if the cost of caring for 
the fowls is computed at current rates  
for common labor1 the rate of           
compensation is often higher on fowls   
running at large than on fowls in       
confinement which are producing many    
more eggs4 ,the question of profits from
 amateur poultry keeping1 however1      
should not be considered solely with    
reference to the compensation for time  
used1 nor should such work be adjusted  
wholly with reference to economic       

results1 for it combines recreation1    
education1 and money compensation1 and  
the first two results should have as    
much consideration as the last4  ,in    
this chapter the methods adapted to     
small flocks are first described for the
 instruction of the pupil1 and then     
descriptions of operations on a larger  
scale are given for his information4    
,,small ,,flocks ,,on ,,town ,,lots     
,numbers in flocks4 ,the average number 
of fowls kept by a town family for its  
own use is about one dozen4 ,very few   
who keep hens have less than half a     
dozen1 and not many who plan only to    
supply their own tables have more than a
 dozen and a half4 ,six fowls1 if well  
cared for1 will produce all the eggs    
used by an average family of two or     
three persons during the greater part of
 the year4  ,houses and yards4 ,for a   
dozen medium-sized fowls the house      
should be about #h ft4 x #h ft4 on the  
ground1 with the highest point of the   
roof about #f or #g feet from the floor4

 ,the general rule is to make the       
poultry house face the sun1 and have the
 windows and the outside doors in or    
near the front4 ,the object of this is  
to get as much sunlight in the house as 
possible in winter1 when the sun is low1
 and to have the walls tight that are   
exposed to the prevailing cold winds4   
,in the ,northern ,hemisphere the front 
of the house is toward the south2 in the
 ,southern ,hemisphere it is toward the 
north4 ,in tropical and subtropical     
countries houses are often so           
constructed that they can be kept open  
on all sides in summer and closed       
tightly1 except in front1 during cool   
weather4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4     
,small house used for fowls and pigeons 
,if the land on which a house stands is 
sandy and well drained1 the floor may be
 of earth4 ,the common practice where   
earth floors are used is to fill the    
earth level with the top of the sill and
 renew it once a year by removing the   
soil that has become mixed with         

droppings of the fowls and putting in   
fresh earth4 ,when a house stands on wet
 land or on clay soil1 it is better to  
have a floor of boards or of cement4    
,fowls may be confined to a house for a 
year or more and lay well and be in     
apparently good condition at the end of 
such a period1 but as the chickens      
hatched from the eggs of fowls that have
 been so closely confined for even a few
 months are almost invariably less      
vigorous than those produced from fowls 
that live a more natural life1 this plan
 is not much used except by those who   
keep a few fowls for their eggs only and
 renew the stock by purchase as often as
 necessary4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4  
,an old-style small poultry house and   
yard  ,to give a flock of a dozen fowls 
outdoor air and exercise enough to keep 
them in good condition1 a yard          
containing about #cjj sq4 ft4 is        
necessary4 ,there is no perceptible     
advantage in giving more yard room than 
this1 unless the yard can be made so    

large that grass will grow continuously 
in the greater part of it4 ,on most     
soils this would require a yard         
containing from #gej to #ajjj sq4 ft4 in
 sod before being used for poultry4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,coop and     
shade for flock of ,bantams#i  #i ,the  
coop is an old dry-goods box2 the shade 
is a burlap bag4 ,makeshift arrangements
 are not always nice looking1 but some  
of the finest chickens are kept in very 
poor quarters4  ,when fowls are confined
 to their houses1 or to the houses and  
small yards1 the droppings must be      
removed at frequent1 regular intervals4 
,to facilitate this it is customary to  
have a wide board1 called the droppings 
board1 under the roost at a distance of 
eight or ten inches4 ,all the droppings 
made while the birds are on the roost   
fall on this board and are easily       
collected and removed4 ,it is a good    
plan to keep a supply of dry earth in a 
convenient place1 and strew a little of 
this over the droppings board after each

 cleaning4 ,sifted coal ashes1 land     
plaster1 and dry sawdust are sometimes  
used instead of earth on the droppings  
boards4 ,the droppings of fowls1 when   
not mixed with other matter1 are often  
salable for use in tanning leather1 but 
in most cases the difference in their   
value for this purpose and for use as   
plant fertilizer is not great enough to 
pay for the extra trouble which is made 
by saving them for the tanners4 ,poultry
 manure is one of the most valuable     
fertilizers and can always be used to   
good advantage on lawns and gardens4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,neat house   
for six hens  ,if the floor is of wood  
or of cement1 a thin layer of earth or  
sand spread upon it makes it more       
comfortable for the fowls4 ,on all kinds
 of floors the modern practice is to use
 a few inches of litter of some kind4   
,there is a great variety of materials  
that will serve this purpose4 ,lawn     
clippings raked up after they are dry1  
dried weeds and grass from the garden1  

leaves collected when dry and stored to 
be used as wanted1 straw1 hay1          
cornstalks cut into short lengths1 and  
shavings1 such as are sold baled for    
bedding horses and cattle1 are all good4
 ,fresh litter should be added in small 
quantities about once a week4 ,about    
once a month the coarse litter on top   
should be raked aside1 and the fine     
litter mixed with droppings underneath  
removed4 ,once or twice a year all the  
material should be taken out and a fresh
 start made4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gc4 
,house for a dozen fowls4 ,floor1 #h ft4
 x #h ft42 height at sides1 #d ft42     
height in middle1 #g ft4  ,when kept in 
a house having an earth floor1 fowls    
will scratch aside the litter from small
 spaces and wallow and dust themselves4 
,in houses having hard floors1 shallow  
boxes about #b ft4 square1 containing   
several inches of dry earth1 are placed 
for the birds' dust baths4 ,fresh earth 
must be provided frequently or they will
 not use the bath as freely as is       

desirable4 ,for use in winter the earth 
must be so dry that it will not freeze1 
but the birds prefer earth that is      
slightly moist4 ,the first function of  
the dust bath is to clean the feathers1 
and damp earth does this much better    
than earth that is very dry4 ,in        
wallowing to clean their plumage fowls  
also rid themselves of lice4 ,when it is
 not convenient to store much earth1 the
 same material may do double            
service--first in the dust bath1 then on
 the droppings board4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #gd4 ,small houses in back yard   
,in a bare yard the soil should be      
turned over often1 all the matter that  
can be raked up with a fine rake having 
first been removed4 ,a yard that is in  
grass requires little care except near  
the house1 where the ground may be bare4
 ,here it should be forked over         
occasionally4  ,feeding4 ,the feeding of
 a small flock of fowls is a very simple
 process4 ,the table and kitchen waste  
of an ordinary family will furnish all  

the soft food that they need1 and       
usually enough green food to prevent    
their suffering for lack of such foods  
if no other provision is made for       
supplying them4 ,this waste should not  
be carried from the house as it is made1
 and thrown on the ground for the fowls 
to pick out of the dirt4 ,a better way  
is to provide a covered jar large enough
 to hold the accumulation of this       
material for a day4 ,into this may be   
put all the leavings from the table1    
except such things as orange and banana 
peelings1 large bones1 and pieces of fat
 meat4 ,once a day1 at whatever time is 
most convenient1 the contents of the jar
 should be mixed with as much corn meal 
and bran 7equal parts by measure7 as    
will take up the water in them and make 
a moist but not sloppy mash4 ,this      
should be fed in a clean trough4 ,if the
 trough stands high enough from the     
floor to keep the contents clean1 it    
will do no harm if more food is given   
than the birds will eat up at once1 but 

the quantity given should never be so   
great that it will not be eaten before  
the next feeding time4  ,most people    
find the morning the most convenient    
time to give the mash4 ,if the mash is  
fed in the morning1 a small feed of hard
 grain should be given about noon1 and a
 more liberal one an hour or two before 
sunset4 ,some poultry keepers feed the  
different grains separately2 others mix 
them before feeding4 ,advocates of      
different practices often imagine       
advantages for that which they favor1   
but no advantage can be demonstrated for
 either4 ,wheat and cracked corn are the
 grains most used in this country2 they 
are about equal in feeding value4 ,as   
corn is nearly always cheaper than      
wheat1 the usual practice is to feed    
about twice as much corn4 ,when the     
grains are mixed1 one part 7by measure7 
of wheat is used to two parts of cracked
 corn4 ,when they are fed separately1 it
 is usual to feed the wheat at noon1 as 
the light feed1 and the corn in the     

evening1 as the heavy feed4 ,all the    
common grains except rye make good      
poultry foods4 ,why fowls do not like   
rye is one of the puzzles of poultry    
keeping4 ,in some countries it is used  
for poultry to a greater extent than in 
the ,united ,states1 and fowls forced to
 eat it here have done very well for    
short periods1 but will not eat it      
readily if they are accustomed to other 
grains and can get enough to sustain    
life without it4 ,fowls do not like dry 
oats so well as corn and wheat1 but have
 not such a dislike for them as for rye4
 ,they are very fond of oats soaked in  
water and partly sprouted4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,with curtains
 closed  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,with
 one curtain open  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#gg4 ,as an open-front house  ,,poultry 
,,house ,,used ,,at ,,the ,,central     
,,experiment ,,station1 ,,ottawa1       
,,canada4 7,photograph from the station7
  ,the quantity of grain to be given any
 flock of fowls must be determined by   

trial and observation4 ,the grain should
 not be fed in troughs from which the   
birds can eat it very quickly1 but      
scattered in the litter on the floor1 so
 that the fowls will take exercise      
scratching it out1 and eat slowly4      
,there is an advantage in giving some   
soft and quickly digested food1 but if  
too much of the food can be eaten       
quickly1 the birds do not take exercise 
enough4 ,when there is grass in the     
poultry yard1 it is a good plan to      
scatter the grain in the grass sometimes
 in fine weather4 ,the hens will find it
 all1 and in scratching it out will     
bring up the dead grass1 and a better   
sod will grow afterward4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #gh4 ,flock of ,barred ,plymouth 
,rocks  ,a dozen medium-sized fowls1 if 
fed in the morning with the mash        
described above1 would probably need a  
little over a pint of grain in the      
middle of the day and about a quart     
toward evening4 ,an experienced feeder  
can usually tell by the eagerness of the

 fowls for their food whether to        
increase or diminish the quantity2 but  
the most expert poultry keeper does not 
rely upon this kind of observation      
alone4 ,occasionally1 before giving     
food1 he looks in the litter to see if  
there is grain left there from previous 
feedings1 and if he finds much1 gives no
 more until the birds have eaten this   
all up clean4  ,water should be given as
 often as is necessary to keep the      
supply quite fresh4 ,in cool 7but not   
freezing7 weather1 once a day is usually
 sufficient4 ,in hot weather the water  
should be fresh two or three times a    
day1 in order that the birds may have   
cool drinks4 ,in freezing weather many  
poultry keepers give the water warm1    
because then it does not freeze so      
quickly4 ,the advantage of this is very 
slight1 and wattles that are wet with   
warm water in extreme cold weather      
become especially susceptible to frost4 
,it is not really necessary to give     
fowls water when they can get snow or   

ice in a form in which they can eat it4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,flock of     
,single-,comb ,white ,leghorns  ,hens   
that are laying must be well supplied   
with oyster shells or lime in some form 
for the shells of the eggs4 ,they can   
get a part of the lime required for this
 purpose from the lime in foodstuffs1   
but not nearly enough to make good thick
 shells for all their eggs when they are
 laying well4 ,ground oyster shells are 
sold by all dealers in poultry supplies4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,white      
,wyandotte hen and chicks  ,growing     
chickens4 ,where old fowls have to be   
kept in close confinement1 very little  
can be done in growing chickens4 ,some  
amateur poultry keepers raise in small1 
bare yards birds that are as good as the
 average chickens grown under more      
favorable conditions1 but where one     
succeeds in doing this a hundred fail4  
,most of the chickens grown in close    
quarters are very poor indeed in        
comparison with farm-grown chickens1 and

 quite unfit to be kept for laying or   
breeding purposes4 ,those who succeed in
 growing good chickens in a small place 
usually give a great deal more time to  
the work than the chickens produced are 
worth4 ,the best way for a poultry      
keeper so situated to get as much as    
possible of the pleasure of this        
interesting line of work is to hatch a  
few broods and1 when the chicks are     
large enough1 broil1 eat1 or sell all   
but a few of the best pullets and one or
 two cockerels4 ,if these thrive1 they  
may be worth keeping for a year2 but if1
 as they mature1 they do not seem       
rugged1 it is not wise to use them for  
laying stock4  ,where there is room to  
give young chickens a good grass yard1 a
 limited number can be grown to maturity
 year after year on a town lot and used 
for laying and breeding purposes4 ,many 
town poultry keepers who might grow a   
few very good chickens never grow a good
 one because they always try to raise   
too many for the space at their         

disposal4 ,fifty or a hundred chickens  
may be kept until two months old on a   
plot of land only large enough to carry 
twelve or fifteen to maturity4 ,so      
people start out with a great many more 
chickens than they ought to have on     
their land1 never thinking that the     
better their chickens do at the start   
the sooner they will begin to overcrowd 
their quarters1 and that when that stage
 is reached1 the promising results of   
several months' work may in a few days  
be ruined beyond remedy4 ,after they are
 two or three months old1 young chickens
 will not make the best growth of which 
they are capable unless they have either
 a great deal of room or a great deal   
more care than most people who raise    
only a few1 and have other work to do1  
can afford to give them4   ,,small      
,,flocks ,,on ,,ordinary ,,farms        
,numbers in flocks4 ,the ordinary farm  
flock consists of from fifty to one     
hundred adult fowls and1 during the     
growing season1 from one hundred to two 

hundred chickens4 ,the old stock is     
usually kept in one or more small houses
 located among the other outbuildings1  
and all run together during the day4 ,if
 the farmer wants to keep the fowls out 
of the dooryard and the kitchen garden1 
he does not make yards for the fowls1   
but incloses the dooryard and garden4   
,outside of these the birds go where    
they please4 ,the coops for the young   
chickens are often kept in the dooryard 
or the garden until the chickens are    
weaned1 but after that the young birds  
are nearly always turned out to take    
their chances with the old ones4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,a small farm 
stock of fowls1 ducks1 and turkeys      
,under such conditions a farm flock is  
not often very productive1 yet1 as the  
birds secure a large part of their food 
by foraging1 the flock may be more      
profitable than a more productive flock 
for which all food is bought and upon   
which a great deal of labor is expended4
 ,while this way of keeping fowls on    

farms is not in itself commendable1 it  
is not to be altogether condemned1      
because circumstances often compel the  
farmer to treat his fowls as a sort of  
volunteer or self-producing crop4 ,the  
conditions on a farm admit of this1 and 
as a matter of fact the greater part of 
our enormous total production of eggs   
and poultry comes from the              
half-neglected flocks on the ordinary   
farms4 ,hence the conditions are        
tolerable where they are necessary1 but 
whenever it is possible to give farm    
fowls enough attention to obviate the   
faults of common practice1 the product  
and the profits can be greatly increased
 with very little increase in the cost  
of production4 ,in this section we      
consider the best methods of securing   
this result when all the old stock is to
 be kept as one flock4 ,old stock and   
young ought always to be separated      
unless the old birds constitute an      
insignificant portion of the flock4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,good poultry 

house on ,texas farm4 7,photograph from 
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,single houses for farm flocks4 ,it is  
as true on a farm as elsewhere that the 
greatest yields of eggs and the best    
growth in young birds are secured when  
the flock is divided into small groups4 
,but a farm flock of the class under    
consideration1 while it makes its       
headquarters in such buildings as may be
 provided1 will forage a considerable   
distance in every direction1 going among
 growing crops from which the larger    
farm animals must be excluded1 and also 
following the larger animals in their   
stables1 yards1 and pastures and picking
 up food left by them4 ,as fowls also   
eat many weeds and seeds of weeds1 and  
all kinds of destructive insects1 the   
advantages of letting them run at large 
more than make up for lower production4 
,also the production is normal and can  
be easily maintained from year to year  
in the same line of stock1 while high   

production secured by extra care is     
forced and can be maintained in the same
 line of stock for only a few           
generations4 ,a flock of one hundred    
fowls or less1 that run together1 may   
all be kept in one house just as well as
 in several1 if the size of the house   
and the equipment are in proportion to  
the size of the flock4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #hc4 ,rude poultry house on a     
,kansas farm4 7,photograph from ,bureau 
of ,animal ,industry1 ,united ,states   
,department of ,agriculture7  ,if the   
snow lies long on the ground1 so that   
the fowls are confined to the house much
 of the time in winter1 the allowance of
 floor space should be about #e sq4 ft4 
per bird4 ,where the snow rarely lies   
more than a day or two at a time1 less  
space may be given1 because the birds   
will not occupy the house much of the   
time during the day4 ,under such        
conditions the allowance of floor space 
may be as low as #c sq4 ft4 per bird4   
,those who go to this limit1 however1   

should consider that1 in the unusual    
case of a snowstorm keeping the hens    
confined to the house for more than a   
very few days1 overcrowding may cause   
losses that more than offset what was   
gained by using the highest capacity of 
the house4  ,usually a flock of fifty   
hens needs a house with a floor surface 
of about #bej sq4 ft4 ,this is obtained 
in a house #af ft4 square or in a house 
#ab ft4 x #bd ft4 ,a house #bj ft4      
square is about right for seventy-five  
or eighty hens1 and is not badly        
overcrowded if one hundred medium-sized 
birds are put into it4 ,if an oblong    
building is preferred1 a house #ab ft4  
wide by #db ft4 long gives one hundred  
birds #e sq4 ft4 of floor space per     
bird4 ,houses of such size should be    
from #d ft4 to #g ft4 high at the sides1
 and from #g ft4 to #aj ft4 high at the 
highest point of the roof1 according to 
the style of construction4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,good poultry 
house on a ,kansas farm4 7,photograph   

from ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1      
,united ,states ,department of          
,agriculture7  ,feeding4 ,in the feeding
 of a farm flock the first thing to     
consider is what the birds can pick up  
by foraging4 ,the poultry keeper on a   
farm1 even more than the poultry keeper 
elsewhere1 should make it a rule to do  
nothing for poultry that they can do for
 themselves4 ,fowls can do more for     
themselves at some seasons than at      
others1 because natural food is more    
abundant4 ,as fowls do not usually go   
very far from their house1 the larger   
the flock the less food each bird will  
secure4 ,on some farms quite a large    
flock of fowls can get all the food they
 need about the barns and stockyards and
 in orchards and fields near the        
homestead4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4   
,poultry house at ,mississippi          
,agricultural ,college4#aj 7,photograph 
from the college7  #aj ,in this house   
the part of the rear wall above the     
roost platform is made to open wide1    

thus affording perfect ventilation in   
summer4  ,when the conditions are such  
that it may reasonably be supposed that 
the fowls can get all the food they     
require without going farther than fowls
 usually wander1 the best way to        
determine whether this supposition is   
correct is to give them no food until   
evening1 then throw out a little grain  
and see how much they will eat4 ,if it  
appears that they need to be fed a      
considerable quantity1 it is better to  
give a light feed in the morning and    
another in the evening than to give a   
heavy feed once a day1 because if they  
learn to expect a full feed at a regular
 time1 they will not forage so well4    
,fowls that have an opportunity to      
secure considerable food by foraging    
should never be fed so much in the      
morning that they will sit around for   
hours4 ,when hens on a farm need only   
one or two light feeds a day1 whatever  
grain is most convenient may be given   
them4 ,where they get so much exercise  

and a good variety of other foods1 whole
 corn is as good as anything4 ,a good   
way to feed it is to break the ears into
 short pieces and let the birds pick the
 grain from the cob4  ,in winter the    
feeding of the farm flock should have   
more attention1 especially if little    
food can be secured around the stables  
and stockyards4 ,it is a good plan to   
give1 once a day1 a warm mash made of #a
 part 7by measure7 of corn meal and #b  
parts of bran1 and to give as much grain
 at one other feeding as the hens will  
eat4 ,some farmers use sheaf oats for   
litter in the floors of their poultry   
houses1 throwing in a sheaf or two as   
often as is necessary to keep a good    
depth of litter on the floor1 and then  
give as much corn in addition as the    
hens will eat readily4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #hf4 ,open-front house with hood4 
7,photograph from ,department of        
,agriculture1 ,victoria1 ,british       
,columbia7  ,if it is not convenient to 
make a mash1 what grain the fowls will  

eat quickly from a trough may be        
prepared for a warm breakfast for them  
by pouring boiling water on it in the   
evening and letting it soak overnight4  
,any of the small grains and cracked    
corn may be fed in this way2 whole corn 
needs longer soaking4 ,in hard1 freezing
 weather no more mash or soaked grain   
should be given than the fowls will eat 
before it can freeze4 ,a favorite       
old-time practice still used on many    
farms is to heat shelled corn in the    
oven and feed it while warm4  ,the best 
vegetable foods for fowls in winter are 
cabbages and mangel-wurzels4 ,the       
cabbages can be hung up by the roots and
 the fowls will eat all but the stump4  
,the most convenient way to feed the    
beets is to split them and impale the   
pieces on spikes in the wall at a       
convenient distance from the floor4     
,sound1 sweet turnips are also good1 but
 bitter turnips and those that have     
begun to spoil are likely to give an    
unpleasant flavor to the eggs4 ,a little

 freezing does not seem to affect the   
value of these vegetables for poultry   
food1 and the birds will usually eat    
them when frozen4 ,the quantity fed at  
one time1 however1 should not be so     
large that it may freeze and thaw       
several times before it is all eaten4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,movable      
poultry house on ,united ,states        
,government farm1 ,beltsville1          
,maryland4 7,photograph from ,bureau of 
,animal ,industry7  ,when hogs and      
cattle are killed on a farm1 the blood  
and other offal1 and the small trimmings
 when the carcasses are cut up1 should  
be saved and fed to the fowls regularly 
in moderate quantities1 but care should 
be taken not to leave fat trimmings     
where the fowls can help themselves1 for
 if fowls have been short of animal     
food1 they eat meat very greedily and   
are often made sick by it4 ,blood and   
lean meat are not very injurious1 but   
too much fat meat has very bad effects4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,the upper    

shutter is closed only at night in      
extreme cold weather  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #hi4 ,lower part of front open for
 hot weather  ,,another ,,style ,,of    
,,movable ,,house ,,at ,,the ,,united   
,,states ,,government ,,farm1           
,,beltsville1 ,,maryland4 7,photograph  
from ,bureau of ,animal ,industry7  ,it 
is not necessary to give the fowls water
 when there is snow on the ground4      
,delicate fowls that are accustomed to  
close confinement may not be able to    
stand running out on the snow1 but if   
they have a comfortable house1 with a   
good supply of litter on the floor1 and 
are free to go and come at will1 rugged 
birds that are out in all kinds of      
weather are not in the least hurt by    
going out on snow and ice and wet ground
 in cold weather1 and will usually take 
snow in preference to water when they   
can get it4 ,when the ground is bare and
 frozen1 water or finely chipped ice    
should be supplied4 ,in extreme cold    
weather the latter is better1 because   

the water soon freezes and the fowls go 
thirsty until a fresh supply is given   
them4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,barred
 ,plymouth ,rock hen with ,light ,brahma
 chicks  ,reproducing the flock4 ,fowls 
are short-lived creatures4 ,they mature 
in less than a year2 their period of    
greatest productiveness is usually over 
before they are two years old1 and only 
a very small proportion of a flock are  
worth keeping after that4 ,hence the    
entire stock of fowls on a farm is      
renewed in two years4 ,most farmers     
intend to kill off all their            
two-year-old hens each year1 thus       
keeping up the number in the flock by   
growing annually about as many young    
birds as there are hens in the flock4   
,to allow for losses1 for an excess of  
males1 and for inferior pullets which   
are not worth keeping for layers1 it is 
necessary to hatch about four times as  
many chickens as are to be reserved4    
,the hatching season4 ,most of the      
chickens reared on farms are hatched in 

the spring months4 ,the late-hatched    
chickens are nearly all from hens that  
steal their nests4 ,people on farms do  
not want late chickens2 among so many   
larger ones a few small birds have very 
little chance to make good growth4 ,but 
those who have a place to keep a few    
early chickens and time to take care of 
them often set a few hens in the winter4
 ,eggs will hatch at any season of the  
year1 and chickens will grow if they get
 proper care2 but there is a            
comparatively short season in the spring
 when eggs hatch better and chickens    
grow better than at any other time1 and 
the easiest way to get a given number of
 good chickens that will be full-grown  
at the beginning of winter is to hatch  
them in this natural hatching season4   
,this season cannot be exactly defined1 
because it varies according to latitude 
and also from year to year according to 
the weather4 ,perhaps the best general  
rule is to have the first chicks hatch  
when the grass is beginning to grow4 ,to

 effect this the hens must be set three 
weeks earlier1 when there may be no     
signs of spring4 ,no one can time       
hatches to a natural phenomenon of this 
kind with certainty1 but by planning    
with reference to the advance of spring 
in a normal season1 the first hatches   
are usually brought very near to the    
desired time4  ,broody hens4 ,when a hen
 wants to incubate eggs1 or1 as the     
common phrase is1 to sit1 she remains on
 her nest continuously and1 unless very 
shy1 will not leave it when approached  
and will resent any interference4 ,the  
hen is then said to be broody4 ,because 
the broody hen makes a clucking noise1  
she is sometimes called a clucking hen4 
,hens that are shy when they begin to   
cluck1 and that fly from the nest when  
approached1 usually become tame and     
allow themselves to be handled after a  
few days4 ,broody hens cannot always be 
obtained at the time they are wanted4   
,in that case there is nothing to do but
 wait1 or try to buy1 hire1 or borrow   

them4 ,there is no way of forcing or    
inducing hens to become broody before   
they would do so of their own accord4   
,when broody hens are hard to get1      
people think that hatching with         
incubators will relieve them of trouble 
and prevent delay1 but the incubator1   
too1 has its uncertainties4 ,success in 
artificial hatching requires careful    
attention to the operation of the       
incubator and good judgment in adjusting
 and regulating it4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ia4 ,nest boxes1 made in pairs1  
for sitting hens4 ,inside dimensions3   
large1 #af x #af x #ah2 small1 #ab x #ab
 x #ae  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,same 
as ,fig4 #ia1 with nest boxes closed    
,setting the hens4 ,as many broody hens 
as can be obtained should be set at the 
same time4 ,the most convenient style of
 nest is that shown in ,figs4 #ia and   
#ib1 which can be kept closed if        
desired4 ,the best nest material is soft
 hay or straw4 ,in preparing the nest a 
poultry keeper shapes the nest material 

with his hand1 to give it a bowl shape1 
pressing it down to make a smooth1 firm 
surface upon which the eggs will lie    
evenly4 ,it is a good plan to make the  
nests and place the hens in them1 giving
 to each a few ,china nest eggs two or  
three days before the eggs that are to  
be hatched are given to them4 ,the eggs 
for hatching should be of good size and 
shape1 with good strong shells1 and as  
uniform in color as can be obtained4    
,the usual number of eggs placed under a
 hen is thirteen4 ,after the weather    
becomes warm1 even a small hen will     
cover thirteen eggs well1 and           
medium-sized hens will cover fifteen or 
sixteen eggs and often hatch every one1 
but early in the season it is better to 
give a hen eleven eggs or perhaps only  
nine4 ,the number of eggs given a hen is
 almost always an odd number4 ,there is 
an old superstition that an even number 
will not hatch4 ,the reason commonly    
given by writers on poultry is that an  
odd number of eggs arrange in better    

form in the nest1 but this is mere      
fancy4 ,however the practice started1   
the real reason why odd numbers of eggs 
are placed in nests of sitting hens now 
is that the custom is so well           
established1 and the habit of thinking  
of eggs for hatching in odd numbers is  
so strong1 that most poultry keepers do 
it unconsciously4  ,care of sitting     
hens4 ,the best food for sitting hens is
 whole corn4 ,as the hen will leave the 
nest only once a day1 and not always    
daily unless removed1 the food is given 
in a vessel from which she can eat it   
readily4 ,the usual way is to keep a    
supply where the hens are1 so that      
whenever they leave the nest they can   
get something to eat4 ,whether to let   
them choose their own time to leave the 
nest or to keep the nests closed except 
when they are let off at a regular time 
each day is a point to be determined in 
each case according to the              
circumstances4 ,if all the hens in the  
same place are quiet and get along well 

together and do not quarrel for the     
possession of particular nests1 they may
 be left very much to themselves2       
otherwise the poultry keeper should     
regulate things so that there will be no
 quarreling and no danger of a nest of  
eggs getting cold while two hens crowd  
on another nest and break some of the   
eggs in it4  ,besides grain the hens    
need water and a place to dust4 ,most   
sitting hens will dust themselves every 
time they leave the nest1 if they have  
an opportunity to do so4 ,as lice       
multiply rapidly on sitting hens1 it is 
a good idea1 even when the hen can dust 
herself1 to apply an insect powder to   
her and to the nest two or three times  
during the period of incubation4  ,the  
eggs may be tested at the end of the    
seventh day by using a light1 as        
described on page #ba4 ,while fertility 
can be determined earlier1 waiting until
 the seventh day enables one to tell    
more surely whether fertility is strong 
or weak1 and to discard weak germs as   

well as infertile eggs4 ,an infertile   
egg is clear1 that is1 shows no signs of
 development or decay1 at every period  
of incubation4 ,the eggs that rot are   
fertile eggs in which the germs have    
died4 ,a rotten egg is distinguished    
from a fertile egg through the tester by
 the movement of the line between the   
transparent air space at the large end  
of the egg and the dark contents1 this  
movement showing that the contents are  
in a fluid state4 ,the eggs which are   
the most opaque and have the air space  
most distinctly marked are those which  
have the strongest germs4 ,eggs that are
 conspicuously light-colored 7as they   
appear before the light7 when compared  
with these may as well be discarded4 ,if
 many eggs are discarded1 those that    
remain may be given to a part of the    
hens1 and the rest of the hens reset4   
,attention at hatching time4 ,the eggs  
of medium-sized fowls usually hatch in  
from twenty to twenty-one days4 ,the    
eggs of small fowls take about a day    

less1 and those of large fowls about a  
day more4 ,hens' eggs have been known to
 hatch as early as the seventeenth day  
and as late as the twenty-fourth1 but as
 a rule chickens that come before the   
nineteenth day or after the             
twenty-second are weakly4 ,hens         
sometimes trample the chickens in the   
nests or crush the eggs after they are  
picked1 so that the chicken cannot turn 
to break the shell in the regular       
manner4 ,sometimes this is due to the   
nervousness or to the clumsiness of the 
hen1 but oftener it is caused by the    
nest being too much dished 7that is1    
hollowed so much that the eggs tend to  
roll toward the center7 or by lice      
disturbing her4 ,the chickens may be    
saved either by removing them to other  
broody hens or by putting them in a     
flannel wrapping in a warm place4       
,unless1 however1 the conditions are    
bad1 it is better to leave them with the
 hen4 ,hens with little chicks should be
 left in the nests until all the eggs   

that will hatch have hatched and the    
chicks are dry and begin to show an     
inclination to run about4 ,then1 if the 
weather is fine1 the hen and her brood  
may be taken at once to a coop out of   
doors1 but if it is cold or stormy1 the 
little chicks are better indoors4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,coop for hen 
and chicks1 to be used without run      
,coops for broods4 ,the coop for a hen  
and chickens should be so constructed   
that they will have plenty of fresh air 
at night4 ,there should be a small run  
attached to it1 to which the hen can be 
confined while the chickens run about or
 come to her to be brooded1 as they may 
wish4 ,it is not a good plan to let a   
hen run with her brood while the chicks 
are very small4 ,the chickens do much   
better if the mother is confined and    
gives more attention to keeping them    
warm than to feeding them4 ,the coops   
should not be placed in the same spot   
year after year1 nor should they be on  
land upon which the old fowls run during

 any considerable portion of the year4  
,sod ground is best4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #id4 ,coop to be used with runs1  
as in ,fig4 #ie  ,feeding young         
chickens4 ,from early times in ,america 
the most common food for young chickens 
has been corn meal moistened with water4
 ,when fresh this is a good food for    
chickens that run about and eat a great 
deal of green food1 insects1 worms1 and 
small seeds1 but a mash of scalded corn 
meal and bran1 such as is given old     
fowls1 or a baked johnnycake1 is better4
 ,there is no need of fussing with such 
foods as finely chopped hard-boiled     
eggs1 cracker crumbs1 pinhead oatmeal1  
and other things often recommended as   
most appropriate for the first feeds of 
little chicks4 ,healthy hen-hatched     
chicks raised by the natural method on a
 farm need nothing but one soft feed    
7such as has been mentioned7 in the     
morning1 a little hard grain toward     
evening1 and then1 just before dark1 all
 the soft food they will eat4 ,the best 

grain for them is sound cracked corn2   
the next best is wheat4 ,the chickens   
should have good water always before    
them1 and may be given all the milk they
 want4 ,skim milk1 sour milk 7either    
thin or clabbered71 and buttermilk are  
all eaten with relish and promote health
 and growth4 ,vessels in which milk is  
given must be cleaned often or they will
 become very filthy4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ie4 ,coops and runs for hens and 
chicks#aa  #aa ,burlap bags are used to 
shade the interior or to keep out rain4 
,when not in use they are turned back on
 the top of the coop4  ,management of   
growing chicks4 ,of course1 healthy     
chickens are growing all the time1 and  
growing at a very rapid rate1 too2 but  
after the chicks are weaned1 they have  
usually reached the point in growth when
 the increase in size in a short period 
is very noticeable4 ,so poultry keepers 
commonly speak of chickens from weaning 
time until maturity as growing chicks4  
,at this time the rudest kind of shelter

 will suit them as well as any4 ,indeed1
 they hardly need shelter from the      
weather at all4 ,the most essential     
things are a good range1 apart from the 
old fowls1 and an abundance of food4    
,they should be able to pick up a great 
deal of food for themselves1 but should 
have enough given them to make sure that
 they always have all the food they can 
eat4 ,it does not pay to stint them to  
make them forage farther4 ,young        
chickens will always take all the       
exercise that they need if they have the
 opportunity1 and the more they eat the 
better they grow4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#if4 ,small house for growing chicks1 in
 ,maine orchard  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ig4 ,small house for growing chicks1 in
 orchard in ,new ,york ,state  ,when the
 range near their coops ceases to afford
 them good picking1 the coops should be 
moved to a place where the food to be   
secured by foraging is more abundant4   
,,large ,,stocks ,,on ,,general ,,farms 
,when farmers in ,america began to keep 

larger stocks of fowls1 the most common 
practice nearly everywhere was to       
increase the general flock until there  
were far too many fowls on the land that
 they would usually forage over4 ,under 
such conditions fowls on the farm were  
not profitable4 ,they damaged every crop
 to which they had access1 and made the 
farm most unsightly in the vicinity of  
the dwelling house4 ,then some farmers  
would reduce the flock and return to the
 old practice of keeping only a few     
dozen hens1 while others would adopt the
 city plan of building houses with many 
compartments and keeping the fowls      
yarded in small flocks4 ,this plan was  
usually abandoned within a few years1   
because1 while it worked very well in   
the winter1 when the farmer had time to 
give the hens extra care1 they were not 
as well off in the summer1 when the     
farmer had to give attention to his     
field crops first4 ,such was the usual  
course of development of farm methods of
 managing fowls4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  

#ih4 ,stone poultry house about two     
hundred years old1 on farm of ,f4 ,w4   
,c4 ,almy1 ,tiverton ,four ,corners1    
,rhode ,island  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ii4 ,rhode ,island colony poultry house
 for thirty-five fowls  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ajj4 ,colony poultry houses on   
,rhode ,island farm  ,the colony system4
 ,but occasionally a farmer whose flock 
had outgrown its accommodations as one  
flock would divide it1 moving a part to 
another place on the farm1 and so was   
able to maintain the increase in numbers
 without adopting laborious methods4    
,this idea was carried out most         
systematically and most extensively in  
the vicinity of ,little ,compton1 ,rhode
 ,island1 where the ,rhode ,island ,red 
fowl originated4 ,the first settlers in 
this part of ,rhode ,island built large 
stone poultry houses like that shown in 
,fig4 #ih4 ,some of these old buildings 
are still used for poultry4 ,this       
district is most favorably situated for 
poultry keeping4 ,the snow rarely lies  

long1 and the birds can be outdoors     
nearly every day in winter as well as in
 summer4 ,being near the fashionable    
summer resort of ,newport1 the farmers  
here early found a large demand for     
their eggs and poultry at high prices in
 the summer time1 when in many places   
the prices were low4 ,then in the winter
 they could send eggs to ,boston and    
,providence1 which were the best markets
 in the country for this class of       
produce4 ,so these farmers had every    
inducement to devise a practical method 
of indefinitely increasing their stocks 
of fowls4 ,the plan which they adopted  
was very simple4 ,small houses1 which   
could easily be moved from place to     
place with a two-horse team1 and which  
would accommodate from twenty-five to   
thirty-five fowls1 were made and        
distributed over the farm4 ,sometimes   
these houses were placed in pastures not
 suitable for mowing or for cultivation 
and remained there permanently1 but as a
 rule they were moved from time to time 

to suit the rotation of crops on the    
farm4 ,as the number of these houses on 
a farm increased1 and they were spread  
over a larger area and sometimes placed 
in fields and pastures a long distance  
from the farmhouse1 the work of caring  
for the fowls1 even by the simple method
 used1 became too heavy to be done by   
man power alone1 and a horse and cart   
was used in carrying food and water1    
collecting eggs1 and moving chicks and  
fowls from one part of the farm to      
another4 ,thus the work was put on a    
very economical basis1 and keeping fowls
 by this method became a common feature 
of the farming of this section of ,rhode
 ,island4 ,the methods used here have   
changed little1 if at all1 since the    
system was started sixty or seventy     
years ago4 ,the system is so primitive  
that people who are familiar with more  
elaborate methods often imagine that the
 ,rhode ,island farmer1 who does so well
 by his simple methods1 would certainly 
do very much better if he applied more  

of the modern ideas4 ,but the test of   
time has demonstrated that this simple  
colony system is easily made permanent1 
while most of the more ambitious and    
complex systems either fail utterly or  
have but a transient success4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,collecting  
eggs on ,rhode ,island farm4 ,the little
 girl is in the box in which dough is   
carried in the morning  ,numbers of hens
 kept4 ,the number of hens kept on a    
farm in this section varies from four or
 five hundred to over two thousand4     
,stocks of from eight hundred to twelve 
hundred are most common4 ,the principal 
object is to produce market eggs1 but as
 the two-year-old hens and the cockerels
 that are not needed for breeding       
purposes are sold every year1 the       
receipts from the sale of live poultry  
are sometimes considerable4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,colony      
houses at ,michigan ,agricultural       
,college4 7,photograph from the college7
  ,feeding1 care1 and results4 ,the     

hens1 being well distributed over the   
farm1 pick a large part of their living4
 ,hard grain 7usually cracked corn7 is  
kept always before them in the house1 in
 hoppers which will hold a bag of grain 
each4 ,once a day1 in the morning1 the  
hens are given a feed of mash 7or1 as it
 is called in this locality1 dough7 of  
about the same composition as the mash  
described on page #hi4 ,the dough is    
cooked in a large iron set-kettle in the
 evening and left there until it is to  
be fed the next morning4 ,then it is    
loaded into boxes or large tubs on a    
cart4 ,the cart also carries a barrel of
 water4 ,as he reaches each house the   
driver1 with a shovel1 throws what dough
 the hens need on the grass near the    
house4 ,then he fills the water pail and
 drives on to the next house4 ,the hens 
require no more attention until evening1
 when the man collects the eggs and     
gives more water where it is necessary4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,moving one  
of the houses in ,fig4 #ajb             

,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,colony      
houses at ,iowa ,agricultural ,college4 
7,photograph from the college7  ,some of
 the smaller stocks of fowls on these   
farms--flocks that have been selected   
with care and are given a little more   
attention than is usual--give an average
 annual production of eleven or twelve  
dozen eggs a hen1 but the general       
average is only eight or nine dozen4    
,although the profit per hen is small1  
the compensation for labor and          
investment is better than on most       
poultry plants where a much greater     
product per hen is secured4 ,even when  
eggs are the most important money crop  
on the farm1 the care of the laying hens
 is but a small part of the day's work  
of the man who looks after them4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,colony      
houses at ,hampton ,institute  ,how the 
chickens are grown4 ,the number of      
chickens reared each year on one of     
these colony farms is usually about     
equal to the number of fowls kept4      

,where there are so many hens of a      
sitting variety1 and very early hatching
 is not practiced1 there is rarely any  
shortage of sitting hens at the time    
when they are wanted4 ,usually twenty or
 thirty hens are set at the same time1  
and it is expected that they will hatch 
eight or ten chickens each4 ,sometimes  
sixty or seventy hens are set at one    
time4 ,as it is almost always quite warm
 when the chickens are hatched1 it is   
customary to give each hen twenty or    
more chickens4 ,the coops are placed in 
rows1 several rods apart each way1 on a 
piece of grassland that has had no      
poultry on it for a year or more4 ,most 
of the farmers are very particular on   
this point1 and prefer to put the young 
chickens on land on which there has been
 no poultry for at least two years4     
,they have learned by experience that   
under such conditions they can rear a   
much larger percentage of the chickens  
hatched1 and that the chickens will grow
 more evenly and mature earlier4 ,in    

planning the field crops grown on the   
farm they always try to arrange so that 
the small chickens may have fresh land  
not too far from the farmhouse2 land    
seeded to grass the year before is best4
  ,the chickens are fed the same dough  
as is given to the hens1 but are fed    
oftener4 ,they have a second meal of    
dough about noon1 and their grain       
supply1 which is given in small troughs1
 is replenished frequently4 ,while the  
hens are with the chickens the food is  
placed where the hen confined to the    
coop can get her share4 ,after the hens 
are taken away1 the dough is thrown on  
the grass as the cart passes up and down
 the rows of coops4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ajf4 ,coop for hen and chicks1   
used on ,rhode ,island farm  ,when the  
hay has been harvested and the corn has 
grown tall1 a part of the young chickens
 may be removed from the land where they
 were started1 and the coops placed     
where they can forage on mowing lands1  
in cornfields1 and wherever they can go 

without damage to a growing crop4 ,as   
they become too crowded in the small    
coops1 the cockerels are sold and1 if   
there are still too many birds in a     
coop1 a few pullets are taken from each 
of the overcrowded coops and new        
colonies are started1 so far from their 
old associates that they will not find  
their way back4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ajg4 ,colony house for growing chicks1 
at ,macdonald ,college4 7,photograph    
from the college7  ,in the early fall as
 many of the oldest hens are sold as is 
necessary to vacate the houses needed   
for the pullets reared that season4     
,then the houses are thoroughly cleaned4
 7,they may not have been cleaned before
 for six months or a year47 ,if a house 
is to be moved to a new location1 the   
change is usually made at this time4    
,one or two cartloads of clean sand are 
put into each house1 to make the floor  
higher than the ground outside and to   
provide an absorbent for the droppings  
which are allowed to accumulate4 ,when  

they are brought to the house1 which    
will probably be their home as long as  
they live1 the pullets are confined to  
the house1 or a small temporary yard is 
attached to it1 so that they cannot     
wander away4 ,after a few days of       
confinement they accept the new home as 
their headquarters4  ,adaptability of   
the colony system4 ,the colony system as
 developed in ,rhode ,island attracted  
little attention elsewhere until very   
recent years4 ,since about #aijj many   
descriptions of it have been published1 
and numerous efforts have been made to  
adapt features of this system to        
operations in other localities4 ,the    
principal obstacles to this are snow and
 predacious animals4 ,where snow lies   
deep for months it is not practical to  
keep fowls in widely distributed flocks 
in winter4 ,in some places the plan of  
distributing the houses in summer and   
parking them 7that is1 placing them     
close together in a regular order7 in   
winter has worked very well4 ,where wild

 animals are numerous1 colony methods   
cannot be extensively applied1 but on   
most farms a limited application of the 
system will greatly increase the amount 
of poultry that can profitably be kept4 
,in ,england many farmers use smaller   
colony houses than those in use in      
,rhode ,island1 and move them often1 not
 letting a house stand in the same spot 
long enough to kill the grass4 ,some of 
the houses used in this way are provided
 with small wheels4 ,the advantage of   
moving houses often is greatest when the
 fowls are on good arable land1 upon    
which there are1 or will be1 crops that 
can utilize the manure which the birds  
leave on the land4 ,if the houses are   
moved methodically1 the fertilizer will 
be evenly distributed4   ,,intensive    
,,poultry ,,farms  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#ajh4 ,colony houses in foreground2     
sheds for ducks beyond4 7,photograph    
from ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1      
,united ,states ,department of          
,agriculture7  ,reasons for             

concentration4 ,in the early days of the
 poultry fancy in this country the      
tendency was for each fancier to keep as
 many different varieties as he could   
find room for or could afford to buy4   
,most of these fanciers were city people
 who thought that1 as they kept their   
fowls in small flocks anyway1 they might
 just as well have as many different    
kinds of poultry as they had separate   
compartments in their poultry yards4    
,when rich men with large estates became
 interested in fancy poultry1 they      
usually built large houses containing   
many small pens1 each with its small    
yard1 and bought a few of each known    
variety4 ,by far the greater part of the
 choicest poultry was kept in small     
inclosures1 and the flocks that laid    
remarkably well were usually city flocks
 that were given good care4 ,this seemed
 to a great many people to prove that   
fowls did not need the room and the     
freedom which for ages they had enjoyed 
on farms1 and that the limit of the     

possible extension of the city method of
 keeping fowls in small1 bare yards     
depended in any case upon the business  
capacity of the poultry keeper4         
,concentration not profitable4 ,very few
 people who have not had experience in  
growing large numbers of poultry under  
both good and bad conditions can be made
 to understand how futile industry and  
business methods are when many other    
things which affect results are         
unfavorable4 ,even when the obstacles to
 the application of intensive methods on
 a large scale are pointed out to them1 
most novices imagine that the           
difficulties are exaggerated for the    
purpose of discouraging them4 ,they     
think that the successful poultry keeper
 wishes to discourage competition1 and  
that the person who has failed does not 
want to see any one else succeed1 and so
 warns others to let such projects      
alone4 ,those who have been very        
successful in their first efforts in a  
small way seldom lack perfect confidence

 in their ability to make good on any   
scale if once they are in a position to 
devote themselves entirely to this work4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,commercial
 laying house at ,new ,jersey           
,experiment ,station4 7,photograph from 
the station7  ,for some seventy or      
eighty years1 but more especially for   
the last thirty or forty years1 the most
 conspicuous phase of the poultry       
industry in ,america has been the       
widespread and continuous movement to   
develop large plants of this character4 
,there has been no time1 for a quarter  
of a century1 when poultry plants of    
this kind1 which to the uninitiated     
appeared to be highly profitable1 have  
not been numerous4 ,the owners of many  
of these plants have claimed that they  
were making very large profits1 and     
their claims have led others to engage  
in the business1 following in every     
detail the methods in use on some large 
plant which they suppose is very        
successful4 ,so1 while well-informed    

poultry keepers know that these methods 
are not practical on a large scale1     
except in a few limited lines of        
production1 there is in the business a  
constant succession of newcomers who try
 to operate egg farms and breeding farms
 and combinations of various lines by   
methods that are not suited to their    
purpose4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaj4    
,interior of a compartment in commercial
 poultry house1 ,united ,states         
,government farm1 ,beltsville1          
,maryland4 7,photograph from ,bureau of 
,animal ,industry7  ,common type of     
intensive poultry farm4 ,the ordinary   
special poultry farm is a run-down farm 
upon which have been erected the        
buildings necessary for the             
accommodation of from four or five      
hundred to two or three thousand fowls  
kept in comparatively small yards4 ,the 
buildings are nearly always neat and    
substantial1 the fences strong and      
durable4 ,the arrangement of the plant  
is orderly1 and1 when well stocked with 

fowls and kept clean1 it presents a most
 attractive appearance4 ,the houses and 
yards for adult stock1 the incubator    
cellar and the brooder houses1 the barns
 and sheds1 and the dwelling of the     
owner or manager occupy but a very small
 part of the farm--usually from one to  
three acres4 ,the young chickens are    
grown year after year on the nearest    
land not occupied by the permanent      
buildings and yards4 ,in most cases the 
land is so heavily stocked with them    
that they secure almost nothing by      
foraging4  ,the routine of work on such 
a farm is very exacting4 ,the fowls can 
do so little for themselves and require 
so much extra care that the poultry     
keeper knows from the start that he     
cannot make his business pay unless he  
gets a very high production4 ,so all his
 efforts are devoted to this end4 ,he   
uses labor-saving appliances1 carefully 
systematizes his work1 and by great     
effort often succeeds in making a fair  
profit for a few years4 ,it is at this  

stage of his progress that the poultry  
keeper of this class does the boasting  
which misleads others4 ,then things     
begin to go wrong with his stock4 ,his  
eggs do not hatch well1 because his     
chickens1 while nominally on free range 
on a farm1 have really been no better   
off than chickens reared under ordinary 
conditions in town4 ,his chickens do not
 thrive1 because they are weak and the  
land is tainted4 ,he himself is worn out
 with long hours of work and no         
holidays1 and if he does not realize his
 mistake and close out the business in  
time1 it is only a question of          
continuing until his income and credit  
combined no longer suffice to keep the  
business going4  ,this in brief has been
 the history of all special poultry     
farms where intensive methods were used1
 except the duck farms and the several  
classes to be described farther on in   
this chapter4 ,by no means all succeed  
to even the extent described1 because a 
great many people who go into the       

business have so little capital that    
they have to give up the business before
 they have been able to make it show a  
profit4 ,when the owners have capital1  
plants are sometimes operated for years 
at a loss1 but it is very rare indeed   
that a poultry farm of this kind 7except
 in the classes to be described later7  
is continued for more than seven or     
eight years1 and few of them last five  
years4 ,those who wish to make a poultry
 business permanent must adopt other    
methods4   ,,broiler ,,growing  ,the    
desire for what is rare and costly is a 
common trait in human character4 ,in    
nothing is it more plainly displayed    
than in the demand for food products out
 of their natural season4 ,an article   
which in its season of abundance is a   
staple article of diet1 within the means
 of all but the very poorest1 at its    
season of scarcity becomes a luxury     
which only the wealthy can afford4      
,before cold-storage methods had been   
brought to high efficiency1 there was a 

period in the latter part of the winter 
and the early spring when young chickens
 were very scarce4 ,the number that     
could be hatched with hens to meet a    
demand at this season was small1 and    
those who were hatching autumn and      
winter chickens by the natural method   
found it more profitable to keep them to
 sell as roasters late in the spring and
 early in the summer4  ,the broiler     
craze4 ,a little before #ahij1          
artificial incubators being then first  
brought to a perfection which made them 
popular1 some poultry keepers began to  
hatch chickens in the winter to meet the
 demand for early broilers4 ,those who  
were successful made a very good profit 
on what chickens they had ready to sell 
while the prices were high4 ,most of    
them operated in a very small way1      
taking up this work simply for          
occupation when they had nothing else to
 do4 ,many were gardeners who had just  
about enough slack time1 after the      
harvest of one year was over1 to hatch  

and grow one lot of broilers before     
beginning their regular spring work4    
,these people were not under any        
delusions about the limitations on this 
line of production4 ,they knew that the 
demand for very small chickens at very  
high prices was limited and easily      
satisfied4 ,but1 as usual1 the published
 accounts of what they were doing set a 
great many people to figuring the       
possibilities of profit from such a     
business conducted on a large scale4    
,for a few years the broiler craze      
affected nearly every one interested in 
poultry keeping4 ,thousands who never   
engaged in it were restrained only      
because of lack of capital or inability 
to adapt it to their circumstances4     
,many people who had been through       
several unsatisfactory ventures in      
poultry keeping thought that they saw in
 this the one sure road to wealth1 and  
began to make plans to grow broilers in 
large quantities4 ,besides these        
business ventures there were countless  

small ones1 sometimes conducted under   
the most unsuitable conditions4 ,people 
tried to grow broilers in living rooms1 
in attics1 in all sorts of unheated     
outbuildings1 and in house cellars to   
which the daylight hardly penetrated4   
,present condition of broiler growing4  
,the production of broilers as a        
specialty did not last long4 ,the       
improvement in cold-storage methods soon
 made it possible for speculators to    
carry over large quantities of summer   
chickens1 and the poultry keepers in    
other lines could easily arrange to     
produce all the fresh broilers that     
could be sold at a good profit4         
,,roaster ,,growing  ,description of a  
good roaster4 ,to roast nicely1 a fowl  
must be full-grown and well filled out1 
but young1 soft-meated1 and fat4 ,a fowl
 is ripe for a choice roaster for only a
 short period after arriving at         
maturity4 ,when a pullet has laid a few 
eggs1 her flesh becomes harder and is   
never again as tender and juicy as it   

was before she laid an egg4 ,when the   
spurs of a cockerel begin to harden and 
to grow a long1 sharp point1 and the    
bird becomes boisterous and quarrelsome1
 the flesh becomes dry and tough and is 
not fit for roasting4  ,general and     
special supplies4 ,from ,july1 when the 
earliest farm chickens are large enough 
for roasting1 until about the first of  
,february1 when the last of the         
late-hatched farm chickens disappear    
from the markets1 there are nearly      
always enough very good roasting        
chickens in the general market receipts 
to supply the demand for that class and 
grade of poultry4 ,then for four or five
 months there are no fresh roasting     
chickens on the market except those     
grown especially for this trade4 ,this  
line of poultry culture was developed   
first near ,philadelphia1 in southern   
,new ,jersey and eastern ,pennsylvania1 
about forty years ago4 ,the chickens    
were hatched with hens in the autumn and
 early winter1 each grower having only a

 few hundred4 ,they were sold not only  
in ,philadelphia but in ,new ,york and  
,boston1 and in smaller ,eastern cities 
where there was a demand for them4 ,they
 were1 and still are1 commonly known as 
,philadelphia chickens4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #aaa4 ,massachusetts soft-roaster 
plant  ,large roaster plants4 ,after    
incubators came into common use1 the    
production of ,philadelphia chickens    
increased1 but a more remarkable        
development of that line of production  
took place in ,plymouth ,county1        
,massachusetts1 just about the time the 
broiler craze started4 ,the growing of  
winter chickens had been carried on to  
some extent in southern ,new ,england in
 the same way as in the vicinity of     
,philadelphia1 but the local supply was 
small and irregular until artificial    
methods were adopted4 ,then1 quite      
suddenly1 the industry developed        
extensively in the vicinity of ,norwell1
 ,hanover1 and ,rockland4 ,its growth   
was remarkable1 both because of the     

number of people who were successful on 
a comparatively large scale1 and because
 it attracted almost no attention       
outside of this district until long     
after it had become a well-established  
local industry4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aab4 ,incubator cellar  ,the methods of
 the roaster growers in this district   
are very intensive1 but as originally   
developed their business was not a      
continuous line of intensive poultry    
culture1 nor is it continuous now except
 in some cases4 ,for many years after   
the business began1 the growers bought  
the eggs that they incubated from       
farmers whose flocks were kept under    
good conditions and were strong and     
vigorous2 but as the numbers engaged in 
growing winter chickens increased1 the  
supply of eggs from the farms was not   
sufficient1 and some of the roaster     
growers began to keep hens to supply a  
part of the eggs they used4 ,later some 
produced all the eggs for hatching that 
they needed for their own use1 and a few

 sold to others also4 ,this1 however1   
can be done only by those having quite  
large farms4 ,some of the most          
successful growers have only a few acres
 of land and do not attempt to keep     
breeding fowls4  ,hatching begins in    
,august or ,september and is continued  
until all the chickens that can be      
handled are hatched4 ,if the eggs hatch 
well from the start1 a large grower may 
have his houses full by ,december1 but  
usually it takes until ,january to      
complete hatching1 and sometimes it     
takes longer4 ,the price paid for eggs  
for hatching is only a little above the 
price of market eggs1 and the buyer     
takes all the risks of poor hatches4    
,the chickens are kept in warm brooder  
houses as long as they need artificial  
heat1 then they are removed to cold     
brooder houses of the same type or to   
colony houses4 ,those who have land     
enough use mostly colony houses4 ,while 
in the heated brooder houses the        
chickens are fed in the regular         

way--with mixed ground grains1 either   
dry or moistened1 and small whole or    
cracked grains4 ,after they leave the   
brooder houses they have cracked corn1  
beef scrap1 and water always before     
them2 for green food they have cabbage  
or the winter rye or grass growing on   
the land4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aac4   
,house used for growing roasting        
chickens  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aad4    
,group of houses like that in ,fig4 #aac
  ,as the object of the grower is to    
have chickens that will grow large and  
remain soft as long as possible1 the    
breeds used are principally ,light      
,brahmas and ,plymouth ,rocks1 although 
when eggs of these varieties cannot be  
obtained in sufficient quantities1      
,wyandottes are used4 ,the cockerels are
 caponized when they are about two      
months old4 ,a capon does not grow a    
comb or spurs1 nor does it crow4 ,if a  
perfect capon1 it remains always        
soft-meated and may grow very large1    
though it does not1 as is commonly      

supposed1 grow larger than a cockerel   
within the time it is usually kept      
before being killed4 ,an imperfect capon
 will after a time grow a comb and short
 spurs and1 though sterile1 becomes     
harder in flesh than a perfect capon4   
,an imperfect capon is technically      
called a slip4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aae4 ,petaluma egg farm4 7,photograph  
from ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1      
,united ,states ,department of          
,agriculture7  ,about the first of      
,march some of the earliest pullets may 
begin to lay4 ,from that time all the   
pullets that begin to lay1 and the slips
 as they appear1 are marketed2 all      
others are kept1 because the grower     
realizes the largest profit on those    
that can be marketed in ,june and ,july1
 when the price is highest4 ,by the     
middle of ,july1 at the latest1         
everything is sold4 ,the poultry keeper 
then begins to prepare for the next crop
 of chickens by taking up all his       
fences1 plowing land that is not in     

grass1 and planting it with winter rye  
or cabbage or some late garden crop4    
,rye and cabbage are preferred1 because 
the rye will remain green all winter and
 furnish green food for chickens that   
have access to it1 and the cabbage makes
 the best of green food for the little  
chickens in the brooder houses4 ,it is  
just as good for the others1 too1 but   
not many of the poultry keepers grow    
enough to continue feeding it to them   
throughout the winter4  ,while the land 
on these plants is heavily stocked with 
poultry1 the birds are on it only half  
of the season1--when vegetation grows   
freely1--and during the remainder of the
 season a great deal of manure is       
removed from the soil by gross-feeding  
crops like rye and cabbage4 ,so the land
 may be heavily stocked longer than it  
could be if fowls were on it all the    
time4 ,the chickens grown in this way do
 not usually grow so large as those that
 are given more room1 but they are grown
 at less cost and are as large as the   

market demands4 ,by this method the land
 will carry a large crop of chickens    
year after year for many years1 yet it  
finally becomes so contaminated that    
chickens do not thrive on it4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,group of    
houses on a ,petaluma egg farm4         
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,animal    
,industry1 ,united ,states ,department  
of ,agriculture7   ,,intensive ,,egg    
,,farming  ,still another important     
development due to artificial incubation
 took place in ,california4 ,the climate
 of the ,pacific ,coast is well suited  
to fowls of the ,mediterranean class1   
the cold never being severe enough to   
affect their large combs4 ,hence these  
fowls early became very popular with    
farmers in this section1 but as they    
were non-sitters1 those who kept them   
had to keep hens of another breed to    
hatch and rear the chickens4 ,when an   
incubator factory was established at    
,petaluma1 ,california1 the farmers in  
that vicinity began to use incubators1  

and some small egg farms grew up in the 
town4 ,white ,leghorns were kept almost 
exclusively4 ,before long the egg       
industry here had grown to such         
proportions that it was the most        
important local industry1 and the       
district became celebrated as a center  
of egg production4 ,although the product
 is different1 and a different type of  
fowl is used1 the conditions at         
,petaluma closely resemble those in the 
roaster-growing district of             
,massachusetts4 ,the special egg farms  
are small1 each containing from five to 
ten acres4 ,the houses for the laying   
hens are larger than the colony houses  
used in ,rhode ,island1 and are arranged
 in groups of three1 each group         
containing about five hundred hens4     
,the egg farmers grow their own pullets 
but1 as a rule1 do not breed or hatch   
them4 ,the hatching is done by custom   
hatcheries1 the eggs coming from flocks 
of ,white ,leghorns on farms that do not
 specialize in poultry but keep a flock 

of ,leghorns under more favorable       
conditions than exist on the egg farms4 
,here1 as in the ,massachusetts         
district1 the bad effects of intensive  
methods are reduced for a time1 because 
the fowls affected by them are not used 
for reproduction4   ,,poultry           
,,fanciers' ,,farms  ,a large proportion
 of poultry fanciers are city people who
 have very little room for their fowls4 
,some have no room at all for growing   
chickens1 although1 by giving them the  
best of care1 they can keep a small     
flock of adult birds in fair condition4 
,such fanciers have to find farmers to  
grow chickens for them4 ,this is not so 
easy as is commonly supposed1 for the   
farmers who are sufficiently interested 
in poultry to give them the care        
required to make good exhibition birds  
usually want to give their own birds all
 the time they can spare for work with  
poultry4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4    
,yards of a small poultry fancier  ,so  
it happens that1 after a few years'     

experience in keeping fine fowls in     
close quarters1 an amateur fancier      
almost always wants to move to a farm   
where he can grow more and better       
chickens4 ,a small farm near a city     
suits the average fancier best1 because1
 when so situated1 he can continue his  
regular work and look after his poultry 
in leisure time4 ,fanciers generally use
 houses with many pens under one roof1  
because1 even when they have only one   
variety1 the different matings must be  
kept separate during the breeding       
season1 the adult males must be kept    
separate at all times1 and valuable hens
 cannot be kept in large flocks except  
when damage to plumage may be remedied  
before they are to be exhibited or sold4
 ,a fancier will keep only five or six  
birds1 and sometimes only two or three1 
where a utility poultry keeper would    
keep a dozen4 ,if the yards connecting  
with the pens in the houses are small1  
he will arrange so that each lot of     
fowls may have access to a large yard   

daily or on alternate days4 ,in every   
way practicable the experienced fancier 
arranges to give his fowls all the      
advantages of natural conditions1 while 
isolating them as completely as is      
necessary to keep each individual in    
perfect condition4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #aah4 ,large fancy-poultry farm        
,poultry farms that were started as     
intensive market-poultry or egg farms   
are sometimes converted into            
fancy-poultry farms4 ,this is very      
likely to be the case if thoroughbred   
stock is used and the owner becomes     
skillful as a breeder4 ,if he can breed 
fowls of a quality to command high      
prices1 he may be able to produce enough
 of them on a small farm to make a very 
good living1 when it would be very much 
harder1 or perhaps impossible1 to make  
the farm profitable with ordinary stock4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,growing   
chicks in a fancier's yard              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,young stock 
in cornfield on a fancier's farm  ,while

 farmers usually care more for horses1  
cattle1 sheep1 and hogs1 many become    
interested in poultry1 and if they are  
natural fanciers and good business men1 
it often happens that the growing of    
fancy poultry becomes one of the most   
important industries on the farm4 ,many 
women on farms become interested in     
fancy poultry1 and some become very     
skillful breeders and exhibitors4 ,a    
farmer-fancier's poultry plant is       
usually a combination of extensive and  
intensive methods4 ,some buildings with 
small compartments must be provided1 but
 all except the choicest birds can be   
managed just like the ordinary fowls on 
a farm where arrangements are made with 
a view to giving them the full advantage
 of the good conditions which the place 
affords4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4    
,summer quarters for poultry4           
7,photograph from ,new ,york ,state     
,agricultural ,college at ,cornell      
,university7  ,to a novice in           
fancy-poultry culture the number of     

chickens grown by expert fanciers seems 
very small for the equipment and the    
land used1 but the old fancier has      
learned in the costly school of         
competition1 by the bitter experience of
 defeat1 that in growing exhibition     
poultry it pays to give the birds a     
great deal more room1 both indoors and  
outdoors1 than is needed simply to get  
quick growth and good size4 ,elegance of
 form1 depth and brilliance of color1   
and the indefinable qualities of style  
and finish that distinguish the         
high-class exhibition fowl are obtained 
in a much larger proportion of birds    
when they are given a great deal more   
room than they apparently need4         
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,ducks   ,ducks rank   
next to fowls in economic importance4   
,if there were no fowls1 domestic ducks 
would probably be as numerous as fowls  
are now1 for it is much easier to       
produce eggs and meat from ducks than   
from any known species of gallinaceous  
bird except the fowl4 ,to most people   

who are not accustomed to eating them1  
neither the flesh nor the eggs of ducks 
seem quite as palatable as the flesh and
 eggs of fowls4 ,on the other hand1     
people accustomed to eating fat ducks   
and the eggs of ducks1 which contain a  
much higher percentage of fat than hens'
 eggs1 often consider the flesh and eggs
 of fowls rather insipid4 ,the feathers 
of ducks are more valuable commercially 
than those of fowls but are not         
correspondingly profitable to the       
producer1 because ducks are much harder 
to pluck4  ,description4 ,common ducks  
are about the same size as common fowls4
 ,the improved breeds vary greatly in   
size but do not present such extremes of
 size and diversity of form as are found
 in the races of fowls4 ,as the duck in 
a state of nature lives much upon the   
water1 its form is at nearly every point
 different from the typical form of the 
fowl4 ,the duck is usually described as 
boat-shaped1 but1 while this is a good  
description1 it would be more correct to

 say that a boat is duck-shaped4 ,the   
duck was the natural model for the first
 builders of boats4  ,the bills of ducks
 are large1 rather flat1 and broad at   
the tip4 ,the species to which most of  
our domestic ducks belong has no head   
ornaments corresponding to the comb and 
wattles of the fowl4 ,there is one      
variety of this species which has a     
topknot1 or crest4 ,the ,muscovy ,duck1 
which is of a different species1 has a  
bare face with a carunculated red skin4 
,the plumage of ducks is very soft and  
dense1 forming a thick covering which1  
when the feathers are in a natural      
position1 is impenetrable to water and  
so perfect a protection from wind and   
cold that hardy ducks are quite         
indifferent to keen winds and low       
temperatures1 and1 if left to           
themselves1 rarely seek shelter in      
winter4 ,during a heavy snowfall they   
will get under cover to escape being    
buried in the snow4 ,at other times they
 seem quite as comfortable on snow and  

ice as on the ground4 ,one of the most  
interesting sights of the poultry yard  
is to see a duck sit down on the snow or
 ice when the temperature is below zero1
 draw up its feet and work them into the
 feathers at the side of its body until 
they are completely covered1 tuck its   
bill into the feathers of its back until
 only the nostrils and a little of the  
base of the bill are exposed1 and remain
 this way through the coldest nights    
rather than go a few feet to a          
comfortable house with warm bedding on  
the floor4 ,being better adapted to cold
 than fowls1 they are1 as would be      
expected1 much more susceptible to heat 
and suffer greatly in hot summer weather
 if exposed to the sun or kept where    
there is not a good circulation of air4 
,the tails of ducks are short1 spread   
laterally1 and are usually folded close 
and carried with the tip a little higher
 than the base4 ,the legs are very      
short1 comparatively slender1 and weak4 
,most ducks walk awkwardly and fall down

 and flounder about helplessly when they
 try to run4 ,the legs of a duck are so 
weak that it is not safe to catch or    
handle them by the legs1 as fowls are   
usually caught and handled4 ,it is very 
easy to break or dislocate the leg of a 
duck in this way4 ,hence1 the usual     
method is to catch and carry them by the
 neck1 which is very strong4 ,most      
persons who are not used to handling    
ducks are afraid of choking them by     
grasping the neck firmly1 but there is  
very little danger of this4 ,the feet of
 a duck are webbed between the forward  
toes1 which makes them more serviceable 
as paddles in swimming4 ,they are not   
suited to perching4 ,there is a wild    
tree duck1 and it is said that the      
domestic ,muscovy ,duck sometimes       
alights in trees or on objects above the
 ground1 but the familiar kinds of ducks
 rest only on the surface of the land or
 on the water4  ,although the males     
average a little larger1 the male and   
female of the same stock are usually    

nearer the same size than in            
gallinaceous birds4 ,the only marks by  
which sex can be distinguished in all   
ducks are the voice and the presence or 
absence of the small curled feathers on 
the tail which characterize the males4  
,in party-colored varieties the color   
markings of the male and female are     
sometimes different4 ,the quack of the  
duck is the note of the female2 the male
 makes a very subdued similar sound1    
comparing with it as a hoarse whisper   
compares with the natural tones of the  
human voice4  ,the duck derives its     
,english name from its habit of ducking 
its head into the water in search of    
food at the bottom of the shallow       
waters1 which it prefers4 ,the term duck
 is applied to males and females        
collectively1 and also to the female as 
distinguished from the male4 ,the male  
is called a drake4 ,the name drake is   
supposed to be derived from an ,old     
,german word meaning the chief duck4    
,any one who is familiar with the habits

 of ducks will see at once the          
appropriateness of the term4 ,ducks     
often march in single file1 and when    
they do so1 all the drakes in a group go
 first1 the ducks following them1       
usually with a little space between4 ,so
 if there is only one male1 he marches a
 little ahead of his flock1 like a      
commander4 ,young ducks are called      
ducklings1 the name being applied to    
both sexes4 ,in our language there are  
no special terms applying to a young    
duck and a young drake as distinguished 
from adult birds4  ,origin4 ,useful     
domestic ducks are of two species4 ,all 
the breeds of this class1 except the    
,muscovy ,duck1 are derived from the    
wild ,mallard ,duck1 specimens of which 
are still frequently captured and       
domesticated4 ,the ,mallard takes very  
readily to domestication4 ,although in  
the wild state it is a migratory bird1  
in domestication it soon becomes too    
heavy to fly far4 ,after a few          
generations in domestication it becomes 

as large as common domestic stock1 loses
 its power of flight1 and cannot be     
distinguished from stock that has been  
domesticated for centuries4 ,mallard    
,ducks captured in the wild state and   
kept in captivity have been known to lay
 from eighty to one hundred eggs in a   
season1 which is as many as the average 
domestic duck lays4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abb4 ,domesticated ,mallard      
,ducks1 ,brook ,view ,farm1 ,newbury1   
,massachusetts  ,when ducks were first  
domesticated is not known4 ,the figure  
of a duck was used in the earliest      
,egyptian hieroglyphics4 ,as the        
,mallard is widely distributed and so   
easily tamed1 and as domestic ducks of  
the same type 7but apparently not       
related in domestication7 are found in  
widely separated parts of the earth1 it 
is plain that the distribution of       
domestic ducks has been less dependent  
upon the movements of the human race    
than the distribution of the fowl4      
,wherever at any time in the history of 

the world male and female wild ,mallards
 happened to be caught and kept in      
captivity1 a domestic race might be     
developed4 ,a missionary who went to    
,africa in #ahhe and worked among the   
,bakubas--a people more than a thousand 
miles from the west coast of the        
continent--reported that he found there 
such little mongrel fowls as are common 
elsewhere in ,africa1 and a local race  
of domestic ducks varied in color as are
 the common ducks of ,europe and        
,america1 but as large as the ,rouen and
 ,pekin ducks4 ,the ,bakubas had had so 
little intercourse with civilized       
peoples that it was not at all likely   
that an improved race of ducks had been 
introduced from the outside world1 and  
whatever possibility of that might be   
supposed to exist1 the fact that the    
ducks of this country1 like the domestic
 quadrupeds1 were dumb indicates that   
they are a distinct and very old        
domestic race4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#abc4 ,colored ,muscovy ,ducks4         

7,photograph by ,e4 ,j4 ,hall7  ,it is  
worth noting in this connection that the
 missionary1 ,dr4 ,william ,h4          
,sheppard1 found it the accepted opinion
 among this savage people that1 by a    
process of natural selection1 the       
character of dumbness had been acquired 
by the domestic animals1 to which it    
gave a measure of protection from wild  
enemies in the forest around them4 ,it  
seems wonderful that the theory of      
evolution was found out by such people  
before it was developed by modern       
scientists4  ,the common duck4 ,like the
 ordinary mongrel fowl1 the common duck 
7sometimes called the puddle duck1      
because1 when it cannot find water      
elsewhere1 it appears to be perfectly   
satisfied with the filthiest puddles7 is
 much the same in all parts of the world
 and is a very inferior bird in         
comparison with ducks of the improved   
races4 ,common ducks are usually very   
slow growers and weigh at maturity from 
three to four pounds each4 ,as a rule   

they are very indifferent layers1 laying
 only in the spring4 ,they are of       
various colors4  ,improved races4       
,nearly all our improved races of ducks 
are of foreign origin4 ,at the poultry  
exhibition at ,boston in #ahdi the only 
kinds exhibited were the ,aylesbury1 the
 ,muscovy1 and the ornamental ,wood     
ducks4  ,the ,aylesbury ,duck is a large
 white duck developed as a local variety
 in the vale of ,aylesbury1 in ,england4
 ,it has a flesh-colored bill1 and legs 
of a pale orange color4 ,although the   
favorite market duck in ,england1 and   
early known in ,america1 it never became
 a favorite here4  ,the ,muscovy ,duck  
is1 as has been stated1 of a different  
species from our other useful breeds4   
,it is a native of ,south ,america and  
is supposed to have been taken to       
,europe in the seventeenth century4 ,it 
was probably brought to ,north ,america 
from ,europe less than a hundred years  
ago4 ,it differs from ducks of ,mallard 
origin in several other particulars     

besides the naked head with its         
bright-red1 carunculated skin4 ,the male
 is very much larger than the female4   
,the tail is longer and more depressed4 
,there is an entire absence of red      
pigment in the plumage4 ,the natural    
color is black and white1 unevenly      
distributed4 ,this variety is called the
 ,colored ,muscovy ,duck4 ,many         
specimens are nearly black4 ,the ,white 
,muscovy ,duck is an albino variety4 ,by
 crossing these two varieties a blue    
variety is sometimes obtained1 but1     
although ,blue ,muscovy ,ducks have been
 made at various times1 fanciers have   
never taken enough interest in them to  
encourage the originators to continue   
their breeding4  ,the ,rouen ,duck takes
 its name from the town of ,rouen1 in   
the north of ,france1 though the type   
seems to have been common over quite a  
large area and not peculiar to the      
vicinity of that town4 ,it is like the  
,mallard in color1 and is just such a   
duck as by good care and selection for  

size might be developed at any time from
 common ducks of that color4 ,rouen     
,ducks are said to have been well known 
in the south of ,england early in the   
nineteenth century4 ,when they were     
brought to this country is not known4   
,although for a long time they have been
 familiar to those who attend poultry   
shows1 and have been widely distributed 
in small numbers1 they have never been  
extensively bred because the ,rouen1    
having dark plumage1 is not desirable   
for the production of young ducks for   
market4 ,when mature it dresses clean   
and the quality of its flesh is         
unsurpassed4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4
 ,rouen ,ducks1 ,brook ,view ,farm1     
,newbury1 ,massachusetts  ,the ,cayuga  
,duck is an improved black duck         
developed about the middle of the last  
century in ,cayuga ,county1 ,new ,york4 
,some early accounts of its origin      
stated that it was a domesticated wild  
black duck1 but it is much more         
reasonable to suppose that it was       

developed by selection from black and   
nearly black common ducks4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,flock of    
,pekin ,ducks  ,the ,white ,pekin ,duck 
is a ,chinese breed closely resembling  
the ,aylesbury ,duck of ,england4 ,it   
has an orange-yellow bill and legs4 ,no 
large ducks of other colors than white  
have ever been brought to this country  
or to ,europe from ,china4 ,as far as is
 known1 the importations from ,china to 
,england and the ,united ,states        
consisted of only a few birds and were  
made about #ahgb-ahge4 ,information     
about these is not very definite4 ,the  
most commonly accepted version is that  
they were brought to ,england in #ahgd  
and to the ,united ,states from ,england
 in the following year1 but some        
accounts say that both ,england and     
,america received them direct in #ahgc1 
and one account places the first        
importation to ,england in #ahgb4 ,the  
exact truth is not of importance in such
 a matter1 but those who are interested 

in the remarkable developments in duck  
culture which followed the arrival of   
this breed in the ,western ,world       
naturally wish to know the facts4 ,all  
accounts agree that there were only a   
few ducks brought from ,china4 ,in      
,england the ,pekin became quite popular
 at once4 ,it was hardier and more      
prolific than the ,aylesbury1 and was   
used largely in outcrosses1 to give     
vigor to ,aylesbury stock4 ,in ,america 
it became immensely popular in a few    
years4 ,it was found to be remarkably   
well adapted to intensive methods of    
poultry keeping1 and large duck farms   
were built up2 some of these made very  
large profits for long periods of years4
  ,the ,indian ,runner ,duck is a small1
 active duck which originated long ago  
as the common duck on the meadows of    
certain marshy districts in the         
,netherlands4 ,the peasants of these    
districts compelled their ducks to      
forage for their food1 and so developed 
ducks with a more upright carriage and  

stronger legs than the other races4 ,in 
the ,netherlands these ducks are of all 
colors4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #abf4     
,indian ,runner ,ducks4 7,photograph    
from owner1 ,clayton ,ballard1 ,white   
,pine1 ,tennessee7  ,ducks of this type1
 in color white with fawn-colored       
markings1 were introduced to poultry    
fanciers in ,england in #ahic or #ahid  
as ,indian ,runner ,ducks4 ,it was said 
that they had been first brought from   
,india to ,cumberland fifty or sixty    
years before1 and that ever since that  
time they had been bred pure by a few   
breeders and more or less mixed with the
 common stock of that section by many   
others4 ,the story of their history in  
,england is much more plausible than    
that of their origin in ,india4 ,when   
the breed was shown on the ,continent of
 ,europe it was at once recognized by   
fanciers there as an improved variety of
 a common duck4  ,compared with other   
ducks the ,indian ,runner is a          
remarkable layer1 but it does not1 as   

many admirers of the breed claim1       
surpass fowls in egg production1 and the
 market for duck eggs is so limited that
 it is easily overstocked4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,flock of    
,white ,indian ,runner ,ducks4          
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,animal    
,industry1 ,united ,states ,department  
of ,agriculture7  ,blue ,swedish ,ducks 
and ,buff ,orpington ,ducks are simply  
color varieties of an improved type of  
the common duck4 ,there are several     
other quite well-marked varieties in    
,europe that have not been seen in this 
country4  ,ornamental ducks4 ,the       
ornamental ducks of the same species as 
the common duck1 and derived either from
 common ducks or directly from the      
,mallard1 are the ,east ,india ,duck1   
the ,black1 ,white1 and ,gray ,call     
,ducks1 and the ,crested ,white ,duck4  
,the ,call ,ducks are so named because  
their persistent quacking makes them    
valuable for calling wild ducks within  
range of the guns of hunters1 and they  

are much used as decoys4 ,they are very 
small and were produced by dwarfing     
common ducks4 ,the name gray1 to        
describe the colored variety1 is        
misleading4 ,the color is like that of  
the ,mallard but of a lighter shade4    
,some ,mallards are quite as gray as the
 average ,gray ,call ,duck4 ,the ,black 
,east ,india ,duck is a dwarf black duck
 differing so little from the ,call     
,ducks as to leave no doubt1 in the mind
 of any one acquainted with the         
mysteries of making and naming breeds of
 poultry1 that1 like the ,call ,ducks1  
it is of ,european origin4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,blue        
,orpington ,ducks4 7,photograph from    
owner1 ,sunswick ,farm1 ,plainfield1    
,new ,jersey7  ,there are many          
ornamental ducks of other species1 the  
most interesting of which are the       
brilliantly colored ,wood ,duck         
7sometimes called the ,carolina ,duck7  
and the ,mandarin ,duck1 which1 besides 
being gorgeously colored1 has a peculiar

 crest and has some of the feathers on  
its wings oddly curved and spread1      
giving it a singular appearance4        
,specimens of these ducks are almost    
always to be seen in a collection of    
fancy waterfowl4 ,the ,wood ,duck is a  
native of ,north ,america1 the ,mandarin
 ,duck of ,northern ,china4  ,place of  
ducks in domestication4 ,it has been    
stated that if there were no fowls1 the 
duck would make the best substitute1 but
 as we have fowls in great variety1 and 
as they suit us better than ducks for   
nearly every purpose for which either   
might be used1 ducks are not often kept 
in place of fowls4 ,small flocks of     
ducks are kept in addition to a flock of
 fowls1 both on farms and by town       
poultry keepers1 either because the     
owner likes to have them about or to add
 to the variety of poultry meat for home
 consumption4 ,the flocks of ducks so   
kept are of comparatively little        
economic importance4 ,the ratio of ducks
 to fowls is only about one to fifty1   

and the ratio of values of the products 
of these two kinds of poultry is        
probably nearer one to one hundred4 ,but
 when poultry keeping is made a special 
business1 duck growing gives the surest 
and the largest profits1 because ducks  
can be grown in large numbers more      
easily than any other domestic animal4  
,the largest permanently successful     
poultry farms in the world are the great
 duck farms of the ,united ,states4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,black and   
,white ,call ,ducks1 ,brook ,view ,farm1
 ,newbury1 ,massachusetts  ,to the      
fancier1 ducks are decidedly less       
interesting than fowls1 not only        
because1 as has already been stated1    
they present fewer superficial          
characters upon which he can exercise   
his art1 but because they are1 on the   
whole1 less intelligent and less capable
 of developing confidence in one who    
handles them4 ,fowls are much easier to 
handle in the way the fancier must often
 handle his birds for thorough          

examination4 ,as a rule1 a fowl quickly 
learns that it is not going to be hurt1 
and the more it is handled the tamer it 
becomes4 ,young ducks are almost        
stupidly fearless of the person who     
feeds them1 as long as he goes among    
them without touching them1 but after he
 catches them they are as stupidly shy4 
,it takes very much more patience to    
handle ducks as a fancier handles birds 
than the average human being possesses1 
and so very few people find them        
satisfactory for pets after they cease  
to be a novelty4  ,perhaps if the       
interest in the breeding of ducks for   
exhibition were greater1 stocks of ducks
 that were free from this timidity could
 gradually be developed4 ,individual    
birds are often found which are not at  
all shy2 and1 as a rule1 persistent     
selection for any quality will          
eventually make it a race               
characteristic4     ,,chapter ,,vii     
,,management ,,of ,,ducks   ,although   
ducks delight in the water and1 when    

they have an opportunity to do so1 spend
 a considerable part of the time in it1 
they are often kept very successfully   
where they have no water except for     
drinking4 ,some duck breeders1 who have 
kept their ducks for many generations   
without water in which they could swim1 
have said that the ducks lost all desire
 to swim1 and that birds of such stock  
would not go into the water even when   
they had the opportunity to do so4 ,this
 statement greatly exaggerates the      
facts4 ,any young duck1 no matter how   
the stock from which it came has been   
kept1 will take to the water as soon as 
it can run about if it is given access  
to water at that time2 but if young     
ducks are kept away from the water until
 they are several weeks old1 and then   
given access to water in which they can 
swim1 they are often as much afraid of  
the water as they would be of any object
 to which they were not accustomed4 ,if 
they remain near the water1 however1 it 
will not be long before they follow     

their natural instinct to get into it4  
,having once entered the water1 they are
 immediately as much at home there as if
 they had always known the pleasures of 
life in that element4  ,as comparatively
 few people keep ducks1 and             
specialization in duck culture is mostly
 in the line of producing young ducks   
for market1 on a large scale1 there is  
not as much variety in methods of       
managing ducks as in methods of managing
 fowls4 ,if ducks are expected to do the
 best of which they are capable1 they   
must be given a great deal of attention4
 ,while no bird will endure more neglect
 without appearing to suffer1 there is  
none that will respond to good care more
 generously4   ,,small ,,flocks ,,on    
,,town ,,lots  ,numbers4 ,the small     
flock of ducks on a town lot is usually 
a very small flock1 kept more from      
curiosity and for a little variety in   
poultry keeping than with any definite  
purpose4 ,most of such little flocks are
 composed of a drake and from one to    

five ducks4 ,where a larger flock is    
kept for the eggs they produce1 the     
number rarely exceeds fifteen or twenty4
 ,many town people who want to grow only
 a few ducks each year prefer not to    
keep any adult stock1 but to buy a few  
eggs for hatching when they want them4  
,houses and yards4 ,ducks require about 
the same amounts of house and yard room 
per bird as fowls4 ,while they will     
stand crowding better than any other    
kind of poultry1 they appreciate an     
abundance of room and good conditions1  
and are more thrifty when they are not  
overcrowded4 ,where they can be allowed 
to remain outdoors at night1 they really
 need no shelter but a shed large enough
 to give them shade from the sun on hot 
days and protection from hard1 driving  
storms4 ,on most town lots1 however1 it 
is advisable to have them indoors at    
night for protection from dogs and      
thieves4 ,also1 the amount of roughing  
that they like1 while not at all        
detrimental to them1 is not conducive to

 early laying4 ,so most duck keepers    
prefer to have the ducks housed at night
 and in severe weather1 and give them   
approximately the same space that would 
be given to an equal number of fowls4   
,the floor of the house should be       
littered with straw1 hay1 or shavings4  
,the object of littering the floors of  
duck houses is not to afford them       
exercise1 but to provide them with dry  
bedding4 ,the droppings of ducks are    
very watery1 and the bedding must be    
changed often enough to keep the ducks  
clean4 ,it is customary to provide      
shallow nest boxes1 placing them on the 
floor next the wall1 preferably in a    
corner4 ,the ducks are quite as likely  
to leave their eggs anywhere on the     
floor1 or out in the yard 7if they are  
let out before they lay71 but the nests 
are there if they want them1 and many   
will use the nests regularly4  ,the only
 other furnishings needed are a feed    
trough and a drinking vessel1 but it is 
advisable to have a tub or a pan in     

which the birds can take a bath1 and to 
supply them with water in this once or  
twice a week4 ,the drinking vessel must 
be one that they cannot get into1 for if
 they can get into it they will         
certainly do so4 ,an ordinary wooden    
water pail1 or a small butter tub with  
the part above the upper hoop sawed off1
 makes a very satisfactory drinking     
vessel for adult ducks4 ,it will hold   
enough water for the ducks to partially 
wash themselves1 which they do by       
dipping their heads in the water and    
then rubbing them on their bodies and   
wings4 ,for the regular bath for two or 
three ducks one of the largest-sized    
bath pans made for pigeons will do very 
well1 or an old washtub cut down to six 
or eight inches deep may be used4 ,for a
 flock of eight or ten ducks a good tub 
may be made from one end of a molasses  
hogshead4 ,the bath should always be    
given outdoors1 because it takes the    
ducks only a few minutes to splash so   
much water out of the tub that          

everything around it is thoroughly wet4 
,the drinking water should also be given
 outdoors whenever the houses are open4 
,as the ducks of the breeds usually kept
 can hardly fly at all1 very low        
partitions and fences will keep them in 
their quarters1 but to keep other       
poultry or animals out of their yards it
 may be necessary to build higher       
fences4 ,for the heavier breeds1 like   
the ,pekin and ,rouen1 fences are       
usually made from #ah inches to #bd     
inches high4 ,the ducks will rarely     
attempt to go over these1 but           
occasionally a drake learns to climb a  
two-foot fence by using his bill1 wings1
 and toes1 and may then manage to get   
over a higher fence4 ,for the small1    
light breeds1 fences #c or #d feet high 
may be needed4 ,if their yard is on a   
slope and is large enough to give them a
 chance to start a flight high up on the
 slope1 so that they will rise above the
 fence at the lower side1 it may be     
necessary either to put a very high     

fence on that side or to cover the yard4
  ,while the fence for ducks need not be
 either high or strong1 there must be no
 holes in it that a duck1 having put its
 head through1 could by pressure enlarge
 enough to let its body pass4 ,a piece  
of wire netting that has begun to rust a
 little may be as good as ever for fowls
 for a long time1 but if used for a duck
 fence it will be most unsatisfactory1  
because the ducks will soon make many   
holes in it4 ,if wire netting alone is  
used1 it should be fastened to the      
ground with pegs every three or four    
feet4  ,feeding4 ,the feeding of ducks  
differs from the feeding of hens in that
 ducks need mostly soft food1 and that1 
if the keeper wishes to force growth or 
egg production1 they may be fed much    
larger proportions of such concentrated 
foods as beef scraps and meat meals4 ,as
 has been stated1 in its natural state  
the duck gets the greater part of its   
food from the water4 ,this is all soft  
food1 and the bird swallows a great deal

 of water with it4 ,it does not1        
therefore1 need a large crop in which to
 soak its food before it passes into the
 gizzard4 ,so the crop of the duck is   
small--merely an enlargement of the     
gullet4 ,some of the old books on       
poultry say that the duck has no crop1  
but you can see by looking at a duck    
that has just had a full meal that the  
food it has taken remains in the        
passage1 sometimes filling it right up  
to the throat4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#acj4 ,pekin duckling six weeks old     
,with a mash 7just the same as is given 
to hens7 morning and evening1 a cabbage 
to pick at1 plenty of drinking water1   
and a supply of oyster shell always     
before them1 ducks will do very well4   
,if they have no cabbage1 about one     
third 7by bulk7 of the mash should be   
cut clover or alfalfa4 ,when the days   
are long1 it is a good plan to give them
 a little cracked corn or whole wheat   
about noon4 ,the water supply should    
always be replenished just before       

feeding1 for as soon as a duck has taken
 a few mouthfuls of food of any kind1 it
 wants a drink of water4  ,laying       
habits4 ,with the exception of the ducks
 of the ,indian ,runner type1 which lay 
some eggs at other seasons1 as hens do1 
ducks usually lay very persistently for 
about six months1 and then stop entirely
 for about six months4 ,occasionally    
ducks of other breeds lay a few eggs in 
the autumn1 but this trait has not been 
developed in them as it has in the      
,indian ,runner4 ,if they are           
comfortably housed and well fed1 ,pekin 
and ,rouen ,ducks usually begin to lay  
in ,january4 ,if they are allowed to    
expose themselves to rough weather1 and 
are fed indifferently1 they may not     
begin to lay until ,march or ,april4    
,when they do begin1 they usually lay   
much more steadily than hens until hot  
weather comes1 and then gradually       
decrease their production until by      
midsummer they have stopped altogether4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,pekin drake 

four months old1 weighing nine pounds   
,the eggs are usually laid very early in
 the morning4 ,ducks often lay before   
daylight and almost always lay before   
eight o'clock4 ,when a duck lays in a   
nest1 she is very likely to cover the   
egg with the nest material when she     
leaves it4 ,a duck will often make a    
nest and remain on it an hour or more   
and then go and drop her egg somewhere  
else and pay no further attention to it4
  ,growing ducklings4 ,for a poultry    
keeper who has only a little room it is 
much easier to grow a few ducks than to 
grow an equal number of chickens4 ,there
 are two reasons for this3 ,one is that 
the ducklings stand close confinement   
better and are not so sensitive to      
unsanitary conditions2 the other is that
 ducks of the improved breeds grow much 
more quickly than chickens and are grown
 up before the novelty of caring for    
them wears off and the keeper tires of  
giving the close attention that young   
poultry need when grown under such      

conditions4  ,the ducks of the improved 
breeds are mostly non-sitters4 ,unless  
one has common ducks1 ,muscovy ,ducks1  
,rouen ,ducks with some wild ,mallard   
blood1 or ,mallards not long            
domesticated1 he is not likely to have a
 duck go broody1 and so small lots of   
duck eggs are usually hatched under     
hens4 ,as duck eggs are larger than hen 
eggs1 a smaller number is given to the  
hen4 ,eleven medium-sized duck eggs are 
given to a hen that would cover thirteen
 hen eggs4 ,if the eggs are large1 it is
 better to give such a hen only nine4   
,the development of a fertile duck egg  
that has a white or slightly tinted     
shell can be seen very plainly when the 
egg is held before a light1 much earlier
 than the development of a hen egg4 ,if 
the shell is green and quite dark in    
color1 the development of the germ may  
not show any better than in a           
brown-shelled hen egg4 ,the period of   
incubation is about four weeks4 ,eggs   
are sometimes picked as early as the    

twenty-fifth day1 but usually on the    
twenty-sixth day4 ,as stated in ,chapter
 ,,ii1 the duckling usually waits quite 
a long time after chipping the shell    
before it completes the process and     
emerges4  ,in a little duckling we find 
the most striking resemblance to a      
reptile that is to be seen among        
domestic birds4 ,it has a long1 soft    
body1 a long neck1 short legs1 and a    
wriggling movement1 and sometimes1 when 
it is wriggling through a small hole1 it
 looks very snakelike4 ,while they are  
very small1 ducklings are the most      
interesting of young birds4 ,they will  
go to the water as soon as they leave   
the nest4 ,dabbling in it will not hurt 
them in the least if the weather is     
pleasant1 if the water is not cold1 and 
if they can leave it when they are tired
 and go to their mother and get dry and 
warm4 ,much of the pleasure of growing  
young ducks is in watching their        
behavior in the water4 ,for this purpose
 a large pan or a small1 shallow tub may

 be placed in their coop4 ,it should    
either be sunk in the ground1 so that   
they can get in and out easily1 or two  
short pieces of board should be nailed  
together at such an angle that they will
 form a little walk from the ground     
outside1 over the edge of the vessel1   
and to the bottom inside4 ,this walk    
enables the ducklings to get out if the 
water gets so low that they cannot      
scramble from its surface over the sides
 of the pan or tub4 ,the best way to    
teach the little ducks to use the walk  
is to put a little pile of sods or earth
 beside the vessel containing the water4
 ,the ducks will learn very quickly to  
go into the water in this way1 and will 
soon find their way out by the board    
walk4 ,after they have come out by the  
walk a few times1 they will begin to go 
in by it4 ,it is very important to make 
sure that if young ducks are given water
 to play in1 they can get out of it     
easily4 ,many who have not had          
experience in handling them neglect this

 and feel very bad when some of their   
ducklings are drowned4  ,if proper      
provision is made for the safety of the 
ducklings1 they afford a great deal of  
entertainment4 ,one of the first things 
a little duck does when it gets into the
 water is to go through the peculiar    
ducking performance that gives the name 
to its species4 ,the little fellows duck
 their heads to the bottom1 and their   
tails and feet go up into the air while 
they mechanically feel with their bills 
for the food which instinct seems to    
suggest should be there4 ,they play in  
the water1 going through all the motions
 of feeding in it4 ,if the sun is warm1 
they are as likely to lie down together 
in the sun when they leave the water as 
they are to go to the hen to be brooded4
 ,as they lie on the ground they often  
turn one eye toward the sky and look    
steadily upward1 as if they knew        
intuitively that one of their most      
dangerous natural enemies might appear  
from that quarter4 ,in every way they   

comport themselves just as old ducks do 
and not at all in the ways of their hen 
mother4  ,the young ducks may be fed1 as
 the old ones are1 on mash1 but should  
be fed oftener1 unless their coops are  
where they can eat all the grass they   
want and can get a great many flies1    
worms1 and insects4 ,they are expert    
flycatchers1 and if there is anything in
 their coop to attract flies1 they will 
get a great many of them4 ,under such   
conditions three feeds a day will be    
sufficient4 ,if they have no grass they 
should be fed five times daily and      
should be supplied with tender green    
food of some kind4 ,for the first few   
days the mash given them should have a  
little very fine gravel or coarse sand  
mixed with it--about a heaping          
tablespoonful to a quart of mash4 ,at   
any time after that when the ducks seem 
dull and weak1 a little fine gravel in  
the mash will usually tone them up4     
,little ducks grow very fast and in a   
few weeks are entirely independent of   

the hen4 ,at ten or twelve weeks they   
are fully feathered and almost          
full-grown1 and are ready to be killed  
and eaten as green ducks4   ,,small     
,,flocks ,,on ,,farms  ,general         
conditions4 ,the small flock of ducks on
 the farm is usually most profitable if 
it can be given the run of a small      
pasture or orchard where the birds have 
good foraging and have access to a pond 
or stream but cannot wander away4 ,ducks
 on the farm are often allowed to run   
with other poultry4 ,this may do very   
well if the flocks of all kinds are     
small and can separate when foraging1   
but as a rule it is better to put the   
ducks where they will be away from other
 poultry4 ,a small flock of ducks       
properly placed on a farm should require
 very little food and very little       
attention4 ,if possible the birds should
 be free at night1 because the worms and
 grubs come to the surface in greatest  
abundance then1 and they can get as much
 in an hour early in the morning as they

 can in several hours after the sun is  
high4 ,the principal objections to      
leaving them out at night are that they 
may be attacked by animals that prey    
upon them1 and that the ducks may lay   
their eggs where they are not easily    
found4 ,the person in charge of the     
ducks has to use his judgment as to     
whether the risks in his case are so    
great that the ducks should be confined 
at night4  ,when a flock of ducks on a  
farm has liberty to wander at will1 it  
often makes a great deal of trouble1    
because ducks are prone to stop for the 
night wherever they happen to be when   
they have eaten their fill late in the  
day4  ,feeding4 ,if the ducks are kept  
in until they have laid1 they should    
have a little food when they are let    
out4 ,it does not make much difference  
what this is4 ,if a mash is made for    
other poultry1 some of it may be given  
to them4 ,otherwise1 a little whole     
grain will make them comfortable until  
they can pick up a more varied          

breakfast4 ,the best method of feeding  
the young ducks will depend upon the    
conditions4 ,as a rule it is better to  
keep them quite close for the first two 
or three weeks and feed them well4 ,the 
ideal way is to coop them on grass1 or  
in a garden where they can get a great  
deal of green food and worms4 ,treated  
in this way they will get a better start
 and will grow much faster and larger   
than if they are allowed to wear        
themselves out by running about while   
small4 ,on a farm where there is no     
water near the house1 but where there is
 a stream at a little distance1 the     
young ducks should be so placed that    
they cannot make their way to this      
stream4 ,very small ducks at liberty    
will often find their way alone to water
 so far from their home that it was not 
supposed that they could locate it4 ,if 
they have an opportunity to do so1 small
 ducks are much more likely than older  
ones to wander off in search of water1  
and instinct seems to direct them toward

 it4  ,after the ducklings are three or 
four weeks old1 they may be given as    
much freedom as old ducks4 ,unless      
natural food is very abundant1 they     
should be fed some grain for a while4   
,ducks grown in this way cannot be sold 
to advantage as green ducks4 ,at this   
stage of growth they cannot be collected
 from small flocks and marketed in      
condition to bring the prices paid for  
those from the special duck farms1 and  
as it costs the farmer little or nothing
 to keep his ducks until mature1 it is  
usually more profitable for him to do so
 than to sell them earlier4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,duck farms  
at ,speonk1 ,long ,island  ,on a farm   
near a market where there is a good     
demand for green ducks it might pay very
 well to grow several hundred a year4   
,on this scale the methods should be    
similar to those used on the special    
duck farms1 except that the hatching    
might be done with hens4 ,it would not  
do to let the ducks run about as        

recommended for stock which is to be    
kept until mature1 because then they    
would not be fat at the age for killing 
them4   ,,market ,,duck ,,farms         
,history4 ,the growing of ducks for the 
,new ,york ,city market began on ,long  
,island at a very early stage of        
specialization in poultry culture4 ,many
 farmers there produced a few hundred   
ducks for this market each year1 and    
found it very profitable4 ,as the demand
 increased they tried to increase       
production to meet it1 but were unable  
to do this1 because there was then in   
this country no duck adapted to their   
needs4 ,the ,aylesbury ,duck1 the       
favorite table duck in ,england1 was too
 delicate4 ,the only hardy white duck   
that they had was the ,white ,muscovy4  
,this breed was not very satisfactory1  
because the females are much smaller    
than the males1 but they had to use     
white ducks1 for the colored ducks will 
not pick clean at the age at which ducks
 can be marketed most profitably2 so    

they did the best they could with the   
,white ,muscovy ,duck1 under the        
restrictions placed upon their          
operations by the difficulty of getting 
broody hens4 ,while the industry was    
mostly on ,long ,island1 there were duck
 growers here and there on the mainland 
in the vicinity of ,new ,york and also  
near ,boston1 but there were no duck    
farms of any importance in other parts  
of the country4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#acc4 ,view from the windmill tower in  
,fig4 #acb  ,when the ,white ,pekin     
,ducks were brought from ,china1 and    
reports of their hardiness1 prolificacy1
 and rapid growth were circulated1 the  
duck growers were at first very         
skeptical1 but they soon learned that   
the reports which they had supposed were
 greatly exaggerated were literally     
true4 ,then every duck grower had to    
have ,pekin ,ducks4 ,the production     
increased very much after the           
introduction of the ,pekin ,duck1 but   
the growth of the industry was still    

retarded by the impossibility of getting
 all the hens that were needed to hatch 
the eggs4 ,several incubators had been  
invented1 which hatched very well for   
those who had the skill to operate them1
 but which1 in the hands of unskilled   
operators1 spoiled most of the eggs     
placed in them4 ,about #ahij appeared   
the first incubators with automatic     
regulators that really worked so that   
the ordinary person could manage the    
machines successfully4 ,one of the ,new 
,england duck growers who had invented  
the best of the machines used before    
this time was already growing ducklings 
on quite a large scale4 ,on ,long       
,island1 where most of the duck farms   
were located1 the farmers were hard to  
convince of the superiority of          
incubators for their work4 ,indeed1 the 
only way that they could be convinced   
was by practical demonstrations right on
 their own farms4 ,the first incubators 
used there were machines set up on trial
 by a manufacturer who had invented an  

incubator which was very easy to        
operate4 ,this man went to the duck     
growing district1 placed machines on    
various farms1 and went from farm to    
farm daily to attend to them1 until the 
farmers were fully convinced that the   
machines would do what was claimed for  
them4 ,in a very short time the         
artificial method had displaced hatching
 with hens on the commercial duck farms1
 and the business was growing amazingly4
 ,within ten years there were many farms
 producing from #ae1jjj to #bj1jjj ducks
 a year1 and a few producing from       
#dj1jjj to #ej1jjj4 ,one man on ,long   
,island1 who operated two farms a few   
miles apart1 sometimes grew #hj1jjj     
ducks in a season4 ,those who were      
successful on a large scale became      
moderately rich4 ,without exception the 
successful duck farms have been built up
 from small beginnings by men who had   
very little capital to start with4 ,some
 of these farms have been operated on a 
large scale for twenty years4           

,illustration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,house and   
yards for breeding stock  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #ace4 ,brooder house for young   
ducklings  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #acf4   
,fattening sheds and yards  ,,views ,,of
 ,,weber ,,brothers' ,,duck ,,farm1     
,,wrentham1 ,,massachusetts  ,as would  
be expected1 the success of the big duck
 farms has led many people with large   
capital to undertake to establish duck  
farms on a still larger scale4 ,but     
these undertakings do not last long1    
because it is practically impossible to 
secure for such a plant an organization 
as efficient as one developed by the    
owner of a plant which has grown from   
small beginnings under his own          
management4  ,description4 ,a large duck
 farm is a very interesting place at any
 time1 but is most interesting at the   
height of the growing season1 when all  
the operations in the business are going
 on at the same time4 ,the total number 
of birds on a farm at any time is very  
much less than the product for the      

season1 because the first ducks hatched 
will have gone to market before the eggs
 which produce the last are laid1 but in
 flocks of more than #aj1jjj the        
impression on the visitor is much the   
same1 no matter what the numbers4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acg4 ,duck house  
and yards on seashore1 ,fishers ,island1
 ,new ,york  ,duck farms are of two     
types3 those located on streams or      
inlets have the yards for all but the   
smallest ducks partly in the water2 the 
inland duck farms1 on which the young   
ducks grown for market are given no     
water except for drinking4 ,some of the 
inland farms give the breeding stock    
access to streams and ponds only during 
the molting season1 when they can be    
allowed to run in large flocks and a    
small area of water will serve for all4 
,for a time after the large inland duck 
farms were first established it was     
claimed by many that ducks grew faster  
when not allowed to swim than they did  
when allowed to follow their natural    

inclination to play in the water4 ,no   
doubt some ducks which were in dry yards
 grew better than some having access to 
large bodies of water1 and on the whole 
as good ducks were grown on the inland  
farms as on those near the water1 but it
 has long been known that it is much    
easier to manage the ducks when they    
have water in their yards4 ,there are   
two reasons for this3 in the first      
place1 they are much more contented in  
the water2 in the second place1 they    
feel very much safer on the water when  
anything alarms them1 and will keep     
quiet on it when1 if they could not     
retreat to the water1 they would rush   
about in a panic and many would be      
injured4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ach4    
,quarters for breeding stock on an      
inland duck farm4 ,swimming tanks in the
 yards  ,ducks are very timid and easily
 panic-stricken4 ,the duck grower has to
 take every possible precaution to guard
 against disturbances of this kind1     
because ducks are so easily injured1 and

 even if they are not hurt1 a sudden    
fright will make them shrink a great    
deal in weight4 ,visitors who come      
merely out of curiosity are not desired 
on duck farms at any time1 and none but 
those familiar with the handling of     
ducks are ever allowed to go about the  
farm without a guide who will see that  
the ducks are not disturbed4 ,many      
visitors think that this is             
unreasonable1 but the duck grower knows 
that the mere presence of a stranger    
excites the ducks1 and that a person    
walking about might put a flock in a    
panic which would at once extend to     
other flocks1 simply because he was not 
familiar enough with the ways of ducks  
to detect the signs of panic in a flock 
which he was approaching1 and to stand  
still until they were quiet1 or move    
very slowly until he had passed them4   
,if a stranger1 walking between yards   
where there were five thousand ducks    
fattening1 made an unconscious movement 
that set the ducks in motion1 the loss  

to the grower could hardly be less than 
from five to ten dollars1 and might be  
very much more4 ,where such little      
things can cause so much trouble and    
loss1 the difference between success and
 failure may lie in preventing them4    
,on a duck plant with a capacity of     
#ej1jjj ducks everything is on a big    
scale4 ,although ducks will stand more  
crowding than other kinds of poultry1 it
 takes a large farm for so many4 ,the   
buildings will cover many thousands of  
square feet of land and1 though of the  
cheapest substantial structure1 will    
represent an investment of fifteen or   
twenty thousand dollars4 ,incubators1   
appliances1 breeding stock1 and supplies
 on hand will amount to about as much4  
,the incubator cellar will be several   
times as large as the cellar under the  
ordinary dwelling house4 ,before the    
so-called mammoth incubators were made1 
the largest-sized machines heated with  
lamps were used on all duck farms1 and  
an incubator cellar would sometimes     

contain as many as seventy incubators   
having a capacity of from #bjj to #cjj  
eggs each4 ,now many of the large farms 
use the mammoth incubators1 with a      
capacity of from #fjjj to #ah1jjj eggs  
each4 ,these mammoth incubators are     
really series of small egg chambers so  
arranged that the entire series is      
heated by pipes coming from a hot-water 
heater1 instead of each chamber having  
an independent lamp heater as in the    
small1 or individual1 machines4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,feeding     
young ducks on farm of ,w4 ,r4 ,curtiss 
,co41 ,ransomville1 ,new ,york  ,as     
nearly all kinds of supplies are bought 
by the carload1 and as stocks must be   
kept up so that there will be no        
possibility of running short of         
foodstuffs1 a great deal of space is    
required for storage4 ,large quantities 
of ice are needed to cool the dressed   
ducks before shipping them to market1 so
 the farm must have its own ice houses  
and store its own supply of ice in the  

winter4 ,for some years after duck farms
 grew to such large proportions1 the    
mixing of mash was all done by hand1    
with shovels4 ,often one man was kept   
busy all day long mixing mash1 and very 
hard work it was4 ,now the men on the   
large farms mix the food in big dough   
mixers1 such as are used by bakers1 and 
work that would take a man an hour is   
done in a few minutes4  ,in some        
sections the killing and dressing of the
 ducks is done by men with whom duck    
picking is a trade at which they work   
during its season4 ,in others the       
killing is done by men1 but the pickers 
are women living in the vicinity of the 
farm1 who can be secured for this work  
whenever they are needed4 ,a farm that  
markets #ej1jjj ducks in a season will  
keep a large force of pickers busy the  
greater part of the time for many       
months4 ,quite a large building is      
required to provide room for the pickers
 to work in1 for tanks for cooling #ejj 
or more ducks at once1 for space for the

 men who pack them1 and for lofts for   
drying the feathers before they are     
sold4 ,this drying process must be used 
whether the birds are dry-picked or are 
scalded before the feathers are removed4
 ,water on feathers dries quickly1 but  
the oil in the quills dries very slowly4
 ,the feathers from one duck are worth  
only a few cents1 and where small       
numbers are grown the feathers are      
hardly worth the trouble of saving and  
curing4 ,on a large plant the total     
product of feathers for a season amounts
 to several thousand dollars1 and it    
pays to provide facilities for taking   
proper care of them4  ,after the crop of
 ducks on an inland farm is marketed1   
the fences must be removed and the land 
plowed and sowed with winter rye4 ,this 
crop is used extensively for this       
purpose1 because it is a gross feeder   
and takes the impurities from the soil  
very fast1 and also furnishes a good    
supply of green food for the stock ducks
 during the winter and for the first    

young ducks put on the land in the      
spring4 ,where the farms are large      
enough1 all ducks may be kept off a part
 of the land each year and crops grown  
on it4 ,the farms located at the        
waterside do not have to look to the    
purification of the land so carefully1  
because the rains wash a great deal of  
the droppings away4 ,some of these farms
 get large quantities of river grass    
from the streams and cut it up to mix   
with the food for the ducks4   ,,duck   
,,fanciers' ,,methods  ,there are two   
general classes of duck fanciers3 those 
who breed one or more of the useful     
varieties for fine form and feather     
points1 and those who breed the         
ornamental varieties4 ,breeders of the  
latter class usually keep other kinds of
 ornamental poultry also4  ,the methods 
of the fanciers of useful kinds of ducks
 compare with those of the practical    
growers who handle small numbers as do  
those of the fowl fancier with the      
methods of the poultry keeper who keeps 

a few fowls for his own use4 ,in a      
general way they are the same1 yet      
wherever it is necessary they are       
modified to secure the best possible    
development of the type4 ,if a duck     
fancier has not a natural water supply  
for his ducks1 he either makes a small  
artificial pond or ditch or gives them  
water for bathing much oftener than the 
commercial duck grower thinks is        
necessary4 ,he also gives both old and  
young ducks more room1 and encourages   
them to take exercise1 because this     
makes them stronger1 more symmetrical1  
and better able to stand transportation 
and the handling to which they are      
subjected when taken to shows4 ,most    
duck fanciers are also fanciers of fowls
 or of some other kind of poultry4 ,the 
competition in ducks is not nearly so   
keen as in fowls4 ,hence they are so    
much less interesting to a fancier that 
few are satisfied with the sport that   
may be obtained from exhibiting ducks   
only4  ,when the growing of green ducks 

for market began to be developed upon a 
large scale1 many of those engaged in   
this line exhibited stock and sold birds
 for breeding and eggs for hatching4    
,they soon found that while the ,pekin  
,duck was unrivaled as a market duck1 it
 was not of sufficient interest to      
fanciers to excite the competition that 
creates high prices for the finest      
specimens1 and that it paid them better 
to devote themselves exclusively to the 
production of market ducks4 ,at the     
present time only a few market duck     
growers make a business of selling      
breeding and exhibition stock4 ,most of 
them will not take small orders1 but    
will fill large orders when they have a 
surplus of breeding stock and can get a 
good price for it4 ,on almost every     
large commercial duck farm there are    
hundreds of birds much better than most 
of the ,pekin ,ducks seen at poultry    
shows1 and many better than the best    
exhibited4 ,there is probably no other  
kind of poultry in which so large a     

proportion of the finest specimens are  
found on the plants of those producing  
for market4  ,the ornamental varieties  
of ducks are given much less attention  
in ,america than they deserve4 ,few are 
seen except in large collections of     
fancy waterfowl1 and sales from these   
collections are principally for special 
displays at shows4 ,on many farms the   
,mallard1 ,call1 and ,east ,indian      
,ducks might be established and left to 
themselves1 to increase in a natural    
way1 only enough being sold or killed to
 keep them from becoming too numerous4  
,if located in a suitable place1 such a 
flock makes a very attractive feature on
 a farm4 ,the highly ornamental         
,mandarin and ,carolina ,ducks1 being   
able to fly quite as well as pigeons1   
must be kept in covered runs4 ,they will
 breed and rear their young in a very   
small space4 ,a covered run #f ft4 wide1
 #f ft4 high1 and from #bj to #cj ft4   
long1 built in a secluded place and     
having a small shelter at one end1 makes

 a very satisfactory place for a pair of
 ducks of any of the small breeds to    
live and rear their young4     ,,chapter
 ,,viii  ,,geese   ,people who are not  
familiar with animals often get wrong   
ideas of the characters of certain      
creatures from the popular metaphorical 
use of their names4 ,perhaps those who  
first applied these metaphors understood
 them correctly1 but after long use by  
people acquainted with the metaphor but 
not familiar with the animal to which it
 relates1 a part of the meaning is      
likely to be lost4 ,this is what has    
happened to the term goose as applied to
 a person4 ,when one acts stupidly      
foolish about some little thing he is   
often called a goose4 ,most people1     
associating the idea of stupidity with  
the name of the goose1 suppose that     
geese are very stupid and uninteresting4
 ,if you will notice how the term goose 
is commonly applied to persons1 you will
 discover that it is very rarely used   
except to apply to a person for whom the

 speaker has a great deal of affection4 
,under the same circumstances others are
 more likely to be designated by some   
harsher term4 ,the most marked          
characteristic of a goose is not        
stupidity but an affectionate           
disposition4 ,the ancient ,egyptians    
noted this1 and in their hieroglyphic   
writing a goose stood for son4 ,the     
goose is a very intelligent and         
interesting bird4 ,it is of a most      
social nature and becomes very much     
attached not only to its mates but to   
other animals and to people4 ,no        
domestic animal except the dog develops 
so much affection for its master as a   
goose will if it is permitted to do so4 
,but1 while interesting in some ways1   
the goose has so little of the other    
qualities which lead man to make a      
companion and pet of an animal1 that its
 devotion is not usually encouraged4    
,commercially geese and ducks belong to 
the same class and are used in the same 
way 7the goose being preferred where    

size is desired71 but in some points of 
character1 structure1 and habits they   
are quite different4  ,description4 ,in 
general appearance a goose resembles a  
duck so closely that people not familiar
 with both often mistake large white    
ducks for geese1 but no one that knows  
either kind well is likely to make      
mistakes in the identity of any of the  
common varieties4 ,while many of the    
small domestic geese are no heavier than
 the largest ducks1 geese are on the    
average more than twice as large as     
ducks4 ,their legs are longer and much  
stronger4 ,their bills are larger at the
 juncture with the head and smaller and 
more pointed at the tip4 ,while ducks   
are usually very timid1 geese are bold1 
and this makes a marked difference in   
their attitude when approached and also 
in the carriage of their bodies4 ,they  
are very strong birds1 quite able to    
defend themselves against the attacks of
 small animals and from annoyance by    
children4 ,indeed1 they are very likely 

to take an aggressive attitude toward   
persons or animals that they regard as  
trespassers1 and a large gander when    
angry is a dangerous customer4 ,a blow  
from his wing might knock a child down  
or even break a small child's arm4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,emden ,geese
  ,there are no regular distinguishing  
marks of sex in geese4 ,the males       
average larger than the females1 but the
 difference is slight and some females  
may be larger than some males of the    
same breeding4 ,in some foreign         
varieties1 not known in this country1   
the males are mostly of one color and   
the females of another1 but as there are
 exceptions to this rule1 it is not     
reliable4 ,in those varieties which have
 a knob on the bill this is likely to be
 more prominent in the males4 ,there is 
nothing in the form of the plumage to   
distinguish the male1 like the little   
curl in the tail of the drake4 ,the     
voices of males and females are so      
nearly alike that1 while a difference   

may sometimes be noted in the voices of 
birds known to be of different sexes1   
the voice is not a plain indication of  
the sex4 ,there are some males so       
distinctly masculine1 and some females  
so distinctly feminine1 in appearance   
and behavior1 that a person familiar    
with geese will not often make a mistake
 in identifying the sex by the general  
appearance4 ,there are others about     
which the most expert goose breeder is  
in doubt until the laying season arrives
 and the production or nonproduction of 
eggs shows without doubt which birds are
 females and which are males4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,toulouse    
,geese  ,the name goose is applied to   
either male or female without reference 
to sex1 and also to the female as       
distinguished from the male4 ,the male  
is called a gander4 ,the young are      
called goslings4 ,goose and gander are  
the modern forms of ,anglo-,saxon names4
  ,origin4 ,our fully domesticated geese
 all originated in the ,old ,world4 ,the

 ,european stock is believed to be      
derived from the ,gray ,lag ,goose1     
which is still found in ,europe in the  
wild state4 ,the origin of the curious  
name ,gray ,lag has been the subject of 
much speculation4 ,the most plausible   
theory is that which takes lag in its   
common meaning and supposes that the    
term was applied to this species of     
goose because it was slower in motion1  
or because it lingered longer in        
,northern ,europe1 than the less        
familiar species4 ,as in the wild state 
the ,gray ,lag ,goose ranged over       
,europe and ,northern ,asia1 it may have
 been domesticated many times in many   
different places4 ,wild specimens may   
still be brought into domestication1 but
 there are no authentic reports of such 
cases4 ,the ,chinese breeds of geese1   
which will shortly be described1 are    
quite different in appearance from the  
,european races1 but the difference does
 not necessarily show that they are of  
different origin4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 

#adb4 ,toulouse goslings three weeks old
  ,common geese4 ,throughout ,europe and
 ,america the ordinary geese are of much
 the same type as their wild progenitor4
 ,they are a little heavier and coarser 
than the ,gray ,lag ,goose1 and have not
 its great power of flight1 yet some of 
them can fly better than any other      
domestic poultry4 ,the author has seen  
flocks of common geese fly from a high  
hill over the roofs of tall buildings at
 its foot and alight in a stream fully  
an eighth of a mile from where they     
started4 ,it is perhaps needless to say 
that they always walked home4 ,such     
geese were hard-meated and tough except 
when quite young4 ,they were geese that 
picked the most of their living where   
food was none too plenty4 ,well-kept    
stocks of common geese have probably    
always been very good table poultry4    
,improved races4 ,in various parts of   
,europe the common geese have somewhat  
distinctive race characteristics4 ,the  
,roman ,geese are supposed to be the    

oldest distinct race4 ,they differ from 
ordinary geese in that the prevailing   
color is white1 and they are more       
prolific layers4 ,the ,pomeranian       
,goose1 found throughout ,germany and   
,southeastern ,europe1 is somewhat      
larger4 ,the female of this race is     
usually white1 the male white with a    
gray back4 ,because of the peculiar     
markings of the male this variety is    
sometimes called the ,saddleback ,goose4
 ,the ,emden and ,toulouse ,geese are   
very large4 ,the ,emden was developed in
 ,germany1 where it was at one time     
called the ,brunswick ,goose4 ,the first
 specimens seen in ,america came from   
,bremen in #ahbf and were called ,bremen
 ,geese4 ,they had been known in        
,england for a long time and had become 
very popular there under the name of    
,emden ,geese4 ,the name ,bremen was    
used in this country until about #ahcj1 
when the ,english name was adopted4     
,the ,toulouse ,goose is a very large   
gray goose which originated in a        

goose-growing district in the vicinity  
of ,toulouse in the ,south of ,france4  
,it was introduced into ,england about  
#ahdj and into ,america about fifteen   
years later4  ,in ,russia gander        
fighting was from very ancient times a  
popular sport1 and several varieties of 
geese were bred especially for their    
fighting qualities4 ,the most common of 
these is the ,tula ,goose1 which is     
usually gray in color but is sometimes  
clay-colored4 ,the latter point is very 
interesting for its bearing on the      
question of the common origin of the    
,european and ,asiatic breeds of geese1 
to be discussed in the next paragraph4  
,none of the ,russian races of geese are
 known in this country4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #adc4 ,white ,china ,geese4       
7,photograph from ,charles ,mc,clave1   
,new ,london1 ,ohio7  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #add4 ,brown ,china ,geese4       
7,photograph by ,e4 ,j4 ,hall7  ,the    
,asiatic races of geese probably came to
 ,america as early as the ,asiatic races

 of fowls4 ,they were early known in    
,england under a variety of names1 and  
were quite popular there over a hundred 
years ago as ,spanish ,geese4 ,a writer 
in an agricultural paper in #ahdh stated
 that he had seen ,white ,china ,geese  
in ,virginia in #ahag4 ,it appears1     
however1 that the early introductions   
were immediately so mixed with the      
native geese that the distinct type was 
lost1 and that it was not until nearly  
#ahej that the specimens were brought   
here from which the stocks now known    
were produced4 ,there are two varieties 
of the ,china ,goose--,white and ,brown4
 ,they are smaller and more graceful    
than the improved ,european varieties   
and are more prolific layers than any   
except perhaps the ,roman ,goose4 ,they 
have a large knob on the head at its    
juncture with the upper mandible4 ,most 
of the geese of ,europe are either white
 or gray 7black-and-white74 ,the red    
which appears to a slight extent as     
brown in the ,gray ,lag ,goose has been 

lost or so reduced that it is not       
noticed except in the ,tula ,goose1     
which is sometimes clay-colored4 ,the   
colored variety of the ,china ,goose is 
distinctly brown4 ,hence1 if they came  
from the same wild species as the       
,european geese1 the red which was      
reduced in ,europe was greatly increased
 in ,china4 ,but if1 as is not          
impossible1 they came from different    
wild species1 a most interesting        
question arises3 ,the ,chinese types and
 the ,european types are perfectly      
fertile when bred together4 ,would their
 wild ancestors 7supposing them to have 
the same characteristics7 be equally    
fertile8 ,unless we can find a wild     
ancestor for the ,chinese type1 all that
 we know of the relations of domestic   
races points to the conclusion that     
they1 like the ,european races1 are     
descended from the ,gray ,lag ,goose4   
,the variety known as the ,african      
,goose is a larger and coarser type of  
the ,brown ,china1 and is probably      

obtained by crossing with the ,toulouse 
or by selection from mixed flocks4      
,nothing definite is known of the origin
 of this type1 but to any one familiar  
with the stock in the goose-growing     
district of ,rhode ,island1 and with the
 breeding methods of the farmers there  
as applied in the development of the    
,rhode ,island ,red fowl1 it appears    
probable that ,african ,geese came from 
this district4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ade4 ,african ,geese on a ,rhode       
,island farm  ,ornamental varieties4    
,there are two ornamental varieties of  
domestic geese and quite a number of    
species of wild geese that are kept in  
collections of fancy waterfowl4 ,the    
,sebastopol ,goose evidently belongs to 
the common domestic species4 ,it is     
about the size of the common goose1 is  
white in color1 and has a peculiar      
development of some of the feathers of  
the body and wings1 this development of 
the plumage giving the variety its      
ornamental character4 ,a number of      

feathers on the back of this bird are   
long and twisted1 as if they had been   
loosely curled1 and lie in a wavy mass  
on the back and rump4 ,the ,egyptian    
,goose is the smallest domestic goose4  
,it is unlike other domestic geese in   
being quite gaudy in color4 ,it is found
 in the wild state and also in          
domestication in many parts of ,africa4 
,sebastopol and ,egyptian ,geese are    
rare in this country4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #adf4 ,sebastopol ,geese on an    
,english farm  ,the ,canada ,goose1 or  
,american ,wild ,goose4 ,few persons in 
,america have not at some time seen a   
flock of wild geese flying in wedgelike 
formation as they migrate in the spring 
and fall4 ,their honking can often be   
heard when they cannot be seen4 ,hunters
 watch for these flocks and1 when they  
are flying low1 sometimes shoot them as 
they pass1 but the favorite method of   
hunting wild geese is to induce them to 
approach a hunter concealed where he can
 get a better shot at them4 ,for this   

kind of hunting1 shooting stands are    
built near bodies of water where wild   
geese may alight in their passage4      
,these stands are either concealed in   
the bushes or masked by green boughs4   
,in order to bring near the stands any  
wild geese that may alight of their own 
accord1 and also to attract any flying  
by1 captive wild geese are used as      
decoys4 ,at first the birds used for    
this purpose were those crippled but not
 killed by the hunters and kept in      
confinement4 ,as the supply secured in  
this way was small1 and as the wild     
birds bred readily in captivity1 the    
breeding of wild geese for decoys soon  
became quite common in districts where  
the shooting of this kind of game was   
good4 ,the wild geese will mate with    
domestic geese1 producing a sterile     
hybrid called a mongrel goose4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adg4 ,a pet       
,canada gander4 7,photograph from       
,george ,e4 ,parrett7  ,place of geese  
in domestication4 ,in ancient ,egypt and

 ,rome the goose was a sacred bird1 not 
an object of worship but reserved for   
the use of the priests1 who keenly      
appreciated the advantage of having a   
monopoly of the use of the best domestic
 table bird then in existence4 ,in later
 times1 until the turkey was introduced1
 goose was the favorite kind of poultry 
for festal occasions all through        
,europe4 ,then it lost some of its      
popularity in those places where turkeys
 were extensively grown4 ,in ,germany1  
,austria1 and ,russia there is still a  
very large production of geese4 ,in this
 country geese are grown in small       
numbers by a few persons in almost every
 community4 ,the feeding and flocking   
habits of geese especially adapted them 
to the conditions under which they were 
kept when stock of all kinds was allowed
 to run at large and to feed on common  
or unoccupied land in charge of a       
gooseherd4 ,as towns grew1 and as people
 became less tolerant of the trespassing
 of live stock1 the growing of geese in 

towns declined4 ,nearly all the geese   
now produced in this country come from  
flocks on general farms4 ,the production
 of geese on farms has been restricted  
to some extent by the abundance and     
cheapness of turkeys4 ,as turkeys become
 scarce and dear in any locality the    
production of geese seems to increase4  
,from early times geese have been prized
 for their feathers4 ,so valuable have  
these been considered that it has been a
 practice to pluck the live geese each  
year before they molted4 ,public opinion
 now condemns this barbarous practice1  
and persons plucking live geese are     
sometimes punished for cruelty to       
animals4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #adh4    
,mongrel ,geese on a ,rhode ,island farm
     ,,chapter ,,ix  ,,management ,,of  
,,geese   ,geese will bear confinement  
well if given proper attention1 but they
 require such large quantities of       
succulent green food that it does not   
pay to grow them where they cannot      
secure most of this by foraging4 ,very  

few people who keep geese in inclosures 
too small to furnish them with good     
pasture can conveniently supply them    
with all the green food that they need4 
,hence no one engages in growing geese  
in close quarters for profit4 ,many1    
however1 grow a few geese under such    
conditions because of the interest a    
small flock affords4 ,goose growing     
cannot be developed on intensive lines  
as duck growing has been4 ,one obstacle 
to this is the difficulty of supplying  
green food under such conditions4       
,another is that the average egg        
production is small4 ,the description of
 the management of geese on farms will  
show more fully why this branch of      
poultry culture is likely always to be  
restricted to general farms4   ,,small  
,,farm ,,flocks  ,size of flock4 ,on the
 ordinary farm1 where only a few dozen  
geese are grown each year1 a flock of   
one male and from two to four females   
gives a sufficient number of breeding   
birds4 ,it is more difficult to get a   

start with geese than with fowls or     
ducks1 because a young gander will often
 mate with only one goose1 and an old   
gander separated from mates to which he 
has become attached may be very slow    
about establishing new family relations4
 ,an experienced goose grower does not  
expect to get very good results the     
first season that a flock of breeding   
birds are together4 ,on the other hand1 
a flock once harmoniously mated does not
 have to be renewed every year or two4  
,as long as the old birds are vigorous  
the entire product of young may be sold 
each season without reducing the        
producing capacity of the flock4 ,the   
average gander is past his prime after  
he is six or seven years old1 but geese 
are often good breeders until ten or    
twelve years old4 ,occasionally a goose 
lives to a great age4 ,there are        
reliable accounts of geese breeding well
 when over twenty years old4 ,some      
stories of geese living to more than    
eighty years of age have been widely    

circulated1 but little credence is to be
 given such tales2 people who originate 
them and suppose that they are true do  
not know how difficult it would be to   
make sure of the identity of a goose    
through so long a period4  ,houses and  
yards4 ,geese1 like ducks1 prefer to    
live in the open air1 and do not often  
voluntarily take shelter from any       
element but heat4 ,it is customary to   
provide a small shelter which they may  
use if they wish4 ,in most cases it is  
not necessary for a farmer to make a    
yard especially for geese4 ,the         
permanent fences or walls between the   
divisions of the farm will usually keep 
geese in the pasture allotted to them4  
,the best place for geese is a marshy   
meadow in which some parts of the       
surface are elevated enough to be quite 
dry at all seasons4 ,these places afford
 more comfortable resting places when   
the birds tire of the wet land4 ,they   
also furnish different kinds of grass   
from those growing on very wet land4 ,on

 many farms there are tracts of land    
much more suitable for geese than for   
any other live stock4 ,cattle and hogs  
sometimes cut up such land very badly1  
destroying the vegetation on it and     
making it unsightly4 ,such a piece of   
land is sometimes a part of a pasture   
used for cattle4 ,in that case it may be
 a good plan to fence the cattle from   
the soft ground with a wire or rail     
fence1 which keeps them out of the part 
reserved for the geese1 yet allows the  
geese the range of the whole pasture4 ,a
 small number of geese in a large       
pasture will not hurt the pasture for   
cattle or horses4 ,too many geese in a  
pasture spoil the grass for themselves  
as well as for other stock4 ,even when  
cattle have access to all parts of a    
pasture in which there are geese1 a     
small space should be inclosed for a    
feeding pen1 where food for the geese   
will be out of the reach of other stock4
 ,this is especially necessary during   
the breeding season1 when they usually  

require extra food4  ,feeding4 ,a flock 
of geese in a good pasture need no other
 food except at the breeding season or  
when they are being fattened4 ,if there 
is any doubt about the pasturage being  
sufficient1 a small trough or box       
containing grain of any kind that it is 
convenient to give them should be put   
where they can eat what they want4 ,when
 there is snow on the ground1 they      
should have a little grain and all the  
cabbage1 beets1 turnips1 or other       
vegetables they want4  ,laying season   
and habits4 ,geese usually begin to lay 
in ,february or ,march4 ,as many nests  
should be provided as there are geese1  
for while two or more geese sometimes   
lay peaceably in the same nest1 it is   
more likely that each goose will want   
one to herself4 ,a barrel placed on its 
side in a secluded place makes a good   
nest4 ,geese are sometimes very notional
 about the location of the nest and1    
neglecting one provided for them1 may   
choose a spot right out in the open or  

in some place where the nest is not well
 protected4 ,when they do this1 it is a 
good plan to place over the nest1       
without disturbing it1 a large box with 
a hole cut in one end for passage4      
,geese1 like ducks1 lay very early in   
the morning4 ,when they begin laying    
while the weather is cold1 the person   
who has charge of them must be up early 
and get the eggs before they are        
chilled4 ,a goose usually lays from     
twelve to eighteen or twenty eggs and   
then goes broody4 ,the common practice  
is to set the first lot of eggs under   
hens1 and keep the goose away from her  
nest until she shows no inclination to  
sit4 ,she may then be allowed access to 
the nest and before long will begin     
laying again4 ,as a rule the second lot 
of eggs will be fewer in number than the
 first4 ,when the goose goes broody the 
second time1 it is as well to set her1  
for if stopped again she may not resume 
laying4 ,occasionally a goose lays for a
 whole season without going broody4     

,hatching and rearing goslings4 ,in     
hatching goose eggs under hens the hens 
are managed in just the same way as if  
they had hen eggs4 ,each hen is given   
four or five eggs1 according to the size
 of the eggs and the size of the hen4 ,a
 goose must be set in the nest where she
 has been laying4 ,if she is inclined to
 be very cross if approached while      
sitting1 she should be left to herself  
as much as possible1 care being taken   
that nothing can molest her4 ,with the  
help of the gander a goose can defend   
her nest against almost anything likely 
to attack it1 but some eggs would       
probably be broken in the fray4  ,the   
period of incubation is from thirty to  
thirty-five days4 ,the goslings         
sometimes chip the eggs two days before 
completing the process4 ,they should be 
left in the nest until they begin to run
 about4 ,then1 if they are with a goose 
mother1 they may safely be left to the  
care of the old ones1 and may not even  
need to be fed4 ,the early goslings with

 hen mothers should be placed on sod    
ground where the grass is fine and soft1
 in coops such as are used for little   
chickens1 with a small pen in front of  
each coop to keep them from wandering   
away4 ,this pen may be made of boards #h
 or #aj inches wide1 set on edge and    
kept in place by small sticks driven    
into the ground4 ,it is best to give    
them only grass to eat the first day4   
,after that two or three light feeds of 
mash may be given daily1 but they should
 always have all the fresh1 succulent   
green food that they can eat4 ,the coops
 and pens should be moved as often as is
 necessary to secure this end4 ,the     
goslings should also be constantly      
supplied with drinking water4 ,they will
 appreciate a bath occasionally4        
,goslings grow very rapidly4 ,in from   
ten to fourteen days they are so large  
that they no longer need the hen mother 
and she may be taken away4 ,at this     
stage several broods may be combined and
 the flock allowed the run of any place 

where it can graze unmolested4 ,a       
shelter should be provided for          
protection from the sun1 and a roomy    
coop with a dry floor to keep them in at
 night4 ,if allowed to do so1 they would
 stay out and graze at intervals during 
the night1 but the owner will sleep more
 comfortably if he is sure that nothing 
can disturb them4 ,although very big    
babies1 they are quite soft and helpless
 at this stage4 ,when six weeks old a   
gosling is nearly half-grown4 ,young    
goslings that were started with hen     
mothers may then be put into the pasture
 with the old geese4 ,when ten or twelve
 weeks old they will be almost as large 
as the adult birds4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #adi4 ,goslings three or four days
 old  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aej4        
,goslings three weeks old               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,goslings    
nine weeks old  ,in growing geese on the
 farm the most important thing is to    
provide good pasture4 ,grass is not only
 the most economical food1 but it is the

 best food4 ,geese will grow and fatten 
on grass without grain1 but will not    
fatten as quickly or be as firm-fleshed4
 ,to fatten for market they should be   
confined for from ten to twenty days    
before they are to be killed1 and fed   
all that they will eat of some very     
fattening food4 ,corn soaked in water   
until it is soft is an easily prepared  
food and a very good one4   ,,large     
,,flocks ,,of ,,geese ,,on ,,farms  ,the
 most important goose-growing district  
in the ,united ,states is that part of  
,rhode ,island where the colony system  
of egg farming is used4 ,this district  
is well adapted to goose growing4 ,the  
winters are not severe1 and the birds   
can have grass almost the year round4   
,the breeding geese are often kept in   
pastures occupied by hens and cattle1   
but there are also many small ponds and 
marshy places used exclusively for      
geese4 ,the absence of foxes makes it   
possible to keep them in fields a long  
way from the farmhouses1 and for this   

reason many spots are used for geese    
which in other districts would be too   
exposed4 ,the large flocks of hens in   
this district give an abundance of      
sitters to hatch the early goslings4 ,as
 the person who looks after the sitting 
hens and the young chickens on one of   
these farms has to give the greater part
 of his time to that work for several   
months in the spring1 he can often use  
the remaining time to best advantage by 
hatching and rearing a few hundred      
goslings4 ,so a large proportion of the 
farms which specialize in eggs also     
specialize in geese4  ,the numbers grown
 on a farm vary from #ajj to #ejj1 the  
average being between #bjj and #cjj4 ,to
 produce this average number1 flocks of 
#ae or #bj geese and #d or #e ganders   
are kept4 ,a flock of this kind does not
 mate miscellaneously1 as a similar     
flock of ducks would4 ,it is composed of
 as many families as there are ganders1 
and if the pasture is large1 these      
families will remain separate a great   

deal of the time4  ,the method of       
handling the geese on these farms       
differs from the ordinary farm method in
 that the work is done more             
systematically and more attention is    
given to the goslings while growing4    
,they are grazed each year on new       
grassland4 ,most of them are sold       
unfatted1 as soon as they are of full   
size1 to men who make a business of     
fattening and dressing them4            
,,goose-,,fattening ,,farms             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,goslings    
grazing on a ,rhode ,island farm        
,market duck growing is conducted on so 
large a scale that each grower can      
employ expert pickers and sell his      
product directly to wholesale dealers in
 poultry4 ,so the duck grower fattens   
his own ducks before killing them4 ,it  
is natural for him to do this1 too1     
because his method of fattening is a    
modification of the feeding process     
which he has used from the start4 ,as he
 nears the end of his process of        

feeding1 he simply increases the        
proportion of fat-forming material in   
the food and feeds all that the ducks   
will eat4 ,the fattening of geese that  
have been grown on grass to make them of
 the quality that will bring the highest
 price requires a change to a heavy     
grain diet4 ,the farmers who grow these 
geese could fatten them better than any 
one else and make more profit on them1  
but few of these farmers are willing to 
give them the special attention that    
this requires4 ,so large a part of the  
geese sold alive are thin that the men  
who bought them to dress for market long
 ago saw an opportunity to make a       
greater profit by fattening them before 
they were killed4 ,some of those who    
engaged in fattening geese were very    
successful and made large profits4 ,as  
they extended operations in this line   
they required a great deal of land4     
,sometimes as many as #ae1jjj geese are 
fattened on one farm in a season4 ,the  
fatteners buy in the early part of the  

summer from the farmers who sell the    
green geese as soon as they are grown4  
,as these make the finest geese for the 
table1 and as the best demand for geese 
comes at the holiday season in the      
winter1 a large part of them are put in 
storage after being killed4 ,after the  
green geese are disposed of1 the        
fatteners buy live geese shipped in from
 distant points1 and have them ready to 
kill about the time when the demand for 
goose is good4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aec4 ,scene on a goose-fattening farm  
in ,england  ,while they are very       
profitable when everything goes well1   
fattening geese is a business attended  
by heavy risks4 ,in buying from many    
different sources a fattener may get    
some geese having a contagious disease1 
and the infection may spread through his
 whole flock before he discovers it1 for
 some diseases have no pronounced       
symptoms in their early stages4 ,keeping
 such large numbers of geese on the same
 land year after year also brings       

trouble through the pollution of the    
soil4   ,,growing ,,thoroughbred ,,geese
 ,,for ,,exhibition  ,the proportion of 
thoroughbred geese among those grown for
 market is very small4 ,most of the     
geese on farms are grades produced by   
crossing thoroughbred or high-grade     
males on the old unimproved stock4 ,this
 gives a type of goose which is much    
better than the old common goose but not
 nearly as large as the heavy ,emden and
 ,toulouse ,geese4 ,the intermediate    
size is1 however1 large enough to meet  
the general market demand4 ,the         
production of thoroughbred geese is     
carried on to supply stock of medium    
quality for the farmers who want to     
maintain a good grade of stock1 and to  
supply exhibition birds of the best     
quality for the relatively small numbers
 of fanciers and breeders of            
standard-bred stock4 ,the usual method  
of growing exhibition geese is to keep  
only one breed on a farm1 and to manage 
them as ordinary geese are managed1     

except that1 to secure the best possible
 development1 the breeder is more       
careful than the average farmer is to   
provide abundant pasture and all the    
grain that the birds can use to         
advantage4 ,occasionally several breeds 
of geese are kept on a farm1 but most   
breeders consider one enough4           
,,growing ,a ,,few ,,geese ,,on ,a      
,,town ,,lot  ,old geese are so noisy   
that they are undesirable inhabitants   
for populous places4 ,in such a place a 
poultry keeper who wants to grow a few  
geese often finds it satisfactory to buy
 eggs for hatching and either dispose of
 the goslings as green geese when three 
months old or eat one as he wants it    
until all are gone4 ,the only difference
 in handling goslings in close quarters 
and on farms is in the method of        
providing the green food4 ,on the farms 
the birds graze2 on the town lot they   
must be fed very abundantly with        
succulent food4 ,they will eat almost   
any vegetable leaf that is young and not

 too tough1 and they should have such   
food almost constantly before them4     
,most people who try to grow geese in a 
small space injure them by feeding too  
much grain4 ,if they have had no        
experience in this line1 they suppose1  
quite naturally1 that birds so much     
alike as the goose and the duck1 both in
 outward appearance and in the texture  
and flavor of the flesh1 require the    
same diet4 ,when we compare the duck1   
which lives so largely on grain and     
meat1 with the goose1 which makes       
greater growth in the same period on    
grass alone1 we can begin to appreciate 
what large quantities of bulky green    
food the goose needs to accomplish so   
remarkable a result4  ,while the growing
 of geese in bare yards is not          
recommended as a paying venture1 every  
one interested in poultry should grow a 
few occasionally for observation4       
,,growing ,,wild ,,geese ,,in           
,,captivity  ,wild geese mate in pairs4 
,if they are to be bred successfully in 

captivity1 they must have a place away  
from other animals1 where they will not 
be disturbed4 ,they will be more        
contented if located near a small pool  
or stream4 ,a pair of wild geese is     
usually kept during the breeding season 
in a small1 isolated inclosure          
containing a permanent water supply4    
,here the female will make her nest1 lay
 her eggs1 and hatch her brood4 ,the    
male at this period is very savage and  
will vigorously resent any interference 
with his mate4 ,most wild geese in      
captivity lay but a few eggs1 and the   
broods hatched are small4 ,there are    
seldom more than five or six goslings in
 a brood4 ,after the young are hatched1 
the parents may be allowed to leave the 
inclosure with them4     ,,chapter ,x   
,,turkeys   ,the turkey is commonly     
considered the best of birds for the    
table1 the most desirable for any       
festive occasion1 and quite             
indispensable on ,thanksgiving ,day4 ,it
 is the largest bird grown for its      

flesh4 ,as usually found in the markets1
 geese and turkeys are of about the same
 weight1 because most people1 when      
buying a large bird for the table1 want 
those that1 when dressed1 weigh about   
ten or twelve pounds2 but the largest   
turkeys are considerably heavier than   
the largest geese1 and the proportion of
 extra large birds is much greater among
 turkeys4  ,description4 ,a dressed     
turkey and a dressed fowl are quite     
strikingly alike in shape4 ,the most    
noticeable difference is in the breast1 
which is usually deeper and fuller in a 
turkey4 ,the living birds are distinctly
 unlike in appearance1 the carriage of  
the body and the character and          
expression of the head of the turkey    
being very different from those of the  
fowl4 ,the head and upper part of the   
neck are bare1 with a few bristly hairs4
 ,the bare skin is a little loose on the
 head and very much looser on the neck1 
forming many small folds1 some of which 
are sac-like4 ,it varies in color from a

 livid bluish-gray to brilliant scarlet4
 ,an elongated1 trunklike extension of  
the skin at the juncture of the beak    
with the head takes the place of the    
comb in the fowl4 ,there is a single    
wattle under the throat1 not pendent    
from the jaw1 as in the fowl1 but       
attached to the skin of the neck4 ,the  
feathers on the lower part of the neck  
are short1 and the plumage of the whole 
body is closer and harder than that of  
most fowls4 ,the wings are large4 ,the  
tail spreads vertically and is usually  
carried in a drooping position4 ,this1  
with the shortness of the feathers of   
the neck1 makes the back of the turkey  
convex4 ,the usual gait of the bird is a
 very deliberate walk4  ,the male and   
female differ conspicuously in so many  
points that the sex of an adult bird is 
distinguished without difficulty4 ,as a 
rule the males are much larger than the 
females of the same stock4 ,in colored  
varieties the males are more strongly   
pigmented1 and the shades of color in   

them are more pronounced4 ,the head     
characters of the male are much more    
prominent in size and more brilliant in 
color4 ,both sexes have the power of    
inflating the loose appendages of the   
head and neck4 ,in the male this is     
highly developed2 in the female only    
perceptible4 ,the male has a brushlike  
tuft of coarse hair growing from the    
upper part of the breast4 ,this tuft1   
called the beard1 is black in all       
varieties4 ,the female is usually shy   
and has a low1 plaintive call4 ,the male
 challenges attention and often struts  
about with his tail elevated and spread 
in a circle like a fan1 wings trailing  
on the ground1 the feathers all over the
 body erected until he looks twice his  
natural size1 and at frequent intervals 
vociferously uttering his peculiar      
gobble-gobble-gobble4 ,the male turkey  
has short spurs like those of the male  
fowl4  ,the name turkey was erroneously 
given in ,england when the birds were   
first known there and it was supposed   

that they came from ,turkey4 ,the adult 
male is called a turkey cock1 also a    
tom-turkey 7sometimes simply tom7 and a 
gobbler4 ,the adult female is called a  
turkey hen1 or a hen turkey1 the order  
of the terms being immaterial4 ,young   
turkeys before the sex can be           
distinguished are variously called young
 turkeys1 turkey chicks1 and poults1 the
 latter being considered by poultrymen  
the proper technical name4 ,after the   
sex can be distinguished1 the terms     
cockerel and pullet are applied to      
turkeys in the same way as to fowls4    
,origin4 ,the turkey is a native of     
,north ,america4 ,although not as widely
 distributed as before the country was  
settled1 it is still found wild in many 
places4 ,it was domesticated in ,mexico 
and ,central ,america long before the   
discovery of the ,new ,world4           
,domesticated stock from these places   
was taken to ,spain and ,england early  
in the sixteenth century1 and was soon  
spread all over ,europe4 ,the domestic  

stock of the colonists in the ,united   
,states and ,canada came from ,europe   
with the other kinds of domestic        
poultry4 ,it is probable that from early
 colonial times the domestic stock was  
occasionally crossed by wild stock1 but 
we have no information about such       
crosses until after the ,revolutionary  
,war4 ,from the earliest published      
statements in regard to the matter it   
would appear that such crosses had long 
been common1 and that the benefits of   
vigorous wild blood were appreciated by 
the farmers of that time4 ,the wild     
turkey is about as large as a           
medium-sized domestic turkey but1 being 
very close-feathered1 looks smaller4 ,it
 is nearly black1 and the bare head and 
neck are darker in color than in most   
domestic birds4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aed4 ,common turkeys on a ,new ,england
 farm  ,common turkeys4 ,the turkey is  
not so well adapted to domestication as 
the fowl1 duck1 and goose4 ,under the   
conditions to which they have usually   

been subjected domestic turkeys have    
lost much of the vigor of the wild      
stock4 ,as far as is known1 the birds   
taken to ,europe after the discovery of 
,america were black or nearly black4 ,in
 ,europe white sports appeared and were 
preserved1 and the colors became        
mixed--black1 white1 gray of various    
shades1 brown1 and buff4 ,that has been 
the character of most flocks in this    
country until quite recent times1 and   
many such flocks are still found4       
,improved varieties4 ,the development of
 the domestic turkey is unique in that  
the most marked improvement in domestic 
stocks has been due to extensive        
introductions of the blood of the wild  
race4 ,the reason for this is indicated 
in the statement in the preceding       
paragraph1 in regard to the lack of     
adaptation of the turkey to the ordinary
 conditions of life in domestication4   
,the turkey deteriorates where the other
 kinds of poultry mentioned would       
improve4 ,so1 while in ,europe a few    

color varieties were made1 and in some  
localities both there and in ,america   
local breeds of special merit arose1 on 
the whole the domestic stocks were      
degenerate4 ,the distinct color         
varieties were the ,black1 the ,white1  
and the ,gray1 but by no means all      
turkeys of these colors were well-bred  
birds4 ,the color varieties were crudely
 made by the preference of breeders in a
 certain locality for a particular      
color4 ,they were impure and often      
produced specimens of other colors      
because of the occasional use of        
breeding birds unlike the flock4 ,in    
early times it was the almost universal 
opinion that crossbred stock had more   
vitality than pure-bred stock4 ,hence   
farmers1 although preferring a certain  
type of animal1 would often make an     
outcross to an entirely different type1 
and then by selection go back to the    
type of their preference4 ,when this    
mode of breeding is adopted1 undesirable
 colors may appear for many years after 

a bird of a foreign variety has been    
used in breeding4  ,the local ,european 
breeds that gained a wide reputation    
were the ,black ,norfolk1 the           
,cambridgeshire ,bronze1 and the ,white 
,holland4 ,black and ,white turkeys were
 perhaps quite as popular and as well   
established in other places as in those 
mentioned4 ,black turkeys were the most 
common kind in ,spain and in some parts 
of ,france4 ,in some other parts of     
,france1 and in parts of ,germany and   
,austria1 ,white turkeys were the most  
numerous1 but in general the turkeys of 
,europe and ,america were of various    
colors1 with gray predominating4  ,in   
the ,united ,states a local breed of    
very good quality was developed in      
,rhode ,island about the middle of the  
last century4 ,it appears to have been  
known at first as the ,point ,judith    
,bronze ,turkey1 and also as the        
,narragansett ,turkey1 but the first    
name was soon dropped and has long been 
forgotten by all but those familiar with

 the early literature4 ,the             
,narragansett ,turkey was not bronze as 
the term is now applied to turkeys2 it  
was a dark1 brownish-gray1 which is     
doubtless the reason why the name was   
changed after the distinctly bronze     
turkeys became well known4 ,although the
 ,narragansett ,turkey is described in  
the ,american ,standard1 and prizes are 
still offered for it at some shows1 the 
type has almost disappeared4  ,bronze   
turkeys4 ,the accidental crossing of    
wild with tame turkeys produced1 in the 
domestic flocks where such crosses      
occurred1 many specimens of exceptional 
size and vigor1 in which the blending of
 the colors of the wild turkey with the 
gray of the domestic birds gave rise to 
a very beautiful type of coloration4 ,it
 was neither black nor brown nor gray1  
but contained all these shades and had  
an iridescent bronze sheen4 ,as the     
crosses which produced these were only  
occasional1 the wild blood being reduced
 in each generation removed from it1 the

 bronze type was usually soon merged    
with and lost in the common type4 ,as   
the wild birds became scarce1 crosses   
were rare1 and what improvement had been
 accidentally made was in danger of     
being lost1 when the awakening of       
interest in all kinds of poultry stirred
 turkey growers to more systematic      
efforts for the improvement of domestic 
stock by crossing with the wild stock4  
,those who were able to do so captured  
wild birds and bred them in captivity1  
producing both pure wild and half-wild  
stock4 ,they also secured the eggs of   
wild birds and hatched and reared the   
young with tame hens4 ,with wild stock  
under control1 they were able to use as 
much wild blood as they desired in their
 flocks1 and soon fixed and improved the
 bronze type until they had a variety of
 turkeys that were extremely hardy1     
larger than the wild race or any        
domestic stock that had hitherto been   
produced1 and also more attractive in   
color4 ,the name ,bronze was soon       

applied exclusively to this type of     
turkey in ,america4 ,in ,england they   
are called ,american ,bronze1 to        
distinguish them from the ,cambridge    
,bronze1 which seems to be very nearly a
 duplicate of the ,narragansett4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,white       
,holland ,turkey cock4 7,photograph by  
,e4 ,j4 ,hall7  ,the evolution of the   
,bronze ,turkey in ,america is one of   
the most interesting things in poultry  
culture4 ,the work was done on a very   
large scale4 ,it was not just a few     
breeders that engaged in grading up     
domestic turkeys with wild blood1 but a 
great many scattered all over the       
country4 ,many1 remote from places where
 wild turkeys ranged1 paid high prices  
for full-blooded wild males1 and also   
for grades with a large proportion of   
wild blood4 ,in this way the wild blood 
was very widely distributed4 ,as the    
superiority of the bronze type became   
established1 turkey growers everywhere  
bought ,bronze males to head their      

flocks1 and so in a remarkably short    
time ,bronze ,turkeys of a type much    
superior to the old domestic stock      
became the common turkeys in many       
districts4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4  
,flock of ,white ,holland ,turkeys      
,interest in the ,american ,bronze      
,turkey arose in ,england at a very     
early stage of this development4 ,in    
fact1 there is some reason to believe   
that the publicity given to several     
early shipments of small lots of wild   
turkeys to ,france and ,england did more
 than anything else to direct the       
attention of breeders in this country to
 the value of systematic breeding to fix
 the characters which wild blood        
introduced4 ,the most celebrated of     
these shipments was one taken to ,france
 by ,lafayette on his return from his   
last visit to the ,united ,states in    
#ahbe4 ,about this time1 or earlier1 an 
,english nobleman1 who had some         
,american wild turkeys1 presented his   
sovereign with a very fine horse4 ,the  

king1 instead of expressing pleasure    
with the gift1 intimated that he would  
prefer some of the wild turkeys1 and was
 accordingly presented with a pair4 ,the
 use of wild blood to give greater vigor
 to domestic stock continues1 though it 
gives no better results now than the use
 of vigorous ,bronze ,turkeys many      
generations removed from wild ancestry4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,bronze      
,turkey cock4 7,photograph by ,e4 ,j4   
,hall7  ,influence of the ,bronze       
,turkey on other varieties4 ,although   
,white turkeys have long been very      
popular in some parts of ,europe1 in    
this country they were1 until recently1 
considered too weak to be desirable for 
any but those who kept them as a hobby4 
,by chance mixtures of ,bronze and      
,white turkeys1 and in some instances by
 systematic breeding1 white turkeys that
 were large and vigorous were produced4 
,some of these were large enough to be  
called mammoths1 as the largest ,bronze 
,turkeys were4 ,a few breeders who had  

these big white turkeys advertised them 
as ,mammoth ,white ,turkeys produced by 
,mammoth ,bronze ,turkeys as sports and 
in no way related to the old1 weakly    
white birds4 ,but whatever may have been
 the case at the outset1 in a few years 
the ,mammoth ,whites were so mixed with 
others that the distinction was lost1   
for the best buyers of superior white   
turkeys were those who liked the color  
and had inferior stock which they wished
 to improve4 ,all white turkeys in      
,america now go by the old name1 ,white 
,holland ,turkeys4  ,yellow or buff     
turkeys were often seen among the old   
common turkeys4 ,they were usually small
 and very poor in color4 ,the mixture of
 bronze turkeys with these birds        
occasionally produced larger birds of a 
darker1 more reddish buff but very      
uneven in color1 with the tail and wings
 nearly white4 ,from such birds1 by     
careful breeding1 a dark red race with  
white wings and tail was made4 ,this    
variety is called the ,bourbon ,red1    

from ,bourbon ,county1 ,kentucky1 where 
it originated4  ,other varieties of the 
turkey4 ,the only other variety worthy  
of mention here is the ,slate ,turkey4  
,birds of this color are often seen in  
mixed flocks4 ,some of very good size   
and color have been bred for exhibition1
 and the ,slate ,turkey in ,america is  
classed as a distinct variety4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,bourbon ,red
 ,turkeys4 7,photograph from owner1 ,c4 
,w4 ,jones1 ,holmdel1 ,new ,jersey7     
,place of the turkey in domestication4  
,in discussing the history of the turkey
 in domestication much has been said of 
the influence of conditions on the type 
and on the vitality of this bird4 ,the  
case of the turkey is peculiar1 because 
it seems as capable of being tamed as   
the fowl1 the goose1 or the duck1 yet   
does not thrive under the conditions in 
which it would grow tame4 ,it is        
peculiarly sensitive to the effects of  
soil which has been contaminated by the 
excrement of animals1 and so            

instinctively avoids feeding places on  
which other animals are numerous4 ,thus 
it requires a large range and1 if       
permitted to follow its inclination1    
spends most of its time at a distance   
from the homestead4 ,the successful     
growing of turkeys depends upon the     
watchfulness of the caretaker and the   
absence of their natural enemies4 ,this 
will appear more clearly when the       
methods of managing them are described  
in the next chapter4 ,turkey culture is 
not well adapted to the more intensive  
methods of farming which become         
necessary after the first fertility of  
the land has been exhausted4 ,hence the 
turkey has almost disappeared from many 
places where turkey growing was once an 
industry of considerable importance4    
,the farms of the ,central ,west and the
 mountain regions of ,virginia1 ,west   
,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and ,tennessee    
have for many years produced most of the
 turkeys consumed in this country1 but  
the changing conditions in these regions

 seem unfavorable to the increase of    
turkey culture4 ,attempts to grow       
turkeys on a large scale have been made 
on the ,pacific coast4 ,while these may 
succeed for a time1 turkey culture in   
this country is likely to decline       
rapidly unless changes in economic      
conditions afford cheaper labor on      
farms1 or unless the natural enemies of 
poultry are so reduced that flocks of   
turkeys may be kept in a half-wild      
state4     ,,chapter ,,xi  ,,management 
,,of ,,turkeys   ,the turkey is almost  
exclusively a farm product4 ,it is      
possible to grow a few good turkeys in  
confinement1 but this is rarely done    
except in experimental work or by       
persons who grow a few for amusement and
 for an opportunity to study some of    
their characteristics4 ,a few adult     
turkeys may be kept on a small farm and 
remain about the homestead as other     
poultry does4 ,the turkeys themselves   
may get along very well1 but they are   
likely to abuse the fowls1 and as they  

can easily fly over any ordinary fence1 
they cannot be controlled except by     
putting them in covered yards4 ,turkeys 
kept under such conditions cause so much
 trouble that1 after the novelty of     
watching them has worn off1 the owner   
soon disposes of them4 ,it is where the 
farms are large and there is a great    
deal of woodland and pasture through    
which the turkeys may roam without      
strict regard to farm boundaries1 and   
large grain and grass fields where they 
can forage after the crops are removed1 
that turkeys in large numbers are grown 
for market with good profit4 ,on such   
farms1 too1 the farmer1 if he is a good 
breeder1 can produce the finest         
exhibition specimens4  ,size of flocks4 
,the number of turkeys kept on a farm   
for breeding usually depends upon the   
number of young it is desired to rear1  
but the difficulty of keeping more than 
one adult male with the flock tends to  
restrict the annual production to what  
can be reared from one male4 ,experience

 has taught that it is not advisable to 
have more than ten or twelve females    
with one male4 ,sometimes a much larger 
number is kept with one gobbler1 and the
 eggs hatch well and produce thrifty    
poults2 oftener an excess of females is 
responsible for poor results which the  
breeder attributes to other causes4 ,the
 average hen turkey lays only eighteen  
or twenty eggs in the spring4 ,some hens
 lay even less4 ,once in a long time a  
turkey hen lays continuously for many   
months4 ,a turkey grower who raises     
eight or ten turkeys for each hen in his
 breeding flock does very well4 ,to do  
much better than this the hatches must  
be exceptionally good and the losses    
very light4 ,those who grow turkeys for 
profit expect them to pick the most of  
their living from the time they are a   
few weeks old until they are ready to   
fatten for market4 ,a grower will1      
therefore1 rarely undertake to hatch    
more young turkeys than he thinks can   
find food on the available range4 ,it   

takes a very large farm to provide food 
for a hundred young turkeys and the old 
birds which produced them1 after the    
young ones are well started4 ,on many   
large farms where turkeys are grown     
regularly1 not more than seventy or     
eighty are ever hatched1 and if losses  
are heavy1 not more than two or three   
dozen may be reared4 ,a farmer who grows
 from seventy to a hundred turkeys is in
 the business on a relatively large     
scale4 ,flocks of larger size are       
sometimes seen in the fall1 but not very
 often4 ,the ordinary farm flock of     
breeding turkeys rarely has less than   
three or four or more than ten or twelve
 hens4  ,shelters and yards4 ,the wild  
turkey living in the woods1 with only   
such shelter from the rigors of         
,northern winters as the trees afford1  
is perfectly hardy4 ,domestic turkeys   
are most thrifty when they roost high in
 the open air yet are not fully exposed 
to storms and cold winds4 ,if left to   
themselves they usually select          

convenient trees near the farm          
buildings1 or mount to the ridge of a   
shed or a barn1 or perch on a high      
fence4 ,a high perch to which they can  
mount by a succession of easy flights   
has such an attraction for them that it 
is a common practice to place strong    
perches between trees that are near     
together1 or on tall1 stout poles set   
for the purpose1 where other trees or   
buildings form a windbreak4 ,the        
turkeys1 if at home1 will not fail to go
 to such a roost as night approaches4   
,one of the most important tasks of the 
person who has charge of a flock of     
turkeys is to see that the flock is at  
home before nightfall4  ,after they     
begin to roost1 young turkeys need no   
shelter in the spring and summer4 ,when 
chilly nights come in the fall1         
late-hatched turkeys may do better      
housed than in the open4 ,turkeys that  
are well grown and fully feathered do   
not need to be under cover in the winter
 except in protracted or very severe    

storms4 ,turkey growers who wish to have
 the birds partially under control1 and 
want to be able to catch any one when   
they need it1 often have the birds roost
 in a shed or other outbuilding         
available for the purpose4 ,such places 
should be very well ventilated1 or the  
turkeys will become soft and take colds4
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,house and 
yards for stock turkeys on a ,california
 ranch4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of
 ,animal ,industry1 ,united ,states     
,department of ,agriculture7  ,yards are
 made for turkeys only to enable the    
person in charge of them to keep them   
under control when necessary4 ,the      
principal uses of the yards are to      
confine the hens at the laying season   
and to separate birds from the general  
flock when there is any occasion for    
this4 ,a great deal of trouble is       
sometimes saved by having a small yard  
for such purposes4 ,the height of fence 
required depends on the size and weight 
of the turkeys and also upon whether    

they are in the habit of flying4 ,a     
turkey that is not accustomed to fly may
 not attempt to go over a fence four or 
five feet high that has no top upon     
which it could alight4 ,the same bird1  
when confined in a strange place1 might1
 without hesitation1 fly to a roof twice
 as high1 because1 although not in the  
habit of flying1 it has the power to fly
 such a distance and can see that the   
roof offers a suitable place for        
alighting4 ,a turkey in the habit of    
flying over obstacles will often go over
 a fence six or seven feet high without 
touching4 ,a turkey hen that is laying  
will not fly as freely as one that is   
not1 because the weight and bulk of the 
eggs in her body encumber her movements4
 ,for this reason a five-foot fence is  
usually high enough for a yard for      
breeding stock1 if they are to be       
confined to it only as much as is       
necessary in order to make sure that the
 hens will lay at home4  ,feeding4 ,the 
natural diet of the turkey1 like that of

 all birds of the order of ,scratchers1 
consists of a variety of vegetable and  
animal foods4 ,turkeys eat the same     
things that fowls eat1 and apparently in
 about the same proportions1 but their  
foraging habits are quite different4    
,the disposition of the fowl is to dig  
for its food wherever it appears that   
anything is to be had by scratching4    
,the turkey will scratch a little1 but  
it prefers to wander over the land1     
picking up the food that is in sight4   
,fowls will forage from their house to  
the limits of their usual range and     
return many times in the course of a    
day4 ,a flock of turkeys1 if allowed to 
do so1 leaves its roosting place in the 
morning and makes a wide circuit1 often 
returning home in the afternoon from a  
direction nearly opposite to the        
direction they took in the morning4 ,on 
their circuit1 which is likely to follow
 the same course day after day1 turkeys 
have their favorite feeding and resting 
places4 ,persons familiar with the route

 of a flock can tell where they are     
likely to be found at any hour of the   
day4 ,if food becomes scarce on their   
circuit1 the turkeys extend it1 or go on
 an exploring expedition which takes    
them a long way from home4 ,if night    
overtakes them at a distance from home1 
they look for a convenient roosting     
place and remain there4  ,illustration3 
,fig4 #afj4 ,turkey roost in shelter of 
barn on a ,rhode ,island farm  ,the     
feeding habits of the turkey make it    
especially valuable for destroying      
grasshoppers and other insects that     
damage field crops4 ,to get an adequate 
idea of the great quantities of insects 
destroyed by a flock of turkeys1 and of 
the waste food that they save and turn  
to profit by eating it1 one should take 
careful note of the amount of food      
consumed when the turkeys are fed all   
that they can eat at one time 7as when  
they are being fattened71 and from this 
compute the amount that a flock must    
pick in order to live1 as many flocks   

do1 from spring until fall almost wholly
 upon what they get by foraging4        
,turkeys are much more systematic       
foragers than fowls1 working more in    
concert4 ,a flock advances in an        
irregular yet orderly formation1 taking 
all the choice food in its way1 but not 
often tempted to side excursions which  
would disperse the flock4  ,many people 
who keep turkeys make a practice of     
feeding a little grain1 usually corn1 in
 the evening as an inducement to them to
 come home4 ,when they require more     
food1 they may be given whatever is fed 
to the fowls4 ,indeed1 unless some      
arrangement is made by which the fowls  
and turkeys are fed separately1 the     
turkeys may get the habit of being on   
hand when the fowls are fed1 and drive  
them from the food4 ,this1 however1 is  
most likely to happen when the range for
 the turkeys is so restricted that it   
does not afford good picking4  ,breeding
 season and laying habits4 ,experienced 
growers of turkeys like to get their    

young turkeys hatched about the time    
when settled weather may be expected in 
the spring4 ,little turkeys are less    
rugged than little chickens1 and are    
very sensitive to cold1 damp weather4   
,although the hens may have been very   
domestic all winter1 when they begin to 
lay they develop more of a roving       
disposition than is at all satisfactory 
to their keeper4 ,they are very likely  
to want to hide their nests4 ,when this 
is the case1 and there is no yard in    
which they may be confined1 they make a 
great deal of trouble4 ,they often go a 
long way from home to find places for   
their nests1 and make such wide         
circuits1 and double on their tracks so 
often in going and returning1 that the  
nests are very hard to find4 ,there is  
nothing to do in such cases but to      
confine the turkey or to follow her day 
after day until the nest is found4 ,if  
she is to be confined1 it should be done
 as soon as she indicates that she does 
not intend to take one of the nests     

provided or to make one at home4 ,when1 
in spite of efforts to prevent it1 a    
turkey hen makes a nest at a distance   
and has laid some eggs in it before the 
nest is discovered1 it is best to allow 
her to continue to lay there1 but the   
eggs should be removed as soon as laid4 
,the egg of a turkey is about twice as  
large as a hen's egg4 ,the usual color  
is a light1 slightly bluish1 brown1 with
 small spots of a darker shade4         
,hatching and rearing4 ,turkey eggs are 
often incubated by fowls4 ,a fowl will  
hatch the eggs just as well as a turkey 
hen1 and may make as good a mother for a
 few turkeys grown on a small place4    
,for young turkeys grown on the farm1   
turkey hens make the best mothers1      
because they take them to better        
foraging ground and remain with them all
 the season4 ,it is a good plan1        
especially when there are more turkey   
eggs than the turkey hens can cover1 to 
set some fowls on the surplus eggs at   
the same time that the turkey hens are  

set4 ,then1 as there will rarely be a   
full hatch from all nests1 the young    
turkeys hatched by the fowls will fill  
up the broods of the turkey mothers4 ,a 
fowl will cover from seven to nine      
turkey eggs4 ,as a rule it is better to 
give the smaller number4 ,a turkey hen  
will cover from twelve to fifteen of her
 own eggs1 or even a larger number1 but 
the young turkeys will be stronger if   
the nest is not too full4 ,the period of
 incubation is four weeks4 ,even when   
normally strong and healthy1 little     
turkeys appear weak in comparison with  
lively young chickens and ducks or the  
more bulky goslings4 ,they may be fed   
the same as young chickens4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afa4 ,sheltered   
turkey nest4 7,photograph from the      
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,it is the common practice to confine   
the mother to a coop from which the     
little turkeys can go to a small pen    
placed in front of it4 ,the pen may be  

made of wide boards placed on edge1 or  
of light frames covered with            
one-inch-mesh wire netting4 ,the coop   
and pen should be moved before the grass
 becomes much trampled and soiled4 ,the 
little turkeys can be kept in such an   
inclosure for only about a week or ten  
days4 ,as they increase in size1 and as 
their wings grow1 they fly over low     
obstacles as easily and naturally as    
little chickens scratch or as little    
ducks swim4 ,having once flown out of   
the pen1 they cannot be kept in it or in
 any inclosure that has not a high fence
 or a cover4 ,when only two weeks old1  
little ,bronze ,turkeys have been seen  
flying to the top of a five-foot fence  
and1 after a few efforts1 reaching it   
with seeming ease4 ,no matter how       
contented old turkeys that produced them
 may have been in confinement1 young    
turkeys become restless as soon as their
 wings and legs are strong1 and1 unless 
prevented from doing so1 will begin to  
roam long distances4 ,they do not wait  

for the mother1 whether fowl or turkey1 
to take the initiative and lead them4   
,if she is not disposed to rove1 they   
start and let her follow4 ,a turkey hen 
quickly catches their spirit and goes   
with them and keeps them together2 a    
fowl is likely to follow them           
reluctantly1 allow them to scatter1 and 
lose a part of the brood4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,turkey brood
 coop4 7,photograph from the ,bureau of 
,animal ,industry1 ,united ,states      
,department of ,agriculture7  ,when the 
little turkeys have reached this stage1 
the best plan of managing them depends  
upon circumstances4 ,if there is little 
danger of enemies disturbing them1 they 
may be given a light feed in the morning
 and then allowed to forage where they  
please1 the person in charge looking    
occasionally to see that they do not go 
too far and1 if necessary1 bringing them
 back or starting them off in another   
direction4 ,in case of a sudden1 hard   
shower the turkeys must be looked up1   

and if any have been caught out in the  
rain and have been chilled and wet1 they
 should be warmed and dried at once4    
,the usual way to do this is to wrap the
 bird in a piece of old flannel and     
place it in an oven at a temperature of 
about #ajj degrees1 or near a stove4 ,if
 this is done promptly1 a bird that     
seemed to be nearly dead from wet and   
cold may be running about as well as    
ever in an hour4 ,a large part of the   
losses of little turkeys is due to lack 
of attention in matters of this kind1 or
 to delaying it until the injury cannot 
be fully repaired4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #afc4 ,turkey hen with brood4          
7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal
 ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department 
of ,agriculture7  ,after the young      
turkeys are five or six weeks old1 they 
do not need such close watching4 ,they  
are now so well feathered that their    
plumage sheds rain1 and if they are     
thrifty1 a little wetting will not hurt 
them4 ,it is at this age that the       

symptoms of the disease called blackhead
 begin to appear1 if it is present1 and 
the turkeys pine away and die one by    
one4 ,blackhead is a contagious liver   
disease which affects fowls as well as  
turkeys1 but is most fatal to young     
turkeys1 because it is a filth disease2 
as has been said1 turkeys are especially
 sensitive to foul conditions1 and the  
young of all kinds of poultry are more  
sensitive to such conditions than the   
adults4 ,the germs of the disease pass  
into the soil with the excrement of     
affected birds and may remain there for 
several years4 ,young birds feeding on  
land containing these germs may take up 
some with their food4 ,if the birds are 
vigorous and thrifty and the land is not
 badly infected1 no harm may be done1   
but if the birds are weakly and the land
 is so badly infected that they are     
constantly taking up more germs1 the    
disease soon develops in acute form4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,driving     
turkeys to market in ,tennessee4        

7,photograph from the ,bureau of ,animal
 ,industry1 ,united ,states ,department 
of ,agriculture7  ,many people suppose  
that if once they have serious trouble  
with this disease1 it is useless for    
them to try to grow turkeys1 but this is
 an error4 ,the germs of the disease are
 destroyed by cultivating the land and  
exposing them to the sun and air4 ,three
 or four years of cultivation will rid a
 piece of land of disease germs1 no     
matter how badly it is affected4 ,the   
infection is not usually distributed in 
dangerous quantities all over a farm or 
all over the land on which the turkeys  
and fowls have ranged4 ,it is           
principally on the land near the farm   
buildings4 ,there would be very little  
danger from diseases of this kind on    
farms if those who feed the poultry     
would make it a practice to scatter food
 on clean grass or cultivated ground at 
a little distance from the buildings1   
instead of giving it 7as too many do7 on
 ground that is bare year after year and

 never cultivated4  ,on a large farm the
 turkeys should not require close       
attention after they are two months old4
 ,a little food may be given to them in 
the morning and again in the evening1 to
 keep them familiar with the person in  
charge1 and if they are inclined to     
stray too far1 they should be rounded up
 soon after noon and started toward     
home4 ,having started in that direction1
 they may be left to come at their      
leisure4 ,they should pick the most of  
their living until the time comes to    
begin to fatten them4 ,beginning about  
three weeks before they are to be       
killed1 they should be fed two or three 
times a day all the whole corn they will
 eat4     ,,chapter ,,xii  ,,guineas    
,description4 ,the guinea1 or guinea    
fowl1 is about the size of a small fowl4
 ,it is very much like the fowl in some 
respects but not at all like it in some 
others4 ,naturalists classify it in the 
pheasant family1 but its present place  
in domestication is so different from   

that of the pheasant that a poultry     
keeper hardly ever associates them in   
his thought4 ,in appearance the guinea  
is a unique bird4 ,the shape of the body
 and shape of the head are both         
peculiar4 ,the body is quite plump1 the 
back nearly horizontal1 and the tail    
short and much depressed4 ,the neck and 
legs are rather short4 ,the feathers of 
the neck are short1 and the head is     
bare4 ,the skin of the head and face is 
a bluish-white4 ,the bird has a small1  
knoblike red comb and short1 stiff1 red 
wattles projecting from the cheeks4 ,the
 plumage of the body is quite long1     
loose1 and soft1 and lies so smoothly   
that it appears much shorter and closer 
than it is4  ,the male and female are of
 nearly the same size1 and so like in   
appearance that the sex cannot be       
distinguished with certainty by any     
external character4 ,the comb and       
wattles of the male are sometimes       
conspicuously larger than those ,of the 
female1 but this difference is not      

regular4 ,although the voices of the    
male and female are different1 the      
difference is not easily described1 nor 
is it readily detected except by people 
who are familiar with the birds1 and    
whose ears are trained to distinguish   
the different notes4 ,both sexes make a 
rapid1 sharp1 clattering sound1 and also
 a shrill cry of two notes4 ,the cry of 
the male is harsher and has a more      
aggressive tone2 that of the female has 
a somewhat plaintive sound1 which some  
people describe as like the words come  
back1 come back4  ,the name guinea comes
 from the country of ,guinea in ,africa1
 from which the birds were introduced   
into ,america and ,western ,europe4 ,the
 male guinea fowl is called a guinea    
cock2 the female1 a guinea hen2 the     
young1 guinea chickens4  ,origin4 ,the  
guinea fowl is a native of ,africa4 ,it 
is said that there are about a dozen    
similar species on that continent4 ,this
 species is abundant there in both the  
wild and the domesticated state1 and    

also in a half-wild state4 ,it was      
probably brought into partial           
domestication at a very early date1 for 
it was known to the ancient ,greeks and 
,romans1 as well as to the early        
civilized nations of ,northern ,africa4 
,it may have been distributed through   
,western ,europe by the ,romans4        
,according to one account1 some ,english
 monks had guineas in the thirteenth    
century4 ,it is likely that they were   
rare in ,europe at that time and soon   
disappeared1 for the modern ,europeans  
had never seen them until they were     
taken to ,europe from the ,west ,indies1
 where1 it is said1 they had been       
brought by slave ships from ,africa4    
,there is a tradition that the first    
guineas in ,america were brought direct 
from ,africa with the first cargo of    
slaves from that continent4 ,in the     
,west ,indies and in ,south ,america the
 guinea1 after its introduction1 ran    
wild4 ,the natural color of the species 
is a bluish-gray with many small1 round 

white spots on each feather4 ,on the    
flight feathers of the wings these spots
 are so placed that they form irregular 
bars4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afe4 ,white
 guinea fowls  ,varieties4 ,the only    
change that has taken place in the      
guinea in domestication is the          
production of color varieties4 ,white   
sports from the original variety1 which 
is called the ,pearl ,guinea1 were      
developed as a distinct variety4        
,crosses of ,white and ,pearl ,guineas  
produced birds with white on the neck1  
the breast1 and the under part of the   
body4 ,these are called ,pied ,guineas1 
but are not regarded as a distinct      
variety4 ,birds with the original white 
markings but with the color very much   
lighter and sometimes of a decidedly    
reddish tinge have also been produced by
 crossing4 ,these are not considered a  
distinct variety1 but are sometimes     
exhibited as such under the name of     
,lavender ,guineas4 ,some of the older  
works on poultry describe the           

,self-,colored ,guinea1 a gray bird     
without white spots1 and the ,netted    
,guinea1 in which the original colors   
are reversed4 ,the author has never seen
 these varieties1 nor has he found any  
mention of them in the works of later   
writers4  ,place in domestication4 ,the 
guinea is as eccentric in nature and    
habits as it is unique in appearance4   
,it is an ill-tempered bird1 very       
pugnacious1 and persistently annoys any 
other birds with which it comes in      
contact4 ,while inclined to be shy of   
man and to resent his control1 it likes 
to establish itself between wild and    
domestic conditions1 where it is        
independent yet enjoys the safety from  
its enemies that proximity to the       
habitations of man affords4 ,the hens   
are very prolific layers4 ,this         
characteristic is said to be as well    
developed in the wild as in the domestic
 stock4 ,although they lay so well1 they
 are not usually considered desirable   
for egg production1 because the eggs are

 small and it is hard to keep the birds 
under such control that the eggs are    
easily secured4 ,the flesh and skin of  
the guinea are quite dark in color4 ,the
 dressed carcass is not at all          
attractive in appearance1 but the meat  
is very good4 ,many people prefer it to 
the flesh of the fowl4  ,the guinea is  
not really a domestic bird4 ,it is      
possible to keep a few in confinement   
and to rear the young with other        
poultry1 but the adult birds are so     
noisy and vicious that very few people  
want them near the house or with other  
poultry4 ,they would not be tolerated as
 much as they are but for the           
traditional notion that their noisy     
clamor keeps hawks away4 ,many farmers  
keep a few guineas1 supposing that they 
are of service in this way4 ,those who  
have tried to find out whether the noise
 of the guinea really has any effect on 
hawks say that the hawks are just as bad
 where there are guineas as where there 
are none4  ,the only way that guineas   

can be made profitable is by treating   
them as half-wild birds--letting them   
establish themselves in the woods where 
they can maintain themselves--and then  
shooting or trapping a part of the flock
 each season4 ,the number of guineas now
 produced in this way is steadily       
increasing in many parts of the ,united 
,states where the winters are not severe
 and where wild animals which prey upon 
game birds are kept in subjection4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aff4 ,white guinea
 hen with brood  ,management of domestic
 guineas4 ,as has been stated1 guineas  
are so hard to control that few persons 
try to keep them in close quarters or   
where they must have particular         
attention4 ,when a few birds are kept on
 a farm1 they are usually allowed to    
wander at will2 the owner secures as    
many of their eggs as he can find before
 they spoil1 and perhaps hatches a few  
of them under hens1 for the guinea hens 
often lay a long time without going     
broody4 ,as they are prone to hide their

 nests and are very clever in eluding   
observation1 it not infrequently happens
 that1 when a nest is found1 it contains
 a great many eggs1 a large part of     
which have been spoiled by long exposure
 to the weather4  ,the first care of the
 breeder of these birds is to see that  
he has suitable proportions of males and
 females4 ,guineas are disposed to mate 
in pairs4 ,some poultry keepers who have
 observed them closely say that while   
one or more extra females may associate 
with a pair1 the eggs of the extra      
females do not usually hatch well4      
,occasionally it happens that a small   
flock are all males or all females1 and 
the owner does not find it out until too
 late in the season to get a bird of the
 missing sex4 ,when a supposed guinea   
hen does not lay in the breeding season1
 the owner often thinks that she lays   
but manages to completely baffle his    
search for the nest4  ,the period of    
incubation for guinea eggs is four      
weeks4 ,the young birds may be managed  

the same as young turkeys while small1  
but do not need as close watching to    
keep them from wandering away4 ,those   
that are hatched and reared by fowls are
 tamer than those reared by guinea hens1
 but are not so hardy4     ,,chapter    
,,xiii  ,,peafowls   ,the peacock1 or   
male peafowl1 when matured and in full  
plumage1 is the most gorgeous of birds4 
,many smaller birds are more brilliant  
in color4 ,many birds of various sizes  
and types have beautiful or interesting 
characters as attractive as those which 
distinguish the peacock4 ,but this bird 
surpasses them all in attractiveness1   
because in it are combined in the       
highest degree size1 beauty of form1    
beauty of color1 and the power of       
displaying its beauties to the greatest 
advantage4  ,description4 ,the adult    
peacock is so much more striking in     
appearance than the females and the     
young males1 and old males are so often 
exhibited alone1 that many persons      
suppose that the peafowl are distinctly 

unlike other domestic birds4 ,the size1 
shape1 and carriage of the peacock      
sometimes suggest to them a resemblance 
to the turkey gobbler1 but the peacock's
 most striking characters seem so       
peculiar to it that the attention of the
 observer is usually fixed upon them1 to
 the exclusion of direct comparisons    
with other creatures4 ,when1 however1   
one sees a flock containing several     
females1 or males in which the          
characteristic plumage is not yet       
developed1 the general resemblance      
between peafowl and turkeys is          
immediately noticed4 ,the peafowl is    
smaller1 slenderer1 and more graceful   
than the turkey1 and is a little more   
agile in motion4 ,but if there were no  
old males present to identify the       
species1 to which they belong1 a person 
who was not familiar with peafowls1     
seeing a flock for the first time1 would
 be almost certain to think that they   
were turkeys of a rare breed4           
,notwithstanding this striking general  

likeness1 a close observer will soon    
note that in nearly every conspicuous   
character the differences between the   
two indicate that they belong to        
entirely different species4 ,the voice  
of the peafowl is a harsh1 piercing     
scream4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afg4     
,indian ,peacock4 7,photograph from the 
,new ,york ,zooelogical ,society7  ,the 
development of the plumage in the male  
at full maturity is like that of the    
fowl and of some pheasants4 ,in all of  
these species in which the tail of the  
male assumes a highly decorative form1  
it is not the tail proper that is so    
developed1 but the tail coverts and     
other feathers of the back1 which in the
 male are long and flowing4 ,in the     
peacock these feathers are very         
remarkably developed1 both in form and  
in color4 ,the largest are sometimes a  
yard long4 ,the stem1 or shaft1 is a    
marvelous combination of lightness and  
strength4 ,for the greater part of the  
length of the shaft the barbs are so far

 apart that they do not form a web1 but 
make a fringe on each side4 ,toward the 
tip of the feather the barbs are closer 
together1 and at the extremity they form
 a broad web4 ,the feathers of this     
structure growing next to the main tail 
feathers are the longest4 ,the next are 
a little shorter1 and thus the length   
diminishes until the shortest coverts   
are only a little longer than the       
ordinary feathers of the back4 ,this    
feather formation is called the train4  
,the train of the peacock is the most   
prominent peculiarity of the species1   
but there is also in both sexes another 
uncommon feather character--the curious 
little tuft1 or crest 7called the       
aigret71 which grows on the head4  ,the 
surface color of the peacock is a       
marvelous blending of purples1 greens1  
golds1 and bronzes of various hues4 ,on 
the head and neck purple tints          
predominate4 ,the train is mostly green 
with large1 eyelike spots1 or spangles1 
at the tip of each feather4 ,the plumage

 of the female is a soft brown on the   
body1 darkest on the back and shading to
 nearly white on the abdomen4 ,the brown
 often shows slight tints of purple and 
green4 ,the neck and throat are a       
purple-green2 much less intense than the
 coloring on the male4 ,the young males 
are colored like the females until they 
molt in their second year4 ,then they   
become much darker1 but it is not until 
the next molt1 in their third year1 that
 they grow the characteristic train and 
take on the brilliant coloration which  
is their greatest attraction4  ,the wild
 peafowls in different parts of ,asia   
vary somewhat in color and are sometimes
 thought to be of different species1 but
 they are evidently all varieties of the
 same species4 ,specimens of all are    
seen in domestication4 ,one variety is  
almost black4 ,domestic life has had    
little if any effect upon the type of   
peafowls4 ,a white variety has been     
produced1 and from the mixture of this  
with the green variety1 birds that are  

partly white are sometimes obtained4    
,the significance of the terms fowl1    
cock1 hen1 and chick1 or chicken1 in    
combination with the pea in the name of 
this bird is1 of course1 perfectly      
plain4 ,those who seek further meaning  
in the first syllable are puzzled until 
they consult the dictionary and find    
that the three letters as they occur    
here are not the word pea1 but a        
contraction of pawa1 which was an       
,anglo-,saxon corruption of pavo1 the   
,latin name of the bird4 ,while the     
original meaning of the name is not     
known1 the word came into the ,latin    
language from the ,greek1 into which it 
had previously come from the ,persian4  
,hence1 the history of the name         
indicates that the distribution of the  
peafowl was along much the same lines in
 ,europe as the distribution of the     
fowl4  ,origin4 ,the peafowl is supposed
 to be a native of ,java and ,ceylon4   
,it is found throughout ,southern ,asia 
and is said to be very numerous in      

,india and ,ceylon1 both in the wild    
state and in a half-domestic state4 ,it 
was known to the ,jews in the time of   
,solomon1 and to all the ancient        
civilized peoples of ,western ,asia1    
,europe1 and ,africa at a very early    
period4 ,in the days of the ,roman      
,empire a peacock served with the       
feathers on#ab was a favorite dish at   
the feasts of wealthy ,romans1 and this 
mode of serving the bird was continued  
in ,western ,europe for many centuries4 
,at what time they were introduced into 
that part of the world is not known1 but
 it is probable that they were          
distributed to the various countries    
soon after the ,roman conquests4 ,nor is
 anything known of their first          
introduction into ,america4 ,it is1     
however1 quite reasonable to suppose    
that some were brought here at an early 
date by wealthy colonists4  #ab ,of     
course the bird was not cooked with the 
feathers on1 but was skinned1 the       
feathers remaining in the skin1 and     

after the flesh was cooked the skin with
 the feathers was placed over it before 
it appeared on the table4 ,skinning     
poultry instead of plucking the feathers
 seems to have been quite a common      
practice in old times4 ,as recently as  
between #ahhj and #ahij the author heard
 of people who preferred it as the      
easiest way of preparing chickens to be 
cooked immediately4  ,place in          
domestication4 ,in ,europe and ,america 
the peafowl is now bred only for        
ornamental purposes4 ,that seems to be  
its status even in the ,asiatic         
countries1 where it is most abundant1   
and its position has probably been much 
the same in all lands and in all ages4  
,the use of fully developed peacocks for
 food at banquets was simply a display  
of barbarous extravagance4 ,although a  
young peafowl is very good eating1 a    
male old enough to have acquired its    
full plumage would be hard1 tough1 and  
unpalatable4 ,the peafowl is not        
prolific enough to be a profitable table

 bird1 and is too desirable for its     
beauty to be used for any other purpose4
 ,in this country peafowls are not      
common4 ,very few are seen except in    
zooelogical collections and at the      
principal poultry shows4 ,the scarcity  
of peafowl is not due wholly to the     
expense of procuring them or to the     
difficulty of rearing them4 ,indeed1    
neither of these constitutes a serious  
drawback to their popularity4 ,the      
peafowl is its own worst enemy in       
domestication4 ,it has a very savage    
disposition toward smaller birds1 and in
 this way usually makes itself an       
intolerable nuisance to those who grow  
other poultry4 ,many owners of large    
farms1 who do not keep turkeys1 or who  
keep only a small flock1 might maintain 
a small stock of peafowl with very      
little trouble4 ,although they are so   
vicious when brought in close contact   
with smaller poultry1 they will flock   
and forage by themselves if they have   
room to do so4  ,management4 ,the       

methods of managing turkeys apply at    
nearly every point to the management of 
peafowl4 ,the peafowl matures more      
slowly and does not breed so early4 ,the
 females are not fit for breeding until 
two years old2 the males not until three
 years old4 ,they do not pair1 but mate 
in small polygamous families--one male  
with from two to four females4 ,the     
peahen usually lays from four to six    
eggs--rarely more than eight or ten4    
,the period of incubation is four weeks4
 ,young peachicks are very bright and   
active4 ,they begin to fly when only    
three or four days old4 ,if they are to 
be kept in an inclosure while very      
small1 the sides must be high or the top
 must be covered with wire netting4     
,although so active1 they are less      
independent than most young poultry1 and
 follow the mother closely until she    
drives them from her at the approach of 
the next breeding season4 ,peahens are  
preferred as mothers1 because their     
disposition is to keep their young with 

them much longer than a turkey or a fowl
 does4 ,next to the peahen a turkey hen 
makes the best mother for peachicks4    
,,chapter ,,xiv  ,,pheasants   ,the     
guinea and the peafowl were described as
 closely related to the pheasants1 and  
as of limited usefulness to man both    
because of their ugly dispositions and  
because of their roving habits4 ,the    
species of pheasants that are best known
 are a little farther removed from      
domestication by their extreme shyness1 
and have often been excluded from lists 
of domestic birds2 yet it is quite      
possible that some of them may become of
 much greater economic importance in    
,america than either the guinea or the  
peafowl4  ,description4 ,the most common
 kinds of pheasants are about the size  
of small domestic fowls1 but have       
rounder1 plumper bodies4 ,there are also
 other characteristic differences4 ,the 
head of a pheasant1 except a part of the
 face around the eye1 is usually        
feathered4 ,this bare skin1 called the  

wattle1 is red in most species1 but in a
 few it is purplish4 ,the feathers of   
the neck are short1 and the tail is     
depressed4 ,some of the rarer kinds of  
pheasants are as large as medium-sized  
fowls4  ,pheasants as a class are       
distinguished principally for their     
brilliant plumage4 ,in most species the 
male alone has showy coloring1 the      
females being very sober hued4 ,in some 
species the male has a very long tail1  
corresponding to the train of the       
peacock2 in some the tail is wide and   
heavy1 as well as quite long2 in others 
the males are feathered like the        
females4  ,the name pheasant comes from 
the name of the river ,phasis in        
,colchis1 at the eastern end of the     
,euxine ,sea4 ,the term fowl is not used
 in connection with pheasant1 but the   
words cock1 hen1 and chicken are used as
 in other cases that have been          
mentioned4  ,origin4 ,the pheasants are 
all natives of ,asia1 where nearly all  
known kinds are found in the wild state4

 ,they are well distributed over that   
continent1 and are found in localities  
differing greatly in climate and in the 
character of the soil and of the        
vegetation4 ,some species live mostly at
 low altitudes2 others are peculiar to  
high mountain regions4 ,according to an 
old ,greek legend the first pheasants   
known in ,europe were brought to ,greece
 by the ,argonauts on their return from 
the expedition in search of the ,golden 
,fleece4 ,a more probable story is that 
which says that they were introduced in 
the time of ,alexander the ,great4      
,pheasants were reared in confinement   
for food by the ,greeks and the         
,egyptians1 and also later by the       
,romans in ,italy4 ,both the rearing and
 the use of pheasants in those times    
seem to have been limited to the very   
wealthy4 ,from ,greece and ,italy they  
were gradually distributed all over     
,europe4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4    
,ringneck ,pheasant#ac  #ac ,figs4      
#afh-agb are from photographs of mounted

 specimens in the ,national ,museum1    
made to illustrate ,pheasant ,raising in
 the ,united ,states1 ,farmers'         
,bulletin ,no4 #cij of the ,united      
,states ,department of ,agriculture4    
,history in ,america4 ,the history of   
pheasants in ,america is much more fully
 known than that of most kinds of       
poultry4 ,the first importation of which
 there is a record was made by an       
,englishman named ,bache1 who had       
married a daughter of ,benjamin         
,franklin4 ,in ,england at that time    
pheasants were propagated1 as they are  
to-day1 in a half-wild state in game    
preserves1 and ,mr4 ,bache expected that
 those which he imported and released on
 his estate in ,new ,jersey would soon  
become established there4 ,in this he   
was disappointed4 ,others who           
subsequently tried the same plan met    
with no better success4 ,for a long time
 the only pheasants known in this       
country were those grown in confinement 
by fanciers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4

 ,mongolian ,pheasant  ,the first       
successful attempt to establish         
pheasants at liberty on this continent  
was made in ,oregon with pheasants      
brought direct from ,china4 ,the ,united
 ,states consul at ,shanghai sent some  
,ringneck ,pheasants to ,oregon in      
#ahhj4 ,as most of these died on the    
way1 a second shipment was sent in the  
following year4 ,in all about forty     
birds were liberated4 ,the shooting of  
pheasants was prohibited by law in      
,oregon until #ahib1 when the stock had 
become so widely distributed and so well
 established that shooting them was     
allowed for a short season4 ,so numerous
 were the pheasants at this time that on
 the first day of this open season about
 #ej1jjj were shot by the hunters4 ,in  
many other states efforts have since    
been made1 both by state game           
commissions and by private enterprise1  
to acclimatize pheasants and establish  
them as game birds4 ,some of these      
efforts have been quite successful4     

,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,amherst     
,pheasant  ,species and varieties4 ,the 
relationships of the various kinds of   
pheasants are not positively known4     
,some kinds that are undoubtedly        
varieties of the same species are       
commonly classed as different species4  
,the best-known of these so-called      
species interbreed freely4 ,the rare    
kinds have not been sufficiently tested1
 either with common kinds or with one   
another1 to show whether they are       
species or merely varieties4 ,the       
,european pheasants1 descended from the 
stocks which came in early times from   
,western ,asia1 are called by various   
names--,common ,pheasant1 ,darknecked   
,pheasant1 ,english ,pheasant1 and      
,hungarian ,pheasant4 ,two kinds of     
pheasants1 of the same type but having  
more distinctive color markings1 have in
 recent times been brought from ,eastern
 ,asia4 ,one of these is commonly called
 the ,ringneck ,pheasant1 but the names 
,china ,pheasant1 ,mongolian ,pheasant1 

and others are also applied to it4 ,the 
second variety1 also called ,mongolian  
,pheasant1 is said by some authorities  
to be the only one to which the name    
,mongolian properly applies4 ,it is not 
quite like the ,ringneck1 but1 like it1 
has a white ring around the neck4 ,from 
,japan still another bird1 called the   
,versicolor ,pheasant1 or ,japanese     
,versicolor ,pheasant1 very similar in  
type1 was brought to ,england4 ,these   
three varieties from ,eastern ,asia have
 been mixed with the ,european pheasants
 to such an extent that there are now   
very few pheasants of the type common in
 ,europe before their introduction1 and 
good specimens of the oriental races are
 equally rare4 ,the principal ,english  
variety at the present time is a        
,ringneck produced from the mixture4    
,this is called the ,english ,pheasant2 
in ,england it is also sometimes called 
the ,common ,pheasant4 ,the birds that  
breed at liberty in the ,united ,states 
are mostly of the ,ringneck type4       

,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,manchurian  
,pheasant  ,although they are very      
beautiful birds1 the pheasants thus far 
mentioned appear plain in comparison    
with the ,silver and the ,golden        
,pheasants 7which are the most common of
 the highly ornamental varieties7 and   
the ,reeves and ,amherst ,pheasants4    
,these are the kinds most often seen in 
aviaries and at poultry shows4 ,there   
are many other rare and curious         
varieties which are to be seen only in  
the finest collections4 ,among these is 
a class called the ,eared ,pheasants1   
because of the little tufts of feathers 
which project backward at each side of  
the head1 looking strikingly like the   
ears of a mammal4 ,the pheasants of this
 class are mostly dull colored and quite
 docile in disposition4  ,place in      
domestication4 ,the future place of     
pheasants in domestication is not so    
plainly indicated by their history and  
present position as the places of the   
guinea and the turkey seem to be4       

,pheasants seem to be more desirable1   
easier to control1 better suited to     
confinement1 and also better adapted to 
wintering out of doors in cold climates1
 than are guineas4 ,the beauty of the   
ornamental types makes them very        
desirable to those who keep birds for   
pleasure4 ,because they are so much     
smaller than peafowl1 and also because  
they are able to live amicably with     
fowls1 they may be kept where peafowl   
could not4 ,it is therefore probable    
that1 as people in ,america become more 
familiar with pheasants1 and as they    
learn that the greatest pleasure and the
 surest profit in aviculture are to be  
found in growing a few birds under the  
most favorable conditions that can be   
made for them1 the numbers of pheasant  
fanciers will greatly increase4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,monaul1 a   
,himalayan pheasant  ,in ,england       
pheasants are extensively grown in game 
preserves1 for shooting and for sale as 
breeding stock to those who wish to     

stock new preserves4 ,where the birds   
are fed by a keeper1 as they must be    
when they are very numerous1 they become
 so tame that hunting them is not very  
exciting sport4 ,some that have been    
released in this country1 and have lived
 in a natural state in places where     
shooting them was not allowed1 have     
become quite as tame as the birds in the
 ,english preserves4 ,altogether the    
history of efforts to establish         
pheasants in a wild state with a measure
 of protection from hunters shows that  
it would often be practical for owners  
of woodland and waste land to establish 
and preserve colonies of wild or        
half-wild pheasants4 ,whether this will 
be done to any great extent depends upon
 the extermination of wild animals and  
upon the placing of proper restrictions 
upon the domestic animals 7dogs and     
cats7 which are destructive to land     
birds2 it depends also1 to some extent1 
upon concert of action among the        
landowners in a community1 in securing  

for themselves the use of the pheasants 
grown on their lands4  ,the possibility 
of domesticating pheasants of the       
,manchurian type1 and one or two other  
rare varieties that1 when seen on       
exhibition1 appear very docile1 is also 
to be taken into account4 ,the ,united  
,states ,department of ,agriculture#ad  
has called attention to the fact that   
some of the little-known kinds of       
pheasants seem especially adapted to    
domestication4 ,even before that1 many  
poultrymen1 seeing these birds at       
exhibitions1 had been impressed by their
 appearance1 and had remarked that they 
looked like birds that would become     
thoroughly domestic4 ,at the present    
time persons desiring to grow any of the
 more common varieties of pheasants for 
table use should first ascertain how the
 game laws of the state in which they   
live1 and of any state into which they  
might want to send pheasants1 would     
affect their undertaking4 ,sometimes the
 laws made to protect pheasants in a    

wild state have been passed without due 
regard for the interests of persons     
growing them in captivity4 ,errors of   
this kind are usually adjusted before   
long2 meantime those who may innocently 
break a law find the situation very     
embarrassing4  #ad ,pheasant ,raising in
 the ,united ,states1 ,farmers'         
,bulletin ,no4 #cij4  ,management of    
pheasants in confinement4 ,the breeding 
of pheasants on a small scale may be    
carried on in any place where suitable  
runs can be made for them4 ,the first   
essential is a somewhat secluded site   
where the birds will not be subject to  
frequent disturbances4 ,it should be    
near enough to the owner's dwelling to  
enable him to keep watch of what goes on
 in its vicinity1 yet not so near that  
the movements of the members of the     
household1 as they go about their       
ordinary affairs1 will disturb the      
pheasants4 ,it should be where trees or 
bushes make a natural shade but not a   
dense shade2 a place where the sun and  

shade are about equal on a clear day is 
best4 ,a light sandy or gravelly soil is
 to be preferred1 and a clay soil should
 be avoided4 ,if the land has underbrush
 on it1 this need not be cleared from   
the space occupied by the run1 unless it
 is so thick that it shades the ground  
too much4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agc4   
,coops and yards for breeding pheasants4
 7,photograph from ,simpson's ,pheasant 
,farm1 ,corvallis1 ,oregon7  ,the house 
should be of about the same size and    
construction as would be used for a few 
fowls4 ,a roosting place should also be 
made in the yard1 for as a rule the     
birds will prefer to roost outdoors4    
,the house is to afford them proper     
shelter from severe storms and during   
prolonged damp weather4 ,for either a   
pair or a pen of a male and several     
females the yard should contain about   
#fjj square feet4 ,the fences inclosing 
it should be at least #f feet high1 and 
the top should be covered with wire     
netting4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agd4    

,young ,china ,pheasants at feeding     
time4 7,photograph from ,simpson's      
,pheasant ,farm1 ,corvallis1 ,oregon7   
,the ,silver1 ,soemmerring1 and ,swinhoe
 ,pheasants mate in pairs2 the other    
familiar kinds are polygamous1 and from 
one to five or six females may be kept  
with one male4  ,pheasants may be fed   
the same things as are fed to fowls1 and
 in much the same manner1 but there is  
one important difference which the      
pheasant breeder must carefully observe4
 ,fowls will stand abuse in the matter  
of diet much better than pheasants will4
 ,in feeding the latter more attention  
must be given to providing regular      
supplies of green food1 to having all   
food sound and good when fed1 and to    
regulating the quantity given for a meal
 so that it will not lie about and      
become sour or soiled before it is      
eaten4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4      
,fowls and pheasants in same yard on a  
,new ,england poultry farm  ,most       
pheasant fanciers use large bantams or  

small common hens to hatch and rear the 
young pheasants4 ,the period of         
incubation is from twenty-two to        
twenty-four days4 ,until they are weaned
 from the hens the little pheasants may 
be managed as young chickens are1 but   
with the same attention to variety of   
food and to moderation in feeding that  
has been specified for the old birds4 ,a
 small number with a good range on grass
 or in a garden will pick much of their 
food4 ,many of the older works on       
poultry which treated of the care of    
pheasants recommended for the young     
birds a great variety of foods not      
easily provided4 ,nowadays the most     
successful amateur fanciers feed either 
a mixture of the common small grains or 
some of the commercial mixtures which   
contain1 in addition to these1 a number 
of seeds and grains not much used by    
poultry keepers who buy their grains    
separately in bulk4 ,stale cracked corn1
 which is dangerous to all young        
poultry1 is especially to be avoided in 

feeding young pheasants4 ,after the     
young pheasants are weaned1 they must be
 kept in covered runs1 or their wings   
must be clipped to prevent them from    
flying4  ,a large pheasantry is operated
 on the same general lines as a plant   
where birds are grown in small numbers4 
,the method is simply an extension of   
that just described4 ,when only one kind
 of pheasant is kept1 the inclosed yard 
is sometimes made very large1 and a     
hundred or more birds are put together4 
,this is not good practice with any kind
 of poultry1 and is no doubt responsible
 for much of the trouble which those    
growing pheasants in large numbers have 
had4 ,at aviaries where there are large 
collections of pheasants1 including many
 rare and costly kinds1 the yards are   
always made large enough to give the    
birds good sanitary conditions1 and as a
 rule each family of adult birds1       
whether composed of two or more1 has a  
yard to itself4     ,,chapter ,,xv      
,,swans   ,naturalists divide swans into

 a number of different species4 ,whether
 this division is correct is not known4 
,the habits of swans1 and the           
circumstances under which they are      
usually kept1 tend to prevent the       
mingling of different kinds4 ,as far as 
the author has been able to learn1 there
 is no evidence which shows conclusively
 the relations of any of the supposed   
different species4 ,the differences     
between them are in some cases very     
slight4 ,some of the decisions of the   
naturalists who have classified slightly
 different kinds as distinct species are
 based upon examinations of very small  
numbers of specimens4 ,considering the  
apparent resemblances of the different  
kinds of swans in the light of what is  
known of species and varieties in fowls1
 ducks1 geese1 and pheasants1 it seems  
probable that the true species of swans 
are fewer in number than the common     
classification shows1 and it also seems 
quite possible that all swans are of the
 same species4  ,description4 ,the      

common swan1 called the domestic swan1  
is about the size of the largest        
domestic geese1 but appears larger      
because it has a longer neck and head   
and larger wings4 ,the body is also     
somewhat longer than that of a goose of 
about the same weight1 and the swan is a
 much more graceful bird than a large   
goose4 ,it is sometimes called the ,mute
 ,swan1 to distinguish it from the      
,whistling ,swan1 which is a very       
similar kind not bred in domestication4 
,there are other slight differences     
between the ,mute ,swans and the        
,whistling ,swans1 but the difference in
 the voice1 if it really is as great as 
is supposed1 is the only one of much    
consequence in deciding their relations4
 ,the ,mute ,swan is not dumb4 ,it      
sometimes makes a low1 whistling sound4 
,people are not agreed as to whether    
there is any real foundation for the    
familiar tradition that the ,mute ,swan 
remains silent until about to die1 and  
then sings a song4 ,some people         

acquainted with the habits of swans     
declare that the swan is more vocal when
 dying than at any other time in its    
life4 ,others say that the idea probably
 arose as a result of some one's hearing
 a dying swan moaning in pain1 as sick  
animals and birds often do1 and         
concluding that it was uttering a series
 of sounds characteristic of swans in a 
dying condition4 ,however that may be1  
the ,mute ,swan is distinctly less noisy
 than the wild ,whistling ,swan4  ,until
 #afig all swans known to civilized     
people were white1 and the swan was an  
emblem of purity of color4 ,in that year
 a ,dutch navigator visiting ,australia 
found there a black swan4 ,afterwards a 
white swan with a black neck was        
discovered in ,south ,america4 ,had the 
subject of heredity been well understood
 before the discovery of these two swans
 that were not white1 people familiar   
with the white swans would have known   
that there were colored swans in some   
unexplored country 7or that they had    

existed in the known world in a former  
age71 for white swans are not perfectly 
white at maturity1 and when young they  
are gray4 ,neither is the black swan all
 black4 ,it has white flight feathers1  
and its black color is a rusty black1   
that is1 a black mixed with red4  ,swans
 are very long-lived birds1 but stories 
of swans living to seventy or eighty    
years of age are not to be credited4 ,it
 cannot be affirmed that the birds may  
not live as long as that1 but the       
evidence in the cases reported is       
defective4 ,the reports of swans living 
for fifty years are quite credible4 ,the
 male and female swan are not readily   
distinguished1 for there are no external
 indications of sex1 and the birds use  
their voices so rarely that1 even if    
there is a difference in the notes of   
the male and female1 it is not practical
 to use it to distinguish between them4 
,the only way to identify the sex with  
certainty is by observing the birds at  
nesting time4  ,the name swan is        

,anglo-,saxon4 ,nothing is known of its 
derivation4 ,the terms cock and hen are 
sometimes applied to swans as they are  
to many other kinds of birds4 ,the      
swanherds in ,england call the male a   
cob and the female a pen4 ,the young    
swan is called a cygnet1 from the       
,french word for swan4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #agf4 ,swan and nest  ,origin and 
history in domestication4 ,tradition    
says that the domestic swan was brought 
to ,england from ,france by ,richard the
 ,lion-hearted4 ,as the swan is a       
migratory bird1 still sometimes seen in 
many parts of the ,eastern ,hemisphere  
north of the equator1 it is possible    
that swans were known in ,england long  
before the reign of this king4 ,however 
that may be1 it is certain that1 from   
about the time of the ,norman ,conquest1
 the swan has occupied a peculiar       
position in ,england4 ,it was regarded  
as a royal bird1 and the privilege of   
owning swans was granted only to those  
in high station4 ,at first the number of

 those who were permitted to own swans  
was very small1 but it was afterward    
extended until1 in the reign of ,queen  
,elizabeth1 more than nine hundred      
different swanmarks were registered by  
the royal swanherd1 who had general     
oversight of all the swans in the       
kingdom4 ,the swans were marked by      
branding or cutting the bill1 this being
 necessary because they lived largely on
 the margins of uninclosed waters1 just 
as in some of our ,western states cattle
 live on unfenced lands4 ,the right to  
own swans carried with it the right to  
keep them in such a place4  ,place in   
domestication4 ,although it has been    
bred in captivity for centuries1 the    
swan is not fully domesticated4 ,it does
 not1 like the duck and the goose1 so   
increase in size and weight when kept   
under the control of man that it becomes
 incapable of flight1 but1 like the     
,american ,wild ,goose in captivity1 it 
is prevented from flying by removing the
 first joint of one wing1 the operation 

being performed as soon as possible     
after the young birds are hatched4 ,the 
swan lives more on the water than either
 the duck or the goose4 ,it subsists    
largely upon coarse aquatic grasses and 
plants1 and is said to eat all kinds of 
decaying matter found in the water4  ,in
 ,england in old times the swan was used
 as food by the wealthy1 but its use for
 this purpose ceased long ago4 ,it is   
now kept almost exclusively for         
ornament4 ,most of the swans in ,america
 are kept in public parks or on large   
private estates4 ,very few are reared   
here2 the supply is kept up largely by  
importations from ,england4 ,the swan is
 not popular1 because the birds are     
costly and are not prolific4 ,still the 
breeding of swans for ornamental        
purposes or for sale to exhibitors might
 be carried on with profit upon many    
farms4 ,under suitable conditions1 swans
 may1 at the same time1 perform valuable
 service and make a valuable product4   
,by consuming the kinds of food which   

they prefer1 they clean ponds and keep  
sluggish streams open4 ,being so large  
and strong1 and requiring so much coarse
 food1 they are a great deal more       
serviceable in this way than are ducks  
and geese4  ,management4 ,when swans    
were abundant in ,england1 they were    
kept mostly upon certain rivers and     
inlets of the sea where natural food was
 abundant4 ,the climate of ,england is  
so mild that they can there obtain food 
in such places at all seasons4 ,the     
colder parts of ,america do not afford  
conditions favorable to swan culture4   
,where the winters are long and severe1 
and streams and ponds are frozen over   
for months1 wintering swans would be    
troublesome and expensive1 but where the
 waters are open throughout the year1 a 
farmer who had a suitable place for them
 might breed swans with profit4 ,a pair 
of swans would cost about the same as a 
good cow1 and might make about the same 
net profit4 ,but there would be this    
difference3 the cow would require a     

great deal of care1 the swans very      
little2 the cow would eat salable food1 
the swans mostly waste food4 ,by this   
comparison it is not meant to suggest   
that a farmer might profitably replace  
his cows with swans4 ,the object is     
simply to show how the possible profit  
from small specialities compares with   
the usual profit from a regular feature 
of farming4  ,the methods of managing   
swans are much like the methods of      
managing wild geese in captivity4 ,the  
principal difference is that the swans  
must have a larger body of water1 and   
one in which vegetation is abundant4    
,they are not as fond of land grasses as
 geese are1 and like to float on the    
surface of the water1 feeding on the    
vegetation at the bottom4 ,their long   
necks enable them to do this in water   
several feet deep4 ,they need no shelter
 but a small hut1 which they will use   
only in rare emergencies4 ,after they   
have settled down in a spot1 there      
should be no need of building fences to 

restrain them4 ,as they are not able to 
fly1 they will remain quite near their  
home unless food supplies there are very
 short4 ,in that case extra food should 
be given them4 ,even when natural food  
is abundant1 it is a good plan to feed  
swans a little of something else        
occasionally1 to attach them to the     
person who has charge of them4 ,as every
 one knows who has seen the swans in    
parks1 where visitors amuse themselves  
by feeding them1 swans are very fond of 
bread4 ,they will eat grain also1       
although1 when not accustomed to it1    
they may at first refuse it4 ,their food
 is usually given either by throwing it 
on the water or by placing it in troughs
 from which the birds can eat while     
floating upon the water4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #agg4 ,feeding swans on the water
  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #agh4 ,view of an
 ,english swannery  ,the female builds  
near the water a nest of coarse stalks  
and small sticks4 ,sometimes this is    
reared to a height of several feet1 and 

material added around the sides1 little 
by little1 during the whole period of   
incubation4 ,swans have been known to   
pile up nearly half a cord of material  
for their nest4 ,from five to ten eggs  
are laid in the nest4 ,the period of    
incubation is six weeks4 ,as far as     
possible1 interference with the birds   
should be avoided during the breeding   
season and while the young are small4   
,when it is necessary to handle them in 
any way1 the attendant should have at   
the start all the assistance he is      
likely to require4 ,a blow from a swan's
 wing may injure a man very seriously4  
,it is said that such a blow has been   
known to break a man's thigh4  ,the     
young are gray when hatched and do not  
become entirely white until two years   
old4 ,even then many of them are not    
absolutely white1 but show very distinct
 traces of reddish-yellow1 especially on
 the head and upper part of the neck4   
,there is a story that a young swan of a
 deep buff color was hatched at ,lewes  

in ,england4  ,if the swans with young  
must be fed1 the usual practice is to   
throw the food upon the water4 ,stale   
bread1 grain1 and even meal are given in
 this way4 ,it looks like a wasteful way
 of feeding1 but the birds will get all 
the food4  ,swanneries are unknown in   
,america4 ,in ,england a few of those   
established many centuries ago still    
remain4 ,the largest and most celebrated
 of these is at ,abbotsbury4 ,swans have
 been bred here continuously for about  
eight hundred years4     ,,chapter ,,xvi
  ,,ostriches   ,the ostrich is unlike  
other birds in many important           
characters4 ,it is not a typical bird4  
,while it has feathers and wings1 its   
feathering is not normal1 and the       
muscles of the wings are lacking4 ,in   
the minds of most persons it is         
associated with the circus menagerie    
rather than with the poultry yard1 but1 
as we shall see1 this singular bird has 
a place in domestication and1 as a      
useful land bird1 belongs to the poultry

 group4 ,there are two species of       
ostriches1 but only one of these is of  
economic value4  ,description4 ,the     
ostrich is the largest of living birds4 
,a full-grown male standing erect       
measures from six to seven feet in      
height4 ,the largest specimens weigh    
about three hundred pounds4 ,as1 in the 
atmosphere which now surrounds the      
earth1 a creature of such size and      
weight cannot fly at all1 the wings of  
the ostrich have become atrophied1 and  
the muscles of the wings1 which form the
 plump1 meaty breasts of flying birds1  
are entirely wanting4 ,not only have    
these muscles disappeared1 but the      
breastbone1 which in flying birds is    
very large in proportion to the rest of 
the skeleton1 and has a deep1           
longitudinal keel in the middle1 is     
comparatively small in the ostrich and  
has no keel at all4 ,the ostrich1 having
 no power of flight1 is dependent for   
safety upon its speed in running2 so its
 legs are long and strong1 and the      

muscles which move them are very large4 
,indeed1 there is very little meat on an
 ostrich except on the thighs4 ,it can  
run much faster than a horse4 ,because  
its foot must be adapted to running at  
great speed1 the ostrich has only two   
toes4 ,its neck is very long and        
slender1 and its head is very small and 
flat4 ,in such a head there is little   
room for brains4 ,the ostrich is a very 
stupid creature1 but it does not1 as is 
commonly supposed1 hide its head in the 
sand and imagine that1 not being able to
 see its enemies1 it cannot be seen by  
them4 ,that is a myth apparently based  
upon the fact that1 when in repose1 an  
ostrich sometimes lies with its long    
neck stretched upon the ground4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,side view of
 male ostrich4 7,photograph from the    
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,since the wings of the ostrich are     
useless for flight1 the flight feathers 
have lost the structure adapted to that 

purpose and have developed into         
beautiful plumes4 ,the tail feathers    
have also undergone a similar change4   
,these wing and tail feathers are the   
ostrich feathers of commerce4 ,the neck 
and head of the ostrich are almost bare 
of feathers4 ,the body is covered with  
feathers1 but not as densely as in most 
birds4 ,there are just enough feathers  
on the body of an ostrich to protect the
 skin from exposure when they lie flat4 
,the areas on the skin where there are  
no feathers are much larger than on     
other birds4 ,the thighs of the ostrich 
are bare4 ,the skin is in some varieties
 of a bluish-gray2 in other varieties   
the bare parts are red and the skin of  
the body is yellow4  ,the crop and the  
gizzard of the ostrich are not separated
 as in other birds1 but are joined2 the 
upper part of the stomach performs the  
functions of a crop and the lower part  
those of a gizzard4  ,the male ostrich  
is usually larger than the female4 ,the 
adult males and females are plainly     

distinguished by the color of their     
plumage1 the body feathers of the male  
being black1 while those of the female  
are gray4 ,the plumes of both sexes are 
white or white mixed with black4 ,the   
black on an ostrich is often of a       
brownish shade1 and this is most        
conspicuous when it appears on the      
plumes4  ,the bill of the male and the  
scales on the fronts of his shanks      
become a bright rose color in the       
breeding season4 ,the male ostrich      
utters a guttural sound1 called booming1
 which is said to resemble the roar of a
 lion as heard at a distance4 ,the voice
 of the female is like that of the male1
 but very faint4  ,the difference in the
 plumage of the sexes1 although it is   
not complete until after the second     
adult molt1 is noticeable much earlier4 
,the females do not begin to lay until  
three or four years old4 ,the males are 
not fully matured until four or five    
years of age4 ,ostriches are very       
long-lived4 ,birds whose age could be   

verified have lived as long as          
forty-five years in captivity1 and at   
that age were profitable as breeders and
 also as feather producers4 ,it is      
believed by some of those most competent
 to judge such matters that under       
favorable circumstances an ostrich might
 live a hundred years or more4 ,very few
 of the birds kept in domestication die 
of old age4 ,they are so stupid1 and    
their long legs1 though strong for      
running1 are so easily broken1 that an  
accident of some kind almost always ends
 the life of an ostrich long before it  
has passed its prime4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #ahj4 ,front view of male and     
female ostriches4 7,photograph from the 
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,the name ostrich has an interesting    
history4 ,the ,greeks called this       
singular bird struthion'4 ,this came    
into the ,latin language as struthio4   
,in low ,latin1 avis1 the ,latin word   
for bird1 was prefixed to what remained 

of the ,greek name1 giving avis         
struthio4 ,ostrich is a contraction of  
this low ,latin compound4 ,so we have in
 this name a combination of two words   
from different languages1 having the    
same meaning4 ,the terms cock1 hen1 and 
chick are used with the name of the     
species1 to designate respectively the  
adult male1 the adult female1 and the   
young before the first plucking4        
,origin and history in domestication4   
,the domestic ostrich is the wild       
,african ostrich in captivity4 ,it is   
probable that the ostrich was familiar  
to the people of ,northern ,africa1 and 
was known to those of the adjacent parts
 of ,asia and ,europe1 in prehistoric   
times4 ,in very early times ostriches   
may have been kept in captivity for     
their feathers1 as they are now kept in 
the ,sudan1 but1 until about #ahfj1 when
 the farmers of ,south ,africa began to 
take an interest in the subject1 we have
 no knowledge of any efforts to breed   
ostriches in captivity and to improve   

the quality of the feathers by giving   
the birds more nutritious food than they
 usually get in the wild state4 ,the    
first stock used in ,south ,africa was  
some of the wild stock found in that    
part of the continent4 ,in #ahhb the    
first ostriches were brought to the     
,united ,states4  ,place in             
domestication4 ,commercially the ostrich
 is valuable only for its plume         
feathers4 ,the extent of the development
 of ostrich culture depends upon the    
demand for ostrich feathers at prices   
that will warrant breeding ostriches to 
supply them4 ,when the industry was     
first established in ,south ,africa1    
ostrich feathers brought high prices and
 the business was very profitable2 but  
so many farmers engaged in it1 and the  
supply of feathers increased so rapidly 
that prices soon became much lower and  
have never since returned to the scale  
that prevailed at that time4  ,the flesh
 of the ostrich is edible1 but it is so 
hard and tough that no one would grow   

ostriches for their flesh4 ,the egg of  
an ostrich is about as large as two     
dozen hen eggs4 ,ostrich eggs are said  
to be very good1 but they are too large 
for ordinary use1 and the birds are so  
long in maturing that it would not pay  
to use them to produce eggs for         
commercial purposes4  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #aha4 ,ostrich eggs and newly     
hatched chicks4 7,photograph from the   
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,the breeding of ostriches for their    
feathers1 however1 may be regarded as a 
permanent industry1 for there will      
always be a demand for ostrich plumes1  
but it cannot be developed as           
extensively as if the product were a    
staple article of food4 ,the ostrich    
farms in ,america are mostly special    
farms devoted exclusively to ostrich    
breeding4 ,most of these farms are owned
 and operated by companies4 ,some of    
them are stock speculation projects4 ,in
 ,south ,africa the industry is more in 

the hands of the general farmers1 each  
of those engaged in it growing a few    
birds4 ,the people of ,south ,africa    
have tried to secure a monopoly in      
ostrich feathers by prohibiting the     
exportation of ostriches and by         
purchasing the best stock to be obtained
 in ,north ,africa4 ,ostrich farming is 
practical only in tropical and          
semitropical countries2 the plumage of  
the birds is too scanty to protect them 
in the cold winters of temperate climes4
 ,in the ,united ,states nearly all the 
ostrich farms are in ,southern          
,california and ,arizona1 but there are 
some in ,texas1 ,arkansas1 and ,florida4
  ,management4 ,in the places where     
ostrich farming is carried on1 the birds
 need no shelter4 ,they must be kept in 
inclosures fenced as for cattle4 ,as    
ostriches are bred for their plumage1   
and that of the male is most valuable1  
the breeder does not object to their    
following their natural inclination and 
mating in pairs1 but many males are so  

injured in fighting that they must be   
killed4 ,this leaves an excess of       
females1 and so two or more females are 
sometimes mated with one male4 ,the     
birds are mated for breeding when they  
are about three and one-half years old4 
,the object of mating them before they  
are fully mature is to prevent them from
 selecting for themselves partners      
contrary to the ideas of the breeder4   
,each mating must have its own yard1    
unless the place where more than one    
family is kept is large enough to allow 
each family the exclusive use of a part 
of it4 ,under such circumstances each   
group will keep to its own range4  ,the 
natural food of the ostrich is grass and
 the leaves of shrubs and trees4 ,in    
domestication it is usually pastured on 
alfalfa1 or fed on alfalfa hay1         
according to the season4 ,the alfalfa is
 often supplemented with grain          
7principally corn71 and grit1 bone1 and 
shell are provided as for other birds4  
,most ostrich growers prefer to hatch   

the eggs in incubators1 because by      
removing the eggs from the nests they   
induce the hens to lay more1 and because
 the young ostriches are much easier to 
manage when by themselves than when with
 the old birds4 ,when a pair of         
ostriches hatch their own eggs1 the hen 
sits during the day and the cock at     
night4 ,the period of incubation is six 
weeks4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4      
,flock of ostriches on a ,california    
ostrich farm4 7,photograph from the     
,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,united   
,states ,department of ,agriculture7    
,young ostriches are fed the same as old
 ones4 ,they are kept in flocks of fifty
 or more until about a year old1 when   
the sexes are separated4 ,the plumes are
 cut for the first time when the birds  
are between six and seven months old4   
,although the process of removing these 
feathers is called plucking1 they are   
not drawn out1 but are cut close to the 
skin4 ,the object is to get the feather 
immediately after it is grown1 before it

 can be soiled or damaged in any way4   
,at that time the quill is still full of
 blood4 ,drawing it out would be very   
painful to the bird1 and might injure   
the wing so that the next feather that  
grew would be defective4 ,the stumps of 
the feathers are allowed to remain until
 they are dead and dry1 when they are   
drawn out easily4 ,in ,south ,africa the
 ,kafirs draw the stumps out with their 
teeth4 ,in about six or seven months    
after the stumps are removed1 the new   
plumes are grown and the process of     
plucking is repeated4     ,,chapter     
,,xvii  ,,pigeons   ,the pigeon is the  
only species of aerial bird kept in     
domestication to provide food for man4  
,it is also the only useful domestic    
bird that is able to maintain itself and
 increase in numbers in populous        
districts without the care of man4      
,description4 ,the common pigeon is     
about the size of the smallest bantam   
fowls4 ,it is a plump1 hard-feathered   
bird1 with a short neck1 a round head   

free from ornamental appendages1 a short
 beak1 and short legs4 ,the prevailing  
color is a dull1 checkered blue1 varying
 in shade from a very light blue to     
nearly black4 ,the blue is sometimes    
replaced by red with similar variations 
in shade4 ,there are also white pigeons1
 black pigeons1 and many birds in which 
all the colors that have been named are 
irregularly mixed4  ,the male and female
 pigeons are not distinguished by any   
regular differences of size1 form1      
color1 or voice4 ,the males are usually 
a little larger and coarser looking1 and
 make themselves conspicuous by their   
vain posing and domineering ways1 but   
none of these characteristics are       
reliable indications of sex4 ,the       
natural voice of the pigeon is a soft1  
gurgling coo repeated over and over with
 monotonous effect4 ,it is sometimes    
heavier and more prolonged in the male1 
but except in the ,trumpeter and        
,laugher ,pigeons1 in which the voice   
has been peculiarly developed1 the      

difference in the voices of the male and
 female is not marked4 ,even in the two 
varieties mentioned1 many males have    
such poor voices that the voice is not  
an infallible indication of the sex4    
,the most expert pigeon breeders are    
often in doubt about the sex of some    
pigeons until they pair4  ,the name     
pigeon is from the ,latin pipio 7to peep
 or chirp71 and came into the ,english  
language from the ,french4 ,the         
,anglo-,saxon name for the bird was     
probably dufa1 from which we have the   
word dove1 which is still sometimes     
applied to pigeons4 ,dufa was derived   
from dufan 7to plunge into74 ,it seems  
probable that the name was given because
 of the pigeon's habit of dropping      
almost perpendicularly when descending  
from an elevated position4 ,the male    
pigeon is called a cock1 the female a   
hen4 ,young pigeons are called squabs1  
squeakers1 or sometimes squealers4 ,the 
word squab1 which means fat1 describes  
the characteristic appearance of the    

nestling pigeon2 the other terms refer  
to the noise it makes as it persistently
 begs for food4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#ahc4 ,tame pigeons4 7,photograph from  
,elmer ,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1              
,massachusetts7  ,origin4 ,domestic     
pigeons are all descended from the wild 
,blue ,rock ,pigeon of the ,old ,world4 
,although many of the improved varieties
 have been greatly changed in form1 they
 are all perfectly fertile when bred    
together4 ,the ,blue ,rock ,pigeon is   
found in the wild state in ,europe1     
,asia1 and ,africa4 ,fancy ,pigeons1 by 
,james ,c4 ,lyell1 the best authority on
 the subject1 contains this statement3  
,the ,british ,blue ,rock inhabits the  
rocks and caves on our seacoasts1 as    
well as precipitous inland rocks1 and   
certainly the difference between this   
bird and a common blue flying tumbler is
 very little4 ,their color is identical1
 their size almost so4444 ,in the west  
of ,scotland1 where fanciers keep and   
show common pigeons1 the wild ,blue     

,rock domesticated is the bird so       
called4  ,it is by no means certain that
 these wild pigeons are a true wild     
race4 ,considering the habits of the    
pigeon and its wide distribution in     
,england centuries ago1 it seems certain
 that many1 if not all1 of the pigeons  
now found wild in the ,british ,isles   
are descended from birds once           
domesticated4 ,rock ,pigeons of the same
 type1 however1 are found in many other 
parts of the ,old ,world and1 whether   
wild or feral1 are plainly all from the 
same original stock4 ,the ,american     
,wild ,pigeon1 also called the          
,passenger ,pigeon1 which was once found
 in enormous flocks in eastern ,north   
,america1 is often erroneously mentioned
 as the ancestor of domestic pigeons4   
,the ,rock ,pigeon and the ,passenger   
,pigeon are of different species and are
 very different in appearance and       
habits4 ,the ,rock ,pigeon is what is   
called a shelf builder4 ,it builds its  
nest on a ledge1 or shelf1 and will     

rarely even alight in a tree or a bush4 
,the ,passenger ,pigeon is a wood       
pigeon1 nesting and roosting in trees4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,flock of    
,dragoon ,pigeons#ae  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ahe4 ,flying ,homer ,pigeon#ae   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,silver ,runt
 ,pigeon#ae  #ae ,photograph from ,elmer
 ,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4    
,distribution in ancient times4 ,the    
pigeon was domesticated at a very early 
stage of civilization4 ,like the fowl1  
the duck1 and the goose1 it was well    
known to all civilized peoples of       
antiquity4 ,to what extent the          
distribution of pigeons in domestication
 followed the early migrations of the   
human race is not known4 ,it is probable
 that pigeons were domesticated before  
the ,aryan migrations began1 and also   
that the domestic stock was sometimes   
taken by ,aryan colonists to their new  
homes2 but it is equally probable that  
at various times in the history of the  
earth people coming to new lands        

domesticated some of the wild rock      
pigeons which they found there4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,swiss       
,mondaine ,pigeon#af  ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ahh4 ,splashed ,homer#af         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,blue-barred 
,homer#af  #af ,photograph from ,elmer  
,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4     
,improved varieties4 ,common pigeons are
 much alike the world over1 and have    
changed little from the wild race1 but  
in many different parts of the ,old     
,world the making of improved varieties 
began thousands of years ago1 and in    
some places peculiar types were         
developed which were little known       
elsewhere until modern times4 ,the      
varieties of the pigeon are so numerous 
that it is practically impossible to    
make a complete list of them4 ,at the   
large shows in this country1 classes are
 made for more than one hundred fifty   
named varieties1 in about forty breeds4 
,in many of these breeds there are eight
 or ten principal color varieties1 and  

an indefinite number of less popular    
varieties1 specimens of which compete in
 a miscellaneous competition in what is 
called the any other variety class4     
,there are probably nearly three hundred
 varieties of pigeons bred in ,america  
and ,england4 ,on the continent of      
,europe the number is very much greater4
 ,the ,triganica pigeon has one hundred 
fifty-two color varieties1 and it is    
said that another variety in ,germany1  
not known in ,england and ,america1 has 
one hundred thirty-eight color          
varieties4 ,where varieties are so      
numerous1 many of the color differences 
are necessarily slight1 and only those  
who know them well can readily          
distinguish the different varieties at  
sight2 others are bewildered when they  
attempt to do so4 ,in this chapter only 
the most pronounced color varieties and 
the breeds of most interest to beginners
 will be described1 but some of the most
 interesting of the others will be      
mentioned1 to illustrate the range of   

the improved types developed by         
fanciers4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aij4   
,white ,hen ,pigeons4 7,photograph from 
,elmer ,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1              
,massachusetts7  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#aia4 ,young ,jacobin ,pigeons4         
7,photograph from ,e4 ,r4 ,b4 ,chapman1 
,stoneham1 ,massachusetts7  ,the        
,carrier ,pigeon4 ,the homing           
instinct--that is1 the faculty of       
finding the way home after wandering or 
being taken away from it--is found in   
animals of all kinds4 ,in some kinds of 
animals it is much more highly developed
 than in others1 and some animals of    
each kind have more of it than is usual 
with their species4 ,it is well known   
that migratory birds usually return to  
the same localities season after season1
 and that certain pairs often return to 
the same vicinity year after year and   
build their nests in the same places4   
,when this instinct is highly developed 
in a wild bird1 its habit of returning  
to the same nest is of great interest to

 those who observe it1 but it has no    
particular value4 ,in a domestic bird   
the homing instinct or habit is of      
service because the owner of a bird     
relies upon it to make the bird return  
always to the place which he has        
provided for it1 instead of taking      
shelter elsewhere or remaining where    
nocturnal enemies will find it an easy  
prey4 ,in the domestic land birds the   
instinct has no further use than this1  
but in pigeons which1 while thoroughly  
domesticated1 retain full power of      
flight1 the development of the homing   
faculty makes it possible to use them as
 a means of communication when it is    
necessary to transmit short letters with
 great dispatch4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#aib4 ,muffed ,tumblers with saddle     
color pattern4 7,photograph from ,e4 ,r4
 ,b4 ,chapman1 ,stoneham1               
,massachusetts7  ,it is known that      
pigeons were used as messengers in war  
about the beginning of the ,christian   
,era4 ,an ,egyptian bas-relief of about 

#acej ,b4,c4 shows pigeons being        
released from cages just as they are now
 released in flying matches4 ,the homing
 instinct is so strong in the common    
pigeon that any one familiar with its   
habits may easily suppose that pigeons  
were used to carry messages almost as   
soon as men had devised means of        
communication by writing upon any       
material which the birds could carry in 
their flight4 ,there is reason to       
believe that in very ancient times      
pigeons were bred and trained especially
 for work of this kind in ,egypt1       
,greece1 and ,rome4  ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aic4 ,feeding pigeons on ,boston 
,common4 7,photograph from ,elmer ,e4   
,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts7  ,the   
pigeon which in ,england and ,america   
now goes by the name of ,carrier ,pigeon
 is a type developed as a messenger     
pigeon in ,persia and from that country 
distributed to many parts of the world4 
,as bred in ,asia it was larger and     
stronger than the common pigeon1 and had

 a cere1 or convoluted membrane1 around 
each eye and at the juncture of the head
 and the beak4 ,it is thought that this 
type of ,carrier may have been taken    
from ,asia ,minor to ,england at the    
time of the ,crusades1 but nothing      
definite is known of it in ,great       
,britain until the seventeenth century4 
,this old type of ,carrier and several  
closely related varieties were used for 
messengers1 and also in flying          
competitions1 until the variety next    
described was developed4 ,when the      
,carrier ,pigeon was bred for carrying  
messages1 no attention was paid to its  
color4 ,pigeon fanciers who were not    
interested in pigeon flying1 but liked  
the ,carrier for its other characters1  
early developed many distinct color     
varieties and also gave special         
attention to the form and carriage of   
the bird and to the development of the  
ceres around the eyes and on the beak4  
,the ,carrier ,pigeon is now bred only  
as an exhibition bird4  ,the ,antwerp   

,homer4 ,beginning sometime early in the
 last century1 breeders of flying       
pigeons at ,antwerp1 in ,belgium1       
developed a race which soon became      
celebrated for superior development of  
the homing faculty and for great speed  
and endurance4 ,this race was at first  
called the ,antwerp ,carrier4 ,when the 
invention of the telegraph made the     
services of pigeons as messengers on    
land unnecessary1 pigeons that could fly
 long distances were still bred and     
trained for competitive flying matches4 
,in these1 as a rule1 they carried no   
messages2 the object was to see which   
bird would reach home first4 ,so        
gradually the term homer was substituted
 for carrier1 and the pigeons now called
 ,homers1 or ,homing ,pigeons1 are the  
,antwerp ,homing ,pigeons4 ,good birds  
of this type are larger and stronger    
than the common pigeon1 and have a      
bolder1 more confident bearing and a    
more attractive carriage4 ,they show    
their good breeding very plainly4 ,many 

of the pigeons called ,homers are       
crosses or grades of the ,antwerp       
,homer1 and are not much better in any  
way than ordinary pigeons4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,flying      
,homer#ag  #ag ,photograph from ,c4 ,e4 
,twombley1 ,medford1 ,massachusetts4    
,the true ,homer is also the most       
popular type of pigeon for the          
production of squabs for market4 ,its   
great prolificacy1 strong constitution1 
quick growth1 and large size make it a  
favorite with squab growers4 ,as bred   
for flying or for market1 ,homers are of
 various colors1 and the color varieties
 are not distinct except as occasionally
 a breeder makes a specialty of         
producing birds of some particular      
color4 ,many pigeon fanciers breed      
,homers solely for exhibition4 ,the     
,exhibition ,homer has many distinct    
color varieties--,blue1 ,silver1 ,mealy1
 ,blue ,checker1 ,black ,checker1       
,black1 ,red ,checker1 ,white1 ,yellow4 
,tumbler and ,tippler ,pigeons4 ,the    

flying powers of pigeons have been      
developed for other purposes as well as 
for traveling long distances4 ,in rising
 or descending in flight a pigeon       
sometimes turns a somersault in the air4
 ,this trait has been developed in      
certain races so that many birds will   
perform the feat very often4 ,these     
races are called ,tumblers4 ,they are   
found all over ,europe and ,asia and in 
a few localities in ,america4 ,the      
common ,tumblers perform in the air1    
usually at some distance from the       
ground1 the tumbling of individual birds
 being an occasional feature of the     
evolutions of a flock circling about in 
the vicinity of its home4 ,from this    
common ,tumbler more highly specialized 
types have been developed4 ,the breeding
 of these types has become something of 
an art1 and in some cases the sport of  
flying them has become a well-organized 
recreation4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aie4 
,squab-breeding ,homers4 7,photograph   
from ,elmer ,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1         

,massachusetts7  ,by breeding together  
specimens which performed well when     
flying1 ,tumblers were finally produced 
in which the tumbling propensity was so 
exaggerated that they could not fly but1
 after a few somersaults1 alighted on   
their feet4 ,these birds were called    
,inside ,tumblers1 or ,parlor ,tumblers1
 to distinguish them from the common    
,tumblers1 which required more room for 
their evolutions than any ordinary      
building afforded4 ,although they are   
incapable of flight1 the ,parlor        
,tumblers can rise a short distance     
before they fall4 ,the ,roller is a     
,tumbler which turns many somersaults so
 rapidly that each revolution of its    
body is made in a very small space4 ,a  
high-flying ,roller falls while rolling 
in the air4 ,an ,inside ,roller turns   
over and over backward on the ground4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,clean-legged
 ,red ,tumbler#ah  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#aig4 ,muffed1 or ,feather-legged1      
,tumblers#ah  #ah ,photograph from ,e4  

,r4 ,b4 ,chapman1 ,stoneham1            
,massachusetts4  ,breeders of common    
,tumblers do not give them liberty1 but 
release them from their loft only when  
they wish to see the birds perform1 and1
 by feeding them immediately upon their 
return1 coax and train them to return to
 the loft soon after being released4 ,a 
good performer is soon exhausted by     
tumbling1 and is quite willing to return
 to the loft in a short time4 ,but not  
all birds of ,tumbler stock are good and
 persistent performers1 and often birds 
that do not perform prefer liberty for a
 longer period to the food that is      
waiting for them in the loft4 ,birds    
have sometimes been compelled to remain 
in the air for a long time4 ,as a result
 of this treatment of poor ,tumblers a  
type of ,tumbler has been produced which
 will perform more or less when         
ascending or descending1 but which1     
having risen to a high elevation1 will  
remain for hours circling over its home 
and perhaps occasionally flying away and

 returning4 ,tumblers of this type can  
remain in the air for five or six hours4
 ,in flying them for sport the object is
 to see which flock will remain in the  
air longest4 ,the tumbling habit was    
gradually bred out of the high-flying   
birds1 and after a time many of them did
 not tumble at all4 ,such birds were    
then called ,tipplers 7tipple having in 
some ,english dialects the meaning of   
tumble74 ,the modern ,tippler ,pigeon is
 a bird in which the tendency to rise to
 a great height and remain there for a  
long time has been developed to the     
utmost1 as the tendency to return home  
from great distances has been developed 
in the ,flying ,homer4 ,performing      
,tumblers and ,tipplers are usually bred
 for performance without regard to      
color1 and the colors in a flock of the 
same breeding may be1 and nearly always 
are1 various4 ,exhibition stocks of     
,tumblers and ,tipplers are bred in many
 distinct color varieties4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,english ,owl

 ,pigeon#ai  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aii4 
,english ,red ,trumpeter ,pigeon#ai     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,english     
,saddle ,trumpeter ,pigeon#ai  #ai      
,photograph from ,e4 ,r4 ,b4 ,chapman1  
,stoneham1 ,massachusetts4  ,the        
,fantail ,pigeon4 ,the ,fantail ,pigeon 
originated in ,india4 ,the fan-shaped   
tail1 from which this variety takes its 
name1 was developed by selection to     
increase the number of the large1       
straight main tail feathers4 ,normally a
 pigeon has from twelve to sixteen of   
these feathers2 in the ordinary ,fantail
 the number has been increased to       
twenty-four or twenty-six4 ,many of the 
specimens in which this character is    
highly developed have a much greater    
number of tail feathers4 ,it is said    
that forty-two feathers have been       
counted in a tail4 ,a tail in which     
there are so many feathers cannot be    
carried in the natural position2 it     
spreads1 forming a major segment of a   
circle1 and at the same time it is      

elevated until1 in specimens with very  
full tails1 the highest tail feathers   
stand nearly perpendicular4 ,to balance 
the large tail carried in this position 
the ,fantail has to carry its head very 
far back4 ,this makes the breast very   
prominent4 ,the bird cannot fly well1   
and when walking about it appears to be 
strutting to make a display of its      
spectacular tail4 ,its appearance is in 
this respect deceptive1 for it is a very
 modest bird and has difficulty in      
balancing itself in any other position4 
,the ,fantail is gentle and             
affectionate1 and is the best of all    
pigeons for those who want birds for    
pets4 ,it is bred in many color         
varieties4 ,the ,white ,fantail is the  
most popular1 because it is the most    
showy and the easiest to produce with   
uniform color in a flock4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,white ,runt 
,pigeon#bj  #bj ,photograph from ,elmer 
,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,white       

,pouter ,pigeon  ,pouter ,pigeons4 ,all 
pigeons have in some measure the power  
of inflating the crop with air4 ,in the 
,pouter ,pigeons this power has been    
developed and its exercise encouraged to
 such an extent that in many specimens  
the inflated crop is as large as all the
 rest of the bird4 ,pouters were        
introduced into ,england from ,holland  
several hundred years ago4 ,they were at
 first called ,croppers4 ,the common    
,pouter is a large pigeon with long     
legs4 ,it usually stands in a very erect
 position4 ,there is a race of dwarf    
pigeons of this type1 called ,pigmy     
,pouters4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4   
,fowl-like1 or ,maltese ,hen1           
,pigeons#ba  #ba ,photograph from ,elmer
 ,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4    
,other important types4 ,one of the most
 attractive pigeons is the ,jacobin1    
which has the feathers of the neck      
turned upward1 forming a hood which     
sometimes almost conceals the head4 ,the
 ,turbit and ,owl ,pigeons are          

distinguished by a frill of feathers on 
the breast1 and by the peculiar beak and
 face1 which are very short4 ,the       
,dragoon is a large1 showy pigeon of the
 ,carrier type4 ,the ,trumpeter is      
distinguished by a crest1 which greatly 
obstructs its sight1 as well as by the  
peculiar development of the voice1 to   
which it owes its name4 ,the ,runt is a 
very large pigeon bred both for         
exhibition and for the table4 ,some     
squab growers prize it very highly2     
others say that the smaller and more    
prolific ,homer is more profitable for  
squab breeding4 ,the use of a term      
commonly applied to undersized1         
ill-developed creatures as the name of  
one of the largest pigeons is one of the
 curiosities of nomenclature4 ,the      
explanation1 however1 is simple4 ,in    
,england in old times common pigeons    
were called runts4 ,the pigeon now      
called the ,runt was introduced into    
,england from ,spain1 and was called by 
early writers on pigeons the ,spanish   

,runt1 meaning the common pigeon of     
,spain4 ,with the disuse of the term    
runt to designate the common pigeon1 the
 term ,spanish was dropped from the     
designation of the improved breed1 and  
it became simply the ,runt4 ,besides the
 ,runt just mentioned there is another  
large pigeon1 once called the ,leghorn  
,runt1 which belongs to the class of    
,fowl-like1 or ,hen1 ,pigeons1 so called
 because in shape they are strikingly   
like fowls4 ,the most familiar          
representative of this class is the     
,maltese ,hen ,pigeon4  ,history in     
domestication4 ,the history of the      
pigeon in domestication presents some   
very interesting features4 ,its use as a
 messenger has been mentioned4 ,from    
very early times people of privileged   
classes took advantage of the habits of 
the pigeon to grow the birds for their  
own use at the expense of the community4
 ,the ,assyrians and some other ancient 
peoples considered the pigeon sacred to 
certain of their deities4 ,sometimes all

 pigeons were so regarded2 at other     
times and places only white pigeons were
 sacred1 those of other colors being    
used by the common people4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,nun         
,pigeons#bb  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bje4 
,german ,frillback ,pigeons#bb  #bb     
,photograph from ,e4 ,r4 ,b4 ,chapman1  
,stoneham1 ,massachusetts4  ,in medieval
 times in ,england1 the lord of a manor1
 when leasing farms to tenants1 reserved
 the right to let his pigeons forage    
over them4 ,as pigeons live mostly upon 
grains and seeds1 caring little for     
green vegetation and insects1 the newly 
planted fields of the farmer were the   
favorite feeding places of his          
landlord's pigeons4 ,the landlords1     
being able to keep pigeons without other
 expense than that of providing shelter 
for them1 built large dovecots near the 
manor houses and kept their tables      
plentifully supplied with pigeons4 ,at  
one time it was estimated that there    
were more than twenty thousand such     

dovecots in ,england4 ,the destruction  
of crops by the occupants of these      
caused serious losses to the farmers and
 a great deal of trouble between them   
and their landlords4 ,this form of      
protection for roving pigeons in        
agricultural districts was finally      
abandoned4  ,no doubt the selfishness of
 landlords was originally responsible   
for this method of protecting pigeons1  
but the government of the country at    
that time also had something to do with 
it4 ,pigeon manure is very rich in      
niter1 which in those days the          
government had difficulty in procuring  
in such quantities as it needed for the 
manufacture of gunpowder2 so it adopted 
the policy of regulating the            
construction of pigeon houses1          
prescribing the method of disposing of  
the droppings to conserve the niter in  
them and appointing official inspectors 
to see that its regulations were        
observed1 and collectors to gather the  
pigeon manure4 ,it was much easier to do

 this when large flocks were kept by    
landlords than when an equal number of  
the birds were kept in small flocks by  
the tenants4  ,place in domestication4  
,although many farmers keep small flocks
 of pigeons1 the pigeon in modern times 
is a city bird rather than a country    
bird4 ,the strong flying types are all  
well adapted to an independent life in  
towns and cities1 where1 as has been    
stated1 they often become a nuisance4   
,this form of nuisance might be partly  
abated and perhaps prevented if city    
authorities would systematically and    
humanely exterminate the free flocks of 
common pigeons1 and encourage citizens  
to breed improved varieties under proper
 control4  ,pigeon culture does not     
afford as many or as good opportunities 
for profit as poultry culture does1 but 
it is suited to conditions under which  
poultry do not thrive4 ,a flock of      
pigeons may be permanently maintained by
 a city resident who has so little room 
for domestic birds that1 if he kept     

poultry1 he would have to renew his     
flock every year4 ,a few pigeons may be 
kept by any one who can provide a       
nesting place for them where they will  
be safe from cats and rats4 ,in this    
country the growing of squabs has been  
widely exploited in recent years as a   
profitable commercial industry4 ,near   
large cities where the demand for squabs
 is good1 squab growing on a large scale
 is sometimes successful4 ,elsewhere the
 small flock that can be cared for in   
the owner's spare time is likely to be  
more profitable4  ,the breeding of fancy
 pigeons is also almost wholly a        
spare-time occupation4 ,the demand for  
fancy pigeons is small in comparison    
with the demand for fancy poultry1 and a
 pigeon fancier's trade rarely grows so 
large that he can give his attention to 
it exclusively4 ,in ,europe the breeding
 of pigeons for exhibition and sport is 
more popular than in ,america1 but the  
interest is growing rapidly in this     
country4     ,,chapter ,,xviii          

,,management ,,of ,,pigeons             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,small pigeon
 house and fly#bc  #bc ,the photographs 
for illustrations in this chapter1 when 
not credited to others1 are from ,elmer 
,e4 ,rice1 ,boston1 ,massachusetts4     
,almost every child knows something of  
the lives of the common pigeons that are
 seen at large in both city and country4
 ,some flocks have owners who take a    
slight interest in them and make rude   
provisions for their safety and comfort4
 ,nearly all the country flocks1 and    
many of the city flocks1 are in this    
class4 ,but there are in all large      
cities1 and in some smaller places1 many
 flocks of pigeons which no one claims  
to own4 ,they build their nests in high 
cupolas1 in the belfries of churches1 on
 sheltered ledges under the cornices or 
other projections of high buildings1 and
 in all sorts of places from which they 
cannot be easily dislodged4 ,the streets
 and areas of a great city afford daily 
food sufficient for vast numbers of     

birds4 ,the principal part of this is   
fresh oats scattered by thousands of    
horses as they take their noon meal from
 pails or nose bags1 and oats that1     
passing through the horses undigested1  
are mixed with the dust and dirt of the 
street4 ,very large quantities of food  
also fall on the streets from torn bags 
or broken boxes as cereal products are  
carted from place to place and handled  
in transportation4 ,then there are the  
crumbs and remnants of food thrown from 
windows by innumerable people who carry 
their lunches when they go to their     
work2 and besides these a great deal of 
waste food from the occupants of        
tenements1 as well as from many hotel   
and restaurant kitchens4 ,much of this  
is thrown out at random1 but often1 when
 pigeons begin to frequent places where 
food supplies are regular1 the people   
there take an interest in the birds and 
throw out more than they did before4    
,from all these various sources an      
abundance of food is available for birds

 that forage on the city streets4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,house and   
fly for a small flock  ,the pigeons do  
their part in saving this waste food1   
but the people derive little benefit    
from the saving1 because so many pigeons
 are not kept under control1 where their
 produce may be taken and used when it  
is ready4 ,good management of pigeons   
consists in keeping them so that the    
owner gets all the benefits of          
ownership4 ,good management in the large
 sense requires that all pigeons shall  
be owned by some one who is responsible 
for them1 and who keeps them under full 
control or under partial control1 as the
 circumstances in each case require4    
,size of flock4 ,a flock of breeding    
pigeons may contain as many pairs as can
 nest in the place where they are kept4 
,most pigeon keepers prefer lofts about 
#ab or #ad feet square1 because in      
larger spaces it is harder to catch the 
birds when they must be handled1 and in 
many ways the very large flock makes    

extra trouble for the attendant4 ,a     
place with a floor area of from #aej to 
#bjj square feet will accommodate from  
fifty to sixty pairs of breeding        
pigeons4 ,except when undertaking squab 
breeding on a large scale1 pigeon       
keepers usually begin with a small      
number and keep most of the increase    
until the full capacity of the loft is  
used4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,small
 barn and shed arranged for pigeon      
keeping  ,quarters for pigeons4 ,a pair 
of pigeons may be kept in a coop1 box1  
or cage about #c feet square1 and #b or 
#c feet high4 ,a cage #d or #e feet     
high1 or one as high as the room in     
which it is placed1 is still better1    
because it will allow the birds a little
 room to use their wings4 ,if such a    
cage has a few perches at various       
heights1 the pigeons will not seem to   
miss their liberty4 ,such close         
confinement1 however1 is not recommended
 except for those who cannot provide    
larger quarters1 or who merely wish to  

keep one or two pair a short time for   
observation4 ,a house about #f feet     
square makes a convenient size for a    
small breeding flock of pigeons4 ,in a  
place of that size eight or ten pairs   
may be kept4 ,attached to it there      
should be a wire-inclosed fly1 as pigeon
 keepers call the outdoor compartment   
for pigeons4 ,the size of the fly can be
 adjusted to suit the conditions and the
 available space4 ,the larger the fly   
the better the pigeons will like it1 but
 even a very small place where they can 
be much in the open air and lie and sun 
themselves is better than constant      
confinement indoors1 which makes them   
anemic and greatly reduces their        
vitality4  ,where the space for pigeons 
is very limited and there is room for   
only one small loft and fly1 breeding   
operations are closely restricted4 ,most
 pigeon fanciers want at least two lofts
 of this size--one for the breeding     
birds1 the other for the young birds    
that no longer need the care of their   

parents4 ,with such facilities the work 
in the breeding loft goes on better1 and
 promising young birds can be kept until
 they are well matured and the breeder  
can tell whether it is advisable to keep
 some of these and dispose of a part of 
the old ones4  ,to provide for larger   
numbers of birds1 either more lofts or  
larger lofts may be made4 ,a breeder of 
fancy pigeons usually prefers many small
 compartments4 ,a breeder of squabs for 
market makes each compartment as large  
as is convenient and builds as many as  
he has room for4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bji4 ,old poultry house arranged for   
pigeons4 7,photograph from ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 
,robinson1 ,pembroke1 ,massachusetts7   
,buildings for pigeons are constructed  
on the same plans as buildings for      
fowls4 ,the furnishings of the pigeon   
loft are different from those of the    
poultry house1 and of course the fly is 
always completely inclosed4 ,upper      
floors or lofts of buildings are used   
for pigeons to much better advantage    

than for poultry1 but where there is    
room it is more satisfactory to have all
 quarters for pigeons on the ground     
floor4  ,as the young pigeons remain in 
the nest and are fed by the parents     
until they are almost full-grown1 each  
pair of old pigeons must have their own 
nesting place4 ,as has been stated1 the 
domestic pigeon is a shelf builder4 ,so 
in arranging for nests the pigeon keeper
 builds shelves #aj or #ab inches apart1
 and divides these into compartments    
about #ab inches wide1 thus forming     
pigeonholes4 ,because a hen pigeon often
 lays again and begins to incubate      
before a pair of young are ready to     
leave the nest1 it is usual to arrange  
the pigeonholes in pairs4 ,this is      
sometimes done by omitting alternate    
dividing boards1 making each pigeonhole 
twice the size required1 so that a nest 
can be made in each corner4 ,some people
 prefer to have single pigeonholes and  
to arrange them in double sections by   
making each alternate perpendicular     

board project several inches beyond the 
front edge of the horizontal shelf4     
,when this is done1 a pair of pigeons in
 possession of one side of a double     
section will usually claim the entire   
section and prevent others from entering
 it even when they are themselves using 
only one side4  ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#baj4 ,city back-yard squab plant  ,for 
indoor perches for pigeons individual   
perches shaped like an inverted ,v are  
most used4 ,these are attached to the   
wall1 one above another1 about #ab or   
#ad inches apart4 ,the pigeons rest on  
the upper edge of the perch1 and the    
sloping sides prevent their plumage from
 being soiled by birds roosting above   
them4 ,in the outdoor flies running     
boards are placed along the sides to    
make exercising and resting places for  
the birds1 for they usually prefer a    
shelf of this kind to the ground4 ,long 
perches are also placed in the fly when 
the running boards do not give room for 
all the pigeons in the flock4 ,out of   

doors the birds get along very well on  
long perches1 but in the house each     
wants a separate perch4 ,feed hoppers   
like those used for fowls are used in   
pigeon houses4 ,drinking vessels for    
pigeons should be of the fountain type1 
exposing only a small surface of water1 
because if the vessel is open the birds 
will bathe in it4 ,for the bath any     
circular vessel with a depth of #d or #e
 inches and a diameter of #ah inches or 
over may be used4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#baa4 ,running boards in pigeon fly4    
7,photograph from ,springer ,brothers1  
,bridgeton1 ,new ,jersey7  ,ventilation 
and cleanliness4 ,the ventilation of a  
pigeon house is managed in the same way 
as that of a poultry house1 by adjusting
 the openings in the front4 ,most kinds 
of pigeons are very rugged and1 when    
fully feathered1 can stand a great deal 
of cold4 ,when a house is open in       
winter1 some of the young1 unfledged    
squabs may be chilled and die from      
exposure1 but breeders agree that1 on   

the whole1 it is better to keep the     
windows or other openings for           
ventilation partly open at all times4   
,while this causes some loss of the     
weaker squabs1 it keeps the old birds in
 much better condition than when the    
house is tightly closed4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #bab4 ,constant water supply for 
pigeons  ,to keep the loft looking clean
 and neat the droppings should be       
removed from the floor1 and from all    
shelves that can be cleaned without     
disturbing breeding birds1 at least once
 a week4 ,many pigeon keepers clean the 
houses oftener than that1 but if the    
ventilation is good and the droppings   
are dry and firm1 a house may go        
uncleaned for weeks or months without   
detriment to the birds4 ,it is customary
 to keep the floor of the pigeon loft   
thinly covered with fine gravel1 coarse 
sand1 sawdust1 or chaff4 ,to prevent the
 wind from the pigeons' wings from      
blowing this from the middle to the     
sides of the floor1 a small box is      

placed in the middle of the floor4      
,whenever it is possible1 the bath pan  
is placed outdoors1 because in taking a 
bath pigeons splash the water a great   
deal1 and if they are given the bath    
indoors1 they will make a nasty mess of 
the house floor unless it is perfectly  
clean4 ,the bath need not be given      
oftener than once or twice a week4 ,in  
bad weather it is better to let them go 
without a bath than to have them take   
one and get chilled before their        
feathers dry4  ,handling pigeons4 ,when 
a few pigeons in a small loft get a     
great deal of attention1 they usually   
become very tame and allow themselves to
 be caught at any time4 ,for catching   
pigeons that are shy1 pigeon keepers use
 a net1 called a landing net1 such as is
 used by fishermen4 ,a pigeon is held   
securely in the hand by grasping it so  
that the breast of the bird lies in the 
palm and one wing is held against the   
side by the thumb and the other by the  
fingers4 ,a pigeon may also be carried  

by the tips of the wings by bringing    
them together over the back and letting 
the bird hang by them4  ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bac4 ,small pigeon house and fly 
,mating pigeons4 ,the beginner's first  
serious difficulty in breeding pigeons  
is to get the birds in his loft all     
mated and each pair attending to the    
work of hatching and rearing its young4 
,as has been said1 the sexes cannot     
always be identified by appearance4     
,most of the pigeons sold for breeding  
are young birds that have not yet mated4
 ,some breeders and dealers are very    
expert in selecting males and females1  
but all make some mistakes1 and the     
average person makes a great many of    
them4 ,there are two ways of selling    
pigeons4 ,the most common way is to sell
 the desired number of birds1 the seller
 selecting1 according to his best       
judgment1 equal numbers of males and    
females1 with the understanding that if1
 when the birds mate1 there is an excess
 of one sex1 he will make a suitable    

exchange4 ,the other way is to sell the 
number of pairs desired1 guaranteeing   
them as mated pairs--which means that   
the pairs are all known to be properly  
mated4 ,the advantage of buying         
guaranteed mated pairs is that the      
question of mating requires no further  
attention at the outset1 but the prices 
for them are so much higher than for    
those not known to be mated1 that most  
beginners buy on the other plan4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bad4 ,large squab 
plant4 7,photograph from ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4   
,robinson1 ,pembroke1 ,massachusetts7   
,where the flock is small and the birds 
are to be allowed to select their own   
mates1 all that is necessary is to watch
 them closely until all are mated or it 
is evident that there is a surplus of   
one sex4 ,surplus males will quarrel    
persistently with the other males and   
endeavor to coax their mates away from  
them4 ,the unmated males must be        
provided with mates or removed from the 
loft4 ,unmated females are not so       

readily noticed except when there are   
only a few birds in the loft1 but by    
close watching they will soon be found4 
,when a start is to be made with quite a
 large number of unmated birds1 the best
 plan is to put the flock first in a    
different apartment from that in which  
they are to be kept permanently1 and1 as
 each pair mate and begin to build their
 nest1 remove them to their permanent   
quarters4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4   
,neat pigeon house and fly  ,when it is 
desired to mate a particular male and   
female1 the best way is to place them   
one in each side of a small coop with a 
wire partition across the middle4 ,this 
coop should be put where they cannot see
 other pigeons4 ,sometimes one of the   
birds shows a decided antipathy to the  
other4 ,in such a case it is1 as a rule1
 useless to continue efforts to induce  
them to pair4 ,in most cases1 however1  
the birds will soon show mutual         
affection4 ,when this stage is reached1 
they may be taken to the loft and       

released4 ,short coarse straw or fine   
twigs should be placed where pigeons    
that are building nests can take what   
they want4 ,no nest box or pan is really
 needed1 but many pigeon keepers use a  
nest bowl1 called a nappy1 of           
earthenware or wood fiber4  ,feeding4   
,the food of pigeons consists almost    
wholly of grains and seeds4 ,the        
principal grains used in ,america are   
wheat and corn 7usually cracked corn74  
,field peas are also used quite         
extensively4 ,while pigeons will eat the
 same kinds of ground-grain products as 
are fed to poultry1 pigeon keepers      
rarely use such foods4 ,they prefer to  
give a variety of hard grains and seeds4
 ,those who keep large stocks of pigeons
 often buy separately the feeds which   
they use1 and mix the grains to suit    
themselves1 or feed them in such        
alternation as seems desirable4 ,people 
who keep only a few pairs of pigeons    
usually find it more satisfactory to buy
 the feed mixtures sold by dealers in   

pigeons' supplies4 ,as a rule1 old grain
 and seed that are very dry and hard are
 best for pigeons1 and especially for   
exhibition and breeding stock4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #baf4 ,an          
attractive squab plant  ,the most common
 practice is to give the feed in        
hoppers1 keeping a supply always before 
the birds4 ,this is done principally    
because it is the most convenient way1  
particularly for those who are away from
 home a great deal4 ,for them hopper    
feeding is really necessary1 but pigeon 
fanciers seem to agree that when the    
birds can be fed by throwing on the     
floor of the loft or the fly1 two or    
three times a day1 just about the       
quantity of food that they need for a   
meal1 they do better and the cost of    
food is less than by the hopper method4 
,unlike poultry1 pigeons require        
considerable quantities of salt4 ,the   
common practice is to keep it before    
them in the form of lumps of rock salt1 
one large lump being enough for the     

birds in a loft of ordinary size4       
,oyster shell should also be supplied4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,homer squabs
 four weeks old  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#bah4 ,carneaux squabs four weeks old   
,how pigeons rear their young4 ,after a 
pair of pigeons have completed their    
nest1 the male seems to come at once to 
the conclusion that home duties demand  
his mate's constant attention4 ,at the  
nest he struts about1 cooing and        
coaxing1 entering the nest himself1 then
 leaving it and plainly showing his wish
 that she should take the nest4 ,if she 
goes away from the nest1 he follows her 
with his head high and his neck         
inflated4 ,his cooing turns to scolding4
 ,he pecks at her and will not give her 
a moment's peace until she returns to   
the nest4 ,the hen lays one egg and1    
after laying it1 spends most of her time
 standing on the nest until the second  
or third day after1 when she lays       
another egg and immediately begins to   
sit4 ,she seems to know that if she sat 

on the first egg before laying the      
other1 one squab would hatch two or     
three days earlier than the other1 and  
the second squab1 being smaller and     
weaker1 would have a hard time4 ,the    
work of incubation is done mostly by the
 hen1 the cock taking only a minor part4
 ,for about an hour in the middle of the
 morning and again in the middle of the 
afternoon he relieves her on the nest1  
giving her a chance to eat1 drink1 and  
take some exercise4 ,counting from the  
time the last egg was laid1 the period  
of incubation is sixteen or seventeen   
days4  ,young squabs1 like all other    
young birds that are naked when hatched1
 are ugly little things4 ,they have     
apparently insatiable appetites1 and    
their mouths seem to be always open4    
,they are fed by the parents with pigeon
 milk1 which is simply the usual food of
 the old birds softened in the crop4    
,the pigeon has the power of disgorging 
the contents of the crop at will1 and   
feeds its young by forcing food from its

 crop into their mouths4 ,when they are 
well fed1 the squabs grow very fast4    
,young ,homers four weeks old often     
weigh from three quarters of a pound to 
a pound1 or even more1 and are ready for
 market4 ,many of the fancy varieties of
 pigeons are hard to rear1 because the  
abnormal structure of the beak or the   
interference of peculiar feather        
characters prevent the old ones from    
feeding their young properly4 ,all the  
breeds described in detail in the       
preceding chapter are known as good     
feeders4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bai4    
,dressed squabs4 7,photograph from ,dr4 
,j4 ,g4 ,robinson1 ,pembroke1           
,massachusetts7  ,pigeons will breed    
nearly the year round1 stopping only    
while molting1 but in cold climates many
 young birds die in the nests in winter4
 ,those who are breeding for market take
 this as one of the risks of their      
business4 ,if only half of the squabs   
are reared in winter1 the profits may be
 as great as when the actual results are

 much better1 because in winter the     
prices are much higher than at the      
seasons when squabs are most easily     
produced4 ,fanciers do not usually allow
 their pigeons to breed during the      
coldest winter months1 but take the eggs
 from the nests or keep the sexes       
separate until spring approaches4 ,the  
object of the fancier is to produce     
specimens having the finest possible    
development of form and color4 ,he      
cannot do this successfully under       
conditions that cause heavy losses4 ,the
 birds may grow under such conditions   
but will not have the superior quality  
that he desires1 and so he finds it more
 profitable to concentrate all his      
attention upon the birds that he can    
produce when the weather is most        
favorable4     ,,chapter ,,xix          
,,canaries   ,the canary is the only    
common cage bird4 ,there are about fifty
 kinds of birds that make desirable     
pets1 but very few of them will breed in
 small cages1 and many will not breed in

 confinement even when kept in large    
aviaries4 ,in the ,united ,states the   
number of kinds of cage birds is        
restricted by state laws which prohibit 
keeping native song birds in captivity4 
,such laws are necessary to preserve the
 birds4 ,before these laws were passed1 
great numbers of song birds were trapped
 every year to send to ,europe1 where   
the keeping of cage birds as pets is    
more popular than in ,america4 ,song    
birds from other parts of the world may 
be kept in this country1 but most of    
them are so scarce and expensive that   
few people would buy them even if the   
canary were not a more satisfactory pet4
  ,description4 ,the common domestic    
canary is a small bird1 about five      
inches in length1 very lively and       
sprightly in manner1 and in color yellow
 or a greenish gray and yellow4 ,the    
male and female are so much alike that  
the sex cannot be positively determined 
by the appearance4 ,although it often   
happens that the male is more slender in

 form and brighter in color1 the voice  
is a better index of sex and1 in mature 
birds of good singing stock1 is very    
reliable4 ,the male is the singer4 ,the 
female also has a singing voice1 but it 
is so inferior in quality to that of the
 male that few people care for it4      
,origin4 ,the domestic canary belongs to
 the finch family and is found wild in  
the ,canary ,islands 7from which it     
takes its name7 and in a number of other
 islands in that part of the world4 ,the
 color of the wild birds is described1  
by some who have seen them1 as          
greenish-gray1 changing to a            
greenish-yellow on the breast and under 
parts4 ,other observers describe the    
wild birds of some localities as        
brownish4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4   
,tricolor ,canary#bd  #bd ,the          
illustrations in this chapter are from  
,our ,domestic ,animals1 by ,charles ,w4
 ,burkett4  ,the canary was introduced  
into ,europe about four hundred years   
ago4 ,as the story goes1 a ship with a  

cargo from the ,canary ,islands1        
carrying several thousand canaries1     
which the traders thought might be sold 
in ,europe1 was wrecked off the coast of
 ,italy early in the sixteenth century4 
,before the sailors left the ship1 they 
opened the cages containing the         
canaries4 ,the birds escaped to the     
,island of ,elba and there became       
established in the wild state4 ,from    
this colony of canaries birds were      
captured and distributed to all parts of
 ,europe and ,america1 their superior   
song powers and adaptability to         
domestication making them popular       
wherever they became known4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,norwich     
,canary with hood  ,the wild bird known 
in ,america as the wild canary is the   
,american ,goldfinch4 ,it belongs to the
 same family as the canary but is of a  
different species4 ,it is of no value as
 a singer4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbb4  
,yorkshire ,canary  ,improvement in     
domestication4 ,nearly all the varieties

 of the canary were developed before the
 eighteenth century4 ,the ,german canary
 fanciers turned their attention to     
developing the song of the bird1 the    
,belgian and ,british fanciers to making
 and perfecting shape and color         
varieties4 ,in ,germany the celebrated  
,harz ,mountain ,canaries were produced4
 ,these are simply common canaries      
carefully bred and trained for singing4 
,but their excellence as singers is not 
due to breeding and training alone2 the 
climate of the ,harz ,mountain region   
seems to be peculiarly suited to the    
development of canaries with beautiful  
voices4 ,the finest ,harz ,mountain     
,canaries are produced at ,st4          
,andreasberg1 a health resort noted for 
its pure and bracing air4 ,the ,st4     
,andreasberg ,roller is a canary trained
 to sing with a peculiar rolling note4  
,among fancy types of canaries the most 
interesting are the ,norwich ,canary1   
which is larger than the singing        
canaries and has reddish-yellow plumage2

 the ,manchester ,coppy1 a yellow canary
 almost as large as a small pigeon2 the 
,lizard ,canaries 7,silver and ,golden71
 which have spangled markings on the    
back2 the ,london ,fancy ,canary1 which 
has an orange body with black wings and 
tail2 and the ,belgian ,canary1 a       
malformed type in which the head appears
 to grow out of the breast instead of   
being carried above the shoulders4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,belgian     
,canary  ,place in domestication4 ,most 
people who have canaries keep them for  
pets1 and have only a few4 ,in perhaps  
the greater number of cases a single    
bird--a singer--satisfies the canary    
lover4 ,a few of those who keep canaries
 as pets also breed them for sale4      
,occasionally a canary fancier devotes a
 room in his house entirely to his birds
 and1 when breeding on such a scale1 has
 a great many to sell4 ,the commercial  
side of canary breeding1 however1 is    
usually subordinate1 except in the ,harz
 ,mountain district1 where the breeding 

and training of singing canaries is a   
very important cottage industry4        
,canaries from this district are sold   
all over the civilized world4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 ,english     
,flatheaded ,canary   ,,management ,,of 
,,canaries  ,cages4 ,the common wire    
bird cages used for one or two canaries 
are so well known that no description of
 them is necessary4 ,for larger numbers 
larger cages must be provided4 ,large   
cages cannot always be obtained at      
stores which sell the small ones1 but   
they may be obtained from bird stores in
 the large cities1 or made to order by a
 local mechanic4 ,indeed1 any clever boy
 who has learned to use tools can make  
one at very little cost4 ,while the     
small cages are usually made all of     
metal1 the large ones are commonly made 
with wooden frames4 ,a small cage has a 
removable bottom4 ,a large cage must    
have two bottoms--the outer one fixed1  
the inner one in the form of a movable  
drawer4 ,a metal drawer is easier to    

keep clean than a wooden one4  ,position
 of the cage4 ,the cage in an ordinary  
room should be hung where its occupants 
will be comfortable and safe4 ,the      
greatest foe of the domestic canary is  
the house cat4 ,some cats can be trained
 to let canaries alone1 but very few can
 be trusted to make no attempt to get a 
canary when left alone in a room with   
it4 ,when canaries and cats are kept in 
the same house1 the cage should hang in 
a place from which cats can be excluded 
when they cannot be watched4 ,the       
comfort of the bird will often require  
that the position of the cage be changed
 once or oftener during the day1        
according to the season or to some      
particular condition4 ,thus1 a sunny    
window may be very pleasant at some     
times and too warm at others1 or a bird 
may tire of being constantly in the same
 place4 ,the bird keeper has to learn to
 know1 by observing the actions of      
birds1 when they are comfortable and    
contented1 and must use judgment in     

placing the cage to suit them4          
,feeding4 ,canaries live mostly on ripe 
seeds1 but they are also very fond of   
the leaves1 flowers1 and green seeds of 
many common plants4 ,being such small   
birds1 they eat only small seeds4 ,the  
seeds most used as food for canaries are
 hempseed1 flaxseed1 rapeseed1 and      
canary seed1 which is the seed of the   
canary grass1 a plant indigenous to the 
,canary ,islands4 ,these are often sold 
mixed under the trade name of birdseed4 
,many canary fanciers think that it is  
better to feed the seeds separately1 or 
to make the mixtures themselves1 so that
 they can know just what the birds eat1 
and can judge whether any trouble which 
may arise is due to a wrong diet4       
,rapeseed and canary seed are considered
 the best and safest feed for canaries4 
,they may be mixed in equal parts and   
kept before the birds at all times4     
,canaries like hempseed better than     
anything else1 but it is so rich that1  
if fed heavily1 it is injurious4 ,when a

 mixture of seeds containing hempseed is
 placed in the feed cup1 canaries will  
pick out and scatter and waste the other
 seeds1 to get the hempseed4 ,for this  
reason it is often left out of the      
mixture and given occasionally1 a few   
grains at a time4  ,canaries are very   
fond of lettuce1 chickweed1 and         
plantain4 ,they also like the green     
seeds of many grasses4 ,these things may
 be given to them by fastening the      
leaves or stalks between the wires of   
the cage where the birds can reach them 
easily4 ,a piece of cuttlefish bone     
should be placed where the birds can eat
 some whenever they want it4 ,cuttle    
bone furnishes them with salt and lime4 
,care4 ,canaries should have regular    
attention4 ,aside from having the       
position of the cage changed when       
necessary1 they usually require         
attention only once a day4 ,this should 
be at a regular hour1 preferably in the 
morning4 ,the cage should be placed on a
 table or stand1 and the bottom removed1

 that it may be thoroughly cleaned4 ,the
 best way is to wash it4 ,while the     
bottom of the cage is being cleaned the 
cage with the bird in it rests upon the 
table4 ,this is the best time to give   
the bird its bath4 ,a shallow pan or    
dish containing about an inch of water  
is placed on the table under the        
bottomless cage4 ,some birds splash so  
vigorously that the bath must be given  
in a room containing nothing that would 
be damaged by the drops of water which  
they scatter4 ,some seem to understand  
that the harder they splash the more    
trouble they make1 and to take delight  
in wetting everything about them4  ,when
 the bird has had its bath1 the cage    
should be wiped dry1 the bottom         
replaced1 the drinking cup rinsed and   
refilled1 and the seed cup filled4 ,if a
 bird is very tame and can be easily    
caught1 it may be let out of the cage   
for its bath and for a little exercise4 
,many canaries will return voluntarily  
to their cages after bathing and flying 

around the room a few times4 ,canary    
fanciers frequently allow their birds   
the freedom of the room for hours at a  
time4 ,whenever this is done1 special   
care must be taken that no unexpected   
opening of a door allows the bird to    
escape from the room4 ,neglect of this  
point often leads to the loss of a      
valued bird4  ,breeding4 ,the breeding  
season for canaries is from ,february   
until ,may or ,june4 ,the cage for a    
breeding pair should be a little larger 
than that used for a single bird1 and   
should be firmly attached to the wall   
instead of hanging where it can swing4  
,the nest is usually a small wire       
basket4 ,for nest material cotton       
batting and cow's hair or deer's hair   
are used4 ,deer's hair may be obtained  
at bird stores4 ,these materials are    
placed in the cage and the birds use    
what they want4 ,the hen lays from four 
to six eggs4 ,the period of incubation  
is two weeks4 ,during the breeding      
season the birds should be fed1 in      

addition to the usual supply of seed1 a 
little grated hard-boiled egg with      
cracker or bread crumbs4 ,they also need
 a supply of fine oyster shells4 ,by the
 time the young are three weeks old they
 are able to leave the nest and to feed 
themselves4 ,they should then be removed
 to a separate cage4     ,,chapter ,,xx 
,,distribution ,,of ,,market ,,products 
,producers1 consumers1 and middlemen4   
,the preceding chapters have treated of 
the characters and the uses of domestic 
birds1 and of the methods of producing  
them4 ,in this chapter we shall consider
 matters relating to the distribution of
 such of their products as are staple   
articles of commerce4 ,there are very   
few subjects of general interest that   
are as widely misunderstood as some     
phases of the distribution of market    
eggs and poultry4 ,every one uses these 
products2 many millions of people       
produce them in small quantities2 but   
the consumers who are not producers live
 mostly in cities remote from the       

farming sections which have great       
surpluses of eggs and poultry to send to
 the cities1 and so the work of         
distributing these products is done     
principally by traders1 or middlemen4   
,the modern developments of poultry     
culture have been in a very large       
measure due to middlemen and could not  
continue without them4 ,in a large and  
highly organized population middlemen in
 many different capacities perform the  
services which in primitive or small    
communities may be performed by either  
the producer or the consumer4 ,consumers
 and producers are apt to think that the
 middlemen get more than their fair     
share of the profits on the articles    
that they buy and sell4 ,the true       
situation and the exact relations of    
producers1 middlemen1 and consumers of  
poultry products are easily understood  
if we study the development of the      
existing methods of distribution from   
the beginning4  ,how the middleman      
enters local trade4 ,suppose that a     

farmer brings to town #cj dozen eggs2   
that the storekeeper will allow him #bj 
cents a dozen for them2 and that by     
peddling them from house to house he can
 sell them for #be cents a dozen3 how   
much will he make by selling them       
directly to the consumers8  ,as an      
arithmetical example1 considering only  
the factors which appear in the         
statement1 this is a very simple        
problem4 ,it is easy to compute that by 
selling the eggs from house to house the
 farmer will make #a4ej4 ,but the       
farmer's practical problem in disposing 
of his eggs has some very important     
factors which do not appear in a simple 
arithmetical problem4 ,unless he had    
regular customers for his eggs1 he would
 probably have to call at fifty or sixty
 houses to sell them4 ,he might have to 
call at a great many more1 and then     
might not succeed in selling them all4  
,he would find that it was of little use
 to try to sell eggs to families that   
had not engaged them in advance1 unless 

he called very early in the morning1    
before they had ordered eggs from some  
one else4 ,if he succeeded in selling   
all the eggs1 he would still have to    
consider whether it paid him better to  
spend his time1 and that of his team1 in
 selling the eggs than in working on the
 farm4 ,most farmers find that they     
cannot afford to peddle produce         
themselves1 and unless some other member
 of the family can do it without        
interfering with important farm work1   
they sell such products as poultry1     
butter1 and eggs to the storekeepers4   
,now take the consumer's side of the    
case4 ,the ordinary family uses only #b 
or #c dozen eggs a week4 ,if the eggs   
can be bought at the store for #be cents
 a dozen1 and at a farm for #ae cents a 
dozen1 there is an apparent saving of   
#bj or #cj cents by purchasing them at  
the farm4 ,but in most cases it would   
cost the buyer more than #bj or #cj     
cents to go to the farm and get the     
eggs1 and so he goes to the store for   

them4  ,the storekeeper is the          
middleman1 really serving both producer 
and consumer4 ,every one can see this   
clearly in cases where there is only one
 middleman4  ,additional middlemen4 ,if 
the farmers trading at a country store  
bring to it more eggs than the people in
 the town will buy1 the storekeeper must
 either sell them elsewhere or refuse to
 take them4 ,if possible1 he will find a
 market for the surplus1 usually by     
shipping them to the nearest large city4
 ,but he does not send them direct to   
consumers1 for he could not deal with   
them any better than the farmers could  
with the people in his town4 ,he may    
send them to a storekeeper in the city1 
but he is more likely to send them to   
some one who makes a business of        
receiving eggs from country collectors  
and selling them at wholesale wherever  
there is a demand for them4 ,if the     
receipts in a city exceed the local     
requirements1 the surplus will be sent  
to one of the great cities which are the

 principal receiving centers for produce
 of all kinds4 ,the large receivers in  
the great cities distribute the eggs to 
retailers in the cities and also to     
jobbers and retailers in smaller cities 
where local supplies are inadequate4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,unloading   
coops of poultry at a receiving         
warehouse4 7,photograph from the ,bureau
 of ,chemistry1 ,united ,states         
,department of ,agriculture7  ,thus     
between the producer and the consumer   
there may be as many as six or seven    
middlemen who in turn handle the eggs4  
,at first thought it seems that so many 
middlemen are not necessary4 ,but it is 
not a question of numbers2 it is a      
question of conditions4 ,the number     
depends more or less upon whether the   
middleman at any stage finds it more    
advantageous to deal with one next to   
him in the general series or to pass one
 or more and deal with another farther  
away4 ,in the ,united ,states prices of 
eggs are finally determined by the      

demand and supply in the large cities of
 the ,east2 the prices at other points  
are usually the prices in these cities1 
minus the cost of transportation and    
handling4 ,in periods of scarcity1      
however1 there is a tendency to         
uniformity of prices in all large       
cities4  ,the movements of poultry to   
market are made in much the same way as 
the movement of eggs4 ,as a rule the    
same people handle both4  ,how the      
demand for poultry products stimulates  
production4 ,in the preceding sections  
it was assumed1 for the purpose of      
showing clearly the relation of the     
middleman to both the producer and the  
consumer1 that the movement of these    
articles from the country producer to   
the city buyer came about as the result 
of the existence of a surplus in farming
 districts4 ,as a matter of fact the    
movement is produced by the demand in   
localities which do not produce their   
own supplies4 ,one effect of the        
increase of population in cities is to  

cause farmers near the cities to grow   
more poultry and sometimes to establish 
special poultry farms4 ,but as grain and
 labor cost more near the cities1 the   
poultry and eggs produced near them must
 be sold at high prices4 ,if the city   
people were dependent upon these local  
supplies1 only the rich could afford    
them4  ,as this is true of all          
perishable food articles1 as well as of 
poultry products1 the growth of cities  
was restricted as long as there was no  
means of bringing provisions quickly    
from places where they could be produced
 at low cost4 ,when steam railroads were
 built1 this restriction on the growth  
of cities was partly removed4 ,many     
cities then began to grow very fast1 and
 the demands of their population for    
cheap food led city dealers in          
provisions to look for supplies in the  
towns and farms along the railroads4    
,many such dealers had before collected 
provisions by wagon as far from the city
 as was practicable4 ,these men could   

now greatly extend their routes1        
because1 having collected a wagon-load1 
they could take it to the most          
convenient railway station1 ship it by  
rail to the city1 and go on collecting1 
instead of spending a day or more in    
delivering their load in the city4 ,very
 soon after railroads were first built1 
many farmers began to produce more      
poultry and eggs and to ship them       
directly to the best city market that   
they could find4 ,as the demand for     
their produce was usually much greater  
than could be supplied from their own   
farms1 such farmers often began to buy  
from their neighbors1 thus becoming     
middlemen as well as producers4 ,in many
 cases such men would after a time find 
it to their advantage to move their     
headquarters to the city1 and would     
ultimately build up a very large        
business4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbf4   
,fattening chickens in crates at a      
poultry buyer's warehouse4#be           
7,photograph from the ,bureau of        

,chemistry1 ,united ,states ,department 
of ,agriculture7  #be ,if the farmer    
sells his chickens without fattening1   
the buyer can fatten them in this way   
and so make an extra profit4  ,in nearly
 all farming sections1 even those most  
remote from city markets1 there is a    
short period in the spring when there is
 a large surplus of eggs and sometimes a
 period in the fall when there is more  
poultry ready for market than can be    
sold2 but the people in those places    
rarely make any effort to increase their
 production1 and to extend the seasons  
when they have more than enough for     
themselves1 until they have good        
facilities for shipping eggs and poultry
 and the demands from outside cause a   
marked increase in the local prices of  
these products4  ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#bbg4 ,driving turkeys to market4       
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,chemistry1
 ,united ,states ,department of         
,agriculture7  ,so from the city and the
 country1 almost simultaneously1 but    

with the demand from the city most      
active and pressing1 the modern system  
of collecting and distributing poultry  
products has grown4 ,at first poultry   
products were nearly all handled by men 
who dealt in all kinds of country       
produce4 ,as the business increased1    
many firms gave their attention         
exclusively to poultry products4 ,then1 
when creameries were established in many
 places1 the creamery was found a       
convenient place for the collection of  
eggs4 ,the large packing houses which   
handle other kinds of meat also entered 
this field and became a very important  
factor in the development of poultry    
culture in the ,west4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bbh4 ,a big drive of turkeys     
arriving at a killing house4            
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,chemistry1
 ,united ,states ,department of         
,agriculture7  ,in the collection and   
distribution of poultry products the    
various agencies mentioned form a great 
many different kinds of combinations4   

,the arrangements vary according to many
 different conditions4 ,from first to   
last every one who handles an article is
 trying to make all he can out of it1   
but most of the middlemen deal fairly   
both in buying and in selling4 ,indeed1 
people cannot continue long in any      
legitimate business unless they are     
honest4 ,as we shall see1 middlemen are 
in a position where they are often      
blamed without just cause1 and often    
have to take much greater risks than    
either producers or consumers4  ,losses 
in distribution4 ,it has been said that 
the general tendency is to reduce as far
 as possible the number of middlemen    
concerned in the distribution of poultry
 products4 ,this tendency often goes too
 far and overreaches its purpose of     
economy4 ,the efforts of producers and  
country collectors to deal directly with
 consumers and retailers in the large   
cities often give them less profit than 
would be obtained by selling through the
 regular channels of the trade4 ,the    

reason for this is that most producers  
and a majority of country collectors do 
not prepare and pack their poultry and  
eggs so that they will reach those to   
whom they are consigned in good         
condition and bring the prices which the
 shippers expected to realize4 ,the     
losses due to improper handling of eggs 
and poultry by producers and small      
collectors are enormous1 undoubtedly    
amounting to more than #ajj1jjj1jjj a   
year in the ,united ,states4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,candling    
eggs4#bf 7,photograph from ,bureau of   
,chemistry1 ,united ,states ,department 
of ,agriculture7  #bf ,the man is posing
 for the photograph4 ,when he works1 the
 room must be dark except for the       
covered light used in candling4  ,to    
place eggs and poultry in the hands of  
consumers in strictly first-class       
condition1 they must be handled with    
great care at every stage of preparation
 and distribution4 ,eggs must be        
gathered while perfectly fresh1 kept in 

a cool place where no bad odors will    
reach them1 and protected from heat and 
frost1 as well as from breakage1 when   
being moved from place to place4 ,if the
 producer is careless about any of these
 points1 many of his eggs will be       
tainted or stale or beginning to rot    
when they are only a few days old1 and  
though he may call them fresh eggs and  
try to sell them as such1 he will not   
get the highest price for them4 ,the    
small collectors are also likely to be  
careless in handling eggs1 and to ship  
them to receivers in bad condition4     
,the receivers in the cities1 whose     
whole business is in perishable         
products1 cannot afford to handle goods 
in this slipshod way4 ,they candle the  
eggs that are forwarded to them to      
determine the quality1 and pay for eggs 
not only according to their external    
appearance1 but also the appearance and 
condition of the package in which they  
are received4 ,candling eggs consists in
 passing them before a bright light1 as 

in testing to determine the fertility of
 eggs that are being incubated4 ,when   
the egg is held before a light1 the     
expert candler can tell in an instant   
whether it is fresh and good and1 if    
not1 just what is wrong with it4 ,except
 when kept at almost freezing           
temperature1 eggs that have begun to    
decompose continue to deteriorate quite 
rapidly4 ,sometimes a lot of eggs is    
candled several times and the bad ones  
removed1 before it reaches the last     
dealer who handles it4  ,market poultry 
and pigeons are sold both alive and     
dead4 ,most dead poultry is dressed     
7that is1 has the feathers removed71 but
 pigeons and guineas are often marketed 
dead without plucking1 and occasionally 
turkeys are treated in the same way4    
,live birds lose weight in              
transportation1 especially when they are
 shipped in crowded and badly ventilated
 coops4 ,frequently many birds in a     
shipment die before their journey is    
over4 ,because of such losses1 and      

because the price per pound of the best 
dressed poultry is usually much higher  
than the price per pound of the best    
live poultry1 the impression that it is 
more profitable for a producer to dress 
his poultry is widespread4 ,the result  
is that a great many people who have    
poultry to sell dress it just as they   
would to use at home and1 putting it    
into a box or a barrel1 ship it to a    
market where the prices are high1       
expecting to get the highest price for  
it4 ,a large part of such poultry       
arrives on the market in such a         
condition that it is hard to sell at any
 price1 and much of it has to be thrown 
away4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcj4       
,barrel of dressed poultry opened on    
arrival at its destination4#bg          
7,photograph from ,bureau of ,chemistry1
 ,united ,states ,department of         
,agriculture7  #bg ,note the large piece
 of ice remaining4 ,if the ice should   
give out on the way1 the poultry would  
spoil4  ,birds that are to be marketed  

should be kept without food or water for
 from twenty-four to thirty-six hours   
before killing4 ,the object of this is  
to have the crop1 gizzard1 and          
intestines entirely empty4 ,the killing 
is done by making a small1 deep cut1    
that will at the same time penetrate the
 brain 7making the bird unconscious7 and
 sever one or two veins1 thus letting   
the blood flow freely4 ,this cut is     
usually made in the roof of the mouth1  
but sometimes in the neck4 ,the former  
method is preferred because it leaves no
 wound exposed to the air4 ,the common  
practice in picking poultry for home use
 is to scald the bird in water just     
below the boiling temperature4 ,when    
this is done just right1 the results are
 very good2 the feathers come off easily
 and the skin is not damaged4 ,but if   
the bird is not held in the scalding    
water long enough1 the feathers are hard
 to remove and the skin may be torn in  
several places in the process4 ,if the  
bird is held in the water too long1 the 

skin will be partly cooked4 ,if it is   
scalded before it has been properly     
bled1 the hot water will turn the skin  
red4 ,the defects in scalded poultry do 
not show badly at first1 and if it is   
packed and shipped at once1 the shipper 
may think that it was in very good      
condition2 but if he could see it when  
the receiver unpacks it1 he would be    
surprised to find how many blemishes    
there were on it and how poor it looked4
 ,removing the feathers without scalding
 is called dry picking4 ,it is an art   
which requires considerable practice4   
,the novice who tries it usually tears  
the skin of the birds badly4  ,in order 
to reach the market in good condition1  
poultry must not only be properly killed
 and picked1 but each carcass must be   
cooled as quickly as possible1 to remove
 the animal heat that remains in it4    
,this is done either by hanging the     
carcasses in a very cool place or by    
putting them in cold water4 ,meat of all
 kinds that is cooled immediately after 

killing will keep much longer than if   
cooling is neglected4  ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bca4 ,a badly dressed and a      
well-dressed fowl4 7,photograph from    
,bureau of ,chemistry1 ,united ,states  
,department of ,agriculture7  ,there are
 so many details which must have        
attention in dressing poultry for       
shipment1 that it usually pays both     
producers and small collectors to sell  
poultry alive to those who have better  
facilities for handling it and whose    
operations are on such a scale that they
 can employ experts for all parts of the
 work of preparation4  ,cold storage of 
poultry products4 ,so abundant are the  
supplies of eggs in the spring1 and of  
some kinds of dressed poultry in the    
summer1 fall1 and early winter1 that    
large quantities could not be sold at   
any price at seasons of plenty if there 
were no way of keeping them until a     
season of scarcity4 ,for about half a   
century after the production of eggs and
 poultry began to receive special       

attention in this country1 the profits  
of the ordinary producer were severely  
cut every spring and fall1 because the  
market was overstocked4 ,consumers      
derived little benefit from this        
situation1 because they could not use   
the surplus before it spoiled4 ,the     
popular idea of the way to remedy the   
conditions was to have hens lay when    
eggs were scarce1 and to have poultry   
ready for sale when supplies were       
insufficient4 ,experience1 however1 has 
shown that it is practically impossible 
to have a very large proportion of      
things of this kind produced out of     
their natural season4 ,the relatively   
small numbers of people who succeed in  
doing so make very good profits1 but the
 masses of producers and consumers are  
not benefited4  ,the solution of the    
problem of carrying the surplus of a    
season of abundance to a season of      
scarcity was discovered when methods of 
making ice artificially were perfected  
and it was found that the equipment used

 in manufacturing ice could be used to  
cool1 to any desired degree1 rooms for  
the storage of perishable produce4 ,this
 form of refrigeration was at first used
 in place of the ordinary method 7with  
natural ice71 to keep goods for short   
periods4 ,much larger quantities could  
be taken care of in this way when for   
any reason a market was temporarily     
overstocked4  ,for hundreds of years it 
had been quite a common practice to     
preserve eggs in various ways4 ,by      
packing them in salt1 or in salt brine1 
or in limewater1 eggs may be kept in    
very good condition for several months1 
and sometimes for nearly a year4 ,as    
limed and pickled eggs were regularly   
sold in the markets1 every dealer in    
eggs at once saw the possibilities of   
cold storage as a factor in the market  
egg trade4 ,wherever there was a storage
 house1 dealers began to buy eggs when  
prices were low1 and store them to sell 
when prices were high4 ,at first a great
 many of those who stored eggs lost     

money on them1 either by the eggs       
spoiling in storage or because they kept
 the eggs too long1 but after a few     
years' experience the operators of      
cold-storage plants learned the best    
temperatures for keeping the different  
kinds of produce and the best methods of
 arranging different articles in the    
chambers of the storage warehouses4     
,they found that eggs kept best at #cd  
degrees ,fahrenheit1 that poultry must  
be frozen hard1 and that the temperature
 in a storage chamber must not be       
allowed to vary4 ,those who were putting
 eggs and poultry in cold storage found 
that it did not pay to store produce    
that was not perfectly sound and good1  
and that products which had been in cold
 storage must be used promptly after    
being taken out1 and also that they must
 plan their sales to have all stored    
goods sold before the new crop began to 
come in1 or they would lose money4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,dressed     
fowls cooling on racks in dry-cooling   

room4 7,photograph from ,bureau of      
,chemistry1 ,united ,states ,department 
of ,agriculture7  ,the development of   
cold-storage methods and their extensive
 use have been of great benefit to      
producers and consumers1 as well as to  
distributors of perishable food         
products4 ,the storing of such products 
is a legitimate form of speculative     
business4 ,it prevents waste and loss4  
,the demand for eggs and poultry to go  
into cold storage raises the price at   
seasons of plenty and makes a good      
market for all eggs and poultry that are
 fit to store4 ,the eggs and poultry    
that have been stored furnish consumers 
with supplies at reasonable prices for  
much longer seasons4 ,as a rule supplies
 in storage are not kept there for very 
long periods4 ,speculators who want to  
be on the safe side plan very carefully 
so that most1 if not all1 of the stuff  
that they have stored shall be sold     
before new supplies become abundant in  
the market4 ,to do this they have to    

watch very closely every condition      
affecting the markets1 and to use good  
judgment in selling4 ,most of them do   
not1 as is popularly supposed1 hold     
their entire stock for the period when  
prices are highest4 ,if they did1 all   
would lose4 ,eggs begin to come out of  
storage about midsummer1 and are        
withdrawn gradually for about six       
months4 ,by far the greater part of the 
poultry stored goes into the warehouses 
in the fall and begins to come out soon 
after the winter holidays4  ,within the 
limits of the time that goods may be    
carried in cold storage profitably1 long
 storage has no more bad effects on eggs
 and poultry than refrigeration for     
short periods4 ,cold-storage products   
are usually of better than average      
quality if used immediately upon being  
withdrawn from storage4  ,methods of    
selling at retail4 ,for convenience in  
handling and counting them in           
quantities1 eggs are packed in cases    
containing thirty dozen each1 and       

wholesale transactions in eggs are by   
the case1 but with the price usually    
quoted by the dozen4 ,consumers who use 
large quantities of eggs buy them by the
 case4 ,the ordinary consumer buys them 
by the dozen4 ,there is a widespread    
impression that1 inasmuch as eggs vary  
greatly in size1 the practice of selling
 them by count is not fair to the       
consumer4 ,this feeling sometimes goes  
so far that laws are proposed1 and even 
passed1 requiring that eggs shall be    
sold by weight4 ,such a law does not    
remain long in force1 because weighing  
small quantities of eggs is troublesome 
and the greater number of consumers     
prefer to buy them by the dozen4 ,in    
fact1 while eggs are nominally sold by  
count both at wholesale and at retail1  
they are usually assorted according to  
size1 and the prices graduated to suit4 
,considering size1 condition1 quality1  
and color of shell1 as many as ten      
grades of eggs are sometimes made4      
,although the color of the shell of an  

egg has no relation whatever to its     
palatability or its nutritive value1    
eggs of a certain color sometimes       
command a premium4 ,thus1 in ,new ,york 
,city white eggs of the best grades will
 bring from five to ten cents a dozen   
more than brown eggs of equal quality1  
while in ,boston the situation is       
exactly reversed4  ,when most of the    
poultry of each kind in any market is of
 about the same size and quality1 it is 
customary to sell live poultry at       
wholesale at a uniform price by the     
dozen1 and to sell at retail by the     
piece or by the pair4 ,but as soon as   
any considerable part of the poultry of 
any kind in a market is larger than the 
general run of supplies1 a difference is
 made1 in the prices per dozen or per   
piece or per pair1 between small birds  
and large ones4 ,if the size of the     
largest specimens further increases1 the
 range of weights becomes too great to  
be classified in this way1 and selling  
by weight soon becomes the common       

practice4 ,conditions are the same for  
dead poultry1 except that the change to 
selling by weight comes more quickly4   
,in preparing poultry for market by the 
method that has been described the head 
and feet were left on and the internal  
organs were not removed4 ,the reason for
 this is that poultry keeps much better 
in this state4 ,removing these parts    
exposes the flesh at several places to  
the action of the air and of bacteria1  
which cause putrefaction4 ,in many      
markets in poultry-producing sections it
 is customary to sell poultry drawn and 
with the head and feet off4 ,in places  
where most of the poultry comes from a  
distance the waste parts of the carcass 
are not removed until it is bought by   
the consumer4 ,some people who buy in   
this way think that they are being      
defrauded if the marketman weighs the   
bird before removing the offal4         
,sometimes1 to satisfy such a customer1 
a dealer removes the offal before       
weighing1 and the customer cheerfully   

pays a higher rate per pound1 feeling   
that at any rate he is getting just what
 he pays for when he insists on having  
it done in this way4 ,as far as the cost
 is concerned1 it makes no difference to
 the consumer at what stage of          
distribution the offal is discarded4    
,volume of products4 ,in the ,united    
,states and ,canada the production and  
consumption of poultry products are very
 nearly equal1 because each country has 
agricultural areas capable of supplying 
an enormous population with poultry and 
eggs4 ,production in such districts     
responds quickly to the increasing      
demands of other sections1 but not in   
such volume as to create large surpluses
 for export4 ,the present annual        
production of the ,united ,states is    
variously estimated at from #fjj1jjj1jjj
 to #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,this wide          
difference exists because the census is 
only a partial one4 ,in ,canada no      
general census of poultry products has  
ever been taken4  ,the poultry          

statistics for the ,united ,states as   
collected decennially by the ,bureau of 
the ,census may be found complete in the
 full report of agricultural statistics4
 ,those for the different states may be 
obtained in separate bulletins4 ,some of
 the states and provinces collect       
poultry statistics through state and    
provincial departments and furnish the  
reports to all persons desiring them4   
,persons living in communities which    
ship poultry products can usually learn 
from the local shippers the approximate 
amounts and the value of the produce    
that they handle4 ,at the more important
 receiving points statistics of receipts
 are kept by such organizations as the  
,produce ,exchange1 ,board of ,trade1 or
 ,chamber of ,commerce1 and the results 
published in their annual reports4 ,from
 such sources it is possible for pupils 
to get information as to the status and 
importance of the poultry trade in the  
communities in which they live4         
,,chapter ,,xxi  ,,exhibitions ,,and    

,,the ,,fancy ,,trade   ,conditions in  
the fancy trade4 ,the trade in fancy    
poultry and pigeons and in cage birds is
 on a very different basis from the     
trade in market products4 ,with the     
arrangements for collecting poultry     
products and for holding them when that 
is desirable1 it seldom happens that    
market products cannot be sold at any   
time when the producer wants to dispose 
of them4 ,the fancy trade is quite      
closely limited to certain short        
seasons4 ,in this trade prices depend as
 much upon the reputation of the seller 
as upon the quality of his stock4 ,very 
high prices are obtained only by those  
who have made a big reputation by       
winning at important shows1 and have    
advertised their winnings extensively4  
,buyers of fancy stock prefer to deal   
directly with producers1 and the greater
 part of the business is mail-order     
business4 ,it is almost impossible to   
force the sale of this class of stock   
except by selling it for the table at   

market prices4 ,the producer can only   
advertise and wait for customers1 and   
what is not sold at fancy prices must be
 sold at market prices4  ,exhibitions4  
,competitive exhibitions hold a very    
important place in the development and  
distribution of improved stocks of      
animals4 ,in old times such exhibitions 
were informal gatherings of the persons 
in a locality who were interested in the
 improvement of a particular breed or   
variety4 ,our knowledge of these early  
gatherings of breeders of domestic birds
 is very limited and is mostly          
traditional4 ,from what is known it     
appears that they were usually held in  
the evenings at public houses1 and that 
each person taking part carried with him
 to the place of meeting one or more of 
his best birds2 that these were compared
 and their qualities discussed by the   
company1 and that at the close each     
participant carried his exhibit home4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,view of a   
section of a large poultry show in      

,mechanics ,building1 ,boston1          
,massachusetts  ,as the interest in     
breeding for fancy points extended1 such
 gatherings became larger and assumed a 
more formal character1 and rules were   
adopted for comparing1 or judging1 the  
birds2 but it was not until about the   
middle of the nineteenth century that   
the modern system of public exhibitions 
of poultry1 pigeons1 cage birds1 and pet
 stock was inaugurated4 ,the first      
exhibitions of this kind were held at   
the agricultural fairs4 ,very soon after
 these began to attract attention1      
special exhibitions1 limited to this    
class of stock and held in suitable     
buildings in the winter1 became         
frequent4 ,now large shows are held     
annually in nearly every large city and 
in hundreds of smaller cities1 and every
 agricultural fair has its poultry      
department4 ,for the sake of brevity1   
shows at which poultry is the principal 
feature are called simply poultry shows1
 although they often include other kinds

 of domestic birds and all kinds of     
small domestic animals4  ,a large       
poultry show1 with a great variety of   
exhibits of birds and of the appliances 
used in aviculture1 affords an excellent
 opportunity to see good specimens of   
many kinds4 ,those who have such an     
opportunity ought to make the most of   
it4 ,but the novice who can attend only 
small shows will find that1 while he    
does not see as many different kinds of 
birds there and may not see many really 
fine specimens1 the small show affords  
the beginner a much better opportunity  
to learn something about the differences
 that affect quality and value in fancy 
poultry and pigeons4  ,at the large show
 there is so much to see1 and the       
differences between the winning         
specimens in any class are usually so   
slight1 that only those who are familiar
 with many varieties can make a critical
 examination of the exhibits4 ,at the   
smaller shows the varieties are not as  
numerous1 the competing classes are     

smaller1 and the differences between the
 specimens which win prizes are often   
plainly apparent1 even to a novice1 if  
he has a clue to the method of making   
the awards4 ,those who visit large shows
 can use their time to best advantage if
 they make as careful a study as they   
can of the few things in which they take
 the most interest1 and take just a     
casual look at everything else4 ,in the 
four or five days that it is open to the
 public it is not possible for any one  
to make a thorough1 discriminating      
inspection of all that there is to be   
seen at a large poultry show1 and an    
experienced visitor to such shows never 
tries to do so4 ,at many of the small   
shows even a novice1 by studying the    
exhibits systematically1 may get a very 
good idea of all the classes and may add
 something to his accurate knowledge of 
a number of different kinds of birds4   
,rudiments of judging4 ,while even an   
ordinary poultry show contains a great  
deal that is of interest to those who   

know how to get at it1 the visitor who  
does not know how to study the exhibits 
and simply takes a cursory look at all  
of them1 tires of the regular classes at
 a show in a very short time4 ,after the
 awards have been made1 the ribbons or  
cards on the coops will show the winning
 birds and their relative positions1 but
 unless one knows something of the      
methods and rules of judging and        
compares the birds with some care1 he is
 likely to get the impression that      
making comparisons between show birds   
requires a keener critical faculty than 
he possesses1 and to conclude that it is
 quite useless for him to attempt to    
discover why the birds have been ranked 
in the order in which the judge has     
placed them4  ,judging live stock is not
 a matter of simple comparisons of      
weights and dimensions4 ,the personal   
opinions of the judge necessarily affect
 his decisions1 and as the opinions of  
men differ1 their judgments will vary4  
,a judge is often in doubt as to which  

of two or more birds is 7all things     
considered7 the better specimen1 but he 
must make his decision on the birds as  
they appear to him at the time1 and that
 decision must stand for that           
competition4 ,no one1 no matter how well
 he may know the requirements of the    
standard for a variety and the methods  
of applying it1 can discover by a study 
of a class of birds all of the judge's  
reasons for his decisions2 but any one  
who will keep in mind and try to apply a
 few simple1 general rules can look over
 a variety that he has never seen       
before1 and of which he may not know the
 name1 and 7unless the judge has been   
very erratic in his decisions7 can see  
why most of the awards in a small class 
of varied quality have been made4       
,these rules are3  #a4 ,the character or
 characters that most conspicuously     
distinguish a type are given most       
consideration in judging4  #b4 ,color of
 plumage is given more consideration    
than shape1 unless some shape character 

is unusually striking4  #c4 ,quality in 
color of plumage consists in evenness   
and purity of shade in solid-colored    
specimens1 and in sound colors and      
distinctness of the pattern in          
party-colored specimens4  #d4 ,the shape
 of extraordinary superficial shape     
characters1 such as crests1 very large  
combs1 heavy foot-feathering1 etc41 is  
usually given as much consideration as  
color4  ,the first rule really includes 
all the others1 and although this is not
 usually admitted by the exponents of   
current methods of judging live stock1  
in practice it is the fundamental rule  
in judging4 ,one reason why people who  
have a little knowledge of standards for
 well-bred poultry1 and of the methods  
of applying them1 are almost always     
puzzled by the awards at poultry shows  
is because they try to analyze them in  
accordance with the commonly accepted   
theory of judging by points1 which      
assigns definite numerical values to    
certain characters4 ,this theory assumes

 that the judge1 taking these values as 
a basis1 computes the values of faults  
with mathematical accuracy4 ,this is not
 possible where the computation is based
 upon an opinion4  ,to illustrate the   
application of the rules given1 let us  
apply them to some well-known varieties1
 taking first the ,barred ,plymouth     
,rock4  ,the conspicuous distinguishing 
character of this variety is the barred 
color pattern2 therefore color of       
plumage has most consideration in       
judging it4 ,the pattern is the same all
 over the bird2 therefore every feather 
should be barred4 ,the pattern must be  
sharply defined2 therefore the colors   
must be clean-cut and the bars straight 
and of nearly equal width on each       
feather1 with the width of bars on      
feathers of different sizes             
proportionate to the width of the       
feather4 ,these requirements seem very  
simple when stated1 but a close         
examination of ordinary exhibition      
,barred ,plymouth ,rocks will show very 

few specimens that closely approach     
perfection according to the rules4  ,now
 take the ,white ,wyandotte4 ,the most  
conspicuous character of any white bird 
is its whiteness4 ,in judging this      
variety1 therefore1 whiteness will have 
more consideration than any other       
quality4 ,white ,wyandottes are         
distinguished from ,white ,plymouth     
,rocks by the shape of the comb2        
therefore the shape of the comb will be 
given more attention by the judge than  
if there were other distinguishing      
features4  ,silver-,laced ,wyandottes   
are conspicuous for their color pattern2
 therefore the most important thing is  
that this shall be well defined and     
uniform1 the white centers clean and    
white and the black edges intensely     
black4 ,uniformity in such markings is  
very difficult to produce4 ,a bird may  
be well marked in one section and very  
poorly marked in another4  ,in          
,partridge ,cochins the most conspicuous
 character is extreme feather           

development2 the next is color of       
plumage1 which differs in male and      
female4 ,feather development and the    
shape which it produces will therefore  
have about equal consideration with     
color4 ,in color the male is black on   
the breast and body1 with a red neck and
 back1 the feathers of the hackle and   
the saddle having black stripes in the  
center2 therefore1 in the male1 quality 
in color consists in blackness in the   
black sections1 a uniform red in the red
 sections1 and clear and sharp striping 
wherever it appears4 ,the ,partridge    
,cochin female has plumage of brown     
penciled with a darker brown2 therefore 
to the eye of a poultry fancier the     
beauty of her color consists in         
well-defined penciling and a harmonious 
contrast in the two shades of color4  ,a
 ,white-,crested ,black ,polish fowl is 
most conspicuous for its large white    
crest2 therefore the crest is the most  
important feature to be considered in   
judging this variety4 ,but color is also

 very important1 for if the white       
feathers of the crest are partly mixed  
with black1 or the black of the body is 
dull1 the effect is not pleasing4  ,the 
,fantail ,pigeon is most conspicuous for
 its fan-shaped tail2 therefore this is 
the most important thing in judging4    
,the tail must not only be large and    
well shaped1 but must be carried in an  
attractive manner4 ,it must not be too  
large1 because then the bird cannot     
carry it in a good position4 ,in        
addition to carrying the tail in a good 
position1 the bird must pose so that the
 whole attitude adds to the             
attractiveness of the principal feature4
  ,similarly with the ,pouter ,pigeon1  
the globular crop1 which is its         
distinctive character1 must be large and
 well formed1 and in addition the       
general carriage must be such as to show
 the pouting trait to the best          
advantage4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcd4  
,almost complete view of a poultry show 
at ,worcester1 ,massachusetts  ,the same

 rules of color which apply to fowls    
apply also to pigeons4 ,the color       
patterns of pigeons are much more       
numerous1 but as a rule the principal   
required features are at once obvious to
 any one who keeps in mind the general  
rules that have been given4  ,after the 
more conspicuous characters1 many minor 
characters are given particular         
consideration4 ,in theoretical          
statements of methods of judging1 these 
minor characters are often treated as of
 equal importance with the conspicuous  
characters1 but in ordinary judging     
practice they are not often so treated1 
except in the case of disqualifying     
faults1 to be noted presently4 ,the less
 conspicuous characters1 including shape
 of body 7in regard to which the average
 fancier and judge is somewhat careless1
 not discriminating between closely     
related types71 become important in     
making decisions between specimens which
 appear to be equal in the more         
conspicuous characters4 ,because of this

 there is a tendency to exaggerate some 
one minor character whenever a high     
degree of uniformity in characters that 
are of primary importance in judging is 
reached4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4    
,saddle ,fantail ,pigeon#bh             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,white       
,fantail ,pigeons #bh  #bh ,reproduced1 
by permission1 from ,domesticated       
,animals and ,plants1 by ,e4 ,davenport4
  ,disqualifications4 ,the practice of  
judging the relative merits of          
exhibition birds principally by a few   
striking characters tends to make       
breeders and exhibitors neglect many    
little things which affect the          
appearance of a bird4 ,this is          
especially the case with exhibitors     
competing under judges who are partial  
to some conspicuous character4 ,to      
prevent this1 and to place the heaviest 
possible penalty upon serious faults    
that are easily overlooked1 certain     
faults are made disqualifications2 that 
is1 a bird having any one of these      

faults is absolutely debarred from      
competition1 no matter how good it may  
be in other respects4  ,there is general
 agreement as to the wisdom and justice 
of disqualifying for deformities or for 
mutilations of the feathers to conceal a
 fault4 ,in regard to disqualifying for 
trivial faults1 fanciers differ in      
opinion4 ,many hold that this has been  
carried to a ridiculous extreme in some 
cases4 ,thus1 in all clean-legged fowls 
it is required that the shanks and toes 
shall be free from small feathers1      
stubs1 or down4 ,most fanciers agree    
that conspicuous feathers and stubs     
should disqualify1 but many consider    
that to disqualify for a minute bit of  
down1 which can hardly be seen without  
the aid of a magnifying glass1 is going 
too far4  ,unless the judge has         
overlooked a disqualification 7and this 
rarely happens71 none will be found on a
 bird that has been awarded a prize4 ,if
 in any class there is a bird which is  
not given a place1 though apparently    

superior to any of the prize winners in 
the characters most distinctive of its  
variety1 that bird usually has some     
disqualification4 ,the list of          
disqualifications is too long to be     
given here4 ,it is not the same         
throughout for all varieties4           
,exhibitors and breeders do not attempt 
to keep track of the disqualifications  
7which are changed occasionally7 for any
 but the varieties in which they are    
especially interested4  ,methods of     
judging4 ,when exhibitions of domestic  
birds were first held1 the awards were  
usually made by committees of two or    
three judges4 ,the object in doing this 
was to insure impartiality and to make  
connivance between a judge and an       
exhibitor more difficult4 ,it was found 
that this plan did not work well4 ,often
 the opinions of one man dominated1 or1 
if the man could not have his way1 the  
committee wrangled and took too long to 
make its decisions4 ,so by degrees the  
committee plan was abandoned and a      

single judge made the awards in         
accordance with standards and rules     
agreed upon by associations of          
exhibitors and judges4  ,at first all   
judging was done by comparison of the   
specimens of each class entered in      
competition4 ,that is the method still  
in general use in ,europe and widely    
used in ,america4 ,but to many          
exhibitors comparison judging seemed    
unsatisfactory1 because by it only the  
winning birds were indicated1 and       
exhibitors whose birds did not win      
usually wanted to know how their birds  
compared with the winners4 ,to meet this
 demand score-card judging was adopted4 
,in this method of judging1 the         
characters to be considered are divided 
into sections1 which are named in order 
on a card having corresponding blank    
spaces in which to mark numerical cuts  
for faults in each section4 ,the score  
cards used at poultry shows where       
judging is done by that method do not   
indicate to which of several possible   

faults a cut applies1 except that1      
having one column for shape cuts and    
another for color cuts1 they show in    
which class the fault appears4 ,in many 
educational and private score cards the 
names of the common faults in each      
section are printed in the space        
allotted that section1 in order that the
 fault may be accurately checked4 ,the  
use of cards with so much detail is not 
practical in ordinary competition4  ,the
 score of a bird judged by the          
score-card method is the difference     
between #ajj 7taken as the symbol of the
 perfect bird of any variety7 and the   
sum of all the cuts made for faults4    
,the common cuts for faults are #a_/b   
for a slight fault1 #a for a pronounced 
fault1 and #aa_/b for a very bad fault4 
,occasionally larger cuts are made for  
serious faults4 ,theoretically the score
 is supposed to represent accurately the
 relation of a specimen to a perfect    
specimen1 but really scores only        
represent in a general way the judges'  

opinions of the relative values of the  
birds in a class1 and indicate to the   
exhibitor where the judge found faults  
in his bird4  ,exhibition quality and   
value4 ,the winning of a prize at an    
important show gives a breeder of fancy 
birds a standing that he could not      
otherwise acquire4 ,the greater part of 
the sales of poultry of this class are  
made by mail to persons who do not know 
the breeder personally and do not see   
his stock until after purchasing4 ,no   
matter how good his stock may be1 those 
who want to buy will not pay much       
attention to his claims for its superior
 quality until they have such           
confirmation of those claims as is given
 by the winning of prizes in            
competition4 ,then the prices which a   
breeder can get for his stock will be   
regulated largely by the prices obtained
 by other successful exhibitors at shows
 of the same class4  ,there is a wide   
range of prices from those that can be  
secured for stock of the quality that   

wins at the greatest shows1 to those    
that can be obtained for the kind that  
wins at ordinary small shows4 ,high     
prices are paid for noted winners and   
for other stock of the same breeding1 as
 much for the advertising value of      
ownership of fine stock as for the      
actual value of the birds to breed from 
or to exhibit again4 ,a breeder who wins
 at some very small show may find it    
hard to sell either stock or eggs for   
hatching except at a slight advance over
 market prices4 ,some breeders who have 
made remarkable records in winning at   
the best shows can get very high prices 
for their prize-winning stock and for   
the eggs from it4 ,fowls sometimes sell 
as high as #ejj each1 and eggs at #b    
each4 ,pigeons also bring very high     
prices at times1 although fewer people  
are interested in them and sales are not
 so numerous4 ,the ordinary prices for  
good stock are quite reasonable1        
considering how few really fine         
specimens are produced4 ,the average    

novice finds that fowls at from #aj to  
#be a trio and pigeons at from #e to #ae
 a pair have all the quality that he can
 appreciate4  ,in the early days of     
modern fancy poultry culture those      
breeders who had great reputations could
 get relatively high prices for almost  
any bird that would pass as a breeding  
specimen of its kind4 ,this is still    
true of breeders who successfully       
introduce new varieties or who suddenly 
attain prominence with stock of their   
own breeding4 ,but as the stock of a    
leading breeder becomes widely          
distributed among smaller breeders1 the 
competition of his customers reduces his
 sales1 and especially the sales of the 
cheaper grades of stock4 ,the most      
troublesome problem that the best       
breeders have is to get rid of the lower
 grades of their stock at a fair profit4
  ,why good breeders have much          
low-priced stock4 ,novices in the       
breeding of fine stock commonly suppose 
that all pure-bred stock of any variety 

is of uniform quality4 ,when they learn 
that1 as a rule1 only a small part of   
the young birds hatched from good stock 
is considered of superior quality1 they 
often conclude that the ideas and the   
standards of fanciers must be wrong4    
,even professional and scientific men   
who become interested in fancy poultry  
and pigeons often take this view and1   
after considering the question carefully
 from their standpoint1 try to explain  
to fanciers how1 by changing a standard1
 they might secure a much larger        
proportion of specimens approximately   
perfect according to the standard used4 
,in the case of varieties in which the  
finest specimens of the different sexes 
are secured from different matings1 many
 novices waste a great deal of time     
trying to convince old fanciers that    
their standards and methods are         
illogical and unnatural4  ,to those who 
do not understand the philosophy of the 
interest in breeding to highly          
specialized types the arguments for     

standards that are adjusted to common   
results and are easy to attain appear to
 be unanswerable4 ,upon the fancier who 
does understand this philosophy they    
make no impression at all4 ,the breeding
 and exhibiting of fancy stock of any   
kind is primarily a game4 ,the rules of 
the game are in a measure arbitrary1    
like the rules in baseball or football  
or any other game4 ,at the same time    
they must be framed in the interests of 
the development of the game as a sport  
and also as a spectacle4 ,they must be  
reasonable and must be suited to players
 of all degrees of skill4  ,standards   
and rules for judging fancy stock       
develop just as the rules of athletic   
games develop4 ,a generation ago such   
games as baseball and football were     
comparatively simple games in which boys
 and men might take very creditable     
parts without devoting a great deal of  
attention to practice4 ,these games     
still afford recreation to many who use 
them for that purpose only1 but they    

have also been developed so that players
 of exceptional skill play competition  
games for the interest of a public which
 studies the fine points of these games 
and compares the abilities of the       
players4 ,people who take an interest in
 and patronize professional or          
high-class amateur ball games do so     
because in them skillful and            
well-trained players do difficult       
things4 ,it is the same in the breeding 
of fancy live stock to a high standard  
of excellence4 ,when a breed or a       
variety is first made1 the interest of  
the breeders centers in a few           
characters1 precisely as the interest of
 a novice in any line centers in a few  
prominent features4 ,as breeders grow in
 experience and in skill1 and as the    
characters to which they first give     
special attention become fixed1 they    
demand better quality in these and also 
turn their attention to the development 
of other characters4 ,the more difficult
 a combination of characters is to      

produce1 the greater interest the       
fancier takes in trying to produce it4  
,when a standard calls for a high degree
 of excellence in many characters1 the  
proportion of specimens of high         
excellence1 as measured by that         
standard1 will almost always be small4  
,it is because this is the case that the
 rare specimens are considered so       
valuable4  ,fancy and utility types in  
the same variety4 ,the great majority of
 ,american breeders of fancy poultry    
seek to secure a high degree of         
practical value in combination with     
fancy quality in their stock4 ,there are
 some fanciers who breed only for fancy 
points1 and some market poultry growers 
who pay no attention at all to them1 but
 as a rule those who give market poultry
 special attention want well-bred stock 
of good ordinary quality1 and those who 
keep poultry for pleasure want the flock
 kept for this purpose to supply at     
least their own tables with eggs and    
meat4 ,the breeder who wishes to combine

 fancy and utility properties in any    
kind of live stock must breed only from 
specimens that are meritorious in both  
directions1 selecting much more         
carefully than when breeding for one    
class of properties4     ,,chapter      
,,xxii  ,,occupations ,,related ,,to    
,,aviculture   ,the value of a knowledge
 of domestic birds is not limited to the
 use which may be made of it in keeping 
them for profit or for pleasure4 ,any   
occupation in which a great many people 
are interested affords opportunities to 
combine the knowledge relating to it    
with special knowledge or skill in other
 lines1 to the advantage of those who   
are able to do so4 ,just as the large   
market or fancy poultry business may    
develop from a small flock kept to      
supply the owner's table or to give him 
a little recreation1 many special       
occupations grow out of particular      
interests of aviculturists4 ,some of    
these have been mentioned incidentally  
in preceding chapters4 ,in this chapter 

the principal occupations associated    
with aviculture will be discussed both  
in their relation to that subject and   
with respect to their possible interest 
for those who plan to devote themselves 
to lines of work which would qualify    
them for special service in aviculture4 
,judging fancy poultry and pigeons4     
,there is the same difference between   
selecting one's own birds according to  
quality and judging the birds of others 
in competition that there is between    
performing well in a friendly game and  
performing well in a competition where  
the stakes are important and feeling    
runs high4 ,many fanciers who are good  
breeders and also good judges under     
other conditions make poor judges in    
competitions4 ,in judging at shows      
decisions must be made quickly1 there is
 little opportunity to rectify mistakes1
 and if a judge makes serious blunders  
he is severely criticized4 ,a person who
 deliberates a long time before coming  
to a decision1 and who is very sensitive

 to criticisms of his errors1 even      
though he knows that some errors are    
sure to be made by every one and that   
unprejudiced exhibitors make allowance  
for this1 will not make a successful    
judge of poultry and pigeons4 ,judges as
 a class are not the men who know the   
most about standard-bred birds or who   
are the most skillful in breeding them1 
although some of the best breeders are  
among the best judges4 ,almost all      
fanciers get opportunities to act as    
judges4 ,if their work is satisfactory1 
the demand for their services increases 
until in time their income from this    
source may be large enough to make it   
worth while to adjust their other       
affairs to their engagements at poultry 
shows4  ,journalism4 ,there were a few  
books on poultry and pigeons written in 
the first half of the last century1 and 
a larger number immediately following   
the hen-fever period4 ,these and the    
articles on poultry and pigeons in      
agricultural papers constituted the     

literature of the subject until about   
#ahgj4 ,then there appeared a number of 
poultry journals1 most of which gave    
some attention to other domestic birds4 
,the demand for special journals arose  
because many people who were interested 
in poultry were living in cities and    
were not interested in general          
agriculture2 they wanted more           
information about poultry matters than  
the agricultural papers could give4     
,advertisers of poultry and pigeons1 and
 of goods bought by aviculturists1 also 
wished advertising mediums through which
 they could reach buyers at less cost   
than they could through the agricultural
 papers4 ,the rates for advertising are 
based upon circulation1 and if only a   
small class of the readers of a         
publication are buyers of a particular  
class of goods advertised in it1 the    
cost of reaching them may be too great4 
,whenever any interest becomes of       
sufficient importance1 journals         
especially devoted to it are issued1 for

 the convenience of buyers and sellers  
as well as for the information they     
contain4 ,until about #ahij nearly all  
poultry journals were small publications
 which the owners looked after in their 
spare time4 ,then they began to increase
 in number and importance1 and before   
long there were a great many that gave  
regular employment to editors1          
advertising solicitors1 and subscription
 solicitors1 who were employed for their
 knowledge of poultry and their         
acquaintance with poultrymen as well as 
for special qualifications for their    
respective departments4  ,art4 ,the     
illustrating of poultry journals and    
books1 and of the catalogues of fanciers
 and other advertisers in poultry       
literature1 gives employment to a       
constantly increasing number of artists4
 ,in order to successfully portray birds
 for critical fanciers1 an artist must  
be something of a fancier4 ,it is not   
enough that he should draw or paint them
 as he sees them2 he must know how to   

pose birds of different kinds1 types1   
and breeds so that his pictures will    
show the proper characteristic poses and
 show the most important characters to  
their best advantage4 ,since the        
half-tone process of making             
illustrations was perfected1 the        
greatest demand is for photographic     
work1 but unless an artist is able to   
work over and complete a defective      
photograph with brush or pencil1 he     
cannot make this line of work           
profitable4 ,most birds are difficult   
subjects to photograph1 and only a small
 proportion of the photographs that are 
taken can be used without retouching4 ,a
 photographer may work for an hour to   
get a bird posed to suit him1 and then1 
just as he presses the bulb1 the bird1  
by a slight movement of the head or     
foot1 may spoil one feature in a        
photograph that is otherwise all that   
could be desired4 ,an artist who can    
draw birds can remedy such defects2 the 
ordinary commercial artist cannot4      

,invention4 ,the most important         
invention used in aviculture is the     
artificial incubator4 ,methods of       
hatching eggs by artificial heat were   
developed independently by the          
,egyptians and by the ,chinese thousands
 of years ago1 and are still used in    
,egypt and ,china4 ,the arrangements    
used in these old hatcheries are crude1 
and the success of the operation depends
 upon exceptional skill and judgment on 
the part of the operator4 ,operating    
incubators is a business continued in   
the same families for centuries4 ,each  
hatchery does the hatching for a        
community4  ,in the early part of the   
eighteenth century a ,french scientist  
named ,reaumur1 who was much interested 
in poultry1 began to make experiments in
 artificial hatching and brooding4 ,in  
#agej he published a very full account  
of these and other experiments which he 
had made with poultry4 ,his idea was to 
devise a modification of the ,egyptian  
practice of hatching in ovens1 suited to

 the conditions of a more advanced      
civilization4 ,he succeeded in hatching 
eggs by utilizing the waste heat from a 
baker's oven1 and also hatched eggs in  
hotbeds heated with decomposing manure4 
,he applied the hotbed principle to the 
brooding of chickens with some success4 
,but the methods that he devised were   
not adapted to general use4  ,after     
,reaumur many others experimented with  
artificial hatching4 ,some of the ideas 
were obviously more impractical than    
those of ,reaumur1 but the experimenters
 tried them out and sometimes succeeded 
in hatching chickens by very peculiar   
and laborious processes4 ,one man in    
,england1 in the latter part of the     
eighteenth century1 hatched some        
chickens from eggs placed in cotton     
batting in a sieve adjusted over a      
charcoal fire in a small fireplace4 ,the
 fire was watched constantly for three  
weeks1 either by himself or by some     
member of his family4 ,he demonstrated  
that eggs could be hatched in this way1 

but not that it could be done           
profitably4 ,practical incubators were  
not produced until about forty years    
ago4  ,although incubators and brooders 
have been brought to a relatively high  
state of efficiency1 they are far from  
perfect4 ,inventors of the best machines
 are still studying ways to improve     
them4 ,in this and many other fields    
there are opportunities for inventive   
genius4  ,education and investigation4  
,lectures on poultry have been given    
occasionally at agricultural institutes 
in the ,united ,states since about      
#ahfj4 ,after #ahij the demand for such 
lectures1 and the number given1         
constantly increased1 and ability to    
speak in public became valuable to one  
versed in aviculture4 ,then the study of
 poultry culture was introduced into    
agricultural colleges1 and a new field  
was opened to poultry keepers with a    
faculty for teaching1 and for trained   
teachers with special knowledge of      
domestic birds4 ,the teaching of poultry

 culture impressed upon those engaged in
 it the need of scientific investigation
 of many problems not clearly understood
 even by the best-informed poultrymen4  
,the agricultural experiment stations   
had been giving little attention to some
 of these problems except in a desultory
 way and without important results4 ,as 
the demands for more accurate           
information on many topics increased1   
many of the experiment stations began to
 make important poultry investigations4 
,for this work men specially trained in 
various sciences were required4 ,as a   
rule the men that were secured for such 
work knew very little about poultry when
 they began their investigations1 but it
 was much easier for them to acquire a  
knowledge of poultry sufficient for     
their needs than for persons who had    
poultry knowledge and no scientific     
training to qualify for positions as    
investigators4 ,the field of            
investigation of matters relating to    
poultry is constantly being extended4   

,proficiency in physics1 chemistry1     
biology1 surgery1 and medicine1 and in  
higher mathematics as far as it relates 
to the problems of any of the sciences  
mentioned1 will always be in demand for 
scientific work in aviculture4 ,in the  
future the most efficient teachers and  
investigators will be those whose early 
familiarity with domestic birds has     
given a greater insight into the subject
 than is usually possessed by those who 
take up the study of the subject        
comparatively late in life4             
,manufacturing and commerce4 ,it is very
 much easier to build up a large        
business in the manufacture or the sale 
of articles used by poultry and pigeon  
keepers than to build up a large        
business as a breeder of domestic birds 
of any kind4 ,as has been stated in     
connection with nearly every kind of    
bird mentioned in this book1 a poultry  
keeper's operations are limited by the  
difficulty of keeping large numbers of  
birds continuously on the same land1 and

 also by the exacting nature of the work
 of caring for them under such          
conditions4 ,in manufacturing and       
commercial operations there are no such 
limitations4 ,the possibilities of      
development depend upon the extent of   
the demand for the articles that are    
manufactured or sold1 and only a small  
proportion of the employees need to be  
persons versed in aviculture4 ,but in   
competition with other manufacturers or 
merchants those who understand domestic 
birds and know all the different phases 
of interest in them have a very great   
advantage over those who do not4        
,legislation and litigation4 ,the rise  
of new industries creates new problems  
for legislators1 executive departments1 
courts1 and lawyers4 ,an industry in    
which many people are interested        
eventually reaches a stage where it is  
profitable for lawyers to specialize to 
some extent in laws affecting it1 and   
politic for legislators and             
administrators to do what is in their   

power to protect the interests of those 
engaged in it1 and to advance those     
interests for the benefit of the whole  
community4 ,a special field is opening  
for lawyers familiar with aviculture and
 with its relations to other matters1   
just as within a few years the field has
 opened to teachers and investigators4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,the possible uses of a knowledge of    
aviculture to young people who are      
naturally inclined toward intellectual  
professions1 art1 invention1            
manufacturing1 or trading have not been 
given for the sake of urging students to
 direct their course especially toward  
work connected with aviculture4 ,the    
object is only to show those who take an
 interest in the subject that it is     
worth while to cultivate that interest  
for other reasons1 as well as for the   
profit or the pleasure that may be      
immediately derived from it4     ,,index
     ,abbotsbury1 old swannery at1 #bbi 
,africa1 guinea fowl in1 #bjb2          

ostrich breeding in1 #bce    ,african   
goose1 #afd2     illustrated1 #afd      
,age1 of earth1 #be2     of fowls1 #ib2 
of geese1 #afi2     of swans1 #bbc2     
of ostriches1 #bcb    ,agricultural     
experiment stations1 interest of1 in    
aviculture1 #cjh    ,agricultural fairs1
 poultry exhibitions at1 #bib    ,aigret
 of peafowl1 #bjh    ,albumen1 formation
 of1 in egg1 #ag    ,alfalfa1 #adj1 #bcf
    ,american ,wild ,goose1 #afe2       
illustrated1 #aff    ,american ,wild    
,pigeon1 #bda    ,amherst ,pheasant1    
illustrated1 #bad    ,ancona1 #fd       
,andalusian1 ,blue1 #di1 #fd    ,animal 
kingdom1 place of birds in1 #b          
,animals1 having bird characters1 #a2   
predacious1 prevent use of colony       
system1 #ajg    ,annual production of   
poultry and eggs in ,united ,states1    
#bij    ,antwerp ,homer ,pigeon1 #bdf   
,art1 relation of1 to poultry culture1  
#cjf    ,aseel1 #ej    ,ashes1 use of1  
in poultry house1 #ge    ,asia1 peafowl 
in1 #bjh2     pheasants in1 #bab        

,asiatic races of fowls1 #di            
,australia1 ,black ,swan discovered in1 
#bbc    ,austria1 goose growing in1 #afg
    ,aylesbury ,duck1 #abi2     as a    
market duck in ,america1 #adg           
,babylonians1 knowledge of fowls among1 
#cf    ,bache1 importation of pheasants 
by1 #bab    ,bakubas1 ducks among the1  
#abg    ,bantams1 #ff2     illustrated1 
#cg1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gj    ,barbs  
of feather1 #i    ,barnum1 ,p4 ,t41     
promoter of an early poultry show1 #ec  
,barrel of dressed poultry iced for     
shipment1 illustrated1 #bhd    ,barring1
 quality in1 #bie    ,bat1 a flying     
animal1 #a    ,bath1 for ducks1 #aci2   
for pigeons1 #bfa2     for canaries1    
#bgc    ,beard1 of fowls1 #aj2     of   
turkeys1 #ahj    ,bedding for ducks1    
#ach    ,beef scrap1 #aaf1 #adj         
,belgian ,canary1 #bga2     illustrated1
 #bga    ,bill1 of duck1 #abd2     of   
goose1 #aeh    ,bird1 use of term1 #b   
,birdseed1 composition of1 #bgc         
,black ,swan1 #bbc    ,blackhead in     

turkeys1 #aih    ,blood1 feeding1 to    
fowls1 #ij    ,boat1 swimming bird model
 for1 #c1 #abd    ,boston1 first poultry
 show held in1 #eb    ,boston ,common1  
feeding pigeons on1 illustrated1 #bde   
,bourbon ,red ,turkey1 #ahg2            
illustrated1 #ahh    ,brahma ,bantams1  
#ga2     illustrated1 #gj               
,brahmaputras1 #ec    ,brahmas1 ,light1 
illustrated1 #bb1 #cf1 #cg2     ,dark1  
illustrated1 #ea2     used for roasters1
 #aaf    ,bran1 #gh1 #hi    ,branding   
swans1 #bbe    ,bread1 feeding1 to      
swans1 #bbh    ,breast in birds1        
relation of development of1 to flight1  
#ab    ,breed1 defined1 #bh    ,bremen  
,goose1 #afa    ,broiler growing1 #aab  
,bronze ,turkey1 #ahc2     illustrated1 
#ahf    ,broody hen1 actions of1 #ic    
,brown eggs1 preference for1 in ,boston1
 #bhi    ,brunswick ,goose1 #afa        
,bucks ,county ,fowl1 #ef    ,buff      
,turkey1 #ahg    ,buoyancy of aquatic   
birds1 #ae    ,burnham1 author of ,the  
,history of the ,hen ,fever1 #ec        

,buttermilk1 #ih     ,cabbage for       
poultry1 #hi1 #aag1 #adj    ,cackling of
 fowls1 #cc    ,cages for canaries1 #bgb
    ,call ,ducks1 #acc1 #acd2           
illustrated1 #ace    ,cambridgeshire    
,bronze ,turkey1 #ahb    ,canada ,goose1
 #afe2     illustrated1 #aff    ,canary 
,islands1 canaries in1 #bfi    ,candling
 eggs1 #ba1 #bhc2     illustrated1 #bhb 
,capon1 #aaf    ,carneaux squabs1       
illustrated1 #bff    ,carrier ,pigeon1  
#bdc    ,cart1 used on poultry farm1    
illustrated1 #ajb    ,cats and canaries1
 #bgb    ,cayuga ,duck1 #aca    ,cement 
floor in poultry house1 #gd    ,central 
,america1 turkey in1 #aha    ,ceylon1   
peafowl in1 #bji    ,chalazae1 function 
of1 #ag    ,charcoal fire1 incubating   
eggs over1 #cjg    ,chicken1 exclusion  
of1 #bb2     technical use of term1 #ce 
,chickweed for canaries1 #bgc           
,children as poultry keepers1 #ci1 #db  
,china1 introduction of poultry into1   
#cf2     ,pekin ,duck brought from1     
#aca2     artificial incubation in1 #cje

    ,china ,geese1 #afb2                
illustrated1 #afb1 #afc    ,chinese     
races of fowls1 #ea    ,cities1 relation
 of growth of1 to poultry culture1 #bgh 
,classes of domestic birds1 #f          
,clover1 #adj    ,clucking of hen1 #cc1 
#ic    ,cochin1 ,buff1 illustrated1 #ej2
     ,black1 used in making ,plymouth   
,rock1 #eg2     ,partridge1 judging1    
#bif    ,cochin ,bantams1 #fi2          
illustrated1 #fi    ,cock1 use of term1 
#cd    ,cockfighting1 prohibition of1 #e
    ,cockerel1 #ce    ,cold storage1    
#aab1 #bhe    ,colony houses1           
illustrated1 #aja1 #ajc1 #ajd1 #ajf     
,colony system of poultry keeping1 #aja 
,color1 in feathers1 #aj2     of wild   
ancestor of domestic fowl1 #bg2     of  
wild ancestor of domestic pigeon1 #bdg2 
consideration of1 in judging1 #bid      
,comb1 of fowl1 #cc1 #aag2     of       
guinea1 #bjj    ,commerce1 relations of1
 to aviculture1 #cjh    ,common         
,pheasant1 #bad    ,comparison judging1 
#bii    ,confinement1 effect of1 on egg 

production1 #gb1 #gd    ,cooling dressed
 poultry1 #bhe2     illustrated1 #bhg   
,coop1 made of dry-goods box1           
illustrated1 #ge2     for hens and      
chicks1 #ig2     illustrated1 #ig1 #ih1 
#ajf2     for turkey hen and brood1     
illustrated1 #aig2     for pheasants1   
illustrated1 #bah1 #bai    ,corn1       
cracked1 #gh1 #ih1 #ajc1 #aaf1 #adj1    
#age2     feeding1 on cob1 #hi2         
soaking whole1 #hi2     for sitting     
hens1 #ie2     stale1 #bbj    ,corn meal
 for chicks1 #gh1 #hi1 #ig              
,cornfield1 poultry in1 #ajf2           
illustrated1 #abb    ,cracker crumbs for
 chicks1 #ih    ,creameries as          
egg-collecting depots1 #bhj    ,creamy  
tint in white feathers1 cause of1 #aa   
,crest1 occurrence of1 in fowls1 #aj2   
consideration of1 in judging1 #bie      
,crested ,white ,duck1 #acc    ,crop1   
function of1 #af2     size of1 in duck1 
#adj2     peculiarity of1 in ostrich1   
#bcb    ,croppers1 #bej    ,crossbred1  
defined1 #bi    ,crow of cock1 #cc      

,crower1 colloquial use of term1 #ce    
,cuckoo1 laying habit of1 #a2     mating
 habits of1 #c2     fowls1 #dc    ,curl 
in tail of drake1 #abg    ,cuttle bone  
for canaries1 #bgc    ,cygnet1 #bbd     
,darknecked ,pheasant1 #bad             
,decoration1 feathers used for1 #cb     
,decorative plumage1 #aj    ,deer's hair
 for canaries' nests1 #bgd    ,diet of  
birds1 #ae    ,disqualifications for    
exhibitions1 #bih    ,domestication1    
adaptability of species to1 #g          
,dominique1 #dc1 #ee1 #eg2              
illustrated1 #dc    ,dorking1 #dd1 #ee2 
illustrated1 #dd    ,dove1 origin and   
use of term1 #bdj    ,dovecots1 great   
number of1 in ,england in medieval      
times1 #beb    ,down1 defined1 #h2      
replaced by feathers1 #aa2     sometimes
 a disqualification1 #bii    ,dragoon   
pigeon1 #bea2     illustrated1 #bda     
,drawing poultry1 #bhi    ,dressed      
poultry1 #bhc2     illustrated1 #bhe    
,dressed squabs1 illustrated1 #bfg      
,driving turkeys to market1 illustrated1

 #aii1 #bhj1 #bha    ,droppings board1  
#ge    ,duck farms1 illustrated1 #adf1  
#adg1 #adi1 #aej    ,dumb ducks1 #abg   
,dust bath for fowls1 #gf    ,dutch     
artists1 paintings of poultry by1 #dh   
,dutch races of fowls1 #dg    ,dwarf    
fowls1 #fd     ,eared ,pheasants1 #baf  
,earth1 relation of age of1 to          
evolution1 #bf    ,east ,india ,duck1   
#acc    ,egg1 description of1 #af       
,eggs1 uses of1 #d2     number of1 set  
under hen1 #ie2     boiled for chicks1  
#ih2     quality of ducks' and hens'1   
compared1 #abd    ,egypt1 fowls in      
ancient1 #cf2     goose sacred in       
ancient1 #aff2     pigeons in1 #bdd2    
artificial incubation in1 #cje          
,egyptian ,goose1 #afe    ,egyptian     
hieroglyphics1 duck in1 #abg2     goose 
in1 #aeg    ,embryo1 growth of1 #af1 #ba
    ,emden ,goose1 #aeh2                
illustrated1 #aeh    ,england1 colony   
poultry houses in1 #ajg    ,english     
,pheasant1 #bae    ,english races of    
fowls1 #df    ,evolution1 theory of1 #be

    ,exhibition ,game ,bantams1 #gj2    
illustrated1 #cg    ,exhibitions of     
poultry1 illustrated1 #bib1 #big        
,face of fowl1 appearance of1 #h        
,fancier1 philosophy of the1 #cjb       
,fanciers1 influence of1 on development 
of types1 #cg    ,fancy poultry plant1  
illustrated1 #aba    ,fantail ,pigeon1  
#bdi1 #bif2     illustrated1 #bih       
,farm stock of poultry1 illustrated1 #hd
    ,fattening chickens in crates1      
illustrated1 #bgi    ,feather beds1 #ca 
,feathers1 uses of1 #d1 #ca2            
structure of1 #h2     resistance of1 to 
water1 #ae    ,feeding young ducks on   
duck farm1 illustrated1 #aec    ,fence  
for ducks1 #aci2     for turkeys1 #aib1 
#aig    ,feral race1 distinguished from 
wild1 #ce    ,fertile egg1 appearance   
of1 when tested1 #if    ,feudal system1 
regulation under1 of use of birds in    
hunting1 #e    ,flatheaded ,canary1     
illustrated1 #bga    ,flaxseed for      
canaries1 #bgb    ,flies1 ducks         
catching1 #add    ,flight of birds1 #b  

,floors in poultry houses1 #gc    ,fly  
for pigeons1 #beg    ,flying machine1   
bird a model for1 #b    ,food1 of birds1
 #ae2     of fowls1 #gh    ,foot        
feathering1 #cg2     consideration of1  
in judging1 #bie    ,fowl1 use of term1 
#b    ,fowls and pheasants in same yard1
 illustrated1 #bbj    ,french races of  
fowls1 #dh    ,frillback ,pigeons1      
illustrated1 #beb    ,frizzled fowls1   
#fe     ,gallus ,bankiva1 #ce2     cock1
 illustrated1 #db    ,game1 resemblance 
of ,brown ,pit to wild progenitor1 #bg  
,game ,bantam1 #cg    ,gander1 #afj2    
fighting1 in ,russia1 #afb    ,garden1  
keeping chickens in1 #hc2     keeping   
ducks in1 #ade    ,germ of egg1 #af     
,german artists1 paintings of poultry by
 old1 #dh    ,german races of fowls1 #dg
    ,germany1 goose growing in1 #afg    
,gizzard1 function of1 #af2             
peculiarity of1 in ostrich1 #bcb        
,gobbler1 use of term1 #ahj    ,golden  
,pheasant1 #bae    ,goldfinch1          
,american1 erroneously called a canary1 

#bgj    ,goose-fattening farm1          
illustrated1 #age    ,goslings1 growth  
of1 illustrated1 #agb2     grazing1     
illustrated1 #agd    ,gough1 ,john ,b41 
a noted poultry fancier1 #ec    ,grade1 
defined1 #bi    ,grass1 in poultry      
yards1 #gb2     growing goslings on1    
#agb    ,grasshoppers1 turkeys as       
destroyers of1 #aid    ,gray ,lag       
,goose1 #afj    ,green ducks1 #add      
,grit1 use of1 for poultry1 #af         
,guinea1 color pattern in feathers of1  
#aj2     ,white1 illustrated1 #bjb1 #bjd
    ,gunpowder1 use of pigeon manure in 
manufacture of1 #bec     ,hair1 relation
 of1 to feathers1 #h    ,hamburg1       
,silver-,spangled1 illustrated1 #df     
,hamburg chicks1 early growth of        
feathers of1 #aa    ,handling ducks1    
#abe    ,handling pigeons1 #bfb    ,harz
 ,mountain ,canaries1 #bga    ,hatching 
season1 natural1 #ic    ,hawk-colored   
fowls1 #dc    ,hawks and guineas1 #bjd  
,hempseed for canaries1 #bgd    ,hen    
,pigeons1 illustrated1 #bea             

,hen-tailed ,bantams1 #gj    ,heron1    
flight of1 #ab    ,holland ,turkey1     
,white1 #ahb2     illustrated1 #ahd1    
#ahe    ,homer ,pigeons1 #bdc2          
,flying1 illustrated1 #bda1 #bdb1 #bdf2 
squab-breeding1 illustrated1 #bdg2      
squabs of1 illustrated1 #bff    ,houdan 
male1 illustrated1 #dh    ,house1       
for fowls1 #gc1 #he1 #aja1 #ajh2        
illustrated1 #gd1 #gf1 #gg1 #he-hi1     
#aah2     with open front protected by  
hood1 illustrated1 #hi2     for growing 
chickens1 illustrated1 #ii1 #aaf2       
old stone1 on ,rhode ,island farm1      
illustrated1 #ajj2     moving a colony  
to1 #ajd2     interior of a compartment 
in1 illustrated1 #aaj2     for ducks1   
#ach2       illustrated1 #aej1 #aea2    
for geese1 #afi2     for turkeys1 #aij2 
illustrated1 #aia2     for pheasants1   
#bai    ,house and fly for pigeons1     
illustrated1 #bee1 #bei1 #bfb-bfe       
,houses at agricultural colleges and    
experiment stations1 illustrated1       
#gi1 #hh1 #ij1 #ia1 #aji    ,hungarian  

,pheasant1 #bad    ,hybrid1 defined1 #be
     ,ice supply on large duck farms1   
#aed    ,incubation1 appearance of eggs 
at various stages of1 illustrated1 #bj1 
#ba2     period of1 #if1 #adb1 #aga1    
#aif1 #bje1 #baj1 #bbj1 #bbh1 #bcf1     
#bfg1 #bge    ,incubator cellar1        
illustrated1 #aae    ,incubators1 #cjf2 
introduction of1 on ,long ,island duck  
farms1 #adh2     mammoth1 #aeb          
,india1 antiquity of fowl in1 #cf2      
peafowl in1 #bji    ,indian ,runner     
,duck1 #acb1 #ada2     illustrated1     
#acb1 #acc    ,insects1 birds as        
destroyers of1 #e    ,instinct1 relation
 of1 to incubation1 #ai2     homing1 in 
pigeons1 #bdc    ,intelligence of birds1
 #c    ,intensive poultry farms1 #aaj   
,invention1 relation of1 to aviculture1 
#cjf    ,italian races of fowls1 #df    
,jacobin ,pigeon1 illustrated1 #bdc     
,japan1 antiquity of fowl in1 #cf       
,japanese ,bantams1 #fh2                
illustrated1 #fh    ,japanese           
,long-,tailed ,fowl1 illustrated1 #eb   

,japanese races of fowls1 #ea    ,java1 
,black1 #eh    ,java1 peafowl in1 #bji  
,jersey ,blue1 #ef    ,johnnycake for   
chicks1 #ih    ,journalism1 #cje        
,judging1 #bic1 #cjd     ,kafirs1 their 
method of pulling stumps of ostrich     
plumes1 #bch    ,kentucky1 turkeys in1  
#ahi    ,killing poultry1 #bhd     ,land
 plaster1 use of1 in poultry houses1 #ge
    ,langshan1 ,black1 illustrated1 #dj1
 #da    ,language1 capacity of birds    
for1 #b    ,laugher ,pigeon1 #bci       
,lavender ,guinea1 #bjc    ,lawn        
clippings for poultry1 #gf    ,laying   
capacity of birds1 #ah1 #abg    ,laying 
habits of birds1 #ada1 #agj1 #aie1 #bff 
,leaves for litter in poultry houses1   
#gf    ,leg of bird1 contraction of1 in 
perching1 #ad    ,leghorn1 #df2         
illustrated1 #aj1 #aa1 #de1 #ha2        
early growth of feathers of1 #aa        
,legislation relating to aviculture1    
#cji    ,lettuce for canaries1 #bgc     
,lice1 how fowls rid themselves of1 #gg2
     to destroy1 on sitting hens1 #if   

,lime in eggshells1 #af    ,lincolnshire
 ,buff1 #fc    ,litter in poultry       
houses1 #gf1 #ach    ,lizard ,canary1   
#bga    ,long ,island duck farms1 #adf  
,losses due to bad handling of poultry  
produce1 #bhb    ,lyell1 ,james ,c41 on 
origin of domestic pigeon1 #bdj         
,malay fowl1 #ej    ,mallard ,duck1     
#abf2     illustrated1 #abg    ,maltese 
,hen ,pigeon1 #beb    ,manchester       
,coppy1 #bga    ,manchurian ,pheasant1  
illustrated1 #bae    ,mandarin ,duck1   
#acd    ,mangel-wurzels1 #hi    ,manure1
 poultry1 use of1 #ge2     pigeon1 used 
in manufacture of gunpowder1 #bec       
,mash1 time of feeding1 #gh2     method 
of making1 #hi2     use of1 #hi1 #ih1   
#adj2     cooking1 #ajc    ,meat meal1  
#adj    ,mexico1 turkey in1 #aha        
,middlemen1 #bge    ,milk1 feeding1 to  
chicks1 #ih2     pigeon1 #bfg           
,minorcas1 illustrated1 #dh1 #di        
,molting1 #aa    ,monaul1 illustrated1  
#baf    ,mondaine ,pigeon1 ,swiss1      
illustrated1 #bdb    ,mongolian         

,pheasant1 #bae2     illustrated1 #bac  
,mongrel ,geese1 illustrated1 #afg      
,monks1 probable originators of many    
types of fancy fowls1 #dh    ,mule1     
defined1 #be    ,muscovy ,duck1 #abe1   
#abi2     illustrated1 #abh    ,mute    
,swan1 #bbb     ,narragansett ,turkey1  
#ahc    ,native fowls in ,america1 #dc  
,neck1 handling ducks by1 #abe    ,nest 
building1 #ah    ,nest eggs1 #id        
,nests1 fowls'1 #id2     ducks'1 #ach2  
geese's1 #aga2     turkeys'1 #aie2      
swans'1 #bbh2     pigeons'1 #bei1 #bfd2 
canaries'1 #bgd    ,netherlands1 ,indian
 ,runner ,duck in1 #acb    ,netted      
,guinea1 #bjc    ,new ,jersey1 pheasant 
introduced into1 #bac    ,norfolk       
,turkey1 #ahb    ,norwich ,canary1      
illustrated1 #bgj    ,nubia1 ownership  
of fowls in1 #ci    ,nun ,pigeons1      
illustrated1 #beb     ,oatmeal for      
chicks1 #ih    ,oats1 #gh2     feeding1 
in sheaf1 #hi    ,offal of slaughtered  
animals1 feeding1 to poultry1 #ij       
,oil in feathers1 #aa    ,oregon1       

pheasant introduced into1 #bac          
,ornamental birds1 number of1 in        
domestication limited1 #g    ,ornamental
 ducks1 #aef    ,ornamental geese1 #afd 
,ornithorhynchus1 resemblance of1 to    
bird1 #a    ,orpington ,ducks1 ,blue1   
illustrated1 #acd    ,orpington fowl1   
#fc2     illustrated1 #fd1 #fe          
,ostrich1 illustrated1 #bca1 #bcc1 #bce1
 #bcg    ,outdoor quarters for fowls1   
#gb    ,ovary1 #ag    ,oviduct1 #ag     
,ovules1 numbers of1 in hens1 #ah       
,owl ,pigeon1 illustrated1 #bdi         
,oyster shell for fowls1 #ha            
,packing houses1 relation of1 to        
distribution of poultry produce1 #bhj   
,pairing of birds1 #c1 #afh1 #agh1 #bje1
 #baj1 #bai1 #bcf1 #bfb1 #bgd           
,partridge1 peculiarity of flight of1   
#ac    ,passenger ,pigeon1 #bda         
,peacock1 tail of1 #aj2     ,indian1    
illustrated1 #bjg    ,pearl ,guinea1    
#bjc    ,peas for pigeon food1 #bfe     
,pekin ,duck1 #aca1 #adg2               
illustrated1 #aca1 #adj1 #ada           

,penguin1 locomotion of1 #a    ,perches 
for pigeons1 #bei    ,persia1 pigeon in 
ancient1 #bde    ,petaluma1 egg farming 
at1 #aai2     illustrated1 #aag         
,philadelphia chickens1 #aad    ,phoenix
 cockerel1 illustrated1 #eb    ,pied    
,guinea1 #bjc    ,pigment in feathers1  
#aa    ,pigmy ,pouters1 #bea            
,plantain for canaries1 #bgc            
,plucking live geese1 #afg    ,plymouth 
,rock1     ,barred1 #eg1 #bie2          
illustrated1 #ed1 #ee1 #hj2     ,white1 
#eh2       illustrated1 #ef2     ,buff1 
#ei1 #fb2       illustrated1 #eg2       
,columbian1 #fa2       illustrated1 #fb2
     ,silver-,penciled1 #fa2            
illustrated1 #eh    ,point ,judith      
,bronze ,turkey1 #ahc    ,polish1 #dg2  
,white1 #cd2     ,silver-,spangled1     
illustrated1 #ci2     ,white-,crested   
,black1 #dg    ,pomeranian ,goose1 #afa 
,poult1 #ahj    ,pouter ,pigeon1 #bej1  
#big2     illustrated1 #bej             
,preserved eggs1 #bhf    ,prices1 how   
determined1 #bgh2     of fancy poultry  

and pigeons1 #cja    ,profits1          
computation of1 #gb    ,pullet1 #ce     
,pure-bred1 defined1 #cj     ,quail1    
laying of1 in captivity1 #ah            
,quantity of food1 #hj1 #hh     ,range1 
advantages of1 #he    ,rapeseed for     
canaries1 #bgc    ,reaumur1 experiments 
of1 in incubation1 #cjg    ,reptile1    
resemblance of duckling to1 #adb        
,retailing poultry produce1 #bge1 #bhh  
,rhode ,island1 goose growing in1 #agc  
,rhode ,island ,red1 #fa1 #ajj2         
illustrated1 #cb    ,ringneck ,pheasant1
 illustrated1 #bab    ,roaster growing1 
#aac2     illustrated1 #aad    ,rock    
,pigeon1 #bda    ,roller ,canaries1 #bga
    ,roller ,pigeons1 #bdh    ,romans1  
distribution of domestic fowl by1 #cf1  
#df2     peacock a favorite dish among1 
#bji    ,rooster1 use of term1 #cd      
,rose-,comb ,black ,bantam1 illustrated1
 #fi    ,rotten egg1 appearance of1 when
 candled1 #if    ,rouen ,duck1 #acj1    
#ada2     illustrated1 #acj             
,rudiments of judging poultry1 #bic     

,ruff1 occurrence of1 in pigeons1 #aj   
,rumpless ,fowl1 #fe    ,running board  
for pigeons1 #bfj    ,runt ,pigeon1     
#bea2     illustrated1 #bda1 #bej       
,russia1 geese in1 #afg    ,rye1 #gh1   
#aaf1 #aed     ,saddleback ,goose1 #afa 
,st4 ,andreasberg ,roller1 #bga    ,salt
 for pigeons1 #bfe    ,sawdust in       
poultry house1 #ge    ,scalding poultry1
 #bhd    ,scale on beak of young birds1 
#bb    ,scales1 relation of1 to         
feathers1 #h    ,scoring1 #cjj          
,scotland1 wild pigeon in1 #bdj         
,scratching of birds1 use of1 #ad       
,sebastopol ,goose1 #afe2               
illustrated1 #afe    ,sebright ,bantam1 
#gj2     illustrated1 #gj    ,shanghai1 
#ec    ,shavings for litter in poultry  
house1 #gf    ,shell of egg1 formation  
of1 #ag    ,silky fowl1 #fe    ,silver  
,pheasant1 #bae    ,sitting hen1        
illustrated1 #ai2     food for1 #ie     
,slate ,turkey1 #ahg    ,slip1 an       
imperfect capon1 #aag    ,snow1 effect  
of1 on poultry1 #ha1 #ib1 #ajg1 #abe1   

#bfi    ,social relations of birds1 #c  
,south ,america1 guinea in1 #bjb        
,space per bird in poultry house1 #hf   
,spain1 turkey in1 #aha    ,spanish     
,goose1 #afb    ,spanish1 ,white-,faced 
,black1 illustrated1 #ch    ,spanish    
races of fowls1 #di    ,sparrow1 laying 
capacity of1 #ah    ,species1 predatory 
relation of1 #f2     defined1 #bd2      
origin of1 #be    ,sprouted oats1 #gh   
,spurs1 #cc1 #aag    ,squab1 #bdj2      
illustrated1 #bff1 #bfg    ,squeaker4   
,see ,squab    ,standard-bred1 defined1 
#cj    ,standards for judging exhibition
 poultry1 #bii    ,strain1 defined1 #bi 
,stub feather1 #i    ,subvariety1       
defined1 #bi    ,summer quarters for    
poultry1 illustrated1 #abc    ,sunlight1
 benefits of1 #gc    ,swan and nest1    
illustrated1 #bbd    ,swannery1 an      
,english1 illustrated1 #bbh    ,swans   
feeding on the water1 illustrated1 #bbg 
,swedish ,duck1 ,blue1 illustrated1 #acc
    ,swimming1 of birds1 economic value 
of1 #ad2     effect of1 on growth of    

ducks1 #aea    ,swiss ,mondaine ,pigeon1
 illustrated1 #bdb     ,table fowl1     
,dorking best type of1 #dg    ,table    
scraps1 feeding to fowls1 #gg    ,tail  
of bird1 its use in flight1 #ad         
,temperature for incubation1 #ba        
,tennessee1 turkeys in1 #ahi    ,testing
 eggs to determine fertility1 #ba1 #if1 
#adb    ,thoroughbred1 defined1 #cj     
,tippler ,pigeon1 #bdg    ,tom-turkey1  
#ahj    ,toulouse ,goose1 #afa2         
illustrated1 #aei1 #afj    ,train of    
peacock1 #bjg    ,tricolor ,canary1     
illustrated1 #bgj    ,triganica ,pigeon1
 #bdb    ,trumpeter ,pigeon1 #bci2      
illustrated1 #bdi    ,tula ,goose1 #afb 
,tumbler ,pigeon1 #bdg2     illustrated1
 #bdd1 #beh    ,turbit ,pigeon1 #bea    
,turkey1 common1 illustrated1 #aha      
,turkey hen with brood1 illustrated1    
#aih    ,turkey nest1 illustrated1 #aif 
,turkey roost1 illustrated1 #aid        
,turnips for poultry1 #ij     ,uses of  
birds in domestication1 #d    ,utility  
types of poultry1 #cjc     ,varieties1  

#bg    ,variety1 defined1 #bh           
,ventilation1 #bfa    ,versicolor       
,pheasant1 #bae    ,virginia1 turkeys   
in1 #ahi    ,voices of birds1 #c1 #cc1  
#abf1 #aei1 #ahj1 #bjj1 #bjg1 #bbc1     
#bcb1 #bch1 #bfi     ,waste food        
consumed by street pigeons1 #bef        
,water1 #ha1 #ih1 #ada2                 
imperviousness of feathers to1 #ae2     
warming1 for fowls1 #ha2     propensity 
of young ducks for1 #ade2     constant  
supply of1 for pigeons1 illustrated1    
#bfa    ,wattles1 of fowl1 #cc2     of  
turkey1 #agi2     of guinea1 #bjj2      
of pheasant1 #baa    ,web of feather1 #i
    ,webster1 ,daniel1 exhibitor at     
first poultry show in ,america1 #ec     
,west ,indies1 guinea in1 #bjb          
,wheat1 #gh1 #ih1 #ada    ,whistling    
,swan1 #bbb    ,white eggs1 preference  
for1 #bhi    ,white of egg1 formation   
of1 #ag    ,wild birds1 place of1 in    
civilization1 #e    ,wild geese1        
growing1 in captivity1 #agh    ,wings1  
movement of1 in flight1 #ab    ,women as

 poultry keepers1 #ci1 #db1 #abb        
,wood ,duck1 #acd    ,wyandotte1 #ei2   
,silver-,laced1 illustrated1 #ei2       
,white1 #fj2       illustrated1 #fj1    
#hb2     ,partridge1 illustrated1 #fa2  
,silver-,penciled1 illustrated1 #fa2    
,buff1 origin of1 #fb2     ,columbian1  
illustrated1 #fb     ,yard of small     
poultry fancier1 illustrated1 #abj      
,yards1 for fowls1 #gc2     for ducks1  
#ach2     for geese1 #afi2     for      
turkeys1 #aij2     for pheasants1 #bai  
,yellow-legged fowls1 ,american         
preference for1 #ee    ,yolk of egg1 #ag
    ,yorkshire ,canary1 illustrated1    
#bgj     ,transcriber's ,notes4   ,in   
the text version1 the oe-ligature was   
changed to the two separate characters1 
oe4 ,also1 the macron1 which appeared   
over the o in the ,greek transliteration
 of struthion' was dropped4  ,changed   
silver penciled to silver-penciled on   
page #bh3 partridge1 silver-penciled1   
and ermine4  ,changed out-crosses to    
outcrosses on page #cj3 outcrosses are  

regularly made4  ,changed               
,siver-,penciled to ,silver-,penciled in
 the caption to figure #ea4  ,changed   
,amercia to ,america on page #fc3 fowls 
of ,america4  ,changed thay to they on  
page #afi3 which they may use4  ,changed
 distroyed to destroyed on page #bjj3   
are destroyed by cultivating4  ,changed 
servicable to serviceable on page #bbf3 
more serviceable in this way4