,illu/ration3 ,f a ,pa9t+ by ,james ,hall1 ,esq4 ,engrav$ by ,s4 ,williams4 ,,/rata ,,( ,,r$ ,,s&/one1 ,,slightly ,,incl9$1 ,,re/+ ,,on ,,v]tical ,,s*i/1 ,,at ,,! ,,sicc> ,,po9t1 ,,b]wick%ire4 ,,to ,,illu/rate ,,uncon=mable ,,/ratification4 ,see page #fj4 ,! m9d seem$ to gr[ giddy by look+ s f> into ! abyss ( "t2 & :ile we li/5$ ) e>ne/ness & admiration to ! philosoph] :o 0 n[ unfold+ to u ! ord] & s]ies ( ^! wond]ful ev5ts1 we became s5sible h[ mu* f>!r reason may sometimes g ?an imag9ation c v5ture to foll[4--,,playfair1 ,biography ( ,hutton4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology3 ,,or1 ,,! ,,anci5t ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,geological ,,monum5ts4 ,,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,au?or ,,( ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology1 ,,travels ,,9 ,,nor? ,,am]ica1 ,a ,,second ,,visit ,,to ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates1 ,,etc4 ,,etc4 ,x is a philosophy :i* nev] re/s--its law is progress3 a po9t :i* ye/]day 0 invisible is its goal to-day1 & w be its />t+ po/ to-morr[4 ,,ed9burgh ,,review1 ,no4 #acb4 p4 #hc4 ,july1 #ahcg4 ,,f\r? ,,& ,,entirely ,,revis$ ,,edition4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,) #ejj ,,woodcuts4 ,,london3 ,,john ,,murray1 ,,albem>le ,,/reet4 #aheb4 ,,london3 ,,spottiswoodes & ,,%aw1 ,new-/reet-,squ>e4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,f\r? ,,edition4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! rapid sale ( ! ?ird edition ( ! ,manual1 ( :i* #bjjj copies 7 pr9t$ 9 ,janu>y la/1 a new edition has be5 call$ = 9 less ?an a twelvemon?4 ,ev5 9 ?is %ort int]val "s new facts ( unusual importance 9 palaeontology h come to light1 or h be5 v]ifi$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,in/ead ( introduc+ ^! new discov]ies into ! body ( ! "w1 :i* w\ld r5d] !m inaccessible to ! pur*as]s ( ! =m] edition1 ,i h giv5 !m 9 a po/script to ?is ,preface 7pr9t$ & sold sep>ately71 & h po9t$ out at ! same "t _! be>+ on c]ta9 que/ions ( ! highe/ !oretical int]e/4v-,a ,z on =m] occasions1 ,i %all take ?is opportunity ( /at+ t ! ,manual is n an epitome ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 nor int5d$ z introductory to t "w4 ,s mu* confusion has aris5 on ?is subject1 t x is desirable to expla9 fully ! diff]5t gr\nd occupi$ by ! two publications4 ,! fir/ five editions ( ! ,pr9ciples compris$ a #d? book1 9 :i* "s acc\nt 0 giv5 ( sy/ematic geology1 & 9 :i* ! pr9cipal rocks compos+ ! e>?'s cru/ & _! organic rema9s 7 describ$4 ,9 subsequ5t editions ?is book 0 omitt$1 x hav+ be5 exp&$1 9 #ahch1 into a sep>ate treatise call$ ! ,elem5ts ( ,geology1 fir/ re-edit$ 9 #ahdb1 & aga9 reca/ & enl>g$ 9 #ahea1 & entitl$ ,a ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology4 ,al?\gh ! subjects ( bo? treatises relate to geology1 z _! titles imply1 _! scope is v diff]5t2 ! ,pr9ciples conta9+ a view ( ! mod]n *anges ( ! e>? & its inhabitants1 :ile ! ,manual relates to ! monum5ts ( anci5t *anges4 ,9 sep>at+ ! "o f ! o!r1 ,i h endeav\r$ to r5d] ea* complete 9 itself1 & indep5d5t2 b if ask$ by a /ud5t :i* he %\ld read fir/1 ,i w\ld recomm5d him to beg9 ) ! ,pr9ciples1 z he may !n proce$ f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 & be provid$ be=eh& ) a key = int]pret+ ! anci5t ph5om5a1 :e!r ( ! organic or inorganic _w1 by ref]5ce to *anges n[ 9 progress4 ,ow+ to ! =m] incorporation ( ! two subjects 9 "o "w1 & ! suppos$ id5tity ( _! subject matt]1 x may be useful to give "h a brief ab/ract ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,pr9ciples1 = ! sake ( comp>ison4 ,ab/ract ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,eigh? ,edition4 ,,book ,i4 #a4 ,hi/orical sket* ( ! e>ly progress ( geology1 *aps4 i4 to iv4 #b4 ,circum/ances :i* comb9$ to make ! fir/ cultivators ( ! sci5ce reg>d ! =m] c\rse ( nature z diff]5t f ! pres5t1 & ! =m] *anges ( ! e>?'s surface z ! effects ( ag5ts diff]5t 9 k9d & degree f ^? n[ act+1 *ap4 v4 #c4 ,:e!r ! =m] v>iations 9 climate e/abli%$ by geology are explicable by ref]5ce to exi/+ causes1 *aps4 vi4 to viii4 #d4 ,!ory ( ! progressive developm5t ( organic life 9 =m] ages1 & ! introduction ( man into ! e>?1 *ap4 ix4 #e4 ,suppos$ =m] int5sity ( aque\s & igne\s causes consid]$1 *aps4 x4 & xi4 #f4 ,h[ f> ! old] rocks diff] 9 texture f ^? n[ =m+1 *ap4 xii4 #g4 ,suppos$ alt]nate p]iods ( repose & disord]1 *ap4 xiii4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,*anges ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress ,,9 ,,! ,,inorganic ,,_w4 #h4 ,aque\s causes n[ 9 action3 ,floods--,riv]s--,c>ry+ p[] ( ice--,spr+s & _! deposits--,deltas--,wa/e ( cliffs & /rata produc$ by m>9e curr5ts3 *aps4 xiv4 to xxii4 #i4 ,p]man5t effects ( igne\s causes n[ 9 op]ation3 ,active volcanos & e>?quakes--_! effects & causes3 *aps4 xxiii4 to xxxiii4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,organic ,,_w ,,n[ ,,9 ,,progress4 #aj4 ,doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( species controv]t$1 *aps4 xxxiv4 & xxxv4 #aa4 ,:e!r species h a real exi/5ce 9 nature1 *aps4 xxxvi4 & xxxvii4 #ab4 ,laws :i* regulate ! geographical di/ribution ( species1 *aps4 xxxviii4 to xl4 #ac4 ,creation & ext9ction ( species1 *aps4 xli4 to xliv4 #ad4 ,imb$d+ ( organic bodies1 includ+ ! rema9s ( man & 8 works1 9 /rata n[ =m+1 *aps4 xlv4 to l4 #ae4 ,=mation ( coral reefs1 *ap4 li4 ,x w be se5 on comp>+ ?is analysis ( ! cont5ts ( ! ,pr9ciples ) ! head+s ( ! *apt]s ( ! pres5t "w 7see p4 xxiii471 t ! two treatises h b little 9 common2 or1 to repeat :at ,i h said 9 ! ,preface to ! #h? edition ( ! ,pr9ciples1 !y h ! same k9d ( connection :i* ,*emi/ry be>s to ,natural ,philosophy1 ea* be+ subsidi>y to ! o!r1 & yet admitt+ ( be+ consid]$ z diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce4vi-,a ,,*>les ,,lyell4 #aa ,h>ley ,/reet1 ,london1 ,decemb] #aj4 #ahea4 ,,footnotes3 v-,a ,po/script to #d? edition ( ! ,manual1 price #f;d4 vi-,a ,z x is impossible to enable ! read] to recognize rocks & m9]als at sight by aid ( v]bal descriptions or figures1 he w d well to obta9 a well-arrang$ collection ( specim5s1 su* z may be procur$ f ,mr4 ,t5nant 7#adi4 ,/r&71 tea*] ( ,m9]alogy at ,k+'s ,college1 ,london4 ,,po/script4 ,tracks ( a ,l[] ,silurian reptile 9 ,canada--,*elonian footpr9ts 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,moray%ire--,skeleton ( a reptile 9 ! same =mation 9 ,scotl&--,eggs ( ,batra*ians 787 9 a l[] division ( ! ,old ,r$1 or ,devonian--,footpr9ts ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s reptiles 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,fossil ra9-m>ks ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod 9 ,nova ,scotia--,triassic ,mammif] f ! ,keup] ( ,/uttg>t--,cretace\s ,ga/]opoda--,dicotyl$on\s leaves 9 ,l[] ,cretace\s /rata--,be>+ ( ! rec5t discov]ies above-m5tion$ on ! !ory ( ! progressive developm5t ( animal life4 ,tracks ( a ,l[] ,silurian reptile 9 ,canada4--,9 ! ye> #ahdg1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,abraham ann\nc$ 9 ! ,montreal ,gazette1 ( :i* he 0 editor1 t ! track ( a fre%wat] tortoise _h be5 obs]v$ on ! surface ( a /ratum ( s&/one 9 a qu>ry op5$ on ! banks ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce at ,beauh>nais 9 ,upp] ,canada4 ,! inhabitants ( ! p>i% be+ p]fectly famili> ) ! track ( ! amphibi\s mud-turtles or t]rap9s ( _! c\ntry1 assur$ ,mr4 ,abraham t ! fossil impressions closely resembl$ ^? left by ! rec5t species on s& or mud4 ,hav+ satisfi$ himself ( ! tru? ( _! report1 he 0 /ruck ) ! novelty & geological int]e/ ( ! ph5om5on4 ,imag9+ ! rock to be ! l[e/ memb] ( ! old r$ s&/one1 he 0 aw>e t no traces _h z yet be5 f\nd ( a reptile 9 /rata ( su* high antiquity4 ,he 0 soon in=m$ by ,mr4 ,logan1 at t "t engag$ 9 ! geological survey ( ,canada1 t ! :ite s&/one above ,montreal 0 really mu* old] ?an ! ,old ,r$1 or ,devonian4 ,x _h 9 fact be5 asc]ta9$ _m ye>s be=e1 by ! ,/ate surveyors ( ,new ,york 7:o call$ x ! ,potsdam ,s&/one71 to lie at ! base ( ! :ole ,silurian s]ies4 ,z su* x _h be5 po9t$ out to me 9 #ahda1 9 ! valley ( ! ,mohawk1 by ,mr4 ,james ,hallvii-,a1 & its position 0 correctly describ$ by ,mr4 ,emmons1 on ! bord]s ( ,lake ,*ampla91 :]e ,i exam9$ x 9 #ahdb4 ,x has !re ! "* ( a %all[-wat] deposit1 ripple-m>k$ ?r\gh\t a consid]able ?ickness1 & full ( a species ( ,l+ula4 ,! flat valves ( ?is %ell1 ( a d>k col\r1 are s num]\s1 & s arrang$ 9 horizontal lay]s1 z to play ! "p ( mica1 caus+ ! rock to divide into lam9ae1 z 9 "s micace\s s&/ones4 ,:5 ,i m5tion$ ?is rock 9 my ,travelsvii-,b z occurr+ betwe5 ,k+/on & ,montreal1 7! same 9 :i* ! ,*elonian foot-pr9ts h s9ce be5 f\nd17 ,i spoke ( x z ! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,l[] ,silurian s]ies2 b no traces ( any organic be+ ( a high] grade ?an ! ,l+ula _h !n be5 se5 9 x1 & ,i call$ att5tion to ! s+ul> fact1 t ! olde/ fossil =m !n kn[n 9 ! _w1 0 a m>9e %ell /rictly ref]able to a g5us n[ exi/+4 ,e>ly 9 ! ye> #ahea1 ,mr4 ,logan laid be=e ! ,geological ,society ( ,london a slab ( ?is s&/one f ,beauh>nais1 conta9+ no less ?an tw5ty-eight foot-pr9ts ( ! =e & h9d feet ( a quadrup$1 & six ca/s 9 pla/] ( ,p>is1 exhibit+ a cont9uation ( ! same trail4 ,ea* ca/ conta9$ f tw5ty-six to tw5ty-eight impressions ) a m$ian *annel equidi/ant f ! two p>allel r[s ( foot-pr9ts1 ! "o made by ! feet ( ! "r side1 ! o!r by ^? ( ! left4 ,9 ^! specim5s a great] numb] ( successive foot-m>ks belong+ to "o & ! same s]ies 7 display$ ?an _h ev] be=e be5 obs]v$ 9 any rock anci5t or mod]n4 ,mr4 ,abraham has inf]r$ t ! bread? ( ! quadrup$ 0 f five to sev5 in*es4 ,a detail$ acc\nt ( ! trail 0 publi%$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 ,april #ahea1 f :i* ! foll[+ extracts are made4 ,! foot-pr9ts are 9 pairs1 & ! pairs ext5d 9 two p>allel s]ies1 ) a *annel exactly midway betwe5 ! "r & left s]ies4 ,! pairs ( ! same side succe$ ea* o!r at int]vals1 v>y+ f "o in* & a half to two in*es & a half1 ! common di/ance be+ ab\t two in*es4 ,! int]val betwe5 ! "r & left pairs1 measur$ f ! inn] bord] ( ! small pr9ts1 is ?ree in*es & a half1 & f ! out] bord] ( ! ext]ior or l>ge pr9ts1 is sev5 in*es4 ,! %all[ m$ian track is "o in* & a qu>t] 9 bread?1 v>y+ 9 dep?1 b n 9 its relative position to ! "r & left foot pr9ts4 ,! inf]5ce to be d$uc$ f ^! *>act]s is1 t ! impressions 7 made by a quadrup$ ) ! h9d feet l>g] & some:at wid] ap>t ?an ! =e feet1 ) bo? h9d & =e feet ei!r v %ort1 or prev5t$ by "s o!r "p ( ! animal's /ructure f mak+ long /eps2 & ) ! limbs ( ! "r side wide ap>t f ^? ( ! left2 consequ5tly1 t ! quadrup$ _h a broad trunk 9 proportion to its l5g?1 support$ on limbs ei!r %ort1 or capable only ( %ort /eps1 & ) r\nd$ & /umpy feet1 n provid$ ) long claws4 ,!re are fa9t traces ( a f9e reticulate patt]n ( ! cuticle ( ! sole at ! bottom ( "s ( ! foot-pr9ts on "o portion ( ! s&/one2 & ! surface ( ! s& is g5]ally smoo!r !re ?an :]e n impress$1 :i*1 ) ! ris+ ( ! s& at ! bord] ( ! pr9ts1 indicates ! weight ( ! impress+ body4 ,! m$ian groove may be int]pret$ z due ei!r to ! abdom5 or ! tail ( ! animal2 b z !re is no indication ( any b5d+ or movem5t ( a tail f side to side1 x 0 probably scoop$ out ( ! s(t s& by a h>d brea/-plate or pla/ron4 ,if ?is 7 s1 x may be inf]r$ t ! species 0 a fre%wat] or e/u>y tortoise r ?an a l& tortoise4viii-,a ,previ\sly to ?is discov]y1 ! trias 0 ! olde/ /ratum 9 :i* any rema9s or signs ( a ,*elonian _h be5 detect$4 ,num]\s o!r trails h s9ce be5 obs]v$ 7#ahej-ea7 9 v>i\s localities 9 ,canada1 all 9 ! same v anci5t fossilif]\s rock2 & ,mr4 ,logan1 :o has visit$ ! spots1 w %ortly publi% a description ( ! ph5om5a4 ,*elonian foot-pr9ts 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,moray%ire4--,capta9 ,lamb>t ,brick5d5 has j communicat$ to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london a draw+ & description ( a cont9u\s s]ies ( no less ?an ?irty-f\r foot-pr9ts ( a quadrup$ obs]v$ 9 ! c\rse ( la/ ye> 7#ahej71 on a slab ( s&/one qu>ri$ at ,cumm+/one1 ne> ,elg91 9 ,moray%ire1 a rock :i* has always be5 consid]$ z an upp] memb] ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$4ix-,a ,a "p ( ! track1 ! c\rse ( :i* 0 f ,a to ,b1 is repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ woodcut1 fig4 #eba4 ,! foot-pr9ts are 9 pairs1 =m+ two p>allel r[s1 :i* are some:at less di/ant f ea* o!r ?an ^? ( ! ,l[] ,silurian tortoise ( ,canada above m5tion$4 ,! /ride1 on ! o!r h&1 is f\r in*es1 or twice t ( ! ,beauh>nais ,*elonian4 ,! h9d foot is exactly ( ! same size1 be+ "o in* 9 diamet]1 & l>g] ?an ! =e foot 9 ! proportion ( f\r to ?ree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eba4 ,scale "o-six? ! orig9al size4 ,"p ( ! trail ( a 7,*elonian87 quadrup$ f ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,cumm+/one1 ne> ,elg91 ,moray%ire4--,capta9 ,brick5d54 ,skeleton ( a reptile1 alli$ to ! ,batra*ians1 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,moray%ire4--,mr4 ,patrick ,duff1 au?or ( a ,sket* ( ! ,geology ( ,moray%ire 7,elg91 #ahdb71 obta9$ rec5tly 7,octob]1 #ahea71 f ! rock above allud$ to1 ! fir/ example ev] se5 ( ! skeleton ( a reptile 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,he has k9dly all[$ me to give a figure ( ?is fossil1 ( :i* ,dr4 ,mantell has drawn up a detail$ o/eological acc\nt = publication 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london4 ,! bones 9 ?is specim5 h decompos$1 b ! natural position ( almo/ all ( !m c be se51 & ne>ly p]fect ca/s ( _! =m tak5 f ! holl[ m\lds :i* !y h left4 ,! matrix is a f9e-gra9$1 :iti% s&/one1 ) a cem5t ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! skeleton exhibits ! g5]al *>act]s ( ! ,lac]tians1 bl5d$ ) peculi>ities t are ,batra*ian4 ,h5ce ,dr4 ,mantell inf]s t ?is reptile 0 ei!r a fre%wat] ,batra*ian1 resembl+ ! ,triton1 or a small t]re/rial ,liz>d4 ,slight indications are visible ( v m9ute conical tee?4 ,capta9 ,brick5d51 :o is well acqua9t$ ) ! geology ( t "p ( ,scotl&1 in=ms me t ?is fossil 0 f\nd 9 ! ,hill ( ,spynie1 nor? ( ! t[n ( ,elg91 9 a rock qu>ri$ = build+1 & ! same 9 :i* ! ,*elonian foot-pr9ts1 allud$ to 9 ! la/ page1 occur4 ,! skeleton is ab\t f\r & a half in*es 9 l5g?1 b "p ( ! tail is conceal$ 9 ! rock4 ,dr4 ,mantell has propos$ = x ! g5]ic "n ( ,tel]peton1 f tele1 af> (f1 & h]peton1 a reptile2 :ile ! specific "n ,elg95se commemorates ! pr9cipal place ne> :i* x 0 obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebb4 ,natural size4 ,tel]peton ,elg95se4 7,mantell47 ,reptile ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 f ne> ,elg91 ,moray%ire4 ,eggs ( ,batra*ians 787 9 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl&4--,at page #cdd4 ( ?is "w ,i h giv5 two figures 7figs4 #cig & #cih47 ( small gr\ps ( eggs1 v common 9 ! %ales & s&/ones ( ! ,old ,r$ ( ,k9c>d9e%ire1 ,=f>%ire1 & ,fife4 ,i ?rew out z a conjecture1 t !y might belong to ga/]opod\s mollusca1 l ^? repres5t$ 9 fig4 #cii4 p4 #cde42 b ,dr4 ,mantell1 "s ye>s ago1 %[$ me a small bundle ( ! dri$-up eggs ( ! common ,engli% frog 7see fig4 #ebd a471 black & c>bonace\s1 & s id5tical 9 appe>ance ) ! fossils 9 "q1 t he sugge/$ ! probability ( ^! la/ be+ ( ,batra*ian orig94 ,! plants by :i* !y are (t5 accompani$ 7fig4 #cih4 p4 #cdd471 ,i =m]ly suppos$ to be ,fuci1 b ,mr4 ,bunbury tells me t _! grass-l =m agrees well ) ! idea ( _! be+ fre%wat]1 & ( ! family ,fluviales4 ,! abs5ce ( all %ells1 s f> z our rese>*es h yet gone1 9 ! slates & s&/ones ( ,scotl& above allud$ to1 raises a presumption aga9/ _! m>9e orig91 & a /ill /rong] "o aga9/ ! fossil eggs be+ ^? ( ,ga/]opoda4 ,x is well kn[n t a s+le female ( ! ,batra*ian tribe ejects annually an a/oni%+ quantity ( spawn4 ,mr4 ,newport1 au?or ( _m accurate rese>*es into ! metamorphoses ( ! ,amphibia1 hav+ exam9$ my fossils f ,=f>%ire1 concurs 9 ,dr4 ,mantell's op9ion t ! clu/]s ( eggs 7figs4 #cig4 #cih4 p4 #cdd47 may be ^? ( frogs2 :ile o!r l>g] ones1 occurr+ s+ly or 9 pairs 9 ! same slates1 & (t5 atta*$ to a leaf1 may be ! ova ( a gigantic ,triton or ,salam&]4 7,see figs4 #ebc1 #ebd1 #ebe47 ,i may obs]ve t ! subdivision ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 9 :i* ^! plants & ova occur 7,no4 #d4 ( ! section1 fig4 #fb4 p4 #dh471 is consid]ably l[] 9 position ?an ! rock 9 :i* ! ,tel]peton ( ,elg9 is imb$d$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebc4 ,fossil4--,old ,r$4 ,fig4 #ebc4 ,slab ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,=f>%ire1 ) eggs ( ,batra*ians4 a4 ,ova 9 a c>boniz$ /ate4 b4 ,egg cells2 ! ova %$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebd4 ,rec5t4 ,fig4 #ebd4 ,eggs ( ! common frog1 ,rana tempor>ia1 9 a c>boniz$ /ate1 f a dri$-up pond 9 ,clapham ,common4 a4 ,! ova4 b4 ,a transv]se section ( ! mass exhibit+ ! =m ( ! egg-cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebe4 ,eggs ( ,batra*ians4--,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,fig4 #ebe4 ,%ale ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 or ,devonian1 ,=f>%ire1 ) impression ( plants & eggs ( ,batra*ians4 a4 ,two pair ( ova resembl+ ^? l>ge ,salam&]s or ,tritons on ! same leaf4 b b4 ,deta*$ ova4 c4 ,egg-cells ( frogs or ,ran9a4 ,foot-pr9ts ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s reptiles 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,i h /at$1 at p4 #cdj41 t 9 #ahdi1 ,mr4 ,isaac ,lea obs]v$ ! foot-m>ks ( a l>ge reptile 9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! coal =mation at ,pottsville1 ab\t sev5ty miles ,n4,e4 ( ,philadelphia4 ,^! rese>*es h s9ce be5 c>ri$ f>!r by ,pr(essor ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 9 ! same region ( an?racitic coal1 ly+ on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s4 ,b5ea? ! productive coal-measures ( t c\ntry occurs a d5se mass ( r$ %ales & s&/ones1 :i* correspond ne>ly 9 position to ! mill/one grit & ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ( ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&4 ,9 ^! b$s foot-pr9ts1 ref]r$ to ?ree species ( quadrup$s1 h lately be5 detect$1 all ( !m five-to$ & 9 d\ble r[s1 ) an opposite symmetry1 z if made by "r & left feet1 :ile !y likewise display ! alt]nation ( =e foot & h9d foot4 ,"o species1 ! l>ge/ ( ! ?ree1 pres5ts a diamet] = ea* foot-pr9t ( ab\t two in*es1 & %[s ! =e & h9d feet to be ne>ly equal 9 dim5sions4 ,x exhibits a l5g? ( /ride ( ab\t n9e in*es1 & a bread? betwe5 ! "r & left treads ( ne>ly f\r in*es4 ,! impressions ( ! h9d feet are b little 9 ! re> ( ! =e feet4 ,! animal :i* made !m is suppos$ to h be5 alli$ to a ,saurian1 r ?an to a ,batra*ian or ,*elonian2 b m in=mation is requir$ be=e s difficult a po9t c be decid$4 ,) ^! foot-m>ks 7 se5 %r9kage cracks1 su* z are caus$ by ! sun's heat 9 mud1 & ra9-spots1 ) ! signs ( ! trickl+ ( wat] on a wet1 s&y bea*2 all confirm+ ! conclusion d]iv$ f ! foot-pr9ts1 t ! quadrup$s belong$ to air-brea!rs1 & n to aquatic races4xii-,a ,! ,*eiro!rian foot-pr9ts1 figur$ by me at p4 #cch41 9 :i* ! =e & h9d feet are v unequal 9 size1 betok5 a di/9ct g5us1 & occur 9 ! mid/ ( ! productive coal measures1 be+ consequ5tly less anci5t4 ,on ,fossil ,ra9-m>ks ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4--,hav+ allud$ to ! spots left by ra9 on ! surface ( c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ! ,alleghanies1 on :i* quadrup$al foot-pr9ts are se51 ,i may m5tion t simil> ra9-pr9ts are conspicu\s 9 ! coal measures ( ,cape ,breton1 9 ,nova ,scotia1 9 :i* ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,br[n has describ$ ,/igm>iae & erect trunks ( trees1 & :]e !re are pro(s1 z /at$ at p4 #cbd41 ( _m fossil =e/s rang$ "o above ! o!r4 ,9 su* a region1 if any:]e1 might we expect to detect evid5ce ( ! fall ( ra9 on a sea-bea*1 s repeat$ly mu/ ! conditions ( ! same area h oscillat$ betwe5 l& & sea4 ,! int]calation ( deposits1 conta9+ %ells ( m>9e or bracki% wat]1 indicate ! con/ant proximity ( a body ( salt wat] :5 ! clays :i* support$ ! upright trees 7 =m$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( #ahea1 ,mr4 ,br[n _h ! k9dness to s5d me "s gre5i% slates f ,sydney1 ,cape ,breton1 on :i* are impr9t$ v delicate impressions ( ra9-drops1 ) sev]al worm-tracks 7a1 b1 fig4 #ebf471 su* z usually accompany ra9-m>ks on ! rec5t mud ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 & o!r mod]n bea*es4xii-,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebf4 ,c>bonif]\s ra9-pr9ts ) worm-tracks 7a1 b7 on gre5 %ale1 f ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebg4 ,ca/s ( ra9-pr9ts on a portion ( ! same slab1 ,no4 #ebf4 se5 on ! "u side ( an incumb5t lay] ( ar5ace\s %ale4 ,! arr[ repres5ts ! direction ( ! %[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebh4 ,ca/s ( c>bonif]\s ra9-pr9ts & %r9kage-cracks1 7a7 on ! "u side ( a lay] ( s&/one1 ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,! ca/s ( ra9-pr9ts1 9 figs4 #ebg4 & #ebh41 project f ! "u side ( two lay]s1 occurr+ at diff]5t levels1 ! "o a s&y %ale1 re/+ on ! gre5 %ale 7fig4 #ebf471 ! o!r a s&/one pres5t+ a simil> w>ty or bli/]$ surface1 on :i* are also obs]vable "s small ridges z at a1 :i* /& out 9 relief1 & af=d evid5ce ( cracks =m$ by ! %r9kage ( subjac5t clay1 on :i* ra9 _h fall54 ,_m ( ! associat$ s&/ones are describ$ by ,mr4 ,br[n z ripple-m>k$4 ,! great humidity ( ! climate ( ! coal p]iod _h be5 previ\sly inf]r$ f ! nature ( its vegetation & ! cont9uity ( its =e/s = hundr$s ( miles2 b x is satisfactory to h at l5g? obta9$ su* positive pro(s ( %[]s ( ra91 ! drops ( :i* resembl$ 9 _! av]age size ^? :i* n[ fall f ! cl\ds4 ,f su* data we may presume t ! atmosph]e ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod correspond$ 9 d5sity ) t n[ inve/+ ! globe1 & t diff]5t curr5ts ( air v>i$ !n z n[1 9 temp]ature1 s z to give rise1 by _! mixture1 to ! cond5sation ( aque\s vap\r4 ,triassic ,mammif] 7,microle/es antiquus ,pli5+]47--,9 ! ye> #ahdg1 ,pr(essor ,pli5+]1 ( ,/uttg>t1 publi%$ a description ( two fossil mol> tee?1 ref]r$ by him to a w>m-blood$ quadrup$xiii-,a1 :i* he obta9$ f a bone-breccia 9 ,wu]temb]g occurr+ betwe5 ! lias & ! keup]4 ,z ! ann\ncem5t ( s novel a fact has nev] met ) ! att5tion x des]v$1 we are indebt$ to ,dr4 ,jaeg]1 ( ,/uttg>t1 = hav+ rec5tly rem9d$ u ( x 9 8 ,memoir on ! ,fossil ,mammalia ( ,wu]temb]g4xiii-,b ,fig4 #ebi4 repres5ts ! too? fir/ f\nd1 tak5 f ! plate publi%$ 9 #ahdg1 by ,pr(essor ,pli5+]2 & fig4 #ecj4 is a draw+ ( ! same execut$ f ! orig9al by ,mr4 ,h]mann von ,mey]1 :i* he has be5 k9d en\gh to s5d me4 ,fig4 #ebi4 is a second & l>g] mol>1 copi$ f ,dr4 ,jaeg]'s plate lxxi41 fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebi4 ,microle/es antiquus1 ,pli5+]4 ,mol> too? magnifi$4 ,upp] ,trias1 ,dieg]lo*1 ne> ,/uttg>t1 ,wu]temb]g4 a4 ,view ( inn] side8 b4 same1 out] side8 c4 ,same 9 pr(ile4 d4 ,cr[n ( same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ecj4 ,microle/es antiquus1 ,pli54 ,view ( same mol> z ,no4 #ebi4 ,f a draw+ by ,h]man von ,mey]4 a4 ,view ( inn] side8 b4 ,cr[n ( same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eca4 ,mol> ( ,microle/es8 ,pli54 #d times z l>ge z fig4 #ebi4 ,f ! trias ( ,dieg]lo*1 ,/uttg>t4 ,pr(essor ,pli5+] inf]r$ 9 #ahdg1 f ! d\ble fangs ( ?is too? & _! unequal size1 & f ! =m & numb] ( ! protub]ances or cusps on ! flat cr[ns1 t x 0 ! mol> ( a ,mammif]2 & consid]+ x z pr$ace\s1 probably insectivor\s1 he call$ x ,microle/es1 f mikros1 little1 & le/es1 a bea/ ( prey4 ,soon aft]w>ds1 he f\nd ! second too? also1 at ! same locality1 ,dieg]lo*1 ab\t two miles to ! s\?-ea/ ( ,/uttg>t4 ,"s ( its cusps are brok51 b !re seem to h be5 six ( !m orig9ally4 ,f its agreem5t 9 g5]al *>act]s1 x is suppos$ by ,pr(essor ,pli5+] to be ref]able to ! same animal1 b z x is f\r times z big1 x may p]haps h belong$ to ano!r alli$ species4 ,?is mol> is atta*$ to ! matrix consi/+ ( s&/one1 :]eas ! too?1 ,no4 #ebi41 is isolat$4 ,sev]al fragm5ts ( bone1 diff]+ 9 /ructure f t ( ! associat$ saurians & fi%1 & believ$ to be mammif]\s1 7 imb$d$ ne> !m 9 ! same rock4 ,mr4 ,wat]h\se1 ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 aft] /udy+ ! annex$ figs4 #ebi4 #eca4 & ! descriptions ( ,pr(4 ,pli5+]1 obs]ves1 t n only ! d\ble roots ( ! tee? & _! cr[ns pres5t+ sev]al cusps1 resemble ^? ( ,mammalia1 b ! c+ulum also1 or ridge surr\nd+ ! base ( t "p ( ! body ( ! too? :i* 0 expos$ or above ! gum1 is a "* di/+ui%+ !m f fi% & reptiles4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! six cusps or tub]cles 9 two r[s1 9 fig4 #ebi41 ) a groove or depression betwe5 !m & ! oblong =m ( ! too?1 lead him1 he says1 to reg>d x z a mol> ( ! l[] jaw4 ,bo? ! tee? diff] f ^? ( ! ,/onesfield ,mammaliaxiv-,a1 b d n supply suffici5t data = det]m9+ to :at ord] !y belong$4 ,ev5 9 reg>d to ! ,/onesfield jaws1 :]e we possess s mu* ampl] mat]ials1 we _c safely pron\nce on ! ord]4 ,pr(essor ,pli5+] has s5t me a ca/ ( ! small] too?1 :i* exhibits well ! *>act]i/ic mammalian te/1 ! d\ble fang2 b ,mr4 ,ow51 to :om ,i h %[n x1 is n able to recognize its aff9ity ) any mammalian type1 rec5t or ext9ct1 kn[n to him4 ,x has already be5 /at$ t ! /ratum 9 :i* ! above-m5tion$ fossils occur is int]m$iate betwe5 ! lias & ! upp]mo/ memb] ( ! trias4 ,t x is really triassic may be d$uc$ f ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,9 ,wu]temb]g !re are two bone-b$s1 "o ( great ext5t1 & v ri* 9 ! rema9s ( fi% & reptiles1 :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! mus*elkalk & keup]1 ! o!r1 conta9+ ! ,microle/es1 less ext5sive & fossilif]\s1 :i* re/s on ! keup]1 or sup]ior memb] ( ! trias1 & is cov]$ by ! s&/one ( ! lias4 ,! la/-m5tion$ breccia !re=e occupies ! same place z ! well-kn[n ,engli% bone-b$ ( ,axm\? & ,au/-cliff ne> ,bri/ol1 :i* is %[nxv-,a to include *>act]i/ic species ( mus*elkalk fi%1 ( ! g5us ,sauri*?ys1 ,hybodus1 & ,gyrolepis4 ,9 bo? ! ,wu]temb]g bone-b$s ^! ?ree g5]a are also f\nd1 & "o ( ! species1 ,sauri*?ys ,m\geotii1 is common to bo? ! l[] & upp] breccias1 z is also a rem>kable reptile call$ ,no?osaurus mirabilis4 ,! ,saurian call$ ,belodon by ,h4 ,von ,mey] ( ! ,!codont family1 is ano!r ,triassic =m1 associat$ at ,dieg]lo* ) ,microle/es4 ,previ\s to ?is discov]y ( ,pr(essor ,pli5+]1 ! mo/ anci5t ( kn[n fossil ,mammalia 7 ^? ( ! ,/onesfield slate1 a subdivision ( ! ,l[] ,oolitexv-,b no repres5tative ( ?is class hav+ z yet be5 met ) 9 ! ,full]'s e>?1 or inf]ior ,oolite 7see ,table1 p4 #beh471 nor 9 any memb] ( ! lias4 ,!codont ,saurians4--,?is family ( reptiles is common to ! ,trias & ,p]mian gr\ps 9 ,g]many1 & ! geologi/s employ$ 9 ! gov]nm5t survey ( ,great ,brita9 h come to ! conclusion1 t ! rock conta9+ ! two species allud$ to at p4 #cjf41 & ( :i* ! tee? are repres5t$ 9 figs4 #cdh1 #cdi41 ought r to be ref]r$ to ! ,trias ?an to ! ,p]mian gr\p4 ,,cretace\s ,,ga/]opoda4 ,9 speak+ ( ! *alk ( ,faxoe 9 ,d5m>k 7p4 #baj47 or ! highe/ memb] ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 ,i h rem>k$ t x is *>act]iz$ by univalve ,mollusca1 bo? spiral & patelli=m1 :i* are want+ or r>e 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,europe4 ,?is la/ /atem5t requires1 ,i f9d1 "s modification4 ,x holds true 9 reg>d to c]ta9 =ms1 su* z ,cypraea & ,oliva1 f\nd at ,faxoe2 b ,m4 ,a4 d',orbigny enum]ates #bd species ( ,ga/]opoda f ! :ite *alk 7,t]ra9 ,s5oni57 ( ,france alone4 ,! same au?or describes #acd ,fr5* species ( ,ga/]opoda f ! *loritic *alk m>l & upp] gre5s& 7,turoni571 #gg f ! gault1 & #ij f ! l[] gre5s& 7,neocomi571 9 all #cbe species ( ,ga/]opoda1 f ! cretace\s gr\p bel[ ! ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,among ^! he ref]s #a to ! g5us ,mitra1 #ag to ,fusus1 #ag to ,tro*us1 #d to ,em>g9ula1 & #cf to ,c]i?ium4 ,not)/&+1 !re=e1 ! peculi>ity ( ! *amb]$ univalves ( v>i\s g5]a1 s abundant 9 ! *alk1 ! ,mollusca ( ! p]iod approximate 9 "* to ! t]ti>y & rec5t ,fauna f> m ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,,dicotyl$on\s ,,leaves ,,9 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,/rata4 ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t :5 f\nd+ 8 classification ( ! fossilif]\s /rata 9 ref]5ce to _! imb$d$ fossil plants1 has plac$ ! cretace\s gr\p 9 ! same division ) ! t]ti>y1 t is to say1 9 8 ,age ( ,angiosp]ms4xvi-,a ,?is arrangem5t is bas$ on ! fact1 t ! cretace\s plants display a transition "* f ! vegetation ( ! second>y to t ( ! t]ti>y p]iods4 ,conif]ae & ,cycadeae /ill fl\ri%$ z 9 ! prec$+ oolitic & triassic epo*s2 b ) ^! fossils1 "s well-m>k$ leaves ( dicotyl$on\s trees ref]r$ to sev]al species ( ! g5us ,cr$n]ia1 _h be5 f\nd 9 ,g]many 9 ! ,quad]s&/e9 & ,pla5]-kalk4 ,/ill m rec5tly1 ,dr4 ,debey ( ,aix-la-,*apelle has met ) a great v>iety ( o!r leaves ( dicotyl$on\s plants 9 ! cretace\s floraxvi-,b1 ( :i* he enum]ates no less ?an #bf species1 "s ( ! leaves be+ f f\r to six in*es 9 l5g?1 & 9 a beautiful /ate ( pres]vation4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ! organs ( fructification & ( fossil fruits1 ! numb] ( species may be exagg]at$2 b we may nev]!less affirm1 reason+ f our pres5t data1 t 9 ! l[] *alk ( ,aix-la-,*apelle1 ,dicotyl$on\s ,angiosp]ms fl\ri%$ ne>ly 9 equal proportions ) ,gymnosp]ms2 a fact ( great significance1 z "s geologi/s _h wi%$ to connect ! r>ity ( dicotyl$on\s trees ) a peculi>ity 9 ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! e>li] ages ( ! planet1 imag9+ t a d5s] air & noxi\s gases1 especially c>bonic acid 9 excess1 7 adv]se to ! preval5ce1 n only ( ! quick-brea?+ classes ( animals1 7mammalia & birds17 b to a flora l t n[ exi/+1 :ile x fav\r$ ! pr$om9ance ( reptile life1 & a cryptogamic & gymnosp]m\s flora4 ,! co-exi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( dicotyl$on\s angiosp]ms 9 abundance ) ,cycads & ,conif]ae1 & ) a ri* reptilian fauna compris+ ! ,iguanodon1 ,i*?yosaurus1 ,pliosaurus1 & ,pt]odactyl1 9 ! l[] cretace\s s]ies t5ds1 l ! oolitic mammalia ( ,/onesfield & ,/uttg>t1 & ! triassic birds ( ,connecticut1 to dispel ! idea ( a meteorological /ate ( ?+s 9 ! second>y p]iods widely di/9ct f t n[ prevail+4 ,g5]al rem>ks4--,9 ! prelim9>y *apt]s ( ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 9 ! fir/ & subsequ5t editions1 ,i h consid]$ ! "q1 h[ f> ! *anges ( ! e>?'s cru/ 9 pa/ times confirm or invalidate ! popul> hypo!sis ( a gradual improvem5t 9 ! habitable condition ( ! planet1 accompani$ by a contemporane\s developm5t & progression 9 organic life4 ,x _h long be5 a fav\rite !ory1 t 9 ! e>li] ages to :i* we c c>ry back our geological rese>*es1 ! e>? 0 %ak5 by m frequ5t & t]rible e>?quakes ?an n[1 & t !re 0 no c]ta9ty nor /ability 9 ! ord] ( ! natural _w4 ,a few sea-we$s & zoophytes1 or plants & animals ( ! simple/ organization1 7 alone capable ( exi/+ 9 a /ate ( ?+s s unfix$ & un/able4 ,b 9 proportion z ! conditions ( exi/5ce improv$1 & great convulsions & cata/rophes became r>] & m p>tial1 fl[]+ plants 7 add$ to ! cryptogamic class1 & by ! introduction ( m & m p]fect species1 a v>i$ & complex flora 0 at la/ e/abli%$4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! animal k+dom1 ! zoophyte1 ! bra*iopod1 ! cephalopod1 ! fi%1 ! reptile1 ! bird1 & ! w>m-blood$ quadrup$ made _! entrance into ! e>?1 "o aft] ! o!r1 until f9ally1 aft] ! close ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 came ! quadruman\s mammalia1 mo/ ne>ly resembl+ man 9 outw>d =m & int]nal /ructure1 & foll[$ soon aft]w>ds1 if n accompani$ at fir/1 by ! human race itself4 ,! objections :i*1 9 #ahcj1 ,i urg$ aga9/ ?is doctr9exvii-,a1 9 s f> z relates to ! passage ( ! e>? f a *aotic to a m settl$ condition1 h s9ce be5 embrac$ by a l>ge & /eadily increas+ s*ool ( geologi/s2 & 9 ref]5ce to ! animate _w1 x w be se51 on comp>+ ! pres5t /ate ( our k ) t :i* we possess$ tw5ty ye>s ago1 h[ fully ,i 0 ju/ifi$ 9 decl>+ ! insuffici5cy ( ! data on :i* su* bold g5]alizations1 respect+ progressive developm5t1 7 bas$4 ,speak+ ( ! abs5ce1 f ! t]ti>y =mations1 ( fossil ,quadrumana1 ,i obs]v$1 9 #ahcj1 t we _h no "r to expect to h detect$ any rema9s ( tribes :i* live 9 trees1 until we knew m ( ^? quadrup$s :i* frequ5t m>%es1 riv]s1 & ! bord]s ( lakes1 su* be+ usually fir/ met ) 9 a fossil /ate4xvii-,b ,i also add$1 if we are l$ to inf]1 f ! pres5ce ( crocodiles & turtles 9 ! ,london clay1 & f ! cocoa-nuts & spices f\nd 9 ! isle ( ,%eppey1 t at ! p]iod :5 our old] t]ti>y /rata 7 =m$1 ! climate 0 hot en\gh = ! ,quadrumana1 we nev]!less c\ld n hope to discov] any ( _! skeletons1 until we _h made consid]able progress 9 asc]ta9+ :at 7 ! contempor>y ,pa*yd]mata2 & n "o ( ^! has be5 discov]$ z yet 9 any /rata ( ?is epo* 9 ,engl&4 ,n9e ye>s aft]w>ds1 :5 ^! fossil ,pa*yd]ms _h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,london clay1 & 9 ! s&y /rata at its base1 ! rema9s ( a monkey1 ( ! g5us ,macacus1 7 detect$ ne> ,woodbridge1 9 ,suffolk2 & o!r ,quadrumana _h be5 met )1 a %ort "t previ\sly1 9 diff]5t /ages ( ! t]ti>y s]ies1 9 ,india1 ,france1 & ,brazil4 ,:5 we consid] ! small area ( ! e>?'s surface hi!rto exam9$ geologically1 & our scanty acqua9tance ) ! fossil ,v]tebrata1 ev5 ( ! environs ( great ,european capitals1 x is truly surpris+ t any naturali/ %\ld be ra% en\gh to assume t ! ,l[] ,eoc5e deposits m>k ! era ( ! fir/ creation ( ,quadrumana4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 /ill m unphilosophical to inf] f a s+le ext9ct species ( ?is ord]1 obta9$ 9 a latitude f> f ! tropics1 t ! ,eoc5e ,quadrumana _h n atta9$ z high a grade ( organization z ^? ( our own times1 :5 ! naturali/ is acqua9t$ ) all1 or ne>ly all1 ! species ( monkeys1 apes & orangs :i* are contempor>y ) man4 ,to return to ! ye> #ahcj1 ,mammalia _h n !n be5 trac$ to rocks ( high] antiquity ?an ! ,/onesfield ,oolite1 :]eas we h j se5 t memorials ( ?is class h at l5g? made _! appe>ance 9 ! ,trias ( ,g]many4 ,9 #ahcj birds _h be5 discov]$ no l[] 9 ! s]ies ?an ! ,p>is gypsum1 or ,middle ,eoc5e4 ,_! bones h n[ be5 f\nd bo? 9 ,engl& & ! ,swiss ,alps 9 ! ,l[] ,eoc5e1 & _! exi/5ce has be5 e/abli%$ by foot-pr9ts 9 ! triassic epo* 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 7p4 #big474 ,reptiles 9 #ahcj _h n be5 detect$ 9 rocks old] ?an ! ,magnesian lime/one1 or ,p]mian =mation2 :]eas ! skeletons ( f\r species h s9ce be5 br\ght to light 7see p4 #ccf47 9 ! coal-measures1 & "o 9 ! ,old ,r$ s&/one1 ( ,europe1 :ile ! footpr9ts ( ?ree or f\r m h be5 obs]v$ 9 c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 n to m5tion ! *elonian trail above describ$1 f ! mo/ anci5t ( ! fossilif]\s rocks ( ,canada1 ! ,potsdam ,s&/one1 :i* lies at ! base ( ! ,l[] ,silurian sy/em4 7,see above1 p4 vii47 ,la/ly1 ! rema9s ( fi%1 :i* 9 #ahcj 7 sc>cely recogniz$ 9 deposits old] ?an ! coal1 h n[ be5 f\nd pl5tifully 9 ! ,devonian1 & sp>+ly 9 ! ,silurian1 /rata2 ?\gh n 9 any =mation ( su* high antiquity z ! ,*elonian ( ,montreal4 ,previ\sly to ! discov]y la/ m5tion$1 x 0 by no means uncommon = paleontologi/s to speak ) confid5ce ( fi% z hav+ be5 creat$ be=e reptiles4 ,x 0 deem$ reasonable to suppose t ! introduction ( a p>ticul> class or ord] ( be+s into ! planet co9cid$1 9 date1 ) ! age ( ! olde/ rock to :i* ! rema9s ( t class or ord] happ5$ !n to h be5 trac$ back4 ,to be consi/5t ) !mselves1 ! same naturali/s ought n[ to take = grant$ t reptiles 7 call$ into exi/5ce be=e fi%4 ,?is !y w n d1 because su* a conclusion w\ld militate aga9/ _! fav\rite hypo!sis ( an asc5d+ scale1 accord+ to :i* ,nature evolv$ ! organic _w1 r5d]+ x m & m p]fect 9 ! lapse ( ages4 ,9 our ef=ts to arrive at s\nd !oretical views on su* a "q1 x w\ld seem mo/ natural to turn to ! m>9e inv]tebrate animals z to a class af=d+ ! mo/ complete s]ies ( monum5ts t h come d[n to u1 & :]e we c f9d correspond+ t]ms ( comp>ison1 9 /rata ( e age4 ,if1 9 ?is m complete s]ies ( h] ar*ives1 ,nature _h really exhibit$ a m simple grade ( organization 9 fossils ( ! remote/ antiquity1 we might h suspect$ t !re 0 "s f\ndation ( facts 9 ! !ory ( successive developm5t4 ,b :at d we f9d8 ,9 ! ,l[] ,silurian !re is a full repres5tation ( ! ,radiata1 ,mollusca1 & ,articulata prop] to ! sea4 ,! m>9e ,fauna1 inde$1 9 ^? ?ree classes1 is s ri* z almo/ to imply a m p]fect developm5t ?an t :i* n[ peoples ! ocean4 ,?us1 9 ! great division ( ! ,radiata1 we f9d a/]oid & helian?oid zoophytes1 besides cr9oid & cy/idean e*9od]ms4 ,9 ! ,mollusca ( ! same mo/ anci5t epo* ,m4 ,b>r&e enum]ates1 9 ,bohemia alone1 ! a/oni%+ numb] ( #bec species ( ,cephalopoda4 ,9 ! ,articulata we h ! cru/aceans1 repres5t$ by m ?an #bjj species ( ,trilobites1 n to m5tion o!r g5]a4 ,x is only !n1 9 ref]5ce to ! ,v]tebrata1 t ! argum5t ( deg5]acy 9 proportion z we trace fossils back to old] =mations c be ma9ta9$2 & ! dogma re/s ma9ly = its support on negative evid5ce1 :e!r d$uc$ f ! entire abs5ce ( ! fossil repres5tatives ( c]ta9 classes 9 p>ticul> rocks1 or ! l[ grade ( ! fir/ few species ( a class :i* *ance has ?r[n 9 our way4 ,! sc>city ( all memorials ( birds 9 /rata bel[ ! ,eoc5e1 has be5 a subject ( surprise to "s geologi/s4 ,! bones =m]ly ref]r$ to birds 9 ! ,weald5 & ,*alk1 are n[ admitt$ to h belong$ to fly+ reptiles1 ( v>i\s sizes1 "o ( !m f ! ,k5ti% *alk s l>ge z to h measur$ #af feet #f in*es f tip to tip ( its out/ret*$ w+s4 ,:e!r "s elongat$ bones ( ! ,/onesfield ,oolite %\ld be ref]r$ to birds1 :i* !y seem greatly to resemble 9 microscopic /ructure or to ,pt]odactyles1 is a po9t n[ "u inve/igation4 ,if x %\ld be prov$ t no osse\s rema9s ( ! class ,aves h hi!rto be5 d]iv$ f any second>y or prim>y =mation1 we mu/ n too ha/ily conclude t birds 7 ev5 sc>ce 9 ^! p]iods4 ,! r>ity ( su* fossils 9 ! ,eoc5e m>9e /rata is v /rik+4 ,9 #ahdf1 ,pr(essor ,ow51 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,fossil ,mammalia & ,birds ( ,great ,brita91 0 unable to obta9 m ?an f\r or five fragm5ts ( bones & skulls ( birds f ! ,london ,clay1 by ! aid ( :i* f\r species 7 recogniz$4 ,ev5 s rec5tly1 !re=e1 z #ahdf1 z mu* 0 kn[n ( ! ,mammalia ( ! ,/onesfield ,oolite1 z ( ! orni?ic ,fauna ( our ,engli% ,eoc5e deposits4 ,to reason correctly on ! value ( negative facts 9 ?is bran* ( ,paleontology1 we mu/ fir/ h asc]ta9$ h[ f> ! relics ( birds are n[ becom+ pres]v$ 9 new /rata1 :e!r m>9e1 fluviatile1 or lacu/r9e4 ,i h expla9$1 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 t ! imb$d+ ( ! bones ( liv+ birds 9 deposits n[ 9 progress 9 inl& lakes appe>s to be extremely r>e4 ,9 ! %ell-m>l ( ,scotl&1 :i* is made up bodily ( ! %ells ( ! g5]a ,limneus1 ,planorbis1 ,succ9ea1 & ,valvata1 & 9 :i* ! skeletons ( de] & ox5 ab\nd1 we f9d no bones ( birds4 ,yet we "k t1 be=e ! lakes 7 dra9$ :i* yield ?is m>l us$ 9 agriculture1 ! surface ( ! wat] & ! bord]+ swamps 7 cov]$ ) wild ducks1 h]ons1 & o!r f[l4 ,!y left no memorials beh9d !m1 because1 if !y p]i%$ on ! l&1 _! bodies decompos$ or became ! prey ( c>nivor\s animals2 if on ! wat]1 !y 7 buoyant & float$ till !y 7 dev\r$ by pr$ace\s fi% or birds4 ,! same causes ( oblit]ation h no p[] to efface ! foot-pr9ts :i* ! same creatures may leave1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 impr9t$ on an anci5t mud-bank or %ore1 on :i* new /rata may be f "t to "t ?r[n d[n4 ,9 ! r$ mud ( rec5t orig9 spread ov] wide areas by ! high tides ( ! bay ( ,fundy1 innum]able foot-tracks ( rec5t birds 7,tr+a m9uta7 are pres]v$ 9 successive lay]s1 & h>d5$ by ! sun4 ,yet none ( ! bones ( ^! birds1 ?\gh dilig5tly se>*$ =1 h yet be5 discov]$ 9 digg+ tr5*es ?r\gh ! r$ mud4 ,x is true t1 9 a few spots1 ! bones ( birds h be5 met ) pl5tifully 9 ! old] t]ti>y /rata1 b always 9 rocks ( fre%wat] orig91 su* z ! ,p>is gypsum or ! lacu/r9e lime/one ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne4 ,9 /rata ( ! same age1 9 ,belgium & o!r ,european c\ntries1 or 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e no less c>eful se>* has be5 made1 few1 if any1 fossil birds h come to light4 ,we ought1 !re=e1 mo/ cle>ly to p]ceive t x is no "p ( ! plan ( ,nature to h& d[n to aft] times a complete or sy/ematic record ( ! =m] hi/ory ( ! animate _w4 ,! pres]vation ( ! relics1 ev5 ( aquatic tribes ( animals1 is an exception to ! g5]al rule1 al?\gh "t may s multiply exceptional cases t !y may seem to con/itute ! rule2 & may ?us impose ^u ! imag9ation1 lead+ u to inf] ! non-exi/5ce ( creatures ( :i* no monum5ts are extant4 ,hi!rto our acqua9tance ) ! birds1 & ev5 ! ,mammalia1 ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod has dep5d$1 almo/ ev]y:]e1 on s+le specim5s1 or on a few individuals f\nd 9 "o spot4 ,x has !re=e dep5d$ on :at we commonly call *ance2 & we mu/ n wond] if ! casual discov]y ( a t]ti>y1 second>y1 or prim>y rock1 ri* 9 fossil impressions ( ! foot-pr9ts ( birds or quadrup$s1 %\ld modify or sudd5ly ov]?r[ all !ories bas$ on negative facts4 ,! *ief reason :y we meet m readily ) ! rema9s ( e class 9 t]ti>y ?an 9 second>y /rata1 is simply t ! old] rocks are m & m exclusively m>9e 9 proportion z we dep>t f>!r & f>!r f p]iods dur+ :i* ! exi/+ cont95ts 7 built up4 ,! second>y & prim>y =mations are1 = ! mo/ "p1 m>9e1--n because ! ocean 0 m univ]sal 9 pa/ times1 b because ! epo*s :i* prec$$ ! ,eoc5e 7 s di/ant f our own1 t entire cont95ts h be5 s9ce subm]g$4 ,i h allud$ at p4 #bii4 to ,mr4 ,d>w9's acc\nt ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,o/ri*es1 se5 on ! coa/ ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 walk+ at l[ wat] ov] ext5sive mud-banks1 :i* are !n dry1 = ! sake ( fe$+ on small fi%4 ,p]haps no bird ( su* p]fect organization z ! eagle or vulture may ev] accompany ^! o/ri*es4 ,c]ta9ly1 we _c expect ! condor ( ! ,&es to leave its trail on su* a %ore2 & no travell]1 aft] se>*+ = footpr9ts along ! :ole ea/]n coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 w\ld v5ture to speculate1 f ! results ( su* an inquiry1 on ! ext5t1 v>iety1 or developm5t ( ! fea!r$ ,fauna ( ! int]ior ( t cont95t4 ,! abs5ce ( ,cetacea f rocks old] ?an ! ,eoc5e has be5 frequ5tly adduc$ z l5d+ c\nt5ance to ! !ory ( ! late appe>ance ( ! highe/ class ( ,v]tebrata on ! e>?4 ,t we h hi!rto fail$ to detect !m 9 ! ,oolite or ,trias1 does n imply1 z we h n[ se51 t ,mammalia 7 n !n creat$4 ,ev5 9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,europe1 ! discov]y ( ,cetaceans has nev] kept pace ) t ( l& quadrup$s4 ,! only in/ance cit$ 9 ,great ,brita9 is a species ( ,monodon1 f ! ,london clay1 ( d\btful au!nticity z to its geological position4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gigantic ,zeuglodon ( ,nor? ,am]ica 7see p4 #bjg471 occurs abundantly 9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e /rata ( ,georgia & ,alabama1 f :i* z yet no bones ( l&-quadrup$s h be5 obta9$4 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick /ates 9 a rec5t "wxxi-,a1 t he possesses 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1 a mass ( an*ylos$ c]vical v]tebrae ( a :ale :i* he f\nd ne> ,ely1 & :i* he believes to h be5 wa%$ out ( ! ,kimm]idge clay1 a memb] ( ! ,upp] ,oolite2 b its true geological site is n well det]m9$4 ,x diff]s1 says ,pr(essor ,ow51 f any o!r kn[n fossil or rec5t :ale4 ,9 ! pres5t imp]fect /ate !n ( our in=mation1 we c sc>cely say m ?an t ! ,cetacea may h be5 sc>ce1 9 ! second>y & prim>y p]iods4 ,x is q conceivable t :5 aquatic saurians1 "s ( !m c>nivor\s1 l ! ,i*?yosaurus1 7 sw>m+ 9 ! sea1 & :5 !re 7 l>ge h]bivor\s reptiles1 l ! ,iguanodon1 on ! l&1 su* reptiles may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 h sup]s$$ ! ,cetacea1 & dis*>g$ _! functions 9 ! animal economy4 ,! views :i* ,i propos$ orig9ally 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 9 opposition to ! !ory ( progressive developm5t may be ?us briefly expla9$4 ,f ! e>lie/ p]iod at :i* plants & animals c be prov$ to h exi/$1 !re has be5 a cont9ual *ange go+ on 9 ! position ( l& & sea1 accompani$ by great fluctuations ( climate4 ,to ^! ev]-v>y+ geographical & climatal conditions ! /ate ( ! animate _w has be5 unceas+ly adapt$4 ,no satisfactory pro( has yet be5 discov]$ ( ! gradual passage ( ! e>? f a *aotic to a m habitable /ate1 nor ( a law ( progressive developm5t gov]n+ ! ext9ction & r5ovation ( species1 & caus+ ! ,fauna & ,flora to pass f an embryonic to a m p]fect condition1 f a simple to a m complex organization4 ,! pr9ciple ( adaptation above allud$ to1 appe>s to h be5 analog\s to t :i* n[ peoples ! arctic1 temp]ate1 & tropical regions contemporane\sly ) di/9ct assemblages ( species & g5]a1 or :i* indep5d5tly ( m]e temp]ature gives rise to a pr$om9ance ( ! m>supial tribe ( quadrup$s 9 ,au/ralia1 & ( ! plac5tal tribe 9 ,asia & ,europe1 or to a pr(usion ( reptiles )\t mammalia 9 ! ,galapagos ,ar*ipelago1 & ( mammalia )\t reptiles 9 ,gre5l&4xxii-,a ,?is !ory implies1 almo/ necess>ily1 a v unequal repres5tation at successive p]iods ( ! pr9cipal classes & ord]s ( plants & animals1 if n 9 ! :ole globe1 at lea/ ?r\gh\t v wide areas4 ,?us1 = example1 ! proportional numb] ( g5]a1 species1 & individuals 9 ! v]tebrate class may diff]1 9 two diff]5t & di/9ct epo*s1 to an ext5t unp>allel$ by any two contemporane\s ,faunas1 because 9 ! c\rse ( millions ( ages1 ! contra/ ( climate & geographical conditions may exce$ ! diff]5ce n[ obs]vable 9 pol> & equatorial latitudes4 ,i %all conclude by obs]v+1 t if ! doctr9e ( successive developm5t _h be5 paleontologically true1 z ! new discov]ies above enum]at$ %[ t x is n2 if ! sponge1 ! cephalopod1 ! fi%1 ! reptile1 ! bird1 & ! mammif] _h foll[$ ea* o!r 9 regul> *ronological ord]--! creation ( ea* class be+ sep>at$ f ! o!r by va/ int]vals ( "t2 & if x 7 admitt$ t ,man 0 creat$ la/ ( all1 /ill we %\ld by no means be able to recognize1 9 8 entrance ^u ! e>?1 ! la/ t]m ( "o & ! same s]ies ( progressive developm5ts4 ,= ! sup]iority ( ,man1 z comp>$ to ! irrational mammalia1 is "o ( k9d1 r ?an ( degree1 consi/+ 9 a rational & moral nature1 ) an intellect capable ( indef9ite progression1 & n 9 ! p]fection ( 8 physical organization1 or ^? in/9cts 9 :i* he resembles ! brutes4 ,he may be consid]$ z a l9k 9 ! same unbrok5 *a9 ( be+1 if we reg>d him simply z a new species--a memb] ( ! animal k+dom--subject1 l o!r species1 to c]ta9 fix$ & inv>iable laws1 & adapt$ l !m to ! /ate ( ! animate & inanimate _w prevail+ at ! "t ( 8 creation4 ,physically consid]$1 he may =m "p ( an indef9ite s]ies ( t]re/rial *anges pa/1 pres5t1 & to come2 b morally & intellectually he may belong to ano!r sy/em ( ?+s--( ?+s immat]ial--a sy/em :i* is n p]mitt$ to int]rupt or di/urb ! c\rse ( ! mat]ial _w1 or ! laws :i* gov]n its *anges4xxii-,b ,,footnotes3 vii-,a ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica by ! ,au?or1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 #bb4 vii-,b ,ibid4 #ahdb4 viii-,a ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahea1 vol4 vii4 p4 #bej4 ix-,a ,! g5]ally receiv$ det]m9ation ( ! age ( ?is rock is probably correct2 b z !re are no ov]ly+ coal-measures & no well-kn[n ,devonian fossils 9 ! :iti% /one ( ,elg91 & z ,i h n p]sonally explor$ ! geology ( t di/rict1 ,i _c speak z confid5tly z 9 reg>d to ! age ( ! ,montreal ,*elonian4 xii-,a ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,proce$+s ( ,am]4 ,assoc4 ( ,sci5ce1 ,albany1 #ahea4 xii-,b ,see ,memoir by ! ,au?or1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vii4 p4 #bdj4 xiii-,a ,wu]temb]gis*4 ,naturwiss54 ,jahre%efte1 #c ,jahr4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahdg4 xiii-,b ,nov4 ,act4 ,acad4 ,caes>4 ,leopold4 ,nat4 ,cur4 #ahej1 p4 #ijb4 ,= figures1 see ibid4 plate xxi4 figs4 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ag4 xiv-,a ,see ,manual1 p4 #bfh4 xv-,a ,manual1 p4 #bhi4 xv-,b ,ibid4 p4 #bfh4 xvi-,a ,= ,t]m9ology1 see ,note1 p4 #bbc4 xvi-,b ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 vol4 vii4 ,memoirs1 p4 #aaa4 xvii-,a ,pr9ciples1 #a/ ed4 *aps4 v4 & ix4 xvii-,b ,ibid4 p4 #aec4 xxi-,a ,preface to #e? ed4 ( ,/udies ( ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4 xxii-,a ,pr9ciples1 #d? ed4 #ahce1 vol4 i4 p4 #bca1 & vol4 i4 *ap4 #i4 subsequ5t ed4 xxii-,b ,9 my ,anniv]s>y ,address1 = #ahea1 to ! ,geological ,society1 ! read] w f9d a full discussion ( ! facts & argum5ts :i* be> on ! !ory ( progressive developm5t4--,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 vii4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,rocks4 ,geology def9$--,successive =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/--,classification ( rocks accord+ to _! orig9 & age--,aque\s rocks--,_! /ratification & imb$d$ fossils--,volcanic rocks1 ) & )\t cones & crat]s--,plutonic rocks1 & _! relation to ! volcanic--,metamorphic rocks & _! probable orig9--,! t]m primitive1 :y errone\sly appli$ to ! cry/all9e =mations--,lead+ division ( ! "w ,page #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,aque\s ,,rocks--,,_! ,,composition ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,/ratification4 ,m9]al composition ( /rata--,ar5ace\s rocks--,argillace\s--,calc>e\s--,gypsum- -,=ms ( /ratification--,orig9al horizontality--,?9n+ out--,diagonal arrangem5t--,ripple m>k #aj ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,/rata--,,fre%wat] ,,& ,,m>9e4 ,successive deposition indicat$ by fossils--,lime/ones =m$ ( corals & %ells--,pro(s ( gradual increase ( /rata d]iv$ f fossils--,s]pula atta*$ to spatangus--,wood bor$ by ,t]$9a--,tripoli & semi-opal =m$ ( infusoria--,*alk d]iv$ pr9cipally f organic bodies--,di/9ction ( fre%wat] f m>9e =mations--,g5]a ( fre%wat] & l& %ells--,rules = recogniz+ m>9e te/acea--,gyrogonite & *>a--,fre%wat] fi%es--,alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%wat] deposits--,lym-,fiord #ba ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,consolidation ,,( ,,/rata ,,& ,,petrifaction ,,( ,,fossils4 ,*emical & me*anical deposits--,cem5t+ toge!r ( p>ticles--,h>d5+ by exposure to air--,concretion>y nodules--,consolidat+ effects ( pressure--,m9]alization ( organic rema9s--,impressions & ca/s h[ =m$--,fossil wood--,goepp]t's exp]im5ts--,precipitation ( /ony matt] mo/ rapid :]e putrefaction is go+ on--,s\rce ( lime 9 solution--,silex d]iv$ f decomposition ( felsp>--,pro(s ( ! lapidification ( "s fossils soon aft] burial1 ( o!rs :5 mu* decay$ #cc ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,/rata ,,above ,,! ,,sea--,,horizontal ,,& ,,incl9$ ,,/ratification4 ,:y ! position ( m>9e /rata1 above ! level ( ! sea1 %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ris+ up ( ! l&1 n to ! go+ d[n ( ! sea--,upheaval ( ext5sive masses ( horizontal /rata--,incl9$ & v]tical /ratification--,anticl9al & syncl9al l9es--,b5t /rata 9 ea/ ( ,scotl&--,!ory ( fold+ by lat]al movem5t--,creeps--,dip & /rike--,/ructure ( ! ,jura--,v>i\s =ms ( outcrop--,rocks brok5 by flexure--,inv]t$ position ( di/urb$ /rata--,uncon=mable /ratification--,hutton & ,playfair on ! same--,fractures ( /rata--,poli%$ surfaces--,faults--,appe>ance ( repeat$ alt]nations produc$ by !m--,orig9 ( great faults ,page #dd ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,d5udation4 ,d5udation def9$--,its am\nt equal to ! entire mass ( /ratifi$ deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/--,horizontal s&/one d5ud$ 9 ,ross-%ire--,levell$ surface ( c\ntries 9 :i* great faults occur--,coalbrook ,dale--,d5ud+ p[] ( ! ocean dur+ ! em]g5ce ( l&--,orig9 ( ,valleys--,oblit]ation ( sea-cliffs--,inl& sea-cliffs & t]races 9 ! ,morea & ,sicily--,lime/one pill>s at ,/4 ,mihiel1 9 ,france--9 ,canada--9 ! ,b]mudas #ff ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,alluvium4 ,alluvium describ$--,due to complicat$ causes--,( v>i\s ages1 z %[n 9 ,auv]gne--,h[ di/+ui%$ f rocks 9 situ--,riv]-t]races--,p>allel roads ( ,gl5 ,roy--,v>i\s !ories respect+ _! orig9 #gi ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,*ronological ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,aque\s1 plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic rocks1 consid]$ *ronologically--,lehman's division into primitive & second>y--,w]n]'s addition ( a transition class--,neptunian !ory--,hutton on igne\s orig9 ( granite--,h[ ! "n ( prim>y 0 /ill reta9$ = granite--,! t]m transition1 :y faulty--,! adh]5ce to ! old *ronological nom5clature ret>d$ ! progress ( geology--,new hypo!sis inv5t$ to reconcile ! igne\s orig9 ( granite to ! notion ( its high antiquity--,explanation ( ! *ronological nom5clature adopt$ 9 ?is "w1 s f> z reg>ds prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y p]iods #hi ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,aque\s ,,rocks4 ,on ! ?ree pr9cipal te/s ( relative age--sup]position1 m9]al "*1 & fossils--,*ange ( m9]al "* & fossils 9 ! same cont9u\s =mation--,pro(s t di/9ct species ( animals & plants h liv$ at successive p]iods--,di/9ct prov9ces ( indig5\s species--,great ext5t ( s+le prov9ces--,simil> laws prevail$ at successive geological p]iods--,relative importance ( m9]al & palaeontological *>act]s--,te/ ( age by includ$ fragm5ts--,frequ5t abs5ce ( /rata ( int]v5+ p]iods--,pr9cipal gr\ps ( /rata 9 we/]n ,europe #if ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,classification ,,( ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations4--,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,gr\p4 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( classification ( t]ti>y /rata--,deta*$ =mations scatt]$ ov] ,europe--,/rata ( ,p>is & ,london--,m mod]n gr\ps--,peculi> difficulties 9 det]m9+ ! *ronology ( t]ti>y =mations--,increas+ proportion ( liv+ species ( %ells 9 /rata ( new] orig9--,t]ms ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e--,po/-,plioc5e /rata--,rec5t or human p]iod--,old] ,po/-,plioc5e =mations ( ,naples1 ,uddevalla1 & ,norway--,anci5t uprais$ delta ( ! ,mississippi--,loess ( ! ,rh9e ,page #ajd ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,new] ,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4--,,b\ld] ,,=mation4 ,drift ( ,sc&9avia1 nor!rn ,g]many1 & ,russia--,its nor!rn orig9--,n all ( ! same age--,fundam5tal rocks poli%$1 groov$1 & scrat*$--,action ( glaci]s & iceb]gs--,fossil %ells ( glacial p]iod--,drift ( ea/]n ,norfolk--,associat$ fre%wat] deposit--,b5t & fold$ /rata ly+ on undi/urb$ b$s--,%ells on ,moel ,tryfane--,anci5t glaci]s ( ,nor? ,wales--,iri% drift #aba ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,b\ld] ,,=mation--cont9u$4 ,difficulty ( int]pret+ ! ph5om5a ( drift be=e ! glacial hypo!sis 0 adopt$--,effects ( int5se cold 9 augm5t+ ! quantity ( alluvium--,analogy ( erratics & scor$ rocks 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe--,bayfield on %ells 9 drift ( ,canada--,great subsid5ce & re-elevation ( l& f ! sea1 requir$ to acc\nt = glacial appe>ances--,:y organic rema9s s r>e 9 nor!rn drift--,ma/odon giganteus 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--,_m %ells & "s quadrup$s surviv$ ! glacial cold--,alps an indep5d5t c5tre ( disp]sion ( erratics--,alp9e blocks on ! ,jura--,rec5t transportation ( erratics f ! ,&es to ,*iloe--,meteorite 9 ,asiatic drift #aca ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,new] ,,plioc5e ,,/rata ,,& ,,cav]n ,,deposits4 ,*ronological classification ( ,plei/oc5e =mations1 :y difficult--,fre%wat] deposits 9 valley ( ,?ames--,9 ,norfolk cliffs--,9 ,patagonia--,comp>ative longevity ( species 9 ! mammalia & te/acea--,fluvio-m>9e crag ( ,norwi*--,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,sicily--,lime/one ( great ?ickness & elevation--,alt]nation ( m>9e & volcanic =mations--,pro(s ( sl[ accumulation--,great geographical *anges 9 ,sicily s9ce ! liv+ fauna & flora began to exi/--,osse\s breccias & cav]n deposits--,sicily--,kirkdale--,orig9 ( /alactite--,au/ralian cave-breccias--,geographical relation%ip ( ! prov9ces ( liv+ v]tebrata & ^? ( ! fossil species ( ! ,plioc5e p]iods--,ext9ct /ru?i\s birds ( ,new ,zeal&--,tee? ( fossil quadrup$s #adf ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,old] ,,plioc5e ,,& ,,mioc5e ,,=mations4 ,/rata ( ,suffolk t]m$ ,r$ & ,corall9e crag--,fossils1 & proportion ( rec5t species--,dep? ( sea & climate--,ref]5ce ( ,suffolk crag to ! old] ,plioc5e p]iod--,migration ( _m species ( %ells s\?w>ds dur+ ! glacial p]iod--,fossil :ales--,subap5n9e b$s--,a/i1 ,si5na1 ,rome--,mioc5e =mations--,faluns ( ,t\ra9e--,dep? ( sea & littoral "* ( fauna--,tropical climate impli$ by ! te/acea--,proportion ( rec5t species ( %ells--,faluns m anci5t ?an ! ,suffolk crag--,mioc5e /rata ( ,bordeaux & ,pi$mont--,molasse ( ,switz]l&--,t]ti>y /rata ( ,lisbon--,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e =mations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,sewalik ,hills 9 ,india #afa ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e ,,=mations4 ,eoc5e areas 9 ,engl& & ,france--,tabul> view ( ,fr5* ,eoc5e /rata--,upp] ,eoc5e gr\p ( ! ,p>is bas9--,same b$s 9 ,belgium & at ,b]l9--,may5ce t]ti>y /rata--,fre%wat] upp] ,eoc5e ( ,c5tral ,france--,s]ies ( geographical *anges s9ce ! l& em]g$ 9 ,auv]gne--,m9]al "* an unc]ta9 te/ ( age--,m>ls conta9+ ,cypris--,oolite ( ,eoc5e p]iod--,indusial lime/one & its orig9--,fossil mammalia ( ! upp] ,eoc5e /rata 9 ,auv]gne--,fre%wat] /rata ( ! ,cantal1 calc>e\s & silice\s--,its resemblance to *alk--,pro(s ( gradual deposition ( /rata #agd ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,eoc5e ,,=mations--cont9u$4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,eoc5e gr\p 9 ! ,p>is bas9--,gypse\s s]ies--,ext9ct quadrup$s--,impulse giv5 to geology by ,cuvi]'s o/eological discov]ies--,%elly s&s call$ sables moy5s--,calcaire grossi]--,miliolites--,calcaire siliceux--,l[] ,eoc5e 9 ,france--,lits coquilli]s--,s&s & pla/ic clay--,engli% ,eoc5e /rata--,fre%wat] & fluvio-m>9e b$s--,b>ton b$s--,bag%ot & ,brackle%am division--,l>ge ophidians & saurians--,l[] ,eoc5e & ,london ,clay prop]--,fossil plants & %ells--,/rata ( ,kyson 9 ,suffolk--,fossil monkey & opossum--,mottl$ clays & s& bel[ ,london ,clay--,nummulitic =mation ( ,alps & ,pyr5ees--,its wide geographical ext5t--,eoc5e /rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,section at ,claiborne1 ,alabama--,colossal cetacean--,orbitoid lime/one--,burr /one #aij ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,cretace\s ,,gr\p4 ,divisions ( ! cretace\s s]ies 9 ,nor?-,we/]n ,europe--,upp] cretace\s /rata--,mae/ri*t b$s--,*alk ( ,faxoe--,:ite *alk--,*>act]i/ic fossils--,ext9ct cephalopoda--,sponges & corals ( ! *alk--,signs ( op5 & deep sea--,:ite area ( :ite *alk--,its orig9 f corals & %ells--,s+le pebbles 9 *alk--,silice\s s&/one 9 ,g]many contemporane\s ) :ite *alk--,upp] gre5s& & gault--,l[] cretace\s /rata--,a!rfield section1 ,isle ( ,wight--,*alk ( ,s\? ( ,europe--,hippurite lime/one--,cretace\s ,flora--,*alk ( ,unit$ ,/ates #bji ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,weald5 ,,gr\p4 ,! ,weald5 divisible into ,weald ,clay1 ,ha/+s ,s&1 & ,purbeck ,b$s--,int]calat$ betwe5 two m>9e =mations--,weald clay & ,cypris-be>+ /rata--,iguanodon--,ha/+s s&s--,fossil fi%--,/rata =m$ 9 %all[ wat]--,bracki% wat]-b$s--,upp]1 middle1 & l[] ,purbeck--,alt]nations ( bracki% wat]1 fre%wat]1 & l&--,dirt-b$1 or anci5t soil--,di/9ct species ( fossils 9 ea* subdivision ( ! ,weald5--,lapse ( "t impli$--,plants & insects ( ,weald5--,geographical ext5t ( ,weald5--,its relation to ! cretace\s & oolitic p]iods--,movem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/ to :i* x ow$ its orig9 & subm]g5ce #bbe ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,d5udation ,,( ,,! ,,*alk ,,& ,,weald54 ,physical geography ( c]ta9 di/ricts compos$ ( ,cretace\s & ,weald5 /rata--,l9es ( inl& *alk-cliffs on ! ,se9e 9 ,norm&y--,out/&+ pill>s & ne$les ( *alk--,d5udation ( ! *alk & ,weald5 9 ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex--,*alk once cont9u\s f ! ,nor? to ! ,s\? ,d[ns--,anticl9al axis & p>allel ridges--,longitud9al & transv]se valleys--,*alk esc>pm5ts--,rise & d5udation ( ! /rata gradual--,ridges =m$ by h>d]1 valleys by s(t] b$s--,:y no alluvium1 or wreck ( ! *alk1 9 ! c5tral di/rict ( ! ,weald--,at :at p]iods ! ,weald valley 0 d5ud$--,l& has mo/ prevail$ :]e d5udation has be5 greate/--,elephant b$1 ,brighton #bch ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,oolite ,,& ,,lias4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,oolitic or ,jurassic gr\p--,physical geography ( ! ,oolite 9 ,engl& & ,france--,upp] ,oolite--,portl& /one & fossils--,li?ographic /one ( ,sol5h(5--,middle ,oolite1 coral rag--,zoophytes--,n]9aean lime/one--,dic]as lime/one--,ox=d clay1 ,ammonites & ,belemnites--,l[] ,oolite1 ,cr9oideans--,great ,oolite & ,brad=d clay--,/onesfield slate--,fossil mammalia1 plac5tal & m>supial--,resemblance to an ,au/ralian fauna--,doctr9e ( progressive developm5t--,collywe/on slates--,york%ire ,oolitic coal-field--,brora coal--,inf]ior ,oolite & fossils #beg ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,oolite ,,& ,,lias--cont9u$4 ,m9]al "* ( ,lias--,"n ( ,gryphite lime/one--,fossil %ells & fi%--,i*?yodorulites--,reptiles ( ! ,lias--,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur--,m>9e ,reptile ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s--,sudd5 de/ruction & burial ( fossil animals 9 ,lias--,fluvio-m>9e b$s 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire & insect lime/one--,orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias1 & ( alt]nat+ calc>e\s & argillace\s =mations--,oolitic coal-field ( ,virg9ia1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates #bgc ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,trias ,,or ,,new ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,new & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one--,betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,new ,r$--,! ,trias & its ?ree divisions--,mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 ,g]many--,keup] & its fossils--,mus*elkalk--,fossil plants ( ,bunt]--,triassic gr\p 9 ,engl&--,bone-b$ ( ,axm\? & ,au/--,r$ ,s&/one ( ,w>wick%ire & ,*e%ire--,foot/eps ( ,*iro!rium 9 ,engl& & ,g]many--,o/eology ( ! ,labyr9?odon--,id5tification ( ?is ,batra*ian ) ! ,*iro!rium--,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & rock-salt--,hypo!sis ( sal9e volcanic exhalations--,!ory ( ! precipitation ( salt f inl& lakes or lagoons--,saltness ( ! ,r$ ,sea--,new ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,fossil footpr9ts ( birds & reptiles 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,connecticut--,antiquity ( ! ,r$ ,s&/one conta9+ !m #bhf ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,p]mian ,,or ,,magnesian ,,lime/one ,,gr\p4 ,fossils ( ,magnesian ,lime/one & ,l[] ,new ,r$ di/9ct f ! ,triassic--,t]m ,p]mian--,engli% & ,g]man equival5ts--,m>9e %ells & corals ( ,engli% ,magnesian lime/one--,palaeoniscus & o!r fi% ( ! m>l slate--,!codont ,saurians ( dolomitic conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol--,ze*/e9 & ,ro?lieg5des ( ,?ur+ia--,p]mian ,flora--,its g5]ic aff9ity to ! c>bonif]\s--,ps>onites or tree-f]ns #cja ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,coal ,,or ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p4 ,c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&--,sup]position ( ,coal-measures to ,m\nta9 lime/one--,dep>ture f ?is type 9 nor? ( ,engl& & ,scotl&--,section 9 ,s\? ,wales--,und]clays ) ,/igm>ia--,c>bonif]\s ,flora--,f]ns1 ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 ,a/]ophyllites1 ,sigill>iae1 ,/igm>iae1--,conif]ae--,endog5s--,abs5ce ( ,exog5s--,coal1 h[ =m$--,erect fossil trees--,p>kfield ,colli]y--,/4 ,eti5ne1 ,coal-field--,oblique trees or snags--,fossil =e/s 9 ,nova ,scotia--,bracki% wat] & m>9e /rata--,orig9 ( ,clay-iron-/one #cjh ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p--cont9u$4 ,coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,section ( ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ,mississippi--,position ( l& 9 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod ea/w>d ( ! ,alleghanies--,me*anically =m$ rocks ?9n+ out we/w>d1 & lime/ones ?ick5+--,unit+ ( _m coal-seams into "o ?ick "o--,horizontal coal at ,br[nsville1 ,p5nsylvania--,va/ ext5t & cont9uity ( s+le seams ( coal--,anci5t riv]-*annel 9 ,=e/ ( ,dean coal-field--,abs5ce ( e>?y matt] 9 coal--,climate ( c>bonif]\s p]iod--,insects 9 coal--,r>ity ( air-brea?+ animals--,great numb] ( fossil fi%--,fir/ discov]y ( ! skeletons ( fossil reptiles--,footpr9ts ( reptilians--,m\nta9 lime/one--,its corals & m>9e %ells #cbf ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one1 ,,or ,,devonian ,,gr\p4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl&1 & bord]s ( ,wales--,fossils usually r>e--,old ,r$ 9 ,=f>%ire--,i*?yolites ( ,cai?ness--,di/9ct li?ological type ( ,old ,r$ 9 ,devon & ,cornwall--,t]m ,devonian--,organic rema9s ( int]m$iate "* betwe5 ^? ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian sy/ems--,corals & %ells--,devonian /rata ( ,we/phalia1 ! ,eifel1 ,russia1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,coral reef at ,falls ( ! ,ohio--,devonian ,flora #cdb ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,silurian ,,gr\p4 ,silurian /rata =m]ly call$ transition--,t]m grauwacke--,subdivisions ( ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian--,ludl[ =mation & fossils--,w5lock =mation1 corals & %ells--,c>adoc & ,ll&eilo b$s--,graptolites--,l+ula--,trilobites-- ,cy/ideae--,va/ ?ickness ( ,silurian /rata 9 ,nor? ,wales--,uncon=mability ( ,c>adoc s&/one--,silurian /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,am\nt ( specific agreem5t ( fossils ) ^? ( ,europe--,great numb] ( bra*iopods--,deep-sea orig9 ( ,silurian /rata--,abs5ce ( fluviatile =mations--,m9]al "* ( ! mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s rocks #cej ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,trap rocks--,"n1 :5ce d]iv$--,_! igne\s orig9 at fir/ d\bt$--,_! g5]al appe>ance & "*--,volcanic cones & crat]s1 h[ =m$--,m9]al composition & texture ( volcanic rocks--,v>ieties ( felsp>--,hornbl5de & augite--,isomorphism--,rocks1 h[ to be /udi$--,basalt1 gre5/one1 tra*yte1 porphyry1 scoria1 amygdaloid1 lava1 tuff--,alphabetical li/1 & explanation ( names & synonyms1 ( volcanic rocks--,table ( ! analyses ( m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ! volcanic & hypog5e rocks #cff ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,trap dike--sometimes project--sometimes leave fissures vacant by decomposition--,bran*es & ve9s ( trap--,dikes m cry/all9e 9 ! c5tre--,=eign fragm5ts ( rock imb$d$--,/rata alt]$ at or ne> ! contact--,oblit]ation ( organic rema9s--,conv]sion ( *alk into m>ble--& ( coal into coke--,inequality 9 ! modify+ influ5ce ( dikes--,trap int]pos$ betwe5 /rata--,column> & globul> /ructure--,relation ( trappean rocks to ! products ( active volcanos--,subm>9e lava & eject$ matt] correspond g5]ally to anci5t trap--,/ructure & physical features ( ,palma & "s o!r ext9ct volcanos #cgh ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,te/s ( relative age ( volcanic rocks--,te/ by sup]position & intrusion--,dike ( ,qu>r+ton ,hill1 ,durham--,te/ by alt]ation ( rocks 9 contact--,te/ by organic rema9s--,te/ ( age by m9]al "*--,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts--,volcanic rocks ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod--,basalt ( ,bay ( ,trezza 9 ,sicily--,po/-,plioc5e volcanic rocks ne> ,naples--,dikes ( ,somma--,igne\s =mations ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod--,val di ,noto 9 ,sicily #cig ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,volcanic rocks ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e p]iod--,tuscany--,rome--,volcanic region ( ,olot 9 ,catalonia--,cones & lava-curr5ts--,rav9es & anci5t gravel-b$s--,jets ( air call$ ,bufadors--,age ( ! ,catalonian volcanos--,mioc5e p]iod--,br[n-coal ( ! ,eifel & contemporane\s tra*ytic breccias--,age ( ! br[n-coal--,peculi> *>act]s ( ! volcanos ( ! upp] & l[] ,eifel--,lake crat]s--,trass--,hung>ian volcanos #djh ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,volcanic rocks ( ! ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods cont9u$--,auv]gne--,mont ,dor--,breccias & alluviums ( ,mont ,p]ri]1 ) bones ( quadrup$s--,riv] damm$ up by lava-curr5t--,range ( m9or cones f ,auv]gne to ! ,viv>ais--,monts ,dome--,puy de ,come--,puy de ,p>i\--,cones n d5ud$ by g5]al flood--,velay--,bones ( quadrup$s buri$ 9 scoriae--,cantal--,eoc5e volcanic rocks--,tuffs ne> ,cl]mont--,hill ( ,g]govia--,trap ( ,cretace\s p]iod--,oolitic p]iod--,new ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,c>bonif]\s p]iod--,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,rock & ,sp9dle ne> ,/4 ,&rews--,silurian p]iod--,cambrian volcanic rocks #dbb ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,plutonic ,,rocks--,,granite4 ,g5]al aspect ( granite--,decompos+ into sph]ical masses--,rude column> /ructure--,analogy & diff]5ce ( volcanic & plutonic =mations--,m9]als 9 granite1 & _! arrangem5t--,graphic & porphyritic granite--,mutual p5etration ( cry/als ( qu>tz & felsp>--,occasional m9]als--,sy5ite--,sy5itic1 talcose1 & s*orly granites--,eurite--,passage ( granite into trap--,examples ne> ,*ri/iania & 9 ,ab]de5%ire--,analogy 9 composition ( tra*yte & granite--,granite ve9s 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 ,cornwall1 ! ,valors9e1 & o!r c\ntries--,diff]5t composition ( ve9s f ma9 body ( granite--,metallif]\s ve9s 9 /rata ne> _! junction ) granite--,app>5t isolation ( nodules ( granite--,qu>tz ve9s--,:e!r plutonic rocks are ev] ov]ly+--,_! exposure at ! surface due to d5udation #dcf ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise age ( a plutonic rock--,te/ ( age by relative position--,te/ by intrusion & alt]ation--,te/ by m9]al composition--,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts--,rec5t & ,plioc5e plutonic rocks1 :y invisible--,t]ti>y plutonic rocks 9 ! ,&es--,granite alt]+ ,cretace\s rocks--,granite alt]+ ,lias 9 ! ,alps & 9 ,skye--,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ ,c>bonif]\s /rata--,granite ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,sy5ite alt]+ ,silurian /rata 9 ,norway--,bl5d+ ( ! same ) gneiss--,mo/ anci5t plutonic rocks--,granite protrud$ 9 a solid =m--,on ! probable age ( ! granites ( ,arran1 9 ,scotl& #ddi ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al "* ( metamorphic rocks--,gneiss--,hornbl5de-s*i/ --,mica-s*i/--,clay-slate--,qu>tzite--,* lorite-s*i/--,metamorphic lime/one--,alphabetical li/ & explanation ( o!r rocks ( ?is family--,orig9 ( ! metamorphic /rata--,_! /ratification is real & di/9ct f cleavage--,jo9ts & slaty cleavage--,suppos$ causes ( ^! /ructures--h[ f> connect$ ) cry/all9e action #dfc ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,/rata ne> "s intrusive masses ( granite conv]t$ into rocks id5tical ) diff]5t memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies--,argum5ts h5ce d]iv$ z to ! nature ( plutonic action--,"t may enable ?is action to p]vade d5s] masses--,f :at k9ds ( s$im5t>y rock ea* v>iety ( ! metamorphic class may be d]iv$--,c]ta9 objections to ! metamorphic !ory consid]$--,lam9ation ( tra*yte & obsidian due to motion--,:e!r "s k9ds ( gneiss h become s*i/ose by a simil> action #dgc ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,age ( ea* set ( metamorphic /rata tw(old--,te/ ( age by fossils & m9]al "* n available--,te/ by sup]position ambigu\s--,conv]sion ( d5se masses ( fossilif]\s /rata into metamorphic rocks--,lime/one & %ale ( ,c>r>a--,metamorphic /rata ( mod]n p]iods 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy--,:y ! visible cry/all9e /rata are none ( !m v mod]n--,ord] ( succession 9 metamorphic rocks--,uni=mity ( m9]al "*--,:y ! metamorphic /rata are less calc>e\s ?an ! fossilif]\s #dha ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,m9]al ,,ve9s4 ,w]n]'s doctr9e t m9]al ve9s 7 fissures fill$ f above--,ve9s ( segregation--,ord9>y metallif]\s ve9s or lodes--,_! frequ5t co9cid5ce ) faults--,pro(s t !y orig9at$ 9 fissures 9 solid rock--,ve9s %ift+ o!r ve9s--,poli%+ ( _! walls--,%ells & pebbles 9 lodes--,evid5ce ( ! successive enl>gem5t & re-op5+ ( ve9s--,f\rnet's obs]vations 9 ,auv]gne--,dim5sions ( ve9s--,:y "s alt]nately swell out & contract--,fill+ ( lodes by sublimation f bel[--,*emical & electrical action--,relative age ( ! preci\s metals--,copp] & lead ve9s 9 ,irel& old] ?an ,corni% t9--,lead ve9 9 lias1 ,glamorgan%ire--,gold 9 ,russia--,connection ( hot spr+s & m9]al ve9s--,conclud+ rem>ks #dhh 99 99 99 99 99 ,dates ( ! successive ,editions ( ! ,pr9ciples & ,elem5ts 7or ,manual7 ( ,geology1 by ! ,au?or4 ,pr9ciples1 #a/ vol4 9 octavo1 publi%$ 9 - - - ,jan4 #ahcj4 ----1 #b;d vol4 d4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,jan4 #ahcb4 ----1 #a/ vol4 #b;d edition 9 octavo - - - - - - - #ahcb4 ----1 #b;d vol4 #b;d edition d4 - - - - - - - - - - ,jan4 #ahcc4 ----1 #c;d vol4 #a/ edition d4 - - - - - - - - - - ,may #ahcc4 ----1 ,new edition 7call$ ! #c;d7 ( ! :ole "w 9 #d vols4 #abmo4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,may #ahcd4 ----1 #d? edition1 #d vols4 #abmo4 - - - - - - - - - ,june #ahce4 ----1 #e? edition1 d4 d4 - - - - - - - - - - - - ,m>4 #ahcg4 ,elem5ts1 #a/ edition 9 "o vol4 - - - - - - - - ,july #ahch4 ,pr9ciples1 #f? edition1 #c vols4 #abmo4 - - - - - - ,june #ahdj4 ,elem5ts1 #b;d edition 9 #b vols4 #abmo4 - - - - - - ,july #ahda4 ,pr9ciples1 #g? edition 9 "o vol4 #hvo4 - - - - - ,feb4 #ahdg4 ----1 #h? edition1 n[ publi%$ 9 "o vol4 #hvo4 - ,may #ahej4 ,manual ( ,elem5t>y ,geology 7or ,elem5ts1 #c;d edition71 n[ publi%$ 9 "o vol4 #hvo4 - - - - - - - - - - - - ,jan4 #ahea4 ,works by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4 ,i4 ,,travels ,,9 ,,nor? ,,am]ica1--#ahda-b4 ,) ,geological ,obs]vations on ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,canada1 & ,nova ,scotia4 ,) l>ge col\r$ geological ,map & ,plates4 #b vols4 po/ #hvo4 #bas4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,second ,,visit ,,to ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates1--#ahde-f4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols4 po/ #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,iii4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,geology2 or ! ,mod]n ,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants consid]$1 z illu/rative ( ,geology4 ,eigh? ,edition1 ?or\ghly revis$4 ,) ,maps1 ,plates1 & ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,iv4 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology2 or ! ,,anci5t ,,*anges ( ! ,e>? & its ,inhabitants1 z illu/rat$ by ,geological ,monum5ts4 ,f\r? ,edition4 ,?or\ghly revis$4 ,) #eca ,woodcuts & ,plates4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,classes ,,( ,,rocks4 ,geology def9$--,successive =mation ( ! e>?'s cru/--,classification ( rocks accord+ to _! orig9 & age--,aque\s rocks--,_! /ratification & imb$d$ fossils--,volcanic rocks1 ) & )\t cones & crat]s--,plutonic rocks1 & _! relation to ! volcanic--,metamorphic rocks & _! probable orig9--,! t]m primitive1 :y errone\sly appli$ to ! cry/all9e =mations--,lead+ division ( ! "w4 ,( :at mat]ials is ! e>? compos$1 & 9 :at mann] are ^! mat]ials arrang$8 ,^! are ! fir/ inquiries ) :i* ,geology is occupi$1 a sci5ce :i* d]ives its "n f ! ,greek ge1 ge1 ! e>?1 & logos1 logos1 a disc\rse4 ,previ\sly to exp]i5ce we might h imag9$ t inve/igations ( ?is k9d w\ld relate exclusively to ! m9]al k+dom1 & to ! v>i\s rocks1 soils1 & metals1 :i* occur ^u ! surface ( ! e>?1 or at v>i\s dep?s b5ea? x4 ,b1 9 pursu+ su* rese>*es1 we soon f9d ourselves l$ on to consid] ! successive *anges :i* h tak5 place 9 ! =m] /ate ( ! e>?'s surface & int]ior1 & ! causes :i* h giv5 rise to ^! *anges2 &1 :at is /ill m s+ul> & unexpect$1 we soon become engag$ 9 rese>*es into ! hi/ory ( ! animate creation1 or ( ! v>i\s tribes ( animals & plants :i* h1 at diff]5t p]iods ( ! pa/1 inhabit$ ! globe4 ,all are aw>e t ! solid p>ts ( ! e>? consi/ ( di/9ct sub/ances1 su* z clay1 *alk1 s&1 lime/one1 coal1 slate1 granite1 & ! l2 b previ\sly to obs]vation x is commonly imag9$ t all ^! _h rema9$ f ! fir/ 9 ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ see !m1--t !y 7 creat$ 9 _! pres5t =m1 & 9 _! pres5t position4 ,! geologi/ soon comes to a diff]5t conclusion1 discov]+ pro(s t ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! e>? 7 n all produc$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ?+s1 9 ! /ate 9 :i* we n[ behold !m1 nor 9 an in/ant ( "t4 ,on ! contr>y1 he c %[ t !y h acquir$ _! actual configuration & condition gradually1 "u a great v>iety ( circum/ances1 & at successive p]iods1 dur+ ea* ( :i* di/9ct races ( liv+ be+s h fl\ri%$ on ! l& & 9 ! wat]s1 ! rema9s ( ^! creatures /ill ly+ buri$ 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,by ! e>?'s cru/1 is meant t small portion ( ! ext]ior ( our planet :i* is accessible to human obs]vation1 or on :i* we are enabl$ to reason by obs]vations made at or ne> ! surface4 ,^! reason+s may ext5d to a dep? ( sev]al miles1 p]haps t5 miles2 & ev5 !n x may be said1 t su* a ?ickness is no m ?an #a_/djj "p ( ! di/ance f ! surface to ! c5tre4 ,! rem>k is j2 b al?\gh ! dim5sions ( su* a cru/ are1 9 tru?1 insignificant :5 comp>$ to ! entire globe1 yet !y are va/1 & ( magnific5t ext5t 9 relation to man1 & to ! organic be+s :i* p our globe4 ,ref]r+ to ?is /&>d ( magnitude1 ! geologi/ may admire ! ample limits ( 8 doma91 & admit1 at ! same "t1 t n only ! ext]ior ( ! planet1 b ! entire e>?1 is b an atom 9 ! mid/ ( ! c\ntless worlds survey$ by ! a/ronom]4 ,! mat]ials ( ?is cru/ are n ?r[n toge!r confus$ly2 b di/9ct m9]al masses1 call$ rocks1 are f\nd to occupy def9ite spaces1 & to exhibit a c]ta9 ord] ( arrangem5t4 ,! t]m rock is appli$ indiff]5tly by geologi/s to all ^! sub/ances1 :e!r !y be s(t or /ony1 = clay & s& are includ$ 9 ! t]m1 & "s h ev5 br\ght peat "u ?is d5om9ation4 ,our old] writ]s endeav\r$ to avoid (f]+ su* viol5ce to our language1 by speak+ ( ! compon5t mat]ials ( ! e>? z consi/+ ( rocks & soils4 ,b !re is (t5 s ins5sible a passage f a s(t & incoh]5t /ate to t ( /one1 t geologi/s ( all c\ntries h f\nd x indisp5sable to h "o te*nical t]m to include bo?1 & 9 ?is s5se we f9d ro*e appli$ 9 ,fr5*1 rocca 9 ,italian1 & fels>t 9 ,g]man4 ,! beg9n]1 h[ev]1 mu/ con/antly be> 9 m9d1 t ! t]m rock by no means implies t a m9]al mass is 9 an indurat$ or /ony condition4 ,! mo/ natural & conv5i5t mode ( classify+ ! v>i\s rocks :i* compose ! e>?'s cru/1 is to ref]1 9 ! fir/ place1 to _! orig91 & 9 ! second to _! relative age4 ,i %all !re=e beg9 by endeav\r+ briefly to expla9 to ! /ud5t h[ all rocks may be divid$ into f\r great classes by ref]5ce to _! diff]5t orig91 or1 9 o!r words1 by ref]5ce to ! diff]5t circum/ances & causes by :i* !y h be5 produc$4 ,! fir/ two divisions1 :i* w at once be und]/ood z natural1 are ! aque\s & volcanic1 or ! products ( wat]y & ^? ( igne\s action at or ne> ! surface4 ,aque\s rocks4--,! aque\s rocks1 sometimes call$ ! s$im5t>y1 or fossilif]\s1 cov] a l>g] "p ( ! e>?'s surface ?an any o!rs4 ,^! rocks are /ratifi$1 or divid$ into di/9ct lay]s1 or /rata4 ,! t]m /ratum means simply a b$1 or any ?+ spread out or /rew$ ov] a giv5 surface2 & we inf] t ^! /rata h be5 g5]ally spread out by ! action ( wat]1 f :at we daily see tak+ place ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 or on ! l& dur+ tempor>y inundations4 ,=1 :5ev] a runn+ /ream *>g$ ) mud or s&1 has its velocity *eck$1 z :5 x ent]s a lake or sea1 or ov]fl[s a pla91 ! s$im5t1 previ\sly held 9 susp5sion by ! motion ( ! wat]1 s9ks1 by its own gravity1 to ! bottom4 ,9 ?is mann] lay]s ( mud & s& are ?r[n d[n "o ^u ano!r4 ,if we dra9 a lake :i* has be5 f$ by a small /ream1 we frequ5tly f9d at ! bottom a s]ies ( deposits1 dispos$ ) consid]able regul>ity1 "o above ! o!r2 ! upp]mo/1 p]haps1 may be a /ratum ( peat1 next bel[ a m d5se & solid v>iety ( ! same mat]ial2 /ill l[] a b$ ( %ell-m>l1 alt]nat+ ) peat or s&1 & !n o!r b$s ( m>l1 divid$ by lay]s ( clay4 ,n[1 if a second pit be sunk ?r\gh ! same cont9u\s lacu/r9e =mation1 at "s di/ance f ! fir/1 ne>ly ! same s]ies ( b$s is commonly met )1 yet ) slight v>iations2 "s1 = example1 ( ! lay]s ( s&1 clay1 or m>l1 may be want+1 "o or m ( !m hav+ ?9n$ out & giv5 place to o!rs1 or sometimes "o ( ! masses fir/ exam9$ is obs]v$ to increase 9 ?ickness to ! exclusion ( o!r b$s4 ,! t]m =mation1 :i* ,i h us$ 9 ! above explanation1 expresses 9 geology any assemblage ( rocks :i* h "s "* 9 common1 :e!r ( orig91 age1 or composition4 ,?us we speak ( /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$1 fre%wat] & m>9e1 aque\s & volcanic1 anci5t & mod]n1 metallif]\s & non-metallif]\s =mations4 ,9 ! e/u>ies ( l>ge riv]s1 su* z ! ,ganges & ! ,mississippi1 we may obs]ve1 at l[ wat]1 ph5om5a analog\s to ^? ( ! dra9$ lakes above m5tion$1 b on a gr&] scale1 & ext5d+ ov] areas sev]al hundr$ miles 9 l5g? & bread?4 ,:5 ! p]iodical inundations subside1 ! riv] holl[s out a *annel to ! dep? ( _m y>ds ?r\gh horizontal b$s ( clay & s&1 ! ends ( :i* are se5 expos$ 9 p]p5dicul> cliffs4 ,^! b$s v>y 9 col\r1 & are occasionally *>act]iz$ by conta9+ drift-wood or %ells4 ,! %ells may belong to species peculi> to ! riv]1 b are sometimes ^? ( m>9e te/acea1 wa%$ into ! m\? ( ! e/u>y dur+ /orms4 ,! annual floods ( ! ,nile 9 ,egypt are well kn[n1 & ! f]tile deposits ( mud :i* !y leave on ! pla9s4 ,?is mud is /ratifi$1 ! ?9 lay] ?r[n d[n 9 "o season diff]+ slightly 9 col\r f t ( a previ\s ye>1 & be+ sep>able f x1 z has be5 obs]v$ 9 excavations at ,cairo1 & o!r places4#c-;,a ,:5 b$s ( s&1 clay1 & m>l1 conta9+ %ells & vegetable matt]1 are f\nd arrang$ 9 a simil> mann] 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 we ascribe to !m a simil> orig92 & ! m we exam9e _! *>act]s 9 m9ute detail1 ! m exact d we f9d ! resemblance4 ,?us1 = example1 at v>i\s heights & dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & (t5 f> f seas1 lakes1 & riv]s1 we meet ) lay]s ( r\nd$ pebbles compos$ ( diff]5t rocks m+l$ toge!r4 ,!y are l ! %+le ( a sea-bea*1 or pebbles =m$ 9 ! b$s ( torr5ts & riv]s1 :i* are c>ri$ d[n into ! ocean :]ev] ^! desc5d f high gr\nds bord]+ a coa/4 ,!re ! gravel is spread out by ! waves & curr5ts ov] a consid]able space2 b dur+ seasons ( dr\ght ! torr5ts & riv]s are ne>ly dry1 & h only p[] to convey f9e s& or mud into ! sea4 ,h5ce1 alt]nate lay]s ( gravel & f9e s$im5t accumulate "u wat]1 & su* alt]nations are f\nd by geologi/s 9 ! int]ior ( e cont95t4#d-;,a ,if a /ratifi$ arrangem5t1 & ! r\nd$ =ms ( pebbles1 are alone suffici5t to lead u to ! conclusion t c]ta9 rocks orig9at$ "u wat]1 ?is op9ion is f>!r confirm$ by ! di/9ct & indep5d5t evid5ce ( fossils1 s abundantly includ$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,by a fossil is meant any body1 or ! traces ( ! exi/5ce ( any body1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 :i* has be5 buri$ 9 ! e>? by natural causes4 ,n[ ! rema9s ( animals1 especially ( aquatic species1 are f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e imb$d$ 9 /ratifi$ rocks1 & sometimes1 9 ! case ( lime/one1 !y are 9 su* abundance z to con/itute ! entire mass ( ! rock itself4 ,%ells & corals are ! mo/ frequ5t1 & ) !m are (t5 associat$ ! bones & tee? ( fi%es1 fragm5ts ( wood1 impressions ( leaves1 & o!r organic sub/ances4 ,fossil %ells1 ( =ms su* z n[ ab\nd 9 ! sea1 are met ) f> inl&1 bo? ne> ! surface1 & at great dep?s bel[ x4 ,!y occur at all heights above ! level ( ! ocean1 hav+ be5 obs]v$ at elevations ( #hjjj feet 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 #aj1jjj 9 ! ,alps1 #ac1jjj 9 ! ,&es1 & above #af1jjj feet 9 ! ,himalayas4#d-;,b ,^! %ells belong mo/ly to m>9e te/acea1 b 9 "s places exclusively to =ms *>act]i/ic ( lakes & riv]s4 ,h5ce x is conclud$ t "s anci5t /rata 7 deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & o!rs 9 lakes & e/u>ies4 ,:5 geology 0 fir/ cultivat$1 x 0 a g5]al belief1 t ^! m>9e %ells & o!r fossils 7 ! effects & pro(s ( ! deluge ( ,noah2 b all :o h c>efully inve/igat$ ! ph5om5a h long reject$ ?is doctr9e4 ,a transi5t flood might be suppos$ to leave beh9d x1 "h & !re ^u ! surface1 scatt]$ heaps ( mud1 s&1 & %+le1 ) %ells confus$ly int]mix$2 b ! /rata conta9+ fossils are n sup]ficial deposits1 & d n simply cov] ! e>?1 b con/itute ! entire mass ( m\nta9s4 ,nor are ! fossils m+l$ )\t ref]5ce to ! orig9al habits & natures ( ! creatures ( :i* !y are ! memorials2 ^?1 = example1 be+ f\nd associat$ toge!r :i* liv$ 9 deep or 9 %all[ wat]1 ne> ! %ore or f> f x1 9 bracki% or 9 salt wat]4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 a fav\rite notion ( "s mod]n writ]s1 :o 7 aw>e t fossil bodies c\ld n all be ref]r$ to ! deluge1 t !y1 & ! /rata 9 :i* !y are entomb$1 might h be5 deposit$ 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean dur+ ! p]iod :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! creation ( man & ! deluge4 ,!y h imag9$ t ! ant$iluvian b$ ( ! ocean1 aft] hav+ be5 ! receptacle ( _m /ratifi$ deposits1 became conv]t$1 at ! "t ( ! flood1 into ! l&s :i* we inhabit1 & t ! anci5t cont95ts 7 at ! same "t subm]g$1 & became ! b$ ( ! pres5t sea4 ,?is hypo!sis1 al?\gh pref]able to ! diluvial !ory be=e allud$ to1 s9ce x admits t all fossilif]\s /rata 7 successively ?r[n d[n f wat]1 is yet :olly inadequate to expla9 ! repeat$ revolutions :i* ! e>? has und]gone1 & ! signs :i* ! exi/+ cont95ts exhibit1 9 mo/ regions1 ( hav+ em]g$ f ! ocean at an era f> m remote ?an f\r ?\s& ye>s f ! pres5t "t4 ,ample pro(s ( ^! reit]at$ revolutions w be giv5 9 ! sequel1 & x w be se5 t _m di/9ct sets ( s$im5t>y /rata1 ea* sev]al hundr$s or ?\s&s ( feet ?ick1 are pil$ "o ^u ! o!r 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 ea* conta9+ peculi> fossil animals & plants :i* are di/+ui%able ) few exceptions f species n[ liv+4 ,! mass ( "s ( ^! /rata consi/s almo/ entirely ( corals1 o!rs are made up ( %ells1 o!rs ( plants turn$ into coal1 :ile "s are )\t fossils4 ,9 "o set ( /rata ! species ( fossils are m>9e2 9 ano!r1 ly+ imm$iately above or bel[1 !y z cle>ly prove t ! deposit 0 =m$ 9 a bracki% e/u>y or lake4 ,:5 ! /ud5t has m fully exam9$ into ^! appe>ances1 he w become conv9c$ t ! "t requir$ = ! orig9 ( ! rocks compos+ ! actual cont95ts mu/ h be5 f> great] ?an t :i* is conc$$ by ! !ory above allud$ to2 & likewise t no "o univ]sal & sudd5 conv]sion ( sea into l& w acc\nt = geological appe>ances4 ,we h n[ po9t$ out "o great class ( rocks1 :i*1 h[ev] !y may v>y 9 m9]al composition1 col\r1 gra91 or o!r *>act]s1 ext]nal & int]nal1 may nev]!less be gr\p$ toge!r z hav+ a common orig94 ,!y h all be5 =m$ "u wat]1 9 ! same mann] z mod]n accumulations ( s&1 mud1 %+le1 banks ( %ells1 reefs ( coral1 & ! l1 & are all *>act]iz$ by /ratification or fossils1 or by bo?4 ,volcanic rocks4--,! division ( rocks :i* we may next consid] are ! volcanic1 or ^? :i* h be5 produc$ at or ne> ! surface :e!r 9 anci5t or mod]n times1 n by wat]1 b by ! action ( fire or subt]ranean heat4 ,^! rocks are = ! mo/ "p un/ratifi$1 & are devoid ( fossils4 ,!y are m p>tially di/ribut$ ?an aque\s =mations1 at lea/ 9 respect to horizontal ext5sion4 ,among ^? p>ts ( ,europe :]e !y exhibit *>act]s n to be mi/ak51 ,i may m5tion n only ,sicily & ! c\ntry r\nd ,naples1 b ,auv]gne1 ,velay1 & ,viv>ais1 n[ ! dep>tm5ts ( ,puy de ,dome1 ,haute ,loire1 & ,arde*e1 t[>ds ! c5tre & s\? ( ,france1 9 :i* are sev]al hundr$ conical hills hav+ ! =ms ( mod]n volcanos1 ) crat]s m or less p]fect on _m ( _! summits4 ,^! cones are compos$ moreov] ( lava1 s&1 & a%es1 simil> to ^? ( active volcanos4 ,/reams ( lava may sometimes be trac$ f ! cones into ! adjo9+ valleys1 :]e !y h *ok$ up ! anci5t *annels ( riv]s ) solid rock1 9 ! same mann] z "s mod]n fl[s ( lava 9 ,icel& h be5 kn[n to d1 ! riv]s ei!r fl[+ b5ea? or cutt+ out a n>r[ passage on "o side ( ! lava4 ,al?\gh none ( ^! ,fr5* volcanos h be5 9 activity )9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory or tradition1 _! =ms are (t5 v p]fect4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 h be5 comp>$ to ! m]e skeletons ( volcanos1 ! ra9s & torr5ts hav+ wa%$ _! sides1 & remov$ all ! loose s& & scoriae1 leav+ only ! h>d] & m solid mat]ials4 ,by ?is erosion1 & by e>?quakes1 _! int]nal /ructure has occasionally be5 laid op5 to view1 9 fissures & rav9es2 & we !n behold n only _m successive b$s & masses ( por\s lava1 s&1 & scoriae1 b also p]p5dicul> walls1 or dikes1 z !y are call$1 ( volcanic rock1 :i* h bur/ ?r\gh ! o!r mat]ials4 ,su* dikes are also obs]v$ 9 ! /ructure ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & o!r active volcanos4 ,!y h be5 =m$ by ! p\r+ ( melt$ matt]1 :e!r f above or bel[1 into op5 fissures1 & !y commonly trav]se deposits ( volcanic tuff1 a sub/ance produc$ by ! %[]+ d[n f ! air1 or incumb5t wat]s1 ( s& & c9d]s1 fir/ %ot up f ! int]ior ( ! e>? by ! explosions ( volcanic gases4 ,besides ! p>ts ( ,france above allud$ to1 !re are o!r c\ntries1 z ! nor? ( ,spa91 ! s\? ( ,sicily1 ! ,tuscan t]ritory ( ,italy1 ! l[] ,rh5i% prov9ces1 & ,hung>y1 :]e sp5t volcanos may be se51 /ill pres]v+ 9 _m cases a conical =m1 & hav+ crat]s & (t5 lava-/reams connect$ ) !m4 ,!re are also o!r rocks 9 ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 & almo/ e c\ntry 9 ,europe1 :i* we inf] to be ( igne\s orig91 al?\gh !y d n =m hills ) cones & crat]s4 ,?us1 = example1 we feel assur$ t ! rock ( ,/affa1 & t ( ! ,giant's ,causeway1 call$ basalt1 is volcanic1 because x agrees 9 its column> /ructure & m9]al composition ) /reams ( lava :i* we "k to h fl[$ f ! crat]s ( volcanos4 ,we f9d also simil> basaltic & o!r igne\s rocks associat$ ) b$s ( tuff 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & =m+ dikes1 su* z h be5 spok5 (2 & "s ( ! /rata ?r\gh :i* ^! dikes cut are occasionally alt]$ at ! po9t ( contact1 z if !y _h be5 expos$ to ! int5se heat ( melt$ matt]4 ,! abs5ce ( cones & crat]s1 & long n>r[ /reams ( sup]ficial lava1 9 ,engl& & _m o!r c\ntries1 is pr9cipally to be attribut$ to ! eruptions hav+ be5 subm>9e1 j z a consid]able proportion ( volcanos 9 our own times bur/ out b5ea? ! sea4 ,b ?is "q mu/ be enl>g$ ^u m fully 9 ! *apt]s on ,igne\s ,rocks1 9 :i* x w also be %[n1 t z diff]5t s$im5t>y =mations1 conta9+ ea* _! *>act]i/ic fossils1 h be5 deposit$ at successive p]iods1 s also volcanic s& & scoriae h be5 ?r[n out1 & lavas h fl[$ ov] ! l& or b$ ( ! sea1 at _m diff]5t epo*s1 or h be5 inject$ into fissures2 s t ! igne\s z well z ! aque\s rocks may be class$ z a *ronological s]ies ( monum5ts1 ?r[+ light on a succession ( ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,plutonic rocks 7,granite1 c474--,we h n[ po9t$ out ! exi/5ce ( two di/9ct ord]s ( m9]al masses1 ! aque\s & ! volcanic3 b if we exam9e a l>ge portion ( a cont95t1 especially if x conta9 )9 x a l(ty m\nta9 range1 we r>ely fail to discov] two o!r classes ( rocks1 v di/9ct f ei!r ( ^? above allud$ to1 & :i* we c nei!r assimilate to deposits su* z are n[ accumulat$ 9 lakes or seas1 nor to ^? g5]at$ by ord9>y volcanic action4 ,! memb]s ( bo? ^! divisions ( rocks agree 9 be+ highly cry/all9e & de/itute ( organic rema9s4 ,! rocks ( "o division h be5 call$ plutonic1 compreh5d+ all ! granites & c]ta9 porphyries1 :i* are ne>ly alli$ 9 "s ( _! *>act]s to volcanic =mations4 ,! memb]s ( ! o!r class are /ratifi$ & (t5 slaty1 & h be5 call$ by "s ! cry/all9e s*i/s1 9 :i* gr\p are includ$ gneiss1 micace\s-s*i/ 7or mica-slate71 hornbl5de-s*i/1 /atu>y m>ble1 ! f9] k9ds ( ro(+ slate1 & o!r rocks aft]w>ds to be describ$4 ,z x is admitt$ t no?+ /rictly analog\s to ^! cry/all9e productions c n[ be se5 9 ! progress ( =mation on ! e>?'s surface1 x w naturally be ask$1 on :at data we c f9d a place = !m 9 a sy/em ( classification f\nd$ on ! orig9 ( rocks4 ,i _c1 9 reply to ?is "q1 pret5d to give ! /ud5t1 9 a few words1 an intelligible acc\nt ( ! long *a9 ( facts & reason+s by :i* geologi/s h be5 l$ to inf] ! analogy ( ! rocks 9 "q to o!rs n[ 9 progress at ! surface4 ,! result1 h[ev]1 may be briefly /at$4 ,all ! v>i\s k9ds ( granite1 :i* con/itute ! plutonic family1 are suppos$ to be ( igne\s orig91 b to h be5 =m$ "u great pressure1 at consid]able dep?s 9 ! e>?1 or sometimes1 p]haps1 "u a c]ta9 weight ( incumb5t wat]4 ,l ! lava ( volcanos1 !y h be5 melt$1 & h aft]w>ds cool$ & cry/alliz$1 b ) extreme sl[ness1 & "u conditions v diff]5t f ^? ( bodies cool+ 9 ! op5 air4 ,h5ce !y diff] f ! volcanic rocks1 n only by _! m cry/all9e texture1 b also by ! abs5ce ( tuffs & breccias1 :i* are ! products ( eruptions at ! e>?'s surface1 or b5ea? seas ( inconsid]able dep?4 ,!y diff] also by ! abs5ce ( pores or cellul> cavities1 to :i* ! expansion ( ! entangl$ gases gives rise 9 ord9>y lava4 ,al?\gh granite has (t5 pi]c$ ?r\gh o!r /rata1 x has r>ely1 if ev]1 be5 obs]v$ to re/ ^u !m1 z if x _h ov]fl[$4 ,b z ?is is cont9ually ! case ) ! volcanic rocks1 !y h be5 /yl$1 f ?is peculi>ity1 ov]ly+ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch2 & ,mr4 ,neck] has propos$ ! t]m und]ly+ = ! granites1 to designate ! opposite mode 9 :i* !y almo/ inv>iably pres5t !mselves4 ,metamorphic1 or /ratifi$ cry/all9e rocks4--,! f\r? & la/ great division ( rocks are ! cry/all9e /rata & slates1 or s*i/s1 call$ gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 *lorite-s*i/1 m>ble1 & ! l1 ! orig9 ( :i* is m d\btful ?an t ( ! o!r ?ree classes4 ,!y conta9 no pebbles1 or s&1 or scoriae1 or angul> pieces ( imb$d$ /one1 & no traces ( organic bodies1 & !y are (t5 z cry/all9e z granite1 yet are divid$ into b$s1 correspond+ 9 =m & arrangem5t to ^? ( s$im5t>y =mations1 & are !re=e said to be /ratifi$4 ,! b$s sometimes consi/ ( an alt]nation ( sub/ances v>y+ 9 col\r1 composition1 & ?ickness1 precisely z we see 9 /ratifi$ fossilif]\s deposits4 ,accord+ to ! ,huttonian !ory1 :i* ,i adopt z mo/ probable1 & :i* w be aft]w>ds m fully expla9$1 ! mat]ials ( ^! /rata 7 orig9ally deposit$ f wat] 9 ! usual =m ( s$im5t1 b !y 7 subsequ5tly s alt]$ by subt]ranean heat1 z to assume a new texture4 ,x is demon/rable1 9 "s cases at lea/1 t su* a complete conv]sion has actually tak5 place1 fossilif]\s /rata hav+ ex*ang$ an e>?y = a highly cry/all9e texture = a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile f _! contact ) granite4 ,9 "s cases1 d>k lime/ones1 replete ) %ells & corals1 h be5 turn$ into :ite /atu>y m>ble1 & h>d clays into slates call$ mica-s*i/ & hornbl5de-s*i/1 all signs ( organic bodies hav+ be5 oblit]at$4 ,al?\gh we are 9 a great degree ignorant ( ! precise nature ( ! influ5ce ex]t$ 9 ^! cases1 yet x evid5tly be>s "s analogy to t :i* volcanic heat & gases are kn[n to produce2 & ! action may be conv5i5tly call$ plutonic1 because x appe>s to h be5 develop$ 9 ^? regions :]e plutonic rocks are g5]at$1 & "u simil> circum/ances ( pressure & dep? 9 ! e>?4 ,:e!r hot wat] or /eam p]meat+ /ratifi$ masses1 or electricity1 or any o!r causes h co-op]at$ to produce ! cry/all9e texture1 may be matt] ( speculation1 b x is cle> t ! plutonic influ5ce has sometimes p]vad$ entire m\nta9 masses ( /rata4 ,9 accordance ) ! hypo!sis above allud$ to1 ,i propos$ 9 ! fir/ edition ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7#ahcc71 ! t]m ,metamorphic = ! alt]$ /rata1 a t]m d]iv$ f meta1 meta1 trans1 & morphe1 morphe1 =ma4 ,h5ce !re are f\r great classes ( rocks consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to _! orig91--! aque\s1 ! volcanic1 ! plutonic1 & ! metamorphic4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is "w x w be %[n1 t portions ( ea* ( ^! f\r di/9ct classes h orig9at$ at _m successive p]iods4 ,!y h all be5 produc$ contemporane\sly1 & may ev5 n[ be 9 ! progress ( =mation4 ,x is n true1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 t all granites1 toge!r ) ! cry/all9e or metamorphic /rata1 7 fir/ =m$1 & !re=e entitl$ to be call$ primitive1 & t ! aque\s & volcanic rocks 7 aft]w>ds sup]impos$1 & %\ld1 !re=e1 rank z second>y 9 ! ord] ( "t4 ,?is idea 0 adopt$ 9 ! infancy ( ! sci5ce1 :5 all =mations1 :e!r /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 e>?y or cry/all9e1 ) or )\t fossils1 7 alike reg>d$ z ( aque\s orig94 ,at t p]iod x 0 naturally argu$1 t ! f\ndation mu/ be old] ?an ! sup]/ructure2 b x 0 aft]w>ds discov]$1 t ?is op9ion 0 by no means 9 e in/ance a legitimate d$uction f facts2 = ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ h (t5 be5 modifi$1 & ev5 entirely *ang$1 by ! influ5ce ( volcanic & o!r subt]ranean causes1 :ile sup]impos$ =mations h n be5 9 ! slighte/ degree alt]$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! de/roy+ & r5ovat+ processes h giv5 bir? to new rocks bel[1 :ile ^? above1 :e!r cry/all9e or fossilif]\s1 h rema9$ 9 _! anci5t condition4 ,ev5 9 cities1 su* z ,v5ice & ,am/]dam1 x _c be laid d[n z univ]sally true1 t ! upp] p>ts ( ea* edifice1 :e!r ( brick or m>ble1 are m mod]n ?an ! f\ndations on :i* !y re/1 = ^! (t5 consi/ ( wood5 piles1 :i* may h rott$ & be5 replac$ "o aft] ! o!r1 )\t ! lea/ injury to ! build+s above2 mean:ile1 ^! may h requir$ sc>cely any repair1 & may h be5 con/antly inhabit$4 ,s x is ) ! habitable surface ( our globe1 9 its relation to l>ge masses ( rock imm$iately bel[3 x may cont9ue ! same = ages1 :ile subjac5t mat]ials1 at a great dep?1 are pass+ f a solid to a fluid /ate1 & !n reconsolidat+1 s z to acquire a new texture4 ,z all ! cry/all9e rocks may1 9 "s respects1 be view$ z belong+ to "o great family1 :e!r !y be /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 plutonic or metamorphic1 x w (t5 be conv5i5t to speak ( !m by "o common "n4 ,x be+ n[ asc]ta9$1 z above /at$1 t !y are ( v diff]5t ages1 sometimes new] ?an ! /rata call$ second>y1 ! t]m prim>y1 :i* 0 =m]ly us$ = ! :ole1 mu/ be ab&on$1 z x w\ld imply a manife/ contradiction4 ,x is indisp5sable1 !re=e1 to f9d a new "n1 "o :i* mu/ n be ( *ronological import1 & mu/ express1 on ! "o h&1 "s peculi>ity equally attributable to granite & gneiss 7to ! plutonic z well z ! alt]$ rocks71 &1 on ! o!r1 mu/ h ref]5ce to *>act]s 9 :i* ^? rocks diff]1 bo? f ! volcanic & f ! unalt]$ s$im5t>y /rata4 ,i propos$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7fir/ edition1 vol4 iii471 ! t]m hypog5e = ?is purpose1 d]iv$ f hypo1 "u1 & g9omai1 to be1 or to be born2 a ^w imply+ ! !ory t granite1 gneiss1 & ! o!r cry/all9e =mations are alike ne!r-=m$ rocks1 or rocks :i* h n assum$ _! pres5t =m & /ructure at ! surface4 ,?is occurs 9 ! l[e/ place 9 ! ord] ( sup]position4 ,ev5 9 regions su* z ! ,alps1 :]e "s masses ( granite & gneiss c be %[n to be ( comp>atively mod]n date1 belong+1 = example1 to ! p]iod h]eaft] to be describ$ z t]ti>y1 !y are /ill und]ly+ rocks4 ,!y nev] repose on ! volcanic or trappean =mations1 nor on /rata conta9+ organic rema9s4 ,!y are hypog5e1 z be+ "u all ! re/4 ,f :at has n[ be5 said1 ! read] w und]/& t ea* ( ! f\r great classes ( rocks may be /udi$ "u two di/9ct po9ts ( view2 fir/1 !y may be /udi$ simply z m9]al masses d]iv+ _! orig9 f p>ticul> causes1 & hav+ a c]ta9 composition1 =m1 & position 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 or o!r *>act]s bo? positive & negative1 su* z ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( organic rema9s4 ,9 ! second place1 ! rocks ( ea* class may be view$ z a gr& *ronological s]ies ( monum5ts1 atte/+ a succession ( ev5ts 9 ! =m] hi/ory ( ! globe & its liv+ inhabitants4 ,i %all accord+ly proce$ to treat ( ea* family ( rocks2 fir/1 9 ref]5ce to ^? *>act]s :i* are n *ronological1 & !n 9 p>ticul> relation to ! sev]al p]iods :5 !y 7 =m$4 ,,footnotes3 #c-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 by ! ,au?or1 ,index1 ,nile1 ,riv]s1 c4 #d-;,a ,see p4 #ah4 #d-;,b ,see ,geograph4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iv4 p4 #fd4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,aque\s ,,rocks--,,_! ,,composition ,,& ,,=ms ,,( ,,/ratification4 ,m9]al composition ( /rata--,ar5ace\s rocks--,argillace\s--,calc>e\s--,gypsum- -,=ms ( /ratification--,orig9al horizontality--,?9n+ out--,diagonal arrangem5t--,ripple m>k4 ,9 pursuance ( ! arrangem5t expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we %all beg9 by exam9+ ! aque\s or s$im5t>y rocks1 :i* are = ! mo/ "p di/9ctly /ratifi$1 & conta9 fossils4 ,we may fir/ /udy !m ) ref]5ce to _! m9]al composition1 ext]nal appe>ance1 position1 mode ( orig91 organic cont5ts1 & o!r *>act]s :i* belong to !m z aque\s =mations1 indep5d5tly ( _! age1 & we may aft]w>ds consid] !m *ronologically or ) ref]5ce to ! successive geological p]iods :5 !y orig9at$4 ,i h already giv5 an outl9e ( ! data :i* l$ to ! belief t ! /ratifi$ & fossilif]\s rocks 7 orig9ally deposit$ "u wat]2 b1 be=e ent]+ into a m detail$ inve/igation1 x w be desirable to say some?+ ( ! ord9>y mat]ials ( :i* su* /rata are compos$4 ,^! may be said to belong pr9cipally to ?ree divisions1 ! ar5ace\s1 ! argillace\s1 & ! calc>e\s1 :i* are =m$ respectively ( s&1 clay1 & c>bonate ( lime4 ,( ^!1 ! ar5ace\s1 or s&y masses1 are *iefly made up ( silice\s or fl9ty gra9s2 ! argillace\s1 or clayey1 ( a mixture ( silice\s matt]1 ) a c]ta9 proportion1 ab\t a f\r? 9 weight1 ( alum9\s e>?2 &1 la/ly1 ! calc>e\s rocks or lime/ones consi/ ( c>bonic acid & lime4 ,ar5ace\s or silice\s rocks4--,to speak fir/ ( ! s&y division3 b$s ( loose s& are frequ5tly met )1 ( :i* ! gra9s consi/ entirely ( silex1 :i* t]m compreh5ds all purely silice\s m9]als1 z qu>tz & common fl9t4 ,qu>tz is silex 9 its pure/ =m2 fl9t usually conta9s "s admixture ( alum9e & oxide ( iron4 ,! silice\s gra9s 9 s& are usually r\nd$1 z if by ! action ( runn+ wat]4 ,s&/one is an aggregate ( su* gra9s1 :i* (t5 coh]e toge!r )\t any visible cem5t1 b m commonly are b\nd toge!r by a slight quantity ( silice\s or calc>e\s matt]1 or by iron or clay4 ,pure silice\s rocks may be kn[n by n eff]vesc+ :5 a drop ( nitric1 sulphuric1 or o!r acid is appli$ to !m1 or by ! gra9s n be+ readily scrat*$ or brok5 by ord9>y pressure4 ,9 nature !re is e int]m$iate gradation1 f p]fectly loose s&1 to ! h>de/ s&/one4 ,9 micace\s s&/ones mica is v abundant2 & ! ?9 silv]y plates into :i* t m9]al divides1 are (t5 arrang$ 9 lay]s p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification1 giv+ a slaty or lam9at$ texture to ! rock4 ,:5 s&/one is co>se-gra9$1 x is usually call$ grit4 ,if ! gra9s are r\nd$1 & l>ge en\gh to be call$ pebbles1 x becomes a conglom]ate1 or pudd+-/one1 :i* may consi/ ( pieces ( "o or ( _m diff]5t k9ds ( rock4 ,a conglom]ate1 !re=e1 is simply gravel b\nd toge!r by a cem5t4 ,argillace\s rocks4--,clay1 /rictly speak+1 is a mixture ( silex or fl9t ) a l>ge proportion1 usually ab\t "o f\r?1 ( alum9e1 or argil2 b1 9 common language1 any e>? :i* possesses suffici5t ductility1 :5 knead$ up ) wat]1 to be fa%ion$ l pa/e by ! h&1 or by ! pott]'s la!1 is call$ a clay2 & su* clays v>y greatly 9 _! composition1 & are1 9 g5]al1 no?+ m ?an mud d]iv$ f ! decomposition or we>+ d[n ( v>i\s rocks4 ,! pure/ clay f\nd 9 nature is porcela9 clay1 or kaol91 :i* results f ! decomposition ( a rock compos$ ( felsp> & qu>tz1 & x is almo/ always mix$ ) qu>tz4#aa-;,a ,%ale has also ! prop]ty1 l clay1 ( becom+ pla/ic 9 wat]3 x is a m solid =m ( clay1 or argillace\s matt]1 cond5s$ by pressure4 ,x usually divides into irregul> lam9ae4 ,"o g5]al "* ( all argillace\s rocks is to give out a peculi>1 e>?y od\r :5 brea!d ^u1 :i* is a te/ ( ! pres5ce ( alum9e1 al?\gh x does n belong to pure alum9e1 b1 app>5tly1 to ! comb9ation ( t sub/ance ) oxide ( iron4#aa-;,b ,calc>e\s rocks4--,?is division compreh5ds ^? rocks :i*1 l *alk1 are compos$ *iefly ( lime & c>bonic acid4 ,%ells & corals are also =m$ ( ! same elem5ts1 ) ! addition ( animal matt]4 ,to obta9 pure lime x is necess>y to calc9e ^! calc>e\s sub/ances1 t is to say1 to expose !m to heat ( suffici5t int5sity to drive (f ! c>bonic acid1 & o!r volatile matt]1 )\t vitrify+ or melt+ ! lime itself4 ,:ite *alk is (t5 pure c>bonate ( lime2 & ?is rock1 al?\gh usually 9 a s(t & e>?y /ate1 is sometimes suffici5tly solid to be us$ = build+1 & ev5 passes into a compact /one1 or a /one ( :i* ! sep>ate p>ts are s m9ute z n to be di/+ui%able f ea* o!r by ! nak$ eye4 ,_m lime/ones are made up entirely ( m9ute fragm5ts ( %ells & coral1 or ( calc>e\s s& cem5t$ toge!r4 ,^! la/ might be call$ calc>e\s s&/ones2 b t t]m is m prop]ly appli$ to a rock 9 :i* ! gra9s are p>tly calc>e\s & p>tly silice\s1 or to qu>tzose s&/ones1 hav+ a cem5t ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,! v>iety ( lime/one call$ oolite is compos$ ( num]\s small egg-l gra9s1 resembl+ ! roe ( a fi%1 ea* ( :i* has usually a small fragm5t ( s& z a nucleus1 ar\nd :i* conc5tric lay]s ( calc>e\s matt] h accumulat$4 ,any lime/one :i* is suffici5tly h>d to take a f9e poli% is call$ m>ble4 ,_m ( ^! are fossilif]\s2 b /atu>y m>ble1 :i* is also call$ sac*>9e lime/one1 z hav+ a texture resembl+ t ( loaf-sug>1 is devoid ( fossils1 & is 9 _m cases a memb] ( ! metamorphic s]ies4 ,silice\s lime/one is an intimate mixture ( c>bonate ( lime & fl9t1 & is h>d] 9 proportion z ! fl9ty matt] pr$om9ates4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( lime 9 a rock may be asc]ta9$ by apply+ to ! surface a small drop ( dilut$ sulphuric1 nitric1 or muriatic acids1 or /rong v9eg>2 = ! lime1 hav+ a great] *emical aff9ity = any "o ( ^! acids ?an = ! c>bonic1 unites imm$iately ) !m to =m new comp\nds1 !reby becom+ a sulphate1 nitrate1 or muriate ( lime4 ,! c>bonic acid1 :5 ?us lib]at$ f its union ) ! lime1 escapes 9 a gase\s =m1 & fro?s up or eff]vesces z x makes its way 9 small bubbles ?r\gh ! drop ( liquid4 ,?is eff]vesc5ce is brisk or feeble 9 proportion z ! lime/one is pure or impure1 or1 9 o!r words1 accord+ to ! quantity ( =eign matt] mix$ ) ! c>bonate ( lime4 ,)\t ! aid ( ?is te/1 ! mo/ exp]i5c$ eye _c always detect ! pres5ce ( c>bonate ( lime 9 rocks4 ,! above-m5tion$ ?ree classes ( rocks1 ! silice\s1 argillace\s1 & calc>e\s1 pass cont9ually into ea* o!r1 & r>ely occur 9 a p]fectly sep>ate & pure =m4 ,?us x is an exception to ! g5]al rule to meet ) a lime/one z pure z ord9>y :ite *alk1 or ) clay z alum9\s z t us$ 9 ,cornwall = porcela91 or ) s& s entirely compos$ ( silice\s gra9s z ! :ite s& ( ,alum ,bay 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 or s&/one s pure z ! grit ( ,fonta9ebleau1 us$ = pavem5t 9 ,france4 ,m commonly we f9d s& & clay1 or clay & m>l1 int]mix$ 9 ! same mass4 ,:5 ! s& & clay are ea* 9 consid]able quantity1 ! mixture is call$ loam4 ,if !re is mu* calc>e\s matt] 9 clay x is call$ m>l2 b ?is t]m has un=tunately be5 us$ s vaguely1 z (t5 to be v ambigu\s4 ,x has be5 appli$ to sub/ances 9 :i* !re is no lime2 z1 to t r$ loam usually call$ r$ m>l 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,agriculturi/s 7 9 ! habit ( call+ any soil a m>l1 :i*1 l true m>l1 fell to pieces readily on exposure to ! air4 ,h5ce arose ! confusion ( us+ ?is "n = soils :i*1 consi/+ ( loam1 7 easily work$ by ! pl\gh1 ?\gh devoid ( lime4 ,m>l slate be>s ! same relation to m>l :i* %ale be>s to clay1 be+ a calc>e\s %ale4 ,x is v abundant 9 "s c\ntries1 z 9 ! ,swiss ,alps4 ,argillace\s or m>ly lime/one is also ( common occurr5ce4 ,!re are few o!r k9ds ( rock :i* ent] s l>gely into ! composition ( s$im5t>y /rata z to make x necess>y to dwell "h on _! *>act]s4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 m5tion two o!rs1--magnesian lime/one or dolomite1 & gypsum4 ,magnesian lime/one is compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime & c>bonate ( magnesia2 ! proportion ( ! latt] am\nt+ 9 "s cases to ne>ly "o half4 ,x eff]vesces mu* m sl[ly & feebly ) acids ?an common lime/one4 ,9 ,engl& ?is rock is g5]ally ( a yell[i% col\r2 b x v>ies greatly 9 m9]alogical "*1 pass+ f an e>?y /ate to a :ite compact /one ( great h>dness4 ,dolomite1 s common 9 _m p>ts ( ,g]many & ,france1 is also a v>iety ( magnesian lime/one1 usually ( a granul> texture4 ,gypsum4--,gypsum is a rock compos$ ( sulphuric acid1 lime1 & wat]4 ,x is usually a s(t :iti%-yell[ rock1 ) a texture resembl+ t ( loaf-sug>1 b sometimes x is entirely compos$ ( l5ticul> cry/als4 ,x is insoluble 9 acids1 & does n eff]vesce l *alk & dolomite1 because x does n conta9 c>bonic acid gas1 or fix$ air1 ! lime be+ already comb9$ ) sulphuric acid1 = :i* x has a /rong] aff9ity ?an = any o!r4 ,anhydr\s gypsum is a r>e v>iety1 into :i* wat] does n ent] z a compon5t "p4 ,gypse\s m>l is a mixture ( gypsum & m>l4 ,alaba/] is a granul> & compact v>iety ( gypsum f\nd 9 masses l>ge en\gh to be us$ 9 sculpture & ar*itecture4 ,x is sometimes a pure sn[-:ite sub/ance1 z t ( ,volt]ra 9 ,tuscany1 well kn[n z be+ c>v$ = works ( art 9 ,flor5ce & ,leghorn4 ,x is a s(t] /one ?an m>ble1 & m easily wr\ght4 ,=ms ( /ratification4--,a s]ies ( /rata sometimes consi/s ( "o ( ! above rocks1 sometimes ( two or m 9 alt]nat+ b$s4 ,?us1 9 ! coal di/ricts ( ,engl&1 = example1 we (t5 pass ?r\gh sev]al b$s ( s&/one1 "s ( f9]1 o!rs ( co>s] gra91 "s :ite1 o!rs ( a d>k col\r1 & bel[ ^!1 lay]s ( %ale & s&/one or b$s ( %ale1 divisible into leaf-l lam9ae1 & conta9+ beautiful impressions ( plants4 ,!n aga9 we meet ) b$s ( pure & impure coal1 alt]nat+ ) %ales & s&/ones1 & und]nea? ! :ole1 p]haps1 are calc>e\s /rata1 or b$s ( lime/one1 fill$ ) corals & m>9e %ells1 ea* b$ di/+ui%able f ano!r by c]ta9 fossils1 or by ! abundance ( p>ticul> species ( %ells or zoophytes4 ,?is alt]nation ( diff]5t k9ds ( rock produces ! mo/ di/9ct /ratification2 & we (t5 f9d b$s ( lime/one & m>l1 conglom]ate & s&/one1 s& & clay1 recurr+ aga9 & aga91 9 ne>ly regul> ord]1 ?r\gh\t a s]ies ( _m hundr$ /rata4 ,! causes :i* may produce ^! ph5om5a are v>i\s1 & h be5 fully discuss$ 9 my treatise on ! mod]n *anges ( ! e>?'s surface4#ad-;,a ,x is !re se5 t riv]s fl[+ into lakes & seas are *>g$ ) s$im5t1 v>y+ 9 quantity1 composition1 col\r1 & gra9 accord+ to ! seasons2 ! wat]s are sometimes flood$ & rapid1 at o!r p]iods l[ & feeble2 diff]5t tribut>ies1 also1 dra9+ peculi> c\ntries & soils1 & !re=e *>g$ ) peculi> s$im5t1 are swoll5 at di/9ct p]iods4 ,x 0 also %[n t ! waves ( ! sea & curr5ts und]m9e ! cliffs dur+ w9try /orms1 & sweep away ! mat]ials into ! deep1 aft] :i* a season ( tranquillity succe$s1 :5 no?+ b ! f9e/ mud is spread by ! movem5ts ( ! ocean ov] ! same subm>9e area4 ,x is n ! object ( ! pres5t "w to give a description ( ^! op]ations1 repeat$ z !y are1 ye> aft] ye>1 & c5tury aft] c5tury2 b ,i may sugge/ an explanation ( ! mann] 9 :i* "s micace\s s&/ones h orig9at$1 ^? 9 :i* we see innum]able ?9 lay]s ( mica divid+ lay]s ( f9e qu>tzose s&4 ,i obs]v$ ! same arrangem5t ( mat]ials 9 rec5t mud deposit$ 9 ! e/u>y ( ,la ,ro*e ,/4 ,b]n>d 9 ,brittany1 at ! m\? ( ! ,loire4 ,! surr\nd+ rocks are ( gneiss1 :i*1 by its wa/e1 supplies ! mud3 :5 ?is dries at l[ wat]1 x is f\nd to consi/ ( br[n lam9at$ clay1 divid$ by ?9 seams ( mica4 ,! sep>ation ( ! mica 9 ?is case1 or 9 t ( micace\s s&/ones1 may be ?us und]/ood4 ,if we take a h&ful ( qu>tzose s&1 mix$ ) mica1 & ?r[ x into a cle> runn+ /ream1 we see ! mat]ials imm$iately sort$ by ! wat]1 ! gra9s ( qu>tz fall+ almo/ directly to ! bottom1 :ile ! plates ( mica take a mu* long] "t to rea* ! bottom1 & are c>ri$ f>!r d[n ! /ream4 ,at ! fir/ in/ant ! wat] is turbid1 b imm$iately aft] ! flat surfaces ( ! plates ( mica are se5 alone reflect+ a silv]y light1 z !y desc5d sl[ly1 to =m a di/9ct micace\s lam9a4 ,! mica is ! heavi] m9]al ( ! two2 b x rema9s long] susp5d$1 ow+ to its great ext5t ( surface4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to p]ceive t :]e su* mud is act$ ^u by a riv] or tidal curr5t1 ! ?9 plates ( mica w be c>ri$ f>!r1 & n deposit$ 9 ! same places z ! gra9s ( qu>tz2 & s9ce ! =ce & velocity ( ! /ream v>ies f "t to "t1 lay]s ( mica or ( s& w be ?r[n d[n successively on ! same area4 ,orig9al horizontality4--,x has g5]ally be5 said t ! upp] & "u surfaces ( /rata1 or ! planes ( /ratification1 z !y are t]m$1 are p>allel4 ,al?\gh ?is is n /rictly true1 !y make an approa* to p>allelism1 = ! same reason t s$im5t is usually deposit$ at fir/ 9 ne>ly horizontal lay]s4 ,! reason ( ?is arrangem5t c by no means be attribut$ to an orig9al ev5ness or horizontality 9 ! b$ ( ! sea2 = x is asc]ta9$ t 9 ^? places :]e no matt] has be5 rec5tly deposit$1 ! bottom ( ! ocean is (t5 z unev5 z t ( ! dry l&1 hav+ 9 l mann] its hills1 valleys1 & rav9es4 ,yet if ! sea %\ld s9k1 or ! wat] be remov$ ne> ! m\? ( a l>ge riv] :]e a delta has be5 =m+1 we %\ld see ext5sive pla9s ( mud & s& laid dry1 :i*1 to ! eye1 w\ld appe> p]fectly level1 al?\gh1 9 reality1 !y w\ld slope g5tly f ! l& t[>ds ! sea4 ,?is t5d5cy 9 newly-=m$ /rata to assume a horizontal position arises pr9cipally f ! motion ( ! wat]1 :i* =ces along p>ticles ( s& or mud at ! bottom1 & causes !m to settle 9 holl[s or depressions1 :]e !y are less expos$ to ! =ce ( a curr5t ?an :5 !y are re/+ on elevat$ po9ts4 ,! velocity ( ! curr5t & ! motion ( ! sup]ficial waves dim9i% f ! surface d[nw>ds1 & are lea/ 9 ^? depressions :]e ! wat] is deepe/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,cross section4 ,a good illu/ration ( ! pr9ciple "h allud$ to may be sometimes se5 9 ! neighb\rhood ( a volcano1 :5 a section1 :e!r natural or artificial1 has laid op5 to view a succession ( v>i\s-col\r$ lay]s ( s& & a%es1 :i* h fall5 9 %[]s ^u unev5 gr\nd4 ,?us let ,a ,b 7fig4 #a47 be two ridges1 ) an int]v5+ valley4 ,^! orig9al inequalities ( ! surface h be5 gradually effac$ by b$s ( s& & a%es c1 d1 e1 ! surface at e be+ q level4 ,x w be se5 t al?\gh ! mat]ials ( ! fir/ lay]s h accommodat$ !mselves 9 a great degree to ! %ape ( ! gr\nd ,a ,b1 yet ea* b$ is ?icke/ at ! bottom4 ,at fir/ a great _m p>ticles w\ld be c>ri$ by _! own gravity d[n ! /eep sides ( ,a & ,b1 & o!rs w\ld aft]w>ds be bl[n by ! w9d z !y fell (f ! ridges1 & w\ld settle 9 ! holl[1 :i* w\ld ?us become m & m effac$ z ! /rata accumulat$ f c to e4 ,?is levell+ op]ation may p]haps be r5d]$ m cle> to ! /ud5t by suppos+ a numb] ( p>allel tr5*es to be dug 9 a pla9 ( mov+ s&1 l ! ,african des]t1 9 :i* case ! w9d w\ld soon cause all signs ( ^! tr5*es to disappe>1 & ! surface w\ld be z uni=m z be=e4 ,n[1 wat] 9 motion c ex]t ?is levell+ p[] on simil> mat]ials m easily ?an air1 = almo/ all /ones lose 9 wat] m ?an a ?ird ( ! weight :i* !y h 9 air1 ! specific gravity ( rocks be+ 9 g5]al z #b-a_/b :5 comp>$ to t ( wat]1 :i* is e/imat$ at #a4 ,b ! buoyancy ( s& or mud w\ld be /ill great] 9 ! sea1 z ! d5sity ( salt wat] exce$s t ( fre%4 ,yet1 h[ev] uni=m & horizontal may be ! surface ( new deposits 9 g5]al1 !re are /ill _m di/urb+ causes1 su* z eddies 9 ! wat]1 & curr5ts mov+ fir/ 9 "o & !n 9 ano!r direction1 :i* frequ5tly cause irregul>ities4 ,we may sometimes foll[ a b$ ( lime/one1 %ale1 or s&/one1 = a di/ance ( _m hundr$ y>ds cont9u\sly2 b we g5]ally f9d at l5g? t ea* individual /ratum ?9s out1 & all[s ! b$s :i* 7 previ\sly above & bel[ x to meet4 ,if ! mat]ials are co>se1 z 9 grits & conglom]ates1 ! same b$s c r>ely be trac$ _m y>ds )\t v>y+ 9 size1 & (t5 com+ to an end abruptly4 7,see fig4 #b47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,section ( /rata ( s&/one1 grit1 & conglom]ate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,section ( s& at ,s&y ,hill1 ne> ,biggleswade1 ,b$=d%ire4 ,height #bj feet4 7,gre5s& =mation47 ,diagonal or ,cross ,/ratification4--,!re is also ano!r ph5om5on ( frequ5t occurr5ce4 ,we f9d a s]ies ( l>g] /rata1 ea* ( :i* is compos$ ( a numb] ( m9or lay]s plac$ obliquely to ! g5]al planes ( /ratification4 ,to ?is diagonal arrangem5t ! "n ( false or cross /ratification has be5 giv54 ,?us 9 ! annex$ section 7fig4 #c47 we see sev5 or eight l>ge b$s ( loose s&1 yell[ & br[n1 & ! l9es a1 b1 c1 m>k "s ( ! pr9cipal planes ( /ratification1 :i* are ne>ly horizontal4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! subord9ate lam9ae d n con=m to ^! planes1 b h (t5 a /eep slope1 ! incl9ation be+ sometimes t[>ds opposite po9ts ( ! compass4 ,:5 ! s& is loose & incoh]5t1 z 9 ! case "h repres5t$1 ! deviation f p>allelism ( ! slant+ lam9ae _c possibly be acc\nt$ = by any re-arrangem5t ( ! p>ticles acquir$ dur+ ! consolidation ( ! rock4 ,9 :at mann] !n c su* irregul>ities be due to orig9al deposition8 ,we mu/ suppose t at ! bottom ( ! sea1 z well z 9 ! b$s ( riv]s1 ! motions ( waves1 curr5ts1 & eddies (t5 cause mud1 s&1 & gravel to be ?r[n d[n 9 heaps on p>ticul> spots1 in/ead ( be+ spread out uni=mly ov] a wide area4 ,sometimes1 :5 banks are ?us =m$1 curr5ts may cut passages ?r\gh !m1 j z a riv] =ms its b$4 ,suppose ! bank ,a 7fig4 #d47 to be ?us =m$ ) a /eep slop+ side1 & ! wat] be+ 9 a tranquil /ate1 ! lay] ( s$im5t ,no4 #a4 is ?r[n d[n ^u x1 con=m+ ne>ly to its surface4 ,aft]w>ds ! o!r lay]s1 #b1 #c1 #d1 may be deposit$ 9 succession1 s t ! bank ,b ,c ,d is =m$4 ,if ! curr5t !n increases 9 velocity1 x may cut away ! upp] portion ( ?is mass d[n to ! dott$ l9e e 7fig4 #d471 & deposit ! mat]ials ?us remov$ f>!r on1 s z to =m ! lay]s #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,we h n[ ! bank ,b ,c ,d ,e 7fig4 #e471 ( :i* ! surface is almo/ level1 & on :i* ! ne>ly horizontal lay]s1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 may !n accumulate4 ,x 0 %[n 9 fig4 #c4 t ! diagonal lay]s ( successive /rata may sometimes h an opposite slope4 ,?is is well se5 9 "s cliffs ( loose s& on ! ,suffolk coa/4 ,a portion ( "o ( ^! is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #f41 :]e ! lay]s1 ( :i* !re are ab\t six 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*1 are compos$ ( qu>tzose gra9s4 ,?is arrangem5t may h be5 due to ! alt]$ direction ( ! tides & curr5ts 9 ! same place4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,cross section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,cross section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,cliff betwe5 ,mism] & ,dunwi*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,section f ,monte ,calvo to ! sea by ! valley ( ,magnan1 ne> ,nice4 ,a4 ,dolomite & s&/one4 7,gre5s& =mation87 a1 b1 d4 ,b$s ( gravel & s&4 c4 ,f9e m>l & s& ( ,/4 ,madele9e1 ) m>9e %ells4 ,! description above giv5 ( ! slant+ position ( ! m9or lay]s con/itut+ a s+le /ratum is 9 c]ta9 cases applicable on a mu* gr&] scale to masses sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 & _m miles 9 ext5t4 ,a f9e example may be se5 at ! base ( ! ,m>itime ,alps ne> ,nice4 ,! m\nta9s "h t]m9ate abruptly 9 ! sea1 s t a dep? ( _m hundr$ fa?oms is (t5 f\nd )9 a /one's ?r[ ( ! bea*1 & sometimes a dep? ( #cjjj feet )9 half a mile4 ,b at c]ta9 po9ts1 /rata ( s&1 m>l1 or conglom]ate1 int]v5e betwe5 ! %ore & ! m\nta9s1 z 9 ! annex$ fig4 #g41 :]e a va/ succession ( slant+ b$s ( gravel & s& may be trac$ f ! sea to ,monte ,calvo1 a di/ance ( no less ?an #i miles 9 a /raight l9e4 ,! dip ( ^! b$s is rem>kably uni=m1 be+ always s\?w>d or t[>ds ! ,m$it]ranean1 at an angle ( ab\t #be deg44 ,!y are expos$ to view 9 ne>ly v]tical precipices1 v>y+ f #bjj to #fjj feet 9 height1 :i* b\nd ! valley ?r\gh :i* ! riv] ,magnan fl[s4 ,al?\gh 9 a g5]al view1 ! /rata appe> to be p>allel & uni=m1 !y are nev]!less f\nd1 :5 exam9$ closely1 to be w$ge-%ap$1 & to ?9 out :5 foll[$ = a few hundr$ feet or y>ds1 s t we may suppose !m to h be5 ?r[n d[n orig9ally ^u ! side ( a /eep bank1 :]e a riv] or alp9e torr5t dis*>g$ itself into a deep & tranquil sea1 & =m$ a delta1 :i* advanc$ gradually f ! base ( ,monte ,calvo to a di/ance ( #i miles f ! orig9al %ore4 ,if subsequ5tly ?is "p ( ! ,alps & b$ ( ! sea 7 rais$ #gjj feet1 ! coa/ w\ld acquire its pres5t configuration1 ! delta w\ld em]ge1 & a deep *annel might !n be cut ?r\gh x by a riv]4 ,x is well kn[n t ! torr5ts & /reams1 :i* n[ desc5d f ! alp9e declivities to ! %ore1 br+ d[n annually1 :5 ! sn[ melts1 va/ quantities ( %+le & s&1 & !n1 z !y subside1 f9e mud1 :ile 9 summ] !y are ne>ly or entirely dry2 s t x may be safely assum$1 t deposits l ^? ( ! valley ( ! ,magnan1 consi/+ ( co>se gravel alt]nat+ ) f9e s$im5t1 are /ill 9 progress at _m po9ts1 z1 = in/ance1 at ! m\? ( ! ,v>4 ,!y mu/ advance ^u ! ,m$it]ranean 9 ! =m ( great %oals t]m9at+ 9 a /eep talus2 su* be+ ! orig9al mode ( accumulation ( all co>se mat]ials convey$ into deep wat]1 especially :]e !y are compos$ 9 great "p ( pebbles1 :i* _c be transport$ to indef9ite di/ances by curr5ts ( mod]ate velocity4 ,by inatt5tion to facts & inf]5ces ( ?is k9d1 a v exagg]at$ e/imate has sometimes be5 made ( ! suppos$ dep? ( ! anci5t ocean4 ,!re c be no d\bt1 = example1 t ! /rata a1 fig4 #g41 or ^? ne>e/ to ,monte ,calvo1 are old] ?an ^? indicat$ by b1 & ^! aga9 7 =m$ be=e c2 b ! v]tical dep? ( gravel & s& 9 any "o place _c be prov$ to am\nt ev5 to #ajjj feet1 al?\gh x may p]haps be mu* great]1 yet probably nev] exce$+ at any po9t #cjjj or #djjj feet4 ,b 7 we to assume t all ! /rata 7 once horizontal1 & t _! pres5t dip or incl9ation 0 due to subsequ5t movem5ts1 we %\ld !n be =c$ to conclude1 t a sea #i miles deep _h be5 fill$ up ) alt]nate lay]s ( mud & pebbles ?r[n d[n "o ^u ano!r4 ,9 ! locality n[ "u consid]ation1 situat$ a few miles to ! we/ ( ,nice1 !re are _m geological data1 ! details ( :i* _c be giv5 9 ?is place1 all lead+ to ! op9ion1 t :5 ! deposit ( ! ,magnan 0 =m$1 ! %ape & outl9e ( ! alp9e declivities & ! %ore greatly resembl$ :at we n[ behold at _m po9ts 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,t ! b$s1 a1 b1 c1 d1 are ( comp>atively mod]n date is prov$ by ?is fact1 t 9 seams ( loamy m>l int]v5+ betwe5 ! pebbly b$s are fossil %ells1 half ( :i* belong to species n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,slab ( ripple-m>k$ 7new r$7 s&/one f ,*e%ire4 ,ripple m>k4--,! ripple m>k1 s common on ! surface ( s&/ones ( all ages 7see fig4 #h471 & :i* is s (t5 se5 on ! sea-%ore at l[ tide1 seems to orig9ate 9 ! drift+ ( mat]ials along ! bottom ( ! wat]1 9 a mann] v simil> to t :i* may expla9 ! incl9$ lay]s above describ$4 ,?is ripple is n entirely conf9$ to ! bea* betwe5 high & l[ wat] m>k1 b is also produc$ on s&s :i* are con/antly cov]$ by wat]4 ,simil> undulat+ ridges & furr[s may also be sometimes se5 on ! surface ( drift sn[ & bl[n s&4 ,! foll[+ is ! mann] 9 :i* ,i once obs]v$ ! motion ( ! air to produce ?is effect on a l>ge ext5t ( level bea*1 expos$ at l[ tide ne> ,calais4 ,cl\ds ( f9e :ite s& 7 bl[n f ! neighb\r+ dunes1 s z to cov] ! %ore1 & :it5 a d>k level surface ( s&y mud1 & ?is fre% cov]+ ( s& 0 beautifully rippl$4 ,on levell+ all ! small ridges & furr[s ( ?is ripple ov] an area ( sev]al y>ds squ>e1 ,i saw !m p]fectly re/or$ 9 ab\t t5 m9utes1 ! g5]al direction ( ! ridges be+ always at "r angles to t ( ! w9d4 ,! re/oration began by ! appe>ance "h & !re ( small deta*$ heaps ( s&1 :i* soon l5g!n$ & jo9$ toge!r1 s z to =m long s9u\s ridges ) int]v5+ furr[s4 ,ea* ridge _h "o side slightly incl9$1 & ! o!r /eep2 ! lee-side be+ always /eep1 z b1 c1--d1 e2 ! w9dw>d-side a g5tle slope1 z a1 b1--c1 d1 fig4 #i4 ,:5 a gu/ ( w9d blew ) suffici5t =ce to drive along a cl\d ( s&1 all ! ridges 7 se5 to be 9 motion at once1 ea* encroa*+ on ! furr[ be=e x1 &1 9 ! c\rse ( a few m9utes1 fill+ ! place :i* ! furr[s _h occupi$4 ,! mode ( advance 0 by ! cont9ual drift+ ( gra9s ( s& up ! slopes a b & c d1 _m ( :i* gra9s1 :5 !y arriv$ at b & d1 fell ov] ! sc>ps b c & d e1 & 7 "u %elt] f ! w9d2 s t !y rema9$ /ation>y1 re/+1 accord+ to _! %ape & mom5tum1 on diff]5t p>ts ( ! desc5t1 & a few only roll+ to ! bottom4 ,9 ?is mann] ea* ridge 0 di/9ctly se5 to move sl[ly on z (t5 z ! =ce ( ! w9d augm5t$4 ,occasionally "p ( a ridge1 advanc+ m rapidly ?an ! re/1 ov]took ! ridge imm$iately be=e x1 & became conf\nd$ ) x1 ?us caus+ ^? bifurcations & bran*es :i* are s common1 & two ( :i* are se5 9 ! slab1 fig4 #h4 ,we may obs]ve ?is configuration 9 s&/ones ( all ages1 & 9 !m also1 z n[ on ! sea-coa/1 we may (t5 detect two sy/ems ( ripples int]f]+ ) ea* o!r2 "o m anci5t & half effac$1 & a new] "o1 9 :i* ! grooves & ridges are m di/9ct1 & 9 a diff]5t direction4 ,?is cross+ ( two sets ( ripples arises f a *ange ( w9d1 & ! new direction 9 :i* ! waves are ?r[n on ! %ore4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,sket* ( ripples4 ,! ripple m>k is usually an indication ( a sea-bea*1 or ( wat] f #f to #aj feet deep1 = ! agitation caus$ by waves ev5 dur+ /orms ext5ds to a v slight dep?4 ,to ?is rule1 h[ev]1 !re are "s exceptions1 & rec5t ripple m>ks h be5 obs]v$ at ! dep? ( #fj or #gj feet4 ,x has also be5 asc]ta9$ t curr5ts or l>ge bodies ( wat] 9 motion may di/urb mud & s& at ! dep? ( #cjj or ev5 #dej feet4#ba-;,a ,,footnotes3 #aa-;,a ,! kaol9 ( ,*9a consi/s ( #ga4ae p>ts ( silex1 #ae4hf ( alum9e1 #a4ib ( lime1 & #f4gc ( wat] 7,w4 ,phillips1 ,m9]alogy1 p4 #cc472 b o!r porcela9 clays diff] mat]ially1 t ( ,cornwall be+ compos$1 accord+ to ,boase ( ne>ly equal p>ts ( silica & alum9e1 ) #a p] c5t4 ( magnesia4 7,phil4 ,mag4 vol4 x4 #ahcg47 #aa-;,b ,see ,w4 ,phillips's ,m9]alogy1 ,alum9e4 #ad-;,a ,consult ,index to ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,/ratification1 ,curr5ts1 ,deltas1 ,wat]1 c4 #ba-;,a ,siau4 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 vol4 xxxi42 & ,d>w91 ,volc4 ,isl&s1 p4 #acd4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,arrangem5t ,,( ,,fossils ,,9 ,,/rata--,,fre%wat] ,,& ,,m>9e4 ,successive deposition indicat$ by fossils--,lime/ones =m$ ( corals & %ells ,pro(s ( gradual increase ( /rata d]iv$ f fossils--,s]pula atta*$ to spatangus--,wood bor$ by ,t]$9a--,tripoli & semi-opal =m$ ( infusoria--,*alk d]iv$ pr9cipally f organic bodies--,di/9ction ( fre%wat] f m>9e =mations--,g5]a ( fre%wat] & l& %ells--,rules = recogniz+ m>9e te/acea--,gyrogonite & *>a--,fre%wat] fi%es--,alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%wat] deposits--,lym-,fiord4 ,hav+ 9 ! la/ *apt] consid]$ ! =ms ( /ratification s f> z !y are det]m9$ by ! arrangem5t ( inorganic matt]1 we may n[ turn our att5tion to ! mann] 9 :i* organic rema9s are di/ribut$ ?r\gh /ratifi$ deposits4 ,we %\ld (t5 be unable to detect any signs ( /ratification or ( successive deposition1 if p>ticul> k9ds ( fossils did n occur "h & !re at c]ta9 dep?s 9 ! mass4 ,at "o level1 = example1 univalve %ells ( "s "o or m species pr$om9ate2 at ano!r1 bivalve %ells2 & at a ?ird1 corals2 :ile 9 "s =mations we f9d lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 commonly d]iv$ f l& plants1 sep>at+ /rata4 ,x may appe> inconceivable to a beg9n] h[ m\nta9s1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 c h become fill$ ) fossils f top to bottom2 b ! difficulty is remov$1 :5 he reflects on ! orig9 ( /ratification1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & all[s suffici5t "t = ! accumulation ( s$im5t4 ,he mu/ nev] lose sight ( ! fact t1 dur+ ! process ( deposition1 ea* sep>ate lay] 0 once ! upp]mo/1 & cov]$ imm$iately by ! wat] 9 :i* aquatic animals liv$4 ,ea* /ratum 9 fact1 h[ev] f> x may n[ lie b5ea? ! surface1 0 once 9 ! /ate ( %+le1 or loose s& or s(t mud at ! bottom ( ! sea1 9 :i* %ells & o!r bodies easily became envelop$4 ,by att5d+ to ! nature ( ^! rema9s1 we are (t5 enabl$ to det]m9e :e!r ! deposition 0 sl[ or rapid1 :e!r x took place 9 a deep or %all[ sea1 ne> ! %ore or f> f l&1 & :e!r ! wat] 0 salt1 bracki%1 or fre%4 ,"s lime/ones consi/ almo/ exclusively ( corals1 & 9 _m cases x is evid5t t ! pres5t position ( ea* fossil zoophyte has be5 det]m9$ by ! mann] 9 :i* x grew orig9ally4 ,! axis ( ! coral1 = example1 if its natural gr[? is erect1 /ill rema9s at "r angles to ! plane ( /ratification4 ,if ! /ratum be n[ horizontal1 ! r\nd sph]ical heads ( c]ta9 species cont9ue upp]mo/1 & _! po9ts ( atta*m5t are direct$ d[nw>ds4 ,?is arrangem5t is sometimes repeat$ ?r\gh\t a great succession ( /rata4 ,f :at we "k ( ! gr[? ( simil> zoophytes 9 mod]n reefs1 we inf] t ! rate ( increase 0 extremely sl[1 & "s ( ! fossils mu/ h fl\ri%$ = ages l =e/ trees1 be=e !y atta9$ s l>ge a size4 ,dur+ ^! ages1 ! wat] rema9$ cle> & transp>5t1 = su* corals _c live 9 turbid wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,fossil ,gryphaea1 cov]$ bo? on ! outside & inside ) fossil s]pulae4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 we see ?\s&s ( full-gr[n %ells disp]s$ e :]e ?r\gh\t a long s]ies ( /rata1 we _c d\bt t "t 0 requir$ = ! multiplication ( successive g5]ations2 & ! evid5ce ( sl[ accumulation is r5d]$ m /rik+ f ! pro(s1 s (t5 discov]$1 ( fossil bodies hav+ la9 = a "t on ! floor ( ! ocean aft] dea? be=e !y 7 imb$d$ 9 s$im5t4 ,no?+1 = example1 is m common ?an to see fossil oy/]s 9 clay1 ) s]pulae1 or b>nacles 7acorn-%ells71 or corals1 & o!r creatures1 atta*$ to ! inside ( ! valves1 s t ! mollusk 0 c]ta9ly n buri$ 9 argillace\s mud ! mom5t x di$4 ,!re mu/ h be5 an int]val dur+ :i* x 0 /ill surr\nd$ ) cle> wat]1 :5 ! te/acea1 n[ adh]+ to x1 grew f an embryo /ate to full maturity4 ,atta*$ %ells :i* are m]ely ext]nal1 l "s ( ! s]pulae 7a7 9 ! annex$ figure 7fig4 #aj471 may (t5 h gr[n ^u an oy/] or o!r %ell :ile ! animal )9 0 /ill liv+2 b if !y are f\nd on ! inside1 x c\ld only happ5 aft] ! dea? ( ! inhabitant ( ! %ell :i* af=ds ! support4 ,?us1 9 fig4 #aj41 x w be se5 t two s]pulae h gr[n on ! int]ior1 "o ( !m exactly on ! place :]e ! adductor muscle ( ! ,gryphaea 7a k9d ( oy/]7 0 fix$4 ,"s fossil %ells1 ev5 if simply atta*$ to ! outside ( o!rs1 be> full te/imony to ! conclusion above allud$ to1 namely1 t an int]val elaps$ betwe5 ! dea? ( ! creature to ^: %ell !y adh]e1 & ! burial ( ! same 9 mud or s&4 ,! sea-ur*9s or ,e*9i1 s abundant 9 :ite *alk1 af=d a good illu/ration4 ,x is well kn[n t ^! animals1 :5 liv+1 are inv>iably cov]$ ) num]\s sp9es1 :i* s]ve z organs ( motion1 & are support$ by r[s ( tub]cles1 :i* la/ are only se5 aft] ! dea? ( ! sea-ur*91 :5 ! sp9es h dropp$ (f4 ,9 fig4 #ab4 a liv+ species ( ,spatangus1 common on our coa/1 is repres5t$ ) "o half ( its %ell /ripp$ ( ! sp9es4 ,9 fig4 #aa4 a fossil ( ! same g5us f ! :ite *alk ( ,engl& %[s ! nak$ surface :i* ! individuals ( ?is family exhibit :5 d5ud$ ( _! bri/les4 ,! full-gr[n ,s]pula1 !re=e1 :i* n[ adh]es ext]nally1 c\ld n h begun to gr[ till ! ,spatangus _h di$1 & ! sp9es 7 deta*$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,s]pula atta*$ to a fossil ,spatangus f ! *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,rec5t ,spatangus ) ! sp9es remov$ f "o side4 b4 ,sp9e & tub]cles1 nat4 size4 a4 ,! same magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4 a4 ,e*9us f ! *alk1 ) l[] valve ( ! ,crania atta*$4 b4 ,upp] valve ( ! ,crania deta*$4 ,n[ ! s]ies ( ev5ts "h atte/$ by a s+le fossil may be c>ri$ a /ep f>!r4 ,?us1 = example1 we (t5 meet ) a sea-ur*9 9 ! *alk 7see fig4 #ac471 :i* has fix$ to x ! l[] valve ( a ,crania1 a g5us ( bivalve mollusca4 ,! upp] valve 7b1 fig4 #ac47 is almo/ inv>iably want+1 ?\gh occasionally f\nd 9 a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation 9 :ite *alk at "s di/ance4 ,9 ?is case1 we see cle>ly t ! sea-ur*9 fir/ liv$ f y\? to age1 !n di$ & lo/ its sp9es1 :i* 7 c>ri$ away4 ,!n ! "y ,crania adh]$ to ! b>$ %ell1 grew & p]i%$ 9 its turn2 aft] :i* ! upp] valve 0 sep>at$ f ! l[] be=e ! ,e*9us became envelop$ 9 *alky mud4 ,x may be well to m5tion "o m illu/ration ( ! mann] 9 :i* s+le fossils may sometimes ?r[ light on a =m] /ate ( ?+s1 bo? 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean & on "s adjo9+ l&4 ,we meet ) _m fragm5ts ( wood bor$ by %ip-worms at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! clay on :i* ,london is built4 ,entire bran*es & /ems ( trees1 sev]al feet 9 l5g?1 are sometimes dug out1 drill$ all ov] by ! holes ( ^! bor]s1 ! tubes & %ells ( ! mollusk /ill rema9+ 9 ! cyl9drical holl[s4 ,9 fig4 #ae4 e1 a repres5tation is giv5 ( a piece ( rec5t wood pi]c$ by ! ,t]$o navalis1 or common %ip-worm1 :i* de/roys wood5 piles & %ips4 ,:5 ! cyl9drical tube d has be5 extract$ f ! wood1 a %ell is se5 at ! l>g] extremity1 compos$ ( two pieces1 z %[n at c4 ,9 l mann]1 a piece ( fossil wood 7a1 fig4 #ad47 has be5 p]=at$ by an animal ( a k9dr$ b ext9ct g5us1 call$ ,t]$9a by ,lam>ck4 ,! calc>e\s tube ( ?is mollusk 0 unit$ & z x 7 sold]$ on to ! valves ( ! %ell 7b71 :i* !re=e _c be deta*$ f ! tube1 l ! valves ( ! rec5t ,t]$o4 ,! wood 9 ?is fossil specim5 is n[ conv]t$ into a /ony mass1 a mixture ( clay & lime2 b x mu/ once h be5 buoyant & float+ 9 ! sea1 :5 ! ,t]$9ae liv$ ^u x1 p]=at+ x 9 all directions4 ,aga91 be=e ! infant colony settl$ ^u ! drift wood1 ! bran* ( a tree mu/ h be5 float$ d[n to ! sea by a riv]1 uproot$1 p]haps1 by a flood1 or torn (f & ca/ into ! waves by ! w9d3 & ?us our ?\ghts are c>ri$ back to a prior p]iod1 :5 ! tree grew = ye>s on dry l&1 enjoy+ a fit soil & climate4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fossil & rec5t wood drill$ by p]=at+ ,mollusca4 ,fig4 #ad4 a4 ,fossil wood f ,london clay1 bor$ by ,t]$9a4 b4 ,%ell & tube ( ,t]$9a p]sonata1 ! "r-h& figure ! v5tral1 ! left ! dorsal view4 ,fig4 #ae4 e4 ,rec5t wood bor$ by ,t]$o4 d4 ,%ell & tube ( ,t]$o navalis1 f ! same4 c4 ,ant]ior & po/]ior view ( ! valves ( same deta*$ f ! tube4 ,x has be5 already rem>k$ t !re are rocks 9 ! int]ior ( cont95ts1 at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & at great heights above ! sea1 almo/ entirely made up ( ! rema9s ( zoophytes & te/acea4 ,su* masses may be comp>$ to mod]n oy/]-b$s & coral reefs2 &1 l !m1 ! rate ( increase mu/ h be5 extremely gradual4 ,b !re are a v>iety ( /ony deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 n[ prov$ to h be5 d]iv$ f plants & animals1 ( :i* ! organic orig9 0 n suspect$ until ( late ye>s1 ev5 by naturali/s4 ,great surprise 0 !re=e creat$ by ! rec5t discov]y ( ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g ( ,b]l91 t a c]ta9 k9d ( silice\s /one1 call$ tripoli1 0 entirely compos$ ( millions ( ! rema9s ( organic be+s1 :i* ! ,prussian naturali/ ref]s to microscopic ,infusoria1 b :i* mo/ o!rs n[ believe to be plants4 ,!y ab\nd 9 fre%wat] lakes & ponds 9 ,engl& & o!r c\ntries1 & are t]m$ ,diatomaceae by ^? naturali/s :o believe 9 _! vegetable orig94 ,! sub/ance allud$ to has long be5 well kn[n 9 ! arts1 be+ us$ 9 ! =m ( p[d] = poli%+ /ones & metals4 ,x has be5 procur$1 among o!r places1 f ,bil91 9 ,bohemia1 :]e a s+le /ratum1 ext5d+ ov] a wide area1 is no less ?an #ad feet ?ick4 ,?is /one1 :5 exam9$ ) a p[]ful microscope1 is f\nd to consi/ ( ! silice\s plates or fru/ules ( ! above-m5tion$ ,diatomaceae1 unit$ toge!r )\t any visible cem5t4 ,x is difficult to convey an idea ( _! extreme m9ut5ess2 b ,ehr5b]g e/imates t 9 ! ,bil9 tripoli !re are #da1jjj millions ( individuals ( ! ,gaillonella di/ans 7see fig4 #ag47 9 e cubic in*1 :i* weighs ab\t #bbj gra9s1 or ab\t #ahg millions 9 a s+le gra94 ,at e /roke1 !re=e1 t we make ) ?is poli%+ p[d]1 sev]al millions1 p]haps t5s ( millions1 ( p]fect fossils are cru%$ to atoms4 #c ,illu/rations3 ,^! figures are magnifi$ ne>ly #cjj times1 except ! l[] figure ( ,g4 f]rug9ea 7fig4 #ah4 a71 :i* is magnifi$ #bjjj times4 ,fig4 #af4 ,bacill>ia vulg>is8 ,fig4 #ag4 ,gaillonella di/ans4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,gaillonella f]rug9ea4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fragm5t ( semi-opal f ! great b$ ( ,tripoli1 ,bil94 ,fig4 #ai4 ,natural size4 ,fig4 #bj4 ,! same magnifi$1 %[+ circul> articulations ( a species ( ,gaillonella1 & spiculae ( ,spongilla4 ,! rema9s ( ^! ,diatomaceae are ( pure silex1 & _! =ms are v>i\s1 b v m>k$ & con/ant 9 p>ticul> g5]a & species4 ,?us1 9 ! family ,bacill>ia 7see fig4 #af471 ! fossils pres]v$ 9 tripoli are se5 to exhibit ! same divisions & transv]se l9es :i* *>act]ize ! liv+ species ( k9dr$ =m4 ,) ^!1 also1 ! silice\s spiculae or int]nal supports ( ! fre%wat] sponge1 or ,spongilla ( ,lam>ck1 are sometimes int]m+l$ 7see ! ne$le-%ap$ bodies 9 fig4 #bj474 ,^! fl9ty cases & spiculae1 al?\gh h>d1 are v fragile1 break+ l glass1 & are !re=e admirably adapt$1 :5 rubb$1 = we>+ d[n into a f9e p[d] fit = poli%+ ! surface ( metals4 ,besides ! tripoli1 =m$ exclusively ( ! fossils above describ$1 !re occurs 9 ! upp] "p ( ! great /ratum at ,bil9 ano!r heavi] & m compact /one1 a k9d ( semi-opal1 9 :i* innum]able p>ts ( ,diatomaceae & spiculae ( ! ,spongilla are fill$ )1 & cem5t$ toge!r by1 silice\s matt]4 ,x is suppos$ t ! silice\s rema9s ( ! mo/ delicate ,diatomaceae h be5 dissolv$ by wat]1 & h ?us giv5 rise to ?is opal 9 :i* ! m durable fossils are pres]v$ l insects 9 amb]4 ,?is op9ion is confirm$ by ! fact t ! organic bodies decrease 9 numb] & %>pness ( outl9e 9 proportion z ! opal9e cem5t increases 9 quantity4 ,9 ! ,bohemian tripoli above describ$1 z 9 t ( ,planitz 9 ,saxony1 ! species ( ,diatomaceae 7or ,infusoria1 z t]m$ by ,ehr5b]g7 are fre%wat]2 b 9 o!r c\ntries1 z 9 ! tripoli ( ! ,isle ( ,france1 !y are ( m>9e species1 & !y all belong to =mations ( ! t]ti>y p]iod1 :i* w be spok5 ( h]eaft]4 ,a well-kn[n sub/ance1 call$ bog-iron ore1 (t5 met ) 9 peat-mosses1 has also be5 %[n by ,ehr5b]g to consi/ ( innum]able articulat$ ?reads1 ( a yell[ o*re col\r1 compos$ p>tly ( fl9t & p>tly ( oxide ( iron4 ,^! ?reads are ! cases ( a m9ute microscopic body1 call$ ,gaillonella f]rug9ea 7fig4 #ah474 #d ,illu/rations3 ,cy!ridae & ,=am9if]a f ! *alk4 ,fig4 #ba4 ,cy!re1 ,muell4 ,cy!r9a1 ,lam4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,portion ( ,nodos>ia4 ,fig4 #bc4 ,cri/ell>ia rotulata4 ,fig4 #bd4 ,rosal9a4 ,x is cle> t mu* "t mu/ h be5 requir$ = ! accumulation ( /rata to :i* c\ntless g5]ations ( ,diatomaceae h contribut$ _! rema9s2 & ^! discov]ies lead u naturally to suspect t o!r deposits1 ( :i* ! mat]ials h usually be5 suppos$ to be inorganic1 may 9 reality h be5 d]iv$ f microscopic organic bodies4 ,t ?is is ! case ) ! :ite *alk1 has (t5 be5 imag9$1 ?is rock hav+ be5 obs]v$ to ab\nd 9 a v>iety ( m>9e fossils1 su* z %ells1 e*9i1 corals1 sponges1 cru/acea1 & fi%es4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 on exam9+1 9 ,oct4 #ahce1 9 ! museum ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 portions ( :ite *alk f diff]5t p>ts ( ,engl&1 f\nd1 on c>efully pulv]iz+ !m 9 wat]1 t :at appe> to ! eye simply z :ite gra9s 71 9 fact1 well pres]v$ fossils4 ,he obta9$ above a ?\s& ( ^! f ea* p\nd weight ( *alk1 "s be+ fragm5ts ( m9ute corall9es1 o!rs entire ,=am9if]a & ,cy!ridae4 ,! annex$ draw+s w give an idea ( ! beautiful =ms ( _m ( ^! bodies4 ,! figures a a repres5t _! natural size1 b1 m9ute z !y seem1 ! smalle/ ( !m1 su* z a1 fig4 #bd41 are gigantic 9 comp>ison ) ! cases ( ,diatomaceae be=e m5tion$4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 lately discov]$ t ! *amb]s into :i* ^! ,=am9if]a are divid$ are actually (t5 fill$ ) ?\s&s ( well-pres]v$ organic bodies1 :i* ab\nd 9 e m9ute gra9 ( *alk1 & are especially app>5t 9 ! :ite coat+ ( fl9ts1 (t5 accompani$ by innum]able ne$le-%ap$ spiculae ( sponges4 ,aft] reflect+ on ^! discov]ies1 we are naturally l$ on to conjecture t1 z ! =mless cem5t 9 ! semi-opal ( ,bil9 has be5 d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( animal & vegetable rema9s1 s also ev5 ^? p>ts ( *alk fl9ts 9 :i* no organic /ructure c be recogniz$ may nev]!less h con/itut$ a "p ( microscopic animalcules4 ,! du/ we tread ^u 0 once alive6--,,byron4 ,h[ fa9t an idea does ?is exclamation ( ! poet convey ( ! real wond]s ( nature6 = "h we discov] pro(s t ! calc>e\s & silice\s du/ ( :i* hills are compos$ has n only be5 once alive1 b almo/ e p>ticle1 albeit invisible to ! nak$ eye1 /ill reta9s ! organic /ructure :i*1 at p]iods ( "t incalculably remote1 0 impress$ ^u x by ! p[]s ( life4 ,fre%wat] & m>9e fossils4--,/rata1 :e!r deposit$ 9 salt or fre% wat]1 h ! same =ms2 b ! imb$d$ fossils are v diff]5t 9 ! two cases1 because ! aquatic animals :i* frequ5t lakes & riv]s are di/9ct f ^? inhabit+ ! sea4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight a =mation ( m>l & lime/one1 m ?an #ej feet ?ick1 occurs1 9 :i* ! %ells are pr9cipally1 if n all1 ( ext9ct species4 ,yet we recognize _! fre%wat] orig91 because !y are ( ! same g5]a z ^? n[ ab\nd+ 9 ponds & lakes1 ei!r 9 our own c\ntry or 9 w>m] latitudes4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ,france1 z 9 ,auv]gne1 = example1 /rata ( lime/one1 m>l1 & s&/one are f\nd1 hundr$s ( feet ?ick1 :i* conta9 exclusively fre%wat] & l& %ells1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( t]re/rial quadrup$s4 ,! numb] ( l& %ells scatt]$ ?r\gh "s ( ^! fre%wat] deposits is exce$+ly great2 & !re are di/ricts 9 ,g]many :]e ! rocks sc>cely conta9 any o!r fossils except snail-%ells 7helices72 z1 = in/ance1 ! lime/one on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 betwe5 ,may5ce & ,worms1 at ,opp5heim1 ,f9dheim1 ,bud5heim1 & o!r places4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ?is ph5om5on1 ! geologi/ has only to exam9e ! small deltas ( torr5ts :i* ent] ! ,swiss lakes :5 ! wat]s are l[1 su* z ! newly-=m$ pla9 :]e ! ,k&] ent]s ! ,lake ( ,?un4 ,he !re sees s& & mud /rew$ ov] ) innum]able dead l& %ells1 :i* h be5 br\ght d[n f valleys 9 ! ,alps 9 ! prec$+ spr+1 dur+ ! melt+ ( ! sn[s4 ,aga91 if we se>* ! s&s on ! bord]s ( ! ,rh9e1 9 ! l[] "p ( its c\rse1 we f9d c\ntless l& %ells mix$ ) o!rs ( species belong+ to lakes1 /agnant pools1 & m>%es4 ,^! individuals h be5 wa%$ away f ! alluvial pla9s ( ! great riv] & its tribut>ies1 "s f m\nta9\s regions1 o!rs f ! l[ c\ntry4 ,al?\gh fre%wat] =mations are (t5 ( great ?ickness1 yet !y are usually v limit$ 9 area :5 comp>$ to m>9e deposits1 j z lakes & e/u>ies are ( small dim5sions 9 comp>ison ) seas4 ,we may di/+ui% a fre%wat] =mation1 fir/1 by ! abs5ce ( _m fossils almo/ inv>iably met ) 9 m>9e /rata4 ,= example1 !re are no sea-ur*9s1 no corals1 & sc>cely any zoophytes2 no *amb]$ %ells1 su* z ! nautilus1 nor microscopic ,=am9if]a4 ,b x is *iefly by att5d+ to ! =ms ( ! mollusca t we are guid$ 9 det]m9+ ! po9t 9 "q4 ,9 a fre%wat] deposit1 ! numb] ( individual %ells is (t5 z great1 if n great]1 ?an 9 a m>9e /ratum2 b !re is a small] v>iety ( species & g5]a4 ,?is might be anticipat$ f ! fact t ! g5]a & species ( rec5t fre%wat] & l& %ells are few :5 contra/$ ) ! m>9e4 ,?us1 ! g5]a ( true mollusca accord+ to ,bla9ville's sy/em1 exclud+ ^? ( ext9ct species & ^? )\t %ells1 am\nt to ab\t #bjj 9 numb]1 ( :i* ! t]re/rial & fre%wat] g5]a sc>cely =m m ?an a six?4#bh-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,cyclas obovata2 fossil4 ,hants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,cyr5a consobr9a2 fossil4 ,grays1 ,essex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,anodonta ,cordi]ii2 fossil4 ,p>is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,anodonta latim>g9atus2 rec5t4 ,bahia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,unio littoralis2 rec5t4 ,auv]gne4 ,almo/ all bivalve %ells1 or ^? ( acephal\s mollusca1 are m>9e1 ab\t t5 only out ( n9ety g5]a be+ fre%wat]4 ,among ^! la/1 ! f\r mo/ common =ms1 bo? rec5t & fossil1 are ,cyclas1 ,cyr5a1 ,unio1 & ,anodonta 7see figures72 ! two fir/ & two la/ ( :i* are s ne>ly alli$ z to pass into ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,gryphaea incurva1 ,s[4 7,g4 arcuata1 ,lam47 upp] valve4 ,lias4 ,lam>ck divid$ ! bivalve mollusca into ! ,dimy>y1 or ^? hav+ two l>ge muscul> impressions 9 ea* valve1 z a b 9 ! ,cyclas1 fig4 #be41 & ! ,monomy>y1 su* z ! oy/] & scallop1 9 :i* !re is only "o ( ^! impressions1 z is se5 9 fig4 #cj4 ,n[1 z none ( ^! la/1 or ! unimuscul> bivalves1 are fre%wat]1 we may at once presume a deposit 9 :i* we f9d any ( !m to be m>9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,planorbis euomphalus2 fossil4 ,isle ( ,wight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,lymnea longiscata2 fossil4 ,hants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,palud9a l5ta2 fossil4 ,hants4 ,! univalve %ells mo/ *>act]i/ic ( fre%wat] deposits are1 ,planorbis1 ,lymnea1 & ,palud9a4 7,see figures47 ,b to ^! are occasionally add$ ,physa1 ,succ9ea1 ,ancylus1 ,valvata1 ,melanopsis1 ,melania1 & ,n]it9a4 7,see figures47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,succ9ea amphibia2 fossil4 ,loess1 ,rh9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,ancylus elegans2 fossil4 ,hants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,valvata2 fossil4 ,grays1 ,essex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,physa hypnorum2 rec5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,auricula2 rec5t4 ,ava4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,melania inqu9ata4 ,p>is ,bas94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,physa column>is4 ,p>is ,bas94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,melanopsis bucc9oidea2 rec5t4 ,asia4 ,9 reg>d to "o ( ^!1 ! ,ancylus 7fig4 #ce471 ,mr4 ,gray obs]ves t x sometimes diff]s 9 no respect f ! m>9e ,siphon>ia1 except 9 ! animal4 ,! %ell1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,ancylus is usually ?9n]4#bi-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,n]it9a globulus4 ,p>is bas94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,n]ita granulosa4 ,p>is bas94 ,"s naturali/s include ,n]it9a 7fig4 #db47 & ! m>9e ,n]ita 7fig4 #dc47 9 ! same g5us1 x be+ sc>cely possible to di/+ui% ! two by good g5]ic *>act]s4 ,b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! fluviatile species are small]1 smoo!r1 & m globul> ?an ! m>9e2 & !y h nev]1 l ! ,n]itae1 ! inn] m>g9 ( ! out] lip too!d or cr5ulat$4 7,see fig4 #dc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,c]i?ium c9ctum4 ,p>is bas94 ,a few g5]a1 among :i* ,c]i?ium 7fig4 #dd47 is ! mo/ abundant1 are common bo? to riv]s & ! sea1 hav+ species peculi> to ea*4 ,o!r g5]a1 l ,auricula 7fig4 #ch471 are amphibi\s1 frequ5t+ m>%es1 especially ne> ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,helix ,turon5sis4 ,faluns1 ,t\ra9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,cyclo/oma elegans4 ,loess4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,pupa trid5s4 ,loess4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,clausilia bid5s4 ,loess4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,bulimus lubricus4 ,loess1 ,rh9e4 ,! t]re/rial %ells are all univalves4 ,! mo/ abundant g5]a among ^!1 bo? 9 a rec5t & fossil /ate1 are ,helix 7fig4 #de471 ,cyclo/oma 7fig4 #df471 ,pupa 7fig4 #dg471 ,clausilia 7fig4 #dh471 ,bulimus 7fig4 #di471 & ,a*at9a2 :i* two la/ are ne>ly alli$ & pass into ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,ampull>ia glauca1 f ! ,jumna4 ,! ,ampull>ia 7fig4 #ej47 is ano!r g5us ( %ells1 inhabit+ riv]s & ponds 9 hot c\ntries4 ,_m fossil species h be5 ref]r$ to ?is g5us1 b !y h be5 f\nd *iefly 9 m>9e =mations1 & are suspect$ by "s con*ologi/s to belong to ,natica & o!r m>9e g5]a4 ,all univalve %ells ( l& & fre%wat] species1 ) ! exception ( ,melanopsis 7fig4 #da471 & ,a*at9a1 :i* has a slight ind5tation1 h entire m\?s2 & ?is circum/ance may (t5 s]ve z a conv5i5t rule = di/+ui%+ fre%wat] f m>9e /rata2 s9ce1 if any univalves occur ( :i* ! m\?s are n entire1 we may presume t ! =mation is m>9e4 ,! ap]ture is said to be entire 9 su* %ells z ! ,ampull>ia & ! l& %ells 7figs4 #de-di471 :5 its outl9e is n int]rupt$ by an ind5tation or not*1 su* z t se5 at b 9 ,ancill>ia 7fig4 #eb472 or is n prolong$ into a canal1 z t se5 at a 9 ,pleurotoma 7fig4 #ea474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,pleurotoma rotata4 ,subap4 hills1 ,italy4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,ancill>ia subulata4 ,london clay4 ,! m\?s ( a l>ge proportion ( ! m>9e univalves h ^! not*es or canals1 & almo/ all su* species are c>nivor\s2 :]eas ne>ly all te/acea hav+ entire m\?s1 are plant-eat]s2 :e!r ! species be m>9e1 fre%wat]1 or t]re/rial4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o g5us :i* af=ds an occasional exception to "o ( ! above rules4 ,! ,c]i?ium 7fig4 #dd471 al?\gh provid$ ) a %ort canal1 comprises "s species :i* inhabit salt1 o!rs bracki%1 & o!rs fre% wat]1 & !y are said to be all plant-eat]s4 ,among ! fossils v common 9 fre%wat] deposits are ! %ells ( ,cypris1 a m9ute cru/ace\s animal1 hav+ a %ell mu* resembl+ t ( ! bivalve mollusca4#ca-;,a ,_m m9ute liv+ species ( ?is g5us sw>m 9 lakes & /agnant pools 9 ,great ,brita92 b _! %ells are n1 if consid]$ sep>ately1 conclusive z to ! fre%wat] orig9 ( a deposit1 because ! majority ( species 9 ano!r k9dr$ g5us ( ! same ord]1 ! ,cy!r9a ( ,lam>ck 7see above1 fig4 #ba4 p4 #bf471 inhabit salt wat]2 &1 al?\gh ! animal diff]s slightly1 ! %ell is sc>cely di/+ui%able f t ( ! ,cypris4 ,! se$-vessels & /ems ( ,*>a1 a g5us ( aquatic plants1 are v frequ5t 9 fre%wat] /rata4 ,^! se$-vessels 7 call$1 be=e _! true nature 0 kn[n1 gyrogonites1 & 7 suppos$ to be =am9if]\s %ells4 7,see fig4 #ec4 a47 ,! ,*>ae inhabit ! bottom ( lakes & ponds1 & fl\ri% mo/ly :]e ! wat] is *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,_! se$-vessels are cov]$ ) a v t\gh integum5t1 capable ( resi/+ decomposition2 to :i* circum/ance we may attribute _! abundance 9 a fossil /ate4 ,! annex$ figure 7fig4 #ed47 repres5ts a bran* ( "o ( _m new species f\nd by ,pr(essor ,amici 9 ! lakes ( nor!rn ,italy4 ,! se$-vessel 9 ?is plant is m globul> ?an 9 ! ,briti% ,*>ae1 & !re=e m ne>ly resembles 9 =m ! ext9ct fossil species f\nd 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & o!r c\ntries4 ,! /ems1 z well z ! se$-vessels1 ( ^! plants occur bo? 9 mod]n %ell m>l & 9 anci5t fre%wat] =mations4 ,!y are g5]ally compos$ ( a l>ge tube surr\nd$ by small] tubes2 ! :ole /em be+ divid$ at c]ta9 int]vals by transv]se p>titions or jo9ts4 7,see b1 fig4 #ec47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,*>a m$icag9ula2 fossil4 ,isle ( ,wight4 a4 ,se$-vessel4 magnifi$ #bj diamet]s4 b4 ,/em1 magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,*>a ela/ica2 rec5t4 ,italy4 a4 ,sessile se$ vessel betwe5 ! division ( ! leaves ( ! female plant4 b4 ,transv]se section ( a bran*1 ) five se$-vessels magnifi$1 se5 f bel[ upw>ds4 ,x is n uncommon to meet ) lay]s ( vegetable matt]1 impressions ( leaves1 & bran*es ( trees1 9 /rata conta9+ fre%wat] %ells2 & we also f9d occasionally ! tee? & bones ( l& quadrup$s1 ( species n[ unkn[n4 ,! mann] 9 :i* su* rema9s are occasionally c>ri$ by riv]s into lakes1 especially dur+ floods1 has be5 fully treat$ ( 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4#cb-;,a ,! rema9s ( fi% are occasionally useful 9 det]m9+ ! fre%wat] orig9 ( /rata4 ,c]ta9 g5]a1 su* z c>p1 p]*1 pike1 & loa* 7,cypr9us1 ,p]ca1 ,esox1 & ,cobitis71 z also ,lebias1 be+ peculi> to fre%wat]4 ,o!r g5]a conta9 "s fre%wat] & "s m>9e species1 z ,cottus1 ,mugil1 & ,anguilla1 or eel4 ,! re/ are ei!r common to riv]s & ! sea1 z ! salmon2 or are exclusively *>act]i/ic ( salt wat]4 ,! above obs]vations respect+ fossil fi%es are applicable only to ! m mod]n or t]ti>y deposits2 = 9 ! m anci5t rocks ! =ms dep>t s widely f ^? ( exi/+ fi%es1 t x is v difficult1 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5ce1 to d]ive any positive in=mation f i*?yolites respect+ ! elem5t 9 :i* /rata 7 deposit$4 ,! alt]nation ( m>9e & fre%wat] =mations1 bo? on a small & l>ge scale1 are facts well asc]ta9$ 9 geology4 ,:5 x occurs on a small scale1 x may h aris5 f ! alt]nate occupation ( c]ta9 spaces by riv] wat] & ! sea2 = 9 ! flood season ! riv] =ces back ! ocean & fre%5s x ov] a l>ge area1 deposit+ at ! same "t its s$im5t2 aft] :i* ! salt wat] aga9 returns1 &1 on resum+ its =m] place1 br+s ) x s&1 mud1 & m>9e %ells4 ,!re are also lagoons at ! m\?s ( _m riv]s1 z ! ,nile & ,mississippi1 :i* are divid$ (f by b>s ( s& f ! sea1 & :i* are fill$ ) salt & fre% wat] by turns4 ,!y (t5 communicate exclusively ) ! riv] = mon?s1 ye>s1 or ev5 c5turies2 & !n a brea* be+ made 9 ! b> ( s&1 !y are = long p]iods fill$ ) salt wat]4 ,! ,lym-,fiord 9 ,jutl& (f]s an excell5t illu/ration ( analog\s *anges2 =1 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ ?\s& ye>s1 ! we/]n extremity ( ?is long fri?1 :i* is #abj miles 9 l5g?1 includ+ its w9d+s1 has be5 f\r times fre% & f\r times salt1 a b> ( s& betwe5 x & ! ocean hav+ be5 z (t5 =m$ & remov$4 ,! la/ irruption ( salt wat] happ5$ 9 #ahbd1 :5 ! ,nor? ,sea ent]$1 kill+ all ! fre%wat] %ells1 fi%1 & plants2 & f t "t to ! pres5t1 ! sea-we$ ,fucus vesiculosus1 toge!r ) oy/]s & o!r m>9e mollusca1 h succe$$ ! ,cyclas1 ,lymnea1 ,palud9a1 & ,*>ae4#cc-;,a ,b *anges l ^! 9 ! ,lym-,fiord1 & ^? be=e m5tion$ z occurr+ at ! m\?s ( great riv]s1 w only acc\nt = "s cases ( m>9e deposits ( p>tial ext5t re/+ on fre%wat] /rata4 ,:5 we f9d1 z 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 a great s]ies ( fre%wat] b$s1 #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness1 re/+ ^u m>9e =mations & aga9 cov]$ by o!r rocks1 su* z ! cretace\s1 m ?an #ajjj feet ?ick1 & ( deep-sea orig91 we %all f9d x necess>y to seek = a diff]5t explanation ( ! ph5om5a4#cc-;,b ,,footnotes3 #bh-;,a ,see ,synoptic ,table 9 ,bla9ville's ,malacologie4 #bi-;,a ,gray1 ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahce1 p4 #cjb4 #ca-;,a ,= figures ( rec5t species1 see bel[1 p4 #ahc41 & figs4 ( fossils1 see p4 #bbh4 #cb-;,a ,see ,index ( ,pr9ciples1 ,fossilization4 #cc-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,lym-,fiord4 #cc-;,b ,see bel[1 ,*ap4 ,,xviii41 on ! ,weald54 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,consolidation ,,( ,,/rata ,,& ,,petrifaction ,,( ,,fossils4 ,*emical & me*anical deposits--,cem5t+ toge!r ( p>ticles--,h>d5+ by exposure to air--,concretion>y nodules--,consolidat+ effects ( pressure--,m9]alization ( organic rema9s--,impressions & ca/s h[ =m$--,fossil wood--,goepp]t's exp]im5ts--,precipitation ( /ony matt] mo/ rapid :]e putrefaction is go+ on--,s\rce ( lime 9 solution--,silex d]iv$ f decomposition ( felsp>--,pro(s ( ! lapidification ( "s fossils soon aft] burial1 ( o!rs :5 mu* decay$4 ,hav+ spok5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ! *>act]s ( s$im5t>y =mations1 bo? z dep5d5t on ! deposition ( inorganic matt] & ! di/ribution ( fossils1 ,i may next treat ( ! consolidation ( /ratifi$ rocks1 & ! petrifaction ( imb$d$ organic rema9s4 ,*emical & me*anical deposits4--,a di/9ction has be5 made by geologi/s betwe5 deposits ( a *emical1 & ^? ( a me*anical1 orig94 ,by ! latt] "n are designat$ b$s ( mud1 s&1 or pebbles produc$ by ! action ( runn+ wat]1 also accumulations ( /ones & scoriae ?r[n out by a volcano1 :i* h fall5 into _! pres5t place by ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,b ! matt] :i* =ms a *emical deposit has n be5 me*anically susp5d$ 9 wat]1 b 9 a /ate ( solution until sep>at$ by *emical action4 ,9 ?is mann] c>bonate ( lime is (t5 precipitat$ ^u ! bottom ( lakes & seas 9 a solid =m1 z may be well se5 9 _m p>ts ( ,italy1 :]e m9]al spr+s ab\nd1 & :]e ! calc>e\s /one1 call$ trav]t91 is deposit$4 ,9 ^! spr+s ! lime is usually held 9 solution by an excess ( c>bonic acid1 or by heat if x be a hot spr+1 until ! wat]1 on issu+ f ! e>?1 cools or loses "p ( its acid4 ,! calc>e\s matt] !n falls d[n 9 a solid /ate1 encru/+ %ells1 fragm5ts ( wood & leaves1 & b9d+ !m toge!r4#cd-;,a ,9 coral reefs1 l>ge masses ( lime/one are =m$ by ! /ony skeletons ( zoophytes2 & ^!1 toge!r ) %ells1 become cem5t$ toge!r by c>bonate ( lime1 "p ( :i* is probably furni%$ to ! sea-wat] by ! decomposition ( dead corals4 ,ev5 %ells ( :i* ! animals are /ill liv+1 on ^! reefs1 are v commonly f\nd to be encru/$ ov] ) a h>d coat+ ( lime/one4#cd-;,b ,if s& & pebbles are c>ri$ by a riv] into ! sea1 & ^! are b\nd toge!r imm$iately by c>bonate ( lime1 ! deposit may be describ$ z ( a mix$ orig91 p>tly *emical1 & p>tly me*anical4 ,n[1 ! rem>ks already made 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 on ! orig9al horizontality ( /rata are /rictly applicable to me*anical deposits1 & only p>tially to ^? ( a mix$ nature4 ,su* z are purely *emical may be =m$ on a v /eep slope1 or may ev5 encru/ ! v]tical walls ( a fissure1 & be ( equal ?ickness ?r\gh\t2 b su* deposits are ( small ext5t1 & = ! mo/ "p conf9$ to ve9/ones4 ,cem5t+ ( p>ticles4--,x is *iefly 9 ! case ( calc>e\s rocks t solidification takes place at ! "t ( deposition4 ,b !re are _m deposits 9 :i* a cem5t+ process comes into op]ation long aft]w>ds4 ,we may sometimes obs]ve1 :]e ! wat] ( f]rug9\s or calc>e\s spr+s has fl[$ ?r\gh a b$ ( s& or gravel1 t iron or c>bonate ( lime has be5 deposit$ 9 ! int]/ices betwe5 ! gra9s or pebbles1 s t 9 c]ta9 places ! :ole has be5 b\nd toge!r into a /one1 ! same set ( /rata rema9+ 9 o!r p>ts loose & incoh]5t4 ,pro(s ( a simil> cem5t+ action are se5 9 a rock at ,kell[ay 9 ,wilt%ire4 ,a peculi> b& ( s&y /rata1 belong+ to ! gr\p call$ ,oolite by geologi/s1 may be trac$ ?r\gh sev]al c\nties1 ! s& be+ = ! mo/ "p loose & unconsolidat$1 b becom+ /ony ne> ,kell[ay4 ,9 ?is di/rict !re are num]\s fossil %ells :i* h decompos$1 hav+ = ! mo/ "p left only _! ca/s4 ,! calc>e\s matt] h5ce d]iv$ has evid5tly s]v$1 at "s =m] p]iod1 z a cem5t to ! silice\s gra9s ( s&1 & ?us a solid s&/one has be5 produc$4 ,if we take fragm5ts ( _m o!r argillace\s grits1 reta9+ ! ca/s ( %ells1 & plunge !m into dilute muriatic or o!r acid1 we see !m imm$iately *ang$ into common s& & mud2 ! cem5t ( lime1 d]iv$ f ! %ells1 hav+ be5 dissolv$ by ! acid4 ,traces ( impressions & ca/s are (t5 extremely fa9t4 ,9 "s loose s&s ( rec5t date we meet ) %ells 9 s advanc$ a /age ( decomposition z to crumble into p[d] :5 t\*$4 ,x is cle> t wat] p]colat+ su* /rata may soon remove ! calc>e\s matt] ( ! %ell2 &1 unless circum/ances cause ! c>bonate ( lime to be aga9 deposit$1 ! gra9s ( s& w n be cem5t$ toge!r2 9 :i* case no memorial ( ! fossil w rema94 ,! abs5ce ( organic rema9s f _m aque\s rocks may be ?us expla9$2 b we may presume t 9 _m ( !m no fossils 7 ev] imb$d$1 z !re are ext5sive tracts on ! bottoms ( exi/+ seas ev5 ( mod]ate dep? on :i* no fragm5t ( %ell1 coral1 or o!r liv+ creature c be detect$ by dr$g+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are dep?s :]e ! z]o ( animal life has be5 approa*$2 z1 = example1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 at ! dep? ( ab\t #bcj fa?oms1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,9 ! ,a,egean ,sea a deposit ( yell[i% mud ( a v uni=m "*1 & closely resembl+ *alk1 is go+ on 9 regions bel[ #bcj fa?oms1 & ?is =mation mu/ be :olly devoid ( organic rema9s4#ce-;,a ,9 :at mann] silex & c>bonate ( lime may become widely diffus$ 9 small quantities ?r\gh ! wat]s :i* p]meate ! e>?'s cru/ w be spok5 ( pres5tly1 :5 ! petrifaction ( fossil bodies is consid]$2 b ,i may rem>k "h t su* wat]s are always pass+ 9 ! case ( !rmal spr+s f hott] to cold] p>ts ( ! int]ior ( ! e>?2 & z (t5 z ! temp]ature ( ! solv5t is l[]$1 m9]al matt] has a t5d5cy to sep>ate f x & solidify4 ,?us a /ony cem5t is (t5 suppli$ to any s&1 pebbles1 or fragm5t>y mixture4 ,9 "s conglom]ates1 l ! pudd+-/one ( ,h]t=d%ire1 pebbles ( fl9t & gra9s ( s& are unit$ by a silice\s cem5t s firmly1 t if a block be fractur$ ! r5t passes z readily ?r\gh ! pebbles z ?r\gh ! cem5t4 ,x is probable t _m /rata became solid at ! "t :5 !y em]g$ f ! wat]s 9 :i* !y 7 deposit$1 & :5 !y fir/ =m$ a "p ( ! dry l&4 ,a well-kn[n fact seems to confirm ?is idea3 by f> ! great] numb] ( ! /ones us$ = build+ & road-mak+ are mu* s(t] :5 fir/ tak5 f ! qu>ry ?an aft] !y h be5 long expos$ to ! air2 & ^!1 :5 once dri$1 may aft]w>ds be imm]s$ = any l5g? ( "t 9 wat] )\t becom+ s(t aga94 ,h5ce x is f\nd desirable to %ape ! /ones :i* are to be us$ 9 ar*itecture :ile !y are yet s(t & wet1 & :ile !y conta9 _! qu>ry-wat]1 z x is call$2 also to break up /one int5d$ = roads :5 s(t1 & !n leave x to dry 9 ! air = mon?s t x may h>d54 ,su* induration may p]haps be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ ! wat]1 :i* p5etrates ! m9ute/ pores ( rocks1 to deposit1 on evaporation1 c>bonate ( lime1 iron1 silex1 & o!r m9]als previ\sly held 9 solution1 & !reby to fill up ! pores p>tially4 ,^! p>ticles1 on cry/alliz+1 w\ld n only be !mselves depriv$ ( fre$om ( motion1 b w\ld also b9d toge!r o!r portions ( ! rock :i* be=e 7 loosely aggregat$4 ,on ! same pr9ciple wet s& & mud become z h>d z /one :5 froz52 because "o +r$i5t ( ! mass1 namely1 ! wat]1 has cry/alliz$1 s z to hold firmly toge!r all ! sep>ate p>ticles ( :i* ! loose mud & s& 7 compos$4 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch m5tions a s&/one 9 ,skye1 :i* may be m\ld$ l d\gh :5 fir/ f\nd2 & "s simple m9]als1 :i* are rigid & z h>d z glass 9 our cab9ets1 are (t5 flexible & s(t 9 _! native b$s2 ?is is ! case ) asbe/os1 sahlite1 tremolite1 & *alc$ony1 & x is report$ also to happ5 9 ! case ( ! b]yl4#cf-;,a ,! m>l rec5tly deposit$ at ! bottom ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 is s(t1 & (t5 fill$ ) fre%wat] %ells2 b if a piece be tak5 up & dri$1 x becomes s h>d t x c only be brok5 by a sm>t bl[ ( ! hamm]4 ,if ! lake !re=e 0 dra9$1 su* a deposit w\ld be f\nd to consi/ ( /rata ( m>l/one1 l t obs]v$ 9 _m anci5t ,european =mations1 & l !m conta9+ fre%wat] %ells4#cf-;,b ,x is probable t "s ( ! het]og5e\s mat]ials :i* riv]s transport to ! sea may at once set "u wat]1 l ! artificial mixture call$ pozzolana1 :i* consi/s ( f9e volcanic s& *>g$ ) ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( oxide ( iron1 & ! addition ( a small quantity ( lime4 ,?is sub/ance h>d5s1 & becomes a solid /one 9 wat]1 & 0 us$ by ! ,romans 9 con/ruct+ ! f\ndations ( build+s 9 ! sea4 ,consolidation 9 ^! cases is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( *emical aff9ity on f9ely comm9ut$ matt] previ\sly susp5d$ 9 wat]4 ,aft] deposition simil> p>ticles seem to ex]t a mutual attraction on ea* o!r1 & congregate toge!r 9 p>ticul> spots1 =m+ lumps1 nodules1 & concretions4 ,?us 9 _m argillace\s deposits !re are calc>e\s balls1 or sph]ical concretions1 rang$ 9 lay]s p>allel to ! g5]al /ratification2 an arrangem5t :i* took place aft] ! %ale or m>l _h be5 ?r[n d[n 9 successive lam9ae2 = ^! lam9ae are (t5 trac$ 9 ! concretions1 rema9+ p>allel to ^? ( ! surr\nd+ unconsolidat$ rock4 7,see fig4 #ee47 ,su* nodules ( lime/one h (t5 a %ell or o!r =eign body 9 ! c5tre4#cg-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,calc>e\s nodules 9 ,lias4 ,among ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( concretion>y /ructure are ^? describ$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick z ab\nd+ 9 ! magnesian lime/one ( ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! sph]ical balls are ( v>i\s sizes1 f t ( a pea to a diamet] ( sev]al feet1 & !y h bo? a conc5tric & radiat$ /ructure1 :ile at ! same "t ! lam9ae ( orig9al deposition pass un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh !m4 ,9 "s cliffs ?is lime/one resembles a great irregul> pile ( cannon balls4 ,"s ( ! globul> masses h _! c5tre 9 "o /ratum1 :ile a portion ( _! ext]ior passes ?r\gh to ! /ratum above or bel[4 ,?us ! l>g] sph]oid 9 ! annex$ section 7fig4 #ef47 passes f ! /ratum b upw>ds into a4 ,9 ?is in/ance we mu/ suppose ! deposition ( a s]ies ( m9or lay]s1 fir/ =m+ ! /ratum b1 & aft]w>ds ! incumb5t /ratum a2 !n a movem5t ( ! p>ticles took place1 & ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia sep>at$ f ! m impure & mix$ matt] =m+ ! /ill unconsolidat$ p>ts ( ! /ratum4 ,cry/allization1 beg9n+ at ! c5tre1 mu/ h gone on =m+ conc5tric coats1 ar\nd ! orig9al nucleus )\t int]f]+ ) ! lam9at$ /ructure ( ! rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,sph]oidal concretions 9 magnesian lime/one4 ,:5 ! p>ticles ( rocks h be5 ?us re-arrang$ by *emical =ces1 x is sometimes difficult or impossible to asc]ta9 :e!r c]ta9 l9es ( division are due to orig9al deposition or to ! subsequ5t aggregation ( simil> p>ticles4 ,?us suppose ?ree /rata ( grit1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 are *>g$ unequally ) calc>e\s matt]1 & t ,b is ! mo/ calc>e\s4 ,if consolidation takes place 9 ,b1 ! concretion>y action may spread upw>ds into a "p ( ,a1 :]e ! c>bonate ( lime is m abundant ?an 9 ! re/2 s t a mass1 d1 e1 f1 =m+ a portion ( ! sup]ior /ratum1 becomes unit$ ) ,b into "o solid mass ( /one4 ,! orig9al l9e ( division d1 e1 be+ ?us effac$1 ! l9e d1 f1 w\ld g5]ally be consid]$ z ! surface ( ! b$ ,b1 ?\gh n /rictly a true plane ( /ratification4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,block section4 ,pressure & heat4--,:5 s& & mud s9k to ! bottom ( a deep sea1 ! p>ticles are n press$ d[n by ! enorm\s weight ( ! incumb5t ocean2 = ! wat]1 :i* becomes m+l$ ) ! s& & mud1 resi/s pressure ) a =ce equal to t ( ! column ( fluid above4 ,! same happ5s 9 reg>d to organic rema9s :i* are fill$ ) wat] "u great pressure z !y s9k1 o!rwise !y w\ld be imm$iately cru%$ to pieces & flatt5$4 ,nev]!less1 if ! mat]ials ( a /ratum rema9 9 a yield+ /ate1 & d n set or solidify1 !y w be gradually squeez$ d[n by ! weight ( o!r mat]ials successively heap$ ^u !m1 j z s(t clay or loose s& on :i* a h\se is built may give way4 ,by su* d[nw>d pressure p>ticles ( clay1 s&1 & m>l1 may become pack$ into a small] space1 & be made to coh]e toge!r p]man5tly4 ,analog\s effects ( cond5sation may arise :5 ! solid p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ are =c$ 9 v>i\s directions by ^? me*anical movem5ts aft]w>ds to be describ$1 by :i* /rata h be5 b5t1 brok51 & rais$ above ! level ( ! sea4 ,rocks ( m yield+ mat]ials mu/ (t5 h be5 =c$ aga9/ o!rs previ\sly consolidat$1 &1 ?us compress$1 may h acquir$ a new /ructure4 ,a rec5t discov]y may help u to compreh5d h[ f9e s$im5t d]iv$ f ! detritus ( rocks may be solidifi$ by m]e pressure4 ,! graphite or black lead ( comm]ce hav+ become v sc>ce1 ,mr4 ,brock$on contriv$ a me?od by :i* ! du/ ( ! pur] portions ( ! m9]al f\nd 9 ,borr[dale might be recompos$ into a mass z d5se & compact z native graphite4 ,! p[d] ( graphite is fir/ c>efully prep>$ & fre$ f air1 & plac$ "u a p[]ful press on a /rong /eel die1 ) air-tight fitt+s4 ,x is !n /ruck sev]al bl[s1 ea* ( a p[] ( #ajjj tons2 aft] :i* op]ation ! p[d] is s p]fectly solidifi$ t x c be cut = p5cils1 & exhibits :5 brok5 ! same texture z native graphite4 ,b ! action ( heat at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! e>? is probably ! mo/ p[]ful ( all causes 9 h>d5+ s$im5t>y /rata4 ,to ?is subject ,i %all ref] aga9 :5 treat+ ( ! metamorphic rocks1 & ( ! slaty & jo9t$ /ructure4 ,m9]alization ( organic rema9s4--,! *anges :i* fossil organic bodies h und]gone s9ce !y 7 fir/ imb$d$ 9 rocks1 ?r[ mu* light on ! consolidation ( /rata4 ,fossil %ells 9 "s mod]n deposits h be5 sc>cely alt]$ 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 hav+ simply lo/ a "p ( _! animal matt]4 ,b 9 o!r cases ! %ell has disappe>$1 & left an impression only ( its ext]ior1 or a ca/ ( its int]ior =m1 or ?irdly1 a ca/ ( ! %ell itself1 ! orig9al matt] ( :i* has be5 remov$4 ,^! diff]5t =ms ( fossilization may easily be und]/ood if we exam9e ! mud rec5tly ?r[n out f a pond or canal 9 :i* !re are %ells4 ,if ! mud be argillace\s1 x acquires consi/5cy on dry+1 & on break+ op5 a portion ( x we f9d t ea* %ell has left impressions ( its ext]nal =m4 ,if we !n remove ! %ell itself1 we f9d )9 a solid nucleus ( clay1 hav+ ! =m ( ! int]ior ( ! %ell4 ,?is =m is (t5 v diff]5t f t ( ! out] %ell4 ,?us a ca/ su* z a1 fig4 #eh41 commonly call$ a fossil screw1 w\ld nev] be suspect$ by an inexp]i5c$ con*ologi/ to be ! int]nal %ape ( ! fossil univalve1 b1 fig4 #eh4 ,nor %\ld we h imag9$ at fir/ sight t ! %ell a & ! ca/ b1 fig4 #ei41 7 diff]5t p>ts ( ! same fossil4 ,! read] w obs]ve1 9 ! la/-m5tion$ figure 7b1 fig4 #ei471 t an empty space %ad$ d>k1 :i* ! %ell itself once occupi$1 n[ int]v5es betwe5 ! envelop+ /one & ! ca/ ( ! smoo? int]ior ( ! :orls4 ,9 su* cases ! %ell has be5 dissolv$ & ! compon5t p>ticles remov$ by wat] p]colat+ ! rock4 ,if ! nucleus 7 tak5 out a holl[ m\ld w\ld rema91 on :i* ! ext]nal =m ( ! %ell ) its tub]cles & /riae1 z se5 9 a1 fig4 #ei41 w\ld be se5 emboss$4 ,n[ if ! space allud$ to betwe5 ! nucleus & ! impression1 in/ead ( be+ left empty1 has be5 fill$ up ) calc>e\s sp>1 fl9t1 pyrites1 or o!r m9]al1 we !n obta9 f ! m\ld an exact ca/ bo? ( ! ext]nal & int]nal =m ( ! orig9al %ell4 ,9 ?is mann] silicifi$ ca/s ( %ells h be5 =m$2 & if ! mud or s& ( ! nucleus happ5 to be incoh]5t1 or soluble 9 acid1 we c !n procure 9 fl9t an empty %ell1 :i* 9 %ape is ! exact c\nt]p>t ( ! orig9al4 ,?is ca/ may be comp>$ to a bronze /atue1 repres5t+ m]ely ! sup]ficial =m1 & n ! int]nal organization2 b !re is ano!r description ( petrifaction by no means uncommon1 & ( a mu* m wond]ful k9d1 :i* may be comp>$ to c]ta9 anatomical models 9 wax1 :]e n only ! outw>d =ms & features1 b ! n]ves1 blood-vessels1 & o!r int]nal organs are also %[n4 ,?us we f9d corals1 orig9ally calc>e\s1 9 :i* n only ! g5]al %ape1 b also ! m9ute & complicat$ int]nal organization are reta9$ 9 fl9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4 ,phasianella ,h$d+ton5sis1 & ca/ ( ! same4 ,coral ,rag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4 ,tro*us ,anglicus & ca/4 ,lias4 ,su* a process ( petrifaction is /ill m rem>kably exhibit$ 9 fossil wood1 9 :i* we (t5 p]ceive n only ! r+s ( annual gr[?1 b all ! m9ute vessels & m$ull>y rays4 ,_m ( ! m9ute pores & fibres ( plants1 & ev5 ^? spiral vessels :i* 9 ! liv+ vegetable c only be discov]$ by ! microscope1 are pres]v$4 ,among _m in/ances1 ,i may m5tion a fossil tree1 #gb feet 9 l5g?1 f\nd at ,gos=? ne> ,newca/le1 9 s&/one /rata associat$ ) coal4 ,by cutt+ a transv]se slice s ?9 z to transmit light1 & magnify+ x ab\t fifty-five times1 ! texture se5 9 fig4 #fj4 is exhibit$4 ,a texture equally m9ute & complicat$ has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! wood ( l>ge trunks ( fossil trees f\nd 9 ! ,craiglei? qu>ry ne> ,ed9burgh1 :]e ! /one 0 n 9 ! slighte/ degree silice\s1 b consi/$ *iefly ( c>bonate ( lime1 ) oxide ( iron1 alum9a1 & c>bon4 ,! p>allel r[s ( vessels "h se5 are ! r+s ( annual gr[?1 b 9 "o "p !y are imp]fectly pres]v$1 ! wood hav+ probably decay$ be=e ! m9]aliz+ matt] _h p5etrat$ to t portion ( ! tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4 ,texture ( a tree f ! coal /rata1 magnifi$4 7,)am47 ,transv]se section4 ,9 attempt+ to expla9 ! process ( petrifaction 9 su* cases1 we may fir/ assume t /rata are v g5]ally p]meat$ by wat] *>g$ ) m9ute portions ( calc>e\s1 silice\s1 & o!r e>?s 9 solution4 ,9 :at mann] !y become s impregnat$ w be aft]w>ds consid]$4 ,if an organic sub/ance is expos$ 9 ! op5 air to ! action ( ! sun & ra91 x w 9 "t putrefy1 or be dissolv$ into its compon5t elem5ts1 :i* consi/ *iefly ( oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon4 ,^! w readily be absorb$ by ! atmosph]e or be wa%$ away by ra91 s t all ve/iges ( ! dead animal or plant disappe>4 ,b if ! same sub/ances be subm]g$ 9 wat]1 !y decompose m gradually2 & if buri$ 9 e>?1 /ill m sl[ly1 z 9 ! famili> example ( wood5 piles or o!r buri$ timb]4 ,n[1 if z fa/ z ea* p>ticle is set free by putrefaction 9 a fluid or gase\s /ate1 a p>ticle equally m9ute ( c>bonate ( lime1 fl9t1 or o!r m9]al1 is at h& & ready to be precipitat$1 we may imag9e ?is inorganic matt] to take ! place j be=e left unoccupi$ by ! organic molecule4 ,9 ?is mann] a ca/ ( ! int]ior ( c]ta9 vessels may fir/ be tak51 & aft]w>ds ! m solid walls ( ! same may decay & suff] a l transmutation4 ,yet :5 ! :ole is lapidifi$1 x may n =m "o homog5e\s mass ( /one or metal4 ,"s ( ! orig9al ligne\s1 osse\s1 or o!r organic elem5ts may rema9 m+l$ 9 c]ta9 p>ts1 or ! lapidify+ sub/ance itself may be diff]5tly col\r$ at diff]5t times1 or s cry/alliz$ z to reflect light diff]5tly1 & ?us ! texture ( ! orig9al body may be fai?fully exhibit$4 ,! /ud5t may p]haps ask :e!r1 on *emical pr9ciples1 we h any gr\nd to expect t m9]al matt] w be ?r[n d[n precisely 9 ^? spots :]e organic decomposition is 9 progress8 ,! foll[+ curi\s exp]im5ts may s]ve to illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,pr(essor ,goepp]t ( ,breslau attempt$ rec5tly to imitate ! natural process ( petrifaction4 ,= ?is purpose he /eep$ a v>iety ( animal & vegetable sub/ances 9 wat]s1 "s hold+ silice\s1 o!rs calc>e\s1 o!rs metallic matt] 9 solution4 ,he f\nd t 9 ! p]iod ( a few weeks1 or ev5 days1 ! organic bodies ?us imm]s$ 7 m9]aliz$ to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,?us1 = example1 ?9 v]tical slices ( deal1 tak5 f ! ,scot* fir 7,p9us sylve/ris71 7 imm]s$ 9 a mod]ately /rong solution ( sulphate ( iron4 ,:5 !y _h be5 ?or\ghly soak$ 9 ! liquid = sev]al days !y 7 dri$ & expos$ to a r$-heat until ! vegetable matt] 0 burnt up & no?+ rema9$ b an oxide ( iron1 :i* 0 f\nd to h tak5 ! =m ( ! deal s exactly t ca/s ev5 ( ! dott$ vessels peculi> to ?is family ( plants 7 di/9ctly visible "u ! microscope4 ,ano!r accid5tal exp]im5t has be5 record$ by ,mr4 ,pepys 9 ! ,geological ,transactions4#da-;,a ,an e>!n pit*] conta9+ sev]al qu>ts ( sulphate ( iron _h rema9$ undi/urb$ & unnotic$ = ab\t a twelvemon? 9 ! laboratory4 ,at ! end ( ?is "t :5 ! liquor 0 exam9$ an oily appe>ance 0 obs]v$ on ! surface1 & a yell[i% p[d]1 :i* prov$ to be sulphur1 toge!r ) a quantity ( small hairs4 ,at ! bottom 7 discov]$ ! bones ( sev]al mice 9 a s$im5t consi/+ ( small gra9s ( pyrites1 o!rs ( sulphur1 o!rs ( cry/alliz$ gre5 sulphate ( iron1 & a black muddy oxide ( iron4 ,x 0 evid5t t "s mice _h accid5tally be5 dr[n$ 9 ! fluid1 & by ! mutual action ( ! animal matt] & ! sulphate ( iron on ea* o!r1 ! metallic sulphate _h be5 depriv$ ( its oxyg52 h5ce ! pyrites & ! o!r comp\nds 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,al?\gh ! mice 7 n m9]aliz$1 or turn$ into pyrites1 ! ph5om5on %[s h[ m9]al wat]s1 *>g$ ) sulphate ( iron1 may be deoxydat$ on com+ 9 contact ) animal matt] und]go+ putrefaction1 s t atom aft] atom ( pyrites may be precipitat$1 & ready1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 to replace ! oxyg51 hydrog51 & c>bon into :i* ! orig9al body w\ld be resolv$4 ,! late ,dr4 ,turn] obs]ves1 t :5 m9]al matt] is 9 a nasc5t /ate1 t is to say1 j lib]at$ f a previ\s /ate ( *emical comb9ation1 x is mo/ ready to unite ) o!r matt]1 & =m a new *emical comp\nd4 ,probably ! p>ticles or atoms j set free are ( extreme m9ut5ess1 & !re=e move m freely1 & are m ready to obey any impulse ( *emical aff9ity4 ,:atev] be ! cause1 x cle>ly foll[s1 z be=e /at$1 t :]e organic matt] newly imb$d$ 9 s$im5t is decompos+1 !re w *emical *anges take place mo/ actively4 ,an analysis 0 lately made ( ! wat] :i* 0 fl[+ (f f ! ri* mud deposit$ by ! ,hooghly riv] 9 ! ,delta ( ! ,ganges aft] ! annual inundation4 ,?is wat] 0 f\nd to be highly *>g$ ) c>bonic acid gas hold+ lime 9 solution4#da-;,b ,n[ if newly-deposit$ mud is ?us prov$ to be p]meat$ by m9]al matt] 9 a /ate ( solution1 x is n difficult to p]ceive t decompos+ organic bodies1 naturally imb$d$ 9 s$im5t1 may z readily become petrifi$ z ! sub/ances artificially imm]s$ by ,pr(essor ,goepp]t 9 v>i\s fluid mixtures4 ,x is well kn[n t ! wat] ( spr+s1 or t :i* is cont9ually p]colat+ ! e>?'s cru/1 is r>ely free f a slight admixture ei!r ( iron1 c>bonate ( lime1 sulphur1 silica1 pota%1 or "s o!r e>?y1 alkal9e1 or metallic +r$i5t4 ,hot spr+s 9 p>ticul> are copi\sly *>g$ ) "o or m ( ^! elem5ts2 & x is only 9 _! wat]s t silex is f\nd 9 abundance4 ,9 c]ta9 cases1 !re=e1 especially 9 volcanic regions1 we may imag9e ! fl9t ( silicifi$ wood & corals to h be5 suppli$ by ! wat]s ( !rmal spr+s4 ,9 o!r in/ances1 z 9 tripoli & *alk-fl9t1 x may h be5 d]iv$ 9 great "p1 if n :olly1 f ! decomposition ( infusoria or diatomaceae1 sponges1 & o!r bodies4 ,b ev5 if ?is be grant$1 we h /ill to inquire :5ce a lake or ! ocean c be con/antly repl5i%$ ) ! calc>e\s & silice\s matt] s abundantly )drawn f x by ! secretions ( ^! zoophytes4 ,9 reg>d to c>bonate ( lime !re is no difficulty1 because n only are calc>e\s spr+s v num]\s1 b ev5 ra9-wat] has ! p[] ( dissolv+ a m9ute portion ( ! calc>e\s rocks ov] :i* x fl[s4 ,h5ce m>9e corals & mollusca may be provid$ by riv]s ) ! mat]ials ( _! %ells & solid supports4 ,b pure silex1 ev5 :5 r$uc$ to ! f9e/ p[d] & boil$1 is insoluble 9 wat]1 except at v high temp]atures4 ,nev]!less ,dr4 ,turn] has well expla9$1 9 an essay on ! *emi/ry ( geology#db-;,a1 h[ ! decomposition ( felsp> may be a s\rce ( silex 9 solution4 ,he has rem>k$ t ! silice\s e>?1 :i* con/itutes m ?an half ! bulk ( felsp>1 is intimately comb9$ ) alum9e1 pota%1 & "s o!r elem5ts4 ,! alkal9e matt] ( ! felsp> has a *emical aff9ity = wat]1 z also = ! c>bonic acid :i* is m or less conta9$ 9 ! wat]s ( mo/ spr+s4 ,! wat] !re=e c>ries away alkal9e matt]1 & leaves beh9d a clay consi/+ ( alum9e & silica4 ,b ?is residue ( ! decompos$ m9]al1 :i* 9 its pure/ /ate is call$ porcela9 clay1 is f\nd to conta9 a "p only ( ! silica :i* exi/$ 9 ! orig9al felsp>4 ,! o!r "p1 !re=e1 mu/ h be5 dissolv$ & remov$2 & ?is c be acc\nt$ = 9 two ways2 fir/1 because silica :5 comb9$ ) an alkali is soluble 9 wat]2 secondly1 because silica 9 :at is te*nically call$ its nasc5t /ate is also soluble 9 wat]4 ,h5ce an endless supply ( silica is af=d$ to riv]s & ! wat]s ( ! sea4 ,= ! felspa?ic rocks are univ]sally di/ribut$1 con/itut+1 z !y d1 s l>ge a proportion ( ! volcanic1 plutonic1 & metamorphic =mations4 ,ev5 :]e !y *ance to be abs5t 9 mass1 !y r>ely fail to occur 9 ! sup]ficial gravel or alluvial deposits ( ! bas9 ( e l>ge riv]4 ,! dis9tegration ( mica also1 ano!r m9]al :i* ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( granite & v>i\s s&/ones1 may yield silica :i* may be dissolv$ 9 wat]1 = ne>ly half ( ?is m9]al consi/s ( silica1 comb9$ ) alum9e1 pota%1 & ab\t a t5? "p ( iron4 ,! oxidation ( ?is iron 9 ! air is ! pr9cipal cause ( ! wa/e ( mica4 ,we h /ill1 h[ev]1 mu* to le>n be=e ! conv]sion ( fossil bodies into /one is fully und]/ood4 ,"s ph5om5a seem to imply t ! m9]alization mu/ proce$ ) consid]able rapidity1 = /ems ( a s(t & succul5t "*1 & ( a mo/ p]i%able nature1 are pres]v$ 9 fl9t2 & !re are in/ances ( ! complete silicification ( ! "y leaves ( a palm-tree :5 j ab\t to %oot =?1 & 9 t /ate :i* 9 ! ,we/ ,indies is call$ ! cabbage ( ! palm4#dc-;,a ,x may1 h[ev]1 be que/ion$ :e!r 9 su* cases !re may n h be5 "s antiseptic quality 9 ! wat] :i* ret>d$ putrefaction1 s t ! s(t p>ts ( ! buri$ sub/ance may h rema9$ = a long "t )\t dis9tegration1 l ! fle% ( bodies imb$d$ 9 peat4 ,mr4 ,/okes has po9t$ out examples ( petrifactions 9 :i* ! m p]i%able1 & o!rs :]e ! m durable portions ( wood are pres]v$4 ,^! v>iations1 he sugge/s1 mu/ d\btless h dep5d$ on ! "t :5 ! lapidify+ m9]al 0 introduc$4 ,?us1 9 c]ta9 silicifi$ /ems ( palm-trees1 ! cellul> tissue1 t mo/ de/ructible "p1 is 9 good condition1 :ile all signs ( ! h>d woody fibre h disappe>$1 ! spaces once occupi$ by x be+ holl[ or fill$ ) agate4 ,"h1 petrifaction mu/ h comm5c$ soon aft] ! wood 0 expos$ to ! action ( moi/ure1 & ! supply ( m9]al matt] mu/ !n h fail$1 or ! wat] mu/ h become too mu* dilut$ be=e ! woody fibre decay$4 ,b :5 ?is fibre is alone discov]able1 we mu/ suppose t an int]val ( "t elaps$ be=e ! comm5cem5t ( lapidification1 dur+ :i* ! cellul> tissue 0 oblit]at$4 ,:5 bo? /ructures1 namely1 ! cellul> & ! woody fibre1 are pres]v$1 ! process mu/ h comm5c$ at an e>ly p]iod1 & cont9u$ )\t int]ruption till x 0 complet$ ?r\gh\t4#dc-;,b ,,footnotes3 #cd-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,calc>e\s ,spr+s1 c4 #cd-;,b ,ibid4 ,trav]t91 ,coral ,reefs1 c4 #ce-;,a ,report ,brit4 ,ass4 #ahdc1 p4 #agh4 #cf-;,a ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,sy/4 ( ,geol4 vol4 i4 p4 #abc4 #cf-;,b ,pr9c4 ( ,geol41 ,index1 ,sup]ior ,lake4 #cg-;,a ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,rese>*es1 p4 #ie41 & ,geol4 ,obs]v] 7#ahea71 p4 #fhf4 #da-;,a ,vol4 i4 p4 #cii4 fir/ s]ies4 #da-;,b ,pidd+ton1 ,asiat4 ,rese>*4 vol4 xviii4 p4 #bbf4 #db-;,a ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 #cj4 p4 #bdf4 #dc-;,a ,/okes1 ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 v4 p4 #bab4 second s]ies4 #dc-;,b ,ibid4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,elevation ,,( ,,/rata ,,above ,,! ,,sea--,,horizontal ,,& ,,incl9$ ,,/ratification4 ,:y ! position ( m>9e /rata1 above ! level ( ! sea1 %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ris+ up ( ! l&1 n to ! go+ d[n ( ! sea--,upheaval ( ext5sive masses ( horizontal /rata--,incl9$ & v]tical /ratification--,anticl9al & syncl9al l9es--,b5t /rata 9 ea/ ( ,scotl&--,!ory ( fold+ by lat]al movem5t--,creeps--,dip & /rike--,/ructure ( ! ,jura--,v>i\s =ms ( outcrop--,rocks brok5 by flexure--,inv]t$ position ( di/urb$ /rata--,uncon=mable /ratification--,hutton & ,playfair on ! same--,fractures ( /rata--,poli%$ surfaces--,faults--,appe>ance ( repeat$ alt]nations produc$ by !m--,orig9 ( great faults4 ,l& has be5 rais$1 n ! sea l[]$4--,x has be5 already /at$ t ! aque\s rocks conta9+ m>9e fossils ext5d ov] wide cont95tal tracts1 & are se5 9 m\nta9 *a9s ris+ to great heights above ! level ( ! sea4 ,h5ce x foll[s1 t :at is n[ dry l& 0 once "u wat]4 ,b if we admit ?is conclusion1 we mu/ imag9e1 ei!r t !re has be5 a g5]al l[]+ ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 or t ! solid rocks1 once cov]$ by wat]1 h be5 rais$ up bodily out ( ! sea1 & h ?us become dry l&4 ,! e>li] geologi/s1 f9d+ !mselves r$uc$ to ?is alt]native1 embrac$ ! =m] op9ion1 assum+ t ! ocean 0 orig9ally univ]sal1 & _h gradually sunk d[n to its actual level1 s t ! pres5t isl&s & cont95ts 7 left dry4 ,x seem$ to !m f> easi] to conceive t ! wat] _h gone d[n1 ?an t solid l& _h ris5 upw>ds into its pres5t position4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 impossible to inv5t any satisfactory hypo!sis to expla9 ! disappe>ance ( s enorm\s a body ( wat] ?r\gh\t ! globe1 x be+ necess>y to inf] t ! ocean _h once /ood at :atev] height m>9e %ells might be detect$4 ,x moreov] appe>$ cle>1 z ! sci5ce ( ,geology advanc$1 t c]ta9 spaces on ! globe _h be5 alt]nately sea1 !n l&1 !n e/u>y1 !n sea aga91 &1 la/ly1 once m habitable l&1 hav+ rema9$ 9 ea* ( ^! /ates = consid]able p]iods4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = su* ph5om5a1 )\t admitt+ any movem5t ( ! l& itself1 we are requir$ to imag9e sev]al retreats & returns ( ! ocean2 & ev5 !n our !ory applies m]ely to cases :]e ! m>9e /rata compos+ ! dry l& are horizontal1 leav+ unexpla9$ ^? m common in/ances :]e /rata are incl9$1 curv$1 or plac$ on _! edges1 & evid5tly n 9 ! position 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ deposit$4 ,geologi/s1 !re=e1 7 at la/ compell$ to h rec\rse to ! o!r alt]native1 namely1 ! doctr9e t ! solid l& has be5 repeat$ly mov$ upw>ds or d[nw>ds1 s z p]man5tly to *ange its position relatively to ! sea4 ,!re are sev]al di/9ct gr\nds = pref]r+ ?is conclusion4 ,fir/1 x w acc\nt equally = ! position ( ^? elevat$ masses ( m>9e orig9 9 :i* ! /ratification rema9s horizontal1 & = ^? 9 :i* ! /rata are di/urb$1 brok51 incl9$1 or v]tical4 ,secondly1 x is consi/5t ) human exp]i5ce t l& %\ld rise gradually 9 "s places & be depress$ 9 o!rs4 ,su* *anges h actually occurr$ 9 our own days1 & are n[ 9 progress1 hav+ be5 accompani$ 9 "s cases by viol5t convulsions1 :ile 9 o!rs !y h proce$$ s ins5sibly1 z to h be5 asc]ta9able only by ! mo/ c>eful sci5tific obs]vations1 made at consid]able int]vals ( "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is no evid5ce f human exp]i5ce ( a l[]+ ( ! sea's level 9 any region1 & ! ocean _c s9k 9 "o place )\t its level be+ depress$ all ov] ! globe4 ,^! prelim9>y rem>ks w prep>e ! read] to und]/& ! great !oretical int]e/ atta*$ to all facts connect$ ) ! position ( /rata1 :e!r horizontal or incl9$1 curv$ or v]tical4 ,n[ ! fir/ & mo/ simple appe>ance is :]e /rata ( m>9e orig9 occur above ! level ( ! sea 9 horizontal position4 ,su* are ! /rata :i* we meet ) 9 ! s\? ( ,sicily1 fill$ ) %ells = ! mo/ "p ( ! same species z ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,"s ( ^! rocks rise to ! height ( m ?an #bjjj feet above ! sea4 ,o!r m\nta9 masses might be m5tion$1 compos$ ( horizontal /rata ( high antiquity1 :i* conta9 fossil rema9s ( animals :olly dissimil> f any n[ kn[n to exi/4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,sw$51 = example1 ne> ,lake ,w5]1 ! b$s ( "o ( ! olde/ ( ! fossilif]\s deposits1 namely t =m]ly call$ ,transition1 & n[ ,silurian1 by geologi/s1 occur 9 z level a position z if !y _h rec5tly =m$ "p ( ! delta ( a great riv]1 & be5 left dry on ! retir+ ( ! annual floods4 ,aque\s rocks ( ab\t ! same age ext5d = hundr$s ( miles ov] ! lake-di/rict ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & exhibit 9 l mann] a /ratification ne>ly undi/urb$4 ,! ,table ,m\nta9 at ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope is ano!r example ( highly elevat$ yet p]fectly horizontal /rata1 no less ?an #cejj feet 9 ?ickness1 & consi/+ ( s&/one ( v anci5t date4 ,in/ead ( imag9+ t su* fossilif]\s rocks 7 always at _! pres5t level1 & t ! sea 0 once high en\gh to cov] !m1 we suppose !m to h con/itut$ ! anci5t b$ ( ! ocean1 & t !y 7 gradually uplift$ to _! pres5t height4 ,?is idea1 h[ev] />tl+ x may at fir/ appe>1 is q 9 accordance1 z be=e /at$1 ) ! analogy ( *anges n[ go+ on 9 c]ta9 regions ( ! globe4 ,?us1 9 p>ts ( ,sw$51 & ! %ores & isl&s ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 pro(s h be5 obta9$ t ! l& is exp]i5c+1 & has exp]i5c$ = c5turies1 a sl[ upheav+ movem5t4 ,playfair argu$ 9 fav\r ( ?is op9ion 9 #ahjb2 & 9 #ahjg1 ,von ,bu*1 aft] 8 travels 9 ,sc&9avia1 ann\nc$ 8 conviction t a ris+ ( ! l& 0 9 progress4 ,celsius & o!r ,sw$i% writ]s _h1 a c5tury be=e1 decl>$ _! belief t a gradual *ange _h1 = ages1 be5 tak+ place 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea4 ,!y attribut$ ! *ange to a fall ( ! wat]s bo? ( ! ocean & ! ,baltic4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 has n[ be5 refut$ by abundant evid5ce2 = ! alt]ation ( relative level has nei!r be5 univ]sal nor e :]e uni=m 9 quantity1 b has am\nt$1 9 "s regions1 to sev]al feet 9 a c5tury1 9 o!rs to a few in*es2 :ile 9 ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ,sw$51 or ! prov9ce ( ,scania1 !re has be5 actually a loss in/ead ( a ga9 ( l&1 build+s hav+ gradually sunk bel[ ! level ( ! sea4#df-;,a ,x appe>s1 f ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,d>w9 & o!rs1 t v ext5sive regions ( ! cont95t ( ,s\? ,am]ica h be5 und]go+ sl[ & gradual upheaval1 by :i* ! level pla9s ( ,patagonia1 cov]$ ) rec5t m>9e %ells1 & ! ,pampas ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 h be5 rais$ above ! level ( ! sea4#df-;,b ,on ! o!r h&1 ! gradual s9k+ ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 = ! space ( m ?an #fjj miles f nor? to s\?1 dur+ ! la/ f\r c5turies1 has be5 e/abli%$ by ! obs]vations ( a ,dani% naturali/1 ,dr4 ,p+el4 ,& :ile ^! pro(s ( cont95tal elevation & subsid5ce1 by sl[ & ins5sible movem5ts1 h be5 rec5tly br\ght to light1 ! evid5ce has be5 daily /r5g!n$ ( cont9u$ *anges ( level effect$ by viol5t convulsions 9 c\ntries :]e e>?quakes are frequ5t4 ,!re ! rocks are r5t f "t to "t1 & heav$ up or ?r[n d[n sev]al feet at once1 & di/urb$ 9 su* a mann]1 t ! orig9al position ( /rata may1 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies1 be modifi$ to any am\nt4 ,x has also be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,d>w91 t1 9 ^? seas :]e circul> coral isl&s & b>ri] reefs ab\nd1 !re is a sl[ & cont9u$ s9k+ ( ! subm>9e m\nta9s on :i* ! masses ( coral are bas$2 :ile !re are o!r areas ( ! ,s\? ,sea1 :]e ! l& is on ! rise1 & :]e coral has be5 upheav$ f> above ! sea-level4 ,x w\ld require a volume to expla9 to ! read] ! v>i\s facts :i* e/abli% ! reality ( ^! movem5ts ( l&1 :e!r ( elevation or depression1 :e!r accompani$ by e>?quakes or accompli%$ sl[ly & )\t local di/urbance4 ,hav+ treat$ fully ( ^! subjects 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology#df-;,c1 ,i %all assume1 9 ! pres5t "w1 t su* *anges are "p ( ! actual c\rse ( nature2 & :5 admitt$1 !y w be f\nd to af=d a key to ! int]pretation ( a v>iety ( geological appe>ances1 su* z ! elevation ( horizontal1 incl9$1 or di/urb$ m>9e /rata1 & ! sup]position ( fre%wat] to m>9e deposits1 aft]w>ds to be describ$4 ,x w also appe>1 9 ! sequel1 h[ mu* light ! doctr9e ( a cont9u$ subsid5ce ( l& may ?r[ on ! mann] 9 :i* a s]ies ( /rata1 =m$ 9 %all[ wat]1 may h accumulat$ to a great ?ickness4 ,! excavation ( valleys also1 & o!r effects ( d5udation1 ( :i* ,i %all pres5tly treat1 c alone be und]/ood :5 we duly appreciate ! pro(s1 n[ on record1 ( ! prolong$ ris+ & s9k+ ( l&1 ?r\gh\t wide areas4 ,to conclude ?is subject1 ,i may rem9d ! read]1 t 7 we to embrace ! doctr9e :i* ascribes ! elevat$ position ( m>9e =mations1 & ! depression ( c]ta9 fre%wat] /rata1 to oscillations 9 ! level ( ! wat]s in/ead ( ! l&1 we %\ld be compell$ to admit t ! ocean has be5 sometimes e :]e mu* %all[] ?an at pres5t1 & at o!rs m ?an ?ree miles deep]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4 ,v]tical conglom]ate & s&/one4 ,incl9$ /ratification4--,! mo/ unequivocal evid5ce ( a *ange 9 ! orig9al position ( /rata is af=d$ by _! /&+ up p]p5dicul>ly on _! edges1 :i* is by no means a r>e ph5om5on1 especially 9 m\nta9\s c\ntries4 ,?us we f9d 9 ,scotl&1 on ! s\!rn skirts ( ! ,grampians1 b$s ( pudd+-/one alt]nat+ ) ?9 lay]s ( f9e s&1 all plac$ v]tically to ! horizon4 ,:5 ,saussure fir/ obs]v$ c]ta9 conglom]ates 9 a simil> position 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 he rem>k$ t ! pebbles1 be+ = ! mo/ "p ( an oval %ape1 _h _! long] axes p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification 7,see fig4 #fa474 ,f ?is he inf]r$1 t su* /rata mu/1 at fir/1 h be5 horizontal1 ea* oval pebble hav+ orig9ally settl$ at ! bottom ( ! wat]1 ) its flatt] side p>allel to ! horizon1 = ! same reason t an egg w n /& on ei!r end if unsupport$4 ,"s few1 inde$1 ( ! r\nd$ /ones 9 a conglom]ate occasionally af=d an exception to ! above rule1 = ! same reason t we see on a %+le bea* "s oval or flat-sid$ pebbles re/+ on _! ends or edges2 ^! hav+ be5 =c$ along ! bottom & aga9/ ea* o!r by a wave or curr5t s z to settle 9 ?is position4 ,v]tical /rata1 :5 !y c be trac$ cont9u\sly upw>ds or d[nw>ds = "s dep?1 are almo/ inv>iably se5 to be p>ts ( great curves1 :i* may h a diamet] ( a few y>ds1 or ( sev]al miles4 ,i %all fir/ describe two curves ( consid]able regul>ity1 :i* occur 9 ,=f>%ire1 ext5d+ ov] a c\ntry tw5ty miles 9 bread?1 f ! foot ( ! ,grampians to ! sea ne> ,arbroa?4 ,! mass ( /rata "h %[n may be ne>ly #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 consi/+ ( r$ & :ite s&/one1 & v>i\s col\r$ %ales1 ! b$s be+ di/+ui%able into f\r pr9cipal gr\ps1 namely1 ,no4 #a4 r$ m>l or %ale2 ,no4 #b4 r$ s&/one1 us$ = build+2 ,no4 #c4 conglom]ate2 & ,no4 #d4 grey pav+-/one1 & tile-/one1 ) gre5 & r$di% %ale1 conta9+ peculi> organic rema9s4 ,a glance at ! section w %[ t ea* ( ! =mations #b1 #c1 #d1 are repeat$ ?rice at ! surface1 twice ) a s\!rly1 & once ) a nor!rly incl9ation or dip1 & ! b$s 9 ,no4 #a41 :i* are ne>ly horizontal1 are /ill br\ght up twice by a slight curvature to ! surface1 once on ea* side ( ,a4 ,beg9n+ at ! nor?-we/ extremity1 ! tile-/ones & conglom]ates ,no4 #d4 & ,no4 #c4 are v]tical1 & !y g5]ally =m a ridge p>allel to ! s\!rn skirts ( ! ,grampians4 ,! sup]ior /rata ,nos4 #b4 & #a4 become less & less incl9$ on desc5d+ to ! valley ( ,/ra?more1 :]e ! /rata1 hav+ a concave b5d1 are said by geologi/s to lie 9 a tr\gh or bas94 ,?r\gh ! c5tre ( ?is valley runs an imag9>y l9e ,a1 call$ te*nically a syncl9al l9e1 :]e ! b$s1 :i* are tilt$ 9 opposite directions1 may be suppos$ to meet4 ,x is mo/ important = ! obs]v] to m>k su* l9es1 = he w p]ceive by ! diagram1 t 9 travell+ f ! nor? to ! c5tre ( ! bas91 he is always pass+ f old] to new] b$s2 :]eas1 aft] cross+ ! l9e ,a1 & pursu+ 8 c\rse 9 ! same s\!rly direction1 he is cont9ually leav+ ! new]1 & advanc+ ^u old] /rata4 ,all ! deposits :i* he _h be=e exam9$ beg9 !n to recur 9 rev]s$ ord]1 until he arrives at ! c5tral axis ( ! ,sidlaw hills1 :]e ! /rata are se5 to =m an ar* or saddle1 hav+ an anticl9al l9e ,b1 9 ! c5tre4 ,on pass+ ?is l9e1 & cont9u+ t[>ds ! ,s4,e41 ! =mations #d1 #c1 & #b1 are aga9 repeat$1 9 ! same relative ord] ( sup]position1 b ) a nor!rly dip4 ,at ,:it5ess 7see diagram7 x w be se5 t ! incl9$ /rata are cov]$ by a new] deposit1 a1 9 horizontal b$s4 ,^! are compos$ ( r$ conglom]ate & s&1 & are new] ?an any ( ! gr\ps1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 be=e describ$1 & re/ uncon=mably ^u /rata ( ! s&/one gr\p1 ,no4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb4 ,section ( ,=f>%ire1 f ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e41 f foot ( ! ,grampians to ! sea at ,arbroa? 7volcanic or trap rocks omitt$74 ,l5g? ( section tw5ty miles4 ,an example ( curv$ /rata1 9 :i* ! b5ds or convolutions ( ! rock are %>p] & f> m num]\s )9 an equal space1 has be5 well describ$ by ,sir ,james ,hall4#dh-;,a ,x occurs ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! rocks consi/ pr9cipally ( a blui% slate1 hav+ frequ5tly a ripple-m>k$ surface4 ,! undulations ( ! b$s rea* f ! top to ! bottom ( cliffs f #bjj to #cjj feet 9 height1 & !re are sixte5 di/9ct b5d+s 9 ! c\rse ( ab\t six miles1 ! curvatures be+ alt]nately concave & convex upw>ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4 ,curv$ /rata ( slate ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 ,b]wick%ire4 7,sir ,j4 ,hall47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4 ,block section4 ,an exp]im5t 0 made by ,sir ,james ,hall1 ) a view ( illu/rat+ ! mann] 9 :i* su* /rata1 assum+ !m to h be5 orig9ally horizontal1 may h be5 =c$ into _! pres5t position4 ,a set ( lay]s ( clay 7 plac$ "u a weight1 & _! opposite ends press$ t[>ds ea* o!r ) su* =ce z to cause !m to approa* m ne>ly toge!r4 ,on ! removal ( ! weight1 ! lay]s ( clay 7 f\nd to be curv$ & fold$1 s z to be> a m9iature resemblance to ! /rata 9 ! cliffs4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be> 9 m9d1 t 9 ! natural section or sea-cliff we only see ! fold+s imp]fectly1 "o "p be+ invisible b5ea? ! sea1 & ! o!r1 or upp] portion1 be+ suppos$ to h be5 c>ri$ away by d5udation1 or t action ( wat] :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! d>k l9es 9 ! accompany+ plan 7fig4 #fd47 repres5t :at is actually se5 ( ! /rata 9 "p ( ! l9e ( cliff allud$ to2 ! fa9t] l9es1 t portion :i* is conceal$ b5ea? ! sea level1 z also t :i* is suppos$ to h once exi/$ above ! pres5t surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4 ,exp]im5tal set-up4 ,we may /ill m easily illu/rate ! effects :i* a lat]al ?ru/ might produce on flexible /rata1 by plac+ sev]al pieces ( diff]5tly col\r$ clo?s ^u a table1 & :5 !y are spread out horizontally1 cov] !m ) a book4 ,!n apply o!r books to ea* end1 & =ce !m t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,! fold+ ( ! clo?s w exactly imitate ^? ( ! b5t /rata4 7,see fig4 #fe47 ,:e!r ! analog\s flexures 9 /ratifi$ rocks h really be5 due to simil> sideway movem5ts is a "q ( consid]able difficulty4 ,x w appe> :5 ! volcanic & granitic rocks are describ$1 t "s ( !m h1 :5 melt$1 be5 inject$ =cibly into fissures1 :ile o!rs1 already 9 a solid /ate1 h be5 protrud$ upw>ds ?r\gh ! incumb5t cru/ ( ! e>?1 by :i* a great displacem5t ( flexible /rata mu/ h be5 caus$4 ,b we also "k by ! /udy ( regions liable to e>?quakes1 t !re are causes at "w 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? capable ( produc+ a s9k+ 9 ( ! gr\nd1 sometimes v local1 b sometimes ext5d+ ov] a wide area4 ,! frequ5t repetition1 or cont9uance ?r\gh\t long p]iods1 ( su* d[nw>d movem5ts seems to imply ! =mation & r5ewal ( cavities at a c]ta9 dep? bel[ ! surface1 :e!r by ! removal ( matt] by volcanos & hot spr+s1 or by ! contraction ( argillace\s rocks by heat & pressure1 or any o!r comb9ation ( circum/ances4 ,:atev] conjectures we may indulge respect+ ! causes1 x is c]ta9 t pliable b$s may1 9 consequ5ce ( unequal degrees ( subsid5ce1 become fold$ to any am\nt1 & h all ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 compress$ sudd5ly by a lat]al ?ru/4 ,! ,creeps1 z !y are call$ 9 coal-m9es1 af=d an excell5t illu/ration ( ?is fact4--,fir/1 x may be /at$ g5]ally1 t ! excavation ( coal at a consid]able dep? causes ! mass ( ov]ly+ /rata to s9k d[n bodily1 ev5 :5 props are left to support ! ro( ( ! m9e4 ,9 ,york%ire1 says ,mr4 ,buddle1 ?ree di/9ct subsid5ces 7 p]ceptible at ! surface1 aft] ! cle>+ out ( ?ree seams ( coal bel[1 & innum]able v]tical cracks 7 caus$ 9 ! incumb5t mass ( s&/one & %ale1 :i* ?us settl$ d[n4#ej-;,a ,! exact am\nt ( depression 9 ^! cases c only be accurately measur$ :]e wat] accumulates on ! surface1 or a railway trav]ses a coal-field4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4 ,section ( c>bonif]\s /rata1 at ,walls5d1 ,newca/le1 %[+ ,creeps4 7,j4 ,buddle1 ,esq47 ,horizontal l5g? ( section #agd feet4 ,! upp] seam1 or ma9 coal1 "h work$ out1 0 #fcj feet bel[ ! surface4 ,:5 a b$ ( coal is work$ out1 pill>s or rectangul> masses ( coal are left at int]vals z props to support ! ro(1 & protect ! colli]s4 ,?us 9 fig4 #ff41 repres5t+ a section at ,walls5d1 ,newca/le1 ! gall]ies :i* h be5 excavat$ are repres5t$ by ! :ite spaces a b1 :ile ! adjo9+ d>k portions are p>ts ( ! orig9al coal-seam left z props1 b$s ( s&y clay or %ale con/itut+ ! floor ( ! m9e4 ,:5 ! props h be5 r$uc$ 9 size1 !y are press$ d[n by ! weight ( ov]ly+ rocks 7no less ?an #fcj feet ?ick7 ^u ! %ale bel[1 :i* is !reby squeez$ & =c$ up into ! op5 spaces4 ,n[ x might h be5 expect$1 t in/ead ( ! floor ris+ up1 ! ceil+ w\ld s9k d[n1 & ?is effect1 call$ a ,?ru/1 does1 9 fact1 take place :]e ! pavem5t is m solid ?an ! ro(4 ,b x usually happ5s1 9 coal-m9es1 t ! ro( is compos$ ( h>d %ale1 or occasionally ( s&/one1 m unyield+ ?an ! f\ndation1 :i* (t5 consi/s ( clay4 ,ev5 :]e ! argillace\s sub/rata are h>d at fir/1 !y soon become s(t5$ & r$uc$ to a pla/ic /ate :5 expos$ to ! contact ( air & wat] 9 ! floor ( a m9e4 ,! fir/ symptom ( a creep1 says ,mr4 ,buddle1 is a slight curvature at ! bottom ( ea* gall]y1 z at a1 fig4 #ff43 !n ! pavem5t cont9u+ to rise1 beg9s to op5 ) a longitud9al crack1 z at b3 !n ! po9ts ( ! fractur$ ridge rea* ! ro(1 z at c2 &1 la/ly1 ! uprais$ b$s close up ! :ole gall]y1 & ! brok5 portions ( ! ridge are re-unit$ & flatt5$ at ! top1 exhibit+ ! flexure se5 at d4 ,mean:ile ! coal 9 ! props has become cru%$ & crack$ by pressure4 ,x is also f\nd1 t bel[ ! creeps a1 b1 c1 d1 an inf]ior /ratum1 call$ ! metal coal1 :i* is #c feet ?ick1 has be5 fractur$ at ! po9ts e1 f1 g1 h1 & has ris51 s z to prove t ! upw>d movem5t1 caus$ by ! work+ out ( ! ma9 coal1 has be5 propagat$ ?r\gh a ?ickness ( #ed feet ( argillace\s b$s1 :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! two coal seams4 ,?is same displacem5t has also be5 trac$ d[nw>ds m ?an #aej feet bel[ ! metal coal1 b x gr[s cont9ually less & less until x becomes imp]ceptible4 ,no "p ( ! process above describ$ is m des]v+ ( our notice ?an ! sl[ness ) :i* ! *ange 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! b$s is br\ght ab\t4 ,days1 mon?s1 or ev5 ye>s1 w sometimes elapse betwe5 ! fir/ b5d+ ( ! pavem5t & ! "t ( its rea*+ ! ro(4 ,:]e ! movem5t has be5 mo/ rapid1 ! curvature ( ! b$s is mo/ regul>1 & ! reunion ( ! fractur$ ends mo/ complete2 :]eas ! signs ( displacem5t or viol5ce are greate/ 9 ^? creeps :i* h requir$ mon?s or ye>s = _! entire accompli%m5t4 ,h5ce we may conclude t simil> *anges may h be5 wr\ght on a l>g] scale 9 ! e>?'s cru/ by p>tial & gradual subsid5ces1 especially :]e ! gr\nd has be5 und]m9$ ?r\gh\t long p]iods ( "t2 & we mu/ be on our gu>d aga9/ inf]r+ sudd5 viol5ce1 simply because ! di/ortion ( ! b$s is excessive4 ,betwe5 ! lay]s ( %ale1 accompany+ coal1 we sometimes see ! leaves ( fossil f]ns spread out z regul>ly z dri$ plants betwe5 %eets ( pap] 9 ! h]b>ium ( a botani/4 ,^! f]n-leaves1 or fronds1 mu/ h re/$ horizontally on s(t mud1 :5 fir/ deposit$4 ,if1 !re=e1 !y & ! lay]s ( %ale are n[ incl9$1 or /&+ on end1 x is obvi\sly ! effect ( subsequ5t d]angem5t4 ,! pro( becomes1 if possible1 /ill m /rik+ :5 ^! /rata1 includ+ vegetable rema9s1 are curv$ aga9 & aga91 & ev5 fold$ into ! =m ( ! lett] ,z1 s t ! same cont9u\s lay] ( coal is cut ?r\gh sev]al times 9 ! same p]p5dicul> %aft4 ,?us1 9 ! coal-field ne> ,mons1 9 ,belgium1 ^! zigzag b5d+s are repeat$ f\r or five times1 9 ! mann] repres5t$ 9 fig4 #fg41 ! black l9es repres5t+ seams ( coal4#ec-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4 ,zigzag flexures ( coal ne> ,mons4 ,dip & ,/rike4--,9 ! above rem>ks1 sev]al te*nical t]ms h be5 us$1 su* z dip1 ! uncon=mable position ( /rata1 & ! anticl9al & syncl9al l9es1 :i*1 z well z ! /rike ( ! b$s1 ,i %all n[ expla94 ,if a /ratum or b$ ( rock1 in/ead ( be+ q level1 be incl9$ to "o side1 x is said to dip2 ! po9t ( ! compass to :i* x is incl9$ is call$ ! po9t ( dip1 & ! degree ( deviation f a level or horizontal l9e is call$ ! am\nt ( dip1 or ! angle ( dip4 ,?us1 9 ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #fh471 a s]ies ( /rata are incl9$1 & !y dip to ! nor? at an angle ( =ty-five degrees4 ,! /rike1 or l9e ( be>+1 is ! prolongation or ext5sion ( ! /rata 9 a direction at "r angles to ! dip2 & h5ce x is sometimes call$ ! direction ( ! /rata4 ,?us1 9 ! above in/ance ( /rata dipp+ to ! nor?1 _! /rike mu/ necess>ily be ea/ & we/4 ,we h borr[$ ! ^w f ! ,g]man geologi/s1 /rei*5 signify+ to ext5d1 to h a c]ta9 direction4 ,dip & /rike may be aptly illu/rat$ by a r[ ( h\ses runn+ ea/ & we/1 ! long ridge ( ! ro( repres5t+ ! /rike ( ! /ratum ( slates1 :i* dip on "o side to ! nor?1 & on ! o!r to ! s\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4 ,diagram4 ,a /ratum :i* is horizontal1 or q level 9 all directions1 has nei!r dip nor /rike4 ,x is always important = ! geologi/1 :o is endeav\r+ to compreh5d ! /ructure ( a c\ntry1 to le>n h[ ! b$s dip 9 e "p ( ! di/rict2 b x requires "s practice to avoid be+ occasionally deceiv$1 bo? z to ! po9t ( dip & ! am\nt ( x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4 ,app>5t horizontality ( incl9$ /rata4 ,if ! upp] surface ( a h>d /ony /ratum be uncov]$1 :e!r artificially 9 a qu>ry1 or by ! waves at ! foot ( a cliff1 x is easy to det]m9e t[>ds :at po9t ( ! compass ! slope is /eepe/1 or 9 :at direction wat] w\ld fl[1 if p\r$ ^u x4 ,?is is ! true dip4 ,b ! edges ( highly incl9$ /rata may give rise to p]fectly horizontal l9es 9 ! face ( a v]tical cliff1 if ! obs]v] see ! /rata 9 ! l9e ( _! /rike1 ! dip be+ inw>ds f ! face ( ! cliff4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we come to a break 9 ! cliff1 :i* exhibits a section exactly at "r angles to ! l9e ( ! /rike1 we are !n able to asc]ta9 ! true dip4 ,9 ! annex$ draw+ 7fig4 #fi471 we may suppose a headl&1 "o side ( :i* faces to ! nor?1 :]e ! b$s w\ld appe> p]fectly horizontal to a p]son 9 ! boat2 :ile 9 ! o!r side fac+ ! we/1 ! true dip w\ld be se5 by ! p]son on %ore to be at an angle ( #dj deg44 ,if1 !re=e1 our obs]vations are conf9$ to a v]tical precipice fac+ 9 "o direction1 we mu/ endeav\r to f9d a l$ge or portion ( ! plane ( "o ( ! b$s project+ beyond ! o!rs1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! true dip4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4 ,explanatory sket*4 ,x is r>ely important to det]m9e ! angle ( incl9ation ) su* m9ut5ess z to require ! aid ( ! in/rum5t call$ a cl9omet]4 ,we may measure ! angle )9 a few degrees by /&+ exactly opposite to a cliff :]e ! true dip is exhibit$1 hold+ ! h&s imm$iately be=e ! eyes1 & plac+ ! f+]s ( "o 9 a p]p5dicul>1 & ( ! o!r 9 a horizontal position1 z 9 fig4 #gj4 ,x is ?us easy to discov] :e!r ! l9es ( ! incl9$ b$s bisect ! angle ( #ij deg41 =m$ by ! meet+ ( ! h&s1 s z to give an angle ( #de deg41 or :e!r x w\ld divide ! space into two equal or unequal portions4 ,! upp] dott$ l9e may express a /ratum dipp+ to ! nor?2 b %\ld ! b$s dip precisely to ! opposite po9t ( ! compass z 9 ! l[] dott$ l9e1 x w be se5 t ! am\nt ( incl9ation may /ill be measur$ by ! h&s ) equal facility4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4 ,section illu/rat+ ! /ructure ( ! ,swiss ,jura4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4 ,gr\nd plan ( ! d5ud$ ridge1 fig4 #ga4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4 ,transv]se section4 ,x has be5 already se51 9 describ+ ! curv$ /rata on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 9 ,=f>%ire & ,b]wick%ire1 t a s]ies ( concave & convex b5d+s are occasionally repeat$ sev]al times4 ,^! usually =m "p ( a s]ies ( p>allel waves ( /rata1 :i* are prolong$ 9 ! same direction ?r\gh\t a consid]able ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! ,swiss ,jura1 t l(ty *a9 ( m\nta9s has be5 prov$ to consi/ ( _m p>allel ridges1 ) int]v5+ longitud9al valleys1 z 9 fig4 #ga41 ! ridges be+ =m$ by curv$ fossilif]\s /rata1 ( :i* ! nature & dip are occasionally display$ 9 deep transv]se gorges1 call$ cluses1 caus$ by fractures at "r angles to ! direction ( ! *a94#ee-;,a ,n[ let u suppose ^! ridges & p>allel valleys to run nor? & s\?1 we %\ld !n say t ! /rike ( ! b$s is nor? & s\?1 & ! dip ea/ & we/4 ,l9es drawn along ! summits ( ! ridges1 ,a1 ,b1 w\ld be anticl9al l9es1 & "o foll[+ ! bottom ( ! adjo9+ valleys a syncl9al l9e4 ,x w be obs]v$ t "s ( ^! ridges1 ,a1 ,b1 are unbrok5 on ! summit1 :]eas "o ( !m1 ,c1 has be5 fractur$ along ! l9e ( /rike1 & a portion ( x c>ri$ away by d5udation1 s t ! ridges ( ! b$s 9 ! =mations a1 b1 c1 come out to ! day1 or1 z ! m9]s say1 crop out1 on ! sides ( a valley4 ,! gr\nd plan ( su* a d5ud$ ridge z ,c1 z giv5 9 a geological map1 may be express$ by ! diagram fig4 #gb41 & ! cross section ( ! same by fig4 #gc4 ,! l9e ,d ,e1 fig4 #gb41 is ! anticl9al l9e1 on ea* side ( :i* ! dip is 9 opposite directions1 z express$ by ! arr[s4 ,! em]g5ce ( /rata at ! surface is call$ by m9]s _! outcrop or basset4 ,if1 in/ead ( be+ fold$ into p>allel ridges1 ! b$s =m a boss or dome-%ap$ protub]ance1 & if we suppose ! summit ( ! dome c>ri$ (f1 ! gr\nd plan w\ld exhibit ! edges ( ! /rata =m+ a succession ( circles1 or ellipses1 r\nd a common c5tre4 ,^! circles are ! l9es ( /rike1 & ! dip be+ always at "r angles is incl9$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! circuit to e po9t ( ! compass1 con/itut+ :at is t]m$ a qua-quav]sal dip--t is1 turn+ ea* way4 ,!re are endless v>iations 9 ! figures describ$ by ! basset-edges ( ! /rata1 accord+ to ! diff]5t incl9ation ( ! b$s1 & ! mode 9 :i* !y happ5 to h be5 d5ud$4 ,"o ( ! simple/ rules ) :i* e geologi/ %\ld be acqua9t$1 relates to ! ,v-l =m ( ! b$s z !y crop out 9 an ord9>y valley4 ,fir/1 if ! /rata be horizontal1 ! ,v-l =m w be also on a level1 & ! newe/ /rata w appe> at ! greate/ heights4 ,secondly1 if ! b$s be incl9$ & int]sect$ by a valley slop+ 9 ! same direction1 & ! dip ( ! b$s be less /eep ?an ! slope ( ! valley1 !n ! ,v's1 z !y are (t5 t]m$ by m9]s1 w po9t upw>ds 7see fig4 #gd471 ^? =m$ by ! new] b$s appe>+ 9 a sup]ior position1 & ext5d+ highe/ up ! valley1 z ,a is se5 above ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4 ,slope ( valley #dj deg41 dip ( /rata #bj deg44 ,?irdly1 if ! dip ( ! b$s be /eep] ?an ! slope ( ! valley1 !n ! ,v's w po9t d[nw>ds 7see fig4 #ge471 & ^? =m$ ( ! old] b$s w n[ appe> upp]mo/1 z ,b appe>s above ,a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4 ,slope ( valley #bj deg41 dip ( /rata #ej deg44 ,f\r?ly1 9 e case :]e ! /rata dip 9 a contr>y direction to ! slope ( ! valley1 :atev] be ! angle ( incl9ation1 ! new] b$s w appe> ! highe/1 z 9 ! fir/ & second cases4 ,?is is %[n by ! draw+ 7fig4 #gf471 :i* exhibits /rata ris+ at an angle ( #bj deg41 & cross$ by a valley1 :i* decl9es 9 an opposite direction at #bj deg44#eg-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,slope ( valley #bj deg41 dip ( /rata #bj deg41 9 opposite directions4 ,^! rules may (t5 be ( great practical utility2 = ! diff]5t degrees ( dip occurr+ 9 ! two cases repres5t$ 9 figures #gd & #ge4 may occasionally be enc\nt]$ 9 foll[+ ! same l9e ( flexure at po9ts a few miles di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,a m9] unacqua9t$ ) ! rule1 :o _h fir/ explor$ ! valley 7fig4 #gd471 may h sunk a v]tical %aft bel[ ! coal seam ,a1 until he rea*$ ! inf]ior b$ ,b4 ,he might !n pass to ! valley fig4 #ge41 & discov]+ !re also ! outcrop ( two coal seams1 might beg9 8 work+s 9 ! upp]mo/ 9 ! expectation ( com+ d[n to ! o!r b$ ,a1 :i* w\ld be obs]v$ cropp+ out l[] d[n ! valley4 ,b a glance at ! section w demon/rate ! futility ( su* hopes4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 an anticl9al axis =ms a ridge1 & a syncl9al axis a valley1 z 9 ,a1 ,b1 fig4 #fb4 p4 #dh42 b !re are exceptions to ?is rule1 ! b$s sometimes slop+ inw>ds f ei!r side ( a m\nta91 z 9 fig4 #gg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4 ,cross section4 ,on foll[+ "o ( ! anticl9al ridges ( ! ,jura1 be=e m5tion$1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 fig4 #ga41 we (t5 discov] longitud9al cracks & sometimes l>ge fissures along ! l9e :]e ! flexure 0 greate/4 ,"s ( ^!1 z above /at$1 h be5 enl>g$ by d5udation into valleys ( consid]able wid?1 z at ,c1 fig4 #ga41 :i* foll[ ! l9e ( /rike1 & :i* we may suppose to h be5 holl[$ out at ! "t :5 ^! rocks 7 /ill b5ea? ! level ( ! sea1 or p]haps at ! p]iod ( _! gradual em]g5ce f b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* cracks at ! po9t ( ! %>pe/ b5d+ ( solid /rata ( lime/one is precisely :at we %\ld h expect$2 b ! occasional want ( all simil> signs ( fracture1 ev5 :]e ! /ra9 has be5 greate/1 z at a1 fig4 #ga41 is n always easy to expla94 ,we mu/ imag9e t _m /rata ( lime/one1 *]t1 & o!r rocks :i* are n[ brittle1 7 pliant :5 b5t into _! pres5t position4 ,!y may h ow$ _! flexibility 9 "p to ! fluid matt] :i* !y conta9$ 9 _! m9ute pores1 z be=e describ$ 7p4 #ce471 & 9 "p to ! p]meation ( sea-wat] :ile !y 7 yet subm]g$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4 ,/rata ( *]t1 grit1 & m>l1 ne> ,/4 ,jean de ,luz4 ,at ! we/]n extremity ( ! ,pyr5ees1 great curvatures ( ! /rata are se5 9 ! sea cliffs1 :]e ! rocks consi/ ( m>l1 grit1 & *]t4 ,at c]ta9 po9ts1 z at a1 fig4 #gh41 "s ( ! b5d+s ( ! fl9ty *]t are s %>p1 t specim5s might be brok5 (f1 well fitt$ to s]ve z ridge-tiles on ! ro( ( a h\se4 ,al?\gh ?is *]t c\ld n h be5 brittle z n[1 :5 fir/ fold$ into ?is %ape1 x pres5ts1 nev]!less1 "h & !re at ! po9ts ( greate/ flexure small cracks1 :i* %[ t x 0 solid1 & n :olly incapable ( break+ at ! p]iod ( its displacem5t4 ,! num]\s r5ts allud$ to are n empty1 b fill$ ) calc$ony & qu>tz4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4 ,cross section4 g4 gypsum4 m4 m>l4 ,betwe5 ,san ,cat]9a & ,ca/rogiovanni1 9 ,sicily1 b5t & undulat+ gypse\s m>ls occur1 ) "h & !re ?9 b$s ( solid gypsum int]/ratifi$4 ,sometimes ^! solid lay]s h be5 brok5 into deta*$ fragm5ts1 /ill pres]v+ _! %>p edges 7g g1 fig4 #gi471 :ile ! cont9uity ( ! m pliable & ductile m>ls1 m m1 has n be5 int]rupt$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4 ,cross section4 ,i %all conclude my rem>ks on b5t /rata by /at+1 t1 9 m\nta9\s regions l ! ,alps1 x is (t5 difficult = an exp]i5c$ geologi/ to det]m9e correctly ! relative age ( b$s by sup]position1 s (t5 h ! /rata be5 fold$ back ^u !mselves1 ! upp] p>ts ( ! curve hav+ be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,?us1 if we met ) ! /rata se5 9 ! section fig4 #hj41 we %\ld naturally suppose t !re 7 twelve di/9ct b$s1 or sets ( b$s1 ,no4 #a4 be+ ! newe/1 & ,no4 #ab4 ! olde/ ( ! s]ies4 ,b ?is section may1 p]haps1 exhibit m]ely six b$s1 :i* h be5 fold$ 9 ! mann] se5 9 fig4 #ha41 s t ea* ( !m is twice repeat$1 ! position ( "o half be+ rev]s$1 & "p ( ,no4 #a41 orig9ally ! upp]mo/1 hav+ n[ become ! l[e/ ( ! s]ies4 ,^! ph5om5a are (t5 obs]vable on a magnific5t scale 9 c]ta9 regions 9 ,switz]l& 9 precipices f #bjjj to #cjjj feet 9 p]p5dicul> height4 ,9 ! ,iselt5 ,alp1 9 ! valley ( ! ,luts*9e1 betwe5 ,unt]se5 & ,gr9delwald1 curves ( calc>e\s %ale are se5 f #ajjj to #aejj feet 9 height1 9 :i* ! b$s sometimes plunge d[n v]tically = a dep? ( #ajjj feet & m1 be=e !y b5d r\nd aga94 ,!re are _m flexures n inf]ior 9 dim5sions 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 z ^? ne> ,gav>nie1 at ! base ( ,mont ,p]du4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4 ,cross section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4 ,curv$ /rata ( ! ,iselt5 ,alp4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4 ,uncon=mable junction ( old r$ s&/one & ,silurian s*i/ at ! ,sicc> ,po9t1 ne> ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 ,b]wick%ire4 ,see also ,frontispiece4 ,uncon=mable /ratification4--,/rata are said to be uncon=mable1 :5 "o s]ies is s plac$ ov] ano!r1 t ! planes ( ! sup]ior repose on ! edges ( ! inf]ior 7see fig4 #hc474 ,9 ?is case x is evid5t t a p]iod _h elaps$ betwe5 ! production ( ! two sets ( /rata1 & t1 dur+ ?is int]val1 ! old] s]ies _h be5 tilt$ & di/urb$4 ,aft]w>ds ! upp] s]ies 0 ?r[n d[n 9 horizontal /rata ^u x4 ,if ^! sup]ior b$s1 z d1 d1 fig4 #hc41 are also incl9$1 x is pla9 t ! l[] /rata1 a1 a1 h be5 twice displac$2 fir/1 be=e ! deposition ( ! new] b$s1 d1 d1 & a second "t :5 ^! same /rata 7 ?r[n out ( ! horizontal position4 ,playfair has rem>k$#fj-;,a t ?is k9d ( junction :i* we n[ call uncon=mable _h be5 describ$ be=e ! "t ( ,hutton1 b t he 0 ! fir/ geologi/ :o appreciat$ its importance1 z illu/rat+ ! high antiquity & great revolutions ( ! globe4 ,he _h obs]v$ t :]e su* contacts occur1 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! new] s]ies v g5]ally consi/ ( a breccia or conglom]ate consi/+ ( angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts1 d]iv$ f ! break+ up ( ! m anci5t rocks4 ,on "o occasion ! ,scot* geologi/ took 8 two di/+ui%$ pupils1 ,playfair & ,sir ,james ,hall1 to ! cliffs on ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 ne> ! village ( ,eyem\?1 n f> f ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 :]e ! s*i/s ( ! ,lamm]muir range are und]m9$ & dissect$ by ! sea4 ,"h ! curv$ & v]tical /rata1 n[ kn[n to be ( ,silurian age1 & :i* (t5 exhibit a ripple-m>k$ surface#fj-;,b1 are well expos$ at ! headl& call$ ! ,sicc> ,po9t1 p5etrat+ ) _! edges into ! incumb5t b$s ( slightly incl9$ s&/one1 9 :i* l>ge pieces ( ! s*i/1 "s r\nd & o!rs angul>1 are unit$ by an ar5ace\s cem5t4 ,:at cle>] evid5ce1 exclaims ,playfair1 c\ld we h _h ( ! diff]5t =mation ( ^! rocks1 & ( ! long int]val :i* sep>at$ _! =mation1 _h we actually se5 !m em]g+ f ! bosom ( ! deep8 ,we felt ourselves necess>ily c>ri$ back to ! "t :5 ! s*i/us on :i* we /ood 0 yet at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & :5 ! s&/one be=e u 0 only beg9n+ to be deposit$ 9 ! %ape ( s& or mud1 f ! wat]s ( a sup]9cumb5t ocean4 ,an epo* /ill m remote pres5t$ itself1 :5 ev5 ! mo/ anci5t ( ^! rocks1 in/ead ( /&+ upright 9 v]tical b$s1 lay 9 horizontal planes at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & 0 n yet di/urb$ by t immeasurable =ce :i* has bur/ asund] ! solid pavem5t ( ! globe4 ,revolutions /ill m remote appe>$ 9 ! di/ance ( ?is extraord9>y p]spective4 ,! m9d seem$ to gr[ giddy by look+ s f> into ! abyss ( "t2 & :ile we li/5$ ) e>ne/ness & admiration to ! philosoph] :o 0 n[ unfold+ to u ! ord] & s]ies ( ^! wond]ful ev5ts1 we became s5sible h[ mu* f>!r reason may sometimes g ?an imag9ation c v5ture to foll[4#fj-;,c ,9 ! frontispiece ( ?is volume ! read] w see a view ( ?is classical spot1 r$uc$ f a l>ge picture1 fai?fully sket*$ & col\r$ f nature by ! y\nge/ son ( ! late ,sir ,james ,hall4 ,x 0 impossible1 h[ev]1 to d ju/ice to ! orig9al sket*1 9 an engrav+1 z ! contra/ ( ! r$ s&/one & ! light fawn-col\r$ v]tical s*i/s c\ld n be express$4 ,f ! po9t ( view "h select$1 ! und]ly+ b$s ( ! p]p5dicul> s*i/1 a1 are visible at b ?r\gh a small op5+ 9 ! fractur$ b$s ( ! cov]+ ( r$ s&/one1 d d1 :ile on ! v]tical face ( ! old s*i/ at a' a a conspicu\s ripple-m>k is display$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4 ,junction ( uncon=mable /rata ne> ,mons1 9 ,belgium4 ,x (t5 happ5s t 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! deposition ( two sets ( uncon=mable /rata1 ! inf]ior rock has n only be5 d5ud$1 b drill$ by p]=at+ %ells4 ,?us1 = example1 at ,autreppe & ,gusigny1 ne> ,mons1 b$s ( an anci5t 7paleozoic7 lime/one1 highly incl9$1 & (t5 b5t1 are cov]$ ) horizontal /rata ( gre5i% & :iti% m>ls ( ! ,cretace\s =mation4 ,! l[e/ & !re=e ! olde/ b$ ( ! horizontal s]ies is usually ! s& & conglom]ate1 a1 9 :i* are r\nd$ fragm5ts ( /one1 f an in* to two feet 9 diamet]4 ,^! fragm5ts h (t5 adh]+ %ells atta*$ to !m1 & h be5 bor$ by p]=at+ mollusca4 ,! solid surface ( ! inf]ior lime/one has also be5 bor$1 s z to exhibit cyl9drical & pe>-%ap$ cavities1 z at c1 ! "w ( saxicav\s mollusca2 & _m r5ts1 z at b1 :i* desc5d sev]al feet or y>ds into ! lime/one1 h be5 fill$ ) s& & %ells1 simil> to ^? 9 ! /ratum a4 ,fractures ( ! /rata & faults4--,num]\s r5ts may (t5 be se5 9 rocks :i* appe> to h be5 simply brok51 ! sep>at$ p>ts rema9+ 9 ! same places2 b we (t5 f9d a fissure1 sev]al in*es or y>ds wide1 int]v5+ betwe5 ! disunit$ portions4 ,^! fissures are usually fill$ ) f9e e>? & s&1 or ) angul> fragm5ts ( /one1 evid5tly d]iv$ f ! fracture ( ! contigu\s rocks4 ,! face ( ea* wall ( ! fissure is (t5 beautifully poli%$1 z if glaz$1 & n unfrequ5tly /riat$ or scor$ ) p>allel furr[s & ridges1 su* z w\ld be produc$ by ! cont9u$ rubb+ toge!r ( surfaces ( unequal h>dness4 ,^! poli%$ surfaces are call$ by m9]s slick5sides4 ,x is suppos$ t ! l9es ( ! /riae indicate ! direction 9 :i* ! rocks 7 mov$4 ,dur+ "o ( ! m9or e>?quakes 9 ,*ili1 :i* happ5$ ab\t ! ye> #ahdj1 & 0 describ$ to me by an eye-witness1 ! brick walls ( a build+ 7 r5t v]tically 9 sev]al places1 & made to vibrate = sev]al m9utes dur+ ea* %ock1 aft] :i* !y rema9$ un9jur$1 & )\t any op5+1 al?\gh ! l9e ( ea* crack 0 /ill visible4 ,:5 all movem5t _h ceas$1 !re 7 se5 on ! floor ( ! h\se1 at ! bottom ( ea* r5t1 small heaps ( f9e brickdu/1 evid5tly produc$ by trituration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4 ,faults4 ,a ,b p]p5dicul>1 ,c ,d oblique to ! horizon4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d ! mass ( rock1 on "o side ( a fissure1 ?r[n up above or d[n bel[ ! mass ) :i* x 0 once 9 contact on ! o!r side4 ,?is mode ( displacem5t is call$ a %ift1 slip1 or fault4 ,! m9]1 says ,playfair1 describ+ a fault1 is (t5 p]plex$1 9 8 subt]rane\s j\rney1 by a d]angem5t 9 ! /rata1 :i* *anges at once all ^? l9es & be>+s :i* _h hi!rto direct$ 8 c\rse4 ,:5 8 m9e rea*es a c]ta9 plane1 :i* is sometimes p]p5dicul>1 z 9 ,a ,b1 fig4 #he41 sometimes oblique to ! horizon 7z 9 ,c ,d1 ibid471 he f9ds ! b$s ( rock brok5 asund]1 ^? on ! "o side ( ! plane hav+ *ang$ _! place1 by slid+ 9 a p>ticul> direction along ! face ( ! o!rs4 ,9 ?is motion !y h sometimes pres]v$ _! p>allelism1 z 9 fig4 #he41 s t ! /rata on ea* side ( ! faults ,a ,b1 ,c ,d1 cont9ue p>allel to "o ano!r2 9 o!r cases1 ! /rata on ea* side are incl9$1 z 9 a1 b1 c1 d 7fig4 #hf471 ?\gh _! id5tity is /ill to be recogniz$ by _! possess+ ! same ?ickness1 & ! same int]nal *>act]s4#fb-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4 ,e ,f1 fault or fissure fill$ ) rubbi%1 on ea* side ( :i* ! %ift$ /rata are n p>allel4 ,9 ,coalbrook ,dale1 says ,mr4 ,pre/wi*#fb-;,b1 deposits ( s&/one1 %ale1 & coal1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 & occupy+ an area ( _m miles1 h be5 %iv]$ into fragm5ts1 & ! brok5 remnants h be5 plac$ 9 v discordant positions1 (t5 at levels diff]+ sev]al hundr$ feet f ea* o!r4 ,! sides ( ! faults1 :5 p]p5dicul>1 are commonly sep>at$ sev]al y>ds1 b are sometimes z mu* z #ej y>ds asund]1 ! int]val be+ fill$ ) brok5 debris ( ! /rata4 ,9 foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! same fault x is sometimes f\nd to produce 9 diff]5t places v unequal *anges ( level1 ! am\nt ( %ift be+ 9 "o place #cjj1 & 9 ano!r #gjj feet1 :i* arises1 9 "s cases1 f ! union ( two or m faults4 ,9 o!r words1 ! disjo9t$ /rata h 9 c]ta9 di/ricts be5 subject$ to r5ew$ movem5ts1 :i* !y h n suff]$ else:]e4 ,we may occasionally see exact c\nt]p>ts ( ^! slips1 on a small scale1 9 pits ( f9e loose s& & gravel1 _m ( :i* h d\btless be5 caus$ by ! dry+ & %r9k+ ( argillace\s & o!r b$s1 slight subsid5ces hav+ tak5 place f failure ( support4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ev5 ^! small slips may h be5 produc$ dur+ e>?quakes2 = l& has be5 mov$1 & its level1 relatively to ! sea1 consid]ably alt]$1 )9 ! p]iod :5 mu* ( ! alluvial s& & gravel n[ cov]+ ! surface ( cont95ts 0 deposit$4 ,i h already /at$ t a geologi/ mu/ be on 8 gu>d1 9 a region ( di/urb$ /rata1 aga9/ inf]r+ repeat$ alt]nations ( rocks1 :51 9 fact1 ! same /rata1 once cont9u\s1 h be5 b5t r\nd s z to recur 9 ! same section1 & ) ! same dip4 ,a simil> mi/ake has (t5 be5 occasion$ by a s]ies ( faults4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4 ,app>5t alt]nations ( /rata caus$ by v]tical faults4 ,if1 = example1 ! d>k l9e ,a ,h 7fig4 #hg47 repres5t ! surface ( a c\ntry on :i* ! /rata a b c frequ5tly crop out1 an obs]v]1 :o is proce$+ f ,h to ,a1 might at fir/ imag9e t at e /ep he 0 approa*+ new /rata1 :]eas ! repetition ( ! same b$s has be5 caus$ by v]tical faults1 or d[n?r[s4 ,?us1 suppose ! orig9al mass1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 to h be5 a set ( uni=mly incl9$ /rata1 & t ! diff]5t masses "u ,e ,f1 ,f ,g1 & ,g ,d1 sank d[n successively1 s z to leave vacant ! spaces m>k$ 9 ! diagram by dott$ l9es1 & to occupy ^? m>k$ by ! cont9u\s l9es1 !n let d5udation take place along ! l9e ,a ,h1 s t ! protrud+ masses indicat$ by ! fa9t] l9es are swept away1--a m9]1 :o has n discov]$ ! faults1 f9d+ ! mass a1 :i* we w suppose to be a b$ ( coal f\r times repeat$1 might hope to f9d f\r b$s1 workable to an indef9ite dep?1 b fir/ on arriv+ at ! fault ,g he is /opp$ sudd5ly 9 8 work+s1 ^u rea*+ ! /rata ( s&/one c1 or on arriv+ at ! l9e ( fault ,f he comes p>tly ^u ! %ale b1 & p>tly on ! s&/one c1 & on rea*+ ,e he is aga9 /opp$ by a wall compos$ ( ! rock d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 ,cross section4 ,! v diff]5t levels at :i* ! sep>at$ p>ts ( ! same /rata are f\nd on ! diff]5t sides ( ! fissure1 9 "s faults1 is truly a/oni%+4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ 9 ,engl& is t call$ ! n9ety-fa?om dike1 9 ! coal-field ( ,newca/le4 ,?is "n has be5 giv5 to x1 because ! same b$s are n9ety fa?oms l[] on ! nor!rn ?an !y are on ! s\!rn side4 ,! fissure has be5 fill$ by a body ( s&1 :i* is n[ 9 ! /ate ( s&/one1 & is call$ ! dike1 :i* is sometimes v n>r[1 b 9 o!r places m ?an tw5ty y>ds wide4#fd-;,a ,! walls ( ! fissure are scor$ by grooves1 su* z w\ld h be5 produc$ if ! brok5 ends ( ! rock _h be5 rubb$ along ! plane ( ! fault4#fd-;,b ,9 ! ,tyn$ale & ,crav5 faults1 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 ! v]tical displacem5t is /ill great]1 & has ext5d$ 9 a horizontal direction = a di/ance ( ?irty miles or m4 ,"s geologi/s consid] x necess>y to imag9e t ! upw>d or d[nw>d movem5t 9 ^! cases 0 accompli%$ at a s+le /roke1 & n by a s]ies ( sudd5 b int]rupt$ movem5ts4 ,?is idea appe>s to h be5 d]iv$ f a notion t ! groov$ walls h m]ely be5 rubb$ 9 "o direction4 ,b ?is is s f> f be+ a con/ant ph5om5on 9 faults1 t x has (t5 be5 object$ to ! receiv$ !ory respect+ ^? poli%$ surfaces call$ slick5sides 7see above1 p4 #fa471 t ! /riae are n always p>allel1 b (t5 curv$ & irregul>4 ,x has1 moreov]1 be5 rem>k$1 t n only ! walls ( ! fissure or fault1 b its e>?y cont5ts1 sometimes pres5t ! same poli%$ & /riat$ faces4 ,n[ ^! facts seem to indicate p>tial *anges 9 ! direction ( ! movem5t1 & "s slid+s subsequ5t to ! fir/ fill+ up ( ! fissure4 ,suppose ! mass ( rock ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 to ov]lie an ext5sive *asm d e1 =m$ at ! dep? ( sev]al miles1 :e!r by ! gradual contraction 9 bulk ( a melt$ mass pass+ into a solid or cry/all9e /ate1 or ! %r9k+ ( argillace\s /rata1 bak$ by a mod]ate heat1 or by ! subtraction ( matt] by volcanic action1 or any o!r cause4 ,n[1 if ?is region be convuls$ by e>?quakes1 ! fissures f g1 & o!rs at "r angles to !m1 may sev] ! mass ,b f ,a & f ,c1 s t x may move freely1 & beg9 to s9k into ! *asm4 ,a fracture may be conceiv$ s clean & p]fect z to all[ x to subside at once to ! bottom ( ! subt]ranean cavity2 b x is f> m probable t ! s9k+ w be effect$ at successive p]iods dur+ diff]5t e>?quakes1 ! mass always cont9u+ to slide 9 ! same direction along ! planes ( ! fissures f g1 & ! edges ( ! fall+ mass be+ cont9ually m brok5 & triturat$ at ea* convulsion4 ,if1 z is n improbable1 ! circum/ances :i* h caus$ ! failure ( support cont9ue 9 op]ation1 x may happ5 t :5 ! mass ,b has fill$ ! cavity fir/ =m$1 its f\ndations w aga9 give way "u x1 s t x w fall aga9 9 ! same direction4 ,b1 if ! direction %\ld *ange1 ! fact c\ld n be discov]$ by obs]v+ ! slick5sides1 because ! la/ scor+ w\ld efface ! l9es ( previ\s friction4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our ignorance ( ! causes ( subsid5ce1 an hypo!sis :i* c expla9 ! great am\nt ( displacem5t 9 "s faults1 on s\nd me*anical pr9ciples1 by a succession ( movem5ts1 is f> pref]able to any !ory :i* assumes ea* fault to h be5 accompli%$ by a s+le upca/ or d[n?r[ ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,= we "k t !re are op]ations n[ 9 progress1 at great dep?s 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?1 by :i* bo? l>ge & small tracts ( gr\nd are made to rise above & s9k bel[ _! =m] level1 "s sl[ly & ins5sibly1 o!rs sudd5ly & by />ts1 a few feet or y>ds at a "t2 :]eas !re are no gr\nds = believ+ t1 dur+ ! la/ #cjjj ye>s at lea/1 any regions h be5 ei!r upheav$ or depress$1 at a s+le /roke1 to ! am\nt ( sev]al hundr$1 mu* less sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,:5 "s ( ! anci5t m>9e =mations are describ$ 9 ! sequel1 x w appe> t _! /ructure & organic cont5ts po9t to ! conclusion1 t ! floor ( ! ocean 0 sl[ly s9k+ at ! "t ( _! orig94 ,! d[nw>d movem5t 0 v gradual1 & 9 ,wales & ! contigu\s p>ts ( ,engl& a maximum ?ickness ( #cb1jjj feet 7m ?an six miles7 ( ,c>bonif]\s1 ,devonian1 & ,silurian rock 0 =m$1 :il/ ! b$ ( ! sea 0 all ! "t cont9u\sly & tranquilly subsid+4#fe-;,a ,:atev] may h be5 ! *anges :i* ! solid f\ndation und]w5t1 :e!r accompani$ by ! melt+1 consolidation1 cry/allization1 or desiccation ( subjac5t m9]al matt]1 x is cle> f ! fact ( ! sea hav+ rema9$ %all[ all ! :ile t ! bottom nev] sank d[n sudd5ly to ! dep? ( _m hundr$ feet at once4 ,x is by assum+ su* reit]at$ v>iations ( level1 ea* sep>ately ( small v]tical am\nt1 b multipli$ by "t till !y acquire importance 9 ! aggregate1 t we are able to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( d5udation1 :i* w be treat$ ( 9 ! next *apt]4 ,by su* movem5ts e portion ( ! surface ( ! l& becomes 9 its turn a l9e ( coa/1 & is expos$ to ! action ( ! waves & tides4 ,a c\ntry :i* is und]go+ su* movem5t is nev] all[$ to settle into a /ate ( equilibrium1 !re=e ! =ce ( riv]s & torr5ts to remove or excavate soil & rocky masses is su/a9$ 9 undim9i%$ en]gy4 ,,footnotes3 #df-;,a ,9 ! fir/ ?ree editions ( my ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,i express$ _m d\bts z to ! validity ( ! alleg$ pro(s ( a gradual rise ( l& 9 ,sw$52 b aft] visit+ t c\ntry1 9 #ahcd1 ,i retract$ ^! objections1 & publi%$ a detail$ /atem5t ( ! obs]vations :i* l$ me to alt] my op9ion 9 ! ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 ,"p ,i4 ,see also ! ,pr9ciples1 #d? & subsequ5t editions4 #df-;,b ,see 8 ,j\rnal ( a ,naturali/ 9 ,voyage ( ! ,beagle1 & 8 "w on ,coral ,reefs4 #df-;,c ,see *apt]s xxviii4 to xxxi4 inclusive4 #dh-;,a ,ed94 ,trans4 vol4 vii4 pl4 #c4 #ej-;,a ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #adh4 #ec-;,a ,see plan by ,m4 ,*evali]1 ,burat's ,d',aubuisson1 tom4 ii4 p4 #ccd4 #ee-;,a ,see ,m4 ,?urmann's "w1 ,essai sur les ,s\levem5s ,jurassiques du ,porr5truy1 ,p>is1 #ahcb1 ) :om ,i exam9$ "p ( ^! m\nta9s 9 #ahce4 #eg-;,a ,i am indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,t4 ,sop)1 ,esq41 = ?ree models :i* ,i h copi$ 9 ! above diagrams2 b ! beg9n] may f9d x by no means easy to und]/& su* copies1 al?\gh1 if he 7 to exam9e & h&le ! orig9als1 turn+ !m ab\t 9 diff]5t ways1 he w\ld at once compreh5d _! mean+ z well z ! import ( o!rs f> m complicat$1 :i* ! same eng9e] has con/ruct$ to illu/rate faults4 #fj-;,a ,biographical acc\nt ( ,dr4 ,hutton4 #fj-;,b ,see above1 p4 #di4 & section4 #fj-;,c ,playfair1 ibid42 see 8 ,works1 ,ed94 #ahbb1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ha4 #fb-;,a ,playfair1 ,illu/4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 ,sec4 #db4 #fb-;,b ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #deb4 #fd-;,a ,conybe>e & ,phillips1 ,outl9es1 c4 p4 #cgf4 #fd-;,b ,phillips1 ,geology1 ,l>dn]'s ,cyclop4 p4 #da4 #fe-;,a ,see ! results ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita92 ,memoirs1 vols4 i4 & ii41 by ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 & ,mr4 ,john ,phillips4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,d5udation4 ,d5udation def9$--,its am\nt equal to ! entire mass ( /ratifi$ deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/--,horizontal s&/one d5ud$ 9 ,ross-%ire--,levell$ surface ( c\ntries 9 :i* great faults occur--,coalbrook ,dale--,d5ud+ p[] ( ! ocean dur+ ! em]g5ce ( l&--,orig9 ( ,valleys--,oblit]ation ( sea-cliffs--,inl& sea-cliffs & t]races 9 ! ,morea & ,sicily--,lime/one pill>s at ,/4 ,mihiel1 9 ,france--9 ,canada--9 ! ,b]mudas4 ,d5udation1 :i* has be5 occasionally spok5 ( 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s1 is ! removal ( solid matt] by wat] 9 motion1 :e!r ( riv]s or ( ! waves & curr5ts ( ! sea1 & ! consequ5t lay+ b>e ( "s inf]ior rock4 ,geologi/s h p]haps be5 seldom 9 ! habit ( reflect+ t ?is op]ation has ex]t$ an influ5ce on ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/ z univ]sal & important z s$im5t>y deposition itself2 = d5udation is ! insep>able accompanim5t ( ! production ( all new /rata ( me*anical orig94 ,! =mation ( e new deposit by ! transport ( s$im5t & pebbles necess>ily implies t !re has be51 some:]e else1 a gr9d+ d[n ( rock into r\nd$ fragm5ts1 s&1 or mud1 equal 9 quantity to ! new /rata4 ,all deposition1 !re=e1 except 9 ! case ( a %[] ( volcanic a%es1 is ! sign ( sup]ficial wa/e go+ on contemporane\sly1 & to an equal am\nt else:]e4 ,! ga9 at "o po9t is no m ?an suffici5t to balance ! loss at "s o!r4 ,"h a lake has gr[n %all[]1 !re a rav9e has be5 deep5$4 ,! b$ ( ! sea has 9 "o region be5 rais$ by ! accumulation ( new matt]1 9 ano!r its dep? has be5 augm5t$ by ! ab/raction ( an equal quantity4 ,:5 we see a /one build+1 we "k t some:]e1 f> or ne>1 a qu>ry has be5 op5$4 ,! c\rses ( /one 9 ! build+ may be comp>$ to successive /rata1 ! qu>ry to a rav9e or valley :i* has suff]$ d5udation4 ,z ! /rata1 l ! c\rses ( hewn /one1 h be5 laid "o ^u ano!r gradually1 s ! excavation bo? ( ! valley & qu>ry h be5 gradual4 ,to pursue ! comp>ison /ill f>!r1 ! sup]ficial heaps ( mud1 s&1 & gravel1 usually call$ alluvium1 may be lik5$ to ! rubbi% ( a qu>ry :i* has be5 reject$ z useless by ! workm51 or has fall5 ^u ! road betwe5 ! qu>ry & ! build+1 s z to lie scatt]$ at r&om ov] ! gr\nd4 ,if1 !n1 ! entire mass ( /ratifi$ deposits 9 ! e>?'s cru/ is at once ! monum5t & measure ( ! d5udation :i* has tak5 place1 on h[ /up5d\s a scale ought we to f9d ! signs ( ?is removal ( transport$ mat]ials 9 pa/ ages6 ,accord+ly1 !re are diff]5t classes ( ph5om5a1 :i* atte/ 9 a mo/ /rik+ mann] ! va/ spaces left vacant by ! erosive p[] ( wat]4 ,i may allude1 fir/1 to ^? valleys on bo? sides ( :i* ! same /rata are se5 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 ! same ord]1 & hav+ ! same m9]al composition & fossil cont5ts4 ,we may obs]ve1 = example1 sev]al =mations1 z ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 9 ! accompany+ diagram 7fig4 #hi472 ,no4 #a4 conglom]ate1 ,no4 #b4 clay1 ,no4 #c4 grit1 & ,no4 #d4 lime/one1 ea* repeat$ 9 a s]ies ( hills sep>at$ by valleys v>y+ 9 dep?4 ,:5 we exam9e ! subord9ate p>ts ( ^! f\r =mations1 we f9d1 9 l mann]1 di/9ct b$s 9 ea*1 correspond+1 on ! opposite sides ( ! valleys1 bo? 9 composition & ord] ( position4 ,no "o c d\bt t ! /rata 7 orig9ally cont9u\s1 & t "s cause has swept away ! portions :i* once connect$ ! :ole s]ies4 ,a torr5t on ! side ( a m\nta9 produces simil> int]ruptions2 & :5 we make artificial cuts 9 l[]+ roads1 we expose1 9 l mann]1 correspond+ b$s on ei!r side4 ,b 9 nature1 ^! appe>ances occur 9 m\nta9s sev]al ?\s& feet high1 & sep>at$ by int]vals ( _m miles or leagues 9 ext5t1 ( :i* a gr& exemplification is describ$ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 on ! nor?-we/]n coa/ ( ,ross-%ire1 9 ,scotl&4#fg-;,a ,! fundam5tal rock ( t c\ntry is gneiss1 9 di/urb$ /rata1 on :i* b$s ( ne>ly horizontal r$ s&/one re/ uncon=mably4 ,! latt] are (t5 v ?91 =m+ m]e flags1 ) _! surfaces1 di/9ctly ripple-m>k$4 ,!y end abruptly on ! declivities ( _m insulat$ m\nta9s1 :i* rise up at once to ! height ( ab\t #bjjj feet above ! gneiss ( ! surr\nd+ pla9 or table l&1 & to an av]age elevation ( ab\t #cjjj feet above ! sea1 :i* all _! summits g5]ally atta94 ,! base ( gneiss v>ies 9 height1 s t ! l[] portions ( ! s&/one occupy diff]5t levels1 & ! ?ickness ( ! mass is v>i\s1 sometimes exce$+ #cjjj feet4 ,x is impossible to comp>e ^! scatt]$ & deta*$ portions )\t imag9+ t ! :ole c\ntry has once be5 cov]$ ) a great body ( s&/one1 & t masses f #ajjj to m ?an #cjjj feet 9 ?ickness h be5 remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4 ,valleys ( d5udation4 a4 alluvium4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4 ,d5udation ( r$ s&/one on nor?-we/ coa/ ( ,ross-%ire4 7,mac,culloch47 ,9 ! ,survey ( ,great ,brita9 7vol4 i471 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has %[n t ! miss+ b$s1 remov$ f ! summit ( ! ,m5dips1 mu/ h be5 ne>ly a mile 9 ?ickness2 & he has po9t$ out consid]able areas 9 ,s\? ,wales & "s ( ! adjac5t c\nties ( ,engl&1 :]e a s]ies ( palaeozoic /rata1 n less ?an #aa1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 h be5 /ripp$ (f4 ,all ^! mat]ials h ( c\rse be5 transport$ to new regions1 & h ent]$ into ! composition ( m mod]n =mations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is %[n by obs]vations 9 ! same ,survey1 t ! palaeozoic /rata are f #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj feet ?ick4 ,x is cle> t su* rocks1 =m$ ( mud & s&1 n[ = ! mo/ "p consolidat$1 are ! monum5ts ( d5ud+ op]ations1 :i* took place on a gr& scale at a v remote p]iod 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,=1 :atev] has be5 giv5 to "o area mu/ always h be5 borr[$ f ano!r2 a tru? :i*1 obvi\s z x may seem :5 ?us /at$1 mu/ be repeat$ly impress$ on ! /ud5t's m9d1 because 9 _m geological speculations x is tak5 = grant$ t ! ext]nal cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 always gr[+ ?ick]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! accumulation1 p]iod aft] p]iod1 ( s$im5t>y matt]1 z if ! new /rata 7 n always produc$ at ! exp5se ( pre-exi/+ rocks1 /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$4 ,by duly reflect+ on ! fact1 t all deposits ( me*anical orig9 imply ! transportation f "s o!r region1 :e!r contigu\s or remote1 ( an equal am\nt ( solid matt]1 we p]ceive t ! /ony ext]ior ( ! planet mu/ always h gr[n ?9n] 9 "o place :5ev]1 by accessions ( new /rata1 x 0 acquir+ d5sity 9 ano!r4 ,no d\bt ! vacant space left by ! miss+ rocks1 aft] ext5sive d5udation1 is less impos+ to ! imag9ation ?an a va/ ?ickness ( conglom]ate or s&/one1 or ! bodily pres5ce z x 7 ( a m\nta9-*a91 ) all its incl9$ & curv$ /rata4 ,b ! d5ud$ tracts speak a cle> & emphatic language to our reason1 &1 l repeat$ lay]s ( fossil nummulites1 corals or %ells1 or l num]\s seams ( coal1 ea* bas$ on its "u clay full ( ! roots ( trees1 /ill rema9+ 9 _! natural position1 dem& an indef9ite lapse ( "t = _! elaboration4 ,no "o w ma9ta9 t ! fossils entomb$ 9 ^! rocks did n belong to _m successive g5]ations ( plants & animals4 ,9 l mann]1 ea* s$im5t>y deposit atte/s a sl[ & gradual action1 & ! /rata n only s]ve z a measure ( ! am\nt ( d5udation simultane\sly effect$ else:]e1 b are also a correct indication ( ! rate at :i* ! d5ud+ op]ation 0 c>ri$ on4 ,p]haps ! mo/ conv9c+ evid5ce ( d5udation on a magnific5t scale is d]iv$ f ! levell$ surfaces ( di/ricts :]e l>ge faults occur4 ,i h %[n1 9 fig4 #hg4 p4 #fc41 & 9 fig4 #ia41 h[ angul> & protrud+ masses ( rock might naturally h be5 look$ = on ! surface imm$iately above great faults1 al?\gh 9 fact !y r>ely exi/4 ,?is ph5om5on may be well /udi$ 9 ^? di/ricts :]e coal has be5 ext5sively work$1 = !re ! =m] relation ( ! b$s :i* h %ift$ _! position may be det]m9$ ) great accuracy4 ,?us 9 ! coal field ( ,a%by de la ,z\*1 9 ,leice/]%ire 7see fig4 #ia471 a fault occurs1 on "o side ( :i* ! coal b$s a b c d rise to ! height ( #ejj feet above ! correspond+ b$s on ! o!r side4 ,b ! uplift$ /rata d n /& up #ejj feet above ! g5]al surface2 on ! contr>y1 ! outl9e ( ! c\ntry1 z express$ by ! l9e z z1 is uni=m & unbrok51 & ! mass indicat$ by ! dott$ outl9e mu/ h be5 wa%$ away4#fi-;,a ,!re are pro(s ( ?is k9d 9 "s level c\ntries1 :]e d5se masses ( /rata h be5 cle>$ away f areas sev]al hundr$ squ>e miles 9 ext5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4 ,faults & d5ud$ coal /rata1 ,a%by de la ,z\*4 7,mammat47 ,9 ! ,newca/le coal di/rict x is asc]ta9$ t faults occur 9 :i* ! upw>d or d[nw>d movem5t c\ld n h be5 less ?an #adj fa?oms1 :i*1 _h !y affect$ equally ! configuration ( ! surface to t am\nt1 w\ld produce m\nta9s ) precipit\s esc>pm5ts ne>ly #ajjj feet high1 or *asms ( ! l dep?2 yet is ! actual level ( ! c\ntry absolutely uni=m--af=d+ no trace :atev] ( subt]ranean movem5ts4#fi-;,b ,! gr\nd f :i* ^! mat]ials h be5 remov$ is usually ov]spread ) heaps ( s& & gravel1 =m$ out ( ! ru9s ( ! v rocks :i* h disappe>$4 ,?us1 9 ! di/ricts above ref]r$ to1 !y consi/ ( r\nd$ & angul> fragm5ts ( h>d s&/one1 lime/one1 & iron/one1 ) a small quantity ( ! m de/ructible %ale1 & ev5 r\nd$ pieces ( coal4 ,allusion has be5 already made to ! %att]$ /ate & discordant position ( ! c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ,coalbrook ,dale 7p4 #fb474 ,! colli] _c proce$ ?ree or f\r y>ds )\t meet+ ) small slips1 & f "t to "t he enc\nt]s faults ( consid]able magnitude1 :i* h ?r[n ! rocks up or d[n sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,yet ! sup]ficial inequalities to :i* ^! dislocat$ masses orig9ally gave rise are no long] disc]nible1 & ! comp>ative flatness ( ! exi/+ surface c only be expla9$1 z ,mr4 ,pre/wi* has obs]v$1 by suppos+ ! fractur$ portions to h be5 remov$ by wat]4 ,x is also cle> t /rata ( r$ s&/one1 m ?an #ajjj feet ?ick1 :i* once cov]$ ! coal1 9 ! same region1 h be5 c>ri$ away f l>ge areas4 ,t wat] has1 9 ?is case1 be5 ! d5ud+ ag5t1 we may inf] f ! fact t ! rocks h yield$ accord+ to _! diff]5t degrees ( h>dness2 ! h>d trap ( ! ,wrek91 = example1 & o!r hills1 hav+ resi/$ m ?an ! s(t] %ale & s&/one1 s z n[ to /& out 9 bold relief4#gj-;,a ,orig9 ( valleys4--,_m ( ! e>li] geologi/s1 & ,dr4 ,hutton among !m1 taught t riv]s h 9 g5]al holl[$ out _! valleys4 ,?is is true only ( rivulets & torr5ts :i* are ! fe$]s ( ! l>g] /reams1 & :i*1 desc5d+ ov] rapid slopes1 are mo/ subject to tempor>y increase & dim9ution 9 ! volume ( _! wat]s4 ,! quantity ( mud1 s&1 & pebbles con/itut+ _m a mod]n delta proves indisputably t no small "p ( ! inequalities n[ exi/+ on ! e>?'s surface are due to fluviatile action2 b ! pr9cipal valleys 9 almo/ e great hydrographical bas9 9 ! _w1 are ( a %ape & magnitude :i* imply t !y h be5 due to o!r causes besides ! m]e excavat+ p[] ( riv]s4 ,"s geologi/s h imag9$ t a deluge1 or succession ( deluges1 may h be5 ! *ief d5ud+ ag5cy1 & !y h speculat$ on a s]ies ( enorm\s waves rais$ by ! in/antane\s up?r[ ( cont95ts or m\nta9 *a9s out ( ! sea4 ,b ev5 7 we dispos$ to grant su* sudd5 upheavals ( ! floor ( ! ocean1 & to assume t great waves w\ld be ! consequ5ce ( ea* convulsion1 x is n easy to expla9 ! obs]v$ ph5om5a by ! aid ( s gratuit\s an hypo!sis4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a ma*9]y ( a totally diff]5t k9d seems capable ( giv+ rise to effects ( ! requir$ magnitude4 ,x has n[ be5 asc]ta9$ t ! ris+ & s9k+ ( ext5sive portions ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :e!r ins5sibly or by a repetition ( sudd5 %ocks1 is "p ( ! actual c\rse ( nature1 & we may easily compreh5d h[ ! l& may h be5 expos$ dur+ ^! movem5ts to abrasion by ! waves ( ! sea4 ,9 ! same mann] z a m\nta9 mass may1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 be =m$ by s$im5t>y deposition1 lay] aft] lay]1 s masses equally volum9\s may 9 "t wa/e away by in*es2 z1 = example1 if b$s ( incoh]5t mat]ials are rais$ sl[ly 9 an op5 sea :]e a /rong curr5t prevails4 ,x is well kn[n t "s ( ^! oceanic curr5ts h a bread? ( #bjj miles1 & t !y sometimes run = a ?\s& miles or m 9 "o direction1 reta9+ a consid]able velocity ev5 at ! dep? ( sev]al hundr$ feet4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ! fl[+ wat]s may h p[] to cle> away ea* /ratum ( incoh]5t mat]ials z x rises & approa*es ! surface1 :]e ! waves ex]t ! greate/ =ce2 & 9 ?is mann] a volum9\s deposit may be entirely swept away1 s t1 9 ! abs5ce ( faults1 no evid5ce may rema9 ( ! d5ud+ op]ation4 ,x may inde$ be affirm$ t ! signs ( wa/e w usually be lea/ obvi\s :]e ! de/ruction has be5 mo/ complete2 = ! annihilation may h proce$$ s f>1 t no ru9s are left ( ! dilapidat$ rocks4 ,al?\gh d5udation has _h a levell+ influ5ce on "s c\ntries ( %att]$ & di/urb$ /rata 7see fig4 #hg4 p4 #fc4 & fig4 #ia4 p4 #fi471 x has m commonly be5 ! cause ( sup]ficial inequalities1 especially 9 regions ( horizontal /ratification4 ,! g5]al outl9e ( ^! regions is t ( flat & level plat=ms1 int]rupt$ by valleys (t5 ( consid]able dep?1 & ramify+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,^! holl[s may once h =m$ bays & *annels betwe5 isl&s1 & ! /eepe/ slope on ! sides ( ea* valley may h be5 a sea-cliff1 :i* 0 und]m9$ = ages1 z ! l& em]g$ gradually f ! deep4 ,we may suppose ! position & c\rse ( ea* valley to h be5 orig9ally det]m9$ by diff]5ces 9 ! h>dness ( ! rocks1 & by r5ts & jo9ts :i* usually occur ev5 9 horizontal /rata4 ,9 m\nta9 *a9s1 su* z ! ,jura be=e describ$ 7see fig4 #ga4 p4 #ee471 we p]ceive at once t ! pr9cipal valleys h n be5 due to aque\s excavation1 b to ^? me*anical movem5ts :i* h b5t ! rocks into _! pres5t =m4 ,yet ev5 9 ! ,jura !re are _m valleys1 su* z ,c 7fig4 #ga471 :i* h be5 holl[$ out by wat]2 & x may be /at$ t 9 e "p ( ! globe ! unev5ness ( ! surface ( ! l& has be5 due to ! comb9$ influ5ce ( subt]ranean movem5ts & d5udation4 ,i may n[ recapitulate a few ( ! conclusions to :i* we h arriv$3 fir/1 all ! me*anical /rata h be5 accumulat$ gradually1 & ! concomitant d5udation has be5 no less gradual3 secondly1 ! dry l& consi/s 9 great "p ( /rata =m$ orig9ally at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & has be5 made to em]ge & atta9 its pres5t height by a =ce act+ f b5ea?3 ?irdly1 no comb9ation ( causes has yet be5 conceiv$ s capable ( produc+ ext5sive & gradual d5udation1 z ! action ( ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean ^u l& sl[ly ris+ out ( ! deep4 ,n[1 if we adopt ^! conclusions1 we %all naturally be l$ to look ev]y:]e = m>ks ( ! =m] resid5ce ( ! sea ^u ! l&1 especially ne> ! coa/s f :i* ! la/ retreat ( ! wat]s took place1 & x w be f\nd t su* signs are n want+4 ,i %all h occasion to speak ( anci5t sea-cliffs1 n[ f> inl&1 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 :5 treat+ 9 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ( ! d5udation ( ! *alk 9 ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex4 ,l9es ( uprais$ sea-bea*es ( m mod]n date are trac$1 at v>i\s levels f #bj to #ajj feet & upw>ds above ! pres5t sea-level1 = great di/ances on ! ea/ & we/ coa/s ( ,scotl&1 z well z 9 ,devon%ire1 & o!r c\nties 9 ,engl&4 ,^! anci5t bea*-l9es (t5 =m t]races ( s& & gravel1 includ+ littoral %ells1 "s brok51 o!rs entire1 & correspond+ ) species n[ liv+ on ! adjo9+ coa/4 ,b x w\ld be unreasonable to expect to meet ev]y:]e ) ! signs ( anci5t %ores1 s9ce no geologi/ c h fail$ to obs]ve h[ soon all rec5t m>ks ( ! k9d above allud$ to are obscur$ or entirely effac$1 :]ev]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! alt]$ /ate ( ! tides & curr5ts1 ! sea has rec$$ = a few c5turies4 ,we see ! cliffs crumble d[n 9 a few ye>s if compos$ ( s& or clay1 & soon r$uc$ to a g5tle slope4 ,if !re 7 %ells on ! bea* !y decompose1 & _! mat]ials are wa%$ away1 aft] :i* ! s& & %+le may resemble any o!r alluviums scatt]$ ov] ! int]ior4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4 ,section ( inl& cliff at ,abesse1 ne> ,dax4 a4 ,s& ( ! ,l&es4 b4 ,lime/one4 c4 ,clay4 ,! features ( an anci5t %ore may sometimes be conceal$ by ! gr[? ( trees & %rubs1 or by a cov]+ ( bl[n s&1 a good example ( :i* occurs a few miles we/ f ,dax1 ne> ,bordeaux1 9 ! s\? ( ,france4 ,ab\t twelve miles inl&1 a /eep bank may be trac$ runn+ 9 a direction ne>ly nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/1 or p>allel to ! contigu\s coa/4 ,?is sudd5 fall ( ab\t #ej feet conducts u f ! high] plat=m ( ! ,l&es to a l[] pla9 :i* ext5ds to ! sea4 ,! outl9e ( ! gr\nd sugge/$ to me1 z x w\ld d to e geologi/1 ! op9ion t ! bank 9 "q 0 once a sea-cliff1 :5 ! :ole c\ntry /ood at a l[] level4 ,b ?is is no long] matt] ( conjecture1 =1 9 mak+ excavations 9 #ahcj = ! f\ndation ( a build+ at ,abesse1 a quantity ( loose s&1 :i* =m$ ! slope d e1 0 remov$2 & a p]p5dicul> cliff1 ab\t #ej feet 9 height1 :i* _h hi!rto be5 protect$ f ! ag5cy ( ! elem5ts1 0 expos$4 ,at ! bottom appe>$ ! lime/one b1 conta9+ t]ti>y %ells & corals1 imm$iately bel[ x ! clay c1 & above x ! usual t]ti>y s& a1 ( ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,l&es4 ,at ! base ( ! precipice 7 se5 l>ge p>tially r\nd$ masses ( rock1 evid5tly deta*$ f ! /ratum b4 ,! face ( ! lime/one 0 holl[$ out & wea!r$ into su* =ms z are se5 9 ! calc>e\s cliffs ( ! adjo9+ coa/1 especially at ,bi>itz1 ne> ,bayonne4 ,x is evid5t t1 :5 ! c\ntry 0 at a some:at l[] level1 ! sea advanc$ along ! surface ( ! argillace\s /ratum c1 :i*1 f its yield+ nature1 fav\r$ ! wa/e by all[+ ! m solid sup]9cumb5t /one b to be readily und]m9$4 ,aft]w>ds1 :5 ! c\ntry _h be5 elevat$1 "p ( ! s&1 a1 fell d[n1 or 0 drift$ by ! w9ds1 s z to =m ! talus1 d e1 :i* mask$ ! inl& cliff until x 0 artificially laid op5 to view4 ,:5 we are consid]+ ! v>i\s causes :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 may efface ! *>act]s ( an anci5t sea-coa/1 e>?quakes mu/ n be =gott54 ,dur+ viol5t %ocks1 /eep & ov]hang+ cliffs are (t5 ?r[n d[n & become a heap ( ru9s4 ,sometimes unequal movem5ts ( upheaval or depression entirely de/roy t horizontality ( ! base-l9e :i* con/itutes ! *ief peculi>ity ( an anci5t sea-cliff4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 9 c\ntries :]e h>d lime/one rocks ab\nd1 t inl& cliffs reta9 fai?fully ! *>act]s :i* !y acquir$ :5 !y con/itut$ ! b\nd>y ( l& & sea4 ,?us1 9 ! ,morea1 no less ?an ?ree1 or ev5 f\r1 ranges ( :at 7 once sea-cliffs are well pres]v$4 ,^! h be5 describ$1 by ,,mm4 ,boblaye & ,virlet1 z ris+ "o above ! o!r at diff]5t di/ances f ! actual %ore1 ! summit ( ! highe/ & olde/ occasionally exce$+ #ajjj feet 9 elevation4 ,at ! base ( ea* !re is usually a t]race1 :i* is 9 "s places a few y>ds1 9 o!rs above #cjj y>ds wide1 s t we are conduct$ f ! high l& ( ! int]ior to ! sea by a succession ( great /eps4 ,^! inl& cliffs are mo/ p]fect1 & mo/ exactly resemble ^? n[ wa%$ by ! waves ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 :]e !y are =m$ ( calc>e\s rock1 especially if ! rock be a h>d cry/all9e m>ble4 ,! foll[+ are ! po9ts ( correspond5ce obs]v$ betwe5 ! anci5t coa/ l9es & ! bord]s ( ! pres5t sea3--#a4 ,a range ( v]tical precipices1 ) a t]race at _! base4 #b4 ,a wea!r$ /ate ( ! surface ( ! nak$ rock1 su* z ! spray ( ! sea produces4 #c4 ,a l9e ( littoral cav]ns at ! foot ( ! cliffs4 #d4 ,a consolidat$ bea* or breccia ) occasional m>9e %ells1 f\nd at ! base ( ! cliffs1 or 9 ! caves4 #e4 ,li?odom\s p]=ations4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/ ( ^!1 x w\ld be sup]flu\s to dwell on ! evid5ce af=d$ ( ! und]m9+ p[] ( waves & curr5ts by p]p5dicul> precipices4 ,! littoral caves1 also1 w be famili> to ^? :o h _h opportunities ( obs]v+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! waves ( ! sea1 :5 !y beat aga9/ rocks1 h p[] to scoop out cav]ns4 ,z to ! breccia1 x is compos$ ( pieces ( lime/one & roll$ fragm5ts ( ?ick solid %ell1 su* z ,/rombus & ,spondylus1 all b\nd toge!r by a cry/all9e calc>e\s cem5t4 ,simil> aggregations are n[ =m+ on ! mod]n bea*es ( ,greece1 & 9 cav]ns on ! sea-side2 & !y are only di/+ui%able 9 "* f ^? ( m anci5t date1 by includ+ _m pieces ( pott]y4 ,9 reg>d to ! li?odomi above allud$ to1 ^! bivalve mollusks are well kn[n to h ! p[] ( excavat+ holes 9 ! h>de/ lime/ones1 ! size ( ! cavity keep+ pace ) ! gr[? ( ! %ell4 ,:5 liv+ !y require to be always cov]$ by salt wat]1 b simil> pe>-%ap$ holl[s1 conta9+ ! dead %ells ( ^! creatures1 are f\nd at diff]5t heights on ! face ( ! inl& cliffs above m5tion$4 ,?us1 = example1 !y h be5 obs]v$ ne> ,modon & ,nav>9o on cliffs 9 ! int]ior #abe feet high above ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,z to ! wea!r$ surface ( ! calc>e\s rocks1 all lime/ones are kn[n to suff] *emical decomposition :5 moi/5$ by ! spray ( ! salt wat]1 & are corrod$ /ill m deeply at po9ts l[] d[n :]e !y are j rea*$ by ! break]s4 ,by ?is action ! /one acquires a wr9kl$ & furr[$ outl9e1 & v ne> ! sea x becomes r\gh & bran*+1 z if cov]$ ) corals4 ,su* effects are trac$ n only on ! pres5t %ore1 b at ! base ( ! anci5t cliffs f> 9 ! int]ior4 ,la/ly1 x rema9s only to speak ( ! t]races1 :i* ext5d ) a g5tle slope f ! base ( almo/ all ! inl& cliffs1 & are = ! mo/ "p n>r[ :]e ! rock is h>d1 b sometimes half a mile or m 9 bread? :]e x is s(t4 ,!y are ! effects ( ! encroa*m5t ( ! anci5t sea ^u ! %ore at ^? levels at :i* ! l& rema9$ = a long "t /ation>y4 ,! ju/ness ( ?is view is app>5t on exam9+ ! %ape ( ! mod]n %ore :]ev] ! sea is advanc+ ^u ! l&1 & remov+ annually small portions ( und]m9$ rock4 ,by ?is ag5cy a subm>9e plat=m is produc$ on :i* we may walk = "s di/ance f ! bea* 9 %all[ wat]1 ! increase ( dep? be+ v gradual1 until we rea* a po9t :]e ! bottom plunges d[n sudd5ly4 ,?is plat=m is wid5$ ) m or less rapidity accord+ to ! h>dness ( ! rocks1 & :5 uprais$ x con/itutes an inl& t]race4 ,b ! f\r pr9cipal l9es ( cliff obs]v$ 9 ! ,morea d n imply1 z "s h imag9$1 f\r great eras ( sudd5 upheaval2 !y simply indicate ! int]mitt5ce ( ! upheav+ =ce4 ,_h ! rise ( ! l& be5 cont9u\s & un9t]rupt$1 !re w\ld h be5 no "o prom95t l9e ( cliff2 = e portion ( ! surface hav+ be51 9 its turn1 & = an equal p]iod ( "t1 a sea-%ore1 w\ld h pres5t$ a ne>ly simil> aspect4 ,b if pauses occur 9 ! process ( upheaval1 ! waves & curr5ts h "t to sap1 ?r[ d[n1 & cle> away consid]able masses ( rock1 & to %ape out at c]ta9 levels l(ty ranges ( cliffs ) broad t]races at _! base4 ,!re are "s levell$ spaces1 h[ev]1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 9 ! ,morea1 :i* are n due to d5udation1 al?\gh resembl+ 9 outl9e ! t]races above describ$4 ,!y may be call$ ,t]races ( ,deposition1 s9ce !y h result$ f ! ga9 ( l& ^u ! sea :]e riv]s & torr5ts h produc$ deltas4 ,if ! s$im5t>y matt] has fill$ up a bay or gulf surr\nd$ by /eep m\nta9s1 a flat pla9 is =m$ skirt+ ! inl& precipices2 & if ^! deposits are uprais$1 !y =m a feature 9 ! l&scape v simil> to ! areas ( d5udation be=e describ$4 ,9 ! isl& ( ,sicily ,i h exam9$ _m inl& cliffs l ^? ( ! ,morea2 z1 = example1 ne> ,pal]mo1 :]e a precipice is se5 consi/+ ( lime/one at ! base ( :i* are num]\s caves4 ,"o ( ^! call$ ,san ,ciro1 ab\t #b miles di/ant f ,pal]mo1 is ab\t #bj feet high1 #aj wide1 & #ahj above ! sea4 ,)9 x is f\nd an anci5t bea* 7b1 fig4 #ic471 =m$ ( pebbles ( v>i\s rocks1 _m ( :i* mu/ h come f places f> remote4 ,brok5 pieces ( coral & %ell1 especially ( oy/]s & pect5s1 are se5 int]m+l$ ) ! pebbles4 ,imm$iately above ! level ( ?is bea*1 s]pulae are /ill f\nd adh]+ to ! face ( ! rock1 & ! lime/one is p]=at$ by li?odomi4 ,)9 ! grotto1 also1 at ! same level1 simil> p]=ations occur2 & s num]\s are ! holes1 t ! rock is comp>$ by ,h(fmann to a t>get pi]c$ by musket balls4 ,b 9 ord] to expose to view ^! m>ks ( bor+-%ells 9 ! int]ior ( ! cave1 x 0 necess>y fir/ to remove a mass ( breccia1 :i* consi/$ ( num]\s fragm5ts ( rock & an imm5se quantity ( bones ( ! mammo?1 hippopotamus1 & o!r quadrup$s1 imb$d$ 9 a d>k br[n calc>e\s m>l4 ,_m ( ! bones 7 roll$ z if p>tially subject$ to ! action ( ! waves4 ,bel[ ?is breccia1 :i* is ab\t #bj feet ?ick1 0 f\nd a b$ ( s& fill$ ) sea-%ells ( rec5t species2 & und]nea? ! s&1 aga91 is ! second>y lime/one ( ,monte ,grifone4 ,! /ate ( ! surface ( ! lime/one 9 ! cave above ! level ( ! m>9e s& is v diff]5t f t bel[ x4 ,above1 ! rock is jagg$ & unev51 z is usual 9 ! ro(s & sides ( lime/one cav]ns2 bel[1 ! surface is smoo? & poli%$1 z if by ! attrition ( ! waves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4 ,cross section4 a4 ,monte ,grifone4 b4 ,cave ( ,san ,ciro4#ge-;,a c4 ,pla9 ( ,pal]mo1 9 :i* are ,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( lime/one & s&4 d4 ,bay ( ,pal]mo4 ,! plat=m indicat$ at c1 fig4 #ic41 is =m$ by a t]ti>y deposit conta9+ m>9e %ells almo/ all ( liv+ species1 & x af=ds an illu/ration ( ! t]race ( deposition1 or ! la/ ( ! two k9ds be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #gd474 ,!re are also num]\s in/ances 9 ,sicily ( t]races ( d5udation4 ,"o ( ^! occurs on ! ea/ coa/ to ! nor? ( ,syracuse1 & ! same is resum$ to ! s\? beyond ! t[n ( ,noto1 :]e x may be trac$ =m+ a cont9u\s & l(ty precipice1 a b1 fig4 #id41 fac+ t[>ds ! sea1 & con/itut+ ! abrupt t]m9ation ( a calc>e\s =mation1 :i* ext5ds 9 horizontal /rata f> inl&4 ,?is precipice v>ies 9 height f #ejj to #gjj feet1 & betwe5 its base & ! sea is an inf]ior plat=m1 c b1 consi/+ ( simil> :ite lime/one4 ,all ! b$s dip t[>ds ! sea1 b are usually incl9$ at a v slight angle3 !y are se5 to ext5d un9t]rupt$ly f ! base ( ! esc>pm5t into ! plat=m1 %[+ di/9ctly t ! l(ty cliff 0 n produc$ by a fault or v]tical %ift ( ! b$s1 b by ! removal ( a consid]able mass ( rock4 ,h5ce we may conclude t ! sea1 :i* is n[ und]m9+ ! cliffs ( ! ,sicilian coa/1 rea*$ at "s =m] p]iod ! base ( ! precipice a b1 at :i* "t ! surface ( ! t]race c b mu/ h be5 cov]$ by ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,!re 0 a pause1 !re=e1 9 ! upw>d movem5t1 :5 ! waves ( ! sea _h "t to c>ve out ! plat=m c b2 b !re may h be5 _m o!r /ation>y p]iods ( m9or duration4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a s]ies ( esc>pm5ts e1 f1 g1 h1 once exi/$1 & t ! sea1 dur+ a long int]val free f subt]ranean movem5ts1 advances along ! l9e c b1 all prec$+ cliffs mu/ h be5 swept away "o aft] ! o!r1 & r$uc$ to ! s+le precipice a b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4 ,cross section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4 ,valley call$ ,gozzo degli ,m>tiri1 bel[ ,melilli1 ,val di ,noto4 ,t su* a s]ies ( small] cliffs1 z ^? repres5t$ at e1 f1 g1 h1 fig4 #id41 did really once exi/ at int]m$iate heights 9 place ( ! s+le precipice a b1 is r5d]$ highly probable by ! fact1 t 9 c]ta9 bays & inl& valleys op5+ t[>ds ! ea/ coa/ ( ,sicily1 & n f> f ! section giv5 9 fig4 #id41 ! solid lime/one is %ap$ out into a great succession ( l$ges1 sep>at$ f ea* o!r by small v]tical cliffs4 ,^! are sometimes s num]\s1 "o above ! o!r1 t :]e !re is a b5d at ! head ( a valley1 !y produce an effect s+ul>ly resembl+ ! seats ( a ,roman amphi!atre4 ,a good example ( ?is configuration occurs ne> ! t[n ( ,melilli1 z se5 9 ! annex$ view 7fig4 #ie474 ,9 ! s\? ( ! isl&1 ne> ,spacca=no1 ,scicli1 & ,modica1 precipit\s rocks ( :ite lime/one1 asc5d+ to ! height ( #ejj feet1 h be5 c>v$ out into simil> =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4 ,cross section4 ,?is appe>ance ( a range ( m>ble seats circl+ r\nd ! head ( a valley1 or ( great flights ( /eps desc5d+ f ! top to ! bottom1 on ! opposite sides ( a gorge1 may be acc\nt$ =1 z already h9t$1 by suppos+ ! sea to h /ood successively at _m diff]5t levels1 z at a a1 b b1 c c1 9 ! accompany+ fig4 #if4 ,b ! causes ( ! gradual contraction ( ! valley f above d[nw>ds may /ill be matt] ( speculation4 ,su* contraction may be due to ! great] =ce ex]t$ by ! waves :5 ! l& at its fir/ em]g5ce 0 small] 9 quantity1 & m expos$ to d5udation 9 an op5 sea2 :]eas ! we> & te> ( ! rocks might dim9i% 9 proportion z ?is action became conf9$ )9 bays or *annels clos$ 9 on two or ?ree sides4 ,or1 secondly1 ! sep>ate movem5ts ( elevation may h foll[$ ea* o!r m rapidly z ! l& cont9u$ to rise1 s t ! times ( ^? pauses1 dur+ :i* ! greate/ d5udation 0 accompli%$ at c]ta9 levels1 7 always gr[+ %ort]4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 t ! cliffs & small t]races are r>ely f\nd on ! opposite sides ( ! ,sicilian valleys at heights s precisely answ]+ to ea* o!r z ^? giv5 9 fig4 #if41 & ?is might h be5 expect$1 to :i*ev] ( ! two hypo!ses above expla9$ we incl9e2 =1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds & curr5ts1 ! waves may beat ) unequal =ce on diff]5t p>ts ( ! %ore1 s t :ile no impression is made on "o side ( a bay1 ! sea may encroa* s f> on ! o!r z to unite sev]al small] cliffs into "o4 ,be=e quitt+ ! subject ( anci5t sea-cliffs1 c>v$ out ( lime/one1 ,i %all m5tion ! range ( precipit\s rocks1 compos$ ( a :ite m>ble ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 :i* ,i h se5 ne> ! nor!rn gate ( ,/4 ,mihiel 9 ,france4 ,!y are situat$ on ! "r bank ( ! ,meuse1 at a di/ance ( #bjj miles f ! ne>e/ sea1 & !y pres5t on ! precipice fac+ ! riv] ?ree or f\r horizontal grooves1 "o above ! o!r1 precisely resembl+ ^? :i* are scoop$ out by ! und]m9+ waves4 ,! summits ( sev]al ( ^! masses are deta*$ f ! adjo9+ hill1 9 :i* case ! grooves pass all r\nd !m1 fac+ t[>ds all po9ts ( ! compass1 z if !y _h once =m$ rocky islets ne> ! %ore4#gh-;,a ,capta9 ,bayfield1 9 8 survey ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 discov]$ 9 sev]al places1 especially 9 ! ,m+an isl&s1 a c\nt]p>t ( ! inl& cliffs ( ,/4 ,mihiel1 & trac$ a succession ( %+le bea*es1 "o above ! o!r1 :i* agre$ 9 _! level ) "s ( ! pr9cipal grooves scoop$ out ( ! lime/one pill>s4 ,^! bea*es consi/$ ( calc>e\s %+le1 ) %ells ( rec5t species1 ! f>!/ f ! %ore be+ #fj feet above ! level ( ! highe/ tides4 ,9 addition to ! draw+s ( ! pill>s call$ ! fl[]-pots1 :i* he has publi%$#gh-;,b1 ,i h be5 fav\r$ ) o!r views ( rocks on ! same coa/1 drawn by ,lieut4 ,a4 ,b[51 ,r4 ,n4 7,see fig4 #ig47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4 ,lime/one columns 9 ,niapisca ,isl&1 9 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce4 ,height ( ! second column on ! left1 #fj feet4 ,9 ! ,nor?-,am]ican bea*es above m5tion$ r\nd$ fragm5ts ( lime/one h be5 f\nd p]=at$ by li?odomi2 & holes drill$ by ! same mollusks h be5 detect$ 9 ! column> rocks or fl[]-pots1 %[+ t !re has be5 no great am\nt ( atmosph]ic decomposition on ! surface1 or ! cavities allud$ to w\ld h disappe>$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4 ,! ,nor? ,rocks1 ,b]muda1 ly+ outside ! great coral reef4 ,a4 #af feet high1 & ,b4 #ab feet4 c4 c4 ,holl[s worn by ! sea4 ,we h an opportunity ( see+ 9 ! ,b]muda isl&s ! mann] 9 :i* ! waves ( ! ,atlantic h worn1 & are n[ we>+ out1 deep smoo? holl[s on e side ( project+ masses ( h>d lime/one4 ,9 ! annex$ draw+1 communicat$ to me by ,lieut4 ,nelson1 ! excavations c1 c1 c1 h be5 scoop$ out by ! waves 9 a /one ( v mod]n date1 :i*1 al?\gh extremely h>d1 is full ( rec5t corals & %ells1 "s ( :i* reta9 _! col\r4 ,:5 ! =ms ( ^! horizontal grooves1 ( :i* ! surface is sometimes smoo? & almo/ poli%$1 & ! ro(s ( :i* (t5 ov]hang to ! ext5t ( #e feet or m1 h be5 c>efully /udi$ by geologi/s1 !y w s]ve to te/ify ! =m] action ( ! waves at innum]able po9ts f> 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95ts4 ,b we mu/ le>n to di/+ui% ! ind5tations due to ! orig9al action ( ! sea1 & ^? caus$ by subsequ5t *emical decomposition ( calc>e\s rocks1 to :i* !y are liable 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,not)/&+ ! endur+ nature ( ! m>ks left by littoral action on calc>e\s rocks1 we c by no means detect sea-bea*es & inl& cliffs ev]y:]e1 ev5 9 ,sicily & ! ,morea4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are1 ^u ! :ole1 extremely p>tial1 & are (t5 entirely want+ 9 di/ricts compos$ ( argillace\s & s&y =mations1 :i* mu/1 nev]!less1 h be5 upheav$ at ! same "t1 & by ! same int]mitt5t movem5ts1 z ! adjo9+ calc>e\s rocks4 ,,footnotes3 #fg-;,a ,we/]n ,isl&s1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ic4 pl4 #ca4 fig4 #d4 #fi-;,a ,see ,mammat's ,geological ,facts1 c4 p4 #ij4 & plate4 #fi-;,b ,conybe>e's ,report to ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 p4 #cha4 #gj-;,a ,pre/wi*1 ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 v4 pp4 #deb4 #dgc4 #ge-;,a ,section giv5 by ,dr4 ,*ri/ie1 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn4 ,no4 xxiii41 call$ by mi/ake ! ,cave ( ,m>dolce1 by ! late ,m4 ,h(fmann4 ,see acc\nt by ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,pratt1 ,f4 ,g4 ,s4 ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #cb4 #ahcc4 #gh-;,a ,i 0 direct$ by ,m4 ,de%ayes to ?is spot1 :i* ,i visit$ 9 ,june1 #ahcc4 #gh-;,b ,see ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 second s]ies1 vol4 v4 plate v4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,alluvium4 ,alluvium describ$--,due to complicat$ causes--,( v>i\s ages1 z %[n 9 ,auv]gne--,h[ di/+ui%$ f rocks 9 situ--,riv]-t]races--,p>allel roads ( ,gl5 ,roy--,v>i\s !ories respect+ _! orig94 ,betwe5 ! sup]ficial cov]+ ( vegetable m\ld & ! subjac5t rock !re usually int]v5es 9 e di/rict a deposit ( loose gravel1 s&1 & mud1 to :i* ! "n ( alluvium has be5 appli$4 ,! t]m is d]iv$ f alluvio1 an inundation1 or alluo1 to wa%1 because ! pebbles & s& commonly resemble ^? ( a riv]'s b$ or ! mud & gravel spread ov] l[ l&s by a flood4 ,a p>tial cov]+ ( su* alluvium is f\nd alike 9 all climates1 f ! equatorial to ! pol> regions2 b 9 ! high] latitudes ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica x assumes a di/9ct "*1 be+ v frequ5tly devoid ( /ratification1 & conta9+ huge fragm5ts ( rock1 "s angul> & o!rs r\nd$1 :i* h be5 transport$ to great di/ances f _! p>5t m\nta9s4 ,:5 x pres5ts itself 9 ?is =m1 x has be5 call$ diluvium1 drift1 or ! b\ld] =mation2 & its probable connexion ) ! ag5cy ( float+ ice & glaci]s w be treat$ ( m p>ticul>ly 9 ! elev5? & twelf? *apt]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4 ,lavas ( ,auv]gne re/+ on alluviums ( diff]5t ages4 ,! /ud5t w be prep>$1 by :at ,i h said 9 ! la/ *apt] on d5udation1 to he> t loose gravel & s& are (t5 met )1 n only on ! l[ gr\nds bord]+ riv]s1 b also at v>i\s po9ts on ! sides or ev5 summits ( m\nta9s4 ,=1 9 ! c\rse ( ^? *anges 9 physical geography :i* may take place dur+ ! gradual em]g5ce ( ! bottom ( ! sea & its conv]sion into dry l&1 any spot may ei!r h be5 a sunk5 reef1 or a bay1 or e/u>y1 or sea-%ore1 or ! b$ ( a riv]4 ,= ?is reason x w\ld be unreasonable to hope t we %\ld ev] be able to acc\nt = all ! alluvial ph5om5a ( ea* p>ticul> c\ntry1 see+ t ! causes ( _! orig9 are s complicat$4 ,moreov]1 ! la/ op]ations ( wat] h a t5d5cy to di/urb & conf\nd toge!r all pre-exi/+ alluviums4 ,h5ce we are always 9 dang] ( reg>d+ z ! "w ( a s+le era1 & ! effect ( "o cause1 :at has 9 reality be5 ! result ( a v>iety ( di/9ct ag5ts1 dur+ a long succession ( geological epo*s4 ,mu* useful in/ruction may !re=e be ga9$ f ! exploration ( a c\ntry l ,auv]gne1 :]e ! sup]ficial gravel ( v diff]5t eras happ5s to h be5 pres]v$ by %eets ( lava1 :i* 7 p\r$ out "o aft] ! o!r at p]iods :5 ! d5udation1 & probably ! upheaval1 ( rocks 7 9 progress4 ,t region _h already acquir$ 9 "s degree its pres5t configuration be=e any volcanos 7 9 activity1 & be=e any igne\s matt] 0 sup]impos$ ^u ! granitic & fossilif]\s =mations4 ,! pebbles !re=e 9 ! old] gravels are exclusively con/itut$ ( granite & o!r aborig9al rocks2 & aft]w>ds1 :5 volcanic v5ts bur/ =? into eruption1 ^? e>li] alluviums 7 cov]$ by /reams ( lava1 :i* protect$ !m f int]mixture ) gravel ( subsequ5t date4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages1 a new sy/em ( valleys 0 excavat$1 s t ! riv]s ran at l[] levels ?an ^? at :i* ! fir/ alluviums & %eets ( lava 7 =m$4 ,:51 !re=e1 fre% eruptions gave rise to new lava1 ! melt$ matt] 0 p\r$ out ov] l[] gr\nds2 & ! gravel ( ^! pla9s diff]$ f ! fir/ or upl& alluvium1 by conta9+ 9 x r\nd$ fragm5ts ( v>i\s volcanic rocks1 & (t5 bones belong+ to di/9ct gr\ps ( l& animals :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! c\ntry 9 succession4 ,! annex$ draw+ w expla9 ! diff]5t heights at :i* b$s ( lava & gravel1 ea* di/9ct f ! o!r 9 composition & age1 are obs]v$1 "s on ! flat tops ( hills1 #gjj or #hjj feet high1 o!rs on ! slope ( ! same hills1 & ! newe/ ( all 9 ! *annel ( ! exi/+ riv] :]e !re is usually gravel alone1 b 9 "s cases a n>r[ /ripe ( solid lava %>+ ! bottom ( ! valley ) ! riv]4 ,9 all ^! accumulations ( transport$ matt] ( diff]5t ages ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s h be5 f\nd belong+ to assemblages ( l& mammalia :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! c\ntry 9 succession1 & :i* v>y specifically1 ! "o f ! o!r1 9 a great] or less degree1 9 proportion z ! "t :i* sep>at$ _! entombm5t has be5 m or less protract$4 ,! /reams 9 ! same di/rict are /ill und]m9+ _! banks & gr9d+ d[n into pebbles or s&1 columns ( basalt & fragm5ts ( granite & gneiss2 b ! old] alluviums1 ) ! fossil rema9s belong+ to !m1 are prev5t$ f be+ m+l$ ) ! gravel ( rec5t date by ! capp+s ( lava be=e m5tion$4 ,b = ! accid5tal int]f]5ce1 !re=e1 ( ?is peculi> cause1 all ! alluviums might h pass$ s ins5sibly ! "o into ! o!r1 t ^? =m$ at ! remote/ era might h appe>$ ( ! same date z ! newe/1 & ! :ole =mation might h be5 reg>d$ by "s geologi/s z ! result ( "o sudd5 & viol5t cata/rophe4 ,9 almo/ e c\ntry1 ! alluvium consi/s 9 its upp] "p ( transport$ mat]ials1 b x (t5 passes d[nw>ds into a mass ( brok5 & angul> fragm5ts d]iv$ f ! subjac5t rock4 ,to ?is mass ! prov9cial "n ( rubble1 or bra%1 is giv5 9 _m p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,x may be ref]r$ to ! wea!r+ or dis9tegration ( /one on ! spot1 ! effects ( air & wat]1 sun & fro/1 & *emical decomposition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,cross section4 a4 ,vegetable soil4 b4 ,alluvium4 c4 ,mass ( same1 app>5tly deta*$4 ,! inf]ior surface ( alluvial deposits is (t5 v irregul>1 con=m+ to all ! inequalities ( ! fundam5tal rocks 7fig4 #ajj474 ,occasionally1 a small mass1 z at c1 appe>s deta*$1 & z if includ$ 9 ! subjac5t =mation4 ,su* isolat$ portions are usually sections ( w9d+ subt]ranean holl[s fill$ up ) alluvium4 ,!y may h be5 ! c\rses ( spr+s or subt]ranean /reamlets1 :i* h fl[$ ?r\gh & enl>g$ natural r5ts2 or1 :5 on a small scale & 9 s(t /rata1 !y may be spaces :i* ! roots ( l>ge trees h once occupi$1 gravel & s& hav+ be5 introduc$ aft] _! decay4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4 ,s&-pipes 9 ! *alk at ,eaton1 ne> ,norwi*4 ,b !re are o!r deep holl[s ( a cyl9drical =m f\nd 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & else:]e1 p5etrat+ ! :ite *alk1 & fill$ ) s& & gravel1 :i* are n s readily expla9$4 ,!y are sometimes call$ s&-pipes1 or s&-galls1 & puits naturels1 9 ,france4 ,^? repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ cut 7 obs]v$ by me 9 #ahci1 laid op5 9 a l>ge *alk-pit ne> ,norwi*4 ,!y 7 ( v symmetrical =m1 ! l>ge/ m ?an #ab feet 9 diamet]1 & "s ( !m _h be5 trac$1 by bor+1 to ! dep? ( m ?an #fj feet4 ,! small] ones v>i$ f a few in*es to a foot 9 diamet]1 & seldom desc5d$ m ?an #ab feet bel[ ! surface4 ,ev5 :]e ?ree ( !m occurr$1 z at a1 fig4 #aja41 v close toge!r1 ! p>t+ walls ( s(t :ite *alk 7 n brok5 ?r\gh4 ,!y all tap] d[nw>ds & end 9 a po9t4 ,z a g5]al rule1 s& & pebbles occupy ! c5tral p>ts ( ea* pipe1 :ile ! sides & bottom are l9$ ) clay4 ,mr4 ,trimm]1 9 speak+ ( appe>ances ( ! same k9d 9 ! ,k5ti% *alk1 attributes ! orig9 ( su* s&-galls to ! action ( ! sea on a bea* or %oal1 :]e ! waves1 *>g$ ) %+le & s&1 n only we> out longitud9al furr[s1 su* z may be obs]v$ on ! surface ( ! *alk ne> ,norwi* :5 ! incumb5t gravel is remov$1 b also drill deep circul> holl[s by ! rotatory motion imp>t$ to s& & pebbles4 ,su* furr[s1 z well z v]tical cavities1 are n[ =m$1 he obs]ves1 on ! coa/ :]e ! %ores are compos$ ( *alk4#hb-;,a ,t ! comm5cem5t ( _m ( ! tubul> cavities n[ "u consid]ation has be5 due to ! cause "h assign$1 ,i h little d\bt4 ,b su* me*anical action c\ld n h holl[$ out ! :ole ( ! s&-pipes c & d1 fig4 #aja41 because sev]al l>ge *alk-fl9ts se5 protrud+ f ! walls ( ! pipes h n be5 erod$1 :ile s& & gravel h p5etrat$ _m feet bel[ !m4 ,9 o!r cases1 z at b b1 simil> unr\nd$ nodules ( fl9t1 /ill pres]v+ _! irregul> =m & :ite coat+1 are f\nd at v>i\s dep?s 9 ! mid/ ( ! loose mat]ials fill+ ! pipe4 ,^! h evid5tly be5 deta*$ f regul> lay]s ( fl9ts occurr+ above4 ,x is also to be rem>k$ t ! c\rse ( ! same s&-pipe1 b b1 is traceable above ! level ( ! *alk = "s di/ance upw>ds1 ?r\gh ! incumb5t gravel & s&1 by ! oblit]ation ( all signs ( /ratification4 ,occasionally1 also1 z 9 ! pipe d1 ! ov]ly+ b$s ( gravel b5d d[nw>ds into ! m\? ( ! pipe1 s z to become 9 "p v]tical1 z w\ld happ5 if horizontal lay]s _h sunk gradually 9 consequ5ce ( a failure ( support4 ,all ^! ph5om5a may be acc\nt$ = by attribut+ ! enl>gem5t & deep5+ ( ! s&-pipes to ! *emical action ( wat] *>g$ ) c>bonic acid1 d]iv$ f ! vegetable soil & ! decay+ roots ( trees4 ,su* acid might corrode ! *alk1 & deep5 indef9itely any previ\sly exi/+ holl[1 b c\ld n dissolve ! fl9ts4 ,! wat]1 aft] x _h become saturat$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 might freely p]colate ! surr\nd+ por\s walls ( *alk1 & escape ?r\gh !m & f ! bottom ( ! tube1 s z to c>ry away 9 ! c\rse ( "t l>ge masses ( dissolv$ calc>e\s rock#hc-;,a1 & leave beh9d x on ! edges ( ea* tubul> holl[ a coat+ ( f9e clay1 :i* ! :ite *alk conta9s4 ,i h se5 tubes precisely simil> & f #a to #e feet 9 diamet] trav]s+ v]tically ! upp] half ( ! s(t calc>e\s build+ /one1 or *alk )\t fl9ts1 con/itut+ ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt1 ,mae/ri*t4 ,^! holl[s are fill$ ) pebbles & clay1 d]iv$ f ov]ly+ b$s ( gravel1 & all t]m9ate d[nw>ds l ^? ( ,norfolk4 ,i 0 in=m$ t1 #f miles f ,mae/ri*t1 "o ( ^! pipes1 #b feet 9 diamet]1 0 trac$ d[nw>ds to a b$ ( flatt5$ fl9ts1 =m+ an almo/ cont9u\s lay] 9 ! *alk4 ,"h x t]m9at$ abruptly1 b a few small root-l prolongations ( x 7 detect$ imm$iately bel[1 probably :]e ! dissolv+ sub/ance _h p5etrat$ at "s po9ts ?r\gh op5+s 9 ! silice\s mass4 ,x is n s easy z may at fir/ appe> to draw a cle> l9e ( di/9ction betwe5 ! fix$ rocks1 or regul> /rata 7rocks 9 situ or 9 place71 & alluvium4 ,if ! b$ ( a torr5t or riv] be dri$ up1 we call ! gravel1 s&1 & mud left 9 _! *annels1 or :atev]1 dur+ floods1 !y may h scatt]$ ov] ! neighb\r+ pla9s1 alluvium4 ,! v same mat]ials c>ri$ into a lake1 :]e !y become sort$ by wat] & arrang$ 9 m di/9ct lay]s1 especially if !y inclose ! rema9s ( plants1 %ells1 or o!r fossils1 are t]m$ regul> /rata4 ,9 l mann] we may sometimes comp>e ! gravel1 s&1 & brok5 %ells1 /rew$ along ! pa? ( a rapid m>9e curr5t1 ) a deposit =m$ contemporane\sly by ! dis*>ge ( simil> mat]ials1 ye> aft] ye>1 into a deep] & m tranquil "p ( ! sea4 ,9 su* cases1 :5 we detect m>9e %ells or o!r organic rema9s entomb$ 9 ! /rata1 :i* enable u to det]m9e _! age & mode ( orig91 we reg>d !m z "p ( ! regul> s]ies ( fossilif]\s =mations1 :]eas1 if !re are no fossils1 we h frequ5tly no p[] ( sep>at+ !m f ! g5]al mass ( sup]ficial alluvium4 ,! usual r>ity ( organic rema9s 9 b$s ( loose gravel & s& is p>tly ow+ to ! rapid & turbid wat] 9 :i* !y 7 =m$ hav+ be5 9 a condition unfav\rable to ! habitation ( aquatic be+s1 & p>tly to _! por\s nature1 :i*1 by all[+ ! free p]colation ( ra9-wat]1 has promot$ ! decomposition & removal ( organic matt]4 ,x has long be5 a matt] ( common obs]vation t mo/ riv]s are n[ cutt+ _! *annels ?r\gh alluvial deposits ( great] dep? & ext5t ?an c\ld ev] h be5 =m$ by ! pres5t /reams4 ,f ?is fact a ra% inf]5ce has sometimes be5 drawn1 t riv]s 9 g5]al h gr[n small]1 or become less liable to be flood$ ?an =m]ly4 ,b su* ph5om5a w\ld be a natural result ( any consid]able oscillations 9 ! level ( ! l& exp]i5c$ s9ce ! exi/+ valleys orig9at$4 ,suppose "p ( a cont95t1 compris+ )9 x a l>ge hydrographical bas9 l t ( ! ,mississippi1 to subside sev]al in*es or feet 9 a c5tury1 z ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 ext5d+ #fjj miles nor? & s\?1 has be5 s9k+ = ?ree or f\r c5turies1 betwe5 ! latitudes #fj deg4 & #fi deg4 ,n4#hd-;,a ,!re might be no encroa*m5t ( ! sea at ! riv]'s m\? 9 consequ5ce ( ?is *ange ( level1 b ! fall ( ! wat]s fl[+ f ! int]ior be+ less5$1 ! ma9 riv] & its tribut>ies w\ld h less p[] to c>ry d[n to its delta1 & to dis*>ge into ! ocean1 ! s$im5t>y matt] ) :i* !y are annually load$4 ,!y w\ld all beg9 to raise _! *annels & alluvial pla9s by deposit+ 9 !m ! heavi] s& & pebbles wa%$ d[n f ! upl& c\ntry1 & ?is op]ation w\ld take place mo/ effectively if ! am\nt ( subsid5ce 9 ! int]ior 0 unequal1 & especially if1 on ! :ole1 x exce$$ t ( ! region ne> ! sea4 ,if !n ! same area ( l& be aga9 upheav$ to its =m] height1 ! fall1 & consequ5tly ! velocity1 ( e riv] w\ld beg9 to augm5t4 ,ea* ( !m w\ld be less giv5 to ov]fl[ its alluvial pla92 & _! p[] ( c>ry+ e>?y matt] seaw>d1 & ( sc\r+ out & deep5+ _! *annels1 w\ld cont9ue till1 aft] a lapse ( _m ?\s& ye>s1 ea* ( !m w\ld h erod$ a new *annel or valley ?r\gh a fluviatile =mation ( mod]n date4 ,! surface ( :at 0 once ! riv]-pla9 at ! p]iod ( greate/ depression1 w\ld rema9 fr++ ! valley sides 9 ! =m ( a t]race app>5tly flat1 b 9 reality slop+ d[n ) ! g5]al incl9ation ( ! riv]4 ,ev]y:]e ?is t]race w\ld pres5t cliffs ( gravel & s&1 fac+ ! riv]4 ,t su* a s]ies ( movem5ts has actually tak5 place 9 ! ma9 valley ( ! ,mississippi & 9 its tribut>y valleys dur+ oscillations ( level1 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ 9 my description ( t c\ntry#he-;,a2 & ! fre%wat] %ells ( exi/+ species & bones ( l& quadrup$s1 p>tly ( ext9ct races pres]v$ 9 ! t]races ( fluviatile orig91 atte/ ! exclusion ( ! sea dur+ ! :ole process ( fill+ up & p>tial re-excavation4 ,9 _m cases1 ! alluvium 9 :i* riv]s are n[ cutt+ _! *annels1 orig9at$ :5 ! l& fir/ rose out ( ! sea4 ,if1 = example1 ! em]g5ce 0 caus$ by a gradual & uni=m motion1 e bay & e/u>y1 or ! /raits betwe5 isl&s1 w\ld dry up sl[ly1 & dur+ _! conv]sion into valleys1 e "p ( ! upheav$ area w\ld 9 its turn be a sea-%ore1 & might be /rew$ ov] ) littoral s& & pebbles1 or ea* spot might be ! po9t :]e a delta accumulat$ dur+ ! retreat & exclusion ( ! sea4 ,mat]ials s accumulat$ w\ld con=m to ! g5]al slope ( a valley f its head to ! sea-coa/4 ,riv] t]races4--,we (t5 obs]ve at a %ort di/ance f ! pres5t b$ ( a riv] a /eep cliff a few feet or y>ds high1 & on a level ) ! top ( x a flat t]race correspond+ 9 appe>ance to ! alluvial pla9 :i* imm$iately bord]s ! riv]4 ,?is t]race is aga9 b\nd$ by ano!r cliff1 above :i* a second t]race sometimes occurs3 & 9 ?is mann] two or ?ree ranges ( cliffs & t]races are occasionally se5 on "o or bo? sides ( ! /ream1 ! numb] v>y+1 b ^? on ! opposite sides (t5 correspond+ 9 height4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4 ,riv] ,t]races & ,p>allel ,roads4 ,^! t]races are seldom cont9u\s = great di/ances1 & _! surface slopes d[nw>ds1 ) an incl9ation simil> to t ( ! riv]4 ,!y are readily expla9$ if we adopt ! hypo!sis be=e sugge/$1 ( a gradual rise ( ! l&2 especially if1 :ile riv]s are %ap+ out _! b$s1 ! upheav+ movem5t be int]mitt5t1 s t long pauses %all occur1 dur+ :i* ! /ream w h "t to encroa* ^u "o ( its banks1 s z to cle> away & flatt5 a l>ge space4 ,?is op]ation be+ aft]w>ds repeat$ at l[] levels1 !re w be sev]al successive cliffs & t]races4 ,p>allel roads4--,! p>allel %elves1 or roads1 z !y h be5 call$1 ( ,lo*ab] or ,gl5 ,roy & o!r contigu\s valleys 9 ,scotl&1 are di/9ct bo? 9 "* & orig9 f ! t]races above describ$2 = !y h no slope t[>ds ! sea l ! *annel ( a riv]1 nor are !y ! effect ( d5udation4 ,gl5 ,roy is situat$ 9 ! we/]n ,highl&s1 ab\t t5 miles nor? ( ,=t ,william1 ne> ! we/]n end ( ! great gl5 ( ,scotl&1 or ,cal$onian ,canal1 & ne> ! foot ( ! highe/ ( ! ,grampians1 ,b5 ,nevis4 ,?r\gh\t its :ole l5g?1 a di/ance ( m ?an t5 miles1 two1 & 9 its l[] "p ?ree1 p>allel roads or %elves are trac$ along ! /eep sides ( ! m\nta9s1 z repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ figure1 fig4 #ajb41 ea* ma9ta9+ a p]fect horizontality1 & cont9u+ at exactly ! same level on ! opposite sides ( ! gl54 ,se5 at a di/ance1 !y appe> l l$ges or roads1 cut artificially out ( ! sides ( ! hills2 b :5 we are ^u !m we c sc>cely recognize _! exi/5ce1 s unev5 is _! surface1 & s cov]$ ) b\ld]s4 ,!y are f #aj to #fj feet broad1 & m]ely diff] f ! side ( ! m\nta9 by be+ some:at less /eep4 ,on clos] inspection1 we f9d t ^! t]races are /ratifi$ 9 ! ord9>y mann] ( alluvial or littoral deposits1 z may be se5 at ^? po9ts :]e rav9es h be5 excavat$ by torr5ts4 ,! p>allel %elves1 !re=e1 h n be5 caus$ by d5udation1 b by ! deposition ( detritus1 precisely simil> to t :i* is disp]s$ 9 small] quantities ov] ! declivities ( ! hills above4 ,^! hills consi/ ( clay-slate1 mica-s*i/1 & granite1 :i* rocks h be5 worn away & laid b>e at a few po9ts only1 9 a l9e j above ! p>allel roads4 ,! highe/ ( ^! roads is ab\t #abej feet above ! level ( ! sea1 ! next ab\t #bjj feet l[] ?an ! upp]mo/1 & ! ?ird /ill l[] by ab\t #ej feet4 ,x is only ?is la/1 or ! l[e/ ( ! ?ree1 :i* is cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ,gl5 ,spean1 a l>ge valley ) :i* ,gl5 ,roy unites4 ,z ! %elves are always at ! same height above ! sea1 !y become cont9ually m elevat$ above ! riv] 9 proportion z we desc5d ea* valley2 & !y at l5g? t]m9ate v abruptly1 )\t any obvi\s cause1 ei!r 9 ! %ape ( ! gr\nd1 or any *ange 9 ! composition or h>dness ( ! rocks4 ,i %\ld exce$ ! limits ( ?is "w1 7 ,i to attempt to give a full description ( all ! geographical circum/ances att5d+ ^! s+ul> t]races1 or to discuss ! +5i\s !ories :i* h be5 sev]ally propos$ to acc\nt = !m by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,sir ,t4 ,d4 ,laud]1 & ,messrs4 ,d>w91 ,agassiz1 ,milne1 & ,*amb]s4 ,!re is "o po9t1 h[ev]1 on :i* all are agre$1 namely1 t ^! %elves are anci5t bea*es1 or littoral =mations accumulat$ r\nd ! edges ( "o or m %eets ( wat] :i* once /ood at ! level1 fir/ ( ! highe/ %elf1 & successively at ! height ( ! two o!rs4 ,x is well kn[n1 t :]ev] a lake or m>9e fiord exi/s surr\nd$ by /eep m\nta9s subject to dis9tegration by fro/ or ! action ( torr5ts1 "s loose matt] is wa%$ d[n annually1 especially dur+ ! melt+ ( sn[1 & a *eck is giv5 to ! desc5t ( ?is detritus at ! po9t :]e x rea*es ! wat]s ( ! lake4 ,! waves !n spread out ! mat]ials along ! %ore1 & ?r[ "s ( !m ^u ! bea*2 _! disp]s+ p[] be+ aid$ by ! ice1 :i* (t5 adh]es to pebbles dur+ ! w9t] mon?s1 & gives buoyancy to !m4 ,! annex$ diagram illu/rates ! mann] 9 :i* ,dr4 ,mac,culloch & ,mr4 ,d>w9 suppose ! roads to con/itute m]e ind5tations 9 a sup]ficial alluvial coat+ :i* re/s ^u ! hillside1 & consi/s *iefly ( clay & %>p unr\nd$ /ones4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4 ,cross section4 ,a ,b4 ,suppos$ orig9al surface ( rock4 ,c ,d4 ,roads or %elves 9 ! out] alluvial cov]+ ( ! hill4 ,among o!r pro(s t ! p>allel roads h really be5 =m$ along ! m>g9 ( a %eet ( wat]1 x may be m5tion$1 t :]ev] an isolat$ hill rises 9 ! middle ( ! gl5 above ! level ( any p>ticul> %elf1 a correspond+ %elf is se5 at ! same level pass+ r\nd ! hill1 z w\ld h happ5$ if x _h once =m$ an isl& 9 a lake or fiord4 ,ano!r v rem>kable peculi>ity 9 ^! t]races is ?is2 ea* ( !m comes 9 "s portion ( its c\rse to a col1 or passage betwe5 ! heads ( gl5s1 ! explanation ( :i* w be consid]$ 9 ! sequel4 ,^? writ]s :o fir/ advocat$ ! doctr9e t ! roads 7 ! anci5t bea*es ( fre%wat] lakes1 7 unable to (f] any probable hypo!sis respect+ ! =mation & subsequ5t removal ( b>ri]s ( suffici5t height & solidity to dam up ! wat]4 ,to introduce any viol5t convulsion = _! removal 0 inconsi/5t ) ! un9t]rupt$ horizontality ( ! roads1 & ) ! undi/urb$ aspect ( ^? p>ts ( ! gl5s :]e ! %elves come sudd5ly to an end4 ,mr4 ,agassiz & ,dr4 ,buckl&1 desir\s1 l ! def5d]s ( ! lake !ory1 to acc\nt = ! limitation ( ! %elves to c]ta9 gl5s1 & _! abs5ce 9 contigu\s gl5s1 :]e ! rocks are ( ! same composition1 & ! slope & incl9ation ( ! gr\nd v simil>1 />t$ ! conjecture t ^! valleys 7 once block$ up by enorm\s glaci]s desc5d+ f ,b5 ,nevis1 giv+ rise to :at are call$ 9 ,switz]l& & 9 ! ,tyrol1 glaci]-lakes4 ,aft] a "t ! icy b>ri] 0 brok5 d[n1 or melt$1 fir/1 to ! level ( ! second1 & aft]w>ds to t ( ! ?ird road or %elf4 ,9 corroboration ( ?is view1 !y cont5d$ t ! alluvium ( ,gl5 ,roy1 z well z ( o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 agrees 9 "* ) ! mora9es ( glaci]s se5 9 ! ,alp9e valleys ( ,switz]l&4 ,allusion w be made 9 ! elev5? *apt] to ! =m] exi/5ce ( glaci]s 9 ! ,grampians3 9 ! mean "t x w readily be conc$$ t ?is hypo!sis is pref]able to any previ\s lacu/r9e !ory1 by acc\nt+ m easily = ! tempor>y exi/5ce & entire disappe>ance ( l(ty transv]se b>ri]s1 al?\gh ! height requir$ = ! imag9>y dams ( ice may be />tl+4 ,be=e ! idea la/ allud$ to _h be5 ent]ta9$1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 exam9$ ,gl5 ,roy1 & came to ! op9ion t ! %elves 7 =m$ :5 ! gl5s 7 /ill arms ( ! sea1 &1 consequ5tly1 t !re nev] 7 any b>ri]s4 ,accord+ to him1 ! l& em]g$ dur+ a sl[ & uni=m upw>d movem5t1 l t n[ exp]i5c$ ?r\gh\t a l>ge "p ( ,sw$5 & ,f9l&2 b !re 7 c]ta9 pauses 9 ! upheav+ process1 at :i* times ! wat]s ( ! sea rema9$ /ation>y = s _m c5turies z to all[ ( ! accumulation ( an extraord9>y quantity ( detrital matt]1 & ! excavation1 at po9ts imm$iately above1 ( _m deep not*es & b>e cliffs 9 ! h>d & solid rock4 ,! ph5om5a :i* are mo/ difficult to reconcile ) ?is !ory are1 fir/1 ! abrupt cessation ( ! roads at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! diff]5t gl5s2 secondly1 _! unequal numb] 9 diff]5t valleys connect+ ) ea* o!r1 !re be+ ?ree1 = example1 9 ,gl5 ,roy & only "o 9 ,gl5 ,spean2 ?irdly1 ! precise horizontality ( level ma9ta9$ by ! same %elf ov] a space _m leagues 9 l5g? requir+ u to assume1 t dur+ a rise ( #abej feet no "o portion ( ! l& 0 rais$ ev5 a few y>ds above ano!r2 f\r?ly1 ! co9cid5ce ( level already allud$ to ( ea* %elf ) a col1 or ! po9t =m+ ! head ( two gl5s1 f :i* ! ra9-wat]s fl[ 9 opposite directions4 ,?is la/-m5tion$ feature 9 ! physical geography ( ,lo*ab] seems to h be5 expla9$ 9 a satisfactory mann] by ,mr4 ,d>w94 ,he calls ^! cols l&/raits1 & reg>ds !m z hav+ be5 anci5tly s\nds or *annels betwe5 isl&s4 ,he po9ts out t !re is a t5d5cy 9 su* s\nds to be silt$ up1 & always ! m s 9 proportion to _! n>r[ness4 ,9 a *>t ( ! ,falkl& ,isl&s by ,capt4 ,sullivan1 ,r4,n41 x appe>s t !re are sev]al examples !re ( /raits :]e ! s\nd+s dim9i% regul>ly t[>ds ! n>r[e/ "p4 ,"o is s ne>ly dry t x c be walk$ ov] at l[ wat]1 & ano!r1 no long] cov]$ by ! sea1 is suppos$ to h rec5tly dri$ up 9 consequ5ce ( a small %ift 9 ! relative level ( sea & l&4 ,simil> /raits1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,*amb]s1 hov]+1 9 "*1 betwe5 sea & l&1 & :i* may be call$ =ds1 are met ) 9 ! ,hebrides4 ,su*1 = example1 is ! passage divid+ ! isl&s ( ,lewis & ,h>ris1 & t betwe5 ,nor? ,ui/ & ,b5becula1 bo? ( :i* w\ld und\bt$ly appe> z cols1 co9cid+ ) a t]race or rais$ bea*1 all r\nd ! isl&s1 if ! sea 7 to subside4#hh-;,a ,! precise horizontality ( level ma9ta9$ by ! roads or %elves ( ,lo*ab] ov] an area _m leagues 9 l5g? & bread?1 is a difficulty common 9 "s degree to all ! rival hypo!ses1 :e!r ( lakes1 or glaci]s1 or ( ! simple upheaval ( ! l& above ! sea4 ,= we _c suppose ! roads to be m anci5t ?an ! glacial p]iod1 or ! era ( ! b\ld] =mation ( ,scotl&1 ( :i* ,i %all speak 9 ! elev5? & twelf? *apt]s4 ,/rata ( t era ( m>9e orig9 conta9+ nor!rn %ells ( exi/+ species h be5 f\nd at v>i\s heights 9 ,scotl&1 "s on ! ea/1 & o!rs on ! we/ coa/1 f #bj to #djj feet high2 & 9 "o region 9 ,lan>k%ire n less ?an #ebd feet above high-wat] m>k4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 9 ! highe/ degree improbable t ,gl5 ,roy %\ld h escap$ entirely ! upw>d movem5t exp]i5c$ 9 s _m surr\nd+ regions1--a movem5t impli$ by ! position ( ^! m>9e deposits1 9 :i* ! %ells are almo/ all ( kn[n rec5t species4 ,b if ! motion has really ext5d$ to ,gl5 ,roy & ! contigu\s gl5s1 x mu/ h uplift$ !m bodily1 )\t 9 ! slighte/ degree affect+ _! horizontality2 & ?is be+ admitt$1 ! pr9cipal objection to ! !ory ( m>9e bea*es1 f\nd$ on ! uni=mity ( upheaval1 is remov$1 or is at lea/ common to e !ory hi!rto propos$4 ,to assume t ! ocean has gone d[n f ! level ( ! upp]mo/ %elf1 or #abej feet1 simultane\sly all ov] ! globe1 :ile ! l& rema9$ unmov$1 is a view :i* w f9d fav\r ) v few geologi/s1 = ! reasons expla9$ 9 ! fif? *apt]4 ,! /ud5t w p]ceive1 f ! above sket* ( ! controv]sy respect+ ! =mation ( ^! curi\s %elves1 t ?is problem1 l _m o!rs 9 geology1 is z yet only solv$ 9 "p2 & t a l>g] numb] ( facts mu/ be collect$ & reason$ ^u be=e ! "q c be f9ally settl$4 ,,footnotes3 #hb-;,a ,trimm]1 ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #g4 #ahdb4 #hc-;,a ,see ,lyell on ,s&-pipes1 c41 ,phil4 ,mag41 ?ird s]ies1 vol4 xv4 p4 #beg41 ,oct4 #ahci4 #hd-;,a ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 #g? ed4 p4 #ejf41 #h? ed4 #eji4 #he-;,a ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s4 vol4 ii4 *ap4 #cd4 #hh-;,a ,anci5t ,sea ,m>g9s1 p4 #aad41 by ,r4 ,*amb]s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,*ronological ,,classification ,,( ,,rocks4 ,aque\s1 plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic rocks1 consid]$ *ronologically--,lehman's division into primitive & second>y--,w]n]'s addition ( a transition class--,neptunian !ory--,hutton on igne\s orig9 ( granite--,h[ ! "n ( prim>y 0 /ill reta9$ = granite--,! t]m transition1 :y faulty--,! adh]5ce to ! old *ronological nom5clature ret>d$ ! progress ( geology--,new hypo!sis inv5t$ to reconcile ! igne\s orig9 ( granite to ! notion ( its high antiquity--,explanation ( ! *ronological nom5clature adopt$ 9 ?is "w1 s f> z reg>ds prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y p]iods4 ,9 ! fir/ *apt] x 0 /at$ t ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 ! aque\s1 ! volcanic1 ! plutonic1 & ! metamorphic1 w\ld ea* be consid]$ n only 9 ref]5ce to _! m9]al *>act]s1 & mode ( orig91 b also to _! relative age4 ,! pres]vation ( ! %elves may h requir$1 says ,d>w91 ! quick gr[? ( gre5 turf on a good soil2 _! abrupt cessation may m>k ! place :]e ! soil 0 b>r51 & :5 a gre5 sw>d =m$ sl[ly4 ,9 reg>d to ! aque\s rocks1 we h already se5 t !y are /ratifi$1 t "s are calc>e\s1 o!rs argillace\s or silice\s1 "s made up ( s&1 o!rs ( pebbles2 t "s conta9 fre%wat]1 o!rs m>9e fossils1 & s =?2 b ! /ud5t has /ill to le>n :i* rocks1 exhibit+ "s or all ( ^! *>act]s1 h orig9at$ at "o p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & :i* at ano!r4 ,to det]m9e ?is po9t 9 ref]5ce to ! fossilif]\s =mations is m easy ?an 9 any o!r class1 & x is !re=e ! mo/ conv5i5t & natural me?od to beg9 by e/abli%+ a *ronology = ^! fossilif]\s /rata1 & !n to endeav\r to ref] to ! same divisions1 ! sev]al gr\ps ( plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic rocks4 ,?is sy/em ( classification is n only recomm5d$ by its great] cle>ness & facility ( application1 b is also be/ fitt$ to /rike ! imag9ation by br++ into "o view ! pa/ *anges ( ! inorganic _w1 & ! contemporane\s revolutions ( ! organic creation4 ,= ! s$im5t>y =mations ( successive p]iods are mo/ readily di/+ui%$ by ! diff]5t species ( fossil animals & plants :i* !y inclose1 & ( :i* "o race aft] ano!r has fl\ri%$ & !n disappe>$ f ! e>?4 ,b be=e ent]+ specially on ! subdivisions ( ! aque\s rocks arrang$ accord+ to ! ord] ( "t1 x w be desirable to say a few words on ! *ronology ( rocks 9 g5]al1 al?\gh 9 do+ s we %all be unavoidably l$ to allude to "s classes ( ph5om5a :i* ! beg9n] mu/ n yet expect fully to compreh5d4 ,x 0 = _m ye>s a receiv$ op9ion1 t ! =mation ( entire families ( rocks1 su* z ! plutonic & ^? cry/all9e s*i/s spok5 ( 9 ! fir/ *apt] z metamorphic1 began & end$ be=e any memb]s ( ! aque\s & volcanic ord]s 7 produc$2 & al?\gh ?is idea has long be5 modifi$1 & is ne>ly explod$1 x w be necess>y to give "s acc\nt ( ! anci5t doctr9e1 9 ord] t beg9n]s may und]/& :5ce _m prevail+ op9ions1 & "s "p ( ! nom5clature ( geology1 /ill p>tially 9 use1 0 d]iv$4 ,ab\t ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 ,lehman1 a ,g]man m9]1 propos$ to divide rocks into ?ree classes1 ! fir/ & olde/ to be call$ primitive1 compris+ ! hypog5e1 or plutonic & metamorphic rocks2 ! next to be t]m$ second>y1 compreh5d+ ! aque\s or fossilif]\s /rata2 & ! rema9d]1 or ?ird class1 correspond+ to our alluvium1 anci5t & mod]n1 :i* he ref]r$ to local floods1 & ! deluge ( ,noah4 ,9 ! primitive class1 he said1 su* z granite & gneiss1 !re are no organic rema9s1 nor any signs ( mat]ials d]iv$ f ! ru9s ( pre-exi/+ rocks4 ,_! orig91 !re=e1 may h be5 purely *emical1 antec$5t to ! creation ( liv+ be+s1 & probably coeval ) ! bir? ( ! _w itself4 ,! second>y =mations1 on ! contr>y1 :i* (t5 conta9 s&1 pebbles1 & organic rema9s1 mu/ h be5 me*anical deposits1 produc$ aft] ! planet _h become ! habitation ( animals & plants4 ,?is bold g5]alization1 al?\gh anticipat$ 9 "s measure by ,/5o1 a c5tury be=e1 9 ,italy1 =m$ at ! "t an important /ep 9 ! progress ( geology1 & sket*$ out correctly "s ( ! lead+ divisions into :i* rocks may be sep>at$4 ,ab\t half a c5tury lat]1 ,w]n]1 s ju/ly celebrat$ = 8 improv$ me?ods ( discrim9at+ ! m9]alogical *>act]s ( rocks1 attempt$ to improve ,lehman's classification1 & ) ?is view int]calat$ a class1 call$ by him ! transition =mations1 betwe5 ! primitive & second>y4 ,betwe5 ^! la/ he _h discov]$1 9 nor!rn ,g]many1 a s]ies ( /rata1 :i* 9 _! m9]al peculi>ities 7 ( an int]m$iate "*1 p>tak+ 9 "s degree ( ! cry/all9e nature ( micace\s s*i/ & clay-slate1 & yet exhibit+ "h & !re signs ( a me*anical orig9 & organic rema9s4 ,= ?is gr\p1 !re=e1 =m+ a passage betwe5 ,lehman's primitive & second>y rocks1 ! "n ( ueb]gang or transition 0 propos$4 ,!y consi/$ pr9cipally ( clay-slate & an argillace\s s&/one1 call$ grauwacke1 & p>tly ( calc>e\s b$s4 ,x happ5$ 9 ! di/rict :i* ,w]n] fir/ inve/igat$1 t bo? ! primitive & transition /rata 7 highly incl9$1 :ile ! b$s ( ! new] fossilif]\s rocks1 ! second>y ( ,lehman1 7 horizontal4 ,to ^! latt]1 !re=e1 he gave ! "n floetz1 or a level floor2 & e deposit m mod]n ?an ! *alk1 :i* 0 class$ z ! upp]mo/ ( ! floetz s]ies1 0 designat$ ! ov]fl[$ l&1 an expression :i* may be reg>d$ z equival5t to alluvium1 al?\gh "u ?is appellation 7 conf\nd$ all ! /rata aft]w>ds call$ t]ti>y1 ( :i* ,w]n] _h sc>cely any k4 ,z ! foll[]s ( ,w]n] soon discov]$ t ! incl9$ position ( ! transition b$s1 & ! horizontality ( ! floetz1 or new] fossilif]\s /rata1 7 m]e local accid5ts1 !y soon ab&on$ ! t]m floetz2 & ! f\r divisions ( ! ,w]n]ian s*ool 7 !n nam$ primitive1 transition1 second>y1 & alluvial4 ,z to ! trappean rocks1 al?\gh _! igne\s orig9 _h be5 already demon/rat$ by ,ardu9o1 ,=tis1 ,faujas1 & o!rs1 & especially by ,desm>e/1 !y 7 all reg>d$ by ,w]n] z aque\s1 & z m]e subord9ate memb]s ( ! second>y s]ies4#ia-;,a ,?is !ory ( ,w]n]'s 0 call$ ! ,neptunian1 & = _m ye>s enjoy$ mu* popul>ity4 ,x assum$ t ! globe _h be5 at fir/ inve/$ by an univ]sal *aotic ocean1 hold+ ! mat]ials ( all rocks 9 solution4 ,f ! wat]s ( ?is ocean1 granite1 gneiss1 & o!r cry/all9e =mations1 7 fir/ precipitat$2 & aft]w>ds1 :5 ! wat]s 7 purg$ ( ^! +r$i5ts1 & m ne>ly resembl$ ^? ( our actual seas1 ! transition /rata 7 deposit$4 ,^! 7 ( a mix$ "*1 n purely *emical1 because ! waves & curr5ts _h already begun to we> d[n solid l&1 & to give rise to pebbles1 s&1 & mud2 nor entirely )\t fossils1 because a few ( ! fir/ m>9e animals _h begun to exi/4 ,aft] ?is p]iod1 ! second>y =mations 7 accumulat$ 9 wat]s resembl+ ^? ( ! pres5t ocean1 except at c]ta9 int]vals1 :51 f causes :olly unexpla9$1 a p>tial recurr5ce ( ! *aotic fluid took place1 dur+ :i* v>i\s trap rocks1 "s highly cry/all9e1 7 =m$4 ,?is arbitr>y hypo!sis reject$ all int]v5tion ( igne\s ag5cy1 volcanos be+ reg>d$ z mod]n1 p>tial1 & sup]ficial accid5ts1 ( trifl+ acc\nt among ! great causes :i* h modifi$ ! ext]nal /ructure ( ! globe4 ,mean:ile ,hutton1 a contempor>y ( ,w]n]1 began to tea*1 9 ,scotl&1 t granite z well z trap 0 ( igne\s orig91 & _h at v>i\s p]iods intrud$ itself 9 a fluid /ate into diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,he recogniz$ & fai?fully describ$ _m ( ! ph5om5a ( granitic ve9s1 & ! alt]ations produc$ by !m on ! invad$ /rata1 :i* w be treat$ ( 9 ! ?irty-second *apt]4 ,he1 moreov]1 advanc$ ! op9ion1 t ! cry/all9e /rata call$ primitive _h n be5 precipitat$ f a primaeval ocean1 b 7 s$im5t>y /rata alt]$ by heat4 ,9 8 writ+s1 !re=e1 & 9 ^? ( 8 illu/rator1 ,playfair1 we f9d ! g]m ( t metamorphic !ory :i* has be5 already h9t$ at 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 & :i* w be m fully exp\nd$ 9 ! ?irty-f\r? & ?irty-fif? *apt]s4 ,at l5g?1 aft] mu* controv]sy1 ! doctr9e ( ! igne\s orig9 ( trap & granite made its way into g5]al fav\r2 b al?\gh x 01 9 consequ5ce1 admitt$ t bo? granite & trap _h be5 produc$ at _m successive p]iods1 ! t]m primitive or prim>y /ill cont9u$ to be appli$ to ! cry/all9e =mations 9 g5]al1 :e!r /ratifi$1 l gneiss1 or un/ratifi$1 l granite4 ,! pupil 0 told t granite 0 a prim>y rock1 b t "s granites 7 new] ?an c]ta9 second>y =mations2 & 9 con=mity ) ! _s ( ! anci5t language1 to :i* ! tea*] 0 /ill det]m9$ to adh]e1 a desire 0 naturally eng5d]$ ( ext5uat+ ! importance ( ^? m mod]n granites1 ! true dates ( :i* new obs]vations 7 cont9ually br++ to light4 ,a no less decid$ incl9ation 0 %[n to p]si/ 9 ! use ( ! t]m transition1 aft] x _h be5 prov$ to be almo/ z faulty 9 its orig9al application z t ( floetz4 ,! "n ( transition1 z already /at$1 0 fir/ giv5 by ,w]n]1 to designate a m9]al "*1 int]m$iate betwe5 ! highly cry/all9e or metamorphic /ate & t ( an ord9>y fossilif]\s rock4 ,b ! t]m acquir$ also f ! fir/ a *ronological import1 because x _h be5 appropriat$ to s$im5t>y =mations1 :i*1 9 ! ,h>tz & o!r p>ts ( ,g]many1 7 m anci5t ?an ! olde/ ( ! second>y s]ies1 & 7 *>act]iz$ by peculi> fossil zoophytes & %ells4 ,:51 !re=e1 geologi/s f\nd 9 o!r di/ricts /ratifi$ rocks occupy+ ! same position1 & inclos+ simil> fossils1 !y gave to !m also ! "n ( transition1 accord+ to rules :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! next *apt]2 yet1 9 _m cases1 su* rocks 7 f\nd n to exhibit ! same m9]al texture :i* ,w]n] _h call$ transition4 ,on ! contr>y1 _m ( !m 7 n m cry/all9e ?an diff]5t memb]s ( ! second>y class2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ^! la/ 7 sometimes f\nd to assume a semi-cry/all9e & almo/ metamorphic aspect1 & ?us1 on li?ological gr\nds1 to des]ve equally ! "n ( transition4 ,s rem>kably 0 ?is ! case 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 t c]ta9 rocks1 :i* _h = ye>s be5 reg>d$ by "s ( ! mo/ skilful disciples ( ,w]n] to be transition1 7 at la/ ackn[l$g$1 :5 _! relative position & fossils 7 bett] und]/ood1 to belong to ! newe/ ( ! second>y gr\ps2 nay1 "s ( !m h actually be5 discov]$ to be memb]s ( ! l[] t]ti>y s]ies6 ,if1 "u su* circum/ances1 ! "n ( transition 0 reta9$1 x is cle> t x ought to h be5 appli$ )\t ref]5ce to ! age ( /rata1 & simply z expressive ( a m9]al peculi>ity4 ,! cont9u$ appropriation ( ! t]m to =mations ( a giv5 date1 induc$ geologi/s to g on believ+ t ! anci5t /rata s designat$ bore a less resemblance to ! second>y ?an is really ! case1 & to imag9e t ^! la/ nev] pass1 z !y frequ5tly d1 into metamorphic rocks4 ,! poet ,wall]1 :5 lam5t+ ov] ! antiquat$ /yle ( ,*auc]1 compla9s t-- ,we write 9 s&1 our language gr[s1 ,&1 l ! tide1 our "w o'erfl[s4 ,b ! rev]se is true 9 geology2 = "h x is our "w :i* cont9ually outgr[s ! language4 ,! tide ( obs]vation advances ) su* spe$ t improvem5ts 9 !ory outrun ! *anges ( nom5clature2 & ! attempt to inculcate new tru?s by words inv5t$ to express a diff]5t or opposite op9ion1 t5ds con/antly1 by ! =ce ( association1 to p]petuate error2 s t dogmas r5\nc$ by ! reason /ill reta9 a /rong hold ^u ! imag9ation4 ,9 ord] to reconcile ! old *ronological views ) ! new doctr9e ( ! igne\s orig9 ( granite1 ! foll[+ hypo!sis 0 sub/itut$ = t ( ! ,neptuni/s4 ,in/ead ( beg9n+ ) an aque\s m5/ruum or *aotic fluid1 ! mat]ials ( ! pres5t cru/ ( ! e>? 7 suppos$ to h be5 at fir/ 9 a /ate ( igne\s fusion1 until "p ( ! heat hav+ be5 diffus$ into surr\nd+ space1 ! surface ( ! fluid consolidat$1 & =m$ a cru/ ( granite4 ,?is cov]+ ( cry/all9e /one1 :i* aft]w>ds grew ?ick] & ?ick] z x cool$1 0 s hot1 at fir/1 t no wat] c\ld exi/ ^u x2 b z ! refrig]ation proce$$1 ! aque\s vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e 0 cond5s$1 &1 fall+ 9 ra91 gave rise to ! fir/ !rmal ocean4 ,s high 0 ! temp]ature ( ?is boil+ sea1 t no aquatic be+s c\ld inhabit its wat]s1 & its deposits 7 n only devoid ( fossils1 b1 l ^? ( "s hot spr+s1 7 highly cry/all9e4 ,h5ce ! orig9 ( ! prim>y or cry/all9e /rata1--gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & ! re/4 ,aft]w>ds1 :5 ! granitic cru/ _h be5 p>tially brok5 up1 l& & m\nta9s began to rise above ! wat]s1 & ra9s & torr5ts gr\nd d[n rock1 s t s$im5t 0 spread ov] ! bottom ( ! seas4 ,yet ! heat /ill rema9+ 9 ! solid support+ sub/ances 0 suffici5t to increase ! *emical action ex]t$ by ! wat]1 al?\gh n s int5se z to prev5t ! introduction & increase ( "s liv+ be+s4 ,dur+ ?is /ate ( ?+s "s ( ! residu>y m9]al +r$i5ts ( ! primaeval ocean 7 precipitat$1 & =m$ deposits 7! transition /rata ( ,w]n]71 half *emical & half me*anical1 & conta9+ a few fossils4 ,by ?is new !ory1 :i* 0 9 "p a revival ( ! doctr9e ( ,leibnitz1 publi%$ 9 #afhj1 on ! igne\s orig9 ( ! planet1 ! old ideas respect+ ! priority ( all cry/all9e rocks to ! creation ( organic be+s1 7 /ill pres]v$2 & ! mi/ak5 notion t all ! semi-cry/all9e & p>tially fossilif]\s rocks belong$ to "o p]iod1 :ile all ! e>?y & uncry/all9e =mations orig9at$ at a subsequ5t epo*1 0 also p]petuat$4 ,x may or may n be true1 z ! great ,leibnitz imag9$1 t ! :ole planet 0 once 9 a /ate ( liquefaction by heat2 b !re are c]ta9ly no geological pro(s t ! granite :i* con/itutes ! f\ndation ( s mu* ( ! e>?'s cru/ 0 ev] at once 9 a /ate ( univ]sal fusion4 ,on ! contr>y1 all our evid5ce t5ds to %[ t ! =mation ( granite1 l ! deposition ( ! /ratifi$ rocks1 has be5 successive1 & t diff]5t portions ( granite h be5 9 a melt$ /ate at di/9ct & (t5 di/ant p]iods4 ,"o mass 0 solid1 & _h be5 fractur$1 be=e ano!r body ( granitic matt] 0 inject$ into x1 or ?r\gh x1 9 ! =m ( ve9s4 ,"s granites are m anci5t ?an any kn[n fossilif]\s rocks2 o!rs are ( second>y2 & "s1 su* z t ( ,mont ,blanc & "p ( ! c5tral axis ( ! ,alps1 ( t]ti>y orig94 ,9 %ort1 ! univ]sal fluidity ( ! cry/all9e f\ndations ( ! e>?'s cru/1 c only be und]/ood 9 ! same s5se z ! univ]sality ( ! anci5t ocean4 ,all ! l& has be5 "u wat]1 b n all at "o "t2 s all ! subt]ranean un/ratifi$ rocks to :i* man c obta9 access h be5 melt$1 b n simultane\sly4 ,9 ! pres5t "w ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 ! aque\s1 plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic1 w =m f\r p>allel1 or ne>ly p>allel1 columns 9 "o *ronological table4 ,!y w be consid]$ z f\r sets ( monum5ts relat+ to f\r contemporane\s1 or ne>ly contemporane\s1 s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,i %all endeav\r1 9 a subsequ5t *apt] on ! plutonic rocks1 to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* c]ta9 masses belong+ to ea* ( ! f\r classes ( rocks may h orig9at$ simultane\sly at e geological p]iod1 & h[ ! e>?'s cru/ may h be5 cont9ually remodell$1 above & bel[1 by aque\s & igne\s causes1 f times indef9itely remote4 ,9 ! same mann] z aque\s & fossilif]\s /rata are n[ =m$ 9 c]ta9 seas or lakes1 :ile 9 o!r places volcanic rocks break out at ! surface1 & are connect$ ) res]voirs ( melt$ matt] at va/ dep?s 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?1--s1 at e era ( ! pa/1 fossilif]\s deposits & sup]ficial igne\s rocks 7 9 progress contemporane\sly ) o!rs ( subt]ranean & plutonic orig91 & "s s$im5t>y /rata 7 expos$ to heat & made to assume a cry/all9e or metamorphic /ructure4 ,x c by no means be tak5 = grant$1 t dur+ all ^! *anges ! solid cru/ ( ! e>? has be5 increas+ 9 ?ickness4 ,x has be5 %[n1 t s f> z aque\s action is conc]n$1 ! ga9 by fre% deposits1 & ! loss by d5udation1 mu/ at ea* p]iod h be5 equal 7see above1 p4 #fh472 & 9 l mann]1 9 ! inf]ior portion ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ! acquisition ( new cry/all9e rocks1 at ea* successive era1 may m]ely h c\nt]-balanc$ ! loss su/a9$ by ! melt+ ( mat]ials previ\sly consolidat$4 ,z to ! relative antiquity ( ! cry/all9e f\ndations ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :5 comp>$ to ! fossilif]\s & volcanic rocks :i* !y support1 ,i h already /at$1 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 t to pron\nce an op9ion on ?is matt] is z difficult z at once to decide :i* ( ! two1 :e!r ! f\ndations or sup]/ructure ( an anci5t city built on wood5 piles1 may be ! olde/4 ,we h se5 t1 to answ] ?is "q1 we mu/ fir/ be prep>$ to say :e!r ! "w ( decay & re/oration _h gone on mo/ rapidly above or bel[1 :e!r ! av]age duration ( ! piles has exce$$ t ( ! /one build+s1 or ! contr>y4 ,s also 9 reg>d to ! relative age ( ! sup]ior & inf]ior portions ( ! e>?'s cru/2 we _c haz>d ev5 a conjecture on ?is po9t1 until we "k :e!r1 ^u an av]age1 ! p[] ( wat] above1 or t ( heat bel[1 is mo/ efficaci\s 9 giv+ new =ms to solid matt]4 ,aft] ! obs]vations :i* h n[ be5 made1 ! read] w p]ceive t ! t]m prim>y mu/ ei!r be entirely r5\nc$1 or1 if reta9$1 mu/ be diff]5tly def9$1 & n made to designate a set ( cry/all9e rocks1 "s ( :i* are already asc]ta9$ to be new] ?an all ! second>y =mations4 ,9 ?is "w ,i %all foll[ mo/ ne>ly ! me?od propos$ by ,mr4 ,b\e1 :o has call$ all fossilif]\s rocks old] ?an ! second>y by ! "n ( prim>y4 ,to prev5t confusion1 h[ev]1 ,i %all always speak ( ^!1 :5 !y are ( ! aque\s class1 z ! prim>y fossilif]\s =mations1 because ! ^w prim>y has hi!rto be5 almo/ insep>ably connect$ ) ! idea ( a non-fossilif]\s rock4 ,if we c prove any plutonic1 volcanic1 or metamorphic rocks to be old] ?an ! second>y =mations1 su* rocks w also be prim>y1 accord+ to ?is sy/em4 ,mr4 ,b\e hav+ ) great propriety exclud$ ! metamorphic rocks1 z a class1 f ! prim>y =mations1 propos$ to call !m all cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,z !re are second>y fossilif]\s /rata1 s we %all f9d t !re are plutonic1 volcanic1 & metamorphic rocks ( contemporane\s orig91 :i* ,i %all also t]m second>y4 ,9 ! next *apt] x w be %[n t ! /rata above ! *alk h be5 call$ t]ti>y4 ,if1 !re=e1 we discov] any volcanic1 plutonic1 or metamorphic rocks1 :i* h orig9at$ s9ce ! deposition ( ! *alk1 ^! also w rank z t]ti>y =mations4 ,x may p]haps be sugge/$ t "s metamorphic /rata1 & "s granites1 may be ant]ior 9 date to ! olde/ ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s rocks4 ,?is op9ion is d\btless true1 & w be discuss$ 9 future *apt]s2 b ,i may "h obs]ve1 t :5 we arrange ! f\r classes ( rocks 9 f\r p>allel columns 9 "o table ( *ronology1 x is by no means assum$ t ^! columns are all ( equal l5g?2 "o may beg9 at an e>li] p]iod ?an ! re/1 & ano!r may come d[n to a lat] po9t ( "t4 ,9 ! small "p ( ! globe hi!rto exam9$1 x is h>dly to be expect$ t we %\ld h discov]$ ei!r ! olde/ or ! newe/ memb]s ( ea* ( ! f\r classes ( rocks4 ,?us1 if !re be prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y rocks ( ! aque\s or fossilif]\s class1 & 9 l mann] prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y hypog5e =mations1 we may n be yet acqua9t$ ) ! mo/ anci5t ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s b$s1 or ) ! newe/ ( ! hypog5e4 ,,footnotes3 #ia-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 vol4 i4 *ap4 iv4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,aque\s ,,rocks4 ,on ! ?ree pr9cipal te/s ( relative age--sup]position1 m9]al "*1 & fossils--,*ange ( m9]al "* & fossils 9 ! same cont9u\s =mation--,pro(s t di/9ct species ( animals & plants h liv$ at successive p]iods--,di/9ct prov9ces ( indig5\s species--,great ext5t ( s+le prov9ces--,simil> laws prevail$ at successive geological p]iods--,relative importance ( m9]al & palaeontological *>act]s--,te/ ( age by includ$ fragm5ts--,frequ5t abs5ce ( /rata ( int]v5+ p]iods--,pr9cipal gr\ps ( /rata 9 we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] ,i spoke g5]ally ( ! *ronological relations ( ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 & ,i %all n[ treat ( ! aque\s rocks 9 p>ticul>1 or ( ! successive p]iods at :i* ! diff]5t fossilif]\s =mations h be5 deposit$4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal te/s by :i* we det]m9e ! age ( a giv5 set ( /rata2 fir/1 sup]position2 secondly1 m9]al "*2 &1 ?irdly1 organic rema9s4 ,"s aid c occasionally be d]iv$ f a f\r? k9d ( pro(1 namely1 ! fact ( "o deposit includ+ 9 x fragm5ts ( a pre-exi/+ rock1 by :i* ! relative ages ( ! two may1 ev5 9 ! abs5ce ( all o!r evid5ce1 be det]m9$4 ,sup]position4--,! fir/ & pr9cipal te/ ( ! age ( "o aque\s deposit1 z comp>$ to ano!r1 is relative position4 ,x has be5 already /at$1 t :]e /rata are horizontal1 ! b$ :i* lies upp]mo/ is ! newe/ ( ! :ole1 & t :i* lies at ! bottom ! mo/ anci5t4 ,s1 ( a s]ies ( s$im5t>y =mations1 !y are l volumes ( hi/ory1 9 :i* ea* writ] has record$ ! annals ( 8 own times1 & !n laid d[n ! book1 ) ! la/ writt5 page upp]mo/1 ^u ! volume 9 :i* ! ev5ts ( ! era imm$iately prec$+ 7 commemorat$4 ,9 ?is mann] a l(ty pile ( *ronicles is at l5g? accumulat$2 & !y are s arrang$ z to indicate1 by _! position alone1 ! ord] 9 :i* ! ev5ts record$ 9 !m h occurr$4 ,9 reg>d to ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 h[ev]1 !re are "s regions :]e1 z ! /ud5t has already be5 in=m$1 ! b$s h be5 di/urb$1 & sometimes ext5sively ?r[n ov] & turn$ upside d[n4 7,see pp4 #eh1 #ei47 ,b an exp]i5c$ geologi/ c r>ely be deceiv$ by ^! exceptional cases4 ,:5 he f9ds t ! /rata are fractur$1 curv$1 incl9$1 or v]tical1 he kn[s t ! orig9al ord] ( sup]position mu/ be d\btful1 & he !n endeav\rs to f9d sections 9 "s neighb\r+ di/rict :]e ! /rata are horizontal1 or only slightly incl9$4 ,"h ! true ord] ( sequ5ce ( ! entire s]ies ( deposits be+ asc]ta9$1 a key is furni%$ = settl+ ! *ronology ( ^? /rata :]e ! displacem5t is extreme4 ,m9]al "*4--,! same rocks may (t5 be obs]v$ to reta9 = miles1 or ev5 hundr$s ( miles1 ! same m9]al peculi>ities1 if we foll[ ! planes ( /ratification1 or trace ! b$s1 if !y be undi/urb$1 9 a horizontal direction4 ,b if we pursue !m v]tically1 or 9 any direction transv]se to ! planes ( /ratification1 ?is uni=mity ceases almo/ imm$iately4 ,9 t case we c sc>cely ev] p5etrate a /ratifi$ mass = a few hundr$ y>ds )\t behold+ a succession ( extremely dissimil>1 calc>e\s1 argillace\s1 & silice\s rocks4 ,^! ph5om5a lead to ! conclusion1 t riv]s & curr5ts h disp]s$ ! same s$im5t ov] wide areas at "o p]iod1 b at successive p]iods h be5 *>g$1 9 ! same region1 ) v diff]5t k9ds ( matt]4 ,! fir/ obs]v]s 7 s a/oni%$ at ! va/ spaces ov] :i* !y 7 able to foll[ ! same homog5e\s rocks 9 a horizontal direction1 t !y came ha/ily to ! op9ion1 t ! :ole globe _h be5 environ$ by a succession ( di/9ct aque\s =mations1 dispos$ r\nd ! nucleus ( ! planet1 l ! conc5tric coats ( an onion4 ,b al?\gh1 9 fact1 "s =mations may be cont9u\s ov] di/ricts z l>ge z half ( ,europe1 or ev5 m1 yet mo/ ( !m ei!r t]m9ate :olly )9 n>r[] limits1 or soon *ange _! li?ological "*4 ,sometimes !y ?9 out gradually1 z if ! supply ( s$im5t _h fail$ 9 t direction1 or !y come abruptly to an end1 z if we _h arriv$ at ! bord]s ( ! anci5t sea or lake :i* s]v$ z _! receptacle4 ,x no less frequ5tly happ5s t !y v>y 9 m9]al aspect & composition1 z we pursue !m horizontally4 ,= example1 we trace a lime/one = a hundr$ miles1 until x becomes m ar5ace\s1 & f9ally passes into s&1 or s&/one4 ,we may !n foll[ ?is s&/one1 already prov$ by its cont9uity to be ( ! same age1 ?r\gh\t ano!r di/rict a hundr$ miles or m 9 l5g?4 ,organic rema9s4--,?is "* mu/ be us$ z a crit]ion ( ! age ( a =mation1 or ( ! contemporane\s orig9 ( two deposits 9 di/ant places1 "u v mu* ! same re/rictions z ! te/ ( m9]al composition4 ,fir/1 ! same fossils may be trac$ ov] wide regions1 if we exam9e /rata 9 ! direction ( _! planes1 al?\gh by no means = indef9ite di/ances4 ,secondly1 :ile ! same fossils prevail 9 a p>ticul> set ( /rata = hundr$s ( miles 9 a horizontal direction1 we seldom meet ) ! same rema9s = _m fa?oms1 & v r>ely = sev]al hundr$ y>ds1 9 a v]tical l9e1 or a l9e transv]se to ! /rata4 ,?is fact has n[ be5 v]ifi$ 9 almo/ all p>ts ( ! globe1 & has l$ to a conviction1 t at successive p]iods ( ! pa/1 ! same area ( l& & wat] has be5 inhabit$ by species ( animals & plants ev5 m di/9ct ?an ^? :i* n[ p ! antipodes1 or :i* n[ co-exi/ 9 ! arctic1 temp]ate1 & tropical zones4 ,x appe>s1 t f ! remote/ p]iods !re has be5 ev] a com+ 9 ( new organic =ms1 & an ext9ction ( ^? :i* pre-exi/$ on ! e>?2 "s species hav+ endur$ = a long]1 o!rs = a %ort]1 "t2 :ile none h ev] reappe>$ aft] once dy+ out4 ,! law :i* has gov]n$ ! creation & ext9ction ( species seems to be express$ 9 ! v]se ( ! poet1-- ,natura il fece1 e poi ruppe la /ampa4 ,,ario/o4 ,nature made him1 & !n broke ! die4 ,& ?is circum/ance x is1 :i* conf]s on fossils _! highe/ value z *ronological te/s1 giv+ to ea* ( !m1 9 ! eyes ( ! geologi/1 t au?ority :i* belongs to contempor>y m$als 9 hi/ory4 ,! same _c be said ( ea* peculi> v>iety ( rock2 = "s ( ^!1 z r$ m>l & r$ s&/one1 = example1 may occur at once at ! top1 bottom1 & middle ( ! entire s$im5t>y s]ies2 exhibit+ 9 ea* position s p]fect an id5tity ( m9]al aspect z to be undi/+ui%able4 ,su* exact repetitions1 h[ev]1 ( ! same mixtures ( s$im5t h n (t5 be5 produc$1 at di/ant p]iods1 9 precisely ! same p>ts ( ! globe2 & ev5 :]e ?is has happ5$1 we are seldom 9 any dang] ( conf\nd+ toge!r ! monum5ts ( remote eras1 :5 we h /udi$ _! imb$d$ fossils & relative position4 ,x 0 rem>k$ t ! same species ( organic rema9s _c be trac$ horizontally1 or 9 ! direction ( ! planes ( /ratification = indef9ite di/ances4 ,?is might h be5 expect$ f analogy2 = :5 we inquire into ! pres5t di/ribution ( liv+ be+s1 we f9d t ! habitable surface ( ! sea & l& may be divid$ into a consid]able numb] ( di/9ct prov9ces1 ea* peopl$ by a peculi> assemblage ( animals & plants4 ,9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,i h endeav\r$ to po9t out ! ext5t & probable orig9 ( ^! sep>ate divisions2 & x 0 %[n t climate is only "o ( _m causes on :i* !y dep5d1 & t diff]5ce ( longitude z well z latitude is g5]ally accompani$ by a dissimil>ity ( indig5\s species4 ,z diff]5t seas1 !re=e1 & lakes are inhabit$ at ! same p]iod1 by diff]5t aquatic animals & plants1 & z ! l&s adjo9+ ^! may be peopl$ by di/9ct t]re/rial species1 x foll[s t di/9ct fossils w be imb$d$ 9 contemporane\s deposits4 ,if x 7 o!rwise--if ! same species ab\nd$ 9 e climate1 or 9 e "p ( ! globe :]e1 s f> z we c discov]1 a correspond+ temp]ature & o!r conditions fav\rable to _! exi/5ce are f\nd--! id5tification ( m9]al masses ( ! same age1 by means ( _! includ$ organic cont5ts1 w\ld be a matt] ( /ill great] c]ta9ty4 ,nev]!less1 ! ext5t ( "s s+le zoological prov9ces1 especially ^? ( m>9e animals1 is v great2 & our geological rese>*es h prov$ t ! same laws prevail$ at remote p]iods2 = ! fossils are (t5 id5tical ?r\gh\t wide spaces1 & 9 a great numb] ( deta*$ deposits1 9 :i* ! m9]al nature ( ! rocks is v>iable4 ,! doctr9e "h laid d[n w be m readily und]/ood1 if we reflect on :at is n[ go+ on 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,t entire sea may be consid]$ z "o zoological prov9ce2 =1 al?\gh c]ta9 species ( te/acea & zoophytes may be v local1 & ea* region has probably "s species peculi> to x1 /ill a consid]able numb] are common to ! :ole ,m$it]ranean4 ,if1 !re=e1 at "s future p]iod1 ! b$ ( ?is inl& sea %\ld be conv]t$ into l&1 ! geologi/ might be enabl$1 by ref]5ce to organic rema9s1 to prove ! contemporane\s orig9 ( v>i\s m9]al masses scatt]$ ov] a space equal 9 area to ! half ( ,europe4 ,deposits1 = example1 are well kn[n to be n[ 9 progress 9 ?is sea 9 ! deltas ( ! ,po1 ,rhone1 ,nile1 & o!r riv]s1 :i* diff] z greatly f ea* o!r 9 ! nature ( _! s$im5t z does ! composition ( ! m\nta9s :i* !y dra94 ,!re are also o!r qu>t]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 z (f ! coa/ ( ,campania1 or ne> ! base ( ,etna1 9 ,sicily1 or 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :]e ano!r class ( rocks is n[ =m+2 :]e %[]s ( volcanic a%es occasionally fall into ! sea1 & /reams ( lava ov]fl[ its bottom2 & :]e1 9 ! int]vals betwe5 volcanic eruptions1 b$s ( s& & clay are frequ5tly d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( cliffs1 or ! turbid wat]s ( riv]s4 ,lime/ones1 moreov]1 su* z ! ,italian trav]t9s1 are "h & !re precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1 "s ( :i* rise up f ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,9 all ^! deta*$ =mations1 s div]sifi$ 9 _! li?ological *>act]s1 ! rema9s ( ! same %ells1 corals1 cru/acea1 & fi% are becom+ inclos$2 or1 at lea/1 a suffici5t numb] mu/ be common to ! diff]5t localities to enable ! zoologi/ to ref] !m all to "o contemporane\s assemblage ( species4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 comb9ations ( geographical circum/ances :i* cause di/9ct prov9ces ( animals & plants to be sep>at$ f ea* o!r by v n>r[ limits2 & h5ce x mu/ happ51 t /rata w be sometimes =m$ 9 contigu\s regions1 diff]+ widely bo? 9 m9]al cont5ts & organic rema9s4 ,?us1 = example1 ! te/acea1 zoophytes1 & fi% ( ! ,r$ ,sea are1 z a gr\p1 extremely di/9ct f ^? inhabit+ ! adjo9+ p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 al?\gh ! two seas are sep>at$ only by ! n>r[ i/hmus ( ,suez4 ,( ! bivalve %ells1 accord+ to ,philippi1 n m ?an a fif? are common to ! ,r$ ,sea & ! sea ar\nd ,sicily1 :ile ! proportion ( univalves 7or ,ga/]opoda7 is /ill small]1 n exce$+ eighte5 9 a hundr$4 ,calc>e\s =mations h accumulat$ on a great scale 9 ! ,r$ ,sea 9 mod]n times1 & fossil %ells ( exi/+ species are well pres]v$ !re92 & we "k t at ! m\? ( ! ,nile l>ge deposits ( mud are amass$1 includ+ ! rema9s ( ,m$it]ranean species4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t if at "s future p]iod ! b$ ( ! ,r$ ,sea %\ld be laid dry1 ! geologi/ might exp]i5ce great difficulties 9 endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 ! relative age ( ^! =mations1 :i*1 al?\gh dissimil> bo? 9 organic & m9]al *>act]s1 7 ( syn*ron\s orig94 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ n =get t ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ! ,arabian ,gulf1 ! pla9s ( ,egypt1 & ! i/hmus ( ,suez1 are all p>ts ( "o prov9ce ( t]re/rial species4 ,small /reams1 !re=e1 occasional l&-floods1 & ^? w9ds :i* drift cl\ds ( s& along ! des]ts1 might c>ry d[n into ! ,r$ ,sea ! same %ells ( fluviatile & l& te/acea :i* ! ,nile is sweep+ into its delta1 toge!r ) "s rema9s ( t]re/rial plants & ! bones ( quadrup$s1 :]eby ! gr\ps ( /rata1 be=e allud$ to1 might1 not)/&+ ! discrepancy ( _! m9]al composition & m>9e organic fossils1 be %[n to h belong$ to ! same epo*4 ,yet :ile riv]s may ?us c>ry d[n ! same fluviatile & t]re/rial spoils into two or m seas inhabit$ by diff]5t m>9e species1 x w mu* m frequ5tly happ51 t ! co-exi/5ce ( t]re/rial species ( di/9ct zoological & botanical prov9ces w be prov$ by ! id5tity ( ! m>9e be+s :i* inhabit$ ! int]v5+ space4 ,?us1 = example1 ! l& quadrup$s & %ells ( ! s\? ( ,europe1 nor? ( ,africa1 & nor?-we/ ( ,asia1 are diff]5t1 yet _! rema9s are all wa%$ d[n by riv]s fl[+ f ^! ?ree c\ntries into ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! globe1 at ! pres5t p]iod1 ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 di/9ct prov9ces ( animals & plants is n v /rongly m>k$1 especially :]e ! *ange is det]m9$ by temp]ature1 z 9 seas ext5d+ f ! temp]ate to ! tropical zone1 or f ! temp]ate to ! arctic regions4 ,"h a gradual passage takes place f "o set ( species to ano!r4 ,9 l mann] ! geologi/1 9 /udy+ p>ticul> =mations ( remote p]iods1 has sometimes be5 able to trace ! gradation f "o anci5t prov9ce to ano!r1 by obs]v+ c>efully ! fossils ( all ! int]m$iate places4 ,8 success 9 ?us acquir+ a k ( ! zoological or botanical geography ( v di/ant eras has be5 ma9ly ow+ to ?is circum/ance1 t ! m9]al "* has no t5d5cy to be affect$ by climate4 ,a l>ge riv] may convey yell[ or r$ mud into "s "p ( ! ocean1 :]e x may be disp]s$ by a curr5t ov] an area sev]al hundr$ leagues 9 l5g?1 s z to pass f ! tropics into ! temp]ate zone4 ,if ! bottom ( ! sea be aft]w>ds uprais$1 ! organic rema9s imb$d$ 9 su* yell[ or r$ /rata may indicate ! diff]5t animals or plants :i* once inhabit$ at ! same "t ! temp]ate & equatorial regions4 ,x may be true1 z a g5]al rule1 t gr\ps ( ! same species ( animals & plants may ext5d ov] wid] areas ?an deposits ( homog5e\s composition2 & if s1 palaeontological *>act]s w be ( m importance 9 geological classification ?an m9]al composition2 b x is idle to discuss ! relative value ( ^! te/s1 z ! aid ( bo? is indisp5sable1 & x =tunately happ5s1 t :]e ! "o crit]ion fails1 we c (t5 avail ourselves ( ! o!r4 ,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts ( old] rocks4--,x 0 /at$1 t indep5d5t pro( may sometimes be obta9$ ( ! relative date ( two =mations1 by fragm5ts ( an old] rock be+ includ$ 9 a new] "o4 ,?is evid5ce may sometimes be ( great use1 :]e a geologi/ is at a loss to det]m9e ! relative age ( two =mations f want ( cle> sections exhibit+ _! true ord] ( position1 or because ! /rata ( ea* gr\p are v]tical4 ,9 su* cases we sometimes discov] t ! m mod]n rock has be5 9 "p d]iv$ f ! degradation ( ! old]4 ,?us1 = example1 we may f9d 9 "o "p ( a c\ntry *alk ) fl9ts2 &1 9 ano!r1 a di/9ct =mation1 consi/+ ( alt]nations ( clay1 s&1 & pebbles4 ,if "s ( ^! pebbles consi/ ( simil> fl9t & fossil %ells1 sponges1 & =am9if]ae1 ( ! same species z ^? 9 ! *alk1 we may confid5tly inf] t ! *alk is ! olde/ ( ! two =mations4 ,*ronological gr\ps4--,! numb] ( gr\ps into :i* ! fossilif]\s /rata may be sep>at$ are m or less num]\s1 accord+ to ! views ( classification :i* diff]5t geologi/s ent]ta92 b :5 we h adopt$ a c]ta9 sy/em ( arrangem5t1 we imm$iately f9d t a few only ( ! entire s]ies ( gr\ps occur "o ^u ! o!r 9 any s+le section or di/rict4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4 ,block section4 ,! ?9n+ out ( individual /rata 0 be=e describ$ 7p4 #af474 ,b let ! annex$ diagram repres5t sev5 fossilif]\s gr\ps1 in/ead ( z _m /rata4 ,x w !n be se5 t 9 ! middle all ! sup]impos$ =mations are pres5t2 b 9 consequ5ce ( "s ( !m ?9n+ out1 ,no4 #b4 & ,no4 #e4 are abs5t at "o extremity ( ! section1 & ,no4 #d4 at ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4 ,section ,s\? ( ,bri/ol4 ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay4 ,l5g? ( section #d miles4 a1 b4 ,level ( ! sea4 #a4 ,inf]ior oolite4 #b4 ,lias4 #c4 ,new r$ s&/one4 #d4 ,magnesian conglom]ate4 #e4 ,coal measure4 #f4 ,c>bonif]\s lime/one4 #g4 ,old r$ s&/one4 ,9 ! annex$ diagram1 fig4 #aje41 a real section ( ! geological =mations 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bri/ol & ! ,m5dip ,hills1 is pres5t$ to ! read] z laid d[n on a true scale by ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 :]e ! new] gr\ps #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 re/ uncon=mably on ! =mations #e & #f4 ,"h at ! s\!rn end ( ! l9e ( section we meet ) ! b$s ,no4 #c4 7! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one7 re/+ imm$iately on ,no4 #f41 :ile f>!r nor?1 z at ,dundry ,hill1 we behold six gr\ps sup]impos$ "o ^u ! o!r1 compris+ all ! /rata f ! inf]ior oolite to ! coal & c>bonif]\s lime/one4 ,! limit$ ext5sion ( ! gr\ps #a & #b4 is ow+ to d5udation1 z ^! =mations end abruptly1 & h left outly+ pat*es to atte/ ! fact ( _! hav+ orig9ally cov]$ a mu* wid] area4 ,9 _m in/ances1 h[ev]1 ! entire abs5ce ( "o or m =mations ( int]v5+ p]iods betwe5 two gr\ps1 su* z #c4 & #e4 9 ! same section1 arises1 n f ! de/ruction ( :at once exi/$1 b because no /rata ( an int]m$iate age 7 ev] deposit$ on ! inf]ior rock4 ,!y 7 n =m$ at t place1 ei!r because ! region 0 dry l& dur+ ! int]val1 or because x 0 "p ( a sea or lake to :i* no s$im5t 0 c>ri$4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to e/abli% a *ronological succession ( fossilif]\s gr\ps1 a geologi/ mu/ beg9 ) a s+le section1 9 :i* sev]al sets ( /rata lie "o ^u ! o!r4 ,he mu/ !n trace ^! =mations1 by att5tion to _! m9]al "* & fossils1 cont9u\sly1 z f> z possible1 f ! />t+ po9t4 ,z (t5 z he meets ) new gr\ps1 he mu/ asc]ta9 by sup]position _! age relatively to ^? fir/ exam9$1 & ?us le>n h[ to int]calate !m 9 a tabul> arrangem5t ( ! :ole4 ,by ?is means ! ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 & ,engli% geologi/s h det]m9$ ! succession ( /rata ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ,europe1 & h adopt$ pretty g5]ally ! foll[+ gr\ps1 almo/ all ( :i* h _! repres5tatives 9 ! ,briti% ,isl&s4 ,gr\ps ( ,fossilif]\s ,/rata obs]v$ 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 arrang$ 9 :at is t]m$ a desc5d+ ,s]ies1 or beg9n+ ) ! newe/4 7,see a m detail$ ,tabul> view1 pp4 #cfj4 #cfe47 #a4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 includ+ ^? ( ! ,rec5t1 or human p]iod4 #b4 ,new] ,plioc5e1 or ,plei/oc5e4 #c4 ,old] ,plioc5e4 ,t]ti>y1 ,supracretace\s#ajc-;,a1 #d4 ,mioc5e4 or ,ca9ozoic4#ajc-;,b #e4 ,eoc5e4 #f4 ,*alk4 #g4 ,gre5s&4 #h4 ,weald54 #i4 ,upp] ,oolite4 ,second>y1 or ,mesozoic4#ajc-;,b #aj4 ,middle ,oolite4 #aa4 ,l[] ,oolite4 #ab4 ,lias4 #ac4 ,trias4 #ad4 ,p]mian4 #ae4 ,coal4 #af4 ,old ,r$ s&/one1 or ,devonian4 ,prim>y fossilif]\s1 #ag4 ,upp] ,silurian4 or paleozoic4#ajc-;,b #ah4 ,l[] ,silurian4 #ai4 ,cambrian & old] fossilif]\s /rata4 ,x is n pret5d$ t ! ?ree pr9cipal sections 9 ! above table1 call$ prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y1 are ( equival5t importance1 or t ! eighte5 subord9ate gr\ps comprise monum5ts relat+ to equal portions ( pa/ "t1 or ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,b we c ass]t t !y ea* relate to successive p]iods1 dur+ :i* c]ta9 animals & plants1 = ! mo/ "p peculi> to _! respective eras1 h fl\ri%$1 & dur+ :i* diff]5t k9ds ( s$im5t 7 deposit$ 9 ! space n[ occupi$ by ,europe4 ,if we 7 dispos$1 on palaeontological gr\nds#ajc-;,c1 to divide ! entire fossilif]\s s]ies into a few gr\ps less num]\s ?an ^? 9 ! above table1 & m ne>ly co-ord9ate 9 value ?an ! sections call$ prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y1 we might1 p]haps1 adopt ! six gr\ps or p]iods giv5 9 ! next table 7p4 #ajd474 ,at ! same "t1 ,i may obs]ve1 t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! sci5ce1 :5 we h n yet comp>$ ! evid5ce d]ivable f all classes ( fossils1 n ev5 ^? mo/ g5]ally di/ribut$1 su* z %ells1 corals1 & fi%1 su* g5]alizations are premature1 & c only be reg>d$ z conjectural or provisional s*emes = ! f\nd+ ( l>ge natural gr\ps4 ,fossilif]\s ,/rata ( ,we/]n ,europe divid$ into ,six ,gr\ps4 #a4 ,po/ ,plioc5e & f ! ,po/-,plioc5e to ! ,t]ti>y ,eoc5e inclusive4 #b4 ,cretace\s f ! ,mae/ri*t ,*alk to ! ,l[] ,gre5s& inclusive4 #c4 ,oolitic f ! ,weald5 to ! ,lias inclusive4 #d4 ,triassic includ+ ! ,keup]1 ,mus*elkalk1 & ,bunt] ,s&/e9 ( ! ,g]mans4 #e4 ,p]mian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 includ+ ,magnesian ,lime/one 7,ze*/e971 & ,devonian ,coal1 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 & ,old ,r$ s&/one4 #f4 ,silurian & ,cambrian f ! ,upp] ,silurian to ! olde/ fossilif]\s rocks inclusive4 ,,footnotes3 #ajc-;,a ,= t]ti>y1 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e has us$ ! t]m supracretace\s1 a "n imply+ t ! /rata s call$ are sup]ior 9 position to ! *alk4 #ajc-;,b ,pr(essor ,phillips has adopt$ ^! t]ms3 ,ca9ozoic1 f ka9os1 ca9os1 rec5t1 & zoon1 zoon1 animal2 ,mesozoic1 f mesos1 mesos1 middle1 c42 ,paleozoic1 f palaios1 palaios1 anci5t1 c4 #ajc-;,c ,palaeontology is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( fossil rema9s1 bo? animal & vegetable4 ,etym4 palaios1 palaios1 anci5t1 onta1 onta1 be+s1 & logos1 logos1 a disc\rse4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,classification ,,( ,,t]ti>y ,,=mations4--,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,gr\p4 ,g5]al pr9ciples ( classification ( t]ti>y /rata--,deta*$ =mations scatt]$ ov] ,europe--,/rata ( ,p>is & ,london--,m mod]n gr\ps--,peculi> difficulties 9 det]m9+ ! *ronology ( t]ti>y =mations--,increas+ proportion ( liv+ species ( %ells 9 /rata ( new] orig9--,t]ms ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e--,po/-,plioc5e /rata--,rec5t or human p]iod--,old] ,po/-,plioc5e =mations ( ,naples1 ,uddevalla1 & ,norway--,anci5t uprais$ delta ( ! ,mississippi--,loess ( ! ,rh9e4 ,be=e describ+ ! mo/ mod]n ( ! sets ( /rata enum]at$ 9 ! tables giv5 at ! end ( ! la/ *apt]1 x w be necess>y to say some?+ g5]ally ( ! mode ( classify+ ! =mations call$ t]ti>y4 ,! "n ( t]ti>y has be5 giv5 to !m1 because !y are all po/]ior 9 date to ! rocks t]m$ second>y1 ( :i* ! *alk con/itutes ! newe/ gr\p4 ,^! t]ti>y /rata 7 at fir/ conf\nd$1 z be=e /at$1 p4 #ia41 ) ! sup]ficial alluviums ( ,europe2 & x 0 long be=e _! real ext5t & ?ickness1 & ! v>i\s ages to :i* !y belong1 7 fully recogniz$4 ,!y 7 obs]v$ to occur 9 pat*es1 "s ( fre%wat]1 o!rs ( m>9e orig91 _! geographical area be+ usually small z comp>$ to ! second>y =mations1 & _! position (t5 sugge/+ ! idea ( _! hav+ be5 deposit$ 9 diff]5t bays1 lakes1 e/u>ies1 or inl& seas1 aft] a l>ge portion ( ! space n[ occupi$ by ,europe _h already be5 conv]t$ into dry l&4 ,! fir/ deposits ( ?is class1 ( :i* ! *>act]s 7 accurately det]m9$1 7 ^? occurr+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 describ$ 9 #ahaj by ,,mm4 ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t4 ,!y 7 asc]ta9$ to consi/ ( successive sets ( /rata1 "s ( m>9e1 o!rs ( fre%wat] orig91 ly+ "o ^u ! o!r4 ,! fossil %ells & corals 7 p]ceiv$ to be almo/ all ( unkn[n species1 & to h 9 g5]al a ne> aff9ity to ^? n[ inhabit+ w>m] seas4 ,! bones & skeletons ( l& animals1 "s ( !m ( l>ge size1 & belong+ to m ?an =ty di/9ct species1 7 exam9$ by ,cuvi]1 & decl>$ by him n to agree specifically & = ! mo/ "p n ev5 g5]ically1 ) any hi!rto obs]v$ 9 ! liv+ creation4 ,/rata 7 soon aft]w>ds br\ght to light 9 ! vic9ity ( ,london1 & 9 ,hamp%ire1 :i*1 al?\gh dissimil> 9 m9]al composition1 7 ju/ly inf]r$ by ,mr4 ,t4 ,web/] to be ( ! same age z ^? ( ,p>is1 because ! great] numb] ( ! fossil %ells 7 specifically id5tical4 ,= ! same reason rocks f\nd on ! ,gironde1 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 & at c]ta9 po9ts 9 ! ,nor? ( ,italy1 7 suspect$ to be ( contemporane\s orig94 ,a v>iety ( deposits 7 aft]w>ds f\nd 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 all repos+ imm$iately on rocks z old or old] ?an ! *alk1 & :i* exhibit$ c]ta9 g5]al *>act]s ( resemblance 9 _! organic rema9s to ^? previ\sly obs]v$ ne> ,p>is & ,london4 ,an attempt 0 !re=e made at fir/ to ref] ! :ole to "o p]iod2 & :5 at l5g? ?is seem$ impracticable1 x 0 cont5d$ t z 9 ! ,p>isian s]ies !re 7 _m subord9ate =mations ( consid]able ?ickness :i* mu/ h accumulat$ "o aft] ! o!r1 dur+ a great lapse ( "t1 s ! v>i\s pat*es ( t]ti>y /rata scatt]$ ov] ,europe might correspond 9 age1 "s ( !m to ! old]1 & o!rs to ! new]1 subdivisions ( ! ,p>isian s]ies4 ,?is error1 al?\gh mo/ unavoidable on ! "p ( ^? :o made ! fir/ g5]alizations 9 ?is bran* ( geology1 ret>d$ s]i\sly = "s ye>s ! progress ( classification4 ,a m scrupul\s att5tion to specific di/9ctions1 aid$ by a c>eful reg>d to ! relative position ( ! /rata conta9+ !m1 l$ at l5g? to ! conviction t !re 7 =mations bo? m>9e & fre%wat] ( v>i\s ages1 & all new] ?an ! /rata ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is & ,london4 ,"o ( ! fir/ /eps 9 ?is *ronological re=m 0 made 9 #ahaa1 by an ,engli% naturali/1 ,mr4 ,p>k9son1 :o po9t$ out ! fact t c]ta9 %elly /rata1 prov9cially t]m$ ,crag 9 ,suffolk1 lay decid$ly ov] a deposit :i* 0 ! cont9uation ( ! blue clay ( ,london4 ,at ! same "t he rem>k$ t ! fossil te/acea 9 ^! new] b$s 7 di/9ct f ^? ( ! blue clay1 & t :ile "s ( !m 7 ( unkn[n species1 o!rs 7 id5tical ) species n[ inhabit+ ! ,briti% seas4 ,ano!r important discov]y 0 soon aft]w>ds made by ,broc*i 9 ,italy1 :o inve/igat$ ! argillace\s & s&y deposits replete ) %ells :i* =m a l[ range ( hills1 flank+ ! ,ap5n9es on bo? sides1 f ! pla9s ( ! ,po to ,calabria4 ,^! l[] hills 7 call$ by him ! ,subap5n9es1 & 7 =m$ ( /rata ( diff]5t ages1 all new] ?an ^? ( ,p>is & ,london4 ,ano!r t]ti>y gr\p occurr+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bordeaux & ,dax1 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 0 exam9$ by ,m4 de ,ba/]ot 9 #ahbe1 :o describ$ & figur$ sev]al hundr$ species ( %ells1 :i* diff]$ = ! mo/ "p bo? f ! ,p>isian s]ies & ^? ( ! ,subap5n9e hills4 ,x 0 soon1 !re=e1 suspect$ t ?is fauna might belong to a p]iod int]m$iate betwe5 t ( ! ,p>isian & ,subap5n9e /rata1 & x 0 n long be=e ! evid5ce ( sup]position 0 br\ght to be> 9 support ( ?is op9ion2 = o!r /rata1 contemporane\s ) ^? ( ,bordeaux1 7 obs]v$ 9 "o di/rict 7! ,valley ( ! ,loire71 to ov]lie ! ,p>isian =mation1 & 9 ano!r 79 ,pi$mont7 to und]lie ! ,subap5n9e b$s4 ,! fir/ example ( ^! 0 po9t$ out 9 #ahbi by ,m4 ,desnoy]s1 :o asc]ta9$ t ! s& & m>l ( m>9e orig9 call$ ,faluns1 ne> ,t\rs1 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,loire1 full ( sea-%ells & corals1 re/$ ^u a lacu/r9e =mation1 :i* con/itutes ! upp]mo/ subdivision ( ! ,p>isian gr\p1 ext5d+ cont9u\sly ?r\gh\t a great table-l& int]v5+ betwe5 ! bas9 ( ! ,se9e & t ( ! ,loire4 ,! o!r example occurs 9 ,italy1 :]e /rata1 conta9+ _m fossils simil> to ^? ( ,bordeaux1 7 obs]v$ by ,bonelli & o!rs 9 ! environs ( ,tur91 subjac5t to /rata belong+ to ! ,subap5n9e gr\p ( ,broc*i4 ,)\t pret5d+ to give a complete sket* ( ! progress ( discov]y1 ,i may ref] to ! facts above enum]at$1 z illu/rat+ ! c\rse usually pursu$ by geologi/s :5 !y attempt to f\nd new *ronological divisions4 ,! me?od be>s "s analogy to t pursu$ by ! naturali/ 9 ! con/ruction ( g5]a1 :5 he selects a typical species1 & !n classes z cong5]s all o!r species ( animals & plants :i* agree ) ?is /&>d )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,! g5]a ,a4 & ,c4 hav+ be5 f\nd$ on ^! pr9ciples1 a new species is aft]w>ds met )1 dep>t+ widely bo? f ,a4 & ,c41 b 9 _m respects ( an int]m$iate "*4 ,= ?is new type x becomes necess>y to in/itute ! new g5us ,b41 9 :i* are includ$ all species aft]w>ds br\ght to light1 :i* agree m ne>ly ) ,b4 ?an ) ! types ( ,a4 or ,c4 ,9 l mann] a new =mation is met ) 9 geology1 & ! *>act]s ( its fossil fauna & flora inve/igat$4 ,f t mom5t x is consid]$ z a record ( a c]ta9 p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & a /&>d to :i* o!r deposits may be comp>$4 ,if any are f\nd conta9+ ! same or ne>ly ! same organic rema9s1 & occupy+ ! same relative position1 !y are reg>d$ 9 ! light ( contempor>y annals4 ,all su* monum5ts are said to relate to "o p]iod1 dur+ :i* c]ta9 ev5ts occurr$1 su* z ! =mation ( p>ticul> rocks by aque\s or volcanic ag5cy1 or ! cont9u$ exi/5ce & fossilization ( c]ta9 tribes ( animals & plants4 ,:5 sev]al ( ^! p]iods h _h _! true places assign$ to !m 9 a *ronological s]ies1 o!rs are discov]$ :i* x becomes necess>y to int]calate betwe5 ^? fir/ kn[n2 & ! difficulty ( assign+ cle> l9es ( sep>ation mu/ unavoidably increase 9 proportion z *asms 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe are fill$ up4 ,e zoologi/ & botani/ is aw>e t x is a comp>atively easy task to e/abli% g5]a 9 dep>tm5ts :i* h be5 enri*$ ) only a small numb] ( species1 & :]e !re is z yet no t5d5cy 9 "o set ( *>act]s to pass almo/ ins5sibly1 by a multitude ( connect+ l9ks1 into ano!r4 ,!y also "k t ! difficulty ( classification augm5ts1 & t ! artificial nature ( _! divisions becomes m app>5t1 9 proportion to ! increas$ numb] ( objects br\ght to light4 ,b 9 sep>at+ families & g5]a1 !y h no o!r alt]native ?an to avail !mselves ( su* breaks z /ill rema91 or ( e hiatus 9 ! *a9 ( animat$ be+s :i* is n yet fill$ up4 ,s 9 geology1 we may be ev5tually compell$ to resort to sections ( "t z arbitr>y1 & z purely conv5tional1 z ^? :i* divide ! hi/ory ( human ev5ts into c5turies4 ,b 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 x is m conv5i5t to use ! int]ruptions :i* /ill occur 9 ! regul> sequ5ce ( geological monum5ts1 z b\nd>y l9es betwe5 our pr9cipal gr\ps or p]iods1 ev5 ?\gh ! gr\ps ?us e/abli%$ are ( v unequal value4 ,! isolat$ position ( di/9ct t]ti>y deposits 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe has be5 already allud$ to4 ,9 addition to ! difficulty pres5t$ by ?is want ( cont9uity :5 we endeav\r to settle ! *ronological relations ( ^! deposits1 ano!r arises f ! frequ5t dissimil>ity 9 m9]al "* ( /rata ( contemporane\s date1 su*1 = example1 z ^? ( ,london & ,p>is be=e m5tion$4 ,! id5tity or non-id5tity ( species is also a crit]ion :i* (t5 fails u4 ,= ?is we might h be5 prep>$1 = we h already se51 t ! ,m$it]ranean & ,r$ ,sea1 al?\gh )9 #gj miles ( ea* o!r1 on ea* side ( ! ,i/hmus ( ,suez1 h ea* _! peculi> fauna2 & a m>k$ diff]5ce is f\nd 9 ! f\r gr\ps ( te/acea n[ liv+ 9 ! ,baltic1 ,engli% ,*annel1 ,black ,sea1 & ,m$it]ranean1 al?\gh all ^! seas h _m species 9 common4 ,9 l mann] a consid]able div]sity 9 ! fossils ( diff]5t t]ti>y =mations1 :i* h be5 ?r[n d[n 9 di/9ct seas1 e/u>ies1 bays1 & lakes1 does n always imply a di/9ctness 9 ! times :5 !y 7 produc$1 b may h aris5 f climate & conditions ( physical geography :olly indep5d5t ( "t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n[ abundantly cle>1 z ! result ( geological inve/igation1 t diff]5t sets ( t]ti>y /rata1 imm$iately sup]impos$ ^u ea* o!r1 conta9 di/9ct imb$d$ species ( fossils1 9 consequ5ce ( fluctuations :i* h be5 go+ on 9 ! animate creation1 & by :i* 9 ! c\rse ( ages "o /ate ( ?+s 9 ! organic _w has be5 sub/itut$ = ano!r :olly dissimil>4 ,x has also be5 %[n t 9 proportion z ! age ( a t]ti>y deposit is m mod]n1 s is its fauna m analog\s to t n[ 9 be+ 9 ! neighb\r+ seas4 ,x is ?is law ( a ne>] agreem5t ( ! fossil te/acea ) ! species n[ liv+1 :i* may (t5 furni% u ) a clue = ! *ronological arrangem5t ( scatt]$ deposits1 :]e we _c avail ourselves ( any "o ( ! ?ree ord9>y *ronological te/s2 namely1 sup]position1 m9]al "*1 & ! specific id5tity ( ! fossils4 ,?us1 = example1 on ! ,african bord] ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 at ! height ( #dj feet1 & sometimes m1 above its level1 a :ite calc>e\s =mation has be5 obs]v$1 conta9+ sev]al hundr$ species ( %ells diff]+ f ^? f\nd 9 ! clay & volcanic tuff ( ! c\ntry r\nd ,naples1 & ( ! contigu\s isl& ( ,is*ia4 ,ano!r deposit has be5 f\nd at ,uddevalla1 9 ,sw$51 9 :i* ! %ells d n agree ) ^? f\nd ne> ,naples4 ,b al?\gh 9 ^! ?ree cases !re may be sc>cely a s+le %ell common to ! ?ree diff]5t deposits1 we d n hesitate to ref] !m all to "o p]iod 7! ,po/-,plioc5e71 because ( ! v close agreem5t ( ! fossil species 9 e in/ance ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! contigu\s seas4 ,to take ano!r example1 :]e ! fossil fauna rec$es a few /eps f>!r back f our own times4 ,we may comp>e1 fir/1 ! b$s ( loam & clay bord]+ ! ,clyde 9 ,scotl& 7call$ glacial by "s geologi/s71 secondly1 o!rs ( fluvio-m>9e orig9 ne> ,norwi*1 &1 la/ly1 a ?ird set (t5 ris+ to consid]able heights 9 ,sicily1 & we discov] t 9 e case m ?an ?ree-f\r?s ( ! %ells agree ) species /ill liv+1 :ile ! rema9d] are ext9ct4 ,h5ce we may conclude t all ^!1 greatly div]sifi$ z are _! organic rema9s1 belong to "o & ! same era1 or to a p]iod imm$iately antec$5t to ! ,po/-,plioc5e1 because !re has be5 "t 9 ea* ( ! areas allud$ to = an equal or ne>ly equal am\nt ( *ange 9 ! m>9e te/ace\s fauna4 ,contemporane\sness ( orig9 is inf]r$ 9 ^! cases1 9 spite ( ! mo/ m>k$ diff]5ces ( m9]al "* or organic cont5ts1 f a simil> degree ( div]g5ce 9 ! %ells f ^? n[ liv+ 9 ! adjo9+ seas4 ,! advantage ( su* a te/ consi/s 9 supply+ u ) a common po9t ( dep>ture 9 all c\ntries1 h[ev] remote4 ,b ! f>!r we rec$e f ! pres5t times1 & ! small] ! relative numb] ( rec5t z comp>$ ) ext9ct species 9 ! t]ti>y deposits1 ! less confid5ce c we place 9 ! exact value ( su* a te/1 especially :5 comp>+ ! /rata ( v di/ant regions2 = we _c presume t ! rate ( =m] alt]ations 9 ! animate _w1 or ! cont9ual go+ out & com+ 9 ( species1 has be5 e :]e exactly equal 9 equal quantities ( "t4 ,! =m ( ! l& & sea1 & ! climate1 may h *ang$ m 9 "o region ?an 9 ano!r2 & consequ5tly !re may h be5 a m rapid de/ruction & r5ovation ( species 9 "o "p ( ! globe ?an else:]e4 ,consid]ations ( ?is k9d %\ld und\bt$ly put u on our gu>d aga9/ rely+ too implicitly on ! accuracy ( ?is te/2 yet x c nev] fail to ?r[ great light on ! *ronological relations ( t]ti>y gr\ps ) ea* o!r1 & ) ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,we may d]ive a conviction ( ?is tru? n only f a /udy ( geological monum5ts ( all ages1 b also by reflect+ on ! t5d5cy :i* prevails 9 ! pres5t /ate ( nature to a uni=m rate ( simultane\s fluctuation 9 ! flora & fauna ( ! :ole globe4 ,! gr\nds ( su* a doctr9e _c be discuss$ "h1 & ,i h expla9$ !m at "s l5g? 9 ! ?ird ,book ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 :]e ! causes ( ! successive ext9ction ( species are consid]$4 ,x w be !re se5 t ea* local *ange 9 climate & physical geography is att5d$ ) ! imm$iate increase ( c]ta9 species1 & ! limitation ( ! range ( o!rs4 ,a revolution ?us effect$ is r>ely1 if ev]1 conf9$ to a limit$ space1 or to "o geographical prov9ce ( animals or plants1 b affects sev]al o!r surr\nd+ & contigu\s prov9ces4 ,9 ea* ( ^!1 moreov]1 analog\s alt]ations ( ! /ations & habitations ( species are simultane\sly 9 progress1 react+ 9 ! mann] already allud$ to on ! fir/ prov9ce4 ,h5ce1 long be=e ! geography ( any p>ticul> di/rict c be ess5tially alt]$1 ! flora & fauna ?r\gh\t ! _w w h be5 mat]ially modifi$ by c\ntless di/urbances 9 ! mutual relation ( ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! organic creation to ea* o!r4 ,to assume t 9 "o l>ge area inhabit$ exclusively by a s+le assemblage ( species any important revolution 9 physical geography c be br\ght ab\t1 :ile o!r areas rema9 /ation>y 9 reg>d to ! position ( l& & sea1 ! height ( m\nta9s1 & s =?1 is a mo/ improbable hypo!sis1 :olly oppos$ to :at we "k ( ! laws n[ gov]n+ ! aque\s & igne\s causes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ev5 7 ?is conceivable1 ! communication ( heat & cold betwe5 diff]5t p>ts ( ! atmosph]e & ocean is s free & rapid1 t ! temp]ature ( c]ta9 zones _c be mat]ially rais$ or l[]$ )\t o!rs be+ imm$iately affect$2 & ! elevation or dim9ution 9 height ( an important *a9 ( m\nta9s or ! subm]g5ce ( a wide tract ( l& w\ld modify ! climate ev5 ( ! antipodes4 ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ! =ego+ allusions to organic rema9s1 ! te/acea or ! %ell-be>+ mollusca are select$ z ! mo/ useful & conv5i5t class = ! purposes ( g5]al classification4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are m univ]sally di/ribut$ ?r\gh /rata ( e age ?an any o!r organic bodies4 ,^? families ( fossils :i* are ( r>e & casual occurr5ce are absolutely ( no avail 9 e/abli%+ a *ronological arrangem5t4 ,if we h plants alone 9 "o gr\p ( /rata & ! bones ( mammalia 9 ano!r1 we c draw no conclusion respect+ ! aff9ity or discordance ( ! organic be+s ( ! two epo*s comp>$2 & ! same may be said if we h plants & v]tebrat$ animals 9 "o s]ies & only %ells 9 ano!r4 ,al?\gh corals are m abundant1 9 a fossil /ate1 ?an plants1 reptiles1 or fi%1 !y are /ill r>e :5 contra/$ ) %ells1 especially 9 ! ,european t]ti>y =mations4 ,! utility ( ! te/acea is1 moreov]1 enhanc$ by ! circum/ance t "s =ms are prop] to ! sea1 o!rs to ! l&1 & o!rs to fre%wat]4 ,riv]s sc>cely ev] fail to c>ry d[n into _! deltas "s l& %ells1 toge!r ) species :i* are at once fluviatile & lacu/r9e4 ,by ?is means we le>n :at t]re/rial1 fre%wat]1 & m>9e species co-exi/$ at p>ticul> eras ( ! pa/2 & hav+ ?us id5tifi$ /rata =m$ 9 seas ) o!rs :i* orig9at$ contemporane\sly 9 inl& lakes1 we are !n enabl$ to advance a /ep f>!r1 & %[ t c]ta9 quadrup$s or aquatic plants1 f\nd fossil 9 lacu/r9e =mations1 inhabit$ ! globe at ! same p]iod :5 c]ta9 fi%1 reptiles1 & zoophytes liv$ 9 ! ocean4 ,among o!r *>act]s ( ! mollusc\s animals1 :i* r5d] !m extremely valuable 9 settl+ *ronological que/ions 9 geology1 may be m5tion$1 fir/1 ! wide geographical range ( _m species2 &1 secondly1 :at is probably a consequ5ce ( ! =m]1 ! great duration ( species 9 ?is class1 = !y appe> to h surpass$ 9 longevity ! great] numb] ( ! mammalia & fi%4 ,_h ea* species inhabit$ a v limit$ space1 x c\ld nev]1 :5 imb$d$ 9 /rata1 h enabl$ ! geologi/ to id5tify deposits at di/ant po9ts2 or _h !y ea* la/$ b = a brief p]iod1 !y c\ld h ?r[n no light on ! connection ( rocks plac$ f> f ea* o!r 9 ! *ronological1 or1 z x is (t5 t]m$1 v]tical s]ies4 ,_m au?ors h divid$ ! ,european t]ti>y /rata into ?ree gr\ps--l[]1 middle1 & upp]2 ! l[] compris+ ! olde/ =mations ( ,p>is & ,london be=e-m5tion$2 ! middle ^? ( ,bordeaux & ,t\ra9e2 & ! upp] all ^? new] ?an ! middle gr\p4 ,:5 engag$ 9 #ahbh 9 prep>+ my "w on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,i conceiv$ ! idea ( class+ ! :ole s]ies ( t]ti>y /rata 9 f\r gr\ps1 & endeav\r+ to f9d *>act]s = ea*1 expressive ( _! diff]5t degrees ( aff9ity to ! liv+ fauna4 ,) ?is view1 ,i obta9$ in=mation respect+ ! specific id5tity ( _m t]ti>y & rec5t %ells f sev]al ,italian naturali/s1 & among o!rs f ,pr(essors ,bonelli1 ,guidotti1 & ,co/a4 ,hav+ 9 #ahbi become acqua9t$ ) ,m4 ,de%ayes1 ( ,p>is1 already well kn[n by 8 con*ological works1 ,i le>nt f him t he _h arriv$1 by indep5d5t rese>*es1 & by ! /udy ( a l>ge collection ( fossil & rec5t %ells1 at v simil> views respect+ ! arrangem5t ( t]ti>y =mations4 ,at my reque/ he drew up1 9 a tabul> =m1 li/s ( all ! %ells kn[n to him to occur bo? 9 "s t]ti>y =mation & 9 a liv+ /ate1 = ! express purpose ( asc]ta9+ ! proportional numb] ( fossil species id5tical ) ! rec5t :i* *>act]iz$ successive gr\ps2 & ?is table1 plann$ by u 9 common1 0 publi%$ by me 9 #ahcc4aaj-;,a ,! numb] ( t]ti>y fossil %ells exam9$ by ,m4 ,de%ayes 0 ab\t #cjjj2 & ! rec5t species ) :i* !y _h be5 comp>$ ab\t #ejjj4 ,! result !n arriv$ at 01 t 9 ! l[] t]ti>y /rata1 or ^? ( ,london & ,p>is1 !re 7 ab\t #c-a_/b p] c5t4 ( species id5tical ) rec5t2 9 ! middle t]ti>y ( ! ,loire & ,gironde ab\t #ag p] c5t42 & 9 ! upp] t]ti>y or ,subap5n9e b$s1 f #ce to #ej p] c5t4 ,9 =mations /ill m mod]n1 "s ( :i* ,i _h p>ticul>ly /udi$ 9 ,sicily1 :]e !y atta9 a va/ ?ickness & elevation above ! sea1 ! numb] ( species id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+ 0 believ$ to be f #ij to #ie p] c5t4 ,= ! sake ( cle>ness & brevity1 ,i propos$ to give %ort te*nical names to ^! f\r gr\ps1 or ! p]iods to :i* !y respectively belong$4 ,i call$ ! fir/ or olde/ ( !m ,eoc5e1 ! second ,mioc5e1 ! ?ird ,old] ,plioc5e1 & ! la/ or f\r? ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,! fir/ ( ! above t]ms1 ,eoc5e1 is d]iv$ f eos1 eos1 dawn1 & ka9os1 ca9os1 rec5t1 because ! fossil %ells ( ?is p]iod conta9 an extremely small proportion ( liv+ species1 :i* may be look$ ^u z indicat+ ! dawn ( ! exi/+ /ate ( ! te/ace\s fauna1 no rec5t species hav+ be5 detect$ 9 ! old] or second>y rocks4 ,! t]m ,mioc5e 7f meion1 meion1 less1 & ka9os1 ca9os1 rec5t7 is int5d$ to express a m9or proportion ( rec5t species 7( te/acea71 ! t]m ,plioc5e 7f pleion1 pleion1 m1 & ka9os1 ca9os1 rec5t7 a comp>ative plurality ( ! same4 ,x may assi/ ! memory ( /ud5ts to rem9d !m1 t ! ,mioc5e conta9 a minor proportion1 & ,plioc5e a comp>ative plurality ( rec5t species2 & t ! great] numb] ( rec5t species always implies ! m mod]n orig9 ( ! /rata4 ,x has sometimes be5 object$ to ?is nom5clature t c]ta9 species ( infusoria f\nd 9 ! *alk are /ill exi/+1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,mioc5e & ,old] ,plioc5e deposits (t5 conta9 ! rema9s ( mammalia1 reptiles1 & fi%1 exclusively ( ext9ct species4 ,b ! read] mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! t]ms ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e 7 orig9ally inv5t$ ) ref]5ce purely to con*ological data1 & 9 t s5se h always be5 & are /ill us$ by me4 ,! di/ribution ( ! fossil species f :i* ! results be=e m5tion$ 7 obta9$ 9 #ahcj by ,m4 ,de%ayes 0 z foll[s3-- ,9 ! =mations ( ! ,plioc5e p]iods1 old] & new] #ggg ,9 ! ,mioc5e #ajba ,9 ! ,eoc5e #abch ---- #cjcf ---- ,s9ce ! ye> #ahcj ! progress ( con*ological sci5ce has be5 mo/ rapid1 & ! numb] ( liv+ species obta9$ f diff]5t p>ts ( ! globe has be5 rais$ f ab\t #ejjj to m ?an #aj1jjj4 ,new fossil species h also be5 add$ to our collections 9 great abundance2 & at ! same "t a m copi\s supply ( individuals bo? ( fossil & rec5t species1 "s ( :i* 7 previ\sly v r>e1 h be5 procur$1 af=d+ m ample data = det]m9+ ! specific "*4 ,besides ! re=ms introduc$ 9 consequ5ce ( ^! new zoological facilities1 o!r errors ( a geological nature h be5 9 _m in/ances remov$4 ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,=mations4 ,i h adopt$ ! t]m ,po/-,plioc5e = ^? /rata :i* are sometimes call$ po/-t]ti>y or mod]n1 & :i* are *>act]iz$ by hav+ all ! imb$d$ fossil %ells id5tical ) species n[ liv+1 :]eas ev5 ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 or newe/ ( ! t]ti>y deposits above allud$ to1 conta9 always "s small proportion ( %ells ( ext9ct species4 ,^! mod]n =mations1 ?us def9$1 compreh5d n only ^? /rata :i* c be %[n to h orig9at$ s9ce ! e>? 0 inhabit$ by man1 b also deposits ( f> great] ext5t & ?ickness1 9 :i* no signs ( man or 8 works c be detect$4 ,9 "s ( ^!1 ( a date long ant]ior to ! times ( hi/ory & tradition1 ! bones ( ext9ct quadrup$s h be5 met ) ( species :i* probably nev] co-exi/$ ) ! human race1 z1 = example1 ! mammo?1 ma/odon1 mega!rium1 & o!rs1 & yet ! %ells are ! same z ^? n[ liv+4 ,t portion ( ! po/-plioc5e gr\p :i* belongs to ! human epo*1 & :i* is sometimes call$ ,rec5t1 =ms a v unimportant feature 9 ! geological /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,i h %[n1 h[ev]1 9 ,! ,pr9ciples1 :]e ! rec5t *anges ( ! e>? illu/rative ( geology are describ$ at l5g?1 t ! deposits accumulat$ at ! bottom ( lakes & seas )9 ! la/ #djjj or #ejjj ye>s c nei!r be insignificant 9 volume or ext5t4 ,!y lie hidd51 = ! mo/ "p1 f our sight2 b we h opportunities ( exam9+ !m at c]ta9 po9ts :]e newly-ga9$ l& 9 ! deltas ( riv]s has be5 cut ?r\gh dur+ floods1 or :]e coral reefs are gr[+ rapidly1 or :]e ! b$ ( a sea or lake has be5 heav$ up by subt]ranean movem5ts & laid dry4 ,_! age may be recogniz$ ei!r by our f9d+ 9 !m ! bones ( man 9 a fossil /ate1 t is to say1 imb$d$ 9 !m by natural causes1 or by _! conta9+ articles fabricat$ by ! h&s ( man4 ,?us at ,puzzuoli1 ne> ,naples1 m>9e /rata are se5 conta9+ fragm5ts ( sculpture1 pott]y1 & ! rema9s ( build+s1 toge!r ) innum]able %ells reta9+ 9 "p _! col\r1 & ( ! same species z ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,bay ( ,baiae4 ,! upp]mo/ ( ^! b$s is ab\t #bj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,_! em]g5ce c be prov$ to h tak5 place s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury4#aab-;,a ,n[ "h1 z 9 almo/ e in/ance :]e any alt]ations ( level h be5 go+ on 9 hi/orical p]iods1 x is f\nd t rocks conta9+ %ells1 all1 or ne>ly all1 ( :i* /ill inhabit ! neighb\r+ sea1 may be trac$ = "s di/ance into ! int]ior1 & (t5 to a consid]able elevation above ! level ( ! sea4 ,?us1 9 ! c\ntry r\nd ,naples1 ! po/-plioc5e /rata1 consi/+ ( clay & horizontal b$s ( volcanic tuff1 rise at c]ta9 po9ts to ! height ( #aejj feet4 ,al?\gh ! m>9e %ells are exclusively ( liv+ species1 !y are n accompani$ l ^? on ! coa/ at ,puzzuoli by any traces ( man or 8 works4 ,_h any su* be5 discov]$1 x w\ld h af=d$ to ! antiqu>y & geologi/ matt] ( great surprise1 s9ce x w\ld h %[n t man 0 an inhabitant ( t "p ( ! globe1 :ile ! mat]ials compos+ ! pres5t hills & pla9s ( ,campania 7 /ill 9 ! progress ( deposition at ! bottom ( ! sea2 :]eas we "k t = ne>ly #cjjj ye>s1 or f ! times ( ! e>lie/ ,greek coloni/s1 no mat]ial revolution 9 ! physical geography ( t "p ( ,italy has occurr$4 ,9 ,is*ia1 a small isl& ne> ,naples1 compos$ 9 l mann] ( m>9e & volcanic =mations1 ,dr4 ,philippi collect$ 9 ! /ratifi$ tuff & clay n9ety-two species ( %ells ( exi/+ species4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ,is*ia1 ! l(ty hill call$ ,epomeo1 or ,san ,nicola1 is compos$ ( gre5i% indurat$ tuff1 ( a prodigi\s ?ickness1 int]/ratifi$ 9 "s p>ts ) m>l1 & "h & !re ) great b$s ( solid lava4 ,visconti asc]ta9$ by trigonometrical measurem5t t ?is m\nta9 0 #bfje feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,n f> f its summit1 at ! height ( ab\t #bjjj feet1 z also ne> ,moropano1 a village only #ajj feet l[]1 on ! s\!rn declivity ( ! m\nta91 ,i collect$1 9 #ahbh1 _m %ells ( species n[ inhabit+ ! neighb\r+ gulf4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ! great mass ( ,epomeo 0 n only rais$ to its pres5t height1 b 0 also =m$ b5ea? ! wat]s1 )9 ! po/-plioc5e p]iod4 ,x is a fact1 h[ev]1 ( no small int]e/1 t ! fossil %ells f ^! mod]n tuffs ( ! volcanic region surr\nd+ ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 al?\gh none ( !m ext9ct1 indicate a slight want ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! anci5t fauna & t n[ inhabit+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,philippi in=ms u t :5 he & ,m4 ,scac*i _h collect$ n9ety-n9e species ( !m1 he f\nd t only "o1 ,pect5 m$ius1 n[ liv+ 9 ! ,r$ ,sea1 0 abs5t f ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,not)/&+ ?is1 he adds1 ! condition ( ! sea :5 ! tuface\s b$s 7 deposit$ mu/ h be5 consid]ably diff]5t f its pres5t /ate2 = ,tell9a /riata 0 !n common1 & is n[ r>e2 ,luc9a sp9osa 0 bo? m abundant & grew to a l>g] size2 ,luc9a fragilis1 n[ r>e1 & h>dly measur+ #f l9es1 !n atta9$ ! enorm\s dim5sions ( #ad l9es1 & 0 extremely abundant2 & ,o/rea lamellosa1 ,broc41 no long] met ) ne> ,naples1 exi/$ at t "t1 & atta9$ a size s l>ge t "o l[] valve has be5 kn[n to measure #e in*es #i l9es 9 l5g?1 #d in*es 9 bread?1 #a-a_/b in* 9 ?ickness1 & weigh$ #bf-a_/b ounces4#aac-;,a ,!re are o!r p>ts ( ,europe :]e no volcanic action manife/s itself at ! surface1 z at ,naples1 :e!r by ! eruption ( lava or by e>?quakes1 & yet :]e ! l& & b$ ( ! adjo9+ sea are und]go+ upheaval4 ,! motion is s gradual z to be ins5sible to ! inhabitants1 be+ only asc]ta9able by c>eful sci5tific measurem5ts comp>$ aft] long int]vals4 ,su* an upw>d movem5t has be5 prov$ to be 9 progress 9 ,norway & ,sw$5 ?r\gh\t an area ab\t #ajjj miles ,n4 & ,s41 & = an unkn[n di/ance ,e4 & ,w41 ! am\nt ( elevation always increas+ z we proce$ t[>ds ! ,nor? ,cape1 :]e x may equal #e feet 9 a c5tury4 ,if we c\ld assume t !re _h be5 an av]age rise ( #b-a_/b feet 9 ea* hundr$ ye>s = ! la/ fifty c5turies1 ?is w\ld give an elevation ( #abe feet 9 t p]iod4 ,9 o!r words1 x w\ld foll[ t ! %ores1 & a consid]able area ( ! =m] b$ ( ! ,baltic & ,nor? ,sea1 _h be5 uplift$ v]tically to t am\nt1 & conv]t$ into l& 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ #ejjj ye>s4 ,accord+ly1 we f9d ne> ,/ockholm1 9 ,sw$51 horizontal b$s ( s&1 loam1 & m>l conta9+ ! same peculi> assemblage ( te/acea :i* n[ live 9 ! bracki% wat]s ( ! ,baltic4 ,m+l$ ) ^!1 at diff]5t dep?s1 h be5 detect$ v>i\s works ( art imply+ a rude /ate ( civilization1 & "s vessels built be=e ! introduction ( iron1 ! :ole m>9e =mation hav+ be5 uprais$1 s t ! upp] b$s are n[ #fj feet high] ?an ! surface ( ! ,baltic4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ^! rec5t /rata1 bo? to ! nor?-we/ & s\? ( ,/ockholm1 o!r deposits simil> 9 m9]al composition occur1 :i* asc5d to great] heights1 9 :i* precisely ! same assemblage ( fossil %ells is met )1 b )\t any int]mixture ( human bones or fabricat$ articles4 ,on ! opposite or we/]n coa/ ( ,sw$51 at ,uddevalla1 po/-plioc5e /rata1 conta9+ rec5t %ells1 n ( t bracki% wat] "* peculi> to ! ,baltic1 b su* z n[ live 9 ! nor!rn ocean1 asc5d to ! height ( #bjj feet2 & b$s ( clay & s& ( ! same age atta9 elevations ( #cjj & ev5 #gjj feet 9 ,norway1 :]e !y h be5 usually describ$ z rais$ bea*es4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 ?ick deposits ( subm>9e orig91 spread+ f> & wide1 & fill+ valleys 9 ! granite & gneiss1 j z ! t]ti>y =mations1 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,europe1 cov] or fill depressions 9 ! old] rocks4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k1 t al?\gh ! fossil fauna *>act]iz+ ^! uprais$ s&s & clays consi/s exclusively ( exi/+ nor!rn species ( te/acea1 yet1 accord+ to ,lov5 7an able liv+ naturali/ ( ,norway71 ! species d n con/itute su* an assemblage z n[ inhabits correspond+ latitudes 9 ! ,g]man ,ocean4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y decid$ly repres5t a m arctic fauna4#aad-;,a ,9 ord] to f9d ! same species fl\ri%+ 9 equal abundance1 or 9 _m cases to f9d !m at all1 we mu/ g nor?w>ds to high] latitudes ?an ,uddevalla 9 ,sw$51 or ev5 ne>] ! pole ?an ,c5tral ,norway4 ,judg+ by ! uni=mity ( climate n[ prevail+ f c5tury to c5tury1 & ! ins5sible rate ( v>iation 9 ! organic _w 9 our own times1 we may presume t an extremely l5g!n$ p]iod 0 requir$ ev5 = s slight a modification ( ! mollusc\s fauna1 z t ( :i* ! evid5ce is "h br\ght to light4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we h e reason = inf]r+ on indep5d5t gr\nds 7namely1 ! rate ( upheaval ( l& 9 mod]n times7 t ! antiquity ( ! deposits 9 "q mu/ be v great4 ,= if we assume1 z be=e sugge/$1 t ! mean rate ( cont9u\s v]tical elevation has am\nt$ to #b-a_/b feet 9 a c5tury 7& ?is is probably a high av]age71 x w\ld require #bg1ejj ye>s = ! sea-coa/ to atta9 ! height ( #gjj feet1 )\t mak+ all[ance = any pauses su* z are n[ exp]i5c$ 9 a l>ge "p ( ,norway1 or = any oscillations ( level4 ,9 ,engl&1 buri$ %ips h be5 f\nd 9 ! anci5t & n[ des]t$ *annels ( ! ,ro!r 9 ,sussex1 ( ! ,m]sey 9 ,k5t1 & ! ,?ames ne> ,london4 ,canoes & /one hat*ets h be5 dug up1 9 almo/ all p>ts ( ! k+dom1 f peat & %ell-m>l2 b !re is no evid5ce1 z 9 ,sw$51 ,italy1 & _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w1 ( ! b$ ( ! sea1 & ! adjo9+ coa/1 hav+ be5 uplift$ bodily to consid]able heights )9 ! human p]iod4 ,rec5t /rata h be5 trac$ along ! coa/s ( ,p]u & ,*ili1 inclos+ %ells 9 abundance1 all agree+ specifically ) ^? n[ sw>m+ 9 ! ,pacific4 ,9 "o b$ ( ?is k9d1 9 ! isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo1 ne> ,lima1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 f\nd1 at ! altitude ( #he feet above ! sea1 pieces ( cotton-?read1 plait$ ru%1 & ! head ( a /alk ( ,indian corn1 ! :ole ( :i* _h evid5tly be5 imb$d$ ) ! %ells4 ,at ! same height on ! neighb\r+ ma9l&1 he f\nd o!r signs corroborat+ ! op9ion t ! anci5t b$ ( ! sea _h !re also be5 uplift$ #he feet1 s9ce ! region 0 fir/ peopl$ by ! ,p]uvian race4#aae-;,a ,b simil> %elly masses are also met ) at mu* high] elevations1 at innum]able po9ts betwe5 ! ,*ilian & ,p]uvian ,&es & ! sea-coa/1 9 :i* no human rema9s 7 ev]1 or 9 all probability ev] w be1 discov]$4 ,9 ! ,we/ ,indies1 also1 9 ! isl& ( ,guadal\pe1 a solid lime/one occurs1 at ! level ( ! sea-bea*1 envelop+ human skeletons4 ,! /one is extremely h>d1 & *iefly compos$ ( comm9ut$ %ell & coral1 ) "h & !re "s entire corals & %ells1 ( species n[ liv+ 9 ! adjac5t ocean4 ,) !m are includ$ arr[-heads1 fragm5ts ( pott]y1 & o!r articles ( human workman%ip4 ,a lime/one ) simil> cont5ts has be5 =m$1 & is /ill =m+1 9 ,/4 ,dom+o4 ,b !re are also m anci5t rocks 9 ! ,we/ ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 z 9 ,cuba1 ne> ! ,havanna1 & 9 o!r isl&s1 9 :i* are %ells id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 correspond+ latitudes2 "s well-pres]v$1 o!rs 9 ! /ate ( ca/s1 all ref]able to ! po/-plioc5e p]iod4 ,i h already describ$ 9 ! sev5? *apt]1 p4 #hd41 :at w\ld be ! effects ( oscillations & *anges ( level 9 any region dra9$ by a great riv] & its tribut>ies1 suppos+ ! area to be fir/ depress$ sev]al hundr$ feet1 & !n re-elevat$4 ,i believe t su* *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea h actually occurr$ 9 ! po/-plioc5e era 9 ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,mississippi & 9 t ( ! ,rh9e4 ,! accumulation ( fluviatile matt] 9 a delta dur+ a sl[ subsid5ce may raise ! newly ga9$ l& sup]ficially at ! same rate at :i* its f\ndations s9k1 s t ^! may g d[n hundr$s or ?\s&s ( feet p]p5dicul>ly1 & yet ! sea bord]+ ! delta may always be exclud$1 ! :ole deposit cont9u+ to be t]re/rial or fre%wat] 9 "*4 ,?is appe>s to h happ5$ 9 ! deltas bo? ( ! ,po & ,ganges1 = rec5t artesian bor+s1 p5etrat+ to ! dep? ( #djj feet1 h !re %[n t fluviatile /rata1 ) %ells ( rec5t species1 toge!r ) anci5t surfaces ( l& support+ turf & =e/s1 are depress$ hundr$s ( feet bel[ ! sea level4#aaf-;,a ,%\ld ^! c\ntries be once m sl[ly uprais$1 ! riv]s w\ld c>ve out valleys ?r\gh ! horizontal & unconsolidat$ /rata z !y rose1 sweep+ away ! great] portion ( !m1 & leav+ m]e fragm5ts 9 ! %ape ( t]races skirt+ newly-=m$ alluvial pla9s1 z monum5ts ( ! =m] levels at :i* ! riv]s ran4 ,( ?is nature are ! bluffs1 or riv] cliffs1 n[ b\nd+ ! valley ( ! ,mississippi ?r\gh\t a l>ge portion ( its c\rse4 ,?us let a b1 fig4 #ajf41 repres5t ! alluvial pla9 ( ! ,mississippi1 a pla9 :i*1 at ! po9t allud$ to1 is m ?an #cj miles broad1 & is truly a prolongation ( ! mod]n delta ( t riv]4 ,x is b\nd$ by bluffs1 ! upp] portions ( :i* consi/1 bo? on ! ea/ & we/ side1 ( %elly loam1 ,no4 #b4 ris+ f #ajj to #bjj feet above ! level ( ! pla91 & conta9+ l& & fre%wat] %ells ( ! g5]a ,helix1 ,pupa1 ,succ9ea1 & ,lymnea1 ( ! same species z ^? n[ inhabit+ ! neighb\r+ =e/s & swamps4 ,9 ! same loam also1 ,no4 #b41 are f\nd ! bones ( ! ,ma/odon1 ,elephant1 ,megalonyx1 & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4 ,valley ( ! ,mississippi4 #a4 ,alluvium4 #b4 ,loess4 #c4 f4 ,eoc5e4 #d4 ,cretace\s4 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ t ! deposits =m+ ! delta & alluvial pla9 ( ! ,mississippi consi/ ( s$im5t>y matt]1 ext5d+ ov] an area ( #cj1jjj squ>e miles1 & kn[n 9 "s p>ts to be sev]al hundr$ feet deep4 ,al?\gh we _c e/imate correctly h[ _m ye>s x may h requir$ = ! riv] to br+ d[n f ! upp] c\ntry s l>ge a quantity ( e>?y matt]--! data = su* a computation be+ z yet incomplete--we may /ill approximate to a m9imum ( ! "t :i* su* an op]ation mu/ h tak51 by asc]ta9+ exp]im5tally ! annual dis*>ge ( wat] by ! ,mississippi1 & ! mean annual am\nt ( solid matt] conta9$ 9 its wat]s4 ,! l[e/ e/imate ( ! "t requir$ w\ld lead u to assign a high antiquity1 am\nt+ to _m t5s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s to ! exi/+ delta1 ! orig9 ( :i* is nev]!less an ev5t ( ye/]day :5 contra/$ ) ^? t]races1 c1 & d e1 fig4 #ajf41 =m$ ( ! loam ,no4 #b4 above m5tion$4 ,^! mat]ials ( ! bluffs a & d 7 produc$1 ! read] w obs]ve1 dur+ ! fir/ "p ( t great oscillation ( level :i* depress$ to a dep? ( #bjj feet a l>g] area ?an ! mod]n delta & pla9 ( ! ,mississippi1 & !n re/or$ ! region to its =m] position4#aag-;,a ,loess ( ! ,valley ( ! ,rh9e4--,a simil> succession ( geographical *anges1 att5d$ by ! production ( a fluviatile =mation1 s+ul>ly resembl+ t :i* b\nds ! great pla9 ( ! ,mississippi1 seems to h occurr$ 9 ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,rh9e1 s9ce ! "t :5 t bas9 _h already acquir$ its pres5t outl9e ( hill & valley4 ,i allude to ! deposit prov9cially t]m$ loess 9 "p ( ,g]many1 or lehm 9 ,alsace1 fill$ ) l& & fre%wat] %ells ( exi/+ species4 ,x is a f9ely comm9ut$ s& or pulv]ul5t loam ( a yell[i% grey col\r1 consi/+ *iefly ( argillace\s matt] comb9$ ) a six? "p ( c>bonate ( lime1 & a six? ( qu>tzose & micace\s s&4 ,x (t5 conta9s calc>e\s s&y concretions or nodules1 r>ely exce$+ ! size ( a man's head4 ,its entire ?ickness am\nts1 9 "s places1 to betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet2 yet !re are (t5 no signs ( /ratification 9 ! mass1 except "h & !re at ! bottom1 :]e !re is occasionally a slight int]mixture ( drift$ mat]ials d]iv$ f subjac5t rocks4 ,unsolidifi$ z x is1 & ( s p]i%able a nature1 t e /reamlet fl[+ ov] x cuts out = itself a deep gully1 x usually t]m9ates 9 a v]tical cliff1 f ! surface ( :i* l& %ells are se5 "h & !re to project 9 relief4 ,9 all ^! features x pres5ts a precise c\nt]p>t to ! loess ( ! ,mississippi4 ,x is s homog5e\s z g5]ally to exhibit no signs ( /ratification1 ow+1 probably1 to its mat]ials hav+ be5 d]iv$ f a common s\rce1 & hav+ be5 accumulat$ by a uni=m action4 ,yet x displays 9 "s few places decid$ m>ks ( successive deposition1 :]e co>s] & f9] mat]ials alt]nate1 especially ne> ! bottom4 ,calc>e\s concretions1 also enclos+ l&-%ells1 are sometimes arrang$ 9 horizontal lay]s4 ,x is a rem>kable deposit1 f its position1 wide ext5t1 & ?ickness1 its homog5e\s m9]al composition1 & fre%wat] orig94 ,its di/ribution cle>ly %[s t aft] ! great valley ( ! ,rh9e1 f ,s*affhaus5 to ,bonn1 _h acquir$ its pres5t =m1 hav+ its bottom /rew$ ov] ) co>se gravel1 a p]iod arriv$ :5 x became fill$ up f side to side ) f9e mud1 :i* 0 also ?r[n d[n 9 ! valleys ( ! pr9cipal tribut>ies ( ! ,rh9e4 ,?us1 = example1 x may be trac$ f> into ,wu]temb]g1 up ! valley ( ! ,neck>1 & f ,frank=t1 up ! valley ( ! ,ma91 to above ,dettelba*4 ,i h also se5 x spread+ ov] ! c\ntry ( ,may5ce1 ,eppel%eim1 & ,worms1 on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e1 & on ! opposite side on ! table-l& above ! ,b]g/rasse1 betwe5 ,wieslo* & ,bru*sal1 :]e x atta9s a ?ickness ( #bjj feet4 ,ne> ,/rasburg1 l>ge masses ( x appe> at ! foot ( ! ,vosges on ! left bank1 & at ! base ( ! m\nta9s ( ! ,black ,=e/ on ! "r bank4 ,! ,kais]/uhl1 a volcanic m\nta9 :i* /&s 9 ! middle ( ! pla9 ( ! ,rh9e ne> ,freiburg1 has be5 cov]$ almo/ ev]y:]e ) ?is loam1 z h ! ext9ct volcanos betwe5 ,cobl5tz & ,bonn4 ,ne> ,&]na*1 9 ! ,kir*weg1 ! loess conta9+ ! usual %ells alt]nates ) volcanic matt]2 & ov] ! :ole are /rew$ lay]s ( pumice1 lapilli1 & volcanic s&1 f #aj to #ae feet ?ick1 v mu* resembl+ ! ejections "u :i* ,pompeii lies buri$4 ,!re is no passage at ?is upp] junction f ! loess into ! pumice\s sup]/ratum2 & ?is la/ foll[s ! slope ( ! hill1 j z x w\ld h done _h x fall5 9 %[]s f ! air on a declivity p>tly =m$ ( loess4 ,b1 9 g5]al1 ! loess ov]lies all ! volcanic products1 ev5 ^? betwe5 ,neuwi$ & ,bonn1 :i* h ! mo/ mod]n aspect2 & x has fill$ up 9 "p ! crat] ( ! ,rod]b]g1 an ext9ct volcano ne> ,bonn4 ,9 #ahcc a well 0 sunk at ! bottom ( ?is crat]1 ?r\gh #gj feet ( loess1 9 "p ( :i* 7 ! usual calc>e\s concretions4 ,! int]/ratification above allud$ to1 ( loess ) lay]s ( pumice & volcanic a%es1 has l$ to ! op9ion t bo? dur+ & s9ce its deposition "s ( ! la/ volcanic eruptions ( ! ,l[] ,eifel h tak5 place4 ,%\ld su* a conclusion be adopt$1 we %\ld be call$ ^u to assign a v mod]n date to ^! eruptions4 ,?is curi\s po9t1 !re=e1 des]ves to be reconsid]$2 s9ce x may possibly h happ5$ t ! wat]s ( ! ,rh9e1 swoll5 by ! melt+ ( sn[ & ice1 & fl[+ at a great height ?r\gh a valley *ok$ up ) loess1 may h swept away ! loose sup]ficial scoriae & pumice ( ! ,eifel volcanos1 & spread !m out occasionally ov] ! yell[ loam4 ,sometimes1 also1 ! melt+ ( sn[ on ! slope ( small volcanic cones may h giv5 rise to local floods1 capable ( sweep+ d[n light pumice into ! adjac5t l[ gr\nds4 ,! fir/ idea :i* has occurr$ to mo/ geologi/s1 aft] exam9+ ! loess betwe5 ,may5ce & ,basle1 is to imag9e t a great lake once ext5d$ ?r\gh\t ! valley ( ! ,rh9e betwe5 ^? two places4 ,su* a lake may h s5t (f l>ge bran*es up ! c\rse ( ! ,ma91 ,neck>1 & o!r tribut>y valleys1 9 all ( :i* l>ge pat*es ( loess are n[ se54 ,! b>ri] ( ! lake might be plac$ some:]e 9 ! n>r[ & picturesque gorge ( ! ,rh9e betwe5 ,b+5 & ,bonn4 ,b ?is !ory fails altoge!r to expla9 ! ph5om5a2 :5 we discov] t t gorge itself has once be5 fill$ ) loess1 :i* mu/ h be5 tranquilly deposit$ 9 x1 z also 9 ! lat]al valley ( ! ,lahn1 communicat+ ) ! gorge4 ,! loess has also ov]spread ! high adjo9+ plat=m ne> ! village ( ,plaidt above ,&]na*4 ,nay1 on proce$+ f>!r d[n to ! nor?1 we discov] t ! hills :i* skirt ! great valley betwe5 ,bonn & ,cologne h loess on _! flanks1 :i* also cov]s "h & !re ! gravel ( ! pla9 z f> z ,cologne1 & ! ne>e/ ris+ gr\nds4 ,besides ^! objections to ! lake !ory1 ! loess is met ) ne> ,basle1 capp+ hills m ?an #abjj feet above ! sea2 s t a b>ri] ( l& capable ( sep>at+ ! suppos$ lake f ! ocean w\ld require to be1 at lea/1 z high z ! m\nta9s call$ ! ,sieb5gebirge1 ne> ,bonn1 ! l(tie/ summit ( :i*1 ! ,oehlb]g1 is #abji feet above ! ,rh9e & #acfi feet above ! sea4 ,x w\ld be necess>y1 moreov]1 to place ?is l(ty b>ri] some:]e bel[ ,cologne1 or precisely :]e ! level ( ! l& is n[ l[e/4 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( suppos+ "o cont9u\s lake ( suffici5t ext5t & dep? to all[ ( ! simultane\s accumulation ( ! loess1 at v>i\s heights1 ?r\gh\t ! :ole area :]e x n[ occurs1 ,i =m]ly sugge/$ t1 subsequ5tly to ! p]iod :5 ! c\ntries n[ dra9$ by ! ,rh9e & its tribut>ies _h ne>ly acquir$ _! actual =m & geographical features1 !y 7 aga9 depress$ gradually by a movem5t l t n[ 9 progress on ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&4#aai-;,a ,9 proportion z ! :ole di/rict 0 l[]$1 ! g5]al fall ( ! wat]s betwe5 ! ,alps & ! ocean 0 less5$2 & bo? ! ma9 & lat]al valleys1 becom+ m subject to riv] inundations1 7 p>tially fill$ up ) fluviatile silt1 conta9+ l& & fre%wat] %ells4 ,:5 a ?ickness ( _m hundr$ feet ( loess _h be5 ?r[n d[n sl[ly by ?is op]ation1 ! :ole region 0 once m upheav$ gradually4 ,dur+ ?is upw>d movem5t mo/ ( ! f9e loam w\ld be c>ri$ (f by ! d5ud+ p[] ( ra9s & riv]s2 & ?us ! orig9al valleys might h be5 re-excavat$1 & ! c\ntry almo/ re/or$ to its pri/9e /ate1 ) ! exception ( "s masses & pat*es ( loess su* z /ill rema91 & :i*1 by _! frequ5cy & rem>kable homog5e\sness ( composition & fossils1 atte/ ! anci5t cont9uity & common orig9 ( ! :ole4 ,by imag9+ ^! oscillations ( level1 we disp5se ) ! necessity ( erect+ & aft]w>ds remov+ a m\nta9 b>ri] suffici5tly high to exclude ! ocean f ! valley ( ! ,rh9e dur+ ! p]iod ( ! accumulation ( ! loess4 ,! proportion ( l& %ells ( ! g5]a ,helix1 ,pupa1 & ,bulimus1 is v l>ge 9 ! loess2 b 9 _m places aquatic species ( ! g5]a ,lymnea1 ,palud9a1 & ,planorbis are also f\nd4 ,^! may h be5 c>ri$ away dur+ floods f %all[ pools & m>%es bord]+ ! riv]2 & ! great ext5t ( m>%y gr\nd caus$ by ! wide ov]fl[+s ( riv]s above suppos$ w\ld fav\r ! multiplication ( amphibi\s mollusks1 su* z ! ,succ9ea 7fig4 #ajg471 :i* is almo/ ev]y:]e *>act]i/ic ( ?is =mation1 & is sometimes accompani$1 z ne> ,bonn1 by ano!r species1 ,s4 amphibia 7fig4 #cd4 p4 #bi474 ,among o!r abundant fossils are ,helix plebeium & ,pupa muscorum4 7,see ,figures47 ,bo? ! t]re/rial & aquatic %ells pres]v$ 9 ! loess are ( mo/ fragile & delicate /ructure1 & yet !y are almo/ inv>iably p]fect & un9jur$4 ,!y mu/ h be5 brok5 to pieces _h !y be5 swept along by a viol5t inundation4 ,ev5 ! col\r ( "s ( ! l& %ells1 z t ( ,helix nemoralis1 is occasionally pres]v$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,succ9ea elongata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4 ,pupa muscorum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4 ,helix plebeium4 ,bones ( v]tebrat$ animals are r>e 9 ! loess1 b ^? ( ! mammo?1 horse1 & "s o!r quadrup$s h be5 met )4 ,at ! village ( ,b9n+51 & ! hills call$ ,brud]holz1 ne> ,basle1 ,i f\nd ! v]tebrae ( fi%1 toge!r ) ! usual %ells4 ,^! v]tebrae1 accord+ to ,m4 ,agassiz1 belong decid$ly to ! ,%>k family1 p]haps to ! g5us ,lamna4 ,9 explanation ( _! occurr5ce among l& & fre%wat] %ells1 x may be /at$ t c]ta9 fi% ( ?is family asc5d ! ,s5egal1 ,amazon1 & o!r great riv]s1 to ! di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ miles f ! ocean4#abj-;,a ,at ,cann/adt1 ne> ,/uttg>t1 9 a valley also belong+ to ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,rh9e1 ,i h se5 ! loess pass d[nw>ds into b$s ( calc>e\s tuff & trav]t94 ,sev]al valleys 9 nor!rn ,g]many1 z t ( ! ,ilm at ,weim>1 & t ( ! ,tonna1 nor? ( ,go?a1 exhibit simil> masses ( mod]n lime/one fill$ ) rec5t %ells ( ! g5]a ,planorbis1 ,lymnea1 ,palud9a1 c41 f #ej to #hj feet ?ick1 ) a b$ ( loess mu* resembl+ t ( ! ,rh9e1 occasionally incumb5t on !m4 ,9 ^! mod]n lime/ones us$ = build+1 ! bones ( ,elephas primig5ius1 ,rh9oc]os ti*or9us1 ,ursus spelaeus1 ,hya5a spelaea1 ) ! horse1 ox1 de]1 & o!r quadrup$s1 occur2 & 9 #ahej ,mr4 ,h4 ,cr$n] & ,i obta9$ 9 a qu>ry at ,tonna1 at ! dep? ( #ae feet1 inclos$ 9 ! calc>e\s rock & surr\nd$ ) dicotyl$on\s leaves & petrifi$ leaves1 f\r eggs ( a snake ( ! size ( ! l>ge/ ,european ,colub]1 :i*1 ) ?ree o!rs1 _h be5 f\nd ly+ 9 a s]ies1 or /r+4 ,!y are1 ,i believe1 ! fir/ reptilian rema9s :i* h be5 met ) 9 /rata ( ?is age4 ,! agreem5t ( ! %ells 9 ^! cases ) rec5t ,european species enables u to ref] to a v mod]n p]iod ! fill+ up & re-excavation ( ! valleys2 an op]ation :i* d\btless consum$ a long p]iod ( "t1 s9ce :i* ! mammif]\s fauna has und]gone a consid]able *ange4 ,,footnotes3 #aaj-;,a ,see ,pr9c4 ( ,geol4 vol4 iii4 #a/ ed4 #aab-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,s]apis4 #aac-;,a ,geol4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii4 ,memoirs1 p4 #ae4 #aad-;,a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 #d ,mems4 p4 #dh4 #aae-;,a ,j\rnal1 p4 #dea4 #aaf-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 #h? ed4 pp4 #bfj-bfh4 #aag-;,a ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 xxxiv4 #aai-;,a ,pr9c4 ( ,geol4 #c;d edition1 #ahcd1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dad4 #abj-;,a ,proce$+s ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #dc4 p4 #bbb4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,new] ,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4--,,b\ld] ,,=mation4 ,drift ( ,sc&9avia1 nor!rn ,g]many1 & ,russia--,its nor!rn orig9--,n all ( ! same age--,fundam5tal rocks poli%$1 groov$1 & scrat*$--,action ( glaci]s & iceb]gs--,fossil %ells ( glacial p]iod--,drift ( ea/]n ,norfolk--,associat$ fre%wat] deposit--,b5t & fold$ /rata ly+ on undi/urb$ b$s--,%ells on ,moel ,tryfane--,anci5t glaci]s ( ,nor? ,wales--,iri% drift4 ,among ! diff]5t k9ds ( alluvium describ$ 9 ! sev5? *apt]1 m5tion 0 made ( ! b\ld] =mation 9 ! nor? ( ,europe1 ! peculi> *>act]s ( :i* may n[ be consid]$1 z x belongs 9 "p to ! po/-plioc5e1 & p>tly to ! new] plioc5e1 p]iod4 ,i %all fir/ allude briefly to t portion ( x :i* ext5ds f ,f9l& & ! ,sc&9avian m\nta9s to ! nor? ( ,russia1 & ! l[ c\ntries bord]+ ! ,baltic1 & :i* has be5 trac$ s\?w>ds z f> z ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,engl&4 ,?is =mation consi/s ( mud1 s&1 & clay1 sometimes /ratifi$1 b (t5 :olly devoid ( /ratification1 = a dep? ( m ?an a hundr$ feet4 ,to ?is un/ratifi$ =m ( ! deposit1 ! "n ( till has be5 appli$ 9 ,scotl&4 ,x g5]ally conta9s num]\s fragm5ts ( rocks1 "s angul> & o!rs r\nd$1 :i* h be5 d]iv$ f =mations ( all ages1 bo? fossilif]\s1 volcanic1 & hypog5e1 & :i* h (t5 be5 br\ght f great di/ances4 ,"s ( ! travell$ blocks are ( enorm\s size1 sev]al feet or y>ds 9 diamet]2 _! av]age dim5sions increas+ z we advance nor?w>ds4 ,! till is almo/ ev]y:]e devoid ( organic rema9s1 unless :]e ^! h be5 wa%$ into x f old] =mations2 s t x is *iefly f relative position t we mu/ hope to d]ive a k ( its age4 ,al?\gh a l>ge proportion ( ! b\ld] deposit1 or nor!rn drift1 z x has sometimes be5 call$1 is made up ( fragm5ts br\ght f a di/ance1 & :i* h sometimes travell$ _m hundr$ miles1 ! bulk ( ! mass 9 ea* locality consi/s ( ! ru9s ( subjac5t or neighb\r+ rocks2 s t x is r$ 9 a region ( r$ s&/one1 :ite 9 a *alk c\ntry1 & grey or black 9 a di/rict ( coal & coal-%ale4 ,! fundam5tal rock on :i* ! b\ld] =mation reposes1 if x consi/ ( granite1 gneiss1 m>ble1 or o!r h>d /one capable ( p]man5tly reta9+ any sup]ficial m>k+s :i* may h be5 impr9t$ ^u x1 is smoo!d or poli%$1 & usually exhibits p>allel /riae & furr[s hav+ a det]m9ate direction4 ,?is direction1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 is evid5tly connect$ ) ! c\rse tak5 by ! erratic blocks 9 ! same di/rict be+ nor? or s\?1 or #bj or #cj degrees to ! ea/ or we/ ( nor?1 accord+ z ! l>ge angul> & r\nd$ /ones h travell$4 ,^! /ones !mselves also are (t5 furr[$ & scrat*$ on m ?an "o side4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4 ,lime/one poli%$1 furr[$1 & scrat*$ by ! glaci] ( ,ros5laui1 9 ,switz]l&4 7,agassiz47 a a4 ,:ite /reaks or scrat*es1 caus$ by small gra9s ( fl9t froz5 into ! ice4 b b4 ,furr[s4 ,9 explanation ( su* ph5om5a ,i may ref] ! /ud5t to :at 0 said ( ! action ( glaci]s & iceb]gs 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4#abb-;,a ,x is asc]ta9$ t h>d /ones1 froz5 into a mov+ mass ( ice1 & pu%$ along "u ! pressure ( t mass1 scoop out long rectil9e> furr[s or grooves p>allel to ea* o!r on ! subjac5t solid rock4 7,see fig4 #aaj47 ,small] scrat*es & /riae are made on ! poli%$ surface by cry/als or project+ edges ( ! h>de/ m9]als1 j z a diamond cuts glass4 ,! rec5t poli%+ & /riation ( lime/one by coa/-ice c>ry+ b\ld]s ev5 z f> s\? z ! coa/ ( ,d5m>k1 has be5 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,=*hamm]1 & helps u to conceive h[ l>ge iceb]gs1 runn+ agr\nd on ! b$ ( ! sea1 may produce simil> furr[s on a gr&] scale4 ,an acc\nt 0 giv5 s long ago z ! ye> #ahbb1 by ,scoresby1 ( iceb]gs se5 by him drift+ along 9 latitudes #fi deg4 & #gj deg4 ,n41 :i* rose above ! surface f #ajj to #bjj feet1 & measur$ f a few y>ds to a mile 9 circumf]5ce4 ,_m ( !m 7 load$ ) b$s ( e>? & rock1 ( su* ?ickness t ! weight 0 conjectur$ to be f #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons4#abb-;,b ,a simil> transportation ( rocks is kn[n to be 9 progress 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :]e b\ld]s includ$ 9 ice are f> m frequ5t ?an 9 ! nor?4 ,"o ( ^! iceb]gs 0 enc\nt]$ 9 #ahci1 9 mid-ocean1 9 ! ant>ctic regions1 _m hundr$ miles f any kn[n l&1 sail+ nor?w>ds1 ) a l>ge erratic block firmly froz5 into x4 ,9 ord] to und]/& 9 :at mann] long & /raight grooves may be cut by su* ag5cy1 we mu/ rememb] t ^! float+ isl&s ( ice h a s+ul> /ead9ess ( motion1 9 consequ5ce ( ! l>g] portion ( _! bulk be+ sunk deep "u wat]1 s t !y are n p]ceptibly mov$ by ! w9ds & waves ev5 9 ! /ronge/ gales4 ,_m _h suppos$ t ! magnitude commonly attribut$ to iceb]gs by unsci5tific navigators 0 exagg]at$1 b n[ x appe>s t ! popul> e/imate ( _! dim5sions has r fall5 )9 ?an beyond ! tru?4 ,_m ( !m1 c>efully measur$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,fr5* explor+ exp$ition ( ! ,a/rolabe1 7 betwe5 #ajj & #bbe feet high above wat]1 & f #b to #e miles 9 l5g?4 ,capta9 d',urville asc]ta9$ "o ( !m :i* he saw float+ 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean to be #ac miles long & #ajj feet high1 ) walls p]fectly v]tical4 ,! subm]g$ portions ( su* isl&s mu/1 accord+ to ! weight ( ice relatively to sea-wat]1 be f six to eight times m consid]able ?an ! "p :i* is visible1 s t ! me*anical p[] !y might ex]t :5 fairly set 9 motion mu/ be prodigi\s4#abc-;,a ,glaci]s =m$ 9 m\nta9\s regions become lad5 ) mud & /ones1 & if !y melt away at _! l[] extremity be=e !y rea* ! sea1 !y leave :]ev] !y t]m9ate a confus$ heap ( un/ratifi$ rubbi%1 call$ a mora9e1 compos$ ( mud & pieces ( all ! rocks ) :i* !y 7 load$4 ,we may expect1 !re=e1 to f9d a =mation ( ! same k9d1 result+ f ! liquefaction ( iceb]gs1 9 tranquil wat]4 ,b1 %\ld ! action ( a curr5t int]v5e at c]ta9 po9ts or at c]ta9 seasons1 !n ! mat]ials w be sort$ z !y fall1 & arrang$ 9 lay]s accord+ to _! relative weight & size4 ,h5ce !re w be passages f till1 z x is call$ 9 ,scotl&1 to /ratifi$ clay1 gravel1 & s&1 & int]calations ( "o 9 ! o!r4 ,i h yet to m5tion ano!r appe>ance connect$ ) ! b\ld] =mation1 :i* has ju/ly attract$ mu* att5tion 9 ,norway & o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,abrupt p9nacles & out/&+ ridges ( rock are (t5 obs]v$ to be poli%$ & furr[$ on ! nor?1 or /rike side z x is call$1 or on ! side fac+ ! region f :i* ! erratics h come2 :ile1 on ! o!r side1 :i* is usually /eep] & (t5 p]p5dicul>1 call$ ! lee-side1 su* sup]ficial m>k+s are want+4 ,!re is usually a collection on ?is lee-side ( b\ld]s & gravel1 or ( l>ge angul> fragm5ts4 ,9 explanation we may suppose t ! nor? side 0 expos$1 :5 /ill subm]g$1 to ! action ( iceb]gs1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 ! l& 0 upheav$1 ( coa/-ice1 :i* ran agr\nd ^u %oals1 or 0 pack$ on ! bea*2 s t !re w\ld be great we> & te> on ! seaw>d slope1 :ile1 on ! o!r1 gravel & b\ld]s might be heap$ up 9 a %elt]$ position4 ,nor!rn orig9 ( erratics4--,t ! erratics ( nor!rn ,europe h be5 c>ri$ s\?w>d _c be d\bt$2 ^? ( granite1 = example1 scatt]$ ov] l>ge di/ricts ( ,russia & ,pol&1 agree precisely 9 "* ) rocks ( ! m\nta9s ( ,lapl& & ,f9l&2 :ile ! masses ( gneiss1 sy5ite1 porphyry1 & trap1 /rew$ ov] ! l[ s&y c\ntries ( ,pom]ania1 ,hol/e91 & ,d5m>k1 are id5tical 9 m9]al *>act]s ) ! m\nta9s ( ,norway & ,sw$54 ,x is f\nd to be a g5]al rule 9 ,russia1 t ! small] blocks are c>ri$ to great] di/ances f _! po9t ( dep>ture ?an ! l>g]2 ! di/ance be+ sometimes #hjj & ev5 #ajjj miles f ! ne>e/ rocks f :i* !y 7 brok5 (f2 ! direction hav+ be5 f ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e41 or f ! ,sc&9avian m\nta9s ov] ! seas & l[ l&s to ! s\?-ea/4 ,t its accumulation ?r\gh\t ?is area took place 9 "p dur+ ! po/-plioc5e p]iod is prov$ by its sup]position at sev]al po9ts to /rata conta9+ rec5t %ells4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ,european ,russia1 ,,mm4 ,mur*ison & ,de ,v]neuil f\nd 9 #ahdj1 t ! flat c\ntry betwe5 ,/4 ,pet]sburg & ,ar*angel1 = a di/ance ( #fjj miles1 consi/$ ( horizontal /rata1 full ( %ells simil> to ^? n[ inhabit+ ! arctic sea1 on :i* re/$ ! b\ld] =mation1 conta9+ l>ge erratics4 ,9 ,sw$51 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,upsala1 ,i obs]v$1 9 #ahcd1 a ridge ( /ratifi$ s& & gravel1 9 ! mid/ ( :i* is a lay] ( m>l1 evid5tly =m$ orig9ally at ! bottom ( ! ,baltic1 by ! sl[ gr[? ( ! mussel1 cockle1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 int]mix$ ) "s ( fre%wat] species4 ,! m>9e %ells are all ( dw>fi% size1 l ^? n[ inhabit+ ! bracki% wat]s ( ! ,baltic2 & ! m>l1 9 :i* myriads ( !m are imb$d$1 is n[ rais$ m ?an #ajj feet above ! level ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia4 ,^u ! top ( ?is ridge repose sev]al huge erratics1 consi/+ ( gneiss = ! mo/ "p unr\nd$1 f #i to #af feet 9 diamet]1 & :i* mu/ h be5 br\ght into _! pres5t position s9ce ! "t :5 ! neighb\r+ gulf 0 already *>act]iz$ by its peculi> fauna4#abd-;,a ,"h1 !re=e1 we h pro( t ! transport ( erratics cont9u$ to take place1 n m]ely :5 ! sea 0 inhabit$ by ! exi/+ te/acea1 b :5 ! nor? ( ,europe _h already assum$ t rem>kable feature ( its physical geography1 :i* sep>ates ! ,baltic f ! ,nor? ,sea1 & causes ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia to h only "o f\r? ( ! saltness belong+ to ! ocean4 ,9 ,d5m>k1 also1 rec5t %ells h be5 f\nd 9 /ratifi$ b$s1 closely associat$ ) ! b\ld] clay4 ,x 0 /at$ t 9 ,russia ! erratics dim9i%$ g5]ally 9 size 9 proportion z !y are trac$ f>!r f _! s\rce4 ,! same obs]vation holds true 9 reg>d to ! av]age bulk ( ! ,sc&9avian b\ld]s1 :5 we pursue !m s\?w>ds1 f ! s\? ( ,norway & ,sw$5 ?r\gh ,d5m>k & ,we/phalia4 ,?is ph5om5on is 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! !ory ( ice-isl&s float+ 9 a sea ( v>iable dep?2 = ! heavi] erratics require iceb]gs ( a l>g] size to buoy !m up2 &1 ev5 :5 !re are no /ones froz5 91 m ?an sev5 eigh?s1 & (t5 n9e t5?s1 ( a mass ( drift ice is "u wat]4 ,! great]1 !re=e1 ! volume ( ! iceb]g1 ! soon] w\ld x imp+e on "s %all[] "p ( ! sea2 :ile ! small] & light] floes1 lad5 ) f9] mud & gravel1 may pass freely ov] ! same banks1 & be c>ri$ to mu* great] di/ances4 ,9 ^? places1 also1 :]e 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies blocks h be5 c>ri$ s\?w>ds by coa/-ice1 hav+ be5 (t5 /r&$ & aga9 set afloat 9 ! direction ( a prevail+ curr5t1 ! blocks w be worn & dim9i% 9 size ! f>!r !y travel f _! po9t ( dep>ture4 ,! nor!rn drift ( ! mo/ s\!rn latitudes is usually ( ! highe/ antiquity4 ,9 ,scotl& x re/s imm$iately on ! old] rocks1 & is cov]$ by /ratifi$ s& & clay1 usually devoid ( fossils1 b 9 :i*1 at c]ta9 po9ts ne> ! ea/ & we/ coa/1 z1 = example1 9 ! e/u>ies ( ! ,tay & ,clyde1 m>9e %ells h be5 discov]$4 ,! same %ells h also be5 met ) 9 ! nor?1 at ,wick 9 ,cai?ness1 & on ! %ores ( ! ,moray ,fri?4 ,! pr9cipal deposit on ! ,clyde occurs at ! height ( ab\t #gj feet1 b a few %ells h be5 trac$ 9 x z high z #eed feet above ! sea4 ,al?\gh a proportion ( betwe5 #he or #ij 9 #ajj ( ! imb$d$ %ells are ( rec5t species1 ! rema9d] are unkn[n2 & ev5 _m :i* are rec5t n[ inhabit m nor!rn seas1 :]e we may1 p]haps1 h]eaft] f9d liv+ repres5tatives ( "s ( ! unkn[n fossils4 ,! di/ance to :i* erratic blocks h be5 c>ri$ s\?w>ds 9 ,scotl&1 & ! c\rse !y h tak51 :i* is (t5 :olly indep5d5t ( ! pres5t position ( hill & valley1 fav\rs ! idea t ice-rafts r ?an glaci]s 7 9 g5]al ! transport+ ag5ts4 ,! ,grampians 9 ,=f>%ire & 9 ,p]?%ire are f #cjjj to #djjj feet high4 ,to ! s\?w>d lies ! broad & deep valley ( ,/ra?more1 & to ! s\? ( ?is aga9 rise ! ,sidlaw ,hills#abe-;,a to ! height ( #aejj feet & upw>ds4 ,on ! highe/ summits ( ?is *a91 =m$ ( s&/one & %ale1 & at v>i\s elevations1 are f\nd huge angul> fragm5ts ( mica s*i/1 "s #c & o!rs #ae feet 9 diamet]1 :i* h be5 convey$ = a di/ance ( at lea/ #ae miles f ! ne>e/ ,grampian rocks f :i* !y c\ld h be5 deta*$4 ,o!rs h be5 left /rew$ ov] ! bottom ( ! l>ge int]v5+ vale ( ,/ra?more4 ,/ill f>!r s\? on ! ,p5tl& ,hills1 at ! height ( #aajj feet above ! sea1 ,mr4 ,macl>5 has obs]v$ a fragm5t ( mica-s*i/ weigh+ f #h to #aj tons1 ! ne>e/ m\nta9 compos$ ( ?is =mation be+ #ej miles di/ant4#abe-;,b ,! te/ace\s fauna ( ! b\ld] p]iod1 9 ,scotl&1 ,engl&1 & ,irel&1 has be5 %[n by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes to conta9 a mu* small] numb] ( species ?an t n[ belong+ to ! ,briti% seas1 & to h be5 also mu* less ri* 9 species ?an ! ,old] ,plioc5e fauna ( ! crag :i* prec$$ x4 ,yet ! species are ne>ly all ( !m n[ liv+ ei!r 9 ! ,briti% or m nor!rn seas1 ! %ells ( m arctic latitudes be+ ! mo/ abundant & ! mo/ wide spread ?r\gh\t ! entire area ( ! drift f nor? to s\?4 ,?is ext5sive range ( ! fossils c by no means be expla9$ by imag9+ ! mollusca ( ! drift to h be5 inhabitants ( a deep sea1 :]e a m uni=m temp]ature prevail$4 ,on ! contr>y1 _m species 7 littoral1 & o!rs belong$ to a %all[ sea1 n above #ajj feet deep1 & v few ( !m liv$1 accord+ to ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 at great] dep?s ?an #cjj feet4 ,f :at 0 be=e /at$ x w appe> t ! b\ld] =mation displays almo/ ev]y:]e1 9 its m9]al +r$i5ts1 a /range het]og5e\s mixture ( ! ru9s ( adjac5t l&s1 ) /ones bo? angul> & r\nd$1 :i* h come f po9ts (t5 v remote4 ,?us we f9d x 9 our ea/]n c\nties1 z 9 ,norfolk1 ,suffolk1 ,cambridge1 ,hunt+don1 ,b$=d1 ,h]t=d1 ,essex1 & ,middlesex1 conta9+ /ones f ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 & f ! lias1 oolite1 & *alk1 all ) _! peculi> fossils1 toge!r ) trap1 sy5ite1 mica-s*i/1 granite1 & o!r cry/all9e rocks4 ,a f9e example ( ?is s+ul> mixture ext5ds to ! v suburbs ( ,london1 be+ se5 on ! summit ( ,muswell ,hill1 ,highgate4 ,b s\? ( ,london ! nor!rn drift is want+1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,wealds ( ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex4 ,norfolk drift4--,! drift c n[h]e be /udi$ m advantage\sly 9 ,engl& ?an 9 ! cliffs ( ! ,norfolk coa/ betwe5 ,happisburgh & ,crom]4 ,v]tical sections1 hav+ an ord9>y height ( f #ej to #gj feet1 are !re expos$ to view = a di/ance ( ab\t #bj miles4 ,! "n ( diluvium 0 =m]ly giv5 to x by ^? :o suppos$ x to h be5 produc$ by ! viol5t action ( a sudd5 & transi5t deluge1 b ! t]m drift has be5 sub/itut$ by ^? :o reject ?is hypo!sis4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 x consi/s = ! mo/ "p ( clay1 loam1 & s&1 9 "p /ratifi$1 9 "p devoid ( /ratification4 ,pebbles1 toge!r ) "s l>ge b\ld]s ( granite1 porphyry1 gre5/one1 lias1 *alk1 & o!r transport$ rocks1 are int]sp]s$1 especially ?r\gh ! till4 ,t "s ( ! granitic & o!r fragm5ts came f ,sc&9avia ,i h no d\bt1 aft] hav+ myself trac$ ! c\rse ( ! cont9u\s /ream ( blocks f ,norway & ,sw$5 to ,d5m>k1 & across ! ,elbe1 ?r\gh ,we/phalia1 to ! bord]s ( ,holl&4 ,we ne$ n be surpris$ to f9d !m reappe> on our ea/]n coa/1 betwe5 ! ,twe$ & ! ,?ames1 regions n half s remote f p>ts ( ,norway z are _m ,russian erratics f ! s\rces :5ce !y came4 ,:ite *alk rubble1 unmix$ ) =eign matt]1 & ev5 huge fragm5ts ( solid *alk1 also occur 9 _m localities 9 ^! ,norfolk cliffs4 ,no fossils h be5 detect$ 9 ?is drift1 :i* c positively be ref]r$ to ! era ( its accumulation2 b at "s po9ts x ov]lies a fre%wat] =mation conta9+ rec5t %ells1 & at o!rs x is bl5d$ ) ! same 9 su* a mann] z to =ce u to conclude t bo? 7 contemporane\sly deposit$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4 ,! %ad$ portion consi/s ( ,fre%wat] b$s4 ,int]calation ( fre%wat] b$s & ( b\ld] clay & s& at ,mundesley4 ,?is int]/ratification is express$ 9 ! annex$ figure1 ! d>k mass indicat+ ! position ( ! fre%wat] b$s1 :i* conta9 mu* vegetable matt]1 & are divid$ into ?9 lay]s4 ,! imb$d$ %ells belong to ! g5]a ,planorbis1 ,lymnea1 ,palud9a1 ,unio1 ,cyclas1 & o!rs1 all ( ,briti% species1 except a m9ute ,palud9a n[ inhabit+ ,france4 7,see fig4 #aab47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4 ,palud9a m>g9ata1 ,mi*aud4 7,p4 m9uta1 ,/rickl&47 ,! middle figure is ( ! natural size4 ,! ,cyclas 7fig4 #aac47 is m]ely a rem>kable v>iety ( ! common ,engli% species4 ,! scales & tee? ( fi% ( ! g5]a ,pike1 ,p]*1 ,roa*1 & o!rs1 accompany ^! %ells2 b ! species are n consid]$ by ,m4 ,agassiz to be id5tical ) kn[n ,briti% or ,european k9ds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4 ,cyclas 7,pisidium7 amnica1 v>48 ,! two middle figures are ( ! natural size4 ,! s]ies ( =mations 9 ! cliffs ( ea/]n ,norfolk1 n[ "u consid]ation1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/1 is z foll[s3--,fir/1 *alk2 secondly1 pat*es ( a m>9e t]ti>y =mation1 call$ ! ,norwi* ,crag1 h]eaft] to be describ$2 ?irdly1 ! fre%wat] b$s already m5tion$2 & la/ly1 ! drift4 ,imm$iately above ! *alk1 or crag1 :5 t is pres5t1 is f\nd "h & !re a buri$ =e/1 or a /ratum 9 :i* ! /ools & roots ( trees /& 9 _! natural position1 ! trunks hav+ be5 brok5 %ort (f & imb$d$ ) _! bran*es & leaves4 ,x is v rem>kable t ! /rata ( ! ov]ly+ b\ld] =mation h (t5 und]gone great d]angem5t at po9ts :]e ! subjac5t =e/ b$ & *alk rema9 undi/urb$4 ,!re are also cases :]e ! upp] portion ( ! b\ld] deposit has be5 greatly d]ang$1 :ile ! l[] b$s ( ! same h cont9u$ horizontal4 ,?us ! annex$ section 7fig4 #aad47 repres5ts a cliff ab\t #ej feet high1 at ! bottom ( :i* is till1 or un/ratifi$ clay1 conta9+ b\ld]s1 hav+ an ev5 horizontal surface1 on :i* repose con=mably b$s ( lam9at$ clay & s& ab\t #e feet ?ick1 :i*1 9 _! turn1 are succe$$ by v]tical1 b5t1 & contort$ lay]s ( s& & loam #bj feet ?ick1 ! :ole be+ cov]$ by fl9t gravel4 ,n[ ! curves ( ! v>i\sly col\r$ b$s ( loose s&1 loam1 & pebbles are s complicat$ t n only may we sometimes f9d portions ( !m :i* ma9ta9 _! v]ticality to a height ( #aj or #ae feet1 b !y h also be5 fold$ ^u !mselves 9 su* a mann] t cont9u\s lay]s might be ?rice pi]c$ 9 "o p]p5dicul> bor+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4 ,cliff #ej feet high betwe5 ,bacton ,gap & ,mundesley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4 ,fold+ ( ! /rata betwe5 ,ea/ & ,we/ ,runton4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4 ,section ( conc5tric b$s we/ ( ,crom]4 #a4 ,blue clay4 #b4 ,:ite s&4 #c4 ,yell[ ,s&4 #d4 ,/rip$ loam & clay4 #e4 ,lam9at$ blue clay4 ,at "s po9ts !re is an app>5t fold+ ( ! b$s r\nd a c5tral nucleus1 z at a1 fig4 #aae41 :]e ! /rata seem b5t r\nd a small mass ( *alk2 or1 z 9 fig4 #aaf41 :]e ! blue clay1 ,no4 #a41 is 9 ! c5tre2 & :]e ! o!r /rata1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 are coil$ r\nd x2 ! entire mass be+ #bj feet 9 p]p5dicul> height4 ,?is appe>ance ( conc5tric arrangem5t ar\nd a nucleus is1 nev]!less1 delusive1 be+ produc$ by ! int]section ( b$s b5t into a convex %ape2 & t :i* seems ! nucleus be+1 9 fact1 ! inn]mo/ b$ ( ! s]ies1 :i* has become p>tially visible by ! removal ( ! protub]ant portions ( ! out] lay]s4 ,to ! nor? ( ,crom] are o!r f9e illu/rations ( contort$ drift repos+ on a floor ( *alk horizontally /ratifi$ & hav+ a level surface4 ,^! ph5om5a1 9 !mselves suffici5tly difficult ( explanation1 are r5d]$ /ill m anomal\s by ! occasional inclosure 9 ! drift ( huge fragm5ts ( *alk _m y>ds 9 diamet]4 ,"o /rik+ in/ance occurs we/ ( ,%]r+ham1 :]e an enorm\s p9nacle ( *alk1 betwe5 #gj & #hj feet 9 height1 is flank$ on bo? sides by v]tical lay]s ( loam1 clay1 & gravel4 7,fig4 #aag47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4 ,includ$ p9nacle ( *alk at ,old ,hy! po9t1 we/ ( ,%]r+ham4 d4 ,*alk ) regul> lay]s ( *alk fl9ts4 c4 ,lay] call$ ! pan1 ( loose *alk1 fl9ts1 & m>9e %ells ( rec5t species1 cem5t$ by oxide ( iron4 ,?is *alky fragm5t is only "o ( _m deta*$ masses :i* h be5 includ$ 9 ! drift1 & =c$ along ) x into _! pres5t position4 ,! level surface ( ! *alk 9 situ 7d7 may be trac$ = miles along ! coa/1 :]e x has escap$ ! viol5t movem5ts to :i* ! incumb5t drift has be5 expos$4#abi-;,a ,we are call$ ^u1 !n1 to expla9 h[ any =ce c h be5 ex]t$ aga9/ ! upp] masses1 s z to produce movem5ts 9 :i* ! subjac5t /rata h n p>ticipat$4 ,x may be answ]$ t1 if we conceive ! till & its b\ld]s to h be5 drift$ to _! pres5t place by ice1 ! lat]al pressure may h be5 suppli$ by ! /r&+ ( ice-isl&s4 ,we le>n1 f ! obs]vations ( ,messrs4 ,dease & ,simpson 9 ! pol> regions1 t su* isl&s1 :5 !y run agr\nd1 pu% be=e !m l>ge m\nds ( %+le & s&4 ,x is !re=e probable t !y (t5 cause great alt]ations 9 ! arrangem5t ( pliant & incoh]5t /rata =m+ ! upp] "p ( %oals or subm]g$ banks1 ! inf]ior portions ( ! same rema9+ unmov$4 ,or _m ( ! complicat$ curvatures ( ^! lay]s ( loose s& & gravel may h be5 due to ano!r cause1 ! melt+ on ! spot ( iceb]gs & coa/ ice 9 :i* successive deposits ( pebbles1 s&1 ice1 sn[1 & mud1 toge!r ) huge masses ( rock fall5 f cliffs1 may h become int]/ratifi$4 ,ice-isl&s s con/itut$ (t5 capsize :5 afloat1 & gravel once horizontal may h assum$1 be=e ! associat$ ice 0 melt$1 an incl9$ or v]tical position4 ,! pack+ ( ice =c$ up on a coa/ may lead to simil> d]angem5t 9 a froz5 conglom]ate ( s& or %+le1 &1 z ,mr4 ,trimm] has sugge/$#acj-;,a1 alt]nate lay]s ( e>?y matt] may h sunk d[n sl[ly dur+ ! liquefaction ( ! int]calat$ ice1 s z to assume ! mo/ fanta/ic & anomal\s positions1 :ile ! aque\s /rata bel[1 & ^? aft]w>ds ?r[n d[n above1 may be p]fectly horizontal4 ,a buri$ =e/ has be5 adv]t$ to z und]ly+ ! drift on ! coa/ ( ,norfolk4 ,at ! "t :5 ! trees grew !re mu/ h be5 dry l& ov] a l>ge area1 :i* 0 aft]w>ds subm]g$1 s z to all[ a mass ( /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$ drift1 #bjj feet & m 9 ?ickness1 to be sup]impos$4 ,! und]m9+ ( ! cliffs by ! sea 9 mod]n times has enabl$ u to demon/rate1 beyond all d\bt1 ! fact ( ?is sup]position1 & t ! =e/ 0 n =m$ along ! pres5t coa/-l9e4 ,its situation implies a subsid5ce ( sev]al hundr$ feet s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! drift p]iod1 aft] :i* !re mu/ h be5 an upheaval ( ! same gr\nd2 = ! =e/ b$ ( ,norfolk is n[ aga9 s high z to be expos$ to view at _m po9ts at l[ wat]2 & ?is same upw>d movem5t may expla9 :y ! till1 :i* is conceiv$ to h be5 ( subm>9e orig91 is n[ met ) f> inl&1 & on ! summit ( hills4 ,! b\ld] =mation ( ! we/ ( ,engl&1 obs]v$ 9 ,lanca%ire1 ,*e%ire1 ,%rop%ire1 ,/af=d%ire1 & ,worce/]%ire1 conta9s 9 "s places m>9e %ells ( rec5t species1 ris+ to v>i\s heights1 f #ajj to #cej feet above ! sea4 ,! erratics h come p>tly f ! m\nta9s ( ,cumb]l&1 & p>tly f ^? ( ,scotl&4 ,b x is on ! m\nta9s ( ,nor? ,wales t ! ,nor!rn drift1 ) its *>act]i/ic m>9e fossils1 rea*es its greate/ altitude4 ,on ,moel ,tryfane1 ne> ! ,m5ai ,/raits1 ,mr4 ,trimm] met ) %ells ( ! species commonly f\nd 9 ! drift at ! height ( #acib feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,x is rem>kable t 9 ! same neighb\rhood :]e !re is evid5ce ( s great a subm]g5ce ( ! l& dur+ "p ( ! glacial p]iod1 we h also ! mo/ decisive pro(s yet discov]$ 9 ! ,briti% ,isles ( suba]ial glaci]s4 ,dr4 ,buckl& publi%$ 9 #ahdb 8 reasons = believ+ t ! ,sn[donian m\nta9s 9 ,ca]n>von%ire 7 =m]ly cov]$ ) glaci]s1 :i* radiat$ f ! c5tral heights ?r\gh ! sev5 pr9cipal valleys ( t *a91 :]e /riae & flut+s are se5 on ! poli%$ rocks direct$ t[>ds z _m diff]5t po9ts ( ! compass4 ,he also describ$ ! mora9es ( ! anci5t glaci]s1 & ! r\nd$ bosses or small flatt5$ domes ( poli%$ rock1 su* z ! action ( mov+ glaci]s is kn[n to produce 9 ,switz]l&1 :5 gravel1 s&1 & b\ld]s1 und]ly+ ! ice1 are =c$ along ov] a f\ndation ( h>d /one4 ,mr4 ,d>w91 & subsequ5tly ,pr(4 ,ramsay1 h confirm$ ,dr4 ,buckl&'s views 9 reg>d to ^! ,wel% glaci]s4 ,nor inde$ 0 x to be expect$ t geologi/s %\ld discov] pro(s ( iceb]gs hav+ ab\nd$ 9 ! area n[ occupi$ by ! ,briti% ,isles 9 ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod )\t sometimes meet+ ) ! signs ( contemporane\s glaci]s :i* cov]$ hills ev5 ( mod]ate elevation betwe5 ! #ej? & #fj? degrees ( latitude4 ,9 ,irel& ! drift exhibits ! same g5]al *>act]s & fossil rema9s z 9 ,scotl& & ,engl&2 b 9 ! s\!rn "p ( t isl&1 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes & ,capt4 ,james f\nd 9 x "s %ells :i* %[ t ! glacial sea communicat$ ) "o inhabit$ by a m s\!rn fauna4 ,among o!r species 9 ! s\?1 !y m5tion at ,wex=d & else:]e ! occurr5ce ( ,nucula ,cobboldiae 7see fig4 #abj4 p4 #adi47 & ,turritella incrassata 7a crag fossil72 also a s\!rn =m ( ,fusus1 & a ,mitra alli$ to a ,spani% species4#aca-;,a ,,footnotes3 #abb-;,a ,*ap4 xvi4 & ! ref]5ces !re giv54 #abb-;,b ,voyage 9 #ahbb1 p4 #bcc4 #abc-;,a ,t4 ,l4 ,hayes1 ,bo/on ,j\rn4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 #ahdd4 #abd-;,a ,see pap] by ! au?or1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #ae4 #abe-;,a ,see above1 section1 p4 #dh4 #abe-;,b ,geol4 ( ,fife1 c4 p4 #bbj4 #abi-;,a ,= a full acc\nt ( ! drift ( ,ea/ ,norfolk1 see a pap] by ! au?or1 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,no4 #ajd4 ,may1 #ahdj4 #acj-;,a ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vii4 p4 #bb4 #aca-;,a ,=bes1 ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey ( ,great ,brita91 vol4 i4 p4 #cgg4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,b\ld] ,,=mation--cont9u$4 ,difficulty ( int]pret+ ! ph5om5a ( drift be=e ! glacial hypo!sis 0 adopt$--,effects ( int5se cold 9 augm5t+ ! quantity ( alluvium--,analogy ( erratics & scor$ rocks 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & ,europe--,bayfield on %ells 9 drift ( ,canada--,great subsid5ce & re-elevation ( l& f ! sea1 requir$ to acc\nt = glacial appe>ances--,:y organic rema9s s r>e 9 nor!rn drift--,ma/odon giganteus 9 ,unit$ ,/ates--,_m %ells & "s quadrup$s surviv$ ! glacial cold--,alps an indep5d5t c5tre ( disp]sion ( erratics--,alp9e blocks on ! ,jura--,:e!r transport$ by glaci]s or float+ ice--,rec5t transportation ( erratics f ! ,&es to ,*iloe--,meteorite 9 ,asiatic drift4 ,x w appe> f :at 0 said 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ! m>9e %ells *>act]iz+ ! b\ld] =mation1 t n9e-t5?s or m ( !m belong to species /ill liv+4 ,! sup]ficial position ( ! drift is 9 p]fect accordance ) its imb$d$ organic rema9s1 lead+ u to ref] its orig9 to a mod]n p]iod4 ,if1 !n1 we enc\nt] s mu* difficulty 9 ! int]pretation ( monum5ts relat+ to times s ne> our own--if 9 spite ( _! rec5t date !y are involv$ 9 s mu* obscurity--! /ud5t may ask1 n )\t reasonable al>m1 h[ we c hope to deciph] ! records ( remote ages4 ,to remove f ! m9d z f> z possible ?is natural feel+ ( disc\ragem5t1 ,i %all endeav\r 9 ?is *apt] to prove t :at seems mo/ /rik+ly anomal\s1 9 ! erratic =mation1 z "s call x1 is really ! result ( t glacial action :i* has already be5 allud$ to4 ,if s1 x 0 to be expect$ t s long z ! true orig9 ( s s+ul> a deposit rema9$ undiscov]$1 errone\s !ories & t]ms w\ld be inv5t$ 9 ! ef=t to solve ! problem4 ,^! inv5tions w\ld inevitably ret>d ! reception ( m correct views :i* a wid] field ( obs]vation might aft]w>ds sugge/4 ,! t]m diluvium 0 = a "t ! popul> "n ( ! b\ld] =mation1 because x 0 ref]r$ by "s geologi/s to ! deluge4 ,o!rs reta9$ ! "n z expressive ( _! op9ion t a s]ies ( diluvial waves rais$ by hurricanes & /orms1 or by e>?quakes1 or by ! sudd5 upheaval ( l& f ! b$ ( ! sea1 _h swept ov] ! cont95ts1 c>ry+ ) !m va/ masses ( mud & heavy /ones1 & =c+ ^! /ones ov] rocky surfaces s z to poli% & impr9t ^u !m long furr[s & /riae4 ,b no explanation 0 (f]$ :y su* ag5cy %\ld h be5 develop$ m en]getically 9 mod]n times ?an at =m] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 or :y x %\ld be display$ 9 its fulle/ int5sity 9 nor!rn latitudes2 = x is important to insi/ on ! fact1 t ! b\ld] =mation is a nor!rn ph5om5on4 ,ev5 ! s\!rn ext5sion ( ! drift1 or ! l>ge erratics f\nd 9 ! ,alps & ! surr\nd+ l&s1 especially _! occurr5ce r\nd ! highe/ p>ts ( ! *a91 (f]s su* an exception to ! g5]al rule z confirms ! glacial hypo!sis2 = x %[s t ! transportation ( /ony fragm5ts to great di/ances1 & ! /riation1 poli%+1 & groov+ ( solid floors ( rock1 are "h aga9 intimately connect$ ) accumulations ( p]5nial sn[ & ice4 ,t !re is "s intimate connection betwe5 a cold or nor!rn climate & ! v>i\s geological appe>ances n[ commonly call$ glacial1 _c be d\bt$ by any "o :o has comp>$ ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,baltic ) ^? surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! smoo?+ & /riation ( rocks1 & ! erratics1 are trac$ f ! sea-%ore to ! height ( #cjjj feet above ! level ( ! ,baltic1 :]eas su* ph5om5a are :olly want+ 9 c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean2 & _! abs5ce is /ill m m>k$ 9 ! equatorial p>ts ( ,asia1 ,africa1 & ,am]ica2 b :5 we cross ! s\!rn tropic1 & rea* ,*ili & ,patagonia1 we aga9 enc\nt] ! b\ld] =mation1 betwe5 ! latitude #da deg4 ,s4 & ,cape ,horn1 ) precisely ! same *>act]s :i* x assumes 9 ,europe4 ,! evid5ce z to climate d]iv$ f ! organic rema9s ( ! drift is1 z we h se51 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! conclusions above allud$ to1 ! =m] habits ( ! species ( mollusca be+ accurately asc]ta9able1 inasmu* z !y belong to species /ill liv+1 & kn[n to h at pres5t a wide range 9 nor!rn seas4 ,b if we are correct 9 assum+ t ! nor!rn hemisph]e 0 consid]ably cold] ?an n[ dur+ ! p]iod "u consid]ation1 ow+ probably to ! great] area & height ( arctic l&s1 & to ! quantity ( iceb]gs :i* su* a geographical /ate ( ?+s w\ld g5]ate1 x may be well to reflect be=e we proce$ f>!r on ! entire modification :i* extreme cold w\ld produce 9 ! op]ation ( ^? causes spok5 ( 9 ! six? *apt] z mo/ active 9 ! =mation ( alluvium4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ials d]iv$ f ! detritus ( rocks1 :i* 9 w>m climates w\ld g to =m deltas1 or w\ld be regul>ly /ratifi$ by m>9e curr5ts1 w\ld1 "u arctic influ5ces1 assume a sup]ficial & alluvial "*4 ,in/ead ( mud be+ c>ri$ f>!r f a coa/ ?an s&1 & s& f>!r out ?an pebbles1--in/ead ( d5se /ratifi$ masses be+ heap$ up 9 limit$ areas1--ne>ly ! :ole mat]ials1 :e!r co>se or f9e1 w\ld be convey$ by ice to equal di/ances1 & huge fragm5ts1 :i* wat] alone c\ld nev] move1 w\ld be borne = hundr$s ( miles )\t hav+ _! edges worn or fractur$2 & ! e>?y & /ony masses1 :5 melt$ out ( ! froz5 rafts1 w\ld be scatt]$ at r&om ov] ! subm>9e bottom1 :e!r on m\nta9 tops or 9 l[ pla9s1 ) sc>cely any relation to ! inequalities ( ! gr\nd1 settl+ on ! cre/s or ridges ( hills 9 tranquil wat] z readily z 9 valleys & rav9es4 ,occasionally1 9 ^? deep & un9habit$ p>ts ( ! ocean1 nev] rea*$ by any b ! f9e/ s$im5t 9 a normal /ate ( ?+s1 ! bottom w\ld become d5sely ov]spread by gravel1 mud1 & b\ld]s4 ,9 ! ,we/]n ,hemisph]e1 bo? 9 ,canada & z f> s\? z ! #dj? & ev5 #ch? p>allel ( latitude 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 we meet ) a repetition ( all ! peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% ! ,european b\ld] =mation4 ,fragm5ts ( rock h travell$ = great di/ances f nor? to s\?2 ! surface ( ! subjac5t rock is smoo!d1 /riat$1 & flut$2 un/ratifi$ mud or till conta9+ b\ld]s is associat$ ) /rata ( loam1 s&1 & clay1 usually devoid ( fossils4 ,:]e %ells are pres5t1 !y are ( species /ill liv+ 9 nor!rn seas1 & half ( !m id5tical ) ^? already enum]at$ z belong+ to ,european drift #aj degrees ( latitude f>!r nor?4 ,! fauna also ( ! glacial epo* 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is less ri* 9 species ?an t n[ inhabit+ ! adjac5t sea1 :e!r 9 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 or (f ! %ores ( ,ma9e1 or 9 ! ,bay ( ,massa*usetts4 ,at ! s\!rn extremity ( its c\rse1 moreov]1 x pres5ts an analogy ) ! drift ( ! s\? ( ,irel&1 by bl5d+ ) a m s\!rn fauna1 z = example at ,brooklyn ne> ,new ,york1 9 lat4 #da deg4 ,n41 :]e1 accord+ to ,,mm4 ,r$field & ,desor1 ,v5us m]c5>ia & o!r s\!rn species ( %ells beg9 to occur z fossils 9 ! drift4 ,! ext5sion on ! ,am]ican cont95t ( ! range ( erratics dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod to l[] latitudes ?an !y rea*$ 9 ,europe1 agrees well ) ! pres5t s\?w>d deflection ( ! iso!rmal l9es1 or r ! l9es ( equal w9t] temp]ature4 ,=m]ly1 z n[1 a m extreme climate & a m abundant supply ( float+ ice prevail$ on ! we/]n side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,ano!r resemblance betwe5 ! di/ribution ( ! drift fossils 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica has yet to be po9t$ out4 ,9 ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,scotl&1 z 9 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! m>9e %ells are conf9$ to v mod]ate elevations above ! sea 7betwe5 #ajj & #gjj feet71 :ile ! erratic blocks & ! groov$ & poli%$ surfaces ( rock ext5d to elevations ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4 ,cross section4 ,k4 ,mr4 ,ryl&'s h\se4 h4 ,clay & s& ( high] gr\nds1 ) ,saxicava1 c4 g4 ,gravel ) b\ld]s4 f4 ,mass ( ,saxicava rugosa1 #ab feet ?ick4 e4 ,s& & loam ) ,mya truncata1 ,scal>ia ,gro5l&ica1 c4 d4 ,drift1 ) b\ld]s ( sy5ite1 c4 c4 ,yell[ s&4 b4 ,lam9at$ clay1 #be feet ?ick4 ,a4 ,horizontal l[] ,silurian /rata4 ,b4 ,valley re-excavat$4 ,i describ$ 9 #ahci ! fossil %ells collect$ by ,capta9 ,bayfield f /rata ( drift at ,beauport ne> ,quebec1 9 lat4 #dg deg41 & drew f !m ! inf]5ce t !y indicat$ a m nor!rn climate1 ! %ells agree+ 9 great "p ) ^? ( ,uddevalla 9 ,sw$54#acd-;,a ,! %elly b$s atta9 at ,beauport & ! neighb\rhood a height ( #bjj1 #cjj1 & sometimes #djj feet above ! sea1 & disp]s$ ?r\gh "s ( !m are l>ge b\ld]s ( granite1 :i* c\ld n h be5 propell$ by a viol5t curr5t1 because ! accompany+ fragile %ells are almo/ all entire4 ,!y seem1 !re=e1 said ,capta9 ,bayfield1 writ+ 9 #ahch1 to h be5 dropp$ d[n f melt+ ice1 l simil> /ones :i* are n[ annually deposit$ 9 ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce4#acd-;,b ,i visit$ ?is locality 9 #ahdb1 & made ! annex$ section1 fig4 #aah41 :i* w give an idea ( ! g5]al position ( ! drift 9 ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,i imag9e t ! :ole ( ! valley ,b 0 once fill$ up ) ! b$s b1 c1 d1 e1 f1 :i* 7 deposit$ dur+ a p]iod ( subsid5ce1 & t subsequ5tly ! high] c\ntry 7h7 0 subm]g$ & ov]spread ) drift4 ,! p>tial re-excavation ( ,b took place :5 ?is region 0 aga9 uplift$ above ! sea to its pres5t height4 ,among ! tw5ty-?ree species ( fossil %ells collect$ by me f ^! b$s at ,beauport1 all 7 ( rec5t nor!rn species1 except "o1 :i* is unkn[n z liv+1 & may be ext9ct 7see fig4 #aai474 ,i also exam9$ ! same =mation f>!r up ! valley ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 9 ! suburbs ( ,montreal1 :]e "s ( ! b$s ( loam are fill$ ) great numb]s ( ! ,mytilus edulis1 or our common ,european mussel1 reta9+ bo? its valves & purple col\r4 ,?is %elly deposit1 conta9+ ,saxicava rugosa & o!r *>act]i/ic m>9e %ells1 also occurs at an elevat$ po9t on ! m\nta9 ( ,montreal1 #dej feet above ! level ( ! sea4#ace-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4 ,a/>te ,laur5tiana4 a4 ,outside4 b4 ,inside ( "r valve4 c4 ,inside ( left valve4 ,9 my acc\nt ( ,canada & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 publi%$ 9 #ahde1 ,i ann\nc$ ! conclusion to :i* ,i _h !n arriv$1 t to expla9 ! position ( ! erratics & ! poli%$ surfaces ( rocks1 & _! /riae & flut+s1 we mu/ assume fir/ a gradual subm]g5ce ( ! l& 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 aft] x _h acquir$ its pres5t outl9e ( hill & valley1 cliff & rav9e1 & !n its re-em]g5ce f ! ocean4 ,:5 ! l& 0 sl[ly s9k+1 ! sea :i* bord]$ x 0 cov]$ ) isl&s ( float+ ice com+ f ! nor?1 :i*1 z !y gr\nd$ on ! coa/ & on %oals1 pu%$ along su* loose mat]ials ( s& & pebbles z lay /rew$ ov] ! bottom4 ,by ?is =ce all angul> & project+ po9ts 7 brok5 (f1 & fragm5ts ( h>d /one1 froz5 into ! l[] surface ( ! ice1 _h p[] to scoop out grooves 9 ! subjac5t solid rock4 ,! slop+ bea*1 z well z ! floor ( ! ocean1 might be poli%$ & scor$ by ?is ma*9]y2 b no flood ( wat]1 h[ev] viol5t1 or h[ev] great ! quantity ( detritus or size ( ! rocky fragm5ts swept along by x1 c\ld produce su* long1 p]fectly /raight & p>allel furr[s1 z are ev]y:]e visible 9 ! ,niag>a di/rict1 & g5]ally 9 ! region nor? ( ! #dj? p>allel ( latitude4#ace-;,b ,by ! hypo!sis ( su* a sl[ & gradual subsid5ce ( ! l& we may acc\nt = ! fact t almo/ ev]y:]e 9 ,n4 ,am]ica & ,nor!rn ,europe ! b\ld] =mation re/s on a poli%$ & furr[$ surface ( rock1--a fact by no means oblig+ u to imag9e1 z "s ?9k1 t ! poli%+ & groov+ action 01 z a :ole1 ant]ior 9 date to ! transportation ( ! erratics4 ,dur+ ! successive depression ( high l&1 v>y+ orig9ally 9 height f #ajjj to #cjjj feet above ! sea-level1 e portion ( ! surface w\ld be br\ght d[n by turns to ! level ( ! ocean1 s z to be conv]t$ fir/ into a coa/-l9e1 & !n into a %oal2 & at l5g?1 aft] be+ well scor$ by ! /r&+ ^u x ( ?\s&s ( iceb]gs1 might be sunk to a dep? ( sev]al hundr$ fa?oms4 ,by ! con/ant depression ( l&1 ! coa/ w\ld rec$e f>!r & f>!r f ! successively =m$ zones ( poli%$ & /riat$ rock1 ea* out] zone becom+ 9 its turn s deep "u wat] z to be no long] grat$ ^u by ! heavie/ iceb]gs4 ,su* sunk5 areas w\ld !n simply s]ve z receptacles ( mud1 s&1 & b\ld]s dropp$ f melt+ ice1 p]haps to a dep? sc>cely1 if at all1 inhabit$ by te/acea & zoophytes4 ,mean:ile1 dur+ ! =mation ( ! un/ratifi$ & unfossilif]\s mass 9 deep] wat]1 ! smoo?+ & furr[+ ( %oals & bea*es is /ill go+ on else:]e ^u & ne> ! coa/ 9 full activity4 ,if at l5g? ! subsid5ce %\ld cease1 & ! direction ( ! movem5t ( ! e>?'s cru/ be rev]s$1 ! sunk5 area cov]$ ) drift w\ld be sl[ly reconv]t$ into l&4 ,! b\ld] deposit1 be=e em]g+1 w\ld !n = a "t be br\ght )9 ! action ( ! waves1 tides1 & curr5ts1 s t its upp] portion1 be+ p>tially di/urb$1 w\ld h its mat]ials re-arrang$ & /ratifi$4 ,/reams also fl[+ f ! l& w\ld 9 "s places ?r[ d[n lay]s ( s$im5t ^u ! till4 ,9 t case1 ! ord] ( sup]position w be1 fir/ & upp]mo/1 s&1 loam1 & gravel occasionally fossilif]\s2 secondly1 an un/ratifi$ & unfossilif]\s mass1 = ! mo/ "p ( mu* old] date ?an ! prec$+1 ) angul> erratics1 or ) b\ld]s int]sp]s$2 &1 ?irdly1 b5ea? ! :ole1 a surface ( poli%$ & furr[$ rock4 ,su* a succession ( ev5ts seems to h prevail$ v widely on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic1 ! travell$ blocks hav+ be5 c>ri$ 9 g5]al f ! ,nor? ,pole s\?w>ds1 b m\nta9 *a9s hav+ 9 "s cases s]v$ z indep5d5t c5tres ( disp]sion1 ( :i* ! ,alps pres5t ! mo/ conspicu\s example4 ,x is by no means r>e to meet ) b\ld]s imb$d$ 9 drift :i* are worn flat on "o or m ( _! sides1 ! surface be+ at ! same "t poli%$1 furr[$1 & /riat$4 ,!y may h be5 s %ap$ 9 a glaci] be=e !y rea*$ ! sea1 or :5 !y 7 fix$ 9 ! bottom ( an iceb]g z x ran agr\nd4 ,we le>n f ,mr4 ,*>les ,m>t9s t ! glaci]s ( ,spitzb]g5 project f ! coa/ into a sea betwe5 #ajj & #djj feet deep2 & t numb]s ( /riat$ pebbles or blocks are !re se5 to dis5gage !mselves f ! ov]hang+ masses ( ice z !y melt1 s z to fall at once into deep wat]4#acf-;,a ,t !y %\ld reta9 su* m>k+s :5 aga9 uprais$ above ! sea ought n to surprise u1 :5 we rememb] t rippl$ s&s1 & ! cracks 9 clay dri$ betwe5 high & l[ wat]1 & ! foot-tracks ( animals & ra9-drops impress$ on mud1 & o!r sup]ficial m>k+s1 are all f\nd fossil 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is n difficult to acc\nt = ! abs5ce 9 _m di/ricts ( /riat$ & scor$ pebbles & b\ld]s 9 glacial deposits1 = !y may h be5 expos$ to ! action ( ! waves on a coa/ :ile x 0 s9k+ b5ea? or ris+ above ! sea4 ,no %+le on an ord9>y sea-bea* exhibits su* /riae1 & at a v %ort di/ance f ! t]m9ation ( a glaci] e /one 9 ! b$ ( ! torr5t :i* gu%es out f ! melt+ ice is f\nd to h lo/ its glacial m>k+s by be+ roll$ = a di/ance ev5 ( a few hundr$ y>ds4 ,! usual de>? ( fossil %ells 9 glacial clays well fitt$ to pres]ve organic rema9s may1 p]haps1 be ow+1 z already h9t$1 to ! abs5ce ( te/acea 9 ! deep sea1 :]e ! undi/urb$ accumulation ( b\ld]s melt$ out ( v l>ge b]gs may take place4 ,9 ! ,a,egean & o!r p>ts ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 ! z]o ( animal life1 accord+ to ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 is approa*$ at a dep? ( ab\t #cjj fa?oms4 ,9 tropical seas x w\ld desc5d f>!r d[n1 j z vegetation asc5ds high] on ! m\nta9s ( hot c\ntries4 ,ne> ! pole1 on ! o!r h&1 ! same z]o w\ld be rea*$ mu* soon] bo? on ! hills & 9 ! sea4 ,if ! ocean 0 fill$ ) float+ b]gs1 & a l[ temp]ature prevail$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 ev5 ! %all[ "p ( ! sea might h be5 un9habitable1 or v ?9ly peopl$ ) liv+ be+s4 ,x may also be rem>k$ t ! melt+ ( ice 9 "s fiords 9 ,norway fre%5s ! wat] s z to de/roy m>9e life1 & fam9es h be5 caus$ 9 ,icel& by ! /r&+ ( iceb]gs drift$ f ! ,gre5l& coa/1 :i* h requir$ sev]al ye>s to melt1 & h n only injur$ ! hay h>ve/ by cool+ ! atmosph]e1 b h driv5 away ! fi% f ! %ore by *ill+ & fre%5+ ! sea4 ,if ! cold ( ! glacial epo* came on sl[ly1 if x 0 long be=e x rea*$ its greate/ int5sity1 & aga9 if x abat$ gradually1 we may expect to f9d ! e>lie/ & late/ =m$ drift less b>r5 ( organic rema9s ?an t deposit$ dur+ ! colde/ p]iod4 ,we may also expect t along ! s\!rn limits ( ! drift dur+ ! :ole glacial epo*1 !re w\ld be an intimate association ( transport$ matt] ( nor!rn orig9 ) fossil-be>+ s$im5t1 :e!r m>9e or fre%wat]1 belong+ to m s\!rn seas1 riv]s1 & cont95ts4 ,t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! ,ma/odon giganteus 0 v abundant aft] ! drift p]iod is evid5t f ! fact t entire skeletons ( ?is animal are met ) 9 bogs & lacu/r9e deposits occupy+ holl[s 9 ! drift4 ,!y sometimes occur 9 ! bottom ev5 ( small ponds rec5tly dra9$ by ! agriculturi/ = ! sake ( ! %ell m>l4 ,i exam9$ "o ( ^! spots at ,g5eseo 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york1 f :i* ! bones1 skull1 & tusk ( a ,ma/odon _h be5 procur$ 9 ! m>l bel[ a lay] ( black peaty e>?1 & asc]ta9$ t all ! associat$ fre%wat] & l& %ells 7 ( a species n[ common 9 ! same di/rict4 ,!y consi/$ ( sev]al species ( ,lymnea1 ( ,planorbis bic>9atus1 ,physa het]o/ropha1 c4 ,9 #ahde no less ?an six skeletons ( ! same species ( ,ma/odon 7 f\nd 9 ,w>r5 ,c\nty1 ,new ,j]sey1 #f feet bel[ ! surface1 by a f>m] :o 0 digg+ out ! ri* mud f a small pond :i* he _h dra9$4 ,five ( ^! skeletons 7 ly+ toge!r1 & a l>ge "p ( ! bones crumbl$ to pieces z soon z !y 7 expos$ to ! air4 ,b ne>ly ! :ole ( ! o!r skeleton1 :i* lay ab\t #aj feet ap>t f ! re/1 0 pres]v$ entire1 & prov$ ! correctness ( ,cuvi]'s conjecture respect+ ?is ext9ct animal1 namely1 t x _h tw5ty ribs l ! liv+ elephant4 ,f ! clay 9 ! int]ior )9 ! ribs1 j :]e ! cont5ts ( ! /oma* might naturally h be5 look$ =1 sev5 bu%els ( vegetable matt] 7 extract$4 ,i submitt$ "s ( ?is matt] to ,mr4 ,a4 ,h5frey ( ,london = microscopic exam9ation1 & he in=ms me t x consi/s ( pieces ( small twigs ( a conif]\s tree ( ! ,cypress family1 probably ! "y %oots ( ! :ite c$>1 ,?uja occid5talis1 /ill a native ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 on :i* !re=e we may conclude t ?is ext9ct ,ma/odon once f$4 ,ano!r specim5 ( ! same quadrup$1 ! mo/ complete & probably ! l>ge/ ev] f\nd1 0 exhum$ 9 #ahde 9 ! t[n ( ,newburg1 ,new ,york1 ! l5g? ( ! skeleton be+ #be feet1 & its height #ab feet4 ,! an*ylos+ ( ! la/ two ribs on ! "r side af=d$ ,dr4 ,john ,c4 ,w>r5 a true gauge = ! space occupi$ by ! int]v]tebrate sub/ance1 s z to enable him to =m a correct e/imate ( ! entire l5g?4 ,! tusks :5 discov]$ 7 #aj feet long1 b a "p only c\ld be pres]v$4 ,! l>ge proportion ( animal matt] 9 ! tusk1 tee?1 & bones ( "s ( ^! fossil mammalia is truly a/oni%+4 ,x am\nts 9 "s cases1 z ,dr4 ,c4 ,t4 ,jackson has asc]ta9$ by analysis1 to #bg p] c5t41 s t :5 all ! e>?y +r$i5ts are remov$ by acids1 ! =m ( ! bone rema9s z p]fect1 & ! mass ( animal matt] is almo/ z firm1 z 9 a rec5t bone subject$ to simil> treatm5t4 ,x w\ld be ra%1 h[ev]1 to inf] f su* data t ^! quadrup$s 7 mir$ 9 mod]n times1 unless we use t t]m /rictly 9 a geological s5se4 ,i h %[n t !re is a fluviatile deposit 9 ! valley ( ! ,niag>a1 conta9+ %ells ( ! g5]a ,melania1 ,lymnea1 ,planorbis1 ,valvata1 ,cyclas1 ,unio1 & ,helix1 c41 all ( rec5t species1 f :i* ! bones ( ! great ,ma/odon h be5 tak5 9 a v p]fect /ate4 ,yet ! :ole excavation ( ! rav9e1 = _m miles bel[ ! ,falls1 has be5 sl[ly effect$ s9ce t fluviatile deposit 0 ?r[n d[n4 ,:e!r or n1 9 assign+ a p]iod ( m ?an #cj1jjj ye>s = ! recession ( ! ,falls f ,que5/[n to _! pres5t site1 ,i h ov] or "u e/imat$ ! "t requir$ = t op]ation1 no "o c d\bt t a va/ numb] ( c5turies mu/ h elaps$ be=e s great a s]ies ( geographical *anges 7 br\ght ab\t z h occurr$ s9ce ! entombm5t ( ?is elephant9e quadrup$4 ,! fre%wat] gravel :i* incloses x is decid$ly ( mu* m mod]n orig9 ?an ! drift or b\ld] clay ( ! same region4#ach-;,a ,o!r ext9ct animals accompany ! ,ma/odon giganteus 9 ! po/-glacial deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 among :i* ! ,ca/oroides ohio5sis1 ,fo/] & ,wyman1 a huge rod5t alli$ to ! beav]1 & ! ,capyb>a may be m5tion$4 ,b :e!r ! loess1 & o!r fre%wat] & m>9e /rata ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates1 9 :i* skeletons ( ! same ,ma/odon are m+l$ ) ! bones ( ! ,mega!rium1 ,mylodon1 & ,megalonyx1 7 contemporane\s ) ! drift1 or 7 ( subsequ5t date1 is a *ronological "q /ill op5 to discussion4 ,x appe>s cle>1 h[ev]1 f :at we "k ( ! t]ti>y fossils ( ,europe--& ,i believe ! same w hold true 9 ,nor? ,am]ica--t _m species ( te/acea & "s mammalia1 :i* exi/$ prior to ! glacial epo*1 surviv$ t era4 ,z ,european examples among ! w>m-blood$ quadrup$s1 ! ,elephas primig5ius & ,rh9oc]os ti*or9us may be m5tion$4 ,z to ! %ells1 :e!r fre% wat]1 t]re/rial1 or m>9e1 !y ne$ n be enum]at$ "h1 z allusion w be made to !m 9 ! sequel1 :5 ! plioc5e t]ti>y fossils ( ,suffolk are describ$4 ,! fact is important1 z refut+ ! hypo!sis t ! cold ( ! glacial p]iod 0 s int5se & univ]sal z to annihilate all liv+ creatures ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,t ! cold 0 great] = a "t ?an x is n[ 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ,sib]ia1 ,europe1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 w n be disput$2 b1 be=e we c inf] ! univ]sality ( a cold] climate1 we mu/ asc]ta9 :at 0 ! condition ( o!r p>ts ( ! nor!rn1 & ( ! :ole s\!rn1 hemisph]e at ! "t :5 ! ,sc&9avian1 ,briti%1 & ,alp9e erratics 7 transport$ into _! pres5t position4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t a great deposit ( drift & erratic blocks is n[ 9 full progress ( =mation 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 9 a zone correspond+ 9 latitude to ! ,baltic1 & to ,nor!rn ,italy1 ,switz]l&1 ,france1 & ,engl&4 ,%\ld ! unev5 b$ ( ! s\!rn ocean be h]eaft] conv]t$ by upheaval into l&1 ! hills & valleys w be /rew$ ov] ) transport$ fragm5ts1 "s d]iv$ f ! ant>ctic cont95t1 o!rs f isl&s cov]$ ) glaci]s1 l ,s\? ,georgia1 :i* mu/ n[ be c5tres ( ! disp]sion ( drift1 al?\gh situat$ 9 a latitude1 agree+ ) t ( ! ,cumb]l& m\nta9s 9 ,engl&4 ,n only are ^! op]ations go+ on betwe5 ! #de? & #fj? p>allels ( latitude s\? ( ! l9e1 :ile ! correspond+ zone ( ,europe is free f ice2 b1 :at is /ill m wor?y ( rem>k1 we f9d 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e itself1 only #ijj miles di/ant f ,s\? ,georgia1 :]e ! p]petual sn[ rea*es to ! sea-bea*1 l&s cov]$ ) =e/s1 z 9 ,t]ra del ,fuego4 ,!re is "h no diff]5ce ( latitude to acc\nt = ! luxuriance ( vegetation 9 "o spot1 & ! absolute want ( x 9 ! o!r2 b among o!r refrig]at+ causes 9 ,s\? ,georgia may be enum]at$ ! c\ntless iceb]gs :i* float f ! ant>ctic zone1 & :i* *ill1 z !y melt1 ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 & ! surr\nd+ air1 :i* !y fill ) d5se fogs4 ,i h endeav\r$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *apt]s #g4 & #h41 to po9t out ! intimate connexion ( climate & ! physical geography ( ! globe1 & ! dep5d5ce ( ! mean annual temp]ature1 n only on ! height ( ! dry l&1 b on its di/ribution 9 high or l[ latitudes at p>ticul> epo*s4 ,if1 = example1 at c]ta9 p]iods ( ! pa/1 ! ant>ctic l& 0 less elevat$ & less ext5sive ?an n[1 :ile t at ! nor? pole 0 high] & m cont9u\s1 ! conditions ( ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es might h be5 ! rev]se ( :at we n[ witness 9 reg>d to climate1 al?\gh ! m\nta9s ( ,sc&9avia1 ,scotl&1 & ,switz]l&1 may h be5 less elevat$ ?an at pres5t4 ,b if 9 bo? ( ! pol> regions a consid]able area ( elevat$ dry l& exi/$1 su* a concurr5ce ( refrig]at+ conditions 9 bo? hemisph]es might h creat$ = a "t an int5sity ( cold nev] exp]i5c$ s9ce2 & su* probably 0 ! /ate ( ?+s dur+ t p]iod ( subm]g5ce to :i* ,i h allud$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,alp9e erratics4--,al?\gh ! arctic regions con/itute ! great c5tre f :i* erratics h travell$ s\?w>ds 9 all directions 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 yet !re are "s m\nta9s1 z ,i h already /at$1 l ^? ( ,nor? ,wales & ! ,alps1 :i* h s]v$ z sep>ate & indep5d5t c5tres = ! disp]sion ( blocks4 ,9 illu/ration ( ?is fact1 ! ,alps des]ve p>ticul> att5tion1 n only f _! magnitude1 b because !y lie beyond ! ord9>y limits ( ! nor!rn drift ( ,europe1 be+ situat$ betwe5 ! #dd? & #dg? degrees ( nor? latitude4 ,on ! flanks ( ^! m\nta9s1 & on ! ,subalp9e ranges ( hills or pla9s adjo9+ !m1 ^? appe>ances :i* h be5 s (t5 allud$ to1 z di/+ui%+ or accompany+ ! drift1 betwe5 ! #ej? & #gj? p>allels ( nor? latitude1 sudd5ly reappe>1 to assume 9 a m s\!rn c\ntry _! mo/ exagg]at$ =m4 ,:]e ! ,alps are highe/1 ! l>ge/ erratic blocks h be5 s5t =?1 z1 = example1 f ! regions ( ,mont ,blanc & ,monte ,rosa1 into ! adjo9+ p>ts ( ,france1 ,switz]l&1 ,au/ria1 & ,italy1 :ile 9 di/ricts :]e ! great *a9 s9ks 9 altitude1 z 9 ,c>9?ia1 ,c>niola1 & else:]e1 no su* rocky fragm5ts1 or a few only & ( small] bulk1 h be5 deta*$ & transport$ to a di/ance4 ,9 ! ye> #ahba1 ,m4 ,v5etz fir/ ann\nc$ 8 op9ion t ! ,alp9e glaci]s mu/ =m]ly h ext5d$ f> beyond _! pres5t limits1 & ! pro(s appeal$ to by him 9 confirmation ( ?is doctr9e 7 aft]w>ds ackn[l$g$ by ,m4 ,*>p5ti]1 :o /r5g!n$ !m by new obs]vations & argum5ts1 & decl>$1 9 #ahcf1 8 conviction t ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps mu/ once h rea*$ z f> z ! ,jura1 & h c>ri$ ?i!r _! mora9es across ! great valley ( ,switz]l&4 ,m4 ,agassiz1 aft] sev]al excursions 9 ! ,alps ) ,m4 ,*>p5ti]1 & aft] devot+ himself "s ye>s to ! /udy ( glaci]s1 publi%$1 9 #ahdj1 an admirable description ( !m1 & ( ! m>ks :i* atte/ ! =m] action ( great masses ( ice ov] ! entire surface ( ! ,alps & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4#adj-;,a ,he po9t$ out t ! surface ( e l>ge glaci] is /rew$ ov] ) gravel & /ones deta*$ f ! surr\nd+ precipices by fro/1 ra91 lightn+1 or avalan*es4 ,& he describ$ m c>efully ?an prec$+ writ]s ! long l9es ( ^! /ones1 :i* settle on ! sides ( ! glaci]1 & are call$ ! lat]al mora9es2 ^? f\nd at ! l[] end ( ! ice be+ call$ t]m9al mora9es4 ,su* heaps ( e>? & b\ld]s e glaci] pu%es be=e x :5 advanc+1 & leaves beh9d x :5 retreat+4 ,:5 ! ,alp9e glaci] rea*es a l[] & w>m] situation1 ab\t #cjjj or #djjj feet above ! sea1 x melts s rapidly t1 9 spite ( ! d[nw>d movem5t ( ! mass1 x c advance no f>!r4 ,its precise limits are v>iable f ye> to ye>1 & /ill m s f c5tury to c5tury2 "o example be+ on record ( a recession ( half a mile 9 a s+le ye>4 ,we also le>n f ,m4 ,v5etz1 t :]eas1 betwe5 ! elev5? & fifte5? c5turies1 all ! ,alp9e glaci]s 7 less advanc$ ?an n[1 !y began 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies to pu% =w>d s z to cov] roads =m]ly op51 & to ov]:elm =e/s ( anci5t gr[?4 ,^! oscillations enable ! geologi/ to note ! m>ks :i* !y leave beh9d !m z !y retrograde1 & among ^! ! mo/ prom95t1 z be=e /at$1 are ! t]m9al mora9es1 or m\nds ( un/ratifi$ e>? & /ones1 (t5 divid$ by subsequ5t floods into hillocks1 :i* cross ! valley l anci5t e>?-works1 or embankm5ts made to dam up ! riv]4 ,"s ( ^! transv]se b>ri]s 7 =m]ly po9t$ out by ,saussure bel[ ! glaci] ( ! ,rhone1 z prov+ h[ f> x _h once transgress$ its pres5t b\nd>ies4 ,on ^! mora9es we see _m l>ge angul> fragm5ts1 :i*1 hav+ be5 c>ri$ along on ! surface ( ! ice1 h n _h _! edges worn (f by friction2 b ! great] numb] ( ! b\ld]s1 ev5 ^? ( l>ge size1 h be5 well r\nd$1 n by ! p[] ( wat]1 b by ! me*anical =ce ( ! ice1 :i* has pu%$ !m aga9/ ea* o!r1 or aga9/ ! rocks flank+ ! valley4 ,o!rs h fall5 d[n ! num]\s fissures :i* int]sect ! glaci]1 :]e1 be+ subject to ! pressure ( ! :ole mass ( ice1 !y h be5 =c$ along1 & ei!r well r\nd$ or gr\nd d[n into s&1 or ev5 ! f9e/ mud1 ( :i* ! mora9e is l>gely con/itut$4 ,z ! t]m9al mora9es are ! mo/ prom95t ( all ! monum5ts left by a rec$+ glaci]1 s are !y ! mo/ liable to oblit]ation2 = viol5t floods or debacles are (t5 occasion$ 9 ! ,alps by ! sudd5 bur/+ ( :at are call$ glaci]-lakes4 ,^! tempor>y %eets ( wat] are caus$ by ! damm+ up ( a riv] by a glaci] :i* has increas$ dur+ a succession ( cold seasons1 &1 desc5d+ f a tribut>y into ! ma9 valley1 has cross$ x f side to side4 ,on ! failure ( ?is icy b>ri]1 ! accumulat$ wat]s are let loose1 :i* sweep away & level all transv]se m\nds ( gravel & loose b\ld] bel[1 & spread _! mat]ials 9 confus$ & irregul> b$s ov] ! riv]-pla94 ,ano!r m>k ( ! =m] action ( glaci]s1 9 situations :]e !y exi/ no long]1 is ! poli%$1 /riat$1 & groov$ surfaces ( rocks already allud$ to4 ,/ones :i* lie und]nea? ! glaci] & are pu%$ along by x1 sometimes adh]e to ! ice1 & z ! mass glides sl[ly along at ! rate ( a few in*es1 or at ! utmo/ two or ?ree feet1 p] day1 abrade1 groove1 & poli% ! rock1 & ! l>g] blocks are reciprocally groov$ & poli%$ by ! rock on _! l[] sides4 ,z ! =ces bo? ( pressure & propulsion are enorm\s1 ! s&1 act+ l em]y1 poli%es ! surface2 ! pebbles1 l co>se grav]s1 scrat* & furr[ x2 & ! l>ge /ones scoop out grooves 9 x4 ,ano!r effect also ( ?is action1 n yet adv]t$ to1 is call$ ro*es m\tonnees4 ,project+ em95ces ( rock are smoo!d & worn into ! %ape ( flatt5$ domes1 :]e ! glaci]s h pass$ ov] !m4 ,al?\gh ! surface ( almo/ e k9d ( rock1 :5 expos$ 9 ! op5 air1 wa/es away by decomposition1 yet "s reta9 = ages _! poli%$ & furr[$ ext]ior2 &1 if !y are well protect$ by a cov]+ ( clay or turf1 ^! m>ks ( abrasion seem capable ( endur+ = ev]4 ,!y h be5 trac$ 9 ! ,alps to great heights above ! pres5t glaci]s1 & to great horizontal di/ances beyond !m4 ,!re are also f\nd1 on ! sides ( ! ,swiss valleys1 r\nd & deep holes1 ) poli%$ sides1 su* holes z wat]falls make 9 ! solid rock1 b 9 places remote f runn+ wat]s1 & :]e ! =m ( ! surface w n p]mit u to suppose t any cascade c\ld ev] h exi/$4 ,simil> cavities are common 9 h>d rocks1 su* z gneiss1 9 ,sw$51 :]e !y are call$ giant caldrons1 & are sometimes #aj feet & m 9 dep?2 b 9 ! ,alps & ,jura !y (t5 pass into spoon-%ap$ excavations & prolong$ gutt]s4 ,we le>n f ,m4 ,agassiz t holl[s ( ?is =m are n[ cut out by /reams ( wat]1 :i* fl[ along ! surface ( glaci]s1 & !n fall into fissures :i* are op5 to ! bottom4 ,"h1 =m+ a cascade1 ! /ream cuts a r\nd cavity 9 ! rock ) ! gravel & s&1 :i* x ei!r f9ds !re or c>ries d[n ) x1 & causes to rotate2 &1 z x usually happ5s t ! glaci] is advanc+1 a locomotive cascade is produc$1 :i* conv]ts ! fir/ circul> hole into a deep groove4 ,ano!r effect ( a glaci] is to lodge a r+ ( /ones r\nd ! summit ( a conical peak :i* may happ5 to project ?r\gh ! ice4 ,if ! glaci] is l[]$ greatly by melt+1 ^! circles ( l>ge angul> fragm5ts1 :i* are call$ p]*$ blocks1 are left 9 a s+ul> situation ne> ! top ( a /eep hill or p9nacle1 ! l[] p>ts ( :i* may be de/itute ( b\ld]s4 ,alp9e blocks on ! ,jura4--,n[ "s or all ! m>ks above enum]at$1--! mora9es1 erratics1 poli%$ surfaces1 domes1 /riae1 caldrons1 & p]*$ rocks1 are obs]v$ 9 ! ,alps at great heights above ! pres5t glaci]s1 & f> bel[ _! actual extremities2 also 9 ! great valley ( ,switz]l&1 #ej miles broad2 & almo/ ev]y:]e on ! ,jura1 a *a9 :i* lies to ! nor? ( ?is valley4 ,! av]age height ( ! ,jura is ab\t "o ?ird t ( ! ,alps1 & is n[ entirely de/itute ( glaci]s1 yet x pres5ts almo/ ev]y:]e simil> mora9es1 & ! same poli%$ & groov$ surfaces1 & wat]-worn cavities4 ,! erratics1 moreov]1 :i* cov] x1 pres5t a ph5om5on :i* has a/oni%$ & p]plex$ ! geologi/ = m ?an half a c5tury4 ,no conclusion c be m inconte/ible ?an t ^! angul> blocks ( granite1 gneiss1 & o!r cry/all9e =mations1 came f ! ,alps1 & t !y h be5 br\ght = a di/ance ( #ej miles & upw>ds across "o ( ! wide/ & deepe/ valleys ( ! _w1 s t !y are n[ lodg$ on ! hills & valleys ( a *a9 compos$ ( lime/one & o!r =mations1 altoge!r di/9ct f ^? ( ! ,alps4 ,_! great size & angul>ity1 aft] a j\rney ( s _m leagues1 has ju/ly excit$ wond]2 = hundr$s ( !m are z l>ge z cottages2 & "o 9 p>ticul>1 celebrat$ "u ! "n ( ,pi]re a ,bot1 re/s on ! side ( a hill ab\t #ijj feet above ! lake ( ,neuf*atel1 & is no less ?an #dj feet 9 diamet]4 ,x w be rem>k$ t ^! blocks on ! ,jura (f] an exception to ! rule be=e laid d[n1 z applicable 9 g5]al to erratics1 s9ce !y h gone f s\? to nor?4 ,"s ( ! l>ge/ masses ( granite & gneiss h be5 f\nd to conta9 #ej1jjj & #fj1jjj cubic feet ( /one1 & "o lime/one block ne> ,dev5s1 :i* has travell$ #cj miles1 conta9s #afa1jjj cubic feet1 its angles be+ %>p & unworn4#adc-;,a ,von ,bu*1 ,es*]1 & ,/ud] h %[n1 f an exam9ation ( ! m9]al composition ( ! b\ld]s1 t ^? on ! we/]n ,jura1 ne> ,neuf*atel1 h come f ! region ( ,mont ,blanc & ! ,valais2 ^? on ! middle p>ts ( ! ,jura f ! ,b]nese ,ob]l&2 & ^? on ! ea/]n ,jura f ! ,alps ( ! small cantons1 ,gl>is1 ,s*wytz1 ,uri1 & ,zug4 ,! blocks1 !re=e1 ( ^! ?ree great di/ricts h be5 d]iv$ f p>ts ( ! ,alps ne>e/ to ! localities 9 ! ,jura :]e we n[ f9d !m1 z if !y _h cross$ ! great valley 9 a direction at "r angles to its l5g?3 ! mo/ we/]n /ream hav+ foll[$ ! c\rse ( ! ,rhone2 ! c5tral1 t ( ! ,a>2 & ! ea/]n1 t ( ! two great riv]s1 ,reuss & ,limmat4 ,! non-int]mixture ( ^! gr\ps ( travell$ fragm5ts1 except ne> _! conf9es1 0 always reg>d$ z mo/ enigmatical by ^? :o adopt$ ! op9ion ( ,saussure1 t !y 7 all :irl$ along by a rapid curr5t ( muddy wat] ru%+ f ! ,alps4 ,m4 ,*>p5ti] fir/ sugge/$1 z be=e m5tion$1 t ! ,swiss glaci]s once rea*$ cont9u\sly to ! ,jura1 & convey$ to !m ^! erratics2 b at ! same "t he conceiv$ t ! ,alps 7 =m]ly high] ?an n[4 ,m4 ,agassiz1 on ! o!r h&1 in/ead ( introduc+ di/9ct & sep>ate glaci]s1 imag9es t ! :ole valley ( ,switz]l& 0 fill$ ) ice1 & t "o great %eet ( x ext5d$ f ! ,alps to ! ,jura1 :5 ! two *a9s 7 ( ! same height z n[ relatively to ea* o!r4 ,su* an hypo!sis lab\rs "u ?is difficulty1 t ! diff]5ce ( altitude1 :5 di/ribut$ ov] a space ( #ej miles1 gives an incl9ation ( no m ?an two degrees1 or f> less ?an t ( any kn[n glaci]s4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 s9ce receiv$ ! able support ( ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes1 9 8 excell5t "w on ! ,alps1 publi%$ 9 #ahdc4 ,9 ! !ory :i* ,i =m]ly advanc$1 jo9tly ) ,mr4 ,d>w9#adc-;,b1 x 0 sugge/$ t ! erratics may h be5 transf]r$ by float+ ice to ! ,jura1 at ! "t :5 ! great] "p ( t *a91 & ! :ole ( ! ,swiss valley to ! s\?1 0 "u ! sea4 ,at t p]iod ! ,alps may h atta9$ only half _! pres5t altitude1 & may yet h con/itut$ a *a9 z l(ty z ! ,*ilian ,&es1 :i*1 9 a latitude correspond+ to ,switz]l&1 n[ s5d d[n glaci]s to ! head ( e s\nd1 f :i* iceb]gs1 cov]$ ) blocks ( granite1 are float$ seaw>d4#add-;,a ,opposite t "p ( ,*ili :]e ! glaci]s ab\nd is situat$ ! isl& ( ,*iloe1 #ajj miles 9 l5g?1 ) a bread? ( #cj miles1 runn+ p>allel to ! cont95t4 ,! *annel :i* sep>ates x f ! ma9 l& is ( consid]able dep?1 & #be miles broad4 ,p>ts ( its surface1 l ! adjac5t coa/ ( ,*ili1 are ov]spread ) rec5t m>9e %ells1 %[+ an upheaval ( ! l& dur+ a v mod]n p]iod2 & b5ea? ^! %ells is a b\ld] deposit1 9 :i* ,mr4 ,d>w9 f\nd l>ge travell$ blocks4 ,"o gr\p ( fragm5ts 7 ( granite1 :i* _h evid5tly come f ! ,&es1 :ile 9 ano!r place angul> blocks ( sy5ite 7 met )4 ,_! arrangem5t may h be5 due to successive crops ( iceb]gs issu+ f diff]5t s\nds1 to ! heads ( :i* glaci]s desc5d f ! ,&es4 ,^! iceb]gs1 tak+ _! dep>ture ye> aft] ye> f di/9ct po9ts1 may h be5 /r&$ repeat$ly1 9 equally di/9ct gr\ps1 9 bays or creeks ( ,*iloe1 & on islets (f ! coa/1 s z aft]w>ds to appe>1 "s on hills & o!rs 9 valleys1 :5 t c\ntry & ! b$ ( ! adjac5t sea _h be5 upheav$4 ,a cont9uance 9 future ( ! elevatory movem5t1 9 ! region ( ! ,&es & ( ,*iloe1 might cause ! =m] *a9 to rival ! ,alps 9 altitude1 & give to ,*iloe a height equal to t ( ! ,jura4 ,! same rise might dry up ! *annel betwe5 ,*iloe & ! ma9 l&1 s t x w\ld !n repres5t ! great valley ( ,switz]l&4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! *anges1 all p>ts ( ,*iloe & ! int]v5+ /rait1 hav+ 9 _! turn be5 a sea-%ore1 may h be5 poli%$ & scrat*$ by coa/-ice1 & by innum]able iceb]gs runn+ agr\nd & grat+ on ! bottom4 ,if we apply ?is hypo!sis to ,switz]l& & ! ,jura1 we are by no means preclud$ f ! supposition t1 9 proportion z ! l& acquir$ additional height1 & ! b$ ( ! sea em]g$1 ! ,jura itself may h _h its glaci]s2 & ^? exi/+ 9 ! ,alps1 :i* _h at fir/ ext5d$ to ! sea1 may1 dur+ "s "p ( ! p]iod ( upheaval1 h be5 prolong$ mu* f>!r into ! valleys ?an n[4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 :5 ! climate grew mild]1 ^! glaci]s may h entirely disappe>$ f ! ,jura1 & may h rec$$ 9 ! ,alps to _! pres5t limits1 leav+ beh9d !m 9 bo? di/ricts ^? mora9es :i* n[ atte/ ! =m] ext5sion ( ! ice4#add-;,b ,meteorites 9 drift4--,be=e conclud+ my rem>ks on ! nor!rn drift ( ! ,old ,_w1 ,i %all ref] to a fact rec5tly ann\nc$1 ! discov]y ( a meteoric /one at a great dep? 9 ! alluvium ( ,nor!rn ,asia4 ,erman1 9 8 ,ar*ives ( ,russia = #ahda 7p4 #cad471 cites a v circum/antial acc\nt drawn up by a ,russian m9] ( ! f9d+ ( a mass ( meteoric iron 9 ! aurif]\s alluvium ( ! ,altai4 ,"s small fragm5ts ( native iron 7 fir/ met ) 9 ! gold-wa%+s ( ,petropawl[sk] 9 ! ,mrassk] ,circle2 b ?\gh !y attract$ att5tion1 x 0 suppos$ t !y mu/ h be5 brok5 (f f ! tools ( ! workm54 ,at l5g?1 at ! dep? ( #ca feet #e in*es f ! surface1 !y dug out a piece ( iron weigh+ #ag-a_/b p\nds1 ( a /eel-grey col\r1 some:at h>d] ?an ord9>y iron1 &1 on analys+ x1 f\nd x to consi/ ( native iron1 ) a small proportion ( nickel1 z usual 9 meteoric /ones4 ,x 0 buri$ 9 ! bottom ( ! deposit :]e ! gravel re/$ on a flaggy lime/one4 ,mu* br[n iron ore1 z well z gold1 occurs 9 ! same gravel1 :i* appe>s to be "p ( t ext5sive aurif]\s =mation 9 :i* ! bones ( ! mammo?1 ! ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1 & o!r ext9ct quadrup$s ab\nd4 ,no suffici5t data are suppli$ to enable u to det]m9e :e!r x be ( ,po/-,plioc5e or ,new] ,plioc5e date4 ,we ought n1 ,i ?9k1 to feel surprise t we h n hi!rto succe$$ 9 detect+ ! signs ( su* a]olites 9 old] rocks1 =1 besides _! r>ity 9 our own days1 ^? :i* fell into ! sea 7& x is ) m>9e /rata t geologi/s h usually to deal71 be+ *iefly compos$ ( native iron1 w\ld rapidly ent] into new *emical comb9ations1 ! wat] & mud be+ *>g$ ) *loride ( sodium & o!r salts4 ,we f9d t an*ors1 cannon1 & o!r ca/-iron implem5ts :i* h be5 buri$ = a few hundr$ ye>s (f our ,engli% coa/ h decompos$ 9 "p or entirely1 turn+ ! s& & gravel :i* enclos$ !m into a conglom]ate1 cem5t$ toge!r by oxide ( iron4 ,9 l mann] meteoric iron1 al?\gh its ru/+ w\ld be some:at *eck$ by ! alloy ( nickel1 c\ld sc>cely ev] fail to decompose 9 ! c\rse ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 becom+ oxide1 sulphuret or c>bonate ( iron1 & its orig9 be+ !n no long] di/+ui%able4 ,! great] ! antiquity ( rocks1--! (t5] !y h be5 heat$ & cool$1 p]meat$ by gases or by ! wat]s ( ! sea1 ! atmosph]e or m9]al spr+s1--! small] mu/ be ! *ance ( meet+ ) a mass ( native iron unalt]$2 b ! pres]vation ( ! anci5t meteorite ( ! ,altai1 & ! pres5ce ( nickel 9 ^! curi\s bodies1 r5d]s ! recognition ( !m 9 deposits ( remote p]iods less hopeless ?an we might h anticipat$4 ,,footnotes3 #acd-;,a ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 vi4 p4 #ace4 ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordanhill _h arriv$ at simil> conclusions z to climate f ! %ells ( ! ,scot* ,plei/oc5e deposits4 #acd-;,b ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,no4 #fc4 p4 #aai4 #ace-;,a ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ada4 #ace-;,b ,ibid4 p4 #ii4 *ap4 xix4 #acf-;,a ,bullet9 ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 iv4 #b;de s]4 p4 #aaba4 #ach-;,a ,see ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 vol4 i4 *ap4 ii4 #adj-;,a ,agassiz1 ,etudes sur les ,glaci]s4 #adc-;,a ,ar*iac1 ,hi/4 des ,progres1 c4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bdi4 #adc-;,b ,see ,elem5ts ( ,geology1 #b;d ed4 #ahda4 #add-;,a ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 p4 #bhc4 #add-;,b ,m rec5tly ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 hav+ revisit$ ! ,alps1 has decl>$ 8 op9ion t ! great granitic blocks ( ,mont ,blanc 7 translat$ to ! ,jura :5 ! int]m$iate c\ntry 0 "u wat]4--,pap] read to ,geol4 ,soc4 ,london1 ,may #cj1 #ahdi4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,new] ,,plioc5e ,,/rata ,,& ,,cav]n ,,deposits4 ,*ronological classification ( ,plei/oc5e =mations1 :y difficult--,fre%wat] deposits 9 valley ( ,?ames--,9 ,norfolk cliffs--,9 ,patagonia--,comp>ative longevity ( species 9 ! mammalia & te/acea--,fluvio-m>9e crag ( ,norwi*--,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,sicily--,lime/one ( great ?ickness & elevation--,alt]nation ( m>9e & volcanic =mations--,pro(s ( sl[ accumulation--,great geographical *anges 9 ,sicily s9ce ! liv+ fauna & flora began to exi/--,osse\s breccias & cav]n deposits--,sicily--,kirkdale--,orig9 ( /alactite--,au/ralian cave-breccias--,geographical relation%ip ( ! prov9ces ( liv+ v]tebrata & ^? ( ! fossil species ( ! ,plioc5e p]iods--,ext9ct /ru?i\s birds ( ,new ,zeal&--,tee? ( fossil quadrup$s4 ,hav+ 9 ! la/ *apt] treat$ ( ! b\ld] =mation & its associat$ fre%wat] & m>9e /rata z belong+ *iefly to ! close ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod1 we may n[ proce$ to o!r deposits ( ! same or ne>ly ! same age4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be /at$ t x is difficult to draw ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ^! mod]n =mations1 especially :5 we are call$ ^u to comp>e deposits ( m>9e & fre%wat] orig91 or ^! aga9 ) ! ossif]\s cont5ts ( cav]ns4 ,if z (t5 z ! c>casses ( quadrup$s 7 buri$ 9 alluvium dur+ floods1 or mir$ 9 swamps1 or imb$d$ 9 lacu/r9e /rata1 a /ream ( lava _h desc5d$ & pres]v$ ! alluvial or fre%wat] deposits1 z frequ5tly happ5$ 9 ,auv]gne 7see above1 p4 #hj171 keep+ !m free f int]mixture ) /rata subsequ5tly =m$1 !n inde$ ! task ( arrang+ *ronologically ! :ole s]ies ( mammalif]\s =mations might h be5 easy1 ev5 ?\gh _m species 7 common to sev]al successive gr\ps4 ,b :5 !re h be5 oscillations 9 ! levels ( ! l&1 accompani$ by ! wid5+ & deep5+ ( valleys at m ?an "o p]iod1--:5 ! same surface has sometimes be5 subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea1 aft] support+ =e/s & l& quadrup$s1 & !n rais$ aga91 & subject dur+ ea* *ange ( level to s$im5t>y deposition & p>tial d5udation1--& :5 ! drift+ ( ice by m>9e curr5ts or by riv]s1 dur+ an epo* ( int5se cold1 has = a season int]f]$ ) ! ord9>y mode ( transport1 or ) ! geographical range ( species1 we _c hope spe$ily to extricate ourselves f ! confusion 9 :i* ! classification ( ^! ,plei/oc5e =mations is involv$4 ,at sev]al po9ts 9 ! valley ( ! ,?ames1 remnants ( anci5t fluviatile deposits occur1 :i* may diff] consid]ably 9 age1 al?\gh ! imb$d$ l& & fre%wat] %ells 9 ea* are ( rec5t species4 ,at ,br5t=d1 = example1 ! bones ( ! ,sib]ian ,mammo?1 or ,elephas primig5ius1 & ! ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1 bo? ( !m quadrup$s ( :i* ! fle% & hair h be5 f\nd pres]v$ 9 ! froz5 soil ( ,sib]ia1 occur abundantly1 ) ! bones ( an hippopotamus1 auro*s1 %ort-horn$ ox1 r$ de]1 re9-de]1 & great cave-tig] or lion4#adg-;,a ,a simil> gr\p has be5 f\nd fossil at ,maid/one1 9 ,k5t1 & o!r places1 agree+ 9 g5]al specifically ) ! fossil bones detect$ 9 ! cav]ns ( ,engl&4 ,:5 we see ! exi/+ re9-de] & an ext9ct hippopotamus 9 ! same fluviatile loam1 we are tempt$ to indulge our imag9ations 9 speculat+ on ! climatal conditions :i* c\ld h enabl$ ^! g5]a to co-exi/ 9 ! same region4 ,:]ev] !re is a cont9uity ( l& f pol> to temp]ate & equatorial regions1 !re w always be po9ts :]e ! s\!rn limit ( an arctic species meets ! nor!rn range ( a s\!rn species2 & if "o or bo? h migratory habits1 l ! ,b5gal tig]1 ! ,am]ican bison1 ! musk ox1 & o!rs1 !y may ea* p5etrate mutually f> into ! respective prov9ces ( ! o!r4 ,!re may also h be5 sev]al oscillations ( temp]ature dur+ ! p]iods :i* imm$iately prec$$ & foll[$ ! m int5se cold ( ! glacial epo*4 ,! /rata bord]+ ! left bank ( ! ,?ames at ,grays ,?urrock1 9 ,essex1 are probably ( old] date ?an ^? ( ,br5t=d1 al?\gh ! associat$ l& & fre%wat] %ells are ne>ly all1 if n all1 id5tical ) species n[ liv+4 ,?ree ( ! %ells1 h[ev]1 are no long] inhabitants ( ,great ,brita92 namely1 ,palud9a m>g9ata 7fig4 #aab4 p4 #abg471 n[ liv+ 9 ,france2 ,unio littoralis 7fig4 #bi4 p4 #bh471 n[ inhabit+ ! ,loire2 & ,cyr5a consobr9a 7fig4 #bf4 p4 #bh474 ,! la/-m5tion$ fossil 7a rec5t ,egyptian %ell ( ! ,nile7 is v abundant at ,grays1 & des]ves notice1 because ! g5us ,cyr5a is n[ no long] ,european4 ,! rh9oc]os occurr+ 9 ! same b$s 7,r4 leptorh9us1 see fig4 #aca4 p4 #afj47 is ( a diff]5t species f t ( ,br5t=d above m5tion$1 & ! accompany+ elephant belongs to ! v>iety call$ ,elephas m]idionalis1 :i*1 accord+ to ,,mm4 ,ow5 & ,h4 von ,mey]1 two high au?orities1 is ! same species z ! ,sib]ian mammo?1 al?\gh "s naturali/s reg>d x z di/9ct4 ,) ! above mammalia is also f\nd ! ,hippopotamus major1 & :at is mo/ rem>kable 9 s mod]n & nor!rn a deposit1 a monkey1 call$ by ,ow51 ,macacus plioc5us4 ,! subm]g$ =e/ already allud$ to 7p4 #acj47 z und]ly+ ! drift at ! base ( ! cliffs ( ,norfolk is associat$ ) a b$ ( lignite & loam1 9 :i* a great numb] ( fossil bones occur1 app>5tly ( ! same gr\p z t ( ,grays1 j m5tion$4 ,x has sometimes be5 call$ ! ,elephant b$4 ,"o portion ( x1 :i* /ret*es out "u ! sea at ,happisburgh1 0 ov]gr[n 9 #ahbj by a bank ( rec5t oy/]s1 & !re ! fi%]m5 dr$g$ up1 accord+ to ,woodw>d1 9 ! c\rse ( ?irte5 ye>s1 toge!r ) ! oy/]s1 above #bjjj mammo?s' gr9d]s4#adg-;,b ,ano!r portion ( ! same cont9u\s /ratum has yield$ at ,bacton1 ,crom]1 & o!r places on ! coa/1 ! bones ( a gigantic beav] 7,trogon!rium ,cuvi]ii1 ,fis*]71 z well z ! ox1 horse1 & de]1 & bo? species ( rh9oc]os1 ,r4 ti*orh9us & ,r4 leptorh9us4 ,9 /udy+ ^! & v>i\s o!r simil> assemblages ( fossils1 we h a good exemplification ( ! m rapid rate at :i* ! mammif]\s fauna1 z comp>$ to ! te/ace\s1 div]ges :5 trac$ backw>ds 9 "t f ! rec5t type4 ,i h be=e h9t$1 t ! longevity ( species 9 ! class ( w>m-blood$ quadrup$s is less great ?an 9 t ( ! mollusca1 ! latt] hav+ probably m capacity = endur+ ^? *anges ( climate & o!r ext]nal circum/ances :i* take place 9 ! c\rse ( ages on ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is ph5om5on is by no means conf9$ to ,europe1 = ,mr4 ,d>w9 f\nd at ,bahia ,blanca1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 lat4 #ci deg4 ,s41 ne> ! nor!rn conf9es ( ,patagonia1 fossil rema9s ( ! ext9ct mammif]\s g5]a ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,toxodon1 & o!rs1 associat$ ) %ells1 almo/ all ( species already asc]ta9$ to be /ill liv+ 9 ! contigu\s sea#adh-;,a2 ! m>9e mollusca1 z well z ^? ( riv]s1 lakes1 or ! l&1 hav+ di$ out m sl[ly ?an ! t]re/rial mammalia4 ,i allud$ be=e 7p4 #abe47 to c]ta9 m>9e /rata ov]ly+ till ne> ,glasg[1 & at o!r po9ts on ! ,clyde1 9 :i* ! %ells are = ! mo/ "p ,briti%1 ) an int]mixture ( "s arctic species2 :ile o!rs1 ab\t a t5? ( ! :ole1 are suppos$ to be ext9ct4 ,?is =mation may also be call$ ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,fluvio-m>9e crag ( ,norwi*4--,at sev]al places )9 five miles ( ,norwi*1 on bo? banks ( ! ,y>e1 b$s ( s&1 loam1 & gravel1 prov9cially t]m$ crag1 occur1 9 :i* !re is a mixture ( m>9e1 l&1 & fre%wat] %ells1 ) i*?yolites & bones ( mammalia4 ,x is cle> t ^! b$s h be5 accumulat$ at ! bottom ( ! sea ne> ! m\? ( a riv]4 ,!y =m pat*es ( v>iable ?ickness1 re/+ on :ite *alk1 & are cov]$ by a d5se mass ( /ratifi$ fl9t gravel4 ,! surface ( ! *alk is (t5 p]=at$ to ! dep? ( sev]al in*es by ! ,pholas crispata1 ea* fossil %ell /ill rema9+ at ! bottom ( its cyl9drical cavity1 n[ fill$ up ) loose s& :i* has fall5 f ! incumb5t crag4 ,?is species ( ,pholas /ill exi/s & drills ! rocks betwe5 high & l[ wat] on ! ,briti% coa/4 ,! mo/ common %ells ( ^! /rata1 su* z ,fusus /riatus1 ,turritella t]ebra1 ,c>dium edule1 & ,cypr9a isl&ica1 are n[ abundant 9 ! ,briti% seas2 b ) !m are "s ext9ct species1 su* z ,nucula ,cobboldiae 7fig4 #abj47 & ,tell9a obliqua 7fig4 #aba474 ,natica helicoides 7fig4 #abb47 is an example ( a species =m]ly kn[n only z fossil1 b :i* has n[ be5 f\nd liv+ 9 our seas4 ,among ! accompany+ bones ( mammalia is ! ,ma/odon angu/id5s#adi-;,a 7see fig4 #acj471 a portion ( ! upp] jawbone ) a too? hav+ be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,wigham at ,po/wick1 ne> ,norwi*4 ,z ?is species has also be5 f\nd 9 ! ,r$ ,crag1 bo? at ,sutton & at ,felix/[1 & _h hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic ( =mations old] ?an ! ,plei/oc5e1 x may possibly h be5 wa%$ out ( ! ,r$ into ! ,norwi* ,crag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4 ,nucula ,cobboldiae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4 ,tell9a obliqua4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4 ,natica helicoides1 ,john/on4 ,among ! bones1 h[ev]1 respect+ ! au!nticity ( :i* !re seems no d\bt1 may be m5tion$ ^? ( ! elephant1 horse1 pig1 de]1 & ! jaws & tee? ( field mice 7fig4 #ada474 ,i h se5 ! tusk ( an elephant f ,bram]ton ne> ,norwi*1 to :i*1 _m s]pulae 7 atta*$1 %[+ t x _h la9 = "s "t at ! bottom ( ! sea ( ! ,norwi* ,crag4 ,at ,?orpe1 ne> ,aldbor\gh1 & at ,s\?wold1 9 ,suffolk1 ?is fluvio-m>9e =mation is well expos$ 9 ! sea-cliffs1 consi/+ ( s&1 %+le1 loam1 & lam9at$ clay4 ,"s ( ! /rata !re be> ! m>ks ( tranquil deposition1 & 9 "o section a ?ickness ( #dj feet is sometimes expos$ to view4 ,"s ( ! lamellibran*iate %ells h bo? valves unit$1 al?\gh mix$ ) l& & fre%wat] te/acea1 & ) ! bones & tee? ( elephant1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 & de]4 ,capta9 ,alex&]1 ) :om ,i exam9$ ^! /rata 9 #ahce1 %[$ me a b$ ri* 9 m>9e %ells1 9 :i* he _h f\nd a l>ge specim5 ( ! ,fusus /riatus1 fill$ ) s&1 & 9 ! int]ior ( :i* 0 ! too? ( a horse4 ,among ! fre%wat] %ells ,i obta9$ ! ,cyr5a consobr9a 7fig4 #bf4 p4 #bh471 be=e m5tion$1 suppos$ to agree ) a species n[ liv+ 9 ! ,nile4 ,i =m]ly class$ ! ,norwi* ,crag z old] ,plioc5e1 conceiv+ t m ?an a ?ird ( ! fossil te/acea 7 ext9ct2 b !re n[ seems good reason = believ+ t sev]al ( ! r>] %ells obta9$ f ^! /rata d n really belong to a contempor>y fauna1 b h be5 wa%$ out ( ! old] b$s ( ! ,r$ ,crag2 :ile o!r species1 once suppos$ to h di$ out1 h lately be5 met ) liv+ 9 ! ,briti% seas4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 ! total numb] ( m>9e species does n exce$ sev5ty-six1 ( :i* "o t5? only are ext9ct4 ,( ! f\rte5 associat$ fre%wat] %ells1 all ! species appe> to be liv+4 ,/rata conta9+ ! same %ells z ^? ne> ,norwi* h be5 f\nd by ,mr4 ,bean1 at ,bridl+ton1 9 ,york%ire4 ,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,sicily4--,9 no "p ( ,europe are ! ,new] ,plioc5e =mations se5 to ent] s l>gely into ! /ructure ( ! e>?'s cru/1 or to rise to su* heights above ! level ( ! sea1 z 9 ,sicily4 ,!y cov] ne>ly half ! isl&1 & ne> its c5tre1 at ,ca/rogiovanni1 !y rea* an elevation ( #cjjj feet4 ,!y consi/ pr9cipally ( two divisions1 ! upp] calc>e\s1 ! l[] argillace\s1 bo? ( :i* may be se5 at ,syracuse1 ,girg5ti1 & ,ca/rogiovanni4 ,accord+ to ,philippi1 to :om we are indebt$ = ! be/ acc\nt ( ! t]ti>y %ells ( ?is isl&1 ?irty-five species out ( "o hundr$ & tw5ty-f\r obta9$ f ! b$s 9 c5tral ,sicily are ext9ct4 ,( ! rema9d]1 :i* /ill live1 five species are no long] inhabitants ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ,sicily 9 #ahbh ,i e/imat$ ! proportion ( liv+ species z some:at great]1 p>tly because ,i conf\nd$ ) ! t]ti>y =mation ( c5tral ,sicily ! /rata at ! base ( ,etna1 & "s o!r localities1 :]e ! fossils are n[ prov$ to agree entirely ) ! pres5t ,m$it]ranean fauna4 ,philippi came to ! conclusion1 t 9 ,sicily !re is a gradual passage f b$s conta9+ #gj p] c5t4 ( rec5t %ells1 to ^? 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! fossils are id5tical ) rec5t species2 b 8 tables appe> sc>cely to be> out s important a g5]alization1 sev]al ( ! places cit$ by him 9 confirmation hav+ z yet furni%$ no m ?an tw5ty or ?irty species ( te/acea4 ,! ,sicilian b$s 9 "q probably belong to ab\t ! same p]iod z ! ,norwi* ,crag1 al?\gh a geologi/1 accu/om$ to see ne>ly all ! ,plei/oc5e =mations 9 ! nor? ( ,europe occupy+ l[ gr\nds & v incoh]5t 9 texture1 is naturally surpris$ to behold =mations ( ! same age s solid & /ony1 ( su* ?ickness1 & atta9+ s great an elevation above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! upp] or calc>e\s memb] ( ?is gr\p 9 ,sicily consi/s 9 "s places ( a yell[i%-:ite /one1 l ! calcaire grossi] ( ,p>is1 9 o!rs1 ( a rock ne>ly z compact z m>ble4 ,its aggregate ?ickness am\nts sometimes to #gjj or #hjj feet4 ,x usually occurs 9 regul> horizontal b$s1 & is occasionally int]sect$ by deep valleys1 su* z ^? ( ,sort9o & ,p5talica1 9 :i* are num]\s cav]ns4 ,! fossils are 9 e /age ( pres]vation1 f %ells reta9+ portions ( _! animal matt] & col\r1 to o!rs :i* are m]e ca/s4 ,! lime/one passes d[nw>ds into a s&/one & conglom]ate1 bel[ :i* is clay & blue m>l1 l t ( ! ,subap5n9e hills1 f :i* p]fect %ells & corals may be dis5gag$4 ,! clay sometimes alt]nates ) yell[ s&4 ,s\? ( ! pla9 ( ,catania is a region 9 :i* ! t]ti>y b$s are int]mix$ ) volcanic matt]1 :i* has be5 = ! mo/ "p ! product ( subm>9e eruptions4 ,x appe>s t1 :ile ! clay1 s&1 & yell[ lime/one be=e m5tion$ 7 9 c\rse ( deposition at ! bottom ( ! sea1 volcanos bur/ out b5ea? ! wat]s1 l t ( ,graham ,isl&1 9 #ahca1 & ^! explosions recurr$ aga9 & aga9 at di/ant int]vals ( "t4 ,volcanic a%es & s& 7 %[]$ d[n & spread by ! waves & curr5ts s z to =m /rata ( tuff1 :i* are f\nd int]calat$ betwe5 b$s ( lime/one & clay conta9+ m>9e %ells1 ! ?ickness ( ! :ole mass exce$+ #bjjj feet4 ,! fissures ?r\gh :i* ! lava rose may be se5 9 _m places =m+ :at are call$ dikes4 ,9 "p ( ! region above allud$ to1 z1 = example1 ne> ,l5t9i1 a conglom]ate occurs 9 :i* ,i obs]v$ _m pebbles ( volcanic rocks cov]$ by full gr[n s]pulae4 ,we may expla9 ! orig9 ( ^! by suppos+ t !re 7 "s small volcanic isl&s :i* may h be5 de/roy$ f "t to "t by ! waves1 z ,graham ,isl& has be5 swept away s9ce #ahca4 ,! r\nd$ blocks & pebbles ( solid volcanic matt]1 aft] be+ roll$ = a "t on ! bea* ( su* tempor>y isl&s1 7 c>ri$ at l5g? into "s tranquil "p ( ! sea1 :]e !y lay = ye>s1 :ile ! m>9e s]pulae adh]$ to !m1 _! %ells gr[+ & cov]+ _! surface1 z !y are se5 adh]+ to ! %ell figur$ 9 p4 #bb4 ,f9ally1 ! b$ ( pebbles 0 itself cov]$ ) /rata ( %elly lime/one4 ,at ,vizz9i1 a t[n n _m miles di/ant to ! ,s4,w41 ,i rem>k$ ano!r /rik+ pro( ( ! gradual mann] 9 :i* ^! mod]n rocks 7 =m$1 & ! long int]vals ( "t :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! p\r+ out ( di/9ct %eets ( lava4 ,a b$ ( oy/]s no less ?an #bj feet 9 ?ickness re/s ^u a curr5t ( basaltic lava4 ,! oy/]s are p]fectly id5tifiable ) our common eatable species4 ,^u ! oy/] b$1 aga91 is sup]impos$ a second mass ( lava1 toge!r ) tuff or pep]9o4 ,9 ! mid/ ( ! same alt]nat+ igne\s & aque\s =mations is se5 ne> ,gali]i1 n f> f ,vizz9i1 a horizontal b$1 ab\t a foot & a half 9 ?ickness1 compos$ entirely ( a common ,m$it]ranean coral 7,c>yophyllia caespitosa1 ,lam474 ,^! corals /& erect z !y grew2 &1 aft] be+ trac$ = hundr$s ( y>ds1 are aga9 f\nd at a correspond+ height on ! opposite side ( ! valley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4 ,c>yophyllia caespitosa1 ,lam4 7,cladocora caespitosa1 ,ehr47 a4 ,/em ) "y /em gr[+ f its side4 a994 ,"y /em ( same twice magnifi$4 b4 ,portion ( bran*1 twice magnifi$1 ) ! base ( a lat]al bran*2 ! ext]ior ridges ( ! ma9 bran* appe>+ ?r\gh ! lamellae ( ! lat]al "o4 c4 ,transv]se section ( same1 prov+1 by ! integrity ( ! ma9 bran*1 t ! lat]al "o did n orig9ate 9 a subdivision ( ! animal4 d4 ,a bran*1 hav+ at its base ano!r lat]ally unit$ to x1 & two "y corals at its upp] "p4 e4 ,a ma9 bran*1 ) a full gr[n lat]al "o4 f4 ,a p]fect t]m9al />4 ,! corals are usually bran*$1 b n by ! division ( ! animals z "s h suppos$1 b by ! atta*m5t ( "y individuals to ! sides ( ! old] ones2 & we mu/ und]/& ?is mode ( increase1 9 ord] to appreciate ! "t :i* 0 requir$ = ! build+ up ( ! :ole b$ ( coral dur+ ! gr[? ( _m successive g5]ations4#aeb-;,a ,among ! o!r fossil %ells met ) 9 ^! ,sicilian /rata1 :i* /ill cont9ue to ab\nd 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 no %ell is m conspicu\s1 f its size & frequ5t occurr5ce1 ?an ! great scallop1 ,pect5 jacobaeus 7see fig4 #abd471 n[ s common 9 ! neighb\r+ seas4 ,we see ?is %ell 9 ! calc>e\s b$s at ,pal]mo 9 great numb]s1 9 ! lime/one at ,girg5ti1 & 9 t :i* alt]nates ) volcanic rocks 9 ! c\ntry betwe5 ,syracuse & ,vizz9i1 (t5 at great heights above ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4 ,pect5 jacobaeus2 half natural size4 ,! m we reflect on ! prepond]at+ numb] ( ^! rec5t %ells1 ! m we are surpris$ at ! great ?ickness1 solidity1 & height above ! sea ( ! rocky masses 9 :i* !y are entomb$1 & ! va/ am\nt ( geographical *ange :i* has tak5 place s9ce _! orig94 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t1 be=e !y began to em]ge1 ! upp]mo/ /rata ( ! :ole mu/ h be5 deposit$ "u wat]4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to =m a j conception ( _! antiquity1 we mu/ fir/ exam9e s+ly ! innum]able m9ute p>ts ( :i* ! :ole is made up1 ! successive b$s ( %ells1 corals1 volcanic a%es1 conglom]ates1 & %eets ( lava2 & we mu/ aft]w>ds contemplate ! "t requir$ = ! gradual upheaval ( ! rocks1 & ! excavation ( ! valleys4 ,! hi/orical p]iod seems sc>cely to =m an appreciable unit 9 ?is computation1 = we f9d anci5t ,greek temples1 l ^? ( ,girg5ti 7,agrig5tum71 built ( ! mod]n lime/one ( :i* we are speak+1 & re/+ on a hill compos$ ( ! same2 ! site hav+ rema9$ to all appe>ance unalt]$ s9ce ! ,greeks fir/ colonis$ ! isl&4 ,! mod]n geological date ( ! rocks 9 ?is region leads to ano!r s+ul> & unexpect$ conclusion1 namely1 t ! fauna & flora ( a l>ge "p ( ,sicily are ( high] antiquity ?an ! c\ntry itself1 hav+ n only fl\ri%$ be=e ! l&s 7 rais$ f ! deep1 b ev5 be=e _! mat]ials 7 br\ght toge!r b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,! *a9 ( reason+ :i* conducts u to ?is op9ion may be /at$ 9 a few words4 ,! l>g] "p ( ! isl& has be5 conv]t$ f sea into l& s9ce ! ,m$it]ranean 0 peopl$ ) ne>ly all ! liv+ species ( te/acea & zoophytes4 ,we may !re=e presume t1 be=e ?is region em]g$1 ! same l& & riv] %ells1 & almo/ all ! same animals & plants1 7 9 exi/5ce :i* n[ p ,sicily2 = ! t]re/rial fauna & flora ( ?is isl& are precisely ! same z t ( o!r l&s surr\nd+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,!re appe> to be no peculi> or indig5\s species1 & ^? :i* are n[ e/abli%$ !re mu/ be suppos$ to h migrat$ f pre-exi/+ l&s1 j z ! plants & animals ( ! ,neapolitan t]ritory h colonis$ ,monte ,nuovo1 s9ce t volcanic cone 0 ?r[n up 9 ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,su* conclusions ?r[ a new light on ! adaptation ( ! attributes & migratory habits ( animals & plants to ! *anges :i* are unceas+ly 9 progress 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe4 ,x is cle> t ! duration ( species is s great1 t !y are de/9$ to outlive _m important revolutions 9 ! configuration ( ! e>?'s surface2 & h5ce ^? innum]able contrivances = enabl+ ! subjects ( ! animal & vegetable creation to ext5d _! range2 ! inhabitants ( ! l& be+ (t5 c>ri$ across ! ocean1 & ! aquatic tribes ov] great cont95tal spaces4 ,x is obvi\sly exp$i5t t ! t]re/rial & fluviatile species %\ld n only be fitt$ = ! riv]s1 valleys1 pla9s1 & m\nta9s :i* exi/ at ! era ( _! creation1 b = o!rs t are de/9$ to be =m$ be=e ! species %all become ext9ct2 &1 9 l mann]1 ! m>9e species are n only made = ! deep & %all[ regions ( ! ocean exi/+ at ! "t :5 !y are call$ into be+1 b = tracts t may be subm]g$ or v>i\sly alt]$ 9 dep? dur+ ! "t t is allott$ = _! cont9uance on ! globe4 ,,osse\s ,,breccias ,,& ,,deposits ,,9 ,,caves ,,( ,,! ,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,sicily4--,cav]ns fill$ ) m>9e breccias1 at ! base ( anci5t sea-cliffs1 h be5 already m5tion$ 9 ! six? *apt]2 & x 0 notic$1 respect+ ! cave ( ,san ,ciro1 ne> ,pal]mo 7p4 #ge471 t ^u a b$ ( s& fill$ ) sea-%ells1 almo/ all ( rec5t species1 re/s a breccia 7b1 fig4 #ic471 compos$ ( fragm5ts ( calc>e\s rock1 & ! bones ( animals4 ,9 ! s& at ! bottom ( t cave1 ,dr4 ,philippi f\nd ab\t =ty-five m>9e %ells1 all cle>ly id5tical ) rec5t species1 except two or ?ree4 ,! bones 9 ! incumb5t breccia are *iefly ^? ( ! mammo? 7,e4 primig5ius71 ) "s belong+ to an hippopotamus1 di/9ct f ! rec5t species1 & small] ?an t usually f\nd fossil4 7,see fig4 #acb47 ,sev]al species ( de] also1 &1 accord+ to "s acc\nts1 ! rema9s ( a be>1 7 discov]$4 ,^! mammalia are probably ref]able to ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,! ,new] ,plioc5e t]ti>y lime/one ( ! s\? ( ,sicily1 already describ$1 is sometimes full ( cav]ns2 & ! /ud5t w at once p]ceive t all ! quadrup$s ( :i* ! rema9s are f\nd 9 ! /alactite ( ^! cav]ns1 be+ ( lat] orig9 ?an ! rocks1 mu/ be ref]able to ! close ( ! t]ti>y epo*1 if n ( /ill lat] date4 ,! situation ( "o ( ^! caves1 9 ! valley ( ,sort9o1 is repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe4 ,cross section4 a4 ,alluvium1 conta9+ ! rema9s ( quadrup$s b1 b4 ,deposits 9 caves1 = ! mo/ "p ext9ct4 ,c4 ,lime/one1 conta9+ ! rema9s ( %ells1 ( :i* betwe5 #gj & #hj p] c5t4 are rec5t4 ,engl&4--,9 a cave at ,kirkdale1 ab\t tw5ty-five miles ,n4,n4,e4 ( ,york1 ! rema9s ( ab\t #cjj hya5as1 belong+ to individuals ( e age1 h be5 detect$4 ,! species 7,hya5a spelaea7 is ext9ct1 & 0 l>g] ?an ! fi]ce ,hya5a crocuta ( ,s\? ,africa1 :i* x mo/ resembl$4 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 aft] c>efully exam9+ ! spot1 prov$ t ! ,hya5as mu/ h liv$ !re2 a fact atte/$ by ! quantity ( _! dung1 :i*1 z 9 ! case ( ! liv+ hya5a1 is ( ne>ly ! same composition z bone1 & almo/ z durable4 ,9 ! cave 7 f\nd ! rema9s ( ! ox1 "y elephant1 hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 be>1 wolf1 h>e1 wat]-rat1 & sev]al birds4 ,all ! bones h ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 brok5 & gnaw$ by ! tee? ( ! hya5as2 & !y occur confus$ly mix$ 9 loam or mud1 or disp]s$ ?r\gh a cru/ ( /alagmite :i* cov]s x4 ,9 ^! & _m o!r cases x is suppos$ t portions ( h]bivor\s quadrup$s h be5 dragg$ into cav]ns by bea/s ( prey1 & h s]v$ z _! food1 an op9ion q consi/5t ) ! kn[n habits ( ! liv+ hya5a4 ,no less ?an ?irty-sev5 species ( mammalia are enum]at$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 z hav+ be5 discov]$ 9 ! caves ( ! ,briti% isl&s1 ( :i* eighte5 appe> to be ext9ct1 :ile ! o!rs /ill survive 9 ,europe4 ,!y 7 n wa%$ to ! spots :]e ! fossils n[ occur by a great flood2 b liv$ & di$1 "o g5]ation aft] ano!r1 9 ! places :]e !y lie buri$4 ,among o!r argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ?is conclusion may be m5tion$ ! great numb]s ( ! %$ antl]s ( de] discov]$ 9 caves & 9 fre%wat] /rata ?r\gh\t ,engl&4#aee-;,a ,examples also occur ( fissures into :i* animals h fall5 f "t to "t1 or h be5 wa%$ 9 f above1 toge!r ) alluvial matt] & fragm5ts ( rock deta*$ by fro/1 =m+ a mass :i* may be unit$ into a bony breccia by /alagmitic infiltrations4 ,frequ5tly we discov] a long suite ( cav]ns connect$ by n>r[ & irregul> gall]ies1 :i* hold a tortu\s c\rse ?r\gh ! int]ior ( m\nta9s1 & seem to h s]v$ z ! subt]ranean *annels ( spr+s & engulph$ riv]s4 ,_m /reams 9 ! ,morea are n[ c>ry+ bones1 pebbles1 & mud into und]gr\nd passages ( ?is k9d4#aee-;,b ,if1 at "s future p]iod1 ! =m ( t c\ntry %\ld be :olly alt]$ by subt]ranean movem5ts & new valleys %ap$ out by d5udation1 _m portions ( ! =m] *annels ( ^! engulph$ /reams may communicate ) ! surface1 & become ! d5s ( wild bea/s1 or ! recesses to :i* quadrup$s retreat to die4 ,c]ta9 caves ( ,france1 ,g]many1 & ,belgium1 may h pass$ successively ?r\gh ^! diff]5t conditions1 & 9 _! la/ /ate may h rema9$ op5 to ! day = sev]al t]ti>y p]iods4 ,x is nev]!less rem>kable1 t on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 z 9 ,engl&1 ! fossil rema9s ( mammalia belong almo/ exclusively to ^? ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e & ,po/-,plioc5e p]iods1 & n to ! ,mioc5e or ,eoc5e epo*s1 & :5 !y are accompani$ by l& or riv] %ells1 ^! agree 9 great "p1 or entirely1 ) rec5t species4 ,z ! pres]vation ( ! fossil bones is due to a sl[ & con/ant supply ( /alactite1 br\ght into ! cav]ns by wat] dropp+ f ! ro(1 ! s\rce & orig9 ( ?is deposit has be5 a subject ( curi\s inquiry4 ,! foll[+ explanation ( ! ph5om5on has be5 rec5tly sugge/$ by ! em95t *emi/ ,liebig4 ,on ! surface ( ,franconia1 :]e ! lime/one ab\nds 9 cav]ns1 is a f]tile soil1 9 :i* vegetable matt] is cont9ually decay+4 ,?is m\ld or humus1 be+ act$ on by moi/ure & air1 evolves c>bonic acid :i* is dissolv$ by ra94 ,! ra9 wat]1 ?us impregnat$1 p]meates ! por\s lime/one1 dissolves a portion ( x1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 ! excess ( c>bonic acid evaporates 9 ! cav]ns1 p>ts ) ! calc>e\s matt]1 & =ms /alactite4 ,au/ralian cave-breccias4--,ossif]\s breccias are n conf9$ to ,europe1 b occur 9 all p>ts ( ! globe2 & ^? lately discov]$ 9 fissures & cav]ns 9 ,au/ralia correspond closely 9 "* ) :at has be5 call$ ! bony breccia ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 :i* ! fragm5ts ( bone & rock are firmly b\nd toge!r by a r$ o*re\s cem5t4 ,"s ( ^! caves h be5 exam9$ by ,sir ,t4 ,mit*ell 9 ! ,well+ton ,valley1 ab\t #baj miles we/ ( ,sidney1 on ! riv] ,bell1 "o ( ! pr9cipal s\rces ( ! ,macqu>ie1 & on ! ,macqu>ie itself4 ,! cav]ns (t5 bran* (f 9 diff]5t directions ?r\gh ! rock1 wid5+ & contract+ _! dim5sions1 & ! ro(s & floors are cov]$ ) /alactite4 ,! bones are (t5 brok51 b d n seem to be wat]-worn4 ,9 "s places !y lie imb$d$ 9 loose e>?1 b !y are usually includ$ 9 a breccia4 ,! rema9s f\nd mo/ abundantly are ^? ( ! kang>oo1 ( :i* !re are f\r species1 besides :i* ! g5]a ,hypsiprymnus1 ,phalangi/a1 ,phascolomys1 & ,dasyurus1 occur4 ,!re are also bones1 =m]ly conjectur$ by "s o/eologi/s to belong to ! hippopotamus1 & by o!rs to ! dugong1 b :i* are n[ ref]r$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 to a m>supial g5us1 alli$ to ! ,wombat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4 ,macropus atlas1 ,ow54 a4 p]man5t false mol>1 9 ! alveolus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4 ,l[e/ jaw ( l>ge/ liv+ species ( kang>oo4 7,macropus major47 ,9 ! fossils above enum]at$1 sev]al species are l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ liv+ ones ( ! same g5]a n[ kn[n 9 ,au/ralia4 ,! annex$ figure ( ! "r side ( a l[] jaw ( a kang>oo 7,macropus atlas1 ,ow57 w at once be se5 to exce$ 9 magnitude ! correspond+ "p ( ! l>ge/ liv+ kang>oo1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #abg4 ,9 bo? ^! specim5s "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! jaw has be5 brok5 op51 s z to %[ ! p]man5t false mol> 7a4 fig4 #abf47 conceal$ 9 ! socket4 ,f ! fact ( ?is mol> n hav+ be5 cut1 we le>n t ! individual 0 "y1 & _h n %$ its fir/ tee?4 ,9 fig4 #abh4 a front too? ( ! same species ( kang>oo is repres5t$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4 ,incisor ( ,macropus4 ,:e!r ! breccias1 above allud$ to1 ( ! ,well+ton ,valley1 app]ta9 /rictly to ! ,plioc5e p]iod _c be affirm$ ) c]ta9ty1 until we are m ?or\ghly acqua9t$ ) ! rec5t quadrup$s ( ! same di/rict1 & until we le>n :at species ( fossil l& %ells1 if any1 are buri$ 9 ! deposits ( ! same caves4 ,! read] w obs]ve t all ^! ext9ct quadrup$s ( ,au/ralia belong to ! m>supial family1 or1 9 o!r words1 t !y are ref]able to ! same peculi> type ( organization :i* n[ di/+ui%es ! ,au/ralian mammalia f ^? ( o!r p>ts ( ! globe4 ,?is fact is "o ( _m po9t+ to a g5]al law d$ucible f ! fossil v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals ( ! eras imm$iately antec$5t to ! human1 namely1 t ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( organic =ms dates back to a p]iod ant]ior to ! creation ( exi/+ species2 9 o!r words1 ! limitation ( p>ticul> g5]a or families ( quadrup$s1 mollusca1 c41 to c]ta9 exi/+ prov9ces ( l& & sea1 began be=e ! species n[ contempor>y ) man _h be5 introduc$ into ! e>?4 ,mr4 ,ow51 9 8 excell5t ,hi/ory ( ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals1 has call$ att5tion to ?is law1 rem>k+ t ! fossil quadrup$s ( ,europe & ,asia diff] f ^? ( ,au/ralia or ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,we d n f9d1 = example1 9 ! ,europaeo-,asiatic prov9ce fossil kang>oos or armadillos1 b ! elephant1 rh9oc]os1 horse1 be>1 hya5a1 beav]1 h>e1 mole1 & o!rs1 :i* /ill *>act]ize ! same cont95t4 ,9 l mann] 9 ! ,pampas ( ,s\? ,am]ica ! skeletons ( ,mega!rium1 ,megalonyx1 ,glyptodon1 ,mylodon1 ,toxodon1 ,macrau*5ia1 & o!r ext9ct =ms1 are analog\s to ! liv+ slo?1 armadillo1 cavy1 capyb>a1 & llama4 ,! fossil quadrumana1 also associat$ ) "s ( ^! =ms 9 ! ,brazilian caves1 belong to ! ,platyrrh9e family ( monkeys1 n[ peculi> to ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,t ! ext9ct fauna ( ,bu5os ,ayres & ,brazil 0 v mod]n has be5 %[n by its relation to deposits ( m>9e %ells1 agree+ ) ^? n[ inhabit+ ! ,atlantic2 & :5 9 ,georgia 9 #ahde1 ,i asc]ta9$ t ! ,mega!rium1 ,mylodon1 ,h>lanus am]icanus 7,ow571 ,equus curvid5s1 & o!r quadrup$s alli$ to ! ,pampean type 7 po/]ior 9 date to b$s conta9+ m>9e %ells belong+ to =ty-five rec5t species ( ! neighb\r+ sea4 ,!re are inde$ "s cosmopolite g5]a1 su* z ! ,ma/odon 7a g5us ( ! elephant family71 & ! horse1 :i* 7 simultane\sly repres5t$ by diff]5t fossil species 9 ,europe1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ,s\? ,am]ica2 b ^! few exceptions c by no means invalidate ! rule :i* has be5 ?us express$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 t 9 ! highe/ organiz$ class ( animals ! same =ms 7 re/rict$ to ! same great prov9ces at ! ,plioc5e p]iods z !y are at ! pres5t day4 ,h[ev] mod]n1 9 a geological po9t ( view1 we may consid] ! ,plei/oc5e epo*1 x is evid5t t causes m g5]al & p[]ful ?an ! int]v5tion ( man h occasion$ ! disappe>ance ( ! anci5t fauna f s _m ext5sive regions4 ,n a few ( ! species _h a wide range2 ! same ,mega!rium1 = in/ance1 ext5d$ f ,patagonia & ! riv] ,plata 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 betwe5 latitudes #ca deg4 & #ci deg4 s\?1 to correspond+ latitudes 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! same animal be+ also an inhabitant ( ! int]m$iate c\ntry ( ,brazil1 :]e its fossil rema9s h be5 met ) 9 caves4 ,! ext9ct elephant1 likewise1 ( ,georgia 7,elephas primig5ius7 has be5 trac$ 9 a fossil /ate nor?w>d f ! riv] ,alatamaha1 9 lat4 #cc deg4 #ej' ,n4 to ! pol> regions1 & !n aga9 9 ! ea/]n hemisph]e f ,sib]ia to ! s\? ( ,europe4 ,if x be object$ t1 not)/&+ ! adaptation ( su* quadrup$s to a v>iety ( climates & geographical conditions1 _! great size expos$ !m to ext]m9ation by ! fir/ hunt] tribes1 we may obs]ve t ! inve/igations ( ,lund & ,claus5 9 ! ossif]\s lime/one caves ( ,brazil h demon/rat$ t ^! l>ge mammalia 7 associat$ ) a great _m small] quadrup$s1 "s ( !m z dim9utive z field mice1 :i* h all di$ out toge!r1 :ile ! l& %ells =m]ly _! contempor>ies /ill cont9ue to exi/ 9 ! same c\ntries4 ,z we may feel assur$ t ^! m9ute quadrup$s c\ld nev] h be5 extirpat$ by man1 s we may conclude t all ! species1 small & great1 h be5 annihilat$ "o aft] ! o!r1 9 ! c\rse ( indef9ite ages1 by ^? *anges ( circum/ances 9 ! organic & inorganic _w :i* are always 9 progress1 & are capable 9 ! c\rse ( "t ( greatly modify+ ! physical geography1 climate1 & all o!r conditions on :i* ! cont9uance ^u ! e>? ( any liv+ be+ mu/ dep5d4#aeh-;,a ,! law ( geographical relation%ip above allud$ to1 betwe5 ! liv+ v]tebrata ( e great zoological prov9ce & ! fossils ( ! p]iod imm$iately antec$5t1 ev5 :]e ! fossil species are ext9ct1 is by no means conf9$ to ! mammalia4 ,new ,zeal&1 :5 fir/ exam9$ by ,europeans1 0 f\nd to conta9 no indig5\s l& quadrup$s1 no kang>oos1 or opossums1 l ,au/ralia2 b a w+less bird ab\nd$ !re1 ! smalle/ liv+ repres5tative ( ! o/ri* family1 call$ ! ,xivi1 by ! natives 7,apt]yx74 ,9 ! fossils ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e & ,plei/oc5e p]iod 9 ?is same isl&1 !re is ! l abs5ce ( kang>oos1 opossums1 wombats1 & ! re/2 b 9 _! place a prodigi\s numb] ( well pres]v$ specim5s ( gigantic birds ( ! /ru?i\s ord]1 call$ by ,ow5 ,d9ornis & ,palapt]yx1 :i* are entomb$ 9 sup]ficial deposits4 ,^! g5]a compreh5d$ _m species1 "s ( :i* 7 #d1 "s #g1 o!rs #i1 & o!rs #aa feet 9 height6 ,x seems d\btful :e!r any contempor>y mammalia %>$ ! l& ) ?is population ( gigantic fea!r$ bip$s4 ,to ^? :o h nev] /udi$ comp>ative anatomy x may seem sc>cely cr$ible1 t a s+le bone tak5 f any "p ( ! skeleton may enable a skilful o/eologi/ to di/+ui%1 9 _m cases1 ! g5us1 & sometimes ! species1 ( quadrup$ to :i* x belong$4 ,al?\gh few geologi/s c aspire to su* k1 :i* mu/ be ! result ( long practice & /udy1 !y w nev]!less d]ive great advantage f le>n+ :at is comp>atively an easy task1 to di/+ui% ! pr9cipal divisions ( ! mammalia by ! =ms & *>act]s ( _! tee?4 ,! annex$ figures1 all tak5 f orig9al specim5s1 may be useful 9 assi/+ ! /ud5t to recognize ! tee? ( _m g5]a mo/ frequ5tly f\nd fossil 9 ,europe3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4 ,elephas primig5ius 7or ,mammo?72 mol> ( upp] jaw1 "r side2 "o ?ird ( nat4 size4 a4 gr9d+ surface4 b4 side view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4 ,ma/odon angu/id5s 7,norwi* ,crag1 ,po/wick1 also f\nd 9 ,r$ ,crag1 see p4 #adi472 second true mol>1 left side1 upp] jaw2 gr9d+ surface1 nat4 size4 7,see p4 #adi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4 ,rh9oc]os4 ,rh9oc]os leptorh9us2 fossil f fre%wat] b$s ( ,grays1 ,essex 7see p4 #adg472 p5ultimate mol>1 l[] jaw1 left side2 two-?irds ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4 ,hippopotamus4 ,hippopotamus2 f cave ne> ,pal]mo 7see p4 #aed472 mol> too?2 two-?irds ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,pig4 ,sus scr(a1 ,l94 7common pig72 f %ell-m>l1 ,=f>%ire2 po/]ior mol>1 l[] jaw1 nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4 ,horse4 ,equus caballus1 ,l94 7common horse72 f ! %ell m>l1 ,=f>%ire2 second mol>1 l[] jaw4 a4 gr9d+ surface1 two-?irds nat4 size4 b4 side view ( same1 half nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4 ,tapir4 ,tapirus ,am]icanus2 rec5t2 ?ird mol>1 upp] jaw2 nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4 a4 b4 ,de]4 ,elk 7,c]vus alces1 ,l9472 rec5t2 mol> ( upp] jaw4 a4 gr9d+ surface4 b4 side view2 two-?irds ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4 c4 d4 ,ox4 ,ox1 common1 f %ell m>l1 ,=f>%ire2 true mol> upp] jaw2 two-?irds nat4 size4 c4 gr9d+ surface4 d4 side view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4 ,be>4 a4 can9e too? or tusk ( be> 7,ursus spelaeus72 f cave ne> ,liege4 b4 mol> ( left side1 upp] jaw2 "o ?ird ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,tig]4 c4 can9e too? ( tig] 7,felis tigris72 rec5t4 d4 outside view ( po/]ior mol>1 l[] jaw2 "o-?ird ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4 ,hya5a spelaea2 second mol>1 left side1 l[] jaw2 nat4 size4 ,cave ( ,kirkdale4 7,see p4 #aed47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4 ,tee? ( a new species ( ,arvicola 7field-m\se72 f ! ,norwi* ,crag4 7,see p4 #adi47 a4 gr9d+ surface4 b4 side view ( same4 c4 nat4 size ( a & b4 ,,footnotes3 #adg-;,a ,morris1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$41 #ahdi4 #adg-;,b ,woodw>d's ,geology ( ,norfolk4 #adh-;,a ,zool4 ( ,beagle1 "p #a4 pp4 #i4 #aaa4 #adi-;,a ,ow51 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mamm4 #bga4 ,ma/odon longiro/ris1 ,kaup1 see ibid4 #aeb-;,a ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,lonsdale = ! details above giv5 respect+ ! /ructure ( ?is coral4 #aee-;,a ,ow51 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 xxvi41 & ,buckl&1 ,rel4 ,dil4 #ai4 #bd4 #aee-;,b ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4 #aeh-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *aps4 xli4 to xliv4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,old] ,,plioc5e ,,& ,,mioc5e ,,=mations4 ,/rata ( ,suffolk t]m$ ,r$ & ,corall9e crag--,fossils1 & proportion ( rec5t species--,dep? ( sea & climate--,ref]5ce ( ,suffolk crag to ! old] ,plioc5e p]iod--,migration ( _m species ( %ells s\?w>ds dur+ ! glacial p]iod--,fossil :ales--,sub- ap5n9e b$s--,a/i1 ,si5na1 ,rome--,mioc5e =mations--,faluns ( ,t\ra9e--,dep? ( sea & littoral "* ( fauna--,tropical climate impli$ by ! te/acea--,proportion ( rec5t species ( %ells--,faluns m anci5t ?an ! ,suffolk crag--,mioc5e /rata ( ,bordeaux & ,pi$mont--,molasse ( ,switz]l&--,t]ti>y /rata ( ,lisbon--,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e =mations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,sewalik ,hills 9 ,india4 ,! old] ,plioc5e /rata1 :i* next claim our att5tion1 are *iefly conf9$1 9 ,great ,brita91 to ! ea/]n "p ( ! c\nty ( ,suffolk1 :]e1 l ! ,norwi* b$s already describ$1 !y are call$ ,crag1 a prov9cial "n giv5 p>ticul>ly to ^? masses ( %elly s& :i* h be5 us$ f v anci5t times 9 agriculture1 to f]tilize soils defici5t 9 calc>e\s matt]4 ,! relative position ( ! r$ crag 9 ,essex to ! ,london clay1 may be und]/ood by ref]5ce to ! accompany+ diagram 7fig4 #adb474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4 ,cross section4 ,^! deposits1 judg+ by ! %ells :i* !y conta91 appe>1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,edw>d ,=bes1 to h be5 =m$ 9 a sea ( mod]ate dep?1 g5]ally f #ae to #be fa?oms deep1 al?\gh 9 "s few spots p]haps deep]4 ,b !y may1 nev]!less1 h be5 accumulat$ at ! di/ance ( #dj or #ej miles f l&4 ,! ,suffolk crag is divisible into two masses1 ! upp] ( :i* has be5 t]m$ ! ,r$1 & ! l[] ! ,corall9e ,crag4#afb-;,a ,! upp] deposit consi/s *iefly ( qu>tzose s&1 ) an occasional int]mixture ( %ells1 = ! mo/ "p roll$1 & sometimes comm9ut$4 ,! l[] or ,corall9e crag is ( v limit$ ext5t1 rang+ ov] an area ab\t #bj miles 9 l5g?1 & #c or #d 9 bread?1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,alde & ,/\r4 ,x is g5]ally calc>e\s & m>ly--a mass ( %ells & small corals1 pass+ occasionally into a s(t build+ /one4 ,at ,sudb\rn1 ne> ,or=d1 :]e x assumes ?is "*1 are l>ge qu>ries1 9 :i* ! bottom ( x has n be5 rea*$ at ! dep? ( #ej feet4 ,at "s places 9 ! neighb\rhood1 ! s(t] mass is divid$ by ?9 flags ( h>d lime/one1 & corals plac$ 9 ! upright position 9 :i* !y grew4 ,! ,r$ crag is di/+ui%$ by ! deep f]rug9\s or o*re\s col\r ( its s&s & fossils1 ! ,corall9e by its :ite col\r4 ,bo? =mations are ( mod]ate ?ickness2 ! r$ crag r>ely exce$+ #dj1 & ! corall9e seldom am\nt+ to #bj1 feet4 ,b _! importance is n to be e/imat$ by ! d5sity ( ! mass ( /rata or its geographical ext5t1 b by ! extraord9>y ri*ness ( its organic rema9s1 belong+ to a v peculi> type1 :i* seems to *>act]ize ! /ate ( ! liv+ creation 9 ! nor? ( ,europe dur+ ! old] ,plioc5e era4 ,= a l>ge collection ( ! fi%1 e*9od]ms1 %ells1 & corals ( ! deposits 9 ,suffolk1 we are indebt$ to ! lab\rs ( ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood4 ,( te/acea alone he has obta9$ f #bcj species f ! ,r$1 & #cde f ! ,corall9e crag1 ab\t #aej be+ common to ea*4 ,! proportion ( rec5t species 9 ! new gr\p is consid]$ by ,mr4 ,wood to be ab\t #gjafb-;,b p] c5t41 & t 9 ! old] or corall9e ab\t #fj4 ,:5 ,i exam9$ ^! %ells ( ,suffolk 9 #ahce1 ) ! assi/ance ( ,dr4 ,beck1 ,mr4 ,george ,s[]by1 ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 & o!r em95t con*ologi/s1 ,i came to ! op9ion t ! ext9ct species pr$om9at$ v decid$ly 9 numb] ov] ! liv+4 ,rec5t inve/igations1 h[ev]1 h ?r[n mu* new light on ! con*ology ( ! ,arctic1 ,sc&9avian1 ,briti%1 & ,m$it]ranean ,seas4 ,_m ( ! species =m]ly kn[n only z fossils ( ! ,crag1 & suppos$ to h di$ out1 h be5 dr$g$ up 9 a liv+ /ate f dep?s n previ\sly explor$4 ,o!r rec5t species1 be=e reg>d$ z di/9ct f ! ne>e/ alli$ ,crag fossils1 h be5 obs]v$1 :5 num]\s individuals 7 procur$1 to be liable to mu* great] v>iation1 bo? 9 size & =m1 ?an _h be5 suspect$1 & ?us h be5 id5tifi$4 ,consequ5tly1 ! ,crag fauna has be5 f\nd to approa* mu* m ne>ly to ! rec5t fauna ( ! ,nor!rn1 ,briti%1 & ,m$it]ranean ,seas ?an _h be5 imag9$4 ,! analogy ( ! :ole gr\p ( te/acea to ! ,european type is v m>k$1 :e!r we ref] to ! l>ge developm5t ( c]ta9 g5]a 9 numb] ( species or to _! size1 or to ! suppression or feeble repres5tation ( o!rs4 ,! indication also af=d$ by ! entire fauna ( a climate n mu* w>m] ?an t n[ prevail+ 9 correspond+ latitudes1 prep>es u to believe t !y are n ( high] antiquity ?an ! ,old] ,plioc5e era4#afc-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4 ,section ne> ,ipswi*1 9 ,suffolk4 a4 ,r$ crag4 b4 ,corall9e crag4 c4 ,london clay4 ,! position ( ! r$ crag 9 ,essex to ! subjac5t ,london clay & *alk has be5 already po9t$ out 7fig4 #adb474 ,:5ev] ! two divisions are met ) 9 ! same di/rict1 ! r$ crag lies upp]mo/2 &1 9 "s cases1 z 9 ! section repres5t$ 9 fig4 #adc41 x is obs]v$ t ! old] or corall9e mass b _h suff]$ d5udation be=e ! new] =mation a 0 ?r[n d[n ^u x4 ,at ,d !re is n only a di/9ct cliff1 #h or #aj feet high1 ( corall9e crag1 runn+ 9 a direction ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 aga9/ :i* ! r$ crag abuts ) its horizontal lay]s2 b ?is cliff occasionally ov]hangs4 ,! rock compos+ x is drill$ ev]y:]e by ,pholades1 ! holes :i* !y p]=at$ hav+ be5 aft]w>ds fill$ ) s& & cov]$ ov] :5 ! new] b$s 7 ?r[n d[n4 ,z ! old] =mation is %[n by its fossils to h accumulat$ 9 a deep] sea 7#ae1 & sometimes #be1 fa?oms deep or m71 !re mu/ no d\bt h be5 an upheaval ( ! sea-bottom be=e ! cliff "h allud$ to 0 %ap$ out4 ,we may also conclude t s great an am\nt ( d5udation c\ld sc>cely take place1 9 su* incoh]5t mat]ials1 )\t _m ( ! fossils ( ! inf]ior b$s becom+ mix$ up ) ! ov]ly+ crag1 s t consid]able difficulty mu/ be occasionally exp]i5c$ by ! palaeontologi/ 9 decid+ :i* species belong sev]ally to ea* gr\p4 ,! r$ crag be+ =m$ 9 a %all[] sea1 (t5 resembles 9 /ructure a %ift+ s& bank1 its lay]s be+ incl9$ diagonally1 & ! planes ( /ratification be+ sometimes direct$ 9 ! same qu>ry to ! f\r c>d9al po9ts ( ! compass1 z at ,butley4 ,t 9 ?is & _m o!r localities1 su* a /ructure is n deceptive or due to any subsequ5t concretion>y re-arrangem5t ( p>ticles1 or to m]e l9es ( col\r1 is prov$ by ea* b$ be+ made up ( flat pieces ( %ell :i* lie p>allel to ! planes ( ! small] /rata4 ,"s fossils1 :i* are v abundant 9 ! r$ crag1 h nev] be5 f\nd 9 ! :ite or corall9e division2 z1 = example1 ! ,fusus contr>ius 7fig4 #add471 & sev]al species ( ,bucc9um 7or ,nassa7 & ,murex 7see figs4 #ade1 #adf471 :i* two g5]a seem want+ 9 ! l[] crag4 #d ,illu/rations3 ,fossils *>act]i/ic ( ! ,r$ ,crag4 ,fig4 #add4 ,fusus contr>ius4 ,fig4 #ade4 ,murex alveolatus4 ,fig4 #adf4 ,nassa granulata4 ,fig4 #adg4 ,cypraea cocc9elloides4 ,fig4 #add4 half nat4 size2 ! o!rs nat4 size4 ,among ! bones & tee? ( fi%es are ^? ( l>ge %>ks 7,c>*>ias71 & a gigantic skate ( ! ext9ct g5us ,myliobates1 & _m o!r =ms1 "s common to our seas1 & _m =eign to !m4 ,! di/9ctness ( ! fossils ( ! corall9e crag arises 9 "p f high] antiquity1 &1 9 "s degree1 f a diff]5ce 9 ! geographical conditions ( ! subm>9e bottom4 ,! prolific gr[? ( corals1 e*9i1 & a prodigi\s v>iety ( te/acea1 implies a region ( deep] & m tranquil wat]2 :]eas1 ! r$ crag may h =m$ aft]w>ds on ! same spot1 :5 ! wat] 0 %all[]4 ,9 ! mean "t ! climate may h become some:at cool]1 & "s ( ! zoophytes :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! fir/ p]iod may h disappe>$1 s t ! fauna ( ! r$ crag acquir$ a "* some:at m ne>ly resembl+ t ( our nor!rn seas1 z is impli$ by ! l>ge developm5t ( c]ta9 sections ( ! g5]a ,fusus1 ,bucc9um1 ,purpura1 & ,tro*us1 prop] to high] latitudes1 & :i* are want+ or feebly repres5t$ 9 ! inf]ior crag4 ,"s ( ! corals ( ! l[] crag ( ,suffolk belong to g5]a unkn[n 9 ! liv+ creation1 & ( a v peculi> /ructure2 z1 = example1 t repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ fig4 7#adh471 :i* is "o ( sev]al species hav+ a globul> =m4 ,! great numb] & v>iety ( ^! zoophytes probably indicate an equable climate1 free f int5se cold 9 w9t]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t ! heat 0 nev] excessive is confirm$ by ! preval5ce ( nor!rn =ms among ! te/acea1 su* z ! ,glycim]is1 ,cypr9a1 & ,a/>te4 ,( ! g5us la/ m5tion$ 7see fig4 #adi47 !re are ab\t f\rte5 species1 _m ( !m be+ ri* 9 individuals2 & !re is an abs5ce ( g5]a peculi> to hot climates1 su* z ,conus1 ,oliva1 ,mitra1 ,fasciol>ia1 ,crassatella1 & o!rs4 ,! c[ries 7,cypraea1 fig4 #adg471 also1 are small1 & belong to a section 7,trivia7 n[ inhabit+ ! cold] regions4 ,a l>ge volute1 call$ ,voluta ,lamb]ti 7fig4 #aej471 may seem an exception2 b x diff]s 9 =m f ! volutes ( ! torrid zone1 & may1 l ! liv+ ,voluta ,magellanica1 h be5 fitt$ = an extra-tropical climate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4 ,fascicul>ia aurantium1 ,milne ,edw>ds4 ,family1 ,tubuliporidae1 ( same au?or4 ,coral ( ext9ct g5us1 f ! inf]ior or corall9e crag1 ,suffolk4 a4 ext]ior4 b4 v]tical section ( int]ior4 c4 portion ( ext]ior magnifi$4 d4 portion ( int]ior magnifi$1 %[+ t x is made up ( long1 ?91 /raight tubes1 unit$ 9 conical bundles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4 ,a/>te 7,crass9a1 ,lam472 species common to upp] & l[] crag4 ,a/>te ,omalii1 ,lajonkaire2 ,syn4 ,a4 bip>tita1 ,s[4 ,m94 ,con4 ,t4 #eba4 f4 #c42 a v v>iable species mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! corall9e crag1 ,suffolk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4 ,voluta ,lamb]ti1 "y individ4 ,! occurr5ce ( a species ( ,l+ula at ,sutton is wor?y ( rem>k1 z ^! ,bra*iopoda seem n[ conf9$ to m equatorial latitudes1 & ! same may be said /ill m decid$ly ( a species ( ,pyrula1 alli$ to ,p4 reticulata4 ,:e!r1 !re=e1 we may incl9e to ! belief t ! mean annual temp]ature 0 high] or l[] ?an n[1 we may at lea/ inf] t ! climate & geographical conditions 7 by no means ! same at ! p]iod ( ! ,suffolk crag z ^? n[ prevail+ 9 ! same region4 ,( ! e*9od]ms ( ! corall9e crag ab\t elev5 species are kn[n1 b "s ( ^! are 9 too fragm5t>y a condition to admit ( exact comp>ison4 ,( six :i* are ! mo/ p]fect1 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes has be5 able to id5tify ?ree ) rec5t species3 "o ( :i*1 ( ! g5us ,e*9us1 is ,briti%2 a second1 ,e*9ocyamus1 ,briti% & ,m$it]ranean2 & a ?ird1 ,e*9us monilis1 a ,m$it]ranean species1 also f\nd fossil 9 ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ conclusions d$uc$ f a c>eful comp>ison ( ! %ells ( ^! ,briti% ,old] ,plioc5e /rata & ^? n[ inhabit+ our seas1 has be5 po9t$ out by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes4 ,x appe>s t1 dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 a p]iod int]m$iate1 z we h se51 betwe5 t ( ! crag & our own times1 _m %ells1 previ\sly e/abli%$ 9 ! temp]ate zone1 retreat$ s\?w>ds to avoid an uncong5ial climate4 ,! ,pr(essor has giv5 a li/ ( fifty %ells :i* inhabit$ ! ,briti% seas :ile ! corall9e & r$ crag 7 =m+1 & :i* are want+ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e or glacial deposits4 ,!y mu/1 !re=e1 aft] _! migration to ! s\?1 h made _! way nor?w>ds aga94 ,9 corroboration ( ^! views1 x is /at$ t all ^! fifty species occur fossil 9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e /rata ( ,sicily1 ,s\!rn ,italy1 & ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago1 :]e !y may h enjoy$1 dur+ ! era ( float+ iceb]gs1 a climate resembl+ t n[ prevail+ 9 high] ,european latitudes4#aff-;,a ,9 ! r$ crag at ,felix/[1 9 ,suffolk1 ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ has f\nd ! e>-bones ( no less ?an f\r species ( cetacea1 :i*1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ow51 are ! rema9s ( true :ales ( ! family ,bala5idae4 ,mr4 ,wood is ( op9ion t ^! cetacea may be ( ! age ( ! r$ crag1 or if n t !y may be d]iv$ f ! de/ruction ( b$s ( corall9e crag4 ,i agree ) him t ! supposition ( _! hav+ be5 wa%$ out ( ! ,london clay1 9 :i* no ,bala5idae h yet be5 met )1 is improbable4 ,/rata conta9+ fossil %ells1 l ^? ( ! ,suffolk crag1 above describ$1 h be5 f\nd at ,antw]p1 & on ! banks ( ! ,s*eldt bel[ t city4 ,9 #ahdj ,i obs]v$ a small pat* ( !m ne> ,valognes1 9 ,norm&y2 & !re is also a deposit conta9+ simil> fossils at ,/4 ,george ,bohon1 & sev]al places a few leagues to ! ,s4 ( ,c>5tan1 9 ,norm&y2 b !y h nev] be5 trac$ f>!r s\?w>ds4 ,subap5n9e /rata4--,! ,ap5n9es1 x is well kn[n1 are compos$ *iefly ( second>y rocks1 =m+ a *a9 :i* bran*es (f f ! ,ligurian ,alps & passes d[n ! middle ( ! ,italian p59sula4 ,at ! foot ( ^! m\nta9s1 on ! side bo? ( ! ,adriatic & ! ,m$it]ranean1 are f\nd a s]ies ( t]ti>y /rata1 :i* =m1 = ! mo/ "p1 a l9e ( l[ hills occupy+ ! space betwe5 ! old] *a9 & ! sea4 ,broc*i1 z we h se5 7p4 #aje471 0 ! fir/ ,italian geologi/ :o describ$ ?is new] gr\p 9 detail1 giv+ x ! "n ( ! ,subap5n9es2 & he class$ all ! t]ti>y /rata ( ,italy1 f ,pi$mont to ,calabria1 z p>ts ( ! same sy/em4 ,c]ta9 m9]al *>act]s1 he obs]v$1 7 common to ! :ole2 = ! /rata consi/ g5]ally ( light br[n or blue m>l1 cov]$ by yell[ calc>e\s s& & gravel4 ,!re are also1 he add$1 "s species ( fossil %ells :i* are f\nd 9 ^! deposits ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ,italy4 ,we h n[1 h[ev]1 satisfactory evid5ce t ! ,subap5n9e b$s ( ,broc*i belong1 at lea/1 to ?ree p]iods4 ,to ! ,mioc5e we c ref] a portion ( ! /rata ( ,pi$mont1 ^? ( ! hill ( ! ,sup]ga1 = example2 to ! ,old] ,plioc5e1 "p ( ! /rata ( nor!rn ,italy1 ( ,tuscany1 & ( ,rome2 :ile ! tuface\s =mations ( ,naples1 ( ,is*ia1 & ! calc>e\s /rata ( ,otranto1 are ref]able to ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 & 9 great "p to ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,t !re is a consid]able correspond5ce 9 ! m9]al composition ( ^! diff]5t ,italian gr\ps is und5iable2 b n t exact resemblance :i* %\ld lead u to assume a precise id5tity ( age1 unless ! fossil rema9s agre$ v closely4 ,x is n[ indisp5sable t a new scrut9y %\ld be made 9 ea* p>ticul> di/rict1 ( ! fossils d]iv$ f ! upp] & l[] b$s--especially su* localities z ,a/i & ,p>ma1 :]e ! =mation atta9s a great ?ickness2 & at ,si5na1 :]e ! %ells ( ! incumb5t yell[ s& are g5]ally believ$ to approa* mu* m ne>ly1 z a :ole1 to ! rec5t fauna ( ! ,m$it]ranean ?an ^? 9 ! subjac5t blue m>l4 ,! greyi% br[n or blue m>l ( ! ,subap5n9e =mation is v alum9\s1 & usually conta9s mu* calc>e\s matt] & scales ( mica4 ,ne> ,p>ma x atta9s a ?ickness ( #bjjj feet1 & is *>g$ ?r\gh\t ) m>9e %ells1 "s ( :i* liv$ 9 deep1 o!rs 9 %all[ wat]1 :ile a few belong to fre%wat] g5]a1 & mu/ h be5 wa%$ 9 by riv]s4 ,among ^! la/ ,i h se5 ! common ,limnea palu/ris 9 ! blue m>l1 fill$ ) small m>9e %ells4 ,! wood & leaves1 :i* occasionally =m b$s ( lignite 9 ! same deposit1 may h be5 c>ri$ into ! sea by simil> causes4 ,! %ells1 9 g5]al1 are s(t :5 fir/ tak5 f ! m>l1 b !y become h>d :5 dri$4 ,! sup]ficial enamel is (t5 well pres]v$1 & _m %ells reta9 _! pe>ly lu/re1 "p ( _! ext]nal col\r1 & ev5 ! ligam5t :i* unites ! valves4 ,no %ells are m usually p]fect ?an ! microscopic =am9if]a1 :i* ab\nd ne> ,si5na1 :]e m ?an a ?\s& full-gr[n individuals may be sometimes p\r$ out ( ! int]ior ( a s+le univalve ( mod]ate dim5sions4 ,! o!r memb] ( ! ,subap5n9e gr\p1 ! yell[ s& & conglom]ate1 con/itutes1 9 mo/ places1 a bord] =mation ne> ! junction ( ! t]ti>y & second>y rocks4 ,9 "s cases1 z ne> ! t[n ( ,si5na1 we see s& & calc>e\s gravel re/+ imm$iately on ! ,ap5n9e lime/one1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( any blue m>l4 ,alt]nations are !re se5 ( b$s conta9+ fluviatile %ells1 ) o!rs fill$ exclusively ) m>9e species2 & ,i obs]v$ oy/]s atta*$ to _m lime/one pebbles4 ,?is appe>s to h be5 a po9t :]e a riv]1 fl[+ f ! ,ap5n9es1 ent]$ ! sea :5 ! t]ti>y /rata 7 =m$4 ,! s& passes 9 "s di/ricts into a calc>e\s s&/one1 z at ,san ,vignone4 ,its g5]al sup]position to ! m>l1 ev5 9 p>ts ( ,italy & ,sicily :]e ! date ( its orig9 is v di/9ct1 may be expla9$ if we consid] t x may repres5t ! deltas ( riv]s & torr5ts1 :i* ga9$ ^u ! b$ ( ! sea :]e blue m>l _h previ\sly be5 deposit$4 ,! latt]1 be+ compos$ ( ! f9] & m transportable mud1 w\ld be convey$ to a di/ance1 & fir/ occupy ! bottom1 ov] :i* s& & pebbles w\ld aft]w>ds be spread1 9 proportion z riv]s pu%$ _! deltas f>!r outw>ds4 ,9 "s l>ge tracts ( yell[ s& x is impossible to detect a s+le fossil1 :ile 9 o!r places !y occur 9 pr(usion4 ,occasionally ! %ells are silicifi$1 z at ,san ,vitale1 ne> ,p>ma1 f :5ce ,i saw two individuals ( rec5t species1 "o fre%wat] & ! o!r m>9e 7,limnea palu/ris1 & ,cy!rea conc5trica1 ,lam471 bo? p]fectly conv]t$ into fl9t4 ,rome4--,! sev5 hills ( ,rome are compos$ p>tly ( m>9e t]ti>y /rata1 ^? ( ,monte ,m>io1 = example1 ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e p]iod1 & p>tly ( sup]impos$ volcanic tuff1 on ! top ( :i* are usually capp+s ( a fluviatile & lacu/r9e deposit4 ,?us1 on ,m\nt ,av5t9e1 ! ,vatican1 & ! ,capitol1 we f9d b$s ( calc>e\s tufa ) incru/$ re$s1 & rec5t t]re/rial %ells1 at ! height ( ab\t #bjj feet above ! alluvial pla9 ( ! ,tib]4 ,! tusk ( ! mammo? has be5 procur$ f ?is =mation1 b ! %ells appe> to be all ( liv+ species1 & mu/ h be5 emb$d$ :5 ! summit ( ! ,capitol 0 a m>%1 & con/itut$ "o ( ! l[e/ holl[s ( ! c\ntry z x !n exi/$4 ,x is n )\t int]e/ t we ?us discov] ! extremely rec5t date ( a geological ev5t :i* prec$$ an hi/orical era s remote z ! build+ ( ,rome4 ,,mioc5e ,,=mations4 ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4--,! ,mioc5e /rata1 correspond+ ) ^? nam$ by _m geologi/s ,middle ,t]ti>y1 w next claim our att5tion4 ,ne> ! t[ns ( ,d9an & ,r5nes1 9 ,brittany1 & aga9 9 ! prov9ces bord]+ ! ,loire1 a t]ti>y =mation1 conta9+ ano!r assemblage ( fossils1 is met )1 to :i* ! "n ( ,faluns has be5 long giv5 by ! ,fr5* agriculturi/s1 :o spread ! %elly s& & m>l ov] ! l&1 9 ! same mann] z ! crag 0 =m]ly mu* us$ 9 ,suffolk4 ,isolat$ masses ( ^! faluns occur f ne> ! m\? ( ! ,loire1 ne> ,nantes1 z f> z a di/rict s\? ( ,t\rs4 ,!y are also f\nd at ,pontlevoy1 on ! ,*]1 ab\t #gj miles above ! junction ( t riv] ) ! ,loire1 & #cj miles ,s4,e4 ( ,t\rs4 ,i h visit$ all ! localities above m5tion$1 & f\nd ! b$s to consi/ pr9cipally ( s& & m>l1 9 :i* are %ells & corals1 "s entire1 "s roll$1 & o!rs 9 m9ute fragm5ts4 ,9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 z at ,d\e1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,ma9e & ,loire1 #aj miles ,s4,w4 ( ,saumur1 !y =m a s(t build+-/one1 *iefly compos$ ( an aggregate ( brok5 %ells1 corals1 & e*9od]ms1 unit$ by a calc>e\s cem5t2 ! :ole mass be+ v l ! corall9e crag ne> ,aldbor\gh & ,sudb\rn 9 ,suffolk4 ,! scatt]$ pat*es ( faluns are ( slight ?ickness1 r>ely exce$+ #ej feet2 & betwe5 ! di/rict call$ ,sologne & ! sea !y repose on a great v>iety ( old] rocks2 be+ se5 to re/ successively ^u gneiss1 clay-slate1 & v>i\s second>y =mations1 includ+ ! *alk2 &1 la/ly1 ^u ! upp] fre%wat] lime/one ( ! ,p>isian t]ti>y s]ies1 :i*1 z be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #ajf471 /ret*es cont9u\sly f ! bas9 ( ! ,se9e to t ( ! ,loire4 ,at "s po9ts1 z at ,l\ans1 s\? ( ,t\rs1 ! %ells are /a9$ ( a f]rug9\s col\r1 n unlike t ( ! r$ crag ( ,suffolk4 ,! species are1 = ! mo/ "p1 m>9e1 b a few ( !m belong to l& & fluviatile g5]a4 ,among ! =m]1 ,helix turon5sis 7fig4 #de4 p4 #cj47 is ! mo/ abundant4 ,rema9s ( t]re/rial quadrup$s are "h & !re int]mix$1 belong+ to ! g5]a ,de9o!rium1 ,ma/odon1 ,rh9oc]os1 ,hippopotamus1 ,*a]opotamus1 ,di*obune1 ,de]1 & o!rs1 & ^! are accompani$ by cetacea1 su* z ! ,lamant9e1 ,morse1 ,sea-calf1 & ,dolph91 all ( ext9ct species4 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 aft] /udy+ ! fossil te/acea :i* ,i obta9$ f ^! b$s2 in=ms me t he has no d\bt !y 7 =m$ p>tly on ! %ore itself at ! level ( l[ wat]1 & p>tly at v mod]ate dep?s1 n exce$+ #aj fa?oms bel[ t level4 ,! mollusc\s fauna ( ! faluns is on ! :ole mu* m littoral ?an t ( ! r$ & corall9e crag ( ,suffolk1 & implies a %all[] sea4 ,x is1 moreov]1 contra/$ ) ! ,suffolk crag by ! indications x af=ds ( an extra-,european climate4 ,?us x conta9s sev5 species ( ,cypraea1 "s l>g] ?an any exi/+ c[ry ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 sev]al species ( ,oliva1 ,ancill>ia1 ,mitra1 ,t]ebra1 ,pyrula1 ,fasciol>ia1 & ,conus4 ,( ! cones !re are no less ?an eight species1 "s v l>ge1 :]eas ! only ,european cone is ( dim9utive size4 ,! g5us ,n]ita1 & _m o!rs1 are also repres5t$ by individuals ( a type n[ *>act]i/ic ( equatorial seas1 & :olly unlike any ,m$it]ranean =ms4 ,^! pro(s ( a m elevat$ temp]ature seem to imply ! high] antiquity ( ! faluns z comp>$ ) ! ,suffolk crag1 & are 9 p]fect accordance ) ! fact ( ! small] proportion ( te/acea ( rec5t species f\nd 9 ! faluns4 ,out ( #bij species ( %ells1 collect$ by myself1 9 #ahdj1 at ,pontlevoy1 ,l\ans1 ,bossee1 & o!r villages #bj miles s\? ( ,t\rs2 & at ,savigne1 ab\t #ae miles nor?-we/ ( t place2 #gb only c\ld be id5tifi$ ) rec5t species1 :i* is 9 ! proportion ( #be p] c5t4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! #bij species are common to all ! localities1 ^? peculi> to ea* n be+ m num]\s ?an we might expect to f9d 9 diff]5t bays ( ! same sea4 ,! total numb] ( mollusca f ! faluns1 9 my possession1 is #cjb1 ( :i* #de only 7 f\nd by ,mr4 ,wood to be common to ! ,suffolk crag4 ,! numb] ( corals obta9$ by me at ,d\e1 & o!r localities be=e adv]t$ to1 am\nts to #dc1 z det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 ( :i* #g agree specifically ) ^? ( ! ,suffolk crag4 ,only "o has1 z yet1 be5 id5tifi$ ) a liv+ species4 ,b x is difficult1 if n impossible1 to in/itute at pres5t a satisfactory comp>ison betwe5 fossil & rec5t ,polyp>ia1 f ! defici5cy ( our k ( ! liv+ species4 ,"s ( ! g5]a occurr+ fossil 9 ,t\ra9e1 z ! ,a/rea1 ,lunulites1 & ,d5drophyllia1 h n be5 f\nd 9 ,european seas nor? ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 nev]!less ! ,polyp>ia ( ! faluns d n seem to indicate on ! :ole s w>m a climate z w\ld be inf]r$ f ! %ells4 ,x 0 /at$ t1 on comp>+ ab\t #cjj species ( ,t\ra9e %ells ) ab\t #dej f ! ,suffolk crag1 #de only 7 f\nd to be common to bo?1 :i* is 9 ! proportion ( only #ae p] c5t4 ,! same small am\nt ( agreem5t is f\nd 9 ! corals also4 ,i =m]ly endeav\r$ to reconcile ?is m>k$ diff]5ce 9 species ) ! suppos$ co-exi/5ce ( ! two faunas1 by imag9+ !m to h sev]ally belong$ to di/9ct zoological prov9ces or two seas1 ! "o op5+ to ! nor?1 & ! o!r to ! s\?1 ) a b>ri] ( l& betwe5 !m1 l ! ,i/hmus ( ,suez1 sep>at+ ! ,r$ ,sea & ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,b ,i n[ ab&on t idea = sev]al reasons2 among o!rs1 because ,i succe$$ 9 #ahda 9 trac+ ! ,crag fauna s\?w>ds 9 ,norm&y to )9 #gj miles ( ! ,falunian type1 ne> ,d9an1 yet f\nd t bo? assemblages ( fossils reta9$ _! di/9ctive *>act]s1 %[+ no signs ( any bl5d+ ( species or transition ( climate4 ,on a comp>ison ( #bhj ,m$it]ranean %ells ) #fjj ,briti% species1 made = me by an exp]i5c$ con*ologi/ 9 #ahda1 #afj 7 f\nd to be common to bo? collections1 :i* is 9 ! proportion ( #eg p] c5t41 a f\rfold great] specific resemblance ?an betwe5 ! seas ( ! crag & ! faluns1 not)/&+ ! great] geographical di/ance betwe5 ,engl& & ! ,m$it]ranean ?an betwe5 ,suffolk & ! ,loire4 ,! pr9cipal gr\nds1 h[ev]1 = ref]r+ ! ,engli% crag to ! old] ,plioc5e & ! ,fr5* faluns to ! ,mioc5e epo*s1 consi/ 9 ! pr$om9ance ( fossil %ells 9 ! ,briti% /rata id5tifiable ) species1 n only /ill liv+1 b :i* are n[ inhabitants ( neighb\r+ seas1 :ile ! accompany+ ext9ct species are ( g5]a su* z *>act]ize ,europe4 ,9 ! faluns1 on ! contr>y1 ! rec5t species are 9 a decid$ m9ority1 & _m ( !m1 l ! associat$ ext9ct te/acea1 are mu* less ,european 9 "*1 & po9t to ! preval5ce ( a w>m] climate1--9 o!r words1 to a /ate ( ?+s rec$+ f>!r f ! pres5t condition ( ,europe1 geographically & climatologically1 & d\btless1 !re=e1 rec$+ f>!r 9 "t4 ,bordeaux4--,a great ext5t ( c\ntry betwe5 ! ,pyr5ees & ! ,gironde is ov]spread by t]ti>y deposits1 :i* h be5 m p>ticul>ly /udi$ 9 ! environs ( ,bordeaux & ,dax1 f :5ce ab\t #gjj species ( %ells h be5 obta9$4 ,a l>ge proportion ( ^! %ells belong to ! same zoological type z ^? ( ,t\ra9e2 b _m are peculi>1 & ! :ole may possibly con/itute a some:at old] division ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod ?an ! faluns ( ! ,loire4 ,we mu/ wait1 h[ev]1 = f>!r inve/igations1 9 ord] to decide ?is "q ) accuracy4 ,pi$mont4--,_m ( ! %ells peculi> to ! hill ( ! ,sup]ga1 ne> ,tur91 agree ) ^? f\nd at ,bordeaux & ,dax2 b ! proportion ( rec5t species is mu* less4 ,! /rata ( ! ,sup]ga consi/ ( a bright gre5 s& & m>l1 & a conglom]ate ) pebbles1 *iefly ( gre5 s]p5t9e1 & are incl9$ at an angle ( m ?an #gj deg44 ,?is =mation1 :i* atta9s a great ?ickness 9 ! valley ( ! ,bormida1 is probably "o ( ! olde/ ,mioc5e gr\ps hi!rto discov]$4 ,molasse ( ,switz]l&4--,if we cross ! ,alps1 & pass f ,pi$mont to ,savoy1 we f9d !re1 at ! nor!rn base ( ! great *a91 & ?r\gh\t ! l[] c\ntry ( ,switz]l&1 a s(t gre5 s&/one mu* resembl+ "s ( ! b$s ( ! bas9 ( ! ,bormida1 above describ$1 & associat$ 9 a simil> mann] ) m>ls & conglom]ate4 ,?is =mation is call$ 9 ,switz]l& molasse1 said to be d]iv$ f mol1 s(t because ! /one is easily cut 9 ! qu>ry4 ,x is ( va/ ?ickness1 & probably divisible into sev]al =mations4 ,h[ l>ge a portion ( ^! belong to ! ,mioc5e p]iod _c yet be det]m9$1 z fossil %ells are (t5 entirely want+4 ,9 "s places a decid$ agreem5t ( ! fossil fi%es ( ! molasse & faluns has be5 obs]v$4 ,among ^? common to bo?1 ,m4 ,agassiz po9t$ out to me ,lamna contortid5s1 ,myliobates ,/ud]i1 ,sph]odus c9ctus1 ,notidanus primig5ius1 & o!rs4 ,lisbon4--,m>9e t]ti>y /rata ne> ,lisbon conta9 %ells :i* agree v closely ) ^? ( ,bordeaux1 & are !re=e ref]r$ to ! ,mioc5e era4 ,?us1 out ( #aab species collect$ by ,mr4 ,smi? ( ,jordanhill1 betwe5 #fj & #gj 7 f\nd to be common to ! /rata ( ,bordeaux & ,dax1 ! rec5t species be+ 9 ! proportion ( #ba p] c5t4 ,old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e =mations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4--,betwe5 ! ,alleghany m\nta9s1 =m$ ( old] rocks1 & ! ,atlantic1 !re int]v5es1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 a l[ region occupi$ pr9cipally by b$s ( m>l1 clay1 & s&1 consi/+ ( ! cretace\s & t]ti>y =mations1 & *iefly ( ! latt]4 ,! g5]al elevation ( ?is pla9 bord]+ ! ,atlantic does n exce$ #ajj feet1 al?\gh x is sometimes sev]al hundr$ feet high4 ,its wid? 9 ! middle & s\!rn /ates is v commonly f #ajj to #aej miles4 ,x consi/s1 9 ! ,s\?1 z 9 ,georgia1 ,alabama1 & ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 almo/ exclusively ( ,eoc5e deposits2 b 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 & ,delaw>e1 m mod]n /rata pr$om9ate1 :i* ,i h assimilat$ 9 age to ! ,engli% crag & ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4#agb-;,a ,if1 *ronologically speak+1 !y c be truly said to be ! repres5tatives ( ^! two ,european =mations1 !y may range 9 age f ! ,old] ,plioc5e to ! ,mioc5e epo*1 accord+ to ! classification ( ,european /rata adopt$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,! proportion ( fossil %ells agree+ ) rec5t1 out ( #adg species collect$ by me1 am\nt$ to ab\t #ag p] c5t41 or "o-six? ( ! :ole2 b z ! fossils s assimilat$ 7 almo/ always ! same z species n[ liv+ 9 ! neighb\r+ ,atlantic1 ! numb] may h]eaft] be augm5t$1 :5 ! rec5t fauna ( t ocean is bett] kn[n4 ,9 diff]5t localities1 also1 ! proportion ( rec5t species v>i$ consid]ably4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4 ,fulgur canaliculatus4 ,m>yl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4 ,fusus quadrico/atus1 ,say4 ,m>yl&4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,james ,riv]1 9 ,virg9ia1 ab\t #bj miles bel[ ,ri*mond1 9 a cliff ab\t #cj feet high1 ,i obs]v$ yell[ & :ite s&s ov]ly+ an ,eoc5e m>l1 j z ! yell[ s&s ( ! crag lie on ! blue ,london clay 9 ,suffolk & ,essex 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ! ,virg9ian s&s1 we f9d a pr(usion ( an ,a/>te 7,a4 undulata1 ,conrad71 :i* resembles closely1 & may possibly be a v>iety (1 "o ( ! commone/ fossils ( ! ,suffolk crag 7,a4 bip>tita72 ! o!r %ells also1 ( ! g5]a ,natica1 ,fissurella1 ,artemis1 ,luc9a1 ,*ama1 ,pectunculus1 & ,pect51 are analog\s to %ells bo? ( ! ,engli% crag & ,fr5* faluns1 al?\gh ! species are almo/ all di/9ct4 ,out ( #adg ( ^! ,am]ican fossils ,i c\ld only f9d #ac species common to ,europe1 & ^! occur p>tly 9 ! ,suffolk crag1 & p>tly 9 ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e2 b x is an important *>act]i/ic ( ! ,am]ican gr\p1 t x n only conta9s _m peculi> ext9ct =ms1 su* z ,fusus quadrico/atus1 ,say 7see fig4 #aeb471 & ,v5us tridacnoides1 abundant 9 ^! same =mations1 b also "s %ells :i*1 l ,fulgur c>ica ( ,say1 & ,f4 canaliculatus 7see fig4 #aea471 ,calyptraea co/ata1 ,v5us m]c5>ia1 ,lam41 ,modiola gl&ula1 ,tott51 & ,pect5 magellanicus1 ,lam41 are rec5t species1 yet ( =ms n[ conf9$ to ! we/]n side ( ! ,atlantic1 a fact imply+ t ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t geographical di/ribution ( mollusca dates back to a p]iod z remote z t ( ! ,mioc5e /rata4 ,( t5 species ( zoophytes :i* ,i procur$ on ! banks ( ! ,james ,riv]1 two 7 id5tical ) species ( ! ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e4 ,) respect to climate1 ,mr4 ,lonsdale reg>ds ^! corals z indicat+ a temp]ature exce$+ t ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 & ! %ells w\ld lead to simil> conclusions4 ,^? occurr+ on ! ,james ,riv] are 9 ! #cg? degree ( ,n4 latitude1 :ile ! ,fr5* faluns are 9 ! #dg?2 yet ! =ms ( ! ,am]ican fossils w\ld sc>cely imply s w>m a climate z mu/ h prevail$ 9 ,france1 :5 ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ,t\ra9e orig9at$4 ,among ! rema9s ( fi% 9 ^! ,po/-,eoc5e /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are sev]al l>ge tee? ( ! %>k family1 n di/+ui%able specifically f fossils ( ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 & ! ,maltese t]ti>ies4 ,india4--,! fre%wat] deposits ( ! ,sub-,himalayan or ,sewalik ,hills1 describ$ by ,dr4 ,falcon] & ,capta9 ,cautley1 may p]haps be reg>d$ z ,mioc5e4 ,l ! faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 !y conta9 ! ,de9o!rium & ,ma/odon4 ,:e!r any ( ! associat$ fre%wat] & l& %ells are ( rec5t species is n yet det]m9$4 ,! occurr5ce 9 !m ( a fossil giraffe & hippopotamus1 g5]a n[ only liv+ 9 ,africa1 z well z ( a camel1 implies a geographical /ate ( ?+s v diff]5t f t n[ e/abli%$ 9 ! same p>ts ( ,india4 ,! huge ,siva!rium ( ! same era appe>s to h be5 a rum9at+ quadrup$ bigg] ?an ! rh9oc]os1 & provid$ ) a l>ge upp] lip1 or probably a %ort proboscis1 & hav+ two pair ( horns1 resembl+ ^? ( antelopes4 ,sev]al species ( monkey belong$ to ! same fauna2 & among ! reptiles1 sev]al crocodiles1 l>g] ?an any n[ liv+1 & an enorm\s tortoise1 ,te/udo ,atlas1 ! curv$ %ell ( :i* measur$ #bj feet across4 ,,footnotes3 #afb-;,a ,see pap] by ,e4 ,*>leswor?1 ,esq42 ,london & ,ed4 ,phil4 ,mag4 ,no4 xxxviii4 p4 #ha41 ,aug4 #ahce4 #afb-;,b ,see ,monograph on ! ,crag ,mollusca4 ,se>les ,wood1 ,paleont4 ,soc4 #ahdh4 #afc-;,a ,9 reg>d+ ! ,suffolk crag1 bo? r$ & corall9e1 z old] ,plioc5e in/ead ( ,mioc5e1 ,i am only return+ to ! classification adopt$ by me 9 ! ,pr9ciples & ,elem5ts ( ,geology up to ! ye> #ahch4 #aff-;,a ,e4 ,=bes1 ,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,gt4 ,brit41 vol4 i4 #chf4 #agb-;,a ,proce$+s ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 "p #c4 #ahde1 p4 #edg4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e ,,=mations4 ,eoc5e areas 9 ,engl& & ,france--,tabul> view ( ,fr5* ,eoc5e /rata--,upp] ,eoc5e gr\p ( ! ,p>is bas9--,same b$s 9 ,belgium & at ,b]l9--,may5ce t]ti>y /rata--,fre%wat] upp] ,eoc5e ( ,c5tral ,france--,s]ies ( geographical *anges s9ce ! l& em]g$ 9 ,auv]gne--,m9]al "* an unc]ta9 te/ ( age--,m>ls conta9+ ,cypris--,oolite ( ,eoc5e p]iod--,indusial lime/one & its orig9--,fossil mammalia ( ! upp] ,eoc5e /rata 9 ,auv]gne--,fre%wat] /rata ( ! ,cantal1 calc>e\s & silice\s--,its resemblance to *alk--,pro(s ( gradual deposition ( /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4 ,map ( ! pr9cipal t]ti>y bas9s ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,n4 ,b4 ,! space left blank is occupi$ by second>y =mations f ! ,devonian or old r$ s&/one to ! *alk inclusive4 ,! t]ti>y /rata describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s are all ( !m *>act]iz$ by fossil %ells1 ( :i* a consid]able proportion are specifically id5tical ) ! liv+ mollusca2 & ! great] ! numb]1 ! m ne>ly does ! entire fauna approa* 9 species & g5]a to t n[ inhabit+ ! adjo9+ seas4 ,b 9 ! ,eoc5e =mations next to be consid]$1 ! proportion ( rec5t species is v small1 & sometimes sc>cely appreciable1 & ^? agree+ ) ! fossil te/acea (t5 belong to remote p>ts ( ! globe1 & to v>i\s zoological prov9ces4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 con*ological "* implies a consid]able int]val ( "t betwe5 ! ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods1 dur+ :i* ! :ole fauna & flora und]w5t o!r *anges z great1 & (t5 great]1 ?an ^? exhibit$ by ! mollusca4 ,9 ! accompany+ map1 ! position ( sev]al ,eoc5e areas is po9t$ out1 su* z ! bas9 ( ! ,?ames1 "p ( ,hamp%ire1 "p ( ! ,ne!rl&s1 & ! c\ntry r\nd ,p>is4 ,! deposits1 h[ev]1 occupy+ ^! spaces comprise a great succession ( m>9e & fre%wat] =mations1 :i*1 al?\gh !y may all be t]m$ ,eoc5e1 z be+ new] ?an ! *alk1 & old] ?an ! faluns1 are nev]!less divisible into sep>ate gr\ps1 ( high geological importance4 ,! newe/ ( ^!1 l ! ,faluns ( ! ,loire1 h no true repres5tatives1 or exact *ronological equival5ts1 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,_! place 9 ! s]ies w be/ be und]/ood by ref]r+ to ! ord] ( sup]position ( ! successive deposits f\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is4 ,! area :i* has be5 call$ ! ,p>is bas9 is ab\t #ahj miles 9 its greate/ l5g? f nor?-ea/ to s\?-we/1 & ab\t #ij miles f ea/ to we/4 ,?is space may be describ$ z a depression 9 ! *alk1 :i* has be5 fill$ up by alt]nat+ gr\ps ( m>9e & fre%wat] /rata4 ,,mm4 ,cuvi] & ,brongni>t attempt$1 9 #ahaj1 to di/+ui% five diff]5t =mations1 compris+ ?ree fre%wat] & two m>9e1 :i* alt]nat$ ) ea* o!r4 ,x 0 imag9$ t ! wat]s ( ! ocean _h be5 by turns admitt$ & exclud$ f ! same region2 b ! subsequ5t inve/igations ( sev]al geologi/s1 especially ( ,m4 ,con/ant ,prevo/1#age-;,a h l$ to great modifications 9 ^! !oretical views2 & n[ t ! true ord] ( succession is bett] und]/ood1 x appe>s t sev]al ( ! deposits1 :i* 7 suppos$ to h orig9at$ "o aft] ! o!r1 71 9 fact1 9 progress at ! same "t by ! jo9t action ( ! sea & riv]s4 ,! :ole s]ies ( /rata may be divid$ into ?ree gr\ps1 z express$ 9 ! foll[+ table3-- a4 ,upp] fre%wat] lime/one1 m>ls1 & silice\s #a4 ,upp] ,eoc5e mill/one4 b4 ,upp] m>9e s&s1 or ,fonta9ebleau s&/one & s&4 a4 ,l[] fre%wat] lime/one & m>l1 or gypse\s s]ies4 b4 ,s&/one & s&s ) m>9e %ells 7,sables #b4 ,middle ,eoc5e moy5s1 or gres de ,beau*amp74 c4 ,calcaire grossi]1 lime/one ) m>9e %ells4 d4 ,calcaire siliceux1 h>d silice\s fre%wat] lime/one1 = ! mo/ "p contemporane\s ) c4 a4 ,l[] s&s ) m>9e %elly b$s 7,sables #c4 ,l[] ,eoc5e inf]ieurs et lits coquilli]s74 b4 ,l[] s&s1 ) lignite & pla/ic clay 7,sables inf]ieurs et argiles pla/iques74 ,po/pon+ to ! next *apt] ! consid]ation ( ! ,middle & ,l[] ,eoc5e gr\ps1 ,i %all n[ speak ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,p>is1 & its =eign equival5ts4 ,! upp] fre%wat] m>ls & lime/one 7#a4 a7 seem to h be5 =m$ 9 a great numb] ( m>%es & %all[ lakes1 su* z frequ5tly ov]spread ! newe/ p>ts ( great deltas4 ,x appe>s t _m lay]s ( m>l1 tuface\s lime/one1 & trav]t91 ) b$s ( fl9t1 cont9u\s or 9 nodules1 accumulat$ 9 ^! lakes4 ,*>ae1 aquatic plants1 already allud$ to 7see p4 #cb47 left _! /ems & se$-vessels imb$d$ bo? 9 ! m>l & fl9t1 toge!r ) fre%wat] & l& %ells4 ,"s ( ! silice\s rocks ( ?is =mation are us$ ext5sively = mill/ones4 ,! flat summits or plat=ms ( ! hills r\nd ,p>is1 l>ge areas 9 ! =e/ ( ,fonta9ebleau1 & ! ,plateau de la ,beauce1 betwe5 ! ,se9e & ! ,loire1 are *iefly compos$ ( ^! upp] fre%wat] /rata4 ,! upp] m>9e s&s 7#a4 b71 consi/ *iefly ( micace\s & qu>tzose s&s1 #hj feet ?ick4 ,z !y succe$ ?r\gh\t an ext5sive area deposit ( a purely fre%wat] orig9 7#b a471 !y appe> to m>k a subsid5ce ( ! subjac5t soil1 :e!r x _h =m$ ! bottom ( an e/u>y or a lake4 ,! sea1 :i* aft]w>ds took possession ( ! same space1 0 inhabit$ by te/acea1 almo/ all ( !m diff]+ f ^? f\nd 9 ! l[] =mations 7#b4 b & #b4 c7 & equally or /ill m di/9ct f ! ,mioc5e ,faluns ( subsequ5t date4 ,"o ( ^! upp] ,eoc5e /rata 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is has be5 call$ ! oy/] b$1 c\*e a ,o/rea cya?ula1 ,lamk41 :i* is spread ov] a rem>kably wide area4 ,f ! mann] 9 :i* ! oy/]s lie1 x is inf]r$ t !y did n gr[ on ! spot1 b t "s curr5t swept !m away f a b$ ( oy/]s =m$ 9 "s o!r "p ( ! bay4 ,! /rata ( s& :i* imm$iately repose on ! oy/]-b$ are q de/itute ( organic rema9s2 & no?+ is m common 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & 9 o!r =mations1 ?an alt]nations ( %elly b$s ) o!rs entirely devoid ( !m4 ,! tempor>y ext9ction & r5ewal ( animal life at successive p]iods h be5 ra%ly inf]r$ f su* ph5om5a1 :i* may nev]!less be expla9$1 z ,m4 ,prevo/ ju/ly rem>ks1 )\t appeal+ to any su* extraord9>y revolutions 9 ! /ate ( ! animate creation4 ,a curr5t "o day scoops out a *annel 9 a b$ ( %elly s& & mud1 & ! next day1 by a slight alt]ation ( its c\rse1 ceases to prey ^u ! same bank4 ,x may !n become *>g$ ) s& unmix$ ) %ells1 d]iv$ f "s dune1 or br\ght d[n by a riv]4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ages an indef9ite numb] ( transitions f %elly /rata to ^? )\t %ells may ?us be caus$4 ,besides ^! oy/]s1 ,m4 ,de%ayes has describ$ #bi species ( %ells1 9 8 "w 7,coquilles fossiles de ,p>is71 z belong+ to ?is =mation1 all save "o reg>d$ by him z diff]+ f fossils ( ! calcaire grossi]4 ,s9ce t "t ! railway cutt+s ne> ,etampes h enabl$ ,m4 ,heb]t to raise ! numb] to #ij4 ,i h myself collect$ fossils 9 t di/rict1 :]e ! %ells are v entire1 & deta*able f ! yell[ s&y matrix4 ,m4 ,heb]t fir/ po9t$ out t mo/ ( !m agree specifically ) ^? ( ,kleyn ,spauw51 ,boom1 & o!r localities ( ,limburg 9 ,fl&]s1 :]e !y h be5 /udi$ by ,,mm4 ,ny/ & ,de ,kon9ck4#agf-;,a ,! position 9 ,belgium ( ?is =mation above ! old] ,eoc5e gr\p is well se5 9 ! small hill ( ,pell5b]g1 ris+ abruptly f ! great pla91 half a mile s\?-ea/ ( ! city ( ,l\va91 :]e ,i exam9$ x 9 company ) ,m4 ,ny/ 9 #ahej4 ,at ! top ( ! hill1 a ?9 b$ ( d>k greyi% gre5 tile-clay is se5 #a-a_/b foot ?ick1 ) ca/s ( ,nucula ,de%aysiana4 ,?is clay re/s on #ab feet ( yell[ s&1 sep>at$1 by a b& ( fl9t & qu>tz pebbles1 f a mass ( subjac5t :ite s& #ae feet ?ick1 9 :i* ca/s ( ! ,kleyn ,spauw5 fossils h be5 met )4 ,"u ?is is a b$ ( yell[ s& #ab feet ?ick1 &1 at a l[] level1 ! railway cutt+s h pass$ ?r\gh calc>e\s s&s l ^? ( ,brussels1 9 :i* ! ,nautilus ,burt9i1 & v>i\s %ells common to ! old] ,eoc5e /rata ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,london1 h be5 obta9$4 ,e new fact :i* ?r[s light on ! true paleontological relations ( ! /rata n[ "u consid]ation1 7! ,upp] ,m>9e or ,fonta9ebleau b$s ( ! ,p>is bas91 #a4 b1 p4 #age471 des]ves m p>ticul> att5tion1 because geologi/s ( high au?ority diff] 9 op9ion z to :e!r !y %\ld be class$ z ,eoc5e or ,mioc5e4 ,pr(essor ,beyri* has lately describ$ a =mation ( ! same age1 occurr+ )9 #g miles ( ! gates ( ,b]l91 ne> ! village ( ,h]msdorf1 :]e1 9 ! mid/ ( ! s&s ( :i* t c\ntry *iefly consi/s1 a mass ( tile-clay1 m ?an #dj feet ?ick1 & ( a d>k bluei% grey col\r1 is f\nd1 full ( %ells1 among :i* ! g5]a ,fusus & ,pleurotoma pr$om9ate1 & among ! bivalves1 ,nucula ,de%aysiana1 ,ny/1 an extremely common %ell 9 ! ,belgian b$s above-m5tion$4 ,m4 ,beyri* has id5tifi$ eighte5 out ( =ty-five species ( ! ,h]msdorf fossils ) ! ,belgian species2 & ,i believe t a mu* l>g] proportion agree ) ! ,upp] ,eoc5e ( ,belgium1 ,france1 & ! ,rh9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 eight ( ! =ty-five species are suppos$ by him to agree ) ,engli% ,eoc5e %ells4 ,messrs4 ,morris1 ,edw>ds1 & ,s4 ,wood h comp>$ a small collection1 :i* ,i obta9$ ( ^! ,b]l9 %ells1 ) ! ,eoc5e fossils ( _! museums1 & confirm$ ! result ( ,m4 ,beyri*1 ! species common to ! ,engli% fossils belong+ n simply to ! upp]mo/ ( our m>9e b$s1 or ^? ( ,b>ton1 b "s ( !m to l[] p>ts ( ! s]ies1 su* z ,brackle%am & ,highgate4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :ile ^! te/acea1 l ^? ( ,kleyn ,spauw5 & ,etampes1 pres5t _m analogies to ! ,middle & ,l[] ,eoc5e gr\p1 !y diff] widely f ! ,falun %ells1--a fact ! m important 9 ref]5ce to ,etampes1 z t locality approa*es )9 #gj miles ( ,pontlevoy1 ne> ,blois1 & )9 #ajj miles ( ,savigne1 ne> ,t\rs1 :]e ,falun %ells are f\nd4 ,x is evid5t t ! discordance ( species _c be attribut$ to di/ance or geographical causes1 b mu/ be ref]r$ to "t1 or ! diff]5t epo* at :i* ! upp] m>9e b$s ( ! ,p>is bas9 & ! ,faluns ( ! ,loire orig9at$4 ,may5ce4--,! true *ronological relation ( _m t]ti>y /rata on ! banks ( ! ,rh9e has always pres5t$ a problem ( consid]able difficulty4 ,!y occupy a tract f #e to #ab miles 9 bread?1 ext5d+ along ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e f ,may5ce to ! neighb\rhood ( ,manheim1 & are aga9 f\nd to ! ea/1 nor?1 & s\?-we/ ( ,frank=t4 ,9 "s places !y h ! appe>ance ( a fre%wat] =mation2 b 9 o!rs1 z at ,alzey1 ! %ells are = ! mo/ "p m>9e4 ,c]i?ia are 9 great pr(usion1 :i* indicates t ! sea :]e ! deposit 0 =m$ 0 f$ by riv]s2 & ! great quantity ( fossil l& %ells1 *iefly ( ! g5us ,helix1 confirm ! same op9ion4 ,! v>iety 9 ! species ( %ells is small1 :ile ! individuals are exce$+ly num]\s2 a fact :i* accords p]fectly ) ! idea t ! =mation may h orig9at$ 9 a gulf or sea :i*1 l ! ,baltic1 0 bracki% 9 "s p>ts1 & almo/ fre% 9 o!rs4 ,a species ( ,palud9a 7fig4 #aed471 v ne>ly resembl+ ! rec5t ,littor9a ulva1 is f\nd ?r\gh\t ?is bas94 ,^! %ells are l gra9s ( rice 9 size1 & are (t5 9 su* quantity z to =m entire b$s ( m>l & lime/one4 ,!y are z ?ick z gra9s ( s&1 9 /ratifi$ masses f #ae to #cj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4 ,palud9a4 ,may5ce4 ,t ^! ,rh5i% t]ti>y =mations agree m ne>ly ) ! ,upp] ,eoc5e deposits above enum]at$1 ?an ) any o!rs1 ,i h no d\bt1 s9ce ,i _h ! advantage ( comp>+ 7,augu/1 #ahej71 ) ! assi/ance ( ,m4 ,de ,kon9ck ( ,liege1 ! fossils f ,kleyn ,spauw51 ,boom1 & o!r ,limburg localities1 ) ^? f ,may5ce1 ,alzey1 ,we9heim1 & o!r ,rh5i% /rata4 ,among ! common ,belgian & ,rh5i% %ells :i* are id5tical1 ,i may m5tion ,cassid>ia depressa1 ,tritonium fl&ricum ,de ,kon9ck1 ,c]i?ium tric9ctum ,ny/1 ,tornatella simulata1 ,ro/ell>ia ,s[]byi1 ,nucula ,de%aysiana1 ,corbula pisum1 & ,pectunculus t]ebratul>is4 ,f ^! ,upp] ,eoc5e deposits ( ! ,rh9e ,m4 ,h4 von ,mey] has obta9$ a great numb] ( *>act]i/ic fossil mammalia1 su* z ,palaeoma]yx m$ius1 ,hyo!rium ,meissn]i1 ,tapirus ,helveticus1 ,an?raco!rium ,alsaticum1 & o!rs4 ,! ?ree fir/ ( ^! are species common to "s ( ! lignite1 or br[n coal b$s 9 ,switz]l&1 commonly class$ ) ! molasse1 b ( :i* ! true age has n yet be5 di/9ctly made out4 ,! fossils ( ! s&y b$s ( ,eppel%eim1 compris+ bones ( ! ,de9o!rium1 ,ma/odon1 & o!r quadrup$s1 are reg>d$ by ,h4 von ,mey] z belong+ to a mammif]\s fauna q di/9ct f t ( ! ,may5ce bas91 & !y are probably ref]able to ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,! upp] fre%wat] /rata 7#a4 a1 p4 #age471 ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 /ret* s\?w>ds f ! valley ( ! ,se9e to t ( ! ,loire1 & 9 ! la/-m5tion$ region are se5 to be old] ?an ! m>9e faluns1 s t ! p]=at+ %ells ( ! ,mioc5e sea h sometimes bor$ ! h>d compact fre%wat] lime/ones2 & fragm5ts ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e rocks are f\nd at ,pontlevoy & else:]e1 :i* h be5 roll$ 9 ! b$ ( ! ,mioc5e sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4 ,simplifi$ geological map s\? ( ,p>is4 ,c5tral ,france4--,lacu/r9e /rata belong+1 = ! mo/ "p1 to ! same ,upp] ,eoc5e s]ies1 are aga9 met ) 9 ,auv]gne1 ,cantal1 & ,velay1 ! sites ( :i* may be se5 9 ! annex$ map4 ,!y appe> to be ! monum5ts ( anci5t lakes1 :i*1 l "s ( ^? n[ exi/+ 9 ,switz]l&1 once occupi$ ! depressions 9 a m\nta9\s region1 & h be5 ea* f$ by "o or m riv]s & torr5ts4 ,! c\ntry :]e !y occur is almo/ entirely compos$ ( granite & diff]5t v>ieties ( granitic s*i/1 ) "h & !re a few pat*es ( second>y /rata1 mu* dislocat$1 & :i* h probably suff]$ great d5udation4 ,!re are also "s va/ piles ( volcanic matt] 7see ! map71 ! great] "p ( :i* is new] ?an ! fre%wat] /rata1 & is sometimes se5 to re/ ^u !m1 :ile a small "p has evid5tly be5 ( contemporane\s orig94 ,( ^! igne\s rocks ,i %all treat m p>ticul>ly 9 ano!r "p ( ?is "w4 ,be=e ent]+ ^u any details1 ,i may obs]ve1 t ! /udy ( ^! regions possesses a peculi> int]e/1 v di/9ct 9 k9d f t d]ivable f ! inve/igation ei!r ( ! ,p>isian or ,engli% t]ti>y /rata4 ,= we are pres5t$ 9 ,auv]gne ) ! evid5ce ( a s]ies ( ev5ts ( a/oni%+ magnitude & gr&eur1 by :i* ! orig9al =m & features ( ! c\ntry h be5 greatly *ang$1 yet nev] s f> oblit]at$ b t !y may /ill1 9 "p at lea/1 be re/or$ 9 imag9ation4 ,great lakes h disappe>$1--l(ty m\nta9s h be5 =m$1 by ! reit]at$ emission ( lava1 prec$$ & foll[$ by %[]s ( s& & scoriae1--deep valleys h be5 subsequ5tly furr[$ out ?r\gh masses ( lacu/r9e & volcanic orig91--at a /ill lat] date1 new cones h be5 ?r[n up 9 ^! valleys1--new lakes h be5 =m$ by ! damm+ up ( riv]s1--& m ?an "o creation ( quadrup$s1 birds1 & plants1 ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e1 h foll[$ 9 succession2 yet ! region has pres]v$ f fir/ to la/ its geographical id5tity2 & we c /ill recall to our ?\ghts its ext]nal condition & physical /ructure be=e ^! wond]ful vicissitudes began1 or :ile a "p only ( ! :ole _h be5 complet$4 ,!re 0 fir/ a p]iod :5 ! spaci\s lakes1 ( :i* we /ill may trace ! b\nd>ies1 lay at ! foot ( m\nta9s ( mod]ate elevation1 unbrok5 by ! bold peaks & precipices ( ,mont ,dor1 & unadorn$ by ! picturesque outl9e ( ! ,puy de ,dome1 or ( ! volcanic cones & crat]s n[ cov]+ ! granitic plat=m4 ,dur+ ?is e>li] sc5e ( repose deltas 7 sl[ly =m$2 b$s ( m>l & s&1 sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick1 deposit$2 silice\s & calc>e\s rocks precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s2 %ells & insects imb$d$1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( ! crocodile & tortoise1 ! eggs & bones ( wat] birds1 & ! skeletons ( quadrup$s1 "s ( !m belong+ to ! same g5]a z ^? entomb$ 9 ! ,eoc5e gypsum ( ,p>is4 ,to ?is tranquil condition ( ! surface succe$$ ! era ( volcanic eruptions1 :5 ! lakes 7 dra9$1 & :5 ! f]tility ( ! m\nta9\s di/rict 0 probably enhanc$ by ! igne\s matt] eject$ f bel[1 & p\r$ d[n ^u ! m /]ile granite4 ,dur+ ^! eruptions1 :i* appe> to h tak5 place aft] ! disappe>ance ( ! ,eoc5e fauna1 & 9 ! ,mioc5e epo*1 ! ma/odon1 rh9oc]os1 elephant1 tapir1 hippopotamus1 toge!r ) ! ox1 v>i\s k9ds ( de]1 ! be>1 hya5a1 & _m bea/s ( prey1 rang$ ! =e/1 or pa/ur$ on ! pla91 & 7 occasionally ov]tak5 by a fall ( burn+ c9d]s1 or buri$ 9 fl[s ( mud1 su* z accompany volcanic eruptions4 ,la/ly1 ^! quadrup$s became ext9ct1 & gave place to ,plioc5e mammalia1 & ^!1 9 _! turn1 to species n[ exi/+4 ,!re are no signs1 dur+ ! :ole "t requir$ = ?is s]ies ( ev5ts1 ( ! sea hav+ int]v5$1 nor ( any d5udation :i* may n h be5 accompli%$ by curr5ts 9 ! diff]5t lakes1 or by riv]s & floods accompany+ repeat$ e>?quakes1 dur+ :i* ! levels ( ! di/rict h 9 "s places be5 mat]ially modifi$1 & p]haps ! :ole uprais$ relatively to ! surr\nd+ p>ts ( ,france4 ,auv]gne4--,! mo/ nor!rn ( ! fre%wat] gr\ps is situat$ 9 ! valley-pla9 ( ! ,alli]1 :i* lies )9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,puy de ,dome1 be+ ! tract :i* w5t =m]ly by ! "n ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne4 ,x is inclos$ by two p>allel m\nta9 ranges1--t ( ! ,=ez1 :i* divides ! wat]s ( ! ,loire & ,alli]1 on ! ea/2 & t ( ! ,monts ,domes1 :i* sep>ates ! ,alli] f ! ,si\le1 on ! we/4#aha-;,a ,! av]age bread? ( ?is tract is ab\t #bj miles2 & x is = ! mo/ "p compos$ ( ne>ly horizontal /rata ( s&1 s&/one1 calc>e\s m>l1 clay1 & lime/one1 none ( :i* obs]ve a fix$ & inv>iable ord] ( sup]position4 ,! anci5t bord]s ( ! lake1 :]e9 ! fre%wat] /rata 7 accumulat$1 may g5]ally be trac$ ) precision1 ! granite & o!r anci5t rocks ris+ up boldly f ! level c\ntry4 ,! actual junction1 h[ev]1 ( ! lacu/r9e & granitic b$s is r>ely se51 z a small valley usually int]v5es betwe5 !m4 ,! fre%wat] /rata may sometimes be se5 to reta9 _! horizontality )9 a v slight di/ance ( ! bord]-rocks1 :ile 9 "s places !y are incl9$1 & 9 few in/ances v]tical4 ,! pr9cipal divisions into :i* ! lacu/r9e s]ies may be sep>at$ are ! foll[+3--#a/1 ,s&/one1 grit1 & conglom]ate1 includ+ r$ m>l & r$ s&/one4 #b;dly1 ,gre5 & :ite foliat$ m>ls4 #c;dly1 ,lime/one or trav]t91 (t5 oolitic4 #d?ly1 ,gypse\s m>ls4 #a4 a4 ,s&/one & conglom]ate4--,/rata ( s& & gravel1 sometimes b\nd toge!r into a solid rock1 are f\nd 9 great abundance ar\nd ! conf9es ( ! lacu/r9e bas91 conta9+1 9 diff]5t places1 pebbles ( all ! anci5t rocks ( ! adjo9+ elevat$ c\ntry2 namely1 granite1 gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 porphyry1 & o!rs4 ,b ^! /rata d n =m "o cont9u\s b& ar\nd ! m>g9 ( ! bas91 be+ r dispos$ l ! indep5d5t deltas :i* gr[ at ! m\?s ( torr5ts along ! bord]s ( exi/+ lakes4 ,at ,*amali]es1 ne> ,cl]mont1 we h an example ( "o ( ^! deltas1 or littoral deposits1 ( local ext5t1 :]e ! pebbly b$s slope away f ! granite1 z if !y _h =m$ a talus b5ea? ! wat]s ( ! lake ne> ! /eep %ore4 ,a section ( ab\t #ej feet 9 v]tical height has be5 laid op5 by a torr5t1 & ! pebbles are se5 to consi/ ?r\gh\t ( r\nd$ & angul> fragm5ts ( granite1 qu>tz1 prim>y slate1 & r$ s&/one2 b )\t any int]mixture ( ^? volcanic rocks :i* n[ ab\nd 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & :i* c\ld n h be5 !re :5 ! conglom]ate 0 =m$4 ,p>tial lay]s ( lignite & pieces ( wood are f\nd 9 ^! b$s4 ,at "s localities on ! m>g9 ( ! bas9 qu>tzose grits are f\nd2 &1 :]e ^! re/ on granite1 !y are sometimes =m$ ( sep>ate cry/als ( qu>tz1 mica1 & felsp>1 d]iv$ f ! dis9tegrat$ granite1 ! cry/als hav+ be5 subsequ5tly b\nd toge!r by a silice\s cem5t4 ,9 ^! cases ! granite seems reg5]at$ 9 a new & m solid =m2 & s gradual a passage takes place betwe5 ! rock ( cry/all9e & t ( me*anical orig91 t we c sc>cely di/+ui% :]e "o ends & ! o!r beg9s4 ,9 ! hills call$ ! ,puy de ,jussat & ,la ,ro*e1 we h ! advantage ( see+ a section cont9u\sly expos$ = ab\t #gjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,at ! bottom are foliat$ m>ls1 :ite & gre51 ab\t #djj feet ?ick2 & above1 re/+ on ! m>ls1 are ! qu>tzose grits1 cem5t$ by calc>e\s matt]1 :i* is sometimes s abundant z to =m imb$d$ nodules4 ,^! sometimes con/itute sph]oidal concretions #f feet 9 diamet]1 & pass into b$s ( solid lime/one1 resembl+ ! ,italian trav]t9s1 or ! deposits ( m9]al spr+s4 ,?is section is close to ! conf9es ( ! bas92 s t ! lake mu/ "h h be5 fill$ up ne> ! %ore ) f9e mud1 be=e ! co>se sup]9cumb5t s& 0 introduc$4 ,!re are o!r cases :]e s& is se5 bel[ ! m>l4 #a4 b4 ,r$ m>l & s&/one4--,b ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! ar5ace\s gr\ps is "o ( r$ s&/one & r$ m>l1 :i* are id5tical 9 all _! m9]al *>act]s ) ! second>y ,new ,r$ s&/one & m>l ( ,engl&4 ,9 ^! second>y rocks ! r$ gr\nd is sometimes v>iegat$ ) light gre5i% spots1 & ! same may be se5 9 ! t]ti>y =mation ( fre%wat] orig9 at ,c\des1 on ! ,alli]4 ,! m>ls are sometimes ( a purpli%-r$ col\r1 z at ,*ampheix1 & are accompani$ by a r$di% lime/one1 l ! well-kn[n corn/one1 :i* is associat$ ) ! ,old ,r$ s&/one ( ,engli% geologi/s4 ,! r$ s&/one & m>l ( ,auv]gne h evid5tly be5 d]iv$ f ! degradation ( gneiss & mica-s*i/1 :i* are se5 9 situ on ! adjo9+ hills1 decompos+ into a soil v simil> to ! t]ti>y r$ s& & m>l4 ,we also f9d pebbles ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & qu>tz 9 ! co>s] s&/ones ( ?is gr\p1 cle>ly po9t+ to ! p>5t rocks f :i* ! s& & m>l are d]iv$4 ,! r$ b$s1 al?\gh de/itute !mselves ( organic rema9s1 pass upw>ds into /rata conta9+ ,eoc5e fossils1 & are c]ta9ly an integral "p ( ! lacu/r9e =mation4 ,f ?is example ! /ud5t w le>n h[ small is ! value ( m9]al "* alone1 z a te/ ( ! relative age ( rocks4 #b4 ,gre5 & :ite foliat$ m>ls4--,! same prim>y rocks ( ,auv]gne1 :i*1 by ! p>tial degradation ( _! h>d] p>ts1 gave rise to ! qu>tzose grits & conglom]ates be=e m5tion$1 w\ld1 by ! r$uction ( ! same mat]ials into p[d]1 & by ! decomposition ( _! felsp>1 mica1 & hornbl5de1 produce alum9\s clay1 &1 if a suffici5t quantity ( c>bonate ( lime 0 pres5t1 calc>e\s m>l4 ,?is f9e s$im5t w\ld naturally be c>ri$ out to a great] di/ance f ! %ore1 z are ! v>i\s f9] m>ls n[ deposit$ 9 ,lake ,sup]ior4 ,&1 z 9 ! ,am]ican lake1 %+le & s& are annually amass$ ne> ! nor!rn %ores1 s 9 ,auv]gne ! grits & conglom]ates be=e m5tion$ 7 evid5tly =m$ ne> ! bord]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4 ,cypris unifasciata1 a liv+ species1 greatly magnifi$4 a4 ,upp] "p4 b4 ,side view ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4 ,cypris vidua1 a liv+ species1 greatly magnifi$4#ahc-;,a ,! entire ?ickness ( ^! m>ls is unkn[n2 b x c]ta9ly exce$s1 9 "s places1 #gjj feet4 ,!y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ei!r light-gre5 or :ite1 & usually calc>e\s4 ,!y are ?9ly foliat$1--a "* :i* frequ5tly arises f ! innum]able ?9 %ells1 or c>apace-valves1 ( t small animal call$ ,cypris2 a g5us :i* comprises sev]al species1 ( :i* "s are rec5t1 & may be se5 swimm+ swiftly ?r\gh ! wat]s ( our /agnant pools & dit*es4 ,! ant5nae1 at ! end ( :i* are f9e p5cils ( hair1 are ! pr9cipal organs ( motion1 & are se5 to vibrate ) great rapidity4 ,?is animal resides )9 two small valves1 n unlike ^? ( a bivalve %ell1 & m\lts its integum5ts p]iodically1 :i* ! con*if]\s mollusks d n4 ,?is circum/ance may p>tly expla9 ! c\ntless myriads ( ! %ells ( ,cypris :i* 7 %$ 9 ! anci5t lakes ( ,auv]gne1 s z to give rise to divisions 9 ! m>l z ?9 z pap]1 & t1 too1 9 /ratifi$ masses sev]al hundr$ feet ?ick4 ,a m conv9c+ pro( ( ! tranquillity & cle>ness ( ! wat]s1 & ( ! sl[ & gradual process by :i* ! lake 0 fill$ up ) f9e mud1 _c be desir$4 ,b we may easily suppose t1 :ile ?is f9e s$im5t 0 ?r[n d[n 9 ! deep & c5tral p>ts ( ! bas91 gravel1 s&1 & rocky fragm5ts 7 hurri$ into ! lake1 & deposit$ ne> ! %ore1 =m+ ! gr\p describ$ 9 ! prec$+ section4 ,n f> f ,cl]mont1 ! gre5 m>ls1 conta9+ ! ,cypris 9 abundance1 approa* to )9 a few y>ds ( ! granite :i* =ms ! bord]s ( ! bas94 ,! occurr5ce ( ^! m>ls s ne> ! anci5t m>g9 may be expla9$ by consid]+ t1 at ! bottom ( ! anci5t lake1 no co>se +r$i5ts 7 deposit$ 9 spaces int]m$iate betwe5 ! po9ts :]e riv]s & torr5ts ent]$1 b f9] mud only 0 drift$ !re by curr5ts4 ,! v]ticality ( "s ( ! b$s 9 ! above section be>s te/imony to consid]able local di/urbance subsequ5t to ! deposition ( ! m>ls2 b su* incl9$ & v]tical /rata are v r>e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,v]tical /rata ( m>l1 at ,*ampradelle1 ne> ,cl]mont4 ,a4 ,granite4 ,b4 ,space ( #fj feet1 9 :i* no section is se54 ,c4 ,gre5 m>l1 v]tical & incl9$4 ,d4 ,:ite m>l4 #c4 ,lime/one1 trav]t91 oolite4--,bo? ! prec$+ memb]s ( ! lacu/r9e deposit1 ! m>ls & grits1 pass occasionally into lime/one4 ,sometimes only concretion>y nodules ab\nd 9 !m2 b ^!1 :]e !re is an increase 9 ! quantity ( calc>e\s matt]1 unite into regul> b$s4 ,on ea* side ( ! bas9 ( ! ,limagne1 bo? on ! we/ at ,gannat1 & on ! ea/ at ,vi*y1 a :ite oolitic lime/one is qu>ri$4 ,at ,vi*y1 ! oolite resembles our ,ba? /one 9 appe>ance & beauty2 &1 l x1 is s(t :5 fir/ tak5 f ! qu>ry1 b soon h>d5s on exposure to ! air4 ,at ,gannat1 ! /one conta9s l&-%ells & bones ( quadrup$s1 resembl+ ^? ( ! ,p>is gypsum4 ,at ,*adrat1 9 ! hill ( ,la ,s]re1 ! lime/one is pisolitic1 ! small sph]oids comb9+ bo? ! radiat$ & conc5tric /ructure4 ,indusial lime/one4--,!re is ano!r rem>kable =m ( fre%wat] lime/one 9 ,auv]gne1 call$ indusial1 f ! cases1 or indusiae1 ( caddis-worms 7! l>vae ( ,phryganea72 great heaps ( :i* h be5 incru/$1 z !y lay1 by c>bonate ( lime1 & =m$ into a h>d trav]t94 ,! rock is sometimes purely calc>e\s1 b !re is occasionally an int]mixture ( silice\s matt]4 ,sev]al b$s ( x are frequ5tly se51 ei!r 9 cont9u\s masses1 or 9 concretion>y nodules1 "o ^u ano!r1 ) lay]s ( m>l int]pos$4 ,! annex$ draw+ 7fig4 #aei47 w %[ ! mann] 9 :i* "o ( ^! indusial b$s 7a7 is laid op5 at ! surface1 betwe5 ! m>ls 7b b71 ne> ! base ( ! hill ( ,g]govia2 & af=ds1 at ! same "t1 an example ( ! ext5t to :i* ! lacu/r9e /rata1 :i* mu/ once h fill$ a holl[1 h be5 d5ud$1 & %ap$ out into hills & valleys1 on ! site ( ! anci5t lakes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,b$ ( indusial lime/one1 int]/ratifi$ ) fre%wat] m>l1 ne> ,cl]mont 7,kle9s*rod47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4 ,l>va ( rec5t ,phryganea4#ahe-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4 a4 ,indusial lime/one ( ,auv]gne4 b4 ,fossil ,palud9a magnifi$4 ,we may (t5 obs]ve 9 our ponds ! ,phryganea 7or ,caddis-fly71 9 its cat]pill> /ate1 cov]$ ) small fre%wat] %ells1 :i* !y h ! p[] ( fix+ to ! outside ( _! tubul> cases1 9 ord]1 probably1 to give !m weight & /r5g?4 ,! individual figur$ 9 ! annex$ cut1 :i* belongs to a species v abundant 9 ,engl&1 has cov]$ its case ) %ells ( a small ,planorbis4 ,9 ! same mann] a l>ge species ( caddis-worm1 :i* sw>m$ 9 ! ,eoc5e lakes ( ,auv]gne1 0 accu/om$ to atta* to its dwell+ ! %ells ( a small spiral univalve ( ! g5us ,palud9a4 ,a hundr$ ( ^! m9ute %ells are sometimes se5 arrang$ ar\nd "o tube1 "p ( ! c5tral cavity ( :i* is (t5 empty1 ! re/ be+ fill$ up ) ?9 conc5tric lay]s ( trav]t94 ,! cases h be5 ?r[n toge!r confus$ly1 & (t5 lie1 z 9 fig4 #afa41 at "r angles "o to ! o!r4 ,:5 we consid] t t5 or twelve tubes are pack$ )9 ! compass ( a cubic in*1 & t "s s+le /rata ( ?is lime/one are #f feet ?ick1 & may be trac$ ov] a consid]able area1 we may =m "s idea ( ! c\ntless numb] ( insects & mollusca :i* contribut$ _! integum5ts & %ells to compose ?is s+ul>ly con/ruct$ rock4 ,x is unnecess>y to suppose t ! ,phryganeae liv$ on ! spots :]e _! cases are n[ f\nd2 !y may h multipli$ 9 ! %all[s ne> ! m>g9 ( ! lake1 or 9 ! /reams by :i* x 0 f$1 & _! cases may h be5 drift$ by a curr5t f> into ! deep wat]4 ,9 ! summ] ( #ahcg1 :5 exam9+1 9 company ) ,dr4 ,beck1 a small lake ne> ,cop5hag51 ,i _h an opportunity ( witness+ a beautiful exemplification ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! tubul> cases ( ,auv]gne 7 probably accumulat$4 ,?is lake1 call$ ! ,fuure-,soe1 occurr+ 9 ! int]ior ( ,seel&1 is ab\t tw5ty ,engli% miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & 9 "s p>ts #bjj feet 9 dep?4 ,r\nd ! %all[ bord]s an abundant crop ( re$s & ru%es may be obs]v$1 cov]$ ) ! indusiae ( ! ,phryganea gr&is & o!r species1 to :i* %ells are atta*$4 ,! plants :i* support !m are ! bullru%1 ,scirpus lacu/ris1 & common re$1 ,arundo phragmitis1 b *iefly ! =m]4 ,9 summ]1 especially 9 ! mon? ( ,june1 a viol5t gu/ ( w9d sometimes causes a curr5t by :i* ^! plants are torn up by ! roots1 wa%$ away1 & float$ (f 9 long b&s1 m ?an a mile 9 l5g?1 into deep wat]4 ,! ,cypris sw>ms 9 ! same lake2 & calc>e\s spr+s alone are want+ to =m ext5sive b$s ( indusial lime/one1 l ^? ( ,auv]gne4 #d4 ,gypse\s m>ls4--,m ?an #ej feet ( ?9ly lam9at$ gypse\s m>ls1 exactly resembl+ ^? 9 ! hill ( ,montm>tre1 at ,p>is1 are work$ = gypsum at ,/4 ,roma91 on ! "r bank ( ! ,alli]4 ,!y re/ on a s]ies ( gre5 cyprif]\s m>ls :i* alt]nate ) grit1 ! unit$ ?ickness ( ?is inf]ior gr\p be+ se51 9 a v]tical section on ! banks ( ! riv]1 to exce$ #bej feet4 ,g5]al arrangem5t1 orig91 & age ( ! fre%wat] =mations ( ,auv]gne4--,! relations ( ! diff]5t gr\ps above describ$ _c be le>nt by ! /udy ( any "o section2 & ! geologi/ :o sets out ) ! expectation ( f9d+ a fix$ ord] ( succession may p]haps compla9 t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bas9 give contradictory results4 ,! ar5ace\s division1 ! m>ls1 & ! lime/one1 may all be se5 9 "s places to alt]nate ) ea* o!r2 yet x c1 by no means1 be affirm$ t !re is no ord] ( arrangem5t4 ,! s&s1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate1 con/itute 9 g5]al a littoral gr\p2 ! foliat$ :ite & gre5 m>ls1 a contemporane\s c5tral deposit2 & ! lime/one is = ! mo/ "p subord9ate to ! new] portions ( bo?4 ,! upp]mo/ m>ls & s&s are m calc>e\s ?an ! l[]2 & we nev] meet ) calc>e\s rocks cov]$ by a consid]able ?ickness ( qu>tzose s& or gre5 m>l4 ,f ! resemblance ( ! lime/ones to ! ,italian trav]t9s1 we may conclude t !y 7 d]iv$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1--su* spr+s z ev5 n[ exi/ 9 ,auv]gne1 & :i* may be se5 ris+ up ?r\gh ! granite1 & precipitat+ trav]t94 ,!y are sometimes !rmal1 b ?is "* is by no means con/ant4 ,x seems t1 :5 ! anci5t lake ( ! ,limagne fir/ began to be fill$ ) s$im5t1 no volcanic action _h yet produc$ lava & scoriae on any "p ( ! surface ( ,auv]gne4 ,no pebbles1 !re=e1 ( lava 7 transport$ into ! lake1--no fragm5ts ( volcanic rocks emb$d$ 9 ! conglom]ate4 ,b at a lat] p]iod1 :5 a consid]able ?ickness ( s&/one & m>l _h accumulat$1 eruptions broke out1 & lava & tuff 7 deposit$1 at "s spots1 alt]nately ) ! lacu/r9e /rata4 ,x is n improbable t cold & !rmal spr+s1 hold+ diff]5t m9]al +r$i5ts 9 solution1 became m num]\s dur+ ! successive convulsions att5d+ ?is developm5t ( volcanic ag5cy1 & ?us deposits ( c>bonate & sulphate ( lime1 silex1 & o!r m9]als 7 produc$4 ,h5ce ^! m9]als pr$om9ate 9 ! upp]mo/ /rata4 ,! subt]ranean movem5ts may !n h cont9u$ until !y alt]$ ! relative levels ( ! c\ntry1 & caus$ ! wat]s ( ! lakes to be dra9$ (f1 & ! f>!r accumulation ( regul> fre%wat] /rata to cease4 ,we may easily conceive a simil> s]ies ( ev5ts to give rise to analog\s results 9 any mod]n bas91 su* z t ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 = example1 :]e num]\s riv]s & torr5ts are c>ry+ d[n ! detritus ( a *a9 ( m\nta9s into ! lake4 ,! transport$ mat]ials mu/ be arrang$ accord+ to _! size & weight1 ! co>s] ne> ! %ore1 ! f9] at a great] di/ance f l&2 b 9 ! gravelly & s&y b$s ( ,lake ,sup]ior no pebbles ( mod]n volcanic rocks c be includ$1 s9ce !re are none ( ^! at pres5t 9 ! di/rict4 ,if igne\s action %\ld break out 9 t c\ntry1 & produce lava1 scoriae1 & !rmal spr+s1 ! deposition ( gravel1 s&1 & m>l might /ill cont9ue z be=e2 b1 9 addition1 !re w\ld !n be an int]mixture ( volcanic gravel & tuff1 & ( rocks precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s4 ,al?\gh ! fre%wat] /rata ( ! ,limagne approa* g5]ally to a horizontal position1 ! pro(s ( local di/urbance are suffici5tly num]\s & viol5t to all[ u to suppose great *anges ( level s9ce ! lacu/r9e p]iod4 ,we are unable to assign a nor!rn b>ri] to ! anci5t lake1 al?\gh we c /ill trace its limits to ! ea/1 we/1 & s\?1 :]e !y 7 =m$ ( bold granite em95ces4 ,nor ne$ we be surpris$ at our inability to re/ore entirely ! physical geography ( ! c\ntry aft] s great a s]ies ( volcanic eruptions2 = x is by no means improbable t "o "p ( x1 ! s\!rn1 = example1 may h be5 mov$ upw>ds bodily1 :ile o!rs rema9$ at re/1 or ev5 suff]$ a movem5t ( depression4 ,:e!r all ! fre%wat] =mations ( ! ,limagne d',auv]gne belong to "o p]iod1 ,i _c pret5d to decide1 z l>ge masses bo? ( ! ar5ace\s & m>ly gr\ps are (t5 devoid ( fossils4 ,mu* light has be5 ?r[n on ! mammif]\s fauna by ! lab\rs ( ,,mm4 ,brav>d & ,croizet1 & by ^? ( ,m4 ,pomel4 ,! la/-m5tion$ naturali/ has po9t$ out ! specific di/9ction ( all1 or ne>ly all1 ! species ( mammalia1 f ^? ( ! gypse\s s]ies ne> ,p>is4 ,nev]!less1 _m ( ! =ms are analog\s to ^? ( ,eoc5e quadrup$s4 ,! ,ca9o!rium1 = example1 is n f> remov$ f ! ,anoplo!rium1 & is1 accord+ to ,wat]h\se1 ! same z ! g5us ,micro!rium ( ! ,g]mans4 ,!re are two species ( m>supial animals alli$ to ,didelphys1 a g5us also f\nd 9 ! ,p>is gypsum4 ,! ,amphitragulus elegans ( ,pomel1 has be5 id5tifi$ ) a ,rh5i% species f ,weiss5au ne> ,may5ce1 call$ by ,kaup ,dorca!rium nanum2 & o!r ,auv]gne fossils1 e4g41 ,micro!rium ,reugg]i1 & a small rod5t1 ,titanomys1 are specifically ! same ) mammalia ( ! ,may5ce bas94 ,cantal4--,a fre%wat] =mation1 v analog\s to t ( ,auv]gne1 is situat$ 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,haute ,loire1 ne> ! t[n ( ,le ,puy1 9 ,velay1 & ano!r occurs ne> ,aurillac1 9 ,cantal4 ,! lead+ feature ( ! =mation la/ m5tion$1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? ( ,auv]gne & ,velay1 is ! imm5se abundance ( silex associat$ ) calc>e\s m>ls & lime/one4 ,! :ole s]ies may be sep>at$ into two divisions2 ! l[]1 compos$ ( gravel1 s&1 & clay1 su* z might h be5 d]iv$ f ! we>+ d[n & decomposition ( ! granitic s*i/s ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry2 ! upp] sy/em1 consi/+ ( silice\s & calc>e\s m>ls1 conta9s subord9ately gypsum1 silex1 & lime/one4 ,! resemblance ( ! fre%wat] lime/one ( ! ,cantal1 & its accompany+ fl9t1 to ! upp] *alk ( ,engl&1 is v in/ructive1 & well calculat$ to put ! /ud5t ^u 8 gu>d aga9/ rely+ too implicitly on m9]al "* alone z a safe crit]ion ( relative age4 ,:5 we approa* ,aurillac f ! we/1 we pass ov] great hea?y pla9s1 :]e ! /]ile mica-s*i/ is b>ely cov]$ ) vegetation4 ,ne> ,ytrac1 & betwe5 ,la ,capelle & ,viscamp1 ! surface is /rew$ ov] ) loose brok5 fl9ts1 "s ( !m black 9 ! int]ior1 b ) a :ite ext]nal coat+2 o!rs /a9$ ) t9ts ( yell[ & r$1 & 9 appe>ance precisely l ! fl9t gravel ( our *alk di/ricts4 ,:5 heaps ( ?is gravel h ?us ann\nc$ our approa* to a new =mation1 we arrive at l5g? at ! esc>pm5t ( ! lacu/r9e b$s4 ,at ! bottom ( ! hill :i* rises be=e u1 we see /rata ( clay & s&1 re/+ on mica-s*i/2 & above1 9 ! qu>ries ( ,belbet1 ,leybros1 & ,bruel1 a :ite lime/one1 9 horizontal /rata1 ! surface ( :i* has be5 holl[$ out into irregul> furr[s1 s9ce fill$ up ) brok5 fl9t1 m>l1 & d>k vegetable m\nd4 ,9 ^! cavities we recognize an exact c\nt]p>t to ^? :i* are s num]\s on ! furr[$ surface ( our own :ite *alk4 ,advanc+ f ^! qu>ries along a road made ( ! :ite lime/one1 :i* reflects z gl>+ a light 9 ! sun1 z d our roads compos$ ( *alk1 we rea*1 at l5g?1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,aurillac1 hills ( lime/one & calc>e\s m>l1 9 horizontal /rata1 sep>at$ 9 "s places by regul> lay]s ( fl9t 9 nodules1 ! coat+ ( ea* nodule be+ ( an opaque :ite col\r1 l ! ext]ior ( ! fl9ty nodules ( our *alk4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! silice\s /one ( ,bil91 call$ tripoli1 is a fre%wat] deposit1 & has be5 %[n1 by ,ehr5b]g1 to be ( infusorial orig9 7see p4 #bd474 ,:at is true ( ! ,bohemian fl9t & opal1 :]e ! b$s atta9 a ?ickness ( #ad feet1 may also1 p]haps1 be f\nd to hold good respect+ ! silex ( ,aurillac1 :i* may also h be5 imm$iately d]iv$ f ! m9ute cases ( microscopic animalcules4 ,b ev5 if ?is conclusion be e/abli%$1 ! abundant supply bo? ( silice\s1 calc>e\s1 & gypse\s matt]1 :i* ! anci5t lakes ( ,france receiv$1 may h be5 connect$ ) ! subt]ranean volcanic ag5cy ( :i* ^? regions 7 s long ! !atre1 & :i* may h impregnat$ ! spr+s ) m9]al matt]1 ev5 be=e ! great outbreak ( lava4 ,x is well kn[n t ! hot spr+s ( ,icel&1 & _m o!r c\ntries1 conta9 silex 9 solution2 & x has be5 lately affirm$1 t /eam at a high temp]ature is capable ( dissolv+ qu>tzose rocks )\t ! aid ( any alkal9e or o!r flux4#ahi-;,a ,travell]s n unfrequ5tly m5tion1 9 _! acc\nts ( ,india1 ,au/ralia1 & o!r di/ant l&s1 t !y h se5 *alk ) fl9ts1 :i* !y h assum$ to be ( ! same age z ! ,cretace\s sy/em ( ,europe4 ,a ha/y obs]vation ( ! :ite lime/one & fl9t ( ,aurillac might convey ! same idea2 b :5 we turn f ! m9]al aspect & composition to ! organic rema9s1 we f9d 9 ! fl9ts ( ! ,cantal ! se$-vessels ( ! fre%wat] ,*>a1 in/ead ( ! m>9e zoophytes s abundantly imb$d$ 9 *alk fl9ts2 & 9 ! lime/one we meet ) %ells ( ,limnea1 ,planorbis1 & o!r lacu/r9e g5]a1 in/ead ( ! oy/]1 t]ebratula1 & e*9us ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,pro(s ( gradual deposition4--,"s sections ( ! foliat$ m>ls 9 ! valley ( ! ,c]1 ne> ,aurillac1 atte/1 9 ! mo/ unequivocal mann]1 ! extreme sl[ness ) :i* ! mat]ials ( ! lacu/r9e s]ies 7 amass$4 ,9 ! hill ( ,b>rat1 = example1 we f9d an assemblage ( calc>e\s & silice\s m>ls2 9 :i*1 = a dep? ( at lea/ #fj feet1 ! lay]s are s ?91 t ?irty are sometimes conta9$ 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*2 & :5 !y are sep>at$1 we see pres]v$ 9 e "o ( !m ! flatt5$ /ems ( ,*>ae1 or o!r plants1 or sometimes myriads ( small ,palud9ae & o!r fre%wat] %ells4 ,^! m9ute foliations ( ! m>l resemble precisely "s ( ! rec5t lam9at$ b$s ( ! ,scot* m>l lakes1 & may be comp>$ to ! pages ( a book1 ea* conta9+ a hi/ory ( a c]ta9 p]iod ( ! pa/4 ,! diff]5t lay]s may be gr\p$ toge!r 9 b$s f a foot to a foot & a half 9 ?ickness1 :i* are di/+ui%$ by diff]5ces ( composition & col\r1 ! t9ts be+ :ite1 gre51 & br[n4 ,occasionally !re is a p>t+ lay] ( pure fl9t1 or ( black c>bonace\s vegetable matt]1 ab\t an in* ?ick1 or ( :ite pulv]ul5t m>l4 ,we f9d sev]al hills 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,aurillac compos$ ( su* mat]ials1 = ! height ( m ?an #bjj feet f _! base1 ! :ole sometimes cov]$ by rocky curr5ts ( tra*ytic or basaltic lava4#aij-;,a ,?us wond]fully m9ute are ! sep>ate p>ts ( :i* "s ( ! mo/ massive geological monum5ts are made up6 ,:5 we desire to classify1 x is necess>y to contemplate entire gr\ps ( /rata 9 ! aggregate2 b if we wi% to und]/& ! mode ( _! =mation1 & to expla9 _! orig91 we mu/ ?9k only ( ! m9ute subdivisions ( :i* ea* mass is compos$4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d h[ _m ?9 leaf-l seams ( matt]1 ea* conta9+ ! rema9s ( myriads ( te/acea & plants1 frequ5tly ent] into ! composition ( a s+le /ratum1 & h[ va/ a succession ( ^! /rata unite to =m a s+le gr\p6 ,we mu/ rememb]1 also1 t piles ( volcanic matt]1 l ! ,plomb du ,cantal1 :i* rises 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,aurillac1 are !mselves equally ! result ( successive accumulation1 consi/+ ( reit]at$ %eets ( lava1 %[]s ( scoriae1 & eject$ fragm5ts ( rock4--,la/ly1 we mu/ n =get t cont95ts & m\nta9-*a9s1 colossal z are _! dim5sions1 are no?+ m ?an an assemblage ( _m su* igne\s & aque\s gr\ps1 =m$ 9 succession dur+ an indef9ite lapse ( ages1 & sup]impos$ ^u ea* o!r4 ,,footnotes3 #age-;,a ,bullet9 des ,sci4 de la ,soc4 ,philom41 ,may1 #ahbe1 p4 #gd4 #agf-;,a ,heb]t4 ,bullet94 #ahdi1 vol4 vi4 #b;d s]ies1 p4 #dei4 #aha-;,a ,scrope1 ,geology ( ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #ae4 #ahc-;,a ,see ,desm>e/'s ,cru/acea1 plate #ee4 #ahe-;,a ,i believe t ! ,briti% specim5 "h figur$ is ,p4 rhombica1 ,l9n4 #ahi-;,a ,see ,proce$+s ( ,roy4 ,soc41 ,no4 #dd4 p4 #bcc4 #aij-;,a ,lyell & ,mur*ison1 sur les ,depots ,lacu/4 ,t]ti>ies du ,cantal1 c4 ,ann4 des ,sci4 ,nat4 ,oct4 #ahbi4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,eoc5e ,,=mations--cont9u$4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,eoc5e gr\p 9 ! ,p>is bas9--,gypse\s s]ies--,ext9ct quadrup$s--,impulse giv5 to geology by ,cuvi]'s o/eological discov]ies--,%elly s&s call$ sables moy5s--,calcaire grossi]--,miliolites--,calcaire siliceux--,l[] ,eoc5e 9 ,france--,lits coquilli]s--,s&s & pla/ic clay--,engli% ,eoc5e /rata--,fre%wat] & fluvio-m>9e b$s--,b>ton b$s--,bag%ot & ,brackle%am division--,l>ge ophidians & saurians--,l[] ,eoc5e & ,london ,clay prop]--,fossil plants & %ells--,/rata ( ,kyson 9 ,suffolk--,fossil monkey & opossum--,mottl$ clays & s&s bel[ ,london ,clay--,nummulitic =mation ( ,alps & ,pyr5ees--,its wide geographical ext5t--,eoc5e /rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,section at ,claiborne1 ,alabama--,colossal cetacean--,orbitoid lime/one--,burr /one4 ,f :at 0 said 9 ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 x has already appe>$ t we h 9 ,engl& no true *ronological repres5tative ( ! ,mioc5e faluns ( ! ,loire1 & none ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e gr\p describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,b1 :5 we desc5d to ! middle & inf]ior divisions ( ! ,eoc5e sy/em ( ,france1 we f9d t !y h _! equival5ts 9 ,great ,brita94 ,,middle ,,eoc5e4--,,france4 ,gypse\s s]ies 7#b4 a1 ,table1 p4 #age474--,next bel[ ! upp] m>9e s&s ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 we f9d a s]ies ( :ite & gre5 m>ls1 ) subord9ate b$s ( gypsum4 ,^! are mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 &1 among o!r places1 9 ! ,hill ( ,montm>tre1 :]e its fossils 7 fir/ /udi$ by ,m4 ,cuvi]4 ,! gypsum qu>ri$ !re = ! manufacture ( pla/] ( ,p>is occurs z a granul> cry/all9e rock1 &1 toge!r ) ! associat$ m>ls1 conta9s l& & fluviatile %ells1 toge!r ) ! bones & skeletons ( birds & quadrup$s4 ,sev]al l& plants are also met )1 among :i* are f9e specim5s ( ! fan palm or palmetto tribe 7,flabell>ia74 ,! rema9s also ( fre%wat] fi% & ( crocodiles & o!r reptiles1 occur 9 ! gypsum4 ,! skeletons ( mammalia are usually isolat$1 (t5 entire1 ! mo/ delicate extremities be+ pres]v$2 z if ! c>casses1 clo!d ) _! fle% & sk91 _h be5 float$ d[n soon aft] dea?1 & :ile !y 7 /ill swoln by ! gases g5]at$ by _! fir/ decomposition4 ,! few accompany+ %ells are ( ^? light k9ds :i* frequ5tly float on ! surface ( riv]s1 toge!r ) wood4 ,m4 ,prevo/ has !re=e sugge/$ t a riv] may h swept away ! bodies ( animals1 & ! plants :i* liv$ on its bord]s1 or 9 ! lakes :i* x trav]s$1 & may h c>ri$ !m d[n into ! c5tre ( ! gulf into :i* fl[$ ! wat]s impregnat$ ) sulphate ( lime4 ,we "k t ! ,fiume ,salso 9 ,sicily ent]s ! sea s *>g$ ) v>i\s salts t ! ?ir/y cattle refuse to dr9k ( x4 ,a /ream ( sulphure\s wat]1 z :ite z milk1 desc5ds into ! sea f ! volcanic m\nta9 ( ,idi5ne on ! ea/ ( ,java2 & a great body ( hot wat]1 *>g$ ) sulphuric acid1 ru%$ d[n f ! same volcano on "o occasion1 & inundat$ a l>ge tract ( c\ntry1 de/roy+1 by its noxi\s prop]ties1 all ! vegetation4#aia-;,a ,9 l mann] ! ,pusanibio1 or ,v9eg> ,riv]1 ( ,colombia1 :i* rises at ! foot ( ,purace1 an ext9ct volcano1 #g1ejj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 is /rongly impregnat$ ) sulphuric & muriatic acids & ) oxide ( iron4 ,we may easily suppose ! wat]s ( su* /reams to h prop]ties noxi\s to m>9e animals1 & 9 ?is mann] ! entire abs5ce ( m>9e rema9s 9 ! ossif]\s gypsum may be expla9$4#aia-;,b ,!re are no pebbles or co>se s& 9 ! gypsum2 a circum/ance :i* agrees well ) ! hypo!sis t ^! b$s 7 precipitat$ f wat] hold+ sulphate ( lime 9 solution1 & float+ ! rema9s ( diff]5t animals4 ,9 ?is =mation ! relics ( ab\t fifty species ( quadrup$s1 includ+ ! g5]a ,paleo!rium1 ,anoplo!rium1 & o!rs1 h be5 f\nd1 all ext9ct1 & ne>ly f\r-fif?s ( !m belong+ to a division ( ! ord] ,pa*yd]mata1 :i* is n[ repres5t$ by only f\r liv+ species2 namely ?ree tapirs & ! daman ( ! ,cape4 ,) !m a few c>nivor\s animals are associat$1 among :i* are a species ( fox & g5net4 ,( ! ,rod5tia1 a dorm\se & a squirrel2 ( ! ,insectivora1 a bat2 & ( ! ,m>supialia 7an ord] n[ conf9$ to ,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & "s contigu\s isl&s71 an opossum1 h be5 discov]$4 ,( birds1 ab\t t5 species h be5 asc]ta9$1 ! skeletons ( "s ( :i* are entire4 ,none ( !m are ref]able to exi/+ species4#aib-;,a ,! same rem>k applies to ! fi%1 accord+ to ,,mm4 ,cuvi]1 & ,agassiz1 z also to ! reptiles4 ,among ! la/ are crocodiles & tortoises ( ! g5]a ,emys & ,trionyx4 ,! tribe ( l& quadrup$s mo/ abundant 9 ?is =mation is su* z n[ inhabits alluvial pla9s & m>%es1 & ! banks ( riv]s & lakes1 a class mo/ expos$ to suff] by riv] inundations4 ,:e!r ! disproportion ( c>nivor\s animals c be ascrib$ to ?is cause1 or :e!r !y 7 comp>atively small 9 numb] & dim5sions1 z 9 ! indig5\s fauna ( ,au/ralia1 :5 fir/ kn[n to ,europeans1 is a po9t on :i* x w\ld be ra%1 p]haps1 to (f] an op9ion 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4 ,paleo!rium magnum4 ,! ,paleo!re1 above allud$ to1 resembl$ ! liv+ tapir 9 ! =m ( ! head1 & 9 hav+ a %ort proboscis1 b its mol> tee? 7 m l ^? ( ! rh9oc]os 7see fig4 #afc474 ,paleo!rium magnum 0 ( ! size ( a horse1 #c or #d feet high4 ,! annex$ woodcut1 fig4 #afb41 is "o ( ! re/orations :i* ,cuvi] attempt$ ( ! outl9e ( ! liv+ animal1 d]iv$ f ! /udy ( ! entire skeleton4 ,:5 ! ,fr5* o/eologi/ decl>$ 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! pres5t c5tury1 t all ! fossil quadrup$s ( ! gypsum ( ,p>is 7 ext9ct1 ! ann\ncem5t ( s />tl+ a fact1 on su* high au?ority1 creat$ a p[]ful s5sation1 & f t "t a new impulse 0 giv5 ?r\gh\t ,europe to ! progress ( geological inve/igation4 ,em95t naturali/s1 x is true1 _h long be=e ma9ta9$ t ! %ells & zoophytes1 met ) 9 _m anci5t ,european rocks1 _h ceas$ to be inhabitants ( ! e>?1 b ! majority ev5 ( ! educat$ classes cont9u$ to believe t ! species ( animals & plants n[ contempor>y ) man1 7 ! same z ^? :i* _h be5 call$ into be+ :5 ! planet itself 0 creat$4 ,x 0 easy to ?r[ discr$it ^u ! new doctr9e by ask+ :e!r corals1 %ells1 & o!r creatures previ\sly unkn[n1 7 n annually discov]$8 & :e!r liv+ =ms correspond+ ) ! fossils might n yet be dr$g$ up f seas hi!rto unexam9$8 ,b f ! era ( ! publication ( ,cuvi]'s ,ossem5ts ,fossiles1 & /ill m 8 popul> ,treatise call$ ,a ,!ory ( ! ,e>?1 s\nd] views began to prevail4 ,x 0 cle>ly demon/rat$ t mo/ ( ! mammalia f\nd 9 ! gypsum ( ,montm>tre diff]$ ev5 g5]ically f any n[ exi/+1 & ! extreme improbability t any ( !m1 especially ! l>g] ones1 w\ld ev] be f\nd surviv+ 9 cont95ts yet unexplor$1 0 made manife/4 ,moreov]1 ! non-admixture ( a s+le liv+ species 9 ! mid/ ( s ri* a fossil fauna 0 a /rik+ pro( t !re _h exi/$ a /ate ( ! e>?'s surface zoologically unconnect$ ) ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4 ,upp] mol> too? ( ,paleo!rium magnum f ,isle ( ,wight4 7,ow5's ,brit4 ,foss4 p4 #cag47 ,r$uc$ "o-?ird4 ,gres de ,beau*amp 7#b4 b1 ,table1 p4 #age474--;,9 "s p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 s&s & m>ls1 call$ ! ,gres de ,beau*amp1 or ,sables ,moy5s1 divide ! gypse\s b$s f ! und]ly+ ,calcaire grossi]4 ,^! s&s conta9 m ?an #cjj species ( m>9e %ells1 _m ( !m peculi>1 b o!rs common to ! und]ly+ m>9e deposit 7,no4 #b4 c474 ,calcaire grossi] 7#b4 c1 ,table1 p4 #age474--,! =mation call$ ,calcaire grossi] consi/s ( a co>se lime/one1 (t5 pass+ into s&4 ,x conta9s ! great] numb] ( ! fossil %ells :i* *>act]ize ! ,p>is bas94 ,no less ?an #djj di/9ct species h be5 procur$ f a s+le spot ne> ,grignon1 :]e !y are emb$d$ 9 a calc>e\s s&1 *iefly =m$ ( comm9ut$ %ells1 9 :i*1 nev]!less1 individuals 9 a p]fect /ate ( pres]vation1 bo? ( m>9e1 t]re/rial1 & fre%wat] species1 are m+l$ toge!r4 ,"s ( ! m>9e %ells may h liv$ on ! spot2 b ! ,cyclo/oma & ,limnea mu/ h be5 br\ght ?i!r by riv]s & curr5ts1 & ! quantity ( triturat$ %ells implies consid]able movem5t 9 ! wat]s4 ,no?+ is m /rik+ 9 ?is assemblage ( fossil te/acea ?an ! great proportion ( species ref]able to ! g5us ,c]i?ium 7see fig4 #afd474 ,!re occur no less ?an #acg species ( ?is g5us 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & almo/ all ( !m 9 ! calcaire grossi]4 ,n[ ! liv+ ,c]i?ia inhabit ! sea ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 :]e ! wat]s are bracki%2 s t _! abundance 9 ! m>9e /rata n[ "u consid]ation is 9 h>mony ) ! hypo!sis1 t ! ,p>is bas9 =m$ a gulf into :i* sev]al riv]s fl[$1 ! s$im5t ( "s ( :i* gave rise to ! b$s ( clay & lignite be=e m5tion$2 :ile a di/9ct fre%wat] lime/one1 call$ calcaire siliceux1 :i* w pres5tly be describ$1 0 precipitat$ f ! wat]s ( o!rs situat$ f>!r to ! s\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4 ,c]i?ium c9ctum4#aid-;,a #d ,illu/rations3 ,,eoc5e ,,=am9if]a4 ,fig4 #afe4 ,calc>9a r>isp9a1 ,de%4 b4 natural size4 a1 c4 same magnifi$4 ,fig4 #aff4 ,spirol9a /5o/oma1 ,de%4 ,b4 natural size4 ,a1 ,c1 ,d4 same magnifi$4 ,fig4 #afg4 ,trilocul9a inflata1 ,de%4 b4 natural size4 a1 c1 d1 same magnifi$4 ,fig4 #afh4 ,clavul9a corrugata1 ,de%4 a4 natural size4 b1 c4 same magnifi$4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! calcaire grossi] r\nd ,p>is1 c]ta9 b$s occur ( a /one us$ 9 build+1 & call$ by ! ,fr5* geologi/s ,miliolite lime/one4 ,x is almo/ entirely made up ( millions ( microscopic %ells1 ( ! size ( m9ute gra9s ( s&1 :i* all belong to ! class ,=am9if]a4 ,figures ( "s ( ^! are giv5 9 ! annex$ woodcut4 ,z ?is miliolitic /one nev] occurs 9 ! ,faluns1 or ,mioc5e /rata ( ,brittany & ,t\ra9e1 x (t5 furni%es ! geologi/ ) a useful crit]ion = di/+ui%+ ! deta*$ ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e =mations1 scatt]$ ov] ^? & o!r adjo9+ prov9ces4 ,! discov]y ( ! rema9s ( ,paleo!rium & o!r mammalia 9 "s ( ! upp] b$s ( ! calcaire grossi] %[s t ^! l& animals began to exi/ be=e ! deposition ( ! ov]ly+ gypse\s s]ies _h comm5c$4 ,calcaire siliceux4--,?is compact silice\s lime/one ext5ds ov] a wide area4 ,x resembles a precipitate f ! wat]s ( m9]al spr+s1 & is (t5 trav]s$ by small empty s9u\s cavities4 ,x is1 = ! mo/ "p1 devoid ( organic rema9s1 b 9 "s places conta9s fre%wat] & l& species1 & nev] any m>9e fossils4 ,! silice\s lime/one & ! calcaire grossi] occupy di/9ct p>ts ( ! ,p>is bas91 ! "o atta9+ its fulle/ developm5t 9 ^? places :]e ! o!r is ( slight ?ickness4 ,!y also alt]nate ) ea* o!r t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! bas91 z at ,s]gy & ,osny2 & !re are ev5 po9ts :]e ! two rocks are s bl5d$ toge!r t portions ( ea* may be se5 9 h& specim5s4 ,?us1 9 ! same b$1 at ,triel1 we h ! compact fre%wat] lime/one1 *>act]iz$ by its ,limneae1 m+l$ ) ! co>se m>9e lime/one1 ) its small multilocul> %ells1 or miliolites1 disp]s$ ?r\gh x 9 c\ntless numb]s4 ,^! microscopic te/acea are also accompani$ by ,c]i?ia & o!r %ells ( ! calcaire grossi]4 ,x is v extraord9>y t 9 ?is in/ance bo? k9ds ( s$im5t mu/ h be5 ?r[n d[n toge!r on ! same spot1 yet ea* reta9s its own peculi> organic rema9s4 ,f ^! facts we may conclude1 t :ile to ! nor?1 :]e ! bay 0 probably op5 to ! sea1 a m>9e lime/one 0 =m$1 ano!r deposit ( fre%wat] orig9 0 introduc$ to ! s\?w>d1 or at ! head ( ! bay2 = x appe>s t dur+ ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 z n[1 ! ocean 0 to ! nor?1 & ! cont95t1 :]e ! great lakes exi/$1 to ! s\?4 ,f t s\!rn region we may suppose a body ( fre% wat] to h desc5d$1 *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime & silica1 ! wat] be+ p]haps 9 suffici5t volume to fre%5 ! upp] end ( ! bay4 ,! gypse\s s]ies 7#b4 a1 ,table1 p4 #age471 be=e describ$1 0 once suppos$ to be entirely subsequ5t 9 orig9 to ! two gr\ps1 call$ calcaire grossi] & calcaire siliceux4 ,b ,m4 ,prevo/ has po9t$ out t 9 "s localities !y alt]nate repeat$ly ) bo?4 ,! gypsum1 ) its associat$ m>l & lime/one1 is 9 greate/ =ce t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! bas91 :]e ! calcaire grossi] & calcaire siliceux are less fully develop$4 ,h5ce ,m4 ,prevo/ inf]s1 t :ile ^? two pr9cipal deposits 7 gradually 9 progress1 ! "o t[>ds ! nor?1 & ! o!r t[>ds ! s\?1 a riv] desc5d+ f ! ea/ may h br\ght d[n ! gypse\s & m>ly s$im5t4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 z highly probable1 t a bay or n>r[ sea1 #ahj miles 9 l5g?1 w\ld receive1 at m po9ts ?an "o1 ! wat]s ( ! adjo9+ cont95t4 ,at ! same "t1 we mu/ be prep>$ to f9d t ! simultane\s deposition ( two or m sets ( /rata 9 "o bas91 "s fre%wat] & o!rs m>9e1 mu/ h produc$ v complex results4 ,b1 9 proportion z x is m difficult 9 ^! cases to discov] any fix$ ord] ( sup]position 9 ! associat$ m9]al masses1 s also is x m easy to expla9 ! mann] ( _! orig91 & to reconcile _! relations to ! ag5cy ( kn[n causes4 ,in/ead ( ! successive irruptions & retreats ( ! sea1 & *anges 9 ! *emical nature ( ! fluid1 & o!r speculations ( ! e>li] geologi/s1 we are n[ simply call$ ^u to imag9e a gulf1 into "o extremity ( :i* ! sea ent]$1 & at ! o!r a l>ge riv]1 :ile o!r /reams may h fl[$ 9 at diff]5t po9ts1 :]eby an indef9ite numb] ( alt]nations ( m>9e & fre%wat] b$s w\ld be occasion$4 ,,l[] ,,eoc5e1 ,,france4 ,lits coquilli]s 7#c4 a1 ,table1 p4 #age474--;,bel[ ! calcaire grossi] are ext5sive deposits ( s&1 9 ! upp] p>ts ( :i* "s m>9e b$s1 call$ lits coquilli]s1 occur1 9 :i* ,m4 d',ar*iac has discov]$ #bjj species ( %ells4 ,_m ( ^! are peculi>1 b ! l>g] portion appe> to agree ) species ( ! calcaire grossi]1 s t ! l9e ( dem>cation usually adopt$ betwe5 ! ,fr5* ,l[] & ,middle ,eoc5e =mations1 seems n to be v /rongly drawn4 ,s&s & pla/ic clay 7#c4 b1 ,table1 p4 #age47--;,at ! base ( ! t]ti>y sy/em 9 ,france are ext5sive deposits ( s&s1 ) occasional b$s ( clay us$ = pott]y1 & call$ argile pla/ique4 ,fossil oy/]s 7,o/rea bellovac9a7 ab\nd 9 "s places1 & 9 o!rs !re is a mixture ( fluviatile %ells1 su* z ,cyr5a cunei=mis 7fig4 #ahg4 p4 #bjd471 ,melania inqu9ata 7fig4 #ahh471 & o!rs1 frequ5tly met ) 9 b$s occupy+ ! same position 9 ! valley ( ! ,?ames4 ,lay]s ( lignite also accompany ! inf]ior clays & s&s4 ,imm$iately ^u ! *alk at ! bottom ( all ! t]ti>y /rata !re is (t5 a conglom]ate or breccia ( roll$ & angul> *alk fl9ts1 cem5t$ by silice\s s&4 ,^! b$s appe> to be ( littoral orig91 & imply ! previ\s em]g5ce ( "s portions ( ! *alk1 & its wa/e by d5udation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4 ,c>dium porulosum4 ,p>is & ,london bas9s4 ,! l[] s&y b$s ( ! ,p>is bas9 are (t5 call$ ! s&s ( ! ,soissonais1 f a di/rict s nam$ #ej miles ,n4,e4 ( ,p>is4 ,"o ( ! %ells ( ! =mation is adduc$ by ,m4 ,de%ayes z an example ( ! *anges :i* c]ta9 species und]w5t 9 ! successive /ages ( _! exi/5ce4 ,x seems t diff]5t v>ieties ( ! ,c>dium porulosum are *>act]i/ic ( diff]5t =mations4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ! ,soissonais ?is %ell acquires b a small volume1 & has _m peculi>ities1 :i* disappe> 9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! calcaire grossi]4 ,9 ^! ! %ell atta9s its full size1 & _m di/9ctive *>act]s1 :i* are aga9 modifi$ 9 ! upp]mo/ b$s ( ! calcaire grossi]2 & ^! la/ modifications ( =m are pres]v$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ! upp] m>9e 7or ,upp] ,eoc5e7 s]ies4#aig-;,a ,,engli% ,,eoc5e ,,=mations4 ,! ,eoc5e areas ( ,hamp%ire & ,london are del9eat$ 9 ! map 7fig4 #aec4 p4 #agd474 ,! foll[+ table w %[ ! succession ( ! pr9cipal deposits f\nd 9 our isl&4 ,! true place ( ! ,bag%ot s&s1 9 ?is s]ies1 0 nev] accurately asc]ta9$ till ,mr4 ,pre/wi* publi%$1 9 #ahdg1 8 classification ( ! ,engli% ,eoc5e /rata1 divid+ !m into ?ree pr9cipal =mations1 9 :i* ! ,bag%ot s&s occupi$ ! c5tral place4#aig-;,b ,localities4 #a4 ,upp] ,eoc5e4 ,want+ 9 ,great ,brita94 a4 ,fre%wat] & ,headon ,hill1 ,isle ( fluvio-m>9e b$s4 ,wight2 & ,hordwell ,cliff1 ,hants4 #b4 ,middle ,eoc5e b4 ,b>ton b$s4 ,b>ton ,cliff1 ,hants4 c4 ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am ,bag%ot ,hea?1 ,surrey2 s&s & clays4 ,brackle%am ,bay1 ,sussex4 a4 ,london ,clay ,prop]1 ,highgate ,hill1 & ,bognor b$s4 ,middlesex2 ,i4 ( ,%eppey2 ,bognor1 #c4 ,l[] ,eoc5e ,sussex4 b4 ,mottl$ & ,pla/ic ,ne:av51 ,sussex2 clays & s&s4 ,read+1 ,b]ks2 ,woolwi*1 ,k5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4 ,lymnea longiscata4 ,fre%wat] ,eoc5e /rata1 ,isle ( ,wight4 ,fre%wat] b$s 7#b4 a1 ,table1 p4 #age474--;,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 b$s ( m>l1 clay1 & s&1 & a friable lime/one1 conta9+ fre%wat] %ells1 are se51 conta9+ %ells ( ! g5]a ,lymnea 7see fig4 #agj471 ,planorbis1 ,melanopsis1 ,cyr5a1 c41 sev]al ( !m ( ! same species z ^? occurr+ 9 ! ,eoc5e b$s ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,gyrogonites1 also1 or se$-vessels ( ,*>a1 exhibit+ a simil> specific id5tity1 occur4 ,at ,headon ,hill1 on ! we/]n side ( ! isl&1 :]e ^! b$s are se5 9 ! sea-cliffs1 "s ( ! /rata conta9 a few m>9e & e/u>y %ells1 su* z ,cy!raea1 ,corbula1 c41 %[+ a tempor>y occupation ( ! area by bracki% or salt wat]1 aft] :i* ! riv] or a lake seems aga9 to h prevail$4 ,a species ( fan-palm1 ,flabell>ia ,lamanonis1 ,brong41 l "o :i* *>act]izes ! ,p>isian ,eoc5e b$s1 has be5 rec5tly detect$ by ,dr4 ,mantell 9 ?is =mation1 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 at ! ea/]n end ( ! isl&4 ,sev]al ( ! species ( ext9ct quadrup$s already allud$ to z *>act]iz+ ! gypsum ( ,montm>tre h be5 discov]$ by ,messrs4 ,pratt & ,fox1 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 *iefly at ,b9/ead1 ne> ,ryde1 z ,palaeo!rium magnum1 ,p4 m$ium1 ,p4 m9us1 ,p4 m9imum1 ,p4 curtum1 ,p4 crassum1 also ,anoplo!rium commune1 ,a4 secund>ium1 ,di*obune c]v9um1 & ,*a]opotamus ,cuvi]i4 ,9 ,hordwell cliff1 also on ! ,hamp%ire coa/1 sev]al ( ^! species1 ) o!r quadrup$s ( new g5]a1 su* z ,paloplo!rium1 ,ow51 h be5 met )2 & rema9s ( a rem>kable c>nivor\s g5us1 ,hya5odon4 ,^! fossils are accompani$ by ! bones ( ,trionyx1 & o!r tortoises1 & by two l& snakes ( ! g5us ,pal]yx1 ,ow51 f #c to #d feet long1 also a species ( crocodile1 & an alligator4 ,among o!r fossils collect$ by ,lady ,ha/+s1 ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton has recogniz$ ! well-kn[n g> or bony pike ( ! ,am]ican riv]s1 a ganoid fi% ( ! g5us ,lepidotus1 ) its h>d %9+ scales4 ,! %ells ( ,hordwell are simil> to ^? ( ! fre%wat] b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & among !m are a few specifically undi/+ui%able f rec5t te/acea1 z ,palud9a l5ta & ,helix labyr9?ica1 ! latt] discov]$ by ,mr4 ,s4 ,wood1 & id5tifi$ ) an exi/+ ,n4 ,am]ican helix4 ,! :ite & gre5 m>ls ( ?is fre%wat] s]ies 9 ,hamp%ire1 & "s ( ! accompany+ lime/ones1 (t5 resemble ^? ( ,france 9 m9]al "* & col\r 9 s /rik+ a mann]1 z to sugge/ ! idea t ! s$im5t 0 d]iv$ f ! same region1 or produc$ contemporane\sly "u v simil> geographical circum/ances4 ,b>ton b$s4--,bo? 9 ! cliffs ( ,headon ,hill & ,hordwell1 already m5tion$1 ! fre%wat] s]ies re/s on a mass ( pure :ite s& )\t fossils1 & ?is is se5 9 ,b>ton ,cliff to ov]lie a m>9e deposit1 9 :i* #bji species ( te/acea h be5 f\nd4 ,m ?an half ( ^! are peculi>2 &1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 only #aa ( !m common to ! ,london ,clay prop]1 be+ 9 ! proportion ( only #e p] c5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 #gj ( !m agree ) ! calcaire grossi] %ells4 ,z ?is is ! newe/ purely m>9e b$ ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies kn[n 9 ,engl&1 we might h expect$ t "s ( its peculi> fossils w\ld be f\nd to agree ) ! upp] ,eoc5e /rata describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & accord+ly "s id5tifications h be5 cit$ ) te/acea1 bo? ( ! ,b]l9 & ,belgian /rata4 ,x is ne>ly a c5tury s9ce ,br&] publi%$1 9 #agff1 an acc\nt ( ! organic rema9s collect$ f ^! cliffs1 & 8 excell5t figures ( ! %ells !n deposit$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum are ju/ly admir$ by con*ologi/s = _! accuracy4 ,bag%ot ,s&s 7#b4 c1 ,table1 p4 #aig474--,^! b$s1 consi/+ *iefly ( silice\s s&1 occupy ext5sive tracts r\nd ,bag%ot1 9 ,surrey1 & 9 ! ,new ,=e/1 ,hamp%ire4 ,!y succe$ next 9 *ronological ord]1 & may be sep>at$ into ?ree divisions1 ! upp] & l[] consi/+ ( light yell[ s&s1 & ! c5tral ( d>k gre5 s&s & br[n clays1 ! :ole repos+ on ! ,london clay prop]4#aii-;,a ,al?\gh ! ,bag%ot b$s are usually devoid ( fossils1 !y conta9 m>9e %ells 9 "s places1 among :i* ,v5]ic>dia planico/a 7see fig4 #aga47 is abundant1 ) ,turritella sulcif]a & ,nummulites laevigatus4 7,see fig4 #agd4 p4 #bjj47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4 ,v5]ic>dia planico/a1 ,lamck4 ,c>dita planico/a1 ,de%ayes4 ,at ,brackle%am ,bay1 ne> ,*i*e/]1 9 ,sussex1 ! *>act]i/ic %ells ( ?is memb] ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies are be/ se52 among o!rs1 ! huge ,c]i?ium giganteum1 s conspicu\s 9 ! calcaire grossi] ( ,p>is1 :]e x is sometimes #b feet 9 l5g?4 ,! volutes & c[ries ( ?is =mation1 z well z ! lunulites & o!r corals1 seem to fav\r ! idea ( a w>m climate hav+ prevail$1 :i* is borne out by ! discov]y ( a s]p5t ,palaeophis typhaeus1 exce$+1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ow51 #bj feet 9 l5g?1 & alli$ to ! ,boa1 ,py?on1 ,colub]1 & ,hydrus4 ,! compress$ =m & dim9utive size ( c]ta9 caudal v]tebrae indicate s mu* analogy ) ,hydrus z to induce ! ,hunt]ian pr(essor to pron\nce ! ext9ct ophidian to h be5 m>9e4#aii-;,b ,he _h previ\sly combat$ ) s mu* success ! evid5ce advanc$1 to prove ! exi/5ce 9 ! ,nor!rn ,ocean ( sea-s]p5ts 9 our own times1 t he w n be suspect$ ( any undue bias 9 cont5d+ = _! =m] exi/5ce 9 ! ,briti% ,eoc5e seas4 ,! climate1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e p]iod 0 evid5tly f> m g5ial2 & among/ ! companions ( ! sea-s]p5t ( ,brackle%am 0 an ext9ct ,gavial 7,gavialis ,dixoni1 ,ow571 & num]\s fi%1 su* z n[ frequ5t ! seas ( w>m latitudes1 z ! sword-fi% 7see fig4 #agb4 p4 #bjj47 & gigantic rays ( ! g5us ,miliobates4 7,see fig4 #agc47 ,out ( #aic species ( te/acea procur$ f ! ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am b$s 9 ,engl&1 #abf occur 9 ! ,fr5* calcaire grossi]4 ,x 0 cle>ly1 !re=e1 coeval ) t "p ( ! ,p>isian s]ies m ne>ly ?an ) any o!r4 ,! ,nummulites laevigatus 7see fig4 #agd471 a fossil *>act]i/ic ( ! l[] b$s ( ! calcaire grossi]1 is abundant at ,brackle%am4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agb4 ,prolong$ premaxill>y bone or sword ( a fossil sword-fi% 7,caelorhyn*us74 ,brackle%am4 ,dixon's ,fossils ( ,sussex1 pl4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4 ,d5tal plates ( ,myliobates ,edw>dsi4 ,brackle%am ,bay4 ,ibid4 pl4 #h4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4 ,nummulites 7,nummul>ia7 laevigatus4 ,brackle%am4 ,ibid4 pl4 #h4 a4 section ( ! nummulite4 b4 gr\p1 ) an individual %[+ ! ext]ior ( ! %ell4 ,london clay prop] 7#c4 a1 ,table1 p4 #aig474--,?is =mation und]lies ! prec$+1 & consi/s ( t5aci\s br[n & bluei% grey clay1 ) lay]s ( concretions call$ sept>ia1 :i* ab\nd *iefly 9 ! br[n clay1 & are obta9$ 9 suffici5t numb]s f ! cliffs ne> ,h>wi*1 & f %oals ( ! ,essex coa/1 to be us$ = mak+ ,roman cem5t4 ,! pr9cipal localities ( fossils 9 ! ,london clay are ,highgate ,hill1 ne> ,london1 ! isl& ( ,%eppey1 & ,bognor 9 ,hamp%ire4 ,out ( #acc fossil %ells1 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* f\nd only #bj to be common to ! calcaire grossi] 7f :i* #fjj species h be5 obta9$71 :ile #cc are common to ! lits coquilli]s 7p4 #aif471 9 :i* only #bjj species are kn[n 9 ,france4 ,we may presume1 !re=e1 t ! ,london clay prop] is old] ?an ! calcaire grossi]4 ,?is may p]haps remove a difficulty :i* ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t has exp]i5c$ :5 comp>+ ! ,eoc5e ,flora ( ! neighb\rhoods ( ,london & ,p>is4 ,! fossil species ( ! isl& ( ,%eppey1 he obs]ves1 indicate a mu* m tropical climate ?an ! ,eoc5e ,flora ( ,france1 :i* has be5 d]iv$ pr9cipally f ! gypse\s s]ies4 ,! latt] resembles ! vegetation ( ! bord]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean r ?an t ( an equatorial region4 ,mr4 ,b[]bank1 9 a valuable publication on ! fossil fruits & se$s ( ! isl& ( ,%eppey1 ne> ,london1 has describ$ no less ?an ?irte5 fruits ( palms ( ! rec5t type ,nipa1 n[ only f\nd 9 ! ,molucca & ,philipp9e isl&s4 7,see fig4 #age47 ,^! plants are alli$ to ! cocoa-nut tribe on ! "o side1 & on ! o!r to ! ,p&anus1 or screw-p9e4 ,species ( cocoa-nuts are also met )1 & o!r k9ds ( palms2 also ?ree species ( ,anona1 or cu/>d-apple2 cucurbitace\s fruits1 also 7! g\rd & melon family71 are 9 consid]able abundance4 ,fruits ( v>i\s species ( ,acacia are 9 pr(usion2 &1 al?\gh less decid$ly tropical1 imply a w>m climate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4 ,nipadites ellipticus4 ,b[4 ,fossil palm ( ,%eppey4 ,! contiguity ( l& may be inf]r$ n only f ^! vegetable productions1 b also f ! tee? & bones ( crocodiles & turtles1 s9ce ^! creatures1 z ,mr4 ,conybe>e has rem>k$1 mu/ h resort$ to "s %ore to lay _! eggs4 ,( turtles !re 7 num]\s species ref]r$ to ext9ct g5]a1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 n equal 9 size to ! l>ge/ liv+ tropical turtles4 ,a snake1 :i* mu/ h be5 #ac feet long1 ( ! g5us ,palaeophis be=e m5tion$1 has also be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 f ,%eppey1 ( a diff]5t species f t ( ,brackle%am4 ,a true crocodile1 also1 ,crocodilus toliapicus1 & ano!r ,saurian m ne>ly alli$ to ! gravial1 accompany ! above fossils4 ,a bird alli$ to ! vultures1 & a quadrup$ ( ! new g5us ,hyraco!rium1 alli$ to ! ,hyrax1 ,hog1 & ,*a]opotamus1 are also among ! additions made ( late ye>s to ! palaeontology ( ?is division4 #c ,illu/rations3 ,,fossil ,,%ells ,,( ,,! ,,london ,,clay4 ,fig4 #agf4 ,mitra scabra4 ,fig4 #agg4 ,ro/ell>ia macropt]a1 ,s[4 ,"o-?ird ( nat4 size4 ,fig4 #agh4 ,crassatella sulcata4 ,! m>9e %ells ( ! ,london clay confirm ! inf]5ce d]ivable f ! plants & reptiles ( a high temp]ature4 ,?us1 _m species ( ,conus1 ,mitra1 & ,voluta occur1 a l>ge ,cypraea1 a v l>ge ,ro/ell>ia1 & %ells ( ! g5]a ,t]ebellum1 ,cancell>ia1 ,crassatella1 & o!rs1 ) f\r or m species ( ,nautilus 7see fig4 #ahb47 & o!r cephalopoda ( ext9ct g5]a1 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( :i* is ! ,belosepia4#bjb-;,a 7,see fig4 #ahc47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi4 ,nautilus c5tralis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4 ,voluta a?leta4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aha4 ,t]ebellum fusi=me4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4 ,aturia zigzag4 ,bronn4 ,syn4 ,nautilus zigzag4 ,s[4 ,london clay4 ,%eppey4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4 ,belosepia sepiodea1 ,de ,bla9v4 ,london clay4 ,%eppey4 ,! above %ells are accompani$ by a sword-fi% 7,tetrapt]us priscus1 ,agassiz71 ab\t #h feet long1 & a saw-fi% 7,pri/is bisulcatus1 ,ag471 ab\t #aj feet 9 l5g?2 g5]a n[ =eign to ! ,briti% seas4 ,on ! :ole1 no less ?an #ej species ( fi% h be5 describ$ by ,m4 ,agassiz f ^! b$s 9 ,%eppey1 & !y indicate1 9 8 op9ion1 a w>m climate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,mol> ( monkey 7,macacus74 ,/rata ( ,kyson 9 ,suffolk4--,at ,kyson1 a few miles ea/ ( ,woodbridge1 a b$ ( ,eoc5e clay1 #ab feet ?ick1 und]lies ! r$ crag4 ,b5ea? x is a deposit ( yell[ & :ite s&1 ( consid]able int]e/1 9 consequ5ce ( _m peculi> fossils conta9$ 9 x4 ,its geological position is probably ! l[e/ "p ( ! ,london clay prop]4 ,9 ?is s& has be5 f\nd ! fir/ example ( a fossil quadruman\s animal discov]$ 9 ,great ,brita91 namely1 ! tee? & "p ( a jaw1 %[n by ,mr4 ,ow5 to belong to a monkey ( ! g5us ,macacus 7see fig4 #ahd474 ,! mammif]\s fossils1 fir/ met ) 9 ! same b$1 7 ^? ( an opossum 7,didelphys7 7see fig4 #ahe471 & an insectivor\s bat 7fig4 #ahf471 toge!r ) _m tee? ( fi%es ( ! %>k family4 ,mr4 ,col*e/] 9 #ahdj obta9$ o!r mammalian relics f ,kyson1 among :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 has recogniz$ sev]al tee? ( ! g5us ,hyraco!rium1 & ! v]tebrae ( a l>ge s]p5t1 probably a ,palaeophis4 ,z ! rema9s bo? ( ! ,hyraco!rium & ,palaeophis 7 aft]w>ds met ) 9 ! ,london clay1 z be=e rem>k$1 ^! fossils confirm$ ! op9ion previ\sly ent]ta9$1 t ! ,kyson s& belongs to ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,! ,macacus1 !re=e1 con/itutes ! fir/ example ( any quadruman\s animal f\nd 9 /rata z old z ! ,eoc5e1 or s f> f ! equator z lat4 #eb deg4 ,n4 ,x 0 n until aft] ! ye> #ahcf t ! exi/5ce ( any fossil quadrumana 0 br\ght to light4 ,s9ce t p]iod !y h be5 f\nd 9 ,france1 ,india1 & ,brazil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,mol> too? & "p ( jaw ( opossum4 ,f ,kyson4#bjc-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4 ,mol>s ( insectivor\s bats1 twice nat4 size4 ,f ,kyson1 ,suffolk4 ,mottl$ or ,pla/ic ,clays1 c4 7#c4 b1 ,table1 p4 #aig474--,no =mations c be m dissimil> on ! :ole 9 m9]al "* ?an ! ,eoc5e deposits ( ,engl& & ,p>is2 ^? ( our own isl& be+ almo/ exclusively ( me*anical orig91--accumulations ( mud1 s&1 & pebbles2 :ile 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is we f9d a great succession ( /rata compos$ ( a co>se :ite lime/one1 & compact silice\s lime/one ) b$s ( cry/all9e gypsum & silice\s s&/one1 & sometimes pure fl9t us$ = mill/ones4 ,h5ce x is by no means an easy task to in/itute an exact comp>ison betwe5 ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! ,engli% & ,fr5* s]ies1 & to settle _! respective ages4 ,x is cle> t a cont9ual *ange 0 go+ on 9 ! fauna & flora by ! com+ 9 ( new species & ! dy+ out ( o!rs2 & contemporane\s *anges ( geographical conditions 7 also 9 progress 9 consequ5ce ( ! ris+ & s9k+ ( ! l& & bottom ( ! sea4 ,a p>ticul> subdivision1 !re=e1 ( "t 0 occasionally repres5t$ 9 "o area by l&1 9 ano!r by an e/u>y1 9 a ?ird by ! sea1 & ev5 :]e ! conditions 7 9 bo? areas ( a m>9e "*1 !re 0 (t5 %all[ wat] 9 "o1 & deep sea 9 ano!r1 produc+ a want ( agreem5t 9 ! /ate ( animal life4 ,at ! comm5cem5t1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,eoc5e =mations 9 ,france & ,engl&1 we f9d an exception to ?is rule1 = a m>k$ simil>ity ( m9]al "* reigns 9 ! l[e/ division1 :e!r 9 ! bas9s ( ,p>is1 ,hamp%ire1 or ,london4 ,?is uni=mity ( aspect mu/ be se5 9 ord] to be fully appreciat$1 s9ce ! b$s consi/ simply ( s&1 mottl$ clays1 & well-roll$ fl9t pebbles1 d]iv$ f ! *alk1 & v>y+ 9 size f t ( a pea to an egg4 ,^! /rata may be se5 at ,read+1 at ,blackhea?1 ne> ,london1 & at ,woolwi*4 ,9 "s ( ! l[e/ ( !m1 banks ( oy/]s are obs]v$1 consi/+ ( ,o/rea bellovic9a1 s common 9 ,france 9 ! same relative position1 & ,o/rea edul9a1 sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! liv+ eatable species4 ,9 ?is =mation at ,bromley1 ,dr4 ,buckl& f\nd "o l>ge pebble to :i* five full-gr[n oy/]s 7 affix$1 9 su* a mann] z to %[ t !y _h comm5c$ _! fir/ gr[? ^u x1 & rema9$ atta*$ to x ?r\gh life4 ,9 sev]al places1 z at ,woolwi* on ! ,?ames1 at ,ne:av5 9 ,sussex1 & else:]e1 a mixture ( m>9e & fre%wat] te/acea di/+ui%es ?is memb] ( ! s]ies4 ,among ! latt]1 ,melania inqu9ata 7see fig4 #ahh47 & ,cyr5a cunei=mis are v common4 ,!y probably indicate po9ts :]e riv]s ent]$ ! ,eoc5e sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg4 ,cyr5a cunei=mis1 ,m94 ,con4 ,natural size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4 ,melania inqu9ata1 ,des4 ,nat4 size4 ,syn4 ,c]i?ium melanoides1 ,m94 ,con4 ,) u z 9 ,france1 clay ( ?is =mation is us$ 9 "s places1 z ne> ,poole 9 ,dorset%ire1 = pott]y2 & h5ce ! "n ( pla/ic clay 0 adopt$ = ! gr\p by ,mr4 ,t4 ,web/]4 ,lignite also is associat$ ) x 9 "s spots1 z 9 ! ,p>is bas94 ,be=e ! m9ds ( geologi/s _h become famili> ) ! !ory ( ! gradual s9k+ ( ! l&1 & its conv]sion into sea at diff]5t p]iods1 & ! consequ5t *ange f %all[ to deep wat]1 ! fre%wat] & littoral "* ( ?is inf]ior gr\p appe>$ /range & anomal\s4 ,aft] pass+ ?r\gh _m hundr$ feet ( ,london clay1 prov$ by its fossils to h be5 deposit$ 9 salt wat] ( consid]able dep?1 we arrive at b$s ( fluviatile orig94 ,?ick masses1 also1 ( %+le indicate ! proximity ( l&1 :]e ! fl9ts ( ! *alk 7 roll$ into s& & pebbles1 & spread cont9u\sly ov] wide spaces1 z 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 9 ! s\? ( ,hamp%ire1 & ne> ,london1 always appe>+ at ! bottom ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies4 ,x may be ask$ :y !y did n con/itute simply a n>r[ littoral zone1 su* z we might look = 9 /rata =m$ at a mod]ate di/ance f ! %ore4 ,9 answ] to ?is inquiry1 ! /ud5t mu/ be rem9d$1 t :]ev] a g5tly-slop+ l& is gradually s9k+ & becom+ subm]g$1 %+le may be heap$ up successively ov] a wide area1 al?\gh m>9e curr5ts h no p[] ( disp]s+ x simultane\sly ov] a l>ge space4 ,9 su* cases x is n ! %+le :i* rec$es f ! coa/1 b ! coa/ :i* rec$es f ! %+le1 :i* is =m$ "o mass aft] ano!r z (t5 z successive portions ( ! l& are conv]t$ into sea & o!rs into a sea bea*4 ,! ,london area appe>s to h be5 uprais$ be=e t ( ,hamp%ire1 s t x nev] became ! receptacle ( ! ,b>ton clays1 nor ( ! ov]ly+ fluvio-m>9e & fre%wat] b$s ( ,hordwell & ! nor? "p ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,hamp%ire ,eoc5e area seems to h em]g$ be=e t ( ,p>is1 s t no m>9e b$s ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e era 7 ev] ?r[n d[n 9 ,hamp%ire4 ,nummulitic =mation ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees4--,x has long be5 matt] ( controv]sy1 :e!r ! nummulitic rocks ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees %\ld be reg>d$ z ,eoc5e or ,cretace\s2 b ! numb] ( geologi/s ( high au?ority :o reg>d ?is important gr\p z belong+ to ! l[e/ t]ti>y sy/em ( ,europe has = _m ye>s be5 /eadily increas+4 ,! late ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongni>t fir/ decl>$ ! specific id5tity ( _m ( ! %ells ( ?is =mation ) ^? ( ! m>9e /rata ne> ,p>is1 al?\gh he obta9$ !m f ! summit ( ! ,diabl]ets1 "o ( ! l(tie/ ( ! ,swiss ,alps1 :i* rises m ?an #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,deposits ( ! same age1 f\nd on ! flanks ( ! ,pyr5ees1 conta9 also a great numb] ( %ells common to ! ,p>is & ,london areas1 & ?ree or f\r species only :i* are common to ! cretace\s =mation4 ,! calc>e\s division consi/s (t5 ( a compact cry/all9e m>ble1 full ( nummulites 7see fig4 #ahi471 %ells ( ! class ,=am9if]a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4 ,nummulites4 ,peyrehorade1 ,pyr5ees4 a4 ext]nal surface ( "o ( ! nummulites1 ( :i* longitud9al sections are se5 9 ! lime/one4 b4 transv]se section ( same4 ,! nummulitic lime/one ( ! ,alps is (t5 ( great ?ickness1 & is imm$iately cov]$ by ano!r s]ies ( /rata ( d>k-col\r$ slates1 m>ls1 & fucoidal s&/ones1 to ! :ole ( :i* ! prov9cial "n ( flys* has be5 giv5 9 p>ts ( ,switz]l&4 ,! rese>*es ( ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison 9 ! ,alps 9 #ahdg enable u to ref] ! :ole ( ^! b$s to ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & x seems probable t !y mo/ ne>ly co9cide 9 age ) ! ,l[] ,eoc5e4 ,!y ent] into ! di/urb$ & l(tie/ portions ( ! ,alp9e *a91 to ! elevation ( :i* !y enable u !re=e to assign a comp>atively mod]n date4 ,! nummulitic =mation1 ) its *>act]i/ic fossils1 plays a f> m conspicu\s "p ?an any o!r t]ti>y gr\p 9 ! solid framework ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :e!r 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4 ,x (t5 atta9s a ?ickness ( _m ?\s& feet1 & ext5ds f ! ,alps to ! ,ap5n9es4 ,x is f\nd 9 ! ,c>pa?ians1 & 9 full =ce 9 ! nor? ( ,africa1 z1 = example1 9 ,alg]ia & ,morocco4 ,x has also be5 trac$ f ,egypt into ,asia ,m9or1 & across ,p]sia by ,bagdad to ! m\?s ( ! ,indus4 ,x occurs n only 9 ,cut*1 b 9 ! m\nta9 ranges :i* sep>ate ,sc9de f ,p]sia1 & :i* =m ! passes lead+ to ,cab\l2 & x has be5 foll[$ /ill f>!r ea/w>d into ,india4 ,"s memb]s ( ?is l[] t]ti>y =mation 9 ! c5tral ,alps1 includ+ ev5 ! sup]ior /rata call$ flys*1 h be5 conv]t$ into cry/all9e rocks1 & *ang$ into sac*>oid m>ble1 qu>tz1 rock1 & mica-s*i/4#bjf-;,a ,,eoc5e ,,/rata ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! ,eoc5e =mations occupy a l>ge area bord]+ ! ,atlantic1 :i* increases 9 bread? & importance z x is trac$ s\?w>ds f ,delaw>e & ,m>yl& to ,georgia & ,alabama4 ,!y also occur 9 ,l\isiana & o!r /ates bo? ea/ & we/ ( ! valley ( ! ,mississippi4 ,at ,claiborne 9 ,alabama no less ?an f\r hundr$ species ( m>9e %ells1 ) _m e*9od]ms & tee? ( fi%1 *>act]ize "o memb] ( ?is sy/em4 ,among ! %ells ! ,c>dita planico/a1 be=e m5tion$ 7fig4 #aga4 p4 #aii471 is 9 abundance2 & ?is fossil1 & "s o!rs id5tical ) ,european species1 or v ne>ly alli$ to !m1 make x highly probable t ! ,claiborne b$s agree 9 age ) ! c5tral or ,brackle%am gr\p ( ,engl&1 & ! calcaire grossi] ( ,p>is4#bjf-;,b ,high] 9 ! s]ies is a rem>kable calc>e\s rock1 =m]ly call$ ! nummulite lime/one1 f ! great numb] ( discoid bodies resembl+ nummulites :i* x conta9s1 fossils n[ ref]r$ by ,a4 d',orbigny to ! g5us ,orbitoides1 :i* has be5 demon/rat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] to belong to ! ,=am9if]a4#bjf-;,c ,! foll[+ section w enable ! read] to und]/& ! position ( ! ?ree subdivisions ( ! s]ies1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 & #c41 ! relations ( :i* ,i asc]ta9$ 9 ,cl>ke ,c\nty1 betwe5 ! riv]s ,alabama & ,tombeckbee4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4 ,cross section4 #a4 ,s&1 m>l1 c41 ) num]\s fossils4 #b4 ,:ite or rott5 lime/one1 ) ,zeuglodon4 ,eoc5e4 #c4 ,orbitoidal1 or s call$ nummulitic lime/one4 #d4 ,ov]ly+ =mation ( s& & clay )\t fossils4 ,age unkn[n4 ,! l[e/ set ( /rata1 ,no4 #a41 hav+ a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajj feet1 comprise m>ly b$s1 9 :i* ! ,o/rea sellae=mis occurs1 a %ell rang+ f ,alabama to ,virg9ia1 & be+ a repres5tative =m ( ! ,o/rea flabellula ( ! ,eoc5e gr\p ( ,europe4 ,9 o!rs b$s ( ,no4 #a41 two ,european %ells1 ,c>dita planico/a1 be=e m5tion$1 & ,sol>ium canaliculatum are f\nd1 ) a great _m o!r species peculi> to ,am]ica4 ,num]\s corals1 also1 & ! rema9s ( placoid fi% & ( rays occur1 & ! swords1 z !y are call$1 ( sword fi%es1 all be>+ a great g5]ic lik5ess to ^? ( ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,no4 #b4 7fig4 #aij47 is a :ite lime/one1 sometimes s(t & argillace\s1 b 9 p>ts v compact & calc>e\s4 ,x conta9s sev]al peculi> corals1 & a l>ge ,nautilus alli$ to ,n4 zigzag1 also 9 its upp] b$ a gigantic cetacean1 call$ ,zeuglodon by ,ow54#bjg-;,a #b ,illu/rations3 ,zeuglodon cetoides1 ,ow54 ,basilosaurus1 ,h>lan4 ,fig4 #aia4 ,mol> too?1 natural size4 ,fig4 #aib4 ,v]tebra1 r$uc$4 ,! colossal bones ( ?is cetacean are s pl5tiful 9 ! int]ior ( ,cl>ke ,c\nty z to be *>act]i/ic ( ! =mation4 ,! v]tebral column ( "o skeleton f\nd by ,dr4 ,buckley at a spot visit$ by me1 ext5d$ to ! l5g? ( ne>ly #gj feet1 & n f> (f "p ( ano!r backbone ne>ly #ej feet long 0 dug up4 ,i obta9$ evid5ce1 dur+ a %ort excursion1 ( s _m localities ( ?is fossil animal )9 a di/ance ( #aj miles1 z to lead me to conclude t !y mu/ h belong$ to at lea/ =ty di/9ct individuals4 ,mr4 ,ow5 fir/ po9t$ out t ! huge animal 0 n reptilian1 s9ce ea* too? 0 furni%$ ) d\ble roots 7see fig4 #aia471 implant$ 9 correspond+ d\ble sockets2 & 8 op9ion ( ! cetacean nature ( ! fossil 0 aft]w>ds confirm$ by ,dr4 ,wyman & ,pr(essor ,r4 ,w4 ,gibbes4 ,t x 0 an ext9ct species ( ! :ale tribe has s9ce be5 plac$ beyond all d\bt by ! discov]y ( ! entire skull ( ano!r fossil ( ! same family1 f\nd to h ! d\ble occipital condyles only met ) 9 mammals1 & ! convolut$ tympanic bones :i* are *>act]i/ic ( cetaceans4 ,ne> ! junction ( ,no4 #b4 & ! incumb5t lime/one1 ,no4 #c41 next to be m5tion$1 are /rata *>act]iz$ by ! foll[+ %ells3 ,spondylus dumosus 7,plagio/oma dumosum1 ,morton71 ,pect5 ,p\lsoni1 ,pect5 p]planus1 & ,o/rea cretacea4 ,no4 #c4 7fig4 #aij47 is a :ite lime/one1 = ! mo/ "p made up ( ! ,orbitoides ( d',orbigny be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bjf471 =m]ly suppos$ to be a nummulite1 & call$ ,n4 ,mantelli1 mix$ ) a few lunulites & small corals & %ells4#bjh-;,a ,! orig9 ( ?is cream-col\r$ s(t /one1 l t ( our :ite *alk1 :i* x mu* resembles1 is1 ,i believe1 due to ! decomposition ( ! orbitoides4 ,! surface ( ! c\ntry :]e x prevails is sometimes m>k$ by ! abs5ce ( wood1 l our *alk d[ns1 or is cov]$ exclusively by ! ,junip]us ,virg9iana1 z c]ta9 *alk di/ricts 9 ,engl& by yew trees & junip]4 ,"s ( ! %ells ( ?is lime/one are common to ! ,claiborne b$s1 b _m ( !m are peculi>4 ,x w be se5 9 ! section 7fig4 #aij4 p4 #aee47 t ! /rata1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c41 are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ov]laid by a d5se =mation ( s& or clay )\t fossils4 ,9 "s po9ts ( ! bluff or cliff ( ! ,alabama riv]1 at ,claiborne1 ! b$s ,nos4 #a1 #b41 are expos$ ne>ly f top to bottom1 :]eas at o!r po9ts ! new] =mation1 ,no4 #d41 occupies ! face ( ne>ly ! :ole cliff4 ,! age ( ?is ov]ly+ mass has n yet be5 det]m9$1 z x has hi!rto prov$ de/itute ( organic rema9s4 ,! burr-/one /rata ( ! ,s\!rn ,/ates conta9 s _m fossils agree+ ) ^? ( ,claiborne1 t x d\btless belongs to ! same "p ( ! ,eoc5e gr\p1 ?\gh ,i 0 n =tunate en\gh to see ! relations ( ! two deposits 9 a cont9u\s section4 ,mr4 ,tuomey consid]s x z ! l[] portion ( ! s]ies4 ,x may1 p]haps1 be a =m ( ! ,claiborne b$s 9 places :]e lime 0 want+1 & :]e silex1 d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( felsp>1 pr$om9at$4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( slaty clays1 qu>tzose s&s1 & loam1 ( a brick r$ col\r1 ) lay]s ( *]t or burr-/one1 us$ 9 "s places = mill/ones4 ,,footnotes3 #aia-;,a ,leyde ,magaz4 voor ,wet5s* ,kon/ en ,lett41 p>tie v4 cahi] i4 p4 #ga4 ,cit$ by ,rozet1 ,j\rn4 de ,geologie1 tom4 i4 p4 #dc4 #aia-;,b ,m4 ,c4 ,prevo/1 ,subm]sions ,it]atives1 c4 ,note #bc4 #aib-;,a ,cuvi]1 ,oss4 ,foss41 tom4 iii4 p4 #bee4 #aid-;,a ,?is species is f\nd bo? 9 ! ,p>is & ,london bas9s4 #aig-;,a ,coquilles c>act]i/4 des ,t]ra9s1 #ahca4 #aig-;,b ,qu>t]ly ,geol4 ,j\rnal1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cec4 #aii-;,a ,pre/wi*1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iii4 p4 #chf4 #aii-;,b ,palaeont4 ,soc4 ,monograph4 ,rept4 pt4 ii4 p4 #fa4 #bjb-;,a ,= description ( ,eoc5e ,cephalopoda1 see ,monograph by ,f4 ,e4 ,edw>ds1 ,palaeontograph4 ,soc4 #ahdi4 #bjc-;,a ,annals ( ,nat4 ,hi/4 vol4 iv4 ,no4 #bc4 ,nov4 #ahci4 #bjf-;,a ,mur*ison1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 v41 & ,lyell1 vol4 vi4 #ahej4 ,anniv]s>y ,address4 #bjf-;,b ,see pap] by ! au?or1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv1 p4 #ab42 & ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ei4 #bjf-;,c ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol ,soc4 vol4 vi4 p4 #cb4 #bjg-;,a ,see ,memoir by ,r4 ,w4 ,gibbes1 ,j\rn4 ( ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sci4 ,philad4 vol4 i4 #ahdg4 #bjh-;,a ,lyell1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahdg1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ae4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,cretace\s ,,gr\p4 ,divisions ( ! cretace\s s]ies 9 ,nor?-,we/]n ,europe--,upp] cretace\s /rata--,mae/ri*t b$s--,*alk ( ,faxoe--,:ite *alk--,*>act]i/ic fossils--,ext9ct cephalopoda--,sponges & corals ( ! *alk--,signs ( op5 & deep sea--,wide area ( :ite *alk--,its orig9 f corals & %ells--,s+le pebbles 9 *alk--,silice\s s&/one 9 ,g]many contemporane\s ) :ite *alk--,upp] gre5s& & gault--,l[] cretace\s /rata--,a!rfield section1 ,isle ( ,wight--,*alk ( ,s\? ( ,europe--,hippurite lime/one--,cretace\s ,flora--,*alk ( ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,hav+ treat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 we h next to speak ( ! upp]mo/ ( ! second>y gr\ps1 call$ ! ,*alk or ,cretace\s 7,no4 #f4 ,table1 p4 #ajc471 because 9 ^? p>ts ( ,europe :]e x 0 fir/ /udi$ its upp] memb]s are =m$ ( t rem>kable :ite e>?y lime/one1 t]m$ *alk 7creta74 ,! inf]ior division consi/s1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( clays & s&s1 call$ ,gre5s&1 because "s ( ! s&s d]ive a bright gre5 col\r f int]mix$ gra9s ( *loritic matt]4 ,! cretace\s /rata 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,europe may be ?us divid$#bji-;,a3 ,upp] ,cretace\s4 #a4 ,mae/ri*t b$s & ,faxoe lime/one4 #b4 ,upp] :ite *alk1 ) fl9ts4 #c4 ,l[] :ite *alk1 )\t fl9ts1 pass+ d[nw>ds into *alk m>l1 :i* is slightly argillace\s4 #d4 ,upp] gre5s&4 #e4 ,gault4 ,l[] ,cretace\s4 #f4 ,l[] gre5s&--,irons&1 clay1 & occasional b$s ( lime/one 7,k5ti% rag74 ,mae/ri*t ,b$s4--,on ! banks ( ! ,meuse1 at ,mae/ri*t1 repos+ on ord9>y :ite *alk ) fl9ts1 we f9d an upp] calc>e\s =mation ab\t #ajj feet ?ick1 ! fossils ( :i* are1 on ! :ole1 v peculi>1 & all di/9ct f t]ti>y species4 ,"s few are ( species common to ! inf]ior :ite *alk1 among :i* may be m5tion$ ,belemnites mucronatus 7see fig4 #aig47 & ,pect5 quadrico/atus4 ,besides ! ,belemnite !re are o!r g5]a1 su* z ,ammonite1 ,baculite1 & ,hamite1 nev] f\nd 9 /rata new] ?an ! cretace\s1 b frequ5tly met ) 9 ^! ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,volutes & o!r g5]a ( univalve %ells1 usually met ) only 9 t]ti>y /rata1 occur4 ,! upp] "p ( ! rock1 ab\t #bj feet ?ick1 z se5 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt1 9 ! suburbs ( ,mae/ri*t1 ab\nds 9 corals1 (t5 deta*able f ! matrix2 & ^! b$s are succe$$ by a s(t yell[i% lime/one #ej feet ?ick1 ext5sively qu>ri$ f "t immemorial = build+4 ,! /one bel[ is :it]1 & conta9s occasional nodules ( grey *]t or *alc$ony4 ,m4 ,bosquet1 ) :om ,i lately exam9$ ?is =mation 7,augu/1 #ahej71 po9t$ out to me a lay] ( *alk f #b to #d in*es ?ick1 conta9+ gre5 e>? & num]\s encr9ital /ems1 :i* =ms ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! /rata conta9+ ! fossils peculi> to ,mae/ri*t & ! :ite *alk bel[4 ,! latt] is di/+ui%$ by regul> lay]s ( black fl9t 9 nodules1 & by sev]al %ells1 su* z ,t]ebratula c>nea 7see fig4 #bja471 :olly want+ 9 b$s high] ?an ! gre5 b&4 ,"s ( ! organic rema9s1 h[ev]1 = :i* ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt is celebrat$1 occur bo? above & bel[ t p>t+ lay]1 &1 among o!rs1 ! great m>9e reptile1 call$ ,mosasaurus1 a saurian suppos$ to h be5 #bd feet 9 l5g?1 ( :i* ! entire skull & a great "p ( ! skeleton h be5 f\nd4 ,su* rema9s are *iefly met ) 9 ! s(t free/one1 ! pr9cipal memb] ( ! ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,*alk ( ,faxoe4--,9 ! isl& ( ,seel&1 9 ,d5m>k1 ! newe/ memb] ( ! *alk s]ies1 se5 9 ! sea-cliffs at ,/ev5s ,kl9t re/+ on :ite *alk ) fl9ts1 is a yell[ lime/one1 a portion ( :i*1 at ,faxoe1 :]e x is us$ z a build+-/one1 is compos$ ( corals1 ev5 m conspicu\sly ?an is usually obs]v$ 9 rec5t coral reefs4 ,x has be5 qu>ri$ to ! dep? ( m ?an #dj feet1 b its ?ickness is unkn[n4 ,! imb$d$ %ells are *iefly ca/s1 _m ( !m ( univalve mollusca1 :i*1 z !y /rictly belong to ! ,cretace\s era1 are wor?y ( notice1 s9ce su* =ms1 :e!r spiral or patelli=m1 are want+ 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,europe g5]ally4 ,?us1 !re are two species ( ,cypraea1 "o ( ,oliva1 two ( ,mitra1 f\r ( ! g5us ,c]i?ium1 six ( ,fusus1 two ( ,tro*us1 "o ,patella1 "o ,em>g9ula1 c41 on ! :ole1 m ?an ?irty univalves1 spiral or patelli=m1 n "o ( :i* is common to ! :ite *alk4 ,at ! same "t1 a l>ge proportion ( ! accompany+ bivalve %ells1 e*9od]ms1 & zoophytes1 are specifically id5tical ) fossils ( old] p>ts ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies4 ,among ! cephalopoda ( ,faxoe1 may be m5tion$ ,baculites ,faujasii & ,belemnites mucronatus1 %ells ( ! :ite *alk4 ,! claws & entire %ell ( a small crab1 ,bra*yurus rugosus 7,s*lo!im71 are scatt]$ ?r\gh ! ,faxoe /one1 rem9d+ u ( simil> cru/aceans enclos$ 9 ! rocks ( _m mod]n coral reefs4#baa-;,a ,"s small portions ( ?is corall9e =mation consi/ ( :ite e>?y *alk2 x is1 !re=e1 cle> t ?is sub/ance mu/ h be5 produc$ simultane\sly1 a fact ( "s importance1 z be>+ on ! !ory ( ! orig9 ( :ite *alk2 = ! decomposition ( su* corals z we see at ,faxoe is capable1 we "k1 ( =m+ :ite mud1 undi/+ui%able f *alk1 & :i* we may suppose to h be5 disp]s$ f> & wide ?r\gh ! ocean1 9 :i* su* reefs z t ( ,faxoe grew4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4 ,section f ,h]t=d%ire1 9 ,engl&1 to ,s5a1 9 ,france4 ,:ite ,*alk 7#b4 & #c4 ,tab4 p4 #bji474--,! highe/ b$s ( *alk 9 ,engl& & ,france consi/ ( a pure1 :ite1 calc>e\s mass1 usually too s(t = a build+ /one1 b sometimes pass+ into a m solid /ate4 ,x consi/s1 almo/ purely1 ( c>bonate ( lime2 ! /ratification is (t5 obscure1 except :]e r5d]$ di/9ct by int]/ratifi$ lay]s ( fl9t1 a few in*es ?ick1 occasionally 9 cont9u\s b$s1 b (t5] 9 nodules1 & recurr+ at int]vals f #b to #d feet di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,?is upp] *alk is usually succe$$1 9 ! desc5d+ ord]1 by a great mass ( :ite *alk )\t fl9ts1 bel[ :i* comes ! *alk m>l1 9 :i* !re is a slight admixture ( argillace\s matt]4 ,! unit$ ?ickness ( ! ?ree divisions 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& equals1 9 "s places1 #ajjj feet4#baa-;,b ,! annex$ section1 fig4 #aic41 w %[ ! mann] 9 :i* ! :ite *alk ext5ds f ,engl& into ,france1 cov]$ by ! t]ti>y /rata describ$ 9 =m] *apt]s1 & repos+ on l[] cretace\s b$s4 ,among ! conspicu\s =ms ( mollusca :olly =eign to ! t]ti>y & rec5t p]iods1 & :i* we meet ) 9 ! :ite *alk1 are ! ,belemnite1 ,ammonite1 ,baculite1 & ,turrilite1 all g5]a ( ,cephalopoda1 a family to :i* ! liv+ cuttle-fi% & nautilus belong4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4 ,portion ( ,baculites ,faujasii4 ,mae/ri*t & ,faxoe b$s & :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4 ,portion ( ,baculites anceps4 ,mae/ri*t & ,faxoe b$s & :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4 ,turrilites4 a4 ,turrilites co/atus4 ,*alk m>l4 b4 ,same1 %[+ ! ind5t$ bord] ( ! p>tition ( ! *amb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4 ,belemnites4 a4 ,belemnites mucronatus4 b4 ,same1 %[+ int]nal /ructure4 ,mae/ri*t1 ,faxoe1 & :ite *alk4 ,among ! bra*iopoda 9 ! :ite *alk1 ! ,t]ebratulae are v abundant4 ,^! %ells are kn[n to live at ! bottom ( ! sea1 :]e ! wat] is tranquil & ( "s dep? 7see figs4 #aih1 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja474 ,) ^! are associat$ "s =ms ( oy/] 7see figs4 #bjb4 & #bjd471 & o!r bivalves 7figs4 #bjc1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4 ,t]ebratula plicatilis1 dorsal view4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aii4 ,t]ebratula plicatilis1 side view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjj4 ,t]ebratula pumilus4 7,magas pumilus1 ,s[47 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja4 ,t]ebratula c>nea4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4 ,o/rea vesicul>is4 ,gryphaea globosa1 ,m94 ,con4 ,upp] *alk & upp] gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4 ,pect5 #e-;co/atus4 ,:ite *alk1 upp] & l[] gre5s&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4 ,o/rea c>9ata4 ,*alk m>l1 upp] & l[] gre5s&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4 ,crania ,p>isi5sis1 inf]ior or atta*$ valve4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4 ,plagio/oma ,hop]i1 ,s[4 ,syn4 ,lima ,hop]i4 ,:ite *alk & upp] gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4 ,plagio/oma sp9osum1 ,s[4 ,syn4 ,spondylus sp9osus4 ,upp] :ite *alk4 ,among ! re/1 no =m m>ks ! cretace\s era 9 ,europe1 ,am]ica1 & ,india1 9 a m /rik+ mann] ?an ! ext9ct g5us ,inoc]amus 7,catillus ( ,lamk471 ! %ells ( :i* are di/+ui%$ by a fibr\s texture1 & are (t5 met ) 9 fragm5ts1 hav+1 probably1 be5 extremely friable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4 ,inoc]amus ,lam>ckii4 ,syn4 ,catillus ,lam>ckii4 ,:ite ,*alk 7,dixon's ,geol4 ,sussex1 ,tab4 #bh4 fig4 #bi47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4 ,es*>a di/i*a4 a4 ,natural size4 b4 ,portion magnifi$4 ,:ite *alk4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #baj4 ,fig4 #baa4 ,a bran*+ sponge 9 a fl9t1 f ! :ite *alk4 ,f ! collection ( ,mr4 ,b[]bank4 ,) ^! mollusca are _m corals 7figs4 #bji1 #baj1 #baa47 & sea ur*9s 7fig4 #bab471 :i* are alike m>9e1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 indicative ( a deep sea4 ,!y are disp]s$ indiff]5tly ?r\gh ! s(t *alk1 & h>d fl9t1 & "s ( ! fl9ty nodules owe _! irregul> =ms to inclos$ zoophytes1 z 9 ! specim5 repres5t$ 9 fig4 #baa41 :]e ! holl[s 9 ! ext]ior are caus$ by ! bran*es ( a sponge se5 on break+ op5 ! fl9t1 fig4 #baj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4 ,anan*ytes ovata4 ,:ite *alk1 upp] & l[]4 a4 ,side view4 b4 ,bottom ( ! %ell on :i* bo? ! oral & anal ap]tures are plac$2 ! anal be+ m r\nd1 & at ! small] end4 ,( ! s+ul> family call$ ,rudi/es1 by ,lam>ck1 h]eaft] to be m5tion$1 z extremely *>act]i/ic ( ! *alk ( ,s\!rn ,europe1 a s+le repres5tative only 7fig4 #bac47 has be5 discov]$ 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,engl&4 #d ,illu/rations3 ,hippurites ,mortoni1 ,mantell4 ,h\ghton1 ,sussex4 ,:ite *alk4 ,diamet] "o sev5? ( nat4 size4 ,fig4 #bac4 ,two individuals depriv$ ( _! op]cula1 adh]+ toge!r4 ,fig4 #bad4 ,same se5 f above4 ,fig4 #bae4 ,transv]se section ( "p ( ! wall ( ! %ell1 magnifi$ to %[ ! /ructure4 ,fig4 #baf4 ,v]tical section ( ! same4 ,on ! side :]e ! %ell is ?9ne/1 !re is "o ext]nal furr[ & correspond+ int]nal ridge1 a1 b4 figs4 #bac1 #bad42 b !y are usually less prom95t ?an 9 ^! figures4 ,?is species has be5 ref]r$ to ,hippurites1 b does n1 ,i believe1 fully agree 9 "* ) t g5us4 ,i h nev] se5 ! op]cul> piece1 or valve1 z x is call$ by ^? con*ologi/s :o reg>d ! ,rudi/es z bivalve mollusca4 ,! specim5 above figur$ 0 discov]$ by ! late ,mr4 ,dixon4 ,! rema9s ( fi%es ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s =mations consi/ *iefly ( tee? ( ! %>k family ( g5]a1 9 "p common to ! t]ti>y1 & p>tly di/9ct4 ,b we meet ) no bones ( l& animals1 nor any t]re/rial or fluviatile %ells1 nor any plants1 except sea we$s1 & "h & !re a piece ( drift wood4 ,all ! appe>ances concur 9 lead+ u to conclude t ! :ite *alk 0 ! product ( an op5 sea ( consid]able dep?4 ,! exi/5ce ( turtles & ovip>\s saurians1 & ( a ,pt]odactyl or w+$-liz>d1 f\nd 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,maid/one1 implies1 no d\bt1 "s neighb\r+ l&2 b a few small islets 9 mid-ocean1 l ,asc5sion1 s mu* frequ5t$ by migratory droves ( turtles1 might p]haps h af=d$ ! requir$ retreat :]e ^! creatures might lay _! eggs 9 ! s&1 or f :i* ! fly+ species may h be5 bl[n out to sea4 ,( ! vegetation ( su* isl&s we h sc>cely any indication1 b x consi/$ p>tly ( cycade\s plants2 = a fragm5t ( "o ( ^! 0 f\nd by ,capt4 ,ibbetson 9 ! *alk m>l ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & is ref]r$ by ,a4 ,brongni>t to ,cla?r>ia ,lyellii1 ,mantell1 a species common to ! antec$5t ,weald5 p]iod4 ,geographical ext5t & orig9 ( ! ,:ile ,*alk4--,! area ov] :i* ! :ite *alk pres]ves a ne>ly homog5e\s aspect is s va/1 t ! e>li] geologi/s despair$ ( discov]+ any analog\s deposits ( rec5t date4 ,pure *alk1 ( ne>ly uni=m aspect & composition1 is met ) 9 a nor?-we/ & s\?-ea/ direction1 f ! nor? ( ,irel& to ! ,crimea1 a di/ance ( ab\t #aadj geographical miles2 & 9 an opposite direction x ext5ds f ! s\? ( ,sw$5 to ! s\? ( ,bordeaux1 a di/ance ( ab\t #hdj geographical miles4 ,9 ,s\!rn ,russia1 accord+ to ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 x is sometimes #fjj feet ?ick1 & reta9s ! same m9]al "* z 9 ,france & ,engl&1 ) ! same fossils1 includ+ ,inoc]amus ,cuvi]i1 ,belemnites mucronatus1 & ,o/rea vesicul>is4 ,b x w\ld be an error to imag9e1 t ! *alk 0 ev] spread out cont9u\sly ov] ! :ole ( ! space compris$ )9 ^! limits1 al?\gh x prevail$ 9 great] or less ?ickness ov] l>ge portions ( t area4 ,on turn+ to ^? regions ( ! ,pacific :]e coral reefs ab\nd1 we f9d "s ar*ipelagoes ( lagoon isl&s1 su* z t ( ! ,dang]\s ,ar*ipelago1 = in/ance1 & t ( ,radack1 ) sev]al adjo9+ gr\ps1 :i* are f #aajj to #abjj miles 9 l5g?1 & #cjj or #djj miles broad2 & ! space to :i* ,fl9d]s propos$ to give ! "n ( ! ,corrall9e ,sea is /ill l>g]2 = x is b\nd$ on ! ea/ by ! ,au/ralian b>ri]--all =m$ ( coral rock1--on ! we/ by ,new ,cal$onia1 & on ! nor? by ! reefs ( ,l\isiade4 ,al?\gh ! isl&s 9 ^! areas may be ?9ly s[n1 ! mud ( ! decompos+ zoophytes may be scatt]$ f> & wide by oceanic curr5ts4 ,t ?is mud w\ld resemble *alk ,i h already h9t$ :5 speak+ ( ! ,faxoe lime/one1 p4 #baa42 & x 0 also rem>k$ 9 an e>ly "p ( ?is volume1 t "s ev5 ( t *alk :i* appe>s to an ord9>y obs]v] q de/itute ( organic rema9s1 is nev]!less1 :5 se5 "u ! microscope1 full ( fragm5ts ( corals & sponges2 toge!r ) ! valves ( entomo/raca1 ! %ells ( =am9if]a1 & /ill m m9ute infusoria4#bae-;,a 7,see p4 #bf47 ,n[ x _h be5 (t5 suspect$1 be=e ^! discov]ies1 t :ite *alk might be ( animal orig91 ev5 :]e e trace ( organic /ructure has vani%$4 ,?is bold idea 0 p>tly f\nd$ on ! fact1 t ! *alk consi/$ ( pure c>bonate ( lime1 su* z w\ld result f ! decomposition ( te/acea1 e*9i1 & corals2 & p>tly on ! passage obs]vable betwe5 ^! fossils :5 half decompos$ & *alk4 ,b ?is conjecture seem$ to _m naturali/s q vague & vision>y1 until its probability 0 /r5g!n$ by new evid5ce br\ght to light by mod]n geologi/s4 ,we le>n f ,lieut5ant ,nelson1 t1 9 ! ,b]muda ,isl&s1 !re are sev]al bas9s or lagoons almo/ surr\nd$ & enclos$ by reefs ( coral4 ,at ! bottom ( ^! lagoons a s(t :ite calc>e\s mud is =m$ by ! decomposition ( ,es*>a1 ,flu/ra1 ,cellepora1 & o!r corall9es4 ,?is mud1 :5 dri$1 is undi/+ui%able f common :ite e>?y *alk2 & "s portions ( x1 pres5t$ to ! ,museum ( ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 might1 aft] full exam9ation1 be mi/ak5 = anci5t *alk1 b = ! labels atta*$ to !m4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,mr4 ,c4 ,d>w9 obs]v$ simil> facts 9 ! coral isl&s ( ! ,pacific2 & came also to ! op9ion1 t mu* ( ! s(t :ite mud f\nd at ! bottom ( ! sea ne> coral reefs has pass$ ?r\gh ! bodies ( worms1 by :i* ! /ony masses ( coral are ev]y:]e bor$2 & o!r portions ?r\gh ! inte/9es ( fi%es2 = c]ta9 greg>i\s fi%es ( ! g5us ,sp>us are visible ?r\gh ! cle> wat]1 br[s+ quietly1 9 great numb]s1 on liv+ corals1 l graz+ h]ds ( gram9ivor\s quadrup$s4 ,on op5+ _! bodies1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 f\nd _! inte/9es fill$ ) impure *alk4 ,?is circum/ance is ! m 9 po9t1 :5 we recollect h[ ! fossili/ 0 =m]ly puzzl$ by meet+1 9 *alk1 ) c]ta9 bodies1 call$ cones ( ! l>*1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds recogniz$ by ,dr4 ,buckl& to be ! excrem5t ( fi%4#baf-;,a ,^! spiral coprolites 7see figures71 l ! scales & bones ( fossil fi% 9 ! *alk1 are compos$ *iefly ( phosphate ( lime4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #bag4 ,fig4 #bah4 ,coprolites ( fi% call$ ,iulo-eido-copri1 f ! *alk4 ,mr4 ,dana1 :5 describ+ ! elevat$ coral reef ( ,oahu1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 says1 t "s v>ieties ( ! rock consi/ ( aggregat$ %ells1 imb$d$ 9 a compact calc>e\s base z firm 9 texture z any second>y lime/one2 :ile o!rs are l *alk1 hav+ its col\r1 its e>?y fracture1 its s(t homog5e\s texture1 & be+ an equally good writ+ mat]ial4 ,! same au?or describes1 9 _m gr[+ coral reefs1 a simil> =mation ( mod]n *alk1 undi/+ui%able f ! anci5t4#baf-;,b ,! ext5sion ov] a wide subm>9e area ( ! calc>e\s matrix ( ! *alk1 z well z ( ! imb$d$ fossils1 w\ld take place ! m readily1 9 consequ5ce ( ! l[ specific gravity ( ! %ells ( mollusca & zoophytes1 :5 comp>$ ) ord9>y s& & m9]al matt]4 ,! mud also d]iv$ f _! decomposition w\ld be mu* light] ?an argillace\s & o!r inorganic mud1 & v easily transport$ by curr5ts1 especially 9 salt wat]4 ,s+le pebbles 9 *alk4--,! g5]al abs5ce ( s& & pebbles 9 ! :ite *alk has be5 already m5tion$2 b ! occurr5ce "h & !re1 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 ( a few isolat$ pebbles ( qu>tz & gre5 s*i/1 "s ( !m #b or #c in*es 9 diamet]1 has ju/ly excit$ mu* wond]4 ,if ^! _h be5 c>ri$ to ! spots :]e we n[ f9d !m by waves or curr5ts f ! l&s once bord]+ ! cretace\s sea1 h[ happ5$ x t no s& or mud 7 transport$ ?i!r at ! same "t8 ,we _c conceive su* r\nd$ /ones to h be5 drift$ l erratic blocks by ice#bag-;,a1 = t w\ld imply a cold climate 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 a supposition inconsi/5t ) ! luxuriant gr[? ( l>ge *amb]$ univalves1 num]\s corals1 & _m fi%1 & o!r fossils ( tropical =ms4 ,n[ 9 ,keel+ ,isl&1 "o ( ^? deta*$ masses ( coral :i* rise up 9 ! wide ,pacific1 ,capta9 ,ross f\nd a s+le fragm5t ( gre5/one1 :]e e o!r p>ticle ( matt] 0 calc>e\s2 & ,mr4 ,d>w9 concludes t x mu/ h come !re entangl$ 9 ! roots ( a l>ge tree4 ,he rem9ds u t ,*amisso1 ! di/+ui%$ naturali/ :o accompani$ ,kotzebue1 affirms1 t ! inhabitants ( ! ,radack ar*ipelago1 a gr\p ( lagoon isl&s1 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,pacific1 obta9$ /ones = %>p5+ _! in/rum5ts by se>*+ ! roots ( trees :i* are ca/ up on ! bea*4#bag-;,b ,x may p]haps be object$1 t a simil> mode ( transport _c h happ5$ 9 ! cretace\s sea1 because fossil wood is v r>e 9 ! *alk4 ,nev]!less wood is sometimes met )1 & 9 ! same p>ts ( ! *alk :]e ! pebbles are f\nd1 bo? 9 s(t /one & 9 a silicifi$ /ate 9 fl9ts4 ,9 ^! cases x has (t5 e appe>ance ( hav+ be5 float$ f a di/ance1 be+ usually p]=at$ by bor+-%ells1 su* z ! ,t]$o & ,fi/ulana4#bag-;,c ,! only o!r mode ( transport :i* sugge/s itself is sea-we$4 ,dr4 ,beck in=ms me1 t 9 ! ,lym-,fiord1 9 ,jutl&1 ! ,fucus vesiculosus1 (t5 call$ kelp1 sometimes gr[s to ! height ( #aj feet1 & ! bran*es ris+ f a s+le root =m a clu/] sev]al feet 9 diamet]4 ,:5 ! bladd]s are di/5d$1 ! plant becomes s buoyant z to float up loose /ones sev]al in*es 9 diamet]1 & ^! are (t5 ?r[n by ! waves high up on ! bea*4 ,! ,fucus giganteus ( ,sol&]1 s common 9 ,t]ra del ,fuego1 is said by ,capta9 ,cook to atta9 ! l5g? ( #cfj feet1 al?\gh ! /em is n mu* ?ick] ?an a man's ?umb4 ,x is (t5 met ) float+ at sea1 ) %ells atta*$1 sev]al hundr$ miles f ! spots :]e x grew4 ,"s ( ^! plants1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 7 f\nd adh]+ to l>ge loose /ones 9 ! inl& *annels ( ,t]ra del ,fuego1 dur+ ! voyage ( ! ,beagle 9 #ahcd2 & t s firmly1 t ! /ones 7 drawn up f ! bottom into ! boat1 al?\gh s heavy t !y c\ld sc>cely be lift$ 9 by "o p]son4 ,"s fossil sea-we$s h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,cretace\s =mation1 b none1 z yet1 ( l>ge size4 ,b we mu/ n imag9e t because pebbles are s r>e 9 ! :ite *alk ( ,engl& & ,france !re are no pro(s ( s&1 %+le1 & clay hav+ be5 accumulat$ contemporane\sly ev5 9 ! ,european seas4 ,! silice\s s&/one1 call$ upp] quad] by ! ,g]mans1 ov]lies :ite argillace\s *alk1 or pla5]-kalk1 a deposit resembl+ 9 composition & organic rema9s ! *alk m>l ( ! ,engli% s]ies4 ,?is s&/one conta9s z _m fossil %ells common to our :ite *alk z c\ld be expect$ 9 a sea-bottom =m$ ( su* diff]5t mat]ials4 ,x sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( #fjj feet1 & by its jo9t$ /ructure & v]tical precipices1 plays a conspicu\s "p 9 ! picturesque sc5]y ( ,saxon ,switz]l&1 ne> ,dresd54 ,upp] gre5s& 7#d4 ,tab4 p4 #bji474--,! l[] *alk )\t fl9ts passes gradually d[nw>ds1 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 into an argillace\s lime/one1 ! *alk m>l1 already allud$ to1 9 :i* ammonites & o!r cephalopoda1 s r>e 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! s]ies1 appe>4 ,?is m>ly deposit passes 9 its turn into b$s conta9+ gre5 p>ticles ( a *loritic m9]al1 call$ ! upp] gre5s&4 ,9 p>ts ( ,surrey calc>e\s matt] is l>gely int]mix$1 =m+ a /one call$ fire/one4 ,9 ! cliffs ( ! s\!rn coa/ ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 ?is upp] gre5s& is #ajj feet ?ick1 & conta9s b&s ( silice\s lime/one & calc>e\s s&/one ) nodules ( *]t4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fossils ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,fig4 #bai4 a4 ,t]ebratula lyra4 ,upp] gre5s&4 b4 ,same1 se5 9 pr(ile4 ,france4 ,fig4 #bbj4 ,ammonites ,rhotomag5sis4 ,upp] gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4 ,hamites sp9ig] 7,fitton72 ne> ,folk/one4 ,gault4 ,gault4--,! l[e/ memb] ( ! upp] ,cretace\s gr\p1 usually ab\t #ajj feet ?ick 9 ! ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&1 is prov9cially t]m$ ,gault4 ,x consi/s ( a d>k blue m>l1 sometimes int]mix$ ) gre5s&4 ,_m peculi> =ms ( cephalopoda1 su* z ! ,hamite 7fig4 #bba47 & ,scaphite1 ) o!r fossils1 *>act]ize ?is =mation1 :i*1 small z is its ?ickness1 c be trac$ by its organic rema9s to di/ant p>ts ( ,europe1 z1 = example1 to ! ,alps4 ,! phosphate ( lime1 f\nd lately ne> ,f>nham1 9 ,surrey1 9 su* abundance z to be us$ l>gely by ! agriculturi/ = f]tiliz+ soils1 occurs exclusively1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c4 ,au/51 9 ! upp] gre5s& & gault4 ,x is d\btless ( animal orig91 & p>tly coprolitic1 probably d]iv$ f ! excrem5t ( fi%4 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s ,,division4 7,no4 #f4 ,tab4 p4 #bji47 ,t "p ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies :i* is old] ?an ! ,gault has be5 commonly call$ ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,! great] numb] ( its fossils are specifically di/9ct f ^? ( ! upp] cretace\s sy/em4 ,dr4 ,fitton1 to :om we are indebt$ = an excell5t monograph on ?is =mation z develop$ 9 ,engl&1 gives ! foll[+ z ! succession ( rocks se5 9 p>ts ( ,k5t4 ,no4 #a4 ,s&1 :ite1 yell[i%1 or f]rug9\s1 ) concretions ( lime/one & *]t #gj feet4 #b4 ,s& ) gre5 matt] #gj to #ajj feet4 #c4 ,calc>e\s /one1 call$ ,k5ti% rag #fj to #hj feet4 ,9 8 detail$ description ( ! f9e section display$ at ,a!rfield1 9 ! s\? ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 we f9d ! lime/one :olly want+2 9 fact1 ! v>iations 9 ! m9]al composition ( ?is gr\p1 ev5 9 contigu\s di/ricts1 is v great2 & on comp>+ ! ,a!rfield b$s ) correspond+ /rata at ,hy! 9 ,k5t1 di/ant #ie miles1 ! :ole s]ies has lo/ half its ?ickness1 & pres5ts a v dissimil> aspect4#bai-;,a ,on ! o!r h&1 ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes has %[n t :5 ! sixty-?ree /rata at ,a!rfield are sev]ally exam9$1 ! total ?ickness ( :i* he gives z #hdc feet1 !re are "s fossils :i* range ?r\gh ! :ole s]ies1 o!rs :i* are peculi> to p>ticul> divisions4 ,z a pro( t all belong *ronologically to "o sy/em1 he /ates t :5ev] simil> conditions are repeat$ 9 ov]ly+ /rata ! same species reappe>4 ,*anges ( dep?1 or ( ! m9]al nature ( ! bottom1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( lime or ( p]oxide ( iron1 ! occurr5ce ( a muddy1 or a s&y1 or a gravelly bottom1 are m>k$ by ! bani%m5t ( c]ta9 species & ! pr$om9ance ( o!rs4 ,b ^! diff]5ces ( conditions be+ m9]al1 *emical1 & local 9 _! nature1 h no?+ to d ) ! ext9ction1 ?r\gh\t a l>ge area1 ( c]ta9 animals or plants4 ,! rule laid d[n by ?is em95t naturali/ = enabl+ u to te/ ! arrival ( a new /ate ( ?+s 9 ! animate _w1 is ! repres5tation by new & diff]5t species ( correspond+ g5]a ( mollusca or o!r be+s4 ,:5 ! =ms prop] to loose s& or s(t clay1 or a /ony or calc>e\s bottom1 or a mod]ate or a great dep? ( wat]1 recur ) all ! same species1 ! int]val ( "t has be51 geologically speak+1 small1 h[ev] d5se ! mass ( matt] accumulat$4 ,b if1 ! g5]a rema9+ ! same1 ! species are *ang$1 we h ent]$ ^u a new p]iod2 & no simil>ity ( climate1 or ( geographical & local conditions1 c !n recall ! old species :i* a long s]ies ( de/ructive causes 9 ! animate & inanimate _w has gradually annihilat$4 ,on pass+ f ! l[] gre5s& to ! gault1 we sudd5ly rea* "o ( ^! new epo*s1 sc>cely any ( ! fossil species be+ common to ! l[] & upp] cretace\s sy/ems1 a break 9 ! *a9 imply+ no d\bt _m miss+ l9ks 9 ! s]ies ( geological monum5ts :i* we may "s day be able to supply4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/ & mo/ abundant %ells 9 ! l[e/ /rata ( ! l[] gre5s&1 z display$ 9 ! ,a!rfield section1 is ! l>ge ,p]na mulleti ( :i* a r$uc$ figure is "h giv5 7fig4 #bbb474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4 ,p]na mulleti4 ,de%4 9 ,leym4 a4 ,ext]ior4 b4 ,h+e ( upp] valve4 ,9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 dur+ ! accumulation ( ! l[] gre5s& above describ$1 ! b$ ( ! sea appe>s to h be5 cont9ually s9k+1 f ! comm5cem5t ( ! p]iod1 :5 ! fre%wat] ,weald5 b$s 7 subm]g$1 to ! deposition ( ^? /rata on :i* ! gault imm$iately reposes4 ,pebbles ( qu>tzose s&/one1 jasp]1 & fl9ty slate1 toge!r ) gra9s ( *lorite & mica1 speak pla9ly ( ! nature ( ! pre-exi/+ rocks1 f ! we>+ d[n ( :i* ! gre5s& b$s 7 d]iv$4 ,! l&1 consi/+ ( su* rocks1 0 d\btless subm]g$ be=e ! orig9 ( ! :ite *alk1 z corals c only multiply 9 ! cle> wat]s ( ! sea 9 spaces to :i* no mud or s& are convey$ by curr5ts4 ,,hippurite ,,lime/one4 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! *alk ( ! nor? & s\? ( ,europe4--,by ! aid ( ! ?ree te/s ( relative age1 namely1 sup]position1 m9]al "*1 & fossils1 ! geologi/ has be5 enabl$ to ref] to ! same ,cretace\s p]iod c]ta9 rocks 9 ! nor? & s\? ( ,europe1 :i* diff] greatly1 bo? 9 _! fossil cont5ts & 9 _! m9]al composition & /ructure4 ,if we attempt to trace ! cretace\s deposits f ,engl& & ,france to ! c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean1 we p]ceive1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! *alk & ,gre5s& 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,london & ,p>is =m "o great cont9u\s mass1 ! ,/raits ( ,dov] be+ a trifl+ int]ruption1 a m]e valley ) *alk cliffs on bo? sides4 ,we !n obs]ve t ! ma9 body ( ! *alk :i* surr\nds ,p>is /ret*es f ,t\rs to ne> ,poiti]s 7see ! annex$ map1 fig4 #bbc41 9 :i* ! %ad$ "p repres5ts *alk74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,map ( s\?-we/]n ,france4 ,betwe5 ,poiti]s & ,la ,ro*elle1 ! space m>k$ ,a on ! map sep>ates two regions ( *alk4 ,?is space is occupi$ by ! ,oolite & c]ta9 o!r =mations old] ?an ! ,*alk1 & has be5 suppos$ by ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont to h =m$ an isl& 9 ! cretace\s sea4 ,s\? ( ?is space we aga9 meet ) a =mation :i* we at once recognize by its m9]al "* to be *alk1 al?\gh !re are "s places :]e ! rock becomes oolitic4 ,! fossils are1 ^u ! :ole1 v simil>2 especially c]ta9 species ( ! g5]a ,spatangus1 ,anan*ytes1 ,cid>ites1 ,nucula1 ,o/rea1 ,gryphaea 7,exogyra71 ,pect51 ,plagio/oma 7,lima71 ,trigonia1 ,catillus1 7,inoc]amus71 & ,t]ebratula4#bba-;,a ,b ,ammonites1 z ,m4 d',ar*iac obs]ves1 ( :i* s _m species are met ) 9 ! *alk ( ! nor? ( ,france1 are sc>cely ev] f\nd 9 ! s\!rn region2 :ile ! g5]a ,hamite1 ,turrilite1 & ,scaphite1 & p]haps ,belemnite1 are entirely want+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 =ms are common 9 ! s\? :i* are r>e or :olly unkn[n 9 ! nor? ( ,france4 ,among ^! may be m5tion$ _m ,hippurites1 ,spha]ulites1 & o!r memb]s ( t great family ( mollusca call$ ,rudi/es by ,lam>ck1 to :i* no?+ analog\s has be5 discov]$ 9 ! liv+ creation1 b :i* is q *>act]i/ic ( rocks ( ! ,cretace\s era 9 ! s\? ( ,france1 ,spa91 ,sicily1 ,greece1 & o!r c\ntries bord]+ ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4 a4 ,radiolites radiosus1 ,d',orb4 7,hippurites1 ,lamk47 b4 ,op]cul> valve ( same4 ,:ite *alk ( ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4 ,radiolites foliaceus1 ,d',orb4 ,syn4 ,spha]ulites ag>ici=mis1 ,bla9v4 ,:ite *alk ( ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4 ,hippurites organisans1 ,desm\l9s4 ,upp] *alk3--*alk m>l ( ,pyr5ees8#bbb-;,a a4 ,"y individual2 :5 full gr[n !y occur 9 gr\ps adh]+ lat]ally to ea* o!r4 b4 ,upp] side ( ! op]cul> valve1 %[+ a reticulat$ /ructure 9 ^? p>ts1 b1 :]e ! ext]nal coat+ is worn (f4 c4 ,upp] side ( ! l[] & cyl9drical valve4 d4 ,ca/ ( ! int]ior ( ! l[] conical valve4 ,! species call$ ,hippurites organisans 7fig4 #bbf47 is m abundant ?an any o!r 9 ! s\? ( ,europe2 & ! geologi/ %\ld make himself well acqua9t$ ) ! ca/ d1 :i* is f> m common 9 _m compact m>bles ( ! upp] cretace\s p]iod ?an ! %ell itself1 :i* has (t5 :olly disappe>$4 ,! flut+s1 or smoo?1 r\nd$1 longitud9al ribs1 repres5t+ ! =m ( ! int]ior1 are :olly unlike ! hippurite itself1 & 9 "s individuals1 :i* atta9 a great size & l5g?1 are v conspicu\s4 ,betwe5 ! region ( *alk la/ m5tion$ 9 :i* ,p]igueux is situat$1 & ! ,pyr5ees1 ! space ,b int]v5es4 7,see ,map1 p4 #bba47 ,"h ! t]ti>y /rata cov]1 & = ! mo/ "p conceal1 ! cretace\s rocks1 except 9 "s spots :]e !y h be5 laid op5 by ! d5udation ( new] =mations4 ,9 ^! places !y are se5 /ill pres]v+ ! =m ( a :ite *alky rock1 :i* is *>g$ 9 "p ) gra9s ( gre5 s&4 ,ev5 z f> s\? z ,t]cis1 on ! ,ad\r1 ne> ,dax1 :]e ,i exam9$ !m 9 #ahbh1 ! cretace\s rocks reta9 ?is "*4 ,9 t region ,m4 ,gratel\p has f\nd 9 !m ,anan*ytes ovata 7fig4 #bab471 & o!r fossils ( ! ,engli% *alk1 toge!r ) ,hippurites4 ,,flora ,,( ,,! ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod4 ,al?\gh ! fossil plants ( ! ,cretace\s era at pres5t kn[n are few 9 numb]1 ! rocks be+ pr9cipally m>9e1 !y suffice1 accord+ to ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 to %[ a transition "* betwe5 ! vegetation ( ! second>y & t ( ! t]ti>y =mations4 ,! t]ti>y /rata1 :5 comp>$ to ! old] rocks1 are m>k$ by ! pr$om9ance ( ,exog5s1 :i* n[ con/itute ?ree-f\r?s ( ! liv+ plants ( ! globe4#bbc-;,a ,^! exog5s are want+ 9 ! second>y /rata g5]ally1 b 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod !y equal 9 numb] ! ,gymnog5s 7,conif]ae & ,cycadeae7 :i* ab\nd$ s mu* 9 ! prec$+ ,oolitic p]iod1 & disappe>$ be=e ! ,eoc5e rocks 7 =m$4#bbc-;,b ,! discov]y ( a tree-f]n 9 ! f]rug9\s s&s ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s gr\p ( ! dep>tm5t ( ,ard5nes 9 ,france is "o ( _m signs ( ! contra/ ( ! flora1 & d\btless ( ! climate1 ( ?is era ) t ( ! ,plioc5e & ,mod]n p]iods4 ,,cretace\s ,,rocks ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,if we pass to ! ,am]ican cont95t1 we f9d 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,j]sey a s]ies ( s&y & argillace\s b$s :olly unlike our ,upp] ,cretace\s sy/em2 :i* we c1 nev]!less1 recognize z ref]able1 paleontologically1 to ! same division4 ,t !y 7 ab\t ! same age g5]ally z ! ,european *alk & gre5s&1 0 ! conclusion to :i* ,dr4 ,morton & ,mr4 ,conrad came aft] _! inve/igation ( ! fossils 9 #ahcd4 ,! /rata consi/ *iefly ( gre5s& & gre5 m>l1 ) an ov]ly+ corall9e lime/one ( a pale yell[ col\r1 & ! fossils1 on ! :ole1 agree mo/ ne>ly ) ^? ( ! upp] ,european s]ies1 f ! ,mae/ri*t b$s to ! gault inclusive4 ,i collect$ sixty %ells f ! ,new ,j]sey deposits 9 #ahda2 five ( :i* 7 id5tical ) ,european species--,o/rea l>va1 ,o4 vesicul>is1 ,gryphaea co/ata1 ,pect5 qu9que-co/atus1 ,belemnites mucronatus4 ,z "s ( ^! h ! greate/ v]tical range 9 ,europe1 !y might be expect$ m ?an any o!rs to recur 9 di/ant p>ts ( ! globe4 ,ev5 :]e ! species are diff]5t1 ! g5]ic =ms1 su* z ! ,baculite & c]ta9 sections ( ,ammonites1 z also ! ,inoc]amus 7see above1 fig4 #bjh47 & o!r bivalves1 h a decid$ly cretace\s aspect4 ,fifte5 out ( ! sixty %ells above allud$ to1 7 reg>d$ by ,pr(essor ,=bes z good geographical repres5tatives ( well-kn[n cretace\s fossils ( ,europe4 ,! correspond5ce1 !re=e1 is n small1 :5 we reflect t ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :]e ^! /rata occur is betwe5 #cjjj & #djjj miles di/ant f ! *alk ( ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe1 & t !re is a diff]5ce ( t5 degrees 9 ! latitude ( ! places comp>$ on opposite sides ( ! ,atlantic4#bbd-;,a ,fi% ( ! g5]a ,lamna1 ,galeus1 & ,c>*>ias are common to ,new ,j]sey & ! ,european cretace\s rocks4 ,s also is ! g5us ,mosasaurus among reptiles1 & ,pliosaurus 7,ow571 ano!r saurian likewise obta9$ f ! ,engli% *alk4 ,f ,new ,j]sey ! cretace\s =mation ext5ds s\?w>ds to ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,georgia1 & ,alabama1 cropp+ out at int]vals f b5ea? ! t]ti>y /rata1 betwe5 ! ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s & ! ,atlantic4 ,!y !n sweep r\nd ! s\!rn extremity ( t *a91 & /ret* nor?w>ds aga9 to ,t5nessee & ,k5tucky4 ,!y h also be5 trac$ f> up ! valley ( ! ,miss\ri #bge ,engli% miles above its m\?1 to ! neighb\rhood ( ,=t ,leav5wor?2 & s\?w>ds to ,texas1 accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,f]d9& ,roem]2 s t already ! area :i* !y are asc]ta9$ to occupy 9 ,nor? ,am]ica may p]haps equal _! ext5t 9 ,europe4 ,s little d !y resemble m9]alogically ! ,european :ite *alk1 t lime/one 9 ,nor? ,am]ica is1 ^u ! :ole1 an exception to ! rule2 &1 ev5 9 ,alabama1 :]e ,i saw a calc>e\s memb] ( ?is gr\p1 ! m>l/ones are mu* m l ! ,engli% & ,fr5* ,lias ?an any o!r second>y deposit ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,at ! base ( ! sy/em 9 ,alabama ,i f\nd d5se masses ( %+le1 p]fectly loose & unconsolidat$1 d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( paleozoic 7or c>bonif]\s7 rocks1 a mass 9 no way di/+ui%able1 except by its position1 f ord9>y alluvium1 b cov]$ ) m>ls ab\nd+ 9 ,inoc]ami4 ,9 ,texas1 accord+ to ,f4 ,roem]1 ! *alk assumes a new li?ological type1 a l>ge portion ( x consi/+ ( h>d silice\s lime/one1 b ! organic rema9s leav+ no d\bt 9 reg>d to its age4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! cretace\s /rata h be5 discov]$ 9 ,columbia1 z at ,bogota & else:]e1 conta9+ ,ammonites1 ,hamites1 ,inoc]ami1 & o!r *>act]i/ic %ells4#bbe-;,a ,9 ! ,s\? ( ,india1 also1 at ,pondi*]ry1 ,v]da*ellum1 & ,tr9conopoly1 ,messrs4 ,kaye & ,eg]ton h collect$ fossils belong+ to ! cretace\s sy/em4 ,tak5 9 connection ) ^? f ! ,unit$ ,/ates !y prove1 says ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 t ^? p[]ful causes :i* /amp$ a peculi> "* on ! =ms ( m>9e animal life at ?is p]iod1 ex]t$ _! full int5sity ?r\gh ! ,indian1 ,european1 & ,am]ican seas4#bbe-;,b ,"h1 z 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! cretace\s "* c be recogniz$ ev5 :]e !re is no specific id5tity 9 ! fossils2 & ! same may be said ( ! organic type ( ^? rocks 9 ,europe & ,india :i* succe$ next 9 ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ ord]1 ! ,eoc5e & ! ,oolitic4 ,,footnotes3 #bji-;,a ,m4 ,alcide d',orbigny1 9 8 valuable "w entitl$ ,paleontologie ,francaise1 has adopt$ new t]ms = ! ,fr5* subdivisions ( ! ,cretace\s ,s]ies1 :i*1 s f> z !y c be made to tally ) ,engli% equival5ts1 seem explicable ?us3 ,dani54 ,mae/ri*t b$s4 ,s5oni54 ,upp] & l[] :ite *alk1 & *alk m>l4 ,turoni54 ,"p ( ! *alk m>l & ! upp] gre5s&1 ! latt] be+ 9 8 la/ "w 7,c\rs ,elem5taire7 t]m$ ,c5omani54 ,albi54 ,gault4 ,apti54 ,upp] "p ( l[] gre5s&4 ,neocomi54 ,l[] "p ( same4 #baa-;,a ,see pap] by ! au?or1 ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 v4 p4 #bdf41 #ahdj4 #baa-;,b ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cai4 #bae-;,a ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii4 pp4 #g1 #h41 #ahdb4 #baf-;,a ,geol4 ,trans4 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bcb4 plate #ca4 figs4 #c4 & #aa4 #baf-;,b ,geol4 ( ,u4 ,s4 ,explor+ ,exp$4 p4 #beb4 #ahdi4 #bag-;,a ,see ,*apt]s ,x4 & ,,xi4 #bag-;,b ,d>w91 p4 #edi4 ,kotzebue's ,fir/ ,voyage1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aee4 #bag-;,c ,mantell1 ,geol4 ( ,s4 ,e4 ( ,engl&1 p4 #if4 #bai-;,a ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 i4 p4 #agi41 ii4 p4 #ee41 & iii4 p4 #bhi41 :]e comp>ative sections & a valuable table %[+ ! v]tical range ( ! v>i\s fossils ( ! l[] gre5s& at ,a!rfield is giv54 #bba-;,a ,ar*iac1 sur la ,=m4 ,cretacee du ,s4 ,o4 de la ,france1 ,mem4 de la ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 #bbb-;,a ,d',orbigny's ,paleontologie ,francaise1 pl4 #ecc4 #bbc-;,a ,9 ?is & subsequ5t rem>ks on fossil plants ,i %all (t5 use ,dr4 ,l9dley's t]ms1 z mo/ famili> 9 ?is c\ntry2 b z ^? ( ,m4 ,a4 ,brongni>t are mu* cit$1 x may be useful to geologi/s to give a table expla9+ ! correspond+ names ( gr\ps s mu* spok5 ( 9 palaeontology4 ,brongni>t4 ,l9dley4 ,examples4 ,cryptogamic4 #a4 ,cryptogam\s amphig5s1 or cellul> cryptogamic4 ,?allog5s4 ,li*5s1 sea-we$s1 fungi4 #b4 ,cryptogam\s acrog5s4 ,acrog5s4 ,mosses1 equisetums1 f]ns1 lycopodiums--,lepidod5dron4 ,phan]ogamic4 #c4 ,dicotyl$on\s gymnosp]ms4 ,gymnog5s4 ,conif]s & ,cycads4 #d4 ,dicot4 ,angiosp]ms4 ,exog5s4 ,compositae1 legum9osae1 umbellif]ae1 crucif]ae1 hea?s1 c4 ,all native ,european trees except conif]s4 #e4 ,monocotyl$ons4 ,endog5s4 ,palms1 lilies1 aloes1 ru%es1 grasses1 c4 #bbc-;,b ,a4 ,brongni>t1 ,veget4 ,foss4 ,dict4 ,univ41 p4 #aaa41 #ahdi4 #bbd-;,a ,see a pap] by ! au?or1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 i4 p4 #ee4 #bbe-;,a ,proce$4 ,geol4 ,soc4 iv4 p4 #cia4 #bbe-;,b ,see ,=bes1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 i4 p4 #gi4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,weald5 ,,gr\p4 ,! ,weald5 divisible into ,weald ,clay1 ,ha/+s ,s&1 & ,purbeck ,b$s--,int]calat$ betwe5 two m>9e =mations--,weald clay & ,cypris-be>+ /rata--,iguanodon--,ha/+s s&s--,fossil fi%--,/rata =m$ 9 %all[ wat]--,bracki% wat]-b$s--,upp]1 middle1 & l[] ,purbeck--,alt]nations ( bracki% wat]1 fre%wat]1 & l&--,dirt-b$1 or anci5t soil--,di/9ct species ( fossils 9 ea* subdivision ( ! ,weald5--,lapse ( "t impli$--,plants & insects ( ,weald5--,geographical ext5t ( ,weald5--,its relation to ! cretace\s & oolitic p]iods--,movem5ts 9 ! e>?'s cru/ to :i* x ow$ its orig9 & subm]g5ce4 ,b5ea? ! cretace\s rocks 9 ! ,s4,e4 ( ,engl&1 a fre%wat] =mation is f\nd1 call$ ! ,weald5 7see ,nos4 #e4 & #f4 ,map1 p4 #bdb471 :i*1 al?\gh x occupies a small horizontal area 9 ,europe1 z comp>$ to ! *alk1 is nev]!less ( great geological int]e/1 n only f its position1 z be+ int]polat$ betwe5 two great m>9e =mations 7,nos4 #g4 & #i4 ,table1 p4 #ajc471 b also because ! imb$d$ fossils indicate a gr& succession ( *anges 9 organic life1 effect$ dur+ its accumulation4 ,x is compos$ ( ?ree m9or divisions1 ! ,weald ,clay1 ! ,ha/+s1 & ! ,purbeck ,b$s1 ( :i* ! aggregate ?ickness 9 "s di/ricts may be #gjj or #hjj feet2 b :i* w\ld be mu* m consid]able 7p]haps #bjjj feet71 7 we to add toge!r ! extreme ?ickness acquir$ by ea* ( !m 9 _! fulle/ developm5t4 ,! common "n ( ,weald5 0 giv5 to ! :ole1 because x 0 fir/ /udi$ 9 p>ts ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 & ,sussex1 call$ ! ,weald1 7see ,map1 p4 #bdb471 & we are indebt$ to ,dr4 ,mantell = hav+ %[n 9 #ahbb1 9 8 ,geology ( ,sussex1 t ! :ole gr\p 0 ( fluviatile orig94 ,9 pro( ( ?is he call$ att5tion to ! entire abs5ce ( ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 ,t]ebratulae1 ,e*9ites1 ,corals1 & o!r m>9e fossils1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! cretace\s rocks above1 & ( ! ,oolitic /rata bel[1 & to ! pres5ce ( ,palud9ae1 ,melaniae1 & v>i\s fluviatile %ells1 z well z ! bones ( t]re/rial reptiles & ! trunks & leaves ( l& plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4 ,position ( ! ,weald5 betwe5 two m>9e =mations4 ,! evid5ce ( s unexpect$ a fact z ! infra-position ( a d5se mass ( purely fre%wat] orig9 to a deep-sea deposit 7a ph5om5on ) :i* we h s9ce become famili>1 9 o!r *apt]s ( ! e>?'s autobiography71 0 receiv$1 at fir/1 ) no small d\bt & incr$ulity4 ,b ! relative position ( ! b$s is unequivocal2 ! ,weald ,clay be+ di/9ctly se5 to pass b5ea? ! ,gre5s& 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex2 & if we proce$ f ,sussex we/w>d to ! ,vale ( ,w>d\r1 we !re aga9 obs]ve ! same =mation1 or1 at lea/1 ! l[] division ( x1 ! ,purbeck1 occupy+ ! same relative position1 & re/+ on ! ,oolite 7see fig4 #bbh474 ,or if we pass f ! base ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns 9 ,sussex1 & cross to ! ,isle ( ,wight1 we !re aga9 meet ) ! ,weald5 s]ies reappe>+ b5ea? ! ,gre5s&1 & _c d\bt t ! b$s are prolong$ subt]rane\sly1 z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es 9 fig4 #bbi4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4 ,cross section4 ,o1 ,oolite4 ,g ,s1 ,gre5s&1 or ,l[] ,cretace\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4 ,cross section4 ,! m9or gr\ps into :i* ! ,weald5 has be5 commonly divid$ 9 ,engl& are1 z be=e /at$1 ?ree1 & !y succe$ ea* o!r 9 ! foll[+ desc5d+ ord]#bbg-;,a3-- ,?ickness4 #a/4 ,weald ,clay1 sometimes includ+ ?9 b$s ( s& & %elly lime/one #adj to #bhj ft4 #b;d4 ,ha/+s ,s&1 9 :i* occur "s clays & calc>e\s grits #djj to #ejj ft4 #c;d4 ,purbeck ,b$s1 consi/+ ( v>i\s k9ds ( lime/ones & m>ls #aej to #bjj ft4 ,weald ,clay4 ,! fir/ division1 or ,weald ,clay1 is ( purely fre%wat] orig94 ,! upp]mo/ b$s are n only con=mable1 z ,dr4 ,fitton obs]ves1 to ! inf]ior /rata ( ! ,l[] ,gre5s&1 b ( simil> m9]al composition4 ,to expla9 ?is1 we may suppose1 t z ! delta ( a great riv] 0 tranquilly subsid+1 s z to all[ ! sea to encroa* ^u ! space previ\sly occupi$ by fre%wat]1 ! riv] /ill cont9u$ to c>ry d[n ! same s$im5t into ! sea4 ,9 confirmation ( ?is view x may be /at$1 t ! rema9s ( ! ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 a gigantic t]re/rial reptile1 v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,weald51 has be5 discov]$ ne> ,maid/one1 9 ! ov]ly+ ,k5ti% rag1 or m>9e lime/one ( ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,h5ce we may inf] t "s ( ! saurians :i* inhabit$ ! c\ntry ( ! great riv] cont9u$ to live :5 "p ( ! c\ntry _h become subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea4 ,?us1 9 our own times1 we may suppose ! bones ( l>ge alligators to be frequ5tly entomb$ 9 rec5t fre%wat] /rata 9 ! delta ( ! ,ganges4 ,b if "p ( t delta %\ld s9k d[n s z to be cov]$ by ! sea1 m>9e =mations might beg9 to accumulate 9 ! same space :]e fre%wat] b$s _h previ\sly be5 =m$2 & yet ! ,ganges might /ill p\r d[n its turbid wat]s 9 ! same direction1 & c>ry seaw>d ! c>casses ( ! same species ( alligator1 9 :i* case _! bones might be includ$ 9 m>9e z well z 9 subjac5t fre%wat] /rata4 ,! ,iguanodon1 fir/ discov]$ by ,dr4 ,mantell1 has left m ( its rema9s 9 ! ,weald5 /rata ( ! s\?-ea/]n c\nties1 & ,isle ( ,wight1 ?an any o!r g5us ( associat$ saurians4 ,x 0 an h]bivor\s reptile1 & reg>d$ by ,cuvi] z m extraord9>y ?an any ) :i* he 0 acqua9t$2 = ! tee?1 ?\gh be>+ a great analogy to ! mod]n ,iguanas :i* n[ frequ5t ! tropical woods ( ,am]ica & ! ,we/ ,indies1 exhibit _m /rik+ & important diff]5ces 7see fig4 #bcj474 ,x appe>s t !y h be5 worn by ma/ication2 :]eas ! exi/+ h]bivor\s reptiles clip & gnaw (f ! vegetable productions on :i* !y fe$1 b d n *ew !m4 ,_! tee?1 :5 worn1 pres5t an appe>ance ( hav+ be5 *ipp$ (f1 & nev]1 l ! fossil tee? ( ! ,iguanodon1 h a flat gr\nd surface 7see fig4 #bca471 resembl+ ! gr9d]s ( h]bivor\s mammalia4 ,dr4 ,mantell computes t ! tee? & bones ( ?is animal :i* h pass$ "u 8 exam9ation dur+ ! la/ tw5ty ye>s1 mu/ h belong$ to no less ?an sev5ty-"o di/9ct individuals2 v>y+ 9 age & magnitude f ! reptile j bur/ f ! egg1 to "o ( :i* ! femur measur$ #bd in*es 9 circumf]5ce4 ,yet not)/&+ t ! tee? 7 m num]\s ?an any o!r bones1 x is rem>kable t x 0 n till ! relics ( all ^! individuals _h be5 f\nd1 t a solit>y example ( "p ( a jaw-bone 0 obta9$4 ,m rec5tly rema9s bo? ( ! upp] & l[] jaw h be5 met ) 9 ! ,ha/+s ,b$s 9 ,tilgate ,=e/4 ,_! size 0 some:at great] ?an _h be5 anticipat$1 & ev5 all[+ t ! tail 0 %ort1 :i* ,pr(essor ,ow5 inf]s f ! %ort bodies ( ! caudal v]tebrae1 ,dr4 ,mantell e/imates ! probable l5g? ( "s ( ^! saurians at betwe5 #cj & #dj feet4 ,! l>ge/ femur yet f\nd measures #d feet #h in*es 9 l5g?1 ! circumf]5ce ( ! %aft be+ #be in*es1 & r\nd ! condyles #db in*es4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,tee? ( ,iguanodon4 ,fig4 #bcj4 ,p>tially worn too? ( a "y animal4 7,mantell47 ,fig4 #bca4 ,cr[n ( too? 9 adult1 worn d[n4 7,mantell47 ,occasionally b&s ( lime/one1 call$ ,sussex ,m>ble1 occur 9 ! ,weald ,clay1 almo/ entirely compos$ ( a species ( ,palud9a1 closely resembl+ ! common ,p4 vivip>a ( ,engli% riv]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4 ,cypris sp9ig]a1 ,fitton4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4 ,cypris ,vald5sis1 ,fitton4 7,c4 faba1 ,m94 ,con4 #dhe47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4 ,cypris tub]culata1 ,fitton4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4 ,sample ) lam9ation4 ,%ells ( ! ,cypris1 an animal belong+ to ! ,cru/acea1 & be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #ca47 z ab\nd+ 9 lakes & ponds1 are also pl5tifully scatt]$ ?r\gh ! clays ( ! ,weald51 sometimes produc+1 l ! plates ( mica1 a ?9 lam9ation 7see fig4 #bce474 ,simil> cyprif]\s m>ls are f\nd 9 ! lacu/r9e t]ti>y b$s ( ,auv]gne 7see above1 p4 #ahc474 ,ha/+s ,s&s4 ,?is middle division ( ! ,weald5 consi/s ( s&1 calcif]\s grit1 clay1 & %ale2 ! argillace\s /rata1 not)/&+ ! "n1 be+ ne>ly 9 ! same proportion z ! ar5ace\s4 ,! calc>e\s s&/one & grit ( ,tilgate ,=e/1 ne> ,cuckfield1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ! ,iguanodon & ,hyleosaurus 7 fir/ f\nd1 con/itute an upp] memb] ( ?is =mation4 ,! :ite s&-rock ( ! ,ha/+s cliffs1 ab\t #ajj feet ?ick1 is "o ( ! l[] memb]s ( ! same4 ,! reptiles1 :i* are v abundant 9 x1 consi/ p>tly ( saurians1 already ref]r$ by ,ow5 & ,mantell to eight g5]a1 among :i*1 besides ^? already enum]at$1 we f9d ! ,megalosaurus & ,plesiosaurus4 ,! ,pt]odactyl1 also a fly+ reptile1 is met ) 9 ! same /rata1 & _m rema9s ( ,te/ud9ata ( ! g5]a ,trionyx & ,emys1 n[ conf9$ to tropical regions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4 ,lepidotus ,mantelli1 ,agass4 ,weald54 a4 palate & tee?4 b4 side view ( tee?4 c4 scale4 ,! fi%es ( ! ,weald5 belong p>tly to ! g5]a ,pycnodus & ,hybodus 7see figure ( g5us 9 ,*ap4 ,,xxi471 =ms common to ! ,weald5 & ,oolite2 b ! tee? & scales ( a species ( ,lepidotus are mo/ widely diffus$ 7see fig4 #bcf474 ,! g5]al =m ( ^! fi% 0 t ( ! c>p tribe1 al?\gh p]fectly di/9ct 9 anatomical "*1 & m alli$ to ! pike4 ,! :ole body 0 cov]$ ) l>ge rhomboidal scales1 v ?ick1 & hav+ ! expos$ "p cov]$ ) enamel4 ,mo/ ( ! species ( ?is g5us are suppos$ to h be5 ei!r riv] fi%1 or inhabitants ( ! coa/s1 hav+ n suffici5t p[]s ( swimm+ to advance into ! deep sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4 ,corbula alata1 ,fitton4 ,magnifi$4 ,! %ells ( ! ,ha/+s b$s belong to ! g5]a ,melanopsis1 ,melania1 ,palud9a1 ,cyr5a1 ,cyclas1 ,unio1 & o!rs1 :i* inhabit riv]s or lakes2 b "o b& has be5 f\nd 9 ,dorset%ire indicat+ a bracki% /ate ( ! wat]1 &1 9 "s places1 ev5 a saltness1 l t ( ! sea1 :]e ! g5]a ,corbula 7see fig4 #bcg471 ,mytilus1 & ,o/rea occur4 ,at diff]5t heights 9 ! ,ha/+s ,s&1 9 ! middle ( ! ,weald51 we f9d aga9 & aga9 slabs ( s&/one ) a /rong ripple-m>k1 & betwe5 ^! slabs b$s ( clay _m y>ds ?ick4 ,9 "s places1 z at ,/amm]ham1 ne> ,hor%am1 !re are indications ( ?is clay hav+ be5 expos$ s z to dry & crack be=e ! next lay] 0 ?r[n d[n ^u x4 ,! op5 cracks 9 ! clay h s]v$ z m\lds1 ( :i* ca/s h be5 tak5 9 relief1 & :i* are1 !re=e1 se5 on ! l[] surface ( ! s&/one 7see fig4 #bch474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4 ,und]side ( slab ( s&/one ab\t "o y>d 9 diamet]4 ,/amm]ham1 ,sussex4 ,ne> ! same place a r$di% s&/one occurs 9 :i* are innum]able traces ( a fossil vegetable1 app>5tly ,sph5opt]is1 ! /ems & bran*es ( :i* are dispos$ z if ! plants 7 /&+ erect on ! spot :]e !y orig9ally grew1 ! s& hav+ be5 g5tly deposit$ ^u & ar\nd !m2 & simil> appe>ances h be5 rem>k$ 9 o!r places 9 ?is =mation4#bcj-;,a ,9 ! same division also ( ! ,weald51 at ,cuckfield1 is a b$ ( gravel or conglom]ate1 consi/+ ( wat]-worn pebbles ( qu>tz & jasp]1 ) roll$ bones ( reptiles4 ,^! mu/ h be5 drift$ by a curr5t1 probably 9 wat] ( no great dep?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4 ,sph5opt]is gracilis 7,fitton71 f ne> ,tunbridge ,wells4 a4 portion ( ! same magnifi$4 ,f su* facts we may inf] t1 not)/&+ ! great ?ickness ( ?is division ( ! ,weald5 7& ! same obs]vation applies to ! ,weald ,clay & ,purbeck ,b$s71 ! :ole ( x 0 a deposit 9 wat] ( a mod]ate dep?1 & (t5 extremely %all[4 ,?is idea may seem />tl+ at fir/1 yet su* w\ld be ! natural consequ5ce ( a gradual & cont9u\s s9k+ ( ! gr\nd 9 an e/u>y or bay1 into :i* a great riv] dis*>g$ its turbid wat]s4 ,by ea* foot ( subsid5ce1 ! fundam5tal rock1 su* z ! ,portl& ,oolite1 w\ld be depress$ "o foot f>!r f ! surface2 b ! bay w\ld n be deep5$1 if newly deposit$ mud & s& %\ld raise ! bottom "o foot4 ,on ! contr>y1 su* new /rata ( s& & mud might be frequ5tly laid dry at l[ wat]1 or ov]gr[n = a season by a vegetation prop] to m>%es4 ,purbeck ,b$s4 ,imm$iately bel[ ! ,ha/+s ,s&s we f9d a s]ies ( calc>e\s slates1 m>ls1 & lime/ones1 call$ ! ,purbeck ,b$s1 because well expos$ to view 9 ! sea-cliffs ( ! ,p59sula ( ,purbeck1 especially 9 ,durle/one ,bay1 ne> ,swanage4 ,!y may also be advantage\sly /udi$ at ,lulwor? ,cove & ! neighb\r+ bays betwe5 ,weym\? & ,dor*e/]4 ,at ,meup's ,bay 9 p>ticul>1 ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes has rec5tly exam9$ m9utely ! organic rema9s ( ! ?ree memb]s ( ! ,purbeck gr\p1 display$ !re 9 a v]tical section #aee feet ?ick4 ,to ! in=mation previ\sly suppli$ 9 ! works ( ,messrs4 ,web/]1 ,fitton1 ,de la ,be*e1 ,buckl&1 & ,mantell1 he has made mo/ ample & important additions1 s t x w be desirable to give !m at "s l5g?1 x appe>+ t ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,purbecks are ea* m>k$ by peculi> species ( organic rema9s1 ^! aga9 be+ diff]5t1 s f> z a comp>ison has yet be5 in/itut$1 f ! fossils ( ! ov]ly+ ,ha/+s ,s&s & ,weald ,clay4 ,?is result _c fail to excite mu* wond]1 & x leads u to suspect t ! ,weald5 p]iod1 :i* _m geologi/s h sc>cely deign$ to notice 9 _! classification1 may compreh5d ! hi/ory ( a lapse ( "t z great z t ( ! ,oolitic or ,cretace\s eras respectively4#bca-;,a ,upp] ,purbeck4--,! highe/ ( ! ?ree divisions is purely fre%wat]1 ! /rata1 ab\t #ej feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ %ells ( ! g5]a ,palud9a1 ,physa1 ,lymnea1 ,planorbis1 ,valvata1 ,cyclas1 & ,unio1 ) cyprides1 & fi%4 ,middle ,purbeck4--,to ^! succe$ ! ,middle ,purbeck1 ab\t #cj feet ?ick1 ! upp]mo/ "p ( :i* consi/s ( fre%wat] lime/one1 ) cyprides1 turtles1 & fi% ( diff]5t species f ^? 9 ! prec$+ /rata4 ,bel[ ! lime/one are bracki%-wat] b$s full ( ,cyr5a1 & trav]s$ by b&s ab\nd+ 9 ,corvulae & ,melaniae4 ,^! are bas$ on a purely m>9e deposit1 ) ,pect51 ,modiola1 ,avicula1 & ,?racia1 all undescrib$ %ells4 ,bel[ ?is1 aga91 come lime/ones & %ales1 p>tly ( bracki% & p>tly ( fre%wat] orig91 9 :i* _m fi%1 especially species ( ,lepidotus & ,microdon radiatus1 are f\nd1 & a reptile nam$ ,macrorhyncus4 ,among ! mollusks1 a rem>kable ribb$ ,melania1 ( ! section ,*ilira1 occurs4 ,imm$iately bel[ is ! great & conspicu\s /ratum1 #ab feet ?ick1 long famili> to geologi/s "u ! local "n ( ,c9d]-b$1 =m$ ( a va/ accumulation ( %ells ( ,o/rea di/orta 7fig4 #bdj474 ,9 ! upp]mo/ "p ( ?is b$ ,mr4 ,=bes discov]$ ! fir/ e*9od]m z yet kn[n 9 ! ,purbeck s]ies1 a species ( ,hemicid>is1 a g5us *>act]i/ic ( ! ,oolitic p]iod4 ,x 0 accompani$ by a species ( ,p]na4 ,bel[ ! ,c9d]-b$ fre%wat] /rata are aga9 se51 fill$ 9 _m places ) species ( ,cypris1 ,valvata1 ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 ,lymnea1 ,physa1 & ,cyclas1 all diff]5t f any we _h previ\sly se5 above4 ,?ick silice\s b$s ( *]t1 fill$ ) ^! fossils1 occur 9 a beautiful /ate ( pres]vation1 (t5 conv]t$ into *alc$ony4 ,among ^! ,mr4 ,=bes met ) gyrogonites 7! spore vesicles ( ,*>ae71 plants nev] be=e discov]$ 9 rocks old] ?an ! ,eoc5e4 ,aga91 b5ea? ^! fre%wat] /rata1 a v ?9 b& ( gre5i% %ales1 ) m>9e %ells & impressions ( leaves1 l ^? ( a l>ge ,zo/]a1 succe$s1 =m+ ! base ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4 ,o/rea di/orta4 ,c9d]-b$4 ,l[] ,purbeck4--,b5ea? ! ?9 m>9e b& la/ m5tion$1 purely fre%wat] m>ls occur1 conta9+ species ( ,cypris1 ,valvata1 & ,lymnea1 diff]5t f ^? ( ! ,middle ,purbeck4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! ,inf]ior division1 :i* is ab\t #hj feet ?ick4 ,bel[ ! m>ls are se5 m ?an #cj feet ( bracki%-wat] b$s1 at ,meup's ,bay1 ab\nd+ 9 a species ( ,s]pula1 alli$ to1 if n id5tical )1 ,s]pula coac]vites1 f\nd 9 ! ,weald5 ( ,hanov]4 ,!re are also %ells ( ! g5us ,rissoa 7( ! subg5us ,hydrobia71 & a little ,c>dium ( ! subg5us ,protoc>dium1 9 ! same b$s1 toge!r ) ,cypris4 ,"s ( ! cypris-be>+ %ales are /rangely contort$ & brok5 up1 at ! we/ end ( ! ,isle ( ,purbeck4 ,! great dirt-b$ or vegetable soil conta9+ ! roots & /ools ( ,cycadeae1 :i* ,i %all pres5tly describe1 und]lies ^! m>ls1 re/+ ^u ! l[e/ fre%wat] lime/one1 a rock ab\t #h feet ?ick1 conta9+ ,cyclades1 ,valvata1 & ,lymnea1 ( ! same species z ^? ( ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck4 ,?is rock re/s ^u ! top b$s ( ! ,portl& /one1 :i* is purely m>9e1 & betwe5 :i* & ! ,purbecks !re is no passage4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ( all ! v>i$ successions ( b$s enum]at$ 9 ! above li/1 is t call$ by ! qu>rym5 ! dirt1 or black dirt1 :i* 0 evid5tly an anci5t vegetable soil4 ,x is f #ab to #ah in*es ?ick1 is ( a d>k br[n or black col\r1 & conta9s a l>ge proportion ( e>?y lignite4 ,?r\gh x are disp]s$ r\nd$ fragm5ts ( /one1 f #c to #i in*es 9 diamet]1 9 su* numb]s t x almo/ des]ves ! "n ( gravel4 ,_m silicifi$ trunks ( conif]\s trees1 & ! rema9s ( plants alli$ to ,zamia & ,cycas1 are buri$ 9 ?is dirt-b$ 7see figure ( liv+ ,zamia1 fig4 #bda474 ,^! plants mu/ h become fossil on ! spots :]e !y grew4 ,! /umps ( ! trees /& erect = a height ( f #a to #c feet1 & ev5 9 "o in/ance to #f feet1 ) _! roots atta*$ to ! soil at ab\t ! same di/ances f "o ano!r z ! trees 9 a mod]n =e/4#bcc-;,a ,! c>bonace\s matt] is mo/ abundant imm$iately ar\nd ! /umps1 & r\nd ! rema9s ( fossil ,cycadeae4#bcc-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4 ,zamia spiralis2 ,s\!rn ,au/ralia4#bcc-;,c ,besides ! upright /umps above m5tion$1 ! dirt-b$ conta9s ! /ems ( silicifi$ trees laid pro/rate4 ,^! are p>tly sunk into ! black e>?1 & p>tly envelop$ by a calc>e\s slate :i* cov]s ! dirt-b$4 ,! fragm5ts ( ! pro/rate trees are r>ely m ?an #c or #d feet 9 l5g?2 b by jo9+ _m ( !m toge!r1 trunks h be5 re/or$1 hav+ a l5g? f ! root to ! bran*es ( f #bj to #bc feet1 ! /ems be+ undivid$ = #ag or #bj feet1 & !n =k$4 ,! diamet] ( ^! ne> ! roots is ab\t #a foot4#bcc-;,d ,root-%ap$ cavities 7 obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[ to desc5d f ! bottom ( ! dirt-b$ into ! subjac5t fre%wat] /one1 :i*1 ?\gh n[ solid1 mu/ h be5 9 a s(t & p5etrable /ate :5 ! trees grew4#bcc-;,e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4 ,section 9 ,isle ( ,portl&1 ,dorset4 7,buckl& & ,de la ,be*e47 ,! ?9 lay]s ( calc>e\s slate 7fig4 #bdb47 7 evid5tly deposit$ tranquilly1 & w\ld h be5 horizontal b = ! protrusion ( ! /umps ( ! trees1 ar\nd ! top ( ea* ( :i* !y =m hemisph]ical concretions4 ,! dirt-b$ is by no means conf9$ to ! isl& ( ,portl&1 :]e x has be5 mo/ c>efully /udi$1 b is se5 9 ! same relative position 9 ! cliffs ea/ ( ,lulwor? ,cove1 9 ,dorset%ire1 :]e1 z ! /rata h be5 di/urb$1 & are n[ incl9$ at an angle ( #de deg41 ! /umps ( ! trees are also incl9$ at ! same angle 9 an opposite direction--a beautiful illu/ration ( a *ange 9 ! position ( b$s orig9ally horizontal 7see fig4 #bdc474 ,traces ( ! dirt-b$ h also be5 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 ab\t two miles nor? ( ,?ame1 9 ,ox=d%ire2 & by ,dr4 ,fitton1 9 ! cliffs ( ! ,b\lonnois1 on ! ,fr5* coa/2 b1 z might be expect$1 ?is fre%wat] deposit is ( limit$ ext5t :5 comp>$ to mo/ m>9e =mations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4 ,section 9 cliff ea/ ( ,lulwor? ,cove4 7,buckl& & ,de la ,be*e47 ,f ! facts above describ$1 we may inf]1 fir/1 t ! sup]ior b$s ( ! ,oolite1 call$ ! ,portl&1 :i* are full ( m>9e %ells1 7 ov]spread ) fluviatile mud1 :i* became dry l&1 & cov]$ by a =e/1 ?r\gh\t a portion ( ! space n[ occupi$ by ! s\? ( ,engl&1 ! climate be+ su* z to admit ! gr[? ( ! ,zamia & ,cycas4 #b;dly4 ,?is l& at l5g? sank d[n & 0 subm]g$ ) its =e/s b5ea? a body ( fre% wat]1 f :i* s$im5t 0 ?r[n d[n envelop+ fluviatile %ells4 #c;dly4 ,! regul> & uni=m pres]vation ( ?is ?9 b$ ( black e>? ov] a di/ance ( _m miles1 %[s t ! *ange f dry l& to ! /ate ( a fre%wat] lake or e/u>y1 0 n accompani$ by any viol5t d5udation1 or ru% ( wat]1 s9ce ! loose black e>?1 toge!r ) ! trees :i* lay pro/rate on its surface1 mu/ inevitably h be5 swept away _h any su* viol5t cata/rophe !n tak5 place4 ,! dirt-b$ has be5 describ$ above 9 its mo/ simple =m1 b 9 "s sections ! appe>ances are m complicat$4 ,! =e/ ( ! dirt-b$ 0 n ev]y:]e ! fir/ vegetation :i* grew 9 ?is region4 ,two o!r b$s ( c>bonace\s clay1 "o ( !m conta9+ ,cycadeae1 9 an upright position1 h be5 f\nd bel[ x1 & "o above x#bcd-;,a1 :i* implies o!r oscillations 9 ! level ( ! same gr\nd1 & its alt]nate occupation by l& & wat] m ?an once4 ,table %[+ ! *anges ( m$ium 9 :i* ! /rata 7 =m$1 f ! ,l[] ,gre5s& to ! ,portl& ,/one inclusive1 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&4 #a4 ,m>9e ,l[] gre5s&4 #b4 ,fre%wat] ,weald clay4 #c4 ,fre%wat] ,bracki% ,ha/+s s&4 ,fre%wat] #d4 ,fre%wat] ,upp] ,purbeck4 #e4 ,fre%wat] ,bracki% ,m>9e ,bracki% ,middle ,purbeck4 ,m>9e ,fre%wat] ,m>9e #f4 ,fre%wat] ,bracki% ,l& ,fre%wat] ,l& 7dirt-b$7 ,l[] ,purbeck4 ,fre%wat] ,l& ,fre%wat] ,l& ,fre%wat] #g4 ,m>9e ,portl& /one4 ,! annex$ tabul> view w enable ! read] to take 9 at a glance ! successive *anges f sea to riv]1 & f riv] to sea1 or f ^! aga9 to a /ate ( l&1 :i* h occurr$ 9 ?is "p ( ,engl& betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ,oolitic p]iods4 ,t !re h be5 at lea/ f\r *anges 9 ! species ( te/acea dur+ ! deposition ( ! ,weald51 seems to foll[ f ! obs]vations rec5tly made by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 s t1 %\ld we h]eaft] f9d ! signs ( _m m alt]nate occupations ( ! same area by diff]5t elem5ts1 x is no m ?an we might expect4 ,ev5 dur+ a small "p ( a zoological p]iod1 n suffici5t to all[ "t = _m species to die out1 we f9d t ! same area has be5 laid dry1 & !n subm]g$1 & !n aga9 laid dry1 z 9 ! deltas ( ! ,po & ,ganges1 ! hi/ory ( :i* has be5 br\ght to light by ,artesian bor+s4#bce-;,a ,we also "k t simil> revolutions h occurr$ )9 ! pres5t c5tury 7#ahai7 9 ! delta ( ! ,indus 9 ,cut*#bce-;,b1 :]e l& has be5 laid p]man5tly "u ! wat]s bo? ( ! riv] & sea1 )\t its soil or %rubs hav+ be5 swept away4 ,ev51 indep5d5tly ( any v]tical movem5ts ( ! gr\nd1 we see 9 ! pr9cipal deltas1 su* z t ( ! ,mississippi1 t ! sea ext5ds its salt wat]s annually = _m mon?s ov] consid]able spaces1 :i*1 at o!r seasons1 are occupi$ by ! riv] dur+ its inundations4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! division ( ! ,purbecks into upp]1 middle1 & l[]1 has be5 made by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 /rictly on ! pr9ciple ( ! entire di/9ctness ( ! species ( organic rema9s :i* !y include4 ,! l9es ( dem>cation are n l9es ( di/urbance1 nor indicat$ by any /rik+ physical *>act]s or m9]al *anges4 ,! features :i* attract ! eye 9 ! ,purbecks1 su* z ! dirt-b$s1 ! dislocat$ /rata at ,lulwor?1 & ! ,c9d]-b$1 d n indicate any breaks 9 ! di/ribution ( organiz$ be+s4 ,! causes :i* l$ to a complete *ange ( life ?ree times dur+ ! deposition ( ! fre%wat] & bracki% /rata mu/1 says ?is naturali/1 be s\ght =1 n simply 9 ei!r a rapid or a sudd5 *ange ( _! area into l& or sea1 b 9 ! great lapse ( "t :i* int]v5$ betwe5 ! epo*s ( deposition at c]ta9 p]iods dur+ _! =mation4 ,ea* dirt-b$ may1 no d\bt1 be ! memorial ( _m ?\s& ye>s or c5turies1 because we f9d t #b or #c feet ( vegetable soil is ! only monum5t :i* _m a tropical =e/ has left ( its exi/5ce ev] s9ce ! gr\nd on :i* x n[ /&s 0 fir/ cov]$ ) its %ade4 ,yet1 ev5 if we imag9$ ! fossil soils ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck to repres5t z _m ages1 we ne$ n expect on t acc\nt to f9d !m con/itut+ ! l9es ( sep>ation betwe5 successive /rata *>act]iz$ by diff]5t zoological types4 ,! pres]vation ( a lay] ( vegetable soil1 :5 9 ! act ( be+ subm]g$1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a r>e exception to a g5]al rule4 ,x is ( s p]i%able a nature1 t x mu/ usually be c>ri$ away by ! d5ud+ waves or curr5ts ( ! sea or by a riv]2 & _m dirt-b$s 7 probably =m$ 9 succession1 & annihilat$ 9 ! ,weald51 besides ^? few :i* n[ rema94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4 ,cone f ! ,isle ( ,purbeck1 resembl+ ! ,damm>a ( ! ,moluccas4 7,fitton47 ,! plants ( ! ,weald51 s f> z our k ext5ds at pres5t1 consi/ *iefly ( ,f]ns1 ,conif]ae 7see fig4 #bdd471 & ,cycadeae1 )\t any exog5s2 ! :ole m alli$ to ! ,oolitic ?an to ! ,cretace\s vegetation1 al?\gh "s ( ! species seem to be common to ! *alk4 ,b ! v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals indicate1 9 l mann]1 a relation%ip to bo? ^! p]iods1 ?\gh a ne>] aff9ity to ! ,oolitic4 ,mr4 ,brodie has f\nd ! rema9s ( beetles & sev]al insects ( ! homopt]\s & tri*opt]\s ord]s1 "s ( :i* n[ live on plants1 l ^? ( ! ,weald51 :ile o!rs hov] ov] ! surface ( our pres5t riv]s4 ,b no bones ( mammalia h be5 met ) among ^? ( l&-reptiles4 ,yet1 z ! read] w le>n1 9 ,*apt] ,,xx41 t ! relics ( m>supial quadrup$s h be5 detect$ 9 /ill old] b$s1 &1 z x 0 s long be=e a s+le portion ( ! jaw ( an iguanodon 0 met ) 9 ! ,tilgate qu>ries 7see p4 #bbh471 we ne$ by no means despair ( discov]+ h]eaft] "s evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( w>m-blood$ quadrup$s at ?is era4 ,x is1 at lea/1 too soon to inf]1 on m]e negative evid5ce1 t ! mammalia 7 =eign to ?is fauna4 ,9 reg>d to ! geographical ext5t ( ! ,weald51 x _c be accurately laid d[n2 because s mu* ( x is conceal$ b5ea? ! new] m>9e =mations4 ,x has be5 trac$ ab\t #bjj ,engli% miles f we/ to ea/1 f ,lulwor? ,cove to ne> ,b\logne1 9 ,france2 & ab\t #bbj miles f nor?-we/ to s\?-ea/1 f ,:it*ur*1 9 ,buck+ham%ire1 to ,beauvais1 9 ,france4 ,if ! =mation be cont9u\s ?r\gh\t ?is space1 :i* is v d\btful1 x does n foll[ t ! :ole 0 contemporane\s2 because1 9 all likelihood1 ! physical geography ( ! region und]w5t frequ5t *ange ?r\gh\t ! :ole p]iod1 & ! e/u>y may h alt]$ its =m1 & ev5 %ift$ its place4 ,dr4 ,dunk]1 ( ,cassel1 & ,h4 ,von ,mey]1 9 an excell5t monograph on ! ,weald5s ( ,hanov] & ,we/phalia1 h %[n t !y correspond s closely1 n only 9 _! fossils1 b also 9 _! m9]al *>act]s1 ) ! ,engli% s]ies1 t we c sc>cely hesitate to ref] ! :ole to "o great delta4 ,ev5 !n1 ! magnitude ( ! deposit may n exce$ t ( _m mod]n riv]s4 ,?us1 ! delta ( ! ,quorra or ,nig]1 9 ,africa1 /ret*es into ! int]ior = m ?an #agj miles1 & occupies1 x is suppos$1 a space ( m ?an #cjj miles along ! coa/1 ?us =m+ a surface ( m ?an #be1jjj squ>e miles1 or equal to ab\t "o half ( ,engl&4#bcg-;,a ,besides1 we "k n1 9 su* cases1 h[ f> ! fluviatile s$im5t & organic rema9s ( ! riv] & ! l& may be c>ri$ out f ! coa/1 & spread ov] ! b$ ( ! sea4 ,i h %[n1 :5 treat+ ( ! ,mississippi1 t a m anci5t delta1 includ+ species ( %ells1 su* z n[ inhabit ,l\isiana1 has be5 uprais$1 & made to occupy a wide geographical area1 :ile a new] delta is =m+#bcg-;,b2 & ! possibility ( su* movem5ts1 & _! effects1 mu/ n be lo/ sight ( :5 we speculate on ! orig9 ( ! ,weald54 ,if x be ask$ :]e ! cont95t 0 plac$ f ! ru9s ( :i* ! ,weald5 /rata 7 d]iv$1 & by ! dra9age ( :i* a great riv] 0 f$1 we are half tempt$ to speculate on ! =m] exi/5ce ( ! ,atlantis ( ,plato4 ,! /ory ( ! subm]g5ce ( an anci5t cont95t1 h[ev] fabul\s 9 hi/ory1 mu/ h be5 true aga9 & aga9 z a geological ev5t4 ,! real difficulty consi/s 9 ! p]si/5ce ( a l>ge hydrographical bas91 f :5ce a great body ( fre% wat] 0 p\r$ into ! sea1 precisely at a p]iod :5 ! neighb\r+ area ( ! ,weald5 0 gradually go+ d[nw>ds #ajjj feet or m p]p5dicul>ly4 ,if ! adjo9+ l& p>ticipat$ 9 ! movem5t1 h[ c\ld x escape be+ subm]g$1 or h[ c\ld x reta9 its size & altitude s z to cont9ue to be ! s\rce ( su* an inexhau/ible supply ( fre% wat] & s$im5t8 ,9 answ] to ?is "q1 we are fairly entitl$ to sugge/ t ! neighb\r+ l& may h be5 /ation>y1 or may ev5 h und]gone a contemporane\s sl[ upheaval4 ,!re may h be5 an asc5d+ movem5t 9 "o region1 & a desc5d+ "o 9 a contigu\s p>allel zone ( c\ntry2 j z ! nor!rn "p ( ,sc&9avia is n[ ris+1 :ile ! middle portion 7t s\? ( ,/ockholm7 is unmov$1 & ! s\!rn extremity 9 ,scania is s9k+1 or at lea/ has sunk )9 ! hi/orical p]iod4#bcg-;,c ,we mu/1 nev]!less1 conclude1 if we adopt ! above hypo!sis1 t ! depression ( ! l& became g5]al ?r\gh\t a l>ge "p ( ,europe at ! close ( ! ,weald5 p]iod1 a subsid5ce :i* br\ght 9 ! cretace\s ocean4 ,,footnotes3 #bbg-;,a ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 p4 #cbj4 ,second ,s]ies4 #bcj-;,a ,mantell1 ,geol4 ( ,s4 ,e4 ( ,engl&1 p4 #bdd4 #bca-;,a ,on ! ,dorset%ire ,purbecks1 by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 ,ed9b4 ,brit4 ,assoc41 ,aug4 #ahej4 #bcc-;,a ,mr4 ,web/] fir/ notic$ ! erect position ( ! trees & describ$ ! ,dirt-b$4 #bcc-;,b ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #bbj1 #bba4 #bcc-;,c ,see ,fl9d]s' ,voyage4 #bcc-;,d ,fitton1 ibid4 #bcc-;,e ,buckl& & ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iv4 p4 #af4 ,mr4 ,=bes has asc]ta9$ t ! subjac5t rock is a fre%wat] lime/one1 & n a portion ( ! ,portl& oolite1 z 0 previ\sly imag9$4 #bcd-;,a ,e4 ,=bes1 ibid4 #bce-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geol41 #h? ed4 pp4 #bfj-bfh4 #bce-;,b ,ibid4 p4 #ddc4 #bcg-;,a ,fitton1 ,geol4 ( ,ha/+s1 p4 #eh42 :o cites ,l&]'s ,travels4 #bcg-;,b ,see above1 p4 #he42 & ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s4 vol4 ii4 *ap4 xxxiv4 #bcg-;,c ,see ! ,au?or's ,anniv4 ,address1 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahej1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 vi4 p4 #eb4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,d5udation ,,( ,,! ,,*alk ,,& ,,weald54 ,physical geography ( c]ta9 di/ricts compos$ ( ,cretace\s & ,weald5 /rata--,l9es ( inl& *alk-cliffs on ! ,se9e 9 ,norm&y--,out/&+ pill>s & ne$les ( *alk--,d5udation ( ! *alk & ,weald5 9 ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex--,*alk once cont9u\s f ! ,nor? to ! ,s\? ,d[ns--,anticl9al axis & p>allel ridges--,longitud9al & transv]se valleys--,*alk esc>pm5ts--,rise & d5udation ( ! /rata gradual--,ridges =m$ by h>d]1 valleys by s(t] b$s--,:y no alluvium1 or wreck ( ! *alk1 9 ! c5tral di/rict ( ! ,weald--,at :at p]iods ! ,weald valley 0 d5ud$--,l& has mo/ prevail$ :]e d5udation has be5 greate/--,elephant b$1 ,brighton4 ,all ! fossilif]\s =mations may be /udi$ by ! geologi/ 9 two di/9ct po9ts ( view3 fir/1 9 ref]5ce to _! position 9 ! s]ies1 _! m9]al "* & fossils2 &1 secondly1 9 reg>d to _! physical geography1 or ! mann] 9 :i* !y n[ ent]1 z m9]al masses1 into ! ext]nal /ructure ( ! e>?2 =m+ ! b$ ( lakes & seas1 or ! surface & f\ndation ( hills & valleys1 pla9s & table-l&s4 ,"s acc\nt has already be5 giv5 on ! fir/ head ( ! ,t]ti>y1 ! ,cretace\s1 & ,weald5 /rata2 & we may n[ proce$ to consid] c]ta9 features 9 ! physical geography ( ^! gr\ps z !y occur 9 p>ts ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,! hills compos$ ( :ite *alk 9 ! ,s4,e4 ( ,engl& h a smoo? r\nd$ outl9e1 & be+ usually 9 ! /ate ( %eep pa/ures1 are free f trees or h$g][s2 s t we h an opportunity ( obs]v+ h[ ! valleys by :i* !y are dra9$ ramify 9 all directions1 & become wid] & deep] z !y desc5d4 ,al?\gh ^! valleys are n[ = ! mo/ "p dry1 except dur+ heavy ra9s & ! melt+ ( sn[1 !y may h be5 due to aque\s d5udation1 z expla9$ 9 ! six? *apt]2 hav+ be5 excavat$ :5 ! *alk em]g$ gradually f ! sea4 ,?is op9ion is confirm$ by ! occasional occurr5ce ( long l9es ( inl& cliffs1 9 :i* ! /rata are cut (f abruptly 9 /eep & (t5 v]tical precipices4 ,! true nature ( su* esc>pm5ts is n[h]e m obvi\s ?an 9 p>ts ( ,norm&y1 :]e ! riv] ,se9e & its tribut>ies fl[ ?r\gh deep w9d+ valleys1 holl[$ out ( *alk horizontally /ratifi$4 ,?us1 = example1 if we foll[ ! ,se9e = a di/ance ( ab\t #cj miles f ,&elys to ,elboeuf1 we f9d ! valley flank$ on bo? sides by a deep slope ( *alk1 ) num]\s b$s ( fl9t1 ! =mation be+ laid op5 = a ?ickness ( ab\t #bej & #cjj feet4 ,above ! *alk is an ov]ly+ mass ( s&1 gravel1 & clay1 f #cj to #ajj feet ?ick4 ,! two opposite slopes ( ! hills a & b1 :]e ! *alk appe>s at ! surface1 are f #b to #d miles ap>t1 & !y are (t5 p]fectly smoo? & ev51 l ! /eepe/ ( our d[ns 9 ,engl&2 b at _m po9ts !y are brok5 by "o1 two1 or m ranges ( v]tical & ev5 ov]hang+ cliffs ( b>e :ite *alk ) fl9ts4 ,at "s po9ts deta*$ ne$les & p9nacles /& 9 ! l9e ( ! cliffs1 or 9 front ( !m1 z at c1 fig4 #bde4 ,on ! "r bank ( ! ,se9e1 at ,&elys1 "o range1 ab\t #b miles long1 is se5 v>y+ f #ej to #ajj feet 9 p]p5dicul> height1 & hav+ its cont9uity brok5 by a numb] ( dry valleys or coombs1 9 "o ( :i* occurs a deta*$ rock or ne$le1 call$ ! ,tete d',homme 7see figs4 #bdf1 #bdg474 ,! top ( ?is rock pres5ts a precipit\s face t[>ds e po9t ( ! compass2 its v]tical height be+ m ?an #bj feet on ! side ( ! d[ns1 & #dj t[>ds ! ,se9e1 ! av]age diamet] ( ! pill> be+ #cf feet4 ,its composition is ! same z t ( ! l>g] cliffs 9 its neighb\rhood1 namely1 :ite *alk1 hav+ occasionally a cry/all9e texture l m>ble1 ) lay]s ( fl9t 9 nodules & tabul> masses4 ,! fl9ty b$s (t5 project 9 relief #d or #e feet beyond ! :ite *alk1 :i* is g5]ally 9 a /ate ( sl[ decomposition1 ei!r exfoliat+ or be+ cov]$ ) :ite p[d]1 l ! *alk cliffs on ! ,engli% coa/2 &1 z 9 !m1 ?is sup]ficial p[d] conta9s 9 "s places common salt4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4 ,section across ,valley ( ,se9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4 ,view ( ! ,tete d',homme1 ,&elys1 se5 f above4 ,o!r cliffs are situat$ on ! "r bank ( ! ,se9e1 opposite ,t\rn$os1 betwe5 ,&elys & ,pont de l',ar*e1 :]e ! precipices are f #ej to #hj feet high3 sev]al ( _! summits t]m9ate 9 p9nacles2 & "o ( !m1 9 p>ticul>1 is s completely deta*$ z to pres5t a p]p5dicul> face #ej feet high t[>ds ! slop+ d[n4 ,on ^! cliffs sev]al l$ges are se51 :i* m>k s _m levels at :i* ! waves ( ! sea may be suppos$ to h encroa*$ = a long p]iod4 ,at a /ill great] height1 imm$iately above ! top ( ?is range1 are ?ree mu* small] cliffs1 ea* ab\t #d feet high1 ) z _m int]v5+ t]races1 :i* are cont9u$ s z to sweep 9 a semicircul> =m r\nd an adjo9+ coomb1 l ^? 9 ,sicily be=e describ$ 7p4 #gf474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdg4 ,side view ( ! ,tete d',homme4 ,:ite *alk ) fl9ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdh4 ,*alk p9nacle at ,s5neville4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4 ,ro*es d',orival1 ,elboeuf4 ,if we !n desc5d ! riv] f ,vatteville to a place call$ ,s5neville1 we meet ) a s+ul> ne$le ab\t #ej feet high1 p]fectly isolat$ on ! esc>pm5t ( *alk on ! "r bank ( ! ,se9e 7see fig4 #bdh474 ,ano!r conspicu\s range ( inl& cliffs is situat$ ab\t #ab miles bel[ on ! left bank ( ! ,se9e1 beg9n+ at ,elboeuf1 & compreh5d+ ! ,ro*es d',orival 7see fig4 #bdi474 ,l ^? be=e describ$1 x has an irregul> surface1 (t5 ov]hang+1 & ) b$s ( fl9t project+ sev]al feet4 ,l !m1 also1 x exhibits a :ite p[d]y surface1 & consi/s entirely ( horizontal *alk ) fl9ts4 ,x is #dj miles inl&1 its height1 9 "s p>ts1 exce$+ #bjj feet1 & its base only a few feet above ! level ( ! ,se9e4 ,x is brok51 9 "o place1 by a pyramidal mass or ne$le1 #bjj feet high1 call$ ! ,ro*e de ,pignon1 :i* /&s out ab\t #be feet 9 front ( ! upp] portion ( ! ma9 cliffs1 ) :i* x is unit$ by a n>r[ ridge ab\t #dj feet l[] ?an its summit 7see fig4 #bej474 ,l ! deta*$ rocks be=e m5tion$ at ,s5neville1 ,vatteville1 & ,&elys1 x may be comp>$ to ^? ne$les ( *alk :i* occur on ! coa/ ( ,norm&y1 z well z 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight & 9 ,purbeck#bda-;,a 7see fig4 #bea474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4 ,view ( ! ,ro*e de ,pignon1 se5 f ! s\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4 ,ne$le & ,ar* ( ,etretat1 9 ! *alk cliffs ( ,norm&y4 ,height ( ,ar* #ajj feet4 7,passy47#bda-;,b ,! =ego+ description & draw+s w %[1 t ! evid5ce ( c]ta9 esc>pm5ts ( ! *alk hav+ be5 orig9ally sea-cliffs1 is f> m full & satisfactory 9 ,france ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,if x be ask$ :y1 9 ! int]ior ( our own c\ntry1 we meet ) no ranges ( precipices equally v]tical & ov]hang+1 & no isolat$ pill>s or ne$les1 we may reply t ! great] h>dness ( ! *alk 9 ,norm&y may1 no d\bt1 be ! *ief cause ( ?is diff]5ce4 ,b ! frequ5t abs5ce ( all signs ( littoral d5udation 9 ! valley ( ! ,se9e itself is a negative fact ( a f> m /rik+ & p]plex+ "*4 ,! cliffs1 aft] be+ almo/ cont9u\s = miles1 are !n :olly want+ = mu* great] di/ances1 be+ replac$ by a gre5 slop+ d[n1 al?\gh ! b$s rema9 ( ! same composition1 & are equally horizontal2 & al?\gh we may feel assur$ t ! mann] ( ! upheaval ( ! l&1 :e!r int]mitt5t or n1 mu/ h be5 ! same at ^? int]m$iate po9ts :]e no cliffs exi/1 z at o!rs :]e !y are s fully develop$4 ,b1 9 ord] to expla9 su* app>5t anomalies1 ! read] mu/ ref] aga9 to ! !ory ( d5udation1 z exp\nd$ 9 ! #f? *apt]2 :]e x 0 %[n1 fir/1 t ! und]m9+ =ce ( ! waves & m>9e curr5ts v>ies greatly at diff]5t p>ts ( e coa/2 secondly1 t precipit\s rocks h (t5 decompos$ & crumbl$ d[n2 & ?irdly1 t _m t]races & small cliffs may n[ lie conceal$ b5ea? a talus ( detrital matt]4 ,d5udation ( ! ,weald ,valley4--,no di/rict is bett] fitt$ to illu/rate ! mann] 9 :i* a great s]ies ( /rata may h be5 upheav$ & gradually d5ud$ ?an ! c\ntry int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,?is region1 ( :i* a gr\nd plan is giv5 9 ! accompany+ map 7fig4 #beb471 comprises )9 x ! :ole ( ,sussex1 & p>ts ( ! c\nties ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 & ,hamp%ire4 ,! space 9 :i* ! =mations old] ?an ! ,:ite ,*alk1 or ^? f ! ,gault to ! ,ha/+s s& inclusive1 crop out1 is b\nd$ ev]y:]e by a great esc>pm5t ( *alk1 :i* is cont9u$ on ! opposite side ( ! *annel 9 ! ,bas ,b\lonnais 9 ,france1 :]e x =ms ! semicircul> b\nd>y ( a tract 9 :i* old] /rata also appe> at ! surface4 ,! :ole ( ?is di/rict may !re=e be consid]$ geologically z "o & ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beb4 ,geological ,map ( ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& & "p ( ,france1 exhibit+ ! d5udation ( ! ,weald4 #a4 ,t]ti>y4 #b4 ,*alk & upp] gre5s&4 #c4 ,gault4 #d4 ,l[] ,gre5s&4 #e4 ,weald clay4 #f4 ,ha/+s s&4 #g4 ,purbeck b$s4 #h4 ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4 ,section f ! ,london to ! ,hamp%ire bas9 across ! valley ( ! ,weald4 #a4 ,t]ti>y /rata4 #b4 ,*alk & fire/one4 #c4 ,gault4 #d4 ,l[] gre5s&4 #e4 ,weald clay4 #f4 ,ha/+s s&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bed4 ,highe/ po9t ( ,s\? ,d[ns1 #heh feet4 ,anticl9al axis ( ! ,weald4 ,cr[bor\gh ,hill1 #hjd feet4 ,highe/ po9t ( ,nor? ,d[ns1 #hhj feet4#bdc-;,a ,section ( ! c\ntry f ! conf9es ( ! bas9 ( ,london to t ( ,hants1 ) ! pr9cipal heights above ! level ( ! sea on a true scale4#bdc-;,b ,! space "h inclos$ )9 ! esc>pm5t ( ! *alk af=ds an example ( :at has be5 sometimes call$ a valley ( elevation 7m prop]ly ( d5udation72 :]e ! /rata1 p>tially remov$ by aque\s excavation1 dip away on all sides f a c5tral axis4 ,?us1 x is suppos$ t ! area n[ occupi$ by ! ,ha/+s s& 7,no4 #f47 0 once cov]$ by ! ,weald clay 7,no4 #e471 & ?is aga9 by ! ,gre5s& 7,no4 #d471 & ?is by ! ,gault 7,no4 #c472 &1 la/ly1 t ! ,*alk 7,no4 #b47 ext5d$ orig9ally ov] ! :ole space betwe5 ! ,nor? & ! ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,?is !ory w be bett] und]/ood by consult+ ! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #bec471 :]e ! d>k l9es repres5t :at n[ rema9s1 & ! fa9t] ones ^? portions ( rock :i* are believ$ to h be5 c>ri$ away4 ,at ea* end ( ! diagram ! t]ti>y /rata 7,no4 #a47 are exhibit$ repos+ on ! *alk4 ,9 ! middle are se5 ! ,ha/+s s&s 7,no4 #f47 =m+ an anticl9al axis1 on ea* side ( :i* ! o!r =mations are arrang$ ) an opposite dip4 ,x has be5 necess>y1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to give a cle> view ( ! diff]5t =mations1 to exagg]ate ! proportional height ( ea* 9 comp>ison to its horizontal ext5t2 & a true scale is !re=e subjo9$ 9 ano!r diagram 7fig4 #bed471 9 ord] to correct ! errone\s impression :i* might o!rwise be made on ! read]'s m9d4 ,9 ?is section ! di/ance betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns is repres5t$ to exce$ =ty miles2 = ! ,valley ( ! ,weald is "h int]sect$ 9 its longe/ diamet]1 9 ! direction ( a l9e betwe5 ,lewes & ,maid/one4 ,?r\gh ! c5tral portion1 !n1 ( ! di/rict suppos$ to be d5ud$ runs a great anticl9al l9e1 hav+ a direction ne>ly ea/ & we/1 on bo? sides ( :i* ! b$s #e1 #d1 #c1 & #b1 crop out 9 succession4 ,b1 al?\gh1 = ! sake ( r5d]+ ! physical /ructure ( ?is region m intelligible1 ! c5tral l9e ( elevation has alone be5 introduc$1 z 9 ! diagrams ( ,smi?1 ,mantell1 ,conybe>e1 & o!rs1 geologi/s h always be5 well aw>e t num]\s m9or l9es ( dislocation & flexure run p>allel to ! great c5tral axis4 ,9 ! c5tral area ( ! ,ha/+s s& ! /rata h und]gone ! greate/ displacem5t2 "o fault be+ kn[n1 :]e ! v]tical %ift ( a b$ ( calc>e\s grit is no less ?an #fj fa?oms4#bdd-;,a ,mu* ( ! picturesque sc5]y ( ?is di/rict arises f ! dep? ( ! n>r[ valleys & ridges to :i* ! %>p b5ds & fractures ( ! /rata h giv5 rise2 b x is also 9 "p to be attribut$ to ! excavat+ p[] ex]t$ by wat]1 especially on ! int]/ratifi$ argillace\s b$s4 ,besides ! s]ies ( longitud9al valleys & ridges 9 ! ,weald1 !re are valleys :i* run 9 a transv]se direction1 pass+ ?r\gh ! *alk to ! bas9 ( ! ,?ames on ! "o side1 & to ! ,engli% ,*annel on ! o!r4 ,9 ?is mann] ! *a9 ( ! ,nor? ,d[ns is brok5 by ! riv]s ,wey1 ,mole1 ,d>5t1 ,m$way1 & ,/\r2 ! ,s\? ,d[ns by ! ,arun1 ,adur1 ,ouse1 & ,cuckm]e4#bdd-;,b ,if ^! transv]se holl[s c\ld be fill$ up1 all ! riv]s1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,conybe>e1 w\ld be =c$ to take an ea/]ly c\rse1 & to empty !mselves into ! sea by ,romney ,m>% & ,pev5sey ,levels4#bde-;,a ,mr4 ,m>t9 has sugge/$ t ! great cross fractures ( ! *alk1 :i* h become riv] *annels1 h a rem>kable correspond5ce on ea* side ( ! valley ( ! ,weald2 9 sev]al in/ances ! gorges 9 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns appe>+ to be directly oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,?us1 = example1 ! defiles ( ! ,wey 9 ! ,nor? ,d[ns1 & ( ! ,arun 9 ! ,s\?1 seem$ to co9cide 9 direction2 &1 9 l mann]1 ! ,ouse corresponds to ! ,d>5t1 & ! ,cuckm]e to ! ,m$way4#bde-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bee4 ,view ( ! *alk esc>pm5t ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,tak5 f ! ,devil's ,dike1 look+ t[>ds ! we/ & s\?-we/4 a4 ,! t[n ( ,/eyn+ is hidd5 by ?is po9t4 b4 ,edburton *ur*4 c4 ,road4 d4 ,riv] ,adur4 ,al?\gh ^! co9cid5ces may1 p]haps1 be accid5tal1 x is by no means improbable1 z h9t$ by ! au?or above m5tion$1 t great am\nt ( elevation t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! ,weald di/rict gave rise to transv]se fissures4 ,& z ! longitud9al valleys 7 connect$ ) t l9e> movem5t :i* caus$ ! anticl9al l9es runn+ ea/ & we/1 s ! cross fissures might h be5 occasion$ by ! int5sity ( ! upheav+ =ce t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! l9e4 ,b be=e treat+ ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! upheav+ movem5t may h act$1 ,i %all endeav\r to make ! read] m intimately acqua9t$ ) ! lead+ geographical features ( ! di/rict1 s f> z !y are ( geological int]e/4 ,9 :atev] direction we travel f ! t]ti>y /rata ( ! bas9s ( ,london & ,hamp%ire t[>ds ! valley ( ! ,weald1 we fir/ asc5d a slope ( :ite *alk1 ) fl9ts1 & !n f9d ourselves on ! summit ( a declivity consi/+1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( diff]5t memb]s ( ! *alk =mation2 bel[ :i* ! upp] gre5s&1 & sometimes1 also1 ! gault1 crop out4 ,?is /eep declivity is ! great esc>pm5t ( ! *alk be=e m5tion$1 :i* ov]hangs a valley excavat$ *iefly out ( ! argillace\s or m>ly b$1 t]m$ ,gault 7,no4 #c474 ,! esc>pm5t is cont9u\s along ! s\!rn t]m9ation ( ! ,nor? ,d[ns1 & may be trac$ f ! sea1 at ,folke/one1 we/w>d to ,guild=d & ! neighb\rhood ( ,pet]sfield1 & f !nce to ! t]m9ation ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns at ,bea*y ,head4 ,9 ?is precipice or /eep slope ! /rata are cut (f abruptly1 & x is evid5t t !y mu/ orig9ally h ext5d$ f>!r4 ,9 ! woodcut 7fig4 #bee4 p4 #bde471 "p ( ! esc>pm5t ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns is fai?fully repres5t$1 :]e ! d5udation at ! base ( ! declivity has be5 some:at m ext5sive ?an usual1 9 consequ5ce ( ! upp] & l[] gre5s& be+ =m$ ( v incoh]5t mat]ials1 ! upp]1 inde$1 be+ extremely ?9 & almo/ want+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bef4 ,*alk esc>pm5t1 z se5 f ! hill above ,/eyn+1 ,sussex4 ,! ca/le & village ( ,bramb] 9 ! =egr\nd4 ,! geologi/ _c fail to recognize 9 ?is view ! exact lik5ess ( a sea cliff2 & if he turns & looks 9 an opposite direction1 or ea/w>d1 t[>ds ,bea*y ,head 7see fig4 #bef471 he w see ! same l9e ( heights prolong$4 ,ev5 ^? :o are n accu/om$ to speculate on ! =m] *anges :i* ! surface has und]gone may fancy ! broad & level pla9 to resemble ! flat s&s :i* 7 laid dry by ! rec$+ tide1 & ! diff]5t project+ masses ( *alk to be ! headl&s ( a coa/ :i* sep>at$ ! diff]5t bays f ea* o!r4 ,9 reg>d to ! transv]se valleys be=e m5tion$1 z int]sect+ ! *alk hills1 "s idea ( !m may be d]iv$ f ! subjo9$ sket* 7fig4 #beg471 ( ! gorge ( ! riv] ,adur1 tak5 f ! summit ( ! *alk d[ns1 at a po9t 9 ! bridle-way lead+ f ! t[ns ( ,bramb] & ,/eyn+ to ,%oreham4 ,if ! read] w ref] aga9 to ! view giv5 9 a =m] woodcut 7fig4 #bee4 p4 #bde471 he w !re see ! exact po9t :]e ! gorge ( :i* ,i am n[ speak+ int]rupts ! *alk esc>pm5t4 ,a project+ hill1 at ! po9t a1 hides ! t[n ( ,/eyn+1 ne> :i* ! valley comm5ces :]e ! ,adur passes directly to ! sea at ,old ,%oreham4 ,! riv] fl[s ?r\gh a ne>ly level pla91 z d mo/ ( ! o!rs :i* int]sect ! hills ( ,surrey1 ,k5t1 & ,sussex2 & x is evid5t t ^! op5+s1 s f> at lea/ z !y are due to aque\s erosion1 h n be5 produc$ by ! riv]s1 _m ( :i*1 l ! ,ouse ne> ,lewes1 h fill$ up arms ( ! sea1 in/ead ( deep5+ ! holl[s :i* !y trav]se4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beg4 ,transv]se ,valley ( ! ,adur 9 ! ,s\? ,d[ns4 a4 ,t[n ( ,/eyn+4 b4 ,riv] ,adur4 c4 ,old ,%oreham4 ,n[1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! mann] 9 :i* ! five gr\ps ( /rata1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 repres5t$ 9 ! map1 fig4 #beb4 & 9 ! section fig4 #bec41 may h be5 br\ght into _! pres5t position1 ! foll[+ hypo!sis has be5 v g5]ally adopt$3--,suppose ! five =mations to lie 9 horizontal /ratification at ! bottom ( ! sea2 !n let a movem5t f bel[ press !m upw>ds into ! =m ( a flatt5$ dome1 & let ! cr[n ( ?is dome be aft]w>ds cut (f1 s t ! incision %\ld p5etrate to ! l[e/ ( ! five gr\ps4 ,! diff]5t b$s w\ld !n be expos$ on ! surface1 9 ! mann] exhibit$ 9 ! map1 fig4 #beb4bdg-;,a ,! quantity ( d5udation or removal by wat] ( /ratifi$ masses assum$ to h once rea*$ cont9u\sly f ! ,nor? to ! ,s\? ,d[ns is s enorm\s1 t ! read] may at fir/ be />tl$ by ! boldness ( ! hypo!sis4 ,b ! difficulty vani%es :5 once suffici5t "t is all[$ = ! gradual & successive rise ( ! /rata1 dur+ :i* ! waves & curr5ts ( ! ocean might sl[ly accompli% an op]ation1 :i* no sudd5 diluvial ru% ( wat]s c\ld possibly h effect$4 ,among o!r pro(s ( ! action ( wat]1 x may be /at$ t ! great longitud9al valleys foll[ ! outcrop ( ! s(t] & m incoh]5t b$s1 :ile ridges or l9es ( cliff usually occur at ^? po9ts :]e ! /rata are compos$ ( h>d] /one4 ,?us1 = example1 ! *alk ) fl9ts1 toge!r ) ! subjac5t upp] gre5s&1 :i* is (t5 us$ = build+1 "u ! prov9cial "n ( fire/one1 has be5 cut into a /eep cliff on t side on :i* ! sea encroa*$4 ,?is esc>pm5t b\nds a deep valley1 excavat$ *iefly out ( ! s(t argillace\s or m>ly b$1 t]m$ gault 7,no4 #c474 ,9 "s places ! upp] gre5s& is 9 a loose & incoh]5t /ate1 & !re x has be5 z mu* d5ud$ z ! gault2 z1 = example1 ne> ,bea*y ,head2 b f>!r to ! we/w>d x is ( great ?ickness1 & conta9s h>d b$s ( blue *]t & calc>e\s s&/one or fire/one4 ,"h1 accord+ly1 we f9d t x produces a correspond+ influ5ce on ! sc5]y ( ! c\ntry2 = x runs out l a /ep beyond ! foot ( ! *alk-hills1 & con/itutes a l[] t]race1 v>y+ 9 bread? f a qu>t] ( a mile to ?ree miles1 & foll[+ ! s9uosities ( ! *alk esc>pm5t4#bdh-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beh4 ,cross section4 a4 ,*alk ) fl9ts4 b4 ,*alk )\t fl9ts4 c4 ,upp] gre5s&1 or fire/one4 d4 ,gault4 ,x is impossible to desire a m satisfactory pro( t ! esc>pm5t is due to ! excavat+ p[] ( wat] dur+ ! rise ( ! /rata2 = ,i h %[n1 9 my acc\nt ( ! coa/ ( ,sicily1 9 :at mann] ! encroa*m5ts ( ! sea t5d to efface t succession ( t]races :i* mu/ o!rwise result f ! int]mitt5t upheaval ( a coa/ prey$ ^u by ! waves4#bdh-;,b ,dur+ ! int]val betwe5 two elevatory movem5ts1 ! l[] t]race w usually be de/roy$1 :]ev] x is compos$ ( incoh]5t mat]ials2 :]eas ! sea w n h "t entirely to sweep away ano!r "p ( ! same t]race1 or l[] plat=m1 :i* happ5s to be compos$ ( rocks ( a h>d] texture1 & capable ( (f]+ a firm] resi/ance to ! erosive action ( wat]4 ,z ! yield+ clay t]m$ gault w\ld be readily wa%$ away1 we f9d its outcrop m>k$ ev]y:]e by a valley :i* skirts ! base ( ! *alk hills1 & :i* is usually b\nd$ on ! opposite side by ! l[] gre5s&2 b z ! upp] b$s ( ?is la/ =mation are mo/ commonly loose & incoh]5t1 !y also h usually disappe>$ & increas$ ! bread? ( ! valley4 ,b 9 ^? di/ricts :]e *]t1 lime/one1 & o!r solid mat]ials ent] l>gely into ! composition ( ?is =mation 7,no4 #d471 !y give rise to a range ( hills p>allel to ! *alk1 :i* sometimes rival ! esc>pm5t ( ! *alk itself 9 height1 or ev5 surpass x1 z 9 ,lei? ,hill1 ne> ,dork+4 ,?is ridge (t5 pres5ts a /eep esc>pm5t t[>ds ! s(t argillace\s deposit call$ ! ,weald clay 7,no4 #e42 see ! /rong l9es 9 fig4 #bec4 p4 #bdc471 :i* usually =ms a broad valley1 sep>at+ ! l[] gre5s& f ! ,ha/+s s&s or ,=e/ ridge2 b :]e subord9ate b$s ( s&/one ( a firm] texture occur1 ! uni=mity ( ! pla9 ( ,no4 #e4 is brok5 by wav+ irregul>ities & hillocks4 ,x w be easy to %[ h[ closely ! sup]ficial inequalities agree ) ^? :i* we might naturally expect to orig9ate dur+ ! gradual rise ( ! ,weald5 di/rict4 ,suppose ! l9e ( ! mo/ en]getic movem5t to h co9cid$ ) :at is n[ ! c5tral ridge ( ! ,weald valley2 9 t case ! fir/ l& :i* em]g$ mu/ h be5 situat$ :]e ! ,=e/ ridge is n[ plac$4 ,"h _m %oals & reefs may fir/ h exi/$1 & isl&s ( *alk dev\r$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages by ! ocean 7see fig4 #bec472 s t ! top ( ! %att]$ dome :i* fir/ appe>$ above wat] may h be5 utt]ly de/roy$1 & ! masses repres5t$ by ! fa9t] l9es 7fig4 #bec47 remov$4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #bei41 ,fig4 #bfj4 ,! dott$ l9es repres5t ! sea-level4 ,! upp] gre5s& is repres5t$ 7fig4 #bei47 z =m+ on ! left h& a s+le precipice ) ! *alk2 :ile on ! "r !re are two cliffs1 ) an int]v5+ t]race1 z be=e describ$ 9 fig4 #beh4 ,two /rips ( l& w\ld !n rema9 on ea* side ( a *annel1 pres5t+ ranges ( :ite cliffs fac+ ea* o!r4 ,a p[]ful curr5t might !n scoop out a *annel 9 ! gault 7,no4 #b474 ,?is s(t] b$ w\ld yield ) ease 9 proportion z p>ts ( x 7 br\ght up f "t to "t & expos$ to ! fury ( ! waves1 s t l>ge spaces occupi$ by ! h>d] =mation or gre5s& 7,no4 #c47 w\ld be laid b>e4 ,?is la/ rock1 oppos+ a m effectual resi/ance1 w\ld next em]ge2 :ile ! *alk cliffs1 at ! base ( :i* ! gault is rapidly und]m9$1 w\ld rec$e f>!r f ea* o!r1 aft] :i* f\r p>allel /rips ( l&1 or r[s ( isl&s1 w\ld be caus$1 :i* are repres5t$ by ! masses :i* 9 fig4 #bfj4 rise above ! dott$ l9e indicat+ ! sea-level4 ,9 ?is diagram1 h[ev]1 ! incl9ation ( ! upp] surface ( ! =mations 7,nos4 #a4 & #c471 is exagg]at$4 ,orig9ally ?is surface mu/ h be5 level1 l ! subm>9e t]races produc$ by d5udation1 & describ$ be=e 7p4 #gd4 & #gg472 b !y 7 aft]w>ds m & m tilt$ by t g5]al movem5t to :i* ! region ( ! ,weald owes its /ructure4 ,at l5g?1 by ! f>!r elevation ( ! dome-%ap$ mass1 ! clay 7,no4 #d47 w\ld be br\ght )9 rea* ( ! waves1 :i* w\ld probably ga9 ! m easy access to ! subjac5t deposit by ! r5ts :i* w\ld be caus$ 9 ,no4 #c41 & 9 ! c5tral "p ( ! ridge :]e ! uplift+ =ce _h be5 ex]t$ ) ! greate/ en]gy4 ,! opposite cliffs1 9 :i* ! gre5s& 7,no4 #c47 t]m9ates1 w\ld n[ beg9 to rec$e f ea* o!r1 hav+ at _! base a yield+ /ratum ( clay 7,no4 #d474 ,la/ly1 ! sea w\ld p5etrate to ! s& 7,no4 #e471 & !n ! /ate ( ?+s indicat$ 9 ! d>k l9es ( ! upp] section 7fig4 #bec471 w\ld be consummat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfa4 ,! ,coomb1 ne> ,lewes4 ,x 0 /at$ t !re are _m l9es ( flexure & dislocation1 runn+ ea/ & we/1 or p>allel to ! c5tral axis ( ! ,weald54 ,!y are num]\s 9 ! di/rict ( ! ,ha/+s s&1 & sometimes occur 9 ! *alk itself4 ,"o ( ! latt] k9d has giv5 rise to ! rav9e call$ ! ,coomb1 ne> ,lewes1 & 0 fir/ trac$ out by ,dr4 ,mantell1 9 ^: company ,i exam9$ x4 ,?is coomb is se5 on ! ea/]n side ( ! valley ( ! ,ouse1 9 ! suburbs ( ! t[n ( ,lewes4 ,! /eep declivities on ea* side are cov]$ ) gre5 turf1 z is ! bottom1 :i* is p]fectly dry4 ,no outw>d signs ( di/urbance are visible2 & ! connection ( ! holl[ ) subt]ranean movem5ts w\ld n h be5 suspect$ by ! geologi/1 _h n ! evid5ce ( great convulsions be5 cle>ly expos$ 9 ! esc>pm5t ( ! valley ( ! ,ouse1 & ! num]\s *alk pits work$ at ! t]m9ation ( ! ,coomb4 ,by ! aid ( ^! we discov] t ! rav9e co9cides precisely ) a l9e ( fault1 on "o side ( :i* ! *alk ) fl9ts 7a1 fig4 #bfb471 appe>s at ! summit ( ! hill1 :ile x is ?r[n d[n to ! bottom on ! o!r4 ,mr4 ,m>t91 9 8 "w on ! geology ( ,we/]n ,sussex1 publi%$ 9 #ahbh1 ?rew mu* light on ! /ructure ( ! ,weald5 by trac+ out cont9u\sly = miles ! direction ( _m anticl9al l9es & cross fractures2 & ! same c\rse ( inve/igation has s9ce be5 foll[$ out 9 great] detail by ,mr4 ,hopk9s4 ,! ma!matician la/-m5tion$ has %[n t ! obs]v$ direction ( ! l9es ( flexure & dislocation 9 ! ,weald di/rict co9cide ) ^? :i* might h be5 anticipat$ !oretically on me*anical pr9ciples1 if we assume c]ta9 simple conditions "u :i* ! /rata 7 lift$ up by an expansive subt]ranean =ce4 ,he f9ds by calculation t if ?is =ce 0 appli$ s z to act uni=mly upw>ds )9 an elliptic area1 ! longitud9al fissures !reby produc$ w\ld ne>ly co9cide ) ! outl9es ( ! ellipse1 =m+ cracks1 :i* are portions ( small] conc5tric ellipses1 p>allel to ! m>g9 ( ! l>g] "o4 ,^! longitud9al fissures w\ld also be int]cept$ by o!rs runn+ at "r angles to !m1 & bo? l9es ( fracture may h be5 produc$ at ! same "t4#bea-;,a ,9 ?is illu/ration x is suppos$ t ! expansive =ce act$ simultane\sly & ) equal int5sity at e po9t )9 ! upheav$ area1 & n ) great] en]gy along ! c5tral axis or region ( pr9cipal elevation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4 ,fault 9 ! cliff hills ne> ,lewes4 ,mantell4 a4 ,*alk ) fl9ts4 b4 ,l[] *alk4#bea-;,b ,! geologi/ _c fail to d]ive great advantage 9 8 speculations f ! ma!matical inve/igation ( a problem ( ?is k9d1 :]e results free f all unc]ta9ty are obta9$ on ! assumption ( c]ta9 simple conditions4 ,su* results1 :5 once asc]ta9$ by ma!matical me?ods1 may s]ve z /&>d cases1 to :i* o!rs occurr+ 9 nature ( a m complicat$ k9d may be ref]r$4 ,9 ord] t a uni=m =ce %\ld cause ! /rata to atta9 9 ! c5tre ( ! ellipse a height s f> exce$+ t :i* !y h rea*$ r\nd ! m>g91 x is necess>y to assume t ! mass ( upheav$ /rata (f]$ orig9ally a v unequal degree ( resi/ance to ! subt]ranean =ce4 ,?is may h happ5$ ei!r f _! be+ m fractur$ 9 "o place ?an 9 ano!r1 or f be+ press$ d[n by a less weight ( incumb5t /rata2 z if we suppose1 :at is f> f improbable1 t great d5udation _h tak5 place 9 ! middle ( ! ,weald5 be=e ! f9al & pr9cipal upheaval occurr$4 ,x is sugge/$ t ! b$s may h be5 act$ ^u some:at 9 ! mann] ( a c>pet spread out loosely on a floor1 & nail$ d[n r\nd ! edges1 :i* w\ld swell into ! %ape ( a dome if press$ up equally at e po9t by air admitt$ f b5ea?4 ,b :5 we are reason+ on ! p>ticul> ph5om5a ( ! ,weald1 we h no geological data = det]m9+ :e!r x be m probable t orig9ally ! resi/ance to be ov]come 0 s extremely unequal 9 diff]5t places1 or :e!r ! subt]ranean =ce1 in/ead ( be+ ev]y:]e uni=m1 0 n appli$ ) v diff]5t degrees ( int5sity b5ea? di/9ct portions ( ! uprais$ area4 ,! op9ion t bo? ! longitud9al & transv]se l9es ( fracture may h be5 produc$ simultane\sly1 accords well ) t express$ by ,m4 ,?urmann1 9 8 "w on ! anticl9al ridges & valleys ( elevation ( ! ,b]nese ,jura4#beb-;,a ,= ! accuracy ( 8 map & sections ,i c v\*1 f p]sonal exam9ation1 9 #ahce1 ( "p ( ! region survey$ by him4 ,among o!r results1 at :i* ?is au?or arriv$1 x appe>s t ! bread? ( all ! num]\s anticl9al ridges & dome-%ap$ masses 9 ! ,jura is inv>iably great 9 proportion to ! numb] ( ! =mations expos$ to view2 or1 9 o!r words1 to ! dep? to :i* ! sup]impos$ gr\ps ( second>y /rata h be5 laid op54 7,see fig4 #ga4 p4 #ee4 = /ructure ( ,jura47 ,he also rem>ks1 t ! anticl9al l9es are occasionally oblique & cross ea* o!r1 9 :i* case ! greate/ dislocation ( ! b$s takes place4 ,"s ( ! cross fractures are imag9$ by him to h be5 contemporane\s1 o!rs subsequ5t to ! longitud9al ones4 ,i h assum$1 9 ! =m] "p ( ?is *apt]1 t ! rise ( ! ,weald 0 gradual1 :]eas _m geologi/s h attribut$ its elevation to a s+le ef=t ( subt]ranean viol5ce4 ,!re appe>s to !m su* a unity ( effect 9 ?is & o!r l9es ( d]ang$ /rata 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 su* z t ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 z is inconsi/5t ) ! supposition ( a great numb] ( sep>ate movem5ts recurr+ aft] long int]vals ( "t4 ,b we "k t e>?quakes are repeat$ ?r\gh\t a long s]ies ( ages 9 ! same spots1 l volcanic eruptions4 ,! olde/ lavas ( ,etna 7 p\r$ out _m ?\s&s1 p]haps myriads ( ye>s be=e ! newe/1 & yet !y1 & ! movem5ts accompany+ _! emission1 h produc$ a symmetrical m\nta92 & if riv]s ( melt$ matt] ?us cont9ue to fl[ 9 ! same direction1 & t[>ds ! same po9t1 = an indef9ite lapse ( ages1 :at difficulty is !re 9 conceiv+ t ! subt]ranean volcanic =ce1 occasion+ ! rise or fall ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 may1 by reit]at$ movem5ts1 produce ! mo/ p]fect unity ( result8 ,alluvium ( ! ,weald4--,our next inquiry may be direct$ to ! alluvium /rew$ ov] ! surface ( ! suppos$ area ( d5udation4 ,has any wreck be5 left beh9d ( ! /rata remov$8 ,to ?is we may answ]1 t ! *alk d[ns ev5 on _! summits are cov]$ e :]e ) gravel compos$ ( unr\nd$ & p>tially r\nd$ *alk fl9ts1 su* z might rema9 aft] masses ( :ite *alk _h be5 s(t5$ & remov$ by wat]4 ,?is sup]ficial accumulation ( ! h>d or silice\s mat]ials ( ! dis9tegrat$ /rata may be due 9 "s degree to pluvial action2 = dur+ extraord9>y ra9s a ru% ( wat] *>g$ ) calc>e\s matt]1 ( a milk-:ite col\r1 may be se5 to desc5d ev5 g5tly slop+ hills ( *alk4 ,if a lay] no ?ick] ?an ! t5? ( an in* be remov$ once 9 a c5tury1 a consid]able mass may 9 ! c\rse ( indef9ite ages melt away1 leav+ no?+ save a lay] ( fl9ty nodules to atte/ its =m] exi/5ce4 ,^! unroll$ fl9ts may rema9 mix$ ) o!rs m or less r\nd$1 :i* ! waves left orig9ally on ! surface ( ! *alk1 :5 x fir/ em]g$ f ! sea4 ,a /ratum ( f9e clay sometimes cov]s ! surface ( slight depressions & ! bottom ( valleys 9 ! :ite *alk1 :i* may repres5t ! alum9\s residue ( ! rock1 aft] ! pure c>bonate ( lime has be5 dissolv$ by ra9 wat]1 *>g$ ) excess ( c>bonic acid d]iv$ f decay$ vegetable matt]4#bec-;,a ,al?\gh fl9t gravel is s abundant on ! *alk itself1 x is usually want+ 9 ! deep longitud9al valleys at ! foot ( ! *alk esc>pm5t1 al?\gh1 9 "s few in/ances1 ! detritus ( ! *alk has be5 trac$ 9 pat*es ov] ! gault1 & ev5 ! l[] gre5s&1 = a di/ance ( sev]al miles f ! esc>pm5t ( ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,b no ve/ige ( ! *alk & its fl9ts has be5 se5 on ! c5tral ridge ( ! ,weald or ! ,ha/+s s&s1 b m]ely gravel d]iv$ f ! rocks imm$iately subjac5t4 ,?is di/ribution ( alluvium1 & especially ! abs5ce ( *alk detritus 9 ! c5tral di/rict1 agrees well ) ! !ory ( d5udation be=e set =?2 = to return to fig4 #bei41 if ! *alk 7,no4 #a47 7 once cont9u\s & cov]$ e :]e ) fl9t gravel1 ?is sup]ficial cov]+ w\ld be ! fir/ to be c>ri$ away f ! highe/ "p ( ! dome long be=e any ( ! gault 7,no4 #b47 0 laid b>e4 ,n[ if "s ru9s ( ! *alk rema9 at fir/ on ! gault1 ^! w\ld be1 9 a great degree1 cle>$ away be=e any "p ( ! l[] gre5s& 7,no4 #c47 is d5ud$4 ,?us 9 proportion to ! numb] & ?ickness ( ! gr\ps remov$ 9 succession1 is ! probability less5$ ( our f9d+ any remnants ( ! highe/ gr\p /rew$ ov] ! b>$ surface ( ! l[e/4 ,z an exception to ! g5]al rule ( ! small di/ance to :i* any wreck ( ! *alk c be trac$ f ! esc>pm5ts ( ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns1 ,i may m5tion a ?ick b$ ( *alk fl9ts :i* occurs ne> ,b>combe1 ab\t ?ree miles to ! nor? ( ,lewes 7see fig4 #bfc471 a place :i* ,i visit$ ) ,dr4 ,mantell1 to :om ,i am indebt$ = ! accompany+ section4 ,ev5 "h x w be se5 t ! gravel rea*es no f>!r ?an ! ,weald ,clay4 ,! same section %[s "o ( ! m9or ea/ & we/ anticl9al l9es be=e allud$ to 7p4 #bdd474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4 ,section f ! nor? esc>pm5t ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns to ,b>combe4 #a4 ,gravel compos$ ( p>tially r\nd$ *alk fl9ts4 #b4 ,*alk ) & )\t fl9ts4 #c4 ,l[e/ *alk or *alk m>l 7upp] gre5s& want+74 #d4 ,gault4 #e4 ,l[] gre5s&4 #f4 ,weald clay4 ,at :at p]iod ! ,weald ,valley 0 d5ud$4--,if we inquire at :at geological p]iod ! d5udation ( ! ,weald 0 effect$1 we %all imm$iately p]ceive t ! "q is limit$ to ?is po9t1 :e!r x took place dur+ or subsequ5t to ! deposition ( ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,= 9 ! bas9s ( ,london & ,hamp%ire ! ,eoc5e /rata are con=mable to ! *alk1 be+ horizontal :]e ! b$s ( *alk are horizontal1 & v]tical :]e !y are v]tical1 s t bo? s]ies ( rocks appe> to h p>ticipat$ 9 ne>ly ! same movem5ts4 ,at ! ea/]n extremity ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 "s b$s ev5 ( ! fre%wat] s]ies h be5 ?r[n on _! edges1 l ^? ( ! ,london clay4 ,nev]!less we c by no means inf] t all ! t]ti>y deposits ( ! ,london & ,hamp%ire bas9s once ext5d$ l ! *alk ov] ! entire valley ( ! ,weald1 because ! d5udation ( ! *alk & gre5s& may h be5 go+ on 9 ! c5tre ( t area1 :ile contigu\s p>ts ( ! sea 7 suffici5tly deep to receive & reta9 ! matt] d]iv$ f t wa/e4 ,?us :ile ! waves & curr5ts 7 excavat+ ! longitud9al valleys ,d & ,c 7fig4 #bfd471 ! deposits a may h be5 ?r[n d[n to ! bottom ( ! contigu\s deep wat] ,e1 ! s$im5t be+ drift$ ?r\gh transv]se fissures1 z be=e expla9$4 ,9 ?is case1 ! rise ( ! =mations ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 may h be5 go+ on contemporane\sly ) ! excavation ( ! valleys ,c & ,d1 & ) ! accumulation ( ! t]ti>y /rata a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd4 ,cross section4 ,?is idea receives "s c\nt5ance f ! fact ( ! t]ti>y /rata1 ne> _! junction ) ! *alk ( ! ,london & ,hamp%ire bas9s1 (t5 consi/+ ( d5se b$s ( s& & %+le1 z at ,blackhea? & 9 ! ,add+ton ,hills ne> ,croydon4 ,!y also conta9 occasionally fre%wat] %ells & ! rema9s ( l& animals & plants1 :i* indicate ! =m] pres5ce ( l& at no great di/ance1 "s "p ( :i* may h occupi$ ! c5tre ( ! ,weald4 ,su* masses ( well-roll$ pebbles occurr+ 9 ! l[e/ ,eoc5e /rata1 or ^? call$ ! pla/ic clay & s&s be=e describ$ 7,no4 #c4 b1 ,tab4 p4 #aig471 imply ! neighb\rhood ( an anci5t %ore4 ,!y also indicate ! de/ruction ( pre-exi/+ *alk ) fl9ts4 ,at ! same "t fossil %ells ( ! g5]a ,melania1 ,cyclas1 & ,unio1 appe>+ "h & !re 9 b$s ( ! same age1 toge!r ) plants & ! bones ( l& animals1 be> te/imony to contigu\s l&1 :i* probably con/itut$ isl&s scatt]$ ov] ! space n[ occupi$ by ! t]ti>y bas9s ( ! ,se9e & ,?ames4 ,! /age ( d5udation repres5t$ 9 fig4 #bei41 p4 #bdi41 may expla9 ! /ate ( ?+s prevail+ at po9ts :]e su* isl&s exi/$4 ,by ! alt]nate ris+ & s9k+ ( ! :ite *alk & old] b$s1 a l>ge area may h become ov]spread ) gravelly s&y1 & clayey b$s ( fluvio-m>9e & %all[-wat] orig91 be=e any ( ! ,london clay prop] 7or ,calcaire grossi] 9 ,france7 7 sup]impos$4 ,?is may acc\nt = ! fact t pat*es ( pla/ic clay & s& 7,no4 #c4 b1 ,tab4 p4 #aig471 are scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! *alk1 rea*+ 9 "s places to great heights1 & approa*+ ev5 ! edges ( ! esc>pm5ts4 ,we mu/ suppose t subsequ5tly a gradual subsid5ce took place 9 c]ta9 areas1 :i* all[$ ! ,london clay prop] to accumulate ov] ! ,l[] ,eoc5e s&s & clays1 9 a deep sea4 ,dur+ ?is s9k+ d[n 7! v]tical am\nt ( :i* equall$ #hjj1 & 9 p>ts ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 #ahjj feet71 ! "w ( d5udation w\ld be unceas+1 be+ always h[ev] conf9$ to ^? areas :]e l& or isl&s exi/$4 ,at l5g?1 :5 ! ,bag%ot s& _h be5 9 its turn ?r[n d[n on ! ,london clay1 ! space cov]$ by ^! two =mations 0 aga9 uprais$ f ! sea to ab\t ! height :i* x has s9ce reta9$4 ,dur+ ?is upheaval1 ! waves w\ld aga9 ex]t _! p[]1 n only on ! :ite *alk & l[] cretace\s & ,weald5 /rata1 b also on ! ,eoc5e =mations ( ! ,london bas91 excavat+ valleys & und]m9+ cliffs z ! /rata em]g$ f ! deep4 ,!re are gr\nds1 z be=e /at$ 7p4 #bje471 = presum+ t ! t]ti>y area ( ,london 0 conv]t$ into l& be=e t ( ,hamp%ire1 & = ?is reason x conta9s no m>9e ,eoc5e deposits s mod]n z ^? ( ,b>ton ,cliff1 or ! /ill new] fre%wat] & fluvio-m>9e b$s ( ,hordwell & ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,^! la/ seem unequivocally to demon/rate ! local inequality ( ! upheav+ & depress+ movem5ts ( ! p]iod allud$ to2 = we f9d1 9 spite ( ! evid5ce af=d$ 9 ,alum & ,:ite ,cliff ,bays1 ( cont9u$ depression to ! ext5t ( #ahjj or #bjjj feet1 t at ! close ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod a d5se =mation ( fre%wat] /rata 0 produc$4 ,! fossils ( ^! /rata be> te/imony to riv]s dra9+ adjac5t l&s1 & ! exi/5ce ( num]\s quadrup$s on ^? l&s4 ,in/ead ( su* ph5om5a1 ! signs ( an op5 sea might naturally h be5 expect$ z ! consequ5ce ( s mu* subsid5ce1 _h n ! depression be5 accompani$ or foll[$ by upheaval 9 a region imm$iately adjo9+4 ,:5 we attempt to speculate on ! geographical *anges :i* took place 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,eoc5e epo*1 & to re/ore 9 imag9ation ! =m] /ate ( ! physical geography ( ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 we %all d well to be> 9 m9d t :]ev] !re are pro(s ( great d5udation1 !re also ! greate/ area ( l& has probably exi/$4 ,9 ! same space1 moreov]1 ! oscillations ( level1 & ! alt]nate subm]g5ce & em]g5ce ( coa/s1 may be presum$ to h be5 mo/ frequ5t2 = ^! fluctuations facilitate ! wa/+ & remov+ p[] ( waves1 curr5ts1 & riv]s4 ,we %\ld also rememb] t !re is always a t5d5cy 9 ! la/ d5ud+ op]ations1 to efface all signs ( prec$+ d5udation1 or at lea/ all ^? m>ks ( wa/e f :i* alone a geologi/ c asc]ta9 ! date ( ! removal ( ! miss+ /rata )9 ! d5ud$ area4 ,x may (t5 be difficult to settle ! *ronology ev5 ( ! la/ ( a s]ies ( su* acts ( removal1 b x mu/ be1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 almo/ always impossible to assign a date to ea* ( ! antec$5t d5udations4 ,if we wi% to det]m9e ! times ( ! de/ruction ( rocks1 we mu/ look any :]e r ?an to ! spaces once occupi$ by ! miss+ rocks4 ,we mu/ inquire to :at regions ! ru9s ( ! :ite *alk1 gre5s&1 ,weald51 & o!r /rata :i* h disappe>$ 7 transport$4 ,we are !n l$ at once to ! exam9ation ( all ! deposits new] ?an ! *alk1 & fir/ to ! olde/ ( ^!1 ! ,l[] ,eoc5e1 & its s&1 %+le1 & clay4 ,9 !m1 s l>gely develop$ 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! d5ud$ area1 we discov] ! wreck we are 9 se>* (1 regul>ly /ratifi$1 & inclos+1 9 "s ( its lay]s1 organic rema9s ( a littoral1 & sometimes fluviatile "*4 ,:at m c we desire8 ,! %ores mu/ h consi/$ ( *alk1 gre5s&1 & ,weald51 s9ce ^! 7 ! only sup]ficial rocks 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e epo*4 ,! waves ( ! sea1 !re=e1 & ! riv]s 7 gr9d+ d[n *alk-fl9ts & *]t f ! gre5s& into %+le & s&1 or 7 wa%+ away calc>e\s & argillace\s matt] f ! cretace\s & ,weald5 b$s1 dur+ ! :ole ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,?us we obta9 ! date ( a great "p at lea/ ( t enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation ( :i* we h su* /rik+ monum5ts 9 ! space int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4 ,cross section4 ,a4 ,*alk ) lay]s ( fl9t dipp+ slightly to ! s\?4 b4 ,anci5t bea*1 consi/+ ( f9e s&1 f "o to f\r feet ?ick1 cov]$ by %+le f five to eight feet ?ick ( pebbles ( *alk-fl9t1 granite1 & o!r rocks1 ) brok5 %ells ( rec5t m>9e species1 & bones ( cetacea4 c4 ,elephant b$1 ab\t fifty feet ?ick1 consi/+ ( lay]s ( :ite *alk rubble1 ) brok5 *alk-fl9ts1 9 :i* deposit are f\nd bones ( ox1 de]1 horse1 & mammo?4 d4 ,s& & %+le ( mod]n bea*4 ,!re h be5 "s movem5ts ( l& on a small] scale s9ce ! ,eoc5e p]iod 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&4 ,"o ( ! late/ ( ^! happ5$ 9 ! ,plei/oc5e1 or ev5 p]haps z late z ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,! =mation call$ by ,dr4 ,mantell ! ,elephant ,b$1 at ! foot ( ! *alk cliffs at ,brighton1 is n m]ely a talus ( calc>e\s rubble collect$ at ! base ( an inl& cliff1 b exhibits e appe>ance ( hav+ be5 spread out 9 successive horizontal lay]s by wat] 9 motion4 ,! deposit allud$ to skirts ! %ores betwe5 ,brighton & ,rott+dean1 & ano!r mass app>5tly ( ! same age occurs at ,dov]4 ,! ph5om5a appe> to me to sugge/ ! foll[+ conclusions3--,fir/1 ! s\?-ea/]n "p ( ,engl& _h acquir$ its actual configuration :5 ! anci5t *alk cliff ,a a 0 =m$1 ! bea* ( s& & %+le b hav+ !n be5 ?r[n up at ! base ( ! cliff4 ,aft]w>ds ! :ole coa/1 or at lea/ t "p ( x :]e ! elephant b$ n[ ext5ds1 subsid$ to ! dep? ( #ej or #fj feet2 & dur+ ! p]iod ( subm]g5ce successive lay]s ( :ite calc>e\s rubble c 7 accumulat$1 s z to cov] ! anci5t bea* b4 ,subsequ5tly1 ! coa/ 0 aga9 rais$1 s t ! anci5t %ore 0 elevat$ to a level some:at high] ?an its orig9al position4#beg-;,a ,,footnotes3 #bda-;,a ,an acc\nt ( ^! cliffs 0 read by ! au?or to ! ,briti% ,assoc4 at ,glasg[1 ,sept4 #ahdj4 #bda-;,b ,se9e-,inf]ieure1 p4 #adb4 & pl4 #f4 fig4 #a4 #bdc-;,a ,botley ,hill1 ne> ,god/one1 9 ,surrey1 0 f\nd by trigonometrical measurem5t to be #hhj feet above ! level ( ! sea2 & ,wro?am ,hill1 ne> ,maid/one1 :i* appe>s to be next 9 height ( ! ,nor? ,d[ns1 #gie feet4 #bdc-;,b ,my fri5d ,dr4 ,mantell has k9dly drawn up ?is scale at my reque/4 #bdd-;,a ,fitton1 ,geol4 ( ,ha/+s1 p4 #ee4 #bdd-;,b ,conybe>e1 ,outl9es ( ,geol41 p4 #ha4 #bde-;,a ,ibid41 p4 #ade4 #bde-;,b ,geol4 ( ,we/]n ,sussex1 p4 #fa4 #bdg-;,a ,see illu/rations ( ?is !ory by ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,sket* ( ,ha/+s4 #bdh-;,a ,sir ,e4 ,mur*ison1 ,geol4 ,sket* ( ,sussex1 c41 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ih4 #bdh-;,b ,see fig4 #id4 p4 #gf4 #bea-;,a ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$4 ,no4 #gd4 p4 #cfc4 #ahda1 & ,g4 ,s4 ,trans4 #b ,s]4 v4 #g4 #bea-;,b ,= f>!r in=mation1 see ,mantell's ,geol4 ( ,s4 ,e4 ( ,engl&1 p4 #ceb4 #beb-;,a ,s\levem5s ,jurassiques4 ,p>is1 #ahcb4 #bec-;,a ,see above1 p4 #hb4 #beg-;,a ,see ,mantell's ,geol4 ( ,s4 ,e4 ( ,engl&1 p4 #cb4 ,aft] re-exam9+ ! elephant b$ 9 #ahcd1 ,i 0 no long] 9 d\bt ( its hav+ be5 a regul> subaque\s deposit4 ,9 #ahbh1 ,dr4 ,mantell discov]$ 9 ! %+le bel[ ! *alk-rubble ! jawbone ( a :ale #ab feet long1 :i* mu/ h belong$ to an individual f #fj to #gj feet 9 l5g?1 ,m$als ( ,creation1 p4 #hbe4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,oolite ,,& ,,lias4 ,subdivisions ( ! ,oolitic or ,jurassic gr\p--,physical geography ( ! ,oolite 9 ,engl& & ,france--,upp] ,oolite--,portl& /one & fossils--,li?ographic /one ( ,sol5h(5--,middle ,oolite1 coral rag--,zoophytes--,n]9aean lime/one--,dic]as lime/one--,ox=d clay1 ,ammonites & ,belemnites--,l[] ,oolite1 ,cr9oideans--,great ,oolite & ,brad=d clay--,/onesfield slate--,fossil mammalia1 plac5tal & m>supial--,resemblance to an ,au/ralian fauna--,doctr9e ( progressive developm5t--,collywe/on slates--,york%ire ,oolitic coal-field--,brora coal--,inf]ior ,oolite & fossils4 ,,oolitic ,,or ,,jurassic ,,gr\p4--,bel[ ! fre%wat] gr\p call$ ! ,weald51 or1 :]e ?is is want+1 imm$iately b5ea? ! ,cretace\s =mation1 a great s]ies ( m>9e /rata1 commonly call$ ! ,oolite1 occurs 9 ,engl& & _m o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,?is gr\p has be5 s nam$1 because1 9 ! c\ntries :]e x 0 fir/ exam9$1 ! lime/ones belong+ to x _h an oolitic /ructure 7see p4 #ab474 ,^! rocks occupy 9 ,engl& a zone :i* is ne>ly #cj miles 9 av]age bread?1 & ext5ds across ! isl&1 f ,york%ire 9 ! nor?-ea/1 to ,dorset%ire 9 ! s\?-we/4 ,_! m9]al *>act]s are n uni=m ?r\gh\t ?is region2 b ! foll[+ are ! names ( ! pr9cipal subdivisions obs]v$ 9 ! c5tral & s\?-ea/]n p>ts ( ,engl&3-- ,,oolite4 ,upp] a4 ,portl& /one & s&4 b4 ,kimm]idge clay4 ,middle c4 ,coral rag4 d4 ,ox=d clay4 ,l[] e4 ,cornbra% & ,=e/ m>ble4 f4 ,great ,oolite & ,/onesfield slate4 g4 ,full]'s e>?4 h4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,! ,lias !n succe$s to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,! ,upp] oolitic sy/em ( ! above table has usually ! ,kimm]idge clay = its base2 ! ,middle oolitic sy/em1 ! ,ox=d clay4 ,! ,l[] sy/em reposes on ! ,lias1 an argillo-calc>e\s =mation1 :i* "s include 9 ! ,l[] ,oolite1 b :i* w be treat$ ( sep>ately 9 ! next *apt]4 ,_m ( ^! subdivisions are di/+ui%$ by peculi> organic rema9s2 & ?\gh v>y+ 9 ?ickness1 may be trac$ 9 c]ta9 directions = great di/ances1 especially if we comp>e ! "p ( ,engl& to :i* ! above-m5tion$ type ref]s ) ! nor?-ea/ ( ,france1 & ! ,jura m\nta9s adjo9+4 ,9 t c\ntry1 di/ant above #djj geographical miles1 ! analogy to ! ,engli% type1 not)/&+ ! ?9ness1 or occasional abs5ce ( ! clays1 is m p]fect ?an 9 ,york%ire or ,norm&y4 ,physical geography4--,! alt]nation1 on a gr& scale1 ( di/9ct =mations ( clay & lime/one1 has caus$ ! oolitic & liassic s]ies to give rise to "s m>k$ features 9 ! physical outl9e ( p>ts ( ,engl& & ,france4 ,wide valleys c usually be trac$ ?r\gh\t ! long b\nds ( c\ntry :]e ! argillace\s /rata crop out2 & betwe5 ^! valleys ! lime/ones are obs]v$1 compos+ ranges ( hills1 or m elevat$ gr\nds4 ,^! ranges t]m9ate abruptly on ! side on :i* ! sev]al clays rise up f b5ea? ! calc>e\s /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4 ,cross section4 ,! annex$ diagram w give ! read] an idea ( ! configuration ( ! surface n[ allud$ to1 su* z may be se5 9 pass+ f ,london to ,*elt5ham1 or 9 o!r p>allel l9es1 f ea/ to we/1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,engl&4 ,x has be5 necess>y1 h[ev]1 9 ?is draw+1 greatly to exagg]ate ! incl9ation ( ! b$s1 & ! height ( ! sev]al =mations1 z comp>$ to _! horizontal ext5t4 ,x w be rem>k$1 t ! l9es ( cliff1 or esc>pm5t1 face t[>ds ! we/ 9 ! great calc>e\s em95ces =m$ by ! ,*alk & ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolites2 & at ! base ( :i* we h respectively ! ,gault1 ,kimm]idge clay1 ,ox=d clay1 & ,lias4 ,?is la/ =ms1 g5]ally1 a broad vale at ! foot ( ! esc>pm5t ( inf]ior oolite1 b :]e x acquires consid]able ?ickness1 & conta9s solid b$s ( m>l/one1 x occupies ! l[] "p ( ! esc>pm5t4 ,! ext]nal outl9e ( ! c\ntry :i* ! geologi/ obs]ves 9 travell+ ea/w>d f ,p>is to ,metz is precisely analog\s1 & is caus$ by a simil> succession ( rocks int]v5+ betwe5 ! t]ti>y /rata & ! ,lias2 ) ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t ! esc>pm5ts ( ,*alk1 ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolites1 face t[>ds ! ea/ in/ead ( ! we/4 ,! ,*alk crops out f b5ea? ! t]ti>y s&s & clays ( ! ,p>is bas91 ne> ,ep]nay1 & ! ,gault f b5ea? ! ,*alk & ,upp] ,gre5s& at ,cl]mont-en-,argonne2 & pass+ f ?is place by ,v]dun & ,eta9 to ,metz1 we f9d two lime/one ranges1 ) int]v5+ vales ( clay1 precisely resembl+ ^? ( s\!rn & c5tral ,engl&1 until we rea* ! great pla9 ( ,lias at ! base ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite at ,metz4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! d5ud+ causes h act$ simil>ly ov] an area sev]al hundr$ miles 9 diamet]1 sweep+ away ! s(t] clays m ext5sively ?an ! lime/ones1 & und]m9+ ^! la/ s z to cause !m to =m /eep cliffs :]ev] ! h>d] calc>e\s rock 0 bas$ ^u a m yield+ & de/ructible clay4 ,?is d5udation probably occurr$ :ile ! l& 0 sl[ly ris+ out ( ! sea4#bei-;,a ,upp] ,oolite4 ,! ,portl& /one has already be5 m5tion$ z =m+ 9 ,dorset%ire ! f\ndation on :i* ! fre%wat] lime/one ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck reposes 7see p4 #bcb474 ,x supplies ! well-kn[n build+ /one ( :i* ,/4 ,paul's & s _m ( ! pr9cipal edifices ( ,london are con/ruct$4 ,?is upp] memb]1 *>act]iz$ by peculi> m>9e fossils1 re/s on a d5se b$ ( s&1 call$ ! ,portl& s&1 bel[ :i* is ! ,kimm]idge clay4 ,9 ,engl& ^! ,upp] ,oolite =mations are almo/ :olly conf9$ to ! s\!rn c\nties4 ,corals are r>e 9 !m1 al?\gh "o species is f\nd pl5tifully at ,tisbury1 9 ,wilt%ire1 9 ! ,portl& s& conv]t$ into fl9t & *]t1 ! orig9al calc>e\s matt] be+ replac$ by silex 7fig4 #bfg474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4 ,column>ia oblonga1 ,bla9v4 ,z se5 on a poli%$ slab ( *]t f ! s& ( ! ,upp] ,oolite1 ,tisbury4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic fossils ( ! ,upp] ,oolite1 may be m5tion$ ! ,o/rea deltoidea 7fig4 #bfi471 f\nd 9 ! ,kimm]idge clay ?r\gh\t ,engl& & ! nor? ( ,france1 & also 9 ,scotl&1 ne> ,brora4 ,! ,gryphaea virgula 7fig4 #bfh471 also met ) 9 ! same clay ne> ,ox=d1 is s abundant 9 ! ,upp] ,oolite ( p>ts ( ,france z to h caus$ ! deposit to be t]m$ m>nes a gryphees virgules4 ,ne> ,cl]mont1 9 ,argonne1 a few leagues f ,/4 ,m5eh\ld1 :]e ^! indurat$ m>ls crop out f b5ea? ! gault1 ,i h se5 !m1 on decompos+1 leave ! surface ( e pl\gh$ field lit]ally /rew$ ov] ) ?is fossil oy/]4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,upp] ,oolite3 ,kimm]idge clay4 #a_/d nat4 size4 ,fig4 #bfh4 ,gryphaea virgula4 ,fig4 #bfi4 ,o/rea deltoidea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4 ,trigonia gibbosa4 #a_/b nat4 size4 a4 ! h+e4 ,portl& ,oolite1 ,tisbury4 ,! ,kimm]idge clay consi/s1 9 great "p1 ( a bitum9\s %ale1 sometimes =m+ an impure coal sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 "s places 9 ,wilt%ire x mu* resembles peat2 & ! bitum9\s matt] may h be51 9 "p at lea/1 d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( vegetables4 ,b z impressions ( plants are r>e 9 ^! %ales1 :i* conta9 ammonites1 oy/]s1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 ! bitum5 may p]haps be ( animal orig94 ,! celebrat$ li?ographic /one ( ,sol5h(51 9 ,bav>ia1 belongs to "o ( ! upp] divisions ( ! oolite1 & af=ds a rem>kable example ( ! v>iety ( fossils :i* may be pres]v$ "u fav\rable circum/ances1 & :at delicate impressions ( ! t5d] p>ts ( c]ta9 animals & plants may be reta9$ :]e ! s$im5t is ( extreme f95ess4 ,al?\gh ! numb] ( te/acea 9 ?is slate is small1 & ! plants few1 & ^? all m>9e1 ,c\nt ,mun/] _h det]m9$ no less ?an #bcg species ( fossils :5 ,i saw 8 collection 9 #ahcc2 & among !m no less ?an sev5 species ( fly+ liz>ds1 or pt]odactyls1 six saurians1 ?ree tortoises1 sixty species ( fi%1 =ty-six ( cru/acea1 & tw5ty-six ( insects4 ,^! insects1 among :i* is a libellula1 or dragon-fly1 mu/ h be5 bl[n out to sea1 probably f ! same l& to :i* ! fly+ liz>ds1 & o!r contemporane\s reptiles1 resort$4 ,middle ,oolite4 ,coral ,rag4--,"o ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,middle ,oolite has be5 call$ ! ,coral ,rag1 because x consi/s1 9 "p1 ( cont9u\s b$s ( petrifi$ corals1 = ! mo/ "p reta9+ ! position 9 :i* !y grew at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,!y belong *iefly to ! g5]a ,c>yophyllia 7fig4 #bga471 ,ag>icia1 & ,a/rea1 & sometimes =m masses ( coral #ae feet ?ick4 ,9 ! annex$ figure ( an ,a/rea1 f ?is =mation1 x w be se5 t ! cup-%ap$ cavities are deepe/ on ! "r-h& side1 & t !y gr[ m & m %all[1 till ^? on ! left side are ne>ly fill$ up4 ,! la/-nam$ />s are suppos$ to be ,polyp>ia ( advanc$ age4 ,^! corall9e /rata ext5d ?r\gh ! calc>e\s hills ( ! ,n4,w4 ( ,b]k%ire1 & nor? ( ,wilts1 & aga9 recur 9 ,york%ire1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bga4 ,c>yophyllia annul>is1 ,p>k94 ,coral rag1 ,/eeple ,a%ton4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #bgb4 ,a/rea4 ,coral rag4 ,"o ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,jura1 ref]r$ to ! age ( ! ,engli% coral rag1 has be5 call$ ,n]9aean lime/one 7,calcaire a ,n]9ees7 by ,m4 ,?irria2 ,n]9aea be+ an ext9ct g5us ( univalve %ells1 mu* resembl+ ! ,c]i?ium 9 ext]nal =m4 ,! annex$ section 7fig4 #bgc47 %[s ! curi\s =m ( ! holl[ "p ( ea* :orl1 & also ! p]=ation :i* passes up ! middle ( ! columella4 ,n4 ,goodhallii 7fig4 #bgd47 is ano!r ,engli% species ( ! same g5us1 f a =mation :i* seems to =m a passage f ! ,kimm]idge clay to ! coral rag4#bfa-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgc4 ,n]9aea hi]oglyphica4 ,coral rag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgd4 ,n]9aea ,goodhallii1 ,fitton4 ,coral rag1 ,weym\?4 #a_/d nat4 size4 ,a division ( ! oolite 9 ! ,alps1 reg>d$ by mo/ geologi/s z coeval ) ! ,engli% coral rag1 has be5 (t5 nam$ ,calcaire a ,dic]ates1 or ,dic]as lime/one1 f its conta9+ abundantly a bivalve %ell 7see fig4 #bge47 ( a g5us alli$ to ! ,*ama4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bge4 ,ca/ ( ,dic]as ariet9a4 ,coral rag1 ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgf4 ,cid>is coronata4 ,coral rag4 ,ox=d ,clay4--,! corall9e lime/one1 or coral rag1 above describ$1 & ! accompany+ s&y b$s1 call$ calc>e\s grits ( ! ,middle ,oolite1 re/s on a ?ick b$ ( clay1 call$ ! ,ox=d clay1 sometimes n less ?an #ejj feet ?ick4 ,9 ?is !re are no corals1 b great abundance ( cephalopoda ( ! g5]a ,ammonite & ,belemnite4 7,see fig4 #bgg47 ,9 "s ( ! clay ( v f9e texture ammonites are v p]fect1 al?\gh some:at compress$1 & are se5 to be furni%$ on ea* side ( ! ap]ture ) a s+le horn-l projection 7see fig4 #bgh474 ,^! 7 discov]$ 9 ! cutt+s ( ! ,great ,we/]n ,railway1 ne> ,*ipp5ham1 9 #ahda1 & h be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,pratt4#bfb-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgg4 ,belemnites ha/atus4 ,ox=d ,clay4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgh4 ,ammonites ,jason1 ,re9ecke4 ,syn4 ,a4 ,elizabe?ae1 ,pratt4 ,ox=d clay1 ,*ri/ian ,mal=d1 ,wilt%ire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgi4 ,belemnites ,puzosianus1 ,d',orb4 ,ox=d ,clay1 ,*ri/ian ,mal=d4 a1 a4 project+ processes ( ! %ell or phragmocone4 b1 c4 brok5 ext]ior ( a conical %ell call$ ! phragmocone1 :i* is *amb]$ )91 or compos$ ( a s]ies ( %all[ concave cells pi]c$ by a siphuncle4 c1 d4 ,! gu>d or osselet1 :i* is commonly call$ ! belemnite4 ,simil> elongat$ processes h be5 also obs]v$ to ext5d f ! %ells ( "s belemnites discov]$ by ,dr4 ,mantell 9 ! same clay 7see fig4 #bgi471 :o1 by ! aid ( ?is & o!r specim5s1 has be5 able to ?r[ mu* light on ! /ructure ( ?is s+ul> ext9ct =m ( cuttle-fi%4#bfc-;,a ,l[] ,oolite4 ,! upp] division ( ?is s]ies1 :i* is m ext5sive ?an ! prec$+ or ,middle ,oolite1 is call$ 9 ,engl& ! ,cornbra%4 ,x consi/s ( clays & calc>e\s s&/ones1 :i* pass d[nw>ds into ! ,=e/ m>ble1 an argillace\s lime/one1 ab\nd+ 9 m>9e fossils4 ,9 "s places1 z at ,brad=d1 ?is lime/one is replac$ by a mass ( clay4 ,! s&/ones ( ! ,=e/ ,m>ble ( ,wilt%ire are (t5 ripple-m>k$ & fill$ ) fragm5ts ( brok5 %ells & pieces ( drift-wood1 hav+ evid5tly be5 =m$ on a coa/4 ,rippl$ slabs ( fissile oolite are us$ = ro(+1 & h be5 trac$ ov] a broad b& ( c\ntry f ,brad=d1 9 ,wilts1 to ,tetbury1 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire4 ,^! calc>e\s tile-/ones are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ?9 seams ( clay1 :i* h be5 deposit$ ^u !m1 & h tak5 _! =m1 pres]v+ ! undulat+ ridges & furr[s ( ! s& 9 su* complete integrity1 t ! impressions ( small foot/eps1 app>5tly ( crabs1 :i* walk$ ov] ! s(t wet s&s1 are /ill visible4 ,9 ! same /one ! claws ( crabs1 fragm5ts ( e*9i1 & o!r signs ( a neighb\r+ bea* are obs]v$4#bfc-;,b ,great ,oolite4--,al?\gh ! "n ( coral-rag has be5 appropriat$1 z we h se51 to a memb] ( ! ,upp] ,oolite be=e describ$1 "s portions ( ! ,l[] ,oolite are equally intitl$ 9 _m places to be call$ corall9e lime/ones4 ,?us ! ,great ,oolite ne> ,ba? conta9s v>i\s corals1 among :i* ! ,eunomia radiata 7fig4 #bhj47 is v conspicu\s1 s+le individuals =m+ masses sev]al feet 9 diamet]2 & hav+ probably requir$1 l ! l>ge exi/+ bra9-coral 7,me&r9a7 ( ! tropics1 _m c5turies be=e _! gr[? 0 complet$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhj4 ,eunomia radiata1 ,lam\r\x4 a4 section transv]se to ! tubes4 b4 v]tical section1 %[+ ! radiation ( ! tubes4 c4 portion ( int]ior ( tubes magnifi$1 %[+ /riat$ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bha4 ,apiocr9ites rotundus1 or ,pe> ,encr9ite2 ,mill]4 ,fossil at ,brad=d1 ,wilts4 a4 ,/em ( ,apiocr9ites1 & "o ( ! articulations1 natural size4 b4 ,section at ,brad=d ( great oolite & ov]ly+ clay1 conta9+ ! fossil encr9ites4 ,see text4 c4 ,?ree p]fect individuals ( ,apiocr9ites1 repres5t$ z !y grew on ! surface ( ! ,great ,oolite4 d4 ,body ( ! ,apiocr9ites rotundus4 ,diff]5t species ( ,cr9oideans1 or /one-lilies1 are also common 9 ! same rocks ) corals2 &1 l !m1 mu/ h enjoy$ a firm bottom1 :]e _! root1 or base ( atta*m5t1 rema9$ undi/urb$ = ye>s 7c1 fig4 #bha474 ,su* fossils1 !re=e1 are almo/ conf9$ to ! lime/ones2 b an exception occurs at ,brad=d1 ne> ,ba?1 :]e !y are envelop$ 9 clay4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t ! solid upp] surface ( ! ,great ,oolite _h support$1 = a "t1 a ?ick subm>9e =e/ ( ^! beautiful zoophytes1 until ! cle> & /ill wat] 0 invad$ by a curr5t *>g$ ) mud1 :i* ?rew d[n ! /one-lilies1 & broke mo/ ( _! /ems %ort (f ne> ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,! /umps /ill rema9 9 _! orig9al position2 b ! num]\s articulations once compos+ ! /em1 arms1 & body ( ! zoophyte1 7 scatt]$ at r&om ?r\gh ! argillace\s deposit 9 :i* "s n[ lie pro/rate4 ,^! appe>ances are repres5t$ 9 ! section b1 fig4 #bha41 :]e ! d>k] /rata repres5t ! ,brad=d clay1 :i* "s geologi/s class ) ! ,=e/ m>ble1 o!rs ) ! ,great ,oolite4 ,! upp] surface ( ! calc>e\s /one bel[ is completely incru/$ ov] ) a cont9u\s pavem5t1 =m$ by ! /ony roots or atta*m5ts ( ! ,cr9oidea2 & besides ?is evid5ce ( ! l5g? ( "t !y _h liv$ on ! spot1 we f9d great numb]s ( s+le jo9ts1 or circul> plates ( ! /em & body ( ! encr9ite1 cov]$ ov] ) s]pulae4 ,n[ ^! s]pulae c\ld only h begun to gr[ aft] ! dea? ( "s ( ! /one-lilies1 p>ts ( ^: skeletons _h be5 /rew$ ov] ! floor ( ! ocean be=e ! irruption ( argillace\s mud4 ,9 "s in/ances we f9d t1 aft] ! p>asitic s]pulae 7 full gr[n1 !y _h become incru/$ ov] ) a coral1 call$ ,b]5icea diluviana2 & _m g5]ations ( ^! polyps _h succe$$ ea* o!r 9 ! pure wat] be=e !y became fossil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhb4 a4 ,s+le plate or articulation ( an ,encr9ite ov]gr[n ) s]pulae & corals4 ,natural size ,brad=d clay4 b4 ,portion ( ! same magnifi$1 %[+ ! coral ,b]5icea diluviana cov]+ "o ( ! s]pulae4 ,we may1 !re=e1 p]ceive di/9ctly t1 z ! p9es & cycade\s plants ( ! anci5t dirt b$1 or fossil =e/1 ( ! ,l[] ,purbeck 7 kill$ by subm]g5ce "u fre% wat]1 & soon buri$ b5ea? muddy s$im5t1 s an invasion ( argillace\s matt] put a sudd5 /op to ! gr[? ( ! ,brad=d ,encr9ites1 & l$ to _! pres]vation 9 m>9e /rata4#bfe-;,a ,su* diff]5ces 9 ! fossils z di/+ui% ! calc>e\s & argillace\s deposits f ea* o!r1 w\ld be describ$ by naturali/s z aris+ out ( a diff]5ce 9 ! /ations ( species2 b besides ^!1 !re are v>iations 9 ! fossils ( ! high]1 middle1 & l[] "p ( ! oolitic s]ies1 :i* mu/ be ascrib$ to t great law ( *ange 9 organic life by :i* di/9ct assemblages ( species h be5 adapt$1 at successive geological p]iods1 to ! v>y+ conditions ( ! habitable surface4 ,9 a s+le di/rict x is difficult to decide h[ f> ! limitation ( species to c]ta9 m9or =mations has be5 due to ! local influ5ce ( /ations1 or h[ f> x has be5 caus$ by "t or ! creative & de/roy+ law above allud$ to4 ,b we recognize ! reality ( ! la/-m5tion$ influ5ce1 :5 we contra/ ! :ole oolitic s]ies ( ,engl& ) t ( p>ts ( ! ,jura1 ,alps1 & o!r di/ant regions1 :]e !re is sc>cely any li?ological resemblance2 & yet "s ( ! same fossils rema9 peculi> 9 ea* c\ntry to ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolite =mations respectively4 ,mr4 ,?urmann has %[n h[ rem>kably ?is fact holds true 9 ! ,b]nese ,jura1 al?\gh ! argillace\s divisions1 s conspicu\s 9 ,engl&1 are feebly repres5t$ !re1 & "s entirely want+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhc4 ,t]ebratula digona4 ,brad=d clay4 ,nat4 size4 ,! ,brad=d clay above allud$ to is sometimes #fj feet ?ick1 b1 9 _m places1 x is want+2 &1 9 o!rs1 :]e !re are no lime/ones1 x _c easily be sep>at$ f ! clays ( ! ov]ly+ =e/ m>ble & und]ly+ full]'s e>?4 ,! calc>e\s portion ( ! ,great ,oolite consi/s ( sev]al %elly lime/ones1 "o ( :i*1 call$ ! ,ba? ,oolite1 is mu* celebrat$ z a build+ /one4 ,9 p>ts ( ,gl\ce/]%ire1 especially ne> ,m9*9hampton1 ! ,great ,oolite1 says ,mr4 ,lycett1 mu/ h be5 deposit$ 9 a %all[ sea1 :]e /rong curr5ts prevail$1 = !re are frequ5t *anges 9 ! m9]al "* ( ! deposit1 & "s b$s exhibit false /ratification4 ,9 o!rs1 heaps ( brok5 %ells are m+l$ ) pebbles ( rocks =eign to ! neighb\rhood1 & ) fragm5ts ( abrad$ madrepores1 dicotyl$on\s wood1 & crabs' claws4 ,! %elly /rata1 also1 h occasionally suff]$ d5udation1 & ! remov$ portions h be5 replac$ by clay4#bff-;,a ,9 su* %all[-wat] b$s cephalopoda are r>e1 &1 in/ead ( ammonites & belemnites1 num]\s g5]a ( c>nivor\s tra*elipods appe>4 ,out ( "o hundr$ & =ty-two species ( univalves obta9$ f ! ,m9*9hampton b$s1 ,mr4 ,lycett f\nd no less ?an =ty-"o to be c>nivor\s4 ,!y belong pr9cipally to ! g5]a ,bucc9um1 ,pleurotoma1 ,ro/ell>ia1 ,murex1 & ,fusus1 & exhibit a proportion ( zoophag\s species n v diff]5t f t :i* obta9s 9 w>m seas ( ! rec5t p]iod4 ,^! con*ological results are curi\s & unexpect$1 s9ce x 0 imag9$ t we might look 9 va9 = ! c>nivor\s tra*elipods 9 rocks ( su* high antiquity z ! ,great ,oolite1 & x 0 a receiv$ doctr9e t !y did n beg9 to appe> 9 consid]able numb]s till ! ,eoc5e p]iod :5 ^? two great families ( cephalopoda1 ! ammonites & belemnites1 _h become ext9ct4 ,/onesfield slate4--,! slate ( ,/onesfield has be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,lonsdale to lie at ! base ( ! ,great ,oolite4#bff-;,b ,x is a slightly oolitic %elly lime/one1 =m+ l>ge sph]oidal masses imb$d$ 9 s&1 only #f feet ?ick1 b v ri* 9 organic rema9s4 ,x conta9s "s pebbles ( a rock v simil> to itself1 & :i* may be portions ( ! deposit1 brok5 up on a %ore at l[ wat] or dur+ /orms1 & r$eposit$4 ,! rema9s ( belemnites1 trigoniae1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 ) fragm5ts ( wood1 are common1 & impressions ( f]ns1 cycadeae1 & o!r plants4 ,sev]al insects1 also1 &1 among ! re/1 ! w+-cov]s ( beetles1 are p]fectly pres]v$ 7see fig4 #bhd471 "s ( !m approa*+ ne>ly to ! g5us ,bupre/is4#bfg-;,a ,! rema9s1 also1 ( _m g5]a ( reptiles1 su* z ,plesiosaur1 ,crocodile1 & ,pt]odactyl1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! same lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhd4 ,elytron ( ,bupre/is8 ,/onesfield4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhe4 ,bone ( a reptile1 =m]ly suppos$ to be ! ulna ( a ,cetacean2 f ! ,great ,oolite ( ,en/one1 ne> ,wood/ock4 ,b ! rem>kable fossils = :i* ! ,/onesfield slate is mo/ celebrat$1 are ^? ref]r$ to ! mammif]\s class4 ,! /ud5t %\ld be rem9d$ t 9 all ! rocks describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s z old] ?an ! ,eoc5e1 no bones ( any l& quadrup$1 or ( any cetacean1 h be5 discov]$4 ,yet we h se5 t t]re/rial plants 7 n r>e 9 ! l[] cretace\s =mation1 & t 9 ! ,weald5 !re 0 evid5ce ( fre%wat] s$im5t on a l>ge scale1 conta9+ v>i\s plants1 & ev5 anci5t vegetable soils ) ! roots & erect /umps ( trees4 ,we _h also 9 ! same ,weald5 _m l&-reptiles & w+$-insects1 :i* r5d]s ! abs5ce ( t]re/rial quadrup$s ! m /rik+4 ,! want1 h[ev]1 ( any bones ( :ales1 seals1 dolph9s1 & o!r aquatic mammalia1 :e!r 9 ! *alk or 9 ! upp] or middle oolite1 is c]ta9ly /ill m rem>kable4 ,=m]ly1 inde$1 a bone f ! great oolite ( ,en/one1 ne> ,wood/ock1 9 ,ox=d%ire1 0 cit$1 on ! au?ority ( ,cuvi]1 z ref]able to ?is class4 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 :o /at$ ?is 9 8 ,bridgewat] ,treatise#bfg-;,b1 _h ! k9dness to s5d me ! suppos$ ulna ( a :ale1 t ,mr4 ,ow5 might exam9e into its claims to be consid]$ z cetace\s4 ,x is ! op9ion ( t em95t comp>ative anatomi/ t x _c h belong$ to ! cetacea1 because ! =e-arm 9 ^! m>9e mammalia is inv>iably mu* flatt]1 & devoid ( all muscul> depressions & ridges1 "o ( :i* is s prom95t 9 ! middle ( ?is bone1 repres5t$ 9 ! above cut 7fig4 #bhe474 ,9 saurians1 on ! contr>y1 su* ridges exi/ = ! atta*m5t ( muscles2 & to "s animal ( t class ! bone is probably ref]able4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhf4 ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii4 ,/onesfield ,slate4 ,natural size4 a4 coronoid process4 b4 condyle4 c4 angle ( jaw4 d4 d\ble-fang$ mol>s4 ,^! obs]vations are made to prep>e ! read] to appreciate m ju/ly ! int]e/ felt by e geologi/ 9 ! discov]y 9 ! ,/onesfield slate ( no less ?an sev5 specim5s ( l[] jaws ( mammif]\s quadrup$s1 belong+ to ?ree diff]5t species & to two di/9ct g5]a1 = :i* ! names ( ,amphi!rium & ,phascolo!rium h be5 adopt$4 ,:5 ,cuvi] 0 fir/ %[n "o ( ^! fossils 9 #ahah1 he pron\nc$ x to belong to a small f]9e mammal1 ) a jaw mu* resembl+ t ( an opossum1 b diff]+ f all kn[n f]9e g5]a1 9 ! great numb] ( ! mol> tee?1 ( :i* x _h at lea/ t5 9 a r[4 ,s9ce t p]iod1 a mu* m p]fect specim5 ( ! same fossil1 obta9$ by ,dr4 ,buckl& 7see fig4 #bhf471 has be5 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,ow51 :o f9ds t ! jaw conta9$ on ! :ole twelve mol> tee?1 ) ! socket ( a small can9e1 & ?ree small incisors1 :i* are 9 situ1 altoge!r am\nt+ to sixte5 tee? on ea* side ( ! l[] jaw4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhg4 ,amphi!rium ,brod]ipii4 ,natural size4 ,/onesfield ,slate4 ,! only "q :i* c\ld be rais$ respect+ ! nature ( ^! fossils 01 :e!r !y belong$ to a mammif]1 a reptile1 or a fi%4 ,n[ on ?is head ! o/eologi/ obs]ves t ea* ( ! sev5 half jaws is compos$ ( b "o s+le piece1 & n ( two or m sep>ate bones1 z 9 fi%es & mo/ reptiles1 or ( two bones1 unit$ by a suture1 z 9 "s few species belong+ to ^? classes4 ,! condyle1 moreov] 7b1 fig4 #bhf471 or articul> surface1 by :i* ! l[] jaw unites ) ! upp]1 is convex 9 ! ,/onesfield specim5s1 & n concave z 9 fi%es & reptiles4 ,! coronoid process 7a1 fig4 #bhf47 is well develop$1 :]eas x is want+ or v small1 9 ! inf]ior classes ( v]tebrata4 ,la/ly1 ! mol> tee? 9 ! ,amphi!rium & ,phascolo!rium h complicat$ cr[ns1 & two roots 7see d1 fig4 #bhf471 in/ead ( be+ simple & ) s+le fangs4#bfi-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bhh4 ,tupaia ,tana4 ,"r ramus ( l[] jaw1 natural size4 ,a rec5t insectivor\s mammal f ,sumatra4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,"p ( l[] jaw ( ,tupaia ,tana2 twice natural size4 ,fig4 #bhi4 ,end view se5 f beh9d1 %[+ ! v slight inflection ( ! angle at c4 ,fig4 #bij4 ,side view ( same4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,"p ( l[] jaw ( ,didelphis ,az>ae2 rec5t1 ,brazil4 ,natural size4 ,fig4 #bia4 ,end view se5 f beh9d1 %[+ ! inflection ( ! angle ( ! jaw1 c4 d4 ,fig4 #bib4 ,side view ( same4 ,! only "q1 !re=e1 :i* c\ld fairly admit ( controv]sy 0 limit$ to ?is po9t1 :e!r ! fossil mammalia f\nd 9 ! l[] oolite ( ,ox=d%ire ought to be ref]r$ to ! m>supial quadrup$s1 or to ! ord9>y plac5tal s]ies4 ,cuvi] _h long ago po9t$ out a peculi>ity 9 ! =m ( ! angul> process 7c1 figs4 #bia4 & #bib47 ( ! l[] jaw1 z a "* ( ! g5us ,didelphys2 & ,mr4 ,ow5 has s9ce e/abli%$ its g5]ality 9 ! entire m>supial s]ies4 ,9 all ^! p\*$ quadrup$s1 ?is process is turn$ inw>ds1 z at c d1 fig4 #bia4 9 ! ,brazilian opossum1 :]eas 9 ! plac5tal s]ies1 z at c1 figs4 #bij4 & #bhi4 !re is an almo/ entire abs5ce ( su* inflection4 ,! ,tupaia ,tana ( ,sumatra has be5 select$ by my fri5d ,mr4 ,wat]h\se1 = ?is illu/ration1 because t small insectivor\s quadrup$ be>s a great resemblance to ^? ( ! ,/onesfield ,amphi!rium4 ,by cle>+ away ! matrix f ! specim5 ( ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii above repres5t$ 7fig4 #bhf471 ,mr4 ,ow5 asc]ta9$ t ! angul> process 7c7 b5t inw>ds 9 a slight] degree ?an 9 any ( ! kn[n m>supialia2 9 %ort1 ! inflection does n exce$ t ( ! mole or h$gehog4 ,?is fact turns ! scale 9 fav\r ( its aff9ities to ! plac5tal insectivora4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,amphi!rium (f]s "s po9ts ( approximation 9 its o/eology to ! m>supials1 especially to ! ,myrmecobius1 a small insectivor\s quadrup$ ( ,au/ralia1 :i* has n9e mol>s on ea* side ( ! l[] jaw1 besides a can9e & ?ree incisors4#bfi-;,b ,ano!r species ( ,amphi!rium has be5 f\nd at ,/onesfield 7fig4 #bhg4 p4 #bfh471 :i* diff]s f ! =m] 7fig4 #bhf47 pr9cipally 9 be+ l>g]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bic4 ,phascolo!rium ,buckl&i1 ,ow54 a4 natural size4 b4 mol> ( same magnifi$4 ,! second mammif]\s g5us discov]$ 9 ! same slates 0 nam$ orig9ally by ,mr4 ,brod]ip ,didelphys ,buckl&i 7see fig4 #bic471 & has s9ce be5 call$ ,phascolo!rium by ,ow54 ,x manife/s a mu* /rong] lik5ess to ! m>supials 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! jaw1 & 9 ! ext5t & position ( its inflect$ angle1 :ile ! agreem5t ) ! liv+ g5us ,didelphys 9 ! numb] ( ! premol> & mol> tee?1 is complete4#bgj-;,a ,on review+1 !re=e1 ! :ole ( ! o/eological evid5ce1 x w be se5 t we h e reason to presume t ! ,amphi!rium & ,phascolo!rium ( ,/onesfield repres5t bo? ! plac5tal & m>supial classes ( mammalia2 & if s1 !y w>n u 9 a mo/ emphatic mann]1 n to f\nd ra% g5]alizations respect+ ! non-exi/5ce ( c]ta9 classes ( animals at p>ticul> p]iods ( ! pa/1 on m]e negative evid5ce4 ,! s+ul> accid5t ( our hav+ z yet f\nd no?+ b ! l[] jaws ( sev5 individuals1 & no o!r bones ( _! skeletons1 is alone suffici5t to demon/rate ! fragm5t>y mann] 9 :i* ! memorials ( an anci5t t]re/rial fauna are h&$ d[n to u4 ,we c sc>cely avoid suspect+ t ! two g5]a above describ$1 may h borne a l insignificant proportion to ! entire assemblage ( w>m-blood$ quadrup$s :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! isl&s ( ! oolitic sea4 ,mr4 ,ow5 has rem>k$ t z ! m>supial g5]a1 to :i* ! ,phascolo!rium is mo/ ne>ly alli$1 are n[ conf9$ to ,new ,s\? ,wales & ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 s also is x 9 ! ,au/ralian seas1 t we f9d ! ,ce/racion1 a c>tilag9\s fi% :i* has a bony palate1 alli$ to ^? call$ ,acrodus & ,psammodus 7see figs4 #cjg1 #cjh4 p4 #bge471 s common 9 ! oolite & lias4 ,9 ! same ,au/ralian seas1 also1 ne> ! %ore1 we f9d ! liv+ ,trigonia1 a g5us ( mollusca s frequ5tly met ) 9 ! ,/onesfield slate4 ,s1 also1 ! ,arauc>ian p9es are n[ abundant1 toge!r ) f]ns1 9 ,au/ralia & its isl&s1 z !y 7 9 ,europe 9 ! oolitic p]iod4 ,_m botani/s incl9e to ! op9ion1 t ! ,?uja1 ,p9e1 ,cycas1 ,zamia1 9 %ort1 all ! gymnog5s1 belong to a less highly develop$ type ( fl[]+ plants ?an d ! exog5s2 b ev5 if ?is be admitt$1 no naturali/ c ascribe a l[ /&>d ( organization to ! oolitic flora1 s9ce we meet ) endog5s ( ! mo/ p]fect /ructure 9 oolitic rocks1 bo? above & bel[ ! ,/onesfield slate1 z1 = example1 ! ,podoc>ya ( ,buckl&1 a fruit alli$ to ! ,p&anus1 f\nd 9 ! ,inf]ior ,oolite 7see fig4 #bid471 & ! ,c>poli!s conica ( ! ,coral rag4 ,! doctr9e1 !re=e1 ( a regul> s]ies ( progressive developm5t at successive eras 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 f be+s ( a m simple to ^? ( a m complex organization1 receives a *eck1 if n a refutation1 f ! facts reveal$ to u by ! /udy ( ! ,l[] ,oolites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bid4 ,portion ( a fossil fruit ( ,podoc>ya magnifi$4 7,buckl&'s ,bridgew4 ,treat4 ,pl4 #fc47 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ,*>m\?1 ,dorset4 ,! ,/onesfield slate1 9 its range f ,ox=d%ire to ! nor?-ea/1 is repres5t$ by flaggy & fissile s&/ones1 z at ,collywe/on 9 ,nor?ampton%ire1 :]e1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,messrs4 ,ibbetson & ,morris1 x conta9s _m %ells1 su* z ,trigonia angulata1 also f\nd at ,/onesfield4 ,b ! ,nor?ampton%ire /rata ( ?is age assume a m m>9e "*1 or appe> at lea/ to h be5 =m$ f>!r f l&4 ,!y inclose1 h[ev]1 "s fossil f]ns1 su* z ,pecopt]is polypodioides1 ( species common to ! oolites ( ! ,york%ire coa/#bga-;,a1 :]e rocks ( ?is age put on all ! aspect ( a true coal-field2 ?9 seams ( coal hav+ actually be5 work$ 9 !m = m ?an a c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bie4 ,pt]ophyllum comptum4 7,syn4 ,cycadites comptus47 ,upp] s&/one & %ale1 ,gri/horpe1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh4 ,9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,york%ire1 ! =mation allud$ to consi/s ( an upp] & a l[] c>bonace\s %ale1 ab\nd+ 9 impressions ( plants1 divid$ by a lime/one consid]$ by _m geologi/s z ! repres5tative ( ! ,great ,oolite2 b ! sc>city ( m>9e fossils makes all comp>isons ) ! subdivisions adopt$ 9 ! s\? extremely difficult4 ,a ri* h>ve/ ( fossil f]ns has be5 obta9$ f ! upp] c>bonace\s %ales & s&/ones at ,gri/horpe1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh 7see figs4 #bie1 #bif474 ,! l[] %ales are well expos$ 9 ! sea-cliffs at ,:itby1 & are *iefly *>act]iz$ by f]ns & cycadeae4 ,!y conta91 also1 a species ( calamite1 & a fossil call$ ,equisetum column>e1 :i* ma9ta9s an upright position 9 s&/one /rata ov] a wide area4 ,%ells ( ! g5us ,cypris & ,unio1 collect$ by ,mr4 ,bean f ^! ,york%ire coal-be>+ b$s1 po9t to ! e/u>y or fluviatile orig9 ( ! deposit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bif4 ,hemitelites ,br[nii1 ,goepp4 ,syn4 ,phlebopt]is contigua1 ,l9d4 ,hutt4 ,upp] c>bonace\s /rata1 ,l[] ,oolite1 ,gri/horpe1 ,york%ire4 ,at ,brora1 9 ,su!rl&%ire1 a coal =mation1 probably coeval ) ! above1 or belong+ to "s ( ! l[] divisions ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 has be5 m9$ ext5sively = a c5tury or m4 ,x af=ds ! ?icke/ /ratum ( pure vegetable matt] hi!rto detect$ 9 any second>y rock 9 ,engl&4 ,"o seam ( coal ( good quality has be5 work$ #c-a_/b feet ?ick1 & !re are sev]al feet m ( pyrit\s coal re/+ ^u x4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4--,betwe5 ! ,great & ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ne> ,ba?1 an argillace\s deposit call$ ! full]'s e>?1 occurs1 b is want+ 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! ,inf]ior ,oolite is a calc>e\s free/one1 usually ( small ?ickness1 :i* sometimes re/s ^u1 or is replac$ by1 yell[ s&s1 call$ ! s&s ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,^! la/1 9 _! turn1 repose ^u ! lias 9 ! s\? & we/ ( ,engl&4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic %ells ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ,i may in/ance ,t]ebratula sp9osa 7fig4 #big471 & ,pholadomya fidicula 7fig4 #bih474 ,! ext9ct g5us ,pleurotom>ia is also a =m v common 9 ?is division z well z 9 ! ,oolitic sy/em g5]ally4 ,x resembles ! ,tro*us 9 =m1 b is m>k$ by a s+ul> cleft 7a1 fig4 #bii47 on ! "r side ( ! m\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #big4 ,t]ebratula sp9osa4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bih4 a4 ,pholadomya fidicula1 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,inf4 ,ool4 b4 ,he>t-%ap$ ant]ior t]m9ation ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bii4 ,pleurotom>ia ornata4 ,f]rug9\s ,oolite1 ,norm&y4 ,inf]ior ,oolite1 ,engl&4 ,z illu/rations ( %ells hav+ a great v]tical range1 ,i may allude to ,trigonia clavellata1 f\nd 9 ! ,upp] & ,inf]ior ,oolite1 & ,t4 co/ata1 common to ! ,upp]1 ,middle1 & ,l[] ,oolite2 also ,o/rea ,m>%ii 7fig4 #cjj471 common to ! ,cornbra% ( ,wilts & ! ,inf]ior ,oolite ( ,york%ire2 & ,ammonites /riatulus 7fig4 #cja47 common to ! ,inf]ior ,oolite & ,lias4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjj4 ,o/rea ,m>%ii4 #a_/b nat4 size4 ,middle & ,l[] ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cja4 ,ammonites /riatulus1 ,s[4 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,inf]ior ,oolite & ,lias4 ,su* facts by no means invalidate ! g5]al rule1 t c]ta9 fossils are good *ronological te/s ( geological p]iods2 b !y s]ve to caution u aga9/ atta*+ too mu* importance to s+le species1 "s ( :i* may h a wid]1 o!rs a m conf9$ v]tical range4 ,we h be=e se5 t1 9 ! successive t]ti>y =mations1 !re are species common to old] & new] gr\ps1 yet ^! gr\ps are di/+ui%able f "o ano!r by a comp>ison ( ! :ole assemblage ( fossil %ells prop] to ea*4 ,,footnotes3 #bei-;,a ,see ,*apt]s ,,vi4 & ,,xix4 #bfa-;,a ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iv4 pl4 #bc4 fig4 #ab4 #bfb-;,a ,s4 ,p4 ,pratt1 ,annals ( ,nat4 ,hi/41 ,novemb]1 #ahda4 #bfc-;,a ,see ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahej1 p4 #cic4 #bfc-;,b ,p4 ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,proce$41 ,m>*1 #ahca4 #bfe-;,a ,= a full] acc\nt ( ^! ,encr9ites1 see ,buckl&'s ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 vol4 i4 p4 #dbi4 #bff-;,a ,lycett1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ahc4 #bff-;,b ,proce$+s ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 i4 p4 #dad4 #bfg-;,a ,see ,buckl&'s ,bridgewat] ,treatise2 & ,brodie's ,fossil ,insects1 :]e x is sugge/$ t ^! elytra may belong to ,priomus4 #bfg-;,b ,vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 #bfi-;,a ,i h giv5 a figure 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *ap4 ix41 ( ano!r ,/onesfield specim5 ( ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii1 9 :i* ! sockets & roots ( ! tee? are f9ely expos$4 #bfi-;,b ,a figure ( ?is rec5t ,myrmecobius w be f\nd 9 ! ,pr9ciples1 *ap4 ix4 #bgj-;,a ,ow5's ,briti% ,fossil ,mammals1 p4 #fb4 #bga-;,a ,ibbetson & ,morris1 ,report ( ,brit4 ,ass41 #ahdg1 p4 #aca4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,oolite ,,& ,,lias--cont9u$4 ,m9]al "* ( ,lias--,"n ( ,gryphite lime/one--,fossil %ells & fi%--,i*?yodorulites--,reptiles ( ! ,lias--,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur--,m>9e ,reptile ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s--,sudd5 de/ruction & burial ( fossil animals 9 ,lias--,fluvio-m>9e b$s 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire & insect lime/one--,orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias1 & ( alt]nat+ calc>e\s & argillace\s =mations--,oolitic coal-field ( ,virg9ia1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,lias4--,! ,engli% prov9cial "n ( ,lias has be5 v g5]ally adopt$ = a =mation ( argillace\s lime/one1 m>l1 & clay1 :i* =ms ! base ( ! ,oolite1 & is class$ by _m geologi/s z "p ( t gr\p4 ,!y pass1 inde$1 into ea* o!r 9 "s places1 z ne> ,ba?1 a s&y m>l call$ ! m>l/one ( ! ,lias be+ int]pos$1 & p>tak+ ( ! m9]al *>act]s ( ! upp] lias & inf]ior oolite4 ,^! la/-m5tion$ divisions h also "s fossils 9 common1 su* z ! ,avicula inaequivalvis 7fig4 #cjb474 ,nev]!less ! ,lias may be trac$ ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ,europe z a sep>ate & indep5d5t gr\p1 ( consid]able ?ickness1 v>y+ f #ejj to #ajjj feet1 conta9+ _m peculi> fossils1 & hav+ a v uni=m li?ological aspect4 ,al?\gh usually con=mable to ! oolite1 x is sometimes1 z 9 ! ,jura1 uncon=mable4 ,9 ! environs ( ,lons-le-,saulni]1 = in/ance1 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,jura1 ! /rata ( lias are incl9$ at an angle ( ab\t #de deg41 :ile ! incumb5t oolitic m>ls are horizontal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjb4 ,avicula inaequivalvis1 ,s[4 ,! peculi> aspect :i* is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,lias 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 is an alt]nation ( ?9 b$s ( blue or grey lime/one ) a surface becom+ light-br[n :5 wea!r$1 ^! b$s be+ sep>at$ by d>k-col\r$ n>r[ argillace\s p>t+s1 s t ! qu>ries ( ?is rock1 at a di/ance1 assume a /rip$ & rib&-l appe>ance4#bgd-;,a ,al?\gh ! prevail+ col\r ( ! lime/one ( ?is =mation is blue1 yet "s b$s ( ! l[] lias are ( a yell[i% :ite col\r1 & h be5 call$ :ite lias4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ,france1 ne> ! ,vosges m\nta9s1 & 9 ,luxemb\rg1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has %[n t ! lias conta9+ ,gryphaea arcuata1 ,plagio/oma giganteum 7see fig4 #cjc471 & o!r *>act]i/ic fossils1 becomes ar5ace\s2 & ar\nd ! ,h>tz1 9 ,we/phalia & ,bav>ia1 ! inf]ior p>ts ( ! lias are s&y1 & sometimes af=d a build+ /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjc4 ,plagio/oma giganteum4 ,lias4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjd4 ,gryphaea incurva1 ,s[4 7,g4 arcuata1 ,lam47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cje4 ,nautilus truncatus4 ,lias4 ,! "n ( ,gryphite lime/one has sometimes be5 appli$ to ! lias1 9 consequ5ce ( ! great numb] ( %ells :i* x conta9s ( a species ( oy/]1 or ,gryphaea 7fig4 #cjd41 see also fig4 #cj4 p4 #bi474 ,_m cephalopoda1 also1 su* z ,ammonite1 ,belemnite1 & ,nautilus 7fig4 #cje471 prove ! m>9e orig9 ( ! =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjf4 ,scales ( ,lepidotus gigas1 ,agas4 a4 two ( ! scales deta*$4 ,! fossil fi% resemble g5]ically ^? ( ! oolite1 belong+ all1 accord+ to ,m4 ,agassiz1 to ext9ct g5]a1 & diff]+ rem>kably f ! i*?yolites ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,among !m is a species ( ,lepidotus 7,l4 gigas1 ,agas47 7fig4 #cjf471 :i* is f\nd 9 ! lias ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4#bge-;,a ,?is g5us 0 be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bbi47 z occurr+ 9 ! ,weald51 & is suppos$ to h frequ5t$ bo? riv]s & coa/s4 ,! tee? ( a species ( ,acrodus1 also1 are v abundant 9 ! lias 7fig4 #cjg474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjg4 ,acrodus nobilis1 ,agas4 7too?72 commonly call$ fossil lea*4 ,lias1 ,lyme ,regis1 & ,g]many4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cjh4 ,hybodus reticulatus1 ,agas4 ,lias1 ,lyme ,regis4 a4 ,"p ( f91 commonly call$ ,i*?yodorulite4 b4 ,too?4 ,b ! rema9s ( fi% :i* h excit$ m att5tion ?an any o!rs1 are ^? l>ge bony sp9es call$ i*?yodorulites 7a1 fig4 #cjh471 :i* 7 once suppos$ by "s naturali/s to be jaws1 & by o!rs weapons1 resembl+ ^? ( ! liv+ ,bali/es & ,silurus2 b :i* ,m4 ,agassiz has %[n to be nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r4 ,! sp9es1 9 ! g5]a la/ m5tion$1 articulate ) ! backbone1 :]eas !re are no signs ( any su* articulation 9 ! i*?yodorulites4 ,^! la/ appe> to h be5 bony sp9es :i* =m$ ! ant]ior "p ( ! dorsal f91 l t ( ! liv+ g5]a ,ce/racion & ,*ima]a 7see a1 fig4 #cji474 ,9 bo? ( ^! g5]a1 ! po/]ior concave face is arm$ ) small sp9es l t ( ! fossil ,hybodus 7fig4 #cjh471 "o ( ! %>k family f\nd fossil at ,lyme ,regis4 ,su* sp9es are simply imb$d$ 9 ! fle%1 & atta*$ to /rong muscles4 ,!y s]ve1 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 z 9 ! ,*ima]a 7fig4 #cji471 to raise & depress ! f91 _! action resembl+ t ( a moveable ma/1 rais+ & l[]+ backw>ds ! sail ( a b>ge4#bgf-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cji4 ,*ima]a mon/rosa4#bgf-;,b a4 ,sp9e =m+ ant]ior "p ( ! dorsal f94 ,reptiles ( ! ,lias4--,x is n1 h[ev]1 ! fossil fi% :i* =m ! mo/ /rik+ feature 9 ! organic rema9s ( ! ,lias2 b ! reptiles1 :i* are extraord9>y = _! numb]1 size1 & /ructure4 ,among ! mo/ s+ul> ( ^! are sev]al species ( ,i*?yosaurus & ,plesiosaurus4 ,! g5us ,i*?yosaurus1 or fi%-liz>d1 is n conf9$ to ?is =mation1 b has be5 f\nd 9 /rata z high z ! *alk-m>l & gault ( ,engl&1 & z l[ z ! mus*elkalk ( ,g]many1 a =mation :i* imm$iately succe$s ! lias 9 ! desc5d+ ord]4#bgf-;,c ,x is evid5t f _! fi%-l v]tebrae1 _! paddles1 resembl+ ^? ( a porpoise or :ale1 ! l5g? ( _! tail1 & o!r p>ts ( _! /ructure1 t ! habits ( ! ,i*?yosaurs 7 aquatic4 ,_! jaws & tee? %[ t !y 7 c>nivor\s2 & ! half-dige/$ rema9s ( fi%es & reptiles1 f\nd )9 _! skeletons1 indicate ! precise nature ( _! food4#bgf-;,d ,a specim5 ( ! h9d] f9 or paddle ( ,i*?yosaurus communis 0 discov]$ 9 #ahdj at ,b>r[-on-,so>1 by ,sir ,p4 ,eg]ton1 :i* di/9ctly exhibits on its po/]ior m>g9 ! rema9s ( c>tilag9\s rays t bifurcate z !y approa* ! edge1 l ^? 9 ! f9 ( a fi% 7see a1 fig4 #cab474 ,x _h previ\sly be5 suppos$1 says ,mr4 ,ow51 t ! locomotive organs ( ! ,i*?yosaurus 7 envelop$1 :ile liv+1 9 a smoo? integum5t1 l t ( ! turtle & porpoise1 :i* has no o!r support ?an is af=d$ by ! bones & ligam5ts )92 b x n[ appe>s t ! f9 0 mu* l>g]1 exp&+ f> beyond its osse\s framework1 & deviat+ widely 9 its fi%-l rays f ! ord9>y reptilian type4 ,9 fig4 #cab4 ! po/]ior bones1 or digital ossicles ( ! paddle1 are se5 ne> b2 & beyond ^! is ! d>k c>boniz$ integum5t ( ! t]m9al half ( ! f91 ! outl9e ( :i* is beautifully def9$4#bgg-;,a ,mr4 ,ow5 believes t1 besides ! =e-paddles1 ^! %ort-& /iff-neck$ saurians 7 furni%$ ) a tail-f9 )\t bones & purely tegum5t>y1 exp&+ 9 a v]tical direction2 an organ ( motion :i* enabl$ !m to turn _! heads rapidly4#bgg-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caj4 ,i*?yosaurus communis1 re/or$ by ,conybe>e & ,cuvi]4 a4 co/al v]tebrae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caa4 ,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus1 re/or$ by ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybe>e4 a4 c]vical v]tebra4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cab4 ,po/]ior "p ( h9d f9 or paddle ( ,i*?yosaurus communis4 ,mr4 ,conybe>e 0 enabl$1 9 #ahbd1 aft] exam9+ _m skeletons ne>ly p]fect1 to give an ideal re/oration ( ! o/eology ( ?is g5us1 & ( t ( ! ,plesiosaurus4#bgh-;,a 7,see figs4 #caj1 #caa47 ,! latt] animal _h an extremely long neck & small head1 ) tee? l ^? ( ! crocodile1 & paddles analog\s to ^? ( ! ,i*?yosaurus1 b l>g]4 ,x is suppos$ to h liv$ 9 %all[ seas & e/u>ies1 & to h brea!d air l ! ,i*?yosaur1 & our mod]n cetacea4#bgh-;,b ,"s ( ! reptiles above m5tion$ 7 ( =midable dim5sions4 ,"o specim5 ( ,i*?yosaurus platyodon1 f ! lias at ,lyme1 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 mu/ h belong$ to an animal m ?an #bd feet 9 l5g?2 & ano!r ( ! ,plesiosaurus1 9 ! same collection1 is #aa feet long4 ,! =m ( ! ,i*?yosaurus may h fitt$ x to cut ?r\gh ! waves l ! porpoise2 b x is suppos$ t ! ,plesiosaurus1 at lea/ ! long-neck$ species 7fig4 #caa471 0 bett] suit$ to fi% 9 %all[ creeks & bays def5d$ f heavy break]s4 ,9 _m specim5s bo? ( ,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur ! bones ( ! head1 neck1 & tail1 are 9 _! natural position1 :ile ^? ( ! re/ ( ! skeleton are deta*$ & 9 confusion4 ,mr4 ,/ut*burg has sugge/$ t _! bodies aft] dea? became inflat$ ) gases1 &1 :ile ! abdom9al visc]a 7 decompos+1 ! bones1 ?\gh disunit$1 7 reta9$ )9 ! t\gh d]mal cov]+ z 9 a bag1 until ! :ole1 becom+ wat]-logg$1 sank to ! bottom4#bgh-;,c ,z !y belong$ to individuals ( all ages !y are suppos$1 by ,dr4 ,buckl&1 to h exp]i5c$ a viol5t dea?2 & ! same conclusion might also be drawn f _! hav+ escap$ ! attacks ( _! own pr$ace\s race1 or ( fi%es1 f\nd fossil 9 ! same b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #cac4 ,amblyrhyn*us cri/atus1 ,bell4 ,l5g? v>y+ f #c to #d feet4 ,! only exi/+ m>9e liz>d n[ kn[n4 a4 ,too?1 natural size & magnifi$4 ,= ! la/ tw5ty ye>s1 anatomi/s h agre$ t ^! ext9ct saurians mu/ h inhabit$ ! sea2 & x 0 argu$ t1 z !re are n[ *elonians1 l ! tortoise1 liv+ 9 fre% wat]1 & o!rs1 z ! turtle1 frequ5t+ ! ocean1 s !re may h be5 =m]ly "s saurians prop] to salt1 o!rs to fre% wat]4 ,! common crocodile ( ! ,ganges is well kn[n to frequ5t equally t riv] & ! bracki% & salt wat] ne> its m\?2 & crocodiles are said 9 l mann] to be abundant bo? 9 ! riv]s ( ! ,isla de ,p9os 7or ,isle ( ,p9es71 s\? ( ,cuba1 & 9 ! op5 sea r\nd ! coa/4 ,m rec5tly a saurian has be5 discov]$ ( aquatic habits & exclusively m>9e4 ,?is creature 0 f\nd 9 ! ,galapagos ,isl&s1 dur+ ! visit ( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle to t ar*ipelago1 9 #ahce1 & its habits 7 !n obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,d>w94 ,! isl&s allud$ to are situat$ "u ! equator1 ne>ly #fjj miles to ! we/w>d ( ! coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,!y are volcanic1 "s ( !m be+ #cjjj or #djjj feet high2 & "o ( !m1 ,albem>le ,isl&1 #ge miles long4 ,! climate is mild2 v little ra9 falls2 &1 9 ! :ole ar*ipelago1 !re is only "o rill ( fre% wat] t rea*es ! coa/4 ,! soil is = ! mo/ "p dry & h>%1 & ! vegetation scanty4 ,! birds1 reptiles1 plants1 & insects are1 ) v few exceptions1 ( species f\nd no :]e else 9 ! _w1 al?\gh all p>take1 9 _! g5]al =m1 ( a ,s\? ,am]ican type4 ,( ! mammalia1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 "o species alone appe>s to be indig5\s1 namely1 a l>ge & peculi> k9d ( m\se2 b ! numb] ( liz>ds1 tortoises1 & snakes is s great1 t x may be call$ a l& ( reptiles4 ,! v>iety1 inde$1 ( species is small2 b ! individuals ( ea* are 9 wond]ful abundance4 ,!re is a turtle1 a l>ge tortoise 7,te/udo ,indicus71 f\r liz>ds1 & ab\t ! same numb] ( snakes1 b no frogs or toads4 ,two ( ! liz>ds belong to ! family ,iguanidae ( ,bell1 & to a peculi> g5us 7,amblyrhyn*us7 e/abli%$ by t naturali/1 & s nam$ f _! obtusely truncat$ head & %ort sn\t4#bgi-;,a ,( ^! liz>ds "o is t]re/rial 9 its habits1 & burr[s 9 ! gr\nd1 sw>m+ ev]y:]e on ! l&1 hav+ a r\nd tail1 & a m\? some:at resembl+ 9 =m t ( ! tortoise4 ,! o!r is aquatic1 & has its tail flatt5$ lat]ally = swimm+ 7see fig4 #cac474 ,?is m>9e saurian1 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 is extremely common on all ! isl&s ?r\gh\t ! ar*ipelago4 ,x lives exclusively on ! rocky sea-bea*es1 & ,i nev] saw "o ev5 t5 y>ds in%ore4 ,! usual l5g? is ab\t a y>d1 b !re are "s ev5 #d feet long4 ,x is ( a dirty black col\r1 sluggi% 9 its movem5ts on ! l&2 b1 :5 9 ! wat]1 x swims ) p]fect ease & quickness by a s]p5t9e movem5t ( its body & flatt5$ tail1 ! legs dur+ ?is "t be+ motionless1 & closely collaps$ on its sides4 ,_! limbs & /rong claws are admirably adapt$ = crawl+ ov] ! rugg$ & fissur$ masses ( lava :i* ev]y:]e =m ! coa/4 ,9 su* situations1 a gr\p ( six or sev5 ( ^! hide\s reptiles may (t5times be se5 on ! black rocks1 a few feet above ! surf1 bask+ 9 ! sun ) out/ret*$ legs4 ,_! /oma*s1 on be+ op5$1 7 f\nd to be l>gely di/5d$ ) m9c$ sea-we$1 ( a k9d :i* gr[s at ! bottom ( ! sea at "s little di/ance f ! coa/4 ,to obta9 ?is1 ! liz>ds g out to sea 9 %oals4 ,"o ( ^! animals 0 sunk 9 salt wat]1 f ! %ip1 ) a heavy weight atta*$ to x1 & on be+ drawn up aga9 aft] an h\r x 0 q active & unh>m$4 ,x is n yet kn[n by ! inhabitants :]e ?is animal lays its eggs2 a s+ul> fact1 consid]+ its abundance1 & t ! natives are well acqua9t$ ) ! eggs ( ! t]re/rial ,amblyrhyn*us1 :i* is also h]bivor\s4#bhj-;,a ,9 ^? deposits n[ =m+ by ! s$im5t wa%$ away f ! wa/+ %ores ( ! ,galapagos ,isl&s ! rema9s ( saurians1 bo? ( ! l& & sea1 z well z ( *elonians & fi%1 may be m+l$ ) m>9e %ells1 )\t any bones ( l& quadrup$s or batra*ian reptiles2 yet ev5 "h we %\ld expect ! rema9s ( m>9e mammalia to be imb$d$ 9 ! new /rata1 = !re are seals1 besides sev]al k9ds ( cetacea1 on ! ,galapagian %ores2 &1 9 ?is respect1 ! p>allel betwe5 ! mod]n fauna1 above describ$1 & ! anci5t "o ( ! lias1 w\ld n hold good4 ,sudd5 de/ruction ( saurians4--,x has be5 rem>k$1 & truly1 t _m ( ! fi% & saurians1 f\nd fossil 9 ! lias1 mu/ h met ) sudd5 dea? & imm$iate burial2 & t ! de/ructive op]ation1 :atev] may h be5 its nature1 0 (t5 repeat$4 ,sometimes1 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 sc>cely a s+le bone or scale has be5 remov$ f ! place x occupi$ dur+ life2 :i* c\ld n h happ5$ _h ! uncov]$ bodies ( ^! saurians be5 left1 ev5 = a few h\rs1 expos$ to putrefaction1 & to ! attacks ( fi%es1 & o!r small] animals at ! bottom ( ! sea4#bhj-;,b ,n only are ! skeletons ( ! ,i*?yosaurs entire1 b sometimes ! cont5ts ( _! /oma*s /ill rema9 betwe5 _! ribs1 z be=e rem>k$1 s t we c discov] ! p>ticul> species ( fi% on :i* !y liv$1 & ! =m ( _! excrem5ts4 ,n unfrequ5tly !re are lay]s ( ^! coprolites1 at diff]5t dep?s 9 ! lias1 at a di/ance f any entire skeletons ( ! m>9e liz>ds f :i* !y 7 d]iv$2 z if1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ! muddy bottom ( ! sea receiv$ small sudd5 accessions ( matt] f "t to "t1 cov]+ up ! coprolites & o!r exuviae :i* _h accumulat$ dur+ ! int]vals4#bha-;,a ,x is f>!r /at$ t1 at ,lyme ,regis1 ^? surfaces only ( ! coprolites :i* lay upp]mo/ at ! bottom ( ! sea h suff]$ p>tial decay1 f ! action ( wat] be=e !y 7 cov]$ & protect$ by ! muddy s$im5t t has aft]w>ds p]man5tly envelop$ !m4#bha-;,b ,num]\s specim5s ( ! p5-&-ink fi% 7,sepia loligo1 ,l942 ,loligo vulg>is1 ,lam47 h also be5 met ) 9 ! lias at ,lyme1 ) ! ink-bags /ill di/5d$1 conta9+ ! ink 9 a dri$ /ate1 *iefly compos$ ( c>bon1 & b slightly impregnat$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,^! cephalopoda1 !re=e1 mu/1 l ! saurians1 h be5 soon buri$ 9 s$im5t2 =1 if long expos$ aft] dea?1 ! membrane conta9+ ! ink w\ld h decay$4#bha-;,c ,z we "k t riv] fi% are sometimes /ifl$1 ev5 9 _! own elem5t1 by muddy wat] dur+ floods1 x _c be d\bt$ t ! p]iodical dis*>ge ( l>ge bodies ( turbid fre% wat] into ! sea may be /ill m fatal to m>9e tribes4 ,9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology ,i h %[n t l>ge quantities ( mud & dr[n$ animals h be5 swept d[n into ! sea by riv]s dur+ e>?quakes1 z 9 ,java1 9 #afii2 & t undescribable multitudes ( dead fi%es h be5 se5 float+ on ! sea aft] a dis*>ge ( noxi\s vap\rs dur+ simil> convulsions4#bha-;,d ,b1 9 ! int]vals betwe5 su* cata/rophes1 /rata may h accumulat$ sl[ly 9 ! sea ( ! lias1 "s be+ =m$ *iefly ( "o description ( %ell1 su* z ammonites1 o!rs ( gryphites4 ,f ! above rem>ks ! read] w inf] t ! lias is = ! mo/ "p a m>9e deposit4 ,"s memb]s1 h[ev]1 ( ! s]ies1 especially 9 ! l[e/ "p ( x1 h an e/u>y "*1 & mu/ h be5 =m$ )9 ! influ5ce ( riv]s4 ,9 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 :]e !re is a good type ( ! lias ( ! ,we/ ( ,engl&1 x may be divid$ into an upp] mass ( %ale ) a base ( m>l/one1 & a l[] s]ies ( %ales ) und]ly+ lime/ones & %ales4 ,we le>n f ! rese>*es ( ! ,rev4 ,p4 ,b4 ,brodie#bha-;,e1 t 9 ! sup]ior ( ^! two divisions num]\s rema9s ( insects & plants h be5 detect$ 9 sev]al places1 m+l$ ) m>9e %ells2 b 9 ! inf]ior division simil> fossils are /ill m pl5tiful4 ,"o b&1 r>ely exce$+ a foot 9 ?ickness1 has be5 nam$ ! insect lime/one4 ,x passes upw>ds into a %ale conta9+ ,cypris & ,e/h]ia1 & is *>g$ ) ! w+-cases ( sev]al g5]a ( coleopt]a1 & ) "s ne>ly entire beetles1 ( :i* ! eyes are pres]v$4 ,! n]vures ( ! w+s ( neuropt]\s insects 7fig4 #cad47 are beautifully p]fect 9 ?is b$4 ,f]ns1 ) leaves ( monocotyl$on\s plants1 & fre%wat] %ells1 su* z ,cyclas & ,unio1 accompany ! insects 9 "s places1 :ile 9 o!rs m>9e %ells pr$om9ate1 ! fossils v>y+ app>5tly z we exam9e ! b$ ne>] or f>!r f ! anci5t l&1 or ! s\rce :5ce ! fre% wat] 0 d]iv$4 ,!re are two1 or ev5 ?ree1 b&s ( insect lime/one 9 sev]al sections1 & !y h be5 asc]ta9$ by ,mr4 ,brodie to reta9 ! same li?ological & zoological *>act]s :5 trac$ f ! c5tre ( ,w>wick%ire to ! bord]s ( ! s\!rn "p ( ,wales4 ,aft] /udy+ #cjj specim5s ( ^! insects f ! lias1 ,mr4 ,we/wood decl>es t !y comprise bo? wood-eat+ & h]b-dev\r+ beetles ( ! ,l9nean g5]a ,elat]1 ,c>abus1 c41 besides gras%opp]s 7,gryllus71 & deta*$ w+s ( dragon-flies & may-flies1 or insects ref]able to ! ,l9nean g5]a ,libellula1 ,ephem]a1 ,hem]obius1 & ,panorpa1 9 all belong+ to no less ?an tw5ty-f\r families4 ,! size ( ! species is usually small1 & su* z tak5 alone w\ld imply a temp]ate climate2 b _m ( ! associat$ organic rema9s ( o!r classes mu/ lead to a diff]5t conclusion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cad4 ,w+ ( a neuropt]\s insect1 f ! ,l[] ,lias1 ,gl\ce/]%ire4 7,rev4 ,b4 ,brodie47 ,fossil plants4--,among ! vegetable rema9s ( ! ,lias1 sev]al species ( ,zamia h be5 f\nd at ,lyme ,regis1 & ! rema9s ( conif]\s plants at ,:itby4 ,fragm5ts ( wood are common1 & (t5 conv]t$ into lime/one4 ,t "s ( ?is wood1 ?\gh n[ petrifi$1 0 s(t :5 x fir/ lay at ! bottom ( ! sea1 is %[n by a specim5 n[ 9 ! museum ( ! ,geological ,society 7see fig4 #cae471 :i* has ! =m ( an ammonite ind5t$ on its surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cae4 ,petrifi$ wood4 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t enum]ates =ty-sev5 liassic acrog5s1 mo/ ( !m f]ns2 & fifty gymnog5s1 ( :i* ?irty-n9e are cycads1 & elev5 conif]s4 ,among ! cycads ! pr$om9ance ( ,zamites & ,nilsonia1 & among ! f]ns ! num]\s g5]a ) leaves hav+ reticulat$ ve9s 7z 9 fig4 #bif4 p4 #bgb471 are m5tion$ z botanical *>act]i/ics ( ?is era4#bhb-;,a ,orig9 ( ! ,oolite & ,lias4--,if we n[ endeav\r to re/ore1 9 imag9ation1 ! anci5t condition ( ! ,european area at ! p]iod ( ! ,oolite & ,lias1 we mu/ conceive a sea 9 :i* ! gr[? ( coral reefs & %elly lime/ones1 aft] proce$+ )\t int]ruption = ages1 0 liable to be /opp$ sudd5ly by ! deposition ( clayey s$im5t4 ,!n1 aga91 ! argillace\s matt]1 devoid ( corals1 0 deposit$ = ages1 & atta9$ a ?ickness ( hundr$s ( feet1 until ano!r p]iod arriv$ :5 ! same space 0 aga9 occupi$ by calc>e\s s&1 or solid rocks ( %ell & coral1 to be aga9 succe$$ by ! recurr5ce ( ano!r p]iod ( argillace\s deposition4 ,mr4 ,conybe>e has rem>k$ ( ! entire gr\p ( ,oolite & ,lias1 t x consi/s ( repeat$ alt]nations ( clay1 s&/one1 & lime/one1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 ! same ord]4 ,?us ! clays ( ! lias are foll[$ by ! s&s ( ! inf]ior oolite1 & ^! aga9 by %elly & corall9e lime/one 7,ba? oolite1 c472 s1 9 ! middle oolite1 ! ,ox=d clay is foll[$ by calc>e\s grit & coral rag2 la/ly1 9 ! upp] oolite1 ! ,kimm]idge clay is foll[$ by ! ,portl& s& & lime/one4#bhc-;,a ,! clay b$s1 h[ev]1 z ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e rem>ks1 c be foll[$ ov] l>g] areas ?an ! s&s or s&/ones4#bhc-;,b ,x %\ld also be rememb]$ t :ile ! oolitic sy/em becomes ar5ace\s1 & resembles a coal-field 9 ,york%ire1 x assumes1 9 ! ,alps1 an almo/ purely calc>e\s =m1 ! s&s & clays be+ omitt$2 & ev5 9 ! int]v5+ tracts1 x is m complicat$ & v>iable ?an appe>s 9 ord9>y descriptions4 ,nev]!less1 "s ( ! clays & int]v5+ lime/ones d1 9 reality1 reta9 a pretty uni=m "*1 = di/ances ( f #djj to #fjj miles f ea/ to we/ & nor? to s\?4 ,accord+ to ,m4 ,?irria1 ! entire oolitic gr\p 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,haute-,saone1 9 ,france1 may be equal 9 ?ickness to t ( ,engl&2 b ! importance ( ! argillace\s divisions is 9 ! inv]se ratio to t :i* !y exhibit 9 ,engl&1 :]e !y are ab\t equal to twice ! ?ickness ( ! lime/ones1 :]eas1 9 ! "p ( ,france allud$ to1 !y rea* only ab\t a ?ird ( t ?ickness4#bhc-;,c ,9 ! ,jura ! clays are /ill ?9n]2 & 9 ! ,alps !y ?9 out & almo/ vani%4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = su* a succession ( ev5ts1 we may imag9e1 fir/1 ! b$ ( ! ocean to be ! receptacle = ages ( f9e argillace\s s$im5t1 br\ght by oceanic curr5ts1 :i* may h communicat$ ) riv]s1 or ) "p ( ! sea ne> a wa/+ coa/4 ,?is mud ceases1 at l5g?1 to be convey$ to ! same region1 ei!r because ! l& :i* _h previ\sly suff]$ d5udation is depress$ & subm]g$1 or because ! curr5t is deflect$ 9 ano!r direction by ! alt]$ %ape ( ! b$ ( ! ocean & neighb\r+ dry l&4 ,by su* *anges ! wat] becomes once m cle> & fit = ! gr[? ( /ony zoophytes4 ,calc>e\s s& is !n =m$ f comm9ut$ %ell & coral1 or1 9 "s cases1 ar5ace\s matt] replaces ! clay2 because x commonly happ5s t ! f9] s$im5t1 be+ fir/ drift$ f>!/ f coa/s1 is subsequ5tly ov]spread by co>se s&1 aft] ! sea has gr[n %all[]1 or :5 ! l&1 increas+ 9 ext5t1 :e!r by upheaval or by s$im5t fill+ up p>ts ( ! sea1 has approa*$ ne>] to ! spots fir/ occupi$ by f9e mud4 ,9 ord] to acc\nt = ano!r great =mation1 l ! ,ox=d clay1 aga9 cov]+ "o ( coral lime/one1 we mu/ suppose a s9k+ d[n l t :i* is n[ tak+ place 9 "s exi/+ regions ( coral betwe5 ,au/ralia & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! occurr5ce ( subsid5ces1 on s va/ a scale1 may h caus$ ! b$ ( ! ocean & ! adjo9+ l&1 ?r\gh\t great p>ts ( ! ,european area1 to assume a %ape fav\rable to ! deposition ( ano!r set ( clayey /rata2 & ?is *ange may h be5 succe$$ by a s]ies ( ev5ts analog\s to t already expla9$1 & ^! aga9 by a ?ird s]ies 9 simil> ord]4 ,bo? ! asc5d+ & desc5d+ movem5ts may h be5 extremely sl[1 l ^? n[ go+ on 9 ! ,pacific2 & ! gr[? ( e /ratum ( coral1 a few feet ( ?ickness1 may h requir$ c5turies = its completion1 dur+ :i* c]ta9 species ( organic be+s disappe>$ f ! e>?1 & o!rs 7 introduc$ 9 _! place2 s t1 9 ea* set ( /rata1 f ! ,upp] ,oolite to ! ,lias1 "s peculi> & *>act]i/ic fossils 7 emb$d$4 ,oolite & ,lias ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #caf4 ,section %[+ ! geological position ( ! ,james ,riv]1 or ,ea/ ,virg9ian ,coal-field4 ,a4 ,granite1 gneiss1 c4 ,b4 ,coal-measures4 ,c4 ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,d4 ,drift or anci5t alluvium4 ,!re are l>ge tracts on ! globe1 z 9 ,russia & ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :]e all ! memb]s ( ! oolitic s]ies are unrepres5t$4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,virg9ia1 h[ev]1 at ! di/ance ( ab\t #ac miles ea/w>d ( ,ri*mond1 ! capital ( t ,/ate1 !re is a regul> coal-field occurr+ 9 a depression ( ! granite rocks 7see section1 fig4 #caf471 :i* ,pr(essor ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s fir/ correctly ref]r$ to ! age ( ! l[] "p ( ! ,jurassic gr\p4 ,?is op9ion ,i 0 enabl$ to confirm aft] collect+ a l>ge numb] ( fossil plants1 fi%1 & %ells1 & exam9+ ! coal-field ?r\gh\t its :ole area4 ,x ext5ds #bf miles f nor? to s\?1 & f #d to #ab1 f ea/ to we/4 ,! plants consi/ *iefly ( zamites1 calamites1 & equisetums1 & ^! la/ are v commonly met ) 9 a v]tical position m or less compress$ p]p5dicul>ly4 ,x is cle> t !y grew 9 ! places :]e !y n[ lie buri$ 9 /rata ( h>d5$ s& & mud4 ,i f\nd !m ma9ta9+ _! erect attitude1 at po9ts _m miles di/ant f o!rs1 9 b$s bo? above & betwe5 ! seams ( coal4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ?is fact we mu/ suppose su* %ales & s&/ones to h be5 gradually accumulat$ dur+ ! sl[ & repeat$ subsid5ce ( ! :ole region4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t ! ,equisetum column>e ( ^! ,virg9ian rocks appe>s to be undi/+ui%able f ! species f\nd 9 ! oolitic s&/ones ne> ,:itby 9 ,york%ire1 :]e x also is met ) 9 an upright position4 ,"o ( ! ,am]ican f]ns1 ,pecopt]is ,:itby5sis1 is also a species common to ! ,york%ire oolites4#bhe-;,a ,^! ,virg9ian coal-measures are compos$ ( grits1 s&/ones1 & %ales1 exactly resembl+ ^? ( old] or prim>y date 9 ,am]ica & ,europe1 & !y rival or ev5 surpass ! latt] 9 ! ri*ness & ?ickness ( ! seams4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! ma9 seam1 is 9 "s places f #cj to #dj feet ?ick1 compos$ ( pure bitum9\s coal4 ,on desc5d+ a %aft #hjj feet deep1 9 ! ,blackhea? m9es 9 ,*e/]field c\nty1 ,i f\nd myself 9 a *amb] m ?an #dj feet high1 caus$ by ! removal ( ?is coal4 ,timb] props ( great /r5g? support$ ! ro(1 b !y 7 se5 to b5d "u ! incumb5t weight4 ,! coal is l ! f9e/ k9ds %ipp$ at ,newca/le1 & :5 analys$ yields ! same proportions ( c>bon & hydrog51 a fact wor?y ( notice :5 we consid] t ?is fuel has be5 d]iv$ f an assemblage ( plants v di/9ct specifically1 & 9 "p g5]ically1 f ^? :i* h contribut$ to ! =mation ( ! anci5t or paleozoic coal4 ,! fossil fi% ( ^! ,ri*mond /rata belong to ! liassic g5us ,tetragonolepis1 & to a new g5us :i* ,i h call$ ,dictyopyge4 ,%ells are v r>e1 z usually 9 all coal-be>+ deposits1 b a species ( ,posidonomya is 9 su* pr(usion 9 "s %aley b$s z to divide !m l ! plates ( mica 9 micace\s %ales 7see fig4 #cag474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cag4 ,oolitic coal-%ale1 ,ri*mond1 ,virg9ia4 a4 ,posidonomya4 b4 "y ( same4 ,9 ,india1 especially 9 ,cut*1 a =mation occurs cle>ly ref]able to ! oolitic & liassic type1 z %[n by ! %ells1 corals1 & plants2 & !re also coal has be5 procur$ f "o memb] ( ! gr\p4 ,,footnotes3 #bgd-;,a ,conyb4 & ,phil4 p4 #bfa4 #bge-;,a ,agassiz1 ,pois4 ,fos4 vol4 ii4 tab4 #bh1 #bi4 #bgf-;,a ,bridgewat] ,treatise1 p4 #bij4 #bgf-;,b ,agassiz1 ,poissons ,fossiles1 vol4 iii4 tab4 ,c4 fig4 #a4 #bgf-;,c ,ibid4 p4 #afh4 #bgf-;,d ,ibid4 p4 #ahg4 #bgg-;,a ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 vol4 iii4 p4 #aeg4 #ahci4 #bgg-;,b ,geol4 ,trans4 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #eaa4 #bgh-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 i4 pl4 #di4 #bgh-;,b ,conybe>e & ,de la ,be*e4 ,geol4 ,trans42 & ,buckl&1 ,bridgew4 ,treat41 p4 #bjc4 #bgh-;,c ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 ii4 p4 #daa4 #bgi-;,a ,amblys1 amblys1 blunt2 & rhyg*os1 rhyn*us1 sn\t4 #bhj-;,a ,d>w9's ,j\rnal1 *ap4 xix4 #bhj-;,b ,bridgew4 ,treat41 p4 #abe4 #bha-;,a ,geological ,rese>*es1 p4 #ccd4 #bha-;,b ,buckl&1 ,bridgew4 ,treat41 p4 #cjg4 #bha-;,c ,ibid4 #bha-;,d ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,lanc]ote1 ,graham ,isl&1 ,calabria4 #bha-;,e ,a ,hi/ory ( ,fossil ,insects1 c4 #ahde4 ,london4 #bhb-;,a ,tableau des ,veg4 ,fos4 #ahdi1 p4 #aje4 #bhc-;,a ,con4 & ,phil41 p4 #aff4 #bhc-;,b ,geol4 ,rese>*es1 p4 #ccg4 #bhc-;,c ,burat's ,d',aubuisson1 tom4 ii4 p4 #def4 #bhe-;,a ,see description ( ! coal-field by ! au?or1 & ! plants by ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bunbury1 ,esq41 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bha4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,trias ,,or ,,new ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,gr\p4 ,di/9ction betwe5 ,new & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one--,betwe5 ,upp] & ,l[] ,new ,r$--,! ,trias & its ?ree divisions--,mo/ l>gely develop$ 9 ,g]many--,keup] & its fossils--,mus*elkalk--,fossil plants ( ,bunt]--,triassic gr\p 9 ,engl&--,bone-b$ ( ,axm\? & ,au/--,r$ ,s&/one ( ,w>wick%ire & ,*e%ire--,foot/eps ( ,*iro!rium 9 ,engl& & ,g]many--,o/eology ( ! ,labyr9?odon--,id5tification ( ?is ,batra*ian ) ! ,*iro!rium--,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & ,rock-salt--,hypo!sis ( sal9e volcanic exhalations--,!ory ( ! precipitation ( salt f inl& lakes or lagoons--,saltness ( ! ,r$ ,sea--,new ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,fossil footpr9ts ( birds & reptiles 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,connecticut--,antiquity ( ! ,r$ ,s&/one conta9+ !m4 ,betwe5 ! ,lias & ! ,coal1 or ,c>bonif]\s gr\p1 !re is int]pos$1 9 ! midl& & we/]n c\nties ( ,engl&1 a great s]ies ( r$ loams1 %ales1 & s&/ones1 to :i* ! "n ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one =mation 0 fir/ giv51 to di/+ui% x f o!r %ales & s&/ones call$ ! ,old ,r$ 7c1 fig4 #cah471 (t5 id5tical 9 m9]al "*1 :i* lie imm$iately b5ea? ! coal 7b74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cah4 ,cross section4 a4 ,new r$ s&/one4 b4 ,coal4 c4 ,old r$4 ,! "n ( ,r$ ,m>l has be5 incorrectly appli$ to ! r$ clays ( ?is =mation1 z be=e expla9$ 7p4 #ac471 = !y are rem>kably free f calc>e\s matt]4 ,! abs5ce1 inde$1 ( c>bonate ( lime1 z well z ! sc>city ( organic rema9s1 toge!r ) ! bright r$ col\r ( mo/ ( ! rocks ( ?is gr\p1 causes a /rong contra/ betwe5 x & ! ,jurassic =mations be=e describ$4 ,be=e ! di/9ctness ( ! fossil rema9s *>act]iz+ ! upp] & l[] "p ( ! ,engli% ,new ,r$ _h be5 cle>ly recogniz$1 x 0 f\nd conv5i5t to h a common "n = all ! /rata int]m$iate 9 position betwe5 ! ,lias & ,coal2 & ! t]m ,poikilitic 0 propos$ by ,messrs4 ,conybe>e & ,buckl&#bhf-;,a1 f poikilos1 poikilos1 v>iegat$1 "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic /rata ( ?is gr\p hav+ be5 call$ v>iegat$ by ,w]n]1 f _! exhibit+ spots & /reaks ( light-blue1 gre51 & buff col\r1 9 a r$ base4 ,a s+le t]m1 ?us compreh5d+ bo? ,upp] & ,l[] ,new ,r$1 or ! ,triassic & ,p]mian gr\ps ( mod]n classifications1 may /ill be useful 9 describ+ di/ricts :]e we h to speak ( masses ( r$ s&/one & %ale1 ref]able1 9 "p1 to bo? ^! eras1 b :i*1 9 ! abs5ce ( fossils1 x is impossible to divide4 ,trias or ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ,gr\p4 ,! accompany+ table w expla9 ! subdivisions g5]ally adopt$ = ! upp]mo/ ( ! two sy/ems above allud$ to1 & ! names giv5 to !m 9 ,engl& & on ! ,cont95t4 ,synonyms4 ,g]man4 ,fr5*4 a4 ,salif]\s & gypse\s %ales & ,keup] ,m>nes irisees4 ,trias or ,upp] s&/one ,new ,r$ ,s&/one b4 7want+ 9 ,engl&7 ,mus*elkalk ,mus*elkalk1 ou calcaire coquilli]4 c4 ,s&/one & ,bunt]- ,gres big>re4 qu>tzose conglom]ate s&/e9 ,i %all fir/ describe ?is gr\p z x occurs 9 ,s\? ,we/]n & ,nor? ,we/]n ,g]many1 = x is f> m fully develop$ !re ?an 9 ,engl& or ,france4 ,x has be5 call$ ! ,trias by ,g]man writ]s1 or ! ,triple ,gr\p1 because x is sep>able into ?ree di/9ct =mations1 call$ ! ,keup]1 ! ,mus*elkalk1 & ! ,bunt]-s&/e94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cai4 ,equisetites column>is4 7,syn4 ,equisetum column>e47 ,fragm5t ( /em1 & small portion ( same magnifi$4 ,keup]4 ,! ,keup]1 ! fir/ or newe/ ( ^!1 is #ajjj feet ?ick 9 ,wu]temb]g1 & is divid$ by ,alb]ti into s&/one1 gypsum1 & c>bonace\s slate-clay4#bhg-;,a ,rema9s ( ,reptiles1 call$ ,no?osaurus & ,phytosaurus1 h be5 f\nd 9 x ) ,labyr9?odon2 ! deta*$ tee?1 also1 ( placoid fi% & ( rays1 & ( ! g5]a ,sauri*?ys & ,gyrolepis 7figs4 #cbe1 #cbf1 p4 #bhi474 ,! plants ( ! ,keup] are g5]ically v analog\s to ^? ( ! lias & oolite1 consi/+ ( f]ns1 equisetace\s plants1 cycads1 & conif]s1 ) a few d\btful monocotyl$ons4 ,a few species1 su* z ,equisetites column>is1 are common to ?is gr\p1 & ! oolite4 ,! ,mus*elkalk consi/s *iefly ( a compact1 greyi% lime/one1 b includes b$s ( dolomite 9 _m places1 toge!r ) gypsum & rock-salt4 ,?is lime/one1 a rock :olly unrepres5t$ 9 ,engl&1 ab\nds 9 fossil %ells1 z ! "n implies4 ,among ! cephalopoda !re are no belemnites1 & no ammonites ) foliat$ sutures1 z 9 ! incumb5t lias & oolite1 b a g5us alli$ to ! ,ammonite1 call$ ,c]atite by ,de ,haan1 9 :i* ! desc5d+ lobes 7see a1 b1 c1 fig4 #cbj47 t]m9ate 9 a few small d5ticulations po9t+ inw>ds4 ,among ! bivalve %ells1 ! ,posidonia m9uta1 ,goldf4 7,posidonomya m9uta1 ,bronn7 7see fig4 #cba471 is abundant1 rang+ ?r\gh ! ,keup]1 ,mus*elkalk1 & ,bunt]-s&/e92 & ,avicula socialis1 fig4 #cbb41 hav+ a simil> range1 is v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mus*elkalk 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,pol&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbj4 ,c]atites nodosus4 ,mus*elkalk4 a4 ,side view4 b4 ,front view4 c4 ,p>tially d5ticulat$ outl9e ( ! septa divid+ ! *amb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cba4 ,posidonia m9uta1 ,goldf4 7,posidonomya m9uta1 ,bronn47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbb4 ,avicula4 ,*>act]i/ic ( ! ,mus*elkalk4 a4 ,avicula socialis4 b4 ,side view ( same4 ,! abundance ( ! heads & /ems ( lily encr9ites1 ,encr9us lilii=mis 7or ,encr9ites monili=mis71 %[ ! sl[ mann] 9 :i* "s b$s ( ?is lime/one h be5 =m$ 9 cle> sea-wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbc4 ,voltzia4 ,bunt]-s&/e94 a4 ,voltzia het]ophylla4 7,syn4 ,voltzia brevifolia47 b4 portion ( same magnifi$ to %[ fructification4 ,sulzbad4 ,! ,bunt]-s&/e9 consi/s ( v>i\s col\r$ s&/ones1 dolomites1 & r$-clays1 ) "s b$s1 especially 9 ! ,h>tz1 ( calc>e\s pisolite or roe-/one1 ! :ole sometimes atta9+ a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajjj feet4 ,! s&/one ( ! ,vosges1 accord+ to ,von ,mey]1 is prov$1 by ! pres5ce ( ,labyr9?odon1 to belong to ?is l[e/ memb] ( ! ,triassic gr\p4 ,at ,sulzbad 7or ,s\ltz-les-ba9s71 ne> ,/rasburg1 on ! flanks ( ! ,vosges1 _m plants h be5 obta9$ f ! bunt]1 especially conif]s ( ! ext9ct g5us ,voltzia1 peculi> to ?is p]iod1 9 :i* ev5 ! fructification has be5 pres]v$4 7,see fig4 #cbc47 ,out ( ?irty species ( f]ns1 cycads1 conif]s1 & o!r plants1 enum]at$ by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 9 #ahdi1 z com+ f ! gres big>re1 or ,bunt]1 n "o is common to ! ,keup]4#bhh-;,a ,! footpr9ts ( a reptile 7,labyr9?odon7 h be5 obs]v$ on ! clays ( ?is memb] ( ! ,trias1 ne> ,hildburghaus51 9 ,saxony1 impress$ on ! upp] surface ( ! b$s1 & /&+ out z ca/s 9 relief f ! "u sides ( incumb5t slabs ( s&/one4 ,to ^! ,i %all aga9 allude 9 ! sequel2 !y atte/1 z well z ! accompany+ ripple-m>ks1 & ! cracks :i* trav]se ! clays1 ! gradual =mation 9 %all[ wat]1 & sometimes betwe5 high & l[ wat]1 ( ! b$s ( ?is =mation4 ,triassic gr\p 9 ,engl&4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,lias is succe$$ by con=mable /rata ( r$ & gre5 m>l1 or clay4 ,!re int]v5es1 h[ev]1 bo? 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,axm\?1 9 ,devon%ire1 & 9 ! cliffs ( ,we/bury & ,au/1 9 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 on ! banks ( ! ,sev]n1 a d>k-col\r$ /ratum1 well kn[n by ! "n ( ! bone-b$4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! rema9s ( saurians & fi%1 & 0 =m]ly class$ z ! l[e/ b$ ( ! ,lias2 b ,sir ,p4 ,eg]ton has %[n t x %\ld be ref]r$ to ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 = x conta9s an assemblage ( fossil fi% :i* are ei!r peculi> to ?is /ratum1 or belong to species well kn[n 9 ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many4 ,^! fi% belong to ! g5]a ,acrodus1 ,hybodus1 ,gyrolepis1 & ,sauri*?ys4 ,among ^? common to ! ,engli% bone-b$ & ! ,mus*elkalk ( ,g]many are ,hybodus plicatilis 7fig4 #cbd471 ,sauri*?ys apicalis 7fig4 #cbe471 ,gyrolepis t5ui/riatus 7fig4 #cbf471 & ,g4 ,alb]tii4 ,rema9s ( saurians h also be5 f\nd 9 ! bone-b$1 & plates ( an ,encr9us4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbd4 ,hybodus plicatilis4 ,tee?4 ,bone-b$1 ,au/ & ,axm\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbe4 ,sauri*?ys apicalis4 ,too?2 nat4 size1 & magnifi$4 ,axm\?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbf4 ,gyrolepis t5ui/riatus4 ,scale2 nat4 size1 & magnifi$4 ,axm\?4 ,! /rata ( r$ & gre5 m>l1 :i* foll[ ! bone-b$ 9 ! desc5d+ ord] at ,axm\? & ,au/1 are de/itute ( organic rema9s2 z is ! case1 = ! mo/ "p1 9 ! correspond+ b$s 9 almo/ e "p ( ,engl&4 ,b fossils h lately be5 f\nd at a few localities 9 s&/ones ( ?is =mation1 9 ,worce/]%ire & ,w>wick%ire1 & among !m ! bivalve %ell call$ ,posidonia m9uta1 ,goldf41 be=e m5tion$ 7fig4 #cba4 p4 #bhh474 ,! upp] memb] ( ! ,engli% ,new ,r$ conta9+ ?is %ell1 9 ^? p>ts ( ,engl&1 is1 accord+ to ,messrs4 ,mur*ison & ,/rickl&1 #fjj feet ?ick1 & consi/s *iefly ( r$ m>l or slate1 ) a b& ( s&/one4 ,sp9es ( ,hybodus1 call$ i*?yodorulites1 tee? ( fi%es1 & footpr9ts ( reptiles1 ) rema9s ( a saurian call$ ,rhyncosaurus1 7 obs]v$ by ! same geologi/s 9 ^! /rata4#bij-;,a ,9 ,*e%ire & ,lanca%ire ! gypse\s & salif]\s r$ %ales & loams ( ! ,trias are betwe5 #ajjj & #aejj feet ?ick4 ,9 "s places l5ticul> masses ( rock-salt are int]polat$ betwe5 ! argillace\s b$s1 ! orig9 ( :i* w be spok5 ( 9 ! sequel4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbg4 ,s+le foot/ep ( ,*iro!rium4 ,bunt] ,s&/e91 ,saxony2 "o eigh? ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbh4 ,l9e ( foot/eps on slab ( s&/one4 ,hildburghaus51 9 ,saxony4 ,! l[] division or ,engli% repres5tative ( ! ,bunt] atta9s a ?ickness ( #fjj feet 9 ! c\nties la/ m5tion$4 ,besides r$ & gre5 %ales & r$ s&/ones1 x comprises mu* s(t :ite qu>tzose s&/one1 9 :i* ! trunks ( silicifi$ trees h be5 met ) at ,allesley ,hill1 ne> ,cov5try4 ,sev]al ( !m 7 a foot & a half 9 diamet]1 & "s y>ds 9 l5g?1 decid$ly ( conif]\s wood1 & %[+ r+s ( annual gr[?4#bij-;,b ,impressions1 also1 ( ! foot/eps ( animals h be5 detect$ 9 ,lanca%ire & ,*e%ire 9 ?is =mation4 ,"s ( ! mo/ rem>kable occur a few miles f ,liv]pool1 9 ! :iti% qu>tzose s&/one ( ,/orton ,hill1 on ! we/ side ( ! ,m]sey4 ,!y be> a close resemblance to tracks fir/ obs]v$ 9 a memb] ( ! ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 at ! village ( ,hesseb]g1 ne> ,hildburghaus51 9 ,saxony1 to :i* ,i h already allud$4 ,= _m ye>s ^! footpr9ts h be5 ref]r$ to a l>ge unkn[n quadrup$1 provisionally nam$ ,*iro!rium by ,pr(essor ,kaup1 because ! m>ks bo? ( ! =e & h9d feet resembl$ impressions made by a human h&4 7,see fig4 #cbg47 ,! footm>ks at ,hesseb]g are p>tly concave & p>tly 9 relief2 ! =m]1 or ! depressions1 are se5 ^u ! upp] surface ( ! s&/one slabs1 b ^? 9 relief are only ^u ! l[] surfaces1 be+ 9 fact natural ca/s1 =m$ 9 ! subjac5t footpr9ts z 9 m\lds4 ,! l>g] impressions1 :i* seem to be ^? ( ! h9d foot1 are g5]ally #h in*es 9 l5g?1 & #e 9 wid?1 & "o 0 #ab in*es long4 ,ne> ea* l>ge foot/ep1 & at a regul> di/ance 7ab\t an in* & a half71 be=e x1 a small] pr9t ( a =e foot1 #d in*es long & #c in*es wide1 occurs4 ,! foot/eps foll[ ea* o!r 9 pairs1 ea* pair 9 ! same l9e1 at int]vals ( #ad in*es f pair to pair4 ,! l>ge z well z ! small /eps %[ ! great toes alt]nately on ! "r & left side2 ea* /ep makes ! pr9t ( five toes1 ! fir/ or great toe be+ b5t inw>ds l a ?umb4 ,?\gh ! =e & h9d foot diff] s mu* 9 size1 !y are ne>ly simil> 9 =m4 ,! simil> footm>ks aft]w>ds obs]v$ 9 a rock ( correspond+ age at ,/orton ,hill1 7 impr9t$ on five ?9 b$s ( clay1 sup]impos$ "o ^u ! o!r 9 ! same qu>ry1 & sep>at$ by b$s ( s&/one4 ,on ! l[] surface ( ! s&/one /rata1 ! solid ca/s ( ea* impression are sali5t1 9 high relief1 & af=d models ( ! feet1 toes1 & claws ( ! animals :i* trod on ! clay4 ,z nei!r 9 ,g]many nor 9 ,engl& any bones or tee? _h be5 met ) 9 ! same id5tical /rata z ! foot/eps1 anatomi/s indulg$1 = sev]al ye>s1 9 v>i\s conjectures respect+ ! my/]i\s animals f :i* !y might h be5 d]iv$4 ,pr(essor ,kaup sugge/$ t ! unkn[n quadrup$ might h be5 alli$ to ! ,m>supialia2 = 9 ! kang>oo ! fir/ toe ( ! =e foot is 9 a simil> mann] set obliquely to ! o!rs1 l a ?umb1 & ! disproportion betwe5 ! =e & h9d feet is also v great4 ,b ,m4 ,l9k conceiv$ t "s ( ! f\r species ( animals ( :i* ! tracks _h be5 f\nd 9 ,saxony might h be5 gigantic ,batra*ians2 & ,dr4 ,buckl& designat$ "s ( ! foot/eps z ^? ( a small web-foot$ animal1 probably crocodilean4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! discussions sev]al naturali/s ( ,liv]pool1 9 _! report on ! ,/orton qu>ries1 decl>$ _! op9ion t ea* ( ! ?9 seams ( clay 9 :i* ! s&/one ca/s 7 m\ld$ _h =m$ successively a surface above wat]1 ov] :i* ! ,*iro!rium & o!r animals walk$1 leav+ impressions ( _! foot/eps1 & t ea* lay] _h be5 aft]w>ds subm]g$ by a s9k+ d[n ( ! surface1 s t a new bea* 0 =m$ at l[ wat] above ! =m]1 on :i* o!r tracks 7 !n made4 ,! repeat$ occurr5ce ( ripple-m>ks at v>i\s heights & dep?s 9 ! r$ s&/one ( ,*e%ire _h be5 expla9$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,x 0 also rem>k$ t impressions ( su* dep? & cle>ness c\ld only h be5 made by animals walk+ on ! l&1 z _! weight w\ld h be5 insuffici5t to make !m s9k s deeply 9 yield+ clay "u wat]4 ,!y mu/ !re=e h be5 air-brea!rs4 ,:5 ! inquiry _h be5 br\ght to ?is po9t1 ! reptilian rema9s discov]$ 9 ! ,trias1 bo? ( ,g]many & ,engl&1 7 c>efully exam9$ by ,mr4 ,ow54 ,he f\nd1 aft] a microscopic inve/igation ( ! tee? f ! ,g]man s&/one call$ ,keup]1 & f ! s&/one ( ,w>wick & ,leam+ton1 t nei!r ( !m c\ld be ref]r$ to true saurians1 al?\gh !y _h be5 nam$ ,ma/odonsaurus & ,phytosaurus by ,jaeg] 7fig4 #cbi474 ,x appe>$ t !y 7 ( ! ,batra*ian ord]1 & atte/$ ! =m] exi/5ce ( frogs ( gigantic dim5sions 9 comp>ison ) any n[ liv+4 ,bo? ! ,cont95tal & ,engli% fossil tee? exhibit$ a mo/ complicat$ texture1 diff]+ f t previ\sly obs]v$ 9 any reptile1 :e!r rec5t or ext9ct1 b mo/ ne>ly analog\s to ! ,i*?yosaurus4 ,a section ( "o ( ^! tee? exhibits a s]ies ( irregul> folds1 resembl+ ! labyr9?ic w9d+s ( ! surface ( ! bra92 & f ?is "* ,mr4 ,ow5 has propos$ ! "n ,labyr9?odon = ! new g5us4 ,by 8 p]mission1 ! annex$ repres5tation 7fig4 #ccj47 ( "p ( "o is giv5 f 8 ,odontography1 plate #fd4 ,a4 ,! entire l5g? ( ?is too? is suppos$ to h be5 ab\t ?ree in*es & a half1 & ! bread? at ! base "o in* & a half4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cbi4 ,too? ( ,labyr9?odon2 nat4 size4 ,w>wick s&/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccj4 ,transv]se section ( too? ( ,labyr9?odon ,jaeg]i1 ,ow5 7,ma/odonsaurus ,jaeg]i1 ,mey]72 nat4 size1 & a segm5t magnifi$4 a4 ,pulp cavity1 f :i* ! processes ( pulp & d5t9e radiate4 ,:5 ,mr4 ,ow5 _h satisfi$ himself1 f an inspection ( ! cranium1 jaws1 & tee?1 t a gigantic ,batra*ian _h exi/$ at ! p]iod ( ! ,trias or ,upp] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 he soon f\nd1 f ! exam9ation ( v>i\s bones d]iv$ f ! same =mation1 t he c\ld def9e ?ree species ( ,labyr9?odon1 & t 9 ?is g5us ! h9d extremities 7 mu* l>g] ?an ! ant]ior ones4 ,?is circum/ance1 c\pl$ ) ! fact ( ! ,labyr9?odon hav+ exi/$ at ! p]iod :5 ! ,*iro!rian foot/eps 7 made1 0 ! fir/ /ep t[>ds ! id5tification ( ^? tracks ) ! newly discov]$ ,batra*ian4 ,x 0 at ! same "t obs]v$ t ! footm>ks ( ,*iro!rium 7 m l ^? ( toads ?an ( any o!r liv+ animal2 &1 la/ly1 t ! size ( ! ?ree species ( ,labyr9?odon correspond$ ) ! size ( ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( footpr9ts :i* _h already be5 suppos$ to belong to ?ree di/9ct ,*iro!ria4 ,x 0 moreov] inf]r$1 ) confid5ce1 t ! ,labyr9?odon 0 an air-brea?+ reptile f ! /ructure ( ! nasal cavity1 9 :i* ! po/]ior outlets 7 at ! back "p ( ! m\?1 in/ead ( be+ directly "u ! ant]ior or ext]nal no/rils4 ,x mu/ h respir$ air aft] ! mann] ( saurians1 & may !re=e h impr9t$ on ! %ore ^? foot/eps1 :i*1 z we h se51 c\ld n h orig9at$ f an animal walk+ "u wat]4 ,x is true t ! /ructure ( ! foot is /ill want+1 & t a m connect$ & complete skeleton is requir$ = demon/ration2 b ! circum/antial evid5ce above /at$ is /rong en\gh to produce ! conviction t ! ,*iro!rium & ,labyr9?odon are "o & ! same4 ,9 ord] to %[ ! mann] 9 :i* "o ( ^! =midable ,batra*ians may h impress$ ! m>k ( its feet ^u ! %ore1 ,mr4 ,ow5 has attempt$ a re/oration1 ( :i* a r$uc$ copy is annex$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cca4 ,labyr9?odon pa*ygna?us1 ,ow54 ,! only bones ( ?is species at pres5t kn[n are ^? ( ! head1 ! pelvis1 & "p ( ! scapula1 :i* are %[n by /rong] l9es 9 ! above figure4 ,!re is reason = believ+ t ! head 0 n smoo? ext]nally1 b protect$ by bony scutella4 ,orig9 ( ,r$ ,s&/one & ,rock ,salt4 ,we h se5 t1 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w1 r$ & mottl$ clays1 & s&/ones1 ( sev]al di/9ct geological epo*s1 are f\nd associat$ ) salt1 gypsum1 magnesian lime/one1 or ) "o or all ( ^! sub/ances4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 9 all likelihood1 a g5]al cause = su* a co9cid5ce4 ,nev]!less1 we mu/ n =get t !re are d5se masses ( r$ & v>iegat$ s&/ones & clays1 ?\s&s ( feet 9 ?ickness1 & ( va/ horizontal ext5t1 :olly devoid ( salif]\s or gypse\s matt]4 ,!re are also deposits ( gypsum & ( muriate ( soda1 z 9 ! blue clay =mation ( ,sicily1 )\t any accompany+ r$ s&/one or r$ clay4 ,to acc\nt = deposits ( r$ mud & r$ s&1 we h simply to suppose ! dis9tegration ( ord9>y cry/all9e or metamorphic s*i/s4 ,?us1 9 ! ea/]n ,grampians ( ,scotl&1 z1 = example1 9 ! nor? ( ,=f>%ire1 ! m\nta9s ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & clay-slate1 are ov]spread ) alluvium1 d]iv$ f ! dis9tegration ( ^? rocks2 & ! mass ( detritus is /a9$ by oxide ( iron1 ( precisely ! same col\r z ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ! adjo9+ ,l[l&s4 ,n[ ?is alluvium m]ely requires to be swept d[n to ! sea1 or into a lake1 to =m /rata ( r$ s&/one & r$ m>l1 precisely l ! mass ( ! ,old ,r$ or ,new ,r$ sy/ems ( ,engl&1 or ^? t]ti>y deposits ( ,auv]gne 7see p4 #ahb471 be=e describ$1 :i* are 9 li?ological *>act]s q undi/+ui%able4 ,! pebbles ( gneiss 9 ! ,eoc5e r$ s&/one ( ,auv]gne po9t cle>ly to ! rocks f :i* x has be5 d]iv$4 ,! r$ col\r+ matt] may1 z 9 ! ,grampians1 h be5 furni%$ by ! decomposition ( hornbl5de1 or mica1 :i* conta9 oxide ( iron 9 l>ge quantity4 ,x is a g5]al fact1 & "o n yet acc\nt$ =1 t sc>cely any fossil rema9s are pres]v$ 9 /ratifi$ rocks 9 :i* ?is oxide ( iron ab\nds2 & :5 we f9d fossils 9 ! ,new or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ,engl&1 x is 9 ! grey1 & usually calc>e\s b$s1 t !y occur4 ,! gypsum & sal9e matt]1 occasionally int]/ratifi$ ) su* r$ clays & s&/ones ( v>i\s ages1 prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y1 h be5 ?\ght by "s geologi/s to be ( volcanic orig94 ,subm>9e & suba]ial exhalations (t5 occur 9 regions ( e>?quakes & volcanos f> f po9ts ( actual eruption1 & *>g$ ) sulphur1 sulphuric salts1 & ) common salt or muriate ( soda4 ,9 a ^w1 !y are v5ts by :i* all ! products :i* issue 9 a /ate ( sublimation f ! crat]s ( active volcanos1 obta9 a passage f ! int]ior ( ! e>? to ! surface4 ,t su* gase\s emanations & m9]al spr+s1 impregnat$ ) ! +r$i5ts be=e enum]at$1 & (t5 int5sely heat$1 cont9ue to fl[ out unalt]$ 9 composition & temp]ature = ages1 is well kn[n4 ,b be=e we c decide on _! real in/rum5tality 9 produc+ 9 ! c\rse ( ages b$s ( gypsum1 salt1 & dolomite1 we require to "k :at are ! *emical *anges actually 9 progress 9 seas :]e ?is volcanic ag5cy is at "w4 ,yet ! orig9 ( rock-salt is a problem ( s mu* int]e/ 9 !oretical geology z to dem& a full discussion ( ano!r hypo!sis advanc$ on ! subject2 namely1 t :i* attributes ! precipitation ( ! salt to evaporation1 :e!r ( inl& lakes or ( lagoons communicat+ ) ! ocean4 ,at ,nor?wi*1 9 ,*e%ire1 two b$s ( salt1 9 great "p unmix$ ) e>?y matt]1 atta9 ! extraord9>y ?ickness ( #ij & ev5 #ajj feet4 ,! upp] surface ( ! highe/ b$ is v unev51 =m+ cones & irregul> figures4 ,betwe5 ! two masses !re int]v5es a b$ ( indurat$ clay1 trav]s$ ) ve9s ( salt4 ,! highe/ b$ ?9s (f t[>ds ! s\?-we/1 los+ #ae feet 9 ?ickness 9 ! c\rse ( a mile4#bie-;,a ,! horizontal ext5t ( ^! p>ticul> masses 9 ,*e%ire & ,lanca%ire is n exactly kn[n2 b ! area1 conta9+ salif]\s clays & s&/ones1 is suppos$ to exce$ #aej miles 9 diamet]1 :ile ! total ?ickness ( ! trias 9 ! same region is e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,orm]od at m ?an #agjj feet4 ,ripple-m>k$ s&/ones1 & ! footpr9ts ( animals1 be=e describ$1 are obs]v$ at s _m levels t we may safely assume ! :ole area to h und]gone a sl[ & gradual depression dur+ ! =mation ( ! ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,! evid5ce ( su* a movem5t1 :olly indep5d5t ( ! pres5ce ( salt itself1 is v important 9 ref]5ce to ! !ory "u consid]ation4 ,9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7*ap4 #bh471 ,i publi%$ a map1 furni%$ to me by ! late ,sir ,alex&] ,burnes1 ( t s+ul> flat region call$ ! ,runn ( ,cut*1 ne> ! delta ( ! ,indus1 :i* is #gjjj squ>e miles 9 area1 or equal 9 ext5t to ab\t "o-f\r? ( ,irel&4 ,x is nei!r l& nor sea1 b is dry dur+ a "p ( e ye>1 & aga9 cov]$ by salt wat] dur+ ! monsoons4 ,"s p>ts ( x are liable1 aft] long int]vals1 to be ov]fl[$ by riv]-wat]4 ,its surface supports no grass1 b is encru/$ ov]1 "h & !re1 by a lay] ( salt1 ab\t an in* 9 dep?1 caus$ by ! evaporation ( sea-wat]4 ,c]ta9 tracts h be5 conv]t$ into dry l& by upheaval dur+ e>?quakes s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 &1 9 o!r directions1 ! b\nd>ies ( ! ,runn h be5 enl>g$ by subsid5ce4 ,t successive lay]s ( salt might be ?r[n d[n1 "o ^u ! o!r1 ov] ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 9 su* a region1 is und5iable4 ,! supply ( br9e f ! ocean w\ld be z inexhau/ible z ! supply ( heat f ! sun to cause evaporation4 ,! only assumption requir$ to enable u to expla9 a great ?ickness ( salt 9 su* z area is1 ! cont9uance1 = an indef9ite p]iod1 ( a subsid+ movem5t1 ! c\ntry pres]v+ all ! "t a g5]al approa* to horizontality4 ,pure salt c\ld only be =m$ 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( bas9s1 :]e no s& c\ld be drift$ by ! w9d1 or s$im5t be br\ght by curr5ts4 ,%\ld ! s9k+ ( ! gr\nd be accel]at$1 s z to let 9 ! sea freely1 & deep5 ! wat]1 a tempor>y susp5sion ( ! precipitation ( salt w\ld be ! only result4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! area %\ld dry up1 ripple-m>k$ s&s & ! footpr9ts ( animals might be =m$1 :]e salt _h previ\sly accumulat$4 ,accord+ to ?is view ! ?ickness ( ! salt1 z well z ( ! accompany+ b$s ( mud & s&1 becomes a m]e "q ( "t1 or requires simply a repetition ( simil> op]ations4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,mill]1 9 an able discussion ( ?is "q1 ref]s to ,dr4 ,fr$]ick ,p>rot's acc\nt1 9 8 j\rney to ,ar>at 7#ahcf71 ( ! salt lakes ( ,asia4 ,9 sev]al ( ^! lakes we/ ( ! riv] ,mane*1 ! wat]1 dur+ ! hotte/ season ( ! ye>1 is cov]$ on its surface ) a cru/ ( salt ne>ly an in* ?ick1 :i* is collect$ ) %ovels into boats4 ,! cry/allization ( ! salt is effect$ by rapid evaporation f ! sun's heat & ! sup]saturation ( ! wat] ) muriate ( soda2 ! lake be+ s %all[ t ! little boats trail on ! bottom & leave a furr[ beh9d !m1 s t ! lake mu/ be reg>d$ z a wide pan ( enorm\s sup]ficial ext5t1 9 :i* ! br9e c easily rea* ! degree ( conc5tration requir$4 ,ano!r travell]1 ,major ,h>ris1 9 8 ,highl&s ( ,e?iopia1 describes a salt lake1 call$ ! ,bahr ,assal1 ne> ! ,abyss9ian fronti]1 :i* once =m$ ! prolongation ( ! ,gulf ( ,tadj>a1 b 0 aft]w>ds cut (f f ! gulf by a broad b> ( lava or ( l& uprais$ by an e>?quake4 ,f$ by no riv]s1 & expos$ 9 a burn+ climate to ! unmitigat$ rays ( ! sun1 x has %runk into an elliptical bas91 sev5 miles 9 its transv]se axis1 half fill$ ) smoo? wat] ( ! deepe/ ca]ulian hue1 & half ) a solid %eet ( glitt]+ sn[-:ite salt1 ! (fspr+ ( evaporation4 ,if1 says ,mr4 ,hugh ,mill]1 we suppose1 in/ead ( a b>ri] ( lava1 t s&-b>s 7 rais$ by ! surf on a flat ar5ace\s coa/ dur+ a sl[ & equable s9k+ ( ! surface1 ! wat]s ( ! out] gulf might occasionally topple ov] ! b>1 & supply fre% br9e :5 ! fir/ /ock _h be5 exhau/$ by evaporation4#bif-;,a ,we may add t ! p]man5t impregnation ( ! wat]s ( a l>ge %all[ bas9 ) salt1 beyond ! proportion :i* is usual 9 ! ocean1 w\ld cause x to be un9habitable by mollusca or fi%1 z is ! case 9 ! ,dead ,sea1 & ! muriate ( soda might rema9 9 excess1 ev5 ?\gh x 7 occasionally repl5i%$ by irruptions ( ! sea4 ,%\ld ! sal9e deposit be ev5tually subm]g$1 x might1 z we h se5 f ! example ( ! ,runn ( ,cut*1 be cov]$ by a fre%wat] =mation conta9+ fluviatile organic rema9s2 & 9 ?is way ! app>5t anomaly ( b$s ( sea-salt & clays devoid ( m>9e fossils1 alt]nat+ ) o!rs ( fre%wat] orig91 may be expla9$4 ,dr4 ,g4 ,bui/1 9 a rec5t communication to ! ,bombay ,geographical ,society 7vol4 ix471 has ask$ h[ x happ5s t ! ,r$ ,sea %\ld n exce$ ! op5 ocean 9 saltness1 by m ?an #a_/aj? p] c5t4 ,! ,r$ ,sea receives no supply ( wat] f any qu>t] save ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,babelm&eb2 & !re is n a s+le riv] or rivulet fl[+ into x f a circuit ( #djjj miles ( %ore4 ,! c\ntries ar\nd are all excessively /]ile & arid1 & compos$1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( burn+ des]ts4 ,f ! asc]ta9$ evaporation 9 ! sea itself1 ,dr4 ,bui/ computes t ne>ly #h feet ( pure wat] mu/ be c>ri$ (f f ! :ole ( its surface annually1 ?is be+ probably equival5t to #a_/ajj? "p ( its :ole volume4 ,! ,r$ ,sea1 !re=e1 ought to h #a p] c5t4 add$ annually to its sal9e cont5ts2 & z ^! con/itute #d p] c5t4 by weight1 or #b-a_/b p] c5t4 9 volume ( its entire mass1 x ought1 assum+ ! av]age dep? to be #hjj feet1 :i* is suppos$ to be f> beyond ! tru?1 to h be5 conv]t$ into "o solid salt =mation 9 less ?an #cjjj ye>s4#big-;,a ,does ! ,r$ ,sea receive a supply ( wat] f ! ocean1 ?r\gh ! n>r[ ,/raits ( ,babelm&eb1 suffici5t to balance ! loss by evaporation8 ,& is !re an und]curr5t ( heavi] sal9e wat] annually fl[+ outw>ds8 ,if n1 9 :at mann] is ! excess ( salt dispos$ (8 ,an inve/igation ( ?is subject by our nautical surveyors may p]haps aid ! geologi/ 9 fram+ a true !ory ( ! orig9 ( rock-salt4 ,on ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ! valley ( ! ,connecticut ,riv] 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 a depression ( ! granitic or hypog5e rocks 9 ! ,/ates ( ,massa*usetts & ,connecticut1 /rata ( r$ s&/one1 %ale1 & conglom]ate are f\nd occupy+ an area m ?an #aej miles 9 l5g? f nor? to s\?1 & ab\t #e to #aj miles 9 bread?1 ! b$s dipp+ to ! ea/w>d at angles v>y+ f #e to #ej degrees4 ,! extreme incl9ation ( #ej degrees is r>e1 & only obs]v$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( masses ( trap :i* h be5 intrud$ into ! r$ s&/one :ile x 0 =m+1 or be=e ! new] p>ts ( ! deposit _h be5 complet$4 ,hav+ exam9$ ?is s]ies ( rocks 9 _m places1 ,i feel satisfi$ t !y 7 =m$ 9 %all[ wat]1 & = ! mo/ "p ne> ! %ore1 & t "s ( ! b$s 7 f "t to "t rais$ above ! level ( ! wat]1 & laid dry1 :ile a new] s]ies1 compos$ ( simil> s$im5t1 0 =m+4 ,! r$ flags ( ?9-b$d$ s&/one are (t5 ripple-m>k$1 & exhibit on _! "u sides ca/s ( cracks =m$ 9 ! und]ly+ r$ & gre5 %ales4 ,^! la/ mu/ h %runk by dry+ be=e ! s& 0 spread ov] !m4 ,on "s %ales ( ! f9e/ texture impressions ( ra9 drops may be se51 & ca/s ( !m 9 ! incumb5t argillace\s s&/ones4 ,hav+ obs]v$ simil> m>k+s produc$ by %[]s1 ( :i* ! precise date 0 kn[n1 on ! rec5t r$ mud ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 & ca/s 9 relief ( ! same1 on lay]s ( dri$ mud ?r[n d[n by subsequ5t tides1 ,i feel no d\bt 9 reg>d to ! orig9 ( "s ( ! anci5t ,connecticut impressions4 ,i h also se5 on ! mud-flats ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy ! footm>ks ( birds 7,tr+a m9uta71 :i* daily run along ! bord]s ( t e/u>y at l[ wat]1 & :i* ,i h describ$ 9 my ,travels4#big-;,b ,simil> lay]s ( r$ mud1 n[ h>d5$ & compress$ into %ale1 are laid op5 on ! banks ( ! ,connecticut1 & reta9 fai?fully ! impressions & ca/s ( ! feet ( num]\s birds & reptiles :i* walk$ ov] !m at ! "t :5 !y 7 deposit$1 probably 9 ! ,triassic ,p]iod4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,hit*cock1 ! footpr9ts ( no less ?an ?irty-two species ( bip$s1 & twelve ( quadrup$s1 h be5 already detect$ 9 ^! rocks4 ,?irty ( ^! are believ$ to be ^? ( birds1 f\r ( liz>ds1 two ( *elonians1 & six ( batra*ians4 ,! tracks h be5 f\nd 9 m ?an tw5ty places1 scatt]$ ?r\gh an ext5t ( ne>ly #hj miles f nor? to s\?1 & !y are repeat$ ?r\gh a succession ( b$s atta9+ at "s po9ts a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajjj feet1 :i* may h be5 ?\s&s ( ye>s 9 =m+4#bih-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccb4 ,footpr9ts ( a bird4 ,turn]'s ,falls1 ,valley ( ! ,connecticut4 7,see ,dr4 ,deane1 ,mem4 ( ,am]4 ,acad4 vol4 iv4 #ahdi47 ,z consid]able scepticism is naturally ent]ta9$ 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! evid5ce d]iv$ f footpr9ts1 x may be well to enum]ate "s facts respect+ !m on :i* ! fai? ( ! geologi/ may re/4 ,:5 ,i visit$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahdb1 m ?an #bjjj impressions _h be5 obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,hit*cock1 9 ! di/rict allud$ to1 & all ( !m 7 ind5t$ on ! upp] surface ( ! lay]s1 :ile ! correspond+ ca/s1 /&+ out 9 relief1 7 always on ! l[] surfaces or planes ( ! /rata4 ,if we foll[ a s+le l9e ( m>ks we f9d !m uni=m 9 size1 & ne>ly uni=m 9 di/ance f ea* o!r1 ! toes ( two successive footpr9ts1 turn+ alt]nately "r & left 7see fig4 #ccb474 ,su* s+le l9es indicate a bip$2 & !re is g5]ally su* a deviation f a /raight l9e1 9 any ?ree successive pr9ts1 z we rem>k 9 ! tracks left by birds4 ,!re is also a /rik+ relation betwe5 ! di/ance sep>at+ two footpr9ts 9 "o s]ies & ! size ( ! impressions2 9 o!r words1 an obvi\s proportion betwe5 ! l5g? ( ! /ride & ! dim5sion ( ! creature :i* walk$ ov] ! mud4 ,if ! m>ks are small1 !y may be half an in* asund]2 if gigantic1 z1 = example1 :]e ! toes are #bj in*es long1 !y are occasionally #d feet & a half ap>t4 ,! bip$al impressions are = ! mo/ "p trifid1 & %[ ! same numb] ( jo9ts z exi/ 9 ! feet ( liv+ tridactyl\s birds4 ,n[ su* birds h ?ree phalangeal bones = ! inn] toe1 f\r = ! middle & five = ! out] "o 7see fig4 #ccb472 b ! impression ( ! t]m9al jo9t is t ( ! nail only4 ,! fossil footpr9ts exhibit regul>ly1 :]e ! jo9ts are se51 ! same numb]2 & we see 9 ea* cont9u\s l9e ( tracks ! ?ree-jo9t$ & five-jo9t$ toes plac$ alt]nately outw>ds1 fir/ on ! "o side & !n on ! o!r4 ,x is n (t5 t ! matrix has be5 f9e en\gh to reta9 impressions ( ! integum5t or sk9 ( ! foot2 b 9 "o f9e specim5 f\nd at ,turn]'s ,falls on ! ,connecticut1 by ,dr4 ,deane1 ^! m>k+s are well pres]v$1 & h be5 recogniz$ by ,mr4 ,ow5 z resembl+ ! sk9 ( ! o/ri*1 & n t ( reptiles4#bih-;,b ,mu* c>e is requir$ to asc]ta9 ! precise lay] ( a lam9at$ rock on :i* an animal has walk$1 because ! impression usually ext5ds d[nw>ds ?r\gh sev]al lam9ae2 & if ! upp] lay] orig9ally trodd5 ^u is want+1 "o or m jo9ts1 or ev5 9 "s cases an entire toe1 :i* sank less deep into ! s(t gr\nd1 may disappe>1 & yet ! rema9d] ( ! footpr9t be well def9$4 ,! size ( sev]al ( ! fossil impressions ( ! ,connecticut r$ s&/one s f> exce$s t ( any liv+ o/ri*1 t naturali/s at fir/ 7 extremely adv]se to ! op9ion ( _! hav+ be5 made by birds1 until ! bones & almo/ entire skeleton ( ! ,d9ornis & ( o!r fea!r$ giants ( ,new ,zeal& 7 discov]$4 ,_! dim5sions h at lea/ de/roy$ ! =ce ( ?is p>ticul> objection4 ,! magnitude ( ! impressions ( ! feet ( a heavy animal1 :i* has walk$ on s(t mud1 increases = "s di/ance bel[ ! surface orig9ally trodd5 ^u4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to gu>d aga9/ exagg]ation1 ! ca/s r ?an ! m\ld are reli$ on4 ,^! ca/s %[ t "s ( ! fossil birds _h feet f\r times z l>ge z ! o/ri*1 b n p]haps l>g] ?an ! ,d9ornis4 ,"s ( ! quadrup$al footpr9ts :i* accompany ^? ( birds are analog\s to ,european ,*iro!ria1 & ) a simil> disproportion betwe5 ! h9d & =e feet4 ,o!rs resemble t rem>kable reptile1 ! ,rhyncosaurus ( ! ,engli% ,trias1 a creature hav+ "s relation 9 its o/eology bo? to *elonians & birds4 ,o!r impr9ts1 aga91 are l ^? ( turtles4 ,among ! suppos$ bip$al tracks1 a s+le di/9ct example only has be5 obs]v$ ( feet 9 :i* !re are f\r toes direct$ =w>ds4 ,9 ?is case a s]ies ( f\r footpr9ts is se51 ea* #bb in*es long & #ab wide1 ) jo9ts mu* resembl+ ^? 9 ! toes ( birds4 ,pr(essor ,agassiz has sugge/$ t x might h belong$ to a gigantic bip$al batra*ian2 b ! evid5ce on ?is subject is too defective to w>rant su* a bold conjecture1 & if we 7 to give ! re9s to our imag9ation1 we might z well conceive a bird hav+ f\r toes project+ =w>ds z a huge two-legg$ frog4 ,nor %\ld we =get t "s quadrup$s place ! h9d foot s precisely on ! spot j quitt$ by ! =e foot1 z to produce a s+le l9e ( impr9ts l a bip$4 ,no bones h z yet be5 met )1 :e!r ( reptiles or birds1 9 ! rocks ( ! ,connecticut1 b !re are num]\s coprolites2 & an +5i\s argum5t has be5 d]iv$ by ,mr4 ,dana1 f ! analysis ( ^! bodies1 & ! proportion !y conta9 ( uric acid1 phosphate ( lime1 c>bonate ( lime1 & organic matt]1 to %[ t1 l guano1 !y are ! dropp+s ( birds1 r ?an ( reptiles4#bii-;,a ,mr4 ,d>w91 9 8 ,j\rnal ( a ,voyage 9 ! ,beagle1 in=ms u t ! ,s\? ,am]ican o/ri*es1 al?\gh !y live on vegetable matt]1 su* z roots & grass1 are repeat$ly se5 at ,bahia ,blanca 7lat4 #ci deg4 ,s471 on ! coa/ ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 com+ d[n at l[ wat] to ! ext5sive mud-banks :i* are !n dry1 = ! sake1 z ! ,gau*os say1 ( fe$+ on small fi%4 ,!y readily take to ! wat]1 & h be5 se5 at ! bay ( ,san ,blas1 & at ,port ,valdez1 9 ,patagonia1 swimm+ f isl& to isl&4#cjj-;,a ,x is !re=e evid5t1 t 9 our times a ,s\? ,am]ican mud-bank might be trodd5 simultane\sly by o/ri*es1 alligators1 tortoises1 & frogs2 & ! impressions left1 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 by ! feet ( ^! v>i\s tribes ( animals1 w\ld n diff] f ea* o!r m entirely ?an d ^? attribut$ to birds1 saurians1 *elonians1 & batra*ians1 9 ! rocks ( ! ,connecticut4 ,to det]m9e ! exact age ( ! r$ s&/one & %ale conta9+ ^! anci5t footpr9ts 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 is n possible at pres5t4 ,no fossil %ells h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! deposit1 nor plants 9 a det]m9able /ate4 ,! fossil fi% are num]\s & v p]fect2 b !y are ( a peculi> type1 :i* 0 orig9ally ref]r$ to ! g5us ,palaeoniscus1 b has s9ce1 ) propriety1 be5 ascrib$1 by ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton1 to a new g5us4 ,to ?is he has giv5 ! "n ( ,is*ypt]us1 f ! great size & /r5g? ( ! fulcral rays ( ! dorsal f9 7f is*ys2 /r5g?1 & pt]on1 a f974 ,!y diff] f ,palaeoniscus1 z ,mr4 ,r$field fir/ po9t$ out1 by hav+ ! v]tebral column prolong$ to a m limit$ ext5t into ! upp] lobe ( ! tail1 or1 9 ! language ( ,m4 ,agassiz1 !y are less het]oc]cal4 ,! tee? also1 accord+ to ,sir ,p4 ,eg]ton1 :o1 9 #ahdd1 exam9$ = me a f9e s]ies ( specim5s :i* ,i procur$ at ,durham1 ,connecticut1 diff] f ^? ( ,palaeoniscus 9 be+ /rong & conical4 ,t ! s&/ones conta9+ ^! fi% are ( old] date ?an ! /rata conta9+ coal1 be=e describ$ 7p4 #bhd47 z occurr+ ne> ,ri*mond 9 ,virg9ia1 is highly probable4 ,^! 7 %[n to be z old at lea/ z ! oolite & lias4 ,! high] antiquity ( ! ,connecticut b$s _c be prov$ by direct sup]position1 b may be presum$ f ! g5]al /ructure ( ! c\ntry4 ,t /ructure proves !m to be new] ?an ! movem5ts to :i* ! ,appala*ian or ,alleghany *a9 owes its flexures1 & ?is *a9 includes ! anci5t coal =mation among its contort$ rocks4 ,! uncon=mable position ( ?is ,new ,r$ ) orni?i*nites on ! edges ( ! incl9$ prim>y or paleozoic rocks ( ! ,appala*ians is se5 at #d4 ( ! section1 fig4 #cgi4 p4 #cbg4 ,! abs5ce ( fi% ) decid$ly het]oc]cal tails may af=d an argum5t aga9/ ! ,p]mian age ( ! =mation2 & ! op9ion t ! r$ s&/one is triassic1 seems1 on ! :ole1 ! be/ t we c embrace 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k4 ,,footnotes3 #bhf-;,a ,buckl&1 ,bridgew4 ,treat41 vol4 ii4 p4 #ch4 #bhg-;,a ,monog4 des ,bunt5 ,s&/e9s4 #bhh-;,a ,tableau des ,g5res de ,veg4 ,fos41 ,dict4 ,univ4 #ahdi4 #bij-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 v4 #bij-;,b ,buckl&1 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dci42 & ,mur*ison & ,/rickl& ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]41 vol4 v4 p4 #cdg4 #bie-;,a ,orm]od1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 #ahdh1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bgg4 #bif-;,a ,hugh ,mill]1 ,fir/ ,impressions ( ,engl&1 #ahdg1 pp4 #ahc4 #bad4 #big-;,a ,bui/1 ,trans4 ( ,bombay ,geograph4 ,soc4 #ahej1 vol4 ix4 p4 #ch4 #big-;,b ,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afh4 #bih-;,a ,hit*cock1 ,mem4 ( ,am]4 ,acad4 ,new ,s]41 vol4 iii4 p4 #abi4 #bih-;,b ,?is specim5 is n[ 9 ,dr4 ,mantell's museum4 #bii-;,a ,am]4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 vol4 xlviii4 p4 #df4 #cjj-;,a ,j\rnal ( ,voyage ( ,beagle1 c4 #b;d edition1 p4 #hi4 #ahde4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,p]mian ,,or ,,magnesian ,,lime/one ,,gr\p4 ,fossils ( ,magnesian ,lime/one & ,l[] ,new ,r$ di/9ct f ! ,triassic--,t]m ,p]mian--,engli% & ,g]man equival5ts--,m>9e %ells & corals ( ,engli% ,magnesian lime/one--,palaeoniscus & o!r fi% ( ! m>l slate--,!codont ,saurians ( dolomitic conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol--,ze*/e9 & ,ro?lieg5des ( ,?ur+ia--,p]mian ,flora--,its g5]ic aff9ity to ! c>bonif]\s--,ps>onites or tree-f]ns4 ,:5 ! use ( ! t]m ,poikilitic 0 expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ,i /at$1 t 9 "s p>ts ( ,engl& x is sc>cely possible to sep>ate ! r$ m>ls & s&/ones s call$ 7orig9ally nam$ ! ,new ,r$71 into two di/9ct geological sy/ems4 ,nev]!less1 ! progress ( inve/igation1 & a c>eful comp>ison ( ,engli% rocks betwe5 ! lias & ! coal ) ^? occupy+ a simil> geological position 9 ,g]many & ,russia1 has enabl$ geologi/s to divide ! ,poikilitic =mation2 & has ev5 %[n t ! l[]mo/ ( ! two divisions is m closely connect$1 by its fossil rema9s1 ) ! c>bonif]\s gr\p ?an ) ! trias4 ,if1 !re=e1 we are to draw a l9e betwe5 ! second>y & prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 z betwe5 ! t]ti>y & second>y1 x mu/ run ?r\gh ! middle ( :at 0 once call$ ! ,new ,r$1 or ,poikilitic gr\p4 ,! inf]ior half ( ?is gr\p w rank z ,prim>y or ,paleozoic1 :ile its upp] memb] w =m ! base ( ! ,second>y s]ies4 ,= ! l[]1 or ,magnesian ,lime/one division ( ,engli% geologi/s1 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison has propos$ ! "n ( ,p]mian1 f ,p]m1 a ,russian gov]nm5t :]e ^! /rata are m ext5sively develop$ ?an else:]e1 occupy+ an area twice ! size ( ,france1 & conta9+ an abundant & v>i$ suite ( fossils4 ,mr4 ,k+1 9 8 valuable monograph1 rec5tly publi%$1 ( ! ,p]mian fossils ( ,engl&1 has giv5 a table ( ! foll[+ six memb]s ( ! ,p]mian sy/em ( ! nor? ( ,engl&1 ) :at he conceives to be ! correspond+ =mations 9 ,?ur+ia4#cja-;,a ,nor? ( ,engl&4 ,?ur+ia4 #a4 ,cry/all9e or concretion>y1 #a4 ,/9k/e94 & non-cry/all9e lime/one4 #b4 ,brecciat$ & pseudo-brecciat$ #b4 ,rau*wacke4 lime/one4 #c4 ,fossilif]\s lime/one4 #c4 ,dolomit1 or ,upp] ,ze*/e94 #d4 ,compact lime/one4 #d4 ,ze*/e91 or ,l[] ,ze*/e94 #e4 ,m>l-slate4 #e4 ,m]gel-s*ief]1 or ,kupf]s*ief]4 #f4 ,inf]ior s&/ones ( v>i\s #f4 ,ro?lieg5des4 col\rs4 ,i %all proce$1 !re=e1 to treat briefly ( ^! subdivisions1 beg9n+ ) ! highe/1 & ref]r+ ! read]1 = a full] description ( ! li?ological "* ( ! :ole gr\p1 z x occurs 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 to a valuable memoir by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 publi%$ 9 #ahce4cjb-;,a ,cry/all9e or concretion>y lime/one 7,no4 #a474--,?is =mation is se5 ^u ! coa/ ( ,durham & ,york%ire1 betwe5 ! ,we> & ! ,tees4 ,among its *>act]i/ic fossils are ,s*izodus ,s*lo!imi 7fig4 #ccc47 & ,mytilus septif] 7fig4 #cce474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccc4 ,s*izodus ,s*lo!imi1 ,ge9itz4 ,syn4 ,ax9us obscurus1 ,s[4 ,cry/all9e lime/one1 ,p]mian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccd4 ,s*izodus truncatus1 ,k+2 to %[ h+e4 ,p]mian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cce4 ,mytilus septif]1 ,k+4 ,syn4 ,modiola acum9ata1 ,james ,s[4 ,p]mian cry/all9e lime/one4 ,^! %ells occur at ,h>tlepool & ,sund]l&1 :]e ! rock assumes an oolitic & botryoidal "*4 ,"s ( ! b$s 9 ?is division are ripple-m>k$2 & ,mr4 ,k+ imag9es t ! abs5ce ( corals & ! "* ( ! %ells indicate %all[ wat]4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,durham1 :]e ! rock is n cry/all9e1 x conta9s z mu* z =ty-f\r p] c5t4 ( c>bonate ( magnesia1 mix$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 o!r places1--= x is extremely v>iable 9 /ructure1--x consi/s *iefly ( c>bonate ( lime1 & has concret$ into globul> & hemisph]ical masses1 v>y+ f ! size ( a m>ble to t ( a cannon-ball1 & radiat+ f ! c5tre4 ,occasionally e>?y & pulv]ul5t b$s pass into compact lime/one or h>d granul> dolomite4 ,! /ratification is v irregul>1 9 "s places well-def9$1 9 o!rs oblit]at$ by ! concretion>y action :i* has re-arrang$ ! mat]ials ( ! rocks subsequ5tly to _! orig9al deposition4 ,examples ( ?is are se5 at ,pontefract & ,ripon 9 ,york%ire4 ,! brecciat$ lime/one 7,no4 #b47 conta9s no fragm5ts ( =eign rocks1 b seems compos$ ( ! break+-up ( ! ,p]mian lime/one itself1 ab\t ! "t ( its consolidation4 ,"s ( ! angul> masses 9 ,tynem\? ,cliff are #b feet 9 diamet]4 ,?is breccia is consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick z "o ( ! =ms ( ! prec$+ lime/one1 ,no4 #a41 r ?an z regul>ly und]ly+ x4 ,! fragm5ts are angul> & nev] wat]-worn1 & appe> to h be5 re-cem5t$ on ! spot :]e !y 7 =m$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 sugge/$ t !y may h be5 due to ^? int]nal movem5ts ( ! mass :i* produc$ ! concretion>y /ructure2 b ! subject is v obscure1 & aft] /udy+ ! ph5om5on 9 ! ,m>/on ,rocks1 on ! coa/ ( ,durham1 ,i f\nd x impossible to =m any positive op9ion on ! subject4 ,! well-kn[n brecciat$ lime/ones ( ! ,pyr5ees appe>$ to me to pres5t ! ne>e/ analogy1 b on a mu* small] scale4 ,! fossilif]\s lime/one 7,no4 #c47 is reg>d$ by ,mr4 ,k+ z a deep-wat] =mation1 f ! num]\s delicate corals :i* x includes4 ,"o ( ^!1 ,f5e/ella reti=mis 7fig4 #ccf471 is a v v>iable species1 & has receiv$ _m diff]5t names4 ,x sometimes atta9s a l>ge size1 measur+ #h in*es 9 wid?4 ,! same zoophyte is also f\nd abundantly 9 ! ,p]mian ( ,g]many4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccf4 ,f5e/ella4 a4 ,f5e/ella reti=mis1 ,s*lot4 ,syn4 ,gorgonia infundibuli=mis1 ,goldf42 ,retepora flu/racea1 ,phillips4 b4 ,"p ( ! same highly magnifi$4 ,magnesian lime/one1 ,humbleton ,hill1 ne> ,sund]l&4#cjc-;,a ,%ells ( ! g5]a ,spirif] & ,productus1 :i* d n occur 9 /rata new] ?an ! ,p]mian1 are abundant 9 ?is division ( ! s]ies 9 ! ord9>y yell[ magnesian lime/one4 7,see figs4 #ccg1 #cch47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ccg4 ,productus calvus1 ,s[4 ,m94 ,con4 ,syn4 ,productus horridus1 ,bronn's ,index1 c41 ,k+'s ,monogr41 c42 ,lepta5a1 ,dalman4 ,magnesian ,lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cch4 ,spirif] undulatus1 ,s[4 ,m94 ,con4 ,syn4 ,triogonotreta undulata1 ,k+'s ,monogr4 ,magnesian ,lime/one4 ,! compact lime/one 7,no4 #d47 also conta9s organic rema9s1 especially corall9es1 & is intimately connect$ ) ! prec$+4 ,b5ea? x lies ! m>l-slate 7,no4 #e471 :i* consi/s ( h>d1 calc>e\s %ales1 m>l-slate1 & ?9-b$d$ lime/ones4 ,at ,ea/ ,?ickley1 9 ,durham1 :]e x is ?irty feet ?ick1 ?is slate has yield$ _m f9e specim5s ( fossil fi% ( ! g5]a ,palaeoniscus1 ,pygopt]us1 ,coelacan?us1 & ,platysomus1 g5]a :i* are all f\nd 9 ! coal-measures ( ! c>bonif]\s epo*1 & :i* !re=e1 says ,mr4 ,k+1 probably liv$ at no great di/ance f ! %ore4 ,b ! ,p]mian species are peculi>1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! m>l-slate or copp]-slate ( ,?ur+ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cci4 ,re/or$ outl9e ( a fi% ( ! g5us ,palaeoniscus1 ,agass4 ,palaeo?rissum1 ,bla9ville4 ,! ,palaeoniscus above m5tion$ belongs to t division ( fi%es :i* ,m4 ,agassiz has call$ ,het]oc]cal1 :i* h _! tails unequally bilobate1 l ! rec5t %>k & /urgeon1 & ! v]tebral column runn+ along ! upp] caudal lobe4 7,see fig4 #cdj47 ,! ,homoc]cal fi%1 :i* comprise almo/ all ! #hjjj species at pres5t kn[n 9 ! liv+ creation1 h ! tail-f9 ei!r s+le or equally divid$2 & ! v]tebral column /ops %ort1 & is n prolong$ into ei!r lobe4 7,see fig4 #cda47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdj4 ,%>k4 ,het]oc]cal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cda4 ,%ad4 7,clupea1 ,h]r+ tribe47 ,homoc]cal4 ,n[ x is a s+ul> fact1 fir/ po9t$ out by ,agassiz1 t ! het]oc]cal =m1 :i* is conf9$ to a small numb] ( g5]a 9 ! exi/+ creation1 is univ]sal 9 ! ,magnesian lime/one1 & all ! m anci5t =mations4 ,x *>act]izes ! e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :5 ! organization ( fi%es made a great] approa* to t ( saurian reptiles ?an at lat] epo*s4 ,9 all ! /rata above ! ,magnesian lime/one ! homoc]cal tail pr$om9ates4 ,a full description has be5 giv5 by ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton ( ! species ( fi% *>act]i/ic ( ! m>l-slate 9 ,mr4 ,k+'s monograph be=e ref]r$ to1 :]e figures ( ! i*?yolites :i* are v entire & well pres]v$1 w be f\nd4 ,ev5 a s+le scale is usually s *>act]i/ically m>k$ z to indicate ! g5us1 & sometimes ev5 ! p>ticul> species4 ,!y are (t5 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! b$s s+ly1 & maybe useful to a geologi/ 9 det]m9+ ! age ( ! rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdb4 ,palaeoniscus comtus1 ,agassiz4 ,scale magnifi$4 ,m>l-slate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdc4 ,palaeoniscus elegans1 ,s$g4 ,"u surface ( scale magnifi$4 ,m>l-slate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdd4 ,palaeoniscus glaphyrus1 ,ag4 ,"u surface ( scale magnifi$4 ,m>l-slate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cde4 ,coelacan?us caudalis1 ,eg]ton4 ,scale %[+ granulat$ surface magnifi$4 ,m>l-slate4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,scales ( fi%4 ,magnesian lime/one4 ,fig4 #cdf4 ,pygopt]us m&ibul>is1 ,ag4 ,m>l-slate4 a4 ,outside ( scale magnifi$4 b4 ,"u surface ( same4 ,fig4 #cdg4 ,acrolepis ,s$gwickii1 ,ag4 ,m>l-slate4 ,! inf]ior s&/ones 7,no4 #f4 ,tab4 p4 #cja471 :i* lie b5ea? ! m>l-slate1 consi/ ( s&/one & s&1 sep>at+ ! magnesian lime/one f ! coal1 9 ,york%ire & ,durham4 ,9 "s in/ances1 r$ m>l & gypsum h be5 f\nd associat$ ) ^! b$s4 ,!y h be5 class$ ) ! magnesian lime/one by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 z be+ ne>ly co-ext5sive ) x 9 geographical range1 ?\gh _! relations are v obscure4 ,9 "s regions we f9d x /at$ t ! imb$d$ plants are all specifically id5tical ) ^? ( ! c>bonif]\s s]ies2 &1 if s1 !y probably belong to t epo*2 = ! true ,p]mian flora appe>s1 f ! rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,mur*ison & de ,v]neuil 9 ,russia1 & ( ,colonel von ,gutbi] 9 ,saxony1 to be1 ) few exceptions1 di/9ct f t ( ! coal 7see p4 #cjg474 ,dolomitic conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol4--,ne> ,bri/ol1 9 ,som]set%ire1 & 9 o!r c\nties bord]+ ! ,sev]n1 ! uncon=mable b$s ( ! ,l[] ,new ,r$1 re/+ imm$iately ^u ! ,coal1 consi/ ( a conglom]ate call$ dolomitic1 because ! pebbles ( old] rocks are cem5t$ toge!r by a r$ or yell[ base ( dolomite or magnesian lime/one4 ,?is conglom]ate or breccia1 = ! imb$d$ fragm5ts are sometimes angul>1 occurs 9 pat*es ov] ! :ole ( ! d[ns ne> ,bri/ol1 fill+ up ! holl[s & irregul>ities 9 ! m\nta9 lime/one1 & be+ pr9cipally compos$ at e spot ( ! debris ( ^? rocks on :i* x imm$iately re/s4 ,at "o po9t we f9d pieces ( coal %ale1 9 ano!r ( m\nta9 lime/one1 recognizable by its peculi> %ells & zoophytes4 ,fractur$ bones1 also1 & tee? ( saurians1 are disp]s$ ?r\gh "s p>ts ( ! breccia4 ,^! saurians 7:i* until ! discov]y ( ! ,ar*egosaurus 9 ! coal 7 ! mo/ anci5t examples ( fossil reptiles7 are all di/+ui%$ by hav+ ! tee? implant$ deeply 9 ! jaw-bone1 & 9 di/9ct sockets1 in/ead ( be+ sold]$1 z 9 frogs1 to a simple alveol> p>apet4 ,9 ! dolomitic conglom]ate ne> ,bri/ol ! rema9s ( species ( two di/9ct g5]a h be5 f\nd1 call$ ,!codontosaurus & ,palaeosaurus by ,dr4 ,riley & ,mr4 ,/ut*bury#cjf-;,a2 ! tee? ( :i* are conical1 compress$1 & ) f9ely s]rat$ edges 7figs4 #cdh & #cdi474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdh4 ,too? ( ,palaeosaurus platyodon1 nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cdi4 ,too? ( ,!codontosaurus1 #c times magnifi$4 ,9 ,russia1 also1 ,!codont saurians occur1 9 b$s ( ! ,p]mian age1 ( sev]al g5]a1 :ile o!rs nam$ ,protorosaurus are met ) 9 ! ,ze*/e9 ( ,?ur+ia4 ,?is family ( reptiles is alli$ to ! liv+ monitor1 & its appe>ance 9 a prim>y or paleozoic =mation1 obs]ves ,mr4 ,ow51 is oppos$ to ! doctr9e ( ! progressive developm5t ( reptiles f fi%1 or f simpl] to m complex =ms2 =1 if !y exi/$ at ! pres5t day1 ^! monitors w\ld take rank at ! head ( ! ,lac]tian ord]4#cjf-;,b ,9 ,russia ! ,p]mian rocks are compos$ ( :ite lime/one1 ) gypsum & :ite salt2 & ( r$ & gre5 grits1 ) occasionally copp] ore2 also magnesian lime/ones1 m>l/ones1 & conglom]ates4 ,! c\ntry ( ,mansfeld1 9 ,?ur+ia1 may be call$ ! classic gr\nd ( ! ,l[] ,new ,r$1 or ,magnesian ,lime/one1 or ,p]mian =mation1 on ! ,cont95t4 ,x consi/s !re pr9cipally (1 fir/1 ! ,ze*/e91 correspond+ to ! upp] portion ( our ,engli% s]ies2 &1 secondly1 ! m>l-slate1 ) fi% ( species id5tical ) ^? ( ! b$ s call$ 9 ,durham4 ,?is slaty m>l/one is ri*ly impregnat$ ) copp] pyrites1 = :i* x is ext5sively work$4 ,magnesian lime/one1 gypsum1 & rock-salt1 occur among ! sup]ior /rata ( ?is gr\p4 ,at its base lies ! ,ro?lieg5des1 suppos$ to correspond ) ! ,inf]ior or ,l[] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one above m5tion$1 :i* occupies a simil> place 9 ,engl& betwe5 ! m>l-slate & coal4 ,its local "n ( ,ro?lieg5des1 r$-ly]1 or ,ro?-todt-lieg5des1 r$-dead-ly]1 0 giv5 by ! workm5 9 ! ,g]man m9es f its r$ col\r1 & because ! copp] has di$ out :5 !y rea* ?is rock1 :i* is n metallif]\s4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a great deposit ( r$ s&/one & conglom]ate1 ) associat$ porphyry1 basaltic trap1 & amygdaloid4 ,p]mian ,flora4--,we le>n f ! rec5t inve/igation ( ,colonel von ,gutbi]1 t 9 ! ,p]mian rocks ( ,saxony no less ?an sixty species ( fossil plants h be5 met )1 =ty ( :i* h n yet be5 f\nd else:]e4 ,two or ?ree ( ^!1 z ,calamites gigas1 ,sph5opt]is erosa1 & ,s4 lobata1 are also met ) 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ,p]m 9 ,russia4 ,sev5 o!rs1 & among !m ,neuropt]is ,lo%ii1 ,pecopt]is arboresc5s1 & ,p4 similis1 ) sev]al species ( ,wal*ia 7,lycopodites71 are common to ! coal-measures4 ,among ! g5]a also enum]at$ by ,colonel ,gutbi] are ,a/]ophyllites & ,annul>ia1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod2 also ,lepidod5dron1 :i* is common to ! ,p]mian ( ,saxony1 ,?ur+ia1 & ,russia1 al?\gh n abundant4 ,noegg]a?ia 7see fig4 #cej471 suppos$ by ,a4 ,brongni>t to be alli$ to ,cycas1 is ano!r l9k betwe5 ! ,p]mian & c>bonif]\s vegetation4 ,conif]ae1 ( ! ,arauc>ian division1 also occur2 b ^! are likewise met ) bo? 9 old] & new] rocks4 ,! plants call$ ,sigill>ia & ,/igm>ia1 s m>k$ a feature 9 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 are z yet want+4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cej4 ,noegg]a?ia cuneifolia4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t4#cjg-;,a ,among ! rem>kable fossils ( ! ro?lieg5des1 or l[e/ "p ( ! ,p]mian 9 ,saxony & ,bohemia1 are ! silicifi$ trunks ( tree-f]ns call$ g5]ically ,ps>onius4 ,_! b>k 0 surr\nd$ by a d5se mass ( air-roots1 :i* (t5 con/itut$ a great addition to ! orig9al /em1 s z to d\ble or quadruple its diamet]4 ,! same rem>k holds good 9 reg>d to c]ta9 liv+ extra-tropical arboresc5t f]ns1 p>ticul>ly ^? ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,ps>onites are also f\nd 9 ! upp]mo/ coal ( ,autun 9 ,france1 & 9 ! upp] coal-measures ( ! ,/ate ( ,ohio 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b specifically diff]5t f ^? ( ! ro?lieg5des4 ,!y s]ve to connect ! ,p]mian flora ) ! m mod]n portion ( ! prec$+ or c>bonif]\s gr\p4 ,^u ! :ole1 x is evid5t t ! ,p]mian plants approa* ne>] to ! c>bonif]\s ones ?an to ! triassic2 & ! same may be said ( ! ,p]mian fauna4 ,,footnotes3 #cja-;,a ,palaeontographical ,society1 #ahdh1 ,london4 #cjb-;,a ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,lond41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cg4 #cjc-;,a ,k+'s ,monograph1 pl4 #b4 #cjf-;,a ,see pap] by ,messrs4 ,riley & ,/ut*bury1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #cdi41 plate #bi41 figures #b4 & #e4 #cjf-;,b ,ow51 ,report on ,reptiles1 ,briti% ,assoc41 ,elev5? ,meet+1 #ahda1 p4 #aig4 #cjg-;,a ,mur*ison's ,russia1 vol4 ii4 pl4 ,a4 fig4 #c4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,coal1 ,,or ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p4 ,c>bonif]\s /rata 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&--,sup]position ( ,coal-measures to ,m\nta9 lime/one--,dep>ture f ?is type 9 ,nor? ( ,engl& & ,scotl&--,section 9 ,s\? ,wales--,und]clays ) ,/igm>ia--,c>bonif]\s ,flora--,f]ns1 ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 ,a/]ophyllites1 ,sigill>iae1 ,/igm>iae--,conif]ae--,endog5s--,abs5ce ( ,exog5s--,coal1 h[ =m$--,erect fossil trees--,p>kfield ,colli]y--,/4 ,eti5ne1 ,coal-field--,oblique trees or snags--,fossil =e/s 9 ,nova ,scotia--,bracki% wat] & m>9e /rata--,orig9 ( ,clay-iron-/one4 ,! next gr\p :i* we meet ) 9 ! desc5d+ ord] is ! ,c>bonif]\s1 commonly call$ ,! ,coal2 because x conta9s _m b$s ( t m9]al1 9 a m or less pure /ate1 int]/ratifi$ ) s&/ones1 %ales1 & lime/ones4 ,! coal itself1 ev5 9 ,great ,brita9 & ,belgium1 :]e x is mo/ abundant1 con/itutes b an insignificant portion ( ! :ole mass4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 = example1 ! ?ickness ( ! coal-be>+ /rata has be5 e/imat$ at #cjjj feet1 :ile ! v>i\s coal-seams1 #bj or #cj 9 numb]1 d n 9 ! aggregate exce$ #fj feet4#cjh-;,a ,! c>bonif]\s =mation comprises two v di/9ct memb]s3 #a/1 t usually call$ ! ,coal-measures1 ( mix$ fre%wat]1 t]re/rial1 & m>9e orig91 (t5 includ+ seams ( coal2 #b;dly1 t nam$ 9 ,engl& ! ,m\nta9 or ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 ( purely m>9e orig91 & conta9+ corals1 %ells1 & encr9ites4 ,9 ! s\?-we/]n "p ( our isl&1 9 ,som]set%ire & ,s\? ,wales1 ! ?ree divisions usually spok5 ( by ,engli% geologi/s are3 #a4 ,coal-measures ,/rata ( %ale1 s&/one1 & grit1 ) occasional seams ( coal1 f #fjj to #ab1jjj feet ?ick4 #b4 ,mill/one grit ,a co>se qu>tzose s&/one pass+ into a conglom]ate1 sometimes us$ = mill/ones1 ) b$s ( %ale2 usually devoid ( coal2 occasionally above #fjj feet ?ick4 #c4 ,m\nta9 or ,a calc>e\s rock conta9+ m>9e %ells & ,c>bonif]\s corals2 devoid ( coal2 ?ickness v>iable1 lime/one sometimes #ijj feet4 ,! mill/one grit may be consid]$ z "o ( ! coal s&/ones ( co>s] texture ?an usual1 ) "s accompany+ %ales1 9 :i* coal plants are occasionally f\nd4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl& "s b&s ( lime/one1 ) pect5s1 oy/]s1 & o!r m>9e %ells1 occur 9 ?is grit1 j z 9 ! regul> coal-measures1 & ev5 a few seams ( coal4 ,i %all treat1 !re=e1 ( ! :ole gr\p1 z consi/+ ( two divisions only1 ! ,coal-measures & ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,! latt] is f\nd 9 ! s\!rn ,briti% coal-fields1 at ! base ( ! sy/em1 or imm$iately 9 contact ) ! subjac5t ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 b z we proce$ nor?w>ds to ,york%ire & ,nor?umb]l& x beg9s to alt]nate ) true coal-measures1 ! two deposits =m+ toge!r a s]ies ( /rata ab\t #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,to ?is mix$ =mation succe$s ! great mass ( g5u9e m\nta9 lime/one4#cji-;,a ,f>!r nor?1 9 ! ,fife%ire coal-field 9 ,scotl&1 we obs]ve a /ill wid] dep>ture f ! type ( ! s\? ( ,engl&1 or a m complete int]calation ( d5se masses ( m>9e lime/ones ) s&/ones1 & %ales conta9+ coal4 ,,coal-,,measures4 ,9 ,s\? ,wales ! coal-measures h be5 asc]ta9$ by actual measurem5t to atta9 ! extraord9>y ?ickness ( #ab1jjj feet1 ! b$s ?r\gh\t1 ) ! exception ( ! coal itself1 appe>+ to h be5 =m$ 9 wat] ( mod]ate dep?1 dur+ a sl[ b p]haps int]mitt5t depression ( ! gr\nd1 9 a region to :i* riv]s 7 br++ a nev]-fail+ supply ( muddy s$im5t & s&4 ,! same area 0 sometimes cov]$ ) va/ =e/s1 su* z we see 9 ! deltas ( great riv]s 9 w>m climates1 :i* are liable to be subm]g$ b5ea? fre% or salt wat] %\ld ! gr\nd s9k v]tically a few feet4 ,9 "o section ne> ,swansea1 9 ,s\? ,wales1 :]e ! total ?ickness ( /rata is #cbdf feet1 we le>n f ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e t !re are t5 pr9cipal masses ( s&/one4 ,"o ( ^! is #ejj feet ?ick1 & ! :ole ( !m make toge!r a ?ickness ( #babe feet4 ,!y are sep>at$ by masses ( %ale1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f #aj to #ej feet4 ,! int]calat$ coal-b$s1 sixte5 9 numb]1 are g5]ally f #a to #e feet ?ick1 "o ( !m1 :i* has two or ?ree lay]s ( clay int]pos$1 atta9+ #i feet4#cji-;,b ,at o!r po9ts 9 ! same coal-field ! %ales pr$om9ate ov] ! s&/ones4 ,! horizontal ext5t ( "s seams ( coal is mu* great] ?an t ( o!rs1 b !y all pres5t "o *>act]i/ic feature1 9 hav+1 ea* ( !m1 :at is call$ its und]clay4 ,^! und]clays1 co-ext5sive ) e lay] ( coal1 consi/ ( ar5ace\s %ale1 sometimes call$ fire/one1 because x c be made into bricks :i* /& ! fire ( a furnace4 ,!y v>y 9 ?ickness f #f in*es to m ?an #aj feet2 & ,mr4 ,logan fir/ ann\nc$ to ! sci5tific _w 9 #ahda t !y 7 reg>d$ by ! colli]s 9 ,s\? ,wales z an ess5tial accompanim5t ( ea* ( ! "o hundr$ seams ( coal met ) 9 _! coal-field4 ,!y are said to =m ! floor on :i* ! coal re/s2 & "s ( !m h a slight admixture ( c>bonace\s matt]1 :ile o!rs are q black5$ by x4 ,all ( !m1 z ,mr4 ,logan po9t$ out1 are *>act]iz$ by inclos+ a peculi> species ( fossil vegetable call$ ,/igm>ia1 to ! exclusion ( o!r plants4 ,x 0 also obs]v$ t1 :ile 9 ! ov]ly+ %ales or ro( ( ! coal1 f]ns & trunks ( trees ab\nd )\t any ,/igm>iae1 & are flatt5$ & compress$1 ^? s+ul> plants 9 ! und]clays always reta9 _! natural =ms1 bran*+ freely1 & s5d+ out _! sl5d] leaves1 z !y 7 =m]ly /yl$1 ?r\gh ! mud 9 all directions4 ,sev]al species ( ,/igm>ia _h long be5 kn[n to botani/s1 & describ$ by !m1 be=e _! position "u ea* seam ( coal 0 po9t$ out4 ,x 0 conjectur$ t !y might be aquatic1 p]haps float+ plants1 :i* sometimes ext5d$ _! bran*es & leaves freely 9 fluid mud1 & :i* 7 f9ally envelop$ 9 ! same mud4 ,,c>bonif]\s ,,flora4 ,^! /atem5ts w suffice to conv9ce ! read] t we _c arrive at a satisfactory !ory ( ! orig9 ( coal till we und]/& ! true nature ( ,/igm>ia2 & 9 ord] to expla9 :at is n[ kn[n ( ?is plant1 & ( o!rs :i* h contribut$ by _! decay to produce coal1 x w be necess>y to (f] a brief prelim9>y sket* ( ! :ole c>bonif]\s flora1 an assemblage ( fossil plants1 ) :i* we are bett] acqua9t$ ?an ) any o!r :i* fl\ri%$ antec$5tly to ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,x %\ld also be rem>k$ t ,goepp]t has asc]ta9$ t ! rema9s ( e family ( plants scatt]$ ?r\gh ! coal-measures are sometimes met ) 9 ! pure coal itself1 a fact :i* adds greatly to ! geological int]e/ atta*$ to ?is flora4 ,f]ns4--,! numb] ( species ( c>bonif]\s plants hi!rto describ$ am\nts1 accord+ to ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 to ab\t #ejj4 ,^! may p]haps be a fragm5t only ( ! entire flora1 b !y are en\gh to %[ t ! /ate ( ! vegetable _w 0 !n extremely diff]5t f t n[ e/abli%$4 ,we are /ruck at ! fir/ glance ) ! simil>ity ( _m ( ! f]ns to ^? n[ liv+1 & ! dissimil>ity ( almo/ all ! o!r fossils except ! conif]ae4 ,among ! f]ns1 z 9 ! case ( ,pecopt]is = example 7fig4 #cea471 x is n always easy to decide :e!r !y %\ld be ref]r$ to diff]5t g5]a f ^? e/abli%$ = ! classification ( liv+ species2 :]eas1 9 reg>d to mo/ ( ! o!r contempor>y tribes1 ) ! exception ( ! conif]ae1 x is (t5 difficult to guess ! family1 or ev5 ! class1 to :i* !y belong4 ,! f]ns ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod are g5]ally )\t organs ( fructification1 b 9 "s specim5s ^! are well pres]v$4 ,9 ! g5]al abs5ce ( su* *>act]s1 !y h be5 divid$ into g5]a1 di/+ui%$ *iefly by ! bran*+ ( ! fronds1 & ! way 9 :i* ! ve9s ( ! leaves are dispos$4 ,! l>g] portion are suppos$ to h be5 ( ! size ( ord9>y ,european f]ns1 b "s 7 decid$ly arboresc5t1 especially ! gr\p call$ ,caulopt]is1 by ,l9dley1 & ! ,ps>onius ( ! upp] or newe/ coal-measures1 be=e allud$ to 7p4 #cjg474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cea4 ,pecopt]is lon*itica4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #aec47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ceb4 ,sph5opt]is4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #aja47 a4 ,sph5opt]is cr5ata4 b4 ,! same1 magnifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cec4 ,caulopt]is primaeva1 ,l9dley4 ,all ! rec5t tree-f]ns belong to "o tribe 7,polypodiaceae71 & to a small numb] only ( g5]a 9 t tribe1 9 :i* ! surface ( ! trunk is m>k$ ) sc>s1 or cicatrices1 left aft] ! fall ( ! fronds4 ,^! sc>s resemble ^? ( ,caulopt]is 7see fig4 #cec474 ,no less ?an #bej f]ns h already be5 obta9$ f ! coal /rata2 & ev5 if we make "s r$uction on ! gr\nd ( v>ieties :i* h be5 mi/ak51 9 ! abs5ce ( _! fructification1 = species1 /ill ! result is s+ul>1 because ! :ole ( ,europe af=ds at pres5t no m ?an #ej indig5\s species4 #c ,illu/rations3 ,liv+ tree-f]ns ( diff]5t g5]a4 7,ad4 ,brong47 ,fig4 #ced4 ,tree-f]n f ,isle ( ,b\rbon4 ,fig4 #cee4 ,cya!a glauca1 ,mauritius4 ,fig4 #cef4 ,tree f]n f ,brazil4 #c ,illu/rations3 ,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii4 ,coal-measures1 ne> ,newca/le4 ,fig4 #ceg4 ,bran*+ trunk1 #di feet long1 suppos$ to h belong$ to ,l4 ,/]nb]gii4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #bjc47 ,fig4 #ceh4 ,bran*+ /em ) b>k & leaves ( ,l4 ,/]nb]gii4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #d47 ,fig4 #cei4 ,portion ( same ne>] ! root2 natural size4 7,ibid47 ,lepidod5dra4--,^! fossils belong to ! family ( ,lycopodiums1 yet mo/ ( !m grew to ! size ( l>ge trees4 ,! annex$ figures repres5t a l>ge fossil ,lepidod5dron1 #di feet long1 f\nd 9 ,j>r[ ,colli]y1 ne> ,newca/le1 ly+ 9 %ale p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,fragm5ts ( o!rs1 f\nd 9 ! same %ale1 indicate1 by ! size ( ! rhomboidal sc>s :i* cov] !m1 a /ill great] magnitude4 ,! liv+ club-mosses1 ( :i* !re are ab\t #bjj species1 are abundant 9 tropical climates1 :]e "o species is sometimes met ) atta9+ a height ( #c feet4 ,!y usually creep on ! gr\nd1 b "s /& erect1 z ! ,l4 d5sum1 f ,new ,zeal& 7fig4 #cfj474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfj4 ,lycopodium4 a4 ,lycopodium d5sum2 banks ( ,r4 ,?ames1 ,new ,zeal&4 b4 bran*1 natural size4 c4 "p ( same1 magnifi$4 ,9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 & 9 _m o!r coal-fields1 elongat$ cyl9drical bodies1 call$ fossil cones1 nam$ by ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t ,lepido/robus1 are met )4 7,see fig4 #cfa47 ,!y (t5 =m ! nucleus ( concretion>y balls ( clay-iron-/one1 & are well pres]v$1 exhibit+ a conical axis1 ar\nd :i* a great quantity ( scales 7 compactly imbricat$4 ,! op9ion ( ,m4 ,brongni>t is n[ g5]ally adopt$1 t ! ,lepido/robus is ! fruit ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfa4 ,lepido/robus ornatus1 ,brong42 half nat4 size4 ,%rop%ire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfb4 ,calamites cannae=mis1 ,s*lot4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #gi47 ,l[] end ) rootlets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfc4 ,calamites ,suck[ii1 ,brong42 natural size4 ,common 9 coal ?r\gh\t ,europe4 ,equisetaceae4--,to ?is family belong two species ( ! g5us ,equisetites1 alli$ to ! liv+ horse-tail :i* n[ gr[s 9 m>%y gr\nds4 ,o!r species1 :i* h jo9t$ /ems1 dep>t m widely f ,equisetum1 b are yet ( analog\s organization4 ,!y diff]$ f x pr9cipally 9 be+ furni%$ ) a ?9 b>k1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! /em ( ,c4 ,suck[ii 7fig4 #cfc471 9 :i* x w be se5 t ! /rip$ ext]nal patt]n does n agree ) t left on ! /one :]e ! b>k is /ripp$ (f2 s t if ! two impressions 7 se5 sep>ately1 !y might be mi/ak5 = two di/9ct species4 ,! talle/ liv+ horse-tails are only #b or #c feet high 9 ,europe1 & ev5 9 tropical climates only atta91 z 9 ! case ( ,equisetum giganteum1 discov]$ by ,humboldt & ,bonpl&1 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 a height ( ab\t #e feet1 ! /em be+ an in* 9 diamet]4 ,sev]al ( ! ,calamites ( ! coal acquir$ ! height & dim5sions ( small trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfd4 ,a/]ophyllites foliosa4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #be47 ,coal-measures1 ,newca/le4 ,a/]ophyllites4--,9 ?is family1 ,m4 ,brongni>t includes sev]al g5]a1 & among !m ,calamod5dron1 ,a/]ophyllites1 & ,annul>ia4 ,! graceful plant1 repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ figure1 is suppos$ to be ! bran* ( a %rub call$ ,calamod5dron1 a new g5us1 divid$ (f by ,brongni>t f ! ,calamites ( =m] au?ors4 ,its pi? & m$ull>y rays seem to %[ t x 0 dicotyl$on\s1 & x appe>s to h be5 alli$1 by ! nature ( its tissue1 to ! gymnog5s1 or1 /ill m1 to ! ,sigill>ia1 :i* w next be m5tion$4 ,sigill>ia4--,a l>ge portion ( ! trees ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod belong$ to ?is g5us1 ( :i* ab\t ?irty-five species are kn[n4 ,! /ructure1 bo? int]nal & ext]nal1 0 v peculi>1 &1 ) ref]5ce to exi/+ types1 v anomal\s4 ,!y 7 =m]ly ref]r$1 by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t1 to f]ns1 :i* !y resemble 9 ! scal>i=m texture ( _! vessels1 &1 9 "s degree1 9 ! =m ( ! cicatrices left by ! base ( ! leaf/alks :i* h fall5 (f 7see fig4 #cfe474 ,b ) ^! po9ts ( analogy to cryptogamia1 !y comb9e an int]nal organization mu* resembl+ t ( cycads1 & "s ( !m are asc]ta9$ to h _h long l9e> leaves1 q unlike ^? ( f]ns4 ,!y grew to a great height1 f #cj to #fj1 or ev5 #gj feet1 ) regul> cyl9drical /ems1 & )\t bran*es1 al?\gh "s species 7 di*otom\s t[>ds ! top4 ,_! flut$ trunks1 f #a to #e feet 9 diamet]1 appe> to h decay$ rapidly 9 ! int]ior1 s z to become holl[1 :5 /&+2 :51 !re=e1 !y 7 ?r[n pro/rate on ! mud1 !y 7 squeez$ d[n & flatt5$4 ,h5ce1 we f9d ! b>k ( ! two opposite sides 7n[ conv]t$ into bright %9+ coal7 to con/itute two horizontal lay]s1 "o ^u ! o!r1 half an in*1 or an in*1 9 ?ickness4 ,^! same trunks1 :5 !y are plac$ obliquely or v]tically to ! planes ( /ratification1 reta9 _! orig9al r\nd$ =m1 & are uncompress$1 ! cyl9d] ( b>k hav+ be5 fill$ ) s&1 :i* n[ af=ds a ca/ ( ! int]ior4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfe4 ,sigill>ia laevigata1 ,brong4 ,/igm>ia4--,?is fossil1 ! importance ( :i* has already be5 po9t$ out1 0 =m]ly conjectur$ to be an aquatic plant4 ,x is n[ asc]ta9$ to be ! root ( ,sigill>ia4 ,! connection ( ! roots ) ! /em1 previ\sly suspect$1 on botanical gr\nds1 by ,brongni>t1 0 fir/ prov$1 by actual contact1 9 ! ,lanca%ire coal-field1 by ,mr4 ,b9ney4 ,! fact has lately be5 %[n1 ev5 m di/9ctly1 by ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,br[n1 9 8 description ( ! ,/igm>iae occurr+ 9 ! und]clays ( ! coal-seams ( ! ,isl& ( ,cape ,breton1 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cff4 ,/igm>ia atta*$ to a trunk ( ,sigill>ia4#cae-;,a ,9 a specim5 ( "o ( ^!1 repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ figure 7fig4 #cff471 ! spread ( ! roots 0 #af feet1 & "s ( !m s5t out rootlets1 9 all directions1 into ! surr\nd+ clay4 ,! mann] ( atta*m5t ( ! fibres to ! /em resembles t ( a ball & socket jo9t1 ! base ( ea* rootlet be+ concave1 & fitt+ on to a tub]cle 7see figs4 #cfg & #cfh474 ,r[s ( ^! tub]cles are arrang$ spirally r\nd ea* root1 :i* h always a m$ull>y cavity & woody texture1 mu* resembl+ t ( ,sigill>ia1 ! /ructure ( ! vessels be+1 l x1 scal>i=m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfg4 ,surface ( ano!r individual ( same species1 %[+ =m ( tub]cles4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #cd47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfh4 ,/igm>ia ficoides1 ,brong4 ,"o f\r? ( nat4 size4 7,foss4 ,flo4 #cb47 ,conif]s4--,! conif]\s trees ( ?is p]iod are ref]r$ to five g5]a2 ! woody /ructure ( "s ( !m %[+ t !y 7 alli$ to ! ,arauc>ian division ( p9es1 m ?an to any ( our common ,european firs4 ,"s ( _! trunks exce$$ #dd feet 9 height4 ,endog5s4--,hi!rto b few monocotyl$on\s plants h be5 discov]$ 9 ! coal-/rata4 ,mo/ ( ^! consi/ ( fruits ref]r$ by "s botani/s to palms4 ,! ?ree-sid$ nuts1 call$ ,trigonoc>pum1 sev5 species ( :i* are kn[n1 appe> to h ! be/ claim to rank z palms1 al?\gh ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongni>t ent]ta9s "s d\bt ev5 z to _! be+ monocotyl$ons4 ,exog5s4 ,! entire abs5ce1 s f> z our paleontological inve/igations h hi!rto gone1 ( ord9>y dicotyl$ons or exog5s 9 ! coal measures1 is mo/ rem>kable4 ,h5ce1 ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongni>t has call$ ?is p]iod ! age ( acrog5s1 9 consequ5ce ( ! va/ prepond]ance ( f]ns & ,lepidod5dra4#caf-;,a ,nev]!less1 a =e/ ( ! p]iod1 n[ "u consid]ation1 may h borne a consid]able resemblance to ^? woody regions ( ,new ,zeal&1 9 :i* f]ns1 arboresc5t & h]bace\s1 & lycopodiums1 ) _m conif]ae1 ab\nd4 ,! comp>ative proportion ( liv+ f]ns & ,arauc>iae1 9 ,norfolk ,isl&1 to all ! o!r plants1 appe>s to be v simil> to t =m]ly borne by ^! tribes respectively 9 a =e/ ( ! coal-p]iod4 ,i h already /at$ t ,pr(essor ,goepp]t1 aft] exam9+ ! fossil vegetables ( ! coal-fields ( ,g]many1 has detect$1 9 b$s ( pure coal1 rema9s ( plants ( e family hi!rto kn[n to occur fossil 9 ! coal4 ,_m seams1 he rem>ks1 are ri* 9 ,sigill>ia1 ,lepidod5dron1 & ,/igm>ia1 ! latt] 9 su* abundance1 z to appe> to =m ! bulk ( ! coal4 ,9 "s places1 almo/ all ! plants are calamites1 9 o!rs f]ns4#caf-;,b ,coal1 h[ =m$--,erect trees4--,i %all n[ consid] ! mann] 9 :i* ! above-m5tion$ plants are imb$d$ 9 ! /rata1 & h[ !y may h contribut$ to produce coal4 ,"s ( ! plants ( our coal1 says ,dr4 ,buckl&1 grew on ! id5tical banks ( s&1 silt1 & mud1 :i*1 be+ n[ indurat$ to /one & %ale1 =m ! /rata t accompany ! coal2 :il/ o!r portions ( ^! plants h be5 drift$ to v>i\s di/ances f ! swamps1 savannahs1 & =e/s t gave !m bir?1 p>ticul>ly ^? t are disp]s$ ?r\gh ! s&/ones1 or mix$ ) fi%es 9 ! %ale b$s4 ,at ,balgray1 ?ree miles nor? ( ,glasg[1 says ! same au?or1 ,i saw 9 ! ye> #ahbd1 z !re /ill may be se51 an unequivocal example ( ! /umps ( sev]al /ems ( l>ge trees1 /&+ close toge!r 9 _! native place1 9 a qu>ry ( s&/one ( ! coal =mation4#cag-;,a ,betwe5 ! ye>s #ahcg & #ahdj1 six fossil trees 7 discov]$ 9 ! coal-field ( ,lanca%ire1 :]e x is int]sect$ by ! ,bolton railway4 ,!y 7 all 9 a v]tical position1 ) respect to ! plane ( ! b$1 :i* dips ab\t #ae deg4 to ! s\?4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! fir/ & ! la/ 0 m ?an #ajj feet1 & ! roots ( all 7 imb$d$ 9 a s(t argillace\s %ale4 ,9 ! same plane ) ! roots is a b$ ( coal1 eight or t5 in*es ?ick1 :i* has be5 asc]ta9$ to ext5d across ! railway1 or to ! di/ance ( at lea/ t5 y>ds4 ,j above ! cov]+ ( ! roots1 yet b5ea? ! coal seam1 s l>ge a quantity ( ! ,lepido/robus v>iabilis 0 discov]$ inclos$ 9 nodules ( h>d clay1 t m ?an a bu%el 0 collect$ f ! small op5+s ar\nd ! base ( ! trees 7see figure ( ?is g5us1 p4 #cac474 ,! ext]ior trunk ( ea* 0 m>k$ by a coat+ ( friable coal1 v>y+ f "o qu>t] to ?ree qu>t]s ( an in* 9 ?ickness2 b x crumbl$ away on remov+ ! matrix4 ,! dim5sions ( "o ( ! trees is #ae-a_/b feet 9 circumf]5ce at ! base1 #g-a_/b feet at ! top1 its height be+ #aa feet4 ,all ! trees h l>ge spread+ roots1 solid & /rong1 sometimes bran*+1 & trac$ to a di/ance ( sev]al feet1 & presum$ to ext5d mu* f>!r4 ,mr4 ,hawk%aw1 :o has describ$ ^! fossils1 ?9ks t1 al?\gh !y 7 holl[ :5 subm]g$1 !y may h consi/$ orig9ally ( h>d wood ?r\gh\t2 = solid dicotyl$on\s trees1 :5 pro/rat$ 9 tropical =e/s1 z 9 ,v5ezuela1 on ! %ore ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 7 obs]v$ by him to be de/roy$ 9 ! int]ior1 s t little m is left ?an an out] %ell1 consi/+ *iefly ( ! b>k4 ,?is decay1 he says1 goes on mo/ rapidly 9 l[ & flat tracks1 9 :i* !re is a deep ri* soil & excessive moi/ure1 support+ tall =e/-trees & l>ge palms1 bel[ :i* bamboos1 canes1 & m9or palms fl\ri% luxuriantly4 ,su* tracts1 f _! l[ness1 w\ld be mo/ easily subm]g$1 & _! d5se vegetation might !n give rise to a seam ( coal4#cag-;,b ,9 a deep valley ne> ,capel-,coelbr51 bran*+ f ! high] "p ( ! ,swansea valley1 f\r /ems ( upright ,sigill>iae 7 se51 9 #ahch1 pi]c+ ?r\gh ! coal-measures ( ,s4 ,wales2 "o ( !m 0 #b feet 9 diamet]1 & "o #ac feet & a half high1 & !y 7 all f\nd to t]m9ate d[nw>ds 9 a b$ ( coal4 ,!y appe>1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 to h con/itut$ a portion ( a subt]ranean =e/ at ! epo* :5 ! l[] c>bonif]\s /rata 7 =m$4#cah-;,a ,9 a colli]y ne> ,newca/le1 say ! au?ors ( ! ,fossil ,flora1 a great numb] ( ,sigill>iae 7 plac$ 9 ! rock z if !y _h reta9$ ! position 9 :i* !y grew4 ,n less ?an ?irty1 "s ( !m #d or #e feet 9 diamet]1 7 visible )9 an area ( #ej y>ds squ>e1 ! int]ior be+ s&/one1 & ! b>k hav+ be5 conv]t$ into coal4 ,! roots ( "o individual 7 f\nd imb$d$ 9 %ale2 & ! trunk1 aft] ma9ta9+ a p]p5dicul> c\rse & circul> =m = ! height ( ab\t #aj feet1 0 !n b5t ov] s z to become horizontal4 ,"h x 0 di/5d$ lat]ally1 & flatt5$ s z to be only "o in* ?ick1 ! flut+s be+ comp>atively di/9ct4#cah-;,b ,su* v]tical /ems are famili> to our m9]s1 "u ! "n ( coal-pipes4 ,"o ( !m1 #gb feet 9 l5g?1 0 discov]$1 9 #ahbi1 ne> ,gos=?1 ab\t five miles f ,newca/le1 9 coal-grit1 ! /rata ( :i* x p5etrat$4 ,! ext]ior ( ! trunk 0 m>k$ at int]vals ) knots1 indicat+ ! po9ts at :i* bran*es _h %ot (f4 ,! wood ( ! int]ior _h be5 conv]t$ into c>bonate ( lime2 & its /ructure 0 beautifully %[n by cutt+ transv]se slices1 s ?9 z to be transp>5t4 7,see p4 #dj47 ,^! coal-pipes are mu* dread$ by our m9]s1 = almo/ e ye> 9 ! ,bri/ol1 ,newca/le1 & o!r coal-fields1 !y are ! cause ( fatal accid5ts4 ,ea* cyl9drical ca/ ( a tree1 =m$ ( solid s&/one1 & increas+ gradually 9 size t[>ds ! base1 & be+ )\t bran*es1 has its :ole weight ?r[n d[nw>ds1 & receives no support f ! coat+ ( friable coal :i* has replac$ ! b>k4 ,z soon1 !re=e1 z ! cohesion ( ?is ext]nal lay] is ov]come1 ! heavy column falls sudd5ly 9 a p]p5dicul> or oblique direction f ! ro( ( ! gall]y :5ce coal has be5 extract$1 w\nd+ or kill+ ! workman :o /&s bel[4 ,x is /range to reflect h[ _m ?\s&s ( ^! trees fell orig9ally 9 _! native =e/s 9 ob$i5ce to ! law ( gravity2 & h[ ! few :i* cont9u$ to /& erect1 obey+1 aft] myriads ( ages1 ! same =ce1 are ca/ d[n to immolate _! human victims4 ,x has be5 rem>k$1 t if1 in/ead ( work+ 9 ! d>k1 ! m9] 0 accu/om$ to remove ! upp] cov]+ ( rock f ea* seam ( coal1 & to expose to ! day ! soils on :i* anci5t =e/s grew1 ! evid5ce ( _! =m] gr[? w\ld be obvi\s4 ,?us 9 ,s\? ,/af=d%ire a seam ( coal 0 laid b>e 9 ! ye> #ahdd1 9 :at is call$ an op5 "w at ,p>kfield ,colli]y1 ne> ,wolv]hampton4 ,9 ! space ( ab\t a qu>t] ( an acre ! /umps ( no less ?an #gc trees ) _! roots atta*$ appe>$1 z %[n 9 ! annex$ plan 7fig4 #cfi471 "s ( !m m ?an #h feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,! trunks1 brok5 (f close to ! root1 7 ly+ pro/rate 9 e direction1 (t5 cross+ ea* o!r4 ,"o ( !m measur$ #ae1 ano!r #cj feet 9 l5g?1 & o!rs less4 ,!y 7 inv>iably flatt5$ to ! ?ickness ( "o or two in*es1 & conv]t$ into coal4 ,_! roots =m$ "p ( a /ratum ( coal #aj in*es ?ick1 :i* re/$ on a lay] ( clay #b in*es ?ick1 bel[ :i* 0 a second =e/1 re/+ on a #b-;foot seam ( coal4 ,five feet bel[ ?is aga9 0 a ?ird =e/ ) l>ge /umps ( ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 & o!r trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cfi4 ,gr\nd-plan ( a fossil =e/1 ,p>kfield ,colli]y1 ne> ,wolv]hampton1 %[+ ! position ( #gc trees 9 a qu>t] ( an acre4#cai-;,a ,9 ! acc\nt giv51 9 #ahba1 by ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongni>t ( ! coal-m9e ( ,treuil1 at ,/4 ,eti5ne1 ne> ,lyons1 he /ates1 t di/9ct horizontal /rata ( micace\s s&/one are trav]s$ by v]tical trunks ( monocotyl$on\s vegetables1 resembl+ bamboos or l>ge ,equiseta4#cai-;,b ,s9ce ! consolidation ( ! /one1 !re has be5 "h & !re a slid+ movem5t1 :i* has brok5 ! cont9uity ( ! /ems1 ?r[+ ! upp] p>ts ( !m on "o side1 s t !y are (t5 n cont9u\s ) ! l[]4 ,f ^! appe>ances x 0 inf]r$ t we h "h ! monum5ts ( a subm]g$ =e/4 ,i =m]ly object$ to ?is conclusion1 sugge/+ t1 9 t case1 all ! roots ought to h be5 f\nd at "o & ! same level1 & n scatt]$ irregul>ly ?r\gh ! mass4 ,i also imag9$ t ! soil to :i* ! roots 7 atta*$ %\ld h be5 diff]5t f ! s&/one 9 :i* ! trunks are enclos$4 ,hav+1 h[ev]1 se5 calamites ne> ,pict\1 9 ,nova ,scotia1 buri$ at v>i\s heights 9 s&/one & 9 simil> erect attitudes1 ,i h n[ little d\bt t ,m4 ,brongni>t's view 0 correct4 ,^! plants seem to h gr[n on a s&y soil1 liable to be flood$ f "t to "t1 & rais$ by new accessions ( s$im5t1 z may happ5 9 swamps ne> ! banks ( a l>ge riv] 9 its delta4 ,trees :i* delight 9 m>%y gr\nds are n injur$ by be+ buri$ sev]al feet deep at _! base2 & o!r trees are cont9ually ris+ up f new soils1 sev]al feet above ! level ( ! orig9al f\ndation ( ! morass4 ,9 ! banks ( ! ,mississippi1 :5 ! wat] has fall51 ,i h se5 sections ( a simil> deposit 9 :i* portions ( ! /umps ( trees ) _! roots 9 situ appe>$ at _m diff]5t heights4#cbj-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgj4 ,section %[+ ! erect position ( fossil trees 9 coal s&/one at ,/4 ,eti5ne4 7,alex4 ,brongni>t47 ,:5 ,i visit$1 9 #ahdc1 ! qu>ries ( ,treuil above-m5tion$1 ! fossil trees se5 9 fig4 #cgj4 7 remov$1 b ,i obta9$ pro(s ( o!r =e/s ( erect trees 9 ! same coal-field4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cga4 ,incl9$ position ( a fossil tree1 cutt+ ?r\gh horizontal b$s ( s&/one1 ,craiglei? qu>ry1 ,ed9burgh4 ,angle ( incl9ation f a to b #bg deg44 ,snags4--,9 #ahcj1 a slant+ trunk 0 expos$ 9 ,craiglei? qu>ry1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 ! total l5g? ( :i* exce$$ #fj feet4 ,its diamet] at ! top 0 ab\t #g in*es1 & ne> ! base x measur$ #e feet 9 its great]1 & #b feet 9 its less] wid?4 ,! b>k 0 conv]t$ into a ?9 coat+ ( ! pure/ & f9e/ coal1 =m+ a /rik+ contra/ 9 col\r ) ! :ite qu>tzose s&/one 9 :i* x lay4 ,! annex$ figure repres5ts a portion ( ?is tree1 ab\t #ae feet long1 :i* ,i saw expos$ 9 #ahcj1 :5 all ! /rata _h be5 remov$ f "o side4 ,! b$s :i* rema9$ 7 s unalt]$ & undi/urb$ at ! po9t ( junction1 z cle>ly to %[ t !y _h be5 tranquilly deposit$ r\nd ! tree1 & t ! tree _h n subsequ5tly pi]c$ ?r\gh !m1 :ile !y 7 yet 9 a s(t /ate4 ,!y 7 compos$ *iefly ( silice\s s&/one1 = ! mo/ "p :ite2 & divid$ into lam9ae s ?91 t f six to f\rte5 ( !m might be reckon$ 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*4 ,"s ( ^! ?9 lay]s 7 d>k1 & conta9$ coaly matt]2 b ! l[e/ ( ! int]sect$ b$s 7 calc>e\s4 ,! tree c\ld n h be5 holl[ :5 imb$d$1 = ! int]ior /ill pres]v$ ! woody texture 9 a p]fect /ate1 ! petrify+ matt] be+1 = ! mo/ "p1 calc>e\s4#cba-;,a ,x is also cle>1 t ! lapidify+ matt] 0 n introduc$ lat]ally f ! /rata ?r\gh :i* ! fossil passes1 z mo/ ( ^! 7 n calc>e\s4 ,x is well kn[n t1 9 ! ,mississippi & o!r great ,am]ican riv]s1 :]e ?\s&s ( trees float annually d[n ! /ream1 "s s9k ) _! roots d[nw>ds1 & become fix$ 9 ! mud4 ,?us plac$1 !y h be5 comp>$ to a lance 9 re/2 & s (t5 d !y pi]ce ?r\gh ! b[s ( vessels :i* run aga9/ !m1 t !y r5d] ! navigation extremely dang]\s4 ,mr4 ,hugh ,mill] m5tions f\r o!r huge trunks expos$ 9 qu>ries ne> ,ed9burgh1 :i* lay diagonally across ! /rata at an angle ( ab\t #cj deg41 ) _! l[] or heavi] portions d[nw>ds1 ! roots ( all1 save "o1 rubb$ (f by attrition4 ,"o ( ^! 0 #fj & ano!r #gj feet 9 l5g?1 & f #d to #f feet 9 diamet]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgb4 ,section ( ! cliffs ( ! ,s\? ,jogg9s1 ne> ,m9udie1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,! numb] ( ye>s = :i* ! trunks ( trees1 :5 con/antly subm]g$1 c resi/ decomposition1 is v great2 z we might suppose f ! durability ( wood1 9 artificial piles1 p]man5tly cov]$ by wat]4 ,h5ce ^! fossil snags may n imply a rapid accumulation ( b$s ( s&1 al?\gh ! *annel ( a riv] or "p ( a lagoon is (t5 fill$ up 9 a v few ye>s4 ,nova ,scotia4--,"o ( ! f9e/ examples 9 ! _w ( a succession ( fossil =e/s ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 laid op5 to view 9 a natural section1 is t se5 9 ! l(ty cliffs bord]+ ! ,*ignecto ,*annel1 a bran* ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 9 ,nova ,scotia4#cba-;,b ,9 ! annex$ section 7fig4 #cgb471 :i* ,i exam9$ 9 ,july1 #ahdb1 ! b$s f c to i are se5 all dipp+ ! same way1 _! av]age incl9ation be+ at an angle ( #bd deg4 ,s4,s4,w4 ,! v]tical height ( ! cliffs is f #aej to #bjj feet2 & betwe5 d & g1 9 :i* space ,i obs]v$ sev5te5 trees 9 an upright position1 or1 to speak m correctly1 at "r angles to ! planes ( /ratification1 ,i c\nt$ n9ete5 seams ( coal1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness f #b in*es to #d feet4 ,at l[ tide a f9e horizontal section ( ! same b$s is expos$ to view on ! bea*4 ,! ?ickness ( ! b$s allud$ to1 betwe5 d & g1 is ab\t #b1ejj feet1 ! erect trees consi/+ *iefly ( l>ge ,sigill>iae1 occurr+ at t5 di/9ct levels1 "o above ! o!r2 b ,mr4 ,logan1 :o aft]w>ds made a m detail$ survey ( ! same l9e ( cliffs1 f\nd erect trees at sev5te5 levels1 ext5d+ ?r\gh a v]tical ?ickness ( #d1eae feet ( /rata2 & he e/imat$ ! total ?ickness ( ! c>bonif]\s =mation1 ) & )\t coal1 at no less ?an #ad1egj feet1 e :]e devoid ( m>9e organic rema9s4#cbb-;,a ,! usual height ( ! buri$ trees se5 by me 0 f #f to #h feet2 b "o trunk 0 ab\t #be feet high & #d feet 9 diamet]1 ) a consid]able bulge at ! base4 ,9 no in/ance c\ld ,i detect any trunk int]sect+ a lay] ( coal1 h[ev] ?92 & mo/ ( ! trees t]m9at$ d[nw>ds 9 seams ( coal4 ,"s few only 7 bas$ 9 clay & %ale1 none ( !m 9 s&/one4 ,! erect trees1 !re=e1 appe>$ 9 g5]al to h gr[n on b$s ( coal4 ,9 "s ( ! und]clays ,i obs]v$ ,/igm>ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgc4 ,fossil tree at "r angles to planes ( /ratification4 ,coal measures1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,9 reg>d to ! plants1 !y belong$ to ! same g5]a1 & mo/ ( !m to ! same species1 z ^? met ) 9 ! di/ant coal-fields ( ,europe4 ,9 ! s&/one1 :i* fill$ _! int]iors1 ,i frequ5tly obs]v$ f]n leaves1 & sometimes fragm5ts ( ,/igm>ia1 :i* _h evid5tly ent]$ toge!r ) s$im5t aft] ! trunk _h decay$ & become holl[1 & :ile x 0 /ill /&+ "u wat]4 ,?us ! tree1 a b1 fig4 #cgc41 ! same :i* is repres5t$ at a1 fig4 #cgd41 or 9 ! b$ e 9 ! l>g] section1 fig4 #cgb41 is a holl[ trunk #e feet #h in*es 9 l5g?1 trav]s+ v>i\s /rata1 & cut (f at ! top by a lay] ( clay #b feet ?ick on :i* re/s a seam ( coal 7b1 fig4 #cgd47 #a foot ?ick4 ,on ?is coal aga9 /ood two l>ge trees 7c & d71 :ile at a great] height ! trees f & g re/ ^u a ?9 seam ( coal 7e71 & above !m is an und]clay1 support+ ! #d-;foot coal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgd4 ,erect fossil trees4 ,coal-measures1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,if we n[ return to ! tree fir/ m5tion$ 7fig4 #cgc471 we f9d ! diamet] 7a b7 #ad in*es at ! top & #af in*es at ! bottom1 ! l5g? ( ! trunk #e feet #h in*es4 ,! /rata 9 ! int]ior consi/$ ( a s]ies entirely diff]5t f ^? on ! outside4 ,! l[e/ ( ! ?ree out] b$s :i* x trav]s$ consi/$ ( purpli% & blue %ale 7c1 fig4 #cgc471 #b feet ?ick1 above :i* 0 s&/one 7d7 #a foot ?ick1 &1 above ?is1 clay 7e7 #b feet #h in*es4 ,b1 9 ! int]ior1 7 n9e di/9ct lay]s ( diff]5t composition3 at ! bottom1 fir/1 %ale #d in*es1 !n s&/one #a foot1 !n %ale #d in*es1 !n s&/one #d in*es1 !n %ale #aa in*es1 !n clay 7f7 ) nodules ( iron/one #b in*es1 !n pure clay #b feet1 !n s&/one #c in*es1 &1 la/ly1 clay #d in*es4 ,ow+ to ! outw>d slope ( ! face ( ! cliff1 ! section 7fig4 #cgc47 0 n exactly p]p5dicul> to ! axis ( ! tree2 & h5ce1 probably1 ! app>5t sudd5 t]m9ation at ! base )\t a /ump & roots4 ,9 ?is example ! lay]s ( matt] 9 ! inside ( ! tree are m num]\s ?an ^? )\t2 b x is m common 9 ! coal-measures ( all c\ntries to f9d a cyl9d] ( pure s&/one1--! ca/ ( ! int]ior ( a tree1 int]sect+ a great _m alt]nat+ b$s ( %ale & s&/one1 :i* orig9ally envelop$ ! trunk z x /ood erect 9 ! wat]4 ,su* a want ( correspond5ce 9 ! mat]ials outside & inside1 is j :at we might expect if we reflect on ! diff]5ce ( "t at :i* ! deposition ( s$im5t w take place 9 ! two cases2 ! imb$d+ ( ! tree hav+ gone on = _m ye>s be=e its decay _h made mu* progress4 ,! high tides ( ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 ris+ m ?an #fj feet1 are s de/ructive z to und]m9e & sweep away cont9ually ! :ole face ( ! cliffs1 & ?us a new crop ( erect trees is br\ght into view e ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,!y are kn[n to ext5d ov] a space betwe5 two & ?ree miles f nor? to s\?1 & m ?an twice t di/ance f ea/ to we/1 be+ se5 9 ! banks ( /reams int]sect+ ! coal-field4 ,9 ,cape ,breton1 ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,br[n has obs]v$ 9 ! ,sydney coal-field a total ?ickness ( coal-measures1 )\t includ+ ! und]ly+ mill/one grit1 ( #ahdc feet1 dipp+ at an angle ( #h deg44 ,he has publi%$ m9ute details ( ! :ole s]ies1 %[+ at h[ _m diff]5t levels erect trees occur1 consi/+ ( ,sigill>ia1 ,lepidod5dron1 ,calamite1 & o!r g5]a4 ,9 "o place eight erect trunks1 ) roots & rootlets atta*$ to !m1 7 se5 at ! same level1 )9 a horizontal space #hj feet 9 l5g?4 ,b$s ( coal ( v>i\s ?ickness are int]/ratifi$4 ,"s ( ! associat$ /rata are ripple-m>k$1 ) impressions ( ra9-drops4 ,tak+ into acc\nt =ty-"o clays fill$ ) roots ( ,/igm>ia 9 _! natural position1 & eighte5 lay]s ( upright trees at o!r levels1 !re is1 on ! :ole1 cle> evid5ce ( at lea/ fifty-n9e fossil =e/s1 rang$ "o above ! o!r1 9 ?is coal-field1 9 ! above-m5tion$ ?ickness ( /rata4#cbd-;,a ,! fossil %ells 9 ,cape ,breton & 9 ! ,nova ,scotia section 7fig4 #cgb471 consi/+ ( ,cypris1 ,unio 7871 ,modiola1 ,microcon*us c>bon>ius 7see fig4 #cge471 & ,spirorbis1 seem to indicate bracki% wat]2 b we ought nev] to be surpris$ if1 9 pursu+ ! same /ratum1 we come to a fre% or purely m>9e deposit2 = ?is w dep5d ^u our tak+ a direction high] up or l[] d[n ! anci5t riv] or delta deposit4 ,:5 ! ,purbeck b$s ( ! ,weald5 7 describ$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xviii41 ,i endeav\r$ to expla9 ! intimate connection ( /rata =m$ at a riv]'s m\?1 or 9 ! tranquil lagoons ( ! delta1 or 9 ! sea1 aft] a slight subm]g5ce ( ! l&1 ) its dirt-b$s4 ,9 ! ,engli% coal-fields ! same association ( fre%1 or r bracki% wat] ) m>9e /rata1 9 close connection ) b$s ( coal ( t]re/rial orig91 has be5 frequ5tly recogniz$4 ,?us1 = example1 a deposit ne> ,%rewsbury1 probably =m$ 9 bracki% wat]1 has be5 describ$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison z ! y\nge/ memb] ( ! c>bonif]\s s]ies ( t di/rict1 at ! po9t :]e ! coal-measures are 9 contact ) ! ,p]mian or ,l[] ,new ,r$4 ,x consi/s ( %ales & s&/ones ab\t #aej feet ?ick1 ) coal & traces ( plants2 includ+ a b$ ( lime/one1 v>y+ f #b to #i feet 9 ?ickness1 :i* is cellul>1 & resembles "s lacu/r9e lime/ones ( ,france & ,g]many4 ,x has be5 trac$ = #cj miles 9 a /raight l9e1 & c be recogniz$ at /ill m di/ant po9ts4 ,! *>act]i/ic fossils are a small bivalve1 hav+ ! =m ( a ,cyclas1 a small ,cypris 7fig4 #cgf471 & ! microscopic %ell ( an annelid ( an ext9ct g5us call$ ,microcon*us 7fig4 #cge471 alli$ to ,s]pula or ,spirorbis4 ,9 ! l[] coal-measures ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 ! /rata1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,pre/wi*1 (t5 *ange completely )9 v %ort di/ances1 b$s ( s&/one pass+ horizontally into clay1 & clay into s&/one4 ,! coal-seams (t5 w$ge out or disappe>2 & sections1 at places ne>ly contigu\s1 pres5t m>k$ li?ological di/9ctions4 ,9 ?is s+le field1 9 :i* ! /rata are f #gjj to #hjj feet ?ick1 betwe5 =ty & fifty species ( t]re/rial plants h be5 discov]$1 besides sev]al fi%es & trilobites ( =ms di/9ct f ^? occurr+ 9 ! ,silurian /rata4 ,also upw>ds ( =ty species ( mollusca1 among :i* are two or ?ree ref]r$ to ! fre%wat] g5us ,unio1 & o!rs ( m>9e =ms1 su* z ,nautilus1 ,or?oc]as1 ,spirif]1 & ,productus4 ,mr4 ,pre/wi* sugge/s t ! int]mixture ( b$s conta9+ fre%wat] %ells ) o!rs full ( m>9e rema9s1 & ! alt]nation ( co>se s&/one & conglom]ate ) b$s ( f9e clay or %ale conta9+ ! rema9s ( plants1 may be expla9$ by suppos+ ! deposit ( ,coalbrook ,dale to h orig9at$ 9 a bay ( ! sea or e/u>y into :i* fl[$ a consid]able riv] subject to occasional fre%es4#cbe-;,a #b ,illu/rations3 ,fre%wat] ,fossils--,coal4 ,fig4 #cge4 a4 ,microcon*us c>bon>ius4 b4 v>4 ( same2 nat4 size1 & magnifi$4 ,fig4 #cgf4 ,cypris inflata1 natural size1 & magnifi$4 ,mur*ison4#cbe-;,b ,9 ! ,ed9burgh coal-field1 at ,burdieh\se1 fossil fi%es1 mollusca1 & cypris1 v simil> to ^? 9 ,%rop%ire & ,/af=d%ire1 h be5 f\nd by ,dr4 ,hibb]t4#cbe-;,c ,9 ! coal-field also ( ,york%ire !re are fre%wat] /rata1 "s ( :i* conta9 %ells ref]r$ to ! g5us ,unio2 b 9 ! mid/ ( ! s]ies !re is "o ?9 b v widely spread /ratum1 ab\nd+ 9 fi%es & m>9e %ells1 su* z ,ammonites ,li/]i 7fig4 #cgg471 ,or?oc]as1 & ,avicula papyracea1 ,goldf4 7fig4 #cgh47cbe-;,d ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgg4 ,ammonites ,li/]i1 ,s[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgh4 ,avicula papyracea1 ,goldf4 7,pect5 papyraceus1 ,s[47 ,no simil>ly int]calat$ lay] ( m>9e %ells has be5 notic$ 9 ! neighb\r+ coal-field ( ,newca/le1 :]e1 z 9 ,s\? ,wales & ,som]set%ire1 ! m>9e deposits are entirely bel[ ^? conta9+ t]re/rial & fre%wat] rema9s4#cbf-;,a ,clay-iron-/one4--,b&s & nodules ( clay-iron-/one are common 9 coal-measures1 & are =m$1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ( c>bonate ( iron1 m+l$ me*anically ) e>?y matt]1 l t con/itut+ ! %ales4 ,mr4 ,hunt1 ( ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology1 in/itut$ a s]ies ( exp]im5ts to illu/rate ! production ( ?is sub/ance1 & f\nd t decompos+ vegetable matt]1 su* z w\ld be di/ribut$ ?r\gh all coal /rata1 prev5t$ ! f>!r oxidation ( ! proto-salts ( iron1 & conv]t$ ! p]oxide into protoxide by tak+ a portion ( its oxyg5 to =m c>bonic acid4 ,su* c>bonic acid1 meet+ ) ! protoxide ( iron 9 solution1 w\ld unite ) x & =m a c>bonate ( iron2 & ?is m+l+ ) f9e mud1 :5 ! excess ( c>bonic acid 0 remov$1 might =m b$s or nodules ( argillace\s iron-/one4#cbf-;,b ,,footnotes3 #cjh-;,a ,phillips2 art4 ,geology1 ,encyc4 ,britan4 #cji-;,a ,s$gwick1 ,geol4 ,trans41 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 iv42 & ,phillips1 ,geol4 ( ,york%4 "p #b4 #cji-;,b ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey1 vol4 i4 p4 #aie4 #cae-;,a ,! trunk 9 ?is case is ref]r$ by ,mr4 ,br[n to ,lepidod5dron1 b 8 illu/rations seem to %[ ! usual m>k+s assum$ by ,sigill>ia ne> its base4 #caf-;,a ,= t]m9ology ( classification ( plants1 see above1 note1 p4 #bbc4 #caf-;,b ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 v41 ,mem41 p4 #ag4 #cag-;,a ,anniv4 ,address to ,geol4 ,soc41 #ahdj4 #cag-;,b ,hawk%aw1 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 ,nos4 #fd4 & #fi4 #cah-;,a ,geol4 ,report on ,cornwall1 c4 p4 #adc4 #cah-;,b ,l9dley & ,hutton1 ,foss4 ,flo4 "p #f4 p4 #aej4 #cai-;,a ,see pap]s by ,messrs4 ,beckett & ,ick4 ,proce$4 9 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iv4 p4 #bhg4 #cai-;,b ,annales des ,m9es1 #ahba4 #cbj-;,a ,pr9ciples ( ,geol41 #h? ed41 p4 #bae4 #cba-;,a ,see figures ( texture1 ,)am1 ,foss4 ,veget41 pl4 #c4 #cba-;,b ,see ,lyell's ,travels 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agi4 #cbb-;,a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii4 p4 #agg4 #cbd-;,a ,geol4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cic42 & vol4 vi4 p4 #aae4 #cbe-;,a ,pre/wi*1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d ,s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #ddj4 ,mur*ison1 ,silurian ,sy/em1 p4 #aje4 #cbe-;,b ,silurian ,sy/em1 p4 #hd4 #cbe-;,c ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed94 vol4 xiii4 ,horn]1 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,april1 #ahcf4 #cbe-;,d ,phillips2 art4 ,geology1 ,encyc4 ,metrop41 p4 #eij4 #cbf-;,a ,phillips2 art4 ,geology1 ,encyc4 ,metrop41 p4 #eib4 #cbf-;,b ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey1 pp4 #ea4 #bee1 c4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,c>bonif]\s ,,gr\p--cont9u$4 ,coal-fields ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,section ( ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ,mississippi--,position ( l& 9 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod ea/w>d ( ! ,alleghanies--,me*anically =m$ rocks ?9n+ out we/w>d1 & lime/ones ?ick5+--,unit+ ( _m coal-seams into "o ?ick "o--,horizontal coal at ,br[nsville1 ,p5nsylvania--,va/ ext5t & cont9uity ( s+le seams ( coal--,anci5t riv]-*annel 9 ,=e/ ( ,dean coal-field--,abs5ce ( e>?y matt] 9 coal--,climate ( c>bonif]\s p]iod--,insects 9 coal--,r>ity ( air-brea?+ animals--,great numb] ( fossil fi%--,fir/ discov]y ( ! skeletons ( fossil reptiles--,footpr9ts ( reptilians--,m\nta9 lime/one--,its corals & m>9e %ells4 ,x 0 /at$ 9 ! la/ *apt] t a great uni=mity prevails 9 ! fossil plants ( ! coal-measures ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica2 & ,i may add t f\r-fif?s ( ^? collect$ 9 ,nova ,scotia h be5 id5tifi$ ) ,european species4 ,h5ce ! =m] exi/5ce at ! remote p]iod "u consid]ation 7! c>bonif]\s7 ( a cont95t or *a9 ( isl&s :]e ! ,atlantic n[ rolls its waves seems a fair inf]5ce4 ,nor are !re want+ o!r & indep5d5t pro(s ( su* an anci5t l& situat$ to ! ea/w>d ( ! pres5t ,atlantic coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 = ! geologi/ d$uces ! same conclusion f ! m9]al composition ( ! c>bonif]\s & "s old] gr\ps ( rocks z !y are develop$ on ! ea/]n flanks ( ! ,alleghanies1 contra/$ ) _! "* 9 ! l[ c\ntry to ! we/w>d ( ^? m\nta9s4 ,! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #cgi47 w assi/ ! read] 9 und]/&+ ! ph5om5a n[ allud$ to1 al?\gh ,i mu/ gu>d him aga9/ suppos+ t x is a true section4 ,a great numb] ( details h ( necessity be5 omitt$1 & ! scale ( heights & horizontal di/ances are unavoidably falsifi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cgi4 ,diagram explanatory ( ! geological /ructure ( a "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,mississippi4 ,l5g? f ,e4 to ,w4 #hej miles4 ,appala*ian ,coal ,field4 ,alleghanies1 or ,appala*ians4 ,same section--cont9u$4 ,mississippi4 ,ill9ois ,coal ,field4 ,c9c9nati4 ,appala*ian ,coal ,field4 ,a ,b4 ,atlantic pla94 ,b ,c4 ,atlantic slope4 ,c ,d4 ,alleghanies or ,appala*ian *a94 ,d ,e4 ,appala*ian coal-field we/ ( ! m\nta9s4 ,e ,f4 ,dome-%ap$ outcrop ( /rata on ! ,ohio1 old] ?an ! coal4 ,f ,g4 ,ill9ois coal-field4 h4 ,falls & rapids ( ! riv]s at ! junction ( ! hypog5e & new] =mations4 i1 k1 l1 m4 ,p>allel folds ( ,appala*ians becom+ successively m op51 & flatt] 9 go+ f ,e4 to ,w4 ,ref]5ces to ! diff]5t ,=mations4 #a4 ,mioc5e t]ti>y4 #b4 ,eoc5e t]ti>y4 #c4 ,cretace\s /rata4 #d4 ,r$ s&/one ) orni?i*nites 7new r$ or trias87 usually mu* invad$ by trap4 #e4 ,coal-measures 7bitum9\s coal74 #e' ,an?racitic coal-measures4 #e'' ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ! ,ill9ois coal-field1 want+ 9 ! ,appala*ian4 #f4 ,old r$ or ,devonian1 ,olive slate1 c4 #g4 ,prim>y fossilif]\s or ,silurian /rata4 #h4 ,hypog5e /rata1 or gneiss1 mica s*i/1 c41 ) granite ve9s4 ,note4 ,! dott$ l9es at i & k express portions ( rock remov$ by d5udation1 ! am\nt ( :i* may be e/imat$ by suppos+ simil> l9es prolong$ f o!r po9ts :]e diff]5t /rata end abruptly at ! surface4 ,n4,b4 ,! l[] section at 9999 jo9s on to ! upp] "o at 994 ,/>t+ f ! %ores ( ! ,atlantic1 on ! ea/]n side ( ! ,cont95t1 we fir/ come to a l[ region 7,a ,b71 :i* 0 call$ ! alluvial pla9 by ! fir/ geograph]s4 ,x is occupi$ by t]ti>y & cretace\s /rata1 be=e describ$ 7pp4 #aga4 #bjf4 & #bbd471 :i* are ne>ly horizontal4 ,! next belt1 f ,b to ,c1 consi/s ( granitic rocks 7hypog5e71 *iefly gneiss & mica-s*i/1 cov]$ occasionally ) uncon=mable r$ s&/one1 ,no4 #d4 7,new ,r$ or ,trias871 rem>kable = its orni?i*nites 7see p4 #cbg474 ,sometimes1 also1 ?is s&/one re/s on ! edges ( ! di/urb$ paleozoic rocks 7z se5 9 ! section74 ,! region 7,b ,c71 sometimes call$ ! ,atlantic ,slope1 corresponds ne>ly 9 av]age wid? ) ! l[ & flat pla9 7,a1 ,b71 & is *>act]iz$ by hills ( mod]ate height1 contra/+ /rongly1 9 _! r\nd$ %ape & altitude1 ) ! long1 /eep1 & l(ty p>allel ridges ( ! ,alleghany m\nta9s4 ,! outcrop ( ! /rata 9 ^! ridges1 l ! two belts ( hypog5e & new] rocks 7,a ,b1 & ,b ,c71 above allud$ to1 :5 laid d[n on a geological map1 exhibit long /ripes ( diff]5t col\rs1 runn+ 9 a ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w4 direction1 9 ! same way z ! lias1 *alk1 & o!r second>y =mations 9 ! middle & ea/]n half ( ,engl&4 ,! n>r[ & p>allel zones ( ! ,appala*ians "h m5tion$1 consi/ ( /rata1 fold$ into a succession ( convex & concave flexures1 subsequ5tly laid op5 by d5udation4 ,! compon5t rocks are ( great ?ickness1 all ref]able to ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s =mations4 ,!re is no pr9cipal or c5tral axis1 z 9 ! ,pyr5ees & _m o!r *a9s--no nucleus to :i* all ! m9or ridges con=m2 b ! *a9 consi/s ( _m ne>ly equal & p>allel fold+s1 hav+ :at is t]m$ an anticl9al & syncl9al arrangem5t 7see above1 p4 #dh474 ,?is sy/em ( hills ext5ds1 geologically consid]$1 f ,v]mont to ,alabama1 be+ m ?an #ajjj miles long1 f #ej to #aej miles broad1 & v>y+ 9 height f #bjjj to #fjjj feet4 ,sometimes ! :ole assemblage ( ridges runs p]fectly /raight = a di/ance ( m ?an #ej miles1 aft] :i* all ( !m :eel r\nd toge!r1 & take a new direction1 at an angle ( #bj or #cj degrees to ! fir/4 ,we are indebt$ to ! /ate surveyors ( ,virg9ia & ,p5nsylvania1 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,b4 ,rog]s & 8 bro!r ,pr(4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 = ! important discov]y ( a clue to ! g5]al law ( /ructure prevail+ ?r\gh\t ?is range ( m\nta9s1 :i*1 h[ev] simple x may appe> :5 once made out & cle>ly expla9$1 might long h be5 ov]look$2 amid/ s great a mass ( complicat$ details4 ,x appe>s t ! b5d+ & fracture ( ! b$s is greate/ on ! s\?-ea/]n or ,atlantic side ( ! *a91 & ! /rata become less & less di/urb$ z we g we/w>d1 until at l5g? !y rega9 _! orig9al or horizontal position4 ,by ref]5ce to ! section 7fig4 #cgi471 x w be se5 t on ! ea/]n side1 or 9 ! ridges & tr\ghs ne>e/ ! ,atlantic1 s\?-ea/]n dips pr$om9ate1 9 consequ5ce ( ! b$s hav+ be5 fold$ back ^u !mselves1 z 9 i1 ^? on ! nor?-we/]n side ( ea* ar* hav+ be5 inv]t$4 ,! next set ( ar*es 7su* z k7 are m op51 ea* hav+ its we/]n side /eepe/2 ! next 7l7 op5s out /ill m widely1 ! next 7m7 /ill m1 & ?is cont9ues until we arrive at ! l[ & level "p ( ! ,appala*ian coal-field 7,d ,e74 ,9 nature or 9 a true section1 ! numb] ( b5d+s or p>allel folds is s mu* great] t !y c\ld n be express$ 9 a diagram )\t confusion4 ,x is also cle> t l>ge quantities ( rock h be5 remov$ by aque\s action or d5udation1 z w appe> if we attempt to complete all ! curves 9 ! mann] indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es at i & k4 ,! movem5ts :i* imp>t$ s uni=m an ord] ( arrangem5t to ?is va/ sy/em ( rocks mu/ h be51 if n contemporane\s1 at lea/ p>ts ( "o & ! same s]ies1 dep5d+ on "s common cause4 ,_! geological date is well def9$1 at lea/ )9 c]ta9 limits1 = !y mu/ h tak5 place aft] ! deposition ( ! c>bonif]\s /rata 7,no4 #e471 & be=e ! =mation ( ! r$ s&/one 7,no4 #d474 ,! greate/ di/urb+ & d5ud+ =ces h evid5tly be5 ex]t$ on ! s\?-ea/]n side ( ! *a92 & x is "h t igne\s or plutonic rocks are obs]v$ to h invad$ ! /rata1 =m+ dykes1 "s ( :i* run = miles 9 l9es p>allel to ! ma9 direction ( ! ,appala*ians1 or ,n4,n4,e4 & ,s4,s4,w4 ,! ?ickness ( ! c>bonif]\s rocks 9 ! region ,c is v great1 & dim9i%es rapidly z we proce$ to ! we/w>d4 ,! surveys ( ,p5nsylvania & ,virg9ia %[ t ! s\?-ea/ 0 ! qu>t] :5ce ! co>s] mat]ials ( ^! /rata 7 d]iv$1 s t ! anci5t l& lay 9 t direction4 ,! conglom]ate :i* =ms ! g5]al base ( ! coal-measures is #aejj feet ?ick 9 ! ,%>p ,m\nta91 :]e ,i saw x 7at ,c7 ne> ,pottsville2 :]eas x has only a ?ickness ( #ejj feet1 ab\t ?irty miles to ! nor?-we/1 & dw9dles gradually away :5 foll[$ /ill f>!r 9 ! same direction1 till its ?ickness is r$uc$ to #cj feet4#cbi-;,a ,! lime/ones1 on ! o!r h&1 ( ! coal-measures1 augm5t z we trace !m we/w>d4 ,simil> obs]vations h be5 made 9 reg>d to ! ,silurian & ,devonian =mations 9 ,new ,york2 ! s&/ones & all ! me*anically-=m$ rocks ?9n+ out z !y g we/w>d1 & ! lime/ones ?ick5+1 z x 71 at _! exp5se4 ,x is1 !re=e1 cle> t ! anci5t l& 0 to ! ea/1 :]e ! ,atlantic n[ is2 ! deep sea1 ) its banks ( coral & %ells to ! we/1 or :]e ! hydrographical bas9 ( ! ,mississippi is n[ situat$4 ,9 t region1 ne> ,pottsville1 :]e ! ?ickness ( ! coal-measures is greate/1 !re are ?irte5 seams ( an?racitic coal1 sev]al ( !m m ?an #b y>ds ?ick4 ,"s ( ! l[e/ ( ^! alt]nate ) b$s ( :ite grit & conglom]ate ( co>s] gra9 ?an ,i ev] saw else:]e1 associat$ ) pure coal4 ,! pebbles ( qu>tz are (t5 ( ! size ( a h5's egg4 ,on foll[+ ^! pudd+-/ones & grits = sev]al miles f ,pottsville1 by ,tamaqua1 to ! ,lehigh ,summit ,m9e1 9 company ) ,mr4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 9 #ahda1 he po9t$ out to me t ! co>se-gra9$ /rata & _! accompany+ %ales gradually ?9 out1 until sev5 seams ( coal1 at fir/ widely sep>at$1 are br\ght ne>] & ne>] toge!r1 until !y successively unite2 s t at la/ !y =m "o mass1 betwe5 #dj & #ej feet ?ick4 ,i saw ?is enorm\s b$ ( an?racitic coal qu>ri$ 9 ! op5 air at ,mau* ,*unk 7or ! ,be> ,m\nta971 ! ov]ly+ s&/one1 #dj feet ?ick1 hav+ be5 remov$ bodily f ! top ( ! hill1 :i*1 to use ! m9]'s expression1 _h be5 scalp$4 ,! accumulation ( vegetable matt] n[ con/itut+ ?is va/ b$ ( an?racite1 may p]haps1 be=e x 0 cond5s$ by pressure & ! dis*>ge ( its hydrog51 oxyg51 & o!r volatile +r$i5ts1 h be5 betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet ?ick4 ,! orig9 ( su* a va/ ?ickness ( vegetable rema9s1 s unmix$ ) e>?y +r$i5ts1 c1 ,i ?9k1 be acc\nt$ = 9 no o!r way1 ?an by ! gr[?1 dur+ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 ( trees & f]ns1 9 ! mann] ( peat1--a !ory :i* ! pres5ce ( ! ,/igm>ia 9 situ "u ea* ( ! sev5 lay]s ( an?racite1 fully be>s out4 ,! rival hypo!sis1 ( ! drift+ ( plants into a sea or e/u>y1 leaves ! abs5ce ( s$im5t1 or1 9 ?is case1 ( s& & pebbles1 :olly unexpla9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chj4 ,cross section4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cha4 ,cross section4 ,b ! /ud5t w naturally ask1 :at c h caus$ s _m seams ( coal1 aft] !y _h be5 p]si/5t = miles1 to come toge!r & bl5d into "o s+le seam1 & t "o equal 9 ! aggregate to ! ?ickness ( ! sev]al sep>ate seams8 ,(t5 _h ! same "q be5 put by ,engli% m9]s be=e a satisfactory answ] 0 giv5 to x by ! late ,mr4 ,b[man4 ,! foll[+ is 8 solution ( ! problem4 ,let a a'1 fig4 #chj41 be a mass ( vegetable matt]1 capable1 :5 cond5s$1 ( =m+ a #c-;foot seam ( coal4 ,x re/s on ! und]clay b b'1 fill$ ) roots ( trees 9 situ1 & x supports a gr[+ =e/ 7,c ,d74 ,suppose t "p ( ! same =e/ ,d ,e _h become subm]g$ by ! gr\nd s9k+ d[n #be feet1 s t ! trees h be5 p>tly ?r[n d[n & p>tly rema9 erect 9 wat]1 sl[ly decay+1 _! /umps & ! l[] p>ts ( _! trunks be+ envelop$ 9 lay]s ( s& & mud1 :i* are gradually fill+ up ! lake ,d ,f4 ,:5 ?is lake or lagoon has at l5g? be5 entirely silt$ up & conv]t$ into l&1 say1 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury1 ! =e/ ,c ,d w ext5d once m cont9u\sly ov] ! :ole area ,c ,f1 z 9 fig4 #cha41 & ano!r mass ( vegetable matt] 7g g'71 =m+ #c feet m ( coal1 may accumulate f ,c to ,f4 ,we !n f9d 9 ! region ,f1 two seams ( coal 7a' & g'7 ea* #c feet ?ick1 & sep>at$ by #be feet ( s&/one & %ale1 ) erect trees bas$ ^u ! l[] coal1 :ile1 betwe5 ,d & ,c1 we f9d ^! two seams unit$ into a #b-y>d coal4 ,x may be object$ t ! un9t]rupt$ gr[? ( plants dur+ ! int]val ( a c5tury w h caus$ ! vegetable matt] 9 ! region ,c ,d to be ?ick] ?an ! two di/9ct seams a' & g' at ,f2 & no d\bt !re w\ld actually be a slight excess repres5t+ "o g5]ation ( trees ) ! rema9s ( o!r plants1 =m+ half an in* or an in* ( coal2 b ?is w\ld n prev5t ! m9] f affirm+ t ! seam a g1 ?r\gh\t ! area ,c ,d1 0 equal to ! two seams a' & g' at ,f4 ,! read] has se51 by ref]5ce to ! section 7fig4 #cgi4 p4 #cbg471 t ! /rata ( ! ,appala*ian coal-field assume an horizontal position we/ ( ! m\nta9s4 ,9 t less elevat$ c\ntry1 ! coal-measures are int]sect$ by ?ree great navigable riv]s1 & are capable ( supply+ = ages1 to ! inhabitants ( a d5sely peopl$ region1 an inexhau/ible supply ( fuel4 ,^! riv]s are ! ,monongahela1 ! ,alleghany1 & ! ,ohio1 all ( :i* lay op5 on _! banks ! level seams ( coal4 ,look+ d[n ! fir/ ( ^! at ,br[nsville1 we h a f9e view ( ! ma9 seam ( bitum9\s coal #aj feet ?ick1 commonly call$ ! ,pittsburg seam1 break+ out 9 ! /eep cliff at ! wat]'s edge2 & ,i made ! accompany+ sket* ( its appe>ance f ! bridge ov] ! riv] 7see fig4 #chb474 ,"h ! coal1 #aj feet ?ick1 is cov]$ by c>bonace\s %ale 7b71 & ?is aga9 by micace\s s&/one 7c74 ,horizontal gall]ies may be driv5 ev]y:]e at v slight exp5se1 & s work$ z to dra9 !mselves1 :ile ! c>s1 lad5 ) coal & atta*$ to ea* o!r1 glide d[n on a railway1 s z to deliv] _! burd5 into b>ges moor$ to ! riv]'s bank4 ,! same seam is se5 at a di/ance1 on ! "r bank 7at a71 & may be foll[$ ! :ole way to ,pittsburg1 fifty miles di/ant4 ,z x is ne>ly horizontal1 :ile ! riv] desc5ds x crops out at a cont9ually increas+1 b nev] at an inconv5i5t1 height above ! ,monongahela4 ,bel[ ! great b$ ( coal at ,br[nsville is a fire-clay #ah in*es ?ick1 & bel[ ?is1 sev]al b$s ( lime/one1 bel[ :i* aga9 are o!r coal seams4 ,i h also %[n 9 my sket* ano!r lay] ( workable coal 7at d d71 :i* breaks out on ! slope ( ! hills at a great] height4 ,"h almo/ e proprietor c op5 a coal-pit on 8 own l&1 & ! /ratification be+ v regul>1 he may calculate ) precision ! dep? at :i* coal may be won4 ,! ,appala*ian coal-field1 ( :i* ^! /rata =m a "p 7f ,c to ,e1 section1 fig4 #cgi41 p4 #cbg471 is rem>kable = its va/ area2 =1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 x /ret*es cont9u\sly f ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 = a di/ance ( #gbj miles1 its greate/ wid? be+ ab\t #ahj miles4 ,on a mod]ate e/imate1 its sup]ficial area am\nts to #fc1jjj squ>e miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chb4 ,view ( ! great ,coal ,seam on ! ,monongahela at ,br[nsville1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,u4 ,s4 a4 ,t5-foot seam ( coal4 b4 ,black bitum9\s or c>bonace\s %ale1 #aj feet ?ick4 c4 ,micace\s s&/one4 d d4 ,upp] seam ( coal1 #f feet ?ick4 ,?is coal =mation1 be=e its orig9al limits 7 r$uc$ by d5udation1 mu/ h measur$ #ijj miles 9 l5g?1 & 9 "s places m ?an #bjj miles 9 bread?4 ,by aga9 ref]r+ to ! section 7fig4 #cgi41 p4 #cbg471 x w be se5 t ! /rata ( coal are horizontal to ! we/w>d ( ! m\nta9s 9 ! region ,d ,e1 & become m & m incl9$ & fold$ z we proce$ ea/w>d4 ,n[ x is inv>iably f\nd1 z ,pr(essor ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s has %[n by *emical analysis1 t ! coal is mo/ bitum9\s t[>ds its we/]n limit1 :]e x rema9s level & unbrok51 & t x becomes progressively debitum9iz$ z we travel s\?-ea/w>d t[>ds ! m b5t & di/ort$ rocks4 ,?us1 on ! ,ohio1 ! proportion ( hydrog51 oxyg51 & o!r volatile matt]s1 ranges f =ty to fifty p] c5t4 ,ea/w>d ( ?is l9e1 on ! ,monongahela1 x /ill approa*es =ty p] c5t41 :]e ! /rata beg9 to exp]i5ce "s g5tle flexures4 ,on ent]+ ! ,alleghany ,m\nta9s1 :]e ! di/9ct anticl9al axes beg9 to %[ !mselves1 b be=e ! dislocations are consid]able1 ! volatile matt] is g5]ally 9 ! proportion ( eighte5 or tw5ty p] c5t4 ,at l5g?1 :5 we arrive at "s insulat$ coal-fields 7#e'1 fig4 #cgi47 associat$ ) ! bolde/ flexures ( ! ,appala*ian *a91 :]e ! /rata h be5 actually turn$ ov]1 z ne> ,pottsville1 we f9d ! coal to conta9 only f six to twelve p] c5t4 ( bitum51 ?us becom+ a g5u9e an?racite4#ccc-;,a ,x appe>s f ! rese>*es ( ,liebig & o!r em95t *emi/s1 t :5 wood & vegetable matt] are buri$ 9 ! e>?1 expos$ to moi/ure1 & p>tially or entirely exclud$ f ! air1 !y decompose sl[ly & evolve c>bonic acid gas1 ?us p>t+ ) a portion ( _! orig9al oxyg54 ,by ?is means1 !y become gradually conv]t$ into lignite or wood-coal1 :i* conta9s a l>g] proportion ( hydrog5 ?an wood does4 ,a cont9uance ( decomposition *anges ?is lignite into common or bitum9\s coal1 *iefly by ! dis*>ge ( c>burett$ hydrog51 or ! gas by :i* we illum9ate our /reets & h\ses4 ,accord+ to ,bis*(f1 ! inflammable gases :i* are always escap+ f m9]al coal1 & are s (t5 ! cause ( fatal accid5ts 9 m9es1 always conta9 c>bonic acid1 c>burett$ hydrog51 nitrog51 & olefiant gas4 ,! dis5gagem5t ( all ^! gradually trans=ms ord9>y or bitum9\s coal into an?racite1 to :i* ! v>i\s names ( spl9t coal1 glance coal1 culm1 & _m o!rs1 h be5 giv54 ,we h se5 t1 9 ! ,appala*ian coal-field1 !re is an intimate connection betwe5 ! ext5t to :i* ! coal has p>t$ ) its gase\s cont5ts1 & ! am\nt ( di/urbance :i* ! /rata h und]gone4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ^! ph5om5a may be attribut$ p>tly to ! great] facility af=d$ = ! escape ( volatile matt]1 :]e ! fractur+ ( ! rocks _h produc$ an inf9ite numb] ( cracks & crevices1 & also to ! heat ( ! gases & wat] p5etrat+ ^! cracks1 :5 ! great movem5ts took place1 :i* h r5t & fold$ ! ,appala*ian /rata4 ,x is well kn[n t1 at ! pres5t p]iod1 !rmal wat]s & hot vap\rs bur/ out f ! e>? dur+ e>?quakes1 & ^! w\ld n fail to promote ! dis5gagem5t ( volatile matt] f ! c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,cont9uity ( seams ( coal4--,z s+le seams ( coal are cont9u\s ov] v wide areas1 x has be5 ask$1 h[ =e/s c\ld h prevail$ un9t]rupt$ly ov] su* wide spaces1 )\t be+ (t5] flood$ by turbid riv]s1 or1 :5 subm]g$1 d5ud$ by m>9e curr5ts4 ,x appe>s1 f ! description ( ! ,cape ,breton coal-field1 by ,mr4 ,ri*>d ,br[n1 t false /ratification is common 9 ! b$s ( s&1 & "s p>tial d5udation ( ^!1 at lea/1 mu/ (t5 h tak5 place dur+ ! accumulation ( ! c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,9 ! ,=e/ ( ,dean1 anci5t riv]-*annels are f\nd1 :i* pass ?r\gh b$s ( coal1 & 9 :i* r\nd$ pebbles ( coal occur4 ,!y are ( old] date ?an ! ov]ly+ & undi/urb$ coal-measures4 ,! late ,mr4 ,buddle1 :o describ$ !m to me1 told me he _h se5 simil> ph5om5a 9 ! ,newca/le coal-field4 ,nev]!less1 in/ances ( ^! *annels are mu* m r>e ?an we might h anticipat$1 especially :5 we rememb] h[ (t5 ! roots ( trees 7,/igm>iae7 h be5 torn up1 & drift$ 9 brok5 fragm5ts into ! grits & s&/ones4 ,! preval5ce ( a d[nw>d movem5t is1 no d\bt1 ! pr9cipal cause :i* has sav$ s _m ext5sive seams ( coal f de/ruction by fluviatile action4 ,! purity ( ! coal1 or its non-int]mixture ) e>?y matt]1 pres5ts ano!r !oretical difficulty to _m geologi/s1 :o are incl9$ to believe t ! trees & small] plants ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod grew 9 ext5sive swamps1 r ?an on l& n liable to be inundat$4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t 9 ! alluvial pla9 & delta ( ! ,mississippi1 ext5sive cypress swamps1 z !y are call$1 d5sely cov]$ ) v>i\s trees1 occur1 into :i* no matt] held 9 me*anical susp5sion is ev] introduc$ dur+ ! greate/ inundations1 inasmu* z !y are all surr\nd$ by a d5se m>g9al belt ( re$s1 canes1 & bru%wood4 ,?r\gh ?is ?ick b>ri] ! riv]-wat] mu/ pass1 s t x is inv>iably well filt]$ be=e x c rea* ! int]ior ( ! =e/-cov]$ area1 )9 :i*1 vegetable matt] is cont9ually accumulat+ f ! decay ( trees & semi-aquatic plants4 ,9 pro( ( ?is1 ,i may obs]ve1 t :5ev] any "p ( a swamp is dri$ up1 dur+ an unusually hot season1 & ! wood set on fire1 pits are burnt into ! gr\nd _m feet deep1 or z f> d[n z ! fire c desc5d )\t meet+ ) wat]1 & x is !n f\nd t sc>cely any residuum or e>?y matt] is left4#ccd-;,a ,at ! bottom ( ^! cypress swamps ( ! ,mississippi1 a b$ ( clay is f\nd1 ) roots ( ! tall cypress 7,taxodium di/i*um71 j z ! und]clays ( ! coal are fill$ ) ,/igm>ia4 ,climate ( ,coal ,p]iod4--,s long z ! botani/ taught t a tropical climate 0 impli$ by ! c>bonif]\s flora1 geologi/s might well be at a loss to reconcile ! pres]vation ( s mu* vegetable matt] ) a high temp]ature2 = heat ha/5s ! decomposition ( fall5 leaves & trunks ( trees1 :e!r 9 ! atmosph]e or 9 wat]4#cce-;,a ,x is well kn[n t peat1 s abundant 9 ! bogs ( high latitudes1 ceases to gr[ 9 ! swamps ( w>m] regions4 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 to h become a m & m receiv$ op9ion1 t ! coal-plants d n1 on ! :ole1 indicate a climate resembl+ t n[ enjoy$ 9 ! equatorial zone4 ,tree-f]ns range z f> s\? z ! s\!rn "p ( ,new ,zeal&1 & ,arauc>ian p9es occur 9 ,norfolk ,isl&4 ,a great pr$om9ance ( f]ns & lycopodiums indicates w>m?1 moi/ure1 equability ( temp]ature1 & fre$om f fro/1 r ?an int5se heat2 & we "k too little ( ! sigill>iae1 calamites1 a/]ophyllites1 & o!r peculi> =ms ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 to be able to speculate ) confid5ce on ! k9d ( climate !y may h requir$4 ,no d\bt1 we are entitl$ to presume1 f ! corals & cephalopoda ( ! m\nta9 lime/one1 t a w>m temp]ature *>act]iz$ ! nor!rn seas 9 ! c>bonif]\s era2 b ! abs5ce ( cold may h giv5 rise 7z at pres5t 9 ! seas ( ! ,b]mudas1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! gulf /ream7 to a v wide geographical range ( /one-build+ corals & %ell-be>+ cuttle-fi%1 )\t its be+ necess>y to call 9 ! aid ( tropical heat4#cce-;,b ,,c>bonif]\s ,,reptiles4 ,:]e we h evid5ce 9 a s+le coal-field1 z 9 t ( ,nova ,scotia1 or ,s\? ,wales1 ( fifty or ev5 a hundr$ anci5t =e/s buri$ "o above ! o!r1 ) ! roots ( trees /ill 9 _! orig9al position1 & ) "s ( ! trunks /ill rema9+ erect1 we are apt to wond] t until ! ye> #ahdd no rema9s ( contemporane\s air-brea?+ creatures1 except a few insects1 _h be5 discov]$4 ,no v]tebrat$ animals m highly organiz$ ?an fi%1 no mammalia or birds1 no saurians1 frogs1 tortoises1 or snakes1 7 yet kn[n 9 rocks ( su* high antiquity4 ,9 ! coal-field ( ,coalbrook ,dale m5tion _h be5 made ( two species ( beetles ( ! family ,curculionidae1 & ( a neuropt]\s insect resembl+ ! g5us ,corydalis1 ) ano!r relat$ to ! ,phasmidae4#cce-;,c ,9 o!r coal-measures 9 ,europe we f9d notice ( a scorpion & ( a mo? alli$ to ,t9ea1 also ( "o air-brea?+ cru/acean1 or l&-crab4 ,yet ,agassiz _h already describ$ 9 8 great "w on fossil fi%es m ?an "o hundr$ & fifty species ( i*?yolites f ! coal /rata1 n9ety-f\r belong+ to ! families ( %>k & ray1 & fifty-eight to ! class ( ganoids4 ,"s ( ^! fi% are v remote 9 _! organization f any n[ liv+1 especially ^? ( ! family call$ ,sauroid by ,agassiz2 z ,megali*?ys1 ,holopty*ius1 & o!rs1 :i* are (t5 ( great size1 & all pr$ace\s4 ,_! o/eology1 says ,m4 ,agassiz1 rem9ds u 9 _m respects ( ! skeletons ( saurian reptiles1 bo? by ! close sutures ( ! bones ( ! skull1 _! l>ge conical tee? /riat$ longitud9ally 7see fig4 #chc471 ! articulations ( ! sp9\s processes ) ! v]tebrae1 & o!r *>act]s4 ,yet !y d n =m a family int]m$iate betwe5 fi% & reptiles1 b are true fi%1 ?\gh d\btless m highly organiz$ ?an any liv+ fi%4#ccf-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chc4 ,holopty*ius ,hibb]ti1 ,ag4 ,fife%ire coal-field2 natural size4 ,! annex$ figure repres5ts a l>ge too? ( ! ,megali*?ys1 f\nd by ,mr4 ,horn] 9 ! ,cannel coal ( ,fife%ire4 ,x probably inhabit$ an e/u>y1 l _m ( its contempor>ies1 & frequ5t$ bo? riv]s & ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chd4 ,ar*egosaurus m9or1 ,goldfuss4 ,fossil reptile f ! coal-measures1 ,sa>brueck4 ,at l5g?1 9 #ahdd1 ! fir/ skeleton ( a true reptile 0 ann\nc$ f ! coal ( ,mu5/]-,appel 9 ,rh5i% ,bav>ia1 by ,h4 von ,mey]1 "u ! "n ( ,apateon p$e/ris1 ! animal be+ suppos$ to be ne>ly relat$ to ! salam&]s4 ,?ree ye>s lat]1 9 #ahdg1 ,pr(4 von ,de*5 f\nd 9 ! coal-field ( ,sa>brueck1 at ! village ( ,leba*1 betwe5 ,/rasburg & ,treves1 ! skeletons ( no less ?an ?ree di/9ct species ( air-brea?+ reptiles1 :i* 7 describ$ by ! late ,pr(4 ,goldfuss "u ! g5]ic "n ( ,ar*egosaurus4 ,! i*?yolites & plants f\nd 9 ! same /rata1 left no d\bt t ^! rema9s belong$ to ! true coal p]iod4 ,! skulls1 tee?1 & ! great] portions ( ! skeleton1 nay1 ev5 a l>ge "p ( ! sk91 ( two ( ^! reptiles h be5 fai?fully pres]v$ 9 ! c5tre ( sph]oidal concretions ( clay-iron-/one4 ,! l>ge/ ( ^! liz>ds1 ,ar*egosaurus ,de*5i1 mu/ h be5 #c feet #f in*es long4 ,! annex$ draw+ repres5ts ! smalle/ ( ! ?ree ( ! natural size4 ,!y 7 consid]$ by ,goldfuss z saurians1 b by ,h]man von ,mey] z mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,labyr9?odon1 & !re=e connect$ ) ! batra*ians1 z well z ! liz>ds4 ,! rema9s ( ! extremities leave no d\bt t !y 7 quadrup$s1 provid$1 says ,von ,mey]1 ) h&s & feet t]m9at+ 9 di/9ct toes2 b ^! limbs 7 weak1 s]v+ only = swimm+ or creep+4 ,! same anatomi/ has po9t$ out c]ta9 po9ts ( analogy betwe5 _! bones & ^? ( ! ,proteus angu9us2 & ,mr4 ,ow5 has obs]v$ to me t !y make an approa* to ! ,proteus 9 ! %ortness ( _! ribs4 ,two ( ^! anci5t reptiles reta9 a l>ge "p ( ! out] sk91 :i* consi/$ ( long1 n>r[1 w$ge-%ap$1 tile-l1 & horny scales1 arrang$ 9 r[s 7see fig4 #che474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #che4 ,imbricat$ cov]+ ( sk9 ( ,ar*egosaurus m$ius1 ,goldf42 magnifi$4#ccg-;,a ,*eiro!rian footpr9ts 9 coal measures1 ,unit$ ,/ates4--,9 #ahdd1 ! v ye> :5 ! ,apateon or ,salam&] ( ! coal 0 fir/ met ) 9 ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,moselle & ! ,rh9e1 ,dr4 ,k+ publi%$ an acc\nt ( ! footpr9ts ( a l>ge reptile discov]$ by him 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,^! occur 9 ! coal /rata ( ,gre5sburg1 9 ,we/morel& ,c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania2 & ,i _h an opportunity ( exam9+ !m 9 #ahdf4 ,i 0 at once conv9c$ ( _! g5u95ess1 & decl>$ my conviction on t po9t1 on :i* d\bts _h be5 ent]ta9$ bo? 9 ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! footm>ks 7 fir/ obs]v$ /&+ out 9 relief f ! l[] surface ( slabs ( s&/one1 re/+ on ?9 lay]s ( f9e unctu\s clay4 ,i br\ght away "o ( ^! masses1 :i* is repres5t$ 9 ! accompany+ draw+ 7fig4 #chf474 ,x displays1 toge!r ) footpr9ts1 ! ca/s ( cracks 7a1 a'7 ( v>i\s sizes4 ,! orig9 ( su* cracks 9 clay1 & ca/s ( ! same1 has be=e be5 expla9$1 & ref]r$ to ! dry+ & %r9k+ ( mud1 & ! subsequ5t p\r+ ( s& into op5 crevices4 ,x w be se5 t "s ( ! cracks1 z at b1 c1 trav]se ! footpr9ts1 & produce di/ortion 9 !m1 z might h be5 expect$1 = ! mud mu/ h be5 s(t :5 ! animal walk$ ov] x & left ! impressions2 :]eas1 :5 x aft]w>ds dri$ up & %rank1 x w\ld be too h>d to receive su* ind5tations4 ,no less ?an tw5ty-?ree foot/eps 7 obs]v$ by ,dr4 ,k+ 9 ! same qu>ry be=e x 0 ab&on$1 ! great] "p ( !m s arrang$ 7see fig4 #chg47 on ! surface ( "o /ratum z to imply t !y 7 made successively by ! same animal4 ,ev]y:]e !re 0 a d\ble r[ ( tracks1 & 9 ea* r[ !y occur 9 pairs1 ea* pair consi/+ ( a h9d & =e foot1 & ea* be+ at ne>ly equal di/ances f ! next pair4 ,9 ea* p>allel r[ ! toes turn ! "o set to ! "r1 ! o!r to ! left4 ,9 ! ,european ,*eiro!rium1 be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #bij471 bo? ! h9d & =e feet h ea* five toes1 & ! size ( ! h9d foot is ab\t five times z l>ge z ! =e foot4 ,9 ! ,am]ican fossil ! po/]ior footpr9t is n ev5 twice z l>ge z ! ant]ior1 & ! numb] ( toes is unequal1 be+ five 9 ! h9d] & f\r 9 ! ant]ior foot4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! ,european ,*eiro!rium1 "o toe /&s out l a ?umb1 & ^! ?umb-l toes turn ! "o set to ! "r1 & ! o!r to ! left4 ,! ,am]ican ,*eiro!rium 0 evid5tly a broad] animal1 & belong$ to a di/9ct g5us f t ( ! triassic age 9 ,europe4#cch-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chf4 ,scale "o-six? ! orig9al4 ,slab ( s&/one f ! coal-measures ( ,p5nsylvania1 ) footpr9ts ( air-brea?+ reptile & ca/s ( cracks4 ,we may assume t ! reptile :i* left ^! pr9ts on ! anci5t s&s ( ! coal-measures 0 an air-brea!r1 because its weight w\ld n h be5 suffici5t "u wat] to h made impressions s deep & di/9ct4 ,! same conclusion is also borne out by ! ca/s ( ! cracks above describ$1 = !y %[ t ! clay _h be5 expos$ to ! air & sun1 s z to h dri$ & %runk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chg4 ,s]ies ( reptilian footpr9ts 9 ! coal-/rata ( ,we/morel& ,c\nty1 ,p5nsylvania4 a4 ,m>k ( nail8 ,! geological position ( ! s&/one ( ,gre5sburg is p]fectly cle>1 be+ situat$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,appala*ian coal-field1 hav+ ! ma9 b$ ( coal1 call$ ! ,pittsburg seam1 above m5tion$ 7p4 #cca471 #c y>ds ?ick1 #ajj feet above x1 & work$ 9 ! neighb\rhood1 ) sev]al o!r seams ( coal at l[] levels4 ,! impressions ( ,lepidod5dron1 ,sigill>ia1 ,/igm>ia1 & o!r *>act]i/ic c>bonif]\s plants1 are f\nd bo? above & bel[ ! level ( ! reptilian foot/eps4 ,analog\s footpr9ts ( a l>ge reptile ( /ill old] date h s9ce be5 f\nd 7#ahdi71 by ,mr4 ,isaac ,lea1 9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! coal =mation at ,pottsville1 ne> ,philadelphia1 s t we may n[ be said to h ! footm>ks ( two reptilians ( ! coal p]iod1 & ! skeletons ( f\r4#cdj-;,a ,,c>bonif]\s ,,or ,,m\nta9 ,,lime/one4 ,we h already se5 t ?is rock lies sometimes entirely b5ea? ! coal-measures1 :ile1 9 o!r di/ricts1 x alt]nates ) ! %ales & s&/one ( ! coal4 ,9 bo? cases x is de/itute ( l& plants1 & usually *>g$ ) corals1 :i* are (t5 ( l>ge size2 & sev]al species belong to ! lamellif]\s class ( ,lam>ck1 :i* ent] l>gely into ! /ructure ( coral reefs n[ gr[+4 ,!re are also a great numb] ( ,cr9oidea 7see fig4 #chh471 & a few ,e*9od]ms1 associat$ ) ! zoophytes above m5tion$4 ,! ,bra*iopoda con/itute a l>ge proportion ( ! ,mollusca1 _m species be+ ref]able to two ext9ct g5]a1 ,spirif] 7or ,spirif]a7 7fig4 #chi471 & ,productus 7,lepta5a7 7fig4 #cij474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chh4 ,cya?ocr9ites planus1 ,mill]4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #chi4 ,spirif] glab]1 ,s[4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cij4 ,productus ,m>t9i1 ,s[4 7,p4 semireticulatus1 ,flem47 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,among ! spiral univalve %ells ! ext9ct g5us ,euomphalus 7see fig4 #cia47 is "o ( ! commone/ fossils ( ! ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,9 ! int]ior x is (t5 divid$ into *amb]s 7see fig4 #cia4 d72 ! septa or p>titions n be+ p]=at$1 z 9 =am9if]\s %ells1 or 9 ^? hav+ siphuncles1 l ! ,nautilus4 ,! animal appe>s1 l ! rec5t ,bulimus decollatus1 to h retreat$ at diff]5t p]iods ( its gr[?1 f ! int]nal cavity previ\sly =m$1 & to h clos$ all communication ) x by a septum4 ,! numb] ( *amb]s is irregul>1 & !y are g5]ally want+ 9 ! inn]mo/ :orl4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cia4 ,euomphalus p5tagulatus1 ,m94 ,con4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 a4 ,upp] side2 b4 l[]1 or umbilical side2 c4 view %[+ m\? :i* is less p5tagonal 9 old] individuals2 d4 view ( poli%$ section1 %[+ int]nal *amb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cib4 ,portion ( ,or?oc]as lat]ale1 ,phillips4 ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,!re are also _m univalve & bivalve %ells ( exi/+ g5]a 9 ! ,m\nta9 lime/one1 su* z ,turritella1 ,bucc9um1 ,patella1 ,isoc>dia1 ,nucula1 & ,pect54#cda-;,a ,b ! ,cephalopoda dep>t1 9 g5]al1 m widely f liv+ =ms1 "s be+ g5]ically di/9ct f all ^? f\nd 9 /rata new] ?an ! coal4 ,9 ?is numb] may be m5tion$ ,or?oc]as1 a siphuncl$ & *amb]$ %ell1 l a ,nautilus uncoil$ & /raight5$4 ,"s species ( ?is g5us are sev]al feet long 7fig4 #cib474 ,! ,goniatite is ano!r g5us1 ne>ly alli$ to ! ,ammonite1 f :i* x diff]s 9 hav+ ! lobes ( ! septa free f lat]al d5ticulations1 or cr5atures2 s t ! outl9e ( ^! is cont9u\s & un9t]rupt$ 7see a1 fig4 #cic474 ,_! siphon is small1 & 9 ! =m ( ! /riae ( gr[? !y resemble ,nautili4 ,ano!r ext9ct g5]ic =m ( ,cephalopod1 ab\nd+ 9 ! ,m\nta9 lime/one1 & n f\nd 9 /rata ( lat] date1 is ! ,bell]ophon 7fig4 #cid471 ( :i* ! %ell1 l ! liv+ ,argonaut1 0 )\t *amb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cic4 ,goniatites evolutus1 ,phillips4#cdb-;,a ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cid4 ,bell]ophon co/atus1 ,s[4#cdb-;,b ,m\nta9 lime/one4 ,,footnotes3 #cbi-;,a ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 ,trans4 ,assoc4 ,am]4 ,geol41 #ahdj-db1 p4 #ddj4 #ccc-;,a ,trans4 ( ,ass4 ( ,am]4 ,geol41 p4 #dgj4 #ccd-;,a ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,u4 ,s41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bde4 ,am]ican ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 v4 p4 #ag4 #cce-;,a ,pr9ciples ( ,geol41 p4 #fif4 #cce-;,b ,= *anges 9 climate1 see ,pr9ciples ( ,geol41 *aps4 vii4 & viii4 #cce-;,c ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 vi4 p4 #ccj4 #ccf-;,a ,agassiz1 ,poiss4 ,foss41 lib4 #d4 p4 #fb4 & liv4 #e4 p4 #hh4 #ccg-;,a ,goldfuss1 ,neue ,j5ais*e ,lit4 ,zeit41 #ahdh2 & ,von ,mey]1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iv4 p4 #ea41 memoirs4 #cch-;,a ,see ,lyell's ,second ,visit1 c41 vol4 ii4 p4 #cje4 #cdj-;,a ,^! impressions1 f\nd by ,mr4 ,lea1 7 imag9$ to be 9 a rock z anci5t z ! old r$ s&/one2 b1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,h4 ,d4 ,rog]s1 !y are 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! coal =mation4 #cda-;,a ,phillips1 ,geol4 ( ,york%41 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh4 #cdb-;,a ,phillips1 ,geol4 ( ,york%41 pl4 #bj4 fig4 #fe4 #cdb-;,b ,ibid41 pl4 #ag4 fig4 #ae4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one1 ,,or ,,devonian ,,gr\p4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl&1 & bord]s ( ,wales--,fossils usually r>e--,old ,r$ 9 ,=f>%ire--,i*?yolites ( ,cai?ness--,di/9ct li?ological type ( ,old ,r$ 9 ,devon & ,cornwall--,t]m ,devonian--,organic rema9s ( int]m$iate "* betwe5 ^? ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,silurian sy/ems--,corals & %ells--,devonian /rata ( ,we/phalia1 ! ,eifel1 ,russia1 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,coral reef at ,falls ( ! ,ohio--,devonian flora4 ,x 0 /at$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xxii4 t ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation is surm\nt$ by "o call$ ! ,new ,r$1 & und]laid by ano!r call$ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4#cdb-;,c ,! ,briti% /rata ( ! la/ m5tion$ s]ies 7 fir/ recogniz$ 9 ,h]e=d%ire & ,scotl& z ( great ?ickness1 & imm$iately subjac5t to ! coal2 b !y 7 9 g5]al s b>r5 ( organic rema9s1 t x 0 difficult to f9d paleontological *>act]s ( suffici5t importance to di/+ui% !m z an indep5d5t gr\p4 ,9 ,scotl&1 & on ! bord]s ( ,wales1 ! ,old ,r$ consi/s *iefly ( r$ s&/one1 conglom]ate1 & %ale1 ) few fossils2 b lime/ones ( ! same age1 peculi>ly ri* 9 organic rema9s1 7 at l5g? f\nd 9 ,devon%ire4 ,i %all fir/ adv]t to ! *>act]s ( ! gr\p z develop$ 9 ,h]e=d%ire1 ,worce/]%ire1 ,%rop%ire1 & ,s\? ,wales4 ,its ?ickness has be5 e/imat$ at #hjjj feet1 & x has be5 subdivid$ into-- #a/4 ,a qu>tzose conglom]ate pass+ d[nw>ds into *ocolate-r$ & gre5 s&/one & m>l4 #b;d4 ,corn/one & m>l--r$ & gre5 argillace\s spott$ m>ls1 ) irregul> c\rses ( impure concretion>y lime/one1 prov9cially call$ ,corn/one4 ,"h1 z usual1 fossils are extremely r>e 9 ! clays & s&/ones 9 :i* ! r$ oxide ( iron prevails2 b rema9s ( fi%es ( ! g5]a ,cephalaspis & ,on*us h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,corn/one4 ,! :ole ( ! nor!rn "p ( ,scotl&1 f ,cape ,wra? to ! s\!rn flank ( ! ,grampians1 has be5 well describ$ by ,mr4 ,mill] z consi/+ ( a nucleus ( granite1 gneiss1 & o!r hypog5e rocks1 :i* seem z if set 9 a s&/one frame4#cdc-;,a ,! b$s ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one con/itut+ ?is frame1 may once p]haps h ext5d$ cont9u\sly ov] ! entire ,grampians be=e ! upheaval ( t m\nta9 range2 = "o b& ( ! s&/one foll[s ! c\rse ( ! ,moray ,fri? f> into ! int]ior ( ! great ,cal$onian valley2 & deta*$ hills & isl&-l pat*es occur 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! int]ior1 capp+ "s ( ! high] summits 9 ,su!rl&%ire1 & appe>+ 9 ,moray%ire l oases among ! granite rocks ( ,/ra?spey4 ,on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,ross-%ire1 ! ,old ,r$ =ms ^? ?ree imm5se insulat$ hills be=e describ$ 7p4 #fg471 :]e b$s ( horizontal s&/one1 #cjjj feet high1 re/ uncon=mably on a base ( gneiss1 atte/+ ! va/ d5udation :i* has tak5 place4 ,b 9 ord] to obs]ve ! upp]mo/ "p ( ! ,old ,r$1 we mu/ travel s\? ( ! ,grampians1 & exam9e its junction ) ! bottom ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies 9 ,fife%ire4 ,?is upp] memb] may be se5 9 ,dura ,d51 s\? ( ,cup>1 to consi/ ( a belt ( yell[ s&/one1 9 :i* ,dr4 ,flem+ fir/ discov]$ scales ( ,holopty*ius1 & 9 :i* species ( fi% ( ! g5]a ,pt]i*?ys1 ,pamphractus1 & o!rs1 h be5 met )4 7,= g5us ,pt]i*?ys1 see fig4 #djj4 p4 #cde47 ,! b$s next bel[ ! yell[ s&/one are well se5 9 ! l>ge zone ( ,old ,r$ :i* skirts ! s\!rn flank ( ! ,grampians f ,/onehav5 to ! ,fri? ( ,clyde4 ,x !re =ms1 toge!r ) trap1 ! ,sidlaw ,hills & ! /rata ( ! valley ( ,/ra?more4 ,a section ( ?is region has be5 already giv5 7p4 #dh471 ext5d+ f ! foot ( ! ,grampians 9 ,=f>%ire to ! sea at ,arbroa?1 a di/ance ( ab\t #bj miles1 :]e ! entire s]ies ( /rata is sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 & may be divid$ into ?ree pr9cipal masses3 #a/1 & upp]mo/1 r$ & mottl$ m>ls1 corn/one1 & s&/one 7,nos4 #a4 & #b4 ( ! section72 #b;d1 ,conglom]ate1 (t5 ( va/ ?ickness 7,no4 #c4 ibid472 #c;d1 ,ro(+ & pav+ /one1 highly micace\s1 & conta9+ a slight admixture ( c>bonate ( lime 7,no4 #d4 ibid474 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! divisions1 :i* may be consid]$ z succe$+ ! yell[ s&/one ( ,fife%ire be=e m5tion$1 a gigantic species ( fi% ( ! g5us ,holopty*ius has be5 f\nd at ,cla%b9nie ne> ,p]?4 ,"s scales 7see fig4 #cie47 h be5 se5 :i* measur$ #c in*es 9 l5g? by #b-a_/b 9 bread?4 ,at ! top ( ! next division1 or imm$iately "u ! conglom]ate 7,no4 #c4 p4 #dh471 !re h be5 f\nd 9 ,=f>%ire "s rem>kable cru/aceans1 ) sev]al fi% ( ! g5us nam$ by ,agassiz ,cephalaspis1 or buckl]-head$1 f ! extraord9>y %ield :i* cov]s ! head 7see fig4 #cif471 & :i* has (t5 be5 mi/ak5 = t ( a trilobite1 ( ! division ,asaphus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cie4 ,scale ( ,holopty*ius nobilissimus1 ,agas4 ,cla%b9nie4 ,nat4 size4 ,species ( ! same g5us are consid]$ 9 ,engl& z *>act]i/ic ( ! second or ,corn/one division 7p4 #cdc474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cif4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii1 ,agass4 ,l5g? #f-c_/d in*es4 ,f a specim5 9 my collection f\nd at ,glammiss1 9 ,=f>%ire4 ,see o!r figures1 ,agassiz1 vol4 ii4 tab4 #a4 a4 & #a4 b4 a4 ,"o ( ! peculi> scales ) :i* ! head is cov]$ :5 p]fect4 ,^! scales are g5]ally remov$1 z 9 ! specim5 above figur$4 b1 c4 ,scales f diff]5t p>ts ( ! body & tail4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cig4 ,eggs ( ga/]opod\s mollusk8 ,l[] b$s ( ,old ,r$1 ,ley's ,mill1 ,=f>%ire4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cih4 ,fucoids & eggs ( ga/]opod\s mollusk8 ,l[] ,old ,r$1 ,fife4 ,9 ! same grey pav+-/ones & co>se ro(+-slates1 9 :i* ! ,cephalaspis occurs1 9 ,=f>%ire & ,k9c>d9e%ire1 ! rema9s ( m>9e plants or fucoids ab\nd4 ,!y are frequ5tly accompani$ by gr\ps ( hexagonal1 or ne>ly hexagonal m>k+s1 :i* consi/ ( small flatt5$ c>bonace\s bodies1 plac$ 9 a slight depression ( ! s&/one or %ale4 7,see figs4 #cig & #cih47 ,!y mu* resemble 9 =m ! spawn ( ! rec5t ,natica 7see fig4 #cii471 9 :i* ! eggs are arrang$ 9 a ?9 lay] ( s&1 & seem to h acquir$ a polygonal =m by press+ aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,! sub/ance ( ! egg1 if fossiliz$1 might give rise to small pellicles ( c>bonace\s matt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cii4 ,fragm5t ( spawn ( ,briti% species ( ,natica4 ,^! fossils ,i h met )1 bo? to ! nor? ( ,/ra?more1 9 ! v]tical %ale b5ea? ! conglom]ate1 & 9 ! same b$s 9 ! ,sidlaw hills1 at all ! po9ts :]e fig4 #d4 is introduc$ 9 ! section1 p4 #dh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djj4 ,pt]i*?ys1 ,agassiz2 upp] side1 %[+ m\?2 z re/or$ by ,h4 ,mill]4#cde-;,a ,b$s ( r$ %ale & r$ s&/one1 sometimes associat$ ) pudd+-/one 7old] ?an ,no4 #c41 fig4 #fb4 p4 #dh471 & de/itute ( organic rema9s1 sep>ate1 9 ! region ( ,/ra?more1 ! above-describ$ fossilif]\s /rata f ! old] cry/all9e rocks ( ! ,grampians4 ,b1 9 ! nor? ( ,scotl&1 we f9d1 at ! base ( ! ,old ,r$1 o!r grey slaty s&/ones1 9 ! c\nties ( ,banff1 ,nairn1 ,moray1 ,crom>ty1 ,cai?ness1 & 9 ,orkney1 ri* 9 i*?yolites ( peculi> =ms1 belong+ to ! g5]a ,pt]i*?ys 7fig4 #djj471 ,cocco/eus1 ,diplopt]us1 ,dipt]us1 ,*eiracan?us1 & o!rs ( ,agassiz4 ,five species ( ,pt]i*?ys h be5 f\nd 9 ?is l[e/ division ( ! ,old ,r$4 ,! w+-l app5dages1 :5ce ! g5us is nam$1 7 fir/ suppos$ by ,mr4 ,mill] to be paddles1 l ^? ( ! turtle2 b ,agassiz reg>ds !m z weapons ( def5ce1 l ! occipital sp9es ( ! ,riv] ,bull-head 7,cottus gobio1 ,l9n472 & consid]s ! tail to h be5 ! only organ ( motion4 ,! g5]a ,dipt]us & ,diplopt]us are s nam$1 because _! two dorsal f9s are s plac$ z to front ! anal & v5tral f9s1 s z to appe> l two pairs ( w+s4 ,!y h bony enamell$ scales4 ,s\? ,devon & ,cornwall4--,a great /ep 0 made 9 ! classification ( ! slaty & calcif]\s /rata ( ,s\? ,devon & ,cornwall 9 #ahcg1 :5 a l>ge portion ( ! b$s1 previ\sly ref]r$ to ! transition or mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s s]ies1 7 f\nd to belong 9 reality to ! p]iod ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,= ?is re=m we are indebt$ to ! lab\rs ( ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 assi/$ by a sugge/ion ( ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 :o1 9 #ahcg1 aft] exam9+ ! ,s\? ,devon%ire fossils1 p]ceiv$ t "s ( !m agre$ ) ^? ( ! ,c>bonif]\s gr\p1 o!rs ) ^? ( ! ,silurian1 :ile _m c\ld n be assign$ to ei!r sy/em1 ! :ole tak5 toge!r exhibit+ a peculi> & int]m$iate "*4 ,b ^! paleontological obs]vations alone w\ld n h enabl$ u to assign1 ) accuracy1 ! true place 9 ! geological s]ies ( ^! slate-rocks & lime/ones ( ,s\? ,devon1 _h n ,messrs4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison1 9 #ahcf & #ahcg1 discov]$ t ! culmif]\s or an?racitic %ales ( ,nor? ,devon belong$ to ! ,coal1 & n1 z prec$+ obs]v]s _h imag9$1 to ! transition p]iod4 ,z ! /rata ( ,s\? ,devon "h allud$ to are f> ri*] 9 organic rema9s ?an ! r$ s&/ones ( contemporane\s date 9 ,h]e=d%ire & ,scotl&1 ! new "n ( ! ,devonian sy/em 0 propos$ z a sub/itute = t ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,! rocks ( ?is gr\p 9 ,s\? ,devon consi/1 9 great "p1 ( gre5 *loritic slates1 alt]nat+ ) h>d qu>tzose slates & s&/ones4 ,"h & !re calc>e\s slates are int]/ratifi$ ) blue cry/all9e lime/one1 & 9 "s divisions conglom]ates1 pass+ into r$ s&/one4 ,! l9k suppli$ by ! :ole assemblage ( imb$d$ fossils1 connect+ z x does ! paleontology ( ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s gr\ps1 is "o ( ! highe/ int]e/1 & equally /rik+1 :e!r we reg>d ! g5]a ( corals or ( %ells4 ,! species are almo/ all di/9ct4 ,among ! m abundant corals1 we f9d ! g5]a ,favosites & ,cya?ophyllum1 common on ! "o h& to ! ,m\nta9 lime/one1 & on ! o!r to ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,"s few ev5 ( ! species are common to ! ,devonian & ,silurian gr\ps1 z1 = example1 ,favosites polymorpha 7fig4 #dja471 v abundant 9 ,s\? ,devon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dja4 ,favosites polymorpha1 ,goldf41 ,s4 ,devon4 ,f a poli%$ specim54 a4 portion ( ! same1 magnifi$ to %[ ! pores4 ,! ,cya?ophyllum caespitosum 7fig4 #djb47 & ,porites pyri=mis 7fig4 #dbd4 p4 #cef47 are m peculi>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,devonian rocks4 ,9 reg>d to ! %ells1 all ! bra*iopod\s g5]a1 su* z ,t]ebratula1 ,or?is1 ,spirif]1 ,atrypa1 & ,productus1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,m\nta9 lime/one1 occur1 toge!r ) ^? ( ! ,silurian sy/em1 except ! ,p5tam]us4 ,"s =ms1 h[ev]1 seem exclusively ,devonian1 z = example1 ,calceola s&al9a 7fig4 #djc47 & ,/rygocephalus ,burt9i 7fig4 #djd471 :i* h be5 met ) bo? 9 ! ,eifel1 9 ,g]many1 & 9 ,devon%ire1 9 ! v l[e/ ,devonian b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djb4 ,cya?ophyllum4 a4 ,cya?ophyllum caespitosum1 ,goldf41 ,plym\?4 b4 a t]m9al />4 c4 v]tical section exhibit+ transv]se plates1 & "p ( ano!r bran*4 ,among ! peculi> lamellibran*iate bivalves1 also common to ,devon%ire & ! ,eifel1 we f9d ,megalodon cucullatus 7fig4 #dje474 ,sev]al spiral univalves are abundant1 among :i* are _m species ( ,pleurotom>ia & ,euomphalus4 ,among ! ,cephalopoda we f9d ,bell]ophon & ,or?oc]as1 z 9 ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s gr\ps1 & ,goniatite & ,cyrtoc]as1 z 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,9 "s ( ! upp] ,devonian b$s1 a %ell1 resembl+ a flatt5$ ,goniatite1 occurs1 call$ ,clym5ia1 by ,mun/] 7,endosiphonites1 ,an/$4#cdg-;,a74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djc4 ,calceola s&al9a1 ,lam4 ,eifel2 also ,s\? ,devon4 a4 bo? valves unit$4 b4 inn] side ( op]cul> valve4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djd4 ,/rygocephalus ,burt9i4 7,t]ebratula porrecta1 ,s[47 ,eifel2 also ,s\? ,devon4 a4 valves unit$4 b4 side view ( same4 c4 int]ior ( l>g] valve1 %[+ ?ick p>tition1 & ?9n] "o cont9u$ f x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dje4 ,megalodon cucullatus1 ,s[4 ,eifel2 also ,bradley1 ,s4 ,devon4 a4 ! valves unit$4 b4 int]ior ( valve1 %[+ ! l>ge c>d9al too?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djf4 ,clym5ia l9e>is1 ,mun/]4 7,endosiphonites c>9atus1 ,an/$47 ,cornwall4 ,a peculi> species ( trilobite1 call$ ,brontes flabellif] 7fig4 #djg471 is f\nd 9 ! ,devonian /rata ( ! ,eifel & 9 ,s\? ,devon4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! head 9 ! specim5 "h figur$ by ,goldfuss1 ! mo/ p]fect :i* c\ld be obta9$1 is incomplete1 & a re/oration has be5 attempt$ by ,mr4 ,salt] 9 fig4 #djh41 f data suppli$ by o!r species ( ! same g5us occurr+ 9 old] rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djg4 ,brontes flabellif]1 ,goldf4 ,eifel2 also ,s4 ,devon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #djh4 ,re/or$ outl9e ( head ( ,brontes flabellif]4 ,= det]m9+ ! true equival5ts ( ! ,devonian gr\p 9 ! ,rh5i% prov9ces & adjac5t p>ts ( ,g]many1 we are indebt$ to ! lab\rs ( ,messrs4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison1 9 #ahci1 f :i* x appe>s t rocks ( t age em]ge f b5ea? ! coal-field ( ,we/phalia1 & are also f\nd 9 tr\ghs among ! ,silurian rocks 9 ,nassau4 ,_m ( ! lime/ones1 p>ticul>ly ^? on ! riv] ,lahn1 are id5tical1 bo? 9 /ructure & 9 corall9e rema9s1 ) ! beautiful m>bles ( ,babbacombe1 ,torquay1 & ,plym\?4 ,! lime/ones ( ! ,eifel1 long ago celebrat$ = _! fossils1 & :i* lie 9 a bas9 support$ by ,silurian rocks1 are f\nd to be ref]able to ! l[] "p ( ! ,devonian sy/em4 ,9 ,russia1 also1 ,messrs4 ,mur*ison & ,de ,v]neuil h %[n 7#ahdj7 t ! ,old ,r$ gr\p occupies a wide area s\? f ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 on acc\nt ( its salif]\s & gypse\s b$s2 b x is n[ prov$ to be ! ,old ,r$ by conta9+ i*?yolites ( g5]a :i* *>act]ize ?is gr\p 9 ! ,briti% ,isles1 z1 = example1 ,holopty*ius1 ,cocco/eus1 ,diplopt]us1 c4#cdi-;,a1 associat$ ) mollusca f\nd 9 ! ,devonian ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,among ! fi% are also _m species ( %>ks ( ! ,ce/raciont division1 a fact wor?y ( notice1 because ! squaloid fi%es ( ! pres5t day (f] ! highe/ organization ( ! bra9 & ( ! g5]ative organs1 & make1 9 ^! respects1 ! ne>e/ approa* to ! high] v]tebrate classes4 ,devonian ,/rata 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! position ( ?is =mation betwe5 ! c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,p5nsylvania & ,ohio1 is po9t$ out 9 ! section1 fig4 #cgi4 p4 #cbg41 & x is a rem>k ( ,m4 de ,v]neuil t 9 no ,european c\ntry is !re s complete & un9t]rupt$ a developm5t ( ! ,devonian sy/em z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,at ! falls ( ! ,ohio1 at ,l\isville1 9 ,k5tucky1 !re is a gr& display ( "o ( ! lime/ones ( ?is p]iod1 resembl+ a mod]n coral reef4 ,a wide ext5t ( surface is expos$ 9 a s]ies ( horizontal l$ges1 at all seasons1 :5 ! wat] is n high2 & ! s(t] p>ts ( ! /one hav+ decompos$ & wa/$ away1 ! h>d] calc>e\s corals /& out 9 relief1 & _m ( !m s5d out bran*es f _! erect /ems precisely z if !y 7 liv+4 ,among o!r species ,i obs]v$ l>ge masses1 n less ?an #e feet 9 diamet]1 ( ,favosites go?l&ica1 ) its beautiful honeycomb /ructure well display$1 &1 by ! side ( x1 ! ,favi/ella1 comb9+ a simil> honeycomb$ =m ) ! /> ( ! ,a/rea4 ,!re 0 also ! cup-%ap$ ,cya?ophyllum1 & ! delicate network ( ! ,f5e/ella1 & t elegant & well-kn[n ,european species ( fossil1 call$ ! *a9 coral1 ,cat5ipora es*>oides1 ) a pr(usion ( o!rs 7see fig4 #dbc4 p4 #cee474 ,^! corall9e =ms 7 m+l$ ) ! jo9ts1 /ems1 & occasionally ! heads1 ( lily encr9ites4 ,al?\gh hundr$s ( f9e specim5s h be5 deta*$ f ^! rocks1 to enri* ! museums ( ,europe & ,am]ica1 ano!r crop is con/antly work+ its way out1 "u ! action ( ! /ream1 & ( ! sun & ra91 9 ! w>m season :5 ! *annel is laid dry4 ,! wat]s ( ! ,ohio1 :5 ,i visit$ ! spot 9 ,april1 #ahdf1 7 m ?an #dj feet bel[ _! highe/ level1 & #bj feet above _! l[e/1 s t l>ge spaces ( b>e rock 7 expos$ to view4#cdi-;,b ,devonian ,flora4 ,) ! exception ( ! fucoids above m5tion$ 7p4 #cdd471 b little is kn[n ) c]ta9ty ( ! plants ( ! ,devonian gr\p4 ,^? f\nd 9 ! dep>tm5t ( ,la ,s>! 9 ,france1 & 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,brittany1 =m]ly ref]r$ to ! ,devonian era1 h be5 %[n 79 #ahej71 by ,m4 de ,v]neuil1 to belong to ! c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,! same may be said ( ! species ( ,lepidod5dron1 ,knorria1 ,calamite1 ,sag5>ia1 & o!r g5]a rec5tly figur$ 7#ahej71 by ,mr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,roem]1 f ! =mation call$ ,greywacke a ,posodonomyes 9 ! ,h>tz4#cej-;,a ,!y are accompani$ by ,goniatites reticulatus ,phillips1 ,g4 int]co/atus ,phil41 & o!r m\nta9 lime/one species1 & _h be5 previ\sly assign$ to ! olde/ "p ( ! c>bonif]\s s]ies by ,messrs4 ,mur*ison & ,s$gwick4 ,if h]eaft] we %\ld become well acqua9t$ ) ! l& plants ( ! ,devonian era1 we may confid5tly expect t ne>ly all ( !m w agree g5]ically ) ^? ( ! c>bonif]\s p]iod1 b ! species w be z diff]5t z are ! ,devonian v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals f ! fossil species ( ! ,coal4 ,,footnotes3 #cdb-;,c ,see section1 fig4 #cah4 p4 #bhg4 #cdc-;,a ,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 by ,hugh ,mill]1 #ahda4 #cde-;,a ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,plate #a4 fig4 #a4 ,mr4 ,m4's description ( ! fi% is mo/ graphic & correct4 #cdg-;,a ,camb4 ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 vi4 pl4 #h4 fig4 #b4 #cdi-;,a ,see ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 & ! anniv]s>y spee* ( ,dr4 ,buckl&1 ,p4 ,g4 ,s41 = #ahda4 #cdi-;,b ,lyell's ,second ,visit to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bgg4 #cej-;,a ,memoir on ! ,h>tz1 ,palaeontographica ( ,dunk] & ,von ,mey]1 "p iii4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,silurian ,,gr\p4 ,silurian /rata =m]ly call$ transition--,t]m grauwacke--,subdivisions ( ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian--,ludl[ =mation & fossils--,w5lock =mation1 corals & %ells--,c>adoc & ,ll&eilo b$s--,graptolites--,l+ula--,trilobites-- ,cy/ideae--,va/ ?ickness ( ,silurian /rata 9 ,nor? ,wales--,uncon=mability ( ,c>adoc s&/one--,silurian /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,am\nt ( specific agreem5t ( fossils ) ^? ( ,europe--,great numb] ( bra*iopods--,deep-sea orig9 ( ,silurian /rata--,abs5ce ( fluviatile =mations--,m9]al "* ( ! mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s rocks4 ,we come next 9 ! desc5d+ ord] to ! mo/ anci5t ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s rocks1 t s]ies :i* comprises ! great] "p ( ! /rata =m]ly call$ transition by ,w]n]1 = reasons expla9$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,viii41 pp4 #ia & #ib4 ,geologi/s h also appli$ to ^! old] /rata ! g5]al "n ( grauwacke1 by :i* ! ,g]man m9]s designate a p>ticul> v>iety ( s&/one1 usually an aggregate ( small fragm5ts ( qu>tz1 fl9ty slate 7or ,lydian /one71 & clay-slate cem5t$ toge!r by argillace\s matt]4 ,f> too mu* importance has be5 atta*$ to ?is k9d ( rock1 z if x belong$ to a c]ta9 epo* 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory1 :]eas a simil> s&/one or grit is f\nd sometimes 9 ! ,old ,r$1 & 9 ! ,mill/one ,grit ( ! ,coal1 & sometimes 9 c]ta9 ,cretace\s & ev5 ,eoc5e =mations 9 ! ,alps4 ,! "n ( ,silurian 0 fir/ propos$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 = a s]ies ( fossilif]\s /rata ly+ bel[ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & occupy+ t "p ( ,wales & "s contigu\s c\nties ( ,engl&1 :i* once con/itut$ ! k+dom ( ! ,silures1 a tribe ( anci5t ,britons4 ,! /rata h be5 divid$ into ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian1 & ^! aga9 9 ! region allud$ to admit ( sev]al well-m>k$ subdivisions1 all ( !m expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ table4 ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,prevail+ ,?ickness ,organic ,li?ological 9 ,feet4 ,rema9s4 *>act]s4 ,f9ely lam9at$ ,tile/ones4 r$di% & #hjj8 gre5 s&/ones & %ales4 #a4 ,ludl[ ,m>9e mollusca ( =mation ,upp] ,micace\s grey almo/ e ord]1 ,ludl[4 s&/one4 ! ,bra*iopoda mo/ abundant4 ,s]pula1 ,ayme/ry ,argillace\s ,corals1 ,sauroid fi%1 lime/one4 lime/one4 #bjjj ,fuci4 ,l[] ,%ale1 ) ,ludl[4 concretions ( lime/one4 ,w5lock ,concretion>y ,m>9e mollusca ( lime/one4 lime/one4 v>i\s ord]s z #b4 ,w5lock #ahjj be=e1 ,cru/aceans =mation4 ( ! ,trilobite family4 ,w5lock ,argillace\s ,olde/ bones ( %ale4 %ale4 fi% yet kn[n4 ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,flags ( %elly lime/one & ,cr9oidea1 ,corals1 #c4 ,c>adoc ,c>adoc s&/one1 ?ick #bejj ,mollusca1 *iefly =mation4 s&/ones4 b$d$ :ite ,bra*iopoda1 free/one4 ,trilobites4 #d4 ,ll&eilo ,ll&eilo ,d>k col\r$ #abjj ,mollusca1 =mation4 flags4 calc>e\s flags4 ,trilobites4 ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,ludl[ =mation4--,?is memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian gr\p1 z w be se5 by ! above table1 is ( great ?ickness1 & subdivid$ into f\r p>ts1--! ,tile/one1 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,ludl[1 & ! int]v5+ ,ayme/ry lime/one4 ,ea* ( ^! may be di/+ui%$ ne> ! t[n ( ,ludl[1 & at o!r places 9 ,%rop%ire & ,h]e=d%ire1 by peculi> organic rema9s4 #a4 ,tile/ones4--,?is upp]mo/ division 0 orig9ally class$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison ) ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 because !y decompose into a r$ soil ?r\gh\t ! ,silurian region4 ,at ! same "t he reg>d$ ! tile/ones z a transition gr\p =m+ a passage f ,silurian to ,old ,r$4 ,x is n[ asc]ta9$ t ! fossils agree 9 great "p specifically1 & 9 g5]al "* entirely1 ) ^? ( ! succe$+ =mation4 #b4 ,upp] ,ludl[4--,! next division1 call$ ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 consi/s ( grey calc>e\s s&/one1 decompos+ into s(t mud1 & conta9s1 among o!r %ells1 ! ,l+ula cornea1 :i* is common to x & ! l[e/1 or tile/one b$s ( ! ,old ,r$4 ,b ! ,or?is orbicul>is is peculi> to ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 & v common2 & ! l[e/ or mud/one b$s1 are load$ = a ?ickness ( #cj feet ) ,t]ebratula navicula 7fig4 #daj471 9 va/ numb]s4 ,among ! cephalopod\s mollusca occur ! g5]a ,bell]ophon & ,or?oc]as1 & among ! cru/acea ! ,homalonotus 7fig4 #dah4 p4 #ced474 ,a coral call$ ,favosites polymorpha1 ,goldf4 7fig4 #dja4 p4 #cdf47 is f\nd bo? 9 ?is subdivision & 9 ! ,devonian sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dji4 ,or?is orbicul>is1 ,j4 ,s[4 ,delbury4 ,upp] ,ludl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daj4 ,t]ebratula navicula1 ,j4 ,s[4 ,ayme/ry lime/one2 also 9 ,upp] & ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,among ! fossil %ells are species ( ,lepta5a1 ,or?is1 ,t]ebratula1 ,avicula1 ,tro*us1 ,or?oc]as1 ,bell]ophon1 & o!rs4#ceb-;,a ,"s ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[ s&/ones are ripple-m>k$1 ?us af=d+ evid5ce ( gradual deposition2 & ! same may be said ( ! accompany+ f9e argillace\s %ales :i* are ( great ?ickness1 & h be5 prov9cially nam$ mud/ones4 ,9 ^! %ales _m zoophytes are f\nd envelop$ 9 an erect position1 hav+ evid5tly become fossil on ! spots :]e !y grew at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! facility ) :i* ^! rocks1 :5 expos$ to ! wea!r1 are resolv$ into mud1 proves t1 not)/&+ _! antiquity1 !y are ne>ly 9 ! /ate 9 :i* !y 7 fir/ ?r[n d[n4 ,! scales1 sp9es 7i*?yodorulites71 jaws1 & tee? ( fi% ( ! g5]a ,on*us1 ,plectrodus1 & o!rs ( ! same family1 h be5 met ) 9 ! ,upp] ,ludl[ rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daa4 ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 ,s[4 ,ayme/ry4 a4 view ( bo? valves unit$4 b4 longitud9al section ?r\gh bo? valves1 %[+ ! c5tral plate or septum2 half nat4 size4 #c4 ,ayme/ry lime/one4--,! next gr\p is a subcry/all9e & argillace\s lime/one1 :i* is 9 "s places #ej feet ?ick1 & di/+ui%$ ar\nd ,ayme/ry by ! abundance ( ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 ,s[4 7fig4 #daa471 also f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,?is g5us ( bra*iopoda has only be5 f\nd 9 ! ,silurian /rata4 ,! "n 0 d]iv$ f p5te1 p5te1 five1 & m]os1 m]os1 a "p1 because bo? valves are divid$ by a c5tral septum1 mak+ f\r *amb]s1 & 9 "o valve ! septum itself conta9s a small *amb]1 mak+ five2 b nei!r ! /ructure ( ?is %ell1 nor ! connection ( ! animal ) its sev]al p>ts1 are z yet und]/ood4 ,messrs4 ,mur*ison & ,de ,v]neuil discov]$ ?is species disp]s$ 9 myriads ?r\gh a :ite lime/one ( upp] ,silurian age1 on ! banks ( ! ,is1 on ! ea/]n flank ( ! ,urals 9 ,russia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dab4 ,l+ula ,lewisii1 ,j4 ,s[4 ,abb]ley ,hills4 ,?ree o!r abundant %ells 9 ! ,ayme/ry lime/one are1 #a/1 ,l+ula ,lewisii 7fig4 #dab472 #b;d1 ,t]ebratula ,wilsoni1 ,s[4 7fig4 #dac471 :i* is also common to ! ,l[] ,ludl[ & ,w5lock lime/one2 #c;d1 ,atrypa reticul>is1 ,l94 7fig4 #dad471 :i* has a v wide range1 be+ f\nd 9 e "p ( ! ,silurian sy/em1 except ! ,ll&eilo flags4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dac4 ,t]ebratula ,wilsoni1 ,s[4 ,ayme/ry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dad4 ,atrypa reticul>is4 ,l9n4 ,syn4 ,t]ebratula aff9is1 ,m94 ,con4 ,ayme/ry4 a4 upp] valve4 b4 l[]4 c4 ant]ior m>g9 ( ! valves4 #d4 ,l[] ,ludl[ %ale4--,a d>k grey argillace\s deposit1 conta9+1 among o!r fossils1 ! new g5]a ( *amb]$ %ells1 ! ,phragmoc]as ( ,brod]ip1 & ! ,lituites ( ,breyn 7see figs4 #dae1 #daf474 ,! latt] is p>tly /raight & p>tly convolut$1 ne>ly z 9 ,spirula4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dae4 ,phragmoc]as v5tricosum1 ,j4 ,s[4 7,or?oc]as v5tricosum1 ,/e947 ,ayme/ry2 #a_/d nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #daf4 ,lituites giganteus1 ,j4 ,s[4 ,ne> ,ludl[2 also 9 ! ,ayme/ry & ,w5lock lime/ones2 #a_/d nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dag4 ,fragm5ts ( ,or?oc]as4 a4 ,fragm5t ( ,or?oc]as ,lud5se1 ,j4 ,s[4 b4 ,poli%$ section1 %[+ siphuncle4 ,ludl[4 ,! ,or?oc]as ,lud5se 7fig4 #dag471 z well z ! %ell la/ m5tion$1 is peculi> to ?is memb] ( ! s]ies4 ,! ,homalonotus delph9ocephalus 7fig4 #dah47 is common to ?is division & to ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,?is cru/acean belongs to a gr\p ( trilobites :i* has be5 met ) 9 ! ,silurian rocks only1 & 9 :i* ! trip>tite "* ( ! dorsal cru/ is almo/ lo/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dah4 ,homalonotus delph9ocephalus1 ,ko5ig4#ced-;,a ,dudley ,ca/le2 #a_/b nat4 size4 ,a species ( ,graptolite1 ,g4 ,lud5sis1 ,mur*4 7fig4 #dai471 a =m ( zoophyte :i* has n yet be5 met ) 9 /rata new] ?an ! ,silurian1 occurs 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,w5lock =mation4--,we next come to ! ,w5lock =mation1 :i* has be5 divid$ 7see ,table1 p4 #cea47 into #a4 ,w5lock lime/one1 =m]ly well kn[n to collectors by ! "n ( ! ,dudley lime/one1 :i* =ms a cont9u\s ridge1 rang+ = ab\t #bj miles f ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 ab\t a mile di/ant f ! ne>ly p>allel esc>pm5t ( ! ,ayme/ry lime/one4 ,! prom95ce ( ?is rock 9 ,%rop%ire1 l t ( ,ayme/ry1 is due to its solidity1 & to ! s(tness ( ! %ales above & bel[4 ,x is divid$ into l>ge concretional masses ( pure lime/one1 & ab\nds 9 trilobites1 among :i* ! prevail+ species are ,phacops caudatus 7fig4 #dbb47 & ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 commonly call$ ! ,dudley trilobite4 ,! latt] is (t5 f\nd coil$ up l a wood-l\se 7see fig4 #dbj474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dai4 ,graptoli?us ,lud5sis1 ,mur*ison4 ,l[] ,ludl[4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbj4 ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 ,brong4 ,w5lock1 ,l4 ,ludl[1 & ,aym4 lime/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dba4 ,lepta5a depressa4 ,w5lock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbb4 ,phacops caudatus1 ,brong4 ,w5lock1 ,aym4 lime/41 & ,l4 ,ludl[4 ,lepta5a depressa1 ,s[41 is common 9 ?is rock1 b also ranges ?r\gh ! ,l[] ,ludl[1 ,w5lock %ale1 & ,c>adoc ,s&/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbc4 ,cat5ipora es*>oides4 ,among ! corals 9 :i* ?is =mation is v ri*1 ! ,cat5ipora es*>oides1 ,lam4 7fig4 #dbc471 or *a9 coral1 may be po9t$ out z "o v easily recogniz$1 & widely spread 9 ,europe1 rang+ ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! ,silurian gr\p1 f ! ,ayme/ry lime/one to ! bottom ( ! s]ies4 ,ano!r coral1 ! ,porites pyri=mis1 is also met ) 9 pr(usion2 a species common to ! ,devonian rocks4 ,cy/iphyllum ,siluri5se 7fig4 #dbe47 is a species peculi> to ! ,w5lock lime/one4 ,?is new g5us1 ! "n ( :i* is d]iv$ f ky/is1 a bladd]1 & phyllon1 a leaf1 0 in/itut$ by ,mr4 ,lonsdale = corals ( ! ,silurian & ,devonian gr\ps4 ,x is compos$ ( small bladd]-l cells 7see fig4 #dbe4 b474 #b4 ,! ,w5lock ,%ale1 :i* exce$s #gjj feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9s _m species ( bra*iopoda1 su* z a small v>iety ( ! ,l+ula ,lewisii 7fig4 #dab471 & ! ,atrypa reticul>is 7fig4 #dad47 be=e m5tion$1 & x w be se5 t sev]al o!r fossils be=e enum]at$ range into ?is %ale4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbd4 ,porites pyri=mis1 ,ehr54 ,w5lock lime/4 & %ale4 ,also 9 ,ayme/ry lime/one1 & ,l4 ,ludl[4 a4 ,v]tical section1 %[+ transv]se lamellae4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbe4 ,cy/iphyllum4 a4 ,cy/iphyllum ,siluri5se1 ,lonsd4 ,w5lock4 b4 ,section ( portion1 %[+ cells4 ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian rocks h be5 subdivid$ into two portions4 #a4 ,! ,c>adoc s&/one1 :i* abuts aga9/ ! trappean *a9 call$ ! ,c>adoc ,hills1 9 ,%rop%ire4 ,its ?ickness is e/imat$ at #bejj feet1 & ! l>g] proportion ( its fossils are specifically di/9ct f ^? ( ! ,upp] ,silurian rocks4 ,among !m we f9d _m trilobites & %ells ( ! g5]a ,or?oc]as1 ,nautilus1 & ,bell]ophon2 & among ! ,bra*iopoda ! ,p5tam]us oblongus & ,p4 laevis 7fig4 #dbf471 :i* are v abundant & peculi> to ?is b$2 also ,or?is gr&is 7fig4 #dbg471 & a fossil ( well-def9$ =m1 ,t5taculites annulatus1 ,s*lot4 7fig4 #dbh471 :i* ,mr4 ,salt] has %[n to be ref]able to ! ,annelids & to ! same tribe z ,s]pula4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbf4 ,p5tam]us laevis1 ,s[4 ,c>adoc ,s&/one4 ,p]haps ! "y ( ,p5tam]us oblongus4 a1 b4 ,views ( ! %ell itself1 f figures 9 ,mur*ison's ,sil4 ,sy/4 c4 ,ca/ ) portion ( %ell rema9+1 & ) ! holl[ ( ! c5tral septum fill$ ) sp>4 d4 ,int]nal ca/ ( a valve1 ! space once occupi$ by ! septum be+ repres5t$ by a holl[ 9 :i* is se5 a ca/ ( ! *amb] )9 ! septum4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbg4 ,ca/ ( ,or?is gr&is1 ,j4 ,s[4 ,hord]ley2 two-?irds ( nat4 size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbh4 ,t5taculites scal>is1 ,s*lot4 ,ea/nor ,p>k2 nat4 size1 & magnifi$4 ,! mo/ anci5t bony rema9s ( fi% yet discov]$ 9 ,great ,brita9 are ^? obta9$ f ! ,w5lock lime/ones2 b coprolites ref]r$ to fi% occur /ill l[] 9 ! ,silurian s]ies 9 ,wales4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dbi4 ,ogygia ,bu*ii1 ,burmei/]4 ,syn4 ,asaphus ,bu*ii1 ,brong4 #a_/d nat4 size4 ,radnor%ire4 #b4 ,! ,ll&eilo flags1 s nam$ f a t[n 9 ,ca]m>!n%ire1 =m ! base ( ! ,silurian sy/em1 consi/+ ( d>k-col\r$ micace\s grit1 frequ5tly calc>e\s1 & di/+ui%$ by conta9+ ! l>ge trilobites ,asaphus ,bu*ii & ,a4 tyrannus1 ,mur*41 bo? ( :i* are peculi> to ^! rocks4 ,sev]al species ( ,graptolites 7fig4 #dcj47 occur 9 ^! b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcj4 a1 b4 ,graptoli?us ,mur*isonii1 ,beck4 ,ll&eilo flags4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dca4 ,g4 foliaceus1 ,mur*ison4 ,ll&eilo flags4 ,9 ! f9e %ales ( ?is =mation ,graptolites are v abundant4 ,i collect$ ^! same bodies 9 great numb]s 9 ,sw$5 & ,norway 9 #ahce-f1 bo? 9 ! high] & l[] %ales ( ! ,silurian sy/em2 & 0 in=m$ by ,dr4 ,beck ( ,cop5hag51 t !y 7 fossil zoophytes relat$ to ! g5]a ,p5natula & ,virgul>ia1 ( :i* ! liv+ species n[ inhabit mud & slimy s$im5t4 ,! mo/ em95t naturali/s /ill hold to ?is op9ion4 ,a species ( ,l+ula is met ) 9 ! l[e/ "p ( ! ,ll&eilo b$s2 & x is rem>kable t ?is bra*iopod is among ! e>lie/1 if n ! mo/ anci5t animal =m detect$ 9 ! l[e/ ,silurian ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,^! inhabitants ( ! seas1 ( s remote an epo*1 belong$ s /rictly to ! liv+ g5us ,l+ula1 z to demon/rate1 l ! pt]i=m f]ns ( ! coal1 ?r\gh :at incalculable p]iods ( "t ! same plan & type ( organization has sometimes prevail$4 ,among ! =ms ( trilobite extremely *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,silurian ?r\gh\t ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,tr9ucleus may be m5tion$4 ,?is family ( cru/aceans appe>s to h sw>m$ 9 ! ,silurian seas1 j z crabs1 %rimps1 & o!r g5]a ( cru/aceans ab\nd 9 our own4 ,burmei/]1 9 8 "w on ! organization ( trilobites1 supposes !m to h swum at ! surface ( ! wat] 9 ! op5 sea & ne> coa/s1 fe$+ on small] m>9e animals1 & to h _h ! p[] ( roll+ !mselves into a ball z a def5ce aga9/ injury4 ,!y und]w5t v>i\s trans=mations analog\s to ^? ( liv+ cru/aceans4 ,m4 ,b>r&e1 au?or ( a "w on ! ,silurian rocks ( ,bohemia1 has trac$ ! same species f ! "y /ate j aft] its escape f ! egg to ! adult =m1 ?r\gh v>i\s metamorphoses1 ea* hav+ ! appe>ance ( a di/9ct species4 ,yet1 not)/&+ ! num]\s species ( prec$+ naturali/s :i* he has ?us succe$$ 9 unit+ into "o1 he ann\nces a =?com+ "w 9 :i* descriptions & figures ( #bej species ( ,trilobite w be giv54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcb4 ,tr9ucleus ornatus1 ,burm4 ,cy/ideae4--,among ! additions :i* rec5t rese>* has made to ! paleontology ( ! olde/ ,silurian rocks1 none are m rem>kable ?an ! radiat$ animals call$ ,cy/ideae4 ,_! /ructure & relations 7 fir/ elucidat$ 9 an essay publi%$ by ,von ,bu* at ,b]l9 9 #ahde4 ,!y are usually met ) z sph]oidal bodies cov]$ ) polygonal plates1 ) a m\? on ! upp] side1 & a po9t ( atta*m5t = a /em b 7:i* is almo/ always brok5 (f7 on ! l[]4 7,see fig4 #dcc47 ,!y are consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes z int]m$iate betwe5 ! cr9oids & e*9od]ms4 ,! ,spha]onites "h repres5t$ 7fig4 #dcc47 occurs 9 ! ,ll&eilo b$s 9 ,wales4#ceh-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcc4 ,spha]onites balticus1 ,ei*wald4 7,( ! family ,cy/ideae47 a4 m\?4 b4 po9t ( atta*m5t ( /em4 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,%ole's ,hook & ,bala4 ,?ickness & uncon=mability ( ,silurian /rata4--,accord+ to ! obs]vation ( our gov]nm5t surveyors 9 ,nor? ,wales1 ! ,l[] ,silurian /rata ( t region atta91 9 conjunction ) ! contemporane\s volcanic rocks1 ! extraord9>y ?ickness ( #bg1jjj feet4 ,"o ( ! gr\ps1 call$ ! trappean1 consi/+ ( slates & associat$ volcanic a% & gre5/one1 is #ae1jjj feet ?ick4 ,ano!r s]ies1 call$ ! ,bala gr\p1 compos$ ( slates & grits ) an impure lime/one ri* 9 organic rema9s1 is #i1jjj feet ?ick4#cei-;,a ,?r\gh\t ,nor? ,wales ! ,w5lock %ales re/ uncon=mably ^u ! ,c>adoc s&/ones2 & ! ,c>adoc is 9 its turn uncon=mable to ! ,ll&eilo b$s1 %[+ a consid]able int]val ( "t betwe5 ! deposition ( ?is gr\p & t ( ! =mations next above & bel[ x4 ,! ,c>adoc s&/one 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,longmynd ,hills 9 ,%rop%ire1 appe>s to ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes to h be5 a deep-sea deposit =m$ ar\nd ! m>g9 ( high & /eep l&4 ,t l& consi/$ p>tly ( uprais$ ,ll&eilo flags & p>tly ( rocks ( /ill old] date4#cei-;,b ,su* evid5ce ( ! successive di/urbance ( /rata dur+ ! ,silurian p]iod 9 ,great ,brita9 is :at we might look = :5 we h discov]$ ! signs ( s gr& a s]ies ( volcanic eruptions z ! contemporane\s gre5/ones & tuffs ( ! ,wel% m\nta9s af=d4 ,silurian ,/rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! position ( "s ( ^! /rata1 :]e !y are b5t & highly incl9$ 9 ! ,appala*ian *a91 or :]e !y are ne>ly horizontal to ! we/ ( t *a91 is %[n 9 ! section1 fig4 #cgi4 p4 #cbg4 ,b ^! =mations c be /udi$ /ill m advantage\sly nor? ( ! same l9e ( section1 9 ! /ates ( ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 & o!r regions nor? & s\? ( ! great ,canadian lakes4 ,"h !y are f\nd1 z 9 ,russia1 9 horizontal position1 & are m ri* 9 well-pres]v$ fossils ?an 9 almo/ any spot 9 ,europe4 ,! ,am]ican /rata may readily be divid$ into ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian1 correspond+ 9 age & fossils to ! ,european divisions be>+ ! same names4 ,! subord9ate memb]s ( ! ,new ,york s]ies1 f\nd$ on li?ological & geographical consid]ations1 are mo/ useful 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b ev5 !re are only ( local importance4 ,"s few ( !m1 h[ev]1 tally v exactly ) ,engli% divisions1 z = example ! lime/one1 ov] :i* ! ,niag>a is precipitat$ at ! great cat>act1 :i*1 ) its und]ly+ %ales1 agrees paleontologically ) ! ,w5lock lime/one & %ale ( ,siluria4 ,!re is also a m>k$ g5]al correspond5ce 9 ! succession ( fossil =ms1 & ev5 species1 z we trace ! organic rema9s d[nw>ds f ! highe/ to ! l[e/ b$s4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,%>pe1 9 8 report on ! mollusca collect$ by me f ^! /rata 9 ,nor? ,am]ica#cei-;,c1 has conclud$ t ! numb] ( species common to ! ,silurian rocks1 on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic1 is betwe5 #cj & #dj p] c5t42 a result :i*1 al?\gh no d\bt liable to future modification1 :5 a l>g] comp>ison %all h be5 made1 proves1 nev]!less1 t _m ( ! species _h a wide geographical range4 ,x seems t comp>atively few ( ! ga/]opods & lamellibran*iate bivalves ( ,nor? ,am]ica c be id5tifi$ specifically ) ,european fossils1 :ile no less ?an two-fif?s ( ! bra*iopoda are ! same4 ,9 explanation ( ^! facts1 x is sugge/$1 t mo/ ( ! rec5t bra*iopoda 7especially ! or?idi=m ones7 are inhabitants ( deep wat]1 & may h _h a wid] geographical range ?an %ells liv+ ne> %ore4 ,! pr$om9ance ( bivalve mollusca ( ?is peculi> class has caus$ ! ,silurian p]iod to be sometimes /yl$ ! age ( bra*iopods4 ,:e!r ! ,silurian rocks are ( deep-wat] orig94--,! gr\nds reli$ ^u by ,pr(essor ,e4 ,=bes1 = inf]r+ t ! l>g] "p ( ! ,silurian ,fauna is indicative ( a sea m ?an #gj fa?oms deep1 are ! foll[+3 fir/1 ! small size ( ! great] numb] ( con*if]a2 secondly1 ! paucity ( pect9ibran*iata 7or spiral univalves72 ?irdly1 ! great numb] ( float]s1 su* z ,bell]ophon1 ,or?oc]as1 c42 f\r?ly1 ! abundance ( or?idi=m bra*iopoda2 fif?ly1 ! abs5ce or great r>ity ( fossil fi%4 ,x is d\btless true t "s liv+ ,t]ebratulae1 on ! coa/ ( ,au/ralia1 inhabit %all[ wat]2 b all ! kn[n species1 alli$ 9 =m to ! ext9ct ,or?is1 inhabit ! dep?s ( ! sea4 ,x %\ld also be rem>k$ t ,mr4 ,=bes1 9 advocat+ ^! views1 0 well aw>e ( ! exi/5ce ( %ores1 b\nd+ ! ,silurian sea 9 ,%rop%ire1 & ( ! occurr5ce ( littoral species ( ?is e>ly date 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,su* facts are n inconsi/5t ) 8 !ory2 = he has %[n1 9 ano!r "w1 h[1 on ! coa/ ( ,lycia1 deep-sea /rata are at pres5t =m+ 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 ! vic9ity ( high & /eep l&4 ,_h we discov]$ ! anci5t delta ( "s l>ge ,silurian riv]1 we %\ld d\btless h kn[n m ( ! %all[1 & bracki% wat]1 & fluviatile animals1 & ( ! t]re/rial flora ( ! p]iod "u consid]ation4 ,to assume t !re 7 no su* deltas 9 ! ,silurian _w1 w\ld be almo/ z gratuit\s an hypo!sis1 z = ! inhabitants ( ! coral isl&s ( ! ,pacific to indulge 9 a simil> g5]alization respect+ ! actual condition ( ! globe4#cfj-;,a ,m9]al ,"* ( ,silurian ,/rata4 ,9 li?ological "*1 ! ,silurian /rata v>y greatly :5 we trace !m ?r\gh ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! %ales call$ mud/ones are z little alt]$ f "s deposits1 f\nd 9 rec5t subm>9e banks1 z are ^? ( _m t]ti>y =mations4 ,we meet ) r$ s&/one & r$ m>l1 ) gypsum & salt1 ( ,upp] ,silurian date1 9 ! ,niag>a di/rict1 :i* might be mi/ak5 = trias4 ,! :iti% granul> s&/one at ! base ( ! ,silurian s]ies 9 ,sw$5 resembles ! t]ti>y silice\s grit ( ,fonta9ebleau4 ,! ,calc>e\s ,grit1 oolite1 & pisolite ( ,upp] ,silurian age 9 ,go?l&1 are describ$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison z s+ul>ly l rocks ( ! oolitic p]iod ne> ,*elt5ham2 &1 n to cite m examples1 ! ,w5lock or ,dudley lime/one (t5 resembles a mod]n coral-reef4 ,if1 !re=e1 uni=mity ( aspect has be5 ?\ght *>act]i/ic ( rocks ( ?is age1 ! idea mu/ h aris5 f ! simil>ity ( feature acquir$ by /rata subject to metamorphic action4 ,?is influ5ce1 see+ t ! causes ( *ange are always %ift+ ! !atre ( _! pr9cipal developm5t1 mu/ be multipli$ ?r\gh\t a wid] geographical area by "t1 & become m g5]al 9 any giv5 sy/em ( rocks 9 proportion to _! antiquity4 ,we are n[ acqua9t$ ) d5se gr\ps ( ,eoc5e slates 9 ! ,alps1 :i* 7 once mi/ak5 by exp]i5c$ geologi/s = ,transition or ,silurian =mations4 ,! error arose f atta*+ too great importance to m9]al "* z a te/ ( age1 = ! t]ti>y slates 9 "q hav+ acquir$ t cry/all9e texture :i* is 9 reality mo/ preval5t 9 ! mo/ anci5t s$im5t>y =mations4 ,,cambrian ,,gr\p4 ,bel[ ! ,silurian /rata 9 ,nor? ,wales1 & 9 ! region ( ! ,cumb]l& lakes1 !re are "s slaty rocks1 devoid ( organic rema9s1 or 9 :i* a few obscure traces only ( fossils h be5 detect$ 7= :i* ! names ( ,cambrian & ,cumbrian h be5 propos$74 ,:e!r ^! w ev] be entitl$ by ! specific di/9ctness ( _! fossils to rank z indep5d5t gr\ps1 we h n yet suffici5t data to det]m9e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,fossilif]\s ,,/rata1 ,%[+ ! ,ord] ( ,sup]position or ,*ronological ,succession ( ! pr9cipal ,european ,gr\ps4 ,i4 ,,po/-,,t]ti>y4 ,a4 ,,po/-,,plioc5e4 ,p]iods & ,gr\ps4 ,examples4 ,obs]vations4 #a4 ,rec5t4 ,peat mosses & %ell-m>l1 ,all ! imb$d$ %ells1 ) bones ( l& animals1 fre%wat] & m>9e1 human rema9s1 & works ( liv+ species1 ( art4 ) occasional human rema9s & ,new] p>ts ( mod]n deltas works ( art4 & coral reefs4 #b4 ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,clay1 m>l1 & volcanic tuff ,all ! %ells ( liv+ ( ,is*ia1 p4 #aac4 species4 ,no human rema9s or works ,loess ( ! ,rh9e1 p4 #aag4 ( art4 ,bones ( quadrup$s1 p>tly ,new] "p ( b\ld] ( ext9ct species4 =mation1 ) erratics1 p4 #abd4 ,,ii4 ,,t]ti>y4 ,b4 ,,plioc5e4 #c4 ,new] ,plioc5e ,b\ld] =mation or drift ( ,?ree-f\r?s ( ! or ,plei/oc5e4 nor!rn ,europe & ,nor? fossil %ells ( ,am]ica1 *aps4 #aa4 #ab4 exi/+ species4 ,cav]n deposits & osse\s ,a majority ( ! breccias1 p4 #aec4 mammalia ext9ct2 b ! g5]a ,fluvio-m>9e crag ( ,norwi*1 correspond+ ) p4 #adh4 ^? n[ surviv+ 9 ! same great ,lime/one ( ,girg5ti1 geographical & 9 ,sicily1 p4 #aeb4 zoological prov9ce1 p4 #aeg4 ,dur+ "p ( ?is p]iod iceb]gs frequ5t 9 ! seas ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & glaci]s on hills ( mod]ate height4 #d4 ,old] ,plioc5e4 ,r$ & ,corall9e crag ( ,a ?ird or m ( ! ,suffolk1 p4 #afb4 species ( mollusca ext9ct4 ,subap5n9e b$s1 p4 #aff4 ,ne>ly1 if n all1 ! mammalia ext9ct4 ,c4 ,,mioc5e4 #e4 ,mioc5e4 ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 p4 #afh4 ,ab\t two-?irds ( ! species ( %ells ,"p ( ,bordeaux b$s1 p4 #aga4 ext9ct4 ,"p ( ,molasse ( ,! rec5t species ( ,switz]l&1 p4 #aga4 %ells (t5 n f\nd 9 ! adjo9+ seas1 b 9 w>m] latitudes4 ,all ! mammalia ext9ct4 ,d4 ,,eoc5e4 #f4 ,upp] ,eoc5e4 ,upp] m>9e ( ,p>is bas91 ,fossil %ells ( ! ,fonta9ebleau s&/one1 ,eoc5e p]iod1 ) p4 #age4 v few exceptions1 ext9ct4 ,^? :i* ,upp] fre%wat] & mill/one are id5tifi$ ) ( same4 liv+ species r>ely ,kleyn ,spauw5 b$s1 p4 #agf4 belong to neighb\r+ regions4 ,h]msdorf tile-clay1 ne> ,b]l94 ,all ! mammalia ( ext9ct species1 & ,may5ce t]ti>y /rata1 ! great] "p ( p4 #agg4 !m ( ext9ct g5]a4 ,fre%wat] b$s ( ,limagne d',auv]gne1 p4 #aha4 ,plants ( ,upp] ,eoc5e1 indicat+ a s\? #g4 ,middle ,eoc5e4 ,p>is gypsum ) ,european or ,paleo!rium1 c41 p4 #aia4 ,m$it]ranean climate2 ^? ( ,l[] ,eoc5e1 ,fre%wat] & fluvio-m>9e a tropical climate4 b$s ( ,headon ,hill1 ,isle ( ,wight1 p4 #aig4 ,b>ton b$s1 ,hants1 p4 #aih4 ,calcaire ,grossi]1 ,p>is1 p4 #aic4 ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am b$s1 ,surrey & ,sussex1 p4 #aih4 #h4 ,l[] ,eoc5e4 ,london clay prop] ( ,highgate ,hill & ,%eppey1--,bognor b$s1 ,sussex1 p4 #bjj4 ,sables inf]ieurs1 & lits coquilli]s ( ,p>is bas91 p4 #aif4 ,mottl$ & pla/ic clays & s&s ( ! ,hamp%ire & ,london bas9s1 p4 #bjc4 ,sables inf]ieurs & argiles pla/iques ( ,p>is bas91 p4 #aif4 ,nummulitic =mation ( ! ,alps1 p4 #bje4 ,,iii4 ,,second>y4 ,e4 ,,cretace\s4 ,sec4 ,,upp] ,,cretace\s4 #i4 ,mae/ri*t ,yell[i% :ite lime/one ( ,ammonite1 ,baculite1 & b$s4 ,mae/ri*t1 p4 #bji4 ,belemnite1 associat$ ) ,cypraea1 ,oliva1 ,corall9e lime/one ( ,faxoe1 ,mitra1 ,tro*us1 c4 ,d5m>k1 p4 #baj4 ,l>ge m>9e saurians4 #aj4 ,upp] ,:ite ,:ite *alk ) fl9ts ( ,m>9e lime/one ,*alk4 ,nor? & ,s\? =m$ 9 "p ( ,d[ns1--,surrey & ,sussex1 decompos$ corals4 p4 #baa4 #aa4 ,l[] ,:ite ,*alk )\t fl9ts1 & ,*alk4 *alk m>l1 ibid4 #ab4 ,upp] ,loose s&1 ) bright gre5 ,gre5s&4 p>ticles1 ibid4 ,fire/one ( ,m]/ham1 ,k5t1 p4 #bah4 ,m>ly /one1 ) lay]s ( *]t1 s\? ( ,isle ( ,wight4 #ac4 ,gault4 ,d>k blue m>l at base ( ,num]\s ext9ct g5]a *alk esc>pm5t1--,k5t ( con*if]\s & ,sussex1 p4 #bah4 cephalopoda1 ,hamite1 ,scaphite1 ,ammonite1 c4 ,sec4,sec4 ,,l[] ,,cretace\s4 #ad4 ,l[] ,s& ) gre5 matt]1--,weald ,species ( %ells1 c41 ,gre5s&4 ( ,k5t & ,sussex1 ne>ly all di/9ct p4 #bai4 f ^? ( ,upp] ,cretace\s2 mo/ ( ,:ite1 yell[i%1 & ! g5]a ! same4 f]rug9\s s&1 ) concretions ( lime/one & *]t1--,a!rfield1 ,isle ( ,wight4 ,lime/one call$ ,k5ti% ,rag ,f4 ,,weald54 #ae4 ,weald ,clay4 ,clay ) occasional b&s ( ,( fre%wat] orig94 lime/one1--,weald ( ,k5t1 ,%ells ( ,surrey1 & ,sussex1 p4 #bbg4 pulmonif]\s mollusca1 & ( ,cypris4 ,l& reptiles4 #af4 ,ha/+s ,s&4 ,s& ) calcif]\s grit & ,fre%wat] ) clay1--,ha/+s1 ,sussex1 int]calat$ b$ ( ,cuckfield1 ,k5t1 p4 #bbi4 bracki% & salt wat] orig94 ,%ells ( fluviatile & lacu/r9e g5]a4 ,reptiles ( ! g5]a ,pt]odactyle1 ,iguanodon1 ,megalosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus1 ,trionyx1 & ,emys4 #ag4 ,purbeck ,b$s4 ,lime/ones1 calc>e\s slates ,*iefly fre%wat]1 & & m>ls1 p4 #bca4 divisible into ?ree gr\ps1 ea* conta9+ di/9ct species ( fre%wat] mollusca & ( entomo/raca4 ,alt]nations ( deposits =m$ 9 fre%1 bracki%1 & m>9e wat]1 & ( anci5t soils =m$ on l& & reta9+ roots ( trees4 ,plants *iefly cycads & conif]s1 p4 #bca4 ,g4 ,,oolite4 #ah4 ,upp] ,oolite4 a4 ,portl& build+ /one1 ,ammonites & ,belemnites p4 #bei4 num]\s4 b4 ,portl& s&4 ,l>ge saurians1 z ,pt]odactyles1 c4 ,kimm]idge clay1 ,plesiosaurs1 ,dorset%ire1 p4 #bfj4 ,i*?yosaurs4 #ai4 ,middle ,oolite4 a4 ,coral ,rag1 p4 #bfj4 ,no cetaceans yet kn[n1 ,calc>e\s free/ones1 b ?ree species ( oolitic1 (t5 full ( t]re/rial mammalia1 corals4 ,ox=d%ire4 p4 #bfg1 #bfh4 ,prepond]ance ( b4 ,ox=d clay--,d>k blue ganoid fi%4 ,! clay1--,ox=d%ire & plants *iefly cycads1 midl& c\nties1 p4 #bfb4 conif]s1 & f]ns1 ) a few palms4 #bj4 ,l[] ,oolite4 a4 ,cornbra% & =e/ m>ble1 ,wilt%ire1 p4 #bfc4 b4 ,great oolite & ,/onesfield slate1--,ba?1 ,brad=d1 ,/onesfield ne> ,wood/ock1 ,ox=d%ire1 p4 #bff4 c4 ,full]'s e>?1--,clay conta9+ full]'s e>? ne> ,ba?1 p4 #bgb4 d4 ,inf]ior oolite1 calc>e\s free/one1 & yell[ s&s1--,cotteswold ,hills1 ,dundry ,hill1 ne> ,bri/ol1 p4 #bgb4 ,h4 ,,lias4 #ba4 ,lias4 ,argillace\s lime/one1 m>l ,mollusca1 reptiles1 & clay1--,lyme ,regis1 & fi% ( g5]a ,dorset%ire1 p4 #bgc4 analog\s to ! oolitic4 ,i4 ,,trias4 #bb4 ,upp] ,trias4 ,keup] ( ,g]many1 or ,batra*ian reptiles1 v>iegat$ m>ls--,r$1 grey1 e4g4 ,labyr9?odon1 gre51 blue1 & :ite m>ls ,rhyncosaurus1 c4 & s&/ones ) ,cephalopoda3 gypsum--,wu]temb]g1 bone-b$ ,c]atites4 ,no ( ,axm\?1 ,dorset1 p4 #bhi4 ,belemnites4 ,plants3 ,f]ns1 ,cycads1 ,conif]s4 #bc4 ,middle ,trias ,compact greyi% lime/one ,) ,equisetites or ) b$s ( dolomite & & ,calamite4 ,mus*elkalk4 gypsum1--,nor? ( ,g]many1 p4 #bhg4 ,want+ 9 ,engl&4 #bd4 ,l[] ,trias4 ,v>iegat$ or ,bunt] s&/one ,plants diff]5t = ( ,g]mans--,r$ & :ite ! mo/ "p f spott$ s&/one ) ^? ( ! ,upp] gypsum & rock-salt1 ,p4 #bhh ,trias4 ,"p ( ,new ,r$ s&/one ( ( ,*e%ire ) rock-salt1 p4 #bid4 ,,iv4 ,,prim>y4 ,k4 ,,p]mian4 #be4 ,upp] ,p]mian4 ,yell[ magnesian lime/one1 ,organic rema9s1 bo? ,york%ire & ,durham1 animal & vegetable1 ,p4 #cja4 m alli$ to prim>y ?an to second>y ,ze*/e9 ( ,?ur+ia1 ,upp] p]iods4 "p ( ,p]mian b$s1 ,russia4 #bf4 ,l[] ,p]mian4 a4 ,m>l slate ( ,durham & ,!codont saurians4 ,?ur+ia4 ,het]oc]cal fi% ( g5us ,palaeoniscus1 c4 b4 ,l[] ,new ,r$ s&/one ( nor? ( ,engl& & ,ro?lieg5des ( ,g]many4 a4 & b4 ,l[] "p ( ,p]mian b$s1 ,russia1 p4 #cja4 ,l4 ,,c>bonif]\s4 #bg4 ,coal measures4 a4 ,/rata ( s&/one & ,great ?ickness ( %ale1 ) b$s ( /rata ( coal1--,s4 ,wales & fluvio-m>9e orig91 ,nor?umb]l&1 p4 #cji4 ) b$s ( coal ( vegetable orig91 b4 ,mill/one grit1--,s4 bas$ on soils ,wales1 ,bri/ol coal-field1 reta9+ ! roots ,york%ire1 p4 #cjh4 ( trees4 ,olde/ ( kn[n reptiles or ,ar*egosaurus4 ,sauroid fi%4 #bh4 ,m\nta9 ,c>bonif]\s or m\nta9 ,bra*iopoda ( g5us lime/one4 lime/one1 ) m>9e ,productus4 %ells & corals4 ,cephalopoda ( g5]a ,m5dip ,hills1 & _m p>ts ,cyrtoc]as1 ,goniatite1 ( ,irel&1 p4 #cdj4 ,or?oc]as4 ,cru/aceans ( ! g5us ,phillipsia4 ,cr9oideans abundant4 ,m4 ,,devonian4 #bi4 ,upp] a4 ,yell[ s&/one ( ,dura ,tribe ( fi% ) h>d ,devonian4 ,d51 ,fife4 cov]+s l *elonians1 b4 ,r$ s&/one & m>l ,pt]i*?ys1 ) corn/one ( ,pamphractus1 c42 ,h]e=d%ire & also ( g5]a ,=f>%ire4 ,cephalaspis1 ,holopti*ius1 c4 ,pav+ & ro(+-/one1 ,=f>%ire4 ,no reptiles yet kn[n4 ,upp] "p ( ,devonian b$s ( ,s\? ,devon4 #cj4 ,l[] ,grey s&/one ) ,fi%1 p>tly ( same ,devonian4 ,i*?yolites1--,cai?ness1 g5]a1 b ( ,crom>ty1 & ,orkney1 ,l[] di/9ct species f "p ( ,devonian b$s ( ^? 9 ,upp] ,s\? ,devon1 & gre5 ,devonian2 also *loritic slates ( ,o/eolepis1 ,cornwall1 lime/one ( ,cocco/eus1 ,g]ol/e91 ,eifel4 ,glyptolepis1 ,dipt]us1 c4 ,n4 ,,silurian4 #ca4 ,upp] a4 ,tile/one ( ,brecon & ,olde/ ( fossil fi% ,silurian4 ,ca]m>!n4 yet discov]$4 b4 ,lime/one & %ale1 ,trilobites & ,ludl[1 ,%rop%ire4 ,graptolites abundant4 c4 ,w5lock or ,dudley ,bra*iopoda v lime/one4 num]\s4 ,cephalopoda3 ,bell]ophon1 ,or?oc]as4 ,same g5]a ( #cb4 ,l[] a4 ,c>adoc s&/one1 ,ca] inv]tebrate animals ,silurian4 ,c>adoc1 ,%rop%ire4 z 9 ,upp] ,silurian1 b species *iefly b4 ,ll&eilo flags1 di/9ct4 ,tr9ucleus calc>e\s flags & c>actaci1 ,cy/ideae1 s*i/s1--,buil?1 p4 #ceh4 ,radnor%ire1 ,ll&eilo1 ,ca]m>!n%ire4 ,no l& plants yet kn[n4 ,footpr9ts ( tortoise1 see note1 p4 #cfj4 ,,footnotes3 #ceb-;,a ,mur*ison1 ,silurian ,sy/em1 p4 #aih1 #aii4 #ced-;,a ,silurian ,sy/em1 pl4 #g4 bis4 fig4 #a4 b4 #ceh-;,a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aa42 & ,memoirs ( ,geol4 ,survey1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eah4 #cei-;,a ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iv4 p4 #cjj4 #cei-;,b ,ibid41 #bii4 #cei-;,c ,ibid41 #ade4 #cfj-;,a ,s9ce ?is 0 writt51 ,mr4 ,logan has discov]$ *elonian footpr9ts 9 ! l[e/ fossilif]\s b$s ( ! ,silurian s]ies1 ne> ,montreal1 9 ,canada4 ,pr(essor ,ow5 incl9es to ref] !m to ! g5us ,emys4--,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,g4 ,s41 vol4 vii4 p4 lxxvi4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,trap rocks--,"n1 :5ce d]iv$--,_! igne\s orig9 at fir/ d\bt$--,_! g5]al appe>ance & "*--,volcanic cones & crat]s1 h[ =m$--,m9]al composition & texture ( volcanic rocks--,v>ieties ( felsp>--,hornbl5de & augite--,isomorphism--,rocks1 h[ to be /udi$--,basalt1 gre5/one1 tra*yte1 porphyry1 scoria1 amygdaloid1 lava1 tuff--,alphabetical li/1 & explanation ( names & synonyms1 ( volcanic rocks--,table ( ! analyses ( m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ! volcanic & hypog5e rocks4 ,! aque\s or fossilif]\s rocks hav+ n[ be5 describ$1 we h next to exam9e ^? :i* may be call$ volcanic1 9 ! mo/ ext5d$ s5se ( t t]m4 ,suppose a a 9 ! annex$ diagram1 to repres5t ! cry/all9e =mations1 su* z ! granitic & metamorphic2 b b ! fossilif]\s /rata2 & c c ! volcanic rocks4 ,^! la/ are sometimes f\nd1 z 0 expla9$ 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 break+ ?r\gh a & b1 sometimes ov]ly+ bo?1 & occasionally alt]nat+ ) ! /rata b b4 ,!y also are se51 9 "s in/ances1 to pass ins5sibly into ! un/ratifi$ division ( a1 or ! ,plutonic rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcd4 ,cross section4 a4 ,hypog5e =mations1 /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$4 b4 ,aque\s =mations4 c4 ,volcanic rocks4 ,:5 geologi/s fir/ began to exam9e att5tively ! /ructure ( ! nor!rn & we/]n p>ts ( ,europe1 !y 7 almo/ entirely ignorant ( ! ph5om5a ( exi/+ volcanos4 ,!y also f\nd c]ta9 rocks1 = ! mo/ "p )\t /ratification1 & ( a peculi> m9]al composition1 to :i* !y gave diff]5t names1 su* z basalt1 gre5/one1 porphyry1 & amygdaloid4 ,all ^!1 :i* 7 recogniz$ z belong+ to "o family1 7 call$ trap by ,b]gmann1 f trappa1 ,sw$i% = a flight ( /eps--a "n s9ce adopt$ v g5]ally into ! nom5clature ( ! sci5ce2 = x 0 obs]v$ t _m rocks ( ?is class occurr$ 9 great tabul> masses ( unequal ext5t1 s z to =m a succession ( t]races or /eps on ! sides ( hills4 ,?is configuration appe>s to be d]iv$ f two causes4 ,fir/1 ! abrupt orig9al t]m9ations ( %eets ( melt$ matt]1 :i* h spread1 :e!r on ! l& or bottom ( ! sea1 ov] a level surface4 ,= we "k1 9 ! case ( lava fl[+ f a volcano1 t a /ream1 :5 x has ceas$ to fl[1 & gr[n solid1 v commonly ends 9 a /eep slope1 z at a1 fig4 #dce4 ,b1 secondly1 ! /ep-l appe>ance arises m frequ5tly f ! mode 9 :i* horizontal masses ( igne\s rock1 su* z b c1 int]calat$ betwe5 aque\s /rata1 h1 subsequ5tly to _! orig91 be5 expos$1 at diff]5t heights1 by d5udation4 ,su* an outl9e1 x is true1 is n peculi> to trap rocks2 great b$s ( lime/one1 & o!r h>d k9ds ( /one1 (t5 pres5t+ simil> t]races & precipices3 b ^! are usually on a small] scale1 or less num]\s1 ?an ! volcanic /eps1 or =m less decid$ features 9 ! l&scape1 z be+ less di/9ct 9 /ructure & composition f ! associat$ rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dce4 ,/ep-l appe>ance ( trap4 ,al?\gh ! *>act]s ( trap rocks are greatly div]sifi$1 ! beg9n] w easily le>n to di/+ui% !m z a class f ! aque\s =mations4 ,sometimes !y pres5t !mselves1 z already /at$1 9 tabul> masses1 :i* are n divid$ into /rata3 sometimes 9 %apeless lumps & irregul> cones1 =m+ *a9s ( small hills4 ,(t5 !y are se5 9 dikes & wall-l masses1 int]sect+ fossilif]\s b$s4 ,! rock is occasionally f\nd divid$ into columns1 (t5 decompos+ into balls ( v>i\s sizes1 f a few in*es to sev]al feet 9 diamet]4 ,! decompos+ surface v commonly assumes a coat+ ( a ru/y iron col\r1 f ! oxidation ( f]rug9\s matt]1 s abundant 9 ! traps 9 :i* augite or hornbl5de occur2 or1 9 ! felspa?ic v>ieties ( trap1 x acquires a :ite opaque coat+1 f ! blea*+ ( ! m9]al call$ felsp>4 ,on exam9+ any ( ^! volcanic rocks1 :]e !y h n suff]$ dis9tegration1 we r>ely fail to detect a cry/all9e arrangem5t 9 "o or m ( ! compon5t m9]als4 ,sometimes ! texture ( ! mass is cellul> or por\s1 or we p]ceive t x has once be5 full ( pores & cells1 :i* h aft]w>ds become fill$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 or o!r infiltrat$ m9]al4 ,mo/ ( ! volcanic rocks produce a f]tile soil by _! dis9tegration4 ,x seems t _! compon5t +r$i5ts1 silica1 alum9a1 lime1 pota%1 iron1 & ! re/1 are 9 proportions well fitt$ = vegetation4 ,z !y d n eff]vesce ) acids1 a defici5cy ( calc>e\s matt] might at fir/ be suspect$2 b al?\gh ! c>bonate ( lime is r>e1 except 9 ! nodules ( amygdaloids1 yet x w be se5 t lime sometimes ent]s l>gely into ! composition ( augite & hornbl5de4 7,see ,table1 p4 #cgg47 ,cones & ,crat]s4--,9 regions :]e ! eruption ( volcanic matt] has tak5 place 9 ! op5 air1 & :]e ! surface has nev] s9ce be5 subject$ to great aque\s d5udation1 cones & crat]s con/itute ! mo/ /rik+ peculi>ity ( ?is class ( =mations4 ,_m hundr$s ( ^! cones are se5 9 c5tral ,france1 9 ! anci5t prov9ces ( ,auv]gne1 ,velay1 & ,viv>ais1 :]e !y obs]ve1 = ! mo/ "p1 a l9e> arrangem5t1 & =m *a9s ( hills4 ,al?\gh none ( ! eruptions h happ5$ )9 ! hi/orical era1 ! /reams ( lava may /ill be trac$ di/9ctly desc5d+ f _m ( ! crat]s1 & foll[+ ! l[e/ levels ( ! exi/+ valleys4 ,! orig9 ( ! cone & crat]-%ap$ hill is well und]/ood1 ! gr[? ( _m hav+ be5 wat*$ dur+ volcanic eruptions4 ,a *asm or fissure fir/ op5s 9 ! e>?1 f :i* great volumes ( /eam & o!r gases are evolv$4 ,! explosions are s viol5t z to hurl up into ! air fragm5ts ( brok5 /one1 p>ts ( :i* are %iv]$ into m9ute atoms4 ,at ! same "t melt$ /one or lava usually asc5ds ?r\gh ! *imney or v5t by :i* ! gases make _! escape4 ,al?\gh extremely heavy1 ?is lava is =c$ up by ! expansive p[] ( entangl$ gase\s fluids1 *iefly /eam or aque\s vap\r1 exactly 9 ! same mann] z wat] is made to boil ov] ! edge ( a vessel :5 /eam has be5 g5]at$ at ! bottom by heat4 ,l>ge quantities ( ! lava are also %ot up into ! air1 :]e x sep>ates into fragm5ts1 & acquires a spongy texture by ! sudd5 enl>gem5t ( ! includ$ gases1 & ?us =ms scoriae1 o!r portions be+ r$uc$ to an impalpable p[d] or du/4 ,! %[]+ d[n ( ! v>i\s eject$ mat]ials r\nd ! orifice ( eruption gives rise to a conical m\nd1 9 :i* ! successive envelopes ( s& & scoriae =m lay]s1 dipp+ on all sides f a c5tral axis4 ,9 ! mean "t a holl[1 call$ a crat]1 has be5 kept op5 9 ! middle ( ! m\nd by ! cont9u$ passage upw>ds ( /eam & o!r gase\s fluids4 ,! lava sometimes fl[s ov] ! edge ( ! crat]1 & ?us ?ick5s & /r5g!ns ! sides ( ! cone2 b sometimes x breaks x d[n on "o side1 & (t5 x fl[s out f a fissure at ! base ( ! hill 7see fig4 #dcf474cfh-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcf4 ,"p ( ! *a9 ( ext9ct volcanos call$ ! ,monts ,dome1 ,auv]gne4 7,scrope47 ,composition & nom5clature4--,be=e speak+ ( ! connection betwe5 ! products ( mod]n volcanos & ! rocks usually /yl$ trappean1 & be=e describ+ ! ext]nal =ms ( bo?1 & ! mann] & position 9 :i* !y occur 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 x w be desirable to treat ( _! m9]al composition & names4 ,! v>ieties mo/ frequ5tly spok5 ( are basalt1 gre5/one1 sy5itic gre5/one1 cl9k/one1 clay/one1 & tra*yte2 :ile ^? f\nd$ *iefly on peculi>ities ( texture1 are porphyry1 amygdaloid1 lava1 tuff1 scoriae1 & pumice4 ,x may be /at$ g5]ally1 t all ^! are ma9ly compos$ ( two m9]als1 or families ( simple m9]als1 felsp> & hornbl5de2 "s almo/ entirely ( hornbl5de1 o!rs ( felsp>4 ,^! two m9]als may be reg>d$ z two gr\ps1 r ?an species4 ,felsp>1 = example1 may be1 fir/1 common felsp>1 t is to say1 pota%-felsp>1 9 :i* ! alkali is pota% 7see table1 p4 #cgg472 or1 secondly1 albite1 t is to say1 soda-felsp>1 :]e ! alkali is soda in/ead ( pota%2 or1 ?irdly1 ,labrador-felsp> 7,labradorite71 :i* diff]s n only 9 its iridesc5t hues1 b also 9 its angle ( fracture or cleavage1 & its composition4 ,we also read mu* ( two o!r k9ds1 call$ glassy felsp> & compact felsp>1 :i*1 h[ev]1 _c rank z v>ieties ( equal importance1 = bo? ! albitic & common felsp> appe> sometimes 9 transp>5t or glassy cry/als2 & z to compact felsp>1 x is a comp\nd ( a less def9ite nature1 sometimes conta9+ bo? soda & pota%2 & :i* might be call$ a felspa?ic pa/e1 be+ ! residu>y matt] aft] portions ( ! orig9al matrix h cry/alliz$4 ,! o!r gr\p1 or hornbl5de1 consi/s pr9cipally ( two v>ieties2 fir/1 hornbl5de1 &1 secondly1 augite1 :i* 7 once reg>d$ z v di/9ct1 al?\gh n[ "s em95t m9]alogi/s are 9 d\bt :e!r !y are n "o & ! same m9]al1 diff]+ only z "o cry/all9e =m ( native sulphur diff]s f ano!r4 ,! hi/ory ( ! *anges ( op9ion on ?is po9t is curi\s & in/ructive4 ,w]n] fir/ di/+ui%$ augite f hornbl5de2 & 8 proposal to sep>ate !m obta9$ aft]w>ds ! sanction ( ,hauey1 ,mohs1 & o!r celebrat$ m9]alogi/s4 ,x 0 agre$ t ! =m ( ! cry/als ( ! two species 7 diff]5t1 & _! /ructure1 z %[n by cleavage1 t is to say1 by break+ or cleav+ ! m9]al ) a *isel1 or a bl[ ( ! hamm]1 9 ! direction 9 :i* x yields mo/ readily4 ,x 0 also f\nd by analysis t augite usually conta9$ m lime1 less alum9a1 & no fluoric acid2 :i* la/1 ?\gh n always f\nd 9 hornbl5de1 (t5 ent]s into its composition 9 m9ute quantity4 ,9 addition to ^! *>act]s1 x 0 rem>k$ z a geological fact1 t augite & hornbl5de are v r>ely associat$ toge!r 9 ! same rock2 & t :5 ?is happ5$1 z 9 "s lavas ( mod]n date1 ! hornbl5de occurs 9 ! mass ( ! rock1 :]e cry/allization may h tak5 place m sl[ly1 :ile ! augite m]ely l9es cavities :]e ! cry/als may h be5 produc$ rapidly4 ,x 0 also rem>k$1 t 9 ! cry/all9e slags ( furnaces1 augitic =ms 7 frequ5t1 ! hornbl5dic entirely abs5t2 h5ce x 0 conjectur$ t hornbl5de might be ! result ( sl[1 & augite ( rapid cool+4 ,?is view 0 confirm$ by ! fact1 t ,mits*]li* & ,b]?i] 7 able to make augite artificially1 b c\ld nev] succe$ 9 =m+ hornbl5de4 ,la/ly1 ,gu/avus ,rose fus$ a mass ( hornbl5de 9 a porcela9 furnace1 & f\nd t x did n1 on cool+1 assume its previ\s %ape1 b inv>iably took t ( augite4 ,! same m9]alogi/ obs]v$ c]ta9 cry/als 9 rocks f ,sib]ia :i* pres5t$ a hornbl5de cleavage1 :ile !y _h ! ext]nal =m ( augite4 ,if1 f ^! data1 x is inf]r$ t ! same sub/ance may assume ! cry/all9e =ms ( hornbl5de or augite indiff]5tly1 accord+ to ! m or less rapid cool+ ( ! melt$ mass1 x is nev]!less c]ta9 t ! v>iety commonly call$ augite1 & recogniz$ by a peculi> cry/all9e =m1 has usually m lime 9 x1 & less alum9a1 ?an t call$ hornbl5de1 al?\gh ! quantities ( ^! elem5ts d n seem to be always ! same4 ,unque/ionably ! facts & exp]im5ts above m5tion$ %[ ! v ne> aff9ity ( hornbl5de & augite2 b ev5 ! conv]tibility ( "o into ! o!r by melt+ & recry/alliz+1 does n p]haps demon/rate _! absolute id5tity4 ,= !re is (t5 "s portion ( ! mat]ials 9 a cry/al :i* are n 9 p]fect *emical comb9ation ) ! re/4 ,c>bonate ( lime1 = example1 sometimes c>ries ) x a consid]able quantity ( silex into its own =m ( cry/al1 ! silex be+ me*anically mix$ z s&1 & yet n prev5t+ ! c>bonate ( lime f assum+ ! =m prop] to x4 ,?is is an extreme case1 b 9 _m o!rs "s "o or m ( ! +r$i5ts 9 a cry/al may be exclud$ f p]fect *emical union2 &1 aft] fusion1 :5 ! mass recry/allizes1 ! same elem5ts may comb9e p]fectly or 9 new proportions1 & ?us a new m9]al may be produc$4 ,or "s "o ( ! gase\s elem5ts ( ! atmosph]e1 ! oxyg5 = example1 may1 :5 ! melt$ matt] reconsolidates1 comb9e ) "s "o ( ! compon5t elem5ts4 ,! diff]5t quantity ( ! impurities or refuse above allud$ to1 :i* may occur 9 all b ! mo/ transp>5t & p]fect cry/als1 may p>tly expla9 ! discordant results at :i* exp]i5c$ *emi/s h arriv$ 9 _! analysis ( ! same m9]al4 ,= ! read] w f9d t a m9]al det]m9$ to be ! same by its physical *>act]s1 cry/all9e =m1 & optical prop]ties1 has (t5 be5 decl>$ by skilful analyz]s to be compos$ ( di/9ct elem5ts4 7,see ! table at p4 #cgg47 ,?is disagreem5t seem$ at fir/ subv]sive ( ! atomic !ory1 or ! doctr9e t !re is a fix$ & con/ant relation betwe5 ! cry/all9e =m & /ructure ( a m9]al1 & its *emical composition4 ,! app>5t anomaly1 h[ev]1 :i* ?reat5$ to ?r[ ! :ole sci5ce ( m9]alogy into confusion1 0 9 a great degree reconcil$ to fix$ pr9ciples by ! discov]ies ( ,pr(essor ,mits*]li* at ,b]l91 :o asc]ta9$ t ! composition ( ! m9]als :i* _h appe>$ s v>iable1 0 gov]n$ by a g5]al law1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( isomorphism 7f isos1 isos1 equal1 & morphe1 morphe1 =m74 ,accord+ to ?is law1 ! +r$i5ts ( a giv5 species ( m9]al are n absolutely fix$ z to _! k9d & quality2 b "o +r$i5t may be replac$ by an equival5t portion ( "s analog\s +r$i5t4 ,?us1 9 augite1 ! lime may be 9 "p replac$ by portions ( protoxide ( iron1 or ( manganese1 :ile ! =m ( ! cry/al1 & ! angle ( its cleavage planes1 rema9 ! same4 ,^! vic>i\s sub/itutions1 h[ev]1 ( p>ticul> elem5ts _c exce$ c]ta9 def9$ limits4 ,hav+ be5 l$ into ?is digression on ! rec5t progress ( m9]alogy1 ,i may "h obs]ve t ! geological /ud5t mu/ endeav\r z soon z possible to famili>ize himself ) ! *>act]s ( five at lea/ ( ! mo/ abundant simple m9]als ( :i* rocks are compos$4 ,^! are1 felsp>1 qu>tz1 mica1 hornbl5de1 & c>bonate ( lime4 ,?is k _c be acquir$ f books1 b requires p]sonal inspection1 & ! aid ( a tea*]4 ,x is well to accu/om ! eye to "k ! appe>ance ( rocks "u ! l5s4 ,to le>n to di/+ui% felsp> f qu>tz is ! mo/ important /ep to be fir/ aim$ at4 ,9 g5]al we may "k ! felsp> because x c be scrat*$ ) ! po9t ( a knife1 :]eas ! qu>tz1 f its extreme h>dness1 receives no impression4 ,b :5 ^! two m9]als occur 9 a granul> & uncry/alliz$ /ate1 ! "y geologi/ mu/ n be disc\rag$ if1 aft] consid]able practice1 he (t5 fails to di/+ui% !m by ! eye alone4 ,if ! felsp> is 9 cry/als1 x is easily recogniz$ by its cleavage3 b :5 9 gra9s ! bl[-pipe mu/ be us$1 = ! edges ( ! gra9s c be r\nd$ 9 ! flame1 :]eas ^? ( qu>tz are infusible4 ,if ! geologi/ is desir\s ( di/+ui%+ ! ?ree v>ieties ( felsp> above enum]at$1 or hornbl5de f augite1 x w (t5 be necess>y to use ! reflect+ goniomet] z a te/ ( ! angle ( cleavage1 & %ape ( ! cry/al4 ,! use ( ?is in/rum5t w n be f\nd difficult4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s & composition ( ! felsp>s are extremely diff]5t f ^? ( augite or hornbl5de2 s t ! volcanic rocks 9 :i* ei!r ( ^! m9]als decid$ly pr$om9ates1 are easily recogniz$4 ,b !re are mixtures ( ! two elem5ts 9 e possible proportion1 ! mass be+ sometimes exclusively compos$ ( felsp>1 at o!r times solely ( augite1 or1 aga91 ( bo? 9 equal quantities4 ,occasionally1 ! two extremes1 & all ! int]m$iate gradations1 may be detect$ 9 "o cont9u\s mass4 ,nev]!less !re are c]ta9 v>ieties or comp\nds :i* prevail s l>gely 9 nature1 & pres]ve s mu* uni=mity ( aspect & composition1 t x is useful 9 geology to reg>d !m z di/9ct rocks1 & to assign names to !m1 su* z basalt1 gre5/one1 tra*yte1 & o!rs1 already m5tion$4 ,basalt4--,z an example ( rocks 9 :i* augite greatly prevails1 basalt may fir/ be m5tion$4 ,al?\gh we are m famili> ) ?is t]m ?an ) t ( any o!r k9d ( trap1 x is difficult to def9e x1 ! "n hav+ be5 us$ s vaguely4 ,x has be5 v g5]ally appli$ to any trap rock ( a black1 blui%1 or lead5-grey col\r1 hav+ a uni=m & compact texture4 ,mo/ /rictly1 x consi/s ( an intimate mixture ( augite1 felsp>1 & iron1 to :i* a m9]al ( an olive gre5 col\r1 call$ oliv9e1 is (t5 sup]add$1 9 di/9ct gra9s or nodul> masses4 ,! iron is usually magnetic1 & is (t5 accompani$ by ano!r metal1 titanium4 ,augite is ! pr$om9ant m9]al1 ! felsp> be+ 9 mu* small] proportions4 ,!re is no d\bt t _m ( ! f9e-gra9$ & d>k-col\r$ trap rocks1 call$ basalt1 conta9$ hornbl5de 9 ! place ( augite2 b ?is w be deem$ ( small importance aft] ! rem>ks above made4 ,o!r m9]als are occasionally f\nd 9 basalt2 & ?is rock may pass ins5sibly into almo/ e v>iety ( trap1 especially into gre5/one1 cl9k/one1 & wacke1 :i* w be pres5tly describ$4 ,gre5/one1 or ,dol]ite1 is usually def9$ z a granul> rock1 ! con/itu5t p>ts ( :i* are hornbl5de & imp]fectly cry/alliz$ felsp>2 ! felsp> be+ m abundant ?an 9 basalt2 & ! gra9s or cry/als ( ! two m9]als m di/9ct f ea* o!r4 ,?is "n may also be ext5d$ to ^? rocks 9 :i* augite is sub/itut$ = hornbl5de 7! dolorite ( "s au?ors71 or to ^? 9 :i* albite replaces common felsp>1 =m+ ! rock sometimes call$ ,&esite4 ,sy5itic gre5/one4--,! highly cry/all9e comp\nds ( ! same two m9]als1 felsp> & hornbl5de1 hav+ a graniti=m texture1 & ) occasionally "s qu>tz accompany+1 may be call$ ,sy5itic gre5/one1 a rock :i* frequ5tly passes into ord9>y trap1 & z frequ5tly into granite4 ,tra*yte4--,a porphyritic rock ( a :iti% or greyi% col\r1 compos$ pr9cipally ( glassy felsp>1 ) cry/als ( ! same1 g5]ally ) "s hornbl5de & "s titanif]\s iron4 ,9 composition x is extremely diff]5t f basalt1 ?is be+ a felspa?ic1 z ! o!r is an augitic1 rock4 ,x has a peculi> r\gh feel1 :5ce ! "n tra*ys1 tra*us1 r\gh4 ,"s v>ieties ( tra*yte conta9 cry/als ( qu>tz4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dcg4 ,porphyry4 ,:ite cry/als ( felsp> 9 a d>k base ( hornbl5de & felsp>4 ,porphyry is m]ely a c]ta9 =m ( rock1 v *>act]i/ic ( ! volcanic =mations4 ,:5 di/9ct cry/als ( "o or m m9]als are scatt]$ ?r\gh an e>?y or compact base1 ! rock is t]m$ a porphyry 7see fig4 #dcg474 ,?us tra*yte is porphyritic2 = 9 x1 z 9 _m mod]n lavas1 !re are cry/als ( felsp>2 b 9 "s porphyries ! cry/als are ( augite1 oliv9e1 or o!r m9]als4 ,if ! base be gre5/one1 basalt1 or pit*/one1 ! rock may be d5om9at$ gre5/one-porphyry1 pit*/one-porphyry1 & s =?4 ,amygdaloid4--,?is is also ano!r =m ( igne\s rock1 admitt+ ( e v>iety ( composition4 ,x compreh5ds any rock 9 :i* r\nd or almond-%ap$ nodules ( "s m9]al1 su* z agate1 calc$ony1 calc>e\s sp>1 or zeolite1 are scatt]$ ?r\gh a base ( wacke1 basalt1 gre5/one1 or o!r k9d ( trap4 ,x d]ives its "n f ! ,greek ^w amygdala1 an almond4 ,! orig9 ( ?is /ructure _c be d\bt$1 = we may trace ! process ( its =mation 9 mod]n lavas4 ,small pores or cells are caus$ by bubbles ( /eam & gas conf9$ 9 ! melt$ matt]4 ,aft] or dur+ consolidation1 ^! empty spaces are gradually fill$ up by matt] sep>at+ f ! mass1 or infilt]$ by wat] p]meat+ ! rock4 ,z ^! bubbles h be5 sometimes l5g!n$ by ! fl[ ( ! lava be=e x f9ally cool$1 ! cont5ts ( su* cavities h ! =m ( almonds4 ,9 "s ( ! amygdaloidal traps ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! nodules h decompos$1 ! empty cells are se5 to h a glaz$ or vitre\s coat+1 & 9 ?is respect exactly resemble scoriace\s lavas1 or ! slags ( furnaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dch4 ,scoriace\s lava 9 "p conv]t$ into an amygdaloid4 ,montagne de la ,veille1 ,dep>tm5t ( ,puy de ,dome1 ,france4 ,! annex$ figure repres5ts a fragm5t ( /one tak5 f ! upp] "p ( a %eet ( basaltic lava 9 ,auv]gne4 ,"o half is scoriace\s1 ! pores be+ p]fectly empty2 ! o!r "p is amygdaloidal1 ! pores or cells be+ mo/ly fill$ up ) c>bonate ( lime1 =m+ :ite k]nels4 ,scoriae & ,pumice may next be m5tion$ z por\s rocks1 produc$ by ! action ( gases on mat]ials melt$ by volcanic heat4 ,scoriae are usually ( a r$di%-br[n & black col\r1 & are ! c9d]s & slags ( basaltic or augitic lavas4 ,pumice is a light1 spongy1 fibr\s sub/ance1 produc$ by ! action ( gases on tra*ytic & o!r lavas2 ! relation1 h[ev]1 ( its orig9 to ! composition ( lava is n yet well und]/ood4 ,von ,bu* says t x nev] occurs :]e only ,labrador-felsp> is pres5t4 ,lava4--,?is t]m has a some:at vague signification1 hav+ be5 appli$ to all melt$ matt] obs]v$ to fl[ 9 /reams f volcanic v5ts4 ,:5 ?is matt] consolidates 9 ! op5 air1 ! upp] "p is usually scoriace\s1 & ! mass becomes m & m /ony z we desc5d1 or 9 proportion z x has consolidat$ m sl[ly & "u great] pressure4 ,at ! bottom1 h[ev]1 ( a /ream ( lava1 a small portion ( scoriace\s rock v frequ5tly occurs1 =m$ by ! fir/ ?9 %eet ( liquid matt]1 :i* (t5 prec$es ! ma9 curr5t1 or 9 consequ5ce ( ! contact ) wat] 9 or ^u ! damp soil4 ,! m compact lavas are (t5 porphyritic1 b ev5 ! scoriace\s "p sometimes conta9s imp]fect cry/als1 :i* h be5 d]iv$ f "s old] rocks1 9 :i* ! cry/als pre-exi/$1 b 7 n melt$1 z be+ m infusible 9 _! nature4 ,al?\gh melt$ matt] ris+ 9 a crat]1 & ev5 t :i* ent]s r5ts on ! side ( a crat]1 is call$ lava1 yet ?is t]m belongs m prop]ly to t :i* has fl[$ ei!r 9 ! op5 air or on ! b$ ( a lake or sea4 ,if ! same fluid has n rea*$ ! surface1 b has be5 m]ely inject$ into fissures bel[ gr\nd1 x is call$ trap4 ,!re is e v>iety ( composition 9 lavas2 "s are tra*ytic1 z 9 ! ,peak ( ,t5]iffe2 a great numb] are basaltic1 z 9 ,vesuvius & ,auv]gne2 o!rs are &esitic1 z ^? ( ,*ili2 "s ( ! mo/ mod]n 9 ,vesuvius consi/ ( gre5 augite1 & _m ( ^? ( ,etna ( augite & ,labrador-felsp>4#cgd-;,a ,trap tuff1 volcanic tuff4--,small angul> fragm5ts ( ! scoriae & pumice1 above m5tion$1 & ! du/ ( ! same1 produc$ by volcanic explosions1 =m ! tuffs :i* ab\nd 9 all regions ( active volcanos1 :]e %[]s ( ^! mat]ials1 toge!r ) small pieces ( o!r rocks eject$ f ! crat]1 fall d[n ^u ! l& or into ! sea4 ,"h !y (t5 become m+l$ ) %ells1 & are /ratifi$4 ,su* tuffs are sometimes b\nd toge!r by a calc>e\s cem5t1 & =m a /one susceptible ( a beautiful poli%4 ,b ev5 :5 little or no lime is pres5t1 !re is a great t5d5cy 9 ! mat]ials ( ord9>y tuffs to coh]e toge!r4 ,besides ! peculi>ity ( _! composition1 "s tuffs1 or volcanic grits1 z !y h be5 t]m$1 diff] f ord9>y s&/ones by ! angul>ity ( _! gra9s4 ,:5 ! fragm5ts are co>se1 ! rock is /yl$ a volcanic breccia4 ,tuface\s conglom]ates result f ! int]mixture ( roll$ fragm5ts or pebbles ( volcanic & o!r rocks ) tuff4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,scrope1 ! ,italian geologi/s conf9e ! t]m tuff1 or tufa1 to felspa?ose mixtures1 & ^? compos$ pr9cipally ( pumice1 us+ ! t]m pep]9o = ! basaltic tuffs4#cgd-;,b ,! pep]9os ?us di/+ui%$ are usually br[n1 & ! tuffs grey or :ite4 ,we meet occasionally ) extremely compact b$s ( volcanic mat]ials1 int]/ratifi$ ) fossilif]\s rocks4 ,^! may sometimes be tuffs1 al?\gh _! d5sity or compactness is su* z to cause !m to resemble _m ( ^? k9ds ( trap :i* are f\nd 9 ord9>y dikes4 ,! *ocolate-col\r$ mud1 :i* 0 p\r$ = weeks out ( ! crat] ( ,graham's ,isl&1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 #ahca1 mu/1 :5 unmix$ ) o!r mat]ials1 h con/itut$ a /one heavi] ?an granite4 ,ea* cubic in* ( ! impalpable p[d] :i* has fall5 = days ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 dur+ "s mod]n eruptions1 has be5 f\nd to weigh1 )\t be+ compress$1 z mu* z ord9>y trap rocks1 & to be (t5 id5tical ) ^! 9 m9]al composition4 ,! fusibility ( ! igne\s rocks g5]ally exce$s t ( o!r rocks1 = !re is mu* alkal9e matt] & lime 9 _! composition1 :i* s]ves z a flux to ! l>ge quantity ( silica1 :i* w\ld be o!rwise s refractory an +r$i5t4 ,x is rem>kable t1 not)/&+ ! abundance ( ?is silica1 qu>tz1 t is1 cry/all9e silica1 is usually want+ 9 ! volcanic rocks1 or is pres5t only z an occasional m9]al1 l mica4 ,! elem5ts ( mica1 z ( qu>tz1 occur 9 lava & trap2 b ! circum/ances "u :i* ^! rocks are =m$ are evid5tly unfav\rable to ! developm5t ( mica & qu>tz1 m9]als s *>act]i/ic ( ! hypog5e =mations4 ,x w\ld be t$i\s to enum]ate all ! v>ieties ( trap & lava :i* h be5 reg>d$ by diff]5t obs]v]s z suffici5tly abundant to des]ve di/9ct names1 especially z ea* inve/igator is too apt to exagg]ate ! importance ( local v>ieties :i* happ5 to prevail 9 di/ricts be/ kn[n to him4 ,x w be useful1 h[ev]1 to subjo9 "h1 9 ! =m ( a gloss>y1 an alphabetical li/ ( ! names & synonyms mo/ commonly 9 use1 ) brief explanations1 to :i* ,i h add$ a table ( ! analysis ( ! simple m9]als mo/ abundant 9 ! volcanic & hypog5e rocks4 ,explanation ( ! names1 synonyms1 & m9]al composition ( ! m abundant volcanic rocks4 ,,amphibolite4 ,see ,hornbl5de rock1 amphibole be+ ,hauey's "n = hornbl5de4 ,,amygdaloid4 ,a p>ticul> =m ( volcanic rock2 see p4 #cgb4 ,,augite ,,rock4 ,a k9d ( basalt or gre5/one1 compos$ :olly or pr9cipally ( granul> augite4 7,leonh>d's ,m9]alrei*1 #b;d edition1 p4 #he47 ,,augitic-,,porphyry4 ,cry/als ( ,labrador-felsp> & ( augite1 9 a gre5 or d>k grey base4 7,rose1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tom4 #h4 p4 #bb4 #ahce47 ,,basalt4 ,*iefly augite--an intimate mixture ( augite & felsp> ) magnetic iron1 oliv9e1 c4 ,see p4 #cga4 ,! yell[i% gre5 m9]al call$ oliv9e1 c easily be di/+ui%$ f yell[i% felsp> by its infusibility1 & hav+ no cleavage4 ,! edges turn br[n 9 ! flame ( ! bl[-pipe4 ,,basanite4 ,"n giv5 by ,alex4 ,brongni>t to a rock1 hav+ a base ( basalt1 ) m or less di/9ct cry/als ( augite dissem9at$ ?r\gh x4 ,,clay/one & ,,clay/one-,,porphyry4 ,an e>?y & compact /one1 usually ( a purpli% col\r1 l an indurat$ clay2 passes into horn/one2 g5]ally conta9s scatt]$ cry/als ( felsp> & sometimes ( qu>tz4 ,,cl9k/one4 ,syn4 ,phonolite1 fissile ,petrosilex2 a gre5i% or greyi% rock1 hav+ a t5d5cy to divide into slabs & columns2 h>d1 ) clean fracture1 r++ "u ! hamm]2 pr9cipally compos$ ( compact felsp>1 &1 accord+ to ,gmel91 ( felsp> & mesotype4 7,leonh>d1 ,m9]alrei*1 p4 #ajb47 ,a rock mu* resembl+ cl9k/one1 & call$ by "s ,petrosilex1 conta9s a consid]able p]c5tage ( qu>tz & felsp>4 ,z bo? tra*yte & basalt pass into cl9k/one1 ! rock s call$ mu/ be v v>i\s 9 composition4 ,,compact ,,felsp>1 :i* has also be5 call$ ,petrosilex2 ! rock s call$ includes ! horn/one ( "s m9]alogi/s1 is alli$ to cl9k/one1 b is h>d]1 m compact1 & transluc5t4 ,x is a v>y+ rock1 ( :i* ! *emical composition is n well def9$1 & is p]haps ! same z t ( clay4 7,mac,culloch's ,classification ( ,rocks1 p4 #dha47 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch says1 t x conta9s bo? pota% & soda4 ,,cornean4 ,a v>iety ( clay/one alli$ to horn/one4 ,a f9e homog5e\s pa/e1 suppos$ to consi/ ( an aggregate ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & hornbl5de1 ) occasionally epidote1 & p]haps *lorite2 x passes into compact felsp> & horn/one4 7,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,trans4 second s]ies1 vol4 #b4 p4 #c47 ,,diallage ,,rock4 ,syn4 ,euphotide1 ,gabbro1 & "s ,ophiolites4 ,comp\nd$ ( felsp> & diallage1 sometimes ) ! addition ( s]p5t9e1 or mica1 or qu>tz4 7,mac,culloch4 ibid4 p4 #fdh47 ,,diorite4 ,a k9d ( gre5/one1 :i* see4 ,compon5ts1 felsp> & hornbl5de 9 gra9s4 ,accord+ to ,rose1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tom4 #h4 p4 #d41 diorite consi/s ( albite & hornbl5de4 ,,dioritic-,,porphyry4 ,a porphyritic gre5/one1 compos$ ( cry/als ( albite & hornbl5de1 9 a gre5i% or blacki% base4 7,rose1 ibid4 p4 #aj47 ,,dol]ite4 ,=m]ly def9$ z a synonym ( gre5/one1 :i* see4 ,b1 accord+ to ,rose 7ibid4 p4 #cb471 its composition is black augite & ,labrador-felsp>2 accord+ to ,leonh>d 7,m9]alrei*1 c4 p4 #gg471 augite1 ,labrador-felsp>1 & magnetic iron4 ,,domite4 ,an e>?y tra*yte1 f\nd 9 ! ,puy de ,dome1 9 ,auv]gne4 ,,euphotide4 ,a mixture ( gra9s ( ,labrador-felsp> & diallage4 7,rose1 ibid4 p4 #ai47 ,accord+ to "s1 ?is rock is def9$ to be a mixture ( augite or hornbl5de1 & saussurite1 a m9]al alli$ to jade4 7,allan's ,m9]alogy1 p4 #aeh47 ,see ,diallage rock4 ,,felsp>-,,porphyry4 ,syn4 ,horn/one-porphyry2 a base ( felsp>1 ) cry/als ( felsp>1 & cry/als & gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,see also ,horn/one4 ,,gabbro1 see ,diallage rock4 ,,gre5/one4 ,syn4 ,dol]ite & diorite2 compon5ts1 hornbl5de & felsp>1 or augite & felsp> 9 gra9s4 ,see above1 p4 #cgb4 ,,grey/one4 7,grau/e9 ( ,w]n]47 ,lead grey & gre5i% rock1 compos$ ( felsp> & augite1 ! felsp> be+ m ?an sev5ty-five p] c5t4 7,scrope1 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci4 ,no4 #db4 p4 #bba47 ,grey/one lavas are int]m$iate 9 composition betwe5 basaltic & tra*ytic lavas4 ,,hornbl5de ,,rock4 ,a gre5/one1 compos$ pr9cipally ( granul> hornbl5de1 or augite4 7,leonh>d1 ,m9]alrei*1 c41 p4 #he47 ,,horn/one1 ,,horn/one-,,porphyry4 ,a k9d ( felsp> porphyry 7,leonh>d1 ibid471 ) a base ( horn/one1 a m9]al approa*+ ne> to fl9t1 diff]+ f compact felsp> 9 be+ infusible4 ,,hyp]/h5e ,,rock1 a mixture ( gra9s ( ,labrador-felsp> & hyp]/h5e 7,rose1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tom4 #h4 p4 #ac471 hav+ ! /ructure ( sy5ite or granite2 abundant among ! traps ( ,skye4 ,"s geologi/s consid] x a gre5/one1 9 :i* hyp]/h5e replaces hornbl5de4 ,,lat]ite4 ,a r$ jasp]y rock1 compos$ ( silicate ( alum9a & oxide ( iron4 ,abundant 9 ! ,deccan1 9 ,india2 & ref]r$ to ! trap =mation2 f ,lat]1 a brick or tile4 ,,melaphyre4 ,a v>iety ( black porphyry1 ! base be+ black augite ) cry/als ( felsp>2 f melas1 melas1 black4 ,,obsidian4 ,vitre\s lava l melt$ glass1 ne>ly alli$ to pit*/one4 ,,ophiolite1 sometimes same z ,diallage rocks 7,leonh>d1 p4 #gg472 sometimes a k9d ( s]p5t9e4 ,,ophite4 ,a gre5 porphyritic rock compos$ *iefly ( hornbl5de1 ) cry/als ( t m9]al 9 a base ( ! same1 mix$ ) "s felsp>4 ,x passes into s]p5t9e by a mixture ( talc4 7,burat's d',aubuisson1 tom4 ii4 p4 #fc47 ,,pe>l/one4 ,a volcanic rock1 hav+ ! lu/re ( "m ( pe>l2 usually hav+ a nodul> /ructure2 intimately relat$ to obsidian1 b less glassy4 ,,pep]9o4 ,a =m ( volcanic tuff1 compos$ ( basaltic scoriae4 ,see p4 #cgd4 ,,petrosilex4 ,see ,cl9k/one & ,compact ,felsp>4 ,,phonolite4 ,syn4 ( ,cl9k/one1 :i* see4 ,,pit*/one4 ,vitre\s lava1 less glassy ?an obsidian2 a blacki% gre5 rock resembl+ glass1 hav+ a res9\s lu/re & appe>ance ( pit*2 composition v>i\s1 usually felsp> & augite2 passes into basalt2 occurs 9 ve9s1 & 9 ,arran =ms a dike ?irty feet wide1 cutt+ ?r\gh s&/one2 =ms ! out] walls ( "s basaltic dikes4 ,,porphyry4 ,any rock 9 :i* deta*$ cry/als ( felsp>1 or ( "o or m m9]als1 are diffus$ ?r\gh a base4 ,see p4 #cgb4 ,,pozzolana4 ,a k9d ( tuff4 ,see p4 #cf4 ,,pumice4 ,a light1 spongy1 fibr\s =m ( tra*yte4 ,see p4 #cgc4 ,,pyrox5ic-,,porphyry1 same z augitic-porphyry1 pyrox5e be+ ,hauey's "n = augite4 ,,scoriae4 ,syn4 volcanic c9d]s2 r$di% br[n or black por\s =m ( lava4 ,see p4 #cgc4 ,,s]p5t9e4 ,a gre5i% rock1 9 :i* !re is mu* magnesia2 usually conta9s diallage1 :i* is ne>ly alli$ to ! simple m9]al call$ s]p5t9e4 ,occurs sometimes1 ?\gh r>ely1 9 dikes1 alt]+ ! contigu\s /rata2 is indiff]5tly a memb] ( ! trappean or hypog5e s]ies4 ,,sy5itic-,,gre5/one2 composition1 cry/als or gra9s ( felsp> & hornbl5de4 ,see p4 #cgb4 ,,tephr9e1 synonym\s ) lava4 ,"n propos$ by ,alex4 ,brongni>t4 ,,toad/one4 ,a local "n 9 ,d]by%ire = a k9d ( wacke1 :i* see4 ,,tra*yte4 ,*iefly compos$ ( glassy felsp>1 ) cry/als ( glassy felsp>4 ,see p4 #cgb4 ,,trap ,,tuff4 ,see p4 #cgd4 ,,trass4 ,a k9d ( tuff or mud p\r$ out by lake crat]s dur+ eruptions2 common 9 ! ,eifel1 9 ,g]many4 ,,tuface\s ,,conglom]ate4 ,see p4 #cgd4 ,,tuff4 ,syn4 ,trap-tuff1 volcanic tuff4 ,see p4 #cgd4 ,,vitre\s ,,lava4 ,see ,pit*/one & ,obsidian4 ,,volcanic ,,tuff4 ,see p4 #cgd4 ,,wacke4 ,a s(t & e>?y v>iety ( trap1 hav+ an argillace\s aspect4 ,x resembles indurat$ clay1 & :5 scrat*$ exhibits a %9+ /reak4 ,,:9/one4 ,a ,scot* prov9cial t]m = gre5/one & o!r h>d trap rocks4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,m9]als ,,mo/ ,,abundant ,,9 ,,! ,,volcanic ,,& ,,hypog5e ,,rocks4 ,silica4 ,alu- ,mag- ,lime4 ,pot- ,soda4 ,iron4 ,manga- ,rema9- m9a4 nesia4 a%4 ,oxide4 nese4 d]4 ,act9olite #fd4 -- #bb4 -- -- -- #c4 a #dc4je ,c4 7,b]gman7 trace ,albite 7,rose7 #fh4hd #bj4ec -- a trace -- #i4ab -- -- -- --7mean ( #d #fi4de #ai4dd #j4ac #j4bb -- #i4ie a -- -- analyses7 trace ,augite 7,rose7 #ec4cf -- #d4ii #bb4ai -- -- #ag4ch #j4ji -- --7mean ( #d #ec4eg #a4 #aa4bf #bj4i -- -- #aj4ge #j4fg -- analyses7 ,c>bonate ( -- -- -- #ef4cc -- -- -- -- -- ,lime 7,biot7 ,*ia/olite #fh4di #cj4ag #d4ab -- -- -- #b4g -- #j4bg ,w4 7,l&grabe7 ,*lorite #bf4 #ah4e #h4 -- -- #b4 #dc4 -- -- 7,vauquel97 --7mean ( #c #bg4dc #ag4i #ad4ef #j4ej #a4ef -- #cj4fc -- #f4ib ,w4 analyses7 ,diallage #fj4 -- #bg4e -- -- -- #aj4e -- -- 7,klapro?7 --7mean ( #c #dc4cc #b4b #bf4da #e4eh -- -- #aa4ec -- #h4ed ,w4 analyses7 ,epidote #cg4 #ba4 -- #ae4 -- -- #bd4 #a4e -- 7,vauquel97 ,felsp>1 #fb4hc #ag4jb -- #c4 - #ac4 -- #a4 -- -- common 7,vauq47 --7,rose7 #ff4ge #ag4e -- #a4be #ab4 -- #j4ge -- -- --7mean ( #g #fd4jd #ah4id -- #j4gf #ac4ff -- #j4gd -- -- analyses7 ,g>net #ce4ge #bg4be -- -- -- -- #cf4 #j4be -- 7,klapro?7 --7,phillips7 #dc4 #af4 -- #bj4 -- -- #af4 -- -- ,hornbl5de #db4 #ab4 #b4be #aa4 a -- #cj4 #j4be -- 7,klap47 trace --7,bonsdorff47 #de4fi #ab4ah #ah4gi #ac4he -- -- #g4cb #j4bb #a4e ,f4 ,hyp]/h5e #ed4be #b4be #ad4 #a4e -- -- #bd4e a #a4 ,w4 7,klapro?7 trace ,labrador- #ee4ge #bf4e -- #aa4 -- #d4 #a4be -- #j4e ,w4 felsp> 7,klap47 ,leucite #ec4ge #bd4fb -- -- #ba4ce -- -- -- -- 7,klap47 ,mesotype #ed4fd #ai4gj -- #a4fa -- #ae4ji -- -- #i4hc ,w4 7,gehl57 ,mica #db4e #aa4e #i4 -- #aj4 -- #bb4 #b4 -- 7,klapro?7 --7,vauquel97 #ej4 #ce4 -- #a4cc -- -- #g4 -- -- --7mean ( #c #de4hc #bb4eh -- -- #aa4jh -- #ad4 #a4de -- analyses7 ,oliv9e #ej4 -- #ch4e -- -- -- #ab4 -- -- 7,klapro?7 ,s*orl or #ce4dh #cd4ge #d4fh -- #j4dh #a4ge #ag4dd #a4hi #d4jb ,b4 ,t\rmal9e 7,gmel97 --7mean ( #f #cf4jc #ce4hb #d4dd #j4bh #j4ga #a4if #ac4ga #a4fb -- analyses7 ,s]p5t9e #dc4jg #j4be #dj4cg #j4e -- -- #a4ag -- #ab4de ,w4 7,his+]7 --7mean ( #e #cg4bi #d4ig #cf4h #b4hi -- -- #c4ad -- #ab4gg ,w4 analyses7 ,/eatite #fd4 -- #bb4 -- -- -- #c4 -- #e4 ,w4 7,vauquel97 --7mean ( #c #dh4c #f4ah #bf4fe -- -- -- #b4 -- #i4e ,w4 anal4 by ,klap47 ,talc4 #fa4ge -- #cj4e -- #b4ge -- #b4e -- -- 7,klapro?7 ,9 ! la/ column ( ! above ,table1 ! lett]s ,b4 ,c4 ,f4 ,w4 repres5t ,boracic acid1 ,c>bonic acid1 ,fluoric acid1 & ,wat]4 ,,footnotes3 #cfh-;,a ,= a description & !ory ( active volcanos1 see ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 *aps4 xxiv4 to xxvii4 #cgd-;,a ,g4 ,rose1 ,ann4 des ,m9es1 tom4 viii4 p4 #cb4 #cgd-;,b ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #baa4 #b;d s]ies4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,trap dikes--sometimes project--sometimes leave fissures vacant by decomposition--,bran*es & ve9s ( trap--,dikes m cry/all9e 9 ! c5tre--,=eign fragm5ts ( rock imb$d$--,/rata alt]$ at or ne> ! contact--,oblit]ation ( organic rema9s--,conv]sion ( *alk into m>ble--& ( coal into coke--,inequality 9 ! modify+ influ5ce ( dikes--,trap int]pos$ betwe5 /rata--,column> & globul> /ructure--,relation ( trappean rocks to ! products ( active volcanos--,subm>9e lava & eject$ matt] corresponds g5]ally to anci5t trap--,/ructure & physical features ( ,palma & "s o!r ext9ct volcanos4 ,hav+ 9 ! la/ *apt] spok5 ( ! composition & m9]al *>act]s ( volcanic rocks1 ,i %all next describe ! mann] & position 9 :i* !y occur 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & _! ext]nal =ms4 ,n[ ! lead+ v>ieties1 su* z basalt1 gre5/one1 tra*yte1 porphyry1 & ! re/1 are f\nd sometimes 9 dikes p5etrat+ /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$ =mations1 sometimes 9 %apeless masses protrud+ ?r\gh or ov]ly+ !m1 or 9 horizontal %eets int]calat$ betwe5 /rata4 ,volcanic dikes4--,fissures h already be5 spok5 ( z occurr+ 9 all k9ds ( rocks1 "s a few feet1 o!rs _m y>ds 9 wid?1 & (t5 fill$ up ) e>? or angul> pieces ( /one1 or ) s& & pebbles4 ,in/ead ( su* mat]ials1 suppose a quantity ( melt$ /one to be driv5 or inject$ into an op5 r5t1 & !re consolidat$1 we h !n a tabul> mass resembl+ a wall1 & call$ a trap dike4 ,x is n uncommon to f9d su* dikes pass+ ?r\gh /rata ( s(t mat]ials1 su* z tuff or %ale1 :i*1 be+ m p]i%able ?an ! trap1 are (t5 wa%$ away by ! sea1 riv]s1 or ra91 9 :i* case ! dike /&s prom95tly out 9 ! face ( precipices1 or on ! level surface ( a c\ntry4 7,see ! annex$ figure4#cgh-;,a7 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dci4 ,dike 9 inl& valley1 ne> ! ,braz5 ,head1 ,madeira4 ,9 ! isl&s ( ,arran1 ,skye1 & o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :]e s&/one1 conglom]ate1 & o!r h>d rocks are trav]s$ by dikes ( trap1 ! conv]se ( ! above ph5om5on is se54 ,! dike hav+ decompos$ m rapidly ?an ! conta9+ rock1 has once m left op5 ! orig9al fissure1 (t5 = a di/ance ( _m y>ds inl& f ! sea-coa/1 z repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ view 7fig4 #ddj474 ,9 ^! in/ances1 ! gre5/one ( ! dike is usually m t\gh & h>d ?an ! s&/one2 b *emical action1 & *iefly ! oxidation ( ! iron1 has giv5 rise to ! m rapid decay4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddj4 ,fissures left vacant by decompos$ trap4 ,/ra?aird1 ,skye4 7,mac,culloch47 ,!re is yet ano!r case1 by no means uncommon 9 ,arran & o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 :]e ! /rata 9 contact ) ! dike1 & = a c]ta9 di/ance f x1 h be5 h>d5$1 s z to resi/ ! action ( ! wea!r m ?an ! dike itself1 or ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 two p>allel walls ( indurat$ /rata are se5 protrud+ above ! g5]al level ( ! c\ntry1 & foll[+ ! c\rse ( ! dike4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dda4 ,trap ve9s 9 ,airdnamur*an4 ,z fissures sometimes s5d (f bran*es1 or divide into two or m fissures ( equal size1 s also we f9d trap dikes bifurcat+ & ramify+1 & sometimes !y are s tortu\s z to be call$ ve9s1 ?\gh ?is is m common 9 granite ?an 9 trap4 ,! accompany+ sket* 7fig4 #dda47 by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch repres5ts "p ( a sea-cliff 9 ,argyle%ire1 :]e an ov]ly+ mass ( trap1 b1 s5ds out "s ve9s :i* t]m9ate d[nw>ds4 ,ano!r trap ve91 a a1 cuts ?r\gh bo? ! lime/one1 c1 & ! trap1 b4 ,9 fig4 #ddb41 a gr\nd plan is giv5 ( a ramify+ dike ( gre5/one1 :i* ,i obs]v$ cutt+ ?r\gh s&/one on ! bea* ne> ,kildonan ,ca/le1 9 ,arran4 ,! l>g] bran* v>ies f #e to #g feet 9 wid?1 :i* w af=d a scale ( measurem5t = ! :ole4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddb4 ,gr\nd plan ( gre5/one dike trav]s+ s&/one4 ,arran4 ,9 ! ,hebrides & o!r c\ntries1 ! same masses ( trap :i* occupy ! surface ( ! c\ntry f> & wide1 conceal+ ! subjac5t /ratifi$ rocks1 are se5 also 9 ! sea cliffs1 prolong$ d[nw>ds 9 ve9s or dikes1 :i* probably unite ) o!r masses ( igne\s rock at a great] dep?4 ,! l>ge/ ( ! dikes repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ diagram1 & :i* are se5 9 "p ( ! coa/ ( ,skye1 is no less ?an #ajj feet 9 wid?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddc4 ,trap divid+ & cov]+ s&/one ne> ,sui%ni% 9 ,skye4 7,mac,culloch47 ,e v>iety ( trap-rock is sometimes f\nd 9 ^! dikes1 z basalt1 gre5/one1 felsp>-porphyry1 & m r>ely tra*yte4 ,! amygdaloidal traps also occur1 & ev5 tuff & breccia1 = ! mat]ials ( ^! la/ may be wa%$ d[n into op5 fissures at ! bottom ( ! sea1 or dur+ eruptions on ! l& may be %[]$ into !m f ! air4 ,"s dikes ( trap may be foll[$ = leagues un9t]rupt$ly 9 ne>ly a /raight direction1 z 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 %[+ t ! fissures :i* !y fill mu/ h be5 ( extraord9>y l5g?4 ,dikes m cry/all9e 9 ! c5tre4--,9 _m cases trap at ! edges or sides ( a dike is less cry/all9e or m e>?y ?an 9 ! c5tre1 9 consequ5ce ( ! melt$ matt] hav+ cool$ m rapidly by com+ 9 contact ) ! cold sides ( ! fissure2 :]eas1 9 ! c5tre1 ! matt] ( ! dike be+ kept long 9 a fluid or s(t /ate1 ! cry/als are sl[ly =m$4 ,9 ! anci5t "p ( ,vesuvius1 call$ ,somma1 a ?9 b& ( half-vitre\s lava is f\nd at ! edge ( "s dikes4 ,at ! junction ( gre5/one dikes ) lime/one1 a sahlb&1 or selvage1 ( s]p5t9e is occasionally obs]v$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddd4 ,sy5itic gre5/one dike ( ,naesodd51 ,*ri/iania4 b4 imb$d$ fragm5t ( cry/all9e s*i/ surr\nd$ by a b& ( gre5/one4 ,on ! left %ore ( ! fiord ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 ,i exam9$1 9 company ) ,pr(essor ,keilhau1 a rem>kable dike ( sy5itic gre5/one1 :i* is trac$ ?r\gh ,silurian /rata1 until at l5g?1 9 ! promontory ( ,naesodd51 x ent]s mica-s*i/4 ,fig4 #ddd4 repres5ts a gr\nd plan1 :]e ! dike appe>s #h paces 9 wid?4 ,9 ! middle x is highly cry/all9e & graniti=m1 ( a purpli% col\r1 & conta9+ a few cry/als ( mica1 & /rongly contra/$ ) ! :iti% mica-s*i/1 betwe5 :i* & ! sy5itic rock !re is usually on ea* side a di/9ct black b&1 #ah in*es wide1 ( d>k gre5/one4 ,:5 fir/ se51 ^! b&s h ! appe>ance ( two accompany+ dikes2 yet !y are1 9 fact1 only ! diff]5t =m :i* ! sy5itic mat]ials h assum$ :]e ne> to or 9 contact ) ! mica-s*i/4 ,at "o po9t1 a1 "o ( ! sahlb&s t]m9ates = a space2 b ne> ?is !re is a l>ge deta*$ block1 b1 hav+ a gneiss-l /ructure1 consi/+ ( hornbl5de & felsp>1 :i* is includ$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! dike4 ,r\nd ?is a small] encircl+ zone is se51 ( d>k basalt1 or f9e-gra9$ gre5/one1 ne>ly correspond+ to ! l>g] ones :i* bord] ! dike1 b only #a in* wide4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 evid5t t ! fragm5t1 b1 has act$ on ! matt] ( ! dike1 probably by caus+ x to cool m rapidly1 9 ! same mann] z ! walls ( ! fissure h act$ on a l>g] scale4 ,! facts1 also1 illu/rate ! facility ) :i* a graniti=m sy5ite may pass into ord9>y rocks ( ! volcanic family4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dde4 ,gre5/one dike1 ) fragm5ts ( gneiss4 ,sorg5fri1 ,*ri/iania4 ,! fact above allud$ to1 ( a =eign fragm5t1 su* z b1 fig4 #ddd41 includ$ 9 ! mid/ ( ! trap1 z if torn (f f "s subjac5t rock or ! walls ( a fissure1 is by no means uncommon4 ,a f9e example is se5 9 ano!r dike ( gre5/one1 #aj feet wide1 9 ! nor!rn suburbs ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 ( :i* ! annex$ figure is a gr\nd plan4 ,! dike passes ?r\gh %ale1 kn[n by its fossils to belong to ! ,silurian s]ies4 ,9 ! black base ( gre5/one are angul> & r\ndi% pieces ( gneiss1 "s :ite1 o!rs ( a light fle%-col\r1 "s )\t lam9ation1 l granite1 o!rs ) lam9ae1 :i*1 by _! v>i\s & (t5 opposite directions1 %[ t !y h be5 scatt]$ at r&om ?r\gh ! matrix4 ,^! imb$d$ pieces ( gneiss measure f #a to ab\t #h in*es 9 diamet]4 ,rocks alt]$ by volcanic dikes4--,aft] ^! rem>ks on ! =m & composition ( dikes !mselves1 ,i %all describe ! alt]ations :i* !y sometimes produce 9 ! rocks 9 contact ) !m4 ,! *anges are usually su* z ! int5se heat ( melt$ matt] & ! entangl$ gases might be expect$ to cause4 ,plas-,newydd4--,a /rik+ example1 ne> ,plas-,newydd1 9 ,anglesea1 has be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,h5sl[4#cha-;,a ,! dike is #acd feet wide1 & consi/s ( a rock :i* is a comp\nd ( felsp> & augite 7dol]ite ( "s au?ors74 ,/rata ( %ale & argillace\s lime/one1 ?r\gh :i* x cuts p]p5dicul>ly1 are alt]$ to a di/ance ( #cj1 or ev51 9 "s places1 to #ce feet f ! edge ( ! dike4 ,! %ale1 z x approa*es ! trap1 becomes gradually m compact1 & is mo/ indurat$ :]e ne>e/ ! junction4 ,"h x loses "p ( its s*i/ose /ructure1 b ! sep>ation into p>allel lay]s is /ill disc]nible4 ,9 sev]al places ! %ale is conv]t$ into h>d porcellan\s jasp]4 ,9 ! mo/ h>d5$ "p ( ! mass ! fossil %ells1 pr9cipally ,producti1 are ne>ly oblit]at$2 yet ev5 "h _! impressions may frequ5tly be trac$4 ,! argillace\s lime/one und]goes analog\s mutations1 los+ its e>?y texture z x approa*es ! dike1 & becom+ granul> & cry/all9e4 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y ph5om5on is ! appe>ance 9 ! %ale ( num]\s cry/als ( analcime & g>net1 :i* are di/9ctly conf9$ to ^? portions ( ! rock affect$ by ! dike4#chb-;,a ,"s g>nets conta9 z mu* z #bj p] c5t4 ( lime1 :i* !y may h d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( ! fossil %ells or ,producti4 ,! same m9]al has be5 obs]v$1 "u v analog\s circum/ances1 9 ,high ,teesdale1 by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 :]e x also occurs 9 %ale & lime/one1 alt]$ by basalt4#chb-;,b ,antrim4--,9 sev]al p>ts ( ! c\nty ( ,antrim1 9 ! nor? ( ,irel&1 *alk ) fl9ts is trav]s$ by basaltic dikes4 ,! *alk is !re conv]t$ into granul> m>ble ne> ! basalt1 ! *ange sometimes ext5d+ #h or #aj feet f ! wall ( ! dike1 be+ greate/ ne> ! po9t ( contact1 & !nce gradually decreas+ till x becomes evanesc5t4 ,! extreme effect1 says ,dr4 ,b]g]1 pres5ts a d>k br[n cry/all9e lime/one1 ! cry/als runn+ 9 flakes z l>ge z ^? ( co>se primitive 7metamorphic7 lime/one2 ! next /ate is sac*>9e1 !n f9e gra9$ & ar5ace\s2 a compact v>iety1 hav+ a porcellan\s aspect & a blui%-grey col\r1 succe$s3 ?is1 t[>ds ! out] edge1 becomes yell[i%-:ite1 & ins5sibly graduates into ! unalt]$ *alk4 ,! fl9ts 9 ! alt]$ *alk usually assume a grey yell[i% col\r4#chb-;,c ,all traces ( organic rema9s are effac$ 9 t "p ( ! lime/one :i* is mo/ cry/all9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddf4 ,basaltic dikes 9 *alk 9 isl& ( ,ra?l91 ,antrim4 ,gr\nd plan1 z se5 on ! bea*4 7,conybe>e & ,buckl&4#chb-;,d7 ,! annex$ draw+ 7fig4 #ddf47 repres5ts ?ree basaltic dikes trav]s+ ! *alk1 all )9 ! di/ance ( #ij feet4 ,! *alk contigu\s to ! two out] dikes is conv]t$ into a f9ely granul> m>ble1 m m1 z are ! :ole ( ! masses betwe5 ! out] dikes & ! c5tral "o4 ,! entire contra/ 9 ! composition & col\r ( ! intrusive & invad$ rocks1 9 ^! cases1 r5d]s ! ph5om5a peculi>ly cle> & int]e/+4 ,ano!r ( ! dikes ( ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel& has conv]t$ a mass ( r$ s&/one into horn/one4#chb-;,e ,by ano!r1 ! slate clay ( ! coal measures has be5 indurat$1 & has assum$ ! "* ( fl9ty slate#chc-;,a2 & 9 ano!r place ! slate clay ( ! lias has be5 *ang$ into fl9ty slate1 :i* /ill reta9s num]\s impressions ( ammonites4#chc-;,b ,x might h be5 anticipat$ t b$s ( coal w\ld1 f _! combu/ible nature1 be effect$ 9 an extraord9>y degree by ! contact ( melt$ rock4 ,accord+ly1 "o ( ! gre5/one dikes ( ,antrim1 on pass+ ?r\gh a b$ ( coal1 r$uces x to a c9d] = ! space ( #i feet on ea* side4#chc-;,c ,at ,cockfield ,fell1 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 a simil> *ange is obs]v$4 ,specim5s tak5 at ! di/ance ( ab\t #cj y>ds f ! trap are n di/+ui%able f ord9>y pit coal2 ^? ne>] ! dike are l c9d]s1 & h all ! "* ( coke2 :ile ^? close to x are conv]t$ into a sub/ance resembl+ soot4#chc-;,d ,z examples might be multipli$ )\t end1 ,i %all m]ely select "o or two o!rs1 & !n conclude4 ,! rock ( ,/irl+ ,ca/le is a calc>e\s s&/one1 fractur$ & =cibly displac$ by a mass ( gre5/one :i* has evid5tly invad$ ! /rata 9 a melt$ /ate4 ,! s&/one has be5 indurat$1 & has assum$ a texture approa*+ to horn/one ne> ! junction4 ,9 ,ar?ur's ,seat & ,salisbury ,craig1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 a s&/one :i* comes 9 contact ) gre5/one is conv]t$ into a jaspide\s rock4#chc-;,e ,! second>y s&/ones 9 ,skye are conv]t$ into solid qu>tz 9 sev]al places1 :]e !y come 9 contact ) ve9s or masses ( trap2 & a b$ ( qu>tz1 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 f\nd ne> a mass ( trap1 among ! coal /rata ( ,fife1 0 9 all probability a /ratum ( ord9>y s&/one1 hav+ be5 subsequ5tly indurat$ & turn$ into qu>tzite by ! action ( heat4#chc-;,f ,b al?\gh /rata 9 ! neighb\rhood ( dikes are ?us alt]$ 9 a v>iety ( cases1 %ale be+ turn$ into fl9ty slate or jasp]1 lime/one into cry/all9e m>ble1 s&/one into qu>tz1 coal into coke1 & ! fossil rema9s ( all su* /rata :olly & 9 "p oblit]at$1 x is by no means uncommon to meet ) ! same rocks1 ev5 9 ! same di/ricts1 absolutely un*ang$ 9 ! proximity ( volcanic dikes4 ,?is great inequality 9 ! effects ( ! igne\s rocks may (t5 arise f an orig9al diff]5ce 9 _! temp]ature1 & 9 t ( ! entangl$ gases1 su* z is asc]ta9$ to prevail 9 diff]5t lavas1 or 9 ! same lava ne> its s\rce & at a di/ance f x4 ,! p[] also ( ! invad$ rocks to conduct heat may v>y1 accord+ to _! composition1 /ructure1 & ! fractures :i* !y may h exp]i5c$1 & p]haps1 also1 accord+ to ! quantity ( wat] 7s capable ( be+ heat$7 :i* !y conta94 ,x mu/ happ5 9 "s cases t ! compon5t mat]ials are mix$ 9 su* proportions z prep>e !m readily to ent] into *emical union1 & =m new m9]als2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! mass may be m homog5e\s1 or ! proportions less adapt$ = su* union4 ,we mu/ also take into consid]ation1 t "o fissure may be simply fill$ ) lava1 :i* may beg9 to cool f ! fir/2 :]eas 9 o!r cases ! fissure may give passage to a curr5t ( melt$ matt]1 :i* may asc5d = days or mon?s1 fe$+ /reams :i* are ov]fl[+ ! c\ntry above1 or are eject$ 9 ! %ape ( scoriae f "s crat]4 ,if ! walls ( a r5t1 moreov]1 are heat$ by hot vap\r be=e ! lava rises1 z we "k may happ5 on ! flanks ( a volcano1 ! additional caloric suppli$ by ! dike & its gases w act m p[]fully4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddg4 ,trap int]pos$ betwe5 displac$ b$s ( lime/one & %ale1 at ,:ite ,=ce1 ,high ,teesdale1 ,durham4 7,s$gwick4#chd-;,a7 ,intrusion ( trap betwe5 /rata4--,9 pro( ( ! me*anical =ce :i* ! fluid trap has sometimes ex]t$ on ! rocks into :i* x has intrud$ itself1 ,i may ref] to ! ,:9-,sill1 :]e a mass ( basalt1 f #fj to #hj feet 9 height1 repres5t$ by a1 fig4 #ddg41 is 9 "p w$g$ 9 betwe5 ! rocks ( lime/one1 b1 & %ale1 c1 :i* h be5 sep>at$ f ! great mass ( lime/one & %ale1 d1 ) :i* !y 7 unit$4 ,! %ale 9 ?is place is indurat$2 & ! lime/one1 :i* at a di/ance f ! trap is blue1 & conta9s fossil corals1 is "h conv]t$ into granul> m>ble )\t fossils4 ,masses ( trap are n unfrequ5tly met ) int]calat$ betwe5 /rata1 & ma9ta9+ _! p>allelism to ! planes ( /ratification ?r\gh\t l>ge areas4 ,!y mu/ 9 "s places h =c$ _! way lat]ally betwe5 ! divisions ( ! /rata1 a direction 9 :i* !re w\ld be ! lea/ resi/ance to an advanc+ fluid1 if no v]tical r5ts communicat$ ) ! surface1 & a p[]ful hydro/atic pressure 0 caus$ by gases propell+ ! lava upw>ds4 ,column> & globul> /ructure4--,"o ( ! *>act]i/ic =ms ( volcanic rocks1 especially ( basalt1 is ! column>1 :]e l>ge masses are divid$ into regul> prisms1 sometimes easily sep>able1 b 9 o!r cases adh]+ firmly toge!r4 ,! columns v>y 9 ! numb] ( angles1 f ?ree to twelve2 b !y h mo/ commonly f five to sev5 sides4 ,!y are (t5 divid$ transv]sely1 at ne>ly equal di/ances1 l ! jo9ts 9 a v]tebral column1 z 9 ! ,giant's ,causeway1 9 ,irel&4 ,!y v>y exce$+ly 9 respect to l5g? & diamet]4 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch m5tions "s 9 ,skye :i* are ab\t #djj feet long2 o!rs1 9 ,morv51 n exce$+ an in*4 ,9 reg>d to diamet]1 ^? ( ,ailsa measure #i feet1 & ^? ( ,morv5 an in* or less4#che-;,a ,!y are usually /raight1 b sometimes curv$2 & examples ( bo? ^! occur 9 ! isl& ( ,/affa4 ,9 a horizontal b$ or %eet ( trap ! columns are v]tical2 9 a v]tical dike !y are horizontal4 ,among o!r examples ( ! la/-m5tion$ ph5om5on is ! mass ( basalt1 call$ ! ,*imney1 9 ,/4 ,hel5a 7see fig4 #ddh471 a pile ( hexagonal prisms1 #fd feet high1 evid5tly ! rema9d] ( a n>r[ dike1 ! walls ( rock :i* ! dike orig9ally trav]s$ hav+ be5 remov$ d[n to ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 fig4 #ddi4 a small portion ( ?is dike is repres5t$ on a less r$uc$ scale4#che-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddh4 ,volcanic dike compos$ ( horizontal prisms4 ,/4 ,hel5a4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ddi4 ,small portion ( ! dyke 9 ,fig4 #ddh4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dej4 ,lava ( ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 ne> ,antraigue1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,arde*e4 ,x be+ assum$ t column> trap has consolidat$ f a fluid /ate1 ! prisms are said to be always at "r angles to ! cool+ surfaces4 ,if ^! surfaces1 !re=e1 in/ead ( be+ ei!r p]p5dicul>1 or horizontal1 are curv$1 ! columns ought to be incl9$ at e angle to ! horizon2 & !re is a beautiful exemplification ( ?is ph5om5on 9 "o ( ! valleys ( ! ,viv>ais1 a m\nta9\s di/rict 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 :]e1 9 ! mid/ ( a region ( gneiss1 a geologi/ enc\nt]s unexpect$ly sev]al volcanic cones ( loose s& & scoriae4 ,f ! crat] ( "o ( ^! cones call$ ,la ,c\pe d',ayzac1 a /ream ( lava desc5ds & occupies ! bottom ( a n>r[ valley1 except at ^? po9ts :]e ! riv] ,volant1 or ! torr5ts :i* jo9 x1 h cut away portions ( ! solid lava4 ,! accompany+ sket* 7fig4 #dej47 repres5ts ! remnant ( ! lava at "o ( ! po9ts :]e a lat]al torr5t jo9s ! ma9 valley ( ! ,volant4 ,x is cle> t ! lava once fill$ ! :ole valley up to ! dott$ l9e d a2 b ! riv] has gradually swept away all bel[ t l9e1 :ile ! tribut>y torr5t has laid op5 a transv]se section2 by :i* we p]ceive1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! lava is compos$1 z usual 9 ?is c\ntry1 ( ?ree p>ts3 ! upp]mo/1 at a1 be+ scoriace\s2 ! second1 b1 pres5t+ irregul> prisms2 & ! ?ird1 c1 ) regul> columns1 :i* are v]tical on ! banks ( ! ,volant1 :]e !y re/ on a horizontal base ( gneiss1 b :i* are incl9$ at an angle ( #de deg4 at g1 & !n horizontal at f1 _! position hav+ be5 e :]e det]m9$1 accord+ to ! law be=e m5tion$1 by ! concave =m ( ! orig9al valley4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #dea4 ,column> basalt 9 ! ,vic5t94 7,=tis47 ,9 ! annex$ figure 7#dea47 a view is giv5 ( "s ( ! incl9$ & curv$ columns :i* pres5t !mselves on ! sides ( ! valleys 9 ! hilly region nor? ( ,vic5za1 9 ,italy1 & at ! foot ( ! high] ,alps4#chf-;,a ,unlike ^? ( ! ,viv>ais1 la/ m5tion$1 ! basalt ( ?is c\ntry 0 evid5tly subm>9e1 & ! pres5t valleys h s9ce be5 holl[$ out by d5udation4 ,! column> /ructure is by no means peculi> to ! trap rocks 9 :i* hornbl5de or augite pr$om9ate2 x is also obs]v$ 9 cl9k/one1 tra*yte1 & o!r felspa?ic rocks ( ! igne\s class1 al?\gh 9 ^! x is r>ely exhibit$ 9 su* regul> polygonal =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deb4 ,basaltic pill>s ( ! ,kaesegrotte1 ,b]tri*-,bad51 half way betwe5 ,treves & ,cobl5tz4 ,height ( grotto1 f #g to #h feet4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t basaltic columns are (t5 divid$ by cross jo9ts4 ,sometimes ea* segm5t1 in/ead ( an angul>1 assumes a sph]oidal =m1 s t a pill> is made up ( a pile ( balls1 usually flatt5$1 z 9 ! ,*eese-grotto at ,b]tri*-,bad51 9 ! ,eifel1 ne> ! ,moselle 7fig4 #deb474 ,! basalt1 !re1 is "p ( a small /ream ( lava1 f #cj to #dj feet ?ick1 :i* has proce$$ f "o ( sev]al volcanic crat]s1 /ill extant1 on ! neighb\r+ heights4 ,! position ( ! lava bord]+ ! riv] 9 ?is valley might be repres5t$ by a section l t already giv5 at fig4 #dej4 p4 #che41 if we m]ely suppos$ incl9$ /rata ( slate & ! argillace\s s&/one call$ greywacke to be sub/itut$ = gneiss4 ,9 "s masses ( decompos+ gre5/one1 basalt1 & o!r trap rocks1 ! globul> /ructure is s conspicu\s t ! rock has ! appe>ance ( a heap ( l>ge cannon balls4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dec4 ,globi=m pit*/one4 ,*iaja di ,luna1 ,isle ( ,ponza4 7,scrope47 ,a /rik+ example ( ?is /ructure occurs 9 a res9\s tra*yte or pit*/one-porphyry 9 "o ( ! ,ponza isl&s1 :i* rise f ! ,m$it]ranean1 (f ! coa/ ( ,t]rac9a & ,gaeta4 ,! globes v>y f a few in*es to ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 & are ( an ellipsoidal =m 7see fig4 #dec474 ,! :ole rock is 9 a /ate ( decomposition1 & :5 ! balls1 says ,mr4 ,scrope1 h be5 expos$ a %ort "t to ! wea!r1 !y scale (f at a t\* into num]\s conc5tric coats1 l ^? ( a bulb\s root1 inclos+ a compact nucleus4 ,! lam9ae ( ?is nucleus h n be5 s mu* loos5$ by decomposition2 b ! application ( a rud] bl[ w produce a /ill fur!r exfoliation4#chg-;,a ,a fissile texture is occasionally assum$ by cl9k/one & o!r trap rocks1 s t !y h be5 us$ = ro(+ h\ses4 ,sometimes ! prismatic & slaty /ructure is f\nd 9 ! same mass4 ,! causes :i* give rise to su* arrangem5ts are v obscure1 b are suppos$ to be connect$ ) *anges ( temp]ature dur+ ! cool+ ( ! mass1 z w be po9t$ out 9 ! sequel4 7,see ,*aps4 ,,xxxv4 & ,,xxxvi47 ,relation ( ,trappean ,rocks to ! products ( active ,volcanos4 ,:5 we reflect on ! *anges above describ$ 9 ! /rata ne> _! contact ) trap dikes1 & consid] h[ great is ! analogy 9 composition & /ructure ( ! rocks call$ trappean & ! lavas ( active volcanos1 x seems difficult at fir/ to und]/& h[ s mu* d\bt c\ld h prevail$ = half a c5tury z to :e!r trap 0 ( igne\s or aque\s orig94 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 h[ev]1 !re 0 a real di/9ction betwe5 ! trappean =mations & ^? to :i* ! t]m volcanic 0 almo/ exclusively conf9$4 ,! trappean rocks fir/ /udi$ 9 ! nor? ( ,g]many1 & 9 ,norway1 ,france1 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries1 7 ei!r su* z _h be5 =m$ entirely "u deep wat]1 or _h be5 inject$ into fissures & intrud$ betwe5 /rata1 & :i* _h nev] fl[$ out 9 ! air1 or ov] ! bottom ( a %all[ sea4 ,:5 ^! products1 !re=e1 ( subm>9e or subt]ranean igne\s action 7 contra/$ ) loose cones ( scoriae1 tuff1 & lava1 or ) n>r[ /reams ( lava 9 great "p scoriace\s & por\s1 su* z 7 obs]v$ to h proce$$ f ,vesuvius & ,etna1 ! resemblance seem$ remote & equivocal4 ,x 01 9 tru?1 l comp>+ ! roots ( a tree ) its leaves & bran*es1 :i*1 al?\gh !y belong to ! same plant1 diff] 9 =m1 texture1 col\r1 mode ( gr[?1 & position4 ,! ext]nal cone1 ) its loose a%es & por\s lava1 may be lik5$ to ! light foliage & bran*es1 & ! rocks conceal$ f> bel[1 to ! roots4 ,b x is n en\gh to say ( ! volcano1 quantum v]tice 9 auras ,a,etherias1 tantum radice 9 ,t>t>a t5dit1 = its roots d lit]ally rea* d[nw>ds to ,t>t>us1 or to ! regions ( subt]ranean fire2 & :at is conceal$ f> bel[1 is probably always m important 9 volume & ext5t ?an :at is visible above gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ded4 ,/rata int]sect$ by a trap dike1 & cov]$ ) alluvium4 ,we h already /at$ h[ frequ5tly d5se masses ( /rata h be5 remov$ by d5udation f wide areas 7see ,*ap4 ,,vi472 & ?is fact prep>es u to expect a simil> de/ruction ( :atev] may once h =m$ ! upp]mo/ "p ( anci5t subm>9e or suba]ial volcanos1 m especially z ^? sup]ficial p>ts are always ( ! lighte/ & mo/ p]i%able mat]ials4 ,! abrupt mann] 9 :i* dikes ( trap usually t]m9ate at ! surface 7see fig4 #ded471 & ! wat]-worn pebbles ( trap 9 ! alluvium :i* cov]s ! dike1 prove inconte/ably t :atev] 0 upp]mo/ 9 ^! =mations has be5 swept away4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to conceive t :at is gone 9 regions ( trap may h correspond$ to :at is n[ visible 9 active volcanos4 ,x w be se5 9 ! foll[+ *apt]s1 t 9 ! e>?'s cru/ !re are volcanic tuffs ( all ages1 conta9+ m>9e %ells1 :i* be> witness to eruptions at _m successive geological p]iods4 ,^! tuffs1 & ! associat$ trappean rocks1 mu/ n be comp>$ to lava & scoriae :i* _h cool$ 9 ! op5 air4 ,_! c\nt]p>ts mu/ be s\ght 9 ! products ( mod]n subm>9e volcanic eruptions4 ,if x be object$ t we h no opportunity ( /udy+ ^! la/1 x may be answ]$1 t subt]ranean movem5ts h caus$1 almo/ ev]y:]e 9 regions ( active volcanos1 great *anges 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea1 9 times comp>atively mod]n1 s z to expose to view ! effects ( volcanic op]ations at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,?us1 = example1 ! rec5t exam9ation ( ! igne\s rocks ( ,sicily1 especially ^? ( ! ,val di ,noto1 has prov$ t all ! m ord9>y v>ieties ( ,european trap h be5 !re produc$ "u ! wat]s ( ! sea1 at a mod]n p]iod2 t is to say1 s9ce ! ,m$it]ranean has be5 inhabit$ by a great proportion ( ! exi/+ species ( te/acea4 ,^! igne\s rocks ( ! ,val di ,noto1 & ! m anci5t trappean rocks ( ,scotl& & o!r c\ntries1 diff] f suba]ial volcanic =mations 9 be+ m compact & heavy1 & 9 =m+ sometimes ext5sive %eets ( matt] int]calat$ betwe5 m>9e /rata1 & sometimes /ratifi$ conglom]ates1 ( :i* ! r\nd$ pebbles are all trap4 ,!y diff] also 9 ! abs5ce ( regul> cones & crat]s1 & 9 ! want ( con=mity ( ! lava to ! l[e/ levels ( exi/+ valleys4 ,x is highly probable1 h[ev]1 t insul> cones did exi/ 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,val di ,noto3 & t !y 7 remov$ by ! waves1 9 ! same mann] z ! cone ( ,graham isl&1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 0 swept away 9 #ahca1 & t ( ,nyoee1 (f ,icel&1 9 #aghc4chi-;,a ,all t w\ld rema9 9 su* cases1 aft] ! b$ ( ! sea has be5 upheav$ & laid dry1 w\ld be dikes & %apeless masses ( igne\s rock1 cutt+ ?r\gh %eets ( lava :i* may h spread ov] ! level bottom ( ! sea1 & /rata ( tuff1 =m$ ( mat]ials fir/ scatt]$ f> & wide by ! w9ds & waves1 & !n deposit$4 ,trap conglom]ates also1 to :i* ! action ( ! waves mu/ give rise dur+ ! d5udation ( su* volcanic isl&s1 w em]ge f ! deep :5ev] ! bottom ( ! sea becomes l&4 ,! proportion ( volcanic matt] :i* is orig9ally subm>9e mu/ always be v great1 z ^? volcanic v5ts :i* are n entirely b5ea? ! sea1 are almo/ all ( !m 9 isl&s1 or1 if on cont95ts1 ne> ! %ore4 ,?is may expla9 :y ext5d$ %eets ( trap s (t5 occur1 in/ead ( n>r[ ?reads1 l lava /reams4 ,=1 a multitude ( causes t5d1 ne> ! l&1 to r$uce ! bottom ( ! sea to a ne>ly uni=m level1--! s$im5t ( riv]s1--mat]ials transport$ by ! waves & curr5ts ( ! sea f wa/+ cliffs1--%[]s ( s& & scoriae eject$ by volcanos1 & scatt]$ by ! w9d & waves4 ,:51 !re=e1 lava is p\r$ out on su* a surface1 x w spread f> & wide 9 e direction 9 a liquid %eet1 :i* may aft]w>ds1 :5 rais$ up1 =m ! tabul> capp+ ( ! l&4 ,z to ! abs5ce ( porosity 9 ! trappean =mations1 ! appe>ances are 9 a great degree deceptive1 = all amygdaloids are1 z already expla9$1 por\s rocks1 into ! cells ( :i* m9]al matt]1 su* z silex1 c>bonate ( lime1 & o!r +r$i5ts1 h be5 subsequ5tly introduc$ 7see p4 #cgc472 sometimes1 p]haps1 by secretion dur+ ! cool+ & consolidation ( lavas4 ,9 ! ,little ,cumbray1 "o ( ! ,we/]n ,isl&s1 ne> ,arran1 ! amygdaloid sometimes conta9s elongat$ cavities fill$ ) br[n sp>2 & :5 ! nodules h be5 wa%$ out1 ! int]ior ( ! cavities is glaz$ ) ! vitre\s v>ni% s *>act]i/ic ( ! pores ( slaggy lavas4 ,ev5 9 "s p>ts ( ?is rock :i* are exclud$ f air & wat]1 ! cells are empty1 & seem to h always rema9$ 9 ?is /ate1 & are !re=e undi/+ui%able f "s mod]n lavas4#cij-;,a ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 aft] exam9+ ) great att5tion ^! & ! o!r igne\s rocks ( ,scotl&1 obs]ves1 t x is a m]e dispute ab\t t]ms1 to refuse to ! anci5t eruptions ( trap ! "n ( subm>9e volcanos2 = !y are su* 9 e ess5tial po9t1 al?\gh !y no long] eject fire & smoke4#cij-;,b ,! same au?or also consid]s x n improbable t "s ( ! volcanic rocks ( ! same c\ntry may h be5 p\r$ out 9 ! op5 air4#cij-;,c ,al?\gh ! pr9cipal compon5t m9]als ( suba]ial lavas are ! same z ^? ( intrusive trap1 & bo? ! column> & globul> /ructure are common to bo?1 !re are1 nev]!less1 "s volcanic rocks :i* nev] occur z lava1 su* z gre5/one1 cl9k/one1 ! m cry/all9e porphyries1 & ^? traps 9 :i* qu>tz & mica appe> z con/itu5t p>ts4 ,9 %ort1 ! intrusive trap rocks1 =m+ ! int]m$iate /ep betwe5 lava & ! plutonic rocks1 dep>t 9 _! *>act]s f lava 9 proportion z !y approximate to granite4 ,^! views respect+ ! relations ( ! volcanic & trap rocks w be bett] und]/ood :5 ! read] has /udi$1 9 ! #cc;d *apt]1 :at is said ( ! plutonic =mations4 ,,=m1 ,,/ructure1 ,,& ,,orig9 ,,( ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s4 ,! orig9 ( volcanic cones ) crat]-%ap$ summits has be5 allud$ to 9 ! la/ *apt] 7p4 #cfh471 & m fully expla9$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology 7*aps4 xxiv4 to xxvii471 :]e ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,santor91 & ,b>r5 ,isl& 7 describ$4 ,! m anci5t portions ( ^? m\nta9s or isl&s1 =m$ long be=e ! times ( hi/ory1 exhibit ! same ext]nal features & int]nal /ructure :i* belong to mo/ ( ! ext9ct volcanos ( /ill high] antiquity4 ,! isl& ( ,palma1 = example1 "o ( ! ,can>ies1 (f]s an excell5t illu/ration ( :at1 9 common ) _m o!rs1 ,i reg>d z ! ru9s ( a l>ge dome-%ap$ mass =m$ by a s]ies ( eruptions proce$+ f a crat] at ! summit1 ?is crat] hav+ be5 s9ce replac$ by a l>g] cavity1 ! orig9 ( :i* has af=d$ geologi/s an ample field = discussion & speculation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dee4 ,view ( ! ,isle ( ,palma1 & ( ! entrance into ! c5tral cavity or ,cald]a4 ,f ,von ,bu*'s ,can>y ,isl&s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #def4 ,map ( ! ,cald]a ( ,palma & ! great rav9e1 call$ ,b>ranco de las ,angu/ias4 ,f ,survey ( ,capt4 ,vidal1 ,r4,n41 #ahcg4 ,von ,bu*1 9 8 excell5t acc\nt ( ! ,can>ies1 has giv5 u a graphic picture ( ?is isl&1 :i* consi/s *iefly ( a s+le m\nta9 7fig4 #dee474 ,?is m\nta9 has ! g5]al =m ( a great truncat$ cone1 ) a huge & deep cavity 9 ! middle1 ab\t six miles 9 diamet]1 call$ by ! inhabitants ! ,cald]a1 or cauldron4 ,! range ( precipices surr\nd+ ! ,cald]a are no less ?an #djjj feet 9 _! av]age height2 at "o po9t1 :]e !y are highe/1 !y are #ggcj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,! ext]nal flanks ( ! cone incl9e g5tly 9 e direction t[>ds ! base ( ! isl&1 & are 9 "p cultivat$2 b ! walls & bottom ( ! ,cald]a pres5t on all sides rugg$ & uncultivat$ rocks1 almo/ completely devoid ( vegetation4 ,s /eep are ^! walls1 t !re is no "p by :i* !y c be desc5d$1 & ! only entrance is by a great rav9e1 or ,b>ranco1 z x is call$ 7see b b'1 map1 fig4 #def471 :i* ext5ds f ! sea to ! int]ior ( ! great cavity1 & by its jagg$1 brok51 & precipit\s sides1 exhibits to ! geologi/ a transv]se section ( ! rocks ( :i* ! :ole m\nta9 is compos$4 ,by ?is means1 we le>n t ! cone is made up ( a great numb] ( slop+ b$s1 :i* dip outw>ds 9 e direction f ! c5tre ( ! void space1 or f ! holl[ axis ( ! cone4 ,! b$s consi/ *iefly ( %eets ( basalt1 alt]nat+ ) conglom]ates2 ! mat]ials ( ! latt] be+ 9 "p r\nd$1 z if roll$ by wat] 9 motion4 ,! incl9ation ( all ! b$s corresponds to t ( ! ext]nal slope ( ! isl&1 be+ greate/ t[>ds ! ,cald]a1 & lea/ /eep :5 !y are ne>e/ ! sea4 ,!re are a great numb] ( tortu\s ve9s1 & _m dikes ( lava or trap1 *iefly basaltic1 & mo/ ( !m v]tical1 :i* cut ?r\gh ! slop+ b$s laid op5 to view 9 ! great gorge or ,b>ranco4 ,^! dikes & ve9s are m & m abundant z we approa* ! ,cald]a1 be+ !re=e mo/ num]\s :]e ! slope ( ! b$s is greate/4 ,assum+ ! cone to be a pile ( volcanic mat]ials eject$ by a long succession ( eruptions 7a po9t on :i* all geologi/s are agre$71 we h to acc\nt = ! ,cald]a & ! great ,b>ranco4 ,i conceive t ! cone itself may be expla9$1 9 accordance ) :at we "k ( ! ord9>y gr[? ( volcanos#cib-;,a1 by suppos+ mo/ ( ! eruptions to h tak5 place f "o or m c5tral v5ts1 at or ne> ! summit ( ! cone1 be=e x 0 truncat$4 ,f ?is culm9at+ po9t1 %eets ( lava fl[$ d[n "o aft] ! o!r1 & %[]s ( a%es or eject$ /ones4 ,! volcano may1 9 ! e>li] /ages ( its gr[?1 h be5 9 great "p subm]g$1 l ,/romboli1 9 ! sea2 &1 !re=e1 "s ( ! fragm5ts ( rock ca/ out ( its crat] may n only h be5 roll$ by torr5ts sweep+ d[n ! m\nta9's side1 b h also be5 r\nd$ by ! waves ( ! sea1 z we see happ5 on ! bea* ne> ,catania1 on :i* ! mod]n lavas ( ,etna are brok5 up4 ,! increas$ numb] ( dykes1 z we approa* ! axis ( ! cone1 agrees well ) ! hypo!sis ( ! eruptions hav+ be5 mo/ frequ5t t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,!re are ?ree kn[n causes or modes ( op]ation1 :i* may h conduc$ t[>ds ! va/ size ( ! ,cald]a4 ,fir/1 ! summit ( a conical m\nta9 may h fall5 91 z happ5$ 9 ! case ( ,capacurcu1 "o ( ! ,&es1 accord+ to tradition1 9 ! ye> #adfb1 & ( _m o!r volcanic m\nta9s4#cic-;,a ,sections seem want+1 to supply u ) all ! data requir$ = judg+ fairly ( ! t5ability ( ?is hypo!sis4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 f ,capta9 ,vidal's survey 7see fig4 #def471 t a hill ( consid]able height rises up f ! bottom ( ! ,cald]a1 ! /ructure ( :i*1 if x be any :]e laid op51 might d\btless ?r[ mu* light on ?is subject4 ,secondly1 an orig9al crat] may h be5 enl>g$ by a va/ gase\s explosion1 nev] foll[$ by any subsequ5t eruption4 ,a s]i\s objection to ?is !ory arises f our n f9d+ t ! ext]ior ( ! cone supports a mass ( ru9s1 su* z ought to cov] x1 _h s enorm\s a volume ( matt]1 p>tly made up ( ! solid cont5ts ( ! dikes1 be5 bl[n out into ! air4 ,9 t case1 an ext5sive b$ ( angul> fragm5ts ( /one1 & ( f9e du/1 might be look$ =1 envelop+ ! entire ext]ior ( ! m\nta9 up to ! v rim ( ! ,cald]a1 & ought n[h]e to be int]sect$ by a dike4 ,! abs5ce ( su* a =mation has induc$ ,von ,bu* to suppose t ! miss+ portion ( ! cone 0 engulph$4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be rememb]$1 t 9 exi/+ volcanos1 l>ge crat]s1 two or ?ree miles 9 diamet]1 are sometimes =m$ by explosions1 or by ! dis*>ge ( great volumes ( /eam4 ,!re is yet ano!r cause to :i* ! extraord9>y dim5sions ( ! ,cald]a may1 9 "p at lea/1 be ow+2 namely1 aque\s d5udation4 ,von ,bu* has obs]v$1 t ! exi/5ce ( a s+le deep rav9e1 l ! ,great ,b>ranco1 is a ph5om5on common to _m ext9ct volcanos1 z well z to "s active ones4 ,n[1 x w be se5 by ,capta9 ,vidal's map 7fig4 #def4 p4 #cia471 t ! sea-cliff at ,po9t ,juan ,graje1 #ghj feet high1 n[ con/itut+ ! coa/ at ! entrance ( ! great rav9e1 is cont9u\s ) an inl& cliff :i* b\nds ! same rav9e on its nor?-we/]n side4 ,no "o w dispute t ! precipice1 at ! base ( :i* ! waves are n[ beat+1 owes its orig9 to ! und]m9+ p[] ( ! sea4 ,x is natural1 !re=e1 to attribute ! ext5sion ( ! same cliff to ! =m] action ( ! waves1 ex]t$ at a "t :5 ! relative level ( ! isl& & ! ocean 7 diff]5t f :at !y are n[4 ,b if ! waves & tides _h p[] to remove ! rocks once fill+ a great gorge :i* is #g miles long1 &1 9 its upp] "p1 #bjjj feet deep1 c we d\bt t ! same p[] may h cle>$ out mu* ( ! solid mass n[ miss+ 9 ! ,great ,cald]a8 ,! !ory advanc$ to acc\nt = ! configuration ( ,palma1 commonly call$ ! elevation crat] !ory1 is ?is4 ,all ! alt]nat+ masses ( basalt & conglom]ate1 int]sect$ 9 ! ,b>ranco1 or abruptly cut (f 9 ! esc>pm5t or walls ( ! ,cald]a1 7 at fir/ dispos$ 9 horizontal masses on ! level floor ( ! ocean1 & trav]s$1 :5 9 t position1 by all ! basaltic dikes :i* n[ cut ?r\gh !m4 ,at l5g? !y 7 sudd5ly uplift$ by ! explosive =ce ( ela/ic vap\rs1 :i* rais$ ! mass bodily1 s z to tilt ! b$s on all sides away f ! c5tre ( elevation1 caus+ at ! same "t an op5+ at ! culm9at+ po9t4 ,besides _m o!r objections :i* may be urg$ aga9/ ?is hypo!sis1 x leaves unexpla9$ ! unbrok5 cont9uity ( ! rim ( ! ,cald]a1 :i* is un9t]rupt$ 9 all places save "o#cid-;,a1 namely1 t :]e ! great gorge or ,b>ranco occurs4 ,z a m natural way ( expla9+ ! ph5om5on1 ! foll[+ s]ies ( ev5ts may be imag9$4 ,! pr9cipal v5t1 f :i* a l>ge "p ( ! mat]ials ( ! cone 7 p\r$ or ?r[n out1 0 left empty aft] ! la/ escape ( vap\r1 :5 ! volcano became ext9ct4 ,we le>n f ,mr4 ,dana's valuable "w on ! geology ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates' ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 publi%$ 9 #ahdi1 t two ( ! pr9cipal volcanos ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 ,m\nts ,loa & ,kea 9 ,owyhee1 are huge flatt5$ volcanic cones1 #ae1jjj feet high 7see fig4 #deg471 ea* equall+ two & a half ,etnas 9 _! dim5sions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deg4 ,m\nt ,loa1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 7,dana7 a4 ,crat] at ! summit4 b4 ,! lat]al crat] ( ,kilauea4 ,! dott$ l9es indicate a suppos$ column ( solid rock caus$ by ! lava consolidat+ aft] eruptions4 ,f ! summits ( ^! l(ty ?\gh featureless hills1 & f v5ts n f> bel[ _! summits1 successive /reams ( lava1 (t5 #b miles or m 9 wid?1 & sometimes #bf miles long1 h fl[$4 ,!y h be5 p\r$ out "o aft] ! o!r1 "s ( !m 9 rec5t times1 9 e direction f ! apex ( ! cone1 d[n slopes v>y+ on an av]age f #d degrees to #h degrees2 b at "s places consid]ably /eep]4#cid-;,b ,sometimes deep r5ts op5 on ! sides ( ^! cones1 :i* are fill$ by /reams ( lava pass+ ov] !m1 ! liquid matt] 9 su* cases probably unit+ 9 ! fissure ) o!r lava melt$ 9 subt]ranean res]voirs bel[1 & ?us expla9+ ! orig9 ( "o great class ( lat]al dikes1 on ,etna1 ,palma1 & o!r cones4 ,if ! flatt5$ domes1 su* z ^? "h allud$ to 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 in/ead ( be+ inl&1 & above wat]1 7 situat$ 9 mid-ocean1 l ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,paul1 & = ! mo/ "p subm]g$ 7see figs4 #deh1 #dei1 #dfj471 & if a gradual upheaval ( su* a dome %\ld !n take place1 ! d5ud+ p[] ( ! sea c\ld sc>cely fail to play an important "p 9 modify+ ! =m ( ! volcanic m\nta9 z x rose4 ,! crat] w almo/ inv>iably h "o side mu* l[] ?an all ! o!rs1 namely1 t side t[>ds :i* ! prevail+ w9ds nev] bl[1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 %[]s ( du/ & scoriae are r>ely c>ri$ dur+ eruptions4 ,!re w also be "o po9t on ?is w9dw>d or l[e/ side m depress$ ?an all ! re/1 by :i* ! sea may ent] z (t5 z ! tide rises1 or z (t5 z ! w9d bl[s f t qu>t]4 ,= ! same reason t ! sea cont9ues to keep op5 a s+le entrance into ! lagoon ( an atoll or annul> coral reef1 x w n all[ ?is passage into ! crat] to be /opp$ up1 b sc\r x out1 at l[ tide1 or z (t5 z ! w9d *anges4 ,! *annel1 !re=e1 w always be deep5$ 9 proportion z ! isl& rises above ! level ( ! sea1 at ! rate p]haps ( a few feet or y>ds 9 a c5tury4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #deh4 ,map ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,paul1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean1 lat4 #ch deg4 #dd' ,s41 long4 #gg deg4 #cg' ,e41 survey$ by ,capt4 ,blackwood1 ,r4,n41 #ahdb4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dei4 ,view ( ! ,crat] ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,paul4 ,! isl& ( ,/4 ,paul may p]haps be motionless2 b if1 l _m o!r p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 x %\ld beg9 to und]go a gradual upheaval1 or if1 z has happ5$ to ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 its level %\ld oscillate1 ) a t5d5cy ^u ! :ole to increas$ elevation1 ! same p[] :i* has cut away "p ( ! cone1 & caus$ ! cliffs n[ se5 on ! nor?-ea/ side ( ! isl&1 w\ld h p[] to und]m9e ! walls ( ! crat]1 & enl>ge its diamet]1 keep+ op5 ! *annel1 by :i* x ent]s into x4 ,?is rav9e might be excavat$ to ! dep? ( #ahj feet 7! pres5t dep? ( ! crat]71 & its l5g? might be ext5d$ to _m miles accord+ to ! size ( ! subm]g$ "p ( ! cone4 ,! crat] is only a mile 9 diamet]1 & ! surr\nd+ cliffs1 :]e l(tie/1 only #hjj feet high1 s t ! size ( ?is cone & crat] is insignificant :5 comp>$ to ^? 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 & ,i h m]ely select$ x because x af=ds an example ( a class ( insul> volcanos1 into ! crat]s ( :i* ! sea n[ ent]s by a s+le passage4 ,! crat] ( ,vesuvius 9 #ahbb 0 #bjjj feet deep2 & if x 7 a half subm]g$ cone1 l ,/4 ,paul1 ! excavat+ p[] ( ! ocean might 9 conjunction ) gase\s explosions & co-op]at+ ) a gradual upheav+ =ce1 give rise to a cald]a on z gr& a scale z t exhibit$ by ,palma4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfj4 ,side view ( ! ,isl& ( ,/4 ,paul 7,n4,e4 side74 ,n9e-p9 rocks two miles di/ant4 7,capta9 ,blackwood47 ,if1 aft] ! geographical *anges above suppos$1 ! volcanic fires long dormant %\ld recov] _! en]gy1 !y might1 z 9 ! case ( ,t5]iffe1 ,vesuvius1 ,santor91 & ,b>r5 ,isl&1 dis*>ge f ! old c5tral v5t1 long seal$ up at ! bottom ( ! cald]a1 new floods ( lava & cl\ds ( ela/ic vap\rs4 ,%\ld ?is happ51 a new cone w be built up 9 ! middle ( ! cavity or circul> bay1 =m$1 p>tly by explosion1 p>tly p]haps by engulphm5t1 & p>tly by aque\s d5udation4 ,9 ! isl& ( ,palma ?is la/ phase ( volcanic activity has nev] occurr$2 b ! subt]ranean heat is /ill 9 full op]ation b5ea? ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 s t we "k n :at future *anges x may be de/9$ to und]go4 ,,footnotes3 #cgh-;,a ,i h be5 fav\r$ ) ?is draw+ by ,capta9 ,b4 ,hall4 #cha-;,a ,cambridge ,transactions1 vol4 i4 p4 #djb4 #chb-;,a ,cambridge ,trans41 vol4 i4 p4 #daj4 #chb-;,b ,ibid4 vol4 ii4 p4 #age4 #chb-;,c ,dr4 ,b]g]1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #agb4 #chb-;,d ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #baj4 & plate #aj4 #chb-;,e ,ibid4 p4 #bja4 #chc-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bje4 #chc-;,b ,ibid4 p4 #bac42 & ,playfair1 ,illu/4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 p4 #bec4 #chc-;,c ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bjf4 #chc-;,d ,s$gwick1 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cg4 #chc-;,e ,illu/4 ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 ,sec4 #bec4 & #bfa4 ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cje4 #chc-;,f ,sy/4 ( ,geol4 vol4 i4 p4 #bjf4 #chd-;,a ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahj4 #che-;,a ,mac,cul4 ,sy/4 ( ,geol4 vol4 ii4 p4 #acg4 #che-;,b ,seale's ,geognosy ( ,/4 ,hel5a1 plate #i4 #chf-;,a ,=tis4 ,mem4 sur l',hi/4 ,nat4 de l',italie1 tom4 i4 p4 #bcc4 plate #g4 #chg-;,a ,scrope1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bje4 #b;d s]ies4 #chi-;,a ,see ,pr9c4 ( ,geol41 ,index1 ,graham ,isl&1 ,nyoee1 ,conglom]ates1 volcanic1 c4 #cij-;,a ,mac,culloch1 ,we/4 ,isl41 vol4 ii4 p4 #dhg4 #cij-;,b ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 ii4 p4 #aad4 #cij-;,c ,ibid4 #cib-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 *aps4 xxiv-xxvii4 #cic-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 *aps4 xxvi4 & xxx42 #h? ed4 p4 #cig-dge4 #cid-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geol4 *4 xxiv4 7#h? ed4 p4 #cee474 #cid-;,b ,see ,lyell on ,crat]s ( ,d5udation1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn4 vol4 vi4 p4 #bcb4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks4 ,te/s ( relative age ( volcanic rocks--,te/ by sup]position & intrusion--,dike ( ,qu>r+ton ,hill1 ,durham--,te/ by alt]ation ( rocks 9 contact--,te/ by organic rema9s--,te/ ( age by m9]al "*--,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts--,volcanic rocks ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod--,basalt ( ,bay ( ,trezza 9 ,sicily--,po/-,plioc5e volcanic rocks ne> ,naples--,dikes ( ,somma--,igne\s =mations ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod--,val di ,noto 9 ,sicily4 ,hav+ ref]r$ ! s$im5t>y /rata to a long succession ( geological p]iods1 we h next to consid] h[ f> ! volcanic =mations c be class$ 9 a simil> *ronological ord]4 ,! te/s ( relative age 9 ?is class ( rocks are f\r3--#a/1 sup]position & intrusion1 ) or )\t alt]ation ( ! rocks 9 contact2 #b;d1 organic rema9s2 #c;d1 m9]al "*2 #d?1 includ$ fragm5ts ( old] rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfa4 ,cross section4 ,te/s by sup]position1 c4--,if a volcanic rock re/s ^u an aque\s deposit1 ! =m] mu/ be ! newe/ ( ! two1 b ! l rule does n hold good :]e ! aque\s =mation re/s ^u ! volcanic1 = melt$ matt]1 ris+ f bel[1 may p5etrate a s$im5t>y mass )\t rea*+ ! surface1 or may be =c$ 9 con=mably betwe5 two /rata1 z b at ,d 9 ! annex$ figure 7fig4 #dfa471 aft] :i* x may cool d[n & consolidate4 ,sup]position1 !re=e1 is n ( ! same value z a te/ ( age 9 ! un/ratifi$ volcanic rocks z 9 fossilif]\s =mations4 ,we c only rely implicitly on ?is te/ :]e ! volcanic rocks are contemporane\s1 n :]e !y are intrusive4 ,n[ !y are said to be contemporane\s if produc$ by volcanic action1 :i* 0 go+ on simultane\sly ) ! deposition ( ! /rata ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,?us 9 ! section at ,d 7fig4 #dfa471 we may p]haps asc]ta9 t ! trap b fl[$ ov] ! fossilif]\s b$ c1 & t1 aft] its consolidation1 a 0 deposit$ ^u x1 a & c bo? belong+ to ! same geological p]iod4 ,b if ! /ratum a be alt]$ by b at ! po9t ( contact1 we mu/ !n conclude ! trap to h be5 intrusive1 or if1 9 pursu+ b = "s di/ance1 we f9d at l5g? t x cuts ?r\gh ! /ratum a1 & !n ov]lies x z at ,e4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 be easily deceiv$ 9 suppos+ a volcanic rock to be intrusive1 :5 9 reality x is contemporane\s2 = a %eet ( lava1 z x spreads ov] ! bottom ( ! sea1 _c re/ ev]y:]e ^u ! same /ratum1 ei!r because ^! h be5 d5ud$1 or because1 if newly ?r[n d[n1 !y ?9 out 9 c]ta9 places1 ?us all[+ ! lava to cross _! edges4 ,besides1 ! heavy igne\s fluid w (t51 z x moves along1 cut a *annel into b$s ( s(t mud & s&4 ,suppose ! subm>9e lava ,f to h come 9 contact 9 ?is mann] ) ! /rata a1 b1 c1 & t aft] its consolidation1 ! /rata d1 e1 are ?r[n d[n 9 a ne>ly horizontal position1 yet s z to lie uncon=mably to ,f1 ! appe>ance ( subsequ5t intrusion w "h be complete1 al?\gh ! trap is 9 fact contemporane\s4 ,we mu/ n1 !re=e1 ha/ily inf] t ! rock ,f is intrusive1 unless we f9d ! /rata d or e to h be5 alt]$ at _! junction1 z if by heat4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfb4 ,cross section4 ,:5 trap dikes 7 describ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 !y 7 %[n to be m mod]n ?an all ! /rata :i* !y trav]se4 ,a basaltic dike at ,qu>r+ton ,hill1 ne> ,durham1 passes ?r\gh coal-measures1 ! /rata ( :i* are incl9$1 & %ift$ s t ^? on ! nor? side ( ! dike are #bd feet above ! level ( ! correspond+ b$s on ! s\? side 7see section1 fig4 #dfc474 ,b ! horizontal b$s ( ov]ly+ ,r$ ,s&/one & ,magnesian ,lime/one are n cut ?r\gh by ! dike4 ,n[ "h ! coal-measures 7 n only deposit$1 b _h subsequ5tly be5 di/urb$1 fissur$1 & %ift$1 be=e ! fluid trap n[ =m+ ! dike 0 introduc$ into a r5t4 ,x is also cle> t "s ( ! upp] edges ( ! coal /rata1 toge!r ) ! upp] "p ( ! dike1 _h be5 subsequ5tly remov$ by d5udation be=e ! l[] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one & ,magnesian ,lime/one 7 sup]impos$4 ,ev5 9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 al?\gh ! date ( ! volcanic eruption is br\ght )9 n>r[ limits1 x _c be def9$ ) precision2 x may h happ5$ ei!r at ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 or e>ly 9 t ( ! ,l[] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 or betwe5 ^! two p]iods1 :5 ! /ate ( ! animate creation & ! physical geography ( ,europe 7 gradually *ang+ f ! type ( ! ,c>bonif]\s era to t ( ! ,p]mian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfc4 ,section at ,qu>r+ton ,hill1 ea/ ( ,durham4 7,s$gwick47 a4 ,magnesian ,lime/one 7,p]mian74 b4 ,l[] ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 c4 ,coal /rata4 ,! te/ ( age by sup]position is /rictly applicable to all /ratifi$ volcanic tuffs1 accord+ to ! rules already expla9$ 9 ! case ( o!r s$im5t>y deposits4 7,see p4 #if47 ,te/ ( age by organic rema9s4--,we h se5 h[1 9 ! vic9ity ( active volcanos1 scoriae1 pumice1 f9e s&1 & fragm5ts ( rock are ?r[n up into ! air1 & !n %[]$ d[n ^u ! l&1 or into neighb\r+ lakes or seas4 ,9 ! tuffs s =m$ %ells1 corals1 or any o!r durable organic bodies :i* may happ5 to be /rew$ ov] ! bottom ( a lake or sea w be imb$d$1 & ?us cont9ue z p]man5t memorials ( ! geological p]iod :5 ! volcanic eruption occurr$4 ,tuface\s /rata ?us =m$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,/romboli1 & o!r volcanos n[ active 9 isl&s or ne> ! sea1 may give in=mation ( ! relative age ( ^! tuffs at "s remote future p]iod :5 ! fires ( ^! m\nta9s are ext+ui%$4 ,by su* evid5ce we c di/9ctly e/abli% ! co9cid5ce 9 age ( volcanic rocks1 & ! diff]5t prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y fossilif]\s /rata already consid]$4 ,! tuffs n[ allud$ to are n exclusively m>9e1 b include1 9 "s places1 fre%wat] %ells2 9 o!rs1 ! bones ( t]re/rial quadrup$s4 ,! div]sity ( organic rema9s 9 =mations ( ?is nature is p]fectly intelligible1 if we reflect on ! wide disp]sion ( eject$ matt] dur+ late eruptions1 su* z t ( ! volcano ( ,cosegu9a1 9 ! prov9ce ( ,nic>agua1 ,janu>y #ai4 #ahce4 ,hot c9d]s & f9e scoriae 7 !n ca/ up to a va/ height1 & cov]$ ! gr\nd z !y fell to ! dep? ( m ?an #aj feet1 & = a di/ance ( #h leagues f ! crat] 9 a s\!rly direction4 ,birds1 cattle1 & wild animals 7 scor*$ to dea? 9 great numb]s1 & buri$ 9 ^! a%es4 ,"s volcanic du/ fell at ,*iapa1 upw>ds ( #abjj miles to w9dw>d ( ! volcano1 a /rik+ pro( ( a c\nt] curr5t 9 ! upp] region ( ! atmosph]e2 & "s on ,jamaica1 ab\t #gjj miles di/ant to ! nor?-ea/4 ,9 ! sea1 also1 at ! di/ance ( #aajj miles f ! po9t ( eruption1 ,capta9 ,ed5 ( ! ,conway sail$ #dj miles ?r\gh float+ pumice1 among :i* 7 "s pieces ( consid]able size4#cii-;,a ,te/ ( age by m9]al composition4--,z s$im5t ( homog5e\s composition1 :5 dis*>g$ f ! m\? ( a l>ge riv]1 is (t5 deposit$ simultane\sly ov] a wide space1 s a p>ticul> k9d ( lava1 fl[+ f a crat] dur+ "o eruption1 may spread ov] an ext5sive area2 z 9 ,icel& 9 #aghc1 :5 ! melt$ matt]1 p\r+ f ,skapt> ,jokul1 fl[$ 9 /reams 9 opposite directions1 & caus$ a cont9u\s mass1 ! extreme po9ts ( :i* 7 #ij miles di/ant f ea* o!r4 ,?is enorm\s curr5t ( lava v>i$ 9 ?ickness f #ajj feet to #fjj feet1 & 9 bread? f t ( a n>r[ riv] gorge to #ae miles4#cii-;,b ,n[1 if su* a mass %\ld aft]w>ds be divid$ into sep>ate fragm5ts by d5udation1 we might /ill p]haps id5tify ! deta*$ portions by _! simil>ity 9 m9]al composition4 ,nev]!less1 ?is te/ w n always avail ! geologi/2 =1 al?\gh !re is usually a prevail+ "* 9 lava emitt$ dur+ ! same eruption1 & ev5 9 ! successive curr5ts fl[+ f ! same volcano1 /ill1 9 _m cases1 ! diff]5t p>ts ev5 ( "o lava-/ream1 or1 z be=e /at$1 ( "o cont9u\s mass ( trap1 v>y s mu* 9 m9]al composition & texture z to r5d] ^! *>act]s ( m9or importance :5 comp>$ to _! value 9 ! *ronology ( ! fossilif]\s rocks4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be se5 9 ! description :i* foll[s1 ( ! ,european trap rocks ( diff]5t ages1 t !y _h (t5 a peculi> li?ological "*1 resembl+ ! diff]5ces be=e rem>k$ z exi/+ betwe5 ! mod]n lavas ( ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & ,*ili4 7,see p4 #cgh47 ,x has be5 rem>k$ t 9 ,auv]gne1 ! ,eifel1 & o!r c\ntries :]e tra*yte & basalt are bo? pres5t1 ! tra*ytic rocks are = ! mo/ "p old] ?an ! basaltic4 ,^! rocks d1 inde$1 sometimes alt]nate p>tially1 z 9 ! volcano ( ,mont ,dor1 9 ,auv]gne2 b ! great mass ( tra*yte occupies 9 g5]al an inf]ior position1 & is cut ?r\gh & ov]fl[$ by basalt4 ,x c by no means be inf]r$ t tra*yte pr$om9at$ greatly at "o p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory & basalt at ano!r1 = we "k t tra*ytic lavas h be5 =m$ at _m successive p]iods1 & are /ill emitt$ f _m active crat]s2 b x seems t 9 ea* region1 :]e a long s]ies ( eruptions h occurr$1 ! m felspa?ic lavas h be5 fir/ emitt$1 & ! escape ( ! m augitic k9ds has foll[$4 ,! hypo!sis sugge/$ by ,mr4 ,scrope may1 p]haps1 af=d a solution ( ?is problem4 ,! m9]als1 he obs]ves1 :i* ab\nd 9 basalt are ( great] specific gravity ?an ^? compos+ ! felspa?ic lavas2 ?us1 = example1 hornbl5de1 augite1 & oliv9e are ea* m ?an ?ree times ! weight ( wat]2 :]eas common felsp>1 albite1 & ,labrador felsp>1 h ea* sc>cely m ?an #b-a_/b times ! specific gravity ( wat]2 & ! diff]5ce is increas$ 9 consequ5ce ( !re be+ mu* m iron 9 a metallic /ate 9 basalt & gre5/one ?an 9 tra*yte & o!r felspa?ic lavas & traps4 ,if1 !re=e1 a l>ge quantity ( rock be melt$ up 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? by volcanic heat1 ! d5s] +r$i5ts ( ! boil+ fluid may s9k to ! bottom1 & ! light] rema9+ above w\ld 9 t case be fir/ propell$ upw>ds to ! surface by ! expansive p[] ( gases4 ,^? mat]ials1 !re=e1 :i* occupi$ ! l[e/ place 9 ! subt]ranean res]voir w always be emitt$ la/1 & take ! upp]mo/ place on ! ext]ior ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts4--,we may sometimes discov] ! relative age ( two trap rocks1 or ( an aque\s deposit & ! trap on :i* x re/s1 by f9d+ fragm5ts ( "o includ$ 9 ! o!r1 9 cases su* z ^? be=e allud$ to1 :]e ! evid5ce ( sup]position alone w\ld be insuffici5t4 ,x is also n uncommon to f9d conglom]ates almo/ exclusively compos$ ( roll$ pebbles ( trap1 associat$ ) /ratifi$ rocks 9 ! neighb\rhood ( masses ( intrusive trap4 ,if ! pebbles agree g5]ally 9 m9]al "* ) ! latt]1 we are !n enabl$ to det]m9e ! age ( ! intrusive rock by kn[+ t ( ! fossilif]\s /rata associat$ ) ! conglom]ate4 ,! orig9 ( su* conglom]ates is expla9$ by obs]v+ ! %+le bea*es compos$ ( trap pebbles 9 mod]n volcanic isl&s1 or at ! base ( ,etna4 ,po/-,plioc5e ,p]iod 7includ+ ! ,rec5t74--,i %all n[ select examples ( contemporane\s volcanic rocks ( successive geological p]iods1 to %[ t igne\s causes h be5 9 activity 9 all pa/ ages ( ! _w1 & t !y h be5 ev] %ift+ ! places :]e !y h brok5 out at ! e>?'s surface4 ,"o portion ( ! lavas1 tuffs1 & trap dikes ( ,etna1 ,vesuvius1 & ! ,isl& ( ,is*ia1 has be5 produc$ )9 ! hi/orical era2 ano!r1 & a f> m consid]able "p1 orig9at$ at times imm$iately antec$5t1 :5 ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7 already inhabit$ by ! exi/+ species ( te/acea4 ,! s\!rn & ea/]n flanks ( ,etna are skirt$ by a fr+e ( alt]nat+ s$im5t>y & volcanic deposits1 ( subm>9e orig91 z at ,ad]no1 ,trezza1 & o!r places4 ,( sixty-five species ( fossil %ells :i* ,i procur$ 9 #ahbh f ?is =mation1 ne> ,trezza1 x 0 impossible to di/+ui% any f species n[ liv+ 9 ! neighb\r+ sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfd4 ,view ( ! ,isle ( ,cyclops 9 ! ,bay ( ,trezza4#dja-;,a ,! ,cyclopian ,isl&s1 call$ by ! ,sicilians ,dei ,f>aglioni1 9 ! sea cliffs ( :i* ^! b$s ( clay1 tuff1 & associat$ lava are laid op5 to view1 are situat$ 9 ! ,bay ( ,trezza1 & may be reg>d$ z ! extremity ( a promontory sev]$ f ! ma9 l&4 ,"h num]\s pro(s are se5 ( subm>9e eruptions1 by :i* ! argillace\s & s&y /rata 7 invad$ & cut ?r\gh1 & tuface\s breccias =m$4 ,inclos$ 9 ^! breccias are _m angul> & h>d5$ fragm5ts ( lam9at$ clay 9 diff]5t /ates ( alt]ation by heat1 & int]mix$ ) volcanic s&s4 ,! l(tie/ ( ! ,cyclopian islets1 or r rocks1 is ab\t #bjj feet 9 height1 ! summit be+ =m$ ( a mass ( /ratifi$ clay1 ! lam9ae ( :i* are occasionally subdivid$ by ?9 ar5ace\s lay]s4 ,^! /rata dip to ! ,n4,w41 & re/ on a mass ( column> lava 7see fig4 #dfd47 9 :i* ! tops ( ! pill>s are wea!r$1 & s r\nd$ z to be (t5 hemisph]ical4 ,9 "s places 9 ! adjo9+ & l>ge/ islet ( ! gr\p1 :i* lies to ! nor?-ea/w>d ( t repres5t$ 9 ! draw+ 7fig4 #dfd471 ! ov]ly+ clay has be5 greatly alt]$1 & h>d5$ by ! igne\s rock1 & occasionally contort$ 9 ! mo/ extraord9>y mann]2 yet ! lam9ation has n be5 oblit]at$1 b1 on ! contr>y1 r5d]$ mu* m conspicu\s1 by ! indurat+ process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfe4 ,contortions ( /rata 9 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,cyclopian ,isl&s4 ,9 ! annex$ woodcut 7fig4 #dfe47 ,i h repres5t$ a portion ( ! alt]$ rock1 a few feet squ>e1 :]e ! alt]nat+ ?9 lam9ae ( s& & clay h put on ! appe>ance :i* we (t5 obs]ve 9 "s ( ! mo/ contort$ ( ! metamorphic s*i/s4 ,a great fissure1 runn+ f ea/ to we/1 ne>ly divides ?is l>g] isl& into two p>ts1 & lays op5 its int]nal /ructure4 ,9 ! section ?us exhibit$1 a dike ( lava is se51 fir/ cutt+ ?r\gh an old] mass ( lava1 & !n p5etrat+ ! sup]9cumb5t t]ti>y /rata4 ,9 "o place ! lava ramifies & t]m9ates 9 ?9 ve9s1 f a few feet to a few in*es 9 ?ickness4 7,see fig4 #dff47 ,! ar5ace\s lam9ae are mu* h>d5$ at ! po9t ( contact1 & ! clays are conv]t$ into silice\s s*i/4 ,9 ?is isl& ! alt]$ rocks assume a honeycomb$ /ructure on _! wea!r$ surface1 s+ul>ly contra/$ ) ! smoo? & ev5 outl9e :i* ! same b$s pres5t 9 _! usual s(t & yield+ /ate4 ,! pores ( ! lava are sometimes coat$1 or entirely fill$1 ) c>bonate ( lime1 & ) a zeolite resembl+ analcime1 :i* has be5 call$ cyclopite4 ,! latt] m9]al has also be5 f\nd 9 small fissures trav]s+ ! alt]$ m>l1 %[+ t ! same cause :i* introduc$ ! m9]als into ! cavities ( ! lava1 :e!r we suppose sublimation or aque\s infiltration1 convey$ x also into ! op5 r5ts ( ! contigu\s s$im5t>y /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dff4 ,po/-,plioc5e /rata invad$ by lava1 ,isle ( ,cyclops 7horizontal section74 a4 ,lava4 b4 ,lam9at$ clay & s&4 c4 ,! same alt]$4 ,po/-,plioc5e =mations ne> ,naples4--,i h trac$ 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology ! hi/ory ( ! *anges :i* ! volcanic region ( ,campania is kn[n to h und]gone dur+ ! la/ #bjjj ye>s4 ,! aggregate effect ( igne\s op]ations dur+ t p]iod is f> f insignificant1 compris+ z x does ! =mation ( ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius s9ce ! ye> #gi1 & ! production ( sev]al m9or cones 9 ,is*ia1 toge!r ) t ( ,monte ,nuovo 9 ! ye> #aech4 ,lava-curr5ts h also fl[$ ^u ! l& & along ! bottom ( ! sea--volcanic s&1 pumice1 & scoriae h be5 %[]$ d[n s abundantly1 t :ole cities 7 buri$--tracts ( ! sea h be5 fill$ up or conv]t$ into %oals--& tuface\s s$im5t has be5 transport$ by riv]s & l&-floods to ! sea4 ,!re are also pro(s1 dur+ ! same rec5t p]iod1 ( a p]man5t alt]ation ( ! relative levels ( ! l& & sea 9 sev]al places1 & ( ! same tract hav+1 ne> ,puzzuoli1 be5 alt]nately upheav$ & depress$ to ! am\nt ( m ?an #bj feet4 ,9 connection ) ^! convulsions1 !re are f\nd1 on ! %ores ( ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 rec5t tuface\s /rata1 fill$ ) articles fabricat$ by ! h&s ( man1 & m+l$ ) m>9e %ells4 ,x 0 also /at$ 9 ?is "w 7p4 #aac471 t :5 we exam9e ?is same region1 x is f\nd to consi/ l>gely ( tuface\s /rata1 ( a date ant]ior to human hi/ory or tradition1 :i* are ( su* ?ickness z to con/itute hills f #ejj to m ?an #bjjj feet 9 height4 ,^! po/-plioc5e /rata1 conta9+ rec5t m>9e %ells1 alt]nate ) di/9ct curr5ts & %eets ( lava :i* 7 ( contemporane\s orig92 & we f9d t 9 ,vesuvius itself1 ! anci5t cone call$ ,somma is ( f> great] volume ?an ! mod]n cone1 & is int]sect$ by a f> great] numb] ( dikes4 ,9 contra/+ ?is anci5t "p ( ! m\nta9 ) t ( mod]n date1 "o pr9cipal po9t ( diff]5ce is obs]v$2 namely1 ! great] frequ5cy 9 ! old] cone ( fragm5ts ( alt]$ s$im5t>y rocks eject$ dur+ eruptions4 ,we may easily conceive t ! fir/ explosions w\ld act ) ! greate/ viol5ce1 r5d+ & %att]+ :atev] solid masses ob/ruct$ ! escape ( lava & ! accompany+ gases1 s t great heaps ( eject$ pieces ( rock w\ld naturally occur 9 ! tuface\s breccias =m$ by ! e>lie/ eruptions4 ,b :5 a passage _h once be5 op5$1 & an habitual v5t e/abli%$1 ! mat]ials ?r[n out w\ld consi/ ( liquid lava1 :i* w\ld take ! =m ( s& & scoriae1 or ( angul> fragm5ts ( su* solid lavas z may h *ok$ up ! v5t4 ,among ! fragm5ts :i* ab\nd 9 ! tuface\s breccias ( ,somma1 none are m common ?an a sac*>oid dolomite1 suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f an ord9>y lime/one alt]$ by heat & volcanic vap\rs4 ,c>bonate ( lime ent]s into ! composition ( s _m ( ! simple m9]als f\nd 9 ,somma1 t ,m4 ,mits*]li*1 ) mu* probability1 ascribes _! great v>iety to ! action ( ! volcanic heat on subjac5t masses ( lime/one4 ,dikes ( ,somma4--,! dikes se5 9 ! great esc>pm5t :i* ,somma pres5ts t[>ds ! mod]n cone ( ,vesuvius are v num]\s4 ,!y are = ! mo/ "p v]tical1 & trav]se at "r angles ! b$s ( lava1 scoriae1 volcanic breccia1 & s&1 ( :i* ! anci5t cone is compos$4 ,!y project 9 relief sev]al in*es1 or sometimes feet1 f ! face ( ! cliff1 be+ extremely compact1 & less de/ructible ?an ! int]sect$ tuffs & por\s lavas4 ,9 v]tical ext5t !y v>y f a few y>ds to #ejj feet1 & 9 bread? f #a to #ab feet4 ,_m ( !m cut all ! incl9$ b$s 9 ! esc>pm5t ( ,somma f top to bottom1 o!rs /op %ort be=e !y asc5d above half way1 & a few t]m9ate at bo? ends1 ei!r 9 a po9t or abruptly4 ,9 m9]al composition !y sc>cely diff] f ! lavas ( ,somma1 ! rock consi/+ ( a base ( leucite & augite1 ?r\gh :i* l>ge cry/als ( augite & "s ( leucite are scatt]$4#djd-;,a ,examples are n r>e ( "o dike cutt+ ?r\gh ano!r1 & 9 "o in/ance a %ift or fault is se5 at ! po9t ( int]section4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! r5ts seem to h be5 fill$ lat]ally1 :5 ! walls ( ! crat] _h be5 brok5 by />-%ap$ cracks1 z se5 9 ! accompany+ woodcut 7fig4 #dfg474 ,b ! %ape ( ^! r5ts is an exception to ! g5]al rule2 = no?+ is m rem>kable ?an ! usual p>allelism ( ! opposite sides ( ! dikes1 :i* correspond almo/ z regul>ly z ! two opposite faces ( a wall ( masonry4 ,?is "* appe>s at fir/ ! m inexplicable1 :5 we consid] h[ jagg$ & unev5 are ! r5ts caus$ by e>?quakes 9 masses ( het]og5e\s composition1 l ^? compos+ ! cone ( ,somma4 ,9 explanation ( ?is ph5om5on1 ,m4 ,neck] ref]s u to ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's acc\nt ( an eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ! ye> #aggi1 :o records ! foll[+ facts3--,! lavas1 :5 !y ei!r boil$ ov] ! crat]1 or broke out f ! conical p>ts ( ! volcano1 con/antly =m$ *annels z regul> z if !y _h be5 cut by art d[n ! /eep "p ( ! m\nta92 &1 :il/ 9 a /ate ( p]fect fusion1 cont9u$ _! c\rse 9 ^? *annels1 :i* 7 sometimes full to ! brim1 & at o!r times m or less s1 accord+ to ! quantity ( matt] 9 motion4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dfg4 ,dikes or ve9s at ! ,punta del ,nasone on ,somma4 7,neck]4#dje-;,a7 ,^! *annels1 ^u exam9ation aft] an eruption1 ,i h f\nd to be 9 g5]al f two to five or six feet wide1 & sev5 or eight feet deep4 ,!y 7 (t5 hid f ! sight by a quantity ( scoriae t _h =m$ a cru/ ov] !m2 & ! lava1 hav+ be5 convey$ 9 a cov]$ way = "s y>ds1 came out fre% aga9 into an op5 *annel4 ,aft] an eruption1 ,i h walk$ 9 "s ( ^? subt]rane\s or cov]$ gall]ies1 :i* 7 exce$+ly curi\s1 ! sides1 top1 & bottom be+ worn p]fectly smoo? & ev5 9 mo/ p>ts1 by ! viol5ce ( ! curr5ts ( ! r$-hot lavas :i* !y _h convey$ = _m weeks successively4#dje-;,b ,n[1 ! walls ( a v]tical fissure1 ?r\gh :i* lava has asc5d$ 9 its way to a volcanic v5t1 mu/ h be5 expos$ to ! same erosion z ! sides ( ! *annels be=e adv]t$ to4 ,! prolong$ & uni=m friction ( ! heavy fluid1 z x is =c$ & made to fl[ upw>ds1 _c fail to we> & smoo? d[n ! surfaces on :i* x rubs1 & ! int5se heat mu/ melt all su* masses z project & ob/ruct ! passage ( ! inc&esc5t fluid4 ,! texture ( ! ,vesuvian dikes is diff]5t at ! edges & 9 ! middle4 ,t[>ds ! c5tre1 obs]ves ,m4 ,neck]1 ! rock is l>g] gra9$1 ! compon5t elem5ts be+ 9 a f> m cry/all9e /ate2 :ile at ! edge ! lava is sometimes vitre\s1 & always f9] gra9$4 ,a ?9 p>t+ b&1 approa*+ 9 its "* to pit*/one1 occasionally int]v5es1 on ! contact ( ! v]tical dike & int]sect$ b$s4 ,m4 ,neck] m5tions "o ( ^! at ! place call$ ,primo ,monte1 9 ! ,atrio del ,cavallo2 & :5 on ,somma1 9 #ahbh1 ,i saw ?ree or f\r o!rs 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! great esc>pm5t4 ,^! ph5om5a are 9 p]fect h>mony ) ! results ( ! exp]im5ts ( ,sir ,james ,hall & ,mr4 ,gregory ,watt1 :i* h %[n t a glassy texture is ! effect ( sudd5 cool+1 & t1 on ! contr>y1 a cry/all9e gra9 is produc$ :]e fus$ m9]als are all[$ to consolidate sl[ly & tranquilly "u high pressure4 ,x is evid5t t ! c5tral portion ( ! lava 9 a fissure w\ld1 dur+ consolidation1 "p ) its heat m sl[ly ?an ! sides1 al?\gh ! contra/ ( circum/ances w\ld n be s great z :5 we comp>e ! lava at ! bottom & at ! surface ( a curr5t fl[+ 9 ! op5 air4 ,9 ?is case ! upp]mo/ "p1 :]e x has be5 9 contact ) ! atmosph]e1 & :]e refrig]ation has be5 mo/ rapid1 is always f\nd to consi/ ( scori=m1 vitre\s1 & por\s lava2 :ile at a great] dep? ! mass assumes a m li?oidal /ructure1 & !n becomes m & m /ony z we desc5d1 until at l5g? we are able to recognize ) a magnify+ glass ! simple m9]als ( :i* ! rock is compos$4 ,on p5etrat+ /ill deep]1 we c detect ! con/itu5t p>ts by ! nak$ eye1 & 9 ! ,vesuvian curr5ts di/9ct cry/als ( augite & leucite become app>5t4 ,! same ph5om5on1 obs]ves ,m4 ,neck]1 may readily be exhibit$ on a small] scale1 if we deta* a piece ( liquid lava f a mov+ curr5t4 ,! fragm5t cools in/antly1 & we f9d ! surface cov]$ ) a vitre\s coat2 :ile ! int]ior1 al?\gh extremely f9e-gra9$1 has a m /ony appe>ance4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$1 t al?\gh ! lat]al portions ( ! dikes are f9] gra9$ ?an ! c5tral1 yet ! vitre\s p>t+ lay] be=e allud$ to is r>e 9 ,vesuvius4 ,?is may1 p]haps1 be acc\nt$ =1 z ! above-m5tion$ au?or sugge/s1 by ! great heat :i* ! walls ( a fissure may acquire be=e ! fluid mass beg9s to consolidate1 9 :i* case ! lava1 ev5 at ! sides1 w\ld cool v sl[ly4 ,"s fissures1 also1 may be fill$ f above1 z frequ5tly happ5s 9 ! volcanos ( ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,dana2 & 9 ?is case ! refrig]ation at ! sides w\ld be m rapid ?an :5 ! melt$ matt] fl[$ upw>ds f ! volcanic foci1 9 an int5sely heat$ /ate4 ,mr4 ,d>w9 in=ms me t 9 ,/4 ,hel5a almo/ e dike has a vitre\s selvage4 ,! rock compos+ ! dikes bo? 9 ! mod]n & anci5t "p ( ,vesuvius is f> m compact ?an t ( ord9>y lava1 = ! pressure ( a column ( melt$ matt] 9 a fissure greatly exce$s t 9 an ord9>y /ream ( lava2 & pressure *ecks ! expansion ( ^? gases :i* give rise to vesicles 9 lava4 ,!re is a t5d5cy 9 almo/ all ! ,vesuvian dikes to divide into horizontal prisms1 a ph5om5on 9 accordance ) ! =mation ( v]tical columns 9 horizontal b$s ( lava2 = 9 bo? cases ! divisions :i* give rise to ! prismatic /ructure are at "r angles to ! cool+ surfaces4 ,new] ,plioc5e ,p]iod--,val di ,noto4--,i h already allud$ 7see p4 #aej47 to ! igne\s rocks :i* are associat$ ) a great m>9e =mation ( lime/one1 s&1 & m>l1 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,sicily1 z at ,vizz9i & o!r places4 ,9 ?is =mation1 :i* 0 %[n to belong to ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod1 l>ge b$s ( oy/]s & corals repose ^u lava1 & are unalt]$ at ! po9t ( contact4 ,9 o!r places we f9d dikes ( igne\s rock int]sect+ ! fossilif]\s b$s1 & conv]t+ ! clays into silice\s s*i/1 ! lam9ae be+ contort$ & %iv]$ into innum]able fragm5ts at ! junction1 z ne> ! t[n ( ,vizz9i4 ,! volcanic =mations ( ! ,val di ,noto usually consi/ ( ! mo/ ord9>y v>iety ( basalt1 ) or )\t oliv9e4 ,! rock is sometimes compact1 (t5 v vesicul>4 ,! vesicles are occasionally empty1 bo? 9 dikes & curr5ts1 & are 9 "s localities fill$ ) calc>e\s sp>1 arragonite1 & zeolites4 ,! /ructure is1 9 "s places1 sph]oidal2 9 o!rs1 ?\gh r>ely1 column>4 ,i f\nd dikes ( amygdaloid1 wacke1 & prismatic basalt1 int]sect+ ! lime/one at ! bottom ( ! holl[ call$ ,gozzo degli ,m>tiri1 bel[ ,melilli4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #dfh4 ,fig4 #dfi4 ,gr\nd-plan ( dikes ne> ,palagonia4 a4 ,lava4 b4 ,pep]9o1 consi/+ ( volcanic s&1 mix$ ) fragm5ts ( lava & lime/one4 ,dikes4--,dikes ( vesicul> & amygdaloidal lava are also se5 trav]s+ m>9e tuff or pep]9o1 we/ ( ,palagonia1 "s ( ! pores ( ! lava be+ empty1 :ile o!rs are fill$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 su* cases1 we may suppose ! pep]9o to h result$ f %[]s ( volcanic s& & scoriae1 toge!r ) fragm5ts ( lime/one1 ?r[n out by a subm>9e explosion1 simil> to t :i* gave rise to ,graham ,isl& 9 #ahca4 ,:5 ! mass 01 to a c]ta9 degree1 consolidat$1 x may h be5 r5t op51 s t ! lava asc5d$ ?r\gh fissures1 ! walls ( :i* 7 p]fectly ev5 & p>allel4 ,aft] ! melt$ matt] t fill$ ! r5t 9 fig4 #dfh4 _h cool$ d[n1 x mu/ h be5 fractur$ & %ift$ horizontally by a lat]al movem5t4 ,9 ! second figure 7fig4 #dfi471 ! lava has m ! appe>ance ( a ve9 :i* =c$ its way ?r\gh ! pep]9o4 ,x is highly probable t simil> appe>ances w\ld be se51 if we c\ld exam9e ! floor ( ! sea 9 t "p ( ! ,m$it]ranean :]e ! waves h rec5tly wa%$ away ! new volcanic isl&2 = :5 a sup]9cumb5t mass ( eject$ fragm5ts has be5 remov$ by d5udation1 we may expect to see sections ( dikes trav]s+ tuff1 or1 9 o!r words1 sections ( ! *annels ( communication by :i* ! subt]ranean lavas rea*$ ! surface4 ,,footnotes3 #cii-;,a ,caldcleugh1 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahcf4 p4 #bg41 & ,(ficial ,docum5ts ( ,nic>agua4 #cii-;,b ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,skapt> ,jokul4 #dja-;,a ,?is view ( ! ,isle ( ,cyclops is f an orig9al draw+ by my fri5d ! late ,capta9 ,basil ,hall1 ,r4 ,n4 #djd-;,a ,consult ! valuable memoir ( ,m4 ,l4 ,a4 ,neck]1 ,mem4 de la ,soc4 de ,phys4 et d',hi/4 ,nat4 de ,g5eve1 tom4 ii4 "p i4 ,nov4 #ahbb4 #dje-;,a ,f a draw+ ( ,m4 ,neck]1 9 ,mem4 above cit$4 #dje-;,b ,phil4 ,trans41 vol4 lxx41 #aghj4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,volcanic rocks ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e p]iod--,tuscany--,rome--,volcanic region ( ,olot 9 ,catalonia--,cones & lava-curr5ts--,rav9es & anci5t gravel-b$s--,jets ( air call$ ,bufadors--,age ( ! ,catalonian volcanos--,mioc5e p]iod--,br[n-coal ( ! ,eifel & contemporane\s tra*ytic breccias--,age ( ! br[n-coal--,peculi> *>act]s ( ! volcanos ( ! upp] & l[] ,eifel--,lake crat]s--,trass--,hung>ian volcanos4 ,old] ,plioc5e p]iod--,tuscany4--,9 ,tuscany1 z at ,radic(ani1 ,vit]bo1 & ,aquap5d5te1 & 9 ! ,campagna di ,roma1 subm>9e volcanic tuffs are int]/ratifi$ ) ! ,old] ,plioc5e /rata ( ! ,subap5n9e hills1 9 su* a mann] z to leave no d\bt t !y 7 ! products ( eruptions :i* occurr$ :5 ! %elly m>ls & s&s ( ! ,subap5n9e hills 7 9 ! c\rse ( deposition4 ,catalonia4--,geologi/s are f> f be+ able1 z yet1 to assign to ea* ( ! volcanic gr\ps scatt]$ ov] ,europe a precise *ronological place 9 ! t]ti>y s]ies2 b ,i %all describe "h1 z probably ref]able to "s "p ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 a di/rict ( ext9ct volcanos ne> ,olot1 9 ! nor? ( ,spa91 :i* is little kn[n1 & :i* ,i visit$ 9 ! summ] ( #ahcj4 ,! :ole ext5t ( c\ntry occupi$ by volcanic products 9 ,catalonia is n m ?an fifte5 geographical miles f nor? to s\?1 & ab\t six f ea/ to we/4 ,! v5ts ( eruption range entirely )9 a n>r[ b& runn+ nor? & s\?2 & ! bran*es1 :i* are repres5t$ z ext5d+ ea/w>d 9 ! map1 are =m$ simply ( two lava-/reams--^? ( ,ca/ell ,follit & ,cell5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgj4 ,volcanic di/rict ( ,catalonia4 ,dr4 ,maclure1 ! ,am]ican geologi/1 0 ! fir/ :o made kn[n ! exi/5ce ( ^! volcanos#dji-;,a2 &1 accord+ to 8 description1 ! volcanic region ext5d$ ov] tw5ty squ>e leagues1 f ,am] to ,massanet4 ,i se>*$ 9 va9 9 ! environs ( ,massanet1 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 = traces ( a lava-curr5t2 & ,i c say1 ) confid5ce1 t ! adjo9+ map gives a correct view ( ! true area ( ! volcanic action4 ,geological /ructure ( ! di/rict4--,! eruptions h bur/ entirely ?r\gh fossilif]\s rocks1 compos$ 9 great "p ( grey & gre5i% s&/one & conglom]ate1 ) "s ?ick b$s ( nummulitic lime/one4 ,! conglom]ate conta9s pebbles ( qu>tz1 lime/one1 & ,lydian /one4 ,?is sy/em ( rocks is v ext5sively spread ?r\gh\t ,catalonia2 "o ( its memb]s be+ a r$ s&/one1 to :i* ! celebrat$ salt-rock ( ,c>dona1 usually consid]$ z ( ! cretace\s era1 is subord9ate4 ,ne> ,am]1 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,t]1 on ! s\!rn bord]s ( ! region del9eat$ 9 ! map1 prim>y rocks are se51 consi/+ ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & clay-slate4 ,!y run 9 a l9e ne>ly p>allel to ! ,pyr5ees1 & ?r[ (f ! fossilif]\s /rata f _! flanks1 caus+ !m to dip to ! nor? & nor?-we/4 ,?is dip1 :i* is t[>ds ! ,pyr5ees1 is connect$ ) a di/9ct axis ( elevation1 & prevails ?r\gh ! :ole area describ$ 9 ! map1 ! incl9ation ( ! b$s be+ sometimes at an angle ( betwe5 #dj & #ej degrees4 ,x is evid5t t ! physical geography ( ! c\ntry has und]gone no mat]ial *ange s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! era ( ! volcanic eruptions1 except su* z has result$ f ! introduction ( new hills ( scoriae1 & curr5ts ( lava ^u ! surface4 ,if ! lavas c\ld be remelt$ & p\r$ out aga9 f _! respective crat]s1 !y w\ld desc5d ! same valleys 9 :i* !y are n[ se51 & re-occupy ! spaces :i* !y at pres5t fill4 ,! only diff]5ce 9 ! ext]nal configuration ( ! fre% lavas w\ld consi/ 9 ?is1 t !y w\ld n[h]e be int]sect$ by rav9es1 or exhibit m>ks ( erosion by runn+ wat]4 ,volcanic cones & lavas4--,!re are ab\t f\rte5 di/9ct cones ) crat]s 9 ?is "p ( ,spa91 besides sev]al po9ts :5ce lavas may h issu$2 all ( !m arrang$ along a n>r[ l9e runn+ nor? & s\?1 z w be se5 9 ! map4 ,! greate/ numb] ( p]fect cones are 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ,olot1 "s ( :i* 7,nos4 #b1 #c4 & #e47 are repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ woodcut2 & ! level pla9 on :i* t t[n /&s has cle>ly be5 produc$ by ! fl[+ d[n ( _m lava-/reams f ^? hills into ! bottom ( a valley1 probably once ( consid]able dep?1 l ^? ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dga4 ,view ( ! ,volcanos ar\nd ,olot 9 ,catalonia4 ,9 ?is draw+ an attempt is made to repres5t1 by ! %ad+ ( ! l&scape1 ! diff]5t geological =mations ( :i* ! c\ntry is compos$4#daj-;,a ,! :ite l9e ( m\nta9s 7,no4 #a47 9 ! di/ance is ! ,pyr5ees1 :i* are to ! nor? ( ! spectator1 & consi/ ( hypog5e & anci5t fossilif]\s rocks4 ,9 front ( ^! are ! fossilif]\s =mations 7,no4 #d47 :i* are 9 %ade4 ,! hills #b1 #c4 #e4 are volcanic cones1 & ! re/ ( ! gr\nd on :i* ! sun%9e falls is /rew$ ov] ) volcanic a%es & lava4 ,! ,fluvia1 :i* fl[s ne> ! t[n ( ,olot1 has cut to ! dep? ( only #dj feet ?r\gh ! lavas ( ! pla9 be=e m5tion$4 ,! b$ ( ! riv] is h>d basalt2 & at ! bridge ( ,santa ,madal5a are se5 two di/9ct lava-curr5ts1 "o above ! o!r1 sep>at$ by a horizontal b$ ( scoriae #h feet ?ick4 ,9 "o place1 to ! s\? ( ,olot1 ! ev5 surface ( ! pla9 is brok5 by a m\nd ( lava1 call$ ! ,bosque de ,tosca1 ! upp] "p ( :i* is scoriace\s1 & cov]$ ) enorm\s heaps ( fragm5ts ( basalt1 m or less por\s4 ,betwe5 ! num]\s hummocks ?us =m$ are deep cavities1 hav+ ! appe>ance ( small crat]s4 ,! :ole precisely resembles "s ( ! mod]n curr5ts ( ,etna1 or t ( ,come1 ne> ,cl]mont2 ! la/ ( :i*1 l ! ,bosque de ,tosca1 supports only a scanty vegetation4 ,mo/ ( ! ,catalonian volcanos are z entire z ^? 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,naples1 or on ! flanks ( ,etna4 ,"o ( ^!1 call$ ,montsacopa 7,no4 #c4 fig4 #dga471 is ( a v regul> =m1 & has a circul> depression or crat] at ! summit4 ,x is *iefly made up ( r$ scoriae1 undi/+ui%able f t ( ! m9or cones ( ,etna4 ,! neighb\r+ hills ( ,olivet 7,no4 #b47 & ,g>r9ada 7,no4 #e47 are ( simil> composition & %ape4 ,! l>ge/ crat] ( ! :ole di/rict occurs f>!r to ! ea/ ( ,olot1 & is call$ ,santa ,m>g>ita4 ,x is #dee feet deep1 & ab\t a mile 9 circumf]5ce4 ,l ,a/roni1 ne> ,naples1 x is ri*ly cov]$ ) wood1 :]e9 game ( v>i\s k9ds ab\nds4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgb4 ,cross section4 a4 ,second>y conglom]ate4 b4 ,?9 seams ( volcanic s& & scoriae4 ,al?\gh ! volcanos ( ,catalonia h brok5 out ?r\gh s&/one1 %ale1 & lime/one1 z h ^? ( ! ,eifel1 9 ,g]many1 to be describ$ 9 ! sequel1 !re is a rem>kable diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! ejections compos+ ! cones 9 ^! two regions4 ,9 ! ,eifel1 ! quantity ( pieces ( s&/one & %ale ?r[n out f ! v5ts is (t5 s imm5se z f> to exce$ 9 volume ! scoriae1 pumice1 & lava2 b ,i s\ght 9 va9 9 ! cones ne> ,olot = a s+le fragm5t ( any extrane\s rock2 & ,don ,francisco ,bolos1 an em95t botani/ ( ,olot1 in=m$ me t he _h nev] be5 able to detect any4 ,volcanic s& & a%es are n conf9$ to ! cones1 b h be5 sometimes scatt]$ by ! w9d ov] ! c\ntry1 & drift$ into n>r[ valleys1 z is se5 betwe5 ,olot & ,cell5t1 :]e ! annex$ section 7fig4 #dgb47 is expos$4 ,! light c9d]y volcanic matt] re/s 9 ?9 regul> lay]s1 j z x alight$ on ! slope =m$ by ! solid conglom]ate4 ,no flood c\ld h pass$ ?r\gh ! valley s9ce ! scoriae fell1 or ^! w\ld h be5 = ! mo/ "p remov$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgc4 ,section above ! bridge ( ,cell5t4 a4 ,scoriace\s lava4 b4 ,s*i/ose basalt4 c4 ,column> basalt4 d4 ,scoria1 vegetable soil1 & alluvium4 e4 ,nummulitic lime/one4 4f ,micace\s grey s&/one4 ,! curr5ts ( lava 9 ,catalonia1 l ^? ( ,auv]gne1 ! ,viv>ais1 ,icel&1 & all m\nta9\s c\ntries1 are ( consid]able dep? 9 n>r[ defiles1 b spread out into comp>atively ?9 %eets 9 places :]e ! valleys wid54 ,if a riv] has fl[$ on ne>ly level gr\nd1 z 9 ! great pla9 ne> ,olot1 ! wat] has only excavat$ a *annel ( slight dep?2 b :]e ! declivity is great1 ! /ream has cut a deep section1 sometimes by p5etrat+ directly ?r\gh ! c5tral "p ( a lava-curr5t1 b m frequ5tly by pass+ betwe5 ! lava & ! second>y rock :i* b\nds ! valley4 ,?us1 9 ! accompany+ section1 at ! bridge ( ,cell5t1 six miles ea/ ( ,olot1 we see ! lava on "o side ( ! small /ream2 :ile ! incl9$ /ratifi$ rocks con/itute ! *annel & opposite bank4 ,! upp] "p ( ! lava at t place1 z is usual 9 ! curr5ts ( ,etna & ,vesuvius1 is scoriace\s2 f>!r d[n x becomes less por\s1 & assumes a sph]oidal /ructure2 /ill l[] x divides 9 horizontal plates1 ea* ab\t #b in*es 9 ?ickness1 & is m compact4 ,la/ly1 at ! bottom is a mass ( prismatic basalt ab\t #e feet ?ick4 ,! v]tical columns (t5 re/ imm$iately on ! subjac5t second>y rocks2 b !re is sometimes an int]v5tion ( su* s& & scoriae z cov] ! c\ntry dur+ volcanic eruptions1 & :i* :5 unprotect$1 z "h1 by sup]9cumb5t lava1 is wa%$ away f ! surface ( ! l&4 ,sometimes1 ! b$ d conta9s a few pebbles & angul> fragm5ts ( rock2 9 o!r places f9e e>?1 :i* may h con/itut$ an anci5t vegetable soil4 ,9 sev]al localities1 b$s ( s& & a%es are int]pos$ betwe5 ! lava & subjac5t /ratifi$ rock1 z may be se5 if we foll[ ! c\rse ( ! lava-curr5t :i* desc5ds f ,las ,planas t[>ds ,am]1 & /ops two miles %ort ( t t[n4 ,! riv] !re has (t5 cut ?r\gh ! lava1 & ?r\gh #ah feet ( und]ly+ lime/one4 ,occasionally an alluvium1 sev]al feet ?ick1 is int]sp]s$ betwe5 ! igne\s & m>9e =mation2 & x is int]e/+ to rem>k t 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r b$s ( pebbles occupy+ a simil> position1 !re are no r\nd$ fragm5ts ( lava2 :]eas 9 ! mo/ mod]n gravel-b$s ( riv]s ( ?is c\ntry1 volcanic pebbles are abundant4 ,! deepe/ excavation made by a riv] ?r\gh lava1 :i* ,i obs]v$ 9 ?is "p ( ,spa91 is t se5 9 ! bottom ( a valley ne> ,san ,feliu de ,pall]ols1 opposite ! ,ca/ell de ,/olles4 ,! lava !re has fill$ up ! bottom ( a valley1 & a n>r[ rav9e has be5 cut ?r\gh x to ! dep? ( #ajj feet4 ,9 ! l[] "p ! lava has a column> /ructure4 ,a great numb] ( ages 7 probably requir$ = ! erosion ( s deep a rav9e2 b we h no reason to inf] t ?is curr5t is ( high] antiquity ?an ^? ( ! pla9 ne> ,olot4 ,! fall ( ! gr\nd1 & consequ5t velocity ( ! /ream1 be+ 9 ?is case great]1 a m consid]able volume ( rock may h be5 remov$ 9 ! same "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgd4 ,section at ,ca/ell ,follit4 ,a4 ,*ur* & t[n ( ,ca/ell ,follit1 ov]look+ precipices ( basalt4 ,b4 ,small isl&1 on ea* side ( :i* bran*es ( ! riv] ,t]onel fl[ to meet ! ,fluvia4 c4 ,precipice ( basaltic lava1 *iefly column>1 ab\t #acj feet 9 height4 d4 ,anci5t alluvium1 und]ly+ ! lava-curr5t4 e4 ,incl9$ /rata ( second>y s&/one4 ,i %all describe "o m section to elucidate ! ph5om5a ( ?is di/rict4 ,a lava-/ream1 fl[+ f a ridge ( hills on ! ea/ ( ,olot1 desc5ds a consid]able slope1 until x rea*es ! valley ( ! riv] ,fluvia4 ,"h1 = ! fir/ "t1 x comes 9 contact ) runn+ wat]1 :i* has remov$ a portion1 & laid op5 its int]nal /ructure 9 a precipice ab\t #acj feet 9 height1 at ! edge ( :i* /&s ! t[n ( ,ca/ell ,follit4 ,by ! junction ( ! riv]s ,fluvia & ,t]onel1 ! mass ( lava has be5 cut away on two sides2 & ! insul> rock ,b 7fig4 #dgd47 has be5 left1 :i* 0 probably nev] s high z ! cliff ,a1 z x may h con/itut$ ! l[] "p ( ! slop+ side ( ! orig9al curr5t4 ,f an exam9ation ( ! v]tical cliffs1 x appe>s t ! upp] "p ( ! lava on :i* ! t[n is built is scoriace\s1 pass+ d[nw>ds into a sph]oidal basalt2 "s ( ! huge sph]oids be+ no less ?an #f feet 9 diamet]4 ,bel[ ?is is a m compact basalt1 ) cry/als ( oliv9e4 ,!re are 9 all five di/9ct ranges ( basalt1 ! upp]mo/ sph]oidal1 & ! re/ prismatic1 sep>at$ by ?9n] b$s n column>1 & "s ( :i* are s*i/ose4 ,^! 7 probably =m$ by successive fl[s ( lava1 :e!r dur+ ! same eruption or at diff]5t p]iods4 ,! :ole mass re/s on alluvium1 t5 or twelve feet 9 ?ickness1 compos$ ( pebbles ( lime/one & qu>tz1 b )\t any int]mixture ( igne\s rocks2 9 :i* circum/ance alone x appe>s to diff] f ! mod]n gravel ( ! ,fluvia4 ,bufadors4--,! volcanic rocks ne> ,olot h (t5 a cav]n\s /ructure1 l "s ( ! lavas ( ,etna2 & 9 _m p>ts ( ! hill ( ,batet1 9 ! environs ( ! t[n1 ! s\nd return$ by ! e>?1 :5 /ruck1 is l t ( an ar*way4 ,at ! base ( ! same hill are ! m\?s ( sev]al subt]ranean cav]ns1 ab\t twelve 9 numb]1 :i* are call$ 9 ! c\ntry bufadors1 f :i* a curr5t ( cold air issues dur+ summ]1 b :i* 9 w9t] is said to be sc>cely p]ceptible4 ,i visit$ "o ( ^! bufadors 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,augu/1 #ahcj1 :5 ! heat ( ! season 0 unusually int5se1 & f\nd a cold w9d bl[+ f x1 :i* may easily be expla9$2 = z ! ext]nal air1 :5 r>efi$ by heat1 asc5ds1 ! pressure ( ! cold] & heavi] air ( ! cav]ns 9 ! int]ior ( ! m\nta9 causes x to ru% out to supply its place4 ,9 reg>d to ! age ( ^! ,spani% volcanos1 attempts h be5 made to prove1 t 9 ?is c\ntry1 z well z 9 ,auv]gne & ! ,eifel1 ! e>lie/ inhabitants 7 eye-witnesses to ! volcanic action4 ,9 ! ye> #adba1 x is said1 :5 ,olot 0 de/roy$ by an e>?quake1 an eruption broke out ne> ,am]1 & consum$ ! t[n4 ,! rese>*es ( ,don ,francisco ,bolos h1 ,i ?9k1 %[n1 9 ! mo/ satisfactory mann]1 t !re is no good hi/orical f\ndation = ! latt] "p ( ?is /ory2 & any geologi/ :o has visit$ ,am] mu/ be conv9c$ t !re nev] 0 any eruption on t spot4 ,x is true t1 9 ! ye> above m5tion$1 ! :ole ( ,olot1 ) ! exception ( a s+le h\se1 0 ca/ d[n by an e>?quake2 "o ( ^? %ocks :i*1 at di/ant int]vals dur+ ! la/ five c5turies1 h %ak5 ! ,pyr5ees1 & p>ticul>ly ! c\ntry betwe5 ,p]pignan & ,olot1 :]e ! movem5ts1 at ! p]iod allud$ to1 7 mo/ viol5t4 ,! annihilation ( ! t[n may1 p]haps1 h be5 due to ! cav]n\s nature ( ! subjac5t rocks2 = ,catalonia is beyond ! l9e ( ^? ,european e>?quakes :i* h1 )9 ! p]iod ( hi/ory1 de/roy$ t[ns ?r\gh\t ext5sive areas4 ,z we h no hi/orical records1 !n1 to guide u 9 reg>d to ! ext9ct volcanos1 we mu/ appeal to geological monum5ts4 ,! annex$ diagram w pres5t to ! read]1 9 a synoptical =m1 ! results obta9$ f num]\s sections4 ,! m mod]n alluvium 7d7 is p>tial1 & has be5 =m$ by ! action ( riv]s & floods ^u ! lava2 :]eas ! old] gravel 7b7 0 /rew$ ov] ! c\ntry be=e ! volcanic eruptions4 ,9 nei!r h any organic rema9s be5 discov]$2 s t we c m]ely affirm1 z yet1 t ! volcanos broke out aft] ! elevation ( "s ( ! newe/ rocks ( ! nummulitic 7,eoc5e87 s]ies ( ,catalonia1 & be=e ! =mation ( an alluvium 7d7 ( unkn[n date4 ,! integrity ( ! cones m]ely %[s t ! c\ntry has n be5 agitat$ by viol5t e>?quakes1 or subject$ to ! action ( any great transi5t flood s9ce _! orig94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dge4 ,sup]position ( rocks 9 ! volcanic di/rict ( ,catalonia4 a4 ,s&/one & nummulitic lime/one4 b4 ,old] alluvium )\t volcanic pebbles4 c4 ,cones ( scoriae & lava4 d4 ,new] alluvium4 ,ea/ ( ,olot1 on ! ,catalonian coa/1 m>9e t]ti>y /rata occur1 :i*1 ne> ,b>celona1 atta9 ! height ( ab\t #ejj feet4 ,f ! %ells :i* ,i collect$1 ^! /rata appe> to correspond 9 age ) ! ,subap5n9e b$s2 & x is n improbable t _! upheaval f b5ea? ! sea took place dur+ ! p]iod ( volcanic eruption r\nd ,olot4 ,9 t case ^! eruptions may h occurr$ at ! close ( ! ,old] ,plioc5e era1 b p]haps subsequ5tly1 = _! age is at pres5t q unc]ta94 ,mioc5e p]iod--,volcanic rocks ( ! ,eifel4--,! *ronological relations ( ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,l[] ,rh9e & ! ,eifel are also involv$ 9 a consid]able degree ( ambiguity2 b we "k t "s portion ( !m 7 coeval ) ! deposition ( a t]ti>y =mation1 call$ ,br[n-,coal by ! ,g]mans1 :i* probably belongs to ! ,mioc5e1 if n ref]able to ! ,upp] ,eoc5e1 epo*4 ,?is ,br[n-,coal is se5 on bo? sides ( ! ,rh9e1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,bonn1 re/+ uncon=mably on highly incl9$ & v]tical /rata ( ,silurian & ,devonian rocks4 ,its position1 & ! space occupi$ by ! volcanic rocks1 bo? ( ! ,we/]wald & ,eifel1 w be se5 by ref]r+ to ! map 9 ! next page 7fig4 #dgf471 = :i* ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,horn]1 ^: resid5ce 9 ! c\ntry has enabl$ him to v]ify ! maps ( ,,mm4 ,noegg]a? & ,von ,oeynhaus51 f :i* t n[ giv5 has be5 pr9cipally compil$4 ,! ,br[n-,coal =mation consi/s ( b$s ( loose s&1 s&/one1 & conglom]ate1 clay ) nodules ( clay-iron/one1 & occasionally silex4 ,lay]s ( light br[n1 & sometimes black lignite1 are int]/ratifi$ ) ! clays & s&s1 & (t5 irregul>ly diffus$ ?r\gh !m4 ,!y conta9 num]\s impressions ( leaves & /ems ( trees1 & are ext5sively work$ = fuel1 :5ce ! "n ( ! =mation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgf4 ,map ( ! volcanic region ( ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,eifel4 #abcde ,engli% ,miles4 ,volcanic ,di/rict ,a4 ( ! ,upp] ,eifel4 ,b4 ( ! ,l[] ,eifel4 ,tra*yte4 ,po9ts ( eruption1 ) crat]s & scoriae4 ,basalt4 ,br[n-coal4 ,n4,b4 ,! c\ntry 9 t "p ( ! map :i* is left blank is compos$ ( incl9$ ,silurian & ,devonian rocks4 ,9 sev]al places1 lay]s ( tra*ytic tuff are int]/ratifi$1 & 9 ^! tuffs are leaves ( plants id5tical ) ^? f\nd 9 ! br[n-coal1 %[+ t1 dur+ ! p]iod ( ! accumulation ( ! latt]1 "s volcanic products 7 eject$4 ,! v>ieties ( wood 9 ! lignite are said to belong entirely to dicotyl$on\s trees2 b among ! impressions ( leaves1 collect$ by ,mr4 ,horn]1 "s 7 ref]r$ by ,mr4 ,l9dley to a palm1 p]haps ( ! g5us ,*ama]ops1 & o!rs resembl$ ! ,c9namomum dulce1 & ,podoc>pus macrophylla1 :i* w\ld also indicate a w>m climate4#daf-;,a ,! o!r organic rema9s ( ! br[n-coal are pr9cipally fi%es2 !y are f\nd 9 a bitum9\s %ale1 call$ pap]-coal1 f be+ divisible into extremely ?9 leaves4 ,! individuals are v num]\s2 b !y appe> to belong to ab\t five species1 :i* ,m4 ,agassiz in=ms me are all ext9ct1 & hi!rto peculi> to ?is br[n-coal4 ,!y belong to ! fre%wat] g5]a ,leuciscus1 ,aspius1 & ,p]ca4 ,! rema9s ( frogs also1 ( an ext9ct species1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! pap]-coal2 & a complete s]ies may be se5 9 ! museum at ,bonn1 f ! mo/ imp]fect /ate ( ! tadpole to t ( ! full-gr[n animal4 ,) ^! a salam&]1 sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! rec5t species1 has be5 f\nd1 & sev]al rema9s ( insects4 ,! br[n-coal 0 evid5tly a fre%wat] =mation2 b fossil %ells h be5 sc>cely ev] f\nd 9 x2 al?\gh ne> ,m>i5=/1 9 ! vic9ity ( ,bonn1 l>ge blocks h be5 met ) ( a :ite opaque *]t1 conta9+ num]\s ca/s ( fre%wat] %ells1 :i* appe> to belong to ,planorbis rotundatus & ,limnea longiscata1 two species common bo? to ! ,middle & ,upp] ,eoc5e p]iods4 ,x is v probable t ! br[n-coal may be connect$ 9 age ) ^? fluvio-m>9e =mations :i* are f\nd 9 high] p>ts ( ! valley ( ! ,rh9e1 z at ,may5ce be=e m5tion$ 7p4 #agg474 ,a va/ deposit ( gravel1 *iefly compos$ ( pebbles ( :ite qu>tz1 b conta9+ also a few fragm5ts ( o!r rocks1 lies ov] ! br[n-coal =mation1 =m+ sometimes only a ?9 cov]+1 at o!rs atta9+ a ?ickness ( m ?an #ajj feet4 ,?is gravel is v di/9ct 9 "* f t n[ =m+ ! b$ ( ! ,rh9e4 ,x is call$ ,kiesel g]olle by ! ,g]mans1 (t5 rea*es great elevations1 & is cov]$ 9 sev]al places ) volcanic ejections4 ,x is evid5t t ! c\ntry has und]gone great *anges 9 its physical geography s9ce ?is gravel 0 =m$2 = its position has sc>cely any relation to ! exi/+ dra9age ( ! c\ntry1 & all ! m mod]n volcanic rocks ( ! same region are po/]ior to x 9 date4 ,"s ( ! newe/ b$s ( volcanic s&1 pumice1 & scoriae are int]/ratifi$ ne> ,&]na* & else:]e ) ! loam call$ loess1 :i* 0 be=e describ$ z be+ full ( l& & fre%wat] %ells ( rec5t species1 & ref]able to ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,i h be=e h9t$ 7see p4 #aah47 t ?is int]calation ( volcanic matt] betwe5 b$s ( loess may possibly be expla9$ )\t suppos+ ! la/ eruptions ( ! ,l[] ,eifel to h tak5 place s rec5tly z ! era ( ! deposition ( ! loess2 b f>!r rese>*es %\ld be direct$ to ! inve/igation ( ?is curi\s po9t4 ,! igne\s rocks ( ! ,we/]wald1 & ( ! m\nta9s call$ ! ,sieb5gebirge1 consi/ p>tly ( basaltic & p>tly ( tra*ytic lavas1 ! latt] be+ 9 g5]al ! m anci5t ( ! two4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( tra*yte1 "s ( :i* are highly cry/all9e1 resembl+ a co>se-gra9$ granite1 ) l>ge sep>ate cry/als ( felsp>4 ,tra*ytic tuff is also v abundant4 ,^! =mations1 "s ( :i* 7 c]ta9ly contemporane\s ) ! orig9 ( ! br[n-coal1 7 ! fir/ ( a long s]ies ( eruptions1 ! m rec5t ( :i* happ5$ :5 ! c\ntry _h acquir$ ne>ly all its pres5t geographical features4 ,new] volcanos ( ! ,eifel4--,lake-crat]s4--,z ,i recogniz$ 9 ! m mod]n volcanos ( ! ,eifel *>act]s di/9ct f any previ\sly obs]v$ by me 9 ^? ( ,france1 ,italy1 or ,spa91 ,i %all briefly describe !m4 ,! fundam5tal rocks ( ! di/rict are grey & r$ s&/ones & %ales1 ) "s associat$ lime/ones1 replete ) fossils ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one gr\p4 ,! volcanos broke out 9 ! mid/ ( ^! incl9$ /rata1 & :5 ! pres5t sy/ems ( hills & valleys _h already be5 =m$4 ,! eruptions occurr$ sometimes at ! bottom ( deep valleys1 sometimes on ! summit ( hills1 & frequ5tly on int]v5+ plat=ms4 ,9 travell+ ?r\gh ?is di/rict we (t5 fall ^u !m mo/ unexpect$ly1 & may f9d ourselves on ! v edge ( a crat] be=e we _h be5 l$ to suspect t we 7 approa*+ ! site ( any igne\s outbur/4 ,?us1 = example1 on arriv+ at ! village ( ,gemund1 imm$iately s\? ( ,daun1 we leave ! /ream1 :i* fl[s at ! bottom ( a deep valley 9 :i* /rata ( s&/one & %ale crop out4 ,we !n climb a /eep hill1 on ! surface ( :i* we see ! edges ( ! same /rata dipp+ inw>ds t[>ds ! m\nta94 ,:5 we h asc5d$ to a consid]able height1 we see fragm5ts ( scoriae sp>+ly scatt]$ ov] ! surface2 till1 at l5g?1 on rea*+ ! summit1 we f9d ourselves sudd5ly on ! edge ( a t>n1 or deep circul> lake-bas94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgg4 ,! ,gemund] ,ma>4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgh4 ,cross section4 a4 ,village ( ,gemund4 b4 ,gemund] ,ma>4 c4 ,we9feld] ,ma>4 d4 ,s*alk5mehr5 ,ma>4 ,?is1 :i* is call$ ! ,gemund] ,ma>1 is ! fir/ ( ?ree lakes :i* are 9 imm$iate contact1 ! same ridge =m+ ! b>ri] ( two neighb\r+ cavities 7see fig4 #dgg474 ,on view+ ! fir/ ( ^!1 we recognize ! ord9>y =m ( a crat]1 = :i* we h be5 prep>$ by ! occurr5ce ( scoriae scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! soil4 ,b on exam9+ ! walls ( ! crat] we f9d precipices ( s&/one & %ale :i* exhibit no signs ( ! action ( heat2 & we look 9 va9 = ^? b$s ( lava & scoriae1 dipp+ 9 opposite directions on e side1 :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to consid] z *>act]i/ic ( volcanic crat]s4 ,z we proce$1 h[ev]1 to ! opposite side ( ! lake1 & aft]w>ds visit ! crat]s c & d 7fig4 #dgh471 we f9d a consid]able quantity ( scoriae & "s lava1 & see ! :ole surface ( ! soil sp>kl+ ) volcanic s&1 & /rew$ ) eject$ fragm5ts ( half-fus$ %ale1 :i* pres]ves its lam9at$ texture 9 ! int]ior1 :ile x has a vitrifi$ or scori=m coat+4 ,a few miles to ! s\? ( ! lakes above m5tion$ occurs ! ,pulv]ma> ( ,gill5feld1 an oval lake ( v regul> =m1 & surr\nd$ by an unbrok5 ridge ( fragm5t>y mat]ials1 consi/+ ( eject$ %ale & s&/one1 & pres]v+ a uni=m height ( ab\t #aej feet above ! wat]4 ,! side slope 9 ! int]ior is at an angle ( ab\t #de degrees2 on ! ext]ior1 ( #ce degrees4 ,volcanic sub/ances are int]mix$ v sp>+ly ) ! ejections1 :i* 9 ?is place entirely conceal f view ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! c\ntry4#dai-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dgi4 ,outl9e ( ,mos5b]g1 ,upp] ,eifel4 ,! ,me]feld] ,ma> is a cavity ( f> great] size & dep?1 holl[$ out ( simil> /rata2 ! sides pres5t+ "s abrupt sections ( incl9$ second>y rocks1 :i* 9 o!r places are buri$ "u va/ heaps ( pulv]iz$ %ale4 ,i c\ld discov] no scoriae among/ ! eject$ mat]ials1 b balls ( oliv9e & o!r volcanic sub/ances are m5tion$ z hav+ be5 f\nd4#dai-;,b ,?is cavity1 :i* we mu/ suppose to h dis*>g$ an imm5se volume ( gas1 is ne>ly a mile 9 diamet]1 & is said to be m ?an "o hundr$ fa?oms deep4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood is a m\nta9 call$ ! ,mos5b]g1 :i* consi/s ( r$ s&/one & %ale 9 its l[] p>ts1 b supports on its summit a triple volcanic cone1 :ile a di/9ct curr5t ( lava is se5 desc5d+ ! flanks ( ! m\nta94 ,! edge ( ! crat] ( ! l>ge/ cone rem9d$ me mu* ( ! =m & *>act]s ( t ( ,vesuvius2 b ,i 0 mu* /ruck ) ! precipit\s & almo/ ov]hang+ wall or p>apet :i* ! scoriae pres5t$ t[>ds ! ext]ior1 z at a b 7fig4 #dgi472 :i* ,i c only expla9 by suppos+ t fragm5ts ( r$-hot lava1 z !y fell r\nd ! v5t1 7 cem5t$ toge!r into "o compact mass1 9 consequ5ce ( cont9u+ to be 9 a half-melt$ /ate4 ,if we pass f ! ,upp] to ! ,l[] ,eifel1 f ,a to ,b 7see map1 p4 #daf471 we f9d ! celebrat$ lake-crat] ( ,laa*1 :i* has a great] resemblance ?an any ( ^? be=e m5tion$ to ! ,lago di ,bols5a1 & o!rs 9 ,italy--be+ surr\nd$ by a ridge ( g5tly slop+ hills1 compos$ ( loose tuffs1 scoriae1 & blocks ( a v>iety ( lavas4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ volcanos on ! left bank ( ! ,rh9e is call$ ! ,rod]b]g4 ,x =ms a circul> crat] ne>ly a qu>t] ( a mile 9 diamet]1 & #ajj feet deep1 n[ cov]$ ) fields ( corn4 ,! highly incl9$ /rata ( anci5t s&/one & %ale rise ev5 to ! rim ( "o side ( ! crat]2 b !y are ov]spread by qu>tzose gravel1 & ?is aga9 is cov]$ by volcanic scoriae & tuface\s s&4 ,! opposite wall ( ! crat] is compos$ ( c9d]s & scorifi$ rock1 l t at ! summit ( ,vesuvius4 ,x is q evid5t t ! eruption 9 ?is case bur/ ?r\gh ! s&/one & alluvium :i* imm$iately ov]lies x2 & ,i obs]v$ "s ( ! qu>tz pebbles mix$ ) scoriae on ! flanks ( ! m\nta91 z if !y _h be5 ca/ up into ! air1 & _h fall5 aga9 ) ! volcanic a%es4 ,i h already obs]v$1 t a l>ge "p ( ?is crat] has be5 fill$ up ) loess 7p4 #aah474 ,! mo/ /rik+ peculi>ity ( a great _m ( ! crat]s above describ$1 is ! abs5ce ( any signs ( alt]ation or torrefaction 9 _! walls1 :5 ^! are compos$ ( regul> /rata ( anci5t s&/one & %ale4 ,x is evid5t t ! summits ( hills =m$ ( ! above-m5tion$ /ratifi$ rocks h1 9 "s cases1 be5 c>ri$ away by gase\s explosions1 :ile at ! same "t no lava1 & (t5 a v small quantity only ( scoriae1 has escap$ f ! newly =m$ cavity4 ,!re is1 inde$1 no feature 9 ! ,eifel volcanos m wor?y ( note1 ?an ! pro(s !y af=d ( v copi\s a]i=m dis*>ges1 unaccompani$ by ! p\r+ out ( melt$ matt]1 except1 "h & !re1 9 v insignificant volume4 ,i "k ( no o!r ext9ct volcanos :]e gase\s explosions ( su* magnitude h be5 att5d$ by ! emission ( s small a quantity ( lava4 ,yet ,i look$ 9 va9 9 ! ,eifel = any appe>ances :i* c\ld l5d support to ! hypo!sis1 t ! sudd5 ru%+ out ( su* enorm\s volumes ( gas _h ev] lift$ up ! /ratifi$ rocks imm$iately ar\nd ! v5t1 s z to =m conical masses1 hav+ _! /rata dipp+ outw>ds on all sides f a c5tral axis1 z is assum$ 9 ! !ory ( elevation crat]s1 allud$ to at ! end ( ,*ap4 ,,xxix4 ,trass4--,9 ! ,l[] ,eifel1 eruptions ( tra*ytic lava prec$$ ! emission ( curr5ts ( basalt1 & imm5se quantities ( pumice 7 ?r[n out :]ev] tra*yte issu$4 ,! tuface\s alluvium call$ trass1 :i* has cov]$ l>ge areas 9 ?is region & *ok$ up "s valleys n[ p>tially re-excavat$1 is un/ratifi$4 ,its base consi/s almo/ entirely ( pumice1 9 :i* are includ$ fragm5ts ( basalt & o!r lavas1 pieces ( burnt %ale1 slate1 & s&/one1 & num]\s trunks & bran*es ( trees4 ,if ?is trass 0 =m$ dur+ ! p]iod ( volcanic eruptions x may p]haps h orig9at$ 9 ! mann] ( ! moya ( ! ,&es4 ,we may easily conceive t a simil> mass might n[ be produc$1 if a copi\s evolution ( gases %\ld occur 9 "o ( ! lake bas9s4 ,! wat] might rema9 = weeks 9 a /ate ( viol5t ebullition1 until x became ( ! consi/5cy ( mud1 j z ! sea cont9u$ to be *>g$ ) r$ mud r\nd ,graham's ,isl&1 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 9 ! ye> #ahca4 ,if a brea* %\ld !n be made 9 ! side ( ! cone1 ! flood w\ld sweep away great heaps ( eject$ fragm5ts ( %ale & s&/one1 :i* w\ld be borne d[n into ! adjo9+ valleys4 ,=e/s might be torn up by su* a flood1 & ?us ! occurr5ce ( ! num]\s trunks ( trees disp]s$ irregul>ly ?r\gh ! trass1 c be expla9$4 ,hung>y4--,m4 ,beudant1 9 8 elaborate "w on ,hung>y1 describes five di/9ct gr\ps ( volcanic rocks1 :i* al?\gh n[h]e ( great ext5t1 =m /rik+ features 9 ! physical geography ( t c\ntry1 ris+ z !y d abruptly f ext5sive pla9s compos$ ( t]ti>y /rata4 ,!y may h con/itut$ isl&s 9 ! anci5t sea1 z ,santor9 & ,milo n[ d 9 ! ,grecian ,ar*ipelago2 & ,m4 ,beudant has rem>k$ t ! m9]al products ( ! la/-m5tion$ isl&s resemble rem>kably ^? ( ! ,hung>ian ext9ct volcanos1 :]e _m ( ! same m9]als z opal1 calc$ony1 res9\s silex 7silex res9ite71 pe>lite1 obsidian1 & pit*/one ab\nd4 ,! ,hung>ian lavas are *iefly felspa?ic1 consi/+ ( diff]5t v>ieties ( tra*yte2 _m are cellul>1 & us$ z mill/ones2 "s s por\s & ev5 scori=m z to resemble ^? :i* h issu$ 9 ! op5 air4 ,pumice occurs 9 great quantity2 & !re are conglom]ates1 or r breccias1 :]e9 fragm5ts ( tra*yte are b\nd toge!r by pumice\s tuff1 or sometimes by silex4 ,x is probable t ^! rocks 7 p]meat$ by ! wat]s ( hot spr+s1 impregnat$1 l ! ,geys]s1 ) silica2 or 9 "s in/ances1 p]haps1 by aque\s vap\rs1 :i*1 l ^? ( ,lanc]ote1 may h precipitat$ hydrate ( silica4 ,by ! influ5ce ( su* spr+s or vap\rs ! trunks & bran*es ( trees wa%$ d[n dur+ floods1 & buri$ 9 tuffs on ! flanks ( ! m\nta9s1 are suppos$ to h become silicifi$4 ,x is sc>cely possible1 says ,m4 ,beudant1 to dig into any ( ! pumice\s deposits ( ^! m\nta9s )\t meet+ ) opaliz$ wood1 & sometimes entire silicifi$ trunks ( trees ( great size & weight4 ,x appe>s f ! species ( %ells collect$ pr9cipally by ,m4 ,b\e1 & exam9$ by ,m4 ,de%ayes1 t ! fossil rema9s imb$d$ 9 ! volcanic tuffs1 & 9 /rata alt]nat+ ) !m 9 ,hung>y1 are ( ! ,mioc5e type1 & n id5tical1 z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 ) ! fossils ( ! ,p>is bas94 ,,footnotes3 #dji-;,a ,maclure1 ,j\rn4 de ,phys41 vol4 lxvi4 p4 #bai41 #ahjh2 cit$ by ,daub5y1 ,description ( ,volcanos1 p4 #bd4 #daj-;,a ,?is view is tak5 f a sket* :i* ,i made on ! spot 9 #ahcj4 #daf-;,a ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 v4 #dai-;,a ,scrope1 ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 ,june1 #ahbf1 p4 #ade4 #dai-;,b ,hibb]t1 ,ext9ct ,volcanos ( ! ,rh9e1 p4 #bd4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxii4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,volcanic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,volcanic rocks ( ! ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods cont9u$--,auv]gne--,mont ,dor--,breccias & alluviums ( ,mont ,p]ri]1 ) bones ( quadrup$s--,riv] damm$ up by lava-curr5t--,range ( m9or cones f ,auv]gne to ! ,viv>ais--,monts ,dome--,puy de ,come--,puy de ,p>i\--,cones n d5ud$ by g5]al flood--,velay--,bones ( quadrup$s buri$ 9 scoriae--,cantal--,eoc5e volcanic rocks--,tuffs ne> ,cl]mont--,hill ( ,g]govia--,trap ( ,cretace\s p]iod--,oolitic p]iod--,new ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,c>bonif]\s p]iod--,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,rock & ,sp9dle ne> ,/4 ,&rews--,silurian p]iod--,cambrian volcanic rocks4 ,t]ti>y ,volcanic ,rocks4--,auv]gne4--,! ext9ct volcanos ( ,auv]gne & ,cantal 9 ,c5tral ,france seem to h comm5c$ _! eruptions 9 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e p]iod1 b to h be5 mo/ active dur+ ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e eras4 ,i h already allud$ to ! gr& succession ( ev5ts1 ( :i* !re is evid5ce 9 ,auv]gne s9ce ! la/ retreat ( ! sea 7see p4 #agh474 ,! e>lie/ monum5ts ( ! t]ti>y p]iod 9 t region are lacu/r9e deposits ( great ?ickness 7#b4 fig4 #dhj4 p4 #dbd471 9 ! l[e/ conglom]ates ( :i* are r\nd$ pebbles ( qu>tz1 mica-s*i/1 granite1 & o!r non-volcanic rocks1 )\t ! slighte/ int]mixture ( igne\s products4 ,to ^! conglom]ates succe$ argillace\s & calc>e\s m>ls & lime/ones 7#c4 fig4 #dhj47 conta9+ ,upp] ,eoc5e %ells & bones ( mammalia1 ! high] b$s ( :i* sometimes alt]nate ) volcanic tuff ( contemporane\s orig94 ,aft] ! fill+ up or dra9age ( ! anci5t lakes1 huge piles ( tra*ytic & basaltic rocks1 ) volcanic breccias1 accumulat$ to a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 & 7 sup]impos$ ^u granite1 or ! contigu\s lacu/r9e /rata4 ,! great] portion ( ^! igne\s rocks appe> to h orig9at$ dur+ ! ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e p]iods2 & ext9ct quadrup$s ( ^? eras1 belong+ to ! g5]a ,ma/odon1 ,rh9oc]os1 & o!rs1 7 buri$ 9 a%es & b$s ( alluvial s& & gravel1 :i* owe _! pres]vation to ov]spread+ %eets ( lava4 ,9 ,auv]gne ! mo/ anci5t & conspicu\s ( ! volcanic masses is ,mont ,dor1 :i* re/s imm$iately on ! granitic rocks /&+ ap>t f ! fre%wat] /rata4#dbb-;,a ,?is great m\nta9 rises sudd5ly to ! height ( sev]al ?\s& feet above ! surr\nd+ plat=m1 & reta9s ! %ape ( a flatt5$ & some:at irregul> cone1 all ! sides slop+ m or less rapidly1 until _! incl9ation is gradually lo/ 9 ! high pla9 ar\nd4 ,?is cone is compos$ ( lay]s ( scoriae1 pumice-/ones1 & _! f9e detritus1 ) int]pos$ b$s ( tra*yte & basalt1 :i* desc5d (t5 9 un9t]rupt$ %eets1 till !y rea* & spread !mselves r\nd ! base ( ! m\nta94#dbc-;,a ,conglom]ates1 also1 compos$ ( angul> & r\nd$ fragm5ts ( igne\s rocks1 are obs]v$ to alt]nate ) ! above2 & ! v>i\s masses are se5 to dip (f f ! c5tral axis1 & to lie p>allel to ! slop+ flanks ( ! m\nta94 ,! summit ( ,mont ,dor t]m9ates 9 sev5 or eight rocky peaks1 :]e no regul> crat] c n[ be trac$1 b :]e we may easily imag9e "o to h exi/$1 :i* may h be5 %att]$ by e>?quakes1 & h suff]$ degradation by aque\s ag5ts4 ,orig9ally1 p]haps1 l ! highe/ crat] ( ,etna1 x may h =m$ an insignificant feature 9 ! great pile1 & may frequ5tly h be5 de/roy$ & r5ovat$4 ,accord+ to "s geologi/s1 ?is m\nta91 z well z ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 & all l>ge volcanos1 has d]iv$ its dome-l =m n f ! prepond]ance ( eruptions f "o or m c5tral po9ts1 b f ! upheaval ( horizontal b$s ( lava & scoriae4 ,i h expla9$ my reasons = object+ to ?is view at ! close ( ,*ap4 ,,xxix41 :5 speak+ ( ,palma1 & 9 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4#dbc-;,b ,! av]age incl9ation ( ! dome-%ap$ mass ( ,mont ,dor is #h deg4 #f'1 :]eas 9 ,m\nts ,loa & ,kea1 be=e m5tion$1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s 7see fig4 #deg4 p4 #cid471 ! flanks ( :i* h be5 rais$ by rec5t lavas1 we f9d f ,mr4 ,dana's description t ! "o has a slope ( #f deg4 #cj'1 ! o!r ( #g deg4 #df'4 ,we may1 !re=e1 reasonably "q :e!r !re is any absolute necessity = suppos+ t ! basaltic curr5ts ( ! anci5t ,fr5* volcano 7 at fir/ m horizontal ?an !y are n[4 ,nev]!less x is highly probable t dur+ ! long s]ies ( eruptions requir$ to give rise to s va/ a pile ( volcanic matt]1 :i* is ?icke/ at ! summit or c5tre ( ! dome1 "s dislocation & upheaval took place2 & dur+ ! di/5sion ( ! mass1 b$s ( lava & scoriae may1 9 "s places1 h acquir$ a great]1 9 o!rs a less incl9ation1 ?an t :i* at fir/ belong$ to !m4 ,respect+ ! age ( ! great mass ( ,mont ,dor1 we _c come at pres5t to any positive decision1 because no organic rema9s h yet be5 f\nd 9 ! tuffs1 except impressions ( ! leaves ( trees ( species n yet det]m9$4 ,we may c]ta9ly conclude1 t ! e>lie/ eruptions 7 po/]ior 9 orig9 to ^? grits1 & conglom]ates ( ! fre%wat] =mation ( ! ,limagne1 :i* conta9 no pebbles ( volcanic rocks2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 "s eruptions took place be=e ! great lakes 7 dra9$2 & o!rs occurr$ aft] ! desiccation ( ^? lakes1 & :5 deep valleys _h already be5 excavat$ ?r\gh fre%wat] /rata4 ,9 ! annex$ section1 ,i h endeav\r$ to expla9 ! geological /ructure ( a portion ( ,auv]gne1 :i* ,i re-exam9$ 9 #ahdc4dbc-;,c ,x may convey "s idea to ! read] ( ! long & complicat$ s]ies ( ev5ts1 :i* h occurr$ 9 t c\ntry1 s9ce ! fir/ lacu/r9e /rata 7,no4 #b47 7 deposit$ on ! granite 7,no4 #a474 ,! *anges ( :i* we h evid5ce are ! m /rik+1 because !y imply great d5udation1 )\t !re be+ any pro(s ( ! int]v5tion ( ! sea dur+ ! :ole p]iod4 ,x w be se5 t ! upp] fre%wat] b$s 7,no4 #c471 once =m$ 9 a lake1 mu/ h suff]$ great de/ruction be=e ! excavation ( ! valleys ( ! ,c\ze & ,alli] _h begun4 ,9 ^! fre%wat] b$s1 ,upp] ,eoc5e fossils1 z describ$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xv41 h be5 f\nd4 ,! basaltic dike #d' is "o ( _m examples ( ! intrusion ( volcanic matt] ?r\gh ! ,eoc5e fre%wat] b$s1 & may h be5 ( ,upp] ,eoc5e or ,mioc5e date1 giv+ rise1 :5 x rea*$ ! surface & ov]fl[$1 to su* plat=ms ( basalt1 z (t5 cap ! t]ti>y hills 9 ,auv]gne1 & "o ( :i* 7#d7 is se5 on ,mont ,p]ri]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhj4 ,section f ! valley ( ! ,c\ze at ,ne*]s1 ?r\gh ,mont ,p]ri] & ,issoire to ! ,valley ( ! ,alli]1 & ! ,t\r de ,b\lade1 ,auv]gne4 #aj4 ,lava-curr5t ( ,t>t>et ne> its t]m9ation at ,ne*]s4 #i4 ,bone-b$1 r$ s&y clay "u ! lava ( ,t>t>et4 #h4 ,bone-b$ ( ! ,t\r de ,b\lade4 #g4 ,alluvium new] ?an ,no4 #f4 #f4 ,alluvium ) bones ( hippopotamus4 #e c4 ,tra*ytic breccia resembl+ #e a4 #e b4 ,upp] bone-b$ ( ,p]ri]1 gravel1 c4 #e a4 ,pumice\s breccia & conglom]ate1 angul> masses ( tra*yte1 qu>tz1 pebbles1 c4 #e4 ,l[] bone-b$ ( ,p]ri]1 o*re\s s& & gravel4 #d a4 ,basaltic dyke4 #d4 ,basaltic plat=m4 #c4 ,upp] fre%wat] b$s1 lime/one1 m>l1 gypsum1 c4 #b4 ,l[] fre%wat] =mation1 r$ clay1 gre5 s&1 c4 #a4 ,granite4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t b$s ( gravel conta9+ bones ( ext9ct mammalia are detect$ "u ^! v anci5t %eets ( basalt1 z betwe5 ,no4 #d4 & ! fre%wat] /rata1 ,no4 #c41 at ,a1 f :i* x is cle> t ! surface ( #c =m$ at t p]iod ! l[e/ level at :i* ! wat]s !n dra9+ ! c\ntry fl[$4 ,next 9 age to ?is basaltic plat=m comes a pat* ( o*re\s s& & gravel 7,no4 #e471 conta9+ _m bones ( quadrup$s4 ,^u ?is re/s a pumice\s breccia & conglom]ate1 ) angul> masses ( tra*yte1 & "s qu>tz pebbles4 ,?is deposit is foll[$ by #e b1 :i* is simil> to #e1 & #e c simil> to ! tra*ytic breccia #e a4 ,^! two breccias are suppos$1 f _! simil>ity to o!rs f\nd on ,m\nt ,dor1 to h desc5d$ f ! flanks ( t m\nta9 dur+ eruptions2 & ! int]/ratifi$ alluvial deposits conta9 ! rema9s ( ma/odon1 rh9oc]os1 tapir1 de]1 beav]1 & quadrup$s ( o!r g5]a ref]able to ab\t =ty species1 all ( :i* are ext9ct4 ,i =m]ly suppos$ !m to belong to ! same era z ! ,mioc5e faluns ( ,t\ra9e2 b1 :e!r !y may n r be ascrib$ to ! old] ,plioc5e epo* is a "q :i* f>!r inquiries & comp>isons mu/ det]m9e4 ,:atev] be _! date 9 ! t]ti>y s]ies1 !y are quadrup$s :i* inhabit$ ! c\ntry :5 ! =mations #e & #e c orig9at$4 ,probably !y 7 dr[n$ dur+ floods1 su* z ru% d[n ! flanks ( volcanos dur+ eruptions1 :5 great bodies ( /eam are emitt$ f ! crat]1 or :51 z we h se51 bo? on ,etna & 9 ,icel& 9 mod]n times1 l>ge masses ( sn[ are sudd5ly melt$ by lava1 caus+ a deluge ( wat] to be> d[n fragm5ts ( igne\s rocks mix$ ) mud1 to ! valleys & pla9s bel[4 ,x w be se5 t ! valley ( ! ,issoire1 d[n :i* ^! anci5t inundations swept1 0 fir/ excavat$ at ! exp5se ( ! =mations #b1 #c1 & #d1 & !n fill$ up by ! masses #e & #e c1 aft] :i* x 0 re-excavat$ be=e ! m mod]n alluviums 7,nos4 #f4 & #g47 7 =m$4 ,9 ^! aga9 o!r fossil mammalia ( di/9ct species h be5 detect$ by ,m4 ,brav>d1 ! bones ( an hippopotamus hav+ be5 f\nd among ! re/4 ,at l5g?1 :5 ! valley ( ! ,alli] 0 erod$ at ,issoire d[n to its l[e/ level1 a talus ( angul> fragm5ts ( basalt & fre%wat] lime/one 7,no4 #h47 0 =m$1 call$ ! bone-b$ ( ! ,t\r de ,b\lade1 f :i* a great _m o!r mammalia h be5 collect$ by ,,mm4 ,brav>d & ,pomel4 ,9 ?is assemblage ! ,elephas primig5ius1 ,rh9oc]os ti*or9us1 ,de] 7includ+ re9-de]71 ,equus1 ,bos1 ,antelope1 ,felis1 & ,canis1 7 includ$4 ,ev5 ?is deposit seems h>dly to be ! newe/ 9 ! neighb\rhood1 = if we cross f ! t[n ( ,issoire 7see fig4 #dhj47 ov] ,mont ,p]ri] to ! adjo9+ valley ( ! ,c\ze1 we f9d ano!r bone-b$ 7,no4 #i471 ov]laid by a curr5t ( lava 7,no4 #aj474 ,! hi/ory ( ?is lava-curr5t1 :i* t]m9ates a few hundr$ y>ds bel[ ! po9t ,no4 #aj41 9 ! suburbs ( ! village ( ,ne*]s1 is int]e/+4 ,x =ms a long n>r[ /ripe m ?an #ac miles 9 l5g?1 at ! bottom ( ! valley ( ! ,c\ze1 :i* fl[s out ( a lake at ! foot ( ,mont ,dor4 ,?is lake is caus$ by a b>ri] ?r[n across ! anci5t *annel ( ! ,c\ze1 consi/+ p>tly ( ! volcanic cone call$ ! ,puy de ,t>t>et1 =m$ ( loose scoriae1 f ! base ( :i* has issu$ ! lava-curr5t be=e m5tion$4 ,! mat]ials ( ! dam :i* block$ up ! riv]1 & caus$ ! ,lac de ,*ambon1 are also1 9 "p1 d]iv$ f a l&-slip :i* may h happ5$ at ! "t ( ! great eruption :i* =m$ ! cone4 ,?is cone ( ,t>t>et af=ds an impressive monum5t ( ! v diff]5t dates at :i* ! igne\s eruptions ( ,auv]gne h happ5$2 = x 0 evid5tly ?r[n up at ! bottom ( ! exi/+ valley1 :i* is b\nd$ by l(ty precipices compos$ ( %eets ( anci5t column> tra*yte & basalt1 :i* once fl[$ at v high levels f ,mont ,dor4#dbe-;,a ,:5 we foll[ ! c\rse ( ! riv] ,c\ze1 f its s\rce 9 ! lake ( ,*ambon1 to ! t]m9ation ( ! lava-curr5t at ,ne*]s1 a di/ance ( ?irte5 miles1 we f9d t ! torr5t has 9 mo/ places cut a deep *annel ?r\gh ! lava1 ! l[] portion ( :i* is column>4 ,9 "s n>r[ gorges x has ev5 _h p[] to remove ! entire mass ( basaltic rock1 ?\gh ! "w ( erosion mu/ h be5 v sl[1 z ! basalt is t\gh & h>d1 & "o column aft] ano!r mu/ h be5 und]m9$ & r$uc$ to pebbles1 & !n to s&4 ,dur+ ! "t requir$ = ?is op]ation1 ! p]i%able cone ( ,t>t>et1 compos$ ( s& & a%es1 has /ood un9jur$1 prov+ t no great flood or deluge c h pass$ ov] ?is region 9 ! int]val betwe5 ! eruption ( ,t>t>et & our own times4 ,if we n[ return to ! section 7fig4 #dhj471 ,i may obs]ve t ! lava-curr5t ( ,t>t>et1 :i* has dim9i%$ greatly 9 height & volume ne> its t]m9ation1 pres5ts "h a /eep & p]p5dicul> face #be feet 9 height t[>ds ! riv]4 ,b5ea? x is ! alluvium ,no4 #i41 consi/+ ( a r$ s&y clay1 :i* mu/ h cov]$ ! bottom ( ! valley :5 ! curr5t ( melt$ rock fl[$ d[n4 ,! bones f\nd 9 ?is alluvium1 :i* ,i obta9$ myself1 consi/$ ( a species ( field-m\se1 ,arvicola1 & ! mol> too? ( an ext9ct horse1 ,equus fossilis4 ,! o!r species1 obta9$ f ! same b$1 are ref]able to ! g5]a ,sus1 ,bos1 ,c]vus1 ,felis1 ,canis1 ,m>tes1 ,talpa1 ,sorex1 ,lepus1 ,sciurus1 ,mus1 & ,lagomys1 9 all no less ?an =ty-?ree species1 all closely alli$ to rec5t animals1 yet ne>ly all ( !m1 accord+ to ,m4 ,brav>d1 %[+ "s po9ts ( diff]5ce1 l ^? :i* ,mr4 ,ow5 discov]$ 9 ! case ( ! horse above allud$ to4 ,! bones1 also1 ( a frog1 snake1 & liz>d1 & ( sev]al birds1 7 associat$ ) ! fossils be=e enum]at$1 & sev]al rec5t l& %ells1 su* z ,cyclo/oma elegans1 ,helix hort5sis1 ,h4 nemoralis1 ,h4 lapicida1 & ,clausilia rugosa4 ,if ! animals 7 dr[n$ by floods1 :i* accompani$ ! eruptions ( ! ,puy de ,t>t>et1 !y w\ld give an exce$+ly mod]n geological date to t ev5t1 :i* mu/1 9 t case1 h belong$ to ! ,new]-,plioc5e1 or1 p]haps1 ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,t ! curr5t1 :i* has issu$ f ! ,puy de ,t>t>et1 may nev]!less be v anci5t 9 ref]5ce to ! ev5ts ( human hi/ory1 we may conclude1 n only f ! div]g5ce ( ! mammif]\s fauna f t ( our day1 b f ! fact t a ,roman bridge ( su* =m & con/ruction z cont9u$ 9 use d[n to ! fif? c5tury1 b :i* may be old]1 is n[ se5 at a place ab\t a mile & a half f ,/4 ,nectaire4 ,?is anci5t bridge spans ! riv] ,c\ze ) two ar*es1 ea* ab\t #ad feet wide4 ,^! ar*es spr+ f ! lava ( ,t>t>et1 on bo? banks1 %[+ t a rav9e precisely l t n[ exi/+1 _h already be5 excavat$ by ! riv] ?r\gh t lava ?irte5 or f\rte5 c5turies ago4 ,9 ,c5tral ,france !re are sev]al hundr$ m9or cones1 l t ( ,t>t>et1 a great numb] ( :i*1 l ,monte ,nuovo1 ne> ,naples1 may h be5 pr9cipally due to a s+le eruption4 ,mo/ ( ^! cones range 9 a l9e> direction f ,auv]gne to ! ,viv>ais1 & !y 7 fai?fully describ$ s e>ly z ! ye> #ahjb1 by ,m4 de ,montlosi]4 ,!y h giv5 rise *iefly to curr5ts ( basaltic lava4 ,^? ( ,auv]gne call$ ! ,monts ,dome1 plac$ on a granitic plat=m1 =m an irregul> ridge 7see fig4 #dcf471 ab\t #ah miles 9 l5g?1 & #b 9 bread?4 ,!y are usually truncat$ at ! summit1 :]e ! crat] is (t5 pres]v$ entire1 ! lava hav+ issu$ f ! base ( ! hill4 ,b frequ5tly ! crat] is brok5 d[n on "o side1 :]e ! lava has fl[$ out4 ,! hills are compos$ ( loose scoriae1 blocks ( lava1 lapilli1 & pozzuolana1 ) fragm5ts ( tra*yte & granite4 ,puy de ,come4--,! ,puy de ,come & its lava-curr5t1 ne> ,cl]mont1 may be m5tion$ z "o ( ^! m9or volcanos4 ,?is conical hill rises f ! granitic plat=m1 at an angle ( ab\t #dj deg41 to ! height ( m ?an #ijj feet4 ,its summit pres5ts two di/9ct crat]s1 "o ( !m ) a v]tical dep? ( #bej feet4 ,a /ream ( lava takes its rise at ! we/]n base ( ! hill1 in/ead ( issu+ f ei!r crat]1 & desc5ds ! granitic slope t[>ds ! pres5t site ( ! t[n ( ,pont ,gibaud4 ,!nce x p\rs 9 a broad %eet d[n a /eep declivity into ! valley ( ! ,si\le1 fill+ ! anci5t riv]-*annel = ! di/ance ( m ?an a mile4 ,! ,si\le1 ?us dispossess$ ( its b$1 has work$ out a fre% "o betwe5 ! lava & ! granite ( its we/]n bank2 & ! excavation has disclos$1 9 "o spot1 a wall ( column> basalt ab\t #ej feet high4#dbg-;,a ,! excavation ( ! rav9e is /ill 9 progress1 e w9t] "s columns ( basalt be+ und]m9$ & c>ri$ d[n ! *annel ( ! riv]1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a few miles roll$ to s& & pebbles4 ,mean:ile ! cone ( ,come rema9s /ation>y1 its loose mat]ials be+ protect$ by a d5se vegetation1 & ! hill /&+ on a ridge n comm&$ by any high] gr\nd :5ce floods ( ra9-wat] may desc5d4 ,puy ,r\ge4--,at ano!r po9t1 f>!r d[n ! c\rse ( ! ,si\le1 we f9d a second illu/ration ( ! same ph5om5on 9 ! ,puy ,r\ge1 a conical hill to ! nor? ( ! village ( ,pranal4 ,! cone is compos$ entirely ( r$ & black scoriae1 tuff1 & volcanic bombs4 ,on its we/]n side !re is a worn-d[n crat]1 :5ce a p[]ful /ream ( lava has issu$1 & fl[$ into ! valley ( ! ,si\le4 ,! riv] has s9ce excavat$ a rav9e ?r\gh ! lava & subjac5t gneiss1 to ! dep? ( #djj feet4 ,on ! upp] "p ( ! precipice =m+ ! left side ( ?is rav9e1 we see a great mass ( black & r$ scoriace\s lava2 bel[ ?is a ?9 b$ ( gravel1 evid5tly an anci5t riv]-b$1 n[ at an elevation ( #ej feet above ! *annel ( ! ,si\le4 ,! gravel aga9 re/s ^u gneiss1 :i* has be5 erod$ to ! dep? ( #ej feet4 ,x is q evid5t 9 ?is case1 t1 :ile ! basalt 0 gradually und]m9$ & c>ri$ away by ! =ce ( runn+ wat]1 ! cone :5ce ! lava issu$ escap$ de/ruction1 because x /ood ^u a plat=m ( gneiss sev]al hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! valley 9 :i* ! =ce ( runn+ wat] 0 ex]t$4 ,puy de ,p>i\4--,! brim ( ! crat] ( ! ,puy de ,p>i\1 ne> ,cl]mont1 is s %>p1 & has be5 s little blunt$ by "t1 t x sc>cely af=ds room to /& ^u4 ,?is & o!r cones 9 an equally rem>kable /ate ( integrity h /ood1 ,i conceive un9jur$1 n 9 spite ( _! loose por\s nature1 z might at fir/ be naturally suppos$1 b 9 consequ5ce ( x4 ,no rills c collect :]e all ! ra9 is in/antly absorb$ by ! s& & scoriae1 z is rem>kably ! case on ,etna2 & no?+ b a wat]sp\t break+ directly ^u ! ,puy de ,p>i\ c\ld c>ry away a portion ( ! hill1 s long z x is n r5t or engulph$ by e>?quakes4 ,h5ce x is conceivable t ev5 ^? cones :i* h ! fre%e/ aspect1 & mo/ p]fect %ape1 may lay claim to v high antiquity4 ,dr4 ,daub5y has ju/ly obs]v$1 t _h any ( ^! volcanos be5 9 a /ate ( activity 9 ! age ( ,julius ,caes>1 t g5]al1 :o encamp$ ^u ! pla9s ( ,auv]gne1 & laid siege to its pr9cipal city 7,g]govia1 ne> ,cl]mont71 c\ld h>dly h fail$ to notice !m4 ,_h !re be5 any record ( _! eruptions 9 ! "t ( ,pl9y or ,sidonius ,apoll9>is1 ! "o w\ld sc>cely h omitt$ to make m5tion ( x 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory1 nor ! o!r to introduce "s allusion to x among ! descriptions ( ?is 8 native prov9ce4 ,?is poet's resid5ce 0 on ! bord]s ( ! ,lake ,aidat1 :i* ow$ its v exi/5ce to ! damm+ up ( a riv] by "o ( ! mo/ mod]n lava-curr5ts4#dbh-;,a ,velay4--,! obs]vations ( ,m4 ,b]tr& de ,d\e h n yet e/abli%$ t any ( ! mo/ anci5t volcanos ( ,velay 7 9 action dur+ ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,!re are b$s ( gravel 9 ,velay1 z 9 ,auv]gne1 cov]$ by lava at diff]5t heights above ! *annels ( ! exi/+ riv]s4 ,9 ! highe/ & mo/ anci5t ( ^! alluviums ! pebbles are exclusively ( granitic rocks2 b 9 ! new]1 :i* are f\nd at l[] levels1 & :i* orig9at$ :5 ! valleys _h be5 cut to a great] dep?1 an int]mixture ( volcanic rocks has be5 obs]v$4 ,at ,/4 ,privat d',alli] a b$ ( volcanic scoriae & tuff 0 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,hibb]t1 inclos$ betwe5 two %eets ( basaltic lava2 & 9 ?is tuff 7 f\nd ! bones ( sev]al quadrup$s1 "s ( !m adh]+ to masses ( slaggy lava4 ,among o!r animals 7 ,rh9oc]os leptorh9us1 ,hya5a spelaea1 & a species alli$ to ! spott$ hya5a ( ! ,cape1 toge!r ) f\r undet]m9$ species ( de]4#dbh-;,b ,! mann] ( ! occurr5ce ( ^! bones rem9ds u ( ! publi%$ acc\nts ( an eruption ( ,cosegu9a1 #ahce1 9 ,c5tral ,am]ica 7see p4 #cii471 dur+ :i* hot c9d]s & scoriae fell & scor*$ to dea? great numb]s ( wild & dome/ic animals & birds4 ,plomb du ,cantal4--,9 reg>d to ! age ( ! igne\s rocks ( ! ,cantal1 we c at pres5t m]ely affirm1 t !y ov]lie ! ,eoc5e lacu/r9e /rata ( t c\ntry 7see ,map1 p4 #agi474 ,!y =m a great dome-%ap$ mass1 hav+ an av]age slope ( only #d deg41 :i* has evid5tly be5 accumulat$1 l ! cone ( ,etna1 dur+ a long s]ies ( eruptions4 ,x is compos$ ( tra*ytic1 phonolitic1 & basaltic lavas1 tuffs1 & conglom]ates1 or breccias1 =m+ a m\nta9 sev]al ?\s& feet 9 height4 ,dikes also ( phonolite1 tra*yte1 & basalt are num]\s1 especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! l>ge cavity1 probably once a crat]1 ar\nd :i* ! l(tie/ summits ( ! ,cantal are rang$ circul>ly1 few ( !m1 except ! ,plomb du ,cantal1 ris+ f> above ! bord] or ridge ( ?is suppos$ crat]4 ,a pyramidal hill1 call$ ! ,puy ,gri\1 occupies ! middle ( ! cavity4#dbi-;,a ,x is cle> t ! volcano ( ! ,cantal broke out precisely on ! site ( ! lacu/r9e deposit be=e describ$ 7p4 #ahh471 :i* _h accumulat$ 9 a depression ( a tract compos$ ( micace\s s*i/4 ,9 ! breccias1 ev5 to ! v summit ( ! m\nta91 we f9d eject$ masses ( ! fre%wat] b$s1 & sometimes fragm5ts ( fl9t1 conta9+ ,eoc5e %ells4 ,valleys radiate 9 all directions f ! c5tral heights ( ! m\nta91 increas+ 9 size z !y rec$e f ^? heights4 ,^? ( ! ,c] & ,j\rdanne1 :i* are m ?an #bj miles 9 l5g?1 are ( great dep?1 & lay op5 ! geological /ructure ( ! m\nta94 ,no alt]nation ( lavas ) undi/urb$ ,eoc5e /rata has be5 obs]v$1 nor any tuffs conta9+ fre%wat] %ells1 al?\gh "s ( ^! tuffs include fossil rema9s ( t]re/rial plants1 said to imply sev]al di/9ct re/orations ( ! vegetation ( ! m\nta9 9 ! int]vals betwe5 great eruptions4 ,on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,plomb du ,cantal1 at ,la ,vissi]e1 ne> ,murat1 is a spot1 po9t$ out on ! ,map 7p4 #agi471 :]e fre%wat] lime/one & m>l are se5 cov]$ by a ?ickness ( ab\t #hjj feet ( volcanic rock4 ,%ifts are "h se5 9 ! /rata ( lime/one & m>l4#dbi-;,b ,eoc5e p]iod4--,9 treat+ ( ! lacu/r9e deposits ( ,c5tral ,france1 9 ! fifte5? *apt]1 x 0 /at$ t1 9 ! ar5ace\s & pebbly gr\p ( ! lacu/r9e bas9s ( ,auv]gne1 ,cantal1 & ,velay1 no volcanic pebbles _h ev] be5 detect$1 al?\gh massive piles ( igne\s rocks are n[ f\nd 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,z ?is obs]vation has be5 confirm$ by m9ute rese>*1 we are w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ t ! volcanic eruptions _h n comm5c$ :5 ! old] subdivisions ( ! fre%wat] gr\ps orig9at$4 ,9 ,cantal & ,velay no decisive pro(s h yet be5 br\ght to light t any ( ! igne\s outbur/s happ5$ dur+ ! deposition ( ! fre%wat] /rata2 b !re c be no d\bt t 9 ,auv]gne "s volcanic explosions took place be=e ! dra9age ( ! lakes1 & at a "t :5 ! ,upp] ,eoc5e species ( animals & plants /ill fl\ri%$4 ,?us1 = example1 at ,pont du ,*ateau1 ne> ,cl]mont1 a section is se5 9 a precipice on ! "r bank ( ! riv] ,alli]1 9 :i* b$s ( volcanic tuff alt]nate ) a fre%wat] lime/one1 :i* is 9 "s places pure1 b 9 o!rs spott$ ) fragm5ts ( volcanic matt]1 z if x 7 deposit$ :ile %[]s ( s& & scoriae 7 project$ f a neighb\r+ v5t4#dcj-;,a ,ano!r example occurs 9 ! ,puy de ,m>mont1 ne> ,veyres1 :]e a fre%wat] m>l alt]nates ) volcanic tuff conta9+ ,eoc5e %ells4 ,! tuff or breccia 9 ?is locality is precisely su* z is kn[n to result f volcanic a%es fall+ into wat]1 & subsid+ toge!r ) eject$ fragm5ts ( m>l & o!r /ratifi$ rocks4 ,^! tuffs & m>ls are highly incl9$1 & trav]s$ by a ?ick ve9 ( basalt1 :i*1 z x rises 9 ! hill1 divides into two bran*es4 ,g]govia4--,! hill ( ,g]govia1 ne> ,cl]mont1 af=ds a ?ird example4 ,i agree ) ,,mm4 ,dufr5oy & ,job]t t !re is no alt]nation "h ( a contemporane\s %eet ( lava ) fre%wat] /rata1 9 ! mann] suppos$ by "s o!r obs]v]s#dcj-;,b2 b ! position & cont5ts ( "s ( ! associat$ tuffs1 prove !m to h be5 d]iv$ f volcanic eruptions :i* occurr$ dur+ ! deposition ( ! lacu/r9e /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dha4 ,hill ( ,g]govia4 ,! bottom ( ! hill consi/s ( slightly incl9$ b$s ( :ite & gre5i% m>ls1 m ?an #cjj feet 9 ?ickness1 int]sect$ by a dike ( basalt1 :i* may be /udi$ 9 ! rav9e above ! village ( ,m]dogne4 ,! dike "h cuts ?r\gh ! m>ly /rata at a consid]able angle1 produc+1 9 g5]al1 great alt]ation & confusion 9 !m = "s di/ance f ! po9t ( contact4 ,above ! :ite & gre5 m>ls1 a s]ies ( b$s ( lime/one & m>l1 conta9+ fre%wat] %ells1 are se5 to alt]nate ) volcanic tuff4 ,9 ! l[e/ "p ( ?is division1 b$s ( pure m>l alt]nate ) compact fissile tuff1 resembl+ "s ( ! subaque\s tuffs ( ,italy & ,sicily call$ pep]9os4 ,occasionally fragm5ts ( scoriae are visible 9 ?is rock4 ,/ill high] is se5 ano!r gr\p ( "s ?ickness1 consi/+ exclusively ( tuff1 ^u :i* lie o!r m>ly /rata int]mix$ ) volcanic matt]4 ,among ! species ( fossil %ells :i* ,i f\nd 9 ^! /rata 7 ,melania inqu9ata1 a ,unio1 & a ,melanopsis1 b !y 7 n suffici5t to enable me to det]m9e ) precision ! age ( ! =mation4 ,!re are _m po9ts 9 ,auv]gne :]e igne\s rocks h be5 =c$ by subsequ5t injection ?r\gh clays & m>ly lime/ones1 9 su* a mann] t ! :ole has become bl5d$ 9 "o confus$ & brecciat$ mass1 betwe5 :i* & ! basalt !re is sometimes no v di/9ct l9e ( dem>cation4 ,9 ! cavities ( su* mix$ rocks we (t5 f9d calc$ony1 & cry/als ( mesotype1 /ilbite1 & arragonite4 ,to =mations ( ?is class may belong "s ( ! breccias imm$iately adjo9+ ! dike 9 ! hill ( ,g]govia2 b x _c be cont5d$ t ! volcanic s& & scoriae int]/ratifi$ ) ! m>ls & lime/ones 9 ! upp] "p ( t hill 7 introduc$1 l ! dike1 subsequ5tly1 by intrusion f bel[4 ,!y mu/ h be5 ?r[n d[n l s$im5t f wat]1 & c only h result$ f igne\s action1 :i* 0 go+ on contemporane\sly ) ! deposition ( ! lacu/r9e /rata4 ,! read] w be> 9 m9d t ?is conclusion agrees well ) ! pro(s1 adv]t$ to 9 ! fifte5? *apt]1 ( ! abundance ( silex1 trav]t91 & gypsum precipitat$ :5 ! upp] lacu/r9e /rata 7 =m$2 = ^! rocks are su* z ! wat]s ( m9]al & !rmal spr+s might g5]ate4 ,cretace\s p]iod4--,al?\gh we h no pro( ( volcanic rocks erupt$ 9 ,engl& dur+ ! deposition ( ! *alk & gre5s&1 x w\ld be an error to suppose t no !atres ( igne\s action exi/$ 9 ! cretace\s p]iod4 ,m4 ,virlet1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! geology ( ! ,morea1 p4 #bje41 has cle>ly %[n t c]ta9 traps 9 ,greece1 call$ by him ophiolites1 are ( ?is date2 z ^?1 = example1 :i* alt]nate con=mably ) cretace\s lime/one & gre5s& betwe5 ,ka/ri & ,damala 9 ! ,morea4 ,!y consi/ 9 great "p ( diallage rocks & s]p5t9e1 & ( an amygdaloid ) calc>e\s k]nels1 & a base ( s]p5t9e4 ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ,morea1 ! age ( ^! volcanic rocks is e/abli%$ by ! foll[+ pro(s3 fir/1 ! li?ographic lime/ones ( ! ,cretace\s era are cut ?r\gh by trap1 & !n a conglom]ate occurs1 at ,nauplia & o!r places1 conta9+ 9 its calc>e\s cem5t _m well-kn[n fossils ( ! *alk & gre5s&1 toge!r ) pebbles =m$ ( roll$ pieces ( ! same ophiolite1 :i* appe> 9 ! dikes above allud$ to4 ,p]iod ( ,oolite & ,lias4--,al?\gh ! gre5 & s]p5t9\s trap rocks ( ! ,morea belong *iefly to ! ,cretace\s era1 z be=e m5tion$1 yet x seems t "s eruptions ( simil> rocks began dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod#dca-;,a2 & x is probable1 t a l>ge "p ( ! trappean masses1 call$ ophiolites 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 & associat$ ) ! lime/one ( t *a91 are ( correspond+ age4 ,t "p ( ! volcanic rocks ( ! ,hebrides1 9 our own c\ntry1 orig9at$ contemporane\sly ) ! ,oolite :i* !y trav]se & ov]lie1 has be5 asc]ta9$ by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,=bes1 9 #ahej4 ,trap ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod4--,9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,devon%ire1 trappean rocks are associat$ ) ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 &1 accord+ to ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 h n be5 intrud$ subsequ5tly into ! s&/one1 b 7 produc$ by contemporane\s volcanic action4 ,"s b$s ( grit1 m+l$ ) ord9>y r$ m>l1 resemble s&s eject$ f a crat]2 & 9 ! /ratifi$ conglom]ates occurr+ ne> ,tiv]ton are _m angul> fragm5ts ( trap porphyry1 "s ( !m "o or two tons 9 weight1 int]m+l$ ) pebbles ( o!r rocks4 ,^! angul> fragm5ts 7 probably ?r[n out f volcanic v5ts1 & fell ^u s$im5t>y matt] !n 9 ! c\rse ( deposition4#dcb-;,a ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4--,two classes ( contemporane\s trap rocks h be5 asc]ta9$ by ,dr4 ,flem+ to occur 9 ! coal-field ( ! ,=? 9 ,scotl&4 ,! newe/ ( ^!1 connect$ ) ! high] s]ies ( coal-measures1 is well exhibit$ along ! %ores ( ! ,=?1 9 ,fife%ire1 :]e !y consi/ ( basalt ) oliv9e1 amygdaloid1 gre5/one1 wacke1 & tuff4 ,!y appe> to h be5 erupt$ :ile ! s$im5t>y /rata 7 9 a horizontal position1 & to h suff]$ ! same dislocations :i* ^? /rata h subsequ5tly und]gone4 ,9 ! volcanic tuffs ( ?is age are f\nd n only fragm5ts ( lime/one1 %ale1 fl9ty slate1 & s&/one1 b also pieces ( coal4 ,! o!r or old] class ( c>bonif]\s traps are trac$ along ! s\? m>g9 ( ,/ra!d51 & con/itute a ridge p>allel ) ! ,o*ils1 & ext5d+ f ,/irl+ to ne> ,/4 ,&rews4 ,!y consi/ almo/ exclusively ( gre5/one1 becom+1 9 a few in/ances1 e>?y & amygdaloidal4 ,!y are regul>ly int]/ratifi$ ) ! s&/one1 %ale1 & iron/one ( ! l[] ,coal-measures1 &1 on ! ,ea/ ,lomond1 ) ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,i exam9$ ^! trap rocks 9 #ahch1 9 ! cliffs s\? ( ,/4 ,&rews1 :]e !y consi/ 9 great "p ( /ratifi$ tuffs1 :i* are curv$1 v]tical1 & contort$1 l ! associat$ coal-measures4 ,9 ! tuff ,i f\nd fragm5ts ( c>bonif]\s %ale & lime/one1 & int]sect+ ve9s ( gre5/one4 ,at "o spot1 ab\t two miles f ,/4 ,&rews1 ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea on ! cliffs has isolat$ sev]al masses ( trap1 "o ( :i* 7fig4 #dhb47 is aptly call$ ! rock & sp9dle1#dcb-;,b = x consi/s ( a p9nacle ( tuff1 :i* may be comp>$ to a di/aff1 & ne> ! base is a mass ( column> gre5/one1 9 :i* ! pill>s radiate f a c5tre1 & appe> at a di/ance l ! spokes ( a :eel4 ,! l>ge/ diamet] ( ?is :eel is ab\t twelve feet1 & ! polygonal t]m9ations ( ! columns are se5 r\nd ! circumf]5ce 7or tire1 z x 71 ( ! :eel71 z 9 ! accompany+ figure4 ,i conceive ?is mass to be ! extremity ( a /r+ or ve9 ( gre5/one1 :i* p5etrat$ ! tuff4 ,! prisms po9t 9 e direction1 because !y 7 surr\nd$ on all sides by cool+ surfaces1 to :i* !y always1 arrange !mselves at "r angles1 z be=e expla9$ 7p4 #che474 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhb4 ,rock & ,sp9dle1 ,/4 ,&rews4 a4 ,un/ratifi$ tuff4 b4 ,column> gre5/one4 c4 ,/ratifi$ tuff4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhc4 ,columns ( ,gre5/one1 se5 endwise4 ,a trap dike 0 po9t$ out to me by ,dr4 ,flem+1 9 ! p>i% ( ,flisk1 9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,fife%ire1 :i* cuts ?r\gh ! grey s&/one & %ale1 =m+ ! l[e/ "p ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,x may be trac$ = _m miles1 pass+ ?r\gh ! amygdaloidal & o!r traps ( ! hill call$ ,normans ,law4 ,9 its c\rse x af=ds a good exemplification ( ! passage f ! trappean into ! plutonic1 or highly cry/all9e texture4 ,pr(essor ,gu/avus ,rose1 to :om ,i submitt$ specim5s ( ?is dike1 f9ds ! rock1 :i* he calls dol]ite1 to consi/ ( gre5i% black augite & ,labrador felsp>1 ! latt] be+ ! mo/ abundant +r$i5t4 ,a small quantity ( magnetic iron1 p]haps titanif]\s1 is also pres5t4 ,! result ( ?is analysis is int]e/+1 because bo? ! anci5t & mod]n lavas ( ,etna consi/ 9 l mann] ( augite1 ,labradorite1 & titanif]\s iron4 ,trap ( ! ,old ,r$ s&/one p]iod4--,by ref]r+ to ! section explanatory ( ! /ructure ( ,=f>%ire1 already giv5 7p4 #dh471 ! read] w p]ceive t b$s ( conglom]ate1 ,no4 #c41 occur 9 ! middle ( ! ,old ,r$ s&/one sy/em1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,! pebbles 9 ^! conglom]ates are sometimes compos$ ( granitic & qu>tz rocks1 sometimes exclusively ( diff]5t v>ieties ( trap1 :i*1 al?\gh purposely omitt$ 9 ! above section1 are (t5 f\nd ei!r intrud+ !mselves 9 amorph\s masses & dikes into ! old fossilif]\s tile/ones1 ,no4 #d41 or alt]nat+ ) !m 9 con=mable b$s4 ,all ! diff]5t divisions ( ! r$ s&/one1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 are occasionally int]sect$ by dikes1 b !y are v r>e 9 ,nos4 #a4 & #b41 ! upp] memb]s ( ! gr\p consi/+ ( r$ %ale & r$ s&/one4 ,^! ph5om5a1 :i* occur at ! foot ( ! ,grampians1 are repeat$ 9 ! ,sidlaw ,hills2 & x appe>s t 9 ?is "p ( ,scotl&1 volcanic eruptions 7 mo/ frequ5t 9 ! e>li] "p ( ! ,old ,r$ s&/one p]iod4 ,! trap rocks allud$ to consi/ *iefly ( felspa?ic porphyry & amygdaloid1 ! k]nels ( ! latt] be+ sometimes calc>e\s1 (t5 calc$onic1 & =m+ beautiful agates4 ,we meet also ) clay/one1 cl9k/one1 gre5/one1 compact felsp>1 & tuff4 ,"s ( ^! rocks fl[$ z lavas ov] ! bottom ( ! sea1 & envelop$ qu>tz pebbles :i* 7 ly+ !re1 s z to =m conglom]ates ) a base ( gre5/one1 z is se5 9 ,lumley ,d51 9 ! ,sidlaw ,hills4 ,on ei!r side ( ! axis ( ?is *a9 ( hills 7see section1 p4 #dh471 ! b$s ( massive trap1 & ! tuffs compos$ ( volcanic s& & a%es1 dip regul>ly to ! s\?-ea/ or nor?-we/1 con=mably ) ! %ales & s&/ones4 ,silurian p]iod4--,x appe>s f ! inve/igations ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 9 ,%rop%ire1 t :5 ! l[] ,silurian /rata ( t c\nty 7 accumulat+1 !re 7 frequ5t volcanic eruptions b5ea? ! sea2 & ! a%es & scoriae !n eject$ gave rise to a peculi> k9d ( tuface\s s&/one or grit1 dissimil> to ! o!r rocks ( ! ,silurian s]ies1 & only obs]vable 9 places :]e sy5itic & o!r trap rocks protrude4 ,^! tuffs occur on ! flanks ( ! ,wrek9 & ,ca] ,c>adoc1 & conta9 ,silurian fossils1 su* z ca/s ( encr9ites1 trilobites1 & mollusca4 ,al?\gh fossilif]\s1 ! /one resembles a s&y clay/one ( ! trap family4#dce-;,a ,?9 lay]s ( trap1 only a few in*es ?ick1 alt]nate1 9 "s p>ts ( ,%rop%ire & ,montgom]y%ire1 ) s$im5t>y /rata ( ! l[] ,silurian sy/em4 ,?is trap consi/s ( slaty porphyry & granul> felsp> rock1 ! b$s be+ trav]s$ by jo9ts l ^? 9 ! associat$ s&/one1 lime/one1 & %ale1 & hav+ ! same /rike & dip4#dce-;,b ,9 ,radnor%ire !re is an example ( twelve b&s ( /ratifi$ trap1 alt]nat+ ) ,silurian s*i/s & flag/ones1 9 a ?ickness ( #cej feet4 ,! b$d$ traps consi/ ( felsp>-porphyry1 cl9k/one1 & o!r v>ieties2 & ! int]pos$ ,ll&eilo flags are ( s&/one & %ale1 ) trilobites & graptolites4#dce-;,c ,! va/ ?ickness ( contemporane\s trappean rocks ( l[] ,silurian date 9 ,nor? ,wales1 explor$ by our gov]nm5t surveyors1 has be5 already allud$ to4#dce-;,d ,cambrian volcanic rocks4--,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! geology ( ,cumb]l&1 has describ$ v>i\s trap rocks :i* accompany ! gre5 slates ( ! ,cambrian sy/em1 b5ea? all ! rocks conta9+ organic rema9s4 ,diff]5t felspa?ic & porphyritic rocks & gre5/ones occur1 n only 9 dikes1 b 9 con=mable b$s2 & !re is occasionally a passage f ^! igne\s rocks to "s ( ! gre5 qu>tzose slates4 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick supposes ^! porphyries to h orig9at$ contemporane\sly ) ! /ratifi$ *loritic slates1 ! mat]ials ( ! slates hav+ be5 suppli$1 9 "p at lea/1 by subm>9e eruptions (t5times repeat$4#dce-;,e ,,footnotes3 #dbb-;,a ,see ! map1 p4 #agi4 #dbc-;,a ,scrope's ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #ih4 #dbc-;,b ,see *aps4 xxiv41 xxv41 & xxvi41 #g? & #h? editions4 #dbc-;,c ,see ,qu>t]ly ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 ii4 p4 #gg4 #dbe-;,a ,= a view ( ,puy de ,t>t>et & ,mont ,dor1 see ,scrope's ,volcanos ( ,c5tral ,france4 #dbg-;,a ,scrope's ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #fj41 & plate4 #dbh-;,a ,daub5y on ,volcanos1 p4 #ad4 #dbh-;,b ,ed94 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 ,no4 iv4 ,n4 ,s4 p4 #bgf4 ,figures ( "s ( ^! rema9s are giv5 by ,m4 ,b]tr& de ,d\e1 ,ann4 ,de la ,soc4 d',agricult4 de ,puy1 #ahbh4 #dbi-;,a ,mem4 de la ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 i4 p4 #age4 #dbi-;,b ,see ,lyell & ,mur*ison1 ,ann4 de ,sci4 ,nat41 ,oct4 #ahbi4 #dcj-;,a ,see ,scrope's ,c5tral ,france1 p4 #ba4 #dcj-;,b ,ibid1 p4 #g4 #dca-;,a ,boblaye & ,virlet1 ,morea1 p4 #bc4 #dcb-;,a ,de la ,be*e1 ,geol4 ,proce$+s1 ,no4 #da4 p4 #aif4 #dcb-;,b ,! rock1 z ,engli% read]s ( ,burn's poems may rememb]1 is a ,scot* t]m = di/aff4 #dce-;,a ,mur*ison1 ,silurian ,sy/em1 c4 p4 #bcj4 #dce-;,b ,ibid41 p4 #bgb4 #dce-;,c ,ibid41 p4 #cbe4 #dce-;,d ,*ap4 ,,xxvii4 p4 #cef4 #dce-;,e ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iv4 p4 #ee4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiii4 ,,plutonic ,,rocks--,,granite4 ,g5]al aspect ( granite--,decompos+ into sph]ical masses--,rude column> /ructure--,analogy & diff]5ce ( volcanic & plutonic =mations--,m9]als 9 granite1 & _! arrangem5t--,graphic & porphyritic granite--,mutual p5etration ( cry/als ( qu>tz & felsp>--,occasional m9]als--,sy5ite--,sy5itic1 talcose1 & s*orly granites--,eurite--,passage ( granite into trap--,examples ne> ,*ri/iania & 9 ,ab]de5%ire--,analogy 9 composition ( tra*yte & granite--,granite ve9s 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 ,cornwall1 ! ,valors9e1 & o!r c\ntries--,diff]5t composition ( ve9s f ma9 body ( granite--,metallif]\s ve9s 9 /rata ne> _! junction ) granite--,app>5t isolation ( nodules ( granite--,qu>tz ve9s--,:e!r plutonic rocks are ev] ov]ly+--,_! exposure at ! surface due to d5udation4 ,! plutonic rocks may be treat$ ( next 9 ord]1 z !y are mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! volcanic class already consid]$4 ,i h describ$1 9 ! fir/ *apt]1 ^! plutonic rocks z ! un/ratifi$ division ( ! cry/all9e or hypog5e =mations1 & h /at$ t !y diff] f ! volcanic rocks1 n only by _! m cry/all9e texture1 b also by ! abs5ce ( tuffs & breccias1 :i* are ! products ( eruptions at ! e>?'s surface1 or b5ea? seas ( inconsid]able dep?4 ,!y diff] also by ! abs5ce ( pores or cellul> cavities1 to :i* ! expansion ( ! entangl$ gases gives rise 9 ord9>y lava4 ,f ^! & o!r peculi>ities x has be5 inf]r$1 t ! granites h be5 =m$ at consid]able dep?s 9 ! e>?1 & h cool$ & cry/alliz$ sl[ly "u great pressure1 :]e ! conta9$ gases c\ld n exp&4 ,! volcanic rocks1 on ! contr>y1 al?\gh !y also h ris5 up f bel[1 h cool$ f a melt$ /ate m rapidly ^u or ne> ! surface4 ,f ?is hypo!sis ( ! great dep? at :i* ! granites orig9at$1 has be5 d]iv$ ! "n ( ,plutonic rocks4 ,! beg9n] w easily conceive t ! influ5ce ( subt]ranean heat may ext5d d[nw>ds f ! crat] ( e active volcano to a great dep? bel[1 p]haps sev]al miles or leagues1 & ! effects :i* are produc$ deep 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? may1 or r mu/ be1 di/9ct2 s t volcanic & plutonic rocks1 ea* diff]5t 9 texture1 & sometimes ev5 9 composition1 may orig9ate simultane\sly1 ! "o at ! surface1 ! o!r f> b5ea? x4 ,by "s writ]s1 all ! rocks n[ "u consid]ation h be5 compreh5d$ "u ! "n ( granite1 :i* is1 !n1 und]/ood to embrace a l>ge family ( cry/all9e & comp\nd rocks1 usually f\nd und]ly+ all o!r =mations2 :]eas we h se5 t trap v commonly ov]lies /rata ( diff]5t ages4 ,granite (t5 pres]ves a v uni=m "* ?r\gh\t a wide range ( t]ritory1 =m+ hills ( a peculi> r\nd$ =m1 usually clad ) a scanty vegetation4 ,! surface ( ! rock is = ! mo/ "p 9 a crumbl+ /ate1 & ! hills are (t5 surm\nt$ by piles ( /ones l ! rema9s ( a /ratifi$ mass1 z 9 ! annex$ figure1 & sometimes l heaps ( b\ld]s1 = :i* !y h be5 mi/ak54 ,! ext]ior ( ^! /ones1 orig9ally quadrangul>1 acquires a r\nd$ =m by ! action ( air & wat]1 = ! edges & angles wa/e away m rapidly ?an ! sides4 ,a simil> sph]ical /ructure has already be5 describ$ z *>act]i/ic ( basalt & o!r volcanic =mations1 & x mu/ be ref]r$ to analog\s causes1 z yet b imp]fectly und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhd4 ,mass ( granite ne> ! ,%>p ,tor1 ,cornwall4 ,al?\gh x is ! g5]al peculi>ity ( granite to assume no def9ite %apes1 x is nev]!less occasionally subdivid$ by fissures1 s z to assume a cuboidal1 & ev5 a column>1 /ructure4 ,examples ( ^! appe>ances may be se5 ne> ! ,l&'s ,end1 9 ,cornwall4 7,see figure47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhe4 ,granite hav+ a cuboidal & rude column> /ructure1 ,l&'s ,end1 ,cornwall4 ,! plutonic =mations also agree ) ! volcanic1 9 hav+ ve9s or ramifications proce$+ f c5tral masses into ! adjo9+ rocks1 & caus+ alt]ations 9 ^! la/1 :i* w be pres5tly describ$4 ,!y also resemble trap 9 conta9+ no organic rema9s2 b !y diff] 9 be+ m uni=m 9 texture1 :ole m\nta9 masses ( indef9ite ext5t appe>+ to h orig9at$ "u conditions precisely simil>4 ,!y also diff] 9 nev] be+ scoriace\s or amygdaloidal1 & nev] =m+ a porphyry ) an uncry/all9e base1 or alt]nat+ ) tuffs4 ,nor d !y =m conglom]ates1 al?\gh !re is sometimes an ins5sible passage f a f9e to a co>se-gra9$ granite1 & occasionally pat*es ( a f9e texture are imb$d$ 9 a co>s] v>iety4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhf4 ,gneiss4 7,see description1 p4 #dfd47 ,felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica are usually consid]$ z ! m9]als ess5tial to granite1 ! felsp> be+ mo/ abundant 9 quantity1 & ! proportion ( qu>tz exce$+ t ( mica4 ,^! m9]als are unit$ 9 :at is t]m$ a confus$ cry/allization2 t is to say1 !re is no regul> arrangem5t ( ! cry/als 9 granite1 z 9 gneiss 7see fig4 #dhf471 except 9 ! v>iety t]m$ graphic granite1 :i* occurs mo/ly 9 granitic ve9s4 ,?is v>iety is a comp\nd ( felsp> & qu>tz1 s arrang$ z to produce an imp]fect lam9> /ructure4 ,! cry/als ( felsp> appe> to h be5 fir/ =m$1 leav+ betwe5 !m ! space n[ occupi$ by ! d>k]-col\r$ qu>tz4 ,?is m9]al1 :5 a section is made at "r angles to ! alt]nate plates ( felsp> & qu>tz1 pres5ts brok5 l9es1 :i* h be5 comp>$ to ,hebrew *>act]s4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,graphic granite4 ,fig4 #dhg4 ,section p>allel to ! lam9ae4 ,fig4 #dhh4 ,section transv]se to ! lam9ae4 ,z a g5]al rule1 qu>tz1 9 a compact or amorph\s /ate1 =ms a vitre\s mass1 s]v+ z ! base 9 :i* felsp> & mica h cry/alliz$2 = al?\gh ^! m9]als are mu* m fusible ?an silex1 !y h (t5 impr9t$ _! %apes ^u ! qu>tz4 ,?is fact1 app>5tly s p>adoxical1 has giv5 rise to mu* +5i\s speculation4 ,we %\ld naturally h anticipat$ t1 dur+ ! cool+ ( ! mass1 ! fl9ty portion w\ld be ! fir/ to consolidate2 & t ! diff]5t v>ieties ( felsp>1 z well z g>nets & t\rmal9es1 be+ m easily liquefi$ by heat1 w\ld be ! la/4 ,precisely ! rev]se has tak5 place 9 ! passage ( mo/ granitic aggregates f a fluid to a solid /ate1 cry/als ( ! m fusible m9]als be+ f\nd envelop$ 9 h>d1 transp>5t1 glassy qu>tz1 :i* has (t5 tak5 v fai?ful ca/s ( ea*1 s z to pres]ve ev5 ! microscopically m9ute /riations on ! surface ( prisms ( t\rmal9e4 ,v>i\s explanations ( ?is ph5om5on h be5 propos$ by ,,mm4 de ,beaumont1 ,f\rnet1 & ,duro*]4 ,!y ref] to ,m4 ,gaud9's exp]im5ts on ! fusion ( qu>tz1 :i* %[ t silex1 z x cools1 has ! prop]ty ( rema9+ 9 a visc\s /ate1 :]eas alum9a nev] does4 ,?is gelat9\s fl9t is suppos$ to reta9 a consid]able degree ( pla/icity long aft] ! granitic mixture has acquir$ a l[ temp]ature2 & ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont sugge/s1 t electric action may prolong ! duration ( ! viscosity ( silex4 ,occasionally1 h[ev]1 we f9d ! qu>tz & felsp> mutually impr9t+ _! =ms on ea* o!r1 af=d+ evid5ce ( ! simultane\s cry/allization ( bo?4#dci-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dhi4 ,porphyritic granite4 ,l&'s ,end1 ,cornwall4 ,porphyritic granite4--,?is "n has be5 sometimes giv5 to t v>iety 9 :i* l>ge cry/als ( felsp>1 sometimes m ?an #c in*es 9 l5g?1 are scatt]$ ?r\gh an ord9>y base ( granite4 ,an example ( ?is texture may be se5 9 ! granite ( ! ,l&'s ,end1 9 ,cornwall 7fig4 #dhi474 ,! two l>g] prismatic cry/als 9 ?is draw+ repres5t felsp>1 small] cry/als ( :i* are also se51 simil> 9 =m1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! base4 ,9 ?is base also appe> black specks ( mica1 ! cry/als ( :i* h a m or less p]fect hexagonal outl9e4 ,! rema9d] ( ! mass is qu>tz1 ! transluc5cy ( :i* is /rongly contra/$ to ! opaqu5ess ( ! :ite felsp> & black mica4 ,b nei!r ! transp>5cy ( ! qu>tz1 nor ! silv]y lu/re ( ! mica1 c be express$ 9 ! engrav+4 ,! uni=m m9]al "* ( l>ge masses ( granite seems to indicate t l>ge quantities ( ! compon5t elem5ts 7 ?or\ghly mix$ up toge!r1 & !n cry/alliz$ "u precisely simil> conditions4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m accid5tal1 or occasional1 m9]als1 z !y are t]m$1 :i* belong to granite4 ,among ^! black s*orl or t\rmal9e1 act9olite1 zircon1 g>net1 & fluor sp>1 are n uncommon2 b !y are too sp>+ly disp]s$ to modify ! g5]al aspect ( ! rock4 ,!y %[1 nev]!less1 t ! +r$i5ts 7 n ev]y:]e exactly ! same2 & a /ill great] v>iation may be trac$ 9 ! ev]-v>y+ proportions ( ! felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica4 ,sy5ite4--,:5 hornbl5de is ! sub/itute = mica1 :i* is v commonly ! case1 ! rock becomes ,sy5ite3 s call$ f ! celebrat$ anci5t qu>ries ( ,sy5e 9 ,egypt4 ,x has all ! appe>ance ( ord9>y granite1 except :5 m9]alogically exam9$ 9 h& specim5s1 & is fully entitl$ to rank z a geological memb] ( ! same plutonic family z granite4 ,sy5ite1 h[ev]1 aft] ma9ta9+ ! granitic "* ?r\gh\t ext5sive regions1 is n uncommonly f\nd to lose its qu>tz1 & to pass ins5sibly into sy5itic gre5/one1 a rock ( ! trap family4 ,w]n] consid]$ sy5ite z a b9>y comp\nd ( felsp> & hornbl5de1 & reg>d$ qu>tz z m]ely "o ( its occasional m9]als4 ,sy5itic-granite4--,! quadruple comp\nd ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 mica1 & hornbl5de1 may be s t]m$4 ,?is rock occurs 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,gu]nsey4 ,talcose granite1 or ,protog9e ( ! ,fr5*1 is a mixture ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & talc4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! ,alps1 & 9 "s p>ts ( ,cornwall1 produc+ by its decomposition ! *9a clay1 m ?an #ab1jjj tons ( :i* are annually export$ f t c\ntry = ! pott]ies4#ddj-;,a ,s*orl rock1 & s*orly granite4--,! =m] ( ^! is an aggregate ( s*orl1 or t\rmal9e1 & qu>tz4 ,:5 felsp> & mica are also pres5t1 x may be call$ s*orly granite4 ,?is k9d ( granite is comp>atively r>e4 ,eurite4--,a rock 9 :i* all ! +r$i5ts ( granite are bl5d$ into a f9ely granul> mass4 ,cry/als ( qu>tz & mica are sometimes scatt]$ ?r\gh ! base ( ,eurite4 ,pegmatite4--,a "n giv5 by ,fr5* writ]s to a v>iety ( granite2 a granul> mixture ( qu>tz & felsp>2 frequ5t 9 granite ve9s2 passes into graphic granite4 ,all ^! granites pass into c]ta9 k9ds ( trap1 a circum/ance :i* af=ds "o ( _m argum5ts 9 fav\r ( :at is n[ ! prevail+ op9ion1 t ! granites are also ( igne\s orig94 ,! contra/ ( ! mo/ cry/all9e =m ( granite1 to t ( ! mo/ common & e>?y trap1 is und\bt$ly great2 b ea* memb] ( ! volcanic class is capable ( becom+ porphyritic1 & ! base ( ! porphyry may be m & m cry/all9e1 until ! mass passes to ! k9d ( granite mo/ ne>ly alli$ 9 m9]al composition4 ,! m9]als :i* con/itute alike ! granitic & volcanic rocks consi/1 almo/ exclusively1 ( sev5 elem5ts1 namely1 silica1 alum9a1 magnesia1 lime1 soda1 pota%1 & iron2 & ^! may sometimes exi/ 9 ab\t ! same proportions 9 a por\s lava1 a compact trap1 or a cry/all9e granite4 ,x may p]haps be f\nd1 on f>!r exam9ation--= on ?is subject we h yet mu* to le>n--t ! pres5ce ( ^! elem5ts 9 c]ta9 proportions is m fav\rable ?an 9 o!rs to _! assum+ a cry/all9e or true granitic /ructure2 b x is also asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t1 t ! same mat]ials may1 "u diff]5t circum/ances1 =m v diff]5t rocks4 ,! same lava1 = example1 may be glassy1 or scoriace\s1 or /ony1 or porphyritic1 accord+ to ! m or less rapid rate at :i* x cools2 & "s tra*ytes & sy5itic-gre5/ones may d\btless =m granite & sy5ite1 if ! cry/allization take place sl[ly4 ,x has also be5 sugge/$ t ! peculi> nature & /ructure ( granite may be due to its reta9+ 9 x t wat] :i* is se5 to escape f lavas :5 !y cool sl[ly1 & consolidate 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,b\tigny's exp]im5ts h %[n t melt$ matt]1 at a :ite heat1 requires to h its temp]ature l[]$ be=e x c vap\rize wat]2 & su* discov]ies1 if !y fail to expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* granites h be5 =m$1 s]ve at lea/ to rem9d u ( ! entire di/9ctness ( ! conditions "u :i* plutonic & volcanic rocks mu/ be produc$4#dda-;,a ,x w\ld be easy to multiply examples & au?orities to prove ! gradation ( ! granitic into ! trap rocks4 ,on ! we/]n side ( ! fiord ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 !re is a l>ge di/rict ( trap1 *iefly gre5/one-porphyry1 & sy5itic-gre5/one1 re/+ on fossilif]\s /rata4 ,to ?is1 on its s\!rn limit1 succe$s a region equally ext5sive ( sy5ite1 ! passage f ! volcanic to ! plutonic rock be+ s gradual t x is impossible to draw a l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 !m4 ,! ord9>y granite ( ,ab]de5%ire1 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 is ! usual t]n>y comp\nd ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 & mica2 b sometimes hornbl5de is sub/itut$ = ! mica4 ,b 9 _m places a v>iety occurs :i* is compos$ simply ( felsp> & hornbl5de2 & 9 exam9+ m m9utely ?is duplicate comp\nd1 x is obs]v$ 9 "s places to assume a f9e gra91 & at l5g? to become undi/+ui%able f ! gre5/ones ( ! trap family4 ,x also passes 9 ! same un9t]rupt$ mann] into a basalt1 & at l5g? into a s(t clay/one1 ) a s*i/ose t5d5cy on exposure1 9 no respect diff]+ f ^? ( ! trap isl&s ( ! we/]n coa/4#dda-;,b ,! same au?or m5tions1 t 9 ,%etl&1 a granite compos$ ( hornbl5de1 mica1 felsp>1 & qu>tz1 graduates 9 an equally p]fect mann] into basalt4#dda-;,c ,9 ,hung>y !re are v>ieties ( tra*yte1 :i*1 geologically speak+1 are ( mod]n orig91 9 :i* cry/als1 n only ( mica1 b ( qu>tz1 are common1 toge!r ) felsp> & hornbl5de4 ,x is easy to conceive h[ su* volcanic masses may1 at a c]ta9 dep? f ! surface1 pass d[nw>ds into granite4 #b ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #dij4 ,fig4 #dia4 ,junction ( granite & argillace\s s*i/ 9 ,gl5 ,tilt4 7,mac,culloch47#ddb-;,a ,i h already h9t$ at ! close analogy 9 ! =ms ( c]ta9 granitic & trappean ve9s2 & x w be f\nd t /rata p5etrat$ by plutonic rocks h suff]$ *anges v simil> to ^? exhibit$ ne> ! contact ( volcanic dikes4 ,?us1 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 9 ,scotl&1 alt]nat+ /rata ( lime/one & argillace\s s*i/ come 9 contact ) a mass ( granite4 ,! contact does n take place z might h be5 look$ =1 if ! granite _h be5 =m$ !re be=e ! /rata 7 deposit$1 9 :i* case ! section w\ld h appe>$ z 9 fig4 #dij42 b ! union is z repres5t$ 9 fig4 #dia41 ! undulat+ outl9e ( ! granite int]sect+ diff]5t /rata1 & occasionally intrud+ itself 9 tortu\s ve9s into ! b$s ( clay-slate & lime/one1 f :i* x diff]s s rem>kably 9 composition4 ,! lime/one is sometimes *ang$ 9 "* by ! proximity ( ! granitic mass or its ve9s1 & acquires a m compact texture1 l t ( horn/one or *]t1 ) a spl9t]y fracture1 eff]vesc+ feebly ) acids4 ,! annex$ diagram 7fig4 #dib47 repres5ts ano!r junction1 9 ! same di/rict1 :]e ! granite s5ds =? s _m ve9s z to reticulate ! lime/one & s*i/1 ! ve9s dim9i%+ t[>ds _! t]m9ation to ! ?ickness ( a leaf ( pap] or a ?read4 ,9 "s places fragm5ts ( granite appe> entangl$1 z x 71 9 ! lime/one1 & are n visibly connect$ ) any l>g] mass2 :ile sometimes1 on ! o!r h&1 a lump ( ! lime/one is f\nd 9 ! mid/ ( ! granite4 ,! ord9>y col\r ( ! lime/one ( ,gl5 ,tilt is lead blue1 & its texture l>ge-gra9$ & highly cry/all9e2 b :]e x approximates to ! granite1 p>ticul>ly :]e x is p5etrat$ by ! small] ve9s1 ! cry/all9e texture disappe>s1 & x assumes an appe>ance exactly resembl+ t ( horn/one4 ,! associat$ argillace\s s*i/ (t5 passes into hornbl5de slate1 :]e x approa*es v ne> to ! granite4#ddb-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dib4 ,junction ( granite & lime/one 9 ,gl5 ,tilt4 7,mac,culloch47 a4 ,granite4 b4 ,lime/one4 c4 ,blue argillace\s s*i/4 ,! conv]sion ( ! lime/one 9 ^! & _m o!r in/ances into a silice\s rock1 eff]vesc+ sl[ly ) acids1 w\ld be difficult ( explanation1 7 x n asc]ta9$ t su* lime/ones are always impure1 conta9+ gra9s ( qu>tz1 mica1 or felsp> dissem9at$ ?r\gh !m4 ,! elem5ts ( ^! m9]als1 :5 ! rock has be5 subject$ to great heat1 may h be5 fus$1 & s spread m uni=mly ?r\gh ! :ole mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dic4 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ clay slate4 ,table ,m\nta91 ,cape ( ,good ,hope4#ddc-;,a ,9 ! plutonic1 z 9 ! volcanic rocks1 !re is e gradation f a tortu\s ve9 to ! mo/ regul> =m ( a dike1 su* z int]sect ! tuffs & lavas ( ,vesuvius & ,etna4 ,dikes ( granite may be se51 among o!r places1 on ! s\!rn flank ( ,m\nt ,battock1 "o ( ! ,grampians1 ! opposite walls sometimes pres]v+ an exact p>allelism = a consid]able di/ance4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 granite ve9s 9 all qu>t]s ( ! globe are m s9u\s 9 _! c\rse ?an ^? ( trap4 ,!y pres5t simil> %apes at ! mo/ nor!rn po9t ( ,scotl&1 & ! s\!rnmo/ extremity ( ,africa1 z ! annex$ draw+s w %[4 ,x is n uncommon = "o set ( granite ve9s to int]sect ano!r2 & sometimes !re are ?ree sets1 z 9 ! environs ( ,heidelb]g1 :]e ! granite on ! banks ( ! riv] ,neck] is se5 to consi/ ( ?ree v>ieties1 diff]+ 9 col\r1 gra91 & v>i\s peculi>ities ( m9]al composition4 ,"o ( ^!1 :i* is evid5tly ! second 9 age1 is se5 to cut ?r\gh an old] granite2 & ano!r1 /ill new]1 trav]ses bo? ! second & ! fir/4 ,9 ,%etl& !re are two k9ds ( granite4 ,"o ( !m1 compos$ ( hornbl5de1 mica1 felsp>1 & qu>tz1 is ( a d>k col\r1 & is se5 und]ly+ gneiss4 ,! o!r is a r$ granite1 :i* p5etrates ! d>k v>iety ev]y:]e 9 ve9s4#ddd-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #did4 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ gneiss1 ,cape ,wra?4 7,mac,culloch47#ddd-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #die4 ,granite ve9s trav]s+ gneiss at ,cape ,wra?1 9 ,scotl&4 7,mac,culloch47 ,! accompany+ sket*es w expla9 ! mann] 9 :i* granite ve9s (t5 ramify & cut ea* o!r 7figs4 #did4 & #die474 ,!y repres5t ! mann] 9 :i* ! gneiss at ,cape ,wra?1 9 ,su!rl&%ire1 is int]sect$ by ve9s4 ,_! light col\r1 /rongly contra/$ ) t ( ! hornbl5de-s*i/1 "h associat$ ) ! gneiss1 r5d]s !m v conspicu\s4 ,granite v g5]ally assumes a f9] gra91 & und]goes a *ange 9 m9]al composition1 9 ! ve9s :i* x s5ds into contigu\s rocks4 ,?us1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 ! ma9 body ( ! ,corni% granite is an aggregate ( mica1 qu>tz1 & felsp>2 b ! ve9s are sometimes )\t mica1 be+ a granul> aggregate ( qu>tz & felsp>4 ,9 o!r v>ieties qu>tz prevails to ! almo/ entire exclusion bo? ( felsp> & mica2 9 o!rs1 ! mica & qu>tz bo? disappe>1 & ! ve9 is simply compos$ ( :ite granul> felsp>4#ddd-;,c ,fig4 #dif4 is a sket* ( a gr\p ( granite ve9s 9 ,cornwall1 giv5 by ,messrs4 ,von ,oeynhaus5 & ,von ,de*54#dde-;,a ,! ma9 body ( ! granite "h is ( a porphyritic appe>ance1 ) l>ge cry/als ( felsp>2 b 9 ! ve9s x is f9e-gra9$1 & )\t ^! l>ge cry/als4 ,! g5]al height ( ! ve9s is f #af to #bj feet1 b "s are mu* high]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dif4 ,granite ve9s pass+ ?r\gh hornbl5de slate1 ,c>nsilv] ,cove1 ,cornwall4 ,9 ! ,valors9e1 a valley n f> f ,mont ,blanc 9 ,switz]l&1 an ord9>y granite1 consi/+ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica1 s5ds =? ve9s into a talcose gneiss 7or /ratifi$ protog9e71 & 9 "s places lat]al ramifications are ?r[n (f f ! pr9cipal ve9s at "r angles 7see fig4 #dig471 ! ve9s1 especially ! m9ute ones1 be+ f9] gra9$ ?an ! granite 9 mass4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dig4 ,ve9s ( granite 9 talcose gneiss4 7,l4 ,a4 ,neck]47 ,x is "h rem>k$1 t ! s*i/ & granite1 z !y approa*1 seem to ex]cise a reciprocal influ5ce on ea* o!r1 = bo? und]go a modification ( m9]al "*4 ,! granite1 /ill rema9+ un/ratifi$1 becomes *>g$ ) gre5 p>ticles2 & ! talcose gneiss assumes a graniti=m /ructure )\t los+ its /ratification4#dde-;,b ,pr(essor ,keilhau drew my att5tion to sev]al localities 9 ! c\ntry ne> ,*ri/iania1 :]e ! m9]al "* ( gneiss appe>s to h be5 affect$ by a granite ( mu* new] orig91 = "s di/ance f ! po9t ( contact4 ,! gneiss1 )\t los+ its lam9at$ /ructure1 seems to h become *>g$ ) a l>g] quantity ( felsp>1 & t ( a r$d] col\r1 ?an ! felsp> usually belong+ to ! gneiss ( ,norway4 ,granite1 sy5ite1 & ^? porphyries :i* h a graniti=m /ructure1 9 %ort all plutonic rocks1 are frequ5tly obs]v$ to conta9 metals1 at or ne> _! junction ) /ratifi$ =mations4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ve9s :i* trav]se /ratifi$ rocks are1 z a g5]al law1 m metallif]\s ne> su* junctions ?an 9 o!r positions4 ,h5ce x has be5 inf]r$ t ^! metals may h be5 spread 9 a gase\s =m ?r\gh ! fus$ mass1 & t ! contact ( ano!r rock1 9 a diff]5t /ate ( temp]ature1 or sometimes ! exi/5ce ( r5ts 9 o!r rocks 9 ! vic9ity1 may h caus$ ! sublimation ( ! metals4#ddf-;,a ,!re are _m in/ances1 z at ,m>k]ud1 ne> ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 :]e ! /rike ( ! b$s has n be5 d]ang$ ?r\gh\t a l>ge area by ! intrusion ( granite1 bo? 9 l>ge masses & 9 ve9s4 ,?is fact is consid]$ by "s geologi/s to militate aga9/ ! !ory ( ! =cible injection ( granite 9 a fluid /ate4 ,b x may be /at$ 9 reply1 t ramify+ dikes ( trap1 :i* almo/ all n[ admit to h be5 once fluid1 pass ?r\gh ! same fossilif]\s /rata1 ne> ,*ri/iania1 )\t d]ang+ _! /rike or dip4#ddf-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dih4 ,g5]al view ( junction ( granite & s*i/ ( ! ,valors9e4 7,l4 ,a4 ,neck]47 ,! real or app>5t isolation ( l>ge or small masses ( granite deta*$ f ! ma9 body1 z at a b1 fig4 #dih41 & above1 fig4 #dib41 & a1 fig4 #dig41 has be5 ?\ght by "s writ]s to be irreconcilable ) ! doctr9e usually taught respect+ ve9s2 b _m ( !m may1 9 fact1 be sections ( root-%ap$ prolongations ( granite2 :ile1 9 o!r cases1 !y may 9 reality be deta*$ portions ( rock hav+ ! plutonic /ructure4 ,= !re may h be5 spots 9 ! mid/ ( ! invad$ /rata1 9 :i* !re 0 an assemblage ( mat]ials m fusible ?an ! re/1 or m fitt$ to comb9e readily into "s =m ( granite4 ,ve9s ( pure qu>tz are (t5 f\nd 9 granite1 z 9 _m /ratifi$ rocks1 b !y are n traceable1 l ve9s ( granite or trap1 to l>ge bodies ( rock ( simil> composition4 ,!y appe> to h be5 cracks1 into :i* silice\s matt] 0 infilt]$4 ,su* segregation1 z x is call$1 c sometimes be %[n to h cle>ly tak5 place long subsequ5tly to ! orig9al consolidation ( ! conta9+ rock4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ! gneiss ( ,tron/ad ,/r&1 ne> ,dramm51 9 ,norway1 ! annex$ section is se5 on ! bea*4 ,x appe>s t ! alt]nat+ /rata ( :iti% graniti=m gneiss1 & black hornbl5de-s*i/1 7 fir/ cut ?r\gh by a gre5/one dike1 ab\t #b-a_/b feet wide2 !n ! crack a b pass$ ?r\gh all ^! rocks1 & 0 fill$ up ) qu>tz4 ,! opposite walls ( ! ve9 are 9 "s p>ts incru/$ ) transp>5t cry/als ( qu>tz1 ! middle ( ! ve9 be+ fill$ up ) common opaque :ite qu>tz4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dii4 a1 b4 ,qu>tz ve9 pass+ ?r\gh gneiss & gre5/one1 ,tron/ad ,/r&1 ne> ,*ri/iania4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejj4 ,euritic porphyry alt]nat+ ) prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 ne> ,*ri/iania4 ,we h se5 t ! volcanic =mations h be5 call$ ov]ly+1 because !y n only p5etrate o!rs1 b spread ov] !m4 ,mr4 ,neck] has propos$ to call ! granites ! und]ly+ igne\s rocks1 & ! di/9ction "h indicat$ is highly *>act]i/ic4 ,x 0 inde$ suppos$ by "s ( ! e>li] obs]v]s1 t ! granite ( ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 0 int]calat$ 9 m\nta9 masses betwe5 ! prim>y or paleozoic /rata ( t c\ntry1 s z to ov]lie fossilif]\s %ale & lime/one4 ,b al?\gh ! granite s5ds ve9s into ^! fossilif]\s rocks1 & is decid$ly po/]ior 9 orig91 its actual sup]position 9 mass has be5 disprov$ by ,pr(essor ,keilhau1 ^: obs]vations on ?is controv]t$ po9t ,i _h opportunities 9 #ahcg ( v]ify+4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 on a small] scale1 c]ta9 b$s ( euritic porphyry1 "s a few feet1 o!rs _m y>ds 9 ?ickness1 :i* pass into granite1 & des]ve p]haps to be class$ z plutonic r ?an trappean rocks1 :i* may truly be describ$ z int]pos$ con=mably betwe5 fossilif]\s /rata1 z ! porphyries 7a c1 fig4 #ejj471 :i* divide ! bitum9\s %ales & argillace\s lime/ones1 f f4 ,b "s ( ^! same porphyries are p>tially uncon=mable1 z b1 & may lead u to suspect t ! o!rs also1 not)/&+ _! appe>ance ( int]/ratification1 h be5 =cibly inject$4 ,"s ( ! porphyritic rocks above m5tion$ are highly qu>tzose1 o!rs v felspa?ic4 ,9 proportion z ! masses are m volum9\s1 !y become m granitic 9 _! texture1 less con=mable1 & ev5 beg9 to s5d =? ve9s into contigu\s /rata4 ,9 a ^w1 we h "h a beautiful illu/ration ( ! int]m$iate gradations betwe5 volcanic & plutonic rocks1 n only 9 _! m9]alogical composition & /ructure1 b also 9 _! relations ( position to associat$ =mations4 ,if ! t]m ov]ly+ c 9 ?is in/ance be appli$ to a plutonic rock1 x is only 9 proportion z t rock beg9s to acquire a trappean aspect4 ,x has be5 already h9t$ t ! heat1 :i* 9 e active volcano ext5ds d[nw>ds to indef9ite dep?s1 mu/ produce simultane\sly v diff]5t effects ne> ! surface1 & f> bel[ x2 & we _c suppose t rocks result+ f ! cry/alliz+ ( fus$ matt] "u a pressure ( sev]al ?\s& feet1 mu* less miles1 ( ! e>?'s cru/ c resemble ^? =m$ at or ne> ! surface4 ,h5ce ! production at great dep?s ( a class ( rocks analog\s to ! volcanic1 & yet diff]+ 9 _m p>ticul>s1 might almo/ h be5 pr$ict$1 ev5 _h we no plutonic =mations to acc\nt =4 ,h[ well ^! agree1 bo? 9 _! positive & negative *>act]s1 ) ! !ory ( _! deep subt]ranean orig91 ! /ud5t w be able to judge by consid]+ ! descriptions already giv54 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 object$1 t if ! granitic & volcanic rocks 7 simply diff]5t p>ts ( "o great s]ies1 we ought to f9d 9 m\nta9 *a9s volcanic dikes pass+ upw>ds into lava1 & d[nw>ds into granite4 ,b we may answ]1 t our v]tical sections are usually ( small ext5t2 & if we f9d 9 c]ta9 places a transition f trap to por\s lava1 & 9 o!rs a passage f granite to trap1 x is z mu* z c\ld be expect$ ( ?is evid5ce4 ,! prodigi\s ext5t ( d5udation :i* has be5 already demon/rat$ to h occurr$ at =m] p]iods1 w reconcile ! /ud5t to ! belief t cry/all9e rocks ( high antiquity1 al?\gh deep 9 ! e>?'s cru/ :5 orig9ally =m$1 may h become uncov]$ & expos$ at ! surface4 ,_! actual elevation above ! sea may be ref]r$ to ! same causes to :i* we h attribut$ ! upheaval ( m>9e /rata1 ev5 to ! summits ( "s m\nta9 *a9s4 ,b to ^! & o!r topics1 ,i %all rev]t :5 speak+1 9 ! next *apt]1 ( ! relative ages ( diff]5t masses ( granite4 ,,footnotes3 #dci-;,a ,bullet91 #b;d s]ie1 iv4 #acjd42 & ,ar*iac1 ,hi/4 des ,progres de ,geol41 i4 #ch4 #ddj-;,a ,boase on ,prim>y ,geology1 p4 #af4 #dda-;,a ,bullet91 vol4 iv41 #b;d s]41 pp4 #acah4 & #acbj4 #dda-;,b ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i4 p4 #aeg4 #dda-;,c ,ibid41 p4 #aeh4 #ddb-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 #a/ s]ies1 vol4 iii4 pl4 #ba4 #ddb-;,b ,mac,culloch1 ,geol4 ,trans41 vol4 iii4 p4 #bei4 #ddc-;,a ,capt4 ,b4 ,hall1 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed941 vol4 vii4 #ddd-;,a ,mac,culloch1 ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i4 p4 #eh4 #ddd-;,b ,we/]n ,isl&s1 pl4 #ca4 #ddd-;,c ,on ,geol4 ( ,cornwall1 ,camb4 ,trans4 vol4 i4 p4 #abd4 #dde-;,a ,phil4 ,mag4 & ,annals1 ,no4 #bg4 new s]ies1 ,m>*1 #ahbi4 #dde-;,b ,neck]1 sur la ,val4 de ,valors9e1 ,mem4 de la ,soc4 de ,phys4 de ,g5eve1 #ahbh4 ,i visit$1 9 #ahcb1 ! spot ref]r$ to 9 fig4 #dig4 #ddf-;,a ,neck]1 ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 ,no4 #bf4 p4 #cib4 #ddf-;,b ,see ,keilhau's ,gaea ,norvegica2 ,*ri/iania1 #ahch4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxiv4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,plutonic ,,rocks4 ,difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise age ( a plutonic rock--,te/ ( age by relative position--,te/ by intrusion & alt]ation--,te/ by m9]al composition--,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts--,rec5t & ,plioc5e plutonic rocks1 :y invisible--,t]ti>y plutonic rocks 9 ! ,&es--,granite alt]+ ,cretace\s rocks--,granite alt]+ ,lias 9 ! ,alps & 9 ,skye--,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ ,c>bonif]\s /rata--,granite ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod--,sy5ite alt]+ ,silurian /rata 9 ,norway--,bl5d+ ( ! same ) gneiss--,mo/ anci5t plutonic rocks--,granite protrud$ 9 a solid =m--,on ! probable age ( ! granites ( ,arran1 9 ,scotl&4 ,:5 we adopt ! igne\s !ory ( granite1 z expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 & believe t diff]5t plutonic rocks h orig9at$ at successive p]iods b5ea? ! surface ( ! planet1 we mu/ be prep>$ to enc\nt] great] difficulty 9 asc]ta9+ ! precise age ( su* rocks1 ?an 9 ! case ( volcanic & fossilif]\s =mations4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d1 t ! evid5ce ( ! age ( ea* contemporane\s volcanic rock 0 d]iv$1 ei!r f lavas p\r$ out ^u ! anci5t surface1 :e!r 9 ! sea or 9 ! atmosph]e1 or f tuffs & conglom]ates1 also deposit$ at ! surface1 & ei!r conta9+ organic rema9s !mselves1 or int]calat$ betwe5 /rata conta9+ fossils4 ,b all ^! te/s fail :5 we endeav\r to fix ! *ronology ( a rock :i* has cry/alliz$ f a /ate ( fusion 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,9 t case1 we are r$uc$ to ! foll[+ te/s2 #a/1 relative position2 #b;dly1 intrusion1 & alt]ation ( ! rocks 9 contact2 #c;dly1 m9]al *>act]s2 #d?ly1 includ$ fragm5ts4 ,te/ ( age by relative position4--,unalt]$ fossilif]\s /rata ( e age are met ) repos+ imm$iately on plutonic rocks2 z at ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 :]e ! ,new] ,plioc5e deposits re/ on granite2 9 ,auv]gne1 :]e ! fre%wat] ,eoc5e /rata1 & at ,heidelb]g1 on ! ,rh9e1 :]e ! ,new ,r$ s&/one1 occupy a simil> place4 ,9 all ^!1 & simil> in/ances1 inf]iority 9 position is connect$ ) ! sup]ior antiquity ( granite4 ,! cry/all9e rock 0 solid be=e ! s$im5t>y b$s 7 sup]impos$1 & ! latt] usually conta9 9 !m r\nd$ pebbles ( ! subjac5t granite4 ,te/ by intrusion & alt]ation4--,b :5 plutonic rocks s5d ve9s into /rata1 & alt] !m ne> ! po9t ( contact1 9 ! mann] be=e describ$ 7p4 #ddb471 x is cle> t1 l intrusive traps1 !y are new] ?an ! /rata :i* !y invade & alt]4 ,examples ( ! application ( ?is te/ w be giv5 9 ! sequel4 ,te/ by m9]al composition4--,not)/&+ a g5]al uni=mity 9 ! aspect ( plutonic rocks1 we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t !re are _m v>ieties1 su* z ,sy5ite1 ,talcose granite1 & o!rs4 ,"o ( ^! v>ieties is sometimes f\nd exclusively prevail+ ?r\gh\t an ext5sive region1 :]e x pres]ves a homog5e\s "*2 s t hav+ asc]ta9$ its relative age 9 "o place1 we c easily recognize its id5tity 9 o!rs1 & ?us det]m9e f a s+le section ! *ronological relations ( l>ge m\nta9 masses4 ,hav+ obs]v$1 = example1 t ! sy5itic granite ( ,norway1 9 :i* ! m9]al call$ zircon ab\nds1 has alt]$ ! ,silurian /rata :]ev] x is 9 contact1 we d n hesitate to ref] o!r masses ( ! same zircon-sy5ite 9 ! s\? ( ,norway to ! same era4 ,"s h imag9$ t ! age ( diff]5t granites might1 to a great ext5t1 be det]m9$ by _! m9]al *>act]s alone2 sy5ite1 = in/ance1 or granite ) hornbl5de1 be+ m mod]n ?an common or micace\s granite4 ,b mod]n inve/igations h prov$ ^! g5]alizations to h be5 premature4 ,! sy5itic granite ( ,norway already allud$ to may be ( ! same age z ! ,silurian /rata1 :i* x trav]ses & alt]s1 or may belong to ! ,old ,r$ s&/one p]iod2 :]eas ! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 al?\gh consi/+ ( mica1 qu>tz1 & felsp>1 is new] ?an ! coal4 7,see p4 #def47 ,te/ by includ$ fragm5ts4--,?is crit]ion c r>ely be ( mu* importance1 because ! fragm5ts involv$ 9 granite are usually s mu* alt]$1 t !y _c be ref]r$ ) c]ta9ty to ! rocks :5ce !y 7 d]iv$4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,hubb>d1 a granite ve9 trav]s+ granite1 conta9s fragm5ts ( slate & trap1 :i* mu/ h fall5 into ! fissure :5 ! fus$ mat]ials ( ! ve9 7 inject$ f bel[#dej-;,a1 & ?us ! granite is %[n to be new] ?an c]ta9 sup]ficial slaty & trappean =mations4 ,rec5t & ,plioc5e plutonic rocks1 :y invisible4--,! explanation already giv5 9 ! #bi? & 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ( ! probable relation ( ! plutonic to ! volcanic =mations1 w naturally lead ! read] to inf]1 t rocks ( ! "o class c nev] be produc$ at or ne> ! surface )\t "s memb]s ( ! o!r be+ =m$ bel[ simultane\sly1 or soon aft]w>ds4 ,x is n uncommon = lava-/reams to require m ?an t5 ye>s to cool 9 ! op5 air2 & :]e !y are ( great dep?1 a mu* long] p]iod4 ,! melt$ matt] p\r$ f ,jorullo1 9 ,mexico1 9 ! ye> #agei1 :i* accumulat$ 9 "s places to ! height ( #eej feet1 0 f\nd to reta9 a high temp]ature half a c5tury aft] ! eruption4#dej-;,b ,we may conceive1 !re=e1 t great masses ( subt]ranean lava may rema9 9 a r$-hot or inc&esc5t /ate 9 ! volcanic foci = imm5se p]iods1 & ! process ( refrig]ation may be extremely gradual4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ?is process may be ret>d$ = an indef9ite p]iod1 by ! accession ( fre% supplies ( heat2 = we f9d t ! lava 9 ! crat] ( ,/romboli1 "o ( ! ,lip>i ,isl&s1 has be5 9 a /ate ( con/ant ebullition = ! la/ two ?\s& ye>s2 & we may suppose ?is fluid mass to communicate ) "s caldron or res]voir ( fus$ matt] bel[4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,b\rbon1 also1 :]e !re has be5 an emission ( lava once 9 e two ye>s = a long p]iod1 ! lava bel[ c sc>cely fail to h be5 p]man5tly 9 a /ate ( liquefaction4 ,if !n x be a reasonable conjecture1 t ab\t #bjjj volcanic eruptions occur 9 ! c\rse ( e c5tury1 ei!r above ! wat]s ( ! sea or b5ea? !m#dea-;,a1 x w foll[1 t ! quantity ( plutonic rock g5]at$1 or 9 progress dur+ ! ,rec5t epo*1 mu/ already h be5 consid]able4 ,b z ! plutonic rocks orig9ate at "s dep? 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 !y c only be r5d]$ accessible to human obs]vation1 by subsequ5t upheaval & d5udation4 ,betwe5 ! p]iod :5 a plutonic rock cry/allizes 9 ! subt]ranean regions1 & ! era ( its protrusion at any s+le po9t ( ! surface1 "o or two geological p]iods mu/ usually int]v5e4 ,h5ce1 we mu/ n expect to f9d ! ,rec5t or ,new] ,plioc5e granites laid op5 to view1 unless we are prep>$ to assume t suffici5t "t has elaps$ s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e p]iod = great upheaval & d5udation4 ,a plutonic rock1 !re=e1 mu/1 9 g5]al1 be ( consid]able antiquity relatively to ! fossilif]\s & volcanic =mations1 be=e x becomes ext5sively visible4 ,z we "k t ! upheaval ( l& has be5 sometimes accompani$ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica by volcanic eruptions & ! emission ( lava1 we may conceive ! m anci5t plutonic rocks to be =c$ upw>ds to ! surface by ! new] rocks ( ! same class =m$ successively bel[1--subt]position 9 ! plutonic1 l sup]position 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks1 be+ usually *>act]i/ic ( a new] orig94 ,9 ! accompany+ diagram 7fig4 #eja471 an attempt is made to %[ ! inv]t$ ord] 9 :i* s$im5t>y & plutonic =mations may occur 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! olde/ plutonic rock1 ,no4 ,i41 has be5 upheav$ at successive p]iods until x has become expos$ to view 9 a m\nta9-*a94 ,?is protrusion ( ,no4 ,i4 has be5 caus$ by ! igne\s ag5cy :i* produc$ ! new] plutonic rocks ,nos4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 ,"p ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 ,no4 #a41 h also be5 rais$ to ! surface by ! same gradual process4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! ,rec5t /rata ,no4 #d41 & ! ,rec5t granite or plutonic rock ,no4 ,,iv41 are ! mo/ remote f ea* o!r 9 position1 al?\gh ( contemporane\s date4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 ! convulsions ( _m p]iods w be requir$ be=e ,rec5t granite w be uprais$ s z to =m ! highe/ ridges & c5tral axes ( m\nta9-*a9s4 ,dur+ t "t ! ,rec5t /rata ,no4 #d4 might be cov]$ by a great _m new] s$im5t>y =mations4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eja4 ,diagram %[+ ! relative position :i* ! plutonic & s$im5t>y =mations ( diff]5t ages may occupy4 ,i4 ,prim>y plutonic4 #d4 ,rec5t /rata4 ,,ii4 ,second>y plutonic4 #c4 ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,,iii4 ,t]ti>y plutonic4 #b4 ,second>y /rata4 ,,iv4 ,rec5t plutonic4 #a4 ,prim>y fossilif]\s /rata4 ,! metamorphic rocks are n indicat$ 9 ?is diagram2 b ! /ud5t w inf]1 f :at has be5 said 9 ,*ap4 ,,xxxii41 t "s portions ( ! /ratifi$ =mations ,nos4 #a4 & #b4 invad$ by granite w h become metamorphic4 ,eoc5e granite & plutonic rocks4--,9 a =m] "p ( ?is volume 7p4 #bje471 ! great nummulitic =mation ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees 0 ref]r$ to ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & x foll[s t ^? va/ movem5ts :i* h rais$ fossilif]\s rocks f ! level ( ! sea to ! height ( m ?an #aj1jjj feet above its level h tak5 place s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,"h1 !re=e1 if any:]e1 we might expect to f9d hypog5e =mations ( ,eoc5e date break+ out 9 ! c5tral axis or mo/ di/urb$ region ( ! l(tie/ *a9 9 ,europe4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! ,swiss ,alps1 ev5 ! flys*1 or upp] portion ( ! nummulitic s]ies1 has be5 occasionally invad$ by plutonic rocks1 & conv]t$ into cry/all9e s*i/s ( ! hypog5e class4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ev5 ! talcose granite ( ,mont ,blanc itself has be5 9 a fus$ or pa/y /ate s9ce ! flys* 0 deposit$ at ! bottom ( ! sea2 & ! "q z to its age is n s mu* :e!r x be a second>y or t]ti>y granite1 z :e!r x %\ld be assign$ to ! ,eoc5e or ,mioc5e epo*4 ,great upheav+ movem5ts h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 ! region ( ! ,&es1 dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,9 "s "p1 !re=e1 ( ?is *a91 we may expect to discov] t]ti>y plutonic rocks laid op5 to view4 ,:at we already "k ( ! /ructure ( ! ,*ilian ,&es seems to realize ?is expectation4 ,9 a transv]se section1 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,d>w91 betwe5 ,valp>aiso & ,m5doza1 ! ,cordill]a 0 f\nd to consi/ ( two sep>ate & p>allel *a9s1 =m$ ( s$im5t>y rocks ( diff]5t ages1 ! /rata 9 bo? re/+ on plutonic rocks1 by :i* !y h be5 alt]$4 ,9 ! we/]n or olde/ range1 call$ ! ,peuqu5es1 are black calc>e\s clay-slates1 ris+ to ! height ( ne>ly #ad1jjj feet above ! sea1 9 :i* are %ells ( ! g5]a ,gryphaea1 ,turritella1 ,t]ebratula1 & ,ammonite4 ,^! rocks are suppos$ to be ( ! age ( ! c5tral p>ts ( ! second>y s]ies ( ,europe4 ,!y are p5etrat$ & alt]$ by dikes & m\nta9 masses ( a plutonic rock1 :i* has ! texture ( ord9>y granite1 b r>ely conta9s qu>tz1 be+ a comp\nd ( albite & hornbl5de4 ,! second or ea/]n *a9 consi/s *iefly ( s&/ones & conglom]ates1 ( va/ ?ickness1 ! mat]ials ( :i* are d]iv$ f ! ru9s ( ! we/]n *a94 ,! pebbles ( ! conglom]ates are1 = ! mo/ "p1 r\nd$ fragm5ts ( ! fossilif]\s slates be=e m5tion$4 ,! resemblance ( ! :ole s]ies to c]ta9 t]ti>y deposits on ! %ores ( ! ,pacific1 n only 9 m9]al "*1 b 9 ! imb$d$ lignite & silicifi$ woods1 leads to ! conjecture t !y also are t]ti>y4 ,yet ^! /rata are n only associat$ ) trap rocks & volcanic tuffs1 b are also alt]$ by a granite consi/+ ( qu>tz1 felsp>1 & talc4 ,!y are trav]s$1 moreov]1 by dikes ( ! same granite1 & by num]\s ve9s ( iron1 copp]1 ars5ic1 silv]1 & gold2 all ( :i* c be trac$ to ! und]ly+ granite4#dec-;,a ,we h1 !re=e1 /rong gr\nd to presume t ! plutonic rock1 "h expos$ on a l>ge scale 9 ! ,*ilian ,&es1 is ( lat] date ?an c]ta9 t]ti>y =mations4 ,b ! !ory adopt$ 9 ?is "w ( ! subt]ranean orig9 ( ! hypog5e =mations w\ld be unt5able1 if ! suppos$ fact "h allud$ to1 ( ! appe>ance ( t]ti>y granite at ! surface 0 n a r>e exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,a consid]able lapse ( "t mu/ int]v5e betwe5 ! =mation 9 ! ne!r regions ( plutonic & metamorphic rocks1 & _! em]g5ce at ! surface4 ,= a long s]ies ( subt]ranean movem5ts mu/ occur be=e su* rocks c be uplift$ into ! atmosph]e or ! ocean2 &1 be=e !y c be r5d]$ visible to man1 "s /rata :i* previ\sly cov]$ !m mu/ usually h be5 /ripp$ (f by d5udation4 ,we "k t 9 ! ,bay ( ,baiae1 9 #aech1 9 ,cut* 9 #ahai1 & on sev]al occasions 9 ,p]u & ,*ili1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 ! p]man5t upheaval or subsid5ce ( l& has be5 accompani$ by ! simultane\s emission ( lava at "o or m po9ts 9 ! same volcanic region4 ,f ^! & o!r examples x may be inf]r$ t ! ris+ or s9k+ ( ! e>?'s cru/1 op]ations by :i* sea is conv]t$ into l&1 & l& into sea1 are a "p only ( ! consequ5ces ( subt]ranean igne\s action4 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ?is action consi/s1 9 a great degree1 ( ! bak+1 & occasionally ! liquefaction1 ( rocks1 caus+ !m to assume1 9 "s cases a l>g]1 9 o!rs a small] volume ?an be=e ! application ( heat4 ,x consi/s also 9 ! g5]ation ( gases1 & _! expansion by heat1 & ! injection ( liquid matt] into r5ts =m$ 9 sup]9cumb5t rocks4 ,! prodigi\s scale on :i* ^! subt]ranean causes h op]at$ 9 ,sicily s9ce ! deposition ( ! ,new] ,plioc5e /rata w be appreciat$1 :5 we rememb] t ?r\gh\t half ! surface ( t isl& su* /rata are met )1 rais$ to ! height ( f #ej to t ( #bjjj & ev5 #cjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,9 ! same isl& also ! old] rocks :i* are contigu\s to ^! m>9e t]ti>y /rata mu/ h und]gone1 )9 ! same p]iod1 a simil> am\nt ( upheaval4 ,! l obs]vations may be ext5d$ to ne>ly ! :ole ( ,europe1 =1 s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 ! entire ,european area1 includ+ "s ( ! c5tral & v l(ty portions ( ! ,alps !mselves1 z ,i h else:]e %[n#ded-;,a1 has1 ) ! exception ( a few di/ricts1 em]g$ f ! deep to its pres5t altitude2 & ev5 ^? tracts1 :i* 7 already dry l& be=e ! ,eoc5e era1 h almo/ ev]y:]e acquir$ additional height4 ,a l>ge am\nt ( subsid5ce has also occurr$ dur+ ! same p]iod1 s t ! ext5t ( ! subt]ranean spaces :i* h ei!r become ! receptacles ( sunk5 fragm5ts ( ! e>?'s cru/1 or h be5 r5d]$ capable ( support+ o!r fragm5ts at a mu* great] height ?an be=e1 mu/ be s great t !y probably equal1 if n exce$ 9 volume1 ! entire cont95t ( ,europe4 ,we are entitl$1 !re=e1 to ask :at am\nt ( *ange ( equival5t importance c be prov$ to h occurr$ 9 ! e>?'s cru/ )9 an equal quantity ( "t ant]ior to ! ,eoc5e epo*4 ,!y :o cont5d = ! m int5se en]gy ( subt]ranean causes 9 ! remot] eras ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 may f9d x m difficult to give an answ] to ?is "q ?an !y anticipat$4 ,! pr9cipal effect ( volcanic action 9 ! ne!r regions1 dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod1 seems to h consi/$ 9 ! upheaval to ! surface ( hypog5e =mations ( an age ant]ior to ! c>bonif]\s4 ,! repetition ( ano!r s]ies ( movem5ts1 ( equal viol5ce1 might upraise ! plutonic & metamorphic rocks ( _m second>y p]iods2 & if ! same =ce %\ld /ill cont9ue to act1 ! next convulsions might br+ up to ! day ! t]ti>y & rec5t hypog5e rocks4 ,9 ! c\rse ( su* *anges _m ( ! exi/+ s$im5t>y /rata w\ld suff] greatly by d5udation1 o!rs might assume a metamorphic /ructure1 or become melt$ d[n into plutonic & volcanic rocks4 ,mean:ile ! deposition ( a va/ ?ickness ( new /rata w\ld n fail to take place dur+ ! upheaval & p>tial de/ruction ( ! old] rocks4 ,b ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to ! la/ *apt] b "o ( ?is volume = a full] explanation ( ^! views4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejb4 ,block section4 ,cretace\s p]iod4--,x w be %[n 9 ! next *apt] t *alk1 z well z lias1 has be5 alt]$ by granite 9 ! ea/]n ,pyr5ees4 ,:e!r su* granite be cretace\s or t]ti>y _c easily be decid$4 ,suppose b1 c1 d1 to be ?ree memb]s ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 ! l[e/ ( :i*1 b1 has be5 alt]$ by ! granite ,a1 ! modify+ influ5ce n hav+ ext5d$ s f> z c1 or hav+ b slightly affect$ its l[e/ b$s4 ,n[ x c r>ely be possible = ! geologi/ to decide :e!r ! b$s d exi/$ at ! "t ( ! intrusion ( ,a1 & alt]ation ( b & c1 or :e!r !y 7 subsequ5tly ?r[n d[n ^u c4 ,z "s ,cretace\s rocks1 h[ev]1 h be5 rais$ to ! height ( m ?an #ijjj feet 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 we mu/ n assume t plutonic =mations ( ! same age may n h be5 br\ght up & expos$ by d5udation1 at ! height ( #bjjj or #cjjj feet on ! flanks ( t *a94 ,p]iod ( ,oolite & ,lias4--,9 ! dep>tm5t ( ! ,hautes ,alpes1 9 ,france1 ne> ,vizille1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont trac$ a black argillace\s lime/one1 *>g$ ) belemnites1 to )9 a few y>ds ( a mass ( granite4 ,"h ! lime/one beg9s to put on a granul> texture1 b is extremely f9e-gra9$4 ,:5 ne>] ! junction x becomes grey1 & has a sac*>oid /ructure4 ,9 ano!r locality1 ne> ,*ampoleon1 a granite compos$ ( qu>tz1 black mica1 & rose-col\r$ felsp>1 is obs]v$ p>tly to ov]lie ! second>y rocks1 produc+ an alt]ation :i* ext5ds = ab\t #cj feet d[nw>ds1 dim9i%+ 9 ! b$s :i* lie f>!/ f ! granite4 7,see fig4 #ejc47 ,9 ! alt]$ mass ! argillace\s b$s are h>d5$1 ! lime/one is sac*>oid1 ! grits qu>tzose1 & 9 ! mid/ ( !m is a ?9 lay] ( an imp]fect granite4 ,x is also an important circum/ance t ne> ! po9t ( contact1 bo? ! granite & ! second>y rocks become metallif]\s1 & conta9 ne/s & small ve9s ( bl5de1 gal5a1 iron1 & copp] pyrites4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks become h>d] & m cry/all9e1 b ! granite1 on ! contr>y1 s(t] & less p]fectly cry/alliz$ ne> ! junction4#def-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejc4 ,junction ( granite ) ,jurassic or ,oolite /rata 9 ! ,alps1 ne> ,*ampoleon4 ,al?\gh ! granite is incumb5t 9 ! above section 7fig4 #ejc471 we _c assume t x ov]fl[$ ! /rata1 = ! di/urbances ( ! rocks are s great 9 ?is "p ( ! ,alps t !y seldom reta9 ! position :i* !y mu/ orig9ally h occupi$4 ,a consid]able mass ( sy5ite1 9 ! ,isle ( ,skye1 is describ$ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch z int]sect+ lime/one & %ale1 :i* are ( ! age ( ! lias4#def-;,b ,! lime/one1 :i*1 at a great] di/ance f ! granite1 conta9s %ells1 exhibits no traces ( !m ne> its junction1 :]e x has be5 conv]t$ into a pure cry/all9e m>ble4#def-;,c ,at ,pr$azzo1 9 ! ,tyrol1 second>y /rata1 "s ( :i* are lime/ones ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 h be5 trav]s$ & alt]$ by plutonic rocks1 "o portion ( :i* is an augitic porphyry1 :i* passes ins5sibly into granite4 ,! lime/one is *ang$ into granul> m>ble1 ) a b& ( s]p5t9e at ! junction4#def-;,d ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4--,! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 9 ,devon%ire1 0 =m]ly suppos$ to be "o ( ! mo/ anci5t ( ! plutonic rocks1 b is n[ asc]ta9$ to be po/]ior 9 date to ! culm-measures ( t c\nty1 :i*1 f _! position1 & z conta9+ true coal-plants1 are reg>d$ by ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison z memb]s ( ! true c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,?is granite1 l ! sy5itic granite ( ,*ri/iania1 has brok5 ?r\gh ! /ratifi$ =mations )\t mu* *ang+ _! /rike4 ,h5ce1 on ! nor?-we/ side ( ,d>tmoor1 ! successive memb]s ( ! culm-measures abut aga9/ ! granite1 & become metamorphic z !y approa*4 ,^! /rata are also p5etrat$ by granite ve9s1 & plutonic dikes1 call$ elvans4#deg-;,a ,! granite ( ,cornwall is probably ( ! same date1 &1 !re=e1 z mod]n z ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 if n mu* new]4 ,silurian p]iod4--,x has long be5 kn[n t ! granite ne> ,*ri/iania1 9 ,norway1 is ( new] orig9 ?an ! ,silurian /rata ( t region4 ,von ,bu* fir/ ann\nc$1 9 #ahac1 ! discov]y ( its po/]iority 9 date to lime/ones conta9+ or?oc]ata & trilobites4 ,! pro(s consi/ 9 ! p5etration ( granite ve9s into ! %ale & lime/one1 & ! alt]ation ( ! /rata1 = a consid]able di/ance f ! po9t ( contact1 bo? ( ^! ve9s & ! c5tral mass f :i* !y emanate4 7,see p4 #ddg47 ,von ,bu* suppos$ t ! plutonic rock alt]nat$ ) ! fossilif]\s /rata1 & t l>ge masses ( granite 7 sometimes incumb5t ^u ! /rata2 b ?is idea 0 errone\s1 & arose f ! fact t ! b$s ( %ale & lime/one (t5 dip t[>ds ! granite up to ! po9t ( contact1 appe>+ z if !y w\ld pass "u x 9 mass1 z at a1 fig4 #ejd41 & !n aga9 on ! opposite side ( ! same m\nta91 z at b1 dip away f ! same granite4 ,:5 ! junctions1 h[ev]1 are c>efully exam9$1 x is f\nd t ! plutonic rock intrudes itself 9 ve9s1 & n[h]e cov]s ! fossilif]\s /rata 9 l>ge ov]ly+ masses1 z is s commonly ! case ) trappean =mations4#deg-;,b ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejd4 ,cross section4 ,n[ ?is granite1 :i* is m mod]n ?an ! ,silurian /rata ( ,norway1 also s5ds ve9s 9 ! same c\ntry into an anci5t =mation ( gneiss2 & ! relations ( ! plutonic rock & ! gneiss1 at _! junction1 are full ( int]e/ :5 we duly consid] ! wide diff]5ce ( epo* :i* mu/ h sep>at$ _! orig94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eje4 ,granite s5d+ ve9s into ,silurian /rata & ,gneiss1--,*ri/iania1 ,norway4 ,! l5g? ( ?is int]val ( "t is atte/$ by ! foll[+ facts3--,! fossilif]\s1 or ,silurian b$s1 re/ uncon=mably ^u ! truncat$ edges ( ! gneiss1 ! incl9$ /rata ( :i* _h be5 di/urb$ & d5ud$ be=e ! s$im5t>y b$s 7 sup]impos$ 7see fig4 #eje474 ,! signs ( d5udation are tw(old2 fir/1 ! surface ( ! gneiss is se5 occasionally1 on ! removal ( ! new] b$s1 conta9+ organic rema9s1 to be worn & smoo!d2 secondly1 pebbles ( gneiss h be5 f\nd 9 "s ( ! transition /rata4 ,betwe5 ! orig91 !re=e1 ( ! gneiss & ! granite !re int]v5$1 fir/1 ! p]iod :5 ! /rata ( gneiss 7 incl9$2 secondly1 ! p]iod :5 !y 7 d5ud$2 ?irdly1 ! p]iod ( ! deposition ( ! transition deposits4 ,yet ! granite produc$1 aft] ?is long int]val1 is (t5 s intimately bl5d$ ) ! anci5t gneiss1 at ! po9t ( junction1 t x is impossible to draw any o!r ?an an arbitr>y l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 !m2 & :]e ?is is n ! case1 tortu\s ve9s ( granite pass freely ?r\gh gneiss1 end+ sometimes 9 ?reads1 z if ! old] rock _h (f]$ no resi/ance to _! passage4 ,x seems necess>y1 !re=e1 to conceive t ! gneiss 0 s(t5$ & m or less melt$ :5 p5etrat$ by ! granite4 ,b _h su* junctions alone be5 visible1 & _h we n le>nt1 f o!r sections1 h[ long a p]iod elaps$ betwe5 ! consolidation ( ! gneiss & ! injection ( ?is granite1 we might h suspect$ t ! gneiss 0 sc>cely solidifi$1 or _h n yet assum$ its complete metamorphic "*1 :5 invad$ by ! plutonic rock4 ,f ?is example we may le>n h[ impossible x is to conjecture :e!r c]ta9 granites 9 ,scotl&1 & o!r c\ntries1 :i* s5d ve9s into gneiss & o!r metamorphic rocks1 are prim>y1 or :e!r !y may n belong to "s second>y or t]ti>y p]iod4 ,olde/ granites4--,x is n half a c5tury s9ce ! doctr9e 0 v g5]al t all granitic rocks 7 primitive1 t is to say1 t !y orig9at$ be=e ! deposition ( ! fir/ s$im5t>y /rata1 & be=e ! creation ( organic be+s 7see above1 p4 #i474 ,b s greatly are our views n[ *ang$1 t we f9d x no easy task to po9t out a s+le mass ( granite demon/rably m anci5t ?an all ! kn[n fossilif]\s deposits4 ,c\ld we discov] "s ,l[] ,cambrian /rata re/+ imm$iately on granite1 !re be+ no alt]ations at ! po9t ( contact1 nor any int]sect+ granitic ve9s1 we might !n affirm ! plutonic rock to h orig9at$ be=e ! olde/ kn[n fossilif]\s /rata4 ,/ill x w\ld be presumptu\s to suppose t :5 a small "p only ( ! globe has be5 inve/igat$1 we are acqua9t$ ) ! olde/ fossilif]\s /rata 9 ! cru/ ( our planet4 ,ev5 :5 ^! are f\nd1 we _c assume t !re nev] 7 any antec$5t /rata conta9+ organic rema9s1 :i* may h become metamorphic4 ,if we f9d pebbles ( granite 9 a conglom]ate ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian sy/em1 we may !n feel assur$ t ! p>5t granite 0 =m$ be=e ! ,l[] ,cambrian =mation4 ,b if ! incumb5t /rata be m]ely ,silurian or ,upp] ,cambrian1 ! fundam5tal granite1 al?\gh ( high antiquity1 may be po/]ior 9 date to kn[n fossilif]\s =mations4 ,protrusion ( solid granite4--,9 "p ( ,su!rl&%ire1 ne> ,brora1 common granite1 compos$ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica1 is 9 imm$iate contact ) ,oolitic /rata1 & has cle>ly be5 elevat$ to ! surface at a p]iod subsequ5t to ! deposition ( ^? /rata4#dei-;,a ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison conceive t ?is granite has be5 upheav$ 9 a solid =m2 & t 9 break+ ?r\gh ! subm>9e deposits1 ) :i* x 0 n p]haps orig9ally 9 contact1 x has fractur$ !m s z to =m a breccia along ! l9e ( junction4 ,?is breccia consi/s ( fragm5ts ( %ale1 s&/one1 & lime/one1 ) fossils ( ! oolite1 all unit$ toge!r by a calc>e\s cem5t4 ,! second>y /rata1 at "s di/ance f ! granite1 are b slightly di/urb$1 b 9 proportion to _! proximity ! am\nt ( dislocation becomes great]4 ,if we admit t solid hypog5e rocks1 :e!r /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$1 h 9 su* cases be5 driv5 upw>ds s z to pi]ce ?r\gh yield+ s$im5t>y deposits1 we %all be enabl$ to acc\nt = _m geological appe>ances o!rwise inexplicable4 ,?us1 = example1 at ,we9boehla & ,hohn/e91 ne> ,meiss51 9 ,saxony1 a mass ( granite has be5 obs]v$ cov]+ /rata ( ! ,cretace\s & ,oolitic p]iods = ! space ( betwe5 #cjj & #djj y>ds squ>e4 ,x appe>s cle>ly f a rec5t ,memoir ( ,dr4 ,b4 ,cotta on ?is subject#dei-;,b1 t ! granite 0 ?ru/ into its actual position :5 solid4 ,!re are no int]sect+ ve9s at ! junction--no alt]ation z if by heat1 b evid5t signs ( rubb+1 & a breccia 9 "s places1 9 :i* pieces ( granite are m+l$ ) brok5 fragm5ts ( ! second>y rocks4 ,z ! granite ov]hangs bo? ! lias & *alk1 s ! lias is 9 "s places b5t ov] /rata ( ! cretace\s era4 ,relative age ( ! granites ( ,arran4--,9 ?is isl&1 ! l>ge/ 9 ! ,fir? ( ,clyde1 be+ tw5ty miles 9 l5g? f nor? to s\?1 ! f\r great classes ( rocks1 ! fossilif]\s1 volcanic1 plutonic1 & metamorphic1 are all conspicu\sly display$ )9 a v small area1 & ) _! peculi> *>act]s /rongly contra/$4 ,9 ! nor? ( ! isl& ! granite rises to ! height ( ne>ly #cjjj feet above ! sea1 t]m9at+ 9 m\nta9\s peaks4 7,see section1 fig4 #ejf47 ,on ! flanks ( ! same m\nta9s are *loritic-s*i/s1 blue ro(+-slate1 & o!r rocks ( ! metamorphic ord] 7,no4 #a471 into :i* ! granite 7,no4 #b47 s5ds ve9s4 ,?is granite1 !re=e1 is new] ?an ! hypog5e s*i/s 7,no4 #a471 :i* x p5etrates4 ,^! s*i/s are highly incl9$4 ,^u !m re/ b$s ( conglom]ate & s&/one 7,no4 #c471 :i* are ref]able to ! ,old ,r$ =mation1 to :i* succe$ v>i\s %ales & lime/ones 7,no4 #d47 conta9+ ! fossils ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 ^u :i* are o!r /rata ( s&/one & conglom]ate 7upp] "p ( ,no4 #d471 9 :i* no fossils h be5 met )1 :i* x is conjectur$ may belong to ! ,new ,r$ s&/one p]iod4 ,all ! prec$+ =mations are cut ?r\gh by ! volcanic rocks 7,no4 #e471 :i* consi/ ( gre5/one1 basalt1 pit*/one1 clay/one-porphyry1 & o!r v>ieties4 ,^! appe> ei!r 9 ! =m ( dikes1 or 9 d5se masses f #ej to #gjj feet 9 ?ickness1 ov]ly+ ! /rata 7,no4 #d474 ,!y sometimes pass into sy5ite ( s cry/all9e a =m1 t x may rank z a plutonic =mation2 & 9 "o region1 at ,plov]field1 9 ,gl5 ,cloy1 a f9e-gra9$ granite 7#f4 a7 is se5 associat$ ) ! trap =mation1 & s5d+ ve9s into ! s&/one or into ! upp] /rata ( ,no4 #d4 ,?is int]e/+ discov]y ( granite 9 ! s\!rn region ( ,arran1 at a po9t :]e x is sep>at$ f ! nor!rn mass ( granite by a great ?ickness ( second>y /rata & ov]ly+ trap1 0 made by ,mr4 ,l4 ,a4 ,neck] ( ,g5eva1 dur+ 8 survey ( ,arran 9 #ahci4 ,we also le>n f ! rec5t inve/igations ( ,pr(4 ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 t a simil> f9e-gra9$ granite 7,no4 #f4 b7 appe>s 9 ! int]ior ( ! nor!rn granitic di/rict1 =m+ ! nucleus ( x1 & s5d+ ve9s into ! old] co>se-gra9$ granite 7,no4 #b474 ,! trap dikes :i* p5etrate ! old] granite are cut (f1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,ramsay1 at ! junction ( ! f9e gra9$4 ,x is n improbable t ! granite 7,no4 #f4 b7 may be ( ! same age z t ( ,plov]field 7,no4 #f4 a71 & ?is aga9 may belong to ! same geological epo* z ! trap =mations 7,no4 #e474 ,if !re be any diff]5ce ( date1 x w\ld seem t ! f9e-gra9$ granite mu/ be new] ?an ! trappean rocks4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! co>s] granite 7,no4 #b47 may be ! olde/ rock 9 ,arran1 ) ! exception ( ! hypog5e slates 7,no4 #a471 into :i* x s5ds ve9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejf4 ,g5]al ,section ( ,arran f nor? to s\?4 #a4 ,metamorphic or ,hypog5e s*i/s1 ! olde/ =mations 9 ,arran4 #b4 ,co>se-gra9$ granite s5d+ ve9s into ! s*i/s1 ,no4 #a4 #c4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ,conglom]ate conta9+ pebbles exclusively d]iv$ f ! rocks1 ,no #a41 )\t any int]mixture ( granitic fragm5ts4 #d4 ,c>bonif]\s /rata & r$ s&/one 7,new ,r$874 #e4 ,trap1 ov]ly+ & 9 dikes1 pass+ occasionally into ,sy5ites ( ! ,plutonic class4 #f4 a4 ,f9e-gra9$ granite1 associat$ ) ! ov]ly+ trap1 ,no4 #e4 #f4 b4 ,simil> f9e-gra9$ granite1 s5d+ ve9s into ! old] granite1 ,no4 #b41 & cutt+ (f ! trappean dikes1 c1 d4#dfa-;,a ,an objection may p]haps at fir/ be />t$ to ?is conclusion1 d]iv$ f ! curi\s & /rik+ fact1 ! importance ( :i* 0 fir/ emphatically po9t$ out by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 t no pebbles ( granite occur 9 ! conglom]ates ( ! r$ s&/one 9 ,arran1 al?\gh ^! conglom]ates are sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness1 & lie at ! foot ( l(ty granite m\nta9s1 :i* t[] above !m4 ,z a g5]al rule1 all su* aggregates ( pebbles & s& are ma9ly compos$ ( ! wreck ( pre-exi/+ rocks occurr+ 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity4 ,! total abs5ce !re=e ( granitic pebbles has ju/ly be5 a !me ( wond] to ^? geologi/s :o h successively visit$ ,arran1 & !y h c>efully se>*$ !re1 z ,i h done myself1 to f9d an exception1 b 9 va94 ,! r\nd$ masses consi/ exclusively ( qu>tz1 *lorite-s*i/1 & o!r memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies2 nor 9 ! new] conglom]ates ( ,no4 #d4 h any granitic fragm5ts be5 discov]$4 ,are we !n entitl$ to affirm t ! co>se-gra9$ granite 7,no4 #b471 l ! f9e-gra9$ v>iety 7,no4 #f4 a71 is m mod]n ?an all ! o!r rocks ( ! isl&8 ,?is we _c assume at pres5t1 b we may confid5tly inf] t :5 ! v>i\s b$s ( s&/one & conglom]ate 7 =m$1 no granite _h rea*$ ! surface1 or _h be5 expos$ to d5udation 9 ,arran4 ,x is cle> t ! cry/all9e s*i/s 7 gr\nd into s& & %+le :5 ! /rata ,no4 #c4 7 deposit$1 & at t "t ! waves _h nev] act$ ^u ! granite1 :i* n[ s5ds its ve9s into ! s*i/4 ,may we !n conclude1 t ! s*i/s suff]$ d5udation be=e !y 7 invad$ by granite8 ,?is op9ion1 al?\gh n inadmissible1 is by no means fully borne out by ! evid5ce4 ,= at ! "t :5 ! ,old ,r$ s&/one orig9at$1 ! metamorphic /rata may h =m$ isl&s 9 ! sea1 z 9 fig4 #ejg41 ov] :i* ! break]s roll$1 or f :i* torr5ts & riv]s desc5d$1 c>ry+ d[n gravel & s&4 ,! plutonic rock or granite 7,b7 may ev5 !n h be5 previ\sly inject$ at a c]ta9 dep? bel[1 & yet may nev] h be5 expos$ to d5udation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejg4 ,cross section4 ,z to ! "t & mann] ( ! subsequ5t protrusion ( ! co>se-gra9$ granite 7,no4 #b471 ?is rock may h be5 ?ru/ up bodily1 9 a solid =m1 dur+ t long s]ies ( igne\s op]ations :i* produc$ ! trappean & plutonic =mations 7,nos4 #e41 #f4 a1 & #f4 b74 ,we h %[n t ^! eruptions1 :atev] _! date1 7 po/]ior to ! deposition ( all ! fossilif]\s /rata ( ,arran4 ,we c also prove t subsequ5tly bo? ! granitic & trappean rocks und]w5t great aque\s d5udation1 :i* !y probably suff]$ dur+ _! em]g5ce f ! sea4 ,! fact is demon/rat$ by ! abrupt truncation ( num]\s dikes1 su* z ^? at c1 d1 e1 :i* are cut (f on ! surface ( ! granite & trap4 ,! ov]ly+ trap also ceases v abruptly on approa*+ ! b\nd>y ( ! great hypog5e region1 & t]m9ates 9 a /eep esc>pm5t fac+ t[>ds x z at f1 fig4 #ejf4 ,:5 9 its orig9al fluid /ate x c\ld n h come ?us sudd5ly to an end1 b mu/ h fill$ up ! holl[ n[ sep>at+ x f ! hypog5e rocks1 _h su* a holl[ !n exi/$4 ,?is necessity ( suppos+ t bo? ! trap & ! conglom]ate once ext5d$ f>!r1 & t ve9s su* z c1 d1 fig4 #ejf41 7 once prolong$ f>!r upw>ds1 prep>es u to believe t ! :ole ( ! nor!rn granite may at "o "t h be5 cov]$ by new] =mations1 "u ! pressure ( :i*1 be=e its protrusion1 x assum$ its highly cry/all9e texture4 ,! !ory ( ! protrusion 9 a solid =m ( ! nor!rn nucleus ( granite is confirm$ by ! mann] 9 :i* ! hypog5e slates 7,no4 #a47 & ! b$s ( conglom]ate 7,no4 #c47 dip away f x on all sides4 ,9 "s places inde$ ! slates are incl9$ t[>ds ! granite1 b ?is exception might h be5 look$ =1 because ^! hypog5e /rata h und]gone di/urbances at m ?an "o geological epo*1 & may at "s po9ts1 p]haps1 h _! orig9al ord] ( position inv]t$4 ,! high incl9ation1 !re=e1 & ! quaquav]sal dip ( ! b$s ar\nd ! bord]s ( ! granitic boss1 & ! comp>ative horizontality ( ! fossilif]\s /rata 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ! isl&1 are facts :i* all accord ) ! hypo!sis ( a great am\nt ( movem5t at t po9t :]e ! granite is suppos$ to h be5 ?ru/ up bodily1 & :]e we may conceive x to h be5 di/5d$ lat]ally by ! repeat$ injection ( fre% supplies ( melt$ mat]ials4#dfc-;,a ,,footnotes3 #dej-;,a ,silliman's ,j\rn41 ,no4 #fi4 p4 #abc4 #dej-;,b ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,jorullo4 #dea-;,a ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,volcanic ,eruptions4 #dec-;,a ,d>w91 pp4 #cij4 #djf42 second edition1 p4 #cai4 #ded-;,a ,see map ( ,europe & explanation1 9 ,pr9ciples1 book i4 #def-;,a ,elie de ,beaumont1 sur les ,montagnes de l',oisans1 c4 ,mem4 de la ,soc4 d',hi/4 ,nat4 de ,p>is1 tom4 v4 #def-;,b ,see ,mur*ison1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 ii4 "p ii4 pp4 #caa-cba4 #def-;,c ,we/]n ,isl&s1 vol4 i4 p4 #ccj4 plate #ah41 figs4 #c1 #d4 #def-;,d ,von ,bu*1 ,annales de ,*imie1 c4 #deg-;,a ,proce$+s ( ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #efb4 #deg-;,b ,see ! ,gaea ,norvegica & o!r works ( ,keilhau1 ) :om ,i exam9$ ?is c\ntry4 #dei-;,a ,mur*ison1 ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cjg4 #dei-;,b ,geogno/is*e ,w&]ung51 ,leipzig1 #ahch4 #dfa-;,a ,9 ! above section ,i h attempt$ to repres5t ! new discov]ies made s9ce #ahci1 by ,mr4 ,neck] & ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,ramsay1 9 reg>d to ! plutonic =mations1 #f4 a1 & #f4 b4 #dfc-;,a ,= ! geology ( ,arran consult ! works ( ,drs4 ,hutton & ,mac,culloch1 ! ,memoirs ( ,messrs4 ,von ,de*5 & ,oeynhaus51 t ( ,pr(essor ,s$gwick & ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d s]ies71 ,mr4 ,l4 ,a4 ,neck]'s ,memoir1 read to ! ,royal ,soc4 ( ,ed94 #bj? ,april1 #ahdj1 & ,mr4 ,ramsay's ,geol4 ( ,arran1 #ahda4 ,i exam9$ myself a l>ge "p ( ,arran 9 #ahcf4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxv4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,g5]al "* ( metamorphic rocks--,gneiss--,hornbl5de-s*i/-- ,mica-s*i/--,clay-slate--,qu>tzite--,*lo rite-s*i/--,metamorphic lime/one--,alphabetical li/ & explanation ( o!r rocks ( ?is family--,orig9 ( ! metamorphic /rata--,_! /ratification is real & di/9ct f cleavage--,jo9ts & slaty cleavage--,suppos$ causes ( ^! /ructures--,h[ f> connect$ ) cry/all9e action4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ?ree di/9ct classes ( rocks3 fir/1 ! aque\s1 or fossilif]\s2 secondly1 ! volcanic2 &1 ?irdly1 ! plutonic1 or granitic2 & we h n[1 la/ly1 to exam9e ^? cry/all9e 7or hypog5e7 /rata to :i* ! "n ( metamorphic has be5 assign$4 ,! la/-m5tion$ t]m expresses1 z be=e expla9$1 a !oretical op9ion t su* /rata1 aft] hav+ be5 deposit$ f wat]1 acquir$1 by ! influ5ce ( heat & o!r causes1 a highly cry/all9e texture4 ,!y :o /ill "q ?is op9ion may call ! rocks "u consid]ation ! /ratifi$ hypog5e1 or s*i/ose hypog5e =mations4 ,^! rocks1 :5 9 _! mo/ *>act]i/ic or normal /ate1 are :olly devoid ( organic rema9s1 & conta9 no di/9ct fragm5ts ( o!r rocks1 :e!r r\nd$ or angul>4 ,!y sometimes break out 9 ! c5tral p>ts ( n>r[ m\nta9 *a9s1 b 9 o!r cases ext5d ov] areas ( va/ dim5sions1 occupy+1 = example1 ne>ly ! :ole ( ,norway & ,sw$51 :]e1 z 9 ,brazil1 !y appe> alike 9 ! l[] & high] gr\nds4 ,9 ,great ,brita91 ^? memb]s ( ! s]ies :i* approa* mo/ ne>ly to granite 9 _! composition1 z gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & hornbl5de-s*i/1 are conf9$ to ! c\ntry nor? ( ! riv]s ,=? & ,clyde4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to trace a g5]al ord] ( succession or sup]position 9 ! memb]s ( ?is family2 gneiss1 = example1 hav+ be5 (t5 suppos$ to hold inv>iably a l[] geological position ?an mica-s*i/4 ,b al?\gh su* an ord] may prevail ?r\gh\t limit$ di/ricts1 x is by no means univ]sal1 nor ev5 g5]al1 ?r\gh\t ! globe4 ,to ?is subject1 h[ev]1 ,i %all aga9 rev]t1 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is volume1 :5 ! *ronological relations ( ! metamorphic rocks are po9t$ out4 ,! foll[+ may be enum]at$ z ! pr9cipal memb]s ( ! metamorphic class3--gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 clay-slate1 *lorite-s*i/1 hypog5e or metamorphic lime/one1 & c]ta9 k9ds ( qu>tz-rock or qu>tzite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ejh4 ,fragm5t ( gneiss1 natural size2 section at "r angles to planes ( /ratification4 ,gneiss4--,! fir/ ( ^!1 gneiss1 may be call$ /ratifi$ granite1 be+ =m$ ( ! same mat]ials z granite1 namely1 felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica4 ,9 ! specim5 "h figur$1 ! :ite lay]s consi/ almo/ exclusively ( granul> felsp>1 ) "h & !re a speck ( mica & gra9 ( qu>tz4 ,! d>k lay]s are compos$ ( grey qu>tz & black mica1 ) occasionally a gra9 ( felsp> int]mix$4 ,! rock splits mo/ easily 9 ! plane ( ^! d>k] lay]s1 & ! surface ?us expos$ is almo/ entirely cov]$ ) %9+ spangles ( mica4 ,! accompany+ qu>tz1 h[ev]1 greatly pr$om9ates 9 quantity1 b ! mo/ ready cleavage is det]m9$ by ! abundance ( mica 9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! d>k lay]4 ,in/ead ( ^! ?9 lam9ae1 gneiss is sometimes simply divid$ into ?ick b$s1 9 :i* ! mica has only a slight degree ( p>allelism to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,! t]m gneiss1 h[ev]1 9 geology is commonly us$ 9 a wid] s5se1 to designate a =mation 9 :i* ! above-m5tion$ rock prevails1 b ) :i* any "o ( ! o!r metamorphic rocks1 & m especially hornbl5de-s*i/1 may alt]nate4 ,^! o!r memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies are1 9 ?is case1 consid]$ z subord9ate to ! true gneiss4 ,! diff]5t v>ieties ( rock alli$ to gneiss1 into :i* felsp> ent]s z an ess5tial +r$i5t1 w be und]/ood by ref]r+ to :at 0 said ( granite4 ,?us1 = example1 hornbl5de may be sup]add$ to mica1 qu>tz1 & felsp>1 =m+ a sy5itic gneiss2 or talc may be sub/itut$ = mica1 con/itut+ talcose gneiss1 a rock compos$ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & talc1 9 di/9ct cry/als or gra9s 7/ratifi$ protog9e ( ! ,fr5*74 ,hornbl5de-s*i/ is usually black1 & compos$ pr9cipally ( hornbl5de1 ) a v>iable quantity ( felsp>1 & sometimes gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,:5 ! hornbl5de & felsp> are ne>ly 9 equal quantities1 & ! rock is n slaty1 x corresponds 9 "* ) ! gre5/ones ( ! trap family1 & has be5 call$ primitive gre5/one4 ,x may be t]m$ hornbl5de rock4 ,"s ( ^! hornbl5dic masses may really h be5 volcanic rocks1 :i* h s9ce assum$ a m cry/all9e or metamorphic texture4 ,mica-s*i/1 or ,micace\s s*i/1 is1 next to gneiss1 "o ( ! mo/ abundant rocks ( ! metamorphic s]ies4 ,x is slaty1 ess5tially compos$ ( mica & qu>tz1 ! mica sometimes appe>+ to con/itute ! :ole mass4 ,b$s ( pure qu>tz also occur 9 ?is =mation4 ,9 "s di/ricts1 g>nets 9 regul> twelve-sid$ cry/als =m an integrant "p ( mica-s*i/4 ,?is rock passes by ins5sible gradations into clay-slate4 ,clay-slate1 or ,argillace\s s*i/4--,?is rock resembles an indurat$ clay or %ale1 is = ! mo/ "p extremely fissile1 (t5 af=d+ good ro(+ slate4 ,x may consi/ ( ! +r$i5ts ( gneiss1 or ( an extremely f9e mixture ( mica & qu>tz1 or talc & qu>tz4 ,occasionally x d]ives a %9+ & silky lu/re f ! m9ute p>ticles ( mica or talc :i* x conta9s4 ,x v>ies f gre5i% or blui%-grey to a lead col\r4 ,x may be said ( ?is1 m ?an ( any o!r s*i/1 t x is common to ! metamorphic & fossilif]\s s]ies1 = "s clay-slates tak5 f ea* division w\ld n be di/+ui%able by m9]alogical *>act]s4 ,qu>tzite1 or ,qu>tz rock1 is an aggregate ( gra9s ( qu>tz1 :i* are ei!r 9 m9ute cry/als1 or 9 _m cases slightly r\nd$1 occurr+ 9 regul> /rata1 associat$ ) gneiss or o!r metamorphic rocks4 ,compact qu>tz1 l t s frequ5tly f\nd 9 ve9s1 is also f\nd toge!r ) granul> qu>tzite4 ,bo? ( ^! alt]nate ) gneiss or mica-s*i/1 or pass into ^? rocks by ! addition ( mica1 or ( felsp> & mica4 ,*lorite-s*i/ is a gre5 slaty rock1 9 :i* *lorite is abundant 9 foliat$ plates1 usually bl5d$ ) m9ute gra9s ( qu>tz1 or sometimes ) felsp> or mica4 ,(t5 associat$ )1 & graduat+ into1 gneiss & clay-slate4 ,hypog5e1 or ,metamorphic lime/one4--,?is rock1 commonly call$ prim>y lime/one1 is sometimes a ?ick b$d$ :ite cry/all9e granul> m>ble us$ 9 sculpture2 b m frequ5tly x occurs 9 ?9 b$s1 =m+ a foliat$ s*i/ mu* resembl+ 9 col\r & appe>ance c]ta9 v>ieties ( gneiss & mica-s*i/4 ,x alt]nates ) bo? ^! rocks1 & 9 l mann] ) argillace\s s*i/4 ,x !n usually conta9s "s cry/als ( mica1 & occasionally qu>tz1 felsp>1 hornbl5de1 & talc4 ,?is memb] ( ! metamorphic s]ies ent]s sp>+ly into ! /ructure ( ! hypog5e di/ricts ( ,norway1 ,sw$51 & ,scotl&1 b is l>gely develop$ 9 ! ,alps4 ,be=e (f]+ any f>!r obs]vations on ! probable orig9 ( ! metamorphic rocks1 ,i subjo91 9 ! =m ( a gloss>y1 a brief explanation ( "s ( ! pr9cipal v>ieties & _! synonymies4 ,,act9olite-,,s*i/4 ,a slaty foliat$ rock1 compos$ *iefly ( act9olite1 7an em]ald-gre5 m9]al1 alli$ to hornbl5de17 ) "s admixture ( felsp>1 or qu>tz1 or mica4 ,,ampelite4 ,alum9\s slate 7,brongni>t72 occurs bo? 9 ! metamorphic & fossilif]\s s]ies4 ,,amphibolite4 ,hornbl5de rock1 :i* see4 ,,argillace\s-,,s*i/1 or ,,clay-,,slate4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,arkose4 ,t]m us$ by ,brongni>t = granul> ,qu>tzite1 :i* see4 ,,*ia/olite-,,slate sc>cely diff]s f clay-slate1 b includes num]\s cry/als ( ,*ia/olite2 9 consid]able ?ickness 9 ,cumb]l&4 ,*ia/olite occurs 9 long sl5d] rhomboidal cry/als4 ,= composition1 see ,table1 p4 #cgg4 ,,*lorite-,,s*i/4 ,a gre5 slaty rock1 9 :i* *lorite1 a gre5 scaly m9]al1 is abundant4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,clay-,,slate1 or ,,argillace\s-,,s*i/4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,eurite & ,,euritic ,,porphyry4 ,a base ( compact felsp>1 ) gra9s ( lam9> felsp>1 & (t5 mica & o!r m9]als dissem9at$ 7,brongni>t74 ,m4 ,d',aubuisson reg>ds eurite z an extremely f9e-gra9$ granite1 9 :i* felsp> pr$om9ates1 ! :ole =m+ an app>5tly homog5e\s rock4 ,eurite has be5 already m5tion$ z a plutonic rock1 b occurs also 9 b$s subord9ate to gneiss or mica-slate4 ,,gneiss4 ,a /ratifi$ or lam9at$ rock1 same composition z granite4 ,see p4 #dfd4 ,,hornbl5de ,,rock1 or ,,amphibolite4 ,compos$ ( hornbl5de & felsp>4 ,! same composition z hornbl5de-s*i/1 /ratifi$1 b n fissile4 ,see p4 #cgf4 ,,hornbl5de-,,s*i/1 or ,,slate4 ,compos$ *iefly ( hornbl5de1 ) occasionally "s felsp>4 ,see p4 #dfd4 ,,hornbl5dic or ,,sy5itic-,,gneiss4 ,compos$ ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & hornbl5de4 ,,hypog5e ,,lime/one4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,m>ble4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,mica-,,s*i/1 or ,,micace\s-,,s*i/4 ,a slaty rock1 compos$ ( mica & qu>tz 9 v>iable proportions4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,mica-,,slate4 ,see ,,mica-,,s*i/1 p4 #dfe4 ,,phyllade4 ,d',aubuisson's t]m = clay-slate1 f phullas1 a heap ( leaves4 ,,prim>y ,,lime/one4 ,see ,,hypog5e ,,lime/one1 p4 #dfe4 ,,protog9e4 ,see ,,talcose-,,gneiss1 p4 #dfd42 :5 un/ratifi$ x is ,talcose-granite4 ,,qu>tz ,,rock1 or ,,qu>tzite4 ,a /ratifi$ rock2 an aggregate ( gra9s ( qu>tz4 ,see p4 #dfe4 ,,s]p5t9e occurs 9 bo? divisions ( ! hypog5e s]ies1 z a /ratifi$ or un/ratifi$ rock2 conta9s mu* magnesia2 is *iefly compos$ ( ! m9]al call$ s]p5t9e1 mix$ ) diallage1 talc1 & /eatite4 ,! pure v>ieties ( ?is rock1 call$ noble s]p5t9e1 consi/ ( a hydrat$ silicate ( magnesia1 g5]ally ( a gre5i% col\r3 ?is base is commonly mix$ ) oxide ( iron4 ,,talcose-,,gneiss4 ,same composition z talcose-granite or protog9e1 b ei!r /ratifi$ or lam9at$4 ,see p4 #dfd4 ,,talcose-,,s*i/ consi/s *iefly ( talc1 or ( talc & qu>tz1 or ( talc & felsp>1 & has a texture some?+ l t ( clay-slate4 ,,:ite/one4 ,same z ,eurite4 ,orig9 ( ! ,metamorphic ,/rata4 ,hav+ said ?us mu* ( ! m9]al composition ( ! metamorphic rocks1 ,i may comb9e :at rema9s to be said ( _! /ructure & hi/ory ) an acc\nt ( ! op9ions ent]ta9$ ( _! probable orig94 ,at ! same "t1 x may be well to =ew>n ! read] t we are "h ent]+ ^u gr\nd ( controv]sy1 & soon rea* ! limits :]e positive induction ends1 & beyond :i* we c only indulge 9 speculations4 ,x 0 once a fav\rite doctr9e1 & is /ill ma9ta9$ by _m1 t ^! rocks owe _! cry/all9e texture1 _! want ( all signs ( a me*anical orig91 or ( fossil cont5ts1 to a peculi> & nasc5t condition ( ! planet at ! p]iod ( _! =mation4 ,! argum5ts 9 refutation ( ?is hypo!sis w be m fully consid]$ :5 ,i %[1 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is volume1 to h[ _m diff]5t ages ! metamorphic =mations are ref]able1 & h[ gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 clay-slate1 & hypog5e lime/one 7t ( ,c>r>a = example71 h be5 =m$1 n only s9ce ! fir/ introduction ( organic be+s into ?is planet1 b ev5 long aft] _m di/9ct races ( plants & animals _h pass$ away 9 succession4 ,! doctr9e respect+ ! cry/all9e /rata1 impli$ 9 ! "n metamorphic1 may prop]ly be treat$ ( 9 ?is place2 & we mu/ fir/ inquire :e!r ^! rocks are really entitl$ to be call$ /ratifi$ 9 ! /rict s5se ( hav+ be5 orig9ally deposit$ z s$im5t f wat]4 ,! g5]al adoption by geologi/s ( ! t]m /ratifi$1 z appli$ to ^! rocks1 suffici5tly atte/s _! division into b$s v analog\s1 at lea/ 9 =m1 to ord9>y fossilif]\s /rata4 ,?is resemblance is by no means conf9$ to ! exi/5ce 9 bo? ( an occasional slaty /ructure1 b ext5ds to e k9d ( arrangem5t :i* is compatible ) ! abs5ce ( fossils1 & ( s&1 pebbles1 ripple-m>k1 & o!r *>act]s :i* ! metamorphic !ory supposes to h be5 oblit]at$ by plutonic action4 ,?us1 = example1 we behold alike 9 ! cry/all9e & fossilif]\s =mations an alt]nation ( b$s v>y+ greatly 9 composition1 col\r1 & ?ickness4 ,we obs]ve1 = in/ance1 gneiss alt]nat+ ) lay]s ( black hornbl5de-s*i/1 or ) granul> qu>tz1 or lime/one2 & ! int]*ange ( ^! diff]5t /rata may be repeat$ = an indef9ite numb] ( times4 ,9 ! l mann]1 mica-s*i/ alt]nates ) *lorite-s*i/1 & ) granul> lime/one 9 ?9 lay]s4 ,z 9 fossilif]\s =mations /rata ( pure silice\s s& alt]nate ) micace\s s& & ) lay]s ( clay1 s 9 ! cry/all9e or metamorphic rocks we h b$s ( pure qu>tzite alt]nat+ ) mica-s*i/ & clay-slate4 ,z 9 ! second>y & t]ti>y s]ies we meet ) lime/one alt]nat+ aga9 & aga9 ) micace\s or argillace\s s&1 s we f9d 9 ! hypog5e1 gneiss & mica-s*i/ alt]nat+ ) pure & impure granul> lime/ones4 ,x has also be5 %[n t ! ripple-m>k is v commonly repeat$ ?r\gh\t a consid]able ?ickness ( fossilif]\s /rata2 s 9 mica-s*i/ & gneiss1 !re is sometimes an undulation ( ! lam9ae on a m9ute scale1 :i* may1 p]haps1 be a modification ( simil> inequalities 9 ! orig9al deposit4 ,9 ! cry/all9e =mations also1 z 9 _m ( ! s$im5t>y be=e describ$1 s+le /rata are sometimes made up ( lam9ae plac$ diagonally1 su* lam9ae n be+ regul>ly p>allel to ! planes ( cleavage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eji4 ,lam9ation ( clay-slate1 ,montagne de ,segu9at1 ne> ,gav>nie1 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,?is disposition ( ! lay]s is illu/rat$ 9 ! accompany+ diagram1 9 :i* ,i h repres5t$ c>efully ! /ratification ( a co>se argillace\s s*i/1 :i* ,i exam9$ 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 "p ( :i* approa*es 9 "* to a gre5 & blue ro(+ slate1 :ile "p is extremely qu>tzose1 ! :ole mass pass+ d[nw>ds into micace\s s*i/4 ,! v]tical section "h exhibit$ is ab\t #c feet 9 height1 & ! lay]s are sometimes s ?9 t fifty may be c\nt$ 9 ! ?ickness ( an in*4 ,"s ( !m consi/ ( pure qu>tz4 ,! inf]5ce drawn f ! ph5om5a above describ$ 9 fav\r ( ! aque\s orig9 ( clay-slate & o!r cry/all9e /rata1 is greatly /r5g!n$ by ! fact t _m ( ^! metamorphic rocks occasionally alt]nate )1 & sometimes pass by int]m$iate gradations into1 rocks ( a decid$ly me*anical orig91 & exhibit+ traces ( organic rema9s4 ,! fossilif]\s =mations1 moreov]1 into :i* ?is passage is effect$1 are by no means inv>iably ( ! same age nor ( ! highe/ antiquity1 z w be aft]w>ds expla9$4 ,/ratification ( ! metamorphic rocks di/9ct f cleavage4--,! b$s into :i* gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & hypog5e lime/one divide1 exhibit mo/ commonly1 l ord9>y /rata1 a want ( p]fect geometrical p>allelism4 ,= ?is reason1 !re=e1 9 addition to ! alt]nate recurr5ce ( lay]s ( di/9ct mat]ials1 ! /ratifi$ arrangem5t ( ! cry/all9e rocks _c be expla9$ away by suppos+ x to be simply a divisional /ructure l t to :i* we owe "s ( ! slates us$ = writ+ & ro(+4 ,slaty cleavage1 z x has be5 call$1 has 9 _m cases be5 produc$ by ! regul> deposition ( ?9 plates ( f9e s$im5t "o ^u ano!r2 b !re are _m in/ances :]e x is decid$ly unconnect$ ) su* a mode ( orig91 & :]e x is n ev5 conf9$ to ! aque\s =mations4 ,"s k9ds ( trap1 = example1 z cl9k/one1 split into lam9ae1 & are us$ = ro(+4 ,!re are1 says ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 ?ree di/9ct =ms ( /ructure exhibit$ 9 c]ta9 rocks ?r\gh\t l>ge di/ricts3 viz4--,fir/1 /ratification2 secondly1 jo9ts2 & ?irdly1 slaty cleavage2 ! two la/ hav+ no connection ) true b$d+1 & hav+ be5 sup]9duc$ by causes absolutely indep5d5t ( gravitation4 ,all ^! diff]5t /ructures mu/ h diff]5t names1 ev5 ?\gh !re be "s cases :]e x is impossible1 aft] c>efully /udy+ ! appe>ances1 to decide ^u ! class to :i* !y belong4#dfi-;,a ,jo9ts4--,n[1 9 reg>d to ! second ( ^! =ms ( /ructure or jo9ts1 !y are natural fissures :i* (t5 trav]se rocks 9 /raight & well-det]m9$ l9es4 ,!y af=d to ! qu>ryman1 z ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obs]ves1 :5 speak+ ( ! ph5om5a1 z exhibit$ 9 ,%rop%ire & ! neighb\r+ c\nties1 ! greate/ aid 9 ! extraction ( blocks ( /one2 &1 if a suffici5t numb] cross ea* o!r1 ! :ole mass ( rock is split into symmetrical blocks4#dfi-;,b ,! faces ( ! jo9ts are = ! mo/ "p smoo!r & m regul> ?an ! surfaces ( true /rata4 ,! jo9ts are /raight-cut *9ks1 (t5 slightly op51 (t5 pass+1 n only ?r\gh lay]s ( successive deposition1 b also ?r\gh balls ( lime/one or o!r matt] :i* h be5 =m$ by concretion>y action1 s9ce ! orig9al accumulation ( ! /rata4 ,su* jo9ts1 !re=e1 mu/ (t5 h result$ f "o ( ! la/ *anges sup]9duc$ ^u s$im5t>y deposits4#dfi-;,c ,9 ! annex$ diagram ! flat surfaces ( rock ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 repres5t expos$ faces ( jo9ts1 to :i* ! walls ( o!r jo9ts1 ,j ,j1 are p>allel4 ,s ,s are ! l9es ( /ratification2 ,d ,d are l9es ( slaty cleavage1 :i* int]sect ! rock at a consid]able angle to ! planes ( /ratification4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaj4 ,/ratification1 jo9ts1 & cleavage4 ,jo9ts1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 are di/+ui%able f l9es ( slaty cleavage 9 ?is1 t ! rock int]v5+ betwe5 two jo9ts has no t5d5cy to cleave 9 a direction p>allel to ! planes ( ! jo9ts1 :]eas a rock is capable ( indef9ite subdivision 9 ! direction ( its slaty cleavage4 ,9 "s cases :]e ! /rata are curv$1 ! planes ( cleavage are /ill p]fectly p>allel4 ,?is has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! slate rocks ( "p ( ,wales 7see fig4 #eaa471 :i* consi/ ( a h>d gre5i% slate4 ,! true b$d+ is !re indicat$ by a numb] ( p>allel /ripes1 "s ( a light] & "s ( a d>k] col\r ?an ! g5]al mass4 ,su* /ripes are f\nd to be p>allel to ! true planes ( /ratification1 :]ev] ^! are manife/$ by ripple-m>k1 or by b$s conta9+ peculi> organic rema9s4 ,"s ( ! contort$ /rata are ( a co>se me*anical /ructure1 alt]nat+ ) f9e-gra9$ cry/all9e *loritic slates1 9 :i* case ! same slaty cleavage ext5ds ?r\gh ! co>s] & f9] b$s1 ?\gh x is br\ght out 9 great] p]fection 9 proportion z ! mat]ials ( ! rock are f9e & homog5e\s4 ,x is only :5 ^! are v co>se t ! cleavage planes entirely vani%4 ,^! planes are usually incl9$ at a v consid]able angle to ! planes ( ! /rata4 ,9 ! ,wel% *a9s1 = example1 ! av]age angle is z mu* z f #cj deg4 to #dj deg44 ,sometimes ! cleavage planes dip t[>ds ! same po9t ( ! compass z ^? ( /ratification1 b m frequ5tly to opposite po9ts4 ,x may be /at$ z a g5]al rule1 t :5 b$s ( co>s] mat]ials alt]nate ) ^? compos$ ( f9] p>ticles1 ! slaty cleavage is ei!r entirely conf9$ to ! f9e-gra9$ rock1 or is v imp]fectly exhibit$ 9 t ( co>s] texture4 ,?is rule holds1 :e!r ! cleavage is p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification or n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaa4 ,p>allel planes ( cleavage int]sect+ curv$ /rata4 7,s$gwick47 ,9 ! ,swiss & ,savoy ,alps1 z ,mr4 ,bakewell has rem>k$1 enorm\s masses ( lime/one are cut ?r\gh s regul>ly by ne>ly v]tical p>t+s1 & ^! are (t5 s mu* m conspicu\s ?an ! seams ( /ratification1 t an inexp]i5c$ obs]v] w almo/ inevitably conf\nd !m1 & suppose ! /rata to be p]p5dicul> 9 places :]e 9 fact !y are almo/ horizontal4#dgj-;,a ,n[ ^! jo9ts are suppos$ to be analog\s to ^? p>t+s :i* h be5 already obs]v$ to sep>ate volcanic & plutonic rocks into cuboidal & prismatic masses4 ,on a small scale we see clay & />* :5 dry split into simil> %apes1 :i* is (t5 caus$ by simple contraction1 :e!r ! %r9k+ be due to ! evaporation ( wat]1 or to a *ange ( temp]ature4 ,x is well kn[n t _m s&/ones & o!r rocks exp& by ! application ( mod]ate degrees ( heat1 & !n contract aga9 on cool+2 & !re c be no d\bt t l>ge portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ h1 9 ! c\rse ( pa/ ages1 be5 subject$ aga9 & aga9 to v diff]5t degrees ( heat & cold4 ,^! alt]nations ( temp]ature h probably contribut$ l>gely to ! production ( jo9ts 9 rocks4 ,9 "s c\ntries1 z 9 ,saxony1 :]e masses ( basalt re/ on s&/one1 ! aque\s rock has = ! di/ance ( sev]al feet f ! po9t ( junction assum$ a column> /ructure simil> to t ( ! trap4 ,9 l mann] "s he>?/ones1 aft] exposure to ! heat ( a furnace )\t be+ melt$1 h become prismatic4 ,c]ta9 cry/als also acquire by ! application ( heat a new int]nal arrangem5t1 s z to break 9 a new direction1 _! ext]nal =m rema9+ unalt]$4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obs]ves1 t 9 ref]r+ bo? jo9ts & slaty cleavage to cry/all9e action1 we are borne out by a well-kn[n analogy 9 :i* cry/allization has 9 l mann] giv5 rise to two di/9ct k9ds ( /ructure 9 ! same body4 ,?us1 = example1 9 a six-sid$ prism ( qu>tz1 ! planes ( cleavage are di/9ct f ^? ( ! prism4 ,x is impossible to cleave ! cry/als p>allel to ! plane ( ! prism1 j z slaty rocks _c be cleav$ p>allel to ! jo9ts2 b ! qu>tz cry/al1 l ! old] s*i/s1 may be cleav$ ad inf9itum 9 ! direction ( ! cleavage planes4#dga-;,a ,x seems1 !re=e1 t ! fissures call$ jo9ts may h be5 ! result ( diff]5t causes1 z ( "s modification ( cry/all9e action1 or simple contraction dur+ consolidation1 or dur+ a *ange ( temp]ature4 ,& !re are cases :]e jo9ts may h be5 due to me*anical viol5ce1 & ! /ra9 ex]t$ on /rata dur+ _! upheaval1 or :5 !y h sunk d[n bel[ _! =m] level4 ,pr(essor ,phillips has sugge/$ t ! previ\s exi/5ce ( divisional planes may (t5 h det]m9$1 & mu/ greatly h modifi$1 ! l9es & po9ts ( fracture caus$ 9 rocks by ^? =ces to :i* !y owe _! elevation or dislocations4 ,^! l9es & po9ts be+ ^? ( lea/ resi/ance1 _c fail to h influ5c$ ! direction 9 :i* ! solid mass w\ld give way on ! application ( ext]nal =ce4 ,pr(essor ,phillips has also rem>k$ t 9 "s slaty rocks ! =m ( ! outl9e ( fossil %ells & trilobites has be5 mu* *ang$ by di/ortion1 :i* has tak5 place 9 a longitud9al1 transv]se1 or oblique direction4 ,?is *ange1 he adds1 seems to be ! result ( a creep+ movem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! rock along ! planes ( cleavage1 its direction be+ always uni=m ov] ! same tract ( c\ntry1 & its am\nt 9 space be+ sometimes measurable1 & be+ z mu* z a qu>t] or ev5 half an in*4 ,! h>d %ells are n affect$1 b only ^? :i* are ?94#dga-;,b ,mr4 ,d4 ,%>pe1 foll[+ up ! same l9e ( inquiry1 came to ! conclusion1 t ! pres5t di/ort$ =ms ( ! %ells 9 c]ta9 ,briti% slate rocks may be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t ! rocks 9 :i* !y are imb$d$ h und]gone compression 9 a direction p]p5dicul> to ! planes ( cleavage1 & a correspond+ expansion 9 ! direction ( ! dip ( ! cleavage4#dga-;,c ,mr4 ,d>w9 inf]s f 8 obs]vations1 t 9 ,s\? ,am]ica ! /rike ( ! cleavage planes is v uni=m ov] wide regions1 & t x corresponds ) ! /rike ( ! planes ( foliation 9 ! gneiss & mica-s*i/s ( ! same p>ts ( ,*ili1 ,ti]ra del ,fuego1 c4 ,! explanation :i* he sugge/s1 is bas$ ^u a comb9ation ( me*anical & cry/all9e =ces4 ,! planes1 he says1 ( cleavage1 & ev5 ! foliation ( mica-s*i/ & gneiss1 may be intimately connect$ ) ! planes ( diff]5t t5sion to :i* ! area 0 long subject$1 aft] ! ma9 fissures or axis ( upheavem5t _h be5 =m$1 b be=e ! f9al consolidation ( ! mass & ! total cessation ( all molecul> movem5t4#dgb-;,a ,i h already /at$ t "s extremely f9e slates are p]fectly p>allel to ! planes ( /ratification1 z ^? ( ! ,nies51 = example1 ne> ! ,lake ( ,?un1 9 ,switz]l&1 :i* conta9 fucoids1 & are no d\bt due to successive aque\s deposition4 ,ev5 :]e ! slates are oblique to ! g5]al planes ( ! /rata1 x by no means foll[s z a matt] ( c\rse t !y h be5 caus$ by cry/all9e action1 = !y may be ! result ( t diagonal lam9ation :i* ,i h be=e describ$ 7p4 #ag474 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 !re is usually mu* irregul>ity1 :]eas cleavage planes oblique to ! true /ratification1 :i* are ref]r$ to a cry/all9e action1 are (t5 p]fectly symmetrical1 & obs]ve a /rict geometrical p>allelism1 ev5 :5 ! /rata are contort$1 z already describ$ 7p4 #dgj474 ,pr(essor ,s$gwick1 speak+ ( ! planes ( slaty cleavage1 :]e !y are decid$ly di/9ct f ^? ( s$im5t>y deposition1 decl>es 8 op9ion t no retreat ( p>ts1 no contraction 9 ! dim5sions ( rocks 9 pass+ to a solid /ate1 c acc\nt = ! ph5om5on4 ,x mu/ be ref]r$ to cry/all9e or pol> =ces act+ simultane\sly1 & some:at uni=mly1 9 giv5 directions1 on l>ge masses hav+ a homog5e\s composition4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 9 allusion to slaty cleavage1 has sugge/$1 t if rocks h be5 s heat$ z to all[ a comm5cem5t ( cry/allization2 t is to say1 if !y h be5 heat$ to a po9t at :i* ! p>ticles c beg9 to move among/ !mselves1 or at lea/ on _! own axes1 "s g5]al law mu/ !n det]m9e ! position 9 :i* ^! p>ticles w re/ on cool+4 ,probably t position w h "s relation to ! direction 9 :i* ! heat escapes4 ,n[1 :5 all1 or a majority ( p>ticles ( ! same nature1 h a g5]al t5d5cy to "o position1 t mu/ ( c\rse det]m9e a cleavage plane4 ,?us we see ! inf9itesimal cry/als ( fre% precipitat$ sulphate ( b>ytes1 & "s o!r su* bodies1 arrange !mselves alike 9 ! fluid 9 :i* !y float2 s z1 :5 /irr$1 all to glance ) "o light1 & give ! appe>ance ( silky filam5ts4 ,"s sorts ( soap1 9 :i* insoluble m>g>ates#dgb-;,b exi/1 exhibit ! same ph5om5on :5 mix$ ) wat]2 & :at occurs 9 our exp]im5ts on a m9ute scale may occur 9 nature on a great "o4#dgb-;,c ,,footnotes3 #dfi-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dhj4 #dfi-;,b ,! ,silurian ,sy/em ( ,rocks1 z develop$ 9 ,salop1 ,h]e=d1 c41 p4 #bde4 #dfi-;,c ,ibid41 p4 #bdf4 #dgj-;,a ,introduction to ,geology1 *ap4 iv4 #dga-;,a ,silurian ,sy/em ( ,rocks1 c41 p4 #bdf4 #dga-;,b ,report1 ,brit4 ,ass41 ,cork1 #ahdc1 p4 #fj4 #dga-;,c ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iii4 p4 #hg4 #ahdg4 #dgb-;,a ,geol4 ,obs4 on ,s4 ,am]ica1 #ahdf1 p4 #afh4 #dgb-;,b ,m>g>ic acid is an oleag9\s acid1 =m$ f diff]5t animal & vegetable fatty sub/ances4 ,a m>g>ate is a comp\nd ( ?is acid ) soda1 pota%1 or "s o!r base1 & is s nam$ f its pe>ly lu/re4 #dgb-;,c ,lett] to ! au?or1 dat$ ,cape ( ,good ,hope1 ,feb4 #bj4 #ahcf4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvi4 ,,metamorphic ,,rocks--cont9u$4 ,/rata ne> "s intrusive masses ( granite conv]t$ into rocks id5tical ) diff]5t memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies--,argum5ts h5ce d]iv$ z to ! nature ( plutonic action--,"t may enable ?is action to p]vade d5s] masses--,f :at k9ds ( s$im5t>y rock ea* v>iety ( ! metamorphic class may be d]iv$--,c]ta9 objections to ! metamorphic !ory consid]$--,lam9ation ( tra*yte & obsidian due to motion--,:e!r "s k9ds ( gneiss h become s*i/ose by a simil> action4 ,x has be5 se5 t geologi/s h be5 v g5]ally l$ to inf]1 f ! ph5om5a ( jo9ts & slaty cleavage1 t m\nta9 masses1 ( :i* ! s$im5t>y orig9 is unque/ionable1 h be5 act$ ^u simultane\sly by va/ cry/all9e =ces4 ,t ! /ructure ( fossilif]\s /rata has (t5 be5 modifi$ by "s g5]al cause s9ce _! orig9al deposition1 & ev5 subsequ5tly to _! consolidation & dislocation1 is und5iable4 ,^! facts prep>e u to believe t /ill great] *anges may h be5 work$ out by a great] int5sity1 or m prolong$ developm5t ( ! same ag5cy1 comb9$1 p]haps1 ) o!r causes4 ,n[ we h se5 t1 ne> ! imm$iate contact ( granitic ve9s & volcanic dikes1 v extraord9>y alt]ations 9 rocks h tak5 place1 m especially 9 ! neighb\rhood ( granite4 ,x w be useful "h to add o!r illu/rations1 %[+ t a texture undi/+ui%able f t :i* *>act]izes ! m cry/all9e metamorphic =mations1 has actually be5 sup]9duc$ 9 /rata once fossilif]\s4 ,9 ! s\!rn extremity ( ,norway !re is a l>ge di/rict1 on ! we/ side ( ! fiord ( ,*ri/iania1 9 :i* granite or sy5ite protrudes 9 m\nta9 masses ?r\gh fossilif]\s /rata1 & usually s5ds ve9s into !m at ! po9t ( contact4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks1 replete ) %ells & zoophytes1 consi/ *iefly ( %ale1 lime/one1 & "s s&/one1 & all ^! are inv>iably alt]$ ne> ! granite = a di/ance ( f #ej to #djj y>ds4 ,! alum9\s %ales are h>d5$ & h become fl9ty4 ,sometimes !y resemble jasp]4 ,ribbon$ jasp] is produc$ by ! h>d5+ ( alt]nate lay]s ( gre5 & *ocolate-col\r$ s*i/1 ea* /ripe fai?fully repres5t+ ! orig9al l9es ( /ratification4 ,ne>] ! granite ! s*i/ (t5 conta9s cry/als ( hornbl5de1 :i* are ev5 met ) 9 "s places = a di/ance ( sev]al hundr$ y>ds f ! junction2 & ?is black hornbl5de is s abundant t em95t geologi/s1 :5 pass+ ?r\gh ! c\ntry1 h conf\nd$ x ) ! anci5t hornbl5de-s*i/1 subord9ate to ! great gneiss =mation ( ,norway4 ,frequ5tly1 betwe5 ! granite & ! hornbl5de slate1 above m5tion$1 gra9s ( mica & cry/all9e felsp> appe> 9 ! s*i/1 s t rocks resembl+ gneiss & mica-s*i/ are produc$4 ,fossils c r>ely be detect$ 9 ^! s*i/s1 & !y are m completely effac$ 9 proportion to ! m cry/all9e texture ( ! b$s1 & _! vic9ity to ! granite4 ,9 "s places ! silice\s matt] ( ! s*i/ becomes a granul> qu>tz2 & :5 hornbl5de & mica are add$1 ! alt]$ rock loses its /ratification1 & passes into a k9d ( granite4 ,! lime/one1 :i* at po9ts remote f ! granite is ( an e>?y texture1 blue col\r1 & (t5 ab\nds 9 corals1 becomes a :ite granul> m>ble ne> ! granite1 sometimes silice\s1 ! granul> /ructure ext5d+ occasionally upw>ds ( #djj y>ds f ! junction2 & ! corals be+ = ! mo/ "p oblit]at$1 ?\gh sometimes pres]v$1 ev5 9 ! :ite m>ble4 ,bo? ! alt]$ lime/one & h>d5$ slate conta9 g>nets 9 _m places1 also ores ( iron1 lead1 & copp]1 ) "s silv]4 ,^! alt]ations occur equally1 :e!r ! granite invades ! /rata 9 a l9e p>allel to ! g5]al /rike ( ! fossilif]\s b$s1 or 9 a l9e at "r angles to _! /rike1 z w be se5 by ! accompany+ gr\nd plan4#dgd-;,a ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eab4 ,alt]$ zone ( fossilif]\s slate & lime/one ne> granite4 ,*ri/iania4 ,! arr[s indicate ! dip1 & ! /raight l9es ! /rike1 ( ! b$s4 ,! indurat$ & ribbon$ s*i/s above m5tion$ be> a /rong resemblance to c]ta9 %ales ( ! coal f\nd at ,russell's ,hall1 ne> ,dudley1 :]e coal-m9es h be5 on fire = ages4 ,b$s ( %ale ( consid]able ?ickness1 ly+ ov] ! burn+ coal1 h be5 bak$ & h>d5$ s z to acquire a fl9ty fracture1 ! lay]s be+ alt]nately gre5 & brick-col\r$4 ,! granite ( ,cornwall1 9 l mann]1 s5ds =? ve9s into a co>se argillace\s-s*i/1 prov9cially t]m$ killas4 ,?is killas is conv]t$ into hornbl5de-s*i/ ne> ! contact ) ! ve9s4 ,^! appe>ances are well se5 at ! junction ( ! granite & killas1 9 ,/4 ,mi*ael's ,m\nt1 a small isl& ne>ly #cjj feet high1 situat$ 9 ! bay1 at a di/ance ( ab\t ?ree miles f ,p5zance4 ,! granite ( ,d>tmoor1 9 ,devon%ire1 says ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 has intrud$ itself into ! slate & slaty s&/one call$ greywacke1 twi/+ & contort+ ! /rata1 & s5d+ ve9s into !m4 ,h5ce "s ( ! slate rocks h become micace\s2 o!rs m indurat$1 & ) ! *>act]s ( mica-slate & gneiss2 :ile o!rs aga9 appe> conv]t$ into a h>d-zon$ rock /rongly impregnat$ ) felsp>4#dge-;,a ,we le>n f ! inve/igations ( ,m4 ,dufr5oy1 t 9 ! ea/]n ,pyr5ees !re are m\nta9 masses ( granite po/]ior 9 date to ! =mations call$ lias & *alk ( t di/rict1 & t ^! fossilif]\s rocks are greatly alt]$ 9 texture1 & (t5 *>g$ ) iron-ore1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! granite4 ,?us 9 ! environs ( ,/4 ,m>t91 ne> ,/4 ,paul de ,f5\illet1 ! *alky lime/one becomes m cry/all9e & sac*>oid z x approa*es ! granite1 & loses all trace ( ! fossils :i* x previ\sly conta9$ 9 abundance4 ,at "s po9ts1 also1 x becomes dolomitic1 & fill$ ) small ve9s ( c>bonate ( iron1 & spots ( r$ iron-ore4 ,at ,rancie ! lias ne>e/ ! granite is n only fill$ ) iron-ore1 b *>g$ ) pyrites1 tremolite1 g>net1 & a new m9]al some:at alli$ to felsp>1 call$1 f ! place 9 ! ,pyr5ees :]e x occurs1 c\z]anite4 ,n[ ! alt]ations above describ$ z sup]9duc$ 9 rocks by volcanic dikes & granite ve9s1 prove inconte/ably t p[]s exi/ 9 nature capable ( trans=m+ fossilif]\s into cry/all9e /rata--p[]s capable ( g5]at+ 9 !m a new m9]al "*1 simil>1 nay1 (t5 absolutely id5tical1 ) t ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 & o!r /ratifi$ memb]s ( ! hypog5e s]ies4 ,! precise nature ( ^! alt]+ causes1 :i* may provisionally be t]m$ plutonic1 is 9 a great degree obscure & d\btful2 b _! reality is no less cle>1 & we mu/ suppose ! influ5ce ( heat to be 9 "s way connect$ ) ! transmutation1 if1 = reasons be=e expla9$1 we conc$e ! igne\s orig9 ( granite4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,gregory ,watt1 9 fus+ rocks 9 ! laboratory1 & all[+ !m to consolidate by sl[ cool+1 prove di/9ctly t a rock ne$ n be p]fectly melt$ 9 ord] t a re-arrangem5t ( its compon5t p>ticles %\ld take place1 & a p>tial cry/allization ensue4#dge-;,b ,we may easily suppose1 !re=e1 t all traces ( %ells & o!r organic rema9s may be de/roy$2 & t new *emical comb9ations may arise1 )\t ! mass be+ s fus$ z t ! l9es ( /ratification %\ld be :olly oblit]at$4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 imag9e t heat alone1 su* z may be appli$ to a /one 9 ! op5 air1 c con/itute all t is compris$ 9 plutonic action4 ,we "k t volcanos 9 eruption n only emit fluid lava1 b give (f /eam & o!r heat$ gases1 :i* ru% out 9 enorm\s volume1 = days1 weeks1 or ye>s cont9u\sly1 & are ev5 dis5gag$ f lava dur+ its consolidation4 ,:5 ! mat]ials ( granite1 !re=e1 came 9 contact ) ! fossilif]\s /ratum 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? "u great pressure1 ! conta9$ gases might be unable to escape2 yet :5 br\ght into contact ) rocks1 might pass ?r\gh _! pores ) great] facility ?an wat] is kn[n to d 7p4 #ce474 ,^! a]i=m fluids1 su* z sulphurett$ hydrog51 muriatic acid1 & c>bonic acid1 issue 9 _m places f r5ts 9 rocks1 :i* !y h discol\r$ & corrod$1 s(t5+ "s & h>d5+ o!rs4 ,if ! rocks are *>g$ ) wat]1 !y w\ld pass ?r\gh m readily2 =1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,h5ry1 wat]1 "u an hydro/atic pressure ( #if feet1 w absorb ?ree times z mu* c>bonic acid gas z x c "u ! ord9>y pressure ( ! atmosph]e4 ,al?\gh ?is increas$ p[] ( absorption w\ld be dim9i%$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! high] temp]ature f\nd to exi/ z we desc5d 9 ! e>?1 yet ,pr(essor ,bis*(f has %[n t ! heat by no means augm5ts 9 su* a proportion z to c\nt]act ! effect ( augm5t$ pressure4#dgf-;,a ,!re are o!r gases1 z well z ! c>bonic acid1 :i* wat] absorbs1 & m rapidly 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( pressure4 ,n[ ev5 ! mo/ compact rocks may be reg>d$1 be=e !y h be5 expos$ to ! air & dri$1 9 ! light ( sponges fill$ ) wat]2 & x is conceivable t heat$ gases br\ght into contact ) !m1 at great dep?s1 may be absorb$ readily1 & transfus$ ?r\gh _! pores4 ,al?\gh ! gase\s matt] fir/ obs]v$ w\ld soon be cond5s$1 & "p ) its heat1 yet ! cont9ual arrival ( fre% supplies f bel[ might1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 cause ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 & ) x t ( ! conta9+ rock1 to be mat]ially rais$4 ,m4 ,f\rnet1 9 8 description ( ! metallif]\s gneiss ne> ,cl]mont1 9 ,auv]gne1 /ates t all ! m9ute fissures ( ! rock are q saturat$ ) free c>bonic acid gas1 :i* rises pl5tifully f ! soil !re & 9 _m p>ts ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,! v>i\s elem5ts ( ! gneiss1 ) ! exception ( ! qu>tz1 are all s(t5$2 & new comb9ations ( ! acid1 ) lime1 iron1 & manganese1 are cont9ually 9 progress4#dgf-;,b ,ano!r illu/ration ( ! p[] ( subt]ranean gases is af=d$ by ! /ufas ( ,/4 ,calog]o1 situat$ 9 ! l>ge/ ( ! ,lip>i ,isl&s4 ,"h1 accord+ to ! description publi%$ by ,h(fmann1 horizontal /rata ( tuff1 ext5d+ = #d miles along ! coa/1 & =m+ cliffs m ?an #bjj feet high1 h be5 discol\r$ 9 v>i\s places1 & /rangely alt]$ by ! all-p5etrat+ vap\rs4 ,d>k clays h become yell[1 or (t5 sn[-:ite2 or h assum$ a *equ]$ or brecciat$ appe>ance1 be+ cross$ ) f]rug9\s r$ /ripes4 ,9 "s places ! fum>oles h be5 f\nd by analysis to consi/ p>tly ( sublimations ( oxide ( iron2 b x also appe>s t ve9s ( *alc$ony & opal1 & o!rs ( fibr\s gypsum1 h result$ f ^! volcanic exhalations4#dgf-;,c ,! read] may also ref] to ,m4 ,virlet's acc\nt ( ! corrosion ( h>d1 fl9ty1 & jaspide\s rocks ne> ,cor9?1 by ! prolong$ ag5cy ( subt]ranean gases#dgg-;,a2 & to ,dr4 ,daub5y's description ( ! decomposition ( tra*ytic rocks 9 ! ,solfat>a1 ne> ,naples1 by sulphurett$ hydrog5 & muriatic acid gases4#dgg-;,b ,al?\gh 9 all ^! in/ances we c only /udy ! ph5om5a z exhibit$ at ! surface1 x is cle> t ! gase\s fluids mu/ h made _! way ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( por\s or fissur$ rocks1 :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! subt]ranean res]voirs ( gas & ! ext]nal air4 ,! ext5t1 !re=e1 ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :i* ! vap\rs h p]meat$ & are n[ p]meat+1 may be ?\s&s ( fa?oms 9 ?ickness1 & _! heat+ & modify+ influ5ce may be spread ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ?is solid mass4 ,we le>n f ,pr(essor ,bis*(f t ! /eam ( a hot spr+ at ,aix-la-,*apelle1 al?\gh its temp]ature is only f #acc deg4 to #afg deg4 ,f41 has conv]t$ ! surface ( "s blocks ( black m>ble into a d\ghy mass4 ,he conceives1 !re=e1 t /eam 9 ! b[els ( ! e>? hav+ a temp]ature equal or ev5 great] ?an ! melt+ po9t ( lava1 & hav+ an ela/icity ( :i* ev5 ,pap9's dige/] c give b a fa9t idea1 may conv]t rocks into liquid matt]4#dgg-;,c ,! above obs]vations are calculat$ to meet "s ( ! objections :i* h be5 urg$ aga9/ ! metamorphic !ory on ! gr\nd ( ! small p[] ( rocks to conduct heat2 = x is well kn[n t rocks1 :5 dry & 9 ! air1 diff] rem>kably f metals 9 ?is respect4 ,x has be5 ask$ h[ ! *anges :i* ext5d m]ely = a few feet f ! contact ( a dike c\ld h p5etrat$ ?r\gh m\nta9 masses ( cry/all9e /rata sev]al miles 9 ?ickness4 ,n[ x has be5 /at$ t ! plutonic influ5ce ( ! sy5ite ( ,norway has sometimes alt]$ fossilif]\s /rata = a di/ance ( a qu>t] ( a mile1 bo? 9 ! direction ( _! dip & ( _! /rike4 7,see fig4 #eab4 p4 #dgd47 ,?is is und\bt$ly an extreme case2 b is x n f> m philosophical to suppose t ?is influ5ce may1 "u fav\rable circum/ances1 affect d5s] masses1 ?an to inv5t an entirely new cause to acc\nt = effects m]ely diff]+ 9 quantity1 & n 9 k9d8 ,! metamorphic !ory does n require u to affirm t "s contigu\s mass ( granite has be5 ! alt]+ p[]2 b m]ely t an action1 exi/+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>? at an unkn[n dep?1 :e!r !rmal1 electrical1 or o!r1 analog\s to t ex]t$ ne> intrud+ masses ( granite1 has1 9 ! c\rse ( va/ & indef9ite p]iods1 & :5 ris+ p]haps f a l>ge heat$ surface1 r$uc$ /rata ?\s&s ( y>ds ?ick to a /ate ( semi-fusion1 s t on cool+ !y h become cry/all9e1 l gneiss4 ,granite may h be5 ano!r result ( ! same action 9 a high] /ate ( int5sity1 by :i* a ?or\gh fusion has be5 produc$2 & 9 ?is mann] ! passage f granite into gneiss may be expla9$4 ,"s geologi/s are ( op9ion1 t ! alt]nate lay]s ( mica & qu>tz1 or mica & felsp>1 or lime & felsp>1 are s mu* m di/9ct1 9 c]ta9 metamorphic rocks1 ?an ! +r$i5ts compos+ alt]nate lay]s 9 _m s$im5t>y deposits1 t ! simil> p>ticles mu/ be suppos$ to h ex]t$ a molecul> attraction = ea* o!r1 & to h ?us congregat$ toge!r 9 lay]s m di/9ct 9 m9]al composition ?an be=e !y 7 cry/alliz$4 ,9 consid]+1 !n1 ! v>i\s data already enum]at$1 ! =ms ( /ratification 9 metamorphic rocks1 _! passage on ! "o h& into ! fossilif]\s1 & on ! o!r into ! plutonic =mations1 & ! conv]sions :i* c be asc]ta9$ to h occurr$ 9 ! vic9ity ( granite1 we may conclude t gneiss & mica-s*i/ may be no?+ m ?an alt]$ micace\s & argillace\s s&/ones t granul> qu>tz may h be5 d]iv$ f silice\s s&/one1 & compact qu>tz f ! same mat]ials4 ,clay-slate may be alt]$ %ale1 & granul> m>ble may h orig9at$ 9 ! =m ( ord9>y lime/one1 replete ) %ells & corals1 :i* h s9ce be5 oblit]at$2 &1 la/ly1 calc>e\s s&s & m>ls may h be5 *ang$ into impure cry/all9e lime/ones4 ,hornbl5de-s*i/1 says ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 may at fir/ h be5 m]e clay2 = clay or %ale is f\nd alt]$ by trap into ,lydian /one1 a sub/ance diff]+ f hornbl5de-s*i/ almo/ solely 9 compactness & uni=mity ( texture4#dgh-;,a ,9 ,%etl&1 rem>ks ! same au?or1 argillace\s-s*i/ 7or clay-slate71 :5 9 contact ) granite1 is sometimes conv]t$ into hornbl5de-s*i/1 ! s*i/ becom+ fir/ silice\s1 & ultimately1 at ! contact1 hornbl5de-s*i/4#dgh-;,b ,! an?racite & plumbago associat$ ) hypog5e rocks may h be5 coal2 = n only is coal conv]t$ into an?racite 9 ! vic9ity ( "s trap dikes1 b we h se5 t a l *ange has tak5 place g5]ally ev5 f> f ! contact ( igne\s rocks1 9 ! di/urb$ region ( ! ,appala*ians4#dgh-;,c ,at ,worce/]1 9 ! /ate ( ,massa*usetts1 #de miles due we/ ( ,bo/on1 a b$ ( plumbago & impure an?racite occurs1 int]/ratifi$ ) mica-s*i/4 ,x is ab\t #b feet 9 ?ickness1 & has be5 made use ( bo? z fuel1 & 9 ! manufacture ( lead p5cils4 ,at ! di/ance ( #cj miles f ! plumbago1 !re occurs1 on ! bord]s ( ,rhode ,isl&1 an impure an?racite 9 slates1 conta9+ impressions ( coal-plants ( ! g5]a ,pecopt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,calamites1 c4 ,?is an?racite is int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 t ( ,p5nsylvania & ! plumbago ( ,worce/]1 9 :i* la/ ! gase\s or volatile matt] 7hydrog51 oxyg51 & nitrog57 is to ! c>bon only 9 ! proportion ( #c p] c5t4 ,aft] trav]s+ ! c\ntry 9 v>i\s directions1 ,i came to ! conclusion t ! c>bonif]\s %ales or slates ) an?racite & plants1 :i* 9 ,rhode ,isl& (t5 pass into mica-s*i/1 h at ,worce/] assum$ a p]fectly cry/all9e & metamorphic texture2 ! an?racite hav+ be5 ne>ly transmut$ into t /ate ( pure c>bon :i* is call$ plumbago or graphite4#dgi-;,a ,! total abs5ce ( any trace ( fossils has incl9$ _m geologi/s to attribute ! orig9 ( cry/all9e /rata to a p]iod antec$5t to ! exi/5ce ( organic be+s4 ,admitt+1 !y say1 ! oblit]ation1 9 "s cases1 ( fossils by plutonic action1 we might /ill expect t traces ( !m w\ld (t5] occur 9 c]ta9 anci5t sy/ems ( slate1 9 :i*1 z 9 ,cumb]l&1 "s conglom]ates occur4 ,b 9 urg+ ?is argum5t1 x seems to h be5 =gott5 t !re are /ratifi$ =mations ( enorm\s ?ickness1 & ( v>i\s ages1 & "s ( !m v mod]n1 all =m$ aft] ! e>? _h become ! abode ( liv+ creatures1 :i* are1 nev]!less1 9 c]ta9 di/ricts1 entirely de/itute ( all ve/iges ( organic bodies4 ,9 "s1 ! traces ( fossils may h be5 effac$ by wat] & acids1 at _m successive p]iods2 & x is cle>1 t1 ! old] ! /ratum1 ! great] is ! *ance ( its be+ non-fossilif]\s1 ev5 if x has escap$ all metamorphic action4 ,x has be5 also object$ to ! metamorphic !ory1 t ! *emical composition ( ! second>y /rata diff]s ess5tially f t ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s1 into :i* !y are suppos$ to be conv]tible4#dgi-;,b ,! prim>y s*i/s1 x is said1 usually conta9 a consid]able proportion ( pota% or ( soda1 :i* ! second>y clays1 %ales1 & slates d n1 ^! la/ be+ ! result ( ! decomposition ( felspa?ic rocks1 f :i* ! alkal9e matt] has be5 ab/ract$ dur+ ! process ( decomposition4 ,b ?is reason+ proce$s on insuffici5t & app>5tly mi/ak5 data2 = a l>ge portion ( :at is usually call$ clay1 m>l1 %ale1 & slate does actually conta9 a c]ta91 & (t5 a consid]able1 proportion ( alkali2 s t x is difficult1 9 _m c\ntries1 to obta9 clay or %ale suffici5tly free f alkal9e +r$i5ts to all[ ( _! be+ burnt into bricks or us$ = pott]y4 ,?us ! argillace\s %ales & slates ( ! ,old ,r$ s&/one1 9 ,=f>%ire & o!r p>ts ( ,scotl&1 are s mu* *>g$ ) alkali1 d]iv$ f triturat$ felsp>1 t1 in/ead ( h>d5+ :5 expos$ to fire1 !y sometimes melt into a glass4 ,!y conta9 no lime1 b appe> to consi/ ( extremely m9ute gra9s ( ! v>i\s +r$i5ts ( granite1 :i* are di/9ctly visible 9 ! co>s]-gra9$ v>ieties1 & 9 almo/ all ! int]pos$ s&/ones4 ,^! lam9at$ clays & %ales might c]ta9ly1 if cry/alliz$1 resemble 9 composition _m ( ! prim>y /rata4 ,!re is also pota% 9 fossil vegetable rema9s1 & soda 9 ! salts by :i* /rata are sometimes s l>gely impregnat$1 z 9 ,patagonia4 ,ano!r objection has be5 d]iv$ f ! alt]nation ( highly cry/all9e /rata ) o!rs hav+ a less cry/all9e texture4 ,! heat1 x is said1 9 its asc5t f bel[1 mu/ h trav]s$ ! less alt]$ s*i/s be=e x rea*$ a high] & m cry/all9e b$4 ,9 answ] to ?is1 x may be obs]v$1 t if a numb] ( /rata diff]+ greatly 9 composition f ea* o!r be subject$ to equal quantities ( heat1 !re is e probability t "s w be m fusible ?an o!rs4 ,"s1 = example1 w conta9 soda1 pota%1 lime1 or "s o!r +r$i5t capable ( act+ z a flux2 :ile o!rs may be de/itute ( ! same elem5ts1 & s refractory z to be v slightly affect$ by a degree ( heat capable ( r$uc+ o!rs to semi-fusion4 ,nor %\ld x be =gott5 t1 z a g5]al rule1 ! less cry/all9e rocks d really occur 9 ! upp]1 & ! m cry/all9e 9 ! l[] "p ( ea* metamorphic s]ies4 ,!re are geologi/s1 h[ev]1 ( high au?ority1 :o admit ! metamorphic orig9 ( gneiss & mica-s*i/ ev5 on a gr& scale 9 "s m\nta9-*a9s1 & :o nev]!less believe t gneiss has 9 "s in/ances be5 an eruptive rock1 d]iv+ its lam9ation f motion :5 9 a fluid or visc\s /ate4 ,mr4 ,scrope1 9 8 description ( ! ,ponza ,isl&s1 ascribes ! zon$ /ructure ( ! ,hung>ian p]lite 7a semi-vitre\s tra*yte7 to its hav+ subsid$1 9 ob$i5ce to ! impulse ( its own gravity1 d[n a slightly incl9$ plane1 :ile possess$ ( an imp]fect fluidity4 ,9 ! isl&s ( ,ponza & ,palm>ola1 ! direction ( ! zones is m frequ5tly v]tical ?an horizontal1 because ! mass 0 impell$ f bel[ upw>ds4#dhj-;,a ,9 l mann]1 ,mr4 ,d>w9 attributes ! lam9ation & fissile /ructure ( volcanic rocks ( ! tra*ytic s]ies1 includ+ "s obsidians 9 ,asc5sion1 ,mexico1 & else:]e1 to _! hav+ mov$ :5 liquid 9 ! direction ( ! lam9ae4 ,! zones consi/ sometimes ( lay]s ( air-cells drawn out & l5g!n$ 9 ! suppos$ direction ( ! mov+ mass4 ,he comp>es ?is division into p>allel zones1 ?us caus$ by ! /ret*+ ( a pa/y mass z x fl[$ sl[ly onw>ds1 to ! zon$ or ribbon$ /ructure ( ice1 :i* ,pr(essor ,james ,=bes has s ably expla9$1 %[+ t x is due to ! fissur+ ( a visc\s body 9 motion4#dhj-;,b ,mr4 ,d>w9 also imag9es ! lam9ation or foliation1 z he t]ms x1 ( gneiss & mica-s*i/ 9 ,s\? ,am]ica to be ! extreme result ( t process ( :i* cleavage is ! fir/ effect4#dhj-;,c ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 :ile he reg>ds ! great] "p ( ! gneiss & mica-s*i/ ( ! ,alps z s$im5t>y /rata alt]$ by plutonic action1 /ill conceives t "s ( ! ,alp9e gneiss may h be5 erupt$1 or1 9 o!r words1 may be granite drawn out into p>allel lam9ae 9 ! mann] ( tra*yte z above allud$ to4#dhj-;,d ,op9ions su* z ^!1 & o!rs :i* might be cit$1 prove ! difficulty ( arriv+ at cle> !oretical views on ?is subject4 ,i may also add ano!r difficulty4 ,9 _m ext5sive regions exp]i5c$ geologi/s h be5 at a loss to decide :i* ( two sets ( divisional planes 7 ref]able to cleavage & :i* to /ratification2 & t1 too1 :]e ! rocks are ( undisput$ aque\s orig94 ,aft] mu* d\bt1 !y h sometimes discov]$ t !y _h at fir/ mi/ak5 ! l9es ( cleavage = ^? ( deposition1 because ! =m] 7 by f> ! mo/ m>k$ ( ! two4 ,n[ if su* slaty masses %\ld become highly cry/all9e1 & be conv]t$ into gneiss1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 or any o!r memb] ( ! hypog5e class1 ! cleavage planes w\ld be m likely to rema9 visible ?an ^? ( /ratification4 ,b al?\gh ! cause la/-m5tion$ may1 9 "s in/ances1 be a v]a causa1 z appli$ to gneiss & mica-s*i/1 ,i believe x to be an exception to ! g5]al rule4 ,nor w\ld x1 ,i conceive1 produce t k9d ( irregul> p>allelism 9 ! lam9ae :i* belongs to s _m ( ! hypog5e rocks ( ! ,grampians1 ,pyr5ees1 & ! ,:ite m\nta9s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 :]e ,i h *iefly /udi$ !m4 ,b x w be impossible = ! read] duly to appreciate ! propriety ( ! t]m metamorphic1 z appli$ to ! /rata =m]ly call$ primitive1 until ,i h %[n1 9 ! next *apt]1 at h[ _m di/9ct p]iods ^! cry/all9e /rata h be5 =m$4 ,,footnotes3 #dgd-;,a ,keilhau1 ,gaea ,norvegica1 pp4 #fa-fc4 #dge-;,a ,geol4 ,manual1 p4 #dgi4 #dge-;,b ,phil4 ,trans41 #ahjd4 #dgf-;,a ,pogg5dorf's ,annal51 ,no4 xvi41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 iii4 #dgf-;,b ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,c>bonat$ ,spr+s1 c4 #dgf-;,c ,h(fmann's ,lip>is*5 ,inseln1 p4 #ch4 ,leipzig1 #ahcb4 #dgg-;,a ,see ,pr9c4 ( ,geol42 & ,bullet9 de la ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 ii4 p4 #bcj4 #dgg-;,b ,see ,pr9c4 ( ,geol42 & ,daub5y's ,volcanos1 p4 #afg4 #dgg-;,c ,jam4 ,ed4 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,no4 #ea4 p4 #dc4 #dgh-;,a ,sy/4 ( ,geol41 vol4 i4 p4 #baj4 #dgh-;,b ,ibid41 p4 #baa4 #dgh-;,c ,see above1 pp4 #cbg1 #ccc4 #dgi-;,a ,see ,lyell1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 i4 p4 #aii4 #dgi-;,b ,dr4 ,boase1 ,prim>y ,geology1 p4 #cai4 #dhj-;,a ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d s]ies1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bbg4 #dhj-;,b ,d>w91 ,volcanic ,isl&s1 pp4 #fi1 #gj4 #dhj-;,c ,geol4 ,obs4 9 ,s4 ,am]ica1 p4 #afg4 ,see also above1 p4 #dga4 #dhj-;,d ,bullet91 vol4 iv4 p4 #acja4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxvii4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,ages ,,( ,,! ,,metamorphic ,,rocks4 ,age ( ea* set ( metamorphic /rata tw(old--,te/ ( age by fossils & m9]al "* n available--,te/ by sup]position ambigu\s--,conv]sion ( d5se masses ( fossilif]\s /rata into metamorphic rocks--,lime/one & %ale ( ,c>r>a--,metamorphic /rata ( mod]n p]iods 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy--,:y ! visible cry/all9e /rata are none ( !m v mod]n--,ord] ( succession 9 metamorphic rocks--,uni=mity ( m9]al "*--,:y ! metamorphic /rata are less calc>e\s ?an ! fossilif]\s4 ,accord+ to ! !ory adopt$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! age ( ea* set ( metamorphic /rata is tw(old--!y h be5 deposit$ at "o p]iod1 !y h become cry/all9e at ano!r4 ,we c r>ely hope to def9e ) exactness ! date ( bo? ^! p]iods1 ! fossils hav+ be5 de/roy$ by plutonic action1 & ! m9]al *>act]s be+ ! same1 :atev] ! age4 ,sup]position itself is an ambigu\s te/1 especially :5 we desire to det]m9e ! p]iod ( cry/allization4 ,suppose1 = example1 we are conv9c$ t c]ta9 metamorphic /rata 9 ! ,alps1 :i* are cov]$ by cretace\s b$s1 are alt]$ lias2 ?is lias may h assum$ its cry/all9e texture 9 ! cretace\s or 9 "s t]ti>y p]iod1 ! ,eoc5e = example4 ,if 9 ! latt]1 x %\ld be call$ ,eoc5e :5 reg>d$ z a metamorphic rock1 al?\gh x be liassic :5 consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! era ( its deposition4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! sup]position ( *alk does n prev5t ! subjac5t metamorphic rock f be+ ,eoc5e4 ,if1 h[ev]1 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 we %\ld succe$ 9 asc]ta9+ ! tw(old *ronological relations ( ! metamorphic =mations1 x might be useful to adopt a tw(old t]m9ology4 ,we might call ! /rata above allud$ to ,liassic-,eoc5e1 or ,liassic-,cretace\s /rata ( ! ,hypog5e class2 ! fir/ t]m ref]r+ to ! era ( deposition1 ! second to t ( cry/allization4 ,:5 discuss+ ! ages ( ! plutonic rocks1 we h se5 t examples occur ( v>i\s prim>y1 second>y1 & t]ti>y deposits conv]t$ into metamorphic /rata1 ne> _! contact ) granite4 ,!re c be no d\bt 9 ^! cases t /rata1 once compos$ ( mud1 s&1 & gravel1 or ( clay1 m>l1 & %elly lime/one1 h = ! di/ance ( sev]al y>ds1 & 9 "s in/ances sev]al hundr$ feet1 be5 turn$ into gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 qu>tz rock1 /atu>y m>ble1 & ! re/4 7,see ! two prec$+ ,*apt]s47 ,b :5 ! metamorphic action has op]at$ on a gr&] scale1 x t5ds entirely to de/roy all monum5ts ( ! date ( its developm5t4 ,x may be easy to prove ! id5tity ( two diff]5t p>ts ( ! same /ratum2 "o1 :]e ! rock has be5 9 contact ) a volcanic or plutonic mass1 & has be5 *ang$ into m>ble or hornbl5de-s*i/1 & ano!r n f> di/ant1 :]e ! same b$ rema9s unalt]$ & fossilif]\s2 b :5 we h to comp>e two portions ( a m\nta9 *a9--! "o metamorphic1 & ! o!r unalt]$--all ! lab\r & skill ( ! mo/ practis$ obs]v]s are requir$4 ,i %all m5tion "o or two examples ( alt]ation on a gr& scale1 9 ord] to expla9 to ! /ud5t ! k9d ( reason+ by :i* we are l$ to inf] t d5se masses ( fossilif]\s /rata h be5 conv]t$ into cry/all9e rocks4 ,nor!rn ,ap5n9es--,c>r>a4--,! celebrat$ m>ble ( ,c>r>a1 us$ 9 sculpture1 0 once reg>d$ z a type ( primitive lime/one4 ,x ab\nds 9 ! m\nta9s ( ,massa ,c>r>a1 or ! ,apuan ,alps1 z !y h be5 call$1 ! highe/ peaks ( :i* are ne>ly #fjjj feet high4 ,its great antiquity 0 inf]r$ f its m9]al texture1 f ! abs5ce ( fossils1 & its passage d[nw>ds into talc-s*i/ & g>netif]\s mica-s*i/2 ^! rocks aga9 graduat+ d[nw>ds into gneiss1 :i* is p5etrat$1 at ,=no1 by granite ve9s4 ,n[ ! rese>*es ( ,,mm4 ,savi1 ,b\e1 ,p>eto1 ,guidoni1 ,de la ,be*e1 ,h(fmann1 & ,pilla1 h demon/rat$ t ?is m>ble1 once suppos$ to be =m$ be=e ! exi/5ce ( organic be+s1 is1 9 fact1 an alt]$ lime/one ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 & ! und]ly+ cry/all9e s*i/s are second>y s&/ones & %ales1 modifi$ by plutonic action4 ,9 ord] to e/abli% ^! conclusions x 0 fir/ po9t$ out1 t ! calc>e\s rocks bord]+ ! ,gulf ( ,spezia1 & ab\nd+ 9 ,oolitic fossils1 assume a texture l t ( ,c>r>a m>ble1 9 proportion z !y are m & m invad$ by c]ta9 trappean & plutonic rocks1 su* z diorite1 euphotide1 s]p5t9e1 & granite1 occurr+ 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,x 0 !n obs]v$ t1 9 places :]e ! second>y =mations are unalt]$1 ! upp]mo/ consi/ ( common ,ap5n9e lime/one ) nodules ( fl9t1 bel[ :i* are %ales1 & at ! base ( all1 argillace\s & silice\s s&/ones4 ,9 ! lime/one1 fossils are frequ5t1 b v r>e 9 ! und]ly+ %ale & s&/one4 ,!n a gradation 0 trac$ lat]ally f ^! rocks into ano!r & correspond+ s]ies1 :i* is completely metamorphic2 = at ! top ( ?is we f9d a :ite granul> m>ble1 :olly devoid ( fossils1 & almo/ )\t /ratification1 9 :i* !re are no nodules ( fl9t1 b 9 its place silice\s matt] dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! mass 9 ! =m ( prisms ( qu>tz4 ,bel[ ?is1 & 9 place ( ! %ales1 are talc-s*i/s1 jasp]1 & horn/one2 & at ! bottom1 in/ead ( ! silice\s & argillace\s s&/ones1 are qu>tzite & gneiss4#dhc-;,a ,_h ^! second>y /rata ( ! ,ap5n9es und]gone univ]sally z great an am\nt ( transmutation1 x w\ld h be5 impossible to =m a conjecture respect+ _! true age2 & !n1 accord+ to ! common me?od ( geological classification1 !y w\ld h rank$ z prim>y rocks4 ,9 t case ! date ( _! orig9 w\ld h be5 ?r[n back to an era antec$5t to ! deposition ( ! ,l[] ,silurian or ,cambrian /rata1 al?\gh 9 reality !y 7 =m$ 9 ! ,oolitic p]iod1 & alt]$ at "s subsequ5t & p]haps mu* lat] epo*4 ,alps ( ,switz]l&4--,9 ! ,alps1 analog\s conclusions h be5 drawn respect+ ! alt]ation ( /rata on a /ill m ext5d$ scale4 ,9 ! ea/]n "p ( t *a91 "s ( ! prim>y fossilif]\s /rata1 z well z ! old] second>y =mations1 toge!r ) ! oolitic & cretace\s rocks1 are di/9ctly recognizable4 ,t]ti>y deposits also appe> 9 a less elevat$ position on ! flanks ( ! ,ea/]n ,alps2 b 9 ! ,c5tral or ,swiss ,alps1 ! prim>y fossilif]\s & old] second>y =mations disappe>1 & ! ,cretace\s1 ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 & at "s po9ts ev5 ! ,eoc5e /rata1 graduate ins5sibly into metamorphic rocks1 consi/+ ( granul> lime/one1 talc-s*i/1 talcose-gneiss1 micace\s s*i/1 & o!r v>ieties4 ,9 reg>d to ! age ( ?is va/ assemblage ( cry/all9e /rata1 we c m]ely affirm t "s ( ! upp] portions are alt]$ new] second>y1 & "s ( !m ev5 ,eoc5e deposits2 b we _c avoid suspect+ t ! disappe>ance bo? ( ! old] second>y & prim>y fossilif]\s rocks may be ow+ to _! hav+ be5 all conv]t$ 9 ?is region into cry/all9e s*i/4 ,x is difficult to convey to ^? :o h nev] visit$ ! ,alps a j idea ( ! v>i\s pro(s :i* concur to produce ?is conviction4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are c]ta9 regions :]e ,oolitic1 ,cretace\s1 & ,eoc5e /rata h be5 turn$ into granul> m>ble1 gneiss1 & o!r metamorphic s*i/s1 ne> _! contact ) granite4 ,?is fact %[s und5iably t plutonic causes cont9u$ to be 9 op]ation 9 ! ,alps d[n to a late p]iod1 ev5 aft] ! deposition ( "s ( ! nummulitic or old] ,eoc5e =mations4 ,hav+ e/abli%$ ?is po9t1 we are ! m will+ to believe t _m inf]ior fossilif]\s rocks1 probably expos$ = long] p]iods to a simil> action1 may h become metamorphic to a /ill great] ext5t4 ,we also discov] 9 p>ts ( ! ,swiss ,alps d5se masses ( second>y & ev5 t]ti>y /rata1 :i* h assum$ t semi-cry/all9e texture :i* ,w]n] call$ transition1 & :i* naturally l$ 8 foll[]s1 :o atta*$ great importance to m9]al *>act]s tak5 alone1 to class !m z transition =mations1 or z gr\ps old] ?an ! l[e/ second>y rocks4 7,see p4 #ib47 ,n[1 x is probable t ^! /rata h be5 affect$1 al?\gh 9 a less int5se degree1 by t same plutonic action :i* has entirely alt]$ & r5d]$ metamorphic s _m ( ! subjac5t =mations2 = 9 ! ,alps1 ?is action has by no means be5 conf9$ to ! imm$iate vic9ity ( granite4 ,granite1 inde$1 & o!r plutonic rocks1 r>ely make _! appe>ance at ! surface1 not)/&+ ! deep rav9es :i* lay op5 to view ! int]nal /ructure ( ^! m\nta9s4 ,t !y exi/ bel[ at no great dep? we _c d\bt1 & we h already se5 7p4 #dde47 t at "s po9ts1 z 9 ! ,valors9e1 ne> ,mont ,blanc1 granite & granitic ve9s are obs]vable1 pi]c+ ?r\gh talcose gneiss1 :i* passes ins5sibly upw>ds into second>y /rata4 ,x is c]ta9ly 9 ! ,alps ( ,switz]l& & ,savoy1 m ?an 9 any o!r di/rict 9 ,europe1 t ! geologi/ is prep>$ to meet ) ! signs ( an int5se developm5t ( plutonic action2 = "h we f9d ! mo/ /up5d\s monum5ts ( me*anical viol5ce1 by :i* /rata ?\s&s ( feet ?ick h be5 b5t1 fold$1 & ov]turn$4 7,see p4 #eh47 ,x is "h t m>9e second>y =mations ( a comp>atively mod]n date1 su* z ! ,oolitic & ,cretace\s1 h be5 upheav$ to ! height ( #ab1jjj1 & "s ,eoc5e /rata to elevations ( #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea2 & ev5 deposits ( ! ,mioc5e era h be5 rais$ #djjj or #ejjj feet1 s z to rival 9 height ! l(tie/ m\nta9s 9 ,great ,brita94 ,if ! read] w consult ! works ( _m em95t geologi/s :o h explor$ ! ,alps1 especially ^? ( ,,mm4 ,de ,beaumont1 ,/ud]1 ,neck]1 ,b\e1 & ,mur*ison1 he w le>n t !y all %>e1 m or less fully1 9 ! op9ions above express$4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 /at$ by ,,mm4 ,/ud] & ,hugi1 t !re are complete alt]nations on a l>ge scale ( second>y /rata1 conta9+ fossils1 ) gneiss & o!r rocks1 ( a p]fectly metamorphic /ructure4 ,i h visit$ "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable localities ref]r$ to by ^! au?ors2 b al?\gh agree+ ) !m t !re are passages f ! fossilif]\s to ! metamorphic s]ies f> f ! contact ( granite or o!r plutonic rocks1 ,i 0 unable to conv9ce myself t ! di/9ct alt]nations ( highly cry/all9e1 ) unalt]$ /rata above allud$ to1 might n admit ( a diff]5t explanation4 ,9 "o ( ! sections describ$ by ,m4 ,/ud] 9 ! highe/ ( ! ,b]nese ,alps1 namely 9 ! ,ro??al1 a valley bord]+ ! l9e ( p]petual sn[ on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,jungfrau1 !re occurs a mass ( gneiss #ajjj feet ?ick1 & #ae1jjj feet long1 :i* ,i exam9$1 n only re/+ ^u1 b also aga9 cov]$ by /rata conta9+ oolitic fossils4 ,^! anomal\s appe>ances may p>tly be expla9$ by suppos+ great solid w$ges ( intrusive gneiss to h be5 =c$ 9 lat]ally betwe5 /rata to :i* ,i f\nd !m to be 9 _m sections uncon=mable4 ,! sup]position1 also1 ( ! gneiss to ! oolite may1 9 "s cases1 be due to a rev]sal ( ! orig9al position ( ! b$s 9 a region :]e ! convulsions h be5 on s /up5d\s a scale4 ,on ! ,sattel also1 at ! base ( ! ,ge/ellihorn1 above ,enz51 9 ! valley ( ,urba*1 ne> ,meyr+51 "s ( ! int]calations ( gneiss betwe5 fossilif]\s /rata may1 ,i conceive1 be ascrib$ to me*anical d]angem5t4 ,almo/ any hypo!sis ( repeat$ *anges ( position may be resort$ to 9 a region ( su* extraord9>y confusion4 ,! second>y /rata may fir/ h be5 v]tical1 & !n c]ta9 portions may h become metamorphic 7! plutonic influ5ce asc5d+ f bel[71 :ile int]v5+ /rata rema9$ un*ang$4 ,! :ole s]ies ( b$s may !n aga9 h be5 ?r[n into a ne>ly horizontal position1 giv+ rise to ! sup]position ( cry/all9e ^u fossilif]\s =mations4 ,x 0 rem>k$1 9 ,*ap4 ,,xxxiv41 t z ! hypog5e rocks1 bo? /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$1 cry/allize orig9ally at a c]ta9 dep? b5ea? ! surface1 !y mu/ always1 be=e !y are uprais$ & expos$ at ! surface1 be ( consid]able antiquity1 relatively to a l>ge portion ( ! fossilif]\s & volcanic rocks4 ,!y may be =m+ at all p]iods2 b be=e any ( !m c become visible1 !y mu/ be rais$ above ! level ( ! sea1 & "s ( ! rocks :i* previ\sly conceal$ !m mu/ h be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,ord] ( succession 9 metamorphic rocks4--,!re is no univ]sal & inv>iable ord] ( sup]position 9 metamorphic rocks1 al?\gh a p>ticul> arrangem5t may prevail ?r\gh\t c\ntries ( great ext5t1 = ! same reason t x is traceable 9 ^? s$im5t>y =mations f :i* cry/all9e /rata are d]iv$4 ,?us1 = example1 we h se5 t 9 ! ,ap5n9es1 ne> ,c>r>a1 ! desc5d+ s]ies1 :]e x is metamorphic1 consi/s (1 #a/1 sac*>9e m>ble2 #b;dly1 talcose-s*i/2 & #c;dly1 ( qu>tz-rock & gneiss2 :]e unalt]$1 (1 #a/1 fossilif]\s lime/one2 #b;dly1 %ale2 & #c;dly1 s&/one4 ,b if we inve/igate diff]5t m\nta9 *a9s1 we f9d gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 hypog5e1 lime/one1 & o!r rocks1 succe$+ ea* o!r1 & alt]nat+ ) ea* o!r1 9 e possible ord]4 ,x is1 inde$1 m common to meet ) "s v>iety ( clay-slate =m+ ! upp]mo/ memb] ( a metamorphic s]ies ?an any o!r rock2 b ?is fact by no means implies1 z "s h imag9$1 t all clay-slates 7 =m$ at ! close ( an imag9>y p]iod1 :5 ! deposition ( ! cry/all9e /rata gave way to t ( ord9>y s$im5t>y deposits4 ,su* clay-slates1 9 fact1 are v>iable 9 composition1 & sometimes alt]nate ) fossilif]\s /rata1 s t !y may be said to belong almo/ equally to ! s$im5t>y & metamorphic ord] ( rocks4 ,x is probable t _h !y be5 subject$ to m int5se plutonic action1 !y w\ld h be5 trans=m$ into hornbl5de-s*i/1 foliat$ *lorite-s*i/1 scaly talcose-s*i/1 mica-s*i/1 or o!r m p]fectly cry/all9e rocks1 su* z are usually associat$ ) gneiss4 ,uni=mity ( m9]al "* 9 ,hypog5e rocks4--,humboldt has emphatically rem>k$1 t :5 we pass to ano!r hemisph]e1 we see new =ms ( animals & plants1 & ev5 new con/ellations 9 ! heav5s2 b 9 ! rocks we /ill recognize our old acqua9tances1--! same granite1 ! same gneiss1 ! same micace\s s*i/1 qu>tz-rock1 & ! re/4 ,x is c]ta9ly true t !re is a great & /rik+ g5]al resemblance 9 ! pr9cipal k9ds ( hypog5e rocks1 al?\gh ( v diff]5t ages & c\ntries2 b x has be5 %[n t ea* ( ^! are1 9 fact1 geological families ( rocks1 & n def9ite m9]al comp\nds4 ,!y are mu* m uni=m 9 aspect ?an s$im5t>y /rata1 because ^! la/ are (t5 compos$ ( fragm5ts v>y+ greatly 9 =m1 size1 & col\r1 & conta9 fossils ( diff]5t %apes & m9]al composition1 & acquire a v>iety ( t9ts f ! mixture ( v>i\s k9ds ( s$im5t4 ,! mat]ials ( su* /rata1 if melt$ & made to cry/allize1 w\ld be subject to *emical laws1 simple & uni=m 9 _! action1 ! same 9 e climate1 & :olly undi/urb$ by me*anical & organic causes4 ,nev]!less1 x w\ld be a great error to assume t ! hypog5e rocks1 consid]$ z aggregates ( simple m9]als1 are really m homog5e\s 9 _! composition ?an ! sev]al memb]s ( ! s$im5t>y s]ies4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 diff]5t assemblages ( hypog5e rocks occur 9 diff]5t c\ntries2 &1 secondly1 9 any "o di/rict1 ! rocks :i* pass "u ! same "n are (t5 extremely v>iable 9 _! compon5t +r$i5ts1 or at lea/ 9 ! proportions 9 :i* ea* ( ^! are pres5t4 ,?us1 = example1 gneiss & mica-s*i/1 s abundant 9 ! ,grampians1 are want+ 9 ,cumb]l&1 ,wales1 & ,cornwall2 9 p>ts ( ! ,swiss & ,italian ,alps1 ! gneiss & granite are talcose1 & n micace\s1 z 9 ,scotl&2 hornbl5de prevails 9 ! granite ( ,scotl&--s*orl 9 t ( ,cornwall--albite 9 ! plutonic rocks ( ! ,&es--common felsp> 9 ^? ( ,europe4 ,9 "o "p ( ,scotl&1 ! mica-s*i/ is full ( g>nets2 9 ano!r x is :olly devoid ( !m3 :ile 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,d>w91 x is ! gneiss1 & n ! mica-s*i/1 :i* is mo/ commonly g>netif]\s4 ,& n only d ! proportional quantities ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 mica1 hornbl5de1 & o!r m9]als1 v>y 9 hypog5e rocks be>+ ! same "n2 b :at is /ill m important1 ! +r$i5ts1 z we h se51 ( ! same simple m9]al are n always con/ant 7p4 #cfi41 & table1 p4 #cgg474 ,! ,metamorphic /rata1 :y less calc>e\s ?an ! fossilif]\s4--,x has be5 rem>k$1 t ! quantity ( calc>e\s matt] 9 metamorphic /rata1 or1 inde$1 9 ! hypog5e =mations g5]ally1 is f> less ?an 9 fossilif]\s deposits4 ,?us ! cry/all9e s*i/s ( ! ,grampians 9 ,scotl&1 consi/+ ( gneiss1 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 & o!r rocks1 _m ?\s&s ( y>ds 9 ?ickness1 conta9 an exce$+ly small proportion ( int]/ratifi$ calc>e\s b$s1 al?\gh ^! h be5 ! objects ( c>eful se>* = economical purposes4 ,yet lime/one is n want+ 9 ! ,grampians1 & x is associat$ sometimes ) gneiss1 sometimes ) mica-s*i/1 & 9 o!r places ) o!r memb]s ( ! metamorphic s]ies4 ,b :]e lime/one occurs abundantly1 z at ,c>r>a1 & 9 p>ts ( ! ,alps1 9 connection ) hypog5e rocks1 x usually =ms "o ( ! sup]ior memb]s ( ! cry/all9e gr\p4 ,! sc>city1 !n1 ( c>bonate ( lime 9 ! plutonic & metamorphic rocks g5]ally1 seems to be ! result ( "s g5]al cause4 ,s long z ! hypog5e rocks 7 believ$ to h orig9at$ antec$5tly to ! creation ( organic be+s1 x 0 easy to impute ! abs5ce ( lime to ! non-exi/5ce ( ^? mollusca & zoophytes by :i* %ells & corals are secret$2 b :5 we ascribe ! cry/all9e =mations to plutonic action1 x is natural to inquire :e!r ?is action itself may n t5d to expel c>bonic acid & lime f ! mat]ials :i* x r$uces to fusion or semi-fusion4 ,al?\gh we _c desc5d into ! subt]ranean regions :]e volcanic heat is develop$1 we c obs]ve 9 regions ( sp5t volcanos1 su* z ,auv]gne & ,tuscany1 hundr$s ( spr+s1 bo? cold & !rmal1 fl[+ out f granite & o!r rocks1 & hav+ _! wat]s pl5tifully *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime4 ,! quantity ( calc>e\s matt] :i* ^! spr+s transf]1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 f ! l[] p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ to ! sup]ior or newly =m$ p>ts ( ! same1 mu/ be consid]able4#dhg-;,a ,if ! quantity ( silice\s & alum9\s +r$i5ts br\ght up by su* spr+s 7 great1 in/ead ( be+ utt]ly insignificant1 x might be cont5d$ t ! m9]al matt] ?us expell$ implies simply ! decomposition ( ord9>y subt]ranean rocks2 b ! prodigi\s excess ( c>bonate ( lime ov] e o!r elem5t mu/1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 cause ! cru/ ( ! e>? bel[ to be almo/ entirely depriv$ ( its calc>e\s con/itu5ts1 :ile we "k t ! same action imp>ts to new] deposits1 ev] =m+ 9 seas & lakes1 an excess ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,calc>e\s matt] is p\r$ into ^! lakes1 & ! ocean1 by a ?\s& spr+s & riv]s2 s t "p ( almo/ e new calc>e\s rock *emically precipitat$1 & ( _m reefs ( %elly & corall9e /one1 mu/ be d]iv$ f m9]al matt] subtract$ by plutonic ag5cy1 & driv5 up by gas & /eam f fus$ & heat$ rocks 9 ! b[els ( ! e>?4 ,n only c>bonate ( lime1 b also free c>bonic acid gas is giv5 (f pl5tifully f ! soil & crevices ( rocks 9 regions ( active & sp5t volcanos1 z ne> ,naples1 & 9 ,auv]gne4 ,by ?is process1 fossil %ells or corals may (t5 lose _! c>bonic acid1 & ! residual lime may ent] into ! composition ( augite1 hornbl5de1 g>net1 & o!r hypog5e m9]als4 ,t ! removal ( ! calc>e\s matt] ( fossil %ells is ( frequ5t occurr5ce1 is prov$ by ! fact ( su* organic rema9s be+ (t5 replac$ by silex or o!r m9]als1 & sometimes by ! space once occupi$ by ! fossil be+ left empty1 or only m>k$ by a fa9t impression4 ,we ought n inde$ to m>vel at ! g5]al abs5ce ( organic rema9s f ! cry/all9e /rata1 :5 we be> 9 m9d h[ (t5 fossils are oblit]at$1 :olly or 9 "p1 ev5 9 t]ti>y =mations--h[ (t5 va/ masses ( s&/one & %ale1 ( diff]5t ages1 & ?\s&s ( feet ?ick1 are devoid ( fossils--h[ c]ta9 /rata may fir/ h be5 depriv$ ( a portion ( _! fossils :5 !y became semi-cry/all9e1 or assum$ ! transition /ate ( ,w]n]--& h[ ! rema9+ organic rema9s h be5 effac$ :5 !y 7 r5d]$ metamorphic4 ,"s rocks ( ! la/-m5tion$ class1 moreov]1 mu/ h be5 expos$ aga9 & aga9 to r5ew$ plutonic action4 ,,footnotes3 #dhc-;,a ,see notices ( ,savi1 ,h(fmann1 & o!rs1 ref]r$ to by ,b\e1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,geol4 de ,france1 tom4 v4 p4 #cag42 & tom4 iii4 p4 xliv42 also ,pilla1 cit$ by ,mur*ison1 ,qu>t4 ,geol4 ,j\rn41 vol4 v4 p4 #bff4 #dhg-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples1 ,index1 ,calc>e\s ,spr+s4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxviii4 ,,m9]al ,,ve9s4 ,w]n]'s doctr9e t m9]al ve9s 7 fissures fill$ f above--,ve9s ( segregation--,ord9>y metallif]\s ve9s or lodes--,_! frequ5t co9cid5ce ) faults--,pro(s t !y orig9at$ 9 fissures 9 solid rock--,ve9s %ift+ o!r ve9s--,poli%+ ( _! walls--,%ells & pebbles 9 lodes--,evid5ce ( ! successive enl>gem5t & re-op5+ ( ve9s--,f\rnet's obs]vations 9 ,auv]gne--,dim5sions ( ve9s--,:y "s alt]nately swell out & contract--,fill+ ( lodes by sublimation f bel[--,*emical & electrical action--,relative age ( ! preci\s metals--,copp] & lead ve9s 9 ,irel& old] ?an ,corni% t9--,lead ve9 9 lias1 ,glamorgan%ire--,gold 9 ,russia--,connection ( hot spr+s & m9]al ve9s--,conclud+ rem>ks4 ,! mann] 9 :i* metallic sub/ances are di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/1 & m especially ! ph5om5a ( ^? ne>ly v]tical & tabul> masses ( ore call$ m9]al ve9s1 f :i* ! l>g] "p ( ! preci\s metals us$ by man are obta9$1--^! are subjects ( ! highe/ practical importance to ! m9]1 & ( no less !oretical int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,! views ent]ta9$ respect+ metallif]\s ve9s h be5 modifi$1 or1 r1 h und]gone an almo/ complete revolution1 s9ce ! middle ( ! la/ c5tury1 :5 ,w]n]1 z director ( ! ,s*ool ( ,m9es1 at ,freib]g 9 ,saxony1 fir/ attempt$ to g5]alize ! facts !n kn[n4 ,he taught t m9]al ve9s _h orig9ally be5 op5 fissures :i* 7 gradually fill$ up ) cry/all9e & metallic matt]1 & t _m ( !m1 aft] be+ once fill$1 _h be5 aga9 enl>g$ or re-op5$4 ,he also po9t$ out t ve9s ?us =m$ are n all ref]able to "o era1 b are ( v>i\s geological dates4 ,su* op9ions1 al?\gh slightly h9t$ at by e>li] writ]s1 _h nev] be=e be5 g5]ally receiv$1 & _! ann\ncem5t by "o ( high au?ority & great exp]i5ce con/itut$ an era 9 ! sci5ce4 ,nev]!less1 ,i h %[n1 :5 trac+1 9 ano!r "w1 ! hi/ory & progress ( geology1 t ,w]n] 0 f> beh9d "s ( 8 pr$ecessors 9 8 !ory ( ! volcanic rocks1 & less enlight5$ ?an 8 contempor>y1 ,dr4 ,hutton1 9 8 speculations z to ! orig9 ( granite4#dhi-;,a ,accord+ to him1 ! plutonic =mations1 z well z ! cry/all9e s*i/s1 7 sub/ances precipitat$ f a *aotic fluid 9 "s primeval or nasc5t condition ( ! planet2 & ! metals1 !re=e1 be+ closely connect$ ) !m1 _h p>tak51 accord+ to him1 ( a l my/]i\s orig94 ,he also held t ! trap rocks 7 aque\s deposits1 & t dikes ( porphyry1 gre5/one1 & basalt1 7 fissures fill$ ) _! sev]al cont5ts f above4 ,h5ce he naturally inf]r$ t m9]al ve9s _h d]iv$ _! compon5t mat]ials f an incumb5t ocean1 r ?an f a subt]ranean s\rce2 t ^! mat]ials _h be5 fir/ dissolv$ 9 ! wat]s above1 in/ead ( hav+ ris5 up by sublimation f lakes & seas ( igne\s matt] bel[4 ,9 proportion z ! hypo!sis ( a primeval fluid1 or *aotic m5/ruum1 0 ab&on$1 9 ref]5ce to ! plutonic =mations1 & :5 all geologi/s _h come to be ( "o m9d z to ! true relation ( ! volcanic & trappean rocks1 reasonable hopes began to be ent]ta9$ t ! ph5om5a ( m9]al ve9s might be expla9$ by kn[n causes1 or by *emical1 !rmal1 & electrical ag5cy /ill at "w 9 ! int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,! gr\nds ( ?is conclusion w be bett] und]/ood :5 ! geological facts br\ght to light by m9+ op]ations h be5 describ$ & expla9$4 ,on diff]5t k9ds ( m9]al ve9s4--,e geologi/ is famili>ly acqua9t$ ) ^? ve9s ( qu>tz :i* ab\nd 9 hypog5e /rata1 =m+ l5ticul> masses ( limit$ ext5t4 ,!y are sometimes obs]v$1 also1 9 s&/ones & %ales4 ,ve9s ( c>bonate ( lime are equally common 9 fossilif]\s rocks1 especially 9 lime/ones4 ,su* ve9s appe> to h once be5 *9ks or small cavities1 caus$1 l cracks 9 clay1 by ! %r9k+ ( ! mass1 :i* has consolidat$ f a fluid /ate1 or has simply contract$ its dim5sions 9 pass+ f a high] to a l[] temp]ature4 ,silice\s1 calc>e\s1 & occasionally metallic matt]s1 h sometimes f\nd _! way simultane\sly into su* empty spaces1 by infiltration f ! surr\nd+ rocks1 or by segregation1 z x is (t5 t]m$4 ,mix$ ) hot wat] & /eam1 metallic ores may h p]meat$ a pa/y matrix until !y rea*$ ^? receptacles =m$ by %r9kage1 & ?us gave rise to t irregul> assemblage ( ve9s1 call$ by ! ,g]mans a /ockw]k1 9 allusion to ! diff]5t floors on :i* ! m9+ op]ations are 9 su* cases c>ri$ on4 ,! m ord9>y or regul> ve9s are usually work$ 9 v]tical %afts1 & h evid5tly be5 fissures produc$ by me*anical viol5ce4 ,!y trav]se all k9ds ( rocks1 bo? hypog5e & fossilif]\s1 & ext5d d[nw>ds to indef9ite or unkn[n dep?s4 ,we may assume t !y correspond ) su* r5ts z we see caus$ f "t to "t by ! %ock ( an e>?quake4 ,metallif]\s ve9s1 ref]able to su* ag5cy1 are occasionally a few in*es wide1 b m commonly #c or #d feet4 ,!y hold _! c\rse cont9u\sly 9 a c]ta9 prevail+ direction = miles or leagues1 pass+ ?r\gh rocks v>y+ 9 m9]al composition4 #c ,illu/rations3 ,fig4 #eac4 ,fig4 #ead4 ,fig4 #eae4 ,v]tical sections ( ! m9e ( ,huel ,peev]1 ,r$ru?1 ,cornwall4 ,t metallif]\s ve9s 7 fissures4--,z "s intellig5t m9]s1 aft] an att5tive /udy ( metallif]\s ve9s1 h be5 unable to reconcile _m ( _! *>act]i/ics ) ! hypo!sis ( fissures1 ,i %all beg9 by /at+ ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r4 ,! mo/ /rik+ fact p]haps :i* c be adduc$ 9 its support is1 ! co9cid5ce ( a consid]able proportion ( m9]al ve9s ) faults1 or ^? dislocations ( rocks :i* are indisputably due to me*anical =ce1 z above expla9$ 7p4 #fb474 ,!re are ev5 pro(s 9 almo/ e m9+ di/rict ( a succession ( faults1 by :i* ! opposite walls ( r5ts1 n[ ! receptacles ( metallic sub/ances1 h suff]$ displacem5t4 ,?us1 = example1 suppose a a1 fig4 #eac41 to be a t9 lode 9 ,cornwall1 ! t]m lode be+ appli$ to ve9s conta9+ metallic ores4 ,?is lode1 runn+ ea/ & we/1 is a y>d wide1 & is %ift$ by a copp] lode 7b b71 ( simil> wid?4 ,! fir/ fissure 7a a7 has be5 fill$ ) v>i\s mat]ials1 p>tly ( *emical orig91 su* z qu>tz1 fluor-sp>1 p]oxide ( t91 sulphuret ( copp]1 ars5ical pyrites1 bismu?1 & sulphuret ( nickel1 & p>tly ( me*anical orig91 compris+ clay & angul> fragm5ts or detritus ( ! int]sect$ rocks4 ,! plates ( qu>tz & ! ores are1 9 "s places1 p>allel to ! v]tical sides or walls ( ! ve91 be+ divid$ f ea* o!r by alt]nat+ lay]s ( clay1 or o!r e>?y matt]4 ,occasionally ! metallic ores are dissem9at$ 9 deta*$ masses among ! ve9/ones4 ,x is cle> t1 aft] ! gradual introduction ( ! t9 & o!r sub/ances1 ! second r5t 7b b7 0 produc$ by ano!r fracture accompani$ by a displacem5t ( ! rocks along ! plane ( b b4 ,?is new op5+ 0 !n fill$ ) m9]als1 "s ( !m resembl+ ^? 9 a a1 z fluor-sp> 7or fluate ( lime7 & qu>tz2 o!rs diff]5t1 ! copp] be+ pl5tiful & ! t9 want+ or v sc>ce4 ,we mu/ next suppose ! %ock ( a ?ird e>?quake to occur1 break+ asund] all ! rocks along ! l9e c c1 fig4 #ead42 ! fissure 9 ?is in/ance1 be+ only #f in*es wide1 & simply fill$ ) clay1 d]iv$1 probably1 f ! friction ( ! walls ( ! r5t1 or p>tly1 p]haps1 wa%$ 9 f above4 ,?is new movem5t has heav$ ! rock 9 su* a mann] z to int]rupt ! cont9uity ( ! copp] ve9 7b b71 &1 at ! same "t1 to %ift or heave lat]ally 9 ! same direction a portion ( ! t9 ve9 :i* _h n previ\sly be5 brok54 ,aga91 9 fig4 #eae4 we see evid5ce ( a f\r? fissure 7d d71 also fill$ ) clay1 :i* has cut ?r\gh ! t9 ve9 7a a71 & has lift$ x slightly upw>ds t[>ds ! s\?4 ,! v>i\s *anges "h repres5t$ are n ideal1 b are exhibit$ 9 a section obta9$ 9 work+ an old ,corni% m9e1 long s9ce ab&on$1 9 ! p>i% ( ,r$ru?1 call$ ,huel ,peev]1 & describ$ bo? by ,mr4 ,williams & ,mr4 ,c>ne4#dia-;,a ,! pr9cipal movem5t "h ref]r$ to1 or t ( c c1 fig4 #eae41 ext5ds ?r\gh a space ( no less ?an #hd feet2 b 9 ?is1 z 9 ! case ( ! o!r ?ree1 x w be se5 t ! outl9e ( ! c\ntry above1 or ! geographical features ( ,cornwall1 are n affect$ by any ( ! dislocations1 a p[]ful d5ud+ =ce hav+ cle>ly be5 ex]t$ subsequ5tly to all ! faults4 7,see above1 p4 #fi47 ,x is commonly said 9 ,cornwall1 t !re are eight di/9ct sy/ems ( ve9s :i* c 9 l mann] be ref]r$ to z _m successive movem5ts or fractures2 & ! ,g]man m9]s ( ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s speak also ( eight sy/ems ( ve9s1 ref]able to z _m p]iods4 ,besides ! pro(s ( me*anical action already expla9$1 ! opposite walls ( ve9s are frequ5tly poli%$ & /riat$1 z if !y _h und]gone great friction1 & ?is ev5 9 cases :]e !re has be5 no %ift4 ,we may attribute su* rubb+ to a vibratory motion kn[n to accompany e>?quakes1 & to produce trituration on ! opposite walls ( r5ts4 ,simil> movem5ts h sometimes occurr$ 9 m9]al ve9s :i* _h be5 :olly or p>tially fill$ up2 = includ$ pieces ( rock1 deta*$ f ! sides1 are f\nd to be r\nd$1 poli%$1 & /riat$4 ,t a great _m ve9s communicat$ orig9ally ) ! surface ( ! c\ntry above1 or ) ! b$ ( ! sea1 is prov$ by ! occurr5ce 9 !m ( well r\nd$ pebbles1 agree+ ) ^? 9 sup]ficial alluviums1 z 9 ,auv]gne & ,saxony4 ,9 ,bohemia1 su* pebbles h be5 met ) at ! dep? ( #ahj fa?oms4 ,9 ,cornwall1 ,mr4 ,c>ne m5tions true pebbles ( qu>tz & slate 9 a t9 lode ( ! ,reli/ran ,m9e1 at ! dep? ( #fjj feet bel[ ! surface4 ,!y 7 cem5t$ by oxide ( t9 & bisulphuret ( copp]1 & 7 trac$ ov] a space m ?an #ab feet long & z _m wide4#dib-;,a ,m>9e fossil %ells1 also1 h be5 f\nd at great dep?s1 hav+ probably be5 engulph$ dur+ subm>9e e>?quakes4 ,?us1 a gryphaea is /at$ by ,m4 ,virlet to h be5 met ) 9 a lead-m9e ne> ,semur1 9 ,france1 & a madrepore 9 a compact ve9 ( c9nab> 9 ,hung>y4#dib-;,b ,:5 diff]5t sets or sy/ems ( ve9s occur 9 ! same c\ntry1 ^? :i* are suppos$ to be ( contemporane\s orig91 & :i* are fill$ ) ! same k9d ( metals1 (t5 ma9ta9 a g5]al p>allelism ( direction4 ,?us1 = example1 bo? ! t9 & copp] ve9s 9 ,cornwall run ne>ly ea/ & we/1 :ile ! lead-ve9s run nor? & s\?2 b !re is no g5]al law ( direction common to diff]5t m9+ di/ricts4 ,! p>allelism ( ! ve9s is ano!r reason = reg>d+ !m z ord9>y fissures1 = we obs]ve t contemporane\s trap dikes1 admitt$ by all to be masses ( melt$ matt] :i* h fill$ r5ts1 are (t5 p>allel4 ,assum+1 !n1 t ve9s are simply fissures 9 :i* *emical & me*anical deposits h accumulat$1 we may next consid] ! pro(s ( _! hav+ be5 fill$ gradually & (t5 dur+ successive enl>gem5ts4 ,i h already spok5 ( p>allel lay]s ( clay1 qu>tz1 & ore4 ,w]n] himself obs]v$1 9 a ve9 ne> ,g]sdorff1 9 ,saxony1 no less ?an ?irte5 b$s ( diff]5t m9]als1 arrang$ ) ! utmo/ regul>ity on ea* side ( ! c5tral lay]4 ,?is lay] 0 =m$ ( two b$s ( calc>e\s sp>1 :i* _h evid5tly l9$ ! opposite walls ( a v]tical cavity4 ,! ?irte5 b$s foll[$ ea* o!r 9 correspond+ ord]1 consi/+ ( fluor-sp>1 heavy sp>1 gal5a1 c4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! c5tral mass has be5 la/ =m$1 & ! two plates :i* coat ! out] walls ( ! r5t on ea* side are ! olde/ ( all4 ,if !y consi/ ( cry/all9e precipitates1 !y may be expla9$ by suppos+ ! fissure to h rema9$ unalt]$ 9 its dim5sions1 :ile a s]ies ( *anges occurr$ 9 ! nature ( ! solutions :i* rose up f bel[2 b su* a mode ( deposition1 9 ! case ( _m successive & p>allel lay]s1 appe>s to be exceptional4 ,if a ve9/one consi/ ( cry/all9e matt]1 ! po9ts ( ! cry/als are always turn$ inw>ds1 or t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! ve92 9 o!r words1 !y po9t 9 t direction :]e !re 0 mo/ space = ! developm5t ( ! cry/als4 ,?us ea* new lay] receives ! impression ( ! cry/als ( ! prec$+ lay]1 & impr9ts its cry/als on ! "o :i* foll[s1 until at l5g? ! :ole ( ! ve9 is fill$3 ! two lay]s :i* meet dovetail ! po9ts ( _! cry/als ! "o into ! o!r4 ,b 9 ,cornwall1 "s lodes occur :]e ! v]tical plates1 or combs1 z !y are !re call$1 exhibit cry/als s dovetail$ z to prove t ! same fissure has be5 (t5 enl>g$4 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e gives ! foll[+ curi\s & in/ructive example 7fig4 #eaf47 f a copp]-m9e 9 granite1 ne> ,r$ru?4#dic-;,a ,ea* ( ! plates or combs 7a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f7 are d\ble1 hav+ ! po9ts ( _! cry/als turn$ inw>ds along ! axis ( ! comb4 ,! sides or walls 7#b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 & #f7 are p>t$ by a ?9 cov]+ ( o*re\s clay1 s t ea* comb is readily sep>able f ano!r by a mod]ate bl[ ( ! hamm]4 ,! bread? ( ea* repres5ts ! :ole wid? ( ! fissure at six successive p]iods1 & ! out] walls ( ! ve91 :]e ! fir/ n>r[ r5t 0 =m$1 consi/$ ( ! granitic surfaces #a & #g4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eaf4 ,copp] lode1 ne> ,r$ru?1 enl>g$ at six successive p]iods4 ,a some:at analog\s int]pretation is applicable to numb]s ( o!r cases1 :]e clay1 s&1 or angul> detritus1 alt]nate ) ores & ve9/ones4 ,?us1 we may imag9e ! sides ( a fissure to be encru/$ ) silice\s matt]1 z ,von ,bu* obs]v$1 9 ,lanc]ote1 ! walls ( a volcanic crat] =m$ 9 #agca to be trav]s$ by an op5 r5t 9 :i* hot vap\rs _h deposit$ hydrate ( silica1 ! incru/ation ne>ly ext5d+ to ! middle4#dic-;,b ,su* a ve9 may !n be fill$ ) clay or s&1 & aft]w>ds re-op5$1 ! new r5t divid+ ! argillace\s deposit1 & all[+ a quantity ( rubbi% to fall d[n4 ,v>i\s metals & sp>s may !n be precipitat$ f aque\s solutions among ! int]/ices ( ?is het]og5e\s mass4 ,t su* *anges h repeat$ly occurr$1 is demon/rat$ by occasional cross-ve9s1 imply+ ! oblique fracture ( previ\sly =m$ *emical & me*anical deposits4 ,?us1 = example1 ,m4 ,f\rnet1 9 8 description ( "s m9es 9 ,auv]gne work$ "u 8 sup]9t5d5ce1 obs]ves1 t ! granite ( t c\ntry 0 fir/ p5etrat$ by ve9s ( granite1 & !n dislocat$1 s t op5 r5ts cross$ bo? ! granite & ! granitic ve9s4 ,into su* op5+s1 qu>tz1 accompani$ by sulphurets ( iron & ars5ical pyrites1 0 introduc$4 ,ano!r convulsion !n bur/ op5 ! rocks along ! old l9e ( fracture1 & ! fir/ set ( deposits 7 crack$ & (t5 %att]$1 s t ! new r5t 0 fill$1 n only ) angul> fragm5ts ( ! adjo9+ rocks1 b ) pieces ( ! old] ve9/ones4 ,poli%$ & /riat$ surfaces on ! sides or 9 ! cont5ts ( ! ve9 also atte/ ! reality ( ^! movem5ts4 ,a new p]iod ( repose !n ensu$1 dur+ :i* v>i\s sulphurets 7 introduc$1 toge!r ) horn/one qu>tz1 by :i* angul> fragm5ts ( ! old] qu>tz be=e m5tion$ 7 cem5t$ into a breccia4 ,?is p]iod 0 foll[$ by o!r dilatations ( ! same ve9s1 & o!r sets ( m9]al deposits1 until1 at la/1 pebbles ( ! basaltic lavas ( ,auv]gne1 d]iv$ f sup]ficial alluviums1 probably ( ,mioc5e or old] ,plioc5e date1 7 swept into ! ve9s4 ,i h n space to enum]ate all ! *anges m9utely detail$ by ,m4 ,f\rnet1 b !y are valuable1 bo? to ! m9] & geologi/1 z %[+ h[ ! suppos$ signs ( viol5t cata/rophes may be ! monum5ts1 n ( "o p>oxysmal %ock1 b ( reit]at$ movem5ts4 ,su* repeat$ enl>gem5t & re-op5+ ( ve9s might h be5 anticipat$1 if we adopt ! !ory ( fissures1 & reflect h[ few ( !m h ev] be5 seal$ up entirely1 & t a c\ntry ) fissures only p>tially fill$ mu/ naturally (f] mu* feebl] resi/ance along ! old l9es ( fracture ?an any :]e else4 ,x is q o!rwise 9 ! case ( dikes1 :]e ea* op5+ has be5 ! receptacle ( "o cont9u\s & homog5e\s mass ( melt$ matt]1 ! consolidation ( :i* has tak5 place "u consid]able pressure4 ,trappean dikes c r>ely fail to /r5g!n ! rocks at ! po9ts :]e be=e !y 7 weake/2 & if ! upheav+ =ce is aga9 ex]t$ 9 ! same direction1 ! cru/ ( ! e>? w give way any:]e r ?an at ! precise po9ts :]e ! fir/ r5ts 7 produc$4 ,a l>ge proportion ( metallif]\s ve9s h _! opposite walls ne>ly p>allel1 & sometimes ov] a wide ext5t ( c\ntry4 ,!re is a f9e example ( ?is 9 ! celebrat$ ve9 ( ,&reasb]g 9 ! ,h>tz1 :i* has be5 work$ = a dep? ( #ejj y>ds p]p5dicul>ly1 & #bjj horizontally1 reta9+ almo/ e :]e a wid? ( #c feet4 ,b _m lodes 9 ,cornwall & else:]e are extremely v>iable 9 size1 be+ #a or #b in*es 9 "o "p1 & !n #h or #aj feet 9 ano!r1 at ! di/ance ( a few fa?oms1 & !n aga9 n>r[+ z be=e4 ,su* alt]nate swell+ & contraction is s (t5 *>act]i/ic z to require explanation4 ,! walls ( fissures 9 g5]al1 obs]ves ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 are r>ely p]fect planes ?r\gh\t _! entire c\rse1 nor c\ld we well expect !m to be s1 s9ce !y commonly pass ?r\gh rocks ( unequal h>dness & diff]5t m9]al composition4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! opposite sides ( su* irregul> fissures slide ^u ea* o!r1 t is to say1 if !re be a fault1 z 9 ! case ( s _m m9]al ve9s1 ! p>allelism ( ! opposite walls is at once entirely de/roy$1 z w be readily se5 by /udy+ ! annex$ diagrams4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eag4 ,s*ematic sket*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eah4 ,s*ematic sket*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eai4 ,s*ematic sket*4 ,let a b1 fig4 #eag41 be a l9e ( fracture trav]s+ a rock1 & let a b1 fig4 #eah41 repres5t ! same l9e4 ,n[1 if we cut a piece ( pap] repres5t+ ?is l9e1 & !n move ! l[] portion ( ?is cut pap] sideways f a to a'1 tak+ c>e t ! two pieces ( pap] /ill t\* ea* o!r at ! po9ts #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 we obta9 an irregul> ap]ture at c1 & isolat$ cavities at d d d1 & :5 we comp>e su* figures ) nature we f9d t1 ) c]ta9 modifications1 !y repres5t ! int]ior ( faults & m9]al ve9s4 ,if1 in/ead ( slid+ ! cut pap] to ! "r h&1 we move ! l[] "p t[>ds ! left1 ab\t ! same di/ance t x 0 previ\sly slid to ! "r1 we obta9 consid]able v>iation 9 ! cavities s produc$1 two long irregul> op5 spaces1 f f1 fig4 #eai41 be+ !n =m$4 ,?is w s]ve to %[ to :at slight circum/ances consid]able v>iations 9 ! "* ( ! op5+s betwe5 unev5ly fractur$ surfaces may be due1 su* surfaces be+ mov$ ^u ea* o!r1 s z to h num]\s po9ts ( contact4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ebj4 ,s*ematic sket*4 ,mo/ lodes are p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 or ne>ly s2 b "s ( !m h a consid]able incl9ation or hade1 z x is t]m$1 ! angles ( dip v>y+ f #ae deg4 to #de deg44 ,! c\rse ( a ve9 is frequ5tly v /raight2 b if tortu\s1 x is f\nd to be *ok$ up ) clay1 /ones1 & pebbles1 at po9ts :]e x dep>ts mo/ widely f v]ticality4 ,h5ce at places1 su* z a1 fig4 #ebj41 ! m9] compla9s t ! ores are nipp$1 or greatly r$uc$ 9 quantity1 ! space = _! free deposition hav+ be5 int]f]$ ) 9 consequ5ce ( ! pre-occupancy ( ! lode by e>?y mat]ials4 ,:5 lodes are _m fa?oms wide1 !y are usually fill$ = ! mo/ "p ) e>?y matt]1 & fragm5ts ( rock1 ?r\gh :i* ! ores are mu* dissem9at$4 ,! metallic sub/ances frequ5tly coat or encircle deta*$ pieces ( rock1 :i* our m9]s call horses or rid]s4 ,t we %\ld f9d "s m9]al ve9s :i* split into bran*es is also natural1 = we obs]ve ! same 9 reg>d to op5 fissures4 ,*emical deposits 9 ve9s4--,if we n[ turn f ! me*anical to ! *emical ag5cies :i* h be5 in/rum5tal 9 ! production ( m9]al ve9s1 x may be rem>k$ t ^? p>ts ( fissures :i* 7 n *ok$ up ) ! ru9s ( fractur$ rocks mu/ always h be5 fill$ ) wat]2 & almo/ e ve9 has probably be5 ! *annel by :i* hot spr+s1 s common 9 c\ntries ( volcanos & e>?quakes1 h made _! way to ! surface4 ,= we "k t ! r5ts 9 :i* ores ab\nd ext5d d[nw>ds to va/ dep?s1 :]e ! temp]ature ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? is m elevat$4 ,we also "k t m9]al ve9s are mo/ metallif]\s ne> ! contact ( plutonic & /ratifi$ =mations1 especially :]e ! =m] s5d ve9s into ! latt]1 a circum/ance :i* indicates an orig9al proximity ( ve9s at _! inf]ior extremity to igne\s & heat$ rocks4 ,x is moreov] ackn[l$g$ t ev5 ^? m9]al & !rmal spr+s :i*1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! globe1 are f> f volcanos1 are nev]!less obs]v$ to bur/ out along great l9es ( upheaval & dislocation ( rocks4#dif-;,a ,x is also asc]ta9$ t all ! sub/ances ) :i* hot spr+s are impregnat$ agree ) ^? dis*>g$ 9 a gase\s =m f volcanos4 ,_m ( ^! bodies occur z ve9/ones2 su* z silex1 c>bonate ( lime1 sulphur1 fluor-sp>1 sulphate ( b>ytes1 magnesia1 oxide ( iron1 & o!rs4 ,i may add t1 if ve9s h be5 fill$ ) gase\s emanations f masses ( melt$ matt]1 sl[ly cool+ 9 ! subt]ranean regions1 ! contraction ( su* masses z !y pass f a pla/ic to a solid /ate w\ld1 accord+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,deville on granite 7a rock :i* may be tak5 z a /&>d71 produce a r$uction 9 volume am\nt+ to #aj p] c5t4 ,! sl[ cry/allization1 !re=e1 ( su* plutonic rocks supplies u ) a =ce n only capable ( r5d+ op5 ! incumb5t rocks by caus+ a failure ( support1 b also ( giv+ rise to faults :5ev] "o portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ subsides sl[ly :ile ano!r contigu\s to x happ5s to re/ on a diff]5t f\ndation1 s z to rema9 unmov$4 ,al?\gh we are l$ to inf]1 f ! =ego+ reason+1 t !re has (t5 be5 an intimate connection betwe5 metallif]\s ve9s & hot spr+s hold+ m9]al matt] 9 solution1 yet we mu/ n on t acc\nt expect t ! cont5ts ( hot spr+s & m9]al ve9s w\ld be id5tical4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,m4 ,e4 de ,beaumont has judici\sly obs]v$ t we ought to f9d 9 ve9s ^? sub/ances :i*1 be+ lea/ soluble1 are n dis*>g$ by hot spr+s1--or t class ( simple & comp\nd bodies :i* ! !rmal wat]s asc5d+ f bel[ w\ld fir/ precipitate on ! walls ( a fissure1 z soon z _! temp]ature began slightly to dim9i%4 ,! high] !y m\nt t[>ds ! surface1 ! m w !y cool1 till !y acquire ! av]age temp]ature ( spr+s1 be+ 9 t case *iefly *>g$ ) ! mo/ soluble sub/ances1 su* z ! alkalis1 soda & pota%4 ,^! are n met ) 9 ve9s1 al?\gh !y ent] s l>gely into ! composition ( granitic rocks4#dif-;,b ,to a c]ta9 ext5t1 !re=e1 ! arrangem5t & di/ribution ( metallic matt] 9 ve9s may be ref]r$ to ord9>y *emical action1 or to ^? v>iations 9 temp]ature1 :i* wat]s hold+ ! ores 9 solution mu/ und]go1 z !y rise upw>ds f great dep?s 9 ! e>?4 ,b !re are o!r ph5om5a :i* d n admit ( ! same simple explanation4 ,?us1 = example1 9 ,d]by%ire1 ve9s conta9+ ores ( lead1 z9c1 & copp]1 b *iefly lead1 trav]se alt]nate b$s ( lime/one & gre5/one4 ,! ore is pl5tiful :]e ! walls ( ! r5t consi/ ( lime/one1 b is r$uc$ to a m]e /r+ :5 !y are =m$ ( gre5/one1 or toad/one1 z x is call$ prov9cially4 ,n t ! orig9al fissure is n>r[] :]e ! gre5/one occurs1 b because m ( ! space is !re fill$ ) ve9/ones1 & ! wat]s at su* po9ts h n p>t$ s freely ) _! metallic cont5ts4 ,lodes 9 ,cornwall1 says ,mr4 ,rob]t ,w4 ,fox1 are v mu* influ5c$ 9 _! metallic ri*es by ! nature ( ! rock :i* !y trav]se1 & !y (t5 *ange 9 ?is respect v sudd5ly1 9 pass+ f "o rock to ano!r4 ,?us _m lodes :i* yield abundance ( ore 9 granite1 are unproductive 9 clay-slate1 or killas1 & vice v]sa4 ,! same obs]vation applies to killas & ! granitic porphyry call$ elvan4 ,sometimes1 9 ! same cont9u\s ve91 ! granite w conta9 copp]1 & ! killas t91 or vice v]sa4#dig-;,a ,mr4 ,fox1 aft] asc]ta9+ ! exi/5ce at pres5t ( electric curr5ts 9 "s ( ! metallif]\s ve9s 9 ,cornwall1 has speculat$ on ! probability ( ! same cause hav+ act$ orig9ally on ! sulphurets & muriates ( copp]1 t91 iron1 & z9c1 dissolv$ 9 ! hot wat] ( fissures1 s z to det]m9e ! peculi> mode ( _! di/ribution4 ,aft] in/itut+ exp]im5ts on ?is subject1 he ev5 endeav\r$ to acc\nt = ! preval5ce ( an ea/ & we/ direction 9 ! pr9cipal ,corni% lodes by _! position at "r angles to ! e>?'s magnetism2 b ,mr4 ,h5wood & o!r exp]i5c$ m9]s h po9t$ out objections to ! !ory2 & x mu/ be own$ t ! direction ( ve9s 9 diff]5t m9+ di/ricts v>ies s entirely t x seems to dep5d on l9es ( fracture1 r ?an on ! laws ( voltaic electricity4 ,nev]!less1 z diff]5t k9ds ( rock w\ld be (t5 9 diff]5t electrical conditions1 we may readily believe t electricity mu/ (t5 gov]n ! arrangem5t ( metallic precipitates 9 a r5t4 ,i h obs]v$1 says ,mr4 ,r4 ,fox1 t :5 ! *loride ( t9 9 solution is plac$ 9 ! voltaic circuit1 "p ( ! t9 is deposit$ 9 a metallic /ate at ! negative pole1 & "p at ! positive "o1 9 ! /ate ( a p]oxide1 su* z x occurs 9 our ,corni% m9es4 ,?is exp]im5t may s]ve to expla9 :y t9 is f\nd contigu\s to1 & int]mix$ )1 copp] ore1 & likewise sep>at$ f x1 9 o!r p>ts ( ! same lode4#dig-;,b ,relative age ( ! diff]5t metals4--,aft] duly reflect+ on ! facts above describ$1 we _c d\bt t m9]al ve9s1 l eruptions ( granite or trap1 are ref]able to _m di/9ct p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 al?\gh x may be m difficult to det]m9e ! precise age ( ve9s2 because !y h (t5 rema9$ op5 = ages1 & because1 z we h se51 ! same fissure1 aft] hav+ be5 once fill$1 has frequ5tly be5 re-op5$ or enl>g$4 ,b besides ?is div]sity ( age1 x has be5 suppos$ by "s geologi/s t c]ta9 metals h be5 produc$ exclusively 9 e>li]1 o!rs 9 m mod]n times1--t t91 = example1 is ( high] antiquity ?an copp]1 copp] ?an lead or silv]1 & all ( !m m anci5t ?an gold4 ,i %all fir/ po9t out t ! facts once reli$ ^u 9 support ( "s ( ^! views are contradict$ by lat] exp]i5ce1 & !n consid] h[ f> any *ronological ord] ( arrangem5t c be recogniz$ 9 ! position ( ! preci\s & o!r metals 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n true t ve9s 9 :i* t9 ab\nds are ! olde/ lodes work$ 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! gov]nm5t survey ( ,irel& has demon/rat$1 t 9 ,wex=d ve9s ( copp] & lead 7! latt] z usual be+ arg5tif]\s7 are mu* old] ?an ! t9 ( ,cornwall4 ,9 ea* ( ! two c\ntries a v simil> s]ies ( geological *anges has occurr$ at two di/9ct epo*s1--9 ,wex=d1 be=e ! ,devonian /rata 7 deposit$2 9 ,cornwall1 aft] ! c>bonif]\s epo*4 ,to beg9 ) ! ,iri% m9+ di/rict3 ,we h granite 9 ,wex=d1 trav]s$ by granite ve9s1 :i* ve9s also intrude !mselves into ! ,silurian /rata1 ! same ,silurian rocks z well z ! ve9s hav+ be5 d5ud$ be=e ! ,devonian b$s 7 sup]impos$4 ,next we f9d1 9 ! same c\nty1 t elvans1 or /raight dikes ( porphyritic granite1 h cut ?r\gh ! granite & ! ve9s be=e m5tion$1 b h n p5etrat$ ! ,devonian rocks4 ,subsequ5tly to ^! elvans1 ve9s ( copp] & lead 7 produc$1 be+ ( a date c]ta9ly po/]ior to ! ,silurian1 & ant]ior to ! ,devonian2 = !y d n ent] ! latt]1 &1 :at is /ill m decisive1 /reaks or lay]s ( d]ivative copp] h be5 f\nd ne> ,wex=d 9 ! ,devonian1 n f> f po9ts :]e m9es ( copp] are work$ 9 ! ,silurian /rata4#dih-;,a ,al?\gh ! precise age ( su* copp] lodes _c be def9$1 we may safely affirm t !y 7 ei!r fill$ at ! close ( ! ,silurian or comm5cem5t ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,besides copp]1 lead1 & silv]1 !re is "s gold 9 ^! anci5t or prim>y metallif]\s ve9s4 ,a few fragm5ts also ( t9 f\nd 9 ,wickl[ 9 ! drift are suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f ve9s ( ! same age4#dih-;,b ,next1 if we turn to ,cornwall1 we f9d !re also ! monum5ts ( a v analog\s sequ5ce ( ev5ts4 ,fir/ ! granite 0 =m$2 !n1 ab\t ! same p]iod1 ve9s ( f9e-gra9$ granite1 (t5 tortu\s 7see fig4 #dif41 p4 #dde471 p5etrat+ bo? ! out] cru/ ( granite & ! adjo9+ fossilif]\s or prim>y rocks1 includ+ ! coal-measures2 ?irdly1 elvans1 hold+ _! c\rse /raight ?r\gh granite1 granitic ve9s1 & fossilif]\s slates2 f\r?ly1 ve9s ( t9 also conta9+ copp]1 ! fir/ ( ^? eight sy/ems ( fissures ( diff]5t ages already allud$ to1 p4 #dia4 ,"h1 !n1 ! t9 lodes are new] ?an ! elvans4 ,x has inde$ be5 /at$ by "s ,corni% m9]s t ! elvans are 9 "s few in/ances po/]ior to ! olde/ t9-be>+ lodes1 b ! obs]vations ( ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e dur+ ! survey l$ him to an opposite conclusion1 & he has %[n h[ ! cases ref]r$ to 9 corroboration c be o!rwise int]pret$4#dii-;,a ,we may1 !re=e1 ass]t t ! mo/ anci5t ,corni% lodes are y\ng] ?an ! coal-measures ( t "p ( ,engl&1 & x foll[s t !y are ( a mu* lat] date ?an ! ,iri% copp] & lead ( ,wex=d & "s adjo9+ c\nties4 ,h[ mu* lat] x is n s easy to decl>e1 al?\gh probably !y are n new] ?an ! beg9n+ ( ! ,p]mian p]iod1 z no t9 lodes h be5 discov]$ 9 any r$ s&/one ( ! ,poikilitic gr\p1 :i* ov]lies ! coal 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&4 ,!re are lead ve9s 9 ! ,m5dip hills :i* ext5d ?r\gh ! m\nta9 lime/one into ! ,p]mian or ,dolomitic conglom]ate1 & o!rs 9 ,glamorgan%ire :i* ent] ! lias4 ,^? work$ ne> ,frome1 9 ,som]set%ire1 h be5 trac$ into ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,9 ,bohemia1 ! ri* ve9s ( silv] ( ,joa*im/hal cut ?r\gh basalt conta9+ oliv9e1 :i* ov]lies t]ti>y lignite1 9 :i* are leaves ( dicotyl$on\s trees4 ,?is silv]1 !re=e1 is decid$ly a t]ti>y =mation4 ,9 reg>d to ! age ( ! gold ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 9 ,russia1 :i*1 l t ( ,cali=nia1 is obta9$ *iefly f aurif]\s alluvium1 we c m]ely affirm t x occurs 9 ve9s ( qu>tz 9 ! s*i/ose & granitic rocks ( t *a94 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison obs]ves1 t no gold has yet be5 f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian conglom]ates :i* lie at ! base ( ! ,ural ,m\nta9s1 al?\gh l>ge quantities ( iron & copp] detritus are mix$ ) ! roll$ pebbles ( ^! same ,p]mian /rata4 ,h5ce x seems t ! ,uralian qu>tz ve9s1 conta9+ gold & plat9um1 7 n expos$ to aque\s d5udation dur+ ! ,p]mian era4 ,b we _c feel sure1 f any data yet be=e u1 t su* aurif]\s ve9s ( qu>tz may n be z old z ! t9 lodes ( ,cornwall1 9 :i*1 z well z ! m anci5t copp] lodes ( ,irel&1 "s gold has be5 detect$4 ,we are also unable at pres5t to assign to ! gold ve9s ( ,brazil1 ,p]u1 or ,cali=nia1 _! respective geological dates4 ,b1 al?\gh en\gh is kn[n to %[ t ,ovid's l9e ab\t ! ,age ( ,gold1 ,aurea prima sata e/ aetas1 w\ld1 by no means1 be an apt motto = a treatise on m9+1 x w\ld be equally ra% 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our inquiries to affirm1 z "s h done1 t gold 0 ! la/-=m$ ( metals4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ by ,m4 de ,beaumont1 t lead & "s o!r metals are f\nd 9 dikes ( basalt & gre5/one1 z well z 9 m9]al ve9s connect$ ) trap rocks1 :]eas t9 is met ) 9 granite & 9 ve9s associat$ ) ! granitic s]ies4 ,if ?is rule hold true g5]ally1 ! geological position ( t9 9 localities accessible to ! m9]s w belong1 = ! mo/ "p1 to rocks old] ?an ^? be>+ lead4 ,! t9 ve9s w be ( high] relative antiquity = ! same reason t ! und]ly+ igne\s =mations or granites :i* are visible to man are old]1 on ! :ole1 ?an ! ov]ly+ or trappean =mations4 ,if diff]5t sets ( fissures1 orig9at+ simultane\sly at diff]5t levels 9 ! e>?'s cru/1 & communicat+1 "s ( !m1 ) volcanic1 o!rs ) heat$ plutonic masses1 be fill$ ) diff]5t metals1 x w foll[ t ^? =m$ f>!/ f ! surface w usually require ! longe/ "t be=e !y c be expos$ sup]ficially4 ,9 ord] to br+ !m into view1 or )9 rea* ( ! m9]1 a great] am\nt ( upheaval & d5udation mu/ take place 9 proportion z !y h la9 deep] :5 fir/ =m$4 ,a consid]able s]ies ( geological revolutions mu/ int]v5e be=e any "p ( ! fissure1 :i* has be5 = ages 9 ! proximity ( ! plutonic rocks1 s z to receive ! gases dis*>g$ f x :5 x 0 cool+1 c em]ge into ! atmosph]e4 ,b ,i ne$ n enl>ge on ?is subject1 z ! read] w rememb] :at 0 said 9 ! #cj?1 #cd?1 & #cg? *apt]s1 on ! *ronology ( ! volcanic & hypog5e =mations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,conclud+ ,rem>ks4--,! !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! hypog5e rocks1 at a v>iety ( successive p]iods1 z exp\nd$ 9 two ( ! *apt]s j cit$1 & /ill m ! doctr9e t su* rocks may be n[ 9 ! daily c\rse ( =mation1 has made & /ill makes its way1 b sl[ly1 into fav\r4 ,! dis9cl9ation to embrace x has aris5 p>tly f an inh]5t obscurity 9 ! v nature ( ! evid5ce ( plutonic action :5 develop$ on a great scale1 at p>ticul> p]iods4 ,x has also sprung1 9 "s degree1 f extr9sic consid]ations2 _m geologi/s hav+ be5 unwill+ to believe ! doctr9e ( ! transmutation ( fossilif]\s into cry/all9e rocks1 because !y 7 desir\s ( f9d+ pro(s ( a beg9n+1 & ( trac+ back ! hi/ory ( our t]raque\s sy/em to times ant]ior to ! creation ( organic be+s4 ,b if ^! expectations h be5 disappo9t$1 if we h f\nd x impossible to assign a limit to t "t ?r\gh\t :i* x has pleas$ an ,omnipot5t & ,et]nal ,be+ to manife/ 8 creative p[]1 we h at lea/ succe$$ beyond all hope 9 c>ry+ back our rese>*es to times antec$5t to ! exi/5ce ( man4 ,we c prove t man _h a beg9n+1 & t1 all ! species n[ contempor>y ) man1 & _m o!rs :i* prec$$1 _h also a beg9n+1 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! pres5t /ate ( ! organic _w has n gone on f all et]nity1 z "s philosoph]s h ma9ta9$4 ,x c be %[n t ! e>?'s surface has be5 remodell$ aga9 & aga92 m\nta9 *a9s h be5 rais$ or sunk2 valleys =m$1 fill$ up1 & !n re-excavat$2 sea & l& h *ang$ places2 yet ?r\gh\t all ^! revolutions1 & ! consequ5t alt]ations ( local & g5]al climate1 animal & vegetable life has be5 su/a9$4 ,?is has be5 accompli%$ )\t violation ( ! laws n[ gov]n+ ! organic creation1 by :i* limits are assign$ to ! v>iability ( species4 ,! succession ( liv+ be+s appe>s to h be5 cont9u$ n by ! transmutation ( species1 b by ! introduction into ! e>? f "t to "t ( new plants & animals1 & ea* assemblage ( new species mu/ h be5 admirably fitt$ = ! new /ates ( ! globe z !y arose1 or !y w\ld n h increas$ & multipli$ & endur$ = indef9ite p]iods4#eja-;,a ,a/ronomy _h be5 unable to e/abli% ! plurality ( habitable worlds ?r\gh\t space1 h[ev] fav\rite a subject ( conjecture & speculation2 b geology1 al?\gh x _c prove t o!r planets are peopl$ ) appropriate races ( liv+ be+s1 has demon/rat$ ! tru? ( conclusions sc>cely less wond]ful1--! exi/5ce on our own planet ( s _m habitable surfaces1 or worlds z !y h be5 call$1 ea* di/9ct 9 "t1 & peopl$ ) its peculi> races ( aquatic & t]re/rial be+s4 ,! pro(s n[ accumulat$ ( ! close analogy betwe5 ext9ct & rec5t species are su* z to leave no d\bt on ! m9d t ! same h>mony ( p>ts & beauty ( contrivance :i* we admire 9 ! liv+ creation1 has equally *>act]iz$ ! organic _w at remote p]iods4 ,?us z we increase our k ( ! inexhau/ible v>iety display$ 9 liv+ nature1 & admire ! inf9ite wisdom & p[] :i* x displays1 our admiration is multipli$ by ! reflection1 t x is only ! la/ ( a great s]ies ( pre-exi/+ creations1 ( :i* we _c e/imate ! numb] or limit 9 times pa/4#eja-;,b ,,footnotes3 #dhi-;,a ,pr9ciples1 c4 *ap4 iv4 #h? ed4 p4 #di4 #dia-;,a ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 p4 #aci42 ,trans4 ,roy4 ,geol4 ,society ,cornwall1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ij4 #dib-;,a ,c>ne1 ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ,cornwall1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bch4 #dib-;,b ,f\rnet1 ,etudes sur les ,depots ,metallif]es4 #dic-;,a ,geol4 ,rep4 on ,cornwall1 p4 #cdj4 #dic-;,b ,pr9ciples1 *4 xxvii4 #h? ed4 p4 #dbb4 #dif-;,a ,see ,dr4 ,daub5y's ,volcanos4 #dif-;,b ,bullet91 iv4 p4 #abgh4 #dig-;,a ,r4 ,w4 ,fox on ,m9]al ,ve9s1 p4 #aj4 #dig-;,b ,ibid4 p4 #ch4 #dih-;,a ,i am indebt$ to ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e = ?is in=mation4 ,see also maps & sections ( ,iri% ,survey4 #dih-;,b ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 ,,ms4 notes on ,iri% ,survey4 #dii-;,a ,report on ,geology ( ,cornwall1 p4 #caj4 #eja-;,a ,see ,pr9ciples ( ,geol41 ,book #c4 #eja-;,b ,see ! au?or's ,anniv4 ,address to ! ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahcg4 ,proce$+s ( ,g4 ,s4 ,no4 #di4 p4 #ebj4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,a,egean ,sea1 mud (1 #ce4 animal life 9 dep?s (1 #acg4 ,agassiz1 ,m41 cit$1 #aib4 #bgf4 #cjj4 #cce4 #cdd4 #cde4 on p>allel roads1 #hg4 on fossil fi%es ( molasse & faluns1 #aga4 on fossil fi% ( ,lias1 #bge4 on fossil fi% 9 ,p]mian m>l-slate1 #cjd4 on fi% f ,%eppey1 #bjb4 on foot-pr9ts1 #bii4 on fi%es ( br[n coal1 #dag4 on glaci]s1 #adj4 #adc4 ,age ( =mation det]m9$ by fragm5ts ( old] rock1 #aja4 ( metamorphic rocks1 #dhb4 te/ (1 9 plutonic rocks by relative position1 #ddi4 ( ,spani% volcanos1 #dad4 ( volcanic rocks1 h[ te/$1 #cig-djj4 ,aix-la-,*apelle1 hot spr+ at1 #dgg4 ,alaba/] def9$1 #ac4 ,alabama1 cretace\s %+le (1 #bbe4 ,alb]ti on ! ,keup]1 #bhg4 ,alex&]1 ,capt41 m>9e %ells 9 crag1 f\nd by1 #adi4 ,alluvium1 t]m expla9$1 #gi4 9 ,auv]gne1 #hj4 ( ! ,weald51 #beb4 ,alps1 nummulitic =mation (1 #bje4 curv$ /rata (1 #eh4 ,swiss & ,savoy1 cleavage (1 #dgj4 ( ,switz]l&1 #dhc4 ,alp9e blocks on ! ,jura1 #adb4 erratics1 #adj4 ,alt]$ rocks1 #cha4 #def4 by subt]ranean gases1 #dgf4 ,alt]nations ( rocks1 #ad4 ( m>9e & fre%wat] =mations1 #cb4 ,alum9e 9 rocks1 #aa4 ,amblyrhyn*us cri/atus1 #bgi4 ,am]ica1 ,nor?1 li?odomi 9 bea*es (1 #gh4 ,s\?1 cretace\s /rata1 #bbe4 ,s\?1 gradual rise ( p>ts (1 #df4 ,s\?1 fossils (1 #aeg4 ,amygdaloid1 #cgb4 ,amphi!rium1 #bfh4 ,&elys1 *alk cliffs at1 #bci4 ,&]na*1 /rata ne>1 #dag4 ,&es1 plutonic rocks (1 #dec4 rocks drift$ f to ,*iloe1 #add4 ,an?racite 9 ,rhode ,isl&1 #dgh4 ,anticl9al l9e1 #dh4 #eg4 ,antrim1 rocks alt]$ by dikes 91 #chb4 ,antw]p1 /rata l ,suffolk crag ne>1 #aff4 ,apateon p$e/ris1 a c>bonif]\s reptile1 #ccf4 ,ap5n9es1 lime/one 91 #dhb4 ,appala*ian coal-field1 #cbi4 ,appala*ians1 alt]$ rocks 91 #dgh4 ,apt]yx 9 ,new ,zeal&1 #aeh4 ,aque\s rocks def9$1 #b4 rocks1 m9]al "* (1 #ig4 deposits1 sup]position (1 #if4 ,arbroa?1 section f1 to ! ,grampians1 #dh4 ,ar*egosaurus1 figure (1 #ccg4 ,ar*iac1 ,m41 cit$1 #adc4 on fossils 9 *alk1 #bba4 on %ells 9 ,fr5* ,l[] ,eoc5e1 #aif4 ,arde*e1 lava 91 #che4 ,ar5ace\s rocks describ$1 #aa4 ,argillace\s rocks1 #aa4 s*i/1 #dfe4 ,argile pla/ique1 or ,l[] ,eoc5e1 #aif4 ,argyle%ire1 trap-ve9 9 cliff1 #cgi4 ,arran1 age ( granite 91 #dei4 section (1 #dfa4 dike ( gre5/one 91 #cgi4 ,ar?ur's ,seat1 alt]$ /rata (1 #chc4 ,a%by-de-la-,z\*1 fault 9 coal-field (1 #fi4 ,asc5sion1 lam9ation ( volcanic rocks 91 #dhj4 ,a/]ophyllites1 #cad4 ,a/i1 =mations at1 #afg4 ,a!rfield1 cretace\s /rata (1 #bai4 ,augite1 #cfi4 ,aurillac1 fre%wat] /rata (1 #ahh4 ,au/51 ,mr41 ,r4 ,a4 ,c41 on phosphate ( lime1 #bai4 ,au/ralian cave-breccias1 #aee4 ,auv]gne fre%wat] =mations1 #ahf4 succession ( *anges 91 #ahj4 lacu/r9e /rata1 #aha4 m9]al ve9s (1 #dic4 indusial lime/one1 #ahd4 ext9ct volcanos (1 #dbb4 alluvium 91 #hj4 ,ayme/ry lime/one1 #ceb4 ,b4 ,bag%ot s&s1 #aii4 ,bacill>ia1 fossil 9 tripoli1 #be4 ,baiae1 ,bay (1 /rata 91 #djc4 ,bakewell1 ,mr41 on cleavages ( ,alps1 #dgj4 ,balgray1 ne> ,glasg[1 /umps ( trees 9 coal1 #cag4 ,bahia ,blanca1 fossil rema9s at1 #adh4 ,baltic1 bracki% wat] /rata on coa/ (1 #aad4 ,b>combe1 *alk fl9ts ne>1 #bec4 ,b>ton ,cliff1 #aih4 ,b>r&e1 ,m41 on trilobites1 #ceh4 ,ba/]ot1 ,m4 de1 on t]ti>ies ( s\? ( ,france1 #aje4 ,basalt1 #cga4 column> 9 ! ,eifel1 #chg4 column>1 ne> ,vic5za1 #chf4 column>1 /ructure (1 #chd4 ,basset1 t]m expla9$1 #ef4 ,batra*ian1 eggs (1 9 ,old ,r$1 ,scotl&1 ,po/script1 x4 ,bayfield1 ,capt41 on fossil %ells 9 ,canada1 #acd4 on inl& cliffs 9 ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 #gh4 ,bean1 ,mr41 %ells simil> to ^? 9 ,norwi* crag f\nd 9 ,york%ire by1 #adi4 ,bean1 ,mr41 on fossil %ells f oolite1 #bgb4 ,bea*y ,head1 *alk cliffs ne>1 #bdf4 ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,e4 de1 on rocks ( ,hautes ,alpes1 #dee4 on lam9ation ( volcanic rocks1 #dhj4 ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,e4 de1 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 on qu>tz1 #dci4 on oolite =mation 9 ,france1 #bba4 ,beck1 ,dr41 on kelp1 #bag4 on graptolites1 #ceg4 cit$1 #afb4 #ahf4 ,belemnite 9 ,ox=d clay1 #bfb4 ,b]g]1 ,dr41 on rocks alt]$ by dikes1 #chb4 ,b]gmann on trap1 #cff4 ,b]l91 t]ti>y /rata ne>1 #agg4 ,b]muda ,isl&s1 lagoons 91 #baf4 rocks (1 #gh4 ,b]nese ,alps1 gneiss 91 #dhd4 ,b]?i]1 on augite & hornbl5de1 #cfi4 ,beudant1 ,m41 on ,hung>y1 #dba4 ,beyri*1 ,pr(41 on t]ti>y /rata ne> ,b]l91 #agg4 ,bi>itz1 calc>e\s cliffs (1 #gb4 ,bil91 tripoli1 compos$ ( infusoria1 #be4 ,b9ney1 ,mr41 on /igm>ia & sigill>ia1 #cae4 ,birds1 footpr9ts (1 #bih4 fossil1 sc>city (1 ,po/script1 xix4 ,bis*(f1 ,pr(41 exp]im5ts on heat1 #dgf4 on /eam at a high temp]ature1 #dgg4 ,bla9ville1 on numb] ( g5]a ( mollusca1 #bh4 ,boase1 ,dr41 cit$1 #dgi4 ,boblaye1 ,m41 on inl& cliffs1 #gc4 cit$1 #dca4 ,bog-iron ore1 #bf4 ,borr[dale1 black-lead (1 #ch4 ,bordeaux1 t]ti>y deposits (1 #aga4 ,bosquet1 ,m41 on ,mae/ri*t b$s1 #baj4 ,bo?nia1 ,gulf (1 l& upheav$1 #de4 ,b\e1 ,m41 on arrangem5t ( rocks1 #ie4 on fossil %ells 9 ,hung>y1 #dba4 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 ,bonelli1 on /rata 9 ,italy1 #ajf4 ,b\ld] =mation 9 ,canada1 #acc4 p]iod1 fauna (1 #abf4 =mation1 m9]al +r$i5ts (1 #abf4 =mation 9 ,engl&1 #acj4 ,b\ld]s1 #abc4 /riat$1 #acf4 ,b\tigny1 ,m41 cit$1 #dda4 ,b[51 ,lieut4 ,a41 ,r4,n41 draw+s ( rocks 9 ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 #gh4 ,b[]bank1 ,mr41 on fossil flora ( ,%eppey1 #bjj4 ,b[man1 ,mr41 on coal-seams1 #ccj4 ,brackle%am ,bay1 *>act]i/ic %ells (1 #aii4 ,bra%1 t]m1 expla9$1 #ha4 ,brav>d1 ,m41 on ,auv]gne mammalia1 #ahh4 #dbe4 ,breccia on anci5t coa/ l9es1 #gc4 ,brick5d51 ,capta91 on ,elg9 fossils1 ,po/script1 ix4 ,brighton1 elephant b$ (1 #bef4 ,bri/ol1 dolomitic conglom]ate ne>1 #cje4 section ( /rata ne>1 #ajb4 ,broc*i1 on ,subap5n9es1 #aje4 #afg4 ,brock$on1 ,mr41 on black-lead1 #ch4 ,brod]ip1 ,mr41 cit$1 #bgj4 ,brodie1 ,rev4 ,p4,b41 on fossil insects1 #bha4 cit$1 #bjg4 ,bromley1 oy/]-b$ ne>1 #bjd4 ,brongni>t1 ,m4 ,adolphe1 on ,eoc5e flora1 #bjj4 on flora ( cretace\s p]iod1 #bbc4 on fossil plants 9 lias1 #bhb4 on plants ( ,bunt] s&/e91 #bhh4 on fossil fir-cones1 #cac4 on ,p]mian flora1 #cjg4 on sigill>ia1 #cad4 on a/]ophyllites1 #cad4 on /igm>ia1 #cae4 age ( acrog5s1 #caf4 on endog5s1 #caf4 ,brongni>t1 ,m4 ,alex41 on ,p>is t]ti>ies1 #ajd4 on ,eoc5e =mation1 #age4 on %ells ( nummulitic =mation1 #bje4 on coal m9e ne> ,lyons1 #cai4 ,brora1 coal =mation1 #bgb4 ,brora1 granite ne>1 #deh4 ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,ri*>d1 on /igm>iae1 #cae4 on coal =mation1 #dae4 on ,cape ,breton coal-field1 #cbd4 #ccd4 on c>bonif]\s ra9-pr9ts1 ,po/script1 xii4 ,buckl&1 ,dr41 on cave at ,kirkdale1 #aed4 on coal plants1 #cag4 on coprolites 9 *alk1 #baf4 on fi% ( ,lias1 #bgf4 on footpr9ts1 #bia4 on m\nta9s ( ,ca]n>von%ire1 #acj4 on oy/] b$ ne> ,bromley1 #bjd4 on p>allel roads1 #hg4 on t]m ,poikilitic1 #bhf4 on saurians ( ,lias1 #bgh4 on sudd5 de/ruction ( saurians1 #bhj4 cit$1 #aee4 #bca4 #bcc4 #bfg4 #bfh4 ,buddle1 ,mr41 on creeps 9 coal m9es1 #ej4 on anci5t riv]-*annels ( coal p]iod1 #ccd4 ,bui/1 ,dr4 ,g41 on saltness ( ,r$ ,sea1 #bif4 ,bunbury1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,f41 on plants ( coal-field1 #bhe4 ,bunt] s&/e91 #bhh4 ,burmei/] on trilobites1 #ceh4 ,burnes1 ,sir ,a41 cit$1 #bie4 ,c4 ,ca]n>von%ire1 anci5t glaci]s (1 #acj4 ,calamites1 figures (1 #cac4 ne> ,pict\1 #cai4 ,calcaire grossi]1 #aic4 siliceux1 #aie4 ,calc>e\s rocks1 #ab4 rocks ( ,gulf ( ,spezia1 #dhb4 cliffs ( ,bi>itz1 #gb4 ,caldcleugh1 ,mr41 cit$1 #cii4 ,cald]a ( ,palma1 #cib4 ,cambrian gr\p1 #cfa4 volcanic rocks1 #dce4 ,campagna di ,roma1 tuffs (1 #djh4 ,canada1 %ells 9 drift (1 #acd4 ,cantal1 fre%wat] =mation (1 #ahh4 igne\s rocks (1 #dbi4 fre%wat] b$s (1 #dbi4 ,cape ,breton1 coal measures (1 #cbd4 ,wra?1 granite ve9s 91 #ddd4 ,c>adoc s&/one1 #cef4 ,c>bonace\s %ale1 #bga4 ,c>bonate ( lime sc>ce 9 metamorphic rocks1 #dhg4 ,c>bonate ( lime 9 rocks1 h[ te/$1 #ab4 ,c>bonif]\s gr\p1 #cjh4 flora1 #caj4 p]iod1 plutonic rocks (1 #def4 p]iod1 volcanic rocks (1 #dcb4 reptiles1 #cce4 ,c>ne1 ,mr41 on ,corni% lodes1 #dia4 #dib4 ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,c>yophyllia caespitosa1 b$ (1 9 ,sicily1 #aea4 ,ca/rogiovanni1 b5t /rata ne>1 #eh4 ,catalonia1 volcanic region (1 #djh4 ,cautley1 ,capta91 on ,sewalik hills1 #agc4 ,caves 9 ,europe1 #aee4 at ,kirkdale1 #aed4 9 ,sicily1 #aec4 9 ,au/ralia1 #aef4 ,c5tral ,france1 ,upp] ,eoc5e (1 #agh4 ,cetacea1 fossil1 r>ity (1 ,po/script1 xxi4 ,*alk1 p9nacle (1 ne> ,%]r+ham1 #abi4 ( ,faxoe1 #baj4 & ,po/script1 xv4 :ite1 fossils (1 #bf4 :ite1 section (1 #baa4 :ite1 ext5t & orig9 (1 #bae4 :ite1 animal orig9 (1 #baf4 pebbles 91 #bag4 diff]5ce (1 9 nor? & s\? ( ,europe1 #bba4 ,*alk cliffs1 inl&1 on ,se9e1 #bch4 ne$les (1 9 ,norm&y1 #bda4 fl9ts1 b$ (1 ne> ,b>combe1 #bec4 ,*amb]s1 ,mr41 cit$1 #hh4 ,*amisso1 cit$1 #bag4 ,*>a1 9 fre%wat] /rata1 #ca4 9 fl9ts ( ,cantal1 #ahi4 9 ,eoc5e /rata ( ,france1 #agf4 9 ,purbeck b$s1 #bcb4 ,*>leswor?1 ,mr4 ,e41 cit$1 on ,crag1 #afb4 ,*>p5ti]1 ,m41 on ,alp9e glaci]s1 #adj4 on ,swiss glaci]s1 #adc4 ,*eiro!rium1 footpr9ts (1 #bij4 #ccg4 ,*emical & me*anical deposits1 #cc4 ,*ili1 e>?quake 91 #fa4 gold m9es 91 #dgb4 ,*iloe1 rocks drift$ f ,&es to1 #add4 ,*lorite s*i/1 #dfe4 ,*ri/iania1 dike ne>1 #chj4 trap rocks1 passage ( granite into1 at1 #dda4 granite ne>1 #deg4 gneiss ne>1 #ddf4 intrusion ( granite into b$s ne>1 #ddf4 ,*ronological gr\ps1 #aja4 ,c9d]-b$1 ,purbeck1 #bca4 ,claiborne1 m>9e %ells (1 #bjf4 ,claus51 ,mr41 cit$1 #aeh4 ,clay1 def9$1 #aa4 ,clay-slate1 #dfe4 #dfh4 ,clay-iron/one1 #cbf4 ,clays1 pla/ic1 #bjc4 ,cleavage ( rocks1 #dfh4 ,climate ( drift p]iod1 #aci4 ( coal p]iod1 #cce4 ,coal1 zigzag flexures (1 ne> ,mons gr\p1 #cjh4 measures1 #cjh4 #cji4 h[ =m$1 #cag4 pipes1 dang] (1 #cah4 m9e1 ne> ,lyons1 #cai4 seam at ,br[nsville1 ,p5nsylvania1 view (1 #ccb4 conv]sion ( into lignite1 #ccc4 =mation at ,brora1 #bgb4 seams1 cont9uity (1 #ccd4 p]iod1 climate (1 #cce4 /rata1 footpr9ts ( reptiles 91 #ccg4 ,coal-field at ,burdieh\se1 #cbe4 ( ,a%by-de-la-,z\*1 #fi4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 diagram (1 #cbg4 ( ,york%ire1 fossils (1 #cbe4 ,coalbrook ,dale1 beetles 9 coal (1 #cce4 fossil cones 91 #cac4 coal measures (1 #cbd4 faults 91 #fb4 ,cockfield ,fell1 rocks alt]$ by dikes1 #chc4 ,columbia1 v9eg> riv] (1 #aia4 ,col*e/]1 ,mr41 on mammalian rema9s at ,kyson1 #bjc4 ,come1 rav9e 9 lava (1 #dbg4 ,cones 9 ,val di ,noto1 #chi4 & crat]s1 abs5ce (1 9 ,engl&1 #f4 & crat]s1 #cfg4 ,conif]s1 fossil trees1 #caf4 ,concretion>y /ructure1 #cg4 ,conglom]ate1 or pudd+-/one1 #aa4 dolomitic1 #cje4 v]tical 9 ,scotl&1 c41 #dg4 ,connecticut1 valley ( !1 #big4 b$s1 antiquity (1 #cjj4 ,conrad1 ,mr41 on cretace\s rocks1 #bbd4 ,conybe>e1 ,mr41 cit$1 #fd4 #fi4 #bdd4 #bgd4 on ,plesiosaurus1 #bgh4 on oolite & lias1 #bhc4 on t]m ,poikilitic1 #bhf4 on crocodiles1 #bja4 ,cook1 ,capt41 on ,fucus giganteus1 #bag4 ,coprolites 9 *alk1 #baf4 ,corall9e crag1 fossils 91 #afd4 ,coral isl&s & reefs1 #cd4 #df4 rag ( ,oolite1 #bfj4 ,corals1 figures (1 9 crag1 #afe4 ( ,devonian sy/em1 #cdf4 ( ,devonian /rata 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cdi4 9 ,w5lock =mation1 #cee4 ,cor9?1 corrosion ( rocks by gases ne>1 #dgg4 ,cornbra%1 #bfc4 ,cornwall1 granite ve9s 91 #dde4 #dgd4 m9]al ve9s 91 #dij4 #did4 t9 (1 new] ?an ,iri% copp]1 #dii4 ,cotta1 ,dr4 ,b41 on granite 9 ,saxony1 #dei4 ,crag corall9e1 fossils 91 #afd4 comp>ison ( faluns &1 #agj4 ( ,suffolk1 r$ & corall9e1 #aje4 #afb4 fluvio-m>9e1 ,norwi*1 #adh4 ,craiglei? fossil trees1 #dj4 qu>ry1 slant+ tree 91 #cbj4 ,crat] ( ,isl& ( ,/4 ,paul1 #cie4 ,crav5 fault1 #fd4 ,creeps 9 coal-m9es describ$1 #eb4 ,cr$n]ia 9 ,quad]s&/e91 ,po/script1 xvi4 ,cretace\s rocks ( ,pyr5ees1 #dee4 gr\p1 #bji4 #bai4 & ,po/script1 xvi4 /rata 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,india1 #bbe4 p]iod1 plutonic rocks (1 #dee4 volcanic rocks1 #dca4 rocks 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bbd4 ,crocodiles ne> ,cuba1 #bgi4 ,croizet1 ,m41 on ,auv]gne fossil mammalia1 #ahh4 ,crom]1 contort$ drift ne>1 #abi4 ,crop out1 t]m expla9$1 #ee4 ,cru/ ( e>? def9$1 #b4 ,cry/all9e lime/one1 #cjb4 rocks1 errone\sly t]m$ primitive1 #i4 s*i/s def9$1 #g4 ,curv$ /rata1 #dg4 /rata1 exp]im5ts to illu/rate1 #di4 ,cut*1 ,runn (1 #bie4 ,cuvi]1 ,m41 on ,eoc5e =mation1 #age4 on ,amphi!rium1 #bfh4 cit$1 #aib4 on t]ti>y /rata ne> ,p>is1 #ajd4 on fossils ( ,montm>tre1 #aia4 ,cyclopian ,isl&s1 #dja4 ,cypris 9 ,lias1 #bha4 9 ,weald51 #bbh4 9 m>l ( ,auv]gne1 #ahc4 ,cy/ideae 9 ,silurian rocks1 #ceh4 ,d4 ,dana1 ,mr41 on coprolites ( birds1 #bii4 on coral reef 9 ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #baf4 on volcanos ( ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 #cid4 #djf4 #dbc4 ,d>tmoor1 granite (1 #def4 ,d>w91 ,mr41 cit$1 #bag4 on b\ld]s & glaci]s 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #add4 on cleavage 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #dga4 on coral isl&s ( ,pacific1 #baf4 on dike 9 ,/4 ,hel5a1 #djf4 on habits ( o/ri*1 #bii4 & ,po/script1 xx4 on fossils 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #adh4 on ,fucus giganteus1 #bag4 on gradual rise ( "p ( ,s4 ,am]ica1 #df4 on lam9ation ( volcanic rocks1 #dhj4 on p>allel roads1 #hg4 on plutonic rocks ( ,&es1 #dec4 on rec5t /rata ne> ,lima1 #aae4 on saurians 9 ,galapagos ,isl&s1 #bgi4 on s9k+ ( coral reefs1 #df4 on ,wel% glaci]s1 #aca4 ,daub5y1 ,dr41 on ! ,solfat>a1 #dgg4 ,daub5y1 ,dr41 on volcanos 9 ,auv]gne1 #dbh4 ,dax1 inl& cliff at1 #gb4 ,deane1 ,dr41 on footpr9ts1 #bih4 ,dean1 =e/ (1 coal 91 #ccd4 ,de*51 ,pr(4 von1 on reptiles 9 ,sa>brueck coal-field1 #ccf4 ,de ,kon9ck1 cit$1 #agf4 #agh4 ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h41 cit$1 #bca4 #bcc4 #bha4 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 on clay b$s1 #bhc4 on clay-iron/one1 #cbf4 on coal-measures ne> ,swansea1 #cji4 on fossil trees1 ,s4 ,wales1 #cah4 on granite ( ,d>tmoor1 #dgd4 on m9]al ve9s1 #dic4 #die4 #dih4 on t]m supracretace\s1 #ajc4 on trap ( ,new ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod1 #dcb4 ,deluge1 #d4 ,d5udation expla9$1 #ff4 ( ! ,weald ,valley1 #bdb4 t]races (1 9 ,sicily1 #ge4 ,d]by%ire1 lead ve9s (1 #dig4 ,de%ayes1 ,m41 id5tification ( %ells1 #agf4 on fossil %ells 9 ,hung>y1 #dba4 on ,l[] ,eoc5e %ells1 #aif4 on t]ti>y classification1 #aaj4 ,desm>e/1 cit$1 #ahc4 on trappean rocks1 #ia4 ,desnoy]s1 ,m41 on ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 #ajf4 ,desor1 ,m41 on glacial fauna 9 ,n4 ,am]ica1 #acc4 ,devonian flora1 #cdi4 /rata 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cdi4 sy/em1 t]m expla9$1 #cdf4 ,diagonal1 or cross /ratification1 #af4 ,dicotyl$on\s leaves 9 *alk1 ,po/script1 xvi4 ,dike 9 ,/4 ,hel5a1 #djf4 ,dikes at ,palagonia 9 ,sicily1 #djg4 trappean1 cry/all9e 9 c5tre1 #chj4 def9$1 #f4 9 ,scotl&1 #cgh4 ( ,somma1 #djd4 ,diluvium1 popul> explanation ( t]m1 #acb4 ,dip1 t]m expla9$1 #ec4 ,dol]ite1 or gre5/one1 #cgb4 ,dolomite def9$1 #ac4 ,dolomitic conglom]ate1 #cje4 ,d\e1 ,m4 ,b4 de1 on volcanos ( ,velay1 #dbh4 ,drift contort$1 ne> ,crom]1 #abi4 9 ,irel&1 #aca4 9 ,norfolk1 #abf4 meteorites 91 #ade4 nor!rn1 9 ,scotl&1 #abe4 nor!rn1 9 ,nor? ,wales1 #acj4 ( ,sc&9avia1 ,nor? ,g]many1 & ,russia1 #aba4 p]iod1 climate (1 #aci4 p]iod1 subsid5ce 91 #ace4 %ells 9 ,canada1 #acd4 ,dudley lime/one1 #ced4 %ales ( coal ne>1 #dgd4 ,dufr5oy1 ,m41 on granite ( ,pyr5ees1 #dge4 ,duff1 ,mr4 ,p41 on reptile ( ,old ,r$1 ,po/script1 ix4 on hill ( ,g]govia1 #dcj4 ,dunk]1 ,dr41 on ,weald5 ( ,hanov]1 #bcg4 ,e4 ,e*9od]ms ( corall9e crag1 #aff4 ,e*9us1 figure (1 #bc4 ,eg]ton1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ,s\!rn ,india1 #bbe4 ,eg]ton1 ,sir ,p41 on fi% ( m>l slate1 #cjd4 on fossil fi% ( ,connecticut b$s1 #cjj4 on fossils ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 on saurians & fi% 9 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 #bhi4 on ,i*?yosaurus1 #bgf4 ,eggs1 fossil1 ( snake1 #abj4 ,ehr5b]g1 ,pr(41 on bog-iron ore1 #bf4 on infusoria1 #bd4 ,elephant b$1 ,brighton1 #bef4 ,elephas primig5ius1 jaw figur$1 #aei4 ,elvans ( ,irel& & ,cornwall1 #dih4 t]m expla9$1 #deg4 ,encr9ites1 figure (1 #bfd4 ,endog5s1 #caf4 ,eoc5e1 =am9if]a1 #aid4 =mations1 #agd4 =mations 9 ,engl&1 #aig4 granite1 #dea4 l[]1 9 ,france1 #agf-aia4 middle1 9 ,france1 #aia4 /rata1 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bjf4 upp]1 ne> ,l\va91 #agg4 t]m def9$1 #aaa4 upp]1 ( ,c5tral ,france1 #agh4 volcanic rocks1 #dbi4 ,equisetaceae1 #cac4 ,equisetum ( ,virg9ian oolite1 #bhd4 ,equisetum giganteum1 #cad4 ,erman on meteoric iron 9 ,russia1 #ade4 ,erratics1 ,alp9e1 #adj4 nor!rn orig9 (1 #abc4 ,es*]1 ,m41 on b\ld]s ( ,jura1 #adc4 ,etna1 deposits (1 #dja4 ,eurite1 #ddj4 ,euritic porphyry describ$1 #ddg4 ,exog5s1 #caf4 ,f4 ,faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 #ajf4 #afh4 ,faluns1 comp>ison (1 & crag1 #agj4 ,falcon]1 ,dr41 on ,sewalik ,hills1 #agc4 ,falkl& ,isl&s1 #hh4 ,f>nham1 phosphate ( lime ne>1 #bai4 ,fault1 t]m expla9$1 #fb4 ,faults1 orig9 (1 #fd4 ,faxoe1 *alk (1 #baj4 & ,po/script1 xv4 ,felix/[1 rema9s ( cetacea f\nd ne>1 #aff4 ,felsp>1 #cfi4 ,f]ns 9 coal-measures1 #caj4 ,fife1 alt]$ rock 91 #chc4 ,fife%ire1 trap dike 91 #dcd4 ,megali*?ys f\nd 9 ,cannel coal 91 #ccf4 ,fi%es1 fossil1 ( ,upp] ,cretace\s1 #bad4 ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #cdc4 ( ,weald51 #bbi4 fossil1 ( br[n coal1 #daf4 ,fissures fill$ ) metallic matt]1 #dij4 ,see m9]al ve9s4 ,fitton1 ,dr41 on division ( l[] cretace\s =mation1 #bai4 cit$1 #bbg4 #bca4 #bcc4 #bcg4 #bdd4 #bdg4 ,flem+1 ,dr41 on scales ( fi% 9 ,old ,r$1 #cdc4 on trap-rocks 9 coal-field ( ,=?1 #dcb4 on trap dike 9 ,fife%ire1 #dcd4 ,flora1 c>bonif]\s1 #caj4 cretace\s1 #bbc4 ,devonian1 #cdi4 ( ,london ,clay1 #bjj4 p]mian1 #cje4 #cjg4 ,floetz1 t]m expla9$1 #ia4 ,flys*1 explanation ( t]m1 #bjf4 ,footpr9ts ( birds1 #big4 & ,po/script1 xx4 ( reptilians1 #ccg4 fossil1 #bhi4 #bij4 #bia4 #big4 ,=am9if]a 9 *alk1 #bf4 ,eoc5e1 #aid4 ,=bes1 ,pr(4 ,e41 on ,c>adoc s&/one1 #cei4 on ,cy/ideae1 #ceh4 on %ells 9 crag deposits1 #afb4 on cretace\s fossil %ells1 #bbd4 on fossils ( ! faluns1 #afi4 on fossils 9 drift 9 ,s\? ,irel&1 #aca4 on deep-sea orig9 ( ,silurian /rata1 #cfj4 on e*9od]ms ( corall9e crag1 #aff4 on fauna ( b\ld] p]iod1 #abe4 on migrations ( mollusca 9 glacial p]iod1 #aff4 on fossils ( ,purbeck gr\p1 #bca4 #bcc4 on /rata at ,a!rfield1 #bai4 on *anges ( ,weald5 te/acea1 #bce4 on volcanic rocks ( ,oolite p]iod1 #dcb4 on dep? ( animal life 9 ,a,egean1 #ce4 #acg4 cit$1 #bbe4 ,=bes1 ,pr(4 ,james1 on zones 9 volcanic rocks1 #dhj4 on ! ,alps1 #adc4 ,=*hamm]1 on scrat*$ lime/one1 #abb4 ,=e/1 fossil1 9 ,norfolk1 #abg4 #acj4 ,=f>%ire1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 91 #dgi4 ,=mation1 t]m def9$1 #c4 ,fossil1 t]m def9$1 #d4 ,fossils ( *alk & gre5s&1 figures (1 #bab4 9 *alk at ,faxoe1 #baj4 ( corall9e crag1 #afd4 ( ,devonian sy/em1 #cdf4 & ,po/script1 x4 xi4 ( ,eoc5e /rata 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bjg4 9 faluns ( ,t\ra9e1 #afi4 fre%wat] & m>9e1 #bg4 ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 ( ,lias1 #bgd4 ( ,ludl[ =mation1 #ceb4 ( m\nta9 lime/one1 #cdj4 ( ,london ,clay1 #bjj4 ( ,mae/ri*t b$s1 #bji4 ( ,l[] ,gre5s&1 #bbj4 ( ,new ,r$ ,s&/one1 #bhg4 & ,po/script1 xiii4 ( ,oolite1 #bei4 #bff4 ( ,r$ ,crag1 #afd4 ( ,silurian rocks1 #cec4 & ,po/script1 vii4 ( ,sol5h(51 #bfj4 ( ,upp] ,gre5s&1 #bah4 ( ,weald51 #bcf4 te/ ( ! age ( =mations1 #ih4 ,fossil fi% ( ,p]mian lime/one1 #cjc4 ( ,connecticut b$s1 #cjj4 ( ,ri*mond1 ,u4 ,s41 /rata1 #bhe4 ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #cdc4 scales ( ,p]mian1 figur$1 #cje4 foot/eps1 #bhi4 #bij4 #bia4 f]ns 9 c>bonace\s %ale1 #bga4 =e/ 9 ,nova ,scotia1 #cba4 =e/ ne> ,wolv]hampton1 #cai4 =e/ 9 ,isle ( ,portl&1 #bcc4 plants 9 ,weald51 #bcj4 plants ( ,lias1 #bhb4 plants ( ,bunt] s&/e91 #bhh4 trees erect1 #cag4 wood1 petrifaction (1 #ci4 wood p]=at$ by ,t]$9a1 #bd4 rema9s 9 caves1 #aed4 %ells f ,etna1 #dja4 %ells ne> ,grignon1 #aic4 %ells ( ,may5ce /rata1 #agh4 %ells 9 ,virg9ia1 #agb4 ,fossilif]\s /rata1 tabul> view (1 #cfa4 ,f\rnet1 ,m41 on m9]al ve9s ( ,auv]gne1 #dic4 on dis9tegration ( rocks1 #dgf4 on qu>tz1 #dci4 ,fox1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,w41 #dgb4 on ,corni% lodes1 #dig4 ,fox1 ,rev4 ,mr41 on ext9ct quadrup$s ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 ,fre%wat] b$s ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aig4 deposits 9 valley ( ,?ames1 #adf4 l& %ells num]\s 91 #bg4 ,fre%wat] =mations ( ,auv]gne1 #ahf4 ,fre%wat] =mation1 h[ di/+ui%$ f m>9e1 #bg4 #bh4 #cj4 rema9s ( fi% 91 #cb4 associat$ ) ,norfolk drift1 #abg4 ,*>a 91 #ca4 ,cypris 91 #ca4 ,fre%wat] %ells 9 br[n coal ne> ,bonn1 #dag4 ,fucus giganteus1 #bag4 vesiculosus1 gr[? (1 9 ,jutl&1 #bag4 vesiculosus 9 ,lym-,fiord1 #cc4 ,fundy1 ,bay (1 impressions 9 r$ mud (1 #big4 ,g4 ,gaillonella fossil 9 ,tripoli1 #be4 f]rug9ea 9 bog-iron ore1 #bf4 ,galapagos ,isl&s1 animals (1 #bgi4 ,g>nets 9 alt]$ rock1 #chb4 ,gases1 subt]ranean rocks alt]$ by1 #dgf4 ,gault1 #bah4 ,gav>nie1 flexures ( /rata1 #ei4 ,geology def9$1 #a4 ,g]govia1 hill (1 #dcj4 ,giant's ,causeway1 columns at1 #chd4 ,gibbes1 ,r4 ,w41 cit$1 #bjg4 ,glacial ph5om5a1 nor!rn1 orig9 (1 #acb4 ,glaci]s1 ,alp9e1 #adj4 ,glaci]s on ,ca]n>von%ire m\nta9s1 #acj4 ,glasg[1 m>9e /rata ne>1 #adh4 ,gl5 ,roy1 p>allel roads (1 #hf4 ,gl5 ,tilt1 granite (1 #ddb4 ,gneiss1 alt]$ by granite1 #dde4 9 ,b]nese ,alps1 #dhd4 at ,cape ,wra?1 #ddd4 ne> ,*ri/iania1 #ddf4 describ$1 #dfd4 ,gold1 age (1 9 ,irel&1 #dih4 age (1 9 ,ural ,m\nta9s1 #dii4 ,goldfuss1 ,pr(41 on reptiles 9 coal-field1 #ccf4 ,goepp]t1 ,pr(41 on b$s ( coal1 #caf4 on petrifaction1 #dj4 ,graham's ,isl&1 #chi4 #djg4 ,grampians1 old r$ conglom]ates 91 #dg4 ,granite describ$1 #g4 #dcf4 #dch4 #ddd4 passage ( into trap1 #dda4 porphyritic1 #dci4 & lime/one1 junction ( 9 ,gl5 ,tilt1 #ddb4 sy5itic1 #ddj4 talcose1 #ddj4 s*orly1 #ddj4 ( ,cornwall & ,d>tmoor1 #dgd4 ( ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 rocks 9 connection ) m9]al ve9s1 #ejj4 ( ,saxony1 #dei4 ,granites1 olde/1 #deh4 v>ieties (1 #ddd4 ve9s 9 ,cornwall1 #dde4 ve9s 9 ,cape ,wra?1 #ddd4 ve9s 9 ,table ,m\nta91 #ddc4 ve9 9 ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 #dej4 ( ,arran1 age (1 #dei4 ne> ,*ri/iania1 #deg4 dikes 9 ,m\nt ,battock1 #ddc4 ,graphite1 p[d] (1 consolidat$ by pressure1 #ch4 ,graptolites1 #ceg4 ,gratel\p1 ,m41 on fossils 9 *alk1 #bbc4 ,grauwacke1 t]m expla9$1 #cej4 ,gre5l&1 s9k+ ( coa/1 #df4 ,gre5s&1 upp]1 #bah4 fossils (1 #bab4 ,gre5sburg1 ,p5nsylvania1 footpr9ts ( reptile 9 coal /rata at1 #ccg4 ,gre5/one or ,dol]ite1 #cgb4 dike (1 9 ,arran1 #cgi4 ,gres de ,beau*amp1 ,p>is ,bas91 #aic4 ,grignon1 fossil %ells ne>1 #aic4 ,grit def9$1 #aa4 ,guadal\pe1 human skeleton (1 #aae4 ,guidoni on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,gutbi]1 ,col4 von1 on ,p]mian flora1 #cje4 #cjg4 ,gryphaea1 fossil figure (1 #bb4 ,gypse\s m>ls1 #ahf4 s]ies1 #aia4 ,gypsum def9$1 #ac4 ,h4 ,hall1 ,sir ,jas41 exp]im5ts on fus$ m9]als1 #djf4 on curv$ /rata1 #dh4 ,capt4 ,b41 cit$1 #cgh4 #dja4 #ddc4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w41 on eruption ( ,vesuvius1 #dje4 ,h>ris1 ,major1 on salt lake 9 ,e?iopia1 #bif4 ,h>tz1 ,bunt] s&/e9 (1 #bhh4 ,ha/+s1 ,lady1 fossils collect$ by1 #aih4 ,ha/+s s&1 #bbi4 b$1 %ells (1 #bbi4 ,hautes ,alpes1 rocks (1 #dee4 ,hauey cit$1 #cfi4 ,hawk%aw1 ,mr41 on fossil trees 9 coal1 #cag4 ,hayes1 ,t4 ,l41 on iceb]gs1 #abc4 ,heb]t1 ,m41 cit$ on ,upp] ,eoc5e b$s1 #agf4 ,hebrides1 dikes ( trap 91 #cgi4 ,heidelb]g1 v>ieties ( granite ne>1 #ddd4 ,h5frey1 ,mr4 ,a41 on food ( ,ma/odon1 #ach4 ,h5sl[1 ,pr(41 on fossil cetacea 9 ,suffolk1 #aff4 on fossil =e/s1 #bcc4 on dike & alt]$ rock ne> ,plas ,newydd1 #cha4 ,h5ry1 ,mr41 cit$1 #dgf4 ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,j41 on slaty cleavage1 #dgb4 ,h]t=d%ire pudd+-/one1 #ce4 ,hibb]t1 ,dr41 on volcanic rocks1 #dbh4 on coal field at ,burdieh\se1 #cbe4 cit$1 #dai4 ,high ,teesdale1 g>nets 9 alt]$ rock at1 #chb4 ,hildburghaus51 footpr9ts ( reptile at1 #bhi4 #bij4 ,hippurite lime/one1 #bba4 ,hit*cock1 ,pr(41 on footpr9ts1 #big4 ,h(fmann1 ,mr41 on ,lip>i ,isl&s1 cit$1 #dgf4 on cave ne> ,pal]mo1 #gd4 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,hooghly riv]1 analysis ( wat]1 #da4 ,hopk9s1 ,mr41 on fractures 9 ,weald1 #bea4 ,horizontality ( /rata1 #ae4 ( roads ( ,lo*ab]1 #hh4 ,hornbl5de1 #cfi4 s*i/1 #dfd4 #dgh4 ,horn]1 ,mr41 on geology ( ,eifel1 #dae4 on ,megali*?ys1 #ccf4 ,hubb>d1 ,pr(41 on granite ve9 9 ,:ite ,m\nta9s1 #dej4 ,hugi1 ,m41 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 ,humboldt1 cit$1 #cad4 on uni=m "* ( rocks1 #dhf4 ,hung>y1 tra*yte (1 #ddb4 volcanic rocks (1 #dba4 ,hunt1 ,mr41 exp]im5ts on clay-iron/one1 #cbf4 ,hutton1 op9ions (1 #fj4 ,huttonian !ory1 #ib4 ,hypog5e1 t]m def9$1 #i4 rocks1 m9]al "* (1 #dhe4 or metamorphic lime/one1 #dfe4 ,i4 ,ibbetson1 ,capt41 on *alk ,isle ( ,wight1 #bae4 ,ice1 rocks drift$ by1 #abb4 ,iceb]gs1 /r&+ (1 #abi4 #acg4 ,icel&1 iceb]gs drift$ to1 #acg4 ,i*?yolites ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #cdi4 ,i*?yosaurus communis1 figure (1 #bgg4 ,igne\s rocks1 #f4 ( ,sieb5gebirge & ,we/]wald1 #dag4 rocks ( ,val di ,noto1 #chi4 ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 #bbg4 #bbi4 ,india1 cretace\s sy/em 91 #bbe4 fre%wat] deposits (1 #agc4 oolitic =mation 91 #bhe4 ,indusial lime/one1 ,auv]gne1 #ahd4 ,infusoria 9 tripoli1 #bd4 ,inl& sea-cliffs 9 ,s\? ( ,engl&1 #ga4 ,insects 9 ,lias1 #bha4 ,irel&1 drift 91 #aca4 ,is*ia1 volcanic cones 91 #djc4 ,po/-,plioc5e /rata (1 #aac4 ,isle ( ,wight1 fre%wat] b$s (1 #aig4 ,isomorphism1 !ory (1 #cgj4 ,j4 ,jackson1 ,dr4 ,c4 ,t41 analysis ( fossil bones1 #ach4 ,james1 ,capt41 on fossils 9 drift ,s\? ,irel&1 #aca4 ,java1 /ream ( sulphure\s wat]1 #aia4 ,job]t1 ,m41 on hill ( ,g]govia1 #dcj4 ,jo9ts1 #dfi4 ,jorullo1 lava /ream (1 #dej4 ,jura1 alp9e blocks on1 #adb4 lime/one1 #bfa4 /ructure (1 #ee4 ,k4 ,kang>oo1 fossil & rec5t1 jaws figur$1 #aef4 ,kaup1 ,pr(41 on footpr9ts ( ,*eiro!rium1 #bij4 ,kaye1 ,mr41 on fossils ( ,s\!rn ,india1 #bbe4 ,keel+ ,isl&1 fragm5t ( gre5/one 91 #bag4 ,keilhau1 ,pr(41 cit$1 #deg4 #dgd4 on dike ( gre5/one1 #chj4 on gneiss ne> ,*ri/iania1 #ddf4 on granite1 #ddg4 ,kell[ay rock1 #cd4 ,k5ti% *alk1 s&-galls 91 #hb4 ,keup]1 !1 #bhg4 ,killas 9 granite ( ,cornwall1 #dgd4 ,kimm]idge clay1 #bfj4 & ,po/script1 xxi4 ,k+1 ,dr41 on footpr9ts ( reptile1 #ccg4 ,k+1 ,mr41 on ,p]mian gr\p & fossils1 #cja4 #cjb4 ,kirkdale1 cave at1 #aed4 ,kotzebue cit$1 #bag4 ,kyson1 9 ,suffolk1 /rata (1 #bjb4 ,l4 ,labyr9?odon1 #bib4 #bhh4 #bhi4 ,lacu/r9e /rata ( ,auv]gne1 #aha4 ,lagoons at m\? ( riv]s1 #cc4 ( ,b]muda ,isl&s1 #baf4 ,lake crat]s ( ,eifel1 #dai4 crat] ( ,laa*1 #dbj4 ,lam>ck on bivalve mollusca1 #bi4 ,l&1 ris+ & s9k+1 #de4 ,lat]ite1 #cgf4 ,lava1 #cgc4 curr5t1 ,auv]gne1 #dbe4 relation to trap1 #chg4 /ream ( ,jorullo1 #dej4 ( ,/romboli1 #dej4 ,lea1 ,mr41 footpr9ts ( reptile discov]$ by1 #cdj4 ,lead1 ve9s (1 9 ,p]mian rocks1 #dii4 ,lehman on classification ( rocks1 #ij4 ,leibnitz1 !ory (1 #id4 ,lepidod5dra1 #cab4 ,lewes1 coomb ne>1 #bej4 ,lias1 #bgc4 p]iod1 ,volcanic rocks1 #dca4 at ,lyme ,regis1 #bha4 plutonic rocks (1 #dee4 & oolite1 orig9 (1 #bhb4 fossil plants (1 #bhb4 ,liebig1 ,pr(41 on conv]sion ( coal into lignite1 #ccc4 on pres]vation ( fossil bones 9 cav]ns1 #aee4 ,lima1 rec5t /rata (1 #aae4 ,limagne d',auv]gne1 fre%wat] =mations (1 #ahg4 ,lime1 sc>city (1 9 metamorphic rocks1 #dhg4 ,lime/one1 brecciat$1 #cjb4 cry/all9e1 #cjb4 compact1 #cjc4 fossilif]\s1 #cjc4 hippurite1 #bba4 indusial1 ,auv]gne1 #ahd4 ( ,jura1 #bfa4 magnesian1 #cja4 m\nta9 fossils (1 #cdj4 prim>y or metamorphic1 #dfe4 9 ,g]many1 ( ,devonian sy/em1 #cdh4 ,l9dley1 ,dr41 cit$1 #bbc4 on leaves 9 lignite1 #daf4 ,l9k1 ,m41 on footpr9ts1 #bia4 ,lip>i ,isl&s1 rocks alt]$ by gases 91 #dgf4 ,lisbon1 m>9e t]ti>y /rata ne>1 #aga4 ,li?odomi 9 bea*es ( ,n4 ,am]ica1 #gh4 9 inl& cliffs1 #gc4 ,ll&eilo flags1 #ceg4 ,loam def9$1 #ac4 ,lo*ab]1 p>allel roads (1 #hf4 ,lodes4 ,see ,m9]al ,ve9s1 #dij4 ,loess ( valley ( ,rh9e1 #aag4 fossil l& %ells (1 figur$1 #abj4 ,logan1 ,mr41 on coal measures ( ,s\? ,wales1 #caj4 on fossil =e/ 9 ,nova ,scotia1 #cbb4 on reptilian foot-pr9ts 9 l[e/ ,silurian 9 ,canada1 ,po/script1 viii4 ,london clay1 #bjj4 ,lonsdale1 ,mr41 cit$1 #aeb42 on corals1 #agc4 on corals ( ,norm&y1 #agj4 on corals 9 ,w5lock =mation1 #cee4 on fossils 9 :ite *alk1 #bf4 on old r$ s&/one ( ,s4 ,devon1 #cde4 on ,/onesfield slate1 #bff4 ,l\va91 ,eoc5e /rata ne>1 #agg4 ,lov5 on %ells ( ,norway1 #aad4 ,ludl[ =mation1 #cea4 ,lund1 cit$1 #aeh4 ,lycett1 ,mr41 on %ells ( oolite1 #bff4 ,lyme ,regis1 lias at1 #bha4 ,lym-,fiord invad$ by ! sea1 #cc4 kelp 91 #bag4 ,lyons1 coal m9e ne>1 #cai4 ,m4 ,macacus1 9 ,eoc5e =mation1 #bjc4 ,macl>51 ,mr41 on erratic blocks 9 ,p5tl&s1 #abe4 ,maclure1 ,dr41 on volcanos 9 ,catalonia1 #dji4 ,mac,culloch1 ,dr41 cit$1 #ddb4 on alt]$ rock 9 ,fife1 #chc4 on basaltic columns 9 ,skye1 #che4 on d5udation1 #fg4 on granite ( ,ab]de5%ire1 #dda4 on igne\s rocks ( ,scotl&1 #cij4 on ,isle ( ,skye1 #cf4 #def4 on hornbl5de s*i/1 #dgh4 on ov]ly+ rocks1 #h4 on p>allel roads1 #hg4 on pebbles ( granite1 #dfj4 on trap ve9 9 ,argyle%ire1 #cgi4 ,madeira1 view ( dike 9 inl& valley 91 #cgh4 ,mae/ri*t b$s1 #bji4 ,magnesian lime/one1 concretion>y /ructure (1 #cg4 def9$1 #ac4 gr\ps1 #cja4 ,maid/one1 fossils 9 :ite *alk (1 #bad4 ,mammalia1 ext9ct1 above drift 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #ach4 ext9ct1 ( bas9 ( ,mississippi1 #aaf4 fossil tee? (1 figur$1 #afj4 ,mammat's ,geological ,facts cit$1 #fi4 ,mammif] 9 trias ne> ,/uttg>t1 ,po/script1 xiii4 ,mansfield 9 ,?ur+ia1 ,p]mian =mation at1 #cjf4 ,mantell1 ,dr41 cit$1 #bag4 #bbi4 #bca4 #bea4 on belemnite1 #bfc4 on *alk fl9ts1 #bec4 on ,brighton elephant b$1 #beg4 on fre%wat] b$s ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 on iguanodon1 #bbg4 on ,weald5 gr\p1 #bbf4 on reptile 9 ,old ,r$1 ,po/script1 x4 ,m>ble def9$1 #ab4 ,m>l def9$1 #ac4 9 ,lake ,sup]ior1 #cf4 r$ & gre5 9 ,engl&1 #bhi4 ,m>l-slate def9$1 #ac4 ,m>t91 ,mr41 cit$1 #bej4 on cross fractures 9 *alk1 #bde4 ,m>t9s1 ,mr4 ,c41 on glaci]s ( ,spitzb]g51 #acf4 ,map to illu/rate d5udation ( ,weald1 #bdb4 ,map ( ,eoc5e b$s ( c5tral ,france1 #agi4 ,massa*usetts1 plumbago 91 #dgh4 ,ma/odon angu/id5s1 jaw1 figure (1 #aei4 ,ma/odon giganteus1 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #acg4 ,may5ce t]ti>y /rata1 #agg4 ,m$it]ranean & ,r$ ,sea1 di/9ct species 91 #ajj4 deposits =m+ 91 #ii4 ,megali*?ys 9 ,cannel coal ( ,fife%ire1 #ccf4 ,mega!rium 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 #aeh4 ,m5ai ,/raits1 m>9e %ells 9 drift1 #acj4 ,m5dips1 d5udation 91 #fh4 ,metallif]\s ve9s4 ,see ,m9]al ,ve9s4 ,metals1 suppos$ relative ages (1 #dig4 ,metamorphic rocks1 #dfc4 def9$1 #h4 :y less calc>e\s ?an fossilif]\s1 #dhg4 ord] ( succession1 #dhe4 gloss>y (1 #dff4 ,metamorphic /rata1 orig9 (1 #dfg4 ,metamorphic /ructure1 orig9 (1 #dgg4 ,meteorites 9 drift1 #ade4 ,mexico1 lam9ation ( volcanic rocks 91 #dhj4 ,mey]1 ,m4 ,h4 von1 cit$1 #adg4 on fossil mammalia ( ,rh9e1 #agh4 on reptile 9 coal1 #ccf4 #ccg4 on s&/one ( ,vosges1 #bhh4 on ,weald5 ( ,hanov] & ,we/phalia1 #bcg4 ,mica s*i/1 #dfe4 ,micace\s s&/one1 orig9 (1 #ad4 ,microle/es antiquus1 triassic mammif]1 ,po/scr41 xiv4 ,mill]1 ,mr4 ,h41 on orig9 ( rock salt1 #bie4 on old r$ s&/one1 #cdc4 on fossil trees ( coal ne> ,ed9burgh1 #cba4 ,m9*9hampton1 fossil %ells at1 #bff4 ,m9]al "* ( aque\s rocks1 #ig4 composition1 te/ ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #cii4 spr+s1 connect$ ) m9]al ve9s1 #dif4 ve9s & faults1 #dhh4 #dij4 ( diff]5t ages1 #dij4 #dih4 #dii4 ve9s1 pebbles 91 #dib4 subsequ5tly enl>g$ & re-op5$1 #dib4 ve9s1 v>i\s =ms (1 #dhi4 ve9s ne> granite1 #dif4 ,m9]alization ( organic rema9s1 #ch4 ,mioc5e =mations1 #afh4 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aga4 p]iod1 volcanic rocks (1 #dae4 t]m def9$1 #aaa4 ,mississippi1 fluviatile /rata & delta (1 #aae4 #aaf4 ,mit*ell1 ,sir ,t41 on ,au/ralian caves1 #aef4 ,mits*]li*1 ,pr(41 on augite & hornbl5de1 #cfi4 on isomorphism1 #cgj4 on m9]al composition ( ,somma1 #djd4 ,modon1 li?odomi 9 cliff at1 #gc4 ,molasse ( ,switz]l&1 #aga4 ,mons1 flexures ( coal at1 #ec4 ,mont ,blanc1 granite (1 #dec4 ,mont ,dor1 ,auv]gne1 #dbb4 ,monte ,calvo1 section (1 #ah4 ,montlosi]1 ,m41 on ,auv]gne volcanos1 #dbg4 ,mora9e1 t]m expla9$1 #abc4 ,mora9es ( glaci]s1 #ada4 ,morea1 inl& sea-cliffs (1 #gc4 trap (1 #dca4 ,morris1 ,mr41 cit$1 #agg4 on fossils at ,br5t=d1 #adg4 ,morton1 ,dr41 on cretace\s rocks1 #bbd4 ,morv51 basaltic columns 91 #che4 ,mosasaurus 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt1 #baj4 ,m\nta9 lime/one1 fossils (1 #cdj4 ,mun/]1 ,c\nt1 on fossils ( ,sol5h(51 #bfj4 ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r41 cit$1 #bdh4 #cbd4 on new r$ s&/one1 #bij4 on age ( ,alps1 #bjf4 on age ( gold 9 ,russia1 #dii4 on erratic blocks ( ,alps1 #add4 on granite1 #def4 #dei4 on prim>y /rata 9 ,russia1 #abd4 on jo9ts & cleavage1 #dfi4 #dga4 on old r$ s&/one ( ,s4 ,devon1 #cde4 #cdh4 on p5tam]us1 #cec4 on ,p]mian flora1 #cje4 on ,silurian /rata ( ,%rop%ire1 #dcd4 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 on t]m ,p]mian1 #cja4 on t]m ,silurian1 #cej4 on tile/ones1 #cea4 ,mus*elkalk1 #bhg4 ,n4 ,naples1 po/-plioc5e =mations ne>1 #djc4 rec5t /rata ne>1 #aab4 ,nav>9o1 li?odomi f\nd 9 cliff at1 #gc4 ,neck]1 ,m4 ,l4 ,a41 cit$1 #dde4 on composition ( cone ( ,somma1 #djd4 on granite 9 ,arran1 #dfj4 on granitic rocks1 #ddg4 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 t]ms granite und]ly+1 #h4 ,nelson1 ,lieut41 draw+ ( ,b]muda1 #gi4 on ,b]muda ,isl&1 #baf4 ,neptunian !ory1 #ia4 ,newca/le coal field1 great faults 91 #fd4 ,newca/le1 fossil tree ne>1 #cab4 #cah4 ,new ,j]sey1 ,ma/odon giganteus 91 #acg4 ,new r$ s&/one1 di/9ction f old1 #bhf4 its subdivisions1 #bhg4 ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #big4 trap (1 #dcb4 ,new ,zeal&1 abs5ce ( quadrup$s1 #aeh4 ,niag>a1 rec5t %ells 9 valley (1 #ach4 ,noegg]a?1 ,m41 cit$1 #dae4 ,nom5clature1 *anges (1 #ic4 ,norfolk1 buri$ =e/1 #abg4 #acj4 #adg4 drift1 #abf4 ,norm&y *alk1 cliffs1 & ne$les1 #bda4 ,nor?wi*1 b$s ( salt at1 #bid4 ,norwi* crag1 fluvio-m>9e1 #adh4 s&-pipes ne>1 #hb4 ,nova ,scotia1 coal seams ( ,cape ,breton1 #cae4 fossil =e/ ( coal 91 #cba4 ,nummulites1 figures (1 #bjj4 #bje4 ,nummulitic =mation1 #bje4 ,ny/1 ,m41 cit$1 #agf4 ,o4 ,oeynhaus51 ,m4 von1 on ,corni% granite ve9s1 #dde4 ,olot1 ext9ct volcanos ne>1 #djh4 ,old r$ s&/one1 #cdb4 9 ,=f>%ire1 #dgh4 trap (1 #dcd4 ,oolite1 #beg4 & lias1 orig9 (1 #bhb4 inf]ior1 fossils (1 #bgb4 9 ,france1 #bei4 plutonic rocks (1 #dee4 t]m def9$1 #ab4 volcanic rocks (1 #dca4 ,oolitic gr\p 9 ,france1 #bhc4 ,orbigny1 ,m4 d'1 cit$1 #bbb4 on fossils ( nummulitic lime/one1 #bjf4 on subdivisions ( cretace\s s]ies1 #bji4 ,organic rema9s1 crit]ion ( age ( =mation1 #ih4 te/ ( age ( volcanic rocks1 #cii4 ,orm]od1 ,mr41 on trias ( ,*e%ire1 #bie4 ,ov]ly+1 t]m appli$ to volcanic rocks1 #h4 ,ow51 ,pr(41 cit$1 #aee4 #aff4 #bbi4 #bfg4 #bfh4 #bgj4 #bia4 on amphi!rium1 #bfi4 on birds 9 ,new ,zeal&1 #aeh4 on caves 9 ,engl&1 #aed4 on footpr9ts1 #bih4 on fossils 9 ,au/ralia1 #aef4 on fossil monkey1 #bjb4 on fossil quadrup$s1 #aeg4 on i*?yosaurus1 #bgf4 on reptile 9 coal1 #ccg4 on s]p5t ( ,brackle%am1 #aii4 on snake at ,%eppey1 #bja4 on !codont saurians1 #cjf4 on zeuglodon1 #bjg4 #bjh4 on reptile 9 ,silurian rocks1 ,po/script1 viii4 ,ox=d clay1 #bfb4 ,oy/] b$s1 #bjd4 ,p4 ,pacific1 coral reefs (1 #bae4 ,palaeontology1 t]m expla9$1 #ajc4 ,palagonia1 dikes at1 #djg4 ,paleo!rium magnum1 figure (1 #aib4 too? (1 #aic4 ,pal]mo1 caves ne>1 #gd4 ,palma1 ,isle (1 map & view (1 #cia4 ,p>allel roads1 #hf4 ,p>eto1 ,m41 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,p>is bas91 #ic4 ,p>k9son1 ,mr41 on crag1 #aje4 ,p>rot1 ,dr4 ,f41 on salt lakes ( ,asia1 #bie4 ,pebbles 9 *alk1 #bag4 ,pegmatite1 #ddj4 ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 #ceb4 ,p5tl& hills1 ,mr4 ,macl>5 on1 #abe4 ,pepys1 ,mr41 cit$1 #da4 ,p]mian flora1 di/9ct f coal1 #cje4 =mation 9 ,?ur+ia1 #cjf4 gr\p1 t]m expla9$1 #cja4 ,petrifaction ( fossil wood1 #ci4 ,petrifaction1 process (1 #dc4 ,philippi1 ,dr41 on fossil %ells ne> ,naples1 #aac4 on m>9e %ells 9 caves ( ,sicily1 #aed4 on t]ti>y %ells ( ,sicily1 #aej4 ,phillips1 ,pr(41 cit$1 #bgd4 #cji4 on cleavage1 #dga4 on t]m9ology1 #ajc4 ,phillips1 ,mr4 ,w41 on kaol9 ( ,*9a1 #aa4 ,phosphate ( lime1 #bai4 ,phryganea1 figure (1 #ahe4 indusiae (1 #ahf4 ,pict\1 ,nova ,scotia1 calamites ne>1 #cai4 ,pilla1 ,m41 on age ( ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,planitz1 tripoli (1 #bf4 ,plas ,newydd1 rock alt]$ by dike ne>1 #cha4 ,pla/ic clays1 #bjc4 ,playfair1 cit$1 #de4 #ib4 #chc4 on faults1 #fb4 on ,huttonian !ory ( /ratification1 #fj4 ,plesiosaurus1 figure (1 #bgg4 ,pli5+]1 ,pr(essor1 on triassic mammif]1 ,po/script1 xiii4 ,plioc5e1 new] p]iod1 #aba4 new]1 /rata1 #adf4 /rata 9 ,sicily1 #aej4 old]1 9 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aga4 /rata1 #afa4 p]iod1 volcanic rocks (1 #djg4 #djh4 t]m def9$1 #aaa4 ,plomb du ,cantal1 describ$1 #dbi4 ,plumbago 9 ,massa*usetts1 #dgh4 ,plutonic rocks1 #g4 #ddf4 age (1 #dci4 ( c>bonif]\s p]iod1 #def4 ( oolite & lias1 #dee4 rec5t & plioc5e1 #dej4 ( ,silurian p]iod1 #deg4 age1 h[ te/$1 #ddi4 ,plutonic & s$im5t>y rocks1 diagram (1 #deb4 ,pogg5dorf1 cit$1 #dgf4 ,poikilitic =mation1 #cja4 t]m expla9$1 #bhf4 ,pomel1 ,m41 on mammalia ( ,auv]gne1 #ahh4 #dbe4 ,ponza ,isl&s1 /ructure (1 #chg4 #dhj4 ,porphyritic granite1 #dci4 ,porphyry1 #cgb4 ,portl&1 ,isle (1 fossil =e/ 91 #bcc4 ,portl& /one1 #bei4 ,po/-plioc5e =mations1 #aaa4 p]iod1 volcanic rocks1 #dja4 ,potsdam s&/one1 reptilian1 ,po/script1 vii4 xviii4 ,pottsville1 coal seams ne>1 #cbi4 footpr9ts ( reptile ne>1 #cdj4 ,pozzolana1 #cf4 ,pratt1 ,mr41 on ammonites1 #bfb4 on ext9ct quadrup$s ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 ,pr$azzo1 alt]$ rocks at1 #def4 ,pre/wi*1 ,mr41 cit$1 #fi4 on ,engli% ,eoc5e /rata1 #aig4 #aih4 #bjj4 on coal measures ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 #fb4 #cbd4 ,prevo/1 ,m4 ,c41 on ,p>is bas91 #age4 #agf4 #aie4 ,progressive developm5t1 !ory (1 ,po/script1 xvi4 ,ps>onites 9 ,g]many & ,france1 #cjg4 ,pumice1 #cgc4 ,purbeck b$s1 #bca4 ,puy de ,t>t>et1 #dbe4 ,puy de ,p>i\1 #dbh4 ,puzzuoli1 elevation & depression ( l& at1 #djc4 ,pyr5ees1 cretace\s rocks (1 #dee4 curvatures ( /rata1 #eh4 granite (1 #dge4 nummulitic =mation (1 #bje4 ,q4 ,quadrumana fossil1 ,po/script1 xvii4 ,qu>r+ton ,hill1 basaltic dike ne>1 #cih4 ,qu>tz1 #dch4 ,qu>tzite1 or qu>tz rock1 #dfe4 ,r4 ,radnor%ire1 /ratifi$ trap (1 #dbe4 ,ra9-pr9ts1 fossil 9 coal %ale1 ,po/script1 xii4 ,ramsay1 ,pr(4 ,a4 ,c41 on d5udation1 #fh4 on granite 9 ,arran1 #dfj4 on section ne> ,bri/ol1 #ajb4 on ,wel% glaci]s1 #aca4 ,rec5t /rata def9$1 #aab4 ne> ,naples1 #aab4 ,r$field1 ,mr41 on glacial fauna 9 ,am]ica1 #acc4 on fossil fi%1 #cjj4 ,r$ s&/one1 orig9 (1 #bic4 ,r$ ,sea & ,m$it]ranean1 di/9ct species 91 #ajj4 ,r$ ,sea1 saltness (1 #bif4 ,reptiles1 c>bonif]\s1 #cce4 #ccf4 ( lias1 #bgf4 fossil eggs (1 #abj4 ,reptile1 9 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,po/script1 vii4 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,moray%ire1 ,po/script1 ix4 ,rh9e1 valley1 loess (1 #aag4 ,ripple-m>k1 =mation (1 #ai4 ,riv] *annels1 anci5t1 #ccd4 ,riv]1 excavation ?r\gh lava by1 #dac4 t]races1 #he4 ,rock1 t]m def9$1 #b4 ,rocks1 f\r classes (1 contemporane\s1 #i4 classification (1 #ij4 compos$ ( fossil zoophytes & %ells1 #bd4 trappean1 #ia4 ,rod]b]g1 ext9ct volcano (1 #dbj4 ,rog]s1 ,pr(4 ,h4 ,d41 on coal field1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cbh4 cit$1 #cdj4 on reptilian footpr9ts 9 coal1 ,po/script1 xi4 ,rog]s1 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,b41 on oolitic coal field1 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bhd4 #cbh4 ,rome1 =mations at1 #afh4 ,roem]1 ,f41 on *alk 9 ,texas1 #bbe4 ,m4 ,f4 ,a41 on flora ( ,h>tz1 #cej4 ,rose1 ,pr(4 ,g41 cit$1 #cgd4 #dcd4 on hornbl5de1 #cfi4 ,ros5laui1 lime/one scrat*$ by glaci] (1 #abb4 ,ross1 ,capta91 on gre5/one 9 ,keel+ ,isl&1 #bag4 ,ross-%ire1 d5udation 91 #fg4 ,ro?lieg5des1 l[]1 or ,p]mian1 #cjf4 ,rozet1 ,m41 cit$1 #aia4 ,rubble1 t]m expla9$1 #ha4 ,russia1 erratic blocks 91 #abd4 fossil meteoric iron 91 #ade4 ,p]mian rocks 91 #cjf4 ,s4 ,sa>brueck coal field1 reptile f\nd 91 #ccf4 ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 curv$ /rata ne>1 #di4 ,/4 ,&rews1 trap rocks 9 cliffs ne>1 #dcb4 #dcc4 ,/4 ,hel5a1 basalt 91 #che4 #djf4 ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 gulf (1 inl& bea*es & cliffs1 #gh4 ,/4 ,mihiel1 inl& cliffs ne>1 #gg4 ,/4 ,paul1 isl& (1 #cid4 ,/4 ,pet]'s ,m\nt1 ,mae/ri*t1 fossils 91 #baj4 s&-pipes 91 #hc4 ,salisbury ,crag1 alt]$ /rata (1 #chc4 ,salt rock1 orig9 (1 #bid4 precipitation (1 #bid4 at ,nor?wi*1 #bid4 lakes ( ,asia1 #bif4 ,salt]1 ,mr41 on fossil ( ,c>adoc s&/one1 #cef4 ,s&-pipes ne> ,mae/ri*t1 #hc4 or s&-galls1 t]m expla9$1 #hb4 ne> ,norwi*1 #hb4 ,s&/one1 silice\s1 #bah4 ) cracks 9 ,weald51 #bcj4 ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 coral reef 91 #baf4 volcanos (1 #cid4 #djf4 #dbc4 ,saurians ( lias1 #bgh4 !codont1 #cjf4 ,saussure1 ,m41 on mora9es1 #ada4 on v]tical conglom]ates1 #dg4 ,savi1 ,m41 on ,c>r>a m>ble1 #dhb4 ,saxony1 granite 91 #dei4 ,s*i/1 hornbl5de1 & mica1 #dfd4 #dfe4 argillace\s1 #dfe4 *lorite1 #dfe4 ,s*orl rock & s*orly granite1 #ddj4 ,scoresby on iceb]gs1 #abb4 ,scoriae1 #cgc4 ,scotl&1 c>bonif]\s traps (1 #dcb4 nor!rn drift 91 #abe4 old r$ s&/one (1 #cdc4 ,scrope1 ,mr41 cit$1 #aha4 #bfc4 #dai4 #dbc4 #dbe4 #dbg4 #dcj4 on globul> /ructure ( traps1 #chg4 on ,ponza ,isl&s1 #dhj4 on tra*yte1 basalt1 & tuff1 #cgd4 #djj4 ,sea cliffs1 inl&1 #ga4 ,section ( ,weald51 #bdc4 ,section ( :ite *alk f ,engl& to ,france1 #baa4 ,section ( volcanic rocks1 ,auv]gne1 #dbd4 ,s$gwick1 ,pr(41 cit$1 #cji4 #chc4 on brecciat$ lime/one1 #cjb4 on concretion>y magnesian lime/one1 #cg4 on ,devonian gr\p1 #cdh4 on g>nets 9 alt]$ rock1 #chb4 on granite1 #def4 #dei4 on ,p]mian s&/ones1 #cje4 on jo9ts & cleavage1 #dfi4 #dga4 on m9]al composition ( granite1 #ddd4 on old r$ ( ,devon & ,cornwall1 #cde4 on /ructure ( rocks1 #dfh4 on trap rocks ( ,cumb]l&1 #dce4 ,segregation 9 m9]al ve9s1 #dhi4 ,semi-opal1 infusoria 91 #bf4 ,s]pulae1 on volcanic rocks1 9 ,sicily1 #aea4 ,sewalik ,hills1 fre%wat] deposits1 #agc4 ,%ale1 c>bonace\s1 #bga4 def9$1 #aa4 ,%ales ( coal ne> ,dudley1 #dgd4 ,%>pe1 ,mr4 ,d41 on mollusca 9 ,silurian /rata1 #cei4 on slaty cleavage1 #dga4 ,%ells1 fossil1 9 ,purbeck1 #bca4 fossil1 useful 9 classification1 #aji4 9 ,canada drift1 #acd4 rec5t1 9 valley ( ,niag>a1 #ach4 species (1 ne> ,lisbon1 #aga4 ,%eppey1 ,isle (1 fossil flora (1 #bjj4 ,%]r+ham1 mass ( *alk 9 drift1 #abi4 ,%etl&1 granite (1 #dda4 #ddd4 hornbl5de s*i/ (1 #dgh4 ,%rewsbury1 coal deposit ne>1 #cbd4 ,sicily1 ,fiume ,salso 91 #aia4 inl& cliffs 91 #gd4 new] plioc5e /rata (1 #aej4 t]races ( d5udation 91 #ge4 ,sidlaw ,hills1 trap ( old r$ s&/one1 #dcd4 ,sieb5gebirge1 igne\s rocks (1 #dag4 ,si5na1 =mations at1 #afg4 ,sigill>ia1 #cad4 #cah4 ,silice\s lime/one def9$1 #ab4 rocks def9$1 #aa4 ,silliman1 ,pr(41 cit$1 #dej4 ,silurian1 "n expla9$1 #cej4 p]iod1 plutonic rocks (1 #deg4 rocks1 table (1 #cea4 /rata1 m9]al "* (1 #cfj4 /rata ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cei4 /rata1 ?ickness (1 #ceh4 /rata1 reptile 91 ,po/script1 vii4 volcanic rocks1 #dcd4 ,simpson1 ,mr41 on ice isl&s1 #abi4 ,siva!rium describ$1 #agc4 ,skapt> ,jokul1 eruption (1 #cii4 ,skye1 rocks (1 #chc4 #def4 basaltic columns 91 #che4 dikes 9 ,isle (1 #chj4 s&/one 91 #cf4 ,slaty cleavage1 #dfh4 ,slick5sides1 t]m def9$1 #fa4 ,smi?1 ,mr41 ( ,jordan ,hill1 on ,plei/oc5e1 #acd4 on %ells ne> ,lisbon1 #aga4 ,snags1 fossil1 #cbj4 ,snakes' eggs1 fossil at ,tonna ne> ,go?a1 #abj4 ,sol5h(51 li?ographic /one (1 #bfj4 ,solfat>a1 decomposition ( rocks 9 !1 #dgg4 ,somma1 #djd4 lava at1 #chj4 ,sop)1 ,mr4 ,t41 models by1 #eg4 ,sort9o1 cave 9 valley (1 #aed4 ,s\? ,devon & ,cornwall1 old r$ (1 #cae4 ,s\? ,d[ns1 view (1 #bde4 ,s[]by1 ,mr4 ,g41 cit$1 #afb4 ,spatangus1 figure (1 #bc4 ,spezia1 gulf (1 calc>e\s rocks 91 #dhb4 ,spitzb]g51 glaci]s (1 #acf4 ,sponges1 figures (1 9 *alk1 #bac4 ,spongilla ( ,lam>ck1 9 tripoli1 #be4 ,spr+s1 m9]al4 ,see ,m9]al ,spr+s1 #dij4 ,/affa1 basaltic columns 91 #che4 ,/5o on classification ( rocks1 #ij4 ,/igm>ia1 #caj4 #cae4 9 fossil =e/1 ,nova ,scotia1 #cbb4 ,/irl+ ,ca/le1 rock (1 alt]$ by dike1 #chc4 ,/okes1 ,mr41 on petrifaction1 #dc4 ,/onesfield slate1 #bff4 ,/onesfield1 fossil mammalia1 #bfh4 & ,po/script1 xviii4 ,/orton ,hill1 footpr9ts at1 #bia4 ,/rata1 t]m def9$1 #b4 arrangem5t (1 det]m9$ by fossils1 #ba4 #bb4 consolidation (1 #cd4 curv$ & v]tical1 #dg4 #eh4 elevation (1 above ! sea1 #dd4 fossilif]\s1 tabul> view (1 #cfa4 horizontality (1 #ae4 #de4 metamorphic orig9 (1 #dfg4 m9]al composition (1 #aj4 outcrop (1 #ef4 t]ti>y classification (1 #acd4 ,/ratification1 =ms (1 #ac4 #af4 #dg4 uncon=mable1 #ei4 ,/rickl&1 ,mr41 on new r$ s&/one1 #bij4 ,/rike1 t]m expla9$1 #ec4 ,/romboli1 lava (1 #dej4 ,/ud]1 ,m41 on ,swiss ,alps1 #dhd4 on b\ld]s ( ,jura1 #adc4 ,/ut*bury1 ,mr41 cit$1 #cjf4 ,subap5n9e /rata1 #aje4 #aff4 ,subsid5ce 9 drift p]iod1 #ace4 ,suffolk crag1 #afb4 ,sullivan1 ,capt41 *>t ( ,falkl& ,isl&s1 #hh4 ,sup]ior1 ,lake1 m>l 91 #cf4 ,sup]position ( aque\s deposits1 #if4 ( volcanic rocks1 te/ ( age1 #cbg4 ,supracretace\s1 t]m expla9$1 #ajc4 ,sussex m>ble1 #bbh4 ,swansea1 coal measures ne>1 #cji4 valley /ems ( ,sigill>ia1 #cag4 ,sydney coal field1 ,cape ,breton1 #cbd4 ,sy5ite1 #ddj4 ,sy5itic granite1 #ddj4 gre5/one1 #cgb4 ,syncl9al l9e1 t]m def9$1 #dh4 ,t4 ,table ,m\nta91 /rata horizontal1 #de4 ,m\nta91 granite ve9s 91 #ddc4 ,talcose granite1 #ddj4 ,t>t>et1 ,puy de1 cone (1 #dbe4 ,tee? ( fossil mammalia1 figures (1 #afj4 ,t]$9a1 fossil wood bor$ by1 #bd4 ,t]$o navalis bor+ wood1 #bc4 ,t]ra del ,fuego1 #aci4 ,fucus giganteus 91 #bag4 ,t]ti>y1 t]m expla9$1 #ajd4 /rata1 tabul> view (1 #cfb4 ,t\ra9e1 faluns (1 #afh4 ,tra*yte1 #cgb4 ( ,hung>y1 #ddb4 ,tra*ytic rocks1 old] ?an basalt1 #djj4 ,transition1 t]m expla9$1 #ib4 ,trap1 t]m expla9$1 #cff4 dike 9 ,fife%ire1 #dcd4 globul> /ructure (1 #chg4 intrusion (1 betwe5 /rata1 #chd4 v>i\s ages (1 #dcb4 #dcd4 passage ( granite into1 #dda4 9 ,radnor%ire1 #dce4 rocks1 relation to lava1 #chg4 rocks1 li?ological "* (1 #djj4 9 ,l[] ,eifel1 #dbj4 ,trappean rocks1 #ia4 ,trap-tuff1 #cgd4 ,t]ti>y deposits1 #aga4 #agg4 #agh4 ,texas1 *alk 91 #bbe4 ,?ames valley1 fre%wat] deposits 91 #adf4 ,!codont ,saurians1 #cjf4 ,saurians1 age (1 ,po/script1 xv4 ,?irria1 ,m41 on oolitic gr\p 9 ,france1 #bhc4 ,?urmann1 ,m41 cit$1 #ee4 #beb4 #bff4 ,?uja occid5talis 9 /oma* ( ma/odon1 #ach4 ,till1 t]m expla9$1 #aba4 orig9 (1 #abc4 ,tile/one1 #cea4 ,tilgate ,=e/1 rema9s 91 #bbi4 ,t91 ve9s (1 9 ,cornwall1 #dij4 #dih4 ,tiv]ton trap1 porphyry ne>1 #dcb4 ,trav]t91 h[ deposit$1 #cd4 ,tree f]ns 9 ,p]mian =mation1 #cjg4 ,trias1 or new r$ s&/one1 #bhf4 #bhi4 & ,po/sc41 xiii4 9 ,*e%ire & ,lanca%ire1 #bij4 #bie4 ,trilobite 9 ,devonian /rata1 #cdh4 ,trilobites ( ,l[] ,silurian1 #ceg4 ,trimm]1 ,mr41 on s&-galls1 #hb4 on %ells 9 drift ne> ,m5ai ,/raits1 #acj4 ,tripoli compos$ ( infusoria1 #bd4 ,tuff1 volcanic1 & trap1 #f4 #cgd4 ,tuffs on ,wrek9 & ,ca] ,c>adoc1 #dcd4 ,tuomey1 ,mr41 cit$1 #bjh4 ,turn]1 ,dr41 cit$1 #da4 #db4 ,tuscany1 volcanic rocks (1 #djh4 ,tyn$ale fault1 #fd4 ,tynem\? ,cliff1 lime/one at1 #cjb4 ,u4 ,uddevalla1 %ells (1 comp>$ ) ^? ne> ,naples1 #ajh4 ,und]ly+1 t]m appli$ to granite1 #h4 ,unit$ ,/ates1 coal field (1 #cbf4 cretace\s =mation 91 #bbd4 ,devonian /rata 91 #cdi4 ,eoc5e /rata 91 #bjf4 old] ,plioc5e & ,mioc5e =mations 91 #aga4 oolite & lias (1 #bhd4 ,silurian /rata (1 #cei4 ,upsala1 /rata conta9+ ,baltic %ells ne>1 #abd4 ,v4 ,val di ,noto1 composition (1 #djg4 igne\s rocks (1 #chi4 inl& cliffs 91 #gf4 ,valleys1 orig9 (1 #gj4 transv]se ( ,weald1 #bdd4 ,valors9e granite1 #dde4 ,ve9s1 m9]al4 ,see ,m9]al ,ve9s1 #dhh4 ,ve9/ones 9 p>allel lay]s1 #dic4 ,velay1 volcanos (1 #dbh4 ,v5etz1 ,m41 on ,alp9e glaci]s1 #adj4 ,v]neuil1 ,m4 de1 on ,devonian ,flora1 #cej4 on horizontal /rata 9 ,russia1 #abd4 on ! old r$ s&/one 9 ,russia1 #cdh4 on ,p5tam]us ,knightii1 #cec4 on ,p]mian flora1 #cje4 ,vesuvius1 eruption (1 #dje4 ,vic5za1 basaltic columns ne>1 #chf4 ,vidal1 ,capt41 survey by1 #cic4 ,virg9ia1 ,u4 ,s41 fossil %ells 91 #agb4 ,virlet1 ,m41 on corrosion ( rocks by gases1 #dgg4 on geology ( ,morea1 #dca4 on inl& cliffs1 #gc4 ,volcanic m\nta9s1 =m (1 #e4 #cij4 dikes1 #cgh4 ,volcanic rocks1 age (1 #cig4 describ$1 #e4 #che4 analysis ( m9]als 91 #cgg4 ,cambrian1 #dce4 composition & nom5clature1 #cfh4 ( ,hung>y1 #dba4 po/-plioc5e p]iod1 #dja4 te/ ( age (1 #djj4 ,silurian1 #dcd4 ,volcanic tuff1 #cgd4 ,volcanos ( ,auv]gne1 #dbb4 ext9ct1 #djh4 #dbj4 #dbb4 new]1 ( ,eifel1 #dah4 9 ,spa91 age (1 #dad4 r\nd ,olot 9 ,catalonia1 #daj4 ,von ,bu*1 ,b>on1 cit$1 #cgc4 #def4 #deg4 on b\ld]s ( ,jura1 #adc4 on ,can>y ,isl&s1 #cib4 on ,cy/ideae1 #ceh4 on l& ris+1 #de4 ,von ,de*51 ,m41 on granite ve9s 9 ,cornwall1 #dde4 ,oeynhaus51 ,m41 cit$1 #dae4 ,w4 ,wall] quot$1 #ic4 ,w>r51 ,dr4 ,j4 ,c41 on skeleton ( ,ma/odon giganteus1 #ach4 ,wat]h\se1 ,mr41 cit$1 #ahh4 #bfi4 on triassic mammif]1 ,po/script1 xiv4 ,watt1 ,mr4 ,g41 exp]im5ts on fus$ rocks1 #djf4 #dge4 ,weald clay1 #bbg4 ,weald valley1 d5ud$ at :at p]iod1 #bed4 ,weald51 t]m expla9$1 #bbe4 #bbf4 ! fracture & upheaval (1 #bea4 ext5t ( =mation1 #bcf4 p]iod1 *anges dur+1 #bce4 ,weald51 plants & animals (1 #bbi4 #bcf4 ,web/]1 ,mr4 ,t41 cit$1 #aje4 #bca4 #bcc4 ,well+ton ,valley1 caves 91 #aef4 ,w5] ,lake1 horizontal ,silurian /rata (1 #de4 ,w5lock =mation1 #ced4 ,w]n] on classification ( rocks1 #ij4 on m9]al ve9s1 #dhh4 on volcanic rocks1 #cfi4 ,we/]wald1 igne\s rocks (1 #dag4 ,we/wood1 ,mr41 on beetles 9 lias1 #bhb4 ,:9-,sill1 intrusion ( trap betwe5 /rata1 #chd4 ,:ite *alk1 #baa4 ,:ite m\nta9s1 granite ve9 91 #dej4 ,wigham1 ,mr41 on fossils ne> ,norwi*1 #adi4 ,wolv]hampton1 fossil =e/ ne>1 #cai4 ,wood1 ,mr4 ,se>les1 on fossils ( crag1 #afb4 on fossils ( ,isle ( ,wight1 #aih4 on numb] ( %ells 9 crag1 #adi4 on cetacea ( crag1 #aff4 cit$1 #agj4 #agg4 ,woodw>d1 ,mr41 on mammo? bones1 ,norfolk1 #adg4 ,wrek91 trap (1 #gj4 ,wyman1 ,dr41 cit$1 #bjh4 ,z4 ,zamia1 at ,lyme ,regis1 #bhb4 ,zamia spiralis1 figure (1 #bcc4 ,ze*/e91 #cjf4 ,zeuglodon cetoides1 #bjg4 & ,po/script1 xxi4 ,,london3 ,,spottiswoodes & ,,%aw1 ,new-/reet-,squ>e4 ,,albem>le ,,/reet1 ,july #e1 #ahea4 ,,mr4 ,,murray',s ,li/ ( ,rec5t ,works 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,roman ,,/ate2 ,,f #ahae-ahej4 ,,by ,,lugia ,,c>lo ,,f>9i4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,italian ,,by ,,! ,,"r ,,hon4 ,w4 ,e4 ,,glad/one1 ,m4,p4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 #bds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,exposition ,,( #ahea2 ,,or1 ,,views ,,( ,,! ,,indu/ry1 ,,! ,,sci5ce1 ,,& ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,engl&4 ,,by ,,*>les ,,babbage1 ,,esq41 ,au?or ( ! ,economy ( ,manufactures & ,ma*9]y4 ,second ,edition1 ) an ,app5dix4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,dovecote ,,& ,,! ,,avi>y2 ,,or1 ,,! ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,pigeons ,,& ,,o!r ,,dome/ic ,,birds1 ,,) ,,h9ts ,,= ,,_! ,,managem5t4 ,,by ,,! ,,rev4 ,,edmund ,,saul ,,dixon1 ,m4,a41 ,au?or ( ,ornam5tal & ,dome/ic ,p\ltry4 ,) ,num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,memoir ,,( ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,! ,,late ,,bi%op ,,/anley4 ,,prefix$ ,,to ,a ,,selection ,,f ,,8 ,,addresses ,,& ,,*>ges4 ,,by ,,! ,,rev4 ,,ar?ur ,,p5rhyn ,,/anley1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,! memoir is execut$ ) feel+1 &1 z might be expect$ f ! biograph] ( ,dr4 ,arnold1 ) great skill4 ,mr4 ,/anley br+s out into /rong relief ! m attractive p>ts ( 8 fa!r's "*1 & sugge/s ! be/ def5ce--namely1 ! consi/5t uprightness & p]fect s9c]ity ( 8 motives--= ! m que/ionable policy1 on "s memorable occasions1 ( ! bi%op4 ,morn+ ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,pa/oral ,,lett] ,,on ,,! ,,/ate ,,( ,,! ,,*ur*1 ,,by ,,h5ry ,,"l ,,bi%op ,,( ,,exet]4 ,eigh? ,edition4 #hvo4 #ds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,acts ,,( ,,! ,,synod ,,( ,,exet]4 ,,hold5 ,,9 ,,! ,,*apt] ,,h\se ,,( ,,! ,,ca!dral ,,*ur* ,,( ,,exet]4 ,,on ,,june #be1 #bf1 & #bg1 #ahea4 #hvo4 33 ,! ,s]mon may be _h sep>ately1 price #as4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,evangelical ,,& ,,tract>ian ,,movem5ts4 ,,by ,,ar*deacon ,,wilb]=ce4 7,a ,*>ge deliv]$ to & publi%$ by ,reque/ ( ! ,cl]gy47 #hvo4 #as4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,era/ianism4 ,,by ,,ar*deacon ,,wilb]=ce4 #afmo4 #cs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ca?olic ,,safegu>ds ,,aga9/ ,,! ,,errors1 ,,corruptions1 ,,& ,,novelties ,,( ,,! ,,*ur* ,,( ,,rome4 ,,be+ ,,disc\rses ,,& ,,tracts ,,select$ ,,f ,,! ,,works ,,( ,,em95t ,,div9es ,,( ,,! ,,*ur* ,,( ,,engl& ,,:o ,,liv$ ,,dur+ ,,! #ag,,? ,,c5tury2 ,,) ,,preface1 ,,records1 ,,& ,a ,,c>efully ,,compil$ ,,index4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,,james ,,brogd51 ,m4,a4 #c ,vols4 #hvo4 #cfs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,records ,,( ,,! ,,supremacy ,,( ,,! ,,cr[n1 ,,& ,,! ,,civil ,,& ,,religi\s ,,lib]ties ,,( ,,! ,,p ,,( ,,engl&4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,,james ,,brogd54 #hvo4 #ds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,horae ,,aegyptiacae2 ,,or1 ,,! ,,*ronology ,,( ,,anci5t ,,egypt4 ,,discov]$ ,,f ,,a/ronomical ,,& ,,hi]oglyphic ,,records ,,^u ,,its ,,monum5ts ,,includ+ ,,_m ,,dates ,,f\nd ,,9 ,,coeval ,,inscriptions4 ,,by ,,reg9ald ,,/u>t ,,poole1 ,,esq4 ,) ,plates4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,! sub/ance ( ,mr4 ,poole's valuable "w appe>$ orig9ally 9 a s]ies ( pap]s 9 ?is j\rnal4 ,s9ce _! publication ! au?or has devot$ fur!r "t & att5tion to ! subject2 & x may safely be ass]t$ t 9 _! pres5t am5d$ & enl>g$ =m1 !y are among ! mo/ important contributions t h yet be5 made to ! /udy ( ,egyptian ,*ronology & hi/ory4 ,we are indebt$ = ! publication ( ! pres5t valuable "w to ! lib]ality ( ! ,duke ( ,nor?umb]l&1 ^: w>m & g5]\s support ( lit]ature & art des]ves our grateful ackn[l$gm5ts4 ,lit]>y ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lav5gro2 ,,! ,,s*ol>--,,! ,,gipsy--,,& ,,! ,,prie/4 ,,by ,,george ,,borr[1 ,,esq4 ,au?or ( ,! ,bible 9 ,spa91 ,! ,gipsies ( ,spa91 c4 c4 ,) a ,portrait4 #c ,vols4 ,po/ #hvo4 #cjs4 ,we tru/ our extracts h exhibit$ en\gh ( "o at lea/ ( ! _m aspects ( ',lav5gro' to conv9ce ! read] t nei!r is x a "w to be read cursorily1 nor to be h&l$ easily1 by any ( ! silv]-=k s*ool ( critics4 ,^! volumes are inde$ replete ) life1 ) e>ne/ sympa?y = all g5u9e work]s1 ) pr(\nd insight into ! wants & wi%es ( ! poor & un$ucat$1 & a l(ty disda9 ( ! conv5tional '%ams' & pret5sions :i* fett] ! spirits or imp$e ! en]gies ( mank9d4 ,nor is a feel+ = ! beautiful less conspicu\s 9 its pages4 ,a quiet m>ket-t[n1 environ$ by gre5 mead[s or bosom$ 9 tuft$ trees2 an old m]cantile & ecclesia/ical city1 ) a hi/ory /ret*+ f ! times ( ! ,caes>s to ! times ( ,george ,,iii42 ! treeless pla91 ! broad riv]1 ! holt1 ! d+le1 ! blacksmi?'s =ge1 are all 9 _! turn sket*$ freely & vividly by ,mr4 ,borr['s p5cil4 ,9 8 portraitures ( rud] life he is unsurpass$2 a dog-fight1 a prize-fight1 an ale-h\se kit*51 ,gre5wi* ,fair1 a savage gr\p ( w&]+ t9k]s1 are del9eat$ 9 words z ,wilkie or ,hog>? might h depict$ !m 9 col\rs4 ,we are emb>rass$ by ! ri*es spread be=e u4 ,we h n t\*$ ^u ! gipsy sc5es 9 ',lav5gro' because 9 any "w ( ,mr4 ,borr['s ^! w naturally be ! fir/ to draw ! read]'s att5tion4 ,nei!r h we aim$ at abridg+ or =e/all+ any portions ( a book :i* has a panoramic unity ( its own1 & ( :i* sc>cely a page is )\t its prop] int]e/4 ,if we h succe$$ 9 p]suad+ our read]s to reg>d ,mr4 ,borr[ z p>tly an hi/orian & p>tly z a poet1 z well z to look = m 9 8 volumes ?an m]e excitem5t or amusem5t1 our purpose is atta9$1 & we may securely comm5d him to ! goodly company he w f9d !re94 ',lav5gro1' h[ev]1 is n conclud$2 a f\r? volume w expla9 & ga!r up mu* ( :at is n[ some:at obscure & fragm5t>y1 & imp>t a m def9ite "* to ! philological & physiological h9ts compris$ 9 ^? n[ be=e u4 ,en\gh1 inde$1 & m ?an en\gh1 is writt5 to prove t ! au?or possesses1 9 no ord9>y measure1 '! vision & ! faculty div9e' = disc]n+ & discrim9at+ :at is noble 9 man & :at is beautiful 9 nature4 ,we tru/ ,mr4 ,borr[ w spe$ily br+ =? ! rema9+ acts ( 8 'dream ( adv5ture1' & ) good he>t & hope pursue 8 way rejoic+1 reg>dless ( ! misconceptions or misrepres5tations ( critics :o judge ?r\gh a mi/ ( conv5tionalities1 & :o !mselves1 :e!r travell$ or untravell$1 h n1 l ,lav5gro1 grappl$ ) ! deep] ?\ghts & v]acities ( human life4--,tait's ,magaz9e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,engl& ,,9 ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,political1 ,,social1 ,,& ,,indu/rial4 ,,by ,,william ,,john/on1 ,,esq4 #b ,vols4 ,po/ #hvo4 #ahs4 ,?is book is a some:at undige/$ mass ( valuable matt]1 int]sp]s$ occasionally ) reflections ( mu* int]e/ & obs]vations ( consid]able orig9ality4 ,! au?or is unque/ionably a man ( tal5t2 he writes ) vig\r & sm>tness2 he has tak5 pa9s 9 ! collection ( mo/ ( 8 mat]ials2 & 8 /ati/ics are arrang$ ) great c>e & manag$ ) unusual skill4 ,9 ?is po9t he is mu* sup]ior to 8 prototype & app>5t ma/]1 ,mr4 ,alison4 ,mr4 ,john/on's "w is readable & well-writt51 ab\nd+ ) in=mation ( _m k9ds4--,ed9burgh ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,saxon ,,9 ,,irel&3 ,,be+ ,,notes ,,( ,,! ,,rambles ,,( ,,an ,,engli%man ,,9 ,,! ,,we/ ,,( ,,irel& ,,9 ,,se>* ,,( ,a ,,settlem5t4 ,) ,map4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 #f;d4 ,a valuable te/imony to ! capabilities ( ,irel&4--,obs]v]4 ,let ! int5d+ emigrant devote a few h\rs to ! p]usal ( ?is volume4 ,! "w possesses deep] int]e/ ?an ev5 c\ld be claim$ = x f its fasc9at+ descriptions4--,illu/rat$ ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sleep ,,& ,,dreams3 ,,two ,,lectures ,,deliv]$ ,,at ,,! ,,bri/ol ,,lit]>y ,,& ,,philosophical ,,in/itution4 ,,by ,,john ,,add+ton ,,symonds1 ,m4,d41 ,consult+ ,physician to ! ,bri/ol ,g5]al ,hospital4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,palaces ,,( ,,n9eveh ,,& ,,p]sepolis ,,re/or$4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,anci5t ,,assyrian ,,& ,,p]sian ,,ar*itecture4 ,,by ,,james ,,f]gusson ,,esq41 ,) ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,?is book conta9s _m ?+s ( g5]al int]e/ relat+ to "o ( ! mo/ wond]ful discov]ies t has occurr$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,mr4 ,f]gusson writes v dispassionately4 ,:at he has said des]ves s]i\s consid]ation4--,g5tleman's ,magaz9e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,%all ,,we ,,keep ,,! ,,cry/al ,,palace ,,& ,,h ,,rid+ ,,& ,,walk+ ,,9 ,,all ,,wea!rs1 ,,among ,,fl[]s1 ,,sculpture1 ,,& ,,f\nta9s8 ,,by ,,d5>ius4 #hvo4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,memoirs ,,( ,,rob]t ,,plum] ,,w>d4 ,,) ,,8 ,,correspond5ce1 ,,di>ies1 ,,& ,,lit]>y ,,rema9s4 ,,by ,,! ,,hon4 ,,edmund ,,phipps4 ,) ,portrait4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,! mo/ valuable portions ( ,mr4 ,w>d's di>y are its illu/rations ( ! "* ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton4 ,! great soldi]1 !n 9 ! flu% ( 8 milit>y triumph1 0 also 9 ! prime ( 8 p[] & activity2 & ,mr4 ,w>d gives u an insight into 8 bus9ess habits1 8 me?od ( argu+ public que/ions1 8 ready res\rce & nev]-tir+ en]gy1 :i* possesses occasionally a /rik+ int]e/4--,exam9]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,milit>y ,,ev5ts ,,9 ,,italy1 #ahdh-i4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,g]man4 ,,by ,,! ,,"r ,,hon4 ,,! ,,e>l ,,( ,,ellesm]e4 ,) a ,map4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 ,milit>y hi/ory is1 z ! ,e>l ( ,ellesm]e decl>es1 a r>e article 9 ,engli% lit]ature2 &1 !re=e1 he ?\ght t ! mo/ au!ntic extant n>rative ( ! op]ations impli$ 9 ! title page ( ! pres5t book1 writt5 by an imp>tial ,swiss1 w\ld n be an unwelcome addition to ! ,briti% libr>y4 ,8 lord%ip has judg$ rightly2 ! "w ( :i* he has pres5t$ a v]sion is a wor?y lab\r1 & ! ev5ts to :i* x relates are ( ! la/ importance4 ,x is writt5 ) judgm5t1 & has be5 translat$ ) c>e4--,morn+ ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,transport ,,voyage ,,to ,,! ,,mauritius1 ,,by ,,way ,,( ,,! ,,cape ,,( ,,good ,,hope ,,& ,,/4 ,,hel5a4 ,,by ,,! ,,au?or ,,( ,,paddiana4 ,po/ #hvo4 #is4 #f;d4 ,?is book rem9ds u ( "o ( ^? pleasant fell[s1 :om "o sometimes meets ) 9 company1 :o has an anecdote or a /ory ready a propos ( ev]y?+1 ^: fund ( amus+ tales is inexhau/ible1 & :o rattl+ on f "o ?+ to ano!r1 w keep a :ole table 9 a ro>1 or a :ole draw+-room 9 high glee4 ,ev5 su* is our au?or4 ,he gossips on & on1 tell+ n[ ( "o adv5ture1 & !n ( ano!r2 8 volume is a p]fect *aos ( racy rem9isc5ces graphically told4--,john ,bull4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,admiralty ,,manual ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,enquiry ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,(fic]s ,,& ,,travell]s ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,by ,,pr(essors ,,:ewell1 ,,airy1 ,,ow51 ,,sir ,w4 ,,hook]1 ,,capt4 ,,bee*ey1 ,j4 ,r4 ,,hamilton1 ,,esq41 ,,sir ,,john ,,h]s*el1 c4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,sir ,,john ,f4 ,,h]s*el1 ,,b>t4 ,second ,edition4 ,po/ #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 33 ,publi%$ by ,au?ority ( ! ,lords ,commission]s ( ! ,admiralty4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lives ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,ju/ices ,,( ,,engl&4 ,,f ,,! ,,norman ,,conque/ ,,to ,,! ,,dea? ,,( ,,"l ,,mansfield4 ,,by ,,"l ,,*ief ,,ju/ice ,,campbell4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,!re is1 inde$1 9 ,"l ,campbell's works mu* in/ruction2 8 subjects h be5 s happily select$1 t x 0 sc>cely possible t !re %\ld n be4 ,an em95t lawy] & /atesman c\ld n write ! lives ( great /atesm5 & lawy]s )\t int]weav+ curi\s in=mation1 & sugge/+ valuable pr9ciples ( judgm5t & useful practical maxims3 b x is n = ^! t 8 works w be read4 ,_! pr9cipal m]it is _! easy animat$ fl[ ( int]e/+ n>rative4 ,no "o possesses bett] ?an ,"l ,campbell ! art ( tell+ a /ory3 ( pass+ ov] :at is commonplace2 ( m]ely sugge/+ :at may be inf]r$2 ( expla9+ :at is obscure2 & ( plac+ 9 /rong light ! details ( :at is int]e/+4--,ed9burgh ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,=ty-,,five4 ,,be+ ,a ,,n>rative ,,( ,,! ,,rebellion ,,9 ,,scotl& ,,( #agde2 ,,by ,,"l ,,mahon4 ,po/ #hvo4 #cs4 ,?is is a v compreh5sive & lively sket* ( ! fam\s ',rebellion' s vividly rememb]$1 ev5 aft] ! lapse ( a c5tury1 by ! p ( ,scotl&4 ,! incid5ts ( t un=tunate invasion f fir/ to la/1 f ! l&+ ( ,*>les 7,july #be?7 9 ,borrodale1 ) ! 'sev5 m5 ( ,moid>t1' to ! fatal battle ( ,cullod5 7#af? ,april1 #agdf71 are m9utely & fai?fully record$2 b we h no d\bt ! read] w be mo/ & ma9ly int]e/$ 9 ! p]sonal hi/ory & adv5tures ( ! ,pret5d] himself4 ,! "* ( ! ,pr9ce is admirably drawn1 & g5]\sly v9dicat$ f ! calumnies heap$ ^u him by 8 adv]s>ies aft] 8 fall4 ,x w p]haps surprise "s to le>n1 t he 0 s illit]ate z sc>cely to be ma/] ( ! mo/ common elem5ts ( education4 ',8 lett]s1' says ,"l ,mahon1 ':i* ,i h se5 among ! ,/u>t pap]s1 are writt5 9 a l>ge1 rude1 rambl+ h&1 l a s*oolboy's4 ,9 spell+ !y are /ill m defici5t4' ,we recomm5d ,"l ,mahon's n>rative z a v agreeable sket* ( a /irr+ & ev5tful p]iod4--,ed9burgh ,adv]tis]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,greece4 ,,f ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,p]iod ,,to ,,! ,,end ,,( ,,! ,,peloponnesian ,,w>4 ,,by ,,george ,,grote1 ,,esq4 ,vols4 ,i4-,,viii4 ,) ,maps4 #hvo4 #afs4 ea*4 ,! ,"w may be obta9$ 9 ,portions1 z x 0 publi%$3-- ,,vols4 ,i4-,,ii4 ,,leg5d>y ,,greece4 ,,grecian ,,hi/ory ,,to ,,! ,,reign ,,( ,,peisi/ratus ,,at ,,a!ns4 ,,vols4 ,,iii4-,,iv4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,e>ly ,,a!ns1 ,,& ,,! ,,legislation ,,( ,,solon4 ,,grecian ,,colonies4 ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,contempor>y ,,nations ,,surr\nd+ ,,greece4 ,,grecian ,,hi/ory ,,d[n ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,p]sian ,,invasion1 ,,& ,,! ,,battle ,,( ,,m>a?on4 ,,vols4 ,v4-,,vi4 ,,p]sian ,,w> ,,& ,,invasion ,,( ,,greece ,,by ,,x]xes4 ,,p]iod ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,p]sian ,,& ,,! ,,peloponnesian ,,w>s4 ,,peloponnesian ,,w> ,,d[n ,,to ,,! ,,exp$ition ,,( ,,! ,,a!nians ,,aga9/ ,,syracuse4 ,,vols4 ,,vii4-,,viii4 ,,! ,,peace ,,( ,,nikias ,,d[n ,,to ,,! ,,battle ,,( ,,knidus ,b4,c4 #dba ,,to #cid4 ,,socrates ,,& ,,! ,,sophi/s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,kugl]',s ,,h&book ,,illu/rat$4 ,,! ,,s*ools ,,( ,,pa9t+ ,,9 ,,italy4 ,,f ,,! ,,e>lie/ ,,times4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,g]man ,,by ,a ,,lady1 ,,& ,,edit$ ,,) ,,notes ,,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lock ,,ea/lake1 ,presid5t ( ! ,royal ,academy4 ,a ,new ,edition4 #b ,vols4 ,po/ #hvo4 #bds4 ,we _c leave ?is subject 7,*ri/ian ,art1 its pres5t /ate & its prospects71 )\t rev]t+ to ,sir ,c4 ,ea/lake's edition ( ,kugl]'s ,h&book ( ,pa9t+1 n = ! sake ( review+ x1--= x is a "w n[ ( e/abli%$ reputation1--b = ! purpose ( recomm5d+ x z be+ ^u ! :ole by f> ! be/ manual we are acqua9t$ )1 = e "o :o1 )\t ! opportunity ( =eign & p>ticul>ly ,italian travel1 desires to make a real /udy ( art4 ,its me?od1 its *ronological arrangem5t1 & its g5]ally judici\s criticism1 make x mo/ in/ructive to a le>n]4 ,we may add t ! pres5t edition is enl>g$ j :]e ! =m] "o ne$$ enl>gem5t1 & ! ,h&book is n[ f> m satisfactory z to ! e>ly religi\s s*ools ?an x 0 be=e4 ,! edition is beautifully got up1 & s pr(usely & judici\sly illu/rat$ by "o hundr$ woodcuts drawn by ,s*>f1 t x w\ld be next to impossible to speak too highly 9 its praise1 ev5 7 its matt] less valuable & important ?an x is4--,! ,ecclesia/ic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*ri/ianity ,,9 ,,ceylon3 ,,its ,,introduction ,,& ,,progress ,,"u ,,! ,,portuguese1 ,,dut*1 ,,briti%1 ,,& ,,am]ican ,,missions4 ,,by ,,sir ,,james ,,em]son ,,t5n5t1 ,k4,c4,s41 ,,ll4,d4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,to ^? :o take ei!r a religi\s or a philosophical int]e/ 9 ! subject1 ,sir ,em]son ,t5n5t's volume may be safely recomm5d$1 z a cle>1 succ9ct1 s5sible1 & fl[+ acc\nt4 ,! "w also possesses a liv+ animation aris+ f ! au?or's k ( ! c\ntry & ! p4--,spectator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,lex+ton ,,pap]s4 ,,! ,,c\rts ,,( ,,london ,,& ,,vi5na ,,9 ,,! #ag,,? ,,c5tury4 ,,extract$ ,,f ,,! ,,private ,,& ,,(ficial ,,correspond5ce ,,( ,,"l ,,lex+ton1 ,,:ile ,,briti% ,,m9i/] ,,at ,,vi5na1 #afid-ih4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,! ,,hon4 ,h4 ,,mann]s ,,sutton4 #hvo4 #ads4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,law ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,naval ,,c\rts-,,m>tial4 ,,by ,,william ,,hickman1 ,r4,n41 ,late ,secret>y to ,commodore ,sir ,*>les ,ho?am1 ,k4,c4,b4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,elem5t>y ,,geology2 ,,or1 ,,! ,,anci5t ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants1 ,,z ,,illu/rat$ ,,by ,,its ,,geological ,,monum5ts4 ,,by ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,p4,g4,s4 ,?ird ,edition1 ?or\ghly revis$1 & illu/rat$ ) #ebj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,! production ( "o ( our mo/ em95t geologi/s 9 an age ( _m4 ,?\gh /yl$ a '?ird edition1' x is 9 reality a new book4 ,?is c\ld n be o!rwise if ! task 7 well done2 = ! sci5ce ( :i* ,sir ,*>les ,lyell treats is assum+ new aspects e ye>4 ,x is cont9ually advanc+ & ev] gr[+4 ,z x advances1 its /eps become firm] & sur]2 z x gr[s1 its framework becomes m compact1 & its organization m p]fect4 ,!y :o take up ! hamm] to foll[ x mu/ toil ) unflagg+ tread to keep pace ) its onw>d progress4 ,if !y lag beh9d1 !y c sc>cely hope to ov]take4 ,none among its vot>ies has m>k$ ea* movem5t m m9utely1 or weigh$ its value & purpose m judici\sly1 ?an ! di/+ui%$ au?or ( ?is ,manual4 ,he has inde$ done 8 task well1 & bo? ! beg9n] & ! exp]i5c$ inve/igator w f9d 8 book an invaluable guide & companion4--,lit]>y ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,comm5t>ies ,,on ,,! ,,w> ,,9 ,,russia ,,& ,,g]many ,,( #ahac-ad4 ,,by ,,colonel ,,! ,,hon4 ,,george ,,ca?c>t1 ,deputy-,lieut5ant ( ! ,t[] ( ,london4 ,) ,plans4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,z a ,treatise on ! ,sci5ce ( ,w>1 ^! ,comm5t>ies ought to f9d _! way into ! h&s ( e soldi]4 ,9 !m is to be f\nd an accurate record ( ev5ts ( :i* no milit>y man %\ld be ignorant4--,morn+ ,*ronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mod]n ,,dome/ic ,,cook]y4 ,,f\nd$ ,,^u ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,economy ,,& ,,practical ,,k4 ,,& ,,adapt$ ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,private ,,families4 ,) #ajj ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 #fs4 ,! advanc$ /ate ( cook]y hav+ r5d]$ ,mrs4 ,rundell's "w obsolete1 ! publi%] has caus$ x to be remodell$ & improv$ to su* an ext5t z to give x a claim to ! title ( an orig9al production4 ,! receipts ( ! late ,miss ,emma ,rob]ts h be5 revis$ & add$ to ! "w2 & x has _h ! advantage ( be+ subject$ besides to ! c>eful inspection ( a 'pr(essional g5tleman'--,economy comb9$ ) excell5ce--is ! aim1 end1 & object :i* x _c be d\bt$ w be obta9$ if its prescriptions are att5d$ to4 ,x is full] ?an ! =m] ,dome/ic ,cook]y1 ( :i* x is an improv$ & am5d$ edition--x is m simple & compreh5sible 9 its language2 x conta9s sev]al diagrams n to be f\nd 9 its pr$ecessor2 & x possesses v>i\s m9or qualities1 :i* increase its value 9 a t5fold degree1 & make x1 to say ! lea/1 equal to any o!r book ( ! k9d 9 ! ,engli% language4--,obs]v]4 ,,albem>le ,,/reet1 ,july #e1 #ahea4 ,,mr4 ,,murray',s ,li/ ( ,works 9 ! ,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,selections f ! ,despat*es ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton4 ,,by ,,! ,,late ,,col4 ,,gurwood1 ,c4,b41 ,k4,c4,t4,s4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,"o ,volume4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hi/ory ( ,engl&1 f ! ,peace ( ,utre*t4 ,,vols4 #e #f--,,! ,,fir/ ,,ye>s ,,( ,,! ,,am]ican ,,w>3 #agfc--aghj4 ,,by ,,"l ,,mahon1 ,m4,p4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lives ( ! ,fri5ds & ,contempor>ies ( ,"l ,*ancellor ,cl>5don4 ,,illu/rative ,,( ,,portraits ,,9 ,,8 ,,gall]y2 ,,) ,,an ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,collection2 ,,& ,a ,,descriptive ,,catalogue ,,( ,,! ,,pictures4 ,,by ,,lady ,,!resa ,,lewis4 ,) ,portraits4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,treasures ( ,art 9 ,great ,brita94 ,,be+ ,,an ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,collections ,,( ,,pa9t+s1 ,,sculpture1 ,,mss4 ,,m9iatures1 c41 c41 ,,obta9$ ,,f ,,p]sonal ,,inspection ,,dur+ ,,visits ,,9 #ahcf ,,& #ahej4 7,,be+ ,a ,,revis$ ,,& ,,greatly ,,enl>g$ ,,v]sion ,,( ,,art ,,& ,,arti/s ,,9 ,,engl&47 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,waag51 ,director ( ! ,royal ,gall]y ( ,pictures at ,b]l94 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,gr5ville ,pap]s2 ,,be+ ,,! ,,private ,,correspond5ce ,,( ,,ri*>d ,,gr5ville1 ,,e>l ,,temple1 ,k4,g41 ,,& ,,8 ,,bro!r1 ,,! ,,"r ,,hon\rable ,,george ,,gr5ville1 ,,_! ,,fri5ds ,,& ,,contempor>ies1 ,,=m]ly ,,pres]v$ ,,at ,,/[e--,,n[ ,,= ,,! ,,fir/ ,,"t ,,made ,,public4 ,among ! cont5ts ( ?is highly important accession to ! ,hi/ory ( ,great ,brita9 9 ! middle ( ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 w be f\nd ,lett]s f ,h4 ,m4 ,,k+ ,,george ,,! ,,?ird4 ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 ,,william ,,duke ,,( ,,cumb]l&4 ,,dukes ,,(3-- ,,newca/le4 ,,devon%ire4 ,,grafton4 ,,b$=d4 ,,m>quess3-- ,,granby4 ,,e>ls3-- ,,bute4 ,,temple4 ,,s&wi*4 ,,egremont4 ,,halifax4 ,,h>dwicke4 ,,*a?am4 ,,mansfield4 ,,nor?+ton4 ,,suffolk4 ,,hillsbor\gh4 ,,h]t=d4 ,,lords3-- ,,lyttleton4 ,,camd54 ,,holl&4 ,,clive4 ,,george ,,sackville4 ---- ,,m>%al ,,conway4 ,,horace ,,walpole 7,,e>l ,,( ,,or=d74 ,,edmund ,,burke4 ,,george ,,gr5ville4 ,,john ,,wilkes4 ,,william ,,g]>d ,,hamilton4 ,,augu/us ,,h]vey4 ,,mr4 ,,j5k9son 7fir/ ,,e>l ,,( ,,liv]pool74 ,,mr4 ,,:ately4 ,,mr4 ,,w$d]burn 7,,e>l ,,( ,,roslyn74 ,,mr4 ,,*>les ,,yorke4 ,,mr4 ,,hans ,,/anley4 ,,mr4 ,,*>les ,,t[ns5d4 ,,mr4 ,,calcraft4 ,,mr4 ,,rigby4 ,,mr4 ,,knox4 ,,mr4 ,,*>les ,,lloyd4 ,,& ,,! ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,lett]s ,,( ,,junius4 ,,includ+ ,,also1 ,mr4 ,gr5ville's ,di>y ( ,political ,ev5ts2 ,,p>ticul>ly ,,dur+ ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,8 ,,adm9i/ration ,,z ,,fir/ ,,"l ,,( ,,! ,,treasury1 ,,f #agfc ,,to #agfe4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,william ,,james ,,smi?1 ,,esq4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,p]sonal ,n>rative ( an ,engli%man ,dome/icat$ 9 ,abyss9ia4 ,,by ,,mansfield ,,p>kyns1 ,,esq4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lives ( ! ,?ree ,dev]eux1 ,e>ls ( ,essex1 ,,f #aedj ,,to #afdf4 #a4 ,,! ,,e>l ,,m>%all ,,( ,,irel&4--#b4 ,,! ,,fav\rite4--#c4 ,,! ,,g5]al ,,( ,,! ,,p>liam5t4 ,,f\nd$ ,,^u ,,lett]s ,,& ,,docum5ts ,,*iefly ,,unpubli%$4 ,,by ,,! ,,hon4 ,,capta9 ,,dev]eux1 ,r4,n4 #b ,vols4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,pres5t ,/ate ( ! ,republic ( ! ,rio de la ,plata 7,bu5os ,ayres74 ,,its ,,geography1 ,,res\rces1 ,,/ati/ics1 ,,comm]ce1 ,,debt1 ,,etc41 ,,describ$4 ,,) ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,conque/ ,,( ,,! ,,c\ntry ,,by ,,! ,,spani>ds4 ,,by ,,sir ,,woodb9e ,,p>i%1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,k4,c4,h1 ,f4,g4,s41 ,=m]ly ,h] ,maje/y's ,consul ,g5]al & ,*>ge d' ,affaires at ,bu5os ,ayres4 ,) ,new ,map & ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,contra/s ( ,=eign & ,engli% ,society2 ,,or1 ,,records ,,& ,,recollections ,,( ,a ,,resid5ce ,,9 ,,v>i\s ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,cont95t ,,& ,,engl&4 ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,au/94 #b ,vols4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,h&2 ,,its ,,me*anism ,,& ,,end[m5ts1 ,,z ,,ev9c+ ,,design4 ,,by ,,! ,,late ,,sir ,,*>les ,,bell4 ,a ,new ,edition4 ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,naval & ,milit>y ,te*nological ,diction>y4 ,,engli% ,,& ,,fr5*4--,,fr5* ,,& ,,engli%4 ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,soldi]s1 ,,sailors1 ,,& ,,eng9e]s4 ,,by ,,colonel ,,burn1 ,assi/ant ,inspector ( ,artill]y4 ,small #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,life & ,rem9isc5ces ( ,?omas ,/o?>d1 ,r4,a4 ,,by ,,mrs4 ,,bray4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations f 8 ,*ief ,works1 drawn on ,wood by ,g4 ,,s*>f1 ,jun41 & pr9t$ 9 a novel & beautiful /yle4 ,) a ,portrait4 ,small #dto4 99 99 99 99 99 ,life & ,works ( ,alex&] ,pope4 ,,edit$ ,,) ,,notes4 ,,by ,,! ,,"r ,,hon4 ,,john ,,wilson ,,crok]4 ,portraits4 #d vols4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,diction>y ( ,greek & ,roman ,geography4 ,,by ,,william ,,smi?1 ,,ll4,d4 ,) an ,hi/orical ,atlas4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,*ur* ,diction>y4 ,,by ,,walt] ,,f>quh> ,,hook1 ,d4,d41 ,vic> ( ,le$s4 ,six? ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 ,"o ,volume4 #hvo4 ,9 ?is edition1 besides ! addition ( _m new articles1 all ^? relat+ to important ,doctr9al & ,liturgical ,subjects h be5 enl>g$4 ,! au?orities on :i* /atem5ts h be5 made1 are giv51 ) copi\s extracts f ! works ( our ,/&>d ,div9es4 ,special ref]5ce has be5 made to ! ,romi% ,controv]sy4 ,att5tion has also be5 paid to ! subjects ( ,ecclesia/ical & ,civil ,law1 & to ! ,/atute ,law ( ,engl& 9 ,*ur* ,matt]s4--,extract f ! ,preface4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hi/ory ( ,anci5t ,pott]y2 ,,egyptian1 ,,asiatic1 ,,greek1 ,,roman1 ,,etruscan1 ,,& ,,celtic4 ,,by ,,samuel ,,bir*1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,assi/ant ,keep] ( ! ,antiquities 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,) ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,,uni=m ,,) ,,m>ryat',s ,,mod]n ,,pott]y ,,& ,,porcela94 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,sket* ( ,madeira 9 #ahej4 ,,by ,,edw>d ,,v]non ,,h>c\rt4 ,a ,,h&book ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,travell]s ,,or ,,invalids ,,visit+ ,,! ,,isl&4 ,) a ,map & ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,h]odotus4 ,a ,,new ,,engli% ,,v]sion4 ,,translat$ ,,f ,,! ,,text ,,( ,,gais=d1 ,,& ,,edit$ ,,by ,,rev4 ,,george ,,rawl9son1 ,m4,a41 ,exet] ,college1 ,ox=d4 ,,assi/$ ,,by ,,colonel ,,rawl9son1 ,c4,b41 ,,& ,,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,wilk9son1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,) ,,copi\s ,,notes ,,& ,,app5dices1 ,,illu/rat+ ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,& ,,geography ,,( ,,h]odotus1 ,,f ,,! ,,mo/ ,,rec5t ,,s\rces ,,( ,,in=mation1 ,,embody+ ,,! ,,*ief ,,results1 ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,e?nographical1 ,,:i* ,,h ,,be5 ,,arriv$ ,,at ,,9 ,,! ,,progress ,,( ,,cunei=m ,,& ,,hi]oglyphical ,,discov]y4 #d ,vols4 #hvo4 ,! translation itself has be5 und]tak5 f a conviction ( ! entire inadequacy ( any exi/+ v]sion to ! wants ( ! "t4 ,! gross unfai?fulness ( ,beloe1 & ! extreme unpleasantness ( 8 /yle1 r5d] 8 translation completely insuffici5t 9 an age :i* dislikes affectation & requires accuracy2 :ile ! only o!r complete ,engli% v]sions :i* exi/ are at once too close to ! orig9al to be p]us$ ) any pleasure by ! g5]al read]1 & also defective 9 respect ( s*ol>%ip4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,treatise on ,naval ,gunn]y1 ,,= ,,! ,,use ,,( ,,(fic]s ,,& ,,= ,,! ,,tra9+ ,,( ,,seam5 ,,gunn]s4 ,,) ,,descriptions ,,( ,,! ,,guns ,,introduc$ ,,s9ce ,,! ,,late ,,w>4 ,,by ,,lieut4-,,g54 ,,sir ,,h[>d ,,d\glas1 ,,b>t41 ,g4,c4,b4 ,?ird ,edition1 revis$4 ,plates4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,consid]ations on ,/eam ,w>f>e & ,naval ,%ell-,fir+2 ,,by ,,lieut4-,,g54 ,,sir ,,h[>d ,,d\glas1 ,,b>t4 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,lett]s & ,j\rnals ( ,g5]al ,sir ,hudson ,l[e1 ,,reveal+ ,,! ,,true ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,napoleon ,,at ,,/4 ,,hel5a4 ,,p>tly ,,compil$ ,,& ,,arrang$ ,,by ,,! ,,late ,,sir ,,ni*olas ,,h>ris ,,nicolas4 ,) ,portrait4 #c ,vols4 #hvo4 ,f ^! pap]s ! _w w at la/ le>n1 z x ought long ago to h le>nt1 ! tru?1 & ! :ole tru?1 respect+ ! captivity ( ,napoleon4--,qu>t]ly ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,home ,s]mons2 ,,or1 ,,s]mons ,,writt5 ,,= ,,sunday ,,read+ ,,9 ,,families4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,,john ,,p5rose1 ,m4,a41 #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,hi/ory ( ,greece = ,s*ools4 ,,on ,,! ,,plan ,,( ,,mrs4 ,,m>kham',s ,,hi/ories4 ,) ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,/ate ,pap]s ( ,h5ry ! ,eigh?'s ,reign1 ,,compris+ ,,! ,,correspond5ce ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,engli% ,,gov]nm5t ,,& ,,! ,,cont95tal ,,p[]s1 ,,f ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,election ,,( ,,*>les ,v4 ,,to ,,! ,,dea? ,,( ,,h5ry ,,viii4 ,) ,indexes4 ,vols4 ,,vi-,,xi4 #dto4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,(ficial ,h&book4 ,,be+ ,a ,,manual ,,( ,,hi/orical ,,& ,,political ,,ref]5ce ,,= ,,all ,,classes4 ,"o ,volume4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 ,! design ( ?is ,"w is to %[ concisely ! ma*9]y by :i* ! ,,gov]nm5t ( ! c\ntry is c>ri$ on1 giv+ su* a succ9ct acc\nt ( ! duties1 emolum5ts1 & au?orities ( ! v>i\s ,,public ,,dep>tm5ts1 ) _! political relations1 z w1 x is hop$1 r5d] ! volume a useful manual ( ref]5ce to all /rang]s & ,=eign]s desir\s to make !mselves acqua9t$ ) ,briti% ,in/itutions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,briti% ,museum2 ,,h&book ,,to ,,! ,,antiquities ,,& ,,sculpture ,,!re4 ,,by ,w4 ,s4 ,w4 ,,vaux1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a41 ,assi/ant 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,antiquities 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,) ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book ( ,*ronology4 ,,alphabetically ,,arrang$ ,,to ,,facilitate ,,ref]5ce4 ,"o ,volume1 #hvo4 ,?is "w w enable ! /ud5t or g5]al read]1 or man ( ! _w1 to put 8 f+] at once ^u ! date ( any p>ticul> ev5t by means ( a c>eful alphabetical classifi$ arrangem5t ( ! v>i\s elaborate *ronologies :i* h be5 giv5 to ! _w4 ,x has be5 prep>$ ) su* c>e z w r5d] x--x is hop$--a tru/wor?y book ( ref]5ce4 ,x conta9s ! dates ( ! ev5ts :i* m>k ! rise1 progress1 decl9e1 & fall ( /ates2 & ! *anges 9 ! =tunes ( nations4 ,alliances1 w>s1 battles1 sieges1 & treaties ( peace2 geographical discov]ies1 ! settlem5t ( colonies1 & _! subsequ5t /ory2--) all occurr5ces ( g5]al hi/oric int]e/--are record$ 9 x4 ,x fur!r includes ! ye>s ( ! lead+ incid5ts 9 ! lives ( m5 em95t = wor?1 k1 rank1 or fame2 & ( ! writ+s1 c41 c41 by :i* !y are *iefly kn[n2 discov]ies 9 e dep>tm5t ( sci5ce2 & inv5tions & improvem5ts1 me*anical1 social1 dome/ic1 & economical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book = ,syria & ! ,holy ,l&4 ,) ,maps4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book = ,engl& & ,wales2 ,giv+ an acc\nt ( ! ,,places & ,,objects be/ wor? visit+ 9 ,engl&1 m especially ^? r5d]$ int]e/+ by ,hi/orical ,associations1 or likely to attract ! notice ( intellig5t /rang]s & pass+ travell]s2 arrang$ 9 connexion ) ! mo/ frequ5t$ ,roads & ,railways 9 ,engl&4 ,%[+1 at ! same "t1 ! way ( see+ !m to ! be/ advantage1 ) ! lea/ exp5diture ( "t & money4 ,?is "w w appe> 9 portions1 z foll[s3-- ,,"p ,i4--,,! ,,ea/]n ,,c\nties2 ,,includ+ ,,essex1 ,,suffolk1 ,,norfolk1 ,,cambridge1 ,,& ,,l9coln4 7,ne>ly ,ready47 ,,"p ,,ii4--,,midl& ,,c\nties2 ,,h]ts1 ,,b$=d1 ,,nor?ampton1 ,,leice/]1 ,,bucks1 ,,nott+ham%ire4 ,,"p ,,iii4--,,d]by%ire ,,& ,,york%ire4 ,,"p ,,iv4--,,durham1 ,,nor?umb]l&1 ,,/af=d%ire1 ,,*e%ire1 ,,lanca%ire1 ,,cumb]l&1 ,,! ,,lakes4 ,,"p ,v4--,,b]ks1 ,,bucks1 ,,ox=d%ire1 ,,w>wick1 ,,gl\ce/]1 ,,worce/]1 ,,h]e=d1 ,,%rop%ire1 ,,*e%ire4 ,,"p ,,vi4--,,nor? ,,& ,,s\? ,,wales4 ,,"p ,,vii4--,,devon ,,& ,,cornwall4 7,ready47 ,,"p ,,viii4--,,som]set1 ,,wilts1 ,,dorset4 ,,"p ,,ix4--,,hamp%ire1 ,,isle ,,( ,,wight1 ,,sussex1 ,,surrey1 ,,k5t4 ,,also1 ,a ,,cond5s$ ,,h&book ,,( ,,all ,,engl& ,,9 ,,"o ,,volume4 ,) ,map & ,plans4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book ( ,ar*itecture4 ,,be+ ,a ,,concise ,,& ,,popul> ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,/yles ,,prevail+ ,,9 ,,all ,,ages ,,& ,,c\ntries ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,,) ,a ,,description ,,( ,,! ,,mo/ ,,rem>kable ,,build+s4 ,,by ,,james ,,f]gusson1 ,,esq41 ,au?or ( ,indian ,ar*itecture1 ,palaces ( ,n9eveh & ,p]sepolis ,re/or$4 ,) v num]\s ,illu/rations on ,wood4 #hvo4 ,uni=m ) ,,kugl]',s ,,h&book ,,( ,,pa9t+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book to ! ,ca!drals ( ,engl&4 ,,conta9+ ,a ,,%ort ,,description ,,( ,,ea*4 ,,by ,,! ,,rev4 ,g4 ,a4 ,,poole1 ,m4,a41 ,vic> ( ,wel=d4 ,) ,illu/rative ,woodcuts4 ,small #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book = ! ,environs ( ,london2 ,,) ,,h9ts ,,= ,,excursions ,,by ,,rail--,,riv]--,,& ,,road4 ,,by ,,pet] ,,cunn+ham1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,h&book ( ,mod]n ,london2 ,,or1 ,,london ,,z ,,x ,,is4 ,,giv+ ,,full ,,descriptions ,,( ,,all ,,places ,,& ,,objects ,,( ,,int]e/ ,,9 ,,! ,,metropolis ,,& ,,its ,,vic9ity4 ,) a ,clue-,map ( ,london1 ,plans1 c4 #ahmo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,popul> ,acc\nt ( ,n9eveh & its ,rema9s4 ,,by ,,au/5 ,h4 ,,lay>d1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,,abridg$ ,,& ,,cond5s$ ,,f ,,8 ,,l>g] ,,"w4 ,) ,num]\s ,woodcuts4 ,po/ #hvo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bradbury ,,& ,,evans1 ,,pr9t]s1 ,,:itefri>s4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,passages 9 italics are indicat$ by und]score4 ,passages 9 fracture /yle are indicat$ by fracture4 ,all ,greek has be5 translit]at$ & plac$ betwe5 ,greek4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ f ! middle ( a p>agraph to ! close/ p>agraph break4 ,9 ! footnote #ccf-;,a 7page #ccf7 lib4 or liv4 might be pr9t$ wrong4 ,on page #ahe a footnote an*or 0 add$ to fig4 #afj #ahe-;,a4 ,on page #bae an pot5tial an*or = footnote #bae-;,a 0 guess$ & add$4 ,on page #bde an an*or = footnote #bde-;,a 0 add$4 ,on page #bhj a footnote an*or #bhj-;,b 0 add$4 ,o!r ?an ! corrections li/$ bel[1 pr9t]'s inconsi/5cies 9 spell+1 punctuation1 hyph5ation1 & ligature usage h be5 reta9$4 ,! use ( capital lett]s 9 names1 sci5tific classifications1 locations1 & "t p]iods_/eras is n consi/5t 9 ?is book1 !y h be5 kept z pr9t$ & only *ang$ :5 an obvi\s error occurr$4 ,! sy/em ( abbreviations & punctuation 9 citations & figure captions c v>y1 ! text has be5 kept z pr9t$ & only *ang$ :5 an obvi\s error occurr$4 ,! punctuation 9 ! index 0 inconsi/5t1 all commas 9 li/+s = page numb]s h be5 *ang$ into full /ops1 !y are n specially m5tion$_/m>k$ 9 ! li/ ( *anges4 ,! alphabetic ord] 9 ! index is sometimes inconsi/5t b has be5 kept z pr9t$4 ,palaeoma]yx 7page #agh7 is kn[n 9 ! lit]ature by ,paleom]yx 7http3_/_/www4paleodatabase4org7 z well z ,palaeom]yx4 ,palaeoniscus is kn[n 9 ! lit]ature z ,palaeoniscus4 ,inoc]amus ,cuvi]i is today kn[n z ,inoc]amus cuvi]i 7ref3 ,cretace\s ,fossils ( ,nor? ,am]ica74 ,diff]5t spell+ ( ,a%by de la ,z\* 7text7 & ,a%by-de-la-,z\* 7index7 0 reta9$4 ,old] or unusual =ms ( spell+ ( "s ,g]man & ,fr5* t[ns & locations h be5 reta9$ 7e4g4 ,b]tri*-,bad5--,bad ,b]tri*1 ,rod]b]g--,rodd]b]g1 ,gemund] ,ma>--,gemu5d] ,ma>1 ,b\lade--,b\laide1 ,pont ,gibaud--,pontgibaud1 ,sa>brueck--,sa>brueck574 ,! foll[+ words h be5 reta9$ 9 bo? v]sions3 ,agas4 & ,agass4 bra*iopod1 bra*iopods & bra*iopoda 7z well z ) capital lett]s or l[] case7 ,bunt] ,s&/e9 & ,bunt]-,s&/e9 7z well z v>i\s comb9ations ) ,bunt]1 bunt]1 s&/e91 ,s&/e97 ,*eiro!rium & ,*iro!rium z *eiro!rian & *iro!rian ,didelphis & ,didelphys dike_/s & dyke_/s foot-pr9t_/s & footpr9t_/s foot-m>ks & footm>ks gault & ,gault ,g_/grauwacke & ,g_/grauwacke & _! ,engli% translations 7greywacke7 gre5s& & ,gre5s& z well z _! v>iations ,holopti*ius 7e4g4 ,lyell7 & ,holopty*ius 7g5]al usage7 ,i*?yolites & ,ic?yolites iron-/ones & iron/ones jaw-bone & jawbone ,keup] & keup] ,lias & lias ,liege & ,liege ,mus*elkalk & mus*elkalk non-fossilif]\s & nonfossilif]\s ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & old r$ s&/one ) all v>iations ,p_/palaeo9999 & ,p_/paleo9999 ) all v>iations f paleontological to paleozoic ,pozzolana & ,pozzuolana 7rec5t =m7 primaeval & primeval quaquav]sal & qua-quav]sal ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us & ,rh9oc]os ti*or9us scoria & scoriae ,s5oni5 & ,s5oni5 tile/one_/s & ,t_/tile-/one_/s ,! foll[+ mispr9ts h be5 correct$3 *ang$ to recognise rocks into to recognize rocks page vi *ang$ a fre%-wat] or into a fre%wat] or page viii *ang$ belong to ga/]od\s into belong to ga/]opod\s page x *ang$ ,ova 9 a c>bonis$ /ate4 into ,ova 9 a c>boniz$ /ate4 page xi 7fig4 #ebc;a7 *ang$ ,wu]temb]gis*4 ,naturwiss5 ,jahre%efte into ,wu]temb]gis*4 ,naturwiss54 ,jahre%efte footnote xiii-,a *ang$ by ,h]man von ,mey] into by ,h]man von ,mey]4 page xiv 7fig4 #ecj7 *ang$ ne> ,/uttg>t1 ,wurtemb]g4 into ne> ,/uttg>t1 ,wu]temb]g4 page xiv *ang$ is *>act]is$ by into is *>act]iz$ by page xvi *ang$ g5us ,sauric?ys1 ,hybodus1 into g5us ,sauri*?ys1 ,hybodus1 page xv *ang$ ,sauric?ys ,m\geotii1 is into ,sauri*?ys ,m\geotii1 is page xv *ang$ 9 ! ,quad] ,s&-/e9 & into 9 ! ,quad]s&/e9 & page xvi *ang$ ( organisation 9 fossils into ( organization 9 fossils page xix *ang$ or to ,pl]odactyles into or to ,pt]odactyles page xix *ang$ class ,aves h hi!r to into class ,aves h hi!rto page xix *ang$ bor$ by t]$9a into bor$ by ,t]$9a page xxiii *ang$ ne> ,/4 ,&rew's into ne> ,/4 ,&rews page xxix *ang$ ,sub-m>9e lava & into ,subm>9e lava & page xxix *ang$ ,granite ( ,d>tmore alt]+ into ,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ page xxx *ang$ ,conclud+ rem>ks #dhi into ,conclud+ rem>ks #dhh page xxxi *ang$ occasionally *>act]is$ by into occasionally *>act]iz$ by page #c *ang$ are all *>act]is$ into are all *>act]iz$ page #e *ang$ ,loire1 & ,arde*e1 into ,loire1 & ,arde*e1 page #e *ang$ ,giants' ,causeway1 call$ into ,giant's ,causeway1 call$ page #f *ang$ cool$ & cry/allis$1 into cool$ & cry/alliz$1 page #g *ang$ by ,dr4 ,mac ,cullo* into by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch page #h *ang$ aft]w>ds sup]-impos$1 & into aft]w>ds sup]impos$1 & page #i *ang$ causes1 :ile sup]-impos$ into causes1 :ile sup]impos$ page #i *ang$ 7,gre5-s& =mation47 into 7,gre5s& =mation47 page #af *ang$ annex$ fig4 7#g471 into annex$ fig4 #g41 page #ah *ang$ 7,gre5-s& =mation87 into 7,gre5s& =mation87 page #ah *ang$ bor$ by t]$9a into bor$ by ,t]$9a page #ba *ang$ great b$ ( tripoli1 ,bil94 into great b$ ( ,tripoli1 ,bil94 page #be 7figs4 #ai_/bj7 *ang$ figure numb] figure #cd into figure #cc page #bi *ang$ in=mation f ic?yolites into in=mation f i*?yolites page #cb *ang$ conf9$ to ve9-/ones4 into conf9$ to ve9/ones4 page #cd *ang$ ! dry+ & skr9k+ into ! dry+ & %r9k+ page #fc *ang$ conglom]ate1 ,n4 #b4 clay1 into conglom]ate1 ,no4 #b4 clay1 page #fg *ang$ describ$ by ,dr4 ,maccullo*1 into describ$ by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 page #fg *ang$ ( ,ross-%ire4 7,maccullo*47 into ( ,ross-%ire4 7,mac,culloch47 page #fg 7fig4 #ij7 *ang$ ,dax1 ne> ,b\rdeaux into ,dax1 ne> ,bordeaux page #gb *ang$ indicate ! int]mittance into indicate ! int]mitt5ce page #gd *ang$ figure numb] #if to figure #ic page #ge *ang$ ,modica1 precipiti\s into ,modica1 precipit\s page #gg *ang$ !m by ,dr4 ,maccullo*1 into !m by ,dr4 ,mac,culloch1 page #hf *ang$ ,dr4 ,maccullo* & into ,dr4 ,mac,culloch & page #hg *ang$ h ev] re-appe>$ into h ev] reappe>$ page #ih *ang$ fossilisation ( c]ta9 into fossilization ( c]ta9 page #ajf *ang$ hills call$ ,brud] ,holz into hills call$ ,brud]holz page #abj *ang$ ne> ,/uttg>dt1 9 into ne> ,/uttg>t1 9 page #abj *ang$ /ones h travell$ into /ones h travell$4 page #aba *ang$ already *>act]is$ by into already *>act]iz$ by page #abd *ang$ neighb\rhood ( ,upsal1 into neighb\rhood ( ,upsala1 page #abd *ang$ ,isles ( sub-a]ial glaci]s4 into ,isles ( suba]ial glaci]s4 page #acj add$ ,,b\ld] ,,=mation--cont9u$4 to *apt] head+ page #aca *ang$ its mat]ials re>rang$ into its mat]ials re-arrang$ page #acf *ang$ *apt]s #g & #h41 into *apt]s #g4 & #h41 page #aci *ang$ to coexi/ 9 into to co-exi/ 9 page #adg *ang$ class ( w>m-blodd$ into class ( w>m-blood$ page #adh *ang$ speces ( de] into species ( de] page #aed *ang$ skeletons ( ,maga!rium1 into skeletons ( ,mega!rium1 page #aeg *ang$ /ud5t to recognise ! into /ud5t to recognize ! page #aei *ang$ b4 nat4 size ( a & b4 into c4 nat4 size ( a & b4 page #afa 7fig4 #ada7 *ang$ ov]an are a into ov] an area page #afb *ang$ concretion>y re>rangem5t ( into concretion>y re-arrangem5t ( page #afd *ang$ ,faseicul>ia aurantium into ,fascicul>ia aurantium page #afe 7fig4 #adh7 *ang$ v4 ext]ior4 into a4 ext]ior4 page #afe 7fig4 #adh47 *ang$ climates1 su* a into climates1 su* z page #afe *ang$ clayslate1 & v>i\s into clay-slate1 & v>i\s page #afi *ang$ f ! ,app59es into f ! ,ap5n9es page #afh *ang$ #ag p] c5t1 into #ag p] c5t41 page #agb *ang$ b$s 7,sables inf]ieurs into b$s 7,sables inf]ieurs page #age *ang$ inf]ieurs et argiles into inf]ieurs et argiles page #age *ang$ ,upp] ,m>9e or ,fonta9bleau into ,upp] ,m>9e or ,fonta9ebleau page #agg *ang$ ,m4 de ,kon9ck ( ,liege into ,m4 ,de ,kon9ck ( ,liege page #agh *ang$ or ,caddice-fly into or ,caddis-fly page #ahe *ang$ lake ( ! ,lemagne into lake ( ! ,limagne page #ahg *ang$ ,bag%ot & ,brockle%am division into ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am division page #aij *ang$ ,nome ( !m into ,none ( !m page #aib *ang$ g5]a ,emys & ,trionix4 into g5]a ,emys & ,trionyx4 page #aib *ang$ ,sables ,moy5s4 divide into ,sables ,moy5s1 divide page #aic *ang$ ( ! ,engli% ,eoc5e/rata1 into ( ! ,engli% ,eoc5e /rata1 page #aig *ang$ ,head5 ,hill1 on into ,headon ,hill1 on page #aig *ang$ ,eg]ton has recognis$ into ,eg]ton has recogniz$ page #aih *ang$ br[n & bluei% gray into br[n & bluei% grey page #bjj *ang$ b$s ,nos4 #a1 #b4 are into b$s ,nos4 #a1 #b41 are page #bjh *ang$ places = mill-/ones4 into places = mill/ones4 page #bjh *ang$ ( ,d',orbigny be=e into ( d',orbigny be=e page #bjh *ang$ sea-cliffs at ,/ev5skl9t into sea-cliffs at ,/ev5s ,kl9t page #baj *ang$ & ,o/rea1 vesicul>is4 into & ,o/rea vesicul>is4 page #bae *ang$ bivalves 7figs4 #bjc4 #bje1 into bivalves 7figs4 #bjc1 #bje1 page #baf *ang$ ! ,dammura ( into ! ,damm>a ( page #baf *ang$ aft]w>ds recognis$ by into aft]w>ds recogniz$ by page #baf *ang$ ( ! ,radack a*ipelago1 into ( ! ,radack ar*ipelago1 page #bag *ang$ obs]vations ( ,f]d9& ,roem]2 into obs]vations ( ,f]d9& ,roem]2 page #bbd *ang$ ! m>l-/ones are into ! m>l/ones are page #bbd *ang$ ,weald5 7see ,nos4 #e into ,weald5 7see ,nos4 #e4 page #bbe *ang$ purely fre%-wat] orig94 into purely fre%wat] orig94 page #bbg *ang$ ,auv]gne 7see above1 p4 #ahc47 into ,auv]gne 7see above1 p4 #ahc474 page #bbh *ang$ g5]a ,trioynx & ,emys1 into g5]a ,trionyx & ,emys1 page #bbi *ang$ ,see ,fl9d]'s ,voyage4 into ,see ,fl9d]s' ,voyage4 footnote #bcc-;,a *ang$ ,au?or's ,anniv]s4 ,address1 into ,au?or's ,anniv4 ,address1 footnote #bcg-;,c *ang$ ^? f ! ,gualt into ^? f ! ,gault page #bdb *ang$ eological ,map ( into ,geological ,map ( page #bdb 7fig4 #beb7 *ang$ 7fig4 #bed471 :]e into 7fig4 #bec471 :]e page #bdd *ang$ 9 ! nor? into 9 ! ,nor? page #bde *ang$ ,9 ! wood-cut into ,9 ! woodcut page #bdf *ang$ ,s\? ,d[ns at ,bea*y head4 into ,s\? ,d[ns at ,bea*y ,head4 page #bdf *ang$ fail to recognise 9 into fail to recognize 9 page #bdf *ang$ voll4 ii4 p4 #ih4 into vol4 ii4 p4 #ih4 footnote #bdh-;,a *ang$ ( clay aud lime/one1 into ( clay & lime/one1 page #beh *ang$ ,coral rag1 into ,coral rag4 page #bfa 7fig4 #bgc7 *ang$ 9 _! org9al into 9 _! orig9al page #bfd *ang$ says ,mr ,lycett1 into says ,mr4 ,lycett1 page #bff *ang$ su* z ,pleiosaur1 into su* z ,plesiosaur1 page #bfg *ang$ obta9$ by ,dr ,buckl& into obta9$ by ,dr4 ,buckl& page #bfh *ang$ t ! ,?uia1 into t ! ,?uja1 page #bgj *ang$ ,buckl&'s ,bridgw4 ,treat4 into ,buckl&'s ,bridgew4 ,treat4 page #bga 7fig4 #bid7 *ang$ l[] %ales are wel into l[] %ales are well page #bga *ang$ ! ,oolitic sy/em g5]ally into ! ,oolitic sy/em g5]ally4 page #bgb *ang$ #a_/c nat size4 into #a_/c nat4 size4 page #bgc 7fig4 #cja7 *ang$ 7,g4 arcuata1 ,lam7 into 7,g4 arcuata1 ,lam47 page #bgd 7fig4 #cjd7 *ang$ _! own pr$aci\s race into _! own pr$ace\s race page #bgh *ang$ bo? ( ,ic?yosaur & ,plesiosaur into bo? ( ,i*?yosaur & ,plesiosaur page #bgh *ang$ = swimm+ 7see fig4 #cac47 into = swimm+ 7see fig4 #cac474 page #bgi *ang$ ,sir ,h4 de la ,be*e1 into ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,be*e1 page #bha *ang$ ( ! ,haute ,saone1 into ( ! ,haute-,saone1 page #bhc *ang$ 9 ,g]many-,keup> into 9 ,g]many-,keup] page #bhf *ang$ ,buckl&1 ,bridg4 ,treat41 into ,buckl&1 ,bridgew4 ,treat41 footnote #bhf-;,a *ang$ calcaire coquilli] into calcaire coquilli]4 page #bhg *ang$ ,wu]ttemb]g1 & is into ,wu]temb]g1 & is page #bhg *ang$ g5]a ,sauric?ys & ,gyrolepis into g5]a ,sauri*?ys & ,gyrolepis page #bhg *ang$ ne> ,/razburg1 on into ne> ,/rasburg1 on page #bhh *ang$ ! gres big>re1 or into ! gres big>re1 or page #bhh *ang$ vol4 v4 p4 #cdg into vol4 v4 p4 #cdg4 footnote #bij-;,b *ang$ 9 ! gray1 & into 9 ! grey1 & page #bid *ang$ ) orni?icnites on into ) orni?i*nites on page #cjj *ang$ & botroidal "*4 into & botryoidal "*4 page #cjb *ang$ ! ic?yolites :i* into ! i*?yolites :i* page #cjd *ang$ ,pygopt]is m&ibul>is into ,pygopt]us m&ibul>is page #cje 7fig4 #cdf7 *ang$ ,gutbi] are ,a/]ophillites into ,gutbi] are ,a/]ophyllites page #cjg *ang$ ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 ,a/]ophillites1 into ,lepidod5dra1 ,calamites1 ,a/]ophyllites1 page #cjh *ang$ same b&s ( into "s b&s ( page #cji *ang$ sometimes call$ fire-/one1 into sometimes call$ fire/one1 page #cji *ang$ ,geol4 ,soc ,proce$+s1 into ,geol4 ,soc4 ,proce$+s1 footnote #cag-;,b *ang$ f4 #d4 feet oal into f4 #d4 feet coal4 page #cba 7fig4 #cgb7 *ang$ at an angle ( #h deg41 into at an angle ( #h deg44 page #cbd *ang$ g5us call$ ,mi*rocon*us into g5us call$ ,microcon*us page #cbd *ang$ ( ,sigill>ia1 ,lepidodr5don1 into ( ,sigill>ia1 ,lepidod5dron1 page #cbd *ang$ frequ5tly recognis$4 ,?us1 into frequ5tly recogniz$4 ,?us1 page #cbd *ang$ be recognis$ at /ill into be recogniz$ at /ill page #cbd *ang$ ,clay iron-/one4--,b&s & nodules ( clay iron-/one into ,clay-iron-/one4--,b&s & nodules ( clay-iron-/one page #cbf *ang$ ,dome-%ap$ out-crop ( into ,dome-%ap$ outcrop ( page #cbg *ang$ orni?i*nites 7see p4 #big474 into orni?i*nites 7see p4 #cbg474 page #cbh *ang$ ,! out-crop ( into ,! outcrop ( page #cbh *ang$ olifiant gas4 ,! into olefiant gas4 ,! page #ccc *ang$ ,am]ican ,j\rn4 ( ,sci1 into ,am]ican ,j\rn4 ( ,sci41 footnote #ccd-;,a *ang$ a neucleus ( granite1 into a nucleus ( granite1 page #cdc *ang$ ,scale ( ,holopty*us nobilissimus1 into ,scale ( ,holopty*ius nobilissimus1 page #cdd 7fig4 #cie7 *ang$ peculi> lamelli-bran*iate into peculi> lamellibran*iate page #cdg *ang$ s\? f ,/4 ,pet]sburgh4 into s\? f ,/4 ,pet]sburg4 page #cdh *ang$ ( ! ,a/raea4 into ( ! ,a/rea4 page #cdi *ang$ l[e/ or mud-/one b$s1 into l[e/ or mud/one b$s1 page #ceb *ang$ %[+ siphuncle4 ,ludl[ into %[+ siphuncle4 ,ludl[4 page #ced 7fig4 #dag7 *ang$ ! ,wel* m\nta9s af=d4 into ! ,wel% m\nta9s af=d4 page #cei *ang$ ,kleyn ,spaw5 b$s1 into ,kleyn ,spauw5 b$s1 page #cfb *ang$ belong to neighbor+ into belong to neighb\r+ page #cfb *ang$ ) gypsum--,wirtemb]g1 into ) gypsum--,wu]temb]g1 page #cfd *ang$ ,cr9oidians abundant into ,cr9oideans abundant page #cfe *ang$ l *elonians1 ,pt]ic?ys1 into l *elonians1 ,pt]i*?ys1 page #cfe *ang$ 7 recognis$ z into 7 recogniz$ z page #cff *ang$ ,_! igneons orig9 into ,_! igne\s orig9 page #cff *ang$ recognis$ by a peculi> into recogniz$ by a peculi> page #cgj *ang$ ,"o half ,i scoriace\s1 into ,"o half is scoriace\s1 page #cgc *ang$ o!rs are ,&esitic1 into o!rs are &esitic1 page #cgc *ang$ tom4 #h4 p4 #bb4 #ahce4 into tom4 #h4 p4 #bb4 #ahce47 page #cge *ang$ ,a gre5 porphyritic rocks into ,a gre5 porphyritic rock page #cgf *ang$ ,saussurite1 a m9]al into saussurite1 a m9]al page #cgf *ang$ oxyde ( iron4 into oxide ( iron4 page #cgf *ang$ ( talc4 ,burat's into ( talc4 7,burat's page #cgf *ang$ ,sub-m>9e lava & into ,subm>9e lava & page #cgh *anges mu* z #bj p] c5t ( into mu* z #bj p] c5t4 ( page #chb *ang$ ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 s4 #bec4 into ( ,hutt4 ,!ory1 p4 #bec4 footnote #chc-;,b *ang$ ,giants' ,causeway1 9 ,irel&4 into ,giant's ,causeway1 9 ,irel&4 page #chd *ang$ bottom ( a %all[ sea into bottom ( a %all[ sea4 page #chh *ang$ to l>va & into to lava & page #chh *ang$ ,,porm1 ,,/ructure1 ,,& into ,,=m1 ,,/ructure1 ,,& page #cij *ang$ ,b>anco de las ,angu/ias4 into ,b>ranco de las ,angu/ias4 page #cia *ang$ lie uncom=mably to into lie uncon=mably to page #cih *ang$ trap-dikes ( ,etna1 into trap dikes ( ,etna1 page #dja *ang$ ! accompany+ wood-cut into ! accompany+ woodcut page #djd *ang$ 9 once in/ance into 9 "o in/ance page #djd *ang$ ,punto del ,nasone on ,somma into ,punta del ,nasone on ,somma page #dje 7fig4 #dfg7 *ang$ we recognise ! ord9>y into we recognize ! ord9>y page #dah *ang$ ne> ,/4 ,&rew's into ne> ,/4 ,&rews page #dbb *ang$ cry/als ( mesotyge into cry/als ( mesotype page #dca *ang$ ,h4 de la ,be*e dur+ into ,h4 ,de la ,be*e dur+ page #dcb *ang$ ,geol4 ,trans1 #b;d into ,geol4 ,trans41 #b;d footnote #dce-;,e *ang$ silex1 ?ay h into silex1 !y h page #dci *ang$ except :5 m9]alogicaly into except :5 m9]alogically page #ddj *ang$ ,bontigny's exp]im5ts h into ,b\tigny's exp]im5ts h page #dda *ang$ m9]al camposition-,te/ into m9]al composition-,te/ page #ddi *ang$ ,granite ( ,d>tmore alt]+ into ,granite ( ,d>tmoor alt]+ page #ddi *ang$ are _m v>eties into are _m v>ieties page #dej *ang$ ! gritz qu>tzose into ! grits qu>tzose page #def *ang$ ay at smome into may at "s page #dfb *ang$ & _! synonymes4 into & _! synonymies4 page #dfe *ang$ ,^! a]i=m fluids1 into ,^! a]i=m fluids1 page #dgf *ang$ fum]oles h be5 into fum>oles h be5 page #dgf *ang$ its be+ nonfossilif]\s1 into its be+ non-fossilif]\s1 page #dgi *ang$ h become matamorphic into h become metamorphic page #dhd *ang$ ,,mm4 ,/ud]1 & ,hugi1 into ,,mm4 ,/ud] & ,hugi1 page #dhd *ang$ hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lor9e-s*i/1 into hornbl5de-s*i/1 *lorite-s*i/1 page #dhe *ang$ enl>g$ or reop5$4 into enl>g$ or re-op5$4 page #dhh *ang$ ve9 ( ,&reasburg into ve9 ( ,&reasb]g page #did *ang$ gre5/one1 or toad-/one1 into gre5/one1 or toad/one1 page #dig *ang$ c be recognis$ 9 into c be recogniz$ 9 page #dih *ang$ ,h4 de la ,be*e dur+ into ,h4 ,de la ,be*e dur+ page #dii *ang$ ,li?odomi 9 bea*es into li?odomi 9 bea*es1 page #ejb *ang$ ,b>r>de1 ,m41 on trilobites1 #ceh4 into ,b>r&e1 ,m41 on trilobites1 #ceh4 page #ejb *ang$ ,argile pla/iqne1 or into ,argile pla/ique1 or page #ejb *ang$ or inl& into on inl& page #ejb *ang$ on corni% lodes1 into on ,corni% lodes1 page #ejc *ang$ on ,sewalik hills1 into on ,sewalik hills1 page #ejc *ang$ ,c>yophillia cespitosa1 b$ into ,c>yophyllia caespitosa1 b$ page #ejc *ang$ ,cy/idiae 9 ,silurian rocks1 #ceh4 into ,cy/ideae 9 ,silurian rocks1 #ceh4 page #ejd *ang$ ,deck51 ,pr(4 von1 on reptiles 9 ,sa>brueck coalfield1 #ccf4 into ,de*51 ,pr(4 von1 on reptiles 9 ,sa>brueck coal-field1 #ccf4 page #eje *ang$ ,france1 #agf-aif4 into ,france1 #agf-aia4 page #eje *ang$ ,d\e1 ,m4 ,b4 de1 on into ,d\e1 ,m4 ,b4 de1 on page #eje *ang$ ,desroy]s1 ,m41 on into ,desnoy]s1 ,m41 on page #eje *ang$ on ,ic?yosaurus1 #bgf4 into on ,i*?yosaurus1 #bgf4 page #eje *ang$ hill ( ,g]govla1 into hill ( ,g]govia1 page #eje *ang$ on ,cy/idiae1 #ceh4 into on ,cy/ideae1 #ceh4 page #eje *ang$ ,gl5roy1 p>allel into ,gl5 ,roy1 p>allel page #ejf *ang$ si5itic1 #ddj4 into sy5itic1 #ddj4 page #ejf *ang$ vesiculosus 9 ,lym-fiord1 #cc4 into vesiculosus 9 ,lym-,fiord1 #cc4 page #ejf *ang$ ,hamilton4 ,sir ,w41 into ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w41 page #ejg *ang$ ,hooghley riv]1 analysis into ,hooghly riv]1 analysis page #ejg *ang$ ,ic?yolites ( ,old into ,i*?yolites ( ,old page #ejg *ang$ ,ic?yosaurus communis1 figure into ,i*?yosaurus communis1 figure page #ejg *ang$ p]iod1 ,volcanic rocks1 into p]iod4 ,volcanic rocks1 page #ejg *ang$ ,k5ti% *alk1 s&galls into ,k5ti% *alk1 s&-galls page #ejg *ang$ ,lime/one1 fossllif]\s1 into ,lime/one1 fossilif]\s1 page #ejh *ang$ ,lo*ab>1 p>allel roads into ,lo*ab]1 p>allel roads page #ejh *ang$ 9 cannel coal into 9 ,cannel coal page #ejh *ang$ enl>g$ & reop5$1 #dib4 into enl>g$ & re-op5$1 #dib4 page #ejh *ang$ tee? (4 figur$1 into tee? (1 figur$1 page #ejh *ang$ ,mammif] 9 trlas into ,mammif] 9 trias page #ejh *ang$ on ,/onefield slate1 #bff4 into on ,/onesfield slate1 #bff4 page #ejh *ang$ ,mososaurus 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s into ,mosasaurus 9 ,/4 ,pet]'s page #eji *ang$ ,oeynhans51 ,m4 von1 on into ,oeynhaus51 ,m4 von1 on page #eji *ang$ ,sa>bruck coal field1 into ,sa>brueck coal field1 page #eaj *ang$ s&pipes ne>1 into s&-pipes ne>1 page #eji *ang$ ,/4 ,&rew's1 trap into ,/4 ,&rews1 trap page #eaj *ang$ ,plutonic rocks1 #g-ddf4 into ,plutonic rocks1 #g4 #ddf4 page #eaj *ang$ ,rose1 ,fr(4 ,g41 into ,rose1 ,pr(4 ,g41 page #eaj *ang$ ( ,colebrook ,dale1 into ( ,coalbrook ,dale1 page #eaj *ang$ s&pipes 91 #hc4 into s&-pipes 91 #hc4 page #eaj *ang$ ,s&pipes ne> ,mae/ri*t into ,s&-pipes ne> ,mae/ri*t page #eaj *ang$ or s&galls1 t]m into or s&-galls1 t]m page #eaj *ang$ ,seacliffs1 inl&1 #ga4 into ,sea cliffs1 inl&1 #ga4 page #eaj *ang$ ,s$gewick1 ,pr(41 cit$1 into ,s$gwick1 ,pr(41 cit$1 page #eaj *ang$ ,s$gewick1 ,pr(41 on into ,s$gwick1 ,pr(41 on page #eaa *ang$ ,sewalik ,hills1 fre%wat] into ,sewalik ,hills1 fre%wat] page #eaa *ang$ ,skapt] ,jokul1 eruption into ,skapt> ,jokul1 eruption page #eaa *ang$ ,sub-,ap5n9e /rata1 #aje4 #aff4 into ,subap5n9e /rata1 #aje1 #aff4 page #eaa *ang$ on s& galls1 #hb4 into on s&-galls1 #hb4 page #eab add$ ,head] ,w4 9 index page #eab *ang$ ,w5lok =mation1 #ced4 into ,w5lock =mation1 #ced4 page #eab *ang$ ,:9-,sil1 intrusion ( into ,:9-,sill1 intrusion ( page #eab *ang$ on ,cy/idae1 #ceh4 into on ,cy/ideae1 #ceh4 page #eab *ang$ 9 ',lav5gro4' because into 9 ',lav5gro' because ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ,vols4 ,i-,,viii4 ,) into ,vols4 ,i4-,,viii4 ,) ,adv]tiesem5ts *ang$ e>ly relig\s s*ools into e>ly religi\s s*ools ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ its organisation m into its organization m ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ) unfagg+ tread into ) unflagg+ tread ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ( "t & money into ( "t & money4 ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ,a ,,cond5s$ ,,h&-,,book ,,( ,,all ,,engl& into ,a ,,cond5s$ ,,h&book ,,( ,,all ,,engl& ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ,leice/]1 ,bucks ,nott+ham%ire4 into ,leice/]1 ,bucks1 ,nott+ham%ire4 ,adv]tisem5ts *ang$ ,w>wick1 ,gloce/]1 ,worce/]1 into ,w>wick1 ,gl\ce/]1 ,worce/]1 ,adv]tisem5ts