file :i* includes ! orig9al illu/rations4 ,see #cdbhc-;h4htm or #cdbhc-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/ca*e_/epub_/ #cdbhc_/pg#cdbhc-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gut5b]g4org_/files_/#cdbh c_/cdbhc-;h4zip7 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,page numb]s 9 curly braces 7example3 #be7 h be5 includ$ 9 ! text to enable ! read] to use ! index4 ,a few typographical errors h be5 correct$2 !y are li/$ at ! end ( ! text4 ,illu/ration3 ,,giordano ,,bruno4 ,f ! ,/atue 9 ! ,campo dei ,fiori1 ,rome4 ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy by ,a4 ,w4 ,,b5n1 ,au?or ( ,! ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,rationalism 9 ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 ,etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,giordano ,,bruno4 ,f ! ,/atue 9 ! ,campo dei ,fiori1 ,rome4 ,,issu$ ,,= ,,! ,,rationali/ ,,press ,,association1 ,,limit$ ,london3 ,watts ,co41 #ag ,johnson's ,c\rt1 ,fleet ,/reet1 ,e4,c4 #aiab ,pr9t$ by ,watts & ,co41 ,johnson's ,c\rt1 ,fleet ,/reet1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,page ,,! ,,philosophical ,,r5aissance #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,metaphysicians #ca ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,!ori/s ,,( ,,k #fe ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s #aja ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,humani/s ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury #abd ,,bibliography #adi ,,index #aec ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,giordano ,,bruno ,frontispiece ,,page ,,francis ,,bacon #ac ,,r5e ,,desc>tes #cd ,,b5$ictus ,,sp9oza #dg ,,david ,,hume #gh ,,immanuel ,,kant #hf ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hegel #aaa ,,ar?ur ,,s*op5hau] #aag ,,augu/e ,,comte #abh ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c] #ach #a ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,philosophical ,,r5aissance ,= a ?\s& ye>s aft] ! s*ools ( ,a!ns 7 clos$ by ,ju/9ian philosophy made no real advance2 no ess5tially new ideas ab\t ! con/itution ( nature1 ! work+s ( m9d1 or ! ends ( life 7 put =w>d4 ,x w\ld be false to say t dur+ ?is p]iod no progress 0 made4 ,! civilisation ( ! ,roman ,empire 0 ext5d$ f> beyond its anci5t fronti]s2 &1 al?\gh mu* gr\nd 0 lo/ 9 ,asia & ,africa1 m ?an ! equival5t 0 ga9$ 9 ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,)9 ,europe also ! gradual abolition ( slav]y & ! increas+ dignity ( peaceful lab\r gave a wid] diffusion to culture1 comb9$ ) a l>g] s5se ( human fell[%ip ?an any b ! be/ m9ds ( ,greece & ,rome _h felt4 ,:e!r ! /atus ( wom5 0 really rais$ may be d\bt$2 b ! ideas & s5tim5ts ( wom5 began to ex]cise an influ5ce on social int]c\rse unkn[n be=e4 ,& ! arts ( w> & peace 7 9 "s ways almo/ revolutionis$4 ,?is rem>kable ph5om5on ( movem5t 9 ev]y?+ except ideas has be5 expla9$ by ! influ5ce ( ,*ri/ianity1 or r ( ,ca?olicism4 ,!re is tru? 9 ! cont5tion1 b x is n ! :ole tru?4 ,! ,*ur* ent]$ into a h]itage t %e did n create2 %e def9$ & acc5tuat$ t5d5cies t #b long be=e h] adv5t _h secretly be5 at "w4 ,9 ! ,we/ t diffusion ( civilisation :i* is h] hi/oric boa/ _h be5 begun & c>ri$ f> by ! ,rome :5ce h] v "n is tak54 ,9 ! ,ea/ ! title ( or?odox by :i* ! ,greek ,*ur* is di/+ui%$ betrays ! pres5ce ( t ,greek ?\ght :i* m\ld$ h] dogmas into logical %ape4 ,:at is m1 ! v idea ( "r belief z a vital & sav+ ?+ came to ,*ri/ianity f ,platonism1 accompani$ by ! p]suasion t wrong belief 0 immoral & its promulgation a crime to be visit$ by ! p5alty ( dea?4 ,ecclesia/ical intol]ance has be5 made responsible = ! speculative /agnation ( ! ,middle ,ages1 & x has be5 expla9$ z an effect ( ! belief 9 ! future puni%m5t ( h]esy by et]nal torm5ts4 ,b 9 tru? ! p]secut+ _s 0 responsible = ! dogma1 n ! dogma = p]secution4 ,& we mu/ look = ! und]ly+ cause ( ! :ole evil 9 ! premature union ( metaphysics ) religion & morality fir/ effect$ by ,plato1 or r by ! g5ius ( ,a!ns work+ ?r\gh ,plato4 ,inde$1 on a clos] exam9ation we %all f9d t ! sl[+-d[n ( speculation _h begun long be=e ! adv5t ( ,*ri/ianity1 & co9cides ) ! e/abli%m5t ( its headqu>t]s at ,a!ns1 :]e also ! fir/ p]man5t s*ools ( philosophy 7 e/abli%$4 ,^! s*ools 7 di/9ctly religi\s 9 _! "*2 & none 0 s set aga9/ innovation z t ( ,epicurus1 falsely suppos$ to h be5 a home ( free?\ght4 ,9 ! la/ ,greek sy/em ( philosophy1 ,neo-,platonism1 !ology reign$ supreme2 & dur+ ! two & a-half c5turies ( its exi/5ce no real advance on ! tea*+ ( ,plot9us 0 made4 #c ,neo-,platonism :5 fir/ con/itut$ _h incorporat$ a l>ge ,ari/otelian elem5t1 ! expulsion ( :i* _h be5 accompli%$ by its la/ great ma/]1 ,proclus2 & ,*ri/5dom took ov] metaphysics "u :at seem$ a ,platonic =m--! m welcome z ,plato pass$ = giv+ its cre$s ! indep5d5t support ( pure reason4 ,?is support ext5d$ beyond a future life & w5t d[n to ! deepe/ my/]ies ( reveal$ fai?4 ,=1 accord+ to ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas1 x 0 q 9 ord] t !re %\ld be a div9e unity exi/+ indep5d5tly ( ! ?ree div9e p]sons compos+ x2 t ! idea ( humanity %\ld be comb9$ ) "o ( ^! p]sons2 & t ! same idea1 be+ bo? "o ) & di/9ct f ,adam1 %\ld involve all mank9d 9 ! guilt ( 8 transgression4 ,?us ! ,*ur* />t$ ) a /rong prejudice 9 fav\r ( ,plato :i* cont9u$ to op]ate = _m c5turies1 al?\gh ! fir/ great s*oolman1 ,john ,scotus ,eriug5a 7#haj-hgg71 incurr$ a condemnation = h]esy by adopt+ ! pan!i/ic metaphysics ( ,neo-,platonism4 ,z ! ,platonic doctr9e ( ideas came to life aga9 9 ! realism1 z x 0 call$1 ( s*ola/ic philosophy1 s ! conflict+ view ( 8 old oppon5t ,ari/otle 0 reviv$ "u ! =m ( conceptualism4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory ! g5]a & species ( ! objective _w correspond to real & p]man5t di/9ctions 9 ! nature ( ?+s2 b1 ap>t f ! conceptions by :i* !y are repres5t$ 9 ! intellect ( ,god & man1 ^? di/9ctions h no sep>ate exi/5ce4 ,ari/otle's philosophy 0 fir/ br\ght into ,europe by ! ,mohamm$an conqu]ors ( ,spa91 :i* became an important c5tre ( le>n+ 9 ! e>li] ,middle ,ages4 ,n a few ,*ri/ian s*ol>s w5t !re to #d /udy4 ,lat9 translations 7 made f ,arabic v]sions ( ,ari/otle1 & 9 ?is way 8 doctr9es became m widely kn[n to ! lecture-rooms ( ! ,ca?olic _w4 ,b _! d]ivation f infidel s\rces r\s$ a prejudice aga9/ !m1 /ill fur!r height5$ by ! circum/ance t an ,arabian comm5tator1 ,av]roes1 _h int]pret$ ! !ology ( ! ,metaphysics 9 a pan!i/ic s5se4 ,& on any s9c]e read+ ,ari/otle d5i$ ! s\l's immortality :i* ,plato _h upheld4 ,accord+ly1 all ?r\gh ! twelf? c5tury ,platonism /ill dom9at$ religi\s ?\ght1 & ev5 s late z ! e>ly ?irte5? c5tury ! /udy ( ,ari/otle 0 /ill condemn$ by ! ,*ur*4 ,nev]!less a great revolution 0 already 9 progress4 ,z a result ( ! capture ( ,con/ant9ople by ! ,crusad]s 9 ,a4,d4 #abjd ! ,greek manuscripts ( ,ari/otle's writ+s 7 br\ght to ,p>is1 & at a subsequ5t p]iod !y 7 translat$ into ,lat9 "u ! direction ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ! able/ ( ! s*oolm51 :o s manipulat$ ! ,p]ipatetic philosophy z to conv]t x f a batt]+-ram into a buttress ( ,ca?olic !ology--a position /ill (ficially assign$ to x at ! pres5t day4 ,ari/otelianism1 h[ev]1 did n reign )\t a rival ev5 9 ! lat] ,middle ,ages4 ,aqu9as 0 a ,dom9ican2 & ! jeal\sy ( ! compet+ ,franciscan ,ord] f\nd expression 9 ma9ta9+ a c]ta9 tradition ( ,platonism1 repres5t$ 9 diff]5t ways by ,rog] ,bacon 7#abad-abid7 & by ,duns ,scotus 7#abfe-acjh74 ,9 ?is connection we h to note ! extraord9>y f]tility ( ! ,briti% isl&s 9 em95t ?9k]s dur+ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,besides ! two la/ m5tion$ !re is ,eriug5a 7born 9 ,irel&71 ,john ( ,salisbury #e 7#aaae-aahj71 ! fir/ ,humani/1 ,william ( ,ockham1 & ,wycliffe1 ! fir/ re=m]--mak+ six 9 all1 a l>g] contribution ?an any o!r region ( ,europe1 or inde$ all ! re/ ( ,europe put toge!r1 has made to ! />s ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,?is advantage is probably n due to any inh]5t g5ius = philosophy 9 ! inhabitants ( ^! isl&s1 b to _! relative immunity f w> & to ! political lib]ty t _c b h be5 fav\rable to indep5d5t ?\ght4 ,five out ( ! six 7 m or less incl9$ to ,platonism1 & _! ideali/ or my/ical t5d5cies 7 sometimes associat$ ) ! same practicality t di/+ui%$ _! ma/]4 ,! six?1 commonly call$ ,occam 7di$ ab\t #acdi71 is fam\s z ! *ampion ( ,nom9alism--t is1 ( ! doctr9e t g5]a & species h no real exi/5ce ei!r 9 nature or 9 m9d2 !re are only individuals m or less resembl+ "o ano!r4 ,he is ! au?or ( ! fam\s say+--! sole legacy ( ,s*ola/icism to common ?\ght3 ,entities ought n to be gratuit\sly multipli$ 7entia non sunt praet] necessitatem multiplic&a74 ,! capture ( ,con/ant9ople by ! ,crusad]s _h l$ to ,ari/otle's triumph 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury4 ,two hundr$ ye>s lat] ! conqu]+ ,ottoman advance on ! same city 0 ! imm$iate cause ( 8 ov]?r[4 ,= ! ,byzant9e s*ol>s :o fl$ = help & refuge to ,italy br\ght ) !m ! manuscripts ( ,plato & ,plot9us1 & ^! soon became kn[n to ,we/]n ,europe ?r\gh ! ,lat9 translations ( ,m>silio ,fic9o4 ,on its lit]>y side ! ,platonic revival fell 9 admirably ) ! ,humanism to :i* ! ,s*oolm5 _h long be5 int5sely di/a/eful4 ,& ! religi\s movem5t t prec$$ #f ,lu!r's ,re=mation f\nd a welcome ally 9 ,neo-,platonic my/icism4 ,at ! same "t ! inv5tion ( pr9t+1 by op5+ ! _w ( books to non-academic read]s1 va/ly wid5$ ! possibilities ( indep5d5t ?\ght4 ,& ! ,re=mation1 by discr$it+ ! s*ola/ic !ology 9 ,nor!rn ,europe1 dealt ano!r bl[ at ! sy/em ) :i* x _h be5 associat$ by ,aqu9as4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t ! discov]y ( ,am]ica & ! circumnavigation ( ! globe contribut$ also to ! imp5d+ philosophical revolution4 ,b ! true !ory ( ! e>?'s figure =m$ ! v f\ndation ( ,ari/otle's cosmology1 & 0 z well kn[n to ,dante z to ourselves4 ,made by a f]v5t ,ca?olic1 act+ "u ! patronage ( ! ,ca?olic que5 p> excell5ce1 ! discov]y ( ,columbus increas$ ! pre/ige ( ,ca?olicism by op5+ a new _w to its missions & add+ to ! weal? ( its support]s 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! decisive bl[ to m$ieval ideas came f ano!r qu>t]--f ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy4 ,:at ! true !ory ( ! e>?'s motion meant = philosophy has n always be5 rightly und]/ood4 ,x seems to be commonly suppos$ t ! helioc5tric sy/em excit$ ho/ility because x degrad$ ! e>? f h] pr\d position z c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,b ! rev]se is true4 ,accord+ to ,ari/otle & 8 s*ola/ic foll[]s1 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se is ! l[e/ & lea/ hon\rable1 ! circumf]5ce ! highe/ & mo/ di/+ui%$ position 9 x4 ,& t is :y e>?1 z ! vile/ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 t5ds to ! c5tre2 :ile fire1 be+ ! mo/ preci\s1 flies upw>d4 ,aga91 ! incorruptible ae!r ( :i* ! heav5s are compos$ %[s its et]nal "* #g by mov+ = ev] r\nd 9 a circle ( :i* ,god1 z ,prime ,mov]1 occupies ! out]mo/ v]ge4 ,& ?is metaphysical topography is fai?fully foll[$ by ,dante1 :o ev5 improves on x by plac+ ! wor/ crim9als 7t is1 ! rebels & traitors--,satan1 ) ,judas & ,brutus & ,cassius7 9 ! et]nal ice at ! v c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,su* fancies 7 incompatible ) ! new a/ronomy4 ,no long] cold & dead1 our e>? might h5ce=? take h] place among ! />s1 animat$ l !m--if animat$ !y 7--& sugge/+ by analogy t !y too support$ teem+ multitudes ( reasonable inhabitants4 ,b ! transposition ( values did n end "h4 ,ari/otle's :ole philosophy _h be5 bas$ on a radical anti!sis betwe5 ! sublun>y & ! sup]lun>y sph]es--! _w ( gr[?1 decay1 vicissitude1 & ! _w ( ev]la/+ realities4 ,9 ! sublun>y sph]e1 also1 x di/+ui%$ %>ply betwe5 ! ,=ms ( ?+s1 :i* 7 et]nal1 & ! ,matt] on :i* !y 7 impos$1 an intangible1 evanesc5t ?+ relat$ to ,=m z ,possibility to ,actuality4 ,we "k t ^! two conv5i5t categories are logically indep5d5t ( ! false cosmology t may or may n h sugge/$ _! _w-wide application4 ,b ! imm$iate effect ( hav+ x d5i$1 or ev5 d\bt$1 0 greatly to exalt ! cr$it ( ,matt] or ,p[] at ! exp5se ( ,=m or ,act4 ,! fir/ to draw ^! revolution>y inf]5ces f ! ,cop]nican !ory 0 ,giordano ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,born at ,nola1 a s\? ,italian city n f> f ,naples1 ,bruno ent]$ ! ,dom9ican ,ord] be=e ! age ( fifte51 & on t occasion ex*ang$ 8 baptismal "n ( ,filippo = t by :i* he has ev] s9ce be5 kn[n4 ,"h he became acqua9t$ ) ! #h :ole ( anci5t & m$ieval philosophy1 besides ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy1 !n n yet condemn$ by ! ,*ur*4 ,at ! e>ly age ( eighte5 he fir/ came into collision ) ! au?orities2 & at tw5ty-eight 7#aegf7 ,mc,intyre1 pp4 #i-aj he op5ly que/ion$ ! *ief *>act]i/ic dogmas ( ,ca?olicism1 0 m5ac$ ) an action = h]esy1 & fl$ f ! conv5t4 ,! pursuit mu/ h be5 r p]functory1 = ,bruno f\nd himself free to sp5d two ye>s w&]+ f "o ,italian city to ano!r1 e>n+ a prec>i\s livelihood by tuition & au?or%ip4 ,leav+ ,italy at la/1 r f a desire to pu% 8 =tunes abroad ?an f any fe> ( mole/ation1 & f9d+ ,france too hot to hold him1 he tri$ ,g5eva = a little :ile1 b1 on be+ giv5 to und]/& t he c\ld only /ay on ! condition ( embrac+ ,calv9ism1 return$ to ,france1 :]e he liv$ fir/ = two ye>s z ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy at ,t\l\se1 & ?ree m 9 a some:at less (ficial position at ,p>is4 ,!nce1 9 ! tra9 ( ! ,fr5* ambassador1 he pass$ to ,engl&1 :]e 8 two ye>s' soj\rn seems to h be5 ! happie/ & mo/ fruitful p]iod ( 8 re/less c>e]4 ,x 0 cut %ort by 8 *ief's return to ,p>is4 ,b ! philosoph]'s fe>less advocacy ( ,cop]nicanism made t bigot$ capital impossible4 ,! tru?1 h[ev]1 seems to be t ,bruno nev] c\ld hit x (f ) anyone or any society2 & ! next five ye>s1 sp5t 9 try+ to make himself acceptable at "o ,g]man univ]sity aft] ano!r1 are a record ( hopeless failure4 ,f9ally1 9 an evil h\r1 he goes to ,v5ice at ! invitation ( a "y noble1 ,moc5igo1 :o1 9 rev5ge = disappo9t$ expectations1 betrays him to ! ,inquisition4 ,que/ion$ ab\t 8 h]esies1 ,bruno %[$ p]fect will+ness to accept all ! !ological dogmas t #i he _h =m]ly d5i$4 ,:e!r he )drew 8 retractation on be+ transf]r$ f a ,v5etian to a ,roman prison does n appe>1 z ! ,roman depositions are n =?com+4 ,nei!r is x cle> :y s long a delay z six ye>s 7#aeid-afjj7 0 grant$ to ! philosoph] :5 su* %ort "w 0 made ( o!r h]etics4 ,x seems mo/ probable t ,bruno1 :ile pliant en\gh on que/ions ( religi\s belief1 rema9$ inflexible 9 ma9ta9+ ! inf9ity ( inhabit$ worlds4 ,:5 ! f9al condemnation 0 read out1 he told ! judges t he he>d x ) less fe> ?an !y felt 9 pron\nc+ x4 ,9 ! cu/om>y euphemi/ic t]ms !y _h s5t him to dea? by fire4 ,at ! /ake1 :5 ! crucifix 0 held up to him1 he turn$ away 8 eyes--) :at ?\ghts we _c tell4 ,!re is a monum5t to ! h]oic ?9k] at ,nola1 & ano!r 9 ! ,campo dei ,fiori on ! spot :]e he suff]$ at ,rome1 rais$ aga9/ ! /ronge/ prote/s ( ! ecclesia/ical au?orities4 ,! ,greek-,italian philosoph]s--! ,py?agoreans & ,p>m5ides--_h introduc$ ! idea ( f9it5ess or ,limitation z a necess>y condition ( reality & p]fection into ?\ght4 ,f !m x pass$ ov] to ,plato & ,ari/otle1 :o made x dom9ant 9 ! s*ools4 ,epicurus & ,lucretius _h1 inde$1 c>ri$ on ! old] ,ionian tradition ( inf9ite atoms & inf9ite worlds disp]s$ ?r\gh inf9ite space2 b _! philosophy 0 practically a!i/ic1 & ! ,*ur* condemn$ x z bo? h]etical & false4 ,probably ! discov]y ( ! e>?'s globul> %ape _h fir/ sugge/$ ! idea ( a f9ite univ]se to ,p>m5ides2 at any rate1 ! discov]y ( ! e>?'s motion sugge/$ ! idea ( an inf9ite univ]se to 8 ,greek-s\l$ ,italian successor2 or r x 0 #aj ! break-up ( ,ari/otle's sph]ical _w by ,cop]nicanism t ?rew ,bruno back--z he gives u himself to und]/&--on ! old] ,ionian cosmologies1 ) _! assumption ( inf9ite space & inf9ite worlds4 ,9 ?is ref]5ce ,bruno w5t f> beyond ,cop]nicus1 & ev5 ,kepl]2 = bo? _h assum$1 9 def]5ce to curr5t op9ion1 t ! fix$ />s 7 equidi/ant f ! sol> sy/em1 & =m$ a s+le sph]e enclos+ x on all sides4 ,he1 on ! contr>y1 anticipat$ mod]n a/ronomy 9 conceiv+ ! />s z s _m suns disp]s$ )\t assignable limits ?r\gh space1 & ea* surr\nd$ by inhabit$ planets4 ,inf9ite space _h be5 closely associat$ by ,democritus & ,epicurus ) inf9ite atoms2 & ! next great /ep tak5 by ,bruno 0 to rehabilitate atomism z a necess>y concept ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,he figur$ ! atoms z v m9ute sph]es ( solid e>?y matt]1 =m+ by _! comb9ations ! framework ( visible bodies4 ,b _! comb9ations are by no means =tuit\s1 z ,democritus _h impi\sly suppos$2 nor d !y move ?r\gh an absolute void4 ,all space is fill$ ) an ocean ( liquid ae!r1 :i* is no o!r ?an ! qu9tess5ce ( :i* ,ari/otle's cele/ial sph]es 7 compos$4 ,only 9 ,bruno's sy/em x takes ! place ( t ,fir/ ,matt] :i* is ! extreme anti!sis ( ! disembodi$ ,=m p]sonifi$ 9 ! ,prime ,mov]1 ,god4 ,& "h we come to t rev]sal ( cosmic values br\ght ab\t by ! rev]sal ( ! relations betwe5 ! e>? & sun :i* ,cop]nicus _h effect$4 ,! primordial ,matt]1 s f> f passively receiv+ ! ,=ms impos$ on x f )\t1 has an inf9ite capacity = evolv+ ,=ms f its own bosom2 &1 s f> #aa f be+ unspiritual1 is itself ! univ]sal _s1 ! creative & animat+ s\l ( ! _w4 ,! ,fir/ ,matt]1 ,=m1 ,en]gy1 ,life1 & ,reason are id5tifi$ ) ,nature1 ,nature ) ! ,univ]se1 & ! ,univ]se ) ,god4 ,s f> all is cle>1 if n conv9c+4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! !ory ( ,monads4 ,?is is only exp\nd$ 9 ,bruno's ,lat9 works1 = ! mo/ "p ill-writt5 & hopelessly obscure4 ,x seems possible t by ! monads ,bruno sometimes means ! inf9itesimal p>ts into :i* ! ae!r ( space may conceivably be divid$4 ,ea* ( ^! possesses consci\sness1 & !re=e may be consid]$ z reflect+ & repres5t+ ! :ole univ]se4 ,a numb] ( monads1 or r a cont9u\s portion ( ! ae!r surr\nd+ & int]p5etrat+ a gr\p ( atoms1 end[s !m ) ! =ms & qualities ( elem5t>y bodies1 asc5d+ gradually ?r\gh vegetal & animal organisations to human be+s4 ,b ! animat+ process does n /op ) man4 ,! e>?1 ) ! o!r planets1 ! sun1 & all ! />s1 are also monads on ! l>ge/ scale1 ) reasonable s\ls1 j z ,ari/otle ?\ght4 ,9 fact1 ! old my?ology :5ce he d]iv$ ! idea repeats itself 9 8 great enemy ,bruno4 ,beyond & above all ^! p>tial unities is ! ,monas ,monadum--! supreme unity1 ! inf9ite ,god :o is ! s\l ( ! inf9ite univ]se4 ,d\btless !re is "h a rem9isc5ce ( ! ,neo-,platonic ,"o1 ! ineffable ,absolute1 beyond all exi/5ce1 yet end[$ ) ! inf9ite p[] :5ce all exi/5ce proce$s4 ,bruno _h le>n$ f ,c>d9al ,nicolas ( ,cusa--a ,cop]nican be=e ,cop]nicus--to recognise ! pr9ciple ( ,h]acleitus t opposites are "o2 & 9 ?is in/ance he applies x ) brilliant audacity2 = e inf9itesimal #ab "p ( ! space-fill+ ae!r is no less ! s\l ( ! univ]se ?an ! ,monad ( ,monads itself4 ,& bo? agree 9 be+ non-exi/5t 9 ! s5se ( be+ transf9ite1 s9ce !re c be no sum ( inf9ity & no animat$ ma!matical po9ts4 ,f ,anaxim&] to ,plot9us !re is h>dly a great ,greek ?9k] ^: influ5ce _c be trac$ 9 ! sy/em ( ,giordano ,bruno4 ,& :ile he repres5ts ! philosophical ,r5aissance 9 ?is em95t degree1 he heads ! two l9es ( speculation :i*1 sep>ately or comb9$1 run ?r\gh ! :ole hi/ory ( mod]n metaphysics--! moni/ic1 & :at is n[ call$ ! plurali/ic t5d5cy4 ,) none1 except1 p]haps1 ) ,hegel1 h ! two be5 p]fectly balanc$2 & 9 ,bruno himself ! lean+ is di/9ctly t[>ds plurality1 8 ,supreme ,monad be+ a m]e survival f ! ,neo-,platonic ,"o4 ,,francis ,,bacon4 ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 0 by pr(ession a lawy]1 by ta/e a sci5tific inquir]1 by "* a seek] aft] weal? & p[]1 by natural g5ius an immortal ma/] ( words4 ,he began life z ! fri5d1 advis]1 & cli5t ( ,elizabe?'s fav\rite1 ! ,e>l ( ,essex4 ,:5 t un=tunate c\rti]1 9 disreg>d ( 8 w>n+s1 ru%$ into a treasonable ent]prise1 ,bacon appe>$ z "o ( ! mo/ zeal\s ( ! c\nsel = ! prosecution4 ,/rictly speak+1 ?is may h be5 8 duty z a loyal subject ( ! ,que52 x 0 h>dly 8 duty1 ev5 on ! ,que5's commission1 aft] ,essex's execution1 to assi/ 9 ! composition ( a pamphlet black5+ ! memory ( 8 =m] fri5d & patron4 ,9 ! next reign ,bacon paid assidu\s c\rt to ,james & 8 fav\rites4 #ac ,illu/ration3 ,,francis ,,bacon4 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #ad ,:5 ! fir/ ( ^!1 ,som]set1 fell & 0 tri$ on a *>ge ( murd]1 he conduct$ ! prosecution1 &1 f9d+ ! evid5ce insuffici5t1 sugge/$ to ,james t ! prison] %\ld be entrapp$ into a confession by dangl+ a false promise ( =giv5ess be=e 8 eyes4 ,bacon ow$ 8 f9al exaltation to ,buck+ham1 & z ,"l ,keep] all[$ himself to be made ! tool ( t bad man = ! p]v]sion ( ju/ice4 ,a suit 0 br\ght be=e him by a "y man aga9/ a fraudul5t tru/ee 78 own uncle7 = ! re/itution ( a sum ( money4 ,bacon gave s5t5ce = ! pla9tiff4 ,buck+ham !n int]v5$ ) a dem& t ! case %\ld be retri$4 ,^u ?is ,bacon saw ! p>ties privately1 &1 annull+ all ! delib]ate decisions ( ! ,c\rt1 compell$ ! y\? to ass5t to ! ceas+ ( all proce$+s1 & to accept a small] sum ?an he 0 entitl$ to 7,e4 ,a4 ,abbott74 ,on ano!r occasion he ex]cis$ 8 judicial au?ority 9 a way t did n squ>e ) ,buck+ham's wi%es1 b q legitimately & )\t any consci\sness ( giv+ (f5ce2 :]eupon ! insol5t fav\rite address$ him 9 a lett] fill$ ) outrage\s abuse1 to :i* ,bacon repli$ 9 t]ms ( abject submission4 ,?is meanness _h its rew>d1 = 9 #afah ! philosoph] became ,"l ,*ancellor4 ,aft] a ?ree ye>s' t5ure ,bacon 0 flung f 8 high position by a *>ge ( judicial corruption1 to ! tru? ( e c\nt 9 :i* he confess$4 ,! "q is v complicat$1 obscure1 & mu* controv]t$1 n admitt+ ( discussion )9 ! limits "h assign$4 ,on ! subject ( ,bacon's tru?fulness1 h[ev]1 a ^w mu/ be said4 ,! ,*ancellor admitt$ hav+ tak5 pres5ts f suitors1 b #ae d5i$ hav+ ev] let 8 judgm5ts be influ5c$ !reby2 & 8 ^w seems to be g5]ally accept$ z a suffici5t exon]ation4 ,b its value may be d\bt$ 9 view ( two /atem5ts quot$ by ,dean ,*ur*4 ,( ^! "o 0 made 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons by ,sir ,george ,ha/+s1 a memb] ( ! ,h\se1 :o _h be5 ! *annel ( ,awbry's gift made to ! ,*ancellor p5d5te lite1 t :5 he _h told ,bacon t if que/ion$ he mu/ admit x1 ,bacon's answ] 03 ',george1 if y d s1 ,i mu/ d5y x1 ^u my hon\r--^u my oa?4' ,! o!r 0 t he _h giv5 an op9ion 9 fav\r ( "s claim ( ! ,ma/]s 9 ,*anc]y1 = :i* he receiv$ ,l#a1bjj1 & ) :i* he said t all ! judges agre$--an ass]tion :i* all ! judges d5i$4 ,( ^! *>ges !re is no contradiction4 ,! d5ial ( ,bacon t he ev] all[$ 8 judgm5ts to be influ5c$ by bribes1 & 8 ass]tion t he 0 ! ju/e/ judge s9ce 8 own fa!r1 _c1 !n1 c\nt = mu*4 ,z to ! plea t ! ju/ice ( 8 s5t5ces 0 nev] *all5g$1 :o 0 to *all5ge x8 ,! successful suitor w\ld hold 8 tongue2 & ! unsuccessful suitor c\ld h>dly be expect$ to complete 8 own ru9 by go+ to law aga9 on ! /r5g? ( ! ,*ancellor's condemnation4 ,bacon1 at any rate1 knew q well t to take pres5ts be=e judgm5t 0 wrong & crim9al1 z 8 answ] to ,eg]ton suffici5tly %[s--an answ] :i* also fully disposes ( ! plea t to take su* pres5ts 0 ! common cu/om ( ! age4 ,moreov]1 _h su* be5 ! common cu/om1 ,bacon might h tak5 8 trial & plead$ x z a suffici5t apology or ext5uation = 8 own conduct4 ,?is w\ld h be5 a some:at m dignifi$ c\rse #af ?an ! "o he actually pursu$1 :i* 0 to plead guilty to all ! *>ges1 ?r[+ himself on ! m]cy ( ! ,lords4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t he did ?is at ! desire ( 8 p[]ful patrons1 ^: malpractices might h be5 br\ght to light by a public inve/igation4 ,z 8 puni%m5t 0 imm$iately remitt$1 "s arrangem5t ) ! ,k+ & ,buck+ham seems probable4 ,b = an innoc5t man to h sav$ himself by a false ackn[l$gm5t ( guilt w\ld1 z ,macaulay %[s1 h be5 /ill m infam\s ?an to take bribes4 ,! desp]ate ef=ts ( "s apologi/s to :itewa% ,bacon are app>5tly due to a v exagg]at$ e/imate ( 8 s]vices to mank9d4 ,o!r critics give !mselves ! pleasure ( pa9t+ :at has be5 call$ a ,rembr&t portrait1 ) noon on ! =ehead & night at ! he>t4 ,& a ?ird class argue f a rott5 morality to a rott5 intellig5ce4 ,9 fact1 ,bacon z little des]ves to be call$ ! wise/ & greate/ z ! meane/ ( mank9d4 ,he really lov$ humanity1 & tri$ h>d to s]ve x1 devot+ a truly philosophical intellect to t end4 ,! s]vice 0 to consi/ 9 an imm5se ext5sion ( man's p[] ov] nature1 to be obta9$ by a complete k ( h] secrets2 & ?is k he hop$ to w9 by re=m+ ! me?ods ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,un=tunately1 intellect alone prov$ unequal to t mighty task4 ,bacon passes1 & n )\t good gr\nds1 = a great uphold] ( ! pr9ciple t tru? c only be le>n$ by exp]i5ce4 ,b 8 philosophy />ts by sett+ t pr9ciple at defiance4 ,he :o took all k = 8 prov9ce omitt$ f 8 survey ! r important subject ( k itself1 its limits & its laws4 ,_h 8 att5tion #ag be5 drawn t way1 ! v fir/ requisite1 on empirical pr9ciples1 w\ld h be5 to take /ock ( ! lead+ tru?s already asc]ta9$4 ,b ! enorm\s vanity ( ! amateur re=m] seems to h p]suad$ him t ^! am\nt$ to little or no?+4 ,! lat] ,r5aissance 0 an age ( int5se sci5tific activity1 condition$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 by a revival ( ,greek le>n+4 ,already be=e ! middle ( ! sixte5? c5tury great advance _h be5 made 9 algebra1 trigonometry1 a/ronomy1 m9]alogy1 botany1 anatomy1 & physiology4 ,be=e ! publication ( ! ,novum ,organum ,napi] _h inv5t$ log>i?ms1 ,galileo 0 recon/itut+ physics1 ,gilb]t _h creat$ ! sci5ce ( magnetism1 & ,h>vey _h discov]$ ! circulation ( ! blood4 ,^! 7 facts t ,bacon took no pa9s to /udy2 he ei!r ignores or slights or d5ies ! "w done by 8 illu/ri\s pr$ecessors & contempor>ies4 ,t he reject$ ! ,cop]nican !ory ) scorn is an exagg]ation2 b he nev] accept$ x1 not)/&+ argum5ts t ! be/ a/ronom]s ( 8 "t f\nd conv9c+2 & ! long] he liv$ ! m unfav\rable became 8 op9ion ( its m]its4 ,& x is c]ta9 t ,ty*o ,brahe's wond]ful mass ( obs]vations1 ) ! spl5did g5]alisations bas$ on !m by ,kepl]1 are nev] m5tion$ 9 8 writ+s4 ,n[ :at really ru9$ ,ari/otelianism 0 ! helioc5tric a/ronomy1 z ,bruno p]fectly saw2 & ignorance ( ?is left ,bacon aft] all 9 ! bonds ( m$ieval philosophy4 ,we h se5 9 /udy+ ,bruno t ! v s\l ( ,ari/otle's sy/em 0 8 di/9ction betwe5 =m & matt]1 & ?is di/9ction ,bacon accept$ )\t exam9ation f s*ola/icism4 ,! purpose ( 8 #ah life 0 to asc]ta9 by :at comb9ation ( =ms ea* p>ticul> body 0 con/itut$1 & !n1 by artificially sup]9duc+ !m on "s portion ( matt]1 to call ! desir$ sub/ance into exi/5ce4 ,8 celebrat$ inductive me?od 0 devis$ z a means to t end4 ,to discov] ! =ms we are in/ruct$ fir/ to draw up exhau/ive tables ( ! ph5om5a & =ms "u inve/igation1 & !n to exclude f our li/ any '=m' :i* does n inv>iably co-exi/ ) ! ph5om5on ( :i* ! =m is s\ght4 ,= example1 if we are try+ to discov] ! =m ( heat x w n d to adduce 'cele/ial nature'2 =1 ?\gh ! sun's light is hot1 t ( ! moon is cold4 ,aft] a s]ies ( su* exclusions1 ,bacon believ$ t a s+le =m w\ld f9ally rema9 to be ! inv>iable cause ( ! ph5om5on inve/igat$1 & ( no?+ else 7,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,s*ill]74 ,z ,dr4 ,s*ill] obs]ves1 ?is me?od ( exclusions is n new2 nor1 inde$1 does ,bacon claim to h orig9at$ x2 at lea/ he obs]ves 9 8 ,novum ,organum t x _h be5 already employ$ by ,plato to a c]ta9 ext5t = ! purpose ( discuss+ def9itions & ideas4 ,& else:]e he praises ,plato z a man 7& "o t survey$ all ?+s f a l(ty cliff7 = hav+ disc]n$ 9 8 doctr9e ( ,ideas t ,=ms 7 ! true object ( k2 h[soev] he lo/ ! fruit ( ?is mo/ true op9ion by consid]+ & try+ to appreh5d ,=ms z absolutely ab/ract$ f matt]1 :5ce x came t he turn$ aside to !ological speculations4 ,bacon mu/ h kn[n t ?is reproa* does n apply to ,ari/otle2 z1 inde$1 ! v s*oolm5 knew t he did n--except 9 ! s+le case ( ,god--give ,=ms a sep>ate #ai exi/5ce4 ,b1 probably f jeal\sy1 he specially hat$ ,ari/otle1 & 9 ?is p>ticul> in/ance ! ,/agirite m p>ticul>ly excit$ 8 ho/ility by id5tify+ ,=ms ) ,f9al ,causes4 ,^! ,bacon r contemptu\sly h&$ ov] to ! sole cognisance ( !ology z consecrat$ virg9s be>+ no fruit4 ,z a po9t ( sci5tific me?od ?is condemnation ( teleology is q unju/ifi$ ev5 9 ! eyes ( inquir]s :o reject ! !ological argum5t f design4 ,to a ,d>w9ian1 purpose means survival value1 & ! p>ts ( an organism are s _m utilities evolv$ 9 ! action & reaction betwe5 liv+ be+s & _! environm5t4 ,b ,bacon dislik$ any !ory t5d+ to glorify ! exi/+ arrangem5ts ( nature z p]fect & unalt]able a*ievem5ts1 = ! good reason t x ?reat5$ to disc\nt5ance 8 own s*eme = practically creat+ ! _w ov] aga9 ) exclusive ref]5ce to ! good ( humanity4 ,?us 9 8 ,utopia1 ! ,new ,atlantis1 !re are artificial m9es1 produc+ artificial metals1 plants rais$ )\t se$s1 contrivances = turn+ "o tree or plant into ano!r1 = prolong+ ! lives ( animals aft] ! removal ( p>ticul> organs1 = mak+ a numb] ( k9ds ( s]p5ts1 worms1 flies1 fi%es ( putrefaction2 :]e( "s are advanc$ to be p]fect creatures l bea/s or birds2 ) fly+-ma*9es1 subm>9es1 & p]petual motions--9 %ort1 a g5]al anticipation ( ,jules ,v]ne & ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells4 ,su* dreams1 h[ev]1 d n entitle ,bacon to be reg>d$ z a true prophet ( mod]n sci5ce & mod]n me*anical inv5tions4 ,9 !mselves 8 ideas d n g beyond ! magic ( ! ,middle ,ages1 or r ( all ages4 ,! orig9al ?+ 0 8 #bj ,me?od2 & ?is ,me?od1 consid]$ z a means = surpris+ ! secrets ( nature1 we "k to be completely *im]ical1 because !re are no su* ,=ms z he imag9$1 to be enucleat$ by induction1 ) or )\t ! ,me?od ( ,exclusion4 ,! tru? is t ! inductive me?od :i* he borr[$ f ,socrates & ,plato 0 orig9ally creat$ by ,a!nian philosophy = ! humani/ic /udies ( law1 morality1 ae/hetics1 & psy*ology4 ,physical sci5ce1 on ! o!r h&1 %\ld be approa*$1 z ! ,greeks rightly felt1 ?r\gh ! door ( ma!matics1 an in/rum5t ( ^: pot5cy ! great ,*ancellor notori\sly _h no conception4 ,?us 8 prodigi\s p[]s w\ld h be5 mu* m usefully devot$ to moral philosophy4 ,z x is1 ! ,essays alone rema9 to %[ :at great ?+s he might h done by limit+ himself to ! subjects ) :i* !y deal4 ,! fam\s logical & physical treatises1 ! ,novum ,organum & ! ,de ,augm5tis1 not)/&+ _! weal? & spl5d\r ( language1 are to u at ! pres5t day less liv+ ?an ! fragm5ts ( e>ly ,greek ?\ght1 ?an mo/ ( ,plato1 ?an mu* ( ,ari/otle1 ?an ,atomism z exp\nd$ by ,lucretius4 ,macaulay re/s 8 claim ( ! highe/ place among philosoph]s = ,bacon n on 8 inductive !ory1 to :i* ! hi/orian rightly d5ies any novelty1 b on ! new purpose & direction t ! se>* = k is assum$ to h receiv$ f 8 tea*+4 ,on ?is view ! :ole ( mod]n sci5ce has be5 creat$ by ! desire to conv]t nature into an in/rum5t = ! satisfaction ( human wants--an ambition dat+ f ! publication ( ! ,novum ,organum4 ,! claim w n /&1 = two reasons4 ,! fir/ is t ! great movem5t ( mod]n sci5ce #ba began at lea/ half a c5tury be=e ,bacon's bir?1 gr[+ rapidly dur+ 8 life1 b )\t 8 k1 & cont9u+ its c\rse )\t be+ p]ceptibly accel]at$ by 8 int]v5tion ev] s9ce4 ,! "o man ( sci5ce :o mo/ commonly passes = 8 disciple is ,rob]t ,boyle 7#afbg-afia74 ,b ,boyle did n read ! ,novum ,organum be=e he 0 ?irty1 :]eas1 resid+ at ,flor5ce be=e fifte51 he receiv$ a p[]ful /imulus f ! /udy ( ,galileo4 ,& 8 *emi/ry 0 bas$ on ! atomic !ory :i* ,bacon reject$4 ,! second reason = n accept+ ,macaulay's claim is t 9 mod]n ,europe no less ?an 9 anci5t ,greece ! great advances 9 sci5ce h only be5 made by ^? :o lov$ k = its own sake1 or1 if ! expression be pref]r$1 simply = ! gratification ( _! intellectual curiosity4 ,no d\bt _! discov]ies h add$ enorm\sly to ! utilities ( life2 b su* advantages h be5 ga9$ on ! sole condition ( n mak+ !m ! prim>y end 9 view4 ,! lab\rs ( ,bacon's own contempor>ies1 ,kepl] & ,gilb]t1 h l$ to ! navigation ( ! sea by lun> di/ances1 & to ! v>i\s indu/rial applications ( electro-magnetism2 b !y 7 und]tak5 )\t a dream ( ^! remote results4 ,& 9 our own day ! greate/ ( sci5tific triumphs1 :i* is ! !ory ( evolution1 0 nei!r work$ out ) any hope ( mat]ial b5efits to mank9d nor has x (f]$ any prospect ( !m z yet4 ,! same may be said ( mod]n sid]eal a/ronomy4 ,f ! humani/ po9t ( view x w\ld n be easy to ju/ify ! enorm\s exp5diture ( en]gy1 money1 & "t t ?is sci5ce has absorb$4 ,! s*oolm5 h be5 mu* ridicul$ = discuss+ ! "q h[ #bb _m angels c\ld dance on ! po9t ( a ne$le2 b z a purely speculative problem x surely m]its z mu* att5tion z ! total numb] ( ! />s1 ! rates ( _! velocities1 or ! law ( _! di/ribution ?r\gh space4 ,a s*oolman might ev5 h urg$ 9 ju/ification ( 8 curiosity t "s ( u might feel a reasonable curiosity ab\t ! exact size--if size !y h--( be+s ) :om we hope to associate "o day2 :]eas by ! confession ( ! a/ronom]s !mselves nei!r we nor our desc5dants c ev] hope to v]ify by direct measurem5t ! prec>i\s guesses ( _! sci5ce 9 ?is bran* ( cele/ial /atics & dynamics4 ,,?omas ,,hobbes4 ,x has be5 %[n t "o mom5t\s effect ( ! ,cop]nican a/ronomy1 z int]pret$ by ,giordano ,bruno1 0 to rev]se ! relative importance ascrib$ 9 ,ari/otle's philosophy to ! two great categories ( ,p[] & ,act1 giv+ to ,p[] a value & dignity ( :i* x _h be5 /ripp$ by ! judgm5t ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,ev5 ,epicurus1 :5 he rehabilitat$ inf9ite space1 _h be5 c>eful z a morali/ to urge ! exp$i5cy ( plac+ a close limitation on human desires1 d5\nc+ ! excesses ( av>ice & ambition m mildly b n less decisively ?an ! contempor>y ,/oic s*ool4 ,?us ,lucretius describes 8 ma/] z travell+ beyond ! flam+ walls ( ! _w only t he may br+ u back a k ( ! fix$ b>ri] set by ! v laws ( exi/5ce to our aspirations & hopes4 ,! classic revival ( ! ,r5aissance did n br+ back ! ,greek _s ( mod]ation4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! new _w1 ! new a/ronomy1 ! new mon>*y1 #bc & ! new religion comb9$ to create su* a s5se ( ,p[]1 9 contradi/9ction to ,act1 z ! _w _h nev] be=e kn[n4 ,= u ?is new feel+ has receiv$ its mo/ triumphant arti/ic expression f ,%akespe>e & ,milton1 = ,france f ,rabelais1 = ,italy f ,ario/o & ,mi*elangelo4 ,9 philosophy ,bacon /rikes ! same note :5 he values k z a s\rce ( p[]--k :i* = ,greek philosophy meant r a lesson 9 self-re/ra9t4 ,& ?is idea receives a fur!r developm5t f ,bacon's *ief successor 9 ,engli% philosophy1 ,?omas ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi71 9 ^: sy/em love ( p[] figures z ! v ess5ce ( human nature1 ! self-consci\s manife/ation ( t ,motion :i* is ! real sub/ance ( ! physical _w4 ,hobbes 0 a precoci\s *ild1 & receiv$ a good s*ool tra9+2 b ! five ye>s he sp5t at ,ox=d add$ no?+ to 8 in=mation1 & a cont95tal t\r ) ! "y heir ( ! ,cav5di%es _h no o!r effect ?an to conv9ce him ( ! g5]al contempt into :i* ! s*ola/icism /ill taught at ,ox=d _h fall54 ,on return+ to ,engl&1 he began 8 /udies ov] aga9 9 ! ,cav5di% libr>y1 acquir+ a ?or\gh famili>ity ) ! classic lit]ature ( ,greece & ,rome1 a deep hatr$ 7imbib$ ?r\gh ,?ucydides7 ( democracy1 & a g5u9ely antique !ory t ! ,/ate %\ld be supreme 9 religi\s no less ?an 9 civil matt]s4 ,amid ^! /udies ,hobbes occasionally enjoy$ ! society ( ,bacon1 !n sp5d+ 8 la/ ye>s 9 ! retirem5t ( ,gorhambury4 ,z secret>y & ,lat9 translator he prov$ s]viceable to ! ex-,*ancellor1 b rema9$ q unaffect$ by 8 inductive & exp]im5tal philosophy4 ,inde$1 ! det]m9+ impulse ( 8 #bd speculative activity came f ! opposite qu>t]4 ,go+ abroad once m z travell+ tutor1 at ! age ( =ty1 he *anc$ on a copy ( ,euclid 9 a g5tleman's libr>y ly+ op5 at ! fam\s ,=ty-,sev5? ,proposition4 ,8 fir/ impulse 0 to reject ! !orem z impossible2 b1 on go+ backw>ds f proposition to proposition1 he laid d[n ! book n only conv9c$1 b 9 love ) geometry4 ,beg9n+ s late 9 life1 8 ult]ior /udies l$ ,hobbes into ! belief t he _h squ>$ ! circle1 besides ! f> m p]nici\s error ( apply+ ! d$uctive me?od ( geometry to ! solution ( political problems4 ,c\ld he & ,bacon h ex*ang$ philosophies1 ! brilliant faculties ( ea* might h be5 employ$ to bett] purpose4 ,! categories ( ,=m & ,matt]1 comb9$ ) ! logic ( elim9ation & t5tative g5]alisation1 w\ld h f\nd a fitt+ field = _! application 9 ! famili> facts ( human nature4 ,b ^? facts refus$ to be treat$ z s _m :eels1 pulleys1 & cords 9 a ma*9e = cru%+ ! life out ( society & transmitt+ ! w ( a s+le despot unresi/$ ?r\gh its :ole ext5t2 = su* is a fai?ful picture ( :at a well-gov]n$ community1 z ,hobbes conceiv$ x1 ought to be4 ,dur+ 8 second resid5ce abroad he _h become acqua9t$ ) ! physical philosophy ( ,galileo--! !ory t reg>ds e *ange 9 ! ext]nal or ph5om5al _w z a m]e re>rangem5t ( matt] & motion1 matt] be+ an aggregate ( indep5d5t molecules held toge!r by me*anical pressure & impact4 ,! compon5t p>ts ( ?is aggregate become kn[n to u by ! impressions _! movem5ts produce on our s5ses1 traces ( :i* #be are pres]v$ 9 memory1 & subsequ5tly recall$ by association4 ,language consi/s ( signs conv5tionally affix$ to su* images2 only ! signs1 /&+ z !y d = all objects ( a c]ta9 sort1 h a univ]sal value1 n possess$ by ! orig9al s5sations1 ?r\gh :i* reason+ becomes possible4 ,hobbes _h evid5tly fall5 9 love ) algebra z well z ) geometry2 & x is on ! type ( algebraic reason+--9 o!r words1 on ! type ( rigor\s d$uction--t 8 logic is con/ruct$4 ,& su* a view ( ! way 9 :i* k advances seem$ amply ju/ifi$ by ! sci5tific triumphs ( 8 age4 ,b 8 pr9ciple t all motion orig9ates 9 antec$5t motion1 al?\gh plausible 9 itself & occasionally reviv$ by +5i\s speculators1 has n be5 v]ifi$ by mod]n sci5ce4 ,gravitation1 cohesion1 & *emical aff9ity h1 s f>1 to be accept$ z facts n resoluble into m g5]al facts4 ,hobbes di$ be=e ! great discov]ies ( ,newton :i* fir/ turn$ away m5's m9ds f ! purely me*anical int]pretation ( en]gy4 ,t me*anical int]pretation l$ our philosoph] to reject ,ari/otle's notion ( sociality z an ess5tially human *>act]i/ic4 ,to him ?is seem$ a m]e occult quality1 ! sub/itution ( a ^w = an explanation4 ,! c\nt]-view put =? 9 8 great "w1 ,levia?an1 is commonly call$ atomi/ic4 ,b x w\ld be gross flatt]y to comp>e ! ultimate elem5ts ( society1 z ,hobbes conceiv$ !m1 to ! molecules ( mod]n sci5ce1 :i* attract z well z repel ea* o!r2 or ev5 ) ! ,democritean atoms1 :i* are at lea/ neutral4 ,accord+ to him1 ! t5d5cy to self-pres]vation1 %>$ by m5 ) all o!r be+s1 takes ! =m ( an insatiable appetite #bf = p[]1 lead+ ea* individual to pursue 8 own aggr&isem5t at ! co/ ( any loss or suff]+ to ! re/4 ,& he tries to prove ! p]man5ce ( ?is impulse by ref]r+ to ! precautions aga9/ robb]y tak5 by h\sehold]s & travell]s4 ,ari/otle _h mu* m ju/ly m5tion$ ! k9dnesses %[n to travell]s z a pro( ( h[ widely goodwill is diffus$4 ,our c\ntryman1 ) all 8 acut5ess1 /rangely ignores ! necessity z a matt] ( prud5ce ( go+ arm$ & lock+ ! door at night1 ev5 if ! robb]s only am\nt$ to "o 9 a ?\s& ( ! population4 ,mod]n rese>*es h %[n t !re are v primitive societies :]e ! assum$ w> ( all aga9/ ea* is unkn[n1 pr$atory conflicts be+ a m>k ( m advanc$ civilisation1 & ! cause r ?an ! effect ( anti-social impulses4 ,grant+ an orig9al /ate ( an>*y & int]nec9e ho/ility1 !re is1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 only "o way out ( x1 :i* is a jo9t resolution ( ! :ole community to surr5d] _! rights ( individual sov]eignty into ! h&s ( "o man1 :o !nce=? becomes absolute rul] ( ! ,/ate1 ) au?ority to def5d its citiz5s aga9/ mutual aggressions1 & ! :ole community aga9/ attacks f a =eign ,p[]4 ,?is agreem5t con/itutes ! fam\s ,social ,contract1 ( :i* s mu* 0 to be he>d dur+ ! next c5tury & a-half4 ,x holds z betwe5 ! citiz5s !mselves1 b n betwe5 ! subjects & _! sov]eign1 = t w\ld be admitt+ a responsibility :i* !re is no p[] to en=ce4 ,& anyone refus+ to obey ! sov]eign ju/ly =feits 8 life2 = he !reby returns to ! ,/ate ( ,nature1 :]e any man t likes may kill 8 neighb\r if he c4 ,all ?is !ory ( an orig9al in/itution ( ! ,/ate #bg by contract impresses a mod]n read] z utt]ly unhi/orical4 ,b its value1 if any1 does n dep5d on its hi/orical tru?4 ,ev5 if ! remote ance/ors ( ! sev5te5?-c5tury ,europeans _h surr5d]$ all _! individual rights1 ) c]ta9 trifl+ exceptions1 into ! h&s ( an autocrat1 no sophi/ry c\ld %[ t _! mutual engagem5ts 7 b9d+ on ! subjects ( ,*>les ,i4 & ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,& x is really on exp$i5cy1 und]/ood 9 ! l>ge/ s5se1 t ! claims ( ! ,new ,mon>*y are bas$ by ,hobbes4 ,:at he ma9ta9s is t no?+ %ort ( a despotic gov]nm5t ex]cis$ by "o man c save society f relaps+ into *aos4 ,b ev5 "u ?is am5d$ =m ! !ory rema9s am5able to hi/orical criticism4 ,_h ,hobbes pursu$ 8 /udies beyond ,?ucydides1 he w\ld h f\nd t o!r polities besides ! ,a!nian democracy broke d[n at ! h\r ( trial4 ,above all1 ,roman ,imp]ialism1 :i* seems to h be5 8 ideal1 fail$ to secure its subjects ei!r aga9/ int]nal disord] or aga9/ =eign invasion4 ,democracy1 h[ev]1 0 n ! sole or ! wor/ enemy dread$ by ! au?or ( ,levia?an z a competitor ) 8 mortal god4 ,9 ! frontispiece ( t "w ! deifi$ mon>* :o holds ! sword erect ) 8 "r h& grasps ! crozi] ) 8 left1 ?us typify+ ! union ( ! spiritual & temporal p[]s 9 ! same p]son4 ,! publici/s ( ! ,italian ,r5aissance1 ) _! classical ideals1 _h1 inde$1 be5 z anti-papal z ! ,prote/ants2 & ! political disord]s fom5t$ by ! ag5ts ( ! ,ca?olic reaction dur+ ! la/ hundr$ ye>s _h giv5 ,hobbes an additional reason = p]petuat+ _! po9t ( view4 ,mean:ile ano!r m5ace to #bh public ord] _h pres5t$ itself f an opposite qu>t]4 ,calv9ism _h creat$ a new spiritual p[] bas$ on ! free individual int]pretation ( ,scripture1 9 close alliance ) ! alleg$ rights ( consci5ce & ) ! _s ( republican lib]ty4 ,ea* cre$ 9 turn _h attack$ ! ,/u>t mon>*y1 & ! second _h j effect$ its ov]?r[4 ,!re=e1 to save ! ,/ate x 0 necess>y t religi\s cre$s1 no less ?an codes ( conduct1 %\ld be dictat$ by ! secul> au?ority1 enslav+ m5's m9ds z well z _! bodies4 ,by ! dialectic irony ( ! speculative movem5t1 ?is attempt to fett] op9ion 0 turn$ into an in/rum5t = its m complete emancipation4 ,9 ord] to discr$it ! pret5sions ( ! religi\s zealots1 ,hobbes made a s]ies ( attacks on ! f\ndations ( _! fai?1 mo/ly by way ( sugge/ion & innu5do--no m be+ possible "u ! conditions !n obta9+---b ) su* effect t1 accord+ to ,macaulay1 = _m ye>s ! ,levia?an 0 ! gospel ( cold-blood$ & h>d-head$ unbeliev]s4 ,t "o :o made religi\s belief a matt] to be fix$ by legislation c\ld be 9 any s5se a ,*ri/ian seems mo/ unlikely4 ,he pr(ess$1 ) :at s9c]ity we "k n1 to reg>d ! exi/5ce ( ,god z some?+ only a fool c\ld d5y4 ,b 8 philosophy f beg9n+ to end =ms a rigor\sly-?\ght-out sy/em ( mat]ialism :i* any a!i/1 if o!rwise x satisfi$ him1 might )\t inconsi/5cy accept4 ,on ! meet+ ( ! ,long ,p>liam5t1 ,hobbes aga9 left ,engl& = ! ,cont95t1 :]e he rema9$ = elev5 ye>s4 ,b 8 pr9ciples 7 no m to ! ta/e ( ! exil$ royali/s ?an ( #bi _! oppon5ts4 ,he !re=e return$ once m to ,engl&1 made 8 submission to ! ,p>liam5t1 & sp5t ! re/ ( 8 days1 practically unmole/$ by ei!r p>ty1 "u ! ,commonweal? & ! ,re/oration until 8 dea? 9 #afgi at ! age ( n9ety-"o4 ,x may be said ( ,hobbes1 z ( ,bacon1 t ! intellect at "w is s amaz+ & ! mass ( lit]>y p]=mance s impos+ t ! illusions ( hi/orians ab\t ! value ( _! contributions to ! progress ( ?\ght are excusable4 ,nev]!less1 x _c be too di/9ctly /at$ t ! curr5t or academic e/imate ( ^! great m5 z hav+ effect$ a revolution 9 physical & moral sci5ce is wrong4 ,!y /& z mu* ap>t f ! true l9e ( evolution z d ! gigantic saurians ( a remote geological p]iod ^: rema9s excite our wond] 9 museums ( natural hi/ory4 ,_! sy/ems prov$ z futile z ! mon>*ies ( ,philip ,,ii4 & ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,bacon's dreams are no m relat$ to ! com+ victories ( sci5ce ?an ,raleigh's ,el ,dorado 0 to ! future colonial empire ( ,brita94 ,hobbes _h bett] =tune ?an ,/raf=d1 9 s f> z he kept 8 head on 8 %\ld]s2 b ! logic ( 8 absolutism %rivell$ up "u ! sun ( ,engli% lib]ty l ! great ,m9i/]'s policy ( ,?or\gh4 ,! !ory ( a ,social ,contract is a speculative idea ( ! highe/ practical importance4 ,b ! idea ( contract z ! f\ndation ( morals goes back to ,epicurus1 & x is assum$ 9 a m develop$ =m by ,hook]'s ,ecclesia/ical ,polity4 ,its pot5cy z a revolution>y in/rum5t comes f ! re9t]pretations ( ,locke & ,r\sseau1 :i* run directly c\nt] to ! assumptions ( ! ,levia?an4 #cj ,hobbes %>es ) ,bacon ! belief t all k comes f exp]i5ce1 besides mak+ x cle>] ?an 8 pr$ecessor t exp]i5ce ( ! _w comes ?r\gh ext]nal s5se alone4 ,"h also !re c be no claim to orig9ality1 = m ?an "o s*ool ( ,greek philosophy _h said ! same4 ,z an elem5t ( subsequ5t ?\ght1 m importance belongs to ! idea ( ,p[]1 :i* 0 to receive its full developm5t f ,sp9oza2 b only 9 association ) o!r ideas d]iv$ f ! philosoph] :om we h next to exam9e1 ! f\nd] ( mod]n metaphysics1 ,desc>tes4 99 99 99 99 99 #ca ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,metaphysicians ,,desc>tes1 ,,malebran*e1 ,,sp9oza1 ,,leibniz4 ,r5e ,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej7 0 a ,fr5*man1 born 9 ,t\ra9e1 & belong+ by family to ! inf]ior nobility4 ,educat$ at ! ,jesuit college ( ,la ,fle*e1 he e>ly acquir$ a di/a/e = ! s*ola/ic philosophy1 or at lea/ = its details2 ! !ology ( s*ola/icism1 z we %all see1 left a deep impression on him ?r\gh life4 ,on leav+ college he took up ma!matics1 v>i$ by a %ort plunge into ! dissipations ( ,p>is4 ,"s ye>s ( milit>y s]vice z a volunte] ) ! ,ca?olic armies at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> enabl$ him to travel & see ! _w4 ,return+ to ,p>is1 he resum$ 8 /udies1 b f\nd !m s]i\sly int]rupt$ by ! tactless bores :o1 z we "k f ,moli]e's amus+ com$y ,les ,fa*eux1 long cont9u$ to infe/ ,fr5* society4 ,to escape _! assiduities ,desc>tes1 :o priz$ solitude be=e all ?+s1 fl$ ! c\ntry4 ,! inh]itance ( an indep5d5t income enabl$ ! philosoph] to live :]e he lik$2 & ,holl& became1 ) a few int]ruptions1 8 *os5 resid5ce = ! next tw5ty ye>s 7#afbi-di74 ,ev5 "h frequ5t *anges ( resid5ce & occasional concealm5t ( 8 address 7 necess>y 9 ord] to elude ! visits ( importunate admir]s4 ,) all 8 unsociability !re seems to h #cb be5 some?+ s+ul>ly magnetic ab\t ! p]sonality ( ,desc>tes2 yet he only fell 9 ) "o cong5ial _s1 ! ,pr9cess ,elizabe?1 daught] ( ! un=tunate ,w9t] ,k+ & gr&daught] ( our ,james ,i4 ,possess+ to ! fulle/ ext5t ! intellectual brilliancy & ! incomp>able *>m ( ! ,/u>t family1 ?is great lady impress$ ! lonely ?9k] z ! only p]son :o ev] und]/ood 8 philosophy4 ,ano!r royal fri5d%ip br\ght 8 c>e] to an untimely end4 ,que5 ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$51 ! gift$ & re/less daught] ( ,gu/avus ,adolphus1 he>d ( ,desc>tes1 & invit$ him to h] ,c\rt4 ,on 8 arrival %e s5t = ! pilot :o _h br\ght ! illu/ri\s /rang] to ,/ockholm & que/ion$ him ab\t 8 pass5g]4 ,madame1 he repli$1 x is n a man :om ,i conduct$ to y\r ,maje/y1 b a demi-god4 ,he taught me m 9 ?ree weeks ( ! sci5ce ( seaman%ip & ( w9ds & navigation ?an ,i _h le>n$ 9 ! sixty ye>s ,i _h be5 at sea 7,miss ,e4 ,s4 ,haldane's ,life ( ,r5e ,desc>tes74 ,! ,que5 fully came up to ! expectations ( h] visitor1 9 ^: eyes %e _h no fault b an un=tunate t5d5cy to wa/e h] "t on le>n+ ,greek4 ,besides h] o!r m]its1 %e possess$ a sweetness & goodness :i* made m5 devot$ to h] s]vice4 ,x soon appe>$ t1 z ) o!rs ( ! same rank1 ?is 0 only ! v5e] ( a he>tless selfi%ness4 ,*ri/9a1 :o 0 an e>ly ris]1 requir$ 8 att5dance 9 h] libr>y to give h] lessons 9 philosophy at five o'clock 9 ! morn+4 ,desc>tes 0 by habit a v late ris]4 ,besides1 he _h n ev5 a lodg+ 9 ! royal palace1 b 0 /ay+ at ! ,fr5* ,embassy1 & 9 go+ !re _h to pass ov] a long bridge :i* 0 always bitt]ly cold4 ,! cold #cc kill$ him4 ,he _h arriv$ at ,/ockholm 9 ,octob]1 & meant to leave 9 ,janu>y2 b rema9$ at ! urg5t reque/ ( ! ,que51 :o1 h[ev]1 made no *ange 9 ! h\r ( _! int]views1 al?\gh t w9t] 0 "o ( ! sev]e/ on record4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ,febru>y1 #afej1 he fell ill & di$ ( inflammation ( ! lungs on ! #aa?1 9 ! fifty-f\r? ye> ( 8 age4 ,desc>tes _h ! physical c\rage :i* ,hobbes lack$2 b he seems1 l ,bacon1 to h be5 a moral c[>d4 ,! mo/ /rik+ in/ance ( ?is is t1 on he>+ ( ,galileo's condemnation = tea*+ ! helioc5tric a/ronomy1 he )held f publication & _h ev5 ?\ghts ( de/roy+ a "w ( 8 own 9 :i* ! same doctr9e 0 ma9ta9$4 ,?is 0 at a "t :5 he 0 liv+ 9 a c\ntry :]e !re c\ld be no "q ( p]sonal dang] f ! ,inquisition4 ,b some?+ ( ! same weakness %[s itself 9 8 runn+ away f ,france to escape ^? intrusions on 8 /udi\s retirem5t :i* "o w\ld ?9k might h be5 *eck$ by lett+ x be kn[n ) suffici5t firmness t 8 h\rs c\ld n be wa/$ on idle conv]sation4 ,& we h se5 h[ at la/ 8 life 0 lo/ = no bett] reason ?an ! dread ( giv+ (f5ce to ,que5 ,*ri/9a4 ,x seems /range t a "* s unh]oic %\ld figure among ! great emancipators ( human ?\ght4 ,9 fact1 ,desc>tes's s]vices to lib]ty h be5 mu* exagg]at$4 ,8 intellectual fame re/s on ?ree f\ndations4 ,( ^! ! mo/ indubitable is ! creation ( analytical geometry1 ! />t+-po9t ( mod]n ma!matics4 ,! value ( 8 contributions to physics has be5 mu* disput$2 b1 on ! :ole1 exp]t op9ion seems to h decid$ t :at 0 new 9 !m 0 n true1 & :at 0 true 0 n new4 ,h[ev]1 ! place we mu/ assign ,desc>tes 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy c only be det]m9$ by our op9ion ( 8 metaphysics4 #cd ,illu/ration3 ,,r5e ,,desc>tes4 #ce ,z a philosoph] ,desc>tes has1 to beg9 )1 ! m]it ( exempl>y cle>ness4 ,! fault is n ) him if we _c tell :at he ?\ght & h[ he came to ?9k x4 ,! classic ,disc\rse on ,me?od 7#afcg7 relates 8 m5tal hi/ory 9 a /yle ( almo/ t\*+ simplicity4 ,x appe>s t f an e>ly age tru? _h be5 8 p>am\nt object1 n z ) ,bacon & ,hobbes = its utility1 b = its own sake4 ,9 se>* ( ?is ideal he read widely1 b )\t f9d+ :at he want$4 ,! great & fam\s works ( lit]ature might ent]ta9 or dazzle2 !y c\ld n conv9ce4 ,! philosoph]s pr(ess$ to tea* tru?2 _! endless disputes %[$ t !y _h n f\nd x4 ,ma!matics1 on ! o!r h&1 pres5t$ a pleas+ picture ( demon/rat$ c]ta9ty1 b a c]ta9ty t seem$ to be priz$ only z a sure f\ndation = ! me*anical arts4 ,we>ily ?r[+ 8 books aside1 ! "y man !n appli$ himself to ! great book ( life1 m+l+ ) all sorts & conditions ( m5 to he> :at !y _h to say ab\t ! prime int]e/s ( exi/5ce4 ,b ! same vanity & vexation ( _s foll[$ him "h4 ,m5 7 no m agre$ among !mselves ?an 7 ! au?orities ( 8 college days4 ,! tru?s ( religion seem$1 inde$1 to (f] a safe refuge2 b !y 7 an exception t prov$ ! rule2 be+1 z ,desc>tes obs]ves1 a sup]natural revelation1 n ! natural k t he want$4 ,! conflict ( au?orities _h at lea/ "o good result1 :i* 0 to discr$it ! v notion ( #cf au?ority1 ?us ?r[+ ! inquir] back on 8 own reason z ! sole rema9+ res\rce4 ,& z ma!matics seem$1 s f>1 to be ! only satisfactory sci5ce1 ! mo/ reasonable c\rse 0 to give a wid] ext5sion & application to ! me?ods ( algebra & geometry4 ,f\r fundam5tal rules 7 ?us obta9$3 7#a7 ,to admit no?+ z true t 0 n evid5tly s2 7#b7 to analyse e problem into z _m di/9ct que/ions z ! nature ( ! subject requir$2 7#c7 to asc5d gradually f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex subjects2 & 7#d7 to be sure t 8 enum]ations & surveys 7 s exhau/ive & complete z to let no ess5tial elem5t ( ! "q escape4 ,! rules z !y /& are ill-arrang$1 vague1 & imp]fect4 ,! la/ %\ld come fir/ & ! fir/ la/4 ,! notions ( simplicity1 complexity1 & tru? are nei!r illu/rat$ nor def9$4 ,& no pa9s are tak5 to discrim9ate judgm5ts f concepts4 ,x may be said t ! me?od work$ well2 at lea/ ,desc>tes tells u t ) ! help ( 8 rules he made rapid progress 9 ! solution ( ma!matical problems4 ,we may believe 9 8 success )\t admitt+ t an inf]ior g5ius c\ld h a*iev$ ! same results by ! same means4 ,! real po9t is to asc]ta9 :e!r ! me?od1 :atev] its utility 9 ma!matics1 c\ld be advantage\sly appli$ to metaphysics4 ,& ! answ] seems to be t z manipulat$ by its au?or ! new sy/em l$ to no?+ b hopeless fallacies4 ,aft] res]v+ a provisional ass5t to ! cu/oms ( ! c\ntry :]e he happ5s to be resid+ & to ! cre$ ( ! ,roman ,*ur*1 ,desc>tes beg9s by call+ 9 "q ! :ole mass ( beliefs he has #cg hi!rto accept$1 includ+ ! reality ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,b ! v act ( d\bt implies ! exi/5ce ( ! d\bt] himself4 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am4 ,x has be5 suppos$ t ! initial affirmation ( ?is self-evid5t pr9ciple implies t ,desc>tes id5tifi$ ,be+ ) ,?\ght4 ,he did no su* ?+4 ,no m is meant1 to beg9 )1 ?an t1 :atev] else is or is n1 ,i ! ?9k] c]ta9ly am4 ,?is is no great discov]y2 ! int]e/+ ?+ is to f9d out :at x implies4 ,a good deal accord+ to ,desc>tes4 ,fir/ he inf]s t1 s9ce ! act ( ?9k+ assures him ( 8 exi/5ce1 !re=e he is a sub/ance ! :ole ess5ce ( :i* consi/s 9 ?\ght1 :i* is indep5d5t ( place & ( any mat]ial object--9 %ort1 an immat]ial s\l1 entirely di/9ct f ! body1 easi] to "k1 & capable ( exi/+ )\t x4 ,"h ! confusion ( conception ) judgm5t is app>5t1 & x leads to a confusion ( our ?\ghts ab\t reality ) ! realities !mselves4 ,& ,desc>tes c>ries ?is loose reason+ a /ep fur!r by go+ on to argue t1 z ! c]ta9ty ( 8 own exi/5ce has no o!r gu>antee ?an ! cle>ness ) :i* x is inf]r$ f ! fact ( 8 ?9k+1 x mu/ !re=e be a safe rule to conclude t :atev] ?+s we conceive v cle>ly & di/9ctly are all true4 ,9 8 o!r great philosophical "w1 ! ,m$itations1 ,desc>tes sets out at great] l5g?1 b ) less cle>ness1 8 argum5ts = ! immat]iality ( ! s\l4 ,"h x is fully admitt$ t1 besides ?9k+1 self-consci\sness cov]s ! functions ( p]ceiv+1 feel+1 desir+1 & will+2 nor does x seem to be pret5d$ t ^! exp]i5ces are r$ucible to =ms ( ?\ght4 ,b x is claim$ t !y dep5d on #ch ?\ght 9 ! s5se t )\t ?\ght "o w\ld n be aw>e ( _! exi/5ce2 :]eas x c easily be conceiv$ )\t !m4 ,a little m introspection w\ld %[ t ! second "p ( ! ass]tion is n true2 = !re is no ?\ght )\t words1 & no words1 h[ev] inaudibly articulat$1 )\t a numb] ( tactual & muscul> s5sations1 nor ev5 )\t a s]ies ( di/9ct volitions4 ,ano!r noticeable po9t is t1 s f> f obey+ ! me?odical rule to proce$ f ! simple to ! complex1 ,desc>tes does j ! contr>y4 ,/>t+ ) ! :ole complex cont5t ( consci\sness1 he works d[n by a s]ies ( arbitr>y rejections to :at1 accord+ to him1 is ! simple fact ( immat]ial ?\ght4 ,let u see h[ x f>es ) 8 attempt to recon/ruct k on t elem5t>y basis4 ,return+ to 8 po/ulate ( univ]sal d\bt1 our philosoph] argues f ?is to an imp]fection 9 8 nature1 & !nce to ! idea ( a p]fect be+4 ,! reason+ is mo/ slip%od2 =1 ev5 admitt+ t k is pref]able to ignorance--:i* has n be5 prov$--x does n foll[ t ! dogmati/ is m p]fect ?an ! d\bt]4 ,inde$1 "o might inf] ! contr>y f ,desc>tes's hav+ pass$ ) progressive reflection f ! "o /age to ! o!r4 ,ov]look+ ! p>alogism1 let u grant t he has ! idea ( a p]fect be+1 & g on to ! "q ( h[ he came to possess x4 ,"o might sugge/ t ! consci\sness ( p]fect self-k1 comb9$ ) ! wi% to "k m ( o!r subjects1 w\ld be suffici5t to create an ideal ( omnisci5ce1 &1 proce$+ 9 l mann] f a comp>ison ( wants ) _! satisfactions1 to enl>ge ?is ideal into ! #ci notion ( inf9ite p]fection all r\nd4 ,desc>tes1 h[ev]1 is n really out = tru?--at lea/1 n 9 metaphysics2 he is out = a ju/ification ( :at ! ,jesuits _h taught him at ,la ,fle*e1 & no ,jesuit casui/ry c\ld be m sophi/ical ?an ! logic he f9ds good en\gh = ! purpose4 ,to argue1 z he does1 t ! idea ( a p]fect be+1 9 8 m9d1 c be expla9$ only by its proce$+ f su* a be+ z its creator is already suffici5tly audaci\s4 ,b ?is feat is f> surpass$ by 8 fam\s ontological pro( ( ,!ism4 ,a triangle1 he tells u1 ne$ n necess>ily exi/2 b1 assum+ !re to be "o1 its ?ree angles mu/ be equal to two "r angles4 ,) ,god1 on ! o!r h&1 to be conceiv$ is to be2 =1 exi/5ce be+ a p]fection1 x foll[s1 f ! idea ( a p]fect ,be+1 t he mu/ exi/4 ,! answ] is m cle> & di/9ct ?an any ( ,desc>tes's demon/rations4 ,p]fection is affirm$ ( exi/+ or ( imag9>y subjects1 b exi/5ce is n a p]fection 9 itself4 ,a ?ird argum5t = ,!ism rema9s to be consid]$4 ,desc>tes asks h[ he came to exi/4 ,n by 8 own act2 = on t hypo!sis he w\ld h giv5 himself all ! p]fections t n[ he lacks2 nor f any o!r imp]fect cause1 = t w\ld be to repeat ! difficulty1 n to solve x4 ,besides1 ! simple cont9uance ( 8 exi/5ce f mom5t to mom5t ne$s an explanation4 ,= "t consi/s ( an inf9ity ( p>ts1 none dep5d+ 9 any way on ! o!rs2 s t my hav+ be5 a little :ile ago is no reason :y ,i %\ld be n[1 unless !re is "s p[] by :i* ,i am creat$ anew4 ,"h we mu/ obs]ve t ,desc>tes is play+ fa/ & loose ) ! law ( causation4 ,by :at he calls ! light ( nature--9 o!r words1 ! light ( ,greek #dj philosophy--?+s c no m pass into no?+ ?an !y c come out ( x4 ,moreov]1 ! difficulty is ! same = my suppos$ ,creator z = myself4 ,we are told t ?\ght is a necess>y p]fection ( ! div9e nature4 ,b ?9k+ implies "t2 !re=e ,god also exi/s f mom5t to mom5t4 ,h[1 !n1 c he recov] 8 be+ any m ?an we c8 ,! answ]1 ( c\rse1 w\ld be3 because he is p]fect1 & p]fection involves exi/5ce4 ,?us ! argum5t f causation ?r[s u back on ! s-call$ ontological argum5t1 ^: futility has already be5 %[n4 ,?is v idea ( p]fection involves u 9 fre% difficulties ) ! law ( causation4 ,a p]fect ,be+ might be expect$ to make p]fect creatures--:i* by hypo!sis we are n4 ,desc>tes q sees ?is1 & only escapes by a v]bal quibble4 ,our imp]fections1 he says1 come f ! %>e t ,no?+ness has 9 our nature4 ,once all[ s mu* to ! creative p[] ( z]o1 & ,god seems to be a r gratuit\s po/ulate4 ,aft] prov+ to 8 own satisfaction ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l & ( ,god1 ,desc>tes returns to ! />t+-po9t ( 8 :ole inquiry--t is1 ! reality ( ! mat]ial _w & ( its laws4 ,& n[ 8 !ology supplies him ) a %ort & easy me?od = gett+ rid ( ! sceptical d\bts t _h tr\bl$ him at fir/4 ,he has a cle> & di/9ct idea ( 8 own body & ( o!r bodies surr\nd+ x on all sides z ext5d$ sub/ances communicat+ movem5ts to "o ano!r4 ,& he has a t5d5cy to accept :atev] is cle>ly & di/9ctly conceiv$ by him z true4 ,b to suppose t ,god creat$ t t5d5cy ) ! int5tion ( deceiv+ him w\ld argue a want ( v]acity 9 ! div9e nature incompatible ) its #da p]fection4 ,su* reason+ obvi\sly ignores ! alt]native t ,god might be deceiv+ u = our good4 ,or r :at we call tru? might n be an insight into ! nature ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 b a correct judgm5t ( antec$5ts & consequ5ts4 ,our consci\sness w\ld !n be a va/ s5sori-motor ma*9]y adju/$ to secure ! ma9t5ance & p]fection ( life4 ,desc>tes1 z a ma!matician1 places ! ess5ce ( ,matt] or ,body 9 ext5sion4 ,"h he agrees ) ano!r ma!matical philosoph]1 ,plato1 :o says ! same 9 8 ,timaeus4 ,s f> ! co9cid5ce might be accid5tal2 b :5 we f9d t ! ,fr5*man1 l ! ,greek1 conceives 8 mat]ialis$ space z be+ orig9ally divid$ into triangul> bodies1 ! evid5ce ( unackn[l$g$ borr[+ seems irresi/ible--! m s t ,huygh5s m5tions ?is z cu/om>y ) ,desc>tes4 ,! great au?or ( ! ,me?od & ! ,m$itations--=1 aft] e critical d$uction1 8 greatness z a ?9k] rema9s und\bt$--contribut$ no?+ to e?ics4 ,"h he is cont5t to reaffirm ! g5]al conclusions ( ,greek philosophy1 ! necess>y sup]iority ( m9d to matt]1 ( ! s\l to ! body1 ( _s to s5se4 ,he accepts free-w f ,ari/otle )\t any attempt to reconcile x ) ! rigid det]m9ism ( 8 own me*anical naturalism4 ,at ! same "t !re is a rem>kable anticipation ( mod]n psy*ology 9 8 doctr9e ( intellectual ass5t z an act ( ! w4 ,:5 our judgm5ts g beyond :at is gu>ante$ by a cle> & di/9ct p]ception ( _! tru? !re is a possibility ( error1 & !n ! error is our own fault1 ! precipitate conclusion hav+ be5 a volunt>y act4 ,?us human free-w int]v5es to cle> ,god ( all #db responsibility = our delusions z well z = our crimes4 ,,malebran*e4 ,pascal1 we are told1 c\ld n =give ,desc>tes = limit+ ,god's action on ! _w to ! initial fillip by :i* ! process ( evolution 0 />t$4 ,nev]!less1 ,pascal's fri5ds1 ! ,jans5i/s1 7 cont5t to adopt ,c>tesianism z _! religi\s philosophy1 & 8 epigram c]ta9ly does n apply to ! next di/+ui%$ ,c>tesian1 ,arnold ,geul9cx 7#afbe-affi71 a ,flem+ ( ,antw]p4 ,un=tunate 9 8 life1 ?is em95t tea*] has ( all orig9al ?9k]s receiv$ ! lea/ cr$it = 8 s]vices to metaphysics f po/]ity1 be+1 outside a small circle ( /ud5ts1 /ill utt]ly unkn[n to fame4 ,geul9cx is ! au?or ( a !ory call$ ,occasionalism4 ,desc>tes _h repres5t$ m9d1 :i* he id5tifi$ ) ,?\ght1 & matt]1 :i* he id5tifi$ ) ,ext5sion1 z two anti!tical sub/ances ) n a note 9 common4 ,nev]!less1 he suppos$ t communications betwe5 !m took place ?r\gh a "p ( ! bra9 call$ ! p9eal body4 ,geul9cx cut ?r\gh ev5 ?is n>r[ i/hmus1 d5y+ ! possibility ( any ma*9]y = transmitt+ s5sible images f ! mat]ial _w to our consci\sness1 or volitions f ! m9d to ! limbs4 ,h[1 !n1 7 ! facts to be expla9$8 ,accord+ to him1 by ! int]v5tion ( ,god4 ,:5 ! s-call$ organs ( s5se are act$ on by vibrations f ! ext]nal _w1 or :5 a p>ticul> movem5t is will$ by ! m9d1 ! correspond+ m5tal & mat]ial modifications are miracul\sly produc$ by ! ex]cise ( 8 omnipot5ce2 & x is because ^! ev5ts occur on occasion ( signals ( :i* !y #dc are n ! effects b ! consequ5ts t ! !ory has receiv$ ! "n ( ,occasionalism4 ,! !ory1 z ,geul9cx =mulat$ x1 seems at fir/ sight simply grotesque2 & f a religi\s po9t ( view x has ! additional drawback ( mak+ ,god ! imm$iate executor ( e crime committ$ by man4 ,nev]!less1 x is m]ely ! logical application ( a pr9ciple subsequ5tly admitt$ by pr(\nd ?9k]s ( ! mo/ oppos+ s*ools--namely1 t consci\sness _c produce or transmit en]gy1 comb9$ ) ! belief 9 a ,god :o does n exi/ = no?+4 ,ev5 pa/ ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury _m ,engli% & ,fr5* naturali/s 7 p]suad$ t animal species to ! numb] ( #cjj1jjj repres5t$ z _m di/9ct creative acts2 & at lea/ "o a/ronom]1 :o 0 also a philosoph]1 decl>$ t ! ultimate atoms ( matt]1 runn+ up to an immeasurably high] figure1 bore ! /amp ( ! manufactur$ article4 ,! capture ( ,c>tesianism by !ology 0 complet$ by ,nicolas ,malebran*e 7#afch-agae74 ,?is accompli%$ writ] & ?9k]1 d$icat$ by physical infirmity to a contemplative life1 ent]$ ! ,oratory at an e>ly age1 & rema9$ 9 x until 8 dea?4 ,com+ across a copy ( ,desc>tes's ,treatise on ,man at tw5ty-six1 he at once became a conv]t to ! new philosophy1 & devot$ ! next t5 ye>s to its exclusive /udy4 ,at ! end ( t p]iod he publi%$ 8 ma/]piece1 ,on ! ,inve/igation ( ,tru? 7,de la ,re*]*e de la ,v]ite1 #afgd71 :i* at once won him an enorm\s reputation4 ,x 0 foll[$ by o!r works ( less importance4 ,! leg5d t ,malebran*e's end 0 ha/5$ by an argum5t ) ,b]keley has be5 disprov$4 #dd ,)\t ackn[l$g+ ! obligation1 ,malebran*e accepts ! conclusions ( ,geul9cx to ! ext5t ( d5y+ ! possibility ( any communication betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,inde$1 he goes fur!r1 & d5ies t "o portion ( matt] c act on ano!r4 ,b 8 real advance on ,occasionalism lies 9 ! "q3 ,h[1 !n1 c we "k ! laws ( ! mat]ial univ]se1 or ev5 t !re is su* a ?+ z matt] at all8 ,once m ,god int]v5es to solve ! difficulty1 b aft] a fa%ion mu* less crude ?an ! miracul\s app>atus ( ,geul9cx4 ,introspection assures u t we are ?9k+ ?+s1 & t our m9ds are /or$ ) ideas1 includ+ ! idea ( ,god ! all-p]fect ,be+1 & ! idea ( ,ext5sion ) all ! ma!matical & physical tru?s logically d$ucible !refrom4 ,we did n make ?is idea1 !re=e x comes f ,god1 0 9 ,god's m9d be=e x 0 9 ours4 ,foll[+ ,plot9us1 ,malebran*e calls ?is idea intelligible ,ext5sion4 ,x is ! ar*etype ( our mat]ial _w4 ,! same is true ( all o!r cle> & di/9ct ideas2 !y are1 z ,platonism tea*es1 ( div9e orig94 ,b is x necess>y to suppose t ! ideal cont5ts ( ea* sep>ate s\l 7 plac$ 9 x at bir? by ! ,creator8 ,surely ! law ( p>simony =bids4 ,x is a simpl] & easi] explanation to suppose t ! div9e ar*etypal ideas alone exi/s1 & t we appreh5d !m by a my/ical communion ) ! div9e consci\sness2 t1 9 %ort1 we see all ?+s 9 ,god4 ,& 9 ord] to make ?is vision possible we mu/1 z ! ,apo/le says1 live1 move1 & h our be+ 9 ,god4 ,z a ma!matician w\ld say1 ,god mu/ be ! locus1 ! place ( s\ls4 ,!re is unque/ionably some?+ gr&iose ab\t ?is !ory1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has ! defect 9 or?odox #de op9ion ( logically lead+ to ! ,pan!ism1 held 9 abhorr5ce by ,malebran*e1 ( 8 great] contempor>y ,sp9oza4 ,& x is a sugge/ive circum/ance t ! v simil> philosophy ( ! ,et]nal ,consci\sness held by our c\ntryman ,t4 ,h4 ,gre5 has be5 %[n by ! criticism ( ,h5ry ,sidgwick to exclude ! p]sonality ( ,god4 ,,sp9oza4 ,) ! philosoph] :om ,i h j nam$ we come = ! fir/ "t 9 mod]n hi/ory to a figure recall+ 9 its su/a9$ equality ( intellectual & moral excell5ce ! mo/ h]oic figures ( ,hell5ic ?\ght4 ,giordano ,bruno we may1 inde$1 pron\nce1 l ,lucan or ,cranm]1 by 8 dea? approv$1 b 8 submission at ,v5ice has to be set aga9/ 8 m>tyrdom at ,rome2 & if !re is no?+ v c5surable 9 8 c>e] z a w&]+ tea*]1 !re is also no?+ wor?y ( any p>ticul> respect4 ,diff]5ces ( environm5t & h]$ity may no d\bt be invok$ to acc\nt = ! diff]5ce ( "*2 & 9 ! philosophy ab\t to be consid]$ ! det]m9+ influ5ce ( su* causes = ! fir/ "t f9ds due recognition2 b on ! same pr9ciple our e?ical judgm5ts also are det]m9$ by ! v con/itution ( ?+s4 ,b>u* de ,sp9oza 7#afcb-afgg71 born at ,am/]dam1 belong$ to a family ( ,portuguese ,jews1 exil$ on acc\nt ( _! ,hebrew fai?1 9 :i* also he 0 br\ght up4 ,soon aft] rea*+ manhood he fell away f ! synagogue1 pref]r+ to %>e 9 ! religi\s ex]cises ( c]ta9 latitud9>ian ,*ri/ian sects4 ,spies 7 set to report 8 conv]sation1 :i* soon suppli$ evid5ce ( suffici5tly het]odox op9ions4 #df ,a s5t5ce ( =mal excommunication foll[$2 b mod]n rese>* has discr$it$ ! /ory ( an attempt to assass9ate him made by an emiss>y ( ! synagogue4 ,aft] successfully resi/+ ! claim ( 8 si/] & 8 bro!r-9-law to %ut out ! apo/ate f 8 %>e ( ! pat]nal inh]itance1 ,sp9oza surr5d]$ ! disput$ prop]ty1 b h5ce=? broke (f all communication ) 8 family4 ,subsequ5tly he refus$ an (f] ( #b1jjj flor9s1 made by a weal?y fri5d & admir]1 ,simon de ,vries1 z also a proposal f ! same fri5d to leave him 8 :ole =tune1 insi/+ t x %\ld g to ! legal heir1 ,simon's bro!r ,isaac4 ,! latt]1 on succe$+1 wi%$ to settle an annual p5sion ( #ejj flor9s on ,sp9oza1 b ! philosoph] w\ld accept no m ?an #cjj4 ,books 7 8 only luxury1 mat]ial wants be+ suppli$ by poli%+ glass l5ses1 an art 9 :i* he atta9$ consid]able pr(ici5cy4 ,b x 0 an unheal?y occupation1 & probably contribut$ to 8 dea? by consumption4 ,democracy 0 !n & long aft]w>ds associat$ ) fanaticism & intol]ance r ?an ) free-?\ght 9 religion4 ,! lib]al p>ty 9 ,dut* politics 0 ! ari/ocratic p>ty4 ,sp9oza sympa?is$ ) its lead]1 ,john de ,witt2 he wept bitt] te>s ov] ! great /atesman's murd]2 & only ! urg5t remon/rances ( 8 fri5ds1 :o knew :at dang] w\ld be incurr$ by su* a /ep1 prev5t$ him f plac>d+ ! walls ( ! ,hague1 :]e he !n resid$1 ) an address reproa*+ ! infuriat$ p = _! crime4 #dg ,illu/ration3 ,reproduc$ 7by p]mission7 f ,sp9oza's ,%ort ,treatise on ,god1 ,man1 & 8 ,well-be+1 by ,pr(essor ,a4 ,wolf 7,a4 ,c4 ,black74 #dh ,9 #afgc ! enlight5$ rul] ( ! ,palat9ate1 a bro!r ( ,desc>tes's ,pr9cess ,elizabe?1 (f]$ ,sp9oza a pr(essor%ip at ,heidelb]g1 ) full lib]ty to tea* 8 philosophy4 ,b ! pan!i/ic recluse wisely refus$ x4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day su* tea*+ z 8 w\ld meet ) little m]cy at ,b]l91 ,cambridge1 or ,ed9burgh4 ,z x 01 we h reason to believe t ev5 9 free ,holl& only a premature dea? sav$ him f a prosecution = blasphemy1 & 8 great "w ! ,e?ica c\ld n ) safety be publi%$ dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,x appe>$ anonym\sly among 8 po/hum\s works 9 ,novemb]1 #afgg1 )\t ! "n ( ! true place ( publication on ! title-page4 ,sp9oza 0 = 8 "t no less d>+ z a ,biblical critic ?an z a metaphysician4 ,8 celebrat$ ,tractatus ,!ologico-,politicus has = its prim>y purpose to v9dicate ! fre$om ( sci5tific ?\ght aga9/ ecclesia/ical int]f]5ce4 ,& ?is he does by draw+ a tr5*ant l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! respective (fices ( religion & ( philosophy4 ,! bus9ess ( ! "o is to =m ! "* & to purify ! he>t1 ( ! o!r to guide & in=m ! intellect4 ,:5 religion und]takes to tea* sci5tific tru? ! v ends = :i* x exi/s are defeat$4 ,:5 !ological dogmatism ga9s control ( ! ,*ur*es ! wor/ passions are develop$ "u its influ5ce4 ,in/ead ( becom+ l[ly & *>itable1 m5 become di/urb]s ( public ord]1 grasp+ intrigu]s1 bitt] & c5sori\s p]secutors4 ,! claims ( !ology to dictate our intellectual beliefs are n only mis*iev\s1 b totally invalid4 ,!y re/ on ! au?ority ( ! ,bible z a revelation ( ,god's w4 ,b no su* sup]natural revelation ev] 0 or c\ld be giv54 ,su* violation ( ! ord] ( nature z ! miracles record$ 9 ,scripture hi/ory w\ld be impossible4 ,& ! n>ratives record+ !m are discr$it$ by #di ! criticism :i* %[s t v>i\s books ( ! ,old ,te/am5t 7 n writt5 by ! m5 ^: names !y be>1 b long aft] _! "t4 ,z a ,hebrew s*ol> ,sp9oza discusses ! ,jewi% ,scriptures 9 "s detail1 %[+ 9 p>ticul> t ! ,p5tateu* is ( a lat] date ?an ,moses4 ,8 limit$ k ( ,greek is (f]$ z a reason = n h&l+ ! ,new ,te/am5t ) equal fre$om2 b "s contradictions are indicat$ z disall[+ ! infallibility claim$ = x4 ,at ! same "t ! p]fection ( ,*ri/'s "* is fully ackn[l$g$ & accept$ z a moral revelation ( ,god4 ,sp9oza %>$ to ! fulle/ ext5t1 & ev5 w5t beyond1 ,desc>tes's ambition to recon/ruct philosophy on a ma!matical basis4 ,! idea may h come to him f ! ,fr5* ?9k]1 b x is actually ( mu* old] orig91 be+ d]iv$ f ,plato1 ! lead+ _s ( ! ,r5aissance1 z ,ari/otle _h be5 ! oracle ( ! lat] ,middle ,ages4 ,n[ ,plato's ideal _h be5 to con/ruct a philosophy transc5d+ ! assumptions--or1 z he calls !m1 ! hypo!ses--( geometry z mu* z ^? assumptions transc5d ! demon/rations ( geometry2 & ?is also 0 ! ideal ( ,sp9oza4 ,desc>tes _h be5 cont5t to accept f tradition 8 ultimate realities1 ,?\ght1 ,ext5sion1 & ,god1 )\t %[+ t !y mu/ necess>ily exi/2 = 8 pro( ( ,god's exi/5ce />ts f an idea 9 ! human m9d1 :ile ,?\ght & ,ext5sion are n d$uc$ at all4 ,to appreciate ! "w ( ! ,hebrew philosoph]1 ( ! lonely mus]1 br$ 9 ! religion ( ,jahveh--a "n traditionally int]pret$ z ! v expression ( absolute self-exi/5ce--we mu/ conceive him z />t+ ) a "q deep] ev5 ?an ! ,c>tesian #ej d\bt1 ask+ n ,h[ c ,i "k :at is8 b ,:y %\ld !re be any?+ :atev]8 ,& ! answ]1 dive/$ ( s*ola/ic t]m9ology1 is3 ,because x is inconceivable t !re %\ld be no?+1 & if !re is any?+ !re mu/ be ev]y?+4 ,?is univ]se ( ?+s1 :i* mu/ also be ev]la/+1 ,sp9oza calls ,god4 ,! philosophy or religion--= x is bo?--:i* id5tifies ,god ) ! totality ( exi/5ce 0 ( long /&+ 9 ,greece1 & _h be5 elaborat$ 9 sy/ematic detail by ! ,/oics4 ,x has be5 kn[n = ! la/ two c5turies "u ! "n ( ,pan!ism1 a ^w ( ,greek etymology1 b n a creation ( ! ,greeks !mselves1 &1 inde$1 ( m mod]n date ?an ,sp9oza4 ,hi/orians always speak ( him z a ,pan!i/1 & !re is no reason to ?9k t he w\ld h object$ to ! designation _h x be5 curr5t dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,b !re are important po9ts ( di/9ction betwe5 him & ^? :o prec$$ or foll[$ him 9 ! same speculative direction4 ,! ,/oics diff]$ f him 9 be+ mat]iali/s4 ,to !m reality & corporeality 7 conv]tible t]ms4 ,x seems likely t ,hobbes & 8 contempor>y1 ! atomi/ ,gass5di1 7 ( ! same op9ion1 al?\gh !y did n say x 9 s _m words4 ,b ,desc>tes 0 a /rong spirituali/2 & ,sp9oza foll[$ ! ma/]'s lead s f>1 at any rate1 z to give ,?\ght at lea/ equal reality ) matt]1 :i* he also id5tifi$ ) ,ext5sion4 ,x has be5 se5 :at difficulties 7 creat$ by ! radical ,c>tesian anti!sis betwe5 ,?\ght & ,ext5sion1 or--to call !m by _! m famili> names--m9d & body1 :5 tak5 toge!r ) ! intimate association %[n by exp]i5ce to obta9 betwe5 !m2 & also h[ #ea ,geul9cx & ,malebran*e 7 l$ on by ! v _s ( philosophy itself almo/ to subm]ge ! two disp>ate sub/ances 9 ! all-absorb+ ag5cy ( ,god4 ,! obvi\s c\rse1 !n1 = ,sp9oza1 be+ unfett]$ by ! obligations ( any ,*ri/ian cre$1 0 to take ! la/ rema9+ /ep1 to resolve ! dualism ( ,?\ght & ,ext5sion into ! unity ( ! div9e sub/ance4 ,9 fact1 ! ,hebrew philosoph] does ?is1 decl>+ boldly t ,?\ght & ,ext5sion are "o & ! same ?+--:i* ?+ is ,god1 ! only true reality ( :i* !y are m]ely appe>ances4 ,&1 s f>1 he has _h _m foll[]s :o /rive to h>monise ! opposition ( :at we n[ call subject & object 9 ! syn!sis ( ! ,all-,"o4 ,b he goes beyond ?is1 exp&+ ! conception ( ,god--or ! ,absolute--to a degree undream$ ( by any religion or philosophy =mulat$ be=e or aft] 8 "t4 ,god1 ,sp9oza tells u1 is a ,sub/ance consi/+ ( inf9ite attributes1 ea* ( :i* expresses 8 absolute & et]nal ess5ce4 ,b ( ^! attributes two alone1 ,?\ght & ,ext5sion1 are kn[n to u at pres5t1 s t our ignorance inf9itely exce$s our k ( reality4 ,8 extant writ+s d n expla9 by :at process he m\nt$ to ?is1 ! mo/ dizzy height ( speculation ev] atta9$ by man2 b1 9 ! abs5ce ( def9ite in=mation1 "s guid+ consid]ations sugge/ !mselves z probable4 ,bruno1 :om ,sp9oza is held1 on /rong gr\nds1 to h read1 id5tifi$ ,god ) ! supreme unify+ pr9ciple ( a univ]se ext5d+ ?r\gh inf9ite space4 ,desc>tes1 on ! o!r h&1 conceiv$ ,god z a ?9k+ r ?an z an ext5d$ sub/ance4 ,b 8 s*ool t5d$1 z we saw1 to conceive ,god z m$iat+ #eb betwe5 m9d & body 9 a way t sugge/$ _! real union ?r\gh 8 p[]4 ,fur!rmore1 ! habit common to all ,c>tesians ( reg>d+ geometrical reason+ z ! mo/ p]fect =m ( ?\ght inevitably l$ to ! conception ( ?\ght z accompany+ space :]ev] x w5t--9 fact1 z /ret*+ l x to inf9ity4 ,aga91 f ! ,c>tesian po9t ( view1 t ,ext5sion :i* is ! v ess5ce ( ! mat]ial _w1 :ile x cov]s space1 is m ?an m]e space2 x includes n only co-exi/5ce1 b succession or "t--t is1 sci5tifically speak+1 ! et]nal sequ5ce ( physical causes2 or1 !ologically speak+1 ! creative activity ( ,god4 ,& reason or ?\ght _h also s9ce ,ari/otle be5 m or less id5tifi$ ) ! law ( univ]sal causation no less ?an ) ! laws ( geometry4 ,?us1 !n1 ! gr\nd 0 prep>$ = ,sp9oza1 z a pan!i/ic moni/1 to conceive ,god "u ! two attributes ( ,ext5sion & ,?\ght1 ea* 9 its own way disclos+ 8 ess5ce z no o!r ?an inf9ite ,p[]4 ,b :y %\ld ,god h1 or consi/ (1 two attributes & no m8 ,!re is a good reason :y we %\ld "k only ^? two4 ,x is t we are ourselves modes ( ,?\ght unit$ to modes ( ,ext5sion1 ( :i* our ?\ghts are ! reveal+ ideas4 ,b x w\ld be gross an?ropomorphism to impose ! limitations ( our k on ! inf9ite be+ ( ,god1 manife/$ ?r\gh ^? v attributes z unlimit$ ,p[]4 ,! inf9ite ( co-exi/5ce1 :i* is space1 ! inf9ite ( causal procession1 :i* is "t1 sugge/ an inf9ity ( unimag9able b n inconceivable attributes ( :i* ! "o div9e sub/ance consi/s4 ,& "h at la/ we get ! explanation ( :y !re %\ld be su* ?+s z ,?\ght & ,ext5sion at all4 ,!y are !re simply because ev]y?+ is4 ,if ,i grant #ec any?+--& ,i mu/1 at lea/1 grant myself--,i grant exi/5ce1 :i*1 hav+ no?+ outside itself1 mu/ fill up all ! possibilities ( be+ :i* only exclude ! self-contradictory f _! doma94 ,?us1 ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza nei!r obliges him to believe 9 ! mon/]s ( my?ology nor 9 ! miracles ( ,scripture1 nor 9 ! dogmas ( ,ca?olic !ology1 nor ev5 9 free-w2 nor1 aga91 w\ld x oblige him to reject by anticipation ! m>vels ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,=1 accord+ to him1 ! impossibility ( really incr$ible ?+s c\ld be d$uc$ ) ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matical demon/ration f ! law ( contradiction itself4 ,hegel has giv5 ! "n ( acosmism1 or negation ( ! _w1 to ?is =m ( pan!ism1 int]pret+ x z a doctr9e t absorbs all concrete reality & individuality 9 ! absolute unity ( ! div9e ess5ce4 ,no misconception c\ld be m complete4 ,diff]5tiation is ! v s\l ( ,sp9oza's sy/em4 ,x is1 inde$1 m op5 to ! *>ge ( excessive disp]sion ?an ( excessive c5tralisation4 ,p[]1 :i* is ,god's ess5ce1 means no m ?an ! realisation ?r\gh all et]nity ( all possibilities ( exi/5ce1 ) no end or aim b j ! process ( inf9ite production itself4 ,!re is1 inde$1 a nom9al id5tification betwe5 ! mat]ial processes ( ,ext5sion & ! ideal processes ( ,?\ght4 ,b ?is am\nts to no m ?an a re-/atem5t 9 ab/ract t]ms ( ! empirical tru? t !re is a close connection betwe5 body & m9d4 ,l ! d\ble-aspect !ory1 ! p>alleli/ic !ory1 ! mat]iali/ic !ory1 ! !ory ( int]action1 & ! !ory ( m or less complete reciprocal indep5d5ce1 x is a m]e v]balism1 tell+ u no?+ t we did n "k be=e4 ,or1 if !re #ed is m1 x consi/s ( ! v que/ionable assumption t body & m9d mu/ come 9 some:]e to fill up :at w\ld o!rwise be blank possibilities ( exi/5ce4 ,& ?is1 l o!r metaphysical assumptions1 is an illegitimate g5]alisation f exp]i5ce4 ,! ideas ( space & "t z fill$-up cont9ua supply ! model on :i* ! :ole univ]se mu/ be con/ruct$4 ,l !m1 x mu/ be inf9ite & et]nal1 b1 s to speak1 at a high] p[]2 z 9 !m1 e "p mu/ be det]m9$ by ! position ( all o!r p>ts1 ) ! det]m9ation put at a logical in/ead ( at a descriptive value2 correspond+ to _! inf9itely v>i$ diff]5tiation ( position & quantity1 !re mu/ be an inf9ite diff]5tiation ( concrete cont5t2 &1 f9ally1 ! laws ( ! univ]se mu/ be demon/rable by ! same a priori ma!matical me?od t has be5 s successfully appli$ to cont9u\s quantity4 ,! geometrical =m into :i* ,sp9oza has ?r[n 8 philosophy un=tunately re/ricts ! numb] ( read]s--always r small--t x might o!rwise attract4 ,p feel !mselves my/ifi$1 we>i$1 & *eat$ by ! appe>ance1 )\t ! reality1 ( logical demon/ration2 & ! repulsion is aggravat$ by ! b>b>\s s*ola/icism ) :i*--unlike ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 & ,desc>tes--he pepp]s 8 pages4 ,yet1 l ! ,greek philosoph]s1 he is mu* m mod]n1 m on ! true l9e ( develop+ ?\ght ?an !y are4 ,b to get at ! true k]nel ( 8 tea*+ we mu/1 l ,goe!1 disreg>d ! logical husks 9 :i* x is wrapp$ up4 ,&1 z x happ5s1 ,sp9oza has greatly facilitat$ ?is op]ation by pr9t+ 8 mo/ int]e/+ & sugge/ive discussions 9 ! =m ( ,s*olia1 ,explanations1 & ,app5dices4 ,ev5 #ee ^! are n easy read+2 b1 to quote 8 own pa!tic words1 ,if ! way ( salvation lay ready to h&1 & c\ld be f\nd )\t great toil1 w\ld x be neglect$ by ne>ly ev]yone8 ,b all glori\s ?+s are z difficult z !y are r>e4 ,"s ( 8 expositors h call$ ,sp9oza a my/ic2 & 8 philosophy has be5 trac$1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! my/ical pan!ism ( c]ta9 m$ieval ,jews4 ,9 my op9ion ?is is a mi/ake2 & ,i w n[ proce$ to %[ t ! phrases on :i* x re/s are op5 to an int]pretation m consi/5t ) ! rational f\ndations ( ! :ole sy/em4 ,! ?+s t h done mo/ to fa/5 ! "* ( a my/ic on ,sp9oza are 8 id5tification ( virtue ) ! k & love ( ,god1 & 8 !ory--s sugge/ive ( ,*ri/ian !ology at its highe/ flight--t ,god loves himself ) an inf9ite love4 ,t1 l ,plato & ,mat!w ,arnold1 he %\ld value religion z a means ( popul> moralisation might seem natural en\gh2 b n1 except f a my/ical motive1 t he %\ld app>5tly value morality m]ely z a help to ! religi\s life4 ,on exam9ation1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t ! beatific vision ( ?is pan!i/ (f]s no exp]i5ce go+ beyond ! limits ( nature & reason4 ,s9ce ,god & ! univ]se are "o1 to "k ,god is to "k t we are1 body & s\l1 necess>y modes ( ! two attributes1 ,ext5sion & ,?\ght1 by :i* ! inf9ite ,p[] :i* is ! ess5ce ( ! univ]se expresses itself = u4 ,to love ,god is to recognise our own vitality z a portion ( t p[]1 welcom+ x ) grateful joy z a gift f ! univ]se :5ce we come4 ,& to say t ,god loves himself ) an inf9ite love is m]ely to say t ! attribute ( ,?\ght et]nally divides itself among an inf9ity ( #ef ?9k+ be+s1 ?r\gh ^: activity ! univ]se keeps up a delight$ consci\sness ( itself4 ,sp9oza decl>es by ! v "n ( 8 great "w t = him ! philosophical problem is ess5tially a problem ( e?ics1 be+1 inde$1 no o!r ?an ! old "q1 fir/ />t$ by ,plato1 h[ to reconcile dis9t]e/$ness ) self-int]e/2 & 8 metaphysical sy/em is really an elaborate me*anism = prov+ t1 on ! pr(\nde/ int]pretation1 _! claims co9cide4 ,8 great contempor>y1 ,hobbes1 _h taught t ! fundam5tal impulse ( human nature is ! w = p[]2 & ,sp9oza accepts ?is idea to ! fulle/ ext5t 9 proclaim+ ,p[] to be ! v /uff ( :i* we & all o!r ?+s are made4 ,b he p>ts company ) ! ,engli% philosoph] 9 8 !ory ( :at x means4 ,on 8 view x is an utt] illusion to suppose t to gratify su* passions z pride1 av>ice1 vanity1 & lu/ is to acquire or ex]cise p[]4 ,= /r5g? means fre$om1 self-det]m9ation2 & no man c be free ^: happ9ess dep5ds on a =tuit\s comb9ation ( ext]nal circum/ances1 or on ! cons5t ( o!r p]sons ^: desires are su* z to set up a conflict betwe5 8 gratification & !irs4 ,real p[] means self-realisation1 ! ex]cise ( t faculty :i* is mo/ purely human--t is to say1 ( ,?\ght "u ! =m ( reason4 ,9 plead+ = ! subord9ation ( ! self-seek+ desires to reason ,sp9oza repeats ! lessons ( moral philosophy 9 all ages & c\ntries s9ce its fir/ indep5d5t con/itution4 ,9 connect+ ! int]e/s ( morality ) ! int]e/s ( sci5ce z su*1 he foll[s ! tradition ( ,a!nian ?\ght4 ,9 int]pret+ pan!ism z an e?ical en?usiasm ( ! univ]se he returns to ! cre$ ( ,/oicism1 & #eg /rikes ! keynote ( ,wordswor?'s l(tie/ poetry4 ,9 fix+ ea* man's place 9 nature z "o among ! inf9ite individuations ( div9e p[] he repeats ano!r ,/oic idea--) ?is diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 t among ! ,/oics x 0 intimately associat$ ) _! teleology1 ) ! doctr9e t ev]y?+ 9 nature has a function )\t ^: p]=mance ! univ]se w\ld n be complete2 :]eas ,sp9oza1 foll[+ ,bacon & ,desc>tes1 utt]ly abjures f9al causes z an an?ropomorphism1 an intrusion ( human int]e/s into a univ]se ^: sole p]fection is to exhau/ ! possibilities ( exi/5ce4 ,& h]e9 lies 8 ju/ification ( evil :i* ! ,/oics c\ld only def5d on ae/hetic gr\nds z enhanc+ ! beauty ( moral h]oism by contra/ & conflict4 ,if ,i am ask$1 he says1 :y ,god did n create all m5 ( su* a "* z to be guid$ by reason alone1 my answ] is because he _h mat]ials en\gh to create all ?+s f ! highe/ to ! l[e/ degree ( p]fection4 ,p]fection ) him mean+ reality1 ?is acc\nt ( evil--& ( error also--po9ts to ! !ory ( degrees ( reality1 reviv$ & elaborat$ 9 our own "t by ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 involv+ a correlative !ory ( illusion4 ,n[1 ! idea ( illusion1 al?\gh old] ?an ,plato1 0 fir/ appli$ on a great scale 9 ,plato's philosophy1 ( ^: influ5ce on sev5te5?-c5tury ?\ght ?is is n ! only example4 ,we %all f9d x to "s ext5t c\nt]vail$ by a reviv$ ,ari/otelian curr5t 9 ! "w ( ! metaphysician :o n[ rema9s to be consid]$4 ,,leibniz4 ,g4 ,w4 ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf71 son ( a pr(essor at ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig1 is m>k$ by "s ( ! di/+ui%+ intellectual *>act]s ( ! ,g]man g5ius4 #eh ,f> m truly ?an ,francis ,bacon1 ?is man took all k = 8 prov9ce4 ,at once a ma!matician1 a physici/1 a hi/orian1 a metaphysician1 & a diplomati/1 he w5t to ! bottom ( :atev] subject he t\*$1 & enri*$ all 8 multif>i\s /udies ) new views or ) new facts4 ,& z ) o!r great c\ntrym5 ( 81 ! f9al end ( all ?is curiosity & int]e/ 0 to comb9e & reconcile4 ,"o ( 8 ambitions 0 to create a univ]sal language ( philosophy1 by ^: means its problems 7 to be made a matt] ( ma!matical demon/ration2 ano!r to h>monise anci5t ) mod]n speculation2 a ?ird--! mo/ *im]ical ( all--to compose ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,rome & ,prote/antism2 a f\r?--p>tly realis$ long aft] 8 "t--to unite ! ,g]man ,calv9i/s ) ! ,lu!rans4 ,9 politics he tri$1 ) equal unsuccess1 to build up a ,conf$]ation ( ! ,rh9e z a b>ri] aga9/ ,l\is ,,xiv41 & to div]t ! ambition ( ,l\is himself f encroa*m5ts on 8 neighb\rs to ! conque/ ( ,egypt4 ,x seems probable t no intellect ( equal p[] 0 ev] appli$ 9 mod]n times to ! s]vice ( philosophy4 ,& ?is p[] is demon/rat$1 n1 z ) o!r metaphysicians1 by con/ructions ( m or less conte/able value1 h[ev] dazzl+ ! +5uity !y may display1 b by contributions ( ! fir/ ord] to positive sci5ce4 ,x is n[ agre$ t ,leibniz discov]$ ! diff]5tial calculus indep5d5tly ( ,newton2 &1 :at is m1 t ! =mulation by :i* alone x has be5 made available = fruitful application 0 8 exclusive inv5tion4 ,9 physics he is a pione] ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,9 geology he />ts ! !ory t our planet began z a gl[+ molt5 mass d]iv$ f ! sun2 & ! mod]n #ei !ory ( evolution is a special application ( 8 !ory ( developm5t4 ,intellect alone1 h[ev]1 does n make a great philosoph]2 "* also is requir$2 & ,leibniz's "* 0 q unwor?y ( 8 g5ius4 ,ambiti\s & av>ici\s1 a c\rti] & a "t-s]v]1 he nei!r made tru? = its own sake a p>am\nt object1 nor w\ld he keep on t]ms ) ^? :o *]i%$ a nobl] ideal4 ,aft] cultivat+ ,sp9oza's acqua9tance1 he jo9$ 9 ! cry ( obloquy rais$ aft] 8 dea?1 & 0 mean en\gh to /ir up religi\s prejudice aga9/ ,newton's !ory ( gravitation4 ,( ! calamity t embitt]$ 8 clos+ days we may say ) confid5ce t x c\ld n possibly h befall5 ,sp9oza4 ,on ! accession ( ! ,elector ( ,hanov] to ! ,engli% cr[n z ,george ,i41 ,leibniz s\ght = an invitation to ! ,c\rt ( ,/4 ,james4 ,app>5tly ! pr9ce _h n f\nd him v satisfactory z a ,/ate (ficial1 & _h reason to believe t ,leibniz w\ld h lik$ to ex*ange 8 (fice ( hi/oriograph] at ,hanov] = a bett] appo9tm5t at ,vi5na4 ,greatness 9 o!r dep>tm5ts c\ld n recomm5d "o :om he knew only z a neglig5t & p]haps unfai?ful s]vant to ! fav\r ( su* an illit]ate ma/]4 ,anyh[1 ! ,engli% appo9tm5t 0 )held1 & ! worn-out encyclopa$i/ succumb$ to disease & vexation comb9$4 ,! only m\rn] at 8 fun]al 0 8 secret>y1 ,eckh>dt1 :o ha/5$ to solicit ! rev]sion ( ! (fices left vacant by 8 *ief's decease4 ,a s+le !ory ( ,leibniz has atta9$ m celebrity ?an any "o utt]ance ( any o!r philosoph]2 b t fame is due to ! undy+ fire 9 :i* x has be5 envelop$ by ! mock+ irony ( ,voltaire4 #fj ,ev]y?+ is = ! be/ 9 ! be/ ( all possible worlds4 ,su* is ! fam\s text z a satire on :i* ,c&ide 0 compos$4 ,yet :atev] value ,voltaire's objections to optimism may possess tells ne>ly z mu* aga9/ ,voltaire himself z aga9/ 8 un=tunate butt4 ,=1 aft] all1 believ+ z he did 9 a ,god :o comb9$ omnipot5ce ) p]fect goodness he c\ld n any m ?an ,leibniz evade ! obligation ( reconcil+ ! div9e "* ) ! div9e "w4 ,on a priori gr\nds ! ,g]man philosoph] seems to h an incontrov]tible case4 ,a p]fect ,be+ mu/ h made ! be/ possible _w4 ,! only "q is :at we mean by goodness & by possibility4 ,sp9oza _h solv$ ! problem by id5tify+ goodness ) exi/5ce4 ,x is en\gh t ! ?+s we call evil are possible2 ! inf9ite ,p[] ( nature w\ld be a self-contradiction 7 !y n realis$4 ,leibniz rejects ! pan!i/ic position 9 t]ms1 b ne>ly admits x 9 practice4 ,evil = him means imp]fection1 & if ,god made a _w at all x 0 b\nd to be imp]fect4 ,! next /ep 0 to call pa9 an imp]fection1 :i* sugge/s a s]i\s logical defici5cy 9 ! optimi/2 =1 al?\gh 9 c]ta9 circum/ances ! production ( pa9 argues imp]fection 9 ! op]ator1 we are n entitl$ to argue t :]ev] !re is pa9 !re mu/ be imp]fection4 ,ano!r plea is ! necessity ( pa9 z a puni%m5t = crime1 or1 m g5]ally1 z a result ( moral fre$om4 ,su* an argum5t is only op5 to ! believ]s 9 free-w4 ,a _w ( free & responsible ag5ts1 !y urge1 is inf9itely m valuable ?an a _w ( automata2 & x is n too de>ly pur*as$ ev5 at ! co/ ( su* suff]+ z we witness4 ,! argum5t is n v conv9c+2 = lib]ty ( *oice #fa 9 a pa9less _w is q conceivable4 ,b1 be x a good or bad argum5t1 al?\gh x might appeal to ,voltaire1 :o believ$ 9 free-w1 x c\ld n dec5tly be us$ by ,leibniz1 :o 0 a det]m9i/ ( ! /ricte/ type4 ,to make ?is cle> we mu/ n[ turn to 8 metaphysical sy/em4 ,bacon1 ,desc>tes1 & ,sp9oza1 disagree+ widely on o!r subjects1 7 agre$ 9 disc\nt5anc+ ! /udy ( f9al causes3 ,bacon1 app>5tly1 f dislike ( ! idea t ! p]fect adaptation ( all ?+s to ! s]vice ( man r5d]$ sup]flu\s any ef=ts to make !m m s]viceable /ill2 ,desc>tes f 8 devotion to ! ma!matical me?od :i* 0 m applicable to a sy/em ( me*anical causation2 ,sp9oza = ! same reason1 & also f 8 disbelief 9 a p]sonal ,god4 ,leibniz1 on ! contr>y1 felt deeply impress$ by a fam\s passage 9 ,plato's ,pha$o1 :]e ,socrates1 oppos+ ! philosophy ( teleology to ! philosophy ( me*anism1 desid]ates an explanation ( nature z design$ ) a view to ! highe/ good4 ,b ,leibniz did n g s f> z ,plato4 ,m$iat+ betwe5 ! two me?ods1 he taught t all is done = ! be/1 b also t all is done ?r\gh an unbrok5 s]ies ( effici5t causes4 ,at ! same "t1 ^! causes are only mat]ial 9 appe>ance2 9 reality !y are spiritual be+s4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z dead matt]2 ! univ]se consi/s ( liv+ =ces all ?r\gh4 ,! g5]al idea ( =ce probably came f t inf9ite ,p[] ( :i*1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 ! :ole univ]se is at once ! product & ! expression2 or x may h be5 sugge/$ by ,plato's incid5tal id5tification ( ,be+ ) ,action4 ,b ,leibniz f\nd 8 type ( =ce 9 human p]sonality1 :i*1 foll[+ ! lead ( ,ari/otle #fb r ?an ( ,plato1 he conceiv$ z an ,entele*y1 or realis$ ,actuality1 & a ,fir/ ,sub/ance4 ,aft] ye>s ( anxi\s reflection he *ose ! f> happi] "n ( ,monad1 a t]m orig9ally co9$ by ,bruno1 b n1 z w\ld appe>1 directly borr[$ f him by ! ,g]man metaphysician4 ,accord+ to ,leibniz1 ! monads or ultimate elem5ts ( exi/5ce are con/itut$ by ! two ess5tial prop]ties ( psy*ic life1 p]ception & appet5cy4 ,9 ?is connection two po9ts h to be made cle>4 ,:at he calls b>e monads--i4e41 ! compon5ts ( :at is kn[n z inorganic matt]--al?\gh p]cipi5t1 are n consci\s ( _! p]ceptions2 9 8 language !y d n app]ceive4 ,& he endeav\rs to prove t su* a m5tality is possible by a ref]5ce to our own exp]i5ce4 ,we he> ! ro>+ ( waves on ! sea%ore1 b we d n he> ! s\nd made by ! fall+ ( ea* p>ticle ( wat]4 ,& yet we c]ta9ly mu/ p]ceive x 9 "s way or o!r1 s9ce ! total volume ( s\nd is made up ( ^? inaudible impacts4 ,he ov]looks ! conceivable alt]native t ! imm$iate antec$5t ( our auditory s5sations is a c]ebral di/urbance1 & t ?is mu/ atta9 a c]ta9 volume 9 ord] to produce an effect on our consci\sness4 ,! o!r po9t is t ! appet5cy ( a monad does n mean an active impulse1 b a se>* = m & m p]ceptions1 a cont9u\s wid5+ ( its cognitive range4 ,9 %ort1 ea* monad is a little ,leibniz = ev] increas+ ! sum ( its k4 ,at no /age does t k come f exp]i5ce4 ,! monad has no w9d[s1 no communication ( any k9d ) ! ext]nal _w4 ,b ea* reflects ! :ole univ]se1 kn[+ :at x kn[s by #fc m]e introspection4 ,& ea* reflects all ! o!rs at a diff]5t angle1 ! angles v>y+ f "o ano!r by inf9itesimal degrees1 s t 9 _! totality !y =m a cont9u\s s]ies ( diff]5tiat$ individuals4 ,& ! same law ( inf9itesimal diff]5tiation is obs]v$ by ! s]ies ( progressive *anges ?r\gh :i* ! monads are ev] pass+1 s t !y keep exact /ep1 ! cont9uity ( exi/5ce be+ unbrok5 9 ! ord] ( succession z 9 ! ord] ( co-exi/5ce4 ,evid5tly !re is no place = free-w 9 su* a sy/em2 & t ,leibniz1 ) 8 rel5tless fatalism1 %\ld n only admit ! et]nal puni%m5t ( pr$e/9$ s9n]s1 b ev5 def5d x z morally appropriate1 obliges u to condemn 8 !ology z utt]ly irrational or utt]ly ins9c]e4 ,9 ?is sy/em animal & human s\ls are conceiv$ z monads ( sup]ior rank occupy+ a c5tral & comm&+ position among a multitude ( inf]ior monads con/itut+ :at we call _! bodies1 & *ang+ p>i passu ) !m1 ! correspond5ce ( _! respective /ates be+1 accord+ to ,leibniz1 ( su* a peculi>ly intimate "* t ! ph5om5a ( s5sation & volition seem to result f a causal reaction in/ead ( f a me*anical adju/m5t su* z we c imag9e to exi/ betwe5 two clocks s con/ruct$ & set z to /rike ! same h\r at ! same "t4 ,?is !ory ( ! relations betwe5 body & s\l is kn[n to philosophy z ! sy/em ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,x may be ask$ h[ e monad c possibly reflect e o!r monad :5 we d n "k :at is pass+ 9 our own bodies1 /ill less :at is pass+ all ov] ! univ]se4 ,! answ] consi/s 9 a conv5i5t di/9ction betwe5 cle> & confus$ #fd p]ceptions1 ! "o con/itut+ our actual & ! o!r our pot5tial k4 ,a m difficult problem is to expla9 h[ any p>ticul> monad--,leibniz or ano!r--c consi/5tly be a monadologi/ r ?an a solipsi/ believ+ only 9 its own exi/5ce4 ,"h1 z usual1 ! ,deus ex ,ma*9a comes 94 ,foll[+ ,desc>tes1 ,i ?9k ( ,god z a p]fect ,be+ ^: idea involves 8 exi/5ce1 )1 ( c\rse1 ! p[]1 w1 & wisdom to create ! be/ possible _w--a univ]se ( monads--:i*1 aga91 by its p]fect mutual adju/m5ts1 proves t !re is a ,god4 ,a m s]i\s1 & inde$ absolutely insup]able1 objection arises f ! def9ition ( ! monads z no?+ b mutually reflect+ entities4 ,= ev5 an inf9ity ( little mirrors ) no?+ b ea* o!r to reflect mu/ at once collapse into absolute vacuity4 ,& ) _! disappe>ance _! creator also disappe>s4 ,god1 ! supreme monad1 we are told1 has only cle> p]ceptions2 b ! cle>ness is ( no avail :5 he has no?+ to p]ceive b an absolute blank4 ,leibniz reject$ ! objectivity ( "t & space2 yet ! holl[ inf9ity ( ^? blank =ms seems1 9 8 philosophy1 to h rea*$ ! consci\sness ( itself4 99 99 99 99 99 #fe ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,!ori/s ,,( ,,k ,,locke1 ,,b]keley1 ,,hume1 ,,kant4 ,epi/emology1 or !ory ( k1 did n beg9 9 mod]n times4 ,among ! ,greeks x goes back1 at lea/1 to ,emp$ocles1 & figures l>gely 9 ! programmes ( ! lat] s*ools4 ,& ,desc>tes's univ]sal d\bt seems to give ! "q1 ,h[ c we be sure ( any?+8 a =emo/ place 9 speculation4 ,b ! s+ul> assurance ) :i* ! ,c>tesian metaphysicians pres5t$ _! adv5tur\s hypo!ses z demon/rat$ c]ta9ties %[$ t ) !m ! te/ ( tru? meant :atev] told = t :i*1 on o!r gr\nds1 !y believ$ to be true4 ,9 reality1 ! ?+ !y call$ reason 0 h>dly m ?an a cov]t appeal to au?ority1 a sugge/ion t ! duty ( philosophy 0 to reconcile old beliefs ) new4 ,& ! la/ great dogmati/1 ,leibniz1 0 ! "o :o practis$ ?is me?od ( uncritical assumption to ! utmo/ ext5t4 ,,locke4 ,x is ! peculi> glory ( ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 to h resum$ t me?od ( d\bt :i* ,desc>tes _h attempt$1 b :i* 8 dogmatic prepossessions _h falsifi$ almo/ at ! fir/ />t4 ,?is illu/ri\s ?9k] is memorable n only = 8 s]vices to speculation1 b = ! example ( a g5u9ely philosophic life #ff entirely devot$ to tru? & good--a "* 9 :i* p]sonal sweetness1 simplicity1 & *>m 7 comb9$ ) /r5u\s1 dis9t]e/$1 & fe>less devotion to ! s]vice ( ! ,/ate4 ,locke 0 a ,:ig :5 ,:iggism meant advanc$ ,lib]alism 9 religion & politics1 & :5 t (t5 meant a *oice betwe5 exile & dea?4 ,?us1 aft] ! fall ( 8 patron1 ,"l ,%aftesbury1 ! philosoph] _h to take refuge 9 ,holl&1 rema9+ !re = "s ye>s1 ly+ hid ev5 !re = "s "t to escape an extradition ord] = :i* ! ,gov]nm5t ( ,james ,,ii4 _h appli$4 ,x 0 9 ,holl& t he wrote ! ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+4 ,?is revolutioni/ 9 ?\ght 0 no solit>y recluse1 b1 9 ! be/ s5se1 a ?or\gh man ( ! _w4 ,educat$ at ,we/m9/] & ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 he _h1 9 ! ,g]man poet's phrase1 ! supreme happ9ess ( comb9+ ! s]i\sness ( an en?usia/ ) ! sagacity ( a /atesman1 s t great /atesm5 recognis$ him z "o ( !mselves4 ,) ! triumph ( ! ,:ig cause at a "t :5 diplomacy dem&$ ! utmo/ tact & skill1 x 0 propos$ to s5d ,locke z ,ambassador to ! ,c\rt ( ,br&5burg1 &1 z t w\ld n h suit$ 8 sob] habits1 to ! ,c\rt ( ,vi5na4 ,weak heal? oblig+ him to decl9e ?is also1 he receiv$ (fice 9 ! ,m9i/ry at home1 tak+ a dep>tm5t :]e bus9ess tal5ts 7 em95tly requir$4 ,9 t capacity he bore a lead+ "p 9 ! re/oration ( ! co9age1 besides inspir+ ! ,tol]ation ,act & ! ,act = ,unlic5s$ ,pr9t+4 ,ev5 ! wise/ m5 make mi/akes2 & x mu/ be notic$ ) regret t ,locke's !ory ( tol]ation exclud$ ,roman ,ca?olics on ! "o side & a!i/s on ! o!r--! =m] because _! #fg cre$ made p]secution a duty1 ! latt] because _! want ( a cre$ left !m no sanction = any duties :atev]4 ,to say t ,locke _h n our exp]i5ce does n excuse him1 = 9 bo? cases ! exp$i5cy ( tol]ation c be prov$ a priori4 ,romani/s mu/ be expect$ to suppress a h]esy ^: spokesman decl>es t :5 he has ! p[] he w suppress _! ,*ur*2 &1 if a!i/s are )\t moral pr9ciple1 !y w propagate1 "u cov] ( or?odoxy1 negations t !y are n all[$ op5ly to pr(ess4 ,locke 0 br\ght up by a ,puritan fa!r2 &1 al?\gh 9 aft] life he w&]$ f> f its doctr9al /&>ds1 he no d\bt always reta9$ a s5se ( t close connection betwe5 religion & morality :i* ,puritanism implies4 ,tell+ ab\t ! tra9 ( ?\ght t />t$ 8 great ,essay1 he ref]s x to a conv]sation betwe5 himself & "s fri5ds1 9 :i* !y f\nd !mselves quickly at a /& by ! difficulties t rose on e side2 &1 accord+ to an intimate fri5d ( 81 ! discussion turn$ on ! pr9ciples ( morality & reveal$ religion4 ,x !n occurr$ to him t !y %\ld fir/ asc]ta9 :at objects _! und]/&+s 7 or 7 n fitt$ to deal )4 ,& ! mottoes prefix$ to ! essay prove t ! results 7 ( a decid$ly sceptical ca/4 ,inde$1 8 successors1 ?\gh n himself1 7 de/9$ to develop !m into :at is n[ call$ ,agno/icism4 ,we h fur!r to note t1 :ile 8 ,cont95tal rivals 7 ma!maticians1 our ,engli% philosoph] nev] w5t deeply into ma!matics1 b 0 by call+ a physician4 ,9 ?is he resembles ,ari/otle & ,sextus ,empiricus among ! ,greeks2 & s x is q 9 ord] t1 ) ! same sort ( tra9+1 he %\ld #fh adopt ,ari/otle's me?od ( exp]i5ce z aga9/ ,platonic transc5d5talism1 & ! sceptical relativism ( ,sextus z aga9/ ! dogmatism ( ! s*ools4 ,locke beg9s 8 essay ) a vigor\s polemic aga9/ ! doctr9e ( ,innate ,ideas4 ,! ^w idea1 z he uses x1 is ambigu\s1 s]v+ to d5ote p]ceptions1 notions1 & propositions2 b ?is confusion is ( no practical importance1 8 object be+ to %[ t all our k orig9ates 9 exp]i5ce2 :]eas ! reign+ belief 0 t at lea/ ! fir/ pr9ciples ( k _h a m au?oritative1 if n a my/ical1 s\rce4 ,hobbes _h be5 be=eh& ) him 9 d]iv+ e k9d ( k f exp]i5ce1 b _h be5 cont5t to assume 8 case2 :]eas ,locke supports 8 by a =midable array ( pro(s4 ,! gi/ ( 8 argum5t is t intellectual & moral pr9ciples suppos$ to be recognis$ by all mank9d f _! infancy are admitt$ only by "s1 & by ^? only z ! result ( tea*+4 ,z we saw1 ! :ole inquiry began ) que/ions ab\t religion & morality2 & x is precisely 9 ref]5ce to ! alleg$ univ]sality & innat5ess ( ! belief 9 ,god & ! moral law t ,locke is mo/ successful4 ,& ! m mod]n an?ropology tea*es u ab\t primitive man1 ! /rong] becomes ! case aga9/ ! transc5d5tal side 9 ! controv]sy4 ,:]e 8 analysis breaks d[n is 9 deal+ ) ! difficult & important ideas ( ,space1 ,"t1 ,sub/ance1 & ,causality--) ! fatal result t su* que/ions z1 ,h[ is exp]i5ce itself possible8 or1 ,h[ f a p>tial exp]i5ce c we draw univ]sal & necess>y conclusions8 f9d no place 9 8 !ory ( k4 ,( c\rse1 8 contempor>ies are op5 to ! same #fi criticism--nor1 inde$1 _h ! "t come ev5 = ! /atem5t ( su* problems4 ,mean:ile1 ! facility ) :i* ! f\nd] ( epi/emology accepts fallacies :5ce ,sp9oza _h already f\nd 8 way out %[s h[ little he 0 ma/] ( 8 means4 ,accord+ to ,locke1 x is a c]ta9 & evid5t tru? t !re is an et]nal1 mo/ p[]ful1 & mo/ kn[+ be+1 :i* :e!r anyone w please to call ,god x matt]s n4 ,on exam9ation ! pro( appe>s to involve two unprov$ assumptions4 ,! fir/ is t no?+ c beg9 to exi/ )\t a cause4 ,! second is t effects mu/ resemble _! causes4 ,& f ^! x is inf]r$ t an all-p[]ful be+ mu/ h exi/$ f all et]nity4 ,! alt]native is ov]look$ t a succession ( m limit$ be+s w\ld answ] ! purpose equally well1 :ile x w\ld also be m consi/5t ) our exp]i5ce4 ,b a f> m fatal objection to ,locke's !ism results f 8 second assumption4 ,?is1 al?\gh n explicitly /at$1 is involv$ 9 ! ass]tion t = k su* z we possess to orig9ate f ?+s )\t k is impossible4 ,=1 on ! same pr9ciple1 matt] mu/ h be5 made by some?+ mat]ial1 pa9 by some?+ t is pa9$1 & evil by some?+ t is evil4 ,x w\ld n ev5 be go+ too f> to say t by ?is logic ,i myself mu/ h exi/$ f all et]nity2 = to say t ,i 0 creat$ by a n-myself w\ld be to say t some?+ may come f no?+4 ,we h se5 h[ ,locke refus$ tol]ation to a!i/s on ! gr\nd t _! d5ial ( a div9e lawgiv] & judge de/roys ! basis ( morality4 ,he did n1 l ,sp9oza1 believe t morality is ( ! nature ( ?+s4 ,= him x is con/itut$ by ! w ( ,god4 ,possibly1 if press$1 he might h expla9$ #gj t :at a!ism d5ies is n ! rule ( "r1 b ! sanction ( t rule1 ! fe> ( sup]natural retribution4 ,yet be+1 l ,sp9oza & ,leibniz1 a det]m9i/1 he %\ld h se5 t a creator :o sets 9 motion ! tra9 ( causes & effects necess>ily result+ 9 :at we call good or bad human actions has ! same responsibility = ^? actions z if he _h committ$ !m himself4 ,to rew>d "o ( 8 passive ag5ts & to puni% ano!r w\ld be grossly unju/ & at ! same "t p]fectly useless4 ,b h[ d we "k t he w1 on any !ory ( volition1 rew>d ! good & puni% ! bad8 ,because we h 8 ^w = x4 ,& h[ d we "k t he w keep 8 ^w8 ,because he is all-good4 ,b t1 on ,locke's pr9ciples1 is pure assumption2 & ,god1 be+ q sure t he has no retribution to fe>1 mu/ be ev5 m irresponsible ?an ! a!i/4 ,! pr9ciple t no?+ c come f no?+1 s f> f prov+ !ism1 leads logically ei!r to pan!ism or to a mu* m ?or\gh monadism ?an ! sy/em ( ,leibniz4 ,&1 metaphysics ap>t1 x conflicts ) a lead+ doctr9e ( ! essay--t is ! fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 ! prim>y & ! second>y qualities ( matt]4 ,we ?9k ( bodies z 9 !mselves ext5d$1 resi/+ & mobile1 b n 9 !mselves z col\r$1 sonor\s1 odor\s1 hot1 cold1 or sapid4 ,!y cause our special s5sations1 b cause !m by an unkn[n p[]4 ,aga9 we p]ceive--or ?9k we p]ceive--bo? prim>y & second>y qualities 9 close union z prop]ties ( a s+le object1 & ?is object 9 :i* !y jo9tly inh]e is call$ a sub/ance4 ,& to ! "q1 ,:at is sub/ance8 ,locke admits t he has no answ] except some?+ we "k n :at4 ,he has return$ to ! agno/ic /&po9t ( ! #ga ,cyr5aic s*ool4 ,?is some?+1 = aught we "k1 might h creat$ ! _w4 ,cont95tal hi/orians reg>d ! :ole rationali/ic movem5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 or :at 9 ,g]many is call$ ! ,enlight5m5t 7,aufkla]ung71 z hav+ be5 />t$ by ,locke4 ,b ! sort ( argum5ts t he adduces = ! exi/5ce ( a ,god prove t 9 !ology at lea/ 8 rationalism _h r n>r[ limits4 ,bo? 8 !ism & 8 acceptance ( ,*ri/ianity on ! evid5ce ( prophecy & miracles %[ no advance on m$ieval logic4 ,9 ?is respect ,sp9oza & ,bayle 7#afbb-agji7 7 f> m 9 l9e ) ! mod]n movem5t4 ,/ill1 assum+ scripture z an au?oritative revelation1 ,locke %[s t1 rationally int]pret$1 x yields mu* less support to dogmatic or?odoxy ?an ,engli% ,*ur*m5 suppos$4 ,& :atev] may h be5 ! lett] ( 8 religi\s tea*+1 !re c be little d\bt t ! ,engli% ,dei/s1 ,tol&1 ,%aftesbury1 & ,an?ony ,coll9s1 repres5t$ its true _s m fai?fully ?an ! philosoph] himself4 ,repres5tative gov]nm5t & ! subord9ation ( ecclesia/ical to secul> au?ority--or1 bett] /ill1 _! sep>ation--are bo? good ?+s 9 !mselves & fav\rable conditions to ! life ( reason4 ,ano!r condition is t *ildr5 %\ld be tra9$ to ex]cise _! intellig5ce in/ead ( rely+ bl9dly on au?ority4 ,9 ^! respects also ,locke's writ+s act$ p[]fully on ! public op9ion ( ! next c5tury1 especially ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ,fr5* writ]s2 ,france1 z ,macaulay ju/ly claims1 be+ ! int]pret] betwe5 ,engl& & ! _w4 ,our pres5t bus9ess1 h[ev]1 is n ) ! diffusion b ! developm5t ( ?\ght1 & to trace ?is we mu/ return to ,briti% philosophy4 #gb ,,b]keley4 ,george ,b]keley 7#afhd-agec7 0 born & educat$ 9 ,irel&4 ,! fact is ( no racial or national importance1 b int]e/s u z acc\nt+ = 8 hav+ receiv$ a bett] tra9+ 9 philosophy ?an at t "t 0 possible 9 ,engl&4 ,= ! /udy ( ,locke1 !n proscrib$ at ,ox=d1 _h already be5 introduc$ into ,dubl9 :5 ,b]keley 0 an und]graduate !re2 & x 0 z a critical advance on ,locke t 8 fir/ publication1 ! ,new ,!ory ( ,vision 7#agji71 0 (f]$4 ,next ye> came ! epo*-mak+ ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 foll[$ 9 #agac by ! m popul> ,dialogues4 ,at tw5ty-n9e 8 "w 0 done1 & al?\gh he liv$ =ty ye>s long]1 ris+ to be a ,bi%op 9 ! ,iri% ,*ur*1 aft] project+ a ,*ri/ian ,utopia = ! civilisation ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians t nev] came to any?+1 & practis+ e virtue "u heav51 he made no o!r p]man5t contribution to ?\ght4 ,b]keley is at once a !ori/ ( k & a metaphysician1 comb9+1 9 a way1 ! me?od ( ,locke ) ! me?od ( ,desc>tes & 8 successors4 ,! popul> notion ( 8 philosophy is t x resolv$ ! ext]nal _w into a dream1 or at lea/ into some?+ t has no exi/5ce outside our m9ds4 ,b ?is is an utt] misconception1 aga9/ :i* ,b]keley con/antly prote/$4 ,8 qu>rel 0 n ) common s5se1 b ) ! !ori/s ( p]ception4 ,to und]/& ?is we mu/ return = a mom5t to ,locke's tea*+4 ,x w be rememb]$ 9 :at a tangle ( difficulties ! essay _h left its au?or4 ,matt] _h two sets ( qualities1 prim>y & second>y1 ! "o belong+ to ?+s 9 !mselves1 ! o!r exi/+ only #gc 9 our m9ds2 yet bo? someh[ comb9$ 9 real sub/ances indep5d5t ( u1 b act+ on our s5ses4 ,sub/ance z su* is an unkn[n & unkn[able po/ulate2 nev]!less1 we "k t x 0 creat$ by ,god1 ( :om our k is1 if any?+1 inconv5i5tly ext5sive4 ,n[ ,b]keley1 to f9d 8 way out ( ^! p]plexities1 beg9s by attack+ ! di/9ction betwe5 prim>y & second>y qualities4 ,= ?is purpose 8 ,!ory ( ,vision 0 writt54 ,x proves--or attempts to prove--t ext5sion is n a real attribute ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 b an intellectual con/ruction1 or :at ,locke w\ld h call$ an idea ( reflection4 ,till !n p _h ?\ght t its objectivity 0 firmly e/abli%$ by ! concurr5t te/imony ( two s5ses1 sight & t\*4 ,b]keley %[s1 on ! contr>y1 t visible & tangible ext5sion are n ! same ?+1 t ! s5sations--or1 z he calls !m1 ! ideas--( sight & t\* are two diff]5t languages ^: words we le>n by exp]i5ce to int]pret 9 t]ms ( ea* o!r )\t _! be+ necess>ily connect$4 ,a man born bl9d w\ld n at fir/ sight "k h[ to int]pret ! visual signs ( di/ance1 direction1 & magnitude2 he w\ld h to le>n !m by exp]i5ce4 ,^!1 9 fact1 are ideal relations only exi/+ 9 ! m9d2 & s we h no "r to oppose m9d z inext5d$ to an ext5d$ or an ext]nal _w4 ,hav+ ?us cle>$ ! gr\nd1 our "y ideali/ proce$s 9 8 next & greate/ "w1 ,( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 to attack ! problem f ano!r side4 ,! _w ( objects reveal$ ?r\gh s5sation & reflection is cle>ly no illusion1 no creation ( our own4 ,we f9d x !re1 *ang+1 :5 x *anges1 )\t or ev5 v mu* aga9/ our w4 #gd ,:at1 !n1 is its orig9 & nature8 ,locke's view1 :i* is ! common view1 tells u t x consi/s ( mat]ial bodies1 "s animat$ & "s n4 ,& matt]1 ! suppos$ sub/ance ( body1 is made kn[n to u by impressions on our organs ( s5se4 ,b :5 we try to ?9k ( matt] ap>t f ^! s5sible qualities & ! relations betwe5 !m x vani%es into an empty ab/raction4 ,n[1 accord+ to ,b]keley !re are no ab/ract ideas--i4e41 no ?\ghts unassociat$ ) "s m5tal image besides a m]e ^w2 & ,matt] or inanimate sub/ance w\ld be su* an idea1 !re=e x does n exi/4 ,!re is no?+ b m9d & its cont5ts--:at we call /ates ( consci\sness1 :at ,locke & ,b]keley call$ ideas4 ,:5ce1 !n1 come ! objects ( our consci\sness1 & :i!r d !y g :5 we cease to p]ceive !m8 ,at ?is po9t ! new metaphysical sy/em int]v5es4 ,b]keley says t all ?+s subsi/ 9 ! consci\sness ( ,god1 & by _! subsi/5ce 8 exi/5ce is prov$4 ,! direct appreh5sion ( a reality t is n ourselves only becomes possible ?r\gh :at w\ld be call$ 9 mod]n language a subjective p>ticipation 9 ! div9e consci\sness1 m feebly reflect$1 z w\ld seem1 9 ! memories1 imag9ations1 & reason+s ( our f9ite m9ds4 ,9 pursu+ ^! wond]ful speculations ,b]keley deviat$ widely f ! direct l9e ( ,engli% philosophy1 & x is difficult n to believe t ! deflection 0 det]m9$ by ! influ5ce ( ,malebran*e1 especially :5 we f9d t ! writ+s ( ! ,oratorian ,fa!r 7 includ$ 9 8 college /udies4 ,moreov]1 a p>allel l9e ( ideali/ic developm5t d]iv$ f ! same s\rce 0 evolv+ itself at #ge ! same "t 9 ,engli% ?\ght4 ,john ,norris 7#afeg-agaa71 a correspond5t ( ! ,platoni/ ,h5ry ,m1 an oppon5t ( ,locke1 & a disciple ( ,malebran*e1 _h himself f\nd an en?usia/ic admir] 9 ,ar?ur ,colli] 7#afhj-agcb71 ^: ,clavis ,univ]salis pr(ess$ to be a demon/ration ( ! non-exi/5ce or impossibility ( an ext]nal _w 7#agac74 ,bo? ,norris & ,colli]1 l ,malebran*e & ,b]keley1 7 ,*ur*m52 b s /rong 0 ! drift t[>ds idealism t ,leibniz1 a layman & a man ( sci5ce1 contribut$ by 8 ,monadology to ! same curr5t4 ,malebran*e nei!r 0 nor c\ld he be a complete ideali/ 9 ! s5se ( d5y+ ! reality ( matt]2 = ! dogma ( transub/antiation b\nd him1 z a ,ca?olic1 to its acceptance1 :ile ,b]keley1 ,colli]1 & ,leibniz1 z ,prote/ants1 7 "u no su* obligation4 ,8 idealism agre$ m ne>ly ) ! ,neo-,platonic doctr9e ( ,ar*etypes 9 ! div9e ,reason among :i* ,matt] 0 "o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,b]keley probably borr[$ f him ! notion ( a direct contact ) ,god1 ! diff]5ce be+ t ) ! ,c>tesian x is conceiv$ z an objective vision1 ) ,locke's disciple z 7if ! expression may be p]mitt$7 a subjective con-consci\sness4 ,leibniz1 aga91 :ile aboli%+ ,matt]1 reta9s an ext]nal _w compos$ inde$ ( spirits & s f> immat]ial1 b exi/+ indep5d5tly ( ,god4 ,all ^! sy/ems involve ! negation ( two fundam5tal sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,! fir/ is t e *ange mu/ be expla9$ by ref]5ce to an antec$5t *ange to :i* x be>s a /rict quantitative relation4 ,! second is t no p>ticul> *ange c be ref]r$ to ano!r *ange z its necess>y antec$5t unless x c be %[n by exp]i5ce t a precisely simil> #gf c\ple ( *anges are1 9 fact1 always s connect$4 ,let me illu/rate ^! pr9ciples by an example4 ,i leave a kettle full ( cold wat] on ! fire1 & on return+ aft] a suffici5t int]val ( "t ,i f9d ! wat] boil+4 ,_h ,i /ay$ by ! fire & wat*$ ! process1 my kettle w\ld--a popul> prov]b to ! contr>y not)/&+--h c]ta9ly boil$ z soon1 b also no soon] = be+ help$ by my consci\sness4 ,! ess5tial ?+ is t en]gy ( combu/ion 9 ! fire %\ld be turn$ into en]gy ( boil+ 9 ! wat]4 ,n[1 :at is ,b]keley's int]pretation ( ! facts8 ,fire1 kettle1 wat]1 & ebullition are :at 9 8 writ+s are call$ ideas--i4e41 ph5om5a occasionally 9 my m9d1 b always 9 ,god's m9d4 ,& accord+ to ?is view ! necess>y antec$5t to ! boil+ ( ! wat] is n ! fire's burn+1 b ,god's consci\sness ( its burn+1 8 p]ception be+ ! ess5ce ( ! op]ation4 ,b x is prov$ by exp]i5ce t nei!r my p]ception nor anyone else's ev] made a s+le drop ( wat] boil4 ,9 o!r words1 p]ception is n 9 ?is in/ance a v]a causa4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld ! p]ception ( any o!r m9d1 h[ev] exalt$1 h t effect8 ,nor is ?is all4 ,h[ does ,b]keley "k t ,god exi/s8 ,because1 he says1 to exi/ is to be p]ceiv$1 & !re=e = ! univ]se to exi/ implies a univ]sal ,p]cipi5t4 ,b he got ! idea ( ,god f o!r m51 :o c]ta9ly did n come by x z a g5]alisation f _! p]ceptions2 !y got x by g5]alis+ f _! volunt>y actions1 :i* d produce ! *anges t p]ception _c produce4 ,x w be said t volitions & ! feel+s t prompt !m exi/ only 9 consci\sness4 ,9 ^: consci\sness8 ,9 t ( a _s4 ,& :at is _s ap>t f #gg s5sation1 ?\ght1 feel+1 & volition8 ,simply "o ( ^? ab/ract ideas ^: exi/5ce ,b]keley himself d5i$4 ,,hume4 ,! next /ep 9 ! evolution ( ,engli% ?\ght 0 to consi/ 9 a return to ,locke's me?od1 involv+ a complete brea* ) sev5te5?-c5tury ,platonism1 & ) ! ,cont95tal metaphysics t x _h inspir$4 ,?is decisive movem5t 0 effect$ by "o 9 :om ,g]man criticism has recognis$ ! greate/ ( all ,briti% philosoph]s4 ,david ,hume 7#agaa-aggf7 0 born & br$ at ,ed9burgh1 :i* also seems to h be5 ?r\gh life 8 fav\rite resid5ce4 ,b 8 great "w1 ! ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 0 writt5 dur+ a /ay 9 ,france1 betwe5 ! ages ( tw5ty-?ree & tw5ty-six4 ,?us 8 precocity 0 ev5 great] ?an ,b]keley's4 ,inde$1 su* maturity ( ?\ght s e>ly rea*$ is )\t a p>allel 9 hi/ory4 ,b ,hume's /yle _h n !n acquir$ ! p]fection--! inimitable *>m1 ,kant calls x--( 8 lat] writ+s2 &1 :e!r = ?is or = o!r reasons1 ! book1 9 8 own words1 fell dead-born f ! press4 ,9 middle life ! (fice ( libr>ian ( ! ,advocates' ,libr>y at ,ed9burgh gave him access to ! mat]ials = 8 ,hi/ory ( ,engl&1 :i* prov$ a s\rce ( fame & pr(it4 ,a pr(\nd hi/orical s*ol>1 ,j4 ,s4 ,brew]1 tells u t ,hume possess$ 9 a pre-em95t degree "s ( ! highe/ excell5ces ( a hi/orian4 ,o!r hi/orians h treat$ _! subjects philosophically2 he furni%es ! sole in/ance ( a great speculative g5ius :o has also produc$ a hi/orical ma/]piece ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,b morally x is a blot on 8 fame4 ,x is sad t a philosoph] %\ld h delib]ately p]v]t$ ! tru?1 t "o :o has #gh ,illu/ration3 ,,david ,,hume4 p]=m$ priceless s]vices to fre$om ( ?\ght %\ld h made himself ! apologi/ ( cl]icalis+ absolutism1 &1 /ill m1 t a ma/] ( ,engli% play$ ?is "p to "s ext5t ?r\gh hatr$ ( ! great ,engli% p eng5d]$ by disappo9t$ lit]>y ambition4 ,x may be m5tion$1 h[ev]1 z a possible ext5uation t t[>ds ! middle ( ! eighte5? c5tury ! highe/ ,engli% ability _h ?r[n itself1 ) few exceptions1 on ! ,tory side4 ,x mu/ be m5tion$ #gi also t 9 private life ,hume's "* 0 entirely admirable--*e]ful1 g5]\s1 & g5tle1 )\t a frailty & )\t a /a94 ,8 op9ions 7 unpopul>2 b 8 life (f]$ no h&le = obloquy1 al?\gh 8 /udi\s retirem5t 0 m ?an once ex*ang$ = ! responsibilities ( political (fice1 & ! fre$om f p$antry s conspicu\s 9 8 writ+s be>s witness to habits ( well-br$ social int]c\rse4 ,hume's philosophy is be/ und]/ood :5 we consid] x z1 9 ! fir/ place1 a criticism ( ,b]keley1 j z ,b]keley's _h be5 a criticism ( ,locke4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! f\nd] ( subjective idealism disc>d$ ! notion ( mat]ial sub/ance z an ab/ract idea1 an un9telligible figm5t devoid ( any s5su\s or imag9ative cont5t4 ,! only true sub/ances are ! subjects ( :at we call exp]i5ce communicat+ ?r\gh s5sation ) ,god1 ! inf9ite _s ^: et]nal consci\sness is reality itself4 ,hume appli$ ! same te/s to spiritual sub/ance1 & f\nd t x equally disappe>$ "u 8 introspective analysis4 ,he beg9s by divid+ ! cont5ts ( consci\sness into two classes1 impressions & ideas--! second be+ copies ( ! fir/1 & di/+ui%$ f !m by _! relative fa9tness4 ,n[1 f ^! p]ceptions 7:i* he call$ ?\ghts7 ,desc>tes _h pass$ by an imm$iate inf]5ce to ! ego or self1 :i* he affirms z ! prim>y fact ( consci\sness1 us+ x z a basis = sundry o!r conclusions4 ,b ,hume /ops him at once1 & w n grant ! exi/5ce ( ! metaphysical self--t is1 a simple & cont9u$ sub/ance1 z di/+ui%$ f p>ticul> /ates ( consci\sness4 ,we are1 he decl>es1 no?+ b a bundle ( diff]5t p]ceptions1 :i* #hj succe$ ea* o!r ) an inconceivable rapidity1 & are 9 a p]petual flux & movem5t4 ,!re is prop]ly no simplicity 9 x ! self at "o "t1 nor id5tity 9 diff]5t times2 :atev] natural prop5sity we may h to imag9e t simplicity & id5tity4 ,s mu* be+ assum$1 ,b]keley's :ole argum5t = a new !ology f\nd$ on subjective idealism is b\nd to collapse1 z also is ! argum5t = natural immortality d]iv$ f ! suppos$ simplicity & id5tity ( ! ?9k+ sub/ance4 ,mod]n critics h rightly insi/$1 z aga9/ ,hume1 t isolat$ p]ceptions )\t a self are ab/ractions n less un9telligible ?an a self )\t p]ceptions4 ,b ! metaphysical argum5t = human immortality has n b5efit$ by ?is m concrete int]pretation ( epi/emology2 & probably ,hume 0 really m int]e/$ 9 de/roy+ ?is ?an 9 ma9ta9+ ! sceptical p>adox :i* does n recur 9 8 lat] writ+s4 ,a ^w mu/ be add$ ab\t ,hume's division ( p]ceptions into impressions & ideas4 ,! po9t left out ( sight 9 ?is analysis is t impressions ( s5se habitually f9d _! reflexes n 9 reviv$ s5sations1 b 9 expressions1 9 motor reactions :i*1 ) human be+s1 mo/ly take ! =m ( words utt]$ or ?\ght4 ,^!1 no d\bt1 are associat$ to "s small ext5t ) reviv$ s5sations2 b !y are m commonly gr\p$ ) o!r words1 ) movem5ts ( ! limbs1 & ) actions on ! mat]ial or human environm5t ( ! p]cipi5t4 ,su* expressions are incomp>ably easi] to revive 9 memory1 imag9ation1 or expectation ?an ! impressions t orig9ally excit$ !m2 &1 inde$1 x is 9 connection ) !m t su* revivals ( s5sation #ha z we actually exp]i5ce take place4 ,& x is probable t to ?is active side ( our consci\sness t we may trace ^? associative processes :i* ,hume /udies next 9 8 analysis ( human k4 ,putt+ aside pr9ciples ( d\btful or second>y value1 ! relations betwe5 /ates ( consci\sness t fir/ (f] !mselves to view are1 accord+ to ,hume1 ,co-exi/5ce & ,succession 7unit$ "u ! "n ( ,contiguity71 ,resemblance1 & ,causation4 ,x is ) ! acc\nt he gives ( ?is la/ category t 8 "n is insep>ably associat$1 = f x all subsequ5t speculation has tak5 rise4 ,yet prim>ily he seems to h _h no o!r object 9 view ?an to simplify ! laws ( k by resolv+ "o ( !m into a p>ticul> case ( ano!r1 & ?us r$uc+ 8 ?ree categories to two4 ,! relation ( cause & effect1 he tells u1 is no m ?an a c]ta9 relation betwe5 antec$5t & consequ5t 9 "t :]e ! sequ5ce is s habitual z to e/abli% 9 our m9ds a cu/om ( expect+ ! "o :5ev] ! o!r occurs4 ,! sequ5ce is n necess>y1 = "o c ?9k1 )\t any self-contradiction1 ( a *ange :i* has n be5 prec$$ by ano!r *ange2 nor is x1 l ! tru?s ( geometry1 some?+ t c be kn[n a priori4 ,)\t exp]i5ce no "o c\ld tell t bread w n\ri% a man & n n\ri% a lion1 nor ev5 pr$ict h[ a billi>d-ball w behave :5 ano!r ball /rikes x4 ,%\ld x be object$ t ! a priori k ( a g5]al pr9ciple ne$ n involve an equal k ( nature's op]ations 9 p>ticul> cases1 ,hume w\ld d\btless reply by say+ t !re is no ab/ract idea ( causation ap>t f its concrete exemplifications4 ,x is possible to accept ,hume's !ory 9 pr9ciple #hb )\t pl$g+ oneself to all 8 incid5tal cont5tions4 ,causation1 z a g5]al law1 may be kn[n only by exp]i5ce1 :e!r we c or _c ?9k ( x z a pure ab/raction4 ,& we may int]pret x 9 t]ms ( unconditional antec$5ce & consequ5ce1 :ile disc>d+ 8 app>5t assumption ( an inscrutable connection betwe5 ! two2 a my/]i\s necessity = ! production ( ! "o by ! o!r1 = :i* x is felt t a reason exi/s1 b = :i* our reason _c acc\nt4 ,x is inconceivable t our k ( any giv5 sequ5ce c\ld be increas$1 except by ! disclosure ( int]m$iate sequ5ces1 mak+ _! cont9uity1 9 space & "t1 m absolute ?an we _h be=e p]ceiv$1 until ! :ole process has be5 resolv$ into a transf]5ce ( mom5tum f "o molecule to ano!r--a *ange = :i*1 accord+ to ,hume1 no reason c be giv54 ,nor1 on 8 pr9ciples1 w\ld x help u to expla9 su* transf]5ces by br++ !m "u ! law ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4 ,=1 al?\gh ?is w\ld be a great triumph = sci5ce1 8 philosophy dem&s a reason :y ! quantity ( en]gy %\ld rema9 unalt]able = ev]4 ,x is a mi/ake1 %>$ by ,hume ) 8 oppon5ts1 to suppose t ! common s5se ( mank9d ev] saw m ?an inv>iable sequ5ce 9 ! relation ( cause & effect1 or ev] int]polat$ a my/]i\s p[] betwe5 !m4 ,9 ! fam\s v]se1 ,let !re be light1 & !re 0 light1 x is ! in/antaneity ( succession1 n ! int]polation ( any ex]t$ ef=t1 t s impresses ! imag9ation4 ,& :5 ,%akespe>e wants to illu/rate logical compulsion 9 conduct1 8 ref]5ce is to an in/ance ( inv>iable succession3-- #hc ,?is above all1--to ?9e own self be true2 ,& x mu/ foll[1 z ! night ! day1 ,?\ can/ n !n be false to any man4 ,inde$1 ,i ?9k x w be f\nd on exam9ation t :5 we associate ! idea ( p[]1 or ( necessity1 ) causal sequ5ces1 x is n 9 connection ) a case ( causation "h & n[1 b r 9 ref]5ce to simil> effects t may be expect$ f ! same cause else:]e or at ano!r "t4 ,& t cu/om1 by :i* ,hume seeks to expla9 our belief 9 ! p[] ( ! cause to produce its effect z well z ! necessity ( ! connection betwe5 !m1 r acts negatively by elim9at+ all o!r antec$5ts z possible causes ?an positively by sett+ up a habit ( ?9k+ ab\t a p>ticul> antec$5t & consequ5t at ! same "t4 ,& t is :y a burnt *ild ne$s no repetition ( ! exp]im5t to be conv9c$ t contact ) fire 0 ! cause ( its pa94 ,! v novelty ( ! exp]im5t 0 en\gh to elim9ate any explanation o!r ?an t ( contact ) ! flame4 ,! *ild1 z x gr[s old]1 may le>n to speak ( ! fire z hav+ a p[] to burn4 ,b t m]ely means1 if ,i t\* x1 x w burn me--or light pap] if ,i hold ! pap] to x4 ,p[]1 9 fact1 is incomplete causation1 ! pres5ce ( e condition b t "o :i*1 9 ,ari/otelian phrase1 turns pot5cy into act4 ,& x is 9 contradi/9ction to t idea ( possibility t ! idea ( necess>y connection comes 94 ,:5 all ! elem5ts ( ! causal antec$5t are comb9$ ! effect necess>ily sup]v5es4 ,fur!rmore1 ! causal antec$5t is ?\ght ( z necess>y 9 contra/ ) ! cont+5cy ( o!r antec$5ts ^: connection ) ! effect is m]ely accid5tal4 ,f9ally1 #hd ! idea ( production has be5 quot$ z vitally di/+ui%+ true causation f inv>iable sequ5ce4 ,b v>i\s my?s1 ( :i* ! /ory ( ,o$ipus is ! be/ kn[n1 %[ t primitive folk reg>d day & night z alt]nately produc+ "o ano!r1 j z ,polonius quotes _! sequ5ce z a type ( logical necessity4 ,hume pr(ess$ himself a ,dei/1 b probably ) no m s]i\sness ?an :5 he1 or :5 ,gibbon1 call$ ,*ri/ianity our religion4 ,at any rate1 8 philosophy de/roys e argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( a ,creator advanc$ 9 8 own or 9 ! prec$+ c5tury4 ,nor ne$ 8 p>ticul> !ory ( causation be invok$ = ! purpose4 ,! mo/ tell+ attack is on ! argum5t f design4 ,! app>5t adaptation ( means to ends 9 liv+ organisms is quot$ z evid5ce ( _! hav+ be5 plann$ by a consci\s intellig5ce4 ,b1 answ]s ,hume1 su* an intellig5ce w\ld itself exhibit m>ks ( design1 & s on = ev]4 ,:y n1 !n1 /op at ! animal organism z an ultimate fact8 ,x 0 ,%elley's unlucky dem& = a solution ( ?is difficulty t l$ to 8 expulsion f ,ox=d4 ,x has be5 %[n h[ ! new analysis ( m9d cut ! gr\nd f "u ,b]keley's !ism1 & f "u ! metaphysical argum5t = human immortality4 ,by d5y+ ! sub/antiality ( ! ego x also confirm$ ! necessit>ianism ( ,sp9oza4 ,hume seem$ to ?9k he c\ld abate ! unpopul>ity ( ?is doctr9e by int]pret+ ! con/ant motivation ( human actions z a m]e relation ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce4 ,b ! decisive po9t 0 t he assimilat$ sequ5ces 9 consci\s behavi\r to ! unconsci\s sequ5ces 9 physical ev5ts4 ,?us1 = #he ! vulg> & ! !ologians1 he rema9$ :at w\ld n[ be call$ a mat]iali/4 ,,kant4 ,! ,engli% philosophy ( exp]i5ce & ! ,cont95tal philosophy ( a priori spiritualism1 aft] _! brief conv]g5ce 9 ! metaphysics ( ,b]keley1 p>t$ company once m1 ! empirical tradition be+ h5ce=? repres5t$1 n only by ,hume1 b 9 a m or less anti-,*ri/ian & mu* m sup]ficial =m by ,voltaire1 ,r\sseau1 & ! ,fr5* ,encyclopa$i/s2 :ile ! ,leibnizian philosophy 0 sy/ematis$ & taught 9 ,g]many by ,wolf1 & a dull b useful sort ( mod]nis$ ,ari/otelianism 0 set up "u ! "n ( common s5se by ,?omas ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 & 8 s*ool 9 ! ,scotti% ,univ]sities4 ,! extraord9>y g5ius :o 0 to re-comb9e ! p>t$ curr5ts 9 a speculative movem5t ( unexampl$ volume1 velocity1 & dep? %[$ no?+ ( ! precocity t _h di/+ui%$ ,b]keley & ,hume4 ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 ! son ( a saddl] ( ,scotti% extraction1 0 born at ,ko5igsb]g 9 ,prussia1 :]e he sp5t 8 :ole life1 hold+ a *air at ! ,univ]sity f #aggj to #agig4 ,x is relat$ t on ! day ( 8 dea? a small bright cl\d 0 se5 sail+ alone across ! cle> blue sky1 ( su* a rem>kable appe>ance t a cr[d assembl$ on ! bridge to wat* x4 ,"o ( !m1 a common soldi]1 exclaim$1 ,t is ,kant's s\l go+ to heav56--a t\*+ & beautiful tribute to ! illu/ri\s ,g]man1 ^: l(ty1 pure1 & lum9\s _s x 0 uniquely fitt$ to *>act]ise4 #hf ,illu/ration3 ,,kant4 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #hg ,kant grew up among ! ,pieti/s1 a s*ool :i* play$ mu* ! same "p 9 ,g]many t ! ,me?odi/s & ! ,evangelicals play$ 9 ,engl&2 inde$1 x 0 f !m t ,john ,wesley receiv$ 8 f9al inspiration4 ,! ,ko5igsb]g /ud5t came 9 "t to disc>d _! !ology :ile reta9+ ! /]n ,puritan morality ) :i* x 0 w$d$1 & ev51 ,rationali/ z he became1 "s ( _! my/ical religiosity4 ,:at drew him away to philosophy seems to h be5 fir/ ! /udy ( classical philology & !n physical sci5ce1 especially z pres5t$ to him 9 ,newton's works4 ,& s ! "y man's fir/ ambition1 aft] settl+ d[n z a ,univ]sity tea*] at ,ko5igsb]g1 0 to ext5d ! ,newtonian me?od /ill fur!r by expla9+1 on me*anical pr9ciples1 ! orig9 & con/itution ( t cele/ial sy/em ^: movem5ts ,newton _h r$uc$ to law1 b ^: beg9n+ he _h left unacc\nt$ = except by--:at 0 n sci5ce--! direct fiat ( omnipot5ce4 ,kant (f]$ a brilliant solution ( ! problem 9 8 ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,heav5s 7#agee71 a "w embody+ ! celebrat$ nebul> hypo!sis r$iscov]$ =ty ye>s lat] by ,laplace4 ,x has be5 well obs]v$ t great philosoph]s are mo/ly1 if n always1 :at at ,ox=d & ,cambridge w\ld be call$ d\ble-fir/s--t is1 ap>t f _! philosophy1 !y h done fir/-class "w 9 "s special l9e ( inve/igation1 z ,desc>tes by creat+ analytical geometry1 ,sp9oza by apply+ ,biblical criticisms to !ology1 ,leibniz by discov]+ ! diff]5tial calculus1 ,locke by 8 !ory ( con/itutional gov]nm5t1 ,b]keley by 8 !ory ( vision1 ,hume by 8 contributions to hi/ory & political economy4 ,kant's cosmogony may h be5 premature & mi/ak5 9 its details2 b 8 idea ( ! heav5ly bodies z hav+ orig9at$ f ! cond5sation ( diffus$ gase\s matt] /ill holds its #hh gr\nd2 & al?\gh ! m g5]al idea ( natural evolution z oppos$ to sup]natural creation is n mod]n b ,greek1 to h reviv$ & reappli$ x on s great a scale is a s]vice ( extraord9>y m]it4 ,! next great ev5t 9 ,kant's intellectual c>e] is 8 rejection ( ,cont95tal apriorism 9 metaphysics = ! empiricism ( ! ,engli% s*ool1 especially z reg>ds ! idea ( causation4 ,= a few ye>s 7#agfb-agfe7 ,kant accepts ,hume's !ory t !re is no?+ 9 any succession ( ev5ts or 9 *ange g5]ally to prove on gr\nds ( pure reason t !re mu/ be m 9 x ?an a cu/om>y sequ5ce4 ,to believe t any?+ may happ5 )\t a cause does n involve a logical contradiction2 & at t "t he believ$ no?+ to be kn[n a priori except t ! d5ial ( :i* involves su* a contradiction4 ,b on reconsid]+ ! basis ( ma!matical tru? x seem$ to him to be some?+ o!r ?an ! logical laws ( ,id5tity & ,contradiction4 ,:5 we say t sev5 & five are twelve we put some?+ into ! pr$icate t 0 n affirm$ 9 ! subject1 & also :5 we say t a /raight l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts4 ,yet ! second proposition is z c]ta9 z ! fir/1 & bo? are c]ta9 9 ! highe/ degree1 m c]ta9 ?an any?+ le>n$ f exp]i5ce1 & ne$+ no exp]i5ce to confirm !m4 ,s mu* be+ admitt$1 we h to recognise a fundam5tal division ( judgm5ts into two classes1 analytic & syn!tic4 ,judgm5ts 9 :i* ! pr$icate adds no?+ to ! subject are analytic4 ,:5 we affirm all matt] to be ext5d$1 t is an in/ance ( ! =m]1 = "h we are only mak+ m explicit :at 0 already conta9$ 9 ! notion ( matt]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we affirm t all matt] is heavy1 t is an #hi in/ance ( ! latt] or syn!tic class1 = we c ?9k ( matt] )\t ?9k+ t x has weight4 ,fur!rmore1 ?is is n only a syn!tic judgm5t1 b x is a syn!tic judgm5t a po/]iori2 = ! law ( univ]sal gravitation is kn[n only by exp]i5ce4 ,b !re are also syn!tic judgm5ts a priori2 =1 z we h j se51 ! fundam5tal tru?s ( ari?metic & geometry belong to ?is class1 z d also by consequ5ce all ! propositions logically d$uc$ f ^!--t is to say1 ! :ole ( ma!matical sci5ce4 ,up to ?is po9t ,kant w\ld h c>ri$ ! :ole ,c>tesian s*ool1 &1 m g5]ally1 all ! mod]n ,platoni/s1 along ) him2 :ile he w\ld h giv5 ! ,engli% empirici/s & _! ,fr5* disciples a r h>d nut to crack4 ,= !y w\ld h _h to *oose betwe5 admitt+ t ma!matics 0 a mass ( id5tical propositions or expla9+1 9 ! face ( ,hume's criticism1 :at claims to absolute c]ta9ty its tru?s1 any m ?an ! ,law ( ,causation1 possess4 ,n[1 ! great philosophical g5ius ( ,kant is %[n by no?+ m ?an by ?is1 t he did n /op "h4 ,recognis+ to ! same ext5t z ,locke & ,hume t all k comes f exp]i5ce--at any rate1 9 ! s5se ( n com+ by sup]natural communication1 z ,malebran*e & ,b]keley ?\ght--he puts ! fam\s "q1 ,h[ are syn!tic judgm5ts a priori possible8 ,or1 z x might be p>adoxically express$1 ,h[ come we to "k ) ! mo/ c]ta9ty ! ?+s t we h n be5 taught by exp]i5ce8 ,! answ] is1 t we "k !m by ! mo/ intimate exp]i5ce ( all--! und]ly+ consci\sness t we h made !m :at !y are4 ,our m9ds are no m]e passive recipi5ts1 9 :i* a mass ( s5sations1 p\r$ 9 f "s ext]nal #ij s\rce1 are !n arrang$ aft] an ord] equally orig9at$ f )\t2 !re is a pr9ciple ( spontaneity 9 our own subjectivity by :i* ! objective ord] ( nature is creat$4 ,:at ,kant calls ! ,matt] ( k is giv5 f )\t1 ! ,=m f )94 ,& ?is process beg9s ) ! imposition ( ! two great fundam5tal ,=ms1 ,space & ,"t1 on ! raw mat]ial ( s5sation by our m9ds4 ,by space & "t ,kant does n mean ! ab/ract ideas ( coexi/5ce & succession2 nor does he call !m1 z "s critics us$ incorrectly to suppose1 =ms ( ?\ght1 b =ms ( intuition4 ,we d n build !m up ) ! help ( muscul> or o!r feel+s1 b are consci\s ( !m 9 a way n admitt+ ( any fur!r analysis4 ,! p>ts ( space1 no d\bt1 are coexi/5t1 b !y are also connect$ & cont9u\s2 m ?an ?is1 positions 9 space d n admit ( mutual sub/itution2 ! "r h& & left h& glove are p]fectly symmetrical1 b ! "o _c be sup]impos$ on ! o!r4 ,besides1 all p>ticul> spaces are conta9$ 9 univ]sal space1 n z p>ticul> conceptions are conta9$ 9 a g5]al conception1 b z p>ts ( t :i* ext5ds to inf9ity1 & :]e ea* has an individual place ( its own1 repeat+ all ! *>act]s ( space 9 g5]al except its illimitable ext5sion4 ,& ! same is true ( "t1 ) ?is fur!r di/9ction f ab/ract succession1 t succession may be rev]s$2 :]eas ! ord] ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future is irrev]sibly ma9ta9$4 ,! contempor>y s*ool ( ,reid 9 ,scotl&1 & ! subsequ5t ,eclectic s*ool ( ,victor ,c\s9 9 ,france1 w\ld agree ) ,kant 9 ma9ta9+ t s5su\s exp]i5ce w n acc\nt = our k ( space & "t4 ,b !y w\ld prote/1 9 ! "n #ia ( common s5se1 aga9/ ! r$uction ( ^! app>5tly fundam5tal elem5ts to purely subjective =ms4 ,!y w\ld ask1 ) ! ,g]man critic ,tr5del5burg1 ,:y _c space & "t be kn[n intuitively & yet really exi/8 ,kant furni%es no direct answ] to ! "q1 b he has sugge/$ "o 9 ano!r connection4 ,ma!matical tru? is conc]n$ ) spatial & temporal relations1 & = t tru? to be above suspicion & exception we mu/ assume t ! objects ) :i* x deals are :olly )9 our grasp--t our k ( !m is exhau/ive4 ,b !re c\ld be no su* assurance on ! supposition t1 besides ! space & "t ( our s5su\s exp]i5ce1 ano!r space & "t exi/$ indep5d5tly ( our consci\sness z attributes ( ?+s 9 !mselves--possibly diff]+ 9 important respects f ours--z1 = example1 a f9ite1 or a non-cont9u\s1 or a f\r-dim5sional space1 & a "t ) a circul> in/ead ( a progressive movem5t4 ,?is easy assumption t reality accommodates itself to our intellectual conv5i5ce1 in/ead ( our be+ oblig$ to accommodate our !ories ( k to reality1 runs ?r\gh & vitiates ! :ole ( ,kant's philosophy4 ,b1 tak+ ! n>r[] gr\nd ( logical consi/5cy1 "o h>dly sees h[ 8 pr9ciples c hold toge!r4 ,we are told t ! subjectivity ( space & "t is n pres5t$ z a plausible hypo!sis1 b z a c]ta9 & indubitable tru?1 = 9 no o!r way c ma!matical c]ta9ty be expla9$4 ,! claim is que/ionable1 b let x be grant$4 ,imm$iately a fre% difficulty />ts up4 ,:at is ! s\rce ( our c]ta9ty t space & "t are subjective =ms ( intuition8 ,if ! answ] is1 because t assumption gu>antees ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matics1 !n ,kant is #ib reason+ 9 a circle4 ,if he appeals--z 9 consi/5cy he ought--to ano!r ord] ( subjectivity z ! sanction ( 8 fir/ transc5d5tal argum5t1 su* reason+ involves ! regress to inf9ity4 ,aga91 on ,kant's !ory1 "t is ! =m ( intuition = ! inn] s5se4 ,s :5 we become consci\s ( m5tal ev5ts we "k !m only z ph5om5a2 we rema9 ignorant ( :at m9d is 9 itself4 ,b be=e ! publication 9 #aggj ( ,kant's inaugural diss]tation on ,! ,s5sible & ! ,intelligible ,_w e "o1 pla9 m5 & philosoph]s alike1 believ$ t ! consci\sness ( our successive ?\ghts & feel+s 0 ! v type ( reality itself2 & !y held ?is belief ) a high] degree ( assurance ?an t giv5 to ! axioms ( geometry4 ,by :at "r1 !n1 are we ask$ to give up ! great] = ! less1 to surr5d] our self-assurance z a ransom = ,euclid's ,elem5ts or ev5 = ,newton's ,pr9cipia8 ,once m1 surely ma!matics is conc]n$ n ) space & "t z su*1 b ) _! artificial delimitations z po9ts1 l9es1 figures1 numb]s1 mom5ts1 etc4 ,& x may be grant$ t ^! are purely subjective 9 ! s5se ( be+ impos$ by our imag9ation 7) ! aid ( s5sible signs7 on ! ext]nal _w4 ,:at if ?is subjectivity 7 ! true s\rce ( t peculi> c]ta9ty belong+ to syn!tic judgm5ts a priori8 ,true1 ,kant c\nts 9 our judgm5ts ab\t ! inf9ity & et]nity ( space & "t ) o!r accept$ *>act]i/ics ( !irs z intuitive c]ta9ties4 ,b !re are ?9k]s :o f9d ! negation ( su* prop]ties n inconceivable1 s t !y _c be adduc$ z evid5ce ( a priority1 /ill less ( subjectivity4 ,elev5 ye>s aft] ! inaugural diss]tation ,kant #ic publi%$ 8 mo/ important contribution to philosophy1 ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason 7#agha74 ,pure ,reason means ! faculty by :i* ideas are obta9$ indep5d5tly ( all exp]i5ce1 & ! critic's object is to asc]ta9 h[ f> su* ideas are valid4 ,z a prelim9>y to t inquiry ! "q is also moot$1 ,h[ is exp]i5ce possible8 ,x is answ]$ by a critique ( ! und]/&+ or faculty ( conception2 & z conception implies p]ception1 ?is aga9 is prefac$ by a section 9 :i* ,kant's !ory ( space & "t is repeat$ & re9=c$4 ,x w be rememb]$ t :at />t$ ! :ole ( ! new criticism 0 ,hume's sceptical analysis ( ,causation2 & ! c5tral int]e/ ( ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason lies 9 ! ef=t to recon/itute ! causal law 9 ! light ( ! new !ory ( k2 b s enorm\s is ! mass ( te*nicalities pil$ up = ?is purpose z l>gely to conceal x f view1 &1 on its disclosure1 to give ! idea ( a gigantic ma*9e set 9 motion to crack a nut4 ,& ! nut aft] all is n crack$2 ! %ell slips f betwe5 ! grappl+ surfaces long be=e !y meet4 ,we h se5 h[ ,kant int]pret$ e judgm5t z a syn!sis ( subject & pr$icate4 ,n[1 :e!r ! syn!sis be a priori or a po/]iori1 a /udy ( ! =ms ( judgm5t z enum]at$ 9 ! common logic %[s t !re are f\r1 & only f\r1 ways 9 :i* x c be effect$4 ,all judgm5ts fall "u ! foll[+ classes3 ,quantity1 ,quality1 ,relation1 & ,modality--t]ms ^: mean+ w be pres5tly expla9$4 ,& ea* ( ^! aga9 is trip>tite4 ,we may say 7i47 t "o ,a is ,b1 or t "s ,a's are ,b1 or t all ,a's are ,b2 7ii47 t ,a is ,b1 t ,a is n ,b1 t n all ,a's are ,b2 7iii47 t ,a is ,b1 t ,a #id is ,b if ,c is ,d1 t ,a is ei!r ,b1 ,c1 or ,d2 or 7iv47 t ,a may be ,b1 t ,a is ,b1 or t ,a mu/ be ,b4 ,! reason :y !re are f\r & only f\r classes is t judgm5t has to d ) ! subject 9 ref]5ce to ! pr$icate1 :i* gives ,quantity2 ) ! pr$icate 9 ref]5ce to ! subject1 :i* gives ,quality2 ) ! connection betwe5 ! two1 :i* gives ,relation2 & ) ! syn!sis betwe5 !m 9 ref]5ce to our k ( x1 :i* gives ,modality4 ,n[1 accord+ to ,kant1 t !re %\ld be s _m k9ds ( judgm5t & no m implies t our und]/&+ contributes a =mal elem5t to ! con/itution ( all k1 consi/+ ( f\r comb9+ pr9ciples1 )\t :i* exp]i5ce w\ld be impossible4 ,he calls ^! ,categories1 & !y are enum]at$ 9 ! foll[+ table3-- 7i47 ,quantity4 ,unity1 ,plurality1 ,totality4 7ii47 ,quality4 ,reality1 ,negation1 ,limitation4 7iii47 ,relation4 ,sub/ance & ,accid5t2 ,cause & ,effect2 ,action & ,reaction 7,reciprocity74 7iv47 ,modality4 ,possibility & ,impossibility2 ,exi/5ce & ,non-,exi/5ce2 ,necessity & ,cont+5cy4 ,a /udy ( ! ,categories sugge/s "s r obvi\s criticisms on ! ,critical ,philosophy itself4 7i47 ,! fir/ two t]ms 9 ea* triad evid5tly =m an anti!tical c\ple1 ( :i* ! ?ird t]m is ! syn!sis4 ,"h we h ! fir/ g]m ( a disease by :i* ! sy/ems ( ,kant's successors 7 mu* m s]i\sly infect$4 ,9 ! table x is %[n by #ie ! intrusion ( ,limitation1 a :olly sup]flu\s adjunct to ,reality & ,negation2 9 ! conv]sion ( ,reciprocity into a :olly fictiti\s syn!sis ( ,sub/antiality ) ,causation2 & 9 ! complete absurdity ( mak+ ,necessity a comb9ation ( ,possibility ) ,exi/5ce4 7ii47 ,innate ideas1 aft] !y _h be5 explod$ by ,locke1 are re9troduc$ into philosophy by a suffici5tly transp>5t piece ( leg]dema94 ,= assum+ t ! human intellig5ce possesses a p[] ( organis+ & drill+ ! s5su\s appe>ances :i* )\t its control w\ld appe> only z a disord]ly mob1 x by no means foll[s t !y mu/ !reby be ref]r$ to an extraph5om5al pr9ciple4 ,b su* a pr9ciple is pla9ly impli$ by ! category ( ,sub/ance4 ,us$ 9 a s*ola/ic s5se1 x does n mean ! s5su\s attributes ( a ?+ tak5 altoge!r1 b some?+ t und]lies & supports !m4 ,& ,kant himself seems to take 8 category 9 t significance4 ,= he claims to d$uce f x ! law ( ! inde/ructibility ( matt]2 z if ,i c\ld n say sn[ is :ite )\t committ+ myself to ! ass]tion t ! ultimate p>ticles ( sn[ h exi/$ & w exi/ = ev]4 7iii47 ,! sub/itution ( ,causation = logical sequ5ce1 z implicat$ 9 ! hypo!tical judgm5t ( ,relation1 is p]fectly sc&al\s2 & /ill m sc&al\s is sub/itution ( ,reciprocity or ,action & ,reaction = ,disjunction4 ,! la/ po9ts require to be exam9$ a little m 9 detail4 ,! sequ5ce ( an effect to its cause has only a v]bal resemblance to ! sequ5ce ( a logical consequ5t to its reason4 ,we decl>e categorically t e *ange has a cause :i* prec$es x4 ,logical sequ5ce is1 on ! o!r h&1 z ! v "n ( ! #if judgm5t %[s1 hypo!tical1 & may possibly n repres5t any actual occurr5ce1 besides be+1 :at causation is n1 indep5d5t ( "t4 ,a p>ticul> case ( causation may be hypo!tical 9 respect to our belief t x actually occurr$2 nev] ! law ( causation itself z a g5]al tru?4 ,& ! same di/9ction applies ) ev5 great] =ce to ! alleg$ connection betwe5 a logical disjunction & a physical reaction4 ,:5 ,i say ,a is ei!r ,b or ,c1 b n bo?1 !re is only ?is mu* resemblance1 t bo? cases involve ! ideas ( equality & ( opposition4 ,f ! admission t ,a is n ,b1 ,i inf] t x is ,c1 or1 contr>iwise1 f ! admission t x is ,b1 ,i inf] t x is n ,c1 & 9 bo? in/ances ) ! same c]ta9ty2 b ?is does n prove t ! e>? attracts ! moon z mu* z ! moon attracts ! e>?1 only 9 opposite directions2 nor yet t 9 c]ta9 in/ances all ! heat lo/ by "o body is ga9$ by ano!r4 ,kant _h le>n$ ?is mu* f ,hume1 t causation is ess5tially a relation ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce 9 "t2 & app>5tly 8 way ( categoris+ ! relation--i4e41 ( prov+ its apriority--is to repres5t x z ! logical =m ( reason & consequ5t masqu]ad+1 s to speak1 "u ! intuitional "t-=m4 ,yet he frequ5tly speaks ( our s5ses z be+ affect$ by ?+s 9 !mselves1 imply+ t ! result+ s5sations are someh[ caus$ by ^? o!rwise unkn[n entities4 ,b s9ce ?+s 9 !mselves d n1 accord+ to ,kant1 exi/ 9 space & "t1 !y _c be causally relat$ to ph5om5a or to any?+ else4 ,9 8 criticism ( ,pure ,reason1 prop]ly s call$--t is1 ( inf]5ces made by human faculty ) #ig reg>d to que/ions transc5d+ all exp]i5ce--,kant %[s t ( su* ?+s no?+ c be kn[n4 ,! ideality ( "t & space once tak5 z prov$1 ?is am\nt ( agno/icism seems to foll[ z a matt] ( c\rse4 ,x is idle to speculate ab\t ! possible ext5t or duration ( a univ]se t _c be describ$ 9 t]ms ( coexi/5ce & succession4 ,= ea* ( u at ! dissolution ( our bodily organism "t itself1 & !re=e exi/5ce z alone we conceive x1 comes to an end4 ,! law ( causation1 apply+ z x does to ph5om5a alone1 (f]s no evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( a ,god :o transc5ds ph5om5a4 ,kant1 h[ev]1 is n satisfi$ ) su* a simple & summ>y proc$ure z ?is4 ,he tries to %[1 ) mo/ unnecess>y p$antry1 t ! conditional syn!sis ( ! ,und]/&+ inevitably leads ?\ght on to ! unconditional syn!sis ( ! ,reason only to f9d itself lo/ 9 a hopeless welt] ( p>alogisms & self-contradictions4 ,at ?is /age we are h&$ ov] to ! guidance ( :at ,kant calls ! ,practical ,reason4 ,?is faculty gives a syn!sis = conduct1 z ,pure ,reason gave a syn!sis = intellig5ce4 ,all reason dem&s uni=mity1 ord]1 law2 only :at 9 !ory is recognis$ z true has 9 practice to be impos$ z "r4 ,9 ?is way ,kant arrives at 8 =mula ( absolute morality3 ,act s t ! pr9ciple ( ?y conduct may be ! law = all rational be+s4 ,he calls ?is ! ,categorical ,imp]ative1 z di/+ui%$ f su* hypo!tical imp]atives z3 ,act ?is way if y wi% to be happy ei!r "h or h]eaft]2 or1 act z public op9ion tells y4 ,moreov]1 ! motive1 z di/+ui%$ f ! end ( moral action1 %\ld n be calculat+ self-int]e/ nor uncalculat+ impulse1 b simply desire to fulfil ! law z su*4 ,previ\s morali/s _h set up #ih ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] z ! end ( action1 & su* an aim does n lie f> f ,kant's philosophy2 b !y c\ld ?9k ( no bett] motive = pursu+ x ?an self-love or a r undef9$ social in/9ct2 & _! summum bonum w\ld take ! happ9ess ( irrational animals into acc\nt1 :ile ,kant absolutely subord9ates ! int]e/s ( ^! to human good4 ,a fur!r co9cid5ce betwe5 ! ,utilit>ian & ! ,kantian e?ics is t 9 ! latt] also ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 n _! p]fection1 %\ld be ! end & aim ( ea*4 ,f9ally1 ! philosophy ( ,pure ,reason adopts f contempor>y ,fr5* ?\ght z ! gov]n+ idea ( political organisation :at 0 long to be a pr9ciple ( ,engli% ,utilit>ianism--! lib]ty ( ea*1 b\nd$ only by ! equal lib]ty ( all4 ,nev]!less1 ! old po/ulate ( a necess>y connection betwe5 virtue & individual happ9ess reappe>s 9 ,kant's e?ical !ory1 & leads to ! con/ruction ( a new religi\s philosophy4 ,8 critique _h left no place = ! old !ology1 nor yet = t doctr9e ( free-w s de> to mo/ !ologians4 ,its :ole object _h be5 to v9dicate aga9/ ,hume ! necessity & univ]sality ( causation4 ,human actions !n mu/1 l all o!r ph5om5a1 =m an unbrok5 *a9 ( antec$5ts & consequ5ts4 ,nor does ,kant conceal 8 conviction t1 ) suffici5t k & p[]s ( calculation1 a man's :ole future conduct might be =etold4 ,nev]!less1 "u ! eighte5?-c5tury idea ( man z naturally ! creature ( passion or self-int]e/1 he claims = u1 z moral ag5ts1 ! p[] ( *oos+ to obey duty 9 pref]5ce to ei!r4 ,& ?is fre$om is suppos$ to be made conceivable by ! subjectivity ( "t & causation1 outside ( :i*1 #ii z a ?+ 9 itself1 /&s ! moral w4 ,t morality1 :e!r z action or m]e int5tion1 involves succession 9 "t is utt]ly ignor$4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,assum+ )\t w>rant t ! moral law dem&s an ultimate co9cid5ce betwe5 happ9ess & virtue1 made impossible 9 ?is life by human weakness1 ,kant argues t !re mu/ be an un5d+ future life to secure "t en\gh = work+ out a problem ^: solution is inf9itely remote4 ,&1 f9ally1 !re mu/ be an omnipot5t moral ,god to provide facilities = und]tak+ t some:at gratuit\s ,psy*e's task4 ,be=e ,kant moral !ology _h argu$ t ! ,judge ( all ! _w mu/ d "r1 apportion+ happ9ess to des]t4 ,x 0 res]v$ = him to argue1 conv]sely1 t = "r to be done su* a ,judge mu/ exi/1 & t !re=e he does exi/4 ,9 appreciat+ ! s]vices ( ,kant to philosophy we mu/ gu>d ourselves aga9/ be+ influ5c$ by ! extravagant panegyrics ( 8 c\ntrym51 ^: passion = squ>e circles he s g5]\sly gratifies4 ,/ill1 aft] e d$uction = m]e ,laputian p$antry has be5 made1 ! balance ( fruitful sugge/ion rema9s va/4 7i47 ,! anti!sis ( object & subject1 al?\gh n c\nt$ among ! categories ( 8 ,critique1 has rema9$ a prime category ( ?\ght ev] s9ce4 7ii47 ,! idea ( a necess>y limit to human k1 giv5 by ! v !ory ( t k1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ,scepticism ( ! ,greeks--9 o!r words1 :at we n[ call ,agno/icism--may n be f9al1 b x /ill rema9s to be dealt )4 7iii47 ,! possibility ( r$uc+ a priori k to a =m ( unconsci\s exp]i5ce has put an end to dogmatic metaphysics4 7iv47 ,! problems ( ,"t & ,space h tak5 a c5tral place 9 speculation2 x has be5 #ajj %[n--:at ,hume did n see--t ,causation has ! c]ta9ty ( a ma!matical axiom2 & x has be5 made highly probable t all ^! difficulties may f9d _! solution 9 a l>g] int]pretation ( exp]i5ce4 7v47 ,morality has be5 def9itely dissociat$ f ! appeal to selfi% int]e/s1 :e!r 9 ?is life or 9 ano!r4 ,we h n[ to trace1 )9 ! limits prescrib$ by ! nature ( ?is "w1 ! developm5t ( philosophy "u ,kant's ,g]man successors4 99 99 99 99 99 #aja ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s ,,fi*te1 ,,s*ell+1 ,,hegel1 ,,s*op5hau]1 ,,h]b>t4 ,! ,critical ,philosophy won its fir/ success 9 ,g]many less z a new epi/emology ?an z :at1 9 fact1 its au?or meant x to be1 a rehabilitation ( religi\s belief4 ,! limits ( ,reason _h be5 drawn s closely only to make room = ,fai?4 ,b ! curr5t ( ,rationalism 0 runn+ too /rongly to be s summ>ily /opp$2 & s ) ,kant's able/ successors fai? is altoge!r ab&on$1 :ile ! claims ( reason are pu%$ rel5tlessly ?r\gh4 ,among ^! m logical ?9k]s ! fir/ is ,j4 ,g4 ,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad74 ,9 him--= ! ?ird "t 9 mod]n hi/ory1 = ! fir/ & la/ "t 9 ,g]many--! h]o z philosoph] f9ds a wor?y repres5tative4 ,born 9 ,silesia1 l ,kant ( humble p>5tage1 & br$ 9 circum/ances ( m oppressive pov]ty1 he also receiv$ a sev]ely religi\s & moral tra9+ z a prep>ation = ! pa/oral (fice4 ,! b\nty ( an ari/ocratic patron gave him an excell5t public-s*ool education2 b z a univ]sity /ud5t1 fir/ at ,j5a & !n at ,leipzig1 he _h to e>n a scanty liv+ by private tuition1 f9ally ab&on+ 8 de/9$ c>e] to accept a po/ 9 a ,swiss family at ,zuri*4 ,!re1 z ! result ( an atta*m5t 9 :i* ! love 0 ne>ly all on ! lady's side1 he became engag$ to a niece ( ! poet ,klop/ock1 & aft] a long delay1 caus$ by money #ajb difficulties1 0 enabl$ to m>ry h]4 ,9 ! meantime he _h become a conv]t to ,kant's philosophy1 w9n+ ! admiration ( ! old ma/] himself by a ,critique ( all ,revelation1 writt5 9 f\r weeks4 ,publi%$ anonym\sly by an ov]sight1 x 0 g5]ally attribut$ to ,kant himself1 &1 on ! real au?or%ip becom+ kn[n1 won = ,fi*te an extraord9>y ,pr(essorate ( ,philosophy at ,j5a1 :]e 8 success z a lectur] & writ] gave him = a "t ! lead]%ip 9 ,g]man speculation 7#agid-agii74 ,an unt[>d incid5t br\ght ?is /age ( 8 c>e] to an end4 ,writ+ 9 a philosophical review1 he def9$ ,god z ! moral ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,dr4 ,temple long aft]w>ds us$ mu* ! same phrase :5 ,bi%op ( ,exet]1 f9d+ x1 presumably1 compatible ) (ficial ,!ism2 b su* 0 n ! impression creat$ 9 ,saxony4 ,a cry ( a!ism arose1 mu* to ! disgu/ ( ,fi*te1 ^: position w\ld h be5 bett] describ$ z pan!i/ic4 ,b :at inc5s$ him mo/ 0 ! suspicion ( an attempt to int]f]e ) ! lib]ty ( academic tea*+4 ,) 8 usual impetuosity he talk$ ab\t resign+ 8 *air--) a h9t t o!rs w\ld foll[ 8 example--7 ! au?orities at ,weim> to p]mit su* an outrage4 ,goe!1 :o 0 !n ,m9i/]1 obs]v$ t no ,gov]nm5t c\ld all[ itself to be ?reat5$1 & ,fi*te 0 at once reliev$ ( 8 po/4 ,settl+ at ,b]l91 he became ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy 9 ! new ,univ]sity f\nd$ aft] ! ,fr5* conque/ ( ,prussia1 hav+ previ\sly done mu* to revive ! national _s by 8 ,addresses to ! ,g]man ,nation 7#ahjg-ahjh74 ,^! 7 9 appe>ance ! programme ( a new educational ,utopia2 b _! real purpose 0 s evid5t t ! speak] liv$ 9 daily expectation ( be+ summon$ #ajc be=e a ,fr5* c\rt-m>tial & %ot4 ,unlike 8 c\ntrym51 ,goe!1 ,hegel1 & ,s*op5hau]1 ,fi*te passionately res5t$ ! ,napoleonic despotism1 ?r[+ himself he>t & s\l into ! great upris+ by :i* x 0 f9ally ov]?r[n4 ,al?\gh 8 wi% to accompany ! victori\s army z field prea*] c\ld n be gratifi$1 ! campaign ( #ahac /ill claim$ him z "o ( its victims4 ,aft] nurs+ 8 h]oic wife to recov]y f a hospital fev] caught 9 att5dance on ! sick & w\nd$ at ,b]l91 he took ! infection f h] & di$ e>ly 9 #ahad1 soon aft] he>+ t ,blue*] _h cross$ ! ,rh9e4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 9 a well-kn[n /ory1 has made himself & 8 read]s m]ry ov] a ,g]man savant :o und]takes to evolve ! idea ( a camel out ( ! dep?s ( 8 moral consci\sness4 ,! phrase is commonly quot$ z inn] consci\sness1 b ?is takes away its :ole po9t4 ,= ! orig9al satiri/1 :o1 ,i ?9k1 0 n ,lewes1 b ,he9e1 _h 9 view ! philosophy ( ,fi*te4 ,x ne$ h>dly be said t ,g]man savants are z c>eful obs]v]s & dilig5t collectors ( facts z any o!rs2 & ,fi*te 9 p>ticul> tru/$ solely to exp]i5ce = ! k ( natural ph5om5a4 ,b ev5 z reg>ds 8 g5]al philosophy ! place x gives to morality has be5 misconceiv$ ev5 by 8 close/ /ud5ts4 ,) him goodwill really plays a less important "p ?an ) ,kant1 be+ n an end 9 itself1 b a means t[>ds an end4 ,& :at t end is 8 tea*+ makes q cle>4 ,kant's fir/ critics put _! f+] on ! weak po9t ( 8 sy/em1 ! ?+ 9 itself4 ,s1 assum+ x to be disc>d$1 ,fi*te set to "w on new l9es1 ! l9es ( pure idealism4 ,b1 ?\gh an ideali/1 he is n1 any m ?an ,b]keley1 a solipsi/4 ,! celebrat$ #ajd anti!sis ( ! ego & ! non-ego dates f him1 & /rikes ! keynote ( 8 :ole sy/em4 ,x might be ?\ght t1 z comp>$ ) ! old realism1 ?is 0 a di/9ction )\t a diff]5ce4 ,b t is n s2 =1 accord+ to ,fi*te1 ! non-ego is subjective 9 its orig91 & t is :]e he dep>ts widely f ,b]keley's !ological idealism4 ,n t ,i create ! n-myself2 ,i assume x z ! condition ( my self-consci\sness--a rem>kable feat ( logic1 b aft] all n m wond]ful ?an t space & "t %\ld result f ! activity ( ! out] & inn] s5ses4 ,?is figm5t ( my imag9ation is anyh[ solid en\gh to beget a new feel+ ( resi/ance & recoil1 ?r[+ ! self back on itself1 & br++ ) x ! int]pretation ( t ext]nal impact by ! category ( causation1 ( its own activity z sub/ance1 & ( ! :ole deal betwe5 ! ego & ! non-ego z int]action or reciprocity4 ,9 ?is way ! fir/ triad ( !sis1 anti!sis1 & syn!sis is obta9$2 & f ?is1 by a va/ exp5diture ( +5uity1 ! :ole array ( ,kant's =ms1 categories1 & faculties is evolv$ z a coh]5t sy/em ( sci5tific ?\ght 9 ob$i5ce to a s+le pr9ciple--! self-realisation ( ! ego1 alt]natively admitt+ & transc5d+ a limit to its activity4 ,x w be easily und]/ood t ?is self-realis+ ego is nei!r ,fi*te's nor anyone else's self1 b a univ]sal pr9ciple1 fundam5tally ! same 9 all4 ,"o is rem9d$ ( ,desc>tes's self-?9k+ ?\ght by :i* ! reality ( ! univ]se 0 gu>ante$2 b betwe5 ! two !re is ?is va/ diff]5ce1 t ! ,fr5*man's ego resembles a box conta9+ a v>iety ( indep5d5t ideas1 to be sep>ately h&l$ & exam9$2 ! ,g]man's is a box enclos+ a coil$-up spr+ by #aje ! expansion ( :i* all ! :eels ( ! philosophical ma*9e are made g r\nd4 ,f ! action ( ! n-self on ! self results ! :ole ( nature z we conceive x2 f ! reaction ( ! self on ! n-self1 ! :ole m5tality & morality ( man--morality be+ und]/ood to include ! dome/ic1 social1 political1 educational1 & indu/rial organisation ( life4 ,! f9al cause1 ! impell+ ideal ( exi/5ce1 is ! self-realisation ( ! ego1 ! entire absorption into its p]sonal en]gy ( ! non-ego1 ( nature1 to be effect$ by p]fect k ( h[ ! physical univ]se is con/itut$ issu+ 9 p]fect subjugation ( its =ces to ! human w4 ,b su* a realisation ( ! ,absolute ,ego w\ld mean its annihilation1 =1 z we h se51 ! anti!sis betwe5 objective & subjective is ! v condition ( consci\sness t )\t :i* x c\ld nei!r beg9 nor cont9ue to exi/4 ,!re=e ! process mu/ g on = ev]1 & ?is necessity gu>antees ! et]nal duration ( ! human race--n1 z ,kant _h dream$1 ( ! individual s\l1 s9ce = ,fi*te ! ,categorical ,imp]ative dem&s a consummation widely diff]5t f t comb9ation ( virtue ) happ9ess :i* _h satisfi$ 8 ma/]4 ,& ! ag5cy by :i* x is be+ effect$ ?r\gh inf9ite "t is n a p]sonal ,god1 b t moral ord] ( ! _w :i* ,fi*te reg>d$ z ! only true object ( religi\s feel+4 ,z = human immortality1 he seems to h fir/ accept$1 b aft]w>ds reject$ x 9 fav\r ( a my/ical union ) ! div9e4 ,x has be5 said t morality 0 n ) ,fi*te :at x _h be5 ) ,kant--! highe/ good4 ,nev]!less1 z a means t[>ds ! f9al syn!sis1 morality int]e/$ him int5sely1 & 8 be/ "w has be5 #ajf done 9 e?ics4 ,z a condition ( self-realisation ! primal ego becomes p]sonifi$ 9 a multitude ( free individualities4 ,j z 9 ,/oicism1 ea* individual is conceiv$ z hav+ a special (fice to p]=m 9 ! _w-process1 & ! ,/ate exi/s--ideally speak+--9 ord] to gu>antee ! necess>y indep5d5ce ( all its citiz5s4 ,= ?is purpose ev]yone mu/ h ! "r to "w & ! "r to a liv+ wage4 ,?us ,fi*te appe>s z ! fir/ !ori/ ( ,/ate ,socialism 9 ! hi/ory ( ,g]man ?\ght4 ,probably ! example ( ! ,greek ,/oics ) _! communi/ic utopias act+ on a k9dr$ _s1 r ?an any prophetic vision ( ! com+ c5tury1 is to be cr$it$ = ?is rem>kable anticipation4 ,,s*ell+4 ,g]man philosophy is prolific ( self-contradictions2 & s f> ! mo/ flagrant example has be5 (f]$ by ,fi*te's ,!ory ( ,k1 />t+ z x does ) ! idea ( an imp]sonal ego1 develop+ ?r\gh a process 9 :i* ?is selfless self dem&s its own negation at e /ep1 & det]m9$ by ! prospect ( a cata/rophe t w\ld be ! annihilation ( consci\sness itself4 ,9 fact1 !re seem$ no ne$ to wait until "t _h run out2 ! self1 or1 z x 0 n[ call$1 ! subject1 _h absorb$ all reality1 only to f9d t ! mat]ial univ]se1 recon/itut$ z ! object ( k1 0 an indisp5sable condition ( its exi/5ce4 ,& mean:ile ! physical sci5ces1 m p>ticul>ly ^? conc]n$ ) inorganic nature1 7 ent]+ on a s]ies ( triumphs unp>allel$ s9ce ! days ( ,newton4 ,philosophy mu/ come to t]ms ) ^! or cease to exi/4 ,! task ( reconciliation 0 fir/ attempt$ by #ajg ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 ,s*ell+ 7#agge-ahed71 a ,suabian1 & ! fir/ ,s\? ,g]man :o made a "n 9 pure philosophy4 ,educat$ at ! ,univ]sity ( ,tueb+51 at an e>ly age he cov]$ an encyclopa$ic range ( /udies & began au?or%ip at n9ete51 ga9+ a pr(essor%ip at ,j5a f\r ye>s lat]4 ,w&]+ ab\t f "o univ]sity to ano!r1 & putt+ =w>d new op9ions z (t5 z he *ang$ 8 resid5ce1 ! "y adv5tur] ceas$ to publi% aft] #ahac1 & rema9$ sil5t till 9 #ahda he came =w>d at ,b]l9 z ! *ampion ( a reaction>y curr5t1 practically r5\nc+ ! naturali/ic pan!ism by :i* 8 e>ly reputation _h be5 made4 ,b he utt]ly fail$ 9 ! attempt1 :i* 0 f9ally ab&on$ 9 ! fif? ye> f its inception4 ,lewes1 :o saw ,s*ell+ 9 8 old age1 describes him z rem>kably l ,socrates2 8 admir]s call$ him a mod]n ,plato2 b he _h no?+ ( ! deep moral e>ne/ness t *>act]is$ ei!r1 nor inde$ 0 morality ne$$ = ! "w t he actually did4 ,?is1 to use ! phrase ( 8 fell[-/ud5t ,hegel1 consi/$ 9 rais+ philosophy to its absolute /&po9t1 9 pass+ f ! subjective moralism ( ! eighte5? c5tury to ! all-compreh5sive sy/ematisation ( ! n9ete5?4 ,s*ell+ began z a disciple ( ,fi*te1 b he came simultane\sly "u ! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza1 ^: fame _h be5 incessantly spread+ ?r\gh ! la/ g5]ation 9 ,g]many1 ) "s re9=cem5t f ! reviv$ "n ( ,bruno4 ,_! tea*+ s]v$ to make ! lat5t pan!ism ( ,fi*te m explicit1 :ile ! great contempor>y discov]ies gave a new int]e/ to ! /udy ( nature1 :i* ,fi*te1 unlike ,kant1 _h put 9 ! backgr\nd1 /rictly subord9at+ x to ! moral s]vice ( man4 ,_h he c>$ to evolve #ajh ! idea ( a camel f 8 moral consci\sness1 ! op]ation w\ld n h dem&$ sev]al ye>s1 b only a few m9utes' ?\ght4 ,z ?us3 ! moral developm5t ( humanity ne$$ ! co-op]ation ( su* a race z ! ,semites4 ,to =m _! "* a long resid5ce 9 ! ,arabian des]ts 0 ne$$4 ,b = su* nomads an auxili>y animal w\ld be ne$$ ) long legs & neck1 a /oma* = /or+ wat]1 hump1 etc4--,q4 ,e4 ,d4 ,s*ell+ also began by expla9+ ! mat]ial _w z a prep>ation = ! spiritual2 only he did n employ ! me?od ( teleological adaptation1 b a me?od ( r fanciful analogy4 ,z ! evolution ( self-consci\s reason _h proce$$ by a triple movem5t ( !sis1 anti!sis1 & syn!sis1 s a p>allel process _h to be discov]$ 9 ! advance t[>ds a consci\sness suppos$ to be exhibit$ 9 organic & inorganic nature4 ,! fundam5tal idea ( natural philosophy is pol>ity--opposite =ces comb9+ to neutralise "o ano!r & !n p>t+ to be reunit$ at a high] /age ( evolution4 ,?us attraction & repulsion--repres5t$ z space & "t--by _! syn!sis compose matt]2 magnetism & electricity produce *emical aff9ity2 life results f a triad ( inorganic =ces2 9 life itself productivity & irritability give bir? to s5sibility4 ,! ord] ( ! t]ms made little1 if any1 diff]5ce4 ,:5 long aft]w>ds iron 0 magnetis$ by ! electric curr5t1 ,s*ell+ claim$ = himself ! cr$it ( anticipat+ ?is discov]y1 al?\gh he _h plac$ magnetism be=e electricity4 ,! next /ep 0 to con/ruct a philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,?is1 ) mu* else1 is includ$ "u ! "n ( ,a ,sy/em ( ,transc5d5tal ,idealism 7#ahjj7 9 ! mo/ f9i%$ ( ,s*ell+'s lit]>y compositions4 #aji ,hi/ory1 accord+ to ! view "h unfold$1 is ! gradual self-revelation ( ,god1 or ! ,absolute1 9 :om ,nature & ,_s are unit$ & id5tifi$1 :o nev] is nor c be1 b always is to be4 ,mean:ile ! supreme ideal is n t ev]-increas+ ma/]y ( nature by man :i* ,fi*te contemplat$1 b _! reconciliation z a*iev$ by ,art4 ,= j z natural philosophy c>ri$ an elem5t ( consci\sness into ! mat]ial univ]se1 s ae/heticism recognises a correspond+ elem5t ( unconsci\s creation 9 ! supreme works ( arti/ic g5ius :]e _s rea*es its highe/ & be/4 ,"h ,s*ell+ appe>s z ! philosoph] ( ,romanticism1 a movem5t t *>act]is$ ,g]man ?\ght f #agie to #ahje1 & is kn[n to ourselves by ! fad$ & feeble image ( x exhibit$ 9 a c]ta9 section ( ,engli% society ne>ly a c5tury lat]4 ,beg9n+ ) a m cultivat$ intellig5ce ( ,hell5ic antiquity1 ?is movem5t rapidly grew into a new appreciation ( m$ieval culture1 falsely suppos$ to h giv5 m scope to individuality ?an mod]n civilisation1 & !n into a se>* = ev]-v>y+ s\rces ( excitem5t or di/raction 9 ! :ole hi/ory1 art1 & lit]ature ( pa/ or pres5t times1 religion be+ at la/ s+l$ out z ! vitalis+ pr9ciple ( all4 ,s+ul>ly en\gh1 ,fi*te accept$ ! ,transc5d5tal ,idealism z an or?odox exposition ( 8 own philosophy4 ,b its composition seems to h giv5 ,s*ell+ ! consci\sness ( 8 own indep5d5ce4 ,soon aft]w>ds he def9$ ! new position z a philosophy ( ,id5tity or ( ,indiff]5ce4 ,nature & ,_s1 l ,sp9oza's ,?\ght & ,ext5sion1 7 all ! same & all "o--t is to say1 9 _! totality or 9 ! ,absolute4 ,=1 consid]$ z appe>ances1 #aaj !y might pres5t quantitative diff]5ces det]m9$ by ! v>y+ prepond]ance ( ! objective or ( ! subjective side4 ,9 ?is way ,s*ell+ f\nd himself able to repeat 8 fanciful con/ruction ( ! =ces & =ms ( nature 9 successive triads "u new names4 ,! ess5tial dep>ture f ,fi*te1 :o repudiat$ ! ,philosophy ( ,id5tity ) undisguis$ contempt1 0 t x practically repudiat$ ! idea ( an et]nal progress 9 man's ev]-gr[+ ma/]y ( nature4 ,b1 9 spite ( all disclaim]s1 ! ma/] sil5tly foll[$ 8 =m] disciple's evolution 9 ! direction ( a pan!i/ic monism4 ,8 lat] writ+s repres5t ,god no long] z ! moral ord] ( ! _w1 b1 l ,sp9oza1 z ! _w's et]nal ,be+1 ( :i* man's k is ! reflect$ image4 ,f9ally1 bo? philosoph]s accept$ ! ,*ri/ian doctr9es ( ! ,fall1 ! ,inc>nation1 & ! ,tr9ity z my?ical symbols ( an et]nal process 9 :i* ,god1 aft] becom+ ali5at$ f himself 9 ! mat]ial univ]se1 returns to himself 9 man's consci\sness ( id5tity ) ! ,absolute4 ,in/ead ( ! r abrupt me?od ( position1 negation1 & re-affirmation kn[n z ,!sis1 ,anti!sis1 & ,syn!sis1 we h "h ! m fluid process ( a spiral movem5t1 dep>t+ f & return+ to itself4 ,& ?is 0 to be ! v ma9spr+ ( ! sy/em t next comes up = consid]ation4 ,,hegel4 #aaa ,illu/ration3 ,hegel 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #aab ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71 9 ! op9ion ( "s good judges ,g]many's greate/ philosoph]1 01 l ,s*ell+1 a ,suabian1 & intimately associat$ ) 8 y\ng] contempor>y1 fir/ at ,tueb+5 & aft]w>ds at ,j5a1 :]e ! two fri5ds jo9tly conduct$ a philosophical review4 ,b !y gradually drift$ ap>t4 ,hegel 0 n a romantici/1 b a classic2 n a naturali/1 b a humani/4 ,l>gely influ5c$ by ,greek ?\ght & ,greek lit]ature1 = :i* he cont9u$ to be an en?usia/ ?r\gh life1 he readily accept$1 z aga9/ ,kant & ,fi*te1 ! *ange f a purely subjective to an objective po9t ( view4 ,b1 al?\gh he gave "s att5tion to physical sci5ce1 ,hegel 0 less int]e/$ 9 x ?an 8 colleague1 ) ^: crude & fanciful metaphysics he also fail$ to sympa?ise4 ,) ! publication ( ,hegel's fir/ important "w1 ! ,ph5om5ology ( ,m9d 7#ahjg71 ?+s came to a brea*2 = its preface am\nts to a decl>ation ( w> aga9/ ! philosophy ( ,romanticism4 ,s*ell+ himself is n nam$2 b !re is no mi/ak+ ! object ( c]ta9 picturesque ref]5ces to explod+ ! ,absolute on u1 & ! d>kness 9 :i* e c[ is black4 ,next ye> ,hegel became :at we %\ld call headma/] ( a public s*ool at ,nuremb]g1 fill+ t po/ = eight ye>s1 dur+ :i* 8 greate/ "w1 ! ,sy/em ( ,logic1 9 ?ree volumes1 0 compos$ & publi%$4 ,he !n obta9$ a *air ( philosophy at ,heidelb]g1 pass+ !nce to ,b]l9 9 #ahah1 :]e he taught until 8 dea? by *ol]a 9 #ahca4 ,david ,/rauss1 :o saw ! rev]$ tea*] a few days be=e ! fatal seizure1 describes him fir/ z he appe>$ 9 ! lecture-room1 look+ ev] s old1 b5t & c\gh+2 !n 9 8 home1 look+ t5 ye>s y\ng]1 ) cle> blue eyes1 & %[+ ! mo/ beautiful :ite tee? :5 he smil$4 ,he _h publi%$ a summ>y ( 8 :ole sy/em1 "u ! "n ( an ,encyclopa$ia ( ! ,philosophical ,sci5ces1 9 #ahag1 & a ,philosophy ( ,law--:i* is really a treatise on ,gov]nm5t--9 #ahba4 ,8 #aac sympa?ies 7 ) bureaucratic absolutism 9 a mod]nis$ =m1 ) ,napoleon aga9/ ! ,g]man patriots1 ) ! re/or$ ,prussian ,gov]nm5t aga9/ ! new ,lib]alism1 ) ,engli% ,toryism aga9/ ! ,:igs ( ! ,re=m ,bill1 & f9ally ) ! admir]s ( w> aga9/ ! fri5ds ( peace4 ,hegel's collect$ works1 publi%$ aft] 8 dea?1 fill ov] tw5ty good-siz$ volumes4 ,besides ! treatises already m5tion$1 !y include 8 ,lectures on ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 ! ,philosophy ( ,religion1 ,ae/hetics1 etc41 made up ) mu* lit]>y skill f ! ,pr(essor's own notes & f ! reports ( 8 he>]s4 ,! mo/ p]man5tly valuable ( ^! is ! ,ae/hetics2 b any /ud5t desir\s ( gett+ a notion ( ,hegelianism at fir/ h& _h bett] beg9 ) ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 ( :i* !re is a good & *eap ,engli% translation 9 "o ( ,bohn's ,libr>ies4 ,"s g5]al po9ts ( view s]v+ to connect ! sy/em ) its pr$ecessors are all t room c be f\nd = "h4 ,z comp>$ ) ,kant1 ,hegel is di/+ui%$ above all by 8 complete abjuration ( ! agno/ic /&po9t 9 epi/emology4 ,! univ]se is p5etrable to ?\ght3 an unkn[able ?+ 9 itself does n exi/4 ,inde$1 ! intelligible reality ( ?+s is j :at we "k be/2 ! unacc\ntable residuum1 if any1 lurks 9 ! details ( _! appe>ance4 ,s also 9 ,greek philosophy ,hegel holds t ! tru? 0 n 9 ! ideal _w ( ,plato1 b 9 ! self-realis+ ,=ms ( ,ari/otle4 ,z aga9/ ,fi*te1 ,hegel w n all[ t ! reconciliation ( ! subjective ) ! objective is an inf9itely f>-(f div9e ev5t2 on ! contr>y1 x is a process be+ cont9ually realis$ by ourselves & all ab\t u4 ,9 8 homely expression1 ! v #aad animals z !y eat turn _! food into consci\sness1 9 utt] disreg>d ( prejudice4 ,b ,fi*te's condemnation ( ,s*ell+'s ,indiff]5tism is q "r4 ,! ,absolute is ,m9d4 ,nature exi/s only z ! l[] /age1 :5ce ,_s em]ges to contradict1 to confront1 & to expla9 h] z ! necess>y prep>ation = 8 supreme self-ass]tion4 ,& ,fi*te 0 "r 9 work+ out 8 sy/em by ! dialectical me?od ( contradiction & solution1 z aga9/ ! dogmatism t summ>ily decrees ! ,absolute1 )\t tak+ ! tr\ble to reason x out1 9 imitation ( ! plan pursu$ by ! univ]se 9 becom+ consci\s ( itself4 ,! mo/ port5t\s ?+ ab\t ,hegel's philosophy is ?is notion ( ! _w's hav+1 s to speak1 argu$ itself into exi/5ce4 ,to rationalise ! sum ( be+1 to expla91 )\t assumptions1 :y !re %\ld be any?+1 & !n :y x %\ld be z we "k x1 _h be5 a problem sugge/$ by ,plato & solv$ r summ>ily by ,sp9oza's *all5ge to conceive ,inf9ite ,p[] z non-exi/+4 ,hegel is m pati5t & +5i\s2 b1 aft] all1 8 sup]iority m]ely consi/s 9 sp9n+ ! web ( arbitr>y dialectic s f9e t we c h>dly see ! ?read4 ,! root-idea is to id5tify1 or r to confuse1 causal evolution ) logic4 ,! *a9 ( causes & effects t con/itutes ! univ]se is made out to be "o ) ! s]ies ( reasons & consequ5ts by :i* ! conclusion is demon/rat$4 ,z usual1 ! equation is effect$ by a transf]5ce ( t]ms f ea* side to ! o!r4 ,! categories & processes ( logic are cr$it$ ) a life & movem5t t belongs only to ! human reason] op]at+ ) !m4 ,& ! mov+1 int]act+ masses ( :i* ! mat]ial univ]se consi/s are repres5t$ z p>ties to a dialectical #aae discussion 9 :i* "o d5ies :at ! o!r ass]ts until x is discov]$1 on lift+ ! argum5t to a high] plane1 t aft] all !y are agre$4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,! _w z we "k x is compos$ ( co-exi/5t elem5ts gr\p$ toge!r or di/+ui%$ accord+ to _! resemblances & diff]5ces z s _m natural k9ds2 & ( successive ev5ts l9k$ toge!r z causes & effects4 ,b :ile !re is no g5]al law ( coexi/5ce except su* z may be d]iv$ f ! collocation ( ! previ\sly exi/+ elem5ts :5ce !y are d]iv$1 !re is a law ( causal succession--namely1 ?is1 t ! quantities ( mass & en]gy involv$ are cons]v$ )\t loss or ga9 ?r\gh all "t4 ,n[1 ,hegel's way ( rationalis+ or1 9 pla9] words1 acc\nt+ = ! coexi/5t elem5ts & _! qualities1 is to br+ !m "u a suppos$ law ( complem5t>y opposition1 reviv$ f ,h]acleitus1 accord+ to :i* ev]y?+ necess>ily involves ! exi/5ce1 bo? 9 ?\ght & reality1 ( its contradictory4 ,& ! same pr9ciple is appli$ to causal succession--a proce$+ :i* w\ld be fatal to ! sci5tific law ( cons]vation4 ,!re is ano!r way ( rationalis+ exp]i5ce--namely1 ! !ological hypo!sis ( a supreme intellig5ce by :i* ! _w 0 creat$ & is gov]n$ ) a view to ! atta9m5t ( "s ultimate good4 ,& !re is a sort ( teleology 9 ,hegel evid5tly inspir$ by 8 religi\s education4 ,b ! two d n mean ! same ?+4 ,= he places consci\s reason n at ! beg9n+ b at ! end ( evolution4 ,! rationality ( ?+s is imman5t1 n transc5d5t4 ,purposes someh[ "w retrospectively s z to det]m9e ! c\rse ( ev5ts t[>ds a good end4 ,t end is self-consci\sness--n y\rs or m9e1 b ! #aaf _w-_s's consci\sness & possession ( itself4 ,& ?is is rea*$ 9 f\r ways3 9 ,art by intuition1 9 ,religion by repres5tation1 9 ,philosophy by conception1 9 ,hi/ory & ,politics by ! realisation ( righte\sness ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! mod]n ,/ate4 ,hegel look$ on ?is _w & ?is life ( ours z ! only _w & ! only life4 ,:5 ,he9e po9t$ to ! />ry skies he told ! "y poet t ! />s 7 a brilliant leprosy on ! face ( ! heav5s1 & met ! appeal = future comp5sation ) ! s>ca/ic obs]vation3 ,s y expect a tr9kgeld = nurs+ y\r sick "m & = n poison+ y\r bro!r6 ,g]man hi/orians h ju/ly extoll$ ! +5uity1 ! subtlety1 ! orig9ality1 ! sy/ematis+ p[]--unequall$ s9ce ,ari/otle--& ! enorm\s k ( _! c\ntry's *ief ideali/4 ,b ?is1 aft] all1 am\nts to no m ?an claim+ = ,hegel t mu* ( :at he said is true & t mu* is new4 ,! vital "q is :e!r :at is new is also true--& ?is is m ?an !y seem prep>$ to ma9ta94 ,,s*op5hau]4 ,! lead]s ( ! p>ty kn[n 9 ! f\r? & fif? decades ( ! la/ c5tury z ,"y ,g]many1 among :om ,he9ri* ,he9e 7#agig-ahef7 0 ! mo/ brilliant & fam\s1 7 m or less associat$ ) ! ,hegelian s*ool4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 :at ,hegel 0 n1 political revolutioni/s ) a t5d5cy to ,socialism2 :ile _! religi\s rationalism1 unlike 81 0 op5ly proclaim$4 ,! tempor>y collapse 9 #ahdi ( ! movem5t !y initiat$ br\ght discr$it on idealism z repres5t$ by ,g]many's classic philosoph]s1 :i* also _h be5 s]i\sly damag$ by ! lum9\s criticism ( ,tr5del5burg1 ! neo-,ari/otelian pr(essor at ,b]l9 7#ahjb-ahgb74 #aag ,illu/ration3 ,,s*op5hau] #aah ,at ?is crisis att5tion 0 drawn to ! long-neglect$ writ+s ( ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau] 7#aghh-ahfj71 :i* !n atta9$ a vogue t !y nev] s9ce h lo/4 ,! son ( a ,hamburg bank] & ( a lit]>y lady ^: novels enjoy$ "s reputation 9 _! day1 he 0 plac$ f ! beg9n+ 9 a position ( great] mat]ial & social indep5d5ce ?an usually falls to ! lot ( ,g]man ?9k]s2 & to ?is1 comb9$ ) ! fact t he fail$ entirely z a univ]sity tea*]1 x is p>tly due t he wrote ab\t philosophy n l a p$ant1 b l a man ( ! _w4 ,at ! same "t ! ,g]man pr(essors1 res5t+ ! intrusion ( an outsid] on _! privileg$ doma91 7 /rong en\gh to prev5t ! read+ public f ev] he>+ ( ,s*op5hau]'s exi/5ce until an article 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review 7,april1 #ahec7 a/oni%$ ,g]many by ! revelation t %e possess$ a ?9k] :om ! man 9 ! /reet c\ld und]/&4 ,s*op5hau] f\nd 8 e>lie/ tea*]s ( philosophy 9 ,plato & ,kant4 ,he !n att5d$ ,fi*te's lectures at ,b]l94 ,at "s unc]ta9 date--probably soon aft] tak+ 8 doctor's degree 9 #ahac--;at ! sugge/ion ( an ,ori5tali/ he took up ! /udy ( ! ,v$anta sy/em4 ,all ^! v>i\s influ5ces conv]g$ to impress him ) ! belief t ! ?+s ( s5se are a delusive appe>ance "u :i* a fundam5tal reality lies conceal$4 ,accord+ to ,hegel1 ! reality is reason2 b ! ,romantici/s1 ) ,s*ell+ at _! head1 nev] accept$ 8 conclusion1 ?9k+ ( ! absolute r z a bl9d1 unconsci\s sub/ance2 /ill less c\ld x please #aai ,s*op5hau]1 :o s\ght = ! supreme good "u ! =m ( happ9ess conceiv$ z pleasure unalloy$ by pa94 ,a gloomy & despond+ temp]am5t comb9$1 z 9 ! case ( ,byron & ,r\sseau1 ) passionately s5su\s in/9cts & anti-social habits1 deb>r$ him f atta9+ x4 ,! loss ( a l>ge "p ( 8 private =tune1 & ! _w's refusal to recognise 8 g5ius1 complet$ :at natural temp]am5t _h begun2 & x only rema9$ = ! philosophy ( ! ,upani%ads to give a !oretic sanction to ! result+ /ate ( m9d by tea*+ t all exi/5ce is 9 itself an evil--a position :i* plac$ him 9 /ill m ?or\ghgo+ antagonism to ,hegel4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,kant's criticism _h d5i$ ! human m9d all k ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 & t ! po/-,kantian sy/ems _h be5 s _m ef=ts to get at ! ,absolute 9 its despite4 ,b none _h /at$ ! "q at issue s cle>ly z ,s*op5hau] put x1 or answ]$ x 9 su* lum9\s t]ms4 ,l !irs1 8 solution is ideali/2 b ! idealism is con/ruct$ on new l9es4 ,if we "k no?+ else1 we "k ourselves2 only x has to be asc]ta9$ :at exactly we are4 ,hegel said t ! ess5ce ( consci\sness is reason1 & t reason is ! v /uff ( :i* ! _w is made4 ,no1 replies ,s*op5hau]1 t is a "o-sid$ s*ola/ic view4 ,mu* ! mo/ important "p ( ourselves is n reason1 b t v unreasonable ?+ call$ w--t aimless1 hopeless1 inf9ite1 insatiable crav+ :i* is ! s\rce ( all our activity & ( all our mis]y z well4 ,?is is ! ?+-9-itself1 ! timeless1 inext5d$ entity beh9d all ph5om5a1 come to ! consci\sness ( itself1 b also ( its utt] futility1 9 man4 #abj ,! cosmic w pres5ts itself to u objectively "u ! =m ( ! great natural =ces--gravitation1 heat1 light1 electricity1 *emical aff9ity1 etc42 !n z ! organis+ p[] ( life 9 vegetables & animals2 f9ally z human self-consci\sness & sociability4 ,^!1 ,s*op5hau] says1 are :at is really meant by ! ,platonic ideas1 & !y figure 9 8 philosophy z fir/ diff]5tiations ( ! primordial w1 com+ betwe5 its absolute unity & ! individualis$ objects & ev5ts t fill all space & "t4 ,x is ! function ( ar*itecture1 pla/ic art1 pa9t+1 & poetry to give ea* ( ^! dynamic ideas1 s+ly or 9 comb9ation1 its adequate int]pretation = ! ae/hetic s5se4 ,"o art alone br+s u a direct revelation ( ! real _w1 & t is music4 ,musical compositions h ! p[] to express n any m]e ideal embodim5t ( ! und]ly+ w1 b ! w itself 9 all its maje/y & un5d+ tragic despair4 ,s*op5hau]'s !ory ( k is giv5 9 ! essay by :i* he obta9$ 8 doctor's degree1 ,on ! ,f\r-fold ,root ( ! ,suffici5t ,reason4 ,not)/&+ ?is r al>m+ title1 x is a s+ul>ly cle> & readable "w4 ,! /&po9t is a simplification ( ,kant's ,critique4 ,! objects ( consci\sness (f] !mselves to ! ?9k+1 act+ subject z gr\p$ pres5tations 9 :i* !re is no?+ sudd51 no?+ s+le4 7#a7 ,:5 a new object appe>s to u1 x mu/ h a cause1 physical1 physiological1 or psy*ological2 & ?is we call ! reason :y x becomes4 7#b7 ,objects are ref]r$ to concepts ( m or less g5]ality1 accord+ to ! logical rules ( def9ition1 classification1 & inf]5ce2 t is ! reason ( _! be+ kn[n4 7#c7 ,objects are ma!matically det]m9$ by _! position relatively to #aba o!r objects 9 space & "t2 t is ! reason ( _! be+4 7#d7 ,practical objects or ends ( action are det]m9$ by motives2 ! motive is ! reason :y "o ?+ r ?an ano!r is done4 ,! la/ suffici5t reason takes u to e?ics4 ,s*op5hau] agrees ) ,kant 9 hold+ t actions consid]$ z ph5om5a are /rictly det]m9$ by motives1 s mu* s t a complete k ( a man's "* & environm5t w\ld enable u to pr$ict 8 :ole c\rse ( conduct ?r\gh life4 ,nev]!less1 ea* man1 z a timeless subject1 is & kn[s himself to be free4 ,to reconcile ^! app>5tly conflict+ positions we mu/ accept ,plato's !ory t ea* individual's :ole fate has be5 det]m9$ by an ante-natal or transc5d5tal *oice = :i* he always cont9ues responsible4 ,nev]!less1 cases ( religi\s conv]sion & ! l prove t ! et]nal reality ( ! ,w occasionally ass]ts itself 9 radical trans=mations ( "* & conduct4 ,9 e?ics ,s*op5hau] di/+ui%es betwe5 two ideals :i* may be call$ relative & absolute good4 ,relative good agrees ) ! /&>d ( :at 9 ,engl& is kn[n z ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism--! greate/ pleasure comb9$ ) ! lea/ pa9 = all s5sitive be+s1 ea* ag5t c\nt+ = no m ?an "o4 ,p]sonally passionate1 selfi%1 & brutal1 ,s*op5hau] /ill _h a righte\s abhorr5ce ( cruelty to animals2 :]eas ,kant _h no su* feel+4 ,b positive happ9ess is a delusion1 & no humanity c appreciably dim9i% ! am\nt ( pa9 produc$ by vital competition--recognis$ by our philosoph] be=e ,d>w9--9 ! _w4 ,!re=e ,buddhism is "r1 & ! high] morality bids u extirpate ! #abb w-to-live altoge!r by ascetic practices & m$itation on ! univ]sal vanity ( ?+s4 ,suicide is n all[$1 = :ile annihilat+ ! intellig5ce x w\ld n exclude "s fre% inc>nation ( ! w4 ,& ! la/ dy+ wi% ( ,s*op5hau] 0 t ! end ( ?is life might be ! end ( all liv+ = him4 ,,h]b>t4 ,j4 ,f4 ,h]b>t 7#aggf-ahda7 occupies a peculi> position among ,g]man ideali/s4 ,l ! o!rs1 he di/+ui%es betwe5 reality & appe>ance2 &1 l ,s*op5hau] 9 p>ticul>1 he altoge!r rejects ,hegel's id5tification ( reality ) reason4 ,b1 alone among po/-,kantian metaphysicians1 he is a plurali/4 ,accord+ to him1 ?+s-9-!mselves1 ! et]nal exi/5ts und]ly+ all ph5om5a1 are n "o1 b _m4 ,s f> 8 philosophy is a return to ! pre-,kantian sy/em ( ,wolf & ,leibniz2 b :]eas ! monads ( ,leibniz 7 cr$it$ ) an inw>d pr9ciple ( evolution c>ry+ !m = ev] onw>d ?r\gh an inf9ite s]ies ( progressive *anges1 ,h]b>t pu%es 8 metaphysical logic to ! l5g? ( d5y+ all *ange & all movem5t to ! et]nal entities ( :i* reality is made up4 ,h]b>t is entitl$ to ! cr$it--:atev] x may be wor?--( devis+ a sy/em unlike e o!r 9 hi/ory2 = :ile ,hegel has a pr$ecessor 9 ,h]acleitus1 8 rival comb9es ! ,eleatic immobilism ) a pluralism t is all 8 own4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 on ^! p>adoxes t 8 reputation re/s1 b on m solid s]vices z a psy*ologi/ & an educationali/4 ,)\t any acqua9tance1 z w\ld seem1 ) ! "w do+ 9 ,brita91 ,h]b>t disc>d$ ! old faculty psy*ology1 conceiv+ m5tality z made up #abc ( pres5tations1 among :i* a con/ant competition = ! field ( consci\sness is go+ on2 & x is to ?is view t su* t]ms z inhibition & ?re%old ( consci\sness are due4 ,& ! enorm\s prom95ce n[ giv5 to ! idea ( value 9 e?ics may be trac$ back to ! tea*+ ( a ?9k] :om he greatly influ5c$1 ,f4 ,e4 ,b5eke 7#agih-ahed74 99 99 99 99 99 #abd ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,humani/s ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury ,! philosophical movem5t ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 aft] ! collapse ( ,g]man idealism1 has n be5 dom9at$ by any s+le ma/] or any s+le direction to any?+ l ! same ext5t z its pr$ecessors4 ,b if we are call$ on to select ! dom9ant note by :i* all its products h be5 m or less col\r$ & *>act]is$1 none m impressive ?an ! note ( ,humanism c be nam$4 ,z appli$ to ! culture ( ! ,r5aissance1 humanism meant a t5d5cy to conc5trate int]e/ on ?is _w r ?an on ! next1 us+ classic lit]ature z ! be/ means ( und]/&+ :at man _h be5 & aga9 might be4 ,at ! p]iod on :i* we are ent]+ human int]e/s aga9 become asc5dant2 b !y assume ! wide/ possible range1 claim+ = _! dom9ion ! :ole ( exp]i5ce--all t has ev] be5 done or kn[n or imag9$ or dream$ or felt4 ,hegel's inv5tory1 9 a s5se1 embrac$ all ?is2 b ,hegel _h a way ( pack+ 8 trunk t sometimes cru%$ ! cont5ts out ( recognition1 & a way ( op5+ x t few c\ld und]/&4 ,besides1 mu* 0 left out ( ! trunk t c\ld ill be sp>$ by mank9d4 ,ari/otle has well said t ! s\l is 9 a way ev]y?+2 & z su* its analysis1 "u ! "n ( #abe psy*ology1 has ent]$ l>gely into ! philosophy ( ! c5tury4 ,!ory ( k1 toge!r ) logic1 has figur$ copi\sly 9 academic c\rses1 ) ! result ( putt+ :at is actually kn[n be=e ! /ud5t 9 a new & int]e/+ light2 b ) ! result also ( develop+ s mu* p$antry & scepticism z to give _m besides dull fools ! impression t div9e philosophy is bo? crabb$ & h>%4 ,,! ,,fr5* ,,eclectics4 ,9 ! two c5turies aft] ,desc>tes ,france1 s great 9 sci5ce1 hi/ory1 & lit]ature1 _h produc$ no orig9al philosoph]1 al?\gh g5]al ideas d]iv$ f ,engli% ?\ght 7 ext5sively circulat$ = ! purpose ( discr$it+ ! old ord] 9 ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,:5 ?is "w _h be5 done ) a ?or\ghness go+ f> beyond ! int5tion ( ! fir/ re=m]s a reaction set 91 & ! dem& arose = some?+ m cons]vative ?an ! s-call$ s5sualism & mat]iali/ic a!ism ( ! pre-revolution>y times4 ,a c]ta9 orig9ality & speculative dis9t]e/$ness mu/ be all[$ to ,ma9e de ,biran 7#agff-ahbd71 :o1 "s ye>s aft] ,fi*te--b1 z w\ld seem1 indep5d5tly ( him--ref]r$ to man's volunt>y activity z a s\rce ( a priori k4 ,a great] imm$iate impression 0 produc$ by ,roy]-,coll>d 7#agfc-ahde71 :o1 z ,pr(essor at ! ,sorbonne 9 #ahaa1 import$ ! common-s5se spiritualism ( ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 z an antidote to ! !n reign+ !ories ( ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71 :o1 improv+ on ,locke1 aboli%$ reflection z a di/9ct s\rce ( our ideas4 ,!n came ,victor ,c\s9 7#agib-ahfg71 a brilliant rhetorician1 &1 aft] ,madame de ,/ael1 ! fir/ to popul>ise ,g]man philosophy 9 ,france4 ,z #abf ,pr(essor at ! ,sorbonne 9 ! la/ ye>s ( ! ,b\rbon mon>*y he di/9ctly taught a pan!i/ic ,absolutism comp\nd$ ( ,s*ell+ & ,hegel2 b1 :e!r f conviction or opportunism1 ?is 0 sil5tly )drawn1 & a s-call$ eclectic philosophy put 9 its place4 ,accord+ to ,c\s91 9 all c\ntries & all ages1 f anci5t ,india to mod]n ,europe1 speculation has develop$ "u ! f\r contra/$ =ms ( s5sualism1 idealism1 scepticism1 & my/icism4 ,ea* is true 9 :at x ass]ts1 false 9 :at x d5ies1 & ! "r me?od is to pres]ve ! positive :ile reject+ ! negative elem5ts ( all f\r4 ,b nei!r ! ma/] nor 8 disciples h ev] consi/5tly answ]$ ! vital "q1 :at ^? elem5ts are4 ,,hamilton ,,& ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,condition$4 ,among o!r valuable contributions to ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ,victor ,c\s9 _h lectur$ v agreeably on ! philosophy ( ,kant1 accept+ ! ma/]'s argum5ts = ! apriorism ( space & "t1 b reject+ 8 r$uction ( !m to m]e subjective =ms z aga9/ common s5se4 ,he _h n gone into ,kant's de/ructive criticism ( all metaphysics1 & ?is 0 n[ to be turn$ aga9/ him by an unexpect$ assailant4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#aghh-ahef71 aft]w>ds widely celebrat$ z ,pr(essor ( ,logic & ,metaphysics at ,ed9burgh1 began 8 philosophical c>e] by an essay on ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,condition$ 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review = ,octob]1 #ahbi1 controv]t+ ! ,absolutism bo? ( ,c\s9 & ( 8 ma/]1 ,s*ell+4 ,! review] _h acquir$ "s n v accurate k ( ,kant 9 ,g]many t5 ye>s be=e2 & he uses ?is1 ) o!r r flimsy #abg erudition1 to e/abli% ! pr9ciple t to ?9k is to condition1 & t !re=e ! ,absolute _c be ?\ght--_c be conceiv$4 ,hamilton enjoy$ ! reputation ( hav+ read all t mortal man _h ev] writt5 ab\t philosophy2 b ?is evid5tly did n include ,hegel1 :o c]ta9ly _h p]=m$ ! feat decl>$ to be impossible4 ,?irty ye>s lat] ! philosophy ( ! condition$ atta9$ a sudd5 b transi5t notoriety1 ?anks to ! use made ( x by ,hamilton's disciple1 ,h4 ,l4 ,mansel1 9 8 ,bampton ,lectures on ,! ,limits ( ,religi\s ,?\ght 7#aheh74 ,! object ( ^! 0 to prove t1 z we "k no?+ ab\t ,?+s-9-!mselves1 no?+ told ab\t ,god 9 ! ,bible or ! ,cre$s c be reject$ a priori z incr$ible4 ,z an apology1 ! book fail$ utt]ly1 its only effect be+ to prep>e public op9ion = ! ,agno/icism ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c] & ,huxley4 ,,augu/e ,,comte4 ,! brilliant audi5ces t hung spell-b\nd on ! lips ( ,victor ,c\s9 z he unroll$ be=e !m ! ,inf9ite1 ! ,f9ite1 & ! relation betwe5 ! two1 little knew t ,france's only great philosoph] s9ce ,desc>tes 0 work+ 9 obscurity among !m4 ,augu/e ,comte 7#agih-aheg71 ! f\nd] ( ,positivism1 belong$ to a ,ca?olic & ,legitimi/ family4 ,by pr(ession a ma!matical tea*]1 he fell e>ly "u ! influ5ce ( ! celebrat$ ,/4 ,simon1 a my/ical sociali/ :o ex]cis$ a p[]ful attraction on o!rs besides ,comte4 ,! connection la/$ f\r ye>s1 :5 !y qu>rell$2 inde$ ,comte's "* 0 su* z to make p]man5t co-op]ation ) him impossible1 except on t]ms ( absolute agreem5t ) 8 op9ions & submission to 8 w4 ,at a #abh subsequ5t p]iod he obta9$ "s fairly well-paid employm5t at ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique1 b lo/ x aga9 ow+ to ! injuri\s t]ms 9 :i* he spoke ( 8 colleagues4 ,9 8 lat] ye>s he liv$ on a small annuity made up by contributions f 8 admir]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,augu/e ,,comte4 #abi ,augu/e ,comte dislik$ & despis$ ,plato1 altoge!r pref]r+ ,ari/otle to him z a philosoph]2 b x is fundam5tally z a ,platoni/1 n z an ,ari/otelian1 t he %\ld himself be class$--9 ?is s5se1 t he valu$ k above all z ! means t[>ds recon/itut+ society on ! basis ( an ideal life4 ,& ?is is ! fir/ reason :y 8 philosophy is call$ positive--to di/+ui% x z recon/ructive f ! purely negative ?\ght ( ! ,revolution4 ,! second reason is to di/+ui% x z deal+ ) real facts f ! figm5ts ( !ology & ! ab/ractions ( metaphysics4 ,positive sci5ce expla9s natural ev5ts nei!r by ! int]v5tion ( sup]natural be+s nor by ! mutual relations ( hypo/asis$ concepts1 b by v]ifiable laws ( succession & resemblance4 ,turgot 0 ! fir/ to di/+ui% ! !ological1 metaphysical1 & me*anical int]pretations z successive /ages ( a hi/orical evolution 7#agej72 ,hume 0 ! fir/ to s+le out ! relations ( ord]ly succession & resemblance z ! ess5tial elem5ts ( real k 7#agci72 ,comte1 ) ! syn!tic g5ius ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 fir/ comb9$ ^! isolat$ sugge/ions ) a weal? ( o!r ideas into a va/ !ory ( human progress set out 9 ! fif? & six? volumes ( 8 ,philosophie ,positive--! be/ sket* ( univ]sal hi/ory ev] writt54 ,! positive sci5ces fall into two great divisions--! concrete1 deal+ ) ! actual ph5om5a z pres5t$ 9 space & "t2 ! ab/ract1 :i* alone conc]n philosophy1 deal+ ) _! laws4 ,! mo/ important ( ! ab/ract sci5ces is ,sociology1 claim$ by ,comte z 8 own special creation4 ,! /udy ( ?is dem&s a previ\s k ( biology1 psy*ology #acj be+ dismiss$ z a metaphysical delusion & phr5ology put 9 its place4 ,! sci5ce ( life presupposes ,*emi/ry1 be=e :i* comes ,physics1 presuppos+ ,a/ronomy1 &1 z ! basis ( all1 ,ma!matics1 divid$ into ! calculus & geometry4 ,at a lat] p]iod ,morality 0 plac$ z a sev5? fundam5tal sci5ce at ! head ( ! :ole hi]>*y4 ,at a fir/ glance "s s]i\s flaws reveal !mselves 9 ! impos+ logic ( ?is s*eme4 ,a/ronomy z a concrete sci5ce ought to h be5 exclud$ f ! s]ies1 its admission be+ app>5tly due to ! hi/orical circum/ance t ! mo/ g5]al laws ( physics 7 asc]ta9$ ?r\gh ! /udy ( cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,b on ! same gr\nd geology c no long] be exclud$1 z its records l$ to ! recognition ( ! evolution ( life2 or %\ld evolution be ref]r$ to ! concrete sci5ces ( zoology & botany1 by p>ity ( reason+ human progress %\ld be treat$ z a bran* ( univ]sal hi/ory--:i*1 9 fact1 is :at ,comte makes x 9 8 fif? & six? volumes4 ,x w\ld h be5 bett] _h he also /udi$ social /atics on ! hi/orical me?od4 ,z x is1 ! volume 9 :i* ! conditions ( social equilibrium are suppos$ to be e/abli%$ conta9s only "o *apt] on ! subject1 & t is v meagre1 consi/+ ( "s r sup]ficial obs]vations on family life & ! division ( lab\r4 ,no d\bt ! matt] receives a f> m ?or\gh discussion 9 ! au?or's lat] "w1 ,politique ,positive4 ,b ?is m]ely embodies 8 own plan ( reorganisation = ! society ( ! future1 & !re=e %\ld c\nt n z sci5ce1 b z art4 ,! ,positivi/ !ory ( social dynamics is t all #aca bran*es ( k pass ?r\gh ?ree successive /ages already describ$ z ! !ological1 ! metaphysical1 & ! sci5tific4 ,& ?is advance is accompani$ by a p>allel evolution on ! gov]nm5tal side f ! milit>y to ! indu/rial regime1 ) a revolution>y or transitional p]iod answ]+ to metaphysical philosophy4 ,to ?is s*eme x might be object$ t ! p>allelism is m]ely accid5tal4 ,a sci5tific view ( nature & a pr(\nd k ( h] laws is no d\bt f> m conducive to indu/ry ?an a sup]/iti\s view2 b x is also m fav\rable to ! successful prosecution ( w>1 :i*1 inde$1 always has be5 an indu/ry l ano!r4 ,nor1 to judge by mod]n exp]i5ce1 does x look z if a gov]nm5t plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a c\ntry's *ief capitali/s--:i* 0 :at ,comte propos$--w\ld be less militant 9 its g5]al disposition ?an ! p>liam5t>y gov]nm5ts :i* he condemns z metaphysical4 ,9 fact1 x is by !ologians & metaphysicians t our mod]n horror ( w> has be5 inspir$ r ?an by sci5ti/s4 ,! great idea ( ,comte's life1 t ! positive sci5ces1 philosophically sy/ematis$1 are de/9$ to supply ! basis ( a new religion surpass+ ,ca?olicism 9 its social efficacy1 seems a delusion really inh]it$ f "o ( 8 pet av]sions1 ,plato4 ,x arose f a pr(\nd misconception ( :at ,ca?olicism _h done1 & a misconception1 equally pr(\nd1 ( ! means by :i* its prie/hood work$4 ,9 spite ( ,comte's d5ials1 ! lev]age 0 got n by appeals to ! he>t1 b by appeals to t future judgm5t ) :i* ! prea*+ ( righte\sness & temp]ance 0 associat$ by ,/4 ,paul1 8 suppos$ precursor 9 religion1 z ,ari/otle 0 8 precursor 9 philosophy4 #acb ,! wor%ip ( ,humanity1 or1 z x has be5 bett] call$1 ! ,s]vice ( ,man1 is a great & inspir+ ?\ght4 ,only x is n a religion1 b a metaphysical idea1 d]iv$ by ,comte f ! philosoph]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 & by !m ?r\gh imp]ial ,rome f ! ,humani/s & ,/oics ( anci5t ,a!ns4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,john ,/u>t ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc7 01 l ,comte1 a ,platoni/ 9 ! s5se ( valu+ k *iefly z an in/rum5t ( social re=m4 ,he 0 inde$ br$ up by 8 fa!r1 ,james ,mill 7#aggc-ahcf71 & by ,j]emy ,b5?am z a prophet ( ! new ,utilit>ianism z ,comte 01 to "s ext5t1 tra9$ by ,/4 ,simon to sub/itute a new ord] = t :i* ! ,revolution _h de/roy$4 ,mill1 h[ev]1 _h be5 educat$ on ! l9es ( ,greek lib]ty r ?an 9 ! tradition ( ,roman au?ority2 :ile bo? 7 l>gely affect$ by ! ,romanticism curr5t 9 _! y\?4 ,! wor%ip ( wom51 reviv$ f ! age ( *ivalry1 ent]$ into ! romantic movem5t2 & x may be m5tion$ 9 ?is connection t ,mill calls ,mrs4 ,taylor1 ! lady ) :om he fell 9 love at tw5ty-f\r & m>ri$ eighte5 ye>s lat]1 ! inspir] & 9 "p ! au?or ( all t 0 be/ 9 8 writ+s2 :ile ,comte ref]s 8 religi\s conv]sion to ,madame ,clotilde de ,vaux1 ! object ( 8 adoration 9 middle life4 ,x seems probable1 h[ev]1 f ! little we "k ( ,mrs4 ,taylor--:om ,c>lyle cr$its ) ! ke5e/ insight & ! royalle/ volition--t h] influ5ce 0 ! rev]se ( ,clotilde's4 ,if any?+1 %e atta*$ ,mill /ill m firmly to ! cause ( pure reason4 ,x has be5 m5tion$ h[ ,kant's metaphysical #acc agno/icism 0 play$ out by ,hamilton aga9/ ,c\s94 ,a little lat] ,:ewell1 ! ,cambridge hi/orian ( physical sci5ce1 import$ ,kant's !ory ( necess>y tru? 9 opposition to ! empiricism ( popul> ,engli% ?\ght1 & ,kant's ,categorical ,imp]ative 9 /ill m express contradiction to ,b5?am's utilit>ian morality4 ,n[ ,mill1 educat$ z he _h be5 on ! associationi/ psy*ology & 9 ! c5tral l9e ( ! ,engli% epi/emological tradition1 reject$ ! ,g]man apriorism z false 9 itself1 :ile m p>ticul>ly hat+ x z1 9 8 op9ion1 a dang]\s enemy to all social progress4 ,= to him :at p call$ _! intuitions1 :e!r !oretic or practical1 7 m]ely ! "t-hon\r$ prejudices 9 :i* !y _h be5 br\ght up1 & ! contradictory ( :i* !y c\ld n conceive4 ,comte simil>ly int]pret$ ! metaphysical /age ( ?\ght z ! erection into immutable pr9ciples ( c]ta9 ab/ract ideas ^: value--if !y _h any--0 m]ely relative & provisional4 ,mill1 ) 8 k ( hi/ory1 might h rememb]$ t pa/ ?\ght1 beg9n+ ) ,plato1 %[s no su* connection betwe5 intuitionism & immobility or reaction1 :ile su* exp]i5tiali/s z ,hobbes & ,hume h be5 political ,tories4 ,b 9 8 own "t ! a priori philosophy w5t h& 9 h& ) cons]vatism 9 ,*ur* & ,/ate1 s he set himself to explode x 9 8 ,sy/em ( ,logic 7#ahdc74 ,mill's ,logic1 ! mo/ important ,engli% contribution to philosophy s9ce ,hume1 is bas$ on ,hume's !ory ( k1 am5d$ & supplem5t$ by "s ,g]man & ,fr5* ideas4 ,x is conc$$ to ,kant t ma!matical tru?s are syn!tic1 n analytic4 ,x is n conta9$ 9 ! idea ( two & #acd two t !y make f\r1 nor 9 ! idea ( two /raight l9es t !y _c enclose a space4 ,su* propositions are real additions to our k2 b x is only exp]i5ce t ju/ifies u 9 accept+ !m4 ,:at con/itutes _! peculi> c]ta9ty is t !y c be v]ifi$ by trial on imag9$ numb]s & l9es1 )\t ref]5ce to ext]nal objects4 ,b by :at "r we g5]alise f m5tal exp]i5ce to all exp]i5ce ,mill does n expla94 ,hume's analysis ( causation into antec$5ce & sequ5ce ( ph5om5a is accept$ by ,mill z x 0 accept$ by ,kant2 b ! law t e *ange mu/ h a cause is affirm$1 9 adhesion to ,dr4 ,?omas ,br[n 7#aggh-ahbj71 ) m di/9ctness ?an by ,hume4 ,z ,laplace put x1 ! :ole pres5t /ate ( ! univ]se is a product ( its :ole prec$+ /ate4 ,b we only "k ?is tru? by exp]i5ce2 & we c conceive a /ate ( ?+s :]e ph5om5a succe$ "o ano!r by a diff]5t law or )\t any law at all4 ,mill himself 0 ready to believe t causation did n obta9 at "s v remote po9t ( space2 ?\gh :at diff]5ce remot5ess c\ld make1 except we suppose x to be causal--:i* w\ld be a reass]tion ( ! law--he does n expla92 nor yet :at w>rant we h = assum+ t causation holds ?r\gh all "t1 or at any future mom5t ( "t4 ,next to ! law ( univ]sal causation inductive sci5ce re/s on ! doctr9e ( natural k9ds4 ,! mat]ial univ]se is kn[n to consi/ ( a numb] ( sub/ances--namely1 ! *emical elem5ts & _! comb9ations1 s con/itut$ t a c]ta9 set ( *>act]i/ic prop]ties are inv>iably associat$ ) an indef9ite numb] ( o!r prop]ties4 ,?us1 if 9 a /range c\ntry a c]ta9 m9]al answ]s ! usual #ace te/s = ars5ic1 we "k t a giv5 dose ( x w de/roy life2 & we are equally c]ta9 t if ! spectroscopic exam9ation ( a new /> %[s ! *>act]i/ic l9es ( iron1 a metal possess+ all ! prop]ties ( iron z we f9d x 9 our m9es is pres5t 9 t di/ant lum9>y4 ,accord+ to ,mill1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ t sweep+ inf]5ce on ! /r5g? ( a s+le well-au!nticat$ obs]vation1 because we "k by innum]able obs]vations on t]re/rial sub/ances t natural k9ds possess+ su* index qualities d exi/1 :]eas !re is n a s+le in/ance ( a sub/ance possess+ ^? qualities )\t ! re/4 ,= ,mill1 z = ,hume1 reality means /ates ( consci\sness & ! relations betwe5 !m4 ,matt] he def9es z a p]man5t possibility ( s5sation2 m9d z a p]man5t possibility ( ?\ght & feel+4 ,b ! latt] def9ition is admitt$ly n satisfactory4 ,= a /ream ( ?\ghts & feel+s :i* is prov$ by memory to h ! consci\sness ( itself seems to be some?+ m ?an a m]e /ream4 ,all explanations mu/ end 9 an ultimate inexplicability4 ,god may be conceiv$ z a s]ies ( ?\ghts & feel+s prolong$ ?r\gh et]nity2 & x is a logically def5sible hypo!sis t ! ord] ( nature 0 design$ by su* a be+1 al?\gh ! am\nt ( suff]+ endur$ by liv+ creatures excludes ! notion ( a ,creator at once b5efic5t & omnipot5t4 ,& if ! ,d>w9ian !ory 7 e/abli%$1 ! case = a design+ intellig5ce w\ld collapse4 ,p]sonally ,mill believ$ nei!r 9 a ,god nor 9 a future life4 ,9 morals ,mill may be consid]$ ! creator ( :at ,h5ry ,sidgwick1 9 8 ,me?ods ( ,e?ics 7#ahgd71 call$ ,univ]sali/ic ,h$onism4 ,! ,engli% morali/s ( ! #acf eighte5? c5tury _h set up ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] z ! ideal end ( action2 b !y did n hold t ea* individual c\ld be expect$ to pursue any?+ b 8 own happ9ess2 ! object ( ,b5?am 7#agdh-ahcb7 be+ to make ! two co9cide4 ,kant %[$ t ! rule ( "r exclud$ any su* accommodation1 & a crisis 9 8 own life l$ ,mill to adopt ! same conclusion4 ,aft]w>ds he r confus$ ! issues by di/+ui%+ betwe5 high] & l[] pleasures1 leav+ exp]ts to decide :i* 7 ! pleasures to be pref]r$4 ,! univ]sali/ic /&>d settles ! "q summ>ily by e/imat+ pleasures accord+ to _! social utility4 ,mill fully sympa?is$ ) ,comte's dem& = social reorganisation z a means t[>ds ! moral end4 ,b1 ) 8 ,engli% & ,prote/ant traditions1 he _h no fai? 9 ! creation ( a new spiritual p[] ) an elaborate religi\s code & ritual z ! be/ ma*9]y = ! purpose4 ,9 8 op9ion1 ! claims ( ! individual to ext5d$ lib]ty ( ?\ght & action1 n _! re/riction1 7 :at fir/ ne$$ att5tion4 ,second to ?is--if second at all--came ! necessity = re=m+ repres5tative gov]nm5t on ! l9es ( an enl>g$ fran*ise & a readju/$ electoral sy/em ) plural suffrage det]m9$ by m]it1 votes = wom51 & a contrivance = giv+ m9orities a weight proportion$ to _! numb]s4 ,! problem ( pov]ty 0 to be dealt ) by re/rictions on ! increase ( population & on ! am\nt ( inh]itable prop]ty1 ! maximum ( :i* ought n to exce$ a mode/ compet5ce4 ,among ! noble *>act]s pres5t$ by ! hi/ory ( philosophy we may di/+ui% betwe5 ! h]oic & ! sa9tly types4 ,to ! =m] 9 mod]n #acg times belong ,giordano ,bruno1 ,fi*te1 & to "s ext5t ,comte2 to ! latt]1 ,sp9oza1 ,b]keley1 & ,kant4 ,to ! second class we may surely add ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 :om ,glad/one call$ ! sa9t ( rationalism1 & ( :om ,augu/e ,laugel said1 ,he 0 n s9c]e--he 0 s9c]ity itself4 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 7#ahbj-aijc7 0 ! son ( a ,noncon=mi/ c\ntry s*oolma/]1 b 0 educat$ *iefly by 8 uncle ,?omas1 an ,evangelical cl]gyman ( ! ,*ur* ( ,engl&4 ,a radical re=m] ( ! old s*ool1 ,?omas ,sp5c] seems to h indoctr9at$ 8 y\?ful *>ge ) ! g]m9al pr9ciples aft]w>ds g5]alis$ into a :ole cosmic philosophy4 ,he _h a passion = ju/ice realis$ "u ! =m ( lib]ty1 individual responsibility1 & self-help4 ,9 8 op9ion1 until x 0 modifi$ by private mis=tunes1 ev]y?+ s]v$ ev]ybody "r4 ,beg9n+ z an economical adm9i/rator ( ! new ,poor ,law1 he at la/ became an advocate ( its total abolition2 &1 alone among fifte5 ?\s& cl]gym51 he 0 an active memb] ( ! ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1 besides support+ ! sep>ation ( ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,at tw5ty-two ,h]b]t ,sp5c] accept$ & summ$ up ?is policy "u ! =m ( a g5]al ho/ility to ,/ate int]f]5ce ) individual lib]ty1 support+ x by a ref]5ce to ! reign ( ,natural ,law 9 all ord]s ( exi/5ce4 ,9 8 fir/ great "w1 ,social ,/atics1 ! pr9ciple ( laissez-faire receiv$ its full sy/ematic developm5t z ! re/riction ( ,/ate action to ! def5ce ( lib]ty aga9/ int]nal & ext]nal aggression1 ! rais+ ( taxes = any o!r purpose be+ unju/1 z is also private own]%ip ( #ach l&1 :i* is by nature ! common h]itage ( all4 ,sp5c] subsequ5tly came to ab&on l& nationalisation1 probably f al>m at its sociali/ic implications4 ,illu/ration3 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]4 ,! doctr9e ( natural law & lib]ty c>ri$ ) x = ,sp5c] a /rong repugnance n only to protectionism 9 politics1 b also to miracles 9 !ology4 ,! pr(ession ( j\rnalism br\ght him into t\* #aci ) a free?9k+ set 9 ,london4 ,:e!r "u _! influ5ce1 or ,%elley's1 or by "s spontane\s process1 8 religi\s convictions evaporat$ by tw5ty-eight into ! agno/icism :i* !nce=? rema9$ _! p]man5t expression4 ,!re might or n be a ,fir/ ,cause2 if !re 01 we "k no?+ ab\t x4 ,at ?is /age ,lyell's attempt$ refutation ( ,lam>ck conv]t$ ,sp5c] to ! belief 9 man's d]ivation f "s l[] animal by a process ( gradual adaptation4 ,?us ! scion ( an educationali/ family came to int]pret ! :ole hi/ory ( life on our planet z an educative process4 ,x seem$1 h[ev]1 z if !re 0 "o fatal exception to ! s*eme ( naturali/ic optimism4 ,! ,rev4 ,?omas ,mal?us _h orig9ally publi%$ 8 ,essay on ,population 7#agih7 z a tell+ answ] to ! infidel ,godw9's ,political ,ju/ice 7#agic71 ! bold] precursor ( ,social ,/atics4 ,! argum5t 0 t ! t5d5cy ( population to outrun ! means ( subsi/5ce put human p]fectibility out ( ! "q4 ,x _h be5 sugge/$ by ! ideali/s1 ,mill among ! numb]1 t ! difficulty might be obviat$ by habitual self-re/ra9t on ! "p ( m>ri$ p4 ,b ,sp5c]1 ) great +5uity1 made ! difficulty its own solution4 ,! pressure ( population on ! means ( subsi/5ce is ! s\rce ( all progress2 & ( progress n only 9 discov]ies & inv5tions1 b also1 ?r\gh its increas$ ex]cise1 9 ! in/rum5t :i* effects !m--t is1 ! human bra94 ,n[1 x is a pr9ciple ( ,ari/otle's1 reviv$ by mod]n biology1 t individuation is antagoni/ic to reproduction2 & increas+ individuation is ! v law ( develop+ life1 %[n above all 9 ! gr[+ p[] ( life's *ief in/rum5t1 :i* is ?\ght's organ1 ! bra94 ,=1 z ,sp5c] proce$$ #adj to %[ 9 8 next "w1 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 life means a cont9u\s s]ies ( adju/m5ts ( int]nal to ext]nal relations4 ,!re=e ! rate ( multiplication mu/ g on fall+ ) ! gr[? ( intellectual & moral p[] until x only j suffices to balance ! loss by dea?4 ,! next /ep 0 to revive ,laplace's nebul> hypo!sis1 & to connect x ?r\gh ,lyell's uni=mit>ian geology ) ,lam>ck's developm5tal biology1 !reby ext5d+ ! same evolution>y process ?r\gh ! :ole hi/ory ( ! univ]se4 ,nor 0 ?is all4 ,milne-,edw>ds1 by ano!r return to ,ari/otle1 _h po9t$ to ! physiological division ( lab\r z a m>k ( asc5d+ organic p]fection1 to :i* ,sp5c] adds integration ( /ructure z its obv]se side1 at ! same "t ext5d+ ! _w-law1 already made famili> 9 "p ?r\gh its indu/rial applications by ,adam ,smi?1 to all ord]s ( social activity4 ,f9ally1 diff]5tiation & integration 7 /ret*$ back f liv+ to lifeless matt]1 ?us br++ a/ronomy & geology1 :i* _h already ent]$ into ! causal s]ies ( cosmic trans=mations1 "u "o common law ( evolution2 :ile at ! same "t1 see+ x to be g5]ally admitt$ t inorganic *anges orig9at$ f ! op]ation ( purely me*anical =ces1 !y sugge/$ t me*anism1 )\t teleology1 c\ld adequately expla9 organic evolution also4 ,f9ally came ! great discov]y ( ,d>w9 & ,wallace1 ) its ext5sion ( ,mal?us's law to ! :ole _w ( liv+ ?+s4 ,sp5c] _h j t\*$1 )\t grasp+1 ! same idea ye>s be=e4 ,he n[ gladly accept$ ,natural ,selection z supplem5t+ )\t sup]s$+ ,lam>ck's !ory ( spontane\s adaptation4 #ada ,to complete ev5 9 outl9e ! va/ sweep ( 8 project$ ,syn!tic ,philosophy two /eps m rema9$ = ,sp5c] to take4 ,! law ( evolution _h to be br\ght "u ! rec5tly-discov]$ law ( ! ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy1 or1 z he call$ x1 ! ,p]si/5ce ( ,=ce1 & ! :ole ( unifi$ sci5ce _h to be reconcil$ ) religion4 ,! fir/ problem 0 solv$ by int]pret+ evolution z a r$i/ribution ( matt] & motion--a process 9 :i*1 ( c\rse1 en]gy is nei!r lo/ nor ga9$4 ,! second problem 0 solv$ by r$uc+ fai? & k to ! common d5om9ator ( ,agno/icism--a me?od t f\nd m fav\r ) ,positivi/s 79 ! wide s5se7 ?an ) ,*ri/ian believ]s4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 0 disappo9t$ to f9d t p took m int]e/ 9 ! portico 7z he call$ x 9 a lett] to ! pres5t writ]7--t is to say1 ! metaphysical introduction to 8 philosophical edifice--?an 9 its int]ior4 ,he probably _h "s suspicion t ! portico 0 m]e la? & pla/]1 :ile he felt sure t ! columns & ar*itraves beh9d x 7 ( granite4 ,! public1 h[ev]1 besides _! p]5nial int]e/ 9 religion1 might be excus$ = giv+ m att5tion to ev5 a b>oque ext]ior ) "s novelty ab\t x ?an to ! =malis$ eclecticism ( :at /ood beh9d x4 ,un=tunately1 !y soon f\nd t ! alleg$ reconciliation 0 a palpable %am4 ,religion is no?+ if n a revelation1 & an unkn[able ,god is no ,god at all4 ,ev5 ! pret5d$ pro(s ( t poor residual deity involv$ _! au?or 9 ! transp>5t self-contradiction ( call+ ! univ]se ! manife/ation ( an ,unkn[able ,p[]4 ,!n ! relations betwe5 ?is ,p[] 7su* z x 07 & ! ,en]gy 7or ,=ce7 ^: cons]vation 7or p]si/5ce7 0 ! v fir/ #adb ( ,fir/ ,pr9ciples seem$ h>d to adju/4 ,ei!r en]gy is creat$1 or x is n4 ,9 ! "o case1 :at becomes ( its et]nity8 9 ! o!r case1 :at ne$ is !re to assume a ,p[] 7kn[able or n7 beh9d x8 ,sci5ce w n %r9k back be=e su* a phantom1 nor w ,religion adore x4 ,su* faulty build+ 9 ! portico prep>es u = some:at un/eady masonry )92 & 9 fact none holds toge!r except :at has be5 transport$ bodily f o!r temples4 ,9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 consid]$ z a re>rangem5t ( matt] & motion1 dis9tegration & assimilation play q z great a "p z integration & diff]5tiation4 ,su* =mulas h no advantage ov] ! metaphysical sy/ematisation ( ,ari/otle1 & !y give u z little p[] ei!r to pr$ict or to direct4 ,w w> be aboli%$ at "s future "t1 or prop]ty equalis$ or aboli%$1 or morality exalt$1 or religion sup]s$$8 ,sp5c] 0 ready ) 8 answ]2 b ! law ( evolution c\ld n prove x true4 ,nev]!less1 8 "n w long be associat$ ) evolution z a _w-wide process1 ?\gh nei!r 9 ! way ( orig9al discov]y nor ( complete g5]alisation1 & f> less ( successful application to mod]n problems2 b r ( diffusion & popul>isation1 ev5 z o!r valuable ideas h be5 impress$ on ! public m9d by o!r philosophies at a va/ exp5se ( +5uity1 k1 & lab\r1 b n at great] exp5se ?an ! ev5tual ga9 has be5 wor?4 ,,! ,,engli% ,,hegelians4 ,hegel's philosophy fir/ drew att5tion 9 ,engl& ?r\gh its suppos$ connection ) ,/rauss's my?ic !ory ( ! ,gospels & ,baur's !ory ( ,new #adc ,te/am5t lit]ature z a product ( p>ty conflicts & compromises 9 ! primitive ,*ur*4 ,rightly int]pret$ z a sy/em ( ,pan!ism1 x 0 decri$ & ridicul$ by or?odox !ologians 9 ! "n ( religion & common s5se1 :ile *]i%$ by ! advanc$ ,broad ,*ur* z a means ( symbolis+ away ! cre$s !y cont9u$ to repeat4 ,!n ! triumph ( ,sp5c]'s ,agno/icism 9 ! middle ,victorian p]iod 7#ahfd-ahgd7 sugge/$ an appeal to a logic ^: object _h be5 to resolve ! negations ( eighte5?-c5tury enlight5m5t 9 ! syn!sis ( a high] unity4 ,! fir/ pronunciation 9 ?is s5se 0 ,! ,secret ( ,hegel 7#ahfe71 by ,dr4 ,hut*ison ,/irl+ 7#ahbj-aiji71 a writ] ( g5iality & g5ius1 :o1 writ+ f ! ,hegelian /&po9t1 tri$ to repres5t ! ,engli% rationali/s ( ! day z a sup]ficial & retrograde s*ool4 ,x 0 a bold b unsuccessful attempt to plant ! bann] ( ! ,hegelian ,"r on ,briti% soil4 ,by attack+ ,d>w9ism ,/irl+ put himself out ( t\* ) ! g5]al movem5t ( ?\ght4 ,pr(essor ,william ,wallace 7#ahdd-ahig71 ,john ,caird 7#ahbj-ahih71 & 8 bro!r ,edw>d ,caird 7#ahce-aijh7 incl9$ m or less to ! ,left1 z also does ,"l ,haldane 7b4 #ahfe7 9 8 ,gif=d ,lectures 7#aijc72 & all h ! advantage ov] ,/irl+ ( writ+ 9 a cle>] if less picturesque /yle4 ,t4 ,h4 ,gre5 7#ahcf-ahhb7 is sometimes quot$ z a ,hegelian1 b 8 intellectual aff9ities 7 r ) ,fi*te4 ,accord+ to him1 reality is ! ?\ght ( an ,et]nal ,consci\sness1 ( :i* p]sonality ne$ n be pr$icat$1 :ile ! endless duration ( p]sonal spirits seems to be d5i$4 ,ano!r ideali/1 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley 7b4 #ahdf7--p]haps ! greate/ liv+ ,engli% #add ?9k]--develops 9 8 ,appe>ance & ,reality 7#ahic7 a metaphysical sy/em :i*1 ?\gh ,absoluti/ 9 =m1 is1 to me at lea/1 9 sub/ance practically indi/+ui%able f ! dogmatic ,agno/icism ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 & ev5 m de/ructive ( ! popul> ,!ism4 ,f9ally ! writ+s ( ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,taggart 7b4 #ahff71 tea*+ z !y d a doctr9e ( developm5tal p]sonal immortality )\t a ,god1 %[ a t5d5cy to comb9e ,hegel ) ,lotze4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,eclectics4 ,by g5]al cons5t ! mo/ s]i\s & influ5tial ( ,g]man sy/ematic ?9k]s s9ce ,hegel is ,r4 ,h4 ,lotze 7#ahag-ahha74 ,8 philosophy is built up ( mat]ials d]iv$ 9 v>y+ proportions f all 8 ,g]man pr$ecessors1 ! mo/ di/9ctive idea be+ pluralism1 probably sugge/$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance by ,h]b>t1 :om he succe$$ z ,pr(essor at ,goett+54 ,b ,lotze disc>ds ! rigid monads ( 8 ma/] = ! m intelligible s\l-sub/ances ( ,leibniz--or r ( ,bruno--^: example he also foll[s 9 8 attempt to comb9e pluralism ) monism4 ,v /r5u\s ef=ts are made to give ! unify+ pr9ciple ! "* ( a p]sonal ,god2 b ! suspicion ( a lean+ to ,pan!ism is n altoge!r elud$4 ,m orig9al & f> m uncompromis+ is ! "w ( ,ed4 v4 ,h>tmann 7#ahdb-aijf74 ,p]sonally he enjoy$ ! tw(old di/9ction--:atev] x may be wor?--( hav+ s]v$ z an (fic] = a %ort "t 9 ! ,prussian army1 & ( nev] hav+ taught 9 a univ]sity4 ,8 great "w1 publi%$ at tw5ty-sev51 appe>$ "u ! tell+ title ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,unconsci\s4 ,x won imm$iate popul>ity1 & rea*$ its elev5? edition 9 #aijd4 ,h>tmann adopts1 #ade ) "s slight att5uation1 ,s*op5hau]'s pessimism1 & 8 metaphysics ) a consid]able em5dation4 ,9 ?is new v]sion ! _w is /ill conceiv$ z ,w & ,repres5tation2 b :]eas = ,s*op5hau] ! intellective side _h be5 subord9at$ to ! volitional1 ) ,h>tmann ! two are co-equal & intimately unit$1 toge!r =m+ t ,unconsci\s :i* is ! new ,absolute4 ,9 ?is way ,reason aga9 becomes1 :at x _h be5 ) ,hegel1 a great cosmic pr9ciple2 only z ! optimi/ic univ]se _h argu$ itself into exi/5ce1 s conv]sely ! pessimi/ic univ]se has to argue itself out ( exi/5ce4 ,z 9 ! process ( develop+ diff]5tiation1 ! volitional & intellective sides draw ap>t1 ! ,unconsci\s becomes self-consci\s1 & ?us awak5s to ! t]rible mi/ake x committ$ 9 will+ to be4 ,!nce=? ! :ole ( evolution is det]m9$ by ! ma/]-?\ght ( h[ n to be4 ,! problem is h[ to annul ! creative ,w4 ,& ! solution is to divide x into two halves s oppos$ t ! "o %all be ! negation & de/ruction ( ! o!r4 ,!re w be !n1 n inde$ a c]ta9ty1 b an equal *ance ( def9itive self-annihilation & et]nal repose4 ,?us1 ! imm$iate duty = mank9d1 z also _! pr$e/9$ task1 is ! fur!rance ( sci5tific & indu/rial progress z a means t[>ds ?is consummation1 :i* is likewise _! pr$e/9$ end4 ,a religi\s col\r+ is giv5 to ! process by repres5t+ x z an inv]t$ ,*ri/ian s*eme 9 :i* man figures z ! r$eem] ( ,god--i4e4 ! ,absolute--f ! unspeakable torm5ts to :i* he is n[ condemn$ by ! impossibility ( satisfy+ 8 w4 ,l ,h>tmann1 ,fri$ri* ,nietzs*e 7#ahdd-aijj71 ! greate/ writ] ( mod]n ,g]many1 took 8 />t f #adf ,s*op5hau]1 b broke ) pessimism at an e>ly date1 hav+ come to disbelieve 9 ! h$onism on :i* x is f\nd$4 ,8 re/less vanity drove him to improve on ,d>w9ism by int]pret+ evolution z ! means t[>ds creat+ :at he call$ ! ,sup]man--t is1 a race z mu* sup]ior to u z we are to ! apes4 ,progress1 h[ev]1 is n to be 9 ! direction ( a high] morality1 b ( great] p[]--! ,w-to-,p[]1 n ! ,w-to-,live1 be+ ! ess5ce ( :at is4 ,lat] 9 life ,nietzs*e reviv$ ! ,/oic doctr9e t ev5ts move1 & h mov$ ?r\gh all "t1 9 a s]ies ( recurr+ cycles1 ea* be+ ! exact repetition ( its pr$ecessor4 ,x is a wor?less idea1 & ,nietzs*e1 :o _h be5 a ,greek pr(essor1 mu/ h kn[n :]e he got x2 b ! megalomania to :i* he ev5tually succumb$ prev5t$ 8 recognis+ ! debt4 ,by a m]it$ irony ( fate ?is wor%ipp] ( ! ,napoleonic type w survive only z a lit]>y morali/ 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,! mod]n revolt aga9/ metaphysical sy/emisation1 ) or )\t a !ological col\r+1 took 9 ,g]many ! =m ( two di/9ct philosophical curr5ts4 ,! fir/ is sci5tific mat]ialism1 or1 z "s ( its advocates pref] to call x1 en]gism4 ,?is began ab\t #ahej1 b boa/s two great liv+ repres5tatives1 ! biologi/ ,haeckel & ! *emi/ ,o/wald4 ,9 _! practical aims ^! m5 are ideali/s2 b _! admission ( space & "t z objective realities beyond :i* !re is no?+1 & _! repudiation ( agno/icism1 di/+ui% !m f ! ,fr5* & ,engli% ,positivi/s4 ,! o!r & m p[]ful s*ool is kn[n z ,neo-,kantianism4 ,x numb]s num]\s adh]5ts 9 ! ,g]man univ]sities1 & also 9 ^? ( ,france & ,italy1 repres5t+ v>i\s #adg %ades ( op9ion unit$ by a common ref]5ce to ,kant's fir/ ,critique1 dissociat$ f its concessions to deism1 z ! true />t+-po9t ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,,! ,,late/ ,,developm5ts4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury ! int]e/ 9 philosophy & ! ability devot$ to its cultivation h %[n no sign ( dim9ution4 ,two new doctr9es 9 p>ticul> h become subjects ( _w-wide discussion4 ,i ref] to ! !ory ( k call$ ,pragmatism1 & to ! metaphysics ( ,pr(essor ,h5ri ,b]gson4 ,bo? are ( s revolution>y1 s cont5ti\s1 & s elusive a "* z to preclude any discussion or ev5 outl9e ( ! new solutions = old problems :i* !y claim to provide4 ,b ,i w\ld recomm5d ! /udy ( bo?1 & especially ( ,b]gson1 to all :o imag9e t ! possibilities ( speculation are exhau/$1 or t we are any ne>] f9ality & agreem5t ?an :5 ,h]acleitus fir/ glorifi$ w> z ! fa!r ( all ?+s1 & contradiction z ! c5tral spr+ ( life4 99 99 99 99 99 #adi ,,bibliography ,kuno ,fis*]4 ,ges*i*te d] neu]n ,philosophie4 ,n9e vols4 ,f\r? ed42 ,heidelb]g1 #ahig-aijd4 7,comes d[n to ,s*op5hau]47 ,erdmann4 ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie4 ,vol4 ii4 ,f\r? ed42 ,b]l91 #ahif4 7,comes d[n to ,lotze2 ?ird ed42 trans4 by ,w4 ,s4 ,h\gh2 ,london1 #ahhi47 ,w9delb&4 ,ges*i*te d] neu]n ,philosophie4 ,two vols4 ,fif? ed4 7,comes d[n to ,h]b>t & ,b5eke4 ,!re is an ,engli% trans4 ( ,w9delb&'s ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,tufts1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,9 8 contribution to ! ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy 9 ! ,kultur d] ,geg5w>t1 ,b]l91 #aiji1 ,w9delb& includes a brief b useful summ>y ( ,pragmatism & ,b]gson47 ,levy-,bruhl4 ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy 9 ,france4 ,trans4 by ,miss ,cobl5ce4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,=sy?1 ,t4 ,m4 ,engli% ,philosophy3 ,a ,/udy ( its ,me?ods & ,g5]al ,developm5t4 ,london1 #aiaj4 7,a4 ,c4 ,black47 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,op]e ,italiane4 ,ed4 ,p4 ,lag>de4 ,goett+51 #ahhh4 ---- ,op]a lat9e conscripta4 ,naples & ,flor5ce1 #ahgi-ia4 ,mc,intyre1 ,j4 ,l4 ,life ( ,giordano ,bruno4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,bacon1 ,francis4 ,works & ,life4 ,ed4 by ,ellis & ,sp$d+4 ,f\rte5 vols4 #ahfd-gd4--,works4 ,"o vol4 ,ed4 by ,ellis1 ,sp$d+1 & ,rob]tson4 7,r\tl$ge47--,novum ,organum4 ,ed4 by ,t4 ,f[l]4 ,ox=d1 #ahgh4 ,abbott1 ,edw94 ,francis ,bacon4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,*ur*1 ,r4 ,w4 ,bacon 7,engli% ,m5 ( ,lett]s74 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,hobbes1 ,?omas4 ,works ,engli% & ,lat94 ,ed4 ,sir ,wm4 ,moleswor?4 ,sixte5 vols4 ,london1 #ahci-de4 ,rob]tson1 ,g4 ,c4 ,hobbes4 ,london1 #ahhf 7,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics74 ,/eph51 ,sir ,leslie4 ,hobbes4 ,london1 #aijc 7,engli% ,m5 ( ,lett]s74 ---- ,engli% ,?\ght 9 ! ,eighte5? ,c5tury4 ,second ed42 two vols4 ,london1 #ahha4 ---- ,! ,engli% ,utilit>ians4 ,?ree vols4 ,london1 #aijj4 #aej ,desc>tes4 ,oeuvres4 ,ed4 ,v4 ,c\s94 ,elev5 vols4 ,p>is1 #ahbd-ahbh4 ,a new edition is 9 c\rse ( publication4--,engli% trans4 ( ! ,me?od & ! ,m$itations 9 ! ,scott ,libr>y4 ,london1 #aija4--,life1 by ,elizabe? ,haldane4 ,london1 #aije4 ,malebran*e4 ,oeuvres4 ,?ree vols4 ,ed4 ,jules ,simon4 ,p>is1 #ahga4 ,sp9oza4 ,op]a4 ,ed4 ,van ,vlot5 & ,l&4 ,two vols4 ,! ,hague1 #ahhb-hc4 ---- ,life & ,philosophy4 ,by ,sir ,fr4 ,pollock4 ,london1 #ahhj2 second ed41 #ahii4 ---- ,a ,/udy (4 ,by ,james ,m>t9eau4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ----'s ,e?ics1 ,a ,/udy (4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,joa*im4 ,ox=d1 #aija4 ---- ,trans4 ( 8 pr9cipal works4 ,by ,elwes 9 ,bohn's ,libr>y4 ,two vols41 #ahhc-hf4 ,also ,ev]yman's ,libr>y4 7,d5t47 ---- ,e?ics4 ,trans4 by ,hale ,:ite1 revis$ by ,amelia ,/irl+4 ,london1 #ahii4 ---- ,leb5 und ,lehre4 ,von ,j4 ,fr5d5?al4 #aijd4 ,leibniz4 ,philosophis*e ,s*rift54 ,sev5 vols4 ,ed4 ,c4 ,j4 ,g]h>dt4 ,b]l91 #ahge-ij4--,! ,philosophy ( ,leibniz4 ,by ,b]tr& ,russell4 ,cambridge1 #aijj4 ,locke1 ,john4 ,works4 ,n9e vols4 ,london1 #ahbd4 ---- ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+4 ,two vols42 9 ,bohn's ,libr>y4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ---- ,life (4 ,by ,fox ,b\rne4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ---- ,by ,?omas ,f[l]4 ,london1 #ahhj 7,engli% ,m5 ( ,lett]s74 ---- ,by ,pr(4 ,a4 ,c4 ,fras]2 9 ,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics4 #ahij4 ,b]keley1 ,george4 ,works & ,life4 ,ed4 ,a4 ,c4 ,fras]4 ,f\r vols4 ,ox=d1 #ahga4 ---- ,by ,fras] 7,philosophical ,classics74 #ahha4 ,hume1 ,david4 ,philosophical ,works4 ,f\r vols4 ,ed4 ,gre5 & ,grose4 ,london1 #ahgd-ge4 ---- ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley 7,engli% ,m5 ( ,lett]s74 ,new edition4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,kant4 ,w]ke4 ,ed4 ,ros5kranz & ,s*ub]t4 ,twelve vols4 #ahch-dj4 ,two new editions1 includ+ ! correspond5ce1 are n[ 9 c\rse ( publication at ,b]l94 ,!re are ,engli% translations ( all ! pr9cipal works4 ---- ,life & ,doctr9e4 ,by ,f4 ,pauls52 trans4 by ,creighton & ,lefevre4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,fi*te1 ,j4 ,g4 ,w]ke4 ,elev5 vols4 #ahcd-df4 ,trans4 ( 8 m popul> works by ,dr4 ,w4 ,smi?4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,adamson4 ,fi*te4 ,9 ,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics4 #aija4 #aea ,s*ell+1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 ,w]ke4 ,f\rte5 vols4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahef-fa4 ,watson1 ,pr(4 ,j4 ,s*ell+'s ,transc5d5tal ,idealism1 ,*icago1 #ahhb4 ,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,w]ke4 ,n9ete5 vols4 9 tw5ty-"o4 ,leipzig1 #ahcb-hg4 ,hegel4 ,by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,caird 7,philosophical ,classics = ,engli% ,read]s47 ,ed9burgh1 #ahhc4 ,hegel's ,philosophies ( ,law1 ,religion1 ,hi/ory1 ,m9d1 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 & ! small] ,logic1 h be5 translat$ into ,engli%4 ,s*op5hau]4 ,w]ke4 ,six volumes 9 ! ,reclam ,s]ies4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,ribot4 ,la ,philosophie de ,s*op5hau]4 ,n9? ed42 ,p>is1 #aiji4 ,wallace1 ,pr(4 ,w4 ,life ( ,s*op5hau] 7,great ,writ]s ,s]ies74 ,london1 #ahij4 ,:ittak]1 ,?omas4 ,s*op5hau]1 9 ,philosophies ,anci5t & ,mod]n4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,s*op5hau]'s ,_w z ,w & ,idea4 ,trans4 by ,haldane & ,kemp4 ,?ree vols4 ,london1 #ahhd-hf4--;,essays4 ,trans4 by ,bel=t ,bax 7,bohn's ,libr>y74 ,london1 #ahia4 ,s*op5hau]4 ,/udies4 ,consi/+ ( translations by ,t4 ,bailey ,saund]s4 ,sev5 vols4 ,london1 #ahhi-if4--,o!r essays translat$ by ,madame ,hillebr& 7,london1 #ahhi7 & by ,a4 ,b4 ,ballock 7,london1 #aijc7 ,h]b>t1 ,j4 ,f4 ,w]ke4 ,ed4 ,kehrba*4 ,fifte5 vols4 #ahhg ff4 ,wagn]4 ,voll/a5dige ,d>/ellung d4 ,lehre ,h]b>ts4 #ahif4 ,hayw>d1 ,f4 ,h4 ,! ,/ud5t's ,h]b>t4 #aijb4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w4 ,discussions on ,philosophy4 ,second ed4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,comte1 ,augu/e4 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive4 ,five vols4 ,p>is1 #ahcj-db4--,politique ,positive4 ,f\r vols4 ,p>is1 #ahea-ed4 ,caird1 ,edw>d4 ,! ,social ,philosophy ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,glasg[1 #ahhe4 ,levy-,bruhl4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,engli% trans4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,:ewell1 ,wm4 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s4 ,a ,sy/em ( ,logic4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahdc4--,on ,lib]ty4 ,london1 #ahei4--,utilit>ianism4 ,london1 #ahfc4--;,exam9ation ( ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,:ittak]1 ,t4 ,comte & ,mill1 9 ,philosophies ,anci5t & ,mod]n4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t4 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 ,london1 #ahfb4--;,essays4 ,?ree vols4 ,london1 #ahia4--;,autobiography4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,macph]son1 ,hector4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,london1 #aijj4 #aeb ,gre51 ,t4 ,h4 ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics4 ,ox=d1 #ahhd4 ,gre51 ,t4 ,h4 ,works4 ,?ree vols4 ,london1 #ahhe-aijj4 ,bradley1 ,f4 ,h4 ,appe>ance & ,reality4 ,?ird ed4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,lotze1 ,h4 ,mikrocosmus4 #ahef-fd4--,sy/em d] ,philosophie4 #ahgd-gi4--;,engli% trans4 ( ! ,microc4 ,two vols4 ,ed9burgh1 #ahhe4--,( ! ,metaphysics4 ,two vols4 ,ox=d4 #ahhd4 ,jones1 ,sir ,h5ry4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,lotze4 ,glasg[1 #ahie4 ,h>tmann1 ,ed4 von4 ,die ,philosophie des ,unbewus/54 #ahfi4 ,engli% trans4 by ,w4 ,c4 ,c\pl&4 ,?ree vols4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,nietzs*e1 ,fr4 ,w]ke4 ,leipzig1 #ahie ff4 ,engli% trans4 9 f\rte5 vols4 ,ed9burgh4 7,t4 ,n4 ,f\lis47--,d4 ,halevy1 ,la ,vie de ,nietzs*e4 ,p>is1 #aiji4 ,russell1 ,b]tr&4 ,! ,problems ( ,philosophy 7,home ,univ]sity ,libr>y74 ,london1 #aiab4 99 99 99 99 99 #aec ,,index ,abbott1 ,e4 ,a41 quot$1 #ad ,agno/icism1 #fg1 #gj1 #ada1 #adc1 #add ,anaxim&]1 #ab ,aqu9as1 ,/4 ,?omas1 #d ,ari/otle1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #ai1 #be1 #di1 #eb1 #abi1 #aci1 #adb ,arnold1 ,mat!w1 #ee ,a!ns1 #a f4 ,atomism1 revival (1 #aj1 #ba ,av]roes1 #d ,bacon1 ,rog]1 #d ,bacon1 ,francis1 #ab ff41 #bd1 #bi1 #cb1 #fa ,baur1 ,f4 ,c41 #adb ,bayle1 ,pi]re1 #ga ,b5eke1 ,f4 ,e41 #abc ,b]gson1 ,h5ri1 #adg ,b]keley1 ,bi%op1 #dc1 #gb ff42 ,!ory ( ,vision1 #gc2 ,idealism1 #gc ff41 #hi ,boyle1 ,rob]t1 #ba ,bradley1 ,f4 ,h41 #eg1 #adc ,brahe1 ,ty*o1 #ag ,br[n1 ,dr4 ,?omas1 #acd ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #g ff41 #bb1 #de1 #ea1 #ajg ,byron1 #aai ,caird1 ,edw>d1 #adc ,caird1 ,john1 ib4 ,calv9ism1 #bh ,ca?olicism & philosophy1 #b ff4 ,causation4 ,see ,hume1 ,kant1 ,hegel1 ,mill ,*ri/ianity4 ,see ,ca?olicism ,*ri/9a1 ,que51 #cb f4 ,*ur*1 ,dean1 quot$1 #ae ,colli]1 ,ar?ur1 #ge ,coll9s1 ,an?ony1 #ga ,columbus1 #f ,comte1 ,augu/e1 #abg ff42 classification ( ! sci5ces1 #acj2 ,politique ,positive1 ib42 philosophy ( hi/ory1 #aca1 #acc ,condillac1 #abe ,cop]nicanism1 #f f4 ,c\s91 ,victor1 #ij ,dante1 #f f4 ,d>w91 ,*>les1 #adj ,democritus1 #aj ,desc>tes1 #cj1 #ca ff42 on belief1 #da1 #di1 #fa1 #fe1 #hg ,duns ,scotus1 #d ,eclectics1 ,fr5*1 #abe f42 ,g]man1 #add ,ego1 ! ,absolute1 #aje ,elizabe?1 ,pr9cess1 #cb ,emp$ocles1 #fe ,epicurus1 #i1 #bb1 #bi ,epi/emology1 #fe ,eriug5a1 ,john ,scotus1 #c1 #d ,e?ica1 ,sp9oza's1 #dh ,fi*te1 ,j4 ,g41 #aja ff42 8 def9ition ( ,god1 #ajb2 z ,g]man patriot1 #ajb f42 8 idealism1 #ajc ff42 e?ical /&po9t1 #ajf2 lat] tea*+1 #aaj ,fic9o1 ,m>silio1 #e ,f9al causes 9 mod]n philosophy1 #fa2 9 ,plato1 ib4 ,=m & ,matt]1 #aj1 #ah1 #bd ,galileo1 #ag1 #bd ,gass5di1 #ej ,geul9cx1 #db1 #dd1 #ea ,gilb]t1 #ag1 #ba ,godw91 ,william1 #aci ,goe!1 #ajb1 #aje ,gre51 ,t4 ,h41 #adc ,haeckel1 ,ern/1 #adf ,haldane1 ,"l1 #adc ,haldane1 ,miss ,e4 ,s41 quot$1 #cb ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 #abf f41 #acb ,h>tmann1 ,ed4 von1 #add f4 ,h>vey1 #ag ,hegel1 ,g4 ,f4 ,w41 #bd2 on ,sp9oza1 #ec1 #ajc1 #ajg1 #aaj ff42 ,ph5om5ology ( ,m9d1 #aab2 ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 ib42 ,encyclopa$ia1 ib42 ,philosophy ( ,law1 ib42 ,ae/hetics1 #aac2 ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory1 ib42 8 didactic me?od1 #aac ff42 negation ( sup]natural religion1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abd1 #abf ,hegelians1 ! ,engli%1 #adb ff4 ,he9e1 #ajc1 #aaf ,h]acleitus1 #aa1 #adg ,h]b>t1 ,j4 ,f41 #abb1 #add ,hobbes1 ,?omas1 #bb ff41 #ej1 #ef1 #fh ,hook]1 ,ri*>d1 & ! ,social ,contract1 #bi ,humanism 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #abd ,hume1 ,david1 #gg ff42 "* z a hi/orian1 #gg2 !ory ( causation1 #ha ff42 attitude t[>ds !ism1 #hd1 #hi2 a precursor ( ,comte1 #abi2 & ( ,mill1 #acc ff4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h41 #abg ,huygh5s on ,desc>tes1 #da ,induction1 ,baconian1 #bj ,innate ideas1 #fh1 #ie ,john ( ,salisbury1 #d ,ju/9ian1 #a ,kant1 ,immanuel1 #he ff42 8 nebul> hypo!sis1 #hg2 on syn!tic & analytic judgm5ts1 #hg ff42 on space & "t1 #ij ff42 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 #ic ff42 on causation1 #ie f42 moral & religi\s philosophy1 #ig ff41 #aah1 #aai1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #adg ,kepl]1 #aj1 #ag1 #ba ,klop/ock1 #aja #aed ,lam>ck1 #aci1 #adj ,laplace1 #hg ,leibniz1 ,g4 ,w41 #eg ff42 optimism1 #ei ff42 monadology1 #fb2 det]m9ism1 #fc2 pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 ib41 #add ,lewes1 ,g4 ,h41 #ajc1 #ajg ,locke1 ,john1 #bi1 #fe ff42 on tol]ation1 #fg2 8 pro( ( !ism1 #fi2 moral inconsi/5cy1 #fi f41 #gb1 #hg1 #hi ,lotze1 ,r4 ,h41 #add ,lucretius1 #i1 #bj1 #bb ,lu!r1 #f ,lyell1 ,sir ,*>les1 #aci ,macaulay on ,bacon1 #af2 on ,hobbes1 #bh1 #ga ,mc,taggart1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,e41 #add ,ma9e de ,biran1 #abe ,malebran*e1 #db ff41 #ea1 #gd1 #hi ,mal?us1 #acg ,mansel1 ,h4 ,l41 #abg ,mat]iali/s1 ,g]man1 #adf ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #acb ff42 ,sy/em ( ,logic1 #acc2 metaphysics1 #ace2 !ology1 ib42 e?ics1 #ace f42 politics1 #acf2 "*1 #acg ,milne-,edw>ds1 #adj ,monadism1 #aa1 #gj ,napi]1 #ag ,neo-,kantianism1 #adf ,neo-,platonism1 #b f4 ,newton1 ,isaac1 #eh1 #ei ,nicolas ( ,cusa1 #aa ,nietzs*e1 ,fri$ri*1 #ade f4 ,norris1 ,john1 #ge ,occam1 #e ,occasionalism1 #db ,o/wald1 #adf ,pan!ism1 #de1ej ,p>m5ides1 #i ,pascal1 #db ,plot9us1 #b1 #e1 #ab1 #dd ,positivism4 ,see ,comte ,p[]1 idea (1 9 ,sp9oza1 #eb2 h[ connect$ ) causation1 #hc ,pragmatism1 #adg ,proclus1 #c ,py?agoreans1 #i ,reality1 degrees (1 #eg ,reid1 ,?omas1 #he1 #abe ,r5aissance1 sci5tific activity ( !1 #ag ,r\sseau1 #bi1 #aai ,/4 ,simon1 #abg ,s*ell+1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j41 #ajf ff42 natural philosophy1 #ajh2 ,transc5d5tal ,idealism1 #ajh f42 romanticism1 #aji2 ,absolutism1 #aaj1 #abf ,s*ill]1 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 quot$1 #ah ,s*op5hau]1 ,ar?ur1 #ajc1 #aah ff42 pessimism1 #aai2 metaphysics1 #aai ff42 e?ics1 #aba f41 #ade ,sextus ,empiricus1 #fg ,%aftesbury1 ,"l1 au?or ( ! ,*>act]i/ics1 #ga ,%elley1 #aci ,sidgwick1 ,h5ry1 #ace ,smi?1 ,adam1 #adj ,social ,contract1 #bf ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t1 #abg1 #acg ff42 ,social ,/atics1 #acg2 ,psy*ology1 #adj2 ,syn!tic ,philosophy1 #ada2 on religion1 ib42 =mula ( evolution1 #adb1 #add ,sp5c]1 ,rev4 ,?omas1 #acg ,sp9oza1 #cj1 #de ff42 ,tractatus ,!ologico-,politicus1 #dh2 n a my/ic1 #ee2 e?ics1 #ef f42 return to ,/oicism1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa1 #fi1 #hg1 #ajf1 #aaj ,/ael1 ,madame de1 #abe ,/irl+1 ,dr4 ,hut*ison1 #adc ,/rauss1 ,david1 #aab1 #adb ,taylor1 ,mrs41 & ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 #acb ,temple1 ,ar*bi%op1 #ajb ,!ism4 ,see ,desc>tes1 ,locke1 ,b]keley1 ,hume1 ,kant1 ,fi*te1 ,mill ,timaeus1 ,plato's1 #da ,tol&1 #ga ,turgot1 #abi ,vaux1 ,clotilde de1 & ,comte1 #acb ,voltaire & optimism1 #ei ,vries1 ,simon de & ,sp9oza1 #df ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #adj ,wallace1 ,pr(4 ,william1 #adc ,:ewell1 ,william1 #acc ,wordswor?1 #eg ,wycliffe1 #e 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,! foll[+ *anges 7 made3 ,page #ch4 pass$ ) progressive reflection3 'progress-sive' on l9e break 9 orig9al4 ,page #eg4 only def5d on ae/hetic gr\nds3 'gr\nps' 9 orig9al4