file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #cdbhc-;h4htm or #cdbhc-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#cdbhc_/pg#cdbhc-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#cd bhc_/cdbhc-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,page numbers in curly braces 7example3 #be7 have been included in the text to enable the reader to use the index4 ,a few typographical errors have been corrected2 they are listed at the end of the text4 ,illustration3 ,,giordano ,,bruno4 ,from the ,statue in the ,campo dei ,fiori1 ,rome4 ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,philosophy by ,a4 ,w4 ,,benn1 ,author of ,the ,history of ,english ,rationalism in the ,nineteenth ,century1 ,etc4 ,illustration3 ,,giordano ,,bruno4 ,from the ,statue in the ,campo dei ,fiori1 ,rome4 ,,issued ,,for ,,the ,,rationalist ,,press ,,association1 ,,limited ,london3 ,watts ,co41 #ag ,johnson's ,court1 ,fleet ,street1 ,e4,c4 #aiab ,printed by ,watts and ,co41 ,johnson's ,court1 ,fleet ,street1 ,london1 ,e4,c4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,the ,,philosophical ,,renaissance #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,metaphysicians #ca ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,theorists ,,of ,,knowledge #fe ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,german ,,idealists #aja ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,humanists ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #abd ,,bibliography #adi ,,index #aec ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,giordano ,,bruno ,frontispiece ,,page ,,francis ,,bacon #ac ,,rene ,,descartes #cd ,,benedictus ,,spinoza #dg ,,david ,,hume #gh ,,immanuel ,,kant #hf ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,hegel #aaa ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer #aag ,,auguste ,,comte #abh ,,herbert ,,spencer #ach #a ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,philosophical ,,renaissance ,for a thousand years after the schools of ,athens were closed by ,justinian philosophy made no real advance2 no essentially new ideas about the constitution of nature1 the workings of mind1 or the ends of life were put forward4 ,it would be false to say that during this period no progress was made4 ,the civilisation of the ,roman ,empire was extended far beyond its ancient frontiers2 and1 although much ground was lost in ,asia and ,africa1 more than the equivalent was gained in ,northern ,europe4 ,within ,europe also the gradual abolition of slavery and the increasing dignity of peaceful labour gave a wider diffusion to culture1 combined with a larger sense of human fellowship than any but the best minds of ,greece and ,rome had felt4 ,whether the status of women was really raised may be doubted2 but the ideas and sentiments of women began to exercise an influence on social intercourse unknown before4 ,and the arts of war and peace were in some ways almost revolutionised4 ,this remarkable phenomenon of movement in everything except ideas has been explained by the influence of ,christianity1 or rather of ,catholicism4 ,there is truth in the contention1 but it is not the whole truth4 ,the ,church entered into a heritage that she did not create2 she defined and accentuated tendencies that #b long before her advent had secretly been at work4 ,in the ,west that diffusion of civilisation which is her historic boast had been begun and carried far by the ,rome whence her very name is taken4 ,in the ,east the title of orthodox by which the ,greek ,church is distinguished betrays the presence of that ,greek thought which moulded her dogmas into logical shape4 ,what is more1 the very idea of right belief as a vital and saving thing came to ,christianity from ,platonism1 accompanied by the persuasion that wrong belief was immoral and its promulgation a crime to be visited by the penalty of death4 ,ecclesiastical intolerance has been made responsible for the speculative stagnation of the ,middle ,ages1 and it has been explained as an effect of the belief in the future punishment of heresy by eternal torments4 ,but in truth the persecuting spirit was responsible for the dogma1 not the dogma for persecution4 ,and we must look for the underlying cause of the whole evil in the premature union of metaphysics with religion and morality first effected by ,plato1 or rather by the genius of ,athens working through ,plato4 ,indeed1 on a closer examination we shall find that the slowing-down of speculation had begun long before the advent of ,christianity1 and coincides with the establishment of its headquarters at ,athens1 where also the first permanent schools of philosophy were established4 ,these schools were distinctly religious in their character2 and none was so set against innovation as that of ,epicurus1 falsely supposed to have been a home of freethought4 ,in the last ,greek system of philosophy1 ,neo-,platonism1 theology reigned supreme2 and during the two and a-half centuries of its existence no real advance on the teaching of ,plotinus was made4 #c ,neo-,platonism when first constituted had incorporated a large ,aristotelian element1 the expulsion of which had been accomplished by its last great master1 ,proclus2 and ,christendom took over metaphysics under what seemed a ,platonic form--the more welcome as ,plato passed for giving its creeds the independent support of pure reason4 ,this support extended beyond a future life and went down to the deepest mysteries of revealed faith4 ,for1 according to the ,platonic doctrine of ideas1 it was quite in order that there should be a divine unity existing independently of the three divine persons composing it2 that the idea of humanity should be combined with one of these persons2 and that the same idea1 being both one with and distinct from ,adam1 should involve all mankind in the guilt of his transgression4 ,thus the ,church started with a strong prejudice in favour of ,plato which continued to operate for many centuries1 although the first great schoolman1 ,john ,scotus ,eriugena 7#haj-hgg71 incurred a condemnation for heresy by adopting the pantheistic metaphysics of ,neo-,platonism4 ,as the ,platonic doctrine of ideas came to life again in the realism1 as it was called1 of scholastic philosophy1 so the conflicting view of his old opponent ,aristotle was revived under the form of conceptualism4 ,according to this theory the genera and species of the objective world correspond to real and permanent distinctions in the nature of things2 but1 apart from the conceptions by which they are represented in the intellect of ,god and man1 those distinctions have no separate existence4 ,aristotle's philosophy was first brought into ,europe by the ,mohammedan conquerors of ,spain1 which became an important centre of learning in the earlier ,middle ,ages4 ,not a few ,christian scholars went there to #d study4 ,latin translations were made from ,arabic versions of ,aristotle1 and in this way his doctrines became more widely known to the lecture-rooms of the ,catholic world4 ,but their derivation from infidel sources roused a prejudice against them1 still further heightened by the circumstance that an ,arabian commentator1 ,averroes1 had interpreted the theology of the ,metaphysics in a pantheistic sense4 ,and on any sincere reading ,aristotle denied the soul's immortality which ,plato had upheld4 ,accordingly1 all through the twelfth century ,platonism still dominated religious thought1 and even so late as the early thirteenth century the study of ,aristotle was still condemned by the ,church4 ,nevertheless a great revolution was already in progress4 ,as a result of the capture of ,constantinople by the ,crusaders in ,a4,d4 #abjd the ,greek manuscripts of ,aristotle's writings were brought to ,paris1 and at a subsequent period they were translated into ,latin under the direction of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 the ablest of the schoolmen1 who so manipulated the ,peripatetic philosophy as to convert it from a battering-ram into a buttress of ,catholic theology--a position still officially assigned to it at the present day4 ,aristotelianism1 however1 did not reign without a rival even in the later ,middle ,ages4 ,aquinas was a ,dominican2 and the jealousy of the competing ,franciscan ,order found expression in maintaining a certain tradition of ,platonism1 represented in different ways by ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abid7 and by ,duns ,scotus 7#abfe-acjh74 ,in this connection we have to note the extraordinary fertility of the ,british islands in eminent thinkers during the ,middle ,ages4 ,besides the two last mentioned there is ,eriugena 7born in ,ireland71 ,john of ,salisbury #e 7#aaae-aahj71 the first ,humanist1 ,william of ,ockham1 and ,wycliffe1 the first reformer--making six in all1 a larger contribution than any other region of ,europe1 or indeed all the rest of ,europe put together1 has made to the stars of ,scholasticism4 ,this advantage is probably not due to any inherent genius for philosophy in the inhabitants of these islands1 but to their relative immunity from war and to the political liberty that cannot but have been favourable to independent thought4 ,five out of the six were more or less inclined to ,platonism1 and their idealist or mystical tendencies were sometimes associated with the same practicality that distinguished their master4 ,the sixth1 commonly called ,occam 7died about #acdi71 is famous as the champion of ,nominalism--that is1 of the doctrine that genera and species have no real existence either in nature or in mind2 there are only individuals more or less resembling one another4 ,he is the author of the famous saying--the sole legacy of ,scholasticism to common thought3 ,entities ought not to be gratuitously multiplied 7entia non sunt praeter necessitatem multiplicanda74 ,the capture of ,constantinople by the ,crusaders had led to ,aristotle's triumph in the thirteenth century4 ,two hundred years later the conquering ,ottoman advance on the same city was the immediate cause of his overthrow4 ,for the ,byzantine scholars who fled for help and refuge to ,italy brought with them the manuscripts of ,plato and ,plotinus1 and these soon became known to ,western ,europe through the ,latin translations of ,marsilio ,ficino4 ,on its literary side the ,platonic revival fell in admirably with the ,humanism to which the ,schoolmen had long been intensely distasteful4 ,and the religious movement that preceded #f ,luther's ,reformation found a welcome ally in ,neo-,platonic mysticism4 ,at the same time the invention of printing1 by opening the world of books to non-academic readers1 vastly widened the possibilities of independent thought4 ,and the ,reformation1 by discrediting the scholastic theology in ,northern ,europe1 dealt another blow at the system with which it had been associated by ,aquinas4 ,it has been supposed that the discovery of ,america and the circumnavigation of the globe contributed also to the impending philosophical revolution4 ,but the true theory of the earth's figure formed the very foundation of ,aristotle's cosmology1 and was as well known to ,dante as to ourselves4 ,made by a fervent ,catholic1 acting under the patronage of the ,catholic queen par excellence1 the discovery of ,columbus increased the prestige of ,catholicism by opening a new world to its missions and adding to the wealth of its supporters in the ,old ,world4 ,the decisive blow to medieval ideas came from another quarter--from the ,copernican astronomy4 ,what the true theory of the earth's motion meant for philosophy has not always been rightly understood4 ,it seems to be commonly supposed that the heliocentric system excited hostility because it degraded the earth from her proud position as centre of the universe4 ,but the reverse is true4 ,according to ,aristotle and his scholastic followers1 the centre of the universe is the lowest and least honourable1 the circumference the highest and most distinguished position in it4 ,and that is why earth1 as the vilest of the four elements1 tends to the centre2 while fire1 being the most precious1 flies upward4 ,again1 the incorruptible aether of which the heavens are composed shows its eternal character #g by moving for ever round in a circle of which ,god1 as ,prime ,mover1 occupies the outermost verge4 ,and this metaphysical topography is faithfully followed by ,dante1 who even improves on it by placing the worst criminals 7that is1 the rebels and traitors--,satan1 with ,judas and ,brutus and ,cassius7 in the eternal ice at the very centre of the earth4 ,such fancies were incompatible with the new astronomy4 ,no longer cold and dead1 our earth might henceforth take her place among the stars1 animated like them--if animated they were--and suggesting by analogy that they too supported teeming multitudes of reasonable inhabitants4 ,but the transposition of values did not end here4 ,aristotle's whole philosophy had been based on a radical antithesis between the sublunary and the superlunary spheres--the world of growth1 decay1 vicissitude1 and the world of everlasting realities4 ,in the sublunary sphere1 also1 it distinguished sharply between the ,forms of things1 which were eternal1 and the ,matter on which they were imposed1 an intangible1 evanescent thing related to ,form as ,possibility to ,actuality4 ,we know that these two convenient categories are logically independent of the false cosmology that may or may not have suggested their world-wide application4 ,but the immediate effect of having it denied1 or even doubted1 was greatly to exalt the credit of ,matter or ,power at the expense of ,form or ,act4 ,the first to draw these revolutionary inferences from the ,copernican theory was ,giordano ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,born at ,nola1 a south ,italian city not far from ,naples1 ,bruno entered the ,dominican ,order before the age of fifteen1 and on that occasion exchanged his baptismal name of ,filippo for that by which he has ever since been known4 ,here he became acquainted with the #h whole of ancient and medieval philosophy1 besides the ,copernican astronomy1 then not yet condemned by the ,church4 ,at the early age of eighteen he first came into collision with the authorities2 and at twenty-eight 7#aegf7 ,mc,intyre1 pp4 #i-aj he openly questioned the chief characteristic dogmas of ,catholicism1 was menaced with an action for heresy1 and fled from the convent4 ,the pursuit must have been rather perfunctory1 for ,bruno found himself free to spend two years wandering from one ,italian city to another1 earning a precarious livelihood by tuition and authorship4 ,leaving ,italy at last1 rather from a desire to push his fortunes abroad than from any fear of molestation1 and finding ,france too hot to hold him1 he tried ,geneva for a little while1 but1 on being given to understand that he could only stay on the condition of embracing ,calvinism1 returned to ,france1 where he lived first for two years as ,professor of ,philosophy at ,toulouse1 and three more in a somewhat less official position at ,paris4 ,thence1 in the train of the ,french ambassador1 he passed to ,england1 where his two years' sojourn seems to have been the happiest and most fruitful period of his restless career4 ,it was cut short by his chief's return to ,paris4 ,but the philosopher's fearless advocacy of ,copernicanism made that bigoted capital impossible4 ,the truth1 however1 seems to be that ,bruno never could hit it off with anyone or any society2 and the next five years1 spent in trying to make himself acceptable at one ,german university after another1 are a record of hopeless failure4 ,finally1 in an evil hour1 he goes to ,venice at the invitation of a young noble1 ,mocenigo1 who1 in revenge for disappointed expectations1 betrays him to the ,inquisition4 ,questioned about his heresies1 ,bruno showed perfect willingness to accept all the theological dogmas that #i he had formerly denied4 ,whether he withdrew his retractation on being transferred from a ,venetian to a ,roman prison does not appear1 as the ,roman depositions are not forthcoming4 ,neither is it clear why so long a delay as six years 7#aeid-afjj7 was granted to the philosopher when such short work was made of other heretics4 ,it seems most probable that ,bruno1 while pliant enough on questions of religious belief1 remained inflexible in maintaining the infinity of inhabited worlds4 ,when the final condemnation was read out1 he told the judges that he heard it with less fear than they felt in pronouncing it4 ,in the customary euphemistic terms they had sent him to death by fire4 ,at the stake1 when the crucifix was held up to him1 he turned away his eyes--with what thoughts we cannot tell4 ,there is a monument to the heroic thinker at ,nola1 and another in the ,campo dei ,fiori on the spot where he suffered at ,rome1 raised against the strongest protests of the ecclesiastical authorities4 ,the ,greek-,italian philosophers--the ,pythagoreans and ,parmenides--had introduced the idea of finiteness or ,limitation as a necessary condition of reality and perfection into thought4 ,from them it passed over to ,plato and ,aristotle1 who made it dominant in the schools4 ,epicurus and ,lucretius had1 indeed1 carried on the older ,ionian tradition of infinite atoms and infinite worlds dispersed through infinite space2 but their philosophy was practically atheistic1 and the ,church condemned it as both heretical and false4 ,probably the discovery of the earth's globular shape had first suggested the idea of a finite universe to ,parmenides2 at any rate1 the discovery of the earth's motion suggested the idea of an infinite universe to his ,greek-souled ,italian successor2 or rather it was #aj the break-up of ,aristotle's spherical world by ,copernicanism that threw ,bruno back--as he gives us himself to understand--on the older ,ionian cosmologies1 with their assumption of infinite space and infinite worlds4 ,in this reference ,bruno went far beyond ,copernicus1 and even ,kepler2 for both had assumed1 in deference to current opinion1 that the fixed stars were equidistant from the solar system1 and formed a single sphere enclosing it on all sides4 ,he1 on the contrary1 anticipated modern astronomy in conceiving the stars as so many suns dispersed without assignable limits through space1 and each surrounded by inhabited planets4 ,infinite space had been closely associated by ,democritus and ,epicurus with infinite atoms2 and the next great step taken by ,bruno was to rehabilitate atomism as a necessary concept of modern science4 ,he figured the atoms as very minute spheres of solid earthy matter1 forming by their combinations the framework of visible bodies4 ,but their combinations are by no means fortuitous1 as ,democritus had impiously supposed2 nor do they move through an absolute void4 ,all space is filled with an ocean of liquid aether1 which is no other than the quintessence of which ,aristotle's celestial spheres were composed4 ,only in ,bruno's system it takes the place of that ,first ,matter which is the extreme antithesis of the disembodied ,form personified in the ,prime ,mover1 ,god4 ,and here we come to that reversal of cosmic values brought about by the reversal of the relations between the earth and sun which ,copernicus had effected4 ,the primordial ,matter1 so far from passively receiving the ,forms imposed on it from without1 has an infinite capacity for evolving ,forms from its own bosom2 and1 so far #aa from being unspiritual1 is itself the universal spirit1 the creative and animating soul of the world4 ,the ,first ,matter1 ,form1 ,energy1 ,life1 and ,reason are identified with ,nature1 ,nature with the ,universe1 and the ,universe with ,god4 ,so far all is clear1 if not convincing4 ,it is otherwise with the theory of ,monads4 ,this is only expounded in ,bruno's ,latin works1 for the most part ill-written and hopelessly obscure4 ,it seems possible that by the monads ,bruno sometimes means the infinitesimal parts into which the aether of space may conceivably be divided4 ,each of these possesses consciousness1 and therefore may be considered as reflecting and representing the whole universe4 ,a number of monads1 or rather a continuous portion of the aether surrounding and interpenetrating a group of atoms1 endows them with the forms and qualities of elementary bodies1 ascending gradually through vegetal and animal organisations to human beings4 ,but the animating process does not stop with man4 ,the earth1 with the other planets1 the sun1 and all the stars1 are also monads on the largest scale1 with reasonable souls1 just as ,aristotle thought4 ,in fact1 the old mythology whence he derived the idea repeats itself in his great enemy ,bruno4 ,beyond and above all these partial unities is the ,monas ,monadum--the supreme unity1 the infinite ,god who is the soul of the infinite universe4 ,doubtless there is here a reminiscence of the ,neo-,platonic ,one1 the ineffable ,absolute1 beyond all existence1 yet endowed with the infinite power whence all existence proceeds4 ,bruno had learned from ,cardinal ,nicolas of ,cusa--a ,copernican before ,copernicus--to recognise the principle of ,heracleitus that opposites are one2 and in this instance he applies it with brilliant audacity2 for every infinitesimal #ab part of the space-filling aether is no less the soul of the universe than the ,monad of ,monads itself4 ,and both agree in being non-existent in the sense of being transfinite1 since there can be no sum of infinity and no animated mathematical points4 ,from ,anaximander to ,plotinus there is hardly a great ,greek thinker whose influence cannot be traced in the system of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,and while he represents the philosophical ,renaissance in this eminent degree1 he heads the two lines of speculation which1 separately or combined1 run through the whole history of modern metaphysics--the monistic1 and what is now called the pluralistic tendency4 ,with none1 except1 perhaps1 with ,hegel1 have the two been perfectly balanced2 and in ,bruno himself the leaning is distinctly towards plurality1 his ,supreme ,monad being a mere survival from the ,neo-,platonic ,one4 ,,francis ,,bacon4 ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf7 was by profession a lawyer1 by taste a scientific inquirer1 by character a seeker after wealth and power1 by natural genius an immortal master of words4 ,he began life as the friend1 adviser1 and client of ,elizabeth's favourite1 the ,earl of ,essex4 ,when that unfortunate courtier1 in disregard of his warnings1 rushed into a treasonable enterprise1 ,bacon appeared as one of the most zealous of the counsel for the prosecution4 ,strictly speaking1 this may have been his duty as a loyal subject of the ,queen2 it was hardly his duty1 even on the ,queen's commission1 after ,essex's execution1 to assist in the composition of a pamphlet blackening the memory of his former friend and patron4 ,in the next reign ,bacon paid assiduous court to ,james and his favourites4 #ac ,illustration3 ,,francis ,,bacon4 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #ad ,when the first of these1 ,somerset1 fell and was tried on a charge of murder1 he conducted the prosecution1 and1 finding the evidence insufficient1 suggested to ,james that the prisoner should be entrapped into a confession by dangling a false promise of forgiveness before his eyes4 ,bacon owed his final exaltation to ,buckingham1 and as ,lord ,keeper allowed himself to be made the tool of that bad man for the perversion of justice4 ,a suit was brought before him by a young man against a fraudulent trustee 7his own uncle7 for the restitution of a sum of money4 ,bacon gave sentence for the plaintiff4 ,buckingham then intervened with a demand that the case should be retried4 ,upon this ,bacon saw the parties privately1 and1 annulling all the deliberate decisions of the ,court1 compelled the youth to assent to the ceasing of all proceedings1 and to accept a smaller sum than he was entitled to 7,e4 ,a4 ,abbott74 ,on another occasion he exercised his judicial authority in a way that did not square with ,buckingham's wishes1 but quite legitimately and without any consciousness of giving offence2 whereupon the insolent favourite addressed him in a letter filled with outrageous abuse1 to which ,bacon replied in terms of abject submission4 ,this meanness had its reward1 for in #afah the philosopher became ,lord ,chancellor4 ,after a three years' tenure ,bacon was flung from his high position by a charge of judicial corruption1 to the truth of every count in which he confessed4 ,the question is very complicated1 obscure1 and much controverted1 not admitting of discussion within the limits here assigned4 ,on the subject of ,bacon's truthfulness1 however1 a word must be said4 ,the ,chancellor admitted having taken presents from suitors1 but #ae denied having ever let his judgments be influenced thereby2 and his word seems to be generally accepted as a sufficient exoneration4 ,but its value may be doubted in view of two statements quoted by ,dean ,church4 ,of these one was made in the ,house of ,commons by ,sir ,george ,hastings1 a member of the ,house1 who had been the channel of ,awbry's gift made to the ,chancellor pendente lite1 that when he had told ,bacon that if questioned he must admit it1 ,bacon's answer was3 ',george1 if you do so1 ,i must deny it1 upon my honour--upon my oath4' ,the other was that he had given an opinion in favour of some claim of the ,masters in ,chancery1 for which he received ,l#a1bjj1 and with which he said that all the judges agreed--an assertion which all the judges denied4 ,of these charges there is no contradiction4 ,the denial of ,bacon that he ever allowed his judgments to be influenced by bribes1 and his assertion that he was the justest judge since his own father1 cannot1 then1 count for much4 ,as to the plea that the justice of his sentences was never challenged1 who was to challenge it8 ,the successful suitor would hold his tongue2 and the unsuccessful suitor could hardly be expected to complete his own ruin by going to law again on the strength of the ,chancellor's condemnation4 ,bacon1 at any rate1 knew quite well that to take presents before judgment was wrong and criminal1 as his answer to ,egerton sufficiently shows--an answer which also fully disposes of the plea that to take such presents was the common custom of the age4 ,moreover1 had such been the common custom1 ,bacon might have taken his trial and pleaded it as a sufficient apology or extenuation for his own conduct4 ,this would have been a somewhat more dignified course #af than the one he actually pursued1 which was to plead guilty to all the charges1 throwing himself on the mercy of the ,lords4 ,it has been suggested that he did this at the desire of his powerful patrons1 whose malpractices might have been brought to light by a public investigation4 ,as his punishment was immediately remitted1 some arrangement with the ,king and ,buckingham seems probable4 ,but for an innocent man to have saved himself by a false acknowledgment of guilt would1 as ,macaulay shows1 have been still more infamous than to take bribes4 ,the desperate efforts of some apologists to whitewash ,bacon are apparently due to a very exaggerated estimate of his services to mankind4 ,other critics give themselves the pleasure of painting what has been called a ,rembrandt portrait1 with noon on the forehead and night at the heart4 ,and a third class argue from a rotten morality to a rotten intelligence4 ,in fact1 ,bacon as little deserves to be called the wisest and greatest as the meanest of mankind4 ,he really loved humanity1 and tried hard to serve it1 devoting a truly philosophical intellect to that end4 ,the service was to consist in an immense extension of man's power over nature1 to be obtained by a complete knowledge of her secrets2 and this knowledge he hoped to win by reforming the methods of scientific investigation4 ,unfortunately1 intellect alone proved unequal to that mighty task4 ,bacon passes1 and not without good grounds1 for a great upholder of the principle that truth can only be learned by experience4 ,but his philosophy starts by setting that principle at defiance4 ,he who took all knowledge for his province omitted from his survey the rather important subject of knowledge itself1 its limits and its laws4 ,had his attention #ag been drawn that way1 the very first requisite1 on empirical principles1 would have been to take stock of the leading truths already ascertained4 ,but the enormous vanity of the amateur reformer seems to have persuaded him that these amounted to little or nothing4 ,the later ,renaissance was an age of intense scientific activity1 conditioned1 in the first instance1 by a revival of ,greek learning4 ,already before the middle of the sixteenth century great advance had been made in algebra1 trigonometry1 astronomy1 mineralogy1 botany1 anatomy1 and physiology4 ,before the publication of the ,novum ,organum ,napier had invented logarithms1 ,galileo was reconstituting physics1 ,gilbert had created the science of magnetism1 and ,harvey had discovered the circulation of the blood4 ,these were facts that ,bacon took no pains to study2 he either ignores or slights or denies the work done by his illustrious predecessors and contemporaries4 ,that he rejected the ,copernican theory with scorn is an exaggeration2 but he never accepted it1 notwithstanding arguments that the best astronomers of his time found convincing2 and the longer he lived the more unfavourable became his opinion of its merits4 ,and it is certain that ,tycho ,brahe's wonderful mass of observations1 with the splendid generalisations based on them by ,kepler1 are never mentioned in his writings4 ,now what really ruined ,aristotelianism was the heliocentric astronomy1 as ,bruno perfectly saw2 and ignorance of this left ,bacon after all in the bonds of medieval philosophy4 ,we have seen in studying ,bruno that the very soul of ,aristotle's system was his distinction between form and matter1 and this distinction ,bacon accepted without examination from scholasticism4 ,the purpose of his #ah life was to ascertain by what combination of forms each particular body was constituted1 and then1 by artificially superinducing them on some portion of matter1 to call the desired substance into existence4 ,his celebrated inductive method was devised as a means to that end4 ,to discover the forms we are instructed first to draw up exhaustive tables of the phenomena and forms under investigation1 and then to exclude from our list any 'form' which does not invariably co-exist with the phenomenon of which the form is sought4 ,for example1 if we are trying to discover the form of heat it will not do to adduce 'celestial nature'2 for1 though the sun's light is hot1 that of the moon is cold4 ,after a series of such exclusions1 ,bacon believed that a single form would finally remain to be the invariable cause of the phenomenon investigated1 and of nothing else 7,f4 ,c4 ,s4 ,schiller74 ,as ,dr4 ,schiller observes1 this method of exclusions is not new2 nor1 indeed1 does ,bacon claim to have originated it2 at least he observes in his ,novum ,organum that it had been already employed by ,plato to a certain extent for the purpose of discussing definitions and ideas4 ,and elsewhere he praises ,plato as a man 7and one that surveyed all things from a lofty cliff7 for having discerned in his doctrine of ,ideas that ,forms were the true object of knowledge2 howsoever he lost the fruit of this most true opinion by considering and trying to apprehend ,forms as absolutely abstracted from matter1 whence it came that he turned aside to theological speculations4 ,bacon must have known that this reproach does not apply to ,aristotle2 as1 indeed1 the very schoolmen knew that he did not--except in the single case of ,god--give ,forms a separate #ai existence4 ,but1 probably from jealousy1 he specially hated ,aristotle1 and in this particular instance the ,stagirite more particularly excited his hostility by identifying ,forms with ,final ,causes4 ,these ,bacon rather contemptuously handed over to the sole cognisance of theology as consecrated virgins bearing no fruit4 ,as a point of scientific method this condemnation of teleology is quite unjustified even in the eyes of inquirers who reject the theological argument from design4 ,to a ,darwinian1 purpose means survival value1 and the parts of an organism are so many utilities evolved in the action and reaction between living beings and their environment4 ,but ,bacon disliked any theory tending to glorify the existing arrangements of nature as perfect and unalterable achievements1 for the good reason that it threatened to discountenance his own scheme for practically creating the world over again with exclusive reference to the good of humanity4 ,thus in his ,utopia1 the ,new ,atlantis1 there are artificial mines1 producing artificial metals1 plants raised without seeds1 contrivances for turning one tree or plant into another1 for prolonging the lives of animals after the removal of particular organs1 for making a number of kinds of serpents1 worms1 flies1 fishes of putrefaction2 whereof some are advanced to be perfect creatures like beasts or birds2 with flying-machines1 submarines1 and perpetual motions--in short1 a general anticipation of ,jules ,verne and ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,wells4 ,such dreams1 however1 do not entitle ,bacon to be regarded as a true prophet of modern science and modern mechanical inventions4 ,in themselves his ideas do not go beyond the magic of the ,middle ,ages1 or rather of all ages4 ,the original thing was his #bj ,method2 and this ,method1 considered as a means for surprising the secrets of nature1 we know to be completely chimerical1 because there are no such ,forms as he imagined1 to be enucleated by induction1 with or without the ,method of ,exclusion4 ,the truth is that the inductive method which he borrowed from ,socrates and ,plato was originally created by ,athenian philosophy for the humanistic studies of law1 morality1 aesthetics1 and psychology4 ,physical science1 on the other hand1 should be approached1 as the ,greeks rightly felt1 through the door of mathematics1 an instrument of whose potency the great ,chancellor notoriously had no conception4 ,thus his prodigious powers would have been much more usefully devoted to moral philosophy4 ,as it is1 the ,essays alone remain to show what great things he might have done by limiting himself to the subjects with which they deal4 ,the famous logical and physical treatises1 the ,novum ,organum and the ,de ,augmentis1 notwithstanding their wealth and splendour of language1 are to us at the present day less living than the fragments of early ,greek thought1 than most of ,plato1 than much of ,aristotle1 than ,atomism as expounded by ,lucretius4 ,macaulay rests his claim of the highest place among philosophers for ,bacon not on his inductive theory1 to which the historian rightly denies any novelty1 but on the new purpose and direction that the search for knowledge is assumed to have received from his teaching4 ,on this view the whole of modern science has been created by the desire to convert nature into an instrument for the satisfaction of human wants--an ambition dating from the publication of the ,novum ,organum4 ,the claim will not stand1 for two reasons4 ,the first is that the great movement of modern science #ba began at least half a century before ,bacon's birth1 growing rapidly during his life1 but without his knowledge1 and continuing its course without being perceptibly accelerated by his intervention ever since4 ,the one man of science who most commonly passes for his disciple is ,robert ,boyle 7#afbg-afia74 ,but ,boyle did not read the ,novum ,organum before he was thirty1 whereas1 residing at ,florence before fifteen1 he received a powerful stimulus from the study of ,galileo4 ,and his chemistry was based on the atomic theory which ,bacon rejected4 ,the second reason for not accepting ,macaulay's claim is that in modern ,europe no less than in ancient ,greece the great advances in science have only been made by those who loved knowledge for its own sake1 or1 if the expression be preferred1 simply for the gratification of their intellectual curiosity4 ,no doubt their discoveries have added enormously to the utilities of life2 but such advantages have been gained on the sole condition of not making them the primary end in view4 ,the labours of ,bacon's own contemporaries1 ,kepler and ,gilbert1 have led to the navigation of the sea by lunar distances1 and to the various industrial applications of electro-magnetism2 but they were undertaken without a dream of these remote results4 ,and in our own day the greatest of scientific triumphs1 which is the theory of evolution1 was neither worked out with any hope of material benefits to mankind nor has it offered any prospect of them as yet4 ,the same may be said of modern sidereal astronomy4 ,from the humanist point of view it would not be easy to justify the enormous expenditure of energy1 money1 and time that this science has absorbed4 ,the schoolmen have been much ridiculed for discussing the question how #bb many angels could dance on the point of a needle2 but as a purely speculative problem it surely merits as much attention as the total number of the stars1 the rates of their velocities1 or the law of their distribution through space4 ,a schoolman might even have urged in justification of his curiosity that some of us might feel a reasonable curiosity about the exact size--if size they have--of beings with whom we hope to associate one day2 whereas by the confession of the astronomers themselves neither we nor our descendants can ever hope to verify by direct measurement the precarious guesses of their science in this branch of celestial statics and dynamics4 ,,thomas ,,hobbes4 ,it has been shown that one momentous effect of the ,copernican astronomy1 as interpreted by ,giordano ,bruno1 was to reverse the relative importance ascribed in ,aristotle's philosophy to the two great categories of ,power and ,act1 giving to ,power a value and dignity of which it had been stripped by the judgment of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,even ,epicurus1 when he rehabilitated infinite space1 had been careful as a moralist to urge the expediency of placing a close limitation on human desires1 denouncing the excesses of avarice and ambition more mildly but not less decisively than the contemporary ,stoic school4 ,thus ,lucretius describes his master as travelling beyond the flaming walls of the world only that he may bring us back a knowledge of the fixed barrier set by the very laws of existence to our aspirations and hopes4 ,the classic revival of the ,renaissance did not bring back the ,greek spirit of moderation4 ,on the contrary1 the new world1 the new astronomy1 the new monarchy1 #bc and the new religion combined to create such a sense of ,power1 in contradistinction to ,act1 as the world had never before known4 ,for us this new feeling has received its most triumphant artistic expression from ,shakespeare and ,milton1 for ,france from ,rabelais1 for ,italy from ,ariosto and ,michelangelo4 ,in philosophy ,bacon strikes the same note when he values knowledge as a source of power--knowledge which for ,greek philosophy meant rather a lesson in self-restraint4 ,and this idea receives a further development from ,bacon's chief successor in ,english philosophy1 ,thomas ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi71 in whose system love of power figures as the very essence of human nature1 the self-conscious manifestation of that ,motion which is the real substance of the physical world4 ,hobbes was a precocious child1 and received a good school training2 but the five years he spent at ,oxford added nothing to his information1 and a continental tour with the young heir of the ,cavendishes had no other effect than to convince him of the general contempt into which the scholasticism still taught at ,oxford had fallen4 ,on returning to ,england1 he began his studies over again in the ,cavendish library1 acquiring a thorough familiarity with the classic literature of ,greece and ,rome1 a deep hatred 7imbibed through ,thucydides7 of democracy1 and a genuinely antique theory that the ,state should be supreme in religious no less than in civil matters4 ,amid these studies ,hobbes occasionally enjoyed the society of ,bacon1 then spending his last years in the retirement of ,gorhambury4 ,as secretary and ,latin translator he proved serviceable to the ex-,chancellor1 but remained quite unaffected by his inductive and experimental philosophy4 ,indeed1 the determining impulse of his #bd speculative activity came from the opposite quarter4 ,going abroad once more as travelling tutor1 at the age of forty1 he chanced on a copy of ,euclid in a gentleman's library lying open at the famous ,forty-,seventh ,proposition4 ,his first impulse was to reject the theorem as impossible2 but1 on going backwards from proposition to proposition1 he laid down the book not only convinced1 but in love with geometry4 ,beginning so late in life1 his ulterior studies led ,hobbes into the belief that he had squared the circle1 besides the far more pernicious error of applying the deductive method of geometry to the solution of political problems4 ,could he and ,bacon have exchanged philosophies1 the brilliant faculties of each might have been employed to better purpose4 ,the categories of ,form and ,matter1 combined with the logic of elimination and tentative generalisation1 would have found a fitting field for their application in the familiar facts of human nature4 ,but those facts refused to be treated as so many wheels1 pulleys1 and cords in a machine for crushing the life out of society and transmitting the will of a single despot unresisted through its whole extent2 for such is a faithful picture of what a well-governed community1 as ,hobbes conceived it1 ought to be4 ,during his second residence abroad he had become acquainted with the physical philosophy of ,galileo--the theory that regards every change in the external or phenomenal world as a mere rearrangement of matter and motion1 matter being an aggregate of independent molecules held together by mechanical pressure and impact4 ,the component parts of this aggregate become known to us by the impressions their movements produce on our senses1 traces of which #be are preserved in memory1 and subsequently recalled by association4 ,language consists of signs conventionally affixed to such images2 only the signs1 standing as they do for all objects of a certain sort1 have a universal value1 not possessed by the original sensations1 through which reasoning becomes possible4 ,hobbes had evidently fallen in love with algebra as well as with geometry2 and it is on the type of algebraic reasoning--in other words1 on the type of rigorous deduction--that his logic is constructed4 ,and such a view of the way in which knowledge advances seemed amply justified by the scientific triumphs of his age4 ,but his principle that all motion originates in antecedent motion1 although plausible in itself and occasionally revived by ingenious speculators1 has not been verified by modern science4 ,gravitation1 cohesion1 and chemical affinity have1 so far1 to be accepted as facts not resoluble into more general facts4 ,hobbes died before the great discoveries of ,newton which first turned away men's minds from the purely mechanical interpretation of energy4 ,that mechanical interpretation led our philosopher to reject ,aristotle's notion of sociality as an essentially human characteristic4 ,to him this seemed a mere occult quality1 the substitution of a word for an explanation4 ,the counter-view put forth in his great work1 ,leviathan1 is commonly called atomistic4 ,but it would be gross flattery to compare the ultimate elements of society1 as ,hobbes conceived them1 to the molecules of modern science1 which attract as well as repel each other2 or even with the ,democritean atoms1 which are at least neutral4 ,according to him1 the tendency to self-preservation1 shared by men with all other beings1 takes the form of an insatiable appetite #bf for power1 leading each individual to pursue his own aggrandisement at the cost of any loss or suffering to the rest4 ,and he tries to prove the permanence of this impulse by referring to the precautions against robbery taken by householders and travellers4 ,aristotle had much more justly mentioned the kindnesses shown to travellers as a proof of how widely goodwill is diffused4 ,our countryman1 with all his acuteness1 strangely ignores the necessity as a matter of prudence of going armed and locking the door at night1 even if the robbers only amounted to one in a thousand of the population4 ,modern researches have shown that there are very primitive societies where the assumed war of all against each is unknown1 predatory conflicts being a mark of more advanced civilisation1 and the cause rather than the effect of anti-social impulses4 ,granting an original state of anarchy and internecine hostility1 there is1 according to ,hobbes1 only one way out of it1 which is a joint resolution of the whole community to surrender their rights of individual sovereignty into the hands of one man1 who thenceforth becomes absolute ruler of the ,state1 with authority to defend its citizens against mutual aggressions1 and the whole community against attacks from a foreign ,power4 ,this agreement constitutes the famous ,social ,contract1 of which so much was to be heard during the next century and a-half4 ,it holds as between the citizens themselves1 but not between the subjects and their sovereign1 for that would be admitting a responsibility which there is no power to enforce4 ,and anyone refusing to obey the sovereign justly forfeits his life2 for he thereby returns to the ,state of ,nature1 where any man that likes may kill his neighbour if he can4 ,all this theory of an original institution of the ,state #bg by contract impresses a modern reader as utterly unhistorical4 ,but its value1 if any1 does not depend on its historical truth4 ,even if the remote ancestors of the seventeenth-century ,europeans had surrendered all their individual rights1 with certain trifling exceptions1 into the hands of an autocrat1 no sophistry could show that their mutual engagements were binding on the subjects of ,charles ,i4 and ,louis ,,xiv4 ,and it is really on expediency1 understood in the largest sense1 that the claims of the ,new ,monarchy are based by ,hobbes4 ,what he maintains is that nothing short of a despotic government exercised by one man can save society from relapsing into chaos4 ,but even under this amended form the theory remains amenable to historical criticism4 ,had ,hobbes pursued his studies beyond ,thucydides1 he would have found that other polities besides the ,athenian democracy broke down at the hour of trial4 ,above all1 ,roman ,imperialism1 which seems to have been his ideal1 failed to secure its subjects either against internal disorder or against foreign invasion4 ,democracy1 however1 was not the sole or the worst enemy dreaded by the author of ,leviathan as a competitor with his mortal god4 ,in the frontispiece of that work the deified monarch who holds the sword erect with his right hand grasps the crozier with his left1 thus typifying the union of the spiritual and temporal powers in the same person4 ,the publicists of the ,italian ,renaissance1 with their classical ideals1 had1 indeed1 been as anti-papal as the ,protestants2 and the political disorders fomented by the agents of the ,catholic reaction during the last hundred years had given ,hobbes an additional reason for perpetuating their point of view4 ,meanwhile another menace to #bh public order had presented itself from an opposite quarter4 ,calvinism had created a new spiritual power based on the free individual interpretation of ,scripture1 in close alliance with the alleged rights of conscience and with the spirit of republican liberty4 ,each creed in turn had attacked the ,stuart monarchy1 and the second had just effected its overthrow4 ,therefore1 to save the ,state it was necessary that religious creeds1 no less than codes of conduct1 should be dictated by the secular authority1 enslaving men's minds as well as their bodies4 ,by the dialectic irony of the speculative movement1 this attempt to fetter opinion was turned into an instrument for its more complete emancipation4 ,in order to discredit the pretensions of the religious zealots1 ,hobbes made a series of attacks on the foundations of their faith1 mostly by way of suggestion and innuendo--no more being possible under the conditions then obtaining---but with such effect that1 according to ,macaulay1 for many years the ,leviathan was the gospel of cold-blooded and hard-headed unbelievers4 ,that one who made religious belief a matter to be fixed by legislation could be in any sense a ,christian seems most unlikely4 ,he professed1 with what sincerity we know not1 to regard the existence of ,god as something only a fool could deny4 ,but his philosophy from beginning to end forms a rigorously-thought-out system of materialism which any atheist1 if otherwise it satisfied him1 might without inconsistency accept4 ,on the meeting of the ,long ,parliament1 ,hobbes again left ,england for the ,continent1 where he remained for eleven years4 ,but his principles were no more to the taste of the exiled royalists than of #bi their opponents4 ,he therefore returned once more to ,england1 made his submission to the ,parliament1 and spent the rest of his days1 practically unmolested by either party1 under the ,commonwealth and the ,restoration until his death in #afgi at the age of ninety-one4 ,it may be said of ,hobbes1 as of ,bacon1 that the intellect at work is so amazing and the mass of literary performance so imposing that the illusions of historians about the value of their contributions to the progress of thought are excusable4 ,nevertheless1 it cannot be too distinctly stated that the current or academic estimate of these great men as having effected a revolution in physical and moral science is wrong4 ,they stand as much apart from the true line of evolution as do the gigantic saurians of a remote geological period whose remains excite our wonder in museums of natural history4 ,their systems proved as futile as the monarchies of ,philip ,,ii4 and of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,bacon's dreams are no more related to the coming victories of science than ,raleigh's ,el ,dorado was to the future colonial empire of ,britain4 ,hobbes had better fortune than ,strafford1 in so far as he kept his head on his shoulders2 but the logic of his absolutism shrivelled up under the sun of ,english liberty like the great ,minister's policy of ,thorough4 ,the theory of a ,social ,contract is a speculative idea of the highest practical importance4 ,but the idea of contract as the foundation of morals goes back to ,epicurus1 and it is assumed in a more developed form by ,hooker's ,ecclesiastical ,polity4 ,its potency as a revolutionary instrument comes from the reinterpretations of ,locke and ,rousseau1 which run directly counter to the assumptions of the ,leviathan4 #cj ,hobbes shares with ,bacon the belief that all knowledge comes from experience1 besides making it clearer than his predecessor that experience of the world comes through external sense alone4 ,here also there can be no claim to originality1 for more than one school of ,greek philosophy had said the same4 ,as an element of subsequent thought1 more importance belongs to the idea of ,power1 which was to receive its full development from ,spinoza2 but only in association with other ideas derived from the philosopher whom we have next to examine1 the founder of modern metaphysics1 ,descartes4 99 99 99 99 99 #ca ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,metaphysicians ,,descartes1 ,,malebranche1 ,,spinoza1 ,,leibniz4 ,rene ,descartes 7#aeif-afej7 was a ,frenchman1 born in ,touraine1 and belonging by family to the inferior nobility4 ,educated at the ,jesuit college of ,la ,fleche1 he early acquired a distaste for the scholastic philosophy1 or at least for its details2 the theology of scholasticism1 as we shall see1 left a deep impression on him through life4 ,on leaving college he took up mathematics1 varied by a short plunge into the dissipations of ,paris4 ,some years of military service as a volunteer with the ,catholic armies at the beginning of the ,thirty ,years' ,war enabled him to travel and see the world4 ,returning to ,paris1 he resumed his studies1 but found them seriously interrupted by the tactless bores who1 as we know from ,moliere's amusing comedy ,les ,facheux1 long continued to infest ,french society4 ,to escape their assiduities ,descartes1 who prized solitude before all things1 fled the country4 ,the inheritance of an independent income enabled the philosopher to live where he liked2 and ,holland became1 with a few interruptions1 his chosen residence for the next twenty years 7#afbi-di74 ,even here frequent changes of residence and occasional concealment of his address were necessary in order to elude the visits of importunate admirers4 ,with all his unsociability there seems to have #cb been something singularly magnetic about the personality of ,descartes2 yet he only fell in with one congenial spirit1 the ,princess ,elizabeth1 daughter of the unfortunate ,winter ,king and granddaughter of our ,james ,i4 ,possessing to the fullest extent the intellectual brilliancy and the incomparable charm of the ,stuart family1 this great lady impressed the lonely thinker as the only person who ever understood his philosophy4 ,another royal friendship brought his career to an untimely end4 ,queen ,christina of ,sweden1 the gifted and restless daughter of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 heard of ,descartes1 and invited him to her ,court4 ,on his arrival she sent for the pilot who had brought the illustrious stranger to ,stockholm and questioned him about his passenger4 ,madame1 he replied1 it is not a man whom ,i conducted to your ,majesty1 but a demi-god4 ,he taught me more in three weeks of the science of seamanship and of winds and navigation than ,i had learned in the sixty years ,i had been at sea 7,miss ,e4 ,s4 ,haldane's ,life of ,rene ,descartes74 ,the ,queen fully came up to the expectations of her visitor1 in whose eyes she had no fault but an unfortunate tendency to waste her time on learning ,greek4 ,besides her other merits1 she possessed a sweetness and goodness which made men devoted to her service4 ,it soon appeared that1 as with others of the same rank1 this was only the veneer of a heartless selfishness4 ,christina1 who was an early riser1 required his attendance in her library to give her lessons in philosophy at five o'clock in the morning4 ,descartes was by habit a very late riser4 ,besides1 he had not even a lodging in the royal palace1 but was staying at the ,french ,embassy1 and in going there had to pass over a long bridge which was always bitterly cold4 ,the cold #cc killed him4 ,he had arrived at ,stockholm in ,october1 and meant to leave in ,january2 but remained at the urgent request of the ,queen1 who1 however1 made no change in the hour of their interviews1 although that winter was one of the severest on record4 ,at the beginning of ,february1 #afej1 he fell ill and died of inflammation of the lungs on the #aath1 in the fifty-fourth year of his age4 ,descartes had the physical courage which ,hobbes lacked2 but he seems1 like ,bacon1 to have been a moral coward4 ,the most striking instance of this is that1 on hearing of ,galileo's condemnation for teaching the heliocentric astronomy1 he withheld from publication and had even thoughts of destroying a work of his own in which the same doctrine was maintained4 ,this was at a time when he was living in a country where there could be no question of personal danger from the ,inquisition4 ,but something of the same weakness shows itself in his running away from ,france to escape those intrusions on his studious retirement which one would think might have been checked by letting it be known with sufficient firmness that his hours could not be wasted on idle conversation4 ,and we have seen how at last his life was lost for no better reason than the dread of giving offence to ,queen ,christina4 ,it seems strange that a character so unheroic should figure among the great emancipators of human thought4 ,in fact1 ,descartes's services to liberty have been much exaggerated4 ,his intellectual fame rests on three foundations4 ,of these the most indubitable is the creation of analytical geometry1 the starting-point of modern mathematics4 ,the value of his contributions to physics has been much disputed2 but1 on the whole1 expert opinion seems to have decided that what was new in them was not true1 and what was true was not new4 ,however1 the place we must assign ,descartes in the history of philosophy can only be determined by our opinion of his metaphysics4 #cd ,illustration3 ,,rene ,,descartes4 #ce ,as a philosopher ,descartes has1 to begin with1 the merit of exemplary clearness4 ,the fault is not with him if we cannot tell what he thought and how he came to think it4 ,the classic ,discourse on ,method 7#afcg7 relates his mental history in a style of almost touching simplicity4 ,it appears that from an early age truth had been his paramount object1 not as with ,bacon and ,hobbes for its utility1 but for its own sake4 ,in search of this ideal he read widely1 but without finding what he wanted4 ,the great and famous works of literature might entertain or dazzle2 they could not convince4 ,the philosophers professed to teach truth2 their endless disputes showed that they had not found it4 ,mathematics1 on the other hand1 presented a pleasing picture of demonstrated certainty1 but a certainty that seemed to be prized only as a sure foundation for the mechanical arts4 ,wearily throwing his books aside1 the young man then applied himself to the great book of life1 mingling with all sorts and conditions of men to hear what they had to say about the prime interests of existence4 ,but the same vanity and vexation of spirit followed him here4 ,men were no more agreed among themselves than were the authorities of his college days4 ,the truths of religion seemed1 indeed1 to offer a safe refuge2 but they were an exception that proved the rule2 being1 as ,descartes observes1 a supernatural revelation1 not the natural knowledge that he wanted4 ,the conflict of authorities had at least one good result1 which was to discredit the very notion of #cf authority1 thus throwing the inquirer back on his own reason as the sole remaining resource4 ,and as mathematics seemed1 so far1 to be the only satisfactory science1 the most reasonable course was to give a wider extension and application to the methods of algebra and geometry4 ,four fundamental rules were thus obtained3 7#a7 ,to admit nothing as true that was not evidently so2 7#b7 to analyse every problem into as many distinct questions as the nature of the subject required2 7#c7 to ascend gradually from the simplest to the most complex subjects2 and 7#d7 to be sure that his enumerations and surveys were so exhaustive and complete as to let no essential element of the question escape4 ,the rules as they stand are ill-arranged1 vague1 and imperfect4 ,the last should come first and the first last4 ,the notions of simplicity1 complexity1 and truth are neither illustrated nor defined4 ,and no pains are taken to discriminate judgments from concepts4 ,it may be said that the method worked well2 at least ,descartes tells us that with the help of his rules he made rapid progress in the solution of mathematical problems4 ,we may believe in his success without admitting that an inferior genius could have achieved the same results by the same means4 ,the real point is to ascertain whether the method1 whatever its utility in mathematics1 could be advantageously applied to metaphysics4 ,and the answer seems to be that as manipulated by its author the new system led to nothing but hopeless fallacies4 ,after reserving a provisional assent to the customs of the country where he happens to be residing and to the creed of the ,roman ,church1 ,descartes begins by calling in question the whole mass of beliefs he has #cg hitherto accepted1 including the reality of the external world4 ,but the very act of doubt implies the existence of the doubter himself4 ,i think1 therefore ,i am4 ,it has been supposed that the initial affirmation of this self-evident principle implies that ,descartes identified ,being with ,thought4 ,he did no such thing4 ,no more is meant1 to begin with1 than that1 whatever else is or is not1 ,i the thinker certainly am4 ,this is no great discovery2 the interesting thing is to find out what it implies4 ,a good deal according to ,descartes4 ,first he infers that1 since the act of thinking assures him of his existence1 therefore he is a substance the whole essence of which consists in thought1 which is independent of place and of any material object--in short1 an immaterial soul1 entirely distinct from the body1 easier to know1 and capable of existing without it4 ,here the confusion of conception with judgment is apparent1 and it leads to a confusion of our thoughts about reality with the realities themselves4 ,and ,descartes carries this loose reasoning a step further by going on to argue that1 as the certainty of his own existence has no other guarantee than the clearness with which it is inferred from the fact of his thinking1 it must therefore be a safe rule to conclude that whatever things we conceive very clearly and distinctly are all true4 ,in his other great philosophical work1 the ,meditations1 ,descartes sets out at greater length1 but with less clearness1 his arguments for the immateriality of the soul4 ,here it is fully admitted that1 besides thinking1 self-consciousness covers the functions of perceiving1 feeling1 desiring1 and willing2 nor does it seem to be pretended that these experiences are reducible to forms of thought4 ,but it is claimed that they depend on #ch thought in the sense that without thought one would not be aware of their existence2 whereas it can easily be conceived without them4 ,a little more introspection would show that the second part of the assertion is not true2 for there is no thought without words1 and no words1 however inaudibly articulated1 without a number of tactual and muscular sensations1 nor even without a series of distinct volitions4 ,another noticeable point is that1 so far from obeying the methodical rule to proceed from the simple to the complex1 ,descartes does just the contrary4 ,starting with the whole complex content of consciousness1 he works down by a series of arbitrary rejections to what1 according to him1 is the simple fact of immaterial thought4 ,let us see how it fares with his attempt to reconstruct knowledge on that elementary basis4 ,returning to his postulate of universal doubt1 our philosopher argues from this to an imperfection in his nature1 and thence to the idea of a perfect being4 ,the reasoning is most slipshod2 for1 even admitting that knowledge is preferable to ignorance--which has not been proved--it does not follow that the dogmatist is more perfect than the doubter4 ,indeed1 one might infer the contrary from ,descartes's having passed with progressive reflection from the one stage to the other4 ,overlooking the paralogism1 let us grant that he has the idea of a perfect being1 and go on to the question of how he came to possess it4 ,one might suggest that the consciousness of perfect self-knowledge1 combined with the wish to know more of other subjects1 would be sufficient to create an ideal of omniscience1 and1 proceeding in like manner from a comparison of wants with their satisfactions1 to enlarge this ideal into the #ci notion of infinite perfection all round4 ,descartes1 however1 is not really out for truth--at least1 not in metaphysics2 he is out for a justification of what the ,jesuits had taught him at ,la ,fleche1 and no ,jesuit casuistry could be more sophistical than the logic he finds good enough for the purpose4 ,to argue1 as he does1 that the idea of a perfect being1 in his mind1 can be explained only by its proceeding from such a being as its creator is already sufficiently audacious4 ,but this feat is far surpassed by his famous ontological proof of ,theism4 ,a triangle1 he tells us1 need not necessarily exist2 but1 assuming there to be one1 its three angles must be equal to two right angles4 ,with ,god1 on the other hand1 to be conceived is to be2 for1 existence being a perfection1 it follows1 from the idea of a perfect ,being1 that he must exist4 ,the answer is more clear and distinct than any of ,descartes's demonstrations4 ,perfection is affirmed of existing or of imaginary subjects1 but existence is not a perfection in itself4 ,a third argument for ,theism remains to be considered4 ,descartes asks how he came to exist4 ,not by his own act2 for on that hypothesis he would have given himself all the perfections that now he lacks2 nor from any other imperfect cause1 for that would be to repeat the difficulty1 not to solve it4 ,besides1 the simple continuance of his existence from moment to moment needs an explanation4 ,for time consists of an infinity of parts1 none depending in any way on the others2 so that my having been a little while ago is no reason why ,i should be now1 unless there is some power by which ,i am created anew4 ,here we must observe that ,descartes is playing fast and loose with the law of causation4 ,by what he calls the light of nature--in other words1 the light of ,greek #dj philosophy--things can no more pass into nothing than they can come out of it4 ,moreover1 the difficulty is the same for my supposed ,creator as for myself4 ,we are told that thought is a necessary perfection of the divine nature4 ,but thinking implies time2 therefore ,god also exists from moment to moment4 ,how1 then1 can he recover his being any more than we can8 ,the answer1 of course1 would be3 because he is perfect1 and perfection involves existence4 ,thus the argument from causation throws us back on the so-called ontological argument1 whose futility has already been shown4 ,this very idea of perfection involves us in fresh difficulties with the law of causation4 ,a perfect ,being might be expected to make perfect creatures--which by hypothesis we are not4 ,descartes quite sees this1 and only escapes by a verbal quibble4 ,our imperfections1 he says1 come from the share that ,nothingness has in our nature4 ,once allow so much to the creative power of zero1 and ,god seems to be a rather gratuitous postulate4 ,after proving to his own satisfaction the existence of the soul and of ,god1 ,descartes returns to the starting-point of his whole inquiry--that is1 the reality of the material world and of its laws4 ,and now his theology supplies him with a short and easy method for getting rid of the sceptical doubts that had troubled him at first4 ,he has a clear and distinct idea of his own body and of other bodies surrounding it on all sides as extended substances communicating movements to one another4 ,and he has a tendency to accept whatever is clearly and distinctly conceived by him as true4 ,but to suppose that ,god created that tendency with the intention of deceiving him would argue a want of veracity in the divine nature incompatible with its #da perfection4 ,such reasoning obviously ignores the alternative that ,god might be deceiving us for our good4 ,or rather what we call truth might not be an insight into the nature of things in themselves1 but a correct judgment of antecedents and consequents4 ,our consciousness would then be a vast sensori-motor machinery adjusted to secure the maintenance and perfection of life4 ,descartes1 as a mathematician1 places the essence of ,matter or ,body in extension4 ,here he agrees with another mathematical philosopher1 ,plato1 who says the same in his ,timaeus4 ,so far the coincidence might be accidental2 but when we find that the ,frenchman1 like the ,greek1 conceives his materialised space as being originally divided into triangular bodies1 the evidence of unacknowledged borrowing seems irresistible--the more so that ,huyghens mentions this as customary with ,descartes4 ,the great author of the ,method and the ,meditations--for1 after every critical deduction1 his greatness as a thinker remains undoubted--contributed nothing to ethics4 ,here he is content to reaffirm the general conclusions of ,greek philosophy1 the necessary superiority of mind to matter1 of the soul to the body1 of spirit to sense4 ,he accepts free-will from ,aristotle without any attempt to reconcile it with the rigid determinism of his own mechanical naturalism4 ,at the same time there is a remarkable anticipation of modern psychology in his doctrine of intellectual assent as an act of the will4 ,when our judgments go beyond what is guaranteed by a clear and distinct perception of their truth there is a possibility of error1 and then the error is our own fault1 the precipitate conclusion having been a voluntary act4 ,thus human free-will intervenes to clear ,god of all #db responsibility for our delusions as well as for our crimes4 ,,malebranche4 ,pascal1 we are told1 could not forgive ,descartes for limiting ,god's action on the world to the initial fillip by which the process of evolution was started4 ,nevertheless1 ,pascal's friends1 the ,jansenists1 were content to adopt ,cartesianism as their religious philosophy1 and his epigram certainly does not apply to the next distinguished ,cartesian1 ,arnold ,geulincx 7#afbe-affi71 a ,fleming of ,antwerp4 ,unfortunate in his life1 this eminent teacher has of all original thinkers received the least credit for his services to metaphysics from posterity1 being1 outside a small circle of students1 still utterly unknown to fame4 ,geulincx is the author of a theory called ,occasionalism4 ,descartes had represented mind1 which he identified with ,thought1 and matter1 which he identified with ,extension1 as two antithetical substances with not a note in common4 ,nevertheless1 he supposed that communications between them took place through a part of the brain called the pineal body4 ,geulincx cut through even this narrow isthmus1 denying the possibility of any machinery for transmitting sensible images from the material world to our consciousness1 or volitions from the mind to the limbs4 ,how1 then1 were the facts to be explained8 ,according to him1 by the intervention of ,god4 ,when the so-called organs of sense are acted on by vibrations from the external world1 or when a particular movement is willed by the mind1 the corresponding mental and material modifications are miraculously produced by the exercise of his omnipotence2 and it is because these events occur on occasion of signals of which they #dc are not the effects but the consequents that the theory has received the name of ,occasionalism4 ,the theory1 as ,geulincx formulated it1 seems at first sight simply grotesque2 and from a religious point of view it has the additional drawback of making ,god the immediate executor of every crime committed by man4 ,nevertheless1 it is merely the logical application of a principle subsequently admitted by profound thinkers of the most opposing schools--namely1 that consciousness cannot produce or transmit energy1 combined with the belief in a ,god who does not exist for nothing4 ,even past the middle of the nineteenth century many ,english and ,french naturalists were persuaded that animal species to the number of #cjj1jjj represented as many distinct creative acts2 and at least one astronomer1 who was also a philosopher1 declared that the ultimate atoms of matter1 running up to an immeasurably higher figure1 bore the stamp of the manufactured article4 ,the capture of ,cartesianism by theology was completed by ,nicolas ,malebranche 7#afch-agae74 ,this accomplished writer and thinker1 dedicated by physical infirmity to a contemplative life1 entered the ,oratory at an early age1 and remained in it until his death4 ,coming across a copy of ,descartes's ,treatise on ,man at twenty-six1 he at once became a convert to the new philosophy1 and devoted the next ten years to its exclusive study4 ,at the end of that period he published his masterpiece1 ,on the ,investigation of ,truth 7,de la ,recherche de la ,verite1 #afgd71 which at once won him an enormous reputation4 ,it was followed by other works of less importance4 ,the legend that ,malebranche's end was hastened by an argument with ,berkeley has been disproved4 #dd ,without acknowledging the obligation1 ,malebranche accepts the conclusions of ,geulincx to the extent of denying the possibility of any communication between mind and matter4 ,indeed1 he goes further1 and denies that one portion of matter can act on another4 ,but his real advance on ,occasionalism lies in the question3 ,how1 then1 can we know the laws of the material universe1 or even that there is such a thing as matter at all8 ,once more ,god intervenes to solve the difficulty1 but after a fashion much less crude than the miraculous apparatus of ,geulincx4 ,introspection assures us that we are thinking things1 and that our minds are stored with ideas1 including the idea of ,god the all-perfect ,being1 and the idea of ,extension with all the mathematical and physical truths logically deducible therefrom4 ,we did not make this idea1 therefore it comes from ,god1 was in ,god's mind before it was in ours4 ,following ,plotinus1 ,malebranche calls this idea intelligible ,extension4 ,it is the archetype of our material world4 ,the same is true of all other clear and distinct ideas2 they are1 as ,platonism teaches1 of divine origin4 ,but is it necessary to suppose that the ideal contents of each separate soul were placed in it at birth by the ,creator8 ,surely the law of parsimony forbids4 ,it is a simpler and easier explanation to suppose that the divine archetypal ideas alone exists1 and that we apprehend them by a mystical communion with the divine consciousness2 that1 in short1 we see all things in ,god4 ,and in order to make this vision possible we must1 as the ,apostle says1 live1 move1 and have our being in ,god4 ,as a mathematician would say1 ,god must be the locus1 the place of souls4 ,there is unquestionably something grandiose about this theory1 which1 however1 has the defect in orthodox #de opinion of logically leading to the ,pantheism1 held in abhorrence by ,malebranche1 of his greater contemporary ,spinoza4 ,and it is a suggestive circumstance that the very similar philosophy of the ,eternal ,consciousness held by our countryman ,t4 ,h4 ,green has been shown by the criticism of ,henry ,sidgwick to exclude the personality of ,god4 ,,spinoza4 ,with the philosopher whom ,i have just named we come for the first time in modern history to a figure recalling in its sustained equality of intellectual and moral excellence the most heroic figures of ,hellenic thought4 ,giordano ,bruno we may1 indeed1 pronounce1 like ,lucan or ,cranmer1 by his death approved1 but his submission at ,venice has to be set against his martyrdom at ,rome2 and if there is nothing very censurable in his career as a wandering teacher1 there is also nothing worthy of any particular respect4 ,differences of environment and heredity may no doubt be invoked to account for the difference of character2 and in the philosophy about to be considered the determining influence of such causes for the first time finds due recognition2 but on the same principle our ethical judgments also are determined by the very constitution of things4 ,baruch de ,spinoza 7#afcb-afgg71 born at ,amsterdam1 belonged to a family of ,portuguese ,jews1 exiled on account of their ,hebrew faith1 in which also he was brought up4 ,soon after reaching manhood he fell away from the synagogue1 preferring to share in the religious exercises of certain latitudinarian ,christian sects4 ,spies were set to report his conversation1 which soon supplied evidence of sufficiently heterodox opinions4 #df ,a sentence of formal excommunication followed2 but modern research has discredited the story of an attempt to assassinate him made by an emissary of the synagogue4 ,after successfully resisting the claim of his sister and his brother-in-law to shut out the apostate from his share of the paternal inheritance1 ,spinoza surrendered the disputed property1 but henceforth broke off all communication with his family4 ,subsequently he refused an offer of #b1jjj florins1 made by a wealthy friend and admirer1 ,simon de ,vries1 as also a proposal from the same friend to leave him his whole fortune1 insisting that it should go to the legal heir1 ,simon's brother ,isaac4 ,the latter1 on succeeding1 wished to settle an annual pension of #ejj florins on ,spinoza1 but the philosopher would accept no more than #cjj4 ,books were his only luxury1 material wants being supplied by polishing glass lenses1 an art in which he attained considerable proficiency4 ,but it was an unhealthy occupation1 and probably contributed to his death by consumption4 ,democracy was then and long afterwards associated with fanaticism and intolerance rather than with free-thought in religion4 ,the liberal party in ,dutch politics was the aristocratic party4 ,spinoza sympathised with its leader1 ,john de ,witt2 he wept bitter tears over the great statesman's murder2 and only the urgent remonstrances of his friends1 who knew what danger would be incurred by such a step1 prevented him from placarding the walls of the ,hague1 where he then resided1 with an address reproaching the infuriated people for their crime4 #dg ,illustration3 ,reproduced 7by permission7 from ,spinoza's ,short ,treatise on ,god1 ,man1 and his ,well-being1 by ,professor ,a4 ,wolf 7,a4 ,c4 ,black74 #dh ,in #afgc the enlightened ruler of the ,palatinate1 a brother of ,descartes's ,princess ,elizabeth1 offered ,spinoza a professorship at ,heidelberg1 with full liberty to teach his philosophy4 ,but the pantheistic recluse wisely refused it4 ,even at the present day such teaching as his would meet with little mercy at ,berlin1 ,cambridge1 or ,edinburgh4 ,as it was1 we have reason to believe that even in free ,holland only a premature death saved him from a prosecution for blasphemy1 and his great work the ,ethica could not with safety be published during his lifetime4 ,it appeared anonymously among his posthumous works in ,november1 #afgg1 without the name of the true place of publication on the title-page4 ,spinoza was for his time no less daring as a ,biblical critic than as a metaphysician4 ,his celebrated ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus has for its primary purpose to vindicate the freedom of scientific thought against ecclesiastical interference4 ,and this he does by drawing a trenchant line of demarcation between the respective offices of religion and of philosophy4 ,the business of the one is to form the character and to purify the heart1 of the other to guide and inform the intellect4 ,when religion undertakes to teach scientific truth the very ends for which it exists are defeated4 ,when theological dogmatism gains control of the ,churches the worst passions are developed under its influence4 ,instead of becoming lowly and charitable1 men become disturbers of public order1 grasping intriguers1 bitter and censorious persecutors4 ,the claims of theology to dictate our intellectual beliefs are not only mischievous1 but totally invalid4 ,they rest on the authority of the ,bible as a revelation of ,god's will4 ,but no such supernatural revelation ever was or could be given4 ,such violation of the order of nature as the miracles recorded in ,scripture history would be impossible4 ,and the narratives recording them are discredited by #di the criticism which shows that various books of the ,old ,testament were not written by the men whose names they bear1 but long after their time4 ,as a ,hebrew scholar ,spinoza discusses the ,jewish ,scriptures in some detail1 showing in particular that the ,pentateuch is of a later date than ,moses4 ,his limited knowledge of ,greek is offered as a reason for not handling the ,new ,testament with equal freedom2 but some contradictions are indicated as disallowing the infallibility claimed for it4 ,at the same time the perfection of ,christ's character is fully acknowledged and accepted as a moral revelation of ,god4 ,spinoza shared to the fullest extent1 and even went beyond1 ,descartes's ambition to reconstruct philosophy on a mathematical basis4 ,the idea may have come to him from the ,french thinker1 but it is actually of much older origin1 being derived from ,plato1 the leading spirit of the ,renaissance1 as ,aristotle had been the oracle of the later ,middle ,ages4 ,now ,plato's ideal had been to construct a philosophy transcending the assumptions--or1 as he calls them1 the hypotheses--of geometry as much as those assumptions transcend the demonstrations of geometry2 and this also was the ideal of ,spinoza4 ,descartes had been content to accept from tradition his ultimate realities1 ,thought1 ,extension1 and ,god1 without showing that they must necessarily exist2 for his proof of ,god's existence starts from an idea in the human mind1 while ,thought and ,extension are not deduced at all4 ,to appreciate the work of the ,hebrew philosopher1 of the lonely muser1 bred in the religion of ,jahveh--a name traditionally interpreted as the very expression of absolute self-existence--we must conceive him as starting with a question deeper even than the ,cartesian #ej doubt1 asking not ,how can ,i know what is8 but ,why should there be anything whatever8 ,and the answer1 divested of scholastic terminology1 is3 ,because it is inconceivable that there should be nothing1 and if there is anything there must be everything4 ,this universe of things1 which must also be everlasting1 ,spinoza calls ,god4 ,the philosophy or religion--for it is both--which identifies ,god with the totality of existence was of long standing in ,greece1 and had been elaborated in systematic detail by the ,stoics4 ,it has been known for the last two centuries under the name of ,pantheism1 a word of ,greek etymology1 but not a creation of the ,greeks themselves1 and1 indeed1 of more modern date than ,spinoza4 ,historians always speak of him as a ,pantheist1 and there is no reason to think that he would have objected to the designation had it been current during his lifetime4 ,but there are important points of distinction between him and those who preceded or followed him in the same speculative direction4 ,the ,stoics differed from him in being materialists4 ,to them reality and corporeality were convertible terms4 ,it seems likely that ,hobbes and his contemporary1 the atomist ,gassendi1 were of the same opinion1 although they did not say it in so many words4 ,but ,descartes was a strong spiritualist2 and ,spinoza followed the master's lead so far1 at any rate1 as to give ,thought at least equal reality with matter1 which he also identified with ,extension4 ,it has been seen what difficulties were created by the radical ,cartesian antithesis between ,thought and ,extension1 or--to call them by their more familiar names--mind and body1 when taken together with the intimate association shown by experience to obtain between them2 and also how #ea ,geulincx and ,malebranche were led on by the very spirit of philosophy itself almost to submerge the two disparate substances in the all-absorbing agency of ,god4 ,the obvious course1 then1 for ,spinoza1 being unfettered by the obligations of any ,christian creed1 was to take the last remaining step1 to resolve the dualism of ,thought and ,extension into the unity of the divine substance4 ,in fact1 the ,hebrew philosopher does this1 declaring boldly that ,thought and ,extension are one and the same thing--which thing is ,god1 the only true reality of which they are merely appearances4 ,and1 so far1 he has had many followers who strive to harmonise the opposition of what we now call subject and object in the synthesis of the ,all-,one4 ,but he goes beyond this1 expanding the conception of ,god--or the ,absolute--to a degree undreamed of by any religion or philosophy formulated before or after his time4 ,god1 ,spinoza tells us1 is a ,substance consisting of infinite attributes1 each of which expresses his absolute and eternal essence4 ,but of these attributes two alone1 ,thought and ,extension1 are known to us at present1 so that our ignorance infinitely exceeds our knowledge of reality4 ,his extant writings do not explain by what process he mounted to this1 the most dizzy height of speculation ever attained by man2 but1 in the absence of definite information1 some guiding considerations suggest themselves as probable4 ,bruno1 whom ,spinoza is held1 on strong grounds1 to have read1 identified ,god with the supreme unifying principle of a universe extending through infinite space4 ,descartes1 on the other hand1 conceived ,god as a thinking rather than as an extended substance4 ,but his school tended1 as we saw1 to conceive ,god as mediating #eb between mind and body in a way that suggested their real union through his power4 ,furthermore1 the habit common to all ,cartesians of regarding geometrical reasoning as the most perfect form of thought inevitably led to the conception of thought as accompanying space wherever it went--in fact1 as stretching like it to infinity4 ,again1 from the ,cartesian point of view1 that ,extension which is the very essence of the material world1 while it covers space1 is more than mere space2 it includes not only co-existence1 but succession or time--that is1 scientifically speaking1 the eternal sequence of physical causes2 or1 theologically speaking1 the creative activity of ,god4 ,and reason or thought had also since ,aristotle been more or less identified with the law of universal causation no less than with the laws of geometry4 ,thus1 then1 the ground was prepared for ,spinoza1 as a pantheistic monist1 to conceive ,god under the two attributes of ,extension and ,thought1 each in its own way disclosing his essence as no other than infinite ,power4 ,but why should ,god have1 or consist of1 two attributes and no more8 ,there is a good reason why we should know only those two4 ,it is that we are ourselves modes of ,thought united to modes of ,extension1 of which our thoughts are the revealing ideas4 ,but it would be gross anthropomorphism to impose the limitations of our knowledge on the infinite being of ,god1 manifested through those very attributes as unlimited ,power4 ,the infinite of co-existence1 which is space1 the infinite of causal procession1 which is time1 suggest an infinity of unimaginable but not inconceivable attributes of which the one divine substance consists4 ,and here at last we get the explanation of why there should be such things as ,thought and ,extension at all4 ,they are there simply because everything is4 ,if ,i grant #ec anything--and ,i must1 at least1 grant myself--,i grant existence1 which1 having nothing outside itself1 must fill up all the possibilities of being which only exclude the self-contradictory from their domain4 ,thus1 the philosophy of ,spinoza neither obliges him to believe in the monsters of mythology nor in the miracles of ,scripture1 nor in the dogmas of ,catholic theology1 nor even in free-will2 nor1 again1 would it oblige him to reject by anticipation the marvels of modern science4 ,for1 according to him1 the impossibility of really incredible things could be deduced with the certainty of mathematical demonstration from the law of contradiction itself4 ,hegel has given the name of acosmism1 or negation of the world1 to this form of pantheism1 interpreting it as a doctrine that absorbs all concrete reality and individuality in the absolute unity of the divine essence4 ,no misconception could be more complete4 ,differentiation is the very soul of ,spinoza's system4 ,it is1 indeed1 more open to the charge of excessive dispersion than of excessive centralisation4 ,power1 which is ,god's essence1 means no more than the realisation through all eternity of all possibilities of existence1 with no end or aim but just the process of infinite production itself4 ,there is1 indeed1 a nominal identification between the material processes of ,extension and the ideal processes of ,thought4 ,but this amounts to no more than a re-statement in abstract terms of the empirical truth that there is a close connection between body and mind4 ,like the double-aspect theory1 the parallelistic theory1 the materialistic theory1 the theory of interaction1 and the theory of more or less complete reciprocal independence1 it is a mere verbalism1 telling us nothing that we did not know before4 ,or1 if there #ed is more1 it consists of the very questionable assumption that body and mind must come in somewhere to fill up what would otherwise be blank possibilities of existence4 ,and this1 like other metaphysical assumptions1 is an illegitimate generalisation from experience4 ,the ideas of space and time as filled-up continua supply the model on which the whole universe must be constructed4 ,like them1 it must be infinite and eternal1 but1 so to speak1 at a higher power2 as in them1 every part must be determined by the position of all other parts1 with the determination put at a logical instead of at a descriptive value2 corresponding to their infinitely varied differentiation of position and quantity1 there must be an infinite differentiation of concrete content2 and1 finally1 the laws of the universe must be demonstrable by the same a priori mathematical method that has been so successfully applied to continuous quantity4 ,the geometrical form into which ,spinoza has thrown his philosophy unfortunately restricts the number of readers--always rather small--that it might otherwise attract4 ,people feel themselves mystified1 wearied1 and cheated by the appearance1 without the reality1 of logical demonstration2 and the repulsion is aggravated by the barbarous scholasticism with which--unlike ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 and ,descartes--he peppers his pages4 ,yet1 like the ,greek philosophers1 he is much more modern1 more on the true line of developing thought than they are4 ,but to get at the true kernel of his teaching we must1 like ,goethe1 disregard the logical husks in which it is wrapped up4 ,and1 as it happens1 ,spinoza has greatly facilitated this operation by printing his most interesting and suggestive discussions in the form of ,scholia1 ,explanations1 and ,appendices4 ,even #ee these are not easy reading2 but1 to quote his own pathetic words1 ,if the way of salvation lay ready to hand1 and could be found without great toil1 would it be neglected by nearly everyone8 ,but all glorious things are as difficult as they are rare4 ,some of his expositors have called ,spinoza a mystic2 and his philosophy has been traced1 in part at least1 to the mystical pantheism of certain medieval ,jews4 ,in my opinion this is a mistake2 and ,i will now proceed to show that the phrases on which it rests are open to an interpretation more consistent with the rational foundations of the whole system4 ,the things that have done most to fasten the character of a mystic on ,spinoza are his identification of virtue with the knowledge and love of ,god1 and his theory--so suggestive of ,christian theology at its highest flight--that ,god loves himself with an infinite love4 ,that1 like ,plato and ,matthew ,arnold1 he should value religion as a means of popular moralisation might seem natural enough2 but not1 except from a mystical motive1 that he should apparently value morality merely as a help to the religious life4 ,on examination1 however1 it appears that the beatific vision of this pantheist offers no experience going beyond the limits of nature and reason4 ,since ,god and the universe are one1 to know ,god is to know that we are1 body and soul1 necessary modes of the two attributes1 ,extension and ,thought1 by which the infinite ,power which is the essence of the universe expresses itself for us4 ,to love ,god is to recognise our own vitality as a portion of that power1 welcoming it with grateful joy as a gift from the universe whence we come4 ,and to say that ,god loves himself with an infinite love is merely to say that the attribute of ,thought eternally divides itself among an infinity of #ef thinking beings1 through whose activity the universe keeps up a delighted consciousness of itself4 ,spinoza declares by the very name of his great work that for him the philosophical problem is essentially a problem of ethics1 being1 indeed1 no other than the old question1 first started by ,plato1 how to reconcile disinterestedness with self-interest2 and his metaphysical system is really an elaborate mechanism for proving that1 on the profoundest interpretation1 their claims coincide4 ,his great contemporary1 ,hobbes1 had taught that the fundamental impulse of human nature is the will for power2 and ,spinoza accepts this idea to the fullest extent in proclaiming ,power to be the very stuff of which we and all other things are made4 ,but he parts company with the ,english philosopher in his theory of what it means4 ,on his view it is an utter illusion to suppose that to gratify such passions as pride1 avarice1 vanity1 and lust is to acquire or exercise power4 ,for strength means freedom1 self-determination2 and no man can be free whose happiness depends on a fortuitous combination of external circumstances1 or on the consent of other persons whose desires are such as to set up a conflict between his gratification and theirs4 ,real power means self-realisation1 the exercise of that faculty which is most purely human--that is to say1 of ,thought under the form of reason4 ,in pleading for the subordination of the self-seeking desires to reason ,spinoza repeats the lessons of moral philosophy in all ages and countries since its first independent constitution4 ,in connecting the interests of morality with the interests of science as such1 he follows the tradition of ,athenian thought4 ,in interpreting pantheism as an ethical enthusiasm of the universe he returns to the creed of ,stoicism1 and #eg strikes the keynote of ,wordsworth's loftiest poetry4 ,in fixing each man's place in nature as one among the infinite individuations of divine power he repeats another ,stoic idea--with this difference1 however1 that among the ,stoics it was intimately associated with their teleology1 with the doctrine that everything in nature has a function without whose performance the universe would not be complete2 whereas ,spinoza1 following ,bacon and ,descartes1 utterly abjures final causes as an anthropomorphism1 an intrusion of human interests into a universe whose sole perfection is to exhaust the possibilities of existence4 ,and herein lies his justification of evil which the ,stoics could only defend on aesthetic grounds as enhancing the beauty of moral heroism by contrast and conflict4 ,if ,i am asked1 he says1 why ,god did not create all men of such a character as to be guided by reason alone1 my answer is because he had materials enough to create all things from the highest to the lowest degree of perfection4 ,perfection with him meaning reality1 this account of evil--and of error also--points to the theory of degrees of reality1 revived and elaborated in our own time by ,mr4 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley1 involving a correlative theory of illusion4 ,now1 the idea of illusion1 although older than ,plato1 was first applied on a great scale in ,plato's philosophy1 of whose influence on seventeenth-century thought this is not the only example4 ,we shall find it to some extent countervailed by a revived ,aristotelian current in the work of the metaphysician who now remains to be considered4 ,,leibniz4 ,g4 ,w4 ,leibniz 7#afdf-agaf71 son of a professor at the ,university of ,leipzig1 is marked by some of the distinguishing intellectual characters of the ,german genius4 #eh ,far more truly than ,francis ,bacon1 this man took all knowledge for his province4 ,at once a mathematician1 a physicist1 a historian1 a metaphysician1 and a diplomatist1 he went to the bottom of whatever subject he touched1 and enriched all his multifarious studies with new views or with new facts4 ,and as with other great countrymen of his1 the final end of all this curiosity and interest was to combine and reconcile4 ,one of his ambitions was to create a universal language of philosophy1 by whose means its problems were to be made a matter of mathematical demonstration2 another to harmonise ancient with modern speculation2 a third--the most chimerical of all--to compose the differences between ,rome and ,protestantism2 a fourth--partly realised long after his time--to unite the ,german ,calvinists with the ,lutherans4 ,in politics he tried1 with equal unsuccess1 to build up a ,confederation of the ,rhine as a barrier against ,louis ,,xiv41 and to divert the ambition of ,louis himself from encroachments on his neighbours to the conquest of ,egypt4 ,it seems probable that no intellect of equal power was ever applied in modern times to the service of philosophy4 ,and this power is demonstrated1 not1 as with other metaphysicians1 by constructions of more or less contestable value1 however dazzling the ingenuity they may display1 but by contributions of the first order to positive science4 ,it is now agreed that ,leibniz discovered the differential calculus independently of ,newton2 and1 what is more1 that the formulation by which alone it has been made available for fruitful application was his exclusive invention4 ,in physics he is a pioneer of the conservation of energy4 ,in geology he starts the theory that our planet began as a glowing molten mass derived from the sun2 and the modern #ei theory of evolution is a special application of his theory of development4 ,intellect alone1 however1 does not make a great philosopher2 character also is required2 and ,leibniz's character was quite unworthy of his genius4 ,ambitious and avaricious1 a courtier and a time-server1 he neither made truth for its own sake a paramount object1 nor would he keep on terms with those who cherished a nobler ideal4 ,after cultivating ,spinoza's acquaintance1 he joined in the cry of obloquy raised after his death1 and was mean enough to stir up religious prejudice against ,newton's theory of gravitation4 ,of the calamity that embittered his closing days we may say with confidence that it could not possibly have befallen ,spinoza4 ,on the accession of the ,elector of ,hanover to the ,english crown as ,george ,i41 ,leibniz sought for an invitation to the ,court of ,st4 ,james4 ,apparently the prince had not found him very satisfactory as a ,state official1 and had reason to believe that ,leibniz would have liked to exchange his office of historiographer at ,hanover for a better appointment at ,vienna4 ,greatness in other departments could not recommend one whom he knew only as a negligent and perhaps unfaithful servant to the favour of such an illiterate master4 ,anyhow1 the ,english appointment was withheld1 and the worn-out encyclopaedist succumbed to disease and vexation combined4 ,the only mourner at his funeral was his secretary1 ,eckhardt1 who hastened to solicit the reversion of the offices left vacant by his chief's decease4 ,a single theory of ,leibniz has attained more celebrity than any one utterance of any other philosopher2 but that fame is due to the undying fire in which it has been enveloped by the mocking irony of ,voltaire4 #fj ,everything is for the best in the best of all possible worlds4 ,such is the famous text as a satire on which ,candide was composed4 ,yet whatever value ,voltaire's objections to optimism may possess tells nearly as much against ,voltaire himself as against his unfortunate butt4 ,for1 after all1 believing as he did in a ,god who combined omnipotence with perfect goodness he could not any more than ,leibniz evade the obligation of reconciling the divine character with the divine work4 ,on a priori grounds the ,german philosopher seems to have an incontrovertible case4 ,a perfect ,being must have made the best possible world4 ,the only question is what we mean by goodness and by possibility4 ,spinoza had solved the problem by identifying goodness with existence4 ,it is enough that the things we call evil are possible2 the infinite ,power of nature would be a self-contradiction were they not realised4 ,leibniz rejects the pantheistic position in terms1 but nearly admits it in practice4 ,evil for him means imperfection1 and if ,god made a world at all it was bound to be imperfect4 ,the next step was to call pain an imperfection1 which suggests a serious logical deficiency in the optimist2 for1 although in certain circumstances the production of pain argues imperfection in the operator1 we are not entitled to argue that wherever there is pain there must be imperfection4 ,another plea is the necessity of pain as a punishment for crime1 or1 more generally1 as a result of moral freedom4 ,such an argument is only open to the believers in free-will4 ,a world of free and responsible agents1 they urge1 is infinitely more valuable than a world of automata2 and it is not too dearly purchased even at the cost of such suffering as we witness4 ,the argument is not very convincing2 for liberty of choice #fa in a painless world is quite conceivable4 ,but1 be it a good or bad argument1 although it might appeal to ,voltaire1 who believed in free-will1 it could not decently be used by ,leibniz1 who was a determinist of the strictest type4 ,to make this clear we must now turn to his metaphysical system4 ,bacon1 ,descartes1 and ,spinoza1 disagreeing widely on other subjects1 were agreed in discountenancing the study of final causes3 ,bacon1 apparently1 from dislike of the idea that the perfect adaptation of all things to the service of man rendered superfluous any efforts to make them more serviceable still2 ,descartes from his devotion to the mathematical method which was more applicable to a system of mechanical causation2 ,spinoza for the same reason1 and also from his disbelief in a personal ,god4 ,leibniz1 on the contrary1 felt deeply impressed by a famous passage in ,plato's ,phaedo1 where ,socrates1 opposing the philosophy of teleology to the philosophy of mechanism1 desiderates an explanation of nature as designed with a view to the highest good4 ,but ,leibniz did not go so far as ,plato4 ,mediating between the two methods1 he taught that all is done for the best1 but also that all is done through an unbroken series of efficient causes4 ,at the same time1 these causes are only material in appearance2 in reality they are spiritual beings4 ,there is no such thing as dead matter2 the universe consists of living forces all through4 ,the general idea of force probably came from that infinite ,power of which1 according to ,spinoza1 the whole universe is at once the product and the expression2 or it may have been suggested by ,plato's incidental identification of ,being with ,action4 ,but ,leibniz found his type of force in human personality1 which1 following the lead of ,aristotle #fb rather than of ,plato1 he conceived as an ,entelechy1 or realised ,actuality1 and a ,first ,substance4 ,after years of anxious reflection he chose the far happier name of ,monad1 a term originally coined by ,bruno1 but not1 as would appear1 directly borrowed from him by the ,german metaphysician4 ,according to ,leibniz1 the monads or ultimate elements of existence are constituted by the two essential properties of psychic life1 perception and appetency4 ,in this connection two points have to be made clear4 ,what he calls bare monads--i4e41 the components of what is known as inorganic matter--although percipient1 are not conscious of their perceptions2 in his language they do not apperceive4 ,and he endeavours to prove that such a mentality is possible by a reference to our own experience4 ,we hear the roaring of waves on the seashore1 but we do not hear the sound made by the falling of each particle of water4 ,and yet we certainly must perceive it in some way or other1 since the total volume of sound is made up of those inaudible impacts4 ,he overlooks the conceivable alternative that the immediate antecedent of our auditory sensations is a cerebral disturbance1 and that this must attain a certain volume in order to produce an effect on our consciousness4 ,the other point is that the appetency of a monad does not mean an active impulse1 but a search for more and more perceptions1 a continuous widening of its cognitive range4 ,in short1 each monad is a little ,leibniz for ever increasing the sum of its knowledge4 ,at no stage does that knowledge come from experience4 ,the monad has no windows1 no communication of any kind with the external world4 ,but each reflects the whole universe1 knowing what it knows by #fc mere introspection4 ,and each reflects all the others at a different angle1 the angles varying from one another by infinitesimal degrees1 so that in their totality they form a continuous series of differentiated individuals4 ,and the same law of infinitesimal differentiation is observed by the series of progressive changes through which the monads are ever passing1 so that they keep exact step1 the continuity of existence being unbroken in the order of succession as in the order of co-existence4 ,evidently there is no place for free-will in such a system2 and that ,leibniz1 with his relentless fatalism1 should not only admit the eternal punishment of predestined sinners1 but even defend it as morally appropriate1 obliges us to condemn his theology as utterly irrational or utterly insincere4 ,in this system animal and human souls are conceived as monads of superior rank occupying a central and commanding position among a multitude of inferior monads constituting what we call their bodies1 and changing pari passu with them1 the correspondence of their respective states being1 according to ,leibniz1 of such a peculiarly intimate character that the phenomena of sensation and volition seem to result from a causal reaction instead of from a mechanical adjustment such as we can imagine to exist between two clocks so constructed and set as to strike the same hour at the same time4 ,this theory of the relations between body and soul is known to philosophy as the system of pre-established harmony4 ,it may be asked how every monad can possibly reflect every other monad when we do not know what is passing in our own bodies1 still less what is passing all over the universe4 ,the answer consists in a convenient distinction between clear and confused #fd perceptions1 the one constituting our actual and the other our potential knowledge4 ,a more difficult problem is to explain how any particular monad--,leibniz or another--can consistently be a monadologist rather than a solipsist believing only in its own existence4 ,here1 as usual1 the ,deus ex ,machina comes in4 ,following ,descartes1 ,i think of ,god as a perfect ,being whose idea involves his existence1 with1 of course1 the power1 will1 and wisdom to create the best possible world--a universe of monads--which1 again1 by its perfect mutual adjustments1 proves that there is a ,god4 ,a more serious1 and indeed absolutely insuperable1 objection arises from the definition of the monads as nothing but mutually reflecting entities4 ,for even an infinity of little mirrors with nothing but each other to reflect must at once collapse into absolute vacuity4 ,and with their disappearance their creator also disappears4 ,god1 the supreme monad1 we are told1 has only clear perceptions2 but the clearness is of no avail when he has nothing to perceive but an absolute blank4 ,leibniz rejected the objectivity of time and space2 yet the hollow infinity of those blank forms seems1 in his philosophy1 to have reached the consciousness of itself4 99 99 99 99 99 #fe ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,theorists ,,of ,,knowledge ,,locke1 ,,berkeley1 ,,hume1 ,,kant4 ,epistemology1 or theory of knowledge1 did not begin in modern times4 ,among the ,greeks it goes back1 at least1 to ,empedocles1 and figures largely in the programmes of the later schools4 ,and ,descartes's universal doubt seems to give the question1 ,how can we be sure of anything8 a foremost place in speculation4 ,but the singular assurance with which the ,cartesian metaphysicians presented their adventurous hypotheses as demonstrated certainties showed that with them the test of truth meant whatever told for that which1 on other grounds1 they believed to be true4 ,in reality1 the thing they called reason was hardly more than a covert appeal to authority1 a suggestion that the duty of philosophy was to reconcile old beliefs with new4 ,and the last great dogmatist1 ,leibniz1 was the one who practised this method of uncritical assumption to the utmost extent4 ,,locke4 ,it is the peculiar glory of ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd7 to have resumed that method of doubt which ,descartes had attempted1 but which his dogmatic prepossessions had falsified almost at the first start4 ,this illustrious thinker is memorable not only for his services to speculation1 but for the example of a genuinely philosophic life #ff entirely devoted to truth and good--a character in which personal sweetness1 simplicity1 and charm were combined with strenuous1 disinterested1 and fearless devotion to the service of the ,state4 ,locke was a ,whig when ,whiggism meant advanced ,liberalism in religion and politics1 and when that often meant a choice between exile and death4 ,thus1 after the fall of his patron1 ,lord ,shaftesbury1 the philosopher had to take refuge in ,holland1 remaining there for some years1 lying hid even there for some time to escape an extradition order for which the ,government of ,james ,,ii4 had applied4 ,it was in ,holland that he wrote the ,essay ,concerning ,human ,understanding4 ,this revolutionist in thought was no solitary recluse1 but1 in the best sense1 a thorough man of the world4 ,educated at ,westminster and ,christ ,church1 he had1 in the ,german poet's phrase1 the supreme happiness of combining the seriousness of an enthusiast with the sagacity of a statesman1 so that great statesmen recognised him as one of themselves4 ,with the triumph of the ,whig cause at a time when diplomacy demanded the utmost tact and skill1 it was proposed to send ,locke as ,ambassador to the ,court of ,brandenburg1 and1 as that would not have suited his sober habits1 to the ,court of ,vienna4 ,weak health obliging him to decline this also1 he received office in the ,ministry at home1 taking a department where business talents were eminently required4 ,in that capacity he bore a leading part in the restoration of the coinage1 besides inspiring the ,toleration ,act and the ,act for ,unlicensed ,printing4 ,even the wisest men make mistakes2 and it must be noticed with regret that ,locke's theory of toleration excluded ,roman ,catholics on the one side and atheists on the other--the former because their #fg creed made persecution a duty1 the latter because their want of a creed left them no sanction for any duties whatever4 ,to say that ,locke had not our experience does not excuse him1 for in both cases the expediency of toleration can be proved a priori4 ,romanists must be expected to suppress a heresy whose spokesman declares that when he has the power he will suppress their ,church2 and1 if atheists are without moral principle1 they will propagate1 under cover of orthodoxy1 negations that they are not allowed openly to profess4 ,locke was brought up by a ,puritan father2 and1 although in after life he wandered far from its doctrinal standards1 he no doubt always retained a sense of that close connection between religion and morality which ,puritanism implies4 ,telling about the train of thought that started his great ,essay1 he refers it to a conversation between himself and some friends1 in which they found themselves quickly at a stand by the difficulties that rose on every side2 and1 according to an intimate friend of his1 the discussion turned on the principles of morality and revealed religion4 ,it then occurred to him that they should first ascertain what objects their understandings were or were not fitted to deal with4 ,and the mottoes prefixed to the essay prove that the results were of a decidedly sceptical cast4 ,indeed1 his successors1 though not himself1 were destined to develop them into what is now called ,agnosticism4 ,we have further to note that1 while his ,continental rivals were mathematicians1 our ,english philosopher never went deeply into mathematics1 but was by calling a physician4 ,in this he resembles ,aristotle and ,sextus ,empiricus among the ,greeks2 and so it is quite in order that1 with the same sort of training1 he should #fh adopt ,aristotle's method of experience as against ,platonic transcendentalism1 and the sceptical relativism of ,sextus as against the dogmatism of the schools4 ,locke begins his essay with a vigorous polemic against the doctrine of ,innate ,ideas4 ,the word idea1 as he uses it1 is ambiguous1 serving to denote perceptions1 notions1 and propositions2 but this confusion is of no practical importance1 his object being to show that all our knowledge originates in experience2 whereas the reigning belief was that at least the first principles of knowledge had a more authoritative1 if not a mystical1 source4 ,hobbes had been beforehand with him in deriving every kind of knowledge from experience1 but had been content to assume his case2 whereas ,locke supports his by a formidable array of proofs4 ,the gist of his argument is that intellectual and moral principles supposed to be recognised by all mankind from their infancy are admitted only by some1 and by those only as the result of teaching4 ,as we saw1 the whole inquiry began with questions about religion and morality2 and it is precisely in reference to the alleged universality and innateness of the belief in ,god and the moral law that ,locke is most successful4 ,and the more modern anthropology teaches us about primitive man1 the stronger becomes the case against the transcendental side in the controversy4 ,where his analysis breaks down is in dealing with the difficult and important ideas of ,space1 ,time1 ,substance1 and ,causality--with the fatal result that such questions as1 ,how is experience itself possible8 or1 ,how from a partial experience can we draw universal and necessary conclusions8 find no place in his theory of knowledge4 ,of course1 his contemporaries are open to the same #fi criticism--nor1 indeed1 had the time come even for the statement of such problems4 ,meanwhile1 the facility with which the founder of epistemology accepts fallacies whence ,spinoza had already found his way out shows how little he was master of his means4 ,according to ,locke1 it is a certain and evident truth that there is an eternal1 most powerful1 and most knowing being1 which whether anyone will please to call ,god it matters not4 ,on examination the proof appears to involve two unproved assumptions4 ,the first is that nothing can begin to exist without a cause4 ,the second is that effects must resemble their causes4 ,and from these it is inferred that an all-powerful being must have existed from all eternity4 ,the alternative is overlooked that a succession of more limited beings would answer the purpose equally well1 while it would also be more consistent with our experience4 ,but a far more fatal objection to ,locke's theism results from his second assumption4 ,this1 although not explicitly stated1 is involved in the assertion that for knowledge such as we possess to originate from things without knowledge is impossible4 ,for1 on the same principle1 matter must have been made by something material1 pain by something that is pained1 and evil by something that is evil4 ,it would not even be going too far to say that by this logic ,i myself must have existed from all eternity2 for to say that ,i was created by a not-myself would be to say that something may come from nothing4 ,we have seen how ,locke refused toleration to atheists on the ground that their denial of a divine lawgiver and judge destroys the basis of morality4 ,he did not1 like ,spinoza1 believe that morality is of the nature of things4 ,for him it is constituted by the will of ,god4 ,possibly1 if pressed1 he might have explained #gj that what atheism denies is not the rule of right1 but the sanction of that rule1 the fear of supernatural retribution4 ,yet being1 like ,spinoza and ,leibniz1 a determinist1 he should have seen that a creator who sets in motion the train of causes and effects necessarily resulting in what we call good or bad human actions has the same responsibility for those actions as if he had committed them himself4 ,to reward one of his passive agents and to punish another would be grossly unjust and at the same time perfectly useless4 ,but how do we know that he will1 on any theory of volition1 reward the good and punish the bad8 ,because we have his word for it4 ,and how do we know that he will keep his word8 ,because he is all-good4 ,but that1 on ,locke's principles1 is pure assumption2 and ,god1 being quite sure that he has no retribution to fear1 must be even more irresponsible than the atheist4 ,the principle that nothing can come from nothing1 so far from proving theism1 leads logically either to pantheism or to a much more thorough monadism than the system of ,leibniz4 ,and1 metaphysics apart1 it conflicts with a leading doctrine of the essay--that is the fundamental distinction between the primary and the secondary qualities of matter4 ,we think of bodies as in themselves extended1 resisting and mobile1 but not in themselves as coloured1 sonorous1 odorous1 hot1 cold1 or sapid4 ,they cause our special sensations1 but cause them by an unknown power4 ,again we perceive--or think we perceive--both primary and secondary qualities in close union as properties of a single object1 and this object in which they jointly inhere is called a substance4 ,and to the question1 ,what is substance8 ,locke admits that he has no answer except something we know not what4 ,he has returned to the agnostic standpoint of the #ga ,cyrenaic school4 ,this something1 for aught we know1 might have created the world4 ,continental historians regard the whole rationalistic movement of the eighteenth century1 or what in ,germany is called the ,enlightenment 7,aufklaerung71 as having been started by ,locke4 ,but the sort of arguments that he adduces for the existence of a ,god prove that in theology at least his rationalism had rather narrow limits4 ,both his theism and his acceptance of ,christianity on the evidence of prophecy and miracles show no advance on medieval logic4 ,in this respect ,spinoza and ,bayle 7#afbb-agji7 were far more in line with the modern movement4 ,still1 assuming scripture as an authoritative revelation1 ,locke shows that1 rationally interpreted1 it yields much less support to dogmatic orthodoxy than ,english ,churchmen supposed4 ,and whatever may have been the letter of his religious teaching1 there can be little doubt that the ,english ,deists1 ,toland1 ,shaftesbury1 and ,anthony ,collins1 represented its true spirit more faithfully than the philosopher himself4 ,representative government and the subordination of ecclesiastical to secular authority--or1 better still1 their separation--are both good things in themselves and favourable conditions to the life of reason4 ,another condition is that children should be trained to exercise their intelligence instead of relying blindly on authority4 ,in these respects also ,locke's writings acted powerfully on the public opinion of the next century1 especially through the agency of ,french writers2 ,france1 as ,macaulay justly claims1 being the interpreter between ,england and the world4 ,our present business1 however1 is not with the diffusion but the development of thought1 and to trace this we must return to ,british philosophy4 #gb ,,berkeley4 ,george ,berkeley 7#afhd-agec7 was born and educated in ,ireland4 ,the fact is of no racial or national importance1 but interests us as accounting for his having received a better training in philosophy than at that time was possible in ,england4 ,for the study of ,locke1 then proscribed at ,oxford1 had already been introduced into ,dublin when ,berkeley was an undergraduate there2 and it was as a critical advance on ,locke that his first publication1 the ,new ,theory of ,vision 7#agji71 was offered4 ,next year came the epoch-making ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 followed in #agac by the more popular ,dialogues4 ,at twenty-nine his work was done1 and although he lived forty years longer1 rising to be a ,bishop in the ,irish ,church1 after projecting a ,christian ,utopia for the civilisation of the ,north ,american ,indians that never came to anything1 and practising every virtue under heaven1 he made no other permanent contribution to thought4 ,berkeley is at once a theorist of knowledge and a metaphysician1 combining1 in a way1 the method of ,locke with the method of ,descartes and his successors4 ,the popular notion of his philosophy is that it resolved the external world into a dream1 or at least into something that has no existence outside our minds4 ,but this is an utter misconception1 against which ,berkeley constantly protested4 ,his quarrel was not with common sense1 but with the theorists of perception4 ,to understand this we must return for a moment to ,locke's teaching4 ,it will be remembered in what a tangle of difficulties the essay had left its author4 ,matter had two sets of qualities1 primary and secondary1 the one belonging to things in themselves1 the other existing only #gc in our minds2 yet both somehow combined in real substances independent of us1 but acting on our senses4 ,substance as such is an unknown and unknowable postulate2 nevertheless1 we know that it was created by ,god1 of whom our knowledge is1 if anything1 inconveniently extensive4 ,now ,berkeley1 to find his way out of these perplexities1 begins by attacking the distinction between primary and secondary qualities4 ,for this purpose his ,theory of ,vision was written4 ,it proves--or attempts to prove--that extension is not a real attribute of things in themselves1 but an intellectual construction1 or what ,locke would have called an idea of reflection4 ,till then people had thought that its objectivity was firmly established by the concurrent testimony of two senses1 sight and touch4 ,berkeley shows1 on the contrary1 that visible and tangible extension are not the same thing1 that the sensations--or1 as he calls them1 the ideas--of sight and touch are two different languages whose words we learn by experience to interpret in terms of each other without their being necessarily connected4 ,a man born blind would not at first sight know how to interpret the visual signs of distance1 direction1 and magnitude2 he would have to learn them by experience4 ,these1 in fact1 are ideal relations only existing in the mind2 and so we have no right to oppose mind as inextended to an extended or an external world4 ,having thus cleared the ground1 our young idealist proceeds in his next and greatest work1 ,of the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge1 to attack the problem from another side4 ,the world of objects revealed through sensation and reflection is clearly no illusion1 no creation of our own4 ,we find it there1 changing1 when it changes1 without or even very much against our will4 #gd ,what1 then1 is its origin and nature8 ,locke's view1 which is the common view1 tells us that it consists of material bodies1 some animated and some not4 ,and matter1 the supposed substance of body1 is made known to us by impressions on our organs of sense4 ,but when we try to think of matter apart from these sensible qualities and the relations between them it vanishes into an empty abstraction4 ,now1 according to ,berkeley there are no abstract ideas--i4e41 no thoughts unassociated with some mental image besides a mere word2 and ,matter or inanimate substance would be such an idea1 therefore it does not exist4 ,there is nothing but mind and its contents--what we call states of consciousness1 what ,locke and ,berkeley called ideas4 ,whence1 then1 come the objects of our consciousness1 and whither do they go when we cease to perceive them8 ,at this point the new metaphysical system intervenes4 ,berkeley says that all things subsist in the consciousness of ,god1 and by their subsistence his existence is proved4 ,the direct apprehension of a reality that is not ourselves only becomes possible through what would be called in modern language a subjective participation in the divine consciousness1 more feebly reflected1 as would seem1 in the memories1 imaginations1 and reasonings of our finite minds4 ,in pursuing these wonderful speculations ,berkeley deviated widely from the direct line of ,english philosophy1 and it is difficult not to believe that the deflection was determined by the influence of ,malebranche1 especially when we find that the writings of the ,oratorian ,father were included in his college studies4 ,moreover1 a parallel line of idealistic development derived from the same source was evolving itself at #ge the same time in ,english thought4 ,john ,norris 7#afeg-agaa71 a correspondent of the ,platonist ,henry ,more1 an opponent of ,locke1 and a disciple of ,malebranche1 had himself found an enthusiastic admirer in ,arthur ,collier 7#afhj-agcb71 whose ,clavis ,universalis professed to be a demonstration of the non-existence or impossibility of an external world 7#agac74 ,both ,norris and ,collier1 like ,malebranche and ,berkeley1 were ,churchmen2 but so strong was the drift towards idealism that ,leibniz1 a layman and a man of science1 contributed by his ,monadology to the same current4 ,malebranche neither was nor could he be a complete idealist in the sense of denying the reality of matter2 for the dogma of transubstantiation bound him1 as a ,catholic1 to its acceptance1 while ,berkeley1 ,collier1 and ,leibniz1 as ,protestants1 were under no such obligation4 ,his idealism agreed more nearly with the ,neo-,platonic doctrine of ,archetypes in the divine ,reason among which ,matter was one4 ,on the other hand1 ,berkeley probably borrowed from him the notion of a direct contact with ,god1 the difference being that with the ,cartesian it is conceived as an objective vision1 with ,locke's disciple as 7if the expression may be permitted7 a subjective con-consciousness4 ,leibniz1 again1 while abolishing ,matter1 retains an external world composed indeed of spirits and so far immaterial1 but existing independently of ,god4 ,all these systems involve the negation of two fundamental scientific principles4 ,the first is that every change must be explained by reference to an antecedent change to which it bears a strict quantitative relation4 ,the second is that no particular change can be referred to another change as its necessary antecedent unless it can be shown by experience that a precisely similar #gf couple of changes are1 in fact1 always so connected4 ,let me illustrate these principles by an example4 ,i leave a kettle full of cold water on the fire1 and on returning after a sufficient interval of time ,i find the water boiling4 ,had ,i stayed by the fire and watched the process1 my kettle would--a popular proverb to the contrary notwithstanding--have certainly boiled as soon1 but also no sooner for being helped by my consciousness4 ,the essential thing is that energy of combustion in the fire should be turned into energy of boiling in the water4 ,now1 what is ,berkeley's interpretation of the facts8 ,fire1 kettle1 water1 and ebullition are what in his writings are called ideas--i4e41 phenomena occasionally in my mind1 but always in ,god's mind4 ,and according to this view the necessary antecedent to the boiling of the water is not the fire's burning1 but ,god's consciousness of its burning1 his perception being the essence of the operation4 ,but it is proved by experience that neither my perception nor anyone else's ever made a single drop of water boil4 ,in other words1 perception is not in this instance a vera causa4 ,why1 then1 should the perception of any other mind1 however exalted1 have that effect8 ,nor is this all4 ,how does ,berkeley know that ,god exists8 ,because1 he says1 to exist is to be perceived1 and therefore for the universe to exist implies a universal ,percipient4 ,but he got the idea of ,god from other men1 who certainly did not come by it as a generalisation from their perceptions2 they got it by generalising from their voluntary actions1 which do produce the changes that perception cannot produce4 ,it will be said that volitions and the feelings that prompt them exist only in consciousness4 ,in whose consciousness8 ,in that of a spirit4 ,and what is spirit apart from #gg sensation1 thought1 feeling1 and volition8 ,simply one of those abstract ideas whose existence ,berkeley himself denied4 ,,hume4 ,the next step in the evolution of ,english thought was to consist in a return to ,locke's method1 involving a complete breach with seventeenth-century ,platonism1 and with the ,continental metaphysics that it had inspired4 ,this decisive movement was effected by one in whom ,german criticism has recognised the greatest of all ,british philosophers4 ,david ,hume 7#agaa-aggf7 was born and bred at ,edinburgh1 which also seems to have been through life his favourite residence4 ,but his great work1 the ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 was written during a stay in ,france1 between the ages of twenty-three and twenty-six4 ,thus his precocity was even greater than ,berkeley's4 ,indeed1 such maturity of thought so early reached is without a parallel in history4 ,but ,hume's style had not then acquired the perfection--the inimitable charm1 ,kant calls it--of his later writings2 and1 whether for this or for other reasons1 the book1 in his own words1 fell dead-born from the press4 ,in middle life the office of librarian of the ,advocates' ,library at ,edinburgh gave him access to the materials for his ,history of ,england1 which proved a source of fame and profit4 ,a profound historical scholar1 ,j4 ,s4 ,brewer1 tells us that ,hume possessed in a pre-eminent degree some of the highest excellences of a historian4 ,other historians have treated their subjects philosophically2 he furnishes the sole instance of a great speculative genius who has also produced a historical masterpiece of the first order4 ,but morally it is a blot on his fame4 ,it is sad that a philosopher should have deliberately perverted the truth1 that one who has #gh ,illustration3 ,,david ,,hume4 performed priceless services to freedom of thought should have made himself the apologist of clericalising absolutism1 and1 still more1 that a master of ,english played this part to some extent through hatred of the great ,english people engendered by disappointed literary ambition4 ,it may be mentioned1 however1 as a possible extenuation that towards the middle of the eighteenth century the highest ,english ability had thrown itself1 with few exceptions1 on the ,tory side4 ,it must be mentioned #gi also that in private life ,hume's character was entirely admirable--cheerful1 generous1 and gentle1 without a frailty and without a stain4 ,his opinions were unpopular2 but his life offered no handle for obloquy1 although his studious retirement was more than once exchanged for the responsibilities of political office1 and the freedom from pedantry so conspicuous in his writings bears witness to habits of well-bred social intercourse4 ,hume's philosophy is best understood when we consider it as1 in the first place1 a criticism of ,berkeley1 just as ,berkeley's had been a criticism of ,locke4 ,it will be remembered that the founder of subjective idealism discarded the notion of material substance as an abstract idea1 an unintelligible figment devoid of any sensuous or imaginative content4 ,the only true substances are the subjects of what we call experience communicating through sensation with ,god1 the infinite spirit whose eternal consciousness is reality itself4 ,hume applied the same tests to spiritual substance1 and found that it equally disappeared under his introspective analysis4 ,he begins by dividing the contents of consciousness into two classes1 impressions and ideas--the second being copies of the first1 and distinguished from them by their relative faintness4 ,now1 from these perceptions 7which he called thoughts7 ,descartes had passed by an immediate inference to the ego or self1 which he affirms as the primary fact of consciousness1 using it as a basis for sundry other conclusions4 ,but ,hume stops him at once1 and will not grant the existence of the metaphysical self--that is1 a simple and continued substance1 as distinguished from particular states of consciousness4 ,we are1 he declares1 nothing but a bundle of different perceptions1 which #hj succeed each other with an inconceivable rapidity1 and are in a perpetual flux and movement4 ,there is properly no simplicity in it the self at one time1 nor identity in different times2 whatever natural propensity we may have to imagine that simplicity and identity4 ,so much being assumed1 ,berkeley's whole argument for a new theology founded on subjective idealism is bound to collapse1 as also is the argument for natural immortality derived from the supposed simplicity and identity of the thinking substance4 ,modern critics have rightly insisted1 as against ,hume1 that isolated perceptions without a self are abstractions not less unintelligible than a self without perceptions4 ,but the metaphysical argument for human immortality has not benefited by this more concrete interpretation of epistemology2 and probably ,hume was really more interested in destroying this than in maintaining the sceptical paradox which does not recur in his later writings4 ,a word must be added about ,hume's division of perceptions into impressions and ideas4 ,the point left out of sight in this analysis is that impressions of sense habitually find their reflexes not in revived sensations1 but in expressions1 in motor reactions which1 with human beings1 mostly take the form of words uttered or thought4 ,these1 no doubt1 are associated to some small extent with revived sensations2 but they are more commonly grouped with other words1 with movements of the limbs1 and with actions on the material or human environment of the percipient4 ,such expressions are incomparably easier to revive in memory1 imagination1 or expectation than the impressions that originally excited them2 and1 indeed1 it is in connection with them that such revivals of sensation #ha as we actually experience take place4 ,and it is probable that to this active side of our consciousness that we may trace those associative processes which ,hume studies next in his analysis of human knowledge4 ,putting aside principles of doubtful or secondary value1 the relations between states of consciousness that first offer themselves to view are1 according to ,hume1 ,co-existence and ,succession 7united under the name of ,contiguity71 ,resemblance1 and ,causation4 ,it is with the account he gives of this last category that his name is inseparably associated1 for from it all subsequent speculation has taken rise4 ,yet primarily he seems to have had no other object in view than to simplify the laws of knowledge by resolving one of them into a particular case of another1 and thus reducing his three categories to two4 ,the relation of cause and effect1 he tells us1 is no more than a certain relation between antecedent and consequent in time where the sequence is so habitual as to establish in our minds a custom of expecting the one whenever the other occurs4 ,the sequence is not necessary1 for one can think1 without any self-contradiction1 of a change which has not been preceded by another change2 nor is it1 like the truths of geometry1 something that can be known a priori4 ,without experience no one could tell that bread will nourish a man and not nourish a lion1 nor even predict how a billiard-ball will behave when another ball strikes it4 ,should it be objected that the a priori knowledge of a general principle need not involve an equal knowledge of nature's operations in particular cases1 ,hume would doubtless reply by saying that there is no abstract idea of causation apart from its concrete exemplifications4 ,it is possible to accept ,hume's theory in principle #hb without pledging oneself to all his incidental contentions4 ,causation1 as a general law1 may be known only by experience1 whether we can or cannot think of it as a pure abstraction4 ,and we may interpret it in terms of unconditional antecedence and consequence1 while discarding his apparent assumption of an inscrutable connection between the two2 a mysterious necessity for the production of the one by the other1 for which it is felt that a reason exists1 but for which our reason cannot account4 ,it is inconceivable that our knowledge of any given sequence could be increased1 except by the disclosure of intermediate sequences1 making their continuity1 in space and time1 more absolute than we had before perceived1 until the whole process has been resolved into a transference of momentum from one molecule to another--a change for which1 according to ,hume1 no reason can be given4 ,nor1 on his principles1 would it help us to explain such transferences by bringing them under the law of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,for1 although this would be a great triumph for science1 his philosophy demands a reason why the quantity of energy should remain unalterable for ever4 ,it is a mistake1 shared by ,hume with his opponents1 to suppose that the common sense of mankind ever saw more than invariable sequence in the relation of cause and effect1 or ever interpolated a mysterious power between them4 ,in the famous verse1 ,let there be light1 and there was light1 it is the instantaneity of succession1 not the interpolation of any exerted effort1 that so impresses the imagination4 ,and when ,shakespeare wants to illustrate logical compulsion in conduct1 his reference is to an instance of invariable succession3-- #hc ,this above all1--to thine own self be true2 ,and it must follow1 as the night the day1 ,thou canst not then be false to any man4 ,indeed1 ,i think it will be found on examination that when we associate the idea of power1 or of necessity1 with causal sequences1 it is not in connection with a case of causation here and now1 but rather in reference to similar effects that may be expected from the same cause elsewhere or at another time4 ,and that custom1 by which ,hume seeks to explain our belief in the power of the cause to produce its effect as well as the necessity of the connection between them1 rather acts negatively by eliminating all other antecedents as possible causes than positively by setting up a habit of thinking about a particular antecedent and consequent at the same time4 ,and that is why a burnt child needs no repetition of the experiment to be convinced that contact with fire was the cause of its pain4 ,the very novelty of the experiment was enough to eliminate any explanation other than that of contact with the flame4 ,the child1 as it grows older1 may learn to speak of the fire as having a power to burn4 ,but that merely means1 if ,i touch it1 it will burn me--or light paper if ,i hold the paper to it4 ,power1 in fact1 is incomplete causation1 the presence of every condition but that one which1 in ,aristotelian phrase1 turns potency into act4 ,and it is in contradistinction to that idea of possibility that the idea of necessary connection comes in4 ,when all the elements of the causal antecedent are combined the effect necessarily supervenes4 ,furthermore1 the causal antecedent is thought of as necessary in contrast with the contingency of other antecedents whose connection with the effect is merely accidental4 ,finally1 #hd the idea of production has been quoted as vitally distinguishing true causation from invariable sequence4 ,but various myths1 of which the story of ,oedipus is the best known1 show that primitive folk regard day and night as alternately producing one another1 just as ,polonius quotes their sequence as a type of logical necessity4 ,hume professed himself a ,deist1 but probably with no more seriousness than when he1 or when ,gibbon1 called ,christianity our religion4 ,at any rate1 his philosophy destroys every argument for the existence of a ,creator advanced in his own or in the preceding century4 ,nor need his particular theory of causation be invoked for the purpose4 ,the most telling attack is on the argument from design4 ,the apparent adaptation of means to ends in living organisms is quoted as evidence of their having been planned by a conscious intelligence4 ,but1 answers ,hume1 such an intelligence would itself exhibit marks of design1 and so on for ever4 ,why not1 then1 stop at the animal organism as an ultimate fact8 ,it was ,shelley's unlucky demand for a solution of this difficulty that led to his expulsion from ,oxford4 ,it has been shown how the new analysis of mind cut the ground from under ,berkeley's theism1 and from under the metaphysical argument for human immortality4 ,by denying the substantiality of the ego it also confirmed the necessitarianism of ,spinoza4 ,hume seemed to think he could abate the unpopularity of this doctrine by interpreting the constant motivation of human actions as a mere relation of antecedence and consequence4 ,but the decisive point was that he assimilated sequences in conscious behaviour to the unconscious sequences in physical events4 ,thus1 for #he the vulgar and the theologians1 he remained what would now be called a materialist4 ,,kant4 ,the ,english philosophy of experience and the ,continental philosophy of a priori spiritualism1 after their brief convergence in the metaphysics of ,berkeley1 parted company once more1 the empirical tradition being henceforth represented1 not only by ,hume1 but in a more or less anti-,christian and much more superficial form by ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 and the ,french ,encyclopaedists2 while the ,leibnizian philosophy was systematised and taught in ,germany by ,wolf1 and a dull but useful sort of modernised ,aristotelianism was set up under the name of common sense by ,thomas ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 and his school in the ,scottish ,universities4 ,the extraordinary genius who was to re-combine the parted currents in a speculative movement of unexampled volume1 velocity1 and depth showed nothing of the precocity that had distinguished ,berkeley and ,hume4 ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd71 the son of a saddler of ,scottish extraction1 was born at ,koenigsberg in ,prussia1 where he spent his whole life1 holding a chair at the ,university from #aggj to #agig4 ,it is related that on the day of his death a small bright cloud was seen sailing alone across the clear blue sky1 of such a remarkable appearance that a crowd assembled on the bridge to watch it4 ,one of them1 a common soldier1 exclaimed1 ,that is ,kant's soul going to heaven6--a touching and beautiful tribute to the illustrious ,german1 whose lofty1 pure1 and luminous spirit it was uniquely fitted to characterise4 #hf ,illustration3 ,,kant4 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #hg ,kant grew up among the ,pietists1 a school which played much the same part in ,germany that the ,methodists and the ,evangelicals played in ,england2 indeed1 it was from them that ,john ,wesley received his final inspiration4 ,the ,koenigsberg student came in time to discard their theology while retaining the stern ,puritan morality with which it was wedded1 and even1 ,rationalist as he became1 some of their mystical religiosity4 ,what drew him away to philosophy seems to have been first the study of classical philology and then physical science1 especially as presented to him in ,newton's works4 ,and so the young man's first ambition1 after settling down as a ,university teacher at ,koenigsberg1 was to extend the ,newtonian method still further by explaining1 on mechanical principles1 the origin and constitution of that celestial system whose movements ,newton had reduced to law1 but whose beginning he had left unaccounted for except by--what was not science--the direct fiat of omnipotence4 ,kant offered a brilliant solution of the problem in his ,natural ,history of the ,heavens 7#agee71 a work embodying the celebrated nebular hypothesis rediscovered forty years later by ,laplace4 ,it has been well observed that great philosophers are mostly1 if not always1 what at ,oxford and ,cambridge would be called double-firsts--that is1 apart from their philosophy1 they have done first-class work in some special line of investigation1 as ,descartes by creating analytical geometry1 ,spinoza by applying ,biblical criticisms to theology1 ,leibniz by discovering the differential calculus1 ,locke by his theory of constitutional government1 ,berkeley by his theory of vision1 ,hume by his contributions to history and political economy4 ,kant's cosmogony may have been premature and mistaken in its details2 but his idea of the heavenly bodies as having originated from the condensation of diffused gaseous matter still holds its #hh ground2 and although the more general idea of natural evolution as opposed to supernatural creation is not modern but ,greek1 to have revived and reapplied it on so great a scale is a service of extraordinary merit4 ,the next great event in ,kant's intellectual career is his rejection of ,continental apriorism in metaphysics for the empiricism of the ,english school1 especially as regards the idea of causation4 ,for a few years 7#agfb-agfe7 ,kant accepts ,hume's theory that there is nothing in any succession of events or in change generally to prove on grounds of pure reason that there must be more in it than a customary sequence4 ,to believe that anything may happen without a cause does not involve a logical contradiction2 and at that time he believed nothing to be known a priori except that the denial of which involves such a contradiction4 ,but on reconsidering the basis of mathematical truth it seemed to him to be something other than the logical laws of ,identity and ,contradiction4 ,when we say that seven and five are twelve we put something into the predicate that was not affirmed in the subject1 and also when we say that a straight line is the shortest distance between two points4 ,yet the second proposition is as certain as the first1 and both are certain in the highest degree1 more certain than anything learned from experience1 and needing no experience to confirm them4 ,so much being admitted1 we have to recognise a fundamental division of judgments into two classes1 analytic and synthetic4 ,judgments in which the predicate adds nothing to the subject are analytic4 ,when we affirm all matter to be extended1 that is an instance of the former1 for here we are only making more explicit what was already contained in the notion of matter4 ,on the other hand1 when we affirm that all matter is heavy1 that is an #hi instance of the latter or synthetic class1 for we can think of matter without thinking that it has weight4 ,furthermore1 this is not only a synthetic judgment1 but it is a synthetic judgment a posteriori2 for the law of universal gravitation is known only by experience4 ,but there are also synthetic judgments a priori2 for1 as we have just seen1 the fundamental truths of arithmetic and geometry belong to this class1 as do also by consequence all the propositions logically deduced from these--that is to say1 the whole of mathematical science4 ,up to this point ,kant would have carried the whole ,cartesian school1 and1 more generally1 all the modern ,platonists1 along with him2 while he would have given the ,english empiricists and their ,french disciples a rather hard nut to crack4 ,for they would have had to choose between admitting that mathematics was a mass of identical propositions or explaining1 in the face of ,hume's criticism1 what claims to absolute certainty its truths1 any more than the ,law of ,causation1 possess4 ,now1 the great philosophical genius of ,kant is shown by nothing more than by this1 that he did not stop here4 ,recognising to the same extent as ,locke and ,hume that all knowledge comes from experience--at any rate1 in the sense of not coming by supernatural communication1 as ,malebranche and ,berkeley thought--he puts the famous question1 ,how are synthetic judgments a priori possible8 ,or1 as it might be paradoxically expressed1 ,how come we to know with the most certainty the things that we have not been taught by experience8 ,the answer is1 that we know them by the most intimate experience of all--the underlying consciousness that we have made them what they are4 ,our minds are no mere passive recipients1 in which a mass of sensations1 poured in from some external #ij source1 are then arranged after an order equally originated from without2 there is a principle of spontaneity in our own subjectivity by which the objective order of nature is created4 ,what ,kant calls the ,matter of knowledge is given from without1 the ,form from within4 ,and this process begins with the imposition of the two great fundamental ,forms1 ,space and ,time1 on the raw material of sensation by our minds4 ,by space and time ,kant does not mean the abstract ideas of coexistence and succession2 nor does he call them1 as some critics used incorrectly to suppose1 forms of thought1 but forms of intuition4 ,we do not build them up with the help of muscular or other feelings1 but are conscious of them in a way not admitting of any further analysis4 ,the parts of space1 no doubt1 are coexistent1 but they are also connected and continuous2 more than this1 positions in space do not admit of mutual substitution2 the right hand and left hand glove are perfectly symmetrical1 but the one cannot be superimposed on the other4 ,besides1 all particular spaces are contained in universal space1 not as particular conceptions are contained in a general conception1 but as parts of that which extends to infinity1 and where each has an individual place of its own1 repeating all the characters of space in general except its illimitable extension4 ,and the same is true of time1 with this further distinction from abstract succession1 that succession may be reversed2 whereas the order of past1 present1 and future is irreversibly maintained4 ,the contemporary school of ,reid in ,scotland1 and the subsequent ,eclectic school of ,victor ,cousin in ,france1 would agree with ,kant in maintaining that sensuous experience will not account for our knowledge of space and time4 ,but they would protest1 in the name #ia of common sense1 against the reduction of these apparently fundamental elements to purely subjective forms4 ,they would ask1 with the ,german critic ,trendelenburg1 ,why cannot space and time be known intuitively and yet really exist8 ,kant furnishes no direct answer to the question1 but he has suggested one in another connection4 ,mathematical truth is concerned with spatial and temporal relations1 and for that truth to be above suspicion and exception we must assume that the objects with which it deals are wholly within our grasp--that our knowledge of them is exhaustive4 ,but there could be no such assurance on the supposition that1 besides the space and time of our sensuous experience1 another space and time existed independently of our consciousness as attributes of things in themselves--possibly differing in important respects from ours--as1 for example1 a finite1 or a non-continuous1 or a four-dimensional space1 and a time with a circular instead of a progressive movement4 ,this easy assumption that reality accommodates itself to our intellectual convenience1 instead of our being obliged to accommodate our theories of knowledge to reality1 runs through and vitiates the whole of ,kant's philosophy4 ,but1 taking the narrower ground of logical consistency1 one hardly sees how his principles can hold together4 ,we are told that the subjectivity of space and time is not presented as a plausible hypothesis1 but as a certain and indubitable truth1 for in no other way can mathematical certainty be explained4 ,the claim is questionable1 but let it be granted4 ,immediately a fresh difficulty starts up4 ,what is the source of our certainty that space and time are subjective forms of intuition8 ,if the answer is1 because that assumption guarantees the certainty of mathematics1 then ,kant is #ib reasoning in a circle4 ,if he appeals--as in consistency he ought--to another order of subjectivity as the sanction of his first transcendental argument1 such reasoning involves the regress to infinity4 ,again1 on ,kant's theory1 time is the form of intuition for the inner sense4 ,so when we become conscious of mental events we know them only as phenomena2 we remain ignorant of what mind is in itself4 ,but before the publication in #aggj of ,kant's inaugural dissertation on ,the ,sensible and the ,intelligible ,world every one1 plain men and philosophers alike1 believed that the consciousness of our successive thoughts and feelings was the very type of reality itself2 and they held this belief with a higher degree of assurance than that given to the axioms of geometry4 ,by what right1 then1 are we asked to give up the greater for the less1 to surrender our self-assurance as a ransom for ,euclid's ,elements or even for ,newton's ,principia8 ,once more1 surely mathematics is concerned not with space and time as such1 but with their artificial delimitations as points1 lines1 figures1 numbers1 moments1 etc4 ,and it may be granted that these are purely subjective in the sense of being imposed by our imagination 7with the aid of sensible signs7 on the external world4 ,what if this subjectivity were the true source of that peculiar certainty belonging to synthetic judgments a priori8 ,true1 ,kant counts in our judgments about the infinity and eternity of space and time with other accepted characteristics of theirs as intuitive certainties4 ,but there are thinkers who find the negation of such properties not inconceivable1 so that they cannot be adduced as evidence of a priority1 still less of subjectivity4 ,eleven years after the inaugural dissertation ,kant #ic published his most important contribution to philosophy1 ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason 7#agha74 ,pure ,reason means the faculty by which ideas are obtained independently of all experience1 and the critic's object is to ascertain how far such ideas are valid4 ,as a preliminary to that inquiry the question is also mooted1 ,how is experience possible8 ,it is answered by a critique of the understanding or faculty of conception2 and as conception implies perception1 this again is prefaced by a section in which ,kant's theory of space and time is repeated and reinforced4 ,it will be remembered that what started the whole of the new criticism was ,hume's sceptical analysis of ,causation2 and the central interest of ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason lies in the effort to reconstitute the causal law in the light of the new theory of knowledge2 but so enormous is the mass of technicalities piled up for this purpose as largely to conceal it from view1 and1 on its disclosure1 to give the idea of a gigantic machine set in motion to crack a nut4 ,and the nut after all is not cracked2 the shell slips from between the grappling surfaces long before they meet4 ,we have seen how ,kant interpreted every judgment as a synthesis of subject and predicate4 ,now1 whether the synthesis be a priori or a posteriori1 a study of the forms of judgment as enumerated in the common logic shows that there are four1 and only four1 ways in which it can be effected4 ,all judgments fall under the following classes3 ,quantity1 ,quality1 ,relation1 and ,modality--terms whose meaning will be presently explained4 ,and each of these again is tripartite4 ,we may say 7i47 that one ,a is ,b1 or that some ,a's are ,b1 or that all ,a's are ,b2 7ii47 that ,a is ,b1 that ,a is not ,b1 that not all ,a's are ,b2 7iii47 that ,a is ,b1 that ,a #id is ,b if ,c is ,d1 that ,a is either ,b1 ,c1 or ,d2 or 7iv47 that ,a may be ,b1 that ,a is ,b1 or that ,a must be ,b4 ,the reason why there are four and only four classes is that judgment has to do with the subject in reference to the predicate1 which gives ,quantity2 with the predicate in reference to the subject1 which gives ,quality2 with the connection between the two1 which gives ,relation2 and with the synthesis between them in reference to our knowledge of it1 which gives ,modality4 ,now1 according to ,kant1 that there should be so many kinds of judgment and no more implies that our understanding contributes a formal element to the constitution of all knowledge1 consisting of four combining principles1 without which experience would be impossible4 ,he calls these ,categories1 and they are enumerated in the following table3-- 7i47 ,quantity4 ,unity1 ,plurality1 ,totality4 7ii47 ,quality4 ,reality1 ,negation1 ,limitation4 7iii47 ,relation4 ,substance and ,accident2 ,cause and ,effect2 ,action and ,reaction 7,reciprocity74 7iv47 ,modality4 ,possibility and ,impossibility2 ,existence and ,non-,existence2 ,necessity and ,contingency4 ,a study of the ,categories suggests some rather obvious criticisms on the ,critical ,philosophy itself4 7i47 ,the first two terms in each triad evidently form an antithetical couple1 of which the third term is the synthesis4 ,here we have the first germ of a disease by which the systems of ,kant's successors were much more seriously infected4 ,in the table it is shown by #ie the intrusion of ,limitation1 a wholly superfluous adjunct to ,reality and ,negation2 in the conversion of ,reciprocity into a wholly fictitious synthesis of ,substantiality with ,causation2 and in the complete absurdity of making ,necessity a combination of ,possibility with ,existence4 7ii47 ,innate ideas1 after they had been exploded by ,locke1 are reintroduced into philosophy by a sufficiently transparent piece of legerdemain4 ,for assuming that the human intelligence possesses a power of organising and drilling the sensuous appearances which without its control would appear only as a disorderly mob1 it by no means follows that they must thereby be referred to an extraphenomenal principle4 ,but such a principle is plainly implied by the category of ,substance4 ,used in a scholastic sense1 it does not mean the sensuous attributes of a thing taken altogether1 but something that underlies and supports them4 ,and ,kant himself seems to take his category in that significance4 ,for he claims to deduce from it the law of the indestructibility of matter2 as if ,i could not say snow is white without committing myself to the assertion that the ultimate particles of snow have existed and will exist for ever4 7iii47 ,the substitution of ,causation for logical sequence1 as implicated in the hypothetical judgment of ,relation1 is perfectly scandalous2 and still more scandalous is substitution of ,reciprocity or ,action and ,reaction for ,disjunction4 ,the last points require to be examined a little more in detail4 ,the sequence of an effect to its cause has only a verbal resemblance to the sequence of a logical consequent to its reason4 ,we declare categorically that every change has a cause which precedes it4 ,logical sequence is1 on the other hand1 as the very name of the #if judgment shows1 hypothetical1 and may possibly not represent any actual occurrence1 besides being1 what causation is not1 independent of time4 ,a particular case of causation may be hypothetical in respect to our belief that it actually occurred2 never the law of causation itself as a general truth4 ,and the same distinction applies with even greater force to the alleged connection between a logical disjunction and a physical reaction4 ,when ,i say ,a is either ,b or ,c1 but not both1 there is only this much resemblance1 that both cases involve the ideas of equality and of opposition4 ,from the admission that ,a is not ,b1 ,i infer that it is ,c1 or1 contrariwise1 from the admission that it is ,b1 ,i infer that it is not ,c1 and in both instances with the same certainty2 but this does not prove that the earth attracts the moon as much as the moon attracts the earth1 only in opposite directions2 nor yet that in certain instances all the heat lost by one body is gained by another4 ,kant had learned this much from ,hume1 that causation is essentially a relation of antecedence and consequence in time2 and apparently his way of categorising the relation--i4e41 of proving its apriority--is to represent it as the logical form of reason and consequent masquerading1 so to speak1 under the intuitional time-form4 ,yet he frequently speaks of our senses as being affected by things in themselves1 implying that the resulting sensations are somehow caused by those otherwise unknown entities4 ,but since things in themselves do not1 according to ,kant1 exist in space and time1 they cannot be causally related to phenomena or to anything else4 ,in his criticism of ,pure ,reason1 properly so called--that is1 of inferences made by human faculty with #ig regard to questions transcending all experience--,kant shows that of such things nothing can be known4 ,the ideality of time and space once taken as proved1 this amount of agnosticism seems to follow as a matter of course4 ,it is idle to speculate about the possible extent or duration of a universe that cannot be described in terms of coexistence and succession4 ,for each of us at the dissolution of our bodily organism time itself1 and therefore existence as alone we conceive it1 comes to an end4 ,the law of causation1 applying as it does to phenomena alone1 offers no evidence for the existence of a ,god who transcends phenomena4 ,kant1 however1 is not satisfied with such a simple and summary procedure as this4 ,he tries to show1 with most unnecessary pedantry1 that the conditional synthesis of the ,understanding inevitably leads thought on to the unconditional synthesis of the ,reason only to find itself lost in a hopeless welter of paralogisms and self-contradictions4 ,at this stage we are handed over to the guidance of what ,kant calls the ,practical ,reason4 ,this faculty gives a synthesis for conduct1 as ,pure ,reason gave a synthesis for intelligence4 ,all reason demands uniformity1 order1 law2 only what in theory is recognised as true has in practice to be imposed as right4 ,in this way ,kant arrives at his formula of absolute morality3 ,act so that the principle of thy conduct may be the law for all rational beings4 ,he calls this the ,categorical ,imperative1 as distinguished from such hypothetical imperatives as3 ,act this way if you wish to be happy either here or hereafter2 or1 act as public opinion tells you4 ,moreover1 the motive1 as distinguished from the end of moral action1 should not be calculating self-interest nor uncalculating impulse1 but simply desire to fulfil the law as such4 ,previous moralists had set up #ih the greatest happiness of the greatest number as the end of action1 and such an aim does not lie far from ,kant's philosophy2 but they could think of no better motive for pursuing it than self-love or a rather undefined social instinct2 and their summum bonum would take the happiness of irrational animals into account1 while ,kant absolutely subordinates the interests of these to human good4 ,a further coincidence between the ,utilitarian and the ,kantian ethics is that in the latter also the happiness of others1 not their perfection1 should be the end and aim of each4 ,finally1 the philosophy of ,pure ,reason adopts from contemporary ,french thought as the governing idea of political organisation what was long to be a principle of ,english ,utilitarianism--the liberty of each1 bounded only by the equal liberty of all4 ,nevertheless1 the old postulate of a necessary connection between virtue and individual happiness reappears in ,kant's ethical theory1 and leads to the construction of a new religious philosophy4 ,his critique had left no place for the old theology1 nor yet for that doctrine of free-will so dear to most theologians4 ,its whole object had been to vindicate against ,hume the necessity and universality of causation4 ,human actions then must1 like all other phenomena1 form an unbroken chain of antecedents and consequents4 ,nor does ,kant conceal his conviction that1 with sufficient knowledge and powers of calculation1 a man's whole future conduct might be foretold4 ,nevertheless1 under the eighteenth-century idea of man as naturally the creature of passion or self-interest1 he claims for us1 as moral agents1 the power of choosing to obey duty in preference to either4 ,and this freedom is supposed to be made conceivable by the subjectivity of time and causation1 outside of which1 #ii as a thing in itself1 stands the moral will4 ,that morality1 whether as action or mere intention1 involves succession in time is utterly ignored4 ,nor is this all4 ,assuming without warrant that the moral law demands an ultimate coincidence between happiness and virtue1 made impossible in this life by human weakness1 ,kant argues that there must be an unending future life to secure time enough for working out a problem whose solution is infinitely remote4 ,and1 finally1 there must be an omnipotent moral ,god to provide facilities for undertaking that somewhat gratuitous ,psyche's task4 ,before ,kant moral theology had argued that the ,judge of all the world must do right1 apportioning happiness to desert4 ,it was reserved for him to argue1 conversely1 that for right to be done such a ,judge must exist1 and that therefore he does exist4 ,in appreciating the services of ,kant to philosophy we must guard ourselves against being influenced by the extravagant panegyrics of his countrymen1 whose passion for square circles he so generously gratifies4 ,still1 after every deduction for mere ,laputian pedantry has been made1 the balance of fruitful suggestion remains vast4 7i47 ,the antithesis of object and subject1 although not counted among the categories of his ,critique1 has remained a prime category of thought ever since4 7ii47 ,the idea of a necessary limit to human knowledge1 given by the very theory of that knowledge1 as distinguished from the ,scepticism of the ,greeks--in other words1 what we now call ,agnosticism--may not be final1 but it still remains to be dealt with4 7iii47 ,the possibility of reducing a priori knowledge to a form of unconscious experience has put an end to dogmatic metaphysics4 7iv47 ,the problems of ,time and ,space have taken a central place in speculation2 it has been #ajj shown--what ,hume did not see--that ,causation has the certainty of a mathematical axiom2 and it has been made highly probable that all these difficulties may find their solution in a larger interpretation of experience4 7v47 ,morality has been definitely dissociated from the appeal to selfish interests1 whether in this life or in another4 ,we have now to trace1 within the limits prescribed by the nature of this work1 the development of philosophy under ,kant's ,german successors4 99 99 99 99 99 #aja ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,german ,,idealists ,,fichte1 ,,schelling1 ,,hegel1 ,,schopenhauer1 ,,herbart4 ,the ,critical ,philosophy won its first success in ,germany less as a new epistemology than as what1 in fact1 its author meant it to be1 a rehabilitation of religious belief4 ,the limits of ,reason had been drawn so closely only to make room for ,faith4 ,but the current of ,rationalism was running too strongly to be so summarily stopped2 and so with ,kant's ablest successors faith is altogether abandoned1 while the claims of reason are pushed relentlessly through4 ,among these more logical thinkers the first is ,j4 ,g4 ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad74 ,in him--for the third time in modern history1 for the first and last time in ,germany--the hero as philosopher finds a worthy representative4 ,born in ,silesia1 like ,kant of humble parentage1 and bred in circumstances of more oppressive poverty1 he also received a severely religious and moral training as a preparation for the pastoral office4 ,the bounty of an aristocratic patron gave him an excellent public-school education2 but as a university student1 first at ,jena and then at ,leipzig1 he had to earn a scanty living by private tuition1 finally abandoning his destined career to accept a post in a ,swiss family at ,zurich4 ,there1 as the result of an attachment in which the love was nearly all on the lady's side1 he became engaged to a niece of the poet ,klopstock1 and after a long delay1 caused by money #ajb difficulties1 was enabled to marry her4 ,in the meantime he had become a convert to ,kant's philosophy1 winning the admiration of the old master himself by a ,critique of all ,revelation1 written in four weeks4 ,published anonymously by an oversight1 it was generally attributed to ,kant himself1 and1 on the real authorship becoming known1 won for ,fichte an extraordinary ,professorate of ,philosophy at ,jena1 where his success as a lecturer and writer gave him for a time the leadership in ,german speculation 7#agid-agii74 ,an untoward incident brought this stage of his career to an end4 ,writing in a philosophical review1 he defined ,god as the moral order of the universe4 ,dr4 ,temple long afterwards used much the same phrase when ,bishop of ,exeter1 finding it1 presumably1 compatible with official ,theism2 but such was not the impression created in ,saxony4 ,a cry of atheism arose1 much to the disgust of ,fichte1 whose position would have been better described as pantheistic4 ,but what incensed him most was the suspicion of an attempt to interfere with the liberty of academic teaching4 ,with his usual impetuosity he talked about resigning his chair--with a hint that others would follow his example--were the authorities at ,weimar to permit such an outrage4 ,goethe1 who was then ,minister1 observed that no ,government could allow itself to be threatened1 and ,fichte was at once relieved of his post4 ,settling at ,berlin1 he became ,professor of ,philosophy in the new ,university founded after the ,french conquest of ,prussia1 having previously done much to revive the national spirit by his ,addresses to the ,german ,nation 7#ahjg-ahjh74 ,these were in appearance the programme of a new educational ,utopia2 but their real purpose was so evident that the speaker lived in daily expectation of being summoned #ajc before a ,french court-martial and shot4 ,unlike his countrymen1 ,goethe1 ,hegel1 and ,schopenhauer1 ,fichte passionately resented the ,napoleonic despotism1 throwing himself heart and soul into the great uprising by which it was finally overthrown4 ,although his wish to accompany the victorious army as field preacher could not be gratified1 the campaign of #ahac still claimed him as one of its victims4 ,after nursing his heroic wife to recovery from a hospital fever caught in attendance on the sick and wounded at ,berlin1 he took the infection from her and died early in #ahad1 soon after hearing that ,bluecher had crossed the ,rhine4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 in a well-known story1 has made himself and his readers merry over a ,german savant who undertakes to evolve the idea of a camel out of the depths of his moral consciousness4 ,the phrase is commonly quoted as inner consciousness1 but this takes away its whole point4 ,for the original satirist1 who1 ,i think1 was not ,lewes1 but ,heine1 had in view the philosophy of ,fichte4 ,it need hardly be said that ,german savants are as careful observers and diligent collectors of facts as any others2 and ,fichte in particular trusted solely to experience for the knowledge of natural phenomena4 ,but even as regards his general philosophy the place it gives to morality has been misconceived even by his closest students4 ,with him goodwill really plays a less important part than with ,kant1 being not an end in itself1 but a means towards an end4 ,and what that end is his teaching makes quite clear4 ,kant's first critics put their finger on the weak point of his system1 the thing in itself4 ,so1 assuming it to be discarded1 ,fichte set to work on new lines1 the lines of pure idealism4 ,but1 though an idealist1 he is not1 any more than ,berkeley1 a solipsist4 ,the celebrated #ajd antithesis of the ego and the non-ego dates from him1 and strikes the keynote of his whole system4 ,it might be thought that1 as compared with the old realism1 this was a distinction without a difference4 ,but that is not so2 for1 according to ,fichte1 the non-ego is subjective in its origin1 and that is where he departs widely from ,berkeley's theological idealism4 ,not that ,i create the not-myself2 ,i assume it as the condition of my self-consciousness--a remarkable feat of logic1 but after all not more wonderful than that space and time should result from the activity of the outer and inner senses4 ,this figment of my imagination is anyhow solid enough to beget a new feeling of resistance and recoil1 throwing the self back on itself1 and bringing with it the interpretation of that external impact by the category of causation1 of its own activity as substance1 and of the whole deal between the ego and the non-ego as interaction or reciprocity4 ,in this way the first triad of thesis1 antithesis1 and synthesis is obtained2 and from this1 by a vast expenditure of ingenuity1 the whole array of ,kant's forms1 categories1 and faculties is evolved as a coherent system of scientific thought in obedience to a single principle--the self-realisation of the ego1 alternatively admitting and transcending a limit to its activity4 ,it will be easily understood that this self-realising ego is neither ,fichte's nor anyone else's self1 but a universal principle1 fundamentally the same in all4 ,one is reminded of ,descartes's self-thinking thought by which the reality of the universe was guaranteed2 but between the two there is this vast difference1 that the ,frenchman's ego resembles a box containing a variety of independent ideas1 to be separately handled and examined2 the ,german's is a box enclosing a coiled-up spring by #aje the expansion of which all the wheels of the philosophical machine are made go round4 ,from the action of the not-self on the self results the whole of nature as we conceive it2 from the reaction of the self on the not-self1 the whole mentality and morality of man--morality being understood to include the domestic1 social1 political1 educational1 and industrial organisation of life4 ,the final cause1 the impelling ideal of existence1 is the self-realisation of the ego1 the entire absorption into its personal energy of the non-ego1 of nature1 to be effected by perfect knowledge of how the physical universe is constituted issuing in perfect subjugation of its forces to the human will4 ,but such a realisation of the ,absolute ,ego would mean its annihilation1 for1 as we have seen1 the antithesis between objective and subjective is the very condition of consciousness that without which it could neither begin nor continue to exist4 ,therefore the process must go on for ever1 and this necessity guarantees the eternal duration of the human race--not1 as ,kant had dreamed1 of the individual soul1 since for ,fichte the ,categorical ,imperative demands a consummation widely different from that combination of virtue with happiness which had satisfied his master4 ,and the agency by which it is being effected through infinite time is not a personal ,god1 but that moral order of the world which ,fichte regarded as the only true object of religious feeling4 ,as for human immortality1 he seems to have first accepted1 but afterwards rejected it in favour of a mystical union with the divine4 ,it has been said that morality was not with ,fichte what it had been with ,kant--the highest good4 ,nevertheless1 as a means towards the final synthesis1 morality interested him intensely1 and his best work has been #ajf done in ethics4 ,as a condition of self-realisation the primal ego becomes personified in a multitude of free individualities4 ,just as in ,stoicism1 each individual is conceived as having a special office to perform in the world-process1 and the ,state exists--ideally speaking--in order to guarantee the necessary independence of all its citizens4 ,for this purpose everyone must have the right to work and the right to a living wage4 ,thus ,fichte appears as the first theorist of ,state ,socialism in the history of ,german thought4 ,probably the example of the ,greek ,stoics with their communistic utopias acting on a kindred spirit1 rather than any prophetic vision of the coming century1 is to be credited for this remarkable anticipation4 ,,schelling4 ,german philosophy is prolific of self-contradictions2 and so far the most flagrant example has been offered by ,fichte's ,theory of ,knowledge1 starting as it does with the idea of an impersonal ego1 developing through a process in which this selfless self demands its own negation at every step1 and determined by the prospect of a catastrophe that would be the annihilation of consciousness itself4 ,in fact1 there seemed no need to wait until time had run out2 the self1 or1 as it was now called1 the subject1 had absorbed all reality1 only to find that the material universe1 reconstituted as the object of knowledge1 was an indispensable condition of its existence4 ,and meanwhile the physical sciences1 more particularly those concerned with inorganic nature1 were entering on a series of triumphs unparalleled since the days of ,newton4 ,philosophy must come to terms with these or cease to exist4 ,the task of reconciliation was first attempted by #ajg ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 ,schelling 7#agge-ahed71 a ,suabian1 and the first ,south ,german who made a name in pure philosophy4 ,educated at the ,university of ,tuebingen1 at an early age he covered an encyclopaedic range of studies and began authorship at nineteen1 gaining a professorship at ,jena four years later4 ,wandering about from one university to another1 and putting forward new opinions as often as he changed his residence1 the young adventurer ceased to publish after #ahac1 and remained silent till in #ahda he came forward at ,berlin as the champion of a reactionary current1 practically renouncing the naturalistic pantheism by which his early reputation had been made4 ,but he utterly failed in the attempt1 which was finally abandoned in the fifth year from its inception4 ,lewes1 who saw ,schelling in his old age1 describes him as remarkably like ,socrates2 his admirers called him a modern ,plato2 but he had nothing of the deep moral earnestness that characterised either1 nor indeed was morality needed for the work that he actually did4 ,this1 to use the phrase of his fellow-student ,hegel1 consisted in raising philosophy to its absolute standpoint1 in passing from the subjective moralism of the eighteenth century to the all-comprehensive systematisation of the nineteenth4 ,schelling began as a disciple of ,fichte1 but he came simultaneously under the influence of ,spinoza1 whose fame had been incessantly spreading through the last generation in ,germany1 with some reinforcement from the revived name of ,bruno4 ,their teaching served to make the latent pantheism of ,fichte more explicit1 while the great contemporary discoveries gave a new interest to the study of nature1 which ,fichte1 unlike ,kant1 had put in the background1 strictly subordinating it to the moral service of man4 ,had he cared to evolve #ajh the idea of a camel from his moral consciousness1 the operation would not have demanded several years1 but only a few minutes' thought4 ,as thus3 the moral development of humanity needed the co-operation of such a race as the ,semites4 ,to form their character a long residence in the ,arabian deserts was needed4 ,but for such nomads an auxiliary animal would be needed with long legs and neck1 a stomach for storing water1 hump1 etc4--,q4 ,e4 ,d4 ,schelling also began by explaining the material world as a preparation for the spiritual2 only he did not employ the method of teleological adaptation1 but a method of rather fanciful analogy4 ,as the evolution of self-conscious reason had proceeded by a triple movement of thesis1 antithesis1 and synthesis1 so a parallel process had to be discovered in the advance towards a consciousness supposed to be exhibited in organic and inorganic nature4 ,the fundamental idea of natural philosophy is polarity--opposite forces combining to neutralise one another and then parting to be reunited at a higher stage of evolution4 ,thus attraction and repulsion--represented as space and time--by their synthesis compose matter2 magnetism and electricity produce chemical affinity2 life results from a triad of inorganic forces2 in life itself productivity and irritability give birth to sensibility4 ,the order of the terms made little1 if any1 difference4 ,when long afterwards iron was magnetised by the electric current1 ,schelling claimed for himself the credit of anticipating this discovery1 although he had placed magnetism before electricity4 ,the next step was to construct a philosophy of history4 ,this1 with much else1 is included under the name of ,a ,system of ,transcendental ,idealism 7#ahjj7 in the most finished of ,schelling's literary compositions4 #aji ,history1 according to the view here unfolded1 is the gradual self-revelation of ,god1 or the ,absolute1 in whom ,nature and ,spirit are united and identified1 who never is nor can be1 but always is to be4 ,meanwhile the supreme ideal is not that ever-increasing mastery of nature by man which ,fichte contemplated1 but their reconciliation as achieved by ,art4 ,for just as natural philosophy carried an element of consciousness into the material universe1 so aestheticism recognises a corresponding element of unconscious creation in the supreme works of artistic genius where spirit reaches its highest and best4 ,here ,schelling appears as the philosopher of ,romanticism1 a movement that characterised ,german thought from #agie to #ahje1 and is known to ourselves by the faded and feeble image of it exhibited in a certain section of ,english society nearly a century later4 ,beginning with a more cultivated intelligence of ,hellenic antiquity1 this movement rapidly grew into a new appreciation of medieval culture1 falsely supposed to have given more scope to individuality than modern civilisation1 and then into a search for ever-varying sources of excitement or distraction in the whole history1 art1 and literature of past or present times1 religion being at last singled out as the vitalising principle of all4 ,singularly enough1 ,fichte accepted the ,transcendental ,idealism as an orthodox exposition of his own philosophy4 ,but its composition seems to have given ,schelling the consciousness of his own independence4 ,soon afterwards he defined the new position as a philosophy of ,identity or of ,indifference4 ,nature and ,spirit1 like ,spinoza's ,thought and ,extension1 were all the same and all one--that is to say1 in their totality or in the ,absolute4 ,for1 considered as appearances1 #aaj they might present quantitative differences determined by the varying preponderance of the objective or of the subjective side4 ,in this way ,schelling found himself able to repeat his fanciful construction of the forces and forms of nature in successive triads under new names4 ,the essential departure from ,fichte1 who repudiated the ,philosophy of ,identity with undisguised contempt1 was that it practically repudiated the idea of an eternal progress in man's ever-growing mastery of nature4 ,but1 in spite of all disclaimers1 the master silently followed his former disciple's evolution in the direction of a pantheistic monism4 ,his later writings represent ,god no longer as the moral order of the world1 but1 like ,spinoza1 as the world's eternal ,being1 of which man's knowledge is the reflected image4 ,finally1 both philosophers accepted the ,christian doctrines of the ,fall1 the ,incarnation1 and the ,trinity as mythical symbols of an eternal process in which ,god1 after becoming alienated from himself in the material universe1 returns to himself in man's consciousness of identity with the ,absolute4 ,instead of the rather abrupt method of position1 negation1 and re-affirmation known as ,thesis1 ,antithesis1 and ,synthesis1 we have here the more fluid process of a spiral movement1 departing from and returning to itself4 ,and this was to be the very mainspring of the system that next comes up for consideration4 ,,hegel4 #aaa ,illustration3 ,hegel 7,copyright ,b4 ,p4 ,c47 #aab ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71 in the opinion of some good judges ,germany's greatest philosopher1 was1 like ,schelling1 a ,suabian1 and intimately associated with his younger contemporary1 first at ,tuebingen and afterwards at ,jena1 where the two friends jointly conducted a philosophical review4 ,but they gradually drifted apart4 ,hegel was not a romanticist1 but a classic2 not a naturalist1 but a humanist4 ,largely influenced by ,greek thought and ,greek literature1 for which he continued to be an enthusiast through life1 he readily accepted1 as against ,kant and ,fichte1 the change from a purely subjective to an objective point of view4 ,but1 although he gave some attention to physical science1 ,hegel was less interested in it than his colleague1 with whose crude and fanciful metaphysics he also failed to sympathise4 ,with the publication of ,hegel's first important work1 the ,phenomenology of ,mind 7#ahjg71 things came to a breach2 for its preface amounts to a declaration of war against the philosophy of ,romanticism4 ,schelling himself is not named2 but there is no mistaking the object of certain picturesque references to exploding the ,absolute on us1 and the darkness in which every cow is black4 ,next year ,hegel became what we should call headmaster of a public school at ,nuremberg1 filling that post for eight years1 during which his greatest work1 the ,system of ,logic1 in three volumes1 was composed and published4 ,he then obtained a chair of philosophy at ,heidelberg1 passing thence to ,berlin in #ahah1 where he taught until his death by cholera in #ahca4 ,david ,strauss1 who saw the revered teacher a few days before the fatal seizure1 describes him first as he appeared in the lecture-room1 looking ever so old1 bent and coughing2 then in his home1 looking ten years younger1 with clear blue eyes1 and showing the most beautiful white teeth when he smiled4 ,he had published a summary of his whole system1 under the name of an ,encyclopaedia of the ,philosophical ,sciences1 in #ahag1 and a ,philosophy of ,law--which is really a treatise on ,government--in #ahba4 ,his #aac sympathies were with bureaucratic absolutism in a modernised form1 with ,napoleon against the ,german patriots1 with the restored ,prussian ,government against the new ,liberalism1 with ,english ,toryism against the ,whigs of the ,reform ,bill1 and finally with the admirers of war against the friends of peace4 ,hegel's collected works1 published after his death1 fill over twenty good-sized volumes4 ,besides the treatises already mentioned1 they include his ,lectures on the ,history of ,philosophy1 the ,philosophy of ,history1 the ,philosophy of ,religion1 ,aesthetics1 etc41 made up with much literary skill from the ,professor's own notes and from the reports of his hearers4 ,the most permanently valuable of these is the ,aesthetics2 but any student desirous of getting a notion of ,hegelianism at first hand had better begin with the ,philosophy of ,history1 of which there is a good and cheap ,english translation in one of ,bohn's ,libraries4 ,some general points of view serving to connect the system with its predecessors are all that room can be found for here4 ,as compared with ,kant1 ,hegel is distinguished above all by his complete abjuration of the agnostic standpoint in epistemology4 ,the universe is penetrable to thought3 an unknowable thing in itself does not exist4 ,indeed1 the intelligible reality of things is just what we know best2 the unaccountable residuum1 if any1 lurks in the details of their appearance4 ,so also in ,greek philosophy ,hegel holds that the truth was not in the ideal world of ,plato1 but in the self-realising ,forms of ,aristotle4 ,as against ,fichte1 ,hegel will not allow that the reconciliation of the subjective with the objective is an infinitely far-off divine event2 on the contrary1 it is a process being continually realised by ourselves and all about us4 ,in his homely expression1 the very #aad animals as they eat turn their food into consciousness1 in utter disregard of prejudice4 ,but ,fichte's condemnation of ,schelling's ,indifferentism is quite right4 ,the ,absolute is ,mind4 ,nature exists only as the lower stage1 whence ,spirit emerges to contradict1 to confront1 and to explain her as the necessary preparation for his supreme self-assertion4 ,and ,fichte was right in working out his system by the dialectical method of contradiction and solution1 as against the dogmatism that summarily decrees the ,absolute1 without taking the trouble to reason it out1 in imitation of the plan pursued by the universe in becoming conscious of itself4 ,the most portentous thing about ,hegel's philosophy is this notion of the world's having1 so to speak1 argued itself into existence4 ,to rationalise the sum of being1 to explain1 without assumptions1 why there should be anything1 and then why it should be as we know it1 had been a problem suggested by ,plato and solved rather summarily by ,spinoza's challenge to conceive ,infinite ,power as non-existing4 ,hegel is more patient and ingenious2 but1 after all1 his superiority merely consists in spinning the web of arbitrary dialectic so fine that we can hardly see the thread4 ,the root-idea is to identify1 or rather to confuse1 causal evolution with logic4 ,the chain of causes and effects that constitutes the universe is made out to be one with the series of reasons and consequents by which the conclusion is demonstrated4 ,as usual1 the equation is effected by a transference of terms from each side to the other4 ,the categories and processes of logic are credited with a life and movement that belongs only to the human reasoner operating with them4 ,and the moving1 interacting masses of which the material universe consists are represented as parties to a dialectical #aae discussion in which one denies what the other asserts until it is discovered1 on lifting the argument to a higher plane1 that after all they are agreed4 ,nor is this all4 ,the world as we know it is composed of co-existent elements grouped together or distinguished according to their resemblances and differences as so many natural kinds2 and of successive events linked together as causes and effects4 ,but while there is no general law of coexistence except such as may be derived from the collocation of the previously existing elements whence they are derived1 there is a law of causal succession--namely1 this1 that the quantities of mass and energy involved are conserved without loss or gain through all time4 ,now1 ,hegel's way of rationalising or1 in plainer words1 accounting for the coexistent elements and their qualities1 is to bring them under a supposed law of complementary opposition1 revived from ,heracleitus1 according to which everything necessarily involves the existence1 both in thought and reality1 of its contradictory4 ,and the same principle is applied to causal succession--a proceeding which would be fatal to the scientific law of conservation4 ,there is another way of rationalising experience--namely1 the theological hypothesis of a supreme intelligence by which the world was created and is governed with a view to the attainment of some ultimate good4 ,and there is a sort of teleology in ,hegel evidently inspired by his religious education4 ,but the two do not mean the same thing4 ,for he places conscious reason not at the beginning but at the end of evolution4 ,the rationality of things is immanent1 not transcendent4 ,purposes somehow work retrospectively so as to determine the course of events towards a good end4 ,that end is self-consciousness--not yours or mine1 but the #aaf world-spirit's consciousness and possession of itself4 ,and this is reached in four ways3 in ,art by intuition1 in ,religion by representation1 in ,philosophy by conception1 in ,history and ,politics by the realisation of righteousness through the agency of the modern ,state4 ,hegel looked on this world and this life of ours as the only world and the only life4 ,when ,heine pointed to the starry skies he told the young poet that the stars were a brilliant leprosy on the face of the heavens1 and met the appeal for future compensation with the sarcastic observation3 ,so you expect a trinkgeld for nursing your sick mother and for not poisoning your brother6 ,german historians have justly extolled the ingenuity1 the subtlety1 the originality1 the systematising power--unequalled since ,aristotle--and the enormous knowledge of their country's chief idealist4 ,but this1 after all1 amounts to no more than claiming for ,hegel that much of what he said is true and that much is new4 ,the vital question is whether what is new is also true--and this is more than they seem prepared to maintain4 ,,schopenhauer4 ,the leaders of the party known in the fourth and fifth decades of the last century as ,young ,germany1 among whom ,heinrich ,heine 7#agig-ahef7 was the most brilliant and famous1 were more or less associated with the ,hegelian school4 ,they were1 however1 what ,hegel was not1 political revolutionists with a tendency to ,socialism2 while their religious rationalism1 unlike his1 was openly proclaimed4 ,the temporary collapse in #ahdi of the movement they initiated brought discredit on idealism as represented by ,germany's classic philosophers1 which also had been seriously damaged by the luminous criticism of ,trendelenburg1 the neo-,aristotelian professor at ,berlin 7#ahjb-ahgb74 #aag ,illustration3 ,,schopenhauer #aah ,at this crisis attention was drawn to the long-neglected writings of ,arthur ,schopenhauer 7#aghh-ahfj71 which then attained a vogue that they never since have lost4 ,the son of a ,hamburg banker and of a literary lady whose novels enjoyed some reputation in their day1 he was placed from the beginning in a position of greater material and social independence than usually falls to the lot of ,german thinkers2 and to this1 combined with the fact that he failed entirely as a university teacher1 it is partly due that he wrote about philosophy not like a pedant1 but like a man of the world4 ,at the same time the ,german professors1 resenting the intrusion of an outsider on their privileged domain1 were strong enough to prevent the reading public from ever hearing of ,schopenhauer's existence until an article in the ,westminster ,review 7,april1 #ahec7 astonished ,germany by the revelation that she possessed a thinker whom the man in the street could understand4 ,schopenhauer found his earliest teachers of philosophy in ,plato and ,kant4 ,he then attended ,fichte's lectures at ,berlin4 ,at some uncertain date--probably soon after taking his doctor's degree in #ahac--;at the suggestion of an ,orientalist he took up the study of the ,vedanta system4 ,all these various influences converged to impress him with the belief that the things of sense are a delusive appearance under which a fundamental reality lies concealed4 ,according to ,hegel1 the reality is reason2 but the ,romanticists1 with ,schelling at their head1 never accepted his conclusion1 thinking of the absolute rather as a blind1 unconscious substance2 still less could it please #aai ,schopenhauer1 who sought for the supreme good under the form of happiness conceived as pleasure unalloyed by pain4 ,a gloomy and desponding temperament combined1 as in the case of ,byron and ,rousseau1 with passionately sensuous instincts and anti-social habits1 debarred him from attaining it4 ,the loss of a large part of his private fortune1 and the world's refusal to recognise his genius1 completed what natural temperament had begun2 and it only remained for the philosophy of the ,upanishads to give a theoretic sanction to the resulting state of mind by teaching that all existence is in itself an evil--a position which placed him in still more thoroughgoing antagonism to ,hegel4 ,it will be remembered that ,kant's criticism had denied the human mind all knowledge of things in themselves1 and that the post-,kantian systems had been so many efforts to get at the ,absolute in its despite4 ,but none had stated the question at issue so clearly as ,schopenhauer put it1 or answered it in such luminous terms4 ,like theirs1 his solution is idealist2 but the idealism is constructed on new lines4 ,if we know nothing else1 we know ourselves2 only it has to be ascertained what exactly we are4 ,hegel said that the essence of consciousness is reason1 and that reason is the very stuff of which the world is made4 ,no1 replies ,schopenhauer1 that is a one-sided scholastic view4 ,much the most important part of ourselves is not reason1 but that very unreasonable thing called will--that aimless1 hopeless1 infinite1 insatiable craving which is the source of all our activity and of all our misery as well4 ,this is the thing-in-itself1 the timeless1 inextended entity behind all phenomena1 come to the consciousness of itself1 but also of its utter futility1 in man4 #abj ,the cosmic will presents itself to us objectively under the form of the great natural forces--gravitation1 heat1 light1 electricity1 chemical affinity1 etc42 then as the organising power of life in vegetables and animals2 finally as human self-consciousness and sociability4 ,these1 ,schopenhauer says1 are what is really meant by the ,platonic ideas1 and they figure in his philosophy as first differentiations of the primordial will1 coming between its absolute unity and the individualised objects and events that fill all space and time4 ,it is the function of architecture1 plastic art1 painting1 and poetry to give each of these dynamic ideas1 singly or in combination1 its adequate interpretation for the aesthetic sense4 ,one art alone brings us a direct revelation of the real world1 and that is music4 ,musical compositions have the power to express not any mere ideal embodiment of the underlying will1 but the will itself in all its majesty and unending tragic despair4 ,schopenhauer's theory of knowledge is given in the essay by which he obtained his doctor's degree1 ,on the ,four-fold ,root of the ,sufficient ,reason4 ,notwithstanding this rather alarming title1 it is a singularly clear and readable work4 ,the standpoint is a simplification of ,kant's ,critique4 ,the objects of consciousness offer themselves to the thinking1 acting subject as grouped presentations in which there is nothing sudden1 nothing single4 7#a7 ,when a new object appears to us1 it must have a cause1 physical1 physiological1 or psychological2 and this we call the reason why it becomes4 7#b7 ,objects are referred to concepts of more or less generality1 according to the logical rules of definition1 classification1 and inference2 that is the reason of their being known4 7#c7 ,objects are mathematically determined by their position relatively to #aba other objects in space and time2 that is the reason of their being4 7#d7 ,practical objects or ends of action are determined by motives2 the motive is the reason why one thing rather than another is done4 ,the last sufficient reason takes us to ethics4 ,schopenhauer agrees with ,kant in holding that actions considered as phenomena are strictly determined by motives1 so much so that a complete knowledge of a man's character and environment would enable us to predict his whole course of conduct through life4 ,nevertheless1 each man1 as a timeless subject1 is and knows himself to be free4 ,to reconcile these apparently conflicting positions we must accept ,plato's theory that each individual's whole fate has been determined by an ante-natal or transcendental choice for which he always continues responsible4 ,nevertheless1 cases of religious conversion and the like prove that the eternal reality of the ,will occasionally asserts itself in radical transformations of character and conduct4 ,in ethics ,schopenhauer distinguishes between two ideals which may be called relative and absolute good4 ,relative good agrees with the standard of what in ,england is known as ,universalistic ,hedonism--the greatest pleasure combined with the least pain for all sensitive beings1 each agent counting for no more than one4 ,personally passionate1 selfish1 and brutal1 ,schopenhauer still had a righteous abhorrence of cruelty to animals2 whereas ,kant had no such feeling4 ,but positive happiness is a delusion1 and no humanity can appreciably diminish the amount of pain produced by vital competition--recognised by our philosopher before ,darwin--in the world4 ,therefore ,buddhism is right1 and the higher morality bids us extirpate the #abb will-to-live altogether by ascetic practices and meditation on the universal vanity of things4 ,suicide is not allowed1 for while annihilating the intelligence it would not exclude some fresh incarnation of the will4 ,and the last dying wish of ,schopenhauer was that the end of this life might be the end of all living for him4 ,,herbart4 ,j4 ,f4 ,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 occupies a peculiar position among ,german idealists4 ,like the others1 he distinguishes between reality and appearance2 and1 like ,schopenhauer in particular1 he altogether rejects ,hegel's identification of reality with reason4 ,but1 alone among post-,kantian metaphysicians1 he is a pluralist4 ,according to him1 things-in-themselves1 the eternal existents underlying all phenomena1 are not one1 but many4 ,so far his philosophy is a return to the pre-,kantian system of ,wolf and ,leibniz2 but whereas the monads of ,leibniz were credited with an inward principle of evolution carrying them for ever onward through an infinite series of progressive changes1 ,herbart pushes his metaphysical logic to the length of denying all change and all movement to the eternal entities of which reality is made up4 ,herbart is entitled to the credit--whatever it may be worth--of devising a system unlike every other in history2 for while ,hegel has a predecessor in ,heracleitus1 his rival combines the ,eleatic immobilism with a pluralism that is all his own4 ,it is not1 however1 on these paradoxes that his reputation rests1 but on more solid services as a psychologist and an educationalist4 ,without any acquaintance1 as would seem1 with the work doing in ,britain1 ,herbart discarded the old faculty psychology1 conceiving mentality as made up #abc of presentations1 among which a constant competition for the field of consciousness is going on2 and it is to this view that such terms as inhibition and threshold of consciousness are due4 ,and the enormous prominence now given to the idea of value in ethics may be traced back to the teaching of a thinker whom he greatly influenced1 ,f4 ,e4 ,beneke 7#agih-ahed74 99 99 99 99 99 #abd ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,humanists ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,the philosophical movement of the nineteenth century1 after the collapse of ,german idealism1 has not been dominated by any single master or any single direction to anything like the same extent as its predecessors4 ,but if we are called on to select the dominant note by which all its products have been more or less coloured and characterised1 none more impressive than the note of ,humanism can be named4 ,as applied to the culture of the ,renaissance1 humanism meant a tendency to concentrate interest on this world rather than on the next1 using classic literature as the best means of understanding what man had been and again might be4 ,at the period on which we are entering human interests again become ascendant2 but they assume the widest possible range1 claiming for their dominion the whole of experience--all that has ever been done or known or imagined or dreamed or felt4 ,hegel's inventory1 in a sense1 embraced all this2 but ,hegel had a way of packing his trunk that sometimes crushed the contents out of recognition1 and a way of opening it that few could understand4 ,besides1 much was left out of the trunk that could ill be spared by mankind4 ,aristotle has well said that the soul is in a way everything2 and as such its analysis1 under the name of #abe psychology1 has entered largely into the philosophy of the century4 ,theory of knowledge1 together with logic1 has figured copiously in academic courses1 with the result of putting what is actually known before the student in a new and interesting light2 but with the result also of developing so much pedantry and scepticism as to give many besides dull fools the impression that divine philosophy is both crabbed and harsh4 ,,the ,,french ,,eclectics4 ,in the two centuries after ,descartes ,france1 so great in science1 history1 and literature1 had produced no original philosopher1 although general ideas derived from ,english thought were extensively circulated for the purpose of discrediting the old order in ,church and ,state4 ,when this work had been done with a thoroughness going far beyond the intention of the first reformers a reaction set in1 and the demand arose for something more conservative than the so-called sensualism and materialistic atheism of the pre-revolutionary times4 ,a certain originality and speculative disinterestedness must be allowed to ,maine de ,biran 7#agff-ahbd71 who1 some years after ,fichte--but1 as would seem1 independently of him--referred to man's voluntary activity as a source of a priori knowledge4 ,a greater immediate impression was produced by ,royer-,collard 7#agfc-ahde71 who1 as ,professor at the ,sorbonne in #ahaa1 imported the common-sense spiritualism of ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 as an antidote to the then reigning theories of ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71 who1 improving on ,locke1 abolished reflection as a distinct source of our ideas4 ,then came ,victor ,cousin 7#agib-ahfg71 a brilliant rhetorician1 and1 after ,madame de ,stael1 the first to popularise ,german philosophy in ,france4 ,as #abf ,professor at the ,sorbonne in the last years of the ,bourbon monarchy he distinctly taught a pantheistic ,absolutism compounded of ,schelling and ,hegel2 but1 whether from conviction or opportunism1 this was silently withdrawn1 and a so-called eclectic philosophy put in its place4 ,according to ,cousin1 in all countries and all ages1 from ancient ,india to modern ,europe1 speculation has developed under the four contrasted forms of sensualism1 idealism1 scepticism1 and mysticism4 ,each is true in what it asserts1 false in what it denies1 and the right method is to preserve the positive while rejecting the negative elements of all four4 ,but neither the master nor his disciples have ever consistently answered the vital question1 what those elements are4 ,,hamilton ,,and ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,conditioned4 ,among other valuable contributions to the history of philosophy1 ,victor ,cousin had lectured very agreeably on the philosophy of ,kant1 accepting the master's arguments for the apriorism of space and time1 but rejecting his reduction of them to mere subjective forms as against common sense4 ,he had not gone into ,kant's destructive criticism of all metaphysics1 and this was now to be turned against him by an unexpected assailant4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#aghh-ahef71 afterwards widely celebrated as ,professor of ,logic and ,metaphysics at ,edinburgh1 began his philosophical career by an essay on ,the ,philosophy of the ,conditioned in the ,edinburgh ,review for ,october1 #ahbi1 controverting the ,absolutism both of ,cousin and of his master1 ,schelling4 ,the reviewer had acquired some not very accurate knowledge of ,kant in ,germany ten years before2 and he uses this1 with other rather flimsy #abg erudition1 to establish the principle that to think is to condition1 and that therefore the ,absolute cannot be thought--cannot be conceived4 ,hamilton enjoyed the reputation of having read all that mortal man had ever written about philosophy2 but this evidently did not include ,hegel1 who certainly had performed the feat declared to be impossible4 ,thirty years later the philosophy of the conditioned attained a sudden but transient notoriety1 thanks to the use made of it by ,hamilton's disciple1 ,h4 ,l4 ,mansel1 in his ,bampton ,lectures on ,the ,limits of ,religious ,thought 7#aheh74 ,the object of these was to prove that1 as we know nothing about ,things-in-themselves1 nothing told about ,god in the ,bible or the ,creeds can be rejected a priori as incredible4 ,as an apology1 the book failed utterly1 its only effect being to prepare public opinion for the ,agnosticism of ,herbert ,spencer and ,huxley4 ,,auguste ,,comte4 ,the brilliant audiences that hung spell-bound on the lips of ,victor ,cousin as he unrolled before them the ,infinite1 the ,finite1 and the relation between the two1 little knew that ,france's only great philosopher since ,descartes was working in obscurity among them4 ,auguste ,comte 7#agih-aheg71 the founder of ,positivism1 belonged to a ,catholic and ,legitimist family4 ,by profession a mathematical teacher1 he fell early under the influence of the celebrated ,st4 ,simon1 a mystical socialist who exercised a powerful attraction on others besides ,comte4 ,the connection lasted four years1 when they quarrelled2 indeed ,comte's character was such as to make permanent co-operation with him impossible1 except on terms of absolute agreement with his opinions and submission to his will4 ,at a #abh subsequent period he obtained some fairly well-paid employment at the ,ecole ,polytechnique1 but lost it again owing to the injurious terms in which he spoke of his colleagues4 ,in his later years he lived on a small annuity made up by contributions from his admirers4 ,illustration3 ,,auguste ,,comte4 #abi ,auguste ,comte disliked and despised ,plato1 altogether preferring ,aristotle to him as a philosopher2 but it is fundamentally as a ,platonist1 not as an ,aristotelian1 that he should himself be classed--in this sense1 that he valued knowledge above all as the means towards reconstituting society on the basis of an ideal life4 ,and this is the first reason why his philosophy is called positive--to distinguish it as reconstructive from the purely negative thought of the ,revolution4 ,the second reason is to distinguish it as dealing with real facts from the figments of theology and the abstractions of metaphysics4 ,positive science explains natural events neither by the intervention of supernatural beings nor by the mutual relations of hypostasised concepts1 but by verifiable laws of succession and resemblance4 ,turgot was the first to distinguish the theological1 metaphysical1 and mechanical interpretations as successive stages of a historical evolution 7#agej72 ,hume was the first to single out the relations of orderly succession and resemblance as the essential elements of real knowledge 7#agci72 ,comte1 with the synthetic genius of the nineteenth century1 first combined these isolated suggestions with a wealth of other ideas into a vast theory of human progress set out in the fifth and sixth volumes of his ,philosophie ,positive--the best sketch of universal history ever written4 ,the positive sciences fall into two great divisions--the concrete1 dealing with the actual phenomena as presented in space and time2 the abstract1 which alone concern philosophy1 dealing with their laws4 ,the most important of the abstract sciences is ,sociology1 claimed by ,comte as his own special creation4 ,the study of this demands a previous knowledge of biology1 psychology #acj being dismissed as a metaphysical delusion and phrenology put in its place4 ,the science of life presupposes ,chemistry1 before which comes ,physics1 presupposing ,astronomy1 and1 as the basis of all1 ,mathematics1 divided into the calculus and geometry4 ,at a later period ,morality was placed as a seventh fundamental science at the head of the whole hierarchy4 ,at a first glance some serious flaws reveal themselves in the imposing logic of this scheme4 ,astronomy as a concrete science ought to have been excluded from the series1 its admission being apparently due to the historical circumstance that the most general laws of physics were ascertained through the study of celestial phenomena4 ,but on the same ground geology can no longer be excluded1 as its records led to the recognition of the evolution of life2 or should evolution be referred to the concrete sciences of zoology and botany1 by parity of reasoning human progress should be treated as a branch of universal history--which1 in fact1 is what ,comte makes it in his fifth and sixth volumes4 ,it would have been better had he also studied social statics on the historical method4 ,as it is1 the volume in which the conditions of social equilibrium are supposed to be established contains only one chapter on the subject1 and that is very meagre1 consisting of some rather superficial observations on family life and the division of labour4 ,no doubt the matter receives a far more thorough discussion in the author's later work1 ,politique ,positive4 ,but this merely embodies his own plan of reorganisation for the society of the future1 and therefore should count not as science1 but as art4 ,the ,positivist theory of social dynamics is that all #aca branches of knowledge pass through three successive stages already described as the theological1 the metaphysical1 and the scientific4 ,and this advance is accompanied by a parallel evolution on the governmental side from the military to the industrial regime1 with a revolutionary or transitional period answering to metaphysical philosophy4 ,to this scheme it might be objected that the parallelism is merely accidental4 ,a scientific view of nature and a profound knowledge of her laws is no doubt far more conducive to industry than a superstitious view2 but it is also more favourable to the successful prosecution of war1 which1 indeed1 always has been an industry like another4 ,nor1 to judge by modern experience1 does it look as if a government placed in the hands of a country's chief capitalists--which was what ,comte proposed--would be less militant in its general disposition than the parliamentary governments which he condemns as metaphysical4 ,in fact1 it is by theologians and metaphysicians that our modern horror of war has been inspired rather than by scientists4 ,the great idea of ,comte's life1 that the positive sciences1 philosophically systematised1 are destined to supply the basis of a new religion surpassing ,catholicism in its social efficacy1 seems a delusion really inherited from one of his pet aversions1 ,plato4 ,it arose from a profound misconception of what ,catholicism had done1 and a misconception1 equally profound1 of the means by which its priesthood worked4 ,in spite of ,comte's denials1 the leverage was got not by appeals to the heart1 but by appeals to that future judgment with which the preaching of righteousness and temperance was associated by ,st4 ,paul1 his supposed precursor in religion1 as ,aristotle was his precursor in philosophy4 #acb ,the worship of ,humanity1 or1 as it has been better called1 the ,service of ,man1 is a great and inspiring thought4 ,only it is not a religion1 but a metaphysical idea1 derived by ,comte from the philosophers of the eighteenth century1 and by them through imperial ,rome from the ,humanists and ,stoics of ancient ,athens4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,mill4 ,john ,stuart ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc7 was1 like ,comte1 a ,platonist in the sense of valuing knowledge chiefly as an instrument of social reform4 ,he was indeed bred up by his father1 ,james ,mill 7#aggc-ahcf71 and by ,jeremy ,bentham as a prophet of the new ,utilitarianism as ,comte was1 to some extent1 trained by ,st4 ,simon to substitute a new order for that which the ,revolution had destroyed4 ,mill1 however1 had been educated on the lines of ,greek liberty rather than in the tradition of ,roman authority2 while both were largely affected by the ,romanticism current in their youth4 ,the worship of women1 revived from the age of chivalry1 entered into the romantic movement2 and it may be mentioned in this connection that ,mill calls ,mrs4 ,taylor1 the lady with whom he fell in love at twenty-four and married eighteen years later1 the inspirer and in part the author of all that was best in his writings2 while ,comte refers his religious conversion to ,madame ,clotilde de ,vaux1 the object of his adoration in middle life4 ,it seems probable1 however1 from the little we know of ,mrs4 ,taylor--whom ,carlyle credits with the keenest insight and the royallest volition--that her influence was the reverse of ,clotilde's4 ,if anything1 she attached ,mill still more firmly to the cause of pure reason4 ,it has been mentioned how ,kant's metaphysical #acc agnosticism was played out by ,hamilton against ,cousin4 ,a little later ,whewell1 the ,cambridge historian of physical science1 imported ,kant's theory of necessary truth in opposition to the empiricism of popular ,english thought1 and ,kant's ,categorical ,imperative in still more express contradiction to ,bentham's utilitarian morality4 ,now ,mill1 educated as he had been on the associationist psychology and in the central line of the ,english epistemological tradition1 rejected the ,german apriorism as false in itself1 while more particularly hating it as1 in his opinion1 a dangerous enemy to all social progress4 ,for to him what people called their intuitions1 whether theoretic or practical1 were merely the time-honoured prejudices in which they had been brought up1 and the contradictory of which they could not conceive4 ,comte similarly interpreted the metaphysical stage of thought as the erection into immutable principles of certain abstract ideas whose value--if they had any--was merely relative and provisional4 ,mill1 with his knowledge of history1 might have remembered that past thought1 beginning with ,plato1 shows no such connection between intuitionism and immobility or reaction1 while such experientialists as ,hobbes and ,hume have been political ,tories4 ,but in his own time the a priori philosophy went hand in hand with conservatism in ,church and ,state1 so he set himself to explode it in his ,system of ,logic 7#ahdc74 ,mill's ,logic1 the most important ,english contribution to philosophy since ,hume1 is based on ,hume's theory of knowledge1 amended and supplemented by some ,german and ,french ideas4 ,it is conceded to ,kant that mathematical truths are synthetic1 not analytic4 ,it is not contained in the idea of two and #acd two that they make four1 nor in the idea of two straight lines that they cannot enclose a space4 ,such propositions are real additions to our knowledge2 but it is only experience that justifies us in accepting them4 ,what constitutes their peculiar certainty is that they can be verified by trial on imagined numbers and lines1 without reference to external objects4 ,but by what right we generalise from mental experience to all experience ,mill does not explain4 ,hume's analysis of causation into antecedence and sequence of phenomena is accepted by ,mill as it was accepted by ,kant2 but the law that every change must have a cause is affirmed1 in adhesion to ,dr4 ,thomas ,brown 7#aggh-ahbj71 with more distinctness than by ,hume4 ,as ,laplace put it1 the whole present state of the universe is a product of its whole preceding state4 ,but we only know this truth by experience2 and we can conceive a state of things where phenomena succeed one another by a different law or without any law at all4 ,mill himself was ready to believe that causation did not obtain at some very remote point of space2 though what difference remoteness could make1 except we suppose it to be causal--which would be a reassertion of the law--he does not explain2 nor yet what warrant we have for assuming that causation holds through all time1 or at any future moment of time4 ,next to the law of universal causation inductive science rests on the doctrine of natural kinds4 ,the material universe is known to consist of a number of substances--namely1 the chemical elements and their combinations1 so constituted that a certain set of characteristic properties are invariably associated with an indefinite number of other properties4 ,thus1 if in a strange country a certain mineral answers the usual #ace tests for arsenic1 we know that a given dose of it will destroy life2 and we are equally certain that if the spectroscopic examination of a new star shows the characteristic lines of iron1 a metal possessing all the properties of iron as we find it in our mines is present in that distant luminary4 ,according to ,mill1 we are justified in drawing that sweeping inference on the strength of a single well-authenticated observation1 because we know by innumerable observations on terrestrial substances that natural kinds possessing such index qualities do exist1 whereas there is not a single instance of a substance possessing those qualities without the rest4 ,for ,mill1 as for ,hume1 reality means states of consciousness and the relations between them4 ,matter he defines as a permanent possibility of sensation2 mind as a permanent possibility of thought and feeling4 ,but the latter definition is admittedly not satisfactory4 ,for a stream of thoughts and feelings which is proved by memory to have the consciousness of itself seems to be something more than a mere stream4 ,all explanations must end in an ultimate inexplicability4 ,god may be conceived as a series of thoughts and feelings prolonged through eternity2 and it is a logically defensible hypothesis that the order of nature was designed by such a being1 although the amount of suffering endured by living creatures excludes the notion of a ,creator at once beneficent and omnipotent4 ,and if the ,darwinian theory were established1 the case for a designing intelligence would collapse4 ,personally ,mill believed neither in a ,god nor in a future life4 ,in morals ,mill may be considered the creator of what ,henry ,sidgwick1 in his ,methods of ,ethics 7#ahgd71 called ,universalistic ,hedonism4 ,the ,english moralists of the #acf eighteenth century had set up the greatest happiness of the greatest number as the ideal end of action2 but they did not hold that each individual could be expected to pursue anything but his own happiness2 the object of ,bentham 7#agdh-ahcb7 being to make the two coincide4 ,kant showed that the rule of right excluded any such accommodation1 and a crisis in his own life led ,mill to adopt the same conclusion4 ,afterwards he rather confused the issues by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures1 leaving experts to decide which were the pleasures to be preferred4 ,the universalistic standard settles the question summarily by estimating pleasures according to their social utility4 ,mill fully sympathised with ,comte's demand for social reorganisation as a means towards the moral end4 ,but1 with his ,english and ,protestant traditions1 he had no faith in the creation of a new spiritual power with an elaborate religious code and ritual as the best machinery for the purpose4 ,in his opinion1 the claims of the individual to extended liberty of thought and action1 not their restriction1 were what first needed attention4 ,second to this--if second at all--came the necessity for reforming representative government on the lines of an enlarged franchise and a readjusted electoral system with plural suffrage determined by merit1 votes for women1 and a contrivance for giving minorities a weight proportioned to their numbers4 ,the problem of poverty was to be dealt with by restrictions on the increase of population and on the amount of inheritable property1 the maximum of which ought not to exceed a modest competence4 ,among the noble characters presented by the history of philosophy we may distinguish between the heroic and the saintly types4 ,to the former in modern #acg times belong ,giordano ,bruno1 ,fichte1 and to some extent ,comte2 to the latter1 ,spinoza1 ,berkeley1 and ,kant4 ,to the second class we may surely add ,john ,stuart ,mill1 whom ,gladstone called the saint of rationalism1 and of whom ,auguste ,laugel said1 ,he was not sincere--he was sincerity itself4 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,herbert ,spencer 7#ahbj-aijc7 was the son of a ,nonconformist country schoolmaster1 but was educated chiefly by his uncle ,thomas1 an ,evangelical clergyman of the ,church of ,england4 ,a radical reformer of the old school1 ,thomas ,spencer seems to have indoctrinated his youthful charge with the germinal principles afterwards generalised into a whole cosmic philosophy4 ,he had a passion for justice realised under the form of liberty1 individual responsibility1 and self-help4 ,in his opinion1 until it was modified by private misfortunes1 everything served everybody right4 ,beginning as an economical administrator of the new ,poor ,law1 he at last became an advocate of its total abolition2 and1 alone among fifteen thousand clergymen1 he was an active member of the ,anti-,corn ,law ,league1 besides supporting the separation of ,church and ,state4 ,at twenty-two ,herbert ,spencer accepted and summed up this policy under the form of a general hostility to ,state interference with individual liberty1 supporting it by a reference to the reign of ,natural ,law in all orders of existence4 ,in his first great work1 ,social ,statics1 the principle of laissez-faire received its full systematic development as the restriction of ,state action to the defence of liberty against internal and external aggression1 the raising of taxes for any other purpose being unjust1 as is also private ownership of #ach land1 which is by nature the common heritage of all4 ,spencer subsequently came to abandon land nationalisation1 probably from alarm at its socialistic implications4 ,illustration3 ,,herbert ,,spencer4 ,the doctrine of natural law and liberty carried with it for ,spencer a strong repugnance not only to protectionism in politics1 but also to miracles in theology4 ,the profession of journalism brought him into touch #aci with a freethinking set in ,london4 ,whether under their influence1 or ,shelley's1 or by some spontaneous process1 his religious convictions evaporated by twenty-eight into the agnosticism which thenceforth remained their permanent expression4 ,there might or not be a ,first ,cause2 if there was1 we know nothing about it4 ,at this stage ,lyell's attempted refutation of ,lamarck converted ,spencer to the belief in man's derivation from some lower animal by a process of gradual adaptation4 ,thus the scion of an educationalist family came to interpret the whole history of life on our planet as an educative process4 ,it seemed1 however1 as if there was one fatal exception to the scheme of naturalistic optimism4 ,the ,rev4 ,thomas ,malthus had originally published his ,essay on ,population 7#agih7 as a telling answer to the infidel ,godwin's ,political ,justice 7#agic71 the bolder precursor of ,social ,statics4 ,the argument was that the tendency of population to outrun the means of subsistence put human perfectibility out of the question4 ,it had been suggested by the idealists1 ,mill among the number1 that the difficulty might be obviated by habitual self-restraint on the part of married people4 ,but ,spencer1 with great ingenuity1 made the difficulty its own solution4 ,the pressure of population on the means of subsistence is the source of all progress2 and of progress not only in discoveries and inventions1 but also1 through its increased exercise1 in the instrument which effects them--that is1 the human brain4 ,now1 it is a principle of ,aristotle's1 revived by modern biology1 that individuation is antagonistic to reproduction2 and increasing individuation is the very law of developing life1 shown above all in the growing power of life's chief instrument1 which is thought's organ1 the brain4 ,for1 as ,spencer proceeded #adj to show in his next work1 the ,principles of ,psychology1 life means a continuous series of adjustments of internal to external relations4 ,therefore the rate of multiplication must go on falling with the growth of intellectual and moral power until it only just suffices to balance the loss by death4 ,the next step was to revive ,laplace's nebular hypothesis1 and to connect it through ,lyell's uniformitarian geology with ,lamarck's developmental biology1 thereby extending the same evolutionary process through the whole history of the universe4 ,nor was this all4 ,milne-,edwards1 by another return to ,aristotle1 had pointed to the physiological division of labour as a mark of ascending organic perfection1 to which ,spencer adds integration of structure as its obverse side1 at the same time extending the world-law1 already made familiar in part through its industrial applications by ,adam ,smith1 to all orders of social activity4 ,finally1 differentiation and integration were stretched back from living to lifeless matter1 thus bringing astronomy and geology1 which had already entered into the causal series of cosmic transformations1 under one common law of evolution2 while at the same time1 seeing it to be generally admitted that inorganic changes originated from the operation of purely mechanical forces1 they suggested that mechanism1 without teleology1 could adequately explain organic evolution also4 ,finally came the great discovery of ,darwin and ,wallace1 with its extension of ,malthus's law to the whole world of living things4 ,spencer had just touched1 without grasping1 the same idea years before4 ,he now gladly accepted ,natural ,selection as supplementing without superseding ,lamarck's theory of spontaneous adaptation4 #ada ,to complete even in outline the vast sweep of his projected ,synthetic ,philosophy two steps more remained for ,spencer to take4 ,the law of evolution had to be brought under the recently-discovered law of the ,conservation of ,energy1 or1 as he called it1 the ,persistence of ,force1 and the whole of unified science had to be reconciled with religion4 ,the first problem was solved by interpreting evolution as a redistribution of matter and motion--a process in which1 of course1 energy is neither lost nor gained4 ,the second problem was solved by reducing faith and knowledge to the common denominator of ,agnosticism--a method that found more favour with ,positivists 7in the wide sense7 than with ,christian believers4 ,herbert ,spencer was disappointed to find that people took more interest in the portico 7as he called it in a letter to the present writer7--that is to say1 the metaphysical introduction to his philosophical edifice--than in its interior4 ,he probably had some suspicion that the portico was mere lath and plaster1 while he felt sure that the columns and architraves behind it were of granite4 ,the public1 however1 besides their perennial interest in religion1 might be excused for giving more attention to even a baroque exterior with some novelty about it than to the formalised eclecticism of what stood behind it4 ,unfortunately1 they soon found that the alleged reconciliation was a palpable sham4 ,religion is nothing if not a revelation1 and an unknowable ,god is no ,god at all4 ,even the pretended proofs of that poor residual deity involved their author in the transparent self-contradiction of calling the universe the manifestation of an ,unknowable ,power4 ,then the relations between this ,power 7such as it was7 and the ,energy 7or ,force7 whose conservation 7or persistence7 was the very first #adb of ,first ,principles seemed hard to adjust4 ,either energy is created1 or it is not4 ,in the one case1 what becomes of its eternity8 in the other case1 what need is there to assume a ,power 7knowable or not7 behind it8 ,science will not shrink back before such a phantom1 nor will ,religion adore it4 ,such faulty building in the portico prepares us for somewhat unsteady masonry within2 and in fact none holds together except what has been transported bodily from other temples4 ,in the past history of the universe1 considered as a rearrangement of matter and motion1 disintegration and assimilation play quite as great a part as integration and differentiation4 ,such formulas have no advantage over the metaphysical systematisation of ,aristotle1 and they give us as little power either to predict or to direct4 ,will war be abolished at some future time1 or property equalised or abolished1 or morality exalted1 or religion superseded8 ,spencer was ready with his answer2 but the law of evolution could not prove it true4 ,nevertheless1 his name will long be associated with evolution as a world-wide process1 though neither in the way of original discovery nor of complete generalisation1 and far less of successful application to modern problems2 but rather of diffusion and popularisation1 even as other valuable ideas have been impressed on the public mind by other philosophies at a vast expense of ingenuity1 knowledge1 and labour1 but not at greater expense than the eventual gain has been worth4 ,,the ,,english ,,hegelians4 ,hegel's philosophy first drew attention in ,england through its supposed connection with ,strauss's mythic theory of the ,gospels and ,baur's theory of ,new #adc ,testament literature as a product of party conflicts and compromises in the primitive ,church4 ,rightly interpreted as a system of ,pantheism1 it was decried and ridiculed by orthodox theologians in the name of religion and common sense1 while cherished by the advanced ,broad ,church as a means of symbolising away the creeds they continued to repeat4 ,then the triumph of ,spencer's ,agnosticism in the middle ,victorian period 7#ahfd-ahgd7 suggested an appeal to a logic whose object had been to resolve the negations of eighteenth-century enlightenment in the synthesis of a higher unity4 ,the first pronunciation in this sense was ,the ,secret of ,hegel 7#ahfe71 by ,dr4 ,hutchison ,stirling 7#ahbj-aiji71 a writer of geniality and genius1 who1 writing from the ,hegelian standpoint1 tried to represent the ,english rationalists of the day as a superficial and retrograde school4 ,it was a bold but unsuccessful attempt to plant the banner of the ,hegelian ,right on ,british soil4 ,by attacking ,darwinism ,stirling put himself out of touch with the general movement of thought4 ,professor ,william ,wallace 7#ahdd-ahig71 ,john ,caird 7#ahbj-ahih71 and his brother ,edward ,caird 7#ahce-aijh7 inclined more or less to the ,left1 as also does ,lord ,haldane 7b4 #ahfe7 in his ,gifford ,lectures 7#aijc72 and all have the advantage over ,stirling of writing in a clearer if less picturesque style4 ,t4 ,h4 ,green 7#ahcf-ahhb7 is sometimes quoted as a ,hegelian1 but his intellectual affinities were rather with ,fichte4 ,according to him1 reality is the thought of an ,eternal ,consciousness1 of which personality need not be predicated1 while the endless duration of personal spirits seems to be denied4 ,another idealist1 ,f4 ,h4 ,bradley 7b4 #ahdf7--perhaps the greatest living ,english #add thinker--develops in his ,appearance and ,reality 7#ahic7 a metaphysical system which1 though ,absolutist in form1 is1 to me at least1 in substance practically indistinguishable from the dogmatic ,agnosticism of ,herbert ,spencer1 and even more destructive of the popular ,theism4 ,finally the writings of ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,taggart 7b4 #ahff71 teaching as they do a doctrine of developmental personal immortality without a ,god1 show a tendency to combine ,hegel with ,lotze4 ,,the ,,german ,,eclectics4 ,by general consent the most serious and influential of ,german systematic thinkers since ,hegel is ,r4 ,h4 ,lotze 7#ahag-ahha74 ,his philosophy is built up of materials derived in varying proportions from all his ,german predecessors1 the most distinctive idea being pluralism1 probably suggested in the first instance by ,herbart1 whom he succeeded as ,professor at ,goettingen4 ,but ,lotze discards the rigid monads of his master for the more intelligible soul-substances of ,leibniz--or rather of ,bruno--whose example he also follows in his attempt to combine pluralism with monism4 ,very strenuous efforts are made to give the unifying principle the character of a personal ,god2 but the suspicion of a leaning to ,pantheism is not altogether eluded4 ,more original and far more uncompromising is the work of ,ed4 v4 ,hartmann 7#ahdb-aijf74 ,personally he enjoyed the twofold distinction--whatever it may be worth--of having served as an officer for a short time in the ,prussian army1 and of never having taught in a university4 ,his great work1 published at twenty-seven1 appeared under the telling title of the ,philosophy of the ,unconscious4 ,it won immediate popularity1 and reached its eleventh edition in #aijd4 ,hartmann adopts1 #ade with some slight attenuation1 ,schopenhauer's pessimism1 and his metaphysics with a considerable emendation4 ,in this new version the world is still conceived as ,will and ,representation2 but whereas for ,schopenhauer the intellective side had been subordinated to the volitional1 with ,hartmann the two are co-equal and intimately united1 together forming that ,unconscious which is the new ,absolute4 ,in this way ,reason again becomes1 what it had been with ,hegel1 a great cosmic principle2 only as the optimistic universe had argued itself into existence1 so conversely the pessimistic universe has to argue itself out of existence4 ,as in the process of developing differentiation1 the volitional and intellective sides draw apart1 the ,unconscious becomes self-conscious1 and thus awakens to the terrible mistake it committed in willing to be4 ,thenceforth the whole of evolution is determined by the master-thought of how not to be4 ,the problem is how to annul the creative ,will4 ,and the solution is to divide it into two halves so opposed that the one shall be the negation and destruction of the other4 ,there will be then1 not indeed a certainty1 but an equal chance of definitive self-annihilation and eternal repose4 ,thus1 the immediate duty for mankind1 as also their predestined task1 is the furtherance of scientific and industrial progress as a means towards this consummation1 which is likewise their predestined end4 ,a religious colouring is given to the process by representing it as an inverted ,christian scheme in which man figures as the redeemer of ,god--i4e4 the ,absolute--from the unspeakable torments to which he is now condemned by the impossibility of satisfying his will4 ,like ,hartmann1 ,friedrich ,nietzsche 7#ahdd-aijj71 the greatest writer of modern ,germany1 took his start from #adf ,schopenhauer1 but broke with pessimism at an early date1 having come to disbelieve in the hedonism on which it is founded4 ,his restless vanity drove him to improve on ,darwinism by interpreting evolution as the means towards creating what he called the ,superman--that is1 a race as much superior to us as we are to the apes4 ,progress1 however1 is not to be in the direction of a higher morality1 but of greater power--the ,will-to-,power1 not the ,will-to-,live1 being the essence of what is4 ,later in life ,nietzsche revived the ,stoic doctrine that events move1 and have moved through all time1 in a series of recurring cycles1 each being the exact repetition of its predecessor4 ,it is a worthless idea1 and ,nietzsche1 who had been a ,greek professor1 must have known where he got it2 but the megalomania to which he eventually succumbed prevented his recognising the debt4 ,by a merited irony of fate this worshipper of the ,napoleonic type will survive only as a literary moralist in the history of thought4 ,the modern revolt against metaphysical systemisation1 with or without a theological colouring1 took in ,germany the form of two distinct philosophical currents4 ,the first is scientific materialism1 or1 as some of its advocates prefer to call it1 energism4 ,this began about #ahej1 but boasts two great living representatives1 the biologist ,haeckel and the chemist ,ostwald4 ,in their practical aims these men are idealists2 but their admission of space and time as objective realities beyond which there is nothing1 and their repudiation of agnosticism1 distinguish them from the ,french and ,english ,positivists4 ,the other and more powerful school is known as ,neo-,kantianism4 ,it numbers numerous adherents in the ,german universities1 and also in those of ,france and ,italy1 representing various #adg shades of opinion united by a common reference to ,kant's first ,critique1 dissociated from its concessions to deism1 as the true starting-point of modern thought4 ,,the ,,latest ,,developments4 ,since the beginning of the twentieth century the interest in philosophy and the ability devoted to its cultivation have shown no sign of diminution4 ,two new doctrines in particular have become subjects of world-wide discussion4 ,i refer to the theory of knowledge called ,pragmatism1 and to the metaphysics of ,professor ,henri ,bergson4 ,both are of so revolutionary1 so contentious1 and so elusive a character as to preclude any discussion or even outline of the new solutions for old problems which they claim to provide4 ,but ,i would recommend the study of both1 and especially of ,bergson1 to all who imagine that the possibilities of speculation are exhausted1 or that we are any nearer finality and agreement than when ,heracleitus first glorified war as the father of all things1 and contradiction as the central spring of life4 99 99 99 99 99 #adi ,,bibliography ,kuno ,fischer4 ,geschichte der neuern ,philosophie4 ,nine vols4 ,fourth ed42 ,heidelberg1 #ahig-aijd4 7,comes down to ,schopenhauer47 ,erdmann4 ,geschichte der ,philosophie4 ,vol4 ii4 ,fourth ed42 ,berlin1 #ahif4 7,comes down to ,lotze2 third ed42 trans4 by ,w4 ,s4 ,hough2 ,london1 #ahhi47 ,windelband4 ,geschichte der neuern ,philosophie4 ,two vols4 ,fifth ed4 7,comes down to ,herbart and ,beneke4 ,there is an ,english trans4 of ,windelband's ,general ,history of ,philosophy1 by ,j4 ,h4 ,tufts1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,in his contribution to the ,general ,history of ,philosophy in the ,kultur der ,gegenwart1 ,berlin1 #aiji1 ,windelband includes a brief but useful summary of ,pragmatism and ,bergson47 ,levy-,bruhl4 ,history of ,modern ,philosophy in ,france4 ,trans4 by ,miss ,coblence4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,forsyth1 ,t4 ,m4 ,english ,philosophy3 ,a ,study of its ,methods and ,general ,development4 ,london1 #aiaj4 7,a4 ,c4 ,black47 ,giordano ,bruno4 ,opere ,italiane4 ,ed4 ,p4 ,lagarde4 ,goettingen1 #ahhh4 ---- ,opera latine conscripta4 ,naples and ,florence1 #ahgi-ia4 ,mc,intyre1 ,j4 ,l4 ,life of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,bacon1 ,francis4 ,works and ,life4 ,ed4 by ,ellis and ,spedding4 ,fourteen vols4 #ahfd-gd4--,works4 ,one vol4 ,ed4 by ,ellis1 ,spedding1 and ,robertson4 7,routledge47--,novum ,organum4 ,ed4 by ,t4 ,fowler4 ,oxford1 #ahgh4 ,abbott1 ,edwin4 ,francis ,bacon4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,church1 ,r4 ,w4 ,bacon 7,english ,men of ,letters74 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,hobbes1 ,thomas4 ,works ,english and ,latin4 ,ed4 ,sir ,wm4 ,molesworth4 ,sixteen vols4 ,london1 #ahci-de4 ,robertson1 ,g4 ,c4 ,hobbes4 ,london1 #ahhf 7,blackwood's ,philosophical ,classics74 ,stephen1 ,sir ,leslie4 ,hobbes4 ,london1 #aijc 7,english ,men of ,letters74 ---- ,english ,thought in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,second ed42 two vols4 ,london1 #ahha4 ---- ,the ,english ,utilitarians4 ,three vols4 ,london1 #aijj4 #aej ,descartes4 ,oeuvres4 ,ed4 ,v4 ,cousin4 ,eleven vols4 ,paris1 #ahbd-ahbh4 ,a new edition is in course of publication4--,english trans4 of the ,method and the ,meditations in the ,scott ,library4 ,london1 #aija4--,life1 by ,elizabeth ,haldane4 ,london1 #aije4 ,malebranche4 ,oeuvres4 ,three vols4 ,ed4 ,jules ,simon4 ,paris1 #ahga4 ,spinoza4 ,opera4 ,ed4 ,van ,vloten and ,land4 ,two vols4 ,the ,hague1 #ahhb-hc4 ---- ,life and ,philosophy4 ,by ,sir ,fr4 ,pollock4 ,london1 #ahhj2 second ed41 #ahii4 ---- ,a ,study of4 ,by ,james ,martineau4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ----'s ,ethics1 ,a ,study of4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,joachim4 ,oxford1 #aija4 ---- ,trans4 of his principal works4 ,by ,elwes in ,bohn's ,library4 ,two vols41 #ahhc-hf4 ,also ,everyman's ,library4 7,dent47 ---- ,ethics4 ,trans4 by ,hale ,white1 revised by ,amelia ,stirling4 ,london1 #ahii4 ---- ,leben und ,lehre4 ,von ,j4 ,frendenthal4 #aijd4 ,leibniz4 ,philosophische ,schriften4 ,seven vols4 ,ed4 ,c4 ,j4 ,gerhardt4 ,berlin1 #ahge-ij4--,the ,philosophy of ,leibniz4 ,by ,bertrand ,russell4 ,cambridge1 #aijj4 ,locke1 ,john4 ,works4 ,nine vols4 ,london1 #ahbd4 ---- ,essay ,concerning ,human ,understanding4 ,two vols42 in ,bohn's ,library4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ---- ,life of4 ,by ,fox ,bourne4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ---- ,by ,thomas ,fowler4 ,london1 #ahhj 7,english ,men of ,letters74 ---- ,by ,prof4 ,a4 ,c4 ,fraser2 in ,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics4 #ahij4 ,berkeley1 ,george4 ,works and ,life4 ,ed4 ,a4 ,c4 ,fraser4 ,four vols4 ,oxford1 #ahga4 ---- ,by ,fraser 7,philosophical ,classics74 #ahha4 ,hume1 ,david4 ,philosophical ,works4 ,four vols4 ,ed4 ,green and ,grose4 ,london1 #ahgd-ge4 ---- ,by ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley 7,english ,men of ,letters74 ,new edition4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,kant4 ,werke4 ,ed4 ,rosenkranz and ,schubert4 ,twelve vols4 #ahch-dj4 ,two new editions1 including the correspondence1 are now in course of publication at ,berlin4 ,there are ,english translations of all the principal works4 ---- ,life and ,doctrine4 ,by ,f4 ,paulsen2 trans4 by ,creighton and ,lefevre4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,fichte1 ,j4 ,g4 ,werke4 ,eleven vols4 #ahcd-df4 ,trans4 of his more popular works by ,dr4 ,w4 ,smith4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahij4 ,adamson4 ,fichte4 ,in ,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics4 #aija4 #aea ,schelling1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 ,werke4 ,fourteen vols4 ,stuttgart1 #ahef-fa4 ,watson1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,schelling's ,transcendental ,idealism1 ,chicago1 #ahhb4 ,hegel1 ,g4 ,w4 ,f4 ,werke4 ,nineteen vols4 in twenty-one4 ,leipzig1 #ahcb-hg4 ,hegel4 ,by ,prof4 ,e4 ,caird 7,philosophical ,classics for ,english ,readers47 ,edinburgh1 #ahhc4 ,hegel's ,philosophies of ,law1 ,religion1 ,history1 ,mind1 his ,history of ,philosophy1 and the smaller ,logic1 have been translated into ,english4 ,schopenhauer4 ,werke4 ,six volumes in the ,reclam ,series4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,ribot4 ,la ,philosophie de ,schopenhauer4 ,ninth ed42 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,wallace1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,life of ,schopenhauer 7,great ,writers ,series74 ,london1 #ahij4 ,whittaker1 ,thomas4 ,schopenhauer1 in ,philosophies ,ancient and ,modern4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,schopenhauer's ,world as ,will and ,idea4 ,trans4 by ,haldane and ,kemp4 ,three vols4 ,london1 #ahhd-hf4--;,essays4 ,trans4 by ,belfort ,bax 7,bohn's ,library74 ,london1 #ahia4 ,schopenhauer4 ,studies4 ,consisting of translations by ,t4 ,bailey ,saunders4 ,seven vols4 ,london1 #ahhi-if4--,other essays translated by ,madame ,hillebrand 7,london1 #ahhi7 and by ,a4 ,b4 ,ballock 7,london1 #aijc7 ,herbart1 ,j4 ,f4 ,werke4 ,ed4 ,kehrbach4 ,fifteen vols4 #ahhg ff4 ,wagner4 ,vollstaendige ,darstellung d4 ,lehre ,herbarts4 #ahif4 ,hayward1 ,f4 ,h4 ,the ,student's ,herbart4 #aijb4 ,hamilton1 ,sir ,w4 ,discussions on ,philosophy4 ,second ed4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,comte1 ,auguste4 ,cours de ,philosophie ,positive4 ,five vols4 ,paris1 #ahcj-db4--,politique ,positive4 ,four vols4 ,paris1 #ahea-ed4 ,caird1 ,edward4 ,the ,social ,philosophy of ,auguste ,comte4 ,glasgow1 #ahhe4 ,levy-,bruhl4 ,the ,philosophy of ,auguste ,comte4 ,english trans4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,whewell1 ,wm4 ,philosophy of the ,inductive ,sciences4 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s4 ,a ,system of ,logic4 ,two vols4 ,london1 #ahdc4--,on ,liberty4 ,london1 #ahei4--,utilitarianism4 ,london1 #ahfc4--;,examination of ,sir ,william ,hamilton's ,philosophy4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,whittaker1 ,t4 ,comte and ,mill1 in ,philosophies ,ancient and ,modern4 ,london1 #aijh4 ,spencer1 ,herbert4 ,first ,principles4 ,london1 #ahfb4--;,essays4 ,three vols4 ,london1 #ahia4--;,autobiography4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,macpherson1 ,hector4 ,herbert ,spencer4 ,london1 #aijj4 #aeb ,green1 ,t4 ,h4 ,prolegomena to ,ethics4 ,oxford1 #ahhd4 ,green1 ,t4 ,h4 ,works4 ,three vols4 ,london1 #ahhe-aijj4 ,bradley1 ,f4 ,h4 ,appearance and ,reality4 ,third ed4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,lotze1 ,h4 ,mikrocosmus4 #ahef-fd4--,system der ,philosophie4 #ahgd-gi4--;,english trans4 of the ,microc4 ,two vols4 ,edinburgh1 #ahhe4--,of the ,metaphysics4 ,two vols4 ,oxford4 #ahhd4 ,jones1 ,sir ,henry4 ,the ,philosophy of ,lotze4 ,glasgow1 #ahie4 ,hartmann1 ,ed4 von4 ,die ,philosophie des ,unbewussten4 #ahfi4 ,english trans4 by ,w4 ,c4 ,coupland4 ,three vols4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,nietzsche1 ,fr4 ,werke4 ,leipzig1 #ahie ff4 ,english trans4 in fourteen vols4 ,edinburgh4 7,t4 ,n4 ,foulis47--,d4 ,halevy1 ,la ,vie de ,nietzsche4 ,paris1 #aiji4 ,russell1 ,bertrand4 ,the ,problems of ,philosophy 7,home ,university ,library74 ,london1 #aiab4 99 99 99 99 99 #aec ,,index ,abbott1 ,e4 ,a41 quoted1 #ad ,agnosticism1 #fg1 #gj1 #ada1 #adc1 #add ,anaximander1 #ab ,aquinas1 ,st4 ,thomas1 #d ,aristotle1 #c1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #ai1 #be1 #di1 #eb1 #abi1 #aci1 #adb ,arnold1 ,matthew1 #ee ,athens1 #a f4 ,atomism1 revival of1 #aj1 #ba ,averroes1 #d ,bacon1 ,roger1 #d ,bacon1 ,francis1 #ab ff41 #bd1 #bi1 #cb1 #fa ,baur1 ,f4 ,c41 #adb ,bayle1 ,pierre1 #ga ,beneke1 ,f4 ,e41 #abc ,bergson1 ,henri1 #adg ,berkeley1 ,bishop1 #dc1 #gb ff42 ,theory of ,vision1 #gc2 ,idealism1 #gc ff41 #hi ,boyle1 ,robert1 #ba ,bradley1 ,f4 ,h41 #eg1 #adc ,brahe1 ,tycho1 #ag ,brown1 ,dr4 ,thomas1 #acd ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #g ff41 #bb1 #de1 #ea1 #ajg ,byron1 #aai ,caird1 ,edward1 #adc ,caird1 ,john1 ib4 ,calvinism1 #bh ,catholicism and philosophy1 #b ff4 ,causation4 ,see ,hume1 ,kant1 ,hegel1 ,mill ,christianity4 ,see ,catholicism ,christina1 ,queen1 #cb f4 ,church1 ,dean1 quoted1 #ae ,collier1 ,arthur1 #ge ,collins1 ,anthony1 #ga ,columbus1 #f ,comte1 ,auguste1 #abg ff42 classification of the sciences1 #acj2 ,politique ,positive1 ib42 philosophy of history1 #aca1 #acc ,condillac1 #abe ,copernicanism1 #f f4 ,cousin1 ,victor1 #ij ,dante1 #f f4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 #adj ,democritus1 #aj ,descartes1 #cj1 #ca ff42 on belief1 #da1 #di1 #fa1 #fe1 #hg ,duns ,scotus1 #d ,eclectics1 ,french1 #abe f42 ,german1 #add ,ego1 the ,absolute1 #aje ,elizabeth1 ,princess1 #cb ,empedocles1 #fe ,epicurus1 #i1 #bb1 #bi ,epistemology1 #fe ,eriugena1 ,john ,scotus1 #c1 #d ,ethica1 ,spinoza's1 #dh ,fichte1 ,j4 ,g41 #aja ff42 his definition of ,god1 #ajb2 as ,german patriot1 #ajb f42 his idealism1 #ajc ff42 ethical standpoint1 #ajf2 later teaching1 #aaj ,ficino1 ,marsilio1 #e ,final causes in modern philosophy1 #fa2 in ,plato1 ib4 ,form and ,matter1 #aj1 #ah1 #bd ,galileo1 #ag1 #bd ,gassendi1 #ej ,geulincx1 #db1 #dd1 #ea ,gilbert1 #ag1 #ba ,godwin1 ,william1 #aci ,goethe1 #ajb1 #aje ,green1 ,t4 ,h41 #adc ,haeckel1 ,ernst1 #adf ,haldane1 ,lord1 #adc ,haldane1 ,miss ,e4 ,s41 quoted1 #cb ,hamilton1 ,sir ,william1 #abf f41 #acb ,hartmann1 ,ed4 von1 #add f4 ,harvey1 #ag ,hegel1 ,g4 ,f4 ,w41 #bd2 on ,spinoza1 #ec1 #ajc1 #ajg1 #aaj ff42 ,phenomenology of ,mind1 #aab2 ,science of ,logic1 ib42 ,encyclopaedia1 ib42 ,philosophy of ,law1 ib42 ,aesthetics1 #aac2 ,philosophy of ,history1 ib42 his didactic method1 #aac ff42 negation of supernatural religion1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abd1 #abf ,hegelians1 the ,english1 #adb ff4 ,heine1 #ajc1 #aaf ,heracleitus1 #aa1 #adg ,herbart1 ,j4 ,f41 #abb1 #add ,hobbes1 ,thomas1 #bb ff41 #ej1 #ef1 #fh ,hooker1 ,richard1 and the ,social ,contract1 #bi ,humanism in the nineteenth century1 #abd ,hume1 ,david1 #gg ff42 character as a historian1 #gg2 theory of causation1 #ha ff42 attitude towards theism1 #hd1 #hi2 a precursor of ,comte1 #abi2 and of ,mill1 #acc ff4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h41 #abg ,huyghens on ,descartes1 #da ,induction1 ,baconian1 #bj ,innate ideas1 #fh1 #ie ,john of ,salisbury1 #d ,justinian1 #a ,kant1 ,immanuel1 #he ff42 his nebular hypothesis1 #hg2 on synthetic and analytic judgments1 #hg ff42 on space and time1 #ij ff42 ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 #ic ff42 on causation1 #ie f42 moral and religious philosophy1 #ig ff41 #aah1 #aai1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd1 #adg ,kepler1 #aj1 #ag1 #ba ,klopstock1 #aja #aed ,lamarck1 #aci1 #adj ,laplace1 #hg ,leibniz1 ,g4 ,w41 #eg ff42 optimism1 #ei ff42 monadology1 #fb2 determinism1 #fc2 pre-established harmony1 ib41 #add ,lewes1 ,g4 ,h41 #ajc1 #ajg ,locke1 ,john1 #bi1 #fe ff42 on toleration1 #fg2 his proof of theism1 #fi2 moral inconsistency1 #fi f41 #gb1 #hg1 #hi ,lotze1 ,r4 ,h41 #add ,lucretius1 #i1 #bj1 #bb ,luther1 #f ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 #aci ,macaulay on ,bacon1 #af2 on ,hobbes1 #bh1 #ga ,mc,taggart1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,e41 #add ,maine de ,biran1 #abe ,malebranche1 #db ff41 #ea1 #gd1 #hi ,malthus1 #acg ,mansel1 ,h4 ,l41 #abg ,materialists1 ,german1 #adf ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #acb ff42 ,system of ,logic1 #acc2 metaphysics1 #ace2 theology1 ib42 ethics1 #ace f42 politics1 #acf2 character1 #acg ,milne-,edwards1 #adj ,monadism1 #aa1 #gj ,napier1 #ag ,neo-,kantianism1 #adf ,neo-,platonism1 #b f4 ,newton1 ,isaac1 #eh1 #ei ,nicolas of ,cusa1 #aa ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich1 #ade f4 ,norris1 ,john1 #ge ,occam1 #e ,occasionalism1 #db ,ostwald1 #adf ,pantheism1 #de1ej ,parmenides1 #i ,pascal1 #db ,plotinus1 #b1 #e1 #ab1 #dd ,positivism4 ,see ,comte ,power1 idea of1 in ,spinoza1 #eb2 how connected with causation1 #hc ,pragmatism1 #adg ,proclus1 #c ,pythagoreans1 #i ,reality1 degrees of1 #eg ,reid1 ,thomas1 #he1 #abe ,renaissance1 scientific activity of the1 #ag ,rousseau1 #bi1 #aai ,st4 ,simon1 #abg ,schelling1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j41 #ajf ff42 natural philosophy1 #ajh2 ,transcendental ,idealism1 #ajh f42 romanticism1 #aji2 ,absolutism1 #aaj1 #abf ,schiller1 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 quoted1 #ah ,schopenhauer1 ,arthur1 #ajc1 #aah ff42 pessimism1 #aai2 metaphysics1 #aai ff42 ethics1 #aba f41 #ade ,sextus ,empiricus1 #fg ,shaftesbury1 ,lord1 author of the ,characteristics1 #ga ,shelley1 #aci ,sidgwick1 ,henry1 #ace ,smith1 ,adam1 #adj ,social ,contract1 #bf ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #abg1 #acg ff42 ,social ,statics1 #acg2 ,psychology1 #adj2 ,synthetic ,philosophy1 #ada2 on religion1 ib42 formula of evolution1 #adb1 #add ,spencer1 ,rev4 ,thomas1 #acg ,spinoza1 #cj1 #de ff42 ,tractatus ,theologico-,politicus1 #dh2 not a mystic1 #ee2 ethics1 #ef f42 return to ,stoicism1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa1 #fi1 #hg1 #ajf1 #aaj ,stael1 ,madame de1 #abe ,stirling1 ,dr4 ,hutchison1 #adc ,strauss1 ,david1 #aab1 #adb ,taylor1 ,mrs41 and ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 #acb ,temple1 ,archbishop1 #ajb ,theism4 ,see ,descartes1 ,locke1 ,berkeley1 ,hume1 ,kant1 ,fichte1 ,mill ,timaeus1 ,plato's1 #da ,toland1 #ga ,turgot1 #abi ,vaux1 ,clotilde de1 and ,comte1 #acb ,voltaire and optimism1 #ei ,vries1 ,simon de and ,spinoza1 #df ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r41 #adj ,wallace1 ,prof4 ,william1 #adc ,whewell1 ,william1 #acc ,wordsworth1 #eg ,wycliffe1 #e 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the following changes were made3 ,page #ch4 passed with progressive reflection3 'progress-sive' on line break in original4 ,page #eg4 only defend on aesthetic grounds3 'grounps' in original4