,,cathedral ,,cities ,,of ,,england ,illustration3 ,,canterbury ,,the ,,baptistery ,,and ,,chapter ,,house ,,cathedral ,,cities ,,of ,,england ,,by ,,george ,,gilbert ,,illustrated ,,by ,w4 ,w4 ,,collins1 ,r4,i4 ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,dodd1 ,,mead ,,and ,,company #aijh ,copyright1 #aije ,,by ,,dodd1 ,,mead ,,and ,,company ,published ,october1 #aije ,,the ,,university ,,press1 ,,cambridge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,contents ,,introductory ,page #c ,,canterbury #ag ,,durham #cg ,,lichfield #eh ,,oxford #fe ,,peterborough #hj ,,st4 ,,albans #ia ,,wells #ajb ,,worcester #aah ,,chichester #abi ,,chester #aci ,,rochester #afb ,,ripon #agd ,,ely #ahc ,,gloucester #bjb ,,hereford #bbd ,,lincoln #bce ,,bath #bei ,,salisbury #bgj ,,exeter #bib ,,norwich #cae ,,london #ccg ,,york #cga ,,winchester #cig ,,westminster #dad ,,illustrations ,canterbury1 ,the ,baptistery and ,chapter ,house ,frontispiece from the ,meadows ,page #ai ,christchurch ,gateway #bc ,cathedral1 ,interior of the ,nave #bg ,the ,norman ,stairway #cc ,durham1 ,framwellgate ,bridge #ci from the ,railway #dc ,interior of ,cathedral1 looking across the ,nave into ,south ,transept #dg ,elvet ,bridge #ea ,cathedral1 the ,western ,towers #ee ,lichfield ,cathedral4 ,the ,west ,front #fa ,oxford4 ,christ ,church1 ,interior of ,nave #fi ,gateway #ge ,peterborough ,cathedral4 ,the ,west ,front #hc ,the ,market ,place #hg ,st4 ,albans4 ,the ,cathedral from the ,walls of ,old ,verulam #ie ,wells ,cathedral and the ,pools #ajc ,the ,cathedral from the ,fields #ajg ,the ,ruins of the ,banqueting ,hall #aac ,worcester4 ,the ,cathedral #abc ,chichester ,cathedral from the ,north-,east #acc ,chester4 ,east ,gate ,street #ada ,the ,rows #ade ,st4 ,werburgh ,street #aea ,bishop ,lloyd's ,palace and ,watergate ,street #aeg ,rochester4 ,the ,cathedral and ,castle #afg ,ripon4 ,the ,cathedral #agg ,ely ,cathedral4 ,the ,west ,front #ahe ,the ,market ,place #ahi ,cathedral1 ,interior of ,nave #aic from the ,fens #aig ,gloucester ,cathedral4 ,interior of the ,nave #bje ,the ,old ,parliament ,house and ,cathedral #baa ,cathedral from the ,paddock #bag ,hereford ,cathedral4 ,the ,north ,transept #bbi ,lincoln ,cathedral by ,moonlight #bci ,the ,steep ,hill #bde ,cathedral4 ,the ,west ,towers #bea ,bath4 ,pulteney ,bridge #bfc ,salisbury4 ,high ,street ,gateway into the ,close #bgc ,the ,market ,cross #bgg ,the ,cloisters #bha ,the ,cathedral #bhg ,exeter ,cathedral from the ,palace ,gardens #bie ,mol's ,coffee ,tavern #cja ,cathedral4 ,interior of the ,nave #cji ,norwich4 ,the ,market ,place #cai ,the ,a,ethelbert ,gate #cbe ,the ,cathedral from the ,north-,east #cca ,st4 ,paul's and ,ludgate ,hill #cec ,york4 ,stonegate #cgc ,the ,shambles #cgg ,bootham ,bar #chc ,monk ,bar #chg ,micklegate ,bar #cia ,winchester ,cathedral4 ,the ,north ,aisle #cii from ,st4 ,catherine's ,hill #djc ,the ,cathedral from the ,deanery ,garden #djg ,st4 ,cross #daa ,westminster ,abbey4 ,the ,north ,transept #dai ,,cathedral ,,cities ,,of ,,england ,introductory ,in the following accounts of the ,cathedral ,cities of ,england1 technical architectural terms will necessarily appear1 and to the end that they should be comprehensive1 ,i give here a slight sketch of the origin of the various forms1 and the reasons for their naming1 together with dates2 and to the end that ,i may supply a glossary of easy reference1 ,i place as side headings in this introduction the various expressions which will be met with throughout the book4 ,this1 ,i hope1 may relieve the reader of the tedium of having to turn to books of reference at each moment1 and being subjected to a constant reiteration of the terms1 which must necessarily be frequently employed4 ,the ,cathedrals of ,england may be said to comprise illustrations of ,anglo-,saxon1 ,gothic1 and ,norman1 with their variations and combinations4 ,constantine1 ,a4,d4 #cjf-ccg4--,romanesque4--,with the establishment of ,christianity1 more especially when recognised in ,rome during the time of ,constantine1 arose the marvellous development of architecture1 founded upon the basis of classical remains4 ,this ,romanesque1 as this period of architecture came to be called1 permeated later the whole of ,western ,europe4 ,basilica4--,relieved from immediate fear of persecution1 the ,christian architects straightway commenced to convert the basilica remains to suit the requirements of the ,new ,faith4 ,the ,basilica1 as its derivation from the ,greek ,basilike 7the royal house7 implies1 was the ,king's ,bench of the ,romans4 ,it was a long rectangular building1 with sometimes rows of columns introduced to divide the space into a nave and aisles4 ,one end terminated in an apse1 of semi-circular formation1 where the judge and his assessors were accustomed to sit4 ,this apse the ,christians utilised as a chancel4 ,the approach to the building was the atrium1 or forecourt1 somewhat similar to the ,english ,cathedral cloister1 but differently situated4 ,a chief characteristic of the ,roman buildings was the round arch1 mainly composed of brick or stone work4 ,this the ,romans for many years had used more in a decorative way than for utility1 but which became of more structural significance in the hands of the ,christians4 ,romanesque4--,sixth to ,twelfth ,century4--,in this wise1 from the remains of the ,basilica1 with the further development of the round arch to the semi-circular arch1 the ,christian ,romans gradually evolved the style of architecture called ,romanesque1 i4e41 in the ,roman ,style4 ,this style became prevalent throughout ,western ,europe from the beginning of the sixth to the close of the twelfth century4 ,in process of time transepts were added and the choir prolonged1 giving the outline1 as it were1 of a cross1 the ,holy ,symbol of ,christianity4 ,anglo-,saxon4--#ejj-ajff4--,thus ,romanesque may be said to be the fountain-head of ,anglo-,saxon1 ,norman ,proper1 ,anglo-,norman1 and ,gothic ,architecture4 ,during the ,roman occupation of ,england1 missionaries came to her from ,rome1 the metropolis1 and made converts1 as they did in other countries1 and as missionaries do nowadays in ,china and elsewhere4 ,they and travelling merchants insensibly introduced the style of architecture then prevalent in ,italy1 namely1 the ,romanesque4 ,owing to the untutored nature of the ,anglo-,saxons1 their first attempts at imitating what would appear to them entirely new1 together with the difficulty of procuring skilled labour1 were necessarily crude4 ,these first attempts may justly come under the heading of ,anglo-,saxon4 ,when the ,campanile or tall bell-towers came into existence in ,italy1 ,england imitated4 ,anglo-,norman4--#ajff4--,the ,normans1 at the ,conquest1 introduced their rendering of architecture1 which they had borrowed from the ,romanesque1 with a suspicion of ,lombardic1 and even ,byzantine styles intermingled4 ,as they could not entirely at first uproot the local peculiarities of the ,anglo-,saxon treatment of style which they found in the country1 they in a way grafted the ,norman architecture on to the existing style4 ,thus it came to be called ,anglo-,norman4 ,at first the work was heavier in character than the ,norman proper1 but it became lighter towards the close of the twelfth century4 ,norman ,peculiarities4--,the ,norman peculiarities were the building of the church on a cruciform plan1 with a square tower placed over the transepts where they cross the nave2 the massive cylindrical nave piers4 ,to relieve the heaviness of these massive nave piers and doorways1 the chevron1 or zigzag pattern1 spiral and other groovings were cut4 ,the mouldings were of the same character as in ,france1 but towards the close of the twelfth century they were by degrees disused4 ,in the transition period1 #aaed-aahi1 the dog-tooth ornament appears1 and occurs in combination with the billet1 a circular roll with spaces cut away at intervals1 as at ,canterbury4 ,the ,normans also greatly employed arcades1 both blank and open4 ,the interlacing of arcades was frequently used by them4 ,they were formed by semi-circular arches1 intersecting each other regularly4 ,this interlacing is supposed by many authorities to have been the origin of the pointed lancet arch4 ,the ,norman arcades form a prominent feature in the internal and external decoration of their buildings4 ,the internal arrangement of the larger churches consisted of three stages or tiers4 ,the ground stage carried semi-circular arches1 above that came the triforium1 or second stage of two smaller arches supported by a column1 and within a larger arch4 ,above this again1 came the third stage or clerestory1 with two or more semi-circular arches1 one of which was pierced to admit the light4 ,the nave was usually covered by a flat ceiling1 and not vaulted4 ,the crypts and aisles were vaulted4 ,the doorways appear to have been a special feature with the ,normans1 for they were generally very richly ornamented1 and were greatly recessed4 ,the windows were narrow and small in proportion to the rest of the building4 ,at a late period of the style the small circular windows became greatly enlarged1 and it became necessary to divide up the space by the introduction of slender columns radiating from the centre4 ,in ,england the semi-circular apse1 towards the close of the style1 gradually gave place to the square apse1 which was more generally adopted4 ,gothic4--,fourth to ,twelfth ,century4--,another great and early factor in ecclesiastical architecture is the ,gothic4 ,in the early stages of ,christianity1 the ,goths1 a ,teutonic race1 dwelt between the ,elbe and the ,vistula4 ,they subverted the ,rome ,empire4 ,they1 like other countries1 received the ,christian religion from ,rome4 ,each country after its own fashion endeavoured to imitate the architecture of ,rome4 ,as these countries were semi-barbarous and unpolished1 their work was necessarily rude4 ,this1 in conjunction with the invasions of ,italy by the ,goths1 led to the term ,gothic4 ,this period commenced in the fourth century1 and was entirely changed in the twelfth1 by the introduction of the pointed arch4 ,gothic4--#aade-aeej4--,this marked a new era1 and established a new style of architecture1 the transition from the ,norman1 or ,romanesque1 to the ,mediaeval ,gothic4 ,several attempts were made to introduce new names in lieu of ,gothic1 for to name anything ,gothic was looked upon with askance4 ,romanesque ,early ,gothic ,i,vth century to ,x,i,ith century4 ,anglo-,saxon #ejj-ajff ,a4,d4 ,,anglo-,,norman ,william ,i #ajff4 ,william ,,ii #ajhg4 ,henry ,i4 #aajj4 ,stephen #aace4 ,henry ,,ii4 #aaed-aahi4 ,transition4 ,mediaeval ,gothic ,,early ,,english 7,,first ,,pointed1 ,,or ,,lancet7 ,richard ,i4 #aahi4 ,john4 #aaii4 ,,complete1 ,,or ,,geometrical ,,pointed ,edward ,i4 #abgb-acjg4 ,transition4 ,,decorated ,,middle ,,pointed1 ,,or ,,curvilinear ,edward ,,ii4 #acjg4 ,edward ,,iii4 #acbg-acgg4 ,,perpendicular ,,third ,,pointed1 ,,or ,,rectilinear ,richard ,,ii #acgg4 ,transition4 ,henry ,,iv4 #acii4 ,henry ,v4 #adac4 ,henry ,,vi4 #adbb4 ,edward ,,iv4 #adfa4 ,edward ,v4 #adhc4 ,richard ,,iii4 #adhc4 ,henry ,,vii4 #adhe ,tudor ,period4 ,henry ,,viii4 #aeji-aedg ,with the close of the ,tudor ,period1 ,mediaeval ,gothic practically died out4 ,there crept in then the ,english ,renaissance1 followed after by what is called ,the ,revival of ,gothic ,architecture4 ,,english ,,renaissance about ,the ,elizabethan1 or ,first ,period #aedg-afbj4 ,the ,anglo-,classic1 or ,second ,period #afbj-agjb4 ,the ,anglo-,classic1 or ,third ,period #agjb-ahjj4 ,the ,revival of ,gothic ,architecture in ,england4 #ahjj4 ,characteristics ,,anglo-,,saxon4--,anglo-,saxon may be briefly summed up as an inferior style of ,romanesque1 more especially the latter part1 when it was considered necessary to build in imitation of the ,roman way4 ,in the early years of this period the advantages of stone1 due to inconvenience of its carriage or lack of skill1 were not widely known in ,england4 ,for the most part the buildings were composed of wood with a thatched roof4 ,though it is true several buildings were also constructed of stone1 and glass was used1 yet it was only with advanced knowledge1 introduced by ,continental workmen1 who came over in the seventh century1 that architecture approached anything like a definite style4 ,it reached this stage just a few years before the ,norman ,conquest4 ,the arches were usually plain1 and always semi-circular4 ,the columns were cylindrical1 hexagonal1 or octagonal1 and thick in proportion to their height4 ,the towers1 as a rule1 were square1 and not very lofty4 ,they were strongly but crudely worked1 strip pilasters1 i4 e41 slender columns1 being introduced4 ,circular-headed openings served as upper windows of these towers4 ,they were divided into two lights by rounded balusters1 sometimes with caps heavily projected4 ,norman4--,the ,norman churches were mostly cruciform in plan1 with a central tower4 ,the east end was frequently terminated by an apse4 ,vast columns1 either circular1 octagonal1 or simply clustered1 separated the aisles from the naves4 ,the arches were chiefly semi-circular1 the round arch being used everywhere for ornament4 ,the ,norman towers are also generally square1 with a somewhat stunted appearance4 ,many have no buttresses whatever1 whilst others are served with broad1 flat1 shallow projections1 which assert themselves more for show than for utility4 ,the reason for this is that the ,normans built their buildings with walls immensely thick with an eye to stability4 ,the heavy appearance of their towers is cleverly relieved by the introduction of arcades around them1 as at ,st4 ,albans1 and occasionally richly ornamented1 as shown at ,norwich and ,winchester4 ,at one of the angles there is frequently a stone staircase4 ,the upper windows of these towers differ little from the ,anglo-,saxon1 except in that the two lights are separated by a shaft or short column in place of the rounded baluster4 ,the ,norman doorways are a great feature4 ,they are generally adorned with a series of columns with enriched arch mouldings spanning from capital to capital4 ,their vaults were heavily constructed at no great height from the ground1 and generally applied to the aisles of churches4 ,they exerted a greater thrust on the walls than the later ,gothic vaults4 ,norman4--,these churches are generally to be found perched on commanding sites1 chosen as natural places of defence4 ,often a river wound round the base1 and where it led short1 a moat was constructed on the landward side1 and borrowed its water from the river4 ,the activity of the ,norman builders is astounding1 and forms a great contrast to the few years before their advent4 ,for a short time architecture suffered a paralysis4 ,not till the much-dreaded ,millennium 7#ajjj ,a4,d471 when it was thought the world would certainly come to an end1 had passed did people take heart again1 and architects make up for lost time4 ,early ,english4--,in this period the massive ,norman walls gave way to walls reduced in thickness4 ,the buttresses became of more structural significance4 ,also1 flying-buttresses gradually came into use to strengthen the weakness of the upper works1 caused by the reduction of the walls in thickness4 ,the pillars were elongated1 and of slight construction4 ,the doorways1 windows and arcades were built with polished marble obtained from the ,isle of ,purbeck4 ,the science of vaulting became more advanced4 ,the towers were taller and more elegant1 with plain parapets4 ,they were generally furnished with windows4 ,the lower ones resembled much the arrow-slit formation of the ,norman style4 ,the upper windows were grouped in twos and threes4 ,the broach-spire now came into notice4 ,it was added on to the square tower1 and at the early part of this style was low in height1 but gradually became taller4 ,the circular-headed windows of the ,normans gave place to the narrow-pointed lancets of the ,early ,english4 ,these admitted little light1 and necessitated a greater number of windows1 which were grouped into couplets or triplets4 ,geometrical4--,the window1 by the gradual process of piercing the vacant spaces in the window-head1 carrying mouldings around the tracery 7or ornamental filling-in71 and adding cusps 7the point where foliations of tracery intersect71 gave rise to ,geometrical work4 ,the earliest work of this kind is found in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,decorated4--,the towers are made to appear lighter by the parapets being either embattled or pierced with elegant designs1 and pinnacles placed on them4 ,the broach-spires gave place to spires springing at once from the octagon4 ,the buttresses are set angularly4 ,in this period the architects failed to maintain the vigour of the ,geometrical period4 ,the ,decorated windows are formed of portions of circles1 with their centres falling on the intersection of certain geometrical figures4 ,there is a glorious example afforded by the west window at ,york4 ,perpendicular4--,the towers are generally richly panelled throughout2 the buttresses project boldly--sometimes square1 or sometimes set at an angle1 but not close to each other4 ,the pinnacles are often richly canopied4 ,the battlements panelled1 and frequently pierced4 ,in the middle of the parapet now and then is placed a pinnacle or a canopied niche4 ,canterbury ,cantuaria4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,of all ,cathedral cities1 ,canterbury1 or1 as it is also called1 ,christ ,church1 may possibly be considered the most interesting4 ,though not the first to spread ,christianity in ,britain1 it nevertheless firmly established it in the end4 ,the earliest authentic evidence of ,christians in ,england is mentioned by ,tertullian1 in #bjh4 ,and again1 in #cjd1 ,st4 ,alban had been martyred during ,diocletian's persecution at ,verulam1 now known as ,st4 ,alban's4 ,then1 in #cad1 ,christianity had attained such a position in ,britain that it had been considered necessary for the ,bishops of ,york and ,london to attend at the ,council of ,arles1 in ,france4 ,so that by the end of the third century to the beginning of the fourth1 it is known that there existed bishops1 though not till the close of the fourth century was there a settled ,church in ,britain1 with churches1 altars1 ,scriptures1 and discipline4 ,these expounded the ,catholic ,faith1 and were in touch with ,rome and ,palestine4 ,but the arrival of ,augustine1 in #fjj1 decidedly gave an impetus to the lasting establishment of ,christianity in ,england1 and the whole island quickly became converted4 ,though ,christianity had long flourished in ,rome1 it could hardly1 in its early stages1 be expected to make itself greatly felt in ,britain1 owing to the continual troublous times caused by the invasions first by the ,roman soldiery1 then by the ,scots and ,picts from ,caledonia 7now called ,scotland71 and the ,saxons1 who came from the river ,elbe1 and the ,angles1 who dwelt to the north of the ,saxons1 in the districts now called ,schleswig and ,holstein4 ,then the ,danes and ,northmen landed in ,england in #ghg1 and practically overran the whole kingdom4 ,all these tribes1 each in its turn1 devastated the country1 pillaging and destroying everything1 so that there is little to marvel at the slow growth of ,christianity in the island1 seeing that the clergy were the first to suffer4 ,augustine may be said to have certainly revived ,christianity and rescued the ,church from utter oblivion1 but it was left till the ,norman ,conquest to erect the wonderful architectural structures1 many of which exist till this day4 ,illustration3 ,,canterbury ,,from ,,the ,,meadows ,the early history of ,canterbury is shrouded in mystery4 ,the discovery of ,druidical remains clearly points to the practice of religious rites of the ,britons prior to the ,christian era4 ,it appears also that the ,romans found it as a ,british town of some importance4 ,this theory1 laying aside minor considerations1 is strengthened by the fact that the ,romans called it ,durovernum1 the derivation of which they borrowed from the ,british words dwr a stream1 and whern swift1 the latter of which was most appropriate to the ,stour1 on whose banks the city was founded4 ,the ,saxons on their arrival called the place ,cantwarabyrig4 ,from this1 no doubt1 ,canterbury owes the origin of its present name4 ,contrary to the ordinary laws of foundation1 there appears to have been no one 7locally7 covetous of the honour of martyrdom1 or possibly worthy1 if martyred1 of recognition by the ,church4 ,during the ,roman occupation of the city1 ,christianity struggled1 probably kept alive by such of the soldiers who had been previously converted in ,rome4 ,two churches were built in the second century4 ,one of these1 in #fjj1 was consecrated by the ,bishop of ,soissons1 and dedicated to ,st4 ,martin1 for ,bertha1 a daughter of ,charibert1 a ,christian king of ,paris4 ,on her marriage with ,ethelbert of ,kent1 the foremost king of the ,english1 it was stipulated that her religious inclinations should be protected4 ,through her influence the king became converted4 ,to encourage ,christianity1 and to set a good example to his subjects1 ,ethelbert welcomed ,augustine and his forty monks1 in #eig1 gave him his palace1 which was speedily converted into a priory1 and helped him to found an abbey without the city walls1 and intended as a sepulture for the ,archbishops4 ,this abbey was dedicated to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,as ,canterbury was already recognised as the metropolis1 or head of the ,state of ,kent1 in that their kings had their royal residence there1 it was no difficulty for ,augustine1 as spiritual head1 to make it also a ,metropolitan ,see1 the more so as1 by the investiture of the ,pope1 he became the first ,archbishop4 ,illustration3 ,,canterbury ,,christchurch ,,gateway ,pope ,gregory's 7the ,great7 scheme in sending ,augustine was to divide ,england into two ,provinces1 with ,metropolitans of equal dignity at ,london and ,york1 and twelve ,suffragans to each4 ,but all that his emissary could effect was to consecrate two bishops1 one at ,rochester 7,kent7 and one at ,essex4 ,as ,christianity took a firmer hold in ,england1 it was generally to ,canterbury that the different portions of ,england applied for missionaries4 ,in this foundation ,augustine has been followed by a succession of prelates1 who distinguished themselves equally in spiritual and temporal affairs of the ,state--men1 each of whom made a great stir during his life1 and whose names even now are enshrined1 as it were1 in a halo of romance4 ,they represent the intellect of their times2 their lives show us the difficulties they encountered in overcoming the crass ignorance of the people on whose behalf they worked1 and the risks and dangers and petty tyranny they suffered at the hands of kings1 whose chief amusements were disturbing the peace and licentious living4 ,those who have played the most prominent part in ecclesiastical as well as in lay history are3 ,dunstan1 who governed with a tight hand the kingdom during the reigns of ,edred and ,edwy2 ,stigand1 who1 for his opposition to ,william the ,conqueror1 was deposed from the ,see to make room for ,lanfranc2 ,lanfranc1 whose memory is perpetuated not only through his abilities as scholar1 statesman and administrator1 but more especially as one who rebuilt the ,cathedral and as founder of several religious establishments2 the celebrated ,thomas a ,becket1 who1 until he became ,archbishop1 was the great friend of ,henry ,,ii41 and was ,chancellor of ,england4 ,on the acceptance of the ,archbishopric1 ,becket constituted himself as a champion of the rights and claims of the ,church1 and would brook no interference from ,henry in ecclesiastical matters4 ,this naturally created a coolness between the two1 which ended in ,becket's retiring to ,france for six years4 ,on ,henry's promise to annul the ,constitution of ,clarendon1 in #aagj1 ,becket returned1 only a few days after to be murdered in the ,cathedral4 ,stephen ,langton1 who was raised to the ,see by ,pope ,innocent ,,iii41 in defiance of ,king ,john1 during a quarrel he had with the ,church2 ,cranmer1 who1 for promoting the ,reformation1 was burnt at the stake in ,mary's reign2 and ,laud1 who was beheaded during the ,commonwealth of ,cromwell for supporting the measures of his sovereign1 ,charles ,i4 ,augustine did not live to see the completion of his ,cathedral4 ,it was dedicated to ,our ,saviour1 and it is even now usually called ,christ ,church4 ,during the ravages of the ,danes the city suffered greatly1 and the ,archbishopric became vacant in #ajaa1 through the violent death dealt out to ,archbishop ,alphage by the ,danes4 ,illustration3 ,,canterbury ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,canute1 after his usurpation of the throne1 rebuilt a great part of the city and restored the ,cathedral2 and the monks were not forgotten1 in that the revenue of the port of ,sandwich was made over to them for their support4 ,these benefits greatly helped the city to attain great importance1 and in ,doomsday ,book it is entered under the title of ,civitas ,cantuariae4 ,in #ajhj the ,cathedral was burnt down1 only to be restored with greater splendour1 and dedicated to the ,holy ,trinity1 by ,archbishop ,lanfranc1 who rebuilt the monastic edifice1 erected the ,archbishop's palace1 founded and endowed a priory dedicated to ,st4 ,gregory1 and built the hospitals of ,st4 ,john and ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,in #aafa the city became almost extinct through fire1 and at several subsequent periods it suffered severely from the same cause4 ,in #aagj the great event which stirred the kingdom1 and which conveniently marks the starting-point of the disastrous half of ,henry ,,ii4's reign1 was the great means of replenishing the treasury of the ,cathedral4 ,in that year ,becket was murdered as he was ascending the steps leading from the nave into the choir4 ,his name was subsequently canonised4 ,his shrine was visited from far and near by every rank of pilgrim1 who seldom left without depositing first some substantial token of their reverence for the saint4 ,four years after the murder popular feeling was as great as ever1 so that it was probably to propitiate the people1 as much as to ask for ,divine intercession in his troublous affairs1 that ,henry ,,ii4 performed a pilgrimage to the shrine and submitted himself to be scourged by the monks4 ,another source of great importance to the ,cathedral was the institution of the ,jubilee by the ,pope4 ,it commemorated every fifty years the death of ,becket1 and till the last one1 celebrated in #aebj1 attracted an immense number of pilgrims1 who gave a great impetus to trade in the city4 ,the number and richness of their offerings were incredible4 ,the dissolution of the priory of ,christ ,church was gradually effected2 the festivals in honour of the martyr were one by one abolished2 his shrine was stripped of its gorgeous ornaments1 and the bones of the saint were burnt to ashes and scattered to the winds4 ,a part of the monastery of ,st4 ,augustine was converted into a royal palace by ,henry ,,viii4 ,in this palace ,queen ,elizabeth held her court for a short time4 ,during her reign there was an influx of ,walloons1 who1 persecuted for their religious tenets1 had fled from the ,netherlands and settled in ,canterbury4 ,they introduced the weaving of silk and stuffs4 ,to them ,queen ,elizabeth allotted the crypt under the ,cathedral as their place of worship1 where the service is still performed in ,french to their descendants4 ,in this ,cathedral was solemnised the marriage of ,charles ,i4 with ,henrietta ,maria of ,france1 in #afbe4 ,during the war between ,charles ,i4 and ,cromwell the ,cathedral was wantonly mutilated and defaced by the followers of ,cromwell1 who converted the sacred edifice into stables for his horses4 ,at the ,restoration1 ,charles ,,ii41 on his return from ,france1 held his court in the royal palace at ,canterbury for three days4 ,this monarch1 in #afgf1 granted a charter of incorporation to the refugee silk-weavers settled in the city4 ,these refugees1 a few years after1 were considerably increased by ,french artisans1 who came over consequent on the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe4 ,to those admirers of form and beauty the wonderful architecture of the present ,cathedral must satisfy their every craving4 ,to students the study of this colossal building must be a work of love1 encouragement1 and continued interest4 ,rebuilt soon after the ,conquest by ,archbishop ,lanfranc1 and worthily enlarged and enriched by his several successors1 the ,cathedral is a crowning work of grandeur and magnificence1 exhibiting1 in its highest perfection1 every specimen of architecture1 from the earliest ,norman to the latest ,english4 ,in form it is that of a double cross4 ,where the nave and the western transepts intersect1 there springs up a lofty and elegant tower in the ,later ,english style1 with a spired parapet and pinnacles1 with octagonal turrets at the angles1 terminating in minarets4 ,in the west end are two massive towers1 of which the north-west is ,norman1 and the south-west is similar in character1 though embattled1 and little inferior to the central tower4 ,perhaps the most noteworthy portions of this ,cathedral1 though it is hardly possible to make a distinction1 are the ,chapel of ,henry ,,iv41 with its beautiful fan tracery depending from the roof2 the small but beautiful ,lady ,chapel1 which is separated from the eastern side of the transept by the interposition of a finely carved stone screen2 and in that part of the ,cathedral1 called ,becket's ,crown1 is the ,chapel of the ,holy ,trinity1 famous as the site of the gorgeous ,shrine of ,st4 ,thomas a ,becket4 ,in ,becket's ,crown a softened light steals through the painted window4 ,the interest in this window lies in the fact that most of the glass shown is ancient1 and it is the fifth of the twelve windows in the ,trinity ,chapel which suffered severely at the hands of the ,puritans in #afdb4 ,illustration3 ,,canterbury ,,the ,,norman ,,stairway ,what remained of the ancient glass was replaced1 as far as possible in the original position1 by the late ,mr4 ,george ,austen1 subsequently to #ahec4 ,these windows represent the miracles of ,st4 ,thomas a ,becket between the years #abbj and #abdj4 ,between the western towers there is a narrow entrance spanned over by a sharply pointed arch1 enriched with deeply recessed mouldings4 ,above this are canopied niches1 over which is a lofty window of six lights with richly stained glass4 ,the south-west porch constitutes the principal entrance1 and is highly enriched with niches of elegant design4 ,it belongs to a late period of ,english architecture4 ,the roof is most elaborately groined1 and shields are attached at the intersections of the ribs4 ,in the same period of ,late ,english must be included the fine nave and the western transepts4 ,a gorgeous effect is given by the richly groined roof supported by eight lofty piers1 which divide it off on each side from the aisles4 ,from the eastern part numerous avenues lead to the many chapels in different parts of the interior1 and give a truly magnificent effect4 ,all these chapels deserve the closest study1 like the rest of the building1 to thoroughly appreciate the subtlety of design1 and the marvellous skill of the architect4 ,durham ,dunholme4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,hac sunt in fossa ,bedae ,venerabilis ossa4 ,though ,durham dates from the tenth century1 yet it is necessary1 to understand the growth of its power1 to go back to the seventh century4 ,the exact date of the birth of ,st4 ,cuthbert is unknown4 ,as a youth he was admitted into ,melrose ,abbey1 where in the course of fourteen years he became monk and prior4 ,from there he passed another fourteen years in the ,convent of ,lindisfarne1 after which he retired to ,farne for nine years4 ,at the end of this period he was persuaded1 most unwillingly1 by ,egrid1 ,king of ,northumbria1 to become ,bishop of ,lindisfarne1 a ,see in ,bernicia1 as ,durham ,county was then called4 ,but after two years' office he retired to ,farne4 ,there died ,st4 ,cuthbert on ,march #bj1 ,a4,d4 #fhg1 in the thirty-ninth year of his monastic life1 still undecided as to where he should be buried4 ,however1 the remains were reverently preserved in the ,church of ,lindisfarne1 till the monks were compelled to flee1 owing to the invasion of the ,danes1 towards the end of the ninth century4 ,though in dire dread and confusion1 the monks forgot not their sacred trust1 but carried the holy remains of ,st4 ,cuthbert with them4 ,they wandered many a weary day throughout the ,north of ,england in search of ,dunholme1 which ,eadner1 a monk of their order1 declared to them had been divinely revealed to him as the lasting place of rest for the holy and incorruptible body of ,st4 ,cuthbert4 ,they seemed to have had great difficulty in locating the whereabouts of ,dunholme1 for according to tradition they were miraculously delivered from their nomadic life4 ,as they proceeded they heard a woman inquire of another if she had seen her cow1 which had gone astray4 ,much to their joy and relief they heard the reply1 ,in ,dunholme4 ,thereupon they climbed to the summit of the ,hill ,island1 at the base of which they had arrived1 as they wished to deposit their corruptible burden on a spot so close to ,heaven that it should remain incorruptible1 and by its incorruptibility be a fitting foundation on which to build a shrine worthy of their ,saint and the ,god who honoured him4 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,framwell ,,gate ,,bridge ,about #iie their idea was realised by ,bishop ,ealdhune4 ,he founded a church1 built in the style usual then in ,italy1 of brick or stone with round arches4 ,this style1 based directly on ,italian models1 became prevalent throughout all ,western ,europe till the eleventh century1 and in ,england was known as ,anglo-,saxon4 ,this church was erected over the ,saint's resting-place1 upon the rock eminence called ,dunholme 7,hill ,island74 ,later on the ,normans changed this into ,duresne1 whence ,durham4 ,and a representation of a dun cow and two female attendants was placed upon the building4 ,at the same period the ,see was transferred from ,lindisfarne1 and1 together with the growing fame of the presence of the incorruptible body of the ,saint1 attracted pilgrims1 who settled there with their industries4 ,thus were laid the foundations of the great city4 ,in this wise ,st4 ,cuthbert became the patron ,saint of ,durham1 as well as of the ,north of ,england and of ,southern ,scotland4 ,in #ajgb ,william the ,conqueror found it necessary to erect1 across the neck of the rock-eminence1 the castle1 to guard the church and its monastery4 ,in #ajic ,bishop ,carileph built a church of ,norman structure in place of ,ealdhune's ,anglo-,saxon church1 and changed the ,anglo-,saxon establishment of married priests into a ,benedictine abbey4 ,after the ,norman ,conquest the county became ,palatinate1 and acquired the independence peculiar to ,counties ,palatine4 ,the bishops of ,durham were invested with temporal and spiritual powers1 exercising the royal prerogatives1 such as paramount property in lands1 and supreme jurisdiction1 both civil and military1 waging war1 right of forfeiture1 and levying taxes4 ,these privileges were granted1 owing to the remoteness of ,durham from the metropolis and its proximity to the warlike kingdom of ,scotland1 and allowed of justice being administered at home1 thereby doing away with the obligation of the inhabitants quitting their county1 and leaving it exposed to hostile invasions4 ,they were also excused from military service across the ,tees or ,tayne1 on the plea that they were specially charged to keep and defend the sacred body of ,st4 ,cuthbert4 ,those engaged on this service were called ,haliwer folc 7,holy ,war folk74 ,but in the twenty-seventh year of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 the power of the ,see was much curtailed2 and eventually1 on the death of ,bishop ,van ,milvert in #ahcf1 it was deprived of all temporal jurisdictions and privileges4 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,from ,,the ,,railway ,around ,carileph's fine ,norman church numerous additions were made from time to time1 namely3 ,the ,galilee or ,western ,chapel1 of the ,transitional ,period4 ,the gradual change from the ,norman to the ,pointed style1 which took place between #aaed and #aahi1 during ,henry ,,ii4's reign4 ,the ,eastern ,transept1 or ,nine ,altars4 ,the ,western ,towers1 built in ,the ,early ,english ,style1 which was a further development of ,the ,transitional4 ,it was carried out in the reigns of ,richard ,i4 to ,henry ,,iii41 #aahi to #abgb4 ,it is also known as ,first ,pointed or ,lancet4 ,the ,central ,tower 7,perpendicular74 ,the ,windows 7,decorated and ,perpendicular74 ,from #aaed1 the commencement of ,henry ,,ii4's reign1 architecture acquired new characteristics in each reign1 or rather the architects of each reign attempted to improve on the style of their predecessors4 ,it began with the ,transition from ,norman to ,pointed4 ,from that it passed to ,first ,pointed or ,early ,english4 ,then to ,complete or ,geometrical ,pointed4 ,this was succeeded1 in ,edward ,,iii4's time1 by a more flowing style called ,middle ,pointed1 ,curvilinear1 or ,decorated4 ,the graceful flowing lines of this period culminated in what is known as ,the ,third ,pointed1 ,rectilinear1 or ,perpendicular ,style4 ,this period existed from #acii to #aedf1 that is to say1 from the beginning of the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 to the end of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the ,galilee or ,western ,chapel was built and dedicated as an offering to ,the ,blessed ,virgin1 by ,bishop ,pudsey1 between #aaec and #aaie2 and served as the allotted place of worship for women1 who were strictly forbidden to approach the sacred shrine of ,st4 ,cuthbert4 ,in the south-west corner of this chapel there is an altar-tomb of blue marble4 ,this is revered as the abiding-place of the earthly remains of the great monk and historian1 the ,venerable ,bede4 ,concerning him1 tradition relates how ,elfred1 ,the ,sacrist of ,durham1 in #ajbb1 stole these remains from ,jarrow and preserved them in ,st4 ,cuthbert's coffin till #aajd4 ,they were afterwards placed in a gold and silver shrine by ,bishop ,pudsey1 which was left in the refectory till #acgj1 when ,richard of ,barnard ,castle1 a monk afterwards buried under the blue stone on the west of the present tomb1 influenced its removal to the ,galilee ,chapel4 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,interior ,,of ,,cathedral ,,looking ,,across ,,the ,,nave ,,into ,,south ,,transept ,there upon the altar-tomb1 mentioned before1 the casket was placed1 and was covered by a gilt cover of wainscot1 which was drawn up by a pulley when the shrine was visited by pilgrims4 ,upon this altar-tomb there is an inscription in ,latin1 in current use of the period1 which runs thus3 ,hac sunt in fossa ,bedae ,venerabilis ossa4 7,in this tomb are the bones of the ,venerable ,bede47 ,in connection with this inscription there is a legend that the sixth word1 ,venerabilis1 was miraculously supplied by divine intervention to the tired and till then uninspired monk who was penning it4 ,hence ,bede is known generally as ,the ,venerable ,bede4 ,close by there was an altar to the ,venerable ,bede4 ,the ,reformation swept away the original tomb1 leaving only a few traces behind1 and the bones were buried under its site2 and an altar-tomb1 which still exists1 was erected over them4 ,every ,sunday and holiday at noon a monk was accustomed to ascend the iron pulpit beneath the great west window1 and from it to preach4 ,though this pulpit is gone1 there still exists in close proximity a small chamber of the time of ,bishop ,langley1 which was obviously the robing-room of the preacher4 ,from #agge to #agie this magnificent pile was given over to the tender mercies of one ,james ,wyatt1 architect1 who1 but for timely intervention on the part of ,john ,carter1 would have left little of it to our present view2 but1 alas6 by his chiselling and interference with the superficial details of the exterior1 he has taught us a lesson in vandalism4 ,the ,cathedral still survives with surpassing beauty1 and the name of the would-be destroyer is dead4 ,the ,galilee ,chapel was happily rescued in time from utter destruction at the hands of ,james ,wyatt4 ,this gentleman had already commenced to pull down a portion of it to make room for a coach-road1 which he had planned to facilitate the connection between the castle and the college4 ,unhappily the spirit of utility of a most material age allowed the ,chapter ,house to be demolished1 but1 oddly enough1 this demolition1 together with the peeling of the exterior1 the removal1 so to speak1 of details and minor embellishments of the grand edifice1 have robbed us of nothing of its impressiveness1 but indeed remind us1 as the mutilated ,parthenon marbles do1 of the irony of man's vain predilection to mutilate the beautiful1 which must last for ever4 ,thus again there is evidence in the interior of man's destructive power in the mutilation of the ,neville tombs4 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,elvet ,,bridge ,it seems strange that the ,house of ,god the ,peacemaker and the shrine of ,st4 ,cuthbert the incorruptible should have been used as a prison-house of corruptible beings and peace-breakers1--legitimised murderers1--for here were interned the ,scotch prisoners to the number of forty-five hundred1 after the battle of ,dunbar1 and ample scope of amusement was given for their empty brains1 as their ruthless exercise of the privilege records4 ,the ,chapel of the ,nine ,altars still contains the remains of ,st4 ,cuthbert4 ,when the tomb was opened in #ahbg a number of curious and interesting books and ,,mss41 the portable altar1 vestments1 and other relics were found4 ,these are now placed in the ,cathedral ,library4 ,the ,cathedral ,library was formerly the dormitory and refectories of the abbey1 as it was originally styled4 ,in this connection one is led to speculate upon the possible early evolution of religious thought of early ,christianity1 and to half suspect that the ,nine ,altars in the ,galilee ,chapel and the ,woman's ,bar were the remnants of symbols of pre-,christian era1 retained for the obvious purpose of satisfying converts to the faith still young4 ,there is a strong flavour of the worship of the ,nine ,muses of pagan times1 and of the ,judaical laws with regard to women either within or without the places of worship4 ,tradition has it that ,st4 ,cuthbert was a misogynist1 and so strong was it that the precincts of ,st4 ,cuthbert were strictly guarded against the encroachment of women4 ,to enforce this ,the ,boundary ,cross or ,woman's ,bar was constructed to limit their approach1 in the south of the nave4 ,by this attitude towards women ,st4 ,cuthbert1 as a priest1 only foreshadowed the present regime of the ,church of ,rome as regards matrimonial obligations on the part of its servants4 ,for so saintly a man must not be taken as a hater of women1 or his beatification as the son of a woman would have no sense1 and would call his incorruptibility into question1 and his saintliness of character in grave doubt4 ,the chief entrance to the ,cathedral was originally in the west end1 but when ,bishop ,pudsey built the ,galilee ,chapel1 a doorway was constructed in the north end1 framed in a rich and deeply recessed ,norman arch1 doing away with the necessity of the great entrance4 ,fixed to the door is the famous ,norman knocker1 suspended from the mouth of a grotesque monster1 by which offenders seeking sanctuary made their presence known4 ,illustration3 ,,durham ,,the ,,western ,,towers ,one of the most marvellous features1 perhaps1 of the whole ,cathedral is the impressive grandeur of its appearance to the traveller1 approaching from any quarter1 who sees this ,island ,hill capped by the mighty structure1 soaring up1 as it were1 into the heavens1 yet dominating by its protecting shadows the city round its base--the symbol most beautifully conceived of the affinity between earth and heaven1 and truly the noblest form of monument of reverential design that the human brain could have possibly conceived4 ,lichfield ,licefelle4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,lichfield1 the ancient cathedral city of ,staffordshire1 has the best existing type of the fourteenth-century ,english church4 ,it is memorable also as the birthplace of ,dr4 ,johnson4 ,through the generosity of ,alderman ,gilbert the ,corporation has purchased the house in which ,dr4 ,johnson was born1 with his statue opposite it1 and has opened it to the public1 much in the same way as that of ,shakespeare's at ,stratford-on-,avon4 ,lichfield is about sixteen miles to the north of ,birmingham1 and lies in a fertile valley1 on a small tributary of the ,trent4 ,the ,venerable ,bede1 in his accounts of this city1 calls it ,licidfeld1 being supposed to mean ,field of the ,dead4 ,it appears that a large number of ,christians1 in the reign of ,diocletian1 was massacred just in the neighbourhood1 and thus originated the name ,lichfeld1 now altered to ,lichfield4 ,the termination feld was clearly introduced from over the water1 for it still exists in the ,low ,countries1 and bears the same meaning4 ,as to what connection exists between licid and dead1 we cannot clearly understand4 ,in #ffi ,lichfield became an episcopal see1 over which ,st4 ,chad was the first bishop4 ,he left behind him a work1 in the form of his ,gospels4 ,for a short time1 namely1 in the reign of ,offa1 it was raised to the dignity of an archbishopric1 but the ,primacy was restored to ,canterbury in #hjc4 ,the ,see of ,lichfield was1 in #ajge1 transferred to ,chester1 and from there1 a few years later1 to ,coventry4 ,eventually1 in #aadh1 ,lichfield recovered its see4 ,in #acje the town received a charter of incorporation1 and has since returned members to ,parliament4 ,it was raised to the dignity of a city by ,edward ,,vi41 #aedi4 ,the original ,norman ,cathedral no longer exists4 ,in its stead there is a beautiful structure of ,early ,english style1 dating either from the end of the twelfth or the beginning of the thirteenth century4 ,mr4 ,collins gives us an excellent idea of the wonderful and elaborate architecture of the west front4 ,it seems that the architect generally lavished his best powers on the west front1 as if to arrest the attention of the worshipper prior to entry4 ,the west front was1 and is now1 invariably the chief entrance to the church4 ,there is no doubt that the entrance was here specially situated with a view of continuing the first great impression4 ,there is nothing grander and more impressive in cathedral architecture than to view the gradual unfolding of the interior as the sight becomes more accustomed to the sudden transition of the outside glare of day to the subdued light inside4 ,nothing can be more symbolical of religion in church structure than to observe the trend of architectural lines in perspective4 ,if the eye follow the upward course of the central and side aisles1 and the downward sweep of the caps of columns1 arches and walls diminishing in true perspective lines1 it will be seen that they converge to the holiest place of the sacred edifice--the altar1 the point of sight for all4 ,this ,cathedral received1 like other mighty buildings1 similar ill-treatment during the ,civil ,wars4 ,it was converted into stables by the parliamentary troops1 who created havoc amongst its rich sculptures4 ,in #afea it was set on fire1 and1 by order of ,parliament1 was stripped of its lead1 and left to neglect and decay4 ,illustration3 ,,lichfield ,,the ,,west ,,front ,the damage was repaired by ,bishop ,hackett in #afga4 ,the ,restoration has not long been completed1 various improvements having been made4 ,under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,wyatt1 the choir was enlarged by the removal of the screen in front of the ,lady ,chapel4 ,the transepts are richly ornamented1 and contain certain portions of ,norman architecture4 ,the windows are worked in beautiful tracery4 ,the choir is in the ,decorated style of ,english architecture4 ,st4 ,mary's ,chapel is an elegant design by ,bishop ,langton4 ,for the central window was painted ,the ,resurrection1 by ,eggington1 from a design by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the first president of the ,royal ,academy4 ,in this same chapel there was the rich shrine to ,st4 ,chad1 which was demolished at the ,dissolution4 ,there is a great central tower of two hundred and eighty-five feet in height1 besides two western spires one hundred and eighty-three feet4 ,the total length of the building from east to west is about four hundred feet4 ,by the north aisle is the ,chapter-house4 ,it is a ten-sided building of great beauty1 with a vaulted roof supported on a central clustered column4 ,the memory of ,bishops ,hackett1 ,langton1 and ,pattishul is kept alive by their monuments1 which escaped the ravages of ,cromwell's troops4 ,a monument to ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson1 a bust of ,garrick1 and a mutilated statue of ,captain ,stanley1 serve to remind us of their departure from this world4 ,chantrey is responsible for a monument to the memory of the infant children of ,mrs4 ,robinson4 ,oxford ,oxenford4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,the greatness of the city of ,oxford1 a contraction of ,oxenford1 as quaintly depicted on the armorial shield by an ill-drawn ox making tentative efforts to cross a ford represented by horizontal zigzag waves1 consists in its magnificent colleges1 not huddled together1 but dotted in all directions4 ,some authorities derive the name from ,ouseford1 from the river ,ouse1 now the ,isis1 and that the wealthy abbey1 erected on an island in this river1 was named ,ouseney1 or ,osney1 from the same source4 ,didanus1 an early ,saxon prince1 is credited with a monastic establishment1 about the year #gcj1 dedicated to ,st4 ,mary and ,all ,saints1 and founded for twelve sisters of noble birth4 ,his daughter ,frideswide was first abbess1 and was after death canonised and buried in the abbey dedicated to ,st4 ,frideswide4 ,the origin of the city is attributed by some historians to the establishment of schools by ,alfred the ,great1 whilst1 on the other hand1 it is demonstrated to have existed many years prior to this monarch's reign1 as far back as #hjb1 by an act of confirmation by ,pope ,martin ,,ii41 which sets it forth as an ancient academy of learning4 ,it has its market-place and other essentials1 like every town2 but take away the colleges1 and with them sweep away all the traditions that have sprung up and constituted that university which brooks no rival excepting ,cambridge1 the city would no longer be a city1 but1 at the most1 an overgrown village4 ,there is no doubt that the colleges were the gradual development of monastic institutions4 ,the hall of nowadays and the kitchens and buttery-hatch are simply the survivals of the refectory of the mediaeval days4 ,the compulsory morning attendance of students1 on most days during term-time1 to prayers in chapel1 is again a survival of the matutinal devotions of the monks4 ,in the early days of monasticism the inmates of the ecclesiastical buildings were the only recipients of learning and exponents of illuminated manuscripts1 in addition to the knowledge of some trade or other4 ,a few1 perhaps1 of the laity1 who were favourites and might possibly be admitted as novices1 were permitted to partake of this knowledge1 but being brought up in the convent their sympathy and gratitude would be entirely with their benefactors4 ,nevertheless1 as time went on and a thirst for knowledge of letters increased1 this introduction of novices became the thin end of the wedge to the downfall of the monastic power1 which was consummated by ,henry ,,viii4 in the year #aebe4 ,on the site of the monastery of ,st4 ,frideswide ,cardinal ,wolsey founded a college1 then named ,cardinal ,college1 but now known as ,christ ,church4 ,on the disgrace of this famous prelate1 ,henry ,,viii4 completed the establishment1 under the name of ,henry the ,eighth's ,college4 ,it is necessary to make this slight mention of the college1 for no doubt its great accommodation influenced the removal of the episcopal see from ,osney1 and constituted the elevation of the ,church of ,st4 ,frideswide into a cathedral4 ,this removal necessitated the change of name to ,christ ,church1 under which is comprised the sacred edifice and college4 ,this has given rise to a unique position4 ,the ,cathedral is not only a cathedral of the city1 but is a noble and immense chapel of the college1 and the ,dean occupies the singular position not only as the ,dean of the church but also as the ,dean of the college4 ,spread out before the chief and only entrance of the church is ,tom ,quadrangle1 with a paved walk extending all round1 and raised a few steps above the circular carriage drive which encloses a lawn1 with the pond famous for the ducking of students unpopular with their contemporaries4 ,there are evidences1 at one time1 of the existence of pillars supporting a roof1 covering the whole extent of the broad-flagged pavement of this quadrangle4 ,the principal entrance to this quadrangle is through ,tom ,tower1 from which daily1 about nine in the evening1 the huge bell booms forth one hundred and one strokes1 the signal for all colleges to close their portals1 and the dealing out of pecuniary fines to all late-comers4 ,the lower part of this tower1 up to the two smaller towers1 is ,wolsey's1 whilst the upper and incongruous half is the conception of ,wren4 ,in spite of this1 it is a noble-looking structure1 as can be seen by looking at the water-colour of ,mr4 ,collins4 ,the ,cathedral cannot strictly be termed imposing1 as so little of it is visible externally4 ,it is hemmed in on all sides by the college precincts1 and jammed1 as it were1 into a corner1 presents a rather undignified appearance1 and not at all in accordance with the usual proud position of a cathedral4 ,it shows to best advantage when viewed from the side of the river ,thames1 exhibiting1 as it does1 its beautiful spire4 ,this spire1 of ,early ,english architecture1 is one of the earliest in the kingdom1 though forming no part of the original design4 ,it is planted on the top of the central tower of the ,cathedral1 which is a cruciform ,norman structure4 ,illustration3 ,,oxford ,,christchurch4 ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,the interior presents many interesting portions of singular beauty and design2 the arches of the nave1 which have been partly demolished1 are in a double series1 the tower springing from corbels on the piers4 ,the remains of the nave1 transepts and choir arches date from the twelfth century2 and the ,church of ,st4 ,frideswide1 or1 as it is now known1 ,christ ,church4 ,the beautifully groined roof of the choir is decorated with pendants1 presenting a rich appearance4 ,the ,latin ,chapel has several windows in the ,decorated style1 whilst the ,dean's ,chapel possesses a monument in the same style1 with beautiful canopied niches1 and the shrine of ,st4 ,frideswide1 most elaborately designed in the ,late style of ,english architecture4 ,during the ,parliamentary war many windows were destroyed4 ,it is interesting to note the various vicissitudes of the city in history4 ,it suffered terrible visitations from the ,danes1 who burnt it on three separate occasions4 ,for refusing to submit to the ,conqueror1 in #ajfg1 ,oxford was taken by storm and given to ,robert ,d',oily4 ,william ,rufus held a council in the town under ,lanfranc1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 with other bishops assisting1 to defeat a conspiracy formed against him by ,odo1 ,bishop of ,bayeux1 in favour of ,robert1 ,duke of ,normandy4 ,stephen assembled a council of the nobility here1 to whom he promised to abolish the tax called ,dane ,gelt1 and to restore the laws of ,edward the ,confessor4 ,by way of digression it is interesting to note that the ,flemings still use the word geld 7money71 which is a corruption of gelt4 ,when ,henry ,,ii4 and ,thomas a ,becket fell out the monarch held a parliament at ,oxford to undermine the ,pope's authority1 who had laid an interdict on the kingdom4 ,in #aafg he again summoned here another parliament1 to partition ,ireland among faithful subjects who had achieved the conquest of it4 ,the citizens of ,oxford contributed handsomely to the ransom of ,richard ,i4 when detained prisoner in ,austria4 ,king ,john managed here in #abjd1 through the aid of a parliament1 to raise liberal supplies4 ,stephen ,langton1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 held here a synod for reforming ecclesiastical abuses4 ,parliament was again assembled in this ancient city by ,henry ,,iii41 in which he assumed the government1 and revoked the grant of ,magna ,charta and the ,charter of ,forests1 on the plea that he signed them when a minor4 ,in #acai ,pondras1 son of a tanner at ,exeter1 caused some commotion at ,oxford1 declaring that he was the rightful heir of ,edward ,i41 and had been stolen and exchanged for the reigning prince1 ,edward ,,ii4 ,for the imposture he was executed at ,northampton4 ,later on a conspiracy was formed to assassinate ,henry ,,iv41 at a tournament to be held here1 and to restore the deposed monarch1 ,richard ,,ii41 to the throne4 ,it signally failed1 and the ,earls of ,kent and ,salisbury1 ,sir ,thomas ,blount1 and others were executed near ,oxford4 ,the next event of importance was the influence of ,henry ,,viii41 who raised ,oxford to the dignity of a see1 separating it from the ,diocese of ,lincoln4 ,wolsey also left his mark1 as he invariably did wherever he went4 ,during ,henry ,,viii4's reign ,erasmus1 a native of ,holland1 came to ,oxford to aid the progress of learning4 ,he taught ,greek1 but the violence of the popish party drove him from thence1 as the study of the ancient language was deemed a dangerous innovation4 ,in #aeee ,oxford witnessed the terrible death of ,latimer and ,ridley1 condemned to be burned at the stake4 ,their ,protestant tendencies had incurred ,queen ,mary's resentment1 and a brass cross let into the centre of the road1 near ,balliol ,college1 marks the site1 and is a pathetic reminder of their martyrdom4 ,soon after ,cranmer followed1 recanting all belief in the ,pope's supremacy1 and in transubstantiation4 ,in the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,cranmer was instrumental in getting the ,lord's ,prayer1 the ,creed1 the ,commandments1 and the ,litany translated into ,english1 for hitherto it had been customary to conduct the ,church services in ,latin4 ,in #afbe and #affe king and ,parliament hurriedly retreated from the plague in ,london to adjourn to ,oxford4 ,in the ,parliamentary war ,oxford played a prominent part1 and in #afha ,charles ,,ii4 dissolved ,parliament at ,westminster1 only to assemble a new one in the university city4 ,illustration3 ,,oxford ,,christchurch ,,gateway ,but the great events that go to the making of ,england's history have been contributed by men whose names are inscribed upon the books of the various colleges of ,oxford4 ,the ,cathedral ,college1 ,christ ,church1 claims the three great ,english revivalists3 ,wycliffe2 the chief of the ,lollards2 ,john ,wesley1 founder of ,methodism2 and ,pusey4 ,samuel ,wesley1 the father of ,samuel1 ,john1 and ,charles1 entered ,exeter ,college as a pauper scholaris1 and was an eminent divine4 ,his son ,samuel1 the intimate associate of ,pope1 ,swift1 and ,prior1 wrote squibs against ,sir ,robert ,walpole1 the ,whigs1 and the ,low ,church divines1 and was a member of ,christ ,church1 as well as ,charles4 ,these three brothers compiled the ,book of ,psalms and ,hymns1 ,charles alone composed and published some four thousand hymns1 besides leaving about two thousand in manuscript4 ,pusey1 born near ,oxford in #ahjj1 entered as a commoner and died as a canon of ,christ ,church1 at the age of eighty-two4 ,the great scholar of ,corpus ,christi1 ,john ,keble1 became member of that college at the age of fifteen1 and when nineteen was elected ,fellow of ,oriel1--a very proud distinction1 for ,oriel was then the great centre of the most famous intellects in ,oxford4 ,to this society belonged ,copleston1 ,davison1 ,whately1 and soon after ,keble's election ,arnold1 ,pusey1 and ,newman became members4 ,newman1 whose tendencies were in turn ,evangelical and ,calvinistic1 to become finally cardinal1 matriculated at ,trinity ,college4 ,amongst other famous members of ,wolsey's foundation must be included the statesmen ,william ,gladstone and the late ,marquis of ,salisbury4 ,other distinguished inmates of this college are ,anthony ,ashley ,cooper1 the seventh earl of ,shaftesbury1 who interested himself in the practical welfare of the working classes2 and ,john ,ruskin1 author of ,the ,stones of ,venice1 whose father had at first conceived the ambition of seeing him become bishop2 ,cecil ,rhodes1 the ,imperialist1 whose health was so uncertain that at one time his doctor gave him only six months to live1 acquired wealth in ,south ,africa1 and came home to be admitted to ,oriel1 ,oxford4 ,the author of ,alice in ,wonderland1 under the nom de plume of ,lewis ,carroll1 was also a student of ,christ ,church4 ,as ,charles ,lutridge ,dodgson he wrote many important works on mathematics4 ,these1 with a host of other celebrated men of all the various colleges1 have all shed lustre upon their alma mater2 and1 as long as old traditions be revered and followed1 ,oxford need never fear a decline4 ,the beautiful buildings1 collegiate and ecclesiastical1 the wonderful university libraries1 ,the ,bodleian and ,the ,ashmolean1 the sumptuous plate and silver of the colleges1 are some of the great features of this cathedral city4 ,such1 in brief1 is the history of this prominent seat of learning4 ,peterborough ,st4 ,petrius de ,burgh4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,this ancient cathedral city of ,peterborough is most curiously situated4 ,on first looking at the map it is extremely difficult to determine off-hand to which of the three counties1 ,northamptonshire1 ,huntingdonshire1 or ,cambridgeshire1 it belongs4 ,it is true part of the city lies in ,huntingdonshire4 ,happily for ,northamptonshire1 the near proximity of the river ,nene probably decided the worthy monks to select that site for the monastery4 ,it was dedicated to ,st4 ,peter1 whose saintly name was evidently borrowed to designate the name of the borough1 and to displace the original appellation1 which was ,medeswelhamsted1 or ,medeshampsted1 taken out of compliment to a whirlpool in the river ,aufona1 now the ,nene4 ,though we are told that this monastery was founded1 about #fee1 by a royal ,christian convert1 ,paeda1 the fifth king of ,mercia1 and finished by his brother1 ,wulfhere1 in atonement for his crime in connection with the premature death of his sons for their ,christian proclivities--though we are told this1 nevertheless we are inclined to think that the worthy brethren were chiefly responsible for the selection of the site4 ,if we come to consider closely the locality of each monastic institution1 we generally stumble across a river1 however small and humble it may appear4 ,and why is this8 ,simply for the fish1 which was carefully preserved and encouraged to multiply4 ,even to this day all monks1 nuns1 and strict followers of the ,roman ,catholic persuasion rigidly adhere to the observance of eating fish1 instead of flesh1 on every ,friday and fast day1 though nowadays it is not customary for them to catch fish in its natural element4 ,in the good old days the holy friars had to depend principally upon the yield of the river for ,friday's requirements1 if perchance the monastery was situated far inland4 ,travelling in mediaeval times was somewhat precarious and slow4 ,this monastery would be in all probability a wooden erection of ,anglo-,saxon style4 ,philologists demonstrate that getimbrian--to construct of wood--was the ,anglo-,saxon word for build4 ,if this argument holds good1 it accounts not only for the scarcity of ,old ,english lapidary remains1 but also for their peculiar character4 ,till the arrival of masons in #fgb from the continent1 the buildings had been composed mostly of wood covered with thatch4 ,only towards the close of the tenth century1 with a better knowledge of stone-work1 did architects develop a definite style in ,england4 ,with the arrival of the ,danes1 about the middle of the ninth century1 the town was sacked1 the monks were massacred1 and the monastic buildings were burnt4 ,for more than a century it remained in oblivion1 till the combined efforts of ,ethelwold1 ,bishop of ,winchester1 ,king ,edgar1 and his wealthy chancellor ,adulph1 produced a monastery1 over which1 in recognition of his pecuniary assistance1 ,adulph was made abbot4 ,as usual1 the ,norman ,conquest left its mark in the shape of a castle to protect the town1 and to instil wholesome awe in the ,english4 ,it was early in the reign of ,henry ,i4 that a fire caused great injury to the town and monastery4 ,though deplorable1 as it at first appeared1 it nevertheless gave birth to the present ,norman cathedral church1 which ,abbot ,salisbury commenced to build in #aaah1 two years after the accident4 ,at the same time the site of the town was transferred from the eastern side of the monastery to the present situation north of the ,nene4 ,illustration3 ,,peterborough ,,the ,,west ,,front ,six years before the death of ,henry ,,viii41 to wit1 in #aeda1 ,peterborough was separated from the ,diocese of ,lincoln and was created into an episcopal see4 ,the last abbot of ,peterborough was appointed first bishop1 with the abbot's house as the episcopal palace1 and the monastery church as the cathedral4 ,to this building1 the ,norman effort of ,abbot ,salisbury1 was grafted the architecture of the ,early ,english style4 ,no pen can so adequately describe the magnificence of the west front of this cathedral as the brush of ,mr4 ,collins4 ,this artist has done full justice to his subject1 which has evidently been a work of love to him4 ,in his rendering he has both successfully caught the true spirit of the church's grandeur1 and has managed to incorporate his distinct individuality4 ,mr4 ,collins has shown the same qualities with regard to the market-place4 ,the three lofty and beautiful arches of this west front are ,early ,english4 ,perhaps a jarring note to its fine composition is the small porch1 over which there is a chapel to ,st4 ,thomas a ,becket4 ,a square tower at the north-west angle and another similar one at the south-west angle of the nave enrich the general effect4 ,the nave itself is ,norman1 and is separated from the aisles by finely clustered piers and arches of the same style1 but lighter than usual in character4 ,the east end is circular1 and there are several chapels of the ,english style subsequent to the ,early ,english4 ,they are elegantly designed with fan tracery1 and the windows1 since their original foundation1 appear to have been enriched with tracery4 ,on the south side there is the shrine to ,st4 ,tibba1 and close to it ,mary ,queen of ,scots was buried4 ,her remains were afterwards exhumed and removed to ,westminster4 ,the north side was graced with a tomb to ,queen ,catherine of ,arragon4 ,uneasy was her rest1 for ,cromwell's troops laid sacrilegious hands on the tomb4 ,her royal memory is now perpetuated by a commonplace marble slab4 ,not content with this the ,roundheads1 as the parliamentary forces were called1 defaced the ,cathedral1 looted its plate and ornaments1 and pulled down part of the cloisters1 the chapter house1 and the episcopal palace4 ,what remains of the cloisters exhibit specimens of ,early ,norman1 down to the later periods of ,english architecture1 and give some idea of their former grandeur4 ,besides its beauties1 this cathedral affords an excellent study of arches1 illustrating the subtleties of every transitional period in architecture1 from ,norman to perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,,peterborough ,,the ,,market ,,place ,the choir1 by ,john de ,sez1 is ,early ,norman4 ,martin of ,bec took fifteen years1 in the twelfth century1 to realise the completion of the aisles of both transepts4 ,the remaining portions of the transepts and the central tower were designed by ,william de ,waterville1 from #aaee to #aage4 ,unfortunately1 the insecurity of this tower caused it to be pulled down in #ahhc1 and attempts were immediately made to substitute another4 ,the nave belongs to the latter part of the ,norman period4 ,to be correct1 its date1 #aagg to #aaic1 clearly indicates it should be included rather in the ,transition period1 which was then trending towards the ,lancet of ,early ,english4 ,this same ,transition must also claim the western transepts by ,abbot ,andrew1 #aaic to #abjj4 ,the painted roof of wood1 added by ,abbot ,benedict1 #aagg to #aaic1 is a fair example of the fashion prevalent in ,europe at that period4 ,another object of interest is the decorated windows1 which were placed throughout this church in the fourteenth century4 ,a distinctive feature is the existence of the ,close1 exhibiting interesting remains of ,english architecture4 ,to more thoroughly ensure the privacy of the cathedral1 its precincts were enclosed1 very much like a college at a university1 either within a solid wall enclosure or generally surrounded by dwellings for the ecclesiastics4 ,though the cathedral might be in the densest quarter of the town1 yet1 on closing its gates1 it secured complete severance from the city4 ,the cathedral close at ,salisbury is quite the best specimen extant in ,england4 ,en passant we would mention among the many eminent men that ,peterborough is justly proud of1 ,benedict1 who was abbot in #aahj1 and founded an hospital1 which he dedicated to ,st4 ,thomas a ,becket1 whose biographer and ardent admirer he was2 and an eminent ,english historian in the fourteenth century1 ,john1 abbot of the monastery of ,peterborough2 ,archdeacon ,paley1 a celebrated divine and moralist1 who died in #ahje2 and ,sir ,john ,hill1 a popular writer in the eighteenth century4 ,in conclusion1 we cannot help drawing attention to the great general1 statesman1 and contemporary of the ,duke of ,marlborough1 who was called after this city1 and known in the reigns of ,anne and ,george ,i4 ,the title of ,earl of ,peterborough was conferred by ,charles ,i4 on the family of ,mordaunt1 and worthily borne by the celebrated soldier-statesman4 ,st4 ,albans ,st4 ,albanus4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,under the title of ,oppidum1 the stronghold of ,cassivelaunus1 ,st4 ,albans is frequently mentioned by ,caesar and ,tacitus4 ,at the time of ,caesar's first visit to ,england1 which was in #df ,b4,c41 the ,britons led a wandering life1 and it was only in war time that they gathered together and took refuge in towns4 ,tacitus and ,caesar describe the ,britons as people who had no cities1 towns1 or buildings of any durable materials4 ,the sites of their towns were chosen with a view to turning to good account all the assistance that ,nature could lend1 such as woods1 ditches1 and bogs4 ,though ,caesar names no particular town1 yet he describes his attack and occupation of the ,oppidum over which ,cassivelaunus was the chief4 ,and from what is known of the progress and distance of ,caesar from the ,thames1 there seems no doubt that ,verulamium1 as it was then and afterwards called1 is identical with that of the stronghold of the ,britons4 ,it was situated on the low ground on the banks of the river ,ver4 ,caesar's occupation was brief4 ,until the conquest of ,britain by ,claudius in #dc ,a4,d4 it remained an important city in the hands of the ,britons4 ,finally1 in #dbj ,a4,d41 the ,romans quitted ,britain4 ,during their stay they had greatly opened up the country1 constructing the famous high roads1 one of which is the great ,north ,road1 called ,watling ,street1 which stretches from ,london to ,york4 ,in the fifth century ,verulamium1 as we shall still continue to call ,st4 ,albans for a while1 was occupied by the ,saxons4 ,they changed the site of the ,roman city from the low ground1 on which now stands the ,church of ,st4 ,michael1 to the higher ground4 ,at the same time they renamed it ,watling-ceaster1 after ,watling ,street1 which passed through it4 ,from the ruins of the ancient city of ,verulamium arose in the tenth century the celebrated monastery in honour of ,st4 ,alban4 ,to account for the erection of this building it is necessary to give a brief sketch of its patron saint4 ,during the ,diocletian persecution of the ,christians1 in the year #cjd ,a4 ,d41 a distinguished citizen1 ,alban of ,verulamium1 of ,roman origin1 but converted to ,christianity1 suffered martyrdom for giving shelter to ,amphibalus1 a ,christian4 ,for this crime he was executed on the site of the present abbey1 and in #ggb was canonised4 99 99 99 99 99 ,nearly five hundred years after1 in #gic1 ,offa1 the ,king of ,mercia1 was very much exercised in mind as to the best means of expiating his murder of ,a,ethelbert4 ,greatly to his relief1 he was bidden in a vision to seek the remains of ,st4 ,alban1 and over them1 when found1 to erect a monastery4 ,in accordance with these instructions he1 with ,higbert1 ,archbishop of ,lichfield1 the ,bishops of ,leicester and ,lindsey1 and a huge assembly of clergy and laity1 visited the hill1 where the ,proto-martyr of ,england1 as ,st4 ,alban came to be known1 had suffered4 ,there the holy remains were discovered4 ,over them ,offa founded the abbey1 with a monastery for one hundred monks of the ,order of ,st4 ,benedict4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the present abbey really dates from the eleventh century4 ,at the close of the tenth century the ruins of the old ,roman city of ,verulamium were broken up to serve as materials for the new church buildings4 ,but owing to the unsettled character of the times the erection was delayed1 till ,william the ,conqueror was firmly possessed of the throne1 when ,paul of ,caen1 a relative of ,archbishop ,lanfranc1 was appointed abbot in #ajgg4 ,he built the magnificent ,norman structure1 based upon the plans of ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,caen--the same church which served as a model for ,lanfranc1 when he built ,canterbury4 ,though finished for some years past1 it was only consecrated in #aaae4 ,as was invariably the custom1 the church was built in the form of a cross4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note the evolution of the cross4 ,prior to the ,christian era the cross was looked upon with disfavour4 ,to be crucified was to undergo a most ignominious form of punishment1 and it was only served out to malefactors of the worst description4 ,nothing short of this would have been a sufficient check in those times to the growth of vice4 ,but in the early days of ,christianity the cross came to be regarded as the holiest symbol of ,the ,sacrifice made for the good of mankind4 ,when converts met they formed on the ground the sign of the cross1 in order to distinguish friends from foes4 ,the mere fact of a severe punishment meted out consequent on discovery of this secret passport served only to increase the reverence held for the symbol4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,albans ,,from ,,the ,,walls ,,of ,,old ,,verulam ,as soon as time and opportunity allowed places of worship were erected1 and the natural form adopted would be that of the cross1 for which they had suffered so much persecution1 and which typified the foundation of their faith and hopes of salvation4 ,as they assembled in church they would be sensible of the prevailing influence of the emblem4 ,in every direction1 look where they would1 they would always see the holy sign4 ,the roof would reveal to the gaze the same form as that on the ground4 ,even the walls1 as they soared upwards1 out-lined1 tier upon tier1 the ,christian sign1 capped at the last by a mighty cross1 which cast its protecting shadows around and over the worshippers4 ,the altar came to be placed at the head of the cross4 ,the transept1 crossing it at right angles1 formed the arms1 and the nave the upright4 ,the altar was always situated at the east end1 again illustrating a link with the pagan times1 when worshippers turned towards the sun4 ,as time progressed chapels were erected along the sides1 causing the walls to be pierced and arched4 ,these chapels were in honour1 firstly1 of ,the ,blessed ,virgin1 and then of the leaders of ,the ,faith1 who had been canonised as saints on account of martyrdom4 ,but the main building was always dedicated to the ,god ,head4 ,by a special grant in #aaed1 given by ,pope ,adrian ,,iv41 who was born near ,st4 ,albans1 and who was the only ,englishman ever appointed to the ,papal ,see1 the abbots of ,st4 ,albans were allowed the privilege of wearing a mitre4 ,added to this dignity he was given precedence over all in ,england1 whether they were king1 archbishop1 bishop1 or legate4 ,he also exercised supreme episcopal jurisdiction over all clergy and laity in all lands pertaining to the monastery4 ,the first abbot was ,willgod1 nominated by ,king ,offa4 ,the last one was ,richard ,boreman1 otherwise ,stevenache4 ,in all there were forty-one from the foundation to the suppression1 which took place in #aecd4 ,in that year the monastery was seized by ,henry ,,viii41 who allowed pensions to the monks1 and an annuity to the abbot4 ,about #adhj the abbey was amongst the first in ,england to set up a printing press4 ,on this the first ,english translation of the ,bible was printed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in spite of every loving care exercised1 the relics of ,st4 ,alban enjoyed little rest4 ,in ,wulruth's reign as fourth abbot1 the abbey suffered at the hands of the ,danes4 ,they carried away with them the bones of the ,proto-martyr to ,denmark1 and there placed them in a convent at ,owenses4 ,they were found and brought back to the abbey4 ,again1 seventy years later1 the ,danes ravaged the country4 ,but this time ,a,elfric ,,ii41 eleventh abbot1 resorted to artifice4 ,he hid the bones in the walls of the church1 and sent bogus relics to the monastery at ,ely1 giving the monks special charges to guard them well4 ,on the retirement of the ,danes from the country1 ,a,elfric sent post haste to reclaim these bones4 ,ely at first demurred1 but1 giving way in the end1 sent back some substituted bones4 ,this disquieted the saint4 ,he appeared to ,gilbert1 a ,benedictine monk1 and to him disclosed the fraud1 enjoining him to bring to light the true bones from their hiding-place4 ,this was solemnly done4 ,but ,ely unexpectedly disclosed the artifice they had practised1 and claimed that they were in possession of the true relics4 ,as neither party would yield1 the relics of ,st4 ,alban for a hundred years received reverential and impartial homage both at ,st4 ,albans and at ,ely4 ,eventually ,ely disclaimed their right1 on the appeal of ,robert de ,gorham1 the eighteenth abbot1 to the ,pope4 ,in the history of the ,wars of the ,roses1 the city of ,st4 ,albans played a prominent part4 ,in #adee ,henry ,,vi4 set up his royal standard on the north side of the town1 whilst the ,yorkists1 under the ,duke of ,york and the ,earl of ,warwick1 the ,kingmaker1 encamped in the fields east of the town4 ,on ,may #c of the same year in ,holywell ,street and its adjacent roads fought the two armies to decide the succession to the ,english throne4 ,the ,yorkists gained the victory4 ,the king was taken a wounded prisoner4 ,on ,february #ag1 #adfa1 ,st4 ,albans was for the second time the scene of a terrible battle4 ,the ,lancastrians1 with ,queen ,margaret at their head1 defeated the ,yorkists under the ,earl of ,warwick1 and restored ,henry ,,vi4 to the throne4 ,the principal portions now in existence of the original ,norman church by ,paul of ,caen are the tower1 the eastern bays of the nave1 and the transepts4 ,though it exhibits specimens of architecture of different periods1 and has undergone much restoration1 the main architectural outlines1 as conceived by ,paul1 have been adhered to all the time4 ,within recent years ,sir ,gilbert ,scott1 succeeded by ,sir ,edmund ,beckett1 made extensive renovations4 ,the only reminder of the once vast monastic buildings is the great gateway1 within a few yards of the west entrance to the abbey4 ,wells ,welle4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,wells1 a city1 having separate jurisdiction1 locally in the hundred of ,wells-,forum1 ,county of ,somerset4 ,thus runs a description of this place1 and is a fair sample of most cities4 ,we think a little explanation anent the hundred may possibly make that term more clear of understanding1 and may not be amiss4 ,the description1 short as it is1 has quite a condensed history of its own1 but only conveys a hazy idea of the status of the city4 ,illustration3 ,,wells ,,cathedral ,,and ,,the ,,pools ,in the days of heathenism1 it must be remembered that ,england was partitioned into several kingdoms1 the size of which was regulated by the might of their respective kings4 ,each tribe1 or kingdom1 was ruled by a tribal chief1 or folk-king4 ,he was chosen by the tribe1 and the king-ship became in time practically hereditary4 ,to maintain his power he had to respect and keep the customs of his people4 ,without their consent he could pass no law2 he could touch no freeman's life or heritage without consent of law1 which gave the freeman the right of defending his cause before his fellow-freemen2 he presided1 at regular annual intervals1 at the folk-moot1 or tribal assembly1 and at the great feasts and sacrifices4 ,counsellors and wise men assisted the king with advice4 ,his marriages were the result of favourable and pacific negotiations with other tribes4 ,he was called upon to travel throughout his kingdom and see that justice was properly administered and evil and oppression suppressed4 ,he was almost regarded as a demi-god1 and his crimes were supposed to be punished by the gods1 who denied good seasons and brought about other calamities4 ,the king was allowed a little army1 or comitatus as it was called1 of paid retainers1 to maintain adequate discipline1 and to form his bodyguard4 ,these kings1 chosen by the people at the tribal-moot1 in heathen times were throned on the holy stone and carried about on a shield1 and in ,christian times were consecrated4 ,in accordance with the extension of the ,west ,saxon kingdom1 which became the kingdom of the ,english1 the court increased4 ,at the time of the ,conquest1 a treasurer1 a chancellor1 and other officials looking after the king's plate1 clothes1 and horses were added to the royal household4 ,when in addition to these were added the bishops1 abbots1 and the aldermen1 who had succeeded the tribal kings in the several folks1 or shires1 on their absorption into the ,west ,saxon kingdom1 the king was recognised as the head of the ,witema-gemot1 or ,concilium ,sapientium1 as the meeting of wisemen was called4 ,in the tenth century the king no longer went about to get the consent of each folk-moot to a certain law1 but convened the heads of each shire-moot at some convenient central spot4 ,this convening of moots1 or ,mycel-gemot1 became the ,magnum ,concilium of the ,normans1 and in the thirteenth century developed into the ,high ,courts and ,parliament4 ,beneath the shire-moots came the hundred-moots1 and later on the hall-moots4 ,the origin of the hundred appears1 by some authorities1 to be based on the military organisation4 ,it is supposed1 in the first instance1 to be a grouping of a sufficient number of free homesteads to furnish at least one hundred and twenty fully-armed freemen for war service1 and to supply full-qualified jurors for the cases of the district4 ,this hundred-moot was presided over by a lord or an hundred-elder1 and discharged the duties for the district much in the same way as the shire-moot did for the county4 ,it was a criminal and civil court with its grand jury1 and enforced the attendance of persons from each manor within the hundred4 ,when the king was absent from the shire-moot1 the ealdorman 7alderman7 of the shire presided1 and to watch the royal interests was nominated the shire-reeve1 or sheriff 7scirgerefa71 chosen from the better class of the freeholders4 ,we are told that the laws of ,england were far in advance of those in ,france4 ,in fact1 the ,english had written laws at the time of the ,conquest1 and the ,normans had none4 ,it hardly seems credible that the conquered were1 in some respects1 more civilised than their conquerors4 ,illustration3 ,,wells ,,from ,,the ,,fields ,it was only after the ,conquest that the ,doomsday ,book came into existence4 ,after the ,conquest the sheriff became simply a royal officer4 ,he was the financial representative of the ,crown within his district4 ,now his financial duties no longer exist1 and his judicial are almost nil4 ,our general knowledge of him is that he is supposed to be in at the death of a murderer1 and that he is somehow or other associated with the bailiff--sheriff's officer1 as he is styled4 ,mr4 ,collins presents us with three interesting graphic descriptions4 ,this city owes its name to the numerous springs1 and more particularly to that of ,st4 ,andrew's ,well1 whose water1 rising in the vicinity of the episcopal palace1 flows through the south-western part of the city4 ,ina1 ,king of the ,west ,saxons1 named it thus4 ,he1 in #gjd1 founded a collegiate church and dedicated it to ,st4 ,andrew the ,apostle4 ,this foundation was handsomely endowed by ,cynewulf in #gff1 and flourished till #ije4 ,wells was then erected into a see4 ,this change was consequent on an edict of ,edward the ,elder for the revival of religion1 which had been brought down to a low ebb by the frequent and terrible incursions of the ,danes4 ,to combat this state of things1 ,pligrund1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 consecrated several new bishops1 of whom ,aldhelm1 formerly ,abbot of ,glastonbury1 became first bishop of ,wells4 ,edward the ,confessor made his chaplain1 ,giso1 the thirteenth bishop to the ,see1 and at the same time enriched it by the confiscated property of ,godwin1 ,earl of ,kent1 and ,harold1 ,earl of ,wessex1 his son1 whom he had driven into exile4 ,harold1 in spite of his exile1 made an incursion into ,somersetshire1 levied mail on his former tenantry1 and eased the church of its treasures4 ,in the meantime ,giso was being consecrated at ,rome4 ,on his return he was fortunate enough to gain some compensation from the queen1 who was sister to ,harold4 ,but1 unfortunately for ,giso1 ,harold was again received into favour4 ,he promptly procured the banishment of ,giso1 and on his succession later to the throne straightway resumed all his estates1 which ,edward the ,confessor had granted to the ,church1 and thus impoverished the ,see4 ,bishop ,giso's opportunity came with the ,conquest1 when he was reinstated4 ,william1 in his second year of reign1 restored to the ,bishopric1 with some small deduction1 all ,harold's estates4 ,giso augmented the number of canons1 and built a cloister1 hall1 and dormitory1 and enlarged and beautified the choir of the ,cathedral4 ,john de ,villula1 his successor1 swept away these buildings1 and on their site built a palace4 ,villula's name in ecclesiastical history is closely associated with a memorable event which caused considerable commotion and rivalry between the inhabitants of ,wells and ,bath4 ,he removed the ,see of the diocese to ,bath1 and assumed the title of ,bishop of ,bath4 ,feeling ran high1 and the ,archbishop of ,canterbury was appealed to4 ,his ingenuity proposed that the prelates should be styled ,bishop of ,bath and ,wells1 that an equal number of delegates from both cities should elect him1 and that their installation should take place in both churches4 ,yet1 later1 the determination of the diocese's headquarters became again a vexed question1 under ,bishop ,savaricus1 who was closely allied to the ,emperor of ,austria4 ,richard ,i4's liberty was granted him by the ,emperor of ,austria on one condition besides the ransom1 that the then vacant ,abbey of ,glastonbury should be annexed to the ,see of ,bath and ,wells4 ,savaricus afterwards changed the seat of his diocese to ,glastonbury1 and styled himself ,bishop of ,glastonbury4 ,the seat was finally settled in #abje1 after his death1 by the monks under his successor1 ,joscelyne de ,wells4 ,glastonbury petitioned ,rome1 favourably1 to be reinstated as an abbey1 on condition of relinquishing a handsome portion of its revenue to the ,see4 ,joscelyne assumed the bishopric title of ,bath and ,wells1 which has remained to this day4 ,the death of this prelate was the signal for further dispute in another direction4 ,the monks of ,bath endeavoured to exercise1 in opposition to the ,canon of ,wells1 the right of electing the successor to the ,see4 ,all dispute was settled by the ,pope1 who managed to draw closer the union of the churches4 ,at the ,reformation the monastery of ,bath was suppressed1 and though the name of the ,see was retained1 all ecclesiastical authority and the right of electing the ,bishop were vested in the ,dean and ,chapter of ,wells1 which then became the sole chapter of the ,diocese4 ,illustration3 ,,wells ,,the ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,banqueting ,,hall ,the ,chapter ,house is a beautiful octagonal building1 each side measuring fifty feet4 ,its finely groined roof is held up by a central clustered column of ,purbeck marble4 ,beneath it there is a crypt displaying a very good example of plain groining4 ,the foundation of the present ,cathedral was laid by ,wiffeline1 the second bishop of the diocese1 and completed by ,bishop ,joscelyne in #abci4 ,this cruciform structure was dedicated to ,st4 ,andrew4 ,on the south the cloisters form three sides of a quadrangle4 ,the prevailing style of the architecture of this church is the ,early ,english1 with the introduction of the ,decorated and subsequent periods4 ,the west front is divided into compartments by buttresses1 and is richly embellished with canopied niches1 containing statues of kings1 popes1 cardinals1 bishops1 and abbots4 ,even the mullions of the west window and the lower stages of the western towers are similarly treated4 ,these towers1 like the central tower1 are crowned with parapets elegantly pierced4 ,the nave and transepts display the grand simplicity and elegance of the ,early ,english style4 ,the former is separated from the aisles by a series of clustered columns and finely pointed arches1 above which are placed a triforium of lancet-shaped arches1 and a range of clerestory windows with elegant tracery in the ,later ,english style inserted4 ,the choir belongs to the ,decorated style4 ,the ,cathedral contains several chapels4 ,in one there is the ancient clock from ,glastonbury4 ,it has an astronomical dial1 and figures of knights in armour are set in motion by machinery4 ,an ancient font in the south transept is of the same date as this portion of the ,cathedral4 ,of monuments there is the elaborate effigy of ,bishop ,beckington2 and in the choir the grave-stone of ,bishop ,joscelyne is the sole relic of what was once an imposing marble monument bearing a brass effigy4 ,in the centre of the nave ,king ,ina was buried4 ,the hall1 by ,villula1 was demolished in the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 for the sake of its materials4 ,its remains even now clearly indicate its original splendour4 ,in length it was one hundred and twenty feet4 ,on the dissolution of the monasteries ,henry ,,viii4 remodelled the then existing establishment and refounded it4 ,this monarch's name reminds us that ,cardinal ,wolsey and ,archbishop ,laud were prelates of this see4 ,the eminent historian1 ,polydore ,vergil1 was archdeacon in the sixteenth century1 and in the year #afcd was born in this city pious ,dr4 ,george ,bull1 ,bishop of ,st4 ,david's4 ,the history of the ,see is the history of the city4 ,worcester ,wirecestra4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,apart from its beautiful ,cathedral1 this ancient city has gained notoriety from its famous manufacture of porcelain4 ,who is there who has not heard of ,old ,worcester china8 ,from the experiments of china clay1 china stone from ,cornwall1 feldspar from ,sweden1 fire-clay from ,stourbridge and ,broseley1 marl1 flint1 and calcined bones1 ,dr4 ,wall evolved those exquisite creations of ,worcester china which now claim universal admiration and obtain fabulous prices4 ,it has been said that for political reasons the joint efforts of ,dr4 ,wall1 a physician2 ,william ,davies1 an apothecary2 and ,edward ,cave1 the founder of ,the ,gentleman's ,magazine1 gave birth to the foundation of the ,worcester ,porcelain ,company4 ,this desirable event took place in #agea1 six years after the invasion of the ,pretender's armed forces1 which penetrated as far as ,derby4 ,whether the establishment of this industry helped ,george ,,ii4's party to gain votes in the county against the numerous supporters of the ,pretender1 who made their presence felt in ,worcester1 or not1 is now of little consequence4 ,the existence of this branch of art clearly demonstrates the insecure footing of politics1 and asserts the triumph of its founders4 ,mr4 ,collins gives us another proof that art is long by his skilful rendering of the beautiful portion of ,worcester ,cathedral here shown4 ,at the period of the ,roman invasion of ,england1 two ,british tribes1 the ,cornavii and ,dobuni1 were in part ownership of ,worcestershire4 ,this ,british settlement was promptly annexed by the ,romans as a military station1 and was included in the division called ,flavia ,caesariensis4 ,they named it ,vigorna1 but being low and woody it offered little attraction to them1 and received little attention at their hands4 ,with the establishment of the ,saxon ,octarchy this territory became included in the kingdom of ,mercia4 ,like many of the ,english towns that served as ,roman military posts1 the ,saxons grafted the ,roman appellation cester for a camp1 to ,wigorna4 ,wigorna-cester gradually changed to ,worcester4 ,the city's advancement was temporarily checked by the ravages of the ,danes1 who burnt it more than once4 ,in spite of the opposition of the ,bishop of ,lichfield1 the ,see of the city was founded by ,archbishop ,theodore1 in #fgc1 though not finally established till #ghj4 ,it then severed its connection with the ,see of ,lichfield4 ,save for predatory incursions of the ,danes1 especially on two occasions1 when the ,dane chief ,canute was1 in #ajaf1 defeated by ,edmund ,ironsides near ,blockley2 and at another time1 when the ,danes deemed it necessary1 in #ajda1 to punish the ,saxons for refusing to pay them tribute called danegelt1--save for these little misfortunes1 little else interfered with the gradual growth of the city's prosperity4 ,naturally1 with increased prosperity1 the city freed itself from bondage to ,danes4 ,at the date of the ,conquest it had even attained sufficient importance to have a mint4 ,the existence of various ,english mints at that period1 as shown here1 and in ,oxford and other towns1 according to their importance and the exigencies of the neighbourhood1 must have been solely due to the geographical partition of ,england4 ,prior to the ,conquest we notice the frequent distribution and redistribution of ,england into kingdoms1 in ratio to the superior power or stratagem of one king over another4 ,by this is made evident the lack of unity and support against the common foe1 the foreign invader4 ,each kingdom of necessity issued its own currency1 besides framing its own laws to suit the character of the subjects and the nature of the surroundings4 ,though each king attempted to restore this chaos to order by the simple process of grabbing his neighbours' land during the intermission of hostilities against foreign invaders1 it was only ,alfred the ,great who really attempted some scheme of unity--and then failed to accomplish what seemed an impossibility4 ,but this impossibility was entirely overcome by ,william the ,conqueror1 who straightway grasped the situation4 ,he erected castles everywhere1 with the twofold purpose of curbing the ,saxons and keeping out their former foes4 ,under his rule internal dissensions were quelled1 effete customs were abolished1 new and necessary laws were introduced1 architecture was encouraged1 trade was fostered1 and a recognised currency was adopted4 ,all this can be readily gathered at a glance into that marvellous book he caused to be drawn up1 called ,doomsday ,book4 ,in it a correct valuation of all property1 from the noble lord's down to the agricultural implements of the peasant1 is entered1 with the position of every church and castle extant conspicuously marked on the chart in ,latin4 ,he wished to thoroughly gauge the resources of his recent conquest4 ,with this information he gained an index to the complete establishment of his sovereignty over ,england4 ,this may be considered a digression1 but we submit that a brief sketch of the wonderful change that took place under this monarch is essential to the right understanding of the history alike of cathedral and city4 ,no other reigning prince of ,england1 before or since ,william's reign1 has left such lasting evidences of his personality except it be ,henry ,,viii41 who is inseparable with the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,the drawing of ,mr4 ,collins gives an excellent idea of the character of ,worcester ,cathedral4 ,its site is on the eastern bank of the river ,severn1 and is the most important building of the city4 ,yet it cannot be compared to the massive grandeur of ,ripon4 ,though its beauty could not entirely be marred by restoration1 yet1 having been allowed to get out of repair1 the task was entrusted in #aheg to ,mr4 ,perkins1 the cathedral architect4 ,he has managed to sweep away a great part of the old work1 and in some instances has replaced the original by conjectural work of ,early ,english style4 ,illustration3 ,,worcester ,,the ,,cathedral ,but to revert to the early stages of the ,cathedral1 ,bishop ,oswald appears to have absorbed the secular monks of ,st4 ,peter's1 the ,bishop's church1 into a monastery of ,st4 ,mary1 thereby changing the secular state of the canons to that of the monastic4 ,this bishop1 in #ihc1 finished the building of a new monastic cathedral4 ,by the time that the ,normans cast their influence over ,worcester1 ,bishop ,wulfstan had gained so much fame for saintliness that it is recorded he was the only ,english prelate left in charge of his see4 ,but subsequent history somewhat discounts his holy character and demonstrates his readiness to conform with new customs4 ,he met the ,normans half-way by undertaking to build a great church of stone1 after the ,norman style of architecture4 ,in #ajhh he suffered interruption through ,welsh raids1 but finally signalised the end of his labours by holding a synod in the crypt in #ajid4 ,another notable foundation of his is the ,commandery1 in #ajie1 believed to be one of the rarest specimens of early house architecture now extant4 ,we cannot be too grateful for his contribution to church architecture1 though only the outer walls of the nave1 the aisles1 a part of the transept walls1 some shafts1 and the crypt remain as evidences of his ,norman adaptability4 ,here it is well to accentuate the fact that the crypt 7#ajhd7 is apsidal1 and that only three other examples of this style exist1 namely at ,winchester1 ,gloucester1 and ,canterbury1 all dating within the last twenty years of the eleventh century4 ,the nave 7#aage7 was much injured by the collapse of the central tower4 ,in the meanwhile1 though dead some two hundred years1 the saintly character of ,wulfstan suffered no diminution1 and was turned to profitable use by the monks soon after #abjc1 the year of his canonisation4 ,the magnificent offerings to his shrine became so numerous and rich that the monks were enabled to finish the ,cathedral in #abaf--surely the most fitting memorial to the great founder4 ,they continued their labours by adding a ,lady chapel1 soon after1 in the east end1 and rebuilding the choir in the ,early ,english style4 ,in the fourteenth century the nave was reconstructed1 the ,decorated style being introduced in the north side and the ,perpendicular in the south4 ,the ,chapter ,house is a round building with a stone roof resting on a central pillar1 and dates from the ,late ,norman period4 ,the ,refectory belongs to the ,decorated1 and the ,perpendicular style claims the cloisters4 ,the central tower is just over one hundred and sixty feet in height4 ,as can be seen by the drawing1 the plan of the building is a pure cross4 ,there are two transept aisles1 and only secondary transepts to the choir exist4 ,a noteworthy circumstance is that ,st4 ,helen's1 ,worcester1 is the earliest recipient of a chantry 7#abhh74 ,the most interesting memorial in this cathedral is ,king ,john's1 in the choir1 said to be the earliest sepulchral effigy of an ,english king in the country4 ,in the ,chantry ,chapel there is an altar-tomb to ,arthur1 ,prince of ,wales and son to ,henry ,,vii41 who died in #aejb4 ,john ,bauden1 bishop1 and author of ,icon ,basilike1 has a monument4 ,bishop ,hough's memory is perpetuated by the work of ,roubillac1 and that of ,mrs4 ,digby by the sculpture of ,chantrey4 ,to give a detailed account of the history of the city would be long and unnecessary4 ,suffice it to say that the city continually changed hands during the civil wars4 ,in #abfe1 in ,worcestershire1 close upon the frontier of ,gloucestershire1 was fought the battle of ,evesham1 in which ,henry ,,iii4's son surprised and defeated ,earl ,simon de ,montford1 one time a royal favourite4 ,this result put an end to the confederacy of the barons4 ,cantilupe1 the ,bishop of ,worcester1 was implicated in that he favoured the ,earl's cause1 who had withdrawn previous to the battle1 to the friendly territory of ,worcester's ,see1 and had rested at ,evesham ,abbey4 ,queen ,elizabeth and ,james ,,ii4 respectively paid the city a short visit4 ,it suffered extensively by the dissolution of the monasteries4 ,the parliamentary troops foully defiled the ,cathedral1 and did considerable damage to the city1 which was ,royalist4 ,here it was that ,charles ,,ii41 with his ,scottish army1 was defeated by ,cromwell1 who had taken up a position on ,red ,hill without the city gates4 ,fortune and disguise helped ,charles to escape1 and from here he began his adventurous journey to ,boscobel4 ,the cathedral city has since increased steadily in prosperity4 ,besides the ,worcester ,china ,company1 founded in #agea1 and still flourishing1 a ,company of ,glovers was incorporated in #affa1 and is an important industry4 ,these1 in addition to hop-growing1 help to keep up the trade prosperity of ,worcester4 ,the ,see has enriched the ,church of ,rome by four saints1 and has yielded to the ,english ,state several ,lord ,chancellors and ,lord ,treasurers4 ,chichester 7,doomsday ,book47 ,in a geographical account of this city it is given as being locally in the hundred of ,box and ,stockbridge1 rape of ,chichester1 county of ,sussex4 ,the origin of this term rape1 comes from the ,icelandic hreppr1 meaning a village or district4 ,from the ,icelandic verb1 hreppa1 to catch1 obtain1 arose the ,anglo-,saxon rendering--hrepian1 hreppan1 to touch4 ,rape came thus to be one of six divisions of the county of ,sussex1 possibly by reason of their nearness to each other4 ,it formed the intermediate between the shire and the hundred4 ,a sketch of the shire and the hundred is treated in the description of ,wells4 ,after this slight digression1 we will immediately enter upon the history of ,chichester4 ,its foundation dates1 with certainty1 from the time when ,england formed a portion of the ,roman ,empire4 ,about the year #dg ,a4,d41 ,flavius ,vespasian conquered this part of ,england4 ,he established a camp on the site of the present city1 close to the road now known as ,stane ,street1 throwing up an entrenchment three miles long4 ,this is attributed to be the ,regnum of the ,belgae1 mentioned in the ,itinerary of ,antonine4 ,there is no reason to doubt this1 if it be borne in mind that1 situated almost on the south seaboard of ,england as ,chichester is1 it might quite conceivably be expected to be classed accidentally as forming a part of the territory of the ,belgae1 though geographically wrong4 ,the advantage of a site at the foot of a small spur of the ,south ,downs1 within easy distance of the sea1 though inland1 would offer great attractions to the ,roman invader4 ,the early history of ,england shows us that invasions took effect generally on the south and east coasts of the island4 ,the conquered tribes travelled westwards1 retreating before the fierce invader4 ,little seems to have been known about the ,roman occupation of ,chichester till the accidental turning up of a ,sussex marble slab on the site of the present council chamber4 ,this discovery took place about the year #agac4 ,from this a little information is gleaned about the ,roman buildings4 ,the slab bears a defaced inscription in ,latin1 the missing letters of which having been supplied1 give a conjectural reading4 ,it appears that ,chichester was the seat of a ,british king1 ,cogidubnus2 and that under the auspices of a certain ,pudens1 a temple of ,neptune and ,minerva was erected out of compliment to ,claudius4 ,the evidence of this stone seems also to have been borne out by ,tacitus1 who mentions in his writings the existence of ,cogidubnus as a native king possessed of independent authority4 ,this king1 also1 is said to be the father of ,claudia1 who figures in the ,second ,epistle to ,timothy4 ,the conjectural reading again leads us to suppose that the city was occupied by a large number of craftsmen1 who1 in fact1 were responsible for the erection of the temple mentioned above1 besides the walls and other buildings4 ,during the early ,saxon period in the fifth century the city was destroyed by ,o,ella4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,cissa1 who rebuilt it and called it ,cissa's ,ceaster--,cissa after his own name1 and ,ceaster in recognition of the ,romans having occupied it4 ,the city afterwards became the seat of the ,south ,saxon kings1 and remained thus till about the middle of the seventh century4 ,wulfhere1 the ,mercian1 then invaded it and made ,athelwald1 its king1 prisoner4 ,upon his conversion to ,christianity the king was reinstated4 ,he was afterwards killed in battle by ,ceadwalla of ,wessex1 who conquered the kingdom of the ,south ,saxons4 ,in #hjc ,egbert managed to make a union of the several ,saxon kingdoms4 ,this event caused considerable prosperity to ,chichester4 ,from ancient penny-pieces discovered1 we learn that ,king ,edgar1 in the year #ifg1 had established a mint here1 thus clearly indicating the importance of the city4 ,it suffered a terrible decline through the devastations of the ,danes2 so much so1 that scarcely two hundred houses and only one church existed at the time of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,however1 from #ajgj the fortunes of the city began to mend rapidly4 ,this wholesome change was caused primarily by the removal of the ,see from ,selsea1 where it had remained for over three hundred years1 to ,chichester4 ,as first bishop of ,chichester1 ,stigand1 the chaplain to ,william the ,conqueror1 was appointed4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,i4 a cathedral was built and consecrated by ,bishop ,ralph4 ,it was soon destroyed by fire4 ,on its site the same prelate erected a second structure of far greater magnificence1 a considerable portion of which is still extant4 ,illustration3 ,,chichester ,,from ,,the ,,northeast ,in #aahi the city again suffered from a terrible fire1 which also caused great damage to the ,cathedral4 ,this building1 however1 was repaired and greatly enlarged by ,bishop ,siffed4 ,his efforts1 with those of ,ralph1 form the basis of the present cathedral4 ,it was dedicated to ,st4 ,peter4 ,the architecture embraces the ,norman and the ,early ,english and ,decorated styles4 ,a beautiful tower arose from the centre1 surmounted by an octagonal spire three hundred feet high1 with two towers on the west1 of which the upper courses of one were destroyed during the parliamentary war4 ,on the north is seen a fine bell-tower and lantern1 connected by flying buttresses with octagonal turrets springing from the angles4 ,in the reign of ,charles ,i41 after a stubborn defence by the ,royalist citizens1 the city was compelled to surrender to ,cromwell's troops4 ,in the course of this reign the north-west tower was battered down1 and in #afdh ,cromwell ordered the destruction of the cathedral cloisters1 the ,bishop's ,palace1 the ,deanery1 and the ,canons' houses4 ,the ,bishop's ,palace was repaired in #agbe1 and contains a chapel built in the thirteenth century4 ,a general and great restoration of the ,cathedral was commenced in #ahcj1 but in spite of every precaution the tower and spire fell down in #ahfa4 ,under the guidance of ,sir ,gilbert ,scott the necessary repairs were undertaken4 ,the cloisters were restored about the year #ahij4 ,besides his grand contribution to the church's architecture1 ,storey's memory is perpetuated by the very fine octagonal cross in the ,decorated ,english style4 ,it stands fifty feet high1 in the centre of the town1 from which the four principal streets run out at right angles towards the country4 ,these streets1 in olden days1 led to four gates in the embattled walls which surrounded the city4 ,the last of these gates was taken down in #aggc4 ,besides the cross1 ,storey founded in #adig the ,grammar ,school1 where ,archbishop ,juxon1 the learned ,seldon1 the poet ,collins1 and ,dr4 ,hurdis1 ,professor of ,poetry at the ,university of ,oxford1 received their elementary education4 ,amongst other schools founded was one by ,oliver ,whitby1 in #agjb1 to afford free nautical education to twelve boys2 namely1 four from ,chichester1 and four from each of the villages of ,west ,wettering and ,harting4 ,though ,chichester is connected by a short canal with the sea1 and a certain amount of shipping is done1 it can hardly be considered as an important port4 ,it lies fourteen miles north-east of ,england's greatest naval port1 ,portsmouth4 ,curiously enough1 ,chichester is only five miles south of ,goodwood1 the famous city for horse-races4 ,the municipal and parliamentary borough of ,chichester1 incorporated as city in the year #abac1 is almost surrounded by a small stream called the ,lavant1 and is pleasantly situated at the end of a small spur of the ,south ,down ,hills4 ,it is considered as one of the principal cattle markets in the ,south of ,england4 ,accommodation for several thousands of cattle was arranged in #ahga by the ,corporation4 ,there are also the ,guildhall1 which was formerly the chapel of a convent of ,grey ,friars2 the corn-exchange1 the market-house1 museum1 and infirmary4 ,bradwardine and ,juxon1 both archbishops of ,canterbury2 ,lawrence ,somercote1 a great canonist and writer2 the poets ,collins and ,hayley1 whose memory has been perpetuated by a tablet designed by ,flaxman in the ,cathedral1 were all born in this city4 ,the ,diocese of ,chichester covers nearly the whole extent of ,sussex4 ,in conclusion we would draw the attention to the quaint design on the ,bishop's armorial shield4 ,it depicts the curious device of a mitred prelate holding a sword in his mouth4 ,he is seated1 presumably1 on a throne1 which much resembles a square block of marble1 looked at perspectively4 ,perhaps it is meant for the ,holy ,stone4 ,both the ,bishop's arms are outstretched4 ,in his left hand an open book is held1 whilst his right is palm upwards4 ,why the ,bishop holds the sword in his mouth1 when his right hand is free1 it is hard to say4 ,possibly the arms were first drawn up for a warlike bishop1 or it may mean that the sword is the sword of ,justice4 ,in all probability the correct meaning is conveyed by the twelfth verse in ,hebrews iv41 wherein it sets forth that the sword in the ,bishop's mouth is symbolical of ,the ,word of the ,lord1 which is sharper than any two-edged sword1 and the ,book of the ,law is in his left hand1 whilst the right hand is extended in blessing or in supplicating prayer4 ,chester ,cestre4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,this famous place occupies a singular position4 ,it is a city and county of itself1 a municipal county since #ahhh1 and a parliamentary borough1 besides being an episcopal city1 a seaport1 and county town of ,cheshire4 ,chester is also the capital of the county of ,cheshire4 ,it is situated on a rocky elevation1 on the north bank of the ,river ,dee1 by which the city is partly encircled4 ,just seventeen miles north of it lies the great manufacturing and seaport town of ,liverpool4 ,at one time ,chester was a palatine city1 enjoying all the privileges peculiar to that dignity4 ,this practically conferred independent authority on a city far situated from the ,metropolis4 ,the head of the city was a little king1 and enjoyed discretionary power4 ,in a brief sketch of this1 in the account of ,durham1 is clearly shown the mutual advantages accruing1 especially in cases of emergency1 such as incursions of the enemy1 to both the city thus honoured and the ,metropolis ,london4 ,the geographical position of ,chester in the extreme west of ,england1 and its proximity to the restless ,welsh1 demanded some such power to cope1 at a moment's notice1 with any unexpected event from that quarter4 ,this nearness to ,wales contributed in a great measure to the importance of this city1 as will be presently shown4 ,the earliest authentic history of ,chester ascribes its origin to the ,british tribe called the ,cornavii4 ,at the time of the ,roman invasion they inhabited that part of ,england which now is known as the counties of ,chester1 ,salop1 ,stafford1 ,warwick1 and ,worcester4 ,illustration3 ,,chester ,,eastgate ,,street ,the city they called ,coer ,leon ,vawr--,city of ,leon the ,great4 ,this name is supposed to have been given out of compliment to ,leon1 son of ,brut ,darien1 the eighth king of ,britain4 ,by some historians this origin is contested4 ,they say that this ,welsh name of ,coer ,leon ,vawr indicated the city or camp of the ,great ,legion4 ,they also supply ,coer ,leon1 or ,dwfyr ,dwy1 and render their meaning into the city of the ,legion on the ,dee1 from its connection with that people4 ,the city was also called ,deunana and ,deva1 after the same river4 ,however1 it is conclusively proved that here the ,twentieth ,roman ,legion established a station after the defeat of ,caractacus1 who1 after having made a mighty effort to withstand this second invasion of ,england by the ,romans1 was taken prisoner4 ,he and his wife and family were taken to ,rome1 and1 according to custom1 were paraded through the streets for the benefit of the public1 but afterwards honourably treated4 ,this second occupation of ,england lasted from #dc ,a4,d4 till the ,romans finally departed in #ddf ,a4 ,d4 ,the first was a short stay by ,julius ,caesar in ,b4,c41 some ninety-seven years previous4 ,in #df ,a4,d41 within three years of the landing of the ,romans1 ,chester was established as a ,roman camp1 during the reign of ,claudius1 the ,roman ,emperor4 ,from the disposition of the four principal streets1--,northgate ,street1 ,eastgate ,street1 ,bridge ,street1 and ,westgate ,street1 together with the walls surrounding the city1 and the selection of a rocky site on the bank of a fair-sized river1 ,chester gives a good illustration of the principles upon which the ,romans went to work4 ,from a determined centre these roads run out to their respective gates in the boundary walls1 in the direction of the four cardinal points4 ,the walls of this city are the only ones in ,england that are perfect in their entire circuit of two miles1 though the gateways have all been rebuilt within the last hundred years4 ,on the departure of the ,roman soldiery1 ,england reverted to the ,britons1 who appeared to have been helpless1 so long had they relied upon their late conquerors for protection4 ,from them ,chester was taken by ,ethelfrith1 ,king of ,northumbria1 who defeated them under the ,king of ,powysland in #fjg4 ,the ,britons1 however1 regained possession and maintained it till #hbh1 when ,egbert1 who was then the sole monarch of ,england1 annexed it to his possessions4 ,the ,saxons1 during their occupation of the city1 named it ,legancaester and ,legecester4 ,the ,danes1 in the ninth century1 caused severe damages4 ,on their retreat ,ethelfreda1 ,countess of ,mercia1 repaired the walls4 ,on her death the ,britons once more became the city's masters1 but were driven out again by ,edward the ,elder4 ,athelstan1 it is said1 revived its mint4 ,about the year #igb ,edgar assembled a naval force on the river ,dee4 ,to demonstrate his supremacy he caused himself to be rowed by eight tributary kings from his palace on the south bank of the river to the ,convent ,church of ,st4 ,john's4 ,to increase the desired effect1 we are told that he took the helm1--the symbol of government4 ,illustration3 ,,chester ,,the ,,rows ,on the division of ,england1 in #ajaf1 between ,canute and ,edmund ,ironside1 ,canute gained possession of ,mercia1 in which were included ,chester and ,northumbria4 ,chester remained as a city of ,mercia1 governed by its earl1 till the ,norman ,conquest4 ,william then bestowed it with the earldom on his nephew ,hugh ,lupus4 ,he was1 in view of the proximity of ,wales1 invested with sovereign or palatine authority over the tract of country now represented by the county of ,cheshire and the coast-line of ,flintshire as far as ,rhuddlan4 ,chester was made the seat of his government4 ,at that time it is described in ,doomsday ,book as ,cestre1 and as possessing four hundred and thirty-one houses within its walls4 ,for over two centuries after the ,conquest this city formed an important military station for the defence of the ,english border against the ,welsh4 ,the ,norman ,earl ,ranulph ,i4 granted the first charter1 though its purport proves that ,chester already enjoyed certain municipal rights4 ,on account of its garrison it was frequently visited by reigning monarchs4 ,chester was captured by the ,earl of ,derby1 who held it for the ,crown during the war between ,henry ,,iii4 and the barons4 ,the contest was ended with the defeat of the barons at the battle of ,evesham1 close to ,worcester4 ,here1 in #acjj1 it was that the ,welsh chieftains paid homage to the first ,english ,prince of ,wales1 the infant son of ,edward ,i4 ,richard ,,ii41 by ,act of ,parliament1 erected the earldom of ,chester into a principality to be held only by the eldest son of the ,king4 ,this was rescinded in the next reign4 ,in fact1 ,richard ,,ii4 was made captive by ,henry of ,lancaster1 and was imprisoned in a tower over the gateway of the ,castle4 ,the city suffered greatly during the ,wars of the ,roses4 ,it was visited by ,queen ,margaret of ,anjou1 the wife of ,henry ,,vi4 ,this queen played a prominent part with regard to the claim to the ,english throne4 ,she was daughter to ,rene1 who was a relation of the ,king of ,france4 ,he was titular king of ,sicily1 but without territories4 ,though ,margaret brought to ,henry a rich dower1 he was persuaded to consent to the deduction of a large portion of ,maine and ,anjou to her father ,rene4 ,during the ,duke of ,gloucester's life1 who had strongly opposed the royal marriage1 ,margaret and her coadjutor1 the ,duke of ,suffolk1 had not dared to carry into effect the agreement they had extracted from ,henry4 ,the ,duke of ,york1 who was regent in ,france1 through his integrity1 was also a serious obstacle4 ,she and ,suffolk had him recalled1 and the regency given to ,beaufort1 ,duke of ,somerset1 nephew to ,cardinal ,beaufort4 ,york felt injured1 and took revenge by asserting his claim to the ,crown4 ,by his father he was descended from ,edward ,,iii4's fourth son4 ,from his mother1 the last of the ,mortimers1 he inherited that family's claim from ,lionel1 the second son of the same king4 ,on the other hand1 ,john of ,gaunt1 from whom ,henry ,,vi4 was descended1 was ,edward's third son4 ,thus ,york1 through his mother1 had a prior claim4 ,these rival claims caused confusion and tumult throughout ,england4 ,in the meantime the ,english possessions in ,france were lost one after the other1 till in #adea only ,calais remained4 ,the misgovernment of the regency in ,france under ,somerset contrasted most unfavourably with that of ,york4 ,in these troublous times ,england looked towards ,york as the only one to be trusted1 who then became ,protector during the ,king's mental weakness4 ,he imprisoned the ,duke of ,somerset4 ,the latter as soon as he was free assembled an army1 and was killed at the battle of ,st4 ,albans1 the first ,war of the ,roses4 ,his followers1 the ,lancastrians1 were defeated by the ,duke of ,york1 and the ,king made prisoner4 ,eventually ,york declared himself4 ,by ,act of ,parliament he and his heirs were constituted successors to the throne of ,england after the death of ,henry ,,vi4 ,margaret1 however1 defeated the ,yorkists in battle1 in which ,york was slain4 ,he left behind him three sons1--,edward1 ,george1 and ,richard1--the first of whom later on deposed ,henry ,,vi4 and became ,edward ,,iv4 ,we have ventured to give this brief sketch of the origin of these rival claims1 in that most of the cathedral cities were affected by the fortunes or misfortunes of their favoured party4 ,chester1 in the years #aejg1 #aeag1 and #aeej1 suffered from a terrible visitation of the sweating sickness4 ,from #afjb to #afje the plague made it necessary to suspend all the city fairs1 and to hold the assizes at ,nantwich4 ,this epidemic occurred again with great loss of life to the inhabitants1 between #afdg-dh4 ,during the ,civil ,war this city of ,chester endured great sacrifices for its loyalty to ,charles ,i4 ,the ,king came there in #afdb1 when the citizens gave him great pecuniary assistance4 ,not till after a memorable siege1 lasting from #afdc to #afdf1 did the citizens agree to surrender4 ,the garrison were allowed to march out with all the honours of war1 the safety of the persons and property of the citizens with liberty of trade were secured1 and the sanctity of the sacred buildings and their title-deeds preserved4 ,illustration3 ,,chester ,,st4 ,,werburgh ,,street ,sir ,charles ,booth1 in #afei1 with the aid of the citizens1 overcame the garrison of ,charles ,,ii41 then an exile1 but was afterwards defeated by ,lambert1 ,cromwell's general4 ,the presence of the ,duke of ,monmouth1 in #afhc1 stirred the populace to a tumult4 ,amongst other excesses the mob spent its fury in forcing the cathedral doors1 breaking the painted glass1 destroying the font1 and other regrettable damage to this building4 ,in #afhh the city was taken by the ,roman ,catholic lords1 ,molyneux and ,ashton1 for ,james ,,ii41 who1 after all1 rendered further efforts useless by his abdication4 ,under ,william ,,iii4 ,chester was included in the six cities for the residence of an assay master1 and was permitted to issue silver coinage4 ,the last important military event that took place in this city was in the ,rebellion of #agde1 when it was fortified against the ,pretender4 ,in architecture the great characteristic is the quaint way the houses have been built4 ,the streets have been cut out of the rock below the general surface of the land4 ,the houses appear to have been built into the rock1 or rather to have been piled up against it4 ,the shops are level with the streets1 and over them runs a balustraded gallery4 ,steps at certain intervals lead the way down into the streets4 ,these galleries are called by the inhabitants ,the ,rows4 ,these ,rows are houses with shops4 ,overhanging the shops1 like the eaves of a house1 are the upper stories1 to which additional flights of steps give access4 ,two explanations are given for this unusual construction of houses3 one1 that the ,rows1 or promenades1 are the remnants of the ancient vestibules of the ,roman houses2 the other that they were probably originated to afford ready defence against the sudden raids of the ,welsh4 ,the latter appears the more likely4 ,the ,rows1 from their position to the streets1 would afford the besieged greater facilities of shelter and attack4 ,in ,bridge ,street and ,eastgate ,street the ,rows are made pleasant promenades4 ,though many of the houses have been rebuilt1 they still retain the old character4 ,in addition to these interesting buildings there was the castle built by the ,conqueror1 of which there remains only a large square tower1 called ,julius ,agricola's ,tower4 ,the front has been entirely renewed4 ,this tower served probably as a place of confinement of the ,earl of ,derby4 ,here were imprisoned ,richard ,,ii4 and ,margaret1 ,countess of ,richmond4 ,just shortly before the ,revolution ,james ,,ii4 heard ,mass in the second chamber4 ,though the ,cathedral has been left to the last1 its history is no less interesting than the other features of ,chester4 ,the ,cathedral was originally the church attached to the convent of ,st4 ,werburgh1 under which name its ecclesiastical site is mentioned in ,doomsday ,book4 ,it was first dedicated to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 but ,ethelfrida afterwards transferred their patronage to that of the ,saxon saint1 ,walmgha1 the daughter of ,wulphen1 ,king of ,mercia4 ,besides this princess the great benefactors were ,leofric1 ,earl of ,mercia1 and ,hugh ,lupus1 who substituted ,benedictine monks for secular canons4 ,on the dissolution of the abbey1 in lieu of the abbot and monks1 a dean1 prebendaries1 and minor canons were appointed1 the last abbot being made dean4 ,here it is as well to remember that a church was called an abbey1 whatever its former denomination might have been1 if an abbot became its head4 ,in much the same way the name minster is derived from a monastery1 and cathedral is due to the fact that the bishop had his cathedra1 or throne1 placed in the sacred building for his own use4 ,at the dissolution the ,cathedral of ,chester was dedicated to ,christ and the ,blessed ,virgin4 ,though there are some interesting remains of the abbey1 the present building was built in the reigns of ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii4 ,the diocese of ,chester dates at the period of the kingdom of ,mercia4 ,it was afterwards incorporated with that of ,lichfield1 but in #ajge1 ,peter1 ,bishop of ,lichfield restored the ,see to ,chester4 ,his successor1 however1 removed it for the second time to ,lichfield4 ,henry ,,viii41 in #aeda1 created six new sees1 in which he included ,chester4 ,with a portion of the possessions of the ,abbey of ,st4 ,werburgh1 which was dissolved1 he endowed the new see4 ,the first bishop after the dissolution was ,john ,bird4 ,in #ageb the palace of the bishop was rebuilt by ,bishop ,keene4 ,the cathedral site is on the eastern side of ,northgate ,street4 ,excepting the western end1 it presents the appearance of a heavy1 irregular pile1 when viewed externally4 ,the interior is very impressive1 and contains portions in the ,norman1 and in the ,early and ,decorated styles of ,english architecture4 ,it possesses a clerestory in the ,later style4 ,some chapels in the ,early ,english style1 are to the east of the north transept4 ,the south transept1 separated from the ,cathedral by a wooden screen1 forms the parish church of ,st4 ,oswald4 ,the style of the ,bishop's throne1 sometimes known as ,st4 ,werburgh's ,shrine1 belongs to the ,early period of the fourteenth century4 ,in the eastern walk of the cloister stands the ,chapter ,house1 of ,early ,english style1 built by ,earl ,randulph the ,first4 ,it served as the burial-place of the earls of the original ,norman line1 except ,richard1 who perished by shipwreck4 ,illustration3 ,,chester ,,bishop ,,lloyd',s ,,palace ,,and ,,watergate ,,street ,the sacred edifice has from time to time undergone extensive reparations4 ,as a port ,chester was at one time most important1 but through the silting up of the ,channel in the fifteenth century1 it lost a considerable amount of its shipping trade4 ,in spite of the ,channel being deepened in #ahbd1 its shipping prosperity cannot be said to have advanced hand in hand with the progress of the city1 though it possibly may be greater than it was in the fifteenth century4 ,the great ,chester ,canal comes from ,nantwich1 passes through ,chester1 and merges into the ,ellesmere ,canal1 which winds up northwards to the river ,mersey4 ,thus the city is connected with ,liverpool4 ,as the crow flies1 the country traversed from ,london to ,chester is most interesting4 ,the track passes through the counties of ,middlesex1 ,buckinghamshire1 ,northamptonshire1 ,warwickshire1 with its famous towns1 ,stratford-on-,avon1 the birthplace of ,shakespeare1 and ,coventry1 through ,staffordshire1 famous for its beautiful old china and its ,cathedral at ,lichfield1 and finally into ,cheshire1 the county containing ,chester and ,northwich4 ,among the many eminent men born at ,chester was ,randolph ,caldecott1 in #ahdf4 ,he is handed down to posterity as the famous illustrator of the works of ,washington ,irving4 ,but the achievement that gained him the greatest acclame was a series of coloured books for children4 ,they began in #ahgh with ,john ,gilpin and ,the ,house that ,jack ,built1 and ended the year before his death1 in #ahhf1 with the ,elegy on ,madame ,blaize and ,the ,great ,panjandrum ,himself4 ,in the crypt of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,london1 his memory is perpetuated through the great artistic expression of a brother artist1 ,alfred ,gilbert1 ,r4 ,a4 ,thus1 in this brief sketch1 an attempt has been made to give a categorical history of one of ,england's most ancient cities from its earliest occupation by the ,british ,cornavii1 and its subsequent events down to the royal visit in #ahfi by the then ,prince of ,wales1 now our ,king ,edward ,,vii41 on which occasion he opened the new townhall4 ,it would require far greater space to record every feature of interest in connection with ,chester than can be allotted within the present limitations4 ,to the antiquarian ,chester furnishes a most interesting and absorbing study1 and will in all likelihood continue to do so for many years to come yet4 ,to those interested in horse-racing the fine race-course attracts annually a great concourse to ,chester4 ,rochester ,roucestre4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,in the illustration is seen to great advantage the temporal and spiritual power of ,rochester3 the ,state1 as represented by the ,norman keep2 the ,church1 as symbolised by the cathedral4 ,ever since ,christianity came to ,england1 these two mighty levers of power have marched1 if not always hand in hand1 more or less in accord4 ,though the two have frequently struggled for supremacy1 yet their feuds have done more towards the enlightenment of the people than any harmonious concert could have effected4 ,in marked contrast to mediaeval times the ,state and ,church of the present day formulate and carry out the will of the people4 ,they are the channels of purpose as determined by the nation4 ,great as the power of the ,church still is1 it has nevertheless lost that tremendous authority it once wielded under the popes4 ,henry ,,ii4 set up a strenuous opposition1 whilst ,henry ,,viii4 dealt it a crushing blow4 ,the dissolution of the monasteries was a terrible check to ,roman ,catholicism in ,england1 as well as ,luther's reforms in ,germany4 ,yet in spite of all this the ,church of ,rome has more adherents in ,europe than any other religion4 ,the menace to the ,church of ,england lies in the lack of absolute obedience to the spiritual head1 and the many different sects4 ,the ,church of ,rome exacts absolute obedience and faith1 and by these means is steadily increasing its influence4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral recently erected in ,london is a convincing proof of the untiring energy of the followers of that wonderful religion4 ,it is also curious to notice that the ,latin races are the staunchest supporters of the ,papacy4 ,as its name implies1 ,rochester was a ,roman camp4 ,this place formed one of the stipendiary towns of this ,latin race1 and was called ,durobrivae4 ,not much information has been preserved concerning their occupation of the town4 ,that it was important1 and served as a military basis1 is clearly demonstrated by the great ,roman ,watling ,street1 which passes through the city1 and which bears evidence to their great engineering skill4 ,the great ,roman streets were at that time the chief and only means of quick communication from one camp to another4 ,to read the account of the wonderful system of roads organised by ,darius the ,persian is as interesting to follow as any modern fiction4 ,he realised that quick communication with the outlying quarters of his possessions meant increased power and security4 ,along the roads1 at proper distances1 were blockhouses guarded by soldiers4 ,the messenger on horseback drew rein at each of these wayside places to take refreshment and get a remount1 or to hand over the dispatches to a fresh messenger4 ,in much the same way the ,romans constructed their roads for their postmen1 and1 no doubt1 to serve as their first line of defence if a retreat should be necessary4 ,we can almost conjure up the sight of a mounted bearer of important dispatches racing along4 ,suddenly the horse1 almost thrown on to his haunches1 is pulled up in front of one of these guardhouses dotted at regular intervals along the great road4 ,a hasty meal is snatched1 a fresh horse mounted1 and off again1 with a clatter and a whirlpool of dust1 hurries the messenger1 as if a kingdom depended upon his quick dispatch4 ,we cannot attach too much importance to this method of communication1 if we remember that it is only within the last two centuries or so that the semaphore came into existence4 ,when first introduced1 this medium of conveying rapidly a message by the waving of a wooden arm up and down on a post1 which was generally planted on a commanding site1 was considered a wonderful invention4 ,even at sea it was left to ,admiral ,rodney to construct an efficient code of signals4 ,of course the most primitive method was the lighting of beacons in times of great danger4 ,besides ,watling ,street1 the city of ,rochester is known to have been defended by walls built in the direction of the cardinal points1 according to the ,roman custom4 ,they extended for half a mile from east to west1 and close upon a quarter of a mile from north to south4 ,after the ,romans had departed1 this place came into the possession of the ,saxons4 ,they renamed it ,hrove ,ceaster1 which in process of time became contracted to ,rochester4 ,during the early ,saxon period ,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent1 through the influence of his queen and the preaching of ,st4 ,augustine1 who had just arrived1 became a convert to ,christianity4 ,by this king1 as we have seen1 ,canterbury ,cathedral was richly endowed4 ,to help carry out the papal instructions given to ,augustine1 ,ethelbert in #fjj founded a church in ,rochester4 ,by erecting this into a see1 he1 at the same time1 laid the foundation of the future prosperity of the city4 ,the building was dedicated to ,st4 ,andrew4 ,a monastery for secular priests was also established1 over whom was appointed for their bishop1 ,justus1 who had accompanied ,st4 ,augustine and his forty monks into ,britain4 ,this cathedral suffered at many times1 in common with the city1 from several incursions of the ,danes4 ,the city1 more especially in #fgf1 was sacked and almost destroyed by ,etheldred1 the ,king of ,mercia1 whilst in #hci the ,danes landed at ,romney1 defeated the troops sent to oppose them1 and massacred most of the inhabitants4 ,again1 in #hhe1 they sailed up the ,medway under the leadership of ,hasting1 and laid siege to ,rochester4 ,fortunately for the city it was rescued by the timely assistance of ,alfred4 ,three mints established by ,athelstan in #icj1 two for himself and one for the bishop1 and the fact of the city being then recognised as one of the chief ports of ,england1 show with what rapidity it had regained prosperity4 ,this peaceful state was rudely awakened1 however1 in #iii4 ,the ,danes reappeared in the ,medway1 before whom the terror-stricken inhabitants fled and abandoned the city to their fury4 ,at the ,conquest1 ,rochester was given by ,william to his half-brother1 ,odo1 ,bishop of ,bayeux1 who was also created ,earl of ,kent4 ,in the reign of ,william ,rufus he was implicated in a conspiracy to dethrone ,rufus in favour of ,robert ,duke of ,normandy4 ,thereby his possessions reverted to the ,crown4 ,in this ,rochester suffered4 ,in #aacj ,henry ,i4 attended at the consecration of the church of ,st4 ,andrew by ,lanfranc4 ,during the ceremony a fire broke out4 ,the city was almost reduced to ashes4 ,illustration3 ,,rochester ,,cathedral ,,and ,,castle ,it was again visited1 seven years later1 by fire1 from which it had hardly recovered when a third conflagration occurred and left traces of devastation for ages4 ,in #aada1 ,robert ,earl of ,gloucester was placed in the ,castle4 ,he was the chief general and counsellor of ,matilda1 and had been captured prisoner at ,winchester after having effected the ,queen's escape4 ,he was eventually exchanged for ,king ,stephen4 ,in #abae the barons seized and held the ,castle against ,king ,john1 who gained it4 ,henry ,,iii4 repaired the ,castle4 ,the ,castle was again1 in #abed1 successfully defended for the ,king by ,edward ,earl ,warren1 against ,simon de ,montford and the barons4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 the insurrectionists under ,wat ,tyler released one of their comrades imprisoned in the ,castle4 ,rochester has been at different times visited by reigning princes4 ,henry ,,viii41 with ,emperor ,charles ,v41 came there in #aeba1 whilst in #aegc ,queen ,elizabeth honoured it with her presence4 ,charles ,,ii41 on his restoration1 passed through the city en route from the ,continent to ,london4 ,in fact ,rochester1 being also a port1 was a convenient place for ,james ,,ii4 to embark secretly on board of a trading-vessel lying in the ,medway1 by which he was conveyed to ,france4 ,this ,norman castle1 which has played such an important part in the history of the city1 deserves some notice4 ,its extensive remains1 situated on a commanding site1 overlook the right bank of the river4 ,the ,castle is supposed to have been built by ,gundulph1 when ,bishop of ,rochester1 in the latter part of the eleventh century4 ,it preceded by a few years the building of the ,cathedral by the same prelate4 ,the architecture of this castle is a striking example of the simplicity of plans generally employed by the ,normans4 ,by preference the castle was a rectangular keep in form4 ,the sides varied from twenty-five to a hundred feet in length1 and equally so in height4 ,at the corners the walls advanced so as to form square towers1 the faces of which were usually relieved by flat pilaster-like buttresses4 ,the walls at the base measure sometimes as much as thirty feet in thickness1 and diminish to as much as ten feet at the summit4 ,the internal arrangements consisted of a store-room1 from which a narrow staircase1 made into the thickness of the walls1 gave access to the rooms of the garrison and those of the owners above1 wood being employed for the floor and roof4 ,a well was always dug4 ,the entire building was surrounded by a deep moat filled1 if possible1 with water4 ,the entrance was small1 and was defended by a draw-bridge and portcullis4 ,it was on the thickness of their walls and the moat that the ,normans chiefly relied for their impregnability4 ,they seldom departed from this simple form of architecture4 ,their defence was rarely constructed on a series of fortifications4 ,local advantages and a lofty site were invariably the ,norman idea of a safe stronghold4 ,great interest is attached to the ,cathedral of ,rochester4 ,its see is the smallest in the kingdom and the most ancient after ,canterbury4 ,the two were established1 as we have seen1 within a few years of each other1 under the auspices of ,st4 ,augustine and ,king ,ethelbert of ,kent4 ,the present cathedral dates from the commencement of the twelfth century1 when it was built by ,gundulph4 ,if what we are told about this structure be correct1 its importance cannot be too greatly enhanced1 for it is claimed that its architecture1 though much altered and repaired since1 is in the main a copy of ,canterbury ,cathedral at that time4 ,thus1 in describing the plan of the one in ,rochester1 a general idea can be gained about the other at ,canterbury4 ,gundulph's contribution is a spacious and venerable building in the form of a cross1 with a central tower surmounted by a spire4 ,the ,norman style forms the basis of the architecture1 to which the ,later ,english style was added chiefly in the many windows of the nave and other parts of the church4 ,the west front was entirely restored between #ahhh and #ahhi1 the ,norman style being strictly adhered to4 ,the doorway is a most decorative bit of ,norman workmanship4 ,let into the clustered columns on either side there is1 on the right1 an effigy of ,queen ,maud1 and on the left another of ,henry ,i4 ,the door is covered with a rich mass of geometrical design in metal4 ,the crypt1 invariably a great feature in a cathedral1 is partly the work of ,gundulph2 that is1 the western portion is4 ,the eastern part consists of cylindrical and octagonal shafts with a light vaulting springing from them1 and belongs to the same period as the superstructure of the thirteenth century4 ,there are several chapels1 a finely groined roof1 and ancient tombs1 which all lend interest to this fine cathedral4 ,the red-veined marble statue of ,walter de ,merton cannot fail to attract attention4 ,he was the founder of the great scholastic college at ,oxford called ,merton ,college4 ,though small in size1 the entree to it demands high classical attainments4 ,with regard to commerce1 ,rochester has a favourable position on the river ,medway1 in the creeks and branches of which are the oyster fisheries4 ,the ,corporation1 assisted by a jury of free dredgers1 hold a ,court of ,admiralty1 in which they make regulations for the opening1 stocking1 and closing of the oyster beds4 ,in conclusion1 we cannot help saying that ,kent should be a proud county1 possessing1 as it does1 the two most ancient sees in the kingdom1 the dioceses of which are separated only by the ,medway4 ,ripon 7,doomsday ,book47 ,in the ,west ,riding of the county of ,york1 twenty-two miles north-west of the city of ,york and eleven miles north of ,harrogate1 the ancient city of ,ripon is situated at the juncture of the ,ure1 ,laver1 and ,skell4 ,the narrow and irregular streets and well-built houses1 some of which still retain the quaint1 picturesque gables so reminiscent of earlier times1 envelop the city with that delightful1 indefinable air of mediaevalism--a something which1 tempered with old associations and traditions1 no modern city with all its improvements can supply4 ,to saunter through the ancient1 ill-lighted streets of an old town at night1 when life is dormant and commercialism quiescent1 is the time to view unexpected beauties of architecture unfold themselves1 and to become oneself imbued with a spirit of romanticism and a feeling of rest4 ,if a figure in mediaeval costume and rapier were to come round a corner suddenly1 or emerge from some dark nook1 it would scarcely startle the senses1 so appropriate would it seem with the surroundings1 enshrouded in mysterious shadows4 ,a new city can be admired1 but can never be revered till it has survived the many storms of generations1 and has emerged with a halo of traditions respected and treasured4 ,ripon1 in common with other cathedral cities1 possesses this charm1 and after many vicissitudes presents us with a magnificent cathedral4 ,to revert to the commencement of the city's history1 it is supposed to have derived its name from the ,latin ,ripa1 owing to its situation upon the bank of the river ,ure4 ,the earliest authentic record gives it under the name of ,inhrypun1 in connection with the establishment of a monastery in #ffj by ,eata1 who was then ,abbot of ,melrose4 ,it was subsequently given by ,alfred1 ,king of ,northumbria1 to ,wilfrid1 who had been raised to the archbishopric of ,york4 ,he was afterwards canonised as a saint4 ,under ,wilfrid's administration and influence the town very much increased its wealth and importance4 ,through the division of the bishopric in the year #fgh ,ripon became a see4 ,a great calamity overtook the city in the ninth century4 ,the ,danes burnt and plundered it1 causing such devastation that it was almost wiped out4 ,from its ruins1 however1 it recovered so quickly as to be incorporated as a royal borough by ,alfred the ,great4 ,this happened by the year #hhf4 ,in the suppression of the insurrections of the ,northumbrian ,danes it suffered severely through the terrible laying waste of the land which ,edred found necessary to subdue them4 ,little time was left for the city to regain its former prosperity1 when the surrounding country was again laid waste1 in #ajfi1 by ,william the ,conqueror after defeating the ,northumbrian rebels4 ,this monarch's vengeance so completely demolished the town that it still remained in ruins and the land uncultivated at the time of the ,norman survey4 ,the monastery1 destroyed by ,edred1 was rebuilt by ,oswald and his successors1 who were archbishops of ,york4 ,it was endowed and made collegiate by ,archbishop ,aldred somewhere about the time of the ,conquest4 ,the city was now enjoying comparative peace1 and was regaining lost prestige when it again became a mere wreck4 ,under ,robert ,bruce1 in the reign of ,edward ,,ii41 the ,scots compelled the inhabitants to surrender everything of value they had1 and burnt the town4 ,this period of devastation lasted from #acai till #acbc4 ,illustration3 ,,ripon ,,the ,,cathedral ,by the exertions of the ,archbishop of ,york1 ably assisted with donations from the local gentry1 the city rapidly recovered by the time a terrible plague compelled ,henry ,,iv4 to leave ,london and take up his residence here4 ,the court of necessity followed him4 ,this royal sojourn did the city immense good1 and again it derived benefit some two centuries after by the presence of the ,lord ,president of ,york in #afag4 ,he had been obliged by a similar plague to remove his court hither4 ,ten years later another royal visitor came1 namely1 ,james ,i41 who rested a night here on his route from ,scotland to ,london4 ,on this memorable occasion he was presented with a pair of ,ripon spurs4 ,from early times till the sixteenth century ,ripon was a recognised centre for the manufacture of woollen caps4 ,on the decline of this industry the city acquired such a fame for the manufacture of spurs that it became quite a current phrase to say as true steel as ,ripon rowels4 ,ben ,jonson and ,davenant make references in their verses to ,ripon spurs4 ,this industry1 together with those of manufacturing buttons and various kinds of hardware1 flourished till quite recently1 when mechanical industries supplanted them4 ,in #afcc ,charles ,i4 also paid the city a visit4 ,during the ,civil ,war the parliamentary troops1 under ,sir ,thomas ,mauleverer1 took possession of ,ripon4 ,after mutilating many of the monuments and ornaments of the church1 they were eventually driven out of the town in #afdc by the ,royalists1 under ,sir ,john ,mallory of ,studley1 a township comprised under ,ripon4 ,in recounting the political fortunes of the city little has been said about its chief attraction1 the ,cathedral1 not because it has played no important factor in the welfare of the city1 but because it has been considered better to give1 apart1 the chief characteristics of its architecture4 ,we have seen how a monastery was established in #ffj1 by ,eata1 which later came under the patronage of ,st4 ,wilfrid4 ,from the ruins of ,st4 ,wilfrid's ,abbey the present cathedral was founded about #fhj ,a4,d41 in the reign of ,egfrid4 ,with the exception of ,st4 ,wilfrid's crypt1 called ,st4 ,wilfrid's ,needle1 which tradition says was used for the trial of female chastity1 nothing of the original ,saxon fabric remains4 ,from the similarity of this crypt1 and of another at ,hexham1 both erected by ,st4 ,wilfrid1 in formation and arrangement to the catacomb chapels at ,rome1 it is inferred that this churchman had made himself familiar with their peculiarities during his residence in that ,latin city4 ,this is interesting to note4 ,the ,cathedral1 as it now stands1 embraces various styles of architecture1 and is dedicated to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,wilfrid4 ,it is a large cruciform church1 with a square central tower and two western towers4 ,they at one time carried spires1 each not less than one hundred and twenty feet in height2 but the central spire having been blown down in #affj1 caused considerable damage to the roof1 and it was thought advisable to pull down the others4 ,their removal accounts for the stunted appearance of these square towers4 ,the construction of the present church was commenced by ,archbishop ,roger1 dating from #aaed to #aaha4 ,to this period belong the transepts and portions of the choir4 ,the western front and towers were carried out in the ,early ,english style1 most probably by ,archbishop ,gray1 between #abae and #abee1 and near the close of the century the eastern portion of the choir was rebuilt in the ,decorated style4 ,the nave and part of the central tower were also rebuilt in the ,perpendicular style at the close of the fifteenth century4 ,the fabric was entirely renovated under the guidance of ,sir ,gilbert ,scott1 from #ahfb to #ahgf4 ,the episcopal palace is a modern building in the ,tudor style1 and is about one mile from the town4 ,the present bishopric dates only from the year #ahcf4 ,there are several charitable institutions3 namely1 the ,hospital of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 founded by an archbishop of ,york in #aaji2 the ,hospital of ,st4 ,mary ,magdalene1 for women1 by another prelate of ,york in #acda2 and the ,hospital of ,st4 ,anne1 by some unknown benefactor who lived in the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 ,a clock-tower was presented to the town to commemorate ,queen ,victoria's ,diamond ,jubilee4 ,there is now1 in place of the ancient industries1 an extensive trade in varnish1 in addition to the manufactories for saddle-trees and leather1 but the most interesting industry is that of the ,ripon lace4 ,it is a torchon lace much resembling1 in uniformity of pattern1 the design used in peasant laces in ,sweden1 ,germany1 and ,russia4 ,ely4 ,ely4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,in the early history of the majority1 if not of all of these cathedrals1 it is interesting to note the many points of resemblance4 ,it will be observed that most of them had their inception in the seventh century4 ,a most convenient way also of remembering1 if actual dates be forgotten1 is that the commencement of the same century heralded the arrival of ,st4 ,augustine and his forty monks at ,canterbury1 and the re-establishment of ,christianity in ,england4 ,whatever previous efforts had been attempted to christianise the natives 7prior to this century7 pale into insignificance after the landing of this great missionary from ,rome4 ,the subsequent important events are invariably five2 namely1 the devastations of the ,danes in the ninth century1 the erections of castles to overawe the inhabitants with the ecclesiastical foundations1 still extant1 after the dreaded millennium had passed1 from the ,conquest2 the dissolution of the monasteries by ,henry ,,viii42 the desecration and mutilation of the churches under ,cromwell's ,protectorate2 and the inevitable restoration1 not always happy1 of these grand buildings4 ,the ,venerable ,bede1 in his ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ingeniously attributes the derivation of the name to an eel1 called ,elge1 on the assumption of the great abundance of this fish in the neighbourhood4 ,at the same time another rendering1 by some one else1 supposes that the ,saxon ,helyg1 a willow1 which flourished extensively1 owing to the marshy nature of the soil round about the city1 gave rise to the present contraction4 ,however it may be1 ,ely dates from the year #fgc4 ,the subsequent history of the ,church and state of this famous place originated in that year from the small foundation of a monastery for monks and nuns by ,ethelreda4 ,this princess was the daughter of the ,king of the ,east ,angles1 and the wife of ,egfred1 the ,king of ,northumberland4 ,she had devoted a great deal of her life to monasticism1 and eventually constituted herself as the first abbess of her religious effort4 ,a contradictory account gives it that this lady more likely became the first abbess of a religious house which she had filled with virgins4 ,their number is not stated4 ,nothing more is heard or worth relating of the welfare of this royal benefice until the ninth century1 when1 in the natural order of things1 it was destroyed by the ,danes4 ,in #hgi1 a matter of nine years after this devastation1 it was partially restored by those brethren who had fortunately escaped the massacre4 ,under the government of provosts they were established and existed as secular priests for nearly a century4 ,at the end of this period of inactivity it received much attention from ,ethelwold1 ,bishop of ,winchester4 ,this prelate in #igj purchased the whole of the ,isle of ,ely from ,edgar4 ,he then rebuilt the monastery and endowed it munificently4 ,in it regular monks were placed under the rule of an abbot1 to whom ,edgar granted the secular jurisdiction of two hundreds within and five hundreds without the ,fens4 ,many other important privileges were bestowed by the same monarch1 recognised by ,canute1 and greatly increased by ,edward the ,confessor in recognition of part of his education here received4 ,these many marks of royal favour caused it to become the richest in ,england1 and the city participated in its prosperity4 ,illustration3 ,,ely ,,from ,,the ,,west ,,front ,soon after the ,conquest a determined resistance was made by many of the nobility against what they considered the tyranny of ,william4 ,led by such leaders as ,edwin1 ,earl of ,chester1 ,egelwyn1 ,bishop of ,durham1 and headed by ,hereward1 an ,english nobleman1 they contrived to do considerable damage in the surrounding country4 ,they built a castle of wood in the ,fens1 and made a vigorous stand against the ,normans1 who besieged the island1 constructed roads through the marshes1 threw bridges across the streams1 and erected1 as usual1 a strong castle at ,wiseberum4 ,with the exception of ,hereward1 the rebellious subjects were reduced to submission4 ,according to one authority1 it is supposed that ,william's camp was simply an old ,roman camp repaired for the occasion4 ,we learn that the field1 which contained the ancient site1 was known as ,belasis in some records of the reign of ,henry ,,iii4 ,it appears that one of ,william's generals was called ,belasis1 and that he was quartered on the monastery1 which he had taken possession of after the conquest of the isle4 ,he treated the monks with every mark of courtesy1 allowing them to remain under an abbot of his own choosing4 ,at first he laid them under certain restrictions1 but subsequently restored the privileges they had previously been accustomed to4 ,illustration3 ,,ely ,,the ,,market ,,place ,in #aajg the eleventh and last abbot1 ,richard1 employed all his interest with ,henry ,i4 and gained the royal sanction to the establishment of an episcopal see at ,ely4 ,to this the monarch granted1 for a diocese1 the county of ,cambridge1 which had till then been under the jurisdiction of the ,bishop of ,lincoln4 ,the isle was also invested with sovereign powers4 ,richard1 however1 did not live to become the first bishop1 an honour which was conferred in #aaji on his successor1 ,hervey4 ,by this arrangement the ,abbot was superseded by the ,bishop1 and an entire distribution of the property belonging to the abbey was effected between them4 ,as the abbey became the church of the ,see1 the ,abbot was obliged to alter his dignity to that of a prior4 ,a fair1 to continue for seven days1 commencing from ,june #bj1 to commemorate the anniversary of the death of ,ethelreda1 was instituted by the ,bishop4 ,the prelate ,nigel1 in the reign of ,stephen1 built a castle here1 of which no remains exist1 and whose site is now conjectural4 ,the year #abaf witnessed dreadful scenes of spoliation of churches and large sums of money exacted from the inhabitants under the guise of ransom4 ,the cause of all this devastation being visited upon ,ely was ,john's idea of revenging himself upon the barons4 ,at their hands he had1 the year previously1 been compelled to undergo the mortification of signing the ,magna ,charta at ,runnymede1 a field between ,windsor and ,staines4 ,ever since that time the irresolute and mean king had been devising schemes of vengeance against his opponents4 ,three months spent in the ,isle of ,wight had enabled him1 through agents and the promise of the estates of the barons as plunder1 to raise a considerable army of the ,brabanters4 ,at their head he suddenly emerged from concealment1 and surprised the barons by appearing before ,rochester ,castle and defeating them4 ,in the meantime ,john was well supported at ,ely by his general1 ,william ,bunk1 or rather an unexpected incident hurried on its doom4 ,the elements unkindly betrayed the city into the hands of the ,brabanters4 ,at a critical time1 the treacherous swamps--the isle's hitherto great natural fortifications--became the city's undoing2 for a sharp frost set in and rendered a ready glacial access to the city4 ,the enemy lost no time in reducing the barons to submission and the wretched inhabitants to great misery4 ,the barons1 thus reduced to dire extremities1 invited ,louis1 the eldest son of the ,king of ,france1 to aid them1 promising him through his wife the crown of ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,ely ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,the ,french landed at ,sandwich1 retook ,rochester ,castle1 and compelled ,john to flee4 ,john1 crossing over the ,wash1 in his march from ,lynn in ,norfolk into ,lincolnshire1 suffered great loss through the return of the tide swamping the rear of his army1 all his money1 and stores4 ,he himself escaped to ,swineshead ,abbey1 in the ,lincolnshire ,fens1 where a monk is said to have administered poison to him4 ,with great difficulty and exhaustion the monarch arrived at ,newark1 where he died in the ,october of the year #abaf4 ,from this time onward the city enjoyed comparative peace1 and exercised the privileges granted by ,edgar1 ,edward the ,confessor1 and ,william the ,conqueror4 ,till the twenty-seventh year of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 the royal franchise of ,ely1 in several statutes1 was recognised as the county palatine of ,ely4 ,henry1 by ,act of ,parliament1 remodelled the privileges1 and ordered the justices of oyer and terminer1 and gaol delivery1 and justices of the peace for the ,isle of ,ely1 to be appointed by letters patent under the ,great ,seal4 ,the dissolution of the monasteries also was the means of converting the conventual church into a cathedral--much more appropriate to the dignity of the ,bishop1 whose title had been granted1 as we have seen1 by ,henry ,i4 in #aajg4 ,this ecclesiastical building1 first a conventual and then a cathedral church1 was commenced in #ajha1 and entirely completed in #aecd4 ,the dedication to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,ethelreda was changed to ,the ,holy ,trinity4 ,it is a magnificent cruciform structure1 displaying the many changes that took place in ecclesiastical architecture from the early years of the ,norman ,conquest down to the latest period of ,english style4 ,the main feature is the extraordinary variety of arches built according to successive styles4 ,though this peculiar treatment suggests an unfinished appearance1 it cannot rob the church of its wonderful beauty4 ,there is a departure from the general plan of other cathedrals4 ,the nave is continued through an extended range of twelve arches4 ,it belongs to the ,late ,norman period1 and its completion probably dates from about the middle of the twelfth century4 ,from #aagd to #aahi the western tower and the transepts were built by ,bishop ,ridall4 ,bishop ,eustace1 between #aaih and #abae1 erected the ,galilee or western porch1 a noble ,early ,english structure4 ,much at the same time a curious coincident is noticeable4 ,bishop ,pudsey was busy at ,durham building the ,galilee or ,western ,chapel1 which is such a noble adjunct to that city's cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,ely ,,from ,,the ,,fens ,ely's choir was originally ,early ,norman1 and terminated in an apse4 ,unfortunately this ,norman apse was destroyed4 ,in restoration the church was extended eastward by six more arches under the guidance of ,bishop ,northwold1 about the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,his addition is ,early ,english4 ,the carving is very rich and elaborate4 ,while ,bishop ,hotham was engaged upon the building of the ,lady ,chapel1 the ,norman tower erected by ,abbot ,simeon tumbled down in #acba4 ,hotham immediately replaced it by an enlarged octagonal substitution4 ,on it he placed a lofty lantern of wood1 a rich ornament and in good keeping with the rest of the holy edifice4 ,though this prelate deserves every recognition1 yet we are much more indebted to ,alan of ,walsingham1 who designed the ,lady ,chapel and the octagonal tower and lantern so ably carried out by ,hotham4 ,alan had also made his influence felt in the choir-bays of this same cathedral1 where he has so cleverly preserved and combined the old ,early ,english elegance of proportion with richness of detail4 ,under the superintendence of ,sir ,g4 ,b4 ,scott the fabric has been extensively restored4 ,attached to the ,cathedral is the church of ,holy ,trinity2 it was formerly the ,lady ,chapel of the ,cathedral4 ,it was commenced in the reign of ,edward ,,ii41 and is one of the most perfect buildings of that age4 ,another handsome church is that dedicated to ,st4 ,mary1 and is partly ,norman and partly ,early ,english in character4 ,at the ,grammar ,school1 founded by ,henry ,,viii41 ,jeremiah ,bentham1 the celebrated political writer1 received the rudiments of his education4 ,the ,sessions ,house1 the new ,corn ,exchange1 and ,mechanics' ,institute are other notable features of ,ely4 ,an historic relic1 now preserved at ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 is the ,ely ,book4 ,it cannot be passed over without a word4 ,on a page are portrayed ,ethelwold and ,king ,edgar1 but its chief importance is the record of instructions received by the commissioners to supply details and valuation of property for the ,doomsday ,book4 ,the inquiries and answers indicate that ,england had already been divided up into manors1 and furnish besides a variety of most interesting information4 ,another incident in the history of ,ely1 if not of great importance to the city1 is nevertheless an interesting insight of the respective position of the ,church and ,state soon after the dissolution4 ,in the good days of ,queen ,bess1 the ,bishop of ,ely received a royal rebuke4 ,in the great struggle between the ,protestants1 or anti-papal world1 and the ,catholic reaction1 there was little leisure for the clergy to air their grievances4 ,they were compelled to submit to the will of the ,queen and her counsellor ,cecil1 from whom ,archbishop ,parker of ,canterbury received his cue for the government of the ,church4 ,though he enjoyed the personal confidence of ,elizabeth beyond any other ecclesiastic of the time1 his complaints were unavailing4 ,the supremacy of the lay power over the ecclesiastical was too thoroughly accomplished to allow of the ,church to exist apart in the early years of ,elizabeth's reign4 ,the ,bishop of ,ely1 for expressing unwillingness to hand over the gardens of ,ely house to ,sir ,christopher ,hatton1 received a characteristic warning1 couched in elegant language1 for his temerity4 ,by ,god1 ,i will unfrock you6 was the ,queen's gracious answer to the daring prelate1 if he did not mend his ways4 ,through the cultivation of its fertile soil by market-gardeners1 ,ely offers its produce to the ,london market4 ,a considerable factory for earthenware and tobacco-pipes1 and numerous mills for the preparation of oil from flax1 hemp1 and cole-seed1 help to furnish the trade resources of this historical town1 which is situated on the river ,ouse1 in ,cambridgeshire1 and just sixteen miles from the celebrated ,university of ,cambridge4 ,gloucester ,glowecestre4 ,doomsday ,book4 ,to the long list of cesters1 the ,anglicised form of the ,latin ,castra 7camp71 must be added ,gloucester1 famous in more respects than one2 the city where ,henry ,i4 died from a surfeit of lampreys1 where ,henry ,,ii4 held a great council in #aage1 where the coronation of ,henry ,,iii4 in its abbey took place2 the city which the same monarch loved better than ,london1 the city extolled by ,bede as one of the noblest in the land4 ,prior to the ,roman invasion it is held to have been of considerable importance1 and to have originated from the settlement of a tribe of ,britons1 called the ,dobuni4 ,this tribe1 with that of the ,cornavii1 also controlled about the same time the destinies of ,worcester1 now renowned for its beautiful china4 ,by the ,dobuni the city was called ,coer ,glou1 either out of compliment to its founder ,glowi1 a native1 with the meaning1 the city of ,glowi1 or because the same ,british words1 according to another interpretation and its reputation1 can be rendered the fair city4 ,in the year #dg this stronghold passed into the ,roman possession1 under ,aulus ,plautius1 and according to ,richard of ,cirencester1 a colony was established4 ,this he styles ,glebon1 whilst the ,itinerary of ,antonine and other ancient records enter it as ,glevum ,colonia4 ,an interesting account upon the ,roman classification of towns in ,england discloses a very important particular4 ,it adds considerable weight to the description of the city by the authors just quoted4 ,their statements that ,gloucester was classified as a colony called ,glevum seemed to be borne out by a tombstone found at ,rome4 ,it purports to be in memory of a citizen of ,glevum4 ,this has given rise to the supposition that ,glevum was the honourable title bestowed upon an ,english town of importance made a colony by ,nerva4 ,this period would be between #if and #ih ,a4,d4 ,this date in no way combats the original one of #dg ,a4,d4 ,it is only intended to show that ,gloucester at the later period had become a colony with a certain amount of self-government1 forming a unit of the ,great ,roman ,empire4 ,the district to the north-east of the present city1 called ,king's ,holme1 is supposed to have been the actual site of the ,roman camp4 ,close to it was also the palace belonging to the ,anglo-,saxon kings of ,mercia1 which was called ,regia ,domus4 ,round about this spot quite a valuable collection of ,roman remains has been made1 which1 besides establishing the fact of their occupation1 have helped archaeologists to form a correct estimation of the habits and customs of the ,latin invaders4 ,when the pressing needs of ,rome required the return of all her legions1 ,gloucester came to be governed by ,eldol1 who was a ,british chief4 ,he survived the terrible massacre of the ,britons by the ,saxons at ,stonehenge1 and in #dhi revenged their memory by killing ,hengist1 the ,saxon chief1 at the battle of ,maeshill in ,yorkshire4 ,illustration3 ,,gloucester ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,from the ,britons the city in #egg was captured by the ,saxons4 ,they called it ,gleauanceaster1 which exists to this day under the contracted form of ,gloucester4 ,at that time it was included in the kingdom of ,wessex1 and was afterwards annexed to that of ,mercia4 ,in the meanwhile tradition says that a bishop's see was founded at ,gloucester in the second century4 ,lucius1 the first ,christian king of ,britain1 is held to be the founder1 and is also supposed to have been buried in the ,church of ,st4 ,mary de ,lode of this city4 ,with all respect to tradition1 this can only be accepted with reservation4 ,if true1 the present church of ,st4 ,mary de ,lode deserves far greater recognition than it receives4 ,though evidently an old foundation much restored1 it can hardly lay claim to such antiquity4 ,in all probability a temple to some ,roman deity existed1 which1 by conflicting accounts of historians1 gave rise to the supposition of an early established see4 ,though there is proof that ,christianity existed during the ,roman occupation of ,england1 it seems more likely that1 after their general exodus from the island in #dah1 a diocese1 if any1 was soon after established at ,gloucester1 over which ,eldad presided in #dij4 ,this first bishopric1 on the subversion of the country by the ,anglo-,saxons1 must have become extinct2 for the next we hear of it is when1 as part of the kingdom of ,mercia1 the entire county of ,gloucester is included in the diocese of ,lichfield at the time of the introduction of ,christianity4 ,however1 the first authentic evidence of monasticism appears in the year #fgi1 when the holy brethren founded their establishment4 ,under the auspices of ,wulfhere1 then ,king of ,mercia1 this priory was dedicated to ,st4 ,oswald1 and in the same year was annexed to the newly established see of ,worcester4 ,it afterwards became the abbey4 ,the city's importance in the same year was considerably increased by the royal patron4 ,the ,king's brother and successor1 ,ethelred1 nevertheless1 completed the ecclesiastical building1 which some contend was a nunnery4 ,this the ,danes destroyed4 ,it was then refounded for the reception of secular priests in #hba1 by ,bernulf1 ,king of ,mercia4 ,as early as #ifd1 in a charter to the monks of ,worcester dated at ,gloucester1 ,edgar styles this a royal city4 ,several times it suffered from the incursions of the ,danes in the eighth century1 and more especially so in the tenth1 when it was taken and nearly destroyed by fire in the reign of ,ethelred ,,ii4 ,this monarch's reign seems to have been a disastrous one for the kingdom4 ,in the first place1 through the ambitious schemes of his mother ,elfrida1 who caused his stepbrother ,edward to be murdered1 he wrongfully occupied the throne in #igi4 ,on account of his tragic death ,edward came to be styled the ,martyr4 ,a reign thus inauspiciously commenced proved to be a constant struggle against the ,danes4 ,the ,king acquired the name of ,ethelred the ,unready2 for when the ,danes attacked the kingdom1 instead of being prepared to repel them1 he endeavoured to counteract the evil with large sums of money4 ,as this only served as a further incentive to fresh invasions1 ,ethelred eventually compounded with them in #iid4 ,on condition that these plundering expeditions should cease1 he offered them tribute4 ,this is the first mention we get of the danegelt1 as it was called4 ,with the exception of the reign of ,edward the ,confessor1 it continued to be levied almost without interruption till the time of ,henry ,,ii4 ,the only benefit that ,ethelred's reign conferred upon his subjects was the act of atonement made by ,elfrida4 ,to ease her conscience and remorse for the murder of ,edward1 she caused the foundation of several monasteries1 and performed penances4 ,edmund ,ironsides1 who succeeded in #ajaf1 was the exact opposite in character to his father ,ethelred4 ,he continued a serious obstacle to ,canute and his ,danes4 ,after the last of five pitched battles ,canute and he agreed to divide the kingdom between them3 ,canute to have ,mercia and ,northumberland1 and ,edmund the remainder4 ,however1 through the murder of ,edmund a few days after1 at ,oxford1 ,canute usurped the throne of ,england in #ajag4 ,during his reign of eighteen years1 except for a dispute with ,scotland over ,cumberland1 the country enjoyed peace at home4 ,this peaceful term1 in conjunction with the passing over of the dreaded millennium1 when the end of the world had been expected1 caused the great building activity which1 under the ,norman ,conquest1 attained such wonderful results4 ,in the meanwhile the trade resources of ,gloucester1 even before the ,conquest1 had greatly advanced1 and had probably outdistanced in ratio those of more important commercial centres of ,england4 ,no doubt the natives had learned many hitherto unknown industrial arts from the ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,gloucester ,,the ,,cathedral ,,and ,,old ,,parliament ,,house ,a native art and civilisation existed in the ,island1 we know1 before the ,roman ,conquest4 ,great skill in enamelling1 claimed by the ancients to be of ,celtic origin1 and the primitive abundance of gold and tin1 worked1 as history relates1 by the ,phoenicians1 encouraged a certain degree of native excellence in metal work4 ,besides this1 the gold coinage and other signs of their ingenuity1 by remains discovered in ,yorkshire and elsewhere1 illustrate that various branches of art existed a matter of a century and a half before the ,roman ,conquest4 ,yet it is only reasonable to suspect that the inhabitants of ,gloucester and of the other camps profited greatly from the far better knowledge and technique brought by the invader from ,rome1 the acknowledged centre of civilisation at that time4 ,certain it is that the ,roman influence must have left some result4 ,the subsequent history of ,gloucester has it that a mint existed at the time of ,alfred4 ,it evidently fell into disuse1 for a mint was again established in the reign of ,king ,john4 ,he also granted the burgesses exemption from toll1 and showered other marks of royal favour4 ,as far back as the twelfth century1 ,long ,smith ,street derived its name from the numerous artisans who dwelled there4 ,they were employed in forges for the smelting of ore4 ,iron-founding and cloth-making were also in full swing4 ,felt-making1 sugar-refining1 and glass-manufacture all flourished at one time or another4 ,pin-making was introduced by a ,mr4 ,john ,tilsby in #afbe1 and until quite recently formed the staple trade of the place4 ,bell-founding1 once a feature1 no longer is practised4 ,in its career of nearly two centuries close upon #e1jjj bells of different sizes had been cast4 ,with the exception of foundries1 many modern industries have supplanted the old1 and include match works1 marble and slate works1 saw mills and flour mills1 chemical works1 rope works1 railway wagon and engine factories1 agricultural implements1 and ship-building yards2 for it must be remembered that ,gloucester is reckoned as a port4 ,it exports such valuable commodities as iron1 coals1 malt1 salt1 bricks1 and pottery4 ,the town is also celebrated for its ,severn salmon and lampreys4 ,in discussing the resources of ,gloucester1 no regard has been paid to the proper distribution of dates4 ,a leap from the eleventh to the nineteenth century has been unavoidably made1 and to chronicle the chief events it is necessary to go back to the year #ajbb1 when a change was made in ,bernulf's foundation4 ,this year saw the ejection of the secular priests and the introduction of the ,benedictine monks by ,canute4 ,in spite of opposition1 the new order managed to keep possession of the monastery till the dissolution4 ,the abbey founded by ,aldred1 ,bishop of ,worcester1 a few years before the ,norman ,conquest served as the basis of the present cathedral4 ,this transition took place from #ajgb till #aajd1 under ,abbot ,serle4 ,in #acha ,walter ,frocester1 its historian1 became its first mitred abbot4 ,here again we have an instance of a ,norman building forming the backbone to subsequent periods of ,gothic and ,english architecture4 ,though each style is distinct1 the tout ensemble is in such perfect harmony that it calls for the greatest admiration for the wonderful skill of the several architects4 ,the plan of the ,cathedral is the usual symbol of the cross4 ,in the centre there is the beautiful fifteenth-century tower4 ,its mass of detail and pierced work give it an air of elegance and lightness4 ,the oldest portions are the nave1 the chantry chapels1 which are apsidal and are on either side of the choir1 and the crypt4 ,these are supposed to have belonged to ,aldred's abbey1 which may thus be taken to have become incorporated in the present building4 ,they are of ,norman origin1 or rather date a few years before the ,conquest4 ,no doubt these parts came1 more or less1 to be touched up and restored by the ,normans4 ,in #abdh1 the roof of the nave1 an ,early ,english addition to the massive ,norman nave1 was finished by ,abbot ,henry ,foliot4 ,the ,chapter ,house also is ,norman4 ,compared with those at ,wells and ,lincoln1 its simplicity is striking4 ,it differs also in another respect4 ,belonging1 as it did1 to a ,benedictine church1 it follows the shape usually found in churches of that order2 namely1 the square4 ,the south aisle was commenced by ,abbot ,thokey in #acaj1 and the south transept in #accj4 ,about the same time building operations were commenced for the north transept and the choir4 ,the latter was finished in #adeg4 ,to the north of the nave lie the cloisters4 ,these form a most wonderful ,early example of fan-tracery1 constructed some time between #acea and #acij4 ,here in the south end of the cloisters were set apart a series of stalls1 better known as the carrels1 in which the monks studied and wrote4 ,they may have undergone great hardships and austerities1 but they evidently had a great sense of beauty4 ,they have left us the finest works of architecture possible1 which have not been surpassed by any modern erection4 ,the west front1 and the south porch with fan-traceried roof1 were added in #adba4 ,the triforium1 carried round in a curve under the great east window1 forms a narrow passageway from one side of the choir to the other4 ,this formation1 curiously enough1 has constituted quite a feature at ,gloucester4 ,it is called the whispering gallery4 ,there is no evidence that the architect intended it4 ,st4 ,paul's1 in ,london1 affords another similar example4 ,illustration3 ,,gloucester ,,from ,,the ,,paddock ,the sculptor's art is represented by many tombs of certain merit4 ,there is the tomb erected by ,abbot ,parker to the memory of ,osric1 ,king of ,northumberland1 who was one of the founders of the monastery1 and who died about the eighth century4 ,in the north aisle leading to the ,lady ,chapel--which by the way1 with its square ending appears like an after-thought1 extended eastwards1 as it were1 from the apsidal termination of the choir--is a monument covering the remains of ,robert ,duke of ,normandy1 the eldest son of the ,conqueror4 ,he was a benefactor to the old abbey4 ,his effigy in coloured bog oak is disposed in a recumbent attitude on an altar-tomb4 ,there are many others1 amongst which that of ,dr4 ,jenner1 famous for the introduction of vaccination into general practice1 commands great attention4 ,robert ,raikes is also represented4 ,he and the ,rev4 ,thomas ,stock1 a rector of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist in this city1 share the honour of having established the first ,sunday school in ,england1 which was held in ,gloucester4 ,some authorities1 however1 contend that the reverend gentleman was the originator of the ,sunday school1 though they do not deny that ,raikes1 through his unwearied exertions1 promoted the increase of these institutions throughout the kingdom4 ,but of all the monuments1 that erected by the monks of ,gloucester to the memory of ,edward of ,carnarvon deserves the most attention1 not only for its beauty1 but because it served as the type for the ,gothic sculptors to copy during two centuries4 ,the recumbent effigy is hedged in by a series of elaborately decorated shafts1 forming a kind of open-work grille1 with pinnacles and niches4 ,overhead it is covered in with richly ornamented ,gothic work4 ,this shrine1 constructed to receive the body of the murdered ,edward ,,ii41 conveyed thither from ,berkeley ,castle by ,abbot ,thokey1 throughout the greater part of ,edward ,,iii4's reign continued to attract vast numbers of pilgrims4 ,their offerings soon brought in a great revenue1 which was spent not on rebuilding the church1 but in restoring the surface1 in putting new windows in the old walls1 and1 generally1 in adapting the twelfth-century building to the ,perpendicular style of the fourteenth century4 ,in this way the original ,norman work forms the skeleton to the ,perpendicular casing4 ,in #aeda the ,cathedral was separated from the diocese of ,worcester by ,henry ,,viii4 and made a distinct bishopric4 ,besides this magnificent pile1 ,gloucester possesses four other churches1 which deserve some slight notice4 ,there is the ,church of ,st4 ,mary de ,lode1 said to contain the remains of ,lucius1 the first ,british king4 ,it has an interesting old chancel1 and a monument to ,bishop ,hooper4 ,st4 ,mary de ,crypt is a cruciform building of the twelfth century1 with a beautiful lofty tower4 ,the curfew bell is still rung from the tower of ,st4 ,michael1 which is said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of ,st4 ,peter4 ,st4 ,nicholas1 originally ,norman1 is now an ancient structure of the ,early style of ,english architecture4 ,of schools1 one was refounded by ,henry ,,viii4 for the education of the cathedral choir4 ,another was established in the same reign by ,dame ,joan ,cooke1 and was called the ,crypt ,school1 from the fact of its schoolroom adjoining the church of the same name4 ,sir ,thomas ,rich1 a native of ,gloucester1 in #afff founded the ,blue-,coat ,hospital1 much on the same lines as that of ,christ's ,hospital1 recently removed from ,london to the country4 ,during the many years that were taken in beautifying the ,cathedral1 we must not forget that the city was struggling with varying fortune4 ,it might almost be called a royal city1 so often was it visited by princes1 were it not that ,winchester claims that distinction4 ,in the war between ,stephen and the ,empress ,matilda1 ,gloucester always accorded a welcome to the ,empress4 ,thither she is said to have escaped after the siege of ,winchester1 carried in a coffin4 ,if not true1 the story is well founded4 ,the city was captured from ,henry ,,iii4 by the barons in #abfc4 ,in one of the many ,parliaments held at ,gloucester1 were passed1 in #abgi1 the laws connected with the ,statute of ,quo ,warranto1 better known as the ,statutes of ,gloucester4 ,in #acbg ,edward ,,ii4 was assassinated in ,berkeley ,castle by his keeper1 ,sir ,thomas ,gournay1 and ,john de ,maltravers1 ,lord ,berkeley4 ,from this time ,gloucester seems to have enjoyed comparative peace1 though its county was the theatre of several important historical events enacted in its cities of ,chichester and ,tewkesbury4 ,the latter is especially memorable for the great and decisive battle1 in which the ,lancastrians were totally defeated1 in #adga4 ,on that occasion ,margaret of ,anjou1 her son ,prince ,edward1 and her general1 the ,duke of ,somerset1 were taken prisoners by ,edward ,,iv4 ,after the battle ,prince ,edward was murdered and the ,duke of ,somerset beheaded4 ,in the great contest between ,charles ,i4 and the ,parliament1 the city of ,gloucester1 it is true1 became an object of importance to the success of the royal cause4 ,the city was1 however1 successfully defended for the ,parliament by ,colonel ,massie1 till relieved in #afdc by the ,earl of ,essex4 ,in the meantime ,chichester was taken by ,prince ,rupert4 ,the subject-matter of this city has unconsciously led us to introduce ,tewkesbury and ,chichester4 ,having gone so far we cannot close without first drawing attention to the existence of three other cities that prominently stand out in this same county of ,gloucestershire4 ,they are ,cheltenham1 the home of the famous public school2 ,tewkesbury1 where the decisive battle of the ,roses was fought2 and ,bristol1 the great port situated near the mouth of the ,severn1 the river on the banks of which lies this ancient cathedral city of ,gloucester4 ,hereford ,hereford4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,on the borders of ,wales is ,herefordshire1 and almost in the centre of the county is its ancient capital1 ,hereford4 ,a ,roman station is supposed to have been in the neighbourhood1 under the name of ,ariconium1 which is considered to be identical with the present ,kenchester4 ,the present name of ,hereford is derived from the pure ,saxon4 ,like ,oxford1 it had no bridges at first4 ,as the river had to be crossed1 the shallowest part was chosen4 ,this consideration probably determined the site of ,hereford to be upon the left bank of the river ,wye1 and the pass over it was called by the ,saxons1 ,here-ford1 or ,military ford4 ,we glean little information of this place till the seventh century4 ,an episcopal see is stated to have existed in this place before the invasion of ,britain by the ,saxons4 ,from this uncertainty we arrive at something more definite1 which took place in #fee4 ,oswy1 then ,king of ,mercia1 in that year made ,hereford part of the diocese of ,lichfield1 which already wielded jurisdiction over the whole of the kingdom of ,mercia4 ,a few years later it was decided by a synod held here under the presidency of ,theodore1 then ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 in #fgc1 to make a division of the diocese of ,lichfield4 ,very naturally ,wilford1 then bishop of that see1 refused to recognise the decree1 and for this piece of contumacy was subsequently deprived of part of his diocese4 ,his successor1 ,sexulph1 however1 was more amenable1 and with his consent ,hereford was detached from ,lichfield and restored to its original independence as a separate diocese4 ,putta was straightway translated from ,rochester ,see to become the first bishop of ,hereford in #fhj4 ,this instance is one of many such in the history of the ,church4 ,the shuffling of dioceses1 the enlargement of one at the expense of another1 whether from motives of malice or a sense of right distribution1 occurs usually in the early years of ,christianity in ,england1 and also at the general winding up of the monasteries in the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,hereford was by no means the only see that suffered these changes4 ,it was simply a unit in the great policy of welding together the churches of the several kingdoms into one whole1 which had never been carried into effect till ,theodore of ,tarsus came to ,england4 ,he was a ,greek monk little known till the ,pope elected to fill the vacant archbishopric of ,canterbury4 ,only three bishops were left in the whole of ,england2 of these two were rivals for the ,see of ,york1 and the third had bought the ,see of ,london4 ,the first thing that ,theodore did after his arrival was to travel throughout the country4 ,by consecrating new bishops and creating a thorough organisation1 he acquired a complete understanding with the ,church4 ,he also instituted a system of synods1 which he intended should meet annually to discuss the general welfare of the ,church4 ,this1 however1 seems to have fallen into disuse4 ,in all1 ,theodore managed to divide ,england into a matter of fifteen dioceses1 through the subdivision of the old dioceses4 ,truly a great achievement when we remember that the conversion of the ,english kingdoms mostly depended upon the good-will of their respective kings4 ,thus it came about that one king in each kingdom had one bishop1 generally his chaplain at first1 who took his title1 not from a see1 but from the people4 ,he was either bishop of ,mercia1 or ,northumbria1 or some other large kingdom4 ,as we have seen in the collision with ,wilford1 ,theodore's policy did not suit every prelate's views4 ,his influence1 however1 effected the installation of three bishops in ,northumbria1 four in ,mercia1 two in ,east ,anglia1 and two in ,wessex4 ,kent already had two since #fjd4 ,thus the result was the complete conversion of ,england1 effected by ,theodore from about #fgc to #fhh ,a4,d4 ,prior to the eighth century ,hereford is known to have been the capital of the kingdom of ,mercia1 as it is now of ,herefordshire1 which is much reduced in size4 ,from the years #gfe to #gia ,mercia was governed by ,king ,offa4 ,apart from his connection with the ,cathedral of ,hereford1 his reign must possess some interest to the collectors of coins4 ,for though the die-sinker's art was practised in ,england as far back as the ,roman occupation1 and an indigenous coinage came into existence in the seventh century1 it is not till this monarch's reign that genuine ,english coinage was properly in currency4 ,it appears that ,offa had to pay an annual tribute of #cfe mancuses in coin to the ,pope4 ,as a mancus was equal to #cj pennies1 the sum was a considerable one4 ,in the year #ghb an event occurred which laid the foundation of the ,cathedral4 ,from ,marden1 the original place of sepulture1 the body of ,ethelbert1 ,king of the ,east ,angles 7who1 by the way1 is not to be confounded with ,ethelbert of ,kent1 who welcomed ,st4 ,augustine71 was removed to ,hereford4 ,he had been treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law1 the ,queen of ,mercia4 ,in expiation of the murder ,king ,offa1 with munificent donations1 enabled a nobleman called ,milfride1 a viceroy under ,egbert1 to found the ,cathedral about #hbe4 ,the building was dedicated to ,st4 ,mary and ,st4 ,ethelbert4 ,it fell into decay in less than two centuries and necessitated a rebuilding during the prelacy of ,bishop ,athelstan1 between #ajab and #ajae4 ,it was burnt by the ,welsh in #ajee1 and remained in ruins till #ajgi1 when the first ,norman bishop1 ,robert of ,lorraine1 was appointed to the ,see4 ,he commenced a new edifice on the lines of ,aken1 now ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,it was carried on1 with the exception of the tower left to be erected by ,bishop ,giles de ,braos in the following century1 by ,bishop ,raynelm1 in #aajg1 and eventually completed in #aadh by ,bishop ,r4 de ,betum4 ,illustration3 ,,hereford ,,the ,,north ,,transept ,the plan is the usual cross4 ,a lofty tower rises from the intersection1 and was formerly surmounted by a spire1 taken down for safety's sake4 ,the screen and reredos1 the pillars1 the arches of naves1 and the north and south arches of the choir belong to the ,norman period4 ,the ,early ,english claims the triforium1 the ,lady ,chapel1 clerestory1 and the stone vaulting4 ,the north transept is by ,bishop ,aquablanca1 #abde-abfh1 whilst the south-east transept dates from the ,late ,decorated style4 ,for over #dej years a number of additions and restorations have afforded every facility for the skill of the architect1 not always happily taken advantage of4 ,the great western tower unfortunately fell down in #aghf1 and caused considerable damage to the west front and adjacent work4 ,mr4 ,wyatt1 during modern restorations1 in #ahdb and #ahfc1 rebuilt the tower4 ,the west front1 soon after its misfortune1 was restored in a style different from the original4 ,the whole exterior of this edifice presents a curious variety of architectural style4 ,this capitulation of bishops and dates is possibly dry reading1 but it is absolutely necessary to determine the date of the different erections and restorations1 and their successive styles of architecture4 ,near the choir was the shrine of ,st4 ,ethelbert1 which was destroyed during the ,commonwealth of ,cromwell4 ,another attraction to the pilgrims was the tomb erected to the memory of ,bishop ,cantelupe1 who died in #abhb4 ,his heart was brought to ,hereford and buried in the north transept of the ,cathedral1 and he was canonised in #acaj4 ,the pilgrims resorted to this place1 as it was reputed that no less than four hundred miracles had been performed there4 ,in consequence of this the succeeding bishops altered the quarterings of their ancient arms1 which were those of ,st4 ,ethelbert1 and assumed the paternal coat of ,cantelupe4 ,this change constitutes the present arms of the bishopric4 ,amongst many other memorials is one to ,bishop ,aquablanca4 ,a plain marble tablet was also erected to the memory of ,john ,philips1 a well-known author of poems entitled ,the ,splendid ,shilling1 and ,cyder4 ,perhaps the most interesting item1 as well as the most curious of all the old maps1 is the ,mappa ,mundi1 preserved in the south choir aisle4 ,it was compiled somewhere about #abge to #acjj1 by a monk of ,lincoln4 ,how it ever came to ,hereford appears to be an enigma4 ,the most likely solution is that the monk may have been transferred from ,lincoln to this see4 ,the ,hereford ,map1 as it is called1 is a great picture1 more to be classed as a grotesque work of art than a valuable aid to geography4 ,it is1 at least1 a gigantic attempt to represent the whole world1 with the introduction of the main features1 the people1 industries1 and products of each country4 ,it is one mass of legendary figures1 and the farther we get from ,england1 which is hardly recognisable1 the more grotesque and improbable become the monsters4 ,the ,minotaurs and ,gog-,magog of ,tartary1 the dog-faced1 the horse-footed1 and flap-eared freaks of nature of the far east1 together with the one-legged1 one-eyed1 four-eyed1 headless1 and hermaphrodite tribes who fringe the ,torrid ,zone1 give us an interesting idea of the imposition by travellers upon the minds of the people of that period1 the thirteenth century4 ,even the fishes1 supposed to be peculiar to each sea1 are carefully depicted4 ,truly it is a wonderful work of imagination1 not the less to be respected for that1 and quite alone deserves a journey to ,hereford4 ,an epitome of the chief historical events of the city will be a sufficient guide to its status4 ,except cider making1 it has no industries of special note4 ,to the fortifications erected in the time of ,athelstan1 and nearly perfected in ,leland's time1 was added a castle by ,edward the ,elder4 ,in #ajee1 two miles from this place1 ,griffith the ,prince of ,wales defeated ,ralph ,earl of ,hereford2 and the ,welsh1 having thus taken the city1 spent their time in reducing it to a heap of ruins4 ,harold1 afterwards king1 attacked and defeated the ,welsh1 and repaired and enlarged the fortifications in view of further invasions4 ,in the conflicts between ,stephen and the ,empress ,maud1 ,hereford was successfully defended for the latter by ,milo1 to be reduced by the ,king in #aada4 ,at the commencement of the parliamentary war1 ,hereford was garrisoned for the ,king1 but surrendered1 without a blow being struck1 to the army of ,sir ,william ,waller in #afdc4 ,on the retreat of this knight the ,royalists occupied it1 and under the governorship of ,barnabas ,scudamore1 ,esquire1 made a stubborn resistance against the ,scots1 under the ,earl of ,leven1 and obliged them to raise the siege4 ,the inhabitants1 at the ,restoration1 for their loyalty to the royal cause1 received from ,charles ,,ii4 a new charter with extended privileges1 and new heraldic arms testifying to their fidelity to the ,house of ,stuart4 ,previous to this ,charles ,i4 had been generous enough to reward the many sacrifices and sufferings of the loyal citizens by granting the city its motto of ,invictae fidelitatis praemium4 ,lincoln ,lincolia4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,the commercial importance of ,lincoln1 whatever it may be now1 was at one time considerable4 ,at the time of the ,norman survey it commanded sufficient attention to cause the entry of the city in the ,doomsday ,book as one of the leading centres of commerce4 ,this happy state was continued1 or rather increased1 by the famous ,ordinance of the ,staple in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 ,he was an ambitious monarch1 and desired to become master of ,france4 ,if we recall the battles of ,cressy and ,poitiers1 we can readily understand what an enormous expenditure would be required for the proper conduct of the war4 ,by some means or other the ,english revenues had to be found4 ,this was met to a great extent by the ,ordinance of the ,wool ,staple1 enacted by ,edward ,,iii41 who1 besides waging war in ,france1 was keen on the extension of foreign trade4 ,by charters granted to merchants of ,gascony1 who imported wine and other commodities1 and by giving special protection to the ,flemish weavers in ,england1 the ,king enhanced the prospects of trade4 ,but the most important of all his commercial projects was1 as we have said1 his scheme1 finally declared in #acec1 by which a staple for ,english exports was established under the direct control of the ,crown4 ,thus the monopoly of wool1 which accrued so advantageously to ,bruges and other cities on the ,continent1 and had become unbearable1 was in #acec transferred to ,england4 ,for the exclusive sale of wool ten ,english towns were chosen4 ,they were situated within easy distance of the coast1 or the town was in connection with a convenient port4 ,of these ten towns with corresponding ports1 ,lincoln with ,boston was chosen as a staple town for wool4 ,this with other sources of trade1 such as the staple of lead and leather1 flourished in ,lincoln from ,edward ,,iii4's time till the commencement of the eighteenth century1 when the trade of the town declined4 ,through the several plagues prevalent in the fourteenth century1 such as the black death and other epidemics similar in death-dealing if not in character at that time1 especially about the year #acij1 many towns in ,england were much decayed4 ,except ,london1 ,york1 ,bristol1 ,coventry1 and ,plymouth1 the afflicted towns did not regain the population they enjoyed in the fourteenth century till the ,tudor period1 and some1 notably ,sarum and ,leicester1 not until late in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,the decline of ,lincoln1 though progressive1 in a way appears to have been truly a gradual decay1 and more terrible in its imperceptible undermining than any knock-down blow1 for it never recovered its old trade prosperity2 whilst ,norwich1 which before the plagues was next to ,london1 bore relatively and even greater and sharper evidence of the terrible visitation1 yet managed somehow to hark back in a measure to days of its former glory4 ,the old saying which ran ,lincoln was1 ,london is1 ,york shall be indicates1 far more than anything else1 the change of ,lincoln's fortunes4 ,whatever its shortcomings may be1 ,lincoln possesses a most interesting record of antiquity4 ,its minster is truly a gem1 for it is not only the earliest example of a pure ,gothic building in ,europe1 but presents a delightful study of every kind of style1 from the early ,norman down to the ,late ,decorated4 ,of the many characteristics of this interesting edifice--the foundation of ,remigius--we will note the chief4 ,the building material consists of the oolite and calcareous stone of ,lincoln ,heath and ,haydor1 the surface of which1 when worked upon with tools1 appears to become quite hardened4 ,remigius adopted the plan of the church at ,rouen as the model of his foundation1 which he laid in #ajhf4 ,it was completed by his successor1 ,bishop ,bloet4 ,the accidental fire that broke out gave his successor1 ,bishop ,alexander1 the opportunity of repairing it4 ,to prevent a like occurrence1 this prelate conceived and carried out his idea of covering the aisles with a vaulted roof of stone4 ,it had a disastrous effect in that its pressure weighed too heavily upon the walls4 ,it necessitated a thorough overhauling by ,st4 ,hugh1 a subsequent bishop1 in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 ,he rebuilt the church upon a plan then newly introduced1 and greatly enlarged it by taking down the east end and re-erecting it upon a far bigger scale4 ,since his time the ,cathedral has undergone several alterations and embellishments at the fostering care of several succeeding prelates4 ,on the magnificent central tower there used to be a lofty spire1 which was blown down in #aedg4 ,the two western towers were also deprived of their spires in #ahjh to avert a similar calamity4 ,the approximate dates of the different portions of the ,cathedral are3 ,illustration3 ,,lincoln ,,by ,,moonlight ,the central west front and the font belong to ,remigius' period4 ,the three west portals and ,norman portion of the west tower above the screen to the third story are #aadh4 ,the nave1 its aisles1 and north and south chapels of the west end were finished in #abbj4 ,the ,early ,english work of the west front and the upper portions of the north and south wings with the pinnacle turrets date from #abbe4 ,the west porch of the main transept is #abbj4 ,the lower courses of the central tower date from #abce1 while the upper ones originated in #acjg4 ,the gables1 the upper parts of the main transept1 the parapets of the south side of the nave1 the south wing1 the west front1 and the screen in the south aisle take us back again to the year #abbe4 ,the subsequent additions are3 ,the west door of the choir aisles in #abdj2 the south porch of the presbytery in #abef2 the choir screens in #abhj1 and ten years later the ,easter ,sepulchre4 ,the fine circular window at the end of the north transept1 and especially the ones in the south transept1 attract considerable attention4 ,they are called respectively ,the ,dean's ,eye and ,the ,bishop's ,eye1 and are supposed to belong to the year #acej4 ,perhaps they are better known as the rose windows1 which were more popular in ,france than in ,england4 ,they exhibit a network of interlacing stems in imitation of the freedom of the briar-rose1 and show the advanced skill of the workmen upon the plate-tracery they formerly put up as a masterpiece in the close vicinity of the rose windows4 ,for purposes of fortification1 if necessary1 ,remigius chose the summit of the hill close to the ,castle as the site4 ,the ,cathedral1 dedicated to the ,virgin ,mary1 thus1 from its commanding station1 forms a magnificent object seen from many miles around1 and in the days of pilgrimage must have held out a welcome beacon of hope to the weary pilgrims4 ,of the many famous prelates of this see must be mentioned ,remigius1 ,bloet1 ,st4 ,hugh1 and ,fleming1 who died in #adca4 ,the latter was the founder of ,lincoln ,college at ,oxford4 ,just at the back of this college is situated the well-known college of ,brazennose1 the foundation of another ,lincoln ,bishop1 namely ,smith1 who died in #aeba4 ,again1 ,polydore ,vergil1 ,w4 ,paley1 ,cartwright the inventor of the power loom1 and ,o4 ,manning the celebrated topographer are some of the many capitular members of whom ,lincoln may well be proud4 ,another attraction that ,lincoln possesses in its vicinity is the race-course just beyond ,newland4 ,for the early history of ,lincoln we must go as far back as the ,saxon days4 ,after the departure of the ,romans1 ,lincoln was the chief city of the district4 ,it was the capital of the kingdom of ,mercia1 as it now is of the county of ,lincolnshire4 ,besides being described like other cities as being locally in the county of ,lincoln1 it is said to be in the wapentake4 ,this is a departure from the hundred only in name1 not in purpose4 ,in the northern counties of ,england the wapentakes denoted the usual divisions answering to the hundreds of other counties4 ,the origin of the wapentake is woepenge-toc1 woepentac1 from the ,icelandic vapnatak4 ,it literally means a weapon-taking or weapon-touching1 and became an expression of assent4 ,it was anciently invariably the custom to touch lances or spears when the hundreder1 or chief1 entered in his office4 ,tacitus1 in the ,germania1 gives a full description of this interesting rite4 ,in the ,low ,countries words very similar appear as the names of streets4 ,at ,bruges1 in ,belgium1 there is the ,wapen-makers ,straat1 which means nothing more or less than that in that street was originally carried on an industry of warlike implements made by weapon-makers4 ,in this wise ,lincolnshire1 ,yorkshire1 and ,nottinghamshire were divided into wapentakes instead of hundreds4 ,another peculiar distinction of this city was its former government by a portreve4 ,the term is now obsolete1 but in the old ,english law it denoted the chief magistrate of a port or maritime town4 ,in its old form it was written portgerefa1 a combined word meaning port1 a harbour1 and gerefa1 a reeve or sheriff4 ,in the third year of the reign of ,george ,i4 the city1 with a district of twenty miles round it1 was erected into a county1 under the designation of ,the ,city and ,county of the ,city of ,lincoln4 ,it was also entered as a maritime county4 ,the extreme flatness of the ,lincolnshire coast1 with the slow sluggishness of the lower part of the course of the rivers1 caused1 in remote ages1 the inundation of a great tract of land4 ,the feasibility of reclaiming some portion of these fens received the attention of the ,romans4 ,they constructed the large drain called the car-dyke1 signifying the fen-dyke1 carrying it from the river ,witham1 near ,lincoln1 to the river ,welland on the southern side of the county1 with the object of draining the waters from the high grounds and of preventing the inundation of the low grounds4 ,this policy was adopted in subsequent reigns with great success1 and is even to this day continued4 ,it has been the means of bringing rich tracts of land into cultivation1 and of dispelling the unhealthy miasma which once caused the great prevalency of the ague fever4 ,from fragments of vessels found near its channel it is affirmed that large ships of bygone days could formerly sail up the river ,witham from ,boston to ,lincoln1 but now it is only navigable for barges4 ,illustration3 ,,lincoln ,,the ,,steep ,,hill ,in #aaba ,henry ,i4 materially altered the great ,foss-,dyke1 extending a matter of eight miles from a great marsh near ,lincoln to the river ,trent1 to serve the double purpose of draining the adjacent level and of constructing a high waterway for vessels from the ,trent to ,lincoln4 ,for defraying the expenses of draining1 it appears that in general a rate was levied upon all lands in the contiguous wapentakes4 ,with this preface of the general character of the district1 we propose to give a history of the city from its commencement4 ,on the summit of a hill close to the river ,lindis1 which is now called the ,witham1 the ancient ,britons established a city of considerable importance from the most remote period of the ,british history4 ,they christened the city after the original name of the river4 ,this1 on the invasion of ,britain1 passed into the hands of the ,romans4 ,they made it one of their chief stations in this part of ,england and established a colony4 ,instead of calling the city something cester1 they appear to have ,latinised the ,celtic name1 signifying the hill port by the pool1 and called it ,lindum ,colonia4 ,through process of time and differences of pronunciation1 consequent on the various dialects spoken successively by the ,saxons1 ,danes1 and ,normans1 the title became abbreviated to ,lin-coln4 ,the date of the ,roman occupation is given as being in the year #ajj ,a4,d4 ,their plan of the city consisted of the form of a parallelogram about #djj yards in length by the same number of yards in breadth1 defended by massive1 strong walls and intersected by two streets running at right angles4 ,presumably the extremities of these streets pointed to the four cardinal points4 ,they terminated in gates1 the sole one of which--an excellent example of ,roman architecture in ,england--is the ,north ,gate1 or1 as it is generally called1 ,newport4 ,it is composed of a central arch1 with two lesser ones1 one on either side1 and is on a lower level than that of the street4 ,through this gate passes the great ,roman ,road called ,ermine ,street1 out into the country for a distance of about ten miles or so4 ,to the south-west of this entrance is supposed to have been a mint4 ,this seems to be borne out by the discovery of many ,roman coins found in the vicinity4 ,the ,exchequer ,gate is a very fine specimen of the thirteenth century4 ,it bears a carved representation of the ,crucifixion1 which lends it considerable interest4 ,at the top of ,high ,street is ,pottergate and ,stonebow1 over which is the ,guildhall4 ,the latter is an ancient embattled structure1 rebuilt in the reign of ,richard ,,ii4 ,besides the ,northgate1 the ,romans appear1 according to remains found1 to have contributed the inevitable bath and sudatorium4 ,on their departure from ,britain1 ,lincoln was made the capital of the kingdom of ,mercia by the ,saxons in #eah4 ,vortimer1 who endeavoured to oppose them1 was slain and interred here4 ,from #ghf ,lincoln suffered repeatedly from visitations of the ,danes1 control being recovered by ,edmund ,,ii41 according to agreement with ,canute in #ajaf4 ,throughout the whole of this period the only peace the city had enjoyed was when ,alfred the ,great subdued the ,danes4 ,however1 ,edmund ,,ii41 better known as ,edmund ,ironsides1 did not live many days longer1 being murdered at ,oxford4 ,whereupon1 in #ajag1 ,canute took possession of the murdered monarch's territory1 in which ,lincoln was included4 ,william ,i4 then came along in #ajhf1 swept away close upon two hundred houses to make room for the erection of a castle--on a site which meant the occupation of nearly one-fourth of the old ,roman city4 ,the ,castle still has traces of ,norman work1 the foundations of which were formed of enormous beams of wood and a mixture of thin1 coarse mortar1 used for pouring into the joints of masonry and brickwork1 usually called grouting4 ,in that wonderful survey of his--the ,doomsday ,book--fifty-two parishes are stated to have composed this city4 ,the ,castle in #aadj figured in the disputes between the ,empress ,matilda and ,stephen1 the latter of whom was crowned here in #aada4 ,stephen was1 however1 made prisoner1 but was afterwards exchanged1 and lived three years later to celebrate ,christmas here4 ,but prior to this period ,lincoln was for the first time erected into a see in the reign of ,william ,rufus4 ,illustration3 ,,lincoln ,,the ,,west ,,towers ,in pursuance of a decree of a synod held at ,london at this time1 that all the episcopal sees should be removed to fortified places1 ,remigius1 the ,bishop of ,dorchester1 determined to establish the seat of his diocese at ,lincoln4 ,he built the church and an episcopal palace1 but died just before its consecration4 ,his work was completed by his successor1 ,robert ,bloet4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 the ,diocese1 which once extended from the ,thames to the ,humber1 was curtailed to add a part to form that of ,ely4 ,it again suffered diminution in ,henry ,,viii4's time1 when the limits of the ,sees of ,oxford and ,peterborough were defined4 ,in spite of it all1 ,lincoln's see is fairly extensive1 though it suffered again in #ahhd4 ,prior to this monarch's reign ,lincoln had as many as fifty-two churches1 but when he decided upon reformation from ,popery their number was greatly diminished4 ,their names1 still preserved1 are the sole reminders of their former existence1 with the exception of fourteen which remain4 ,these have probably been rebuilt4 ,before entering further concerning the ,see1 and the ,cathedral founded by ,remigius1 which was constantly in the hands of the architect even down to recent years1 we shall add the chief political events subsequent to ,stephen4 ,on the death of this monarch1 ,henry ,,ii41 probably not satisfied with his coronation in ,london1 underwent the ceremony again at ,wigford1 a place just a little to the south of ,lincoln city4 ,john here early in his reign received the homage of ,david the ,king of ,scotland4 ,during the struggle with the barons in #abaf the citizens remained loyal to their sovereign2 but their city was taken at last in #abag1 and invested by the barons under ,gilbert de ,gaunt1 afterwards created ,earl of ,lincoln4 ,after the disaster that overtook ,john's army in the passage across the ,wash1 and his death1 which took place soon afterwards1 his son ,henry ,,iii4 was loyally assisted by the inhabitants against the barons1 who had summoned to their aid ,louis1 the ,dauphin of ,france4 ,the ,castle1 however1 remained for many years in the possession of the ,crown4 ,eventually it became the summer residence of the celebrated ,john of ,gaunt4 ,he was ,earl of ,lincoln1 and in #acif married here ,lady ,swinford1 who was a sister-in-law to ,chaucer4 ,several times ,parliament was held in ,lincoln2 namely1 twice by ,edward ,i41 and in #acja and #acje2 twice also by ,edward ,,ii42 and in the first year of ,edward ,,iii4's reign4 ,henry ,,vi4 paid a visit1 as did also ,henry ,,vii41 who held a public thanksgiving for his victory over ,richard ,,iii4 at the battle of ,bosworth ,field4 ,throughout the parliamentary war the inhabitants were staunch supporters of the ,crown4 ,the city was stormed by ,earl ,manchester1 an indefatigable soldier of ,cromwell4 ,the ,commonwealth troopers during their occupation created considerable havoc in the ecclesiastical buildings4 ,according to their invariable custom they stabled their horses and housed themselves within the cathedral walls4 ,not satisfied with that1 they damaged the tombs and deprived the niches of their statuary4 ,to go back a matter of four hundred years to this period1 the population of ,lincoln rose en masse against the ,jews4 ,they were alleged to have crucified a little ,lincoln boy1 presumably a ,christian1 at a place called ,dunestall in the year #abee4 ,the enraged mob wreaked their vengeance by causing the execution of eighteen ,jews1 murdering many more1 and later on making a saint of the victim1 under the name of little ,saint ,hugh4 ,the punishment seems to be out of proportion to the crime4 ,in fact little ,hugh's crucifixion appears rather to have served as an excuse for the wrongful persecution of the ,semitic race than for the proper administration of the law irrespective of creed4 ,even to this day this regrettable racial feeling is kept alive4 ,in the middle ages this bitter feeling was fostered and brought about chiefly owing to the wonderful success of the ,jews in ,england1 who grew rich upon the profits accruing to usury1 which they alone might exercise4 ,among many prominent instances of popular vengeance1 besides little ,st4 ,hugh's murder1 are the tombs of boy-martyrs1 shrines which became often the most popular in the ,cathedral4 ,the most characteristic are the records of the burials1 attended with great pomp1 of ,st4 ,william of ,norwich in #aadd1 ,harold of ,gloucester in #aafh1 ,robert of ,edmundsbury in #aahd1 a nameless boy in ,london in #abdd1 and ,st4 ,hugh of ,lincoln in #abee2 boys canonised by the populace simply through bitter racial feeling4 ,remains of the shrine of little ,st4 ,hugh are still extant at ,lincoln4 ,among the many interesting antiquities of ,lincoln is a fine specimen of the ,norman domestic architecture4 ,it is called the ,jews' ,house1 and it is an edifice of curious design4 ,its mouldings much resemble those of the west portals of the ,cathedral1 a date which probably would be #aahd4 ,the house belonged to a ,jewess called ,belaset de ,wallingford4 ,she was hanged in the reign of ,edward ,i4 for clipping the coin4 ,besides this are noticeable the ancient conduits of ,st4 ,mary le ,wigford1 which is ,gothic1 and the ,greyfriars ,conduit in ,high ,street4 ,in the cloister garden are preserved a tesselated pavement and the sepulchral slab of a ,roman soldier4 ,from the same place the splendidly carved stone coffin lid of ,bishop ,remigius has recently been removed into the interior of the ,cathedral4 ,in the years #ahhd to #ahia excavations were conducted on the site of the old ,angel ,inn1 when it was discovered that it had been a ,roman burial-place4 ,amongst the debris were found several funeral urns4 ,under ,st4 ,peter's at ,gowts was brought to light a ,roman altar1 and remains of a ,roman villa were unearthed at ,greetwell4 ,in the same year1 that is to say #ahhd1 the ,blue ,coat ,school was closed1 its endowments were given to the ,middle ,school1 and the buildings were sold to the ,church ,institute4 ,within the last few years two memorable events occurred4 ,in the year #ahhd the ,see of ,lincoln was deprived of the county of ,nottingham1 which was transferred from that see to the ,see of ,southwell4 ,this was followed shortly afterwards by the great lawsuit called ,the ,lincoln ,judgment4 ,great controversy arose and came to a climax4 ,in the year #ahhh ,dr4 ,king1 the ,bishop of ,lincoln1 was cited before his metropolitan1 ,dr4 ,benson1 the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 to answer charges of various ritual offences alleged to have been committed by himself at the administration of the ,holy ,communion4 ,the action was brought by certain gentlemen of ,lincoln interested in the doings of their prelate4 ,their religious scruples had been outraged1 it appears1 on two separate occasions2 namely1 in the ,church of ,st4 ,peter's at ,gowts on ,december #d1 #ahhg1 and in the ,cathedral on ,december #aj of the same year4 ,an appeal had been made to the ,archbishop to restrain these illegal practices4 ,the celebrated ecclesiastical lawsuit was heard in #ahhh4 ,the judgment was confined to the declarations of the law1 which were summarised4 ,no monition or sentence was pronounced against the ,bishop of ,lincoln for having committed breaches of the ecclesiastical law4 ,the dissension has happily ended4 ,the ,bishop of ,lincoln has conformed his practice to the ,archbishop's judgment from the date of its delivery1 and still retains his bishopric4 ,thus has ended the conflict between the ,primate and the ,suffragan1 which agitated1 for a brief space of time1 the opponents of offences of ritualism1 and brought about the famous ,lincoln ,judgment4 ,bath ,baden-ceaster4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,on the banks of the river ,avon1 in the ,county of ,somersetshire1 is situated the beautiful and ancient city of ,bath4 ,its ecclesiastical history is closely bound up with that of ,wells1 and at one time with that of ,glastonbury1 when it figures in the disputes concerning the ,see4 ,this unseemly quarrelling amongst prelates is now happily laid at rest4 ,though lacking in all authority1 ,bath is the joint partner of ,wells in the bishopric title4 ,the origin of the city of ,bath takes us far back4 ,perhaps the strongest link with the ,roman days1 besides the ,roman roads1 lies in the present-day existence of the ,roman baths1 built about #ee ,b4,c4 ,these baths were probably erected to confine the hot springs1 and to enjoy more thoroughly the benefit derived from the medicinal properties of these waters1 which are chalybeate and saline4 ,though we are told that in all probability it is a mere myth that the ,british king1 ,bladud1 first founded this city of ,bath1 yet we are inclined to think that the presence of these springs would influence a settlement of even the nomadic ,british1 prior to the ,roman invasion4 ,when we remember what primitive ideas the early ,britons had1 we cannot wonder at the non-existence of any vestiges of their occupation4 ,in these days of materialism one loves to respect old traditions1 however uncertain they may be in substance4 ,we would therefore give the benefit of the doubt to an early ,british settlement4 ,with the arrival of the ,romans the approximate date and origin of ,bath can be readily ascertained4 ,from excavations on the place since the year #ahge1 it has been proved that the ,romans founded here a city1 which they named ,aquae ,solis1 in the reign of ,claudius4 ,in #ee ,b4,c4 the baths had been constructed for certain4 ,in addition to this they erected a temple to ,minerva1 with votive offerings1 and many other buildings1 and carried a line of fortifications and walls around the city4 ,the remains of their marvellous architecture still bear testimony1 though they have suffered ill-treatment and undergone restoration1 to their former magnificence and grandeur4 ,on the retirement of the ,romans ,aquae ,solis passed into the hands of the ,britons1 under the name of ,coer ,palladen 7the city of the waters of ,pallas74 ,during their possession of a century1 two attacks made by the ,saxon chieftains1 ,o,ella and ,cerdic1 were repulsed by ,king ,arthur4 ,the ,saxons1 by the year #egg1 having practically subverted the rest of the kingdom1 turned their attention to the ,west4 ,they seized and ravaged ,bath4 ,the ,roman structures were reduced to ruins4 ,after a while they rebuilt the walls and fortifications upon the original foundations1 employing the old materials4 ,the baths also were soon restored4 ,by this time the ,saxons had renamed the city1 ,hat ,bathur 7,hot baths71 and ,ace-mannes-ceaster 7,city of invalids74 ,the ceaster tacked on to the ,saxon word is the first evidence we get of the ,saxon recognition of the former existence of the ,roman occupation of this city4 ,with the spreading influence of ,christianity travelling from the east to the west of ,england in the seventh century1 a nunnery was erected here1 in #fgf1 by ,king ,osric4 ,this was destroyed during the wars of the ,heptarchy1 and on its site a college of secular canons was founded1 in #gge1 by ,offa1 ,king of ,mercia4 ,this monarch had taken ,bath from the ,king of ,wessex1 and had annexed it to his own kingdom4 ,possibly in recognition of this victory he built an abbey in #gge4 ,after this the city evidently increased in prosperity1 for it was important enough to witness the coronation of ,edgar in #igc1 as ,king of ,england1 by ,dunstan1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,at the same time ,edgar converted the college of secular canons into a ,benedictine monastery4 ,this1 with the church1 was again demolished by the ,danes4 ,this city of ,bath1 like all other cities of that time1 came under the ,norman ,survey1 and was entered in ,doomsday ,book as ,baden-ceaster4 ,william ,rufus had scarce been crowned king when ,bath was seized and burnt1 the most part by ,geoffry1 ,bishop of ,coutances1 and ,robert de ,mowbray4 ,they had jointly risen in support of the claim laid to the throne of ,england by ,robert ,duke of ,normandy4 ,but under the abbacy of ,john de ,villula it soon recovered prosperity4 ,this abbot1 on promotion to the ,see of ,wells1 about #ajij1 purchased the city from ,henry ,i4 ,he built a new church1 and removed the ,see from ,wells to this place4 ,here it remained till #aaic1 when ,bishop ,savaricus handed it over to ,richard ,i41 in exchange for ,glastonbury ,abbey4 ,illustration3 ,,bath ,,pulteney ,,bridge ,about this time ,bath received its first charter as a free borough from this monarch1 and was represented in ,parliament in #abig4 ,in #accj the manufacture of woollen cloth was established by the monks4 ,by reason of this the shuttle was incorporated in the arms of the monastery4 ,in #addg1 and in #aeij1 ,henry ,,vi4 and ,elizabeth respectively granted charters1 which materially increased the prospects of the city4 ,this present cruciform ,abbey ,church dates from #adii4 ,it is dedicated to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 and forms one of the best specimens of the later style of ,english architecture4 ,it rests upon the site of the conventual church of the monastery founded by ,osric4 ,after a course of eight hundred years it became dilapidated1 and was rebuilt from the old materials in #adie1 by ,bishop ,oliver ,king4 ,he is said to have been admonished in a dream4 ,he did not live to see the completion of the building4 ,as the citizens refused to purchase it from the ,commissioners of ,henry ,,viii41 the walls were left roofless till ,dr4 ,james ,montague1 ,bishop of the ,diocese1 with the aid of the local nobility and gentry1 procured the necessary funds1 and finished it in #afjf4 ,on the west front is sculptured the founder's dream of angels ascending and descending on ,jacob's ladder4 ,the church is crowned with a quadrangular tower of #afb feet in height from the point of intersection4 ,though the medicinal properties of the springs of ,bath attracted from the earliest times the continuous attention of invalids1 it was only under the guidance of ,beau ,nash1 the gamester1 and the enterprise of ,john ,wood1 the architect1 that it reached to the highest pinnacle of fame as a place of fashionable resort in the eighteenth century4 ,the works of ,fielding1 ,smollett1 ,jane ,austen1 ,dickens1 ,thackeray1 and others1 give us a clear insight into the meteor-like prosperity of the city1 for1 after the death of ,nash1 it gradually relapsed to its normal state1 and1 in fact1 according to statistics1 the number of inhabitants has decreased even within the last few years4 ,a brief sketch of ,beau ,nash and the means adopted will account in some measure for the marvellous change in ,bath in the eighteenth century4 ,nash was educated at ,carmarthen ,grammar ,school1 and ,jesus ,college1 ,oxford4 ,he then obtained a commission in the army4 ,this he soon threw up to become a law-student at the ,middle ,temple4 ,whilst there he gained much attention by his wit and sociability4 ,these qualities induced his fellow-students to elect him as the president of a pageant that they prepared for ,william ,,iii4 ,the king was so pleased with ,nash that1 it is said1 he offered him a knighthood4 ,this ,nash refused unless accompanied by a pension1 which was not granted4 ,he was much addicted to gambling1 which1 in addition to a restless spirit and an empty purse1 led him in #agjd to try his luck at ,bath1 a place which then offered opportunities to a gamester4 ,there he soon became master of the ceremonies1 in succession to ,captain ,webster4 ,under his authority reforms were introduced which speedily accorded to ,bath a leading position as a fashionable watering-place4 ,he formed a strict code of rules for the regulation of balls and assemblies2 allowed no swords to be worn in places of public amusement2 persuaded gentlemen to discard boots for shoes and stockings when in assemblies and parades1 and introduced a tariff for lodgings4 ,as insignia of his office he wore an immense white hat1 and a richly embroidered dress4 ,he drove about in a chariot with six greys1 and laced lackeys blew ,french horns4 ,when ,parliament abolished gambling it caused a serious check to the visits of fashionable people to the city4 ,however1 the ,corporation1 in recognition of his valuable services1 granted ,nash a pension of #abj guineas a year1 and at his death in #agfa he was buried with splendour at the expense of the town4 ,a year after his demise his biography was anonymously published in ,london by ,oliver ,goldsmith4 ,john ,wood1 the architect1 though hardly as well known to posterity as ,nash1 must not be overlooked4 ,till he appeared in ,bath in #agbh1 the city had been confined strictly within the ,roman limits4 ,the suburbs consisted merely of a few scattered houses4 ,wood improved and enlarged the city by his architectural efforts1 which led to the quarrying of freestone found existing in the neighbourhood4 ,his successors carried on his enterprise4 ,the grand ,pump-room1 erected in #agig1 with a portico of ,corinthian columns2 the ,king's ,bath1 with a ,doric colonnade2 the ,queen's ,bath2 the ,cross ,bath1 so called from a cross erected in the centre of it2 the ,hot ,bath1 on account of its superior degree of heat1 were once thronged by fashionable gatherings in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries4 ,the architecture in the eighteenth century at ,bath was an adaptation of the ,doric and ,ionic orders4 ,nearly all the principal buildings were constructed after these classic principles4 ,st4 ,michael's ,church belongs to the ,doric1 with a handsome dome1 and was erected in #agdd4 ,even the ,greek influence is the prevailing feature of ,pulteney ,bridge4 ,in conclusion1 amongst eminent men of ,bath may be mentioned3 ,john ,hales1 ,greek ,professor at ,oxford in #afab2 and ,sir ,thomas ,bodley1 founder of the ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford1 was a native of1 and received his early education in the ,grammar ,school of this city4 ,benjamin ,robins was born here in #agjg2 he was a celebrated mathematician1 and wrote the account of the voyage of ,commodore ,anson round the world4 ,amongst the tombs in the ,abbey are those to the memory of ,quin1 ,nash1 ,broome1 ,malthus1 and ,melmothe4 ,the hot springs of ,bath still continue to alleviate the aches and pains of invalid visitors4 ,the interesting history1 the curious mingling of ,roman and ,later ,english architecture with the revival of the ,ionic and ,doric orders in the eighteenth-century buildings1 can never fail to be of interest alike to the student and the casual visitor in ,bath4 ,salisbury ,salisberie4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,salisbury affords a remarkable instance of the complete transference of the cathedral followed by the ultimate desertion of the city in the change from old ,sarum1 the original site1 to ,new ,sarum1 another within a short distance--one might almost say within a stone's throw4 ,in the old days of prosperity ,old ,sarum1 now simply a conical mass of ruins1 was peopled with the ,belgae1 who came from ,gaul and ousted the original inhabitants4 ,how this site ever came to be chosen as a desirable place of settlement seems to be rather a mystery1 for even in those early days constant difficulties arose with regard to the insufficiency of water4 ,they aptly called it the dry city1 which is supposed to be the meaning of the old name ,searobyrig1 which later underwent a further contraction--,scarborough4 ,this arid spot1 however1 received the attention of the ,romans1 who possibly were attracted by the natural advantages of defence offered by the conical mound rising abruptly1 as it does1 from the valley4 ,they carried on the old name and ,latinised it1 as they invariably seemed to have done1 or rather made a compromise between the native and their own formation1 and arrived at ,sorbiordunum4 ,the scarcity of water seems not to have deterred them in any way1 as witness the many evidences of their fossae1 extensive ramparts1 and fortress--signs which indicate that in their hands ,old ,sarum was held to be of considerable importance4 ,roman roads branched out of it1 no doubt pointing to the four cardinal points1 in accordance with regular custom1 though their whereabouts may be difficult to define1 seeing that several centuries have passed since the desertion of ,old ,sarum4 ,with their passing away the ,roman conquerors have left behind them many relics1 possibly in their day considered worthless1 but the unearthing of which has caused1 for many a year1 unalloyed joy and given a priceless treasure to the unwearied antiquaries4 ,another great source of speculation to the archaeologists has been the temple of the ,druids erected some time at ,stonehenge4 ,it lies beyond the city on the great ,salisbury plain4 ,this primitive form of architecture takes us back to many years before ,christ1 when the early ,britons wore no clothes1 save the skins of animals they slew in the chase1 and when they could neither read1 write1 weave1 nor do anything which would be considered nowadays as civilising4 ,they were to all intents and purposes mere savages1 kept in control by their priests and lawgivers1 the ,druids1 whom they held in the greatest respect4 ,the ,britons1 we are told1 had the additional discomfort of dwelling in holes burrowed in the ground1 or in miserably constructed huts4 ,in view of this poor state of domestic architecture1 how they ever managed to erect roofless temples1 as at ,stonehenge and at the island of ,anglesea1 and to overcome1 what must have been to them a very great engineering feat1 the setting up of the heavy blocks of stone in situ1 seems marvellous and not easy of explanation4 ,illustration3 ,,salisbury ,,high ,,street ,,gateway ,,into ,,the ,,close ,the great veneration in which the ,britons held these temples of the ,druids is much accentuated by an incident during the second occupation of ,britain by the ,romans4 ,suetonius ,paulinus1 one of their greatest generals1 thought that by destroying the temple at the island of ,anglesea he would shake the faith of the ,britons in their priests1 and gain thereby a speedier conquest1 much in the same way as when ,clive in ,india knocked down ,dupleix's column to undermine the ,french influence over the natives4 ,in the latter case history has assured us of the ultimate fulfilment of hopes1 and it was the same with ,paulinus in #fa1 only on his return to the mainland he all but suffered a reverse from an unexpected rising of ,britons under ,boadicea4 ,nevertheless1 the power of the ,druids was irretrievably broken by the slaughter of their order and the felling of the groves at ,anglesea1 as ,paulinus had foreseen4 ,what the object and origin of these remains at ,stonehenge were1 still serve as an interesting matter for controversy4 ,competent authorities1 like ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 ,polydore ,vergil1 and in the eighteenth century ,dr4 ,stukely1 arrived more or less at the same conclusions4 ,the first named said that ,stonehenge was a sepulchral monument erected by ,aurelius ,ambrosius1 who1 according to a tradition1 was thus led by the counsel of ,merlin to commemorate the slaughter of #ejj ,britons by ,hengist1 the ,saxon chief1 about the year #dej ,a4,d4 ,polydore ,vergil confined himself to the statement that it was the ancient temple of the ,britons in which the ,druids officiated1 whilst ,dr4 ,stukely asserted that the ,britons here held their annual meetings at which laws were passed and justice administered4 ,he was also fortunate enough to discover the cursus1 in #agbc1 in its vicinity4 ,perhaps it may be thought that ,stonehenge is out of place in this account of ,salisbury2 but in leaving it out it would be as much as to doubt the genuineness of any one's visit to this ancient cathedral city if he had not also seen the ,druidical remains4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,old ,sarum1 ,cynric won a victory over the ,britons in the year #eeb4 ,though it steadily increased in importance1 little worthy of notice occurred there till the close of the tenth century4 ,at the small town of ,wilton1 which is almost three miles distant from ,salisbury1 the seat of the ,diocese was originally established in the first years of the tenth century1 and remained under the superintendence of eleven succeeding bishops4 ,the last one of them was ,hermannus4 ,on his accession to the ,see of ,sherborne--an ancient and interesting town of ,dorsetshire--he annexed it to the ,bishopric of ,wilton4 ,he thereupon founded1 for these united sees1 a cathedral church at ,old ,sarum4 ,this effort of his was afterwards completed by ,osmund1 who accompanied ,william the ,conqueror to ,england1 and was by him appointed bishop4 ,a matter of sixty years prior to the ,norman invasion ,old ,sarum had fallen a victim in #ajjc to the fury of ,sweyn1 the ,king of ,denmark4 ,this was in accordance with a vow of retaliation he had made when he learnt of the murder of his sister in the general massacre of the ,danes1 which had taken place the year before4 ,this unhappy period1 when many other counties besides ,wiltshire suffered extensively1 was during the reign of ,ethelred the ,unready4 ,illustration3 ,,salisbury ,,the ,,market ,,cross ,in the great plain of ,salisbury the ,conqueror1 in #ajgj1 passed a review of his army1 just flushed with their victories in the neighbourhood4 ,on the completion of his great survey1 the ,doomsday ,book1 in #ajhf1 he here at ,salisberie1 as he renamed the city1 received the homage and oath of allegiance from the ,english landlords4 ,till the year #abag the ,see remained at ,old ,sarum1 and even after the complete depopulation and the demolition of every house of this ancient ,roman site1 it still was represented regularly at ,parliament by two members till the year #ahcb4 ,the reasons that led to the choice of the new site by ,bishop ,poore were the many advantages offered1 especially the abundance of water by ,new ,sarum1 as it was called1 as set against the exposure to the stormy winds which it was alleged went even so far as to drown the voice of the officiating priest1 the congestion of houses within its narrow limits1 the difficulty of procuring water1 and finally the despotism of the governor at ,old ,sarum4 ,to rid himself of these inconveniences1 ,bishop ,poore procured the papal authority to the removal of the ,cathedral from ,old ,sarum to its present site in the year #abah1 though not till the ,reformation was the service discontinued in the old buildings4 ,by then ,new ,sarum had reaped the full benefit of the new conditions and surroundings4 ,though only two miles away1 the old place1 in proportion to the rising of the new township1 sank to a few inhabitants1 loth perhaps to part with old associations4 ,the first building to appear in ,new ,sarum1 or ,salisbury as we shall henceforth call it1 seems to have been the wooden chapel of ,st4 ,mary1 the erection of which was commenced in the ,easter of the year #abai4 ,this was followed in the year #abbj by the foundation of the new cathedral as planned by ,bishop ,poore4 ,it was completed and dedicated to the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary in #abeh4 ,the ground-plan is that of a ,greek or double cross4 ,with the slight exceptions of the upper part of the tower and the spire1 which belong to a later date1 the entire fabric represents the purest style of the ,early ,english architecture4 ,the cloisters1 built by ,bishop ,walter de la ,wyle1 are the largest and most magnificent of any in the kingdom4 ,they are of the late ,early ,english style1 and took1 with the addition of the ,chapter ,house by the same prelate1 from #abfc till #abgd to complete4 ,illustration3 ,,salisbury ,,the ,,cloisters ,shortly after1 the upper part of the tower was built in the ,decorated style by ,bishop ,wyville1 about #accj4 ,five years later it was capped by the highest spire in ,england4 ,a marvellous achievement of lightness of design1 of slenderness and beauty of proportion1 it reaches from base to crown to the remarkable height of four hundred and four feet4 ,its great height has caused much anxiety from time to time1 through the enormous pressure exerted upon the tower beneath it4 ,this unique example of a spire was followed next by a chapel built by ,bishop ,beauchamp between #adej and #adhb4 ,another was carried out by ,lord ,hungerford in #adgf4 ,these two chapels1 together with an elegant campanile1 were entirely swept away in the restorations that took place under the direction of the architect ,james ,wyatt4 ,no doubt the ,cathedral required extensive repairs1 but it seems regrettable that any architect should have caused such demolition1 instead of endeavouring to make good the ravages of time4 ,as for the old west front1 the coloured drawing of ,mr4 ,collins gives an excellent idea of its rich sculpturesque beauty4 ,the ,cathedral is isolated in the centre of an immense lawn1 as it were4 ,this again can be kept private by the ,close1 the area of which extends to half a mile square4 ,within its limits is a delightful mall shaded with trees1 as there are also the ,bishop's ,palace1--a building of various dates1 originated by ,poore the founder1--the ,deanery1 and several other houses4 ,we have said elsewhere that the ,cathedral ,close of ,salisbury may be considered the best example of its kind in ,england1 though that at ,wells is not far behind4 ,the close was an enclosure1 within the precincts of the cathedral1 reserved for the dwellings originally intended for the exclusive domestic use of the ,bishop and canons4 ,this1 however1 is not strictly observed now4 ,two or three delightful gateways of ancient character and beautiful design give access to the ,cathedral ,close of ,salisbury4 ,appended to the ,cathedral is the beautiful ,chapter ,house1 lighted by lofty windows4 ,it is octagonal in form1 the roof of which is upheld by a central clustered column4 ,a frieze in bas-relief1 carried round the interior of the building1 is ornamented with biblical subjects4 ,at different times numerous monuments1 chiefly to the bishops of the ,see1 have been erected1 notably those to ,bishops ,joceline and ,roger4 ,a monument to one of the children of the choir has a sad interest4 ,it was customary during the festival of ,st4 ,nicholas for one of the choristers to personate the character of a bishop4 ,in this case the boy-bishop died while performing his role4 ,the other interesting buildings of the town are the parish churches of ,st4 ,martin1 ,st4 ,thomas1 and ,st4 ,edmond2 the banqueting hall of ,j4 ,halle1 who was a wool merchant in #adgj2 ,audley ,house1 which also dates from the fifteenth century1 and which in #ahha underwent a thorough repair4 ,it serves now as the ,church ,house of the ,diocese4 ,elizabeth's ,grammar ,school1 ,st4 ,nicholas ,hospital1 founded in ,richard ,,ii4's reign1 and ,trinity ,house1 established by ,agnes ,bottenham in #acgi1 are interesting links of mediaevalism4 ,in this period must also be included the ,poultry ,cross4 ,it is a high cross1 hexagonal in form4 ,its space is well distributed by six arches and a central pillar4 ,lord ,montacute erected it just prior to the year #acce4 ,the city's prosperity depended upon that of the church4 ,in fact it was laid out according to ,bishop ,poore's plan4 ,the citizens deserted ,old ,sarum to settle around the new ecclesiastical establishment at ,new ,sarum4 ,in #abbg1 by a charter of ,henry ,,iii41 the city enjoyed the same freedom and liberties as those of ,winchester4 ,the government of the city became vested in a mayor1 recorder1 deputy-recorder1 twenty-four aldermen1 and various other subordinate officers4 ,the charter was confirmed by successive sovereigns till the accession of ,anne4 ,salisbury1 or ,new ,sarum1 was first represented at ,parliament in #abie4 ,in #ahhe1 by the ,redistribution ,act1 its two representatives were reduced to one4 ,the city itself has also witnessed the assembly of ,parliament within its limits on various occasions4 ,for being implicated in a conspiracy for deposing ,richard ,,iii4 to raise ,henry ,tudor1 ,earl of ,richmond1 to the throne1 the ,duke of ,buckingham was in #adhd executed at ,salisbury4 ,for a reward of ,l#ajjj the ,duke was betrayed by a dependent with whom he was in hiding in ,shropshire4 ,illustration3 ,,salisbury ,,the ,,cathedral ,during the ,civil ,war the city was held alternately by both parties4 ,since then the citizens have been left in comparative peace1 intent on their several industries4 ,at one time they were actively engaged in the preparation of woollen articles and in the manufacture of excellent cutlery4 ,these are now declined1 and such commodities as boots and shoes take the first rank1 whilst the shops depend mainly on the villages and agriculture around4 ,the many places of antiquity in this ancient city of the county of ,wiltshire have furnished many interesting palaeolithic relics for the reception of which the ,blackmore ,museum was established4 ,the library was instituted by ,bishop ,jewal1 in #aefj to #aega4 ,there have been many men of note from ,salisbury4 ,the celebrated poet and essayist ,addison1 born near ,amesbury in this county of ,wiltshire1 was educated at the ,grammar ,school for choristers within the ,close4 ,amongst the many eminent natives of the city are included ,william ,hermann1 author of several works in prose and verse2 ,george ,coryate1 who wrote ,the ,crudities2 ,john ,greenhill1 a celebrated portrait painter2 ,william and ,henry ,lawes1 both musicians and composers2 and ,james ,harris1 author of ,hermes4 ,but the most conspicuous1 or rather the best known1 is ,henry ,fawcett1 the politician and economist4 ,born in #ahcc1 he was the second son of a draper who1 starting as an assistant1 became afterwards his own master4 ,he was enabled to afford his son ,henry a good education at ,king's ,college and ,peterhouse1 ,cambridge1 from which he migrated to ,trinity ,hall4 ,he became ,seventh ,wrangler and ,fellow of his ,college4 ,at the ,cambridge ,union1 ,fawcett gained considerable notice for his oratory4 ,his ambition conceived the idea of attaining the highest honours in the kingdom through the profession of a barrister4 ,for this purpose he entered ,lincoln's ,inn1 but at the age of twenty-five a terrible accident happened to him4 ,his eyesight was lost by two stray pellets from the gun of his father4 ,though his plans of advancement were altered1 he determined within ten minutes of the catastrophe to continue his old pursuits of rowing1 fishing1 skating1 riding1 and even playing at cards which were marked4 ,he became ,liberal candidate for ,brighton in #ahfe1 and entered ,parliament just when ,palmerston's career came to a close4 ,he opposed ,gladstone's scheme for universal education in ,ireland4 ,he was an opponent to ,disraeli's ,government4 ,on the return of the ,liberal ,party to power ,fawcett was offered the post of ,postmaster-,general1 though without a seat in the ,cabinet4 ,he introduced five important postal reforms2 namely1 the parcels-post1 postal-orders1 sixpenny telegrams1 the banking of small savings by means of stamps1 and increased facilities for life insurance and annuities4 ,he also invented the little slot label1 next collection1 on the pillar-boxes4 ,the employment of women he greatly advocated4 ,the defeat of the scheme for the deforestation of ,epping ,forest and the ,new ,forest was entirely due to the exertions of this great politician4 ,after a marvellous career of many years ,fawcett died in #ahhd4 ,from humble origin1 and in spite of his blindness1 if he did not realise his full ambition1 he reached to an exalted position in the ,state--an achievement never accomplished by any one under like disability4 ,exeter ,in the great peninsula that runs out into the ,atlantic is ,devonshire1 adjoining ,cornwall1 that dwindles to the ,land's ,end1 the point eagerly welcomed by visitors to ,england1 the last of the ,old ,country to which a farewell is given4 ,through the northern portion of ,devonshire meanders the river ,exe1 having established its source in ,somersetshire4 ,quite ten miles before the river empties its waters at the mouth into the ,english ,channel1 on a broad ridge of land rising steeply from the left bank of the ,exe1 is the old city of ,exeter4 ,it is the chief of the county1 and has had a varied existence4 ,for the earliest period of ,exeter1 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth supplies much information1 which has been greatly borne out by subsequent researches4 ,he considered that ,exeter was a city of the ,britons some time before the ,romans elected to establish their camp4 ,the ,british named it indifferently ,caer-,wisc 7city of the water71 or ,caer ,rydh 7the red city71 from the coloured nature of the soil4 ,when captured by the ,romans they made it a stipendiary town4 ,they called it ,isca1 to which was added ,danmoniorum1 to avoid confusion with the other ,isca1 a ,latinised name given also to a town on the river 7now ,usk7 in ,monmouthshire4 ,many proofs of ,roman occupation have turned up in the shape of numerous coins and other relics4 ,the year #aggh was especially notable for the excavations which brought to light many important objects4 ,small statuettes of ,mercury1 ,mars1 ,ceres1 and ,apollo1 evidently the household gods of the ,romans1 together with urns1 tiles1 and tessellated pavements1 were unearthed4 ,exeter at one time went by the name of ,augusta1 which was due to its having been occupied by the ,second ,augustan ,legion1 whose commander1 ,vespasian1 included the city under his conquest ,britannia ,prima4 ,the same legion1 during the period #dg to #eb1 had also a permanent station at ,isca ,silurum1 as ,caerleon-on-the-,usk in ,monmouth was called4 ,but as ,vespasian continued the conquest1 #fi to #gi1 it seems fair to surmise that the ,second ,legion of ,augusta was advanced or a portion sent from ,isca ,silurum to garrison ,isca ,danmoniorum1 the present ,exeter4 ,for a considerable time it was the capital of the ,west ,saxon kingdom4 ,it was probably during the ,saxon occupation that the city changed its name to ,excestre1 which would easily be contracted into that of ,exeter4 ,in violation of a compact made with ,alfred1 who was a ,saxon monarch1 the ,danes seized the city4 ,they were1 however1 compelled to evacuate it1 together with the surrender of all their prisoners within the ,west ,saxon territory1 by ,alfred1 in #hgg4 ,this monarch was again called upon in #hid to relieve the ,saxons from their ,danish oppressors4 ,the next century witnessed a marked improvement in the prosperity of the city4 ,it had from quite an early period been distinguished for its numerous monastic institutions1 so much so that it was said to have been called ,monk ,town by ,britons in ,cornwall and the heathen ,saxons4 ,they were pleased to deride it thus1 but when ,athelstan came he clearly made them understand that it was no happy state to be without the pale of the ,church4 ,he so thoroughly instilled into them the necessity of imbibing the principles of religion that those who were unwilling to become converts were expelled4 ,illustration3 ,,exeter ,,from ,,the ,,palace ,,gardens ,with the exception of a few1 we may take it that many embraced ,christianity as a matter of compulsion or for expediency's sake1 for in those days of hard knocks it was hardly likely that any mass of ignorant peasants would comprehend anything but the most stringent measures4 ,the transition from heathen darkness to the light of ,christianity must have meant a severe initiation to two-thirds of the population of ,exeter at the time of ,athelstan's accession4 ,he came westward about the year #ibf and found the ,britons and ,saxons living amicably and enjoying equal rights4 ,the city had by them already been called ,exenceaster1 that is1 the cester or fortified town on the ,exe4 ,athelstan augmented the number of religious institutions by the foundation of a ,benedictine monastery4 ,the building was dedicated to ,st4 ,peter1 the establishment of which there seems no reason to doubt gave birth eventually to the present cathedral4 ,besides this he materially increased the importance of the town by appointing two mints and erecting regular fortifications with towers and a wall of hewn stone4 ,athelstan's monastery was destroyed by the ,danes4 ,king ,edgar in #ifh restored it1 and appointed ,sydemann to the ,abbacy1 as it then became4 ,ultimately this abbot was raised to the ,bishopric of ,crediton1 which was the seat of the ,devonshire ,diocese about #iaj4 ,in #ajjc ,exeter1 after a gallant defence of some three months' duration1 was betrayed by its governor into the hands of ,sweyn4 ,as has been said elsewhere1 this king came from ,denmark especially to punish ,ethelred the ,unready for having allowed the massacre of ,danes1 in which the sister of ,sweyn had perished4 ,the monastery of ,st4 ,peter was not spared1 nor was the city1 which did not recover from the terrible visitation till the accession of ,canute4 ,from this time ,exeter increased to such importance and wealth that in the reign of ,edward the ,confessor it was deemed advisable and for better security to make it the head of the ,diocese4 ,for this purpose the ,sees of ,crediton and ,st4 ,germans 7,cornwall7 were united under one bishop4 ,to uphold worthily the new dignity1 the abbey church of ,st4 ,peter was erected into a cathedral by the ,confessor1 who appointed his chaplain ,leofric as first bishop of the united see4 ,leofric had the monks removed to ,westminster ,abbey1 and installed in their stead were twenty-four secular canons4 ,the date of ,leofric's installation is about #ajdj1 which is1 of course1 that of the foundation of the ,cathedral4 ,this arrangement was altered on the re-erection of the ,cornish ,see in #ahgf4 ,in ,william the ,conqueror's time ,githa1 the mother of ,harold1 gave the ,normans considerable trouble4 ,it was only on the appearance of that monarch before the city's walls that the citizens surrendered4 ,they were made to pay a heavy fine1 whilst ,githa escaped with her treasures to take refuge in ,flanders4 ,william in the end relented and renewed all their former privileges4 ,nevertheless he took the precaution to erect a fortress in ,exeter1 the charge of which was entrusted to ,baldwin de ,brioniis1 who1 by virtue of his office1 became ,earl of ,devon and sheriff of the county4 ,the chief remains of the ,castle is a gateway tower4 ,this same castle was held by the partisans of the ,empress ,matilda for three months1 when it was compelled in #aacf through scarcity of water to surrender to ,stephen4 ,contrary to expectation1 they were treated very well4 ,henry ,,ii41 for their loyalty1 was pleased to grant additional privileges4 ,in #abjj the city for the first time was governed by a mayor and corporation4 ,subsequently their importance was increased by the charters of ,edward ,,iii41 ,edward ,,iv41 and ,henry ,,viii41 whilst ,henry ,,viii4 constituted ,exeter a county of itself4 ,these privileges were extended by ,charles ,i42 and in #afhd a new charter of incorporation was granted by ,charles ,,ii41 but not put into effect4 ,in #aggj ,george ,,iii4 renewed and confirmed the charter1 since when the government has been invested in a mayor assisted by subordinate officers4 ,in the meantime a curious incident occurred in #ahbd1 which greatly interfered with the prosperity of the city1 inasmuch as the navigation of the river ,exe was obstructed by a dam erected by ,hugh ,courtenay1 at that time ,earl of ,devon4 ,exeter1 through its happy situation on the river ,exe1 had for many years reaped full benefit4 ,at the time of the ,conquest it had gained considerable importance through the river being navigable for ships right up to its quays4 ,among many petty matters that annoyed the ,earl the following is alleged to have been the chief4 ,there were three pots of fish in the market-place4 ,the ,earl wanted them all4 ,the ,bishop likewise4 ,neither would give way1 and the ,mayor was called in to adjudicate4 ,he allotted one to the ,earl1 the second to the ,bishop1 and the third to the town4 ,this distribution did not suit the ,earl4 ,out of pique he caused a dam to be constructed across the ,exe at ,topsham4 ,there he built a quay1 and had the satisfaction of greatly curtailing the trade of ,exeter4 ,illustration3 ,,exeter ,,mol',s ,,coffee ,,tavern ,in #abhf ,edward ,i4 assembled a parliament at ,exeter1 whilst in #acga the ,black ,prince brought here his royal prisoner of ,france and stayed several days4 ,the ,duchess of ,clarence1 accompanied by many royal adherents1 took refuge within the city walls in #adfi4 ,it was besieged by ,sir ,william ,courtenay1 who eventually raised it on the mediation of the clergy4 ,the next event of importance not only affected ,exeter1 but threw into agitation the whole of the ,british ,empire4 ,of two impostors that laid claim to the ,crown which ,henry ,,vii4 was wearing1 the second was a youth called ,perkin ,warbeck4 ,he bore such a striking resemblance to the ,plantagenets that he had been secretly instructed to impersonate ,richard ,duke of ,york1 the younger brother of ,edward ,v41 who it was pretended had escaped from the ,tower and from the fate that overtook his brother4 ,so ingratiating was his manner that he successfully enlisted the aid of the ,duchess of ,burgundy1 who was holding her court at ,brussels4 ,his first attempt to land in ,england was in ,kent2 his second in ,ireland4 ,both ventures being unsuccessful1 he tried ,scotland4 ,there he convinced ,king ,james ,,iv4 that he was a true ,plantagenet1 and through him he raised an army and invaded ,england4 ,however1 the two kings having come to an understanding1 ,warbeck retired to ,ireland4 ,he there received an invitation from the ,cornishmen1 acting on which he landed at ,whitsand ,bay in that county4 ,at ,bodmin he was joined by a considerable force of men1 with whom he marched and laid siege to ,exeter in the year #adig4 ,at the approach of the royal forces his followers were dispersed1 whilst he fled to ,beaulieu in ,hampshire4 ,two years afterwards he ended his career at ,tyburn4 ,in #aecf ,exeter was erected a county of itself4 ,the year #aedi saw the investment of the city by a numerous body of popish adherents1 from whom it was relieved by ,john ,lord ,russell in ,august4 ,on the very day of its investment1 the second of ,july1 the strange spectacle of ,welch being hanged from the tower of his own church1 in which he had been accustomed to officiate as vicar1 took place4 ,he suffered on the charge of being a ,cornish rebel4 ,during the parliamentary war it was taken and retaken1 finally to be surrendered to the ,roundheads in #afdf4 ,throughout it all the citizens were warm supporters of the ,stuarts1 as they had always been to the ,crown4 ,so much so was their loyalty that in a previous reign1 that of ,elizabeth1 she presented to the ,corporation1 with many other marks of her royal favour1 the motto ,semper ,fidelis4 ,during the stay of the parliamentary troops under ,general ,fairfax1 the ,cathedral was ruthlessly defaced and divided into places of worship for ,presbyterians and ,independents4 ,the palace adjoining was also turned into barracks1 and the ,chapter ,house converted into stables4 ,during these troubles ,queen ,henrietta ,maria1 the consort of ,charles ,i41 had returned to ,exeter from ,oxford1 believing herself to be in danger from the hatred with which she feared she was regarded by the people4 ,here she gave birth to her youngest child1 the ,princess ,henrietta4 ,leaving the infant at ,exeter she escaped to ,france4 ,in the ,guildhall1 which is a picturesque ,elizabethan building1 are two full-length portraits3 one depicts the features of ,general ,monk1 ,duke of ,albemarle1 painted by ,sir ,peter ,lely2 the other was given by ,charles ,,ii4 to the ,corporation as some slight acknowledgment of the city's loyalty4 ,it represents the portrait of his sister1 ,princess ,henrietta1 then ,duchess of ,orleans4 ,james ,,ii4 was the next sovereign to bestow favour1 which he did by establishing a mint in #afhh4 ,his influence was shortlived1 for on the arrival of the ,prince of ,orange in the ,august of the same year the inhabitants readily submitted4 ,this prince is credited with establishing a mint at ,exeter1 or it may be he simply completed or confirmed that of his predecessor4 ,the following year saw him on the throne of the kingdom as ,william ,,iii41 which ratified the declaration he had caused to be read by ,burnet in the ,cathedral of ,exeter4 ,though visited by subsequent reigning princes1 their presence may be said to have conferred more honour than to have promoted any material changes to the prosperity of ,exeter4 ,the mainstay of the city is the glorious ,cathedral1 and the quaintness of some of its houses and streets is unique4 ,they afford a great attraction to visitors1 who are willing to go a long railway journey west simply to see and compare the merits and demerits of the ,cathedral with the many others dotted throughout ,great ,britain4 ,the actual date of the ,cathedral is in #ajdi4 ,its origin1 as we have seen1 occasioned no turning of the soil to receive foundations1 but merely the conventual church of the monks1 removed by ,edward the ,confessor to his new abbey at ,westminster1 adapted to meet the requirements of ,bishop ,leofric and his secular canons appointed to the united ,sees of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,the head of the ,diocese was at ,exeter4 ,what was the size and character of the converted monastic church at that time no two authorities seem able to agree4 ,according to an old record at ,oxford its lease soon ran out1 for in the year #aaab a new church was commenced by ,bishop ,warlewast1 continued by his successors1 and finally completed by ,bishop ,marshall1 who died in #abjf4 ,they are supposed to have carried out the plan of ,warlewast2 but as the whole of the fabric1 with the exception of the towers1 was entirely rebuilt in #abhj1 the original design is chiefly conjectural4 ,the body of the church probably corresponded in character with the two massive transeptal towers4 ,these are quite a feature in that1 with the exception of those at the collegiate church of ,ottery in ,devonshire1 they exist nowhere else in ,england4 ,this arrangement of the towers did away with the necessity of either a central tower or lantern4 ,it enabled the architect to extend a long unbroken roof throughout the nave and choir4 ,the aisles1 with the intervention of richly clustered pillars and pointed arches springing from their caps1 range along on either side of the nave4 ,with the sets of ribs starting each from a clustered centre1 and spreading out as they soar towards the highest limit of the roof1 as grand an exposition of beauty and noble gradations of perspective lines1 as conceived by architects of the ,decorative period1 have been realised4 ,the period of this rebuilding was commenced in #abhj with the ,early ,english style of architecture by ,bishop ,quivil1 and was completed in #acfi in the best years of the ,decorated style1 just a few years before the ,perpendicular came into vogue4 ,it is said that this cathedral served as a model for the church at ,ottery4 ,though this cathedral in miniature resembles the great edifice in ,exeter in certain points1 notably the transeptal towers1 yet1 if the principal part of it dates from #abfj1 it can hardly1 with the one exception1 have been a copy of the chief church of the ,diocese4 ,the ,early ,english work of ,ottery church takes1 by comparison of dates1 priority over that at ,exeter by some twenty years4 ,illustration3 ,,exeter ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,nave ,the west front1 which is one mass of elegant tracery and canopied niches adorned with statuary1 is the ,decorated period merged into that of the ,perpendicular1 covering the years from about #acfi to #acid1 under the episcopacy of ,brantingham4 ,the windows are excellent examples of elegant tracing4 ,under successive bishops after ,quivil1 the chief alteration was the lengthening of the nave and the roof vaulted by ,grandison4 ,the year #adbj really saw the completion of the building under ,bishop ,lacey4 ,time and weather having caused certain decay1 ,sir ,g4 ,g4 ,scott was directed in #ahgj to restore it4 ,the undertaking took seven years4 ,a new stall1 a reredos1 the choir repaved1 rich marbles and porphyries used1 and stained glass put up mainly by ,clayton and ,bell1 were the chief items of restoration4 ,when erecting the reredos ,scott could never have foreseen the little storm it gave rise to1 just when he was half-way through with the general renovation4 ,prebendary ,philpotts1 the ,chancellor1 and several others had their conscientious objections1 which they laid before the ,bishop's visitation court in #ahgc4 ,it was ruled that the ,bishop had the jurisdiction in the matter4 ,he ordered the removal of the reredos in ,april #ahgd4 ,in ,august of the same year ,dean ,boyd appealed to the ,court of ,arches1 and had the previous decision reversed by ,sir ,r4 ,phillimore4 ,however1 ,prebendary ,philpotts saw fit to appeal to the ,judicial ,committee of the ,privy ,council4 ,they decided that the reredos should remain4 ,thus in #ahge was ended the controversy2 and there rests ,sir ,g4 ,g4 ,scott's design1 open to the criticism of all who are capable of framing an impartial one4 ,in this same year of #ahge much excitement arose over the church-tax4 ,it was called indifferently dominicals and sacrament money1 which were said to be of the nature of tithes4 ,however1 the disputes were ended by the distraints for payment4 ,in the ,chapter ,house is preserved an important manuscript1 including the famous book of ,saxon poetry presented by ,leofric on his accession to the ,see of ,exeter4 ,it is called the ,exeter ,book1 and is the life of ,st4 ,guthlac1 by ,cynewulf1 who was an early ,english writer4 ,born somewhere between #gbj and #gcj at ,northumbria1 ,cynewulf was a wandering bard by profession4 ,late in life he suffered a religious crisis1 and devoted his remaining years to religious poetry4 ,an early work of his is a series of ninety-four ,riddles4 ,it is an example of the effects of ,latin influence1 which in the end revolutionised the style of ,old ,english literature as a whole4 ,cynewulf appears to have been a prolific writer4 ,besides the ,riddles1 the ,crist 7dealing with the three advents of ,christ71 the lives of ,st4 ,juliana and ,st4 ,elene1 and the ,fates of the ,apostles are ascribed to him1 as well as ,the ,descent into ,hell1 ,felix1 and the lives of ,st4 ,andreas and ,st4 ,guthlac4 ,a valuable treasure is that in the possession of ,exeter4 ,many such precious relics are to be found distributed among the various ecclesiastical buildings in ,england1 known only to antiquarians and people with interest akin to theirs4 ,the quaint1 picturesque old coffee tavern1 with its bow windows of square-leaded panes1 ends curiously at the top with a moulded outline so reminiscent of many houses in ,belgium4 ,the tombs are mostly to the memory of bishops who each in his own time maintained the dignity of the ,see4 ,of those natives who came to the front through sheer ability may be enumerated the following3 ,josephus ,iscanus1 or ,joseph of ,exeter1 a distinguished ,latin poet of the twelfth century2 his contemporary1 ,baldwin1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury2 ,john ,hooker1 author of ,a ,history of ,exeter in the ,sixteenth ,century2 ,sir ,thomas ,bodley1 who founded the magnificent ,bodleian ,library at ,oxford2 ,matthew ,lock1 a seventeenth-century musical composer of note2 and many others4 ,amongst many notable institutions is the ,grammar ,school1 which dates from the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ,the manufactures are few4 ,the woollen trade1 at one time only surpassed by ,leeds1 has now entirely departed from ,exeter4 ,if it were not for its glorious minster and the river ,exe1 up which vessels of three hundred tons' burden can come up right to the city's quay1 ,exeter would have long ago sunk to mere insignificance4 ,the river1 which decided the early ,britons to settle on its banks1 the ,romans to station the ,second ,legion of ,augusta1 the monks to establish their humble monastery1 eventually to be absorbed into a see1 has from the early times afforded facilities for exports and imports4 ,the ship canal from ,exeter to ,topsham1 which is in the estuary of the ,exe1 begun in #aefd1 enlarged in #afge and again in #ahbg1 materially assisted and rescued commerce from a serious decline4 ,those vessels that are too deep in the water remain at ,topsham1 whilst those of still greater tonnage discharge their holds at ,exmouth1 a port at the mouth of the river4 ,norwich ,norwic4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,when this city first came into being it is puzzling to say4 ,the difficulty is as to where the site was originally fixed4 ,three miles to the south of ,norwich is the village of ,caistor 7,st4 ,edmunds74 ,owing to its position on the river ,wentsum1 or ,wensum1 it was called ,caer ,gwent by the ,britons1 and for the like reason it was named by the ,romans ,venta ,icenorum4 ,it formed their principal station1 as it before had served as the residence of the kings of the ,iceni4 ,from the ruins of ,venta ,icenorum gradually arose ,norwich4 ,as to when it was firmly established on its present eminence under the name of ,nordewic1 or ,north ,town1 there seems to be no reliable evidence4 ,it first appears by that name in the ,saxon ,chronicle of the year #ajjd4 ,it may possibly mean the town north of the old settlement4 ,for one thing it is certain1 in proportion as ,nordewic rose ,caistor sank from an important town to a mere village in ruins4 ,according to an authority1 an earlier date is arrived at than the entry in the ,saxon ,chronicle4 ,he conjectures that the keep1 the only remnant of the castle built on the summit of the steep mound by ,william ,rufus1 was the ,saxon burh1 erected in #gfg4 ,this1 if correct1 would clearly indicate that ,norwich had already attained considerable importance4 ,according to ,spelman1 it was the residence of the kings of ,east ,anglia4 ,they established a mint1 where it is supposed coins of ,alfred and several succeeding monarchs were struck4 ,from its geographical position ,norwich was frequently exposed to the attacks of the ,norsemen1 who could easily land on the ,norfolk coast and cover the few intervening miles in a short time4 ,the city was alternately in the possession of the ,saxons and the ,danes4 ,against the latter ,alfred the ,great repaired and fortified the citadel1 to whom1 however1 he eventually handed it over after a treaty of peace4 ,the ,saxons afterwards regained it and held it till #ajjd1 when it had to surrender to the ,danes under their leader ,sweyn4 ,the terrible weak reign of ,ethelred ,,ii4 had earned him the epithet of ,unready4 ,his indolence caused his territories to be terrorised1 the towns to be racked1 and their inhabitants to be massacred by the ,danes under ,sweyn1 who1 under pretext of avenging the murder of his sister1 took the opportunity of ravaging and laying waste the land4 ,on the accession of ,canute1 however1 though a ,dane1 the cities began to prosper again4 ,thus it came about that ,norwich1 which had remained in a state of desolation till #ajah1 came again into ,danish possession1 but under ,canute4 ,with this fresh beginning it rapidly rose to great importance4 ,by the time of the ,norman ,conquest1 ,norwich was classed as second only to ,york in extent and prosperity1 being described in the ,doomsday ,book as having #acbj burgesses with their families1 #be parish churches1 and covering an area of not far short of #ajjj acres4 ,it was bestowed by the ,conqueror on ,ralph de ,guaer1 or ,guader1 in #ajge1 who rewarded his master's kindness by joining a conspiracy formed by the ,earls of ,hereford and ,northumberland against the ,crown4 ,after having unsuccessfully defended the ,castle1 he retired into ,brittany1 leaving his wife to sustain the siege4 ,the city was very much damaged1 and the number of burgesses woefully reduced in numbers1 some #efj only being left on the capitulation to the ,conqueror4 ,in view of the gallant defence by ,guader's wife and garrison of ,britons1 ,william granted them all the honours of war and permission to leave the kingdom in perfect security4 ,this siege was a great check to the advancement of the city4 ,at the same time the value of the property must have been considerably lessened4 ,this depreciation after the drawing up of the ,doomsday ,book in #ajhf could hardly have suited the views of the ,conqueror4 ,to obviate the difficulty it would be necessary to introduce some new element1 some attraction that would bring added interest and fresh residents willing to ply their industries in the town4 ,the commencement of a new period of prosperity was soon realised after the establishment of a see at ,norwich1 though not until the time of ,william ,rufus4 ,one of his followers from ,normandy was ,herbert de ,lozinga1 or ,lorraine1 who having been made ,bishop of ,east ,anglia1 decided to remove the ,see from ,thetford to ,norwich4 ,in addition to the ,cathedral1 he established an episcopal palace and a monastery to maintain sixty monks1 all in the year #ajid4 ,it had the desired effect2 the city rapidly improved1 the number of inhabitants greatly increased1 and trade extended4 ,in the reign of ,stephen it was rebuilt4 ,in #aabb ,henry ,i4 granted ,norwich the same franchise as that enjoyed in ,london1 incorporated in a charter4 ,the government of the city was at the same time separated from that of the ,castle1 and entrusted to the chief magistrate1 or ,praepositus 7provost71 as he was styled4 ,another factor in the city's welfare was the colony of ,flemish weavers who settled at ,worstead1 about thirteen miles from ,norwich4 ,they introduced the manufacture of woollen stuffs4 ,a second colony1 however1 came in ,edward ,,iii4's time and settled right in ,norwich1 when it was made a staple town for the counties of ,norfolk and ,suffolk4 ,illustration3 ,,norwich ,,the ,,market ,,place ,the citizens1 in the reign of ,john1 suffered considerable loss from the depredations of the ,dauphin1 who had been invited from ,france to assist the barons4 ,in #abgb a riot between the monks and the citizens caused the burning of the priory4 ,the terrible plague1 called the black death1 that occurred between #acdh and #acdi1 destroyed two-thirds of the population4 ,the city no sooner was beginning to recover from this terrible visitation than one of its residents1 ,john ,listher1 a dyer by profession1 incited an insurrection called the ,norfolk ,levellers4 ,they managed in #acha to do much damage before the rebellion was quelled by the ,bishop of ,norwich1 who defeated ,listher and had him executed4 ,from ,henry ,,iv4 the citizens received permission to be governed by a mayor and sheriffs in #adjc1 and ,norwich was made a county of itself4 ,but in spite of it all the city severely suffered3 what with the continued dissension between the monks and the citizens1 when the monastic buildings were burnt down1 and the tumults by tradesmen all too ready to lay aside their tools and follow some hare-brained leader with a grievance1 and later on1 after the peaceful period of ,elizabeth1 the ,civil ,war4 ,the most notable insurrection was that conducted under the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 by a tanner1 ,robert ,kett1 and his brother ,william4 ,under the pretence of resisting the enclosure of waste lands1 they contrived to excite a most formidable rising4 ,they seized upon the palace of the ,earl of ,surrey1 and1 converting it into a prison1 confined many of the aristocracy4 ,they then encamped upon ,mouse-hold ,heath1 where eventually they were routed by the army under the ,earl of ,warwick in #aedi4 ,the two brothers were taken prisoners1 ,robert being hanged on ,norwich ,castle1 and ,william suffering a like penalty on the steeple of ,wymondham church1 the parish from which they had both come4 ,during the reign of ,elizabeth a large body of ,dutch and ,walloons settled in ,norwich1 and introduced among many other articles the manufacture of bombazine1 for which the city soon became noted4 ,these refugees were ,protestants1 who had sought an asylum in ,england to escape the persecution of the ,duke of ,alva1 and though many ,roman ,catholics and even some of the ,protestants were unwilling martyrs to the stake at ,norwich during this same reign of ,elizabeth1 the city no doubt appeared to these exiles to offer a better chance of life than that in the ,netherlands4 ,by the year #aehb their numbers had increased to five thousand4 ,the ,queen1 who had encouraged and protected these emigrants1 thus laid the foundation of the commercial and manufacturing prosperity of the town1 as she had done elsewhere1 and on her visit to ,norwich was sumptuously feted4 ,but the ,civil ,war in ,charles ,i4's reign did much to upset trade in ,norwich4 ,it was held by the ,parliamentarians1 who seem to have got out of control4 ,the ,cathedral was barbarously defaced1 all its plate and ornaments looted1 and the ,bishop's ,palace greatly damaged4 ,the ,castle1 on the other hand1 was strongly fortified for ,cromwell4 ,after the ,restoration1 ,norwich was one of the first to swear allegiance to ,charles ,,ii41 who with his consort paid it a visit4 ,he went away richer than he came1 the city having assigned its fee-farm to him1 with the presentation of ,l#ajjj sterling besides4 ,since then the citizens have been content to lead a quiet life1 and carry on such manufactures as ironworks1 mustard1 starch1 and brewing of ale1 though the textile manufacture1 once important1 has now declined4 ,printing1 which was introduced here in #aegj1 but discontinued for several years1 was revived in #agja1 when newspapers began to be printed and circulated4 ,though1 as we have seen1 the monks and citizens often did not agree1 yet we must not forget that it was mainly owing to the establishment of the ,see that prosperity came to ,norwich4 ,the presence of the ,cathedral immediately rescued the city from oblivion1 and1 more1 it raised it above the commonplace4 ,all credit must be awarded to ,herbert de ,lozinga4 ,for some reason or other he was dissatisfied with ,thetford1 which was then the seat of the ,diocese1 and determined to transfer it elsewhere4 ,for this purpose in #ajid he purchased a large plot of ground near the ,castle and soon commenced the building of a magnificent cathedral4 ,it was purely ,norman4 ,though it has undergone many alterations1 additions1 and restorations1 ,lozinga's plan is still in great evidence1 much more so than many other examples of ,norman work in ,england4 ,with the establishment of a ,benedictine monastery1 ,lozinga brought his work to a close1 and dedicated it to ,holy ,trinity in #aaja4 ,as presented to us now1 it is a spacious cruciform structure1 with a highly finished and ornamental ,norman tower rising from the centre4 ,this again is surmounted by an elegant octagonal spire of the ,later ,decorated style1 and crocketed at the angles4 ,the spire is #cae feet1 and its height is exceeded in ,england only by that at ,salisbury4 ,the west front is of ,norman character1 with a central entrance1 over which was placed a large window in the ,later ,english style4 ,the nave1 remarkable for its elaborate #cbh bosses1 was stone-vaulted in the fifteenth century4 ,the vaulting of the transepts and the chantry of ,bishop ,nix dates from the sixteenth century4 ,the choir is richly ornamented with excellent design in tracery work of the ,later ,english style1 whilst the east end has several circular chapels4 ,the ,lady ,chapel1 which was early ,english1 was unfortunately demolished about #aehj4 ,the cloisters are very fine4 ,they are #ab feet wide1 and cover an area of #age square feet1 with #de windows inserted4 ,they were commenced in #abig and completed in #adcj4 ,though mainly composed of the ,decorated period1 they range in character from the early years of that style down to the ,later ,english style4 ,the ,cathedral1 in common with the city1 suffered severely4 ,at one time it was very much destroyed by fire4 ,the dome was repaired soon after by ,john of ,oxford1 who was the fourth bishop4 ,illustration3 ,,norwich ,,the ,,aethelbert ,,gate ,besides this it received repeated assaults arising from the numerous disagreements between the monks and the citizens4 ,it is always marvellous to think how such great works of art have come down to the present day exhibiting1 in spite of fires1 ,commonwealth defacements1 repairs and alterations1 so much evidence of the skill of those great masters of mediaeval architecture4 ,the ,chapter ,house1 usually a great feature of the cathedral1 is missing at ,norwich1 though it once existed4 ,there are two monumental effigies1 one to ,bishop ,goldwell about #adii1 and the other to ,bishop ,bathurst in #ahcg1 the work of ,chantrey4 ,of the mural monuments there is one to ,sir ,william ,boleyn4 ,he was the great-grandfather of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,his remains were interred on the south side of the ,presbytery1 in the midst of which once stood the tomb of ,herbert de ,lozinga1 the founder4 ,best viewed from the east1 wrote ,george ,borrow in ,the ,lavengro in a description of ,norwich ,cathedral4 ,perhaps the advice of this extraordinary man is the best one to follow4 ,born at ,east ,dereham1 ,norfolk1 in #ahjc1 of ,cornish descent1 educated at ,norwich ,grammar ,school1 which he supplemented with the study of some twenty languages1 he passed an adventurous and varied career from running away from ,norwich to be a footpad to travelling partly with gypsies over ,europe and ,asia1 the latter part being supposed to account for his disappearance--the veiled period he called it1 lasting from #ahbf to #ahcc4 ,in subsequent years he found time between his restless wanderings to write ,the ,gypsies in ,spain 7#ahda71 ,the ,bible in ,spain 7#ahdc71 the much delayed auto-biography1 appearing in #ahea1 and ,the ,romany ,rye in #aheg4 ,after another long disappearance1 when it was believed he was dead1 he came to life again by publishing his ,romano ,lavo-,lil 7,gypsy ,word-,book7 in #ahgd4 ,from this year till his death in #ahha the famous philologist1 traveller1 and author spent most of his time in lodgings in ,norwich1 where he became a familiar figure4 ,the lives of many men can lay a better claim to be recognised by ,norwich than ,borrow1 through virtue of their birthright4 ,in the fourteenth century ,william ,bateman1 one time ,bishop of ,norwich1 founded the great college of ,trinity ,hall at ,cambridge4 ,his great example was followed by another native of ,norwich1 ,dr4 ,kaye or ,caius1 who established the beautiful college of ,gonville and ,caius at the same university4 ,matthew ,parker1 second ,protestant ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 as chaplain attended ,queen ,anne ,boleyn to the scaffold2 ,robert ,green became a popular writer in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,in #agcd ,edward ,king was born here4 ,he gained much recognition as author of a work on ancient architecture entitled ,munimenta ,antiqua1 and for his many antiquarian researches was admitted ,fellow of the ,society of ,antiquaries4 ,the ,reverend ,william ,beloe acquired a reputation by his translation of ,herodotus1 though possibly only known to classical scholars4 ,the ,linnaean ,society owes its inception to ,sir ,james ,edward ,smith1 ,m4 ,d41 whose first president he became4 ,this distinguished native of ,norwich was also the author of the ,flora ,britannica4 ,the beautiful gate of ,erpingham1 which was erected in #adbj and faces the west end of the ,cathedral1 recalls the munificence of ,sir ,thomas ,erpingham1 by whom it was built4 ,he greatly distinguished himself at the battle of ,agincourt1 and was eventually interred in the ,cathedral of ,norwich1 the town of his residence1 though not of his birth4 ,another resident was ,sir ,john ,fastof1 who lived fighting as a renowned warrior for ,henry ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi4 in their wars in ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,norwich ,,from ,,the ,,northeast ,from the old ,grammar ,school came1 besides ,borrow1 ,sir ,edward ,coke1 who was born in ,norfolk4 ,when only forty years of age he became ,attorney-,general1 and lived in the reign of ,elizabeth1 always at strife with his dangerous and brilliant legal rival1 ,francis ,bacon4 ,coke1 by his opposition to the royal prerogative of raising money on the validity of the ,court of ,high ,commission1 and in taking a considerable share in the drawing up of the ,petition of ,right1 and in the debates upon the conduct of ,buckingham1 earned the dislike of ,james ,i4 ,though treading on dangerous ground1 ,coke nevertheless received active employment1 and appears to have got on quite well in spite of royal displeasure4 ,two other scholars were ,brooke and ,lord ,nelson4 ,brooke entered the ,east ,india ,company's army in #ahai at the age of sixteen4 ,in his remarkable career he assisted the ,sultan of ,brunti to reduce the marauding ,dyak tribes of ,sarawak1 and with such success that the ,sultan created him rajah of the province of ,sarawak in #ahda4 ,a famous school of landscape painting was that at ,norwich4 ,it flourished in the first part of the nineteenth century1 the principal artists of which were ,crome1--who by the way was a native of ,norwich1--,cotman1 ,vincent1 and ,stark4 ,of recent years the ,cathedral has undergone extensive restoration1 namely1 in #ahib and #aijj4 ,before closing this account we think it would be of interest to outline the causes that embittered the existence of the ,jews and led to their persecution through the disappearance of a ,christian boy in #aadd from ,norwich4 ,we have had occasion1 under ,lincoln1 to mention the attitude adopted by the citizens towards the ,jews4 ,if anything1 the feeling was more intense at ,norwich4 ,it is uncertain when they first resided in ,england1 though it is supposed they visited before the ,conquest for purposes of the slave trade1 of which they held a monopoly4 ,the position of the ,jews in a ,christian ,state entirely depended upon the attitude of the ,church1 whose stringent measures effectually precluded any ,semitic from the exercise of any public office unless the reception was confirmed by oaths of a ,christian character4 ,as this clause was foreign to the tenets of the ,hebrew religion1 and as the ,church regarded the means of loans lent out on interest as prohibited by the ,gospel1 and as a disreputable calling and unworthy of a ,christian1 usury became the only means of subsistence to the ,jew in ,england4 ,they were not affected by the views of the ,church1 and soon made themselves felt4 ,as1 however1 capital was needed for the building of monasteries1 abbeys1 and cathedrals by the ,church1 and the kings of ,england1 especially ,john and ,henry ,,iii41 found it convenient to extort tallage1 the ,jews were tolerated4 ,the rate of interest demanded for what was in the first place a trifling loan in a few years increased to a formidable debt4 ,the means adopted by the ,christian ,church and kings of the middle ages to free themselves from this bondage in no way reflect any honour4 ,the custom appears to have been for the king to seize the whole of the estate1 both treasure and debts1 of the ,jew on his demise1 though there may have been sons to inherit4 ,another was to burn the proofs of indebtedness after having slain the creditors1 as the attack against the ,jews organised by a set of nobles1 who were deep in their debt1 is recorded to have taken place at ,york4 ,for the ,jew being a usurer1 the estate fell into the hands of the ,king1 who might be influenced to cancel the debt for a much smaller amount4 ,we cannot then wonder that the lower classes followed in the steps of their superiors4 ,but above all1 in the twelfth century the ,church encouraged the circulation of a suspicion that the ,jews sacrificed ,christian children in their ,passover4 ,however1 the suspicion or blood accusation1 as it was called1 first took root with a case in which a boy of the name of ,william disappeared at ,norwich4 ,this terrible accusation against the ,jews has since been proved to have been founded on the shallowest pretexts1 but at the time the myth was nevertheless encouraged by the clergy1 since it attracted vast numbers of pilgrims to any cathedral or church which might contain the martyred remains of these boy-saints4 ,the example of ,norwich was followed in the same century by one at ,gloucester and ,edmondsbury1 whilst in the following century the supposed martyrdom of ,hugh of ,lincoln served only to increase and confirm the popular belief4 ,hence the intense ill-feeling between the ,christian and the ,jew4 ,london ,st4 ,paul's4 ,si quaeris monumentum1 circumspice4 ,no epitaph more noble and impressive can have possibly been conceived than the simple ,latin inscription placed upon the modest tomb of ,christopher ,wren3 ,if ye seek my monument1 look around4 ,when building this magnificent structure1 the great architect was preparing a glorious sepulchre to receive his remains4 ,some thirty-five years it took ,wren to realise this great achievement--an achievement the more astounding when we learn that he was actively engaged throughout the whole time in the planning and personal superintendence of some thirty churches in ,london1 no two of which are alike4 ,daily he walked around jotting down a sketch of the next detail to be worked upon1 deciding1 as the work progressed1 and maturing his plans1 throwing out one day a course1 another day realising an idea that had just occurred to him4 ,thus the fabric rose higher day by day1 month by month1 year by year4 ,he adhered to no carefully prepared plans2 he entrusted nothing to his subordinates2 he hugged the entire responsibility4 ,they did not know what phase of work the morrow would bring4 ,on the day each workman would receive a rough section and plan jotted down on the spot1 accompanied with verbal instructions4 ,if1 even when finished according to his directions1 ,wren was dissatisfied with this gem of his brain1 down it had to come1 to be substituted by some other improved idea4 ,of course ,wren had in the first place to submit plans for the proposed cathedral4 ,it is not likely that any committee would engage in anything so important blindfolded4 ,but these plans only formed the shell on which to peg any new suggestions that might crop up in the progress of the work1 very much after the fashion of a plastic sketch submitted by the sculptor to a committee1 who look wise and generally make foolish comments4 ,the sketch is merely an indication of what is to come after1 and is intended as some guarantee4 ,without this no conscientious committee would commit themselves to any agreement4 ,they control the expenditure of the public subscriptions4 ,if the finished work does not come up to the promised standard of excellence1 the committee can fall back upon the sketch and get exonerated of all culpable blame4 ,the artist gets the abuse for the failure or departure from the original4 ,when such necessarily rough sketches are faithfully carried out1 they often are failures2 for what look well in a rough sketch often become serious blemishes in the completed work4 ,the true artist is never satisfied--that is1 that extraordinary being who has a greater love for art than for mere coin--and will alter and improve upon his original design at every suggestion 7and they crowd thick upon him7 that makes itself manifest1 with a total disregard to his own pocket and that punctuality so essential to the successful city man4 ,he has got his ideal1 and he is determined to reach it if he has to go through a brick wall4 ,very much in the same way1 we may be sure1 ,wren was actuated4 ,his pay was no inducement4 ,he received only ,l#bjj a year throughout the whole time of building1 and then at one time a certain portion of this miserable pittance was withheld by order of ,parliament1 because his detractors accused him of delaying the final completion of the work from corrupt motives4 ,wren's clerk of the works1 by name ,nicholas ,hawksmoor1 who afterwards became famous as the builder of several ,london churches1 was paid only twenty pence a day4 ,tijou1 his ironworker1 and ,grinling ,gibbons1 the famous carver in wood1 were all actuated by the same ideal when they helped to give expression to their master's genius4 ,however1 in one or two particulars1 which will be mentioned later on1 ,wren's superior judgment was overruled by his committee4 ,much to his intense and lasting mortification they carried the day and stamped themselves as incompetent judges4 ,this process of realisation1 this seeking after an ideal1 sometimes led ,wren into strange architectural difficulties1 only to be overcome in a masterly way4 ,by discovering these little inconsistencies1 the architect's skilfulness in taking advantage of accidents1 in turning what appeared an irremediable blunder into a great success1 shows what a complete understanding he had in that great branch of art--architecture--and endorses more than ever the great position he will always be accorded4 ,an example will serve to illustrate his ingenuity4 ,how many people1 when climbing up the stairs that lead to the whispering gallery and elsewhere1 have ever noticed any peculiarity about them8 ,yet there is one4 ,when first they were being built each step was meant to be of the same height1 but as they mounted higher1 ,wren suddenly discovered that the top one would be an ugly tall one to ascend4 ,to avoid this meant one of two things1 either to demolish what had already been completed and start afresh1 or to turn this accident to good account4 ,the latter alternative was chosen4 ,by gradually reducing the height of the remaining steps1 he contrived to overcome the difficulty so successfully that he has tricked the eye and foot1 so slight is the difference of each tread4 ,they appear to be equidistant as the ones lower down1 and the illusion can only be dispelled by measurement4 ,if any one is observant on reaching the top of ,ludgate ,hill1 one peculiarity of the great building will strike him4 ,it is that the great west facade does not squarely face ,ludgate ,hill1 but bears considerably to the right4 ,in fact its axis does not run due east and west4 ,on the advancement of ,wren to be principal architect1 he was not only commissioned to erect the ,cathedral1 but was to rebuild the city4 ,his scheme was very thorough4 ,it comprised the widening of the streets2 the complete insulation of all important churches2 the public buildings were to have good frontages2 and the halls of the ,city ,guilds were to form a quadrangle around the ,guildhall4 ,to carry these improvements into effect1 ,government issued orders that none except ,wren's rebuilding would be recognised4 ,unfortunately much valuable time was wasted in an attempt at the restoration of the old cathedral1 insisted upon by the committee1 against ,wren's wishes1 and it was only when a portion of the nave fell down that ,dean ,sancroft was able to obtain the consent of the committee to raze the old walls to the ground and to allow ,wren to build from the very foundations4 ,the delay of this decision had in the meanwhile given opportunity to individuals to erect buildings much as they pleased upon their own properties in spite of ,government prohibition1 with the result that to a great extent streets and boundaries1 which existed before the ,great ,fire1 were reproduced4 ,it also caused the loss of a far more spacious frontage than now exists1 which we may be sure formed an important item in ,wren's design for the ,cathedral4 ,the architect1 however1 by receding the west front from the old site now occupied by the statue of ,queen ,ann1 has cleverly spaced out a noble frontage4 ,another consideration that determined ,wren to alter the axis of the ,cathedral was his great aversion to utilising the old foundations4 ,his great ambition was to strike out for himself and to be dependent on no one else's work4 ,in order to realise this he laid the axis of the new work to a point farther north of that of the old cathedral1 and the plan by this projection has in a marvellous way covered practically the same ground1 whilst at the same time ,wren managed to secure fresh ground for his foundations almost throughout the whole church4 ,the plan of ,st4 ,paul's is a ,latin cross1 and is based upon classical lines4 ,the principal front1 the west1 is composed of a double portico of ,corinthian fluted pillars1 with two flights of steps leading down to the road-level4 ,in fact the entire body of the ground floor is above the elevation of the street4 ,overhead is a large pediment1 with its panel sculptured in high relief4 ,on either side the west front is flanked by a campanile tower1 composed at the summit of grouped circular pillars4 ,just inside1 on the left1 is the ,morning ,chapel1 whilst straight on the opposite side lies the ,chapel of the ,order of ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 ,george4 ,proceeding eastwards1 the nave is flanked by three massive and imposing arches4 ,then comes the dome or cupola1 rising to a height of #cfe feet1 or #djd feet to the top of the cross4 ,viewed from the interior the inner dome is #bbe feet1 and rests at the intersection of the cross4 ,the transepts are carried one arch to the north and one to the south1 each of which are bound by semi-circular rows of ,corinthian pillars4 ,continuing again towards the east1 a couple of steps mark the commencement of the choir leading from the dome1 and is carried forward by three arches on either side4 ,behind the altar the colossal building terminates in the apsidal ,chapel of ,jesus4 ,throughout the entire length and breadth of the building is the crypt below4 ,there under the choir1 the nearest to the south wall in the crypt chapel1 is the modest slab that covers the remains of the great architect of the grand edifice4 ,next to him lies the body of ,lord ,leighton1 the greatest president the ,royal ,academy has ever had4 ,just in the one corner are buried some of the most eminent of ,england's painters1 sculptors1 and musicians4 ,those more generally known are ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the first president of the ,royal ,academy2 ,benjamin ,west1 who succeeded him in office2 ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 who next filled it1 and ,sir ,john ,millais1 who held the dignity only a few months after ,leighton's death4 ,the remains of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 ,james ,barry1 ,john ,foley1 ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 and ,sir ,arthur ,sullivan1 musician1 who are also some of the many great builders of art1 have all been accorded a little plot of ground close to their very great brother-artist and predecessor1 ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,in the centre of the crypt1 or rather right underneath the dome1 is a noble mausoleum containing the body of ,england's greatest admiral1 ,viscount ,horatio ,nelson1 whilst just close to him between the crypt chapel and the dome is the massive sarcophagus of granite1 encased in which is the body of the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,the monument of this hero of ,waterloo is the chief feature of the plastic art that attracts the visitor on looking up the nave4 ,it is the great artistic expression of ,stevens1 the sculptor1 and dwarfs all other monuments in its immediate neighbourhood4 ,we would like to enumerate the names of all the great men that lie in the mighty shadow of ,st4 ,paul's1 and pay some tribute to the many artists who have1 through their monuments1 endeavoured their best to honour the memories of those who have so worthily upheld the traditions of the great empire2 but any such attempt we feel we must relinquish1 and devote all the space we can to ,wren's work and to that of his predecessors4 ,the wonderful wood-carving of the choir stall1 and especially the remarkable realistic floral designs of the ,bishop's throne1 were executed by ,grinling ,gibbons1 who lived between #afdh and #agbj4 ,he was born at ,rotterdam1 and as a youth came over to ,england1 and was discovered by ,evelyn1 the diarist4 ,so astonished was ,evelyn by the genius of ,gibbons1 who had just carved in wood a copy of ,tintoretto's ,crucifixion1 that he introduced him to ,wren1 ,pepys1 and the ,king4 ,with such powerful friends and his marvellous talent he soon became the most famous carver of his age4 ,in viewing the great edifice one cannot help thinking from whence came the money which enabled ,wren to carry on the work4 ,with the exception of the ,tillingham farm there were no endowments1 and people were1 after the fire1 far from being generous donors4 ,as funds were absolutely necessary1 royal warrants were issued to authorise the building committee to borrow on the security of the coal and wine taxes4 ,as the remuneration of ,wren1 ,grinling ,gibbons1 and ,tijou was nothing to speak of1 we may take it that practically the whole of the proceeds was sunk in the materials and the workmen's wages4 ,throughout the whole time of building ,wren was harassed by petty annoyances on the part of the committee1 who interfered in small matters of technical and artistic knowledge which lay quite beyond their province4 ,against the architect's will they insisted upon the erection of the heavy iron railings which fence in the ,cathedral and mar the beautiful gradations of lines from the lowest step of the transept entrances to the summit of the dome's cross4 ,this only serves as one of many such instances4 ,finally1 ,wren's persecutors went so far as to suspend his patent in the year #agah1 being the forty-ninth of his office and the eighty-sixth of his age1 and ,william ,benson was appointed to succeed him4 ,this abrupt dismissal entirely upset any plan of internal decoration which ,wren might have been thinking of1 though it is supposed he had proposed to enrich and beautify ,st4 ,paul's with a scheme of colour composed of marble and mosaic work with gold and paintings4 ,with the exception of the frescoes in the dome by ,sir ,james ,thornhill1 nothing of importance was done for fifty years after ,wren's death4 ,a proposal to contribute a number of paintings from ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds and the members of the ,royal ,academy was negatived by ,dr4 ,terrick1 who was ,bishop of ,london at that time4 ,in #ahia ,w4 ,b4 ,richmond1 ,a4,r4,a41 was commissioned to decorate the choir and the dome with mosaic work1 it being considered the most suitable material on account of the brilliancy of its surface1 and the easiest to clean without risk of injury to the work4 ,sir ,william ,richmond1 ,k4,c4,b4 7as he has since been created71 decided to depart from modern methods in favour of the ancient way of embedding in cement cubes1 so chosen and disposed to suit the various shades of his subjects4 ,they represent various incidents taken from the ,bible1 treated most skilfully1 as one would naturally expect from such a talented artist4 ,the difficulties of such an undertaking1 restricted within certain limits as it must be by the nature of the material1 together with the many attendant side-issues of which the outside public have not the faintest idea1 can only be known to the artist himself1 and perhaps to some of his confreres4 ,in course of erection is the gilt iron balustrade upon the cornice that runs round the church in continuation of that commenced by ,wren at the west end4 ,this is the gift of ,mr4 ,somers ,clarke4 ,he has also designed the fittings for the installation of the electric light1 which is the generous presentation of ,mr4 ,pierpont ,morgan4 ,in conclusion1 we cannot help recalling the incident that cheered the closing years of ,wren4 ,once every year the aged artist came from his retirement at ,hampton ,court to ,london1 to spend the day seated beneath the great dome1 happy to view the creation of his great intellect1 though possibly disturbed now and then by a little grain of discontent3 how much better he could do it now1 if only he had youth and opportunity--a worry that only assails the true artist4 ,in the natural sequence of dates we ought to have opened this account with the earlier foundations4 ,this we purposely disregarded1 and introduced the reader straightway to the most beautiful and impressive building of ,st4 ,paul's that the site has ever had1 leaving the others to be dealt with until now4 ,the earliest known house for religious observance on the site of the present cathedral was a temple4 ,in accordance with the usual practice of early founders1 it is not surprising to find that the site selected for it was upon the highest spot of ground in the city4 ,if we follow the accounts of old ,london1 it would have been folly for the ,romans to have erected an important building like a temple upon a lower level1 which might have got swamped by an unusual rising of the tidal ,thames4 ,apart from such consideration1 it was not the ,roman custom to debase1 but rather to elevate as high as possible1 any object they held in great reverence4 ,it would form also a convenient centre to rally round in defence of any attack4 ,in all accounts of the site of ,st4 ,paul's the writers have plenty to say about the three churches1 but seldom1 if ever1 allude to the temple erected by the ,romans4 ,this is the more curious when etymologists have endeavoured to explain the affinity of ,christian symbols to those of heathenism1 showing how it was clearly impossible1 and hardly to be expected1 that pagan customs should be suddenly arrested and completely abolished1 and an entire set of new observances introduced expressly for the new faith--,christianity4 ,such a sudden change could not1 they contend1 be thrust upon a people brought up to revere the old heathen deities and observe customs rendered sacred through superstition and countless ages4 ,they required a gradual weaning1 and this1 so they say1 was done by christianising the pagan symbols derived from nature-worship and adapting them to meet the requirements of the new faith1--symbols which1 in course of time1 became so clothed that their original significance was lost sight of4 ,it would greatly astonish all devout ,christians to learn that the many objects they look up to with sacred awe and wonder of mystery1 the inverted triangles which often form an ornament in church windows1 the facing towards the east1 even the derivation of the very nave they may happen to be in1 with a variety of other symbols1 existed long before ,christianity was ever thought of4 ,it may also be a little disturbing to learn that1 quite unintentionally1 they are indirectly paying respect to many of the most heathen observances cloaked under the garb of ,christian religion4 ,it is far from our intention to advocate a return to pagan darkness1 but if this be really true1 surely there is a very close connection between the temple and the ,christian church4 ,for this very reason1 and the more so in that certain lines of their argument are not to be refuted1 we would accord a greater importance than has been hitherto done to the ,roman temple that undoubtedly first stood on the prominent piece of land in the ,london of those days4 ,we do not mean to say that at the time this temple was erected to ,diana the sufferings and crucifixion of ,our ,lord had not already borne fruit1 but the very existence of the temple clearly indicates that in ,london1 at any rate1 the new faith was very much in its infancy1 if it existed at all4 ,but the demolition of the temple1 to make room for the first ,christian church1 which was in turn destroyed in #cjb during the ,diocletian persecution1 clearly gives evidence that there must have been growing indications of the presence of converts and missionaries which led to the erection of the latter from the ruins of the former4 ,a matter of twenty years later1 in the reign of ,constantine1 the church was rebuilt1 and completed by #ccg4 ,what the shape of the first one was can only be conjectured4 ,it would most probably be based upon the temple4 ,the second was undoubtedly ,romanesque1 if we can rely upon the dates of its rebuilding4 ,they fall conveniently between #cjf and #ccg1 a period of marvellous development of ecclesiastical architecture based upon classical remains1 which the favourable attitude of ,constantine towards ,christianity encouraged4 ,converts in ,rome had increased to such numbers that it was felt that some covered-in space was essential to protect the congregation against the sun's hot rays and inclement weather1 the more especially as such a building1 far from attracting hostile attention1 would serve to the furtherance of ,christianity4 ,the form it took was the conversion of the basilica4 ,as anything that came from ,rome was looked upon as a correct thing to copy1 it is not surprising to learn that travelling merchants and missionaries were able to control the taste of the cities they passed through4 ,in this way each country adopted the basilica1 though in many features they differed from each other1 consequent on customs1 surroundings1 and climatic conditions4 ,however1 about the year #eig1 the pagan ,saxons appear to have destroyed the church4 ,we come then to the first church of ,st4 ,paul's of which we have authentic record4 ,it was built by ,ethelbert1 ,king of ,kent1 in #fjg4 ,he had first to obtain the sanction of ,sebert1 who claimed ,london as being in his dominion of the ,east ,angles4 ,to this see ,mellitus was appointed as the first bishop4 ,he was one of the forty monks who had accompanied ,augustine in #eig to help to carry out ,pope ,gregory the ,great's scheme1 which was to divide ,england into two provinces with metropolitans of equal dignity at ,london and ,york1 with twelve suffragans to each4 ,since then ,london's see has become third1 ranking next to ,york4 ,in the course of four hundred and eighty years1 #fjg-ajhg1 no doubt ,ethelbert's church underwent considerable alteration1 probably commencing with a very humble building1 perhaps chiefly of wood1 and as portions got out of repair such characteristics of stone buildings1 as learnt from travellers returning from ,italy1 were introduced1 thus gradually transforming the ,saxon church to architecture in the ,roman way4 ,for after the departure of the ,romans the ,britons at first appear to have returned to primitive methods of architecture4 ,it is only as time progressed that they gradually became initiated1 through the visits of travellers1 into the working of stone1 which1 after the arrival of the ,normans1 came into more general practice4 ,illustration3 ,,london ,,st4 ,,paul',s ,,and ,,ludgate ,,hill ,to provide for the maintenance of ,st4 ,paul's1 ,ethelbert endowed it with a farm at ,tillingham in ,essex4 ,the property is still managed1 the rents of which are controlled by the ,dean and ,chapter4 ,the chief event which took place within its walls was the first great ,ecclesiastical ,council of the ,english ,church under the presidency of ,archbishop ,lanfranc4 ,twelve years afterwards1 in #ajhg1 a great conflagration completely destroyed the church4 ,no time was lost1 for apparently in the same year building operations were put in hand for what many writers call ,old ,st4 ,paul's1 the second church4 ,by this time we may take it that architecture in ,england had advanced considerably1 and if anything it was a rather fortunate accident that overtook ,ethelbert's building4 ,the nation had by now realised that #ajjj ,a4,d4 was the dreaded millennium of the past2 they recognised they had a stern master in ,william the ,conqueror1 who1 though he might be harsh upon them1 would allow no one else to be so4 ,for some years prior to the millennium few buildings of any importance were erected1 so thoroughly had the mind been terrorised at the prospect of the world coming to an end1 and even after it had proved false1 the reaction does not seem to have taken place till the accession of the ,norman4 ,when it did occur1 we see by examples now extant what a great advance architecture had made1 or rather1 the knowledge of stone-work had become more general4 ,this can only be attributed to the monks and stonemasons who followed in the wake of the ,conquest4 ,the plan of the ,norman church of ,st4 ,paul's was the ,latin cross4 ,the body of it appears to have been narrower and considerably longer than ,wren's cathedral4 ,in fact we are much indebted to the numerous discoveries of ,mr4 ,penrose1 and we learn that the west front came right to the fore of ,queen ,anne's statue1 which then did not exist4 ,another great difference was that the axis of ,old ,st4 ,paul's1 as one faces the west front1 was more to the left of the statue1 whereas that of the present building runs right through the centre of it4 ,at the outset the ,cathedral consisted of a nave of twelve bays1 transepts1 and a short apsidal choir built in the round arched style peculiar to ,norman architecture4 ,the whole then stood within spacious precincts enclosed by a continuous wall4 ,in the wall were six gates4 ,the principal one opened in the west on to ,ludgate ,hill1 whilst the second1 at ,st4 ,paul's ,alley1 led to ,little ,north ,dore2 the third1 at ,canon's ,alley1 showed the way to the north transept door2 the fourth was called ,little ,gate1 and led from ,cheapside to ,paul's ,cross 7where now stands a fountain72 the fifth1 ,st4 ,augustine's ,gate1 faced ,watling ,street2 and the sixth was the entrance from the side of the river to the south transept4 ,a matter of #acj years later1 it was decided to extend eastwards from the choir and introduce the newly developed style1 which was the use of the pointed arch4 ,the new work1 consisting of eight bays1 was carried out1 but it caused the demolition of the old parish church of ,st4 ,faith1 which lay right in the course4 ,as some compensation the parishioners were allowed to use a portion of the crypt under the new choir as their parish church4 ,after the ,great ,fire much controversy arose4 ,the parishioners of ,st4 ,faith's claimed their right to bury their dead in the whole space beneath the choir of ,wren's cathedral4 ,this the ,chapter disallowing1 a lawsuit ensued1 which resulted in a compromise1 the parishioners being satisfied with rights of burial in the north aisle of the crypt4 ,the new work was solemnly dedicated in #abdj4 ,in the meantime a spire1 #dhi feet in height1 was put in hand and was finally completed in #acae4 ,the spire of ,old ,st4 ,paul's proved to be a great source of anxiety4 ,it was struck by lightning three times1 and eventually was completely destroyed by fire1 from a fourth lightning in the reign of ,elizabeth1 in #aefa4 ,it was never put up again4 ,right in the angle of the south transept and the nave existed a fair-sized ,chapter ,house1 which appears to have had cloisters1 the remains of which can still be seen in the gardens on the south side of the nave1 whilst on the north side of the choir the position of ,paul's ,cross is defined by the insertion of stones let into the ground4 ,paul's ,cross1 which by order of ,parliament was demolished in #afdc1 was a pulpit of wood1 mounted upon steps of stone1 and covered with lead4 ,at this place1 the ,court1 the ,mayor1 the ,aldermen1 and the chief citizens used to assemble to listen to sermons from the most eminent divines1 who were appointed to preach every ,sunday in the forenoon4 ,it was used as early as #abei1 and not only were sermons delivered from it1 but also political and ecclesiastical discourses were held4 ,old ,st4 ,paul's1 by the time of ,charles ,i41 got into such a terrible state of dilapidation that steps were taken to put it into thorough repair4 ,a fund was established and the work was intrusted to ,inigo ,jones4 ,he got as far as the refacing of the ,cathedral inside and out1 and the adding of a classical portico1 when his labours were interrupted by the ,commonwealth4 ,the famous architect died before the ,restoration4 ,in the meantime ,cromwell's troops did considerable damage1 what with stabling their horses within the sacred edifice and employing their leisure time in defacing the building4 ,they removed and sold the scaffolding1 which ,inigo ,jones had set up for the purpose of restoring the vaulting1 and in consequence much of the roof-work fell down4 ,at the ,restoration1 ,dr4 ,wren1 as he was then called1 was appointed ,assistant-,surveyor-,general of his ,majesty's ,works1 and instructed to repair the fabric4 ,however1 on ,september #b1 #afff1 the ,great ,fire of ,london broke out and completely destroyed ,old ,st4 ,paul's4 ,instead of carrying out his scheme of restoration1 ,wren was afterwards enabled to leave to posterity this masterpiece of genius that took him from the year #afge till the year #agaj to realise4 ,how is one to describe ,london1 the capital of the ,british ,empire1 and the largest city in the world8 ,the subject-matter would take volumes1 if an exhaustive treatise be required4 ,here it necessarily can only be a slight sketch4 ,if we are to put any reliance on ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 a city existed here #aajg years before ,christ was born1 and #ced even before ,rome came into existence4 ,the founder1 he asserts1 was ,brute1 a lineal descendant of the ,trojan ,a,eneas1 by whom the city was called ,new ,troy1 or ,troy-novant1 till the advent of ,lud1 who changed it to ,coer ,lud or ,lud-town1 and encompassed it with walls4 ,though the king's name is made evident in ,ludgate ,hill1 which runs up to ,st4 ,paul's west front1 this author's statements are considered as pleasing fictions by serious-minded authorities4 ,again1 it is said to have been the capital of the ,trinobantes in #ed ,b4,c4 ,with the arrival of the ,romans we get more definite information1 yet we are inclined to think that they must have found some kind of a ,british settlement1 the more especially if we bear in mind that1 until the ,romans came1 the mouth of the ,thames was close at hand4 ,the ,thames of to-day was not the ,thames of that time4 ,it was very much shallower1 possibly quite easy to ford at low tide4 ,this was caused by the great inundation over large tracts of the counties of ,kent and ,essex1 which took place every time it became high tide4 ,till the ,romans set the example of reclaiming the land and confining the river to its channel1 a great volume of water had thus expended itself and reduced the depth considerably4 ,but to the early ,britons1 where the higher level of land checked and brought back the wandering ,thames1 to continue its upward course within its proper confinement1 must have appeared the mouth4 ,in their belief that such was the case it is only natural to suppose that the ,britons would take advantage of such an excellent site4 ,a clearing was gradually made1 for ,london was well wooded once1 on the highest ground1 which would be somewhere from the site of ,st4 ,paul's to as far as the ,bank of ,england1 and a temple was erected within some groves4 ,to the ,romans in #fa ,a4,d4 it was known as ,londinium or ,colonia ,augusta1 the former1 no doubt1 being a ,latinised form of ,lyn-,din1 meaning the town on the lake4 ,boadicea1 ,queen of the ,iceni1 in the same year is credited with having reduced it to ashes1 and to have put #gj1jjj ,romans and strangers to the sword4 ,this wholesale slaughter was punished1 in the same year1 by ,suetonius1 who retaliated by a massacre of #hj1jjj ,britons1 a defeat that so preyed upon ,boadicea that she promptly poisoned herself4 ,tacitus1 the ,roman historian1 who lived about #ij years after ,christ1 relates how ,suetonius felt constrained to abandon ,london1 that place of busy traffic and thronged with traders1 to the ,british1 because he did not feel equal to the task of defending it4 ,this is surely a proof that ,london was no mushroom city1 though ,tacitus makes no mention of a mint1 as he does when he describes ,verulamium and ,camulodum4 ,there also appears to have been another ,british settlement on the south bank1 now known as ,southwark4 ,this district1 by the way1 has just within the last few days been erected into a see with the cathedral1 or throne1 installed in its fine old church of ,st4 ,saviour4 ,this is where ,gower1 the father of ,english poets1 is interred1 and is honoured with a quaint coloured monument principally of carved wood1 and the holy precincts also contain the remains of ,shakespeare's brother4 ,southwark is the ,londinium attributed to ,ptolemy's description as being on the south bank of the ,thames1 though it does not discredit the existence of that on the north4 ,as to the actual size and exact site of early ,london1 it will be many years before that can be accurately determined4 ,as old buildings are pulled down and excavations are made for foundations1 speculation becomes much narrowed4 ,the discoveries by ,wren1 and recently by ,mr4 ,arthur ,taylor1 the late ,mr4 ,h4 ,black1 ,mr4 ,roach-,smith and ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,price1 one of our greatest authorities1 have thrown much light on early ,london4 ,it has been found that cemeteries once existed in ,cheapside1 on the site of ,st4 ,paul's1 close to ,newgate and elsewhere1 which are known to date from the ,later ,roman period4 ,on the assumption that it was an illegal ,roman practice to bury the dead within the city walls1 it follows they must have been outside1 thus limiting the habitable area4 ,as to when and where the first bridge spanned the ,thames are points difficult to decide4 ,sir ,george ,airy supposes that the bridge mentioned by ,dion ,cassius 7#dc ,a4,d47 at the mouth of the ,thames was not far from the site of ,london ,bridge1 on the inference that the mouth of the ,thames of early times was close to this site4 ,dr4 ,guest1 on the other hand1 recognises it as a bridge made by the ,britons1 but places it as being constructed over the marshy valley of the ,lea1 near ,stratford1 his theory being that the ,britons would have been unable to bridge over a tidal river like the ,thames with the width of three hundred yards1 and a difference of nearly twenty feet in the rise and fall of the water4 ,from remains found of ancient piles in the river-bed1 and the great number of ,roman coins1 a well-known practice observed by this ,latin race to commemorate any important undertaking1 antiquarians seem to agree that there was a ,roman bridge in the ,anno ,domini period of their occupation1 and that indications point to its location at ,london ,bridge4 ,in their time ,london was a port of considerable importance4 ,as many as eight hundred vessels are said to have been employed in exporting corn alone in the year #cei1 which shows that agriculture was in full swing4 ,with the departure of the ,romans in #dji the city became the capital of the ,saxon kingdom of ,essex1 and was called ,lundenceaster4 ,subsequent events of importance are those that occurred under the dynasties of the ,norman 7#ajff-aaed71 the ,plantagenet 7#aaed-adhe71 the ,tudor 7#adhe-afjc71 the ,stuart 7#afjc-agad71 interrupted in the midst by ,cromwell's ,protectorate1 and finally the ,hanoverian succession1 which brings us down to this year of grace1 with ,edward ,,vii41 ,king of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,emperor of ,india1 and monarch of the greatest and most prosperous empire4 ,to attempt to give a detailed account of all that happened under the successive heads of the ,state is clearly impossible4 ,two events1 however1 stand out prominently4 ,one was the ,great ,plague of ,london that commenced in ,december #affd1 and carried off a matter of ninety thousand victims4 ,the horrors of this pestilence are graphically described in the ,diary of ,samuel ,pepys1 who was an eye-witness4 ,daniel ,defoe1 though writing some years after1 has given us a wonderfully realistic account in his ,history of the ,plague4 ,fires were kept up night and day1 to purify the air1 for three days4 ,no sooner did the infection come to an end than the great conflagration of ,september #b1 #afff1 broke out4 ,it began at one o'clock in the morning in a baker's shop in ,pudding ,lane1 behind ,monument ,yard4 ,it spread from the ,tower to the ,temple ,church of the ,middle ,temple in ,fleet ,street1 and away to ,holborn4 ,in the short space of four days it destroyed eighty-nine churches 7including ,st4 ,paul's71 the city gates1 the ,royal ,exchange1 the ,custom ,house1 ,guildhall1 ,sion ,college1 and many other public buildings1 besides some fourteen thousand houses and the ruin of four hundred streets4 ,the ,monument1 built by ,wren in #afga-afgb1 commemorates the origin of the fire1 #bjb feet from its base4 ,it is only within recent years that ,london--by which is meant ,london in its broadest sense2 that is1 including the city and excluding the suburbs--has been divided into a number of townships4 ,it is now no longer correct to call ,marylebone1 ,paddington1 and many other such1 parishes4 ,they are all boroughs1 and possess a mayor and corporation of their own1 each with a townhall to support the dignity4 ,they have a certain amount to say in local affairs1 the more important being under the control of the ,london ,county ,council1 who in turn hold themselves responsible to ,parliament4 ,the jurisdiction of the ,lord ,mayor of ,london proper is confined within certain limits1 as defined by an irregular line of boundary commencing from the ,tower1 northward through the ,minories1 past ,aldgate1 behind ,liverpool ,street ,station1 working round to ,holborn1 across ,chancery ,lane1 to end at ,middle ,temple4 ,his career is generally marked by an apprenticeship of seven years' duration to some city guild1 such as the ,mercers'1 the ,grocers'1 ,merchant ,tailors'1 ,vintners'1 ,armourers and ,braziers'1 and some seventy others4 ,at the end of this period he obtains1 on the payment of a certain fee and a glance at a series of ,hogarth's ,progress of the ,rake at the ,guildhall1 the freedom of the ,ancient ,city of ,london4 ,as a vacancy occurs in his company he fills it as a ,liveryman4 ,after these initial stages he is open to become a ,master of the said company1 and becomes eligible for alderman1 sheriff1 and ,lord ,mayor4 ,the candidate's ambition1 however1 is tempered according to his means2 for to worthily fill the office of the first magistrate he must be prepared to be considerably out of pocket1 though the loss is generally compensated by a knighthood1 and on special occasions by a baronetcy4 ,though he may be entirely devoid of any legal training1 the ,lord ,mayor during his tenure of office1 or the aldermen1 are always present on the bench at the ,central ,criminal ,court1 which sits at the ,old ,bailey4 ,this court was created in #ahcd to bring under one jurisdiction the criminal cases that are supplied by the immense population around the city4 ,opposite the ,mansion ,house1 the official residence of the ,lord ,mayor1 is the ,bank of ,england4 ,the ,royal ,mint faces the ,tower of ,london1 and was constituted as now about #afag1 whilst the buildings date about #ahaj4 ,the first known ,warder or ,master was in the reign of ,henry ,i41 the wardership becoming extinct with ,lord ,maryborough 7#ahad--bc71 and the last ,master was ,professor ,thomas ,graham1 who died in #ahfi4 ,by the ,coinage ,act in the following year the ,master of the ,mint1 who as such had existed up till then1 was abolished1 and the post was combined with that of the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer4 ,on the other side of the road is the famous ,tower of ,london1 the ,white ,tower or central keep of which was built in #ajgh by ,gundulph1 ,bishop of ,rochester1 in obedience to the command of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,by the side of this historic pile is the ,tower ,bridge1 the marvellous engineering feat of ,sir ,horace ,jones and ,sir ,j4 ,wolfe ,barry4 ,it opens upwards in the centre to allow the shipping to pass through4 ,right away towards the east are the great docks1 the principal of which are the ,london ,docks and the ,east ,india ,docks4 ,passing west of the city are the great ,law ,courts in the ,strand1 designed by ,streeter4 ,behind them is ,lincoln's ,inn1 and in front across ,fleet ,street1 is the ,temple4 ,gray's ,inn is in ,holborn1 as well as ,staple ,inn1 with the picturesque old-fashioned frontage1 once the prevailing style of ,london's domestic architecture4 ,smaller ,inns are ,clifford's ,inn1 threatened with demolition1 with ,old ,serjeant's ,inn adjoining1 while ,serjeant's ,inn is on the other side of ,fleet ,street1 nearer to ,ludgate ,circus1 and not far from the ,temple4 ,in ,trafalgar ,square a priceless collection of old masters' paintings are housed in the ,national ,gallery1 once the premises of the ,royal ,academy of ,arts1 who moved to ,burlington ,house1 ,piccadilly4 ,regent ,street1 with its shops1 and ,bond ,street1 the great centre for art dealers and picture galleries1 hardly require further description4 ,the ,british ,museum1 the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 and numerous others2 the great hospitals1--,st4 ,bartholomew's1 ,guy's1 ,charing ,cross1 and many more equally as well known2 the wonderful open spaces as typified by ,hyde ,park2 the ,palaces of ,buckingham1 ,st4 ,james1 and ,kensington2 besides the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,paul1 the ,abbey1 and ,houses of ,parliament1 ,westminster1 with the newly erected ,roman ,catholic ,cathedral1 close to ,victoria ,station1 comprise only a tithe of what can be seen in the capital of the ,british ,empire4 ,york ,eboracum4 7,doomsday ,book47 ,one can hardly think of ,york without recalling the wonderful ride of ,dick ,turpin on his famous mare ,black ,bess4 ,it came about one day that he was resting at the ,kilburn ,wells--a site now taken up by a modern banking-house--in the company of another notorious highwayman1 ,king1 who seemed very much depressed4 ,dick1 he said1 ,i have had a most curious dream4 ,i seemed to be dying from a pistol-shot by you4 ,no1 no1 protested ,dick1 and was doing his best to cheer up his friend when suddenly unusual commotion arose outside1 followed by the immediate entrance of the bailiffs to apprehend ,king dead or alive4 ,one of his numerous mistresses had given him away in a mad fit of jealousy4 ,it took little time for ,turpin and ,king to reach their horses1 which were always tethered close by4 ,turpin was soon in the saddle1 but turning round he perceived that his comrade was in difficulties4 ,the horse was restive1 and its master was making vain attempts to mount4 ,to draw his pistol out of the holster and empty its contents towards the man who had by now laid his hand on ,king was a moment's thought4 ,but to ,turpin's horror he saw the dream realised4 ,his friend dead1 it was folly to dally longer4 ,amidst a volley of shots he quickly wheeled his mare round and galloped off1 hotly pursued by the excisemen1 who had soon recognised him4 ,along ,west ,end ,lane into ,finchley1 away towards ,barnet1 his mare1 gallantly taking every toll-gate1 soon carried her master out of immediate danger4 ,it was then that ,dick ,turpin determined to try the fettle of ,bess by carrying out his long-cherished ambition of riding ninety miles to ,york4 ,without a change of mounts1 and only an occasional rinse-out of his faithful animal's mouth with some strong stimulant1 he accomplished his wish1 but at the sacrifice of his mare4 ,she died from exhaustion1 having1 however1 saved her master and cheated justice4 ,this is no legend1 but an absolute fact--a story that has quickened the imagination of every ,english schoolboy1 accompanied with a regret that such good old rollicking days no longer exist1 that there is no relieving rich merchants of well-filled purses1 no opportunity of calming the fears of fair ladies1 no chance of acting the grand seigneur towards the poor1 no languishing in ,newgate with a glorious death at ,tyburn4 ,no1 that is all a dream now4 ,illustration3 ,,york ,,stonegate ,though customs have greatly changed since those days of unsafe travelling1 the quaint streets1 the great gateways of bold architecture1 and the magnificent church all lend the city of ,york the wonderful fascination of age1 heightened by the situation of the river ,ouse at its junction with the ,foss4 ,in what county of ,england the famous city and glorious minster of ,york are1 requires little mental effort4 ,it is the most ancient metropolitan see in ,england4 ,at one time great controversy arose between ,york and ,canterbury as to precedence4 ,it was thought that whichever one of them could successfully prove that the one first confirmed was meant by ,pope ,gregory to be the senior1 should be the superior4 ,as1 however1 no satisfactory understanding could be arrived at1 the question was left to the ,papal ,court at ,rome4 ,by its decision it was determined in favour of ,canterbury1 so the ,archbishop of ,canterbury styles himself ,primate of ,all ,england1 whilst the ,archbishop of ,york rests content with ,primate of ,england2 the reduction of one word1 but it means a great deal4 ,in the history of ,england we see what part these two metropolitans have taken1 how they have occasionally fallen out over what now appears to us the most trifling matters1 but which no doubt were considered of most vital importance at the time4 ,in this account they need no recapitulation1 for they can be turned up in any history book on ,england4 ,in the very early years of ,anno ,domini1 when ,christianity in ,england was quite in its infancy1--or to be more exact about the year #ahj1--;it is said that ,king ,lucius established the ,metropolitan ,see at ,york4 ,in those days1 however1 it could hardly have been called by that name4 ,prior to this monarch's time it was the town of the ,brigantes1 and was known as ,evrauc4 ,they appear to have been a very hardy race4 ,through them it was that ,caractacus1 one of two sons of ,cymbeline1 after the ,silures were defeated by ,ostorius1 made the last important stand against the ,romans4 ,that is to say1 with the submission of the ,brigantes and the capture of ,caractacus1 all unity among the ,british tribes came to an end1 so that it became comparatively an easy task for the ,romans to complete the conquest of ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,york ,,the ,,shambles ,this they did in the second campaign of ,agricola1 about the year #gi ,a4,d41 and the ,roman power was due to the divided factions and parties of the ,britons1 who1 though they might have kings and all the outward show of sovereignty1 were merely puppets in the hands of the conquerors4 ,from this year to #djj the ,romans steadily evolved a unity of their own in ,britain4 ,on their departure1 history tells us how the ,british implored them to come back and protect them1 so helpless had they become in the art of attack and defence4 ,as ,evrauc belonged to the ,brigantes1 we may take it that it was the chief town of the ,british in the north when it passed into the hands of the ,romans after the defeat of ,caractacus4 ,by them it was called ,eboracum1 and became the metropolitan of the north1 the military capital and centre of the ,romans in ,britain4 ,the original ,roman city was rectangular in form and of considerable dimensions4 ,it is supposed to have been laid out in imitation of ancient ,rome1 on the east bank of the ,ouse4 ,a temple to ,bellona was erected as well as a praetorium1 in which the emperors sat1 for ,eboracum was honoured by the great heads of ,rome4 ,the first to reside here was ,hadrian1 in #abj1 whilst ,severus died in the city in #baa4 ,this last had come over with his sons1 ,caracalla and ,geta1 and a large army1 and the attendance of his whole court4 ,his time was busily engaged in reducing the troublesome ,britons to proper submission4 ,the two sons nobly helped their aged father4 ,caracalla completed the erection of a strong wall of stone nearly eighty miles long1 close to the rampart of earth raised by ,hadrian1 in accordance with the wish of ,severus1 to form a more effectual barrier against future incursions of the natives4 ,during the residence of the court1 ,eboracum reached to the highest state of splendour4 ,the constant visits of tributary kings and foreign ambassadors1 who came to pay their allegiance to ,rome1 caused it to be unsurpassed among the cities of the world1 so much so that it came to be called ,altera ,rome4 ,the remains of the ,emperor ,severus1 though he died here in #bab1 were enclosed in an urn and sent to ,rome4 ,the ,emperor ,constantius ,chlorus died also in ,eboracum in #cjg4 ,his son1 ,constantius the ,great1 was present at his father's death1 and by the army proclaimed emperor4 ,after #dji the ,greek and ,latin writers tell us that ,britain was no longer ruled by the ,romans4 ,their statements are borne out by the ,saxon ,chronicle4 ,this did not mean that there was a general exodus of the ,latin race or civilisation1 for the connection of ,rome with its ,british provinces did not cease suddenly1 though the tie gradually became weakened1 because from #dji ,roman officials probably ceased to be sent regularly4 ,britain still considered itself to be ,roman1 and the inhabitants1 or rather the upper classes1 continued to speak ,latin4 ,even in the sixth century they were pleased to call themselves ,romani1 and held themselves aloof from the surrounding barbarians--a term which we know was applied by the ,romans to tribes1 not necessarily because they were uncivilised1 but rather as a convenient mark of distinction from themselves4 ,since their departure from ,britain1 archaeologists have found rich mines of ,roman remains in every place of their occupation1 and none more so than at ,york2 but to enumerate the many discoveries would require more space than can here be allotted4 ,suffice it to say that the multangular tower is a notable evidence of the ,roman occupation1 though it is much dilapidated4 ,the city was frequently assailed by the ,picts and ,scots1 and after the arrival of the ,saxons it suffered considerably from the many wars that arose between the ,britons and their new allies1 as well as in the struggle for supremacy during the establishment of the several kingdoms of the ,octarchy1 and other minor wars4 ,early in the seventh century ,eboracum underwent a change4 ,by the ,saxons the city was called ,euro wic1 ,euore wic1 and ,eofor wic1 which by ,leland is supposed to have been borrowed from its situation on the river ,eure1 now known as the ,ouse2 but by what process these titles came to be contracted into its present name of ,york seems rather difficult to account4 ,however1 under the name of ,eoforwic1 the city flourished as the capital of the ,bretwaldas early in the seventh century4 ,consequent on the conversion of ,edwin1 ,king of ,northumbria1 to ,christianity1 resulting from his marriage to ,ethelburga1 daughter of ,king ,ethelbert of ,kent1 the city was erected in #fbd into an archiepiscopal see1 over which ,paulinus1 the confessor of the ,queen1 was made primate4 ,in addition to this1 ,edwin had constituted the city as the metropolitan of his kingdom4 ,edwin's work upon the church1 which he dedicated to ,st4 ,peter1 and the missionary work of ,paulinus1 were suddenly suspended by an attack of the ,britons under ,cadwallo in #fcc4 ,edwin was killed1 whilst ,ethelburga escaped into ,kent with ,paulinus4 ,the church in the meantime was allowed to decay until it was restored by ,oswald1 successor to ,edwin4 ,he managed to regain possession of his kingdom after a sanguinary conflict with ,cadwallo1 who1 with the chief officers1 was killed during the fight4 ,illustration3 ,,york ,,bootham ,,bar ,we have it by ,bede that on the site of the wooden church1 in which the baptism was conducted by ,paulinus1 ,edwin erected a large and more noble basilica of stone1 dedicated to ,st4 ,peter2 but1 as we have seen1 the work was interrupted by the untimely death of the founder4 ,finally it was repaired by ,archbishop ,wilfrid1 the third prelate to succeed to the government of the ,see and provinces4 ,his predecessor had been ,cedda1 who had been appointed on the death of ,paulinus in ,kent4 ,the establishment was continued on its original lines by ,wilfrid and his successors till the ,norman ,conquest4 ,in the meantime ,york1 under ,archbishop ,egbert1 from #gcj to #gff1 became a most celebrated centre of learning1 and reached to its height under ,alcuin4 ,the former had repaired the ravages caused by fire in #gda to the ,cathedral1 which is described by ,alcuin as a most magnificent basilica4 ,the city fell into the hands of the ,danes4 ,they soon made it an important seat of commerce1 and constituted it the capital of the ,danish jarl4 ,in #ajej the ,abbey of ,st4 ,mary's was founded by ,siward1 who is supposed to have died at ,york five years later and to have been buried in ,st4 ,olave's ,church4 ,william the ,conqueror then seized ,york in #ajfh and erected a tower4 ,the new condition of things was not allowed to remain long4 ,sweyn1 in the following year1 sent his two sons1 ,harold and ,canute1 with a numerous following of ,danes4 ,they disembarked on the shores of the ,humber1 and1 joined by ,edgar ,atheling and his army1 advanced to ,york1 laying waste the land they passed through4 ,to prevent the enemy from fortifying itself1 the garrison fired the houses in the suburbs2 but the flames were fanned by a strong wind into a devastating conflagration1 in the midst of which the ,danes entered and put to the sword the whole ,norman garrison4 ,this slaughter was eventually punished by the ,conqueror1 who1 harbouring a suspicion of treachery on the part of the citizens1 reduced them to his idea of submission by burning the city about their ears and desolating the neighbouring country from the ,humber to the ,tyne4 ,nevertheless the city gradually recovered in the two succeeding reigns4 ,archbishop ,thomas endeavoured to patch up the ,cathedral1 but eventually pulled it down and rebuilt it4 ,the city continued to advance in prosperity in spite of many attacks from the ,scots4 ,in #ajhh ,william ,rufus laid the first stone for a large monastery for the ,benedictine ,order1 which was dedicated to ,st4 ,mary4 ,illustration3 ,,york ,,monk ,,bar ,in #aacg1 during the reign of ,stephen1 a terrible fire broke out which destroyed1 it is said1 the ,cathedral1 the monastery1 and some forty parish churches4 ,on the accession of ,henry ,i4 the city received its first charter of incorporation1 whilst in #aage ,henry ,,ii4 held here one of the first meetings which came to be afterwards called ,parliament4 ,it also served as an occasion for ,william of ,scotland to pay his homage to the ,king in the ,cathedral4 ,in the reign of ,richard ,i4 the fury of the populace was excited against the ,jews for having mingled with the crowd at the ,coronation in ,london4 ,in spite of a royal proclamation in their favour1 they were terribly persecuted throughout the country1 especially in the big towns4 ,york was by no means behind the times in #aaij4 ,many of the ,jews1 having defended the castle in which they had taken refuge1 put their own wives and children to death1 and then committed suicide4 ,those who did not were cruelly tortured to death by the ,christians4 ,in the meantime it is pleasing to note that certain portions of ,yorkshire had been reclaimed from its wild state wherever the ,cistercians and other orders of monks had settled4 ,they introduced sheep-farming1 besides tilling the reclaimed wilderness4 ,the subsequent history of ,york is taken up with the many visits of royalty and benefits conferred1 till we get to the year #aefi1 when the ,council of the ,north was established1 after the suppression of the rebellion known as the ,pilgrimage of ,grace4 ,this was consequent on the dissolution of the monasteries1 the demolition of ten parish churches1 and the wholesale appropriation of revenues and materials by ,henry ,,viii4 ,the principal leader was ,robert ,aske1 who1 with #dj1jjj men attended by priests with sacred banners1 seized this city and ,hull4 ,they were soon dispersed1 ,aske being brought to ,york and hanged upon ,clifford's ,tower4 ,though suppressed for a time1 public feeling broke out into an insurrection during ,elizabeth's reign to restore ,roman ,catholicism4 ,it ended in their discomfiture1 ,thomas ,percy1 ,earl of ,northumberland1 being beheaded at ,york as the chief ringleader1 and his head stuck on the ,micklegate ,bar as a warning to others4 ,history records a ,parliament held here by ,charles ,i4 in #afdb1 when he promised to govern legally4 ,in fact1 he seems to have removed his entire court here1 or rather those willing to follow him4 ,however1 as all attempts at negotiation had failed1 he advanced to ,nottingham and there erected his standard4 ,after the battle of ,marston ,moor1 which is about six miles out1 ,york was taken for the ,parliament by ,sir ,thomas ,fairfax in #afdd4 ,illustration3 ,,york ,,micklegate ,,bar ,after the ,restoration1 ,charles ,,ii4 was royally welcomed4 ,james ,,ii4 aroused public indignation by attempting to introduce ,roman ,catholicism at ,york1 which only led to the persecution of the followers of that religion4 ,subsequent events have been principally the visits of royalty4 ,in #ahbi terrible consternation arose at the sight of smoke issuing from the roof of the ,cathedral4 ,the act was afterwards proved to have been that of a madman who had secreted himself for that purpose in the ,cathedral after the evening service was over4 ,the whole of the choir was gutted by the flames4 ,the ,cathedral1 after ,sweyn's visitation1 had been rebuilt by ,archbishop ,thomas of ,bayeux4 ,it was commenced in #ajgj and finished by #aajj4 ,of this building little now remains1 it having been destroyed by an accidental fire in #aacg4 ,it remained in a desolate state till ,archbishop ,roger rebuilt the apsidal choir and crypt 7#aaed-aaia74 ,to this was added the south transept by ,archbishop ,walter de ,grey 7#abae-abee7 in the reign of ,henry ,,iii41 whilst the north transept and the central tower were erected by ,john le ,romaine1 who was at that time treasurer of the ,cathedral4 ,the two transepts1 besides the crypt1 are the oldest portions of the present building4 ,they belong to the best years of the ,early ,english style4 ,the south transept has a distinctive feature in its magnificent rose window1 whilst the north transept is adorned with a series of beautiful worked lancet windows1 known as the ,five ,sisters4 ,the son of the treasurer1 who became also ,archbishop1 laid the foundation of the nave about #abij1 which was completed about forty years later by ,archbishop ,melton1 who also built the west front and the two western towers4 ,the ,chapter ,house also belongs to the same period4 ,in #acfa ,archbishop ,thoresby commenced to erect the ,lady ,chapel and presbytery after the ,early ,perpendicular style4 ,he also in eight years completed the central tower1 which he had taken down in #acgj1 whilst previous to this he had started to rebuild the choir in #acfa to render it more in accordance with the character of the nave1 though it was not finished till about #adjj4 ,it is a very fine example of the ,late ,perpendicular style4 ,by this time all traces of the ancient ,norman architecture1 with the exception of the eastern portion of the crypt by ,archbishop ,roger1 which still remains1 had been eliminated4 ,to keep in character it was decided to recase the central tower and alter it into a perpendicular tower with a lantern1 which was completed in #addd4 ,with the erection of the south-west tower in #adcb1 and the north-west tower in #adgj1 the church was completed1 and two years later was reconsecrated4 ,besides the fire of the madman in #ahbi1 when the woodwork was entirely destroyed1 another one broke out in #ahdj in the south-west tower1 reducing it to a wreck4 ,since then it has undergone the usual restoration4 ,the whole resembles a ,latin cross1 and constitutes a glorious minster1 the beauty of which can be more readily appreciated by a glance at ,mr4 ,collins' work than by any amount of word-painting4 ,the other illustrations give also a faithful description of the old gateways4 ,they are the four principal gates or bars to the walls of the city--walls which contain ,norman and ,early ,english work1 but principally belong to the ,decorative style4 ,micklegate ,bar is the south entrance1 upon which were exposed the heads of traitors1 and is ,norman4 ,monk ,bar leads on to the ,scarborough ,road1 and probably belongs to the fourteenth century4 ,it was formerly called ,goodramgate1 which was changed after the ,restoration to ,monk ,bar1 in honour of ,general ,monk4 ,walmgate ,bar dates from the reign of ,edward ,i41 and still retains the barbican rebuilt in #afdh1 whilst ,bootham ,bar1 with a ,norman arch1 is the main entrance from the north4 ,stonegate is situated practically in the heart of the city1 not far from the minster4 ,it is a curious piece of architecture4 ,york has been most happy with regard to the birth of men who have distinguished themselves4 ,it has yielded to the ,church of ,rome eight saints and three cardinals1 and to ,england no less than twelve lord chancellors1 two lord treasurers and lord presidents of the north4 ,but the earliest recorded birth of an eminent native takes us out of the ordinary ranks of men4 ,if any name is well known it is certainly that of the first ,roman emperor who embraced ,christianity4 ,he is ,constantine the ,great4 ,flaccus ,albanus was also born here4 ,he was a pupil of the great ecclesiastical historian1 the ,venerable ,bede4 ,waltheof1 ,earl of ,northumberland and son of ,siward2 ,thomas ,morton1 in turn ,bishop of ,chester1 ,lichfield1 ,coventry1 and ,durham1 first came into the world at ,york2 whilst of more recent times there was ,gent1 an eminent painter and historian2 ,swinburn1 a distinguished lawyer2 and ,flaxman1 one of ,england's most celebrated sculptors1 who is perhaps as well known by his beautiful designs for the ,wedgwood pottery as by any other work of his4 ,not to know who ,flaxman was is almost as bad as to admit ignorance of the existence of ,michael ,angelo4 ,winchester ,this ancient city on the river ,itchen in ,hampshire is inseparably bound with ,william of ,wykeham4 ,he it was who rebuilt a great part of the magnificent cathedral now extant1 and who founded the great public school of ,winchester1 at which so many celebrated men have received their education4 ,these form the great attraction of the city1 and rescue it from oblivion4 ,it is with sorrow we foresee that the inevitable restoration will take place in the east end of this venerable structure4 ,for many years past the foundations were known to be in an unsafe condition1 but recently great alarm was caused by the appearance of large cracks in the upper masonry and of the bulging in of the groining of the crypt4 ,there was no doubt that the foundations were slowly subsiding1 and speculation was rife as to the cause4 ,with a view to ascertaining the state of the foundations1 excavations were made4 ,it was discovered that the original builders had rested them on marshy ground1 strengthened with oak piles1 which have gradually decayed during the lapse of centuries4 ,at the same time the presence of an underground stream1 thought to be part of the river ,itchen1 was seen to be bubbling up through the gravel1 saturating the upper soil of peat4 ,in much the same way as the site of ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral in ,london probably was covered1 in the first instance1 with buildings for pagan worship1 so we find that the ,romans at ,winchester erected temples to ,apollo and ,concord upon the ground that eventually came to be the precincts of the ,cathedral4 ,the presence of a ,christian church appears to have been in the third century1 when the city is said to have become one of the chief centres of the ,christian ,britons4 ,this first church1 however1 was destroyed during the persecution of ,aurelian and was rebuilt in #bic1 to be made a wreck in #die by the ,saxons1 who fired it4 ,what with the religious convulsion of ,england1 which1 with the exception of ,kent1 fluctuated with the rise and fall of circumstances chiefly controlled by the policy of kings either heathen at one time and ,christian at another1 or the deposition and death of a ,christian monarch1 caused by one more powerful and deeply imbued with heathenism1 the ,see of ,winchester does not appear to have come into existence till about the middle of the seventh century4 ,the establishment of its bishopric in a way marks the commencement of a new epoch in the ,english ,church4 ,illustration3 ,,winchester ,,the ,,north ,,aisle ,the mission of ,st4 ,augustine1 backed with the royal countenance of ,ethelbert1 had1 though not completed1 done much towards conversion2 but on their death practically the whole of the ,christian territory1 excepting ,kent1 relapsed into heathenism1 and to such an extent that ,augustine's successor1 ,laurentius1 was on the point of giving up the whole mission and taking refuge in ,gaul4 ,not until #fbe did a mission again venture forth from the ,kentish kingdom1 and then their tentative efforts were rendered abortive by the battle of ,hatfield in #fcc1 which for a while seems to have crushed all hope at ,rome4 ,but a couple of years later an independent missionary1 ,birinus1 was consecrated in ,italy1 and was sent by the people to make fresh attempts to break down the barriers of heathenism in ,england4 ,through his influence ,cynegils became the first ,christian king of the ,west ,saxons4 ,to inaugurate his conversion the monarch decided to establish a bishopric1 and immediately began to collect materials for building1 at his capital of ,winchester1 a cathedral1 which was eventually constructed by his son ,cenwahl in #fdf4 ,the ,danes in #hfg broke up the establishment1 and the year following1 secular priests were substituted4 ,they remained till #ifc1 when ,ethelwold1 by command of ,king ,edgar1 expelled them to make room for the monks of the ,benedictine ,order from ,abendon4 ,they enjoyed uninterrupted possession1 and were richly endowed with royal donations1 as the dissolution revealed the extent of its revenue4 ,henry ,,viii4 then refounded it for a bishop1 dean1 chancellor1 twelve prebendaries1 and other subordinate officers4 ,the ,cathedral was first dedicated to ,st4 ,amphibalus1 then jointly to ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 and afterwards to ,st4 ,swithin1 once bishop here4 ,with ,henry ,,viii4's regime the title was altered to the ,holy and undivided ,trinity4 ,the church of ,cynegils having become entirely ruined1 a new cathedral was commenced in #ajgc-ih by ,bishop ,walkelyn4 ,the two ,norman transepts and the low central tower1 as also the very early crypt1 still exist4 ,the church is a spacious1 massive1 and splendid cruciform building of ,norman architecture with subsequent additions in the ,gothic style4 ,the whole of the ,norman nave was demolished and re-erected on a far grander scale by ,william of ,wykeham at the end of the fourteenth century1 though not quite completed till after his death4 ,the choir was much restored in the fourteenth century1 whilst it underwent considerable alteration by ,bishop ,fox from #aeaj to #aebh4 ,here is the tomb of ,william ,,ii4 ,a great feature is the magnificent reredos behind the altar4 ,it extends the full width of the choir1 with two processional entrances pierced through its lofty wall1 and covered with tier upon tier of rich canopied niches4 ,they once contained colossal statues4 ,behind this reredos there is a second stone screen1 which enclosed the small chapel in which stood the magnificent gold shrine studded with jewels4 ,it contained the body of ,st4 ,swithin1 and was the gift of ,king ,edgar4 ,the ,cathedral1 in fact1 received at one time and another great treasures of gold and jewels by many of the early kings of ,england4 ,canute is said to have caused his crown of gold and gems to be suspended over the great crucifix above the high altar4 ,illustration3 ,,winchester ,,from ,,st4 ,,catherine',s ,,hill ,the magnificent chantry of ,cardinal ,beaufort is of the ,later style of ,english architecture4 ,bishop ,waynfleet's chantry is in the same style1 and has been kept in excellent repair by the trustees of his foundation at ,magdalene ,college4 ,both chantries contain tombs of their founders4 ,there are several other chapels1 all deserving close study of their beautiful architecture4 ,the most notable of the many examples of mediaeval recumbent effigies are those of the monuments to ,bishops ,edingdon1 ,wykeham1 ,langton1 and ,fox4 ,the famous authoress1 ,jane ,austen1 is buried here4 ,illustration3 ,,winchester ,,from ,,the ,,deanery ,,garden ,the black marble font is an interesting relic of eleventh-century skill4 ,the sides are composed of scenes taken from the life of ,st4 ,nicholas4 ,the ,cathedral1 situated in an open space near the centre of the city towards the south-east1 is a marvellous combination of beauty and dignity1 surpassed1 if at all1 by few4 ,it is the central feature of ,winchester1 and will always command the greatest admiration4 ,one of ,england's great public schools is that founded by ,william of ,wykeham and built between #achg and #acic4 ,the foundation originally consisted of a warden1 ten fellows1 three chaplains1 seventy scholars1 and sixteen choristers4 ,the prelate had previously established a school here in #acgc4 ,thus the oldest of ,england's great schools was called ,seinte ,marie ,college of ,wynchester1 the charter of which was dated ,october #achb4 ,the ancient statutes were revived in #ahee1 and were still further influenced by the ,public ,schools ,act of #ahfh4 ,the establishment has a fine chapel1 hall1 cloister1 and other necessary buildings1 all in excellent preservation4 ,another interesting structure is that afforded by the hospital of ,st4 ,cross1 founded in #aacf by ,henry de ,blois1 ,bishop of ,winchester4 ,it lies about a mile out of town4 ,its general plan can be readily seen by a glance at ,mr4 ,collins' drawing4 ,henry de ,blois intended it to provide board and lodging for thirteen poor men1 and a daily dinner for one hundred others4 ,it was mostly rebuilt by ,cardinal ,beaufort between #adje and #addg4 ,the whole has undergone much restoration1 which was not entirely happy1 though it has certainly kept the buildings in a good state of preservation4 ,on the precincts is also the very stately cruciform chapel1 dating roughly from the year #aahj4 ,the city of ,winchester was at one time proverbial for its splendour1 which was owing to the many kings that preferred to reside within its walls than elsewhere4 ,mainly owing to its central position on the high roads in the south of ,england1 ,winchester was from early times a town of great importance4 ,this ,hampshire city is first ascribed to the ,celtic ,britons1 who settled here in #cib ,b4 c41 having emigrated from the coasts of ,armorica in ,gaul4 ,they remained in undisturbed possession till within a century prior to the ,christian era1 when they were expelled by the ,belgae1 who advanced from their settlements on the southern coasts into the interior4 ,soon after it had become the capital of the ,belgae1 the settlement passed into ,roman occupation4 ,the ,coer ,gwent 7,white ,city7 of the ,britons became the ,venta ,belgarum of the ,romans4 ,the ,roman word ,venta eventually became transformed to ,winte1 ,winte-ceaster1 from which was derived ,winchester4 ,under ,cedric1 about #ebj ,a4,d41 it became the capital of the ,west ,saxons1 and of ,england in #hbg by ,egbert4 ,he had obtained the sovereignty of all the other kingdoms of the ,octarchy1 and was crowned sole monarch in the ,cathedral of ,winchester4 ,on this occasion the monarch published an edict commanding all his subjects throughout his dominions to be called ,english4 ,the union of the kingdoms gave that importance to ,winchester which it had never had previously1 and the fact of being not only the capital of ,wessex1 but the metropolis of ,england1 caused it to leap into great prominence4 ,this state1 however1 suffered a severe check when ,london1 in the reign of ,william the ,conqueror1 began to rival it1 and was brought almost to the verge of ruin through the dissolution of the monasteries by ,henry ,,viii4 ,however1 at different periods1 ,winchester received much unwelcome discomfiture4 ,it was seized by the ,danes in #hga2 whilst in #ajac it was ravaged by ,sweyn on his path of vengeance4 ,in #aajj the body of ,william ,rufus was solemnly interred in the ,cathedral4 ,during the parliamentary war the city was taken and retaken by ,cromwell1 and the castle dismantled4 ,here it was that ,charles ,i4 commissioned ,wren to build a palace in #afhc1 which was only begun4 ,previous to this the plague of #afff greatly reduced the number of inhabitants1 and it was possibly to help the city recover itself that ,charles thought of building a palace4 ,illustration3 ,,winchester ,,st4 ,,cross ,though the great regal prosperity has long since departed1 the many old houses and the great extent of the city still bear testimony to the once great importance of ,winchester4 ,westminster ,of the three cathedrals in ,london1 ,westminster ,abbey may be said to possess the greatest charms4 ,compared to it ,st4 ,paul's is a new church1 whilst ,st4 ,saviour's1 ,southwark1 is little known4 ,it is true that the foundation of ,st4 ,paul's is coeval with that of the ,abbey1 and ,st4 ,saviour's is an old church1 but ,st4 ,paul's dates from the ,great ,fire of ,london1 and the merit of its architecture is the wonderful genius of ,wren4 ,in more ways than one ,westminster is bound up with the history of the great empire4 ,within her precincts repose the greater number of reigning heads who inaugurated their reigns in the sacred interior with the coronation1 a ceremony which was last performed when our present king came to the throne1 though the last monarch to be laid to rest in the venerable pile ceased with the interment of ,king ,george ,,ii4 in #agfj4 ,the ,abbey is also the favourite sepulture for eminent statesmen1 poets1 authors1 and great travellers1--men whose intellects have done far more for the wonderful rise of ,great ,britain than the average crowned head1 men whose ability and personality in many cases were little understood during life1 preyed upon1 as is often the case1 by others who could turn it to good pecuniary account4 ,but when death claims them1 the nation1 sensible of their loss1 pay homage by interring the remains in the noble sepulchre of a cathedral1 or perpetuate the memory by an epitaph on the wall4 ,to wander around the ,poets' ,corner along the echoing aisles1 and stand in front of each memorial and read off the few cold lines that seem a mockery to regard as a record of some mighty intellect1 serve only to awaken the imagination and to recall their sad biographies read at one time or another4 ,were ,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1 ,spenser1 ,dryden1 ,milton1 ,oliver ,goldsmith1 ,handel1 ,thackeray1 ,david ,garrick1 to mention only a few1 ever made peers1 much less knights8 ,no2 yet many of their contemporaries of inferior intellect enjoyed such worldly distinction4 ,to stand in the presence of the great dead1 or in lieu to read their epitaphs1 casts a great fascination over the mind1 and makes one linger within the precincts of the historic abbey till a rude awakening comes from the verger that it is closing-time4 ,with a sigh we emerge from the great mausoleum into the hard1 glaring daylight1 for a few seconds dazed4 ,the fascination still clings to us1 and when we get home we are eager to consult authorities and learn more of the beautiful church at ,westminster4 ,the ,abbey1 like nearly all our great cathedrals1 is the growth of centuries4 ,looking at it under present-day conditions1 we can hardly realise that in the dim past the site was an island of dry sand and gravel1 bound on the one side by the river ,thames1 and on the other by marshes watered by the little stream called the ,eye4 ,this stream still runs1 though out of sight1 under ,new ,bond ,street1 the ,green ,park1 and ,buckingham ,palace1 to empty itself into the ,thames near ,vauxhall ,bridge1 and has lent its name to ,tyburn 7,th' ,eye ,burn74 ,in the early years of the seventh century1 possibly within a few months of his restoring the church on the site of ,st4 ,paul's1 which would take us back to about the year #faj1 ,sebert1 the ,king of the ,east ,saxons1 decided to build a church to the honour of ,st4 ,peter on this ,isle of ,thorns1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 ,thorney ,island4 ,the fact of the vicinity being westward of the neighbouring hill of ,st4 ,paul's eventually gave rise to the name of ,westminster4 ,according to tradition1 on the eve of the new church being consecrated by ,bishop ,mellitus1 the boatman ,edric1 whilst attending to his nets by the bank of the island1 was attracted by a gleaming light on the opposite shore4 ,rowing across1 he found a venerable man1 who desired to be ferried over4 ,on landing at the island1 the mysterious stranger proceeded towards the church1 accompanied by a host of angels1 who gave him light by candles as he went through the forms of church consecration4 ,on his return to the boat1 the old man bade ,edric tell ,mellitus that ,st4 ,peter had come in person to consecrate the church1 and promised him that fish would always come plentifully to his nets1 provided he did not work on a ,sunday and did not forget to offer a tithe of that which he caught to the ,abbey of ,westminster4 ,on the morrow1 ,mellitus1 hearing the fisherman's story1 confirmed by the marks of consecration in the chrism1 the crosses on the doors1 and the droppings from the candles of the angels1 acknowledged the work of ,st4 ,peter as sufficient consecration1 and changed the name from ,thorney ,island to ,westminster1 to distinguish it as being to the west of the city of ,london and to the ,church of ,st4 ,paul's on the neighbouring hill4 ,however incredible ,edric's story may be it bore fruit1 in that till #achb a tithe of fish was paid by the ,thames fisherman to the ,abbey1 in exchange for which the bearer had the privilege to sit1 on that day1 at the ,abbot's table1 and to ask for bread and ale from the cellarman4 ,by degrees the neighbourhood became peopled1 partly on account of the church and partly from the erection of a palace close to it1 which led the nobility to build houses in the vicinity4 ,the ,abbey1 becoming ruinous through the ,danes1 was rebuilt by ,edward the ,confessor as the ,collegiate ,church of ,st4 ,peter at ,westminster4 ,in fact this monarch is usually regarded as the founder of the ,church4 ,according to ,matthew ,paris1 it was the first cruciform church erected in ,england1 the immense size and beauty of which can be seen in the ,bayeux tapestry4 ,the foundation was laid somewhere about #ajeb1 and the church was consecrated in #ajfe1 a few days prior to the ,confessor's death4 ,the monastery was filled with monks from ,exeter1 whilst ,pope ,nicholas ,,ii4 constituted the ,abbey for the inauguration of the kings of ,england4 ,throughout the succession of reigning heads1 ,edward ,v41 who died uncrowned1 was the only exception4 ,of the ,confessor's church and monastery the only remains appear to be the ,chapel of the ,pyx1 the lower part of the refectory below the ,westminster schoolroom1 a portion of the dormitory1 and the walls of the south cloister4 ,illustration3 ,,london ,,westminster ,,abbey4 ,,the ,,north ,,transept ,the ,abbey1 with these few exceptions1 was demolished and rebuilt on a magnificent scale by ,henry ,,iii4 between #abbj and #abfi4 ,the material employed was first a green stone and afterwards ,caen stone4 ,the portions that remain to us from that rebuilding are the ,confessor's chapel1 the side aisles and their chapels1 and the choir and transepts1 all beautiful examples of the ,geometrical ,pointed period of architecture4 ,henry's work was continued by his son ,edward ,i41 who added the eastern portion of the nave after the same style2 it was afterwards carried on by successive abbots till the erection of the great west window by ,abbot ,estney in #adih4 ,the ,college ,hall1 the ,abbot's ,house1 ,jerusalem ,chamber1 and part of the cloisters had also in the meantime been added by ,abbot ,littlington in #achj4 ,amongst various improvements ,henry ,,vii4 built the west end of the nave1 his own chapel1 the deanery1 and portions of the cloisters in the ,perpendicular style4 ,the choir1 a fine specimen of ,early ,english with decorations added in the fourteenth century1 is where the coronation of ,english sovereigns takes place1 and contains the tombs of ,sebert1 ,king of the ,east ,angles1 ,anne of ,cleves1 and ,edmund ,crouchback1 ,earl of ,leicester4 ,henry ,,vii4's chapel displays the architect's skill to perfection1 with the wonderful fretted work of the roof and the graceful fan-tracery4 ,it contains the glorious tomb of ,henry ,,vii41 the work of the great sculptor ,pietro ,torrigiano4 ,it is composed chiefly of black marble with figures and pilasters of gilt copper4 ,the figures once wore crowns1 but some sacrilegious hands have stolen them4 ,in the chapel of ,edward the ,confessor are the shrine of ,edward the ,confessor in ,purbeck marble1 the altar-tomb of ,edward ,i41 the coronation chairs of the ,english sovereigns1 besides the stone of ,scone1 the old coronation seat of the ,scottish kings4 ,the beautiful chapels of ,st4 ,benedict1 ,st4 ,edmund1 ,st4 ,nicholas1 ,st4 ,paul1 ,st4 ,erasmus1 and ,st4 ,john the ,baptist chiefly contain the monuments of ecclesiastics and nobility4 ,the entrance generally used is the ,north ,porch1 known as ,solomon's ,porch4 ,it was erected in the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 but entirely changed its character in the hands of ,wren1 who appears not to have appreciated the beauties of ,gothic architecture4 ,the same architect is said to have built the two western towers1 though they are sometimes ascribed to his pupil ,hawksmoor4 ,wren's work upon the north porch was again altered by ,sir ,g4 ,g4 ,scott1 who introduced the present triple portico4 ,on passing under it we come to the north transept1 generally known as the ,statesmen's ,aisle4 ,here in the same grave lie the ,earl of ,chatham and his famous son1 ,william ,pitt4 ,close to them are either the graves or monuments of ,fox1 ,castlereagh1 ,grattan1 ,palmerston1 ,peel1 the three ,cannings1 and ,disraeli4 ,right in the centre of the aisle is a slab marking the resting-place of ,w4 ,e4 ,gladstone and his wife 7#ahih and #aijj71 over whom unconsciously the people tread1 gradually wearing out the simple words of memorial4 ,the south transept is the ,poets' ,corner1 containing the memorials from ,chaucer to ,ruskin4 ,in the nave lie ,david ,livingstone 7#ahgc71 a great missionary and traveller1 whose remains were reverently brought from ,central ,africa2 ,robert ,stephenson 7#ahei71 the famous engineer2 ,sir ,charles ,barry 7#ahfj71 architect of the ,houses of ,parliament2 ,sir ,g4 ,g4 ,scott 7#ahgc72 ,george ,edmund ,street 7#ahha71 architect of the ,law ,courts2 ,colin ,campbell2 ,lord ,clyde 7#ahfc71 who recaptured ,lucknow4 ,we have mentioned these names1 not for the sake of invidiousness1 but have chosen them at random4 ,leading from the cloisters up a flight of stone steps is the ,chapter ,house4 ,the original structure was built by ,king ,edward in the eleventh century1 and it is noticeable in that it departed from the usual ,benedictine form4 ,in #abej it was rebuilt by ,henry ,,iii41 and is an octagonal structure1 second only to that at ,lincoln in size4 ,here the monks were accustomed once a week to hold their chapters4 ,in ornamental stalls opposite the entrance the ,abbot and his four chief officers were enthroned1 whilst the monks ranged themselves along the stone benches which go around the walls4 ,criminals were tried1 and if found guilty were tied up to the central pillar of ,purbeck marble 7thirty-five feet high7 and were flogged publicly4 ,the monks1 however1 were not left in undisturbed possession of the ,chapter ,house1 for on the separation of the ,houses of ,lords and ,commons in the reign of ,edward ,i41 the ,house of ,commons held sittings here and continued to do so till #aedg4 ,the last parliament held here was on the day that ,henry ,,viii4 died1 when it sat to discuss the ,act of ,attainder passed upon the ,duke of ,norfolk4 ,at the dissolution of the monastery the ,chapter ,house passed to the ,crown1 and seven years afterwards the ,house of ,commons removed to ,st4 ,stephen's ,chapel in the ,palace of ,westminster4 ,from that time the ,chapter ,house was used as a ,record ,office till the removal of the records in #ahfe to the ,rolls ,house4 ,there are now two or three glass cases filled with interesting ancient deeds and illuminated parchments relating to the history of the ,abbey4 ,adjoining the ,abbey is the great public school of ,westminster1 or ,st4 ,peter's ,college as it was called when founded by ,queen ,elizabeth in #aefj for the education of forty boys1 denominated the ,queen's scholars1 and prepared for the university4 ,since then the numbers have greatly increased1 and to have been educated there is something to boast of1 for it is so much sought after that preference is given to the sons of old ,westminster boys4 ,we might go on for ever1 so vast is the subject-matter1 but before closing we would draw attention to ,st4 ,margaret's ,church1 which stands in front of ,solomon's ,porch4 ,it was founded by the ,confessor1 and is the especial church of the ,house of ,commons4 ,curiously enough1 it gives scale to the whole ,abbey4 ,the ,houses of ,parliament are across the road to the east of the ,abbey and on the bank of the river ,thames4 ,in the ,tudor style ,sir ,charles ,barry1 ,r4,a41 built the ,new ,palace of ,westminster1 containing the two ,houses of ,parliament 7#ahdj-ahei74 ,it is a stupendous work and a marvellous mass of rich architecture4 ,some authority states that the clock tower is much after the style of the belfry at ,bruges4 ,this statement1 we would point out1 is hardly correct4 ,the two no more resemble each other than do black and white4 ,how is it possible to describe in a few cold words the wonderful beauties that lie hidden in the architecture of the ,abbey1 the best artistic expressions of its several architects8 ,impressions created depend upon the temperament of the individual who gazes upon them4 ,all acknowledge the great beauty1 but each from his own standpoint1 according to his tastes and inclinations1 which are moulded by his pursuits in life1 or more rarely endowed by that inherent sense of all that is noble and refined he is enabled to sink his own individuality for a moment1 and to enjoy the brain-product of a fellow-being4 ,to the dull intellect the ,abbey appeals as a mystery2 to the commercial man it represents so much outlay of capital1 and a proud possession of the empire's city2 to the poet and artist the memorials must recall the wonderful lines of ,longfellow3 ,lives of great men all remind us ,we can make our lives sublime2 to the architect a marvellous insight into the great possibilities offered by architecture2 to the musician the ambition to create a great composition that will be worthy to echo throughout the lofty and beautiful aisles1 whose music is so unconsciously based upon those laws of harmony which should exist in architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and literature4