file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,transcriber's ,notes ,this plain text version of the book has been prepared using the ,latin-#a character set4 ,italic typeface is represented by the use of underscores4 ,small capital typeface is represented using ,,all ,,caps4 ,the oe ligature is indicated by oe and ,,oe4 ,inconsistent spellings1 hyphenation1 formatting etc4 are retained as in the original1 except where typographical errors have been corrected3 these are listed at the end of the book4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 frontispiece ,,domestic ,,animals4 ,,history ,,and ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,horse1 ,,mule1 ,,cattle1 ,,sheep1 ,,swine1 ,,poultry1 ,,and ,,farm ,,dogs4 ,,with ,,directions ,,for ,,their ,,management1 ,,breeding1 ,,crossing1 ,,rearing1 ,,feeding1 ,,and ,,preparation ,,for ,a ,,profitable ,,market ,,also1 ,,their ,,diseases1 ,,and ,,remedies4 ,,together ,,with ,,full ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,dairy4 ,,by ,r4 ,l4 ,,allen1 ,,author ,,of ,,compend ,,of ,,american ,,agriculture1 ,,etc4 ,,new-,,york3 ,,orange ,,judd1 #da ,,park ,,row4 ,,agricultural ,,book ,,publisher4 #ahfe4 ,entered according to an ,act of ,congress in the year #ahdg ,by ,,richard ,l4 ,,allen1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,introduction4 ,the object of the following work1 on the ,history1 ,breeding1 ,management1 ,diseases1 c41 of ,domestic ,animals1 is to afford the ,stock-breeder and ,grazier a connected view of the entire subject in which he has so deep an interest4 ,the writer has endeavored to compress within the limited space assumed as necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal1 such principles and practice1 and give to each that relative prominence1 which it becomes the practical man to observe1 to realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital devoted to his pursuits4 ,their history is essential1 as it shows their introduction into the ,united ,states1 their progress during the various stages of their improvement1 and the comparative value of the improved and ordinary breeds4 ,a knowledge of the best mode of breeding and management is of still higher importance4 ,the first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of the animals in his hands1 or perhaps still farther to advance them2 while proper management and feeding will prevent that deterioration and loss from disease1 which frequently subtract so much from his profits4 ,a larger space has been purposely devoted to the last topics1 in preference to the subject of diseases1 as prevention is not only less troublesome than cure1 but much more economical4 ,feeding and management1 after breeding1 are really the important objects in view to the ,stock-breeder and ,grazier1 for if these be judiciously attended to1 disease among the herds will rarely be known4 ,the subject of animal diseases is complicated and little understood2 and to be properly comprehended1 requires years close1 intelligent study1 under every advantage for obtaining the necessary information4 ,nearly every disorder assumes various shades of difference1 and to remove it effectually a corresponding change of treatment is required4 ,how absurd then the idea1 that a compilation of formal remedies1 administered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager1 will be of material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the ravages of disease4 ,all that can consistently be done1 is to give a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known ailments1 and leave to nature or a professional farrier1 such as are more complex or unusual4 ,this work 7with many subsequent and important additions7 constitutes a small part of the ,compend of ,american ,agriculture1 the favorable reception of which1 though but recently given to the public1 has induced the writer to offer this important division of the subject in its present detached form4 ,new ,york1 ,november1 #ahdg ,,index4 ,,page ,animals1 domestic1 reared in the ,u4 ,states #i their number and value #i their improvement #aj adaptation to various objects #aj general form and characteristics #ac the lungs #ad respiration #ad effects of #ag perspiration #ah food which supplies respiration #ah circumstances which augment respiration #ai food #ba purposes fulfilled by food #bb nutritive qualities for various animals #bc profit of feeding #bc ,see ,,cattle1 ,,sheep1 c4 ,ass1 the #aha varieties #aha characteristics #ahb breeding in the ,u4 ,states #ahb as a beast of burden #ahc ,breeding--principles of #aa ,see ,,cattle1 ,,sheep1 c4 ,cattle--neat or horned #bf various domestic breeds #bf native cattle #bg ,devons #bi short horns #cj ,herefords #ce ,ayrshire #ch management of calves #ci breeding #da breaking steers #db management of oxen #db fattening and stall-feeding #de ,diseases #da1 #ej hoven #ej choking #eb inflammation of stomach #eb mange or scab #eb horn-ail--jaundice #ec mad-itch--bloody murrain #ed hoof-ail #ee loss of cud--scours or diarrhoea--warbles or grubs--wounds--puerperal or milk-fever #ef caked bags--garget--sore teats--warts #eg ,cows for dairy #fj management of #fa milking #fa ,see ,,dairy4 ,comparative value of oxen and horses #aij ,churns #fi ,dairy1 the #fj ,dairy--selection and management of cows #fj1 #fa milking #fa properties of milk #fb variations in #fc cream--clouted ditto #fe ,making butter from sour1 sweet1 and clouted cream #ff1 #fg sourness of cream #fh quickness in churning #fh over-churning #fi temperature of milk and cream #fi advantages of churn'g the whole #fi cleanliness in churning #gj premium butter1 how made #gj ,orange county do4 do4 #ga ,making cheese1 how effected #gb creamed and uncreamed #gc buttermilk cheese #gc whey do4 #gd vegetable substances added #gd preparation of rennet #ge different qualities of cheese #gg warming the milk #gg quality of rennet #gh quantity of rennet #gh treatment of curd #gi separation of whey #hj cheese1 salting #ha addition of cream #ha size of cheese #ha mode of curing #hb ammoniacal cheese #hb inoculating do4 #hb premium cheese1 how made #hc ,ducks--see ,,poultry4 ,farm dogs #bjg-bad ,feeding defined #ba ,see ,,cattle1 ,,sheep1 c4 ,food1 comparative nutritive qualities of #bb how given1 purposes fulfilled by it #bb changes in #bd ,see ,,animals1 ,,products1 c4 ,geese--see ,,poultry4 ,guinea-hen--see ditto4 ,hens--see ,,poultry4 ,hinny--see ,,ass4 ,horse--the ,arabian and ,barb #ach the ,english #aci ,american #ada ,arabians in ,america #aci1 #adj ,ranger1 the ,barb--,bussorah--,narraganset pacers--,messenger1 imported #adj ,morgan horses #adb ,canadian and ,spanish #adc ,conestoga #adc ,norman #add ,cart1 ,cleveland bay1 ,belfounder #ade ,eclipse1 ,american #ada points of #adf habits #adg breeding #adh management of colts #adi breaking #aej longevity1 feeding #aea ,diseases #aed glanders #aed lampas1 heaves1 c4 #aee catarrh or distemper1 spasmodic colic #aef flatulent colic #aeh inflammation of bowels #aei physicking #afb worms #afd bots #afd wind-galls #afe the fetlock #aff cutting #aff sprain of the coffin-joint--ringbone #afg enlargement of the hock #afh curb #afh bone-spavin--swelled legs #agj grease #aga setons #agc founder--poison from weeds #agd inflammation of the eyes #age stings of hornets1 c4 #age sprain #age bruises--fistula #agf wounds--galls #agf shoeing1 contraction of the foot #agf corns #agg over-reach1 forging or clicking #agh the bearing-rein #agh the bit #agi stables #ahj comparative labor with oxen #aij ,mule1 the--breeding in the ,u4 ,s4 #ahc rearing and management #ahd advantages over horse labor #ahe valuable qualities #ahe enduringness of #ahf in ,california #ahh economy of mule-labor #ahi ,poultry--their value #bad ,hens--constituent of eggs #bad food #bae general management #baf the poultry-house #bah varieties #bbj1 #bba diseases #bbb ,turkey1 the #bbc breeding and management #bbc ,peacock1 the #bbd ,goose1 the--varieties--breeding #bbe feeding and food #bbe ,ducks--feeding--varieties #bbf breeding and rearing #bbg ,sheep1 the #hd uses of--importance of #he varieties of wild--domesticated #hg native #hi ,merino1 the1 history of #ij exportation from ,spain #ib importation into the ,u4 ,states #ic varieties #id ,saxon1 the #if ,rambouillet1 the #ii history of ,merino in ,u4 ,states #aja improvements of #ajb peculiarities of #ajc breeding #ajd localities for rearing #ajf ,south-,down1 the1 history of #ajf ,cheviot1 the #aji ,long-wools1 the #aaj improvement of the ,bakewell #aaj improvement of ,cotswold and ,lincolnshire #aab peculiarities of the ,long-wools #aac importation into the ,u4 ,states #aac breeding sheep #aac ,winter management #aaf sheep-barns and sheds #aaf racks1 mangers1 and troughs #aag food #aah management of ewes1 yeaning #aai management of lambs #aai castrating and docking #abj tagging or clatting #aba ,summer management and food #aba washing #abb shearing #abd smearing and salving #abe weaning #abf drafting #abf stall feeding--management on the prairies #abg ,diseases #abh diarrhoea or scours #abi looseness in lambs1 dysentery #acj hoven1 braxy #acj costiveness1 stretches1 poison1 inflammation of lungs1 rot #aca foot-rot #acb flies1 maggots1 gad-fly #acc swollen mouth1 foul noses1 weakness1 scab #acd ticks1 pelt-rot1 staggers or sturdy #ace abortion1 garget1 bleeding #acf wounds #acg to protect from wolves and foxes #ach ,shepherd's dog #bji ,swine #aib various breeds #aid breeding and rearing #aih rearing and fattening1 large weights #aii treatment of food #bja products of the carcass #bjb lard oil1 how made #bjc slearine and oleine #bjc curing pork and hams #bjc ,diseases #bjd coughs and inflammation of the lungs1 costiveness1 itch1 kidney-worm #bje blind staggers #bjf ,wild ,boar #aic ,,domestic ,,animals4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory ,,remarks--,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,breeding1 ,,nutrition1 ,,management1 c4 ,the principal domestic animals reared for economical purposes in the ,united ,states1 are ,horned or neat cattle1 the ,horse1 the ,mule1 ,sheep1 and ,swine4 ,a few ,asses are bred1 but for no other object than to keep up the supply of jacks for propagating mules4 ,we have also goats1 rabbits1 and the house domestics1 the dog and cat2 the two former1 only in very limited numbers1 but both the latter much beyond our legitimate wants4 ,there have been a few specimens of the ,alpaca imported1 and an arrangement is now in progress for the introduction of a flock of several hundred1 which1 if distributed among intelligent and wealthy agriculturists1 as proposed1 will test their value for increasing our agricultural resources4 ,we shall confine ourselves to some general considerations1 connected with the first-mentioned and most important of our domestic animals4 ,their number as shown by the agricultural statistics collected in #ahci1 by order of our ,general ,government1 was #ae1jjj1jjj neat cattle2 #d1cce1jjj horses and mules1 7the number of each not being specified27 #ai1caa1jjj sheep2 and #bf1cjj1jjj swine4 ,there is much reason to question the entire accuracy of these returns1 yet there is doubtless an approximation to the truth4 ,sheep have greatly increased since that period1 and would probably number1 the present year1 7#ahdh17 not less than #cj1jjj1jjj2 and if our own manufactures continue to thrive1 and we should moreover become wool exporters1 of which there is now a reasonable prospect1 an accurate return for #ahej1 will undoubtedly give us not less than #cc1jjj1jjj for the entire ,union4 ,there has been a great increase in the value of the other animals enumerated1 but not in a ratio corresponding with that of sheep4 ,this is not only manifest in their augmented numbers1 but in the gradual and steady improvement of the species4 ,it may be safely predicted1 that this improvement will not only be sustained1 but largely increased2 for there are some intelligent and spirited breeders to be found in every section of the country1 whose liberal exertions and successful examples are doing much for this object4 ,wherever intelligence and sound judgment are to be found1 it will be impossible long to resist the effects of a comparison between animals1 which1 on an equal quantity of the same food1 with the same attention and in the same time1 will return #ej1 #bj1 or even #aj per cent4 more in their intrinsic value or marketable product1 than the ordinary class4 ,this improvement has been1 relatively1 most conspicuous in the ,western and ,southern states2 not that the present average of excellence in their animals surpasses1 or even reaches that of the ,north and ,east2 but the latter have long been pursuing this object1 with more or less energy1 and they have for many years had large numbers of excellent specimens of each variety2 while with few exceptions1 if we exclude the blood-horse or racing nag1 the former have1 till recently1 paid comparatively little attention to the improvement of their domestic animals4 ,the spirit for improvement through extensive sections1 is now awakened1 and the older settled portions of the country may hereafter expect competitors1 whose success will be fully commensurate with their own4 ,before going into the management of the different varieties1 we will give some general principles and remarks applicable to the treatment of all4 ,the purpose for which animals are required1 should be first determined1 before selecting such as may be necessary either for breeding or use4 ,throughout the ,northeastern states1 cows for the dairy1 oxen for the yoke1 and both for the butcher1 are wanted4 ,in much of the ,west and ,south1 beef alone is the principal object2 while the dairy is neglected1 and the work of the ox is seldom relied on1 except for occasional drudgery4 ,sheep may be wanted almost exclusively for the fleece1 or for the fleece and heavy mutton1 or in the neighborhood of markets1 for large early lambs4 ,the pastures and winter food1 climate1 and other conditions1 present additional circumstances1 which should be well considered before determining on the particular breed1 either of cattle or sheep1 that will best promote the interest of the farmer4 ,the kind of work for which the horse may be wanted1 whether as a roadster1 for the saddle1 as a heavy team horse1 or the horse of all work1 must be first decided1 before selecting the form or character of the animal4 ,the range of pig excellence is more circumscribed1 as it is only necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount of valuable carcass1 within the shortest time1 and with the least expense4 ,,principles ,,of ,,breeding4 ,all breeding is founded on the principle1 that like begets like4 ,this is1 however1 liable to some exceptions1 and is much more generally true when breeding down than when breeding up4 ,if two animals 7which can never be exactly similar in all respects7 are requisite to the perpetuation of the species1 it necessarily results1 that the progeny must differ in a more or less degree from each parent4 ,with wild animals1 and such of the domestic as are allowed to propagate without the interference of art1 and whose habits1 treatment1 and food are nearly similar to their natural condition1 the change through successive generations is scarcely perceptible4 ,it is only when we attempt to improve their good qualities1 that it is essential carefully to determine1 and rigidly to apply1 what are adopted as the present scientific principles of breeding4 ,we cannot believe that we have penetrated beyond the mere threshold of this art4 ,unless1 then1 we launch into experiments1 which are necessarily attended with uncertainty1 our duty will be1 to take for our guide the most successful practice of modern times1 until further discoveries enable us to modify or add to such as are already known and adopted4 ,we may assume1 then1 as the present rules for this art1 #ast4 ,that the animals selected for breed1 should unite in themselves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the offspring4 #b;d4 ,these qualities1 technically called points1 should be inbred in the animals as far as practicable1 by a long line of descent from parents similarly constituted4 ,the necessity for this rule is evident from the fact1 that in mixing different species1 and especially mongrels1 with a long-established breed1 the latter will most strongly stamp the issue with its own peculiarities4 ,this is forcibly illustrated in the case of the ,devon cattle1 an ancient race1 whose color1 form1 and characteristics are strikingly perpetuated1 sometimes to the sixth or even a later generation4 ,so far is this principle carried by many experienced breeders1 that they will use an animal of indifferent external appearance1 but of approved descent1 7blood17 in preference to a decidedly superior one1 whose pedigree is imperfect4 #c;d4 ,all the conditions of soil1 situation1 climate1 treatment1 and food1 should be favorable to the object sought4 #dth4 ,as a general rule1 the female should be relatively larger than the male4 ,this gives ample room for the perfect development of the foetus1 easy parturition1 and a large supply of milk for the offspring1 at a period in its existence1 when food has a greater influence in perfecting character and form1 than at any subsequent time4 #eth4 ,exceptions to this rule may be made1 when greater size is required than can be obtained from the female1 and especially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are desirable4 ,for this purpose1 strong masculine development in the sire is proper1 and if otherwise unattainable1 something of coarseness may be admitted1 as this may be afterwards corrected1 and nothing will atone for want of constitution and strength4 #fth4 ,pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting the imperfections of one animal1 by a corresponding excellence in the other4 #gth4 ,breeding in-and-in1 or propagating from animals nearly allied1 may be tolerated under certain circumstances1 though seldom2 and only in extreme cases between those of the same generation1 as brother and sister4 ,when the animal possesses much stamina and peculiar merit1 which it is desired to perpetuate in the breed1 it may be done either in the ascending or descending line1 as in breeding the son to the parent1 or the parent to his own progeny4 ,this has been practised with decided advantage1 and in some cases has even been continued successively1 as low as the sixth generation4 #hth4 ,it is always better to avoid close relationship1 by the selection of equally meritorious stock-getters of the same breed1 from other sources4 #ith4 ,wholesome1 nutritious food1 at all times sufficient to keep the animals steadily advancing1 should be provided1 but they must never be allowed to get fat4 ,of the two evils1 starving is preferable to surfeit4 ,careful treatment1 and the absence of disease1 must be always fully considered4 #ajth4 ,animals should never be allowed to breed either too early or too late in life4 ,these periods cannot be arbitrarily laid down1 but must depend on their time of maturity1 the longevity of the breed1 and the stamina of the individual4 #aath4 ,no violent cross1 or mixing of distinct breeds1 should ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation1 as of cattle of diverse sizes2 horses of unlike characters2 the ,merino and the long-wools1 or even the long1 or short1 and the middle-wools4 ,for carcass and constitution1 these crosses are unexceptionable2 and it is a practice very common in this country1 and judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined for the shambles4 ,but when the progeny are designed for breeders1 the practice should be branded with unqualified reprehension4 ,,general ,,form ,,and ,,characteristics4 ,within certain limits1 these may be reduced to a common standard4 ,all animals should have a good head1 well set up2 a clean fine muzzle1 and a blight1 clear and full1 yet perfectly placid eye4 ,with the exception of the dog and cat1 whose original nature is ferocity1 and whose whole life1 unless diverted from their natural instincts1 is plunder and prey2 and the jockey racehorse1 which is required to take the purse1 at any hazard of life or limb to the groom2 a mild1 quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domestic brute4 ,the neck should be well formed1 not too long1 tapering to its junction with the head1 and gradually enlarging to a firm1 well-expanded attachment to the back1 shoulders1 and breast4 ,the back or chine should be short1 straight1 and broad2 the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at right angles1 giving a rounded appearance to the carcass1 and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip2 tail well set on1 and full at its junction with the body1 yet gradually tapering to fineness2 thighs1 fore-arms1 and crops well developed2 projecting breast or brisket2 the fore-legs straight1 and hind ones properly bent1 strong and full where attached to the carcass1 but small and tapering below2 good and sound joints2 dense1 strong bones1 but not large2 plenty of fine muscle in the right places2 and hair or wool1 fine and soft4 ,the chest in all animals should be full1 for it will be invariably found1 that only such will do the most work1 or fatten easiest on the least food4 ,the ,lungs4 ,from the last-mentioned principle1 founded on long experience and observation1 ,cline inferred1 and he has laid it down as an incontrovertible position1 that the lungs should always be large2 and ,youatt expresses the same opinion4 ,this is undoubtedly correct as to working beasts1 the horse and the ox1 which require full and free respiration1 to enable them to sustain great muscular efforts4 ,but later physiologists have assumed1 perhaps from closer and more accurate observations1 that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of the smallness of the lungs4 ,earl ,spencer has observed1 that this is fully shown in the pig1 the sheep1 the ox1 and the horse1 whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs1 are in the order enumerated4 ,this position is further illustrated by the different breeds of the same classes of animals4 ,the ,leicester sheep have smaller lungs than the ,south ,down2 and it has been found1 that a number of the former1 on a given quantity of food1 and in the same time1 reached #bh lbs4 a quarter1 while the ,south ,downs with a greater consumption of food1 attained in the same period1 only #ah lbs4 ,the ,chinese pigs have much smaller lungs than the ,irish1 and the former will fatten to a given weight1 on a much less quantity of food than the latter4 7,playfair47 ,the principle would seem to be corroborated by the fact1 that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to the quantity of food they consume1 as they advance towards a certain stage of maturity2 during all which time1 the secretion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size1 by reducing the room for the action of the lungs4 ,hence1 the advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced point1 by which not only the quality of carcass is improved1 but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food consumed4 ,these views are intimately connected1 and fully correspond1 with the principles of ,,respiration ,,in ,,animals4 ,from careful experiments1 it has been found that all animals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the aggregate of what may have been retained in the system1 added to what has been expelled in the foeces and urine1 and what has escaped by perspiration4 ,boussingault1 who combines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist1 a vigilant observer1 and a practical agriculturist1 made an experiment with a milch-cow and a full-grown horse1 which were placed in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could be collected without loss4 ,before being made the subjects of experiment1 the animals were ballasted or fed for a month with the same ration that was furnished to them1 during the three days and three nights which they passed in the experimental stalls4 ,during the month1 the weight of the animals did not vary sensibly1 a circumstance which happily enables us to assume that neither did the weight vary during the seventy-two hours when they were under especial observation4 ,the cow was foddered with after-math1 hay1 and potatoes2 the horse with the same hay and oats4 ,the quantities of forage were accurately weighed1 and their precise degree of moistness and their composition were determined from average samples4 ,the water drunk was measured1 its saline and earthy constituents having been previously ascertained4 ,the excrementitious matters passed1 were of course collected with the greatest care2 the excrements1 the urine1 and the milk were weighed1 and the constitution of the whole estimated from elementary analyses of average specimens of each4 ,the results of the two experiments are given in the table on the next page4 ,the oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise proportions requisite to form water2 the excess of hydrogen amounts to as many as from #ac to #ae dwts4 ,it is probable that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by combining during respiration with the oxygen of the air4 ,,food ,,consumed ,,by ,,the ,,horse ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ,key to columns3 ,f ,forage4 ,w ,weight in the wet state ,d ,weight in the dry state ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,elementary ,matter in the ,food4 ,f ,w ,d ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,salts and ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 ,azote4 ,earths4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ lb4lb4 oz4lb4 oz4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,hay #bj #ag #d #g #aa #j #aj #g #f #h #h #j #c #b #a #f #ad ,oats #f #e #b #b #g #j #c #ah #a #aj #ad #j #a #g #j #b #aj ,water#dc 444 444 444 444 444 #j #j #h ,total#fi #bb #f #aj #f #a #b #e #h #g #b #j #d #i #a #i #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,products ,,voided ,,by ,,the ,,horse ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ---------------------------------------- - 444 ,weight in ,weight in ,p,products4 the wet the dry state4 state4 ---------------------------------------- - lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,u,urine #c #f #ae #i #i #ad ,e,excrements #ch #b #b #i #e #f ---------------------------------------- - ,t ,total #ga #h #ag #aj #c #j ,f,total matter#fi #j #j #bb #f #j of the food ------------------------ ,d,difference #bg #c #c #ab #c #j ---------------------------------------- - 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,elementary ,matter in the ,products4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,p ,salts and ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 ,azote4 ,earths4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,u #j #c #aj #j #j #g #j #a #b #j #a #d #j #c #aj ,e #c #g #ag #j #e #ae #c #f #ad #j #b #aj #a #f #aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,t #c #aa #g #j #f #b #c #g #af #j #c #ad #a #aj #j ,f #aj #f #j #a #b #e #h #g #b #j #d #i #a #i #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,d #f #f #ac #j #h #c #d #aa #f #j #j #ae #j #j #ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,water ,,consumed ,,by ,,the ,,horse ,,water ,,voided ,,by ,,the ,,horse ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 ,with the hay #b #c ,with the urine #b #f ,with the oats #j #ad ,with the excrements #bc #h ,taken as drink #ce #c --------------- ------------ ,total consumed #ch #d ,total voided #be #ad ,water consumed #ch #d ------------ ,water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration #ab #f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,food ,,consumed ,,by ,,the ,,cow ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ---------------------------------------- --- 444 ,f,fodder4 ,weight in ,weight in the wet the dry state4 state4 ---------------------------------------- --- lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,p,potatoes #dj #b #e #aa #b #a ,h,after-math hay #bj #a #b #af #aa #j ,w,water #afj #j #j 444 ------------------------ ,t ,total #bbj #c #g #bh #a #a ---------------------------------------- --- 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,elementary ,matter in the ,food4 ,f ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,salts and ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 ,azote4 ,earths4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,p #d #aa #b #j #g #ae #d #aj #ag #j #a #ab #j #f #ac ,h #g #aa #aa #j #aa #g #e #aj #ag #j #d #ag #a #h #f ,w 444 444 444 444 #j #a #ab ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,t #ab #aj #ac #a #g #b #aj #i #ad #j #f #i #b #d #aa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,products ,,voided ,,by ,,the ,,cow ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ---------------------------------------- --------- 444 ,weight in ,weight in ,p,products4 the wet the dry state4 state4 ---------------------------------------- --------- lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,e,excrements #gf #a #i #aj #h #ab ,u,urine #ba #aa #ab #b #f #ag ,m,milk #bb #aj #aj #c #a #j ------------------------- ,t,total #abj #aa #aa #af #d #i ,f matter of food #bbj #c #g #bh #a #a ------------------------- ,d,difference #ii #c #af #aa #h #ab ---------------------------------------- --------- 444 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,elementary ,matter in the ,products4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,p ,salts and ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 ,azote4 ,earths4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4lb4 oz4 dwt4 ,e #d #g #j #j #f #ac #d #j #i #j #b #ai #a #c #h ,u #j #h #g #j #j #af #j #h #c #j #a #c #a #j #f ,m #a #h #c #j #c #c #j #aj #f #j #a #i #j #a #af ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,t #f #aa #aj #j #aj #ab #e #f #ah #i #e #aa #b #e #aj ,f #ab #aj #ac #a #g #b #aj #i #ad #j #f #i #b #d #aa ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,d #e #aa #c #j #h #aj #e #b #af #j #j #ah #j #j #ai ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,water ,,consumed ,,by ,,the ,,cow ,,water ,,voided ,,by ,,the ,,cow ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ,,in #bd ,,hours4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- lbs4 oz4 lbs4 oz4 ,with the potatoes #bc #ab ,with the excrements #ec #aj ,with the hay #b #i ,with the urine #ae #ad ,taken as drink #acb #j ,with the milk #af #c ------------ ----------- ,total consumed #aeh #e ,total voided #he #aa ,water consumed #aeh #e ----------- ,water passed off by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration #gi #b ,we here perceive a large loss of water1 carbon1 hydrogen1 c4 ,nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by respiration1 while most of the water1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and salts1 passed off in perspiration4 ,in further illustration of the subject of respiration1 ,liebig says1 from the accurate determination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system in the food1 as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the foeces and urine1 unburned1 that is1 in some form uncombined with oxygen1 it appears that an adult taking moderate exercise1 consumes #ac4i oz4 of carbon daily4 ,the foregoing are facts in the animal economy1 capable of vast practical bearing in the management of our domestic animals4 ,but before following out these principles to their application1 let us briefly examine ,the ,effects of ,respiration4 ,we have seen from the experiment of ,boussingault1 that there is a loss of #f lbs4 #f oz4 of carbon1 and #h oz4 #c dwt4 of hydrogen in the food of the horse1 and something less in that of the cow1 every #bd hours1 which has not been left in the system1 nor has it escaped by the evacuations4 ,what has become of so large an amount of solid matter8 ,it has escaped through the lungs and been converted into air4 ,the carbon and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various transformations which are peculiar to the animal economy1 digestion1 assimilation1 c41 which it is not necessary1 nor will our limits permit us here to explain2 and they appear at last in the veinous blood1 which in the course of its circulation is brought into the cells of the lungs4 ,the air inhaled is sent through every part of their innumerable meshes1 and is there separated from the blood1 only by the delicate tissues or membranes which enclose it4 ,a portion of the carbon and hydrogen escapes from the blood into the air-cells1 and at the instant of their contact with the air1 they affect a chemical union with its oxygen1 forming carbonic acid and the vapor of water1 which is then expired1 and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled4 ,this operation is again repeated1 through every successive moment of animal existence4 ,besides other purposes which it is probably designed to subserve1 but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research of chemical physiology1 one obvious result of respiration is1 the elevation of the temperature of the animal system4 ,by the ever-operating laws of nature1 this chemical union of two bodies in the formation of a third1 disengages latent heat1 which taking place in contact with the blood1 is by it diffused throughout the whole frame4 ,the effect is precisely analogous to the combustion of fuel1 oils1 c41 in the open air4 ,perspiration ,is the counteracting agent which modifies this result1 and prevents the injurious effects1 which1 under exposure to great external heat1 would ensure certain destruction4 ,and this too1 it will have been seen1 is provided at the expense of the animal food4 ,when from excessive heat1 caused by violent exercise or otherwise1 by which respiration is accelerated and the animal temperature becomes elevated1 the papillae of the skin pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts1 which in its conversion into vapor1 seize upon the animal heat and remove it from the system1 producing that delicious coolness so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer's day4 ,these two opposing principles1 like the antagonistic operations of the regulator in mechanics1 keep up a perfect balance in the vital machine1 and enable that entire division of the animal creation1 distinguished as warm-blooded1 including man and the brute1 all the feathered tribes1 the whale1 the seal1 the walrus1 c41 to maintain an equilibrium of temperature1 whether under the equator or the poles2 on the peaks of ,chimborazo1 the burning sands of ,zahara1 or plunged in the depths of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the connection between the size of the lungs1 and the aptitude of animals to fatten1 will be more apparent from the fact1 that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted1 constitute two of the only three elements of fat4 ,the larger size1 the fuller play1 and the greater activity of the lungs1 by exhausting more of the materials of fat1 must necessarily diminish its formation in the animal system2 unless it can be shown1 which has never yet been done1 that the removal of a portion of the fat-forming principles accelerates the assimilation of the remainder4 ,the ,food which supplies ,respiration4 ,this1 in the herbivorous animals1 after they are deprived of the milk1 which furnishes it in abundance1 is the starch1 gum1 sugar1 vegetable fats1 and oils that exist in the vegetables1 grain1 and roots which they consume2 and in certain cases where there is a deficiency of other food1 it is sparingly furnished in woody and cellular fibre4 ,all these substances constitute the principal part of dry vegetable food1 and are made up of three elements1 which in starch1 gum1 cane-sugar1 and cellular fibre1 exist in precisely the same proportions1 viz3 #dd per cent4 of carbon1 #f4b of hydrogen1 and #dj4h of oxygen4 ,grape sugar1 woody fibre1 and vegetable and animal fats and oils are made up of the same elements1 but in different proportions1 the last containing much more carbon and hydrogen than those above specified4 ,in the fattening animals1 it is supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately transferred to the fat cells1 undergoing only such slight modification as perfectly adapts them to the animal economy1 while respiration is supplied by the other enumerated vegetable matters4 ,if these last are taken into the stomach beyond the necessary demand for its object1 they too are converted by the animal functions into fat1 and are stored up in the system for future use4 ,but if the supply of the latter is insufficient for respiration1 it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in the food2 if this is deficient1 it draws on the accumulated stores of animal fat already secreted in the system1 and when these too are exhausted1 it seizes upon what is contained in the tissues and muscle4 ,when the animal commences drawing upon its own resources for the support of its vital functions1 deterioration begins2 and if long continued1 great emaciation succeeds1 which is soon followed by starvation and death4 ,the carnivorous animals are furnished with their respiratory excretions1 from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their food1 and which the herbivorae had previously abstracted from the vegetable creation4 ,circumstances which augment ,respiration4 ,these are1 exercise1 cold1 and an abundant supply of food4 ,exercise1 besides exhausting the materials of fat1 produces a waste of fibre and tissue1 the muscular and nitrogenized parts of the animal system2 and it is obvious from the foregoing principles1 that cold requires a corresponding demand for carbon and hydrogen to keep up the vital warmth4 ,the consumption of food to the fullest extent required for invigorating the frame1 creates a desire for activity1 and it insensibly induces full respiration4 ,the well-fed1 active man1 unconsciously draws a full1 strong breath2 while the abstemious and the feeble1 unwittingly use it daintily1 as if it were a choice commodity not to be lavishly expended4 ,if the first be observed when sleep has effectually arrested volition1 the expanded chest will be seen1 heaving with the long-drawn1 sonorous breath2 while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose of the infant on its mother's breast4 ,the difference between the food of the inhabitants of the polar and equatorial regions1 is strikingly illustrative of the demands both for breathing and perspiration4 ,the latter are almost destitute of clothing1 and subsist on their light1 juicy1 tropical fruits1 which contain scarcely #ab per cent4 of carbon1 yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration2 while the former are imbedded in furs1 and devour gallons of train oil or its equivalent of fat1 which contains nearly #hj per cent4 of carbon1 that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a necessary warmth4 ,the bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter1 loaded with fat1 which he has accumulated from the rich1 oily mast abounding in the woods in autumn4 ,there he lies for months1 snugly coiled and perfectly dormant2 the thickness of his shaggy coat1 his dry bed of leaves1 and well-protected den1 effectually guarding him from cold1 which in addition to his want of exercise1 draw slightly upon respiration to keep up the vital heat4 ,when the stores of carbon and hydrogen contained in the fat are expended1 his hunger and cold compel him to leave his winter-quarters1 again to wander in pursuit of food4 ,many of the swallow tribes1 in like manner1 hybernate in large hollow trees1 and for months eke out a torpid1 scarcely perceptible existence1 independent of food4 ,activity and full respiration1 on the return of spring1 demand a support1 which is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume4 ,the toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state1 imbedded in limestones1 sandstones1 and the breccias1 where they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without a morsel of food2 yet when exposed to the warmth of the vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen1 they have manifested all the activity of their species4 ,this they are enabled to sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects4 ,dr4 ,playfair states1 that in an experiment made by ,lord ,ducie1 #ajj sheep were placed in a shed1 and ate #bj pounds of ,swedes turnips each per day2 another #ajj were placed in the open air1 and ate #be pounds per day2 yet the former1 which had one-fifth less food1 weighed1 after a few weeks1 three pounds more per head than the latter4 ,he then fed five sheep in the open air1 between the #bast ,november and #ast ,december4 ,they consumed #ij pounds of food per day1 the temperature being at #dd deg41 and at the end of this time1 they weighed two pounds less than when first exposed4 ,five sheep were then placed under a shed1 and allowed to run about in a temperature of #di deg44 ,at first they consumed #hb pounds per day2 then #gj pounds1 and at the end of the time they had gained #bc pounds4 ,again1 five sheep were placed under a shed as before1 and not allowed to take any exercise4 ,they ate at first1 #fd pounds of food per day1 then #eh pounds1 and increased in weight #cj pounds4 ,lastly1 five sheep were kept quiet and covered1 and in the dark4 ,they ate #ce pounds per day1 and increased eight pounds4 ,mr4 ,childers states1 that #hj ,leicester sheep in the open field1 consumed #ej baskets of cut turnips per day1 besides oil-cake4 ,on putting them in a shed1 they were immediately able to consume only #cj baskets1 and soon after but #be1 being only half the quantity required before1 and yet they fattened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity4 ,the minimum of food1 then1 required for the support of animals1 is attained when closely confined in a warm1 dark shelter2 and the maximum1 when running at large1 exposed to all weathers4 ,,the ,,feeding ,,of ,,animals4 ,this should be regulated by a variety of considerations4 ,the young which may be destined for maturity1 should be supplied with milk from the dam until weaning-time4 ,no food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent1 which is so safe1 healthful1 and nutritious4 ,if from any cause there is deficiency or total privation1 it must be made up by that kind of food1 meal-gruel1 c41 which1 in its composition1 approaches nearest in quality to the milk4 ,at a more advanced age1 or the time for weaning1 grass1 hay1 roots1 or grain1 may be substituted1 in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady but not a forced growth4 ,stuffing can only be tolerated in animals which are speedily destined for the slaughter4 ,alternately improving and falling back1 is injurious to all stock4 ,an animal should never be fat but once4 ,especially is high feeding bad for breeding animals4 ,much as starving is to be deprecated1 the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater4 ,the calf or lamb intended for the butcher1 may be pushed forward with all possible rapidity4 ,horses or colts should never exceed a good working or breeding condition4 ,purposes fulfilled by different ,kinds of ,food4 ,the objects designed to be answered by food1 are to a certain extent the same4 ,all food is intended to meet the demands of respiration and nutrition1 and fattening to a greater or less degree4 ,but some are better suited to one object than others1 and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes4 ,the very young animal requires large quantities of the phosphate of lime for the formation of bone2 and this is yielded in the milk in larger proportions than from any other food4 ,the growing animal wants bone1 muscle1 and a certain amount of fat1 and these are procured from the grasses1 roots1 and grain2 from the former when fed alone1 and from the two latter when mixed with hay or grass4 ,horses1 cattle1 and sheep need hay to qualify the too watery nature of the roots1 and the too condensed nutritiveness of the grain4 ,animals that are preparing for the shambles1 require vegetable oils or fat1 starch1 sugar1 or gum4 ,the first is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed1 the sun-flower1 and many other of the mucilaginous seeds4 ,indian corn is the most fattening grain4 ,the potato contains the greatest proportion of starch1 and the sugar-beet has large quantities of sugar1 and both consequently are good for stall-feeding4 ,the ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of vegetables1 if we except the oily seeds and grain4 ,the ,swedes turnip is a good food to commence with fattening cattle and sheep2 but where great ripeness in animals is desired1 they should be followed with beets1 carrots or potatoes1 and grain4 ,the table of the average composition of the different crops1 which we subjoin from ,johnston1 shows the comparative qualities of various kinds of food1 and it will be found a valuable reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities4 ,he says1 ,in drawing up this table1 ,i have adopted the proportions of gluten1 for the most part1 from ,boussingault4 ,some of them1 however1 appear to be very doubtful4 ,the proportions of fatty matter are also very uncertain4 ,with a few exceptions1 those above given have been taken from ,sprengel1 and they are1 in general1 stated considerably too low4 ,it is an interesting fact1 that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under the husk of the grains of corn1 is generally much greater than in the substance of the corn itself4 ,thus ,i have found the pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the fine flour obtained from the same sample of grain4 ,the four portions separated by the miller from a superior sample of wheat grown in the neighborhood of ,durham1 gave of oil respectively3 fine flour1 #a4e per cent42 pollard1 #b4d2 boxings1 #c4f2 and bran1 #c4c per cent4 ,dumas states that the husk of oats sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent4 of oil4 ,the columns under starch1 c41 and fatty matter1 denote the value for respiration or sustaining life1 and the fattening qualities2 that under gluten1 the capacity for yielding muscle and supporting labor2 and saline matter indicates something of the proportions which are capable of being converted into bones4 ,water4 ,husk or ,starch1 ,gluten1 ,fatty ,saline woody gum1 and albumen1 matter4 matter fibre4 sugar4 legumen1 c4 ,wheat1 #af #ae #ee #aj to #ae #b to #d ,j4 #b4j ,barley1 #ae #ae #fj #ab8 #b4e ,j4 #b4j ,oats1 #af #bj #ej #ad4e8 #e4f ,j4 #c4e ,rye1 #ab #aj #fj #ad4e #c4j #a4j ,indian corn1 #ad #ae8 #ej #ab4j #e to #i ,d4 #a4e ,buckwheat1 #af8 #be8 #ej #ad4e #j4d8 #a4e ,beans1 #af #aj #dj #bh4j #b #c4j ,peas1 #ac #h #ej #bd4j #b4h8 #b4h ,potatoes1 #ge8 #e8 #ab8 #b4be #j4c #j4h to #a ,turnips1 #he #c #aj #a4b 8 #j4h to #a ,carrots1 #he #c #aj #b4j #j4d #a4j ,meadow hay1 #ad #cj #dj #g4a #b to #e ,d4 #e to #aj ,clover hay1 #ad #be #dj #i4c #c4j #i ,pea straw1 #aj to #ae #be #de #ab4c #a4e #e ,oat do4 #ab #de #ce #a4c #j4h #f ,wheat do4 #ab to #ae #ej #cj #a4c #j4e #e ,barley do4 do4 #ej #cj #a4c #j4h #e ,rye do4 do4 #de #ch #a4c #j4e #c ,indian corn do4 #ab #be #eb #c4j #a4g #d ,this table1 it will be perceived1 is far from settling the precise relative value of the different enumerated articles4 ,an absolute1 unchanging value can never be assumed of any one substance1 as the quality of each must differ with the particular variety1 the soil upon which it is grown1 the character of the season1 the manner of curing1 and other circumstances4 ,an approximate relative value is all that can be expected1 and this we may hope ere long to obtain1 from the spirit of analytical research1 which is now developed and in successful progress4 ,more especially do we need these investigations with ,american products1 some of which are but partially cultivated in ,europe1 whence we derive most of our analyses4 ,and many which are there reared1 differ widely from those produced here1 as these also differ from each other4 ,what1 for instance1 is the character of meadow hay8 ,we know that this varies as four to one1 according to the particular kinds grown2 and our ,indian corn has certainly a less range than from five to nine4 ,the ,changes in the ,food of ,animals4 ,potatoes1 when first ripe1 are estimated to be worth1 for feeding purposes1 nearly twice as much as when old2 and the relative value of the different kinds1 varies greatly at the same age and under similar conditions of growth4 ,perrault ascertained by careful experiment1 that hay1 clover1 and lucerne lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying1 and in lucerne this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent4 ,this is an important consideration in the feeding of green and dry forage4 ,oats are among the best feed1 both for young and working animals2 but it has been found that they are greatly improved for the latter1 and perhaps for both1 by allowing the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter1 before feeding4 ,the improvement by steaming and cooking food1 is seldom sufficiently appreciated4 ,food properly managed1 can never be made worse by cooking for any stock2 although it has not been considered so essential for working1 and generally1 for ruminating animals1 as for swine1 and such as were stall-feeding4 ,but the alteration produced in cooking1 by fitting it for a more ready assimilation1 must1 as a general rule1 add much to the value of the food1 and the rapid improvement of the animal4 ,the effect of slight fermentation1 or souring the food1 produces the same result4 ,animals accustomed to this acid food1 will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the former2 and we have no doubt1 from our own experience1 that there is a saving in thus preparing it1 from #bj to #dj per cent4 ,a mixture of food should be supplied to all animals4 ,like man1 they tire of any constant aliment4 ,for such1 especially1 as are fattening1 and which it is desirable to mature with the greatest rapidity1 a careful indulgence of their appetite should be studied4 ,they should be provided with whatever they most crave1 if it be adapted to the secretion of fat4 ,cutting1 crushing1 and grinding the food2 cooking1 souring1 and mixing it1 are each by themselves an improvement for feeding2 and frequently two or more of these preparations combined1 are of great utility in effecting the object proposed4 ,the ,profit of ,feeding4 ,it is evident1 that this consists in a valuable return from the animal of the food consumed4 ,in the horse1 this can only be received in labor or breeding2 in the ox1 from labor and flesh2 in the cow1 from the milk1 the flesh1 and her young4 ,in the sheep1 it may be returned in its fleece1 its carcass1 or its progeny2 and in the swine only by its progeny and flesh4 ,the manure we expect from all2 and if this be not secured and judiciously used1 few animals about the farm will be found to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and attention2 though it is evident1 it should form but a small part of the return looked for4 ,animals are only profitable to the farmer1 when they yield a daily income1 as in their milk or labor2 or annually1 by their young or fleece2 unless it be in a course of regular improvement1 either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the butcher4 ,the animal must consume a certain amount of food merely to keep up its stationary condition1 and to supply the materials for waste1 respiration1 perspiration1 and the evacuations4 ,these must first be provided for in all cases1 before the farmer can expect any thing for the food4 ,frequent observation has shown1 that an ox will consume about two per cent1 of his weight of hay per day1 to maintain his condition4 ,if put to moderate labor1 an increase of this quantity to three per cent41 will enable him to perform his work1 and still maintain his flesh4 ,if to be fattened1 he requires about #da_/b per cent4 of his weight daily1 in nutritious food4 ,a cow to remain stationary and give no milk1 eats two per cent4 of her weight daily2 and if in milk1 she will consume three per cent4 ,if these statements are correct1 which it is certain they are in principle1 though they may not be entirely in degree1 it will require the same food to keep three yoke of cattle in idleness1 as two at work2 and the food of every two that are idle1 will nearly support one under the most rapid condition of fatting4 ,two cows may be kept in milk1 with the same feed that will keep three without4 ,no practice is more impolitic1 than barely to sustain the stock through the winter1 or a part of the year1 as is the case in too many instances1 and allow them to improve only when turned on grass in summer4 ,besides subjecting them to the risk of disease1 consequent upon their privation of food1 nearly half the year is lost in their use1 or in maturing them for profitable disposal2 when if one-third of the stock had been sold1 the remainder would have been kept in a rapidly improving condition1 and at three years of age1 they would probably be of equal value1 as otherwise at five or six4 ,it is true that breed has much to do with this rapid advancement1 but breed is useless without food to develop and mature it4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,neat ,,or ,,horned ,,cattle4 ,the value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of the domestic animals in the ,united ,states4 ,they are as widely disseminated1 and more generally useful4 ,like sheep and all our domestic brutes1 they have been so long and so entirely subject to the control of man1 that their original type is unknown4 ,they have been allowed entire freedom from all human direction or restraint for hundreds of years1 on the boundless pampas of ,south ,america1 ,california1 and elsewhere2 but when permitted to resume that natural condition1 by which both plants and animals approximate to the character of their original head1 they have scarcely deviated in any respect1 from the domestic herds from which they are descended4 ,from this it may be inferred1 that our present races do not differ1 in any of their essential features and characteristics1 from the original stock4 ,various ,domestic ,breeds4 ,cultivation1 feed1 and climate1 have much to do in determining the form1 size1 and character of cattle4 ,in ,lithuania1 cattle attain an immense size1 with but moderate pretensions to general excellence1 while the ,irish ,kerry and ,scotch ,grampian cows but little exceed the largest sheep2 yet the last are compact and well-made1 and yield a good return for the food consumed4 ,every country1 and almost every district1 has its peculiar breeds1 which by long association have become adapted to the food and circumstances of its position1 and when found profitable1 they should be exchanged for others1 only after the most thorough trial of superior fitness for the particular location1 in those proposed to be introduced4 ,more attention has been paid to the improvement of the various breeds of cattle in ,england1 than in any other country2 and it is there they have attained the greatest perfection in form and character for the various purposes to which they are devoted4 ,we have derived1 directly from ,great ,britain1 not only the parent stock from which nearly all our cattle are descended1 but also most of those fresh importations1 to which we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals4 ,a few choice ,dutch cattle1 generally black and white1 and of large size1 good forms1 and good milkers1 with a decided tendency to fatten1 have been occasionally introduced among us1 but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed2 and in the hands of their importers1 or immediate successors1 their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in those herds by which they were surrounded4 ,some few ,french and ,spanish cattle1 the descendants of those remote importations1 made when the colonies of those kingdoms held possession of our northern1 western1 and southern frontiers1 still exist in those sections2 and although possessing no claims to particular superiority1 at least in any that have come within our notice1 yet they are so well acclimated1 and adapted to their various localities1 as to render it inexpedient to attempt supplanting them1 except with such as are particularly meritorious4 ,native ,cattle4 ,this is a favorite term with ,americans1 and comprehends every thing in the country1 excepting such as are of a pure and distinct breed4 ,it embraces some of the best1 some of the worst1 and some of almost every variety1 shape1 color1 and character of the bovine race4 ,the designation has no farther meaning1 than that they are indigenous to the soil1 and do not belong to any well-defined or distinct variety4 ,the best native cattle of the ,union are undoubtedly to be found in the ,northeastern states4 ,most of the early emigrant cattle in that section were from the southern part of ,england1 where the ,devon cattle abound2 and though not at the present time bearing a close resemblance to that breed1 unless it has been impressed upon them by more recent importations1 yet a large number have that general approximation in character1 features1 and color1 which entitles them to claim a near kindred with one of the choicest cultivated breeds4 ,they have the same symmetry1 but not in general the excessive delicacy of form1 which characterizes the ,devons2 the same intelligence1 activity1 and vigor in the working cattle1 and the same tendency to fattening2 but they are usually better for the dairy than their imported ancestors4 ,some valuable intermixtures have occasionally been made among them4 ,among these1 there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated1 of great merit as workers1 and not often surpassed for the dairy and shambles4 ,the ,herefords have in a few instances been introduced among the eastern cattle1 and apparently with great improvement4 ,the importation made by ,admiral ,coffin1 of four choice ,hereford bulls and cows1 which were presented to the ,state ,agricultural ,society of ,massachusetts1 nearly thirty years since1 is especially to be mentioned1 as resulting in decided benefit wherever they were disseminated4 ,some of the old ,yorkshire1 or as they are sometimes styled1 the long-horned ,durhams1 have been introduced1 though these have been isolated individuals and never perpetuated as a separate breed4 ,a few small importations have been made of the ,short ,horns and ,ayrshires1 but neither of these have been bred in the ,new ,england states in distinct herds1 to any extent4 ,their native breed has hitherto1 and generally with good reason1 possessed claims on the attention of their owners1 which1 with some slight exceptions1 it has not been in the power of any rivals to supplant4 ,with entire adaptedness to the soil1 climate1 and wants of the farmer1 an originally good stock has1 in frequent instances1 been carefully fostered1 and the breeding animals selected with a strict reference to their fitness for perpetuating the most desirable qualities4 ,as a consequence of this intelligent and persevering policy1 widely1 but not universally pursued1 they have a race of cattle1 though possessing considerable diversity of size and color1 yet coinciding in a remarkable degree in the possession of those utilitarian features1 which so justly commend them to our admiration4 ,in proceeding southwestwardly through ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and elsewhere1 we shall find in this branch of stock1 a greater diversity and less uniform excellence2 though they have extensive numbers of valuable animals4 ,here and there will be found a choice collection of some favorite foreign breed1 which emigrants have brought from their native home1 as did the ,pagan colonists their penates or household gods2 the cherished associates of early days1 and the only relics of their father-land4 ,such are an occasional small herd of polled or hornless cattle1 originally derived from ,suffolk or ,galloway1 excellent both for the dairy and shambles2 the ,kyloe1 or ,west ,highland1 7,scottish17 a hardy animal1 unrivalled for beef2 the ,welsh runt2 the ,irish cattle2 the crumpled-horn ,alderney1 and some others4 ,the ,devon ,is among the oldest distinctly cultivated breeds in this country1 as it undoubtedly is of ,england1 and probably it is the most universal favorite4 ,this popularity is well deserved1 and it is based upon several substantial considerations4 ,they are beautifully formed1 possessing excessive fineness and symmetry of frame1 yet with sufficient bone and muscle to render them perfectly hardy2 and they are among the most vigorous and active of working cattle4 ,they have great uniformity of appearance in every feature1 size1 shape1 horns1 and color4 ,the cows and bulls appear small1 but the ox is much larger2 and both he and the dam1 on cutting up1 are found to weigh much beyond the estimates which an eye accustomed only to ordinary breeds1 would have assigned to them4 ,the flesh is finely marbled or interspersed with alternate fat and lean1 and is of superior quality and flavor4 ,the cows invariably yield milk of great richness1 and when appropriately bred1 none surpass them for the quantity of butter and cheese it yields4 ,mr4 ,bloomfield1 the manager of the late ,lord ,leicester's estate at ,holkham1 has1 by careful attention1 somewhat increased the size1 without impairing the beauty of their form1 and so successful has he been in developing their milking properties1 that his average product of butter from each cow1 is #d lbs4 per week for the whole year4 ,he has challenged ,england to milk an equal number of cows of any breed1 against #dj pure ,devons1 to be selected out of his own herd1 without as yet having found a competitor4 ,although this is not a test of their merits1 and by no means decides their superiority1 yet it shows the great confidence reposed in them by their owner4 ,the ,devon ox1 under six years old1 has come up to a nett dead weight of #a1eic lbs42 and at three years and seven months1 to #a1caf lbs41 with #afj lbs4 of rough tallow4 ,description4 ,the ,devon is of medium size1 and so symmetrical1 as to appear small4 ,the color is invariably a deep mahogany red1 with usually a white udder and strip under the belly2 and the tuft at the end of the tail is red while they are calves1 but white in the older animal4 ,the head is small1 broad in the forehead1 and somewhat indented4 ,the muzzle is delicate1 and both the nose and the rings around the eye1 in the pure breed1 are invariably of a bright1 clear orange4 ,the cheeks and face are thin and fleshless2 the horns clear1 smooth1 and of a yellowish white1 handsomely curved upward4 ,the neck is small and delicate at its junction with the head1 but is well expanded in its attachment to the breast and shoulders4 ,the last has the true slant for activity and strength1 in which it excels all other breeds of equal weight4 ,the barrel is round and deep1 with a projecting brisket4 ,the back is broad and level2 the flank full2 hips wide2 the rumps long2 the quarters well developed1 and capable of holding a great quantity of the most valuable meat4 ,the tail is on a level with the back1 and gracefully tapers like a drum-stick1 to the tuft on the end4 ,the legs are of peculiar delicacy and fineness1 yet possess great strength4 ,the skin is of medium thickness1 of a rich orange hue1 pliable to the touch1 and covered with a thick coating of fine1 soft1 curly hair4 ,the ,devon is intelligent1 gentle1 and tractable2 is good for milk1 and unsurpassed for the yoke and for fattening4 ,no animal is better suited to our scanty or luxuriant hill pastures than the ,devon1 and none make a better return for the attention and food received4 ,they ensure a rapid improvement when mixed with other cattle1 imparting their color and characteristics in an eminent degree4 ,several importations have been made into this country within the last #cj years1 of the choicest animals1 and though not yet numerous in the ,united ,states1 we possess some of the best specimens that exist4 ,the ,short ,horns1 or ,durhams4 ,are decidedly the most showy among the cattle species4 ,they are of all colors between a full1 deep red1 and a pure creamy white2 but generally have both intermixed in larger or smaller patches1 or intimately blended in a beautiful roan4 ,black1 brown1 or brindled1 are colors not recognised among pure-bred ,short ,horns4 ,their form is well-spread1 symmetrical1 and imposing1 and capable of sustaining a large weight of valuable carcass4 ,the horn was originally branching and turned upward1 but now frequently has a downward tendency1 with the tips pointing towards each other4 ,they are light1 and comparatively short2 clear1 highly polished1 and waxy4 ,the head is finely formed1 with a longer face but not so fine a muzzle as the ,devon4 ,the neck is delicately formed without dewlap1 the brisket projecting2 and the great depth and width of the chest giving short1 well-spread fore-legs4 ,the crops are good2 back and loin broad and flat2 ribs projecting2 deep flank and twist2 tail well set up1 strong at the roots and tapering4 ,they have a thick covering of soft hair1 and are mellow to the touch1 technically termed1 handling well4 ,they mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food consumed1 yielding largely of good beef with little offal4 ,as a breed1 they are excellent milkers2 though some families of the ,short ,horns surpass others in this quality4 ,they are inferior to the ,devons1 in their value as working oxen1 and in the richness of their milk4 ,illustration3 ,a ,short-,horn ,bull4 ,the ,short ,horns are assigned a high antiquity1 by the oldest breeders in the counties of ,durham and ,yorkshire1 ,england1 the place of their origin1 and for a long time1 of their almost exclusive breeding4 ,from the marked and decided improvement which they stamp upon other animals1 they are evidently an ancient breed1 though much the juniors of the ,devon and ,hereford4 ,their highly artificial style1 form1 and character1 are unquestionably the work of deeply studied and long-continued art2 and to the same degree that they have been moulded in unresisting compliance with the dictation of their intelligent breeders1 have they departed from that light and more agile form of the ,devon1 which conclusively and beyond the possibility of contradiction1 marks the more primitive race4 ,,the ,,importation ,,of ,,short ,,horns ,,into ,,this ,,country4 ,this is claimed to have been previous to #aghc4 ,they are the reputed ancestors of many choice animals existing in ,virginia1 in the latter part of the last century1 and which were known as the milk breed2 and some of these1 with others termed the beef breed1 were taken into ,kentucky by ,mr4 ,patton1 as early as #agig1 and their descendants1 a valuable race of animals1 were much disseminated in the ,west1 and known as the ,patton stock4 ,the first authentic importations we have recorded1 are those of ,mr4 ,heaton1 into ,westchester1 ,n4 ,y41 in #agia and '#if1 from the valuable herds of ,messrs4 ,culley and ,colling1 which consisted of several choice bulls and cows4 ,these were for many years bred pure1 and their progeny was widely scattered4 7,american ,herd ,book47 ,they were also imparted into ,new ,york1 by ,mr4 ,cox1 in #ahaf2 by ,mr4 ,bullock1 in #ahbb2 by the late ,hon4 ,s4 ,van ,rensselaer in #ahbc2 and immediately after1 by ,mr4 ,charles ,henry ,hall1 of ,harlem4 ,some small importations were made into ,massachusetts between #ahag and '#be1 by several enterprising agriculturists1 ,messrs4 ,coolidge1 ,williams1 and others2 into ,connecticut by ,mr4 ,hall and others2 into ,pennsylvania by ,mr4 ,powell2 and into ,ohio and some other states1 by various individuals early in the present century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,short-,horned ,cow4 ,since the first importations1 larger accessions from the best ,english herds have been frequently made2 and with the nice regard for pedigrees which the introduction of the herd book1 and careful purity in breeding has produced1 the ,short ,horns have become the most extensive pure-bred family of cattle in the ,united ,states4 ,during the speculative times of #ahce to #ahdj1 they brought high prices1 frequently from #ejj to #ajjj1 and sometimes more4 ,the following years of financial embarrassment1 reduced their market price below their intrinsic value2 but the tide is again turning1 and they are now in demand1 but still at prices far below their utility and merits4 ,they have from the first1 been favorites in the rich1 corn valleys of the ,west1 their early maturity and great weight giving them a preference over any other breed4 ,the only drawback to this partiality1 is their inability1 from their form and weight1 to reach remote eastern markets in good condition2 an objection now in a great measure remedied1 by the recent remission of duties on foreign beef in the ,english market1 which makes them of nearly equal value where fed1 to pack for exportation4 ,on light lands and scanty pastures1 they will probably never be largely introduced4 ,all heavy animals require full forage within a limited compass1 so as to fill their stomachs at once1 and quietly compose themselves to their digestion4 ,the weights reached by the ,short ,horns in ,england1 as given by ,mr4 ,berry1 have been enormous4 ,two oxen1 six years old1 weighed nett1 #ahbj lbs4 each4 ,a heifer of three years1 and fed on grass and hay alone1 weighed #abfj lbs4 ,a four-year-old steer1 fed on hay and turnips only1 dressed #ahij lbs4 ,a cow reached the prodigious weight of #aggh lbs4 ,a heifer1 running with her dam1 and on pasture alone1 weighed at seven months1 #dgf lbs4 ,an ox1 seven years old1 weighed #bcfb lbs4 ,from their comparatively small numbers in this country1 most of them have been retained for breeders2 few1 as yet1 have been fattened1 and such only as were decidedly inferior4 ,such animals as have been extensively produced by crossing this breed upon our former stocks1 have given evidence of great and decided improvement2 and the ,short ,horns1 and their grade descendants are destined1 at no distant day1 to occupy a large portion of the richest feeding grounds in the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,hereford ,cow ,herefords4 ,this is the only remaining pure breed1 which has hitherto occupied the attention of graziers in this country4 ,like the ,devons1 they are supposed to be one of the most ancient races of ,british cattle4 ,marshall gives the following description4 ,the countenance pleasant1 cheerful1 open2 the forehead broad2 eye full and lively2 horns bright1 taper1 and spreading2 head small2 chap lean2 neck long and tapering2 chest deep2 bosom broad1 and projecting forward2 shoulder-bone thin1 flat1 no way protuberant in bone 787 but full and mellow in flesh2 chest full2 loin broad2 hips standing wide1 and level with the chine2 quarters long1 and wide at the neck2 rump even with the level of the back1 and not drooping1 nor standing high and sharp above the quarters2 tail slender and neatly haired2 barrel round and roomy2 the carcass throughout deep and well spread2 ribs broad1 standing flat and close on the outer surface1 forming a smooth1 even barrel1 the hindmost large and full of length2 round-bone small1 snug1 and not prominent2 thigh clean1 and regularly tapering2 legs upright and short2 bone below the knee and hock small2 feet of middle size2 flank large3 flesh everywhere mellow1 soft1 and yielding pleasantly to the touch1 especially on the chine1 the shoulder1 and the ribs2 hide mellow1 supple1 of a middle thickness1 and loose on the neck and huckle2 coat neatly haired1 bright and silky2 color1 a middle red1 with a bald face characteristic of the true ,herefordshire breed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,hereford ,bull4 ,youatt further describes them as follows3 ,they are usually of a darker red2 some of them are brown1 and even yellow1 and a few are brindled2 but they are principally distinguished by their white faces1 throats1 and bellies4 ,in a few the white extends to the shoulders4 ,the old ,herefords were brown or red-brown1 with not a spot of white about them4 ,it is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the fashion to breed for white faces4 ,whatever may be thought of the change of color1 the present breed is certainly far superior to the old one4 ,the hide is considerably thicker than that of the ,devon1 and the beasts are more hardy4 ,compared with the ,devons1 they are shorter in the leg1 and also in the carcass2 higher1 and broader1 and heavier in the chine2 rounder and wider across the hips1 and better covered with fat2 the thigh fuller and more muscular1 and the shoulders larger and coarser4 ,they are not now much used for husbandry1 although their form adapts them for the heavier work2 and they have all the honesty and docility of the ,devon ox1 and greater strength1 if not his activity4 ,the ,herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a very early age1 and it is therefore more advantageous to the farmer1 and perhaps to the country1 that he should go to market at three years old1 than be kept longer as a beast of draught4 ,they are not as good milkers as the ,devons4 ,this is so generally acknowledged1 that while there are many dairies of ,devon cows in various parts of the country1 a dairy of ,herefords is rarely to be found4 ,to compensate for this1 they are even more kindly feeders than the ,devons4 ,their beef may be objected to by some as being occasionally a little too large in the bone1 and the fore-quarters being coarse and heavy2 but the meat of the best pieces is often very fine-grained and beautifully marbled4 ,there are few cattle more prized in the market than the genuine ,herefords4 ,there have been several importations of the ,herefords into the ,united ,states1 which by crossing with our native cattle1 have done great good2 but with the exception of a few fine animals at the ,south1 we are not aware of their being kept in a state of purity1 till the importation of the splendid herd4 within the last six years1 by ,messrs4 ,corning and ,sotham of ,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,these ,herefords are among the very best which ,england can produce1 and come up fully to the description of the choicest of the breed4 ,mr4 ,sotham1 after an experience of several years1 is satisfied with the cows for the dairy2 and he has given very favorable published statements of the results of their milking qualities1 from which it may be properly inferred1 that ,youatt drew his estimates from some herds which were quite indifferent in this property4 ,they are peculiarly the grazier's animal1 as they improve rapidly and mature early on medium feed4 ,they are excelled for the yoke1 if at all1 only by the ,devons1 which1 in some features1 they strongly resemble4 ,both are probably divergent branches of the same original stock4 ,the ,ayrshire ,is a breed that has been much sought after of late years1 from their reputation for fine dairy qualities4 ,the milk is good both in quantity and quality1 yielding1 according to a recent statement of ,mr4 ,tennant1 of ,scotland1 who owns a large herd1 fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season1 twelve of which made a pound of butter4 ,the product of the latter averages about #agj pounds per annum to each cow4 ,another authority says1 on the best low-land pasture1 a good cow yields nearly #djjj quarts per year4 ,this is a large quantity1 and implies good cows and extra feed4 ,mr4 ,cushing1 of ,massachusetts1 who imported several select animals1 without regard to their cost1 informed us1 after three or four years' trial1 that he did not perceive any superiority in them1 over the good native cows of that state1 for dairy purposes4 ,a large number have been imported in detached parcels1 and scattered through the country4 ,they are good animals1 but seem to combine no valuable properties in a higher degree than are to be found in our own good cattle1 and especially such as are produced from a cross of the ,short ,horn bull of a good milking family1 on our native cows4 ,they are evidently a recent breed1 and do not therefore possess that uniformity of appearance and quality1 which attaches to one of long cultivation4 ,mr4 ,aiton1 of ,scotland1 gives the following account of them4 ,the dairy breed of ,scotland have been formed chiefly by skilful management1 within the last #ej years2 and they are still improving and extending to other countries4 ,till after #aggj1 the cows in ,cunningham were small1 ill-fed1 ill-shaped1 and gave but little milk4 ,some cows of a larger breed and of a brown and white color1 were about that time brought to ,ayrshire from ,teeswater1 and from ,holland1 by some of the patriotic noblemen of ,ayrshire2 and these being put on good pasture1 yielded more milk than the native breed1 and their calves were much sought after by the farmers4 ,we may fairly infer from the foregoing1 which is deemed indisputable authority2 from the locality of their origin1 in the neighborhood of the ,short ,horns2 and from their general resemblance1 both externally and in their general characteristics to the grade animals1 that they owe their principal excellence to this long-established breed4 ,,management ,,of ,,calves4 ,the safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves1 is at the udder of the dam2 and whenever the milk is converted into butter and cheese1 we believe this to be the most economical4 ,the milk of one good cow is sufficient1 with a run of fresh1 sweet pasture1 to the feeding of two calves at the same time2 and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or four months of age before weaning1 we may safely estimate1 that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season1 fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age4 ,by keeping the calf on the fresh milk1 whether he take it directly from the udder1 or warm from the pail1 all risk of disordered bowels is avoided4 ,the milk is precisely adapted to the perfect health and thrift of the young1 and whenever we substitute for it any other food1 we must watch carefully that not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder1 lest more is lost by disease or want of improvement1 than is gained by the milk of which they are robbed4 ,the first milk of the cow after calving1 is slightly purgative1 which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf4 ,it is1 moreover1 perfectly worthless for two or three days1 for any other purpose except for swine4 ,the calf will seldom take all the milk at first1 and whatever is left in the bag should be thoroughly removed by the hand4 ,if the calf is destined for the butcher1 he must have all the milk he wants for at least six weeks1 and eight or ten is better2 and if the cow does not furnish enough1 he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea4 ,he must be closely confined in a snug1 but clean and airy stable1 and the darker this is1 and the more quiet he is kept1 the more readily he will fatten4 ,if designed to be reared1 the safest and least troublesome method1 is to keep the calf on new milk4 ,if saving the milk be an object1 it is still doubtful whether it is not better that he should have a part of it fresh from the cow1 and depend for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture1 meal1 or roots4 ,some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam1 but take it when first dropped1 and put a handful of salt in its mouth1 which is daily repeated till he is put to grass4 ,this has a purgative effect1 similar to the first milk4 ,flaxseed is then prepared1 by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water1 and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk1 and fed at blood heat4 ,hay tea is made1 by boiling a pound of sweet1 well-cured clover1 in one and a half gallons of clean water4 ,as the calf becomes older1 oat1 barley1 rye1 or ,indian meal may be scalded and added to the flaxseed4 ,when the skim-milk is of little consequence1 a better way is to withdraw him from the cow after three or four days1 then scald the milk1 adding a little oat meal1 and cool to the natural temperature of the milk1 and feed it4 ,oats1 either crushed or ground1 is the best and safest grain for all young stock4 ,the milk should not stand more than half a day before feeding to young calves4 ,as they advance in age1 it may be fed rather older1 but should never be allowed to become sour2 nor should it ever be fed cold4 ,connected with this feed1 should be a good range of short1 sweet pasture1 and shelter against both sun and storms4 ,if expedient1 at about #aj weeks old1 he may be safely weaned1 but four months' nursing is better for the calf4 ,if allowed too much milk for several months1 it is injurious to the future development of the young4 ,it does not distend the stomach properly1 nor call into use its ruminating habits4 ,calves thus brought up1 have often proved light-bellied1 indifferent feeders1 and decidedly inferior animals4 ,when the calf is removed from the cow1 they should be effectually separated from sight and hearing1 as recognition creates uneasiness1 and is an impediment to thrift in both4 ,if there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf1 a small rack and trough should be placed under the shed in his range1 and fine hay put in the former1 and wheat bran or oat meal with a little salt in the latter4 ,diseases and ,remedies4 ,for disordered bowels1 mix #b dr4 rhubarb1 #b oz4 castor oil1 and #a_/b dr4 ginger1 with a little warm milk or gruel2 or give #b oz4 castor oil alone2 or #c oz4 of ,epsom salts4 ,for scours and diarrhoea1 a homely remedy is1 to administer half a pint of cider1 with an equal quantity of blood drawn from the calf's neck4 ,or1 add a little rennet to its food4 ,a good remedy is1 #a oz4 powdered canella bark2 #a oz4 laudanum2 #d oz4 prepared chalk2 and one pint water4 ,mix together1 and give a wine-glass full or more1 according to the size of the calf1 three times a day4 ,costiveness is removed by giving pork broth4 ,or1 give #c to #d oz4 ,epsom salts1 dissolved in #c pints of water1 injected into the stomach2 and repeat part of this dose every #c or #d hours1 till the desired effect is produced4 ,calves1 like all young stock1 should be allowed to change their feed gradually1 from new milk to skimmed1 or from the latter to other food4 ,their stomachs are delicate1 and need gentle1 moderate changes1 when necessary to make them at all4 ,much depends on the care and attention they receive4 ,it is well to have a little resin within its reach4 ,a comfortable shelter1 with a dry1 warm bed1 suitable food1 regularly given three times a day1 at blood heat1 and keeping the stomach in proper order1 will do much to bring them forward rapidly1 and with a small expenditure of food4 ,the calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an abundance of fine1 sweet hay and roots1 the latter either chopped or mashed by a roller1 with the addition of a trifle of meal or oats1 and a full supply of salt and pure water4 ,when there are larger animals on the premises1 the calves ought to be kept by themselves4 ,they should be sustained on their winter feed through the following spring1 until the grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod4 ,the change from hay to grass must be gradual1 unless the latter is considerably matured4 ,the extreme relaxation of the bowels from the sudden change1 frequently produces excessive purging4 ,a slight and temporary relax from the early spring grass1 is not objectionable4 ,breeding4 ,the young animals should never be put to breeding under #ae months old1 so as to bring their first calf at two years old nor then1 unless they have large size and good feed4 ,much depends on the progress towards maturity1 and the supply of food in selecting the proper time for breeding4 ,some are as ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three4 ,early breeding gives delicacy and symmetry to the form of the heifer1 but it checks its growth2 and when it is found to put her back too much1 she may be allowed to rest for a few months1 or even a year1 to brings her up to the desired standard4 ,these remarks apply principally to choice breeders1 or as they are sometimes termed1 fancy stock4 ,for ordinary milch cows which have been moderately fed1 three years is a proper age to come in1 after which they must be milked as regularly1 and as late before drying as possible4 ,breaking ,steers ,should be commenced when two or three years old4 ,some begin with the calf1 accustoming him to a light yoke and occasional training4 ,this practice will do as a pastime for trustworthy boys1 as it makes them gentle and manageable afterwards1 but is hardly worth a man's time4 ,if always carefully handled when young1 they will be found tractable4 ,they should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke cattle1 nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown1 strong1 and perfectly accustomed to the yoke4 ,if properly managed1 cattle may be trained with all the docility1 intelligence1 and much of the activity of the horse4 ,that they are not1 is more frequently the fault of their masters4 ,management of ,oxen4 ,to procure perfect working cattle1 it is necessary to begin with the proper breed4 ,many parts of the country furnish such as are well suited to this purpose4 ,a strong dash of ,devon or ,hereford blood is desirable1 when it needs to be improved4 ,a well-formed1 compact1 muscular body2 clean1 sinewy limbs2 strong1 dense bones2 large1 well-formed joints1 with a mild expressive eye1 are essential for good working oxen4 ,after breaking1 they must be led along gently1 and taught before they are required to perform their task2 and never put to a load which they cannot readily move1 nor dulled by prolonging exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome4 ,a generous diet is necessary1 to keep up the spirit and ability of cattle1 when there is hard work to be done4 ,the horse and mule are fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard service1 and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained1 he should be equally well fed1 when as fully employed4 ,great and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and severe toil1 exacted from the uncomplaining animal4 ,his strength declines1 his spirit flags1 and if this treatment be continued1 he rapidly becomes the stupid1 moping brute1 which is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spirited horse1 that performs1 it may be1 one half the labor1 on twice his rations4 ,the ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping1 as by stinted feed and overtasked labor4 ,loud and repeated hallooing1 or the severe use of the lash1 is as impolitic as it is cruel and disgraceful4 ,we never witness this barbarity without wishing the brutes could change places1 long enough at least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire4 ,clear and intelligible1 yet low and gentle words are all that are necessary to guide the well-trained1 spirited ox4 ,the stick1 or whip1 is needed rather to indicate the precise movement desired1 than as a stimulant or means of punishment4 ,the ox understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one1 for all sounds become indistinct as they increase4 ,it is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to backing4 ,they may soon be taught1 by beginning with an empty cart on a descent2 then on a level2 then with an increasing load1 or uphill1 till the cattle will back nearly the same load they will draw4 ,some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or crowding4 ,changing to opposite sides1 longer or shorter yokes1 and more than all1 gentle treatment1 are the only remedies1 and those not unfrequently fail4 ,cattle will seldom contract this habit1 in the hands of a judicious1 careful driver4 ,the yokes should be carefully made1 and set easy1 and the bows fitted to the necks and properly attached to the yoke4 ,cattle are liable to sore necks if used in a storm2 and when subject to this exposure1 they must be well rubbed with grease1 where the yoke chafes them1 and respite from work should be allowed till the necks heal4 ,management of ,bulls or ,vicious ,animals4 ,if inclined to be vicious1 the bulls should have rings thrust through the cartilage of their nose when young4 ,they are to be found at the agricultural warehouses2 and are made of round iron1 three-eighths of an inch diameter1 with a joint in one side to open1 and when thrust through the nose1 are fastened in a moment1 by a rivet previously prepared4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,cattle-,handler4 ,fig4 #e is a cattle-handler1 consisting of a bar of iron ,a1 eight inches long1 with a ring for a man's hand1 which turns on a swivel at ,b1 and at the other end is a pair of calliper-shaped legs1 one stationary1 and the other opening on a joint4 ,the fixed leg is inserted against one side of the nostril1 and the other is pressed upon the opposite side1 and there fastened by a slide1 ,c1 when the animal is firmly held for administering medicine or performing any operation4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,fig4 #g4 ,for taming savage ,animals4 ,figs4 #f and #g1 for taming a bull2 b1 in ,fig4 #f1 is a cap screwed on to the tip of the horn2 a c1 an iron rod hanging on a pivot in the cap1 with a chain reaching to the ring in the nose4 ,the effect of his attempting to hook1 is illustrated by the various positions of the chain in ,fig4 #g4 ,if the rod at a1 is pushed in either direction1 it jerks up the nose in a manner that cures him of his inclination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,cattle-,tie4 ,fig4 #h1 shows a cattle-tie4--,this is a much more convenient and comfortable mode of fastening cattle in the stable1 than the common stanchions4 ,the proper time for turning off ,cattle4 ,this must depend on their previous feeding and management1 the breed1 and the purposes required4 ,the improved breeds and many of their crosses1 will mature for the butcher as fully at three or four1 as inferior cattle at five to seven years old4 ,if pushed rapidly with proper food1 they will of course be ripe much sooner than if stinted4 ,when cattle have to be purchased for work1 or cows for the dairy1 it becomes an object to keep them as long as they can be made profitable1 and yet be turned off for fattening at a fair price4 ,we have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at #af or #ag2 but they seldom do as well after #ab or even #aj years4 ,old cattle are liable to more diseases than young2 are less hardy2 and they recover more slowly when exposed to scanty feed or hard usage4 ,they also fatten with more difficulty1 and their meat is inferior4 ,when they can be sold advantageously to the feeder1 and replaced without inconvenience1 it is found to be most profitable to turn them off at seven or eight years4 ,they will by that time have attained full maturity2 they will feed rapidly1 and make the largest amount of good beef4 ,if there are extraordinary milkers among the cows1 or superior workers among the oxen1 it is better to keep them as long as they maintain their full vigor4 ,fattening ,cattle4 ,such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or winter1 may be allowed to do their spring's labor2 or if cows1 they may be milked into summer after calving1 or go farrow during the previous year4 ,they should early be put on the best summer feed1 and it is better to be occasionally changed1 to give variety and freshness1 and keep the animal in good appetite4 ,let the fattening animals have the best1 and after they have cropped it a while1 give them a fresh field2 and the other animals or sheep can follow and clear off the remaining herbage1 preparatory to shutting it up for a new growth4 ,some prefer an extensive range of rich feed1 which is unchanged throughout the season2 and when it is not necessary to divide the pasture with the other animals1 this is a good practice4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,three cuts of improved forms1 ,nos4 #i1 #aj1 and #aa4 ,the above cuts illustrate the forms which the most improved beef-cattle should possess4 ,the selection of ,animals for ,stall ,fattening4 ,this is a nice point1 and none without a practised eye and touch1 can choose such as will make the best return for the food consumed4 ,the characteristics of choice animals1 heretofore enumerated1 are particularly essential in those intended for profitable fattening4 ,but the most important of all1 is that firm mellowness1 and quick elasticity of touch1 which unerringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock4 ,when other means for ascertaining fail1 it is a safe rule to select the best-conditioned animals1 out of a herd of grass-fed2 for if all were of equal flesh and health1 when turned out1 those which have thriven most on their summer pasture1 will generally fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep4 ,only the best should be selected4 ,the remainder1 after consuming the coarser forage1 may be at once disposed of for early use4 ,from repeated trials1 it is found that the carcass of stall-fed animals will barely return the value of the materials consumed1 and their manure is generally the only compensation for the time and attention bestowed4 ,none but choice1 thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention1 and all others will make their best returns1 by an immediate disposal1 after the surplus fodder is gone4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,points of ,cattle ,illustrated4 ,,explanation4--,a1 forehead2 ,b1 face2 ,c1 cheek2 ,d1 muzzle2 ,e1 neck2 ,f1 neck vein2 ,g1 shoulder point2 ,h1 arm2 ,i1 shank2 ,j1 gambril1 or hock2 ,k1 elbow2 ,l1 brisket1 bosom1 or breast2 ,m1 shoulder2 ,n1 crops2 ,o1 loin2 ,p1 hip1 hucks1 hocks1 or huckles2 ,q1 crupper bone1 or sacrum2 ,r1 rump1 or pin-bone2 ,s1 round bone1 thurl1 or whirl2 ,t1 buttock2 ,u1 thigh1 or gaskit2 ,v1 flank2 ,w1 plates2 ,x1 back1 or chine2 ,y1 throat2 ,z1 chest4 ,stall-,feeding4 ,this ought to be commenced early in the season4 ,an ox may be fed in a box-stall1 or if accustomed to a mate1 they do better by tying together with sufficient room1 yet not so near as to allow of injuring each other4 ,the building should be warm1 but not hot2 well ventilated1 yet having no current of cold air passing through2 and as dark as possible4 ,the stall ought to be kept clean and dry1 and a deep bed of clean straw is of decided advantage4 ,the ox should be first fed the inferior and most perishable roots with his grain and dry forage1 and his food should be gradually increased in richness1 as he advances towards maturity4 ,the food and water should be given three times a day1 from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs4 ,the animal likes a change of food1 in which he should be indulged as often as may be necessary4 ,if he refuses his food1 a temporary privation1 or variety is essential4 ,when the food is changed1 he should be moderately fed at first1 till he becomes accustomed to it1 as there is otherwise danger of cloying1 which is always injurious4 ,the moment the animal has done feeding1 the remainder of the food ought to be at once removed4 ,he then lies down1 and if undisturbed1 rests quietly till the proper hour induces him again to look for his accustomed rations4 ,regularity in the time of feeding1 is of the utmost consequence4 ,an animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour1 and if it be delayed beyond this1 he is restless and impatient1 which are serious obstacles to speedy fattening4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,ox cut up4 ,fig4 #ac--,shows the ,london method of cutting up the carcass--,fig4 #a1 is the loin2 #b1 rump2 #c1 aitch or adz-bone2 #d1 buttock2 #e1 hock2 #f1 thick flank2 #g1 thin flank2 #h1 fore-rib2 #i1 middle rib2 #aj1 cuck-rib2 #aa1 brisket2 #ab1 leg of mutton piece2 #ac1 clod or neck2 #ad1 brisket4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,skeleton of an ,ox4 #a4 ,temporal bone4--#b4 ,frontal bone1 or bone of the forehead4--#c4 ,orbit of the eye4--#d4 ,lachrymal bone4--#e4 ,malar1 or cheek bone4--#f4 ,upper jaw bone4--#g4 ,nasal bone1 or bone of the nose4--#h4 ,nippers1 found on the lower jaw alone4--#i4 ,eight true ribs4--#aj4 ,humerus1 or lower bone of the shoulder4--#aa4 ,sternum4--#ab4 ,ulna1 its upper part forming the elbow4--#ac4 ,ulna4--#ad4 ,radius1 or principal bone of the arm4--#ae4 ,small bones of the knee4--#af4 ,large metacarpal1 or shank bone4--#ag4 ,bifurcation at the pasterns1 and the two larger pasterns to each foot4--#ah4 ,sesamoid bones4--#ai4 ,bifurcation of the pasterns4--#bj4 ,lower jaw and the grinders4--#ba4 ,vertebrae1 or bones of the neck4--#bb4 ,navicular bones4--#bc4 ,two coffin bones to each foot4--#bd4 ,two smaller pasterns to each foot4--#be4 ,smaller or splint-bone4--#bf4 ,false ribs1 with their cartilages4--#bg4 ,patella1 or bone of the knee4--#bh4 ,small bones of the hock4--#bi4 ,metatarsals1 or larger bones of the hind leg4--#cj4 ,pasterns and feet4--#ca4 ,small bones of the hock4--#cb4 ,point of the hock4--#cc4 ,tibia1 or proper leg-bone4--#cd4 ,thigh-bone4--#ce4 ,bones of the tail4--#cf1 #cg4 ,haunch and pelvis4--#ch4 ,sacrum4--#ci4 ,bones of the loins4--#dj4 ,bones of the back--#da4 ,ligament of the neck and its attachments4--#db4 ,scapula1 or shoulder-blade4--#dc4 ,bones of the back4--#dd4 ,ligament of the neck4--#de4 ,dentata4--#df4 ,atlas4--#dg4 ,occipital bone1 deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head--#dh4 ,parietal bone1 low in the temporal fossa4--#di4 ,horns1 being processes or continuations of the frontal bone4 ,,diseases ,,in ,,cattle4 ,hoven1 or ,swelling of the ,paunch1 ,is a temporary ailment1 caused by eating too freely of fresh and generally wet clover1 or other succulent food4 ,the animal gorges the first stomach with so much food1 that its contents cannot be expelled4 ,inflammation of the membrane takes place1 and decomposition of the food soon follows4 ,this is known by the distension of the paunch1 and difficulty of breathing1 and unless speedily relieved1 suffocation and death will ensue4 ,both sheep and cattle are subject to it4 ,remedies4#a--;,in its early stages1 when not too severe1 it has been removed by administering some one of the following remedies4 ,a pint of gin poured down the throat4 ,from one to two pints of lamp or other oil4 ,strong brine4 ,new milk with one-fifth its bulk of tar mixed4 ,an egg-shell full of tar forced down the throat1 followed by a second1 if the first fails4 ,a tablespoonful of volatile spirit of ammonia1 diluted with water4 ,a wine-glass full of powder1 mixed with cold lard and forced in balls into the stomach4 ,a teaspoonful of unslaked lime dissolved in a pint of warm water1 shaken and given immediately4 ,a pint of tolerably strong lye4 #a ,besides his own experience1 the writer has drawn from the ,n4 ,e4 ,farmer1 the ,albany ,cultivator1 the ,american ,agriculturist1 and other reliable ,american and ,english works1 some of the remedies for diseases herein mentioned4 ,the ,proper ,mode of giving the above ,remedies ,is for a person to hold the horn and cartilage of the nose1 while another seizes and draws out the tongue as far as possible1 when the medicine is thrust below the root of the tongue4 ,if liquid1 it must be inserted by the use of a bottle4 ,the probang is used when the former remedies are ineffectual4 ,this consists of a tarred rope1 or a flexible whip-stalk1 three-fourths of an inch in diameter1 with a swab or bulbous end4 ,two persons hold the head of the animal1 so as to keep the mouth in a line with the throat1 while a third forces it into the stomach1 when the gas finds a passage out4 ,a stiff leather tube with a lead nozzle pierced with holes1 is best for insertion1 through which the gas will readily escape4 ,some one of the above purgatives should be given after the bloat has subsided1 and careful feeding for some days must be observed4 ,light gruels are best for allaying inflammation1 and restoring the tone of the stomach4 ,when no other means are available1 the paunch may be tapped with a sharp penknife1 plunging it #aa_/b inches forward of the hip bone1 towards the last rib in the left side4 ,if the hole fills up1 put in a large goose-quill tube1 which to prevent slipping into the wound1 may remain attached to the feather1 and the air can escape through a large hole in the upper end4 ,prevention is vastly better than cure1 and may be always secured1 by not allowing hungry cattle to fill themselves with clover1 roots1 apples1 c4 ,when first put upon such feed1 it should be when the dew and rain are off1 and their stomachs are already partially filled2 and they should then be withdrawn before they have gorged themselves4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,the ,stomach ,pump4 ,this is a convenient instrument for extracting poisonous substances from the stomach4 ,it is also highly useful for administering medicines and injections1 and if fitted with several tubes1 one may suffice for animals of any size4 ,it consists of a syringe1 a1 with a side opening at b1 and another at the bottom d1 as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,for injections1 ,fig4 #ae is used1 and the end of the syringe is placed in a vessel containing the fluid1 when a probang or injection-tube is screwed on to the side opening at b1 through which the fluid is forced into the stomach or rectum1 as may be required4 ,the probang should be a tube of thick but elastic leather1 and it may be passed into the mouth1 through an aperture in a block1 placed on edge between the teeth1 which is easily done while a person holds the head of the animal firmly4 ,choking ,is frequently relieved by some of the following expedients4 ,the use of the probang or whip-stock1 mentioned under the head of remedies for ,hoven1 by which the root is forced into the stomach4 ,a soft root may be crushed so as to allow of swallowing1 by holding a smooth block against it1 and striking with a mallet on the opposite side4 ,if within arms-length1 the root may be removed by hand4 ,it is said this can be done1 by tying up the fore-leg with a small cord1 close to the body1 and giving the animal a sudden start with a whip2 or by jerking the fore-leg out forward4 ,or pour down the throat a pint bottle full of soft soap1 mixed with sufficient hot water to make it run freely4 ,prevention consists in cutting the roots2 not feeding them when the animals are very hungry1 and not disturbing them while eating4 ,inflammation of the ,stomach4 ,this is frequently produced by a sudden change from dry to green food1 and some other causes4 ,epsom salts1 castor oil1 sulphur1 and carbonate of soda1 in sufficient quantity to purge freely1 are good remedies4 ,it may be prevented by changing the food gradually4 ,mange1 or ,scab4 ,this is denoted by the animal rubbing the hair off about the eyes and other parts4 ,the skin is scaly or scabby1 sometimes appearing like a large seed-wart4 ,remedies4--,rub the spots with sulphur and lard1 after scraping and washing with soap4 ,when the skin is cracked1 take sulphur1 #a lb42 turpentine1 #a_/d lb42 unguentum1 7or mercurial ointment17 #b ounces2 linseed oil1 #a pint4 ,melt the turpentine and warm the oil1 and when partly cooled1 stir in the sulphur2 when cold1 add the unguentum1 mixing all well4 ,rub this thoroughly with the hand on the parts affected4 ,we have no doubt this1 like scab in sheep and itch in the human species1 will be found1 on close investigation1 to be caused by minute insects located in the skin4 ,salt and water ought1 in that case1 to be a good remedy4 ,hollow ,horn1 or ,horn ,ail4 ,this is not unfrequently hollow stomach1 and very often follows stinted fare1 hard usage1 and exposure to cold4 ,we have noticed this as most prevalent among oxen that have done a severe winter's work4 ,symptoms4--,bloody urine2 swollen udder2 shaking the head2 eyes and head swollen2 standing with the head against a fence or barn2 eyes dull and sunken1 and horns cold4 ,remedies4--,bleed and physic1 shelter and feed properly4 ,take a half pint of good vinegar1 two tablespoonfuls of salt1 one teaspoonful of pepper1 and mix and pour into each ear1 holding the head on one side for two minutes4 ,bore with a large gimlet on the under side of the horn1 three or four inches from the head2 and if hollow1 bore nearer the head and let out all the matter1 and syringe two or three times a day with salt and water1 or soap-suds1 or salt and vinegar4 ,spirits of turpentine rubbed in around the base of the horns1 will arrest the disease in its incipient stages4 ,pour a spoonful of boiling hot brimstone into the cavity between the horns4 ,pour a teakettle of boiling water on the horns1 holding so as to prevent injury to the other parts4 ,soot and pepper given internally are good4 ,jaundice1 or ,yellows4 ,this is owing to gall-stones or calculi1 which occasionally accumulate in large numbers1 and is sometimes owing to increased or altered quality of the bile4 ,it is manifested by the yellowness of the eye and skin1 and high color of the urine1 and poor appetite4 ,remedies4--,bleed1 and purge with ,epsom salts4 ,if taken in season1 #b ounces of ground mustard may be mixed with a liquid1 and given twice a day4 ,green food is a good preventive4 ,mad ,itch4 ,this disease exists in some of the ,western states1 and shows itself by jerking of the head1 and itching around the nose and base of the horns4 ,they will lick their sides and backs1 and jerk and hiccup till they fill themselves with wind2 afterwards they froth at the mouth1 and in #bd hours die raving mad4 ,remedy4--,give as much soot and salt as the animal will eat2 soon after1 give #c_/d or #a lb4 of brimstone or sulphur2 and #h hours after1 as many salts4 ,bloody ,murrain1 or ,red ,water4 ,this disease first shows itself in a cough1 then heaving of the flanks1 with bloody1 black1 and foetid evacuations1 tenderness over the loins1 and coldness of the horns4 ,tumors and biles sometimes appear4 ,the animal holds down the head1 moans1 is restless1 and staggers when walking4 ,causes4--,we have lost several animals by this fatal disease1 and are not aware of having cured any when severely attacked4 ,in repeated instances1 we have seen large flukes taken out of the liver1 strongly resembling the common leech1 which abounds in many of our swampy lands4 ,it is certain that on new1 low swamps and clay lands1 cattle are most liable to it2 and when they have been subject to repeated attacks in such localities1 clearing and draining have checked it4 ,youatt attributes it to certain kinds of forage1 which are peculiar to the above situations4 ,we are rather inclined to ascribe it to exposure1 to excessive dampness1 and especially to miasma2 for although the brute creation are perhaps less sensitive to these influences than man1 yet1 as they are governed by the same unvarying laws of nature1 when subjected to conditions totally unsuited to their economy1 they must suffer equally in kind1 though probably not in degree1 with the more refined human frame4 ,but it is evident the disease1 its causes1 and remedies1 are as yet imperfectly understood4 ,remedies4--,however intelligent men may differ as to its causes1 all agree that the animal should first be bled1 and then thoroughly purged4 ,in obstinate cases1 this last is a difficult matter4 ,we have given repeated doses of powerful cathartics without producing any effect2 and whenever the medicine is inoperative1 death speedily follows4 ,large doses of common salt1 or ,epsom salts dissolved in water1 are good purgatives1 and if the animal neglects drinking after taking them1 he should be drenched with copious draughts of water4 ,these should be repeated every few hours1 if ineffectual4 ,injections are sometimes useful1 when medicine fails to act4 ,these may be made of soap and water2 or take #b or #c gills of oats boiled1 #c drachms saltpetre1 #aa_/b oz4 linseed oil1 mix and use them when warm4 ,the opening of the bowels may be followed with a pint of linseed oil1 as an additional and gentle laxative4 ,when the animal begins to recover1 gentle astringents and tonics may be given4 ,preventives4--,we have more confidence in preventives than in remedies4 ,good keep1 shelter1 dryness1 and clean pastures1 will generally prevent attack4 ,the cattle should at all times be supplied with two or three troughs under cover1 on the sides and bottoms of which tar should be plentifully spread4 ,let equal portions of salt and slaked lime be in one2 salt and wood ashes in another2 and salt and brimstone in a third4 ,many farmers have entirely avoided this disease while using one or more of these1 when they annually lost many by it previously4 ,hoof ,ail ,is indicated by lameness1 fever1 and a soft swelling just above the hoof4 ,remedies4--,carefully wash the foot in warm soap-suds1 and while still damp1 apply between the claws on the affected part from one to three grains of corrosive sublimate4 ,if it does not fully adhere1 it must be mixed with hog's lard1 but it should be so applied as to be out of the reach of the animal's tongue1 as it is a powerful poison1 and the extreme irritability of the feet will induce him to lick them4 ,the claw is efficiently cleansed1 by drawing a cord briskly through it1 when either of the above applications1 or blue vitriol put on two or three times a day1 or spirits of turpentine1 will effect a cure4 ,it is sometimes cured by putting the animals in the stanchions1 and applying a sharp chisel three-fourths of an inch from the toe1 and striking it with a mallet till it is cut off4 ,if it does not bleed freely1 cut off shavings till it does4 ,if the animal is refractory1 let a person hold up the opposite foot4 ,keep them in the stable two or three days1 and out of the mud for a week4 ,loss of ,cud ,is loss of appetite1 prostration1 and general ill-health4 ,remedies4--,give a warm bran mash1 with good hay1 and warm water with salt4 ,an aloe tincture1 made with brandy and ginger1 is good4 ,afterwards give good1 dry1 nourishing food2 and bitter infusions1 chamomile flowers1 hoarhound1 oak bark1 c41 in beer4 ,scours1 or ,diarrhoea4 ,a common remedy1 is to boil the bark of white oak1 white pine1 and beech1 and give a strong infusion in bran4 ,if they refuse to eat it1 pour it down4 ,the oak is astringent1 and the pine and beech soothing and healing4 ,warbles ,are grubs1 the egg of which is deposited in the back of cattle by the gad-fly1 7,,oestrus bovis47 ,they are discernible by a protuberance or swelling on the back4 ,they may be pressed out by the thumb and finger2 or burnt out by plunging a hot wire in them2 or a few applications of strong brine will remove them4 ,wounds ,in cattle are readily healed1 when the animal's blood is in good order1 by applying a salve made of #a oz4 green copperas2 #b oz4 white vitriol2 #b oz4 salt2 #b oz4 linseed oil2 #h oz4 molasses4 ,boil over a slow fire #ae minutes in a pint of urine1 and when almost cold1 add #a oz4 oil of vitriol1 and #d oz4 spirits turpentine4 ,apply it with a feather to the wound1 and cure soon follows4 ,milk1 or ,puerperal ,fever1 ,is a common disease with cows in high condition1 at the time of calving4 ,it may1 in almost every case1 be avoided1 by keeping them in moderate feed and flesh4 ,remedies4--,bleed freely1 say #f to #aj quarts1 according to the circulation of the blood2 then give #a to #aa_/b lbs4 of ,epsom salts1 according to the size of the beast1 to be repeated in half lb4 doses every six hours1 till she purges freely4 ,injections should always be given when purgatives are tardy in their operation4 ,caked ,bag ,may be removed by simmering the bark of the root of bitter-sweet in lard1 till it becomes very yellow4 ,when cool1 apply it to the swollen udder once in #h or #aj hours2 or wash it several times a day in cold water4 ,a pint of horseradish1 fed once a day1 cut up with potatoes or meal1 is useful for the same purpose4 ,this is also a tonic1 helps the appetite1 and is good for oxen subject to heat4 ,garget ,is a more intense degree of inflammation than exists in caked bag and sore1 swollen teats1 and shows itself in hard bunches on the udder4 ,the cow should be bled1 and take a large dose of physic2 then wash the udder as in caked bag4 ,repeated doses of sulphur is a good remedy4 ,garget1 or scoke root1 given of the size of a large finger1 grated and fed in their food1 is a general application with farmers4 ,the garget plant grows from three to six feet high1 with a purple stalk1 and strings of berries hanging down between the branches4 ,sore ,teats ,may be healed by rubbing with goose oil1 cream1 new milk2 or make the same applications for it as for caked bag4 ,the bag and teats should be well cleansed with warm soft water1 if to be followed by any ointment4 ,the following application is recommended by ,youatt3 ,one ounce of yellow wax and three of lard2 melt together1 and when cooling1 rub in one quarter ounce of sugar of lead1 and a drachm of alum finely powdered4 ,warts ,are of two kinds2 the first1 on the outer skin1 may be removed by rubbing with camphorated olive oil4 ,the others penetrate into the flesh1 and may be removed by a ligature of fine twine1 or silk1 or india-rubber drawn into a string1 and tied tightly around the wart1 which falls off in a few days4 ,remedies4--,nitrate of silver1 7lunar caustic17 applied to the wart1 will remove it1 but it produces a sore4 ,apply a strong wash of alum4 ,rub with the juice of milk-weed4 ,poultice with grated carrot4 ,cut off the wart with sharp scissors1 when the cow is dry4 ,it will bleed little1 and soon heal4 ,sore ,necks on ,working ,oxen4 ,these occur when worked in wet weather1 or with bad yokes4 ,the remedy is1 rub with a healing application4 ,the preventive is1 good yokes2 the application of grease2 or a decoction of white or yellow oak bark applied to the affected parts4 ,or1 a better preventive is a canvass or leather cap to protect the neck entirely from the storm4 ,the ,bite of ,poisonous ,snakes ,may be cured by shaking together equal parts of olive oil and hartshorn1 and rubbing the wound and adjacent parts three or four times a day4 ,for a full-grown animal1 one quart of olive oil and an ounce of hartshorn should be administered internally1 in addition to the above4 ,for ,stings of ,bees1 ,hornets1 c4 ,apply warm vinegar and salt1 rubbing the parts thoroughly4 ,for a ,forming ,tumor4 ,rub thoroughly with strong brine1 or a solution of sal ammoniac dissolved in eight times its weight of water4 ,if the tumor comes to a head1 open it near the bottom with a lancet2 or place a seton in it so as to admit the escape of purulent matter4 ,lice and ,vermin ,sometimes abound on cattle during the latter part of winter and spring4 ,these are generally the result of mange1 which is itself the effect of ill-feeding and ill-condition4 ,they are removed with the cause4 ,we doubt if they can be permanently kept off1 where the animal is losing flesh and health4 ,remedies4--,restore the health and condition1 and sprinkle sand1 ashes1 or dirt plentifully around the roots of the horns1 and along the ridge of the neck and back4 ,a liberal application of train or other oil has nearly a similar effect4 ,never apply an ointment containing corrosive sublimate or other poison1 as it may be licked by the animal or its fellows1 who may thus become seriously poisoned4 ,the ,trembles1 ,producing milk sickness 7a most fatal disease7 in the human family1 from eating the milk or flesh of animals affected by it4 ,this disease1 which exists principally in the region of the ,wabash ,river1 is supposed by ,dr4 ,drake to be owing to the poison oak1 7,rhus ,toxicodendron17 or poison vine1 7,radicans17 which the animals eat4 ,symptoms4--,the animal mopes1 is feverish and costive1 but apparently preserves its appetite4 ,the next stage of the disease is faintness and vertigo1 which is shown when the animal is put upon exertion1 being followed by excessive trembling and entire prostration4 ,remedy4--,almost every cathartic has been tried in vain4 ,indian corn1 both dry and green1 has been fed to all animals accustomed to eating it1 and when they can be induced to feed upon it freely1 purging is generally secured4 ,rest of the animal is absolutely essential while the disease continues1 and is itself an effectual remedy in mild cases4 99 99 99 99 99 ,besides the diseases enumerated1 there are occasional epidemics1 such as black tongue1 black foot1 or foot root1 c41 which carry off great numbers of animals4 ,remedies for these are frequently not discovered1 and the epidemic is allowed to run its course unchecked4 ,the only preventives are such care1 food1 and management as the experienced herdsman knows to be best suited to the maintenance of the health and thrift of his stock4 ,note4--,some ailments will be found under the head of diseases of the other animals mentioned in this work1 the general resemblance of which to each other will justify nearly a similar treatment4 ,if intelligent farriers are at hand1 they may sometimes be called in with advantage2 though we acknowledge our distrust of the quackery of most of those passing under this title4 ,there is little science or intelligent study in the composition of this class1 the world over2 and much of their practice is the merest empiricism4 ,the owner should see to it1 if he employs one of whose attainments he is doubtful1 that neither medicines nor operations be used1 unnecessarily severe or hazardous to the animal4 ,especially1 should the diabolical practice be interdicted1 of the abundant and indiscriminate use of poisons1 boiling oils1 turpentine1 and tar1 and the hot iron applied to the sensitive wound or naked flesh4 ,if certain or effectual remedies for the removal of disease cannot he applied1 such as augment the suffering or endanger the life of the poor dumb things1 may at least be avoided4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,dairy4 ,cows for the ,dairy4 ,from what has been said on the various characteristics of the different breeds of cattle1 it must be evident1 that no very definite criteria of excellence can be given for all good dairy cows4 ,but there are certain points in a good milker1 that can hardly be mistaken4 ,she should be descended from the best milking stock2 her head should be small or of medium size1 muzzle fine1 and nostrils flexible and expanded2 face long1 slender1 and dishing2 cheeks thin2 eyes full1 mild1 and prominent2 horns delicate and waxy1 and they may be either branching1 lopped1 crumpled1 or hornless2 long1 thin1 lively ear1 and the inside of an orange color2 neck thin and small at its junction with the head2 deep chest1 but not too heavy before2 back level and broad2 well ribbed2 belly large2 low flank2 wide thighs1 but thin2 short legs1 and standing well apart2 large milking veins2 loose1 capacious udder1 coming well out behind2 good teats2 loose1 mellow skin1 of a deep yellow2 and a fine1 thick coat of glossy hair2 and she must be of a good disposition1 and free from tricks4 ,yet1 with all the skill of a well-practised taste in the selection of animals1 the dairyman will frequently find his theories and results at sad variance4 ,one may sometimes select a fine animal1 with every appearance of good milking qualities1 which is but a medium cow at the pail2 and another1 that hardly seems worthy of notice1 and which sets at defiance many established milking points1 and all preconceived notions of symmetry1 may yet prove a good milker4 ,a cow that runs to flesh while in milk1 is generally an indifferent animal for the dairy4 ,perfection in a cow1 consists in converting all she eats into milk while yielding it1 and when dry1 in turning all she consumes into valuable meat4 ,management of ,dairy ,cows4 ,a cow may have her first calf when between two and three years of age1 according to her size and development4 ,after calving1 she should be stinted in her food for two or three days1 and not fed freely for a week4 ,avoid fat in a breeding cow4 ,too high feeding is the cause of milk-fever1 caked bag1 garget1 and a host of evils2 and very poor feed is almost equally objectionable4 ,the average time of a cow with young1 is from #dj to #da weeks2 but they sometimes go only #cd1 and occasionally overrun #dd4 ,a dry1 unoccupied stall or yard is best for her to calve in2 and if there is any serious delay or difficulty in the operation1 she may be assisted by placing the foetus in the right position1 and gently pulling it1 with every throe of the dam4 ,after the calf has drawn all he wants at morning and evening1 the bag should be thoroughly and quickly emptied of all the milk4 ,if strong and vigorous1 the calf is the best doctor for garget or caked bag4 ,he may be allowed to suck the cow or not1 at the option of the owner2 there are reasons for and against the practice1 as will be seen under the head of rearing calves1 and each person must determine in his own case on which side the balance lies4 ,milking4 ,this is an important operation1 and on its proper performance depends much of the success of the dairyman4 ,a cow regularly1 gently1 yet quickly and thoroughly milked1 will give much more than if neglected4 ,if a herd of cows be separated into two divisions1 each yielding the same quantity of milk1 and one is given to a good milker1 and the other to a shiftless or lazy one1 the latter will speedily reduce his milk much below the quantity obtained by the former2 and if the milkers then exchange cows1 they will be found to change quantity too1 those before affording the least1 soon giving the most4 ,an indifferent milker ought never to be tolerated in a herd1 good ones are cheaper at double the price4 ,it is best to milk at intervals of about #ab hours2 which may be done when pastures are convenient1 or cows are soiled or fed in the yard4 ,but as this is not often the case in the season of green food1 they should be milked early in the morning and turned into pasture1 to fill themselves before the sun is oppressive2 and if they are to be kept up at night1 let them browse in the pasture as long as possible1 before they are brought to the yard4 ,,milk ,is produced from the females of all the warm-blooded animals1 which are enumerated among the mammaliae4 ,the milk of several animals is employed for domestic purposes1 among different nations4 ,that of the camel is used by the ,arabs2 the milk of the ass by the ,spaniards1 the ,maltese1 and the inhabitants of the ,levant2 that of the mare by the ,cossacks1 the ,kirgheez1 and other ,tartars2 and that of the goat1 the ewe1 and the cow1 by most of the ancient1 and with few exceptions1 by every modern ,european nation4 ,within the last century1 however1 the use of all excepting cow's milk has been almost entirely discarded1 among the most highly civilized people4 ,if we except some few ,welsh and ,swiss1 or other emigrants1 who resort to the goat and ewe for their dairy materials1 for the first few years of their residence here1 the cow is the only animal which is employed in ,america for producing milk4 ,for this1 she is pre-eminently fitted1 and the modern improvement of this invaluable animal has carried her product of milk almost as far as can be reasonably looked for from a given amount of food2 and although this is of about the average richness of the goat and ewe1 and before that of the ass1 the quantity she yields is frequently as #fj to #a1 in favor of the cow1 over the first two competitors4 ,as a milk-giving animal1 the cow is the best fitted for the purposes of civilized man2 and she is made to contribute1 not only to his health1 his comfort1 and his economy1 but to many of his choicest luxuries4 ,milk contains every element of nutrition necessary to animal existence2 and man can subsist1 with unimpaired health and strength1 if limited to this food alone4 ,the ,constituents of ,milk ,are butter1 which varies from #b to #f per cent42 casein or cheese1 usually #d to #e1 but sometimes varying from #c to #ae per cent42 7the last excessive quantity1 yielded only by the first milk after calving27 milk-sugar1 #d to #f2 salts or saline matter1 #j4b to #j4f2 and water1 #hj to #hi4 ,there is much diversity in the product and quality of milk from cows of the same breed1 the same food1 and other circumstances and conditions1 apparently equal4 ,thus1 of a herd of #bb1 chiefly ,ayrshire1 one gave #hd quarts in one week1 which afforded #ca_/b lbs4 of butter2 two others in the same time gave #hf1 yielding #ea_/b lbs42 and a fourth gave #hh quarts1 making #g lbs4 ,the amount of butter1 however1 which a given quantity of milk will produce1 is not the only criterion of the value of the milk1 except for this purpose alone4 ,some cows will yield more butter1 others will produce more cheese2 while for consumption1 another may partially compensate1 in the increased quantity of milk-sugar1 and the saline matters1 for a deficiency of both the other ingredients4 ,but for dairy purposes1 butter and cheese are the only measure of the value of milk2 and a cow is esteemed good or indifferent1 as she gives one or the other in the greatest abundance4 ,circumstances which modify the ,quantity and ,character of ,milk4 ,besides the accidental variation in the quantity and quality of milk in different animals1 before adverted to1 there are many reliable causes which influence both4 ,of these1 parentage has a most decided and uniform influence1 frequently modified1 however1 in the particular individual1 by some personal and controlling causes4 ,but a cow1 whose maternal ancestry on both sides are choice milkers1 is almost certain to resemble them4 ,food influences the quantity1 rather than the quality4 ,boussingault tried numerous experiments1 with cows fed on various kinds of food1 and found the difference hardly appreciable in the quality of milk4 ,its true benefit is to be looked for in the increased quantity1 through which1 the valuable ingredients are distributed in nearly the same proportion1 as when the product is materially lessened4 ,by quality we mean to be understood1 the amount of the ingredients1 valuable for nutrition only2 for it is certain1 that there is a rich aromatic flavor1 not only in milk1 but in butter and cheese1 which is afforded in various articles of food1 and especially by the fresh green herbage which abounds in the pastures from spring to autumn4 ,activity or rest has a great effect on both quantity and quality4 ,the less action1 and the more quiet and rest1 the greater the amount of milk and butter4 ,but exercise is absolutely essential to the production of cheese4 ,butter may be made from cows confined in a stable1 but cheese can only be profitably made from animals at pasture4 ,it is supposed by physiologists1 that the exercise in gathering their food1 rather than any peculiarity in its character1 is necessary to convert the nitrogenized tissues into the nitrogenized principle of caseum or cheese4 ,the time from calving1 has also its effect4 ,the first milk drawn from a cow after calving1 has been found to yield over #ae per cent4 of casein1 while in its ordinary state it gives only three to five and a half4 ,as the quantity of milk diminishes in a farrow cow1 the quality improves within certain limits4 ,pregnancy affects the quality injuriously1 and especially towards its latter stages2 and a cow that is predisposed to giving milk1 should be dried off a few weeks before its expiration1 as it is then unfit for use4 ,fat cows give poorer milk than such as are moderately lean2 and young animals do not come up to the maximum of their quality1 till after their third or fourth calving4 ,the milk first drawn from the udder1 will yield only an eighth1 and sometimes even a much less proportion of cream1 than the strippings2 and the milk which is drawn three times a day1 is greatly inferior to such as is taken but once1 though the latter is less abundant4 ,excitement1 or fretfulness2 change of locality1 or to a different herd1 with new companions2 separation from her calf2 periodical heat2 annoyance from flies1 or worry from dogs2 exposure to storms1 severe cold1 or an oppressive sun1 and many similar causes1 diminish the quantity of milk and butter2 but some of these may reasonably be expected to increase the proportion of its casein4 ,dr4 ,playfair found that the quantity of butter in the evening milk1 after the cow had been at pasture all day1 was #c4g per cent41 while the casein was #e4d2 after lying quietly all night1 the milk from the same cow1 on the following morning1 contained #e4f per cent4 of butter1 and only #c4i of casein4 ,in stabling the cow1 the butter was invariably in greater proportion than when allowed to ramble in the pasture2 and the casein1 with a single exception1 was equally diminished4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,lactometer1 or ,cream ,guage4 ,fig4 #ag1 is a number of glass tubes of equal size1 set in a frame called a lactometer or cream guage4 ,if milk from different cows be set in these1 the depth of the cream will indicate their comparative richness4 ,cream4 ,if milk be immediately set away in shallow vessels1 after being taken from the cow1 the cream rises to the surface1 carrying with it most of the butter contained in the milk1 and much of its casein also4 ,hence1 the great nutritive properties of buttermilk1 which retains the casein in very large proportions1 much of it being rejected by the butter in its separation from the cream4 ,a temperature below #cd deg41 will prevent the cream from rising in any considerable quantity1 and preserve the milk unaltered for some weeks4 ,coagulating the milk from any cause1 will equally prevent the separation of the cream4 ,the elevation of temperature within certain limits1 hastens the separation4 ,thus1 at #ej deg41 the cream will mostly have risen in #cf hours2 at #ee deg41 in #bd2 at #fh deg41 in #ah or #bj2 and at #gg deg41 in #aj or #ab hours4 ,heating the milk near the boiling point1 and then setting it away and allowing it to remain undisturbed1 will soon cause the cream to rise4 ,in the celebrated ,orange dairy1 near ,baltimore1 ,md41 this system was practised1 by which1 not only most of the cream was secured for butter1 but in consequence of its rapid separation1 the skimmed milk was sent to market within a few hours after being drawn2 and the scalding imparted to it an agreeable flavor and apparent richness1 which it did not really possess4 ,the celebrated clouted cream of ,devonshire1 ,england1 and the butter made from it1 contains an unusual quantity of casein1 the consequence of heating the milk4 ,it is prepared by straining the warm milk into large shallow pans into which a little water has previously been put1 allowing these to stand from six to twelve hours1 and then carefully heating them over a slow fire1 or on a hot plate1 till the milk approaches the boiling point4 ,the milk1 however1 must not actually boil1 nor must the skin of the cream be broken4 ,the dishes are now removed into the dairy1 and allowed to cool4 ,in summer the cream should be churned on the following day2 in winter it may stand over two days4 ,the quantity of cream obtained is said to be one-fourth greater by this method1 and the milk which is left is proportionably poor4--,johnston4 ,,butter4 ,electricity ,has much to do with the changes in milk1 as in all other substances4 ,glass milk-pans might1 therefore1 be supposed to be the best vessels for keeping the milk unchanged and sweet4 ,it may possibly not afford any practical result1 yet intelligent experiments for introducing a stream of electricity might well be justified1 to aid in the separation of the butteraceous particles in the operation of churning4 ,sour ,cream4 ,cream1 for the purpose of churning1 is usually allowed to become sour4 ,it ought to be at least one day old1 but may with advantage be kept several days in cool weather1 if it be previously well freed from milk1 and be frequently stirred to keep it from curdling4 ,this sour cream is put into the churn1 and worked in the usual way until the butter separates4 ,this is collected into lumps1 well beat and squeezed free from the milk1 and in some dairies is washed with pure cold water as long as the water is rendered milky4 ,in other localities the butter is not washed1 but after being well beat1 is carefully freed from the remaining milk by repeated squeezings and dryings with a clean cloth4 ,both methods1 no doubt1 have their advantages4 ,in the same circumstances1 the washed butter may be more easily preserved in the fresh state1 while the unwashed butter will probably possess a higher flavor4 ,sweet ,cream ,may be put into the churn and the butter be obtained1 but in most cases it requires more labor and longer time1 without1 in the opinion of good judges1 affording in general a finer quality of butter4 ,in all cases the cream becomes sour during the agitation1 and before the butter begins distinctly to form4 ,clouted ,cream ,the churning of the clouted cream of this and other countries1 forms an exception to the general rule just stated1 that more time is required in the churning of sweet creams4 ,clouted cream may be churned in the morning after it is made1 that is1 within twenty-four hours of the time when the milk was taken from the cow2 and from such cream it is well known that the butter separates with very great ease4 ,but in this case1 the heating of the cream has already disposed the oily matter to cohere1 an incipient running together of the globules has probably taken place before the cream is removed from the milk1 and hence the comparative ease with which the churning is effected4 ,there is something peculiar in butter prepared in this way1 as it is known in other countries by the name of ,bohemian butter4 ,it is said to be very agreeable in flavor1 but it must contain more cheesy matter than the butter from ordinary cream4 ,churning the whole ,milk ,is a much more laborious method1 from the difficulty of keeping in motion such large quantities of fluid4 ,it has the advantage1 however1 of giving a larger quantity of butter4 ,at ,rennes1 in ,brittany1 the milk of the previous evening is poured into the churn along with the warm morning's milk1 and the mixture is allowed to stand for some hours1 when the whole is churned4 ,in this way it is said that a larger quantity of butter is obtained1 and of a more delicate flavor4 ,in the neighborhood of ,glasgow1 according to ,mr4 ,aiton1 the milk is allowed to stand six1 twelve1 or twenty-four hours in the dairy1 till the whole has cooled1 and the cream has risen to the surface4 ,two or three milkings1 still sweet1 are then poured together with their cream1 into a large vessel1 and are left undisturbed till the whole has become quite sour1 and is completely coagulated4 ,the proper sourness is indicated by the formation of a stiff brat upon the surface which has become uneven4 ,great care must be taken to keep the brat and curd unbroken until the milk is about to be churned1 for if any of the whey be separated1 the air gains admission to it and to the curd1 and fermentation is induced4 ,by this fermentation1 the quality of the butter may or may not be affected1 but that of the buttermilk is almost sure to be injured4 ,in ,holland the practice is a little different4 ,the cream is not allowed to rise to the surface at all1 but the milk is stirred two or three times a day1 till it gets sour1 and so thick that a wooden spoon will stand in it4 ,it is then put into the churn1 and the working1 or the separation of the butter is assisted by the addition of a quantity of cold water4 ,by churning the sour milk in one or other of these ways1 the butter is said to be rich1 sound1 and well-flavored4 ,if it be greater in quantity1 it is1 according to ,sprengel1 because the fatty matter carries with it from the milk a larger quantity of casein than it does in most cases from the cream alone4 ,sourness of the ,cream4 ,for the production of the best butter1 it is necessary that the cream should be sufficiently sour before it is put into the churn4 ,butter made from sweet cream 7not clouted7 is neither good in quality1 nor large in quantity1 and longer time is required in churning4 ,it is an unprofitable method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,fig4 #ah is a ,cylindrical ,thermometer ,churn1 of any required size1 with false metal bottom to hold cold or hot water for bringing the cream to the proper temperature4 ,a thermometer1 permanently set in the side1 indicates the heat4 ,quickness in ,churning4 ,the more quickly milk or cream is churned1 the paler1 the softer1 and the less rich the butter4 ,cream1 according to ,mr4 ,aiton1 may be safely churned in an hour and a half1 while milk ought to obtain from two to three hours4 ,the churning ought always to be regular1 slower in warm weather1 that the butter may not be soft and white1 and quicker in winter1 that the proper temperature may be kept up4 ,a barrel-churn1 lately introduced into this country1 being placed in a trough of water of the proper temperature1 readily imparts the degree of heat required by the milk or cream without the necessity of adding warm water to the milk1 and churns the whole in ten or twelve minutes4 ,it is said also to give a larger weight of butter from the same quantity of milk4 ,if the quality be really as good by this quick churning1 the alleged inferiority in the quality of butter churned quickly in the common churn cannot be due to the mere rapidity of churning alone4 ,over-churning4 ,when the process of churning is continued after the full separation of the butter1 it loses its fine yellowish1 waxy appearance1 and becomes soft and light-colored4 ,the weight of the butter1 however1 is considerably increased2 and hence1 in ,lancashire1 over-churning is frequently practised in the manufacture of fresh butter for immediate sale4 ,temperature of the ,milk or ,cream4 ,much also depends upon the temperature of the milk or cream when the churning is commenced4 ,cream when put into the churn should never be warmer than #ee deg4 ,fahrenheit ,it rises during the churning from #d deg4 to #aj deg4 ,f4 above its original temperature4 ,when the whole milk is churned1 the temperature should be raised to #fe deg4 ,f41 which is best done by pouring in hot water into the churn while the milk is kept in motion4 ,in winter1 either of these temperatures may be easily attained4 ,in cold weather it is often necessary to add hot water to the cream to raise it even to #ee deg44 ,but in summer1 and especially in hot weather1 it is difficult1 even in cool and well-ordered dairies1 7without the use of ice17 to keep the cream down to this comparatively low temperature4 ,hence1 if the cream be then churned1 a second-rate butter1 at best1 is all that can be obtained4 ,the alleged advantages of ,churning the entire ,milk4 ,the proper temperature can be readily obtained both in winter and summer4 ,a hundred gallons of entire milk1 will give1 in summer1 five per cent4 more butter than the cream from the same quantity of milk4 ,butter of the best quality can be obtained without difficulty1 both in winter and summer4 ,no special attention to circumstances1 or change of method1 is at any time required4 ,the churning in winter and summer is alike simple and easy4 ,the butter is not only of the best quality while fresh1 but is also best for long-keeping1 when properly cured or salted4 ,cleanliness in all the operations of the ,dairy4 ,this is peculiarly necessary to the manufacture of good butter4 ,cream is remarkable for the rapidity with which it absorbs and becomes tainted by any unpleasant odors4 ,it is very necessary that the air of the dairy should be sweet1 that it should be often renewed1 and that it should be open in no direction from which bad odors can come4 7,johnston and other authorities47 ,the statement of ,j4 ,t4 ,lansing1 who received the first premium for butter from the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society1 is as follows3-- ,keep the cows stabled through the inclement season2 feed them from three to four times per day with good hay or green stalks2 when near coming in1 add some oats1 barley1 or corn cracked4 ,in summer1 good pasture1 with living water accessible at all times1 and plenty of salt4 ,treatment of milk and cream before churning4--,strain the milk in tin pans2 place them in a cool cellar for the cream to rise4 ,when sufficiently risen1 separate the cream from the milk2 put in stone jars1 well prepared before churning4 ,the mode of churning in summer4--,rinse the churn with cold water2 then turn in the cream1 and add to each jar of cream put in the churn1 full one-fourth of the same quantity of cold water4 ,the churn used is a patent one1 moved by hand with a crank1 having paddles attached1 and so constructed as to warm the milk 7if too cold7 with hot water1 without mixing them together4 ,the milk and cream receive the same treatment in winter as in summer2 and in churning1 use hot instead of cold water1 if necessary4 ,the method of freeing the butter from the milk1 is to wash the butter with cold water1 till it shows no color of the milk1 by the use of a ladle4 ,salting the butter4--,use the best kind of ,liverpool sack-salt2 the quantity varies according to the state in which the butter is taken from the churn2 if soft1 more2 if hard1 less2 always taking the taste for the surest guide4 ,add no saltpetre1 nor other substances4 ,the best time for churning is the morning1 in hot weather1 and to keep the butter cool till put down4 ,the best mode of preserving butter1 in and through the summer and winter1 is as follows3--,the vessel is a stone jar1 clean and sweet4 ,the mode of putting it down is to put in a churning of butter1 and put on strong brine2 let it remain on until the next churning is ready to put down1 and so on till the jar is filled2 then cover it with fine salt the same to remain on till used4 ,mr4 ,mc,williams1 of ,orange county1 the celebrity of whose butter is unsurpassed1 thus details his method of butter-making3 ,our practice is not to churn the milk until it becomes thick or loppered1 the milk and cream is then churned together4 ,the temperature of the milk is about fifty degrees4 ,in warm weather about a quart of cold water is put in each pan before the milk is strained1 so as to keep it sweet as long as possible4 ,the cellar-floor is brick4 ,this in warm weather is daily cleansed with cold water4 ,a drain from the cellar carries off the water thus applied4 ,the churn is filled about half full with milk1 with the addition of two pails of cold water before starting the churn4 ,in cold weather the same quantity of warm water is applied4 ,when the churning is finished1 which usually occupies about two hours of time1 there are then two more pails of cold water applied to raise the butter and cool it4 ,the butter is then taken out of the churn and put in a large tray2 this is immediately filled with cold water1 and the butter carefully washed2 after which the water is thrown off4 ,the butter now undergoes the process of salting2 it is then placed in a cool situation1 where it stands about an hour1 and is worked carefully over4 ,this finished1 it is placed in the same situation as before1 where it stands three or four hours1 and is again worked over2 again replaced for five or six hours1 when it is worked over for the third time4 ,it is now replaced1 where it stands till the next morning1 and worked over for the fourth time4 ,a small quantity of nitre is then put in the butter4 ,thus finished1 it is placed in firkins holding about eighty-five pounds4 ,previous to packing1 the firkin is scalded with hot water1 rinsed and cooled with cold water1 then rubbed all around with fine salt2 this prevents the butter from adhering to the sides of the firkin4 ,when the firkin is full1 a linen cloth is placed over the top of the butter2 on this cloth a covering of salt is put one inch deep1 and cold water enough added to it to form a brine4 ,it then stands till it is to be sent to market1 when the cloth and salt are removed1 the firkin turned down1 the top of the butter in the keg washed with cold water1 and the pickle drained off4 ,the firkin is now neatly headed up and sent to market4 ,the salt added to the butter should be from #a-bdth to #a-bhth of its weight1 or about two-thirds of an ounce to a pound1 and this must be of the best quality4 ,all the buttermilk must be thoroughly extracted by repeated washings2 and when completed1 the butter should be immediately packed1 and not a particle of air allowed to come in contact with it till opened for the table4 ,,cheese4 ,the ,circumstances affecting the ,quality of ,cheese4 ,all cheese consists essentially of the curd1 mixed with a certain portion of the fatty matter1 and of the sugar of milk4 ,but differences in the quality of the milk1 in the proportion in which the several constituents of milk are mixed together1 or in the general mode of dairy management1 give rise to varieties of cheese almost without number4 ,nearly every dairy district produces one or more qualities of cheese peculiar to itself4 ,natural ,differences in the ,milk ,it is obvious that whatever gives rise to natural differences in the quality of the milk1 must affect also that of the cheese prepared from it4 ,if the milk be poor in butter1 so must the cheese be4 ,if the pasture be such as to give a milk rich in cream1 the cheese will partake of the same quality4 ,if the herbage or other food affect the taste of the milk or cream1 it will also modify the flavor of the cheese4 ,milk of ,different ,animals4 ,so the milk of different animals will give cheese of unlike qualities4 ,the ewe-milk cheeses of ,tuscany1 ,naples1 and ,languedoc1 and those of goats' milk made on ,mont ,dor and elsewhere1 are celebrated for qualities which are not possessed by cheeses prepared from cows' milk in a similar way4 ,buffalo milk also gives a cheese of peculiar qualities1 which is manufactured in some parts of the ,neapolitan territory4 ,other kinds of cheese are made from mixtures of the milk of different animals4 ,thus the strong-tasted cheese of ,lecca and the celebrated ,roquefort cheese are prepared from mixtures of goat with ewe milk1 and the cheese of ,mont ,cenis from both of these mixed with the milk of the cow4 ,creamed or ,uncreamed ,milk4 ,still further differences are produced1 according to the proportion of cream which is left in or is added to the milk4 ,thus1 if cream only be employed1 we have the rich cream-cheese which must be eaten in a comparatively recent state4 ,or1 if the cream of the previous night's milking be added to the new milk of the morning1 we may have such cheese as the ,stilton of ,england1 or the small1 soft1 and rich ,brie cheeses1 so much esteemed in ,france4 ,if the entire milk only be used1 we have such cheeses as the ,cheshire1 the ,double ,gloucester1 the ,cheddar1 the ,wiltshire1 and the ,dunlop cheeses of ,britain1 the ,kinnegad cheese of ,ireland1 and the ,gouda and ,edam cheeses of ,holland4 ,even here1 however1 it makes a difference1 whether the warm milk from the cow is curdled alone1 as at ,gouda and ,edam1 or whether it is mixed with the milk of the evening before1 as is generally done in ,cheshire and ,ayrshire4 ,many persons are of opinion that cream1 which has once been separated1 can never be so well mixed again with the milk1 that a portion of the fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render the cheese less rich4 ,if the cream of the evening's milk be removed1 and the skimmed milk added to the new milk of the next morning1 such cheeses as the ,single ,gloucester are obtained4 ,if the cream be taken once from all the milk1 the better kinds of skimmed-milk cheese1 such as the ,dutch cheese of ,leyden1 are prepared2 while if the milk be twice skimmed1 we have the poorer cheeses of ,friesland and ,groningen4 ,if skimmed for three or four days in succession1 we get the hard and horny cheeses of ,essex and ,sussex1 which often require the axe to break them up4 ,buttermilk ,cheese4 ,but poor or butterless cheese will also differ in quality according to the state of the milk from which it is extracted4 ,if the new milk be allowed to stand to throw up its cream1 and this be then removed in the usual way1 the ordinary skimmed-milk cheese will be obtained by adding rennet to the milk4 ,but if1 instead of skimming1 we allow the milk to stand till it begins to sour1 and then remove the butter by churning the whole1 we obtain the milk in a sour state1 7buttermilk47 ,from this milk the curd separates naturally by gentle heating4 ,but being thus prepared from sour milk1 and without the use of rennet1 buttermilk cheese differs more or less in quality from that which is made from sweet skimmed-milk4 ,the acid in the buttermilk1 especially after it has stood a day or two1 is capable of coagulating new milk also2 and thus1 by mixing more or less sweet milk with the buttermilk before it is warmed1 several other qualities of mixed butter and sweet-milk cheese may readily be manufactured4 ,whey ,cheese4 ,the whey which separates from the curd1 and especially the white whey1 which is pressed out towards the last1 contains a portion of curd1 and not unfrequently a considerable quantity of butter also4 ,when the whey is heated1 the curd and butter rise to the surface1 and are readily skimmed off4 ,this curd alone will often yield a cheese of excellent quality1 and so rich in butter1 that a very good imitation of ,stilton cheese may sometimes be made with alternate layers of new-milk curd and this curd of whey4 ,mixtures of ,vegetable ,substances with the ,milk4 ,new varieties of cheese are formed by mixing vegetable substances with the curd4 ,a green decoction of two parts of sage leaves1 one of marigold1 and a little parsley1 gives its color to the green cheese of ,wiltshire2 some even mix up the entire leaves with the curd4 ,the celebrated ,schabzieger cheese of ,switzerland1 is made by crushing the skim-milk cheese after it is several months old to fine powder in a mill1 mixing it then with one-tenth of its weight of fine salt1 and one-twentieth of the powdered leaves of the mellilot trefoil1 7trifolium melilotus cerulea17 and afterwards with oil or butter1 working the whole into a paste1 which is pressed and carefully dried4 ,potato ,cheeses1 ,as they are called1 are made in various ways4 ,one pound of sour milk is mixed with five pounds of boiled potatoes and a little salt1 and the whole is beat into a pulp1 which1 after standing five or six days1 is worked up again1 and then dried in the usual way4 ,others mix three parts of dried boiled potatoes with two of fresh curd1 or equal weights1 or more curd than potato1 according to the quality required4 ,such cheeses are made in ,thuringia1 in ,saxony1 and in other parts of ,germany4 ,in ,savoy1 an excellent cheese is made by mixing one of the pulp of potatoes with three of ewe-milk curd2 and in ,westphalia1 a potato cheese is made with skimmed milk4 ,preparation of ,rennet4 ,rennet is prepared from the salted stomach or intestines of the sucking calf1 the unweaned lamb1 the young kid1 or even the young pig4 ,in general1 however1 the stomach of the calf is preferred1 and there are various ways of curing and preserving it4 ,the stomach of the newly killed animal contains a quantity of curd derived from the milk on which it has been fed4 ,in most districts1 it is usual to remove by a gentle washing the curd and slimy matters which are present in the stomach1 as they are supposed to impart a strong taste to the cheese4 ,in ,cheshire1 the curd is frequently salted separately for immediate use4 ,in ,ayrshire and ,limburg1 on the other hand1 the curd is always left in the stomach and salted along with it4 ,some even give the calf a copious draught of milk shortly before it is killed1 in order that the stomach may contain a larger quantity of the valuable curd4 ,salting the ,stomach4 ,in the mode of salting the stomach1 similar differences prevail4 ,some merely put a few handfuls of salt into and around it1 then roll it together1 and hang it near the chimney to dry4 ,others salt it in a pickle for a few days1 and then hang it up to dry2 while others pack several of them in layers1 with much salt both within and without1 and preserve them in a cool place1 till the cheese-making season of the following year4 ,they are then taken out1 drained from the brine1 spread upon a table1 sprinkled with salt which is rolled in with a wooden roller1 and then hung up to dry4 ,in some foreign countries1 the recent stomach is minced very fine1 mixed with salt and bread into a paste1 put into a bladder1 and then dried4 ,in ,lombardy1 the stomach1 after being salted and dried1 is minced and mixed up with salt1 pepper1 and a little whey or water into a paste1 which is preserved for use4 ,in whatever way the stomach or intestine of the calf is prepared and preserved1 the almost universal opinion seems to be1 that it should be kept for #aj or #ab months1 before it is capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet4 ,if newer than #ab months1 the rennet is thought to make the cheese heave or swell1 and become full of eyes or holes4 ,making the ,rennet4 ,in making the rennet1 different customs also prevail4 ,in some districts1 a bit of the dried stomach is put into half a pint of lukewarm water1 with as much salt as will lie upon a shilling1 is allowed to stand over night1 and in the morning the infusion is poured into the milk4 ,for a cheese of #fj lbs4 weight1 a piece of the size of a dollar will often be sufficient1 though of some skins as much as #aj square inches are required to produce the same effect4 ,it is1 however1 more common to take the entire stomach1 and to pour upon them from one to three quarts of water for each stomach1 and to allow them to infuse for several days4 ,if only one has been infused1 and the rennet is intended for immediate use1 the infusion requires only to be skimmed and strained4 ,but if several be infused1 or as many as have been provided for the whole season1 about two quarts of water are taken for each1 and1 after standing not more than two days1 the infusion is poured off1 and is completely saturated with salt4 ,during the summer it is constantly skimmed1 and fresh salt added from time to time4 ,or a strong brine may at once be poured upon the skins1 and the infusion1 when the skins are taken out1 may be kept for a length of time4 ,some even recommend1 that the liquid rennet should not be used until it is at least two months old4 ,when thus kept1 however1 it is indispensable that the water should be fully saturated with salt4 ,in ,ayrshire1 and in some other countries1 it is customary to cut the dried stomach into small pieces1 and to put it1 with a handful or two of salt and one or two quarts of water1 into a jar1 to allow it to stand for two or three days1 afterwards to pour upon it another pint for a couple of days1 to mix the two decoctions1 and when strained1 to bottle the whole for future use4 ,in this state it may be kept for many months4 ,in making rennet1 some use pure water only1 others prefer clear whey1 others a decoction of leaves1 such as those of the sweetbrier1 the dog-rose1 and the bramble1 or of aromatic herbs and flowers2 while others again1 put in lemons1 cloves1 mace1 or brandy4 ,these various practices are adopted for the purpose of making the rennet keep better1 of lessening its unpleasant smell1 of preventing any unpleasant taste it might give to the curd1 or finally of directly improving the flavor of the cheese4 ,the acidity of the lemon will1 no doubt1 increase also the coagulating power of any rennet to which it may be added4 ,the rennet thus prepared is poured into the milk previously raised to the temperature of #ij deg4 or #ie deg4 ,f41 and is intimately mixed with it4 ,the quantity which it is necessary to add varies with the quality of the rennet1 from a tablespoonful to half a pint for #cj or #dj gallons of milk4 ,the time necessary for the complete fixing of the curd varies also from #ae minutes to an hour or even an hour and a half4 ,the chief causes of this variation1 are the temperature of the milk1 and the quality and quantity of the rennet employed4 ,different ,qualities of ,cheese4 ,the temperature of new or entire milk1 when the rennet is added1 should be raised to about #ie deg4 ,f42 that of skimmed milk need not be quite so high4 ,if the milk be warmer the curd is hard and tough1 if colder1 it is soft and difficult to obtain free from the whey4 ,when the former happens to be the case1 a portion of the first whey that separates may be taken out into another vessel1 allowed to cool1 and then poured in again4 ,if it prove to have been too cold1 hot milk or water may be added to it2 or a vessel containing hot water may be put into it before the curdling commences2 or the first portion of whey that separates may be heated and poured again upon the curd4 ,the quality of the cheese1 however1 will always be more or less affected1 when it happens to be necessary to adopt any of these remedies4 ,to make the best cheese1 the true temperature should always be attained as nearly as possible1 before the rennet is added4 ,mode in which the ,milk is warmed4 ,if1 as is the case in some dairies1 the milk be warmed in an iron pot upon the naked fire1 great care must be taken that it is not singed or fire-fanged4 ,a very slight inattention may cause this to be the case1 and the taste of the cheese is sure to be more or less affected by it4 ,in ,cheshire1 the milk is put into a large tin pail1 which is plunged into a boiler of hot water1 and frequently stirred till it is raised to the proper temperature4 ,in large dairy establishments1 however1 the safest method is to have a pot with a double bottom1 consisting of one pot within another1 after the manner of a glue-pot2 the space between the two being filled with water4 ,the fire applied beneath1 thus acts only upon the water1 and can never1 by any ordinary neglect1 do injury to the milk4 ,it is desirable in this heating1 not to raise the temperature higher than is necessary1 as a great heat is apt to give an oiliness to the fatty matter of the milk4 ,the time during which the ,curd stands4 ,this is also of importance4 ,it should be broken up as soon as the milk is fully coagulated4 ,the longer it stands after this1 the harder and tougher it will become4 ,the quality of the ,rennet4 ,this is of much importance1 not only in regard to the certainty of the coagulation1 but also to the flavor of the cheese4 ,in some parts of ,cheshire1 it is usual to take a piece of the dried membrane and steep it overnight with a little salt for the ensuing morning's milk4 ,it is thus sure to be fresh and sweet1 if the dried maw be in good preservation4 ,but where it is customary to steep several skins at a time1 and to bottle the rennet for after-use1 it is very necessary to saturate the solution completely with salt1 and to season it with spices1 in order that it may be preserved in a sweet and wholesome state4 ,the quantity of ,rennet added4 ,this ought to be regulated as carefully as the temperature of the milk4 ,too much renders the curd tough2 too little causes the loss of much time1 and may permit a larger portion of the butter to separate itself from the curd4 ,it is to be expected also1 that when rennet is used in great excess1 a portion of it will remain in the curd1 and will naturally affect the kind and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes4 ,thus1 it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from fermentation4 ,it is probable1 also1 that it will affect the flavor which the cheese acquires by keeping4 ,thus it may be1 that the agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain districts or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures or of the milk itself1 than to the quantity of rennet with which it has there been customary to coagulate the milk4 ,the way in which the ,rennet is made4 ,this1 no less than its state of preservation and the quantity employed1 may also influence the flavor or other qualities of the cheese4 ,for instance1 in the manufacture of a celebrated ,french cheese1 that of ,epoisse1 the rennet is prepared as follows3--,four fresh calf-skins1 with the curd they contain1 are well washed in water1 chopped into small pieces1 and digested in a mixture of #e quarts of brandy with #ae of water1 adding at the same time #ba_/b lbs4 of salt1 half an ounce of black pepper1 and a quarter of an ounce each of cloves and fennel seeds4 ,at the end of six weeks1 the liquor is filtered and preserved in well-corked bottles1 while the membrane is put into salt-water to form a new portion of rennet4 ,for making rich cheeses1 the rennet should always be filtered clear4 ,on ,mont d',or1 the rennet is made with white wine and vinegar4 ,an ounce of common salt is dissolved in a mixture of half a pint of vinegar with #ba_/b pints of white wine1 and in this solution a prepared goat's stomach or a piece of dried pig's bladder is steeped for a length of time4 ,a single spoonful of this rennet is said to be sufficient for #de or #ej quarts of milk4 ,no doubt the acid of the vinegar and of the wine aid the coagulating power derived from the membrane4 ,the way in which the ,curd is treated4 ,it is usual in our best cheese districts1 carefully and slowly to separate the curd from the whey1 not to hasten the separation1 lest a larger portion of the fatty matter should be squeezed out of the curd1 and the cheese should thus be rendered poorer than usual4 ,but in some places1 the practice prevails of washing the curd with hot water1 after the whey has been partially separated from it4 ,thus at ,gouda in ,holland1 after the greater part of the whey has been gradually removed1 a quantity of hot water is added1 and allowed to remain upon it for at least a quarter of an hour4 ,the heat makes the cheese more solid and causes it to keep better4 ,in ,italy1 the pear-shaped caccio-cavallo cheeses and the round palloni cheeses of ,gravina1 in the ,neapolitan territory1 are made from curd1 which after being scalded with boiling whey1 is cut into slices1 kneaded in boiling water1 worked with the hand till it is perfectly tenacious and elastic1 and then made into shapes4 ,the water in which the curd is washed1 after standing twenty-four hours1 throws up much oily matter1 which is skimmed off and made into butter4 ,the ,separation of the ,whey ,is a part of the process1 upon which the quality of the cheese in a considerable degree depends4 ,in ,cheshire1 more time and attention is devoted to the perfect extraction of the whey than in almost any other district4 ,indeed1 when it is considered that the whey contains sugar and lactic acid1 which may undergo decomposition1 and a quantity of rennet which may bring on fermentation1 by both of which processes the flavor of the cheeses must be considerably affected1 it will appear of great importance that the whey should be as completely removed from the curd as it can possibly be4 ,to aid in effecting this1 a curd-mill1 for chopping it fine after the whey is strained off1 is in use in many of the large ,english dairies1 and a very ingenious and effectual pneumatic cheese-press for sucking out the whey1 was lately invented4 ,but the way in which the whey is separated is not a matter of indifference1 and has much influence upon the quality of the cheese4 ,thus1 in ,norfolk1 according to ,marshall1 when the curd is fairly set1 the dairy-maid bares her arm1 plunges it into the curd1 and with the help of her wooden ladle1 breaks up minutely1 and intimately mixes the curd with the whey4 ,this she does for ten or fifteen minutes1 after which the curd is allowed to subside1 and the whey is drawn off4 ,by this agitation1 the whey must carry off more of the butter and the cheese must be poorer4 ,in ,cheshire and ,ayrshire1 the curd is cut with a knife1 but is gently used and slowly pressed till it is dry enough to be chopped fine1 and thus more of the oily matter is retained4 ,on the same principle1 in making the ,stilton cheese1 the curd is not cut or broken at all1 but is pressed gently and with care till the whey gradually drains out4 ,thus the butter and the curd remain intermixed1 and the rich cheese of ,stilton is the result4 ,thus1 while it is of importance that all the whey should be extracted from the curd1 yet the quickest way may not be the best4 ,more time and care must be bestowed in order to effect this object1 the richer the cheese we wish to obtain4 ,the quality of the milk or of the pastures1 may often be blamed for the deficiencies in the richness or other qualities of cheese1 which are in reality due to slight but material differences in the mode of manufacturing it4 ,the kind of salt used1 is considered by many to have some effect upon the taste of the cheese4 ,thus the cheese of ,gerome1 in the ,vosges1 is supposed to derive a peculiar taste from the ,lorena salt with which it is cured4 ,in ,holland1 the efficacy of one kind of salt over another for the curing of cheese is generally acknowledged4 ,the ,mode in which the ,salt is applied4 ,in making the large ,cheshire cheeses1 the dried curd1 for a single cheese of sixty pounds1 is broken down fine and divided into three equal portions4 ,one of these is mingled with double the quantity of salt added to the others1 and this is so put into the cheese-vat as to form the central part of the cheese4 ,by this precaution1 the after-salting on the surface is sure to penetrate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted parts4 ,in the counties of ,gloucester and ,somerset the curd is pressed without salt1 and the cheese1 when formed1 is made to absorb the whole of the salt afterwards through its surface4 ,this is found to answer well with the small and thin cheeses made in those counties1 but were it adopted for the large cheeses of ,cheshire and ,dunlop1 or even for the pine-apple cheeses of ,wiltshire1 there can be no doubt that their quality would frequently be injured4 ,it may not be impossible to cause salt to penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese1 but it cannot be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese equally1 while the care and attention required must be greatly increased4 ,addition of ,cream or ,butter to the ,curd4 ,another mode of improving the quality of cheese1 is by the addition of cream or butter to the dried and crumbled curd4 ,much diligence1 however1 is required fully to incorporate these1 so that the cheese may be uniform throughout4 ,still this practice gives a peculiar character to the cheeses of certain districts4 ,in ,italy1 they make a cheese after the manner of the ,english1 into which a considerable quantity of butter is worked2 and the ,reckem cheese of ,belgium is made by adding half an ounce of butter and the yolk of an egg1 to every pound of pressed curd4 ,size of the ,cheese4 ,from the same milk1 it is obvious that cheeses of different sizes1 if treated in the same way1 will1 at the end of a given number of months1 possess qualities in a considerable degree different4 ,hence1 without supposing any inferiority1 either in the milk or in the general mode of treatment1 the size usually adopted for the cheeses of a particular district or dairy1 may be the cause of a recognised inferiority in some quality1 which it is desirable that they should possess in a high degree4 ,the ,method of ,curing4 ,this has very much influence upon the quality of the cheese4 ,the care with which they are salted1 the warmth of the place in which they are kept during the first two or three weeks1 the temperature and closeness of the cheese-room in which they are afterwards preserved1 the frequency of turning1 of cleaning from mould1 and rubbing with butter2 all these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the after-qualities of the cheese4 ,indeed1 in very many instances1 the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy farm1 is derived from some special attention to some or to all of these apparently minor points4 ,in ,tuscany1 the cheeses1 after being hung up for some time at a proper distance from the fire1 are put to ripen in an underground1 cool1 and damp cellar2 and the celebrated ,french cheeses of ,roquefort1 are supposed to owe much of the peculiar estimation in which they are held1 to the cool and uniform temperature of the subterranean caverns in which the inhabitants of the village have long been accustomed to preserve them4 ,ammoniacal ,cheese4 ,the influence of the mode of curing1 is shown very strikingly in the small ammoniacal cheeses of ,brie1 which are very much esteemed in ,paris4 ,they are soft unpressed cheeses1 which are allowed to ripen in a room1 the temperature of which is kept between #fj deg4 and #gj deg4 ,fahrenheit1 till they begin to undergo the putrefactive fermentation1 and emit an ammoniacal odor4 ,they are generally unctuous1 and sometimes so small as not to weigh more than an ounce4 ,inoculating ,cheese4 ,it is said that a cheese1 possessed of no very striking taste of its own1 may be inoculated with any flavor we approve1 by putting into it with a scoop a small portion of the cheese which we are desirous that it should be made to resemble4 ,of course1 this can apply only to cheeses otherwise of equal richness1 for we could scarcely expect to give a ,gloucester the flavor of a ,stilton1 by merely patting into it a small portion of a rich and esteemed ,stilton cheese4 ,johnston and various other authorities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,cheese-,press4 ,fig4 #ai is a self-acting cheese-press1 light yet strong4 ,the cheese itself gives a pressure of twelve times its own weight2 and if this is insufficient1 additional weight may be added as required4 ,the following statements were made by those receiving premiums from the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society3 ,number of cows kept1 eleven4 ,cheese made from two milkings1 in the ,english manner2 no addition made of cream4 ,for a cheese of twenty pounds1 a piece of rennet about two inches square is soaked about twelve hours in one pint of water4 ,as rennets differ much in quality1 enough should be used to coagulate the milk sufficiently in about forty minutes4 ,no salt is put into the cheese1 nor any on the outside during the first six or eight hours it is pressed2 but a thin coat of fine ,liverpool salt is kept on the outside during the remainder of the time it remains in press4 ,the cheeses are pressed forty-eight hours1 under a weight of seven or eight cwt4 ,nothing more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day on the shelves4 ,the milk is strained in large tubs over night2 the cream stirred in milk1 and in the morning strained in same tub2 milk heated to natural heat2 add color and rennet2 curd broke fine and whey off1 and broke fine in hoop with fast bottom1 and put in strainer2 pressed twelve hours2 then taken from hoop1 and salt rubbed on the surface2 then put in hoop1 without strainer1 and pressed forty-eight hours2 then put on tables1 and salt rubbed on surface1 and remain in salt six days1 for cheese weighing thirty pounds4 ,the hoops to have holes in the bottom2 the crushings are saved1 and set1 and churned1 to grease the cheese4 ,the above method is for making one cheese per day4 ,as in butter-making1 the utmost cleanliness is required in every part of the cheese-making premises4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,sheep ,with the exception of the dog1 there is no one of the brute creation which exhibits the diversity of size1 color1 form1 covering1 and general appearance1 which characterizes the sheep1 and none which occupies a wider range of climate1 or subsists on a greater variety of food4 ,in every latitude between the equator and the arctic1 he ranges over the sterile mountains1 and through the fertile valleys4 ,he feeds on almost every species of edible forage1 the cultivated grasses1 clovers1 cereals and roots2 he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs2 he crops the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs1 and the pungent1 resinous evergreens4 ,in some parts of ,norway and ,sweden1 when other resources fail1 he subsists on fish or flesh during their long and rigorous winters1 and if reduced to necessity1 he eats his own wool4 ,he is diminutive like the ,orkney1 or massive like the ,teeswater4 ,he is policerate or many horned2 he has two large or small spiral horns like the ,merino1 or is polled or hornless like the mutton sheep4 ,he has a long tail like our own breeds2 a broad tail1 like many of the eastern2 or a mere button of a tail1 like the fat-rumps1 discernible only by the touch4 ,his coat is sometimes long and coarse1 like the ,lincolnshire2 short and hairy1 like those of ,madagascar2 soft and furry1 like the ,angola2 or fine and spiral1 like the silken ,saxon4 ,his color1 either pure or fancifully mixed1 varies from the white or black of our own country1 to every shade of brown1 dun1 buff1 blue1 and gray1 like the spotted flocks of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and other parts of ,africa and ,asia4 ,this wide diversity is the result of long domestication1 under almost every conceivable variety of condition4 ,uses4 ,among the antediluvians1 sheep were immolated for sacrificial offerings1 and their fleeces probably furnished them with clothing4 ,since the deluge1 their flesh has with all nations been used as a favorite food for man4 ,by many of the rude1 roving nations of the ,east1 they are employed in carrying burdens4 ,their milk is generally used by the uncivilized1 and to some extent by the refined nations of ,europe1 not only as a beverage1 but for making into cheese1 butter1 and curds4 ,job refers to its use1 as do ,isaiah and other of the ,old ,testament writers4 ,most of the ,greek and ,roman authors describe its general use and manufacture4 ,the ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow1 but is generally thicker1 and yields a pale1 yellowish butter1 that is always soft and soon becomes rancid4 ,culley remarks1 the cheese from their milk is exceedingly pungent1 and for that reason is preferred by many to that from the cow4 ,in ,wales1 the milk is mixed with that of the dairy1 and makes a tart1 palatable cheese4 ,we have never seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the ,united ,states1 except by a few ,welsh and ,highland emigrants4 ,the sheep is frequently employed in the dairy regions of this country1 at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel1 to pump the water1 churn the milk1 or perform other light domestic work4 ,the dignity and importance of the shepherd's vocation have ever been conspicuous4 ,abel1 the supposed twin-brother of the first-born of the human race1 was a keeper of sheep2 and from this1 it may be fairly inferred1 that there is no animal which has so long been under the immediate control of man4 ,abraham and his descendants1 as well as most of the ancient patriarchs1 were shepherds4 ,job had #ad1jjj sheep4 ,it is said of ,rachel1 the favored mother of the ,jewish race1 she came with her father's sheep1 for she kept them4 ,the seven daughters of the priest of ,midian1 came and drew water for their father's flocks4 ,moses1 the statesman and lawgiver1 who was learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians1 kept the flocks of ,jethro1 his father-in-law2 and ,david1 the future monarch of ,israel1 the hero1 poet1 and divine1 was a keeper of sheep4 ,it was to shepherds1 while abiding in the field1 keeping watch over their flocks by night1 that the birth of the ,saviour was announced4 ,the root of the ,hebrew name for sheep1 signifies fruitfulness1 abundance1 plenty2 as indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the human race4 ,with the sacred writers1 they were the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues2 they were the victims of propitiatory sacrifices2 and finally1 they became the type of redemption to fallen man4 ,these may not be considered accidental allusions in a book1 whose every feature is full of design4 ,nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and attention with profane writers4 ,among these1 ,homer and ,hesiod1 ,virgil and ,theocritus1 introduced them with evident delight in their pastoral themes2 while their heroes and demigods1 ,hercules and ,ulysses1 ,a,eneas and ,numa1 carefully perpetuated them throughout their regal domains4 ,in modern times1 they have commanded the attention of the most enlightened nations2 and their prosperity has in no instance been independent of those useful animals1 wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples4 ,spain and ,portugal1 for more than two centuries1 were the most enterprising nations of ,europe1 and during that period1 they excelled in the production and manufacture of wool4 ,flanders1 for a time1 was before ,england in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life1 and ,england then sent the little wool she raised to that country to be manufactured4 ,her politic sovereigns soon found this a losing game1 and offered large bounties for the importation of artists and machinery4 ,by a systematic and thorough course of legislation1 which looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and woollens1 she has carried their production beyond any thing the world has ever seen4 ,the small islands of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 in addition to the support of their #bf1jjj1jjj of people1 #ae1jjj1jjj of cattle1 #b1bej1jjj horses1 #ah1jjj1jjj swine1 and innumerable smaller domestic animals1 maintain over #dj1jjj1jjj sheep1 worth #bej1jjj1jjj2 and besides manufacturing nearly all their fleeces1 annually import nearly an equal amount from abroad4 ,the sumptuary law for burying the dead in woollen1 still occupies its place in their statute book4 ,and beyond all question1 ,england is the leading power of the nineteenth century1 in the combination of all those qualities which constitute national greatness1 civilization1 and strength4 ,,varieties4 ,naturalists have divided the wild sheep into four varieties4 ,the ,musimon1 7,ovis ,musimon17 inhabiting ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and other islands of the ,mediterranean1 the mountainous parts of ,spain and ,greece1 and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea1 have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds4 ,the ,argali1 7,o4 ,ammon17 ranges over the steppes1 or elevated plains of ,central ,asia1 northward and eastward to the ocean4 ,they are larger1 more hardy1 and more untameable than the ,musimon4 ,the ,rocky ,mountain ,sheep1 7,o4 ,montana17 frequently called the ,big-horn by our western hunters1 is found on the prairies west of the ,mississippi1 and throughout the wild mountainous regions1 extending through ,california and ,oregon to the ,pacific4 ,they are larger1 but in other respects resemble the ,argali1 of which they are probably descendants1 as they could easily cross upon the ice at ,behring's ,straits1 from the northeastern coast of ,asia4 ,like the ,argali1 when caught young they are easily tamed2 but we are not aware that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep4 ,before the country was overrun by the white man1 they probably inhabited the region bordering on the ,mississippi4 ,father ,hennepin1 a ,french ,jesuit1 who wrote nearly two hundred years ago1 often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through what is now the territory embraced by ,illinois and ,wisconsin4 ,the wild1 clambering propensities of these animals1 occupying the giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller1 and the outer coating of hair 7supplied underneath1 however1 with a thick coating of soft wool7 gives to them much of the appearance of that animal4 ,in summer they are generally found single2 but when they descend from their isolated1 rocky heights in winter1 they are gregarious1 marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders4 ,the ,bearded ,sheep of ,africa 7,o4 ,tragelaphus7 inhabit the mountains of ,barbary and ,egypt4 ,they are covered with a soft1 reddish hair1 and have a mane hanging below the neck1 and large locks of hair at the ankle4 ,the ,domesticated ,sheep 7,o4 ,aries7 ,embraces all the varieties of the subjugated species4 ,whether they have descended from any one of the wild races1 is a question yet undetermined among naturalists2 but however this may be1 many of the varieties apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each other4 ,the fat-rumped and the broad-tailed sheep are much more extensively diffused than any other4 ,they occupy nearly all the southeastern part of ,europe1 ,western and ,central ,asia1 and ,northern ,africa4 ,they are supposed to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants1 the ,jewish race4 ,this is inferred from various passages in the ,pentateuch1 ,exodus xxix4 #bb2 ,leviticus iii4 #i2 viii4 #be2 ix4 #ai1 and some others1 where the fat and the rump are spoken of in connection with offerings1 in which the fat was always an acceptable ingredient4 ,dr4 ,boothroyd renders one of the foregoing passages1 the large1 fat tail entire1 taken clear to the rump4 ,it is certain this variety gives indisputable evidence of remote and continued subjugation4 ,their long1 pendent1 drowsy ears1 and the highly artificial posterior developments1 are characteristic of no wild or recently-domesticated race4 ,this breed consists of numerous sub-varieties1 differing in all their characteristics of size1 fleece1 color1 c41 with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern ,european varieties4 ,in ,madagascar1 they are covered with hair2 in the south of ,africa1 with coarse wool2 in the ,levant1 and along the ,mediterranean1 the wool is comparatively fine2 and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of ,thibet the exquisite ,cashmere shawls are manufactured4 ,both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns1 and sometimes without1 and they exhibit a great diversity of color4 ,some yield a carcass of scarcely #cj lbs41 while others have weighed #bjj lbs4 dressed4 ,the tail or rump varies greatly1 according to the purity and style of breeding2 some are less than one-eighth1 while others exceed one-third the entire dressed weight4 ,the fat of the rump or tail is considered a great delicacy1 and in hot climates resembles oil1 and in colder1 suet4 ,the broad-tailed sheep were brought into this country1 about #ej years since1 by ,commodore ,barron and ,judge ,peters1 and bred with the native flocks4 ,they were called the ,tunisian mountain sheep4 ,some of them were subsequently distributed by ,col4 ,pickering1 of ,massachusetts1 among the farmers of ,pennsylvania2 and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific and good nurses1 coming early to maturity1 attaining large weights1 of a superior quality of carcass1 and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool4 ,the principal objection brought against them1 was the difficulty of propagation1 which always required the assistance of the shepherd4 ,the lambs were dropped white1 red1 tawny1 bluish1 or black2 but all excepting the black1 grew white as they approached maturity1 retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs1 and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black4 ,the few which descended from those originally imported into this country1 have become blended with ,american flocks1 and are now scarcely distinguishable from them4 ,native or ,common ,sheep of the ,united ,states4 ,strictly speaking1 there are no sheep indigenous to ,north ,america1 excepting the ,ovis ,montana1 or ,rocky ,mountain sheep4 ,before the introduction of the improved ,european breeds1 during the present century1 our sheep were generally a hardy1 long-legged1 coarse1 open-fleeced animal1 which yielded1 according to attention and feed1 from #aa_/b to #d lbs4 of indifferent wool4 ,we have seen numerous flocks within the last #bj years1 of the pure-bred native1 whose bellies were entirely destitute of wool1 and sometimes the whole carcass was bare1 excepting a mere strip or ridge like a mane1 reaching from the head to the tail4 ,the wool which was retained on the neck1 back1 and sides1 was frequently matted almost as firmly as a leather apron2 and that on the thighs1 and sometimes on the sides1 was often composed almost wholly of long hair4 ,although indifferently formed in comparison with the best breeds of the present day1 being thin in the breast and back1 light quartered1 and slow in coming to maturity1 they yet possessed some good qualities4 ,they were prolific1 excellent nurses1 tallowed well1 and yielded good mutton4 ,there were1 occasionally1 some smutty-nosed or brockle-faced sheep among them1 distinguished by their additional size1 superior merits1 and courage4 ,these were usually the leaders of the flock1 in their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains2 and in common with the others1 they were eminently adapted to purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements4 ,there were1 besides1 some black or dark chocolate-brown members in every flock1 which were much valued by the thrifty housewife for their wool1 which afforded an economical mixture for jackets1 hose1 and trousers1 known as sheep's gray4 ,our original stock were principally derived from ,england1 where their counterparts may be seen at the present day1 in the refuse breeds of that country4 ,when these sheep were well selected and properly bred1 there was rapid and satisfactory improvement1 and from such flocks1 mixed with some of the more recently improved varieties1 have sprung many valuable animals4 ,there was but one exception to this general character of the native flocks1 so far as our observation extended1 which was a considerably numerous1 and1 probably1 accidental variety1 known as the ,otter breed1 or ,creepers4 ,these were an excessively duck-legged animal1 with well-formed bodies1 full chest1 broad backs1 yielding a close heavy fleece of medium quality of wool4 ,they were deserved favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed1 as their power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures1 if protected by a fence not less than two feet high4 ,the quality of their mutton was equal1 while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to their longer-legged contemporaries4 ,they are probably now nearly or quite extinct4 ,an excellent variety was produced by ,general ,washington1 from a cross of a ,persian ram1 upon the ,bakewell1 which bore wool #ad inches in length1 soft and silky1 and admirably suited to combing4 ,they were called the ,arlington sheep1 but they have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country4 ,the ,merino4 ,this is undoubtedly one of the most ancient race of sheep extant4 ,the loose descriptions and indefinite generalities of the ancient writers1 leave much to conjecture on this point2 yet we have a few passages from ,pliny1 ,columella1 and some other ,roman authors1 which leave little doubt that the ,merino was bred in their age1 and had even been introduced into ,italy from ,greece4 ,it is a matter of history1 that the ,greeks had choice breeds of sheep at an early day1 which they might have derived from ,egypt1 ,tyre1 and ,asia ,minor1 as they were intimately connected in commerce with those countries1 where the woollen manufacture early reached great perfection4 ,it is supposed that the celebrated ,argonautic expedition1 in quest of the golden fleece1 undertaken by the ,greeks nearly #acjj years before ,christ1 resulted in procuring a valuable race of sheep from ,colchis1 in the ,euxine4 ,however this may be1 it is certain that when ,augustus extended his peaceful sceptre over half the known world1 the ,romans were in possession of some flocks1 bearing fleeces of exceeding fineness and beauty4 ,they had been reared in the province of ,apulia1 on the southeast coast of ,italy1 and were called ,tarentine1 from ,tarentum1 the capital of the province4 ,here1 then1 may have been one branch of the ,merino family4 ,another is undoubtedly described by ,pliny1 who says1 the red fleece of ,baetica was of still superior quality1 and had no fellow4 ,all the ,spanish coast on the ,mediterranean1 of which ,baetica formed a considerable part1 comprising the modern ,spanish provinces of ,jaen1 ,cordova1 ,seville1 ,andalusia1 and ,granada1 was early colonized by the enterprising ,greeks2 and this red fleece that had no fellow1 was probably introduced by them at an early day1 and by their descendants had been carried to a still higher degree of perfection than that of ,apulia4 ,columella1 the uncle of the writer on agriculture1 a wealthy emigrant to ,spain from ,italy1 ,a4 ,d4 #cj1 carried with him some of the ,tarentine sheep1 and thus added to the fine-woolled sheep of ,spain4 ,these two ancient streams1 united perhaps with a third from the more ancient stock of the ,euxine1 7for ,strabo asserts that some of the finest-woolled sheep were brought from that region in his time1 and sold for the enormous sum of #gej17 flowed on in an uninterrupted current over that broad country1 and brought down to modern times the unrivalled race of the ,merino4 ,the limited region of ,italy1 overrun as it repeatedly was by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the late emperors1 soon lost her pampered flocks2 while the extended regions of ,spain1 intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains1 could maintain their more hardy race1 in defiance of revolution or change4 ,whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history1 which apparently establish the remote antiquity of the ,merino1 this much is absolutely certain1 that they are a race whose qualities are inbred1 to an extent surpassed by no others4 ,they have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece1 as in the celebrated flock of ,rambouillet2 in the uniformity and excessive fineness of fibre1 as in the ,saxons2 and in their form and feeding qualities1 in various countries2 but there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass1 wherever transported1 if supplied with suitable food and attention4 ,most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped2 while the ,merino retains its fleece1 sometimes for five years1 when allowed to remain unshorn4 ,this we conceive affords conclusive evidence of long-continued breeding among themselves1 by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established2 and this property is transmitted to a great extent even among the crosses1 thus marking them as an ancient and peculiar race4 ,the conquest by the ,moors of a part of those fine provinces in the south of ,spain1 so far from checking1 served rather to encourage the production of fine wool4 ,they were not only enterprising1 but highly skilled in the useful arts1 and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods1 which they exported to different countries4 ,after their expulsion in the #aeth century1 by ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 the ,spaniards preserved these manufactures in part1 and sedulously cherished their fine flocks2 and knowing the incomparible advantage they had in them1 their sovereigns1 except in a few isolated instances1 strictly prohibited their exportation4 ,exportation of ,merinoes from ,spain4 ,history asserts that ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england1 by permission of ,charles ,v41 imported #c1jjj ,spanish sheep2 but of what kind is not mentioned1 they having numerous varieties in ,spain4 ,if of the true ,merino1 it will explain the superior quality of the ,english middle-wools1 the ,ryeland1 ,south ,downs1 and some others4 ,the first well-authenticated exportation of the ,spanish ,merino1 was made to ,sweden in #agbc1 by ,alstroemer1 which solved the problem of their capacity for sustaining their character1 on rough fare and in a high northern latitude4 ,lasteyrie1 who wrote fifty years after the experiment had been tried1 speaks of their improvement1 both in carcass and the quality and quantity of fleece4 ,the next exportation was made to ,saxony1 in #agfe1 and consisted of #aje rams and #aad ewes1 but from what flocks they were taken1 history nowhere mentions4 ,a second exportation to that country was made in #aggh1 of #aaj that were variously selected1 from the best flocks in ,spain4 ,from these have descended the high-bred1 silken-fleeced ,saxons1 whose wool stands confessedly without a rival4 ,in #agge1 the ,empress ,maria ,theresa imported #cjj ,merinoes into ,germany1 and placed them on the imperial farm in ,hungary4 ,in #aghf1 an importation was made into ,denmark and her provinces2 and again1 in #agig1 another flock of #cjj was brought into the kingdom1 and placed at ,esserum1 about eight leagues from ,copenhagen4 ,in #aghf1 #ajj rams and #bjj ewes were imported into ,prussia1 most of which were allowed to perish from neglect and disease2 but their places were fully made up by later importations4 ,the same year1 #djj ewes and rams were selected from the choicest ,spanish flocks1 and placed on the royal farm of ,rambouillet1 in ,france1 which laid the foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that name4 ,a small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured by ,george ,,iii41 of ,england1 in #aghh1 which attracted little attention4 ,in #agia1 a small but choice flock was presented to that monarch by the ,cortes of ,spain1 which soon acquired high favor among many intelligent breeders4 ,a part of these were kept pure1 and their descendants furnished the superb flock of #gjj ,nigrettis1 which procured for their owner1 ,mr4 ,trimmer1 in #ahbi1 the gold medal from the ,london ,society of ,arts4 ,others were mixed with different flocks in the kingdom1 to the evident improvement of their fleeces4 ,the first importation of ,merinoes into the ,united ,states1 ,which resulted in the propagation of a pure breed1#b was made by ,chancellor ,livingston1 then minister at the court of ,versailles1 who sent two choice rams and ewes from the ,rambouillet flock1 in #ahjb1 to ,claremont1 his country seat on the ,hudson4 ,in the latter part of the same year1 ,col4 ,humphreys1 our minister in ,spain1 sent out nearly one hundred ,merinoes1 which were followed by more numerous flocks from the same and other sources4 ,the largest importations of the ,merino1 however1 were made through ,mr4 ,jarvis of ,vermont1 in #ahji1 then ,u4 ,s4 ,consul in ,spain1 and immediately thereafter4 ,he first shipped1 as he states1 #bjj ,escurial1 afterwards #adjj ,paulars1 #agjj ,aqueirres1 #ajj ,nigrettis1 and about #bjj ,montarcos4 #bgjj ,montarcos were sent out by a ,spaniard and a ,portuguese1 and about #cjj ,guadaloupes by others2 also #bjj to #cjj ,paulars1 by ,gen4 ,downie1 to ,boston4 ,of the ,montarco flock shipped by others1 about #bejj came to ,boston1 ,providence1 ,new ,york1 and other ports4 ,all were imported in the latter part of #ahji and '#aj1 and early in #ahaa1 and were the only ,leonese ,transhumantes1 if we include ,humphreys' and ,livingston's1 7which ,i have no doubt were of the same stock17 that were ever shipped to the ,united ,states4 #b ,one or more pure ,merinoes were imported into ,massachusetts1 in the latter part of the last century1 by a citizen of that state1 but they were soon mixed with other flocks1 and resulted in the perpetuation of no distinct breed4 ,fig4 #bj is a spirited cut of a variety of the ,merino without dewlap1 and with a long and somewhat open fleece4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,merino ,buck4 ,varieties of the ,spanish ,sheep4 ,besides several other breeds of sheep in ,spain1 consisting of long1 coarse wool1 and that of a medium staple1 embraced under the different names of ,chorinoes1 ,choaroes or ,chunahs1 the ,merino is distinguished by two general divisions2 the ,transhumantes or travelling1 and the ,estantes or stationary flocks4 ,the former are subdivided1 according to the ,provinces they occupy1 into ,leonese1 ,segovian1 and ,sorian4 ,many of the ,estantes were of the best quality in respect to carcass1 constitution1 and fleece2 and such as were highly bred and in the hands of intelligent breeders1 were not surpassed by any of the ,spanish flocks4 ,there were also many choice sheep among the ,segovian and ,sorian ,transhumantes1 but in general they were decidedly inferior to those of ,leon4 ,these last were universally regarded as the prime flocks of ,spain4 ,they comprised the ,escurial1 the ,paular1 the ,nigretti1 the ,aqueirres or ,muros1 the ,montarco1 the ,guadaloupe1 ,infantado1 and some others4 ,there is much contradictory testimony as to the comparative merits of the last-mentioned flocks1 as they were found in ,spain2 which is owing in part1 doubtless1 to the difference in the specimens subjected to examination4 ,we subjoin some of the most reliable authorities on this subject4 ,m4 ,lasteyrie1 who investigated this matter closely1 says1 ,the ,guadaloupe have the most perfect form1 and are likewise celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool4 ,the ,paular bear much wool of a fine quality1 but they have a more evident enlargement behind the ears1 and a greater degree of throatiness1 and the lambs have a coarse hairy appearance1 which is succeeded by excellent wool4 ,the lambs of the ,infantado have the same hairy coat when young4 ,the ,nigretti are the largest and strongest of all the travelling sheep in ,spain4 ,mr4 ,livingston says1 ,the ,escurial is the most perfect of all the travelling flocks in ,spain2 the ,guadaloupe for form1 fineness and abundance of the fleece2 the ,paular with similar fleeces are larger bodied4 ,those of ,castile and ,leon have the largest1 with the finest coat4 ,those of ,soria are small1 with very fine wool2 and those also of ,valencia1 which do not travel1 and like the last have fine wool1 but of a very short staple4 ,mr4 ,jarvis1 who spent many years in ,spain1 under every advantage for studying them closely1 and who also imported1 and has since bred large numbers of them on his estate in ,vermont1 gives their characteristics with more particularity1 and at much greater length3 ,the ,paulars were undoubtedly one of the handsomest flocks in ,spain4 ,they were of middling height1 round-bodied1 well spread1 straight on the back1 the neck of the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers to the setting on of the head1 their head handsome1 with aquiline curve of the nose1 with short1 fine1 glossy hair on the face1 and generally hair on the legs1 the skin pretty smooth1 that is1 not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body1 as in some other flocks2 the crimp in the wool was not so short as in many other flocks1 the wool was somewhat longer1 but it was close and compact1 and was soft and silky to the touch1 and the surface was not so much covered with gum4 ,this flock was originally owned by the ,carthusian friars of ,paular1 who were the best agriculturists in ,spain1 and was sold by that order to the ,prince of ,peace when he came into power4 ,the ,nigretti flock were the tallest ,merinoes in ,spain1 but were not handsomely formed1 being rather flat-sided1 roach-back1 and the neck inclining to sink down from the withers2 the wool was somewhat shorter than the ,paular1 and more crimped2 the skin was more loose and inclined to double1 and many of them were woolled on their faces and legs down to their hoofs4 ,all the loose-skinned sheep had large dewlaps4 ,the ,aqueirres were short-legged1 round1 broad-bodied1 with loose skins1 and were more woolled about their faces and legs than any other flock ,i ever saw2 the wool was more crimped than the ,paular1 and less than the ,nigretti1 but was thick and soft4 ,this flock formerly belonged to the ,moors of ,spain1 and at their expulsion was bought by the family of ,aqueirres4 ,the wool in ,england was known as the ,muros flock1 and was highly esteemed4 ,all the bucks of these three flocks had large horns4 ,the ,escurials were about as tall as the ,paulars1 but not quite so round and broad1 being in general rather more slight in their make2 their wool was crimped1 but not quite so thick as the ,paular or ,nigretti1 nor were their skins so loose as the ,nigretti and ,aqueirres1 nor had they so much wool on the face and legs4 ,the ,montarco bore a considerable resemblance to the ,escurials4 ,the ,escurial flock had formerly belonged to the crown1 but when ,philip ,,ii4 built the ,escurial palace1 he gave them to the friars1 whom he placed in a convent that was attached to the palace1 as a source of revenue4 ,these four flocks were moderately gummed4 ,the ,guadaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than the two preceding1 about the same height2 but not quite so handsomely formed2 their wool was thick and crimped1 their skins loose and doubling1 their faces and legs not materially different from the two latter flocks1 but in general they were more gummed than either of the other flocks4 ,in point of fineness1 there was very little difference between these six flocks2 and as ,i have been told by well-informed persons1 there is very little difference in this respect among the ,leonese ,transhumantes in general4 ,the ,escurials1 the ,montarcos1 and the ,guadaloupes1 were not1 in general1 so heavy-horned as the other three flocks1 and about one in six of the bucks were without horns4 ,the ,saxon1 ,we have before seen1 is one of the varieties of the pure-bred ,merino1 the foundation of which was laid by an importation of some of the choicest animals into ,saxony1 in #agfe4 ,the great care and attention bestowed upon these sheep by the ,elector1 the nobility1 and the most intelligent farmers1 soon carried them to a point of uniformity and excellence of fleece1 never exceeded by the best of the original flocks4 ,the breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece4 ,great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year1 and they were housed on every slight emergency4 ,the consequence of this course of breeding and treatment has been to reduce the size and weight of fleece1 and partially to impair that hardiness and vigor of constitution1 which universally characterized the original ,transhumantes4 ,in numerous instances1 this management resulted in permanent injury to the character of their flocks1 which ,america has severely felt in several importations of worthless animals1 and which a too great eagerness for improvement induced her flockmasters to use with the ,spanish ,merinoes and their descendants1 as a means for this object1 but which has resulted in the introduction of fatal diseases and serious deterioration in their flocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,saxon ,ram4 ,the first ,importation of ,saxons into this ,country ,was made in #ahbc1 of four good rams1 two of which went to ,boston and the others to ,philadelphia4 ,the next was made the following year1 and consisted of #ge rams and ewes1 which were brought to ,boston1 and sold at public auction1 and were afterwards scattered over the country4 ,another lot of #ahj followed the next year1 to the same place1 and was sold in the same manner1 but at an increased price1 some selling as high as #dej each4 ,these prices excited the spirit of speculation1 and the following year witnessed the importation of near #c1jjj1 many of which were decidedly inferior4 ,these were all thrown upon the market for the most they would command2 and in many instances1 the sales not half covering the cost of importation1 the enterprise was abandoned as a speculation1 or commercial operation4 ,the late ,henry ,d4 ,grove1 of ,hoosic1 ,new ,york1 a native of ,germany1 and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd1 accompanied some of the best early importations to this country4 ,he selected #aje choice animals for his own breeding1 which he imported in #ahbg1 and #gj more equally good1 in #ahbh1 and with these he formed the flock from which he bred to the time of his decease1 in #ahdd4 ,the average weight of fleece from the entire flock of ,mr4 ,grove1 nearly all of which were ewes and lambs1 as stated by him to the writer1 in #ahdb1 was #b lbs4 #ad ounces1 thoroughly washed on the sheep's back4 ,this was realized after a short summer and winter's keep1 when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed by actual weight #aa_/b lbs4 per day1 except to the ewes1 which received an additional quantity just before and after lambing4 ,this treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death1 and with an increase of lambs1 equalling one for every ewe4 ,in a flock of pure ,saxony sheep owned by ,mr4 ,smith of ,connecticut1 as stated in a letter from the owner1 published in the ,american ,shepherd1 #ajd ewes raised #aja lambs1 and yielded #cda lbs4 of wool1 which sold at #gj cents per lb4 ,for the #ah months preceding1 he lost but three animals out of #cjj1 from ordinary casualties4 ,but some flocks of pure ,saxony do not1 in good condition1 average #b lbs4 per head4 ,a recent importation1 7,may1 #ahdf17 made by ,mr4 ,taintor of ,connecticut1 consisting of four bucks and four ewes1 from the celebrated ,saxon flock of ,baron de ,spreck1 show a size and apparent vigor of constitution1 equalling any of their ,merino progenitors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,rambouillet ,buck4 ,the ,rambouillet ,flock4 ,this flock was founded in #aghf1 by ,louis ,,xvi41 from a selection of #djj of the best ,spanish sheep1 which were placed on the royal farm at ,rambouillet4 ,these1 like the ,saxon1 received all the attention which intelligence and wealth could bestow1 and the consequence was soon manifest in their larger size1 and the increased weight and uniformity in the fineness of their fleece2 the last improvement being particularly evident1 from the absence of the coarse wool1 which in many cases infested the quarters2 and the jarr or hair1 which frequently abounds on the flanks1 legs1 and thighs of the original ,merino4 ,besides the crown flocks at ,rambouillet1 they are found in equal perfection on several other of the royal farms1 especially those of ,malmaison1 ,perpignan1 ,arles1 ,clermont1 and some others4 ,these flocks have been bred for hardy constitution1 large carcass1 and heavy fleece1 and of as much fineness as is consistent with large weights1 and as uniform in quality throughout1 as possible4 ,mr4 ,gilbert1 who was particularly familiar with them1 says1 almost all the fleeces of the rams1 from two years old and upwards1 weigh 7unwashed7 from #ab to #ac lbs42 but the mean weight1 taking the rams and the ewes together1 has not quite attained to #h lbs41 after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly4 ,the ,french pound is about one-twelfth heavier than the ,english2 but from the general custom of folding the sheep in ,france1 feeding them in fallows1 and wintering them in houses1 the fleece becomes very dirty4 ,the loss in washing 7fit for manufacturing7 is about #fj per cent41 so that the clean fleece of the ram will average about #f lbs41 and that of the whole flock something under #d lbs4 ,the first ,importation of the ,rambouillets to this ,country4 ,this was in #ahja1 by ,m4 ,dellesert1 of ,paris1 for ,m4 ,dupont1 then in ,new ,york1 and consisted of four choice rams1 only one of which1 ,don ,pedro1 reached this country4 ,he was used among the native ewes near ,kingston1 ,n4 ,y41 for three years1 and then transferred to ,delaware1 where he effected great improvement among the native flocks4 ,the second was that made by the late ,chancellor ,livingston1 before alluded to4 ,there was another in #ahdj1 by ,mr4 ,collins1 of ,connecticut1 comprising #cj select ewes and #b rams4 ,all these sheep possessed the characteristics peculiar to the variety as described4 ,a still more recent importation has been made by ,mr4 ,taintor1 at the same time with that of the ,saxons previously mentioned1 consisting of #bc ewes and #c bucks1 variously selected from the choicest flocks of the descendants of the ,spanish ,merino4 ,the rams1 though young1 are the most promising animals of their breed1 and when full grown1 will weigh from #bbe to #bej lbs4 each4 ,the sire of one was sold the past season for #ejj4 ,he sheared #bc lbs4 of unwashed wool4 ,the ewes measured after they were shorn1 from #bea_/b to #bi inches in height over the withers4 ,the height of the under side of their bodies from the ground1 was from #ia_/b to #ab inches1 which is in the proportion of good ,american ,merino sheep4 ,their weights varied1 after shearing1 from #abd to #aec lbs4 ,some of them were quite thin in flesh1 the largest especially1 which1 if in fine condition with her fleece on1 would weigh at least #bjj lbs4 ,the following is the weight of their fleeces unwashed4 ,the scales used did not mark less than one-quarter of a pound1 which will account for the absence of odd ounces4 ,no4 #ag #ac lbs4 #bg #ae #fd #afc_/d #ga #ada_/b #hd #afa_/b #hg #afa_/d #id #ag #ajj #aba_/d #aji #ag #aaj #ag #aag #afc_/d #aah #aec_/d #acc #adc_/d #aie #aca_/b ,it was the unbiased opinion of several wool-dealers present1 that the shearing above would yield at least #ce lbs4 of cleansed wool1 fitted for manufacturing without further loss1 out of every #ajj lbs4 shorn4 ,the fourteen ewes yielded #baf lbs4 unwashed1 which would be equivalent to #ge lbs4 #aj oz4 thoroughly cleansed1 or an average of #e lbs4 #f oz4 per head4 ,one-third may be safely added to bring this up to clean washed4 ,this would make the average1 as wool-growers usually dispose of their fleeces1 #g lbs4 #c oz4 per head1 a yield totally unprecedented in this country4 ,the ,progress of the ,merino in the ,united ,states4 ,though reaching back but half a century1 the ,merino flocks of this country have been very fluctuating as to their value1 increase1 and improvement4 ,when first introduced1 they were viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers2 and it was not till after several years' experience of their paramount merits1 that they were generally disseminated4 ,but the confidence of our flock-masters having once been secured1 it has never been withdrawn1 and they have ever since been cherished favorites4 ,the prices for choice ,merinoes rapidly increased after their character was fully established1 and ,livingston states the average price for rams1 in #ahaa1 at #a1jjj1 and some were sold at a much higher rate4 ,this was the period of the embargo1 when our infant manufactures were just starting into life2 and being followed by war with the greatest commercial nation of the world1 we were thrown entirely on our own resources for the supply of our woollen and other fabrics1 and wool and sheep maintained their full value till after the return of peace1 in #ahaf4 ,the flooding of our country with foreign goods1 under low duties1 which succeeded this event1 either broke down or effectually paralyzed our woollen manufactures2 and wool1 of course1 felt the full weight of this crushing influence4 ,the ,merino rapidly declined in value1 till its price nearly approximated to that of the native sheep4 ,their merits had1 however1 become so conspicuous1 that the low prices produced a more general diffusion1 and they and their crosses were thus sown broadcast over the country4 ,the introduction of the ,saxons1 in great numbers1 in #ahbf1 many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased1 and their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred ,merinoes1 was a serious interruption to the career of improvement in many of our flocks4 ,their mixture with the best ,saxons was no further detrimental1 than to reduce the quantity of fleece1 and1 to a certain extent1 lessen the peculiar hardiness of the original ,transhumantes1 which had been fully preserved by their descendants in this country4 ,the use of well-selected ,saxon rams with ,merino flocks1 was extensively practised1 and it is still persisted in by many intelligent flock-masters1 after twenty years' experience1 who are satisfied that they find it for their interest to continue this style of breeding4 ,the animals being smaller1 consume less2 and they probably produce a quantity of wool in proportion to their food1 which1 from its improved and uniform quality1 commands a higher price in the market4 ,wherever they are not sufficiently hardy1 they can be bred back towards the ,spanish ,merino standard1 by the use of some of the stouter rams4 ,their natures are intrinsically the same4 ,they are only divergent streams from the same original fountain1 and when again united1 they readily coalesce and flow onwards1 without violence or disorder4 ,the ,merino1 as might reasonably have been anticipated1 when properly managed1 has improved from a variety of causes4 ,though kept scrupulously pure in ,spain1 they were seldom bred with that refinement of taste or nice judgment1 which distinguishes the accomplished modern breeder4 ,their management was too entirely intrusted to ignorant shepherds or careless agents1 to secure that close attention which is essential to improvement4 ,the sheep had to perform a journey of several hundred miles twice in a year1 to and from their distant ,sierras2 and it was absolutely essential that strong animals should be selected for breeding2 and to secure this object1 those were frequently used which were deficient in the most profitable qualities4 ,they were also closely bred in-and-in1 seldom or never departing from a particular flock to procure a fresh cross4 ,their wild1 nomadic life1 approaching nearly to that of their natural state1 and their peculiarly healthful pasturage1 alone prevented a serious deterioration from this cause4 ,when brought into the ,united ,states1 the flocks were soon mingled with each other1 and for many years past1 probably1 not an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could be traced4 ,abundance of appropriate food has been given them1 without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys2 and lastly1 there has been much care used in the selection of the most profitable animals for breed4 ,the spirit of improvement has been recently awakened to this important branch of ,american husbandry1 and as we already have all the elements within ourselves for its attainment1 if not arrested by any untoward national policy1 it will soon result in giving us numerous flocks of as choice sheep as the world affords4 ,peculiarities of the ,merino4 ,the prominent peculiarities of the ,merino1 are the abundance and fineness of its fleece2 the tenacity with which it is held2 its crimped or spiral form2 its felting properties2 and the excessive quantity of yolk1 giving to it that softness which distinguishes it from all others4 ,their large horns are common to several other varieties4 ,their hoofs are sometimes singularly long1 reaching #h or #aj inches when allowed to grow4 ,the horns1 hoofs1 and wool scarcely differ in their chemical constituents2 and the peculiar development of the two former1 is justly considered as an additional evidence of their wool-bearing properties4 ,the yolk1 in most of the sheep1 forms1 with the dust which adheres to it1 a firm crust on the exterior1 and together with the compactness of the fleece1 it offers considerable resistance to the open hand on being pressed1 giving the impression of rigidity4 ,this outer covering repels the rain1 the snow1 and the wind like a coat of mail1 thus fitting the ,merino to endure exposure beyond any other sheep4 ,on opening the crust1 the wool is found of a brilliant1 golden hue1 sparkling with yolk1 and firmly held together in masses1 hardly distinguishable from the cocoon of the silk-worm4 ,the wool closely covers every part of the body1 and frequently the entire legs and head1 excepting a part of the face4 ,still another peculiarity of the ,merino is its longevity4 ,they attain a great age when properly managed1 and1 in healthy localities1 sometimes breed till #bj years of age4 ,the ,merino may be described1 generally1 as a small-boned1 closely made1 medium-sized sheep1 varying from #hj lbs4 of live weight1 for a small ewe1 to #afj lbs4 for good-sized wethers and rams1 in ordinary condition4 ,they are light in the shoulders and chest1 and altogether are more deficient in form than the best mutton sheep4 ,this apparent difference is materially lessened when both are denuded of their fleece2 as the longer pile of the latter covers defects1 which would manifest themselves under the closer covering of the ,merino4 ,yet1 with this seeming deficiency1 ,young found1 in feeding the ,merino and ,bakewell1 that the latter ate the most1 and gained the least1 in the ratio of two to three4 ,we give the statement as we find it1 though it apparently contravenes a fundamental principle1 which a knowledge of all the circumstances of the trial1 the peculiarities of the particular animals1 c41 might probably explain satisfactorily4 ,the mutton is excellent1 and it is probably not surpassed by that of any other sheep4 ,lord ,somerville claims it as a rule1 that the quality of the flesh in each class of sheep follows that of the wool1 and that the flesh of the short and fine-woolled sheep is closer in the grain and more highly flavored than the long-woolled4 ,sir ,joseph ,banks says1 the ,london butchers1 after having some of the ,merinoes1 eagerly sought for more1 from its popularity with their best customers2 and it is certain that the flavor of our mountain-fed ,merino does not suffer in comparison with the choicest breeds4 ,breeding ,merinoes4 ,the general principles of breeding cattle and sheep1 as laid down by the most approved authorities1 must be taken with some exceptions1 when applied to the ,merino4 ,good form and feeding qualities are desirable in this breed1 but they are not as essential as with the others4 ,wool is the great object1 and if this be sufficiently fine1 even1 and abundant1 something may be abated in the perfection of form4 ,early maturity1 so much sought after in the mutton sheep1 cannot be reconciled with the great longevity1 and the prolonged productive powers of the ,merino4 ,we must content ourselves1 therefore1 with slowly engrafting such improvements on the breed1 as can be effected without prejudice to his other good qualities1 and look to his crosses with others for such qualities as are irreconcilable with his nature4 ,it is considered indispensable to the improvement of the ,merino1 that it be not bred too young4 ,a vigorous ewe may bring her first lamb at two years old1 but it is better that it be deferred till three4 ,the ram should never be used till his second year1 and then but sparingly4 ,from #ba_/b to #f years old is deemed the most vigorous age1 though many may be safely used till #h or #aj1 and occasionally later4 ,both ewes and rams have been known to breed till #bj years old4 ,the ram should be large1 stout1 and well made1 carrying his weight as compactly as possible4 ,the nose should be convex2 the face covered with a soft velvety hair2 the eye lively and prominent2 the veins near the lachrymal glands1 of a clear red2 the horns rough2 short neck2 pendent dewlap not objectionable2 full chest2 broad shoulders2 broad1 level back2 large quarters2 tail large and well set up2 good legs1 and sound hoofs2 with a firm1 easy1 regular gait2 the head carried high1 with a look of boldness and decision1 without in any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity4 ,the ewe should possess these characteristics generally1 with such modifications as are suited to the sex4 ,great care should be taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the essential points of constitution1 form1 and size2 and weight1 uniformity1 and fineness of fleece4 ,the closest observation is requisite1 to select the best in all respects4 ,in-and-in breeding should be avoided where practicable1 which can be done where there is a careful registry of the sheep through successive generations4 ,excessive use of rams can never be permitted without decided injury to them and their progeny4 ,in ,spain1 four rams are supplied to every hundred ewes4 ,this limited number is proper enough1 where they undergo so much fatigue in travelling1 and kept too1 as they are1 entirely on grass4 ,but if moderately grained before and during their use1 and especially if kept up1 and allowed to serve the ewes once only1 as they come in heat1 this number may be largely increased4 ,a vigorous ram will suffice for #ce to #dj ewes1 when running with the flock2 yet his powers would not be more taxed by double or even treble this number1 if admitted to each but once4 ,bread is a convenient food for the ram while running with the sheep4 ,if he is gentle1 which he should always be1 he will come up readily and eat from the hand1 without exciting the attention of the other sheep1 which crowd1 and not unfrequently injure each other when grain is placed before him2 or he may be stabled at night and fed with grain4 ,if young ewes have stolen lambs1 they should be taken away immediately after yeaning1 and the nourishment supplied to the lamb from the milk of a cow4 ,the tax of nursing is nearly equal to that of gestation1 and farther injury to the dam may be avoided by this practice4 ,merino ewes have had the reputation of being indifferent nurses in ,spain4 ,this is owing to their fatigue in travelling1 and scanty pasturage1 rather than to any constitutional deficiency4 ,it is a frequent practice there1 to kill a part of the lambs1 and put one on to two ewes4 ,this has never been found necessary in the countries where they have been transplanted1 as generous feed for the dams has invariably been found entirely adequate to their support of the young4 ,the localities in which ,merino ,sheep can be profitably kept in the ,united ,states1 ,are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry2 the climate not excessively hot2 and the land not too valuable for other purposes4 ,wool is generally the great object in the sheep husbandry of this country1 and when sheep farms are remote from the large markets1 the ,merino will make much the most profitable returns4 ,in the neighborhood of cities1 where large and fat sheep and early lambs bear a high price1 the mutton sheep may be substituted4 ,the ,south ,down4 ,this valuable sheep has been known and bred for a long time on the chalky downs of ,england1 where it has always maintained the character of a hardy animal1 yielding a medium quality of wool1 and furnishing mutton of a superior flavor4 ,it was not1 however1 till within the last #gj years1 that any considerable attention was devoted to its improvement4 ,since that period1 its fine points have been remarkably developed1 which is shown in its improved size and form1 and its early maturity and productiveness4 ,the late ,mr4 ,john ,ellman1 of ,england1 was the first who took them thoroughly in hand2 and so eminent was his success1 that he founded a flock which has been the source whence all the best blood has been since derived4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,south ,down ,buck4 ,the form and characteristics of the ,south ,downs4 ,his criteria of a good ,south ,down1 are as follows3--,the head small and hornless2 the face speckled or gray1 and neither too long nor too short4 ,the lips thin1 and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow4 ,the under jaw1 or chap1 fine and thin2 the ears tolerably wide1 and well covered with wool1 and the forehead also1 and the whole space between the ears well protected by it1 as a defence against the fly4 ,the eye full and bright1 but not prominent4 ,the orbits of the eye--the eye-cap1 or bone1--not too projecting1 that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing4 ,the neck of a medium length1 thin towards the head1 but enlarging towards the shoulders1 where it should be broad and high1 and straight in its whole course above and below4 ,the breast should be wide1 deep1 and projecting forwards between the fore-legs1 indicating a good constitution1 and a disposition to thrive4 ,corresponding with this1 the shoulders should be on a level with the back1 and not too wide above2 they should bow outward from the top to the breast1 indicating a springing rib beneath1 and leaving room for it4 ,the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine1 and extending far backward1 and the last rib projecting more than the others2 the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail2 the loin broad and flat2 the rump long and broad1 and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the spine4 ,the hips wide2 the space between them and the last rib on either side as narrow as possible1 and the ribs1 generally1 presenting a circular form like a barrel4 ,the belly as straight as the back4 ,the legs neither too long nor too short4 ,the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot2 not bending inward at the knee1 and standing far apart both before and behind2 the hocks having a direction rather outward1 and the twist1 or the meeting of the thighs behind1 being particularly full2 the bones fine1 yet having no appearance of weakness1 and of a speckled or dark color4 ,the belly well defended with wool1 and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee1 and to the hock2 the wool short1 close1 curled1 and fine1 and free from spiry projecting fibres4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,south ,down ,ewe4 ,other breeders have commenced where ,ellman left off1 and have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capacity2 and especially has this been done by ,messrs4 ,grantham and ,webb1 the latter of whom1 while preserving all the essential merits of the sheep1 has carried the live weight of breeding rams to #bej lbs41 and well-fattened wethers to #bjj lbs4 dressed weight4 ,many of the choicest animals have been imported into this country1 and they are now to be found1 in limited numbers1 in almost every state of the ,union4 ,the wool was formerly short1 and used only for cloths1 flannels1 c4 ,it has been considerably lengthened in many of the late flocks1 and with the improvements in the combing machinery1 is now much used in ,england as a combing wool4 ,the quantity produced is nearly equal to that of the ,merino flocks when well kept1 varying1 according to the size and style of breeding1 from #c to #d lbs4 of clean washed wool1 which in quality does not differ materially from half-blood ,merino1 and sometimes rather exceeds it4 ,the larger animals1 of course1 produce fleeces of much greater weight1 sometimes reaching to #h or #i lbs4 ,the ,south ,down will subsist on short pasture1 but well repays full feeding4 ,it attains early maturity1 is hardy and prolific1 frequently producing two at a birth4 ,like all highly-improved ,english breeds1 it is not a long-lived sheep4 ,it may be considered in its prime at three4 ,the wethers may be fattened at #ah to #cj months1 and the ewes at #c to #e years1 when first required as breeders4 ,the last are sometimes allowed to come in with a lamb at a year1 but they cannot be sustained in vigor if put to breeding before two4 ,the ,cheviot ,is thus described by ,blacklock3 ,they have a bare head1 with a long jaw and white face1 but no horns4 ,sometimes they have a shade of gray upon the nose1 approaching to dark at the tip2 at others1 a tinge of lemon color on the face1 but these markings scarcely affect their value4 ,the legs are clean1 long1 and small-boned1 and covered with wool to the hough1 but there is a sad want of depth at the breast1 and of breadth both there and on the chine4 ,a fat carcass weighs from #ab lbs4 to #ah lbs4 per quarter1 and a medium fleece about #c lbs4 ,the purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the ,scotch side of the ,cheviot hills1 and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the ,teviot4 ,these sheep are a capital mountain stock1 provided the pasture resembles the ,cheviot hills1 in containing a good proportion of rich herbage4 ,they are eminently adapted to high lands and a severe climate1 though less so than the ,black-faced or ,heath sheep of ,scotland4 ,they have become an ,american sheep1 by their repeated introduction into this country4 ,a late importation of several choice sheep was made by ,mr4 ,carmichael of ,new ,york4 ,the wool on these is from #e to #g inches long1 coarse1 but well suited to combing4 ,like the ,downs1 it has heretofore been classed among the middle-wools1 but these specimens would seem to indicate that they are verging towards the long-wools4 ,the ,bakewell or ,leicester1 the ,cotswold and ,lincolnshire1 ,possess several qualities in common1 and it is only a practiced eye that can readily detect the difference4 ,this resemblance arises from a recent1 common origin4 ,they are all large and hornless2 of a pure white2 with long1 coarse1 and heavy fleeces2 excellent mutton sheep2 coming early to maturity1 and capable of carrying enormous quantities of fat4 ,there have been from time immemorial numerous flocks of these large1 coarse-woolled sheep1 existing in certain parts of ,england1 under a variety of names1 and partaking of some slight peculiarity of features1 according to the district in which they are bred4 ,thus1 besides those above-mentioned1 there were the ,teeswater1 the ,romney-,marsh1 the ,kentish1 the ,bampton1 the ,exmoor1 c41 all of which were deficient in form1 slow-feeders1 and late in coming to maturity4 ,improvement of the ,long-,wools4 ,the late ,robert ,bakewell first commenced a decided improvement with the ,leicesters1 nearly a century since4 ,he began by selecting the choicest sheep in ,england1 which possessed the essential qualities2 and by judicious feeding and management throughout1 he soon brought them up to a character widely differing from the original with which he started4 ,so eminent was his success1 that in #aghg he let three rams1 for a single season1 for #abej pounds1 7about #f1bjj17 and was offered #ajej pounds 7about #e1bjj7 for #bj ewes4 ,soon after this1 he received the enormous price of #hjj guineas1 or #d1jjj1 for the use of two-thirds of a ram for one season1 reserving the other third for himself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,long-wool ,buck4 ,he reduced the bone and offal or worthless parts of the carcass1 and increased the weight of the valuable parts1 and especially their tendency to fatten and early maturity4 ,this was effected mainly by a nice discrimination1 which has probably never been surpassed1 if it has ever been equalled4 ,he selected medium sizes for the breed1 with as much evenness and perfection of form as possible1 for he found that excellence and profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with extra size1 large bones1 or imperfect form4 ,he also observed the disposition to fatten in individuals1 and used only such as were conspicuous in this respect4 ,he relied more than all upon their quality of handling well1 depending even more upon the elastic1 mellow touch1 than upon the most symmetrical figure4 ,he used only the choicest rams1 a little under size1 while the ewes were of full medium weight4 ,the progeny were pushed with a full supply of nutritious food1 and systematically brought to early maturity4 ,connected with this1 was his practice of in-and-in breeding1 or breeding the parent upon the progeny1 for several successive generations1 which had the tendency still further to refine the bone and offal1 and impress most effectually the desirable characteristics of the race4 ,it is even credibly asserted1 that he produced rot in such of his fattening sheep as he wished to mature early for the shambles1 as in the first stages of that loathsome disease the fat-secreting organs accomplish their office more rapidly than in a state of perfect health2 and it at least secured them against breeding when they left his own hands4 ,it is certain1 that ,bakewell carried his refining system to such an extent1 as partially to destroy the procreative powers2 and he was subsequently obliged to introduce new animals1 to reinvigorate and continue his flock4 ,the general system of ,bakewell1 however1 was attended with complete success4 ,he produced a race of animals1 not only far beyond what ,england had ever before seen1 but which1 in all the qualities he endeavored to establish1 have not been since exceeded2 and his improved ,leicesters have come down to the present day as perfect as he left them1 showing conclusively1 that he not only formed1 but stamped the peculiarities of the breed1 with a permanence which yet bears witness to his genius4 ,one of these attained the enormous live weight of #cfh lbs41 and dressed #bdh lbs4 ,the ,cotswold and ,lincolnshire4 ,other breeders were not slow in following in ,bakewell's footsteps with different breeds1 and the ,cotswold and ,lincolnshire especially1 have become the subjects of an equally decided improvement1 while the errors of ,bakewell were entirely avoided4 ,they possess a rather more desirable robustness1 approaching1 in some few specimens1 almost to coarseness1 as compared with the finest ,leicesters2 but they are more hardy and less liable to disease4 ,they attain as large a size1 and yield as great an amount of wool1 of about the same value4 ,these breeds scarcely differ more from each other1 than do flocks of a similar variety1 which have been separately bred for several generations4 ,they are prolific1 and when well fed1 the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth1 for which they provide liberally from their udder till the time for weaning4 ,the weight of the fleece varies from #d to #h lbs4 per head4 ,peculiarity of long ,wool and its ,uses4 ,the striking peculiarity of the long-wools1 is in the production of a fleece1 which is perfectly adapted1 by its length and the absence of the felting property1 to the manufacture of worsted stuffs1 bombazines1 mousseline de laines1 c4 ,this is a branch of manufactures1 for which we had little material that was suitable1 till the introduction of the long-wools2 and its rapid extension in the ,united ,states1 within the past few years1 clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices4 ,besides its uses for combing1 it is extensively manufactured into blankets1 carpeting1 and many other fabrics4 ,importation of ,long-,wools4 ,several of the ,bakewells were imported during the last century2 and many flocks1 containing some of the best specimens1 have been introduced and scattered over every section of the country4 ,the largest of any single importation of the long-wools1 was made by ,messrs4 ,corning ,sotham1 in #ahdb1 and immediately preceding1 and consisted of #gj or #hj choice ,cotswolds4 ,breeding the ,long-,wools4 ,some information on this subject will be found under the head of breeding ,merinoes1 and improvement of the ,long-,wools4 ,the ram and ewe should be selected from the best specimens of the breed which is to be perpetuated4 ,there are peculiarities of form or appearance in each1 which should be carefully observed4 ,a violent cross should never be permitted for the purpose of perpetuation1 as suggested under the head of principles of breeding1 in a previous chapter2 such as between those possessing totally opposite properties1 as the ,merino and long-wools2 and there is no conceivable advantage in mixing the middle-wools1 ,south ,downs1 c41 with either4 ,lord ,western has long experimented on the blending of the ,merino and long-wools1 through several generations1 without any well-defined results1 nor is it believed to be attainable4 ,there is no evenness or integrity of character1 either in the animal or fleece1 from such mixtures2 nor is it possible to foretel the character of progeny from these bastard crosses4 ,the general rule1 that like begets like1 will not hold true here1 for the animal comes large or small1 with a long or short fleece1 fine or coarse1 or intermixed2 and this1 too1 is repeated through numerous generations1 when the immediate parents exhibit properties altogether unlike the offspring1 and which they derive from some remote ancestry4 ,this practice will do to produce lambs for the butcher1 as the consequence of a fresh cross is greater stamina and thrift2 and it is found that lambs thus bred attain an early and full development4 ,thousands of such are annually bred on the banks of the ,hudson1 ,long ,island1 and around our large cities1 and in the worst possible way1 as the large1 coarse ram is used on the delicate ,saxon ewe2 yet the lambs thrive and command a good price in the market1 and the owner is satisfied to pocket the result4 ,but nothing could be more absurd than to propagate from such progeny for any other purpose than to make early and profitable mutton4 ,the mixture of breeds of similar character1 is attended with the best consequences4 ,such was the intermingling of the improved ,leicesters with the ,cotswold and ,lincolnshire1 by which their former coarseness was removed2 and such was the use of the latter with the ,leicesters1 when they became impotent and almost worthless1 from over-refinement in breeding4 ,good results have followed the mixture of the ,south and ,hampshire ,downs4 ,a marked improvement in the ,merino in this country1 has been claimed by ,mr4 ,jarvis and several others1 from the mixture of the various flocks1 which for ages had been kept distinct in ,spain2 and the same result is known to have followed a similar course with the ,rambouillet and ,saxon flocks4 ,the ewe goes with young ,about five months1 varying from #ade to #afb days4 ,each flock-master will of course determine what is the proper lambing time4 ,for early market1 or when there are few sheep1 and those well looked after1 the lambs may come while the ewes are in the yards1 and provision can be made for them1 by placing such as are heavy in warm stalls4 ,both the dam and young thus receive a closer attention than they would in the field2 and after a week's housing1 in severe weather1 the lamb may be turned out into the dry yard1 where he will suffer no more1 apparently1 than the full-grown sheep4 ,but with large flocks1 early lambing is attended with much trouble1 and it is generally avoided1 by deferring it till the weather has become more settled1 and a full bite of grass will afford the dam a plentiful supply of milk4 ,yet in this case1 the young sheep must daily be under the eye of the shepherd1 who should see that they are well supplied with food1 and especially that they are brought under cover1 in severe or stormy weather4 ,a ram will serve from #bj to #ajj ewes in a season1 according to his age1 health1 feed1 and management4 ,a ,south ,down or long-woolled lamb1 of #g or #h months1 is sometimes used2 and when this is done1 he should be well fed1 and allowed to run only with a very few ewes4 ,if full-grown rams are turned into a lean pasture to remain with the ewes1 not less than four should be put in for every hundred4 ,but if a well-fed ram1 in full health and vigor1 is kept up1 and led out to the ewe as she comes into heat1 and allowed to serve her once only1 he will suffice for one hundred1 without injury to himself or progeny4 ,for this purpose1 the ram should be prepared1 not by being fat1 for this1 neither he nor the ewe should ever be2 but by being fed with grain for a short time before1 and during the continuance of the season4 ,the ewes are more likely to come quickly into heat1 and prove prolific1 if lightly fed with stimulating food at the time4 ,it is reasonably enough conjectured1 that if procreation1 and the first period of gestation1 takes place in cold weather1 the foetus will subsequently be fitted for the climate1 which rules during the early stages of its existence4 ,if this be so1 and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature1 fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence1 by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather2 and in the ,northern states1 this is done about the first of ,december1 which brings the yeaning time in the last of ,april or first of ,may1 when the early grass will afford a large supply and good quality of feed4 ,winter ,management and ,food4 ,sheep should be brought into winter-quarters soon after the severe frosts occur1 as these diminish the feed1 and materially impair its nutritious qualities4 ,they ought also to be removed from the grass-lands1 before they become permanently softened by the rains1 as they will injuriously affect their comfort and health2 and allowing them to remain is equally objectionable1 from their poaching the sod4 ,if the number be large when brought to the yards1 they must be divided into flocks of #ej to #ajj1 according to the size of the yards and sheds4 ,the young and feeble ought to be separated from the others1 and the ailing ones placed by themselves2 and that no one may suffer from the others1 all should be classed as uniformly as possible as to strength4 ,the yards must be dry1 well supplied with a trough of fresh water1 and with comfortable sheds1 to which they can retire when they choose4 ,shelters4 ,these1 in northern climates1 are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising1 and in every latitude north of the ,gulf of ,mexico they would be advantageous4 ,there is policy as well as humanity in the practice4 ,an animal eats much less when thus protected2 he is more thrifty1 less liable to disease1 and his manure is richer and more abundant4 ,the feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather1 and under cover in severe storms4 ,the shelters for sheep are variously constructed1 to suit the taste or circumstances of the flock-master4 ,a sheep-barn1 built upon a side hill1 will afford two floors2 one underneath1 surrounded by three sides of wall1 should open to the south1 with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms2 and another may be provided above1 if the floors are perfectly tight1 with proper gutters to carry off the urine2 and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead4 ,or they may be constructed with twelve or fifteen feet posts on level ground1 allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part1 with the fodder stored above4 ,in all cases1 however1 thorough ventilation should be provided1 for of the two evils of exposure to cold or too great privation of air1 the former is to be preferred4 ,sheep cannot long endure close confinement without injury4 ,in all ordinary weather1 a shed closely boarded on three sides1 with a tight roof1 is sufficient protection2 especially1 if the open side is shielded from bleak winds1 or leads into a well-enclosed yard4 ,if the floors above are used for storage1 they should be made tight1 that no hay1 chaff1 or dust can fall upon the fleece4 ,racks or ,mangers4 ,these are indispensable to economical feeding4 ,if the hay is fed on the ground1 the leaves and seeds1 the most valuable part of the fodder1 are almost wholly lost2 and when wet1 the sheep1 in their restlessness while feeding1 will tread much of it into the mud4 ,to make an economical box or rack1 take six light pieces of scantling1 say three inches square1 one for each corner1 and one for the centre of each side4 ,boards of pine or hemlock1 #ab or #ae feet long and #ab or #ad inches wide1 may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides1 which are separated by similar boards at the ends1 #ba_/b feet long4 ,boards #ab inches wide1 raised above the lower ones by a space of #i to #ab inches1 are nailed on the sides and ends1 which completes the rack4 ,the edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth1 to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool4 ,the largest dimensions above given1 are suitable for the large breeds1 and the smallest for the ,saxon1 and still smaller are proper for their lambs4 ,these should be set on dry ground1 or under the sheds1 and they can easily be removed wherever necessary4 ,some prefer the racks made with slats1 or smooth1 upright sticks1 in the form of the usual horse-rack4 ,there is no objection to this1 but it should always be accompanied by a board trough affixed to the bottom1 to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding4 ,these may be attached to the side of a building1 or used double4 ,a small lamb requires fifteen inches of space1 and a large sheep two feet1 for quiet1 comfortable feeding2 and at least this amount of room should be provided around the racks for every sheep4 ,troughs4 ,they may be variously constructed4 ,the most economical are made with two boards of any convenient length1 ten to twelve inches wide4 ,nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other1 fastening both into a two or three inch plank1 fifteen inches long and a foot wide1 notched in its upper edge in the form required4 ,food4 ,there is no better food for sheep1 than well-ripened1 sound1 timothy hay2 though the clovers1 and nearly all the cultivated grasses1 may be advantageously fed4 ,bean and pea straw are valuable1 and especially the former1 which1 if properly cured1 they prefer to the best hay2 and it is well adapted to the production of wool4 ,all the other straws furnish a good food1 and sheep will thrive on them without hay1 when fed with roots or grain4 ,roots ought to be given them occasionally for a change1 and especially to the ewes after lambing1 if this occurs before putting them on to fresh pasture4 ,they keep the stomach properly distended1 the appetite and general health good2 and they render their winter forage nearly equal to their summer feed4 ,much grain is not suited to store-sheep4 ,it is too rich1 and should be given sparingly except to the lambs1 the old ewes1 or feeble sheep1 or to restore the rams after hard service4 ,for the above purposes1 oats are the best2 and if any other grain1 beans or peas are given1 it should be in small quantities4 ,when there is a deficiency of hay and roots1 grain may be used with straw4 ,the flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same amount of nourishment throughout every part of the year4 ,the evenness and value of the fleece depends much upon this4 ,when the amount of nutrition is great1 the wool-secreting organs are distended1 and the fibre becomes enlarged2 when limited1 they necessarily contract1 and the fibre is small4 ,this produces a want of trueness1 which the experienced stapler readily detects1 and which he does not fail to estimate against the value of the fleece4 ,sheep ought to have a full supply of salt1 and if accessible1 sulphur1 ashes1 tar1 and clay would frequently be nibbled by them when their stomach required either4 ,pine or hemlock boughs are a good substitute for tar1 and afford a most healthful change in the winter-food of sheep4 ,entire cleanliness and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock4 ,the smaller sizes of the ,saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay1 but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four1 or even five pounds per day4 ,sheep1 like all other animals when exposed to cold1 will consume much more than if well protected1 or than during a warmer season4 ,the ,care of the ,ewes with ,young ,is an important consideration1 as the lamb is sometimes the only profit yielded by the flock2 for when fodder is high1 or wool low1 the fleece will barely pay for the food and attention4 ,pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times2 but caution is necessary to prevent injury or abortion1 which is often the result of excessive fat1 feebleness1 or disease4 ,the first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet2 and both the last by restored health and generous food4 ,sudden fright1 as from dogs or strange objects2 long or severe journeys2 great exertions2 unwholesome food2 blows in the region of the foetus1 and some other causes1 produce abortion4 ,yeaning4 ,most flocks are turned into the pasture before yeaning time1 and the ewe is then left to nature1 which is a good practice1 if she is healthy and the weather good4 ,but a larger number of lambs will be reared by a careful oversight of the ewes1 and the use of proper precautions4 ,as their time approaches1 which may be known by the springing of the udder and the enlargement of the natural parts1 they should be put by themselves at night1 in a warm stable or with others in the same condition1 and well looked after1 late and early in the day4 ,they seldom need any assistance1 nor should any be rendered1 except in case of wrong presentation1 or feebleness in expelling the foetus4 ,in the former case1 the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger1 after oiling1 to push back the young1 and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear and for the latter1 only the slightest aid should be rendered1 and that to help the throes of the dam4 ,management of ,lambs4 ,when lambing in the field1 only a few should be together1 as the young sometimes get changed1 and the dams refuse to own them4 ,this difficulty is generally obviated1 by holding the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three times2 or they may be shut up together1 and the lamb rubbed with a little fine salt4 ,the lamb does not require nourishment for some hours after its birth2 but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it appears1 it must be carefully wiped dry4 ,if the weather be cold and the lamb is dropped in the field1 the shepherd should be furnished with large pockets or a well-lined basket1 in which it must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed4 ,after the first day or two1 the udders ought to be completely drained of their milk by the hand1 so as to prevent swollen or caked bag4 ,in case of deficiency of milk1 the lamb may be supplied from a new milch cow1 by means of a sucking-bottle with an air vent1 or it may draw a part of its nourishment from another ewe1 which can be held while the lamb is sucking4 ,it is sometimes necessary to substitute a foster-mother1 in which case1 the ewe may be made to own the lamb1 by milking from her udder over the lamb and under his tail1 rubbing it on well2 or rub the adopted lamb with the entrails and contents of the stomach of the dead lamb1 or cover it with the skin4 ,if the ewe proves a bad nurse1 or it is desirable to bring the lambs forward rapidly1 they may be early taught to eat boiled oats or other grain1 cabbage1 roots1 and tender hay4 ,lambs should be well fed1 as this is important to produce size1 constitution1 and perfection of form4 ,the ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks1 and have a frequent change of pasture4 ,some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs1 and allow them to suck two or three times a day2 by which they suffer no fatigue1 and thrive much faster4 ,but this is troublesome and injurious1 as the exercise is essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing4 ,it is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market1 and by those who rear them for this purpose1 it is a common practice4 ,castrating and ,docking ,lambs4 ,after selecting enough of the choicest rams for stock-getters1 the castrating may be performed at any time between two and six weeks old1 when the lamb is in good health4 ,a cool day should be chosen2 or if warm1 it must be done early in the morning4 ,the best method is for one person to hold the lamb firmly between his legs1 on an inclined plank upon which he rests1 while another with a sharp knife cuts off about two-thirds of the lower part of the scrotum4 ,the testicles are then drawn out till the spermatic cord is reached1 which is divided by the thumb nail2 or it is pulled out and cut with a sharp knife4 ,it is sometimes done by simply opening the scrotum1 when the testicles and spermatic cord are jerked out4 ,the wound should then be rinsed with cold water1 after which apply lard4 ,the operation of docking is by many deferred till a late period1 from apprehension of too much loss of blood2 but if the weather be favorable1 and the lamb in good condition1 it may be performed at this time with the least trouble and without injury4 ,the tail should be laid upon the plank1 the person holding him in the same position as before4 ,with one hand he draws the skin towards the body1 while the other person1 with a two-inch chisel and mallet1 strikes it off at a blow1 between the bone joints1 leaving it one and a half to two inches long4 ,the skin immediately slips back over the wound and is soon healed4 ,ewe lambs should be docked closer than the rams4 ,to prevent flies and maggots1 and assist in healing1 it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar1 in the proportions of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter4 ,this is also a good application for the scrotum4 ,the lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well4 ,tagging1 or ,clatting1 ,is the removal of such wool as is liable to get fouled1 when the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures1 and of course it should be done just before leaving their winter quarters4 ,it is most easily accomplished by placing the animal on a low table1 and then holding it as in shearing1 till the operation is performed4 ,all the wool near the extremity of the sheath1 and the scrotum of the males2 from the udder of the ewes2 and from below the dock1 the inside of the thighs1 and the legs of the sheep1 should be removed4 ,summer ,management4 ,as soon as the warm weather approaches1 and the grass appears1 sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture4 ,this instinct should be repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry1 and the grass has acquired substance4 ,they ought1 moreover1 to be provided for the change of food1 by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out4 ,it would also check the tendency to excessive purging1 which is induced by the first spring feed1 if they were housed at night1 and fed for the first few days with a little sound1 sweet hay4 ,they must be provided with pure water1 salt1 c41 as in winter1 for though they may sometimes do tolerably well without either1 yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention4 ,dry1 sweet pastures1 and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants1 are best suited for sheep-walks4 ,no animal1 with the exception of the goat1 crops so great a variety of plants4 ,they eat many which are rejected by the horse and the ox1 and which are even essential to their own wants4 ,in this respect1 they are valuable assistants to the husbandman1 as they feed greedily on wild mustard1 burdocks1 thistles1 marsh-mallows1 milkweed1 and various other offending plants2 and the ,merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the variety of his selections4 ,many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks4 ,this may be done with a number of plants4 ,winter rye1 or wheat sown early in the season1 may be fed off in the fall1 without injury to the crop2 and in the following spring1 the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head4 ,this affords an early and nutritious food4 ,corn may be sown broadcast1 or thickly in drills1 and either fed off in the fields1 or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds4 ,white mustard is a valuable crop for this purpose4 ,to give sheep sufficient variety1 it would be better to divide their range into smaller ones1 and change them as often at least as once a week4 ,they seek a favorite resting-place1 on a dry1 elevated part of the field1 which soon becomes soiled4 ,by removing them from this for a few days1 rains will cleanse1 or the sun dry it1 so as again to make it suitable for them4 ,more sheep may be kept1 and in better condition1 where this practice is adopted1 than where they are confined to the same pasture4 ,washing ,sheep4 ,in most of that portion of the ,union north of #dj deg41 the washing is performed from the middle of ,may till the first of ,june1 according to the season and climate4 ,when the streams are hard1 which is frequently the case in limestone regions1 it is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain1 by which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally lessened4 ,the practice of a large majority of our farmers1 is to drive their sheep to the washing-ground early in the morning on a warm day1 leaving the lambs behind4 ,the sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure2 from which they are taken1 and if not too heavy1 are carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom4 ,they are then washed1 by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands1 after which they are led ashore1 and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go1 as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down4 ,a good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and saturate the fleece1 after which they are taken ashore4 ,when they commence steaming1 they are again led into the water1 and washed clean4 ,this insures thorough cleansing1 where the water is pure4 ,others make use of a boat1 one end of which rests on a bold shore1 and the other is in deep water4 ,the operator stands in the boat and plunges the animal over the side1 when the washing is performed4 ,it is sometimes done by sinking a tight hogshead or large box in the water1 with heavy weights1 in which a man stands1 and the sheep are brought or led to him by another person1 who walks on a platform reaching from the bank to the hogshead4 ,either of the last methods obviates the necessity of standing for a long time in water1 by which colds1 rheumatism1 c4 are frequently contracted4 ,in parts of ,germany1 and sometimes in this country1 sheep are forced to swim across a narrow stream several times1 by which the fleece is tolerably cleaned1 if all the water be pressed out when they get to the land4 ,the yolk being a saponaceous compound1 and not an oily matter as is generally supposed1 it readily combines with the water and passes out of the wool4 ,an excellent practice1 when streams are not convenient1 is to lead a small ripple of soft water into a tub4 ,to this1 a little soap is added1 after which the sheep are immersed and thoroughly cleansed4 ,perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece is readily secured afterwards1 by throwing over the sheep a jet of water4 ,this practice has a good effect1 in preventing or removing cutaneous disorders1 and destroying ticks or other vermin4 ,many judicious farmers object to washing sheep1 from its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections1 to which sheep are particularly subject2 but it cannot well be dispensed with1 as the wool is always more saleable1 and if carefully done1 need not be attended with injury4 ,warm settled weather1 however1 is indispensable to washing with safety to the general health of the sheep4 ,fig4 #bf shows a ewe1 with lines indicating the usual method of sorting wool2 number #a indicating the refina or picklock2 #b and #c1 the second and third qualities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,wool ,sorting ,shearing4 ,the manner of shearing varies with almost every district2 but as this is an art to be acquired under a skilful master1 we shall omit particular details on the subject4 ,first clip all the tags and filth1 if any remains or has been accumulated after the tagging in the spring2 then take off the fleece and spread it with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table1 and push the wool carefully together1 to render it more compact2 double the sides over to the centre2 throw the clean loose locks into the middle1 and roll together from each end4 ,this makes a smooth1 dense package1 which is secured by passing a stout twine one or more times around the sides and ends4 ,all the wool from the extremities1 should be closely sheared and saved by itself1 before dismissing the sheep1 but not put up with choice fleeces4 ,if wounds are made1 which is sometimes the case with unskilful operators1 a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied4 ,after shearing1 such horns and hoofs as are likely to be troublesome1 should be sawed and pared4 ,the branding1 or marking1 is essential to distinguish them from other flocks1 and this is done on the shoulder1 side1 or buttock4 ,a brush or marking-iron is used for this purpose1 with paint made of lampblack1 to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added1 and then diluted with linseed or lard oil4 ,if the weather be cool1 and especially1 if severe storms occur after washing or shearing1 the flock should be housed4 ,if sultry1 they should have a cool1 shady retreat1 where they will be shielded from the flies and the heat4 ,blisters and permanent injury to the skin and fleece1 are frequently the result of such exposure4 ,shade trees in their pastures1 contribute much to the comfort of sheep1 when exposed to a blazing sun4 ,a close examination of the skin should be made at shearing1 for the detection of disease or vermin4 ,for remedies1 see article diseases4 ,smearing or ,salving ,sheep ,is a custom little practised in this country4 ,for cold1 elevated1 and bleak exposures1 it may be necessary1 and it is1 therefore1 generally adopted in ,scotland4 ,the object is1 to prevent cutaneous diseases and vermin1 and furnish additional warmth and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are deficient in yolk4 ,it is usually performed in the latter part of ,october1 but is sometimes done immediately after shearing4 ,the mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease1 in different proportions2 #a gallon of the former to #ab1 or sometimes #bj lbs4 of the latter2 the greater proportion of tar being required for the younger sheep1 or for more exposed situations4 ,the grease is melted over the fire1 and the tar stirred in1 and when sufficiently cool1 it is applied to the whole body of the sheep1 by carefully parting the wool and rubbing it on the skin with the fingers4 ,the above quantity is sufficient for #cj or #ej sheep1 according to their size and the character of the wool4 ,this application is not required for fine-woolled sheep1 whose fleeces are more appropriately protected by a natural secretion of yolk2 and it is better to omit it in all cases1 where the health and comfort of the animal do not render it absolutely essential4 ,mr4 ,stewart1 an experienced ,scotch shepherd1 uses only tallow and train oil1 mixed in equal proportions4 ,he asserts1 that the improvement in the growth and quality of the wool is at least one-third1 and it materially benefits the condition of the sheep4 ,weaning4 ,the lambs may be weaned from #ca_/b to #d months old4 ,they should be put upon rich1 sweet feed1 but not too luxuriant2 while the dams are turned upon the poorest1 and so remote from their young1 as to be out of sight and hearing4 ,the ewes ought to be carefully examined after a day or two1 and if necessary1 the milk removed with the hand4 ,if it continues to accumulate1 the ewe may be fed on hay for a few days4 ,when thoroughly dried off1 they should have the best fare1 to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering4 ,the fall is a critical period to lose flesh1 either for sheep or lambs2 and if any are found deficient1 they should be at once provided with extra feed and attention4 ,if cold weather overtakes them poor or in ill-health1 they will scarcely outlive it2 or if by chance they survive1 their emaciated carcass1 impaired constitution1 and scant fleece1 will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost4 ,the time for taking ,sheep from the ,pastures4 ,this must depend on the state of the weather and food4 ,severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses1 and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment4 ,long exposure to cold storms1 with such food to sustain them1 will rapidly reduce their condition4 ,the only safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad4 ,drafting the ,flock1 ,for the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries1 should be done at an earlier day4 ,such of the wethers as have attained their prime1 and those ewes that have passed it1 ought to be withdrawn soon after shearing1 provided with the best feed1 and rapidly fitted for the shambles4 ,if they have been properly pushed on grass1 they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it2 and if not intended for stall-feeding1 the sooner they are then disposed of the better4 ,stall-,feeding4 ,this will be lost on an ill-shaped1 unthrifty beast4 ,the perfection of form and health1 and the uniform good condition1 which characterize the thrifty one1 indicate too plainly to be misunderstood1 those which will best repay the care of their owner4 ,the selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fattening1 whether cattle or sheep1 will inevitably be attended with loss4 ,such ought to be got rid of when first brought from the pasture1 for the most they will bring4 ,management of ,sheep for the ,prairies4 ,when destined for the prairies1 sheep ought to commence their journey as early after shearing as possible4 ,they are then disencumbered of their fleece1 and do not catch and retain as much dust1 as when driven later4 ,feed is also generally better1 and the roads are dry and hard4 ,young and healthy sheep should be selected1 with early lambs2 or if the latter are too young1 and the distance great1 they should be left and the ewes dried off4 ,a large wagon ought to accompany the flock1 to carry such as occasionally give out2 or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled4 ,with good care1 a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of #ab or #ad miles a day4 ,constant watchfulness is requisite1 to keep them healthy and in good plight4 ,one-half the expense of driving1 may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs4 ,when arrived at their destination1 they must be thoroughly washed1 to free them from all dirt1 and closely examined as to any diseases they may have contracted1 which1 if discovered1 should be promptly removed4 ,a variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided1 for the autumn1 winter1 and spring ensuing1 and every necessary attention given them4 ,this would be necessary if indigenous to the country2 how much more so1 when they have just undergone a campaign1 to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed6 ,sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care1 artificial food1 and proper attention2 and from a false system of economy1 hitherto attempted by many1 losses have occurred from disease and mortality in the flocks1 sufficient to have made ample provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost4 ,more especially do they require proper food and attention1 after the first severe frosts set in1 which wither and kill the natural grasses4 ,by nibbling at the fog1 7the frostbitten1 dead grass17 they are inevitably subject to constipation1 which a bountiful supply of roots1 sulphur1 c41 is alone sufficient to remove4 ,roots1 grain1 and good hay2 straw1 or corn-stalks1 pea or bean vines1 are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the winter1 everywhere north of #ci deg44 ,in summer1 the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition1 till they shall have acquired a denser population of animals1 when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses4 ,the prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced into the ,united ,states2 and of such are the flocks made up1 according to the taste or judgment of the owners4 ,shepherd-dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks1 in those unfenced1 illimitable ranges1 both as a defence against the small prairie-wolf1 which prowls around the sheep1 but which are rapidly thinning off by the settlers2 and also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,sheep4 ,the dry and healthful climate1 the rolling surface1 and the sweet and varied herbage1 which generally prevail in the ,united ,states1 insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock1 unless peculiarly exposed to disease4 ,no country is better suited to sheep1 than most of the northern and some of the southern parts of our own4 ,in ,europe1 and especially in ,england1 where the system of management is necessarily in the highest degree artificial1 consisting frequently in early and continued forcing the system1 folding on wet1 plowed grounds1 and the excessive use of that watery food1 the ,swedes turnip1 there are numerous and fatal diseases4 ,hence the long list which lumbers the pages of foreign writers on sheep4 ,the most destructive of these are the rot1 and epidemics which are scarcely known in ,america1 except by report4 ,the diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as casualties1 rather than as inbred1 or necessarily arising from the quality of food1 or from local causes4 ,it may be safely asserted1 that with a dry pasture1 well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses2 a clear1 running stream2 sufficient shade and protection against severe storms2 a constant supply of salt1 tar1 and sulphur in summer2 good hay1 and sometimes roots1 with ample shelters in winter2 young sheep1 originally sound and healthy1 will seldom or never get diseased on ,american soil4 ,the few diseases which it may be necessary here to mention1 will be treated in the simplest manner4 ,remedies of general application1 to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant1 must neither be elaborate nor complicated2 and1 if expensive1 the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application4 ,a sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the ordinary price1 is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner4 ,the wool and pelt will1 in most instances1 repay its cost1 while the carcasses of other animals will be worthless except for manure4 ,the loss of sheep from occasional disease1 will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle4 ,yet humanity1 equally with interest1 dictates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffering and disease1 as may be within reach4 ,diarrhoea or ,scours1 ,when light and not long continued1 calls for no remedy4 ,it is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the system1 which1 if retained1 might lead to disease4 ,it is generally owing to improper food1 as bad hay or noxious weeds2 to a sudden change1 as from dry food to fresh grass2 or to an excess1 as from overloading the stomach2 and sometimes1 from cold and wet4 ,the remedies are obvious4 ,change to suitable food in the first two cases2 enforce abstinence after repletion2 and provide warm1 dry shelter1 with light diet1 if owing to the latter causes4 ,when severe or long continued1 a dose of castor oil may be given1 and after its operation1 give four grains of opium and one ounce chalk1 and put them on dry food4 ,wheat-bran or shorts1 and oat-meal or flaxseed ground1 are both good for ailing lambs and sheep2 as are also ripe oats or wheat1 fed in the sheaf1 with well cured1 sweet hay1 and plenty of salt4 ,fresh boughs of the juniper1 or pine and hemlock1 help to check the disorder4 ,looseness in the larger lambs is prevented by having chalk within their reach2 or if they refuse it1 administer it in their food4 ,when it happens soon after birth1 place it with the ewe in a warm place1 and feed the latter with plenty of oats1 or other sound grain4 ,if the milk be deficient1 give the lamb cow's milk scalded1 or let it suck the cow4 ,the tail is sometimes glued on to the buttocks1 while the scours continue4 ,separate it immediately by the use of warm water1 and rub the parts with dry loam or clay4 ,dysentery4 ,this is a different and frequently a fatal disease1 but resembles the former in its general symptoms4 ,it is owing to prolonged diarrhoea1 unwholesome or meager food1 and other causes4 ,bleeding and physic should be resorted to1 after which give warm1 nourishing gruel4 ,hoven4 ,for description and remedies1 see hoven in cattle4 ,braxy4 ,this is manifested by uneasiness1 loathing of food1 frequent drinking1 carrying the head down1 drawing the back up1 swollen belly1 feverish symptoms1 and avoidance of the flock4 ,it appears mostly in late autumn and spring1 and may be induced by exposure to severe storms1 plunging in water when hot1 and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on frostbitten1 putrid1 or indigestible herbage4 ,remedies are not often successful1 unless promptly applied4 ,bleed freely1 and to effect this1 in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood1 immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary4 ,then give two ounces ,epsom salts1 dissolved in warm water1 with a handful of common salt4 ,if this is unsuccessful1 give a clyster made with a pipe-full of tobacco1 boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water4 ,administer half1 and if this is not effectual1 follow with the remainder4 ,then bed the animal in dry straw and cover with blankets1 and assist the purgatives with warm gruels1 followed by laxative provender till well4--7,blacklock47 ,thousands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy1 induced by exposure and miserable forage4 ,entire prevention is secured by warm1 dry shelters1 and nutritious1 digestible food4 ,costiveness4 ,this is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours1 till the difficulty is removed2 or give one ounce ,epsom salts4 ,this may be assisted by an injection of warm1 weak suds and molasses4 ,stretches4 ,sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground1 and around their sides1 as if in severe pain4 ,this may be caused by an involution of one part of the intestine within another4 ,when owing to this cause1 the difficulty is frequently removed by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times1 when the pain disappears4 ,but it is generally occasioned by costiveness1 which see above4 ,this may be prevented by using green food1 roots1 c41 once a week1 or by allowing them to browse on the evergreens1 pines1 hemlock1 and firs4 ,poison1 ,from laurel and other plants1 is cured by pouring a gill of melted lard down the throat1 or boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash1 and give half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately2 to be repeated if not successful4 ,inflammation of the ,lungs4 ,this is produced by improper exposure to cold and wet4 ,the remedy for slight affections1 is warm1 dry shelter1 and light food4 ,when severe1 resort must be had to bleeding and purging freely1 then to light bran or linseed mashes4 ,rot4 ,this sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep in a single year in ,england1 yet it is a disease almost unknown in this country4 ,foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to excessive humidity of climate1 wet pastures1 or too watery food4 ,the preventives are therefore obvious4 ,after the use of dry food and dry bedding1 one of the best is the abundant use of pure salt4 ,in violent attacks1 early bleeding1 followed by a dose of two ounces ,epsom salts1 to be repeated if necessary1 with a change of diet and location1 is all that can be done4 ,foot-,rot4 ,this is frequently a prevalent disease among ,american sheep4 ,it is sometimes spontaneous1 but more often produced by contagion4 ,in the former case1 it is caused by soft1 rich1 or moist pastures4 ,a dry gravelly or rocky range1 will of course be an effectual preventive when owing to this cause4 ,the disorder is communicated by the absorbents of the foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been left on the ground from the diseased part4 ,absolute safety against this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of the walks of the infected animals1 till repeated rains1 or what is better1 frosts1 have disarmed the virus of its malignity4 ,remedies are variously compounded1 of blue vitriol1 verdigris1 tar1 spirits of turpentine1 alum1 saltpetre1 salt1 lime1 copperas1 white-lead1 antimony1 alcohol1 urine1 vinegar1 c41 all of which have proved effectual4 ,the hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped4 ,then apply a wash made of three parts of blue vitriol1 one of verdigris pulverized finely1 with scalding 7not boiling7 vinegar2 stirring briskly till it is of the consistence of thin cream1 and put it upon the affected part with a paint brush4 ,it is a good preventive1 to apply this to the sound feet of the affected animal4 ,another remedy is to use spirits of turpentine after scraping2 and if the disease is of long standing1 add to the turpentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water4 ,the foot should be examined every week1 and the remedy repeated till perfect soundness is restored4 ,a feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid1 and applied to the parts after scraping and cleansing1 is a good remedy4 ,when put upon the soles of foot-sore sheep1 it hardens the hoofs1 and enables them to travel better4 ,sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface1 and driving over a barn-floor daily1 which is well covered with quicklime4 ,it may also be cured by dryness1 and repeated washing with soap-suds4 ,the above ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness1 or inflammation of the hoof1 occasioned by the irritation from the long1 rough grasses which abound in low situations1 which is removed with the cause2 or if it continues1 apply white paint or tar1 after thorough washing4 ,corrosion of the ,flesh by ,flies or ,maggots1 ,may be cured by first removing the vermin2 then wash with ,castile soap and warm soft water1 after which apply white-lead with linseed oil4 ,tar put on the festering wound corrodes it2 but this1 or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near it1 keep off the flies by their strong effluvia4 ,if the wound be slight1 and the weather moderate1 apply a little spirits of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark4 ,flies on ,sheep ,may be prevented by smearing with a composition made of two pounds lard or soft grease1 one pound sulphur1 half pint oil of amber1 or oil of tar1 or tar alone4 ,a small spoonful is sufficient for a sheep4--,genesee ,farmer4 ,protection from the ,gad-,fly4 ,in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 in the ,northern states1 the gad-fly 7,,oestus ovis7 attacks the nostrils of the sheep1 and there deposites its eggs1 which1 on being hatched1 immediately crawl up and make a lodgment in the head4 ,they are frequently repelled by laying a thick coat of tar on the bottom of the troughs1 and sprinkling it with salt4 ,the smell of the tar adhering to the nose will drive off the fly4 ,a more effectual remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external part of the nose4 ,if a few furrows of loose earth are turned up in their pastures1 the sheep will hold their noses to them1 and thus keep off the fly4 ,the symptoms of grubs in the head1 are drooping of the head and ears1 discharge of bloody and watery matter from the nostrils1 and loss of strength in the limbs4 ,if worms have made a lodgment1 take half a pound of good ,scotch snuff1 and two quarts boiling water3 stir1 and let it stand till cold4 ,inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril1 with a syringe4 ,repeat this three or four times at intervals1 from the middle of ,october till ,january3 the grubs are then small1 and will not have injured the sheep4 ,the efficacy of the snuff will be increased1 by adding half an ounce assafoetida1 pounded in a little water4 ,the effect on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death1 but they will soon recover4 ,a decoction of tobacco will afford a substitute for snuff4--,n4 ,eng4 ,far4 ,blacklock's remedy is1 to half fill the bowl of a pipe with tobacco1 light it1 and then hold the sheep1 while a person inserts the stem some distance into the nostril1 and blows a few whiffs into the nose4 ,the operation is then repeated with the other nostril4 ,swollen ,mouth ,is sometimes fatal4 ,it is said to be cured by daubing the lips and mouth plentifully with tar4--,albany ,cultivator4 ,foul ,noses4 ,dip a small swab into tar1 then roll in salt4 ,put some on the nose1 and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity4--,american ,far4 ,a disease indicated by drooping1 running at the eyes1 weakness in the back and loins1 inability to use the hind legs1 was removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobelia1 7,indian tobacco47 ,dried lobelia was also given1 and produced the same effect4--,cultivator4 ,scab4 ,this loathsome disease1 to which fine-woolled sheep are particularly liable1 is caused1 like itch in the human subject1 by a small insect1 a species of the acari4 ,it is first manifest by the rubbing of the sheep1 and soon after by one or more tufts of wool1 which is loosened at the roots4 ,on feeling the skin1 a hard1 dry tumor is perceptible4 ,to prevent contagion1 remove the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon as discovered4 ,remedies4--,the ,spanish shepherds dissolve a little salt in their mouth1 and drop it upon the infected part4 ,when the tumor has become enlarged1 the wool should be removed closely to the skin1 the scab scraped with a curry-comb1 then wash with strong soap-suds or ley1 and afterwards rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone1 mixed with lard or grease4 ,an effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of tobacco1 which add to #ab quarts ley from wood ashes of sufficient strength for washing1 and four quarts urine2 to this add another mixture of a gill high-wines2 #a_/d oz4 camphor2 #a_/d oz4 ,spanish brown1 and #a_/b gill spirits of turpentine4 ,a small quantity of this applied to the sore will never fail4 ,immediately after shearing1 scab may readily be cured by immersing the sheep1 7excepting the head17 in a strong decoction of tobacco liquor1 adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for the first1 and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each sheep1 enough to keep up the strength of the tobacco and turpentine1 and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly4 ,for lambs1 this liquor should be diluted1 but yet left strong enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes1 which may be ascertained by experiment4 ,scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound plug tobacco to three gallons of water1 with lime-water and oil of vitriol added2 or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar1 sulphur1 and spirits of turpentine4--7,h4 ,d4 ,grove47 ,scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts1 than by contact with each other4 ,sheep in low condition are more subject to it than others4 ,ticks and ,lice ,sometimes infest sheep4 ,good feeding and shelter is a partial preventive1 but when they have made their lodgment1 they must be dipped in a decoction of tobacco water4 ,the most effectual time for their destruction1 is a few days after shearing1 when they will have left the naked bodies of the old ewes1 to hide in the fleeces of the lambs4 ,the dipping in tobacco water1 with the addition of a small quantity of turpentine1 is an effectual remedy4 ,after dipping the sheep or lambs1 the liquor should be pressed out from the wool1 upon an inclined plane1 so arranged as again to run into the vessel4 ,pelt-rot ,will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our native sheep1 described on page #hi4 ,the wool in this case falls off1 leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked2 but this is not accompanied with soreness or apparent disease4 ,the animal must be provided with a warm stall and generous feed1 and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and grease4 ,the preventive is good keeping and shelter4 ,staggers or ,sturdy1 and ,water in the ,head1 ,sometimes affect sheep1 but more especially lambs under a year old4 ,the first is caused by the hydatid4 ,it is considered as an almost incurable disorder1 but is sometimes removed by trepanning4 ,chancellor ,livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked1 with food for three months1 when nature effected a cure4 ,removal to dry lands and purging1 is a good precaution when they are first taken4 ,an ,english lad lately cured one which had been given up1 by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head1 when the water rushed out1 and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture4 ,a correspondent of the ,albany ,cultivator asserts1 that #a_/b a pint of melted lard poured down the throat1 will cure blind staggers in ten minutes4 ,abortion ,occurs sometimes1 and is usually caused by excessive fright or exertion1 and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed4 ,it is seldom fatal1 except to the lamb4 ,the ,uterus ,is occasionally protruded after lambing4 ,it should be immediately returned1 first washing it in warm milk and water1 if any dirt adheres to it4 ,for this1 the hand only should be used4 ,after rubbing it with lard or oil1 hold up the hind legs1 and gently replace the protruded parts1 then keep the ewe quiet till fully recovered4 ,for ,garget1 or ,caked ,bag4 ,keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk1 for which purpose the lamb is the most efficient4 ,if it is lost1 another may be temporarily substituted4 ,purge freely with ,epsom salts1 and wash the udder repeatedly with very warm water4 ,if matter forms1 it should be opened with the lancet4 ,bleeding4 ,nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required1 as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice4 ,little impression can be made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood1 as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss1 which might1 for any good it will do1 as well be dispensed with4 ,either bleed rapidly1 or not at all4 ,the nearer the commencement of an ailment1 in which you employ bleeding1 the operation is resorted to1 the greater the chance of its doing good4 ,bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail1 does very well1 where no great deal of blood is required1 but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened4 ,these are to be taken in preference to a vein on the leg1 as they are much more readily got at4 ,the facial vein commences by small branches on the side of the face1 and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw1 where it may be felt within two inches of the angle1 or opposite the middle grinding tooth4 ,it is here that the orifice must be made3 the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein1 so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart1 will make it rise4 ,some prefer opening the jugular vein1 which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck4 ,this vessel is1 however1 more difficult to open than the former1 being better covered with wool1 and not so easily exposed or made to swell4 ,stringing is the mode commonly resorted to for this end2 that is to say1 a cord is drawn tightly round the neck close to the shoulder1 so as to stop the circulation through the vein1 and render it perceptible to the finger4 ,a lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding1 though a well-pointed penknife will do at a pinch4 ,the opening must always be made obliquely2 but before attempting this1 the animal must be secured1 by placing it between the operator's legs1 with its croup against a wall4 ,the selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand1 so as to prevent its rolling or slipping before the lancet4 ,having fairly entered the vein1 the point of the instrument must be elevated at the same time that it is pushed a little forward1 by which motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein4 ,a prescribed quantity of blood should never be drawn1 for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated4 ,if the symptoms are urgent1 as in all likelihood they will be1 your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall4 ,when this occurs1 run a pin through the edges of the orifice1 and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool4--7,blacklock47 ,large cuts are healed ,by first sewing and then covering with salve4 ,smaller ones may be secured with an adhesive plaster or bandage4 ,to protect lambs from wolves and foxes1 ,smear the neck plentifully with a mixture of tar and sulphur4 ,bells are also said to guard the flock1 as both are excessively wary1 and have a great dislike to any thing artificial4 ,large dogs will keep them at bay4 ,a better remedy is to kill the marauders1 which may be done by inserting strychnine in fresh meat and leaving it in their haunts4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,in nearly all ages and countries1 the horse has been the devoted servant1 and the object of the pride and affection of man4 ,among the semi-civilized ,tartars of ,middle and ,northern ,asia2 the aborigines of our remote ,western prairies1 reaching even beyond the ,rocky ,mountains1 and many other rude nations1 his flesh is used for food4 ,most of the tribes among the former use the milk for domestic purposes1 and especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly sour and intoxicating beverage4 ,but throughout the civilized world1 with some slight exceptions1 the horse is useful only for his labor4 ,for this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by his compact1 closely-knit frame2 his sinewy1 muscular limbs2 his easy1 rapid stride2 his general form1 and entire structure and habits4 ,he is found in his wild condition in ,central ,asia1 ,siberia1 and the interior of ,africa2 and for #cjj years he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable pampas of ,south ,america1 and the wide-spread prairies of ,mexico and ,california4 ,in all these regions he closely resembles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse2 but as the natural result of his freedom1 he possesses more fire and spirit than any other1 except the blood-horse4 ,arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of the horse1 and as the only source from which he is to be derived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the race4 ,but ,strabo1 who wrote more than #a1hjj years ago1 asserts that the horse did not then flourish in ,arabia1 and it was not till some centuries later that he attained any decided superiority there4 ,great attention1 however1 has been paid in that country1 since the era of ,mahomet1 to breeding a light1 agile1 and enduring frame2 intelligence and tractability of character2 and the perpetuation of these qualities by the most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood4 ,this is equally true of the ,barb or pure-bred horse of ,morocco1 and those of the northern coast of ,africa1 in ,egypt1 among the ,turks1 and indeed wherever the followers of the ,prophet are to be found4 ,it is unquestionable1 that the influence of the ,eastern blood among the choicest animals of modern ,europe1 has been followed by great improvements in racing stock4 ,yet it is equally certain1 that the race-horse1 both of ,england and the ,united ,states1 has accomplished what has never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progenitors2 and on repeated trials with the ,eastern horses1 he has shown himself confessedly their superior in speed1 strength1 and endurance4 ,in #ahbe1 two ,english horses ran against the two fleetest ,cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region of their best blood1 and in a continued race of #dg miles1 the ,european took the stakes2 ,sharper1 the most successful1 performing the distance in #b hours and #dh minutes4 ,about the same time1 ,recruit1 an ,english horse of moderate reputation1 easily beat ,pyramus1 the best ,arabian on the ,bengal side of ,india4 ,the ,leeds1 the ,darley1 and the ,godolphin ,arabian2 the ,lister and ,d',arcey's ,white ,turk1 and other noted ,eastern horses1 would not compare in performance with many of their descendants4 ,but these1 with some other choice ,arabians1 on the best mares1 and with every advantage for obtaining celebrity1 have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has been enduring4 ,yet it must at the same time be remembered1 that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have been tried in ,europe1 a few only have rescued their names from oblivion4 ,the experience of ,eastern blood in this country1 in comparison with the best ,english1 is decidedly in favor of the latter4 ,we have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence1 which a fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous to #aggj4 ,this was the white ,barb ,ranger1 which was presented by the ,emperor of ,morocco1 as the choice of his stud1 to an ,english naval officer for some distinguished service4 ,on his route homeward1 the animal was set on shore for exercise at an intermediate port1 where in his gambols he broke three of his legs1 and thinking him worthless1 his owner gave him to the commander of a ,new ,england merchantman1 then present4 ,he was readily accepted1 and placed in slings on board of his vessel1 and recovered4 ,this animal stood for many years1 in the eastern part of ,connecticut2 and on their good mares1 produced a numerous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses1 which rendered invaluable services in the troop commanded by that consummate partisan1 ,captain 7afterwards ,general7 ,lee1 of the ,revolution4 ,it is said the favorite white field-horse of ,general ,washington was of the same stock4 ,he was afterwards sold to ,captain ,lindsey1 as a special favor1 and taken1 to ,virginia1 where he produced some good racers4 ,bussorah1 a small sorrel horse1 brought into this country in #ahai1 from the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 got many choice roadsters1 though no racers of celebrity4 ,the ,narraganset pacers1 a race belonging to our ,northern states1 but for many years almost extinct1 possessed for a long time an unrivalled reputation for spirit1 endurance1 and easy rapid motion under the saddle4 ,they are said to have originated from a ,spanish horse1 many of which are pure descendants of the ,barb4 ,as an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country1 we have numerous instances of the importation of the best ,orientals1 which have been extensively used on some of our superior mares1 without any marked effect4 ,we shall refer to three prominent importations only4 ,the first consisted of two choice ,arabians1 or ,barbs1 selected in ,tunis by ,general ,eaton1 and sent to his estate in ,massachusetts4 ,the second was a present of four choice ,barbs1 from the ,emperor of ,morocco to our government1 in #ahcj2 and the third consisted of two ,arabians1 sent by the ,imaum of ,muscat1 near the ,persian ,gulf1 to our government in #ahdj4 ,these were all claimed to be1 and no doubt were1 of the pure ,kochlani1 the unadulterated line royal2 yet none have earned any distinguished reputation1 either by their own performances or those of their descendants4 ,it is to ,england we are mainly indebted for the great improvement in our blood1 road1 and farm horses4 ,a numerous race of fine horses was reared on that island1 long previous to its authentic history2 for1 in his first invasion ,julius ,caesar took many of them to ,rome1 where they immediately became great favorites1 although she had already plundered every region of some of their best breeds4 ,what might have been the particular merit of the ,english horse at the time of the ,norman invasion1 is not known1 but it is certain that the ,saxon cavalry under ,harold were speedily overpowered by ,william1 at the battle of ,hastings1 which at once secured the throne to the ,conqueror4 ,history first informs us of the improvement of ,british horses1 by importations from abroad during this reign1 which consisted of a number of ,spanish stallions4 ,these were supposed to be strongly imbued with the ,arabian blood1 which had been brought over to that country by the ,moors1 who had founded the ,saracenic empire in the ,peninsula1 three centuries before4 ,more than a century later1 ,john made some importations from ,flanders1 to give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses4 ,the improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pursued1 with more or less judgment and zeal1 by other ,british monarchs1 till they reached their highest excellence during the middle of the last century4 ,flying ,childers1 ,eclipse1 ,highflyer1 and others on the course1 have probably exceeded in speed anything ever before accomplished2 while the draught-horse1 the roadster1 the hackney1 the cavalry-horse1 and the hunter1 attained a merit at that time which some judicious authorities claim has not been since increased4 ,it is even asserted1 that some of the more serviceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of the blood2 while the almost universal absence of long heats on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather than bottom in the race-horse4 ,the improvement of the horse in this country has not been a matter of record or history1 till within a comparatively recent period4 ,but it has silently1 and with no little rapidity1 been going forward for more than a century1 till we have obtained a race of animals1 throughout the ,eastern and ,middle states at least1 which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness to draught1 the road1 and the saddle4 ,this improvement has been mainly brought about by the importation of some of the best and stoutest of the ,english blood4 ,in breeding from these for purposes of utility1 particular reference has been paid to strength1 enduringness1 and speed4 ,no horses surpass our best four-mile bloods2 none equal our trotters2 and though much inequality exists in those bred for various other uses1 yet for profitable service1 it is believed1 no equal number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region above indicated4 ,it would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all the imported horses that have contributed to this improvement4 ,each good animal has done something4 ,but among the earlier horses which may be named with distinction1 as having effected much for our useful beasts1 are ,lath1 ,wildair1 ,slender1 ,sourkrout1 ,tallyho1 ,figure1 ,bay ,richmond1 ,expedition1 ,baronet1 and a host of others4 ,pre-eminent among these1 was imported ,messenger4 ,he was foaled in #aghj1 imported in #aghh1 and died in #ahjh4 ,he stood in different places in ,new ,jersey1 and in ,dutchess1 ,westchester1 and ,queens counties in ,new ,york2 and upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses1 he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants4 ,of these we may name those capital stallions1 ,potomac1 ,hamlintonian1 ,bay ,figure1 ,engineer1 ,mambrino1 ,tippoo ,saib1 ,columbus1 ,gunn's1 and ,bushe's ,messenger1 and many others1 which were extensively disseminated over the ,northern and ,middle states2 and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to that nonpareil of horses1 his grandson1 ,american ,eclipse4 ,his posterity were so numerous and widely spread1 that it may be safely asserted1 that of the best horses bred in the above states1 scarcely one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire4 ,his success in producing roadsters1 besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance1 consisted in his great strength1 and the peculiar formation of his limbs1 large forehand and deep quarters1 in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods4 ,as an illustration of what may be accomplished by judicious breeding with the present materials in our hands1 we mention one family of the ,american roadster1 which is strongly tinctured with blood1 and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the choicest of the ,northern horses4 ,they are derived from the ,morgan horse of ,vermont1 that was foaled in ,springfield1 ,mass41 in #agic4 ,he was got by ,true ,britton1 supposed to have been bred by ,gen4 ,delancey of ,new ,york1 and got by imported ,wildair1 7or one of his sons17 a horse of such distinguished excellence1 as to have been re-exported to ,england1 for the benefit of his stock4 ,the ,morgan horse stood in ,vermont from #agie till his death1 at an advanced age4 ,from him and the choice mares of ,vermont1 descended many excellent colts2 and his merits were inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons1 which stood in the same state and continued the career of improvement commenced by the sire4 ,the result has been the production of a family of roadsters1 of much similarity of appearance#c and uniformity of character1 unsurpassed by any others for serviceable qualities4 #c ,many of the ,morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast and neck1 which indicate a ,norman cross on the side of their dams4 ,these have been largely imparted through the ,french horse in the adjoining ,canadian settlements1 but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the race4 ,they are of medium size1 from #aca_/b to #ae hands high2 with a well-formed head and neck2 high withers2 deep chest2 round body2 short back2 long quarters2 broad flat legs2 moderately small feet2 long wavy mane and tail2 presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse4 ,they are spirited1 docile1 hardy1 and easily kept4 ,they have an easy1 rapid trot1 and glide along with a good load1 without clatter or apparent effort1 at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour4 ,this family of horses has not of course been bred long enough within themselves1 to have attained to the eminence of a distinct breed4 ,they are mentioned1 merely as a type of what the serviceable roadster ought to be1 and what he may become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding4 ,and if the materials already in our hands are intelligently and perseveringly used1 we can produce all we require of horse-flesh4 ,besides our unsurpassed blood-horses1 we have others derived from various sources1 and especially from the different ,english breeds1 all of which are variously compounded1 with the first and with each other4 ,on our northeastern frontier1 the ,canadian prevails1 a bastard but not degenerate race1 made up of the ,french ,norman and the ,english or ,american4 ,at the extreme ,south and ,west1 we have the horse of ,spanish origin1 obtained in his domestic state in ,florida and ,louisiana2 and from another branch of the ,spanish1 are descended the wild horses of ,mexico and the more northern prairies4 ,these are diversified in character1 and generally possess medium size and merit4 ,the ,conestoga1 a heavy roadster1 is principally reared in ,pennsylvania1 and is used for the team and truck4 ,he is an amalgamation of several breeds1 but probably owes a share of his character to the ,flemish horse1 for which there was a decided partiality among the numerous ,german emigrants of that state4 ,several varieties of ponies are to be found in different sections1 but principally among the ,french1 the half-breed1 and the ,indians upon the frontiers1 who have bred a stunted race from the ,canadian or wild-horse1 and such others as could survive the hard usage and scanty winter food afforded by nature and their rude husbandry4 ,many of these have considerable beauty and symmetry1 and are fleet1 hardy1 and spirited4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,norman ,horse4 ,the modern ,norman1 or mixture of the old ,french ,norman draught-horse1 7heavy-framed1 big-limbed1 but stout and hardy17 and the ,andalusian1 a descendant of the ,moorish barbs1 has been introduced within a few years1 and will unquestionably become a very popular horse for many purposes4 ,he exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper proportions for farm service4 ,he has a thick head2 lively1 prick ears2 short1 heavy neck2 large breast and shoulders2 strong limbs2 well-knit back2 large quarters1 with much wavy mane1 tail1 and fetlock4 ,like his ,french progenitor1 he frequently stands low in the withers1 which enables him to throw great weight into the collar2 and the diminished1 flattened leg1 the wind and game derived from his ,moorish blood1 give him much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred4 ,the ,english cart-horse has for a long time made up some of the best1 heavy dray-horses in the country1 and late importations have refreshed the breed with additional choice specimens4 ,the ,cleveland bay has been introduced of late1 and promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread1 sizeable mares4 ,the ,norfolk trotter ,belfounder was imported many years since1 and with our high-bred mares1 has produced many choice roadsters and trotters4 ,the remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice1 is chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood4 ,the improvement in the ,american horse1 from this source1 is conspicuous and decided4 ,judicious breeders still look for qualities in the descendants1 which they sought for in their imported sires1 and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock4 ,our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely1 and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses1 as has been done in some portions of ,england and our ,southern states4 ,there is no danger from excess of blood1 if it be of the right kind2 but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stoutness1 and that docility and tractableness of disposition1 which are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work4 ,yorke says truly1 that the road-horse may possess different degrees of blood1 according to the nature of the country and the work required of him4 ,he might have added with propriety1 and according to the character of the blood4 ,his legs will be too slender2 his feet too small2 his stride too long1 and he will rarely be able to trot4 ,three parts1 or half1 and for the horse of all work1 even less than that1 will make a good and useful animal4 ,for the saddle only1 the high-bred1 if not disposed to be vicious1 is never objectionable to an enterprising and accomplished rider4 ,his long elastic pasterns1 giving easy1 flexible motions2 his quick and almost electrical obedience when under thorough discipline2 his habitual canter and high spirit1 always commend him for this purpose4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,points of a ,horse4 #a4 ,muzzle4--#b4 ,race4--#c4 ,forehead4--#d4 ,poll4--#e4 ,crest4--#f4 ,withers4--#g4 ,back4--#h4 ,loins4--#i4 ,hip4--#aj4 ,croup4--#aa4 ,dock4--#ab4 ,quarter4--#ac4 ,thigh1 or ,gaskin4--#ad4 ,ham-string4--#ae4 ,point of the ,hock4--#af4 ,cannon4--#ag4 ,fetlock4--#ah4 ,large ,pastern4--#ai4 ,small ,pastern4--#bj4 ,hoof4--#ba4 ,coronet4--#bb4 ,ham1 or ,hock4--#bc4 ,sheath4--#bd4 ,flank4--#be4 ,girth4--#bf4 ,elbow4--#bg4 ,heel4--#bh4 ,hoof4--#bi4 ,small ,pastern4--#cj4 ,large ,pastern4--#ca4 ,fetlock4--#cb4 ,cannon4--#cc4 ,knee4--#cd4 ,arm4--#ce4 ,breast1 or ,bosom4--#cf4 ,point of the ,shoulder4--#cg4 ,windpipe4--#ch4 ,gullet4--#ci4 ,jowl4 ,some of the prominent external points of a fine ,saddle or ,gig ,horse1 ,are1 a moderately small head1 free from fleshiness2 fine muzzle and expansive nostrils2 broad at the throat and wide between the eyes1 which denotes intelligence and courage2 a dished face indicates high breeding1 and sometimes viciousness2 a convex or ,roman nose frequently betokens the reverse2 the ears rather long1 yet so finely formed as to appear small1 and playing quickly like those of a deer2 the eyes clear1 full1 and confident1 with a steady forward look4 ,glancing them backward or askance with a sinister expression1 and with none or only a slight movement of the head1 is indicative of a mischievous temper4 ,the neck should be handsomely arched1 and fine at the junction with the head1 while the lower extremity must be full and muscular1 and well expanded at the breast and shoulders4 ,the latter ought to be high and run well back2 the withers strong1 firmly knit1 and smooth2 the breast neither too prominent nor retreating1 too wide nor too narrow1 and supported by a pair of straight fore-legs1 standing well apart4 ,the chest should be deep1 and the girth large2 the body full1 and not drawn up too much in the flank2 the back short1 and the hips gathered well towards the withers2 the loins wide and rising above the spine2 the ribs springing nearly at right angles from the back1 giving roundness to the body4 ,the hips ought to be long to the root of the tail1 and the latter may approach to near the line of the back1 which is a mark of good breeding4 ,both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular2 and between the hock or knee and pastern1 the legs should be broad1 flat1 and short2 the hind legs properly bent1 and all well placed under the body2 the pasterns of moderate length1 and standing slightly oblique2 the hoof hard1 smooth1 round before1 and wide at the heel2 the frog large and sound2 and the sole firm and concave4 ,a white hoof is generally tender1 easy to fracture and to lame1 and difficult to hold a shoe4 ,the draught-horse ought to differ from the foregoing1 in possessing a heavier and shorter neck2 a wider and stouter breast1 and low withers1 so as to throw the utmost weight into the collar2 a heavier body and quarters2 larger legs and feet2 and more upright shoulders and pasterns4 ,considerations which affect the ,value of the ,horse4 ,the color is not material1 provided it be not pied or mealy4 ,no better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or brown1 with black mane1 tail1 and legs4 ,but most of the other colors are frequently found with the best horses4 ,hard-mouthed horses1 when accompanied with great spirit1 are objectionable1 as they require peculiar bitting and the utmost vigilance4 ,the paces and action of a horse are important1 for if good they give a much greater capacity for performance4 ,some of these depend on form and structure1 and are unchangeable2 others are the result of breaking4 ,all horses should be taught to walk fast1 as it is their easiest and most economical pace1 and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a day1 even with a heavy load1 and with comparatively little effort4 ,a horse that steps short and digs his toes into the ground1 is worthless as a traveller1 and suited only to a ferry-boat or bark-mill4 ,it is important that a horse be good-tempered4 ,if inclined to viciousness1 he should be gently yet firmly managed when it is first apparent4 ,a resort to great severity will be justified1 if necessary to conquer him2 for if once allowed to become a habit1 it will be difficult to cure him4 ,grooms and mischievous stable-boys1 frequently do much injury by their idle tricks with horses2 and when detected1 they should be discharged at once4 ,some horses are nervous1 easily excited1 and start at every unusual noise or object4 ,others are restive and fretful1 and ever anxious to be on the move4 ,kindness1 and firm1 yet mild treatment1 by which their motions and will are at all times controlled1 and their confidence secured1 are the only remedies4 ,others are inclined to sluggishness4 ,these should have stimulating food1 and never be overloaded or overworked1 and then kept well to their paces4 ,whatever they are capable of performing1 can be got from them in this way only4 ,habit has great influence with animals1 as with man2 and when within the compass of his ability1 he may be habituated to any reasonable physical exertion4 ,breeding4 ,agreeably to the general principles before enumerated1 such animals should be selected1 as most eminently possess those points which it is desired to propagate1 and these1 they should not only exhibit in themselves1 but should inherit as far as possible1 from a long line of ancestry4 ,for the perpetuation of particular points in progeny1 it would be safer to rely on the latter quality than the former4 ,the selection of a mare1 relatively larger than the horse1 is an important rule in breeding1 and it is believed that much of the success of ,arabian and other ,eastern horses as stock-getters1 has resulted from the application of this principle4 ,they possess valuable traits1 but condensed within too small a compass4 ,when such an animal is put to a well-bred1 larger mare1 the foetus has abundance of room and nourishment to develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male parent1 and acquire for itself increased volume and character4 ,the horse ought not to be less than four or five1 and the mare one year older1 before being put to breeding4 ,it would be still better to defer it for two or three years1 or till the frame is fully matured4 ,the ,gestation of the ,mare ,sometimes varies from #dd to #ef weeks1 but she usually goes with young from #dg to #ej2 and it is advisable she should take the horse at a time which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled1 and there is a fresh growth of grass4 ,she will be the better for light working till near the time of foaling1 if well1 but not too abundantly fed4 ,in a few days after this1 she may resume moderate labor2 and if not in the way or troublesome1 the foal may run with her2 but if she is exposed to heating1 it should be confined till she cools1 as suckling then is decidedly injurious to it4 ,the mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and over-exertion1 the use of smutty grain1 foul hay1 or offensive objects or smell2 and when this has once occurred1 which happens usually in the fourth or fifth month1 she should afterwards be generously fed at that period1 and only moderately worked1 to prevent a recurrence of the casualty4 ,when liable to slinking1 the mare should be removed from others in foal1 lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic4 ,the ,mare comes in ,heat ,from nine to eleven days after foaling1 when she should be put to the horse1 if it be desirable to have a colt the following season4 ,she comes round at intervals of about nine days4 ,management of the ,colt4 ,the colt may be weaned when five to seven months old2 and preparatory to this1 while with the mare1 may be taught to feed on fine hay1 meal1 or oats4 ,when taken away1 he should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam1 and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay1 crushed oats1 or wheat shorts4 ,it is economy to provide a warm shelter through the inclement season for all animals1 and especially for colts1 which1 with all other young1 should have an abundance of nutritious food4 ,they will thus grow evenly and rapidly1 and attain a size and stamina at two years old1 they would not otherwise have acquired at three4 ,castrating4 ,the colt should be altered at about one year1 but if thin in the neck and light before1 the operation may be deferred to such time as the requisite development is secured4 ,few of the ,french diligence and farm horses1 and scarcely any of the ,oriental1 are ever castrated4 ,they are thought to be more hardy and enduring2 but the slight advantage they may possibly possess in this respect1 would hardly compensate for the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their management4 ,the operation should be performed late in the spring or early in autumn1 while the weather is mild4 ,if in high condition1 the animal must first be bled and physicked4 ,if large and fractious1 he must be cast4 ,some back him into the angle of a worm fence1 where he is firmly held by the head with a bridle1 and the operator accomplishes the object without any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while standing4 ,the scrotum should be opened on both sides1 and the testicles cut1 or rather the cord scraped off1 which prevents much bleeding4 ,the wound may be dressed with a little lard2 then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter from sun1 wind1 or rain4 ,another method of castrating is by torsion1 or twisting4 ,docking ,is practised by many1 but merely to gratify an absurd and cruel caprice1 without a single advantage1 and the animal is better in every respect with the tail unmutilated4 ,if done at all1 it should be when young1 and with a single stroke of the knife1 or chisel and mallet2 and if the weather be favorable1 no further attention is necessary4 ,nicking4 ,this inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable1 and we omit any description of it4 ,breaking4 ,while feeding in the stable1 the colt should be gently treated1 and accustomed to the halter and bit1 which prepares him for breaking4 ,if permitted to run with the others while at work1 he becomes familiarized to it1 and when harnessed by the side of some of his well-trained mates1 he seems to consider his discipline rather a privilege than a task4 ,the colt may be taken in hand for breaking at three years of age1 and thoroughly broken to light work at four1 but should not be put to hard service till six or eight4 ,a due regard to humanity and sound judgment1 in thus limiting the burden in his early years1 would save much disease and suffering to the animal1 and profit to the owner1 by his unimpaired strength and prolonged life4 ,the annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enormous1 which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to grasp the substance1 while as yet the shadow only is within reach4 ,many animals are thus broken down at twelve1 and are in their dotage at fifteen1 while others of good constitution1 if well treated1 perform hard service till thirty4 ,longevity of the ,horse4 ,mr4 ,percival mentions one that died at #fb4 ,mr4 ,mauran1 of ,new ,york1 has a fine gig and saddle horse1 now in his #deth year1 sound1 spirited1 and playful as a kitten4 ,he is of a dark brown1 with a tanned nose4 ,we never yet saw a horse with a buff or bear muzzle1 that had not great endurance4 ,american ,eclipse was successfully covering mares in ,kentucky at the age of #cb1 the result of late and light service till his sinews became fully matured4 ,we have frequently seen a large1 compact1 flea-bitten horse at work1 dragging a heavy load in a single cart1 which was formerly used as one of ,governor ,maitland's coach-horses1 and though upwards of #cj1 he was apparently as sound and vigorous as an overtasked colt of seven or eight4 ,feeding4 ,the vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper feeding4 ,like the cow and sheep1 he may be made to subsist on animal food1 fish1 and almost every species of nutritious vegetable4 ,but his natural and proper aliment is the grasses1 grain1 and roots4 ,in the middle and northern sections of this country1 his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow-hay1 generally timothy1 which is the richest of the cultivated grasses4 ,at the ,south1 this is often supplied by the blades of ,indian corn4 ,but in all the states1 a great variety of the grasses and clover are used4 ,when put to hard labor1 grain ought always to accompany hay in some form4 ,of the different kinds of grain1 oats are peculiarly the horse's food1 and they are always safe1 digestible1 and nutritive4 ,barley is the best substitute for it4 ,wheat and ,indian corn are sometimes given1 but both are unsuitable2 the first is too concentrated1 and the last too heating4 ,they ought to be sparingly used1 and only when ground and mixed with chaff4 ,the offal of wheat is never objectionable4 ,grain is always more advantageously fed when ground or crushed1 and wet some time previous to eating2 and it is still better when cooked4 ,on both sides of the ,mediterranean1 in the ,barbary ,states1 in ,spain1 ,france1 and ,italy1 much of the food is given in small baked cakes1 and the saving in this way is much greater than the expense of preparing it4 ,when confined to dry food1 roots or apples fed once a day are always beneficial4 ,they keep the bowels open1 the appetite and general health good1 and contribute largely to the nutriment of the animal4 ,carrots are the best of the roots1 as besides giving muscle and working power1 they1 more than any other1 improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves4 ,they have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough4 ,by many of the keepers of livery stables1 they are always used1 for which purpose they command the same price as oats4 ,potatoes1 parsnips1 beets1 and ,swedes turnips1 in the order mentioned1 are next to be preferred4 ,potatoes are improved by cooking4 ,mixtures of food are best1 as of cut hay1 meal1 and roots4 ,old horses1 or such as are put to hard labor1 will do much better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion4 ,no inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of dry1 raw food4 ,horses ought to be fed1 and if possible1 exercised or worked regularly1 but never on a full stomach4 ,this is a frequent cause of disease1 and especially of broken wind4 ,if their food is given at the proper time1 and the horse be allowed to finish it at once1 without expecting more1 he will lie down quietly and digest it4 ,this will be much more refreshing to him1 than to stand at the rack or trough1 nibbling continually at his hay or oats4 ,what remains after he has done feeding1 should be at once withdrawn4 ,they should have water in summer three times1 and in winter twice a day4 ,soft or running water is much the best4 ,while working1 and they are not too warm1 they may have it as often as they desire4 ,neither should they be fed when heated1 as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly inflamed1 and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool4 ,salt should always be within reach1 and we have found an occasional handful of clean wood-ashes1 a preventive of disease and an assistance to the bowels and appetite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,skeleton of a ,horse4 ,a ,the ,head4--a ,the posterior maxillary or under jaw4--b ,the superior maxillary or upper jaw4 ,a little lower down than the letter is a foramen1 through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part of the face4--c ,the orbit1 or cavity containing the eye4--d ,the nasal bones1 or bones of the nose4--e ,the suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital bones above4--f ,the inferior maxillary bone1 containing the upper incisor teeth4--,b ,the ,seven ,cervical ,vertebrae1 or bones of the neck4--,c ,the ,eighteen ,dorsal ,vertebrae1 or bones of the back4--,d ,the ,six ,lumbar ,vertebrae1 or bones of the loins4--,e ,the ,five ,sacral ,vertebrae1 or bones of the haunch4--,f ,the ,caudal ,vertebrae1 or bones of the tail1 generally about fifteen4--,g ,the ,scapula1 or shoulder-blade4--,h ,the ,sternum1 or fore-part of the chest4--,i ,the ,costae or ribs1 seven or eight articulating with the sternum1 and called the true ribs2 and ten or eleven united together by cartilage1 called the false ribs4--,j ,the ,humerus1 or upper bone of the arm4--,k ,the ,radius1 or upper bone of the arm4--,l ,the ,ulna1 or elbow4 ,the point of the elbow is called the ,olecranon4--,m ,the ,carpus1 or knee1 consisting of seven bones4--,n ,the metacarpal bones4 ,the larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front1 and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind4--g ,the fore pastern and foot1 consisting of the ,os ,suffraginis1 or the upper and larger pastern bone1 with the sesamoid bones behind1 articulating with the cannon and greater pastern2 the ,os ,coronae1 or lesser pastern2 the ,os ,pedis1 or coffin-bone2 and the ,os ,naviculare1 or navicular1 or shuttle-bone1 not seen1 and articulating with the smaller pastern and coffin-bones4--h ,the corresponding bones of the hind-feet4--,o ,the ,haunch1 consisting of three portions3 the ,ilium1 the ,ischium1 and the ,pubis4--,p ,the ,femur1 or thigh4--,q ,the stifle joint with the ,patella4--,r ,the ,tibia1 or proper leg bone2 behind is a small bone called the fibula--,s ,the ,tarsus1 or hock1 composed of six bones4 ,the prominent part is the ,os ,calcis1 or point of the ,hock4--,t ,the ,metatarsals of the hind leg4 ,,diseases4 ,the list is long and fearful1 and even the brief one subjoined1 will be found sufficiently great to inculcate the utmost caution in their management4 ,the horse in his natural condition is subject to few ailments4 ,it is only in his intensely artificial state1 and when made the slave of man1 that he becomes a prey to disease in almost every shape4 ,a careful and judicious attention to his diet1 water1 exercise1 stable1 and general management1 will prevent many of those to which he is subject4 ,glanders4 ,this is one of the most alarming4 ,the first and most marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character4 ,the disease produces inflammation there and in the windpipe1 and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs1 which are soon destroyed4 ,it is propagated by contagion1 by exposure in humid stables1 and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaustion4 ,youatt says1 there is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders4 ,the poison resides in the nasal discharge1 not in the breath4 ,when exposed to it1 the mangers should be thoroughly scraped1 washed with soap and water1 and afterwards with chloride of lime4 ,all the clothing and harness1 which may have received any of the contagious matter1 must be thoroughly cleansed and baked4 ,the best preventives are dry1 clean1 and well-ventilated stables1 proper exercise1 green food in summer1 and roots in winter4 ,the disease may be arrested in its early stages1 by turning the animal on a dry pasture1 but it is liable to return on subsequent confinement4 ,iodine has lately been announced as a remedy1 but of the certainty of its effects1 we are not aware4 ,it is generally considered incurable1 and when thoroughly seated1 it may be deemed an act both of humanity and economy to terminate the existence of its victim at once4 ,this course becomes a duty1 from the fact that many grooms1 by their attendance on glandered horses1 have been affected1 and though the disease is1 in their case1 more manageable1 yet it is frequently fatal4 ,farcy4 ,this is intimately connected with glanders1 and the diseases frequently run into each other4 ,lampas4 ,this consists in the swelling of the bars of the mouth to a level or even above the teeth4 ,it may occur from inflammation of the gums2 shedding of the teeth2 a febrile tendency1 and from over-feeding or want of exercise4 ,it will generally subside by low dieting and proper exercise2 or it may be at once relieved by lancing the bars with a sharp penknife4 ,poll-evil4 ,this arises from some contusion or injury to the head1 which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates4 ,the inflammation may be abated1 in its earliest stages1 by a blister2 and in its later1 by bleeding1 physic1 and cold lotions applied to the part4 ,if these are ineffectual1 and the swelling continues1 it should be hastened by poultices1 and warm1 stimulating lotions2 and when fully formed1 the tumor must be opened1 so as to permit all the matter to run out4 ,repeated applications of salt will sometimes cure it4 ,heaves4 ,all those affections1 distinguished in the ,english veterinary works as pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs1 chronic cough1 thick and broken wind1 consumption1 c41 are popularly designated as heaves4 ,to some or all of these the horse may have an hereditary or constitutional tendency4 ,their incipient stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to cold1 and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables2 and by a chilly wind or damp stables1 especially after severe exercise4 ,feeding on musty1 dry hay1 or on straw1 will produce an irritation which may lead to heaves4 ,inflammation of the lungs is frequently dangerous1 and requires the immediate and full use of the lancet4 ,after the inflammation is decidedly allayed1 by copious bleeding1 small doses of aloes may be given1 and frequent injections of warm soap and water1 which should be omitted the moment the feces become soft and approaching to the fluid state4 ,blistering the sides and brisket1 to be often repeated if otherwise ineffectual1 must be resorted to4 ,convalescence should be followed with sedative medicines1 and during all the severe stages of the disease1 withhold all food1 except light gruels after protracted abstinence4 ,as health returns1 put the animal out to grass4 ,inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a chronic cough1 and the other maladies enumerated4 ,when firmly seated1 it is incapable of removal4 ,its effects can be alleviated1 and with suitable food and treatment1 the horse may be made to do much moderate labor for many years1 but he can never become sound or sustain great exertion4 ,equal and proper temperature1 moist1 stimulating food1 and especially carrots or potatoes1 and moderate exercise1 7but never on a full stomach17 and dry1 clean stables1 are all the remedies that can be prescribed4 ,catarrh or ,horse ,distemper4 ,this sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall1 and is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat1 a cough2 difficulty of swallowing2 discharging at the nose2 and general prostration4 ,it is seldom fatal1 if properly managed4 ,give light bran-mashes1 purge thoroughly1 and keep warm4 ,if he is violently attacked1 he may be bled while fever exists2 and blisters or setons may be applied1 to reduce the swelling1 if extreme4 ,the disease is contagious1 and the animal should be at once placed where he cannot communicate it4 ,spasmodic ,colic4 ,symptoms4--,the attack of colic is usually very sudden4 ,there is often not the slightest warning4 ,the horse begins to shift his posture1 look round at his flanks1 paw violently1 strike his belly with his feet1 and crouch in a peculiar manner1 advancing his hind limbs under him2 he will then suddenly lie1 or rather fall down1 and balance himself upon his back1 with his feet resting on his belly4 ,the pain now seems to cease for a little while1 and he gets up and shakes himself1 and begins to feed2 the respite1 however1 is but short--the spasm returns more violently--every indication of pain is increased--he heaves at the flanks1 breaks out into a profuse perspiration1 and throws himself more recklessly about4 ,in the space of an hour or two1 either the spasms begin to relax1 and the remissions are of longer duration1 or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm2 the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked1 and inflammation and death supervene4 ,the pulse is but little affected at the commencement1 but it soon becomes frequent and contracted1 and at length is scarcely tangible4 ,among the causes of colic are1 the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated4 ,there is not a surer origin of violent spasm than this4 ,hard water is very apt to produce this effect4 ,colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise4 ,green food1 although1 generally speaking1 most beneficial to the horse1 yet1 given in too large a quantity1 or when he is hot1 will frequently produce gripes4 ,doses of aloes1 both large and small1 are not unfrequent causes of colic4 ,in some horses there seems to be a constitutional predisposition to colic4 ,they cannot be hardly worked1 or exposed to unusual cold1 without a fit of it4 ,in many cases1 when these horses have died1 calculi have been found in some part of the alimentary canal4 ,habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi1 are frequent causes of spasmodic colic4 ,the seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum1 but oftener the ileum or the jejunum2 sometimes1 however1 both the caecum and colon are affected4 ,fortunately1 we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms2 and the disease often ceases as suddenly as it appeared4 ,remedies4--,turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies1 especially in union with opium1 and in good warm ale4 ,a solution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpentine and opium4 ,if relief is not obtained in half an hour1 it will be prudent to bleed1 for the continuance of violent spasm may produce inflammation4 ,some practitioners bleed at first1 and it is far from bad practice2 for although the majority of cases will yield to turpentine1 opium1 and aloes1 an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the recurrence of inflammation1 or at least mitigate it4 ,if it is clearly a case of colic1 half of the first dose may be repeated1 with aloes dissolved in warm water4 ,the stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative1 may counteract the irritation that caused the spasm4 ,the belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth1 but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over it1 with all their strength1 by two great fellows4 ,the horse should be walked about or trotted moderately4 ,the motion thus produced in the bowels1 and the friction of one intestine over the other1 may relax the spasm1 but the hasty gallop might speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic4 ,clysters of warm water1 or containing a solution of aloes1 should be injected4 ,the patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful4 ,a clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a last resort4 ,when relief has been obtained1 the clothing of the horse1 saturated with perspiration1 should be removed1 and fresh and dry clothes substituted4 ,he should be well littered down in a warm stable or box1 and have bran mashes and lukewarm water for the two or three next days4 ,some persons give gin1 or gin and pepper1 or even spirit of pimento1 in cases of gripes4 ,this course of proceeding is1 however1 exceedingly objectionable4 ,it may be useful1 or even sufficient1 in ordinary cases of colic2 but if there should be any inflammation1 or tendency to inflammation1 it cannot fail to be highly injurious4 ,flatulent ,colic4 ,this is altogether a different disease from the former4 ,it is not spasm of the bowels1 but inflation of them1 from the presence of gas emitted by undigested food4 ,whether collected in the stomach1 or small or large intestines1 all kinds of vegetable matter are liable to ferment4 ,in consequence of this fermentation gas is evolved to a greater or less extent--perhaps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food4 ,this may take place in the stomach2 and if so1 the life of the horse is in immediate danger1 for the animal has no power to expel this dangerous flatus by eructation4 ,the symptoms1 according to ,professor ,stewart1 are1 ,the horse suddenly slackening his pace1 preparing to lie down1 or falling down1 as if he were shot4 ,in the stable he paws the ground with his fore-feet1 lies down1 rolls1 starts up all at once1 and throws himself down again with great violence1 looking wistfully at his flanks1 and making many fruitless attempts to void his urine4 ,the treatment is considerably different from that of spasmodic colic4 ,the spirit of pimento would be here allowed1 or the turpentine and opium drink2 but if the pain1 and especially the swelling1 do not abate1 the gas1 which is the cause of it1 must be got rid of1 or the animal is inevitably lost4 ,this is usually1 or almost invariably1 a combination of hydrogen with some other gas4 ,it has a strong affinity for chlorine4 ,then if some compound of chlorine--the chloride of lime--dissolved in water1 is administered in the form of a drink1 the chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact with the hydrogen1 and muriatic gas is formed4 ,this gas1 having a strong affinity for water1 is absorbed by any fluid that may be present1 and1 quitting its gaseous form1 either disappears1 or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk4 ,all this may be very rapidly accomplished1 for the fluid is quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intestinal canal4 ,where these two medicines are not at hand1 and the danger is imminent1 the trochar may be used1 in order to open a way for the escape of the gas4 ,the trochar should be small1 but longer than that which is used for the cow1 and the puncture should be made in the middle of the right flank1 for there the large intestines are most easily reached4 ,it is only when the practitioner despairs of otherwise saving the life of the animal1 that this operation should be attempted4 ,much of the danger would be avoided by using a very small trochar1 and by withdrawing it as soon as the gas has escaped4 ,the wound in the intestines will then probably close1 from the innate elasticity of the parts4 ,inflammation of the ,bowels4 ,there are two varieties of this malady4 ,the first is inflammation of the external coats of the intestines1 accompanied by considerable fever1 and usually costiveness4 ,the second is that of the internal or mucous coat1 and almost invariably connected with purging4 ,the muscular coat is that which is oftenest affected4 ,inflammation of the external coats of the stomach1 whether the peritoneal or muscular1 or both1 is a very frequent and fatal disease4 ,it speedily runs its course1 and it is of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known4 ,symptoms4--,if the horse has been carefully observed1 restlessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack4 ,in many cases a direct shivering fit will occur2 the mouth will be hot1 and the nose red4 ,the animal will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing1 striking at his belly1 looking wildly at his flanks1 groaning1 and rolling4 ,the pulse will be quickened and small2 the ears and legs cold2 the belly tender1 and sometimes hot2 the breathing quickened2 the bowels costive2 and the animal becoming rapidly and fearfully weak4 ,the causes of this disease are1 first of all and most frequently1 sudden exposure to cold4 ,if a horse that has been highly fed1 carefully groomed1 and kept in a warm stable1 is heated with exercise1 and has been during some hours without food1 and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely of cold water1 or is drenched with rain1 or have his legs and belly washed with cold water1 an attack of inflammation of the bowels will often follow4 ,an overfed horse1 subjected to severe and long-continued exertion1 if his lungs were previously weak1 will probably be attacked by inflammation of them2 but if the lungs were sound1 the bowels will on the following day be the seat of disease4 ,stones in the intestines are an occasional cause of inflammation1 and colic neglected or wrongly treated will terminate in it4 ,remedies4--,the treatment of inflammation of the bowels1 like that of the lungs1 should be prompt and energetic4 ,the first and most powerful means of cure will be bleeding4 ,from six to eight or ten quarts of blood1 in fact as much as the horse can bear1 should be abstracted as soon as possible2 and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more1 if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder and fuller4 ,the speedy weakness that accompanies this disease1 should not deter from bleeding largely4 ,that weakness is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts2 and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood1 the weakness will disappear4 ,the bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease1 for there is no malady that more quickly runs its course4 ,a strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the bleeding1 but1 considering the irritable state of the intestines at this period1 guarded by opium4 ,this should be quickly followed by back-raking1 and injections consisting of warm water1 or very thin gruel1 in which ,epsom salts or aloes have been dissolved2 and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up4 ,the horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel2 and draughts1 each containing a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes1 with a little opium1 should be given every six hours1 until the bowels are freely opened4 ,it will now be prudent to endeavor to excite considerable external inflammation1 as near as possible to the seat of internal disease1 and therefore the whole of the belly should be blistered4 ,in a well-marked case of this disease1 no time should be lost in applying fomentations1 but the blister at once resorted to4 ,the tincture of ,spanish flies1 whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine1 should be thoroughly rubbed in4 ,the legs should be well bandaged1 in order to restore the circulation in them1 and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part2 and1 for the same reason1 the horse should be warmly clothed1 but the air of the stable or box should be cool4 ,no grain or hay should be allowed during the disease1 but bran mashes1 and green food if it can be procured4 ,the latter will be the best1 and may be given without the slightest apprehension of danger4 ,when the horse begins to recover1 a handful of grain may be given two or three times in the day2 and1 if the weather is warm1 he may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day4 ,clysters of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation is beginning to subside1 and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs4 ,the second variety of ,inflammation of the ,bowels ,affects the internal or mucous coat1 and is generally the consequence of physic in too great quantity1 or of an improper kind4 ,the purging is more violent and continues longer than was intended2 the animal shows that he is suffering great pain2 he frequently looks round at his flanks2 his breathing is laborious1 and the pulse is quick and small1 and the mouth is hot and the legs and ears are warm4 ,remedies4--,unless the purging is excessive1 and the pain and distress great1 the surgeon should hesitate at giving any astringent medicine at first2 but he should plentifully administer gruel or thin starch1 or arrow-root1 by the mouth and by clyster1 removing all hay and grain1 and particularly green food4 ,he should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface of the bowels1 while he permits all remains of the purgative to be carried off4 ,if1 however1 twelve hours have passed1 and the purging and the pain remain undiminished1 he should continue the gruel1 adding to it chalk1 catechu1 and opium1 repeated every six hours4 ,as soon as the purging begins to subside1 the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity1 and gradually discontinued4 ,bleeding will rarely be necessary1 unless the inflammation is very great1 and attended by symptoms of general fever4 ,the horse should be warmly clothed1 and placed in a comfortable stable1 and his legs should be hand-rubbed and bandaged4 ,violent purging1 and attended with much inflammation and fever1 will occur from other causes4 ,green food will frequently purge2 and a horse worked hard upon it will sometimes scour4 ,the remedy is change of diet1 or less labor4 ,young horses will often be strongly purged1 without any apparent cause4 ,astringents should be used with much caution here4 ,it is probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that offends4 ,a few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose1 and the purging will cease without astringent medicine4 ,many horses that are not well ribbed home 7having too great space between the last rib and the hip-bone7 are subject to purging1 if more than usual exertion is required from them4 ,they are recognised by the term of washy horses4 ,they are often free and fleet1 but destitute of continuance4 ,they should have rather more than the usual allowance of grain1 with beans1 when at work4 ,a cordial ball1 with catechu and opium1 will often be serviceable either before or after a journey4 ,physicking4 ,when a horse comes from grass to dry food1 or from the cool1 open air to a heated stable1 a dose1 or even two doses1 of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflammation1 which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and great a change4 ,to a horse that is becoming too fat1 or has surfeit1 grease1 or mange1 or that is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs1 a dose of physic is often most serviceable4 ,a horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic4 ,two or three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day1 are far from sufficient when a horse is about to be physicked1 whether to promote his condition1 or in obedience to custom4 ,mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened4 ,a less quantity of physic will then suffice1 and it will more quickly pass through the intestines1 and be more readily diffused over them4 ,five drachms of aloes1 given when the dung has thus been softened1 will act more effectually and much more safely than seven drachms1 when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened feces4 ,on the day on which the physic is given1 the horse should have walking exercise1 or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day2 but after the physic begins to work1 he should not be moved from his stall4 ,exercise would then produce gripes1 irritation1 and1 possibly1 dangerous inflammation4 ,a little hay may be put into the rack4 ,as much mash should be given as the horse will eat1 and as much water1 with the coldness of it taken off1 as he will drink4 ,if1 however1 he obstinately refuses to drink warm water1 it is better that he should have it cold1 than to continue without taking any fluid2 but in such case he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time1 with an interval of at least an hour between each draught4 ,when the purging has ceased1 or the physic is set1 a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken1 between which and the setting of the first1 there should be an interval of a week4 ,the horse should recover from the languor and debility occasioned by the first dose1 before he is harassed by a second4 ,eight or ten tolerably copious motions1 will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose1 although the groom may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are procured4 ,the consequence of too strong purgation will be1 that weakness will hang about the animal for several days or weeks1 and inflammation will often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal4 ,long-continued custom has made ,,aloes the almost invariable purgative of the horse1 and very properly so2 for there is no other at once so sure and so safe4 ,the ,barbadoes aloes1 although sometimes very dear1 should alone be used4 ,the dose1 with a horse properly prepared1 will vary from four to seven drachms4 ,custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic1 but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes1 as acting more speedily1 effectually1 and safely4 ,the only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the ,,croton4 ,the farina or meal of the nut is generally used2 but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of ball1 with linseed meal4 ,the dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm4 ,it acts more speedily than the aloes1 and without the nausea which they produce2 but it causes more watery stools1 and1 consequently1 more debility4 ,,linseed ,,oil is an uncertain but safe purgative1 in doses from a pound to a pound and a half4 ,,olive ,,oil is more uncertain1 but safe2 but ,,castor ,,oil1 that mild aperient in the human being1 is both uncertain and unsafe4 ,,epsom ,,salts are inefficacious1 except in the immense dose of a pound and a half1 and then they are not always safe4 ,worms4 ,the long white worm 7lumbricus teres7 much resembles the common earth-worm1 and being from six to ten inches in length1 inhabits the small intestines4 ,it is a formidable looking animal2 and if there are many of them1 they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food1 or the mucus of the bowels4 ,a tight skin1 and rough coat1 and tucked-up belly1 are sometimes connected with their presence4 ,they are then1 however1 voided in large quantities4 ,remedies4--,a dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them4 ,calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge4 ,the seldomer this drug is administered to the horse1 the better4 ,when the horse can be spared1 a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge1 so far as the long round worm is concerned4 ,but a better medicine1 and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse1 is emetic tartar1 with ginger1 made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle1 and given every morning1 half an hour before the horse is fed4 ,a smaller1 darker colored worm1 called the needle-worm1 or ascaris1 inhabits the larger intestines4 ,hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum1 and immense quantities have been found in the coecum4 ,these are a more serious nuisance than the former1 for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament1 which sometimes sadly annoys the horse4 ,their existence can generally be discovered by a small portion of mucus1 which1 hardening1 is found adhering to the anus4 ,remedies4--,physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms2 but when there is much irritation about the tail1 and much of this mucus1 indicating that they have descended into the rectum1 an injection of linseed oil1 or of aloes dissolved in warm water1 will be a more effectual remedy4 ,the tape-worm is seldom found in the horse4 ,bots4 ,while they inhabit the stomach of the horse1 cannot give the animal any pain1 for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat4 ,they cannot stimulate the stomach and increase its digestive power1 for they are not on the digestive portion of the stomach4 ,they cannot1 by their roughness1 assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food1 for no such office is performed in that part of the stomach--the food is softened1 not rubbed down4 ,they cannot be injurious to the horse1 for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them1 and their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus4 ,they cannot be removed by medicine1 because they are not in that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually conveyed2 and if they were1 their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine1 that can be safely administered1 to affect them2 and1 last of all1 in due course of time they detach themselves1 and come away4 ,therefore1 the wise man will leave them to themselves1 or content himself with picking them off when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal4 ,wind-galls4 ,in the neighborhood of the fetlock1 there are occasionally found considerable enlargements1 oftener on the hind-leg than the fore one1 which are denominated wind-galls4 ,between the tendons and other parts1 and wherever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction1 and particularly about their extremities1 little bags or sacs are placed1 containing and suffering to ooze slowly from them1 a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts4 ,from undue pressure1 and that most frequently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons1 or often from some predisposition about the horse1 these little sacs are injured4 ,they take on inflammation1 and sometimes become large and indurated4 ,there are few horses perfectly free from them4 ,when they first appear1 and until the inflammation subsides1 they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness2 but otherwise1 except when they attain a great size1 they do not interfere with the action of the animal1 or cause any considerable unsoundness4 ,the farriers used to suppose that they contained wind--hence their name1 wind-galls2 and hence the practice of opening them1 by which dreadful inflammation was often produced1 and many a valuable horse destroyed4 ,remedies4--,a slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment2 but if these tumors are numerous and large1 and seem to impede the motion of the limb1 they may be attacked first by bandage4 ,the roller should be of flannel1 and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements1 and bound down tightly upon them4 ,the bandage should also be wetted with warm water1 two or three times a day1 for half an hour each time4 ,the wind-gall will often diminish or disappear by this treatment1 but will too frequently return1 when the horse is again hardly worked4 ,a blister is a more effectual1 but too often temporary remedy4 ,firing is still more certain1 if the tumors are sufficiently large and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so severe2 for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid1 and the reduction of the swelling1 but1 by contracting the skin1 will act as a permanent bandage1 and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumor4 ,the iodine and mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage1 in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter4 ,inflammation of the ,fetlock4 ,the fetlock-joint is a very complicated one1 and from the stress which is laid on it1 and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee1 it is particularly subject to injury4 ,there are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew1 that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint2 and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up1 are simple affections of the fetlock4 ,it requires a great deal of care1 and some experience1 to distinguish the one from the other4 ,the heat about the part1 and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger1 will be the principal guides4 ,remedy4--,occasionally1 by the application of cooling lotions1 the inflammation may be subdued1 but at other times1 the horse suffers dreadfully1 and is unable to stand4 ,a serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment4 ,cutting4 ,the inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot4 ,many expedients used to be tried to remove this2 the inside heel has been raised and lowered1 and the outside raised and lowered2 and sometimes one operation has succeeded1 and sometimes the contrary2 and there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner4 ,remedy4--,the most successful remedy and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others1 is ,mr4 ,turner's shoe1 of equal thickness from heel to toe1 and having but one nail1 and that near the toe1 on the inside of the shoe2 care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond the edge of the crust1 and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the quarters4 ,sprain of the ,coffin-,joint4 ,the proof of this is when the lameness is sudden1 and the heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet4 ,remedy4--,bleeding at the toe1 physic1 fomentation1 and blisters1 are the usual means adopted4 ,this lameness is not easily removed1 even by a blister2 and if removed1 like sprains of the fetlock and of the back-sinews1 it is apt to return1 and finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot4 ,sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very serious affair4 ,not being always attended by any external swelling1 and being detected only by heat round the coronet1 the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom and the farrier2 and the disease is suffered to become confirmed before its nature is discovered4 ,ringbone4 ,this is a deposite of bony matter in one of the pasterns1 and usually near the joint4 ,it rapidly spreads1 and involves not only the pastern-bones1 but the cartilages of the foot1 and spreading around the pasterns and cartilages1 thus derives its name4 ,when the first deposite is on the lower pastern1 and on both sides of it1 and produced by violent inflammation of the ligaments of the joints1 it is recognised by a slight enlargement1 or bony tumor on each side of the foot1 and just above the coronet4 ,horses with short upright joints1 and with small feet and high action1 are oftenest1 as may be supposed1 the subjects of this disease1 which is the consequence either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints4 ,it is also more frequent in the hind foot than the fore1 because1 from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward1 the pasterns are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before2 yet the lameness is not so great there1 because the disease is confined principally to the ligaments1 and the bones have not been injured by concussion2 while1 from the position of the fore limbs1 there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments4 ,remedy4--,in its early stage1 and when recognised only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint1 or in a few cases on one side only1 the lameness is not very considerable1 and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blistering1 or by the application of the cautery2 but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal1 that the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone rapidly spread4 ,the pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of ligament1 and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint4 ,from this joint the disease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot1 and to the union between the lower pastern1 and the coffin and navicular bones4 ,the motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost1 and the whole of the foot becomes one mass of spongy bone4 ,enlargement of the ,hock4 ,first1 there is inflammation1 or sprain of the hock-joint generally1 arising from sudden violent concussion1 by some check at speed1 or over-weight1 and attended with enlargement of the whole joint1 and great tenderness and lameness4 ,remedy4--,this1 however1 like all other diffused inflammations1 is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circumscribed nature1 and by rest and fomentation1 or1 perchance1 firing1 the limb recovers its action1 and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work4 ,the swelling1 however1 does not always subside4 ,enlargement1 spread over the whole of the hock-joint1 remains4 ,a horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded with suspicion4 ,in truth1 he is unsound4 ,the parts1 altered in structure1 must be to a certain degree weakened4 ,the animal may discharge his usual work during a long period1 without return of lameness2 but if one of those emergencies should occur when all his energies require to be exerted1 the disorganized and weakened part will fail4 ,he may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience1 yet one extra hard day's work may lame him forever4 ,curb4 ,there are often injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint4 ,curb is an affection of this kind4 ,it is an enlargement at the back of the hock1 three or four inches below its point4 ,it is either a strain of the ring-like ligament which binds the tendons in their place1 or of the sheath of the tendons2 oftener1 however1 of the ligament than of the sheath4 ,any sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may produce it1 and therefore horses are found to throw out curbs after a hardly-contested race1 an extraordinary leap1 a severe gallop over heavy ground1 or a sudden check in the gallop4 ,young horses are particularly liable to it1 and horses that are cow-hocked1 whose hocks and legs resemble those of the cow1 the hocks being turned inwards1 and legs forming a considerable angle outwards4 ,this is intelligible enough2 for in hocks so formed1 the annular ligament must be continually on the stretch1 in order to confine the tendon4 ,curbs are generally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first appearance1 but the swelling is not always great4 ,they are best detected by observing the leg sidewise4 ,remedies4--,the first object in attempting the cure1 is to abate inflammation1 and this will be most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions1 frequently applied to the part4 ,equal portions of spirit of wine1 water1 and vinegar1 will afford an excellent application4 ,it will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on4 ,if the heat and lameness are considerable1 it will be prudent to give a dose of physic1 and to bleed from the subcutaneous vein1 whose course is near it2 and whether the injury is of the annular ligament1 or the sheath of the tendon1 more active means will be necessary to perfect a cure4 ,either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part1 consisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides1 and this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes place2 or1 what is the preferable plan1 the hair should be cut off1 and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been subdued4 ,the blister should be repeated1 until the swelling has disappeared1 and the horse goes sound4 ,in severe cases it may be necessary to fire2 but a fair trial1 however1 should be given to milder measures4 ,if the iron is used1 it should be applied in straight lines4 ,there are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-continued rest is more requisite4 ,it leaves the parts materially weakened1 and1 if the horse is soon put to work again1 the lameness will frequently return4 ,no horse that has had curbs1 should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month after the apparent cure2 and1 even then he should very gradually resume his former habits4 ,a horse with a curb1 is manifestly unsound1 or generally condemned as unsound4 ,curb is also an hereditary complaint2 and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it1 should always be regarded with suspicion1 especially if either of the parents have exhibited it4 ,bone ,spavin4 ,this is an affection of the bones of the hock-joint4 ,spavined horses are generally capable of slow work4 ,they are equal to the greater part of the work of the farm1 and therefore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer1 as they may generally be procured at a small price4 ,these horses are not only capable of agricultural work1 but they generally improve under it4 ,the lameness in some degree abates1 and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens4 ,there is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the absorbents to action1 and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out1 but not enough to renew or prolong inflammation4 ,it cannot be said that the plow affords a cure for spavin1 but the spavined horse often materially improves while working at it4 ,for fast work1 and for work that must be regularly performed1 spavined horses are not well calculated2 for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising1 and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort1 occasionally prevents the horse from lying down at all2 and the animal that cannot rest well1 cannot long travel far or fast4 ,remedies4--,the treatment of spavin is simple enough1 but far from being always effectual4 ,the owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest1 nor the dictates of humanity1 if he suffers the chisel and mallet1 or the gimlet1 or the pointed iron1 or arsenic to be used2 yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to4 ,repeated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposite1 or the abatement or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments1 or1 as a last resource1 the heated iron may be applied4 ,swelled ,legs4 ,the fore-legs1 but oftener the hind ones1 and especially in coarse horses1 are sometimes subject to considerable enlargement4 ,occasionally1 when the horse does not seem to labor under any other disease1 and sometimes from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts1 the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock1 and almost from the stifle to the fetlock1 attended by a greater or less degree of heat1 and tenderness of the skin1 and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness4 ,the pulse likewise becomes quick and hard1 and the horse evidently labors under considerable fever4 ,it is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs1 and that most sudden in its attack1 and most violent n its degree1 and therefore attended by the effusion of a considerable quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane4 ,it occurs in young horses1 and in those which are over-fed and little exercised4 ,remedies4--,fomentation1 diuretics1 or purgatives1 or1 if there is much fever1 a moderate bleeding1 will often relieve the distention almost as suddenly as it appeared4 ,mild cases will generally yield to their influence2 but1 if the animal has been neglected1 the treatment must be decisive4 ,if the horse is in high condition1 these should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding2 but if there are any symptoms of debility1 bleeding would only increase the want of tone in the vessels4 ,horses taken from grass and brought into close stables1 very speedily have swelled legs1 because the difference of food and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid1 while the want of exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of4 ,the remedy here is sufficiently plain4 ,swelled legs1 however1 may proceed from general debility4 ,they may be the consequence of starvation1 or disease that has considerably weakened the animal2 and these parts1 being farthest from the centre of circulation1 are the first to show the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them4 ,here the means of cure would be to increase the general strength1 with which the extremities would sympathize4 ,mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated4 ,horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs4 ,the powers of the constitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for the animal1 and the extremities have not their share of vital influence4 ,mingled cordials and diuretics are indicated here2 the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid1 and the cordial to invigorate the frame4 ,grease4 ,swelled legs1 although distinct from grease1 is a disease that is apt to degenerate into it4 ,grease is a specific inflammation of the skin of the heels1 sometimes of the fore-feet1 but oftener of the hinder ones4 ,bad stable management is the true cause of it4 ,grease is a local complaint4 ,the heel should be well but gently washed with soap and water1 and as much of the scurf detached as is easily removable4 ,an ointment should be applied1 to supple1 cool1 and heal the part4 ,when cracks appear1 the mode of treatment will depend on their extent and depth4 ,if the cracks are deep1 with an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness1 it will be necessary to poultice the heel4 ,a poultice of linseed meal will be generally effective1 unless the discharge is thin and offensive1 when an ounce of finely-powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal2 or a poultice of carrots1 boiled soft and mashed4 ,after the chaps or cracks have healed1 the legs will sometimes continue gorged and swelled4 ,a flannel bandage1 evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part1 will be very serviceable2 or should the season admit of it1 a run at grass1 particularly spring grass1 should be allowed4 ,the feeding should likewise vary with the case1 but with these rules1 which admit of no exception2 that green food should be given1 and more especially carrots1 when they are not too expensive2 and mashes1 if the horse will eat them2 and never the full allowance of grain4 ,walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able to bear it1 and this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot4 ,from bad stable-management at first1 and neglect during the disease1 a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears4 ,the ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fetlock1 and a fungus springs from the surface of both1 highly sensible1 bleeding at the slightest touch1 and interspersed with scabs4 ,by degrees portions of the fungus begin to be covered with a horny substance1 protruding in the form of knobs1 and collected together in bunches4 ,these are known by the name of grapes4 ,a foetid and very peculiar exudation1 proceeds from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance4 ,the horse evidently suffers much1 and is gradually worn down by the discharge4 ,the assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable4 ,some horses are more subject to grease than others1 particularly draught-horses1 both heavy and light1 but particularly the former1 and if they have no degree of blood in them4 ,it was the experience of this1 which partly contributed to the gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of a lighter breed4 ,in the great majority of cases1 grease arises from mismanagement and neglect4 ,every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in the skin of the heel is a cause of grease4 ,therefore want of exercise is a frequent source of this disease4 ,when high feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise1 the disease is evidently still more likely to be produced4 ,want of cleanliness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease4 ,when the heels are imbedded in filth1 they are weakened by the constant moisture surrounding them4 ,the absurd practice of washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from their work1 and either carelessly sponging them down afterwards1 or leaving them to dry as they may1 is1 however1 the most common origin of grease4 ,when the horse is warmed by his work1 and the heels share in the warmth1 the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious1 if the animal is immediately rubbed dry2 yet even this would be better avoided2 but to wash out the heels1 and then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet1 and suffering from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a moist and wet surface1 is the most absurd1 dangerous1 and injurious practice that can be imagined4 ,it is worse1 when the post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond immediately after his work4 ,cutting the ,hair from the ,heels4 ,custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm-horses4 ,nature would not have given it had it not been useful4 ,it guards the heel from being injured by the inequalities of the plowed field1 and prevents the dirt1 in which the heels are constantly enveloped1 from reaching1 and caking on1 and irritating the skin4 ,when the horse is carefully tended after his work is over1 and his legs quickly and completely dried1 the less hair he has about them the better1 for then both the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evaporation begins1 or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their heat4 ,grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement4 ,setons ,are pieces of tape or cord1 passed1 by means of an instrument resembling a large needle1 either through abscesses1 or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses1 or between the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath4 ,they are retained there by the ends being tied together1 or by a knot at each end4 ,the tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in the day1 and occasionally wetted with spirits of turpentine1 or some acrid fluid1 in order to increase the inflammation which it produces1 or the discharge which is intended to be established4 ,in abscesses1 such as occur in the withers or the poll1 and when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swelling1 setons are highly useful by discharging the purulent fluid1 and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow out2 and1 by the degree of inflammation which they excite on the interior of the tumor1 stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations1 which gradually occupy and fill the hollow4 ,in deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable1 for except some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound1 it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part1 and the healing process will never be accomplished4 ,on these accounts1 a seton passing through the base of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is so beneficial4 ,setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighborhood of an inflamed part1 and thus diverting and carrying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part2 thus1 a seton is placed with considerable advantage in the cheek1 when the eyes are much inflamed4--7,youatt47 ,founder1 ,or inflammation of the foot1 arises from various causes2 excessive exertion1 great heat1 and particularly when followed by drinking cold water1 or overloading the stomach in any way1 sudden transition from great cold to excessive heat1 and change of inflammation from some other part4 ,remedies4--,when the attack is severe and confined to the fore-feet1 ,youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring the hoof as much as possible1 taking four quarts of blood from each toe1 placing the feet in warm water1 and afterwards applying soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and pastern4 ,if this is ineffectual1 take three quarts of blood from each foot the succeeding day4 ,it may then be necessary to blister the foot and coronet4 ,the animal should be kept on green food or light mashes1 and allowed to run on grass without labor4 ,an effectual cure has followed from taking off the shoe1 and applying lard1 raised to the boiling point1 to every part of the foot4 ,poison ,from weeds1 sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues and lips1 and swollen legs and sheath4 ,if there be much inflammation1 bleeding should be resorted to1 then give daily bran mashes1 with ,glauber salts in doses of #a_/b to #aa_/b pounds1 according to the size of the horse1 with half a teaspoonful of saltpetre4 ,washing the ulcerated parts with warm soap-suds1 copperas1 and sugar-of-lead may follow4 ,epidemics among ,horses1 ,sometimes occur1 producing great mortality4 ,one of these was prevalent in the neighborhood of ,new ,york1 in #ahdf1 termed a malarious congestive fever1 staggers1 or apoplexy1 which destroyed many valuable animals4 ,it occurred during the heat of summer1 and was principally confined to such as were at pasture4 ,by many it was attributed to excessive heat and exposure at night4 ,the animals that were opened1 appeared sound in all respects excepting the brain1 which exhibited one mass of clotted blood4 ,the remedy found to be the most effectual1 consisted in taking about one quart of blood from the head1 swathing it with cloths saturated with cold water1 and giving two drachms daily of calomel4 ,the horse should be kept in a cool stable4 ,a similar disease in ,spain is cured by copious bleeding1 and swathing the head in blankets constantly wet with hot water4 ,inflammation of the ,eyes4 ,shut up in a dark stable1 and feed on fresh-cut grass and bran mashes4 ,bleed freely from the mouth1 and give #aa_/b lbs4 ,glauber salts1 #b drachms nitre1 and #ae grains tartarized antimony1 dissolved in a bucket of water1 which the animal will drink when thirsty4 ,this to be repeated daily till purging is effected4 ,if it fails1 bleed from the large veins just below the eye1 taking #ae to #bj ounces of blood4--7,dr4 ,campbell47 ,the ,sting of ,hornets1 ,bees1 or snakes1 may be relieved by immediate external application of strong spirits of hartshorn3 salt and vinegar are also good4 ,for ,sprains1 ,take a mixture of one ounce sweet oil1 four ounces spirits of hartshorn1 half an ounce oil of thyme1 and rub with it frequently4 ,the remedies mentioned below are also effectual for sprains4 ,for a ,bruise or ,blow4 ,apply hot water a long time with wet cloths4 ,beef brine is an excellent lotion for both sprains and bruises4 ,a veteran among horses1 claims1 that it will almost set a joint or heal a fracture4 ,wormwood or tansy lotions are also good4 ,fistula4 ,this is frequently cured by repeated applications of salt4 ,wounds ,should be washed twice a day with clean1 soft water1 or with a little ,castile soap added1 and then rub with whale-oil4 ,this answers for all seasons1 keeps off flies1 restores the hair1 and of the original color4 ,galls1 ,or wounds on the back from the saddle1 are most effectually healed by white-lead1 moistened with sweet-oil or milk4 ,the saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded1 and it should be taken off and the animal's back washed at every baiting4 ,shoeing4 ,this is an important operation1 and should never be attempted but under the supervision of an experienced person2 nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contraction of the hoof1 which is followed by lameness and corns4 ,they should be reset as often as every five or six weeks4 ,contraction of the ,foot4 ,this is also caused by standing on the dry stable for some days4 ,in this case1 the hoof should be stopped with fresh cow-manure and clay1 or with a thick felt1 soaked in water1 and cut to suit the foot4 ,this is also a good application over night1 for horses that have accomplished a hard day's work on a dry road4 ,litter4 ,this is not objectionable to the feet1 if clean and not too damp4 ,some suppose this the cause of contraction1 but it is the reverse4 ,it is besides of great benefit when shook out for a bed1 by inducing the horse to rest himself4 ,he is thus enabled to do more work1 and with a less expenditure of food4 ,corns4 ,in the angle between the bars and the quarters1 the horn of the sole has sometimes a red appearance1 and is more spongy and softer than at any other part4 ,the horse flinches when this portion of the horn is pressed upon1 and occasional or permanent lameness is produced4 ,this disease of the foot is termed corns2 bearing this resemblance to the corn of the human being1 that it is produced by pressure1 and is a cause of lameness4 ,when corns care neglected1 so much inflammation is produced in that part of the sensible sole1 that suppuration follows1 and to that1 quittor succeeds1 and the matter either undermines the horny sole1 or is discharged at the coronet4 ,remedies4--,the cure of old corns is difficult2 for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here1 the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted2 recent corns1 however1 will yield to good shoeing4 ,the first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the bars4 ,two objects are answered by this2 the extent of the disease will be ascertained1 and one cause of it removed4 ,a very small drawing-knife must be used for this purpose4 ,the corn must be pared out to the very bottom1 taking care not to wound the sole4 ,it may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath4 ,if this is suspected1 an opening must be made through the horn1 the matter evacuated1 the separated horn taken away1 the course and extent of the sinuses explored1 and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc1 by means of a small syringe4 ,place over this dressing the common cataplasm1 or the turpentine ointment1 and renew the application every twenty-four hours4 ,three or four such applications complete a cure4 ,should there be no collection of fluid1 the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of the corn1 after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible4 ,the object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn4 ,in bad cases1 a bar-shoe may be put on1 so chambered that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part4 ,this may be worn for one or two shoeings1 but not constantly1 for there are few frogs that would bear the constant pressure of the bar-shoe2 and the want of pressure on the heel1 generally occasioned by their use1 would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels1 that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness4 ,turning out to grass1 after the horn is a little grown1 first with a bar-shoe1 and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side1 or with tips1 will often be serviceable4 ,a horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent should1 at every shoeing1 have the seat of corn well pared out1 and the butyr of antimony applied4 ,an ,over-reach ,is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot1 by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot1 and either inflicted by the toe1 or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe4 ,the preventive treatment is the bevelling1 or rounding off of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes4 ,the cure is the cutting away of the loose parts1 the application of ,friar's balsam1 and protection from the dirt4 ,forging1 or ,clicking1 ,is a singular species of over-reaching4 ,the horse1 in the act of trotting1 strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore one4 ,this noise of the clicking is unpleasant1 and the trick or habit is not altogether free from danger4 ,it is most frequent in young horses1 and is attributable to too great activity1 or length of stride in the hind legs4 ,remedies4--,the rider may do something by keeping the head of the horse well up2 but the smith may effect more by making the hind shoes of clicking horses short in the toe1 and having the web broad4 ,when they are too long1 they are apt to be torn off2 when too narrow1 the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one1 or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe4--,youatt4 ,the ,bearing ,rein ,is a matter of much controversy2 some claiming that it should be entirely abolished1 while others as strenuously contend for its almost universal use4 ,nimrod1 who is deemed perfectly competent authority1 insists on its use with fast roadsters and coach-horses4 ,with team-horses1 it may generally be dispensed with1 and always should be in ascending hills1 as it materially diminishes their capacity for exertion4 ,the fault in its use is its excessive tightness1 and when standing1 the horse ought never to be tormented with it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,safety ,rein illustrated4 ,directions for use of ,safety ,rein4--,in putting on the rein for a gig1 keep the buckle to the left hand1 or near side2 that will place the loop1 which is on the middle of the rein1 below the hook or head of the bridle1 which prevents it from being thrown out by the motion of the horse's head4 ,for a pair of horses1 keep the two short chapes outmost1 and the loops on the middle downward4 ,for saddle1 keep the buckle to the left hand4 ,when the rein is used either for running1 rearing1 kicking1 or going backward1 it should be applied suddenly with a strong arm1 keeping up the pressure until the horse is still2 it should then be relieved suddenly1 at the same time motioning the horse to go on4 ,if he is only a runaway he will obey it at once1 such horses being generally of a willing1 good temper4 ,after the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it1 use it occasionally1 instead of the bit-rein1 to stop him on ordinary occasions2 this will remind the horse of his subjection1 and will accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of it in case of an emergency4 ,the ,bit ,is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the horse1 fretting and teasing him1 and in many cases inducing permanent injury and viciousness4 ,it should never be made annoying to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper restraint4 ,an ,unruly ,stud may be controlled ,by passing the rein from the ring on the off-side over the head and through the left ring4 ,this gives a purchase to the groom which the horse cannot resist4 ,blinds ,have for a long time been fashionable1 but in few cases are necessary1 while in nearly all they are decidedly injurious4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,the ,crib ,biter4 ,the ,crib ,biter4 ,this small instrument is made entirely of iron1 and riveted firmly to the head-stall4 ,it answers the threefold purpose1 to prevent biting1 crib-biting1 and wind-sucking4 ,all of the foregoing are bad habits for horses1 for which there is no effectual cure1 but in adopting the use of the above implement4 ,the ,stable ,is an important matter connected with the proper management of horses4 ,this should be as much as possible of a uniform temperature1 cool in summer1 warm in winter1 and always clean1 dry1 and well-ventilated4 ,but no air must be allowed to blow directly upon the animal4 ,the horse is a native of a warm climate1 and ought to be well protected against cold4 ,the stable should be neither too light nor too dark1 nor must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse4 ,for judicious and extended arrangement of stables1 and management of horses1 the inquiring reader is referred to ,stewart's ,stable ,economy4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,ass1 ,,the ,,mule1 ,,and ,,the ,,comparative ,,labor ,,of ,,working ,,animals4 ,,the ,,ass ,is a native of ,arabia1 ,persia1 and the central parts of ,asia and ,africa4 ,like the horse1 he goes in troops and displays great natural sagacity1 activity1 and courage4 ,job says1 ,he scorneth the multitude of the city1 neither regardeth the crying of the driver4 ,like the horse1 too1 he has from time immemorial been tamed1 and become the faithful servant of man2 but unlike him1 he is subject to few maladies1 is hardy and enduring1 and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty forage4 ,thus ,job says of his natural haunts1 ,whose house ,i have made the wilderness1 and the barren land his dwellings2 the range of the mountains is his pasture1 and he searcheth after every green thing4 ,xenophon1 in his ,anabasis1 a thousand years later1 says of one of the ,asiatic deserts through which he passed with the army of ,cyrus1 that it was full of wormwood2 if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there1 they had all an aromatic smell2 but no trees appeared4 ,of wild creatures1 the most numerous are wild asses1 which our horses sometimes chased2 but the wild asses exceeded them much in speed4 ,varieties4 ,the different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite as numerous as those of the horse4 ,four distinct races are mentioned in the earliest scriptures4 ,in modern times we find a similar diversity4 ,there are two kinds in ,persia1 the largest a slow1 heavy brute1 used only for burdens2 the other smaller and more spirited1 and used for the saddle4 ,in ,egypt1 a considerable though less marked difference exists1 those near the ,delta being inferior to those which are bred in ,upper ,egypt and ,nubia4 ,in ,spain1 a difference in size and spirit prevails1 greater even than in ,persia4 ,the ,zebra is nearly allied in size1 shape1 and character to the wild ass1 but his untameable ferocity has hitherto effectually bid defiance1 alike to the scourges and caresses1 the frowns and the favors of man4 ,arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses1 but their size1 like that of their horses1 is too small for purposes of the greatest utility4 ,the ,maltese ,jack is by ,american breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate4 ,he is evidently of ,arabian descent1 and possesses all the good qualities of his ancestry1 with considerable additional size4 ,we have several varieties1 all of which are imported1 as there are no natives of the ,western ,continent4 ,the early importations were principally made from the ,azores1 and ,cape de ,verd ,islands1 and were mostly of an inferior character4 ,a superior ,maltese ,jack was presented to ,gen4 ,washington1 in #aghg1 by ,la ,fayette1 and is believed to be the first ever sent to this country4 ,mr4 ,custis describes him as of moderate size1 clean-limbed1 possessing great activity1 the fire and ferocity of a tiger1 of a dark brown and nearly black1 with white belly and muzzle1 and manageable only by one groom1 nor then safely4 ,he lived to a great age4 ,his mules were all active1 spirited1 and serviceable1 and when from stout mares1 attained considerable size4 ,a ,spanish ,jack and ,jennet were also presented to ,washington about the same time1 by the ,king of ,spain4 ,the first is characterized by the same authority1 as a huge1 ill-shapen animal1 nearly #af hands high1 very large head1 clumsy limbs1 and to all appearance little calculated for active service2 he was of a gray color1 and not much valued for his mules1 which were unwieldy and dull4 ,from the ,maltese ,jack and ,spanish ,jennet1 which approach the size of the large ,spanish ,jack1 was bred a valuable animal1 ,compound1 which partook of all the good qualities of the sire1 with the weight of the dam4 ,from him descended many of the best mules of ,mount ,vernon4 ,many other valuable importations followed these animals1 and it is believed we have for many years had as fine specimens of the ass as the world affords4 ,jennets1 or she-asses1 are used among us principally for breeding ,jacks1 and of course are not numerous4 ,they are sometimes1 though seldom1 bred to the horse4 ,it is difficult to induce the horse to notice them1 and the produce1 which is called a hinny1 is less hardy and useful than the mule4 ,the milk of the she-ass is lighter and more digestible than that of any other animal1 and in former times was in great request for invalids4 ,the ass is occasionally used in the cart1 or as a beast of burden4 ,such as are employed for these purposes are generally of an inferior kind1 and are only used for the lightest work4 ,they may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers and small vegetable dealers about our city markets1 but little larger than a ,newfoundland dog or ,shetland pony1 trundling along a light cart with a wheelbarrow load4 ,in ancient times they have been1 and in foreign countries--even at the present time1 they are extensively used4 ,but the most enlightened of the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost exclusive substitute for the ass2 and it would show a still greater intelligence and economy1 if it much more extensively took the place of the horse4 ,,the ,,mule ,is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare4 ,how early this animal was bred1 is uncertain1 but we know he was in high repute in the reign of ,david1 near #c1jjj years ago1 for he was rode by ,absalom1 the favorite prince of ,israel1 on the field of battle4 ,they have from time immemorial been bred in various parts of the ,east1 on the borders of the ,mediterranean1 and throughout ,spain1 ,portugal1 and other countries1 many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine qualities4 ,in these countries1 they are frequently used by the grandees and nobles1 and indeed by royalty itself2 and however much they may be undervalued elsewhere1 when they are finely bred and trained1 and richly caparisoned1 they exhibit a stateliness and bearing1 that few of the highest bred horses can match4 ,breeding ,mules in the ,united ,states1 ,was commenced with much spirit in some of the ,new ,england states1 soon after the ,american revolution4 ,the object was not to breed them for their own use1 but only as an article of commerce4 ,they were at first shipped exclusively to the ,west ,indies2 and afterwards to the ,south and ,west1 for employment in the various work of the plantation4 ,indifferent animals1 both as sires and dams1 were used at first1 as any thing which bore the name of mule1 then commanded a ready sale4 ,the progeny were necessarily inferior brutes1 and viewed with almost universal derision2 and being considered the type of their race1 a prejudice was excited against them1 which more than half a century has not been sufficient to dispel4 ,among a few thinking men at the ,north1 they have been adopted and made highly useful in the various duties of the farm4 ,they have been largely introduced at the ,south and ,west1 but principally in the slave states1 where the management of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless4 ,it is there1 and in other and hotter climates1 that the superior merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal1 are peculiarly manifest4 ,in many instances they are indifferently fed1 hardly worked1 and greatly neglected by their drivers2 yet they sustain themselves for years1 in defiance of usage that would annihilate two generations of horses4 ,their powers have been largely increased and their merits improved1 by the introduction of some of the best ,maltese and ,spanish ,jacks1 and the use of large1 blood mares4 ,the propriety of this course is seen in the value of the product2 for while some of the inferior are unsaleable at #ej1 others of the same age1 and reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition1 could not be purchased for #aej4 ,the ,breeding1 ,rearing1 and ,management of ,mules ,is similar to that of colts4 ,they will be found1 equally with horses1 to repay generous keep and attention1 by their increased and rapid growth4 ,but they should not be pampered by high feed1 as it not only has a tendency to produce disease1 but to form habits of fastidiousness1 which materially lessens their economical feeding in after life4 ,the diseases to which mules are subjected1 7which are always few1 and if properly managed will seldom or ever occur17 require a treatment like that of horses4 ,the breeding from mules has sometimes been questioned1 but it has been demonstrated in several instances4 ,neither the sexual development nor propensities are wanting1 but they are seldom indulged with effect4 ,mr4 ,kilby1 of ,virginia1 states in the ,farmer's ,register1 that a mare mule brought two colts from a young horse1 which they closely resembled4 ,the first was a male1 and died1 apparently with staggers1 which no treatment could arrest1 at six months old4 ,the second was a female1 #af months younger than the first1 marked like the sire1 being jet-black1 excepting a white foot and star in the forehead1 and died at a year old1 after two days' illness1 notwithstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it4 ,successful propagation of this hybrid1 however1 beyond the first cross1 seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature4 ,with a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for a part of the horses now employed in ,american husbandry1 we give the following testimony from experienced individuals1 of great intelligence and careful observation4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,mule ,,over ,,horse ,,labor4 ,the official report of an agricultural committee in ,south ,carolina1 in #ahbd1 says3--,the annual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his value4 ,a horse at four years old would not often bring more than his cost4 ,two mules can be raised at less expense than one horse4 ,the mule is fit for service earlier1 and if of sufficient size1 will perform as much labor as the horse2 and if attended to when first put to work1 his gait and habits may be formed to suit the owner4 ,mr4 ,pomeroy1 who used them near ,boston for #cj years1 and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed by them probably than any person in ,new ,england1 says3--,i am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than the larger race1 but ,i shall confine myself to the latter in my comparison1 such as stand #ada_/b to #af hands1 and are capable of performing any work a horse is usually put to4 ,from repeated experiments1 ,i have found that three mules of this description1 which were constantly at work1 consumed about the same quantity of hay1 and only one-fourth the provender1 which was given to two middling-size coach-horses1 only moderately worked4 ,i am satisfied a large-sized mule will not consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the food to keep him in good order1 that will be necessary for a horse performing the same labor4 ,the expense of shoeing a mule the year round1 does not exceed one-third that of the horse1 his hoofs being harder1 more horny1 and so slow in their growth1 that shoes require no removal1 and hold on till worn out2 and the wear from the lightness of the animal is much less4 ,mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn meal2 in no other instance have ,i known disease in them1 except by inflammation of the intestines1 caused by the grossest exposure to cold and wet1 and excessive drinking cold water1 after severe labor1 and while in a high state of perspiration4 ,it is not improbable a farmer may work the same team of mules for twenty years1 without having a farrier's bill presented to him4 ,in my experience of thirty years1 ,i have never found but one mule inclined to be vicious1 and he might have been easily subdued while young4 ,i have always found them truer pullers and quicker travellers1 with a load1 than horses4 ,their vision and hearing are much more accurate4 ,i have used them in my family carriage1 in a gig1 and under the saddle2 and have never known one to start or run from any object or noise1 a fault in the horse1 that continually causes the maiming and death of numerous human beings4 ,the mule is more steady in his draught1 and less likely to waste his strength than the horse1 hence more suitable to work with oxen2 and as he walks faster1 he will habituate them to a faster gait4 ,in plowing among crops1 his feet being small and following each other so much more in a line1 he seldom treads down the ridges or crops4 ,the facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the voice of the driver is astonishing4 ,the best plowed tillage land ,i ever saw1 ,i have had performed by two mules tandem1 without lines or driver4 ,the mule is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that would be destructive to a horse4 ,although a large mule will consume something over one-half the food of a horse1 yet the saving in shoeing1 farrying1 and insurance against diseases and accidents1 will amount to at least one-half4 ,in addition1 the owner may rely with tolerable certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty years2 whereas the horse owner must1 at the end of fifteen years1 look to his crops1 his acres1 or a bank for the renewal of his4 ,the longevity of a mule is so proverbial1 that a purchaser seldom inquires his age4 ,pliny mentions one #hj years old2 and ,dr4 ,rees1 two in ,england1 that reached the age of #gj4 ,i saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the ,west ,indies1 which the owner assured me was #dj years old4 ,i have now a mare-mule #be years old1 that ,i have had in constant work for #ba years4 ,she has often within a year taken a ton weight in a wagon to ,boston1 five miles1 and manifests no diminution of her powers4 ,a neighbor has one #bh years old1 which he would not exchange for any horse in the country4 ,one in ,maryland1 #ce years old1 is now as capable of labor as at any former period4 ,mr4 ,hood of ,maryland1 in the ,american ,farmer1 estimates the annual expense of a horse for #ab months1 at #dd1 and that of a mule at #bb1 just half price1 and his working age at more than twice that of the horse1 and that too after #cj years' experience in keeping both4 ,a correspondent of the ,baltimore ,patriot1 asserts that ,col4 ,john ,e4 ,howard had a pair of mules that worked #cj years1 after which they were sold to a carter in the city1 and performed hard service for several years longer4 ,many mules #be years old1 and now in this country1 perform well4 ,many have been at hard work for #ab or #ae years1 and would now sell for #ajj each4 ,they are not subject to the colt's ailments1 the glanders1 heaves1 yellow-water1 and colic1 like horses2 and seldom are afflicted with spavin1 ringbones1 or bots2 and they will not founder4 ,general ,shelby says1 he has known mules to travel #ab miles within the hour in light harness1 and has himself driven a pair #de miles in six hours1 stopping an hour by the way4 ,four match mules have been sold in this country for #a1jjj4 ,they were of course superior animals1 and made elegant coach-horses4 ,these animals were driven #hj miles in a day without injury2 and they proved a first-rate team for many years4 ,mr4 ,ellicott1 of the ,patuxent ,furnaces1 asserts that1 out of about #ajj mules at the works1 we have not lost on an average one in two years4 ,bleeding at the mouth will cure them of nearly every disease1 and by being turned out on pasture1 they will recover from almost every accident4 ,i do not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one4 ,they are scarcely ever defective in the hoof1 and though kept shod1 it is not as important as with the horse4 ,their skin is tougher than that of the horse1 consequently they are not as much worried by flies1 nor do they suffer so much with the heat of summer4 ,to the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late ,judge ,hinckley of ,massachusetts2 a shrewd and close observer through a long life of #hd years4 ,he bred mules at an early day1 and always kept a team of them for his farm work1 much preferring them to horses for this purpose1 after an experience of #ej years4 ,he had a pair nearly #cj years old1 which1 with light pasturage in summer1 and with a moderate supply of hay with little grain in winter1 and no grooming1 performed all the drudgery1 though he kept his stable full of horses besides4 ,they outlived successive generations of horses1 and though the latter were often sick and out of condition1 the mules never were4 ,one from his stock1 #de years old1 was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young mules1 being at that mature age perfectly able to perform his full share of labor4 ,for the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible ranges which form the continuation of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and the extensive arid plains that lie between and west of them1 on the route from ,santa ,fe to ,california1 mules are the only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous adventures4 ,their value may be estimated from the comparative prices of mules and horses2 for while a good horse may be bought for #aj to #bj1 a good mule is worth #ej to #ge4 ,dr4 ,lyman1 who recently passed through those regions1 informs us that their caravan left ,santa ,fe with about #aej mules1 #ae or #bj horses1 all beasts of burden1 and two choice blood-horses1 which were led and treated with peculiar care4 ,on the route1 all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suffering2 the two bloods that had been so carefully attended1 but just survived2 yet of the whole number of mules but #h or #aj gave out4 ,a mule #cf years of age was as strong1 enduring1 and performed as hard labor1 as any one in the caravan4 ,when thirst compelled them to resort for successive days to the saline waters1 which are the only ones furnished by those sterile plains1 the horses were at once severely1 and not unfrequently fatally affected2 while the mules1 though suffering greatly from the change1 yet seldom were so much injured as to require any remission of their labor4 ,the mules sent to the ,mexican possessions from our western states1 ,missouri1 ,tennessee1 and ,kentucky1 are considered of much more value than such as are bred from the native 7usually wild7 mares4 ,the difference probably arises1 in part1 from the ,mexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock animals used by the citizens of those states4 ,mare mules are estimated in those regions at one-third more than horse mules4 ,the reason assigned for this is1 that after a day's journey of excessive fatigue1 there is a larger quantity of blood secreted in the bladder1 which the female1 owing to her larger passage1 voids at once1 and without much apparent suffering1 while the male does not get rid of it1 frequently1 till after an hour of considerable pain4 ,the effect of this difference is seen in the loss of flesh and strength in the male to an extent far beyond that of the female4 ,the method of reducing refractory mules in the northern ,mexican possessions1 is for the person to grasp them firmly by the ears1 while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and belly4 ,estimated annual saving to the ,united ,states from the employment of mules in the place of horses4--,to sum up the advantages of working mules over horses1 we shall have as advantages3 #a4 ,they are more easily1 surely1 and cheaply raised4 #b4 ,they are maintained1 after commencing work1 for much less than the cost of keeping horses4 #c4 ,they are not subject to many of the diseases of the horse1 and to others only in a mitigated degree1 and even these are easily cured in the mule4 #d4 ,they attain a greater age1 and their average working years are probably twice that of the horse4 ,in #ahdj1 there were reported to be #d1cce1ffi horses and mules in the ,union1 no discrimination having been made between them4 ,suppose the total number at the present time is #d1fej1jjj1 and that of these #fej1jjj are mules4 ,if we deduct one-fourth1 supposed to be required for the purposes of breed1 fancy-horses1 c41 we shall have #c1jjj1jjj horses1 whose places may be equally well supplied by the same number of mules4 ,we have seen that ,mr4 ,hood1 of ,maryland1 estimates the expense of a working horse at #dd per annum1 7not an over estimate for the ,atlantic states17 while that of the mule is #bb4 ,the difference is #bb1 which it is proper to reduce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the ,west4 ,if we put the difference at #aj1 we shall find the saving in the keep1 shoeing1 farriery1 c41 by substituting mules for the #c1jjj1jjj horses that can be dispensed with1 will be #cj1jjj1jjj per annum4 ,but this is not all4 ,the working age of the horse will not exceed an average of eight years1 while that of the mule is probably over sixteen4 ,to the difference of keep1 then1 must be added the annual waste of the capital invested in the animal4 ,a mule is more cheaply raised to working age than a horse1 but allowing them to cost equally1 we shall have the horse exhausting one-eighth of his capital annually for his decay1 when the mule is using up but one-sixteenth2 and if we allow #dh as the first cost of both animals1 we shall find the horse wasting #f annually for this item1 while the mule deteriorates but #c1 making an additional item of #i1jjj1jjj4 ,this will give an aggregate of #ci1jjj1jjj1 as the annual saving to the ,united ,states by substituting good mules for three-fourths of the horses now used in this country4 ,when will our farmers have the good sense to make this change8 ,it may be fairly answered1 when they shall prefer utility1 interest1 and a just taste1 to a diseased fancy2 for though we admit the superiority in appearance of the race of horses over mules1 we deny that a bad horse looks better or even as well as a good mule2 and with the same keep and attention1 a good mule will outwork and outlook most horses of any breed4 ,the comparative ,economy of ,horse and ,ox ,labor4 ,this is a question which has been often discussed1 and when with candor1 the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox-labor4 ,the different employments1 the variety of situation1 the season1 and the kind of stock reared on the farm1 are all questions which should be fully considered in arriving at their true comparative advantages4 ,most farmers would find it for their interest to keep teams of each1 where there is employment for more than one2 or if this be not the case1 the preference should be given to that which is best suited in all respects to their particular position4 ,if work upon the road is required1 a horse team will generally be best4 ,their superiority will consist principally in their greater speed2 for even with a heavy load1 they will be able to trot occasionally1 and when driven without it1 they may increase their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox4 ,this will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the driver when steadily employed4 ,the same is true when removing manures or crops on the farm to remote distances1 over a smooth surface1 which admits of trotting with the empty wagon4 ,harrowing ought always to be done with a quick team1 as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged4 ,but we should assume in this comparison1 that oxen shall not only be well adapted to their work by their natural formation1 like the ,hereford1 the ,devon1 and others equally good1 but also that they be well trained1 well managed1 accustomed to quick movements1 and as well fed and looked after as horses4 ,we shall then find their walk equal to a quick horse team1 and that in this case the horse will have no advantage over the ox in harrowing4 ,for plowing1 the teams are on a par1 as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool weather as horses4 ,the situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate4 ,in a warm climate1 horses1 and more especially mules1 would be more serviceable than oxen1 as they are capable of enduring much greater heat with impunity4 ,if the farm be small and convenient to market1 the labor may1 in general1 be best accomplished by oxen1 as little travelling will be required4 ,so1 too1 if the land be stony or rough1 the plowing and harrowing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by spirited horses4 ,other considerations will suggest themselves as affecting the comparative economy of this labor4 ,the time of work is to be fully considered4 ,if much and heavy work be required in summer1 as is often the case in plowing extensive wheat farms1 horses are to be preferred2 yet if the ox-team be started at early dawn1 and worked briskly four or five hours1 and then turned out to rest with a supply of suitable food1 they may again commence when the extreme heat has abated1 and accomplish a day's work that few horses will exceed4 ,during the season of muddy roads1 the horse1 with his broad1 compact foot1 and longer leg1 has a decided advantage over the ox4 ,if the ox draws by the yoke1 7which on the whole is the best mode17 he is liable to a sore neck when working in wet or snowy weather1 and at such times he is overmatched by his competitor4 ,the kind of stock raised on the farm has an important bearing on this question4 ,some farms are devoted to rearing horses1 and some exclusively to rearing cattle4 ,these occasionally remain on hand after they are fit for market1 from the want of a profitable demand4 ,they can then be employed not only without injury1 but in consequence of the thorough training thus secured1 with positive benefit to their future value4 ,even if intended for the shambles1 the well-developed ox may advantageously be put to light work at three1 after which it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight1 and during all this time he will be improving4 ,after doing an early spring's work1 he may then be turned on to good pasture1 and if followed with proper stall-feeding1 he will in the latter part of the winter or spring yield a tender1 better-flavored1 and more profitable carcass1 than can be procured by any other mode of fattening4 ,the first cost of oxen is less than that of horses1 and they are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the farm4 ,the expense of working-gear1 tackle1 and shoeing1 is much less than with horses4 ,they are subject to fewer diseases1 and these are more within the reach of ordinary medicines4 ,the cost of food is also less1 and while the horse is depreciating1 the ox is increasing in value till eight or nine years old4 ,accidents are less frequent with oxen1 from their slower movements2 and when they occur1 the ox may be turned out to fatten1 and still be worth as much for this purpose as for the yoke4 ,a permanent injury to the horse is perhaps a total loss of the beast1 with a large farrier's bill in addition1 for which there is nothing to liquidate it but the hide4 ,the small farmer can make out a most serviceable team1 by putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle4 ,if well trained1 they will soon accommodate themselves to each other's pace1 and work as advantageously together as an entire team of either class would do alone4 ,bulls are frequently put to the draught1 and when they have not other services that fully test their powers1 they cannot be better employed4 ,heifers and cows are sometimes worked1 but hitherto they have not been used to any extent in this country4 ,in the absence of other animals1 they might perform light work to advantage1 but severe labor would stint their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit derived from it4 ,the spayed heifer is an exception to the foregoing remark1 and by many is esteemed even more useful than an ox of equal weight4 ,we have no definite statements of the comparative money value of the labor of oxen and horses4 ,but in ,england repeated trials have been made1 and while some have discovered no advantage in the employment of oxen over horses1 others have proved them decidedly superior4 ,one ,anglesey farmer found in an experience of three years1 with #ab horses and #bj oxen1 which accomplished an equal amount of work1 that he had saved by the latter1 #aaej4 ,the foregoing facts prove the subject to be one of sufficient importance1 to justify the closest investigation of every farmer to determine for himself the comparative value of ox1 horse1 or mule labor4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,swine4 ,the hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone1 though his natural haunts1 like those of the hippopotamus1 the elephant1 the rhinoceros1 and most of the thick-skinned animals1 are in warm climates4 ,they are most abundant in ,china1 the ,east ,indies1 and the immense range of islands which extends over the whole ,southern and ,pacific ,oceans2 but they are also numerous throughout ,europe1 from its southern coast to the ,russian dominions within the ,arctic4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,the ,wild ,boar4 ,in the ,united ,states1 swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement1 and whenever a profitable market could be found for pork abroad1 it has been exported to the full extent of the demand4 ,for near twenty years following the commencement of the general ,european wars1 soon after the organization of our national government1 it was a comparatively large article of commerce2 but from that time1 exports have not been justified to any extent1 till within the last two years1 since which1 a material reduction in the ,british import duty on pork1 lard1 and hams1 has again brought it up as a prominent article of trade with that country4 ,the recent use which has been made of the carcass in converting it into lard oil1 has still further increased its consumption4 ,swine are reared in very part of the ,union1 and when properly managed1 always at a fair profit4 ,at the extreme ,north2 in the neighborhood of large markets2 and on such of the ,southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice1 they should not be raised beyond the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced4 ,swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard1 as with little additional food besides what is thus afforded1 they can be put into good condition for the butcher4 ,but it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the ,west1 where ,indian corn is raised in profusion1 and at small expense1 that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit4 ,the ,sciota1 ,miami1 ,wabash1 ,illinois1 and other valleys1 and extensive tracts in ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,missouri1 and some adjoining states1 have for many years taken the lead in the production of swine2 and it is probable the climate and soil1 which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth1 as well as that of their appropriate food1 will enable them forever to remain the leading pork-producers of the ,north ,american continent4 ,breeds of ,swine4 ,the breeds cultivated in this country are numerous1 and like our native cattle1 they embrace many of the best1 and a few of the worst to be found among the species4 ,great attention has for many years been paid to their improvement in the ,eastern states1 and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards4 ,this spirit has rapidly extended ,west and ,south2 and among most of the intelligent farmers who make them a leading object of attention1 on their rich corn grounds1 swine have attained a high degree of excellence4 ,this does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races1 so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening1 from such meritorious individuals of any breed1 or their crosses1 as come within their reach4 ,fig4 #cc1 represents an ,english breed of hogs1 a century or more ago3 though coarse and slouch-eared1 it is yet the portrait of a tolerable hog1 and far before many of the swine that still maintain their ascendency in various parts of the ,european continent4 ,this breed is nearly extinct1 having been crossed successively by the ,chinese and other good breeds1 thus diminishing the size and materially improving its thrift and tendency to fattening4 ,we have few such animals in the ,united ,states1 though we have many that are worse4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,old ,english ,hog4 ,the ,byefield1 some #cj years ago1 was a valuable hog in the ,eastern states1 and did much good among the species generally4 ,they are white1 with fine curly hair1 well made and compact1 moderate in size and length1 with broad backs1 and at #ae months attaining some #cjj to #cej lbs4 net4 ,the ,bedford or ,woburn is a breed originating with the ,duke of ,bedford1 on his estate at ,woburn1 and brought to their perfection1 probably1 by judicious crosses of the ,china hog1 on some of the best ,english swine4 ,a pair was sent by the duke to this country1 as a present to ,gen4 ,washington1 but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in ,maryland1 in which state and ,pennsylvania they were productive of much good at an early day1 by their extensive distribution through different states4 ,several other importations of this breed have been made at various times1 and especially by the spirited masters of the ,liverpool packet ships1 in the neighborhood of ,new ,york4 ,they are a large1 spotted animal1 well made1 and inclining to early maturity and fattening4 ,they are an exceedingly valuable hog1 but are nearly extinct both in ,england and this country1 as a breed4 ,the ,leicesters are a large1 white hog1 generally coarse in the bone and hair1 great eaters1 and slow in maturing4 ,some varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars1 and mature early on a moderate amount of food4 ,the crosses with smaller compact breeds1 are generally thrifty1 desirable animals4 ,other large breeds deserving commendation in this country1 are the large ,miami white1 the ,yorkshire white1 and the ,kenilworth1 each frequently attaining1 when dressed1 a weight of #fjj to #hjj lbs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,china ,hog4 ,the ,chinese is among the smaller varieties1 and without doubt is the parent stock of the best ,european and ,american swine4 ,they necessarily vary in appearance1 size1 shape1 and color1 from the diversity in the style of breeding1 and the various regions from which they are derived4 ,the ,fig4 represents the pure ,china pig1 and is a striking likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descendants that we have seen in this country4 ,they are too small an animal for general use1 and require to be mixed with larger breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the market4 ,for the purpose of refining the coarse breeds1 no animal has ever been so successful as this4 ,they are fine-boned1 short1 and very compact1 with bellies almost touching the ground1 light head and ears1 fine muzzle1 of great docility and quietness1 small feeders1 and producing much meat for the quantity of food consumed4 ,from the rapidity with which generations of this animal are multiplied1 the variety of other breeds on which they are crossed1 and the treatment to which they are subjected1 it is not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume distinct features4 ,they furnish not only a strong dash of blood in the best class of large breeds1 but in such of the smaller as have any pretensions to merit1 they constitute the greater part of the improvement4 ,such are the ,neapolitan1 the ,essex half-black1 the ,grass breed1 and some others4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,berkshire ,hog4 ,the ,berkshires are an ancient ,english breed1 formerly of large size1 slow feeders1 and late in maturing4 ,their color was a buff or sandy ground1 with large black spots1 and the feet1 lower part of the legs1 and tuft on the tail1 buff4 ,the latter color has given place1 in most of the modern age1 to white in the same parts4 ,this variation1 with the more important ones of early maturity and good feeding properties1 are by ,professor ,low ascribed to a ,chinese cross1 which has added the only characteristic in which they were before deficient4 ,they were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in this country by ,mr4 ,brentnall1 of ,orange ,co41 and ,mr4 ,hawes1 of ,albany1 ,n4 ,york4 ,in their hands1 and those of other skilful breeders1 their merits were widely promulgated4 ,no other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the ,united ,states1 within comparatively so brief a period1 as the ,berkshires1 since #ahcb1 and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races4 ,they weigh variously1 from #bej to #djj lbs4 net1 at #af months1 according to their food and style of breeding2 and some full-grown have dressed to more than #hjj lbs4 ,they particularly excel in their hams1 which are round1 full1 and heavy1 and contain a large proportion of lean1 tender1 and juicy meat1 of the best flavor4 ,none of our improved breeds afford long1 coarse hair or bristles2 and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department of domestic animals1 that our brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of what they use from ,russia and northern ,europe4 ,this improvement is manifest not only in the hair1 but in the skin1 which is soft and mellow to the touch2 in the finer bones1 shorter head1 upright ears1 dishing face1 delicate muzzle1 and mild eye2 and in the short legs1 low flanks1 deep and wide chest1 broad back1 and early maturity4 ,breeding4 ,swine should not be allowed to breed before #ab or #ae months old1 unless the animals are large and coarse1 when they may be put to it somewhat younger4 ,not only choice individuals1 but such as are well descended1 should be selected for the purpose of breeding4 ,the sow should be in good condition1 but not fat1 nor approaching to it2 and a proper degree of exercise is essential to the development of the foetus and the health of the parent2 for which reason1 she should have an extended range connected with her pen4 ,the sow goes with young about #aad days4 ,a week before the time comes round1 a comfortable1 quiet place should be prepared for her under cover1 and well-protected from cold1 if the weather be severe2 or if warm1 a range in a pasture with an open shed to retire to1 is sufficient4 ,too much litter for bedding must be avoided1 and no change or disturbance of the sow permitted1 till two or three weeks after pigging1 as the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of the pigs4 ,the sow should be fed only with a small quantity of the lightest food or thin gruel1 for two or three days1 nor put on full feed for a week4 ,if inclined to eat her pigs1 she should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat4 ,the pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after three weeks1 and if provided with a trough inaccessible to the dam1 they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food1 preparatory to weaning4 ,this may take place when they are #h or #aj weeks old2 and to prevent injury to the sow1 let one or two remain with her a few days longer1 and when finally removed1 if her bag appears to be full1 they may be allowed to drain the milk after #bj or #cj hours4 ,the sow should be restricted to a light1 dry diet for a few days at this period4 ,management and ,fattening4 ,there are but two objects in keeping swine1 for breeding and for slaughter1 and their management is consequently simple4 ,those designed for breeding1 should be kept in growing condition1 on light food1 and have every advantage for exercise4 ,such as are destined exclusively for fattening1 ought to be steadily kept to the object4 ,it is the usual1 though a bad practice in this country1 to let spring pigs run at large for the first #ae months1 with such food as is convenient2 and if fed at all1 it is only to keep them in moderate growth till the second autumn4 ,they are then put up to fatten1 and in the course of #fj or #ij days are fed off and slaughtered4 ,during this brief period1 they gain from #ej to #ajj per cent4 more of dressed weight than in the #ae or #ah months preceding3 nor even then do they yield a greater average weight than is often attained by choice1 thrifty pigs1 which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of #h or #i months4 ,three pigs of the ,bedford breed1 when precisely #ga_/b months old1 dressed #bcj1 #bce1 and #bcha_/b lbs4 ,two of the ,berkshire and ,leicester breeds1 at #i months1 dressed #cjd and #caj lbs4 ,three others of the ,berkshire and ,grass breeds1 #g months and #bg days old weighed #bdj1 #bej1 and #beg lbs4 net4 ,innumerable instances could be adduced of similar weights1 gained within the same time1 with a good breed of animals under judicious treatment4 ,we have no one accurate account of the food consumed1 so as to determine the relative profit of short or long feeding4 ,but that an animal must consume much more in #ah or #bj months to produce the same quantity of dressed meat1 which is made by others of #h or #i months1 does not admit of a doubt4 ,we have seen that an ox requires but little more than double the quantity of food to fatten1 that is necessary for supporting existence4 ,if we apply this principle to swine1 and state the quantity of food which will fatten the pig rapidly1 to be three times as great as for the support of life1 we shall find that the pig will fatten in #g months1 on the same food he would consume to keep him alive for #ba4 ,this is based on the supposition that both animals are of equal size4 ,but the pig that matures and is slaughtered at #g months1 has only a moderate capacity for eating4 ,during the early stages of his growth1 his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs1 prevent the consumption of the same quantity which the larger animal requires2 and his accumulating fat1 his limited respiration1 consequent upon the compression of his lungs1 and his indisposition to exercise1 all conspire to keep the consumption of food within the smallest possible limit4 ,this result1 in the absence of any experiment1 must be conjectural entirely2 but we believe that experiments will show1 that of two thrifty pigs from the same litter1 one of which is properly fed to his utmost capacity for #g months1 and the other fed with precisely double the quantity of similar food for #ba months1 the first will yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable quality than the latter1 which has consumed #ajj per cent4 the most4 ,the food is only one item in this calculation4 ,the oldest requires the most attention1 is liable to more accidents and disease1 besides the loss of interest4 ,we are necessarily forced to the conclusion1 that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs is in the pork-barrel4 ,we can readily anticipate one objection to this practice1 which is the want of food at the requisite season of the year to fatten them4 ,this can be obviated1 by reserving enough of the previous year's grain1 to keep the animal in a rapidly thriving state1 till the next crop matures sufficiently to feed4 ,in the rich corn regions1 on its beginning to ripen1 as it does in ,august1 the fields are fenced off into suitable lots1 and large herds are successively turned into them1 to consume the grain at their leisure4 ,they waste nothing except the stalks1 which in that region of plenty are considered of little value1 and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops2 and whatever grain is left by them1 leaner droves which follow1 will readily glean4 ,peas1 early buckwheat1 and apples1 may be fed on the ground in the same way4 ,there is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping1 which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and cost of storage4 ,if fattened early in the season1 they will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather2 they will require less attention2 and generally1 early pork will command the highest price in market4 ,it is most economical1 to provide the swine with a fine clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer2 and they ought also to have access to the orchard1 to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls4 ,they should also have the wash of the house and the dairy1 to which add meal1 and sour in large tubs or barrels4 ,not less than one-third1 and perhaps more1 of the whole grain fed to swine1 is saved by grinding and cooking or souring4 ,yet care must be observed that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction4 ,a mixture of meal and water1 with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel1 and exposure to a temperature between #fh deg4 and #gg deg4 will produce immediate fermentation4 ,in this process there are five stages4 ,the saccharine1 by which the starch and gum of the vegetables1 in their natural condition1 are converted into sugar2 the vinous1 which changes the sugar into alcohol2 the mucilaginous1 sometimes taking the place of the vinous1 and occurring when the sugar solution1 or fermenting principle is weak1 producing a slimy1 glutinous product2 the acetic1 forming vinegar1 from the vinous or alcoholic stage2 and the putrefactive1 which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison4 ,the precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most profitable for feeding1 has not yet been satisfactorily determined2 but that it should stop short of the putrefactive1 and probably the full maturity of the acetic1 is certain4 ,the roots for fattening animals ought to be washed1 and steamed or boiled2 and when not intended to be fermented1 the meal may be scalded with the roots4 ,a small quantity of salt should be added4 ,potatoes are the best roots for swine2 then parsnips2 orange or red carrots1 white or ,belgian2 sugar beets2 mangel-wurzel2 ruta-bagas2 and the white turnips1 in the order mentioned4 ,the nutritive properties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk1 that we doubt if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage2 and they will barely sustain lift when fed to them uncooked4 ,there is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine1 without cooking4 ,when unprepared grain is fed1 it should be on a full stomach1 to prevent imperfect mastication1 and consequent loss of the food4 ,it is better indeed to have it always before them4 ,the animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion1 and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate conversion into fat and muscle4 ,swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean1 and provided with a warm shelter1 to which they can retire at pleasure4 ,this will greatly hasten the fattening and economize the food4 ,they thrive better and are generally less subject to disease1 when long confined in yards1 by having a clear running stream always accessible1 to wallow in4 ,this is one of the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases4 ,a hog ought to have three apartments1 one each for sleeping1 eating1 and evacuations1 of which the last may occupy the lowest1 and the first the highest level1 so that nothing shall be drained1 and as little carried into the first two as possible4 ,they must be regularly fed three times a day1 and if there is a surplus1 it should be removed at once4 ,if they are closely confined in pens1 give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat4 ,this corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach4 ,rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal4 ,graves1 scraps1 or cracklings1 as they are variously called1 the residuum of rough lard or tallow1 after expressing the fat1 are a good change and an economical food4 ,some animal food1 although not essential1 is always acceptable to swine4 ,when about to finish them off1 many feed for a few weeks on hard corn4 ,this is proper when slops or indifferent food has been given1 and meal cannot be conveniently procured2 but when fattened on sound roots and meal1 it is a wasteful practice1 as the animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth4 ,it is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw grain1 for a change1 and to sharpen his appetite4 ,the products furnished by the carcass of swine are numerous4 ,every part of the animal is used for food1 and it admits of a far greater variety of preparation for the table1 than any other flesh4 ,from the remotest antiquity to the present time1 and in every grade of barbarous and civilized life1 it has been esteemed as one of the choicest delicacies of the epicure4 ,lard-oil 7oleine7 has1 within a few years1 given to pork a new and profitable use1 by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased4 ,at some of the large pork-packing depots of the ,west1 one-third of the whole quantity has been thus disposed of4 ,this has withdrawn a large amount of pork from the market1 and prevented the depression which must otherwise have occurred4 ,where the oil is required1 the whole carcass1 after taking out the hams and shoulders1 is placed in a tub having two bottoms1 the upper one perforated with holes1 on which the pork is laid1 and then tightly covered4 ,steam1 at a high temperature1 is then admitted into the tub1 and in a short time all the fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom4 ,the remaining mass is bones and scraps4 ,the last is fed to pigs1 poultry1 or dogs1 or affords the best kind of manure4 ,the bones are either used for manure1 or are converted into animal charcoal1 worth about three cents per pound1 which is valuable for various purposes in the arts4 ,when the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality1 the animal is first skinned1 and the adhering fat carefully scraped off4 ,the oily1 viscid matter of the skin is thus avoided4 ,when tanned1 the skin makes a valuable leather4 ,an aggregate weight of #agij lbs4 from four well-fattened animals1 after taking out the hams and shoulders1 say about #djj lbs41 gave within a fraction of #abjj lbs4 of the best lard4 ,stearine and ,oleine4--,lard and all fatty matters consist of three principles1 of which stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids1 both of which1 when separated1 are solid1 and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles4 ,the other1 oleine1 is fluid at a low temperature1 and in ,american commerce1 is known as lard-oil4 ,it is very pure1 and extensively used for machinery1 lamps1 and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are used4 ,curing ,hams and ,pork4 ,after dressing1 the carcass should be allowed to hang till perfectly drained and cool1 when it may be cut up and salted4 ,the usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt1 adding brine to the barrel when filled4 ,but it may be dry salted1 by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece1 with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand4 ,the pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt1 and occasionally turned till cured2 or it may at once be packed in dry casks1 which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt into contact with every part4 ,hams and ,shoulders ,may be cured in the same manner1 either dry or in pickle1 but with differently arranged materials4 ,the following is a good pickle for #bjj lbs4 ,take #ad lbs4 of ,turk ,island salt2 #a_/b lb4 of saltpetre2 #b qts4 of molasses1 or #d lbs4 of brown sugar1 with water enough to dissolve them4 ,bring the liquor to the scalding point1 and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top4 ,when cold1 pour it upon the ham1 which should be perfectly cool but not frozen1 and closely packed2 and if not sufficient to cover it1 add enough pure water for this purpose4 ,some extensive packers in ,cincinnati and elsewhere1 who send choice hams to market1 add pepper1 allspice1 cinnamon1 nutmegs1 or mace and cloves4 ,the hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle1 then hung up in the smoke-house1 with the small end down1 and smoked from #aj to #bj days1 according to the quantity of smoke4 ,the fire should not be near enough to heat the hams4 ,in ,holland and ,westphalia1 the fire is made in the cellar1 and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool1 dry chamber4 ,this is undoubtedly the best method of smoking4 ,the hams should at all times be dry and cool1 or their flavor will suffer4 ,green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke2 next to them are hickory1 sweet-birch1 corn-cobs1 white-ash1 or beech4 ,the smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted4 ,if removed1 they should be kept cool1 dry1 and free from flies4 ,a canvass-cover for each1 saturated with lime1 which may be put on with a whitewash brush1 is a perfect protection against flies4 ,when not to be kept long1 they may be packed in dry salt1 or even in sweet brine1 without injury4 ,a common method is to pack in dry oats1 baked sawdust1 c4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,swine4 ,mortifying as the fact may be to human pride1 it is nevertheless certain1 that the internal arrangements1 the viscera1 digestive organs1 omnivorous propensities1 and the general physiological structure of the hog and the bear1 more nearly resemble man1 than any other animal4 ,many of their diseases may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the human species1 and require a similar treatment4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,skeleton of a ,pig4 ,a ,maxilla inferior1 vel posterior2 lower jaw4--,b ,dentes2 the teeth4--,c ,ossa nasi2 the nasal bones4--,d ,maxilla superior1 vel anterior2 upper jaw4--,e ,os frontis2 the frontal bone4--,f ,orbiculus2 the orbit or socket of the eye4--,g ,os occipitis2 the occipital bone4--,h ,atlas2 the first vertebra of the neck4--,i ,vertebrae colli1 vel cervicales2 the vertebrae of the neck4--,j ,vertebrae dorsi1 vel dorsales2 the vertebrae of the back4--,k ,vertebrae lumborum1 vel lumbales2 the vertebrae of the loins4--,l ,ossa coccygis2 the bones of the tail4--a ,scapula2 the shoulder-blade4--b ,humerus2 the round shoulder-bone4--c ,sternum2 the breastbone4--d ,ulna2 the elbow4--e ,radius2 the bone of the fore-arm4--f ,os naviculare3 the navicular bone4--g ,phalanges vel ossa pedis2 the first and second bones of the foot4--h ,phalanges1 vel ossa pedis2 the bones of the hoof4--i ,pelvis1 7ossa innorninata27 the haunch bones4--j ,os femoris2 the thigh-bone4--k ,patella2 the stifle-bone4--l ,tibia2 the upper bone of the leg--m ,tarsus1 7one of which is the 7,n7 os calcis27 the hock-bones4--n ,os naviculare2 the navicular bone4--o ,digiti1 vel phalanges1 7ossa pedis27 the first digits of the foot4--p ,digiti1 vel phalanges1 7ossa pedis27 the second digits of the foot4 ,pulmonary ,affections1 ,colds1 ,coughs1 and ,measles4 ,to each of these1 swine are peculiarly liable1 and1 as with most other evils1 prevention of disease in swine is more easy and economical than cure4 ,a dry warm bed1 free from winds or storms1 and suitable food1 will most effectually prevent any injuries1 or fatal attacks4 ,the hog has little external covering to protect him against cold4 ,nature has provided this immediately within the skin1 in the deep layer of fat which surrounds the full1 plump hog4 ,fat is one of the best non-conductors of heat1 and the pig which is well-fed bids defiance to the intense cold1 which would produce great suffering1 and consequent disease1 in the ill-conditioned animal4 ,by the observance of a proper medium between too much fat or lean1 for the store or breeding swine1 and providing them with comfortable beds and proper feed1 nearly all diseases will be avoided4 ,for ,coughs and ,inflammation of the ,lungs1 bleeding should immediately be resorted to1 after which give gentle purges of castor oil1 or ,epsom salts2 and this should be followed with a dose of antimonial powders--#b grains1 mixed with half a drachm of nitre4 ,for ,costiveness or loss of appetite1 sulphur is an excellent remedy1 given in a light mess4 ,itch may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard and brimstone4 ,rubbing-posts1 and a running stream to wallow in are preventives4 ,the ,kidney ,worm is frequently fatal2 and always produces weakness of the loins and hind legs1 usually followed by entire prostration4 ,a pig thus far gone1 is hardly worth the trouble of recovering1 even where practicable4 ,preventives1 are general thrift1 a range in a good pasture1 and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fortnight in their food4 ,a small quantity of saltpetre1 spirits of turpentine1 or tar1 will effect the same object4 ,when attacked1 apply spirits of turpentine to the loins1 and administer calomel carefully2 or give half a tablespoonful of copperas daily for one or two weeks4 ,blind ,staggers4 ,this is generally confined to pigs1 and manifests itself in foaming at the mouth1 rearing on their hind legs1 champing and grinding their teeth1 and apparent blindness4 ,the proper remedies are bleeding and purging freely1 and these frequently fail4 ,many nostrums have been suggested1 but few are of any utility4 ,it is important to keep the issues on the inside of the fore-legs1 just below the knee1 thoroughly cleansed4 ,the tails of young pigs frequently drop or rot off1 which is attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the loss of the member4 ,the remedies are1 to give a little brimstone or sulphur in the food of the dam2 or rub oil or grease daily on the affected parts4 ,it may be detected by a roughness or scabbiness at the point where separation is likely to occur4 ,bleeding4--,the most convenient mode1 is from an artery just above the knee1 on the inside of the fore-arm4 ,it may be drawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth4 ,the flow of blood may usually be stopped1 by applying a sponge or cloth with cold water4 ,the diseases of swine1 though not numerous1 are formidable1 and many of them soon become fatal4 ,they have not been the subject of particular scientific study1 and most of the remedies applied1 are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard suggestion1 than of well-digested inference1 from long-continued and accurate observation4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,farm-,,dogs4 ,no grazing farm is complete without one or more intelligent1 well-trained dogs1 adapted to the various wants of their owners2 and the general taste has made their presence almost universal in every rural household4 ,the dog is peculiarly the friend of man4 ,many other animals have a temporary though feeble attachment to him1 which seems the result rather of constant companionship1 or the selfishness of dependence1 than any well-settled affection towards a master4 ,the dog alone1 of all the brute creation1 seems capable of a disinterested1 self-sacrificing affection2 and this1 united with his usefulness and adaptedness to all climes and countries1 has made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe4 ,since this animal is the habitual tenant of the farm1 and1 when suited to his peculiar duties1 can be made of great utility by the assistance he is capable of affording in its management1 we deem it entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the species as are deserving the farmer's attention4 ,discarding all ideas of fancy or sportsmanship1 and looking to utility alone1 we may safely affirm that the farmer needs only such as may be found in the four breeds of the ,newfoundland1 the ,shepherd's and ,drover's dog1 and the ,terrier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,newfoundland ,dog4 ,the ,newfoundland ,dog4 ,this dog1 of which we give a portrait1 is always above medium height1 and frequently is of the largest size4 ,he is long-haired and shaggy1 and has a thick coat of fine1 soft fur1 beneath the outer covering1 which is almost impenetrable by water4 ,his color is most frequently black2 often spotted and partially flecked or grayish2 and occasionally buff4 ,the ,newfoundland is of the ,spaniel family1 but derives its name from the island where it has been bred for centuries1 to the great advantage of its inhabitants4 ,there are two varieties3 the large1 used in the north1 called the ,labrador2 and the smaller1 more docile and intelligent1 of the south1 called the ,st4 ,john's4 ,they are employed by the islanders1 and the people of the neighboring coast1 in drawing their sleds and carts loaded with fish1 wood1 c4 ,they aid them in various ways in their fishing operations2 they are strong1 courageous1 and watchful2 and with slight training1 they are scarcely inferior to the best hunting-dogs in pursuing the wild game that abounds in those high northern latitudes4 ,these estimable qualities1 coupled with their uniform good-nature1 have always made them favorites with the farmer4 ,the ,newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog2 sagacious in discriminating between a friend and a foe1 and with courage and strength to follow out his prompt and judicious conclusions4 ,he is easily trained for the drover1 to whom he is frequently a great assistant2 and with a scent sufficiently acute to pursue game1 he is readily broken in as a useful companion to the sportsman4 ,he can also be made serviceable in the various duties of the farm3 destroying noxious vermin1 taking the cattle and horses to the field or water1 drawing a light load1 churning the butter1 c4 ,it is true1 he has not all the sagacity of the ,poodle1 whose intelligence approaches nearer to human reason than any other of the brute creation4 ,but if he has not that quick apprehension1 which too often leads1 as in the case of forward children1 to the attainment of every worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loaferish habit1 he seems to have a sedate1 well-formed judgment1 which makes all his wit available for some useful purpose4 ,he is unsurpassed as a water-dog2 and his courageous efforts1 wherever an opportunity has been afforded1 in rescuing numberless human beings from a watery grave1 together with his unswerving fidelity and devotion1 commend him as the prince of the canine family4 ,the ,shepherd's ,dog4 ,this animal1 of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next page1 of the long-haired ,scottish breed1 belongs to the same family as the ,newfoundland and ,poodle1 which embraces the most intelligent and useful of the canine species4 ,there are two classes of these dogs1 which differ widely in their size and characteristics4 ,the larger is of great size and courage1 and when protected by a stout leather collar studded with spikes1 is a full match for the wolf4 ,these are used by the ,spanish and ,mexican shepherds1 on their wild sierras1 as effective guards against the attacks of all marauders1 and are essentially the same race as the far-famed dogs of ,mount ,st4 ,bernard4 ,they are not sufficiently gentle for guides1 and the shepherds who employ them rely on some well-trained wethers or goats to lead the flock at their call4 ,some have been imported into this country1 but on account of their headstrong and ferocious character1 and occasional depredations upon the flocks1 they have been found unsuited to our wants1 except on the borders of the wilderness4 ,the ,colley or ,scottish sheep-dog1 the ,english1 and those extensively used upon the continent1 differ much in their form and appearance1 but agree in their intelligence1 docility1 and usefulness4 ,they are of medium size1 with a sharp nose1 broad forehead1 and small upright ear2 they are both shaggy and smooth-haired1 with a bushy tail1 and much hair about the neck2 variously colored1 though more frequently inclined to black or darkly spotted and gray2 and one branch of the family is entirely destitute of a tail4 ,they possess an instinctive sagacity for the management of sheep2 and in company with a well-trained dog1 under the direction of the shepherd1 they soon become entirely competent to the control of the flock4 ,they perceive his wishes by a word or sign1 and with almost the speed of the greyhound1 dart off to execute them4 ,accounts of their performances have been frequently related1 which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with their peculiar character4 ,the following anecdote1 often told by the gifted poet1 ,mr4 ,james ,hogg1 more generally known by the soubriquet of the ,ettrick ,shepherd1 will show their capacity more fully than any description4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,shepherd's ,dog ,on one night1 a large flock of lambs that were under the ,ettrick ,shepherd's care1 frightened by something1 scampered away in three different directions across the hills1 in spite of all that he could do to keep them together4 ',sirrah1' said the shepherd1 'they're a' awa6' ,it was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerable distance1 but ,sirrah understood him1 and set off after the fugitives4 ,the night passed on1 and ,hogg and his assistant traversed every neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs2 but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog1 and he was returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs4 ',on our way home1 however1' says he1 'we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine called the ,flesh ,cleuch1 and the indefatigable ,sirrah standing in front of them1 looking round for some relief1 but still true to his charge4 ,we concluded that it was one of the divisions which ,sirrah had been unable to manage1 until he came to that commanding situation4 ,but what was our astonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock was missing6 ,how he had got all the divisions collected in the dark1 is beyond my comprehension4 ,the charge was left entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun2 and1 if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted him1 they could not have effected it with greater promptitude4 ,all that ,i can say is1 that ,i never felt so grateful to any creature under the sun as ,i did to my honest ,sirrah that morning4' ,they are quiet and good-natured1 never inclined to roam or neglect their duties1 and as little disposed to injure the animals intrusted to their keeping4 ,they have almost the intelligence of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock1 and ten times his efficiency in driving it4 ,no extensive sheep-walks1 unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences1 should be without one or more of these useful animals4 ,the ,drover's ,dog4 ,this animal is shown in the annexed figure4 ,he is closely allied to the sheep-dog1 from which he derives all his intelligence and capacity1 differing only in being somewhat larger and heavier1 which is essential to his controlling the sturdier bullocks under his charge4 ,his additional size is acquired by crossing with some of the stouter races1 such as the ,newfoundland or the pointer1 and even the bull-dog and large shaggy terrier have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that indomitable courage and game1 which is frequently requisite to the proper discharge of his duties4 ,he requires more training than the sheep-dog1 as his peculiar instincts are rather to the management of the flock than the herd2 but when fairly broken in1 he is equally expert in its management4 ,the drover's dog may also be useful for watching1 if crossed with a reference to this object1 which the sheep-dog seldom is4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,drover's ,dog4 ,the ,terrier4 ,this1 in addition to the foregoing1 is the only dog necessary to the farm4 ,he is needed principally for his great sagacity and indefatigable perseverance in exterminating rats and other vermin1 that frequently congregate in swarms around the farmer's premises1 producing such an aggregate of annoyance and devastation4 ,other dogs may occasionally be good ratters1 but the terrier takes to them from instinct1 as the ,newfoundland does to the water1 or the sheep-dog to his flock4 ,he has great ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and capturing his prey1 and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded1 he seldom fails of success4 ,the famous ,english terrier1 ,billy1 on two occasions1 killed #ajj rats in a ring at each time1 in an average of less than six and a half minutes4 ,the terrier is usually below the medium size1 but sometimes fully comes up to or even exceeds it4 ,he is smooth-haired or rough according to the breed1 of which there are several1 each claiming to be equally pure4 ,besides his capacity for the destruction of small game1 his innate love for the sport renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle from the premises2 and his quick ear1 habitual watchfulness1 and prompt courage1 fully qualify him1 to the extent of his size1 for an excellent watch-dog4 ,the fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a variety of other dogs than are herein enumerated1 some of which1 with good training1 can be made partial assistants to their masters4 ,but it is unnecessary to specify the various breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm1 as the slight crossing they will be likely to have1 equally with their opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them1 will serve materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts4 ,the ,spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the greatest intelligence1 fidelity1 and aptitude to learn2 the hound has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of game2 while the bull-dog has the most courage1 sullen ferocity1 and strength4 ,each may occasionally be wanted for a strain of blood for some particular objects2 and this is especially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of refractory cattle1 or to give the terrier greater stoutness and courage4 ,the absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs1 untrained for any valuable purpose1 or supernumeraries even if capable of rendering occasional service1 ought to be abandoned by every rational man4 ,besides the great annual cost1 the danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to justify a legal restraint on their numbers4 ,the sad havoc they commit on the flocks1 demands the extermination by law of every dog that is guilty1 whether ,mongrel1 puppy1 whelp1 or hound1 ,or cur of low degree4 ,and even if it includes the fides ,achates1 or parlor companions1 ,tray1 ,blanche1 and ,sweetheart1 the work of extirpation should proceed1 to the extent of curtailing this branch of farm-stock to its wholesome and legitimate proportions4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,poultry4 ,choice varieties of fowls add a pleasant feature to the farm premises4 ,they engage the attention and sympathy of the juvenile farmers1 and the time bestowed in the poultry yard keeps them from mischief3 it is an agreeable and salutary relief from toil and study1 and elicits the taste1 the judgment1 and the kindlier feelings of humanity1 which are to be matured in the future accomplished breeder4 ,when properly managed1 poultry are a source of considerable profit1 yielding more for the food they consume1 than any other stock1 although their value is not often considered4 ,the agricultural statistics of the ,united ,states1 for #ahci1 give us over #ab1jjj1jjj in poultry1 and it probably exceeds #ae1jjj1jjj at the present time4 ,it is estimated by ,mc,queen1 that the poultry of ,england exceeds #dj1jjj1jjj1 and yet ,mc,culloch says she imports #fj1jjj1jjj eggs annually from ,france1 7,mc,queen states it at near #gj1jjj1jjj27 and from other parts of the continent1 #be1jjj1jjj2 besides #hj1jjj1jjj imported from ,ireland4 ,poultry1 then1 ceases to be an unimportant object of agricultural attention1 and assumes its appropriate place among the other staples of the farmer4 ,hens ,are the most numerous and profitable1 and the most generally useful of the feathered tribe4 ,the hen is peculiarly an egg-producing bird4 ,she has the same predisposition for laying1 that the cow has for secreting milk4 ,some breeds are better adapted for this object than others3 but in all that have ever come within our notice1 the proper food and circumstances are alone wanting1 to produce a reasonable quantity of eggs4 ,the egg consists of three distinct parts2 the shell1 the white1 and the yolk4 ,a good-sized egg will weigh #a1jjj grains1 of which about #ajg are shell1 #fjd are white1 and #bhi are yolk4 ,of the shell1 #ig per cent4 is carbonate of lime1 #a per cent4 phosphate of lime and magnesia1 and #b per cent4 albumen4 ,the white consists of #ab per cent4 of albumen1 #b4g of mucus1 #j4c of salts1 and #he of water4 ,the yolk has about #ag4d per cent4 of albumen1 #bh4f of yellow oil1 #ed of water1 with a trace of sulphur and phosphorus4 ,the foregoing are the constituents of eggs1 which have been formed when the bird has free access to the various articles which constitute her natural food4 ,but they vary with circumstances4 ,when full-fed and denied all access to lime1 she will form an egg without the shell1 and deliver it enclosed in the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white1 when covered by the shell4 ,when scantily fed1 they will frequently lay2 but from a deficiency of nutriment1 the egg will be meager and watery1 and possess but a small portion of the nutritious qualities peculiar to them4 ,to produce the largest number of good eggs1 several conditions are important2 and they must especially have an abundance of the right kind of food4 ,this is the most readily obtained in part from animal food4 ,in warm weather1 when they have a free range1 they can generally supply their wants in the abundance of insects1 earth-worms1 and other animal matters within their reach4 ,the large proportion of albumen contained in their eggs1 requires that much of their food should be highly nitrogenized1 and when they cannot procure this in animal matter1 it must be given in grains containing it4 ,if to the usual qualities of hens1 a breed of peculiar elegance1 of graceful form1 and beautiful plumage1 be added1 together with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required1 good layers and good carcass1 we have a combination of utility1 luxury1 and taste in this bird1 which should commend them as general favorites4 ,they can everywhere be kept with advantage1 except in dense cities4 ,a hen that costs a shilling or two1 if provided with a suitable range1 will consume #cj or #dj cents worth of food1 and produce from #hj to #aej eggs per annum1 worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention4 ,the ,food ,of hens may consist of different kinds of grain1 either broken1 ground1 or cooked2 roots1 and especially boiled potatoes1 are nutritious and economical2 green herbage as clover and most of the grasses1 chickweed1 lettuce1 cabbage1 c41 will supply them with much of their food1 if fresh and tender4 ,fig4 #dj1 is a ,food fountain4 ,the grain is placed in the hopper1 which is closely covered1 and the grain falls into the bottom below4 ,it is accessible on four sides by spring doors1 which are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting spring4 ,one is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up to feed4 ,this is a protection against dirt and vermin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,food ,fountain4 ,though not absolutely essential to them1 yet nothing contributes so much to their laying1 as unsalted1 animal food4 ,this is a natural aliment1 as is shown by the avidity with which they pounce on every fly1 insect1 or earth-worm which comes within their reach4 ,it would not of course pay to supply them with valuable flesh1 but the blood and offal of the slaughter-houses1 refuse meat of all kinds1 and especially the scraps or cracklings to be had at the inciters' shops1 after soaking for a few hours in warm water1 is one of the best and most economical kinds of food4 ,such with boiled meal is a very fattening food4 ,grain is at all times best for them when cooked1 as they will lay more1 fatten quicker1 and eat much less when fed to them in this state2 and it may be thus used unground1 with the same advantage to the fowls as if first crushed1 as their digestive organs are certain to extract the whole nutriment4 ,all grain is good for them1 including millet1 rice1 the oleaginous seeds1 as the sun-flower1 flax1 hemp1 c4 ,it is always better to afford them a variety of grains where they can procure them at their option1 and select as their appetite craves4 ,they are also fond of milk1 and especially when it has become curdled2 and indeed scarcely any edible escapes their notice4 ,they carefully pick up most of the waste garbage around the premises1 and glean much of their subsistence from what would otherwise become offensive2 and by their destruction of innumerable insects and worms1 they render great assistance to the gardener4 ,of course their ever-busy propensity for scratching1 is indiscriminately indulged just after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are young1 which renders it necessary that they be confined in some close yard for a time2 yet this should be as capacious as possible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,water ,fountain4 ,water is placed in the cask as represented in the ,fig41 and it is then closely stopped1 except an opening through a tube leading into a vessel below4 ,as the water is exhausted from this1 it descends from the cask above1 and a supply is thus at all times within reach of the poultry4 ,their food is better when given to them warm1 not hot1 and there should always be a supply before them to prevent gorging4 ,it is better to be placed on shelves or suspended boxes or hoppers1 which are variously and cheaply constructed1 to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats4 ,besides their food1 hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with clean water1 egg or pounded oyster shells1 old mortar or slacked lime4 ,if not allowed to run at large1 where they can help themselves1 they must also be furnished with gravel to assist their digestion2 and a box or bed of ashes1 sand1 and dust1 is equally essential to roll in for the purpose of ridding themselves of vermin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,poultry ,house ,the ,hen-house ,may be constructed in various ways to suit the wishes of the owner1 and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the premises1 ,it should be perfectly dry throughout1 properly lighted1 and capable of being made tight and warm in winter1 yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season4 ,in this1 arrange the nests in boxes on the sides1 in such a manner as to humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts to them4 ,when desirable to set the hen1 these nests may be so placed as to shut out the others1 yet open into another yard or beyond the enclosure1 so that they can take an occasional stroll and help themselves to food1 c4 ,this prevents other hens laying in their nests1 while setting2 and it may be easily managed1 by having their boxes placed on the wall of the building1 with a moveable door made to open on either side at pleasure4 ,hens will lay equally well without a nest-egg1 but when broken up1 they ramble off and form new nests1 if they are not confined4 ,they will lay if kept from the cock1 but it is doubtful if they will thus yield as many eggs4 ,hens disposed to set at improper times1 should be dismissed from the common yard1 so as to be out of reach of the nests1 and plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,egg-,hatcher1 or ,eccalobeon4 ,fig4 #dc represents an egg-hatcher or ,eccalobeon1 made of different sizes1 with shelves so arranged as to hold from #bjj to #hjj eggs without touching each other4 ,the outer box is a non-conductor1 so as to retain the heat conveyed to every part by water tubes1 connected by a reservoir below1 the bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp4 ,the temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door inside1 which should be made equal to that of the hen1 say about #ajf deg4 ,fahrenheit4 ,her natural temperature is somewhat elevated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of incubation4 ,chickens require to be kept warm and dry1 for a few days after hatching1 and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs1 crumbs of bread or pudding1 and milk or water1 and allowed to scratch in the gravel in front of the hen1 which should be confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks4 ,after this1 they may be turned loose1 when they will thrive on any thing the older ones eat4 ,many use them for the table when they are but a few weeks old2 but they are unfit for this purpose1 till they have attained full maturity4 ,the white-legs are preferred by some1 from the whiteness and apparent delicacy of the meat2 but the yellow-legged are the richest and most highly-flavored4 ,the color of the feathers does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their character for laying4 ,if we consider the chemical principles of the absorption and retention of heat1 we should assume the white coat to be best1 as it is coolest in summer when exposed to the sun1 and warmest in winter4 ,yet some of the white breeds are delicate1 and do not bear rough usage or exposure4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the ,dorking ,varieties4 ,these differ materially in their sizes1 shapes1 and colors4 ,the ,dorking is esteemed one of the best1 being large1 well formed and hardy1 good layers and nurses1 and yielding an excellent carcass4 ,they are both white and speckled1 and generally have five toes4 ,the ,poland is both white and black1 with a large tuft1 generally of white feathers1 on the head4 ,they are of good size1 and excellent layers1 but are seldom inclined to set1 which makes them peculiarly desirable for such as wish eggs only4 ,the ,dominique is a speckled fowl1 of barely medium size1 compact1 hardy1 good layers1 and valuable for the table4 ,the ,bucks county fowls1 heretofore principally reared near ,philadelphia1 possess but moderate pretensions to notice1 except in their immense size1 a brace of capons having been fattened to #aia_/d lbs4 when dressed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,the ,bantam4 ,the ,bantam is but little larger than a pigeon1 and is usually of a pure white1 but is sometimes speckled4 ,it is generally feathered to the toes1 but may be bred with clean legs4 ,it is very domestic1 and a pleasant little bird around the premises1 and is not unprofitable4 ,the ,game cock is of medium weight1 and yields good flesh1 but is a poor layer1 and an undesirable tenant for the farm-yard4 ,besides these1 there are many fanciful varieties1 as the ,creeper1 with excessively short legs2 the ,rumpless1 without a tail2 the ,frizzled1 with irregular feathers turned towards the head2 the ,silky or ,merino fowl1 with brown or buff down1 instead of feathers2 the ,negro1 with its black crest1 wattles1 skin1 legs1 and feathers2 the ,java and ,cochin ,china1 of great size2 several varieties of the ,top-knot1 and others4 ,the ,diseases of ,hens4 ,these are not numerous or complicated1 and may be mostly avoided by proper treatment and food1 which are indicated with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations4 ,gapes or ,pip is generally owing to drinking unwholesome or dirty water4 ,remove the white blister on the tip of the tongue1 and wash with sharp vinegar1 diluted with warm water2 or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh butter1 mixed with ,scotch snuff4 ,it has been cured by opening the mouth and forcing a pigeon feather1 with a tuft of the feathers left on the end1 7the others having been stripped off17 down the windpipe1 and gently turning it as withdrawn1 to be repeated the following day if necessary4 ,this detaches large numbers of a slender red worm1 collected in the larynx of the throat1 which impedes respiration and swallowing4 ,a little spirits of turpentine mixed with the food is a preventive2 as are also clean1 whitewashed premises1 and good food4 ,after these attacks1 feed for a few days with light food1 soaked bran and cabbage1 or lettuce chopped fine4 ,roup1 ,catarrh1 or swelled head1 is shown by feverish symptoms1 swollen eyelids1 frequently terminating in blindness1 rattling in the throat1 and temporary strangulation4 ,these are accompanied with a highly offensive watery discharge1 from the mouth and nostrils1 loss of appetite1 and much thirst4 ,they should be placed near the fire2 their head bathed in warm ,castile soap-suds1 or milk and water4 ,stimulating food1 as flour or barley-meal1 mustard and grated ginger1 mixed and forced down the throat1 ,boswell says1 has been effectual in their speedy restoration4 ,this1 like many other diseases1 is contagious1 and when it appears1 the bird should be at once separated from the flock4 ,flux is cured by the yolk of an egg boiled hard2 and boiled barley soaked in wine4 ,costiveness is removed by giving bran and water with a little honey2 or give a small dose of castor oil4 ,vermin are destroyed by giving them clean sand and ashes to roll in1 adding a little quicklime if necessary4 ,entire cleanliness is necessary for the avoidance of this and other diseases4 ,a perfectly dry range is also essential1 nor should there be too many together1 as this is a fruitful source of disease4 ,,the ,,turkey4 ,this bird was unknown to the civilized world till the discovery of this ,continent4 ,it was found here both in its wild and domesticated state2 and still occupies the whole range of the western hemisphere1 though the wild turkey disappears as the country becomes settled4 ,the wild is larger than the domesticated bird1 sometimes weighing over #cj lbs4 dressed4 ,the color of the male is generally a greenish brown1 approaching to black1 and of a rich1 changeable1 metallic lustre4 ,the hen is marked somewhat like the cock1 but with duller hues4 ,domestication through successive generations dims the brilliancy of their plumage1 and lessens their size and hardiness4 ,it also produces a variety of colors1 though they are mostly of a black1 buff1 pure white1 or speckled4 ,they give evidence of the comparative recency of their domestication1 in the instinct which frequently impels the cock to brood and take care of the young4 ,nothing is more common than for the male bird to supply the place of the hen1 when any accident befalls her1 and to bring up a family of young chicks with an equally instinctive regard for their helplessness and safety4 ,the flesh of this bird1 both wild and tame1 is exceedingly delicate and palatable2 and though not possessing the high game flavor of some of the smaller wild-fowl1 and especially of the aquatic1 as the canvass-back duck1 c41 it exceeds them in its digestibility and healthfulness4 ,the turkey is useful principally for its flesh1 as it seldom lays over a nest-full of eggs in one season1 when they brood on these and bring up their young4 ,if full-fed1 and their first eggs are withdrawn from them1 they frequently lay a second time4 ,breeding4 ,those intended for breeders should be compact1 vigorous1 and large1 without being long-legged4 ,they should be daily1 yet lightly fed through the winter1 on grain and roots1 and some animal food is always acceptable and beneficial to them4 ,they are small eaters1 and without caution will soon get too fat4 ,one vigorous male will suffice for a flock of #aj or #ab hens1 and a single connection is sufficient for each4 ,they begin to lay on the approach of warm weather1 laying once a day1 or every other day1 till they have completed their litter2 which in the young or indifferently fed1 may be #aj or #ab1 and in the older ones1 sometimes reaches #bj4 ,the hen is sly in secreting her nest1 but usually selects a dry1 well-protected place4 ,she is an inveterate setter1 and carefully hatches most of her eggs4 ,the young may be allowed to remain for #bd hours without eating1 then fed with hard-boiled eggs made fine1 or crumbs of wheat bread4 ,boiled milk1 curds1 and buttermilk afford an excellent food4 ,as they get stronger1 oat or barley-meal is suitable1 but ,indian-meal1 uncooked1 is hurtful to them when quite young4 ,they are very tender1 and will bear neither cold nor wet1 and it is of course necessary to confine the old one for the first few weeks4 ,when able to shift for themselves1 they may wander over the fields at pleasure2 and from their great fondness for insects1 they will rid the meadows of innumerable grasshoppers1 bugs1 and beetles1 which often do incalculable damage to the farmer4 ,early chickens are sufficiently grown to fatten the latter part of autumn or the beginning of winter1 which is easily done on any of the grains or boiled roots4 ,both are better for being cooked4 ,they require a higher roosting-place than hens1 and are impatient of too close confinement1 preferring the ridge of a barn1 or a lofty tree1 to the circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry-house4 ,when rightly managed and fed1 turkeys are subject to few maladies2 and even these1 careful attention will soon remove4 ,,the ,,peacock ,,and ,,guinea-,,hen4 ,the ,peacock is undoubtedly the most showy of the feathered race4 ,it is a native of the southern part of ,asia1 and is still found wild in the islands of ,java and ,ceylon1 and some parts of the interior of ,africa4 ,they are an ornament to the farm premises1 and are useful in destroying reptiles1 insects1 and garbage2 but they are quarrelsome in the poultry-yard1 and destructive in the garden4 ,their flesh is coarse and dark1 and they are worthless as layers4 ,the brilliant silvery green and their ever-varying colors give place to an entire white1 in one of the varieties4 ,the ,guinea-hen is a native of ,africa and the southern part of ,asia1 where it abounds in its wild state4 ,most of them are beautifully and uniformly speckled2 but occasionally they are white on the breast1 like the ,pintados of the ,west ,india ,islands1 and some are entirely white4 ,they are unceasingly garrulous2 and their excessively pugnacious character renders them uncomfortable inmates with the other poultry4 ,their flesh1 though high-colored1 is delicate and palatable1 but1 like the peacock1 they are indifferent layers4 ,both are natives of a warm climate1 and the young are tender and rather difficult to rear4 ,neither of these birds is a general favorite1 and we omit further notice of them4 ,,the ,,goose4 ,there are many varieties of the goose4 ,main enumerates twenty-two1 most of which are wild2 and the tame are again variously subdivided4 ,the common white and gray are the most numerous and profitable4 ,the white ,bremen is much larger1 often weighing over #bj lbs4 net4 ,it is of a beautiful snowy plumage1 is domestic and reared without difficulty1 though not as prolific and hardy as the former4 ,the ,china ,goose is smaller than the gray1 and one of the most beautiful of the family1 possessing much of the gracefulness and general appearance of the swan4 ,it is prolific and tolerably hardy1 but has not thus far been a successful rival with the first4 ,the ,guinea or ,african goose is the largest of the species1 and equals the size of the swan1 often dressing over #be lbs4 ,it is a majestic and graceful bird1 and very ornamental to water scenery4 ,several other varieties are domesticated in the ,united ,states4 ,breeding4 ,geese pair frequently at one year old1 and rear their young2 but with some kinds1 especially of the wild1 this is deferred till two and sometimes three4 ,they require a warm1 dry place for their nests1 and when undisturbed1 they will sit steadily2 and if the eggs have not been previously chilled or addled1 they will generally hatch them all1 if kept on the nest4 ,to insure this1 it is sometimes necessary to withdraw the first hatched1 to prevent the old ones wandering before all are out4 ,the young should be kept in a warm sheltered place till two or three weeks old1 if the weather be cold or unsettled4 ,the best food for the goslings1 is barley or oat1 or boiled ,indian meal and bread4 ,milk is also good for them4 ,they require green food1 and are fond of lettuce1 young clover1 and fresh tender grass2 and after a few weeks1 if they have a free range on this1 they will forage for themselves4 ,geese are not a profitable bird to raise1 unless in places where they can procure their own subsistence1 or at least during the greater part of the year4 ,this they are enabled to do1 wherever there are extensive commons of unpastured lands1 or where there are streams or ponds1 lakes or marshes with shoal sedgy banks4 ,in these1 they will live and fatten throughout the year1 if unobstructed by ice4 ,they may be fed on all kinds of grain and edible roots1 but it is more economical to give them their food cooked4 ,the well-fattened gosling affords one of the most savory dishes for the table4 ,geese live to a great age4 ,they have been known to exceed #ajj years4 ,if allowed a free range on good food and clean water1 they will seldom get diseased4 ,when well fed1 they yield nearly a pound of good feathers in a season1 at three or four pluckings2 and the largest varieties even exceed this quantity4 ,,ducks ,are more hardy and independent of attention than the goose1 and they are generally the most profitable4 ,they are omnivorous1 and greedily eat every thing which will afford them nourishment1 though they seldom forage on the grasses like the goose1 when they can procure other food4 ,they are peculiarly carnivorous1 and devour all kinds of meat1 putrid or fresh2 and are especially fond of fish1 and such insects1 worms1 and other creeping things1 as they can find imbedded in the mud or elsewhere4 ,they will often distend their crop with young frogs1 almost to the ordinary size of their bodies4 ,their indiscriminate appetite often renders them unfit for the table1 unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and offensive matters4 ,an ,english admiral used to resort to well-fattened rats for his fresh meat when at sea1 and justified his taste by saying1 they were more cleanly feeders than ducks1 which were general favorites4 ,the most profitable for domestic use1 is undoubtedly the common black duck4 ,they lay profusely in the spring1 when well fed1 often producing #dj or #ej eggs1 and sometimes a greater number1 if kept from setting4 ,they are much larger than those of the hen1 and equally rich and nourishing1 but far less delicate4 ,they are careless in their habits1 and generally drop their eggs wherever they happen to be through the night1 whether in the water1 the road1 or farm-yard2 and as might be expected from such prodigality of character1 they are indifferent setters and nurses4 ,the ducklings are better reared by setting the eggs under a sedate1 experienced hen1 as the longer time necessary for hatching1 requires patience in the foster-mother to develop the young chick4 ,they should be confined for a few days1 and away from the water4 ,at first they may be fed with bread1 or pudding made from boiled oat1 barley1 or ,indian meal2 and they soon acquire strength and enterprise enough to shift for themselves1 if afterwards supplied with pond or river water4 ,they are fit for the table when fully grown1 and well fattened on clean grain4 ,this is more economically accomplished by feeding it cooked4 ,the varieties of ducks are almost innumerable4 ,main describes #ca1 and some naturalists number over #ajj4 ,besides the black duck above described1 several others1 as the light gray1 the white duck1 and some of the tufted1 are prolific1 hardy1 and profitable4 ,we omit further notice of other varieties2 and of the swan1 brant1 pigeons1 c41 as not profitable for general rearing1 and only suited to ornamental grounds4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,page #di2 ,figure #ad caption3 ,sessamoid changed to ,sesamoid 7#ah4 ,sesamoid bones47 ,page #ei3 he changed to be 7effectual remedies for the removal of disease cannot be applied7 ,page #agd3 added missing open quotes 7,setons are sometimes useful 4447 ,page #bae3 ,when-full fed changed to ,when full-fed 7,when full-fed and denied all access to lime1 4447