,soap-,mak+ ,manual ,a practical h&book on ! raw mat]ials1 _! manipulation1 analysis & control 9 ! mod]n soap plant4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,?omss51 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,illu/rat$ ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,van ,,no/r& ,,company ,,eight ,,w>r5 ,,/reet #aibb ,,copyright #aibb ,,by ,d4 ,,van ,,no/r& ,,company ,pr9t$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s note3 ,?is is a s]ies ( articles collect$ into a book4 ,!re are diff]5ces 9 spell+ & punctuation 9 ! diff]5t *apt]s 7e4g4 cocoanut 9 "o *apt] & coconut 9 ano!r74 ,^! diff]5ces 7 left 9 ! text z !y appe>$4 ,= ,text3 ,a ^w surr\nd$ by a tilde su* z ?is signifies t ! ^w is bold$ 9 ! text4 ,a ^w surr\nd$ by und]scores l ?is signifies ! ^w is italics 9 ! text4 ,= numb]s & equations3 ,p>5!ses h be5 add$ to cl>ify fractions4 ,und]scores be=e bracket$ numb]s 9 equations d5ote a subscript4 ,! ,degree symbol has be5 *ang$ to deg4 9 ! ,,ascii file4 ,m9or typos h be5 correct$ & footnotes mov$ to ! end ( ! *apt]s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,! mat]ial conta9$ 9 ?is "w appe>$ sev]al ye>s ago 9 s]ial =m 9 ! ,am]ican ,p]fum] & ,ess5tial ,oil ,review4 ,ow+ to ! num]\s reque/s receiv$1 x has be5 decid$ to n[ place be=e ^? int]e/$1 ^! articles 9 book =m4 ,:ile x is true t ! works p]ta9+ to ! soapmak+ indu/ry are reasonably pl5tiful1 books are q r>e1 h[ev]1 :i*1 9 a brief volume1 w cle>ly outl9e ! processes employ$ toge!r ) ! necess>y me?ods ( analyses f a purely practical /&po9t4 ,9 ! "w pres5t$ ! au?or has attempt$ to briefly1 cle>ly1 & fully expla9 ! manufacture ( soap 9 su* language t x might be und]/ood by all ^? int]e/$ 9 ?is indu/ry4 ,9 _m cases ! small] plants f9d x necess>y to disp5se ) ! s]vices ( a *emi/1 s t x is necess>y = ! soapmak] to make 8 own te/s4 ,! te/s outl9$1 !re=e1 are giv5 z simple z possible to meet ?is condition4 ,! =mulae submitt$ are au!ntic1 & 9 _m cases are n[ be+ us$ 9 soapmak+4 ,9 tak+ up ! indu/ry = survey x has be5 ?\ght desirable to fir/ m5tion & describe ! raw mat]ials us$2 second1 to outl9e ! processes ( manufacture2 ?ird1 to classify ! me?ods & illu/rate by =mulae ! composition ( v>i\s soaps toge!r ) _! mode ( manufacture2 f\r?1 to enum]ate ! v>i\s me?ods ( glyc]9e recov]y1 includ+ ! processes ( saponification1 &1 fif?1 to give ! mo/ important analytical me?ods :i* are ( value to control ! process ( manufacture & to det]m9e ! purity & fitness ( ! raw mat]ial ent]+ into x4 ,x is n ! int5tion ( ! au?or to g into great detail 9 ?is "w1 nor to outl9e to any great ext5t ! !oretical side ( ! subject1 b r to make ! "w z brief z possible1 keep+ ! practical side ( ! subject be=e him & n go+ into concise descriptions ( ma*9]y z is v usual 9 works on ?is subject4 ,illu/rations are m]ely add$ to %[ typical k9ds ( ma*9]y us$4 ,! au?or wi%es to take ?is opportunity ( ?ank+ ,messrs4 ,l4 ,s4 ,levy & ,e4 ,w4 ,drew = ! read+ ( pro(1 & ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,aik5 ( ! ,h\*9-,aik5 ,co41 = 8 aid 9 mak+ ! illu/rations a success1 z well z o!rs :o h contribut$ 9 ! compil+ ( ! =mulae = v>i\s soaps4 ,he tru/s t ?is "w may prove ( value to ^? engag$ 9 soap manufacture4 ,e4 ,g4 ,t4 ,janu>y1 #aibb ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,page4 ,,raw ,,mat]ials ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,mak+ #a-cj #a4 ,soap ,def9$ #a #b4 ,oils & ,fats #a-b #c4 ,saponification ,def9$ #b-c #d4 ,fats & ,oils ,us$ 9 ,soap ,manufacture #c-d ,full]s' ,e>? ,process = ,blea*+ ,tall[ #d-f ,me?od = ,fur!r ,improvem5t ( ,color 9 ,tall[ #f ,vegetable ,oils #f-i ,*rome ,blea*+ ( ,palm ,oil #i-ab ,air ,blea*+ ( ,palm ,oil #ab-af #e4 ,rancidity ( ,oils & ,fats #af-ah ,prev5tion ( ,rancidity #ah #f4 ,*emical ,con/ants ( ,oils & ,fats #ah-ai #g4 ,oil ,h>d5+ or ,hydrog5at+ #ai-ba #h4 ,grease #ba-bb #i4 ,ros9 7,colophony1 ,yell[ ,ros91 ,res9a7 #bb-bc #aj4 ,ros9 ,saponification #bc-bd #aa4 ,naph!nic ,acids #bd-be #ab4 ,alkalis #be-bf ,cau/ic ,soda #bf ,cau/ic ,pota% #bf-bh ,sodium ,c>bonate 7,soda ,a%7 #bh-bi ,potassium ,c>bonate #bi #ac4 ,additional ,mat]ial ,us$ 9 ,soap ,mak+ #bi-cj ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,con/ruction ,,& ,,equipm5t ,,( ,a ,,soap ,,plant #ca-cd ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,classification ,,( ,,soap ,,mak+ ,,me?ods #ce-df #a4 ,full ,boil$ ,soaps #cf-db #b4 ,cold ,process #dc-dd #c4 ,c>bonate ,saponification #de-df ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,classification ,,( ,,soaps #dg-ajd #a4 ,laundry ,soap #dh ,semi-,boil$ ,laundry ,soap #di-ej ,settl$ ,ros9 ,soap #ej-ed #b4 ,*ip ,soap #ed-ee ,cold ,made ,*ip ,soap #ee-ef ,unfill$ ,*ip ,soap #ef #c4 ,soap ,p[d]s #ef-ei ,light ,p[d]s #fj-fa #d4 ,sc\r+ ,p[d]s #fa #e4 ,sc\r+ ,soap #fa-fb #f4 ,float+ ,soap #fb-fe #g4 ,toilet ,soap #fe-fh ,*eap] ,toilet ,soaps #fh-fi ,run & ,glu$-up ,soaps #fi-ga ,curd ,soap #ga-gb ,cold ,made ,toilet ,soaps #gb-gc ,p]fum+ & ,color+ ,toilet ,soaps #gc-ge ,color+ ,soap #ge-gf #h4 ,m$ic9al ,soaps #gf-gg ,sulphur ,soaps #gg ,t> ,soap #gg ,soaps ,conta9+ ,ph5ols #gg-gh ,p]oxide ,soap #gh ,m]cury ,soaps #gh ,less ,important ,m$ic9al ,soaps #gh-gi #i4 ,ca/ile ,soap #gi-ha #aj4 ,es*weg] ,soap #ha-hb #aa4 ,transp>5t ,soap #hb-hd ,cold ,made ,transp>5t ,soap #hd-hg #ab4 ,%av+ ,soaps #hg-ij ,%av+ ,p[d] #ij ,%av+ ,cream #ij-ic #ac4 ,pumice or ,s& ,soaps #ic-id #ad4 ,liquid ,soaps #id-ie #ae4 ,use ( ,h>d5$ ,oils 9 ,toilet ,soaps #if-ih #af4 ,textile ,soaps #ih ,sc\r+ & ,full+ ,soaps = ,wool #ih-ajj ,wool ,?r[]'s ,soap #ajj-aja ,wor/$ ,f9i%+ ,soaps #aja ,soaps ,us$ 9 ! ,silk ,indu/ry #aja-ajc ,soaps ,us$ = ,cotton ,goods #ajc-ajd #ag4 ,sulphonat$ ,oils #ajd-aje ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,glyc]9e ,,recov]y #aje-abf #a4 ,me?ods ( ,saponification #aje-ajf ,recov]y ( ,glyc]9e f ,sp5t ,lye #ajf-aac ,twit*ell ,process #aac-aah ,autoclave ,saponification #aah ,lime ,saponification #aah-abj ,acid ,saponification #abj-aba ,aque\s ,saponification #aba ,splitt+ ,fats ) ,f]m5ts #aba-abc ,krebitz ,process #abc-abe #b4 ,di/illation ( ,fatty ,acids #abe-abf ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,analytical ,,me?ods #abg-afd #a4 ,analysis ( ,oils & ,fats #abh ,free ,fatty ,acids #abh-acj ,moi/ure #acj ,tit] #acj-acb ,det]m9ation ( ,unsaponifiable ,matt] #acb-acc ,te/ = ,color ( ,soap #acc-acd ,te/+ ( ,alkalis ,us$ 9 ,soap ,mak+ #acd-acg #b4 ,soap ,analysis #acg-ach ,moi/ure #ach-aci ,free ,alkali or ,acid #aci-adb ,insoluble ,matt] #adc ,/>* & ,gelat9e #adc-add ,total ,fatty & ,res9 ,acids #add ,det]m9ation ( ,ros9 #add-adg ,total ,alkali #adg-adh ,unsaponifiable ,matt] #adh ,silica & ,silicates #adh-adi ,glyc]9e 9 ,soap #adi-aej ,sug> 9 ,soap #aej #c4 ,glyc]9e ,analysis #aej-aea ,sampl+ #aea ,analysis #aea-aed ,acet9 ,process = ! ,det]m9ation ( ,glyc]ol #aee-aef ,! ,me?od #aef-aei ,ways ( ,calculat+ ,actual ,glyc]ol ,cont5ts #aei-afj ,bi*romate ,process = ,glyc]ol ,det]m9ation ,reag5ts ,requir$ #afj-afa ,! ,me?od #afa-afb ,sampl+ ,crude ,glyc]9e #afb-afd ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,/&>d ,,me?ods ,,= ,,! ,,sampl+ ,,& ,,analysis ,,( ,,comm]cial ,,fats ,,& ,,oils #afe-aie #a4 ,scope1 ,applicability & ,limitations ( ! ,me?ods #afe-aff ,scope #afe ,applicability #aff ,limitations #aff ,sampl+ #aff-afi ,tank ,c>s #aff-afg ,b>rels1 ,ti]ces1 ,casks1 ,drums1 & ,o!r ,packages #afh #b4 ,analysis #afi-ahc ,sample #afi ,moi/ure & ,volatile ,matt] #agj-agb ,insoluble ,impurities #agb-agc ,soluble ,m9]al ,matt] #agc ,free ,fatty ,acids #agd ,tit] #agd-age ,unsaponifiable ,matt] #agf-agg ,iod9e ,numb]-,wijs ,me?od #agg-aha ,saponification ,numb] 7,koett/orf] ,numb]7 #aha ,melt+ ,po9t #aha-ahb ,cl\d ,te/ #ahb-ahd #c4 ,notes ( ! ,above ,me?ods #ahd-aif ,sampl+ #ahc ,moi/ure & ,volatile ,matt] #ahd-ahg ,insoluble ,impurities #ahg ,soluble ,m9]al ,matt] #ahg-ahh ,free ,fatty ,acid #ahh-ahi ,tit] #ahi ,unsaponifi$ ,matt] #aij-aic ,melt+ ,po9t #aic-aif ,plant & ,ma*9]y #aih-bai ,illu/rations ( ,ma*9]y & ,lay\ts ( ! ,plant ( a ,mod]n ,soap ,mak+ ,e/abli%m5t #aih-bai ,app5dix #bai-bcg ,useful ,tables ,index #bci ,,*apt] ,i ,raw ,mat]ials ,us$ 9 ,soap ,mak+4 ,soap is ord9>ily ?\ght ( z ! common cleans+ ag5t well kn[n to ev]yone4 ,9 a g5]al & /rictly *emical s5se ?is t]m is appli$ to ! salts ( ! non-volatile fatty acids4 ,^! salts are n only ^? =m$ by ! alkali metals1 sodium & potassium1 b also ^? =m$ by ! heavy metals & alkal9e e>?s4 ,?us we h ! insoluble soaps ( lime & magnesia =m$ :5 we attempt to wa% 9 h>d wat]2 aga9 alum9um soaps are us$ ext5sively 9 poli%+ mat]ials & to ?ick5 lubricat+ oils2 ammonia or b5z9e soaps are employ$ among ! dry clean]s4 ,commonly1 h[ev]1 :5 we speak ( soap we limit x to ! sodium or potassium salt ( a high] fatty acid4 ,x is v g5]ally kn[n t soap is made by comb9+ a fat or oil ) a wat] solution ( sodium hydroxide 7cau/ic soda lye71 or potassium hydroxide 7cau/ic pota%74 ,sodium soaps are always h>d] ?an potassium soaps1 provid$ ! same fat or oil is us$ 9 bo? cases4 ,! det]g5t prop]ties ( soap are due to ! fact t x acts z an alkali regulator1 t is1 :5 wat] comes into contact ) soap1 x und]goes :at is call$ hydrolytic dissociation4 ,?is means t x is brok5 d[n by wat] into o!r sub/ances4 ,j :at ^! sub/ances are is subject to controv]sy1 ?\gh x is presum$ cau/ic alkali & ! acid alkali salt ( ! fatty acids are =m$4 ,,oils ,,& ,,fats4 ,!re is no %>p di/9ction betwe5 fat & oil4 ,by oil ! layman has ! impression ( a liquid :i* at w>m temp]ature w fl[ z a slipp]y1 lubricat+1 visc\s fluid2 by fat he und]/&s a greasy1 solid sub/ance unctu\s to ! t\*4 ,x ?us becomes necess>y to diff]5tiate ! oils & fats us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap4 ,inasmu* z a soap is ! alkali salt ( a fatty acid1 ! oil or fat f :i* soap is made mu/ h z a con/itu5t "p1 ^! fatty acids4 ,hydroc>bon oils or p>aff9es1 includ$ 9 ! t]m oil1 are ?us useless 9 ! process ( soap-mak+1 z f> z ent]+ into *emical comb9ation ) ! cau/ic alkalis is conc]n$4 ,! oils & fats :i* =m soap are ^? :i* are a comb9ation ( fatty acids & glyc]9e1 ! glyc]9e be+ obta9$ z a by-product to ! soap-mak+ indu/ry4 ,,nature ,,( ,a ,,fat ,,or ,,oil ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,manufacture4 ,glyc]9e1 be+ a trihydric alcohol1 has ?ree atoms ( hydrog5 :i* are replaceable by ?ree unival5t radicals ( ! high] memb]s ( ! fatty acids1 e4 g41 ,,oh ,,or ,c#c ,h#e ,,oh #c ,,roh ,c#c ,h#e ,,or #c ,h#b,o ,,oh ,,or ,glyc]9e plus #c ,fatty ,alcohols equals ,fat or ,oil plus #c ,wat]4 ,?us ?ree fatty acid radicals comb9e ) "o glyc]9e to =m a true neutral oil or fat :i* are call$ triglyc]ides4 ,! fatty acids :i* mo/ commonly ent] into comb9ation ( fats & oils are lauric1 myri/ic1 palmitic1 /e>ic & oleic acids & =m ! neutral oils or triglyc]ides d]iv$ f ^!1 e4 g41 /e>91 palmat91 ole94 ,mono & diglyc]ides are also pres5t 9 fats4 ,,saponification ,,def9$4 ,:5 a fat or oil ent]s into *emical comb9ation ) "o ( ! cau/ic hydrates 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 ! process is call$ saponification & ! new comp\nds =m$ are soap & glyc]9e1 ?us3 ,,or ,,oh ,c#c;,h#e ,,or #c ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,oh #c ,na,o,r ,,or ,,oh ,fat or ,oil plus #c ,sodium ,hydrate equals ,glyc]9e plus #c ,soap4 ,x is by ?is reaction almo/ all ( ! soap us$ today is made4 ,!re are also o!r means ( saponification1 z1 ! hydrolysis ( an oil or fat by ! action ( hydro*loric or sulfuric acid1 by autoclave & by f]m5ts or enzymes4 ,by ^! latt] processes ! fatty acids & glyc]9e are obta9$ directly1 no soap be+ =m$4 ,,fats ,,& ,,oils ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,manufacture4 ,! v>i\s & mo/ important oils & fats us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap are1 tall[1 cocoanut oil1 palm oil1 olive oil1 poppy oil1 sesame oil1 soya bean oil1 cotton-se$ oil1 corn oil & ! v>i\s greases4 ,besides ^! ! fatty acids1 /e>ic1 r$ oil 7oleic acid7 are m or less ext5sively us$4 ,^! oils1 fats & fatty acids1 :ile !y v>y f "t to "t & to "s ext5t z to _! color1 odor & consi/5cy1 c readily be di/+ui%$ by v>i\s physical & *emical con/ants4 ,mu* c be le>n$ by "o1 :o ?r\gh cont9u$ acqua9tance ) ^! oils has ?or\ghly famili>iz$ himself ) ! indications ( a good or bad oil1 by ta/e1 smell1 feel & appe>ance4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n well = ! manufactur] 9 pur*as+ to dep5d entirely ^u ^! simpl] te/s4 ,s9ce he is int]e/$ 9 ! yield ( glyc]9e1 ! l>ge/ possible yield ( soap p] p\nd ( soap /ock & ! g5]al body & appe>ance ( ! f9i%$ product1 ! *emical te/s ^u :i* ^! dep5d %\ld be made4 ,^? especially important are ! acid value1 p]c5tage unsaponifiable matt] & tit] te/4 ,a %ort description ( ! v>i\s oils & fats m5tion$ is suffici5t = _! use 9 ! soap indu/ry4 ,tall[ is ! "n giv5 to ! fat extract$ f ! solid fat or suet ( cattle1 %eep or horses4 ,! quality v>ies greatly1 dep5d+ ^u ! seasons ( ! ye>1 ! food & age ( ! animal & ! me?od ( r5d]+4 ,x comes to ! m>ket "u ! di/9ction ( edible & in$ible1 a fur!r di/9ction be+ made 9 comm]ce z beef tall[1 mutton tall[ or horse tall[4 ,! bett] quality is :ite & blea*es :it] ^u exposure to air & light1 ?\gh x usually has a yell[i% t9t1 a well def9$ gra9 & a clean odor4 ,x consi/s *iefly ( /e>91 palmit9 & ole94 ,tall[ is by f> ! mo/ ext5sively us$ & important fat 9 ! mak+ ( soap4 ,9 ! manufacture ( soaps = toilet purposes1 x is usually necess>y to produce z :ite a product z possible4 ,9 ord] to d ?is x (t5 is necess>y to blea* ! tall[ be=e saponification4 ,! me?od usually employ$ is ! ,full]'s ,e>? process4 ,,full]',s ,,e>? ,,process ,,= ,,blea*+ ,,tall[4 ,f "o to two tons ( tall[ are melt$ out into ! blea*+ tank4 ,?is tank is jacket$1 made ( iron & provid$ ) a good agitator design$ to /ir up s$im5t or a coil provid$ ) tang5tial d[nw>d op5+ p]=ations & a draw-(f cock at ! bottom4 ,! coil is ! f> simpl] arrangem5t1 m cleanly & less likely to cause tr\ble4 ,by ?is arrangem5t compress$ air :i* is really ess5tial 9 ! utilization ( ! press 7see lat]7 is utiliz$ = agitation4 ,a dry /eam coil 9 an ord9>y tank may be employ$ 9 place ( a jacket$ tank1 :i* less5s ! co/ ( in/allation4 ,! tall[ 9 ! blea*+ tank is heat$ to #ahj;deg4 ,f4 7#hb;deg4 ,c47 & t5 p\nds ( dry salt p] ton ( fat us$ add$ & ?or\ghly mix$ by agitation4 ,?is addition coagulates any album5 & dehydrates ! fat4 ,! :ole mass is all[$ to settle ov] night :]e possible1 or = at lea/ five h\rs4 ,any br9e :i* has sep>at$ is drawn (f f ! bottom & ! temp]ature ( ! fat is !n rais$ to #afj;deg4 ,f4 7#ga;deg4 ,c74 ,five p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! tall[ op]at$ ^u1 ( dry ,full]'s e>? is n[ add$ & ! :ole mass agitat$ f tw5ty to ?irty m9utes4 ,! new blea*$ fat1 conta9+ ! ,full]'s e>? is pump$ directly to a previ\sly heat$ filt] press & ! issu+ cle> oil run directly to ! soap kettle4 ,"o ( ! difficulties exp]i5c$ 9 ! process is ! heat+ ( ! press to a temp]ature suffici5t to prev5t solidification ( ! fat )\t rais+ ! press to too great a temp]ature4 ,to ov]come ?is ! fir/ plate is heat$ by wet /eam4 ,air deliv]$ f a bl[] & heat$ by passage ?r\gh a s]ies ( coils rais$ to a high temp]ature by ext]nal application ( heat 7sup]-heat$ /eam7 is !n sub/itut$ = ! /eam4 ,! moi/ure produc$ by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam is vaporiz$ by ! hot air & c>ri$ on gradually to ea* succe$+ plate :]e x aga9 cond5ses & vaporizes4 ,9 ?is way ! small quantity ( wat] is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! entire press1 rais+ its temp]ature to #hj;deg4-#ajj;deg4 ,c4 ,?is temp]ature is subsequ5tly ma9ta9$ by ! passage ( hot air4 ,by ?is me?od ( heat+ ! poor conductivity ( hot air is ov]come ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y action ( a liquid vapor & ! lat5t heat ( /eam is utiliz$ to obta9 ! initial rise 9 temp]ature4 ,to heat a small press economically :]e conditions are su* t a l>ge output is n requir$ ! entire press may be encas$ 9 a small wood5 h\se :i* c be heat$ by /eam coils4 ,! cake 9 ! press is heat$ = "s "t aft] ! filtration is complete to assi/ dra9age4 ,aft] su* treatm5t ! cake %\ld conta9 approximately #ae p] c5t4 fat & #be p] c5t4 wat]4 ,! cake is n[ remov$ f ! press & transf]r$ to a small tank :]e x is treat$ ) suffici5t cau/ic soda to conv]t ! fat cont5t into soap4 ,saturat$ br9e is !n add$ to salt out ! soap1 ! ,full]'s e>? is all[$ to settle to ! bottom ( ! tank & ! soap :i* solidifies aft] a %ort "t is skimm$ (f to be us$ 9 a *eap soap :]e color is n important4 ,! liquor und]nea? may also be run (f )\t di/urb+ ! s$im5t to be us$ 9 gra9+ a simil> *eap soap4 ,! wa/e ,full]'s e>? conta9s ab\t #j4a to #j4c p] c5t4 ( fat4 ,,me?od ,,= ,,fur!r ,,improvem5t ,,( ,,color4 ,a fur!r improvem5t ( ! color ( ! tall[ may be obta9$ by free+ x f a portion ( its free fatty acids1 ei!r ) or )\t previ\s ,full]'s e>? blea*+4 ,to c>ry out ?is process ! melt$ fat is all[$ to settle & z mu* wat] z possible tak5 (f4 ,! temp]ature is !n rais$ to #afj;deg4 ,f4 ) dry /eam & en\gh saturat$ solution ( soda a% add$ to remove #j4e p] c5t4 ( ! free fatty acids1 :ile agitat+ ! mass ?or\ghly me*anically or by air4 ,! agitation is cont9u$ t5 m9utes1 ! :ole all[$ to settle = two h\rs & ! foots drawn (f4 ,! soap ?us =m$ entangles a l>ge proportion ( ! impurities ( ! fat4 ,,vegetable ,,oils4 ,cocoanut ,oil1 z ! "n implies1 is obta9$ f ! fruit ( ! cocoanut palm4 ,?is oil is a solid1 :ite fat at ord9>y temp]ature1 hav+ a bl& ta/e & a *>act]i/ic odor4 ,x is r>ely adult]at$ & is v readily saponifi$4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! price ( ?is oil has increas$ mat]ially because cocoanut oil is n[ be+ us$ ext5sively = edible purposes1 especially 9 ! mak+ ( oleom>g>9e4 ,pres5t indications are t %ortly v little high grade oil w be employ$ = soap manufacture s9ce ! dem& = oleom>g>9e is con/antly increas+ & s9ce new me?ods ( ref9+ ! oil = ?is purpose are con/antly be+ devis$4 ,! oil is f\nd 9 ! m>ket "u ?ree diff]5t grades3 7#a7 ,co*9 cocoanut oil1 ! *oice/ oil comes f ,co*9 7,malab>74 ,?is product1 be+ m c>efully cultivat$ & ref9$ ?an ! o!r grades1 is :it]1 clean] & conta9s a small] p]c5tage ( free acid4 7#b7 ,ceylon cocoanut oil1 com+ *iefly f ,ceylon1 is usually ( a yell[i% t9t & m acrid 9 odor ?an ,co*9 oil4 7#c7 ,cont95tal cocoanut oil 7,copra1 ,freud5b]g7 is obta9$ f ! dri$ k]nels1 ! copra1 :i* are %ipp$ to ,europe 9 l>ge quantities1 :]e ! oil is extract$4 ,^! dri$ k]nels yield #fj to #gj p] c5t oil4 ,?is product is g5]ally sup]ior to ! ,ceylon oil & may be us$ z a v satisfactory sub/itute = ,co*9 oil1 9 soap manufacture1 provid$ x is l[ 9 free acid & ( good color4 ,! writ] has employ$ x satisfactorily 9 ! :ite/ & f9e/ ( toilet soaps )\t be+ able to di/+ui% any disadvantage to ! ,co*9 oil4 ,s9ce cont95tal oil is usually *eap] ?an ,co*9 oil1 x is advisable to use x1 z occasion p]mits4 ,cocoanut oil is us$ ext5sively 9 toilet soap mak+1 usually 9 connection ) tall[4 ,:5 us$ alone ! soap made f ?is oil =ms a la!r1 :i* comes up rapidly b :i* is fluffy & dries quickly4 ,a pure tall[ soap la!rs v mu* sl[] b produces a m la/+ la!r4 ,?us ! advantage ( us+ cocoanut oil 9 soap is se54 ,x is fur!r us$ 9 mak+ a cocoanut oil soap by ! cold process also = fake or fill$ soaps4 ,! fatty acid cont5t readily />ts ! saponification :i* takes place easily ) a /rong lye 7#be;deg4-#ce;deg4 ,b474 ,:]e l>ge quantities ( ! oil are saponifi$ c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ z ! soap =m$ sudd5ly rises or puffs up & may boil ov]4 ,cocoanut oil soap takes up l>ge quantities ( wat]1 cases hav+ be5 cit$ :]e a #ejj p] c5t4 yield has be5 obta9$4 ,?is wat] ( c\rse dries out aga9 ^u exposure to ! air4 ,! soap is h>% to ! sk91 develops rancidity & d>k5s readily4 ,palm ,k]nel ,oil1 :i* is obta9$ f ! k]nels ( ! palm tree ( ,we/ ,africa1 is us$ 9 soap mak+ to replace cocoanut oil :]e ! l[] price w>rants its use4 ,x resembles cocoanut oil 9 respect to saponification & 9 =m+ a v simil> soap4 ,k]nel oil is :ite 9 color1 has a pleasant nutty odor :5 fre%1 b rapidly develops free acid1 :i* runs to a high p]c5tage4 ,palm ,oil is produc$ f ! fruit ( ! sev]al species ( ! palm tree on ! we/]n coa/ ( ,africa g5]ally1 b also 9 ! ,philipp9es4 ,! fre% oil has a deep orange yell[ t9t n de/roy$ by saponification1 a sweeti% ta/e & an odor ( orris root or violet :i* is also imp>t$ to soap made f x4 ,! me?ods by :i* ! natives obta9 ! oil are crude & dep5d ^u a f]m5tation1 or putrefaction4 ,l>ge quantities are said to be wa/$ because ( ?is fact4 ,! oil conta9s impurities 9 ! =m ( f]m5table fibre & album9\s matt]1 & consequ5tly develops free fatty acid rapidly4 ,samples te/$ = free acid h be5 f\nd to h hydroliz$ completely & "o seldom obta9s an oil ) l[ acid cont5t4 ,because ( ?is high p]c5tage ( free fatty acid1 ! glyc]9e yield is small1 ?\gh ! neutral oil %\ld produce approximately #ab p] c5t4 glyc]9e4 ,"s writ]s claim t glyc]9e exi/s 9 ! free /ate 9 palm oil4 ,! writ] has wa%$ l>ge quantities ( ! oil & analyz$ ! wa% wat] = glyc]9e4 ,! results %[$ t ! am\nt pres5t did n m]it its recov]y4 ,mo/ soap mak]s d n attempt to recov] ! glyc]9e f ?is oil1 :5 us$ alone = soap manufacture4 ,!re are sev]al grades ( palm oil 9 comm]ce1 b 9 toilet soap mak+ x is advisable to utilize only ,lagos palm oil1 :i* is ! be/ grade4 ,:]e x is desir$ to ma9ta9 ! color ( ! soap ?is oil produces1 a small quantity ( ! l[] or brass grade ( palm oil may be us$1 z ! soap made f ! bett] grades ( oil gradually blea*es & loses its orange yell[ color4 ,palm oil produces a crumbly soap :i* _c readily be mill$ & is t]m$ %ort4 ,:5 us$ ) tall[ & cocoanut oil1 or #bj to #be p] c5t4 cocoanut oil1 x produces a v satisfactory toilet soap4 ,9 ! saponification ( palm oil x is n advisable to comb9e x ) tall[ 9 ! kettle1 z ! two d n readily mix4 ,s9ce ! f9i%$ soap has convey$ to x ! orange color ( ! oil1 ! oil is blea*$ be=e saponification4 ,oxidation readily de/roys ! color+ matt]1 :ile heat & light assi/ mat]ially4 ,! me?ods g5]ally employ$ are by ! use ( oxyg5 develop$ by bi*romates & hydro*loric acid & ! direct blea*+ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,,*rome ,,blea*+ ,,( ,,palm ,,oil4 ,! *rome process ( blea*+ palm oil is m rapid & ! oxyg5 ?us d]iv$ be+ m active w blea* oils :i* air alone _c4 ,x dep5ds ^u ! reaction3 ,na#b;,cr#b,o#g #h;,h,cl ,cr#b;,cl#f #b,na,cl #g,o4 9 :i* ! oxyg5 is ! active pr9ciple4 ,9 practice x is f\nd necess>y to use an excess ( acid ov] t !oretically indicat$4 ,= ! be/ results an oil %\ld be *os5 conta9+ "u #b p] c5t4 impurities & a l[ p]c5tage ( free fatty acids4 ,lagos oil is be/ adapt$ to ^! requirem5ts4 ,! oil is melt$ by op5 /eam f a jet introduc$ ?r\gh ! bung1 ! melt$ oil & cond5s$ wat] runn+ to ! /ore tank ?r\gh two sieves 7ab\t #a_/h in* me%7 to remove ! fibr\s mat]ial & gross impurities4 ,! oil ?us obta9$ conta9s f9e e>?y & fibr\s mat]ial & vegetable album9\s matt] :i* %\ld be remov$1 z f> z possible1 s9ce *emicals are wa/$ 9 _! oxidation & !y ret>d ! blea*+4 ,?is is be/ done by boil+ ! oil = "o h\r ) wet /eam & #aj p] c5t4 solution ( common salt 7#b p] c5t4 dry salt on weight ( oil us$7 9 a lead-l9$ or wood5 tank4 ,aft] settl+ ov] night ! br9e & impurities are remov$ by runn+ f a cock at ! bottom ( ! vat & ! oil is run out into ! blea*+ tank ?r\gh an oil cock1 situat$ ab\t sev5 in*es f ! bottom4 ,! blea*+ tank is a lead-l9$ iron tank ( ! approximate dim5sions ( #d feet deep1 #d feet long & #c-a_/b feet wide1 hold+ ab\t #a-a_/b tons4 ,! *>ge is "o ton4 ,a lead5 outlet pipe is fix$ at ! bottom1 to :i* is atta*$ a rubb] tube clos$ by a screw clip4 ,a plug also is fitt$ into ! lead outlet pipe f above4 ,sev5 in*es above ! l[] outlet is affix$ ano!r tap ?r\gh :i* ! oil is drawn (f4 ,! tank is fur!r equipp$ ) a wet /eam coil & a coil arrang$ to all[ ?or\gh air agitation1 bo? coils be+ ( lead4 ,a good arrangem5t is to use "o coil to deliv] ei!r air or /eam4 ,^! coils %\ld ext5d z ne>ly z possible ov] ! entire bottom ( ! tank & h a numb] ( small d[nw>d p]=ations1 s z to spread ! agitation ?r\gh\t ! mass4 ,! temp]ature ( ! oil is r$uc$ by pass+ 9 air to #aaj;deg4 ,f4 & #dj p\nds ( f9e common salt p] ton add$ ?r\gh a sieve4 ,ab\t "o-half ( ! acid 7#dj p\nds ( conc5trat$ comm]cial hydro*loric acid7 is n[ p\r$ 9 & ?is is foll[$ by ! sodium bi*romate 9 conc5trat$ solution1 previ\sly prep>$ 9 a small lead vat or e>!n vessel by dissolv+ #ag p\nds ( bi*romate 9 #de p\nds comm]cial hydro*loric acid4 ,?is solution %\ld be add$ sl[ly & %\ld occupy ?ree h\rs1 ! :ole mass be+ ?or\ghly agitat$ ) air dur+ ! addition & = "o h\r aft] ! la/ ( ! blea*+ mixture has be5 introduc$4 ,! :ole mixture is n[ all[$ to settle = "o h\r & ! exhau/$ *rome liquors are !n run (f f ! l[] pipe to a wa/e tank4 ,ab\t #dj gallons ( wat] are n[ run into ! blea*$ oil & ! temp]ature rais$ by op5 /eam to #aej;deg4 to #afj;deg4 ,f4 ,! mass is !n all[$ to settle ov] night4 ,"o su* wa% is suffici5t to remove ! sp5t *rome liquor completely1 provid$ ample "t is all[$ = settl+4 ,a numb] ( wa%+s giv5 successively ) %ort p]iods ( settl+ d n remove ! *rome liquors effectually4 ,! success ( ! op]ation dep5ds entirely ^u ! complet5ess ( settl+4 ,! wa% wat] is drawn (f z be=e & ! cle> oil run to /orage tanks or to ! soap kettle ?r\gh ! upp] oil cock4 ,! wa/e liquors are boil$ ) wet /eam & ! oil skimm$ f ! surface1 aft] :i* ! liquors are run out ?r\gh an oil trap4 ,by foll[+ ! above in/ructions c>efully x is possible to blea* "o ton ( palm oil ) #ag p\nds ( bi*romate ( soda & #he p\nds hydro*loric acid4 ,! sp5t liquors %\ld be a bright gre5 color4 ,%\ld !y be ( a yell[ or br[ni% %ade insuffici5t acid has be5 all[$ & m mu/ be add$ to r5d] ! :ole ( ! oxyg5 available4 ,if l[ grade oils are be+ treat$ m *rome w be necess>y1 ! am\nt be+ be/ judg$ by conduct+ ! op]ation z usual & aft] ! addition ( ! bi*romate1 remov+ a sample ( ! oil1 wa%+ ! sample & not+ ! color ( a rapidly cool$ sample4 ,a little practice w enable ! op]ator to judge ! correspond5ce betwe5 ! color to be remov$ & ! am\nt ( blea*+ mixture to be add$4 ,to obta9 success ) ?is process ! me?od ( work+ giv5 mu/ be adh]$ to ev5 9 ! smalle/ detail4 ,?is applies to ! temp]ature at :i* ea* op]ation is c>ri$ out p>ticul>ly4 ,,air ,,blea*+ ,,( ,,palm ,,oil4 ,! me?od ( conduct+ ?is process is id5tical ) ! *rome process to ! po9t :]e ! hydro*loric acid is to be add$ to ! oil4 ,9 ?is me?od no acid or *rome is necess>y1 z ! active blea*+ ag5t is ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! equipm5t is simil> to t ( ! =m] process1 except t a wood5 tank 9 :i* no iron is expos$ w suffice to blea* ! oil 94 ,! process dep5ds 9 rapidity ^u ! am\nt ( air bl[n ?r\gh ! oil & its ev5 di/ribution4 ,iron %\ld n be pres5t or expos$ to ! oil dur+ blea*+1 z x ret>ds ! process consid]ably4 ,aft] ! impurities h be5 remov$1 z outl9$ "u ! *rome process1 ! temp]ature ( ! oil is rais$ by op5 /eam to boil+4 ,! /eam is !n %ut (f & air all[$ to bl[ ?r\gh ! oil until x is completely blea*$1 ! temp]ature be+ ma9ta9$ above #aej;deg4 ,f4 by occasionally pass+ 9 /eam4 ,usually a ton ( oil is readily & completely blea*$ aft] ! air has be5 pass$ ?r\gh x = #ah to #bj h\rs1 provid$ ! oil is ?or\ghly agitat$ by a suffici5t fl[ ( air4 ,if ! oil has be5 all[$ to settle ov] night1 x is advisable to run (f ! cond5s$ wat] & impurities by ! l[] cock be=e agitat+ aga9 ! second day4 ,:5 ! oil has be5 blea*$ to ! desir$ color1 :i* c be det]m9$ by remov+ a sample & cool+1 ! mass is all[$ to settle1 ! wat] run (f to a wa/e tank f :i* any oil c>ri$ along may be skimm$ (f & ! sup]natant cle> oil run to ! /orage or soap kettle4 ,9 blea*+ by ?is process1 :ile ! process consumes m "t & is n z effici5t 9 blea*+ ! l[] grade oils1 ! co/ ( blea*+ is less & ) a good oil success is m probable1 z !re is no possibility ( any ( ! *rome liquors be+ pres5t 9 ! oil4 ,^! give ! blea*$ oil a gre5 t9t :5 ! *rome me?od is improp]ly conduct$ & !y are n remov$4 ,in/ead ( bl[+ ! air ?r\gh x1 ! heat] oil may be br\ght into contact ) ! air1 ei!r by a paddle :eel arrangem5t1 :i*1 9 con/antly turn+1 br+s ! oil into contact ) ! air1 or by pump+ ! heat$ oil into an elevat$ vessel1 pi]c$ ) num]\s f9e holes f :i* ! oil cont9u\sly fl[s back into ! vessel f :i* ! oil is pump$4 ,:ile 9 ^! me?ods air1 light & heat act simultane\sly 9 ! blea*+ ( ! oil1 ! equipm5t requir$ is too cumb]some to be practical4 ,rec5t inve/igations#a 9 blea*+ palm oil by oxyg5 h %[n t n only ! color+ matt] b ! oil itself 0 affect$4 ,9 blea*+ palm oil = #cj h\rs ) air ! free fatty acid cont5t rose & tit] decreas$ consid]ably4 ,olive ,oil1 :i* comes f ! fruit ( ! olive trees1 v>ies greatly 9 quality1 accord+ to ! me?od by :i* x is obta9$ & accord+ to ! tree be>+ ! fruit4 ,?ree hundr$ v>ieties are kn[n 9 ,italy alone4 ,s9ce ! l>g] portion ( olive oil is us$ = edible purposes1 a l[] grade1 d5atur$ oil1 d5atur$ because ( ! t>iff1 is us$ = soap manufacture 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! oil v>ies 9 color f pale gre5 to gold5 yell[4 ,! p]c5tage ( free acid 9 ?is oil v>ies greatly1 ?\gh ! oil does n turn rancid easily4 ,x is us$ ma9ly 9 ! manufacture ( :ite ca/ile soap4 ,olive oil foots1 :i* is ! oil extract$ by solv5ts aft] ! bett] oil is express$1 f9ds its use 9 soap mak+ mo/ly 9 textile soaps = wa%+ & dye+ silks & 9 ! production ( gre5 ca/ile soaps4 ,o!r oils1 z poppy se$ oil1 sesame oil1 cottonse$ oil1 rape oil1 peanut 7ara*is7 oil1 are us$ z adult]ants = olive oil1 also z sub/itutes 9 ! manufacture ( ca/ile soap1 s9ce !y are *eap] ?an olive oil4 ,cottonse$ ,oil is l>gely us$ 9 ! manufacture ( float+ & laundry soaps4 ,x may be us$ = toilet soaps :]e a :ite color is n desir$1 z yell[ spots appe> on a f9i%$ soap 9 :i* x has be5 us$ aft] hav+ be5 9 /ock a %ort "t4 ,corn ,oil & ,soya ,bean ,oil are also us$ to a slight ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( toilet soaps1 al?\gh ! oils =m a soap ( v little body4 ,_! soaps also spot yell[ on ag+4 ,corn oil f9ds its greate/ use 9 ! manufacture ( soap = wa%+ automobiles4 ,x is fur!r employ$ = ! manufacture ( *eap liquid soaps4 ,fatty ,acids are also us$ ext5sively 9 soap manufacture4 ,:ile ! soap manufactur] pref]s to use a neutral oil or fat1 s9ce f ^! ! by-product glyc]9e is obta9$1 circum/ances arise :]e x is an advantage to use ! free fatty acids4 ,r$ oil 7oleic acid1 ela9e7 & /e>ic acid are ! two fatty acids mo/ g5]ally b\ght = soap mak+4 ,9 plants us+ ! ,twit*ell process1 :i* consi/s 9 splitt+ ! neutral fats & oils into fatty acids & glyc]9e by dilute sulphuric acid & produc+ _! f9al sep>ation by ! use ( s-call$ aromatic sulphonic acids1 ^! fatty acids consi/+ ( a mixture ( oleic1 /e>ic1 palmitic acids1 etc41 are us$ directly aft] hav+ be5 purifi$ by di/illation1 ! glyc]9e be+ obta9$ f evaporat+ ! wa% wat]4 ,oleic acid 7r$ oil7 & /e>ic acid are obta9$ usually by ! saponification ( oils1 fats & greases by acid1 lime or wat] "u pressure or ,twit*ell+4 ,! fatty acids ?us are fre$ f _! comb9ation ) glyc]9e & solidify ^u cool+1 aft] :i* !y are sep>at$ f ! wat] & press$ at a high] or l[] temp]ature4 ,! oleic acid1 be+ liquid at ord9>y temp]ature1 toge!r ) "s /e>ic & palmitic acid1 is ?us press$ out4 ,^! latt] acids are usually sep>at$ by di/illation1 comb9$ ) ! press cake fur!r purifi$ & sold z /e>ic acid4 ,! r$ oil1 sometimes call$ saponifi$ r$ oil1 is (t5 semi-solid1 resembl+ a s(t tall[1 due to ! pres5ce ( /e>ic acid4 ,! di/ill$ oils are usually cle>1 v>y+ 9 color f light to a deep br[n4 ,/e>ic acid1 :i* rea*es ! trade 9 slab =m1 v>ies 9 quality f a s(t br[n1 greasy1 crumbly solid ( unpleasant odor to a sn[ :ite1 wax-l1 h>d1 odorless mass4 ,! quality ( /e>ic acid is be/ judg$ by ! melt+ po9t1 s9ce ! pres5ce ( any oleic acid l[]s ?is4 ,! melt+ po9t ( ! v>ieties us$ 9 soap manufacture usually ranges f #abh;deg4 to #acb;deg4 ,f4 ,r$ oil is us$ 9 ! manufacture ( textile soaps1 replac+ olive oil foots soap = ?is purpose1 *lorophyll be+ us$ to color ! soap gre54 ,/e>ic acid1 be+ ! h>d firm fatty acid1 may be us$ 9 small quantities to give a bett] grade ( soap body & f9i%4 ,9 add+ ?is sub/ance x %\ld always be done 9 ! crut*]1 z x w n mix 9 ! kettle4 ,x f9ds its l>ge/ use = soap1 h[ev]1 9 ! manufacture ( %av+ soaps & %av+ creams1 s9ce x produces ! non-dry+ creamy la!r s greatly desir$ = ?is purpose4 ,bo? r$ oil & /e>ic acid be+ fatty acids1 readily unite ) ! alkali c>bonates1 c>bon dioxide be+ =m$ 9 ! reaction & ?is me?od is ext5sively us$ 9 ! =mation ( soap f !m4 ,,rancidity ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats4 ,rancidity 9 neutral oils & fats is "o ( ! problems ! soap manufactur] has to cont5d )4 ,! m]e say+ t an oil is rancid is no indication ( its be+ high 9 free acid4 ,! two t]ms rancidity & acidity are usually alli$4 ,=m]ly1 ! acidity ( a fat 0 look$ ^u z ! direct measure ( its rancidity4 ,?is idea is /ill preval5t 9 practice & _c be too (t5 /at$ z incorrect4 ,fats & oils may be acid1 or rancid1 or acid & rancid4 ,9 an acid fat !re has be5 a hydrolysis ( ! fat & x has develop$ a r high p]c5tage ( free acid4 ,a rancid fat is "o 9 :i* h be5 develop$ comp\nds ( an odorif]\s nature4 ,an acid & rancid fat is "o 9 :i* bo? free acid & organic comp\nds ( ! well kn[n disagreeable odors h be5 produc$4 ,x _c be def9itely /at$ j h[ ?is rancidity takes place1 any m ?an j :at are ! *emical products caus+ rancidity4 ,! only conclusion t "o may draw is t ! fats are fir/ hydrolyz$ or split up into glyc]9e & free fatty acids4 ,?is is foll[$ by an oxidation ( ! products ?us =m$4 ,moi/ure1 air1 light1 enzymes 7organiz$ f]m5ts7 & bact]ia are all giv5 z causes ( rancidity4 ,x seems v probable t ! initial splitt+ ( ! fats is caus$ by enzymes1 :i* are pres5t 9 ! se$s & fruits ( ! vegetable oils & tissue ( animal fats1 9 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure4 ,lewk[its* /rongly emphasizes ?is po9t & he is sub/antiat$ 9 8 idea by o!r au?orities4 ,o!rs hold t bact]ia or micro-organisms are ! cause ( ?is hydrolysis1 cit+ ! fact t !y h isolat$ v>i\s micro-organisms f v>i\s fats & oils4 ,! acceptance ( ! bact]ial action w\ld expla9 ! v>i\s me?ods ( pres]vation ( oils & fats by ! use ( antiseptic prep>ations4 ,x _c1 h[ev]1 be accept$ z a c]ta9ty t bact]ia cause ! rancidity ( fats4 ,! action ( enzymes is a m probable explanation4 ,! hydrolysis ( fats & oils is accel]at$ :5 !y are all[$ to rema9 = "s "t 9 ! pres5ce ( organic non-fats4 ,?us1 palm oil1 l[] grades ( olive oil1 & tall[1 :i* has be5 9 contact ) ! animal tissue = a long "t1 all conta9 o!r nitrog5\s matt] & exhibit a l>g] p]c5tage ( free fatty acid ?an ! oils & fats n conta9+ su* impurities4 ,grant+ ?is initial splitt+ ( ! fat into free fatty acids & glyc]9e1 ?is is n a suffici5t explanation4 ,! products ?us =m$ mu/ be act$ ^u by air & light4 ,x is by ! action ( ^! ag5ts t !re is a fur!r action ^u ! products1 & f ?is oxidation we asc]ta9 by ta/e & smell 7*emical means are /ill unable to def9e rancidity7 :e!r or n a fat is rancid4 ,:ile "s au?orities h presum$ to isolate "s ( ^! products caus+ rancidity1 we c only assume ! pres5ce ( ! v>i\s possible comp\nds produc$ by ! action ( air & light :i* include oxy fatty acids1 lactones1 alcohols1 e/]s1 aldehydes & o!r products4 ,! soap manufactur] is int]e/$ 9 rancidity to ! ext5t ( ! effect ^u ! f9i%$ soap4 ,rancid fats =m d>k] soaps ?an fats 9 ! neutral /ate1 & v (t5 c>ry ) !m ! disagreeable odor ( a rancid oil4 ,fur!r1 a rancid fat or oil is usually high 9 free acid4 ,x is by no means true1 h[ev]1 t rancidity is a measure = acidity1 = z has already be5 po9t$ out1 an oil may be rancid & n high 9 free acid4 ,! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid is ( ev5 great] importance 9 ! soap indu/ry4 ,! am\nt ( glyc]9e yield is dep5d5t ^u ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid & is "o ( ! crit]ions ( a good fat or oil = soap /ock4 ,,prev5tion ,,( ,,rancidity4 ,s9ce moi/ure1 air1 light & enzymes1 produc$ by ! pres5ce ( organic impurities1 are necess>y = ! rancidity ( a fat or oil1 ! me?ods ( prev5t+ rancidity are giv54 ,complete dryness1 complete purification ( fats & oils & /orage )\t access ( air or light are desirable4 ,simple z ^! means may seem1 !y c only be approximat$ 9 practice4 ,! mo/ difficult problem is ! removal ( ! la/ trace ( moi/ure4 ,impurities may be less5$ v (t5 by ! use ( great] c>e4 ,9 /or+ x is well to /ore 9 clos$ b>rels or clos$ iron tanks away f light1 z x has be5 obs]v$ t oils & fats 9 clos$ receptacles become rancid less rapidly ?an ^? 9 op5 ones1 ev5 ?\gh ?is me?od ( /or+ is only p>tially atta9$4 ,pres]vatives are also us$1 b only 9 edible products1 :]e _! effectiv5ess is an op5 "q4 ,,*emical ,,con/ants ,,( ,,oils ,,& ,,fats4 ,besides ! v>i\s physical prop]ties ( oils & fats1 su* z color1 specific gravity1 melt+ po9t1 solubility1 etc41 !y may be di/+ui%$ *emically by a numb] ( *emical con/ants4 ,^! are ! iod9e numb]1 ! acetyl value1 saponification numb]1 ,rei*]t-,meissl numb] = volatile acids1 ,hehn] numb] = insoluble acids4 ,^! con/ants1 :ile !y v>y some:at ) any p>ticul> oil or fat1 are m applicable to ! edible products & are crit]ions :]e any adult]ation ( fat or oil is suspect$4 ,! me?ods ( c>ry+ out ! analyses ( oils & fats to obta9 ^! con/ants are giv5 9 ! v>i\s texts#b on oils & fats1 & inasmu* z !y are n ( great importance to ! soap indu/ry !y are m]ely m5tion$ "h4 ,,oil ,,h>d5+ ,,or ,,hydrog5at+4 ,x is v well kn[n t oils & fats v>y 9 consi/5cy & h>dness1 dep5d+ ^u ! glyc]ides =m+ same4 ,ole91 a comb9ation ( oleic acid & glyc]9e1 z well z oleic acid itself l>gely =ms ! liquid portion ( oils & fats4 ,oleic acid 7,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b7 is an unsaturat$ acid & diff]s f /e>ic acid 7,c#ah;,h#cf,o#b71 ! acid =m+ ! h>d firm portion ( oils & fats1 by conta9+ two atoms ( hydrog5 less 9 ! molecule4 ,!oretically x %\ld be a simple matt] to introduce two atoms ( hydrog5 into oleic acid or ole91 & by ?is m]e addition conv]t liquid oleic acid & ole9 into solid /e>ic acid & /e>9e4 ,= ye>s ?is 0 attempt$ & all attempts to apply ! well kn[n me?ods ( r$uction 7addition ( hydrog57 9 organic *emi/ry1 su* z treatm5t ) t9 & acid1 sodium amalgam1 etc41 7 unsuccessful4 ,9 rec5t ye>s1 h[ev]1 x has be5 discov]$ t 9 ! pres5ce ( a catalyz]1 nickel 9 f9ely divid$ =m or ! oxides ( nickel are usually employ$1 ! process ( hydrog5at+ an oil is readily atta9$ ^u a practical basis4 ,! introduction ( h>d5$ oils has op5$ a new s\rce ( raw mat]ial = ! soap manufactur] 9 t x is n[ possible to use oils 9 soap mak+ :i* 7 =m]ly disc>d$ because ( _! undesirable odors4 ,?us fi% or tra9 oils :i* _h up to ! "t ( oil hydrog5at+ resi/$ all attempts ( be+ p]man5tly deodoriz$1 c n[ be employ$ v satisfactorily = soap manufacture4 ,a ,japanese *emi/1 ,tsujimoto#c has %[n t fi% oils conta9 an unsaturat$ acid ( ! composition ,c#ah;,h#bh,o#b1 = :i* he propos$ ! "n clupanodonic acid4 ,by ! catalytic h>d5+ ( tra9 oils ?is acid passes to /e>ic acid & ! problem ( deodoriz+ ^! oils is solv$4#d ,at fir/ ! introduction ( h>d5$ oils = soap manufacture met ) num]\s objections1 due to ! cont9ual failures ( obta9+ a satisfactory product by ! use ( same4 ,v>i\s attempts h n[ %[n t ^! oils1 p>ticul>ly h>d5$ tra9 oils1 produce extraord9>ily useful mat]ials = soap mak+4 ,^! replace exp5sive tall[ & o!r high melt+ oils4 ,x is ( c\rse impossible to employ h>d5$ oils alone1 z a soap s h>d w\ld ?us be obta9$ t x w\ld be difficultly soluble 9 wat] & possess v little la!r+ quality4 ,by ! addition ( #bj-be ( tall[ oil or "s o!r oil =m+ a s(t soap a v suitable soap = h\sehold use may be obta9$4 ,ribot#e discusses ?is matt] fully4 ,h>d5$ oils readily saponify1 may be p]fum$ )\t any objections & d n imp>t any fi%y odor to an article wa%$ ) same4 ,mey]heim#f /ates t ?r\gh ! use ( hydrog5at$ oils ! h>dness ( soap is extraord9>ily rais$1 s t soap made f h>d5$ cottonse$ oil is twelve times z h>d z ! soap made f ord9>y cottonse$ oil4 ,?is soap is also said to no long] spot yell[ ^u ag+1 & z a consequ5ce ( its h>dness1 is able to conta9 a consid]ably high] cont5t ( ros9 ?r\gh :i* la!r+ p[] & odor may be improv$4 ,h>d5$ oils c easily be us$ = toilet soap bases1 provid$ !y are n add$ 9 too great a p]c5tage4 ,! use ( h>d5$ oils is n yet g5]al1 b !re is little d\bt t ! introduction ( ?is process goes a long way t[>d solv+ ! problem ( *eap] soap mat]ial = ! soap mak+ indu/ry4 ,,grease4 ,grease v>ies s greatly 9 composition & consi/5cy t x c h>dly be class$ z a di/9ctive oil or fat4 ,x is obta9$ f refuse1 bones1 hides1 etc41 & :ile x conta9s ! same con/itu5ts z tall[1 ! ole9 cont5t is consid]ably great]1 :i* causes x to be m liquid 9 composition4 ,grease diff]s 9 color f an (f-:ite to a d>k br[n4 ,! bett] qualities are employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( laundry & *ip soap1 :ile ! poor] qualities are only fit = ! *eape/ ( soaps us$ 9 scrubb+ floors & su* purposes4 ,!re is usually f\nd 9 grease a consid]able am\nt ( gluey matt]1 lime & wat]4 ,! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid is g5]ally high4 ,! d>k] grades ( grease are blea*$ be=e be+ us$4 ,?is is done by add+ a small quantity ( sodium nitrate to ! melt$ grease & agitat+1 !n remov+ ! excess saltpet] by decompos+ ) sulphuric acid4 ,a bett] me?od ( ref9+1 h[ev]1 is by di/illation4 ,! *rome blea* is also applicable4 ,,ros9 7,,colophony1 ,,yell[ ,,ros91 ,,res9a74 ,ros9 is ! residue :i* rema9s aft] ! di/illation ( turp5t9e f ! v>i\s species ( p9es4 ,! *ief s\rce ( supply is 9 ! ,/ates ( ,georgia ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,x is a transp>5t1 amb] color$ h>d pulv]izable res94 ,! bett] grades are light 9 color & kn[n z wat] :ite 7w4 w47 & w9d[ glass 7w4 g474 ,^! are obta9$ f a tree :i* has be5 tapp$ = ! fir/ ye>4 ,z ! same trees are tapp$ f ye> to ye>1 ! product becomes deep] & d>k] 9 color until x becomes almo/ black4 ,! con/itu5ts ( ros9 are *iefly 7#hj-ij7 abietic acid or its anhydride toge!r ) p9ic & sylvic acids4 ,its specific gravity is #a4jg-a4jh1 melt+ po9t ab\t #aeb4e ,c41 & x is soluble 9 alcohol1 e!r1 b5z9e1 c>bon disulfide1 oils1 alkalis & acetic acid4 ,! ma9 use ( ros91 outside ( ! production ( v>ni%es1 is 9 ! production ( laundry soaps1 al?\gh a slight p]c5tage acts z a b9d] & fixative = p]fumes 9 toilet soaps & adds to _! det]g5t prop]ties4 ,s9ce x is ma9ly compos$ ( acids1 x readily unites ) alkal9e c>bonates1 ?\gh ! saponification is n q complete & ! la/ portion mu/ be complet$ ?r\gh ! use ( cau/ic hydrates1 unless an excess ( #aj c>bonate ov] ! !oretical am\nt is us$4 ,a lye ( #bj;deg4 ,b4 is be/ adapt$ to ! saponification ( ros9 :5 cau/ic hydrates are employ$ = ?is purpose1 s9ce weak lyes cause fro?+4 ,:ile x is sometimes consid]$ t ros9 is an adult]ant = soap1 ?is is h>dly ju/ifiable1 z x adds to ! cleans+ prop]ties ( soap4 ,soaps conta9+ ros9 are ( ! well kn[n yell[i% color common to ord9>y laundry soaps4 ,! price ( ros9 has s ris5 9 ! la/ few ye>s t x pres5ts a problem ( co/ to ! soap manufactur] consid]+ ! price at :i* laundry soaps are sold4 ,,ros9 ,,saponification4 ,z has be5 /at$1 ros9 may be saponifi$ by ! use ( alkal9e c>bonates4 ,on acc\nt ( ! possibility ( ! soap fro?+ ov]1 ! kettle 9 :i* ! op]ation takes place %\ld be set flu% ) ! floor1 :i* ought to be con/ruct$ ( cem5t4 ,! kettle itself is an op5 "o ) r\nd bottom1 equipp$ ) an op5 /eam coil & skimm] pipe1 & ! op5 portion is protect$ by a semi-circul> rail4 ,a p[]ful grid1 hav+ a #c-;in* me%1 cov]s "o-half ( ! kettle1 ! %>p edges protrud+ upw>ds4 ,! /aves f ! ros9 casks are remov$ at ! edge ( ! kettle1 ! ros9 plac$ on ! grid & beat5 ?r\gh ) a hamm] to break x up into small pieces4 ,to saponify a ton ( ros9 !re are requir$ #bjj lbs4 soda a%1 #a1fjj lbs4 wat] & #ajj lbs4 salt4 ,half ! wat] is run into ! kettle1 boil$1 & !n ! soda a% & half ! salt add$4 ,! ros9 is n[ add$ ?r\gh ! grid & ! mixture ?or\ghly boil$4 ,z c>bon dioxide is evolv$ by ! reaction ! boil+ is cont9u$ = "o h\r to remove any excess ( ?is gas4 ,a portion ( ! salt is gradually add$ to gra9 ! soap well & to keep ! mass 9 su* condition z to favor ! evolution ( gas4 ,! rema9d] ( ! wat] is add$ to close ! soap & boil+ cont9u$ = "o or two h\rs long]4 ,at ?is po9t ! kettle mu/ be c>efully wat*$ or x w boil ov] ?r\gh ! fur!r escape ( c>bon dioxide be+ h9d]$4 ,! mass1 be+ 9 a fro?y condition1 w rapidly settle by controll+ ! fl[ ( /eam4 ,! rema9+ salt is !n scatt]$ 9 & ! soap all[$ to settle = two h\rs or long]4 ,! lyes are !n dra9$ (f ! top4 ,if ! ros9 soap is requir$ = toilet soaps1 x is gra9$ a second "t4 ,! soap is n[ boil$ ) ! wat] caus$ by ! cond5sation ( ! /eam1 :i* *anges x to a half gra9$ soap suitable = pump+4 ,a soap ?us made conta9s free soda a% #j4ae or less1 free ros9 ab\t #ae4 ,! mass is !n pump$ to ! kettle conta9+ ! soap to :i* x is to be add$ at ! prop] /age4 ,! "t consum$ 9 ?us saponify+ ros9 is ab\t five h\rs4 ,,naph!nic ,,acids4 ,! naph?a or crude petroleum ( ! v>i\s prov9ces 9 ,europe1 z ,russia1 ,galacia1 ,alsace & ,r\mania yield a s]ies ( bodies ( acid "* ^u ref9+ :i* are designat$ "u ! g5]al "n ( naph!nic acids4 ,^! acids are reta9$ 9 solution 9 ! alkal9e lyes dur+ ! di/illation ( ! naph?a 9 ! =m ( alkal9e naph!nates4 ,^u add+ dilute sulphuric acid to ^! lyes ! naph!nates are decompos$ & ! naph!nic acids float to ! surface 9 an oily lay] ( *>act]i/ic disagreeable odor & v>y+ f yell[ to br[n 9 color#g4 ,9 ,russia p>ticul>ly l>ge quantities ( ^! acids are employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap4 ,! soaps =m$ f naph!nic acids h rec5tly be5 inve/igat$#h & f\nd to resemble ! soaps made f cocoanut oil & palm k]nel oil1 9 t !y are difficult to salt out & dissociate v slightly ) wat]4 ,! latt] prop]ty makes !m valuable 9 textile indu/ries :5 a mild soap is requir$ z a det]g5t1 e4 g41 9 ! silk indu/ry4 ,^! soaps also possess a high solv5t p[] = m9]al oils & emulsify v readily4 ,! mean molecul> weight ( naph!nic acids !mselves is v ne> t ( ! fatty acids conta9$ 9 cocoanut oil1 & l ^? ( cocoanut oil a portion ( ! sep>at$ acids are volatile ) /eam4 ,! iod9e numb] indicates a small cont5t ( unsaturat$ acids4 ,t naph!nic acids are a valuable soap mat]ial is n[ recogniz$1 b except 9 ,russia ! soap is n manufactur$ to any ext5t at ! pres5t "t4 ,,alkalis4 ,! common alkali metals :i* ent] into ! =mation ( soap are sodium & potassium4 ,! hydroxides ( ^! metals are usually us$1 except 9 ! s call$ c>bonate saponification ( free fatty acids 9 :i* case sodium & potassium c>bonate are us$4 ,a wat] solution ( ! cau/ic alkalis is kn[n z lye1 & x is z lyes ( v>i\s /r5g?s t !y are add$ to oils & fats to =m soap4 ,! d5sity or weight ( a lye is consid]ably great] ?an t ( wat]1 dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( alkali dissolv$1 & its weight is usually det]m9$ by a hydromet]4 ,?is in/rum5t is graduat$ by a /&>diz$ scale1 & :ile all hydromet]s %\ld read alike 9 a liquid ( kn[n specific gravity1 ?is is g5]ally n ! case1 s t x is advisable to *eck a new hydromet] = accurate "w aga9/ "o ( kn[n accuracy4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! ,baume scale has be5 adopt$1 :ile 9 ,engl& a diff]5t graduation kn[n z ! ,twaddle scale is us$4 ,! /r5g? ( a lye or any solution is det]m9$ by ! di/ance ! in/rum5t s9ks into ! solution1 & we speak ( ! /r5g? ( a solution z s _m degrees ,baume or ,twaddle :i* are read to ! po9t :]e ! m5iscus ( ! lye comes on ! graduat$ scale4 ,hydromet]s are graduat$ diff]5tly = liquids ( diff]5t weights4 ,9 ! te/+ ( lyes "o :i* is graduat$ f #j;deg4 to #ej;deg4 ,b4 is usually employ$4 ,cau/ic soda is receiv$ by ! consum] 9 iron drums weigh+ approximately #gjj lbs4 ea*4 ,! v>i\s grades are designat$ z #fj1 #gj1 #gd1 #gf & #gg4 ,^! p]c5tages ref] to ! p]c5tage ( sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 9 #ajj p>ts ( pure cau/ic soda =m$ by ! comb9ation ( #gg-a_/b p>ts ( sodium oxide & #bb-a_/b p>ts ( wat]1 #gg-a_/b be+ *emically pure cau/ic soda4 ,!re are g5]ally impurities pres5t 9 comm]cial cau/ic soda4 ,^! consi/ ( sodium c>bonate1 sodium *loride or common salt & sometimes lime4 ,x is manufactur$ by treat+ sodium c>bonate 9 an iron vessel ) calcium hydroxide or slak$ lime1 or by electrolysis ( common salt4 ,! latt] process has yet be5 unable to compete ) ! =m] 9 price4 ,=m]ly all ! cau/ic soda us$ 9 soap mak+ 0 import$1 & x 0 only ?r\gh ! ,am]ican manufactur] us+ a simil> conta9] to t us$ by =eign manufactur]s t !y 7 able to introduce _! product4 ,?is prejudice has n[ be5 entirely ov]come & mo/ ( ! cau/ic soda us$ 9 ?is c\ntry is manufactur$ "h4 ,,cau/ic ,,pota%4 ,! output ( ! salts conta9+ potassium is controll$ almo/ entirely by ,g]many4 ,=m]ly ! *ief s\rce ( supply ( potassium comp\nds 0 f ! burn$ a%es ( plants1 b ab\t fifty ye>s ago ! inexhau/ible salt m9es ( ,/assfurt1 ,g]many1 7 discov]$4 ,! salt !re m9$ conta9s1 besides ! *lorides & sulphates ( sodium1 magnesium1 calcium & o!r salts1 consid]able quantities ( potassium *loride1 & ! ,/assfurt m9es at pres5t are practically ! entire s\rce ( all potassium comp\nds1 9 spite ( ! fact t o!r localities h be5 s\ght to produce ^! comp\nds on a comm]cial basis1 especially by ! ,unit$ ,/ates gov]nm5t4 ,aft] sep>at+ ! potassium *loride f ! magnesium *loride & o!r sub/ances f\nd 9 ,/assfurt salts ! me?ods ( manufacture ( cau/ic pota% are id5tical to ^? ( cau/ic soda4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 dome/ic electrolytic cau/ic pota% may be pur*as$ *eap] ?an ! import$ product & x gives results equal to ^? obta9$ by ! use ( ! import$ article1 op9ions to ! contr>y among soap mak]s be+ _m4 ,mo/ ( ! cau/ic pota% 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates is manufactur$ at ,niag>a ,falls by ! ,niag>a ,alkali ,co41 & ! ,hook] ,electro*emical ,co41 *lor9e be+ obta9$ z a by-product4 ,! latt] conc]n employs ! ,t[ns5d ,cell1 = ! manufacture ( electrolytic pota%1 & are said to h a capacity = mak+ #fd tons ( alkali daily4 ,s9ce ! molecul> weight ( cau/ic pota% 7#ef7 is great] ?an t ( cau/ic soda 7#dj7 m pota% is requir$ to saponify a p\nd ( fat4 ,! result+ pota% soap is correspond+ly heavi] ?an a soda soap4 ,:5 salt is add$ to a potassium soap d\ble decomposition occurs1 ! potassium soap be+ trans=m$ to a sodium soap & ! potassium unit+ ) ! *lor9e to =m potassium *loride4 ,?is 0 "o ( ! e>lie/ me?ods ( mak+ a h>d soap1 especially 9 ,g]many1 :]e pota% 0 d]iv$ f lee*+ a%es ( burn$ wood & plants4 ,,sodium ,,c>bonate 7,,soda ,,a%74 ,:ile c>bonate ( soda is widely di/ribut$ 9 nature ! s\rce ( supply is entirely dep5d5t ^u ! manufactur$ product4 ,its uses are _m1 b x is especially important to ! soap indu/ry 9 ! s call$ c>bonate saponification ( free fatty acids1 z a con/itu5t ( soap p[d]s1 9 ! neutralization ( glyc]9e lyes & z a fill] = laundry soaps4 ,! old ,fr5* ,le ,blanc soda process1 :i* consi/s 9 treat+ common salt ) sulphuric acid & r$uc+ ! sodium sulphate 7salt cake7 ?us =m$ ) c>bon 9 ! =m ( *>coal or coke to sodium sulphide1 :i* :5 treat$ ) calcium c>bonate yields a mixture ( calcium sulphide & sodium c>bonate 7black a%7 f :i* ! c>bonate is dissolv$ by wat]1 has be5 replac$ by ! m rec5t ,solvay ammonia soda process4 ,ev5 ?\gh !re is a consid]able loss ( salt & ! by-product calcium *loride produc$ by ?is process is only p>tially us$ up z a dry+ ag5t1 & = refrig]at+ purposes1 ! ,le ,blanc process _c compete ) ! ,solvay process1 s t ! "t is n f> di/ant :5 ! =m] w be consid]$ a *emical curiosity4 ,9 ! ,solvay me?od ( manufacture sodium *loride 7common salt7 & ammonium bic>bonate are mix$ 9 solution4 ,d\ble decomposition occurs ) ! =mation ( ammonium *loride & sodium bic>bonate4 ,! latt] salt is comp>atively difficultly soluble 9 wat] & cry/allizes out1 ! ammonium *loride rema9+ 9 solution4 ,:5 ! sodium bic>bonate is heat$ x yields sodium c>bonate1 c>bon dioxide & wat]2 ! c>bon dioxide is pass$ into ammonia :i* is set free f ! ammonium *loride obta9$ z above by treatm5t ) lime 7calcium oxide7 calcium *loride be+ ! by-product4 ,sal soda or wa%+ soda is obta9$ by recry/alliz+ a solution ( soda a% 9 wat]4 ,l>ge cry/als ( sal soda conta9+ b #cg sodium c>bonate are =m$4 ,,potassium ,,c>bonate4 ,potassium c>bonate is n ext5sively us$ 9 ! manufacture ( soap4 ,x may be us$ 9 ! =m+ ( s(t soaps by unit+ x ) free fatty acids4 ,! me?ods ( manufacture are ! same z = sodium c>bonate1 al?\gh a mu* l>g] quantity ( potassium c>bonate ?an c>bonate ( soda is obta9$ f burn$ plant a%es4 ,purifi$ potassium c>bonate is kn[n z pe>l a%4 ,,additional ,,mat]ial ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,mak+4 ,wat] is indisp5sable to ! soap manufactur]4 ,9 ! soap factory h>d wat] is (t5 ! cause ( mu* tr\ble4 ,wat]1 :i* is ! be/ solv5t kn[n1 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! crevices ( rocks dissolves "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( ^!1 & ! wat] is kn[n z h>d4 ,?is h>dness is ( two k9ds1 tempor>y & p]man5t4 ,tempor>ily h>d wat] is =m$ by wat]1 :i* conta9s c>bonic acid1 dissolv+ a portion ( calcium c>bonate or c>bonate ( lime4 ,^u boil+1 ! c>bonic acid is driv5 f ! wat] & ! c>bonate1 be+ insoluble 9 c>bon dioxide free wat]1 is deposit$4 ,?is is ! cause ( boil] scale1 & to *eck ?is a small am\nt ( sal ammoniac may be add$ to ! wat]1 :i* conv]ts ! c>bonate into soluble calcium *loride & volatile ammonium c>bonate4 ,p]man5t h>dness is caus$ by calcium sulphate :i* is soluble 9 #djj p>ts ( wat] & _c be remov$ by boil+4 ,! pres5ce ( ^! salts 9 wat] =m insoluble lime soaps :i* act z in]t bodies z f> z _! value = ! common use ( soap is conc]n$4 ,:]e ! p]c5tage ( lime 9 wat] is l>ge ?is %\ld be remov$4 ,a me?od g5]ally us$ is to add ab\t #e ( #bj;deg4 ,b4 sodium silicate to ! h>d wat]4 ,?is precipitates ! lime & ! wat] is !n suffici5tly pure to use4 ,salt1 kn[n z sodium *loride1 is us$ to a l>ge ext5t 9 soap mak+ = salt+ out ! soap dur+ saponification1 z well z gra9+ soaps4 ,soap ord9>ily soluble 9 wat] is insoluble 9 a salt solution1 use ( :i* is made by add+ salt to ! soap :i* goes into solution & ?r[s any soap dissolv$ 9 ! lyes out ( solution4 ,salt may conta9 magnesium & calcium *lorides1 :i* ( c\rse are undesirable 9 l>ge am\nts4 ,! products on ! m>ket1 h[ev]1 are satisfactory1 ?us no detail is necess>y4 ,fill+ mat]ials us$ are sodium silicate1 or wat] glass1 talc1 silex1 pumice1 />*1 borax1 tripoli1 etc4 ,besides ^! o!r mat]ials are us$ 9 ! ref9+ ( ! oils & fats1 & glyc]9e recov]y1 su* z ,full]'s e>?1 bi*romates ( soda or pota%1 sulphate ( alum9a1 sulphuric & hydro*loric acids & alcohol4 ,a l5g?y description ( ^! sub/ances is n giv51 z _! modes ( use are detail$ else:]e4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,seif5si$] ,zeit1 #aiac1 #dj1 p4 #fhg1 #gbd1 #gdj4 #b ,(ficial ,me?ods1 see ,bull4 #ajg1 ,a4 ,o4 ,a4 ,c41 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agricult4 #c ,j\rn4 ,coll4 ( ,eng94 ,tokyo ,imp]4 ,univ4 7#aijf71 p4 #a4 ,abs4 ,*em4 ,revue f4 d4 ,fett-u4 ,h>z1 ,ind4 #af1 p4 #hd2 #bj1 p4 #h4 #d ,mey]heim--,=t4 d] ,*em41 ,physik4 und ,physik4 ,*em4 7#aiac71 #h4 #f1 p4 #bic-cjg4 #e ,seifs4 ,ztg4 7#aiac71 #dj1 p4 #adb4 #f ,loc4 cit4 #g ,les ,mati]es ,graisses 7#aiad71 #g1 #fi1 p4 #ccfg4 #h ,zeit4 f4 ,angew4 ,*em4 7#aiad71 #bg1 #a1 p4 #b-d4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,con/ruction & ,equipm5t ( a ,soap ,plant4 ,no fix$ plan = ! con/ruction & equipm5t ( a soap plant c be giv54 ,! specifications = a soap factory to be erect$ or remodel$ mu/ suit ! p>ticul> cases4 ,v (t5 a build+ :i* 0 con/ruct$ = a purpose o!r ?an soap manufacture mu/ be adapt$ = ! production ( soap4 ,9 ei!r case x is a "q ( eng9e]+ & ar*itecture1 toge!r ) ! k obta9$ 9 practice & ! f9al decision z to ! arrangem5t is be/ solv$ by a conf]5ce ) ^? skill$ 9 ea* ( ^! bran*es4 ,an ideal soap plant is "o 9 :i* ! process ( soap mak+1 f ! melt+ out ( ! /ock to ! pack+ & %ipp+ ( ! f9i%$ product1 moves d[nw>d f floor to floor1 s9ce by ?is me?od x is possible to utilize gravitation r ?an pump+ liquid fats & fluid soaps4 ,conv5i5ce & economy are obta9$ by su* an arrangem5t4 ,! v>i\s ma*9]y & o!r equipm5t = soap manufacture are well kn[n to ^? connect$ ) ?is indu/ry4 ,x v>ies1 ( c\rse1 dep5d+ ^u ! k9d ( soap to be manufactur$1 & full descriptions ( ! necess>y ma*9]y are be/ giv5 9 ! catalogs issu$ by ! manufactur]s ( su* equipm5t1 :o 9 ?is c\ntry are mo/ reliable4 ,to "k j :at equipm5t is necess>y c v easily be describ$ by a brief outl9e ( ! process v>i\s soaps und]go to produce ! f9i%$ article4 ,aft] ! saponification has tak5 place 9 ! soap kettle ! molt5 soap is run directly into ! soap frames1 :i* consi/ ( an oblong comp>tm5t1 hold+ any:]e f #djj to #a1bjj p\nds1 ) removable /eel sides & m\nt$ ^u trucks1 9 :i* x solidifies4 ,9 mo/ cases x is advisable to fir/ run ! soap into a crut*] or mix] :i* produces a m homog5e\s mass ?an if ?is op]ation is omitt$4 ,color & p]fume may also be add$ at ?is po9t1 al?\gh :5 a bett] grade ( p]fume is add$ x mu/ be rememb]$ t !re is consid]able loss due to volatilization ( same4 ,:5 a dry+ ma*9e is employ$ ! molt5 soap is run directly ^u ! roll]s ( ?is ma*9e1 lat] add+ ab\t #a4j z9c oxide to ! soap f :i* x passes cont9u\sly ?r\gh ! dry+ *amb] & is emitt$ 9 *ip =m ready = mill+4 ,aft] ! soap has be5 fram$1 x is all[$ to cool & solidify1 :i* takes sev]al days1 & !n ! sides ( ! frame are /ripp$ (f4 ,! l>ge solid cake is cut ) wires by h& or by a slabb] into slabs ( any desir$ size4 ,^! slabs are fur!r divid$ into small] divisions by ! cutt+ table4 ,9 non-mill$ soaps 7laundry soaps1 float+ soaps1 etc471 ^! are press$ at ?is /age1 usually by automatic presses1 aft] a ?9 h>d film has be5 =m$ ov] ! cake by all[+ x to dry slightly4 ,9 mak+ ^! soaps !y are n t\*$ by h& at any "t dur+ ! op]ation1 ! press+1 wrapp+ & pack+ all be+ done by ma*9]y4 ,= a mill$ soap ! l>ge slabs are cut into n>r[ oblong %apes by means ( ! cutt+ table to readily pass into ! fe$] ( ! *ipp]1 ! *ips be+ spread ^u trays & dri$ 9 a dry h\se until ! moi/ure cont5t is approximately #ae4 ,! process ( mill+ is accompli%$ by pass+ ! dri$ soap *ips ?r\gh a soap mill1 :i* is a ma*9e consi/+ ( usually ?ree or f\r contigu\s1 smoo?1 granite roll]s op]at$ by a sy/em ( ge>s & set f> en\gh ap>t to all[ ! soap to pass f a hopp] to ! fir/ roll]1 f :i* x is con/antly convey$ to ea* succe$+ roll] z a ?9 film1 & f9ally scrap$ f ! la/ roll] to fall into ! mill+ box 9 ?9 ribbon =m4 ,^! mills are (t5 op]at$ 9 t&em1 :i* necessitates less h&l+ ( soap by ! op]ator4 ,! object ( mill+ is to give ! soap a glossy1 smoo? f9i% & to bl5d x into a homog5e\s mass4 ,! p]fume1 color1 m$ication or any o!r mat]ial desir$ are add$ to ! dri$ soap *ips prior to mill+4 ,"s manufactur]s use an amalgamator to di/ribute ^! uni=mly ?r\gh ! soap1 :i* elim9ates at lea/ "o mill+4 ,:5 a :ite soap is be+ put ?r\gh ! mill1 x is advisable to add f #j4e to #a ( a good1 f9e quality ( z9c oxide to ! soap1 if ?is sub/ance has n be5 previ\sly add$4 ,?is s]ves to remove ! yell[i% ca/ & any transluc5cy occasion$ by plodd+4 ,too great a quantity ( ?is comp\nd add$1 lat] exhibits itself by imp>t+ to ! soap a dead :ite appe>ance4 ,inasmu* z ! mill+ process is "o ^u :i* ! appe>ance ( a f9i%$ cake ( toilet soap l>gely dep5ds1 x %\ld be c>efully done4 ,! numb] ( times a soap %\ld be mill$ dep5ds ^u ! "* ( a soap be+ work$4 ,x %\ld ( c\rse be ! object to mill ) z high a p]c5tage ( moi/ure z possible4 ,%\ld ! soap become too dry x is advisable to add wat] directly1 r ?an wet soap1 s9ce wat] c m easily be di/ribut$ ?r\gh ! mass4 ,z a g5]al /atem5t x may be said x is bett] policy to ov]mill a soap1 r ?an n mill x (t5 en\gh4 ,aft] ! soap has be5 ?or\ghly mill$ x is ready = plodd+4 ,a plodd] is s con/ruct$ z to take ! soap ribbons f$ into ! hopp] by means ( a worm screw & cont9u\sly =ce x "u great pressure ?r\gh a jacket$ cyl9d] ?r\gh :i* cold wat] circulates 9 ! re> to comp5sate ! heat produc$ by friction & hot wat] at ! front1 to s(t5 & poli% ! soap :i* passes out 9 solid =m 9 b>s ( any %ape & size dep5d+ ^u ! =m ( ! %ap+ plate ?r\gh :i* x is emitt$4 ,! b>s run ^u a roll] bo>d1 are cut into ! requir$ l5g? by a special cake cutt+ table1 all[$ to dry slightly & press$ ei!r automatically or by a foot p[] press 9 any suitable soap die4 ,! f9i%$ cake is !n ready = wrapp+ & aft] due "t 9 /ock rea*es ! consum]4 ,besides ! v>i\s app>atus m5tion$ above !re are _m o!r p>ts = ! full equipm5t ( a mod]n soap plant1 su* z remelt]s1 pumps1 mix]s1 special tanks1 p[] equipm5t1 etc4 ,z has be5 /at$1 h[ev]1 practical exp]i5ce w aid 9 judg+ ! practicability z to in/allation ( ^!4 ,! v>i\s me?ods ( p[d]+ soap are1 h[ev]1 n g5]ally kn[n4 ,:]e a co>se p[d] is to be produc$1 su* z is us$ = common wa%+ p[d]s1 no great difficulty is exp]i5c$ ) ! well kn[n ,blan*>d mill4 ,9 gr9d+ soap to an impalpable p[d] ! difficulties increase4 ,! me?ods adapt$ 9 pulv]iz+ soaps are by means ( dis9tegrators1 pebble mills & *as] mills4 ,! dis9tegrator gr9ds by ! pr9ciple ( attrition1 t is1 ! mat]ial is r$uc$ by ! p>ticles be+ caus$ to beat aga9/ ea* o!r at great velocity2 a pebble mill cru%es ! sub/ance by rubb+ x betwe5 h>d pebbles 9 a sl[ly revolv+ cyl9d]2 ! *as] mill fir/ gr9ds ! mat]ial & !n floats x z a v f9e p[d] above a curb ( fix$ height4 ,! la/ me?od is p>ticul>ly adapt$ = ! f9e/ ( p[d] 7#adj me% & ov]74 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,classification ( ,soap-,mak+ ,me?ods4 ,9 ! saponification ( fats & oils to =m soap ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( cau/ic alkalis1 z has be5 /at$1 ! sodium or potassium salts ( ! mix$ fatty acids are =m$4 ,sodium soaps are usually t]m$ h>d soaps1 & potassium soaps s(t4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a great _m v>ieties ( soaps ! appe>ance & prop]ties ( :i* dep5d ^u _! me?od ( manufacture & ! oils or fats us$ !re94 ,! v>i\s me?ods adopt$ 9 soap mak+ may be ?us classifi$3 #a4 ,boil+ ! fats & oils 9 op5 kettles by op5 /eam ) indef9ite quantities ( cau/ic alkali solutions until ! f9i%$ soap is obta9$2 ord9>ily nam$ full boil$ soaps4 ,^! may be sub-divid$ into 7a7 h>d soaps ) sodium hydrate z a base1 9 :i* ! glyc]9e is recov]$ f ! sp5t lyes2 7b7 h>d soaps ) soda z a base1 9 :i* ! glyc]9e rema9s 9 ! soap1 e4 g41 m>9e cocoanut oil soaps2 7c7 s(t pota% soaps1 9 :i* ! glyc]9e is reta9$ by ! soap4 #b4 ,comb9+ ! requir$ am\nt ( lye = complete saponification ( a fat !re)1 heat+ slightly ) dry heat & !n all[+ ! saponification to complete itself4 ,?is is kn[n z ! cold process4 #c4 ,utiliz+ ! fatty acid1 in/ead ( ! neutral fat1 & comb9+ x directly ) cau/ic alkali or c>bonate1 :i* is incorrectly t]m$ c>bonate saponification1 s9ce x is m]ely neutraliz+ ! free fatty acid & ?us is n a saponification 9 ! true s5se ( ! ^w4 ,no glyc]9e is directly obta9$ by ?is me?od1 z x is usually previ\sly remov$ 9 ! cle>age ( ! fat by ei!r ! ,twit*ell or autoclave saponification me?od4 ,9 ! me?ods ?us outl9$ ! "o mo/ g5]ally employ$ is ! full boil$ process to =m a sodium soap4 ,?is me?od ( mak+ soap requires close att5tion & a k :i* c only be obta9$ by con/ant practice4 ,! /ock1 /r5g? ( lyes1 heat1 am\nt ( salt or br9e add$1 "t ( settl+1 etc41 are all influ5c+ factors4 ,! pr9ciples involv$ 9 ?is process are briefly ^!3 ,! fat is p>tly saponifi$ ) weak lyes 7usually ^? obta9$ f a previ\s boil+ 9 ! /r5g!n+ *ange are us$71 & salt is add$ to gra9 ! soap4 ,! mass is !n all[$ to settle into two lay]s4 ,! upp] lay] is p>tly saponifi$ fat2 ! l[] lay]1 or sp5t lye1 is a solution ( salt1 glyc]9e1 & conta9s any album9\s matt] or any o!r impurity conta9$ 9 ! fat4 ,?is is kn[n z ! kill+ or glyc]9e *ange4 ,/rong lyes are n[ add$ & ! fat entirely saponifi$1 :i* is t]m$ ! /r5g!n+ *ange4 ,! mass is !n all[$ to settle & ! fluid soap run (f above ! nigre4 ,?is op]ation is call$ ! f9i% or f9i%+ *ange4 ,! me?od may be m fully illu/rat$ by a concrete example ( ! me?od ( manufacture ( a tall[ base3 ,*>ge-- ,tall[ #hh p] c5t4 ,cocoanut oil #aj p] c5t4 ,ros9 w4 w4 #b p] c5t4 ,am\nt *>ge #aj tons ,ab\t five tons ( tall[ & "o ton ( cocoanut oil are pump$ or run into ! soap kettle & br\ght to a boil ) wet /eam until x briskly comes ?r\gh ! hot fat4 ,! cau/ic soda 7/r5g!n+ lyes f =m] boil+s may be us$ "h7 is gradually add$ by ! di/ribut+ pipe1 any t5d5cy to ?ick5 be+ *eck$ by ! introduction ( small quantities ( br9e 7salt pickle74 ,if ! lye is add$ too rapidly ! soap assumes a granul> appe>ance1 indicat+ t ! addition ( same mu/ be discont9u$4 ,wat] %\ld !n be add$ & ! mass boil$ ?r\gh until x aga9 closes4 ,:5 ! addition ( ! prop] am\nt ( cau/ic soda is ne>+ its completion ! soap gradually ?9s4 ,! /eam is n[ cut d[n to ab\t "o turn ( ! valve1 & br9e is rapidly add$ or salt %ovel$ 94 ,9 t5 to fifte5 m9utes ! /eam aga9 breaks ?r\gh &1 f ! appe>ance ( ! soap1 x c be se5 :e!r suffici5t br9e has be5 add$4 ,a sample tak5 out by means ( a long wood5 paddle %\ld %[ ! soap 9 f9e gra9s ) ! lyes runn+ f x cle>4 ,! /eam is !n %ut (f & ! soap all[$ to settle f "o & "o-half to two h\rs4 ,9 all settl+s ! long] "t ?is op]ation is p]mitt$ to cont9ue1 ! bett] w ! subsequ5t op]ations proce$4 ,! mixture n[ consi/s ( a p>tly saponifi$ lay] ( fat above ! sp5t lyes4 ,! lyes are drawn (f until soap makes its appe>ance at ! exit pipe4 ,! valve is !n clos$ & ! soap bl[n back into ! kettle by /eam4 ,! lyes ?us obta9$ are kn[n z sp5t lyes1 f :i* ! glyc]9e is recov]$4 ,!y %\ld %[ an alkal9ity ( approximately #j4e p] c5t4 if ! op]ation is c>efully c>ri$ out4 ,! rema9+ tall[ is n[ add$ & ! above op]ations repeat$4 ,aft] ! sp5t lyes h be5 drawn (f1 ! soap is clos$ ) wat] & ! prop] p]c5tage ( ros9 soap previ\sly =m$1 or ros9 itself is add$ to ! mass 9 ! kettle4 ,m lye is !n all[$ to fl[ 9 until ! mixture is up to /r5g?4 ,?is is usually te/$ by ! bite on ! tongue ( a small cool$ sample4 ,aft] boil+ until ! /eam comes ?r\gh1 ! mass is gra9$ ) salt z be=e & all[$ to settle "o & "o-half to ?ree h\rs4 ,^! lyes1 kn[n z /r5g!n+ lyes are run to /orage to be us$ subsequ5tly ) fre% fat to take up ! cau/ic soda conta9$ !re94 ,! soap is n[ ready = f9i%+ & is fir/ boil$ ?r\gh & tri$ = /r5g?4 ,a drop ( ph5olph?ale9 7#a p] c5t4 ph5olph?ale9 9 #ih p] c5t4 alcohol7 is all[$ to drop on ! molt5 soap tak5 up on a tr[el4 ,! r$ color %\ld be in/antly produc$ & develop to a full deep crimson 9 a few seconds1 or m lye mu/ be add$ until ?is condition is realiz$4 ,%\ld x fla% a deep crimson imm$iately x is on ! /rong side4 ,?is _c be conv5i5tly rem$i$2 x c only s]ve z a guide = ! next boil1 b 9 any case x is n ( any s]i\s consequ5ce1 unless x is too /rong4 ,) ! /eam on1 ! soap is n[ exam9$ ) a tr[el :i* mu/ be ?or\ghly heat$ by work+ x ab\t "u ! surface ( ! hot soap4 ,! appe>ance ( ! soap z x runs f ! face ( ! tr[el indicates its condition4 ,x is n possible to absolutely describe ! effect1 :i* c only be prop]ly judg$ by practice1 yet ! foll[+ po9ts may s]ve z a guide4 ,! indications to be notic$ are ! %ape & size ( ! flakes ( soap z ! sample on ! tr[el breaks up & runs f ! hot iron surface1 :5 ! latt] is turn$ 9 a v]tical position1 z well z ! condition ( ! iron surface f :i* ! soap flakes h fall54 ,a clos$ soap w run sl[ly into a homog5e\s %eet1 leav+ ! tr[el's surface cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( transp>5t soap2 a gra9$ mass w run rapidly d[n 9 t9y gra9s1 ab\t "o-half an in* 9 diamet] or less1 leav+ ! hot tr[el absolutely dry4 ,! object ( ! f9i% is to sep>ate ! soaps ( ! l[] fatty acids f ^? ( ! high]1 & bo? f excess ( liquid4 ,a po9t midway betwe5 op5 & clos$ is requir$ to arrive at ?is po9t4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ! above condition1 ! soap is all[$ to settle any:]e f "o to ?ree days & !n run (f ?r\gh ! skimm] pipes to ! nigre & fram$ or pump$ to ! tank fe$+ ! dry+ ma*9e4 ,! /ock ?us obta9$ %\ld be fairly :ite1 dep5d+ ^u ! grade ( tall[ us$ & slightly alkal9e to an alcoholic ph5olph?ale9 solution4 ,if remov$ at exactly ! neutral po9t or ) a cont5t ( free fat ! soap w soon] or lat] develop rancidity4 ,! soap ?us obta9$ is an ord9>y tall[ base1 & ! "o by f> greate/ us$ 9 ! manufacture ( toilet soaps4 ,! p]c5tage ( cocoanut oil indicat$ is n fix$ & may readily be v>i$1 :ile 9 f9e toilet soap ! ros9 is usually elim9at$4 ,9 ! manufacture ( full boil$ soda soaps 9 :i* no glyc]9e is obta9$ z a by-product1 x be+ reta9$ 9 ! soap itself1 ! soap =m$ is kn[n z a run soap4 ,! process is us$ mo/ ext5sively 9 ! manufacture ( m>9e soaps by :i* ! me?od may be be/ illu/rat$4 ,?is soap is kn[n z m>9e soap because ( its prop]ty ( readily =m+ a la!r ) salt wat] & is mo/ly consum$ abo>d vessels4 ,m>9e soaps are manufactur$ by fir/ plac+ 9 ! kettle a calculat$ am\nt ( lye ( #be deg4 to #ce deg4 ,b41 dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( moi/ure desir$ 9 ! f9i%$ soaps1 plus a slight excess requir$ to saponify a kn[n weight ( cocoanut oil4 ,) op5 /eam on1 ! cocoanut oil is !n gradually add$1 c>e be+ tak5 t ! soap does n fro? ov]4 ,saponification takes place readily & :5 ! oil is entirely saponifi$ ! f9i%$ soap is put ?r\gh ! process kn[n z runn+4 ,?is consi/s 9 con/antly pump+ ! mass f ! skimm] pipe back into ! top ( ! kettle1 ! object be+ to prev5t any settl+ ( ! nigre or lye f ! soap1 z well z produc+ a homog5e\s mass4 ,x is cu/om>y to beg9 ! saponification 9 ! morn+1 :i* %\ld be complet$ by noon4 ,! soap is !n run = ab\t ?ree h\rs & fram$ ! next morn+4 ,aft] hav+ rema9$ 9 ! frame ! "t requir$ to solidify & cool1 ! soap is slabb$ & cut into cakes4 ,?is process is difficult to c>ry out prop]ly1 & "o n greatly employ$1 al?\gh l>ge quantities ( m>9e soap are pur*as$ by ! gov]nm5t = use 9 ! navy & mu/ fulfill c]ta9 specifications requir$ by ! pur*as+ dep>tm5t4 ,9 mak+ pota% soaps x is practically impossible to obta9 any glyc]9e directly because ( ! pa/y consi/5cy ( ! soap1 & no gra9+ is possible because ! addition ( salt to a s(t soap1 z already expla9$1 w\ld =m a soda soap4 ,l>ge quantities ( s(t soaps are requir$ = ! textile indu/ries :o desire mo/ly a /rong pota% soap1 & ! l>ge numb] ( automobiles 9 use at ! pres5t "t has op5$ a field = ! use ( a s(t soap = wa%+ ^!4 ,a soap = ?is purpose mu/ be neutral s z n to affect ! v>ni% or pa9t ( automobiles4 ,a suitable soap = textile purposes may be made z foll[s3 ,r$ oil #hj p>ts ,h\se grease #bj p>ts ,cau/ic soda lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #c p>ts ,c>bonate ( pota% #e-a_/b p>ts ,cau/ic pota% #bc-a_/d p>ts ,olive oil1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 olive oil foots or cottonse$ oil may replace any ( ! above oils4 ,a l>ge quantity ( cottonse$ oil w cause ! soap to fig4 ,to c>ry out ! process1 ! cau/ic pota% & c>bonate ( pota% are dissolv$ & plac$ 9 ! kettle toge!r ) ! soda lye1 & ! oils add$4 ,?is is mo/ satisfactorily accompli%$ by be+ f9i%$ ! day be=e ! boil+ is begun4 ,! next day ! boil+ is begun & wat] add$ to br+ ! soap up to ! desir$ p]c5tage ( fatty acid1 due all[ance be+ made = ! wat] =m$ by ! cond5sation ( ! op5 /eam 9 boil+4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 t ! soap 9 ! kettle does n swell & run ov] dur+ ! saponification4 ,a good proc$ure is to use op5 /eam = a p]iod ( ab\t two h\rs1 !n close ! valve & all[ ! saponification to cont9ue )\t boil+1 & repeat ?is until x is entirely saponifi$4 ,aft] ! saponification has be5 complet$ ! soap is briskly boil$ all day & ! prop] corrections made2 t is1 if too alkal9e1 m oil is add$1 & if free fat is pres5t1 m pota%4 ,ab\t #b p] c5t4 c>bonate ( pota% is ! prop] am\nt = a soap conta9+ #ej p] c5t4 fatty acid4 ,! soap is sampl$ by all[+ x to drop on a clean1 cold glass surface4 ,9 s do+1 ! soap %\ld n slide or slip ov] ! glass surface :5 press$ !reon1 b %\ld adh]e to ! glass1 or x is too alkal9e4 ,a sample work$ betwe5 ! f+]s %[+ too mu* /r+9ess %\ld h m /rong pota% & oil add$4 ,a sample tak5 out 9 a pail & all[$ to cool ov] night w s]ve z a guide z to ! body ( ! soap 9 ! kettle4 ,:5 ! soap has ?us be5 prop]ly f9i%$ x is run into b>rels4 ,= an automobile soap ! foll[+ is a good work+ =mula3 ,corn oil #a1jjj p>ts ,pota% lye1 #ca-a_/b degs4 ,b4 #fig p>ts ,proce$ z 9 ! directions j giv5 = textile soap 9 plac+ *>ge 9 ! kettle4 ,:5 ! kettle is boil+ up well1 %ut (f ! /eam & ! saponification w complete itself4 ,! soap may be run into ! b>rels ! next day4 ,a heavy soap ) a small] p]c5tage ( fat may be made z foll[s3 ,corn oil #a1jjj p>ts ,pota% lye1 #bd-a_/b degs4 ,b4 #ijj p>ts ,boil until ! soap bun*es1 & %ovel ! f9i%$ soap into b>rels4 ,^u /&+ x w cle> up4 ,by ! addition ( m wat] ! yield ( soap p] p\nd ( oil may be run up to #cjj p] c5t4 ,aft] s(t soaps h be5 all[$ to /& = "s "t ! ph5om5on kn[n z figg+ (t5 occurs4 ,?is t]m is appli$ to a cry/all9e-l =mation1 caus+ spots ( a />-l %ape ?r\gh\t ! soap4 ,?is is und\bt$ly due to ! /e>9e cont5t ( ! soap cry/alliz+ out z x cools1 & =m+ ^! peculi>ly-%ap$ spots4 ,x m g5]ally occurs 9 ! w9t] & may be produc$ artificially by add+ a small quantity ( soda to ! pota% lye be=e saponification4 ,! oils usually employ$ 9 ! manufacture ( pota% soaps are cottonse$ oil1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 olive oil foots1 r$ oil1 cocoanut oil1 grease & ! v>i\s tra9 oils4 ,! usual p]c5tage yield is f #bbe p] c5t4 to #cjj p] c5t41 bas$ ^u ! weight ( oil us$4 ,9 calculat+ ! weight ( a s(t soap x is to be rememb]$ t s9ce potassium has a high] molecul> weight 7#ef7 ?an sodium 7#dj71 ! correspond+ soap =m$ is t mu* great] 9 weight :5 comp>$ ) a sodium soap4 ,ros9 may be add$ to s(t soaps z a *eap5+ ag5t4 ,,cold ,,process4 ,! cold process = manufactur+ soap is ! simple/ me?od ( soap mak+1 & ! equipm5t requir$ is small :5 comp>$ to ! o!r me?ods4 ,all ! m exp5sive equipm5t t is necess>y is a crut*]1 a tank to hold ! lye1 frames1 a slabb] or cutt+ table1 & a press4 ,yet1 9 spite ( ! simplicity ( ?us mak+ soap1 ! disadvantages are num]\s = ! production ( a good piece ( soap4 ,! greate/ difficulty is to obta9 a ?or\gh comb9ation ( oil or fat & lye s t !re w n be an excess ( "o or ! o!r 9 ! f9i%$ soap4 ,at its be/ !re is ei!r a consid]able excess ( free fat :i* lat] exhibits itself 9 produc+ rancidity or uncomb9$ cau/ic1 :i* produces an unpleasant effect on ! sk9 :5 ! soap is consum$ = wa%+4 ,! latt] objection1 ( c\rse1 c only be appli$ to toilet soaps4 ,cocoanut oil is us$ v l>gely 9 ! manufacture ( cold-made soaps z x is well adapt$ = ?is purpose1 al?\gh x is by no means true t o!r oils may n be employ$4 ,s9ce by ?is process ( manufacture no impurity conta9$ 9 ! fat or oil is remov$ 9 ! mak+ ( ! soap1 x is necess>y t 9 ord] to obta9 a f9e f9i%$ product1 any impurity conta9$ 9 ^! may be remov$ if pres5t1 or t ! fats be z pure z c be obta9$4 ,if in$ible tall[ is us$ = cold-made soap1 x is advisable to blea* x by ! ,full]'s ,e>? ,process4 ,! c>ry+ out ( ?is me?od is be/ illu/rat$ by an example ( a cold-made cocoanut oil soap4 ,*>ge3 ,co*9 cocoanut oil #hdf p>ts ,lye 7soda71 #ce degs4 ,b4 #dgj p>ts ,wat] #bd p>ts ,! oil is run into ! crut*] & ! temp]ature ( ! oil rais$ to #ajj degs4 ,f4 by dry /eam4 ,! lye & wat] are at room temp]ature4 ,aft] all ! oil is 9 ! crut*]1 ! lye & wat] are sl[ly add$ to prev5t any gra9+ ( ! soap4 ,t[>d ! end ! lye may be add$ m rapidly4 ,:5 all ! lye is 91 ! mass is crut*$ = ab\t ?ree h\rs1 or until ^u /opp+ ! crut*] a f+] drawn ov] ! surface ( ! soap leaves an impression4 ,if ?is condition is n realiz$1 ! soap mu/ be mix$ until su* is ! case4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ?is po9t1 ! mixture is dropp$ into a frame :i* %\ld rema9 uncov]$4 ,! heat produc$ by ! fur!r spontane\s saponification w cause ! soap to rise 9 ! middle ( ! frame4 ,aft] hav+ set = "s days x is ready to be slabb$ & cut into cakes4 ,a pota% soap may be made by ! cold process j z readily z a soda soap4 ,soaps ( ?is type may be made by ei!r ( ^! =mulae 9 a crut*]3 ,olive oil foots #fjj ,pota% lye1 #ah degs4 ,b4 hot1 #bj degs4 ,b4 cold #ffj or ,corn oil #hjj ,ros9 #bjj ,pota% lye1 #bg degs4 ,b4 #gij ,wat] #cdj ,heat ! oils to #aij degs4 ,f41 add ! lye & crut* until ! soap beg9s to bun*1 :5 x is ready to be run into b>rels :]e ! saponification w be complet$4 ,semi-boil$ soaps diff] f ^? made by ! cold process 9 temp]ature4 ,9 mak+ semi-boil$ soaps ! fats are usually heat$ to #adj;deg4 ,f4 ,! addition ( ! lye raises ! temp]ature to #ahj;deg4--#bjj;deg4 ,f4 :5 saponification takes place4 ,,c>bonate ,,saponification4 ,! me?od ( ! =mation ( soap by ! utilization ( ! fatty acid directly1 f :i* ! glyc]9e has already be5 remov$ by "s me?od ( saponification o!r ?an ) cau/ic soda1 & neutraliz+ ?is ) alkali1 is becom+ increas+ly popul>4 ,! glyc]9e is m easily recov]$ f a previ\s cleavage ( ! fats or oils1 b a soap made f ! mix$ fatty acids ?us obta9$ is seldom :ite 9 color & reta9s an unpleasant odor4 ,s9ce soda a% or sodium c>bonate is *eap] ?an cau/ic soda & readily unites ) a fatty acid1 x is us$ z ! alkali 9 ! c>bonate saponification4 ,! process is simil> to t already giv5 "u ,ros9 ,saponification4 ,ab\t #ai p] c5t4 by weight ( ! fatty acids employ$ ( #eh p] c5t4 soda a% is dissolv$ 9 wat] until x has a d5sity ( #cj degs4 ,b41 & ! solution is run into ! kettle1 :i* is usually equipp$ ) a removable agitator4 ,! fatty acids1 previ\sly melt$1 are !n sl[ly add$ :ile ! mixture is boil$ ) op5 /eam & agitat$ ) ! /irr+ device4 ,! fatty acids in/antly unite ) ! c>bonate & rise 9 ! kettle1 due to ! g5]ation ( c>bon dioxide1 & c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ to prev5t boil+ ov]4 ,aft] all ! fatty acid has be5 add$1 & ! mass is boil$ ?r\gh ! saponification mu/ be complet$ ) cau/ic soda1 z !re is z yet no practical me?od kn[n :i* w split a fat entirely into fatty acid & glyc]9e4 ,?us ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( ! fatty acids are true neutral fats & require cau/ic soda = _! saponification4 ,?is is !n add$ & ! soap complet$1 z 9 full-boil$ soaps4 ,9 c>ry+ out ?is me?od ^u a l>ge scale1 l>ge sue,ne&]?aldorote],ne&]?al,joseph9e quantities ( c>bon dioxide are =m$ dur+ ! boil+ ( ! soap1 :i* replaces a quantity ( ! air conta9$ !re94 ,! kettle room %\ld !re=e be well v5tilat$1 all[+ = a l>ge infl[ ( fre% air f out ( doors4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,classification ( ,soaps4 ,9 consid]+ ! _m diff]5t v>ieties ( soaps1 _! classification is purely an arbitr>y "o4 ,no def9ite plan c be outl9$ = any p>ticul> br& to be manufactur$ nor c any v %>p di/9ction be drawn betwe5 ! _m soaps ( diff]5t prop]ties :i* are designat$ by v>i\s names4 ,x is really a "q to :at use a soap is to be put1 & at :at price x may be sold4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance1 =m & color1 & !n !re are soaps ( special k9ds1 su* z float+ soaps1 transp>5t soaps1 liquid soaps1 etc41 yet 9 ! ultimate s5se !y are closely alli$1 because !y are all ! same *emical comp\nd1 v>y+ only 9 _! be+ a pota% or soda soap1 & 9 ! fatty acids :i* ent] into comb9ation ) ^! alkalis4 ,?us we c take a comb9ation ( tall[ & cocoanut oil & make a great _m presumably diff]5t soaps by comb9+ ^! sub/ances ) cau/ic soda1 by diff]5t me?ods ( manufacture & by incorporat+ v>i\s o!r +r$i5ts1 z air1 to =m a float+ soap1 alcohol to make a transp>5t soap1 dye/uffs to give a diff]5t color1 etc41 b ess5tially x is ! same def9ite comp\nd4 ,! manufactur] c be/ judge ! br& ( soaps he desires to manufacture1 & mu* ( 8 success dep5ds ^u ! "n1 package1 %ape1 color or p]fume ( a cake ( soap4 ,x is ! consum] :om he mu/ please & _m ( ! l>ge sell+ br&s ^u ! m>ket today owe _! success to ! above m5tion$ details4 ,! great majority ( consum]s ( soap "k v little conc]n+ soap1 except ! fact t x wa%es or has a pleasant odor or looks pretty1 & ! manufactur] ( soap mu/ /udy ^! phases ( ! subject ev5 m c>efully ?an ! mak+ ( ! soap itself4 ,= a matt] ( conv5i5ce we w classify soap "u ?ree g5]al divisions3 ,i4 ,laundry soaps1 includ+ *ip soaps1 soap p[d]s & sc\r+ soaps4 ,,ii4 ,toilet soaps1 includ+ float+ soap1 ca/ile soap1 liquid soap1 %av+ soap1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,textile soaps4 ,,laundry ,,soap4 ,! mo/ popul> h\sehold soap is laundry soap4 ,a trem5d\s am\nt ( ?is soap is consum$ ea* day 9 ?is c\ntry1 & x is by f> manufactur$ 9 l>g] quantities ?an any o!r soap4 ,x is also a soap :i* mu/ be sold *eap] ?an any o!r soap t ent]s ! home4 ,! consum]s ( laundry soap h be5 educat$ to use a full boil$ settl$ ros9 soap & to make a good article at a price ?is me?od %\ld be c>ri$ out1 z x is ! "o mo/ advisable to use4 ,! composition ( ! fats ent]+ into ! soap dep5ds ^u ! m>ket price ( ^!1 & x is n advisable to keep to "o =mula 9 ! manufacture ( laundry soap1 b r to adju/ ! v>i\s fatty +r$i5ts to obta9 ! desir$ results ) ! *eape/ mat]ial t c be pur*as$4 ,x is impossible to use a good grade ( fats & make a pr(it ^u laundry soap at ! price at :i* x mu/ be retail$4 ,! manufactur] ( ?is grade ( soap mu/ look to ! by-product1 glyc]9e1 = 8 pr(it & he is =tunate inde$ if he realizes ! entire b5efit ( ?is & /ill produces a sup]ior piece ( laundry soap4 ,,semi-,,boil$ ,,laundry ,,soaps4 ,x is advantage\s at times to make a laundry soap by a me?od o!r ?an ! full boil$ settl$ soap proc$ure z previ\sly outl9$4 ,?is is especially ! condition 9 mak+ a naph?a soap1 9 :i* is incorporat$ naph?a1 :i* is v volatile & "s ( ! well kn[n manufactur]s ( ?is class ( soap h adopt$ ?is process entirely4 ,a laundry soap conta9+ ros9 _c be advantage\sly made by ! cold process1 z ! soap ?us made gra9s dur+ saponification & drops a portion ( ! lye & fill+ mat]ials4 ,by mak+ a semi-boil$ soap ?is objection is ov]come4 ,! half boil$ process diff]s f ! cold process by unit+ ! fats & alkalis at a high] temp]ature4 ,to c>ry out ?is process ! foll[+ =mulae h be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce to give satisfactory results4 ,i4 lbs4 ,tall[ #ajj ,ros9 #fj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,,ii4 ,tall[ #ajj ,ros9 #fj ,silicate ( ,soda #be ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #he ,,iii4 ,tall[ #ajj ,ros9 #ajj ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #aje ,silicate ( ,soda #be ,sal ,soda ,solution #bj ,9 any ( ^! =mulas ! sodium silicate 7#dj;deg4 ,b47 may be increas$ to ! same proportion z ! fats us$4 ,by s do+1 h[ev]1 tw5ty p\nds ( #cf;deg4 ,b4 lye mu/ be add$ = e hundr$ p\nds ( silicate additional to t indicat$ or 9 o!r words1 = e p\nd ( silicate add$ #bj p] c5t4 by weight ( #cf;deg4 ,b4 lye mu/ be put into ! mixture4 ,! ros9 may also be replac$ by a previ\sly made ros9 soap4 ,to make a semi-boil$ soap1 us+ any ( ! above =mulae1 fir/ melt ! ros9 ) all or "p ( ! fat1 z ros9 :5 melt$ alone readily decomposes4 ,:5 ! mixture is at #aej;deg4 ,f4 run x into ! crut*] & add ! lye4 ,turn on suffici5t dry /eam to keep ! temp]ature ( ! soap at ab\t #aej;deg4 ,f4 9 ! w9t] or #acj;deg4 ,f4 9 summ]4 ,aft] ! mass has be5 mix$ = half an h\r1 by cont9u\sly crut*+ ! soap x w at fir/ ?ick51 !n gra9 & x may aga9 become ?ick be=e x becomes smoo?4 ,:5 ! mass is p]fectly smoo? & homog5e\s drop into a frame & crut* 9 ! frame by h& to prev5t /reak+4 ,aft] /&+ ! requir$ l5g? ( "t ! soap is f9i%$ into cakes z usual4 ,,settl$ ,,ros9 ,,soap4 ,settl$ ros9 soaps are made f tall[1 grease1 cottonse$ oil1 blea*$ palm oils ( ! l[] grades1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 ara*is oil1 di/ill$ g>bage grease1 cottonse$ foots or fatty acids toge!r ) an addition ( ros91 v>y+ f #bd p] c5t4 to #fj p] c5t4 ( ! fatty acids :i* %\ld tit] f #bh to #ce4 ,a tit] l[] ?an #bh w prev5t ! f9i%$ kettle ( soap f be+ capable ( lat] tak+ up ! fill+ mat]ials4 ,z has already be5 /at$ "u h>d5$ oils1 ^! be+ v mu* high] 9 tit] all[ a great] p]c5tage ( ros9 to be add$4 ,?us h>d5$ fi% oils & cottonse$ oil are gradually be+ m ext5sively employ$ 9 soaps ( ?is "*4 ,! proc$ure ( h&l+ ! kettle is simil> to t giv5 "u full boil$ soap4 ,! /ock is /eam$ out into a settl+ tank & all[$ to settle ov] night1 aft] :i* x is pump$ into ! soap kettle4 ,hav+ /ock$ ! kettle1 op5 /eam is turn$ on & #aj;deg4-#ab;deg4 ,b4 lye is run 91 :ile us+ a /eam pressure ( n9ety to "o hundr$ p\nds 9 ord] to prev5t too great a quantity ( cond5sation ( ! /eam1 ! wat] ?us be+ =m$ weak5+ ! lye4 ,if a /eam pressure ( fifty to sixty p\nds is available1 a /rong] lye 7#bj;deg4 ,b47 %\ld be add$4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 n to all[ ! lye to fl[ 9 too rapidly or ! soap w n gra94 ,! saponification is only atta9$ by prolong$ boil+ ) suffici5t lye ( prop] /r5g?4 ,:5 saponification has tak5 place1 ! mass beg9s to cle> & a sample tak5 out ) a paddle & cool$ %\ld %[ a slight p9k ) a #a p] c5t4 alcoholic ph5olph?ale9 solution4 ,x may be /at$ "h t 9 us+ ?is indicator or any o!r to te/ ! alkal9ity ( soap1 ! soap %\ld always be cool$ & firm1 z :5ev] wat] is pres5t1 ! dissociation ( ! soap !reby w always react alkal9e4 ,:5 ?is /ate is rea*$ ! mass is ready = gra9+1 :i* is accompli%$ by di/ribut+ salt br9e or pickle or spread+ dry salt ov] ! surface ( ! soap4 ,! kettle is !n ?or\ghly boil$ until ! mass %[s a s(t curd & ! lye drops cle>ly f a sample tak5 out ) a tr[el or paddle4 ,! /eam is !n %ut (f & ! soap all[$ to settle ov] night4 ,! lyes are !n run (f to ! sp5t lye tank = glyc]9e recov]y4 ,9 saponify+ a fre%ly /ock$ kettle x is apt to bun*4 ,to prev5t ?is salt is add$ at v>i\s times to approximately "o p] c5t4 ( ! fat us$4 ,if1 by any possibility ! soap has bun*$1 ?is condition may be rem$i$ by ! addition ( m /rong lye & boil+ until x is tak5 up4 ,to "w a kettle to its full capacity x is advisable to make two kill+ *anges4 ,fir/ add ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( ! fat & gra9 z direct$4 ,run (f ! sp5t lyes & !n add ! rema9d] ( ! /ock & repeat ! process4 ,:5 ! sp5t lye has be5 run to /orage1 ! op5 /eam is aga9 turn$ on & #ah;deg4 ,b4 lye gradually all[$ to run 94 ,! ros9 is n[ brok5 up & put into ! kettle1 or a previ\sly made ros9 soap is pump$ 94 ,lye is !n add$ until ! soap has a %>p ta/e aft] ab\t ?ree h\rs ( cont9u\s boil+1 or :5 ! soap is 9 ! clos$ /ate4 ,m lye %\ld !n be run into ! kettle to gra9 ! soap well1 ! gra9 n be+ too small4 ,!n all[ ! soap to settle ov] night & draw (f ! /r5g!n+ lye4 ,! next day aga9 boil up ! kettle & add wat] until ! soap ?9s out & rises or swells high 9 ! kettle4 ,a sample tak5 out at ?is /age ^u a hot tr[el %\ld run (f 9 l>ge flakes4 ,! surface ( ! soap %\ld be bright & %9y4 ,if ! sample cl+s to ! tr[el1 a slight addition ( lye w rem$y ?is defect4 ,! kettle is !n all[$ to re/1 to drop ! nigre & to cool = "s "t1 dep5d+ ^u ! size ( ! kettle4 ,! prop] temp]ature is su* t aft] hav+ be5 pump$ to ! crut*] & ! fill+ mat]ials hav+ be5 add$1 a !rmomet] plac$ into ! mass %\ld indicate #abh;deg4-#ace;deg4 ,f4 aft] ! crut*] has run f t5 to fifte5 m9utes4 ,! fill+ mat]ial may consi/ ( f #g-i p] c5t4 ( sal soda solution1 #cf;deg4-#cg;deg4 ,b4 w>m or j en\gh to close up ! soap & make x rise high 9 ! c5t] ( a screw crut*] & make x cl+ close to a w>m tr[el4 ,o!r fill]s su* z outl9$ bel[ are add$ at ?is po9t4 ,an addition ( f #b-c p] c5t4 ( a special m9]al oil = ?is purpose w imp>t a f9i% to ! soap & #c-e p] c5t4 />* add$ prev5ts ! soap f crack+ 9 ! frames4 ,o!r fill+ mat]ial z silicate ( soda1 borax1 talc or silex are us$4 ,aft] ! fill+ mat]ial has be5 ?or\ghly crut*$ ?r\gh ! soap x is fram$1 &1 aft] be+ sev]al days 9 ! frame to solidify & cool ! soap is ready = slabb+1 press+ & wrapp+4 ,9 ord] to m def9itely illu/rate ! composition ( ! mixture ( fats & oils ent]+ into ! =mation ( a laundry soap a typical =mula may be giv5 = su* a soap conta9+ #dj p] c5t4 ros9 add$ to ! am\nt ( fats us$3 lbs4 ,grease #g1jjj ,tall[ #d1jjj ,corn ,oil #g1jjj ,cottonse$ ,oil #c1jjj ,ros9 #h1djj ,! foll[+ h be5 f\nd to be satisfactory fill+ mat]ials & are calculat$ ^u ! basis ( a #a1djj-p\nd frame ( soap4 ,i4 lbs4 ,sodium ,silicate1 #ch;deg4-#dj;deg4 ,b4 #ajj ,m9]al ,oil #be ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,borax #a ,,ii4 ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,m9]al ,oil #be ,sodium ,silicate #fj ,,iii4 ,soda ,a% #aj ,sal ,soda #ee ,sodium ,silicate #aae ,m9]al ,oil #dj ,br9e 7,saturat$ ,solution7 #aj ,sodium ,silicate1 #ch;deg4-#dj;deg4 ,b4 #ajj ,,iv4 ,sodium ,silicate #ajj ,silex or ,talc #bjj ,soda ,a% #ej ,v4 ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #ij ,sodium ,silicate #ej-fj ,m9]al ,oil #be ,borax ,solution1 #be;deg4 ,b4 7hot7 #ae ,,*ip ,,soap4 ,*ip soap is us$ ext5sively 9 laundries b is also us$ l>gely 9 o!r bran*es4 ,x may be made ei!r z a settl$ soap or by ! cold made process4 ,to make a full boil$ settl$ *ip soap1 proce$ z direct$ "u settl$ laundry soap4 ,! kettle is /ock$ ) light grease or a mixture ( grease ) corn oil or o!r *eap oils4 ,= ?is k9d ( soap ! ros9 is elim9at$4 ,*ip soap may be fill$ z well z laundry soap4 ,?is is done 9 ! crut*] & ! foll[+ adult]ations are suitable4 lbs4 ,settl$ ,soap #gjj ,soda ,a% #ce ,sodium ,silicate #bae or ,settl$ ,soap #gjj ,silicate ( ,soda #efj ,soda ,a% #ah ,c>bonate ( ,pota%1 #bf;deg4 ,b4 #ej ,! *eape/ me?od ( dry+ is by runn+ ?is soap ?r\gh a dry+ ma*9e & ?is is ! proc$ure usually c>ri$ out = mak+ dri$ *ip soap4 ,,cold ,,made ,,*ip ,,soaps4 ,to make *ip soaps by ! cold process a sweet tall[ ( l[ p]c5tage ( free fatty acid %\ld be employ$4 ,! tall[ is heat$ to #abj;deg4 to #ace;deg4 ,f4 & ! lye run 9 sl[ly at fir/ & !n ! silicate ( soda is add$4 ,! mass is !n mix$ until a f+] drawn ?r\gh ! soap leaves a slight impression1 !n dropp$ into frames or b>rels4 ,soaps conta9+ a small p]c5tage ( fat %\ld be well cov]$ 9 ! frame = tw5ty-f\r h\rs to reta9 _! heat & insure prop] saponification4 ,! foll[+ =mulae are suitable3 ,i4 lbs4 ,tall[ #a1bjj ,soda ,lye1 #ce;deg4 ,b4 #hej ,sodium ,silicate #gej ,,ii4 ,tall[ #dge ,ceylon ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,soda ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #cbe ,pota% ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #ef ,,iii4 ,tall[ #ejj ,soda ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #big ,sodium ,silicate #daf ,pota% ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #cg-a_/b ,,iv4 ,tall[ #dej ,soda ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #bee ,sodium ,silicate #dej ,pota% ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #ej ,v4 ,tall[ #dej ,soda ,lye1 #ce;deg4 ,b4 #dgj ,sodium ,silicate #fej ,,vi4 ,tall[ #dbj ,sodium ,silicate #fjj ,soda ,lye1 #cg-ab;deg4 ,b4 #bgj ,,unfill$ ,,*ip ,,soap4 ,a v good grade ( *ip soap is made by employ+ no fill+ mat]ial :atsoev]1 b un=tunately ! price ( ?is soap has be5 cut to su* an ext5t t ^! c n compete ) a fill$ *ip4 ,a numb] ( ! be/ soaps ( ?is k9d are made f a settl$ soap us+ a light grease ) corn oil4 ,a soap ( ?is nature is made z foll[s4 lbs4 ,settl$ ,soap #hjj ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4-#cg;deg4 ,b4 #beb ,soda ,a% #ahb ,if ?is soap is run into frames x may be /ripp$ & *ipp$ 9 two days4 ,,soap ,,p[d]s4 ,soap p[d]s h become s great a conv5i5ce z a g5]al cleans+ ag5t t to elim9ate !m f ! h\sehold necessities w\ld mean mu* unnecess>y en]gy & "w to ! great numb] ( consum]s ( ?is product4 ,!y may be manufactur$ s *eaply & /ill be effici5t1 t _! use has almo/ become univ]sal = cleans+ & sc\r+ purposes4 ,! uses to :i* soap & sc\r+ p[d]s are adapt$ are too well kn[n to ent] into a description ( _! employm5t4 ,s9ce !y (f] a great] pr(it to ! manufactur] ?an ord9>y h\sehold soap1 _m br&s are ext5sively adv]tis$4 ,num]\s comb9ations = soap p[d]s might be cit$ & x is a simple matt] to v>y ! +r$i5ts z to fat cont5t & manufacture a p[d] ( ?is sort z l[ z a c5t a p\nd4 ,_m sub/ances are incorporat$ ) soap1 su* z salt1 soda a%1 tripoli1 cru%$ volcanic deposits1 gr\nd feldsp>1 infusorial e>? ( v>i\s k9ds1 silex1 etc4 ,9 addition to ^! v>i\s fill]s1 comp\nds ) true cleans+ & blea*+ prop]ties1 9 addition to soap1 are add$1 su* z ! salts ( ammonium 7sal ammoniac1 c>bonate ( ammonia71 sodium p]borate & ! p]oxides ( v>i\s metals4 ,! public1 h[ev]1 h be5 accu/om$ to receive a l>ge package ( soap or sc\r+ p[d] = a small am\nt ( money & x is a difficult matt] = ! manufactur] to add m exp5sive sub/ances ( ?is nature to 8 product1 to increase its effici5cy1 )\t rais+ ! price or decreas+ ! size ( ! package4 ,9 manufactur+ soap p[d]s1 ! dri$ soap *ips might be mix$ ) ! fill] & alkali & !n pulv]iz$4 ,?is me?od is n ext5sively employ$ nev]!less4 ,! process :i* is ! mo/ economical is "o :]eby ! +r$i5ts are mix$ 9 a specially adapt$ mix] = heavy mat]ial until dry & !n run directly to ! cru%] & pulv]iz]1 aft] :i* x is automatically pack$1 seal$ & box$4 ,ano!r me?od ( proc$ure is to run out ! mixture f ! crut*] to ! frames1 :i* are /ripp$ be=e ! soap cools1 & is cut up at once1 = if x h>d5s x c\ld n be cut ) wires4 ,x is bett]1 h[ev]1 to run ! mixture into %eets ^u a specially con/ruct$ floor & break up ! mass :5 cool4 ,=mulae = soap p[d]s :i* h be5 f\nd to be suitable = runn+ dry 9 ! mix] foll[3 ,i ,soda a%1 #eh p] c5t4 #db lbs4 ,silica #bbj ,settl$ soap 7usually cottonse$74 #be ,salt #aj ,,ii ,soap 7settl$ cottonse$7 #dj lbs4 ,soda a%1 #eh p] c5t4 #fj ,,iii ,settl$ soap #ajj lbs4 ,soda a%1 #eh p] c5t4 #djj ,fill]s 9 v>y+ proportions may replace ! soda a% 9 ! above =mulae4 ,x is ( c\rse und]/ood t ! soap has be5 previ\sly made & run z molt5 soap into ! crut*]4 ,! foll[+ soap p[d]s w n dry up 9 ! crut*] ^u runn+1 b are ( ! class :i* may be fram$ or run on ! floor to solidify3 ,i ,soap #hej lbs4 ,fill] #djj ,sal soda solution1 #bj degs4 ,b #agj ,,ii ,soap #fej lbs4 ,fill] #eej ,sal soda solution1 #bj degs4 ,b4 #cdj ,,iii ,soap #hj lbs4 ,fill] #eej ,sal soda solution #agj ,,iv ,soap 7settl$ tall[7 #hjj lbs4 ,fill] #djj ,sal soda solution #agj ,wat] #ajj ,v ,fir/ saponify #ajj p>ts h\se grease & #ajj p>ts ord9>y grease & make a run soap4 ,!n use 9 crut*] ei!r3 ,soap #djj lbs4 ,fill] #ege ,hot wat] #fj or ,soap #bjj lbs4 ,hot wat] #bjj ,fill] #fbe ,x w\ld be a simple matt] to write num]\s additional =mulae1 b ! above are typical4 ,! manufactur] mu/ judge = himself j :at fill+ mat]ial to use4 ,! fill] indicat$ 9 ! above =mulae is !re=e left op54 ,a few =mulae = m exp5sive p[d]s ?an ^? giv5 rec5tly appe>$ among o!rs 9 ! ,seif5si$] ,zeitung#i3 ,i ,p[d]$ soap #ij lbs4 ,sodium p]borate #aj ,! p]borate %\ld be add$ :5 ! p[d] is p]fectly dry or x loses its blea*+ prop]ties4 ,,ii ,soap p[d]1 #bj p] c5t4 fat4 ,cocoanut oil fatty acids #be lbs4 ,ole9 #be ,bone fat #gj ,soda lye1 #cj degs4 ,b4 #ij ,wat] #aej ,ammonium c>bonate #abe ,,iii ,soap p[d]1 #aj p] c5t4 fat4 ,cocoanut oil fatty acids #bj lbs4 ,ole9 #aj ,bone fat #bj ,soda lye1 #cj degs4 ,b4 #cj ,wat] #age ,ammonium c>bonate #age ,,light ,,or ,,fluffy ,,p[d]s4 ,light or fluffy p[d]s conta9+ #ce-de moi/ure c be made 9 two ways4 ,! fir/ me?od requir+ a m9imum equipm5t is to mix ! p[d] & sal soda 9 a mix]1 all[ x to /& 9 frames = a week to cry/allize or spread x on ! floor = a few h\rs to dry & !n gr9d+ x4 ,! cont9u\s me?od f9i%es ! p[d] 9 a few m9utes & ) a m9imum am\nt ( labor4 ,by ?is process ! v>i\s +r$i5ts1 soap1 soda a% solution1 etc41 are measur$1 run by gravity into ! mix]1 mix$ & ! molt5 mass run ov] ! cry/alliz] or *ill+ rolls ?ru :i* ei!r cold wat] or br9e is pump$4 ,f ! roll ! p[d] is scrap$ (f clean by a knife1 passes to a scre5 :i* s5ds ! tail+s to a gr9d]1 falls into a /orage b9 f :5ce x is weigh$ & pack$ by an automatic weigh+ ma*9e into c>tons made up 9 mo/ cases by ano!r ma*9e4 ,due to ! l>ge p]c5tage ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 ^! soap p[d]s ! c>ton is g5]ally wrapp$ 9 wax pap] to aid 9 ! prev5tion ( ! escape ( moi/ure4 ,,sc\r+ ,,p[d]s4 ,sc\r+ p[d]s are v simil> to soap p[d]s & diff] only 9 ! fill] us$4 ,we h already consid]$ ^! fill]s "u sc\r+ soap1 f :i* !y d n diff] mat]ially4 ,!y are usually insoluble 9 wat] to aid 9 sc\r+4 ,! mix] us$ = sub/ances ( ?is k9d 9 incorporat+ ! soap & alkali mu/ be ( /rong con/ruction4 ,,sc\r+ ,,soap4 ,sc\r+ soaps resemble soap p[d]s v closely 9 _! composition1 9 t !y are a comb9ation ( soap & fill+ mat]ial4 ,s9ce m la!r is requir$ f a sc\r+ soap ?an 9 soap p[d]s1 a cocoanut oil soap is g5]ally us$4 ,! usual fill+ mat]ial us$ is silex4 ,! greate/ difficulty 9 ! manufacture ( sc\r+ soap is ! crack+ ( ! f9i%$ cake4 ,?is is usually due to ! incorporation ( too great an am\nt ( fill]1 or too high a p]c5tage ( moi/ure4 ,9 manufactur+ ^! soaps ! cocoanut oil is saponifi$ 9 ! crut*] ) #ch degs4 ,b4 lye1 or previ\sly saponifi$ z a run soap1 z already describ$ "u ,m>9e ,soaps4 ,to tw5ty-five p>ts ( soap are add$ a p]c5tage ( #ch degs4 ,b4 sal soda or soda a% solution1 toge!r ) a small quantity ( salt br9e4 ,to ?is mixture 9 ! crut*] sev5ty-five p>ts ( silex are !n add$1 & a suffici5t am\nt ( hot wat] to make ! mass fl[ readily4 ,c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ to n add too great a quantity ( wat] or ! mass w crack :5 x cools4 ,! mass is !n fram$ & cut be=e x sets1 or p\r$ into molds & all[$ to set4 ,:ile silex is ! mo/ ext5sively us$ fill] = sc\r+ soaps1 x is feasible to incorporate o!r sub/ances ( l "*1 al?\gh x is to be rememb]$ t ! consum] is accu/om$ to a :ite cake1 su* z silex produces4 ,any o!r mat]ial us$ to replace silex %\ld also be z f9e z ?is product4 ,,float+ ,,soap4 ,float+ soap occupies a position midway betwe5 laundry & toilet soap4 ,s9ce x is n highly p]fum$ & a l>ge piece ( soap may be pur*as$ = small co/1 z is ! case ) laundry soap1 x is readily adaptable to g5]al h\sehold use4 ,float+ soap diff]s f ord9>y soap 9 hav+ air crut*$ into x :i* causes ! soap to float 9 wat]4 ,?is is (t5 advantage\s1 especially z a ba? soap1 & und\bt$ly ! l>ge/ sell+ br& ( soap on ! ,am]ican m>ket today is a float+ soap4 ,9 ! manufacture ( float+ soap a high proportion ( cocoanut oil is necess>y4 ,a mo/ suitable composition is "o "p cocoanut oil to "o "p ( tall[4 ,?is is an exp5sive /ock = ! highe/ grade ( soap & is usually *eap5$ by ! use ( cottonse$ or v>i\s o!r liquid oils4 ,?us x is possible to obta9 a float+ soap f a kettle /ock$ ) #cj p] c5t4 cocoanut oil1 #ae p] c5t4 cottonse$ oil & #ee p] c5t4 tall[4 ,) ?is quality ( soap1 h[ev]1 !re is a possibility ( sweat+ & rancidity1 & ( ! soap be+ too s(t & be+ poor 9 color4 ,! process ( manufacture is to boil ! soap 9 an ord9>y soap kettle1 aft] :i* air is work$ into ! hot soap by a specially con/ruct$ crut*]1 aft] :i* ! soap is fram$1 slabb$1 cut into cakes & press$4 ,conc]n+ ! boil+ ( ! soap1 ! saponification mu/ be c>efully c>ri$ out1 z ! high proportion ( cocoanut oil may cause a viol5t reaction 9 ! kettle caus+ x to boil ov]4 ,! me?od ( proc$ure is ! same z = a settl$ soap up to ! f9i%+4 ,:5 ! mass is f9ally settl$ aft] ! f9i%1 ! soap %\ld be m on ! op5 side1 & ! object %\ld be to get z long a piece ( goods z possible4 ,due to its high melt+ po9t1 a mu* h>d] cru/ =ms on ! surface ( a float+ soap & 9 a great] proportion ?an on a settl$ soap dur+ ! settl+4 ,9 a l>ge kettle1 9 fact1 x has be5 f\nd impossible to break ?r\gh ?is cru/ by ! ord9>y proc$ure to admit ! skimm] pipe4 ,mu* ( ! success ( ! subsequ5t op]ations dep5ds ^u ! complet5ess ( ! settl+1 & 9 ord] to ov]come ! difficulties occasion$ by ! =mation ( ! cru/ ev]y?+ possible %\ld be done 9 ! way ( cov]+ ! kettle completely to enable ?is p]iod ( settl+ to cont9ue z long z possible4 ,:5 ! soap is f9i%$ x is run into a specially con/ruct$ ,u-%ape crut*]1 a ,/runz crut*] is be/ adapt$ to ?is purpose1 al?\gh a rapidly revolv+ upright screw crut*] has be5 f\nd to give satisfaction ^u a small] scale1 & a suffici5t quantity ( air beat5 into ! soap to make x light en\gh to float4 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 n to run ! crut*] too rapidly or ! soap w be entirely too fobby4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation ! mass ( soap increases 9 bulk1 & aft] x has be5 e/abli%$ h[ mu* air mu/ be put into ! soap to satisfy ! requirem5ts1 ?is increase 9 bulk is a crit]ion to e/imate :5 ?is process is complet$4 ,x is ( c\rse und]/ood t ! long] ! crut*+ cont9ues ! great] quantity ( air is incorporat$ & ! increase ( volume mu/ be e/abli%$ = a p>ticul> composition by sampl+1 cool+ ! sample rapidly & see+ if x floats 9 wat]4 ,if ! beat+ is cont9u$ too long an int]val ( "t1 ! f9i%$ soap is too spongy & useless4 ,! temp]ature ( ! mass dur+ crut*+ is mo/ important4 ,?is mu/ nev] exce$ #aeh degrees ,f4 ,at #aei degrees ,f4 ! op]ation is n v successful1 yet ! !rmomet] may indicate #adj degrees ,f4 )\t int]f]+ ) ?is op]ation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! temp]ature drops too l[1 tr\ble is liable to be met )1 by ! soap solidify+ too quickly 9 ! frames4 ,:5 ! crut*+ is complet$1 ! soap is all[$ to drop into frames ?r\gh ! valve at ! bottom ( ! crut*] & rapidly crut*$ by ! h& 9 ! frames to prev5t l>ge air spaces & !n all[$ to cool4 ,x is an improvem5t to jolt ! frames z !y are drawn away z ?is t5ds to make ! l>g] air bubbles float to ! surface & ?us r$uce ! quantity ( wa/e4 ,:5 ! soap has cool$1 ! frame is /ripp$ & ! soap slabb$ z usual4 ,at ?is po9t a lay] ( consid]able dep? ( spongy soap w be f\nd to h =m$4 ,?is ( c\rse mu/ be cut away & return$ to ! kettle4 ,! la/ few slabs are also (t5 reject$1 inasmu* z ! weight ( ! soap above !m has =c$ out s mu* ( ! air t ! soap no long] floats4 ,z a fair av]age x may be e/imat$ t n m ?an #ej to #fj p] c5t4 ( ! soap 9 ! kettle w come out z f9i%$ cakes4 ! rema9+ #dj to #ej p] c5t4 be+ con/itut$ by ! heavy cru/ 9 ! kettle1 ! spongy tops1 ! bottom slabs & scrap+s4 ,?is soap is ( c\rse reboil$ & consequ5tly n lo/1 b ! actual cakes obta9$ are produc$ at a co/ ( practically d\ble labor4 ,x is advisable to add a small quantity ( soap blue color to ! mass :ile crut*+ to neutralize ! yell[i% t9t a float+ soap is liable to h4 ,"s manufactur]s add a p]c5tage ( c>bonate ( soda1 ab\t #c p] c5t41 to prev5t ! soap f %r9k+4 ,float+ soap may also be load$ ) sodium silicate to ! ext5t ( ab\t #e p] c5t4 ,,toilet ,,soap4 ,x is n a simple matt] to diff]5tiate betwe5 toilet soaps & v>i\s o!r soaps1 because num]\s soaps are adaptable to toilet purposes4 ,:ile "s soaps ( ?is v>iety are manufactur$ by ! cold made or semi-boil$ process1 & n mill$1 ! consum] has become accu/om$ to a mill$ soap = g5]al toilet use4 ,! toilet base mo/ ext5sively employ$ is a tall[ & cocoanut base made z a full boil$ settl$ soap4 ,! manufacture ( ?is base has already be5 outl9$ & really ne$s no fur!r comm5t except t x is to be rememb]$ t a suitable toilet soap %\ld conta9 no great excess ( free alkali :i* is injuri\s to ! sk94 ,co*9 cocoanut oil is pref]able to ! ,ceylon cocoanut oil or palm k]nel oil1 to use 9 conjunction ) ! tall[1 :i* %\ld be a good grade & color if a :ite piece ( goods is desir$4 ,! p]c5tage ( cocoanut oil may be any:]e f #aj to #be p] c5t41 dep5d+ ^u ! k9d ( la!r requir$1 x be+ rememb]$ t cocoanut oil increases ! la!r+ p[] ( ! soap4 ,9 addition to a tall[ base1 num]\s o!r oils are us$ 9 ! manufacture ( toilet soaps1 especially palm oil1 palm k]nel oil1 olive oil & olive oil foots1 & to a mu* less ext5t ara*is or peanut oil1 sesame oil & poppy se$ oil1 oils ( ! class ( cottonse$1 corn & soya bean oils are n adapt$ to manufactur+ a mill$ soap1 z !y =m yell[ spots 9 a f9i%$ cake ( soap :i* has be5 kept a %ort "t4 ,palm oil1 especially ! ,lagos oil1 is mu* us$ 9 mak+ a palm base4 ,z has already be5 /at$1 ! oil is blea*$ be=e saponification4 ,a palm base has a yell[i% color1 a sweeti% odor1 & a small quantity add$ to a tall[ base naturally aids ! p]fume4 ,x is especially good = a violet soap4 ,! peculi>ity ( a palm oil base is t ?is oil makes a %ort soap4 ,by ! addition ( "s tall[ or tw5ty to tw5ty-five p] c5t4 ( cocoanut oil1 or bo?1 ?is objection is ov]come4 ,x is a good plan 9 us+ a /raight palm base to add a proportion ( yell[ color to hold ! yell[i% t9t ( ?is soap1 z a soap made f ?is oil cont9ues blea*+ ^u exposure to air & light4 ,olive oil & olive oil foots are us$ mo/ ext5sively 9 ! manufacture ( ca/ile soaps4 ,! peculi>ity ( an olive oil soap is t x makes a v slimy la!r1 & l palm oil gives ! soap a *>act]i/ic odor4 ,an olive oil soap is usually consid]$ to be a v neutral soap & may readily be sup]fatt$4 ,mu* olive oil soap is us$ 9 b>s or slabs z an unmill$ soap & x is (t5 made by ! cold process4 ,peanut oil or sesame & poppy se$ oil (t5 replaces olive oil1 z !y =m a simil> soap to olive oil4 ,9 ! manufacture ( a toilet soap x is h>dly practical to lay d[n a def9ite plan = ! v>i\s bases to be made4 ,f ! comb9ation ( tall[1 palm oil1 cocoanut oil1 palm k]nel oil1 olive oil & olive oil foots1 a great _m bases ( diff]5t proportions might be giv54 ,! simple/ me?od is to make a tall[ base1 a palm base & an olive oil base4 ,!n f ^! x is an easy matt] to weigh out any proportion ( ^! soap bases & obta9 ! prop] mixture 9 ! mill4 ,if1 h[ev]1 z is (t5 ! case1 a l>ge quantity ( soap base ( c]ta9 proportions ( ^!1 f\r or ev5 m ( ^! fats & oils is requir$1 x is n only m economical to /ock ! kettle ) ! correct proportion ( ^! oils1 b a m ?or\gh mixture is ?us obta9$ by saponify+ ^! 9 ! kettle4 ,9 view ( ! fact t x is really a "q = ! manufactur] to decide = himself :at comb9ation ( oils he desires = a p>ticul> soap we w simply outl9e a few typical toilet soap bases 9 _! simple/ comb9ation4 ,x is und]/ood t ^! soaps are suitable = mill$ soaps & are to be made z fully boil$ settl$ soaps4 ,palm k]nel oil may be sub/itut$ = cocoanut oil 9 all cases4 ,,tall[ ,,base4 ,tall[ #ge-ij p>ts ,cocoanut oil #be-aj p>ts ,,palm ,,base4 ,blea*$ ,lagos palm oil #ge-hj p>ts ,cocoanut oil #be-bj p>ts or ,tall[ #cj p>ts ,palm oil #fj p>ts ,cocoanut oil #aj p>ts ,,olive ,,oil ,,base 7,,:ite74 ,olive oil #ge-ij p>ts ,cocoanut oil #be-aj p>ts or ,olive oil #dj p>ts ,tall[ #dj p>ts ,cocoanut #bj p>ts ,:]e a gre5 olive oil base is desir$1 olive oil foots are sub/itut$ = ! olive oil4 ,peanut oil may replace ! olive oil or "p ( x1 ! same be+ true ( sesame oil & poppy se$ oil4 ,,palm ,,& ,,olive ,,base4 ,palm oil #ej p>ts ,olive oil #cj p>ts ,cocoanut oil #bj p>ts or ,palm oil #bj p>ts ,olive oil #aj p>ts ,tall[ #ej p>ts ,cocoanut oil #bj p>ts ,,*eap] ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,x is (t5 necess>y to manufacture a *eap] grade ( soap = toilet purposes to meet ! dem& ( a c]ta9 class ( trade z well z = export4 ,to accompli% ?is x is ( c\rse necess>y to produce a v inf]ior product & run d[n ! p]c5tage ( fatty acids conta9$ 9 ! soaps by ! addition ( fill]s or to use *eap] oils 9 manufactur+4 ,! mo/ simple me?od ( fill+ a soap is to load x at ! mill ) "s sub/ance mu* less exp5sive ?an ! soap itself4 ,_m ( ! *eap] toilet soaps1 h[ev]1 are n mill$ & x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to foll[ out "s o!r proc$ure4 ,mill$ soaps1 z has j be5 /at$1 are load$ at ! mill4 ,! consum]s ( *eap] toilet soaps 9 ?is c\ntry are accu/om$ to a mill$ soap & ?is grade ( soap = home consumption is v (t5 fill$ ) num]\s sub/ances1 b mo/ g5]ally by add+ />* & talc4 ,! addition ( su* mat]ials ( c\rse lat] exhibit !mselves by imp>t+ to ! cake ( soap a dead appe>ance4 ,talc is m readily detect$ 9 ! soap ?an />* by wa%+ ) x1 z talc is insoluble & imp>ts a r\ghness to ! soap1 l s& or pumice1 z ! soap we>s d[n4 ,x may readily be add$ to #bj p] c5t4 by weight4 ,/>* is to be pref]r$ to talc1 9 load+ a soap1 z x is n s readily noticeable 9 wa%+4 ,x leaves ! cake itself absolutely smoo? al?\gh ! la!r =m$ is m %9y4 ,?is sub/ance may be employ$ to z high a p]c5tage z "o-?ird ! weight ( ! soap4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 possible to *eap5 ! be/ soap base by ?is me?od & ! price may be fur!r l[]$ by us+ ! less exp5sive oils & fats to make ! soap base4 ,,run ,,& ,,glu$ ,,up ,,soaps4 ,a v *eap grade ( soap may be made by mak+ a run soap & add+ ! fill] e4 g4 sodium silicate 9 ! kettle dur+ saponification4 ,! p]c5tage ( fatty acids may be br\ght d[n to #aj p] c5t41 al?\gh ( c\rse a soap ( ?is type %r9ks a :ole lot ^u exposure4 ,9 mak+ a glu$ up soap ! proc$ure is ! same = mak+ ! soap itself z ) a settl$ soap1 except t ! soap is f9i%$ curd & lat] fill$ 9 ! crut*]4 ,! p]c5tage ( fatty acids 9 a soap ( ?is type is seldom bel[ #ej p] c5t4 ,! me?od ( glu+ up a soap is be/ illu/rat$ by a typical soap ( ?is "* 9 :i* ! kettle is *>g$ ) ! foll[+ /ock4 ,blea*$ palm oil #e p>ts ,di/ill$ grease #b ,cotton oil foots /ock1 #fc fatty acid #a ,ros9 #d ,! palm oil is fir/ run into ! kettle1 saponifi$ & wa%$ to extract any glyc]9e1 !n ! re/ ( ! fats & f9ally ! ros94 ,! soap is !n f9i%$ & settl$ z ) a boil$ settl$ soap4 ,to assure success x is absolutely necess>y t ! soap settle z long a p]iod z possible1 or until ! temp]ature is ab\t #aej degs4 ,f4 ,! ideal temp]ature = c>ry+ out ! glu+ up process is #adj degs4 ,f41 z at a l[] temp]ature ?an ?is ! soap is liable to cool too quickly & n be ?or\ghly glu$ up4 ,a high] temp]ature ?an #aej degs4 ,f4 causes delay 9 t ! soap does n prop]ly take ! fill] at a high] temp]ature & ! soap mu/ be kept 9 ! crut*] until ! temp]ature drops to ! "r po9t4 ,! soap is run into ! crut*] & ! p]c5tage ( fatty acids run d[n to #ej-ee p] c5t4 ) "o ( ! foll[+ mixtures3 ,sodium silicate1 #ei-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #a "p ,potassium c>bonate1 #ea;deg4 ,b4 #a or ,sodium silicate1 #ei-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #a "p ,potassium c>bonate1 #ea;deg4 ,b4 #a ,sodium sulfate1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #a ,f #bcj to #cjj p\nds ( ei!r ( ^! mixtures are requir$ = a crut*] hold+ #b1fjj p\nds ( soap4 ,! crut*+ is cont9u$ until ! mass is well spik$1 t is to say1 a fre%ly brok5 surface ( ! soap1 z ! crut*] blade is j]k$ away1 /&s up l %att]$ %eets 9 triangul> =m ,transcrib]'s note3 ?ree triangles71 :i* reta9 _! %ape p]fectly4 ,:5 ?is condition is realiz$ ! soap is run into frames :i* are c>efully crut*$ by h& to remove any air spaces4 ,! surface ( ! soap is !n smoo!d d[n & heap$ up 9 ! c5t]4 ,aft] /&+ a day to contract1 ! surface is aga9 level$ & a snugly-fitt+ bo>d plac$ on ! top ( ! soap ^u :i* a weight is plac$ or ^u :i* ! workman treads & /amps until ! surface is flat1 ?us assur+ ! fur!r removal ( air spaces4 ,! soap rema9s 9 ! frame f six to eight days & is !n slabb$1 b>r$ & press$ by ! usual me?od employ$ = soaps ?us h&l$ )\t mill+4 ,9 a soap ( ?is nature no h>d & fa/ rule c be laid d[n z to ! quantity ( solution to be us$ = glu+ up or ! /r5g? ( ! solution4 ,9 a soap ( ! type describ$ ! mo/ satisfactory appe>+ cake w be obta9$ f a soap conta9+ #eh p] c5t4 fatty acids4 ,t is to say1 ab\t #h p] c5t4 to #aj p] c5t4 fill+ solution is add$ p] hundr$ p\nds ( soap4 ,! fill+ solutions giv5 are v satisfactory4 ,c>bonate ( soda %\ld be avoid$ 9 connection ) sodium silicate z ! prop]ty ( effloresc+ on ! surface ( ! f9i%$ cake aft] a %ort "t w prove detrim5tal4 ,to assure successful glu+ up x is advisable to exp]im5t ^u a small scale to det]m9e ! exact ext5t to :i* ! fill+ solution %\ld be dilut$4 ,v>i\s proportions ( wat] are add$ to a c]ta9 quantity ( ! fill$ soap4 ,aft] ! soap has be5 fill$ 9 a small receptacle a sample is tak5 & rubb$ betwe5 ! f+]s4 ,if ! fre%ly expos$ surface is smoo? & glossy1 ! fill+ solution is weak en\gh1 if r\gh x is too /rong4 ,x is ( c\rse und]/ood t ! temp]ature mu/ be correct1 #adj degs4 to #aej degs4 ,f41 or ! soap w be r\gh4 ,by ?is means ! op]ator c readily judge ! correct /r5g? ( 8 fill+ solution4 ,:5 prop]ly c>ri$ out a p]fectly satisfactory soap is obta9$4 ,,curd ,,soap4 ,! object ( a soap :i* is f9i%$ curd or gra9$1 is to obta9 a h>d] piece ( goods f l[ tit] fat or to increase ! p]c5tage ( fatty acids 9 ! f9i%$ soap4 ,?is is /ill ano!r me?od ( produc+ a *eap grade ( soap z by its adoption ! *eap] oils & fats may be us$ to obta9 a firm piece ( soap4 ,a typical *>ge = curd soap is3 ,r$ oil #fc p>ts ,tall[ #aj ,ros9 #bg ,cotton se$ foots may be employ$ 9 place ( r$ oil & a tall[ ( too high tit] is n suitable = ?is k9d ( soap4 ,! r$ oil & tall[ are fir/ saponifi$ ) #ae degs4 ,b4 lye1 boil] pressure #hj-ij p\nds1 #ah degs4 ,b4 lye = l[] /eam pressure1 & two wa%+s giv5 to extract ! glyc]9e4 ,! ros9 is add$ at ! /r5g!n+ *ange & at ! f9i% ! soap is pit*$1 t is to say1 ! soap is settl$ ov] night only4 ,! next day ! lyes are drawn (f & a portion ( ! nigre pump$ to ano!r kettle :i* prev5ts lat] /reak+ ( ! soap4 ,! soap is !n boil$ ) #ah degs4 ,b4 lye z ) ano!r /r5g!n+ *ange "u clos$ /eam4 ,salt br9e or pickle1 #ae degs4 ,b4 is !n add$ & ! mass boil$ ) clos$ /eam until ! br9e rea*es a d5sity ( #ah degs4 ,b4 & ! kettle pump$ ! next day4 ,a soap ( ?is type requires ei!r h& or p[] crut*+ to assure homog5eity & prev5tion ( /reaks4 ,to obviate any air spaces x is advisable to place ov] ! top ( ! frame a tightly-fitt$ bo>d :i* is heavily weight$ d[n4 ,?is soap is also press$ )\t any mill+4 ,,cold ,,made ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,comp>atively little toilet soap is made by ! cold or semi-boil$ processes4 ,:ile ^! are ! simple/ me?ods ( manufactur+ soaps ! drawbacks ( us+ !m are num]\s & only 9 a few cases are !y v ext5sively employ$4 ,to make a toilet soap by ! cold process a comb9ation ( good grade tall[ & cocoanut oil is requir$4 ,x requires #ej p] c5t4 by weight ( #cf degs4 ,b4 lye to saponify a giv5 weight ( tall[ & #ej p] c5t4 ( #ch degs4 ,b4 lye = cocoanut oil4 ,! lyes are us$ full /r5g? or may be r$uc$ slightly ) wat] & ! me?od ( proc$ure is ! same z already giv5 9 ! g5]al directions = cold made soaps4 ,cold made soaps are readily fill$ ) sodium silicate :i* is add$ at ! same "t ! /ock is put into ! crut*]4 ,9 add+ ! silicate x is necess>y to add additional lye to t requir$ = saponify+ ! fats1 ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( #cf degs4 ,b4 lye is ! prop] am\nt4 ,!re is ( c\rse a c]ta9 am\nt ( %r9k+ due to ! addition ( ?is fill] & ! f9i%$ cake is exce$+ly h>d1 yet ! au?or has se5 a good look+ cake ( *eap soap made f z high a proportion z #dbj p>ts ( tall[ to #fjj p>ts ( silicate4 ,cold made soaps are usually press$ )\t mill+1 al?\gh x is readily feasible to mill a cold made soap provid$ x is n a fill$ soap su* z has j be5 describ$4 ,,p]fum+ ,,& ,,color+ ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,equally important z ! soap itself or ev5 to a great] ext5t is ! p]fume ( a toilet soap4 ,a prom95t manufactur] rec5tly made ! /atem5t1 :i* is (t5 ! tru?1 t x makes no diff]5ce to ! public :at k9d ( soap y give !m1 z long z y put pl5ty ( odor into x4 ,! p]fum+ ( soaps is an art 9 itself & a subject to be treat$ by "o v]s$ 9 ?is p>ticul> bran*4 ,we c only take into acc\nt ! importance ( ! p]fume z relat$ to toilet soap n only1 b ! necessity ( add+ a c]ta9 proportion ( ! *eap] products ( odorif]\s nature to laundry soap to cov] & disguise ! odor ( ev5 ?is type ( soap4 ,! price ( a cake ( toilet soap to a great ext5t dep5ds ^u ! p]fume1 & ! manufactur] %\ld aim to give ! be/ possible p]fume = a c]ta9 price4 ,he %\ld n all[ 8 p]sonal likes or dislikes to ent] into ! judgm5t ( :e!r an odor is good or n1 b submit x to a numb] ( p]sons to obta9 ! conc5sus ( op9ion4 ,9 giv+ or sell+ a piece ( soap to ! consum]1 x is second nature = him to smell x1 & 9 ! great majority ( cases 8 op9ion is =m$ n f any quality ! soap itself may h dur+ use1 b f ! odor4 ,?is only emphasizes ! fact t ! p]fume mu/ be pleas+1 n to "o p]son1 b to ! majority1 & _m br&s owe _! popul>ity to no?+ m ?an ! entic+ p]fume4 ,p]fum+ ( soap is closely alli$ to ! soap mak+ indu/ry1 b z /at$ a bran* 9 itself4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n our purpose to give num]\s =mulae ( h[ to p]fume a soap1 b r to advise to g = in=mation to "s "o :o ?or\ghly und]/&s ! *>act]i/ics ( ! num]\s ess5tial oils & syn!tics & give positive in=mation = ! p>ticul> odor desir$4 ,"u no circum/ances is x advisable to pur*ase a p]fume already comp\nd$1 b s9ce all p]fumes are a bl5d ( sev]al or _m ess5tial oils & syn!tics1 x is a m positive assurance ( obta9+ :at is desir$1 by pur*as+ ! /raight oils & bl5d+ or mix+ !m z "o desires4 ,! p]fume is add$ to a mill$ soap j be=e ! mill+ process 9 ! prop] proportion p] hundr$ p\nds ( soap4 ,9 cold made or unmill$ soaps x is add$ 9 ! crut*] :ile ! soap is /ill hot4 ,by ?is me?od1 ( c\rse1 a proportion ( ! p]fume is lo/ due to its be+ m or less volatile4 ,,color+ ,,soap4 ,:ile mu* toilet soap is :ite or natural 9 color1 _m soaps are also artificially color$4 ,! soap colors us$ = ?is purpose are mo/ly anil9e dye/uffs4 ,! price ( ^! dye/uffs is no crit]ion z to _! quality1 z ! price is usually regulat$ by ! addition ( "s in]t1 wat] soluble sub/ance l common salt or sug>4 ,! ma9 prop]ties t a dye/uff suitable = produc+ a color$ soap %\ld h are fa/ness to light & to alkali4 ,!y %\ld fur!r be ( su* a type t ! color does n come (f & /a9 a wa% clo? or ! h&s :5 ! soap is us$ & %\ld be soluble 9 wat]4 ,"u no circum/ances is x advisable to add ^! 9 su* a quantity t ! la!r produc$ 9 ! soap is color$4 ,x is cu/om>y to fir/ dissolve ! dye 9 hot wat] z a /&>diz$ solution4 ,?is c !n be measur$ out 9 a graduate & add$ to ! soap ! same "t z ! p]fume is put 94 ,ab\t "o "p ( color to fifty p>ts ( wat] is ! prop] proportion to obta9 a p]fect solution1 ?\gh ?is is by no means fix$4 ,9 mak+ up a solution ?us x is an improvem5t to add to ! same ab\t "o-half ( "o p] c5t4 ( an alkali ei!r z ! hydroxide or c>bonate4 ,!n1 if !re is any possibility ( *ange ( color due to alkal9ity ( ! soap1 x w exhibit itself be=e ! color is add$4 ,a p>ticul>ly difficult %ade to obta9 is a purple1 z !re is up to ! pres5t "t no purpli% anil9e color kn[n :i* is fa/ to light4 ,v good results 9 soap may be obta9$ by mix+ a fa/ blue1 z ultram>9e or cobalt blue1 ) a r$ z rhodam9e or eos9e4 ,inasmu* z ! colors = soap h be5 c>efully te/$ by mo/ ( ! dye/uff manufactur]s1 & _! in=mation1 usually reliable1 is op5 to any "o desir+ to "k ab\t a color = soap1 x is bett] to dep5d ^u _! exp]i5ce ) colors aft] hav+ satisfi$ "o's self t a color is :at x is repres5t$ = a p>ticul> %ade1 ?an to exp]im5t ) ! num]\s colors "o's self4 ,,m$ic9al ,,soaps4 ,soap is (t5 us$ = ! conveyance ( v>i\s m$icants1 antiseptics or o!r mat]ial presumably b5eficial = treatm5t ( sk9 diseases4 ,:ile soap is an ideal m$ium = ! c>ry+ ( su* mat]ials1 x is an un=tunate condition t :5 incorporat$ ) ! soap1 all b a v few ( ! num]\s sub/ances ?us employ$ lose _! m$ic9al prop]ties & effectiv5ess = cur+ sk9 disord]s1 z well z any antiseptic value ! sub/ance may h4 ,soap is ( su* a nature *emically t _m ( ! sub/ances us$ = sk9 tr\bles are ei!r entirely decompos$ or alt]$ to su* an ext5t s z to impair _! !rapeutic value4 ,?us _m ( ! claims made = v>i\s m$icat$ soaps fall flat1 & really h no m antiseptic or !rapeutic m]it ?an ord9>y soap :i* 9 itself has c]ta9 g]micidal & clean+ value4 ,9 m$icat+ a soap ! mat]ial us$ = ?is purpose is usually add$ at ! mill4 ,a tall[ & cocoanut oil base is be/ adapt$ = a soap ( ?is type4 ,! public h be5 educat$ m or less to ! use ( color$ soap to acc5tuate its m$ic9al value1 & gre5 is und\bt$ly ! mo/ popul> %ade4 ,?is inf]5ce1 h[ev]1 is by no means true = all soaps ( ?is "*4 ,possibly ! be/ me?od ( arrang+ ^! soaps is briefly to outl9e "s m$ic9al soaps4 ,,sulphur ,,soaps4 ,! be/ kn[n sulphur soaps conta9 any:]e f "o to #bj p] c5t4 ( fl[]s ( sulphur4 ,o!r soaps conta9 ei!r organic or inorganic sulphur comp\nds4 ,,t> ,,soap4 ,! t> us$ 9 ! manufactur+ ( t> soap is obta9$ by ! de/ructive di/illation ( wood1 ! p9e t> be+ ! mo/ ext5sively employ$4 ,:ile ! diff]5t wood t>s conta9 num]\s aromatic comp\nds1 su* z ph5ols1 ph5yl oxides1 t]p5es & organic acids1 ^! are pres5t 9 su* a slight proportion s z to r5d] _! effectiv5ess practically useless4 ,x has1 !re=e1 be5 tri$ to use ^! v>i\s comp\nds conta9$ 9 ! t> !mselves to make t> soap really effective1 yet t> is s *eap a sub/ance t x is usually ! sub/ance us$ = m$icat+ a t> soap4 ,ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( t> is usually add$ to ! soap ) #b ounces ( lamp black p] hundr$ p\nds ( soap4 ,,soaps ,,conta9+ ,,ph5ols4 ,ph5ol 7,c>bolic ,acid7 is mo/ ext5sively us$ 9 soaps ( ?is k9d1 :i* are call$ c>bolic soaps4 ,c>bolic soaps are g5]ally color$ gre5 & conta9 f #a to #e p] c5t4 ph5ol cry/als4 ,! cresols are also ext5sively us$ = mak+ soaps nam$ c>bolic4 ,^! sub/ances imp>t m odor to ! soap & really h m dis9fect+ p[]s ?an ph5ol :5 incorporat$ ) soap4 ,o!r soaps1 conta9+ ! ph5ol gr\p1 :i* are well kn[n are resorc9ol soap1 salol soap1 ?ymol soap1 naph?ol soap1 etc4 ,f "o to five p] c5t ( ! comp\nd aft] :i* ! soap is nam$ is usually incorporat$ ) ! soap4 ,,p]oxide ,,soap4 ,hydrog5 p]oxide 9 itself is an excell5t dis9fectant4 ,x loses all its m$ic9al value1 h[ev]1 :5 add$ to ! soap4 ,to ov]come ?is objection v>i\s metallic p]oxides are add$ to ! soap1 z sodium p]oxide1 z9c p]oxide & b>ium p]oxide4 ,^! g5]ate hydrog5 p]oxide by ! addition ( wat]4 ,sodium p]borate is also us$ 9 p]oxide soaps1 z ?is sub/ance is decompos$ by wat] into hydrog5 p]oxide & sodium metaborate4 ,,m]cury ,,soaps4 ,m]curic *loride 7corrosive sublimate7 is mo/ ext5sively us$ = ! production ( m]cury soaps4 ,because ( its extremely poison\s prop]ties c>e %\ld be tak5 9 us+ x4 ,s9ce x really ev5tually loses any antiseptic value 9 ! soap ?r\gh =m+ an insoluble m]cury soap x might bett] be omitt$ entirely4 ,,less ,,important ,,m$ic9al ,,soaps4 ,:ile ! above m5tion$ soaps are probably ! be/ kn[n m$icat$ soaps1 !re are num]\s o!r soaps :i* may be class$ "u ^! k9ds ( soaps4 ,?us we h cold cream soap1 :i* c be made by add+ ,russian ,m9]al ,oil1 #a to #e p] c5t41 to ! soap2 wit* hazel soap1 made by ! addition ( extract ( wit* hazel2 iod9e soap1 made by add+ iod9e or iod(orm2 =maldehyde soap1 made by add+ =maldehyde2 tann9 soaps1 made by add+ tann94 ,9 fact1 !re h be5 incorporat$ 9 soap s great a numb] ( sub/ances t ! li/ might be greatly enl>g$4 ,m$icat$ soaps are n only us$ 9 solid =m1 b 9 p[d]1 pa/e & liquid soap z well4 ,! only diff]5ce 9 a soap l ^? j ref]r$ to is t ! m$icant is incorporat$ ) ^! =ms ( soaps z conv5i5ce directs4 ,,ca/ile ,,soap4 ,a pure ca/ile soap %\ld be made f olive oil4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n always ! case1 z a numb] ( oils z well z tall[ are us$ to adult]ate ?is oil to *eap5 x1 & !re are ev5 "s soaps call$ ca/ile :i* conta9 no olive oil at all4 ,mo/ ( ! pure ca/ile soap us$ 9 ?is c\ntry is import$1 z x is a difficult matt] = ! ,am]ican manufactur] to compete ) ! pure import$ ca/ile soap1 s9ce bo? labor & oil itself are s mu* *eap] 9 ! vic9ities ( ,europe :]e ?is oil is produc$1 t ?is advantage is m ?an comp5sat$ by ! c>ry+ & cu/om *>ges by import+ ! ca/ile soap4 ,ca/ile soap may be made ei!r by ! full boil$ or cold process4 ,!re are num]\s grades ( olive oil1 & ^? us$ = soap mak+ are d5atur$ to l[] ! duty *>ges4 ,olive oil makes a h>d :ite soap1 usually sold 9 b>s1 & olive oil foots a gre5 soap1 due to ! color+ matt] conta9$ 9 ?is oil4 ,to make a boil$ ca/ile soap1 a composition ( #aj p] c5t4 ,co*9 cocoanut oil & #ij p] c5t4 olive oil may be us$4 ,to *eap5 ?is1 peanut oil 7,ara*is oil7 may entirely replace ! olive oil1 or ab\t #bj p] c5t4 ( corn or soya bean oil may be add$4 ,! oils are saponifi$ z usual 9 mak+ a settl$ soap & to prev5t rancidity ! soap is boil$ ne> ! f9i% = "s "t 9 ! clos$ /ate ) suffici5t excess ( alkali to give x a %>p ta/e1 !n gra9$ ) lye1 ! lye drawn (f1 clos$ ) wat] & !n gra9$ ) salt4 ,?is process is repeat$ until ! desir$ /r5g? is rea*$4 ,! la/ gra9+ %\ld n be too great1 & on ! la/ *ange ! soap %\ld n be ?9n$ out1 z x w conta9 too great a quantity ( wat] :5 slabb$4 ,9 mak+ a cold ca/ile soap ! usual me?od is pursu$ z already direct$ "u cold made soap4 ,:5 ! soap is tak5 f ! crut*] x is advisable1 h[ev]1 to keep ! soap 9 ! frame well cov]$ to assure complete saponification4 ,"s manufactur]s use v small frames :i* are plac$ into comp>tm5ts1 well insulat$ to reta9 heat4 ,sev]al =mulae = cold made ca/ile soaps1 foll[4 ,x may be not$ t "s ( ^! conta9 practically no olive oil4 ,i ,olive oil #bjcj ,palm k]nel #fgd ,soda lye1 #ce p] c5t4 ,b4 #aejf ,,ii ,olive oil #bjcj ,co*9 cocoanut oil #fgd ,soda lye1 #cf p] c5t4 ,b4 #aebc ,sodium ,silicate #hb ,,iii ,palm k]nel oil #aegh ,tall[ #idj ,olive oil #g ,sodium silicate1 #bj p] c5t4 #aij ,soda lye1 #cf p] c5t4 ,b4 #aejg ,,iv ,olive oil 7yell[7 #ajjj ,soda lye1 #cg p] c5t4 ,b4 #ejj ,v ,olive oil #ij or ,palm k]nel #aj ,co*9 or cocoanut oil #aj ,lye1 #cg p] c5t4 ,b4 #ea ,if any ( ! soaps conta9+ a high proportion ( cocoanut oil are boil$ ! soap w float4 ,x is !re=e necess>y to keep ! temp]ature z l[ z possible4 ,,es*weg] ,,soap 7,,blue ,,mottl$74 ,es*weg] soap is a color$ mottl$ or m>bl$ soap made to a v slight ext5t 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,inasmu* z x has be5 introduc$ to ! export trade1 x is made = ?is purpose by "s manufactur]s4 ,a high p]c5tage ( cocoanut oil is usually us$ toge!r ) tall[ & grease4 ,ab\t "o-?ird ( ea* is a typical =mula4 ,9 a soap ( ?is "* ! fact t cocoanut oil soap takes up a l>ge quantity ( wat] & salts ( v>i\s k9ds & is difficult to salt out is made use (4 ,! tall[ & grease are fir/ saponifi$ z usual1 !n ! cocoanut oil is pump$ & saponifi$4 ,:5 ! saponification is ne>ly complet$ ei!r silicate or c>bonate ( soda or common salt are add$ to make ! soap %ort s z to =m ! mottle4 ,! f9i%+ ( a soap ( ?is type c only be ga9$ by practice & x is r difficult to expla9 ! exact appe>ance ( ! kettle at ?is /age4 ,! surface ( ! soap %\ld be bright & lu/r\s ) ! /eam escap+ 9 num]\s places 9 rose-l =mation4 ,a sample on ! tr[el %\ld h a slight %>pness to ! tongue & be pla/ic4 ,:5 ! soap slides f ! tr[el x %\ld break %ort4 ,:5 ! soap has rea*$ ?is /age ! desir$ color+ matt]1 usually ultram>9e1 is add$ to ! soap ei!r 9 ! kettle or crut*] & ! soap fram$4 ,! yield is #bjj-bae p\nds p] hundr$ p\nds ( /ock4 ,sev]al modifications ( ?is g5]al me?od = ,es*weg] soap are us$ by adopt+ ! half boil$ or cold process4 ,,transp>5t ,,soap4 ,transp>5t soap is really n a mo/ desirable soap = toilet purposes1 z x conta9s an excess ( free alkali4 ,x has1 nev]!less1 met ) public approval because ( ! fact x is novel 9 be+ transp>5t4 ,except = ?is fact v little m]it c be claim$ = a soap ( ?is k9d4 ,! transp>5cy ( soap is g5]ally due to ! pres5ce ( alcohol1 sug> or glyc]9e 9 ! soap :5 x is made4 ,x is v ess5tial 9 a soap ( ?is "*1 :]e lightness & cle>ness ( color are desir$1 t ! mat]ial = mak+ ! soap be c>efully select$ z to color & purity4 ,! p]fumes also play an important "p 9 ! color ( ! soap & _m ( ! t9ctures1 balsams & infusions us$ 9 p]fum+ soap may ev5tually cause tr\ble by spott+4 ,if ! soap is artificially color$1 :i* is almo/ always ! case1 ! dye/uffs us$ = ?is purpose %\ld h c>eful att5tion & only ^? %\ld be us$ :i* are kn[n to resi/ ! action ( alkalis4 ,:]e ros9 is us$ ?is product mu/ be ( ! bett] grade4 ,di/ill$ wat] is always pref]able = use 9 transp>5t soap4 ,! gov]nm5t p]mits ! use ( a specially d5atur$ alcohol4 ,?is alcohol is n tax$ & consi/s ( gra9 7e?yl7 alcohol d5atur$ ) #e p] c5t4 wood 7me?yl7 alcohol4 ,"s soapmak]s pref] to use a m exp5sive ref9$ me?yl alcohol1 b outside ( add+ to ! co/ ( ! soap1 !re is no p>ticul> advantage4 ,! glyc]9e %\ld be *emically pure4 ,z to ! oils & fats ^! %\ld be l[ 9 acid & ( good color4 ,"u no circum/ances %\ld ! crut*] or kettle 9 :i* ! soap is made be ru/y or unclean 9 any way4 ,= a light soap enamel$ ut5sils are to be pref]r$4 ,to obta9 transp>5cy 9 soap ! foll[+ g5]al me?ods may be giv54 #a4 ,:]e ! transp>5cy is due to sug>4 #b4 ,:]e alcohol & glyc]9e produce transp>5cy4 #c4 ,:]e 7#a7 or 7#b7 is supplem5t$ by ! use ( ca/or oil4 #d4 ,:]e transp>5cy dep5ds ^u ! p]c5tage ( fatty acid 9 a soap & ! numb] ( times ! soap is mill$4 ,"u ! fir/ me?od at lea/ #be p] c5t4 ( ! *>ge %\ld be cocoanut oil1 ! o!r con/itu5t be+ tall[ or any fat or oil capable ( giv+ a suffici5tly h>d soap4 ,! soap is boil$ & f9i%$ z usual1 !n run to ! crut*] to be mix$ ) a /rong cane sug> solution1 conta9+ #aj-bj p] c5t4 sug> ( ! weight ( ! soap4 ,! sug> is dissolv$ 9 its own weight ( wat] & ! solution heat$ to #age degs4 ,f4 be=e be+ v sl[ly add$ to ! soap4 ,z ! wat] evaporates1 soaps ( ?is type %[ spots due to ! sug> ?us be+ ?r[n out ( solution4 ,transp>5t soap made "u ! second me?od may be saponifi$ z usual & consi/ ( any good toilet base4 ,! soap is run to ! crut*] & mix$ ) #ie p] c5t4 alcohol 9 ! proportion ( "o "p alcohol to two p>ts ( fatty acid conta9$ 9 ! soap toge!r ) glyc]9e 9 ! same proportion4 ,by ! ?ird me?od ca/or oil alone may be us$ to make ! soap or add$ to any ( ! above bases up to #cc-a_/c p] c5t4 ( ! *>ge4 ,if ca/or oil only is us$1 b #b p] c5t4 or #c p] c5t4 ( sug> is requir$4 ,9 ! la/ me?od a comb9ation ( #hj p] c5t4 tall[1 v l[ 9 free acid1 #bj p] c5t4 cocoanut oil & #e p] c5t4 ,w4 ,w4 ros9 is a suitable *>ge4 ,! saponification & f9i%+ is c>ri$ out z ) a full boil$ soap4 ,! soap is !n plac$ into a jacket$ vessel1 provid$ ) dry-/eam coils1 by :i* ! excess wat] is evaporat$ f ! soap until x conta9s #gc p] c5t4 fatty acids4 ,:5 ! ?ick mass rea*es ?is /age x is fram$ & :5 cool is suitable = obta9+ a semi transp>5cy :i* n[ dep5ds ^u ! numb] ( times ! soap is mill$1 x be+1 ( c\rse1 inf]r$ t no solid matt] ( any sort be add$ to ! soap4 ,,cold ,,made ,,transp>5t ,,soap4 ,:ile transp>5t soaps may be made by ! above g5]al me?ods !y are usually made by ! semi-boil$ or cold process4 ,by ?is process a m satisfactory soap is obta9$ & x is m simple to c>ry out4 ,a detail$ description ( ?is me?od is be/ & mo/ easily giv5 by us+ a typical =mula4 ,*>ge3 ,tall[ #aic-a_/b lbs4 ,co*9 ,cocoanut ,oil #afi-a_/b ,ca/or ,oil #hi-a_/b ,soda ,a% #g-c_/d ,soda ,lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #bef ,sug> 7,cane7 #aih ,alcohol #abf ,wat] 7,di/ill$7 #hj ,to proce$1 fir/ place into a crut*] or jacket$ kettle ! oils & fat & heat to #adj degs4 ,f4 ,!n add ! soda a% dissolv$ 9 ab\t #cj p\nds ( ! wat]1 aft] :i* ! lye is add$ & ! mass /irr$ until a f+] or /ick run ov] ! surface leaves an impr9t4 ,:]e ! soap has rea*$ ?is /age1 x is well cov]$ & all[$ to /& ab\t two h\rs or until x bulges 9 ! c5t]1 aft] :i* ! re/ ( ! wat] :i* %\ld conta9 no lime or o!r m9]al sub/ance & :i* is pref]ably di/ill$ wat]1 is add$4 ,! sug> is !n sl[ly %ovel$ 9 :ile ! mass is /irr+ & f9ally ! alcohol is p\r$ 94 ,! heat is !n increas$ to #afj degs4 ,f4 by dry /eam & ! soap crut*$ until dissolv$4 ,"u no circum/ances %\ld any soap be all[$ to rema9 above ! surface ( ! mass on ! sides ( ! mix]4 ,?is crut*+ op]ation consumes ab\t "o h\r1 & :5 f9i%$ ! soap %\ld /& 9 ! vessel ab\t half an h\r :5 a small sample is tak5 out to cool4 ,?is sample %\ld be cle> & %[ an excess ( alkali4 ,if x is n cle> m alcohol is add$1 if n ( suffici5t /r5g? m lye put 9 until ! desir$ condition is rea*$4 ,! p]fume & color are n[ add$4 ,! soap is !n fram$ & all[$ to set aft] :i* x is cut1 all[$ to dry slightly & !n press$4 ,to obta9 a poli%$ cake transp>5t soaps are (t5 plan$ be=e press+ & aft] press+ poli%$ ) a s(t clo?1 damp5$ ) alcohol4 ,in/ead ( fram+ ?is soap1 x is sometimes tub$1 t is to say1 ! soap f ! crut*] is run into specially con/ruct$ tubes ( a %ape ne> t ( ! desir$ cake & all[$ to cool1 aft] :i* x is cut & press$4 ,all scraps are return$ to ! crut*]1 b 9 s do+ ! soap is slightly d>k5$ 9 color4 ,x is advisable to expose a f9i%$ cake ( transp>5t soap to ! air = "s "t z by s do+ x becomes cle>]4 ,o!r =mulae = cold made transp>5t soaps made z j outl9$ foll[3 ,i4 ,blea*$ ,tall[ #acd lbs4 ,co*9 ,cocoanut ,oil #hh ,ca/or ,oil #bj ,w4 ,w4 ,ros9 #g ,cane ,sug> #fd ,wat] #cb ,glyc]9e #cd ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #ace ,alcohol #af gal4 ,,ii4 ,tall[ #baa lbs4 ,co*9 ,cocoanut ,oil #ahe ,ca/or ,oil #ig-a_/b ,soda ,a% #h-a_/b ,wat] #ajf ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #bgi ,sug> #baf ,alcohol #acg ,,iii4 ,ca/or ,oil #fj lbs4 ,co*9 ,cocoanut ,oil #aie ,tall[ #abj ,alcohol #aae ,sug> #ij ,wat] #ec ,glyc]9e #ec ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #bje-a_/b ,,iv4 ,tall[ #ajj lbs4 ,co*9 ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,ca/or ,oil #fj ,glyc]9e #bj ,ros91 ,w4 ,w4 #bj ,sug> #dj ,wat] #ej ,soda ,lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #afd ,alcohol #h gal4 ,v4 ,tall[ #agd lbs4 ,cocoanut ,oil #aad ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #agj ,sug> #hj ,wat] #gb ,alcohol #af gal4 ,ros9 may be add$ 9 ?is =mula up to #bj p] c5t4 ( fats us$ & ! tall[ cut d[n correspond+ly4 ,,%av+ ,,soaps4 ,! requirem5ts ( a %av+ soap are some:at diff]5t ?an ^? ( o!r soaps4 ,to be a good %av+ soap ! la!r produc$ !refrom mu/ be heavy1 creamy1 b n gummy1 & rema9 moi/ :5 =m$ on ! face4 ,! soap itself %\ld be ( a s(t consi/5cy s z to readily adh]e to ! face :5 us$ 9 /ick =m4 ,x %\ld fur!rmore be neutral or ne>ly s to prev5t ! alkali f sm>t+ dur+ %av+4 ,%av+ soap is made 9 ! =m ( a /ick1 & a tablet = use 9 ! %av+ mug4 ,"s %av]s pref] to h ! soap z a p[d] or cream1 :i* are claim$ to be m conv5i5t me?ods ( %av+4 ,:ile a liquid %av+ soap is n z well kn[n because x has n yet become popul>1 "s soap = %av+ is made 9 ?is =m4 ,=m]ly %av+ soap 0 ext5sively made f a *>ge ( ab\t #hj p>ts tall[ & #bj p>ts cocoanut oil z a boil$ settl$ soap1 b ei!r mak+ ! /r5g!n+ *ange ) pota% lye or us+ pota% lye 9 saponify+ ! /ock & gra9+ ) salt4 ,soaps = %av+ made 9 ?is mann] are v unsatisfactory1 z !y d n produce a suffici5tly ?ick or la/+ la!r & discolor v mat]ially ^u age+4 ,potassium /e>ate =ms an ideal la!r = %av+1 b readily h>d5s & h5ce ne$s "s ( ! s(t] oils1 or glyc]9e incorporat$ ) x to =m a satisfactory soap = %av+4 ,! selection ( mat]ials = mak+ a %av+ soap is important4 ,! tall[ us$ %\ld be :ite & ( high tit]4 ,co*9 cocoanut oil is to be pref]r$ to ! o!r k9ds1 & ! alkalis %\ld be ! be/ = te*nical use t c be pur*as$--#gf p] c5t4 cau/ic soda & #hh-ib p] c5t4 cau/ic pota% are suitable4 ,by ! use ( /e>ic acid x is a simple matt] to rea* ! neutral po9t :i* c be c>efully approximat$4 ,! foll[+ are %av+ soap =mulae :i* h be5 f\nd to give good satisfaction3 ,i4 lbs4 ,tall[ #cfj ,/e>ic acid #dj ,soda lye1 #da;deg4 ,b4 #adg ,pota% lye1 #cd;deg4 ,b4 #hg ,wat] #cb ,gum tragacan? #a ,,ii4 lbs4 ,tall[ #bhb ,cocoanut oil #fj ,/e>ic acid #ej ,bayb]ry wax #ah ,soda lye1 #da;deg4 ,b4 #adg ,pota% lye1 #cd;deg4 ,b4 #ij ,wat] #cb ,,iii4 lbs4 ,tall[ #djj ,cocoanut oil #agf ,/e>ic acid #dae ,cau/ic soda1 #dj;deg4 ,b4 #ahb ,cau/ic pota%1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #ajh ,to proce$1 fir/ run into ! crut*] ! tall[1 cocoanut oil & bayb]ry wax :5 us$1 & br+ ! temp]ature ( ! mass up to #adj;deg4-#afj;deg4 ,f4 by dry /eam4 ,!n add ! cau/ic soda lye & keep on heat ) occasional mix+ until x is all tak5 up4 ,:5 ?is /age is rea*$ gradually add all b ab\t #e p] c5t4 ( ! pota% lye1 & complete ! saponification4 ,?is po9t hav+ be5 rea*$1 ! heat is turn$ (f2 ! crut*] is run & ! /e>ic acid1 previ\sly melt$ by dry /eam 9 a lead-l9$ or enamel$ vessel1 is run 9 9 a cont9u\s /ream & ! crut*+ cont9u$ = fifte5 m9utes to half an h\r4 ,samples are tak5 at ?is "t1 cool$ & te/$ by alcoholic ph5olph?ale9 solution4 ,if too alkal9e m /e>ic acid is add$1 if too acid m pota% lye f t previ\sly res]v$4 ,aft] ea* addition ( lye or /e>ic acid ! mass is crut*$ f #aj to #ae m9utes long]1 ano!r sample is tak51 cool$ & aga9 te/$4 ,:5 ! ph5olph?ale9 %[s a v light p9k aft] sev]al m9utes1 ! soap is practically neutral1 al?\gh at ?is po9t "o c bett] judge by dissolv+ a sample 9 hot neutraliz$ alcohol made by putt+ into ! alcohol a few drops ( ph5olph?ale91 & !n add+ weak alkali drop by drop f a burette until a slight p9k1 n yell[1 t9t is obta9$1 & not+ ! color ( ! solution4 ,! solution %\ld %[ a v light p9k :5 ! soap is prop]ly neutraliz$4 ,:5 ?is /age is arriv$ at ! gum tragacan?1 previ\sly s(t5$ 9 wat]1 is crut*$ 9 if x is to be add$4 ,! soap is !n fram$1 /ripp$ 9 ?ree or f\r days1 dri$ & mill$4 ,! =mulae z giv5 are = %av+ /icks1 & d n readily press unless ?or\ghly dri$4 ,a m satisfactory result is obta9$ by add+ at ! mill #be p] c5t4 ( :ite tall[ base to obta9 a satisfactory mug soap4 ,,%av+ ,,p[d]4 ,%av+ p[d] diff]s f ! soaps j describ$ 9 be+ pulv]iz$1 usually add+ up to #e p] c5t4 />* to prev5t cak+4 ,any ( ! above soaps1 dri$ bone dry1 ) or )\t ! addition ( tall[ base make a satisfactory p[d] = %av+4 ,,%av+ ,,cream4 ,%av+ cream is n[ a v popul> %av+ m$ium due to ! rapidity & conv5i5ce ) :i* "o c %ave by ! use ( ?is product4 ,=m]ly %av+ cream 0 made f ! liquid oils l olive oil & a s(t fat l l>d1 toge!r ) cocoanut oil4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 mo/ ( ! popul> %av+ creams are made f /e>ic acid & cocoanut oil1 z a f> sup]ior product is obta9$ by ! use ( ^! sub/ances4 ,by us+ ^! a m satisfactory cream is obta9$1 & x is f> m conv5i5t to make4 ,! la!r also produc$ !refrom is m suitable = %av+1 be+ ?ick1 creamy & rema9+ moi/4 ,a few typical =mulae = %av+ creams ( ?is type are z foll[s3 ,i4 lbs4 ,co*9 cocoanut oil #bf ,/e>ic acid #afe ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #ej;deg4 ,b4 #fi ,glyc]9e ,c4 ,p4 #gf ,wat] #ch ,,ii4 lbs4 ,co*9 cocoanut oil #ah ,/e>ic acid #gc ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #ci;deg4 ,b4 #ed ,glyc]9e #cc ,wat] #bg ,,iii4 lbs4 ,co*9 cocoanut oil #ah ,/e>ic acid #gc ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #ci;deg4 ,b4 #ed ,glyc]9e #bj ,wat] #dj & lbs4 ,/e>ic acid #fj ,glyc]9e ,c4 ,p4 #he ,wat] #afe ,sodium c>bonate #ej ,borax #a ,to make a %av+ cream by ,=mula ,i or ,,ii1 ! cocoanut oil & glyc]9e are fir/ put into a suitable mix+ app>atus or crut*]1 & heat$ to #abj;deg4 ,f4 ,a "p or all ! pota% lye is !n add$ & ! cocoanut oil saponifi$4 ,! re/ ( ! pota% lye & ! wat] are !n add$1 & ) ! mix] runn+ ! /e>ic acid1 previ\sly melt$ 9 a lead-l9$ or enamel$ vessel1 is !n p\r$ 9 9 a /ream & ! mass /irr$ until smoo?1 c>e be+ ex]cis$ n to a]ate x too mu*4 ,! cream is !n te/$ = alkal9ity1 ! be/ me?od be+ by t describ$ "u %av+ soap1 9 :i* ! sample is dissolv$ 9 alcohol4 ,because ( ! l>ge quantity ( wat] pres5t1 ph5olph?ale9 is unsatisfactory1 z dissociation ( ! soap may %[ a p9k indication 9 spite ( ! fact ! mass is on ! acid side4 ,= a quick me?od ( te/+ ! bite on ! tongue is a satisfactory crit]ion4 ,if a cool$ sample bites ! tongue m /e>ic acid is add$ until !re is a #c excess ( ?is4 ,:5 ! prop] neutralization has tak5 place ! cream is p]fum$ & fram$ 9 a special frame1 or x may be all[$ to cool 9 ! mix] & p]fum$ ! next day4 ,:5 cool ! cream is /ra9$1 or put ?r\gh an o9tm5t mill1 aft] :i* x is ready to fill into tubes4 ,! proc$ure = ! fir/ "p ( ,=mula ,,iii is ! same z t j giv54 ,! second "p ( ! =mula is made ! same z a vani%+ cream = toilet purposes4 ,to make ?is1 fir/ melt ! /e>ic acid z already direct$4 ,dissolve ! sodium c>bonate & borax 9 wat] & :5 dissolv$ add ! glyc]9e & /ir4 ,!n heat ?is solution to ab\t #ajj;deg4-#abj;deg4 ,f4 & :ile /irr+ 9 a suitable mix+ ma*9e into :i* ?is solution has be5 p\r$ aft] be+ heat$1 or bett] /ill 9 :i* x has be5 heat$ by dry /eam1 add ! /e>ic acid4 ,cont9ue mix+ until smoo? & !n all[ to cool1 or run into frames to cool4 ,:5 ! %av+ cream & vani%+ cream are bo? cool1 !y are mix$ 9 ! proportion ( "o ( ! =m] to two ( ! latt]4 ,x is claim$ t 9 ?us mak+ a %av+ cream a smoo!r product is obta9$1 al?\gh x may be said t ! vani%+ cream is m]ely a s(t soap & ! ultimate result is ! same z ?\gh ! v>i\s +r$i5ts 7 add$ 9 "o op]ation1 r ?an mak+ two sep>ate products & !n mix+ !m1 !reby consid]ably increas+ ! co/ ( manufacture4 ,,pumice ,,or ,,s& ,,soaps4 ,pumice & s& are at times add$ to soap to aid 9 ! removal ( dirt 9 cleans+ ! h&s4 ,9 "s cases ^! soaps are made 9 ! =m ( a cake1 9 o!rs !y are sold 9 cans 9 ! =m ( a pa/e4 ,a h& pa/e is usually made by m]ely dissolv+ ord9>y tall[ base 9 two or ?ree times its weight ( hot wat] & mix+ 9 ! desir$ quantity ( pumice or s& & 9 "s in/ances add+ a little glyc]9e to keep x s(t or a solv5t ( "s k9d = grease4 ,x may also be made by directly incorporat+ any ( ^! 9 a pota% soap4 ,a cold made or semi-boil$ cocoanut or palm k]nel oil soap is ! base us$ to add ! pumice or s& to 9 mak+ a cake soap ( ?is sort4 ,! foll[+ =mulae s]ve z a guide = ^! soaps4 ,i4 ,palm ,k]nel or ,ceylon ,cocoanut ,oil #gje lbs4 ,pumice 7,p[d]$7 #bha ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #cgh ,,ii4 ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #ee ,wat] #f ,silv] ,s& 7f9e7 #fj ,to proce$ place ! oil 9 a crut*] & heat to #adj;deg4 ,f4 ,sift 9 ! pumice & mix ?or\ghly4 ,! lye is !n add$ :i* causes a curdl+ ( ! gra94 ,! /irr+ is cont9u$ until ! gra9 closes & ! soap is smoo?1 aft] :i* ! desir$ p]fume is add$ & ! soap dropp$ into a frame & crut*$ by h&4 ,:5 ! soap is set1 x is slabb$1 cut into cakes1 dri$ slightly & press$4 ,,liquid ,,soaps4 ,liquid soaps are m]ely solutions ( a pota% soap1 usually cocoanut oil soap1 al?\gh corn oil is us$ to make a *eap soap4 ,"o ( ! difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 liquid soap is to keep x cle>4 ,at a l[ temp]ature a s$im5t is (t5 =m$1 b ?is c be ov]come by ! use ( sug> & filt]+ ! soap ?r\gh a filt] press at a l[ temp]ature4 ,9 ord] to prev5t ! soap f freez+1 x is necess>y to l[] ! freez+ po9t by ! addition ( glyc]9e or alcohol4 ,to make liquid soap by any ( ! =mulae giv5 bel[1 ! oil is fir/ run into a jacket$ kettle ) a /irr+ device1 & heat$ to ab\t #abj;deg4 ,f4 ,! pota% lye is !n add$ & ! oil saponifi$4 ,:5 ! saponification takes place1 especially :5 cocoanut oil is us$1 ! mass swells rapidly & may foam ov] ! sides ( ! kettle unless wat] is us$ to *eck ?is1 or a kettle ( ab\t f\r to five times ! capacity ( ! total *>ge ( soap is us$4 ,:5 ! saponification has occurr$1 ! sug>1 borax & glyc]9e are add$1 ! wat] run 9 & ! mixture /irr$ until ! soap is ?or\ghly dissolv$4 ,heat aids mat]ially 9 dissolv+ ! soap4 ,! soap is !n all[$ to cool & if color or p]fume is to be add$ ?is is /irr$ 91 aft] :i* ! soap is cool$ & filt]$ or else run directly into b>rels4 ,tall[ is n suitable = mak+ a cle> liquid soap s9ce x is too high 9 /e>9e :i* :5 =m$ into ! /e>ate makes an opaque solution4 ,! =mulae h]e) giv5 h be5 f\nd to give good practical results4 ,i4 lbs4 ,cocoanut oil #acj ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #ace ,sug> #gb ,borax #b ,wat] #bfg ,,ii4 lbs4 ,corn oil #acj ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #bf;deg4 ,b4 #ace ,sug> #gb ,borax #b ,wat] #bfg ,,iii4 lbs4 ,cocoanut oil #ajj ,cau/ic pota% lye1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #ajb ,glyc]9e #ajj ,sug> #gj ,wat] #hcc ,=mulae ,i & ,,ii conta9 ab\t #bj p] c5t4 fatty acids4 ,x is possible1 ( c\rse1 to ei!r increase or decrease ! p]c5tage ( fatty acid by v>y+ ! am\nt ( wat]4 ,! wat] us$ 9 mak+ liquid soaps1 ( c\rse1 %\ld be s(t1 = h>d wat] =ms insoluble soaps :i* precipitate & cause a s$im5t4 ,,use ,,( ,,h>d5$ ,,oils ,,9 ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,:ile ! introduction ( ! hydrog5ation ( oils is a decid$ advance 9 ! production ( suitable *eap] oils = soap mak+1 comp>atively little h>d5$ oil is employ$ = soap mak+ 9 ,am]ica up to ! pres5t "t4 ,9 ,europe1 h[ev]1 consid]able advance has be5 made by ! use ( su* oils = manufactur+ soap !refrom & a numb] ( plants turn out l>ge quantities ( hydrog5at$ oils = soap mak+ z well z = edible purposes4 ,rec5tly a company has be5 =m$ 9 ?is c\ntry = h>d5+ oils & x is v probable t ! future w see ?is mat]ial ext5sively us$ 9 our own c\ntry1 z ^! appe> to be ! "o pres5t hope ( ! soap manufactur] z a *eck on ! ev] increas+ co/ ( fats & oils n[ us$ 9 mak+ soap4 ,x is an un=tunate condition t hydrog5at$ oils produc$ abroad are sold "u names :i* give absolutely no indication z to ! oil :i* has be5 h>d5$4 ,! s(t] & *eap] oils l fi% oil1 l9se$ oil1 cottonse$ oil1 etc41 are g5]ally h>d5$ = soap manufacture to diff]5t degrees ( h>dness4 ,:ile x is impossible to def9itely /ate j :at products z ,c&elite1 ,talgol1 ,krutol9 or sev]al o!r co9$ names ( h>d5$ oils are1 v>i\s inve/igators h exp]im5t$ ) !m z to _! adaptability = produc+ toilet soaps & f\nd t suitable toilet soaps may be made f !m4 ,:ile _m objections 7 at fir/ met ) conc]n+ soaps made f ^! products1 z to _! unsatisfactory saponification1 ! poor la!r+ quality ( ! soaps & _! odor & consequ5t difficulty 9 p]fum+1 ! results ( mo/ inve/igators along ^! l9es indicate t ^! 9 _m cases 7 due to prejudice aga9/ or unfamili>ity ) h&l+ oils ( ?is type = soap mak+4 ,9 manufactur+ soap f h>d5$ oils x is usually necess>y to incorporate ) ! *>ge l>d1 tall[1 tall[ oil or "s o!r s(t oil ( ?is nature4 ,satisfactory bases = toilet soaps1 made z boil$ settl$ soap by ! use ( ,talgol 7und\bt$ly h>d5$ fi% oil71 are said to be made by ! =mulae#aj bel[4 ,i4 ,tall[ #de p>ts ,talgol #dj ,cocoanut ,oil #ae ,,ii4 ,cocoanut ,oil 7,ceylon7 #f ,tall[ #ab ,talgol1 ,extra #ab ,! me?od ( boil+ a soap ( ?is type does n diff] mat]ially f t ( mak+ settl$ tall[ soap base4 ,! soap itself has a diff]5t odor ?an a /raight tall[ base1 b is said to make a v satisfactory soap = mill+ & to be ( good appe>ance4 ,satisfactory transp>5t soaps are made f ! h>d5$ oil ,c&elite1 :i* replaces ! tall[ 9 transp>5t soap =mulae su* z h already be5 giv5 9 ! section "u ,transp>5t ,soaps4 ,! me?od ( manufactur+ a soap by ! use ( ?is product v>ies 9 no way f ! usual me?od employ$ = mak+ ^! soaps4 ,s9ce hydrog5at$ oils are high 9 /e>9e1 _! use 9 %av+ soaps is a decid$ advantage4 ,x has previ\sly be5 po9t$ out t potassium /e>ate =ms an ideal la!r = %av+1 & 9 ! hydrog5at+ process ! ole9 is conv]t$ to /e>9e4 ,?us a h>d5$ oil is advantage\s 9 a %av+ soap4 ,z an example ( a cold made soap = %av+ ! foll[+ may be tak54#aa ,talgol ,extra #ej lbs4 ,cocoanut ,oil #aj ,l>d #aj ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #bj ,pota% ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #ba ,?is soap may be made 9 a crut*] by ! me?od g5]ally us$ 9 mak+ soap by ! cold process4 ,,textile ,,soaps4 ,soap is a v important product to e bran* ( ! textile indu/ry4 ,= wool5 fabrics x is us$ = sc\r+1 full+ & ?r[+ ! wool2 9 ! silk indu/ry x is necess>y = degumm+ ! raw silk1 z well z = dye+2 9 ! cotton mills x is us$ to f9i% cotton clo? & to "s ext5t 9 blea*+2 x is1 fur!rmore1 employ$ 9 a numb] ( ways 9 ! manufacture ( l954 ,l>ge quantities ( soap are ?us consum$ 9 an indu/ry ( s great an ext5t & ! requirem5ts necessitate diff]5t soaps = ! diff]5t op]ations4 ,we w1 !re=e1 consid] ^! 9 detail4 ,,sc\r+ ,,& ,,full+ ,,soaps ,,= ,,wool4 ,! soaps us$ to sc\r wool & = full+ ! wov5 clo? are usually made z *eaply z possible4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 g5]ally pure soaps1 z fill+ mat]ial su* z sodium silicate does n readily r9se out ( ! wool & if us$ at all mu/ be add$ v sp>+ly4 ,bo? cold made & boil$ settl$ soaps are made = ?is purpose4 ,! soap is g5]ally sold 9 b>rels1 h5ce is run directly to ^! f ! crut*] or soap kettle4 ,z cold made soaps ! foll[+ s]ve = wool sc\r+ or full+4 ,i4 ,palm ,oil #bjj lbs4 ,bone ,grease #dfj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #ceg ,wat] #aac ,soda ,a% #ej ,citronella #b ,,ii4 ,palm ,oil 7,calab>1 unblea*$7 #aee ,h\se ,grease #cfj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #cbd ,wat] #bfh ,sodium ,silicate #hc ,,iii4 ,h\se ,grease #ahe ,palm ,oil 7unblea*$7 #cji ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #cji ,wat] #cia ,soda ,a% #gj ,sodium ,silicate #fj ,corn ,/>* #aj ,^! soaps are made 9 a crut*] by ! usual process = cold-made soaps1 crut*$ until smoo?1 dropp$ into a b>rel & crut*$ by h& ! next day or j be=e cool+4 ,z a settl$ soap = ^! op]ations ! foll[+ *>ge is typical3 ,palm ,oil #cd p>ts ,cottonse$ foots or its equival5t 9 fatty acids #cc ,ros9 #aj ,h\se ,grease #bc ,! me?od ( boil+ su* a soap is ! same z = any settl$ soap up to ! /r5g!n+ *ange4 ,:5 ?is /age is rea*$1 suffici5t lye is add$ to /r5g!n ! kettle /rongly4 ,x is !n boil$ d[n ) clos$ /eam on salt br9e or pickle until a sample ( ! lye tak5 f ! bottom /&s at #af;deg4-#bb;deg4 ,b4 ,! soap is !n run into b>rels & aft] /&+ !re9 = a day is h& crut*$ until cool to prev5t /reak+ ( ! soap4 ,besides a soap ( ?is type a settl$ tall[ *ip soap is us$4 ,,wool ,,?r[]',s ,,soap4 ,soaps = wool ?r[+ are sometimes made f olive oil foots b ^! are (t5 object$ to because ( ! sulphur-l odor convey$ to ! clo? due to ! me?od by :i* ?is oil is extract$ ) c>bon disulphide4 ,a pota% soap h>d5$ some:at ) soda is also us$4 ,z a =mula = a suitable soap ( ?is type ?is may be giv54 ,olive ,oil ,foots #ab p>ts ,corn ,oil #df ,h\se ,grease #bj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #c ,potassium ,c>bonate 7dry7 #e-c_/d ,potassium ,hydrate 7solid7 #bc ,?is soap is made z a run soap by ! g5]al directions already giv5 = a soap ?us made4 ,! kettle is boil$ ) op5 & clos$ /eam1 add+ wat] v sl[ly & aim+ to obta9 a #bbj-bbe p] c5t4 yield or fatty acid cont5t ( ! f9i%$ soap ( #df p] c5t4 ,:5 ! soap is f9i%$ a sample cool$ on a plate ( glass %\ld be nei!r slipp]y or %ort1 b %\ld /r+ slightly4 ,! f9i%$ soap is run directly into b>rels4 ,a soap = wool ?r[+ by ! semi-boil$ process may be made f olive oil foots 9 a crut*] ?us3 ,olive ,oil ,foots #fjj lbs4 ,pota% ,lye1 #bj;deg4 ,b4 #ffj ,! oil is heat$ to #ahj;deg4 ,f41 ! lye add$ & ! mass /irr$ until x bun*es1 :5 x is dropp$ into b>rels4 ,,wor/$ ,,f9i%+ ,,soaps4 ,= ! f9i%+ ( wor/$ clo? soaps high 9 cocoanut oil or palm k]nel oil are pref]r$4 ,^! soaps are f9i%$ v neutral1 be+ made z settl$ soaps1 b giv5 an extra wa% *ange aft] /r5g!n+ /rongly4 ,!y are !n f9i%$ z usual & run into b>rels4 ,if fram$ too hot1 ! high p]c5tage ( cocoanut oil causes mottl+1 :i* is prev5t$ by crut*+ by h& until ! temp]ature ( ! soap is #adj;deg4-#ade;deg4 ,f4 ,"s typical *>ges1 all ( :i* are saponifi$ ) soda lye1 foll[3 ,i4 ,palm ,k]nel ,oil #fj p>ts ,corn ,oil #dj ,,ii4 ,palm ,k]nel ,oil #cj ,r$ ,oil 7s+le press$7 #gj ,,iii4 ,r$ ,oil #cc-a_/c ,corn ,oil #cc-a_/c ,cocoanut ,oil or ,palm ,k]nel ,oil #cc-a_/c ,,soaps ,,us$ ,,9 ,,! ,,silk ,,indu/ry4 ,soap is us$ to a v l>ge ext5t 9 silk mills1 bo? = degumm+ ! raw silk & 9 silk dye+4 ,raw silk consi/s ( ! true silk fibre kn[n z fibro9 & a gummy coat+1 s]ic91 :i* dulls ! lu/re ( ! silk unless remov$4 ,= ?is purpose a slightly alkal9e olive oil foots soap is be/ adapt$1 al?\gh palm oil & peanut oil soaps are sometimes us$1 z well z soaps made f a comb9ation ( h\se grease to ! ext5t ( #cj p] c5t41 toge!r ) r$ oil or /raight ole9 soaps1 bo? ( :i* are artificially color$ gre54 ,9 us+ h\se grease1 if #cj p] c5t4 is exce$$ 9 comb9ation ) r$ oil1 ! tit] is rais$ to su* an ext5t t ! soap does n readily r9se f ! silk nor dissolve readily4 ,!y are also n advisable because !y imp>t a disagreeable odor to ! silk4 ,to make a soap = ?is purpose f olive oil foots x is made z a settl$ soap1 c>e be+ tak5 to ?or\ghly boil ! mass on ! saponification *ange 9 ! clos$ /ate to assure prop] saponification4 ,! kettle is usually gra9$ ) lye & giv5 a good wa% *ange to remove ! excess /r5g?4 ,! *ange previ\s to ! f9i% %\ld n be too heavy or too l>ge a nigre results4 ,! light] ! gra9 is1 ! bett] ! f9i%$ kettle is4 ,a yield ( #aej p] c5t4 is usually obta9$4 ,?is soap is g5]ally run to a frame1 slabb$ ^u cool+ & pack$ directly into wood5 cases4 ,= silk dye+ ! above soap is suitable1 al?\gh any well-made soap ( good odor & n rancid is useable4 ,:ile soap alone is (t5 us$ 9 ! ba? = silk dye+1 c]ta9 dye/uffs require ! addition ( acetic or sulphuric acid1 :i* sets free ! fatty acids4 ,if ^! be ( bad odor x is tak5 up by ! silk & is difficult to remove4 ,! mo/ g5]ally us$ soaps are ! j m5tion$ olive foots soap or a soap made f a good grade r$ oil4 ,bo? k9ds are ext5sively us$4 ,,soaps ,,us$ ,,= ,,cotton ,,goods4 ,9 ! manufacture ( cotton goods1 z comp>$ to ! wool & silk indu/ries1 v mu* less soap is us$ & x is only appli$ to ! f9i%$ fabric ei!r to clean ! clo? prep>atory to dye+ or to aid 9 dye+ ) c]ta9 colors4 ,x is also us$ 9 calico pr9t+4 ,= cleans+ ! clo? ord9>y *ip soap is suitable al?\gh a m alkal9e soap f9i%$ z a curd soap is an advantage 9 t ! free alkali conta9$ !re9 aids 9 remov+ ! dirt & has no h>mful effect on ! cotton4 ,= dye+ cotton goods or to bright5 c]ta9 colors aft] dye+ an olive oil foots soap is mo/ g5]ally employ$4 ,9 calico pr9t+ soap is us$ to wa% & cle> ! clo? aft] pr9t+4 ,a soap = ?is purpose %\ld be easily soluble 9 wat] & conta9 no free alkali1 ros9 or fill]4 ,! be/ soaps = use 9 calico pr9t+ are ei!r an olive oil foots soap or an ole9 soap4 ,,sulphonat$ ,,oils4 ,:ile sulphonat$ oils are n us$ to any great ext5t 9 ! manufacture ( soap1 !y are us$ v l>gely 9 ! dye+ & pr9t+ ( turkey & aliz>9e r$s on cotton z well z o!r colors4 ,j :at action ^! oils h is n kn[n4 ,turkey r$ oil or sulphonat$ ca/or oil is ! be/ kn[n sulphonat$ oil4 ,! process ( mak+ ^! oils is simple4 ,! equipm5t necess>y is a wood5 tank or b>rel ( suitable capacity1 approximately two & a half times ! am\nt ( oil to be treat$4 ,!re are fur!rmore requir$ o!r tanks or vessels to hold ! solutions us$ su* z cau/ic soda1 ammonia & acid4 ,! tank to be us$ = ! prep>ation ( sulphonat$ oil %\ld be provid$ ) a valve at ! bottom ( ! tank & a gauge to measure ! quantity ( liquid !re94 ,! process is c>ri$ out z foll[s3 ,?ree hundr$ p\nds ( ca/or oil are plac$ 9 ! tank & #hj p\nds at #ff deg4 ,b4 sulphuric acid are weigh$ out 9 ano!r vessel4 ,! acid is run into ! tank conta9+ ! oil 9 a v ?9 /ream :ile ! oil is well /irr$4 ,at no "t %\ld ! temp]ature exce$ #dj deg4 ,c4 ,?is op]ation %\ld consume at lea/ an h\r & /irr+ %\ld be cont9u$ half an h\r long] to insure ! ?or\gh mix+ ( ! oil ) ! acid4 ,! mass is !n all[$ to settle = #bd h\rs1 aft] :i* #dj gallons ( wat] are add$ & ! mixture /irr$ until x has a uni=m creamy color indicat+ no d>k /reaks4 ,?is mix+ process %\ld be c>efully c>ri$ out & :5 complet$ all[$ to settle #cf h\rs4 ,at ?is po9t ! mass w h sep>at$ into two lay]s1 ! l[] lay] consi/+ ( a wat] solution ( acid & ! upp] lay] ( oil4 ,! =m] is run out ?r\gh ! valve locat$ at ! bottom ( ! tank4 ,ano!r wa% may n[ be giv5 or disp5s$ ) z desir$4 ,9 ?is wa% ! addition ( salt or sodium sulphate at ! rate ( #a-a_/b p\nds p] gallon ( wat] is advisable4 ,a #bd deg4 ,b4 cau/ic soda solution is prep>$ & add$ sl[ly to ! acidifi$ oil ) con/ant /irr+4 ,! mass fir/ turns creamy1 !n becomes /reak$1 increas+ 9 /reaks z ! cau/ic solution is p\r$ 91 & f9ally becomes cle> & transp>5t4 ,wat] is n[ add$ to br+ ! volume to #ge gallons4 ,! oil is n[ milky 9 appe>ance1 b ! addition ( a little m soda solution re/ores ! transp>5cy4 ,9 "s cases ammonia is us$ 9 addition to cau/ic soda 9 neutraliz+ ! oil4 ,?ree-f\r?s ( ! am\nt ( cau/ic soda requir$ to complete ! neutralization is fir/ add$ & !n ! neutralization is complet$ ) a "o to "o liquid ammonia & wat] solution4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,seif5si$] ,ztg41 #dj1 #dg1 #abff 7#aiac74 #aj ,seif5si$] ,ztg4 7#aiac71 p4 #ccd & #cch4 7#aiab71 p4 #abbi & #abeg4 #aa ,seif5si$] ,ztg4 7#aiab71 p4 #ied4 ,,*apt] ,v ,glyc]9e ,recov]y4 ,! recov]y ( glyc]9e is v closely alli$ ) ! soap-mak+ indu/ry1 because glyc]9e is ! v valuable by-product obta9$ 9 ! saponification ( oils & fats4 ,no soap plant is1 !re=e1 fully equipp$ unless x has "s me?od :]eby ! glyc]9e is recov]$ & ! importance ( recov]+ ?is product _c be too /rongly emphasiz$4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t neutral fats or ! glyc]ides are a comb9ation ( fatty acid ) glyc]9e4 ,^! are split ap>t 9 ! process ( saponification4 ,:ile by ! t]m saponification z us$ 9 soap mak+ x is inf]r$ t ?is is ! comb9ation ( cau/ic alkalis ) ! fatty acids to =m soap1 ?is t]m is by no means limit$ to ?is me?od ( saponification1 z !re are v>i\s o!r me?ods ( saponify+ a fat4 ,! *emical def9ition ( saponification is ! conv]sion ( an e/]1 ( :i* glyc]ides are m]ely a c]ta9 type1 into an alcohol & an acid or a salt ( ?is acid4 ,?us1 if we use cau/ic alkali z our saponify+ ag5t = a fat or oil1 we obta9 ! sodium or potassium salt ( ! high] fatty acids or soap & ! alcohol1 glyc]9e4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we use a m9]al acid z ! saponify+ ag5t1 we obta9 ! fatty acids !mselves 9 addition to glyc]9e4 ,:ile ! =m] is by f> ! mo/ g5]ally employ$ = mak+ soap1 o!r processes consi/ 9 saponify+ ! fats by "s me?od o!r ?an cau/ic alkalis & !n conv]t+ ! fatty acids into soap by ei!r neutraliz+ !m ) sodium or potassium c>bonate or hydrate4 ,x is important to aga9 po9t out "h t fats & oils develop free fatty acid ( !mselves & t ! developm5t ( ?is acid repres5ts a loss 9 glyc]9e4 ,! selection ( an oil or fat = soap mak+ %\ld !re=e to a l>ge ext5t be judg$ z to its adaptability by ! free fatty acid cont5t1 z ! high] ?is cont5t is1 ! great] is ! loss 9 ! glyc]9e ev5tually obta9$4 ,glyc]9e (t5 repres5ts ! only pr(it to a soap manufactur]4 ,x is inde$ necess>y to det]m9e ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid be=e pur*as+ a lot ( /ock to be made into soap4 ,9 tak+ up ! "q ( glyc]9e recov]y we w consid] ! v>i\s me?ods ?us3 #a4 ,:]e ! glyc]9e is obta9$ f sp5t lye by saponify+ ! fats or oils ) cau/ic alkali4 #b4 ,:]e ! glyc]9e is obta9$ by saponify+ ! fats or oils by "s o!r me?od ?an ! above1 ( :i* !re are ! foll[+3 7a7 ,twit*ell process4 7b7 ,saponification by lime 9 autoclave4 7c7 ,saponification by acid4 7d7 ,saponification by wat] 9 autoclave4 7e7 ,f]m5tative 7,enzymes74 7f7 ,krebitz process4 ,,recov]y ,,( ,,glyc]9e ,,f ,,sp5t ,,lye4 ,! sp5t lye obta9$ f ! glyc]9e *anges 9 mak+ soap v>ies greatly1 ! quality dep5d+ ^u ! /ock saponifi$ & ! soap mak]'s c>e 9 h&l+ ! op]ation4 ,no two lyes run exactly alike z to proportion ( ! v>i\s +r$i5ts1 al?\gh !y are all simil> 9 conta9+ ! same sub/ances ei!r 9 solution or susp5sion4 ,sp5t lye is a wat] solution ( ma9ly glyc]9e1 free alkali ei!r z cau/ic alkali or c>bonate & salt1 includ+ sodium sulfate1 b fur!rmore conta9s "s soap & album9\s matt] ei!r 9 solution or susp5sion4 ,^u /&+ 9 ! /orage tank ! great] "p ( ! soap usually sep>ates :5 ! lye cools4 ,9 ord] to assure ! greate/ economical yield ( glyc]9e by saponify+ a fat ) cau/ic soda x is necess>y to obta9 a proportion ( ?ree p>ts ( wat] to e "p ( fat made into soap4 ,te/ runs h %[n t ?is is ! prop] proportion & t x is n economical to greatly exce$ ?is am\nt1 & if a mu* less proportion is us$ ! full yield ( glyc]9e is n obta9$4 ,! sp5t lyes conta9 v>y+ am\nts ( glyc]9e1 ! fir/ *ange be+ ri*e/ 9 glyc]9e cont5t1 & ?is be+ r$uc$ 9 ! subsequ5t *anges4 ,if ! lyes always run high 9 glyc]9e x is an indication t x is n all be+ obta9$4 ,! usual p]c5tage is f #j4e to #e or ev5 m1 al?\gh ! av]age is some:]e ar\nd #b to #c4 ,! lye z x comes f ! kettle %\ld n conta9 any m ?an #j4e to #j4f ( free alkali calculat$ z sodium c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,if ! proportion is high] ?an ?is1 x %[s t ! saponification has be5 conduct$ ) too high a proportion ( alkali1 a condition :i* %\ld be correct$ 9 ! kettle room4 ,an excess ( free alkali does n int]f]e to any great ext5t ) ! successful recov]y ( ! glyc]9e1 b is a wa/e ( bo? alkali & ! acid us$ 9 neutraliz+ ?is4 ,x is1 !re=e1 m economical to run a /rong lye ov] fre% /ock & neutralize ! alkali ?us1 r ?an treat+ ! lye = glyc]9e recov]y4 ,be=e ! sp5t lye c be run into ! evaporator x is necess>y to remove ! album9\s impurities & soap & to neutralize ! excess alkali to betwe5 exactly neutral & #j4jb alkal9ity4 ,! lye %\ld nev] be f$ into ! evaporator 9 ! acid condition4 ,9 ord] to treat ! sp5t lyes = evaporation1 !y are fir/ all[$ to cool 9 ! /orage tank1 aft] :i* any soap :i* may h sep>at$ is skimm$ (f & return$ to ! soap kettle4 ,?is lye is !n pump$ to ! treatm5t tank1 an ord9>y tank equipp$ ) "s me?od ( agitat+ ! liquor1 ei!r by a me*anical /irr]1 /eam bl[] or compress$ air1 until x is ab\t two feet f ! top4 ,aft] ! lye has be5 skimm$ (f x is ?or\ghly agitat$ & a sample tak54 ,! am\nt ( lye 9 ! tank is !n calculat$4 ,sp5t lye is ab\t #a4ji times heavi] ?an wat]1 or weighs ab\t #i p\nds to ! gallon4 ,:ile ! sample is be+ te/$ = alkal9ity x is advisable to add sulfate ( alum9a1 :i* may be dissolv+ :ile ! sample is be+ titrat$4 ,?is sub/ance %\ld be add$ 9 ! proportion ( any:]e f #f to #ad p\nds p] ?\s& p\nds ( lye1 dep5d+ ^u ! am\nt ( impurities conta9$ !re94 ,= a clean lye six p\nds p] ?\s& is suffici5t1 b = an impure lye a great] quantity is necess>y4 ,! sulfate ( alum9a us$ %\ld be free f ars5ic & sulfides & %\ld conta9 a m9imum am\nt ( grit 7silica71 z grit r$uces ! life ( ! pump valves4 ,?is may be e/imat$ ) suffici5t accuracy by rubb+ ! filt]$-(f portions1 insoluble 9 wat] betwe5 ! f+]s & a plate ( glass4 ,! object ( add+ ! sulfate ( alum9a is to trans=m ! soap conta9$ 9 ! lye into ! insoluble alum9um soaps1 & at ! same "t to coagulate ! album9\s impurities4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! sulfate ( alum9a is add$ only = ! fre% lye put into ! tank4 ,?us if !re 7 #aj1jjj p\nds ( lye 9 ! treat+ tank :5 ! fre% lye 0 run 91 & #ej1jjj p\nds :5 ! tank is fill$1 add+ n9e p\nds ( sulfate ( alum9a p] ?\s& ( lye1 only #cfj p\nds w\ld be add$ or en\gh = #dj1jjj p\nds4 ,sulfate ( alum9a neutralizes "o-?ird ( its weight ( cau/ic4 ,to det]m9e ! alkali 9 ! sample1 #aj cubic c5timet]s are pipett$ into a beak]1 a little di/ill$ wat] add$1 !n #c or #d drops ( ph5olph?ale9 indicator4 ,f a burette1 qu>t] normal 7,n_/#d7 sulfuric acid is add$ until ! p9k color is j dis*>g$4 ,:5 ?is po9t is rea*$ #d to #e c4 c4 m ( acid are add$ & ! solution is boil$ to expel ! c>bon dioxide4 ,%\ld ! solution turn p9k1 x is necess>y to add m acid4 ,aft] hav+ boil$ = #c to #d m9utes1 ,n_/#d cau/ic soda is add$ until ! p9k color j returns & ! am\nt ( cau/ic soda us$ is read on ! burette4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s ( ,n_/#d sulfuric acid & ,n_/#d cau/ic soda gives ! am\nt ( alkali 9 ! sample4 ,by us+ a #aj c4 c4 sample & ,n_/#d sulfuric acid & ,n_/#d cau/ic soda ea* c4 c4 obta9$ by ! diff]5ce ( ^! two solutions is equal to "o-t5? ( "o p] c5t4 7#j4a7 ( ! total alkali 9 ! lye4 ,z an example1 say we fir/ us$ #g4g c4 c4 ( ,n_/#d sulfuric acid to j dis*>ge ! p9k1 !n add$ #d c4 c4 m1 or #aa4g c4 c4 9 total4 ,aft] boil+ x requir$ #e4c c4 c4 to br+ back a slight p9k1 ! total alkal9ity w\ld be #aa4g c4 c4 - #e4c c4 c4 #f4d c4 c41 or #j4fd total alkali 9 ! lye 9 t]ms ( cau/ic soda4 ,if !re 7 #dj1jjj p\nds ( lye to be treat$ !n we %\ld h to neutralize3 #dj1jjj x 4#jjfd #bef lbs4 alkali4 ,s9ce sulfate ( alum9a neutralizes "o-?ird ( its weight 9 cau/ic1 & !re are say #i lbs4 ( ?is add$ p] ?\s& p\nds ( lye we w\ld add #dj1jjj x #i #cfj lbs4 ( sulfate ( alum9a4 ,?is w\ld neutralize #cfj x #a_/c #abj lbs ( alkali4 ,!re are !n #bef - #abj #acf lbs4 ( alkali /ill to be neutraliz$4 ,if #fj;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid is us$ x requires ab\t #a4ed lbs4 ( acid to "o p\nd ( cau/ic4 ,!re=e to neutralize ! cau/ic soda rema9+ x requires3 #acf x #a4ed #bji4dd lbs4 #fj;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid to neutralize ! total alkali 9 ! #dj1jjj p\nds ( sp5t lye4 ,! acid is add$ & ! lye well /irr$1 aft] :i* ano!r sample is tak5 & aga9 titrat$ z be=e4 ,f ?is titration ! am\nt ( acid to be add$ is aga9 calculat$ & m acid is add$ if necess>y4 ,%\ld too mu* acid h be5 add$1 cau/ic soda solution is add$ until ! lye is betwe5 exactly neutral & #j4jb alkal9e4 ,! filt]$ lyes at ?is /age h a slight yell[i% ca/4 ,to be sure t ! lyes are treat$ correctly ! precipitation te/ is advisable4 ,to c>ry ?is out filt] ab\t #ej c4 c4 ( ! treat$ lye & divide into two portions 9 a te/ tube4 ,to "o portion add ammonia drop by drop4 ,if a cl\d9ess develops ^u %ak+1 m alkali is add$ to ! lye 9 ! tank4 ,to ! o!r portion add a few drops ( #a to #e sulfuric acid & %ake ! te/ tube4 ,if a precipitate develops or ! solution cl\ds1 m acid is ne$$4 ,:5 ! lyes are treat$ "r no cl\d9ess %\ld develop ei!r ^u add+ ammonia or ! dilute acid4 ,! prop]ly treat$ lye is !n run ?r\gh ! filt] press :ile slightly w>m & ! filt]$ lye is f$ to ! evaporator f ! filt]$ lye tank4 ,! lye com+ f ! filt] press %\ld be cle> & h a slight yell[i% ca/4 ,z ! pressure increases x is necess>y to clean ! press or "s ( ! press cake w pass ?r\gh ! clo?s4 ,:]e sodium silicate is us$ z a fill]1 ! silicate scrap %\ld nev] be return$ to ! soap kettle until ! glyc]9e lyes h be5 )drawn4 ,?is practice ( "s soapmak]s is to be /rongly c5sur$1 z x causes decid$ difficulty 9 filt]+ ! lye1 s9ce dur+ ! treatm5t ( ! lye1 free silicic acid 9 colloidal =m is produc$ by ! decomposition ( ! sodium silicate by acid4 ,?is (t5 prev5ts filt]+ ! treat$ lye ev5 at excess pressure & at its be/ ret>ds ! filt]+4 ,z to ! filt] press cake1 ?is may be be/ ?r[n away 9 a small factory4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 ! output ( glyc]9e is v l>ge x pays to recov] bo? ! fatty acids & alum9a 9 ! press cakes4 ,9 "s cases1 especially :5 ! lyes are v dirty & ! total residue 9 ! crude glyc]9e runs high1 = :i* !re is a p5alty usually atta*$1 a d\ble filtration ( ! lye is advisable4 ,?is is c>ri$ out by fir/ mak+ ! lye slightly acid 9 reaction by ! addition ( alum & acid1 !n filt]+4 ,?is filt]$ lye is !n neutraliz$ to ! prop] po9t ) cau/ic1 z already describ$1 & pass$ ?r\gh ! filt] press aga94 ,:ile 9 ! me?od ( treat+ ! lyes z giv5 sulfuric acid is us$ = neutraliz+1 "s op]ators pref] to use hydro*loric acid1 z ?is =ms sodium *loride or common salt1 :]eas sulfuric acid =ms sodium sulfate1 hav+ #c_/e ! gra9+ p[] ( salt1 :i* ev5tually r5d]s ! salt useless = gra9+ ! soap1 z ! p]c5tage ( sodium sulfate increases 9 ! salt4 ,:5 ! salt conta9s #be p] c5t4 sodium sulfate x is advisable to ?r[ x away4 ,sulfuric acid1 h[ev]1 is consid]ably *eap] ?an hydro*loric & ?is m ?an comp5sates ! necessity ( hav+ to ev5tually reject ! recov]$ salt4 ,x may "h also be m5tion$ t recov]$ salt conta9s #e-g p] c5t4 glyc]9e :i* %\ld be wa%$ out 9 ! evaporator be=e x is ?r[n away4 ,! foll[+ tables give ! approximate !oretical am\nts ( acids ( v>i\s /r5g?s requir$ to neutralize "o p\nd ( cau/ic soda3 ,= #a p\nd ( cau/ic soda-- #c4be lbs4 #ah;deg4 ,b4 hydro*loric 7muriatic7 acid are requir$4 #b4ib #bj;deg4 ,b4 #b4eh #bb;deg4 ,b4 ,= #a p\nd ( cau/ic soda-- #a4ic lbs4 #ej;deg4 ,b4 sulphuric acid are requir$4 #a4ed #fj;deg4 ,b4 #a4bh #ff;deg4 ,b4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 feasible to neutralize ! sp5t lye )\t fir/ det]m9+ ! cau/icity by titrat+ a sample & ?is is (t5 ! case4 ,! op]ator "u su* conditions fir/ adds ! sulfate ( alum9a1 !n ! acid1 us+ litmus pap] z 8 indicator4 ,comp>atively1 ?is me?od ( treatm5t is mu* sl[] & n z positive1 z ! am\nt ( acid or alkali to be add$ is at all times unc]ta91 = 9 ! foam+ ( ! lyes _! action on litmus is mislead+4 ,aft] ! lye has be5 filt]$ to ! filt]$ lye tank x is f$ to ! evaporator1 ! me?od ( op]ation ( :i* v>ies some:at ) diff]5t /yles or makes4 ,:5 x fir/ ent]s ! evaporator ! lye is ab\t #aa;deg4-#ab;deg4 ,b4 ,aft] boil+ ! d5sity w gradually rise to #bg;deg4 ,b4 & rema9 at ?is gravity = "s "t & dur+ :i* "t mo/ ( ! salt is dropp$ out 9 ! salt filt]4 ,z ! lye conc5trates ! gravity gradually rises to #bh;deg4-#cj;deg4 ,b41 :i* is half crude glyc]9e & conta9s ab\t #fj p] c5t4 glyc]9e4 ,"s op]ators c>ry ! evaporation to ?is po9t & accumulate a quantity ( half crude be=e go+ on to crude4 ,aft] half crude is obta9$ ! temp]ature on ! evaporator increases1 ! vacuum increases & ! pressure on ! cond5sation dra9 goes up 7us+ ! same am\nt ( live /eam74 ,z ! liquor gr[s heavi] ! am\nt ( evaporation is less1 & less /eam is requir$ necessitat+ ! regulation ( ! /eam pressure on ! drum4 ,:5 a temp]ature ( #baj;deg4 ,f4 on ! evaporator1 ) #bf or m in*es vacuum on ! pump is arriv$ at1 ! crude /age has be5 rea*$ & ! liquor n[ conta9s ab\t #hj p] c5t4 glyc]9e 9 :i* %ape x is usually sold by soap manufactur]s4 ,a great] conc5tration requires m intricate app>atus4 ,aft] settl+ a day 9 ! crude tank x is drumm$4 ,crude glyc]9e 7ab\t #hj p] c5t4 glyc]ol7 free f salt is #cc;deg4 ,b41 or has a specific gravity ( #a4c4 ,a sample boil$ 9 an op5 di% boils at a temp]ature ( #aee;deg4 ,c4 or ov]4 ,,twit*ell ,,process4 ,! ,twit*ell process ( saponification consi/s ( caus+ an almo/ complete cleavage ( fats & oils by ! use ( ! ,twit*ell reag5t or saponifi]1 a sulfo-aromatic comp\nd4 ,?is is made by ! action ( conc5trat$ sulfuric acid ^u a solution ( oleic acid or /e>ic acid 9 an aromatic hydroc>bon4 ,f #j4e p] c5t4 to #c p] c5t4 ( ! reag5t is add$ & saponification takes place f #ab-dh h\rs by heat+ 9 a curr5t ( live /eam4 ,! reaction is usually accel]at$ by ! pres5ce ( a few p] c5t4 ( free fatty acids z a />t]4 ,rec5tly ! ,twit*ell d\ble reag5t has be5 introduc$ ?r\gh :i* x is claim$ t bett] color$ fatty acids are obta9$ & ! glyc]9e is free f a%4 ,! advantages claim$ = ! ,twit*ell process z outl9$ by ,josl9#ab are z foll[s3 #a4 ,all ! glyc]9e is sep>at$ f ! /ock be=e ent]+ ! kettle1 prev5t+ loss ( glyc]9e 9 ! soap & remov+ glyc]9e f sp5t lye4 #b4 ,! liquors conta9 #ae-bj p] c5t4 glyc]9e :]eas sp5t lyes conta9 b #c-e p] c5t4 necessitat+ less evaporation & consequ5tly be+ m economical 9 /eam1 labor & "t4 #c4 ,no salt is obta9$ 9 ! liquors :i* makes ! evaporation *eap] & removes ! cause ( corrosion ( ! evaporator2 also saves ! glyc]9e reta9$ by ! salt4 #d4 ,! glyc]9e liquors are pur] & ?us ! treatm5t ( ! lyes is *eap] & simpl] & ! evaporation less difficult4 #e4 ,! glyc]9e c readily be evaporat$ to #ij p] c5t4 crude r ?an #hj p] c5t4 crude1 ?us sav+ drums1 labor 9 h&l+ & freight4 ,! glyc]9e fur!rmore receives a high] rat+ & price1 be+ kn[n z saponification crude :i* develops no glycols 9 ref9+ x4 #f4 ,! fatty acids obta9$ by ! ,twit*ell saponifi] may be conv]t$ into soap by c>bonates1 ?us sav+ co/ 9 alkali4 #g4 ,!re is a decrease 9 ! odor ( _m /rong smell+ /ocks4 #h4 ,! glyc]9e may be obta9$ f half boil$ & cold made soaps z well z s(t 7pota%7 soaps4 ,:ile ! advantages ?us outl9$ are ( decid$ value 9 ! employm5t ( ! ,twit*ell process1 ! "o great disadvantage is t ! fatty acids obta9$ are r d>k 9 color & are n satisfactorily employ$ = ! mak+ ( a soap :]e :it5ess ( color is desir$4 ,to c>ry out ! process ! previ\sly heat$ oil or fat to be saponifi$ is run into a lead l9$ tank4 ,z greases & tall[ (t5 conta9 impurities a prelim9>y treatm5t ) sulfuric acid is necess>y4 ,= a grease #a4be p] c5t4 ( half wat] & half #ff;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid is ! approximate am\nt4 ,! undilut$ #ff;deg4 ,b4 acid %\ld nev] be add$ directly1 z ! grease w\ld be *>r$ by ?is4 ,! grease %\ld be agitat$ by /eam aft] ! requir$ p]c5tage ( acid1 calculat$ on ! weight ( ! grease1 has be5 add$4 ,! wa% lye com+ (f %\ld be #g;deg4-#aj;deg4 ,b4 on a good clean grease or #ae;deg4-#bb;deg4 ,b4 on cotton oil or a poor grease4 ,z has be5 /at$ ! grease is heat$ be=e ! acid is add$ or ! cond5sation ( ! /eam necessitates ! addition ( m acid4 ,aft] hav+ boil$ = #a-b h\rs ! grease is all[$ to settle = #ab h\rs & run (f ?r\gh a swivel pipe4 ,aft] ! grease has be5 wa%$1 z j expla9$1 & settl$1 x is pump$ into a cov]$ wood5 tank conta9+ an op5 brass coil4 ,"s ( ! second lye f a previ\s run is usually left 9 ?is tank & ! grease pump$ into ?is4 ,! am\nt ( ?is lye %\ld be ab\t "o-?ird to "o-half ! weight ( ! grease s t !re is ab\t #fj p] c5t4 by weight ( grease 9 ! tank aft] #bd h\rs boil+4 ,:]e occasions arise :5 !re is no second lye ab\t #ej p] c5t4 by weight ( di/ill$ wat] to ! am\nt ( grease is run into ! tank to replace ! lye4 ,! saponifi] is !n add$ ?r\gh a glass or granite w>e funnel aft] ! cont5ts ( ! tank h be5 br\ght to a boil4 ,if ! boil+ is to be cont9u$ #dh h\rs1 #a p] c5t4 ( saponifi] is add$4 ,= #bd h\rs boil+ add #a4e p] c5t4 ,! boil+ is cont9u$ = #bd-dh h\rs all[+ #ah in*es = boil+ room or ! grease w boil ov]4 ,aft] boil+ has cont9u$ ! requir$ l5g? ( "t ! mass is settl$ & ! glyc]9e wat] is drawn (f to ! treatm5t tank4 ,%\ld a p]man5t emulsion h =m$1 due to add+ too great an am\nt ( saponifi]1 a little sulfuric acid 7#j4a p] c5t4-#j4c p] c5t47 w readily break ?is4 ,dur+ ! "t ?is is be+ done ! space betwe5 ! grease & ! cov] on ! tank is kept fill$ ) /eam z contact ) ! air d>k5s ! fatty acids4 ,to ! grease rema9+ 9 ! tank di/ill$ wat] 7cond5s$ wat] f /eam coils7 to "o-half its volume is add$ & ! boil+ cont9u$ #ab-bd h\rs4 ,! grease is !n settl$ & ! cle> grease run (f ?r\gh a swivel pipe4 ,a lay] ( emulsion usually =ms betwe5 ! cle> grease & lye s t x may easily be det]m9$ :5 ! grease has all be5 run (f4 ,to prev5t discoloration ( ! fatty acids x is necess>y to neutralize ! lye ) b>ium c>bonate4 ,! am\nt ( ?is to be add$ dep5ds ^u ! p]c5tage ( saponifi] us$4 ,ab\t #a_/aj ! weight ( saponifi] is ! "r am\nt4 ,! b>ium c>bonate is add$ ?r\gh ! funnel at ! top ( ! tank mix$ ) a little wat] & ! lye te/$ until x is neutral to me?yl orange indicator4 ,:5 ! fatty acids are ?us treat$ !y w n d>k5 ^u exposure to ! air :5 run (f4 ,fre% grease is n[ pump$ into ! lye or wat] rema9+ 9 ! tank & ! process repeat$4 ,! glyc]9e wat] or fir/ lye is run to ! treatm5t tank1 ! fat skimm$ (f & neutraliz$ ) lime until x %[s p9k ) ph5olph?ale91 aft] hav+ be5 ?or\ghly boil$ ) /eam4 ,ab\t #j4be p] c5t4 lime is ! prop] am\nt to add4 ,! mixture is !n all[$ to settle & ! sup]natant mixture drawn (f & run to ! glyc]9e evaporator fe$ tank4 ,! lime :i* holds consid]able glyc]9e is filt]$ & ! liquor add$ to ! o!r4 ,! evaporation is c>ri$ out 9 two /ages4 ,! glyc]9e wat] is fir/ evaporat$ to ab\t #fj p] c5t4 glyc]ol1 !n dropp$ into a settl+ tank to settle out ! calcium sulfate4 ,! cle> liquor is !n evaporat$ to crude 7ab\t #ij p] c5t4 glyc]9e7 & ! s$im5t filt]$ & also evaporat$ to crude4 ,z to ! am\nt ( saponifi] to use on v>i\s /ocks1 ?is is be/ det]m9$ by exp]im5t z to h[ high a p]c5tage gives d>k color$ fatty acids4 ,= good /ock su* z clean tall[1 prime cottonse$ oil1 corn oil1 cocoanut oil & /ock ( ?is k9d #j4ge p] c5t4 saponifi] is suffici5t4 ,= poor] grades ( tall[1 h\se grease1 poor cottonse$ oil1 etc41 #a p] c5t4 saponifi] is requir$ & = poor] grade greases high] p]c5tages4 ,! p]c5tage ( fatty acids develop$ v>ies 9 v>i\s /ocks1 & also v>ies ) ! c>e t ! op]ation is c>ri$ out1 b is usually betwe5 #he p] c5t4-#ie p] c5t4 ,due to ! wat] tak5 up 9 ! saponification process !re is a yield ( ab\t #ajc p\nds ( fatty acids & glyc]9e = #ajj p\nds ( fat4 ,! ,twit*ell reag5t has und\bt$ly caus$ a decid$ advance 9 ! saponification ( fats & oils & has be5 ( great value to ! soap manufactur]1 because ) a small exp5diture x is possible to compete ) ! mu* m exp5sive equipm5t necess>y = autoclave saponification4 ,! drawback1 h[ev]1 has be5 t ! reag5t imp>t$ a d>k color to ! fatty acids obta9$1 due to decomposition products =m+ :5 ! reag5t is made1 & h5ce is n suitable = use 9 soaps :]e :it5ess ( color is desir$4 ,!re h rec5tly be5 two new reag5ts introduc$ :i* act z catalyz]s 9 splitt+ fats1 j z ! ,twit*ell reag5t acts1 b ! fatty acids produc$ by ! cleavage are ( good color4 ,! saponification1 fur!rmore1 takes place m rapidly4 ,^! are ! ,pfeilr+ reag5t & ,kontact reag5t4 ,! ,pfeilr+ reag5t is v simil> to ! ,twit*ell reag5t1 be+ made f hydrog5at$ ca/or oil & naph?al5e by sulfonation ) conc5trat$ sulfuric acid4 ,x is manufactur$ 9 ,g]many & is be+ ext5sively us$ 9 t c\ntry ) good success4 ,! ,kontact or ,petr(f reag5t1 discov]$ by ,petr(f 9 ,russia1 is made f sulfonat$ m9]al oils4 ,until v rec5tly x has only be5 manufactur$ 9 ,europe1 b n[ t x has be5 f\nd possible to obta9 ! prop] m9]al con/itu5t f ,am]ican petroleum1 x is be+ manufactur$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & x is v probable t x w replace ! ,twit*ell reag5t because ( ! advantages d]iv$ by us+ x1 z comp>$ to ! old ,twit*ell reag5t4 ,! me?od & equipm5t necess>y = employ+ ei!r ! ,pfeilr+ or ,kontact reag5ts is exactly ! same z 9 us+ ! ,twit*ell process4 ,,autoclave ,,saponification4 ,:ile ! introduction ( ! ,twit*ell process to a great ext5t replac$ ! autoclave me?od ( saponification = obta9+ fatty acids = soap mak+1 ! autoclave me?od is also us$4 ,?is process consi/s 9 heat+ ! previ\sly purifi$ fat or oil 9 ! pres5ce ( lime & wat]1 or wat] only1 = sev]al h\rs1 :i* causes a splitt+ ( ! glyc]ides into fatty acids & glyc]9e4 ,! advantage ( autoclave saponification ov] ! ,twit*ell process is t a great] cleavage ( ! fats & oils results 9 less "t & at a slightly less exp5se4 ,! glyc]9e ?us obta9$ is also pur] & ( bett] color ?an t obta9$ by ,twit*ell+ ! fats4 ,an autoclave or dige/or consi/s ( a /rongly con/ruct$1 clos$ cyl9drical tank1 usually made ( copp]1 & is s built z to resi/ int]nal pressure4 ,! dige/or is usually #c to #e feet 9 diamet] & f #ah to #be feet high4 ,x may be set up horizontally or v]tically & is cov]$ ) an asbe/os jacket to reta9 ! heat4 ,v>i\s inlets & outlets = ! fats1 /eam1 etc41 z well z a pressure gauge & safety valve are also a necess>y "p ( ! equipm5t4 ,,lime ,,saponification4 ,! saponification 9 an autoclave is usually c>ri$ out by introduc+ ! fats into ! autoclave ) a p]c5tage ( lime1 magnesia or z9c oxide1 toge!r ) wat]4 ,if ! fats conta9 any great am\nt ( impurities1 x is fir/ necess>y to purify !m ei!r by a treatm5t ) weak sulfuric acid1 z describ$ "u ! ,twit*ell process1 or by boil+ !m up ) br9e & settl+ out ! impurities f ! hot fat4 ,to *>ge ! autoclave a p>tial vacuum is creat$ !re9 by cond5sation ( /eam j be=e runn+ ! purifi$ oil 9 f an elevat$ tank4 ,! requir$ quantity ( unslak$ lime1 #b to #d p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! fat1 is run 9 ) ! molt5 fat1 toge!r ) #cj p] c5t4 to #ej p] c5t4 ( wat]4 ,:ile #h4g p] c5t4 lime is !oretically requir$1 practice has %[n t #b p] c5t4 to #d p] c5t4 is suffici5t4 ,! dige/or1 hav+ be5 *>g$ & adju/$1 /eam is turn$ on & a pressure ( #h to #aj atmosph]es ma9ta9$ !reon = a p]iod ( six to t5 h\rs4 ,samples ( ! fat are tak5 at v>i\s int]vals & ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acids det]m9$4 ,:5 ! saponification is complet$ ! cont5ts ( ! autoclave are remov$1 usually by bl[+ out ! dige/or into a wood5 settl+ tank1 or by fir/ runn+ (f ! glyc]9e wat] & !n bl[+ out ! lime1 soap & fatty acids4 ,! mass dis*>g$ f ! dige/or sep>ates into two lay]s1 ! upp] consi/+ ( a mixture ( lime soap or rock & fatty acids1 & ! l[] lay] conta9s ! glyc]9e or sweet wat]4 ,! glyc]9e wat] is fir/ run (f ?r\gh a cle>+ tank or oil sep>ator1 if ?is has n be5 done directly f ! autoclave1 & ! mass rema9+ wa%$ once or twice m ) wat] to remove any glyc]9e /ill reta9$ by ! lime soap4 ,! calculat$ am\nt ( sulfuric acid to decompose ! lime rock is !n add$1 & ! mass agitat$ until ! fatty acids conta9$ !re9 are entirely set free4 ,ano!r small wa% is !n giv5 & ! wa% wat] add$ to ! glyc]9e wat] already run (f4 ,! glyc]9e wat] is neutraliz$ ) lime1 filt]$ & conc5trat$ z 9 ! ,twit*ell process4 ,due to ! difficulties ( work+ ! autoclave saponification ) lime1 decompos+ ! l>ge am\nt ( lime soap obta9$ & deal+ ) mu* gypsum =m$ !reby :i* collects z a s$im5t & necessitates clean+ ! tanks1 o!r sub/ances are us$ to replace lime4 ,magnesia1 ab\t #b p] c5t4 ( ! weight ( ! fat1 is us$ & gives bett] results ?an lime4 ,"o-half to #a p] c5t4 ( z9c oxide ( ! weight ( ! fat is ev5 bett] adapt$ & is n[ be+ ext5sively employ$ = ?is purpose4 ,9 us+ z9c oxide x is possible to recov] ! z9c salts & use !m ov] aga9 9 ! dige/or1 :i* makes ! process z *eap to "w z ) lime1 ) f> m satisfactory results4 ,,acid ,,saponification4 ,:ile x is possible to saponify fats & oils 9 an autoclave ) ! addition ( acid to ! fat1 unless a specially-con/ruct$ dige/or is built1 ! action ( ! acid on ! metal f :i* ! autoclave is con/ruct$ prohibits its use4 ,! acid saponification is !re=e c>ri$ out by ano!r me?od4 ,! me?od ( proc$ure = acid saponification1 !re=e1 is to fir/ purify ! fats ) dilute acid z already describ$4 ,! purifi$1 hot or w>m1 dry fat is !n run to a specially-built acidifi] or a lead-l9$ tank & f #d p] c5t4 to #f p] c5t4 ( conc5trat$ sulfuric acid add$ to ! fat1 dep5d+ ^u its "*1 ! degree ( saponification requir$1 temp]ature & "t ( saponification4 ,a temp]ature ( #aaj degrees ,c4 is ma9ta9$ & ! mass mix$ f f\r to six h\rs4 ,! tank is !n all[$ to settle out ! t> =m$ dur+ ! saponification1 & ! fatty acids run (f to ano!r tank & boil$ up ab\t ?ree times ) "o-?ird ! am\nt ( wat]4 ,! wat] ?us obta9$ conta9s ! glyc]9e1 & aft] neutralization is conc5trat$4 ,,aque\s ,,saponification4 ,:ile lime or a simil> sub/ance is ord9>ily us$ to aid 9 splitt+ fats 9 an autoclave1 ! old wat] process is /ill us$4 ,?is is a conv5i5t1 ?\gh sl[] & m dang]\s me?od1 ( produc+ ! hydrolysis ( ! glyc]ide1 z well z ! simple/ 9 t fatty acids & glyc]9e 9 a wat] solution are obta9$4 ,! me?od consi/s 9 m]ely *>g+ ! autoclave ) fats & add+ ab\t #cj p] c5t4 to #dj p] c5t4 ( _! weight ( wat]1 dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( free fatty acid & subject+ ! *>ge to a pressure ( #aej to #cjj p\nds1 until ! splitt+ has tak5 place4 ,?is is a mu* high] pressure ?an :5 lime is us$ & !re=e a v /rong autoclave is requir$4 ,s9ce fatty acids & pure glyc]9e wat] are obta9$ no subsequ5t treatm5t ( ! f9i%$ *>ge is necess>y except sep>at+ ! glyc]9e wat] & giv+ ! fatty acids a wa% ) wat] to remove all ! glyc]9e f !m4 ,,splitt+ ,,fats ,,) ,,f]m5ts4 ,9 discuss+ ! causes ( rancidity ( oils & fats x 0 po9t$ out t ! initial splitt+ ( ^! is due to enzymes1 organiz$ f]m5ts4 ,9 ! se$s ( ! ca/or oil plant1 especially 9 ! protoplasm ( ! se$1 ! enzyme :i* has ! prop]ty ( caus+ hydrolysis ( ! glyc]ides is f\nd4 ,! f]m5t f ! se$s ( ! ca/or oil plant is n[ extract$ & us$ ^u a comm]cial basis = splitt+ fats4 ,! equipm5t necess>y to c>ry out ?is me?od ( saponification is a r\nd1 iron1 lead-l9$ tank ) a conical bottom1 pref]ably ab\t twice z long z x is wide4 ,op5 & clos$ /eam coils are also necess>y 9 ! tank4 ,! oils are fir/ heat$ & run into ?is tank4 ,! "r temp]ature to heat ^! to is ab\t #a degree to #b degrees above _! solidification po9t4 ,= liquid oils #bc degrees ,c4 is ! prop] heat z "u #bj degrees ,c4 ! cleavage takes place sl[ly4 ,fats tit]+ #dd degrees ,c4 or above mu/ be br\ght d[n 9 tit] by mix+ ) !m oils ( a l[] tit] z ! f]m5t or enzyme is kill$ at ab\t #de degrees ,c4 & ?us loses its p[] ( splitt+4 ,x is also necess>y to h ! fat 9 ! liquid /ate or ! f]m5t does n act4 ,! prop] temp]ature mu/ be ma9ta9$ ) dry /eam4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y to add wat]1 :i* may be any k9d desir$1 cond5s$1 wat] f /eam coils1 well1 city1 etc4 ,f #cj p] c5t4 to #dj p] c5t41 on ! av]age #ce p] c5t4 ( wat] is add$1 z ! am\nt necess>y is regulat$ s z to n dilute ! glyc]9e wat] unnecess>ily4 ,to increase ! hydrolysis a catalyz]1 "s neutral salt1 usually manganese sulfate is add$ 9 ! proportion ( #j4ae p] c5t4 appe>s to v>y directly z ! saponification numb] ( ! fat or oil4 ,! approximate p]c5tages ( f]m5tive sub/ance to be add$ to v>i\s oils & fats foll[3 ,cocoanut oil #h ,palm ,k]nel oil #h ,cottonse$ oil #f-g ,l9se$ oil #d-e ,tall[ oil #h-aj ,! oil1 wat]1 manganese sulfate & f]m5t hav+ be5 plac$ 9 ! tank 9 ! ord] nam$1 ! mixture is agitat$ ) air = ab\t a qu>t] ( an h\r to =m an ev5 emulsion1 9 :i* /ate ! mass is kept by /irr+ occasionally ) air :ile ! saponification is tak+ place4 ,a temp]ature is ma9ta9$ a degree or two above ! tit] po9t ( ! fat ) clos$ /eam :i* may be aid$ by cov]+ ! tank = a p]iod ( #bd to #dh h\rs4 ,! splitt+ takes place rapidly at fir/1 !n proce$s m sl[ly4 ,9 #bd h\rs #hj p] c5t4 ( ! fats are split & 9 #dh h\rs #he p] c5t4 to #ij p] c5t4 ,:5 ! cleavage has rea*$ ! desir$ po9t ! mass is heat$ to #hj degrees-#he degrees ,c4 ) live or indirect /eam :ile /irr+ ) air4 ,!n #j4a p] c5t4-#j4ae p] c5t ( conc5trat$ sulfuric acid dilut$ ) wat] is add$ to break ! emulsion4 ,:5 ! emulsion is brok5 ! glyc]9e wat] is all[$ to settle out & drawn (f4 ,! glyc]9e wat] conta9s #ab p] c5t4 to #be p] c5t4 glyc]9e & conta9s manganese sulfate1 sulfuric acid & album9\s matt]4 ,?r\gh neutralization ) lime at boil+ temp]ature & filtration ! impurities c almo/ all be remov$ aft] :i* ! glyc]9e wat] may be f$ to ! evaporator4 ,%\ld x be desir$ to ov]come ! tr\ble due to ! gypsum =m$ 9 ! glyc]9e1 ! lime treatm5t may be comb9$ ) a previ\s treatm5t ( ! glyc]9e wat] ) b>ium hydrate to remove ! sulfuric acid1 !n lat] oxalic acid to precipitate ! lime4 ,! fatty acids obta9$ by splitt+ ) f]m5ts are ( v good color & adaptable = soap mak+4 ,,krebitz ,,process4 ,! ,krebitz process :i* has be5 us$ to "s ext5t 9 ,europe is bas$ ^u ! conv]sion ( ! fat or oil into lime soap :i* is trans=m$ into ! soda soap by ! addition ( sodium c>bonate4 ,to c>ry out ! process a conv5i5t bat* (1 say1 #aj1jjj p\nds ( fat or oil1 is run into a %all[ kettle conta9+ #a1bjj to #a1djj p\nds ( lime previ\sly slak$ ) #c1gjj to #d1ejj p\nds ( wat]4 ,! mass is sl[ly heat$ ) live /eam to almo/ boil+ until an emulsion is obta9$4 ,! tank is !n cov]$ & all[$ to /& ab\t #ab h\rs4 ,! lime soap ?us =m$ is dropp$ f ! tank into ! hopp] ( a mill1 f9ely gr\nd & convey$ to a lee*+ tank4 ,! glyc]9e is wa%$ out & ! glyc]9e wat] run to a tank = evaporation4 ,! soap is !n fur!r wa%$ & ^! wa%+s are run to o!r tanks to be us$ ov] aga9 to wa% a fre% bat* ( soap4 ,ab\t #aej1jjj p\nds ( wat] w wa% ! soap made f #aj1jjj p\nds ( fat :i* makes betwe5 #ae1jjj & #af1jjj p\nds ( soap4 ,! fir/ wa% conta9s approximately #aj p] c5t4 glyc]9e & "u ord9>y circum/ances ?is only ne$ be evaporat$ = glyc]9e recov]y4 ,aft] extract+ ! glyc]9e ! soap is sl[ly introduc$ into a boil+ solution ( sodium c>bonate or soda a% & boil$ until ! soda has replac$ ! lime4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! disappe>ance ( ! small lumps ( lime soap4 ,cau/ic soda is !n add$ to saponify ! fat n conv]t$ by ! lime saponification4 ,! soap is !n salt$ out & all[$ to settle out ! calcium c>bonate4 ,?is drops to ! bottom ( ! kettle z a heavy sludge entangl+ ab\t #aj p] c5t4 ( ! soap4 ,a portion ( ?is soap may be recov]$ by agitat+ ! sludge ) heat & wat]1 pump+ ! soap (f ! top & filt]+ ! rema9+ sludge4 ,:ile ! soap ?us obta9$ is v good1 ! p]c5tage ( glyc]9e recov]$ is greatly increas$ & ! co/ ( alkali z c>bonate is less4 ,! disadvantages are _m4 ,l>ge quantities ( lime are requir$2 x is difficult to recov] ! soap f ! lime sludge2 ! op]ations are num]\s prior to ! soap mak+ prop] & r complicat$ app>atus is requir$4 ,,di/illation ,,( ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,! fatty acids obta9$ by v>i\s me?ods ( saponification may be fur!r improv$ by di/illation4 ,9 ord] to c>ry out ?is di/illation1 two me?ods may be pursu$1 fir/1 ! cont9u\s me?od1 :]eby ! fatty acids are cont9ually di/ill$ = five to six days1 &1 second1 ! two phase me?od1 :]eby ! di/illation cont9ues = #af to #bj h\rs1 aft] :i* ! residue is drawn (f1 treat$ ) acid1 & its di/illate add$ to a fre% *>ge ( fatty acids4 ,! latt] me?od is by f> ! be/1 s9ce ! advantages d]iv$ by ?us proce$+ m ?an comp5sate ! necessity ( clean+ ! /ill4 ,bett] color$ fatty acids are obta9$2 less unsaponifiable matt] is conta9$ !re92 !re is no accumulation ( impurities2 ! am\nt ( neutral fat is less5$ because ! treatm5t ( ! t> ) acid causes a cleavage ( ! neutral fat & ! c&le t> or pit* obta9$ is h>d] & bett] & ?us m valuable4 ,! /ills are usually built ( copp]1 :i* are heat$ by bo? direct fire & sup]heat$ /eam4 ,di/illation "u vacuum is advisable4 ,to beg9 ! di/ill+ op]ation1 ! /ill is fir/ fill$ ) dry hot fatty acids to ! prop] level4 ,sup]heat$ /eam is !n admitt$ & ! cond5s] is fir/ heat$ to prev5t ! freez+ ( ! fatty acids1 pass+ ov] into same4 ,:5 ! temp]ature rea*es #bcj deg4 ,c4 ! di/illation beg9s4 ,at ! beg9n+1 ! fatty acids fl[ f ! cond5s]1 an int5se gre5 color1 due to ! =mation ( copp] soaps produc$ by ! action ( ! fatty acids on ! copp] /ill4 ,?is color may easily be remov$ by treat+ ) dilute acid to decompose ! copp] soaps4 ,9 vacuum di/illation1 ! op]ation is begun )\t ! use ( vacuum4 ,vacuum is introduc$ only :5 ! di/illation has proce$$ = a "t & ! introduction ( ?is mu/ be c>efully regulat$1 else ! rapid influ5ce ( vacuum w cause ! cont5ts ( ! /ill to ov]fl[4 ,:5 di/illation has begun a con/ant level ( fatty acids is reta9$ !re9 by op5+ ! fe$+ valve to same1 & ! heat is s regulat$ z to produce ! desir$ rate ( di/illation4 ,z soon z ! di/illate fl[s d>k] & sl[]1 ! fe$+ valve to ! /ill is %ut (f & ! di/illation cont9u$ until mo/ ( ! cont5ts ( ! /ill are di/ill$ (f1 :i* is indicat$ by a rise 9 ! temp]ature4 ,di/illation is !n discont9u$1 ! /ill %ut d[n1 & 9 ab\t an h\r ! cont5ts are suffici5tly cool to be empti$4 ,! residue is run (f into a prop] receiv+ vessel1 treat$ ) dilute acid & us$ 9 ! di/illation ( t>4 ,9 ! di/illation ( t> ! same me?od z ! above is foll[$1 only di/illation proce$s at a high] temp]ature4 ,! fir/ portion & la/ portion ( ! di/illate f t> are s d>k t x is necess>y to add !m to a fre% *>ge ( fatty acids4 ,by a well conduct$ di/illation ( t> ab\t #ej p] c5t4 ( ! fatty acids f ! t> c be us$ to mix ) ! di/ill$ fatty acids4 ,! residue ( ?is op]ation call$ /e>9e pit* or c&le t> consi/s ( a h>d1 brittle1 d>k sub/ance4 ,ela/ic pit* only results :]e di/illation has be5 kept con/ant = sev]al days )\t int]rupt+ ! process1 & re-di/ill+ ! t>4 ,9 a good di/illation ! di/illation loss is #j4e to #a4e & loss 9 pit* #a4e4 ,fatty acids :i* are n acidifi$ deliv] ab\t #c ( pit*4 ,v impure fats yield ev5 a high] p]c5tage 9 spite ( acidify+4 ,= a long "t x 0 f\nd impossible to f9d any use = /e>9e pit*1 b 9 rec5t ye>s a use has be5 f\nd = same 9 ! electrical in/allation ( cables4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,j\rn4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,*em4 7#aiji71 ,i1 p4 #fed4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,analytical ,me?ods4 ,:ile x is possible to atta9 a c]ta9 am\nt ( effici5cy 9 det]m9+ ! wor? ( ! raw mat]ial ent]+ into ! manufacture ( soap ?r\gh organoleptic me?ods1 ^! are by no means accurate4 ,x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to rev]t to *emical me?ods to correctly det]m9e ! selection ( fats1 oil or o!r sub/ances us$ 9 soap mak+1 z well z /&>diz+ a p>ticul> soap manufactur$ & to prop]ly regulate ! glyc]9e recov]$4 ,x is n our purpose to cov] 9 detail ! num]\s analytical processes :i* may be employ$ 9 ! exam9ation ( fats & oils1 alkalis1 soap & glyc]9e1 z ^! are fully & accurately cov]$ 9 v>i\s texts1 b r to give briefly ! necess>y te/s :i* ought to be c>ri$ out 9 factories :]e l>ge am\nts ( soap are made4 ,occasion (t5 arises :]e x is impossible to employ a *emi/1 yet x is possible to h ?is "w done by a compet5t p]son or to h someone in/ruct himself z j h[ to c>ry out ! m simple analyses1 :i* is n a v difficult matt]4 ,! v>i\s /&>d solutions necess>y to c>ry+ out ! simpl] titrations c readily be pur*as$ f deal]s 9 *emical app>atus & x does n take extraord9>y intellig5ce = anyone to op]ate a burette1 yet 9 _m soap plants 9 ?is c\ntry absolutely no att5tion is paid to ! exam9+ ( raw mat]ial1 ?\gh _m ?\s& p\nds are h&l$ annually1 :i*1 if !y 7 m c>efully exam9$ w\ld result 9 ! sav+ ( mu* m money ?an x co/s to exam9e !m or h !m at lea/ occasionally analyz$4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,fats ,,& ,,oils4 ,9 ord] to arrive at prop] results 9 ! analysis ( a fat or oil1 x is necess>y to h a prop] sample4 ,to obta9 ?is a sample ( sev]al ( ! packages ( oil or fat is tak5 & ^! mix$ or molt5 toge!r into a composite sample :i* is us$ 9 mak+ ! te/s4 ,if ! oil or fat is solid1 a te/] is us$ 9 tak+ ! sample f ! package & if !y are liquid1 x is a simple matt] to draw (f a uni=m sample f ea* package & f ^! to =m a composite sample4 ,9 pur*as+ an oil or fat = soap mak+1 ! manufactur] is usually int]e/$ 9 ! am\nt ( free fatty acid conta9$ !re91 ( moi/ure1 ! tit]1 ! p]c5tage ( unsaponifiable matt] & to previ\sly det]m9e ! color ( soap :i* w be obta9$ :]e color is an object4 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,free ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,s9ce ! free fatty acid cont5t ( a fat or oil repres5ts a loss ( glyc]9e1 ! great] ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid1 ! less glyc]9e is conta9$ 9 ! fat or oil1 x is advisable to pur*ase a fat or oil ) ! l[] free acid1 o!r prop]ties & ! price be+ ! same4 ,:ile ! mean molecul> weight ( ! mix$ free fatty acids v>ies ) ! same & diff]5t oils or fats & %\ld be det]m9$ = any p>ticul> analysis = accuracy1 ! free fatty acid is usually express$ z oleic acid1 :i* has a molecul> weight ( #bhb4 ,to c>ry out ! analysis #e to #bj grams ( ! fat are weigh$ out into an ,erl5mey] flask & #ej cubic c5timet]s ( c>efully neutraliz$ alcohol are add$4 ,9 ord] to neutralize ! alcohol add a few drops ( ph5olph?ale9 solution to same & add a weak cau/ic soda solution drop by drop until a v fa9t p9k color is obta9$ ^u %ak+ or /irr+ ! alcohol ?or\ghly4 ,! mixture ( fat & neutraliz$ alcohol is !n heat$ to boil+ & titrat$ ) t5? normal alkali solution1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator4 ,z only ! free fatty acids are readily soluble 9 ! alcohol & ! fat itself only slightly mixes ) x1 ! flask %\ld be well agitat$ t[>d ! end ( ! titration4 ,:5 a fa9t p9k color rema9s aft] ?or\ghly agitat+ ! flask ! end po9t is rea*$4 ,9 ord] to calculate ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid z oleic acid1 multiply ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s ( t5? normal alkali us$ z read on ! burette by #j4jbhb & divide by ! numb] ( grams ( fat tak5 = ! det]m9ation & multiply by #ajj4 ,:5 d>k color$ oils or fats are be+ titrat$ x is (t5 difficult to obta9 a good end po9t ) ph5olph?ale94 ,9 su* cases ab\t #b cubic c5timet]s ( a #b p] c5t4 alcoholic solution ( ,alkali ,blue #f ,b is recomm5d$4 ,ano!r me?od ( directly det]m9+ ! free fatty acid cont5t ( tall[ or grease ^u :i* ?is det]m9ation is mo/ (t5 made is to weigh out into an ,erl5mey] flask exactly #e4fde grams ( a sample ( tall[ or grease4 ,add ab\t #ge cubic c5timet]s ( neutraliz$ alcohol4 ,heat until x boils1 !n titrate ) t5? normal alkali & divide ! read+ by #b1 :i* gives ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid z oleic4 ,if a fif? normal cau/ic solution is us$1 ! read+ on ! burette gives ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid directly4 ,?is me?od1 :ile x elim9ates ! necessity ( calculation1 is tr\blesome 9 t x is difficult to obta9 ! exact weight ( fat4 ,,moi/ure4 ,to calculate ! am\nt ( moi/ure conta9$ 9 a fat or oil #e to #aj grams are weigh$ into a flat bottom di%1 toge!r ) a kn[n am\nt ( clean1 dry s&1 if x is s desir$4 ,! di% is !n heat$ ov] a wat] ba?1 or at a temp]ature ( #ajj-aaj degs4 ,c41 until x no long] loses weight ^u dry+ & reweigh+ ! di%4 ,"o h\r %\ld elapse betwe5 ! "t ! di% is put on ! wat] ba? & ! "t x is tak5 (f to reweigh4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight ( ! di% is put on ! wat] ba? & ! "t x is tak5 (f :5 x rea*es a con/ant weight is moi/ure4 ,?is diff]5ce divid$ by ! orig9al weight ( ! fat or oil x #ajj gives ! p]c5tage ( moi/ure4 ,:5 highly unsaturat$ fats or oils are be+ analyz$ = moi/ure1 an error may be introduc$ ei!r by ! absorption ( oxyg51 :i* is accel]at$ at high] temp]ature1 or by ! =mation ( volatile fatty acids4 ,! =m] causes an increase 9 weight1 ! latt] causes a decrease4 ,to obviate ?is1 ! above op]ation ( dry+ %\ld be c>ri$ out 9 ! pres5ce ( "s in]t gas l hydrog51 c>bon dioxide1 or nitrog54 ,,tit]4 ,! tit] ( a fat or oil is really an indication ( ! am\nt ( /e>ic acid conta9$ !re94 ,! tit]1 express$ 9 degrees ,c5tigrade1 is ! solidification po9t ( ! fatty acids ( an oil or fat4 ,9 ord] to c>ry out ! op]ation a ,c5tigrade !rmomet] graduat$ 9 "o or two-t5?s ( a degree is necess>y4 ,a !rmomet] graduat$ betwe5 #aj degs4 c5tigrade to #fj degs4 c5tigrade is be/ adapt$ & ! graduations %\ld be cle> cut & di/9ct4 ,to make ! det]m9ation ab\t #cj grams ( fat are r\ghly weigh$ 9 a metal di% & #cj-dj cubic c5timet]s ( a #cj p] c5t4 7#cf degs4 ,baume7 solution ( sodium hydroxide1 toge!r ) #cj-dj cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol1 d5atur$ alcohol w d1 are add$ & ! mass heat$ until saponifi$4 ,heat ov] a l[ flame or ov] an asbe/os plate until ! soap ?us =m$ is dry1 con/antly /irr+ ! cont5ts ( ! di% to prev5t burn+4 ,! dri$ soap is !n dissolv$ 9 ab\t #ajjj cubic c5timet]s ( wat]1 be+ c]ta9 t all ! alcohol has be5 expell$ by boil+ ! soap solution = ab\t half an h\r4 ,:5 ! soap is 9 solution add suffici5t sulphuric acid to decompose ! soap1 approximately #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( #be degs4 ,baume sulphuric acid1 & boil until ! fatty acids =m a cle> lay] on top ( ! liquid4 ,a few pieces ( pumice /one put into ! mixture w prev5t ! bump+ caus$ by boil+4 ,siphon (f ! wat] f ! bottom ( ! di% & wa% ! fatty acids ) boil+ wat] until free f sulphuric acid4 ,collect ! fatty acids 9 a small cass]ole or beak] & dry !m ov] a /eam ba? or dry+ ov5 at #aaj degs4 ,c5tigrade4 ,:5 ! fatty acids are dry1 cool !m to ab\t #aj degs4 above ! tit] expect$ & transf] !m to a tit] tube or %ort te/ tube :i* is firmly support$ by a cork 9 ! op5+ ( a salt m\? bottle4 ,hang ! !rmomet] by a cord f above ! support$ tube s x rea*es close to ! bottom :5 9 ! tit] tube conta9+ ! fatty acids & s t x may be us$ z a /irr]4 ,/ir ! mass r sl[ly1 closely not+ ! temp]ature4 ,! temp]ature w gradually fall dur+ ! /irr+ op]ation & f9ally rema9 /ation>y = half a m9ute or s !n rise f #j4a to #j4e degs4 ,! highe/ po9t to :i* ! m]cury rises aft] hav+ be5 /ation>y is tak5 z ! read+ ( ! tit]4 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,unsaponifiable ,,matt]4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! unsaponifiable matt] 9 fats & oils !y are fir/ saponifi$1 !n ! unsaponifiable1 :i* consi/s ma9ly ( hydroc>bons & ! high] alcohols *ole/]ol or phyto/]ol1 is extract$ ) e!r or petroleum e!r1 ! e!r evaporat$ & ! residue weigh$ z unsaponifiable4 ,to c>ry out ! process fir/ saponify ab\t #e grams ( fat or oil ) an excess ( alcoholic potassium hydrate1 #bj-cj cubic c5timet]s ( a #a to #aj solution ( potassium hydroxide 9 alcohol until ! alcohol is evaporat$ ov] a /eam ba?4 ,wa% ! soap ?us =m$ into a sep>atory funnel ( #bjj cubic c5timet]s capacity ) #hj-ajj cubic c5timet]s wat]4 ,!n add ab\t #fj cubic c5timet]s ( e!r1 petroleum e!r or #hf degs4 gasol9e & ?or\ghly %ake ! funnel to extract ! unsaponifiable4 ,%\ld ! two lay]s n sep>ate readily1 add a few cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol1 :i* w readily cause !m to sep>ate4 ,draw (f ! wat]y solution f b5ea? & wa% ! e!r ) wat] conta9+ a few drops ( sodium hydrate & run to ano!r di%4 ,p\r ! wat]y solution into ! funnel aga9 & repeat ! extraction once or twice m or until ! e!r %[s no discoloration4 ,comb9e ! e!r extractions into ! funnel & wa% ) wat] until no alkal9e reaction is obta9$ f ! wa% wat]4 ,run ! e!r extract to a weigh$ di%1 evaporate & dry rapidly 9 a dry+ ov54 ,z "s ( ! hydroc>bons are readily volatile at #ajj degs4 ,c5tigrade1 ! dry+ %\ld n be c>ri$ on any long] ?an necess>y4 ,! residue is !n weigh$ & ! orig9al weight ( fat tak5 divid$ into ! weight ( ! residue x #ajj gives ! p]c5tage unsaponifiable4 ,,te/ ,,= ,,color ,,( ,,soap4 ,x is (t5 desirable to det]m9e ! color ( ! f9i%$ soap by a rapid det]m9ation be=e x is made into soap4 ,x (t5 happ5s1 especially ) ! tall[s1 t a d>k color$ sample produces a light color$ soap1 :]eas a blea*$ light color$ tall[ produces a soap (f %ade4 ,to rapidly det]m9e :e!r ! color easily wa%es out ( ! tall[ ) lye1 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( tall[ are saponifi$ 9 an enamel$ or iron di% ) #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( #ba degs4 ,baume soda lye & #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( d5atur$ alcohol4 ,cont9ue heat+ ov] a wire gauze until all ! alcohol is expell$ & !n add #ej cubic c5timet]s ( ! #ba degs4 ,baume lye to gra9 ! soap4 ,all[ ! lyes to settle & ) an inv]t$ pipette draw (f ! lyes into a te/ tube or bottle4 ,close ! soap ) #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( hot wat] & :5 clos$ aga9 gra9 ) #ej cubic c5timet]s ( ! lye by j br++ to a boil ov] an op5 flame4 ,aga9 all[ ! lyes to settle & put aside a sample ( ! lye = comp>ison4 ,repeat ! process ( clos+1 gra9+ & settl+ & take a sample ( lye4 ,if ! lye is /ill discolor$ repeat ! above op]ations aga9 or until ! lye is colorless4 ,ord9>ily all ! color w come out ) ! ?ird lye4 ,! soap ?us obta9$ conta9s consid]able wat] :i* makes x appe> :ite4 ,! soap is1 !re=e1 dri$ to ab\t #ae p] c5t4 moi/ure & exam9$ = color4 ,! color ?us obta9$ is a v good crit]ion z to :at may be expect$ 9 ! soap kettle4 ,by mak+ ! above analyses ( fats or oils ! ma9 prop]ties z to _! adaptability = be+ made into soap are det]m9$4 ,9 "s cases1 especially :]e adult]ation or mixtures ( oils are suspect$1 x is necess>y to fur!r analyze same4 ,! me?ods ( c>ry+ out ^! analyses are fully cov]$ by v>i\s texts on fats & oils & we w n g into details reg>d+ ! me?od ( proc$ure 9 c>ry+ ^! out4 ,,te/+ ,,( ,,alkalis ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,mak+4 ,! alkalis ent]+ into ! manufacture ( soap su* z cau/ic soda or sodium hydroxide1 cau/ic pota% or potassium hydrate1 c>bonate ( soda or sodium c>bonate1 c>bonate ( pota% or potassium c>bonate usually conta9 impurities :i* d n ent] into comb9ation ) ! fats or fatty acids to =m soap4 ,x is out ( ! "q to use *emically pure alkalis 9 soap mak+1 h5ce x is (t5 necess>y to det]m9e ! alkal9ity ( an alkali4 ,x may aga9 be po9t$ out t 9 saponify+ a neutral fat or oil only cau/ic soda or pota% are effici5t & ! c>bonate conta9$ 9 ^! only comb9es to a m or less ext5t ) any free fatty acids conta9$ 9 ! oils or fats4 ,cau/ic soda or pota% or lyes made f ^! alkalis ^u exposure to ! air are gradually conv]t$ into sodium or potassium c>bonate by ! action ( ! c>bon dioxide conta9$ 9 ! air4 ,:ile ! am\nt ( c>bonate ?us =m$ is n v great & is greate/ ^u ! surface1 all lyes z well z cau/ic alkalis conta9 "s c>bonate4 ,?is c>bonate introduces an error 9 ! analysis ( cau/ic alkalis :5 accuracy is requir$ & ?us 9 ! analysis ( cau/ic soda or pota% x is necess>y to remove ! c>bonate :5 ! true alkal9ity z sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is desir$4 ,?is may be done by titration 9 alcohol :i* has be5 neutraliz$4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! alkal9ity ( any ( ! above m5tion$ alkalis1 x is fir/ necess>y to obta9 a repres5tative sample ( ! sub/ance to be analyz$4 ,to d ?is take small samples f v>i\s portions ( ! package & comb9e !m into a composite sample4 ,cau/ic pota% & soda are hygroscopic & samples %\ld be weigh$ at once or kept 9 a well /opp]$ bottle4 ,sodium or potassium c>bonate c be weigh$ m easily z !y d n rapidly absorb moi/ure f ! air4 ,to weigh ! cau/ic soda or pota% place ab\t five grams on a wat* glass on a balance & weigh z rapidly z possible4 ,wa% into a #ejj cubic c5timet] volumetric flask & br+ to ! m>k ) di/ill$ wat]4 ,pipette (f #ej cubic c5timet]s into a #bjj cubic c5timet] beak]1 dilute slightly ) di/ill$ wat]1 add a few drops ( me?yl orange indicator & titrate ) normal acid4 ,= ! c>bonates ab\t #a gram may be weigh$1 wa%$ into a #djj cubic c5timet] beak]1 dilut$ ) di/ill$ wat]1 me?yl orange indicator add$ & titrat$ ) normal acid4 ,x is advisable to use me?yl orange indicator 9 ^! titrations z ph5olph?ale9 is affect$ by ! c>bon dioxide g5]at$ :5 an acid reacts ) a c>bonate & does n give ! prop] end po9t1 unless ! solution is boil$ to expel ! c>bon dioxide4 ,litmus may also be us$ z ! indicator1 b "h aga9 x is necess>y to boil z c>bon dioxide also affects ?is sub/ance4 ,z an aid to ! action ( ^! common indicators ! foll[+ table may be helpful3 ,color 9 ,color 9 ,indicator4 ,acid ,alkal9e ,action ( ,solution4 ,solution4 ,,co#b4 ,me?yl orange ,r$ ,yell[ ,v slightly acid ,ph5olph?ale9 ,colorless ,r$ ,acid ,litmus ,r$ ,blue ,acid ,x may be fur!r /at$ t me?yl orange at ! neutral po9t is orange 9 color4 ,to calculate ! p]c5tage ( effective alkali f ! above titrations1 x mu/ be fir/ po9t$ out t 9 ! case ( cau/ic pota% or soda aliquot portions are tak54 ,?is is done to r$uce ! error necess>ily involv$ by weigh+1 z ! absorption ( wat] is decid$4 ,?us we _h1 say1 exactly #e grams :i* weigh$ #e4je grams by ! "t x 0 balanc$4 ,?is 0 dissolv$ 9 #ejj cubic c5timet]s ( wat] & #ej cubic c5timet]s or "o t5? ( ! am\nt ( ! solution 0 tak51 or 9 ea* #ej cubic c5timet]s !re 7 #j4eje grams ( ! sample4 ,we ?us r$uc$ ! error ( weigh+ by "o t5? provid$ o!r conditions introduce no error4 ,9 ! case ( ! c>bonates ! weight is tak5 directly4 ,"o cubic c5timet] ( a normal acid solution is ! equival5t (3 ,grams4 ,sodium ,c>bonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c #j4jecje ,sodium ,hydroxide1 ,na,o,h #j4jdjjf ,sodium ,oxide1 ,na#b,o #j4jbije ,c>bonate ,k#b;,,co#c #j4jfijh ,potassium ,hydroxide1 ,,koh #j4jefaf ,potassium ,oxide1 ,k#b,o #j4jdgae ,h5ce to arrive at ! alkal9ity we multiply ! numb] ( cubic c5timet]s1 read on ! burette1 by ! factor opposite ! t]ms 9 :i* we desire to express ! alkal9ity1 divide ! weight 9 grams ?us obta9$ by ! orig9al weight tak51 & multiply ! result by #ajj1 :i* gives ! p]c5tage ( alkali 9 ! prop] t]ms4 ,= example1 say1 we took ! #j4eje grams ( cau/ic pota% z expla9$ above & requir$ #h4g cubic c5timet] normal acid to neutralize ! solution1 !n #h4g x 4#jefaf 4#dhhf grams ,,koh 9 sample 4#dhhf ----- x #ajj #if4gc ,,koh 9 sample4 4#eje ,cau/ic pota% (t5 conta9s "s cau/ic soda1 & :ile x is possible to express ! results 9 t]ms ( ,,koh1 reg>dless ( any tr\ble t may be caus$ by ?is mixture 9 soap mak+1 an error is introduc$ 9 ! results1 n all ! alkali be+ cau/ic pota%4 ,9 su* cases x is advisable to consult a book on analysis z ! analysis is f> m complicat$ ?an ^? giv5 we w n consid] x4 ,! pres5ce ( c>bonates1 z already /at$1 also causes an error4 ,to ov]come ?is ! alkali is titrat$ 9 absolute alcohol1 filt]+ (f ! insoluble c>bonate4 ,! soluble portion is cau/ic hydrate & may be titrat$ z su*4 ,! c>bonate rema9+ on ! filt] pap] is dissolv$ 9 wat] & titrat$ z c>bonate4 ,,soap ,,analysis4 ,to obta9 a sample ( a cake ( soap = analysis is a r difficult matt] z ! moi/ure cont5t ( ! out] & inn] lay] v>ies consid]ably4 ,to ov]come ?is difficulty a bor] or sampl] may be run "r ?r\gh ! cake ( soap1 or slices may be cut f v>i\s p>ts ( ! cake1 or ! cake may be cut & run ?r\gh a meat *opp] sev]al times & mix$4 ,a suffici5t am\nt ( a homog5e\s sample obta9$ by any ( ^! me?ods is pres]v$ = ! entire analysis by keep+ ! soap 9 a securely /opp]$ bottle4 ,! m important det]m9ations ( soap are moi/ure1 free alkali1 or fatty acid1 comb9$ alkali & total fatty matt]4 ,besides ^! x is (t5 necess>y to det]m9e insoluble matt]1 glyc]9e1 unsaponifiable matt]1 ros9 & sug>4 ,,moi/ure4 ,! analysis ( soap = moi/ure1 at its be/1 is mo/ unsatisfactory1 = by heat+ x is impossible to drive (f all ! wat]1 & on ! o!r h& volatile oils driv5 (f by heat are a "p ( ! loss repres5t$ z moi/ure4 ,! usual me?od ( det]m9+ moi/ure is to weigh #b to #c grams ( f9ely %av$ soap on a wat* glass & heat 9 an ov5 at #aje degrees ,c4 = #b to #c h\rs4 ,! loss 9 weight is repres5t$ z wat]1 al?\gh x is really impossible to drive (f all ! wat] 9 ?is way4 ,to ov]come ! difficulties j m5tion$ ei!r ! ,smi? or ,fahrion me?od may be us$4 ,all5 recomm5ds ,smi?'s me?od :i* is said to be tru?ful to )9 #j4be p] c5t4 ,fahrion's me?od1 accord+ to ! au?or1 gives reliable results to )9 #j4e p] c5t4 ,bo? are m rapid ?an ! above manipulation4 ,to c>ry out ! me?od ( ,smi?1 #e to #aj grams ( f9ely gr\nd soap are heat$ ov] a s& ba? ) a small ,buns5 flame b5ea? x1 9 a l>ge porcela9 crucible4 ,! heat+ takes #bj to #cj m9utes1 or until no fur!r evid5ce is pres5t ( wat] be+ driv5 (f4 ,?is may be te/$ by ! fogg+ ( a cold piece ( glass held ov] ! crucible imm$iately ^u remov+ ! burn]4 ,:5 no fog appe>s ! soap is consid]$ dry4 ,any lumps ( soap may be brok5 up by a small glass rod1 weigh$ ) ! crucible1 & ) a r\gh5$ end to m easily sep>ate ! lumps4 ,%\ld ! soap burn1 ?is c readily be detect$ by ! odor1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 r5d]s ! analysis useless4 ,! loss 9 weight is moi/ure4 ,by ,fahrion's me?od#ac1 #b to #d grams ( soap are weigh$ 9 a plat9um crucible & ab\t ?ree times its weight ( oleic acid1 :i* has be5 heat$ at #abj degrees ,c4 until all ! wat] is driv5 (f & pres]v$ f moi/ure1 is add$ & reweigh$4 ,! di% is !n cauti\sly heat$ ) a small flame until all ! wat] is driv5 (f & all ! soap is dissolv$4 ,c>e mu/ be ex]cis$ n to heat too highly or ! oleic acid w decompose4 ,! mom5t ! wat] is all driv5 (f a cle> solution is =m$1 provid$ no fill]s are pres5t 9 ! soap4 ,! di% is !n cool$ 9 a dessicator & reweigh$4 ,! loss 9 weight ( acid plus soap is moi/ure & is calculat$ on ! weight ( soap tak54 ,?is det]m9ation takes ab\t fifte5 m9utes4 ,,free ,,alkali ,,or ,,acid4 7a7 ,alcoholic ,me?od4 ,te/ a fre%ly cut surface ( ! soap ) a few drops ( an alcoholic ph5olph?ale9 solution4 ,if x does n turn r$ x may be assum$ free fat is pres5t2 %\ld a r$ color appe>1 free alkali is pres5t4 ,9 any case dissolve #b to #e grams ( soap 9 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( neutraliz$ alcohol & heat to boil+ until 9 solution4 ,filt] (f ! undissolv$ portion conta9+ c>bonate1 etc41 & wa% ) alcohol4 ,add ph5olph?ale9 to ! filtrate & titrate ) ,n_/#aj acid & calculate ! p] c5t4 ( free alkali z sodium or potassium hydroxide4 ,%\ld ! filtrate be acid in/ead ( alkal9e1 titrate ) ,n_/#aj alkali & calculate ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acid z oleic acid4 ,! insoluble portion rema9+ on ! filt] pap] is wa%$ ) wat] until all ! c>bonate is dissolv$4 ,! wa%+s are !n titrat$ ) ,n_/#aj sulfuric acid & express$ z sodium or potassium c>bonate4 ,%\ld borates or silicates be pres5t x is possible to express 9 t]ms ( ^!4 ,if borax is pres5t ! c>bon dioxide is boil$ (f aft] neutraliz+ exactly to me?yl orange2 cool1 add mannite & ph5olph?ale9 & titrate ! boric acid ) /&>d alkali4 7b7 ,bos%>d & ,hugg5b]g ,me?od4#ad ,9 us+ ! alcoholic me?od = ! det]m9ation ( ! free alkali or fat 9 soap !re is a possibility ( bo? free fat & free alkali be+ pres5t4 ,^u boil+ 9 an alcoholic solution ! fat w be saponifi$1 ?us introduc+ an error 9 ! analysis4 ,! me?od ( ,bos%>d & ,hugg5b]g ov]comes ?is objection4 ,_! me?od is briefly z foll[s3 ,reag5ts4 #a4 ,n_/#aj hydro*loric acid to /&>dize ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide4 #b4 ,approximately ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide to fix & control ! ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid4 #c4 ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid4 ,prep>ation3 ,ab\t #g4a grams ( /e>ic acid are dissolv$ 9 "o lit] ( absolute alcohol1 ! solution filt]$1 ! /r5g? det]m9$ by titration aga9/ ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h & !n protect$ 9 a well /opp]$ bottle1 or bett] /ill connect$ directly to ! burette4 #d4 ,a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( b>ium *loride4 ,prep>ation3 #ajj grams ( b>ium *loride are dissolv$ 9 "o lit] ( di/ill$ wat] & filt]$4 ,! neutrality ( ! solution %\ld be prov5 z x mu/ be neutral4 #e4 ,greek3 alpha nap?olph?ale9 indicator accord+ to ,sor5son4 ,prep>ation3 #j4a gram ( ,greek3 alpha naph?olph?ale9 is dissolv$ 9 #aej cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol & #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( wat]4 ,= e #aj cubic c5timet]s ( liquid use at lea/ #ab drops ( indicator4 #f4 ,ph5olph?ale9 solution #a gram to #ajj cubic c5timet] #if p] c5t4 alcohol4 #g4 ,solv5t1 #ej p] c5t4 alcohol neutraliz$4 ,,manipulation4 ,fir/--,det]m9e ! /r5g? ( ! ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide 9 t]ms ( ,n_/#aj hydro*loric acid & calculate ! factor1 e4 g43 #aj c4c4 ,n_/#aj alcoholic ,na,o,h #i4ie ,n_/#aj ,h,cl #aj c4c4 ,n_/#aj alcoholic ,na,o,h #i4if ,n_/#aj ,h,cl #i4if ,! alcoholic ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h has a factor ( #j4iif4 ,second--,control ! ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid ) ! above alkali to obta9 its factor1 e4 g43 #dj c4c4 ,n_/#dj alcoholic /e>ic acid #aj4ah c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h #dj c4c4 ,n_/#dj alcoholic /e>ic acid #aj4b #aj4bb c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h #aj4b x ,f ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h 7#j4iif7 ,factor ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid ,!re=e ,factor ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid #a4jaf4 ,?ird--,ab\t #e grams ( soap are weigh$ & dissolv$ 9 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( #ej p] c5t4 neutraliz$ alcohol 9 a #bej cubic c5timet] ,erl5mey] flask ov] a wat] ba? & connect$ ) a reflux cond5sor4 ,:5 completely dissolv$1 :i* takes b a few mom5ts1 x is cool$ by all[+ a /ream ( runn+ wat] to run ov] ! outside ( ! flask4 ,f\r?--,! soap is precipitat$ ) #ae to #bj cubic c5timet]s ( ! #aj p] c5t4 b>ium *loride solution4 ,fif?--,aft] ! addition ( #b to #e cubic c5timet]s ( ,greek3 alpha naph?olph?ale9 solution ! solution is titrat$ ) ,n_/#dj alcoholic /e>ic acid4 ,greek3 alpha naph?olph?ale9 is r$ ) an excess ( /e>ic acid4 ,to m>k ! color *anges x is advisable to fir/ run a few blanks until ! eye has become accu/om$ to ! *ange 9 ! indicator 9 ! same way4 ,! *ange f gre5 to r$ c !n be c>efully obs]v$4 ,let u presume #e grams ( soap 7 tak5 = ! analysis & #bj cubic c5timet]s ( ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid 7 requir$ = ! titration !n to calculate ! am\nt ( ,na,o,h s9ce ! /e>ic factor is #a4jaf4 #bj x #a4jaf #bj4cb ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid really requir$4 #a cubic c5timet] ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid #j4jb p] c5t4 ,na,o,h = #e grams soap4 ,greek3 ,delta #bj4cb cubic c5timet]s ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid #j4jb x #bj4cb p] c5t4 ,na,o,h = #e grams soap4 ,h5ce ! soap conta9s #j4djfd p] c5t4 ,na,o,h4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to make a correction by ?is me?od4 ,:5 ! free alkali am\nts to ov] #j4a p] c5t4 ! correction is #j4ja1 & :5 ! free alkali exce$s #j4d p] c5t4 ! correction is #j4jd1 h5ce 9 ! above case we multiply #j4jjdjfd by #j4jd1 add ?is am\nt to #j4jjdjfd & multiply by #ajj to obta9 ! true p]c5tage4 ,%\ld ! alkal9ity h be5 ne> #j4a p] c5t4 we w\ld h multipli$ by #j4ja & add$ ?is4 ,if c>bonate is also pres5t 9 ! soap1 ano!r #e grams ( soap is dissolv$ 9 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( #ej p] c5t4 alcohol & ! solution titrat$ directly aft] cool+ ) ,n_/#dj /e>ic acid1 us+ ,greek3 alpha naph?olph?ale9 or ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator1 )\t ! addition ( b>ium *loride4 ,f ! diff]5ce ( ! two titrations ! alkali pres5t z c>bonate is det]m9$4 ,if ! decompos$ soap solution is colorless ) ph5olph?ale91 free fatty acids are pres5t1 :i* may be quickly det]m9$ ) alcoholic ,n_/#aj sodium hydroxide4 ,,insoluble ,,matt]4 ,! insoluble matt] 9 soap may consi/ ( organic or inorganic sub/ances4 ,among ! organic sub/ances :i* are usually pres5t 9 soap are oat meal1 bran1 sawdu/1 etc41 :ile among ! common inorganic or m9]al comp\nds are pumice1 silex1 clay1 talc1 z9c oxide1 infusorial e>?1 s& or o!r mat]ial us$ z fill]s4 ,to det]m9e insoluble matt]1 #e grams ( soap are dissolv$ 9 #ge cubic c5timet]s ( hot wat]4 ,! solution is filt]$ ?r\gh a weigh$ goo* crucible or filt] pap]4 ,! residue rema9+ on ! filt] is wa%$ ) hot wat] until all ! soap is remov$1 is !n dri$ to con/ant weight at #aje degrees ,c4 & weigh$4 ,f ! diff]5ce 9 weight ( ! goo* or filt] pap] & ! dri$ residue rema9+ !reon aft] filt]+ & dry+1 ! total p]c5tage ( insoluble matt] may easily be calculat$4 ,by ignit+ ! residue & reweigh+ ! am\nt ( insoluble m9]al matt] c be readily det]m9$4 ,,/>* ,,& ,,gelat9e4 ,%\ld />* or gelat9e be pres5t 9 soap x is necess>y to extract #e grams ( ! soap ) #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( #ie p] c5t4 neutraliz$ alcohol 9 a ,soxhlet extractor until ! residue on ! extraction ?imble is 9 a p[d] =m4 ,if necess>y ! app>atus %\ld be disconnect$ & any lumps cru%$1 z ^! may conta9 soap4 ,! residue rema9+ on ! ?imble consi/s ( all sub/ances pres5t 9 soap1 insoluble 9 alcohol4 ,?is is dri$ & weigh$ s t any p]c5tage ( impurities n actually det]m9$ c be f\nd by diff]5ce4 ,/>* & gelat9e are sep>at$ f c>bonate1 sulfate & borate by dissolv+ ! latt] out ?r\gh a filt] ) cold wat]4 ,! />* & gelat9e ?us rema9+ c be det]m9$ by kn[n me?ods1 />* by ! me?od ( direct hydrolysis#ae & gelat9e by ,kjeldahl+ & calculat+ ! correspond+ am\nt ( gelat9e f ! p]c5tage ( nitrog5 7#ag4i7 !re94#af ,,total ,,fatty ,,& ,,res9 ,,acids4 ,to ! filtrate f ! insoluble matt] add #dj cubic c5timet]s ( half normal sulfuric acid1 all ! acid be+ add$ at once4 ,boil1 /ir ?or\ghly = "s m9utes & keep w>m on a wat] ba? until ! fatty acids h collect$ z a cle> lay] on ! surface4 ,cool by plac+ ! beak] 9 ice & syphon (f ! acid wat] ?r\gh a filt]4 ,%\ld ! fatty acids n readily congeal a weigh$ am\nt ( dri$ blea*$ bees-wax or /e>ic acid may be add$ to ! hot mixture4 ,?is fuses ) ! hot mass & =ms a firm cake ( fatty acids ^u cool+4 ,)\t remov+ ! fatty acids f ! beak]1 add ab\t #cjj cubic c5timet]s ( hot wat]1 cool1 syphon (f ! wat] ?r\gh ! same filt] us$ be=e & wa% aga94 ,repeat wa%+1 cool+ & syphon+ processes until ! wa% wat] is no long] acid4 ,:5 ?is /age is rea*$1 dissolve any fatty acid :i* may h rema9$ on ! filt] ) hot #ie p] c5t4 alcohol into ! beak] conta9+ ! fatty acids4 ,evaporate ! alcohol & dry ! beak] to con/ant weight ov] a wat] ba?4 ,! fatty acids ?us obta9$ repres5t ! comb9$ fatty acids1 uncomb9$ fat & hydroc>bons4 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,ros94 ,if res9 acids are pres5t1 ?is may be det]m9$ by ! ,lieb]mann-,/or* reaction4 ,to c>ry out ?is te/ %ake #b cubic c5timet]s ( ! fatty acids ) #e cubic c5timet]s ( acetic anhydride2 w>m slightly2 cool2 draw (f ! anhydride & add #a3a sulfuric acid4 ,a violet color1 :i* is n p]man5t1 indicates ! pres5ce ( ros9 9 ! soap4 ,! *ole/]ol 9 l9se$ or fi% oil1 :i* ( c\rse may be pres5t 9 ! soap1 also give ?is reaction4 ,%\ld res9 acids be pres5t1 ^! may be sep>at$ by ! ,twit*ell me?od1 :i* dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce 9 ! behavior ( ! fatty & res9 acids :5 conv]t$ into _! e?yl e/]s ?r\gh ! action ( hydro*loric acid4 ,?is may be c>ri$ out z foll[s3 ,?ree grams ( ! dri$ mix$ acids are dissolv$ 9 #be cubic c5timet]s ( absolute alcohol 9 a #ajj cubic c5timet] /opp]$ flask2 ! flask plac$ 9 cold wat] & %ak54 ,to ?is cool$ solution #be cubic c5timet]s ( absolute alcohol saturat$ ) dry hydro*loric acid is add$4 ,! flask is %ak5 occasionally & ! action all[$ to cont9ue = tw5ty m9utes1 !n #aj grams ( dry granul> z9c *loride are add$1 ! flask %ak5 & aga9 all[$ to /& = tw5ty m9utes4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask are !n p\r$ into #bjj cubic c5timet]s ( wat] 9 a #ejj cubic c5timet] beak] & ! flask r9s$ out ) alcohol4 ,a small /rip ( z9c is plac$ 9 ! beak] & ! alcohol evaporat$4 ,! beak] is !n cool$ & transf]r$ to a sep>atory funnel1 wa%+ out ! beak] ) #ej cubic c5timet]s ( gasol9e 7boil+ bel[ #hj degrees ,c47 & extract+ by %ak+ ! funnel well4 ,draw (f ! acid solution aft] all[+ to sep>ate & wa% ! gasol9e ) wat] until free f hydro*loric acid4 ,draw (f ! gasol9e solution & evaporate ! gasol9e4 ,dissolve ! residue 9 neutral alcohol & titrate ) /&>d alkali us+ ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator4 ,"o cubic c5timet] ( normal alkali equals #j4cdf grams ( ros94 ,! ros9 may be gravimetrically det]m9$ by wa%+ ! gasol9e extract ) wat]1 x n be+ necess>y to wa% absolutely free f acid1 !n add+ #j4e gram ( potassium hydroxide & #e cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol 9 #ej cubic c5timet]s ( wat]4 ,^u %ak+ ! res9 acids are rapidly saponifi$ & extract$ by ! dilute alkal9e solution z ros9 soaps1 :ile ! e?yl e/]s rema9 9 solution 9 ! gasol9e4 ,draw (f ! soap solution1 wa% ! gasol9e solution aga9 ) dilute alkali & unite ! alkal9e solutions4 ,decompose ! alkal9e soap solution ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid & weigh ! res9 acids lib]at$ z 9 ! det]m9ation ( total fatty acids4 ,accord+ to ,lewk[its*1 ! results obta9$ by ! volumetric me?od :i* assumes a comb9+ weight ( #cdf = res9 acids1 are v likely to be high4 ,on ! o!r h& ^? obta9$ by ! gravimetric me?od are too l[4 ,lei/e & ,/iepel#ag h devis$ a simpl] me?od = ! det]m9ation ( ros94 ,!y make use ( ! fact t ! res9 acids z sodium soaps are soluble 9 acetone & p>ticul>ly acetone conta9+ two p] c5t4 wat]1 :ile ! fatty acid soaps are soluble 9 ?is solv5t to ! ext5t ( only ab\t #b p] c5t4 ,fir/ ( all x is necess>y to %[ t ! sample to be analyz$ conta9s a mixture ( res9 & fatty acids4 ,?is may be done by ! ,lieb]mann-,/or* reaction already describ$4 ,glyc]9e int]f]es ) ! me?od4 ,two grams ( fatty acids or #c grams ( soap are weigh$ 9 a nickel crucible & dissolv$ 9 #ae-bj cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol4 ,! solution is !n neutraliz$ ) alcoholic sodium hydroxide1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator4 ,! mass is conc5trat$ by heat ov] an asbe/os plate until a slight film =ms ov] x4 ,!n ab\t #aj grams ( %>p1 granul>1 ignit$ s& are /irr$ 9 by means ( a spatula1 ! alcohol fur!r evaporat$1 ! mixture be+ con/antly /irr$ & !n ?or\ghly dri$ 9 a dry+ ov54 ,! solv5t = ! cool$ mass is acetone conta9+ #b p] c5t4 wat]4 ,x is obta9$ f acetone dri$ by ignit$ sodium sulfate & add+ #b p] c5t4 wat] by volume4 ,"o hundr$ cubic c5timet]s ( ?is solv5t are suffici5t = extract+ ! above4 ,! extraction ( ! ros9 soap is conduct$ by add+ #aj cubic c5timet]s ( acetone eight times1 rubb+ ! mass ?or\ghly ) a spatula & decant+4 ,! decant$ portions are comb9$ 9 a beak] & ! susp5d$ fatty soaps all[$ to sep>ate4 ,! mixture is !n filt]$ into a previ\sly weigh$ flask & wa%$ sev]al times ) ! acetone rema9+4 ,! solution ( ros9 soap %\ld %[ no sep>ation ( solid matt] aft] hav+ evaporat$ to half ! volume & all[+ to cool4 ,if a sep>ation %\ld occur ano!r filtration & ! slighte/ possible wa%+ is necess>y4 ,to complete ! analysis1 ! acetone is completely evaporat$ & ! mass dri$ to con/ant weight 9 a dry+ ov54 ,! weight f\nd gives ! weight ( ! ros9 soap4 ,9 conduct+ ! det]m9ation1 x is important to dry ! mixture ( soap & s& ?or\ghly4 ,9 deal+ ) pota% soaps x is necess>y to sep>ate ! fatty acids f ^! & use !m z acetone dissolves too great a quantity ( a pota% soap4 ,,total ,,alkali4 ,9 ! filtrate rema9+ aft] hav+ wa%$ ! fatty acids 9 ! det]m9ation ( total fatty & res9 acids all ! alkali pres5t z soap1 z c>bonate & z hydroxide rema9s 9 solution z sulfate4 ,^u titrat+ ?is solution ) half normal alkali ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! half normal acid us$ 9 decompos+ ! soap & alkali us$ 9 titrat+ ! excess ( acid gives ! am\nt ( total alkali 9 ! soap4 ,by d$uct+ ! am\nt ( free alkali pres5t z c>bonate or hydroxide previ\sly f\nd ! am\nt ( comb9$ alkali 9 ! soap may be calculat$4 ,to quickly det]m9e total alkali 9 soap a weigh$ portion ( ! soap may be ignit$ to a :ite a% & ! a% titrat$ = alkal9ity us+ me?yl orange z an indicator4 ,,unsaponifi$ ,,matt]4 ,dissolve #e grams ( soap 9 #ej cubic c5timet]s ( #ej p] c5t4 alcohol4 ,%\ld any free fatty acids be pres5t neutralize !m ) /&>d alkali4 ,wa% into a sep>atory funnel ) #ej p] c5t4 alcohol & extract ) #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( gasol9e1 boil+ at #ej degrees to #fj degrees ,c4 ,wa% ! gasol9e ) wat]1 draw (f ! wat]y lay]4 ,run ! gasol9e into a weigh$ di%1 evaporate ! alcohol1 dry & weigh ! residue z unsaponifi$ matt]4 ,! residue conta9s any hydroc>bon oils or fats n conv]t$ into soap4 ,,silica ,,& ,,silicates4 ,! insoluble silicates1 s&1 etc41 are pres5t 9 ! ignit$ residue 9 ! det]m9ation ( insoluble matt]4 ,sodium silicate1 ext5sively us$ z a fill]1 h[ev]1 w only %[ itself 9 =m+ a pa/y liquid4 ,:]e x is desir$ to det]m9e sodium silicate1 #aj grams ( soap are a%$ by ignition1 hydro*loric acid add$ to ! a% 9 excess & evaporat$ to dryness4 ,m hydro*loric acid is !n add$ & ! mass is aga9 evaporat$ until dry2 !n cool$2 moi/5$ ) hydro*loric acid2 dissolv$ 9 wat]2 filt]$2 wa%$2 ! filtrate evaporat$ to dryness & aga9 tak5 up ) hydro*loric acid & wat]2 filt]$ & wa%$4 ,! precipitates are !n comb9$ & ignit$4 ,silicon dioxide 7,si,o#b7 is ?us =m$1 :i* c be calculat$ to sodium silicate 7,na#b,si#d,o#i74 ,%\ld o!r metals ?an alkali metals be suspect$ pres5t ! filtrate f ! silica det]m9ations %\ld be exam9$4 ,,glyc]9e ,,9 ,,soap4 ,to det]m9e ! am\nt ( glyc]9e conta9$ 9 soap dissolve #be grams 9 hot wat]1 add a slight excess ( sulfuric acid & keep hot until ! fatty acids =m z a cle> lay] on top4 ,cool ! mass & remove ! fatty acids4 ,filt] ! acid solution into a #be cubic c5timet] graduat$ flask2 br+ to ! m>k ) wat] & det]m9e ! glyc]9e by ! bi*romate me?od z describ$ "u glyc]9e analysis4 ,:5 sug> is pres5t ! bi*romate w\ld be r$uc$ by ! sug>1 h5ce ?is me?od is n applicable4 ,9 ?is case remove ! fatty acids z be=e1 neutralize an aliquot portion ) milk ( lime1 evaporate to #aj cubic c5timet]s1 add #b grams ( s& & milk ( lime conta9+ ab\t #b grams ( calcium hydroxide & evaporate almo/ to dryness4 ,treat ! moi/ residue ) #e cubic c5timet]s ( #if p] c5t4 alcohol1 rub ! :ole mass into a pa/e1 !n con/antly /irr+1 heat on a wat] ba? & decant into a #bej cubic c5timet] graduat$ flask4 ,repeat ! wa%+ ) #e cubic c5timet]s ( alcohol five or six times1 ea* "t p\r+ ! wa%+s into ! flask2 cool ! flask to room temp]ature & fill to ! m>k ) #if p] c5t4 alcohol1 agitate ! flask until well mix$ & filt] ?r\gh a dry filt] pap]4 ,take #bjj cubic c5timet]s ( ! nitrate & evaporate to a syrupy consi/5cy ov] a safety wat] ba?4 ,wa% ! liquor into a /opp]$ flask ) #bj cubic c5timet]s ( absolute alcohol1 add #cj cubic c5timet]s ( absolute e!r #aj cubic c5timet]s at a "t1 %ak+ well aft] ea* addition & let /& until cle>4 ,p\r (f ! solution ?r\gh a filt] into a weigh$ di% & wa% out ! flask ) a mixture ( ?ree p>ts absolute e!r & two p>ts absolute alcohol4 ,evaporate to a syrup1 dry = "o h\r at ! temp]ature ( boil+ wat]1 weigh1 ignite & weigh aga94 ,! loss is glyc]9e4 ,?is multipli$ by #e_/d gives ! total loss = ! aliquot portion tak54 ,! glyc]9e may also be det]m9$ by ! acet9 or bi*romate me?ods aft] driv+ (f ! alcohol & e!r if s desir$4 ,,sug> ,,9 ,,soap4 ,to det]m9e sug> 9 soap1 usually pres5t 9 transp>5t soaps1 decompose a soap solution ( #e grams ( soap dissolv$ 9 #ajj cubic c5timet]s ( hot wat] ) an excess ( hydro*loric acid & sep>ate ! fatty acids z usual4 ,filt] ! acid solution into a graduat$ flask & make up to ! m>k4 ,take an aliquot conta9+ approximately #a p] c5t4 ( r$uc+ sug> & det]m9e ! am\nt ( sug> by ! ,soxhlet me?od4#ah ,,glyc]9e ,,analysis4 ,! me?ods ( analyz+ glyc]9e v>i$ s greatly due to ! fact t glyc]9e conta9$ impurities :i* act$ s mu* l glyc]9e z to introduce s]i\s errors 9 ! det]m9ations ( crude glyc]9e4 ,?is l$ to ! appo9tm5t ( committees 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,europe to inve/igate ! me?ods ( glyc]9e analysis4 ,an int]national committee met aft] _! inve/igations & decid$ ! acet9 me?od %\ld control ! buy+ & sell+ ( glyc]9e1 b ! m conv5i5t bi*romate me?od 9 a /&>diz$ =m might be us$ 9 factory control & o!r te*nical purposes4 ,! foll[+ are ! me?ods ( analysis & sampl+ z sugge/$ by ! int]national committee3 ,,sampl+4 ,! mo/ satisfactory me?od available = sampl+ crude glyc]9e liable to conta9 susp5d$ matt]1 or :i* is liable to deposit salt on settl+1 is to h ! glyc]9e sampl$ by a mutually approv$ sampl] z soon z possible aft] x is fill$ into drums1 b 9 any case be=e any sep>ation ( salt has tak5 place4 ,9 su* cases he %all sample ) a sectional sampl] 7see app5dix7 !n seal ! drums1 br& !m ) a numb] = id5tification1 & keep a record ( ! br& numb]4 ,! pres5ce ( any visible salt or o!r susp5d$ matt] is to be not$ by ! sampl]1 & a report ( ! same made 9 8 c]tificate1 toge!r ) ! temp]ature ( ! glyc]9e4 ,ea* drum mu/ be sampl$4 ,glyc]9e :i* has deposit$ salt or o!r solid matt] _c be accurately sampl$ f ! drums1 b an approximate sample c be obta9$ by means ( ! sectional sampl]1 :i* w all[ a complete v]tical section ( ! glyc]9e to be tak5 includ+ any deposit4 ,,analysis4 #a4 ,det]m9ation ( ,free ,cau/ic ,alkali4--,put #bj grams ( ! sample into a #ajj cc4 flask1 dilute ) approximately #ej cc4 ( fre%ly boil$ di/ill$ wat]1 add an excess ( neutral b>ium *loride solution1 #a cc4 ( ph5olph?ale9 solution1 make up to ! m>k & mix4 ,all[ ! precipitate to settle1 draw (f #ej cc4 ( ! cle> liquid & titrate ) normal acid 7,n_/#a74 ,calculate ! p]c5tage ( ,na#b,o exi/+ z cau/ic alkali4 #b4 ,det]m9ation ( ,a% & ,total ,alkal9ity4--,weigh #b to #e grams ( ! sample 9 a plat9um di%1 burn (f ! glyc]9e ov] a lum9\s ,arg& burn] or o!r s\rce ( heat1#ai giv+ a l[ temp]ature1 to avoid volatilization & ! =mation ( sulphides4 ,:5 ! mass is *>r$ to ! po9t t wat] w n be color$ by soluble organic matt]1 lixiviate ) hot di/ill$ wat]1 filt]1 wa% & ignite ! residue 9 ! plat9um di%4 ,return ! filtrate & wa%+s to ! di%1 evaporate ! wat]1 & c>efully ignite )\t fusion4 ,weigh ! a%4 ,dissolve ! a% 9 di/ill$ wat] & titrate total alkal9ity1 us+ z indicator me?yl orange cold or litmus boil+4 #c4 ,det]m9ation ( ,alkali ,pres5t z ,c>bonate4--,take #aj grams ( ! sample1 dilute ) #ej cc4 di/ill$ wat]1 add suffici5t ,n_/#a acid to neutralize ! total alkali f\nd at 7#b71 boil "u a reflux cond5s] = #ae to #bj m9utes1 wa% d[n ! cond5s] tube ) di/ill$ wat]1 free f c>bon dioxide1 & !n titrate back ) ,n_/#a ,na,o,h1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z indicator4 ,calculate ! p]c5tage ( ,na#b,o4 ,d$uct ! ,na#b,o f\nd 9 7#a74 ,! diff]5ce is ! p]c5tage ( ,na#b,o exi/+ z c>bonate4 #d4 ,alkali ,comb9$ ) ,organic ,acids4--,! sum ( ! p]c5tages ( ,na#b,o f\nd at 7#a7 & 7#c7 d$uct$ f ! p]c5tage f\nd at 7#b7 is a measure ( ! ,na#b,o or o!r alkali comb9$ ) organic acids4 #e4 ,det]m9ation ( ,acidity4--,take #aj grams ( ! sample1 dilute ) #ej cc4 di/ill$ wat] free f c>bon dioxide1 & titrate ) ,n_/#a ,na,o,h & ph5olph?ale94 ,express 9 t]ms ( ,na#b,o requir$ to neutralize #ajj grams4 #f4 ,det]m9ation ( ,total ,residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4--,= ?is det]m9ation ! crude glyc]9e %\ld be slightly alkal9e ) ,na#b;,,co#c n exce$+ #j4b p] c5t4 ,na#b,o1 9 ord] to prev5t loss ( organic acids4 ,to avoid ! =mation ( polyglyc]ols ?is alkal9ity mu/ n be exce$$4 ,t5 grams ( ! sample are put into a #ajj cc4 flask1 dilut$ ) wat] & ! calculat$ quantity ( ,n_/#a ,h,cl or ,na#b;,,co#c add$ to give ! requir$ degree ( alkal9ity4 ,! flask is fill$ to #ajj cc41 ! cont5ts mix$1 & #aj cc4 measur$ into a weigh$ ,petrie or simil> di% #b4e 94 9 diamet] & #j4e 94 deep1 :i* %\ld h a flat bottom4 ,9 ! case ( crude glyc]9e abnormally high 9 organic residue a small] am\nt %\ld be tak51 s t ! weight ( ! organic residue does n mat]ially exce$ #cj to #dj milligrams4 ,! di% is plac$ on a wat] ba? 7! top ( ! #afj;deg4 ov5 acts equally well7 until mo/ ( ! wat] has evaporat$4 ,f ?is po9t ! evaporation is effect$ 9 ! ov54 ,satisfactory results are obta9$ 9 an ov5#bj measur+ #ab ins4 cube1 hav+ an iron plate #j4ge 94 ?ick ly+ on ! bottom to di/ribute ! heat4 ,/rips ( asbe/os millbo>d are plac$ on a %elf half way up ! ov54 ,on ^! /rips ! di% conta9+ ! glyc]9e is plac$4 ,if ! temp]ature ( ! ov5 has be5 adju/$ to #afj;deg4 ,c4 ) ! door clos$1 a temp]ature ( #acj;deg4 to #adj;deg4 c be readily ma9ta9$ ) ! door p>tially op51 & ! glyc]9e1 or mo/ ( x1 %\ld be evaporat$ (f at ?is temp]ature4 ,:5 only a slight vapor is se5 to come (f1 ! di% is remov$ & all[$ to cool4 ,an addition ( #j4e to #a4j cc4 ( wat] is made1 & by a rot>y motion ! residue br\ght :olly or ne>ly into solution4 ,! di% is !n all[$ to rema9 on a wat] ba? or top ( ! ov5 until ! excess wat] has evaporat$ & ! residue is 9 su* a condition t on return+ to ! ov5 at #afj;deg4 ,c4 x w n spurt4 ,! "t tak5 up to ?is po9t _c be giv5 def9itely1 nor is x important4 ,usually two or ?ree h\rs are requir$4 ,f ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 ! s*$ule ( "t mu/ be /rictly adh]$ to4 ,! di% is all[$ to rema9 9 ! ov51 ! temp]ature ( :i* is c>efully ma9ta9$ at #afj;deg4 ,c4 = "o h\r1 :5 x is remov$1 cool$1 ! residue treat$ ) wat]1 & ! wat] evaporat$ z be=e4 ,! residue is !n subject$ to a second bak+ ( "o h\r1 aft] :i* ! di% is all[$ to cool 9 a desiccator ov] sulphuric acid & weigh$4 ,! treatm5t ) wat]1 etc41 is repeat$ until a con/ant loss ( #a to #a4e mg4 p] h\r is obta9$4 ,9 ! case ( acid glyc]9e a correction mu/ be made = ! alkali add$ #a cc4 ,n_/#a alkali repres5ts an addition ( #j4jc gram4 ,9 ! case ( alkal9e crudes a correction %\ld be made = ! acid add$4 ,d$uct ! increase 9 weight due to ! conv]sion ( ! ,na,o,h & ,na#b;,,co#c to ,na,cl4 ,! correct$ weight multipli$ by #ajj gives ! p]c5tage ( total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,?is residue is tak5 = ! det]m9ation ( ! non-volatile acetylizable impurities 7see acet9 me?od74 #g4 ,organic residue4--,subtract ! a% f ! total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,report z organic residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 7x %\ld be not$ t alkal9e salts ( fatty acids are conv]t$ to c>bonates on ignition & t ! ,,co#c ?us d]iv$ is n includ$ 9 ! organic residue74 ,,acet9 ,,process ,,= ,,! ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,glyc]ol4 ,?is process is ! "o agre$ ^u at a conf]5ce ( delegates f ! ,briti%1 ,fr5*1 ,g]man & ,am]ican committees1 & has be5 confirm$ by ea* ( ! above committees z giv+ results ne>] to ! tru? ?an ! bi*romate me?od on crudes 9 g5]al4 ,x is ! process to be us$ 7if applicable7 :5ev] only "o me?od is employ$4 ,on pure glyc]9es ! results are id5tical ) ^? obta9$ by ! bi*romate process4 ,= ! application ( ?is me?od ! crude glyc]9e %\ld n conta9 ov] #fj p] c5t4 wat]4 ,,reag5ts ,,requir$4 7,a7 ,be/ ,acetic ,anhydride4--,?is %\ld be c>efully select$4 ,a good sample mu/ n require m ?an #j4a cc4 normal ,na,o,h = saponification ( ! impurities :5 a blank is run on #g4e cc4 ,only a slight color %\ld develop dur+ dige/ion ( ! blank4 ,! anhydride may be te/$ = /r5g? by ! foll[+ me?od3 ,into a weigh$ /opp]$ vessel1 conta9+ #aj to #bj cc4 ( wat]1 run ab\t #b cc4 ( ! anhydride1 replace ! /opp] & weigh4 ,let /& ) occasional %ak+1 = sev]al h\rs1 to p]mit ! hydrolysis ( all ! anhydride2 !n dilute to ab\t #bjj cc41 add ph5olph?ale9 & titrate ) ,n_/#a ,na,o,h4 ,?is gives ! total acidity due to free acetic acid & acid =m$ f ! anhydride4 ,x is wor?y ( note t 9 ! pres5ce ( mu* free anhydride a comp\nd is =m$ ) ph5olph?ale91 soluble 9 alkali & acetic acid1 b insoluble 9 neutral solutions4 ,if a turbidity is notic$ t[>d ! end ( ! neutralization x is an indication t ! anhydride is incompletely hydrolyz$ & inasmu* z ! indicator is )drawn f ! solution1 results may be incorrect4 ,into a /opp]$ weigh+ bottle conta9+ a kn[n weight ( rec5tly di/ill$ anil9e 7f #aj to #bj cc47 measure ab\t #b cc4 ( ! sample1 /opp]1 mix1 cool & weigh4 ,wa% ! cont5ts into ab\t #bjj cc4 ( cold wat]1 & titrate ! acidity z be=e4 ,?is yields ! acidity due to ! orig9al1 pre=m$1 acetic acid plus "o-half ! acid due to anhydride 7! o!r half hav+ =m$ acetanilide72 subtract ! second result f ! fir/ 7bo? calculat$ to #ajj grams7 & d\ble ! result1 obta9+ ! cc4 ,n_/#a ,na,o,h p] #ajj grams ( ! sample4 #a cc4 ,n_/,na,o,h equals #j4jeaj anhydride4 7,b7 ,pure ,fus$ ,sodium ,acetate4--,! pur*as$ salt is aga9 completely fus$ 9 a plat9um1 silica or nickel di%1 avoid+ *>r+1 p[d]$ quickly & kept 9 a /opp]$ bottle or desiccator4 ,x is mo/ important t ! sodium acetate be anhydr\s4 7,c7 ,a ,solution ( ,cau/ic ,soda = ,neutraliz+1 ( ab\t ,n_/#a ,/r5g?1 ,free f ,c>bonate4--,?is c be readily made by dissolv+ pure sodium hydroxide 9 its own weight ( wat] 7pref]ably wat] free f c>bon dioxide7 & all[+ to settle until cle>1 or filt]+ ?r\gh an asbe/os or pap] filt]4 ,! cle> solution is dilut$ ) wat] free f c>bon dioxide to ! /r5g? requir$4 7,d7 ,n_/#a ,cau/ic ,soda ,free f ,c>bonate4--,prep>$ z above & c>efully /&>diz$4 ,"s cau/ic soda solutions %[ a m>k$ dim9ution 9 /r5g? aft] be+ boil$2 su* solutions %\ld be reject$4 7,e7 ,n_/#a ,acid4--,c>efully /&>diz$4 7,f7 ,ph5olph?ale9 ,solution4--#j4e p] c5t4 ph5olph?ale9 9 alcohol & neutraliz$4 ,,! ,,me?od4 ,9 a n>r[-m\!d flask 7pref]ably r\nd-bottom$71 capacity ab\t #abj cc41 :i* has be5 ?or\ghly clean$ & dri$1 weigh accurately & z rapidly z possible #a4be to #a4e grams ( ! glyc]9e4 ,a ,gre?an or ,lunge pipette w be f\nd conv5i5t4 ,add ab\t #c grams ( ! anhydr\s sodium acetate1 !n #g4e cc4 ( ! acetic anhydride1 & connect ! flask ) an upright ,liebig cond5s]4 ,= conv5i5ce ! inn] tube ( ?is cond5s] %\ld n be ov] #ej cm4 long & #i to #aj mm4 inside diamet]4 ,! flask is connect$ to ! cond5s] by ei!r a gr\nd glass jo9t 7pref]ably7 or a rubb] /opp]4 ,if a rubb] /opp] is us$ x %\ld h _h a prelim9>y treatm5t ) hot acetic anhydride vapor4 ,heat ! cont5ts & keep j boil+ = "o h\r1 tak+ precautions to prev5t ! salts dry+ on ! sides ( ! flask4 ,all[ ! flask to cool some:at1 & ?r\gh ! cond5s] tube add #ej cc4 ( di/ill$ wat] free f c>bon dioxide at a temp]ature ( ab\t #hj;deg4 ,c41 tak+ c>e t ! flask is n loos5$ f ! cond5s]4 ,! object ( cool+ is to avoid any sudd5 ru% ( vapors f ! flask on add+ wat]1 & to avoid break+ ! flask4 ,"t is sav$ by add+ ! wat] be=e ! cont5ts ( ! flask solidify1 b ! cont5ts may be all[$ to solidify & ! te/ proce$$ ) ! next day )\t detrim5t1 be>+ 9 m9d t ! anhydride 9 excess is mu* m effectively hydrolyz$ 9 hot ?an 9 cold wat]4 ,! cont5ts ( ! flask may be w>m$ to1 b mu/ n exce$1 #hj;deg4 ,c41 until ! solution is complete1 except a few d>k flocks repres5t+ organic impurities 9 ! crude4 ,by giv+ ! flask a rot>y motion1 solution is m quickly effect$4 ,cool ! flask & cont5ts )\t loos5+ f ! cond5s]4 ,:5 q cold wa% d[n ! inside ( ! cond5s] tube1 deta* ! flask1 wa% (f ! /opp] or gr\nd glass connection into ! flask1 & filt] ! cont5ts ?r\gh an acid-wa%$ filt] into a ,j5a glass flask ( ab\t #a litre capacity4 ,wa% ?or\ghly ) cold di/ill$ wat] free f c>bon dioxide4 ,add #b cc4 ( ph5olph?ale9 solution 7,f71 !n run 9 cau/ic soda solution 7,c7 or 7,d7 until a fa9t p9ki% yell[ color appe>s ?r\gh\t ! solution4 ,?is neutralization mu/ be done mo/ c>efully2 ! alkali %\ld be run d[n ! sides ( ! flask1 ! cont5ts ( :i* are kept rapidly swirl+ ) occasional agitation or *ange ( motion until ! solution is ne>ly neutraliz$1 z indicat$ by ! sl[] disappe>ance ( ! color develop$ locally by ! alkali runn+ into ! mixture4 ,:5 ?is po9t is rea*$ ! sides ( ! flask are wa%$ d[n ) c>bon dioxide-free wat] & ! alkali subsequ5tly add$ drop by drop1 mix+ aft] ea* drop until ! desir$ t9t is obta9$4 ,n[ run 9 f a burette #ej cc4 or a calculat$ excess ( ,n_/#a ,na,o,h 7,d7 & note c>efully ! exact am\nt4 ,boil g5tly = #ae m9utes1 ! flask be+ fitt$ ) a glass tube act+ z a p>tial cond5s]4 ,cool z quickly z possible & titrate ! excess ( ,na,o,h ) ,n_/#a acid 7,e7 until ! p9ki% yell[ or *os5 end-po9t color j rema9s4#ba ,a fur!r addition ( ! indicator at ?is po9t w cause an increase ( ! p9k color2 ?is mu/ be neglect$1 & ! fir/ end-po9t tak54 ,f ! ,n_/#a ,na,o,h consum$ calculate ! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol 7includ+ acetylizable impurities7 aft] mak+ ! correction = ! blank te/ describ$ bel[4 #a cc4 ,n_/#a ,na,o,h #j4jcjfi gram glyc]ol4 ,! coeffici5t ( expansion = normal solutions is #j4jjjcc p] cc4 = ea* degree c5tigrade4 ,a correction %\ld be made on ?is acc\nt if necess>y4 ,blank ,te/4--,z ! acetic anhydride & sodium acetate may conta9 impurities :i* affect ! result1 x is necess>y to make a blank te/1 us+ ! same quantities ( acetic anhydride1 sodium acetate & wat] z 9 ! analysis4 ,x is n necess>y to filt] ! solution ( ! melt 9 ?is case1 b suffici5t "t mu/ be all[$ = ! hydrolysis ( ! anhydride be=e proce$+ ) ! neutralization4 ,aft] neutralization x is n necess>y to add m ?an #aj cc4 ( ! ,n_/#a alkali 7,d71 z ?is repres5ts ! excess usually pres5t aft] ! saponification ( ! av]age soap lye crude4 ,9 det]m9+ ! acid equival5t ( ! ,n_/#a ,na,o,h1 h[ev]1 ! entire am\nt tak5 9 ! analysis1 #ej cc41 %\ld be titrat$ aft] dilution ) #cjj cc4 wat] free f c>bon dioxide & )\t boil+4 ,det]m9ation ( ! ,glyc]ol ,value ( ! ,acetylizable ,impurities4--,! total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 is dissolv$ 9 #a or #b cc4 ( wat]1 wa%$ into ! acetyliz+ flask & evaporat$ to dryness4 ,!n add anhydr\s sodium acetate & acetic anhydride 9 ! usual am\nts & proce$ z describ$ 9 ! regul> analysis4 ,aft] correct+ = ! blank1 calculate ! result to glyc]ol4 ,,ways ,,( ,,calculat+ ,,actual ,,glyc]ol ,,cont5t4 7#a7 ,det]m9e ! app>5t p]c5tage ( glyc]ol 9 ! sample by ! acet9 process z describ$4 ,! result w include acetylizable impurities if any are pres5t4 7#b7 ,det]m9e ! total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 7#c7 ,det]m9e ! acet9 value ( ! residue at 7#b7 9 t]ms ( glyc]ol4 7#d7 ,d$uct ! result f\nd at 7#c7 f ! p]c5tage obta9$ at 7#a7 & report ?is correct$ figure z glyc]ol4 ,if volatile acetylizable impurities are pres5t ^! are includ$ 9 ?is figure4 ,trime?yl5eglycol is m volatile ?an glyc]9e & c !re=e be conc5trat$ by fractional di/illation4 ,an approximation to ! quantity c be obta9$ f ! spread betwe5 ! acet9 & bi*romate results on su* di/illates4 ,! spread multipli$ by #a4gcf w give ! glycol4 ,,bi*romate ,,process ,,= ,,glyc]ol ,,det]m9ation4 ,,reag5ts ,,requir$4 7,a7 ,pure potassium bi*romate p[d]$ & dri$ 9 air free f du/ or organic vapors1 at #aaj;deg4 to #abj;deg4 ,c4 ,?is is tak5 z ! /&>d4 7,b7 ,dilute ,bi*romate ,solution4--#g4defd grams ( ! above bi*romate are dissolv$ 9 di/ill$ wat] & ! solution made up to "o lit] at #ae4e;deg4 ,c4 7,c7 ,f]r\s ,ammonium ,sulphate4--,x is nev] safe to assume ?is salt to be con/ant 9 composition & x mu/ be /&>diz$ aga9/ ! bi*romate z foll[s3 dissolve #c4gbhb grams ( bi*romate 7,a7 9 #ej cc4 ( wat]4 ,add #ej cc4 ( #ej p] c5t4 sulphuric acid 7by volume71 & to ! cold undilut$ solution add f a weigh+ bottle a mod]ate excess ( ! f]r\s ammonium sulphate1 & titrate back ) ! dilute bi*romate 7,b74 ,calculate ! value ( ! f]r\s salt 9 t]ms ( bi*romate4 7,d7 ,silv] ,c>bonate4--,?is is prep>$ z requir$ = ea* te/ f #adj cc4 ( #j4e p] c5t4 silv] sulphate solution by precipitation1 ) ab\t #d4i cc4 ,n_/#a sodium c>bonate solution 7a little less ?an ! calculat$ quantity ( ,n_/#a sodium c>bonate %\ld be us$ z an excess to prev5t rapid settl+74 ,settle1 decant & wa% "o by decantation4 7,e7 ,subacetate ( ,lead4--,boil a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( pure lead acetate ) an excess ( li?>ge = "o h\r1 keep+ ! volume con/ant1 & filt] :ile hot4 ,disreg>d any precipitate :i* subsequ5tly =ms4 ,pres]ve out ( contact ) c>bon dioxide4 7,f7 ,potassium ,f]ricyanide4--,a v dilute1 fre%ly prep>$ solution conta9+ ab\t #j4a p] c5t4 ,,! ,,me?od4 ,weigh #bj grams ( ! glyc]9e1 dilute to #bej cc4 & take #be cc4 ,add ! silv] c>bonate1 all[ to /&1 ) occasional agitation1 = ab\t #aj m9utes1 & add a slight excess 7ab\t #e cc4 9 mo/ cases7 ( ! basic lead acetate 7,e71 all[ to /& a few m9utes1 dilute ) di/ill$ wat] to #ajj cc41 & !n add #j4ae cc4 to comp5sate = ! volume ( ! precipitate1 mix ?or\ghly1 filt] ?r\gh an air-dry filt] into a suitable n>r[-m\!d vessel1 reject+ ! fir/ #aj cc41 & return ! filtrate if n cle> & bright4 ,te/ a portion ( ! filtrate ) a little basic lead acetate1 :i* %\ld produce no fur!r precipitate 79 ! great majority ( cases #e cc4 are ample1 b occasionally a crude w be f\nd requir+ m1 & 9 ?is case ano!r aliquot ( #be cc4 ( ! dilute glyc]9e %\ld be tak5 & purifi$ ) #f cc4 ( ! basic acetate74 ,c>e mu/ be tak5 to avoid a m>k$ excess ( basic acetate4 ,measure (f #be cc4 ( ! cle> filtrate into a flask or beak] 7previ\sly clean$ ) potassium bi*romate & sulphuric acid74 ,add #ab drops ( sulphuric acid 7#a3 #d7 to precipitate ! small excess ( lead z sulphate4 ,add #c4gbhb grams ( ! p[d]$ potassium bi*romate 7,a74 ,r9se d[n ! bi*romate ) #be cc4 ( wat] & let /& ) occasional %ak+ until all ! bi*romate is dissolv$ 7no r$uction w take place 9 ! cold74 ,n[ add #ej cc4 ( #ej p] c5t4 sulphuric acid 7by volume7 & imm]se ! vessel 9 boil+ wat] = two h\rs & keep protect$ f du/ & organic vapors1 su* z alcohol1 till ! titration is complet$4 ,add f a weigh+ bottle a slight excess ( ! f]r\s ammonium sulphate 7,c71 mak+ spot te/s on a porcela9 plate ) ! potassium f]ricyanide 7,f74 ,titrate back ) ! dilute bi*romate4 ,f ! am\nt ( bi*romate r$uc$ calculate ! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol4 #a gram glyc]ol #g4defd grams bi*romate4 #a gram bi*romate #j4acdaa gram glyc]ol4 ,! p]c5tage ( glyc]ol obta9$ above includes any oxidizable impurities pres5t aft] ! purification4 ,a correction = ! non-volatile impurities may be made by runn+ a bi*romate te/ on ! residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,,notes4 7#a7 ,x is important t ! conc5tration ( acid 9 ! oxidation mixture & ! "t ( oxidation %\ld be /rictly adh]$ to4 7#b7 ,be=e ! bi*romate is add$ to ! glyc]9e solution x is ess5tial t ! slight excess ( lead be precipitat$ ) sulphuric acid1 z /ipulat$4 7#c7 ,= crudes practically free f *lorides ! quantity ( silv] c>bonate may be r$uc$ to "o-fif? & ! basic lead acetate to #j4e cc4 7#d7 ,x is sometimes advisable to add a little potassium sulphate to insure a cle> filtrate4 ,,sampl+ ,,crude ,,glyc]9e4 ,! usual me?od ( sampl+ crude glyc]9e hi!rto has be5 by means ( a glass tube1 :i* is sl[ly l[]$ into ! drum ) ! object ( tak+ z ne>ly z possible a v]tical section ( ! glyc]9e conta9$ 9 ! drum4 ,?is me?od has be5 f\nd unsatisfactory1 ow+ to ! fact t 9 cold climates glyc]9e runs into ! tube v sl[ly1 s t1 ow+ to ! "t occupi$1 x is impossible to take a complete section ( ! crude4 ,ano!r objection to ! glass tube is t x fails to take any?+ approa*+ a correct proportion ( any settl$ salt conta9$ 9 ! drum4 ,! sampl] :i* is illu/rat$ h]e) has be5 devis$ ) ! object ( ov]com+ ! objections to ! glass tube z f> z possible4 ,x consi/s ( two brass tubes1 "o fitt+ closely inside ! o!r4 ,a numb] ( ports are cut out 9 ea* tube 9 su* a way t :5 ! ports are op5$ a cont9u\s slot is =m$ :i* enables a complete section to be tak5 ?r\gh\t ! entire l5g? ( ! drum4 ,by ?is arrangem5t ! glyc]9e fills into ! sampl] almo/ in/antane\sly4 ,!re are a numb] ( ports cut at ! bottom ( ! sampl] :i* r5d] x possible to take a proportion ( ! salt at ! bottom ( ! drum4 ,! in/rum5t is s con/ruct$ t all ! ports1 includ+ ! bottom ones1 c be clos$ simultane\sly by ! simple action ( turn+ ! h&le at ! top2 a po9t] is arrang$ :i* indicates on a dial :5 ! sampl] is op5 or clos$4 ,9 sampl]s ( l>g] section 7#a 947 x is possible to arrange a ?ird motion :]eby ! bottom ports only are op5 = empty+1 b 9 sampl]s ( small] dim5sions 7#e_/h 947 ?is ?ird motion mu/ be disp5s$ )1 o!rwise ! dim5sions ( ! ports h to be s small t ! sampl] w\ld n be effici5t4 ,9 us+ ! sampl] x is introduc$ into ! drum ) ! ports clos$1 & :5 x has t\*$ ! bottom1 ! ports are op5$ = a second or two1 !n clos$ & )drawn1 & ! sample dis*>g$ into ! receiv+ vessel by op5+ ! ports4 ,:5 ! drum conta9s salt :i* has deposit$1 ! ports mu/ be op5$ be=e ! sampl] is pu%$ ?r\gh ! salt1 ?us enabl+ a portion to be includ$ 9 ! sample4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 almo/ impossible to obta9 a correct proportion ( salt aft] x has settl$ 9 ! drum & x is !re=e recomm5d$ t ! drum be sampl$ be=e any salt has deposit$4 ,a sampl] #a 94 9 diamet] )draws approximately #aj oz4 f a #aaj-;gal4 drum4 ,a sampl] #e_/h 94 9 diamet] w )draw ab\t #e oz4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,zeit4 ,angew4 ,*em4 #ai1 #che 7#aijf74 #ad ,zeit4 ,angew4 ,*em4 #bg1 #aa-bj 7#aiad74 #ae ,bull4 #ajg1 ,bur4 ,*em4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 #af ,ri*>ds & ,gies1 ,am4 ,j4 ,physiol4 7#aijb7 #g1 #abi4 #ag ,seif5si$] ,ztg4 7#aiac7 ,no4 #df4 #ah ,bull #ajg1 ,bur4 ,*em4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 #ai ,c>bon is readily burn$ (f completely1 )\t loss ( *lorides1 9 a gas-heat$ muffle furnace adju/$ to a dull r$ heat4 #bj ,an electric ov5 suitable = ?is "w1 :i* is readily adju/$ to #afj degs4 ,c41 has be5 made = ,mr4 ,l[ & ! *airman1 by ! ,app>atus & ,specialty ,company1 ,lans+1 ,mi*4 ,its size is #i-a_/b x #aj x #af in*es1 & capacity #h ,petrie di%es4 ,x gives a /rong draft at con/ant temp]ature4 #ba ,a precipitate at ?is po9t is an indication ( ! pres5ce ( iron or alum9a1 & high results w be obta9$ unless a correction is made z describ$ bel[4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,/&>d ,me?ods = ! ,sampl+ & ,analysis ( ,comm]cial ,fats & ,oils#bb ,! foll[+ report ( ! ,committee on ,analysis ( ,comm]cial ,fats & ,oils ( ! ,division ( ,indu/rial ,*emi/s & ,*emical ,eng9e]s ( ! ,am]ican ,*emical ,society 0 adopt$ ,april #ad1 #aiai1 by unanim\s vote3 ,w4 ,d4 ,,ri*>dson1 ,*airman1 ,swift & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,bailey1 ,/illwell & ,gladd+1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,gascoyne1 ,w4 ,j4 ,gascoyne & ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,i4 ,,katz1,a ,wilson & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,a4 ,,l[5/e91,a ,morris & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,morrison1 ,proctor & ,gamble ,co41 ,ivorydale1 ,ohio4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,p[ell1 ,arm\r ,soap ,works1 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,qu9n1,a ,midl& ,*emical ,co41 ,argo1 ,ill4 ,,paul ,,rudnick1 ,arm\r & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,tolman1 ,wilson & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,e4 ,,twit*ell1,a ,em]y ,c&le ,co41 ,c9c9nati1 ,ohio4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,voll]ts51 ,morris & ,co41 ,*icago1 ,ill4 ,note ,a3 ,resign$4 ,scope1 ,applicability & ,limitations ( ! ,me?ods4 ,,scope4 ,^! me?ods are int5d$ to aid 9 det]m9+ ! comm]cial valuation ( fats & fatty oils 9 _! pur*ase & sale1 bas$ on ! fundam5tal assumption commonly recogniz$ 9 ! trade1 namely1 t ! product is true to "n & is n adult]at$4 ,= me?ods = det]m9+ ! id5tity ( oils & fats1 ! abs5ce ( adult]ants !re9 & = specific te/s us$ 9 p>ticul> indu/ries1 ! *emi/ is ref]r$ to /&>d works on ! analysis ( fats & oils4 ,,applicability4 ,! me?ods are applicable 9 comm]cial transactions involv+ fats & fatty oils us$ 9 ! soap1 c&le & tann+ indu/ries1 to edible fats & oils & to fats & fatty oils int5d$ = lubricat+ & burn+ purposes4 ,! me?ods are applicable to ! raw oils us$ 9 ! v>ni% & pa9t indu/ry ) ! exceptions not$ "u limitations1 b special me?ods h n be5 includ$4 ,,limitations4 ,! me?ods h n be5 develop$ ) special ref]5ce to waxes 7beeswax1 c>nauba wax1 wool wax1 etc47 al?\gh "s ( !m may be f\nd applicable to ^! sub/ances4 ,! ,committee consid]s ! ,wijs me?od sup]ior to ! ,hanus me?od = ! det]m9ation ( iod9e numb] ( l9se$ oil z well z o!r oils1 al?\gh ! ,hanus me?od has be5 consid]$ /&>d = ?is "w = "s "t & has be5 adopt$ by ! ,am]ican ,society = ,te/+ ,mat]ials & 9 v>i\s specifications4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y to use ! ,huebl me?od = ! det]m9ation ( iod9e value ( tung oil 7,*9a wood oil7 b ! ,committee's "w indicates t ! ,wijs me?od is satisfactory = ?is det]m9ation4 ,sampl+4 ,,tank ,,c>s4 #a4 ,,sampl+ ,,:ile ,,load+--,sample %all be tak5 at dis*>ge ( pipe :]e x ent]s tank c> dome4 ,! total sample tak5 %all be n less ?an #ej lbs4 & %all be a composite ( small samples ( ab\t #a p\nd ea*1 tak5 at regul> int]vals dur+ ! entire p]iod ( load+4 ,! sample ?us obta9$ is ?or\ghly mix$ & uni=m #c-lb4 portions plac$ 9 air-tight #c-lb4 metal conta9]s4 ,at lea/ ?ree su* samples %all be put up1 "o = ! buy]1 "o = ! sell]1 & ! ?ird to be s5t to a ref]ee *emi/ 9 case ( dispute4 ,all samples are to be promptly & correctly label$ & seal$4 #b4 ,,sampl+ ,,f ,,c> ,,on ,,track#bc--7;a7 ,:5 cont5ts are solid4#bd ,9 ?is case ! sample is tak5 by means ( a l>ge try] measur+ ab\t #b 94 across & ab\t #a-a_/b times ! dep? ( ! c> 9 l5g?4 ,sev]al try]fuls are tak5 v]tically & obliquely t[>d ! ends ( ! c> until #ej lbs4 are accumulat$1 :5 ! sample is s(t5$1 mix$ & h&l$ z "u 7#a74 ,9 case ! cont5ts ( ! tank c> h assum$ a v h>d condition1 z 9 ,w9t] wea!r1 s t x is impossible to ins]t ! try]1 & x becomes necess>y to s(t5 ! cont5ts ( ! c> by means ( ! clos$ /eam coil 79 ne>ly all tank c>s ! clos$ /eam coil leaks7 or by means ( op5 /eam 9 ord] to draw a prop] sample1 suitable arrangem5ts mu/ be made betwe5 buy] & sell] = ! sampl+ ( ! c> aft] x is suffici5tly s(t5$1 due consid]ation be+ giv5 to ! possible pres5ce ( wat] 9 ! mat]ial 9 ! c> z receiv$ & also to ! possible addition ( wat] dur+ ! /eam+4 ,! ,committee kn[s ( no direct me?od = sampl+ a h>d-froz5 tank c> ( tall[ 9 a satisfactory mann]4 7b7 ,:5 cont5ts are liquid4 ,! sample tak5 is to be a #ej-lb4 composite made up ( num]\s small samples tak5 f ! top1 bottom & int]m$iate po9ts by means ( a bottle or metal conta9] ) removable /opp] or top4 ,?is device atta*$ to a suitable pole is l[]$ to ! v>i\s desir$ dep?s1 :5 ! /opp] or top is remov$ & ! conta9] all[$ to fill4 ,! #ej-lb4 sample ?us obta9$ is h&l$ z "u 7#a74 ,9 place ( ! device describ$ above1 any sampl] capable ( tak+ a sample f ! top1 bottom1 & c5t]1 or f a section ?r\gh c>1 may be us$4 7c7 ,:5 cont5ts are 9 semi-solid condition1 or :5 /e>9e has sep>at$ f liquid portions4 ,9 ?is case1 a comb9ation ( 7a7 & 7b7 may be us$ or by agreem5t ( ! p>ties ! :ole may be melt$ & proc$ure 7b7 foll[$4 ,,b>rels1 ,,ti]ces1 ,,casks1 ,,drums1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,packages4 ,all packages %all be sampl$1 unless by special agreem5t ! p>ties arrange to sample a less] numb]2 b 9 any case n less ?an #aj p] c5t ( ! total numb] %all be sampl$4 ,! total sample tak5 %all be at lea/ #bj lbs4 9 weight = ea* #ajj b>rels1 or equival5t4 #a4 ,,b>rels1 ,,ti]ces ,,& ,,casks--7a7 ,:5 cont5ts are solid4 ,! small samples %all be tak5 by a try] ?r\gh ! bunghole or ?r\gh a special hole bor$ 9 ! head or side = ! purpose1 ) a #a-;94 or l>g] aug]4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to avoid & elim9ate all bor+s & *ips f ! sample4 ,! try] is ins]t$ 9 su* a way z to rea* ! head ( ! b>rel1 ti]ce1 or cask4 ,! l>ge sample is s(t5$1 mix$ & h&l$ accord+ to ,,tank ,,c>s 7#a74 7b7 ,:5 cont5ts are liquid4 ,9 ?is case use is made ( a glass tube ) con/rict$ l[] end4 ,?is is ins]t$ sl[ly & all[$ to fill ) ! liquid1 :5 ! upp] end is clos$ & ! tube )drawn1 ! cont5ts be+ all[$ to dra9 into ! sample conta9]4 ,aft] ! entire sample is tak5 x is ?or\ghly mix$ & h&l$ accord+ to ,,tank ,,c>s 7#a74 7c7 ,:5 cont5ts are semi-solid4 ,9 ?is case ! try] or a glass tube ) l>g] outlet is us$1 dep5d+ on ! degree ( fluidity4 7d7 ,v h>d mat]ials1 su* z natural & artificial /e>9es4 ,by pref]5ce ! b>rels are /ripp$ & samples obta9$ by break+ up cont5ts ( at lea/ #aj p] c5t ( ! packages4 ,?is proc$ure is to be foll[$ also 9 ! case ( cakes %ipp$ 9 sacks4 ,:5 %ipp$ 9 ! =m ( small pieces 9 sacks !y c be sampl$ by grab sampl+ & qu>t]+4 ,9 all cases ! f9al proc$ure is z outl9$ "u ,,tank ,,c>s 7#a74 #b4 ,,drums--,samples are to be tak5 z "u 7#a71 use be+ made ( ! bunghole4 ,! try] or tube %\ld be suffici5tly long to rea* to ! ends ( ! drum4 #c4 ,,o!r ,,packages--,tubs1 pails & o!r small packages n m5tion$ above are to be sampl$ by try] or tube 7dep5d+ on fluidity7 z outl9$ above1 ! try] or tube be+ ins]t$ diagonally :5ev] possible4 #d4 ,,mix$ ,,lots ,,& ,,packages--,:5 lots ( tall[ or o!r fats are receiv$ 9 packages ( v>i\s %apes & sizes1 & especially :]e9 ! fat itself is ( v>iable composition1 su* mu/ be left to ! judgm5t ( ! sampl]4 ,if v>iable1 ! cont5ts ( ea* package %\ld be mix$ z ?or\ghly z possible & ! am\nt ( ! individual samples tak5 made proportional to ! sizes ( ! packages4 ,analysis4 ,,sample4 ,! sample mu/ be repres5tative & at lea/ ?ree p\nds 9 weight & tak5 9 accordance ) ! ,,/&>d ,,me?ods ,,= ,,! ,,sampl+ ,,( ,,comm]cial ,,fats ,,& ,,oils4 ,x mu/ be kept 9 an air-tight conta9]1 9 a d>k1 cool place4 ,s(t5 ! sample if necess>y by means ( a g5tle heat1 tak+ c>e n to melt x4 ,:5 suffici5tly s(t5$1 mix ! sample ?or\ghly by means ( a me*anical egg beat] or o!r equally effective me*anical mix]4 ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,volatile ,,matt]4 ,,app>atus3 ,vacuum ,ov5--,! ,committee ,/&>d ,ov54 ,,description--,! ,/&>d ,f4 ,a4 ,c4 ,vacuum ,ov5 has be5 design$ ) ! idea ( af=d+ a simple & compact vacuum ov5 :i* w give z uni=m temp]atures z possible on ! %elf4 ,z ! figure %[s1 x consi/s ( an iron ca/+ ( rectangul> sections ) h+$ front door made tight by means ( a gasket & :i* c be l[]$ on op5+ ! ov5 s z to =m a %elf on :i* samples may be re/$4 ,! ov5 conta9s b "o %elf :i* is heat$ f above z well z bel[ by means ( resi/ance coils4 ,sev]al !rmomet] holes are provid$ 9 ord] to asc]ta9 def9itely ! temp]ature at diff]5t po9ts on ! %elf4 ,9 a vacuum ov5 :]e ! heat+ is done almo/ entirely by radiation x is difficult to ma9ta9 uni=m temp]atures at all po9ts1 b ! ,f4 ,a4 ,c4 ov5 accompli%es ?is r bett] ?an mo/ vacuum ov5s4 ,l>g] ov5s conta9+ m ?an "o %elf h be5 tri$ by ! ,committee1 b h be5 f\nd to be lack+ 9 temp]ature uni=mity & means ( control4 ,! entire ov5 is support$ by means ( a #d-;94 /&>d pipe :i* screws into ! base ( ! ov5 & :i* 9 turn is support$ by be+ screw$ into a bl9d flange ( suitable diamet] :i* re/s on ! floor or "w table4 ,moi/ure ,di%--,a %all[1 glass di%1 lipp$1 beak] =m1 approximately #f to #g cm4 diamet] & #d cm4 deep1 %all be /&>d4 ,,det]m9ation--,weigh out #e grams 7 #j4b g4 ( ! prep>$ sample7 into a moi/ure di%4 ,dry to con/ant weight 9 vacuo at a uni=m temp]ature1 n less ?an #ae;deg4 ,c4 nor m ?an #bj;deg4 ,c4 above ! boil+ po9t ( wat] at ! work+ pressure1 :i* mu/ n exce$ #ajj mm4 ( m]cury4#be ,con/ant weight is atta9$ :5 successive dry+s = #a-;hr4 p]iods %[ an additional loss ( n m t #j4je p] c5t4 ,report loss 9 weight z ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,volatile ,,matt]4#bf ,illu/ration3 ,,/&>d ,,vacuum ,,ov5 ,! vacuum-ov5 me?od _c be consid]$ accurate 9 ! case ( fats ( ! coconut oil gr\p conta9+ free acid & ! ,committee recomm5ds t x be us$ only = oils ( ?is gr\p :5 !y conta9 less ?an #a p] c5t free acid4 ,9 ! case ( oils ( ?is gr\p conta9+ m ?an #a p] c5t free acid1 rec\rse %\ld be _h tempor>ily to ! r\t9e control me?od = moi/ure & volatile matt]#bg until ! ,committee develops a m satisfactory me?od4 ,! air-ov5 me?od _c be consid]$ ev5 approximately accurate 9 ! case ( ! dry+ & semi-dry+ oils & ^? ( ! coconut oil gr\p4 ,!re=e1 9 ! case ( su* oils z cottonse$ oil1 maize oil 7corn oil71 soy bean oil1 l9se$ oil1 coconut oil1 palm k]nel oil1 etc41 ! vacuum-ov5 me?od %\ld always be us$1 except 9 ! case ( fats ( ! coconut gr\p conta9+ m ?an #a p] c5t free acid1 z not$ above4 ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,dissolve ! residue f ! moi/ure & volatile matt] det]m9ation by heat+ x on a /eam ba? ) #ej cc4 ( k]os5e4 ,filt] ! solution ?r\gh a ,goo* crucible prop]ly prep>$ ) asbe/os1#bh wa% ! insoluble matt] five times ) #aj-;cc4 portions ( hot k]os5e1 & f9ally wa% ! residual k]os5e out ?or\ghly ) petroleum e!r4 ,dry ! crucible & cont5ts to con/ant weight1 z 9 ! det]m9ation ( moi/ure & volatile matt] & report results z ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,,soluble ,,m9]al ,,matt]4 ,place ! comb9$ k]os5e filtrate & k]os5e wa%+s f ! insoluble impurities det]m9ation 9 a plat9um di%4 ,place 9 ?is an a%less filt] pap] fold$ 9 ! =m ( a cone1 apex up4 ,light ! apex ( ! cone1 :]eupon ! bulk ( ! k]os5e burns quietly4 ,a% ! residue 9 a muffle1 to con/ant weight1 tak+ c>e t ! decomposition ( alkal9e e>? c>bonates is complete1 & report ! result z ,,soluble ,,m9]al ,,matt]4#bi ,:5 ! p]c5tage ( soluble m9]al matt] am\nts to m ?an #j4a p] c5t1 multiply ! p]c5tage by #aj & add ?is am\nt to ! p]c5tage ( free fatty acids z det]m9$4#cj ,,free ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,! ,,alcohol#ca us$ %all be approximately #ie p] c5t e?yl alcohol1 fre%ly di/ill$ f sodium hydroxide1 :i* ) ph5olph?ale9 gives a def9ite & di/9ct end-po9t4 ,,det]m9ation--,weigh #a to #ae g4 ( ! prep>$ sample into an ,erl5mey] flask1 us+ ! small] quantity 9 ! case ( d>k-color$1 high acid fats4 ,add #ej to #ajj cc4 hot1 neutral alcohol1 & titrate ) ,n_/#b1 ,n_/#d or ,n_/#aj sodium hydroxide dep5d+ on ! fatty acid cont5t1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z indicator4 ,calculate to oleic acid1 except t 9 ! case ( palm oil ! results may also be express$ 9 t]ms ( palmitic acid1 cle>ly indicat+ ! two me?ods ( calculation 9 ! report4 ,9 ! case ( coconut & palm k]nel oils1 calculate to & report 9 t]ms ( lauric acid 9 addition to oleic acid1 cle>ly indicat+ ! two me?ods ( calculation 9 ! report4 ,9 ! case ( fats or greases conta9+ m ?an #j4a p] c5t ( soluble m9]al matt]1 add to ! p]c5tages ( free fatty acids z det]m9$ #aj times ! p]c5tage ( bases 9 ! soluble m9]al matt] z det]m9$4#cj ,?is addition gives ! equival5t ( fatty acids comb9$ ) ! soluble m9]al matt]4 ,,tit]4 ,,/&>d ,,!rmomet]--,! !rmomet] is graduat$ at z]o & 9 t5? degrees f #aj;deg4 ,c4 to #fe;deg4 ,c41 ) "o auxili>y res]voir at ! upp] end & ano!r betwe5 ! z]o m>k & ! #aj;deg4 m>k4 ,! cavity 9 ! capill>y tube betwe5 ! z]o m>k & ! #aj;deg4 m>k is at lea/ #a cm4 bel[ ! #aj;deg4 m>k1 ! #aj;deg4 m>k is ab\t #c or #d cm4 above ! bulb1 ! l5g? ( ! !rmomet] be+ ab\t #cg cm4 ov] all4 ,! !rmomet] has be5 anneal$ = #ge hrs4 at #dej;deg4 ,c4 & ! bulb is ( ,j5a normal #af''' glass1 or its equival5t1 mod]ately ?91 s t ! !rmomet] w be quick-act+4 ,! bulb is ab\t #c cm4 long & #f mm4 9 diamet]4 ,! /em ( ! !rmomet] is #f mm4 9 diamet] & made ( ! be/ !rmomet] tub+1 ) scale et*$ on ! /em1 ! graduation is cle>-cut & di/9ct1 b q f9e4 ,! !rmomet] mu/ be c]tifi$ by ! ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau ( ,/&>ds4 ,,glyc]ol ,,cau/ic ,,solution--,dissolve #bej g4 potassium hydroxide 9 #aijj cc4 dynamite glyc]9 ) ! aid ( heat4 ,,det]m9ation--,heat #ge cc4 ( ! glyc]ol-cau/ic solution to #aej;deg4 ,c4 & add #ej g4 ( ! melt$ fat4 ,/ir ! mixture well & cont9ue heat+ until ! melt is homog5e\s1 at no "t all[+ ! temp]ature to exce$ #aej;deg4 ,c4 ,all[ to cool some:at & c>efully add #ej cc4 #cj p] c5t sulfuric acid4 ,n[ add hot wat] & heat until ! fatty acids sep>ate out p]fectly cle>4 ,draw (f ! acid wat] & wa% ! fatty acids ) hot wat] until free f m9]al acid1 !n filt] & heat to #acj;deg4 ,c4 z rapidly z possible :ile /irr+4 ,transf] ! fatty acids1 :5 cool$ some:at1 to a #a-;94 by #d-;94 tit] tube1 plac$ 9 a #af-oz4 salt-m\? bottle ( cle> glass1 fitt$ ) a cork t is p]=at$ s z to hold ! tube rigidly :5 9 position4 ,susp5d ! tit] !rmomet] s t x c be us$ z a /irr] & /ir ! fatty acids sl[ly 7ab\t #ajj revolutions p] m9ute7 until ! m]cury rema9s /ation>y = #cj seconds4 ,all[ ! !rmomet] to hang quietly ) ! bulb 9 ! c5t] ( ! tube & report ! highe/ po9t to :i* ! m]cury rises z ! tit] ( ! fatty acids4 ,! tit] %\ld be made at ab\t #bj;deg4 ,c4 = all fats hav+ a tit] above #cj;deg4 ,c4 & at #aj;deg4 ,c4 bel[ ! tit] = all o!r fats4 ,any conv5i5t means may be us$ = obta9+ a temp]ature ( #aj;deg4 bel[ ! tit] ( ! v>i\s fats4 ,! committee recomm5ds fir/ ( all a *ill room = ?is purpose2 second1 an artificially *ill$ small *amb] ) glass w9d[2 ?ird1 imm]sion ( ! salt-m\? bottle 9 wat] or o!r liquid ( ! desir$ temp]ature4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matt]4 ,,extraction ,,cyl9d]--,! cyl9d] %all be glass-/opp]$1 graduat$ at #dj cc41 #hj cc4 & #acj cc41 & ( ! foll[+ dim5sions3 diamet] ab\t #a-c_/h 941 height ab\t #ab 94 ,,petroleum ,,e!r--,r$i/ill$ petroleum e!r1 boil+ "u #ge;deg4 ,c41 %all be us$4 ,a blank mu/ be made by evaporat+ #bej cc4 ) ab\t #j4be g4 ( /e>9e or o!r h>d fat 7previ\sly br\ght to con/ant weight by heat+7 & dry+ z 9 ! actual det]m9ation4 ,! blank mu/ n exce$ a few milligrams4 ,,det]m9ation--,weigh #e g4 7-#j4bj g47 ( ! prep>$ sample into a #bjj-;cc4 ,erl5mey] flask1 add #cj cc4 ( r$i/ill$ #ie p] c5t 7approximately7 e?yl alcohol & #e cc4 ( #ej p] c5t aque\s potassium hydroxide1 & boil ! mixture = "o h\r "u a reflux cond5s]4 ,transf] to ! extraction cyl9d] & wa% to ! #dj-;cc4 m>k ) r$i/ill$ #ie p] c5t e?yl alcohol4 ,complete ! transf]1 fir/ ) w>m1 !n ) cold wat]1 till ! total volume am\nts to #hj cc4 ,cool ! cyl9d] & cont5ts to room temp]ature & add #ej cc4 ( petroleum e!r4 ,%ake vigor\sly = "o m9ute & all[ to settle until bo? lay]s are cle>1 :5 ! volume ( ! upp] lay] %\ld be ab\t #dj cc4 ,draw (f ! petroleum e!r lay] z closely z possible by means ( a sl5d] glass siphon into a sep>atory funnel ( #ejj cc4 capacity4 ,repeat extraction at lea/ f\r m times1 us+ #ej cc4 ( petroleum e!r ea* "t4 ,m extractions ?an five are necess>y :]e ! unsaponifiable matt] runs high1 say ov] #e p] c5t1 & also 9 "s cases :]e x is l[] ?an #e p] c5t1 b is extract$ ) difficulty4 ,wa% ! comb9$ extracts 9 a sep>atory funnel ?ree times ) #be-;cc4 portions ( #aj p] c5t alcohol1 %ak+ vigor\sly ea* "t4 ,transf] ! petroleum e!r extract to a wide-m\? t>$ flask or beak]1 & evaporate ! petroleum e!r on a /eam ba? 9 an air curr5t4 ,dry z 9 ! me?od = ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,volatile ,,matt]4 ,any blank mu/ be d$uct$ f ! weight be=e calculat+ unsaponifiable matt]4 ,te/ ! f9al residue = solubility 9 #ej cc4 petroleum e!r at room temp]ature4 ,filt] & wa% free f ! insoluble residue1 if any1 evaporate & dry 9 ! same mann] z be=e4 ,! ,committee wi%es to emphasize ! necessity ( ?or\gh & vigor\s %ak+ 9 ord] to secure accurate results4 ,! two phases mu/ be br\ght into ! mo/ intimate contact possible1 o!rwise l[ & disagree+ results may be obta9$4 ,,iod9e ,,numb]--,,wijs ,,me?od4 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,reag5ts--,wijs ,iod9e ,solution--,dissolve #ac4j g4 ( resublim$ iod9e 9 "o lit] ( ,c4 ,p4 glacial acetic acid & pass 9 wa%$ & dri$ *lor9e gas until ! orig9al ?iosulfate titration ( ! solution is n q d\bl$4 ,! solution is !n pres]v$ 9 amb] glass-/opp]$ bottles1 seal$ ) p>aff9 until ready = use4 ,m>k ! date on :i* ! solution is prep>$ on ! bottle or bottles & d n use ,wijs solution :i* is m ?an #cj days old4 ,!re %\ld be no m ?an a slight excess ( iod9e1 & no excess ( *lor9e4 ,:5 ! solution is made f iod9e & *lor9e1 ?is po9t c be asc]ta9$ by n q d\bl+ ! titration4#cb ,! glacial acetic acid us$ = prep>ation ( ! ,wijs solution %\ld be ( #ii4j to #ii4e p] c5t /r5g?4 ,9 case ( glacial acetic acids ( some:at l[] /r5g?1 ! ,committee recomm5ds freez+ & c5trifug+ or dra9+ z a means ( purification4 ,n_/#aj ,sodium ,?iosulfate ,solution--,dissolve #bd4h g4 ( ,c4 ,p4 sodium ?iosulfate 9 rec5tly boil$ di/ill$ wat] & dilute ) ! same to "o lit] at ! temp]ature at :i* ! titrations are to be made4 ,/>* ,pa/e--,boil #a g4 ( />* 9 #bjj cc4 ( di/ill$ wat] = #aj m94 & cool to room temp]ature4 ,an improv$ />* solution may be prep>$ by autoclav+ #b g4 ( />* & #f g4 ( boric acid dissolv$ 9 #bjj cc4 wat] at #ae lbs4 pressure = #ae m94 ,?is solution has good keep+ qualities4 ,potassium ,iodide ,solution--,dissolve #aej g4 ( potassium iodide 9 wat] & make up to "o lit]4 ,n_/#aj ,potassium ,bi*romate--,dissolve #d4ijc g4 ( ,c4 ,p4 potassium bi*romate 9 wat] & make ! volume up to "o lit] at ! temp]ature at :i* titrations are to be made4 ,! ,committee calls att5tion to ! fact t occasionally potassium bi*romate is f\nd conta9+ sodium bi*romate1 al?\gh ?is is ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,if ! analy/ suspects t he is deal+ ) an impure potassium bi*romate1 ! purity c be asc]ta9$ by titration aga9/ re-sublim$ iod9e4 ,h[ev]1 ?is is unnecess>y 9 ! great majority ( cases4 ,/&>dization ( ! ,sodium ,?iosulfate ,solution--,place #dj cc4 ( ! potassium bi*romate solution1 to :i* has be5 add$ #aj cc4 ( ! solution ( potassium iodide1 9 a glass-/opp]$ flask4 ,add to ?is #e cc4 ( /rong hydro-*loric acid4 ,dilute ) #ajj cc4 ( wat]1 & all[ ! ,n_/#aj sodium ?iosulfate to fl[ sl[ly into ! flask until ! yell[ color ( ! liquid has almo/ disappe>$4 ,add a few drops ( ! />* pa/e1 & ) con/ant %ak+ cont9ue to add ! ,n_/#aj sodium ?iosulfate solution until ! blue color j disappe>s4 ,,det]m9ation--,weigh accurately f #j4aj to #j4ej g4 7dep5d+ on ! iod9e numb]7 ( ! melt$ & filt]$ sample into a clean1 dry1 #af-oz4 glass-/opp]$ bottle conta9+ #ae-bj cc4 ( c>bon tetra*loride or *lor(orm4 ,add #be cc4 ( iod9e solution f a pipette1 all[+ to dra9 = a def9ite "t4 ,! excess ( iod9e %\ld be f #ej p] c5t to #fj p] c5t ( ! am\nt add$1 t is1 f #ajj p] c5t to #aej p] c5t ( ! am\nt absorb$4 ,moi/5 ! /opp] ) a #ae p] c5t potassium iodide solution to prev5t loss ( iod9e or *lor9e b gu>d aga9/ an am\nt suffici5t to run d[n inside ! bottle4 ,let ! bottle /& 9 a d>k place = #a_/b hr4 at a uni=m temp]ature4 ,at ! end ( t "t add #bj cc4 ( #ae p] c5t potassium iodide solution & #ajj cc4 ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,titrate ! iod9e ) ,n_/#aj sodium ?iosulfate solution :i* is add$ gradually1 ) con/ant %ak+1 until ! yell[ color ( ! solution has almo/ disappe>$4 ,add a few drops ( />* pa/e & cont9ue titration until ! blue color has entirely disappe>$4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! reaction /opp] ! bottle & %ake viol5tly s t any iod9e rema9+ 9 solution 9 ! tetra*loride or *lor(orm may be tak5 up by ! potassium iodide solution4 ,conduct two det]m9ations on blanks :i* mu/ be run 9 ! same mann] z ! sample except t no fat is us$ 9 ! blanks4 ,slight v>iations 9 temp]ature q appreciably affect ! tit] ( ! iod9e solution1 z acetic acid has a high coeffici5t ( expansion4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ess5tial t ! blanks & det]m9ations on ! sample be made at ! same "t4 ,! numb] ( cc4 ( /&>d ?iosulfate solution requir$ by ! blank1 less ! am\nt us$ 9 ! det]m9ation1 gives ! ?iosulfate equival5t ( ! iod9e absorb$ by ! am\nt ( sample us$ 9 ! det]m9ation4 ,calculate to c5tigrams ( iod9e absorb$ by #a g4 ( sample 7 p] c5t iod9e absorb$74 ,,det]m9ation1 ,,tung ,,oil--,tung oil %[s an erratic behavior ) mo/ iod9e reag5ts & ?is is p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ! case ( ! ,hanus reag5t :i* is entirely unsuitable = det]m9+ ! iod9e numb] ( ?is oil s9ce extremely high & irregul> results are obta9$4 ,! ,huebl solution %[s a progressive absorption up to #bd hrs4 & probably = a long] "t b ! p]iod requir$ is entirely too long = a *emical det]m9ation4 ,! ,wijs solution gives good results if ! foll[+ precautions are obs]v$3 ,weigh out #j4ae - #j4je g41 use an excess ( #ee - #c p] c5t ,wijs solution4 ,conduct ! absorption at a temp]ature ( #bj-be;deg4 ,c4 = #a hr4 ,9 o!r respects foll[ ! in/ructions detail$ above4 ,,saponification ,,numb] 7,,koett/orf] ,,numb]74 ,,prep>ation ,,( ,,reag5ts4 ,n_/#b ,hydro*loric ,acid--,c>efully /&>diz$4 ,alcoholic ,potassium ,hydroxide ,solution--,dissolve #dj g4 ( pure potassium hydroxide 9 "o lit] ( #ie p] c5t r$i/ill$ alcohol 7by volume74 ,! alcohol %\ld be r$i/ill$ f potassium hydroxide ov] :i* x has be5 /&+ = "s "t1 or ) :i* x has be5 boil$ = "s "t1 us+ a reflux cond5s]4 ,! solution mu/ be cle> & ! potassium hydroxide free f c>bonates4 ,,det]m9ation--,weigh accurate ab\t #e g4 ( ! filt]$ sample into a #bej to #cjj cc4 ,erl5mey] flask4 ,pipette #ej cc4 ( ! alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution into ! flask1 all[+ ! pipette to dra9 = a def9ite "t4 ,connect ! flask ) an air cond5s] & boil until ! fat is completely saponifi$ 7ab\t #cj m9utes74 ,cool & titrate ) ! ,n_/#b hydro*loric acid1 us+ ph5olph?ale9 z an indicator4 ,calculate ! ,koett/orf] numb] 7mg4 ( potassium hydroxide requir$ to saponify #a g4 ( fat74 ,conduct #b or #c blank det]m9ations1 us+ ! same pipette & dra9+ = ! same l5g? ( "t z above4 ,,melt+ ,,po9t4 ,,app>atus--,capill>y tubes made f #e mm4 inside diamet] ?9-wall$ glass tub+ drawn out to #a mm4 inside diamet]4 ,l5g? ( capill>y "p ( tubes to be ab\t #e cm4 ,l5g? ( tube ov] all #h cm4 ,/&>d !rmomet] graduat$ 9 t5?s ( a degree4 #fjj cc4 beak]4 ,,det]m9ation--,! sample %\ld be cle> :5 melt$ & entirely free f moi/ure1 or incorrect results w be obta9$4 ,melt & ?or\ghly mix ! sample4 ,dip ?ree ( ! capill>y tubes above describ$ 9 ! oil s t ! fat 9 ! tube /&s ab\t #a cm4 9 height4 ,n[ fuse ! capill>y end c>efully by means ( a small bla/ flame & all[ to cool4 ,^! tubes are plac$ 9 a refrig]ator ov] night at a temp]ature ( f #dj to #ej;deg4 ,f4 ,!y are !n fa/5$ by means ( a rubb] b& or o!r suitable means to ! bulb ( a !rmomet] graduat$ 9 t5?s ( a degree4 ,! !rmomet] is susp5d$ 9 a beak] ( wat] 7:i* is agitat$ by air or o!r suitable means7 s t ! bottom ( ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] is imm]s$ to a dep? ( ab\t #c cm4 ,! temp]ature ( ! wat] is increas$ gradually at ! rate ( ab\t #a;deg4 p] m9ute4 ,! po9t at :i* ! sample becomes opalesc5t is fir/ not$ & ! heat+ cont9u$ until ! cont5ts ( ! tube becomes uni=mly transp>5t4 ,! latt] temp]ature is report$ z ! melt+ po9t4 ,be=e f9ally melt+ to a p]fectly cle> fluid1 ! sample becomes opalesc5t & usually appe>s cle> at ! top1 bottom1 & sides be=e becom+ cle> at ! c5t]4 ,! heat+ is cont9u$ until ! cont5ts ( ! tube become uni=mly cle> & transp>5t4 ,?is temp]ature is report$ z ! melt+ po9t4#cc ,x is usually only a fraction ( a degree above ! opalesc5t po9t not$4 ,! !rmomet] %\ld be read to ! ne>e/ #a_/b;deg4 ,c41 & 9 addition ?is temp]ature may be report$ to ! ne>e/ degree ,fahr5heit if desir$4 ,,cl\d ,,te/4 ,,precautions--7#a7 ,! oil mu/ be p]fectly dry1 because ! pres5ce ( moi/ure w produce a turbidity be=e ! cl\d+ po9t is rea*$4 7#b7 ,! oil mu/ be heat$ to #aej;deg4 ,c4 ov] a free flame1 imm$iately be=e mak+ ! te/4 7#c7 ,!re mu/ n be too mu* discrepancy betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! ba? & ! cl\d+ po9t ( ! oil4 ,an oil t w cl\d at ! temp]ature ( hydrant wat] %\ld be te/$ 9 a ba? ( t temp]ature4 ,an oil t w cl\d 9 a mixture ( ice & wat] %\ld be te/$ 9 su* a ba?4 ,an oil t w n cl\d 9 a ba? ( ice & wat] mu/ be te/$ 9 a ba? ( salt1 ice1 & wat]4 ,,det]m9ation--,! oil is heat$ 9 a porcela9 cass]ole ov] a free flame to #aej;deg4 ,c41 /irr+ ) ! !rmomet]4 ,z soon z x c be done ) safety1 ! oil is transf]r$ to a #d oz4 oil bottle1 :i* mu/ be p]fectly dry4 ,"o & "o-half ounces ( ! oil are suffici5t = ! te/4 ,a dry c5tigrade !rmomet] is plac$ 9 ! oil1 & ! bottle is !n cool$ by imm]sion 9 a suitable ba?4 ,! oil is con/antly /irr$ ) ! !rmomet]1 tak+ c>e n to remove ! !rmomet] f ! oil at any "t dur+ ! te/1 s z to avoid /irr+ air bubbles into ! oil4 ,! bottle is frequ5tly remov$ f ! ba? = a few mom5ts4 ,! oil mu/ n be all[$ to *ill on ! sides & bottom ( ! bottle4 ,?is is effect$ by con/ant & vigor\s /irr+ ) ! !rmomet]4 ,z soon z ! fir/ p]man5t cl\d %[s 9 ! body ( ! oil1 ! temp]ature at :i* ?is cl\d occurs is not$4 ,) c>e1 results concordant to )9 #a_/b;deg4 ,c4 c be obta9$ by ?is me?od4 ,a ,fahr5heit !rmomet] is sometimes us$ because x has become cu/om>y to report results 9 degrees ,fahr5heit4 ,! oil mu/ be te/$ )9 a %ort "t aft] heat+ to #aej;deg4 ,c4 & a re-te/ mu/ always be prec$$ by reheat+ to t temp]ature4 ,! cl\d po9t %\ld be approa*$ z quickly z possible1 yet n s fa/ t ! oil is froz5 on ! sides or bottom ( ! bottle be=e ! cl\d te/ is rea*$4 ,notes on ! ,above ,me?ods4 ,,sampl+4 ,! /&>d size ( sample adopt$ by ! committee is at lea/ #c lbs4 9 weight4 ,! committee realizes t ?is am\nt is l>g] ?an any samples usually furni%$ ev5 :5 repres5t+ %ipm5ts ( f #bj1jjj to #fj1jjj lbs4 b x believes t ! requirem5t ( a l>g] sample is desirable & w "w t[>d uni=m & m concordant results 9 analysis4 ,x w probably cont9ue to be ! cu/om ( ! trade to submit small] buy]s' samples ?an requir$ by ! committee1 b ^! are to be consid]$ only z samples = inspection & n = analysis4 ,! /&>d analytical sample mu/ consi/ ( #c lbs4 or m4 ,! reasons = keep+ samples 9 a d>k1 cool place are obvi\s4 ,?is is to prev5t any increase 9 rancidity & any undue increase 9 free fatty acids4 ,9 ! case ( _m fats ! committee has f\nd 9 its co-op]ative analytical "w t free acid t5ds to increase v rapidly4 ,?is t5d5cy is m9imiz$ by l[ temp]atures4 ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,volatile ,,matt]4 ,aft] c>eful consid]ation ! committee has decid$ t moi/ure is be/ det]m9$ 9 a vacuum ov5 ( ! design :i* accompanies ! above report4 ,num]\s results on *eck samples h confirm$ ! committee's conclusions4 ,! ov5 recomm5d$ by ! committee is con/ruct$ on ! basis ( well-kn[n pr9ciples & x is hop$ t ?is type w be adopt$ g5]ally by *emi/s :o are call$ ^u to analyze fats & oils4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ! committee indicate t x is a mo/ difficult matt] to design a vacuum ov5 :i* w produce uni=m temp]atures ?r\gh\t2 & "o ( ! pr9cipal ideas 9 ! design adopt$ is uni=mity ( temp]ature ov] ! entire s+le %elf4 ,?is idea has n q be5 realiz$ 9 practice b1 nev]!less1 ! pres5t design approa*es mu* clos] to ! ideal ?an o!r vacuum ov5s commonly us$4 ,9 ! draw+ ! ess5tial dim5sions are ^? betwe5 ! heat+ units & ! %elf & ! l5g? & bread? ( ! out] ca/+4 ,! /&>d ,fat ,analysis ,committee ,ov5 7,f4 ,a4 ,c4 ,ov57 c be furni%$ by ,messrs4 ,e4 ,h4 ,s>g5t ,company1 #abe ,we/ ,lake /reet1 ,*icago4 ,! committee realizes t = r\t9e "w a quick] me?od is desirable & has add$ "o su* me?od & has also /at$ ! conditions "u :i* comp>able results c be obta9$ by means ( ! ord9>y well-v5tilat$ air ov5 held at #aje to #aaj;deg4 ,c4 ,h[ev]1 9 accordance ) a fundam5tal pr9ciple adopt$ by ! committee at its fir/ meet+1 only "o /&>d me?od is adopt$ & decl>$ (ficial = ea* det]m9ation4 ,! committee realizes t 9 ! case ( all me?ods = det]m9+ moi/ure by means ( loss on heat+ !re may be a loss due to volatile matt] 7especially fatty acids7 o!r ?an wat]4 ,! title ( ! det]m9ation ,,moi/ure ,,& ,,volatile ,,matt] indicates ?is idea1 b any consid]able error f ?is s\rce may occur only 9 ! case ( high acid fats & oils & p>ticul>ly ^? conta9+ l[] fatty acids su* z coconut & palm k]nel oil4 ,9 ! case ( extract$ greases :i* h n be5 prop]ly purifi$1 "s ( ! solv5t may also be includ$ 9 ! moi/ure & volatile matt] det]m9ation1 b inasmu* z ! solv5t1 usually a petroleum product1 c only be consid]$ z =eign matt]1 = comm]cial purposes1 x is entirely prop] to include x ) ! moi/ure4 ,! committee has also consid]$ ! v>i\s di/illation me?ods = ! det]m9ation ( moi/ure 9 fats & oils1 b s9ce accord+ to ! fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* x 0 endeavor+ to foll[ x c\ld only /&>dize "o me?od1 x 0 decid$ t ! mo/ desirable "o on ! :ole 0 ! vacuum-ov5 me?od z giv54 ,!re are cases :]e9 a *emi/ may f9d x desirable to *eck a moi/ure det]m9ation or inve/igate ! moi/ure cont5t ( a fat or oil fur!r by means ( "o ( ! di/illation me?ods4 ,h[ev]1 9 co-op]ative "w ! di/illation me?od 9 v>i\s types ( app>atus has n yield$ satisfactory results4 ,! difficulties appe> to be connect$ ) a prop] *oice ( solv5t & p>ticul>ly ) ! t5d5cy ( drops ( wat] to adh]e to v>i\s p>ts ( ! glass app>atus in/ead ( pass+ on to ! measur+ device4 ,:5 work+ on coconut oil conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( free fatty acids1 concordant results c\ld n be obta9$ by ! v>i\s memb]s ( ! committee :5 work+ ) id5tical samples1 solv5ts & app>atus4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! committee f\nd by individual "w1 co-op]ative "w & collaborative "w by sev]al memb]s ( ! committee 9 "o laboratory1 t ! old1 well-kn[n direct heat+ me?od 7:i* ! committee has designat$ ! hot plate me?od7 yield$ v satisfactory results on all sorts ( fats & oils includ+ emulsions su* z butt] & oleom>g>9e & ev5 on coconut oil samples conta9+ #ae to #bj p] c5t free fatty acids & #e to #f p] c5t ( moi/ure4 ,un=tunately1 ?is me?od dep5ds altoge!r on ! op]ator's skill & :ile ! me?od may be taught to any p]son :e!r a *emi/ or n s t he c obta9 excell5t results ) x1 x is difficult to give a suffici5tly1 complete description ( x s t any *emi/ any:]e aft] read+ ! description c\ld foll[ x successfully4 ,! me?od is und\bt$ly wor?y ( mu* confid5ce 9 c>eful h&s4 ,x is quick1 accurate & reliable4 ,x is probably ! be/ s+le me?od = ! det]m9ation ( moi/ure 9 all sorts ( samples = r\t9e laboratory "w4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is fact ! committee desires to ann\nce its will+ness to in/ruct any p]son 9 ! prop] use ( ! me?od :o desires to become acqua9t$ ) x & :o w visit any committee memb]'s laboratory4 ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,?is det]m9ation1 ! title = :i* 0 adopt$ aft] c>eful consid]ation1 det]m9es ! impurities :i* h g5]ally be5 kn[n z dirt1 susp5d$ matt]1 susp5d$ solids1 =eign solids1 =eign matt]1 etc41 9 ! pa/4 ,! fir/ solv5t recomm5d$ by ! committee is hot k]os5e to be foll[$ by petroleum e!r kept at ord9>y room temp]ature4 ,petroleum e!r1 cold or only slightly w>m1 is n a good fat & metallic soap solv5t1 :]eas hot k]os5e dissolves ^! sub/ances readily1 & = ?is reason ! committee has recomm5d$ ! d\ble solv5t me?od s z to exclude metallic soaps :i* are det]m9$ bel[ z soluble m9]al matt]4 ,,soluble ,,m9]al ,,matt]4 ,soluble m9]al matt] repres5ts m9]al matt] comb9$ ) fatty acids 9 ! =m ( soaps 9 solution 9 ! fat or oil4 ,=m]ly1 ?is m9]al matt] 0 (t5 det]m9$ 9 comb9ation by weigh+ ! sep>at$ metallic soap or by weigh+ x 9 conjunction ) ! insoluble impurities4 ,s9ce ! soaps pres5t consi/ mo/ly ( lime soap1 x has be5 cu/om>y to calculate ! lime pres5t !re9 by tak+ #j4a ! weight ( ! total metallic soaps4 ,! /&>d me?od z giv5 above is direct & involves no calculation4 ,! r\t9e me?od giv5 9 ! note has be5 plac$ among ! me?ods = ! reason t x is us$ 9 "s laboratories1 b has n be5 adopt$ z a /&>d me?od 9 view ( ! fact t ! committee has made x a rule to adopt only "o /&>d me?od4 ,x %\ld be po9t$ out1 h[ev]1 t ! me?od _c be consid]$ accurate = ! reason t insoluble impurities may v>y f sample to sample to a consid]able ext5t & ! error due to ! pres5ce ( l>ge p>ticles ( insoluble impurities is ?us transf]r$ to ! soluble m9]al matt]4 ,! committee has f\nd "o type ( grease 7naph?a bone grease7 :i* %[s mo/ unusual *>act]i/ics4 ,! type sample conta9s #d4c p] c5t soluble m9]al matt] by ! committee me?od :i* w\ld be equival5t to #dc4j p] c5t free fatty acid4 ,! k]os5e & gasol9e filtrate 0 p>ticul>ly cle>1 nev]!less ! a% 0 f\nd to conta9 #cf4dc p] c5t ,p#b,o#e equival5t to #gi4fj p] c5t ( ,ca#c7,,po#d7b & #i4fc p] c5t ( ,fe#b,o#c4 ,! me?od1 !re=e1 det]m9es ! soluble m9]al matt] 9 ?is case satisfactorily b ! factor #aj is n applicable = calculat+ ! fatty acids comb9$ !re)4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! fatty acids comb9$ ) soluble m9]al matt] 9 ! orig9al sample to det]m9e ! actual bases 9 ! soluble m9]al matt] z obta9$ by a%+ ! k]os5e & gasol9e filtrate4 ,to ! bases s det]m9$ ! factor #aj c !n be appli$4 ,,free ,,fatty ,,acid4 ,! fatty acid me?od adopt$ is suffici5tly accurate = comm]cial purposes4 ,9 _m r\t9e laboratories ! fat or oil is measur$ & n weigh$1 b ! committee recomm5ds weigh+ ! sample 9 all cases4 ,= sci5tific purposes ! result is (t5 express$ z acid numb]1 mean+ ! numb] ( milligrams ( ,,koh requir$ to neutralize ! free acids 9 "o gram ( fat1 b ! comm]cial practice has be51 & is1 to express ! fatty acids z oleic acid or 9 ! case ( palm oil1 z palmitic acid1 9 "s in/ances4 ,! committee sees no objection to ! cont9uation ( ?is cu/om s long z ! analytical report cle>ly indicates h[ ! free acid is express$4 ,= a m exact expression ( ! free acid 9 a giv5 fat1 ! committee recomm5ds t ! ratio ( acid numb] to saponification numb] be us$4 ,?is me?od ( express+ results is subject to error :5 unsaponifiable fatty matt] is pres5t1 s9ce ! result expresses ! ratio ( free fatty acid to total saponifiable fatty matt] pres5t4 ,,tit]4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! prices ( glyc]ol & cau/ic pota% are abnormally high1 b ! committee has consid]$ t ! me?ods adopt$ are = normal times & normal prices4 ,= r\t9e "w dur+ ! p]iod ( high prices ! foll[+ me?od may be us$ = prep>+ ! fatty acids & is recomm5d$ by ! committee3 ,fifty grams ( fat are saponifi$ ) #fj cc4 ( a solution ( #b p>ts ( me?yl alcohol to #a ( #ej p] c5t ,na,o,h4 ,! soap is dri$1 pulv]iz$ & dissolv$ 9 #ajjj cc4 ( wat] 9 a porcela9 di% & !n decompos$ ) #be cc4 ( #ge p] c5t sulphuric acid4 ,! fatty acids are boil$ until cle> oil is =m$ & !n collect$ & settl$ 9 a #aej-;cc4 beak] & filt]$ into a #ej-;cc4 beak]4 ,!y are !n heat$ to #acj;deg4 ,c4 z rapidly z possible ) /irr+1 & transf]r$1 aft] !y h cool$ some:at1 to ! usual #a-;94 by #d-;94 tit] tube4 ,! me?od ( tak+ ! tit]1 includ+ h&l+ ! !rmomet]1 to be foll[$ is ! same z t describ$ 9 ! /&>d me?od4 ,ev5 at pres5t high prices _m laboratories are us+ ! glyc]ol-cau/ic pota% me?od = prep>+ ! fatty acids1 figur+ t ! sav+ ( "t m ?an comp5sates = ! extra co/ ( ! reag5ts4 ,cau/ic soda _c be sub/itut$ = cau/ic pota% 9 ! glyc]ol me?od4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matt]4 ,! committee has consid]$ unsaponifiable matt] to include ^? sub/ances frequ5tly f\nd dissolv$ 9 fats & oils :i* are n saponifi$ by ! cau/ic alkalies & :i* at ! same "t are soluble 9 ! ord9>y fat solv5ts4 ,! t]m includes su* sub/ances z ! high] alcohols1 su* z *ole/]ol :i* is f\nd 9 animal fats1 phyto/]ol f\nd 9 "s vegetable fats1 p>aff9 & petroleum oils1 etc4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matt] %\ld n be confus$ 9 ! lay m9d ) ,,insoluble ,,impurities ,,or ,,soluble ,,m9]al ,,matt]4 ,! me?od adopt$ by ! committee has be5 select$ only aft] ! mo/ c>eful consid]ation ( o!r me?ods1 su* z ! dry extraction me?od & ! wet me?od mak+ use ( ! sep>atory funnel4 ,at fir/ consid]ation ! dry extraction process w\ld seem to (f] ! be/ basis = an unsaponifiable matt] me?od1 b 9 practice x has be5 f\nd absolutely impossible = diff]5t analy/s to obta9 agree+ results :5 us+ any ( ! dry extraction me?ods propos$4 ,!re=e1 ?is me?od _h to be ab&on$ aft] num]\s trials1 al?\gh sev]al memb]s ( ! committee /rongly favor$ x 9 ! beg9n+4 ,,iod9e ,,numb]--,! iod9e numb] adopt$ by ! committee is t det]m9$ by ! well-kn[n ,wijs me?od4 ,?is me?od 0 adopt$ aft] c>eful comp>ison ) ! ,hanus & ,huebl me?ods4 ,! ,huebl me?od 0 elim9at$ f consid]ation almo/ at ! beg9n+ ( ! committee's "w = ! reason t ! "t requir$ = complete absorption ( ! iod9e is unnecess>ily long &1 9 fact1 ev5 aft] absorption has gone on ov] night1 x is app>5tly n complete4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,hanus & ,wijs me?ods complete absorption takes place 9 f #ae m9utes to an h\r1 dep5d+ on conditions4 ,=m]ly1 _m *emi/s ?\ght ! ,hanus solution r easi] to prep>e ?an ! ,wijs solution1 b ! exp]i5ce ( ! committee 0 t ! ,wijs solution 0 no m difficult to prep>e ?an ! ,hanus4 ,fur!rmore1 absorption ( iod9e f ! ,wijs solution appe>$ to take place ) great] promptness & c]ta9ty ?an f ! ,hanus & 0 complete 9 a %ort] "t4 ,results by ! ,wijs me?od 7 also 9 bett] agreem5t 9 ! case ( oils %[+ high iod9e absorption ?an ) ! ,hanus solution & %[$ a slightly high] iod9e absorption = ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,h[ev]1 ! diff]5ce 0 n great4 ,! committee inve/igat$ ! "q ( sub/itution s9ce x has be5 sugge/$ t 9 case ( ! ,wijs solution sub/itution ( iod9e 9 ! organic molecule might occur1 & f\nd no evid5ce ( ?is 9 ! "t requir$ = ! det]m9ation1 namely1 #a_/b hr41 or ev5 = a some:at long] p]iod4 ,"o memb] ( ! committee felt t x 0 n desirable to introduce ! ,wijs me?od into ^! /&>d me?ods s9ce ! ,hanus me?od 0 already /&>diz$ by ! ,association ( ,(ficial ,agricultural ,*emi/s1 b ! committee felt t x mu/ foll[ ! pr9ciple e/abli%$ at ! comm5cem5t ( its "w1 namely1 t ( adopt+ ! me?od :i* appe>$ to be ! be/ f all /&po9ts1 tak+ into consid]ation accuracy1 conv5i5ce1 simplicity1 "t1 exp5se1 etc41 )\t all[+ prec$5t to h ! decid+ vote4 ,,iod9e ,,numb]1 ,,tung ,,oil--,! committee has made an ext5sive /udy ( ! application ( ! ,wijs me?od to ! det]m9ation ( iod9e value 9 ! case ( tung oil ) ! result t x recomm5ds ! me?od = ?is oil b has ?\ght x desirable to limit ! conditions "u :i* ! det]m9ation is conduct$ r n>r[ly1 al?\gh reasonably good results are obta9$ by ! committee me?od )\t mak+ use ( ! special limitations4 ,! co-op]ative "w ( ! committee & ! special inve/igations conduct$ by individual memb]s br+ out ! foll[+ po9ts3 ,influ5ce ( ,temp]ature--,f #af;deg4 ,c4 to #cj;deg4 ,c4 !re is a mod]ate increase 9 ! absorption1 b above #cj;deg4 ! increase is r rapid s t x 0 ?\ght be/ to limit ! temp]ature 9 ! case ( tung oil to #bj;deg4 to #be;deg4 ,c4 ,influ5ce ( ,"t--,! absorption increases ) ! "t b app>5tly complete absorption1 s f> z unsaturat$ bonds are conc]n$1 occurs well )9 "o h\r's "t4 ,consequ5tly1 "o h\r 0 set z ! practical limit4 ,influ5ce ( ,excess--,! excess ( iod9e solution also t5ds to increase ! iod9e numb]1 h5ce ! ,committee ?\ght x necess>y to limit ! excess r rigidly to #ee - #c p] c5t1 al?\gh ) great] latitude results 7 reasonably good4 ,influ5ce ( ,age ( ,solution--,old solutions t5d to give l[ results al?\gh up to #b mo4 no great diff]5ces 7 obs]v$4 ,nev]!less1 x 0 ?\ght be/ to limit ! age ( ! solution to #cj days--long en\gh = all practical purposes4 ,am\nt ( ,sample--,z a practical am\nt ( sample to be weigh$ out ! ,committee decid$ on #j4ae g4 ) a tol]ance ( #j4je g4 9 ei!r direction accord+ to pref]5ce4 ,9 o!r words1 ! am\nt ( sample to be tak5 = ! det]m9ation to be f #j4a to #j4b g4 9 ! discretion ( ! analy/4 ,! ,committee's /udy ( ! ,huebl me?od :i* has be5 adopt$ by ! ,society = ,te/+ ,mat]ials 9 ! case ( tung oil indicates t ?is me?od :5 appli$ to tung oil is subject to ! same influ5ces z ! ,wijs me?od & x has ! additional v s]i\s disadvantage ( requir+ a long p]iod ( "t = absorption :i* _c be consid]$ reasonable = a mod]n analytical me?od4 ,:5 us+ ! ,huebl solution1 ! absorption is n complete 9 ! case ( tung oil at #c1 #g1 #ah or ev5 #bd hrs4 ,! ,hanus me?od 9 ! case ( tung oil gives v high & erratic results1 z high z #ahj to #bdj 9 ord9>y cases = an oil ^: true iod9e numb] is ab\t #afe4 ,,melt+ ,,po9t4 ,a melt+ po9t is ! temp]ature at :i* a solid sub/ance assumes ! liquid condition4 ,if ! solid is a pure sub/ance 9 ! cry/all9e condition ! melt+ po9t is %>p & well def9$ = any giv5 pressure4 ,) increas$ pressure ! melt+ po9t is l[]$ or rais$1 dep5d+ on :e!r ! sub/ance contracts or exp&s 9 melt+4 ,! l[]+ or rais+ ( ! melt+ po9t ) pressure is v slight & ord9>ily is n tak5 into consid]ation4 ,melt+-po9t det]m9ations are commonly c>ri$ out "u ord9>y atmosph]ic pressures )\t correction4 ,! g5]al effect ( soluble impurities is to l[] ! melt+ po9t1 & ?is holds true :e!r ! impurity has a high] or l[] melt+ po9t ?an ! pure sub/ance 7solv5t74 ,?us if a small am\nt ( /e>ic acid be add$ to liquid palmitic acid & ! solution froz51 ! melt+ po9t ( ?is solid w be l[] ?an t ( palmitic acid4 ,likewise ! melt+ po9t ( /e>ic acid is l[]$ by ! addition ( a small am\nt ( palmitic acid4 ,a eutectic mixture results :5 two compon5ts solidify simultane\sly at a def9ite temp]ature4 ,su* a mixture has a con/ant melt+ po9t & because ( ?is & also because bo? solid & liquid phases h ! same composition1 eutectic mixtures 7 =m]ly look$ ^u z comp\nds4 ,! ph5om5on ( d\ble melt+ po9ts has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! case ( a numb] ( glyc]ides4 ,su* a glyc]ide :5 plac$ 9 ! usual capill>y tube & subject$ to increas+ temp]ature quickly resolidifies only to melt aga9 & rema9 melt$ at a /ill high] temp]ature4 ,?is ph5om5on has n yet be5 suffici5tly inve/igat$ to af=d a satisfactory explanation4 ,non-cry/all9e sub/ances su* z glass1 seal+ wax & v>i\s o!r waxes & wax mixtures1 & mo/ colloidal sub/ances d n exhibit a %>p melt+ po9t1 b "u ! application ( heat fir/ s(t5 v gradually & at a consid]ably high] temp]ature melt suffici5tly to fl[4 ,?is ph5om5on ( melt+ ?r\gh a long range ( temp]ature may be due to ! amorph\s nature ( ! sub/ance or to ! fact t x consi/s ( a v l>ge numb] ( compon5ts ( _m diff]5t melt+ po9ts4 ,! fats & oils ( natural orig91 t is1 ! animal & vegetable fats & oils1 consi/ ( mixtures ( glyc]ides &1 g5]ally speak+1 ( a consid]able numb] ( su* compon5ts4 ,^! compon5ts are cry/all9e & :5 sep>at$ 9 ! pure /ate h def9ite melt+ po9ts1 al?\gh "s exhibit ! ph5om5on ( d\ble melt+ po9t4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! naturally occurr+ glyc]ides are mix$ glyc]ides4 ,9 ! natural fats & oils !re are pres5t also c]ta9 high] alcohols1 ( :i* *ole/]ol is *>act]i/ic ( ! animal fats & oils & phyto/]ol ( _m ( ! vegetable fats & oils4 ,9 addition to ! cry/all9e glyc]ides & ! high] alcohols pres5t 9 neutral fats1 !re are 9 fats ( l[] grade1 fatty acids1 :i* are cry/all9e1 & also v>i\s non-cry/all9e impurities ( an unsaponifiable nature1 & ! pres5ce ( ^! impurities t5ds to l[] ! melt+ po9t4 ,!y also t5d to induce und]cool+ & :5 ! liquid fat or oil is be+ *ill$ = purposes ( solidification or 9 det]m9ation ( tit]4 ,! pres5ce ( wat]1 especially :5 ?is is ?or\ghly mix$ or emulsifi$ ) a fat or oil1 also influ5ces ! melt+ po9t to a m>k$ ext5t1 caus+ ! mixture to melt ?r\gh a long] range ( temp]atures ?an w\ld be ! case if ! wat] 7 abs5t4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( emulsifi$ fats & oils1 su* z butt] & oleom>g>9e1 bo? ( :i* conta91 besides wat]1 ! solids naturally pres5t 9 milk or cream & includ+ case91 milk sug>1 & salts4 ,! melt+-po9t me?od recomm5d$ by ! ,committee is n applicable to su* emulsions or o!r wat]y mixtures & ! ,committee has f\nd x impossible to devise an accurate me?od = mak+ s(t5+-po9t or melt+-po9t det]m9ations on products ( ?is nature4 ,n only ! am\nt ( wat] pres5t b also ! f95ess ( its p>ticles1 t is1 its /ate ( subdivision & di/ribution1 9 a fat or oil influ5ces ! s(t5+ po9t or melt+ po9t & causes x to v>y widely 9 diff]5t samples4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! =ego+ facts1 natural fats & oils d n exhibit a def9ite melt+ po9t1 compos$ z !y are ( mixtures ( v>i\s cry/all9e glyc]ides1 high] alcohols1 fatty acids1 & non-cry/all9e sub/ances4 ,!re=e1 ! t]m melt+ po9t :5 appli$ to !m requires fur!r def9ition4 ,!y exhibit fir/ a l[] melt+ po9t 7! melt+ po9t ( ! l[e/ melt+ compon5t7 or :at might be call$ ! s(t5+ po9t & foll[+ ?is ! fat s(t5s ?r\gh a %ort] or long] range ( temp]ature to ! f9al melt+ po9t at :i* temp]ature ! fat is entirely liquid4 ,?is is ! melt+ po9t det]m9$ by ! ,committee's melt+-po9t me?od4 ,! range betwe5 ! s(t5+ po9t & ! f9al melt+ po9t v>ies greatly ) ! diff]5t fats & oils dep5d+ on _! *emical compon5ts1 ! wat] associat$ ) !m1 emulsification1 etc4 ,9 ! case ( coconut oil ! range betwe5 s(t5+ po9t & f9al melt+ po9t is r %ort2 9 ! case ( butt]1 long4 ,v>i\s me?ods h be5 devis$ to det]m9e ! s-call$ melt+ po9t ( fats & oils4 ,mo/ ( ^! me?ods1 h[ev]1 det]m9e1 n ! melt+ po9t1 b ! s(t5+ po9t or ! fl[ po9t ( ! fat & ! great difficulty has be5 9 ! pa/ to devise a me?od :i* w\ld det]m9e ev5 ?is po9t ) reasonable accuracy & s t results c\ld be easily duplicat$4 ,x has be5 ! aim ( ! ,committee to devise a simple me?od = ! det]m9ation ( ! melt+ po9t ( fats & oils1 b x %\ld be und]/ood t ! t]m melt+ po9t 9 ! sci5tific s5se is n applicable to natural fats & oils4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,approv$ by ! ,sup]visory ,committee on ,/&>d ,me?ods ( ,analysis ( ! ,am]ican ,*emical ,society4 #bc ,live /eam mu/ n be turn$ into tank c>s or coils be=e samples are drawn1 s9ce !re is no c]ta9 way ( tell+ :5 coils are free f leaks4 #bd ,if !re is wat] pres5t "u ! solid mat]ial ?is mu/ be not$ & e/imat$ sep>ately4 #be ,boil+ po9t ( wat] at r$uc$ pressures4 ,pressure ,boil+ ,po9t ,boil+ ,po9t ,boil+ ,po9t ,mm4 ,hg4 to #a;deg4 ,c4 #ae;deg4 ,c4 #bj;deg4 ,c4 #ajj #eb;deg4 ,c4 #fg;deg4 ,c4 #gb;deg4 ,c4 #ij #ej #fe #gj #hj #dg #fb #fg #gj #de #fj #fe #fj #db #eg #fb #ej #ch #ec #eh #dj #cd #di #ed #bf ,results comp>able to ^? ( ! ,/&>d ,me?od may be obta9$ on mo/ fats & oils by dry+ #e-;g4 portions ( ! sample1 prep>$ & weigh$ z above1 to con/ant weight 9 a well-con/ruct$ & well-v5tilat$ air ov5 held uni=mly at a temp]ature ( #aje;deg4 to #aaj;deg4 ,c4 ,! !rmomet] bulb %\ld be close to ! sample4 ,! def9ition ( con/ant weight is ! same z = ! ,/&>d ,me?od4 #bg ,! foll[+ me?od is sugge/$ by ! ,committee = r\t9e control "w3 ,weigh out #e- to #be-;g4 portions ( prep>$ sample into a glass or alum9um 7,caution3 ,alum9um soap may be =m$7 beak] or cass]ole & heat on a heavy asbe/os bo>d ov] burn] or hot plate1 tak+ c>e t ! temp]ature ( ! sample does n g above #acj;deg4 ,c4 at any "t4 ,dur+ ! heat+ rotate ! vessel g5tly on ! bo>d by h& to avoid sputt]+ or too rapid evolution ( moi/ure4 ,! prop] l5g? ( "t ( heat+ is judg$ by abs5ce ( ris+ bubbles ( /eam1 by ! abs5ce ( foam or by o!r signs kn[n to ! op]ator4 ,avoid ov]heat+ ( sample z indicat$ by smok+ or d>k5+4 ,cool 9 desiccator & weigh4 ,by co-op]ative "w 9 sev]al laboratories1 ! ,committee has demon/rat$ t ?is me?od c be us$ & satisfactory results obta9$ on coconut oil ev5 :5 a consid]able p]c5tage ( free fatty acids is pres5t1 & ! me?od is recomm5d$ = ?is purpose4 ,un=tunately on acc\nt ( ! v great p]sonal factor involv$1 ! ,committee _c e/abli% ?is me?od z a pref]r$ me?od4 ,nev]!less1 aft] an op]ator has le>n$ ! te*nique ( ! me?od1 x gives p]fectly satisfactory results = ord9>y oils & fats1 butt]1 oleom>g>9e & coconut oil1 & des]ves m recognition ?an x has h]et(ore receiv$4 #bh ,= r\t9e control "w1 filt] pap] is sometimes m conv5i5t ?an ! prep>$ ,goo* crucible1 b mu/ be v c>efully wa%$1 especially ar\nd ! rim1 to remove ! la/ traces ( fat4 #bi ,= r\t9e "w1 an a% may be run on ! orig9al fat1 & ! soluble m9]al matt] obta9$ by d$uct+ ! a% on ! insoluble impurities f ?is4 ,9 ?is case ! ,goo* crucible %\ld be prep>$ ) an ignit$ asbe/os mat s t ! impurities may be a%$ directly aft] be+ weigh$4 ,9 all cases ignition %\ld be to con/ant weight s z to insure complete decomposition ( c>bonates4 #cj ,see note on ,soluble ,m9]al ,matt] foll[+ ^! me?ods4 ,:5 ! a% conta9s phosphates ! factor #aj _c be appli$1 b ! bases consi/+ ( calcium oxide1 etc41 mu/ be det]m9$1 & ! factor #aj appli$ to !m4 #ca ,= r\t9e "w me?yl or d5atur$ e?yl alcohol ( approximately #ie p] c5t /r5g? may be us$4 ,) ^! reag5ts ! end-po9t is n %>p4 #cb ,p4 ,c4 ,mc,ilhiney1 ,j4 ,am4 ,*em4 ,soc41 #bi 7#aiag71 #abbb1 gives ! foll[+ details = ! prep>ation ( ! iod9e mono*loride solution3 ,! prep>ation ( ! iod9e mono*loride solution pres5ts no great difficulty1 b x mu/ be done ) c>e & accuracy 9 ord] to obta9 satisfactory results4 ,!re mu/ be 9 ! solution no s5sible excess ei!r ( iod9e or m p>ticul>ly ( *lor9e1 ov] t requir$ to =m ! mono*loride4 ,?is condition is mo/ satisfactorily atta9$ by dissolv+ 9 ! :ole ( ! acetic acid to be us$ ! requisite quantity ( iod9e1 us+ a g5tle heat to assi/ ! solution1 if x is f\nd necess>y1 sett+ aside a small portion ( ?is solution1 :ile pure & dry *lor9e is pass$ into ! rema9d] until ! halog5 cont5t ( ! :ole solution is d\bl$4 ,ord9>ily x w be f\nd t by pass+ ! *lor9e into ! ma9 "p ( ! solution until ! *>act]i/ic color ( free iod9e has j be5 dis*>g$ !re w be a slight excess ( *lor9e :i* is correct$ by ! addition ( ! requisite am\nt ( ! un*lor9at$ portion until all free *lor9e has be5 de/roy$4 ,a slight excess ( iod9e does little or no h>m1 b excess ( *lor9e mu/ be avoid$4 #cc ,! melt+ po9t ( oils may be det]m9$ 9 g5]al accord+ to ! above proc$ure1 tak+ into consid]ation ! l[] temp]ature requir$4 ,,plant ,,& ,,ma*9]y ,illu/rations ( ma*9]y & lay\ts ( ! plant ( a mod]n soap-mak+ e/abli%m5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,hoi/1 ,,lye ,,tank1 ,,etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,melt+-,,out ,,tr\gh ,illu/ration3 ,,laundry ,,soap ,,plant ,illu/ration3 ,,dry+ ,,rack ,illu/ration3 ,,soap ,,kettle ,illu/ration3 ,,remelt] ,illu/ration3 ,,crut*] 7,cross ,section7 ,illu/ration3 ,,horizontal ,,crut*] ,illu/ration3 ,,crut*] ,illu/ration3 ,,wrapp+ ,,ma*9e 7,,laundry ,,soap7 ,illu/ration3 ,,slabb] ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,table ,illu/ration3 ,,automatic ,,p[] ,,cutt+ ,,table ,illu/ration3 ,,automatic ,,press 7,,laundry7 ,illu/ration3 ,,cutt+ ,,table 7,,h&7 ,illu/ration3 ,,c>ton ,,wrapp+ ,,ma*9e ,illu/ration3 ,,dry+ ,,racks ,illu/ration3 ,,soap ,,p[d] ,,box ,illu/ration3 ,,sc\r+ ,,soap ,,press ,illu/ration3 ,,frame ,illu/ration3 ,,soap ,,p[d] ,,equipm5t ,illu/ration3 ,,fluffy ,,soap ,,p[d] ,,equipm5t ,illu/ration3 ,,soap ,,p[d] ,,mix] ,illu/ration3 ,,soap ,,p[d] ,,mill ,illu/ration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,equipm5t ,illu/ration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,dry] ,illu/ration3 ,,mill+ ,,box ,illu/ration3 ,,amalgamator ,illu/ration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,mill ,illu/ration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,mill ,illu/ration3 ,,*ipp] ,illu/ration3 ,,plodd] ,illu/ration3 ,,horizontal ,,*ipp] ,illu/ration3 ,,amalgamator 7,,improv$7 ,illu/ration3 ,,press 7,,lett]+ ,,on #d ,,sides ,,( ,,cake7 ,illu/ration3 ,press 7,foot7 ,illu/ration3 ,press 7,foot7 ,illu/ration3 ,,plodd] ,illu/ration3 ,,automatic ,,press 7,,toilet7 ,illu/ration3 ,,multiple ,,cake ,,cutt] ,illu/ration3 ,,cake ,,cutt] ,illu/ration3 ,,*ipp] ,illu/ration3 ,,glyc]9e ,,di/ill+ ,,plant ,illu/ration3 ,,crude ,,glyc]9e ,,plant ,illu/ration3 ,h-,a ,,fatty ,,acid ,,di/ill+ ,,plant ,app5dix ,tables m>k$ 99 are tak5 f ! ,g]man ,ye> ,book = ,soap ,indu/ry4 7,u4 ,s4 ,,bureau ,,( ,,/&>ds7 ,,! ,,metric ,,sy/em4 ,! fundam5tal unit ( ! metric sy/em is ! met] 7! unit ( l5g?74 ,f ?is ! units ( mass 7gram7 & capacity 7lit]7 are d]iv$4 ,all o!r units are ! decimal sub-divisions or multiples ( ^!4 ,^! ?ree units are simply relat$1 s t = all practical purposes ! volume ( "o kilogram ( wat] 7"o lit]7 is equal to "o cubic decimet]4 ,prefixes4 ,mean+4 ,units4 ,milli- "o ?\s&? #a-ajjj 4#jja ,c5ti- "o hundr$? #a-ajj 4#ja ,met] = l5g?4 ,deci- "o t5? #a-aj 4#a ,unit "o #a4 ,gram = mass4 ,deka- t5 #aj-a #aj4 ,hecto- "o hundr$ #ajj-a #ajj4 ,lit] = capacity4 ,kilo- "o ?\s& #ajjj-a #ajjj4 ,! metric t]ms are =m$ by comb9+ ! words ,met]1 ,gram & ,lit] ) ! six num]ical prefixes4 ,,l5g? #aj milli-met]s mm #a c5ti-met] c m #aj c5ti-met]s #a deci-met] d m #aj deci-met]s #a met] 7ab\t #dj in*es7 m #aj met]s #a deka-met] d k m #aj deka-met]s #a hecto-met] h m #aj hecto-met]s #a kilo-met] 7ab\t #e_/h mile7 k m ,,mass4 #aj milli-grams4 m g #a c5ti-gram c g #aj c5ti-grams #a deci-gram d g #aj deci-grams #a gram 7ab\t #ae gra9s7 g #aj grams #a deka-gram d k g #aj ,deka-grams #a hecto-gram h g #aj hecto-grams #a kilo-gram 7ab\t #b p\nds7 k g ,,capacity4 #aj milli-lit]s4 m l #a c5ti-lit] c l #aj c5ti-lit]s #a deci-lit] d l #aj deci-lit]s #a lit] 7ab\t #a qu>t7 l #aj lit]s #a deka-lit] d k l #aj deka-lit]s #a hecto-lit] 7ab\t a b>rel7 h l #aj hecto-lit]s #a kilo-lit] k l ,! squ>e & cubic units are ! squ>es & cubes ( ! l9e> units4 ,! ord9>y unit ( l& area is ! ,hect>e 7ab\t #b-a_/b acres74 ,u4,s4 ,,bureau ,,( ,,/&>ds ,,table ,,( ,,metric ,,equival5ts ,met] #ci4cg in*es4 ,legal ,equival5t ,adopt$ by ,act ( ,congress ,july #bh1 #ahff4 ,,l5g?4 ,c5timet] #j4cicg in* ,met] #c4bh feet ,met] #a4jid y>ds ,kilomet] #j4fba /atute mile ,kilomet] #j4ecif nautical mile ,in* #b4edj c5timet]s ,foot #j4cje met] ,y>d #j4iad met] ,/atute mile #a4fa kilomet]s ,nautical mile #a4hec kilomet]s ,,area4 ,sq4 c5timet] #j4aee sq4 in* ,sq4 met] #aj4gf sq4 feet ,sq4 met] #a4aif sq4 y>ds ,hect>e #b4dg acres ,sq4 kilomet] #j4chf sq4 mile ,sq4 in* #f4de sq4 c5timet]s ,sq4 foot #j4jibi sq4 met] ,sq4 y>d #j4hcf sq4 met] ,acre #j4dje hect>e ,sq4 mile #b4ei sq4 kilomet]s ,,weight4 ,gram #ae4dc gra9s ,gram #j4ggb ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 scruple ,gram #j4begb ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 dram ,gram #j4jcec avoir4 ounce ,gram #j4jcbae troy ounce ,kilogram #b4bje avoir4 p\nds ,kilogram #b4fgi troy p\nds ,metric ton #j4ihd gross or long ton ,metric ton #a4ajb %ort or net tons ,gra9 #j4jfd gram ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 scruple #a4bif grams ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 dram #c4hi grams ,avoir4 ounce #bh4ce grams ,troy ounce #ca4aj grams ,avoir4 p\nd #j4decf kilogram ,troy p\nd #j4cgc kilogram ,gross or long ton #a4jaf metric tons ,%ort or net ton #j4ijg metric ton ,,volume4 ,cu4 c5timet] #j4jfaj cu4 in* ,cu4 met] #ce4c cu4 feet ,cu4 met] #a4cjh cu4 y>ds ,cu4 in* #af4ci cu4 c5timet]s ,cu4 foot #j4bhc cu4 met] ,cu4 y>d #j4gfe cu4 met] ,,capacity4 ,millimet] #j4jcch ,u4 ,s4 liq4 ounce ,millimet] #j4bgje ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 dram ,lit] #a4jeg ,u4 ,s4 liq4 qu>ts ,lit] #j4bfdb ,u4 ,s4 liq4 gallon ,lit] #j4ijh ,u4 ,s4 dry qu>t ,dekalit] #a4ace ,u4 ,s4 pecks ,hectolit] #b4hch ,u4 ,s4 bu%els ,u4 ,s4 liq4 ounce #bi4eg millimet]s ,u4 ,s4 apo?4 dram #c4gj millimet]s ,u4 ,s4 liq4 qu>ts #j4idf lit] ,u4 ,s4 dry qu>ts #a4aja lit]s ,u4 ,s4 liq4 gallon #c4ghe lit]s ,u4 ,s4 peck #j4hha dekalit] ,u4 ,s4 bu%el #j4cebd hectolit] ,,avoirdupois ,,weight4 #a p\nd #af ounces #bef drams #a ounce #af ,,troy 7,,apo!c>ies'7 ,,weight 7,u4 ,s47 #a p\nd #ab ounces #if drams #bhh scruples #e1gfj gra9s #a ounce #h drams #bd scruples #dhj gra9s #a dram #c scruples #fj gra9s #a scruple #bj gra9s ,,w9e 7,,apo!c>ies7 ,,liquid ,,measure 7,u4 ,s47 #a gallon #h p9ts #abh fl4 ozs4 #a1jbd fl4 drams #fa1ddj m9ims #a p9t #af fl4 ozs4 #abh fl4 drams #g1fhi m9ims #a fl4 oz4 #h fl4 drams #dhj m9ims #a fl4 dram #fj m9ims ,to f9d diamet] ( a circle multiply circumf]5ce by 4#cahca4 ,to f9d circumf]5ce ( a circle1 multiply diamet] by #c4adaf4 ,to f9d area ( a circle1 multiply squ>e ( diamet] by 4#ghed4 ,to f9d surface ( a ball1 multiply squ>e ( diamet] by #c4adaf4 ,to f9d side ( an equal squ>e1 multiply diamet] by 4#hhfb4 ,to f9d cubic in*es 9 a ball1 multiply cube ( diamet] by 4#ebcf4 ,d\bl+ ! diamet] ( a pipe1 increases its capacity f\r times4 ,"o cubic foot ( an?racite coal weighs ab\t #ec lbs4 ,"o cubic foot ( bitum9\s coal weighs f #dg to #ej p\nds4 ,a gallon ( wat] 7,u4 ,s4 /&>d7 weighs #h-a_/c p\nds & conta9s #bca cubic in*es4 ,a cubic foot ( wat] conta9s #g-a_/b gallons1 #agbh cubic in*es & weighs #fb-a_/b p\nds4 ,to f9d ! numb] ( p\nds ( wat] a cyl9drical tank conta9s1 squ>e ! diamet]1 multiply by 4#ghe & !n by ! height 9 feet4 ,?is gives ! numb] ( cubic feet :i* multipli$ by #fb-a_/b gives ! capacity 9 p\nds ( wat]4 ,divide by #g-a_/b & ?is gives ! capacity 9 gallons4 ,a horse-p[] is equival5t to rais+ #cc1jjj p\nds #a foot p] m9ute1 or #eej p\nds #a foot p] second4 ,! friction ( wat] 9 pipes is z ! squ>e ( velocity4 ,! capacity ( pipes is z ! squ>e ( _! diamet]s2 ?us1 d\bl+ ! diamet] ( a pipe increases its capacity f\r times4 ,to f9d ! diamet] ( a pump cyl9d] to move a giv5 quantity ( wat] p] m9ute 7#ajj feet ( pi/on be+ ! /&>d ( spe$71 divide ! numb] ( gallons by #d1 !n extract ! squ>e root1 & ! product w be ! diamet] 9 in*es ( ! pump cyl9d]4 ,to f9d ! horse-p[] necess>y to elevate wat] to a giv5 height1 multiply ! weight ( ! wat] elevat$ p] m9ute 9 p\nds by ! height 9 feet1 & divide ! product by #cc1jjj 7an all[ance %\ld be add$ = wat] friction1 & a fur!r all[ance = loss 9 /eam cyl9d]1 say f #bj to #cj p] c5t74 ,to compute ! capacity ( pump+ eng9es1 multiply ! area ( wat] pi/on1 9 in*es1 by ! di/ance x travels1 9 in*es1 9 a giv5 "t4 ,d$uct #c p] c5t = slip & rod displacem5t4 ,! product divid$ by #bca gives ! numb] ( gallons 9 "t nam$4 ,to f9d ! velocity 9 feet p] m9ute necess>y to dis*>ge a giv5 volume ( wat] 9 a giv5 "t1 multiply ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] by #add & divide ! product by ! area ( ! pipe 9 in*es4 ,to f9d ! area ( a requir$ pipe1 ! volume & velocity ( wat] be+ giv51 multiply ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] by #add & divide ! product by ! velocity 9 feet p] m9ute4 ,! area be+ f\nd1 ! diamet] c be le>n$ by us+ any table giv+ ! area ( circles & f9d+ ! ne>e/ area1 opposite to :i* w be f\nd ! diamet] to correspond4 ,physical & ,*emical ,con/ants ( ,fix$ ,oils & ,fats4 7,,f ,,lewk[its* ,,& ,,o!r ,,au?orities47 ,specific ,specific gravity ,melt+- ,solidify+- gravity at po9t4 po9t4 at #ae;deg4,c4#ajj;deg4,c4 deg4 ,c4 deg4 ,c4 ,l9se$ oil #j4ica-j4ich #j4hhj -#af to -#bf -#af ,hemp-se$ oil #j4ibe-j4ica -#bg ,walnut oil #j4ibe-j4ibf #j4hga -#bg ,poppy-se$ oil #j4ibd-j4ibg #j4hgc -#ah ,sunfl[] oil #j4ibd-j4ibf #j4iai -#ag ,fir-se$ oil #j4ibe-j4ibh -#bg to -#cj ,maize oil #j4iba-j4ibf -#aj to -#ae ,cotton-se$ oil #j4ibb-j4icj #j4hfg #ab ,sesame oil #j4ibc-j4ibd #j4hga -#e ,rape-se$ oil #j4iad-j4iag #j4hfc -#b to -#aj ,black mu/>d oil #j4iaf-j4ibj -#ag4e ,croton oil #j4idb-j4iee -#af ,ca/or oil #j4ifj-j4iff #j4iaj -#ab to -#ah ,apricot-k]nel oil #j4iae-j4iai -#ad ,almond oil #j4iae-j4ibj -#aj to -#bj ,peanut 7ara*is7 oil #j4iaf-j4ibj #j4hfg -#c to -#g ,olive oil #j4iad-j4iag #j4hfb #b ,m5had5 oil #j4ibg-j4icc -#d ,cod-liv] oil #j4ibb-j4ibg #j4hgd #j to -#aj ,seal oil #j4ibd-j4ibi #j4hgc #c ,:ale oil #j4ibj-j4icj #j4hgb -#b ,dolph9 oil #j4iag-j4iah #e to -#c ,porpoise oil #j4ibf #j4hga -#af ,neat's-foot oil #j4iad-j4iaf #j4hfa #j to #a4e ,cotton-se$ /e>9e #j4iai-j4ibc #j4hfg #dj #ca to #cb4e ,palm oil #j4iba-j4ibe #j4hef #bg to #db ,cacao butt] #j4iej-j4ieb #j4heh #cj to #cc #be to #bf ,cocoa-nut oil #j4ibe-j4ibf #j4hgc #bj to #bf #af to #bj ,myrtle wax #j4iie #j4hge #dj to #dd #ci to #dc ,japan wax #j4igj-j4ihj #j4hge #ea to #ed4e #df ,l>d #j4ica-j4ich #j4hfa #da to #df #bi ,bone fat #j4iad-j4iaf #ba to #bb #ae to #ag ,tall[ #j4idc-j4ieb #j4hfj #db to #df #ce to #cg ,butt] fat #j4ibg-j4icf #j4hff #bi4e to #cc #ai to #bj ,oleom>g>9e #j4ibd-j4icj #j4hei ,sp]m oil #j4hge-j4hhd #j4hcc -#be ,bottle-nose oil #j4hgi-j4hhj #j4hbg ,c>nauba wax #j4iij-j4iii #j4hdb #hd to #he #hj to #ha ,wool-fat #j4igc #j4ija #ci to #db #cj to #cj4b ,beeswax #j4ieh-j4ifi #j4hbb #fb to #fd #fj4e to #fb ,sp]maceti #j4ifj #j4hab #dc4e to #di #dc4d to #dd4b ,*9ese wax #j4igj #j4haj #hj4e to #ha #hj4e to #ha ,tung 7,*9ese wood oil7 #j4icf-j4idb bel[ -#ag ,soya-bean oil #j4ibd-j4ibg #h to #ae ,physical & ,*emical ,con/ants ( ,fix$ ,oils & ,fats4 7,,f ,,lewk[its* ,,& ,,o!r ,,au?orities47 ,column ,head+s3 ,a3 ,saponification value4 ,b3 ,maum5e te/4 7deg47 ,c3 ,iod9e value4 ,d3 ,hehn] value4 ,e3 ,rei*]t value4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,l9se$ oil #aij-aie #ajd-aaa #age-aij ,hemp-se$ oil #aij-aic #ie-if #adh ,walnut oil #aie #if-aja #add-adg ,poppy-se$ oil #aie #hf-hh #acd-ada #ie4ch ,sunfl[] oil #aic-aid #gb-ge #abj-abi #ie ,fir-se$ oil #aia4c #ih-ii #aah4i-abj ,maize oil #ahh-aic #ef-fj4e #aag-abe #hi-ie4g #b4e ,cotton-se$ oil #aia-aie #fh-gg #ajd-aaj #if-ag ,sesame oil #ahi-aic #fd-fh #aje-aji #ie4h #j4ce ,rape-se$ oil #agj-agh #ea-fj #ie-aje #ie ,black mu/>d oil #agd-agd4f #dc-dd #if-aaj #ie4je ,croton oil #baj4c-bae #aja4g-ajd #hi #ac4e ,ca/or oil #agh-ahf #df-dg #hc4d-he4i #a4d ,apricot-k]nel oil #aib4b-aic4a #db4e-df #ajj-ajg ,almond oil #aij4e-aie4d #ea-ed #ic-ig #if4b ,peanut 7ara*is7 oil #aij-aig #de-di #he-ih #ie4hf ,olive oil #aia-aif #da4e-de4e #hj4f-hd4e #ie4dc #j4c ,m5had5 oil #ahi4c-aib #abc-abh #adj-agj #a4b ,cod-liv] oil #ahb-ahg #ajb-ajc #aed-ahj #ie4c ,seal oil #aij-aif #ib #abg-adj #id4b #j4bb ,:ale-oil #ahh-aic #ia-ib #aaj-acf #ic4e #b4jd ,dolph9 ,body oil #aig4c #ii4e #ic4jg #e4f oil ,jaw oil #bjj #cb4h #ff4bh #fe4ib ,porpoise ,body oil #baf-bah4h #ej #aai4d #bc4de oil ,jaw oil #bec4g #di4f #fh4da #fe4h ,neat's-foot oil #aid4c #dg-dh4e #fi4c-gj4d ,cotton-se$ /e>9e4 #aid4f-aie4a #dh #hh4g-ib4h #if4c ,palm oil #aif4c-bjb #ec-eg #ie4f #j4e ,cacao butt] #aib4b-aic4e #cb-da #id4ei #a4f ,cocoa-nut oil #bej-bec #h4e-i4c #hh4f #c4g ,myrtle wax #bje4g-baa4g #b4i ,japan wax #bbj-bbb4d #d4b-h4e #ij4f ,l>d #aie4c-aif4f #bg-cb #eg-gj #if ,bone fat #aij4i #df4c-di4f ,tall[ #aie-aih #cf-dg #ie4f #j4be ,butt] fat #bba4e-bbg #bf-ce #hg4e #bh4gh ,oleom>g>9e #aid-bjc4g #ee4c-fj #ie-if #b4f ,sp]m oil #acb4e-adg #dg-ea #hd #a4c ,bottle-nose oil #abf-acd #da-dg #gg4d-hb #a4d ,c>nauba wax #hj-hd #ac4e ,wool-fat #ih4b-ajb4d #be-bh ,beeswax #ia-if #h4c-aa ,sp]maceti #abh ,*9ese wax #fc ,tung 7,*9ese wood oil7 #aic #aej-afe ,soya-bean oil #aij4f-aib4i #ei-fa #aba4c-abd #ie4e 99,temp]ature ,correction ,table = ,hehn]'s ,conc5trat$ ,bi*romate ,solution = ,glyc]9e ,analysis ,a f ,temp]ature ,correct$ ,volume ,log>i?m #a c4c4 #aa;deg4 ,c #j4iihj ccm #iiiac #ab;deg4 #j4iihe #iiice #ac;deg4 #j4iiij #iiief #ad;deg4 #j4iiie #iiigh #ae;deg4 #a4jjjj #jjjjj #af;deg4 #a4jjje #jjjbb #ag;deg4 #a4jjaj #jjjdc #ah;deg4 #a4jjae #jjjfe #ai;deg4 #a4jjbj #jjjhg #bj;deg4 #a4jjbe #jjajh #ba;deg4 #a4jjcj #jjacj #bb;deg4 #a4jjce #jjaeb #bc;deg4 #a4jjdj #jjagc 99,table ( ,important ,fatty ,acids ,boil+ ,po9t ,neutral- ,mol4 ,melt- ization ,"n ,=mula ,wt4 ,ord9>y #ajj mm + value ,pressure ,pressure ,pt4 ,mg4 ,,koh ,butyric ,c#d;,h#h,o#b #hh #afb4c #fcg4e ,caproic ,c#f;,h#ab,o#b #aaf #aii4g #dhc4f ,caprylic ,c#h;,h#af,o#b #add #bcf-bcg #af4e #chi4f ,capric ,c#aj;,h#bj,o#b #agb #bfh-bgj #aii4e-bjj #ca4c #cbf4b ,lauric ,c#ab;,h#bd,o#b #bjj #bbe #dc4f #bhj4e ,myri/ic ,c#ad;,h#bh,o#b #bbh #bej4e #ec4h #bdf4a ,palmitic ,c#af;,h#cb,o#b #bef #bfh4e #fb #bai4a ,/e>ic ,c#ah;,h#cf,o#b #bhd #bia #fi4b #aig4e ,ara*idic ,c#bj;,h#dj,o#b #cjb #ge #ahe4h ,beh5ic ,c#bb;,h#dd,o#b #ccj #gg-gh #agj4j ,c]otic ,c#bg;,h#ed,o#b #djj #gh #adj4be ,melissic ,c#cj;,h#fj,o#b #ddb #ij #abf4e ,oleic ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #bhb #ahe4e-bhf #ad #aih4i ,erucic ,c#bb;,h#db,o#b #cch #cc-cd #afe4i ,l9olic ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#b #bhj #bjj4d ,l9ol5ic ,c#ah;,h#cj,o#b #bgh #bja4e ,ric9oleic ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#c #bih #aha4f 99,comp>ison ( ,!rmomet] ,scales n ,degree ,celsius #d_/en ,degree ,reaumur #cb #i_/en ,degree ,fahr5heit n ,degree ,reaumur #e_/dn ,degree ,celsius #cb #i_/dn ,degree ,fahr5heit n ,degree ,fahr5heit #e_/i 7n - #cb7 ,degree ,celsius #d_/i 7n - #cb7 ,deg4 ,r ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- -#bj -#af -#d #bj #af #fh #fj #dh #adj #ajj #hj #bab -#ai -#ae4b -#b4b #ba #af4h #fi4h #fa #dh4h #ada4h #aja #hj4h #bac4h -#ah -#ad4d -#j4d #bb #ag4f #ga4f #fb #di4f #adc4f #ajb #ha4f #bae4f -#ag -#ac4f #a4d #bc #ah4d #gc4d #fc #ej4d #ade4d #ajc #hb4d #bag4d -#af -#ab4h #c4b #bd #ai4b #ge4b #fd #ea4b #adg4b #ajd #hc4b #bai4b -#ae -#ab #e #be #bj #gg #fe #eb #adi #aje #hd #bba -#ad -#aa4b #f4h #bf #bj4h #gh4h #ff #eb4h #aej4h #ajf #hd4h #bbb4h -#ac -#aj4d #h4f #bg #ba4f #hj4f #fg #ec4f #aeb4f #ajg #he4f #bbd4f -#ab -#i4f #aj4d #bh #bb4d #hb4d #fh #ed4d #aed4d #ajh #hf4d #bbf4d -#aa -#h4h #ab4b #bi #bc4b #hd4b #fi #ee4b #aef4b #aji #hg4b #bbh4b -#aj -#h #ad #cj #bd #hf #gj #ef #aeh #aaj #hh #bcj -#i -#g4b #ae4h #ca #bd4h #hg4h #ga #ef4h #aei4h #aaa #hh4h #bca4h -#h -#f4d #ag4f #cb #be4f #hi4f #gb #eg4f #afa4f #aab #hi4f #bcc4f -#g -#e4f #ai4d #cc #bf4d #ia4d #gc #eh4d #afc4d #aac #ij4d #bce4d -#f -#d4h #ba4b #cd #bg4b #ic4b #gd #ei4b #afe4b #aad #ia4b #bcg4b -#e -#d #bc #ce #bh #ie #ge #fj #afg #aae #ib #bci -#d -#c4b #bd4h #cf #bh4h #if4h #gf #fj4h #afh4h #aaf #ib4h #bdj4h -#c -#b4d #bf4f #cg #bi4f #ih4f #gg #fa4f #agj4f #aag #ic4f #bdb4f -#b -#a4f #bh4d #ch #cj4d #ajj4d #gh #fb4d #agb4d #aah #id4d #bdd4d -#a -#j4h #cj4b #ci #ca4b #ajb4b #gi #fc4b #agd4b #aai #ie4b #bdf4b #j #j #cb #dj #cb #ajd #hj #fd #agf #abj #if #bdh #a #j4h #cc4h #da #cb4h #aje4h #ha #fd4h #agg4h #aba #if4h #bdi4h #b #a4f #ce4f #db #cc4f #ajg4f #hb #fe4f #agi4f #abb #ig4f #beb4f #c #b4d #cg4d #dc #cd4d #aji4d #hc #ff4d #aha4d #abc #ih4d #bec4d #d #c4b #ci4b #dd #ce4b #aaa4b #hd #fg4b #ahc4b #abd #ii4b #bee4b #e #d #da #de #cf #aac #he #fh #ahe #abe #ajj #beg #f #d4h #db4h #df #cf4h #aad4h #hf #fh4h #ahf4h #abf #ajj4h #beh4h #g #e4f #dd4f #dg #cg4f #aaf4f #hg #fi4f #ahh4f #abg #aja4f #bfj4f #h #f4d #df4d #dh #ch4d #aah4d #hh #gj4d #aij4d #abh #ajb4d #bfb4d #i #g4b #dh4b #di #ci4b #abj4b #hi #ga4b #aib4b #abi #ajc4b #bfd4b #aj #h #ej #ej #dj #abb #ij #gb #aid #acj #ajd #bff #aa #h4h #ea4h #ea #dj4h #abc4h #ia #gb4h #aie4h #aca #ajd4h #bfg4h #ab #i4f #ec4f #eb #da4f #abe4f #ib #gc4f #aig4f #acb #aje4f #bfi4f #ac #aj4d #ee4d #ec #db4d #abg4d #ic #gd4d #aii4d #acc #ajf4d #bga4d #ad #aa4b #eg4b #ed #dc4b #abi4b #id #ge4b #bja4b #acd #ajg4b #bgc4b #ae #ab #ei #ee #dd #aca #ie #gf #bjc #ace #ajh #bge #af #ab4h #fj4h #ef #dd4h #acb4h #if #gf4h #bjd4h #acf #ajh4h #bgf4h #ag #ac4f #fb4f #eg #de4f #acd4f #ig #gg4f #bjf4f #acg #aji4f #bgh4f #ah #ad4d #fd4d #eh #df4d #acf4d #ih #gh4d #bjh4d #ach #aaj4d #bhj4d #ai #ae4b #ff4b #ei #dg4b #ach4b #ii #gi4b #baj4b #aci #aaa4b #bhb4b 99,quantities ( ,alkali ,requir$ = ,saponification ( ,fats ( ,av]age ,molecul> ,weight #fgj 7,cocoanut ,oil1 ,palmk]nel ,oil7 ,lit]s ,alkali ,lit]s ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4a ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4b ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #ahge4hc #aijb4ii #hdd4fg #icj4ce #bjjj #cgea4ff #chje4ig #afhi4ce #ahfj4gj #cjjj #efbg4ej #egjh4if #becd4jb #bgia4jd #djjj #gejh4cc #gfaa4id #ccgh4fi #cgba4ci #ejjj #icgi4af #iead4ic #dbbc4cg #dfea4gd #fjjj #aabed4ii #aadag4ia #ejfh4jd #eehb4ji #gjjj #acacj4hb #accbj4ij #eiab4ga #feab4dd #hjjj #aejjf4ff #aebbc4hh #fgeg4ch #gddb4gh #ijjj #afhhb4di #agabf4hg #gfjb4jf #hcgc4ac #ajjjj #ahgeh4cb #aijbi4he #hddf4gc #icjc4dh ,lit]s ,alkali ,lit]s ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4c ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4cee ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #eaj4bg #fbb4ga #dji4fa #eag4ig #bjjj #ajbj4ed #abde4da #hai4ba #ajce4ie #cjjj #aecj4ha #ahfh4ab #abbh4hb #aeec4ib #djjj #bjda4ja #bdij4hc #afch4dc #bjga4ij #ejjj #beea4ce #caac4ed #bjdh4jd #behi4hg #fjjj #cjfa4fa #cgcf4bd #bdeg4fe #cajg4hd #gjjj #cega4hh #dceh4ie #bhfg4bf #cfbe4hb #hjjj #djhb4ae #diha4ff #cbgf4hf #dadc4gi #ijjj #deib4db #efjd4cf #chhf4dg #dffa4gg #ajjjj #eajb4fi #fbbg4jb #djif4jh #eagi4gd 99,quantities ( ,alkali ,requir$ = ,saponification ( ,fats ( ,av]age ,molecul> ,weight #hfj 7,tall[1 ,cottonse$ ,oil1 ,olive ,oil1 ,etc47 ,lit]s ,alkali ,lit]s ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4a ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4b ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #adfa4dj #adhb4ef #feh4je #gbd4ha #bjjj #bibb4ha #bife4ab #acaf4ab #addi4fa #cjjj #dchd4ba #dddg4fg #aigd4ah #bagd4db #djjj #ehde4fb #eicj4bc #bfcb4bd #bhii4bb #ejjj #gcjg4jb #gdab4gi #cbij4hj #cfbd4jc #fjjj #hgfh4db #hhie4he #cidh4ce #dcdh4hd #gjjj #ajbbi4hc #ajcgg4ia #dfjf4da #ejgc4fd #hjjj #aafia4bc #aahfj4de #ebfd4dg #egih4de #ijjj #acaeb4fd #accdc4jb #eibb4ec #febc4be #ajjjj #adfad4jd #adhbe4eh #fehj4ei #gbdh4jf ,lit]s ,alkali ,lit]s ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4c ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4cee ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #cig4ed #dhe4ac #cai4aa #djc4ed #bjjj #gie4jg #igj4bg #fch4bc #hjg4jh #cjjj #aaib4fa #adee4dj #ieg4cd #abaj4fa #djjj #aeij4ad #aidj4ec #abgf4de #afad4ae #ejjj #aihg4fh #bdbe4fg #aeie4eg #bjag4fi #fjjj #bche4ba #biaj4hj #aiad4fh #bdba4bc #gjjj #bghb4ge #ccie4ic #bbcc4gi #bhbd4gg #hjjj #cahj4bh #chha4jf #beeb4ij #cbbh4cj #ijjj #cegg4hb #dcff4bj #bhgb4jb #cfca4hd #ajjjj #cige4ce #dhea4cc #caia4ac #djce4ch ,,d5sity ,,& ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,sulphuric ,,acid 7,,sid]sky74 ,column ,head+s3 ,a3 ,degrees ,twaddell ,b3 ,sp4 ,gr4 at #ae;deg4 ,c4 ,c3 ( pure acid 7,h#b,,s#d74 ,d3 ,equival5t 79 cc47 ( a kilo ( pure acid4 ,e3 ,equival5t 79 cc47 ( a lit] ( pure acid4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e #a #a4jjg #a4i #eb4fbj #if4icj #c #a4jad #b4h #ce4gaj #ff4dej #d #a4jbb #c4h #be4fej #dg4bcj #f #a4jbi #d4h #bj4daj #cg4ehb #h #a4jcg #e4h #af4fgj #cj4fij #i #a4jde #f4h #ad4jhe #be4ich #aj #a4jeb #g4h #ab4aih #bb4dfj #ab #a4jfb #h4h #aj4gee #ai4hjc #ac #a4jfg #i4h #i4ebd #ag4edj #ae #a4jge #aj4i #h4edg #ae4gdj #ag #a4jhc #aa4i #g4geb #ad4bgh #ah #a4jia #ac4j #g4jdb #ab4ifi #bj #a4ajj #ad4a #f4deb #aa4hhb #bb #a4ajh #ae4b #e4iec #aj4ifb #bc #a4aaf #af4b #e4ebf #aj4agg #be #a4abe #ag4c #e4dje #i4ied #bg #a4acd #ah4e #d4gf #h4ggj #bi #a4adb #ai4f #d4dfe #h4bbc #cj #a4aeb #bj4h #d4ahd #g4gbc #cb #a4afb #bb4b #c4hgf #g4ach #cd #a4aga #bc4c #c4ffc #f4gde #cf #a4ahj #bd4e #c4eda #f4eba #ch #a4aij #be4h #c4beh #e4iii #dj #a4bjj #bg4a #c4jgg #e4fff #db #a4baj #bh4d #b4ijg #e4cec #dd #a4bbj #bi4f #b4ggj #e4ajb #df #a4bca #ca4j #b4fah #d4hfe #dh #a4bda #cb4b #b4ejj #d4fjd #ej #a4beb #cc4d #b4cib #d4djf #ec #a4bfc #cd4g #b4bhc #d4bje #ee #a4bgd #cf4j #b4agi #d4jab #eg #a4bhe #cg4d #b4jgi #c4hbi #fj #a4big #ch4h #a4ihh #c4ffa #fb #a4cjh #dj4b #a4ije #c4ejh #fd #a4cbj #da4f #a4hba #c4ced #ff #a4ccb #dc4j #a4gde #c4bad #fi #a4cde #dd4d #a4ffe #c4jhe #ga #a4ceg #de4e #a4fba #b4ihe #gd #a4cgj #df4i #a4eeh #b4hfi #gg #a4chc #dh4c #a4dig #b4geg #hj #a4cig #di4h #a4dcf #b4fdf #hb #a4daj #ea4b #a4chf #b4eea #he #a4dbd #eb4f #a4cce #b4dei #hh #a4dch #ed4j #a4bhg #b4cgj #ia #a4dec #ee4d #a4bcg #b4bgj #id #a4dfh #ef4i #a4aie #b4bjj #ig #a4dhc #eh4c #a4aef #b4acj #ajj #a4dih #ei4f #a4aaf #b4jej #ajc #a4ead #fa4j #a4jhj #a4ihj #ajf #a4ecj #fb4e #a4jde #a4icj #ajh #a4edj #fd4j #a4jaj #a4hfj #aac #a4efc #fe4e #j4ige #a4hjj #aaf #a4ehj #fg4j #j4iej #a4gdj #abj #a4eig #fh4f #j4iag #a4fij #abc #a4fae #gj4j #j4hhh #a4fcj #abg #a4fcd #ga4f #j4hee #a4egj #acj #a4feb #gc4b #j4hde #a4ebj #acd #a4fga #gd4g #j4hjj #a4dgj #ach #a4fia #gf4d #j4ggd #a4dcj #adb #a4gaa #gh4a #j4gdi #a4cij #adf #a4gcb #gi4i #j4gbb #a4cbj #aea #a4gec #ha4g #j4gje #a4bhj #aee #a4ggd #hd4a #j4fgb #a4bce #afj #a4gih #hf4e #j4fci #a4aij #afd #a4hai #hi4g #j4fji #a4abj #afh #a4hdb #ajj4j #j4edd #a4jjj 99,d5sities ( ,potassium ,c>bonate ,solutions at #ae ,c 7,g]la*7 ,p] c5t ,sp4 ,gr4 ( pure ,k#b;,,co#c #a4jjiad #a #a4jahbi #b #a4jbgdc #c #a4jcfeh #d #a4jdegb #e #a4jeeac #f #a4jfded #g #a4jgcif #h #a4jhccg #i #a4jibgh #aj #a4ajbeh #aa #a4aabch #ab #a4abbai #ac #a4acaii #ad #a4adagi #ae #a4aebjj #af #a4afbbb #ag #a4agbdc #ah #a4ahbfe #ai #a4aibhf #bj #a4bjcdd #ba #a4badjb #bb #a4bbdei #bc #a4bceag #bd #a4bdege #be #a4befha #bf #a4bfghg #bg #a4bghic #bh #a4bhiii #bi #a4cjaje #cj #a4cabfa #ca #a4cbdag #cb #a4ccegc #cc #a4cdgbi #cd #a4cehhe #ce #a4cgjhb #cf #a4chbgi #cg #a4cidgf #ch #a4djfgc #ci #a4dahgj #dj #a4dcajd #da #a4ddcch #db #a4deegc #dc #a4dfhjg #dd #a4dhjda #de #a4dicad #df #a4ejehh #dg #a4eahfa #dh #a4ecace #di #a4eddjh #ej #a4eegbh #ea #a4egjdh #eb #a4egjgi #ec4jbd 99,con/ants ( ,c]ta9 ,fatty ,acids & ,triglyc]ides ,p] c5t ,yield ,triglyc]ides ,mol4 ,wt4 ,mol4 ,wt4 ( ( ,fatty ( ,tri- ( ,fatty glyc]ides ,fatty ,glyc]9e ,acid ,/e>ic ,acid #bhd #hij #ie4gc #aj4cd ,oleic ,acid #bhb #hhd #ie4gj #aj4da ,m>g>ic ,acid #bgj #hdh #ie4eb #aj4he ,palmitic ,acid #bef #hjf #ie4bh #aa4db ,myri/ic ,acid #bbh #gbb #id4dg #ab4gd ,lauric ,acid #bjj #fch #id4jd #ad4db ,capric ,acid #agb #eid #ic4ad #ae4dh ,caproic ,acid #aaf #chf #ij4af #bc4hc ,butyric ,acid #hh #cjb #hg4da #cj4df ,,p]c5tages ,,( ,,solid ,,cau/ic ,,soda ,,& ,,cau/ic ,,pota% ,,9 ,,cau/ic ,,lyes ,,accord+ ,,to ,,baume ,,scale4 ,degrees ,baume4 ,na,o,h ,,koh #a #j4fa #j4ij #b #j4ic #a4gj #c #b4jj #b4fj #d #b4ga #c4ej #e #c4ce #d4ej #f #d4jj #e4fj #g #d4eef #f4bhf #h #e4bi #g4dj #i #e4hg #h4bj #aj #f4ee #i4bj #aa #g4ca #aj4aj #ab #h4jj #aj4ij #ac #h4fh #ab4jj #ad #i4db #ab4ij #ae #aj4jf #ac4hj #af #aj4ig #ad4hj #ag #aa4hd #ae4gj #ah #ab4fd #af4ej #ai #ac4ee #ag4fj #bj #ad4cg #ah4fj #ba #ae4ac #ai4ej #bb #ae4ia #bj4ej #bc #af4gg #ba4dj #bd #ag4fg #bb4ej #be #ah4eh #bc4cj #bf #ai4eh #bd4bj #bg #bj4ei #be4aj #bh #ba4db #bf4aj #bi #bb4fd #bg4jj #cj #bc4fg #bh4jj #ca #bd4ha #bh4ij #cb #be4hj #bi4hj #cc #bf4hc #cj4gj #cd #bg4hj #ca4hj #ce #bh4hc #cb4gj #cf #bi4ic #cc4gj #cg #ca4bb #cd4ij #ch #cb4dg #ce4ij #ci #cc4fi #cf4ij #dj #cd4if #cg4hj #da #cf4be #ch4ij #db #cg4ec #ci4ij #dc #ch4hj #dj4ij #dd #ci4ii #db4aj #de #da4da #dc4dj #df #db4hc #dd4fj #dg #dd4ch #de4hj #dh #df4ae #dg4aj #di #dg4eh #dh4be #ej #di4jb #di4dj ,,glyc]9e ,,cont5t ,,( ,,m ,,common ,,oils ,,& ,,fats ,,us$ ,,9 ,,soap ,,mak+4 ,k9d4 ,!oretical ,av]age ,free ,pure ,yield ,yield ( ,pure ,fatty ,acid 9 ,glyc]9e ,soap ,lye ,glyc]9e ( ,comm]cial 9 ,comm]cial #hj ,crude ,neutral ,oil ,oil4 ,oil4 ,glyc]9e4 or ,fat4 ,beef ,tall[ #aj4g #e #aj4b #ab4ge ,bone ,grease #aj4e #bj-ej #e4b- #h4d #f4e-aj4e ,ca/or ,oil #i4h #j4e-aj #h4h- #i4h #aa4j-ab4de ,cocoanut ,oil #ac4i #c-e #ac4b-ac4e #af4e-af4i ,cocoanut ,oil ,(f #ae-dj #h4c-aa4h #aj4cg-ad4ge ,corn ,oil #aj4d #a-aj #i4c-aj4c #aa4fb-ab4i ,cottonse$ ,oil #aj4f ,trace #aj4f #ac4be ,hog ,grease #aj4f #j4e-a #aj4e-aj4f #ac4ab-ac4be ,horse ,grease #aj4f #a-c #aj4e-aj4f #ac4ab-ac4be ,olive ,oil #aj4c #b-be #g4g-aj4b #i4fb-ab4ge ,olive ,foots #cj-fj #d-g #e-h4ge ,palm ,oil #aa4j #aj-ej #e4e-aj #f4hg-ab4e ,palmk]nel ,oil #ac4c #d-h #ab4b-ab4h #ae4be-af ,peanut ,oil #aj4d #e-bj #h4c-i4i #aj4cg-ab4cg ,soya ,bean ,oil #aj4d #b #aj4b #ab4ge ,tra9 ,oil #aj4j #b-bj #h-i4h #aj4j-ab4be ,vegetable ,tall[ #aj4i #a-c #aj4e-aj4h #ac4ab-ac4e 99,table ( ,specific ,gravities ( ,pure ,comm]cial ,glyc]9e ) ,correspond+ ,p]c5tage ( ,wat]4 ,temp]ature #ae ,c4 ------------------------------------ ,sp4 ,gr4 ,wat] ,sp4 ,gr4 ,wat] #a4bfb #j #a4afj #ch #a4bfa #a #a4aeg #ci #a4beh #b #a4aee #dj #a4bee #c #a4aeb #da #a4beae #d #a4adi #db #a4bej #e #a4adfd #dc #a4bdfg #f #a4adcg #dd #a4bdej #g #a4ada #de #a4bdc #h #a4acgg #df #a4bda #i #a4acec #dg #a4bcg #aj #a4acbf #dh #a4bce #aa #a4acjd #di #a4bcbd #ab #a4abg #ej #a4bbi #ac #a4abe #ea #a4bbfe #ad #a4abbd #eb #a4bbde #ae #a4abjd #ec #a4bbbe #af #a4aag #ed #a4bahe #ag #a4aad #ee #a4bagd #ah #a4aab #ef #a4badb #ai #a4aji #eg #a4baa #bj #a4ajf #eh #a4bjg #ba #a4ajc #ei #a4bjc #bb #a4ajjf #fj #a4bjjd #bc #a4jhh #fe #a4aih #bd #a4jge #gj #a4aie #be #a4jfbc #ge #a4aibc #bf #a4jdi #hj #a4ahi #bg #a4jcfe #he #a4ahh #bh #a4jbdc #ij #a4ahdf #bi #a4jbah #ia #a4ahb #cj #a4jaib #ib #a4agi #ca #a4jafh #ic #a4agf #cb #a4jadg #id #a4agcd #cc #a4jabe #ie #a4aga #cd #a4ja #if #a4afh #ce #a4jjgd #ig #a4afe #cf #a4jjec #ih #a4afc #cg #a4jjbf #ii ------------------------------------ ,table ( ,p]c5tage1 ,specific ,gravity & ,beaume ,degree ( ,pure ,glyc]9e ,solutions ,p] c5t ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,p] c5t ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,wat] ,*ampion ,beaume ,wat] ,*ampion ,beaume & ,pellet 7,b]!lot7 & ,pellet 7,b]!lot7 #j #a4bfdj #ca4b #aa4j #a4bcej #bh4f #j4e #a4bfbe #ca4j #aa4e #a4bcce #bh4d #a4j #a4bfab #cj4i #ab4j #a4bcbb #bh4c #a4e #a4bfjj #cj4h #ab4e #a4bcjg #bh4b #b4j #a4behe #cj4g #ac4j #a4bbie #bh4j #b4e #a4bege #cj4f #ac4e #a4bbhj #bg4h #c4j #a4befj #cj4d #ad4j #a4bbgj #bg4g #c4e #a4bede #cj4c #ad4e #a4bbee #bg4f #d4j #a4becb #cj4b #ae4j #a4bbdb #bg4d #d4e #a4bebj #cj4a #ae4e #a4bbcj #bg4c #e4j #a4beje #cj4j #af4j #a4bbag #bg4b #e4e #a4bdij #bi4i #af4e #a4bbjb #bg4j #f4j #a4bdhj #bi4h #ag4j #a4baij #bf4i #f4e #a4bdfe #bi4g #ag4e #a4bagg #bf4h #g4j #a4bdee #bi4f #ah4j #a4bafe #bf4g #g4e #a4bddj #bi4e #ah4e #a4baej #bf4e #h4j #a4bdbg #bi4c #ai4j #a4bacg #bf4d #h4e #a4bdab #bi4b #ai4e #a4babe #bf4c #i4j #a4bdjj #bi4j #bj4j #a4baab #bf4b #i4e #a4bcij #bh4i #bj4e #a4bajj #bf4j #aj4j #a4bcge #bh4h #ba4j #a4bjhe #be4j #aj4e #a4bcfb #bh4g 99,table ( ,specific ,gravities ( ,pure ,glyc]9e ,solutions ) ,correspond+ ,beaume ,degree & ,p]c5t ,wat] ---------------------------------------- -------- ,p] c5t ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,p]c5t ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,wat] ,beaume ,wat] ,beaume ---------------------------------------- -------- #j4j #a4bfdj #ca4b #a4j #a4bfab #cj4i #j4e #a4bfbe #ca4j #a4e #a4bfjj #cj4h #b4j #a4behe #cj4g #ab4j #a4bcbb #bh4c #b4e #a4bege #cj4f #ab4e #a4bcjg #bh4b #c4j #a4befj #cj4d #ac4j #a4bbie #bh4j #c4e #a4bede #cj4c #ac4e #a4bbhj #bg4h #d4j #a4becb #cj4b #ad4j #a4bbgj #bg4g #d4e #a4bebj #cj4a #ad4e #a4bbee #bg4f #e4j #a4beje #cj4j #ae4j #a4bbdb #bg4d #e4e #a4bdij #bi4i #ae4e #a4bbcj #bg4c #f4j #a4bdhj #bi4h #af4j #a4bbag #bg4b #f4e #a4bdfe #bi4g #af4e #a4bbjb #bg4j #g4j #a4bdee #bi4f #ag4j #a4baij #bf4i #g4e #a4bddj #bi4e #ag4e #a4bagg #bf4h #h4j #a4bdbg #bi4c #ah4j #a4bafe #bf4g #h4e #a4bdab #bi4b #ah4e #a4baej #bf4e #i4j #a4bdjj #bi4j #ai4j #a4bacg #bf4d #i4e #a4bcij #bh4i #ai4e #a4babe #bf4c #aj4j #a4bcge #bh4h #bj4j #a4baab #bf4b #aj4e #a4bcfb #bh4g #bj4e #a4bajj #bf4j #aa4j #a4bcej #bh4f #ba4j #a4bjhe #be4i #aa4e #a4bcce #bh4d ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,index ,a ,acet9 process = ! det]m9ation ( glyc]ol1 #aee4 ,acid1 ,clupanodonic1 #bj4 ,acid1 ,hydro*loric1 #aaa4 ,acid1 ,lauric1 #b4 ,acid1 ,myri/ic1 #b4 ,acid1 ,nap!nic1 #bd4 ,acid1 ,oleic1 #ae1 #ai4 ,acid1 ,palmitic1 #b4 ,acid1 ,p9ic1 #bb4 ,acid1 ,res91 #add4 ,acid1 ,/e>ic1 #ae1 #ai4 ,acid1 ,sulfuric1 #aab4 ,acid1 ,sylvic1 #bb4 ,acid saponification1 #abj4 ,air blea*+ ( palm oil1 #ab4 ,album9\s matt]1 ,removal f tall[1 #f4 ,alcohol1 ,d5atur$1 #hb4 ,alcoholic me?od = free alkali 9 soap1 #aci4 ,alkali ,blue #f ,b1 indicator1 #abi4 ,alkali1 ,total1 det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #adg4 ,alkalis1 #be4 ,alkalis us$ 9 soap mak+1 ,te/+ (1 #acd4 ,amalgamator1 #cc4 ,analysis1 ,glyc]9e1 ,int]national1 #aej4 ,analysis1 ,soap1 #acg4 ,analysis1 ,/&>d me?ods = fats & oils1 #afe-aif4 ,aque\s saponification1 #aba4 ,ara*is oil1 #gi4 ,autoclave saponification1 #aah4 ,automobile soaps1 #da4 ,b ,b>rels1 sampl+1 #afh4 ,baume scale1 #be4 ,bayb]ry wax1 ,use 9 %av+ soap1 #hi4 ,bi*romate ,process = glyc]ol det]m9ation1 #afj4 ,blea*+1 ,full]s' e>? process = tall[1 #d4 ,blea*+ palm oil by bi*romate me?od1 #i4 ,blea*+ palm oil by air1 #ab4 ,bos%>d ,hugg5b]g me?od = det]m9ation ( free alkali1 #adj4 ,bun*+ ( soap1 #eb4 ,c ,c&elite1 #if4 ,c&le t>1 #abe4 ,c>bolic soap1 #gg4 ,c>bon ,dioxide1 ,=mation ( 9 c>bonate saponification1 #de4 ,c>bonate1 potassium1 #bi4 ,c>bonate1 saponification1 #ce1 #de4 ,c>bonate1 sodium1 #bh4 ,ca/ile soap1 #gi4 ,ca/or oil f]m5t1 #aba4 ,ca/or oil1 ,use ( 9 transp>5t soaps1 #hc4 ,cau/ic pota%1 #bf4 ,cau/ic pota%1 ,electrolytic1 #bg4 ,cau/ic soda1 #bf4 ,*anges 9 soap-mak+1 #cf4 ,*emi/1 ,importance (1 #abg4 ,*ipp]1 ,soap1 #cb4 ,*ip soap1 #ed4 ,*ip soap1 ,cold made1 #ee4 ,*ip soap1 ,unfill$1 #ef4 ,*rome blea*+ ( palm oil1 #i4 ,cl\d te/ = oil1 ,/&>d me?od1 #ahb-ahc4 ,clupanodonic acid1 #bj4 ,cocoanut oil1 #f4 ,cold cream soap1 #gh4 ,cold made *ip soaps1 #ee4 ,cold made toilet soaps1 #gb4 ,cold made transp>5t soaps1 #hd4 ,cold process1 #ce1 #dc4 ,colophony1 #bb4 ,color+ soap1 #ge4 ,copra1 #g4 ,corn oil1 #ad4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #gh4 ,cotton goods4 ,soaps us$ =1 #ajc4 ,cottonse$ oil1 #ad4 ,cream1 ,%av+1 #ij4 ,crude glyc]9e1 #aac4 ,crut*]1 #cb4 ,curd soap1 #ga4 ,cutt+ table1 #cb4 ,d ,det]m9ation ( free fatty acid1 #abh4 ,det]m9ation ( unsaponifiable matt]1 #acb4 ,di/illation ( fatty acids1 #abe4 ,dry+ ma*9e1 #cb4 ,e ,enzymes1 #ag4 ,es*weg] soap1 #ha4 ,exam9ation ( fats & oils1 #abh4 ,f ,fahrion's me?od = moi/ure1 #ach4 ,fats & oils1 ,exam9ation (1 #abh4 ,fats & oils us$ 9 soap manufacture1 #c4 ,fatty acids1 #ad4 ,fatty acids1 ,di/illation (1 #abe4 ,f]m5ts1 ,splitt+ fats )1 #aba4 ,fill]s = laundry soaps1 #ec4 ,fill]s = soap p[d]s1 #eh4 ,f9i%+ *ange1 #cf4 ,fi% oils1 #bj4 ,float+ soap1 #fb4 ,=maldehyde soap1 #gh4 ,frames1 #ca4 ,free alkali 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aci4 ,free fatty acid1 ,det]m9ation (1 #abh4 ,free fatty acids1 ,extraction f tall[1 #f4 ,free fatty acid1 ,/&>d me?od ( dilu41 #agd4 ,note on me?od1 #ahh-ahi4 ,full boil$ soaps1 #ce4 ,full]s' e>? blea*+ ( tall[1 #d4 ,g ,glyc]ides1 #b4 ,glyc]9e1 #b4 ,glyc]9e analysis1 #aej4 ,glyc]9e *ange1 #cf4 ,glyc]9e1 ,crude1 #aac4 ,glyc]9e 9 sp5t lyes1 ,recov]y (1 #ajf4 ,glyc]9e 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #adi4 ,glyc]9e1 ,sampl+ crude1 #afb4 ,glyc]9e soaps1 #hc4 ,glyc]ol cont5t1 ,ways ( calculat+ actual1 #aei4 ,glyc]ol det]m9ation1 ,acet9 process1 #aee4 ,glyc]ol det]m9ation1 ,bi*romate process =1 #afj4 ,gra9+ soap1 #cj4 ,grease1 #ba4 ,grease1 ,blea*+1 #ba4 ,gr9d+ soap1 #cd4 ,h ,h& ,pa/e1 #ic4 ,h>d wat]1 #bi4 ,h>d5$ oils 9 toilet soap1 ,use (1 #if4 ,hydroc>bon oils1 #b4 ,hydrog5at+ oils1 #ai4 ,hydrolysis ( fats & oils1 #ag4 ,hydrolytic dissociation ( soap1 #a4 ,hydromet]s1 #be4 ,i ,indicators1 ,action1 #ace-f4 ,insoluble impurities 9 fatty oils1 ,det]m9ation ( 7/&>d me?od71 #agb4 ,note on me?od1 #ahg4 ,insoluble matt] 9 soap1 det]m9ation (1 #adc4 ,int]national committee on glyc]9e analysis1 #aej4 ,iod9e manufactur+ oil1 #aia4 ,iod9e memb] ,wijs me?od1 ,/&>d1 #agg-aha4 ,note on me?od1 #aia4 ,iod9e soap1 #gh4 ,j ,josl91 ref41 #aac4 ,k ,kill+ *ange1 #cf4 ,koett/orf] numb] 7,/&>d me?od71 #aha-ahb4 ,kontakt reag5t1 #aag4 ,krebitz ,process1 #abc4 ,krutol91 #if4 ,l ,lei/e ,/iepel me?od = ros9 9 soap1 #adf4 ,lieb]mann1 ,/or* reaction1 #add4 ,light p[d]s1 #fj4 ,laundry soap1 #dh4 ,le,blanc ,process1 #bh4 ,lewk[its*1 ref41 #ag1 #adf4 ,lime saponification1 #aah4 ,lime1 ,use 9 ,krebitz ,process1 #abc4 ,lime1 ,use 9 treatm5t ( glyc]9e wat]1 #aaf4 ,liquid m$ic9al soaps1 #gi4 ,liquid soaps1 #id4 ,lyes1 ,sp5t1 #cg4 ,m ,magnesia1 ,use 9 autoclave saponification1 #abj4 ,manganese sulfate1 ,use ( z catalyz] 9 f]m5tative cleavage ( fats1 #abb4 ,m>9e soaps1 #ci4 ,m$ic9al soaps1 #gf4 ,m$ic9al soaps1 ,less important1 #gh4 ,m$ic9al soaps1 ,!rapeutic value (1 #gf4 ,melt+ po9t ( fat or oil1 ,/&>d me?od1 #aic4 ,m]cury soaps1 #gh4 ,metallic soaps1 #a4 ,me?yl orange1 indicator1 #acf4 ,mey]heim1 ref41 #ba4 ,mill soap1 #cb4 ,moi/ure 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #ach1 #acj4 ,moi/ure & volatile matt] 9 fats & oils1 ,/&>d me?od = detm4 (1 #agj4 ,note on me?od1 #ahd-ahe4 ,mottle 9 soap1 #ha4 ,mug %av+ soap1 #ij4 ,n ,naph?a1 ,incorporation 9 soap1 #di4 ,naph!nic acids1 #bd4 ,nigre1 #cf4 ,normal acids1 ,equival5t 9 alkalis1 #acf4 ,o ,oils & fats1 #a4 ,oils & fats1 ,*emical con/ants1 #ah4 ,oils & fats1 ,di/9ction1 #a4 ,oils & fats1 ,pres]v+1 #ah4 ,oils & fat1 ,nature ( us$ 9 soap manufacture1 #b4 ,oils & fats1 ,rancidity (1 #af4 ,oil h>d5+1 #ai4 ,oleic acid1 #ae1 #ai4 ,ole91 #b1 #ai4 ,olive oil1 #ad4 ,olive oil foots1 #ad4 ,organoleptic me?ods1 #abg4 ,p ,palmat91 #b4 ,palm k]nel oil1 #h4 ,palmitic acid1 #b4 ,palm oil1 #h4 ,palm oil1 air blea*+1 #ab4 ,palm oil1 ,*rome blea*+ (1 #i4 ,palm oil soap1 #ff4 ,pe>l a%1 #bi4 ,p]fum+ & color+ toilet soaps1 #gc4 ,p]oxide soap1 #gh4 ,petr(f reag5t1 #aag4 ,pfeilr+ reag5t1 #aag4 ,ph5ol1 #gg4 ,ph5olph?ale91 indicator1 #ch4 ,ph5olph?ale91 ,us+ z indicator1 #ea4 ,ph5ols1 ,soaps conta9+1 #gg4 ,p9ic acid1 #bb4 ,plodd]1 #cc4 ,pota% f wood a%1 #bg4 ,potassium c>bonate1 #bi4 ,p[d]s1 ,light1 #fj4 ,p[d]s1 ,sc\r+1 #fa4 ,p[d]s1 ,%av+1 #ij4 ,p[d]s1 ,soap1 #ef4 ,precipitation te/ = treat$ sp5t lyes1 #aaj4 ,prev5tion ( rancidity1 #ah4 ,pumice or s& soaps1 #ic4 ,purple %ade 9 soap1 #ge4 ,r ,rancidity ( oils & fats1 #af4 ,rancidity1 ,prev5tion1 #ah4 ,recov]y ( glyc]9e f sp5t lye1 #ajf4 ,r$ oil1 #ae4 ,r$ oil1 ,saponifi$1 #ae4 ,res9 acids1 ,total fatty &1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #add4 ,ribot1 ref41 #bj4 ,ros91 #bb4 ,ros91 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #add4 ,ros9 saponification1 #bc4 ,run & glu$ up soaps1 #fi4 ,run soaps1 #ci4 ,s ,sal soda1 #bi4 ,salt1 #cj4 ,salt+ out1 #cj4 ,salt pickle1 #cg4 ,sampl+ crude glyc]9e1 #afb4 ,sampl+ = /&>d me?od1 #aff4 ,note on1 #ahd4 ,sampl+ oils & fats1 #abh4 ,sampl+ soap1 #acg4 ,saponification by f]m5ts1 #aba4 ,saponification1 ,acid1 #abj4 ,saponification1 ,aque\s1 #aba4 ,saponification1 ,autoclave1 #aah4 ,saponification1 ,c>bonate1 #de4 ,saponification def9$1 #b1 #aje4 ,saponification1 ,lime1 #aah4 ,saponification numb]1 #aha-ahb4 ,saponification1 ,ros91 #bc4 ,saponification1 ,v>i\s me?ods1 #aje4 ,sc\r+ & full+ soaps = wool1 #ih4 ,sc\r+ p[d]s1 #fa4 ,sc\r+ soap1 #fa4 ,semi-boil$ laundry soaps1 #di4 ,semi-boil$ process1 #dd4 ,%av+ cream1 #ij4 ,%av+ p[d]1 #ij4 ,%av+ soaps1 #hg4 ,silica & silicates1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #adh4 ,silk dye+1 #ajb4 ,silk indu/ry1 ,soaps us$ 91 #aja4 ,slabb]1 #cb4 ,smi? me?od = moi/ure 9 soap1 #ach4 ,soap analysis1 #acg4 ,soap1 ,automobile1 #da4 ,soap1 ,c>bolic1 #ga4 ,soap1 ,ca/ile1 #gi4 ,soap1 ,*ip1 #ed4 ,soap ,*ip1 cold made1 #ee4 ,soap1 ,*ip1 unfill$1 #ef4 ,soap1 ,cold cream1 #gh4 ,soap1 ,color+1 #ge4 ,soap conta9+ ph5ols1 #gg4 ,soap1 ,curd1 #ga4 ,soap1 ,def9$1 #a4 ,soap1 ,det]m9ation insoluble matt]1 #adc4 ,soap1 ,det]m9+ glyc]9e 91 #adi4 ,soap1 ,es*weg]1 #ha4 ,soap1 ,float+1 #fb4 ,soap1 ,=maldehyde1 #gh4 ,soap = wool1 ,sc\r+ & full+1 #ih4 ,soap1 ,full boil$1 #ce4 ,soap1 ,iod9e1 #gh4 ,soap kettle1 #ca4 ,soap1 ,laundry1 #dh4 ,soap1 ,liquid1 #id4 ,soap lye crude glyc]9e1 #aac4 ,soap1 ,m>9e1 #ci4 ,soap1 ,m$ic9al1 #gf4 ,soap1 ,m$ic9al1 less important1 #gh4 ,soap1 ,m]cury1 #gh4 ,soap1 ,metallic1 #a4 ,soap1 ,p]oxide1 #gh4 ,soap p[d]s1 #ef4 ,soap1 ,pumice or s&1 #ic4 ,soap1 ,ros9 settl$1 #ej4 ,soap1 ,run & glu$ up1 #fi4 ,soap1 ,sc\r+1 #fa4 ,soap1 ,semi-boil$ laundry1 #di4 ,soap1 ,%av+1 #hg4 ,soap1 ,sulphur1 #gg4 ,soap1 ,tann91 #gh4 ,soap1 ,t>1 #gg4 ,soap1 ,te/ = color (1 #acc4 ,soap1 ,textile1 #ih4 ,soap1 ,toilet1 #fe4 ,soap1 ,toilet *eap]1 #fh4 ,soap1 ,toilet1 cold made1 #gb4 ,soap1 ,toilet p]fum+ & color+1 #gc4 ,soap1 ,transp>5t1 #hb4 ,soap1 ,transp>5t1 cold made1 #hd4 ,soap us$ = cotton goods1 #ajc4 ,soap us$ 9 ! silk indu/ry1 #aja4 ,soap1 ,wit* hazel1 #gh4 ,soap1 ,wool ?r[]'s1 #ajj4 ,soap1 ,wor/$ f9i%+1 #aja4 ,soda a%1 #bh4 ,sodium c>bonate1 #bh4 ,sodium p]borate1 ,use ( 9 soap p[d]s1 #eg4 ,s(t soaps1 #dj4 ,soluble m9]al matt] detm4 ( 9 fats & oils1 #agc4 ,note on me?od1 #ahg-ahh4 ,solvay process1 #bh4 ,soya bean oil1 #ad4 ,sp5t lye1 ,recov]y ( glyc]9e f1 #ajf4 ,sp5t lyes1 #cg4 ,sp5t lyes1 ,treatm5t ( = glyc]9e recov]y1 #ajg4 ,splitt+ fats ) f]m5ts1 #aba4 ,/&>d me?ods ( analysis = fats & oils1 #afe-aif4 ,/>* & gelat9e1 ,det]m9ation 9 soap1 #adc4 ,/e>ic acid1 #ae1 #ai4 ,/e>91 #b1 #ai4 ,/r5g!n+ *ange1 #cf4 ,/r5g!n+ lyes1 #ch4 ,/runz crut*]1 #fc4 ,sug> 9 soap1 ,det]m9ation (1 #aej4 ,sug>1 ,use 9 transp>5t soap1 #hc4 ,sulfate ( alum9a1 ,use ( 9 sp5t lyes1 #ajh4 ,sulphonat$ oils1 #ajd4 ,sulphur soaps1 #gg4 ,sweat+ ( soap1 #fb4 ,sweet wat]1 #aai4 ,sylvic acid1 #bb4 ,t ,talgol1 #if4 ,tall[1 #d4 ,tall[1 ,full]s' e>? blea*+ (1 #d4 ,tall[1 ,improv+ color by extraction ( free fatty acid1 #f4 ,tann9 soap1 #gh4 ,t> soap1 #gg4 ,te/ = color ( soap1 #acc4 ,te/+ ( alkalis us$ 9 soap mak+1 #acd4 ,textile soaps1 #ih4 ,tit]1 #acj4 ,tank c>s1 ,sampl+1 #aff4 ,ti]ces1 ,sampl+1 #afh4 ,tit]1 ,/&>d me?od1 #age4 ,tit]1 ,note on1 #ahi4 ,tung oil1 ,note "o iod9e1 numb] (1 #ahj4 ,toilet soap1 #fe4 ,toilet soaps1 ,*eap]1 #fh4 ,toilet soap1 ,use ( h>d5$ oils 91 #if4 ,total alkali1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #adg4 ,total fatty & res9 acids1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #add4 ,tra9 oils1 #bj4 ,transp>5t soap1 #hb4 ,transp>5t soap1 ,cold made1 #hd4 ,tr[el+ soap1 #eb4 ,tsujimoto1 ref41 #bj4 ,tubes = transp>5t soap1 #he4 ,turkey r$ oil1 #ajd4 ,twaddle scale1 #be4 ,twit*ell me?od = ros91 #ade4 ,twit*ell process1 #aac4 ,twit*ell process1 ,advantages1 #aac4 ,u ,unsaponifiable matt]1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 oils & fats1 #acb4 ,unsaponifiable matt]1 ,det]m9ation ( 9 soap1 #adh4 ,unsaponifiable matt]1 det]m9ation ( by /&>d me?od1 #agf4 ,v ,vacuum ,ov51 ,/&>d1 #agf4 ,vegetable oils1 #f4 ,w ,wat]1 #bi4 ,wat]1 ,h>d1 #bi4 ,wit* hazel soap1 #gh4 ,wool ?r[]'s soap1 #ajj4 ,wor/$ f9i%+ soaps1 #aja4 ,z ,z9c oxide1 ,use ( 9 autoclave saponification1 #abj4 ,z9c oxide1 ,use ( 9 soap1 #cc4 ,,lit]ature ,,( ,,! ,,*emical ,,indu/ries ,on our %elves is ! mo/ complete /ock ( te*nical1 indu/rial1 eng9e]+ & sci5tific books 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! te*nical lit]ature ( e trade is well repres5t$1 z is also ! lit]ature relat+ to ! v>i\s sci5ces1 bo? ! books useful = ref]5ce z well z ^? fitt$ = /ud5ts' use z textbooks4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ^! we publi% & = an ev] increas+ numb] we are ! sole ag5ts4 ,,all ,,inquiries ,,made ,,( ,,u ,,are ,,*e]fully ,,& ,,c>efully ,,answ]$ ,,& ,,complete ,,catalogs ,,z ,,well ,,z ,,special ,,li/s ,,s5t ,,free ,,on ,,reque/ ,d4 ,,van ,,no/r& ,,company ,publi%]s & ,booksell]s #h ,,w>r5 ,,/reet ,,new ,,york ,! ,soap-,mak]'s ,book ,%elf ,a li/ ( /&>d books relat+ to soapmak+ & alli$ indu/ries4 ,publi%$ & ,= ,sale by ,d4 ,,van ,,no/r& ,,company ,publi%]s & ,booksell]s #h ,,w>r5 ,,/reet ,,new ,,york ,ask9son1 ,george ,w4 ,p]fumes & ,cosmetics4 ,_! prep>ation & manufacture4 ,f\r? ,edition1 translat$ f ! ,g]man1 & revis$ ) additions by ,w4 ,l4 ,dudley4 #cb illu/rations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #ced pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #e4jj ,*alm]s1 ,t4 ,w4 ,! ,production & ,treatm5t ( ,vegetable ,oils4 ,includ+ *apt]s on ! ref9+ ( oils1 ! hydrog5ation ( oils1 ! g5]ation ( hydrog51 soap mak+1 ! recov]y & ref9+ ( glyc]9e1 & ! splitt+ ( oils4 #ie illu/rations1 #i fold+ plates4 #h x #aa-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #afc pp4 ,london1 #aiai4 #g4ej ,deite1 ,c4 ,manual ( ,toilet ,soap-,mak+4 ,compris+ toilet soaps1 m$icat$ soaps1 & o!r specialties4 ,second ,revis$ ,edition4 #he illu/rations4 #f-a_/b x #aj4 ,clo?4 #cef pp4 ,london1 #aibj4 #g4ej ,ellis1 ,c>leton ,g4 ,! ,hydrog5ation ( ,oils1 ,catalyz]s & ,catalysis & ! ,g5]ation ( ,hydrog5 & ,oxyg54 ,second ,edition1 ?or\ghly revis$ & enl>g$4 #bdj illu/rations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #gfg pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiai4 #g4ej ,fis*]1 ,m4 ,h4 ,soaps & ,prote9s1 ,_! ,colloid ,*emi/ry 9 ,!ory & ,practice4 ,) ! collaboration ( ,g4 ,d4 ,mc,laughlin & ,m4 ,o4 ,hook]4 #aad illu/rations4 #f x #i-a_/d4 ,clo?4 #bha pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 #d4jj ,holde1 ,d4 ,! ,exam9ation ( ,hydroc>bon ,oils1 & ( ! ,saponifiable ,fats & ,waxes4 ,translat$ f ! ,f\r? ,g]man ,edition by ,edw>d ,muell]4 #aae illu/rations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/d4 ,clo?4 #dii pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiae4 ,net1 #e4jj ,hur/1 ,g4 ,h4 ,soaps4 ,a practical manual ( ! manufacture ( dome/ic1 toilet & o!r soaps4 ,second ,edition4 #ff illu/rations4 #f x #h-c_/d4 ,clo?4 #che pp4 ,london1 #aijg4 #f4jj ,hur/1 ,george ,h41 & ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h4 ,textile ,soaps & ,oils4 ,a h&book on ! prep>ation1 prop]ties1 & analysis ( ! soaps & oils & 9 textile manufactur+1 dye+ & pr9t+4 ,?ird ,edition1 revis$4 #ab illu/rations4 #e-a_/b x #h-c_/d4 ,clo?4 #bab pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #d4jj ,koll]1 ,t4 ,cosmetics4 ,a h&book ( ! manufacture1 employm5t1 & te/+ ( all cosmetic mat]ials & cosmetic specialties1 ) num]\s recipes4 ,translat$ f ! ,g]man4 ,?ird ,edition4 #e x #g-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #bfd pp4 ,london1 #aibj4 #c4ej ,koppe1 ,s4 ,w4 ,glyc]9e4 ,its introduction1 ,uses & ,exam9ation4 ,= *emi/s1 p]fum]s1 soapmak]s1 ph>maci/s1 & explosives te*nologi/s4 #g illu/rations4 #e-a_/d x #g-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #bfj pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #c4ej ,lamborn1 ,l4 ,l4 ,mod]n ,soaps1 ,c&les1 & ,glyc]94 ,a practical manual ( mod]n me?ods ( utilization ( fats & oils 9 ! manufacture ( soaps & c&les1 & ! recov]y ( glyc]94 #bbh illu/rations4 #f-a_/b x #i-a_/d4 ,clo?4 #gjh pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aijf4 #aj4jj ,murray1 ,b4 ,l4 ,/&>ds & ,te/s = ,reag5t ,*emicals4 #f x #i4 ,clo?4 #djj pp4 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 #c4jj ,p>ry1 ,erne/ ,j4 ,! ,*emi/ry ( ,ess5tial ,oils & ,artificial ,p]fumes4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,monographs on ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,f\r? ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 #ea illu/rations4 #f-a_/d x #aj4 ,clo?4 #eeg pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #i4jj ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,con/itu5ts ( ,ess5tial ,oils1 ,syn!tic ,p]fumes & ,isolat$ ,aromatics1 & ! ,analysis ( ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,?ird ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 ,illu/rat$4 #cea pp4 ,london1 #aiai4 #g4jj ,p>t+ton1 ,j4 ,r4 ,! ,alkali ,indu/ry4 #fc illu/rations4 #e-a_/b x #h-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #cah pp4 ,london1 #aiah4 #c4jj ,rog]s1 ,all54 ,indu/rial ,*emi/ry4 ,a manual = ! /ud5t & manufactur]4 ,?ird ,edition1 ?or\ghly revis$ & enl>g$4 #cgg illu/rations4 #f-a_/b x #i-c_/d4 ,flexible fabrikoid4 #abee pp4 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 #g4ej ,scott1 ,wilfr$ ,w4 7,editor74 ,/&>d ,me?ods ( ,*emical ,analysis4 ,a manual ( analytical me?ods & g5]al ref]5ce = ! analytical *emi/ & = ! advanc$ /ud5t4 ,second ,edition1 revis$1 ) additional tables4 #adb illu/rations1 #c color plates4 #g x #i-a_/d4 ,clo?4 #ijj pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiag4 #g4ej ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h4 ,fats1 ,waxes & ,ess5tial ,oils4 ,9 ,press4 ,simmons1 ,william ,h4 ,soap4 ,its composition1 manufacture & prop]ties4 #aa illu/rations4 #d-c_/d x #g-a_/d4 ,clo?4 #acc pp4 ,london1 #aiaf4 #a4jj ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h41 & ,appleton1 ,h4 ,a4 ,! ,h&book ( ,soap ,manufacture4 #bg illu/rations4 #f x #i4 ,clo?4 #aff pp4 ,london1 #aijh4 #d4jj ,van ,no/r&'s ,*emical ,annual4 ,edit$ by ,john ,c4 ,ols54 ,a h&book ( useful data = analytical manufactur+ & inve/igat+ *emi/s & *emical /ud5ts4 ,f\r? ,issue1 enl>g$4 #e x #g-a_/b4 ,flexible fabrikoid4 #ghe pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 #c4jj ,watt1 ,a4 ,art ( ,soapmak+4 ,a practical h&book ( ! manufacture ( h>d & s(t soaps1 toilet soaps1 etc4 ,sev5? ,edition1 revis$ & enl>g$4 #dc illu/rations4 #e-a_/d x #g-a_/b4 ,clo?4 #cbc pp4 ,london1 #aiah4 #d4jj ,wright1 ,c4 ,r4 ,a4 ,animal & ,vegetable ,fix$ ,oils1 ,fats1 ,butt]s1 & ,waxes3 ,_! ,prep>ation & ,prop]ties1 & ! ,manufacture ,!refrom ( ,c&les1 ,soaps1 & ,o!r ,products4 ,?ird ,edition1 revis$ & greatly enl>g$ by ,c4 ,a9swor? ,mit*ell4 #ahe illu/rations1 #c plates4 #f x #i4 ,clo?4 #iec pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #af4ej