,soap-,making ,manual ,a practical handbook on the raw materials1 their manipulation1 analysis and control in the modern soap plant4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,thomssen1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,,illustrated ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,company ,,eight ,,warren ,,street #aibb ,,copyright #aibb ,,by ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,company ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,this is a series of articles collected into a book4 ,there are differences in spelling and punctuation in the different chapters 7e4g4 cocoanut in one chapter and coconut in another74 ,these differences were left in the text as they appeared4 ,for ,text3 ,a word surrounded by a tilde such as this signifies that the word is bolded in the text4 ,a word surrounded by underscores like this signifies the word is italics in the text4 ,for numbers and equations3 ,parentheses have been added to clarify fractions4 ,underscores before bracketed numbers in equations denote a subscript4 ,the ,degree symbol has been changed to deg4 in the ,,ascii file4 ,minor typos have been corrected and footnotes moved to the end of the chapters4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,prefatory ,,note4 ,the material contained in this work appeared several years ago in serial form in the ,american ,perfumer and ,essential ,oil ,review4 ,owing to the numerous requests received1 it has been decided to now place before those interested1 these articles in book form4 ,while it is true that the works pertaining to the soapmaking industry are reasonably plentiful1 books are quite rare1 however1 which1 in a brief volume1 will clearly outline the processes employed together with the necessary methods of analyses from a purely practical standpoint4 ,in the work presented the author has attempted to briefly1 clearly1 and fully explain the manufacture of soap in such language that it might be understood by all those interested in this industry4 ,in many cases the smaller plants find it necessary to dispense with the services of a chemist1 so that it is necessary for the soapmaker to make his own tests4 ,the tests outlined1 therefore1 are given as simple as possible to meet this condition4 ,the formulae submitted are authentic1 and in many cases are now being used in soapmaking4 ,in taking up the industry for survey it has been thought desirable to first mention and describe the raw materials used2 second1 to outline the processes of manufacture2 third1 to classify the methods and illustrate by formulae the composition of various soaps together with their mode of manufacture2 fourth1 to enumerate the various methods of glycerine recovery1 including the processes of saponification1 and1 fifth1 to give the most important analytical methods which are of value to control the process of manufacture and to determine the purity and fitness of the raw material entering into it4 ,it is not the intention of the author to go into great detail in this work1 nor to outline to any great extent the theoretical side of the subject1 but rather to make the work as brief as possible1 keeping the practical side of the subject before him and not going into concise descriptions of machinery as is very usual in works on this subject4 ,illustrations are merely added to show typical kinds of machinery used4 ,the author wishes to take this opportunity of thanking ,messrs4 ,l4 ,s4 ,levy and ,e4 ,w4 ,drew for the reading of proof1 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,aiken of the ,houchin-,aiken ,co41 for his aid in making the illustrations a success1 as well as others who have contributed in the compiling of the formulae for various soaps4 ,he trusts that this work may prove of value to those engaged in soap manufacture4 ,e4 ,g4 ,t4 ,january1 #aibb ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,page4 ,,raw ,,materials ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,making #a-cj #a4 ,soap ,defined #a #b4 ,oils and ,fats #a-b #c4 ,saponification ,defined #b-c #d4 ,fats and ,oils ,used in ,soap ,manufacture #c-d ,fullers' ,earth ,process for ,bleaching ,tallow #d-f ,method for ,further ,improvement of ,color in ,tallow #f ,vegetable ,oils #f-i ,chrome ,bleaching of ,palm ,oil #i-ab ,air ,bleaching of ,palm ,oil #ab-af #e4 ,rancidity of ,oils and ,fats #af-ah ,prevention of ,rancidity #ah #f4 ,chemical ,constants of ,oils and ,fats #ah-ai #g4 ,oil ,hardening or ,hydrogenating #ai-ba #h4 ,grease #ba-bb #i4 ,rosin 7,colophony1 ,yellow ,rosin1 ,resina7 #bb-bc #aj4 ,rosin ,saponification #bc-bd #aa4 ,naphthenic ,acids #bd-be #ab4 ,alkalis #be-bf ,caustic ,soda #bf ,caustic ,potash #bf-bh ,sodium ,carbonate 7,soda ,ash7 #bh-bi ,potassium ,carbonate #bi #ac4 ,additional ,material ,used in ,soap ,making #bi-cj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,construction ,,and ,,equipment ,,of ,a ,,soap ,,plant #ca-cd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,classification ,,of ,,soap ,,making ,,methods #ce-df #a4 ,full ,boiled ,soaps #cf-db #b4 ,cold ,process #dc-dd #c4 ,carbonate ,saponification #de-df ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,classification ,,of ,,soaps #dg-ajd #a4 ,laundry ,soap #dh ,semi-,boiled ,laundry ,soap #di-ej ,settled ,rosin ,soap #ej-ed #b4 ,chip ,soap #ed-ee ,cold ,made ,chip ,soap #ee-ef ,unfilled ,chip ,soap #ef #c4 ,soap ,powders #ef-ei ,light ,powders #fj-fa #d4 ,scouring ,powders #fa #e4 ,scouring ,soap #fa-fb #f4 ,floating ,soap #fb-fe #g4 ,toilet ,soap #fe-fh ,cheaper ,toilet ,soaps #fh-fi ,run and ,glued-up ,soaps #fi-ga ,curd ,soap #ga-gb ,cold ,made ,toilet ,soaps #gb-gc ,perfuming and ,coloring ,toilet ,soaps #gc-ge ,coloring ,soap #ge-gf #h4 ,medicinal ,soaps #gf-gg ,sulphur ,soaps #gg ,tar ,soap #gg ,soaps ,containing ,phenols #gg-gh ,peroxide ,soap #gh ,mercury ,soaps #gh ,less ,important ,medicinal ,soaps #gh-gi #i4 ,castile ,soap #gi-ha #aj4 ,eschweger ,soap #ha-hb #aa4 ,transparent ,soap #hb-hd ,cold ,made ,transparent ,soap #hd-hg #ab4 ,shaving ,soaps #hg-ij ,shaving ,powder #ij ,shaving ,cream #ij-ic #ac4 ,pumice or ,sand ,soaps #ic-id #ad4 ,liquid ,soaps #id-ie #ae4 ,use of ,hardened ,oils in ,toilet ,soaps #if-ih #af4 ,textile ,soaps #ih ,scouring and ,fulling ,soaps for ,wool #ih-ajj ,wool ,thrower's ,soap #ajj-aja ,worsted ,finishing ,soaps #aja ,soaps ,used in the ,silk ,industry #aja-ajc ,soaps ,used for ,cotton ,goods #ajc-ajd #ag4 ,sulphonated ,oils #ajd-aje ,,chapter ,v4 ,,glycerine ,,recovery #aje-abf #a4 ,methods of ,saponification #aje-ajf ,recovery of ,glycerine from ,spent ,lye #ajf-aac ,twitchell ,process #aac-aah ,autoclave ,saponification #aah ,lime ,saponification #aah-abj ,acid ,saponification #abj-aba ,aqueous ,saponification #aba ,splitting ,fats with ,ferments #aba-abc ,krebitz ,process #abc-abe #b4 ,distillation of ,fatty ,acids #abe-abf ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,analytical ,,methods #abg-afd #a4 ,analysis of ,oils and ,fats #abh ,free ,fatty ,acids #abh-acj ,moisture #acj ,titer #acj-acb ,determination of ,unsaponifiable ,matter #acb-acc ,test for ,color of ,soap #acc-acd ,testing of ,alkalis ,used in ,soap ,making #acd-acg #b4 ,soap ,analysis #acg-ach ,moisture #ach-aci ,free ,alkali or ,acid #aci-adb ,insoluble ,matter #adc ,starch and ,gelatine #adc-add ,total ,fatty and ,resin ,acids #add ,determination of ,rosin #add-adg ,total ,alkali #adg-adh ,unsaponifiable ,matter #adh ,silica and ,silicates #adh-adi ,glycerine in ,soap #adi-aej ,sugar in ,soap #aej #c4 ,glycerine ,analysis #aej-aea ,sampling #aea ,analysis #aea-aed ,acetin ,process for the ,determination of ,glycerol #aee-aef ,the ,method #aef-aei ,ways of ,calculating ,actual ,glycerol ,contents #aei-afj ,bichromate ,process for ,glycerol ,determination ,reagents ,required #afj-afa ,the ,method #afa-afb ,sampling ,crude ,glycerine #afb-afd ,,chapter ,,vii ,,standard ,,methods ,,for ,,the ,,sampling ,,and ,,analysis ,,of ,,commercial ,,fats ,,and ,,oils #afe-aie #a4 ,scope1 ,applicability and ,limitations of the ,methods #afe-aff ,scope #afe ,applicability #aff ,limitations #aff ,sampling #aff-afi ,tank ,cars #aff-afg ,barrels1 ,tierces1 ,casks1 ,drums1 and ,other ,packages #afh #b4 ,analysis #afi-ahc ,sample #afi ,moisture and ,volatile ,matter #agj-agb ,insoluble ,impurities #agb-agc ,soluble ,mineral ,matter #agc ,free ,fatty ,acids #agd ,titer #agd-age ,unsaponifiable ,matter #agf-agg ,iodine ,number-,wijs ,method #agg-aha ,saponification ,number 7,koettstorfer ,number7 #aha ,melting ,point #aha-ahb ,cloud ,test #ahb-ahd #c4 ,notes of the ,above ,methods #ahd-aif ,sampling #ahc ,moisture and ,volatile ,matter #ahd-ahg ,insoluble ,impurities #ahg ,soluble ,mineral ,matter #ahg-ahh ,free ,fatty ,acid #ahh-ahi ,titer #ahi ,unsaponified ,matter #aij-aic ,melting ,point #aic-aif ,plant and ,machinery #aih-bai ,illustrations of ,machinery and ,layouts of the ,plant of a ,modern ,soap ,making ,establishment #aih-bai ,appendix #bai-bcg ,useful ,tables ,index #bci ,,chapter ,i ,raw ,materials ,used in ,soap ,making4 ,soap is ordinarily thought of as the common cleansing agent well known to everyone4 ,in a general and strictly chemical sense this term is applied to the salts of the non-volatile fatty acids4 ,these salts are not only those formed by the alkali metals1 sodium and potassium1 but also those formed by the heavy metals and alkaline earths4 ,thus we have the insoluble soaps of lime and magnesia formed when we attempt to wash in hard water2 again aluminum soaps are used extensively in polishing materials and to thicken lubricating oils2 ammonia or benzine soaps are employed among the dry cleaners4 ,commonly1 however1 when we speak of soap we limit it to the sodium or potassium salt of a higher fatty acid4 ,it is very generally known that soap is made by combining a fat or oil with a water solution of sodium hydroxide 7caustic soda lye71 or potassium hydroxide 7caustic potash74 ,sodium soaps are always harder than potassium soaps1 provided the same fat or oil is used in both cases4 ,the detergent properties of soap are due to the fact that it acts as an alkali regulator1 that is1 when water comes into contact with soap1 it undergoes what is called hydrolytic dissociation4 ,this means that it is broken down by water into other substances4 ,just what these substances are is subject to controversy1 though it is presumed caustic alkali and the acid alkali salt of the fatty acids are formed4 ,,oils ,,and ,,fats4 ,there is no sharp distinction between fat and oil4 ,by oil the layman has the impression of a liquid which at warm temperature will flow as a slippery1 lubricating1 viscous fluid2 by fat he understands a greasy1 solid substance unctuous to the touch4 ,it thus becomes necessary to differentiate the oils and fats used in the manufacture of soap4 ,inasmuch as a soap is the alkali salt of a fatty acid1 the oil or fat from which soap is made must have as a constituent part1 these fatty acids4 ,hydrocarbon oils or paraffines1 included in the term oil1 are thus useless in the process of soap-making1 as far as entering into chemical combination with the caustic alkalis is concerned4 ,the oils and fats which form soap are those which are a combination of fatty acids and glycerine1 the glycerine being obtained as a by-product to the soap-making industry4 ,,nature ,,of ,a ,,fat ,,or ,,oil ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,manufacture4 ,glycerine1 being a trihydric alcohol1 has three atoms of hydrogen which are replaceable by three univalent radicals of the higher members of the fatty acids1 e4 g41 ,,oh ,,or ,c#c ,h#e ,,oh #c ,,roh ,c#c ,h#e ,,or #c ,h#b,o ,,oh ,,or ,glycerine plus #c ,fatty ,alcohols equals ,fat or ,oil plus #c ,water4 ,thus three fatty acid radicals combine with one glycerine to form a true neutral oil or fat which are called triglycerides4 ,the fatty acids which most commonly enter into combination of fats and oils are lauric1 myristic1 palmitic1 stearic and oleic acids and form the neutral oils or triglycerides derived from these1 e4 g41 stearin1 palmatin1 olein4 ,mono and diglycerides are also present in fats4 ,,saponification ,,defined4 ,when a fat or oil enters into chemical combination with one of the caustic hydrates in the presence of water1 the process is called saponification and the new compounds formed are soap and glycerine1 thus3 ,,or ,,oh ,c#c;,h#e ,,or #c ,na,o,h ,c#c;,h#e ,,oh #c ,na,o,r ,,or ,,oh ,fat or ,oil plus #c ,sodium ,hydrate equals ,glycerine plus #c ,soap4 ,it is by this reaction almost all of the soap used today is made4 ,there are also other means of saponification1 as1 the hydrolysis of an oil or fat by the action of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid1 by autoclave and by ferments or enzymes4 ,by these latter processes the fatty acids and glycerine are obtained directly1 no soap being formed4 ,,fats ,,and ,,oils ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,manufacture4 ,the various and most important oils and fats used in the manufacture of soap are1 tallow1 cocoanut oil1 palm oil1 olive oil1 poppy oil1 sesame oil1 soya bean oil1 cotton-seed oil1 corn oil and the various greases4 ,besides these the fatty acids1 stearic1 red oil 7oleic acid7 are more or less extensively used4 ,these oils1 fats and fatty acids1 while they vary from time to time and to some extent as to their color1 odor and consistency1 can readily be distinguished by various physical and chemical constants4 ,much can be learned by one1 who through continued acquaintance with these oils has thoroughly familiarized himself with the indications of a good or bad oil1 by taste1 smell1 feel and appearance4 ,it is1 however1 not well for the manufacturer in purchasing to depend entirely upon these simpler tests4 ,since he is interested in the yield of glycerine1 the largest possible yield of soap per pound of soap stock and the general body and appearance of the finished product1 the chemical tests upon which these depend should be made4 ,those especially important are the acid value1 percentage unsaponifiable matter and titer test4 ,a short description of the various oils and fats mentioned is sufficient for their use in the soap industry4 ,tallow is the name given to the fat extracted from the solid fat or suet of cattle1 sheep or horses4 ,the quality varies greatly1 depending upon the seasons of the year1 the food and age of the animal and the method of rendering4 ,it comes to the market under the distinction of edible and inedible1 a further distinction being made in commerce as beef tallow1 mutton tallow or horse tallow4 ,the better quality is white and bleaches whiter upon exposure to air and light1 though it usually has a yellowish tint1 a well defined grain and a clean odor4 ,it consists chiefly of stearin1 palmitin and olein4 ,tallow is by far the most extensively used and important fat in the making of soap4 ,in the manufacture of soaps for toilet purposes1 it is usually necessary to produce as white a product as possible4 ,in order to do this it often is necessary to bleach the tallow before saponification4 ,the method usually employed is the ,fuller's ,earth process4 ,,fuller',s ,,earth ,,process ,,for ,,bleaching ,,tallow4 ,from one to two tons of tallow are melted out into the bleaching tank4 ,this tank is jacketed1 made of iron and provided with a good agitator designed to stir up sediment or a coil provided with tangential downward opening perforations and a draw-off cock at the bottom4 ,the coil is the far simpler arrangement1 more cleanly and less likely to cause trouble4 ,by this arrangement compressed air which is really essential in the utilization of the press 7see later7 is utilized for agitation4 ,a dry steam coil in an ordinary tank may be employed in place of a jacketed tank1 which lessens the cost of installation4 ,the tallow in the bleaching tank is heated to #ahj;deg4 ,f4 7#hb;deg4 ,c47 and ten pounds of dry salt per ton of fat used added and thoroughly mixed by agitation4 ,this addition coagulates any albumen and dehydrates the fat4 ,the whole mass is allowed to settle over night where possible1 or for at least five hours4 ,any brine which has separated is drawn off from the bottom and the temperature of the fat is then raised to #afj;deg4 ,f4 7#ga;deg4 ,c74 ,five per cent4 of the weight of the tallow operated upon1 of dry ,fuller's earth is now added and the whole mass agitated from twenty to thirty minutes4 ,the new bleached fat1 containing the ,fuller's earth is pumped directly to a previously heated filter press and the issuing clear oil run directly to the soap kettle4 ,one of the difficulties experienced in the process is the heating of the press to a temperature sufficient to prevent solidification of the fat without raising the press to too great a temperature4 ,to overcome this the first plate is heated by wet steam4 ,air delivered from a blower and heated by passage through a series of coils raised to a high temperature by external application of heat 7super-heated steam7 is then substituted for the steam4 ,the moisture produced by the condensation of the steam is vaporized by the hot air and carried on gradually to each succeeding plate where it again condenses and vaporizes4 ,in this way the small quantity of water is carried through the entire press1 raising its temperature to #hj;deg4-#ajj;deg4 ,c4 ,this temperature is subsequently maintained by the passage of hot air4 ,by this method of heating the poor conductivity of hot air is overcome through the intermediary action of a liquid vapor and the latent heat of steam is utilized to obtain the initial rise in temperature4 ,to heat a small press economically where conditions are such that a large output is not required the entire press may be encased in a small wooden house which can be heated by steam coils4 ,the cake in the press is heated for some time after the filtration is complete to assist drainage4 ,after such treatment the cake should contain approximately #ae per cent4 fat and #be per cent4 water4 ,the cake is now removed from the press and transferred to a small tank where it is treated with sufficient caustic soda to convert the fat content into soap4 ,saturated brine is then added to salt out the soap1 the ,fuller's earth is allowed to settle to the bottom of the tank and the soap which solidifies after a short time is skimmed off to be used in a cheap soap where color is not important4 ,the liquor underneath may also be run off without disturbing the sediment to be used in graining a similar cheap soap4 ,the waste ,fuller's earth contains about #j4a to #j4c per cent4 of fat4 ,,method ,,for ,,further ,,improvement ,,of ,,color4 ,a further improvement of the color of the tallow may be obtained by freeing it from a portion of its free fatty acids1 either with or without previous ,fuller's earth bleaching4 ,to carry out this process the melted fat is allowed to settle and as much water as possible taken off4 ,the temperature is then raised to #afj;deg4 ,f4 with dry steam and enough saturated solution of soda ash added to remove #j4e per cent4 of the free fatty acids1 while agitating the mass thoroughly mechanically or by air4 ,the agitation is continued ten minutes1 the whole allowed to settle for two hours and the foots drawn off4 ,the soap thus formed entangles a large proportion of the impurities of the fat4 ,,vegetable ,,oils4 ,cocoanut ,oil1 as the name implies1 is obtained from the fruit of the cocoanut palm4 ,this oil is a solid1 white fat at ordinary temperature1 having a bland taste and a characteristic odor4 ,it is rarely adulterated and is very readily saponified4 ,in recent years the price of this oil has increased materially because cocoanut oil is now being used extensively for edible purposes1 especially in the making of oleomargarine4 ,present indications are that shortly very little high grade oil will be employed for soap manufacture since the demand for oleomargarine is constantly increasing and since new methods of refining the oil for this purpose are constantly being devised4 ,the oil is found in the market under three different grades3 7#a7 ,cochin cocoanut oil1 the choicest oil comes from ,cochin 7,malabar74 ,this product1 being more carefully cultivated and refined than the other grades1 is whiter1 cleaner and contains a smaller percentage of free acid4 7#b7 ,ceylon cocoanut oil1 coming chiefly from ,ceylon1 is usually of a yellowish tint and more acrid in odor than ,cochin oil4 7#c7 ,continental cocoanut oil 7,copra1 ,freudenberg7 is obtained from the dried kernels1 the copra1 which are shipped to ,europe in large quantities1 where the oil is extracted4 ,these dried kernels yield #fj to #gj per cent oil4 ,this product is generally superior to the ,ceylon oil and may be used as a very satisfactory substitute for ,cochin oil1 in soap manufacture1 provided it is low in free acid and of good color4 ,the writer has employed it satisfactorily in the whitest and finest of toilet soaps without being able to distinguish any disadvantage to the ,cochin oil4 ,since continental oil is usually cheaper than ,cochin oil1 it is advisable to use it1 as occasion permits4 ,cocoanut oil is used extensively in toilet soap making1 usually in connection with tallow4 ,when used alone the soap made from this oil forms a lather1 which comes up rapidly but which is fluffy and dries quickly4 ,a pure tallow soap lathers very much slower but produces a more lasting lather4 ,thus the advantage of using cocoanut oil in soap is seen4 ,it is further used in making a cocoanut oil soap by the cold process also for fake or filled soaps4 ,the fatty acid content readily starts the saponification which takes place easily with a strong lye 7#be;deg4-#ce;deg4 ,b474 ,where large quantities of the oil are saponified care must be exercised as the soap formed suddenly rises or puffs up and may boil over4 ,cocoanut oil soap takes up large quantities of water1 cases having been cited where a #ejj per cent4 yield has been obtained4 ,this water of course dries out again upon exposure to the air4 ,the soap is harsh to the skin1 develops rancidity and darkens readily4 ,palm ,kernel ,oil1 which is obtained from the kernels of the palm tree of ,west ,africa1 is used in soap making to replace cocoanut oil where the lower price warrants its use4 ,it resembles cocoanut oil in respect to saponification and in forming a very similar soap4 ,kernel oil is white in color1 has a pleasant nutty odor when fresh1 but rapidly develops free acid1 which runs to a high percentage4 ,palm ,oil is produced from the fruit of the several species of the palm tree on the western coast of ,africa generally1 but also in the ,philippines4 ,the fresh oil has a deep orange yellow tint not destroyed by saponification1 a sweetish taste and an odor of orris root or violet which is also imparted to soap made from it4 ,the methods by which the natives obtain the oil are crude and depend upon a fermentation1 or putrefaction4 ,large quantities are said to be wasted because of this fact4 ,the oil contains impurities in the form of fermentable fibre and albuminous matter1 and consequently develops free fatty acid rapidly4 ,samples tested for free acid have been found to have hydrolized completely and one seldom obtains an oil with low acid content4 ,because of this high percentage of free fatty acid1 the glycerine yield is small1 though the neutral oil should produce approximately #ab per cent4 glycerine4 ,some writers claim that glycerine exists in the free state in palm oil4 ,the writer has washed large quantities of the oil and analyzed the wash water for glycerine4 ,the results showed that the amount present did not merit its recovery4 ,most soap makers do not attempt to recover the glycerine from this oil1 when used alone for soap manufacture4 ,there are several grades of palm oil in commerce1 but in toilet soap making it is advisable to utilize only ,lagos palm oil1 which is the best grade4 ,where it is desired to maintain the color of the soap this oil produces1 a small quantity of the lower or brass grade of palm oil may be used1 as the soap made from the better grades of oil gradually bleaches and loses its orange yellow color4 ,palm oil produces a crumbly soap which cannot readily be milled and is termed short4 ,when used with tallow and cocoanut oil1 or #bj to #be per cent4 cocoanut oil1 it produces a very satisfactory toilet soap4 ,in the saponification of palm oil it is not advisable to combine it with tallow in the kettle1 as the two do not readily mix4 ,since the finished soap has conveyed to it the orange color of the oil1 the oil is bleached before saponification4 ,oxidation readily destroys the coloring matter1 while heat and light assist materially4 ,the methods generally employed are by the use of oxygen developed by bichromates and hydrochloric acid and the direct bleaching through the agency of the oxygen of the air4 ,,chrome ,,bleaching ,,of ,,palm ,,oil4 ,the chrome process of bleaching palm oil is more rapid and the oxygen thus derived being more active will bleach oils which air alone cannot4 ,it depends upon the reaction3 ,na#b;,cr#b,o#g #h;,h,cl ,cr#b;,cl#f #b,na,cl #g,o4 in which the oxygen is the active principle4 ,in practice it is found necessary to use an excess of acid over that theoretically indicated4 ,for the best results an oil should be chosen containing under #b per cent4 impurities and a low percentage of free fatty acids4 ,lagos oil is best adapted to these requirements4 ,the oil is melted by open steam from a jet introduced through the bung1 the melted oil and condensed water running to the store tank through two sieves 7about #a_/h inch mesh7 to remove the fibrous material and gross impurities4 ,the oil thus obtained contains fine earthy and fibrous material and vegetable albuminous matter which should be removed1 as far as possible1 since chemicals are wasted in their oxidation and they retard the bleaching4 ,this is best done by boiling the oil for one hour with wet steam and #aj per cent4 solution of common salt 7#b per cent4 dry salt on weight of oil used7 in a lead-lined or wooden tank4 ,after settling over night the brine and impurities are removed by running from a cock at the bottom of the vat and the oil is run out into the bleaching tank through an oil cock1 situated about seven inches from the bottom4 ,the bleaching tank is a lead-lined iron tank of the approximate dimensions of #d feet deep1 #d feet long and #c-a_/b feet wide1 holding about #a-a_/b tons4 ,the charge is one ton4 ,a leaden outlet pipe is fixed at the bottom1 to which is attached a rubber tube closed by a screw clip4 ,a plug also is fitted into the lead outlet pipe from above4 ,seven inches above the lower outlet is affixed another tap through which the oil is drawn off4 ,the tank is further equipped with a wet steam coil and a coil arranged to allow thorough air agitation1 both coils being of lead4 ,a good arrangement is to use one coil to deliver either air or steam4 ,these coils should extend as nearly as possible over the entire bottom of the tank and have a number of small downward perforations1 so as to spread the agitation throughout the mass4 ,the temperature of the oil is reduced by passing in air to #aaj;deg4 ,f4 and #dj pounds of fine common salt per ton added through a sieve4 ,about one-half of the acid 7#dj pounds of concentrated commercial hydrochloric acid7 is now poured in and this is followed by the sodium bichromate in concentrated solution1 previously prepared in a small lead vat or earthen vessel by dissolving #ag pounds of bichromate in #de pounds commercial hydrochloric acid4 ,this solution should be added slowly and should occupy three hours1 the whole mass being thoroughly agitated with air during the addition and for one hour after the last of the bleaching mixture has been introduced4 ,the whole mixture is now allowed to settle for one hour and the exhausted chrome liquors are then run off from the lower pipe to a waste tank4 ,about #dj gallons of water are now run into the bleached oil and the temperature raised by open steam to #aej;deg4 to #afj;deg4 ,f4 ,the mass is then allowed to settle over night4 ,one such wash is sufficient to remove the spent chrome liquor completely1 provided ample time is allowed for settling4 ,a number of washings given successively with short periods of settling do not remove the chrome liquors effectually4 ,the success of the operation depends entirely upon the completeness of settling4 ,the wash water is drawn off as before and the clear oil run to storage tanks or to the soap kettle through the upper oil cock4 ,the waste liquors are boiled with wet steam and the oil skimmed from the surface1 after which the liquors are run out through an oil trap4 ,by following the above instructions carefully it is possible to bleach one ton of palm oil with #ag pounds of bichromate of soda and #he pounds hydrochloric acid4 ,the spent liquors should be a bright green color4 ,should they be of a yellow or brownish shade insufficient acid has been allowed and more must be added to render the whole of the oxygen available4 ,if low grade oils are being treated more chrome will be necessary1 the amount being best judged by conducting the operation as usual and after the addition of the bichromate1 removing a sample of the oil1 washing the sample and noting the color of a rapidly cooled sample4 ,a little practice will enable the operator to judge the correspondence between the color to be removed and the amount of bleaching mixture to be added4 ,to obtain success with this process the method of working given must be adhered to even in the smallest detail4 ,this applies to the temperature at which each operation is carried out particularly4 ,,air ,,bleaching ,,of ,,palm ,,oil4 ,the method of conducting this process is identical with the chrome process to the point where the hydrochloric acid is to be added to the oil4 ,in this method no acid or chrome is necessary1 as the active bleaching agent is the oxygen of the air4 ,the equipment is similar to that of the former process1 except that a wooden tank in which no iron is exposed will suffice to bleach the oil in4 ,the process depends in rapidity upon the amount of air blown through the oil and its even distribution4 ,iron should not be present or exposed to the oil during bleaching1 as it retards the process considerably4 ,after the impurities have been removed1 as outlined under the chrome process1 the temperature of the oil is raised by open steam to boiling4 ,the steam is then shut off and air allowed to blow through the oil until it is completely bleached1 the temperature being maintained above #aej;deg4 ,f4 by occasionally passing in steam4 ,usually a ton of oil is readily and completely bleached after the air has been passed through it for #ah to #bj hours1 provided the oil is thoroughly agitated by a sufficient flow of air4 ,if the oil has been allowed to settle over night1 it is advisable to run off the condensed water and impurities by the lower cock before agitating again the second day4 ,when the oil has been bleached to the desired color1 which can be determined by removing a sample and cooling1 the mass is allowed to settle1 the water run off to a waste tank from which any oil carried along may be skimmed off and the supernatant clear oil run to the storage or soap kettle4 ,in bleaching by this process1 while the process consumes more time and is not as efficient in bleaching the lower grade oils1 the cost of bleaching is less and with a good oil success is more probable1 as there is no possibility of any of the chrome liquors being present in the oil4 ,these give the bleached oil a green tint when the chrome method is improperly conducted and they are not removed4 ,instead of blowing the air through it1 the heater oil may be brought into contact with the air1 either by a paddle wheel arrangement1 which1 in constantly turning1 brings the oil into contact with the air1 or by pumping the heated oil into an elevated vessel1 pierced with numerous fine holes from which the oil continuously flows back into the vessel from which the oil is pumped4 ,while in these methods air1 light and heat act simultaneously in the bleaching of the oil1 the equipment required is too cumbersome to be practical4 ,recent investigations#a in bleaching palm oil by oxygen have shown that not only the coloring matter but the oil itself was affected4 ,in bleaching palm oil for #cj hours with air the free fatty acid content rose and titer decreased considerably4 ,olive ,oil1 which comes from the fruit of the olive trees1 varies greatly in quality1 according to the method by which it is obtained and according to the tree bearing the fruit4 ,three hundred varieties are known in ,italy alone4 ,since the larger portion of olive oil is used for edible purposes1 a lower grade1 denatured oil1 denatured because of the tariff1 is used for soap manufacture in this country4 ,the oil varies in color from pale green to golden yellow4 ,the percentage of free acid in this oil varies greatly1 though the oil does not turn rancid easily4 ,it is used mainly in the manufacture of white castile soap4 ,olive oil foots1 which is the oil extracted by solvents after the better oil is expressed1 finds its use in soap making mostly in textile soaps for washing and dyeing silks and in the production of green castile soaps4 ,other oils1 as poppy seed oil1 sesame oil1 cottonseed oil1 rape oil1 peanut 7arachis7 oil1 are used as adulterants for olive oil1 also as substitutes in the manufacture of castile soap1 since they are cheaper than olive oil4 ,cottonseed ,oil is largely used in the manufacture of floating and laundry soaps4 ,it may be used for toilet soaps where a white color is not desired1 as yellow spots appear on a finished soap in which it has been used after having been in stock a short time4 ,corn ,oil and ,soya ,bean ,oil are also used to a slight extent in the manufacture of toilet soaps1 although the oils form a soap of very little body4 ,their soaps also spot yellow on aging4 ,corn oil finds its greatest use in the manufacture of soap for washing automobiles4 ,it is further employed for the manufacture of cheap liquid soaps4 ,fatty ,acids are also used extensively in soap manufacture4 ,while the soap manufacturer prefers to use a neutral oil or fat1 since from these the by-product glycerine is obtained1 circumstances arise where it is an advantage to use the free fatty acids4 ,red oil 7oleic acid1 elaine7 and stearic acid are the two fatty acids most generally bought for soap making4 ,in plants using the ,twitchell process1 which consists in splitting the neutral fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerine by dilute sulphuric acid and producing their final separation by the use of so-called aromatic sulphonic acids1 these fatty acids consisting of a mixture of oleic1 stearic1 palmitic acids1 etc41 are used directly after having been purified by distillation1 the glycerine being obtained from evaporating the wash water4 ,oleic acid 7red oil7 and stearic acid are obtained usually by the saponification of oils1 fats and greases by acid1 lime or water under pressure or ,twitchelling4 ,the fatty acids thus are freed from their combination with glycerine and solidify upon cooling1 after which they are separated from the water and pressed at a higher or lower temperature4 ,the oleic acid1 being liquid at ordinary temperature1 together with some stearic and palmitic acid1 is thus pressed out4 ,these latter acids are usually separated by distillation1 combined with the press cake further purified and sold as stearic acid4 ,the red oil1 sometimes called saponified red oil1 is often semi-solid1 resembling a soft tallow1 due to the presence of stearic acid4 ,the distilled oils are usually clear1 varying in color from light to a deep brown4 ,stearic acid1 which reaches the trade in slab form1 varies in quality from a soft brown1 greasy1 crumbly solid of unpleasant odor to a snow white1 wax-like1 hard1 odorless mass4 ,the quality of stearic acid is best judged by the melting point1 since the presence of any oleic acid lowers this4 ,the melting point of the varieties used in soap manufacture usually ranges from #abh;deg4 to #acb;deg4 ,f4 ,red oil is used in the manufacture of textile soaps1 replacing olive oil foots soap for this purpose1 chlorophyll being used to color the soap green4 ,stearic acid1 being the hard firm fatty acid1 may be used in small quantities to give a better grade of soap body and finish4 ,in adding this substance it should always be done in the crutcher1 as it will not mix in the kettle4 ,it finds its largest use for soap1 however1 in the manufacture of shaving soaps and shaving creams1 since it produces the non-drying creamy lather so greatly desired for this purpose4 ,both red oil and stearic acid being fatty acids1 readily unite with the alkali carbonates1 carbon dioxide being formed in the reaction and this method is extensively used in the formation of soap from them4 ,,rancidity ,,of ,,oils ,,and ,,fats4 ,rancidity in neutral oils and fats is one of the problems the soap manufacturer has to contend with4 ,the mere saying that an oil is rancid is no indication of its being high in free acid4 ,the two terms rancidity and acidity are usually allied4 ,formerly1 the acidity of a fat was looked upon as the direct measure of its rancidity4 ,this idea is still prevalent in practice and cannot be too often stated as incorrect4 ,fats and oils may be acid1 or rancid1 or acid and rancid4 ,in an acid fat there has been a hydrolysis of the fat and it has developed a rather high percentage of free acid4 ,a rancid fat is one in which have been developed compounds of an odoriferous nature4 ,an acid and rancid fat is one in which both free acid and organic compounds of the well known disagreeable odors have been produced4 ,it cannot be definitely stated just how this rancidity takes place1 any more than just what are the chemical products causing rancidity4 ,the only conclusion that one may draw is that the fats are first hydrolyzed or split up into glycerine and free fatty acids4 ,this is followed by an oxidation of the products thus formed4 ,moisture1 air1 light1 enzymes 7organized ferments7 and bacteria are all given as causes of rancidity4 ,it seems very probable that the initial splitting of the fats is caused by enzymes1 which are present in the seeds and fruits of the vegetable oils and tissue of animal fats1 in the presence of moisture4 ,lewkowitsch strongly emphasizes this point and he is substantiated in his idea by other authorities4 ,others hold that bacteria or micro-organisms are the cause of this hydrolysis1 citing the fact that they have isolated various micro-organisms from various fats and oils4 ,the acceptance of the bacterial action would explain the various methods of preservation of oils and fats by the use of antiseptic preparations4 ,it cannot1 however1 be accepted as a certainty that bacteria cause the rancidity of fats4 ,the action of enzymes is a more probable explanation4 ,the hydrolysis of fats and oils is accelerated when they are allowed to remain for some time in the presence of organic non-fats4 ,thus1 palm oil1 lower grades of olive oil1 and tallow1 which has been in contact with the animal tissue for a long time1 all contain other nitrogenous matter and exhibit a larger percentage of free fatty acid than the oils and fats not containing such impurities4 ,granting this initial splitting of the fat into free fatty acids and glycerine1 this is not a sufficient explanation4 ,the products thus formed must be acted upon by air and light4 ,it is by the action of these agents that there is a further action upon the products1 and from this oxidation we ascertain by taste and smell 7chemical means are still unable to define rancidity7 whether or not a fat is rancid4 ,while some authorities have presumed to isolate some of these products causing rancidity1 we can only assume the presence of the various possible compounds produced by the action of air and light which include oxy fatty acids1 lactones1 alcohols1 esters1 aldehydes and other products4 ,the soap manufacturer is interested in rancidity to the extent of the effect upon the finished soap4 ,rancid fats form darker soaps than fats in the neutral state1 and very often carry with them the disagreeable odor of a rancid oil4 ,further1 a rancid fat or oil is usually high in free acid4 ,it is by no means true1 however1 that rancidity is a measure for acidity1 for as has already been pointed out1 an oil may be rancid and not high in free acid4 ,the percentage of free fatty acid is of even greater importance in the soap industry4 ,the amount of glycerine yield is dependent upon the percentage of free fatty acid and is one of the criterions of a good fat or oil for soap stock4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,rancidity4 ,since moisture1 air1 light and enzymes1 produced by the presence of organic impurities1 are necessary for the rancidity of a fat or oil1 the methods of preventing rancidity are given4 ,complete dryness1 complete purification of fats and oils and storage without access of air or light are desirable4 ,simple as these means may seem1 they can only be approximated in practice4 ,the most difficult problem is the removal of the last trace of moisture4 ,impurities may be lessened very often by the use of greater care4 ,in storing it is well to store in closed barrels or closed iron tanks away from light1 as it has been observed that oils and fats in closed receptacles become rancid less rapidly than those in open ones1 even though this method of storing is only partially attained4 ,preservatives are also used1 but only in edible products1 where their effectiveness is an open question4 ,,chemical ,,constants ,,of ,,oils ,,and ,,fats4 ,besides the various physical properties of oils and fats1 such as color1 specific gravity1 melting point1 solubility1 etc41 they may be distinguished chemically by a number of chemical constants4 ,these are the iodine number1 the acetyl value1 saponification number1 ,reichert-,meissl number for volatile acids1 ,hehner number for insoluble acids4 ,these constants1 while they vary somewhat with any particular oil or fat1 are more applicable to the edible products and are criterions where any adulteration of fat or oil is suspected4 ,the methods of carrying out the analyses of oils and fats to obtain these constants are given in the various texts#b on oils and fats1 and inasmuch as they are not of great importance to the soap industry they are merely mentioned here4 ,,oil ,,hardening ,,or ,,hydrogenating4 ,it is very well known that oils and fats vary in consistency and hardness1 depending upon the glycerides forming same4 ,olein1 a combination of oleic acid and glycerine1 as well as oleic acid itself largely forms the liquid portion of oils and fats4 ,oleic acid 7,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b7 is an unsaturated acid and differs from stearic acid 7,c#ah;,h#cf,o#b71 the acid forming the hard firm portion of oils and fats1 by containing two atoms of hydrogen less in the molecule4 ,theoretically it should be a simple matter to introduce two atoms of hydrogen into oleic acid or olein1 and by this mere addition convert liquid oleic acid and olein into solid stearic acid and stearine4 ,for years this was attempted and all attempts to apply the well known methods of reduction 7addition of hydrogen7 in organic chemistry1 such as treatment with tin and acid1 sodium amalgam1 etc41 were unsuccessful4 ,in recent years1 however1 it has been discovered that in the presence of a catalyzer1 nickel in finely divided form or the oxides of nickel are usually employed1 the process of hydrogenating an oil is readily attained upon a practical basis4 ,the introduction of hardened oils has opened a new source of raw material for the soap manufacturer in that it is now possible to use oils in soap making which were formerly discarded because of their undesirable odors4 ,thus fish or train oils which had up to the time of oil hydrogenating resisted all attempts of being permanently deodorized1 can now be employed very satisfactorily for soap manufacture4 ,a ,japanese chemist1 ,tsujimoto#c has shown that fish oils contain an unsaturated acid of the composition ,c#ah;,h#bh,o#b1 for which he proposed the name clupanodonic acid4 ,by the catalytic hardening of train oils this acid passes to stearic acid and the problem of deodorizing these oils is solved4#d ,at first the introduction of hardened oils for soap manufacture met with numerous objections1 due to the continual failures of obtaining a satisfactory product by the use of same4 ,various attempts have now shown that these oils1 particularly hardened train oils1 produce extraordinarily useful materials for soap making4 ,these replace expensive tallow and other high melting oils4 ,it is of course impossible to employ hardened oils alone1 as a soap so hard would thus be obtained that it would be difficultly soluble in water and possess very little lathering quality4 ,by the addition of #bj-be of tallow oil or some other oil forming a soft soap a very suitable soap for household use may be obtained4 ,ribot#e discusses this matter fully4 ,hardened oils readily saponify1 may be perfumed without any objections and do not impart any fishy odor to an article washed with same4 ,meyerheim#f states that through the use of hydrogenated oils the hardness of soap is extraordinarily raised1 so that soap made from hardened cottonseed oil is twelve times as hard as the soap made from ordinary cottonseed oil4 ,this soap is also said to no longer spot yellow upon aging1 and as a consequence of its hardness1 is able to contain a considerably higher content of rosin through which lathering power and odor may be improved4 ,hardened oils can easily be used for toilet soap bases1 provided they are not added in too great a percentage4 ,the use of hardened oils is not yet general1 but there is little doubt that the introduction of this process goes a long way toward solving the problem of cheaper soap material for the soap making industry4 ,,grease4 ,grease varies so greatly in composition and consistency that it can hardly be classed as a distinctive oil or fat4 ,it is obtained from refuse1 bones1 hides1 etc41 and while it contains the same constituents as tallow1 the olein content is considerably greater1 which causes it to be more liquid in composition4 ,grease differs in color from an off-white to a dark brown4 ,the better qualities are employed in the manufacture of laundry and chip soap1 while the poorer qualities are only fit for the cheapest of soaps used in scrubbing floors and such purposes4 ,there is usually found in grease a considerable amount of gluey matter1 lime and water4 ,the percentage of free fatty acid is generally high4 ,the darker grades of grease are bleached before being used4 ,this is done by adding a small quantity of sodium nitrate to the melted grease and agitating1 then removing the excess saltpeter by decomposing with sulphuric acid4 ,a better method of refining1 however1 is by distillation4 ,the chrome bleach is also applicable4 ,,rosin 7,,colophony1 ,,yellow ,,rosin1 ,,resina74 ,rosin is the residue which remains after the distillation of turpentine from the various species of pines4 ,the chief source of supply is in the ,states of ,georgia ,north and ,south ,carolina4 ,it is a transparent1 amber colored hard pulverizable resin4 ,the better grades are light in color and known as water white 7w4 w47 and window glass 7w4 g474 ,these are obtained from a tree which has been tapped for the first year4 ,as the same trees are tapped from year to year1 the product becomes deeper and darker in color until it becomes almost black4 ,the constituents of rosin are chiefly 7#hj-ij7 abietic acid or its anhydride together with pinic and sylvic acids4 ,its specific gravity is #a4jg-a4jh1 melting point about #aeb4e ,c41 and it is soluble in alcohol1 ether1 benzine1 carbon disulfide1 oils1 alkalis and acetic acid4 ,the main use of rosin1 outside of the production of varnishes1 is in the production of laundry soaps1 although a slight percentage acts as a binder and fixative for perfumes in toilet soaps and adds to their detergent properties4 ,since it is mainly composed of acids1 it readily unites with alkaline carbonates1 though the saponification is not quite complete and the last portion must be completed through the use of caustic hydrates1 unless an excess of #aj carbonate over the theoretical amount is used4 ,a lye of #bj;deg4 ,b4 is best adapted to the saponification of rosin when caustic hydrates are employed for this purpose1 since weak lyes cause frothing4 ,while it is sometimes considered that rosin is an adulterant for soap1 this is hardly justifiable1 as it adds to the cleansing properties of soap4 ,soaps containing rosin are of the well known yellowish color common to ordinary laundry soaps4 ,the price of rosin has so risen in the last few years that it presents a problem of cost to the soap manufacturer considering the price at which laundry soaps are sold4 ,,rosin ,,saponification4 ,as has been stated1 rosin may be saponified by the use of alkaline carbonates4 ,on account of the possibility of the soap frothing over1 the kettle in which the operation takes place should be set flush with the floor1 which ought to be constructed of cement4 ,the kettle itself is an open one with round bottom1 equipped with an open steam coil and skimmer pipe1 and the open portion is protected by a semi-circular rail4 ,a powerful grid1 having a #c-;inch mesh1 covers one-half of the kettle1 the sharp edges protruding upwards4 ,the staves from the rosin casks are removed at the edge of the kettle1 the rosin placed on the grid and beaten through with a hammer to break it up into small pieces4 ,to saponify a ton of rosin there are required #bjj lbs4 soda ash1 #a1fjj lbs4 water and #ajj lbs4 salt4 ,half the water is run into the kettle1 boiled1 and then the soda ash and half the salt added4 ,the rosin is now added through the grid and the mixture thoroughly boiled4 ,as carbon dioxide is evolved by the reaction the boiling is continued for one hour to remove any excess of this gas4 ,a portion of the salt is gradually added to grain the soap well and to keep the mass in such condition as to favor the evolution of gas4 ,the remainder of the water is added to close the soap and boiling continued for one or two hours longer4 ,at this point the kettle must be carefully watched or it will boil over through the further escape of carbon dioxide being hindered4 ,the mass1 being in a frothy condition1 will rapidly settle by controlling the flow of steam4 ,the remaining salt is then scattered in and the soap allowed to settle for two hours or longer4 ,the lyes are then drained off the top4 ,if the rosin soap is required for toilet soaps1 it is grained a second time4 ,the soap is now boiled with the water caused by the condensation of the steam1 which changes it to a half grained soap suitable for pumping4 ,a soap thus made contains free soda ash #j4ae or less1 free rosin about #ae4 ,the mass is then pumped to the kettle containing the soap to which it is to be added at the proper stage4 ,the time consumed in thus saponifying rosin is about five hours4 ,,naphthenic ,,acids4 ,the naphtha or crude petroleum of the various provinces in ,europe1 as ,russia1 ,galacia1 ,alsace and ,roumania yield a series of bodies of acid character upon refining which are designated under the general name of naphthenic acids4 ,these acids are retained in solution in the alkaline lyes during the distillation of the naphtha in the form of alkaline naphthenates4 ,upon adding dilute sulphuric acid to these lyes the naphthenates are decomposed and the naphthenic acids float to the surface in an oily layer of characteristic disagreeable odor and varying from yellow to brown in color#g4 ,in ,russia particularly large quantities of these acids are employed in the manufacture of soap4 ,the soaps formed from naphthenic acids have recently been investigated#h and found to resemble the soaps made from cocoanut oil and palm kernel oil1 in that they are difficult to salt out and dissociate very slightly with water4 ,the latter property makes them valuable in textile industries when a mild soap is required as a detergent1 e4 g41 in the silk industry4 ,these soaps also possess a high solvent power for mineral oils and emulsify very readily4 ,the mean molecular weight of naphthenic acids themselves is very near that of the fatty acids contained in cocoanut oil1 and like those of cocoanut oil a portion of the separated acids are volatile with steam4 ,the iodine number indicates a small content of unsaturated acids4 ,that naphthenic acids are a valuable soap material is now recognized1 but except in ,russia the soap is not manufactured to any extent at the present time4 ,,alkalis4 ,the common alkali metals which enter into the formation of soap are sodium and potassium4 ,the hydroxides of these metals are usually used1 except in the so called carbonate saponification of free fatty acids in which case sodium and potassium carbonate are used4 ,a water solution of the caustic alkalis is known as lye1 and it is as lyes of various strengths that they are added to oils and fats to form soap4 ,the density or weight of a lye is considerably greater than that of water1 depending upon the amount of alkali dissolved1 and its weight is usually determined by a hydrometer4 ,this instrument is graduated by a standardized scale1 and while all hydrometers should read alike in a liquid of known specific gravity1 this is generally not the case1 so that it is advisable to check a new hydrometer for accurate work against one of known accuracy4 ,in this country the ,baume scale has been adopted1 while in ,england a different graduation known as the ,twaddle scale is used4 ,the strength of a lye or any solution is determined by the distance the instrument sinks into the solution1 and we speak of the strength of a solution as so many degrees ,baume or ,twaddle which are read to the point where the meniscus of the lye comes on the graduated scale4 ,hydrometers are graduated differently for liquids of different weights4 ,in the testing of lyes one which is graduated from #j;deg4 to #ej;deg4 ,b4 is usually employed4 ,caustic soda is received by the consumer in iron drums weighing approximately #gjj lbs4 each4 ,the various grades are designated as #fj1 #gj1 #gd1 #gf and #gg4 ,these percentages refer to the percentage of sodium oxide 7,na#b,o7 in #ajj parts of pure caustic soda formed by the combination of #gg-a_/b parts of sodium oxide and #bb-a_/b parts of water1 #gg-a_/b being chemically pure caustic soda4 ,there are generally impurities present in commercial caustic soda4 ,these consist of sodium carbonate1 sodium chloride or common salt and sometimes lime4 ,it is manufactured by treating sodium carbonate in an iron vessel with calcium hydroxide or slaked lime1 or by electrolysis of common salt4 ,the latter process has yet been unable to compete with the former in price4 ,formerly all the caustic soda used in soap making was imported1 and it was only through the ,american manufacturer using a similar container to that used by foreign manufacturers that they were able to introduce their product4 ,this prejudice has now been entirely overcome and most of the caustic soda used in this country is manufactured here4 ,,caustic ,,potash4 ,the output of the salts containing potassium is controlled almost entirely by ,germany4 ,formerly the chief source of supply of potassium compounds was from the burned ashes of plants1 but about fifty years ago the inexhaustible salt mines of ,stassfurt1 ,germany1 were discovered4 ,the salt there mined contains1 besides the chlorides and sulphates of sodium1 magnesium1 calcium and other salts1 considerable quantities of potassium chloride1 and the ,stassfurt mines at present are practically the entire source of all potassium compounds1 in spite of the fact that other localities have been sought to produce these compounds on a commercial basis1 especially by the ,united ,states government4 ,after separating the potassium chloride from the magnesium chloride and other substances found in ,stassfurt salts the methods of manufacture of caustic potash are identical to those of caustic soda4 ,in this case1 however1 domestic electrolytic caustic potash may be purchased cheaper than the imported product and it gives results equal to those obtained by the use of the imported article1 opinions to the contrary among soap makers being many4 ,most of the caustic potash in the ,united ,states is manufactured at ,niagara ,falls by the ,niagara ,alkali ,co41 and the ,hooker ,electrochemical ,co41 chlorine being obtained as a by-product4 ,the latter concern employs the ,townsend ,cell1 for the manufacture of electrolytic potash1 and are said to have a capacity for making #fd tons of alkali daily4 ,since the molecular weight of caustic potash 7#ef7 is greater than that of caustic soda 7#dj7 more potash is required to saponify a pound of fat4 ,the resulting potash soap is correspondingly heavier than a soda soap4 ,when salt is added to a potassium soap double decomposition occurs1 the potassium soap being transformed to a sodium soap and the potassium uniting with the chlorine to form potassium chloride4 ,this was one of the earliest methods of making a hard soap1 especially in ,germany1 where potash was derived from leeching ashes of burned wood and plants4 ,,sodium ,,carbonate 7,,soda ,,ash74 ,while carbonate of soda is widely distributed in nature the source of supply is entirely dependent upon the manufactured product4 ,its uses are many1 but it is especially important to the soap industry in the so called carbonate saponification of free fatty acids1 as a constituent of soap powders1 in the neutralization of glycerine lyes and as a filler for laundry soaps4 ,the old ,french ,le ,blanc soda process1 which consists in treating common salt with sulphuric acid and reducing the sodium sulphate 7salt cake7 thus formed with carbon in the form of charcoal or coke to sodium sulphide1 which when treated with calcium carbonate yields a mixture of calcium sulphide and sodium carbonate 7black ash7 from which the carbonate is dissolved by water1 has been replaced by the more recent ,solvay ammonia soda process4 ,even though there is a considerable loss of salt and the by-product calcium chloride produced by this process is only partially used up as a drying agent1 and for refrigerating purposes1 the ,le ,blanc process cannot compete with the ,solvay process1 so that the time is not far distant when the former will be considered a chemical curiosity4 ,in the ,solvay method of manufacture sodium chloride 7common salt7 and ammonium bicarbonate are mixed in solution4 ,double decomposition occurs with the formation of ammonium chloride and sodium bicarbonate4 ,the latter salt is comparatively difficultly soluble in water and crystallizes out1 the ammonium chloride remaining in solution4 ,when the sodium bicarbonate is heated it yields sodium carbonate1 carbon dioxide and water2 the carbon dioxide is passed into ammonia which is set free from the ammonium chloride obtained as above by treatment with lime 7calcium oxide7 calcium chloride being the by-product4 ,sal soda or washing soda is obtained by recrystallizing a solution of soda ash in water4 ,large crystals of sal soda containing but #cg sodium carbonate are formed4 ,,potassium ,,carbonate4 ,potassium carbonate is not extensively used in the manufacture of soap4 ,it may be used in the forming of soft soaps by uniting it with free fatty acids4 ,the methods of manufacture are the same as for sodium carbonate1 although a much larger quantity of potassium carbonate than carbonate of soda is obtained from burned plant ashes4 ,purified potassium carbonate is known as pearl ash4 ,,additional ,,material ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,making4 ,water is indispensable to the soap manufacturer4 ,in the soap factory hard water is often the cause of much trouble4 ,water1 which is the best solvent known1 in passing through the crevices of rocks dissolves some of the constituents of these1 and the water is known as hard4 ,this hardness is of two kinds1 temporary and permanent4 ,temporarily hard water is formed by water1 which contains carbonic acid1 dissolving a portion of calcium carbonate or carbonate of lime4 ,upon boiling1 the carbonic acid is driven from the water and the carbonate1 being insoluble in carbon dioxide free water1 is deposited4 ,this is the cause of boiler scale1 and to check this a small amount of sal ammoniac may be added to the water1 which converts the carbonate into soluble calcium chloride and volatile ammonium carbonate4 ,permanent hardness is caused by calcium sulphate which is soluble in #djj parts of water and cannot be removed by boiling4 ,the presence of these salts in water form insoluble lime soaps which act as inert bodies as far as their value for the common use of soap is concerned4 ,where the percentage of lime in water is large this should be removed4 ,a method generally used is to add about #e of #bj;deg4 ,b4 sodium silicate to the hard water4 ,this precipitates the lime and the water is then sufficiently pure to use4 ,salt1 known as sodium chloride1 is used to a large extent in soap making for salting out the soap during saponification1 as well as graining soaps4 ,soap ordinarily soluble in water is insoluble in a salt solution1 use of which is made by adding salt to the soap which goes into solution and throws any soap dissolved in the lyes out of solution4 ,salt may contain magnesium and calcium chlorides1 which of course are undesirable in large amounts4 ,the products on the market1 however1 are satisfactory1 thus no detail is necessary4 ,filling materials used are sodium silicate1 or water glass1 talc1 silex1 pumice1 starch1 borax1 tripoli1 etc4 ,besides these other materials are used in the refining of the oils and fats1 and glycerine recovery1 such as ,fuller's earth1 bichromates of soda or potash1 sulphate of alumina1 sulphuric and hydrochloric acids and alcohol4 ,a lengthy description of these substances is not given1 as their modes of use are detailed elsewhere4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,seifensieder ,zeit1 #aiac1 #dj1 p4 #fhg1 #gbd1 #gdj4 #b ,official ,methods1 see ,bull4 #ajg1 ,a4 ,o4 ,a4 ,c41 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agricult4 #c ,journ4 ,coll4 of ,engin4 ,tokyo ,imper4 ,univ4 7#aijf71 p4 #a4 ,abs4 ,chem4 ,revue f4 d4 ,fett-u4 ,harz1 ,ind4 #af1 p4 #hd2 #bj1 p4 #h4 #d ,meyerheim--,fort4 der ,chem41 ,physik4 und ,physik4 ,chem4 7#aiac71 #h4 #f1 p4 #bic-cjg4 #e ,seifs4 ,ztg4 7#aiac71 #dj1 p4 #adb4 #f ,loc4 cit4 #g ,les ,matieres ,graisses 7#aiad71 #g1 #fi1 p4 #ccfg4 #h ,zeit4 f4 ,angew4 ,chem4 7#aiad71 #bg1 #a1 p4 #b-d4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,construction and ,equipment of a ,soap ,plant4 ,no fixed plan for the construction and equipment of a soap plant can be given4 ,the specifications for a soap factory to be erected or remodeled must suit the particular cases4 ,very often a building which was constructed for a purpose other than soap manufacture must be adapted for the production of soap4 ,in either case it is a question of engineering and architecture1 together with the knowledge obtained in practice and the final decision as to the arrangement is best solved by a conference with those skilled in each of these branches4 ,an ideal soap plant is one in which the process of soap making1 from the melting out of the stock to the packing and shipping of the finished product1 moves downward from floor to floor1 since by this method it is possible to utilize gravitation rather than pumping liquid fats and fluid soaps4 ,convenience and economy are obtained by such an arrangement4 ,the various machinery and other equipment for soap manufacture are well known to those connected with this industry4 ,it varies1 of course1 depending upon the kind of soap to be manufactured1 and full descriptions of the necessary machinery are best given in the catalogs issued by the manufacturers of such equipment1 who in this country are most reliable4 ,to know just what equipment is necessary can very easily be described by a brief outline of the process various soaps undergo to produce the finished article4 ,after the saponification has taken place in the soap kettle the molten soap is run directly into the soap frames1 which consist of an oblong compartment1 holding anywhere from #djj to #a1bjj pounds1 with removable steel sides and mounted upon trucks1 in which it solidifies4 ,in most cases it is advisable to first run the soap into a crutcher or mixer which produces a more homogeneous mass than if this operation is omitted4 ,color and perfume may also be added at this point1 although when a better grade of perfume is added it must be remembered that there is considerable loss due to volatilization of same4 ,when a drying machine is employed the molten soap is run directly upon the rollers of this machine1 later adding about #a4j zinc oxide to the soap from which it passes continuously through the drying chamber and is emitted in chip form ready for milling4 ,after the soap has been framed1 it is allowed to cool and solidify1 which takes several days1 and then the sides of the frame are stripped off4 ,the large solid cake is cut with wires by hand or by a slabber into slabs of any desired size4 ,these slabs are further divided into smaller divisions by the cutting table4 ,in non-milled soaps 7laundry soaps1 floating soaps1 etc471 these are pressed at this stage1 usually by automatic presses1 after a thin hard film has been formed over the cake by allowing it to dry slightly4 ,in making these soaps they are not touched by hand at any time during the operation1 the pressing1 wrapping and packing all being done by machinery4 ,for a milled soap the large slabs are cut into narrow oblong shapes by means of the cutting table to readily pass into the feeder of the chipper1 the chips being spread upon trays and dried in a dry house until the moisture content is approximately #ae4 ,the process of milling is accomplished by passing the dried soap chips through a soap mill1 which is a machine consisting of usually three or four contiguous1 smooth1 granite rollers operated by a system of gears and set far enough apart to allow the soap to pass from a hopper to the first roller1 from which it is constantly conveyed to each succeeding roller as a thin film1 and finally scraped from the last roller to fall into the milling box in thin ribbon form4 ,these mills are often operated in tandem1 which necessitates less handling of soap by the operator4 ,the object of milling is to give the soap a glossy1 smooth finish and to blend it into a homogeneous mass4 ,the perfume1 color1 medication or any other material desired are added to the dried soap chips prior to milling4 ,some manufacturers use an amalgamator to distribute these uniformly through the soap1 which eliminates at least one milling4 ,when a white soap is being put through the mill1 it is advisable to add from #j4e to #a of a good1 fine quality of zinc oxide to the soap1 if this substance has not been previously added4 ,this serves to remove the yellowish cast and any translucency occasioned by plodding4 ,too great a quantity of this compound added1 later exhibits itself by imparting to the soap a dead white appearance4 ,inasmuch as the milling process is one upon which the appearance of a finished cake of toilet soap largely depends1 it should be carefully done4 ,the number of times a soap should be milled depends upon the character of a soap being worked4 ,it should of course be the object to mill with as high a percentage of moisture as possible4 ,should the soap become too dry it is advisable to add water directly1 rather than wet soap1 since water can more easily be distributed through the mass4 ,as a general statement it may be said it is better policy to overmill a soap1 rather than not mill it often enough4 ,after the soap has been thoroughly milled it is ready for plodding4 ,a plodder is so constructed as to take the soap ribbons fed into the hopper by means of a worm screw and continuously force it under great pressure through a jacketed cylinder through which cold water circulates in the rear to compensate the heat produced by friction and hot water at the front1 to soften and polish the soap which passes out in solid form in bars of any shape and size depending upon the form of the shaping plate through which it is emitted4 ,the bars run upon a roller board1 are cut into the required length by a special cake cutting table1 allowed to dry slightly and pressed either automatically or by a foot power press in any suitable soap die4 ,the finished cake is then ready for wrapping and after due time in stock reaches the consumer4 ,besides the various apparatus mentioned above there are many other parts for the full equipment of a modern soap plant1 such as remelters1 pumps1 mixers1 special tanks1 power equipment1 etc4 ,as has been stated1 however1 practical experience will aid in judging the practicability as to installation of these4 ,the various methods of powdering soap are1 however1 not generally known4 ,where a coarse powder is to be produced1 such as is used for common washing powders1 no great difficulty is experienced with the well known ,blanchard mill4 ,in grinding soap to an impalpable powder the difficulties increase4 ,the methods adapted in pulverizing soaps are by means of disintegrators1 pebble mills and chaser mills4 ,the disintegrator grinds by the principle of attrition1 that is1 the material is reduced by the particles being caused to beat against each other at great velocity2 a pebble mill crushes the substance by rubbing it between hard pebbles in a slowly revolving cylinder2 the chaser mill first grinds the material and then floats it as a very fine powder above a curb of fixed height4 ,the last method is particularly adapted for the finest of powder 7#adj mesh and over74 ,,chapter ,,iii ,classification of ,soap-,making ,methods4 ,in the saponification of fats and oils to form soap through the agency of caustic alkalis1 as has been stated1 the sodium or potassium salts of the mixed fatty acids are formed4 ,sodium soaps are usually termed hard soaps1 and potassium soaps soft4 ,there are1 however1 a great many varieties of soaps the appearance and properties of which depend upon their method of manufacture and the oils or fats used therein4 ,the various methods adopted in soap making may be thus classified3 #a4 ,boiling the fats and oils in open kettles by open steam with indefinite quantities of caustic alkali solutions until the finished soap is obtained2 ordinarily named full boiled soaps4 ,these may be sub-divided into 7a7 hard soaps with sodium hydrate as a base1 in which the glycerine is recovered from the spent lyes2 7b7 hard soaps with soda as a base1 in which the glycerine remains in the soap1 e4 g41 marine cocoanut oil soaps2 7c7 soft potash soaps1 in which the glycerine is retained by the soap4 #b4 ,combining the required amount of lye for complete saponification of a fat therewith1 heating slightly with dry heat and then allowing the saponification to complete itself4 ,this is known as the cold process4 #c4 ,utilizing the fatty acid1 instead of the neutral fat1 and combining it directly with caustic alkali or carbonate1 which is incorrectly termed carbonate saponification1 since it is merely neutralizing the free fatty acid and thus is not a saponification in the true sense of the word4 ,no glycerine is directly obtained by this method1 as it is usually previously removed in the clearage of the fat by either the ,twitchell or autoclave saponification method4 ,in the methods thus outlined the one most generally employed is the full boiled process to form a sodium soap4 ,this method of making soap requires close attention and a knowledge which can only be obtained by constant practice4 ,the stock1 strength of lyes1 heat1 amount of salt or brine added1 time of settling1 etc41 are all influencing factors4 ,the principles involved in this process are briefly these3 ,the fat is partly saponified with weak lyes 7usually those obtained from a previous boiling in the strengthening change are used71 and salt is added to grain the soap4 ,the mass is then allowed to settle into two layers4 ,the upper layer is partly saponified fat2 the lower layer1 or spent lye1 is a solution of salt1 glycerine1 and contains any albuminous matter or any other impurity contained in the fat4 ,this is known as the killing or glycerine change4 ,strong lyes are now added and the fat entirely saponified1 which is termed the strengthening change4 ,the mass is then allowed to settle and the fluid soap run off above the nigre4 ,this operation is called the finish or finishing change4 ,the method may be more fully illustrated by a concrete example of the method of manufacture of a tallow base3 ,charge-- ,tallow #hh per cent4 ,cocoanut oil #aj per cent4 ,rosin w4 w4 #b per cent4 ,amount charge #aj tons ,about five tons of tallow and one ton of cocoanut oil are pumped or run into the soap kettle and brought to a boil with wet steam until it briskly comes through the hot fat4 ,the caustic soda 7strengthening lyes from former boilings may be used here7 is gradually added by the distributing pipe1 any tendency to thicken being checked by the introduction of small quantities of brine 7salt pickle74 ,if the lye is added too rapidly the soap assumes a granular appearance1 indicating that the addition of same must be discontinued4 ,water should then be added and the mass boiled through until it again closes4 ,when the addition of the proper amount of caustic soda is nearing its completion the soap gradually thins4 ,the steam is now cut down to about one turn of the valve1 and brine is rapidly added or salt shoveled in4 ,in ten to fifteen minutes the steam again breaks through and1 from the appearance of the soap1 it can be seen whether sufficient brine has been added4 ,a sample taken out by means of a long wooden paddle should show the soap in fine grains with the lyes running from it clear4 ,the steam is then shut off and the soap allowed to settle from one and one-half to two hours4 ,in all settlings the longer time this operation is permitted to continue1 the better will the subsequent operations proceed4 ,the mixture now consists of a partly saponified layer of fat above the spent lyes4 ,the lyes are drawn off until soap makes its appearance at the exit pipe4 ,the valve is then closed and the soap blown back into the kettle by steam4 ,the lyes thus obtained are known as spent lyes1 from which the glycerine is recovered4 ,they should show an alkalinity of approximately #j4e per cent4 if the operation is carefully carried out4 ,the remaining tallow is now added and the above operations repeated4 ,after the spent lyes have been drawn off1 the soap is closed with water and the proper percentage of rosin soap previously formed1 or rosin itself is added to the mass in the kettle4 ,more lye is then allowed to flow in until the mixture is up to strength4 ,this is usually tested by the bite on the tongue of a small cooled sample4 ,after boiling until the steam comes through1 the mass is grained with salt as before and allowed to settle one and one-half to three hours4 ,these lyes1 known as strengthening lyes are run to storage to be used subsequently with fresh fat to take up the caustic soda contained therein4 ,the soap is now ready for finishing and is first boiled through and tried for strength4 ,a drop of phenolphthalein 7#a per cent4 phenolphthalein in #ih per cent4 alcohol7 is allowed to drop on the molten soap taken up on a trowel4 ,the red color should be instantly produced and develop to a full deep crimson in a few seconds1 or more lye must be added until this condition is realized4 ,should it flash a deep crimson immediately it is on the strong side4 ,this cannot be conveniently remedied2 it can only serve as a guide for the next boil1 but in any case it is not of any serious consequence1 unless it is too strong4 ,with the steam on1 the soap is now examined with a trowel which must be thoroughly heated by working it about under the surface of the hot soap4 ,the appearance of the soap as it runs from the face of the trowel indicates its condition4 ,it is not possible to absolutely describe the effect1 which can only be properly judged by practice1 yet the following points may serve as a guide4 ,the indications to be noticed are the shape and size of the flakes of soap as the sample on the trowel breaks up and runs from the hot iron surface1 when the latter is turned in a vertical position1 as well as the condition of the iron surface from which the soap flakes have fallen4 ,a closed soap will run slowly into a homogeneous sheet1 leaving the trowel's surface covered with a thin layer of transparent soap2 a grained mass will run rapidly down in tiny grains1 about one-half an inch in diameter or less1 leaving the hot trowel absolutely dry4 ,the object of the finish is to separate the soaps of the lower fatty acids from those of the higher1 and both from excess of liquid4 ,a point midway between open and closed is required to arrive at this point4 ,having arrived at the above condition1 the soap is allowed to settle anywhere from one to three days and then run off through the skimmer pipes to the nigre and framed or pumped to the tank feeding the drying machine4 ,the stock thus obtained should be fairly white1 depending upon the grade of tallow used and slightly alkaline to an alcoholic phenolphthalein solution4 ,if removed at exactly the neutral point or with a content of free fat the soap will sooner or later develop rancidity4 ,the soap thus obtained is an ordinary tallow base1 and the one by far greatest used in the manufacture of toilet soaps4 ,the percentage of cocoanut oil indicated is not fixed and may readily be varied1 while in fine toilet soap the rosin is usually eliminated4 ,in the manufacture of full boiled soda soaps in which no glycerine is obtained as a by-product1 it being retained in the soap itself1 the soap formed is known as a run soap4 ,the process is used most extensively in the manufacture of marine soaps by which the method may be best illustrated4 ,this soap is known as marine soap because of its property of readily forming a lather with salt water and is mostly consumed aboard vessels4 ,marine soaps are manufactured by first placing in the kettle a calculated amount of lye of #be deg4 to #ce deg4 ,b41 depending upon the amount of moisture desired in the finished soaps1 plus a slight excess required to saponify a known weight of cocoanut oil4 ,with open steam on1 the cocoanut oil is then gradually added1 care being taken that the soap does not froth over4 ,saponification takes place readily and when the oil is entirely saponified the finished soap is put through the process known as running4 ,this consists in constantly pumping the mass from the skimmer pipe back into the top of the kettle1 the object being to prevent any settling of the nigre or lye from the soap1 as well as producing a homogeneous mass4 ,it is customary to begin the saponification in the morning1 which should be completed by noon4 ,the soap is then run for about three hours and framed the next morning4 ,after having remained in the frame the time required to solidify and cool1 the soap is slabbed and cut into cakes4 ,this process is difficult to carry out properly1 and one not greatly employed1 although large quantities of marine soap are purchased by the government for use in the navy and must fulfill certain specifications required by the purchasing department4 ,in making potash soaps it is practically impossible to obtain any glycerine directly because of the pasty consistency of the soap1 and no graining is possible because the addition of salt to a soft soap1 as already explained1 would form a soda soap4 ,large quantities of soft soaps are required for the textile industries who desire mostly a strong potash soap1 and the large number of automobiles in use at the present time has opened a field for the use of a soft soap for washing these4 ,a soap for this purpose must be neutral so as not to affect the varnish or paint of automobiles4 ,a suitable soap for textile purposes may be made as follows3 ,red oil #hj parts ,house grease #bj parts ,caustic soda lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #c parts ,carbonate of potash #e-a_/b parts ,caustic potash #bc-a_/d parts ,olive oil1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 olive oil foots or cottonseed oil may replace any of the above oils4 ,a large quantity of cottonseed oil will cause the soap to fig4 ,to carry out the process1 the caustic potash and carbonate of potash are dissolved and placed in the kettle together with the soda lye1 and the oils added4 ,this is most satisfactorily accomplished by being finished the day before the boiling is begun4 ,the next day the boiling is begun and water added to bring the soap up to the desired percentage of fatty acid1 due allowance being made for the water formed by the condensation of the open steam in boiling4 ,care must be taken that the soap in the kettle does not swell and run over during the saponification4 ,a good procedure is to use open steam for a period of about two hours1 then close the valve and allow the saponification to continue without boiling1 and repeat this until it is entirely saponified4 ,after the saponification has been completed the soap is briskly boiled all day and the proper corrections made2 that is1 if too alkaline1 more oil is added1 and if free fat is present1 more potash4 ,about #b per cent4 carbonate of potash is the proper amount for a soap containing #ej per cent4 fatty acid4 ,the soap is sampled by allowing it to drop on a clean1 cold glass surface4 ,in so doing1 the soap should not slide or slip over the glass surface when pressed thereon1 but should adhere to the glass1 or it is too alkaline4 ,a sample worked between the fingers showing too much stringiness should have more strong potash and oil added4 ,a sample taken out in a pail and allowed to cool over night will serve as a guide as to the body of the soap in the kettle4 ,when the soap has thus been properly finished it is run into barrels4 ,for an automobile soap the following is a good working formula3 ,corn oil #a1jjj parts ,potash lye1 #ca-a_/b degs4 ,b4 #fig parts ,proceed as in the directions just given for textile soap in placing charge in the kettle4 ,when the kettle is boiling up well1 shut off the steam and the saponification will complete itself4 ,the soap may be run into the barrels the next day4 ,a heavy soap with a smaller percentage of fat may be made as follows3 ,corn oil #a1jjj parts ,potash lye1 #bd-a_/b degs4 ,b4 #ijj parts ,boil until the soap bunches1 and shovel the finished soap into barrels4 ,upon standing it will clear up4 ,by the addition of more water the yield of soap per pound of oil may be run up to #cjj per cent4 ,after soft soaps have been allowed to stand for some time the phenomenon known as figging often occurs4 ,this term is applied to a crystalline-like formation1 causing spots of a star-like shape throughout the soap4 ,this is undoubtedly due to the stearine content of the soap crystallizing out as it cools1 and forming these peculiarly-shaped spots4 ,it more generally occurs in the winter and may be produced artificially by adding a small quantity of soda to the potash lye before saponification4 ,the oils usually employed in the manufacture of potash soaps are cottonseed oil1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 olive oil foots1 red oil1 cocoanut oil1 grease and the various train oils4 ,the usual percentage yield is from #bbe per cent4 to #cjj per cent41 based upon the weight of oil used4 ,in calculating the weight of a soft soap it is to be remembered that since potassium has a higher molecular weight 7#ef7 than sodium 7#dj71 the corresponding soap formed is that much greater in weight when compared with a sodium soap4 ,rosin may be added to soft soaps as a cheapening agent4 ,,cold ,,process4 ,the cold process for manufacturing soap is the simplest method of soap making1 and the equipment required is small when compared to the other methods4 ,all the more expensive equipment that is necessary is a crutcher1 a tank to hold the lye1 frames1 a slabber or cutting table1 and a press4 ,yet1 in spite of the simplicity of thus making soap1 the disadvantages are numerous for the production of a good piece of soap4 ,the greatest difficulty is to obtain a thorough combination of oil or fat and lye so that there will not be an excess of one or the other in the finished soap4 ,at its best there is either a considerable excess of free fat which later exhibits itself in producing rancidity or uncombined caustic1 which produces an unpleasant effect on the skin when the soap is consumed for washing4 ,the latter objection1 of course1 can only be applied to toilet soaps4 ,cocoanut oil is used very largely in the manufacture of cold-made soaps as it is well adapted for this purpose1 although it is by no means true that other oils may not be employed4 ,since by this process of manufacture no impurity contained in the fat or oil is removed in the making of the soap1 it is necessary that in order to obtain a fine finished product1 any impurity contained in these may be removed if present1 or that the fats be as pure as can be obtained4 ,if inedible tallow is used for cold-made soap1 it is advisable to bleach it by the ,fuller's ,earth ,process4 ,the carrying out of this method is best illustrated by an example of a cold-made cocoanut oil soap4 ,charge3 ,cochin cocoanut oil #hdf parts ,lye 7soda71 #ce degs4 ,b4 #dgj parts ,water #bd parts ,the oil is run into the crutcher and the temperature of the oil raised to #ajj degs4 ,f4 by dry steam4 ,the lye and water are at room temperature4 ,after all the oil is in the crutcher1 the lye and water are slowly added to prevent any graining of the soap4 ,toward the end the lye may be added more rapidly4 ,when all the lye is in1 the mass is crutched for about three hours1 or until upon stopping the crutcher a finger drawn over the surface of the soap leaves an impression4 ,if this condition is not realized1 the soap must be mixed until such is the case4 ,having arrived at this point1 the mixture is dropped into a frame which should remain uncovered4 ,the heat produced by the further spontaneous saponification will cause the soap to rise in the middle of the frame4 ,after having set for some days it is ready to be slabbed and cut into cakes4 ,a potash soap may be made by the cold process just as readily as a soda soap4 ,soaps of this type may be made by either of these formulae in a crutcher3 ,olive oil foots #fjj ,potash lye1 #ah degs4 ,b4 hot1 #bj degs4 ,b4 cold #ffj or ,corn oil #hjj ,rosin #bjj ,potash lye1 #bg degs4 ,b4 #gij ,water #cdj ,heat the oils to #aij degs4 ,f41 add the lye and crutch until the soap begins to bunch1 when it is ready to be run into barrels where the saponification will be completed4 ,semi-boiled soaps differ from those made by the cold process in temperature4 ,in making semi-boiled soaps the fats are usually heated to #adj;deg4 ,f4 ,the addition of the lye raises the temperature to #ahj;deg4--#bjj;deg4 ,f4 when saponification takes place4 ,,carbonate ,,saponification4 ,the method of the formation of soap by the utilization of the fatty acid directly1 from which the glycerine has already been removed by some method of saponification other than with caustic soda1 and neutralizing this with alkali1 is becoming increasingly popular4 ,the glycerine is more easily recovered from a previous cleavage of the fats or oils1 but a soap made from the mixed fatty acids thus obtained is seldom white in color and retains an unpleasant odor4 ,since soda ash or sodium carbonate is cheaper than caustic soda and readily unites with a fatty acid1 it is used as the alkali in the carbonate saponification4 ,the process is similar to that already given under ,rosin ,saponification4 ,about #ai per cent4 by weight of the fatty acids employed of #eh per cent4 soda ash is dissolved in water until it has a density of #cj degs4 ,b41 and the solution is run into the kettle1 which is usually equipped with a removable agitator4 ,the fatty acids1 previously melted1 are then slowly added while the mixture is boiled with open steam and agitated with the stirring device4 ,the fatty acids instantly unite with the carbonate and rise in the kettle1 due to the generation of carbon dioxide1 and care must be exercised to prevent boiling over4 ,after all the fatty acid has been added1 and the mass is boiled through the saponification must be completed with caustic soda1 as there is as yet no practical method known which will split a fat entirely into fatty acid and glycerine4 ,thus about #aj per cent4 of the fatty acids are true neutral fats and require caustic soda for their saponification4 ,this is then added and the soap completed1 as in full-boiled soaps4 ,in carrying out this method upon a large scale1 large sue,neanderthaldoroteer,neanderthal,jose phine quantities of carbon dioxide are formed during the boiling of the soap1 which replaces a quantity of the air contained therein4 ,the kettle room should therefore be well ventilated1 allowing for a large inflow of fresh air from out of doors4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,classification of ,soaps4 ,in considering the many different varieties of soaps1 their classification is purely an arbitrary one4 ,no definite plan can be outlined for any particular brand to be manufactured nor can any very sharp distinction be drawn between the many soaps of different properties which are designated by various names4 ,it is really a question to what use a soap is to be put1 and at what price it may be sold4 ,there is1 of course1 a difference in the appearance1 form and color1 and then there are soaps of special kinds1 such as floating soaps1 transparent soaps1 liquid soaps1 etc41 yet in the ultimate sense they are closely allied1 because they are all the same chemical compound1 varying only in their being a potash or soda soap1 and in the fatty acids which enter into combination with these alkalis4 ,thus we can take a combination of tallow and cocoanut oil and make a great many presumably different soaps by combining these substances with caustic soda1 by different methods of manufacture and by incorporating various other ingredients1 as air1 to form a floating soap1 alcohol to make a transparent soap1 dyestuffs to give a different color1 etc41 but essentially it is the same definite compound4 ,the manufacturer can best judge the brand of soaps he desires to manufacture1 and much of his success depends upon the name1 package1 shape1 color or perfume of a cake of soap4 ,it is the consumer whom he must please and many of the large selling brands upon the market today owe their success to the above mentioned details4 ,the great majority of consumers of soap know very little concerning soap1 except the fact that it washes or has a pleasant odor or looks pretty1 and the manufacturer of soap must study these phases of the subject even more carefully than the making of the soap itself4 ,for a matter of convenience we will classify soap under three general divisions3 ,i4 ,laundry soaps1 including chip soaps1 soap powders and scouring soaps4 ,,ii4 ,toilet soaps1 including floating soap1 castile soap1 liquid soap1 shaving soap1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,textile soaps4 ,,laundry ,,soap4 ,the most popular household soap is laundry soap4 ,a tremendous amount of this soap is consumed each day in this country1 and it is by far manufactured in larger quantities than any other soap4 ,it is also a soap which must be sold cheaper than any other soap that enters the home4 ,the consumers of laundry soap have been educated to use a full boiled settled rosin soap and to make a good article at a price this method should be carried out1 as it is the one most advisable to use4 ,the composition of the fats entering into the soap depends upon the market price of these1 and it is not advisable to keep to one formula in the manufacture of laundry soap1 but rather to adjust the various fatty ingredients to obtain the desired results with the cheapest material that can be purchased4 ,it is impossible to use a good grade of fats and make a profit upon laundry soap at the price at which it must be retailed4 ,the manufacturer of this grade of soap must look to the by-product1 glycerine1 for his profit and he is fortunate indeed if he realizes the entire benefit of this and still produces a superior piece of laundry soap4 ,,semi-,,boiled ,,laundry ,,soaps4 ,it is advantageous at times to make a laundry soap by a method other than the full boiled settled soap procedure as previously outlined4 ,this is especially the condition in making a naphtha soap1 in which is incorporated naphtha1 which is very volatile and some of the well known manufacturers of this class of soap have adopted this process entirely4 ,a laundry soap containing rosin cannot be advantageously made by the cold process1 as the soap thus made grains during saponification and drops a portion of the lye and filling materials4 ,by making a semi-boiled soap this objection is overcome4 ,the half boiled process differs from the cold process by uniting the fats and alkalis at a higher temperature4 ,to carry out this process the following formulae have been found by experience to give satisfactory results4 ,i4 lbs4 ,tallow #ajj ,rosin #fj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,,ii4 ,tallow #ajj ,rosin #fj ,silicate of ,soda #be ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #he ,,iii4 ,tallow #ajj ,rosin #ajj ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #aje ,silicate of ,soda #be ,sal ,soda ,solution #bj ,in any of these formulas the sodium silicate 7#dj;deg4 ,b47 may be increased to the same proportion as the fats used4 ,by so doing1 however1 twenty pounds of #cf;deg4 ,b4 lye must be added for every hundred pounds of silicate additional to that indicated or in other words1 for every pound of silicate added #bj per cent4 by weight of #cf;deg4 ,b4 lye must be put into the mixture4 ,the rosin may also be replaced by a previously made rosin soap4 ,to make a semi-boiled soap1 using any of the above formulae1 first melt the rosin with all or part of the fat1 as rosin when melted alone readily decomposes4 ,when the mixture is at #aej;deg4 ,f4 run it into the crutcher and add the lye4 ,turn on sufficient dry steam to keep the temperature of the soap at about #aej;deg4 ,f4 in the winter or #acj;deg4 ,f4 in summer4 ,after the mass has been mixed for half an hour1 by continuously crutching the soap it will at first thicken1 then grain and it may again become thick before it becomes smooth4 ,when the mass is perfectly smooth and homogeneous drop into a frame and crutch in the frame by hand to prevent streaking4 ,after standing the required length of time the soap is finished into cakes as usual4 ,,settled ,,rosin ,,soap4 ,settled rosin soaps are made from tallow1 grease1 cottonseed oil1 bleached palm oils of the lower grades1 corn oil1 soya bean oil1 arachis oil1 distilled garbage grease1 cottonseed foots or fatty acids together with an addition of rosin1 varying from #bd per cent4 to #fj per cent4 of the fatty acids which should titer from #bh to #ce4 ,a titer lower than #bh will prevent the finished kettle of soap from being capable of later taking up the filling materials4 ,as has already been stated under hardened oils1 these being very much higher in titer allow a greater percentage of rosin to be added4 ,thus hardened fish oils and cottonseed oil are gradually being more extensively employed in soaps of this character4 ,the procedure of handling the kettle is similar to that given under full boiled soap4 ,the stock is steamed out into a settling tank and allowed to settle over night1 after which it is pumped into the soap kettle4 ,having stocked the kettle1 open steam is turned on and #aj;deg4-#ab;deg4 ,b4 lye is run in1 while using a steam pressure of ninety to one hundred pounds in order to prevent too great a quantity of condensation of the steam1 the water thus being formed weakening the lye4 ,if a steam pressure of fifty to sixty pounds is available1 a stronger lye 7#bj;deg4 ,b47 should be added4 ,care must be taken not to allow the lye to flow in too rapidly or the soap will not grain4 ,the saponification is only attained by prolonged boiling with sufficient lye of proper strength4 ,when saponification has taken place1 the mass begins to clear and a sample taken out with a paddle and cooled should show a slight pink with a #a per cent4 alcoholic phenolphthalein solution4 ,it may be stated here that in using this indicator or any other to test the alkalinity of soap1 the soap should always be cooled and firm1 as whenever water is present1 the dissociation of the soap thereby will always react alkaline4 ,when this state is reached the mass is ready for graining1 which is accomplished by distributing salt brine or pickle or spreading dry salt over the surface of the soap4 ,the kettle is then thoroughly boiled until the mass shows a soft curd and the lye drops clearly from a sample taken out with a trowel or paddle4 ,the steam is then shut off and the soap allowed to settle over night4 ,the lyes are then run off to the spent lye tank for glycerine recovery4 ,in saponifying a freshly stocked kettle it is apt to bunch4 ,to prevent this salt is added at various times to approximately one per cent4 of the fat used4 ,if1 by any possibility the soap has bunched1 this condition may be remedied by the addition of more strong lye and boiling until it is taken up4 ,to work a kettle to its full capacity it is advisable to make two killing changes4 ,first add about #ge per cent4 of the fat and grain as directed4 ,run off the spent lyes and then add the remainder of the stock and repeat the process4 ,when the spent lye has been run to storage1 the open steam is again turned on and #ah;deg4 ,b4 lye gradually allowed to run in4 ,the rosin is now broken up and put into the kettle1 or a previously made rosin soap is pumped in4 ,lye is then added until the soap has a sharp taste after about three hours of continuous boiling1 or when the soap is in the closed state4 ,more lye should then be run into the kettle to grain the soap well1 the grain not being too small4 ,then allow the soap to settle over night and draw off the strengthening lye4 ,the next day again boil up the kettle and add water until the soap thins out and rises or swells high in the kettle4 ,a sample taken out at this stage upon a hot trowel should run off in large flakes4 ,the surface of the soap should be bright and shiny4 ,if the sample clings to the trowel1 a slight addition of lye will remedy this defect4 ,the kettle is then allowed to rest1 to drop the nigre and to cool for some time1 depending upon the size of the kettle4 ,the proper temperature is such that after having been pumped to the crutcher and the filling materials having been added1 a thermometer placed into the mass should indicate #abh;deg4-#ace;deg4 ,f4 after the crutcher has run from ten to fifteen minutes4 ,the filling material may consist of from #g-i per cent4 of sal soda solution1 #cf;deg4-#cg;deg4 ,b4 warm or just enough to close up the soap and make it rise high in the center of a screw crutcher and make it cling close to a warm trowel4 ,other fillers such as outlined below are added at this point4 ,an addition of from #b-c per cent4 of a special mineral oil for this purpose will impart a finish to the soap and #c-e per cent4 starch added prevents the soap from cracking in the frames4 ,other filling material as silicate of soda1 borax1 talc or silex are used4 ,after the filling material has been thoroughly crutched through the soap it is framed1 and1 after being several days in the frame to solidify and cool the soap is ready for slabbing1 pressing and wrapping4 ,in order to more definitely illustrate the composition of the mixture of fats and oils entering into the formation of a laundry soap a typical formula may be given for such a soap containing #dj per cent4 rosin added to the amount of fats used3 lbs4 ,grease #g1jjj ,tallow #d1jjj ,corn ,oil #g1jjj ,cottonseed ,oil #c1jjj ,rosin #h1djj ,the following have been found to be satisfactory filling materials and are calculated upon the basis of a #a1djj-pound frame of soap4 ,i4 lbs4 ,sodium ,silicate1 #ch;deg4-#dj;deg4 ,b4 #ajj ,mineral ,oil #be ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,borax #a ,,ii4 ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #hj ,mineral ,oil #be ,sodium ,silicate #fj ,,iii4 ,soda ,ash #aj ,sal ,soda #ee ,sodium ,silicate #aae ,mineral ,oil #dj ,brine 7,saturated ,solution7 #aj ,sodium ,silicate1 #ch;deg4-#dj;deg4 ,b4 #ajj ,,iv4 ,sodium ,silicate #ajj ,silex or ,talc #bjj ,soda ,ash #ej ,v4 ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #ij ,sodium ,silicate #ej-fj ,mineral ,oil #be ,borax ,solution1 #be;deg4 ,b4 7hot7 #ae ,,chip ,,soap4 ,chip soap is used extensively in laundries but is also used largely in other branches4 ,it may be made either as a settled soap or by the cold made process4 ,to make a full boiled settled chip soap1 proceed as directed under settled laundry soap4 ,the kettle is stocked with light grease or a mixture of grease with corn oil or other cheap oils4 ,for this kind of soap the rosin is eliminated4 ,chip soap may be filled as well as laundry soap4 ,this is done in the crutcher and the following adulterations are suitable4 lbs4 ,settled ,soap #gjj ,soda ,ash #ce ,sodium ,silicate #bae or ,settled ,soap #gjj ,silicate of ,soda #efj ,soda ,ash #ah ,carbonate of ,potash1 #bf;deg4 ,b4 #ej ,the cheapest method of drying is by running this soap through a drying machine and this is the procedure usually carried out for making dried chip soap4 ,,cold ,,made ,,chip ,,soaps4 ,to make chip soaps by the cold process a sweet tallow of low percentage of free fatty acid should be employed4 ,the tallow is heated to #abj;deg4 to #ace;deg4 ,f4 and the lye run in slowly at first and then the silicate of soda is added4 ,the mass is then mixed until a finger drawn through the soap leaves a slight impression1 then dropped into frames or barrels4 ,soaps containing a small percentage of fat should be well covered in the frame for twenty-four hours to retain their heat and insure proper saponification4 ,the following formulae are suitable3 ,i4 lbs4 ,tallow #a1bjj ,soda ,lye1 #ce;deg4 ,b4 #hej ,sodium ,silicate #gej ,,ii4 ,tallow #dge ,ceylon ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,soda ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #cbe ,potash ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #ef ,,iii4 ,tallow #ejj ,soda ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #big ,sodium ,silicate #daf ,potash ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #cg-a_/b ,,iv4 ,tallow #dej ,soda ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #bee ,sodium ,silicate #dej ,potash ,lye1 #cg-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #ej ,v4 ,tallow #dej ,soda ,lye1 #ce;deg4 ,b4 #dgj ,sodium ,silicate #fej ,,vi4 ,tallow #dbj ,sodium ,silicate #fjj ,soda ,lye1 #cg-ab;deg4 ,b4 #bgj ,,unfilled ,,chip ,,soap4 ,a very good grade of chip soap is made by employing no filling material whatsoever1 but unfortunately the price of this soap has been cut to such an extent that these can not compete with a filled chip4 ,a number of the best soaps of this kind are made from a settled soap using a light grease with corn oil4 ,a soap of this nature is made as follows4 lbs4 ,settled ,soap #hjj ,sal ,soda ,solution1 #cf;deg4-#cg;deg4 ,b4 #beb ,soda ,ash #ahb ,if this soap is run into frames it may be stripped and chipped in two days4 ,,soap ,,powders4 ,soap powders have become so great a convenience as a general cleansing agent that to eliminate them from the household necessities would mean much unnecessary energy and work to the great number of consumers of this product4 ,they may be manufactured so cheaply and still be efficient1 that their use has almost become universal for cleansing and scouring purposes4 ,the uses to which soap and scouring powders are adapted are too well known to enter into a description of their employment4 ,since they offer a greater profit to the manufacturer than ordinary household soap1 many brands are extensively advertised4 ,numerous combinations for soap powders might be cited and it is a simple matter to vary the ingredients as to fat content and manufacture a powder of this sort as low as a cent a pound4 ,many substances are incorporated with soap1 such as salt1 soda ash1 tripoli1 crushed volcanic deposits1 ground feldspar1 infusorial earth of various kinds1 silex1 etc4 ,in addition to these various fillers1 compounds with true cleansing and bleaching properties1 in addition to soap1 are added1 such as the salts of ammonium 7sal ammoniac1 carbonate of ammonia71 sodium perborate and the peroxides of various metals4 ,the public1 however1 have been accustomed to receive a large package of soap or scouring powder for a small amount of money and it is a difficult matter for the manufacturer to add more expensive substances of this nature to his product1 to increase its efficiency1 without raising the price or decreasing the size of the package4 ,in manufacturing soap powders1 the dried soap chips might be mixed with the filler and alkali and then pulverized4 ,this method is not extensively employed nevertheless4 ,the process which is the most economical is one whereby the ingredients are mixed in a specially adapted mixer for heavy material until dry and then run directly to the crusher and pulverizer1 after which it is automatically packed1 sealed and boxed4 ,another method of procedure is to run out the mixture from the crutcher to the frames1 which are stripped before the soap cools1 and is cut up at once1 for if it hardens it could not be cut with wires4 ,it is better1 however1 to run the mixture into sheets upon a specially constructed floor and break up the mass when cool4 ,formulae for soap powders which have been found to be suitable for running dry in the mixer follow3 ,i ,soda ash1 #eh per cent4 #db lbs4 ,silica #bbj ,settled soap 7usually cottonseed74 #be ,salt #aj ,,ii ,soap 7settled cottonseed7 #dj lbs4 ,soda ash1 #eh per cent4 #fj ,,iii ,settled soap #ajj lbs4 ,soda ash1 #eh per cent4 #djj ,fillers in varying proportions may replace the soda ash in the above formulae4 ,it is of course understood that the soap has been previously made and run as molten soap into the crutcher4 ,the following soap powders will not dry up in the crutcher upon running1 but are of the class which may be framed or run on the floor to solidify3 ,i ,soap #hej lbs4 ,filler #djj ,sal soda solution1 #bj degs4 ,b #agj ,,ii ,soap #fej lbs4 ,filler #eej ,sal soda solution1 #bj degs4 ,b4 #cdj ,,iii ,soap #hj lbs4 ,filler #eej ,sal soda solution #agj ,,iv ,soap 7settled tallow7 #hjj lbs4 ,filler #djj ,sal soda solution #agj ,water #ajj ,v ,first saponify #ajj parts house grease and #ajj parts ordinary grease and make a run soap4 ,then use in crutcher either3 ,soap #djj lbs4 ,filler #ege ,hot water #fj or ,soap #bjj lbs4 ,hot water #bjj ,filler #fbe ,it would be a simple matter to write numerous additional formulae1 but the above are typical4 ,the manufacturer must judge for himself just what filling material to use4 ,the filler indicated in the above formulae is therefore left open4 ,a few formulae for more expensive powders than those given recently appeared among others in the ,seifensieder ,zeitung#i3 ,i ,powdered soap #ij lbs4 ,sodium perborate #aj ,the perborate should be added when the powder is perfectly dry or it loses its bleaching properties4 ,,ii ,soap powder1 #bj per cent4 fat4 ,cocoanut oil fatty acids #be lbs4 ,olein #be ,bone fat #gj ,soda lye1 #cj degs4 ,b4 #ij ,water #aej ,ammonium carbonate #abe ,,iii ,soap powder1 #aj per cent4 fat4 ,cocoanut oil fatty acids #bj lbs4 ,olein #aj ,bone fat #bj ,soda lye1 #cj degs4 ,b4 #cj ,water #age ,ammonium carbonate #age ,,light ,,or ,,fluffy ,,powders4 ,light or fluffy powders containing #ce-de moisture can be made in two ways4 ,the first method requiring a minimum equipment is to mix the powder and sal soda in a mixer1 allow it to stand in frames for a week to crystallize or spread it on the floor for a few hours to dry and then grinding it4 ,the continuous method finishes the powder in a few minutes and with a minimum amount of labor4 ,by this process the various ingredients1 soap1 soda ash solution1 etc41 are measured1 run by gravity into the mixer1 mixed and the molten mass run over the crystallizer or chilling rolls thru which either cold water or brine is pumped4 ,from the roll the powder is scraped off clean by a knife1 passes to a screen which sends the tailings to a grinder1 falls into a storage bin from whence it is weighed and packed by an automatic weighing machine into cartons made up in most cases by another machine4 ,due to the large percentage of moisture contained in these soap powders the carton is generally wrapped in wax paper to aid in the prevention of the escape of moisture4 ,,scouring ,,powders4 ,scouring powders are very similar to soap powders and differ only in the filler used4 ,we have already considered these fillers under scouring soap1 from which they do not differ materially4 ,they are usually insoluble in water to aid in scouring4 ,the mixer used for substances of this kind in incorporating the soap and alkali must be of strong construction4 ,,scouring ,,soap4 ,scouring soaps resemble soap powders very closely in their composition1 in that they are a combination of soap and filling material4 ,since more lather is required from a scouring soap than in soap powders1 a cocoanut oil soap is generally used4 ,the usual filling material used is silex4 ,the greatest difficulty in the manufacture of scouring soap is the cracking of the finished cake4 ,this is usually due to the incorporation of too great an amount of filler1 or too high a percentage of moisture4 ,in manufacturing these soaps the cocoanut oil is saponified in the crutcher with #ch degs4 ,b4 lye1 or previously saponified as a run soap1 as already described under ,marine ,soaps4 ,to twenty-five parts of soap are added a percentage of #ch degs4 ,b4 sal soda or soda ash solution1 together with a small quantity of salt brine4 ,to this mixture in the crutcher seventy-five parts of silex are then added1 and a sufficient amount of hot water to make the mass flow readily4 ,care must be exercised to not add too great a quantity of water or the mass will crack when it cools4 ,the mass is then framed and cut before it sets1 or poured into molds and allowed to set4 ,while silex is the most extensively used filler for scouring soaps1 it is feasible to incorporate other substances of like character1 although it is to be remembered that the consumer is accustomed to a white cake1 such as silex produces4 ,any other material used to replace silex should also be as fine as this product4 ,,floating ,,soap4 ,floating soap occupies a position midway between laundry and toilet soap4 ,since it is not highly perfumed and a large piece of soap may be purchased for small cost1 as is the case with laundry soap1 it is readily adaptable to general household use4 ,floating soap differs from ordinary soap in having air crutched into it which causes the soap to float in water4 ,this is often advantageous1 especially as a bath soap1 and undoubtedly the largest selling brand of soap on the ,american market today is a floating soap4 ,in the manufacture of floating soap a high proportion of cocoanut oil is necessary4 ,a most suitable composition is one part cocoanut oil to one part of tallow4 ,this is an expensive stock for the highest grade of soap and is usually cheapened by the use of cottonseed or various other liquid oils4 ,thus it is possible to obtain a floating soap from a kettle stocked with #cj per cent4 cocoanut oil1 #ae per cent4 cottonseed oil and #ee per cent4 tallow4 ,with this quality of soap1 however1 there is a possibility of sweating and rancidity1 and of the soap being too soft and being poor in color4 ,the process of manufacture is to boil the soap in an ordinary soap kettle1 after which air is worked into the hot soap by a specially constructed crutcher1 after which the soap is framed1 slabbed1 cut into cakes and pressed4 ,concerning the boiling of the soap1 the saponification must be carefully carried out1 as the high proportion of cocoanut oil may cause a violent reaction in the kettle causing it to boil over4 ,the method of procedure is the same as for a settled soap up to the finishing4 ,when the mass is finally settled after the finish1 the soap should be more on the open side1 and the object should be to get as long a piece of goods as possible4 ,due to its high melting point1 a much harder crust forms on the surface of a floating soap and in a greater proportion than on a settled soap during the settling4 ,in a large kettle1 in fact1 it has been found impossible to break through this crust by the ordinary procedure to admit the skimmer pipe4 ,much of the success of the subsequent operations depends upon the completeness of the settling1 and in order to overcome the difficulties occasioned by the formation of the crust everything possible should be done in the way of covering the kettle completely to enable this period of settling to continue as long as possible4 ,when the soap is finished it is run into a specially constructed ,u-shape crutcher1 a ,strunz crutcher is best adapted to this purpose1 although a rapidly revolving upright screw crutcher has been found to give satisfaction upon a smaller scale1 and a sufficient quantity of air beaten into the soap to make it light enough to float4 ,care must be taken not to run the crutcher too rapidly or the soap will be entirely too fobby4 ,during this operation the mass of soap increases in bulk1 and after it has been established how much air must be put into the soap to satisfy the requirements1 this increase in bulk is a criterion to estimate when this process is completed4 ,it is of course understood that the longer the crutching continues the greater quantity of air is incorporated and the increase of volume must be established for a particular composition by sampling1 cooling the sample rapidly and seeing if it floats in water4 ,if the beating is continued too long an interval of time1 the finished soap is too spongy and useless4 ,the temperature of the mass during crutching is most important4 ,this must never exceed #aeh degrees ,f4 ,at #aei degrees ,f4 the operation is not very successful1 yet the thermometer may indicate #adj degrees ,f4 without interfering with this operation4 ,if1 however1 the temperature drops too low1 trouble is liable to be met with1 by the soap solidifying too quickly in the frames4 ,when the crutching is completed1 the soap is allowed to drop into frames through the valve at the bottom of the crutcher and rapidly crutched by the hand in the frames to prevent large air spaces and then allowed to cool4 ,it is an improvement to jolt the frames as they are drawn away as this tends to make the larger air bubbles float to the surface and thus reduce the quantity of waste4 ,when the soap has cooled1 the frame is stripped and the soap slabbed as usual4 ,at this point a layer of considerable depth of spongy soap will be found to have formed4 ,this of course must be cut away and returned to the kettle4 ,the last few slabs are also often rejected1 inasmuch as the weight of the soap above them has forced out so much of the air that the soap no longer floats4 ,as a fair average it may be estimated that not more than #ej to #fj per cent4 of the soap in the kettle will come out as finished cakes4 the remaining #dj to #ej per cent4 being constituted by the heavy crust in the kettle1 the spongy tops1 the bottom slabs and scrapings4 ,this soap is of course reboiled and consequently not lost1 but the actual cakes obtained are produced at a cost of practically double labor4 ,it is advisable to add a small quantity of soap blue color to the mass while crutching to neutralize the yellowish tint a floating soap is liable to have4 ,some manufacturers add a percentage of carbonate of soda1 about #c per cent41 to prevent the soap from shrinking4 ,floating soap may also be loaded with sodium silicate to the extent of about #e per cent4 ,,toilet ,,soap4 ,it is not a simple matter to differentiate between toilet soaps and various other soaps1 because numerous soaps are adaptable to toilet purposes4 ,while some soaps of this variety are manufactured by the cold made or semi-boiled process1 and not milled1 the consumer has become accustomed to a milled soap for general toilet use4 ,the toilet base most extensively employed is a tallow and cocoanut base made as a full boiled settled soap4 ,the manufacture of this base has already been outlined and really needs no further comment except that it is to be remembered that a suitable toilet soap should contain no great excess of free alkali which is injurious to the skin4 ,cochin cocoanut oil is preferable to the ,ceylon cocoanut oil or palm kernel oil1 to use in conjunction with the tallow1 which should be a good grade and color if a white piece of goods is desired4 ,the percentage of cocoanut oil may be anywhere from #aj to #be per cent41 depending upon the kind of lather required1 it being remembered that cocoanut oil increases the lathering power of the soap4 ,in addition to a tallow base1 numerous other oils are used in the manufacture of toilet soaps1 especially palm oil1 palm kernel oil1 olive oil and olive oil foots1 and to a much less extent arachis or peanut oil1 sesame oil and poppy seed oil1 oils of the class of cottonseed1 corn and soya bean oils are not adapted to manufacturing a milled soap1 as they form yellow spots in a finished cake of soap which has been kept a short time4 ,palm oil1 especially the ,lagos oil1 is much used in making a palm base4 ,as has already been stated1 the oil is bleached before saponification4 ,a palm base has a yellowish color1 a sweetish odor1 and a small quantity added to a tallow base naturally aids the perfume4 ,it is especially good for a violet soap4 ,the peculiarity of a palm oil base is that this oil makes a short soap4 ,by the addition of some tallow or twenty to twenty-five per cent4 of cocoanut oil1 or both1 this objection is overcome4 ,it is a good plan in using a straight palm base to add a proportion of yellow color to hold the yellowish tint of this soap1 as a soap made from this oil continues bleaching upon exposure to air and light4 ,olive oil and olive oil foots are used most extensively in the manufacture of castile soaps4 ,the peculiarity of an olive oil soap is that it makes a very slimy lather1 and like palm oil gives the soap a characteristic odor4 ,an olive oil soap is usually considered to be a very neutral soap and may readily be superfatted4 ,much olive oil soap is used in bars or slabs as an unmilled soap and it is often made by the cold process4 ,peanut oil or sesame and poppy seed oil often replaces olive oil1 as they form a similar soap to olive oil4 ,in the manufacture of a toilet soap it is hardly practical to lay down a definite plan for the various bases to be made4 ,from the combination of tallow1 palm oil1 cocoanut oil1 palm kernel oil1 olive oil and olive oil foots1 a great many bases of different proportions might be given4 ,the simplest method is to make a tallow base1 a palm base and an olive oil base4 ,then from these it is an easy matter to weigh out any proportion of these soap bases and obtain the proper mixture in the mill4 ,if1 however1 as is often the case1 a large quantity of soap base of certain proportions of these1 four or even more of these fats and oils is required1 it is not only more economical to stock the kettle with the correct proportion of these oils1 but a more thorough mixture is thus obtained by saponifying these in the kettle4 ,in view of the fact that it is really a question for the manufacturer to decide for himself what combination of oils he desires for a particular soap we will simply outline a few typical toilet soap bases in their simplest combination4 ,it is understood that these soaps are suitable for milled soaps and are to be made as fully boiled settled soaps4 ,palm kernel oil may be substituted for cocoanut oil in all cases4 ,,tallow ,,base4 ,tallow #ge-ij parts ,cocoanut oil #be-aj parts ,,palm ,,base4 ,bleached ,lagos palm oil #ge-hj parts ,cocoanut oil #be-bj parts or ,tallow #cj parts ,palm oil #fj parts ,cocoanut oil #aj parts ,,olive ,,oil ,,base 7,,white74 ,olive oil #ge-ij parts ,cocoanut oil #be-aj parts or ,olive oil #dj parts ,tallow #dj parts ,cocoanut #bj parts ,where a green olive oil base is desired1 olive oil foots are substituted for the olive oil4 ,peanut oil may replace the olive oil or part of it1 the same being true of sesame oil and poppy seed oil4 ,,palm ,,and ,,olive ,,base4 ,palm oil #ej parts ,olive oil #cj parts ,cocoanut oil #bj parts or ,palm oil #bj parts ,olive oil #aj parts ,tallow #ej parts ,cocoanut oil #bj parts ,,cheaper ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,it is often necessary to manufacture a cheaper grade of soap for toilet purposes to meet the demand of a certain class of trade as well as for export4 ,to accomplish this it is of course necessary to produce a very inferior product and run down the percentage of fatty acids contained in the soaps by the addition of fillers or to use cheaper oils in manufacturing4 ,the most simple method of filling a soap is to load it at the mill with some substance much less expensive than the soap itself4 ,many of the cheaper toilet soaps1 however1 are not milled and it is1 therefore1 necessary to follow out some other procedure4 ,milled soaps1 as has just been stated1 are loaded at the mill4 ,the consumers of cheaper toilet soaps in this country are accustomed to a milled soap and this grade of soap for home consumption is very often filled with numerous substances1 but most generally by adding starch and talc4 ,the addition of such materials of course later exhibit themselves by imparting to the cake of soap a dead appearance4 ,talc is more readily detected in the soap than starch by washing with it1 as talc is insoluble and imparts a roughness to the soap1 like sand or pumice1 as the soap wears down4 ,it may readily be added to #bj per cent4 by weight4 ,starch is to be preferred to talc1 in loading a soap1 as it is not so readily noticeable in washing4 ,it leaves the cake itself absolutely smooth although the lather formed is more shiny4 ,this substance may be employed to as high a percentage as one-third the weight of the soap4 ,it is1 of course1 possible to cheapen the best soap base by this method and the price may be further lowered by using the less expensive oils and fats to make the soap base4 ,,run ,,and ,,glued ,,up ,,soaps4 ,a very cheap grade of soap may be made by making a run soap and adding the filler e4 g4 sodium silicate in the kettle during saponification4 ,the percentage of fatty acids may be brought down to #aj per cent41 although of course a soap of this type shrinks a whole lot upon exposure4 ,in making a glued up soap the procedure is the same for making the soap itself as with a settled soap1 except that the soap is finished curd and later filled in the crutcher4 ,the percentage of fatty acids in a soap of this type is seldom below #ej per cent4 ,the method of gluing up a soap is best illustrated by a typical soap of this character in which the kettle is charged with the following stock4 ,bleached palm oil #e parts ,distilled grease #b ,cotton oil foots stock1 #fc fatty acid #a ,rosin #d ,the palm oil is first run into the kettle1 saponified and washed to extract any glycerine1 then the rest of the fats and finally the rosin4 ,the soap is then finished and settled as with a boiled settled soap4 ,to assure success it is absolutely necessary that the soap settle as long a period as possible1 or until the temperature is about #aej degs4 ,f4 ,the ideal temperature for carrying out the gluing up process is #adj degs4 ,f41 as at a lower temperature than this the soap is liable to cool too quickly and not be thoroughly glued up4 ,a higher temperature than #aej degs4 ,f4 causes delay in that the soap does not properly take the filler at a higher temperature and the soap must be kept in the crutcher until the temperature drops to the right point4 ,the soap is run into the crutcher and the percentage of fatty acids run down to #ej-ee per cent4 with one of the following mixtures3 ,sodium silicate1 #ei-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #a part ,potassium carbonate1 #ea;deg4 ,b4 #a or ,sodium silicate1 #ei-a_/b;deg4 ,b4 #a part ,potassium carbonate1 #ea;deg4 ,b4 #a ,sodium sulfate1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #a ,from #bcj to #cjj pounds of either of these mixtures are required for a crutcher holding #b1fjj pounds of soap4 ,the crutching is continued until the mass is well spiked1 that is to say1 a freshly broken surface of the soap1 as the crutcher blade is jerked away1 stands up like shattered sheets in triangular form ,transcriber's note3 three triangles71 which retain their shape perfectly4 ,when this condition is realized the soap is run into frames which are carefully crutched by hand to remove any air spaces4 ,the surface of the soap is then smoothed down and heaped up in the center4 ,after standing a day to contract1 the surface is again leveled and a snugly-fitting board placed on the top of the soap upon which a weight is placed or upon which the workman treads and stamps until the surface is flat1 thus assuring the further removal of air spaces4 ,the soap remains in the frame from six to eight days and is then slabbed1 barred and pressed by the usual method employed for soaps thus handled without milling4 ,in a soap of this nature no hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the quantity of solution to be used for gluing up or the strength of the solution4 ,in a soap of the type described the most satisfactory appearing cake will be obtained from a soap containing #eh per cent4 fatty acids4 ,that is to say1 about #h per cent4 to #aj per cent4 filling solution is added per hundred pounds of soap4 ,the filling solutions given are very satisfactory4 ,carbonate of soda should be avoided in connection with sodium silicate as the property of efflorescing on the surface of the finished cake after a short time will prove detrimental4 ,to assure successful gluing up it is advisable to experiment upon a small scale to determine the exact extent to which the filling solution should be diluted4 ,various proportions of water are added to a certain quantity of the filled soap4 ,after the soap has been filled in a small receptacle a sample is taken and rubbed between the fingers4 ,if the freshly exposed surface is smooth and glossy1 the filling solution is weak enough1 if rough it is too strong4 ,it is of course understood that the temperature must be correct1 #adj degs4 to #aej degs4 ,f41 or the soap will be rough4 ,by this means the operator can readily judge the correct strength of his filling solution4 ,when properly carried out a perfectly satisfactory soap is obtained4 ,,curd ,,soap4 ,the object of a soap which is finished curd or grained1 is to obtain a harder piece of goods from low titer fat or to increase the percentage of fatty acids in the finished soap4 ,this is still another method of producing a cheap grade of soap as by its adoption the cheaper oils and fats may be used to obtain a firm piece of soap4 ,a typical charge for curd soap is3 ,red oil #fc parts ,tallow #aj ,rosin #bg ,cotton seed foots may be employed in place of red oil and a tallow of too high titer is not suitable for this kind of soap4 ,the red oil and tallow are first saponified with #ae degs4 ,b4 lye1 boiler pressure #hj-ij pounds1 #ah degs4 ,b4 lye for lower steam pressure1 and two washings given to extract the glycerine4 ,the rosin is added at the strengthening change and at the finish the soap is pitched1 that is to say1 the soap is settled over night only4 ,the next day the lyes are drawn off and a portion of the nigre pumped to another kettle which prevents later streaking of the soap4 ,the soap is then boiled with #ah degs4 ,b4 lye as with another strengthening change under closed steam4 ,salt brine or pickle1 #ae degs4 ,b4 is then added and the mass boiled with closed steam until the brine reaches a density of #ah degs4 ,b4 and the kettle pumped the next day4 ,a soap of this type requires either hand or power crutching to assure homogeneity and prevention of streaks4 ,to obviate any air spaces it is advisable to place over the top of the frame a tightly-fitted board which is heavily weighted down4 ,this soap is also pressed without any milling4 ,,cold ,,made ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,comparatively little toilet soap is made by the cold or semi-boiled processes4 ,while these are the simplest methods of manufacturing soaps the drawbacks of using them are numerous and only in a few cases are they very extensively employed4 ,to make a toilet soap by the cold process a combination of good grade tallow and cocoanut oil is required4 ,it requires #ej per cent4 by weight of #cf degs4 ,b4 lye to saponify a given weight of tallow and #ej per cent4 of #ch degs4 ,b4 lye for cocoanut oil4 ,the lyes are used full strength or may be reduced slightly with water and the method of procedure is the same as already given in the general directions for cold made soaps4 ,cold made soaps are readily filled with sodium silicate which is added at the same time the stock is put into the crutcher4 ,in adding the silicate it is necessary to add additional lye to that required for saponifying the fats1 about #bj per cent4 of #cf degs4 ,b4 lye is the proper amount4 ,there is of course a certain amount of shrinking due to the addition of this filler and the finished cake is exceedingly hard1 yet the author has seen a good looking cake of cheap soap made from as high a proportion as #dbj parts of tallow to #fjj parts of silicate4 ,cold made soaps are usually pressed without milling1 although it is readily feasible to mill a cold made soap provided it is not a filled soap such as has just been described4 ,,perfuming ,,and ,,coloring ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,equally important as the soap itself or even to a greater extent is the perfume of a toilet soap4 ,a prominent manufacturer recently made the statement1 which is often the truth1 that it makes no difference to the public what kind of soap you give them1 as long as you put plenty of odor into it4 ,the perfuming of soaps is an art in itself and a subject to be treated by one versed in this particular branch4 ,we can only take into account the importance of the perfume as related to toilet soap not only1 but the necessity of adding a certain proportion of the cheaper products of odoriferous nature to laundry soap to cover and disguise the odor of even this type of soap4 ,the price of a cake of toilet soap to a great extent depends upon the perfume1 and the manufacturer should aim to give the best possible perfume for a certain price4 ,he should not allow his personal likes or dislikes to enter into the judgment of whether an odor is good or not1 but submit it to a number of persons to obtain the concensus of opinion4 ,in giving or selling a piece of soap to the consumer1 it is second nature for him to smell it1 and in the great majority of cases his opinion is formed not from any quality the soap itself may have during use1 but from the odor4 ,this only emphasizes the fact that the perfume must be pleasing1 not to one person1 but to the majority1 and many brands owe their popularity to nothing more than the enticing perfume4 ,perfuming of soap is closely allied to the soap making industry1 but as stated a branch in itself4 ,it is1 therefore1 not our purpose to give numerous formulae of how to perfume a soap1 but rather to advise to go for information to some one who thoroughly understands the characteristics of the numerous essential oils and synthetics and give positive information for the particular odor desired4 ,under no circumstances is it advisable to purchase a perfume already compounded1 but since all perfumes are a blend of several or many essential oils and synthetics1 it is a more positive assurance of obtaining what is desired1 by purchasing the straight oils and blending or mixing them as one desires4 ,the perfume is added to a milled soap just before the milling process in the proper proportion per hundred pounds of soap4 ,in cold made or unmilled soaps it is added in the crutcher while the soap is still hot4 ,by this method1 of course1 a proportion of the perfume is lost due to its being more or less volatile4 ,,coloring ,,soap4 ,while much toilet soap is white or natural in color1 many soaps are also artificially colored4 ,the soap colors used for this purpose are mostly aniline dyestuffs4 ,the price of these dyestuffs is no criterion as to their quality1 as the price is usually regulated by the addition of some inert1 water soluble substance like common salt or sugar4 ,the main properties that a dyestuff suitable for producing a colored soap should have are fastness to light and to alkali4 ,they should further be of such a type that the color does not come off and stain a wash cloth or the hands when the soap is used and should be soluble in water4 ,under no circumstances is it advisable to add these in such a quantity that the lather produced in the soap is colored4 ,it is customary to first dissolve the dye in hot water as a standardized solution4 ,this can then be measured out in a graduate and added to the soap the same time as the perfume is put in4 ,about one part of color to fifty parts of water is the proper proportion to obtain a perfect solution1 though this is by no means fixed4 ,in making up a solution thus it is an improvement to add to the same about one-half of one per cent4 of an alkali either as the hydroxide or carbonate4 ,then1 if there is any possibility of change of color due to alkalinity of the soap1 it will exhibit itself before the color is added4 ,a particularly difficult shade to obtain is a purple1 as there is up to the present time no purplish aniline color known which is fast to light4 ,very good results in soap may be obtained by mixing a fast blue1 as ultramarine or cobalt blue1 with a red as rhodamine or eosine4 ,inasmuch as the colors for soap have been carefully tested by most of the dyestuff manufacturers1 and their information1 usually reliable1 is open to any one desiring to know about a color for soap1 it is better to depend upon their experience with colors after having satisfied one's self that a color is what it is represented for a particular shade1 than to experiment with the numerous colors one's self4 ,,medicinal ,,soaps4 ,soap is often used for the conveyance of various medicants1 antiseptics or other material presumably beneficial for treatment of skin diseases4 ,while soap is an ideal medium for the carrying of such materials1 it is an unfortunate condition that when incorporated with the soap1 all but a very few of the numerous substances thus employed lose their medicinal properties and effectiveness for curing skin disorders1 as well as any antiseptic value the substance may have4 ,soap is of such a nature chemically that many of the substances used for skin troubles are either entirely decomposed or altered to such an extent so as to impair their therapeutic value4 ,thus many of the claims made for various medicated soaps fall flat1 and really have no more antiseptic or therapeutic merit than ordinary soap which in itself has certain germicidal and cleaning value4 ,in medicating a soap the material used for this purpose is usually added at the mill4 ,a tallow and cocoanut oil base is best adapted for a soap of this type4 ,the public have been educated more or less to the use of colored soap to accentuate its medicinal value1 and green is undoubtedly the most popular shade4 ,this inference1 however1 is by no means true for all soaps of this character4 ,possibly the best method of arranging these soaps is briefly to outline some medicinal soaps4 ,,sulphur ,,soaps4 ,the best known sulphur soaps contain anywhere from one to #bj per cent4 of flowers of sulphur4 ,other soaps contain either organic or inorganic sulphur compounds4 ,,tar ,,soap4 ,the tar used in the manufacturing of tar soap is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood1 the pine tar being the most extensively employed4 ,while the different wood tars contain numerous aromatic compounds1 such as phenols1 phenyl oxides1 terpenes and organic acids1 these are present in such a slight proportion so as to render their effectiveness practically useless4 ,it has1 therefore1 been tried to use these various compounds contained in the tar themselves to make tar soap really effective1 yet tar is so cheap a substance that it is usually the substance used for medicating a tar soap4 ,about #aj per cent4 of tar is usually added to the soap with #b ounces of lamp black per hundred pounds of soap4 ,,soaps ,,containing ,,phenols4 ,phenol 7,carbolic ,acid7 is most extensively used in soaps of this kind1 which are called carbolic soaps4 ,carbolic soaps are generally colored green and contain from #a to #e per cent4 phenol crystals4 ,the cresols are also extensively used for making soaps named carbolic4 ,these substances impart more odor to the soap and really have more disinfecting powers than phenol when incorporated with soap4 ,other soaps1 containing the phenol group1 which are well known are resorcinol soap1 salol soap1 thymol soap1 naphthol soap1 etc4 ,from one to five per cent of the compound after which the soap is named is usually incorporated with the soap4 ,,peroxide ,,soap4 ,hydrogen peroxide in itself is an excellent disinfectant4 ,it loses all its medicinal value1 however1 when added to the soap4 ,to overcome this objection various metallic peroxides are added to the soap1 as sodium peroxide1 zinc peroxide and barium peroxide4 ,these generate hydrogen peroxide by the addition of water4 ,sodium perborate is also used in peroxide soaps1 as this substance is decomposed by water into hydrogen peroxide and sodium metaborate4 ,,mercury ,,soaps4 ,mercuric chloride 7corrosive sublimate7 is most extensively used for the production of mercury soaps4 ,because of its extremely poisonous properties care should be taken in using it4 ,since it really eventually loses any antiseptic value in the soap through forming an insoluble mercury soap it might better be omitted entirely4 ,,less ,,important ,,medicinal ,,soaps4 ,while the above mentioned soaps are probably the best known medicated soaps1 there are numerous other soaps which may be classed under these kinds of soaps4 ,thus we have cold cream soap1 which can be made by adding ,russian ,mineral ,oil1 #a to #e per cent41 to the soap2 witch hazel soap1 made by the addition of extract of witch hazel2 iodine soap1 made by adding iodine or iodoform2 formaldehyde soap1 made by adding formaldehyde2 tannin soaps1 made by adding tannin4 ,in fact1 there have been incorporated in soap so great a number of substances that the list might be greatly enlarged4 ,medicated soaps are not only used in solid form1 but in powder1 paste and liquid soap as well4 ,the only difference in a soap like those just referred to is that the medicant is incorporated with these forms of soaps as convenience directs4 ,,castile ,,soap4 ,a pure castile soap should be made from olive oil4 ,this1 however1 is not always the case1 as a number of oils as well as tallow are used to adulterate this oil to cheapen it1 and there are even some soaps called castile which contain no olive oil at all4 ,most of the pure castile soap used in this country is imported1 as it is a difficult matter for the ,american manufacturer to compete with the pure imported castile soap1 since both labor and oil itself are so much cheaper in the vicinities of ,europe where this oil is produced1 that this advantage is more than compensated by the carrying and custom charges by importing the castile soap4 ,castile soap may be made either by the full boiled or cold process4 ,there are numerous grades of olive oil1 and those used for soap making are denatured to lower the duty charges4 ,olive oil makes a hard white soap1 usually sold in bars1 and olive oil foots a green soap1 due to the coloring matter contained in this oil4 ,to make a boiled castile soap1 a composition of #aj per cent4 ,cochin cocoanut oil and #ij per cent4 olive oil may be used4 ,to cheapen this1 peanut oil 7,arachis oil7 may entirely replace the olive oil1 or about #bj per cent4 of corn or soya bean oil may be added4 ,the oils are saponified as usual in making a settled soap and to prevent rancidity the soap is boiled near the finish for some time in the closed state with sufficient excess of alkali to give it a sharp taste1 then grained with lye1 the lye drawn off1 closed with water and then grained with salt4 ,this process is repeated until the desired strength is reached4 ,the last graining should not be too great1 and on the last change the soap should not be thinned out1 as it will contain too great a quantity of water when slabbed4 ,in making a cold castile soap the usual method is pursued as already directed under cold made soap4 ,when the soap is taken from the crutcher it is advisable1 however1 to keep the soap in the frame well covered to assure complete saponification4 ,some manufacturers use very small frames which are placed into compartments1 well insulated to retain heat4 ,several formulae for cold made castile soaps1 follow4 ,it may be noted that some of these contain practically no olive oil4 ,i ,olive oil #bjcj ,palm kernel #fgd ,soda lye1 #ce per cent4 ,b4 #aejf ,,ii ,olive oil #bjcj ,cochin cocoanut oil #fgd ,soda lye1 #cf per cent4 ,b4 #aebc ,sodium ,silicate #hb ,,iii ,palm kernel oil #aegh ,tallow #idj ,olive oil #g ,sodium silicate1 #bj per cent4 #aij ,soda lye1 #cf per cent4 ,b4 #aejg ,,iv ,olive oil 7yellow7 #ajjj ,soda lye1 #cg per cent4 ,b4 #ejj ,v ,olive oil #ij or ,palm kernel #aj ,cochin or cocoanut oil #aj ,lye1 #cg per cent4 ,b4 #ea ,if any of the soaps containing a high proportion of cocoanut oil are boiled the soap will float4 ,it is therefore necessary to keep the temperature as low as possible4 ,,eschweger ,,soap 7,,blue ,,mottled74 ,eschweger soap is a colored mottled or marbled soap made to a very slight extent in this country4 ,inasmuch as it has been introduced to the export trade1 it is made for this purpose by some manufacturers4 ,a high percentage of cocoanut oil is usually used together with tallow and grease4 ,about one-third of each is a typical formula4 ,in a soap of this character the fact that cocoanut oil soap takes up a large quantity of water and salts of various kinds and is difficult to salt out is made use of4 ,the tallow and grease are first saponified as usual1 then the cocoanut oil is pumped and saponified4 ,when the saponification is nearly completed either silicate or carbonate of soda or common salt are added to make the soap short so as to form the mottle4 ,the finishing of a soap of this type can only be gained by practice and it is rather difficult to explain the exact appearance of the kettle at this stage4 ,the surface of the soap should be bright and lustrous with the steam escaping in numerous places in rose-like formation4 ,a sample on the trowel should have a slight sharpness to the tongue and be plastic4 ,when the soap slides from the trowel it should break short4 ,when the soap has reached this stage the desired coloring matter1 usually ultramarine1 is added to the soap either in the kettle or crutcher and the soap framed4 ,the yield is #bjj-bae pounds per hundred pounds of stock4 ,several modifications of this general method for ,eschweger soap are used by adopting the half boiled or cold process4 ,,transparent ,,soap4 ,transparent soap is really not a most desirable soap for toilet purposes1 as it contains an excess of free alkali4 ,it has1 nevertheless1 met with public approval because of the fact it is novel in being transparent4 ,except for this fact very little merit can be claimed for a soap of this kind4 ,the transparency of soap is generally due to the presence of alcohol1 sugar or glycerine in the soap when it is made4 ,it is very essential in a soap of this character1 where lightness and clearness of color are desired1 that the material for making the soap be carefully selected as to color and purity4 ,the perfumes also play an important part in the color of the soap and many of the tinctures1 balsams and infusions used in perfuming soap may eventually cause trouble by spotting4 ,if the soap is artificially colored1 which is almost always the case1 the dyestuffs used for this purpose should have careful attention and only those should be used which are known to resist the action of alkalis4 ,where rosin is used this product must be of the better grade4 ,distilled water is always preferable for use in transparent soap4 ,the government permits the use of a specially denatured alcohol4 ,this alcohol is not taxed and consists of grain 7ethyl7 alcohol denatured with #e per cent4 wood 7methyl7 alcohol4 ,some soapmakers prefer to use a more expensive refined methyl alcohol1 but outside of adding to the cost of the soap1 there is no particular advantage4 ,the glycerine should be chemically pure4 ,as to the oils and fats these should be low in acid and of good color4 ,under no circumstances should the crutcher or kettle in which the soap is made be rusty or unclean in any way4 ,for a light soap enameled utensils are to be preferred4 ,to obtain transparency in soap the following general methods may be given4 #a4 ,where the transparency is due to sugar4 #b4 ,where alcohol and glycerine produce transparency4 #c4 ,where 7#a7 or 7#b7 is supplemented by the use of castor oil4 #d4 ,where transparency depends upon the percentage of fatty acid in a soap and the number of times the soap is milled4 ,under the first method at least #be per cent4 of the charge should be cocoanut oil1 the other constituent being tallow or any fat or oil capable of giving a sufficiently hard soap4 ,the soap is boiled and finished as usual1 then run to the crutcher to be mixed with a strong cane sugar solution1 containing #aj-bj per cent4 sugar of the weight of the soap4 ,the sugar is dissolved in its own weight of water and the solution heated to #age degs4 ,f4 before being very slowly added to the soap4 ,as the water evaporates1 soaps of this type show spots due to the sugar thus being thrown out of solution4 ,transparent soap made under the second method may be saponified as usual and consist of any good toilet base4 ,the soap is run to the crutcher and mixed with #ie per cent4 alcohol in the proportion of one part alcohol to two parts of fatty acid contained in the soap together with glycerine in the same proportion4 ,by the third method castor oil alone may be used to make the soap or added to any of the above bases up to #cc-a_/c per cent4 of the charge4 ,if castor oil only is used1 but #b per cent4 or #c per cent4 of sugar is required4 ,in the last method a combination of #hj per cent4 tallow1 very low in free acid1 #bj per cent4 cocoanut oil and #e per cent4 ,w4 ,w4 rosin is a suitable charge4 ,the saponification and finishing is carried out as with a full boiled soap4 ,the soap is then placed into a jacketed vessel1 provided with dry-steam coils1 by which the excess water is evaporated from the soap until it contains #gc per cent4 fatty acids4 ,when the thick mass reaches this stage it is framed and when cool is suitable for obtaining a semi transparency which now depends upon the number of times the soap is milled1 it being1 of course1 inferred that no solid matter of any sort be added to the soap4 ,,cold ,,made ,,transparent ,,soap4 ,while transparent soaps may be made by the above general methods they are usually made by the semi-boiled or cold process4 ,by this process a more satisfactory soap is obtained and it is more simple to carry out4 ,a detailed description of this method is best and most easily given by using a typical formula4 ,charge3 ,tallow #aic-a_/b lbs4 ,cochin ,cocoanut ,oil #afi-a_/b ,castor ,oil #hi-a_/b ,soda ,ash #g-c_/d ,soda ,lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #bef ,sugar 7,cane7 #aih ,alcohol #abf ,water 7,distilled7 #hj ,to proceed1 first place into a crutcher or jacketed kettle the oils and fat and heat to #adj degs4 ,f4 ,then add the soda ash dissolved in about #cj pounds of the water1 after which the lye is added and the mass stirred until a finger or stick run over the surface leaves an imprint4 ,where the soap has reached this stage1 it is well covered and allowed to stand about two hours or until it bulges in the center1 after which the rest of the water which should contain no lime or other mineral substance and which is preferably distilled water1 is added4 ,the sugar is then slowly shoveled in while the mass is stirring and finally the alcohol is poured in4 ,the heat is then increased to #afj degs4 ,f4 by dry steam and the soap crutched until dissolved4 ,under no circumstances should any soap be allowed to remain above the surface of the mass on the sides of the mixer4 ,this crutching operation consumes about one hour1 and when finished the soap should stand in the vessel about half an hour when a small sample is taken out to cool4 ,this sample should be clear and show an excess of alkali4 ,if it is not clear more alcohol is added1 if not of sufficient strength more lye put in until the desired condition is reached4 ,the perfume and color are now added4 ,the soap is then framed and allowed to set after which it is cut1 allowed to dry slightly and then pressed4 ,to obtain a polished cake transparent soaps are often planed before pressing and after pressing polished with a soft cloth1 dampened with alcohol4 ,instead of framing this soap1 it is sometimes tubed1 that is to say1 the soap from the crutcher is run into specially constructed tubes of a shape near that of the desired cake and allowed to cool1 after which it is cut and pressed4 ,all scraps are returned to the crutcher1 but in so doing the soap is slightly darkened in color4 ,it is advisable to expose a finished cake of transparent soap to the air for some time as by so doing it becomes clearer4 ,other formulae for cold made transparent soaps made as just outlined follow3 ,i4 ,bleached ,tallow #acd lbs4 ,cochin ,cocoanut ,oil #hh ,castor ,oil #bj ,w4 ,w4 ,rosin #g ,cane ,sugar #fd ,water #cb ,glycerine #cd ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #ace ,alcohol #af gal4 ,,ii4 ,tallow #baa lbs4 ,cochin ,cocoanut ,oil #ahe ,castor ,oil #ig-a_/b ,soda ,ash #h-a_/b ,water #ajf ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #bgi ,sugar #baf ,alcohol #acg ,,iii4 ,castor ,oil #fj lbs4 ,cochin ,cocoanut ,oil #aie ,tallow #abj ,alcohol #aae ,sugar #ij ,water #ec ,glycerine #ec ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #bje-a_/b ,,iv4 ,tallow #ajj lbs4 ,cochin ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,castor ,oil #fj ,glycerine #bj ,rosin1 ,w4 ,w4 #bj ,sugar #dj ,water #ej ,soda ,lye1 #cf degs4 ,b4 #afd ,alcohol #h gal4 ,v4 ,tallow #agd lbs4 ,cocoanut ,oil #aad ,soda ,lye1 #ch degs4 ,b4 #agj ,sugar #hj ,water #gb ,alcohol #af gal4 ,rosin may be added in this formula up to #bj per cent4 of fats used and the tallow cut down correspondingly4 ,,shaving ,,soaps4 ,the requirements of a shaving soap are somewhat different than those of other soaps4 ,to be a good shaving soap the lather produced therefrom must be heavy1 creamy1 but not gummy1 and remain moist when formed on the face4 ,the soap itself should be of a soft consistency so as to readily adhere to the face when used in stick form4 ,it should furthermore be neutral or nearly so to prevent the alkali from smarting during shaving4 ,shaving soap is made in the form of a stick1 and a tablet for use in the shaving mug4 ,some shavers prefer to have the soap as a powder or cream1 which are claimed to be more convenient methods of shaving4 ,while a liquid shaving soap is not as well known because it has not yet become popular1 some soap for shaving is made in this form4 ,formerly shaving soap was extensively made from a charge of about #hj parts tallow and #bj parts cocoanut oil as a boiled settled soap1 but either making the strengthening change with potash lye or using potash lye in saponifying the stock and graining with salt4 ,soaps for shaving made in this manner are very unsatisfactory1 as they do not produce a sufficiently thick or lasting lather and discolor very materially upon ageing4 ,potassium stearate forms an ideal lather for shaving1 but readily hardens and hence needs some of the softer oils1 or glycerine incorporated with it to form a satisfactory soap for shaving4 ,the selection of materials for making a shaving soap is important4 ,the tallow used should be white and of high titer4 ,cochin cocoanut oil is to be preferred to the other kinds1 and the alkalis should be the best for technical use that can be purchased--#gf per cent4 caustic soda and #hh-ib per cent4 caustic potash are suitable4 ,by the use of stearic acid it is a simple matter to reach the neutral point which can be carefully approximated4 ,the following are shaving soap formulae which have been found to give good satisfaction3 ,i4 lbs4 ,tallow #cfj ,stearic acid #dj ,soda lye1 #da;deg4 ,b4 #adg ,potash lye1 #cd;deg4 ,b4 #hg ,water #cb ,gum tragacanth #a ,,ii4 lbs4 ,tallow #bhb ,cocoanut oil #fj ,stearic acid #ej ,bayberry wax #ah ,soda lye1 #da;deg4 ,b4 #adg ,potash lye1 #cd;deg4 ,b4 #ij ,water #cb ,,iii4 lbs4 ,tallow #djj ,cocoanut oil #agf ,stearic acid #dae ,caustic soda1 #dj;deg4 ,b4 #ahb ,caustic potash1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #ajh ,to proceed1 first run into the crutcher the tallow1 cocoanut oil and bayberry wax when used1 and bring the temperature of the mass up to #adj;deg4-#afj;deg4 ,f4 by dry steam4 ,then add the caustic soda lye and keep on heat with occasional mixing until it is all taken up4 ,when this stage is reached gradually add all but about #e per cent4 of the potash lye1 and complete the saponification4 ,this point having been reached1 the heat is turned off2 the crutcher is run and the stearic acid1 previously melted by dry steam in a lead-lined or enameled vessel1 is run in in a continuous stream and the crutching continued for fifteen minutes to half an hour4 ,samples are taken at this time1 cooled and tested by alcoholic phenolphthalein solution4 ,if too alkaline more stearic acid is added1 if too acid more potash lye from that previously reserved4 ,after each addition of lye or stearic acid the mass is crutched from #aj to #ae minutes longer1 another sample is taken1 cooled and again tested4 ,when the phenolphthalein shows a very light pink after several minutes1 the soap is practically neutral1 although at this point one can better judge by dissolving a sample in hot neutralized alcohol made by putting into the alcohol a few drops of phenolphthalein1 and then adding weak alkali drop by drop from a burette until a slight pink1 not yellow1 tint is obtained1 and noting the color of the solution4 ,the solution should show a very light pink when the soap is properly neutralized4 ,when this stage is arrived at the gum tragacanth1 previously softened in water1 is crutched in if it is to be added4 ,the soap is then framed1 stripped in three or four days1 dried and milled4 ,the formulae as given are for shaving sticks1 and do not readily press unless thoroughly dried4 ,a more satisfactory result is obtained by adding at the mill #be per cent4 of white tallow base to obtain a satisfactory mug soap4 ,,shaving ,,powder4 ,shaving powder differs from the soaps just described in being pulverized1 usually adding up to #e per cent4 starch to prevent caking4 ,any of the above soaps1 dried bone dry1 with or without the addition of tallow base make a satisfactory powder for shaving4 ,,shaving ,,cream4 ,shaving cream is now a very popular shaving medium due to the rapidity and convenience with which one can shave by the use of this product4 ,formerly shaving cream was made from the liquid oils like olive oil and a soft fat like lard1 together with cocoanut oil4 ,now1 however1 most of the popular shaving creams are made from stearic acid and cocoanut oil1 as a far superior product is obtained by the use of these substances4 ,by using these a more satisfactory cream is obtained1 and it is far more convenient to make4 ,the lather also produced therefrom is more suitable for shaving1 being thick1 creamy and remaining moist4 ,a few typical formulae for shaving creams of this type are as follows3 ,i4 lbs4 ,cochin cocoanut oil #bf ,stearic acid #afe ,caustic potash lye1 #ej;deg4 ,b4 #fi ,glycerine ,c4 ,p4 #gf ,water #ch ,,ii4 lbs4 ,cochin cocoanut oil #ah ,stearic acid #gc ,caustic potash lye1 #ci;deg4 ,b4 #ed ,glycerine #cc ,water #bg ,,iii4 lbs4 ,cochin cocoanut oil #ah ,stearic acid #gc ,caustic potash lye1 #ci;deg4 ,b4 #ed ,glycerine #bj ,water #dj and lbs4 ,stearic acid #fj ,glycerine ,c4 ,p4 #he ,water #afe ,sodium carbonate #ej ,borax #a ,to make a shaving cream by ,formula ,i or ,,ii1 the cocoanut oil and glycerine are first put into a suitable mixing apparatus or crutcher1 and heated to #abj;deg4 ,f4 ,a part or all the potash lye is then added and the cocoanut oil saponified4 ,the rest of the potash lye and the water are then added1 and with the mixer running the stearic acid1 previously melted in a lead-lined or enameled vessel1 is then poured in in a stream and the mass stirred until smooth1 care being exercised not to aerate it too much4 ,the cream is then tested for alkalinity1 the best method being by that described under shaving soap1 in which the sample is dissolved in alcohol4 ,because of the large quantity of water present1 phenolphthalein is unsatisfactory1 as dissociation of the soap may show a pink indication in spite of the fact the mass is on the acid side4 ,for a quick method of testing the bite on the tongue is a satisfactory criterion4 ,if a cooled sample bites the tongue more stearic acid is added until there is a #c excess of this4 ,when the proper neutralization has taken place the cream is perfumed and framed in a special frame1 or it may be allowed to cool in the mixer and perfumed the next day4 ,when cool the cream is strained1 or put through an ointment mill1 after which it is ready to fill into tubes4 ,the procedure for the first part of ,formula ,,iii is the same as that just given4 ,the second part of the formula is made the same as a vanishing cream for toilet purposes4 ,to make this1 first melt the stearic acid as already directed4 ,dissolve the sodium carbonate and borax in water and when dissolved add the glycerine and stir4 ,then heat this solution to about #ajj;deg4-#abj;deg4 ,f4 and while stirring in a suitable mixing machine into which this solution has been poured after being heated1 or better still in which it has been heated by dry steam1 add the stearic acid4 ,continue mixing until smooth and then allow to cool1 or run into frames to cool4 ,when the shaving cream and vanishing cream are both cool1 they are mixed in the proportion of one of the former to two of the latter4 ,it is claimed that in thus making a shaving cream a smoother product is obtained1 although it may be said that the vanishing cream is merely a soft soap and the ultimate result is the same as though the various ingredients were added in one operation1 rather than making two separate products and then mixing them1 thereby considerably increasing the cost of manufacture4 ,,pumice ,,or ,,sand ,,soaps4 ,pumice and sand are at times added to soap to aid in the removal of dirt in cleansing the hands4 ,in some cases these soaps are made in the form of a cake1 in others they are sold in cans in the form of a paste4 ,a hand paste is usually made by merely dissolving ordinary tallow base in two or three times its weight of hot water and mixing in the desired quantity of pumice or sand and in some instances adding a little glycerine to keep it soft or a solvent of some kind for grease4 ,it may also be made by directly incorporating any of these in a potash soap4 ,a cold made or semi-boiled cocoanut or palm kernel oil soap is the base used to add the pumice or sand to in making a cake soap of this sort4 ,the following formulae serve as a guide for these soaps4 ,i4 ,palm ,kernel or ,ceylon ,cocoanut ,oil #gje lbs4 ,pumice 7,powdered7 #bha ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #cgh ,,ii4 ,cocoanut ,oil #ajj ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #ee ,water #f ,silver ,sand 7fine7 #fj ,to proceed place the oil in a crutcher and heat to #adj;deg4 ,f4 ,sift in the pumice and mix thoroughly4 ,the lye is then added which causes a curdling of the grain4 ,the stirring is continued until the grain closes and the soap is smooth1 after which the desired perfume is added and the soap dropped into a frame and crutched by hand4 ,when the soap is set1 it is slabbed1 cut into cakes1 dried slightly and pressed4 ,,liquid ,,soaps4 ,liquid soaps are merely solutions of a potash soap1 usually cocoanut oil soap1 although corn oil is used to make a cheap soap4 ,one of the difficulties encountered in liquid soap is to keep it clear4 ,at a low temperature a sediment is often formed1 but this can be overcome by the use of sugar and filtering the soap through a filter press at a low temperature4 ,in order to prevent the soap from freezing1 it is necessary to lower the freezing point by the addition of glycerine or alcohol4 ,to make liquid soap by any of the formulae given below1 the oil is first run into a jacketed kettle with a stirring device1 and heated to about #abj;deg4 ,f4 ,the potash lye is then added and the oil saponified4 ,when the saponification takes place1 especially when cocoanut oil is used1 the mass swells rapidly and may foam over the sides of the kettle unless water is used to check this1 or a kettle of about four to five times the capacity of the total charge of soap is used4 ,when the saponification has occurred1 the sugar1 borax and glycerine are added1 the water run in and the mixture stirred until the soap is thoroughly dissolved4 ,heat aids materially in dissolving the soap4 ,the soap is then allowed to cool and if color or perfume is to be added this is stirred in1 after which the soap is cooled and filtered or else run directly into barrels4 ,tallow is not suitable for making a clear liquid soap since it is too high in stearine which when formed into the stearate makes an opaque solution4 ,the formulae herewith given have been found to give good practical results4 ,i4 lbs4 ,cocoanut oil #acj ,caustic potash lye1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #ace ,sugar #gb ,borax #b ,water #bfg ,,ii4 lbs4 ,corn oil #acj ,caustic potash lye1 #bf;deg4 ,b4 #ace ,sugar #gb ,borax #b ,water #bfg ,,iii4 lbs4 ,cocoanut oil #ajj ,caustic potash lye1 #bh;deg4 ,b4 #ajb ,glycerine #ajj ,sugar #gj ,water #hcc ,formulae ,i and ,,ii contain about #bj per cent4 fatty acids4 ,it is possible1 of course1 to either increase or decrease the percentage of fatty acid by varying the amount of water4 ,the water used in making liquid soaps1 of course1 should be soft1 for hard water forms insoluble soaps which precipitate and cause a sediment4 ,,use ,,of ,,hardened ,,oils ,,in ,,toilet ,,soaps4 ,while the introduction of the hydrogenation of oils is a decided advance in the production of suitable cheaper oils for soap making1 comparatively little hardened oil is employed for soap making in ,america up to the present time4 ,in ,europe1 however1 considerable advance has been made by the use of such oils for manufacturing soap therefrom and a number of plants turn out large quantities of hydrogenated oils for soap making as well as for edible purposes4 ,recently a company has been formed in this country for hardening oils and it is very probable that the future will see this material extensively used in our own country1 as these appear to be the one present hope of the soap manufacturer as a check on the ever increasing cost of fats and oils now used in making soap4 ,it is an unfortunate condition that hydrogenated oils produced abroad are sold under names which give absolutely no indication as to the oil which has been hardened4 ,the softer and cheaper oils like fish oil1 linseed oil1 cottonseed oil1 etc41 are generally hardened for soap manufacture to different degrees of hardness4 ,while it is impossible to definitely state just what products as ,candelite1 ,talgol1 ,krutolin or several other coined names of hardened oils are1 various investigators have experimented with them as to their adaptability for producing toilet soaps and found that suitable toilet soaps may be made from them4 ,while many objections were at first met with concerning soaps made from these products1 as to their unsatisfactory saponification1 the poor lathering quality of the soaps and their odor and consequent difficulty in perfuming1 the results of most investigators along these lines indicate that these in many cases were due to prejudice against or unfamiliarity with handling oils of this type for soap making4 ,in manufacturing soap from hardened oils it is usually necessary to incorporate with the charge lard1 tallow1 tallow oil or some other soft oil of this nature4 ,satisfactory bases for toilet soaps1 made as boiled settled soap by the use of ,talgol 7undoubtedly hardened fish oil71 are said to be made by the formulae#aj below4 ,i4 ,tallow #de parts ,talgol #dj ,cocoanut ,oil #ae ,,ii4 ,cocoanut ,oil 7,ceylon7 #f ,tallow #ab ,talgol1 ,extra #ab ,the method of boiling a soap of this type does not differ materially from that of making settled tallow soap base4 ,the soap itself has a different odor than a straight tallow base1 but is said to make a very satisfactory soap for milling and to be of good appearance4 ,satisfactory transparent soaps are made from the hardened oil ,candelite1 which replaces the tallow in transparent soap formulae such as have already been given in the section under ,transparent ,soaps4 ,the method of manufacturing a soap by the use of this product varies in no way from the usual method employed for making these soaps4 ,since hydrogenated oils are high in stearine1 their use in shaving soaps is a decided advantage4 ,it has previously been pointed out that potassium stearate forms an ideal lather for shaving1 and in the hydrogenating process the olein is converted to stearine4 ,thus a hardened oil is advantageous in a shaving soap4 ,as an example of a cold made soap for shaving the following may be taken4#aa ,talgol ,extra #ej lbs4 ,cocoanut ,oil #aj ,lard #aj ,soda ,lye1 #ch;deg4 ,b4 #bj ,potash ,lye1 #cg;deg4 ,b4 #ba ,this soap may be made in a crutcher by the method generally used in making soap by the cold process4 ,,textile ,,soaps4 ,soap is a very important product to every branch of the textile industry4 ,for woolen fabrics it is used for scouring1 fulling and throwing the wool2 in the silk industry it is necessary for degumming the raw silk1 as well as for dyeing2 in the cotton mills it is used to finish cotton cloth and to some extent in bleaching2 it is1 furthermore1 employed in a number of ways in the manufacture of linen4 ,large quantities of soap are thus consumed in an industry of so great an extent and the requirements necessitate different soaps for the different operations4 ,we will1 therefore1 consider these in detail4 ,,scouring ,,and ,,fulling ,,soaps ,,for ,,wool4 ,the soaps used to scour wool and for fulling the woven cloth are usually made as cheaply as possible4 ,they are1 however1 generally pure soaps1 as filling material such as sodium silicate does not readily rinse out of the wool and if used at all must be added very sparingly4 ,both cold made and boiled settled soaps are made for this purpose4 ,the soap is generally sold in barrels1 hence is run directly to these from the crutcher or soap kettle4 ,as cold made soaps the following serve for wool scouring or fulling4 ,i4 ,palm ,oil #bjj lbs4 ,bone ,grease #dfj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #ceg ,water #aac ,soda ,ash #ej ,citronella #b ,,ii4 ,palm ,oil 7,calabar1 unbleached7 #aee ,house ,grease #cfj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #cbd ,water #bfh ,sodium ,silicate #hc ,,iii4 ,house ,grease #ahe ,palm ,oil 7unbleached7 #cji ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #cji ,water #cia ,soda ,ash #gj ,sodium ,silicate #fj ,corn ,starch #aj ,these soaps are made in a crutcher by the usual process for cold-made soaps1 crutched until smooth1 dropped into a barrel and crutched by hand the next day or just before cooling4 ,as a settled soap for these operations the following charge is typical3 ,palm ,oil #cd parts ,cottonseed foots or its equivalent in fatty acids #cc ,rosin #aj ,house ,grease #bc ,the method of boiling such a soap is the same as for any settled soap up to the strengthening change4 ,when this stage is reached1 sufficient lye is added to strengthen the kettle strongly4 ,it is then boiled down with closed steam on salt brine or pickle until a sample of the lye taken from the bottom stands at #af;deg4-#bb;deg4 ,b4 ,the soap is then run into barrels and after standing therein for a day is hand crutched until cool to prevent streaking of the soap4 ,besides a soap of this type a settled tallow chip soap is used4 ,,wool ,,thrower',s ,,soap4 ,soaps for wool throwing are sometimes made from olive oil foots but these are often objected to because of the sulphur-like odor conveyed to the cloth due to the method by which this oil is extracted with carbon disulphide4 ,a potash soap hardened somewhat with soda is also used4 ,as a formula for a suitable soap of this type this may be given4 ,olive ,oil ,foots #ab parts ,corn ,oil #df ,house ,grease #bj ,soda ,lye1 #cf;deg4 ,b4 #c ,potassium ,carbonate 7dry7 #e-c_/d ,potassium ,hydrate 7solid7 #bc ,this soap is made as a run soap by the general directions already given for a soap thus made4 ,the kettle is boiled with open and closed steam1 adding water very slowly and aiming to obtain a #bbj-bbe per cent4 yield or fatty acid content of the finished soap of #df per cent4 ,when the soap is finished a sample cooled on a plate of glass should be neither slippery or short1 but should string slightly4 ,the finished soap is run directly into barrels4 ,a soap for wool throwing by the semi-boiled process may be made from olive oil foots in a crutcher thus3 ,olive ,oil ,foots #fjj lbs4 ,potash ,lye1 #bj;deg4 ,b4 #ffj ,the oil is heated to #ahj;deg4 ,f41 the lye added and the mass stirred until it bunches1 when it is dropped into barrels4 ,,worsted ,,finishing ,,soaps4 ,for the finishing of worsted cloth soaps high in cocoanut oil or palm kernel oil are preferred4 ,these soaps are finished very neutral1 being made as settled soaps1 but given an extra wash change after strengthening strongly4 ,they are then finished as usual and run into barrels4 ,if framed too hot1 the high percentage of cocoanut oil causes mottling1 which is prevented by crutching by hand until the temperature of the soap is #adj;deg4-#ade;deg4 ,f4 ,some typical charges1 all of which are saponified with soda lye1 follow3 ,i4 ,palm ,kernel ,oil #fj parts ,corn ,oil #dj ,,ii4 ,palm ,kernel ,oil #cj ,red ,oil 7single pressed7 #gj ,,iii4 ,red ,oil #cc-a_/c ,corn ,oil #cc-a_/c ,cocoanut ,oil or ,palm ,kernel ,oil #cc-a_/c ,,soaps ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,silk ,,industry4 ,soap is used to a very large extent in silk mills1 both for degumming the raw silk and in silk dyeing4 ,raw silk consists of the true silk fibre known as fibroin and a gummy coating1 sericin1 which dulls the lustre of the silk unless removed4 ,for this purpose a slightly alkaline olive oil foots soap is best adapted1 although palm oil and peanut oil soaps are sometimes used1 as well as soaps made from a combination of house grease to the extent of #cj per cent41 together with red oil or straight olein soaps1 both of which are artificially colored green4 ,in using house grease1 if #cj per cent4 is exceeded in combination with red oil1 the titer is raised to such an extent that the soap does not readily rinse from the silk nor dissolve readily4 ,they are also not advisable because they impart a disagreeable odor to the silk4 ,to make a soap for this purpose from olive oil foots it is made as a settled soap1 care being taken to thoroughly boil the mass on the saponification change in the closed state to assure proper saponification4 ,the kettle is usually grained with lye and given a good wash change to remove the excess strength4 ,the change previous to the finish should not be too heavy or too large a nigre results4 ,the lighter the grain is1 the better the finished kettle is4 ,a yield of #aej per cent4 is usually obtained4 ,this soap is generally run to a frame1 slabbed upon cooling and packed directly into wooden cases4 ,for silk dyeing the above soap is suitable1 although any well-made soap of good odor and not rancid is useable4 ,while soap alone is often used in the bath for silk dyeing1 certain dyestuffs require the addition of acetic or sulphuric acid1 which sets free the fatty acids4 ,if these be of bad odor it is taken up by the silk and is difficult to remove4 ,the most generally used soaps are the just mentioned olive foots soap or a soap made from a good grade red oil4 ,both kinds are extensively used4 ,,soaps ,,used ,,for ,,cotton ,,goods4 ,in the manufacture of cotton goods1 as compared to the wool and silk industries1 very much less soap is used and it is only applied to the finished fabric either to clean the cloth preparatory to dyeing or to aid in dyeing with certain colors4 ,it is also used in calico printing4 ,for cleansing the cloth ordinary chip soap is suitable although a more alkaline soap finished as a curd soap is an advantage in that the free alkali contained therein aids in removing the dirt and has no harmful effect on the cotton4 ,for dyeing cotton goods or to brighten certain colors after dyeing an olive oil foots soap is most generally employed4 ,in calico printing soap is used to wash and clear the cloth after printing4 ,a soap for this purpose should be easily soluble in water and contain no free alkali1 rosin or filler4 ,the best soaps for use in calico printing are either an olive oil foots soap or an olein soap4 ,,sulphonated ,,oils4 ,while sulphonated oils are not used to any great extent in the manufacture of soap1 they are used very largely in the dyeing and printing of turkey and alizarine reds on cotton as well as other colors4 ,just what action these oils have is not known4 ,turkey red oil or sulphonated castor oil is the best known sulphonated oil4 ,the process of making these oils is simple4 ,the equipment necessary is a wooden tank or barrel of suitable capacity1 approximately two and a half times the amount of oil to be treated4 ,there are furthermore required other tanks or vessels to hold the solutions used such as caustic soda1 ammonia and acid4 ,the tank to be used for the preparation of sulphonated oil should be provided with a valve at the bottom of the tank and a gauge to measure the quantity of liquid therein4 ,the process is carried out as follows3 ,three hundred pounds of castor oil are placed in the tank and #hj pounds at #ff deg4 ,b4 sulphuric acid are weighed out in another vessel4 ,the acid is run into the tank containing the oil in a very thin stream while the oil is well stirred4 ,at no time should the temperature exceed #dj deg4 ,c4 ,this operation should consume at least an hour and stirring should be continued half an hour longer to insure the thorough mixing of the oil with the acid4 ,the mass is then allowed to settle for #bd hours1 after which #dj gallons of water are added and the mixture stirred until it has a uniform creamy color indicating no dark streaks4 ,this mixing process should be carefully carried out and when completed allowed to settle #cf hours4 ,at this point the mass will have separated into two layers1 the lower layer consisting of a water solution of acid and the upper layer of oil4 ,the former is run out through the valve located at the bottom of the tank4 ,another wash may now be given or dispensed with as desired4 ,in this wash the addition of salt or sodium sulphate at the rate of #a-a_/b pounds per gallon of water is advisable4 ,a #bd deg4 ,b4 caustic soda solution is prepared and added slowly to the acidified oil with constant stirring4 ,the mass first turns creamy1 then becomes streaked1 increasing in streaks as the caustic solution is poured in1 and finally becomes clear and transparent4 ,water is now added to bring the volume to #ge gallons4 ,the oil is now milky in appearance1 but the addition of a little more soda solution restores the transparency4 ,in some cases ammonia is used in addition to caustic soda in neutralizing the oil4 ,three-fourths of the amount of caustic soda required to complete the neutralization is first added and then the neutralization is completed with a one to one liquid ammonia and water solution4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,seifensieder ,ztg41 #dj1 #dg1 #abff 7#aiac74 #aj ,seifensieder ,ztg4 7#aiac71 p4 #ccd and #cch4 7#aiab71 p4 #abbi and #abeg4 #aa ,seifensieder ,ztg4 7#aiab71 p4 #ied4 ,,chapter ,v ,glycerine ,recovery4 ,the recovery of glycerine is very closely allied with the soap-making industry1 because glycerine is the very valuable by-product obtained in the saponification of oils and fats4 ,no soap plant is1 therefore1 fully equipped unless it has some method whereby the glycerine is recovered and the importance of recovering this product cannot be too strongly emphasized4 ,it has already been pointed out that neutral fats or the glycerides are a combination of fatty acid with glycerine4 ,these are split apart in the process of saponification4 ,while by the term saponification as used in soap making it is inferred that this is the combination of caustic alkalis with the fatty acids to form soap1 this term is by no means limited to this method of saponification1 as there are various other methods of saponifying a fat4 ,the chemical definition of saponification is the conversion of an ester1 of which glycerides are merely a certain type1 into an alcohol and an acid or a salt of this acid4 ,thus1 if we use caustic alkali as our saponifying agent for a fat or oil1 we obtain the sodium or potassium salt of the higher fatty acids or soap and the alcohol1 glycerine4 ,on the other hand1 if we use a mineral acid as the saponifying agent1 we obtain the fatty acids themselves in addition to glycerine4 ,while the former is by far the most generally employed for making soap1 other processes consist in saponifying the fats by some method other than caustic alkalis and then converting the fatty acids into soap by either neutralizing them with sodium or potassium carbonate or hydrate4 ,it is important to again point out here that fats and oils develop free fatty acid of themselves and that the development of this acid represents a loss in glycerine4 ,the selection of an oil or fat for soap making should therefore to a large extent be judged as to its adaptability by the free fatty acid content1 as the higher this content is1 the greater is the loss in the glycerine eventually obtained4 ,glycerine often represents the only profit to a soap manufacturer4 ,it is indeed necessary to determine the percentage of free fatty acid before purchasing a lot of stock to be made into soap4 ,in taking up the question of glycerine recovery we will consider the various methods thus3 #a4 ,where the glycerine is obtained from spent lye by saponifying the fats or oils with caustic alkali4 #b4 ,where the glycerine is obtained by saponifying the fats or oils by some other method than the above1 of which there are the following3 7a7 ,twitchell process4 7b7 ,saponification by lime in autoclave4 7c7 ,saponification by acid4 7d7 ,saponification by water in autoclave4 7e7 ,fermentative 7,enzymes74 7f7 ,krebitz process4 ,,recovery ,,of ,,glycerine ,,from ,,spent ,,lye4 ,the spent lye obtained from the glycerine changes in making soap varies greatly1 the quality depending upon the stock saponified and the soap maker's care in handling the operation4 ,no two lyes run exactly alike as to proportion of the various ingredients1 although they are all similar in containing the same substances either in solution or suspension4 ,spent lye is a water solution of mainly glycerine1 free alkali either as caustic alkali or carbonate and salt1 including sodium sulfate1 but furthermore contains some soap and albuminous matter either in solution or suspension4 ,upon standing in the storage tank the greater part of the soap usually separates when the lye cools4 ,in order to assure the greatest economical yield of glycerine by saponifying a fat with caustic soda it is necessary to obtain a proportion of three parts of water to every part of fat made into soap4 ,test runs have shown that this is the proper proportion and that it is not economical to greatly exceed this amount1 and if a much less proportion is used the full yield of glycerine is not obtained4 ,the spent lyes contain varying amounts of glycerine1 the first change being richest in glycerine content1 and this being reduced in the subsequent changes4 ,if the lyes always run high in glycerine it is an indication that it is not all being obtained4 ,the usual percentage is from #j4e to #e or even more1 although the average is somewhere around #b to #c4 ,the lye as it comes from the kettle should not contain any more than #j4e to #j4f of free alkali calculated as sodium carbonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c4 ,if the proportion is higher than this1 it shows that the saponification has been conducted with too high a proportion of alkali1 a condition which should be corrected in the kettle room4 ,an excess of free alkali does not interfere to any great extent with the successful recovery of the glycerine1 but is a waste of both alkali and the acid used in neutralizing this4 ,it is1 therefore1 more economical to run a strong lye over fresh stock and neutralize the alkali thus1 rather than treating the lye for glycerine recovery4 ,before the spent lye can be run into the evaporator it is necessary to remove the albuminous impurities and soap and to neutralize the excess alkali to between exactly neutral and #j4jb alkalinity4 ,the lye should never be fed into the evaporator in the acid condition4 ,in order to treat the spent lyes for evaporation1 they are first allowed to cool in the storage tank1 after which any soap which may have separated is skimmed off and returned to the soap kettle4 ,this lye is then pumped to the treatment tank1 an ordinary tank equipped with some method of agitating the liquor1 either by a mechanical stirrer1 steam blower or compressed air1 until it is about two feet from the top4 ,after the lye has been skimmed off it is thoroughly agitated and a sample taken4 ,the amount of lye in the tank is then calculated4 ,spent lye is about #a4ji times heavier than water1 or weighs about #i pounds to the gallon4 ,while the sample is being tested for alkalinity it is advisable to add sulfate of alumina1 which may be dissolving while the sample is being titrated4 ,this substance should be added in the proportion of anywhere from #f to #ad pounds per thousand pounds of lye1 depending upon the amount of impurities contained therein4 ,for a clean lye six pounds per thousand is sufficient1 but for an impure lye a greater quantity is necessary4 ,the sulfate of alumina used should be free from arsenic and sulfides and should contain a minimum amount of grit 7silica71 as grit reduces the life of the pump valves4 ,this may be estimated with sufficient accuracy by rubbing the filtered-off portions1 insoluble in water between the fingers and a plate of glass4 ,the object of adding the sulfate of alumina is to transform the soap contained in the lye into the insoluble aluminum soaps1 and at the same time to coagulate the albuminous impurities4 ,it must be remembered that the sulfate of alumina is added only for the fresh lye put into the tank4 ,thus if there were #aj1jjj pounds of lye in the treating tank when the fresh lye was run in1 and #ej1jjj pounds when the tank is filled1 adding nine pounds of sulfate of alumina per thousand of lye1 only #cfj pounds would be added or enough for #dj1jjj pounds4 ,sulfate of alumina neutralizes one-third of its weight of caustic4 ,to determine the alkali in the sample1 #aj cubic centimeters are pipetted into a beaker1 a little distilled water added1 then #c or #d drops of phenolphthalein indicator4 ,from a burette1 quarter normal 7,n_/#d7 sulfuric acid is added until the pink color is just discharged4 ,when this point is reached #d to #e c4 c4 more of acid are added and the solution is boiled to expel the carbon dioxide4 ,should the solution turn pink1 it is necessary to add more acid4 ,after having boiled for #c to #d minutes1 ,n_/#d caustic soda is added until the pink color just returns and the amount of caustic soda used is read on the burette4 ,the difference between the number of cubic centimeters of ,n_/#d sulfuric acid and ,n_/#d caustic soda gives the amount of alkali in the sample4 ,by using a #aj c4 c4 sample and ,n_/#d sulfuric acid and ,n_/#d caustic soda each c4 c4 obtained by the difference of these two solutions is equal to one-tenth of one per cent4 7#j4a7 of the total alkali in the lye4 ,as an example1 say we first used #g4g c4 c4 of ,n_/#d sulfuric acid to just discharge the pink1 then added #d c4 c4 more1 or #aa4g c4 c4 in total4 ,after boiling it required #e4c c4 c4 to bring back a slight pink1 the total alkalinity would be #aa4g c4 c4 - #e4c c4 c4 #f4d c4 c41 or #j4fd total alkali in the lye in terms of caustic soda4 ,if there were #dj1jjj pounds of lye to be treated then we should have to neutralize3 #dj1jjj x 4#jjfd #bef lbs4 alkali4 ,since sulfate of alumina neutralizes one-third of its weight in caustic1 and there are say #i lbs4 of this added per thousand pounds of lye we would add #dj1jjj x #i #cfj lbs4 of sulfate of alumina4 ,this would neutralize #cfj x #a_/c #abj lbs of alkali4 ,there are then #bef - #abj #acf lbs4 of alkali still to be neutralized4 ,if #fj;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid is used it requires about #a4ed lbs4 of acid to one pound of caustic4 ,therefore to neutralize the caustic soda remaining it requires3 #acf x #a4ed #bji4dd lbs4 #fj;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid to neutralize the total alkali in the #dj1jjj pounds of spent lye4 ,the acid is added and the lye well stirred1 after which another sample is taken and again titrated as before4 ,from this titration the amount of acid to be added is again calculated and more acid is added if necessary4 ,should too much acid have been added1 caustic soda solution is added until the lye is between exactly neutral and #j4jb alkaline4 ,the filtered lyes at this stage have a slight yellowish cast4 ,to be sure that the lyes are treated correctly the precipitation test is advisable4 ,to carry this out filter about #ej c4 c4 of the treated lye and divide into two portions in a test tube4 ,to one portion add ammonia drop by drop4 ,if a cloudiness develops upon shaking1 more alkali is added to the lye in the tank4 ,to the other portion add a few drops of #a to #e sulfuric acid and shake the test tube4 ,if a precipitate develops or the solution clouds1 more acid is needed4 ,when the lyes are treated right no cloudiness should develop either upon adding ammonia or the dilute acid4 ,the properly treated lye is then run through the filter press while slightly warm and the filtered lye is fed to the evaporator from the filtered lye tank4 ,the lye coming from the filter press should be clear and have a slight yellowish cast4 ,as the pressure increases it is necessary to clean the press or some of the press cake will pass through the cloths4 ,where sodium silicate is used as a filler1 the silicate scrap should never be returned to the soap kettle until the glycerine lyes have been withdrawn4 ,this practice of some soapmakers is to be strongly censured1 as it causes decided difficulty in filtering the lye1 since during the treatment of the lye1 free silicic acid in colloidal form is produced by the decomposition of the sodium silicate by acid4 ,this often prevents filtering the treated lye even at excess pressure and at its best retards the filtering4 ,as to the filter press cake1 this may be best thrown away in a small factory4 ,where1 however1 the output of glycerine is very large it pays to recover both the fatty acids and alumina in the press cakes4 ,in some cases1 especially when the lyes are very dirty and the total residue in the crude glycerine runs high1 for which there is a penalty usually attached1 a double filtration of the lye is advisable4 ,this is carried out by first making the lye slightly acid in reaction by the addition of alum and acid1 then filtering4 ,this filtered lye is then neutralized to the proper point with caustic1 as already described1 and passed through the filter press again4 ,while in the method of treating the lyes as given sulfuric acid is used for neutralizing1 some operators prefer to use hydrochloric acid1 as this forms sodium chloride or common salt1 whereas sulfuric acid forms sodium sulfate1 having #c_/e the graining power of salt1 which eventually renders the salt useless for graining the soap1 as the percentage of sodium sulfate increases in the salt4 ,when the salt contains #be per cent4 sodium sulfate it is advisable to throw it away4 ,sulfuric acid1 however1 is considerably cheaper than hydrochloric and this more than compensates the necessity of having to eventually reject the recovered salt4 ,it may here also be mentioned that recovered salt contains #e-g per cent4 glycerine which should be washed out in the evaporator before it is thrown away4 ,the following tables give the approximate theoretical amounts of acids of various strengths required to neutralize one pound of caustic soda3 ,for #a pound of caustic soda-- #c4be lbs4 #ah;deg4 ,b4 hydrochloric 7muriatic7 acid are required4 #b4ib #bj;deg4 ,b4 #b4eh #bb;deg4 ,b4 ,for #a pound of caustic soda-- #a4ic lbs4 #ej;deg4 ,b4 sulphuric acid are required4 #a4ed #fj;deg4 ,b4 #a4bh #ff;deg4 ,b4 ,it is1 of course1 feasible to neutralize the spent lye without first determining the causticity by titrating a sample and this is often the case4 ,the operator under such conditions first adds the sulfate of alumina1 then the acid1 using litmus paper as his indicator4 ,comparatively1 this method of treatment is much slower and not as positive1 as the amount of acid or alkali to be added is at all times uncertain1 for in the foaming of the lyes their action on litmus is misleading4 ,after the lye has been filtered to the filtered lye tank it is fed to the evaporator1 the method of operation of which varies somewhat with different styles or makes4 ,when it first enters the evaporator the lye is about #aa;deg4-#ab;deg4 ,b4 ,after boiling the density will gradually rise to #bg;deg4 ,b4 and remain at this gravity for some time and during which time most of the salt is dropped out in the salt filter4 ,as the lye concentrates the gravity gradually rises to #bh;deg4-#cj;deg4 ,b41 which is half crude glycerine and contains about #fj per cent4 glycerine4 ,some operators carry the evaporation to this point and accumulate a quantity of half crude before going on to crude4 ,after half crude is obtained the temperature on the evaporator increases1 the vacuum increases and the pressure on the condensation drain goes up 7using the same amount of live steam74 ,as the liquor grows heavier the amount of evaporation is less1 and less steam is required necessitating the regulation of the steam pressure on the drum4 ,when a temperature of #baj;deg4 ,f4 on the evaporator1 with #bf or more inches vacuum on the pump is arrived at1 the crude stage has been reached and the liquor now contains about #hj per cent4 glycerine in which shape it is usually sold by soap manufacturers4 ,a greater concentration requires more intricate apparatus4 ,after settling a day in the crude tank it is drummed4 ,crude glycerine 7about #hj per cent4 glycerol7 free from salt is #cc;deg4 ,b41 or has a specific gravity of #a4c4 ,a sample boiled in an open dish boils at a temperature of #aee;deg4 ,c4 or over4 ,,twitchell ,,process4 ,the ,twitchell process of saponification consists of causing an almost complete cleavage of fats and oils by the use of the ,twitchell reagent or saponifier1 a sulfo-aromatic compound4 ,this is made by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid upon a solution of oleic acid or stearic acid in an aromatic hydrocarbon4 ,from #j4e per cent4 to #c per cent4 of the reagent is added and saponification takes place from #ab-dh hours by heating in a current of live steam4 ,the reaction is usually accelerated by the presence of a few per cent4 of free fatty acids as a starter4 ,recently the ,twitchell double reagent has been introduced through which it is claimed that better colored fatty acids are obtained and the glycerine is free from ash4 ,the advantages claimed for the ,twitchell process as outlined by ,joslin#ab are as follows3 #a4 ,all the glycerine is separated from the stock before entering the kettle1 preventing loss of glycerine in the soap and removing glycerine from spent lye4 #b4 ,the liquors contain #ae-bj per cent4 glycerine whereas spent lyes contain but #c-e per cent4 necessitating less evaporation and consequently being more economical in steam1 labor and time4 #c4 ,no salt is obtained in the liquors which makes the evaporation cheaper and removes the cause of corrosion of the evaporator2 also saves the glycerine retained by the salt4 #d4 ,the glycerine liquors are purer and thus the treatment of the lyes is cheaper and simpler and the evaporation less difficult4 #e4 ,the glycerine can readily be evaporated to #ij per cent4 crude rather than #hj per cent4 crude1 thus saving drums1 labor in handling and freight4 ,the glycerine furthermore receives a higher rating and price1 being known as saponification crude which develops no glycols in refining it4 #f4 ,the fatty acids obtained by the ,twitchell saponifier may be converted into soap by carbonates1 thus saving cost in alkali4 #g4 ,there is a decrease in the odor of many strong smelling stocks4 #h4 ,the glycerine may be obtained from half boiled and cold made soaps as well as soft 7potash7 soaps4 ,while the advantages thus outlined are of decided value in the employment of the ,twitchell process1 the one great disadvantage is that the fatty acids obtained are rather dark in color and are not satisfactorily employed for the making of a soap where whiteness of color is desired4 ,to carry out the process the previously heated oil or fat to be saponified is run into a lead lined tank4 ,as greases and tallow often contain impurities a preliminary treatment with sulfuric acid is necessary4 ,for a grease #a4be per cent4 of half water and half #ff;deg4 ,b4 sulfuric acid is the approximate amount4 ,the undiluted #ff;deg4 ,b4 acid should never be added directly1 as the grease would be charred by this4 ,the grease should be agitated by steam after the required percentage of acid1 calculated on the weight of the grease1 has been added4 ,the wash lye coming off should be #g;deg4-#aj;deg4 ,b4 on a good clean grease or #ae;deg4-#bb;deg4 ,b4 on cotton oil or a poor grease4 ,as has been stated the grease is heated before the acid is added or the condensation of the steam necessitates the addition of more acid4 ,after having boiled for #a-b hours the grease is allowed to settle for #ab hours and run off through a swivel pipe4 ,after the grease has been washed1 as just explained1 and settled1 it is pumped into a covered wooden tank containing an open brass coil4 ,some of the second lye from a previous run is usually left in this tank and the grease pumped into this4 ,the amount of this lye should be about one-third to one-half the weight of the grease so that there is about #fj per cent4 by weight of grease in the tank after #bd hours boiling4 ,where occasions arise when there is no second lye about #ej per cent4 by weight of distilled water to the amount of grease is run into the tank to replace the lye4 ,the saponifier is then added through a glass or granite ware funnel after the contents of the tank have been brought to a boil4 ,if the boiling is to be continued #dh hours1 #a per cent4 of saponifier is added4 ,for #bd hours boiling add #a4e per cent4 ,the boiling is continued for #bd-dh hours allowing #ah inches for boiling room or the grease will boil over4 ,after boiling has continued the required length of time the mass is settled and the glycerine water is drawn off to the treatment tank4 ,should a permanent emulsion have formed1 due to adding too great an amount of saponifier1 a little sulfuric acid 7#j4a per cent4-#j4c per cent47 will readily break this4 ,during the time this is being done the space between the grease and the cover on the tank is kept filled with steam as contact with the air darkens the fatty acids4 ,to the grease remaining in the tank distilled water 7condensed water from steam coils7 to one-half its volume is added and the boiling continued #ab-bd hours4 ,the grease is then settled and the clear grease run off through a swivel pipe4 ,a layer of emulsion usually forms between the clear grease and lye so that it may easily be determined when the grease has all been run off4 ,to prevent discoloration of the fatty acids it is necessary to neutralize the lye with barium carbonate4 ,the amount of this to be added depends upon the percentage of saponifier used4 ,about #a_/aj the weight of saponifier is the right amount4 ,the barium carbonate is added through the funnel at the top of the tank mixed with a little water and the lye tested until it is neutral to methyl orange indicator4 ,when the fatty acids are thus treated they will not darken upon exposure to the air when run off4 ,fresh grease is now pumped into the lye or water remaining in the tank and the process repeated4 ,the glycerine water or first lye is run to the treatment tank1 the fat skimmed off and neutralized with lime until it shows pink with phenolphthalein1 after having been thoroughly boiled with steam4 ,about #j4be per cent4 lime is the proper amount to add4 ,the mixture is then allowed to settle and the supernatant mixture drawn off and run to the glycerine evaporator feed tank4 ,the lime which holds considerable glycerine is filtered and the liquor added to the other4 ,the evaporation is carried out in two stages4 ,the glycerine water is first evaporated to about #fj per cent4 glycerol1 then dropped into a settling tank to settle out the calcium sulfate4 ,the clear liquor is then evaporated to crude 7about #ij per cent4 glycerine7 and the sediment filtered and also evaporated to crude4 ,as to the amount of saponifier to use on various stocks1 this is best determined by experiment as to how high a percentage gives dark colored fatty acids4 ,for good stock such as clean tallow1 prime cottonseed oil1 corn oil1 cocoanut oil and stock of this kind #j4ge per cent4 saponifier is sufficient4 ,for poorer grades of tallow1 house grease1 poor cottonseed oil1 etc41 #a per cent4 saponifier is required and for poorer grade greases higher percentages4 ,the percentage of fatty acids developed varies in various stocks1 and also varies with the care that the operation is carried out1 but is usually between #he per cent4-#ie per cent4 ,due to the water taken up in the saponification process there is a yield of about #ajc pounds of fatty acids and glycerine for #ajj pounds of fat4 ,the ,twitchell reagent has undoubtedly caused a decided advance in the saponification of fats and oils and has been of great value to the soap manufacturer1 because with a small expenditure it is possible to compete with the much more expensive equipment necessary for autoclave saponification4 ,the drawback1 however1 has been that the reagent imparted a dark color to the fatty acids obtained1 due to decomposition products forming when the reagent is made1 and hence is not suitable for use in soaps where whiteness of color is desired4 ,there have recently been two new reagents introduced which act as catalyzers in splitting fats1 just as the ,twitchell reagent acts1 but the fatty acids produced by the cleavage are of good color4 ,the saponification1 furthermore1 takes place more rapidly4 ,these are the ,pfeilring reagent and ,kontact reagent4 ,the ,pfeilring reagent is very similar to the ,twitchell reagent1 being made from hydrogenated castor oil and naphthalene by sulfonation with concentrated sulfuric acid4 ,it is manufactured in ,germany and is being extensively used in that country with good success4 ,the ,kontact or ,petroff reagent1 discovered by ,petroff in ,russia1 is made from sulfonated mineral oils4 ,until very recently it has only been manufactured in ,europe1 but now that it has been found possible to obtain the proper mineral constituent from ,american petroleum1 it is being manufactured in this country1 and it is very probable that it will replace the ,twitchell reagent because of the advantages derived by using it1 as compared to the old ,twitchell reagent4 ,the method and equipment necessary for employing either the ,pfeilring or ,kontact reagents is exactly the same as in using the ,twitchell process4 ,,autoclave ,,saponification4 ,while the introduction of the ,twitchell process to a great extent replaced the autoclave method of saponification for obtaining fatty acids for soap making1 the autoclave method is also used4 ,this process consists in heating the previously purified fat or oil in the presence of lime and water1 or water only1 for several hours1 which causes a splitting of the glycerides into fatty acids and glycerine4 ,the advantage of autoclave saponification over the ,twitchell process is that a greater cleavage of the fats and oils results in less time and at a slightly less expense4 ,the glycerine thus obtained is also purer and of better color than that obtained by ,twitchelling the fats4 ,an autoclave or digestor consists of a strongly constructed1 closed cylindrical tank1 usually made of copper1 and is so built as to resist internal pressure4 ,the digestor is usually #c to #e feet in diameter and from #ah to #be feet high4 ,it may be set up horizontally or vertically and is covered with an asbestos jacket to retain the heat4 ,various inlets and outlets for the fats1 steam1 etc41 as well as a pressure gauge and safety valve are also a necessary part of the equipment4 ,,lime ,,saponification4 ,the saponification in an autoclave is usually carried out by introducing the fats into the autoclave with a percentage of lime1 magnesia or zinc oxide1 together with water4 ,if the fats contain any great amount of impurities1 it is first necessary to purify them either by a treatment with weak sulfuric acid1 as described under the ,twitchell process1 or by boiling them up with brine and settling out the impurities from the hot fat4 ,to charge the autoclave a partial vacuum is created therein by condensation of steam just before running the purified oil in from an elevated tank4 ,the required quantity of unslaked lime1 #b to #d per cent4 of the weight of the fat1 is run in with the molten fat1 together with #cj per cent4 to #ej per cent4 of water4 ,while #h4g per cent4 lime is theoretically required1 practice has shown that #b per cent4 to #d per cent4 is sufficient4 ,the digestor1 having been charged and adjusted1 steam is turned on and a pressure of #h to #aj atmospheres maintained thereon for a period of six to ten hours4 ,samples of the fat are taken at various intervals and the percentage of free fatty acids determined4 ,when the saponification is completed the contents of the autoclave are removed1 usually by blowing out the digestor into a wooden settling tank1 or by first running off the glycerine water and then blowing out the lime1 soap and fatty acids4 ,the mass discharged from the digestor separates into two layers1 the upper consisting of a mixture of lime soap or rock and fatty acids1 and the lower layer contains the glycerine or sweet water4 ,the glycerine water is first run off through a clearing tank or oil separator1 if this has not been done directly from the autoclave1 and the mass remaining washed once or twice more with water to remove any glycerine still retained by the lime soap4 ,the calculated amount of sulfuric acid to decompose the lime rock is then added1 and the mass agitated until the fatty acids contained therein are entirely set free4 ,another small wash is then given and the wash water added to the glycerine water already run off4 ,the glycerine water is neutralized with lime1 filtered and concentrated as in the ,twitchell process4 ,due to the difficulties of working the autoclave saponification with lime1 decomposing the large amount of lime soap obtained and dealing with much gypsum formed thereby which collects as a sediment and necessitates cleaning the tanks1 other substances are used to replace lime4 ,magnesia1 about #b per cent4 of the weight of the fat1 is used and gives better results than lime4 ,one-half to #a per cent4 of zinc oxide of the weight of the fat is even better adapted and is now being extensively employed for this purpose4 ,in using zinc oxide it is possible to recover the zinc salts and use them over again in the digestor1 which makes the process as cheap to work as with lime1 with far more satisfactory results4 ,,acid ,,saponification4 ,while it is possible to saponify fats and oils in an autoclave with the addition of acid to the fat1 unless a specially-constructed digestor is built1 the action of the acid on the metal from which the autoclave is constructed prohibits its use4 ,the acid saponification is therefore carried out by another method4 ,the method of procedure for acid saponification1 therefore1 is to first purify the fats with dilute acid as already described4 ,the purified1 hot or warm1 dry fat is then run to a specially-built acidifier or a lead-lined tank and from #d per cent4 to #f per cent4 of concentrated sulfuric acid added to the fat1 depending upon its character1 the degree of saponification required1 temperature and time of saponification4 ,a temperature of #aaj degrees ,c4 is maintained and the mass mixed from four to six hours4 ,the tank is then allowed to settle out the tar formed during the saponification1 and the fatty acids run off to another tank and boiled up about three times with one-third the amount of water4 ,the water thus obtained contains the glycerine1 and after neutralization is concentrated4 ,,aqueous ,,saponification4 ,while lime or a similar substance is ordinarily used to aid in splitting fats in an autoclave1 the old water process is still used4 ,this is a convenient1 though slower and more dangerous method1 of producing the hydrolysis of the glyceride1 as well as the simplest in that fatty acids and glycerine in a water solution are obtained4 ,the method consists in merely charging the autoclave with fats and adding about #cj per cent4 to #dj per cent4 of their weight of water1 depending on the amount of free fatty acid and subjecting the charge to a pressure of #aej to #cjj pounds1 until the splitting has taken place4 ,this is a much higher pressure than when lime is used and therefore a very strong autoclave is required4 ,since fatty acids and pure glycerine water are obtained no subsequent treatment of the finished charge is necessary except separating the glycerine water and giving the fatty acids a wash with water to remove all the glycerine from them4 ,,splitting ,,fats ,,with ,,ferments4 ,in discussing the causes of rancidity of oils and fats it was pointed out that the initial splitting of these is due to enzymes1 organized ferments4 ,in the seeds of the castor oil plant1 especially in the protoplasm of the seed1 the enzyme which has the property of causing hydrolysis of the glycerides is found4 ,the ferment from the seeds of the castor oil plant is now extracted and used upon a commercial basis for splitting fats4 ,the equipment necessary to carry out this method of saponification is a round1 iron1 lead-lined tank with a conical bottom1 preferably about twice as long as it is wide4 ,open and closed steam coils are also necessary in the tank4 ,the oils are first heated and run into this tank4 ,the right temperature to heat these to is about #a degree to #b degrees above their solidification point4 ,for liquid oils #bc degrees ,c4 is the proper heat as under #bj degrees ,c4 the cleavage takes place slowly4 ,fats titering #dd degrees ,c4 or above must be brought down in titer by mixing with them oils of a lower titer as the ferment or enzyme is killed at about #de degrees ,c4 and thus loses its power of splitting4 ,it is also necessary to have the fat in the liquid state or the ferment does not act4 ,the proper temperature must be maintained with dry steam4 ,it is1 of course1 necessary to add water1 which may be any kind desired1 condensed1 water from steam coils1 well1 city1 etc4 ,from #cj per cent4 to #dj per cent41 on the average #ce per cent4 of water is added1 as the amount necessary is regulated so as to not dilute the glycerine water unnecessarily4 ,to increase the hydrolysis a catalyzer1 some neutral salt1 usually manganese sulfate is added in the proportion of #j4ae per cent4 appears to vary directly as the saponification number of the fat or oil4 ,the approximate percentages of fermentive substance to be added to various oils and fats follow3 ,cocoanut oil #h ,palm ,kernel oil #h ,cottonseed oil #f-g ,linseed oil #d-e ,tallow oil #h-aj ,the oil1 water1 manganese sulfate and ferment having been placed in the tank in the order named1 the mixture is agitated with air for about a quarter of an hour to form an even emulsion1 in which state the mass is kept by stirring occasionally with air while the saponification is taking place4 ,a temperature is maintained a degree or two above the titer point of the fat with closed steam which may be aided by covering the tank for a period of #bd to #dh hours4 ,the splitting takes place rapidly at first1 then proceeds more slowly4 ,in #bd hours #hj per cent4 of the fats are split and in #dh hours #he per cent4 to #ij per cent4 ,when the cleavage has reached the desired point the mass is heated to #hj degrees-#he degrees ,c4 with live or indirect steam while stirring with air4 ,then #j4a per cent4-#j4ae per cent of concentrated sulfuric acid diluted with water is added to break the emulsion4 ,when the emulsion is broken the glycerine water is allowed to settle out and drawn off4 ,the glycerine water contains #ab per cent4 to #be per cent4 glycerine and contains manganese sulfate1 sulfuric acid and albuminous matter4 ,through neutralization with lime at boiling temperature and filtration the impurities can almost all be removed after which the glycerine water may be fed to the evaporator4 ,should it be desired to overcome the trouble due to the gypsum formed in the glycerine1 the lime treatment may be combined with a previous treatment of the glycerine water with barium hydrate to remove the sulfuric acid1 then later oxalic acid to precipitate the lime4 ,the fatty acids obtained by splitting with ferments are of very good color and adaptable for soap making4 ,,krebitz ,,process4 ,the ,krebitz process which has been used to some extent in ,europe is based upon the conversion of the fat or oil into lime soap which is transformed into the soda soap by the addition of sodium carbonate4 ,to carry out the process a convenient batch of1 say1 #aj1jjj pounds of fat or oil1 is run into a shallow kettle containing #a1bjj to #a1djj pounds of lime previously slaked with #c1gjj to #d1ejj pounds of water4 ,the mass is slowly heated with live steam to almost boiling until an emulsion is obtained4 ,the tank is then covered and allowed to stand about #ab hours4 ,the lime soap thus formed is dropped from the tank into the hopper of a mill1 finely ground and conveyed to a leeching tank4 ,the glycerine is washed out and the glycerine water run to a tank for evaporation4 ,the soap is then further washed and these washings are run to other tanks to be used over again to wash a fresh batch of soap4 ,about #aej1jjj pounds of water will wash the soap made from #aj1jjj pounds of fat which makes between #ae1jjj and #af1jjj pounds of soap4 ,the first wash contains approximately #aj per cent4 glycerine and under ordinary circumstances this only need be evaporated for glycerine recovery4 ,after extracting the glycerine the soap is slowly introduced into a boiling solution of sodium carbonate or soda ash and boiled until the soda has replaced the lime4 ,this is indicated by the disappearance of the small lumps of lime soap4 ,caustic soda is then added to saponify the fat not converted by the lime saponification4 ,the soap is then salted out and allowed to settle out the calcium carbonate4 ,this drops to the bottom of the kettle as a heavy sludge entangling about #aj per cent4 of the soap4 ,a portion of this soap may be recovered by agitating the sludge with heat and water1 pumping the soap off the top and filtering the remaining sludge4 ,while the soap thus obtained is very good1 the percentage of glycerine recovered is greatly increased and the cost of alkali as carbonate is less4 ,the disadvantages are many4 ,large quantities of lime are required2 it is difficult to recover the soap from the lime sludge2 the operations are numerous prior to the soap making proper and rather complicated apparatus is required4 ,,distillation ,,of ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,the fatty acids obtained by various methods of saponification may be further improved by distillation4 ,in order to carry out this distillation1 two methods may be pursued1 first1 the continuous method1 whereby the fatty acids are continually distilled for five to six days1 and1 second1 the two phase method1 whereby the distillation continues for #af to #bj hours1 after which the residue is drawn off1 treated with acid1 and its distillate added to a fresh charge of fatty acids4 ,the latter method is by far the best1 since the advantages derived by thus proceeding more than compensate the necessity of cleaning the still4 ,better colored fatty acids are obtained2 less unsaponifiable matter is contained therein2 there is no accumulation of impurities2 the amount of neutral fat is lessened because the treatment of the tar with acid causes a cleavage of the neutral fat and the candle tar or pitch obtained is harder and better and thus more valuable4 ,the stills are usually built of copper1 which are heated by both direct fire and superheated steam4 ,distillation under vacuum is advisable4 ,to begin the distilling operation1 the still is first filled with dry hot fatty acids to the proper level4 ,superheated steam is then admitted and the condenser is first heated to prevent the freezing of the fatty acids1 passing over into same4 ,when the temperature reaches #bcj deg4 ,c4 the distillation begins4 ,at the beginning1 the fatty acids flow from the condenser1 an intense green color1 due to the formation of copper soaps produced by the action of the fatty acids on the copper still4 ,this color may easily be removed by treating with dilute acid to decompose the copper soaps4 ,in vacuum distillation1 the operation is begun without the use of vacuum4 ,vacuum is introduced only when the distillation has proceeded for a time and the introduction of this must be carefully regulated1 else the rapid influence of vacuum will cause the contents of the still to overflow4 ,when distillation has begun a constant level of fatty acids is retained therein by opening the feeding valve to same1 and the heat is so regulated as to produce the desired rate of distillation4 ,as soon as the distillate flows darker and slower1 the feeding valve to the still is shut off and the distillation continued until most of the contents of the still are distilled off1 which is indicated by a rise in the temperature4 ,distillation is then discontinued1 the still shut down1 and in about an hour the contents are sufficiently cool to be emptied4 ,the residue is run off into a proper receiving vessel1 treated with dilute acid and used in the distillation of tar4 ,in the distillation of tar the same method as the above is followed1 only distillation proceeds at a higher temperature4 ,the first portion and last portion of the distillate from tar are so dark that it is necessary to add them to a fresh charge of fatty acids4 ,by a well conducted distillation of tar about #ej per cent4 of the fatty acids from the tar can be used to mix with the distilled fatty acids4 ,the residue of this operation called stearine pitch or candle tar consists of a hard1 brittle1 dark substance4 ,elastic pitch only results where distillation has been kept constant for several days without interrupting the process1 and re-distilling the tar4 ,in a good distillation the distillation loss is #j4e to #a4e and loss in pitch #a4e4 ,fatty acids which are not acidified deliver about #c of pitch4 ,very impure fats yield even a higher percentage in spite of acidifying4 ,for a long time it was found impossible to find any use for stearine pitch1 but in recent years a use has been found for same in the electrical installation of cables4 ,,footnotes3 #ab ,journ4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,chem4 7#aiji71 ,i1 p4 #fed4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,analytical ,methods4 ,while it is possible to attain a certain amount of efficiency in determining the worth of the raw material entering into the manufacture of soap through organoleptic methods1 these are by no means accurate4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to revert to chemical methods to correctly determine the selection of fats1 oil or other substances used in soap making1 as well as standardizing a particular soap manufactured and to properly regulate the glycerine recovered4 ,it is not our purpose to cover in detail the numerous analytical processes which may be employed in the examination of fats and oils1 alkalis1 soap and glycerine1 as these are fully and accurately covered in various texts1 but rather to give briefly the necessary tests which ought to be carried out in factories where large amounts of soap are made4 ,occasion often arises where it is impossible to employ a chemist1 yet it is possible to have this work done by a competent person or to have someone instruct himself as just how to carry out the more simple analyses1 which is not a very difficult matter4 ,the various standard solutions necessary to carrying out the simpler titrations can readily be purchased from dealers in chemical apparatus and it does not take extraordinary intelligence for anyone to operate a burette1 yet in many soap plants in this country absolutely no attention is paid to the examining of raw material1 though many thousand pounds are handled annually1 which1 if they were more carefully examined would result in the saving of much more money than it costs to examine them or have them at least occasionally analyzed4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,fats ,,and ,,oils4 ,in order to arrive at proper results in the analysis of a fat or oil1 it is necessary to have a proper sample4 ,to obtain this a sample of several of the packages of oil or fat is taken and these mixed or molten together into a composite sample which is used in making the tests4 ,if the oil or fat is solid1 a tester is used in taking the sample from the package and if they are liquid1 it is a simple matter to draw off a uniform sample from each package and from these to form a composite sample4 ,in purchasing an oil or fat for soap making1 the manufacturer is usually interested in the amount of free fatty acid contained therein1 of moisture1 the titer1 the percentage of unsaponifiable matter and to previously determine the color of soap which will be obtained where color is an object4 ,,determination ,,of ,,free ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,since the free fatty acid content of a fat or oil represents a loss of glycerine1 the greater the percentage of free fatty acid1 the less glycerine is contained in the fat or oil1 it is advisable to purchase a fat or oil with the lower free acid1 other properties and the price being the same4 ,while the mean molecular weight of the mixed free fatty acids varies with the same and different oils or fats and should be determined for any particular analysis for accuracy1 the free fatty acid is usually expressed as oleic acid1 which has a molecular weight of #bhb4 ,to carry out the analysis #e to #bj grams of the fat are weighed out into an ,erlenmeyer flask and #ej cubic centimeters of carefully neutralized alcohol are added4 ,in order to neutralize the alcohol add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution to same and add a weak caustic soda solution drop by drop until a very faint pink color is obtained upon shaking or stirring the alcohol thoroughly4 ,the mixture of fat and neutralized alcohol is then heated to boiling and titrated with tenth normal alkali solution1 using phenolphthalein as an indicator4 ,as only the free fatty acids are readily soluble in the alcohol and the fat itself only slightly mixes with it1 the flask should be well agitated toward the end of the titration4 ,when a faint pink color remains after thoroughly agitating the flask the end point is reached4 ,in order to calculate the percentage of free fatty acid as oleic acid1 multiply the number of cubic centimeters of tenth normal alkali used as read on the burette by #j4jbhb and divide by the number of grams of fat taken for the determination and multiply by #ajj4 ,when dark colored oils or fats are being titrated it is often difficult to obtain a good end point with phenolphthalein4 ,in such cases about #b cubic centimeters of a #b per cent4 alcoholic solution of ,alkali ,blue #f ,b is recommended4 ,another method of directly determining the free fatty acid content of tallow or grease upon which this determination is most often made is to weigh out into an ,erlenmeyer flask exactly #e4fde grams of a sample of tallow or grease4 ,add about #ge cubic centimeters of neutralized alcohol4 ,heat until it boils1 then titrate with tenth normal alkali and divide the reading by #b1 which gives the percentage of free fatty acid as oleic4 ,if a fifth normal caustic solution is used1 the reading on the burette gives the percentage of free fatty acid directly4 ,this method1 while it eliminates the necessity of calculation1 is troublesome in that it is difficult to obtain the exact weight of fat4 ,,moisture4 ,to calculate the amount of moisture contained in a fat or oil #e to #aj grams are weighed into a flat bottom dish1 together with a known amount of clean1 dry sand1 if it is so desired4 ,the dish is then heated over a water bath1 or at a temperature of #ajj-aaj degs4 ,c41 until it no longer loses weight upon drying and reweighing the dish4 ,one hour should elapse between the time the dish is put on the water bath and the time it is taken off to reweigh4 ,the difference between the weight of the dish is put on the water bath and the time it is taken off when it reaches a constant weight is moisture4 ,this difference divided by the original weight of the fat or oil x #ajj gives the percentage of moisture4 ,when highly unsaturated fats or oils are being analyzed for moisture1 an error may be introduced either by the absorption of oxygen1 which is accelerated at higher temperature1 or by the formation of volatile fatty acids4 ,the former causes an increase in weight1 the latter causes a decrease4 ,to obviate this1 the above operation of drying should be carried out in the presence of some inert gas like hydrogen1 carbon dioxide1 or nitrogen4 ,,titer4 ,the titer of a fat or oil is really an indication of the amount of stearic acid contained therein4 ,the titer1 expressed in degrees ,centigrade1 is the solidification point of the fatty acids of an oil or fat4 ,in order to carry out the operation a ,centigrade thermometer graduated in one or two-tenths of a degree is necessary4 ,a thermometer graduated between #aj degs4 centigrade to #fj degs4 centigrade is best adapted and the graduations should be clear cut and distinct4 ,to make the determination about #cj grams of fat are roughly weighed in a metal dish and #cj-dj cubic centimeters of a #cj per cent4 7#cf degs4 ,baume7 solution of sodium hydroxide1 together with #cj-dj cubic centimeters of alcohol1 denatured alcohol will do1 are added and the mass heated until saponified4 ,heat over a low flame or over an asbestos plate until the soap thus formed is dry1 constantly stirring the contents of the dish to prevent burning4 ,the dried soap is then dissolved in about #ajjj cubic centimeters of water1 being certain that all the alcohol has been expelled by boiling the soap solution for about half an hour4 ,when the soap is in solution add sufficient sulphuric acid to decompose the soap1 approximately #ajj cubic centimeters of #be degs4 ,baume sulphuric acid1 and boil until the fatty acids form a clear layer on top of the liquid4 ,a few pieces of pumice stone put into the mixture will prevent the bumping caused by boiling4 ,siphon off the water from the bottom of the dish and wash the fatty acids with boiling water until free from sulphuric acid4 ,collect the fatty acids in a small casserole or beaker and dry them over a steam bath or drying oven at #aaj degs4 ,centigrade4 ,when the fatty acids are dry1 cool them to about #aj degs4 above the titer expected and transfer them to a titer tube or short test tube which is firmly supported by a cork in the opening of a salt mouth bottle4 ,hang the thermometer by a cord from above the supported tube so it reaches close to the bottom when in the titer tube containing the fatty acids and so that it may be used as a stirrer4 ,stir the mass rather slowly1 closely noting the temperature4 ,the temperature will gradually fall during the stirring operation and finally remain stationary for half a minute or so then rise from #j4a to #j4e degs4 ,the highest point to which the mercury rises after having been stationary is taken as the reading of the titer4 ,,determination ,,of ,,unsaponifiable ,,matter4 ,in order to determine the unsaponifiable matter in fats and oils they are first saponified1 then the unsaponifiable1 which consists mainly of hydrocarbons and the higher alcohols cholesterol or phytosterol1 is extracted with ether or petroleum ether1 the ether evaporated and the residue weighed as unsaponifiable4 ,to carry out the process first saponify about #e grams of fat or oil with an excess of alcoholic potassium hydrate1 #bj-cj cubic centimeters of a #a to #aj solution of potassium hydroxide in alcohol until the alcohol is evaporated over a steam bath4 ,wash the soap thus formed into a separatory funnel of #bjj cubic centimeters capacity with #hj-ajj cubic centimeters water4 ,then add about #fj cubic centimeters of ether1 petroleum ether or #hf degs4 gasoline and thoroughly shake the funnel to extract the unsaponifiable4 ,should the two layers not separate readily1 add a few cubic centimeters of alcohol1 which will readily cause them to separate4 ,draw off the watery solution from beneath and wash the ether with water containing a few drops of sodium hydrate and run to another dish4 ,pour the watery solution into the funnel again and repeat the extraction once or twice more or until the ether shows no discoloration4 ,combine the ether extractions into the funnel and wash with water until no alkaline reaction is obtained from the wash water4 ,run the ether extract to a weighed dish1 evaporate and dry rapidly in a drying oven4 ,as some of the hydrocarbons are readily volatile at #ajj degs4 ,centigrade1 the drying should not be carried on any longer than necessary4 ,the residue is then weighed and the original weight of fat taken divided into the weight of the residue x #ajj gives the percentage unsaponifiable4 ,,test ,,for ,,color ,,of ,,soap4 ,it is often desirable to determine the color of the finished soap by a rapid determination before it is made into soap4 ,it often happens1 especially with the tallows1 that a dark colored sample produces a light colored soap1 whereas a bleached light colored tallow produces a soap off shade4 ,to rapidly determine whether the color easily washes out of the tallow with lye1 #ajj cubic centimeters of tallow are saponified in an enameled or iron dish with #ajj cubic centimeters of #ba degs4 ,baume soda lye and #ajj cubic centimeters of denatured alcohol4 ,continue heating over a wire gauze until all the alcohol is expelled and then add #ej cubic centimeters of the #ba degs4 ,baume lye to grain the soap4 ,allow the lyes to settle and with an inverted pipette draw off the lyes into a test tube or bottle4 ,close the soap with #ajj cubic centimeters of hot water and when closed again grain with #ej cubic centimeters of the lye by just bringing to a boil over an open flame4 ,again allow the lyes to settle and put aside a sample of the lye for comparison4 ,repeat the process of closing1 graining and settling and take a sample of lye4 ,if the lye is still discolored repeat the above operations again or until the lye is colorless4 ,ordinarily all the color will come out with the third lye4 ,the soap thus obtained contains considerable water which makes it appear white4 ,the soap is1 therefore1 dried to about #ae per cent4 moisture and examined for color4 ,the color thus obtained is a very good criterion as to what may be expected in the soap kettle4 ,by making the above analyses of fats or oils the main properties as to their adaptability for being made into soap are determined4 ,in some cases1 especially where adulteration or mixtures of oils are suspected1 it is necessary to further analyze same4 ,the methods of carrying out these analyses are fully covered by various texts on fats and oils and we will not go into details regarding the method of procedure in carrying these out4 ,,testing ,,of ,,alkalis ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,making4 ,the alkalis entering into the manufacture of soap such as caustic soda or sodium hydroxide1 caustic potash or potassium hydrate1 carbonate of soda or sodium carbonate1 carbonate of potash or potassium carbonate usually contain impurities which do not enter into combination with the fats or fatty acids to form soap4 ,it is out of the question to use chemically pure alkalis in soap making1 hence it is often necessary to determine the alkalinity of an alkali4 ,it may again be pointed out that in saponifying a neutral fat or oil only caustic soda or potash are efficient and the carbonate contained in these only combines to a more or less extent with any free fatty acids contained in the oils or fats4 ,caustic soda or potash or lyes made from these alkalis upon exposure to the air are gradually converted into sodium or potassium carbonate by the action of the carbon dioxide contained in the air4 ,while the amount of carbonate thus formed is not very great and is greatest upon the surface1 all lyes as well as caustic alkalis contain some carbonate4 ,this carbonate introduces an error in the analysis of caustic alkalis when accuracy is required and thus in the analysis of caustic soda or potash it is necessary to remove the carbonate when the true alkalinity as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is desired4 ,this may be done by titration in alcohol which has been neutralized4 ,in order to determine the alkalinity of any of the above mentioned alkalis1 it is first necessary to obtain a representative sample of the substance to be analyzed4 ,to do this take small samples from various portions of the package and combine them into a composite sample4 ,caustic potash and soda are hygroscopic and samples should be weighed at once or kept in a well stoppered bottle4 ,sodium or potassium carbonate can be weighed more easily as they do not rapidly absorb moisture from the air4 ,to weigh the caustic soda or potash place about five grams on a watch glass on a balance and weigh as rapidly as possible4 ,wash into a #ejj cubic centimeter volumetric flask and bring to the mark with distilled water4 ,pipette off #ej cubic centimeters into a #bjj cubic centimeter beaker1 dilute slightly with distilled water1 add a few drops of methyl orange indicator and titrate with normal acid4 ,for the carbonates about #a gram may be weighed1 washed into a #djj cubic centimeter beaker1 diluted with distilled water1 methyl orange indicator added and titrated with normal acid4 ,it is advisable to use methyl orange indicator in these titrations as phenolphthalein is affected by the carbon dioxide generated when an acid reacts with a carbonate and does not give the proper end point1 unless the solution is boiled to expel the carbon dioxide4 ,litmus may also be used as the indicator1 but here again it is necessary to boil as carbon dioxide also affects this substance4 ,as an aid to the action of these common indicators the following table may be helpful3 ,color in ,color in ,indicator4 ,acid ,alkaline ,action of ,solution4 ,solution4 ,,co#b4 ,methyl orange ,red ,yellow ,very slightly acid ,phenolphthalein ,colorless ,red ,acid ,litmus ,red ,blue ,acid ,it may be further stated that methyl orange at the neutral point is orange in color4 ,to calculate the percentage of effective alkali from the above titrations1 it must be first pointed out that in the case of caustic potash or soda aliquot portions are taken4 ,this is done to reduce the error necessarily involved by weighing1 as the absorption of water is decided4 ,thus we had1 say1 exactly #e grams which weighed #e4je grams by the time it was balanced4 ,this was dissolved in #ejj cubic centimeters of water and #ej cubic centimeters or one tenth of the amount of the solution was taken1 or in each #ej cubic centimeters there were #j4eje grams of the sample4 ,we thus reduced the error of weighing by one tenth provided other conditions introduce no error4 ,in the case of the carbonates the weight is taken directly4 ,one cubic centimeter of a normal acid solution is the equivalent of3 ,grams4 ,sodium ,carbonate1 ,na#b;,,co#c #j4jecje ,sodium ,hydroxide1 ,na,o,h #j4jdjjf ,sodium ,oxide1 ,na#b,o #j4jbije ,carbonate ,k#b;,,co#c #j4jfijh ,potassium ,hydroxide1 ,,koh #j4jefaf ,potassium ,oxide1 ,k#b,o #j4jdgae ,hence to arrive at the alkalinity we multiply the number of cubic centimeters1 read on the burette1 by the factor opposite the terms in which we desire to express the alkalinity1 divide the weight in grams thus obtained by the original weight taken1 and multiply the result by #ajj1 which gives the percentage of alkali in the proper terms4 ,for example1 say1 we took the #j4eje grams of caustic potash as explained above and required #h4g cubic centimeter normal acid to neutralize the solution1 then #h4g x 4#jefaf 4#dhhf grams ,,koh in sample 4#dhhf ----- x #ajj #if4gc ,,koh in sample4 4#eje ,caustic potash often contains some caustic soda1 and while it is possible to express the results in terms of ,,koh1 regardless of any trouble that may be caused by this mixture in soap making1 an error is introduced in the results1 not all the alkali being caustic potash4 ,in such cases it is advisable to consult a book on analysis as the analysis is far more complicated than those given we will not consider it4 ,the presence of carbonates1 as already stated1 also causes an error4 ,to overcome this the alkali is titrated in absolute alcohol1 filtering off the insoluble carbonate4 ,the soluble portion is caustic hydrate and may be titrated as such4 ,the carbonate remaining on the filter paper is dissolved in water and titrated as carbonate4 ,,soap ,,analysis4 ,to obtain a sample of a cake of soap for analysis is a rather difficult matter as the moisture content of the outer and inner layer varies considerably4 ,to overcome this difficulty a borer or sampler may be run right through the cake of soap1 or slices may be cut from various parts of the cake1 or the cake may be cut and run through a meat chopper several times and mixed4 ,a sufficient amount of a homogeneous sample obtained by any of these methods is preserved for the entire analysis by keeping the soap in a securely stoppered bottle4 ,the more important determinations of soap are moisture1 free alkali1 or fatty acid1 combined alkali and total fatty matter4 ,besides these it is often necessary to determine insoluble matter1 glycerine1 unsaponifiable matter1 rosin and sugar4 ,,moisture4 ,the analysis of soap for moisture1 at its best1 is most unsatisfactory1 for by heating it is impossible to drive off all the water1 and on the other hand volatile oils driven off by heat are a part of the loss represented as moisture4 ,the usual method of determining moisture is to weigh #b to #c grams of finely shaved soap on a watch glass and heat in an oven at #aje degrees ,c4 for #b to #c hours4 ,the loss in weight is represented as water1 although it is really impossible to drive off all the water in this way4 ,to overcome the difficulties just mentioned either the ,smith or ,fahrion method may be used4 ,allen recommends ,smith's method which is said to be truthful to within #j4be per cent4 ,fahrion's method1 according to the author1 gives reliable results to within #j4e per cent4 ,both are more rapid than the above manipulation4 ,to carry out the method of ,smith1 #e to #aj grams of finely ground soap are heated over a sand bath with a small ,bunsen flame beneath it1 in a large porcelain crucible4 ,the heating takes #bj to #cj minutes1 or until no further evidence is present of water being driven off4 ,this may be tested by the fogging of a cold piece of glass held over the crucible immediately upon removing the burner4 ,when no fog appears the soap is considered dry4 ,any lumps of soap may be broken up by a small glass rod1 weighed with the crucible1 and with a roughened end to more easily separate the lumps4 ,should the soap burn1 this can readily be detected by the odor1 which1 of course1 renders the analysis useless4 ,the loss in weight is moisture4 ,by ,fahrion's method#ac1 #b to #d grams of soap are weighed in a platinum crucible and about three times its weight of oleic acid1 which has been heated at #abj degrees ,c4 until all the water is driven off and preserved from moisture1 is added and reweighed4 ,the dish is then cautiously heated with a small flame until all the water is driven off and all the soap is dissolved4 ,care must be exercised not to heat too highly or the oleic acid will decompose4 ,the moment the water is all driven off a clear solution is formed1 provided no fillers are present in the soap4 ,the dish is then cooled in a dessicator and reweighed4 ,the loss in weight of acid plus soap is moisture and is calculated on the weight of soap taken4 ,this determination takes about fifteen minutes4 ,,free ,,alkali ,,or ,,acid4 7a7 ,alcoholic ,method4 ,test a freshly cut surface of the soap with a few drops of an alcoholic phenolphthalein solution4 ,if it does not turn red it may be assumed free fat is present2 should a red color appear1 free alkali is present4 ,in any case dissolve #b to #e grams of soap in #ajj cubic centimeters of neutralized alcohol and heat to boiling until in solution4 ,filter off the undissolved portion containing carbonate1 etc41 and wash with alcohol4 ,add phenolphthalein to the filtrate and titrate with ,n_/#aj acid and calculate the per cent4 of free alkali as sodium or potassium hydroxide4 ,should the filtrate be acid instead of alkaline1 titrate with ,n_/#aj alkali and calculate the percentage of free fatty acid as oleic acid4 ,the insoluble portion remaining on the filter paper is washed with water until all the carbonate is dissolved4 ,the washings are then titrated with ,n_/#aj sulfuric acid and expressed as sodium or potassium carbonate4 ,should borates or silicates be present it is possible to express in terms of these4 ,if borax is present the carbon dioxide is boiled off after neutralizing exactly to methyl orange2 cool1 add mannite and phenolphthalein and titrate the boric acid with standard alkali4 7b7 ,bosshard and ,huggenberg ,method4#ad ,in using the alcoholic method for the determination of the free alkali or fat in soap there is a possibility of both free fat and free alkali being present4 ,upon boiling in an alcoholic solution the fat will be saponified1 thus introducing an error in the analysis4 ,the method of ,bosshard and ,huggenberg overcomes this objection4 ,their method is briefly as follows3 ,reagents4 #a4 ,n_/#aj hydrochloric acid to standardize ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide4 #b4 ,approximately ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide to fix and control the ,n_/#dj stearic acid4 #c4 ,n_/#dj stearic acid4 ,preparation3 ,about #g4a grams of stearic acid are dissolved in one liter of absolute alcohol1 the solution filtered1 the strength determined by titration against ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h and then protected in a well stoppered bottle1 or better still connected directly to the burette4 #d4 ,a #aj per cent4 solution of barium chloride4 ,preparation3 #ajj grams of barium chloride are dissolved in one liter of distilled water and filtered4 ,the neutrality of the solution should be proven as it must be neutral4 #e4 ,greek3 alpha naptholphthalein indicator according to ,sorenson4 ,preparation3 #j4a gram of ,greek3 alpha naphtholphthalein is dissolved in #aej cubic centimeters of alcohol and #ajj cubic centimeters of water4 ,for every #aj cubic centimeters of liquid use at least #ab drops of indicator4 #f4 ,phenolphthalein solution #a gram to #ajj cubic centimeter #if per cent4 alcohol4 #g4 ,solvent1 #ej per cent4 alcohol neutralized4 ,,manipulation4 ,first--,determine the strength of the ,n_/#aj alcoholic sodium hydroxide in terms of ,n_/#aj hydrochloric acid and calculate the factor1 e4 g43 #aj c4c4 ,n_/#aj alcoholic ,na,o,h #i4ie ,n_/#aj ,h,cl #aj c4c4 ,n_/#aj alcoholic ,na,o,h #i4if ,n_/#aj ,h,cl #i4if ,the alcoholic ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h has a factor of #j4iif4 ,second--,control the ,n_/#dj stearic acid with the above alkali to obtain its factor1 e4 g43 #dj c4c4 ,n_/#dj alcoholic stearic acid #aj4ah c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h #dj c4c4 ,n_/#dj alcoholic stearic acid #aj4b #aj4bb c4c4 ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h #aj4b x ,f ,n_/#aj ,na,o,h 7#j4iif7 ,factor ,n_/#dj stearic acid ,therefore ,factor ,n_/#dj stearic acid #a4jaf4 ,third--,about #e grams of soap are weighed and dissolved in #ajj cubic centimeters of #ej per cent4 neutralized alcohol in a #bej cubic centimeter ,erlenmeyer flask over a water bath and connected with a reflux condensor4 ,when completely dissolved1 which takes but a few moments1 it is cooled by allowing a stream of running water to run over the outside of the flask4 ,fourth--,the soap is precipitated with #ae to #bj cubic centimeters of the #aj per cent4 barium chloride solution4 ,fifth--,after the addition of #b to #e cubic centimeters of ,greek3 alpha naphtholphthalein solution the solution is titrated with ,n_/#dj alcoholic stearic acid4 ,greek3 alpha naphtholphthalein is red with an excess of stearic acid4 ,to mark the color changes it is advisable to first run a few blanks until the eye has become accustomed to the change in the indicator in the same way4 ,the change from green to red can then be carefully observed4 ,let us presume #e grams of soap were taken for the analysis and #bj cubic centimeters of ,n_/#dj stearic acid were required for the titration then to calculate the amount of ,na,o,h since the stearic factor is #a4jaf4 #bj x #a4jaf #bj4cb ,n_/#dj stearic acid really required4 #a cubic centimeter ,n_/#dj stearic acid #j4jb per cent4 ,na,o,h for #e grams soap4 ,greek3 ,delta #bj4cb cubic centimeters ,n_/#dj stearic acid #j4jb x #bj4cb per cent4 ,na,o,h for #e grams soap4 ,hence the soap contains #j4djfd per cent4 ,na,o,h4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to make a correction by this method4 ,when the free alkali amounts to over #j4a per cent4 the correction is #j4ja1 and when the free alkali exceeds #j4d per cent4 the correction is #j4jd1 hence in the above case we multiply #j4jjdjfd by #j4jd1 add this amount to #j4jjdjfd and multiply by #ajj to obtain the true percentage4 ,should the alkalinity have been near #j4a per cent4 we would have multiplied by #j4ja and added this4 ,if carbonate is also present in the soap1 another #e grams of soap is dissolved in #ajj cubic centimeters of #ej per cent4 alcohol and the solution titrated directly after cooling with ,n_/#dj stearic acid1 using ,greek3 alpha naphtholphthalein or phenolphthalein as an indicator1 without the addition of barium chloride4 ,from the difference of the two titrations the alkali present as carbonate is determined4 ,if the decomposed soap solution is colorless with phenolphthalein1 free fatty acids are present1 which may be quickly determined with alcoholic ,n_/#aj sodium hydroxide4 ,,insoluble ,,matter4 ,the insoluble matter in soap may consist of organic or inorganic substances4 ,among the organic substances which are usually present in soap are oat meal1 bran1 sawdust1 etc41 while among the common inorganic or mineral compounds are pumice1 silex1 clay1 talc1 zinc oxide1 infusorial earth1 sand or other material used as fillers4 ,to determine insoluble matter1 #e grams of soap are dissolved in #ge cubic centimeters of hot water4 ,the solution is filtered through a weighed gooch crucible or filter paper4 ,the residue remaining on the filter is washed with hot water until all the soap is removed1 is then dried to constant weight at #aje degrees ,c4 and weighed4 ,from the difference in weight of the gooch or filter paper and the dried residue remaining thereon after filtering and drying1 the total percentage of insoluble matter may easily be calculated4 ,by igniting the residue and reweighing the amount of insoluble mineral matter can be readily determined4 ,,starch ,,and ,,gelatine4 ,should starch or gelatine be present in soap it is necessary to extract #e grams of the soap with #ajj cubic centimeters of #ie per cent4 neutralized alcohol in a ,soxhlet extractor until the residue on the extraction thimble is in a powder form4 ,if necessary the apparatus should be disconnected and any lumps crushed1 as these may contain soap4 ,the residue remaining on the thimble consists of all substances present in soap1 insoluble in alcohol4 ,this is dried and weighed so that any percentage of impurities not actually determined can be found by difference4 ,starch and gelatine are separated from carbonate1 sulfate and borate by dissolving the latter out through a filter with cold water4 ,the starch and gelatine thus remaining can be determined by known methods1 starch by the method of direct hydrolysis#ae and gelatine by ,kjeldahling and calculating the corresponding amount of gelatine from the percentage of nitrogen 7#ag4i7 therein4#af ,,total ,,fatty ,,and ,,resin ,,acids4 ,to the filtrate from the insoluble matter add #dj cubic centimeters of half normal sulfuric acid1 all the acid being added at once4 ,boil1 stir thoroughly for some minutes and keep warm on a water bath until the fatty acids have collected as a clear layer on the surface4 ,cool by placing the beaker in ice and syphon off the acid water through a filter4 ,should the fatty acids not readily congeal a weighed amount of dried bleached bees-wax or stearic acid may be added to the hot mixture4 ,this fuses with the hot mass and forms a firm cake of fatty acids upon cooling4 ,without removing the fatty acids from the beaker1 add about #cjj cubic centimeters of hot water1 cool1 syphon off the water through the same filter used before and wash again4 ,repeat washing1 cooling and syphoning processes until the wash water is no longer acid4 ,when this stage is reached1 dissolve any fatty acid which may have remained on the filter with hot #ie per cent4 alcohol into the beaker containing the fatty acids4 ,evaporate the alcohol and dry the beaker to constant weight over a water bath4 ,the fatty acids thus obtained represent the combined fatty acids1 uncombined fat and hydrocarbons4 ,,determination ,,of ,,rosin4 ,if resin acids are present1 this may be determined by the ,liebermann-,storch reaction4 ,to carry out this test shake #b cubic centimeters of the fatty acids with #e cubic centimeters of acetic anhydride2 warm slightly2 cool2 draw off the anhydride and add #a3a sulfuric acid4 ,a violet color1 which is not permanent1 indicates the presence of rosin in the soap4 ,the cholesterol in linseed or fish oil1 which of course may be present in the soap1 also give this reaction4 ,should resin acids be present1 these may be separated by the ,twitchell method1 which depends upon the difference in the behavior of the fatty and resin acids when converted into their ethyl esters through the action of hydrochloric acid4 ,this may be carried out as follows3 ,three grams of the dried mixed acids are dissolved in #be cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol in a #ajj cubic centimeter stoppered flask2 the flask placed in cold water and shaken4 ,to this cooled solution #be cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol saturated with dry hydrochloric acid is added4 ,the flask is shaken occasionally and the action allowed to continue for twenty minutes1 then #aj grams of dry granular zinc chloride are added1 the flask shaken and again allowed to stand for twenty minutes4 ,the contents of the flask are then poured into #bjj cubic centimeters of water in a #ejj cubic centimeter beaker and the flask rinsed out with alcohol4 ,a small strip of zinc is placed in the beaker and the alcohol evaporated4 ,the beaker is then cooled and transferred to a separatory funnel1 washing out the beaker with #ej cubic centimeters of gasoline 7boiling below #hj degrees ,c47 and extracting by shaking the funnel well4 ,draw off the acid solution after allowing to separate and wash the gasoline with water until free from hydrochloric acid4 ,draw off the gasoline solution and evaporate the gasoline4 ,dissolve the residue in neutral alcohol and titrate with standard alkali using phenolphthalein as an indicator4 ,one cubic centimeter of normal alkali equals #j4cdf grams of rosin4 ,the rosin may be gravimetrically determined by washing the gasoline extract with water1 it not being necessary to wash absolutely free from acid1 then adding #j4e gram of potassium hydroxide and #e cubic centimeters of alcohol in #ej cubic centimeters of water4 ,upon shaking the resin acids are rapidly saponified and extracted by the dilute alkaline solution as rosin soaps1 while the ethyl esters remain in solution in the gasoline4 ,draw off the soap solution1 wash the gasoline solution again with dilute alkali and unite the alkaline solutions4 ,decompose the alkaline soap solution with an excess of hydrochloric acid and weigh the resin acids liberated as in the determination of total fatty acids4 ,according to ,lewkowitsch1 the results obtained by the volumetric method which assumes a combining weight of #cdf for resin acids1 are very likely to be high4 ,on the other hand those obtained by the gravimetric method are too low4 ,leiste and ,stiepel#ag have devised a simpler method for the determination of rosin4 ,they make use of the fact that the resin acids as sodium soaps are soluble in acetone and particularly acetone containing two per cent4 water1 while the fatty acid soaps are soluble in this solvent to the extent of only about #b per cent4 ,first of all it is necessary to show that the sample to be analyzed contains a mixture of resin and fatty acids4 ,this may be done by the ,liebermann-,storch reaction already described4 ,glycerine interferes with the method4 ,two grams of fatty acids or #c grams of soap are weighed in a nickel crucible and dissolved in #ae-bj cubic centimeters of alcohol4 ,the solution is then neutralized with alcoholic sodium hydroxide1 using phenolphthalein as an indicator4 ,the mass is concentrated by heat over an asbestos plate until a slight film forms over it4 ,then about #aj grams of sharp1 granular1 ignited sand are stirred in by means of a spatula1 the alcohol further evaporated1 the mixture being constantly stirred and then thoroughly dried in a drying oven4 ,the solvent for the cooled mass is acetone containing #b per cent4 water4 ,it is obtained from acetone dried by ignited sodium sulfate and adding #b per cent4 water by volume4 ,one hundred cubic centimeters of this solvent are sufficient for extracting the above4 ,the extraction of the rosin soap is conducted by adding #aj cubic centimeters of acetone eight times1 rubbing the mass thoroughly with a spatula and decanting4 ,the decanted portions are combined in a beaker and the suspended fatty soaps allowed to separate4 ,the mixture is then filtered into a previously weighed flask and washed several times with the acetone remaining4 ,the solution of rosin soap should show no separation of solid matter after having evaporated to half the volume and allowing to cool4 ,if a separation should occur another filtration and the slightest possible washing is necessary4 ,to complete the analysis1 the acetone is completely evaporated and the mass dried to constant weight in a drying oven4 ,the weight found gives the weight of the rosin soap4 ,in conducting the determination1 it is important to dry the mixture of soap and sand thoroughly4 ,in dealing with potash soaps it is necessary to separate the fatty acids from these and use them as acetone dissolves too great a quantity of a potash soap4 ,,total ,,alkali4 ,in the filtrate remaining after having washed the fatty acids in the determination of total fatty and resin acids all the alkali present as soap1 as carbonate and as hydroxide remains in solution as sulfate4 ,upon titrating this solution with half normal alkali the difference between the half normal acid used in decomposing the soap and alkali used in titrating the excess of acid gives the amount of total alkali in the soap4 ,by deducting the amount of free alkali present as carbonate or hydroxide previously found the amount of combined alkali in the soap may be calculated4 ,to quickly determine total alkali in soap a weighed portion of the soap may be ignited to a white ash and the ash titrated for alkalinity using methyl orange as an indicator4 ,,unsaponified ,,matter4 ,dissolve #e grams of soap in #ej cubic centimeters of #ej per cent4 alcohol4 ,should any free fatty acids be present neutralize them with standard alkali4 ,wash into a separatory funnel with #ej per cent4 alcohol and extract with #ajj cubic centimeters of gasoline1 boiling at #ej degrees to #fj degrees ,c4 ,wash the gasoline with water1 draw off the watery layer4 ,run the gasoline into a weighed dish1 evaporate the alcohol1 dry and weigh the residue as unsaponified matter4 ,the residue contains any hydrocarbon oils or fats not converted into soap4 ,,silica ,,and ,,silicates4 ,the insoluble silicates1 sand1 etc41 are present in the ignited residue in the determination of insoluble matter4 ,sodium silicate1 extensively used as a filler1 however1 will only show itself in forming a pasty liquid4 ,where it is desired to determine sodium silicate1 #aj grams of soap are ashed by ignition1 hydrochloric acid added to the ash in excess and evaporated to dryness4 ,more hydrochloric acid is then added and the mass is again evaporated until dry2 then cooled2 moistened with hydrochloric acid2 dissolved in water2 filtered2 washed2 the filtrate evaporated to dryness and again taken up with hydrochloric acid and water2 filtered and washed4 ,the precipitates are then combined and ignited4 ,silicon dioxide 7,si,o#b7 is thus formed1 which can be calculated to sodium silicate 7,na#b,si#d,o#i74 ,should other metals than alkali metals be suspected present the filtrate from the silica determinations should be examined4 ,,glycerine ,,in ,,soap4 ,to determine the amount of glycerine contained in soap dissolve #be grams in hot water1 add a slight excess of sulfuric acid and keep hot until the fatty acids form as a clear layer on top4 ,cool the mass and remove the fatty acids4 ,filter the acid solution into a #be cubic centimeter graduated flask2 bring to the mark with water and determine the glycerine by the bichromate method as described under glycerine analysis4 ,when sugar is present the bichromate would be reduced by the sugar1 hence this method is not applicable4 ,in this case remove the fatty acids as before1 neutralize an aliquot portion with milk of lime1 evaporate to #aj cubic centimeters1 add #b grams of sand and milk of lime containing about #b grams of calcium hydroxide and evaporate almost to dryness4 ,treat the moist residue with #e cubic centimeters of #if per cent4 alcohol1 rub the whole mass into a paste1 then constantly stirring1 heat on a water bath and decant into a #bej cubic centimeter graduated flask4 ,repeat the washing with #e cubic centimeters of alcohol five or six times1 each time pouring the washings into the flask2 cool the flask to room temperature and fill to the mark with #if per cent4 alcohol1 agitate the flask until well mixed and filter through a dry filter paper4 ,take #bjj cubic centimeters of the nitrate and evaporate to a syrupy consistency over a safety water bath4 ,wash the liquor into a stoppered flask with #bj cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol1 add #cj cubic centimeters of absolute ether #aj cubic centimeters at a time1 shaking well after each addition and let stand until clear4 ,pour off the solution through a filter into a weighed dish and wash out the flask with a mixture of three parts absolute ether and two parts absolute alcohol4 ,evaporate to a syrup1 dry for one hour at the temperature of boiling water1 weigh1 ignite and weigh again4 ,the loss is glycerine4 ,this multiplied by #e_/d gives the total loss for the aliquot portion taken4 ,the glycerine may also be determined by the acetin or bichromate methods after driving off the alcohol and ether if so desired4 ,,sugar ,,in ,,soap4 ,to determine sugar in soap1 usually present in transparent soaps1 decompose a soap solution of #e grams of soap dissolved in #ajj cubic centimeters of hot water with an excess of hydrochloric acid and separate the fatty acids as usual4 ,filter the acid solution into a graduated flask and make up to the mark4 ,take an aliquot containing approximately #a per cent4 of reducing sugar and determine the amount of sugar by the ,soxhlet method4#ah ,,glycerine ,,analysis4 ,the methods of analyzing glycerine varied so greatly due to the fact that glycerine contained impurities which acted so much like glycerine as to introduce serious errors in the determinations of crude glycerine4 ,this led to the appointment of committees in the ,united ,states and ,europe to investigate the methods of glycerine analysis4 ,an international committee met after their investigations and decided the acetin method should control the buying and selling of glycerine1 but the more convenient bichromate method in a standardized form might be used in factory control and other technical purposes4 ,the following are the methods of analysis and sampling as suggested by the international committee3 ,,sampling4 ,the most satisfactory method available for sampling crude glycerine liable to contain suspended matter1 or which is liable to deposit salt on settling1 is to have the glycerine sampled by a mutually approved sampler as soon as possible after it is filled into drums1 but in any case before any separation of salt has taken place4 ,in such cases he shall sample with a sectional sampler 7see appendix7 then seal the drums1 brand them with a number for identification1 and keep a record of the brand number4 ,the presence of any visible salt or other suspended matter is to be noted by the sampler1 and a report of the same made in his certificate1 together with the temperature of the glycerine4 ,each drum must be sampled4 ,glycerine which has deposited salt or other solid matter cannot be accurately sampled from the drums1 but an approximate sample can be obtained by means of the sectional sampler1 which will allow a complete vertical section of the glycerine to be taken including any deposit4 ,,analysis4 #a4 ,determination of ,free ,caustic ,alkali4--,put #bj grams of the sample into a #ajj cc4 flask1 dilute with approximately #ej cc4 of freshly boiled distilled water1 add an excess of neutral barium chloride solution1 #a cc4 of phenolphthalein solution1 make up to the mark and mix4 ,allow the precipitate to settle1 draw off #ej cc4 of the clear liquid and titrate with normal acid 7,n_/#a74 ,calculate the percentage of ,na#b,o existing as caustic alkali4 #b4 ,determination of ,ash and ,total ,alkalinity4--,weigh #b to #e grams of the sample in a platinum dish1 burn off the glycerine over a luminous ,argand burner or other source of heat1#ai giving a low temperature1 to avoid volatilization and the formation of sulphides4 ,when the mass is charred to the point that water will not be colored by soluble organic matter1 lixiviate with hot distilled water1 filter1 wash and ignite the residue in the platinum dish4 ,return the filtrate and washings to the dish1 evaporate the water1 and carefully ignite without fusion4 ,weigh the ash4 ,dissolve the ash in distilled water and titrate total alkalinity1 using as indicator methyl orange cold or litmus boiling4 #c4 ,determination of ,alkali ,present as ,carbonate4--,take #aj grams of the sample1 dilute with #ej cc4 distilled water1 add sufficient ,n_/#a acid to neutralize the total alkali found at 7#b71 boil under a reflux condenser for #ae to #bj minutes1 wash down the condenser tube with distilled water1 free from carbon dioxide1 and then titrate back with ,n_/#a ,na,o,h1 using phenolphthalein as indicator4 ,calculate the percentage of ,na#b,o4 ,deduct the ,na#b,o found in 7#a74 ,the difference is the percentage of ,na#b,o existing as carbonate4 #d4 ,alkali ,combined with ,organic ,acids4--,the sum of the percentages of ,na#b,o found at 7#a7 and 7#c7 deducted from the percentage found at 7#b7 is a measure of the ,na#b,o or other alkali combined with organic acids4 #e4 ,determination of ,acidity4--,take #aj grams of the sample1 dilute with #ej cc4 distilled water free from carbon dioxide1 and titrate with ,n_/#a ,na,o,h and phenolphthalein4 ,express in terms of ,na#b,o required to neutralize #ajj grams4 #f4 ,determination of ,total ,residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4--,for this determination the crude glycerine should be slightly alkaline with ,na#b;,,co#c not exceeding #j4b per cent4 ,na#b,o1 in order to prevent loss of organic acids4 ,to avoid the formation of polyglycerols this alkalinity must not be exceeded4 ,ten grams of the sample are put into a #ajj cc4 flask1 diluted with water and the calculated quantity of ,n_/#a ,h,cl or ,na#b;,,co#c added to give the required degree of alkalinity4 ,the flask is filled to #ajj cc41 the contents mixed1 and #aj cc4 measured into a weighed ,petrie or similar dish #b4e in4 in diameter and #j4e in4 deep1 which should have a flat bottom4 ,in the case of crude glycerine abnormally high in organic residue a smaller amount should be taken1 so that the weight of the organic residue does not materially exceed #cj to #dj milligrams4 ,the dish is placed on a water bath 7the top of the #afj;deg4 oven acts equally well7 until most of the water has evaporated4 ,from this point the evaporation is effected in the oven4 ,satisfactory results are obtained in an oven#bj measuring #ab ins4 cube1 having an iron plate #j4ge in4 thick lying on the bottom to distribute the heat4 ,strips of asbestos millboard are placed on a shelf half way up the oven4 ,on these strips the dish containing the glycerine is placed4 ,if the temperature of the oven has been adjusted to #afj;deg4 ,c4 with the door closed1 a temperature of #acj;deg4 to #adj;deg4 can be readily maintained with the door partially open1 and the glycerine1 or most of it1 should be evaporated off at this temperature4 ,when only a slight vapor is seen to come off1 the dish is removed and allowed to cool4 ,an addition of #j4e to #a4j cc4 of water is made1 and by a rotary motion the residue brought wholly or nearly into solution4 ,the dish is then allowed to remain on a water bath or top of the oven until the excess water has evaporated and the residue is in such a condition that on returning to the oven at #afj;deg4 ,c4 it will not spurt4 ,the time taken up to this point cannot be given definitely1 nor is it important4 ,usually two or three hours are required4 ,from this point1 however1 the schedule of time must be strictly adhered to4 ,the dish is allowed to remain in the oven1 the temperature of which is carefully maintained at #afj;deg4 ,c4 for one hour1 when it is removed1 cooled1 the residue treated with water1 and the water evaporated as before4 ,the residue is then subjected to a second baking of one hour1 after which the dish is allowed to cool in a desiccator over sulphuric acid and weighed4 ,the treatment with water1 etc41 is repeated until a constant loss of #a to #a4e mg4 per hour is obtained4 ,in the case of acid glycerine a correction must be made for the alkali added #a cc4 ,n_/#a alkali represents an addition of #j4jc gram4 ,in the case of alkaline crudes a correction should be made for the acid added4 ,deduct the increase in weight due to the conversion of the ,na,o,h and ,na#b;,,co#c to ,na,cl4 ,the corrected weight multiplied by #ajj gives the percentage of total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,this residue is taken for the determination of the non-volatile acetylizable impurities 7see acetin method74 #g4 ,organic residue4--,subtract the ash from the total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,report as organic residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 7it should be noted that alkaline salts of fatty acids are converted to carbonates on ignition and that the ,,co#c thus derived is not included in the organic residue74 ,,acetin ,,process ,,for ,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,glycerol4 ,this process is the one agreed upon at a conference of delegates from the ,british1 ,french1 ,german and ,american committees1 and has been confirmed by each of the above committees as giving results nearer to the truth than the bichromate method on crudes in general4 ,it is the process to be used 7if applicable7 whenever only one method is employed4 ,on pure glycerines the results are identical with those obtained by the bichromate process4 ,for the application of this method the crude glycerine should not contain over #fj per cent4 water4 ,,reagents ,,required4 7,a7 ,best ,acetic ,anhydride4--,this should be carefully selected4 ,a good sample must not require more than #j4a cc4 normal ,na,o,h for saponification of the impurities when a blank is run on #g4e cc4 ,only a slight color should develop during digestion of the blank4 ,the anhydride may be tested for strength by the following method3 ,into a weighed stoppered vessel1 containing #aj to #bj cc4 of water1 run about #b cc4 of the anhydride1 replace the stopper and weigh4 ,let stand with occasional shaking1 for several hours1 to permit the hydrolysis of all the anhydride2 then dilute to about #bjj cc41 add phenolphthalein and titrate with ,n_/#a ,na,o,h4 ,this gives the total acidity due to free acetic acid and acid formed from the anhydride4 ,it is worthy of note that in the presence of much free anhydride a compound is formed with phenolphthalein1 soluble in alkali and acetic acid1 but insoluble in neutral solutions4 ,if a turbidity is noticed toward the end of the neutralization it is an indication that the anhydride is incompletely hydrolyzed and inasmuch as the indicator is withdrawn from the solution1 results may be incorrect4 ,into a stoppered weighing bottle containing a known weight of recently distilled aniline 7from #aj to #bj cc47 measure about #b cc4 of the sample1 stopper1 mix1 cool and weigh4 ,wash the contents into about #bjj cc4 of cold water1 and titrate the acidity as before4 ,this yields the acidity due to the original1 preformed1 acetic acid plus one-half the acid due to anhydride 7the other half having formed acetanilide72 subtract the second result from the first 7both calculated to #ajj grams7 and double the result1 obtaining the cc4 ,n_/#a ,na,o,h per #ajj grams of the sample4 #a cc4 ,n_/,na,o,h equals #j4jeaj anhydride4 7,b7 ,pure ,fused ,sodium ,acetate4--,the purchased salt is again completely fused in a platinum1 silica or nickel dish1 avoiding charring1 powdered quickly and kept in a stoppered bottle or desiccator4 ,it is most important that the sodium acetate be anhydrous4 7,c7 ,a ,solution of ,caustic ,soda for ,neutralizing1 of about ,n_/#a ,strength1 ,free from ,carbonate4--,this can be readily made by dissolving pure sodium hydroxide in its own weight of water 7preferably water free from carbon dioxide7 and allowing to settle until clear1 or filtering through an asbestos or paper filter4 ,the clear solution is diluted with water free from carbon dioxide to the strength required4 7,d7 ,n_/#a ,caustic ,soda ,free from ,carbonate4--,prepared as above and carefully standardized4 ,some caustic soda solutions show a marked diminution in strength after being boiled2 such solutions should be rejected4 7,e7 ,n_/#a ,acid4--,carefully standardized4 7,f7 ,phenolphthalein ,solution4--#j4e per cent4 phenolphthalein in alcohol and neutralized4 ,,the ,,method4 ,in a narrow-mouthed flask 7preferably round-bottomed71 capacity about #abj cc41 which has been thoroughly cleaned and dried1 weigh accurately and as rapidly as possible #a4be to #a4e grams of the glycerine4 ,a ,grethan or ,lunge pipette will be found convenient4 ,add about #c grams of the anhydrous sodium acetate1 then #g4e cc4 of the acetic anhydride1 and connect the flask with an upright ,liebig condenser4 ,for convenience the inner tube of this condenser should not be over #ej cm4 long and #i to #aj mm4 inside diameter4 ,the flask is connected to the condenser by either a ground glass joint 7preferably7 or a rubber stopper4 ,if a rubber stopper is used it should have had a preliminary treatment with hot acetic anhydride vapor4 ,heat the contents and keep just boiling for one hour1 taking precautions to prevent the salts drying on the sides of the flask4 ,allow the flask to cool somewhat1 and through the condenser tube add #ej cc4 of distilled water free from carbon dioxide at a temperature of about #hj;deg4 ,c41 taking care that the flask is not loosened from the condenser4 ,the object of cooling is to avoid any sudden rush of vapors from the flask on adding water1 and to avoid breaking the flask4 ,time is saved by adding the water before the contents of the flask solidify1 but the contents may be allowed to solidify and the test proceeded with the next day without detriment1 bearing in mind that the anhydride in excess is much more effectively hydrolyzed in hot than in cold water4 ,the contents of the flask may be warmed to1 but must not exceed1 #hj;deg4 ,c41 until the solution is complete1 except a few dark flocks representing organic impurities in the crude4 ,by giving the flask a rotary motion1 solution is more quickly effected4 ,cool the flask and contents without loosening from the condenser4 ,when quite cold wash down the inside of the condenser tube1 detach the flask1 wash off the stopper or ground glass connection into the flask1 and filter the contents through an acid-washed filter into a ,jena glass flask of about #a litre capacity4 ,wash thoroughly with cold distilled water free from carbon dioxide4 ,add #b cc4 of phenolphthalein solution 7,f71 then run in caustic soda solution 7,c7 or 7,d7 until a faint pinkish yellow color appears throughout the solution4 ,this neutralization must be done most carefully2 the alkali should be run down the sides of the flask1 the contents of which are kept rapidly swirling with occasional agitation or change of motion until the solution is nearly neutralized1 as indicated by the slower disappearance of the color developed locally by the alkali running into the mixture4 ,when this point is reached the sides of the flask are washed down with carbon dioxide-free water and the alkali subsequently added drop by drop1 mixing after each drop until the desired tint is obtained4 ,now run in from a burette #ej cc4 or a calculated excess of ,n_/#a ,na,o,h 7,d7 and note carefully the exact amount4 ,boil gently for #ae minutes1 the flask being fitted with a glass tube acting as a partial condenser4 ,cool as quickly as possible and titrate the excess of ,na,o,h with ,n_/#a acid 7,e7 until the pinkish yellow or chosen end-point color just remains4#ba ,a further addition of the indicator at this point will cause an increase of the pink color2 this must be neglected1 and the first end-point taken4 ,from the ,n_/#a ,na,o,h consumed calculate the percentage of glycerol 7including acetylizable impurities7 after making the correction for the blank test described below4 #a cc4 ,n_/#a ,na,o,h #j4jcjfi gram glycerol4 ,the coefficient of expansion for normal solutions is #j4jjjcc per cc4 for each degree centigrade4 ,a correction should be made on this account if necessary4 ,blank ,test4--,as the acetic anhydride and sodium acetate may contain impurities which affect the result1 it is necessary to make a blank test1 using the same quantities of acetic anhydride1 sodium acetate and water as in the analysis4 ,it is not necessary to filter the solution of the melt in this case1 but sufficient time must be allowed for the hydrolysis of the anhydride before proceeding with the neutralization4 ,after neutralization it is not necessary to add more than #aj cc4 of the ,n_/#a alkali 7,d71 as this represents the excess usually present after the saponification of the average soap lye crude4 ,in determining the acid equivalent of the ,n_/#a ,na,o,h1 however1 the entire amount taken in the analysis1 #ej cc41 should be titrated after dilution with #cjj cc4 water free from carbon dioxide and without boiling4 ,determination of the ,glycerol ,value of the ,acetylizable ,impurities4--,the total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 is dissolved in #a or #b cc4 of water1 washed into the acetylizing flask and evaporated to dryness4 ,then add anhydrous sodium acetate and acetic anhydride in the usual amounts and proceed as described in the regular analysis4 ,after correcting for the blank1 calculate the result to glycerol4 ,,ways ,,of ,,calculating ,,actual ,,glycerol ,,content4 7#a7 ,determine the apparent percentage of glycerol in the sample by the acetin process as described4 ,the result will include acetylizable impurities if any are present4 7#b7 ,determine the total residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 7#c7 ,determine the acetin value of the residue at 7#b7 in terms of glycerol4 7#d7 ,deduct the result found at 7#c7 from the percentage obtained at 7#a7 and report this corrected figure as glycerol4 ,if volatile acetylizable impurities are present these are included in this figure4 ,trimethyleneglycol is more volatile than glycerine and can therefore be concentrated by fractional distillation4 ,an approximation to the quantity can be obtained from the spread between the acetin and bichromate results on such distillates4 ,the spread multiplied by #a4gcf will give the glycol4 ,,bichromate ,,process ,,for ,,glycerol ,,determination4 ,,reagents ,,required4 7,a7 ,pure potassium bichromate powdered and dried in air free from dust or organic vapors1 at #aaj;deg4 to #abj;deg4 ,c4 ,this is taken as the standard4 7,b7 ,dilute ,bichromate ,solution4--#g4defd grams of the above bichromate are dissolved in distilled water and the solution made up to one liter at #ae4e;deg4 ,c4 7,c7 ,ferrous ,ammonium ,sulphate4--,it is never safe to assume this salt to be constant in composition and it must be standardized against the bichromate as follows3 dissolve #c4gbhb grams of bichromate 7,a7 in #ej cc4 of water4 ,add #ej cc4 of #ej per cent4 sulphuric acid 7by volume71 and to the cold undiluted solution add from a weighing bottle a moderate excess of the ferrous ammonium sulphate1 and titrate back with the dilute bichromate 7,b74 ,calculate the value of the ferrous salt in terms of bichromate4 7,d7 ,silver ,carbonate4--,this is prepared as required for each test from #adj cc4 of #j4e per cent4 silver sulphate solution by precipitation1 with about #d4i cc4 ,n_/#a sodium carbonate solution 7a little less than the calculated quantity of ,n_/#a sodium carbonate should be used as an excess to prevent rapid settling74 ,settle1 decant and wash one by decantation4 7,e7 ,subacetate of ,lead4--,boil a #aj per cent4 solution of pure lead acetate with an excess of litharge for one hour1 keeping the volume constant1 and filter while hot4 ,disregard any precipitate which subsequently forms4 ,preserve out of contact with carbon dioxide4 7,f7 ,potassium ,ferricyanide4--,a very dilute1 freshly prepared solution containing about #j4a per cent4 ,,the ,,method4 ,weigh #bj grams of the glycerine1 dilute to #bej cc4 and take #be cc4 ,add the silver carbonate1 allow to stand1 with occasional agitation1 for about #aj minutes1 and add a slight excess 7about #e cc4 in most cases7 of the basic lead acetate 7,e71 allow to stand a few minutes1 dilute with distilled water to #ajj cc41 and then add #j4ae cc4 to compensate for the volume of the precipitate1 mix thoroughly1 filter through an air-dry filter into a suitable narrow-mouthed vessel1 rejecting the first #aj cc41 and return the filtrate if not clear and bright4 ,test a portion of the filtrate with a little basic lead acetate1 which should produce no further precipitate 7in the great majority of cases #e cc4 are ample1 but occasionally a crude will be found requiring more1 and in this case another aliquot of #be cc4 of the dilute glycerine should be taken and purified with #f cc4 of the basic acetate74 ,care must be taken to avoid a marked excess of basic acetate4 ,measure off #be cc4 of the clear filtrate into a flask or beaker 7previously cleaned with potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid74 ,add #ab drops of sulphuric acid 7#a3 #d7 to precipitate the small excess of lead as sulphate4 ,add #c4gbhb grams of the powdered potassium bichromate 7,a74 ,rinse down the bichromate with #be cc4 of water and let stand with occasional shaking until all the bichromate is dissolved 7no reduction will take place in the cold74 ,now add #ej cc4 of #ej per cent4 sulphuric acid 7by volume7 and immerse the vessel in boiling water for two hours and keep protected from dust and organic vapors1 such as alcohol1 till the titration is completed4 ,add from a weighing bottle a slight excess of the ferrous ammonium sulphate 7,c71 making spot tests on a porcelain plate with the potassium ferricyanide 7,f74 ,titrate back with the dilute bichromate4 ,from the amount of bichromate reduced calculate the percentage of glycerol4 #a gram glycerol #g4defd grams bichromate4 #a gram bichromate #j4acdaa gram glycerol4 ,the percentage of glycerol obtained above includes any oxidizable impurities present after the purification4 ,a correction for the non-volatile impurities may be made by running a bichromate test on the residue at #afj;deg4 ,c4 ,,notes4 7#a7 ,it is important that the concentration of acid in the oxidation mixture and the time of oxidation should be strictly adhered to4 7#b7 ,before the bichromate is added to the glycerine solution it is essential that the slight excess of lead be precipitated with sulphuric acid1 as stipulated4 7#c7 ,for crudes practically free from chlorides the quantity of silver carbonate may be reduced to one-fifth and the basic lead acetate to #j4e cc4 7#d7 ,it is sometimes advisable to add a little potassium sulphate to insure a clear filtrate4 ,,sampling ,,crude ,,glycerine4 ,the usual method of sampling crude glycerine hitherto has been by means of a glass tube1 which is slowly lowered into the drum with the object of taking as nearly as possible a vertical section of the glycerine contained in the drum4 ,this method has been found unsatisfactory1 owing to the fact that in cold climates glycerine runs into the tube very slowly1 so that1 owing to the time occupied1 it is impossible to take a complete section of the crude4 ,another objection to the glass tube is that it fails to take anything approaching a correct proportion of any settled salt contained in the drum4 ,the sampler which is illustrated herewith has been devised with the object of overcoming the objections to the glass tube as far as possible4 ,it consists of two brass tubes1 one fitting closely inside the other4 ,a number of ports are cut out in each tube in such a way that when the ports are opened a continuous slot is formed which enables a complete section to be taken throughout the entire length of the drum4 ,by this arrangement the glycerine fills into the sampler almost instantaneously4 ,there are a number of ports cut at the bottom of the sampler which render it possible to take a proportion of the salt at the bottom of the drum4 ,the instrument is so constructed that all the ports1 including the bottom ones1 can be closed simultaneously by the simple action of turning the handle at the top2 a pointer is arranged which indicates on a dial when the sampler is open or closed4 ,in samplers of larger section 7#a in47 it is possible to arrange a third motion whereby the bottom ports only are open for emptying1 but in samplers of smaller dimensions 7#e_/h in47 this third motion must be dispensed with1 otherwise the dimensions of the ports have to be so small that the sampler would not be efficient4 ,in using the sampler it is introduced into the drum with the ports closed1 and when it has touched the bottom1 the ports are opened for a second or two1 then closed and withdrawn1 and the sample discharged into the receiving vessel by opening the ports4 ,when the drum contains salt which has deposited1 the ports must be opened before the sampler is pushed through the salt1 thus enabling a portion to be included in the sample4 ,it is1 however1 almost impossible to obtain a correct proportion of salt after it has settled in the drum and it is therefore recommended that the drum be sampled before any salt has deposited4 ,a sampler #a in4 in diameter withdraws approximately #aj oz4 from a #aaj-;gal4 drum4 ,a sampler #e_/h in4 in diameter will withdraw about #e oz4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,zeit4 ,angew4 ,chem4 #ai1 #che 7#aijf74 #ad ,zeit4 ,angew4 ,chem4 #bg1 #aa-bj 7#aiad74 #ae ,bull4 #ajg1 ,bur4 ,chem4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 #af ,richards and ,gies1 ,am4 ,j4 ,physiol4 7#aijb7 #g1 #abi4 #ag ,seifensieder ,ztg4 7#aiac7 ,no4 #df4 #ah ,bull #ajg1 ,bur4 ,chem4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 #ai ,carbon is readily burned off completely1 without loss of chlorides1 in a gas-heated muffle furnace adjusted to a dull red heat4 #bj ,an electric oven suitable for this work1 which is readily adjusted to #afj degs4 ,c41 has been made for ,mr4 ,low and the chairman1 by the ,apparatus and ,specialty ,company1 ,lansing1 ,mich4 ,its size is #i-a_/b x #aj x #af inches1 and capacity #h ,petrie dishes4 ,it gives a strong draft at constant temperature4 #ba ,a precipitate at this point is an indication of the presence of iron or alumina1 and high results will be obtained unless a correction is made as described below4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,standard ,methods for the ,sampling and ,analysis of ,commercial ,fats and ,oils#bb ,the following report of the ,committee on ,analysis of ,commercial ,fats and ,oils of the ,division of ,industrial ,chemists and ,chemical ,engineers of the ,american ,chemical ,society was adopted ,april #ad1 #aiai1 by unanimous vote3 ,w4 ,d4 ,,richardson1 ,chairman1 ,swift and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,r4 ,w4 ,,bailey1 ,stillwell and ,gladding1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,gascoyne1 ,w4 ,j4 ,gascoyne and ,co41 ,baltimore1 ,md4 ,i4 ,,katz1,a ,wilson and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,a4 ,,lowenstein1,a ,morris and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,morrison1 ,proctor and ,gamble ,co41 ,ivorydale1 ,ohio4 ,j4 ,r4 ,,powell1 ,armour ,soap ,works1 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,quinn1,a ,midland ,chemical ,co41 ,argo1 ,ill4 ,,paul ,,rudnick1 ,armour and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,tolman1 ,wilson and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,e4 ,,twitchell1,a ,emery ,candle ,co41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,vollertsen1 ,morris and ,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 ,note ,a3 ,resigned4 ,scope1 ,applicability and ,limitations of the ,methods4 ,,scope4 ,these methods are intended to aid in determining the commercial valuation of fats and fatty oils in their purchase and sale1 based on the fundamental assumption commonly recognized in the trade1 namely1 that the product is true to name and is not adulterated4 ,for methods for determining the identity of oils and fats1 the absence of adulterants therein and for specific tests used in particular industries1 the chemist is referred to standard works on the analysis of fats and oils4 ,,applicability4 ,the methods are applicable in commercial transactions involving fats and fatty oils used in the soap1 candle and tanning industries1 to edible fats and oils and to fats and fatty oils intended for lubricating and burning purposes4 ,the methods are applicable to the raw oils used in the varnish and paint industry with the exceptions noted under limitations1 but special methods have not been included4 ,,limitations4 ,the methods have not been developed with special reference to waxes 7beeswax1 carnauba wax1 wool wax1 etc47 although some of them may be found applicable to these substances4 ,the ,committee considers the ,wijs method superior to the ,hanus method for the determination of iodine number of linseed oil as well as other oils1 although the ,hanus method has been considered standard for this work for some time and has been adopted by the ,american ,society for ,testing ,materials and in various specifications4 ,it has been customary to use the ,huebl method for the determination of iodine value of tung oil 7,china wood oil7 but the ,committee's work indicates that the ,wijs method is satisfactory for this determination4 ,sampling4 ,,tank ,,cars4 #a4 ,,sampling ,,while ,,loading--,sample shall be taken at discharge of pipe where it enters tank car dome4 ,the total sample taken shall be not less than #ej lbs4 and shall be a composite of small samples of about #a pound each1 taken at regular intervals during the entire period of loading4 ,the sample thus obtained is thoroughly mixed and uniform #c-lb4 portions placed in air-tight #c-lb4 metal containers4 ,at least three such samples shall be put up1 one for the buyer1 one for the seller1 and the third to be sent to a referee chemist in case of dispute4 ,all samples are to be promptly and correctly labeled and sealed4 #b4 ,,sampling ,,from ,,car ,,on ,,track#bc--7;a7 ,when contents are solid4#bd ,in this case the sample is taken by means of a large tryer measuring about #b in4 across and about #a-a_/b times the depth of the car in length4 ,several tryerfuls are taken vertically and obliquely toward the ends of the car until #ej lbs4 are accumulated1 when the sample is softened1 mixed and handled as under 7#a74 ,in case the contents of the tank car have assumed a very hard condition1 as in ,winter weather1 so that it is impossible to insert the tryer1 and it becomes necessary to soften the contents of the car by means of the closed steam coil 7in nearly all tank cars the closed steam coil leaks7 or by means of open steam in order to draw a proper sample1 suitable arrangements must be made between buyer and seller for the sampling of the car after it is sufficiently softened1 due consideration being given to the possible presence of water in the material in the car as received and also to the possible addition of water during the steaming4 ,the ,committee knows of no direct method for sampling a hard-frozen tank car of tallow in a satisfactory manner4 7b7 ,when contents are liquid4 ,the sample taken is to be a #ej-lb4 composite made up of numerous small samples taken from the top1 bottom and intermediate points by means of a bottle or metal container with removable stopper or top4 ,this device attached to a suitable pole is lowered to the various desired depths1 when the stopper or top is removed and the container allowed to fill4 ,the #ej-lb4 sample thus obtained is handled as under 7#a74 ,in place of the device described above1 any sampler capable of taking a sample from the top1 bottom1 and center1 or from a section through car1 may be used4 7c7 ,when contents are in semi-solid condition1 or when stearine has separated from liquid portions4 ,in this case1 a combination of 7a7 and 7b7 may be used or by agreement of the parties the whole may be melted and procedure 7b7 followed4 ,,barrels1 ,,tierces1 ,,casks1 ,,drums1 ,,and ,,other ,,packages4 ,all packages shall be sampled1 unless by special agreement the parties arrange to sample a lesser number2 but in any case not less than #aj per cent of the total number shall be sampled4 ,the total sample taken shall be at least #bj lbs4 in weight for each #ajj barrels1 or equivalent4 #a4 ,,barrels1 ,,tierces ,,and ,,casks--7a7 ,when contents are solid4 ,the small samples shall be taken by a tryer through the bunghole or through a special hole bored in the head or side for the purpose1 with a #a-;in4 or larger auger4 ,care should be taken to avoid and eliminate all borings and chips from the sample4 ,the tryer is inserted in such a way as to reach the head of the barrel1 tierce1 or cask4 ,the large sample is softened1 mixed and handled according to ,,tank ,,cars 7#a74 7b7 ,when contents are liquid4 ,in this case use is made of a glass tube with constricted lower end4 ,this is inserted slowly and allowed to fill with the liquid1 when the upper end is closed and the tube withdrawn1 the contents being allowed to drain into the sample container4 ,after the entire sample is taken it is thoroughly mixed and handled according to ,,tank ,,cars 7#a74 7c7 ,when contents are semi-solid4 ,in this case the tryer or a glass tube with larger outlet is used1 depending on the degree of fluidity4 7d7 ,very hard materials1 such as natural and artificial stearines4 ,by preference the barrels are stripped and samples obtained by breaking up contents of at least #aj per cent of the packages4 ,this procedure is to be followed also in the case of cakes shipped in sacks4 ,when shipped in the form of small pieces in sacks they can be sampled by grab sampling and quartering4 ,in all cases the final procedure is as outlined under ,,tank ,,cars 7#a74 #b4 ,,drums--,samples are to be taken as under 7#a71 use being made of the bunghole4 ,the tryer or tube should be sufficiently long to reach to the ends of the drum4 #c4 ,,other ,,packages--,tubs1 pails and other small packages not mentioned above are to be sampled by tryer or tube 7depending on fluidity7 as outlined above1 the tryer or tube being inserted diagonally whenever possible4 #d4 ,,mixed ,,lots ,,and ,,packages--,when lots of tallow or other fats are received in packages of various shapes and sizes1 and especially wherein the fat itself is of variable composition1 such must be left to the judgment of the sampler4 ,if variable1 the contents of each package should be mixed as thoroughly as possible and the amount of the individual samples taken made proportional to the sizes of the packages4 ,analysis4 ,,sample4 ,the sample must be representative and at least three pounds in weight and taken in accordance with the ,,standard ,,methods ,,for ,,the ,,sampling ,,of ,,commercial ,,fats ,,and ,,oils4 ,it must be kept in an air-tight container1 in a dark1 cool place4 ,soften the sample if necessary by means of a gentle heat1 taking care not to melt it4 ,when sufficiently softened1 mix the sample thoroughly by means of a mechanical egg beater or other equally effective mechanical mixer4 ,,moisture ,,and ,,volatile ,,matter4 ,,apparatus3 ,vacuum ,oven--,the ,committee ,standard ,oven4 ,,description--,the ,standard ,f4 ,a4 ,c4 ,vacuum ,oven has been designed with the idea of affording a simple and compact vacuum oven which will give as uniform temperatures as possible on the shelf4 ,as the figure shows1 it consists of an iron casting of rectangular sections with hinged front door made tight by means of a gasket and which can be lowered on opening the oven so as to form a shelf on which samples may be rested4 ,the oven contains but one shelf which is heated from above as well as below by means of resistance coils4 ,several thermometer holes are provided in order to ascertain definitely the temperature at different points on the shelf4 ,in a vacuum oven where the heating is done almost entirely by radiation it is difficult to maintain uniform temperatures at all points1 but the ,f4 ,a4 ,c4 oven accomplishes this rather better than most vacuum ovens4 ,larger ovens containing more than one shelf have been tried by the ,committee1 but have been found to be lacking in temperature uniformity and means of control4 ,the entire oven is supported by means of a #d-;in4 standard pipe which screws into the base of the oven and which in turn is supported by being screwed into a blind flange of suitable diameter which rests on the floor or work table4 ,moisture ,dish--,a shallow1 glass dish1 lipped1 beaker form1 approximately #f to #g cm4 diameter and #d cm4 deep1 shall be standard4 ,,determination--,weigh out #e grams 7 #j4b g4 of the prepared sample7 into a moisture dish4 ,dry to constant weight in vacuo at a uniform temperature1 not less than #ae;deg4 ,c4 nor more than #bj;deg4 ,c4 above the boiling point of water at the working pressure1 which must not exceed #ajj mm4 of mercury4#be ,constant weight is attained when successive dryings for #a-;hr4 periods show an additional loss of not more that #j4je per cent4 ,report loss in weight as ,,moisture ,,and ,,volatile ,,matter4#bf ,illustration3 ,,standard ,,vacuum ,,oven ,the vacuum-oven method cannot be considered accurate in the case of fats of the coconut oil group containing free acid and the ,committee recommends that it be used only for oils of this group when they contain less than #a per cent free acid4 ,in the case of oils of this group containing more than #a per cent free acid1 recourse should be had temporarily to the routine control method for moisture and volatile matter#bg until the ,committee develops a more satisfactory method4 ,the air-oven method cannot be considered even approximately accurate in the case of the drying and semi-drying oils and those of the coconut oil group4 ,therefore1 in the case of such oils as cottonseed oil1 maize oil 7corn oil71 soy bean oil1 linseed oil1 coconut oil1 palm kernel oil1 etc41 the vacuum-oven method should always be used1 except in the case of fats of the coconut group containing more than #a per cent free acid1 as noted above4 ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,dissolve the residue from the moisture and volatile matter determination by heating it on a steam bath with #ej cc4 of kerosene4 ,filter the solution through a ,gooch crucible properly prepared with asbestos1#bh wash the insoluble matter five times with #aj-;cc4 portions of hot kerosene1 and finally wash the residual kerosene out thoroughly with petroleum ether4 ,dry the crucible and contents to constant weight1 as in the determination of moisture and volatile matter and report results as ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,,soluble ,,mineral ,,matter4 ,place the combined kerosene filtrate and kerosene washings from the insoluble impurities determination in a platinum dish4 ,place in this an ashless filter paper folded in the form of a cone1 apex up4 ,light the apex of the cone1 whereupon the bulk of the kerosene burns quietly4 ,ash the residue in a muffle1 to constant weight1 taking care that the decomposition of alkaline earth carbonates is complete1 and report the result as ,,soluble ,,mineral ,,matter4#bi ,when the percentage of soluble mineral matter amounts to more than #j4a per cent1 multiply the percentage by #aj and add this amount to the percentage of free fatty acids as determined4#cj ,,free ,,fatty ,,acids4 ,the ,,alcohol#ca used shall be approximately #ie per cent ethyl alcohol1 freshly distilled from sodium hydroxide1 which with phenolphthalein gives a definite and distinct end-point4 ,,determination--,weigh #a to #ae g4 of the prepared sample into an ,erlenmeyer flask1 using the smaller quantity in the case of dark-colored1 high acid fats4 ,add #ej to #ajj cc4 hot1 neutral alcohol1 and titrate with ,n_/#b1 ,n_/#d or ,n_/#aj sodium hydroxide depending on the fatty acid content1 using phenolphthalein as indicator4 ,calculate to oleic acid1 except that in the case of palm oil the results may also be expressed in terms of palmitic acid1 clearly indicating the two methods of calculation in the report4 ,in the case of coconut and palm kernel oils1 calculate to and report in terms of lauric acid in addition to oleic acid1 clearly indicating the two methods of calculation in the report4 ,in the case of fats or greases containing more than #j4a per cent of soluble mineral matter1 add to the percentages of free fatty acids as determined #aj times the percentage of bases in the soluble mineral matter as determined4#cj ,this addition gives the equivalent of fatty acids combined with the soluble mineral matter4 ,,titer4 ,,standard ,,thermometer--,the thermometer is graduated at zero and in tenth degrees from #aj;deg4 ,c4 to #fe;deg4 ,c41 with one auxiliary reservoir at the upper end and another between the zero mark and the #aj;deg4 mark4 ,the cavity in the capillary tube between the zero mark and the #aj;deg4 mark is at least #a cm4 below the #aj;deg4 mark1 the #aj;deg4 mark is about #c or #d cm4 above the bulb1 the length of the thermometer being about #cg cm4 over all4 ,the thermometer has been annealed for #ge hrs4 at #dej;deg4 ,c4 and the bulb is of ,jena normal #af''' glass1 or its equivalent1 moderately thin1 so that the thermometer will be quick-acting4 ,the bulb is about #c cm4 long and #f mm4 in diameter4 ,the stem of the thermometer is #f mm4 in diameter and made of the best thermometer tubing1 with scale etched on the stem1 the graduation is clear-cut and distinct1 but quite fine4 ,the thermometer must be certified by the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,standards4 ,,glycerol ,,caustic ,,solution--,dissolve #bej g4 potassium hydroxide in #aijj cc4 dynamite glycerin with the aid of heat4 ,,determination--,heat #ge cc4 of the glycerol-caustic solution to #aej;deg4 ,c4 and add #ej g4 of the melted fat4 ,stir the mixture well and continue heating until the melt is homogeneous1 at no time allowing the temperature to exceed #aej;deg4 ,c4 ,allow to cool somewhat and carefully add #ej cc4 #cj per cent sulfuric acid4 ,now add hot water and heat until the fatty acids separate out perfectly clear4 ,draw off the acid water and wash the fatty acids with hot water until free from mineral acid1 then filter and heat to #acj;deg4 ,c4 as rapidly as possible while stirring4 ,transfer the fatty acids1 when cooled somewhat1 to a #a-;in4 by #d-;in4 titer tube1 placed in a #af-oz4 salt-mouth bottle of clear glass1 fitted with a cork that is perforated so as to hold the tube rigidly when in position4 ,suspend the titer thermometer so that it can be used as a stirrer and stir the fatty acids slowly 7about #ajj revolutions per minute7 until the mercury remains stationary for #cj seconds4 ,allow the thermometer to hang quietly with the bulb in the center of the tube and report the highest point to which the mercury rises as the titer of the fatty acids4 ,the titer should be made at about #bj;deg4 ,c4 for all fats having a titer above #cj;deg4 ,c4 and at #aj;deg4 ,c4 below the titer for all other fats4 ,any convenient means may be used for obtaining a temperature of #aj;deg4 below the titer of the various fats4 ,the committee recommends first of all a chill room for this purpose2 second1 an artificially chilled small chamber with glass window2 third1 immersion of the salt-mouth bottle in water or other liquid of the desired temperature4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matter4 ,,extraction ,,cylinder--,the cylinder shall be glass-stoppered1 graduated at #dj cc41 #hj cc4 and #acj cc41 and of the following dimensions3 diameter about #a-c_/h in41 height about #ab in4 ,,petroleum ,,ether--,redistilled petroleum ether1 boiling under #ge;deg4 ,c41 shall be used4 ,a blank must be made by evaporating #bej cc4 with about #j4be g4 of stearine or other hard fat 7previously brought to constant weight by heating7 and drying as in the actual determination4 ,the blank must not exceed a few milligrams4 ,,determination--,weigh #e g4 7-#j4bj g47 of the prepared sample into a #bjj-;cc4 ,erlenmeyer flask1 add #cj cc4 of redistilled #ie per cent 7approximately7 ethyl alcohol and #e cc4 of #ej per cent aqueous potassium hydroxide1 and boil the mixture for one hour under a reflux condenser4 ,transfer to the extraction cylinder and wash to the #dj-;cc4 mark with redistilled #ie per cent ethyl alcohol4 ,complete the transfer1 first with warm1 then with cold water1 till the total volume amounts to #hj cc4 ,cool the cylinder and contents to room temperature and add #ej cc4 of petroleum ether4 ,shake vigorously for one minute and allow to settle until both layers are clear1 when the volume of the upper layer should be about #dj cc4 ,draw off the petroleum ether layer as closely as possible by means of a slender glass siphon into a separatory funnel of #ejj cc4 capacity4 ,repeat extraction at least four more times1 using #ej cc4 of petroleum ether each time4 ,more extractions than five are necessary where the unsaponifiable matter runs high1 say over #e per cent1 and also in some cases where it is lower than #e per cent1 but is extracted with difficulty4 ,wash the combined extracts in a separatory funnel three times with #be-;cc4 portions of #aj per cent alcohol1 shaking vigorously each time4 ,transfer the petroleum ether extract to a wide-mouth tared flask or beaker1 and evaporate the petroleum ether on a steam bath in an air current4 ,dry as in the method for ,,moisture ,,and ,,volatile ,,matter4 ,any blank must be deducted from the weight before calculating unsaponifiable matter4 ,test the final residue for solubility in #ej cc4 petroleum ether at room temperature4 ,filter and wash free from the insoluble residue1 if any1 evaporate and dry in the same manner as before4 ,the ,committee wishes to emphasize the necessity of thorough and vigorous shaking in order to secure accurate results4 ,the two phases must be brought into the most intimate contact possible1 otherwise low and disagreeing results may be obtained4 ,,iodine ,,number--,,wijs ,,method4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,reagents--,wijs ,iodine ,solution--,dissolve #ac4j g4 of resublimed iodine in one liter of ,c4 ,p4 glacial acetic acid and pass in washed and dried chlorine gas until the original thiosulfate titration of the solution is not quite doubled4 ,the solution is then preserved in amber glass-stoppered bottles1 sealed with paraffin until ready for use4 ,mark the date on which the solution is prepared on the bottle or bottles and do not use ,wijs solution which is more than #cj days old4 ,there should be no more than a slight excess of iodine1 and no excess of chlorine4 ,when the solution is made from iodine and chlorine1 this point can be ascertained by not quite doubling the titration4#cb ,the glacial acetic acid used for preparation of the ,wijs solution should be of #ii4j to #ii4e per cent strength4 ,in case of glacial acetic acids of somewhat lower strength1 the ,committee recommends freezing and centrifuging or draining as a means of purification4 ,n_/#aj ,sodium ,thiosulfate ,solution--,dissolve #bd4h g4 of ,c4 ,p4 sodium thiosulfate in recently boiled distilled water and dilute with the same to one liter at the temperature at which the titrations are to be made4 ,starch ,paste--,boil #a g4 of starch in #bjj cc4 of distilled water for #aj min4 and cool to room temperature4 ,an improved starch solution may be prepared by autoclaving #b g4 of starch and #f g4 of boric acid dissolved in #bjj cc4 water at #ae lbs4 pressure for #ae min4 ,this solution has good keeping qualities4 ,potassium ,iodide ,solution--,dissolve #aej g4 of potassium iodide in water and make up to one liter4 ,n_/#aj ,potassium ,bichromate--,dissolve #d4ijc g4 of ,c4 ,p4 potassium bichromate in water and make the volume up to one liter at the temperature at which titrations are to be made4 ,the ,committee calls attention to the fact that occasionally potassium bichromate is found containing sodium bichromate1 although this is of rare occurrence4 ,if the analyst suspects that he is dealing with an impure potassium bichromate1 the purity can be ascertained by titration against re-sublimed iodine4 ,however1 this is unnecessary in the great majority of cases4 ,standardization of the ,sodium ,thiosulfate ,solution--,place #dj cc4 of the potassium bichromate solution1 to which has been added #aj cc4 of the solution of potassium iodide1 in a glass-stoppered flask4 ,add to this #e cc4 of strong hydro-chloric acid4 ,dilute with #ajj cc4 of water1 and allow the ,n_/#aj sodium thiosulfate to flow slowly into the flask until the yellow color of the liquid has almost disappeared4 ,add a few drops of the starch paste1 and with constant shaking continue to add the ,n_/#aj sodium thiosulfate solution until the blue color just disappears4 ,,determination--,weigh accurately from #j4aj to #j4ej g4 7depending on the iodine number7 of the melted and filtered sample into a clean1 dry1 #af-oz4 glass-stoppered bottle containing #ae-bj cc4 of carbon tetrachloride or chloroform4 ,add #be cc4 of iodine solution from a pipette1 allowing to drain for a definite time4 ,the excess of iodine should be from #ej per cent to #fj per cent of the amount added1 that is1 from #ajj per cent to #aej per cent of the amount absorbed4 ,moisten the stopper with a #ae per cent potassium iodide solution to prevent loss of iodine or chlorine but guard against an amount sufficient to run down inside the bottle4 ,let the bottle stand in a dark place for #a_/b hr4 at a uniform temperature4 ,at the end of that time add #bj cc4 of #ae per cent potassium iodide solution and #ajj cc4 of distilled water4 ,titrate the iodine with ,n_/#aj sodium thiosulfate solution which is added gradually1 with constant shaking1 until the yellow color of the solution has almost disappeared4 ,add a few drops of starch paste and continue titration until the blue color has entirely disappeared4 ,toward the end of the reaction stopper the bottle and shake violently so that any iodine remaining in solution in the tetrachloride or chloroform may be taken up by the potassium iodide solution4 ,conduct two determinations on blanks which must be run in the same manner as the sample except that no fat is used in the blanks4 ,slight variations in temperature quite appreciably affect the titer of the iodine solution1 as acetic acid has a high coefficient of expansion4 ,it is1 therefore1 essential that the blanks and determinations on the sample be made at the same time4 ,the number of cc4 of standard thiosulfate solution required by the blank1 less the amount used in the determination1 gives the thiosulfate equivalent of the iodine absorbed by the amount of sample used in the determination4 ,calculate to centigrams of iodine absorbed by #a g4 of sample 7 per cent iodine absorbed74 ,,determination1 ,,tung ,,oil--,tung oil shows an erratic behavior with most iodine reagents and this is particularly noticeable in the case of the ,hanus reagent which is entirely unsuitable for determining the iodine number of this oil since extremely high and irregular results are obtained4 ,the ,huebl solution shows a progressive absorption up to #bd hrs4 and probably for a longer time but the period required is entirely too long for a chemical determination4 ,the ,wijs solution gives good results if the following precautions are observed3 ,weigh out #j4ae - #j4je g41 use an excess of #ee - #c per cent ,wijs solution4 ,conduct the absorption at a temperature of #bj-be;deg4 ,c4 for #a hr4 ,in other respects follow the instructions detailed above4 ,,saponification ,,number 7,,koettstorfer ,,number74 ,,preparation ,,of ,,reagents4 ,n_/#b ,hydrochloric ,acid--,carefully standardized4 ,alcoholic ,potassium ,hydroxide ,solution--,dissolve #dj g4 of pure potassium hydroxide in one liter of #ie per cent redistilled alcohol 7by volume74 ,the alcohol should be redistilled from potassium hydroxide over which it has been standing for some time1 or with which it has been boiled for some time1 using a reflux condenser4 ,the solution must be clear and the potassium hydroxide free from carbonates4 ,,determination--,weigh accurate about #e g4 of the filtered sample into a #bej to #cjj cc4 ,erlenmeyer flask4 ,pipette #ej cc4 of the alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution into the flask1 allowing the pipette to drain for a definite time4 ,connect the flask with an air condenser and boil until the fat is completely saponified 7about #cj minutes74 ,cool and titrate with the ,n_/#b hydrochloric acid1 using phenolphthalein as an indicator4 ,calculate the ,koettstorfer number 7mg4 of potassium hydroxide required to saponify #a g4 of fat74 ,conduct #b or #c blank determinations1 using the same pipette and draining for the same length of time as above4 ,,melting ,,point4 ,,apparatus--,capillary tubes made from #e mm4 inside diameter thin-walled glass tubing drawn out to #a mm4 inside diameter4 ,length of capillary part of tubes to be about #e cm4 ,length of tube over all #h cm4 ,standard thermometer graduated in tenths of a degree4 #fjj cc4 beaker4 ,,determination--,the sample should be clear when melted and entirely free from moisture1 or incorrect results will be obtained4 ,melt and thoroughly mix the sample4 ,dip three of the capillary tubes above described in the oil so that the fat in the tube stands about #a cm4 in height4 ,now fuse the capillary end carefully by means of a small blast flame and allow to cool4 ,these tubes are placed in a refrigerator over night at a temperature of from #dj to #ej;deg4 ,f4 ,they are then fastened by means of a rubber band or other suitable means to the bulb of a thermometer graduated in tenths of a degree4 ,the thermometer is suspended in a beaker of water 7which is agitated by air or other suitable means7 so that the bottom of the bulb of the thermometer is immersed to a depth of about #c cm4 ,the temperature of the water is increased gradually at the rate of about #a;deg4 per minute4 ,the point at which the sample becomes opalescent is first noted and the heating continued until the contents of the tube becomes uniformly transparent4 ,the latter temperature is reported as the melting point4 ,before finally melting to a perfectly clear fluid1 the sample becomes opalescent and usually appears clear at the top1 bottom1 and sides before becoming clear at the center4 ,the heating is continued until the contents of the tube become uniformly clear and transparent4 ,this temperature is reported as the melting point4#cc ,it is usually only a fraction of a degree above the opalescent point noted4 ,the thermometer should be read to the nearest #a_/b;deg4 ,c41 and in addition this temperature may be reported to the nearest degree ,fahrenheit if desired4 ,,cloud ,,test4 ,,precautions--7#a7 ,the oil must be perfectly dry1 because the presence of moisture will produce a turbidity before the clouding point is reached4 7#b7 ,the oil must be heated to #aej;deg4 ,c4 over a free flame1 immediately before making the test4 7#c7 ,there must not be too much discrepancy between the temperature of the bath and the clouding point of the oil4 ,an oil that will cloud at the temperature of hydrant water should be tested in a bath of that temperature4 ,an oil that will cloud in a mixture of ice and water should be tested in such a bath4 ,an oil that will not cloud in a bath of ice and water must be tested in a bath of salt1 ice1 and water4 ,,determination--,the oil is heated in a porcelain casserole over a free flame to #aej;deg4 ,c41 stirring with the thermometer4 ,as soon as it can be done with safety1 the oil is transferred to a #d oz4 oil bottle1 which must be perfectly dry4 ,one and one-half ounces of the oil are sufficient for the test4 ,a dry centigrade thermometer is placed in the oil1 and the bottle is then cooled by immersion in a suitable bath4 ,the oil is constantly stirred with the thermometer1 taking care not to remove the thermometer from the oil at any time during the test1 so as to avoid stirring air bubbles into the oil4 ,the bottle is frequently removed from the bath for a few moments4 ,the oil must not be allowed to chill on the sides and bottom of the bottle4 ,this is effected by constant and vigorous stirring with the thermometer4 ,as soon as the first permanent cloud shows in the body of the oil1 the temperature at which this cloud occurs is noted4 ,with care1 results concordant to within #a_/b;deg4 ,c4 can be obtained by this method4 ,a ,fahrenheit thermometer is sometimes used because it has become customary to report results in degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the oil must be tested within a short time after heating to #aej;deg4 ,c4 and a re-test must always be preceded by reheating to that temperature4 ,the cloud point should be approached as quickly as possible1 yet not so fast that the oil is frozen on the sides or bottom of the bottle before the cloud test is reached4 ,notes on the ,above ,methods4 ,,sampling4 ,the standard size of sample adopted by the committee is at least #c lbs4 in weight4 ,the committee realizes that this amount is larger than any samples usually furnished even when representing shipments of from #bj1jjj to #fj1jjj lbs4 but it believes that the requirement of a larger sample is desirable and will work toward uniform and more concordant results in analysis4 ,it will probably continue to be the custom of the trade to submit smaller buyers' samples than required by the committee1 but these are to be considered only as samples for inspection and not for analysis4 ,the standard analytical sample must consist of #c lbs4 or more4 ,the reasons for keeping samples in a dark1 cool place are obvious4 ,this is to prevent any increase in rancidity and any undue increase in free fatty acids4 ,in the case of many fats the committee has found in its co-operative analytical work that free acid tends to increase very rapidly4 ,this tendency is minimized by low temperatures4 ,,moisture ,,and ,,volatile ,,matter4 ,after careful consideration the committee has decided that moisture is best determined in a vacuum oven of the design which accompanies the above report4 ,numerous results on check samples have confirmed the committee's conclusions4 ,the oven recommended by the committee is constructed on the basis of well-known principles and it is hoped that this type will be adopted generally by chemists who are called upon to analyze fats and oils4 ,the experiments of the committee indicate that it is a most difficult matter to design a vacuum oven which will produce uniform temperatures throughout2 and one of the principal ideas in the design adopted is uniformity of temperature over the entire single shelf4 ,this idea has not quite been realized in practice but1 nevertheless1 the present design approaches much closer to the ideal than other vacuum ovens commonly used4 ,in the drawing the essential dimensions are those between the heating units and the shelf and the length and breadth of the outer casting4 ,the standard ,fat ,analysis ,committee ,oven 7,f4 ,a4 ,c4 ,oven7 can be furnished by ,messrs4 ,e4 ,h4 ,sargent ,company1 #abe ,west ,lake street1 ,chicago4 ,the committee realizes that for routine work a quicker method is desirable and has added one such method and has also stated the conditions under which comparable results can be obtained by means of the ordinary well-ventilated air oven held at #aje to #aaj;deg4 ,c4 ,however1 in accordance with a fundamental principle adopted by the committee at its first meeting1 only one standard method is adopted and declared official for each determination4 ,the committee realizes that in the case of all methods for determining moisture by means of loss on heating there may be a loss due to volatile matter 7especially fatty acids7 other than water4 ,the title of the determination ,,moisture ,,and ,,volatile ,,matter indicates this idea1 but any considerable error from this source may occur only in the case of high acid fats and oils and particularly those containing lower fatty acids such as coconut and palm kernel oil4 ,in the case of extracted greases which have not been properly purified1 some of the solvent may also be included in the moisture and volatile matter determination1 but inasmuch as the solvent1 usually a petroleum product1 can only be considered as foreign matter1 for commercial purposes1 it is entirely proper to include it with the moisture4 ,the committee has also considered the various distillation methods for the determination of moisture in fats and oils1 but since according to the fundamental principles which it was endeavoring to follow it could only standardize one method1 it was decided that the most desirable one on the whole was the vacuum-oven method as given4 ,there are cases wherein a chemist may find it desirable to check a moisture determination or investigate the moisture content of a fat or oil further by means of one of the distillation methods4 ,however1 in co-operative work the distillation method in various types of apparatus has not yielded satisfactory results4 ,the difficulties appear to be connected with a proper choice of solvent and particularly with the tendency of drops of water to adhere to various parts of the glass apparatus instead of passing on to the measuring device4 ,when working on coconut oil containing a high percentage of free fatty acids1 concordant results could not be obtained by the various members of the committee when working with identical samples1 solvents and apparatus4 ,on the other hand1 the committee found by individual work1 co-operative work and collaborative work by several members of the committee in one laboratory1 that the old1 well-known direct heating method 7which the committee has designated the hot plate method7 yielded very satisfactory results on all sorts of fats and oils including emulsions such as butter and oleomargarine and even on coconut oil samples containing #ae to #bj per cent free fatty acids and #e to #f per cent of moisture4 ,unfortunately1 this method depends altogether on the operator's skill and while the method may be taught to any person whether a chemist or not so that he can obtain excellent results with it1 it is difficult to give a sufficiently1 complete description of it so that any chemist anywhere after reading the description could follow it successfully4 ,the method is undoubtedly worthy of much confidence in careful hands4 ,it is quick1 accurate and reliable4 ,it is probably the best single method for the determination of moisture in all sorts of samples for routine laboratory work4 ,on account of this fact the committee desires to announce its willingness to instruct any person in the proper use of the method who desires to become acquainted with it and who will visit any committee member's laboratory4 ,,insoluble ,,impurities4 ,this determination1 the title for which was adopted after careful consideration1 determines the impurities which have generally been known as dirt1 suspended matter1 suspended solids1 foreign solids1 foreign matter1 etc41 in the past4 ,the first solvent recommended by the committee is hot kerosene to be followed by petroleum ether kept at ordinary room temperature4 ,petroleum ether1 cold or only slightly warm1 is not a good fat and metallic soap solvent1 whereas hot kerosene dissolves these substances readily1 and for this reason the committee has recommended the double solvent method so as to exclude metallic soaps which are determined below as soluble mineral matter4 ,,soluble ,,mineral ,,matter4 ,soluble mineral matter represents mineral matter combined with fatty acids in the form of soaps in solution in the fat or oil4 ,formerly1 this mineral matter was often determined in combination by weighing the separated metallic soap or by weighing it in conjunction with the insoluble impurities4 ,since the soaps present consist mostly of lime soap1 it has been customary to calculate the lime present therein by taking #j4a the weight of the total metallic soaps4 ,the standard method as given above is direct and involves no calculation4 ,the routine method given in the note has been placed among the methods for the reason that it is used in some laboratories1 but has not been adopted as a standard method in view of the fact that the committee has made it a rule to adopt only one standard method4 ,it should be pointed out1 however1 that the method cannot be considered accurate for the reason that insoluble impurities may vary from sample to sample to a considerable extent and the error due to the presence of large particles of insoluble impurities is thus transferred to the soluble mineral matter4 ,the committee has found one type of grease 7naphtha bone grease7 which shows most unusual characteristics4 ,the type sample contains #d4c per cent soluble mineral matter by the committee method which would be equivalent to #dc4j per cent free fatty acid4 ,the kerosene and gasoline filtrate was particularly clear1 nevertheless the ash was found to contain #cf4dc per cent ,p#b,o#e equivalent to #gi4fj per cent of ,ca#c7,,po#d7b and #i4fc per cent of ,fe#b,o#c4 ,the method1 therefore1 determines the soluble mineral matter in this case satisfactorily but the factor #aj is not applicable for calculating the fatty acids combined therewith4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 in order to determine the fatty acids combined with soluble mineral matter in the original sample to determine the actual bases in the soluble mineral matter as obtained by ashing the kerosene and gasoline filtrate4 ,to the bases so determined the factor #aj can then be applied4 ,,free ,,fatty ,,acid4 ,the fatty acid method adopted is sufficiently accurate for commercial purposes4 ,in many routine laboratories the fat or oil is measured and not weighed1 but the committee recommends weighing the sample in all cases4 ,for scientific purposes the result is often expressed as acid number1 meaning the number of milligrams of ,,koh required to neutralize the free acids in one gram of fat1 but the commercial practice has been1 and is1 to express the fatty acids as oleic acid or in the case of palm oil1 as palmitic acid1 in some instances4 ,the committee sees no objection to the continuation of this custom so long as the analytical report clearly indicates how the free acid is expressed4 ,for a more exact expression of the free acid in a given fat1 the committee recommends that the ratio of acid number to saponification number be used4 ,this method of expressing results is subject to error when unsaponifiable fatty matter is present1 since the result expresses the ratio of free fatty acid to total saponifiable fatty matter present4 ,,titer4 ,at the present time the prices of glycerol and caustic potash are abnormally high1 but the committee has considered that the methods adopted are for normal times and normal prices4 ,for routine work during the period of high prices the following method may be used for preparing the fatty acids and is recommended by the committee3 ,fifty grams of fat are saponified with #fj cc4 of a solution of #b parts of methyl alcohol to #a of #ej per cent ,na,o,h4 ,the soap is dried1 pulverized and dissolved in #ajjj cc4 of water in a porcelain dish and then decomposed with #be cc4 of #ge per cent sulphuric acid4 ,the fatty acids are boiled until clear oil is formed and then collected and settled in a #aej-;cc4 beaker and filtered into a #ej-;cc4 beaker4 ,they are then heated to #acj;deg4 ,c4 as rapidly as possible with stirring1 and transferred1 after they have cooled somewhat1 to the usual #a-;in4 by #d-;in4 titer tube4 ,the method of taking the titer1 including handling the thermometer1 to be followed is the same as that described in the standard method4 ,even at present high prices many laboratories are using the glycerol-caustic potash method for preparing the fatty acids1 figuring that the saving of time more than compensates for the extra cost of the reagents4 ,caustic soda cannot be substituted for caustic potash in the glycerol method4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matter4 ,the committee has considered unsaponifiable matter to include those substances frequently found dissolved in fats and oils which are not saponified by the caustic alkalies and which at the same time are soluble in the ordinary fat solvents4 ,the term includes such substances as the higher alcohols1 such as cholesterol which is found in animal fats1 phytosterol found in some vegetable fats1 paraffin and petroleum oils1 etc4 ,,unsaponifiable ,,matter should not be confused in the lay mind with ,,insoluble ,,impurities ,,or ,,soluble ,,mineral ,,matter4 ,the method adopted by the committee has been selected only after the most careful consideration of other methods1 such as the dry extraction method and the wet method making use of the separatory funnel4 ,at first consideration the dry extraction process would seem to offer the best basis for an unsaponifiable matter method1 but in practice it has been found absolutely impossible for different analysts to obtain agreeing results when using any of the dry extraction methods proposed4 ,therefore1 this method had to be abandoned after numerous trials1 although several members of the committee strongly favored it in the beginning4 ,,iodine ,,number--,the iodine number adopted by the committee is that determined by the well-known ,wijs method4 ,this method was adopted after careful comparison with the ,hanus and ,huebl methods4 ,the ,huebl method was eliminated from consideration almost at the beginning of the committee's work for the reason that the time required for complete absorption of the iodine is unnecessarily long and1 in fact1 even after absorption has gone on over night1 it is apparently not complete4 ,in the case of the ,hanus and ,wijs methods complete absorption takes place in from #ae minutes to an hour1 depending on conditions4 ,formerly1 many chemists thought the ,hanus solution rather easier to prepare than the ,wijs solution1 but the experience of the committee was that the ,wijs solution was no more difficult to prepare than the ,hanus4 ,furthermore1 absorption of iodine from the ,wijs solution appeared to take place with greater promptness and certainty than from the ,hanus and was complete in a shorter time4 ,results by the ,wijs method were also in better agreement in the case of oils showing high iodine absorption than with the ,hanus solution and showed a slightly higher iodine absorption for the same length of time4 ,however1 the difference was not great4 ,the committee investigated the question of substitution since it has been suggested that in case of the ,wijs solution substitution of iodine in the organic molecule might occur1 and found no evidence of this in the time required for the determination1 namely1 #a_/b hr41 or even for a somewhat longer period4 ,one member of the committee felt that it was not desirable to introduce the ,wijs method into these standard methods since the ,hanus method was already standardized by the ,association of ,official ,agricultural ,chemists1 but the committee felt that it must follow the principle established at the commencement of its work1 namely1 that of adopting the method which appeared to be the best from all standpoints1 taking into consideration accuracy1 convenience1 simplicity1 time1 expense1 etc41 without allowing precedent to have the deciding vote4 ,,iodine ,,number1 ,,tung ,,oil--,the committee has made an extensive study of the application of the ,wijs method to the determination of iodine value in the case of tung oil with the result that it recommends the method for this oil but has thought it desirable to limit the conditions under which the determination is conducted rather narrowly1 although reasonably good results are obtained by the committee method without making use of the special limitations4 ,the co-operative work of the committee and the special investigations conducted by individual members bring out the following points3 ,influence of ,temperature--,from #af;deg4 ,c4 to #cj;deg4 ,c4 there is a moderate increase in the absorption1 but above #cj;deg4 the increase is rather rapid so that it was thought best to limit the temperature in the case of tung oil to #bj;deg4 to #be;deg4 ,c4 ,influence of ,time--,the absorption increases with the time but apparently complete absorption1 so far as unsaturated bonds are concerned1 occurs well within one hour's time4 ,consequently1 one hour was set as the practical limit4 ,influence of ,excess--,the excess of iodine solution also tends to increase the iodine number1 hence the ,committee thought it necessary to limit the excess rather rigidly to #ee - #c per cent1 although with greater latitude results were reasonably good4 ,influence of ,age of ,solution--,old solutions tend to give low results although up to #b mo4 no great differences were observed4 ,nevertheless1 it was thought best to limit the age of the solution to #cj days--long enough for all practical purposes4 ,amount of ,sample--,as a practical amount of sample to be weighed out the ,committee decided on #j4ae g4 with a tolerance of #j4je g4 in either direction according to preference4 ,in other words1 the amount of sample to be taken for the determination to be from #j4a to #j4b g4 in the discretion of the analyst4 ,the ,committee's study of the ,huebl method which has been adopted by the ,society for ,testing ,materials in the case of tung oil indicates that this method when applied to tung oil is subject to the same influences as the ,wijs method and it has the additional very serious disadvantage of requiring a long period of time for absorption which cannot be considered reasonable for a modern analytical method4 ,when using the ,huebl solution1 the absorption is not complete in the case of tung oil at #c1 #g1 #ah or even #bd hrs4 ,the ,hanus method in the case of tung oil gives very high and erratic results1 as high as #ahj to #bdj in ordinary cases for an oil whose true iodine number is about #afe4 ,,melting ,,point4 ,a melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance assumes the liquid condition4 ,if the solid is a pure substance in the crystalline condition the melting point is sharp and well defined for any given pressure4 ,with increased pressure the melting point is lowered or raised1 depending on whether the substance contracts or expands in melting4 ,the lowering or raising of the melting point with pressure is very slight and ordinarily is not taken into consideration4 ,melting-point determinations are commonly carried out under ordinary atmospheric pressures without correction4 ,the general effect of soluble impurities is to lower the melting point1 and this holds true whether the impurity has a higher or lower melting point than the pure substance 7solvent74 ,thus if a small amount of stearic acid be added to liquid palmitic acid and the solution frozen1 the melting point of this solid will be lower than that of palmitic acid4 ,likewise the melting point of stearic acid is lowered by the addition of a small amount of palmitic acid4 ,a eutectic mixture results when two components solidify simultaneously at a definite temperature4 ,such a mixture has a constant melting point and because of this and also because both solid and liquid phases have the same composition1 eutectic mixtures were formerly looked upon as compounds4 ,the phenomenon of double melting points has been observed in the case of a number of glycerides4 ,such a glyceride when placed in the usual capillary tube and subjected to increasing temperature quickly resolidifies only to melt again and remain melted at a still higher temperature4 ,this phenomenon has not yet been sufficiently investigated to afford a satisfactory explanation4 ,non-crystalline substances such as glass1 sealing wax and various other waxes and wax mixtures1 and most colloidal substances do not exhibit a sharp melting point1 but under the application of heat first soften very gradually and at a considerably higher temperature melt sufficiently to flow4 ,this phenomenon of melting through a long range of temperature may be due to the amorphous nature of the substance or to the fact that it consists of a very large number of components of many different melting points4 ,the fats and oils of natural origin1 that is1 the animal and vegetable fats and oils1 consist of mixtures of glycerides and1 generally speaking1 of a considerable number of such components4 ,these components are crystalline and when separated in the pure state have definite melting points1 although some exhibit the phenomenon of double melting point4 ,for the most part the naturally occurring glycerides are mixed glycerides4 ,in the natural fats and oils there are present also certain higher alcohols1 of which cholesterol is characteristic of the animal fats and oils and phytosterol of many of the vegetable fats and oils4 ,in addition to the crystalline glycerides and the higher alcohols present in neutral fats1 there are in fats of lower grade1 fatty acids1 which are crystalline1 and also various non-crystalline impurities of an unsaponifiable nature1 and the presence of these impurities tends to lower the melting point4 ,they also tend to induce undercooling and when the liquid fat or oil is being chilled for purposes of solidification or in determination of titer4 ,the presence of water1 especially when this is thoroughly mixed or emulsified with a fat or oil1 also influences the melting point to a marked extent1 causing the mixture to melt through a longer range of temperatures than would be the case if the water were absent4 ,this is particularly true of emulsified fats and oils1 such as butter and oleomargarine1 both of which contain1 besides water1 the solids naturally present in milk or cream and including casein1 milk sugar1 and salts4 ,the melting-point method recommended by the ,committee is not applicable to such emulsions or other watery mixtures and the ,committee has found it impossible to devise an accurate method for making softening-point or melting-point determinations on products of this nature4 ,not only the amount of water present but also the fineness of its particles1 that is1 its state of subdivision and distribution1 in a fat or oil influences the softening point or melting point and causes it to vary widely in different samples4 ,as a consequence of the foregoing facts1 natural fats and oils do not exhibit a definite melting point1 composed as they are of mixtures of various crystalline glycerides1 higher alcohols1 fatty acids1 and non-crystalline substances4 ,therefore1 the term melting point when applied to them requires further definition4 ,they exhibit first a lower melting point 7the melting point of the lowest melting component7 or what might be called the softening point and following this the fat softens through a shorter or longer range of temperature to the final melting point at which temperature the fat is entirely liquid4 ,this is the melting point determined by the ,committee's melting-point method4 ,the range between the softening point and the final melting point varies greatly with the different fats and oils depending on their chemical components1 the water associated with them1 emulsification1 etc4 ,in the case of coconut oil the range between softening point and final melting point is rather short2 in the case of butter1 long4 ,various methods have been devised to determine the so-called melting point of fats and oils4 ,most of these methods1 however1 determine1 not the melting point1 but the softening point or the flow point of the fat and the great difficulty has been in the past to devise a method which would determine even this point with reasonable accuracy and so that results could be easily duplicated4 ,it has been the aim of the ,committee to devise a simple method for the determination of the melting point of fats and oils1 but it should be understood that the term melting point in the scientific sense is not applicable to natural fats and oils4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,approved by the ,supervisory ,committee on ,standard ,methods of ,analysis of the ,american ,chemical ,society4 #bc ,live steam must not be turned into tank cars or coils before samples are drawn1 since there is no certain way of telling when coils are free from leaks4 #bd ,if there is water present under the solid material this must be noted and estimated separately4 #be ,boiling point of water at reduced pressures4 ,pressure ,boiling ,point ,boiling ,point ,boiling ,point ,mm4 ,hg4 to #a;deg4 ,c4 #ae;deg4 ,c4 #bj;deg4 ,c4 #ajj #eb;deg4 ,c4 #fg;deg4 ,c4 #gb;deg4 ,c4 #ij #ej #fe #gj #hj #dg #fb #fg #gj #de #fj #fe #fj #db #eg #fb #ej #ch #ec #eh #dj #cd #di #ed #bf ,results comparable to those of the ,standard ,method may be obtained on most fats and oils by drying #e-;g4 portions of the sample1 prepared and weighed as above1 to constant weight in a well-constructed and well-ventilated air oven held uniformly at a temperature of #aje;deg4 to #aaj;deg4 ,c4 ,the thermometer bulb should be close to the sample4 ,the definition of constant weight is the same as for the ,standard ,method4 #bg ,the following method is suggested by the ,committee for routine control work3 ,weigh out #e- to #be-;g4 portions of prepared sample into a glass or aluminum 7,caution3 ,aluminum soap may be formed7 beaker or casserole and heat on a heavy asbestos board over burner or hot plate1 taking care that the temperature of the sample does not go above #acj;deg4 ,c4 at any time4 ,during the heating rotate the vessel gently on the board by hand to avoid sputtering or too rapid evolution of moisture4 ,the proper length of time of heating is judged by absence of rising bubbles of steam1 by the absence of foam or by other signs known to the operator4 ,avoid overheating of sample as indicated by smoking or darkening4 ,cool in desiccator and weigh4 ,by co-operative work in several laboratories1 the ,committee has demonstrated that this method can be used and satisfactory results obtained on coconut oil even when a considerable percentage of free fatty acids is present1 and the method is recommended for this purpose4 ,unfortunately on account of the very great personal factor involved1 the ,committee cannot establish this method as a preferred method4 ,nevertheless1 after an operator has learned the technique of the method1 it gives perfectly satisfactory results for ordinary oils and fats1 butter1 oleomargarine and coconut oil1 and deserves more recognition than it has heretofore received4 #bh ,for routine control work1 filter paper is sometimes more convenient than the prepared ,gooch crucible1 but must be very carefully washed1 especially around the rim1 to remove the last traces of fat4 #bi ,for routine work1 an ash may be run on the original fat1 and the soluble mineral matter obtained by deducting the ash on the insoluble impurities from this4 ,in this case the ,gooch crucible should be prepared with an ignited asbestos mat so that the impurities may be ashed directly after being weighed4 ,in all cases ignition should be to constant weight so as to insure complete decomposition of carbonates4 #cj ,see note on ,soluble ,mineral ,matter following these methods4 ,when the ash contains phosphates the factor #aj cannot be applied1 but the bases consisting of calcium oxide1 etc41 must be determined1 and the factor #aj applied to them4 #ca ,for routine work methyl or denatured ethyl alcohol of approximately #ie per cent strength may be used4 ,with these reagents the end-point is not sharp4 #cb ,p4 ,c4 ,mc,ilhiney1 ,j4 ,am4 ,chem4 ,soc41 #bi 7#aiag71 #abbb1 gives the following details for the preparation of the iodine monochloride solution3 ,the preparation of the iodine monochloride solution presents no great difficulty1 but it must be done with care and accuracy in order to obtain satisfactory results4 ,there must be in the solution no sensible excess either of iodine or more particularly of chlorine1 over that required to form the monochloride4 ,this condition is most satisfactorily attained by dissolving in the whole of the acetic acid to be used the requisite quantity of iodine1 using a gentle heat to assist the solution1 if it is found necessary1 setting aside a small portion of this solution1 while pure and dry chlorine is passed into the remainder until the halogen content of the whole solution is doubled4 ,ordinarily it will be found that by passing the chlorine into the main part of the solution until the characteristic color of free iodine has just been discharged there will be a slight excess of chlorine which is corrected by the addition of the requisite amount of the unchlorinated portion until all free chlorine has been destroyed4 ,a slight excess of iodine does little or no harm1 but excess of chlorine must be avoided4 #cc ,the melting point of oils may be determined in general according to the above procedure1 taking into consideration the lower temperature required4 ,,plant ,,and ,,machinery ,illustrations of machinery and layouts of the plant of a modern soap-making establishment4 ,illustration3 ,,hoist1 ,,lye ,,tank1 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,,melting-,,out ,,trough ,illustration3 ,,laundry ,,soap ,,plant ,illustration3 ,,drying ,,rack ,illustration3 ,,soap ,,kettle ,illustration3 ,,remelter ,illustration3 ,,crutcher 7,cross ,section7 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,crutcher ,illustration3 ,,crutcher ,illustration3 ,,wrapping ,,machine 7,,laundry ,,soap7 ,illustration3 ,,slabber ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,table ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,power ,,cutting ,,table ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,press 7,,laundry7 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,table 7,,hand7 ,illustration3 ,,carton ,,wrapping ,,machine ,illustration3 ,,drying ,,racks ,illustration3 ,,soap ,,powder ,,box ,illustration3 ,,scouring ,,soap ,,press ,illustration3 ,,frame ,illustration3 ,,soap ,,powder ,,equipment ,illustration3 ,,fluffy ,,soap ,,powder ,,equipment ,illustration3 ,,soap ,,powder ,,mixer ,illustration3 ,,soap ,,powder ,,mill ,illustration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,equipment ,illustration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,dryer ,illustration3 ,,milling ,,box ,illustration3 ,,amalgamator ,illustration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,mill ,illustration3 ,,toilet ,,soap ,,mill ,illustration3 ,,chipper ,illustration3 ,,plodder ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,chipper ,illustration3 ,,amalgamator 7,,improved7 ,illustration3 ,,press 7,,lettering ,,on #d ,,sides ,,of ,,cake7 ,illustration3 ,press 7,foot7 ,illustration3 ,press 7,foot7 ,illustration3 ,,plodder ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,press 7,,toilet7 ,illustration3 ,,multiple ,,cake ,,cutter ,illustration3 ,,cake ,,cutter ,illustration3 ,,chipper ,illustration3 ,,glycerine ,,distilling ,,plant ,illustration3 ,,crude ,,glycerine ,,plant ,illustration3 ,h-,a ,,fatty ,,acid ,,distilling ,,plant ,appendix ,tables marked 99 are taken from the ,german ,year ,book for ,soap ,industry4 7,u4 ,s4 ,,bureau ,,of ,,standards7 ,,the ,,metric ,,system4 ,the fundamental unit of the metric system is the meter 7the unit of length74 ,from this the units of mass 7gram7 and capacity 7liter7 are derived4 ,all other units are the decimal sub-divisions or multiples of these4 ,these three units are simply related1 so that for all practical purposes the volume of one kilogram of water 7one liter7 is equal to one cubic decimeter4 ,prefixes4 ,meaning4 ,units4 ,milli- one thousandth #a-ajjj 4#jja ,centi- one hundredth #a-ajj 4#ja ,meter for length4 ,deci- one tenth #a-aj 4#a ,unit one #a4 ,gram for mass4 ,deka- ten #aj-a #aj4 ,hecto- one hundred #ajj-a #ajj4 ,liter for capacity4 ,kilo- one thousand #ajjj-a #ajjj4 ,the metric terms are formed by combining the words ,meter1 ,gram and ,liter with the six numerical prefixes4 ,,length #aj milli-meters mm #a centi-meter c m #aj centi-meters #a deci-meter d m #aj deci-meters #a meter 7about #dj inches7 m #aj meters #a deka-meter d k m #aj deka-meters #a hecto-meter h m #aj hecto-meters #a kilo-meter 7about #e_/h mile7 k m ,,mass4 #aj milli-grams4 m g #a centi-gram c g #aj centi-grams #a deci-gram d g #aj deci-grams #a gram 7about #ae grains7 g #aj grams #a deka-gram d k g #aj ,deka-grams #a hecto-gram h g #aj hecto-grams #a kilo-gram 7about #b pounds7 k g ,,capacity4 #aj milli-liters4 m l #a centi-liter c l #aj centi-liters #a deci-liter d l #aj deci-liters #a liter 7about #a quart7 l #aj liters #a deka-liter d k l #aj deka-liters #a hecto-liter 7about a barrel7 h l #aj hecto-liters #a kilo-liter k l ,the square and cubic units are the squares and cubes of the linear units4 ,the ordinary unit of land area is the ,hectare 7about #b-a_/b acres74 ,u4,s4 ,,bureau ,,of ,,standards ,,table ,,of ,,metric ,,equivalents ,meter #ci4cg inches4 ,legal ,equivalent ,adopted by ,act of ,congress ,july #bh1 #ahff4 ,,length4 ,centimeter #j4cicg inch ,meter #c4bh feet ,meter #a4jid yards ,kilometer #j4fba statute mile ,kilometer #j4ecif nautical mile ,inch #b4edj centimeters ,foot #j4cje meter ,yard #j4iad meter ,statute mile #a4fa kilometers ,nautical mile #a4hec kilometers ,,area4 ,sq4 centimeter #j4aee sq4 inch ,sq4 meter #aj4gf sq4 feet ,sq4 meter #a4aif sq4 yards ,hectare #b4dg acres ,sq4 kilometer #j4chf sq4 mile ,sq4 inch #f4de sq4 centimeters ,sq4 foot #j4jibi sq4 meter ,sq4 yard #j4hcf sq4 meter ,acre #j4dje hectare ,sq4 mile #b4ei sq4 kilometers ,,weight4 ,gram #ae4dc grains ,gram #j4ggb ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 scruple ,gram #j4begb ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 dram ,gram #j4jcec avoir4 ounce ,gram #j4jcbae troy ounce ,kilogram #b4bje avoir4 pounds ,kilogram #b4fgi troy pounds ,metric ton #j4ihd gross or long ton ,metric ton #a4ajb short or net tons ,grain #j4jfd gram ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 scruple #a4bif grams ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 dram #c4hi grams ,avoir4 ounce #bh4ce grams ,troy ounce #ca4aj grams ,avoir4 pound #j4decf kilogram ,troy pound #j4cgc kilogram ,gross or long ton #a4jaf metric tons ,short or net ton #j4ijg metric ton ,,volume4 ,cu4 centimeter #j4jfaj cu4 inch ,cu4 meter #ce4c cu4 feet ,cu4 meter #a4cjh cu4 yards ,cu4 inch #af4ci cu4 centimeters ,cu4 foot #j4bhc cu4 meter ,cu4 yard #j4gfe cu4 meter ,,capacity4 ,millimeter #j4jcch ,u4 ,s4 liq4 ounce ,millimeter #j4bgje ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 dram ,liter #a4jeg ,u4 ,s4 liq4 quarts ,liter #j4bfdb ,u4 ,s4 liq4 gallon ,liter #j4ijh ,u4 ,s4 dry quart ,dekaliter #a4ace ,u4 ,s4 pecks ,hectoliter #b4hch ,u4 ,s4 bushels ,u4 ,s4 liq4 ounce #bi4eg millimeters ,u4 ,s4 apoth4 dram #c4gj millimeters ,u4 ,s4 liq4 quarts #j4idf liter ,u4 ,s4 dry quarts #a4aja liters ,u4 ,s4 liq4 gallon #c4ghe liters ,u4 ,s4 peck #j4hha dekaliter ,u4 ,s4 bushel #j4cebd hectoliter ,,avoirdupois ,,weight4 #a pound #af ounces #bef drams #a ounce #af ,,troy 7,,apothecaries'7 ,,weight 7,u4 ,s47 #a pound #ab ounces #if drams #bhh scruples #e1gfj grains #a ounce #h drams #bd scruples #dhj grains #a dram #c scruples #fj grains #a scruple #bj grains ,,wine 7,,apothecaries7 ,,liquid ,,measure 7,u4 ,s47 #a gallon #h pints #abh fl4 ozs4 #a1jbd fl4 drams #fa1ddj minims #a pint #af fl4 ozs4 #abh fl4 drams #g1fhi minims #a fl4 oz4 #h fl4 drams #dhj minims #a fl4 dram #fj minims ,to find diameter of a circle multiply circumference by 4#cahca4 ,to find circumference of a circle1 multiply diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find area of a circle1 multiply square of diameter by 4#ghed4 ,to find surface of a ball1 multiply square of diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find side of an equal square1 multiply diameter by 4#hhfb4 ,to find cubic inches in a ball1 multiply cube of diameter by 4#ebcf4 ,doubling the diameter of a pipe1 increases its capacity four times4 ,one cubic foot of anthracite coal weighs about #ec lbs4 ,one cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs from #dg to #ej pounds4 ,a gallon of water 7,u4 ,s4 standard7 weighs #h-a_/c pounds and contains #bca cubic inches4 ,a cubic foot of water contains #g-a_/b gallons1 #agbh cubic inches and weighs #fb-a_/b pounds4 ,to find the number of pounds of water a cylindrical tank contains1 square the diameter1 multiply by 4#ghe and then by the height in feet4 ,this gives the number of cubic feet which multiplied by #fb-a_/b gives the capacity in pounds of water4 ,divide by #g-a_/b and this gives the capacity in gallons4 ,a horse-power is equivalent to raising #cc1jjj pounds #a foot per minute1 or #eej pounds #a foot per second4 ,the friction of water in pipes is as the square of velocity4 ,the capacity of pipes is as the square of their diameters2 thus1 doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times4 ,to find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given quantity of water per minute 7#ajj feet of piston being the standard of speed71 divide the number of gallons by #d1 then extract the square root1 and the product will be the diameter in inches of the pump cylinder4 ,to find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given height1 multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in pounds by the height in feet1 and divide the product by #cc1jjj 7an allowance should be added for water friction1 and a further allowance for loss in steam cylinder1 say from #bj to #cj per cent74 ,to compute the capacity of pumping engines1 multiply the area of water piston1 in inches1 by the distance it travels1 in inches1 in a given time4 ,deduct #c per cent for slip and rod displacement4 ,the product divided by #bca gives the number of gallons in time named4 ,to find the velocity in feet per minute necessary to discharge a given volume of water in a given time1 multiply the number of cubic feet of water by #add and divide the product by the area of the pipe in inches4 ,to find the area of a required pipe1 the volume and velocity of water being given1 multiply the number of cubic feet of water by #add and divide the product by the velocity in feet per minute4 ,the area being found1 the diameter can be learned by using any table giving the area of circles and finding the nearest area1 opposite to which will be found the diameter to correspond4 ,physical and ,chemical ,constants of ,fixed ,oils and ,fats4 7,,from ,,lewkowitsch ,,and ,,other ,,authorities47 ,specific ,specific gravity ,melting- ,solidifying- gravity at point4 point4 at #ae;deg4,c4#ajj;deg4,c4 deg4 ,c4 deg4 ,c4 ,linseed oil #j4ica-j4ich #j4hhj -#af to -#bf -#af ,hemp-seed oil #j4ibe-j4ica -#bg ,walnut oil #j4ibe-j4ibf #j4hga -#bg ,poppy-seed oil #j4ibd-j4ibg #j4hgc -#ah ,sunflower oil #j4ibd-j4ibf #j4iai -#ag ,fir-seed oil #j4ibe-j4ibh -#bg to -#cj ,maize oil #j4iba-j4ibf -#aj to -#ae ,cotton-seed oil #j4ibb-j4icj #j4hfg #ab ,sesame oil #j4ibc-j4ibd #j4hga -#e ,rape-seed oil #j4iad-j4iag #j4hfc -#b to -#aj ,black mustard oil #j4iaf-j4ibj -#ag4e ,croton oil #j4idb-j4iee -#af ,castor oil #j4ifj-j4iff #j4iaj -#ab to -#ah ,apricot-kernel oil #j4iae-j4iai -#ad ,almond oil #j4iae-j4ibj -#aj to -#bj ,peanut 7arachis7 oil #j4iaf-j4ibj #j4hfg -#c to -#g ,olive oil #j4iad-j4iag #j4hfb #b ,menhaden oil #j4ibg-j4icc -#d ,cod-liver oil #j4ibb-j4ibg #j4hgd #j to -#aj ,seal oil #j4ibd-j4ibi #j4hgc #c ,whale oil #j4ibj-j4icj #j4hgb -#b ,dolphin oil #j4iag-j4iah #e to -#c ,porpoise oil #j4ibf #j4hga -#af ,neat's-foot oil #j4iad-j4iaf #j4hfa #j to #a4e ,cotton-seed stearine #j4iai-j4ibc #j4hfg #dj #ca to #cb4e ,palm oil #j4iba-j4ibe #j4hef #bg to #db ,cacao butter #j4iej-j4ieb #j4heh #cj to #cc #be to #bf ,cocoa-nut oil #j4ibe-j4ibf #j4hgc #bj to #bf #af to #bj ,myrtle wax #j4iie #j4hge #dj to #dd #ci to #dc ,japan wax #j4igj-j4ihj #j4hge #ea to #ed4e #df ,lard #j4ica-j4ich #j4hfa #da to #df #bi ,bone fat #j4iad-j4iaf #ba to #bb #ae to #ag ,tallow #j4idc-j4ieb #j4hfj #db to #df #ce to #cg ,butter fat #j4ibg-j4icf #j4hff #bi4e to #cc #ai to #bj ,oleomargarine #j4ibd-j4icj #j4hei ,sperm oil #j4hge-j4hhd #j4hcc -#be ,bottle-nose oil #j4hgi-j4hhj #j4hbg ,carnauba wax #j4iij-j4iii #j4hdb #hd to #he #hj to #ha ,wool-fat #j4igc #j4ija #ci to #db #cj to #cj4b ,beeswax #j4ieh-j4ifi #j4hbb #fb to #fd #fj4e to #fb ,spermaceti #j4ifj #j4hab #dc4e to #di #dc4d to #dd4b ,chinese wax #j4igj #j4haj #hj4e to #ha #hj4e to #ha ,tung 7,chinese wood oil7 #j4icf-j4idb below -#ag ,soya-bean oil #j4ibd-j4ibg #h to #ae ,physical and ,chemical ,constants of ,fixed ,oils and ,fats4 7,,from ,,lewkowitsch ,,and ,,other ,,authorities47 ,column ,headings3 ,a3 ,saponification value4 ,b3 ,maumene test4 7deg47 ,c3 ,iodine value4 ,d3 ,hehner value4 ,e3 ,reichert value4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,linseed oil #aij-aie #ajd-aaa #age-aij ,hemp-seed oil #aij-aic #ie-if #adh ,walnut oil #aie #if-aja #add-adg ,poppy-seed oil #aie #hf-hh #acd-ada #ie4ch ,sunflower oil #aic-aid #gb-ge #abj-abi #ie ,fir-seed oil #aia4c #ih-ii #aah4i-abj ,maize oil #ahh-aic #ef-fj4e #aag-abe #hi-ie4g #b4e ,cotton-seed oil #aia-aie #fh-gg #ajd-aaj #if-ag ,sesame oil #ahi-aic #fd-fh #aje-aji #ie4h #j4ce ,rape-seed oil #agj-agh #ea-fj #ie-aje #ie ,black mustard oil #agd-agd4f #dc-dd #if-aaj #ie4je ,croton oil #baj4c-bae #aja4g-ajd #hi #ac4e ,castor oil #agh-ahf #df-dg #hc4d-he4i #a4d ,apricot-kernel oil #aib4b-aic4a #db4e-df #ajj-ajg ,almond oil #aij4e-aie4d #ea-ed #ic-ig #if4b ,peanut 7arachis7 oil #aij-aig #de-di #he-ih #ie4hf ,olive oil #aia-aif #da4e-de4e #hj4f-hd4e #ie4dc #j4c ,menhaden oil #ahi4c-aib #abc-abh #adj-agj #a4b ,cod-liver oil #ahb-ahg #ajb-ajc #aed-ahj #ie4c ,seal oil #aij-aif #ib #abg-adj #id4b #j4bb ,whale-oil #ahh-aic #ia-ib #aaj-acf #ic4e #b4jd ,dolphin ,body oil #aig4c #ii4e #ic4jg #e4f oil ,jaw oil #bjj #cb4h #ff4bh #fe4ib ,porpoise ,body oil #baf-bah4h #ej #aai4d #bc4de oil ,jaw oil #bec4g #di4f #fh4da #fe4h ,neat's-foot oil #aid4c #dg-dh4e #fi4c-gj4d ,cotton-seed stearine4 #aid4f-aie4a #dh #hh4g-ib4h #if4c ,palm oil #aif4c-bjb #ec-eg #ie4f #j4e ,cacao butter #aib4b-aic4e #cb-da #id4ei #a4f ,cocoa-nut oil #bej-bec #h4e-i4c #hh4f #c4g ,myrtle wax #bje4g-baa4g #b4i ,japan wax #bbj-bbb4d #d4b-h4e #ij4f ,lard #aie4c-aif4f #bg-cb #eg-gj #if ,bone fat #aij4i #df4c-di4f ,tallow #aie-aih #cf-dg #ie4f #j4be ,butter fat #bba4e-bbg #bf-ce #hg4e #bh4gh ,oleomargarine #aid-bjc4g #ee4c-fj #ie-if #b4f ,sperm oil #acb4e-adg #dg-ea #hd #a4c ,bottle-nose oil #abf-acd #da-dg #gg4d-hb #a4d ,carnauba wax #hj-hd #ac4e ,wool-fat #ih4b-ajb4d #be-bh ,beeswax #ia-if #h4c-aa ,spermaceti #abh ,chinese wax #fc ,tung 7,chinese wood oil7 #aic #aej-afe ,soya-bean oil #aij4f-aib4i #ei-fa #aba4c-abd #ie4e 99,temperature ,correction ,table for ,hehner's ,concentrated ,bichromate ,solution for ,glycerine ,analysis ,a f ,temperature ,corrected ,volume ,logarithm #a c4c4 #aa;deg4 ,c #j4iihj ccm #iiiac #ab;deg4 #j4iihe #iiice #ac;deg4 #j4iiij #iiief #ad;deg4 #j4iiie #iiigh #ae;deg4 #a4jjjj #jjjjj #af;deg4 #a4jjje #jjjbb #ag;deg4 #a4jjaj #jjjdc #ah;deg4 #a4jjae #jjjfe #ai;deg4 #a4jjbj #jjjhg #bj;deg4 #a4jjbe #jjajh #ba;deg4 #a4jjcj #jjacj #bb;deg4 #a4jjce #jjaeb #bc;deg4 #a4jjdj #jjagc 99,table of ,important ,fatty ,acids ,boiling ,point ,neutral- ,mol4 ,melt- ization ,name ,formula ,wt4 ,ordinary #ajj mm ing value ,pressure ,pressure ,pt4 ,mg4 ,,koh ,butyric ,c#d;,h#h,o#b #hh #afb4c #fcg4e ,caproic ,c#f;,h#ab,o#b #aaf #aii4g #dhc4f ,caprylic ,c#h;,h#af,o#b #add #bcf-bcg #af4e #chi4f ,capric ,c#aj;,h#bj,o#b #agb #bfh-bgj #aii4e-bjj #ca4c #cbf4b ,lauric ,c#ab;,h#bd,o#b #bjj #bbe #dc4f #bhj4e ,myristic ,c#ad;,h#bh,o#b #bbh #bej4e #ec4h #bdf4a ,palmitic ,c#af;,h#cb,o#b #bef #bfh4e #fb #bai4a ,stearic ,c#ah;,h#cf,o#b #bhd #bia #fi4b #aig4e ,arachidic ,c#bj;,h#dj,o#b #cjb #ge #ahe4h ,behenic ,c#bb;,h#dd,o#b #ccj #gg-gh #agj4j ,cerotic ,c#bg;,h#ed,o#b #djj #gh #adj4be ,melissic ,c#cj;,h#fj,o#b #ddb #ij #abf4e ,oleic ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #bhb #ahe4e-bhf #ad #aih4i ,erucic ,c#bb;,h#db,o#b #cch #cc-cd #afe4i ,linolic ,c#ah;,h#cb,o#b #bhj #bjj4d ,linolenic ,c#ah;,h#cj,o#b #bgh #bja4e ,ricinoleic ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#c #bih #aha4f 99,comparison of ,thermometer ,scales n ,degree ,celsius #d_/en ,degree ,reaumur #cb #i_/en ,degree ,fahrenheit n ,degree ,reaumur #e_/dn ,degree ,celsius #cb #i_/dn ,degree ,fahrenheit n ,degree ,fahrenheit #e_/i 7n - #cb7 ,degree ,celsius #d_/i 7n - #cb7 ,deg4 ,r ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- -#bj -#af -#d #bj #af #fh #fj #dh #adj #ajj #hj #bab -#ai -#ae4b -#b4b #ba #af4h #fi4h #fa #dh4h #ada4h #aja #hj4h #bac4h -#ah -#ad4d -#j4d #bb #ag4f #ga4f #fb #di4f #adc4f #ajb #ha4f #bae4f -#ag -#ac4f #a4d #bc #ah4d #gc4d #fc #ej4d #ade4d #ajc #hb4d #bag4d -#af -#ab4h #c4b #bd #ai4b #ge4b #fd #ea4b #adg4b #ajd #hc4b #bai4b -#ae -#ab #e #be #bj #gg #fe #eb #adi #aje #hd #bba -#ad -#aa4b #f4h #bf #bj4h #gh4h #ff #eb4h #aej4h #ajf #hd4h #bbb4h -#ac -#aj4d #h4f #bg #ba4f #hj4f #fg #ec4f #aeb4f #ajg #he4f #bbd4f -#ab -#i4f #aj4d #bh #bb4d #hb4d #fh #ed4d #aed4d #ajh #hf4d #bbf4d -#aa -#h4h #ab4b #bi #bc4b #hd4b #fi #ee4b #aef4b #aji #hg4b #bbh4b -#aj -#h #ad #cj #bd #hf #gj #ef #aeh #aaj #hh #bcj -#i -#g4b #ae4h #ca #bd4h #hg4h #ga #ef4h #aei4h #aaa #hh4h #bca4h -#h -#f4d #ag4f #cb #be4f #hi4f #gb #eg4f #afa4f #aab #hi4f #bcc4f -#g -#e4f #ai4d #cc #bf4d #ia4d #gc #eh4d #afc4d #aac #ij4d #bce4d -#f -#d4h #ba4b #cd #bg4b #ic4b #gd #ei4b #afe4b #aad #ia4b #bcg4b -#e -#d #bc #ce #bh #ie #ge #fj #afg #aae #ib #bci -#d -#c4b #bd4h #cf #bh4h #if4h #gf #fj4h #afh4h #aaf #ib4h #bdj4h -#c -#b4d #bf4f #cg #bi4f #ih4f #gg #fa4f #agj4f #aag #ic4f #bdb4f -#b -#a4f #bh4d #ch #cj4d #ajj4d #gh #fb4d #agb4d #aah #id4d #bdd4d -#a -#j4h #cj4b #ci #ca4b #ajb4b #gi #fc4b #agd4b #aai #ie4b #bdf4b #j #j #cb #dj #cb #ajd #hj #fd #agf #abj #if #bdh #a #j4h #cc4h #da #cb4h #aje4h #ha #fd4h #agg4h #aba #if4h #bdi4h #b #a4f #ce4f #db #cc4f #ajg4f #hb #fe4f #agi4f #abb #ig4f #beb4f #c #b4d #cg4d #dc #cd4d #aji4d #hc #ff4d #aha4d #abc #ih4d #bec4d #d #c4b #ci4b #dd #ce4b #aaa4b #hd #fg4b #ahc4b #abd #ii4b #bee4b #e #d #da #de #cf #aac #he #fh #ahe #abe #ajj #beg #f #d4h #db4h #df #cf4h #aad4h #hf #fh4h #ahf4h #abf #ajj4h #beh4h #g #e4f #dd4f #dg #cg4f #aaf4f #hg #fi4f #ahh4f #abg #aja4f #bfj4f #h #f4d #df4d #dh #ch4d #aah4d #hh #gj4d #aij4d #abh #ajb4d #bfb4d #i #g4b #dh4b #di #ci4b #abj4b #hi #ga4b #aib4b #abi #ajc4b #bfd4b #aj #h #ej #ej #dj #abb #ij #gb #aid #acj #ajd #bff #aa #h4h #ea4h #ea #dj4h #abc4h #ia #gb4h #aie4h #aca #ajd4h #bfg4h #ab #i4f #ec4f #eb #da4f #abe4f #ib #gc4f #aig4f #acb #aje4f #bfi4f #ac #aj4d #ee4d #ec #db4d #abg4d #ic #gd4d #aii4d #acc #ajf4d #bga4d #ad #aa4b #eg4b #ed #dc4b #abi4b #id #ge4b #bja4b #acd #ajg4b #bgc4b #ae #ab #ei #ee #dd #aca #ie #gf #bjc #ace #ajh #bge #af #ab4h #fj4h #ef #dd4h #acb4h #if #gf4h #bjd4h #acf #ajh4h #bgf4h #ag #ac4f #fb4f #eg #de4f #acd4f #ig #gg4f #bjf4f #acg #aji4f #bgh4f #ah #ad4d #fd4d #eh #df4d #acf4d #ih #gh4d #bjh4d #ach #aaj4d #bhj4d #ai #ae4b #ff4b #ei #dg4b #ach4b #ii #gi4b #baj4b #aci #aaa4b #bhb4b 99,quantities of ,alkali ,required for ,saponification of ,fats of ,average ,molecular ,weight #fgj 7,cocoanut ,oil1 ,palmkernel ,oil7 ,liters ,alkali ,liters ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4a ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4b ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #ahge4hc #aijb4ii #hdd4fg #icj4ce #bjjj #cgea4ff #chje4ig #afhi4ce #ahfj4gj #cjjj #efbg4ej #egjh4if #becd4jb #bgia4jd #djjj #gejh4cc #gfaa4id #ccgh4fi #cgba4ci #ejjj #icgi4af #iead4ic #dbbc4cg #dfea4gd #fjjj #aabed4ii #aadag4ia #ejfh4jd #eehb4ji #gjjj #acacj4hb #accbj4ij #eiab4ga #feab4dd #hjjj #aejjf4ff #aebbc4hh #fgeg4ch #gddb4gh #ijjj #afhhb4di #agabf4hg #gfjb4jf #hcgc4ac #ajjjj #ahgeh4cb #aijbi4he #hddf4gc #icjc4dh ,liters ,alkali ,liters ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4c ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4cee ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #eaj4bg #fbb4ga #dji4fa #eag4ig #bjjj #ajbj4ed #abde4da #hai4ba #ajce4ie #cjjj #aecj4ha #ahfh4ab #abbh4hb #aeec4ib #djjj #bjda4ja #bdij4hc #afch4dc #bjga4ij #ejjj #beea4ce #caac4ed #bjdh4jd #behi4hg #fjjj #cjfa4fa #cgcf4bd #bdeg4fe #cajg4hd #gjjj #cega4hh #dceh4ie #bhfg4bf #cfbe4hb #hjjj #djhb4ae #diha4ff #cbgf4hf #dadc4gi #ijjj #deib4db #efjd4cf #chhf4dg #dffa4gg #ajjjj #eajb4fi #fbbg4jb #djif4jh #eagi4gd 99,quantities of ,alkali ,required for ,saponification of ,fats of ,average ,molecular ,weight #hfj 7,tallow1 ,cottonseed ,oil1 ,olive ,oil1 ,etc47 ,liters ,alkali ,liters ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4a ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4b ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #adfa4dj #adhb4ef #feh4je #gbd4ha #bjjj #bibb4ha #bife4ab #acaf4ab #addi4fa #cjjj #dchd4ba #dddg4fg #aigd4ah #bagd4db #djjj #ehde4fb #eicj4bc #bfcb4bd #bhii4bb #ejjj #gcjg4jb #gdab4gi #cbij4hj #cfbd4jc #fjjj #hgfh4db #hhie4he #cidh4ce #dcdh4hd #gjjj #ajbbi4hc #ajcgg4ia #dfjf4da #ejgc4fd #hjjj #aafia4bc #aahfj4de #ebfd4dg #egih4de #ijjj #acaeb4fd #accdc4jb #eibb4ec #febc4be #ajjjj #adfad4jd #adhbe4eh #fehj4ei #gbdh4jf ,liters ,alkali ,liters ,alkali ,solution ,solution ,kilos ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4c ,sp4 ,gr4 #a4cee ,na,o,h ,,koh ,na,o,h ,,koh #ajjj #cig4ed #dhe4ac #cai4aa #djc4ed #bjjj #gie4jg #igj4bg #fch4bc #hjg4jh #cjjj #aaib4fa #adee4dj #ieg4cd #abaj4fa #djjj #aeij4ad #aidj4ec #abgf4de #afad4ae #ejjj #aihg4fh #bdbe4fg #aeie4eg #bjag4fi #fjjj #bche4ba #biaj4hj #aiad4fh #bdba4bc #gjjj #bghb4ge #ccie4ic #bbcc4gi #bhbd4gg #hjjj #cahj4bh #chha4jf #beeb4ij #cbbh4cj #ijjj #cegg4hb #dcff4bj #bhgb4jb #cfca4hd #ajjjj #cige4ce #dhea4cc #caia4ac #djce4ch ,,density ,,and ,,strength ,,of ,,sulphuric ,,acid 7,,sidersky74 ,column ,headings3 ,a3 ,degrees ,twaddell ,b3 ,sp4 ,gr4 at #ae;deg4 ,c4 ,c3 of pure acid 7,h#b,,so#d74 ,d3 ,equivalent 7in cc47 of a kilo of pure acid4 ,e3 ,equivalent 7in cc47 of a liter of pure acid4 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e #a #a4jjg #a4i #eb4fbj #if4icj #c #a4jad #b4h #ce4gaj #ff4dej #d #a4jbb #c4h #be4fej #dg4bcj #f #a4jbi #d4h #bj4daj #cg4ehb #h #a4jcg #e4h #af4fgj #cj4fij #i #a4jde #f4h #ad4jhe #be4ich #aj #a4jeb #g4h #ab4aih #bb4dfj #ab #a4jfb #h4h #aj4gee #ai4hjc #ac #a4jfg #i4h #i4ebd #ag4edj #ae #a4jge #aj4i #h4edg #ae4gdj #ag #a4jhc #aa4i #g4geb #ad4bgh #ah #a4jia #ac4j #g4jdb #ab4ifi #bj #a4ajj #ad4a #f4deb #aa4hhb #bb #a4ajh #ae4b #e4iec #aj4ifb #bc #a4aaf #af4b #e4ebf #aj4agg #be #a4abe #ag4c #e4dje #i4ied #bg #a4acd #ah4e #d4gf #h4ggj #bi #a4adb #ai4f #d4dfe #h4bbc #cj #a4aeb #bj4h #d4ahd #g4gbc #cb #a4afb #bb4b #c4hgf #g4ach #cd #a4aga #bc4c #c4ffc #f4gde #cf #a4ahj #bd4e #c4eda #f4eba #ch #a4aij #be4h #c4beh #e4iii #dj #a4bjj #bg4a #c4jgg #e4fff #db #a4baj #bh4d #b4ijg #e4cec #dd #a4bbj #bi4f #b4ggj #e4ajb #df #a4bca #ca4j #b4fah #d4hfe #dh #a4bda #cb4b #b4ejj #d4fjd #ej #a4beb #cc4d #b4cib #d4djf #ec #a4bfc #cd4g #b4bhc #d4bje #ee #a4bgd #cf4j #b4agi #d4jab #eg #a4bhe #cg4d #b4jgi #c4hbi #fj #a4big #ch4h #a4ihh #c4ffa #fb #a4cjh #dj4b #a4ije #c4ejh #fd #a4cbj #da4f #a4hba #c4ced #ff #a4ccb #dc4j #a4gde #c4bad #fi #a4cde #dd4d #a4ffe #c4jhe #ga #a4ceg #de4e #a4fba #b4ihe #gd #a4cgj #df4i #a4eeh #b4hfi #gg #a4chc #dh4c #a4dig #b4geg #hj #a4cig #di4h #a4dcf #b4fdf #hb #a4daj #ea4b #a4chf #b4eea #he #a4dbd #eb4f #a4cce #b4dei #hh #a4dch #ed4j #a4bhg #b4cgj #ia #a4dec #ee4d #a4bcg #b4bgj #id #a4dfh #ef4i #a4aie #b4bjj #ig #a4dhc #eh4c #a4aef #b4acj #ajj #a4dih #ei4f #a4aaf #b4jej #ajc #a4ead #fa4j #a4jhj #a4ihj #ajf #a4ecj #fb4e #a4jde #a4icj #ajh #a4edj #fd4j #a4jaj #a4hfj #aac #a4efc #fe4e #j4ige #a4hjj #aaf #a4ehj #fg4j #j4iej #a4gdj #abj #a4eig #fh4f #j4iag #a4fij #abc #a4fae #gj4j #j4hhh #a4fcj #abg #a4fcd #ga4f #j4hee #a4egj #acj #a4feb #gc4b #j4hde #a4ebj #acd #a4fga #gd4g #j4hjj #a4dgj #ach #a4fia #gf4d #j4ggd #a4dcj #adb #a4gaa #gh4a #j4gdi #a4cij #adf #a4gcb #gi4i #j4gbb #a4cbj #aea #a4gec #ha4g #j4gje #a4bhj #aee #a4ggd #hd4a #j4fgb #a4bce #afj #a4gih #hf4e #j4fci #a4aij #afd #a4hai #hi4g #j4fji #a4abj #afh #a4hdb #ajj4j #j4edd #a4jjj 99,densities of ,potassium ,carbonate ,solutions at #ae ,c 7,gerlach7 ,per cent ,sp4 ,gr4 of pure ,k#b;,,co#c #a4jjiad #a #a4jahbi #b #a4jbgdc #c #a4jcfeh #d #a4jdegb #e #a4jeeac #f #a4jfded #g #a4jgcif #h #a4jhccg #i #a4jibgh #aj #a4ajbeh #aa #a4aabch #ab #a4abbai #ac #a4acaii #ad #a4adagi #ae #a4aebjj #af #a4afbbb #ag #a4agbdc #ah #a4ahbfe #ai #a4aibhf #bj #a4bjcdd #ba #a4badjb #bb #a4bbdei #bc #a4bceag #bd #a4bdege #be #a4befha #bf #a4bfghg #bg #a4bghic #bh #a4bhiii #bi #a4cjaje #cj #a4cabfa #ca #a4cbdag #cb #a4ccegc #cc #a4cdgbi #cd #a4cehhe #ce #a4cgjhb #cf #a4chbgi #cg #a4cidgf #ch #a4djfgc #ci #a4dahgj #dj #a4dcajd #da #a4ddcch #db #a4deegc #dc #a4dfhjg #dd #a4dhjda #de #a4dicad #df #a4ejehh #dg #a4eahfa #dh #a4ecace #di #a4eddjh #ej #a4eegbh #ea #a4egjdh #eb #a4egjgi #ec4jbd 99,constants of ,certain ,fatty ,acids and ,triglycerides ,per cent ,yield ,triglycerides ,mol4 ,wt4 ,mol4 ,wt4 of of ,fatty of ,tri- of ,fatty glycerides ,fatty ,glycerine ,acid ,stearic ,acid #bhd #hij #ie4gc #aj4cd ,oleic ,acid #bhb #hhd #ie4gj #aj4da ,margaric ,acid #bgj #hdh #ie4eb #aj4he ,palmitic ,acid #bef #hjf #ie4bh #aa4db ,myristic ,acid #bbh #gbb #id4dg #ab4gd ,lauric ,acid #bjj #fch #id4jd #ad4db ,capric ,acid #agb #eid #ic4ad #ae4dh ,caproic ,acid #aaf #chf #ij4af #bc4hc ,butyric ,acid #hh #cjb #hg4da #cj4df ,,percentages ,,of ,,solid ,,caustic ,,soda ,,and ,,caustic ,,potash ,,in ,,caustic ,,lyes ,,according ,,to ,,baume ,,scale4 ,degrees ,baume4 ,na,o,h ,,koh #a #j4fa #j4ij #b #j4ic #a4gj #c #b4jj #b4fj #d #b4ga #c4ej #e #c4ce #d4ej #f #d4jj #e4fj #g #d4eef #f4bhf #h #e4bi #g4dj #i #e4hg #h4bj #aj #f4ee #i4bj #aa #g4ca #aj4aj #ab #h4jj #aj4ij #ac #h4fh #ab4jj #ad #i4db #ab4ij #ae #aj4jf #ac4hj #af #aj4ig #ad4hj #ag #aa4hd #ae4gj #ah #ab4fd #af4ej #ai #ac4ee #ag4fj #bj #ad4cg #ah4fj #ba #ae4ac #ai4ej #bb #ae4ia #bj4ej #bc #af4gg #ba4dj #bd #ag4fg #bb4ej #be #ah4eh #bc4cj #bf #ai4eh #bd4bj #bg #bj4ei #be4aj #bh #ba4db #bf4aj #bi #bb4fd #bg4jj #cj #bc4fg #bh4jj #ca #bd4ha #bh4ij #cb #be4hj #bi4hj #cc #bf4hc #cj4gj #cd #bg4hj #ca4hj #ce #bh4hc #cb4gj #cf #bi4ic #cc4gj #cg #ca4bb #cd4ij #ch #cb4dg #ce4ij #ci #cc4fi #cf4ij #dj #cd4if #cg4hj #da #cf4be #ch4ij #db #cg4ec #ci4ij #dc #ch4hj #dj4ij #dd #ci4ii #db4aj #de #da4da #dc4dj #df #db4hc #dd4fj #dg #dd4ch #de4hj #dh #df4ae #dg4aj #di #dg4eh #dh4be #ej #di4jb #di4dj ,,glycerine ,,content ,,of ,,more ,,common ,,oils ,,and ,,fats ,,used ,,in ,,soap ,,making4 ,kind4 ,theoretical ,average ,free ,pure ,yield ,yield of ,pure ,fatty ,acid in ,glycerine ,soap ,lye ,glycerine of ,commercial in ,commercial #hj ,crude ,neutral ,oil ,oil4 ,oil4 ,glycerine4 or ,fat4 ,beef ,tallow #aj4g #e #aj4b #ab4ge ,bone ,grease #aj4e #bj-ej #e4b- #h4d #f4e-aj4e ,castor ,oil #i4h #j4e-aj #h4h- #i4h #aa4j-ab4de ,cocoanut ,oil #ac4i #c-e #ac4b-ac4e #af4e-af4i ,cocoanut ,oil ,off #ae-dj #h4c-aa4h #aj4cg-ad4ge ,corn ,oil #aj4d #a-aj #i4c-aj4c #aa4fb-ab4i ,cottonseed ,oil #aj4f ,trace #aj4f #ac4be ,hog ,grease #aj4f #j4e-a #aj4e-aj4f #ac4ab-ac4be ,horse ,grease #aj4f #a-c #aj4e-aj4f #ac4ab-ac4be ,olive ,oil #aj4c #b-be #g4g-aj4b #i4fb-ab4ge ,olive ,foots #cj-fj #d-g #e-h4ge ,palm ,oil #aa4j #aj-ej #e4e-aj #f4hg-ab4e ,palmkernel ,oil #ac4c #d-h #ab4b-ab4h #ae4be-af ,peanut ,oil #aj4d #e-bj #h4c-i4i #aj4cg-ab4cg ,soya ,bean ,oil #aj4d #b #aj4b #ab4ge ,train ,oil #aj4j #b-bj #h-i4h #aj4j-ab4be ,vegetable ,tallow #aj4i #a-c #aj4e-aj4h #ac4ab-ac4e 99,table of ,specific ,gravities of ,pure ,commercial ,glycerine with ,corresponding ,percentage of ,water4 ,temperature #ae ,c4 ------------------------------------ ,sp4 ,gr4 ,water ,sp4 ,gr4 ,water #a4bfb #j #a4afj #ch #a4bfa #a #a4aeg #ci #a4beh #b #a4aee #dj #a4bee #c #a4aeb #da #a4beae #d #a4adi #db #a4bej #e #a4adfd #dc #a4bdfg #f #a4adcg #dd #a4bdej #g #a4ada #de #a4bdc #h #a4acgg #df #a4bda #i #a4acec #dg #a4bcg #aj #a4acbf #dh #a4bce #aa #a4acjd #di #a4bcbd #ab #a4abg #ej #a4bbi #ac #a4abe #ea #a4bbfe #ad #a4abbd #eb #a4bbde #ae #a4abjd #ec #a4bbbe #af #a4aag #ed #a4bahe #ag #a4aad #ee #a4bagd #ah #a4aab #ef #a4badb #ai #a4aji #eg #a4baa #bj #a4ajf #eh #a4bjg #ba #a4ajc #ei #a4bjc #bb #a4ajjf #fj #a4bjjd #bc #a4jhh #fe #a4aih #bd #a4jge #gj #a4aie #be #a4jfbc #ge #a4aibc #bf #a4jdi #hj #a4ahi #bg #a4jcfe #he #a4ahh #bh #a4jbdc #ij #a4ahdf #bi #a4jbah #ia #a4ahb #cj #a4jaib #ib #a4agi #ca #a4jafh #ic #a4agf #cb #a4jadg #id #a4agcd #cc #a4jabe #ie #a4aga #cd #a4ja #if #a4afh #ce #a4jjgd #ig #a4afe #cf #a4jjec #ih #a4afc #cg #a4jjbf #ii ------------------------------------ ,table of ,percentage1 ,specific ,gravity and ,beaume ,degree of ,pure ,glycerine ,solutions ,per cent ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,per cent ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,water ,champion ,beaume ,water ,champion ,beaume and ,pellet 7,berthelot7 and ,pellet 7,berthelot7 #j #a4bfdj #ca4b #aa4j #a4bcej #bh4f #j4e #a4bfbe #ca4j #aa4e #a4bcce #bh4d #a4j #a4bfab #cj4i #ab4j #a4bcbb #bh4c #a4e #a4bfjj #cj4h #ab4e #a4bcjg #bh4b #b4j #a4behe #cj4g #ac4j #a4bbie #bh4j #b4e #a4bege #cj4f #ac4e #a4bbhj #bg4h #c4j #a4befj #cj4d #ad4j #a4bbgj #bg4g #c4e #a4bede #cj4c #ad4e #a4bbee #bg4f #d4j #a4becb #cj4b #ae4j #a4bbdb #bg4d #d4e #a4bebj #cj4a #ae4e #a4bbcj #bg4c #e4j #a4beje #cj4j #af4j #a4bbag #bg4b #e4e #a4bdij #bi4i #af4e #a4bbjb #bg4j #f4j #a4bdhj #bi4h #ag4j #a4baij #bf4i #f4e #a4bdfe #bi4g #ag4e #a4bagg #bf4h #g4j #a4bdee #bi4f #ah4j #a4bafe #bf4g #g4e #a4bddj #bi4e #ah4e #a4baej #bf4e #h4j #a4bdbg #bi4c #ai4j #a4bacg #bf4d #h4e #a4bdab #bi4b #ai4e #a4babe #bf4c #i4j #a4bdjj #bi4j #bj4j #a4baab #bf4b #i4e #a4bcij #bh4i #bj4e #a4bajj #bf4j #aj4j #a4bcge #bh4h #ba4j #a4bjhe #be4j #aj4e #a4bcfb #bh4g 99,table of ,specific ,gravities of ,pure ,glycerine ,solutions with ,corresponding ,beaume ,degree and ,percent ,water ---------------------------------------- -------- ,per cent ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,percent ,sp4 ,gr4 ,degree ,water ,beaume ,water ,beaume ---------------------------------------- -------- #j4j #a4bfdj #ca4b #a4j #a4bfab #cj4i #j4e #a4bfbe #ca4j #a4e #a4bfjj #cj4h #b4j #a4behe #cj4g #ab4j #a4bcbb #bh4c #b4e #a4bege #cj4f #ab4e #a4bcjg #bh4b #c4j #a4befj #cj4d #ac4j #a4bbie #bh4j #c4e #a4bede #cj4c #ac4e #a4bbhj #bg4h #d4j #a4becb #cj4b #ad4j #a4bbgj #bg4g #d4e #a4bebj #cj4a #ad4e #a4bbee #bg4f #e4j #a4beje #cj4j #ae4j #a4bbdb #bg4d #e4e #a4bdij #bi4i #ae4e #a4bbcj #bg4c #f4j #a4bdhj #bi4h #af4j #a4bbag #bg4b #f4e #a4bdfe #bi4g #af4e #a4bbjb #bg4j #g4j #a4bdee #bi4f #ag4j #a4baij #bf4i #g4e #a4bddj #bi4e #ag4e #a4bagg #bf4h #h4j #a4bdbg #bi4c #ah4j #a4bafe #bf4g #h4e #a4bdab #bi4b #ah4e #a4baej #bf4e #i4j #a4bdjj #bi4j #ai4j #a4bacg #bf4d #i4e #a4bcij #bh4i #ai4e #a4babe #bf4c #aj4j #a4bcge #bh4h #bj4j #a4baab #bf4b #aj4e #a4bcfb #bh4g #bj4e #a4bajj #bf4j #aa4j #a4bcej #bh4f #ba4j #a4bjhe #be4i #aa4e #a4bcce #bh4d ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,index ,a ,acetin process for the determination of glycerol1 #aee4 ,acid1 ,clupanodonic1 #bj4 ,acid1 ,hydrochloric1 #aaa4 ,acid1 ,lauric1 #b4 ,acid1 ,myristic1 #b4 ,acid1 ,napthenic1 #bd4 ,acid1 ,oleic1 #ae1 #ai4 ,acid1 ,palmitic1 #b4 ,acid1 ,pinic1 #bb4 ,acid1 ,resin1 #add4 ,acid1 ,stearic1 #ae1 #ai4 ,acid1 ,sulfuric1 #aab4 ,acid1 ,sylvic1 #bb4 ,acid saponification1 #abj4 ,air bleaching of palm oil1 #ab4 ,albuminous matter1 ,removal from tallow1 #f4 ,alcohol1 ,denatured1 #hb4 ,alcoholic method for free alkali in soap1 #aci4 ,alkali ,blue #f ,b1 indicator1 #abi4 ,alkali1 ,total1 determination of in soap1 #adg4 ,alkalis1 #be4 ,alkalis used in soap making1 ,testing of1 #acd4 ,amalgamator1 #cc4 ,analysis1 ,glycerine1 ,international1 #aej4 ,analysis1 ,soap1 #acg4 ,analysis1 ,standard methods for fats and oils1 #afe-aif4 ,aqueous saponification1 #aba4 ,arachis oil1 #gi4 ,autoclave saponification1 #aah4 ,automobile soaps1 #da4 ,b ,barrels1 sampling1 #afh4 ,baume scale1 #be4 ,bayberry wax1 ,use in shaving soap1 #hi4 ,bichromate ,process for glycerol determination1 #afj4 ,bleaching1 ,fullers' earth process for tallow1 #d4 ,bleaching palm oil by bichromate method1 #i4 ,bleaching palm oil by air1 #ab4 ,bosshard ,huggenberg method for determination of free alkali1 #adj4 ,bunching of soap1 #eb4 ,c ,candelite1 #if4 ,candle tar1 #abe4 ,carbolic soap1 #gg4 ,carbon ,dioxide1 ,formation of in carbonate saponification1 #de4 ,carbonate1 potassium1 #bi4 ,carbonate1 saponification1 #ce1 #de4 ,carbonate1 sodium1 #bh4 ,castile soap1 #gi4 ,castor oil ferment1 #aba4 ,castor oil1 ,use of in transparent soaps1 #hc4 ,caustic potash1 #bf4 ,caustic potash1 ,electrolytic1 #bg4 ,caustic soda1 #bf4 ,changes in soap-making1 #cf4 ,chemist1 ,importance of1 #abg4 ,chipper1 ,soap1 #cb4 ,chip soap1 #ed4 ,chip soap1 ,cold made1 #ee4 ,chip soap1 ,unfilled1 #ef4 ,chrome bleaching of palm oil1 #i4 ,cloud test for oil1 ,standard method1 #ahb-ahc4 ,clupanodonic acid1 #bj4 ,cocoanut oil1 #f4 ,cold cream soap1 #gh4 ,cold made chip soaps1 #ee4 ,cold made toilet soaps1 #gb4 ,cold made transparent soaps1 #hd4 ,cold process1 #ce1 #dc4 ,colophony1 #bb4 ,coloring soap1 #ge4 ,copra1 #g4 ,corn oil1 #ad4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #gh4 ,cotton goods4 ,soaps used for1 #ajc4 ,cottonseed oil1 #ad4 ,cream1 ,shaving1 #ij4 ,crude glycerine1 #aac4 ,crutcher1 #cb4 ,curd soap1 #ga4 ,cutting table1 #cb4 ,d 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,determination of in oils and fats1 #acb4 ,unsaponifiable matter1 ,determination of in soap1 #adh4 ,unsaponifiable matter1 determination of by standard method1 #agf4 ,v ,vacuum ,oven1 ,standard1 #agf4 ,vegetable oils1 #f4 ,w ,water1 #bi4 ,water1 ,hard1 #bi4 ,witch hazel soap1 #gh4 ,wool thrower's soap1 #ajj4 ,worsted finishing soaps1 #aja4 ,z ,zinc oxide1 ,use of in autoclave saponification1 #abj4 ,zinc oxide1 ,use of in soap1 #cc4 ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,chemical ,,industries ,on our shelves is the most complete stock of technical1 industrial1 engineering and scientific books in the ,united ,states4 ,the technical literature of every trade is well represented1 as is also the literature relating to the various sciences1 both the books useful for reference as well as those fitted for students' use as textbooks4 ,a large number of these we publish and for an ever increasing number we are the sole agents4 ,,all ,,inquiries ,,made ,,of ,,us ,,are ,,cheerfully ,,and ,,carefully ,,answered ,,and ,,complete ,,catalogs ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,special ,,lists ,,sent ,,free ,,on ,,request ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,company ,publishers and ,booksellers #h ,,warren ,,street ,,new ,,york ,the ,soap-,maker's ,book ,shelf ,a list of standard books relating to soapmaking and allied industries4 ,published and ,for ,sale by ,d4 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,company ,publishers and ,booksellers #h ,,warren ,,street ,,new ,,york ,askinson1 ,george ,w4 ,perfumes and ,cosmetics4 ,their preparation and manufacture4 ,fourth ,edition1 translated from the ,german1 and revised with additions by ,w4 ,l4 ,dudley4 #cb illustrations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #ced pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #e4jj ,chalmers1 ,t4 ,w4 ,the ,production and ,treatment of ,vegetable ,oils4 ,including chapters on the refining of oils1 the hydrogenation of oils1 the generation of hydrogen1 soap making1 the recovery and refining of glycerine1 and the splitting of oils4 #ie illustrations1 #i folding plates4 #h x #aa-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #afc pp4 ,london1 #aiai4 #g4ej ,deite1 ,c4 ,manual of ,toilet ,soap-,making4 ,comprising toilet soaps1 medicated soaps1 and other specialties4 ,second ,revised ,edition4 #he illustrations4 #f-a_/b x #aj4 ,cloth4 #cef pp4 ,london1 #aibj4 #g4ej ,ellis1 ,carleton ,g4 ,the ,hydrogenation of ,oils1 ,catalyzers and ,catalysis and the ,generation of ,hydrogen and ,oxygen4 ,second ,edition1 thoroughly revised and enlarged4 #bdj illustrations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #gfg pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiai4 #g4ej ,fischer1 ,m4 ,h4 ,soaps and ,proteins1 ,their ,colloid ,chemistry in ,theory and ,practice4 ,with the collaboration of ,g4 ,d4 ,mc,laughlin and ,m4 ,o4 ,hooker4 #aad illustrations4 #f x #i-a_/d4 ,cloth4 #bha pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiba4 #d4jj ,holde1 ,d4 ,the ,examination of ,hydrocarbon ,oils1 and of the ,saponifiable ,fats and ,waxes4 ,translated from the ,fourth ,german ,edition by ,edward ,mueller4 #aae illustrations4 #f-a_/d x #i-a_/d4 ,cloth4 #dii pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiae4 ,net1 #e4jj ,hurst1 ,g4 ,h4 ,soaps4 ,a practical manual of the manufacture of domestic1 toilet and other soaps4 ,second ,edition4 #ff illustrations4 #f x #h-c_/d4 ,cloth4 #che pp4 ,london1 #aijg4 #f4jj ,hurst1 ,george ,h41 and ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h4 ,textile ,soaps and ,oils4 ,a handbook on the preparation1 properties1 and analysis of the soaps and oils and in textile manufacturing1 dyeing and printing4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 #ab illustrations4 #e-a_/b x #h-c_/d4 ,cloth4 #bab pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #d4jj ,koller1 ,t4 ,cosmetics4 ,a handbook of the manufacture1 employment1 and testing of all cosmetic materials and cosmetic specialties1 with numerous recipes4 ,translated from the ,german4 ,third ,edition4 #e x #g-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #bfd pp4 ,london1 #aibj4 #c4ej ,koppe1 ,s4 ,w4 ,glycerine4 ,its introduction1 ,uses and ,examination4 ,for chemists1 perfumers1 soapmakers1 pharmacists1 and explosives technologists4 #g illustrations4 #e-a_/d x #g-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #bfj pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiae4 #c4ej ,lamborn1 ,l4 ,l4 ,modern ,soaps1 ,candles1 and ,glycerin4 ,a practical manual of modern methods of utilization of fats and oils in the manufacture of soaps and candles1 and the recovery of glycerin4 #bbh illustrations4 #f-a_/b x #i-a_/d4 ,cloth4 #gjh pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aijf4 #aj4jj ,murray1 ,b4 ,l4 ,standards and ,tests for ,reagent ,chemicals4 #f x #i4 ,cloth4 #djj pp4 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 #c4jj ,parry1 ,ernest ,j4 ,the ,chemistry of ,essential ,oils and ,artificial ,perfumes4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,monographs on ,essential ,oils4 ,fourth ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #ea illustrations4 #f-a_/d x #aj4 ,cloth4 #eeg pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #i4jj ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,constituents of ,essential ,oils1 ,synthetic ,perfumes and ,isolated ,aromatics1 and the ,analysis of ,essential ,oils4 ,third ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,illustrated4 #cea pp4 ,london1 #aiai4 #g4jj ,partington1 ,j4 ,r4 ,the ,alkali ,industry4 #fc illustrations4 #e-a_/b x #h-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #cah pp4 ,london1 #aiah4 #c4jj ,rogers1 ,allen4 ,industrial ,chemistry4 ,a manual for the student and manufacturer4 ,third ,edition1 thoroughly revised and enlarged4 #cgg illustrations4 #f-a_/b x #i-c_/d4 ,flexible fabrikoid4 #abee pp4 ,new ,york1 #aibj4 #g4ej ,scott1 ,wilfred ,w4 7,editor74 ,standard ,methods of ,chemical ,analysis4 ,a manual of analytical methods and general reference for the analytical chemist and for the advanced student4 ,second ,edition1 revised1 with additional tables4 #adb illustrations1 #c color plates4 #g x #i-a_/d4 ,cloth4 #ijj pp4 ,n4 ,y41 #aiag4 #g4ej ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h4 ,fats1 ,waxes and ,essential ,oils4 ,in ,press4 ,simmons1 ,william ,h4 ,soap4 ,its composition1 manufacture and properties4 #aa illustrations4 #d-c_/d x #g-a_/d4 ,cloth4 #acc pp4 ,london1 #aiaf4 #a4jj ,simmons1 ,w4 ,h41 and ,appleton1 ,h4 ,a4 ,the ,handbook of ,soap ,manufacture4 #bg illustrations4 #f x #i4 ,cloth4 #aff pp4 ,london1 #aijh4 #d4jj ,van ,nostrand's ,chemical ,annual4 ,edited by ,john ,c4 ,olsen4 ,a handbook of useful data for analytical manufacturing and investigating chemists and chemical students4 ,fourth ,issue1 enlarged4 #e x #g-a_/b4 ,flexible fabrikoid4 #ghe pp4 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 #c4jj ,watt1 ,a4 ,art of ,soapmaking4 ,a practical handbook of the manufacture of hard and soft soaps1 toilet soaps1 etc4 ,seventh ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 #dc illustrations4 #e-a_/d x #g-a_/b4 ,cloth4 #cbc pp4 ,london1 #aiah4 #d4jj ,wright1 ,c4 ,r4 ,a4 ,animal and ,vegetable ,fixed ,oils1 ,fats1 ,butters1 and ,waxes3 ,their ,preparation and ,properties1 and the ,manufacture ,therefrom of ,candles1 ,soaps1 and ,other ,products4 ,third ,edition1 revised and greatly enlarged by ,c4 ,ainsworth ,mitchell4 #ahe illustrations1 #c plates4 #f x #i4 ,cloth4 #iec pp4 ,london1 #aiba4 #af4ej