,,the ,,soul ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,an ,interpretation ,by ,charles ,alexander ,eastman 7,ohiyesa7 ,,to ,,my ,,wife ,,elaine ,,goodale ,,eastman ,,in ,,grateful ,,recognition ,,of ,,her ,,ever-,,inspiring ,,companionship ,,in ,,thought ,,and ,,work ,,and ,,in ,,love ,,of ,,her ,,most ,,indian-,,like ,,virtues ,i ,,dedicate ,,this ,,book ,i speak for each no-tongued tree ,that1 spring by spring1 doth nobler be1 ,and dumbly and most wistfully ,his mighty prayerful arms outspreads1 ,and his big blessing downward sheds4 --,,sidney ,,lanier4 ,but there's a dome of nobler span1 ,a temple given ,thy faith1 that bigots dare not ban-- ,its space is heaven6 ,it's roof star-pictured ,nature's ceiling1 ,where1 trancing the rapt spirit's feeling1 ,and ,god ,himself to man revealing1 ,th' harmonious spheres ,make music1 though unheard their pealing ,by mortal ears6 --,,thomas ,,campbell4 ,god6 sing ye meadow streams with gladsome voice6 ,ye pine-groves1 with your soft and soul-like sounds6 ,ye eagles1 playmates of the mountain storm6 ,ye lightnings1 the dread arrows of the clouds6 ,ye signs and wonders of the elements1 ,utter forth ,god1 and fill the hills with praise6444 ,earth1 with her thousand voices1 praises ,,god6 --,,coleridge4 ,,foreword 8,we also have a religion which was given to our forefathers1 and has been handed down to us their children4 ,it teaches us to be thankful1 to be united1 and to love one another6 ,we never quarrel about religion40 ,thus spoke the great ,seneca orator1 ,red ,jacket1 in his superb reply to ,missionary ,cram more than a century ago1 and ,i have often heard the same thought expressed by my countrymen4 ,i have attempted to paint the religious life of the typical ,american ,indian as it was before he knew the white man4 ,i have long wished to do this1 because ,i cannot find that it has ever been seriously1 adequately1 and sincerely done4 ,the religion of the ,indian is the last thing about him that the man of another race will ever understand4 ,first1 the ,indian does not speak of these deep matters so long as he believes in them1 and when he has ceased to believe he speaks inaccurately and slightingly4 ,second1 even if he can be induced to speak1 the racial and religious prejudice of the other stands in the way of his sympathetic comprehension4 ,third1 practically all existing studies on this subject have been made during the transition period1 when the original beliefs and philosophy of the native ,american were already undergoing rapid disintegration4 ,there are to be found here and there superficial accounts of strange customs and ceremonies1 of which the symbolism or inner meaning was largely hidden from the observer2 and there has been a great deal of material collected in recent years which is without value because it is modern and hybrid1 inextricably mixed with ,biblical legend and ,caucasian philosophy4 ,some of it has even been invented for commercial purposes4 ,give a reservation ,indian a present1 and he will possibly provide you with sacred songs1 a mythology1 and folk-lore to order6 ,my little book does not pretend to be a scientific treatise4 ,it is as true as ,i can make it to my childhood teaching and ancestral ideals1 but from the human1 not the ethnological standpoint4 ,i have not cared to pile up more dry bones1 but to clothe them with flesh and blood4 ,so much as has been written by strangers of our ancient faith and worship treats it chiefly as matter of curiosity4 ,i should like to emphasize its universal quality1 its personal appeal6 ,the first missionaries1 good men imbued with the narrowness of their age1 branded us as pagans and devil-worshipers1 and demanded of us that we abjure our false gods before bowing the knee at their sacred altar4 ,they even told us that we were eternally lost1 unless we adopted a tangible symbol and professed a particular form of their hydra-headed faith4 ,we of the twentieth century know better6 ,we know that all religious aspiration1 all sincere worship1 can have but one source and one goal4 ,we know that the ,god of the lettered and the unlettered1 of the ,greek and the barbarian1 is after all the same ,god2 and1 like ,peter1 we perceive that ,he is no respecter of persons1 but that in every nation he that feareth ,him and worketh righteousness is acceptable to ,him4 ,,charles ,a4 ,,eastman 7,,ohiyesa7 ,,contents ,i4 ,,the ,,great ,,mystery #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,family ,,altar #be ,,iii4 ,,ceremonial ,,and ,,symbolic ,,worship #ea ,,iv4 ,,barbarism ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,code #he ,v4 ,,the ,,unwritten ,,scriptures #aag ,,vi4 ,,on ,,the ,,border-,,land ,,of ,,spirits #adg ,i4 ,,the ,,great ,,mystery ,solitary ,worship4 ,the ,savage ,philosopher4 ,the ,dual ,mind4 ,spiritual ,gifts versus ,material ,progress4 ,the ,paradox of 8,christian ,civilization40 ,the original attitude of the ,american ,indian toward the ,eternal1 the 8,great ,mystery0 that surrounds and embraces us1 was as simple as it was exalted4 ,to him it was the supreme conception1 bringing with it the fullest measure of joy and satisfaction possible in this life4 ,the worship of the 8,great ,mystery0 was silent1 solitary1 free from all self-seeking4 ,it was silent1 because all speech is of necessity feeble and imperfect2 therefore the souls of my ancestors ascended to ,god in wordless adoration4 ,it was solitary1 because they believed that ,he is nearer to us in solitude1 and there were no priests authorized to come between a man and his ,maker4 ,none might exhort or confess or in any way meddle with the religious experience of another4 ,among us all men were created sons of ,god and stood erect1 as conscious of their divinity4 ,our faith might not be formulated in creeds1 nor forced upon any who were unwilling to receive it2 hence there was no preaching1 proselyting1 nor persecution1 neither were there any scoffers or atheists4 ,there were no temples or shrines among us save those of nature4 ,being a natural man1 the ,indian was intensely poetical4 ,he would deem it sacrilege to build a house for ,him who may be met face to face in the mysterious1 shadowy aisles of the primeval forest1 or on the sunlit bosom of virgin prairies1 upon dizzy spires and pinnacles of naked rock1 and yonder in the jeweled vault of the night sky6 ,he who enrobes ,himself in filmy veils of cloud1 there on the rim of the visible world where our ,great-,grandfather ,sun kindles his evening camp-fire1 ,he who rides upon the rigorous wind of the north1 or breathes forth ,his spirit upon aromatic southern airs1 whose war-canoe is launched upon majestic rivers and inland seas--,he needs no lesser cathedral6 ,that solitary communion with the ,unseen which was the highest expression of our religious life is partly described in the word bambeday1 literally 8mysterious feeling10 which has been variously translated 8fasting0 and 8dreaming40 ,it may better be interpreted as 8consciousness of the divine40 ,the first bambeday1 or religious retreat1 marked an epoch in the life of the youth1 which may be compared to that of confirmation or conversion in ,christian experience4 ,having first prepared himself by means of the purifying vapor-bath1 and cast off as far as possible all human or fleshly influences1 the young man sought out the noblest height1 the most commanding summit in all the surrounding region4 ,knowing that ,god sets no value upon material things1 he took with him no offerings or sacrifices other than symbolic objects1 such as paints and tobacco4 ,wishing to appear before ,him in all humility1 he wore no clothing save his moccasins and breech-clout4 ,at the solemn hour of sunrise or sunset he took up his position1 overlooking the glories of earth and facing the 8,great ,mystery10 and there he remained1 naked1 erect1 silent1 and motionless1 exposed to the elements and forces of ,his arming1 for a night and a day to two days and nights1 but rarely longer4 ,sometimes he would chant a hymn without words1 or offer the ceremonial 8filled pipe40 ,in this holy trance or ecstasy the ,indian mystic found his highest happiness and the motive power of his existence4 ,when he returned to the camp1 he must remain at a distance until he had again entered the vapor-bath and prepared himself for intercourse with his fellows4 ,of the vision or sign vouchsafed to him he did not speak1 unless it had included some commission which must be publicly fulfilled4 ,sometimes an old man1 standing upon the brink of eternity1 might reveal to a chosen few the oracle of his long-past youth4 ,the native ,american has been generally despised by his white conquerors for his poverty and simplicity4 ,they forget1 perhaps1 that his religion forbade the accumulation of wealth and the enjoyment of luxury4 ,to him1 as to other single-minded men in every age and race1 from ,diogenes to the brothers of ,saint ,francis1 from the ,montanists to the ,shakers1 the love of possessions has appeared a snare1 and the burdens of a complex society a source of needless peril and temptation4 ,furthermore1 it was the rule of his life to share the fruits of his skill and success with his less fortunate brothers4 ,thus he kept his spirit free from the clog of pride1 cupidity1 or envy1 and carried out1 as he believed1 the divine decree--a matter profoundly important to him4 ,it was not1 then1 wholly from ignorance or improvidence that he failed to establish permanent towns and to develop a material civilization4 ,to the untutored sage1 the concentration of population was the prolific mother of all evils1 moral no less than physical4 ,he argued that food is good1 while surfeit kills2 that love is good1 but lust destroys2 and not less dreaded than the pestilence following upon crowded and unsanitary dwellings was the loss of spiritual power inseparable from too close contact with one's fellow-men4 ,all who have lived much out of doors know that there is a magnetic and nervous force that accumulates in solitude and that is quickly dissipated by life in a crowd2 and even his enemies have recognized the fact that for a certain innate power and self-poise1 wholly independent of circumstances1 the ,american ,indian is unsurpassed among men4 ,the red man divided mind into two parts1--the spiritual mind and the physical mind4 ,the first is pure spirit1 concerned only with the essence of things1 and it was this he sought to strengthen by spiritual prayer1 during which the body is subdued by fasting and hardship4 ,in this type of prayer there was no beseeching of favor or help4 ,all matters of personal or selfish concern1 as success in hunting or warfare1 relief from sickness1 or the sparing of a beloved life1 were definitely relegated to the plane of the lower or material mind1 and all ceremonies1 charms1 or incantations designed to secure a benefit or to avert a danger1 were recognized as emanating from the physical self4 ,the rites of this physical worship1 again1 were wholly symbolic1 and the ,indian no more worshiped the ,sun than the ,christian adores the ,cross4 ,the ,sun and the ,earth1 by an obvious parable1 holding scarcely more of poetic metaphor than of scientific truth1 were in his view the parents of all organic life4 ,from the ,sun1 as the universal father1 proceeds the quickening principle in nature1 and in the patient and fruitful womb of our mother1 the ,earth1 are hidden embryos of plants and men4 ,therefore our reverence and love for them was really an imaginative extension of our love for our immediate parents1 and with this sentiment of filial piety was joined a willingness to appeal to them1 as to a father1 for such good gifts as we may desire4 ,this is the material or physical prayer4 ,the elements and majestic forces in nature1 ,lightning1 ,wind1 ,water1 ,fire1 and ,frost1 were regarded with awe as spiritual powers1 but always secondary and intermediate in character4 ,we believed that the spirit pervades all creation and that every creature possesses a soul in some degree1 though not necessarily a soul conscious of itself4 ,the tree1 the waterfall1 the grizzly bear1 each is an embodied ,force1 and as such an object of reverence4 ,the ,indian loved to come into sympathy and spiritual communion with his brothers of the animal kingdom1 whose inarticulate souls had for him something of the sinless purity that we attribute to the innocent and irresponsible child4 ,he had faith in their instincts1 as in a mysterious wisdom given from above2 and while he humbly accepted the supposedly voluntary sacrifice of their bodies to preserve his own1 he paid homage to their spirits in prescribed prayers and offerings4 ,in every religion there is an element of the supernatural1 varying with the influence of pure reason over its devotees4 ,the ,indian was a logical and clear thinker upon matters within the scope of his understanding1 but he had not yet charted the vast field of nature or expressed her wonders in terms of science4 ,with his limited knowledge of cause and effect1 he saw miracles on every hand1--the miracle of life in seed and egg1 the miracle of death in lightning flash and in the swelling deep6 ,nothing of the marvelous could astonish him2 as that a beast should speak1 or the sun stand still4 ,the virgin birth would appear scarcely more miraculous than is the birth of every child that comes into the world1 or the miracle of the loaves and fishes excite more wonder than the harvest that springs from a single ear of corn4 ,who may condemn his superstition8 ,surely not the devout ,catholic1 or even ,protestant missionary1 who teaches ,bible miracles as literal fact6 ,the logical man must either deny all miracles or none1 and our ,american ,indian myths and hero stories are perhaps1 in themselves1 quite as credible as those of the ,hebrews of old4 ,if we are of the modern type of mind1 that sees in natural law a majesty and grandeur far more impressive than any solitary infraction of it could possibly be1 let us not forget that1 after all1 science has not explained everything4 ,we have still to face the ultimate miracle1--the origin and principle of life6 ,here is the supreme mystery that is the essence of worship1 without which there can be no religion1 and in the presence of this mystery our attitude cannot be very unlike that of the natural philosopher1 who beholds with awe the ,divine in all creation4 ,it is simple truth that the ,indian did not1 so long as his native philosophy held sway over his mind1 either envy or desire to imitate the splendid achievements of the white man4 ,in his own thought he rose superior to them6 ,he scorned them1 even as a lofty spirit absorbed in its stern task rejects the soft beds1 the luxurious food1 the pleasure-worshiping dalliance of a rich neighbor4 ,it was clear to him that virtue and happiness are independent of these things1 if not incompatible with them4 ,there was undoubtedly much in primitive ,christianity to appeal to this man1 and ,jesus' hard sayings to the rich and about the rich would have been entirely comprehensible to him4 ,yet the religion that is preached in our churches and practiced by our congregations1 with its element of display and self-aggrandizement1 its active proselytism1 and its open contempt of all religions but its own1 was for a long time extremely repellent4 ,to his simple mind1 the professionalism of the pulpit1 the paid exhorter1 the moneyed church1 was an unspiritual and unedifying thing1 and it was not until his spirit was broken and his moral and physical constitution undermined by trade1 conquest1 and strong drink1 that ,christian missionaries obtained any real hold upon him4 ,strange as it may seem1 it is true that the proud pagan in his secret soul despised the good men who came to convert and to enlighten him6 ,nor were its publicity and its ,phariseeism the only elements in the alien religion that offended the red man4 ,to him1 it appeared shocking and almost incredible that there were among this people who claimed superiority many irreligious1 who did not even pretend to profess the national faith4 ,not only did they not profess it1 but they stooped so low as to insult their ,god with profane and sacrilegious speech6 ,in our own tongue ,his name was not spoken aloud1 even with utmost reverence1 much less lightly or irreverently4 ,more than this1 even in those white men who professed religion we found much inconsistency of conduct4 ,they spoke much of spiritual things1 while seeking only the material4 ,they bought and sold everything3 time1 labor1 personal independence1 the love of woman1 and even the ministrations of their holy faith6 ,the lust for money1 power1 and conquest so characteristic of the ,anglo-,saxon race did not escape moral condemnation at the hands of his untutored judge1 nor did he fail to contrast this conspicuous trait of the dominant race with the spirit of the meek and lowly ,jesus4 ,he might in time come to recognize that the drunkards and licentious among white men1 with whom he too frequently came in contact1 were condemned by the white man's religion as well1 and must not be held to discredit it4 ,but it was not so easy to overlook or to excuse national bad faith4 ,when distinguished emissaries from the ,father at ,washington1 some of them ministers of the gospel and even bishops1 came to the ,indian nations1 and pledged to them in solemn treaty the national honor1 with prayer and mention of their ,god2 and when such treaties1 so made1 were promptly and shamelessly broken1 is it strange that the action should arouse not only anger1 but contempt8 ,the historians of the white race admit that the ,indian was never the first to repudiate his oath4 ,it is my personal belief1 after thirty-five years' experience of it1 that there is no such thing as 8,christian civilization40 ,i believe that ,christianity and modern civilization are opposed and irreconcilable1 and that the spirit of ,christianity and of our ancient religion is essentially the same4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,family ,,altar ,pre-natal ,influence4 ,early ,religious ,teaching4 ,the ,function of the ,aged4 ,woman1 ,marriage and the ,family4 ,loyalty1 ,hospitality1 ,friendship4 ,the ,american ,indian was an individualist in religion as in war4 ,he had neither a national army nor an organized church4 ,there was no priest to assume responsibility for another's soul4 ,that is1 we believed1 the supreme duty of the parent1 who only was permitted to claim in some degree the priestly office and function1 since it is his creative and protecting power which alone approaches the solemn function of ,deity4 ,the ,indian was a religious man from his mother's womb4 ,from the moment of her recognition of the fact of conception to the end of the second year of life1 which was the ordinary duration of lactation1 it was supposed by us that the mother's spiritual influence counted for most4 ,her attitude and secret meditations must be such as to instill into the receptive soul of the unborn child the love of the 8,great ,mystery0 and a sense of brotherhood with all creation4 ,silence and isolation are the rule of life for the expectant mother4 ,she wanders prayerful in the stillness of great woods1 or on the bosom of the untrodden prairie1 and to her poetic mind the immanent birth of her child prefigures the advent of a master-man--a hero1 or the mother of heroes--a thought conceived in the virgin breast of primeval nature1 and dreamed out in a hush that is only broken by the sighing of the pine tree or the thrilling orchestra of a distant waterfall4 ,and when the day of days in her life dawns--the day in which there is to be a new life1 the miracle of whose making has been intrusted to her1 she seeks no human aid4 ,she has been trained and prepared in body and mind for this her holiest duty1 ever since she can remember4 ,the ordeal is best met alone1 where no curious or pitying eyes embarrass her2 where all nature says to her spirit3 8#8,tis love6 #8tis love6 the fulfilling of life60 ,when a sacred voice comes to her out of the silence1 and a pair of eyes open upon her in the wilderness1 she knows with joy that she has borne well her part in the great song of creation6 ,presently she returns to the camp1 carrying the mysterious1 the holy1 the dearest bundle6 ,she feels the endearing warmth of it and hears its soft breathing4 ,it is still a part of herself1 since both are nourished by the same mouthful1 and no look of a lover could be sweeter than its deep1 trusting gaze4 ,she continues her spiritual teaching1 at first silently--a mere pointing of the index finger to nature2 then in whispered songs1 bird-like1 at morning and evening4 ,to her and to the child the birds are real people1 who live very close to the 8,great ,mystery02 the murmuring trees breathe ,his presence2 the falling waters chant ,his praise4 ,if the child should chance to be fretful1 the mother raises her hand4 8,hush6 hush60 she cautions it tenderly1 8the spirits may be disturbed60 ,she bids it be still and listen--listen to the silver voice of the aspen1 or the clashing cymbals of the birch2 and at night she points to the heavenly1 blazed trail1 through nature's galaxy of splendor to nature's ,god4 ,silence1 love1 reverence1--this is the trinity of first lessons2 and to these she later adds generosity1 courage1 and chastity4 ,in the old days1 our mothers were single-eyed to the trust imposed upon them2 and as a noted chief of our people was wont to say3 8,men may slay one another1 but they can never overcome the woman1 for in the quietude of her lap lies the child6 ,you may destroy him once and again1 but he issues as often from that same gentle lap--a gift of the ,great ,good to the race1 in which man is only an accomplice60 ,this wild mother has not only the experience of her mother and grandmother1 and the accepted rules of her people for a guide1 but she humbly seeks to learn a lesson from ants1 bees1 spiders1 beavers1 and badgers4 ,she studies the family life of the birds1 so exquisite in its emotional intensity and its patient devotion1 until she seems to feel the universal mother-heart beating in her own breast4 ,in due time the child takes of his own accord the attitude of prayer1 and speaks reverently of the ,powers4 ,he thinks that he is a blood brother to all living creatures1 and the storm wind is to him a messenger of the 8,great ,mystery40 ,at the age of about eight years1 if he is a boy1 she turns him over to his father for more ,spartan training4 ,if a girl1 she is from this time much under the guardianship of her grandmother1 who is considered the most dignified protector for the maiden4 ,indeed1 the distinctive work of both grandparents is that of acquainting the youth with the national traditions and beliefs4 ,it is reserved for them to repeat the time-hallowed tales with dignity and authority1 so as to lead him into his inheritance in the stored-up wisdom and experience of the race4 ,the old are dedicated to the service of the young1 as their teachers and advisers1 and the young in turn regard them with love and reverence4 ,our old age was in some respects the happiest period of life4 ,advancing years brought with them much freedom1 not only from the burden of laborious and dangerous tasks1 but from those restrictions of custom and etiquette which were religiously observed by all others4 ,no one who is at all acquainted with the ,indian in his home can deny that we are a polite people4 ,as a rule1 the warrior who inspired the greatest terror in the hearts of his enemies was a man of the most exemplary gentleness1 and almost feminine refinement1 among his family and friends4 ,a soft1 low voice was considered an excellent thing in man1 as well as in woman6 ,indeed1 the enforced intimacy of tent life would soon become intolerable1 were it not for these instinctive reserves and delicacies1 this unfailing respect for the established place and possessions of every other member of the family circle1 this habitual quiet1 order1 and decorum4 ,our people1 though capable of strong and durable feeling1 were not demonstrative in their affection at any time1 least of all in the presence of guests or strangers4 ,only to the aged1 who have journeyed far1 and are in a manner exempt from ordinary rules1 are permitted some playful familiarities with children and grandchildren1 some plain speaking1 even to harshness and objurgation1 from which the others must rigidly refrain4 ,in short1 the old men and women are privileged to say what they please and how they please1 without contradiction1 while the hardships and bodily infirmities that of necessity fall to their lot are softened so far as may be by universal consideration and attention4 ,there was no religious ceremony connected with marriage among us1 while on the other hand the relation between man and woman was regarded as in itself mysterious and holy4 ,it appears that where marriage is solemnized by the church and blessed by the priest1 it may at the same time be surrounded with customs and ideas of a frivolous1 superficial1 and even prurient character4 ,we believed that two who love should be united in secret1 before the public acknowledgment of their union1 and should taste their apotheosis alone with nature4 ,the betrothal might or might not be discussed and approved by the parents1 but in either case it was customary for the young pair to disappear into the wilderness1 there to pass some days or weeks in perfect seclusion and dual solitude1 afterward returning to the village as man and wife4 ,an exchange of presents and entertainments between the two families usually followed1 but the nuptial blessing was given by the ,high ,priest of ,god1 the most reverend and holy ,nature4 ,the family was not only the social unit1 but also the unit of government4 ,the clan is nothing more than a larger family1 with its patriarchal chief as the natural head1 and the union of several clans by intermarriage and voluntary connection constitutes the tribe4 ,the very name of our tribe1 ,dakota1 means ,allied ,people4 ,the remoter degrees of kinship were fully recognized1 and that not as a matter of form only3 first cousins were known as brothers and sisters2 the name of 8cousin0 constituted a binding claim1 and our rigid morality forbade marriage between cousins in any known degree1 or in other words within the clan4 ,the household proper consisted of a man with one or more wives and their children1 all of whom dwelt amicably together1 often under one roof1 although some men of rank and position provided a separate lodge for each wife4 ,there were1 indeed1 few plural marriages except among the older and leading men1 and plural wives were usually1 though not necessarily1 sisters4 ,a marriage might honorably be dissolved for cause1 but there was very little infidelity or immorality1 either open or secret4 ,it has been said that the position of woman is the test of civilization1 and that of our women was secure4 ,in them was vested our standard of morals and the purity of our blood4 ,the wife did not take the name of her husband nor enter his clan1 and the children belonged to the clan of the mother4 ,all of the family property was held by her1 descent was traced in the maternal line1 and the honor of the house was in her hands4 ,modesty was her chief adornment2 hence the younger women were usually silent and retiring3 but a woman who had attained to ripeness of years and wisdom1 or who had displayed notable courage in some emergency1 was sometimes invited to a seat in the council4 ,thus she ruled undisputed within her own domain1 and was to us a tower of moral and spiritual strength1 until the coming of the border white man1 the soldier and trader1 who with strong drink overthrew the honor of the man1 and through his power over a worthless husband purchased the virtue of his wife or his daughter4 ,when she fell1 the whole race fell with her4 ,before this calamity came upon us1 you could not find anywhere a happier home than that created by the ,indian woman4 ,there was nothing of the artificial about her person1 and very little disingenuousness in her character4 ,her early and consistent training1 the definiteness of her vocation1 and1 above all1 her profoundly religious attitude gave her a strength and poise that could not be overcome by any ordinary misfortune4 ,indian names were either characteristic nicknames given in a playful spirit1 deed names1 birth names1 or such as have a religious and symbolic meaning4 ,it has been said that when a child is born1 some accident or unusual appearance determines his name4 ,this is sometimes the case1 but is not the rule4 ,a man of forcible character1 with a fine war record1 usually bears the name of the buffalo or bear1 lightning or some dread natural force4 ,another of more peaceful nature may be called ,swift ,bird or ,blue ,sky4 ,a woman's name usually suggested something about the home1 often with the adjective 8pretty0 or 8good10 and a feminine termination4 ,names of any dignity or importance must be conferred by the old men1 and especially so if they have any spiritual significance2 as ,sacred ,cloud1 ,mysterious ,night1 ,spirit ,woman1 and the like4 ,such a name was sometimes borne by three generations1 but each individual must prove that he is worthy of it4 ,in the life of the ,indian there was only one inevitable duty1--the duty of prayer--the daily recognition of the ,unseen and ,eternal4 ,his daily devotions were more necessary to him than daily food4 ,he wakes at daybreak1 puts on his moccasins and steps down to the water's edge4 ,here he throws handfuls of clear1 cold water into his face1 or plunges in bodily4 ,after the bath1 he stands erect before the advancing dawn1 facing the sun as it dances upon the horizon1 and offers his unspoken orison4 ,his mate may precede or follow him in his devotions1 but never accompanies him4 ,each soul must meet the morning sun1 the new1 sweet earth1 and the ,great ,silence alone6 ,whenever1 in the course of the daily hunt1 the red hunter comes upon a scene that is strikingly beautiful or sublime--a black thundercloud with the rainbow's glowing arch above the mountain2 a white waterfall in the heart of a green gorge2 a vast prairie tinged with the blood-red of sunset--he pauses for an instant in the attitude of worship4 ,he sees no need for setting apart one day in seven as a holy day1 since to him all days are ,god's4 ,every act of his life is1 in a very real sense1 a religious act4 ,he recognizes the spirit in all creation1 and believes that he draws from it spiritual power4 ,his respect for the immortal part of the animal1 his brother1 often leads him so far as to lay out the body of his game in state and decorate the head with symbolic paint or feathers4 ,then he stands before it in the prayer attitude1 holding up the filled pipe1 in token that he has freed with honor the spirit of his brother1 whose body his need compelled him to take to sustain his own life4 ,when food is taken1 the woman murmurs a 8grace0 as she lowers the kettle2 an act so softly and unobtrusively performed that one who does not know the custom usually fails to catch the whisper3 8,spirit1 partake60 ,as her husband receives the bowl or plate1 he likewise murmurs his invocation to the spirit4 ,when he becomes an old man1 he loves to make a notable effort to prove his gratitude4 ,he cuts off the choicest morsel of the meat and casts it into the fire--the purest and most ethereal element4 ,the hospitality of the wigwam is only limited by the institution of war4 ,yet1 if an enemy should honor us with a call1 his trust will not be misplaced1 and he will go away convinced that he has met with a royal host6 ,our honor is the guarantee for his safety1 so long as he is within the camp4 ,friendship is held to be the severest test of character4 ,it is easy1 we think1 to be loyal to family and clan1 whose blood is in our own veins4 ,love between man and woman is founded on the mating instinct and is not free from desire and self-seeking4 ,but to have a friend1 and to be true under any and all trials1 is the mark of a man6 ,the highest type of friendship is the relation of 8brother-friend0 or 8life-and-death friend40 ,this bond is between man and man1 is usually formed in early youth1 and can only be broken by death4 ,it is the essence of comradeship and fraternal love1 without thought of pleasure or gain1 but rather for moral support and inspiration4 ,each is vowed to die for the other1 if need be1 and nothing is denied the brother-friend1 but neither is anything required that is not in accord with the highest conceptions of the ,indian mind4 ,,iii4 ,,ceremonial ,,and ,,symbolic ,,worship ,modern ,perversions of ,early ,religious ,rites4 ,the ,sun ,dance4 ,the ,great ,medicine ,lodge4 ,totems and ,charms4 ,the ,vapor-,bath and the ,ceremonial of the ,pipe4 ,the public religious rites of the ,plains ,indians are few1 and in large part of modern origin1 belonging properly to the so-called 8transition period40 ,that period must be held to begin with the first insidious effect upon their manners and customs of contact with the dominant race1 and many of the tribes were so influenced long before they ceased to lead the nomadic life4 ,the fur-traders1 the 8,black ,robe0 priests1 the military1 and finally the ,protestant missionaries1 were the men who began the disintegration of the ,indian nations and the overthrow of their religion1 seventy-five to a hundred years before they were forced to enter upon reservation life4 ,we have no authentic study of them until well along in the transition period1 when whiskey and trade had already debauched their native ideals4 ,during the era of reconstruction they modified their customs and beliefs continually1 creating a singular admixture of ,christian with pagan superstitions1 and an addition to the old folk-lore of disguised ,bible stories under an ,indian aspect4 ,even their music shows the influence of the ,catholic chants4 ,most of the material collected by modern observers is necessarily of this promiscuous character4 ,it is noteworthy that the first effect of contact with the whites was an increase of cruelty and barbarity1 an intensifying of the dark shadows in the picture6 ,in this manner the 8,sun ,dance0 of the ,plains ,indians1 the most important of their public ceremonials1 was abused and perverted until it became a horrible exhibition of barbarism1 and was eventually prohibited by the ,government4 ,in the old days1 when a ,sioux warrior found himself in the very jaws of destruction1 he might offer a prayer to his father1 the ,sun1 to prolong his life4 ,if rescued from imminent danger1 he must acknowledge the divine favor by making a ,sun ,dance1 according to the vow embraced in his prayer1 in which he declared that he did not fear torture or death1 but asked life only for the sake of those who loved him4 ,thus the physical ordeal was the fulfillment of a vow1 and a sort of atonement for what might otherwise appear to be reprehensible weakness in the face of death4 ,it was in the nature of confession and thank-offering to the 8,great ,mystery10 through the physical parent1 the ,sun1 and did not embrace a prayer for future favors4 ,the ceremonies usually took place from six months to a year after the making of the vow1 in order to admit of suitable preparation2 always in midsummer and before a large and imposing gathering4 ,they naturally included the making of a feast1 and the giving away of much savage wealth in honor of the occasion1 although these were no essential part of the religious rite4 ,when the day came to procure the pole1 it was brought in by a party of warriors1 headed by some man of distinction4 ,the tree selected was six to eight inches in diameter at the base1 and twenty to twenty-five feet high4 ,it was chosen and felled with some solemnity1 including the ceremony of the 8filled pipe10 and was carried in the fashion of a litter1 symbolizing the body of the man who made the dance4 ,a solitary teepee was pitched on a level spot at some distance from the village1 and the pole raised near at hand with the same ceremony1 in the centre of a circular enclosure of fresh-cut boughs4 ,meanwhile1 one of the most noted of our old men had carved out of rawhide1 or later of wood1 two figures1 usually those of a man and a buffalo4 ,sometimes the figure of a bird1 supposed to represent the ,thunder1 was substituted for the buffalo4 ,it was customary to paint the man red and the animal black1 and each was suspended from one end of the crossbar which was securely tied some two feet from the top of the pole4 ,i have never been able to determine that this cross had any significance2 it was probably nothing more than a dramatic coincidence that surmounted the ,sun-,dance pole with the symbol of ,christianity4 ,the paint indicated that the man who was about to give thanks publicly had been potentially dead1 but was allowed to live by the mysterious favor and interference of the ,giver of ,life4 ,the buffalo hung opposite the image of his own body in death1 because it was the support of his physical self1 and a leading figure in legendary lore4 ,following the same line of thought1 when he emerged from the solitary lodge of preparation1 and approached the pole to dance1 nude save for his breechclout and moccasins1 his hair loosened and daubed with clay1 he must drag after him a buffalo skull1 representing the grave from which he had escaped4 ,the dancer was cut or scarified on the chest1 sufficient to draw blood and cause pain1 the natural accompaniments of his figurative death4 ,he took his position opposite the singers1 facing the pole1 and dragging the skull by leather thongs which were merely fastened about his shoulders4 ,during a later period1 incisions were made in the breast or back1 sometimes both1 through which wooden skewers were drawn1 and secured by lariats to the pole or to the skulls4 ,thus he danced without intermission for a day and a night1 or even longer1 ever gazing at the sun in the daytime1 and blowing from time to time a sacred whistle made from the bone of a goose's wing4 ,in recent times1 this rite was exaggerated and distorted into a mere ghastly display of physical strength and endurance under torture1 almost on a level with the ,caucasian institution of the bull-fight1 or the yet more modern prize-ring4 ,moreover1 instead of an atonement or thank-offering1 it became the accompaniment of a prayer for success in war1 or in a raid upon the horses of the enemy4 ,the number of dancers was increased1 and they were made to hang suspended from the pole by their own flesh1 which they must break loose before being released4 ,i well remember the comments in our own home upon the passing of this simple but impressive ceremony1 and its loss of all meaning and propriety under the demoralizing additions which were some of the fruits of early contact with the white man4 ,perhaps the most remarkable organization ever known among ,american ,indians1 that of the 8,grand ,medicine ,lodge10 was apparently an indirect result of the labors of the early ,jesuit missionaries4 ,in it ,caucasian ideas are easily recognizable1 and it seems reasonable to suppose that its founders desired to establish an order that would successfully resist the encroachments of the 8,black ,robes40 ,however that may be1 it is an unquestionable fact that the only religious leaders of any note who have arisen among the native tribes since the advent of the white man1 the 8,shawnee ,prophet0 in #agfb1 and the half-breed prophet of the 8,ghost ,dance0 in #ahij1 both founded their claims or prophecies upon the ,gospel story4 ,thus in each case an ,indian religious revival or craze1 though more or less threatening to the invader1 was of distinctively alien origin4 ,the ,medicine ,lodge originated among the ,algonquin tribe1 and extended gradually throughout its branches1 finally affecting the ,sioux of the ,mississippi ,valley1 and forming a strong bulwark against the work of the pioneer missionaries1 who secured1 indeed1 scarcely any converts until after the outbreak of #ahfb1 when subjection1 starvation1 and imprisonment turned our broken-hearted people to accept ,christianity1 which seemed to offer them the only gleam of kindness or hope4 ,the order was a secret one1 and in some respects not unlike the ,free ,masons1 being a union or affiliation of a number of lodges1 each with its distinctive songs and medicines4 ,leadership was in order of seniority in degrees1 which could only be obtained by merit1 and women were admitted to membership upon equal terms1 with the possibility of attaining to the highest honors4 ,no person might become a member unless his moral standing was excellent1 all candidates remained on probation for one or two years1 and murderers and adulterers were expelled4 ,the commandments promulgated by this order were essentially the same as the ,mosaic ,ten1 so that it exerted a distinct moral influence1 in addition to its ostensible object1 which was instruction in the secrets of legitimate medicine4 ,in this society the uses of all curative roots and herbs known to us were taught exhaustively and practiced mainly by the old1 the younger members being in training to fill the places of those who passed away4 ,my grandmother was a well-known and successful practitioner1 and both my mother and father were members1 but did not practice4 ,a medicine or 8mystery feast0 was not a public affair1 as members only were eligible1 and upon these occasions all the 8medicine bags0 and totems of the various lodges were displayed and their peculiar 8medicine songs0 were sung4 ,the food was only partaken of by invited guests1 and not by the hosts1 or lodge making the feast4 ,the 8,grand ,medicine ,dance0 was given on the occasion of initiating those candidates who had finished their probation1 a sufficient number of whom were designated to take the places of those who had died since the last meeting4 ,invitations were sent out in the form of small bundles of tobacco4 ,two very large teepees were pitched facing one another1 a hundred feet apart1 half open1 and connected by a roofless hall or colonnade of fresh-cut boughs4 ,one of these lodges was for the society giving the dance and the novices1 the other was occupied by the 8soldiers10 whose duty it was to distribute the refreshments1 and to keep order among the spectators4 ,they were selected from among the best and bravest warriors of the tribe4 ,the preparations being complete1 and the members of each lodge garbed and painted according to their rituals1 they entered the hall separately1 in single file1 led by their oldest man or 8,great ,chief40 ,standing before the 8,soldiers' ,lodge10 facing the setting sun1 their chief addressed the 8,great ,mystery0 directly in a few words1 after which all extending the right arm horizontally from the shoulder with open palm1 sang a short invocation in unison1 ending with a deep3 8,e-ho-ho-ho60 ,this performance1 which was really impressive1 was repeated in front of the headquarters lodge1 facing the rising sun1 after which each lodge took its assigned place1 and the songs and dances followed in regular order4 ,the closing ceremony1 which was intensely dramatic in its character1 was the initiation of the novices1 who had received their final preparation on the night before4 ,they were now led out in front of the headquarters lodge and placed in a kneeling position upon a carpet of rich robes and furs1 the men upon the right hand1 stripped and painted black1 with a round spot of red just over the heart1 while the women1 dressed in their best1 were arranged upon the left4 ,both sexes wore the hair loose1 as if in mourning or expectation of death4 ,an equal number of grand medicine-men1 each of whom was especially appointed to one of the novices1 faced them at a distance of half the length of the hall1 or perhaps fifty feet4 ,after silent prayer1 each medicine-man in turn addressed himself to his charge1 exhorting him to observe all the rules of the order under the eye of the ,mysterious ,one1 and instructing him in his duty toward his fellow-man and toward the ,ruler of ,life4 ,all then assumed an attitude of superb power and dignity1 crouching slightly as if about to spring forward in a foot-race1 and grasping their medicine bags firmly in both hands4 ,swinging their arms forward at the same moment1 they uttered their guttural 8,yo-ho-ho-ho60 in perfect unison and with startling effect4 ,in the midst of a breathless silence1 they took a step forward1 then another and another1 ending a rod or so from the row of kneeling victims1 with a mighty swing of the sacred bags that would seem to project all their mystic power into the bodies of the initiates4 ,instantly they all fell forward1 apparently lifeless4 ,with this thrilling climax1 the drums were vigorously pounded and the dance began again with energy4 ,after a few turns had been taken about the prostrate bodies of the new members1 covering them with fine robes and other garments which were later to be distributed as gifts1 they were permitted to come to life and to join in the final dance4 ,the whole performance was clearly symbolic of death and resurrection4 ,while ,i cannot suppose that this elaborate ritual1 with its use of public and audible prayer1 of public exhortation or sermon1 and other ,caucasian features1 was practiced before comparatively modern times1 there is no doubt that it was conscientiously believed in by its members1 and for a time regarded with reverence by the people4 ,but at a later period it became still further demoralized and fell under suspicion of witchcraft4 ,there is no doubt that the ,indian held medicine close to spiritual things1 but in this also he has been much misunderstood2 in fact everything that he held sacred is indiscriminately called 8medicine10 in the sense of mystery or magic4 ,as a doctor he was originally very adroit and often successful4 ,he employed only healing bark1 roots1 and leaves with whose properties he was familiar1 using them in the form of a distillation or tea and always singly4 ,the stomach or internal bath was a valuable discovery of his1 and the vapor or ,turkish bath was in general use4 ,he could set a broken bone with fair success1 but never practiced surgery in any form4 ,in addition to all this1 the medicine-man possessed much personal magnetism and authority1 and in his treatment often sought to reestablish the equilibrium of the patient through mental or spiritual influences--a sort of primitive psychotherapy4 ,the ,sioux word for the healing art is 8wah-pee-yah10 which literally means readjusting or making anew4 8,pay-jee-hoo-tah10 literally root1 means medicine1 and 8wakan0 signifies spirit or mystery4 ,thus the three ideas1 while sometimes associated1 were carefully distinguished4 ,it is important to remember that in the old days the 8medicine-man0 received no payment for his services1 which were of the nature of an honorable function or office4 ,when the idea of payment and barter was introduced among us1 and valuable presents or fees began to be demanded for treating the sick1 the ensuing greed and rivalry led to many demoralizing practices1 and in time to the rise of the modern 8conjurer10 who is generally a fraud and trickster of the grossest kind4 ,it is fortunate that his day is practically over4 ,ever seeking to establish spiritual comradeship with the animal creation1 the ,indian adopted this or that animal as his 8totem10 the emblematic device of his society1 family1 or clan4 ,it is probable that the creature chosen was the traditional ancestress1 as we are told that the ,first ,man had many wives among the animal people4 ,the sacred beast1 bird1 or reptile1 represented by its stuffed skin1 or by a rude painting1 was treated with reverence and carried into battle to insure the guardianship of the spirits4 ,the symbolic attribute of beaver1 bear1 or tortoise1 such as wisdom1 cunning1 courage1 and the like1 was supposed to be mysteriously conferred upon the wearer of the badge4 ,the totem or charm used in medicine was ordinarily that of the medicine lodge to which the practitioner belonged1 though there were some great men who boasted a special revelation4 ,there are two ceremonial usages which1 so far as ,i have been able to ascertain1 were universal among ,american ,indians1 and apparently fundamental4 ,these have already been referred to as the 8eneepee10 or vapor-bath1 and the 8chan-du-hu-pah-yu-za-pee10 or ceremonial of the pipe4 ,in our ,siouan legends and traditions these two are preeminent1 as handed down from the most ancient time and persisting to the last4 ,in our ,creation myth or story of the ,first ,man1 the vapor-bath was the magic used by ,the-one-who-was-,first-,created1 to give life to the dead bones of his younger brother1 who had been slain by the monsters of the deep4 ,upon the shore of the ,great ,water he dug two round holes1 over one of which he built a low enclosure of fragrant cedar boughs1 and here he gathered together the bones of his brother4 ,in the other pit he made a fire and heated four round stones1 which he rolled one by one into the lodge of boughs4 ,having closed every aperture save one1 he sang a mystic chant while he thrust in his arm and sprinkled water upon the stones with a bunch of sage4 ,immediately steam arose1 and as the legend says1 8there was an appearance of life40 ,a second time he sprinkled water1 and the dry bones rattled together4 ,the third time he seemed to hear soft singing from within the lodge2 and the fourth time a voice exclaimed3 8,brother1 let me out60 7,it should be noted that the number four is the magic or sacred number of the ,indian47 ,this story gives the traditional origin of the 8eneepee10 which has ever since been deemed essential to the ,indian's effort to purify and recreate his spirit4 ,it is used both by the doctor and by his patient4 ,every man must enter the cleansing bath and take the cold plunge which follows1 when preparing for any spiritual crisis1 for possible death1 or imminent danger4 ,not only the 8eneepee0 itself1 but everything used in connection with the mysterious event1 the aromatic cedar and sage1 the water1 and especially the water-worn boulders1 are regarded as sacred1 or at the least adapted to a spiritual use4 ,for the rock we have a special reverent name--8,tunkan10 a contraction of the ,sioux word for ,grandfather4 ,the natural boulder enters into many of our solemn ceremonials1 such as the 8,rain ,dance10 and the 8,feast of ,virgins40 ,the lone hunter and warrior reverently holds up his filled pipe to 8,tunkan10 in solitary commemoration of a miracle which to him is as authentic and holy as the raising of ,lazarus to the devout ,christian4 ,there is a legend that the ,first ,man fell sick1 and was taught by his ,elder ,brother the ceremonial use of the pipe1 in a prayer to the spirits for ease and relief4 ,this simple ceremony is the commonest daily expression of thanks or 8grace10 as well as an oath of loyalty and good faith when the warrior goes forth upon some perilous enterprise1 and it enters even into his 8hambeday10 or solitary prayer1 ascending as a rising vapor or incense to the ,father of ,spirits4 ,in all the war ceremonies and in medicine a special pipe is used1 but at home or on the hunt the warrior employs his own4 ,the pulverized weed is mixed with aromatic bark of the red willow1 and pressed lightly into the bowl of the long stone pipe4 ,the worshiper lights it gravely and takes a whiff or two2 then1 standing erect1 he holds it silently toward the ,sun1 our father1 and toward the earth1 our mother4 ,there are modern variations1 as holding the pipe to the ,four ,winds1 the ,fire1 ,water1 ,rock1 and other elements or objects of reverence4 ,there are many religious festivals which are local and special in character1 embodying a prayer for success in hunting or warfare1 or for rain and bountiful harvests1 but these two are the sacraments of our religion4 ,for baptism we substitute the 8eneepee10 the purification by vapor1 and in our holy communion we partake of the soothing incense of tobacco in the stead of bread and wine4 ,,iv4 ,,barbarism ,,and ,,the ,,moral ,,code ,silence the ,corner-,stone of ,character4 ,basic ,ideas of ,morality4 8,give ,all or ,nothing60 ,rules of ,honorable ,warfare4 ,an ,indian ,conception of ,courage4 ,long before ,i ever heard of ,christ1 or saw a white man1 ,i had learned from an untutored woman the essence of morality4 ,with the help of dear ,nature herself1 she taught me things simple but of mighty import4 ,i knew ,god4 ,i perceived what goodness is4 ,i saw and loved what is really beautiful4 ,civilization has not taught me anything better6 ,as a child1 ,i understood how to give2 ,i have forgotten that grace since ,i became civilized4 ,i lived the natural life1 whereas ,i now live the artificial4 ,any pretty pebble was valuable to me then2 every growing tree an object of reverence4 ,now ,i worship with the white man before a painted landscape whose value is estimated in dollars6 ,thus the ,indian is reconstructed1 as the natural rocks are ground to powder1 and made into artificial blocks which may be built into the walls of modern society4 ,the first ,american mingled with his pride a singular humility4 ,spiritual arrogance was foreign to his nature and teaching4 ,he never claimed that the power of articulate speech was proof of superiority over the dumb creation2 on the other hand1 it is to him a perilous gift4 ,he believes profoundly in silence--the sign of a perfect equilibrium4 ,silence is the absolute poise or balance of body1 mind1 and spirit4 ,the man who preserves his selfhood ever calm and unshaken by the storms of existence--not a leaf1 as it were1 astir on the tree2 not a ripple upon the surface of shining pool--his1 in the mind of the unlettered sage1 is the ideal attitude and conduct of life4 ,if you ask him3 8,what is silence80 he will answer3 8,it is the ,great ,mystery60 8,the holy silence is ,his voice60 ,if you ask3 8,what are the fruits of silence80 he will say3 8,they are self-control1 true courage or endurance1 patience1 dignity1 and reverence4 ,silence is the cornerstone of character40 8,guard your tongue in youth10 said the old chief1 ,wabashaw1 8and in age you may mature a thought that will be of service to your people60 ,the moment that man conceived of a perfect body1 supple1 symmetrical1 graceful1 and enduring--in that moment he had laid the foundation of a moral life6 ,no man can hope to maintain such a temple of the spirit beyond the period of adolescence1 unless he is able to curb his indulgence in the pleasures of the senses4 ,upon this truth the ,indian built a rigid system of physical training1 a social and moral code that was the law of his life4 ,there was aroused in him as a child a high ideal of manly strength and beauty1 the attainment of which must depend upon strict temperance in eating and in the sexual relation1 together with severe and persistent exercise4 ,he desired to be a worthy link in the generations1 and that he might not destroy by his weakness that vigor and purity of blood which had been achieved at the cost of much self-denial by a long line of ancestors4 ,he was required to fast from time to time for short periods1 and to work off his superfluous energy by means of hard running1 swimming1 and the vapor-bath4 ,the bodily fatigue thus induced1 especially when coupled with a reduced diet1 is a reliable cure for undue sexual desires4 ,personal modesty was early cultivated as a safeguard1 together with a strong self-respect and pride of family and race4 ,this was accomplished in part by keeping the child ever before the public eye1 from his birth onward4 ,his entrance into the world1 especially in the case of the first-born1 was often publicly announced by the herald1 accompanied by a distribution of presents to the old and needy4 ,the same thing occurred when he took his first step1 when his ears were pierced1 and when he shot his first game1 so that his childish exploits and progress were known to the whole clan as to a larger family1 and he grew into manhood with the saving sense of a reputation to sustain4 ,the youth was encouraged to enlist early in the public service1 and to develop a wholesome ambition for the honors of a leader and feast-maker1 which can never be his unless he is truthful and generous1 as well as brave1 and ever mindful of his personal chastity and honor4 ,there were many ceremonial customs which had a distinct moral influence2 the woman was rigidly secluded at certain periods1 and the young husband was forbidden to approach his own wife when preparing for war or for any religious event4 ,the public or tribal position of the ,indian is entirely dependent upon his private virtue1 and he is never permitted to forget that he does not live to himself alone1 but to his tribe and his clan4 ,thus habits of perfect self-control were early established1 and there were no unnatural conditions or complex temptations to beset him until he was met and overthrown by a stronger race4 ,to keep the young men and young women strictly to their honor1 there were observed among us1 within my own recollection1 certain annual ceremonies of a semi-religious nature4 ,one of the most impressive of these was the sacred 8,feast of ,virgins10 which1 when given for the first time1 was equivalent to the public announcement of a young girl's arrival at a marriageable age4 ,the herald1 making the rounds of the teepee village1 would publish the feast something after this fashion3 8,pretty ,weasel-woman1 the daughter of ,brave ,bear1 will kindle her first maidens' fire to-morrow6 ,all ye who have never yielded to the pleading of man1 who have not destroyed your innocency1 you alone are invited1 to proclaim anew before the ,sun and the ,earth1 before your companions and in the sight of the ,great ,mystery1 the chastity and purity of your maidenhood4 ,come ye1 all who have not known man60 ,the whole village was at once aroused to the interest of the coming event1 which was considered next to the ,sun ,dance and the ,grand ,medicine ,dance in public importance4 ,it always took place in midsummer1 when a number of different clans were gathered together for the summer festivities1 and was held in the centre of the great circular encampment4 ,here two circles were described1 one within the other1 about a rudely heart-shaped rock which was touched with red paint1 and upon either side of the rock there were thrust into the ground a knife and two arrows4 ,the inner circle was for the maidens1 and the outer one for their grandmothers or chaperones1 who were supposed to have passed the climacteric4 ,upon the outskirts of the feast there was a great public gathering1 in which order was kept by certain warriors of highest reputation4 ,any man among the spectators might approach and challenge any young woman whom he knew to be unworthy2 but if the accuser failed to prove his charge1 the warriors were accustomed to punish him severely4 ,each girl in turn approached the sacred rock and laid her hand upon it with all solemnity4 ,this was her religious declaration of her virginity1 her vow to remain pure until her marriage4 ,if she should ever violate the maidens' oath1 then welcome that keen knife and those sharp arrows6 ,our maidens were ambitious to attend a number of these feasts before marriage1 and it sometimes happened that a girl was compelled to give one1 on account of gossip about her conduct4 ,then it was in the nature of a challenge to the scandal-mongers to prove their words6 ,a similar feast was sometimes made by the young men1 for whom the rules were even more strict1 since no young man might attend this feast who had so much as spoken of love to a maiden4 ,it was considered a high honor among us to have won some distinction in war and the chase1 and above all to have been invited to a seat in the council1 before one had spoken to any girl save his own sister4 ,it was our belief that the love of possessions is a weakness to be overcome4 ,its appeal is to the material part1 and if allowed its way it will in time disturb the spiritual balance of the man4 ,therefore the child must early learn the beauty of generosity4 ,he is taught to give what he prizes most1 and that he may taste the happiness of giving1 he is made at an early age the family almoner4 ,if a child is inclined to be grasping1 or to cling to any of his little possessions1 legends are related to him1 telling of the contempt and disgrace falling upon the ungenerous and mean man4 ,public giving is a part of every important ceremony4 ,it properly belongs to the celebration of birth1 marriage1 and death1 and is observed whenever it is desired to do special honor to any person or event4 ,upon such occasions it is common to give to the point of utter impoverishment4 ,the ,indian in his simplicity literally gives away all that he has1 to relatives1 to guests of another tribe or clan1 but above all to the poor and the aged1 from whom he can hope for no return4 ,finally1 the gift to the 8,great ,mystery10 the religious offering1 may be of little value in itself1 but to the giver's own thought it should carry the meaning and reward of true sacrifice4 ,orphans and the aged are invariably cared for1 not only by their next of kin1 but by the whole clan4 ,it is the loving parent's pride to have his daughters visit the unfortunate and the helpless1 carry them food1 comb their hair1 and mend their garments4 ,the name 8,wenonah10 bestowed upon the eldest daughter1 distinctly implies all this1 and a girl who failed in her charitable duties was held to be unworthy of the name4 ,the man who is a skillful hunter1 and whose wife is alive to her opportunities1 makes many feasts1 to which he is careful to invite the older men of his clan1 recognizing that they have outlived their period of greatest activity1 and now love nothing so well as to eat in good company1 and to live over the past4 ,the old men1 for their part1 do their best to requite his liberality with a little speech1 in which they are apt to relate the brave and generous deeds of their host's ancestors1 finally congratulating him upon being a worthy successor of an honorable line4 ,thus his reputation is won as a hunter and a feast-maker1 and almost as famous in his way as the great warrior is he who has a recognized name and standing as a 8man of peace40 ,the true ,indian sets no price upon either his property or his labor4 ,his generosity is only limited by his strength and ability4 ,he regards it as an honor to be selected for a difficult or dangerous service1 and would think it shame to ask for any reward1 saying rather3 8,let him whom ,i serve express his thanks according to his own bringing up and his sense of honor60 ,nevertheless1 he recognizes rights in property4 ,to steal from one of his own tribe would be indeed disgrace1 and if discovered1 the name of 8,wamanon10 or ,thief1 is fixed upon him forever as an unalterable stigma4 ,the only exception to the rule is in the case of food1 which is always free to the hungry if there is none by to offer it4 ,other protection than the moral law there could not be in an ,indian community1 where there were neither locks nor doors1 and everything was open and easy of access to all comers4 ,the property of the enemy is spoil of war1 and it is always allowable to confiscate it if possible4 ,however1 in the old days there was not much plunder4 ,before the coming of the white man1 there was in fact little temptation or opportunity to despoil the enemy2 but in modern times the practice of 8stealing horses0 from hostile tribes has become common1 and is thought far from dishonorable4 ,warfare we regarded as an institution of the 8,great ,mystery0--an organized tournament or trial of courage and skill1 with elaborate rules and 8counts0 for the coveted honor of the eagle feather4 ,it was held to develop the quality of manliness and its motive was chivalric or patriotic1 but never the desire for territorial aggrandizement or the overthrow of a brother nation4 ,it was common1 in early times1 for a battle or skirmish to last all day1 with great display of daring and horsemanship1 but with scarcely more killed and wounded than may be carried from the field during a university game of football4 ,the slayer of a man in battle was expected to mourn for thirty days blackening his face and loosening his hair according to the custom4 ,he of course considered it no sin to take the life of an enemy1 and this ceremonial mourning was a sign of reverence for the departed spirit4 ,the killing in war of non-combatants1 such as women and children1 is partly explained by the fact that in savage life the woman without husband or protector is in pitiable case1 and it was supposed that the spirit of the warrior would be better content if no widow and orphans were left to suffer want1 as well as to weep4 ,a scalp might originally be taken by the leader of the war party only and at that period no other mutilation was practiced4 ,it was a small lock not more than three inches square1 which was carried only during the thirty days' celebration of a victory1 and afterward given religious burial4 ,wanton cruelties and the more barbarous customs of war were greatly intensified with the coming of the white man1 who brought with him fiery liquor and deadly weapons1 aroused the ,indian's worst passions1 provoking in him revenge and cupidity1 and even offered bounties for the scalps of innocent men1 women1 and children4 ,murder within the tribe was a grave offense1 to be atoned for as the council might decree1 and it often happened that the slayer was called upon to pay the penalty with his own life4 ,he made no attempt to escape or to evade justice4 ,that the crime was committed in the depths of the forest or at dead of night1 witnessed by no human eye1 made no difference to his mind4 ,he was thoroughly convinced that all is known to the 8,great ,mystery10 and hence did not hesitate to give himself up1 to stand his trial by the old and wise men of the victim's clan4 ,his own family and clan might by no means attempt to excuse or to defend him1 but his judges took all the known circumstances into consideration1 and if it appeared that he slew in self-defense1 or that the provocation was severe1 he might be set free after a thirty days' period of mourning in solitude4 ,otherwise the murdered man's next of kin were authorized to take his life2 and if they refrained from doing so1 as often happened1 he remained an outcast from the clan4 ,a willful murder was a rare occurrence before the days of whiskey and drunken rows1 for we were not a violent or a quarrelsome people4 ,it is well remembered that ,crow ,dog1 who killed the ,sioux chief1 ,spotted ,tail1 in #ahha1 calmly surrendered himself and was tried and convicted by the courts in ,south ,dakota4 ,after his conviction1 he was permitted remarkable liberty in prison1 such as perhaps no white man has ever enjoyed when under sentence of death4 ,the cause of his act was a solemn commission received from his people1 nearly thirty years earlier1 at the time that ,spotted ,tail usurped the chieftainship by the aid of the military1 whom he had aided4 ,crow ,dog was under a vow to slay the chief1 in case he ever betrayed or disgraced the name of the ,brule ,sioux4 ,there is no doubt that he had committed crimes both public and private1 having been guilty of misuse of office as well as of gross offenses against morality2 therefore his death was not a matter of personal vengeance but of just retribution4 ,a few days before ,crow ,dog was to be executed1 he asked permission to visit his home and say farewell to his wife and twin boys1 then nine or ten years old4 ,strange to say1 the request was granted1 and the condemned man sent home under escort of the deputy sheriff1 who remained at the ,indian agency1 merely telling his prisoner to report there on the following day4 ,when he did not appear at the time set1 the sheriff dispatched the ,indian police after him4 ,they did not find him1 and his wife simply said that ,crow ,dog had desired to ride alone to the prison1 and would reach there on the day appointed4 ,all doubt was removed next day by a telegram from ,rapid ,city1 two hundred miles distant1 saying3 8,crow ,dog has just reported here40 ,the incident drew public attention to the ,indian murderer1 with the unexpected result that the case was reopened1 and ,crow ,dog acquitted4 ,he still lives1 a well-preserved man of about seventy-five years1 and is much respected among his own people4 ,it is said that1 in the very early days1 lying was a capital offense among us4 ,believing that the deliberate liar is capable of committing any crime behind the screen of cowardly untruth and double-dealing1 the destroyer of mutual confidence was summarily put to death1 that the evil might go no further4 ,even the worst enemies of the ,indian1 those who accuse him of treachery1 blood-thirstiness1 cruelty1 and lust1 have not denied his courage1 but in their minds it is a courage that is ignorant1 brutal1 and fantastic4 ,his own conception of bravery makes of it a high moral virtue1 for to him it consists not so much in aggressive self-assertion as in absolute self-control4 ,the truly brave man1 we contend1 yields neither to fear nor anger1 desire nor agony2 he is at all times master of himself2 his courage rises to the heights of chivalry1 patriotism1 and real heroism4 8,let neither cold1 hunger1 nor pain1 nor the fear of them1 neither the bristling teeth of danger nor the very jaws of death itself1 prevent you from doing a good deed10 said an old chief to a scout who was about to seek the buffalo in midwinter for the relief of a starving people4 ,this was his childlike conception of courage4 ,v4 ,,the ,,unwritten ,,scriptures ,a ,living ,book4 ,the ,sioux ,story of ,creation4 ,the ,first ,battle4 ,another ,version of the ,flood4 ,our ,animal ,ancestry4 ,a missionary once undertook to instruct a group of ,indians in the truths of his holy religion4 ,he told them of the creation of the earth in six days1 and of the fall of our first parents by eating an apple4 ,the courteous savages listened attentively1 and1 after thanking him1 one related in his turn a very ancient tradition concerning the origin of the maize4 ,but the missionary plainly showed his disgust and disbelief1 indignantly saying3-- 8,what ,i delivered to you were sacred truths1 but this that you tell me is mere fable and falsehood60 8,my brother10 gravely replied the offended ,indian1 8it seems that you have not been well grounded in the rules of civility4 ,you saw that we1 who practice these rules1 believed your stories2 why1 then1 do you refuse to credit ours80 ,every religion has its ,holy ,book1 and ours was a mingling of history1 poetry1 and prophecy1 of precept and folk-lore1 even such as the modern reader finds within the covers of his ,bible4 ,this ,bible of ours was our whole literature1 a living ,book1 sowed as precious seed by our wisest sages1 and springing anew in the wondering eyes and upon the innocent lips of little children4 ,upon its hoary wisdom of proverb and fable1 its mystic and legendary lore thus sacredly preserved and transmitted from father to son1 was based in large part our customs and philosophy4 ,naturally magnanimous and open-minded1 the red man prefers to believe that the ,spirit of ,god is not breathed into man alone1 but that the whole created universe is a sharer in the immortal perfection of its ,maker4 ,his imaginative and poetic mind1 like that of the ,greek1 assigns to every mountain1 tree1 and spring its spirit1 nymph1 or divinity either beneficent or mischievous4 ,the heroes and demigods of ,indian tradition reflect the characteristic trend of his thought1 and his attribution of personality and will to the elements1 the sun and stars1 and all animate or inanimate nature4 ,in the ,sioux story of creation1 the great ,mysterious ,one is not brought directly upon the scene or conceived in anthropomorphic fashion1 but remains sublimely in the background4 ,the ,sun and the ,earth1 representing the male and female principles1 are the main elements in his creation1 the other planets being subsidiary4 ,the enkindling warmth of the ,sun entered into the bosom of our mother1 the ,earth1 and forthwith she conceived and brought forth life1 both vegetable and animal4 ,finally there appeared mysteriously ,ish-na-e-cha-ge1 the 8,first-,born10 a being in the likeness of man1 yet more than man1 who roamed solitary among the animal people and understood their ways and their language4 ,they beheld him with wonder and awe1 for they could do nothing without his knowledge4 ,he had pitched his tent in the centre of the land1 and there was no spot impossible for him to penetrate4 ,at last1 like ,adam1 the 8,first-,born0 of the ,sioux became weary of living alone1 and formed for himself a companion--not a mate1 but a brother--not out of a rib from his side1 but from a splinter which he drew from his great toe6 ,this was the ,little ,boy ,man1 who was not created full-grown1 but as an innocent child1 trusting and helpless4 ,his ,elder ,brother was his teacher throughout every stage of human progress from infancy to manhood1 and it is to the rules which he laid down1 and his counsels to the ,little ,boy ,man1 that we trace many of our most deep-rooted beliefs and most sacred customs4 ,foremost among the animal people was ,unk-to-mee1 the ,spider1 the original trouble-maker1 who noted keenly the growth of the boy in wit and ingenuity1 and presently advised the animals to make an end of him2 8for10 said he1 8if you do not1 some day he will be the master of us all60 ,but they all loved the ,little ,boy ,man because he was so friendly and so playful4 ,only the monsters of the deep sea listened1 and presently took his life1 hiding his body in the bottom of the sea4 ,nevertheless1 by the magic power of the ,first-,born1 the body was recovered and was given life again in the sacred vapor-bath1 as described in a former chapter4 ,once more our first ancestor roamed happily among the animal people1 who were in those days a powerful nation4 ,he learned their ways and their language--for they had a common tongue in those days2 learned to sing like the birds1 to swim like the fishes1 and to climb sure-footed over rocks like the mountain sheep4 ,notwithstanding that he was their good comrade and did them no harm1 ,unk-to-mee once more sowed dissension among the animals1 and messages were sent into all quarters of the earth1 sea1 and air1 that all the tribes might unite to declare war upon the solitary man who was destined to become their master4 ,after a time the young man discovered the plot1 and came home very sorrowful4 ,he loved his animal friends1 and was grieved that they should combine against him4 ,besides1 he was naked and unarmed4 ,but his ,elder ,brother armed him with a bow and flint-headed arrows1 a stone war-club and a spear4 ,he likewise tossed a pebble four times into the air1 and each time it became a cliff or wall of rock about the teepee4 8,now10 said he1 8it is time to fight and to assert your supremacy1 for it is they who have brought the trouble upon you1 and not you upon them60 ,night and day the ,little ,boy ,man remained upon the watch for his enemies from the top of the wall1 and at last he beheld the prairies black with buffalo herds1 and the elk gathering upon the edges of the forest4 ,bears and wolves were closing in from all directions1 and now from the sky the ,thunder gave his fearful war-whoop1 answered by the wolf's long howl4 ,the badgers and other burrowers began at once to undermine his rocky fortress1 while the climbers undertook to scale its perpendicular walls4 ,then for the first time on earth the bow was strung1 and hundreds of flint-headed arrows found their mark in the bodies of the animals1 while each time that the ,boy ,man swung his stone war-club1 his enemies fell in countless numbers4 ,finally the insects1 the little people of the air1 attacked him in a body1 filling his eyes and ears1 and tormenting him with their poisoned spears1 so that he was in despair4 ,he called for help upon his ,elder ,brother1 who ordered him to strike the rocks with his stone war-club4 ,as soon as he had done so1 sparks of fire flew upon the dry grass of the prairie and it burst into flame4 ,a mighty smoke ascended1 which drove away the teasing swarms of the insect people1 while the flames terrified and scattered the others4 ,this was the first dividing of the trail between man and the animal people1 and when the animals had sued for peace1 the treaty provided that they must ever after furnish man with flesh for his food and skins for clothing1 though not without effort and danger on his part4 ,the little insects refused to make any concession1 and have ever since been the tormentors of man2 however1 the birds of the air declared that they would punish them for their obstinacy1 and this they continue to do unto this day4 ,our people have always claimed that the stone arrows which are found so generally throughout the country are the ones that the first man used in his battle with the animals4 ,it is not recorded in our traditions1 much less is it within the memory of our old men1 that we have ever made or used similar arrow-heads4 ,some have tried to make use of them for shooting fish under water1 but with little success1 and they are absolutely useless with the ,indian bow which was in use when ,america was discovered4 ,it is possible that they were made by some pre-historic race who used much longer and stronger bows1 and who were workers in stone1 which our people were not4 ,their stone implements were merely natural boulders or flint chips1 fitted with handles of raw-hide or wood1 except the pipes1 which were carved from a species of stone which is soft when first quarried1 and therefore easily worked with the most primitive tools4 ,practically all the flint arrow-heads that we see in museums and elsewhere were picked up or ploughed up1 while some have been dishonestly sold by trafficking ,indians and others1 embedded in trees and bones4 ,we had neither devil nor hell in our religion until the white man brought them to us1 yet ,unk-to-mee1 the ,spider1 was doubtless akin to that old ,serpent who tempted mother ,eve4 ,he is always characterized as tricky1 treacherous1 and at the same time affable and charming1 being not without the gifts of wit1 prophecy1 and eloquence4 ,he is an adroit magician1 able to assume almost any form at will1 and impervious to any amount of ridicule and insult4 ,here we have1 it appears1 the elements of the story in ,genesis2 the primal ,eden1 the tempter in animal form1 and the bringing of sorrow and death upon earth through the elemental sins of envy and jealousy4 ,the warning conveyed in the story of ,unk-to-mee was ever used with success by ,indian parents1 and especially grandparents1 in the instruction of their children4 ,ish-na-e-cha-ge1 on the other hand1 was a demigod and mysterious teacher1 whose function it was to initiate the first man into his tasks and pleasures here on earth4 ,after the battle with the animals1 there followed a battle with the elements1 which in some measure parallels the ,old ,testament story of the flood4 ,in this case1 the purpose seems to have been to destroy the wicked animal people1 who were too many and too strong for the lone man4 ,the legend tells us that when fall came1 the ,first-,born advised his younger brother to make for himself a warm tent of buffalo skins1 and to store up much food4 ,no sooner had he done this than it began to snow1 and the snow fell steadily during many moons4 ,the ,little ,boy ,man made for himself snow-shoes1 and was thus enabled to hunt easily1 while the animals fled from him with difficulty4 ,finally wolves1 foxes1 and ravens came to his door to beg for food1 and he helped them1 but many of the fiercer wild animals died of cold and starvation4 ,one day1 when the hungry ones appeared1 the snow was higher than the tops of the teepee poles1 but the ,little ,boy ,man's fire kept a hole open and clear4 ,down this hole they peered1 and lo6 the man had rubbed ashes on his face by the advice of his ,elder ,brother1 and they both lay silent and motionless on either side of the fire4 ,then the fox barked and the raven cawed his signal to the wandering tribes1 and they all rejoiced and said3 8,now they are both dying or dead1 and we shall have no more trouble60 ,but the sun appeared1 and a warm wind melted the snow-banks1 so that the land was full of water4 ,the young man and his ,teacher made a birch-bark canoe1 which floated upon the surface of the flood1 while of the animals there were saved only a few1 who had found a foothold upon the highest peaks4 ,the youth had now passed triumphantly through the various ordeals of his manhood4 ,one day his ,elder ,brother spoke to him and said3 8,you have now conquered the animal people1 and withstood the force of the elements4 ,you have subdued the earth to your will1 and still you are alone6 ,it is time to go forth and find a woman whom you can love1 and by whose help you may reproduce your kind40 8,but how am ,i to do this80 replied the first man1 who was only an inexperienced boy4 8,i am here alone1 as you say1 and ,i know not where to find a woman or a mate60 8,go forth and seek her10 replied the ,great ,teacher2 and forthwith the youth set out on his wanderings in search of a wife4 ,he had no idea how to make love1 so that the first courtship was done by the pretty and coquettish maidens of the ,bird1 ,beaver1 and ,bear tribes4 ,there are some touching and whimsical love stories which the rich imagination of the ,indian has woven into this old legend4 ,it is said1 for example1 that at his first camp he had built for himself a lodge of green boughs in the midst of the forest1 and that there his reverie was interrupted by a voice from the wilderness--a voice that was irresistibly and profoundly sweet4 ,in some mysterious way1 the soul of the young man was touched as it had never been before1 for this call of exquisite tenderness and allurement was the voice of the eternal woman6 ,presently a charming little girl stood timidly at the door of his pine-bough wigwam4 ,she was modestly dressed in gray1 with a touch of jet about her pretty face1 and she carried a basket of wild cherries which she shyly offered to the young man4 ,so the rover was subdued1 and love turned loose upon the world to upbuild and to destroy6 ,when at last she left him1 he peeped through the door after her1 but saw only a robin1 with head turned archly to one side1 fluttering away among the trees4 ,his next camp was beside a clear1 running stream1 where a plump and industrious maid was busily at work chopping wood4 ,he fell promptly in love with her also1 and for some time they lived together in her cosy house by the waterside4 ,after their boy was born1 the wanderer wished very much to go back to his ,elder ,brother and to show him his wife and child4 ,but the beaver-woman refused to go1 so at last he went alone for a short visit4 ,when he returned1 there was only a trickle of water beside the broken dam1 the beautiful home was left desolate1 and wife and child were gone forever6 ,the deserted husband sat alone upon the bank1 sleepless and faint with grief1 until he was consoled by a comely young woman in glossy black1 who took compassion upon his distress and soothed him with food and loving attentions4 ,this was the bear-woman1 from whom again he was afterward separated by some mishap4 ,the story goes that he had children by each of his many wives1 some of whom resembled their father1 and these became the ancestors of the human race1 while those who bore the characteristics of their mother returned to her clan4 ,it is also said that such as were abnormal or monstrous in form were forbidden to reproduce their kind1 and all love and mating between man and the animal creation was from that time forth strictly prohibited4 ,there are some curious traditions of young men and maidens who transgressed this law unknowingly1 being seduced and deceived by a magnificent buck deer1 perhaps1 or a graceful doe1 and whose fall was punished with death4 ,the animal totems so general among the tribes were said to have descended to them from their great-grandmother's clan1 and the legend was often quoted in support of our close friendship with the animal people4 ,i have sometimes wondered why the scientific doctrine of man's descent has not in the same way apparently increased the white man's respect for these our humbler kin4 ,of the many later heroes or ,hiawathas who appear in this voluminous unwritten book of ours1 each introduced an epoch in the long story of man and his environment4 ,there is1 for example1 the ,avenger of the ,innocent1 who sprang from a clot of blood2 the ragged little boy who won fame and a wife by shooting the ,red ,eagle of fateful omen2 and the ,star ,boy1 who was the off-spring of a mortal maiden and a ,star4 ,it was this last who fought for man against his strongest enemies1 such as ,wazeeyah1 the ,cold or ,north-,wind4 ,there was a desperate battle between these two1 in which first one had the advantage and then the other1 until both were exhausted and declared a truce4 ,while he rested1 ,star ,boy continued to fan himself with his great fan of eagle feathers1 and the snow melted so fast that ,north-,wind was forced to arrange a treaty of peace1 by which he was only to control one half the year4 ,so it was that the orderly march of the seasons was established1 and every year ,star ,boy with his fan of eagle feathers sets in motion the warm winds that usher in the spring4 ,,vi4 ,,on ,,the ,,border-,,land ,,of ,,spirits ,death and ,funeral ,customs4 ,the ,sacred ,lock of ,hair4 ,reincarnation and the ,converse of ,spirits4 ,occult and ,psychic ,powers4 ,the ,gift of ,prophecy4 ,the attitude of the ,indian toward death1 the test and background of life1 is entirely consistent with his character and philosophy4 ,death has no terrors for him2 he meets it with simplicity and perfect calm1 seeking only an honorable end as his last gift to his family and descendants4 ,therefore he courts death in battle2 on the other hand1 he would regard it as disgraceful to be killed in a private quarrel4 ,if one be dying at home1 it is customary to carry his bed out of doors as the end approaches1 that his spirit may pass under the open sky4 ,next to this1 the matter that concerns him most is the parting with his dear ones1 especially if he have any little children who must be left behind to suffer want4 ,his family affections are strong1 and he grieves intensely for the lost1 even though he has unbounded faith in a spiritual companionship4 ,the outward signs of mourning for the dead are far more spontaneous and convincing than is the correct and well-ordered black of civilization4 ,both men and women among us loosen their hair and cut it according to the degree of relationship or of devotion4 ,consistent with the idea of sacrificing all personal beauty and adornment1 they trim off likewise from the dress its fringes and ornaments1 perhaps cut it short1 or cut the robe or blanket in two4 ,the men blacken their faces1 and widows or bereaved parents sometimes gash their arms and legs till they are covered with blood4 ,giving themselves up wholly to their grief1 they are no longer concerned about any earthly possession1 and often give away all that they have to the first comers1 even to their beds and their home4 ,finally1 the wailing for the dead is continued night and day to the point of utter voicelessness2 a musical1 weird1 and heart-piercing sound1 which has been compared to the 8keening0 of the ,celtic mourner4 ,the old-time burial of the ,plains ,indians was upon a scaffold of poles1 or a platform among the boughs of a tree--their only means of placing the body out of reach of wild beasts1 as they had no implements with which to dig a suitable grave4 ,it was prepared by dressing in the finest clothes1 together with some personal possessions and ornaments1 wrapped in several robes1 and finally in a secure covering of raw-hide4 ,as a special mark of respect1 the body of a young woman or a warrior was sometimes laid out in state in a new teepee1 with the usual household articles and even with a dish of food left beside it1 not that they supposed the spirit could use the implements or eat the food but merely as a last tribute4 ,then the whole people would break camp and depart to a distance1 leaving the dead alone in an honorable solitude4 ,there was no prescribed ceremony of burial1 though the body was carried out with more or less solemnity by selected young men1 and sometimes noted warriors were the pall-bearers of a man of distinction4 ,it was usual to choose a prominent hill with a commanding outlook for the last resting-place of our dead4 ,if a man were slain in battle1 it was an old custom to place his body against a tree or rock in a sitting position1 always facing the enemy1 to indicate his undaunted defiance and bravery1 even in death4 ,i recall a touching custom among us1 which was designed to keep the memory of the departed near and warm in the bereaved household4 ,a lock of hair of the beloved dead was wrapped in pretty clothing1 such as it was supposed that he or she would like to wear if living4 ,this 8spirit bundle10 as it was called1 was suspended from a tripod1 and occupied a certain place in the lodge which was the place of honor4 ,at every meal time1 a dish of food was placed under it1 and some person of the same sex and age as the one who was gone must afterward be invited in to partake of the food4 ,at the end of a year from the time of death1 the relatives made a public feast and gave away the clothing and other gifts1 while the lock of hair was interred with appropriate ceremonies4 ,certainly the ,indian never doubted the immortal nature of the spirit or soul of man1 but neither did he care to speculate upon its probable state or condition in a future life4 ,the idea of a 8happy hunting-ground0 is modern and probably borrowed1 or invented by the white man4 ,the primitive ,indian was content to believe that the spirit which the 8,great ,mystery0 breathed into man returns to ,him who gave it1 and that after it is freed from the body1 it is everywhere and pervades all nature1 yet often lingers near the grave or 8spirit bundle0 for the consolation of friends1 and is able to hear prayers4 ,so much of reverence was due the disembodied spirit1 that it was not customary with us even to name the dead aloud4 ,it is well known that the ,american ,indian had somehow developed occult power1 and although in the latter days there have been many impostors1 and1 allowing for the vanity and weakness of human nature1 it is fair to assume that there must have been some even in the old days1 yet there are well-attested instances of remarkable prophecies and other mystic practice4 ,a ,sioux prophet predicted the coming of the white man fully fifty years before the event1 and even described accurately his garments and weapons4 ,before the steamboat was invented1 another prophet of our race described the 8,fire ,boat0 that would swim upon their mighty river1 the ,mississippi1 and the date of this prophecy is attested by the term used1 which is long since obsolete4 ,no doubt1 many predictions have been colored to suit the new age1 and unquestionably false prophets1 fakirs1 and conjurers have become the pest of the tribes during the transition period4 ,nevertheless1 even during this period there was here and there a man of the old type who was implicitly believed in to the last4 ,notable among these was ,ta-chank-pee ,ho-tank-a1 or ,his ,war ,club ,speaks ,loud1 who foretold a year in advance the details of a great war-party against the ,ojibways4 ,there were to be seven battles1 all successful except the last1 in which the ,sioux were to be taken at a disadvantage and suffer crushing defeat4 ,this was carried out to the letter4 ,our people surprised and slew many of the ,ojibways in their villages1 but in turn were followed and cunningly led into an ambush whence but few came out alive4 ,this was only one of his remarkable prophecies4 ,another famous 8medicine-man0 was born on the ,rum ,river about one hundred and fifty years ago1 and lived to be over a century old4 ,he was born during a desperate battle with the ,ojibways1 at a moment when1 as it seemed1 the band of ,sioux engaged were to be annihilated4 ,therefore the child's grandmother exclaimed3 8,since we are all to perish1 let him die a warrior's death in the field60 and she placed his cradle under fire1 near the spot where his uncle and grandfathers were fighting1 for he had no father4 ,but when an old man discovered the new-born child1 he commanded the women to take care of him1 8for10 said he1 8we know not how precious the strength of even one warrior may some day become to his nation60 ,this child lived to become great among us1 as was intimated to the superstitious by the circumstances of his birth4 ,at the age of about seventy-five years1 he saved his band from utter destruction at the hands of their ancestral enemies1 by suddenly giving warning received in a dream of the approach of a large war-party4 ,the men immediately sent out scouts1 and felled trees for a stockade1 barely in time to meet and repel the predicted attack4 ,five years later1 he repeated the service1 and again saved his people from awful slaughter4 ,there was no confusion of figures or omens1 as with lesser medicine-men1 but in every incident that is told of him his interpretation of the sign1 whatever it was1 proved singularly correct4 ,the father of ,little ,crow1 the chief who led the 8,minnesota massacre0 of #ahfb1 was another prophet of some note4 ,one of his characteristic prophecies was made only a few years before he died1 when he had declared that1 although already an old man1 he would go once more upon the war-path4 ,at the final war-feast1 he declared that three of the enemy would be slain1 but he showed great distress and reluctance in foretelling that he would lose two of his own men4 ,three of the ,ojibways were indeed slain as he had said1 but in the battle the old war prophet lost both of his two sons4 ,there are many trustworthy men1 and men of ,christian faith1 to vouch for these and similar events occurring as foretold4 ,i cannot pretend to explain them1 but ,i know that our people possessed remarkable powers of concentration and abstraction1 and ,i sometimes fancy that such nearness to nature as ,i have described keeps the spirit sensitive to impressions not commonly felt1 and in touch with the unseen powers4 ,some of us seemed to have a peculiar intuition for the locality of a grave1 which they explained by saying that they had received a communication from the spirit of the departed4 ,my own grandmother was one of these1 and as far back as ,i can remember1 when camping in a strange country1 my brother and ,i would search for and find human bones at the spot she had indicated to us as an ancient burial-place or the spot where a lone warrior had fallen4 ,of course1 the outward signs of burial had been long since obliterated4 ,the ,scotch would certainly have declared that she had the 8second sight10 for she had other remarkable premonitions or intuitions within my own recollection4 ,i have heard her speak of a peculiar sensation in the breast1 by which1 as she said1 she was advised of anything of importance concerning her absent children4 ,other native women have claimed a similar monitor1 but ,i never heard of one who could interpret it with such accuracy4 ,we were once camping on ,lake ,manitoba when we received news that my uncle and his family had been murdered several weeks before1 at a fort some two hundred miles distant4 ,while all our clan were wailing and mourning their loss1 my grandmother calmly bade them cease1 saying that her son was approaching1 and that they would see him shortly4 ,although we had no other reason to doubt the ill tidings1 it is a fact that my uncle came into camp two days after his reported death4 ,at another time1 when ,i was fourteen years old1 we had just left ,fort ,ellis on the ,assiniboine ,river1 and my youngest uncle had selected a fine spot for our night camp4 ,it was already after sundown1 but my grandmother became unaccountably nervous1 and positively refused to pitch her tent4 ,so we reluctantly went on down the river1 and camped after dark at a secluded place4 ,the next day we learned that a family who were following close behind had stopped at the place first selected by my uncle1 but were surprised in the night by a roving war-party1 and massacred to a man4 ,this incident made a great impression upon our people4 ,many of the ,indians believed that one may be born more than once1 and there were some who claimed to have full knowledge of a former incarnation4 ,there were also those who held converse with a 8twin spirit10 who had been born into another tribe or race4 ,there was a well-known ,sioux war-prophet who lived in the middle of the last century1 so that he is still remembered by the old men of his band4 ,after he had reached middle age1 he declared that he had a spirit brother among the ,ojibways1 the ancestral enemies of the ,sioux4 ,he even named the band to which his brother belonged1 and said that he also was a war-prophet among his people4 ,upon one of their hunts along the border between the two tribes1 the ,sioux leader one evening called his warriors together1 and solemnly declared to them that they were about to meet a like band of ,ojibway hunters1 led by his spirit twin4 ,since this was to be their first meeting since they were born as strangers1 he earnestly begged the young men to resist the temptation to join battle with their tribal foes4 8,you will know him at once10 the prophet said to them1 8for he will not only look like me in face and form1 but he will display the same totem1 and even sing my war songs60 ,they sent out scouts1 who soon returned with news of the approaching party4 ,then the leading men started with their peace-pipe for the ,ojibway camp1 and when they were near at hand they fired three distinct volleys1 a signal of their desire for a peaceful meeting4 ,the response came in like manner1 and they entered the camp1 with the peace-pipe in the hands of the prophet4 ,lo1 the stranger prophet advanced to meet them1 and the people were greatly struck with the resemblance between the two men1 who met and embraced one another with unusual fervor4 ,it was quickly agreed by both parties that they should camp together for several days1 and one evening the ,sioux made a 8warriors' feast0 to which they invited many of the ,ojibways4 ,the prophet asked his twin brother to sing one of his sacred songs1 and behold6 it was the very song that he himself was wont to sing4 ,this proved to the warriors beyond doubt or cavil the claims of their seer4