,,! ,,geological ,,/ory ,,( ,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,wight4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo by ,j4 ,milman ,br[n1 ,%ankl94 ,,gore ,,cliff--,,upp] ,,gre5s& ,,) ,,*]t ,,b$s ,! ,geological ,/ory ( ! ,isle ( ,wight ,,by ,,! ,rev4 ,j4 ,,cecil ,,hughes1 ,b4,a4 ,) ,illu/rations ( ,fossils by ,,maud ,,neal ,,london3 ,,edw>d ,,/an=d1 ,,limit$ #ab1 #ac1 #ad ,,long ,,acre1 ,w4,c4 #b4 #aibb ,,preface ,no bett] di/rict c\ld be *os5 to beg9 ! /udy ( ,geology ?an ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! spl5did coa/ sections all r\nd its %ores1 ! v>iety ( /rata )9 s small an area1 ! great int]e/ ( ^? /rata1 ! :ite *alk cliffs & ! col\r$ s&s1 ! abundant & int]e/+ fossils to be f\nd 9 ! rocks1 awak5 9 numb]s ( ^? :o live 9 ! ,isl&1 or visit its %ores1 a desire to "k some?+ ( ! /ory writt5 9 ! rocks4 ,! ,isle ( ,wight is classic gr\nd ( ,geology4 ,f ! e>ly days ( ! sci5ce x has be5 made fam\s by ! "w ( great /ud5ts ( ,nature1 su* z ,mantell1 ,buckl&1 ,fitton1 ,s$gwick1 ,ow51 ,edw>d ,=bes1 & o!rs1 :o h c>ri$ on ! /udy up to ! pres5t day4 ,_m ( ! /rata are kn[n to geologi/s ev]y:]e z typical2 sev]al be> ! names ( ! ,isl& localities1 :]e !y occur2 "s--& ^? n ! lea/ int]e/+--are n f\nd beyond ! limits ( ! ,isl&4 ,?\gh /udi$ = s _m ye>s1 !re is no exhau/+ _! int]e/3 new discov]ies are con/antly made1 & new que/ions arise = solution4 ,to ^? :o h become int]e/$ 9 ! rocks ( ! ,isl&1 & ! fossils !y h f\nd 9 !m1 & :o wi% to le>n h[ to read ! /ory !y tell1 & to "k some?+ ( t /ory1 ?is book is address$4 ,x is int5d$ to be an introduction to ! sci5ce ( ,geology1 bas$ on ! ,geology ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 yet lead+ on to "s glimpse ( ! hi/ory pres5t$ to u1 :5 we take a wid] outlook /ill1 & try to trace ! :ole wondr\s pa? ( *ange f ! _w's beg9n+ to ! pres5t day4 ,i wi% to express my w>me/ ?anks to ,miss ,maud ,neal = ! beautiful draw+s ( fossils :i* illu/rate ! book1 & to ,pr(essor ,gr5ville ,a4 ,j4 ,cole1 ,f4,r4,s41 = 8 k9dness 9 read+ ! manuscript1 & = valuable sugge/ions receiv$ f him4 ,i h also to ackn[l$ge my indebt$ness to ,mr4 ,h4 ,j4 ,osborne ,:ite's new edition ( ! ,memoir ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 #aiba2 & to ?ank ,mr4 ,j4 ,milman ,br[n1 ( ,%ankl91 = ! ?ree photographs ( ,isl& sc5]y1 %[+ features ( m>k$ geological int]e/1 & ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,gil*ri/1 ,libr>ian ( ! ,s&[n ,free ,libr>y1 = k9dly read+ ! pro(s ( ! book4 ,j4 ,,cecil ,,hughes4 ,m>41 #aibb4 ,,cont5ts ,*ap4 ,page ,i4 ,! ,rocks & ,_! ,/ory #a ,,ii4 ,! ,/ructure ( ! ,isl& #aj ,,iii4 ,! ,weald5 ,/rata3 ,! ,l& ( ! ,iguanodon #ae ,,iv4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& #bc ,v4 ,brook & ,a!rfield #bi ,,vi4 ,! ,gault & ,upp] ,gre5s& #cg ,,vii4 ,! ,*alk #db ,,viii4 ,! ,t]ti>y ,era3 ,! ,eoc5e #ed ,,ix4 ,! ,oligoc5e #fc ,x4 ,be=e & ,aft]3 ,! ,ice ,age #gj ,,xi4 ,! ,/ory ( ! ,isl& ,riv]s2 & ,h[ ! ,isle ( ,wight ,became ,an ,isl& #hf ,,xii4 ,! ,com+ ( ,man #ig ,,xiii4 ,! ,sc5]y ( ! ,isl&3 ,conclusion #aje ,,illu/rations ,,( ,,fossils ,,plate ,i4--,fac+ page #bj4 ,weald5 ,cyr5a ,lime/one ,v]tebra ( ,iguanodon ,l[] ,gre5s& ,p]na ,mulleti ,mey]ia ,vect5sis 7,a!rfield ,lob/]7 ,panopaea ,plicata ,t]ebratula ,sella ,,plate ,,ii4--,fac+ page #bc4 ,l[] ,gre5s& ,trigonia ,caudata ,trigonia ,da$alea ,g]villia ,sublanceolata ,upp] ,gre5s& 7,ammonite7 ,mortonic]as ,ro/ratum ,nautilus ,radiatus ,,plate ,,iii4--,fac+ page #de4 ,l[] ,gre5s& ,!tironia ,m9or ,rhyn*onella ,p>viro/ris ,upp] ,gre5s& 7,pect57 ,nei!a ,qu9queco/ata ,*alk 7,ammonite7 ,mantellic]as ,mantelli 7,sea ,ur*9s7 ,micra/] ,cor-,angu9um ,e*9ocorys ,scutatus 7,int]nal ca/ 9 fl9t7 ,,plate ,,iv4--,fac+ page #fa4 ,eoc5e ,c>dita ,pl>nico/a ,turritella ,imbricat>ia ,nummulites ,laevigatus 7,fusus7 ,leio/oma ,pyrus ,oligoc5e ,limnaea ,longiscata ,planorbis ,euomphalus ,cyr5a ,semi/riata ,,diagrams ,fac+ page #a4 ,coa/1 ,s&[n ,bay #aj #b4 ,coa/1 ,a!rfield #bi #c4 ,coa/1 ,:itecliff ,bay #ef #d4 ,section ,?r\gh ,headon ,hill & ,high ,d[n4 7,/rata ,se5 at ,alum ,bay7 #eh #e4 ,/ ,george's ,d[n #gi #f1 #g4 ,developm5t ( ,riv] ,sy/ems #hf #h4 ,! ,old ,sol5t ,riv] #id #i4 ,%+le at ,=el& #gi ,,photographs ,fac+ page #a4 ,gore ,cliff4 ,frontispiece4 #b4 ,*alk at ! ,culv] ,cliffs4 #df #c4 ,*alk at ,scrat*ell's ,bay4 #ea ,,geological ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,wight #aab ,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,rocks ,,& ,,_! ,,/ory ,walk+ along ! sea %ore1 ) all its v>i$ int]e/1 _m mu/ f "t to "t h _h _! att5tion attract$ by ! %ells to be se51 n ly+ on ! s&s1 or 9 ! pools1 b firmly emb$d$ 9 ! solid rock ( ! cliffs & ( ! rock l$ges :i* run out on to ! %ore1 & h1 x may be1 wond]$ sometimes h[ !y got !re4 ,at almo/ any po9t ( ! coa/ ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 9 b&s ( lime/one & b$s ( clay1 9 cliffs ( s&/one or ( *alk1 we %all h no difficulty 9 f9d+ num]\s %ells4 ,b x is n only 9 ! rocks ( ! sea coa/ t %ells are to be f\nd4 ,9 qu>ries = build+ /one & 9 ! *alk pits ( ! d[ns we see %ells 9 ! rock1 & may (t5 notice !m 9 ! /ones ( walls & build+s4 ,h[ did !y get !re8 ,! sea1 we say1 mu/ once h be5 "h4 ,x mu/ h fl[$ ov] ! l& at "s "t4 ,n[ let u ?9k4 ,we are go+ to read a wond]ful /ory1 writt5 n 9 books1 b 9 ! rocks4 ,& x w be mu* m valuable if we le>n to read x ourselves1 ?an if we are j told :at o!r p h made out4 ,we "k a ?+ mu* bett] if we see ! answ]s to que/ions = ourselves ?an if we are told ! answ]s1 & take "s "o else's ^w = x4 ,& if we le>n to ask que/ions ( ,nature1 & get answ]s to !m1 x w be useful 9 all sorts ( ways all ?r\gh life4 ,n[1 look at ! %ells 9 ! rock ( cliff & qu>ry4 ,h[ are !y !re8 ,! sea _c h j fl[$ ov] & left !m4 ,! rock c\ld n h be5 h>d1 z x is n[1 :5 !y got 94 ,"s ( ! rocks are s&/one1 mu* l ! s& on ! sea %ore1 b !y are h>d]1 & _! p>ticles are /uck toge!r4 ,does s& on a sea %ore ev] become h>d l rock1 s t %ells buri$ 9 x are f\nd aft]w>ds 9 h>d rock8 ,n[ we are gett+ ! key to a secret4 ,we are le>n+ ! way to read ! /ory ( ! rocks4 ,h[8 ,9 ?is way4 ,look ar\nd y4 ,see if any?+ l ?is is happ5+ to-day4 ,!n y w be able to read ! /ory ( :at happ5$ long1 long ago1 ( h[ ?is _w came to be z x is to-day4 ,we h ask$ a "q ab\t ! s&/one4 ,:at ab\t ! clays & ! lime/one8 ,z be=e1 :at is happ5+ to-day8 ,is lime/one be+ made any:]e to-day1 & are %ells be+ %ut up 9 x8 ,are %ells 9 ! sea be+ cov]$ up ) clay1--) mud1--& m %ellfi% liv+ on ! top ( t2 & !n1 are !y1 too1 be+ cov]$ up8 ,s t 9 ye>s to come !y w be f\nd 9 lay]s ( clay & /one l ^? we h be5 look+ at 9 qu>ry & sea cliff8 ,we h ask$ our que/ions4 ,n[ we mu/ look ar\nd1 & see if we c f9d ! answ]s4 ,aft] x has be5 ra9+ heavily = two or ?ree days g d[n to ! m>%es ( ! ,y>1 & /& on "o ( ! bridges ov] ! /ream4 ,we h se5 x fl[+ q cle> on "s days4 ,n[ x is yell[ or br[n ) mud4 ,:]e did ! mud come f8 ,g into a pl\gh$ field ) a dit* by ! side4 ,d[n ! dit* ! ra9 wat] is p\r+ f ! field away to ! /ream4 ,x is ?ick ) mud4 ,(f ! pl\gh$ field little trickles ( wat] are runn+ into ! dit*4 ,ea* br+s e>? f ! field ) x4 ,(f all ! c\ntry r\nd ! ra9 is trickl+ away1 c>ry+ e>? into ! dit*es & on into ! /ream1 & ! /ream is c>ry+ x d[n into ! sea4 ,n[ ?9k4 ,aft] e %[] ( ra9 e>? is c>ri$ (f ! l& into ! sea4 ,& ?is goes on all ! ye> r\nd1 & ye> aft] ye>4 ,if x goes on long en\gh--8 ,look a long way ahead1 a hundr$ ye>s1--a ?\s&1--?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,we %all be talk+ soon ( :at takes _m ?\s&s ( ye>s to d4 ,:y1 y say1 if x goes on long en\gh1 all ! l& w be c>ri$ into ! sea4 ,s x w be4 ,s x mu/ be4 ,y see h[ ! _w is *ang+4 ,y w soon see h[ x has *ang$ already1 :at wond]ful *anges !re h be54 ,y w see t ?+s h happ5$ 9 ! _w :i* y nev] guess$ till y began to /udy ,geology4 ,n[1 let u g a bit fur!r4 ,:at becomes ( all ! mud ! /reams & riv]s are c>ry+ d[n into ! sea8 ,look at a /ream com+ /eeply d[n f ! hills4 ,h[ x ru%es along1 roll+ pebbles aga9/ "o ano!r1 sweep+ ev]y?+ be=e x1 cle>+ out its *annel1 poli%+ ! rocks1 & c>ry+ all x rubs (f d[n t[>ds ! sea4 ,n[ look at a riv] ne> its m\? 9 flat l[l& c\ntry4 ,x fl[s n[ mu* sl[]2 & s x has n p[] to be> along all ! mat]ial x swept d[n f ! hills4 ,& s x drops a great deal2 x is always silt+ up its own *annel1 & 9 flood "t deposit+ fre% lay]s ( mud on ! flat mead[ l&1--! alluvial flat1--?r\gh :i* x g5]ally fl[s 9 ! la/ "p ( its c\rse4 ,b a good deal ( s$im5t is c>ri$ by ! riv] out to sea4 ,! wat] ( ! riv]1 mov+ sl[] z x ent]s ! sea1 has less & less p[] to sweep along its burd5 ( s& & mud1 & x drops x on ! sea bottom1--fir/ ! bigg] co>s] p>ticles l ! s&1 !n ! mud2 f>!r out1 ! f9] p>ticles ( mud drop to ! bottom4 ,dur+ ! explor+ cruise ( ! ,*all5g]1 "u ! direction ( ,sir ,wyville ,?omson1 9 #ahgb-f1 ! mo/ ext5sive exploration ( ! dep?s ( ! sea t has be5 made up to ! pres5t "t1 x 0 f\nd t ev]y?+ 9 ! nature ( gravel or s& 0 laid d[n )9 a v few miles1 only ! f9] muddy s$im5ts be+ c>ri$ z f> z #bj to #ej miles f ! l&1 ! v f9e/ ( all1 "u mo/ fav\rable conditions1 r>ely ext5d+ beyond #aej1 & nev] exce$+ #cjj miles f l& into ! deep ocean4 ,s gradually lay] aft] lay] ( s& & mud cov] ! sea b$ r\nd our coa/s2 & %ells ( cockles & p]iw9kles1 ( crabs & sea ur*9s1 & o!r sea creatures t h liv$ on ! bottom ( ! sea are buri$ 9 ! gr[+ lay]s ( s& & mud4 ,z lay] =ms on lay]1 ! l[] lay]s are press$ toge!r1 & become m & m solid4 ,& s we h got a good way t[>ds see+ ! mak+ ( clay & s&/one ) %ells 9 !m1 su* z we saw 9 ! sea cliffs & ! qu>ries4 ,b x is n only ra9 & riv]s t are we>+ ! l& away4 ,all r\nd ! coa/s ! sea is do+ ! same "w4 ,we see ! waves beat+ aga9/ ! %ores1 wa%+ out ! s(t] mat]ial1 holl[+ caves into ! cliffs1 eat+ away by degrees ev5 ! h>de/ rock1 leav+ = a :ile at times isolat$ rocks l ! ,ne$les to m>k ! =m] ext5sion ( ! l&4 ,mo/ p see = !mselves ! "w ( ! sea1 b d n notice s mu* :at ! ra9 & ! fro/1 ! /reams & ! riv]s are do+4 ,b ^! are we>+ away ! gr\nd ov] ! :ole c\ntry1 :ile ! sea is only eat+ away at ! coa/ l9e4 ,s ! :ole ( ! l& is be+ worn away1 & ! s& & mud c>ri$ out into ! sea1 & deposit$ !re1 ! mat]ial ( new l& b5ea? ! wat]s4 ,h[ d ^! b$s rise up aga91 s t we f9d !m ) _! sea %ells 9 ! qu>ry8 ,well1 we look at ! sea heav+ up & d[n ) ! tides1 & we ?9k ( ! l& z firm & fix$4 ,& yet ! l& also is cont9ually heav+ up & d[n--v sl[ly1--f> too sl[ly = x to be notic$1 b none ! less surely4 ,! exact causes ( ?is are n yet well und]/ood1 because we "k b little ab\t ! inside ( ! e>?4 ,! deepe/ m9e goes a v little way4 ,we "k t p>ts ( ! int]ior are int5sely hot4 ,! temp]ature 9 a m9e becomes hott]1 ab\t #a deg4,f4 = e #fj ft4 we g d[n on ! av]age4 ,we "k t !re are great quantities ( molt5 rock 9 places1 :i*1 9 a volcanic eruption is p\r$ out 9 %eets ( lava ov] ! l&4 ,!re are great quantities ( wat] turn$ into /eam by ! heat1 & 9 an eruption ! /eam p\rs out ( ! crat] ( ! volcano l ! cl\ds ( /eam out ( ! funnel ( a locomotive4 ,! p :o live ab\t a volcano are liv+1 z x 71 on ! top ( ! boil] ( a /eam eng9e2 & _! c\ntry is sometimes %ak5 up & d[n l ! lid ( a kettle by ! escap+ /eam4 ,9 su* a c\ntry ! l& is (t5 *ang+ its level4 ,a few miles f ,naples at ,pozzuoli1 ! anci5t ,puteoli1 may be se5 columns ( :at appe>s to be an anci5t m>ket hall1 ?\gh x goes by ! "n ( ! ,temple ( ,s]apis4 ,ab\t half way up ! columns are holes bor$ by bor+ %ellfi%1 su* z we may f9d on ! %ore "h at l[ tide4 ,we see f ?is t s9ce ! build+ 0 con/ruct$ 9 ,roman times ! l& has sunk1 & c>ri$ ! columns into ! sea1 & %ellfi% h bor$ into !m4 ,!n ! l& has ris51 & lift$ ! columns out ( ! sea aga94 ,b x is n only 9 ! neighb\rhood ( volcanoes t ! l& is mov+4 ,n sudd5ly & viol5tly1 b sl[ly & gradually great tracts ( l& rise & s9k4 ,sometimes ! l& may rema9 = a long "t ne>ly /ation>y4 ,! ,s\!rn coa/s ( ,engl& seem to /& at mu* ! same level z 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans #a1ejj or #b1jjj ye>s ago4 ,on ! o!r h& !re is evid5ce :i* seems to %[ t ! coa/ ( ,norway has = "s "t be5 gradually ris+4 ,x 0 ?\ght at "o "t t ! int]ior ( ! e>? 0 liquid l molt5 lava1 & t ! l& we see 0 a comp>atively ?9 cru/ ov] ?is l ! cru/ ( a pie4 ,b x is n[ believ$ = v>i\s ma!matical reasons1 t ! ma9 mass ( ! e>? is rigid z /eel4 ,/ill und]nea? ! surface rocks !re mu/ be a quantity ( semi-fluid matt]1 l molt5 rock1 & on ?is ! solid l& sways ab\t1 z we see ! ice on a pond sway ) ! pressure ( ! skat]s on x4 ,s ! solid l&1 press$ by int]nal =ces1 rises & falls l ! ela/ic ice1 sometimes s9k+ & lett+ ! sea fl[ ov]1 !n ris+ aga91 & br++ up ! l& f b5ea? ! sea4 ,aga91 z ! heat$ int]ior ( ! e>? gradually cools by ! radiation ( ! e>?'s heat into space1 x w t5d to %r9k away f ! cool] rocks ( ! cru/4 ,?is !n1 s9k+ 9 ^u ! %r9k+ int]ior1 w be ?r[n into folds1 l ! sk9 on a %rivell$ apple4 ,see+1 z we (t5 d1 lay]s ( rock ?r[n into num]\s folds1 s z to occupy a horizontal space f> less ?an t 9 :i* !y 7 orig9ally laid d[n1 we c h>dly resi/ ! conclusion t %r9kage ( ! cool+ int]ior ( ! e>? has be5 a *ief cause ( ! greate/ movem5ts ( ! surface1 & ( ! lat]al pressure we s (t5 f9d ! /rata to h und]gone4 ,z we /udy geology we %all f9d pl5ty to %[ t ! l& does rise & fall1 t :]e n[ is l& ! sea has be51 t l& once /ret*$ :]e n[ is sea1 ?\gh !re is /ill mu* :i* is n well und]/ood ab\t ! causes ( its movem5ts4 ,we h se5 h[ _m ( ! rocks are made 9 ! sea1--! s&/ones & ! clays1--b !re are two o!r k9ds ( rocks1 ab\t :i* we mu/ say a little4 ,! fir/ are ! ,igne\s rocks1 :i* means rocks made by fire4 ,^! rocks h solidifi$1 mo/ frequ5tly 9 cry/all9e =ms1 f a molt5 mass4 ,lava1 :i* fl[s hot & fluid1 f a volcano1 & cool+ becomes a %eet ( solid rock1 is an igne\s rock4 ,"s igne\s rocks solidify "u gr\nd "u great pressure1 & become cry/all9e rocks su* z granite4 ,we %all n f9d ^! rocks 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,we %\ld f9d !m 9 ,cornwall1 ,wales1 & ,scotl&2 &1 if we c\ld g deep en\gh1 we %\ld f9d "s su* rock z granite und]nea? ! o!r rocks all ! _w ov]4 ,! o!r rocks1 su* z ! s&/ones & clays1 are call$ ,s$im5t>y rocks1 because !y are =m$ ( s$im5t1 mat]ial c>ri$ by ! sea & riv]s1 & dropp$ to ! bottom4 ,!y are also call$ ,/ratifi$ rocks1 because !y are =m$ ( ,/rata1 i4e41 b$s or lay]s1 z we see 9 cliff & qu>ry4 ,b we h se5 ano!r k9d ( rock1--! lime/ones4 ,9 ,s&[n ,bay t[>ds ! ,culv]s1 b&s ( lime/one run ?r\gh ! d>k clay cliffs1 & brok5 fragm5ts lie on ! %ore1 look+ l pieces ( pav+ /one4 ,exam9+ ^! we f9d t !y are made up ( %ells1 "o b& ( small oy/]s1 ! o!rs ( %ells ( o!r k9ds4 ,y see h[ !y h be5 made4 ,!re has be5 an oy/] b$1 & ! %ells h be5 press$ toge!r1 & someh[ /uck toge!r1 s t !y h =m$ a lay] ( rock4 ,!y are /uck toge!r 9 ?is way4 ,! atmosph]e conta9s a small quantity ( c>bonic dioxide1 & ! soil a l>g] quantity1 ! result ( vegetable decomposition4 ,ra9 wat] absorbs "s ( x1 & c>ries x into ! rocks1 z x soaks into ! gr\nd4 ,?is gas has ! prop]ty ( comb9+ ) c>bonate ( lime1--! mat]ial ( :i* %ells & lime/one are made4 ,! bic>bonate ( lime s =m$ is soluble 9 wat]1 :i* is n ! case ) ! simple c>bonate4 ,wat] conta9+ c>bonic dioxide soak+ into a lime/one rock or a mass ( %ells dissolves "s ( ! c>bonate ( lime1 & c>ries x on ) x4 ,:5 x comes to an op5 space conta9+ air1 "s ( ! c>bonic dioxide is giv5 (f1 leav+ ! insoluble c>bonate ( lime aga94 ,s by degrees ! holl[s are fill$ up1 & a solid lay] ( rock is =m$4 ,ev5 :ile ga!r+ 9 ! sea ! %ell-fragm5ts may be cem5t$ by ! deposit ( c>bonate ( lime f sea-wat] conta9+ m ( ! soluble bic>bonate ?an x c hold4 ,^! lime/ones are examples ( rocks :i* are said to be ( organic orig91 t is to say1 !y are =m$ by liv+ ?+s4 ,organic rocks may be =m$ by animal or vegetable gr[?4 ,rocks ( vegetable orig9 are se5 9 ! coals4 ,a peat bog is compos$ ( a mass ( vegetable matt]1 *iefly bog moss1 :i* = c5turies has be5 gr[+ & accumulat+ on ! spot4 ,at ! bottom ( ! bog w frequ5tly be f\nd trunks ( oak1 or o!r trees1 ! rema9s ( a =e/ ( =m] days4 ,! wood has und]gone *emical *anges1 has lo/ mu* ( its moi/ure1 & (t5 become v h>d1 z 9 bog oak4 ,b$s ( coal h be5 =m$ by a simil> process1 on a mu* va/] scale1 & cont9u$ mu* long]4 ,! rema9s ( anci5t =e/s h be5 buri$ "u s& /ones & o!r rocks1 h und]gone *emical *ange1 & be5 compress$ into ! h>d solid mass we call coal4 ,fossil wood1 :i* has n rea*$ ! /age ( h>d coal1 b =ms a s(t br[n sub/ance1 is call$ lignite4 ,?is is ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 v>i\s /rata 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,( organic rocks ( animal orig9 ! mo/ rem>kable are ! *alk1 ( :i* we %all speak lat]1 & ! coral-reefs1 :i* are f\nd 9 ! w>m wat]s ( tropical seas4 ,sail+ ov] ! ,s\? ,pacific y w see a l9e ( trees--coconut trees *iefly--look+ z if !y rose up f ! sea4 ,com+ ne>] y see t !y gr[ on a l[ isl&1 :i* rises only a few feet above ! wat]4 ,^! isl&s are (t5 9 ! =m ( a r+1 & look l g>l&s ?r[n ^u ! wat]s4 ,inside ! r+ is a lagoon ( calm wat]4 ,outside ! heavy swell ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean ?und]s on ! coral %ore4 ,if a s\nd+ l9e be let d[n f ! out] edge ( ! reef1 x w be f\nd t ! wall ( coral goes d[n hundr$s ( feet l a precipice4 ,on an isl& 9 ! ,s\!rn ,sea1 ,funafuti1 a deep bor+ has be5 made #a1aad ft4 deep4 ,z f> z ! bor+ w5t all 0 coral4 ,all ?is mass ( coral is =m$ by liv+ ?+s1--polyps !y are call$4 ,!y are l t9y sea anemones1 only !y gr[ atta*$ to "o ano!r1 =m+ a comp\nd animal1 l a tree ) /em & bran*es1 & little sea anemones = fl[]s4 ,! :ole organism has a sort ( %ell or skeleton1 :i* is ! coral4 ,blocks are brok5 (f by ! waves1 & gr\nd to a coral mud1 :i* fills up ! int]/ices ( ! coral2 & z m coral gr[s above1 ! l[] "p ( ! reef becomes1 by pressure & cem5t+1 a solid coral lime/one4 ,once ^u a "t !re 7 coral isl&s =m+ 9 a sea1 :]e n[ is ,engl&4 ,^! old coral reefs =m b$s ( lime/one 9 ,devon1 ,d]by%ire1 & o!r p>ts ( ,engl&4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,wight we h no old coral reefs1 b we %all easily f9d fossil corals 9 ! rocks4 ,!y help$ to make up ! rocks1 b !re 7 n en\gh "h to make reefs or isl&s all ( coral4 ,! great bran*+ corals t =m ! reefs c only live 9 w>m wat]s4 ,s we see t :5 corals 7 =m+ reefs :]e n[ is ,engl& ! climate mu/ h be5 w>m l ! tropics4 ,t is a /ory we %all (t5 read z we come to he> m ab\t ! rocks4 ,we %all f9d t ! climate has (t5 be5 q w>m z ! tropics are n[3 & we %all also read ano!r wond]ful /ory ( a "t :5 ! climate 0 cold l ! ,arctic regions4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,isl&4 ,! be/ place to beg9 ! /udy ( ! ,geology ( ! ,isle ( ,wight is 9 ,s&[n ,bay4 ,nor? ( ,s&[n1 beyond ! flat ( ! m>%es1 are l[ cliffs ( r$di% clay1 :i* has slipp$ 9 places1 & is mu* cov]$ by grass4 ,at l[ tide we %all see ! col\r$ clays on ! %ore1 unless ! s& has cov]$ !m up4 ,v>iegat$ m>ls !y are call$--m>l means a limy clay1 loam a s&y clay2 & v f9e are ! col\rs ( ^! m>ls1 ri* r$s & purples & br[ns4 ,beyond ! little sea wall bel[ ,yav]l& batt]y we come to a diff]5t k9d ( clay =m+ ! cliff4 ,x is 9 ?9 lay]s4 ,clay 9 ?9 lay]s l ?is is call$ %ale4 ,"s ( ^! %ales are kn[n z pap] %ales1 = ! lay]s are ?9 almo/ l ! leaves ( a book4 ,! junction ( ! %ales ) ! m>ls is q %>p1 & we see t ! %ales re/ on ! col\r$ m>ls1 n horizontally1 b slop+ d[n t[>ds ! ,nor?4 ,b&s ( lime/one & s&/one runn+ ?r\gh ! %ales1 & a h>d b& ( br[n rock :i* runs out on ! %ore z a reef1 slope 9 ! same direction4 ,z we pass on by ! ,r$ ,cliff to ! ,:ite ,cliffs we notice t ! /rata slope m /eeply ! fur!r ,nor? we g4 ,we h se5 t ^! /rata 7 laid d[n lay] by lay] at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,if we f9d a lot ( ?+s ly+ "o on top ( ano!r1 we may g5]ally conclude t ! ones at ! bottom 7 put !re fir/1 !n ! next1 & s on to ! top4 ,& ?is w g5]ally be true ) reg>d to ! rocks4 ,! l[e/ rocks mu/ h be5 laid d[n fir/1 !n ! next1 & s on4 ,b ^! lay]s ( %ale ) %ells 9 !m1 & lay]s ( lime/one made ( %ells1 mu/ h be5 laid d[n at fir/ fairly flat on ! sea floor2 b z !y 7 upheav$ out ( ! sea !y h be5 tilt$1 s t we n[ see !m 9 an incl9$ position4 ,& :5 we come to ! *alk1 we %\ld see1 if we look$ at ! end ( ! ,culv] ,cliffs f a boat1 t ! l9es ( black fl9ts t run ?r\gh ! *alk are ne>ly v]tical4 ,! /rata !re h be5 tilt$ up on end4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,diagram ,,( ,,coa/1 ,,s&[n ,,bay1 ,,dunnose ,,to ,,culv] ,,cliff4 ,w ,weald54 ,p ,p]na ,b$4 ,,lg ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,cb ,clay ,b&s4 ,s ,s&rock & ,c>/one4 g ,gault4 ,,ug ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,c ,*alk4 ,sc ,%ankl9 ,*9e4 ,lc ,luccombe ,*9e4 ,9 describ+ h[ /rata lie1 we call ! incl9ation ( ! /rata f ! horizontal ! dip4 ,! direction ( a horizontal l9e at "r angles to t ( ! dip is call$ ! /rike4 ,if we comp>e ! slop+ /rata to ! ro( ( a h\se1 a l9e d[n ! slope ( ! ro( w m>k ! direction ( ! dip1 ! ridge ( ! ro( t ( ! /rike4 ,! /rata we are consid]+ dip t[>ds ! ,nor?2 ! l9e ( /rike is ,ea/ & ,we/4 ,return+ t[>ds ,s&[n we see ! /rata dipp+ less & less /eeply1 till ne> ! ,granite ,=t ! rocks on ! %ore are horizontal4 ,cont9u+ our walk pa/ ,s&[n to ,%ankl9 we pass ! same succession ( rocks we h be5 look+ at1 b 9 rev]se ord]1 & slop+ ! o!r way4 ,x is n v easy to see ?is at fir/1 = s mu* is cov]$ by build+2 b beyond ,s&[n we see ,s&/one ,cliffs l ! ,r$ ,cliff aga91 ! /rata dipp+ g5tly n[ to ! s\?1 & 9 ! d[ns above ,%ankl9 we see ! *alk aga94 ,s we h ! same /rata nor? & s\? ( ,s&[n1 =m+ a sort ( ar*4 ,b ! c5tre ( ! ar* is miss+4 ,x mu/ h be5 cut away4 ,we saw t ! l& 0 all be+ eat5 away by ra9 & riv]s4 ,n[ we see :at !y h done "h4 ,g up on to ! ,d[ns1 & look ov] ! c5tral "p ( ! ,isl&4 ,we see two ranges ( d[ns runn+ f ea/ to we/1--! ,c5tral ,d[ns ( ! ,isl&1 a long l9e ( *alk d[n #bd miles f ! ,culv] ,cliff on ! ea/ to ! ,ne$les on ! we/2 & ! ,s\!rn ,d[ns along ! ,s\? ,coa/ f ,%ankl9 to ,*ale4 ,9 ! ,c5tral ,d[ns ! *alk rises ne>ly v]tically1 & turns ov] 9 ! beg9n+ ( an ar* t[>ds ! ,s\?4 ,!n comes a big gap1 & ! *alk appe>s aga9 9 ! ,s\!rn ,d[ns ne>ly horizontal1 slop+ g5tly to ! s\?4 ,! *alk 0 once jo9$ "r across ! c5tral holl[1 :]e n[ we see ! villages ( ,new*ur*1 ,god%ill1 & ,arreton4 ,all t enorm\s mass ( rock t once fill$ ! space betwe5 ! d[ns has be5 cut away by runn+ wat]4 ,an ar* ( /rata l ?is ,inv]t$-,u1 su* z ! "o we are look+ at1 is call$ an anticl9e4 ,:5 ! ar* is rev]s$1 l ?is ,u1 x is call$ a syncl9e4 ,look+ nor? f ! ,c5tral ,d[ns ov] ! ,sol5t we are look+ at a syncl9e4 ,! *alk1 :i* dips d[n at ! ,culv]s & along ! l9e ( ! ,c5tral ,d[ns1 runs l a tr\gh "u ! ,sol5t1 & rises aga91 z we see x on ! o!r side1 9 ! ,portsd[n ,hills4 ,we might suppose ! top ( an anticl9al ar* w\ld be ! highe/ "p ( ! c\ntry2 t1 ev5 if ra9 & runn+ wat] h worn ! c\ntry d[n1 t w\ld /ill /& highe/1 & be worn d[n lea/4 ,b !re are reasons :y ?is ne$ n be s4 ,= "o ?+1 :5 ! horizontal /rata are curv$ ov] into an ar*1 !y naturally crack j at ! top ( ! curve1 s & into ! cracks ! ra9 gets1 & s a /ream is />t$ !re1 :i* cuts d[n & wid5s its *annel1 & s eats ! l& away4 ,aga91 ! ris+ l& only em]ges gradually f ! sea1 & ! sea may cut (f ! top ( ! ar* be=e x has ris5 out ( its rea*4 ,moreov] on ! high] l& ! fall ( ra9 & sn[ is great]1 & ! fro/s are m sev]e2 s t x is j !re t ! =ces we>+ d[n ! l& are mo/ effective4 ,illu/ration3 curve ) two v-%ap$ m>ks at c5t] ,we mu/ notice ano!r ?+ :i* happ5s :5 rocks are be+ upheav$ & b5t into curves4 ,! /ra9 is v great1 & sometimes ! /rata crack & "o side is pu%$ up m ?an ! o!r4 ,^! cracks are call$ faults4 ,at ,little ,/airs1 ab\t half way betwe5 ,s&[n & ,%ankl91 two or ?ree faults may be se5 9 ! cliff4 ,! effect ( two ( ! faults may be easily se5 by notic+ ! displacem5t ( a b& ( rock /a9$ orange by wat] conta9+ iron4 ,! /rata are ?r[n d[n t[>ds ! nor? ab\t #h ft4 ,a ?ird fault1 ! effect ( :i* is n s evid5t at fir/ sight1 ?r[s ! /rata d[n r\ghly #ej ft4 to ! s\?4 ,^! are only small faults1 b sometimes faults occur1 9 :i* ! /rata h be5 mov$ on opposite sides ( ! fault ?\s&s ( feet away f "o ano!r4 ,we might ?9k we %\ld see a wall ( rock ris+ up on ! surface ( ! gr\nd :]e a fault occurs2 b ! faults h mo/ly tak5 place ages ago2 &1 :5 !y d happ51 ! rocks are g5]ally mov$ only a little way at a "t4 ,!n aft] a :ile ano!r pu% comes on ! rocks1 & !y %ift aga9 at ! same place1 & g a bit fur!r4 ,all ?is "t fro/ & ra9 & riv]s are work+ at ! surface1 & plan+ x d[n2 s t ! unev5ness ( ! surface caus$ by faults is smoo!d away2 & s ev5 a great fault does n %[ at ! surface4 ,z we foll[ ! ,s&[n anticl9e we/w>d x gradually dies away1 ! upheav$ area be+ actually a long oval--:at we may call a turtle-back4 ,z ! ,s&[n anticl9e dies out1 x is succe$$ by ano!r a little fur!r s\?1 ! ,brook anticl9e4 ,!re are 9 fact a s]ies ( ^! ea/ & we/ anticl9es 9 ! ,isl& & on ! adjac5t ma9l&1 caus$ by ! same e>? movem5t4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! ar*+ ( ! /rata we f9d ! l[e/ b$s we saw 9 ,s&[n ,bay runn+ out aga9 on ! we/ ( ! ,isl& 9 ,brook ,bay1 & a g5]al correspond5ce ( ! /rata on ! ea/ & we/ ( ! ,isl&2 :ile1 z we travel f ,s&[n or ,brook nor?w>d to ! ,sol5t1 we come to cont9ually m rec5t b$s ov]ly+ ^? :i* appe> to ! s\? ( !m4 ,:51 z 9 ! s\? side ( our c5tral d[ns1 ! /rata are %>ply cut away by d5udation1 we call ?is an esc>pm5t4 ,! figure %[s ! /ructure ( ! ,s&[n anticl9e we h describ$4 ,we mu/ n[ exam9e ! rocks m closely1 beg9n+ ) ! l[e/ /rata 9 ! ,isl&1 & try to read ! /ory !y h to tell4 ,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,weald5 ,,/rata3 ,,! ,,l& ,,( ,,! ,,iguanodon ,! l[e/ /rata 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight are ! col\r$ m>ls & blue-grey %ales we h already obs]v$ 9 ,s&[n ,bay1 :i* run ?r\gh ! ,isl& to ,brook ,bay4 ,!y are kn[n z ! ,weald5 ,/rata1 because ! same /rata cov] ! "p ( ,k5t & ,sussex call$ ! ,weald4 ,!y consi/ ( m>ls & %ales ) b&s ( s&/one & lime/one4 ,! m>ls & %ales 9 wet wea!r become v s(t1 & fl[ out on to ! %ore1 caus+ l>ge slips ( l&4#a ,n[1 :at we want to f9d out is :at ! _w 0 l ages ago1 :5 ^! ,weald5 ,/rata 7 be+ =m$4 ,we h le>nt some?+ ( h[ clays & s&/ones & lime/ones are =m$3 to le>n m we mu/ see :at sort ( fossils we c f9d 9 ^! rocks4 ,fossil means some?+ dug up2 & ! ^w is g5]ally us$ = rema9s ( animals or plants :i* we f9d buri$ 9 ! rocks4 ,we h se5 %ells 9 ^! /rata4 ,^! we mu/ exam9e m closely4 ,& z we walk on ! %ore we %all f9d o!r fossils4 ,9 ! m>ls & %ales expos$ on ! %ore we are pretty sure to see pieces ( wood1 black z coal1 sometimes q l>ge logs1 (t5 p>tly cov]$ ) %9+ iron pyrites4 ,p]haps y say--,i hope y d--!re mu/ h be5 l& n f> away :5 ^! m>ls & %ales 7 =m+4 ,always try to see :at ! ?+s we f9d h to tell u4 ,! sort ( place :]e we %\ld be mo/ likely to f9d wood float+ 9 ! sea to-day w\ld be ne> ! m\? ( a great riv] l ! ,mississippi or ! ,amazon1--riv]s :i* br+ d[n num]\s logs ( wood f ! =e/ c\ntry ?r\gh :i* !y fl[4 ,exam9e ! %ales & lime/one b&s4 ,on ! surface ( "s ( ! pap]-%ales are numb]s ( small r\nd or oval :ite spots4 ,!y are ! rema9s ( %ells ( a v m9ute cru/acean1 ,cypris & ,cypridea1 f :i* ! %ales are kn[n z ,cyprid %ales4 ,9 o!r b&s ( %ale are quantities ( a bivalve %ell call$ ,cyr5a4 ,!re is a b& ( lime/one made up ( ,cyr5a %ells1 conta9+ also little r\ndi% spiral %ells call$ ,palud9a4#b ,?is lime/one resembles t call$ ,sussex or ,petwor? ,m>ble1 :i* is ma9ly compos$ ( %ells ( ,palud9a1 b "s lay]s also conta9 bivalve %ells4 ,x is h>d en\gh to take a good poli%1 & may be se51 l ! simil> ,purbeck m>ble1 9 "s ( our gr& old *ur*es4 ,ano!r b& ( lime/one runn+ ?r\gh ! %ales is made up ( small oy/]s 7,o/rea di/orta74 ,we %all see fossil %ells be/ on ! wea!r$ surfaces ( rocks1 i4e41 surfaces :i* h be5 expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,"o beg9n+ geological /udy w probably ?9k we %all f9d fossils be/ by look+ at fre% brok5 surfaces ( rock4 ,?is is n s4 ,if y want to f9d fossils1 look at ! rock :]e x has be5 expos$ to ! wea!r4 ,! action ( ! wea!r--ra91 c>bonic dioxide 9 ! ra9 wat]1 etc4--is to sculpture ! surface ( ! rock1 s t ! fossils /& out 9 relief4 ,a wea!r$ surface is (t5 se5 cov]$ ) fossils1 :5 a new brok5 "o %[s none at all4 ,_m ( ! %ells 9 ! lime/ones are v l %ells :i* are f\nd at ! pres5t day4 ,we mu/ "k :]e !y are f\nd n[4 ,well1 ^! ,palud9as are a k9d ( fre%wat] snail2 &1 9 fact1 all ! %ells we f9d 9 ! ,weald5 /rata are fre%wat] %ells1 till we come ne> ! top1 & f9d ! oy/]s1 :i* live 9 salt or bracki% wat]4 ,!re 7 quantities 9 ,brad+ ,h>b\r 9 old days1 be=e x 0 reclaim$ f ! sea4 ,n[1 ?is is a v important po9t1 t our ,weald5 %ells are fre%wat] %ells4 ,= :at does x tell u8 ,:y1 we see t ! fir/ /rata we h come to exam9e 7 n laid d[n 9 ! sea at all4 ,!n :]e 7 !y =m$8 ,!y seem to be ! ,delta ( a great riv]1 long s9ce pass$ away1 l ! ,nile1 ! ,amazon1 or ! ,nig] at ! pres5t day4 ,:5 ^! great riv]s ne> ! sea1 !y spread out 9 _m *annels1 & deposit ! mud !y h br\ght d[n ov] a wide area %ap$ l a ,v1 or l ! ,greek lett] ,delta 7,delta74 ,h5ce we speak ( ! ,delta ( ! ,nile4 ,"s riv] deltas are ( imm5se size4 ,t ( ! ,nig]1 = in/ance1 is #agj miles long1 & ! l9e :]e x meets ! sea is #cjj miles long4 ,our old ,weald5 riv] mu/ h be5 a great riv] l ! ,nig]1 = ! ,weald5 /rata /ret*1--(t5 cov]$ up = a long way by lat] rocks1 !n appe>+ aga91--z f> z ,lulwor? on ! ,dorset coa/ to ! we/1 into ,buck+ham%ire on ! nor?1 :ile to ! nor? ea/ !y n only cov] ! ,weald1 b pass "u ! ,/raits ( ,dov] into ,belgium1 & v simil> /rata are f\nd 9 ,we/phalia & ,hanov]4 ,! anci5t riv] delta mu/ h be5 #bjj miles or m across4 ,y mu/ n ?9k ?is great riv] fl[$ 9 ! ,isl& ( ,engl& z x is to-day4 ,engl& 0 be+ made !n4 ,?is mu/ h be5 "p ( a great cont95t 9 ^? days1 = su* a great riv] to fl[ ?r\gh1 & =m a delta ( su* size4 ,we _c tell q :at 0 ! c\rse ( ?is riv]4 ,b to ! nor? ( :]e we are n[ mu/ h /ret*$ a great cont95t1 ) *a9s ( l(ty m\nta9s f> away1 f :i* ! head wat]s ( ! riv] fl[$4 ,ne> its m\? ! riv] broke up into _m /reams1 sep>at$ by m>% l&2 :ile inside ! s& banks ( ! sea %ore w\ld be l>ge lagoons z 9 ! ,nile delta at ! pres5t day4 ,9 ^! wat]s liv$ ! %ellfi% ^: %ells we are f9d+4 ,& fl[+ ?r\gh great =e/s ! riv] c>ri$ d[n ) x logs ( wood & :ole trees1 & left !m /uck 9 ! mud ne> its m\?s = u to f9d to-day4 ,:at k9d ( trees grew 9 ! c\ntry ! riv] came f8 ,well1 !re 7 no oaks or bee*es1 no fl[]+ *e/nuts or apples or mays4 ,b !re 7 great =e/s ( conif]\s trees2 t is trees l our p9es & firs1 c$>s & yews1 & arauc>ias2 & !re 7 cycads--a v diff]5t k9d ( tree1 b also be>+ cones--:i* y may see 9 a gre5h\se 9 botanical g>d5s4 ,!y h usually a %ort trunk1 sometimes ne>ly hemisph]ical1 ) leaves l ! long leaves ( a date palm4 ,!y are sometimes call$ sago trees1 = ! trunk has a l>ge pi?1 :i*1 l "s palms1 gives u sago4 ,/ems ( cycads1 cov]$ ) diamond-%ap$ sc>s1 :]e ! leaf /alks h dropp$ (f1 are f\nd 9 ! ,weald5 deposits4 ,mo/ ( ! wood we f9d is black & brittle4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 is h>d z /one1 :]e ! actual sub/ance ( ! wood has be5 replac$ by silica1 pres]v+ beautifully ! /ructure ( ! wood4 ,specially notewor?y are fragm5ts ( a tree call$ ,endog5ites 7or ,tempskya7 erosa1 because x 0 at fir/ suppos$ to belong to ! endog5s1--! class to :i* ! palm bamboo belong2 x is n[ consid]$ to be a tree-f]n4 ,_m specim5s ( ?is wood are rem>kably beautiful1 :5 poli%$1 or 9 _! natural condition4 ,"h1 by ! way1 x may be well to expla9 h[ we "n animals & plants sci5tifically4 ,we h ,engli% names only = ! common] v>ieties4 ,s we h to inv5t names = ! great] numb] ( liv+ & ext9ct animals & plants4 ,& ! be/ way is f\nd to be ?is4 ,we give a "n1 g5]ally =m$ f ! ,lat9--or ! ,greek--to a gr\p ( animals or plants1 :i* closely resemble "o ano!r2 ! gr\p we call a g5us4 ,!n = ! species1 ! p>ticul> k9d ( animal or plant ( ! gr\p1 we add a second "n to ! fir/4 ,?us1 if we are /udy+ ! apple & pe> gr\p ( fruit trees1 we call ! g5]al "n ( ! gr\p ,pyrus4 ,!n ! crab apple is ,pyrus malus1 ! wild pe> ,p4 communis1 & s on4 ,s t :5 y arrange any ( y\r species1 & put d[n ! sci5tific names1 y are really do+ a bit ( classification z well4 ,y are arrang+ y\r specim5s ) _! ne>e/ relations4 ,to return to our anci5t riv]4 ,) ! logs & trunks ( trees1 :i* ! riv] br\ght d[n1 came float+ d[n also ! bodies ( animals1 :i* _h liv$ 9 ! c\ntry ! riv] fl[$ ?r\gh4 ,:at k9d ( animals8 ,v wond]ful animals1 "s ( !m1 n l any liv+ creature t lives to-day4 ,by ! "t !y rea*$ ! m\? ( ! riv] ! bodies _h come to pieces1 & _! bones 7 scatt]$ ab\t ! riv] m\?4 ,on ! %ore :]e we are walk+ we may f9d "s ( ^! bones4 ,b x is r a *ance :e!r we f9d any 9 any "o walk we take4 ,! be/ "t to f9d !m is :5 r\gh seas 9 w9t] h wa%$ "s out ( ! clay1 & left !m on ! %ore4 ,x is only r>ely t l>ge bones are f\nd "h2 b y %\ld be able to f9d "s small ones fairly (t54 ,! bones are q z heavy z /one1 = all ! pores & cavities h be5 fill$ ) /one1 g5]ally c>bonate ( lime1 9 ! way we expla9$ 9 describ+ ! =mation ( b$s ( lime/one4 ,?is makes !m q diff]5t f any pres5t-day bones t may happ5 to lie on ! %ore4 ,s t y _c mi/ake !m1 if once y h se5 !m4 ,!y are bones ( great reptiles1--! class ( creatures to :i* liz>ds & crocodiles belong4 ,b ^! 7 mu* l>g] ?an crocodiles1 & q peculi> 9 _! appe>ance4 ,! pr9cipal "o 0 ! ,iguanodon4 ,he /ood on 8 h9d legs l a kang>oo1 ) a great ?ick tail1 :i* may h help$ to support him4 ,:5 full gr[n he /ood ab\t #ad ft4 high4 ,y may f9d on ! %ore v]tebrae1 i4e41 jo9ts ( ! backbone1 sometimes l>ge1 sometimes q small if !y come f ! end ( ! tail4 ,i h f\nd sev]al "h ab\t #e in*es long by #d or #e across4 ,a few ye>s ago ,i f\nd ! end ( a leg bone almo/ a foot 9 diamet]4 ,dr4 ,mantell1 a great geological explor] 9 ! days :5 ^! reptiles 7 fir/ discov]$ ab\t #hj ye>s ago1 e/imat$ f ! size ( "p ( a bone f\nd 9 ,s&[n ,bay t "o ( ^! reptiles mu/ h _h a leg #i ft4 long4 ,x 0 a long "t aft] ! bones ( ^! creatures 7 fir/ f\nd be=e x 0 kn[n :at !y really look$ l4 ,! animals liv$ a long way f "h1 & by ! "t ! riv] _h wa%$ !m d[n to its m\? ! skeletons 7 brok5 up1 & ! bones scatt]$4 ,at la/ a discov]y 0 made1 :i* told u :at ! animals 7 l4 ,9 a coal m9e at ,b]niss>t 9 ,belgium ! m9]s f\nd ! coal seam !y 7 foll[+ sudd5ly come to an end1 & !y got into a mass ( clay4 ,aft] a :ile x 0 se5 :at _h happ5$4 ,!y _h /ruck ! buri$ *annel ( an old riv]1 :i* 9 ! ,weald5 days _h fl[$ ?r\gh & cut its *annel 9 ! coal /rata1 :i* are mu* old] /ill ?an ! ,weald54 ,& 9 ! mud ( ! anci5t buri$ riv] :at %\ld !y come ^u b :ole skeletons ( ,iguanodons4 ,9 ! days ( long ago ! great bea/s _h come d[n to ! riv] to dr9k1 & _h got bogg$ 9 ! s(t clay4 ,! skeletons 7 c>efully got out1 & set up 9 ! ,museum at ,brussels4 ,)\t go+ s f> z t1 y may see 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum 9 ,london1 or ! ,geological ,museum at ,ox=d1 a facsimile ( "o ( ^! skeletons1 l>ge z life1 & h "s idea ( ! sort ( bea/ ! ,iguanodon 04 ,i %\ld tell y :y he 0 s nam$4 ,be=e x 0 kn[n :at he 0 l 9 g5]al =m1 x 0 f\nd t 8 tee?1 :i* are ( a rem>kable "*1 7 simil> to ^? ( ! ,iguana1 a little liz>d ( ! ,we/ ,indies4 ,s he 0 call$ ,iguanodon1--an animal ) tee? l ! ,iguana 7fr4 ,iguana1 & ,gk4 od\s g4 odontos a too?74 ,he 0 q a h>mless bea/1 ?\gh he 0 s l>ge4 ,he 0 a veget>ian4 ,!re 7 o!r great reptiles1 m or less l him1 :i* 7 also vegetable fe$]s4 ,b !re 7 also c>nivor\s reptiles1 g5]ally small] ?an ! h]bivor\s1 ^: tee? tell u t !y prey$ on o!r animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,i ,p]na ,mulleti ,mey]ia ,vect5sis 7,a!rfield ,lob/]7 ,panopaea ,plicata ,t]ebratula ,sella ,cyr5a ,lime/one ,iguanodon ,v]tebra ,,weald5 ,,& ,,l[] ,,gre5s& ,^? 7 ! days ( reptiles4 ,n[ ! e>? is ! doma9 ( ! mammalia4 ,b !n great reptiles l ! ,iguanodon w&]$ ov] ! l&2 great m>9e reptiles1 su* z ! ,plesiosaurus1 swam ! wat]s2 & wond]ful fly+ reptiles1 ! ,pt]odactyls1 flew ! air4 ,"s species ( ^! 7 q small1 ! size ( a rook3 "o l>ge species f\nd 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight _h a spread ( w+ ( #af feet4 ,imag9e ?is /range _w1--its =e/s ) p9es & monkey puzzles & cycads1--f]ns also1 ( :i* _m fragm5ts are f\nd1--its great reptiles & little reptiles1 on l&1 9 ! wat] & ! air4 ,7 !re no birds8 ,yes1 b !y 7 r>e4 ,f rema9s f\nd 9 ,oolitic /rata1--some:at old] ?an ! ,weald51--we "k t birds 7 already 9 exi/5ce2 & !y 7 z /range z any?+ else4 ,= !y _h jaws ) tee? l ! reptiles4 ,!y _h n yet adopt$ ! beak4 ,& in/ead ( all ! tail fea!rs />t+ f "o po9t1 z 9 birds ( ! pres5t day1 ^! anci5t birds _h long curv+ tails l reptiles1 ) a pair ( fea!rs on ea* jo9t4 ,birds ( simil> b slightly m mod]n type h be5 f\nd 9 ,cretace\s /rata 7to :i* ! ,weald5 belongs7 9 ,am]ica1 b s f> n 9 /rata ( ?is age 9 ,brita94 ,among o!r objects ( int]e/ along ?is ,weald5 %ore may be notic$ a curi\s trans=mation :i* has affect$ ! surface ( "s ( ! %ell lime/ones aft] !y 7 =m$1 :i* is kn[n z cone-9-cone /ructure4 ,x has q alt]$ ! out] lay] ( ! rock1 s t all trace ( ! %ells ( :i* x consi/s is oblit]at$4 ,num]\s pieces ( iron ore f v>i\s /rata lie on ! %ore4 ,?r\gh mo/ ( ,engli% hi/ory ! ,weald ( ,k5t & ,sussex 0 ! great iron-work+ di/rict ( ,engl&4 ,! ore f ! ,weald5 /rata 0 smelt$ by ! help ( *>coal made f ! woods t grew !re1 & gave ! di/rict its "n2--= ,weald means =e/4 ,?is indu/ry gradually ceas$1 z ! mu* l>g] supplies ( iron ore f\nd ne> ! coal 9 ! m9es ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl& came to be work$4 ,iron pyrites1 sulphide ( iron 9 cry/all9e =m1 0 =m]ly collect$ on ! ,s&[n %ore1 & s5t to ,london = ! manufacture ( sulphuric acid4 ,?is m9]al is (t5 f\nd encru/+ fossil wood4 ,x also occurs z r\nd$ nodules 7mo/ly d]iv$ f ! ,l[] ,*alk7 ) a br[n out] coat1 & (t5 %[+ a beautiful radiat$ metallic /ructure1 :5 brok54 7,?is =m is call$ m>casite47 ,z we walk by ! edge ( ! wat]1 we %all see :at pretty /ones lie along ! bea*4 ,:5 wet ) ! ripples _m look l poli%$ jewels4 ,"s are agates1 bright purple & orange 9 col\r1 "s cle> transluc5t *ald$ony4 ,we %all h m to say ab\t ^! lat] on4 ,!y d n come f ! ,weald51 b f b$s ( fl9t gravel1 & are wa%$ along ! %ore4 ,b !re are also jasp]s f ! ,weald54 ,^! are opaque1 g5]ally r$ & yell[4 ,!re are also pieces ( v>iegat$ qu>tz1 & o!r beautiful pebbles ( v>i\s m9]al composition4 ,^! are /ones f old] rocks1 :i* h be5 wa%$ d[n ! ,weald5 riv]s1 & buri$ 9 ! ,weald5 /rata1 to be wa%$ out aga9 aft] hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 & roll$ ab\t on ! %ore on :i* we walk to-day4 ,footnote #a3 ,blue clays ( v>i\s geological age1 :i* 9 wet wea!r become semi-liquid1 & fl[ out on to ! %ore1 are kn[n 9 ! ,isl& by ! local "n ( ,blue ,slipp]4 ,footnote #b3 ,! "n n[ adopt$ is ,vivip>us4 ,!re is also a b& ( f]rug9\s lime/one ma9ly compos$ ( ,vivip>us4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,ii ,trigonia ,caudata ,trigonia ,da$alea ,g]villia ,sublanceolata 7,ammonite7 ,nautilus ,radiatus ,mortonic]as ,ro/ratum ,,l[] ,,& ,,upp] ,,gre5s& ,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,l[] ,,gre5s& ,= ages ! ,weald5 riv] fl[$1 & ov] its va/ delta laid d[n its dep? ( riv] mud4 ,! l& 0 gradually s9k+2 = cont9ually /rata ( riv] mud 7 laid d[n ov] ! same area1 all %all[-wat] /rata1 yet c\nt+ hundr$s ( feet 9 ?ickness 9 all4 ,at la/ a *ange came4 ,! l& sank m rapidly1 & 9 ov] ! delta ! sea wat] fl[$4 ,! sign ( com+ *ange is se5 9 ! lime/one b& made up ( small oy/]s ne> ! top ( ! ,weald5 /rata4 ,m>9e life 0 beg9n+ to appe>4 ,above ! ,weald5 %ales 9 ,s&[n ,bay may be se5 a b& ( br[n rock4 ,x is 9 places mu* cov]$ by slip1 b big blocks lie ab\t ! %ore1 & x runs out to sea z a reef be=e we come to ! ,r$ ,cliff4 ,! blocks are se5 to consi/ ( a h>d grey /one1 b ! wea!r$ surfaces are s(t & br[n4 ,!y are full ( fossils1 all m>9e1 sea %ells & corals4 ,! sea has wa%$ 9 well ov] our ,weald5 delta1 & ) ?is b$ ! next =mation1 ! ,l[] ,gre5s&1 beg9s4 ,! b$ is call$ ! ,p]na b$1 f a l>ge bivalve %ell 7,p]na mulleti7 frequ5tly to be f\nd 9 x1 ?\gh x is difficult to obta9 p]fect specim5s %[+ ! long h+e ( ! valve1 :i* is a m>k$ feature ( ! %ell4 ,among o!r %ells are a l>ge r\nd bivalve ,corbis 7,spha]a7 corrugata1 a flatt] bivalve ,a/>te1--& a small] oblong %ell ,panopaea1--also a peculi> %ell ( triangul> =m1 ,trigonia1--"o species ,t4 caudata has rais$ ribs runn+ across x1 ano!r ,t4 da$alea has b&s ( rais$ spots4 ,a pretty little coral1 look+ l a collection ( little />s1 ,holocy/is elegans1 "o ( ! ,a/raeidae1 is (t5 v %>ply wea!r$ out4 ,above ! ,p]na b$ lies a mass ( blue clay1 wea!r+ br[n1 call$ ! ,a!rfield clay1 because x appe>s on a great scale at ,a!rfield on ! s\? we/ ( ! ,isl&4 ,x is v l ! clay ( ! ,weald5 %ales1 b is n divid$ into ?9 lay]s l %ale4 ,next we come to ! f9e mass ( r$ s&/one :i* =ms ! v]tical wall ( ,r$ ,cliff4 ,n _m fossils are to be f\nd 9 ^! /rata4 ,let u note ! beauty ( col\r+ ( ! ,r$ ,cliff--p9k & gre51 ri* orange & purple r$s4 ,& !n let u pass to ! o!r side ( ! anticl9e1 & walk on ! %ore to ,%ankl94 ,"h we see ! r$ s&/one rocks aga91 b n[ dipp+ to ! s\?4 ,y probably wond] :y ^! r$ cliffs are call$ ,gre5s&4 ,b look at ! rocks :]e !y run out z l$ges on ! %ore t[>ds ,%ankl94 ,"h !y are d>k gre54 ,& ?is is really _! natural col\r4 ,!y are made ( a mixture ( s& & clay col\r$ d>k gre5 by a m9]al call$ glauconite4 ,gra9s ( glauconite c easily be se5 9 a h&ful ( s&1--bett] ) a magnify+ glass4 ,?is m9]al is a comp\nd ( iron1 ) silica & pota%1 & at ! surface ( ! rock x is alt]$ *emically1 & oxide ( iron is =m$--! same ?+ z ru/4 ,& t col\rs all ! face ( ! cliff r$4 ,! iron is also l>gely responsible = our f9d+ s few fossils 9 ^! /rata4 ,by *emical *anges1 9 :i* ! iron takes "p1 ! mat]ial ( ! %ells is de/roy$4#c ,ne> ,little ,/airs holl[s 9 ! rock may be se51 :]e l>ge oy/] %ells h be54 ,9 "s y may f9d a brok5 piece ( %ell1 b ! %ells h be5 mo/ly de/roy$4 ,ne>] ,%ankl9 we %all f9d l>ge oy/]s1 ,exogyra s9uata1 9 ! rock l$ges expos$ at l[ tide4 ,"s are /uck toge!r 9 masses4 ,evid5tly !re 0 an oy/] bank "h4 ,& "h ! %ells h n be5 de/roy$ l ^? 9 ! cliff4 ,f black b&s 9 ! cliff wat] full ( iron oozes out1 /a9+ ! cliff r$ & yell[ & orange1 & trickl+ d[n1 /a9s ! fl9t /ones ly+ on ! %ore a bright orange4 ,at ! foot ( ! cliff y may sometimes see :at looks l a b$ ( conglom]ate1 i4e41 a b$ ( r\nd$ pebbles cem5t$ toge!r4 ,?is does n belong to ! cliff1 b is made up ( ! fl9t pebbles on ! %ore1 & ! s& 9 :i* !y lie1 cem5t$ into a solid mass by ! iron 9 ! wat] :i* has fl[$ f ! cliff4 ,x is a mod]n conglom]ate1 & %[s u h[ old conglom]ates 7 =m$1 :i* we (t5 f9d 9 ! v>i\s /rata4 ,! cem5t1 h[ev]1 9 ^! is n always iron oxide4 ,x may be silice\s or ( o!r mat]ial4 ,! iron-*>g$ wat] is call$ *alybeate2 spr+s at ,%ankl9 & ,niton at "o "t _h "s fame = _! /r5g!n+ p[]s4 ,! /rata we h be5 exam9+ are kn[n z ! ,f]rug9\s s&s1 i4e41 iron s&s 7,lat4 f]rum1 iron74 ,beyond ,%ankl9 is a f9e piece ( cliff4 ,look up at x1 b bew>e ( go+ too close "u x4 ,! upp] "p consi/s ( a f9e yell[ s& call$ ! ,s&rock4 ,at ! base ( ?is are two b&s ( d>k clay4 ,^! b&s become fill$ ) wat]1 & fl[ out1 caus+ ! s&rock :i* re/s on !m to break away 9 l>ge masses1 & fall on to ! bea*4 ,x is clay b&s su* z ^! :i* are ! cause ( our ,und]cliffs 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,turn ! po9t1 & y see exactly h[ an und]cliff is =m$4 ,y see a wide plat=m at ! level ( ! clay1 :i* has slipp$ out1 & let d[n ! s&rock :i* re/$ on x4 ,beyond ,luccombe ,*9e a l>ge l&slip took place 9 #aiaj1 a great mass ( cliff break+ away1 & leav+ a rav9e beh9d p>tly fill$ ) fall5 p9e trees4 ,! :ole fall5 mass has s9ce sunk l[] & ne>] to ! sea4 ,! brok5 gr\nd ov]gr[n ) trees call$ ! ,l&slip1 z well z ! :ole ext5t ( ! gr\nd f ,v5tnor & ,niton1 has be5 =m$ 9 a simil> way4 ,b ! clay :i* by its slip has produc$ ^! is ano!r clay call$ ! ,gault1 high] up 9 ! /rata4 ,at ! top ( ! high cliff ne> ,luccombe ,*9e a h>d gritty /ratum ( rock call$ ! ,c>/one is se5 above ! ,s&rock1 & above x lies ! ,gault clay1 :i* fl[s ov] ! edge ( ! cliff4 ,9 ! rock l$ges & fall5 blocks ( /one betwe5 ,%ankl9 & ,luccombe _m m fossils may be f\nd ?an 9 ! l[] "p ( ! ,f]rug9\s s&s4 ,besides b&s ( oy/]s1 blocks ( /one are to be f\nd cr[d$ ) a pretty little %ell call$ ,rhyn*onella4 ,!re are o!rs ) _m ,t]ebratulae1 & o!rs ) fragm5ts ( sea ur*9s4 ,! ,t]ebratulae & ,rhyn*onellae belong to a curi\s gr\p ( %ells1 ! ,bra*iopods1 :i* are plac$ 9 a class di/9ct f ! ,mollusca prop]4 ,!y 7 v common 9 ! v anci5t seas ( ! ,cambrian p]iod1--! p]iod ( ! mo/ anci5t fossils yet f\nd1--& "s1 ! ,l+ulae1 h liv$ on almo/ un*ang$ to ! pres5t day4 ,"o ( ! two valves is l>g] ?an ! o!r1 & ne> ! small] end y w see a little r\nd hole4 ,out ( ?is hole1 :5 ! creature 0 alive1 came a sort ( neck1 :i* atta*$ x to ! rock1 l ! b>nacles4 ,!re is a v h>d f]rug9\s b&1 ( :i* nodules may be f\nd along ! %ore1 full ( beautifully p]fect impressions ( fossils1 ?\gh ! fossils !mselves are gone4 ,ca/s ( a little r\nd bivalve %ell1 ,!tironia m9or1 may easily be got out4 ,! nodules also conta9 ca/s ( ,trigonia1 ,panopoea1 etc4 ,a /ratum is sometimes expos$ on ! %ore conta9+ fossils conv]t$ into pyrites4 ,a long %ell1 ,g]villia sublanceolata1 is ! mo/ frequ5t4 ,all ! %ells we h f\nd are ( sea creatures1 & %[ u t ! ,gre5s& 0 a m>9e =mation4 ,b ! /rata 7 =m$ 9 %all[ wat] n f> f ! %ore4 ,we h le>nt t co>se s$im5t l s& is n c>ri$ by ! sea f> f ! coa/4 ,& a good deal ( ! ,gre5s& is co>s] ?an s&4 ,!re are num]\s b&s ( small pebbles4 ,! pebbles are ( v>i\s k9ds2 "s are cle> transp>5t qu>tz1 bits ( rock-cry/al m or less r\nd$ by roll+ on ! %ore ( ! ,gre5s& p]iod4 ,^! g by ! "n ( ,isle ( ,wight diamonds1 & are v pretty :5 poli%$4 ,ano!r m>k ( ! ne>ness ( ! %ore :5 ^! b$s 7 laid d[n is ! curr5t b$d+1 ( :i* a good example may be se5 9 ! cliff at ! nor? ( ,%ankl9 p>ade4 ,x is sometimes call$ false b$d+1 = ! slop+ b&s d n m>k /rata laid d[n horizontally at ! bottom ( ! sea1 b a curr5t has laid d[n lay]s 9 a slop+ way1--x may be j ov] ! edge ( a s&bank4 ,aga9 notice h[ mu* wood is to be se5 9 ! /rata4 ,l& 0 evid5tly n f> (f4 ,all along ! %ore y may f9d h>d pieces ( m9]alis$ wood1 ! r+s ( gr[? (t5 %[+ cle>ly4 ,frequ5tly m>9e worms h bor$ into !m be=e !y 7 lock$ up 9 ! /rata2 ! holes be+ g5]ally fill$ aft]w>ds ) /one or pyrites4 ,! wood is mo/ly portions ( trunks or bran*es ( conif]\s trees4 ,we also f9d /ems ( cycads4 ,!re has be5 f\nd at ,luccombe a v rem>kable fruit ( a k9d ( cycad4 ,we said t 9 ! ,weald5 p]iod none ( our fl[]+ plants grew4 ,b ^! specim5s f\nd at ,luccombe %[ t cycads at t "t 7 develop+ into fl[]+ plants4 ,wond]ful specim5s ( :at may almo/ be call$ cycad fl[]s h be5 f\nd 9 /rata ( ab\t ?is age 9 ,wyom+ 9 ,am]ica2 & ?is ,luccombe cycad1--call$ ,b5ettites ,gibsonianus1--%[s :at ^! 7 l 9 fruit4 ,rema9s ( v>i\s cycade\s plants h be5 f\nd 9 ! correspond+ /rata at ,a!rfield2 & possibly by fur!r rese>* fre% k may be ga9$ ( an int5sely int]e/+ /ory1--! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( fl[]+ plants4 ,on ! :ole ! vegetation ( ! p]iod 0 mu* ! same z 9 ! ,weald54 ,b ^! fl[]+ cycads mu/ h =m$ a m>k$ addition to ! l&scape1--if inde$ !y did n already exi/ 9 ! ,weald5 times4 ,! cones ( pres5t day cycads are v spl5didly col\r$1--orange & crimson1--& x c h>dly be d\bt$ t ! cycad fl[]s 7 ( brilliant hues4 ,! l& animals 7 /ill l ! ,weald5 reptiles4 ,bones ( l>ge reptiles may at times be f\nd on ! %ore at ,%ankl94 ,sev]al h be5 pick$ up rec5tly4 ,f ! preval5ce ( cycads we may conclude t ! climate ( ! ,weald5 & ,l[] ,gre5s& 0 sub-tropical4 ,! exi/+ ,cycadaceae are plants ( ,s\? ,ea/]n ,asia1 & ,au/ralia1 ! ,cape1 & ,c5tral ,am]ica4 ,! =e/ ( trees alli$ to p9es & firs & c$>s probably occupi$ ! high] l&4 ,turtles & ! corals po9t to w>m wat]s4 ,! exi/+ species ( ,trigonia are ,au/ralian %ells4 ,?is beautiful %ell is f\nd pl5tifully 9 ,sydney h>b\r4 ,x possesses a peculi> int]e/1 z ! g5us 0 suppos$ to be ext9ct1 & 0 orig9ally describ$ f ! fossil =ms1 & 0 aft]w>ds f\nd to be /ill liv+ 9 ,au/ralia4 ,footnote #c3 ,c>bonate ( lime has be5 replac$ by c>bonate ( iron1 & ! latt] conv]t$ into p]oxide ( iron4 ,at ,s&[n oxidation has gone ?r\gh ! :ole cliff4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,coa/ ,,a!rfield ,,to ,,rock5 ,,end ,wl ,weald5 ,b$s4 ,p ,p]na ,b$4 ,a ,a!rfield ,clay4 ,ck ,crack] ,gr\p4 ,lg ,l[] ,gryphaea ,b$s4 ,sc ,scaphite4 ,lc ,l[] ,crioc]as ,w ,walp5 ,clay4 ,uc ,upp] ,crioc]as ,b$s4 ,,ws ,walp5 & ,ladd] ,s&s4 ,ug ,upp] ,gryphaea ,b$s4 ,ce ,cliff ,end ,s&s4 ,f ,foliat$ ,clay4 ,,su ,s&s ( ,walp5 ,und]cliff4 ,f] ,f]rug9\s ,b&s ( ,blackgang ,*9e4 ,b ,black ,clay4 ,s ,s&rock & ,clays4 ,: ,:ale ,*9e4 ,l ,ladd] ,*9e4 ,wp ,walp5 ,*9e4 ,bg ,blackgang ,*9e4 ,*apt] ,v ,,brook ,,& ,,a!rfield ,to mo/ ,s&[n ,bay is by f> ! mo/ accessible place 9 ! ,isl& to /udy ! e>li] /rata2 & = our fir/ geological /udies x has ! advantage ( %[+ a succession ( /rata s tilt$ t we c pass ov] "o =mation aft] ano!r 9 ! c\rse ( a %ort walk4 ,b :5 we h le>nt ! nature ( geological rese>*1 & h[ to read ! record ( ! rocks1 & exam9$ ! ,weald5 & ,gre5s& /rata 9 ,s&[n ,bay1 we %all d well1 if possible1 to make exp$itions to ,brook & ,a!rfield1 to see ! spl5did succession ( ,weald5 & ,gre5s& /rata %[n 9 ! cliffs ( ! s\?-we/ ( ! ,isl&4 ,x is a lonely /ret* ( coa/1 wild & /orm-swept 9 w9t]4 ,b ?is "p ( ! ,isl& is full ( int]e/ & *>m to ! lov] ( ,nature & ( ! old-_w villages & ! old *ur*es & manor h\ses :i* fit s well into _! natural surr\nd+s4 ,! villages 9 g5]al lie back "u ! %elt] ( ! d[ns "s di/ance f ! %ore2 a coa/gu>d /ation1 a lonely f>m h\se1 or "s fi%]m5's h\ses z at ,brook1 =m+ ! only habitations ( man we come to along _m miles ( %ore4 ,brook ,po9t is a spot ( great int]e/ to ! geologi/4 ,"h we come ^u ,weald5 /rata some:at old] ?an any 9 ,s&[n ,bay4 ,! %ore at ! ,po9t at l[ tide is se5 to be /rewn ) ! trunks ( fossil trees4 ,!y are ( good size1 "s #bj ft4 9 l5g?1 & f "o to ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,!y are kn[n z ! ,p9e ,raft1 & evid5tly =m a mass ( timb] float$ d[n an anci5t riv]1 & /r&$ ne> ! m\?1 j z happ5s ) great accumulations ( timb] :i* float d[n ! ,mississippi at ! pres5t day4 ,! great] "p ( ! wood has be5 replac$ by /one1 ! b>k rema9+ z a c>bonace\s sub/ance l coal1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is quickly de/roy$ :5 expos$ to ! action ( ! waves4 ,! fossil trees are mo/ly cov]$ ) seawe$4 ,on ! trunks may sometimes be f\nd black %9+ scales ( a fossil fi%1 ,lepidotus ,mantelli4 7,a /ratum full ( ! scales ( ,lepidotus has be5 rec5tly expos$ 9 ! ,weald5 ( ,s&[n ,bay47 ,! /rata ) ! ,p9e ,raft =m ! l[e/ visible "p ( ! anticl9e4 ,f ,brook ,po9t ! ,weald5 /rata dip 9 ea* direction1 ea/ & we/4 ,z ! coa/ does n cut ne>ly s /raight across ! /rata z 9 ,s&[n ,bay1 we see a mu* long] section ( ! b$s4 ,on ei!r side ( ! ,po9t are col\r$ m>ls1 foll[$ by blue %ales1 z at ,s&[n4 ,to ! we/w>d1 h[ev]1 aft] ! %ales we sudd5ly come to v>iegat$ m>ls aga91 foll[$ by a second set ( %ales4 ,!re 0 long a "q :e!r ?is repetition is due to a fault1 or :e!r local conditions h caus$ a v>iation 9 ! type ( ! b$s4 ,! conclusion ( ! ,geological ,survey ,memoir1 #ahhi1 r fav\r$ ! latt] view1 on ! gr\nd ( ! great *ange :i* has tak5 place 9 ! "* ( ! b$s 9 s %ort a di/ance1 assum+ !m to be ! same /rata repeat$4 ,! conjecture ( ! exi/5ce ( a fault has1 h[ev]1 be5 confirm$2 = dur+ ! la/ ye>s a mo/ int]e/+ section has be5 visible at ! junction ( ! %ales & m>ls1 :]e a fault 0 suspect$4 ,! %ales 9 ! cliff & on ! %ore are contort$ into ! =m ( a ,z4 ,! section appe>s to h become visible ab\t #aijd 7x 0 9 ! spr+ ( t ye> t ,i fir/ saw x71 & 0 describ$ by ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,hooley1 ,f4,g4,s4 7,proc4 ,geol4 ,ass41 vol4 xix41 #aijf1 pp4 #bfd1 #bfe74 ,x has rema9$ visible s9ce4 ,! ,weald5 ( ,brook & ! neighb\r+ coa/ is celebrat$ = ! numb] ( bones ( great reptiles f\nd "h1 f ! e>ly days ( geological rese>*1 ! '#bj's & '#cj's ( la/ c5tury1 :5 admirable e>ly geologi/s1 su* z ,dr4 ,buckl& & ,dr4 ,mantell1 7 discov]+ ! wond]s ( t anci5t _w1 to ! pres5t "t4 ,v>i\s reptiles h be5 f\nd besides ! ,iguanodon--! ,megalosaurus1 a great reptile some:at simil>1 b ( light] build1 ) sabre-%ap$ tee?1 ) s]rat$ edges3 ! ,hylaeosaurus1 a small] creature ) an arm\r ( plates on ! back1 & a r[ ( angul> sp9es along ! middle ( ! back2 ! huge ,hoplosaurus hulkei1 probably #gj or #hj feet 9 l5g?2 ! m>9e ,plesiosaurus & ,i*?yosaurus1 & sev]al m2 also bones ( a fre%wat] turtle & f\r types ( crocodiles4 ,9 v>i\s b$s a l>ge fre%wat] %ell1 ,unio vald5sis1 occurs1 & 9 ! cliffs ( ,brook h be5 f\nd _m cones ( ,cycadean plants4 ,9 b&s ( :ite s&y clay are fragm5ts ( f]ns1 ,lon*opt]is ,mantelli4 ,9 ! %ales are b&s ( lime/one ) ,cyr5a1 ,palud9a1 & small oy/]s1 & pap] %ales ) cyprids1 z at ,s&[n4 ,! %ore ne> ,a!rfield ,po9t is cov]$ ) fall5 blocks ( ! lime/ones4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& is se5 9 ,compton ,bay on ! nor!rn side ( ! ,brook anticl9e4 ,"h is a great slip ( ,a!rfield clay4 ,! b$s above ! clay are mu* ?9n] ?an at ,a!rfield1 & fossils are comp>atively sc>ce4 ,on ! s\? ( ! anticl9e ! ,p]na b$ slopes d[n to ! sea ab\t #aej y>ds ea/ ( ,a!rfield ,po9t1 & runs out to sea z a reef4 ,l>ge blocks lie on ! %ore1 :]e num]\s fossils may be f\nd on ! wea!r$ surfaces4 ,! l$ges :i* "h run out to sea =m a dang]\s reef1 on :i* _m vessels h /ruck4 ,!re is n[ a bell buoy on ! reef4 ,on ! headl& is a coa/gu>d /ation1 & till lately !re has be5 a slop+ wood5 way f ! top ( ! cliff to br+ ! lifeboat d[n4 ,?is 0 wa%$ away 9 ! /orms ( ! w9t] #aiab-ac4 ,above ! ,p]na b$ lies a great ?ickness ( ,a!rfield clay4 ,above ?is lies :at is call$ ! ,l[] ,lob/] b$1 a br[n clay & s&1 9 :i* are num]\s nodules conta9+ ! small lob/] ,mey]ia vect5sis1--kn[n z ,a!rfield lob/]s4 ,_m beautiful specim5s h be5 obta9$4 ,we next come to a great ?ickness ( ! ,f]rug9\s ,s&s1 "s #ejj feet4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& ( ,a!rfield 0 exhau/ively /udi$ 9 ! e>li] days ( geology by ,dr4 ,fitton1 9 ! ye>s #ahbd-dg1 & ! diff]5t /rata are /ill ref]r$ to accord+ to 8 divisions4 ,! l[e/ b$ is ! ,crack]s gr\p ab\t #fj ft4 ?ick4 ,9 ! l[] "p are two lay]s ( h>d calc>e\s b\ld]-%ap$ concretions1 "s a few feet long4 ,! l[] ab\nd 9 fossils1 & ?\gh h>d :5 fall+ f ! cliffs are brok5 up by w9t] fro/s1 %[+ ! fossils !y conta9 beautifully pres]v$ 9 ! s(t] s&y cores ( ! concretions4 ,g]villia sublanceolata is v frequ5t1 also ,!tironia m9or1 ! ,ammonite ,hoplites de%ayesi1 & _m m4 ,b5ea? & betwe5 ! nodul> masses cav]ns are =m$1 ! res\nd+ ( ! waves 9 :i* has giv5 ! "n ( ! ,crack]s4 ,9 ! upp] "p ( ?is gr\p is a second lob/] b$4 ,! mo/ rem>kable fossils 9 ! ,l[] ,gre5s& are ! v>i\s g5]a & species ( ! ammonites & _! k9dr$4 ,! ,ammonite1 ?r\gh _m =mations1 0 "o ( ! l>ge/1 & (t5 mo/ beautiful %ells4 ,!re 7 also q small species4 ,! numb] ( species 0 v great4 ,n[ ! :ole gr\p is ext9ct4 ,!y mo/ resembl$ ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus1 :i* /ill lives4 ,9 bo? ! %ell is spiral1 & consi/s ( sev]al *amb]s1 ! animal liv+ 9 ! out] *amb]1 ! re/ be+ air-*amb]s enabl+ x to float4 ,! class ,cephalopoda1 :i* includes ! ,ammonites1 ! ,nautilus1 & also ! ,cuttle-fi%1 is ! highe/ division ( ! ,mollusca4 ,! animals all possess heads ) eyes1 & t5tacles ar\nd ! m\?4 ,!y ne>ly all possess a %ell1 ei!r ext]nal1 z 9 ! ,nautilus1 or int]nal1 z 9 ! cuttle-fi%es1 ! int]nal %ell ( :i* is (t5 wa%$ a%ore aft] a r\gh sea4 ,! ,cephalopods are divid$ into two ord]s4 ,! fir/ includes ! ,cuttle-fi% & ! ,argonaut or ,pap] ,nautilus4 ,_! t5tacles are arm$ ) suck]s1 & !y h highly-develop$ eyes4 ,!y secrete an inky fluid1 :i* =ms sepia4 ,! int]nal %ell ( ext9ct species ( cuttle-fi%1 ( a cyl9drical %ape1 ) a po9t$ end1 is a common fossil 9 v>i\s /rata1 & is kn[n z a ,belemnite 7,gr4 belemnon a d>t47 ,! second ord] includes ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus ( ! pres5t day1 & ! num]\s ext9ct ,nautiloids & ,ammonoids4 ,! t5tacles ( ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus h no suck]s2 & ! eyes are ( a curi\sly primitive /ructure1--:at may be call$ a p9-hole cam]a1 ) no l5s4 ,! %ells ( ! ,nautilus & its allies are ( simpl] =m1 :ile ! ,ammonites are *>act]is$ by ! complicat$ m>g9s ( ! p>tition walls or septa1 by :i* ! %ells are sub-divid$4 ,! *amb]s ( ! fossil ,ammonites h (t5 be5 fill$ ) cry/als ( ri* col\rs2 & a poli%$ section %[+ ! *amb]s is !n a mo/ beautiful object4#d ,cont9u+ along ! %ore1 we come to ! ,l[] ,exogyra gr\p1 :]e ,t]ebratula sella is f\nd 9 great abundance4 ,a reef ) ,exogyra s9uata runs out ab\t #cej y>ds we/ ( ,:ale ,*9e4 ,! gr\p is #cc ft4 ?ick1 & is foll[$ by ! ,scaphites gr\p1 #ej ft4 ,! b$s conta9 ,exogyra s9uata1 & a reef ) clu/]s ( ,s]pulae runs out f ! cliff4 ,9 ! middle ( ! gr\p are b&s ( nodules conta9+ ,macroscaphites gigas4 ,! ,l[] ,crioc]as b$ 7#af ft47 foll[s1 & crosses ! bottom ( ,:ale ,*9e4 ,! ,scaphites & ,crioc]as are ,cephalopoda1 relat$ to ! ,ammonites2 b 9 ?is ,l[] ,cretace\s p]iod a rem>kable developm5t took place2 _m ( ! %ells began to take curi\s =ms1 to unw9d z x 74 ,crioc]as1 a v beautiful %ell1 has ! =m ( an ,ammonite1 b ! :orls are n 9 contact2 ?us mak+ an op5 spiral l a ram's horn1 :5ce its "n 7,gk4 k]as1 ram1 krios1 horn74 ,ancyloc]as beg9s l ,crioc]as1 b f ! la/ :orl cont9ues = "s l5g? 9 a /raight c\rse1 !n b5ds back aga92 ,macroscaphites is simil>1 b ! :orls ( ! spiral "p are 9 contact4 ,9 ,scaphites1 a mu* small] %ell1 ! uncoil$ "p is mu* %ort]1 & its outl9e m r\nd$4 ,x is nam$ f its resemblance to a boat 7,gk4 skaphe74#e ,! ,walp5 & ,ladd] ,clays & ,s&s 7ab\t #fj ft47 conta9 nodules ) ,exogyra & ! ,ammonite ,d\villeic]as m>t9i4 ,! d>k-gre5 clays ( ! l[] "p =m an und]cliff1 on to :i* ,ladd] ,*9e op5s4 ,! ,upp] ,crioc]as ,gr\p 7#df ft471 l ! ,l[]1 conta9s b&s ( ,crioc]as8 also ,d\villeic]as m>t9i1 ,g]villia1 ,trigonia1 etc4 ,x mu/ be /at$ t !re is "s unc]ta9ty ) reg>d to ! ammonoids f\nd 9 ?is neighb\rhood1 ,macroscaphites hav+ be5 describ$ z ,ancyloc]as1 & also sometimes z ,crioc]as4 ,! discov]y ( ! true ,ancyloc]as 7,ancyloc]as ,ma!ronianum7 at ,a!rfield is describ$ 7& a figure giv57 by ,dr4 ,mantell2 b :at is ! *>act]i/ic ammonoid ( ! ,crioc]as b$s requires fur!r inve/igation4 ,! neighb\rhood ( ,:ale & ,walp5 ,*9es is ( great int]e/4 ,ammonites may be f\nd 9 ! bottom ( ,:ale ,*9e fall5 out ( ! rock4 ,r$ f]rug9\s nodules ) ,ammonites lie on ! %ore1 9 ! ,*9es1 & on ! ,und]cliff1 "s ( ! ammonites m or less conv]t$ into cry/all9e sp>4 ,h>d l$ges ( ! ,crioc]as b$s run into ! sea4 ,! %ore is usually cov]$ deep ) s& & small %+le2 b !re are times :5 ! sea has wa%$ ! l$ges cle>2 & x is !n t ! %ore %\ld be exam9$4 ,! ,walp5 & ,ladd] ,s&s 7#db ft472 ! ,upp] ,exogyra ,gr\p 7#af ft472 ! ,cliff ,end ,s& 7#bh ft472 & ! ,foliat$ ,clay & ,s& 7#be ft471 consi/+ ( ?9 alt]nations ( gre5i% s& & d>k-blue clay1 foll[4 ,!n ! ,s&s ( ,walp5 ,und]cliff 7ab\t #ajj ft472 ov] :i* lie ! ,f]rug9\s ,b&s ( ,blackgang ,*9e 7#bj ft474 ,ov] ^! h>d b$s ! cascade ( ! ,*9e falls4 ,cycads & o!r vegetable rema9s are f\nd 9 ?is neighb\rhood4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,a!rfield ,gre5s& fragm5ts ( ! f]n ,lon*opt]is 7,wei*selia7 ,mantelli are f\nd4 #bbj ft4 ( d>k clays & s(t :ite or yell[ s&rock complete ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,9 ! upp] b$s ( ! ,gre5s& few organic rema9s occur4 ,a beautiful section ( ,s&rock ) ! junction ( ! ,c>/one is to be se5 inl& at ,rock above ,bright-/one4 ,! ,s&rock "h is brightly col\r$ l ! s&s ( ,alum ,bay1--?\gh x belongs to a mu* old] =mation1--& %[s curr5t b$d+ v beautifully4 ,! junction ( ! ,s&rock & ,c>/one is also well se5 9 ! s&pit at ,m>vel4 ,we h n[ come to ! end ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s1 9 :i* are includ$ ! ,weald5 & ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,judg$ by ! "* ( ! flora & fauna1 ! two =m "o p]iod1 ! ma9 diff]5ce be+ ! effect ( ! recession ( ! %ore l9e1 due to ! subsid5ce :i* let 9 ! sea ov] ! ,weald5 delta1 s t we h m>9e /rata 9 place ( fre%wat] deposits4 ,b t ! plants & animals ( ! ,weald5 age /ill liv$ 9 ! n di/ant cont95t is %[n by ! rema9s borne d[n f ! l&4 ,^! /rata are an example ( a ph5om5on (t5 met ) 9 geology1--t ( a great ?ickness ( deposits all laid d[n 9 %all[ wat]4 ,! ,weald5 ( ! ,isle ( ,wight are "s #gjj feet ?ick1 9 ,k5t a good deal ?ick]1 ! ,ha/+s ,s&s1 ! l[] "p ( ! =mation1 be+ bel[ ! horizon occurr+ 9 ! ,isl&3 ! ,l[] ,gre5s& is "s #hjj feet ?ick4 ,9 ! anci5t rocks ( ,wales1 ! ,cambrian & ,silurian /rata1 are ?\s&s ( feet ( deposits1 mo/ly laid d[n 9 fairly %all[ wat]4 ,9 su* cases !re has be5 a long-cont9u$ deposition ( s$im5t1 :ile a subsid5ce ( ! area 9 :i* x 0 laid d[n has almo/ exactly kept pace ) ! deposit4 ,x is difficult n to conclude t ! subsid5ce has be5 caus$ by ! weight ( ! accumulat+ deposit1--cont9u+ until "s _w-movem5t ( ! contract+ globe has produc$ a comp5sat+ elevation ( ! area4 ,footnote #d3 ,"s f9e ammonites may be se5 at ! ,cl>5don ,hotel1 ,*ale1--"o ab\t #e ft4 9 circumf]5ce4 ,footnote #e3 ,see ,guide to ,fossil ,inv]tebrata1 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,gault ,,& ,,upp] ,,gre5s& ,we h se5 h[ ! cont95t ?r\gh :i* ! great ,weald5 riv] fl[$ began to s9k bel[ ! sea level1 & h[ ! wat]s ( ! sea fl[$ ov] :at _h be5 ! delta ( ! riv]1 lay+ d[n ! b$s ( s&/one ) "s mixture ( clay :i* we call ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,! next /ratum we come to is a b$ ( d>k blue clay m or less s&y1 call$ ! ,gault4 ,9 ! upp] b$s x becomes m s&y & grey 9 col\r4 ,^! are kn[n z ! passage b$s1 pass+ into ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,! ?ickness ( ! ,gault clay prop] v>ies f "s #ie to #ajc feet4 ,comp>$ to ! ma9l& ! ,gault is ( small ?ickness 9 ! ,isl&1 ?\gh ! d>k clay b&s 9 ! ,s&rock m>k ! oncom+ ( simil> conditions4 ,! f9e s$im5t =m+ ! clay po9ts to a fur!r s9k+ ( ! sea b$4 ,9 g5]al1 we f9d v few fossils 9 ! ,gault 9 ! ,isl&1 ?\gh x is v fossilif]\s on ! ma9l& at ,folke/one4 ,nor? ( ,s&[n ,r$ ,cliff ! ,gault =ms a gully1 d[n :i* a footpa? leads to ! %ore4 ,x is se5 at ! we/ ( ! ,isl& 9 ,compton ,bay1 :]e 9 ! l[] "p "s fossil %ells may be f\nd4 ,! ,upp] ,gre5s& is n v well nam$1 z ! b$s only p>tially consi/ ( s&/one1 9 great "p ( q o!r mat]ials4 ,"s pref] to call ! ,l[] ,gre5s& ,vectian1 f ,vectis1 ! old "n ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & ! ,upp] ,gre5s& ,selbornian1 a "n g5]ally adopt$1 because x =ms a m>k$ feature ( ! c\ntry ab\t ,selborne 9 ,hamp%ire4#f ,b1 ?\gh ! ,upp] ,gre5s& cov]s a less area 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight ?an ! ,l[]1 x =ms "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic sc5]y ( ! ,isl&4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! ,isl& is ! ,und]cliff1 ! undulat+ wood$ c\ntry f ,bon*ur* to ,niton1 above ! sea cliff1 b "u a second cliff1 a v]tical wall :i* %elt]s x to ! ,nor?4 ,?is wall ( cliff consi/s ( ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,9 a simil> way to ! small und]cliffs we saw at ,luccombe1 ! ,und]cliff has be5 =m$ by a s]ies ( great slips1 caus$ "h by ! fl[+ out ( ! ,gault clay1 :i* runs 9 a ne>ly horizontal b& ?r\gh ! base ( all ! ,s\!rn ,d[ns ( ! ,isl&1 ! ,upp] ,gre5s& ly+ above x break+ (f 9 masses1 & leav+ v]tical walls ( cliff4 ,^! walls are se5 n only 9 ! ,und]cliff1 b also on ! nor!rn side ( ! d[ns1 :]e !y =m ! inl& cliff ov]hang+ a pretty belt ( woodl& f ,%ankl9 to ,cook's ,ca/le1 & aga9 =m+ ,gat ,cliff above ,appuldurcombe4 ,we h records ( great l&slips at ! two ends ( ! ,und]cliff1 ne> ,bon*ur* & at ,rock5 ,end1 ab\t a c5tury ago4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! ,und]cliff 0 =m$ by l&slips 9 v anci5t times1 be=e record$ hi/ory 9 ?is ,isl& began4 ,! outcrop ( ! ,gault is m>k$ by a l9e ( spr+s on all sides ( ! ,s\!rn ,d[ns4 ,! /rata above1 ,*alk & ,upp] ,gre5s&1 are por\s & absorb ! ra9fall1 :i* p]meates ?r\gh till x rea*es ! ,gault ,clay1 :i* ?r[s x out ( ! hill side 9 spr+s1 "s ( :i* furni% a wat] supply = ! surr\nd+ t[ns & villages4 ,:]e ! ,upp] ,gre5s& is be/ develop$1 above ! ,und]cliff1 ! passage b$s are foll[$ by #cj feet ( yell[ micace\s s&s1 ) lay]s ( nodules ( a blui%-grey silice\s lime/one kn[n z ,rag4 ,! nodules frequ5tly conta9 l>ge ,ammonites & o!r fossils4 ,next foll[ ! ,s&/one & ,rag b$s1 ab\t #ej feet ( s&/one ) alt]nat+ lay]s ( rag4 ,! s&/ones are grey 9 col\r1 wea!r+ buff or r$di%-br[n1 t+$ m or less gre5 by gra9s ( glauconite4 ,ne> ! top ( ^! /rata is ! ,free/one b$1 a ?ick b$ ( a close-gra9$ s&/one1 wea!r+ a yell[i% grey1 :i* =ms a good build+ /one4 ,mo/ ( ! *ur*es & old manor & f>m h\ses 9 ! s\!rn half ( ! ,isl& are built ( ?is /one4 ,!n =m+ ! top ( ! s]ies are #bd feet ( *]t b$s1--b&s ( a h>d fl9ty rock call$ *]t alt]nat+ ) silice\s s&/one1 ! s&/one conta9+ l>ge concretions ( rag 9 ! same l9e ( b$d+4 ,! *]t b$s are v h>d1 & :]e ! /rata are horizontal1 z above ! ,und]cliff1 project l a cornice at ! top ( ! cliff4 ,p]haps ! f9e/ piece ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s& is ,gore ,cliff above ,niton ligh?\se1 a great v]tical wall ) ! cornice ( d>k *]t /rata ov]hang+ at ! top4 ,! ?ickness 9 ! ,und]cliff1 includ+ ! ,passage ,b$s1 is f #acj to #afj ft4 ,! ,upp] ,gre5s& may be /udi$ at ,compton ,bay1 & at ! ,culv]s2 & along ! %ore we/ ( ,v5tnor ! l[] cliff by ! sea consi/s l>gely ( masses ( fall5 ,upp] ,gre5s&1 _m ( :i* %[ ! *]t /rata well4 ,9 num]\s walls 9 ! s\? ( ! ,isl& may be se5 /one f ! v>i\s /rata--s&/one1 blue lime/one or rag1 & also ! *]t4 ,let u ?9k :at 0 happ5+ :5 ^! b$s 7 be+ =m$4 ,! s&/one is mu* f9] ?an t ( ! ,l[] ,gre5s&2 & we h lime/ones n[1--m>9e1 n fre%wat] z 9 ! ,weald54 ,m>9e lime/ones are =m$ by rema9s ( sea creatures liv+ at "s dep? 9 cle> wat]4 ,& n[ we come to a new mat]ial1 *]t4 ,x is n unlike fl9t1 & fl9t is "o ( ! m9]al =ms ( silica4 ,*]t may be call$ an impure or s&y fl9t4 ,! b&s ( *]t appe> to h be5 =m$ by an infiltration ( silica into a s&/one1 =m+ a d5se fl9ty rock1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has a dull appe>ance f ! admixture ( s&1 in/ead ( be+ a black semi-transp>5t sub/ance l fl9t4 ,b :]e did ! silica come f8 ,9 ! dep?s ( ! sea _m sea creatures h skeletons & %ells =m$ ( silica or fl9t1 in/ead ( c>bonate ( lime1 :i* is ! mat]ial ( ord9>y %ells & ( corals4 ,_m sponges1 in/ead ( ! horny skeleton we use 9 ! wa%+ sponge1 h a skeleton =m$ ( a network ( ne$les ( silica1 (t5 ( beautiful =ms4 ,"s m>9e animalcules1 ! ,radiol>ia1 h skeletons ( silica4 ,& m9ute plants1 ! ,diatoms1 h cov]+s ( silica1 :i* rema9 l a little transp>5t box1 :5 ! t9y plant is dead4 ,n[1 mu* ( ! *]t is full ( ne$les1 or spicules1 z !y are call$1 ( sponges1 & ?is po9ts to ! s\rce f :i* "s at lea/ ( ! silica 0 d]iv$4 ,to =m ! *]t mu* ( ! silica has be5 9 "s mann] dissolv$1 & deposit$ aga9 9 ! int]/ices ( s&/one /rata4 ,we %all h m to say ( ?is process :5 we come to speak ( ! orig9 ( ! fl9ts 9 ! *alk4 ,sponges usually live 9 cle> wat] ( "s dep?2 s all %[s t ! sea 0 becom+ deep] :5 ^! /rata 7 be+ =m$4 ,along ! %ore ( ! ,und]cliff1 ,upp] ,gre5s& fossils may be f\nd nicely wea!r$ out4 ,v common is a small curv$ bivalve %ell1--a k9d ( small oy/]1--,exogyra conica1 z are also s]pulae1 ! tubes =m$ by c]ta9 m>9e worms4 ,v pretty pect5s 7scallop %ells7 are f\nd 9 ! s&/one4 ,_m o!r %ells1 ,t]ebratulae1 ,trigonia1 ,panopaea1 etc41 occur1 & sev]al species ( ammonite & nautilus4#g ,a frequ5t fossil is a k9d ( sponge1 ,siphonia4 ,x has ! =m ( an oblong bulb1 support$ by a long /em1 ) a root-l base4 ,x is (t5 silicifi$1 & :5 brok5 %[s bundles ( tubul> *annels4 ,9 ! *]t may (t5 be se5 pieces ( :ite or blui% *alc$ony1 g5]ally 9 ?9 plates fill+ cracks 9 ! *]t4 ,?is is a v pure & h>d =m ( silica1 beautifully cle> & transluc5t4 ,pebbles :i* ! waves h worn 9 ! direction ( ! plate are v pretty :5 poli%$1 & g by ! "n ( s& agates4 ,!y may sometimes be pick$ up on ! %ore ne> ! ,culv]s4 ,footnote #f3 ,names propos$ by ! late ,a4 ,j4 ,jukes-,br[ne4 ,footnote #g3 ,( ,ammonites1 ,mortonic]as ro/ratum & ,hoplites spl5d5s may be m5tion$3 & ( ,pect5s1 ,nei!a qu9queco/ata & quadrico/ata1 ,syncyclonema orbicul>is1 & ,a,equipecten asp]4 ,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,*alk ,z we h trac$ ! _w's hi/ory writt5 9 ! rocks we h se5 an old cont95t gradually subm]g$1 a deep5+ sea fl[+ ov] ?is "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,n[ we %all f9d evid5ce ( ! deep5+ ( ! sea to some?+ l an ocean dep?4 ,we are com+ to ! great p]iod ( ! ,*alk1 ! "t :5 ! mat]ial 0 made :i* =ms ! undulat+ d[ns ( ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 & ( :i* ! l9e ( :ite cliffs consi/s1 :i* ) sundry breaks half encircles our %ores1 f ,flambor\gh ,head 9 ,york%ire1 by ,dov] & ! ,isle ( ,wight1 to ,b]e 9 ,devon4 ,across ! ,*annel :ite cliffs ( *alk face ^? ( ,engl&1 & ! *alk /ret*es inl& into ! ,cont95t4 ,its ext5t 0 =m]ly great] /ill4 ,fragm5ts ( *alk & fl9t are pres]v$ 9 ,mull "u basalt1 an old lava fl[1 & fl9ts f ! *alk are f\nd 9 m rec5t deposits 7,b\ld] ,clay7 on ! ,ea/ ( ,scotl&1 po9t+ to a =m] great ext5sion nor?w>d1 :i* has be5 ne>ly all remov$ by d5udation4 ,9 ! ,isle ( ,wight ! *alk cliffs ( ,fre%wat] & ! ,culv]s are ! gr&e/ features ( ! ,isl&2 :ile all ! ,isl& is dom9at$ by ! long l9es ( *alk d[ns runn+ ?r\gh x f ea/ to we/4 ,n[ :at is ! *alk8 ,& h[ 0 x made8 ,! microscope mu/ tell u4 ,x is f\nd t ?is great mass ( *alk is made up pr9cipally ( t9y microscopic %ells call$ ,=am9if]a1 :ole & 9 cru%$ fragm5ts4 ,!re are pl5ty ( =am9if]a 9 ! seas to-day2 & we ne$ n g f> to f9d simil> %ells4 ,on ! %ore ne> ,%ankl9 y w (t5 see /reaks ( :at look l t9y bits ( brok5 %ell wa%$ into depressions 9 ! s&4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 (t5 consi/ almo/ entirely ( complete microscopic %ells1 "s ( !m ( great beauty4 ,! creature t lives 9 "o ( ^! %ells is only l a drop ( =mless jelly1 & yet ar\nd itself x =ms a complex %ell ( surpris+ beauty4 ,! %ells are pi]c$ ) a numb] ( holes1 h5ce _! "n 7fr4 ,lat4 =am51 a hole1 & f]re1 to be>74 ,?r\gh ^! holes ! animal puts out a numb] ( feel]s l ?reads ( jelly1 & 9 ^! entangles p>ticles ( food1 & draws !m into itself4 ,n[1 d we any:]e to-day f9d ^! t9y %ells 9 su* masses z to build up rocks8 ,we d4 ,! s\nd+ app>atus1 ) :i* we measure ! dep?s ( ! sea1 is s con/ruct$ z to br+ up a specim5 ( ! sea bottom4 ,?is has be5 us$ 9 ! ,atlantic1 & x is f\nd t ! really deep sea bottom1 too f> out = riv]s & curr5ts to br+ s& & mud f ! l&1 is cov]$ ) a :ite mud or ooze4 ,& ! microscope %[s ?is to be made up ( an unnum]able multitude ( ! t9y %ells ( =am9if]a4 ,z ! little creatures die 9 ! sea1 _! %ells accumulate on ! bottom1 & 9 "t w be press$ into a h>d mass l *alk1 ! :ole be+ cem5t$ toge!r by c>bonate ( lime1 9 ! way we expla9$ 9 describ+ ! mak+ ( lime/ones4 ,s we f9d *alk /ill =m+ at ! pres5t day4 ,b :at ages x mu/ take to =m /rata ( solid rock ( su* t9y %ells6 ,& :at a va/ p]iod ( "t x mu/ h requir$ to build up our *alk cliffs & d[ns1 compos$ 9 l>ge "p ( t9y microscopic %ells6 ,) ! =am9if]a ! microscope %[s 9 ! *alk a multitude ( cru%$ fragm5ts1 l>gely ! prisms :i* compose bivalve %ells1 flakes ( %ells ( ,t]ebratula & ,rhyn*onella1 & m9ute fragm5ts ( corals & ,bryozoa4 ,scatt]$ 9 ! *alk we %all also f9d l>g] %ells & o!r rema9s ( ! life ( ! anci5t sea4 ,! base ( ! cliffs & fall5 blocks on ! %ore are ! be/ places to f9d fossils4 ,mu* ( ! base ( ! cliffs is inaccessible except by boat4 ,! l[] /rata may be exam9$ 9 ,s&[n & ,compton ,bays1 & ! upp] 9 ,:itecliff ,bay4 ,a wat* %\ld always be kept on ! tide4 ,! qu>ries along ! d[ns are n z a rule good = collect+1 z ! *alk does n become s mu* sculptur$ by wea!r+4 ,! deep sea ( ! ,:ite ,*alk did n come sudd5ly4 ,9 ! oncom+ ( ! p]iod we f9d mu* m>l--limy clay4 ,z ! sea deep5$1 little rea*$ ! bottom b ! %ells ( =am9if]a & o!r m>9e organisms4 ,h[ deep ! sea became is unc]ta93 !re is reason to believe t x did n rea* a dep? su* z t ( ! ,atlantic4 ,x is difficult to draw ! l9e betwe5 ! ,upp] ,gre5s& & ! ,*alk /rata4 ,above ! ,*]t b$s is a b& a few feet ?ick kn[n z ! ,*loritic ,m>l1 :i* %[s a passage f s& to calc>e\s matt]4 ,x is nam$ f ! abundance ( gra9s ( gre5 col\r+ matt]1 n[ recognis$ z glauconite2 s t x w\ld be bett] call$ ,glauconitic ,m>l4 ,x is also rem>kable = ! phosphatic nodules1 & = ! num]\s ca/s ( ,ammonites1 ,turrilites1 & o!r fossils mo/ly phosphatiz$1 :i* x conta9s4 ,?is b& is "o ( ! ri*e/ /rata 9 ! ,isl& = fossils4 ,x diff]s1 h[ev]1 9 diff]5t localities bo? 9 ?ickness & composition4 ,x is be/ se5 above ! ,und]cliff1 & 9 fall5 masses along ! %ore f ,v5tnor to ,niton4 ,x is f9ely expos$ on ! top ( ,gore ,cliff1 :]e ! flat l$ges are cov]$ ) fossil ,ammonites1 ,turrilites1 ,pleurotom>ia1 & o!r %ells4 ,! ,ammonite 7,s*lo5ba*ia v>ians7 is especially common4 ,! sponge 7,/auronema c>t]i7 is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,glauconitic ,m>l4 ,z ! edge ( ! cliff is a v]tical wall1 none %\ld try ?is locality b ^? :o c be tru/$ to take prop] c>e on ! top ( a precipice4 ,:5 a high w9d is bl[+ ! position may be especially dang]\s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,iii 7,pect57 ,nei!a ,qu9queco/ata ,!tironia 7,ammonite7 ,rhyn*onella ,m9or ,mantellic]as ,mantelli ,p>viro/ris 7,sea ,ur*9s7 ,micra/] ,cor-,angu9um ,e*9ocorys ,scutatus 7,int]nal ca/ 9 fl9t7 ,,l[] ,,& ,,upp] ,,gre5s& ,,& ,,*alk ,! ,*loritic ,m>l is foll[$ by ! ,*alk ,m>l1 ( mu* great] ?ickness4 ,?is consi/s ( alt]nations ( *alk ) b&s ( ,m>l1 & conta9s glauconite & also phosphatic nodules 9 ! l[] "p4 ,upw>ds x m]ges into ! ,grey ,*alk1 a m massive rock1 col\r$ grey f admixture ( clayey matt]4 ,^! =m ! ,l[] ,*alk1 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree divisions into :i* ! ,*alk is usually divid$4 ,above ?is come ! ,middle & ,upp]1 :i* toge!r =m ! ,:ite ,*alk4 ,!y are mu* pur] :ite ?an ! l[] division1 :i* is creamy or grey 9 col\r4 ,! ,*alk ,m>l & ,grey ,*alk are well se5 at ! ,culv] ,cliff1 & run out 9 l$ges on ! %ore4 ,! l[] "p ( ?is division is ! mo/ fossilif]\s1 & conta9s v>i\s species ( ,ammonities1 ,turrilites1 ,nautilus1 & o!r ,cephalopoda4 7,( ,ammonites ,s*lo5ba*ia v>ians is *>act]i/ic4 ,also may be nam$ ,s4 ,c\pei1 ,mantellic]as mantelli1 ,metacan?oplites rotomag5sis1 ,calycoc]as navicul>e1 ! small ,ammonoid ,scaphites aequalis2 & ( ,pect5s1 ,a,equipecten beav]i & ,syncyclonema orbicul>is may be m5tion$74 ,:ite me&]+ l9es ( ! sponge ,plocoscyphia labrosa are conspicu\s 9 ! l[] b$s4 ,! ,*alk ,m>l is well %[n at ,gore ,cliff1 slop+ upw>ds f ! flat l$ges ( ! ,*loritic ,m>l4 ,x may be /udi$ well1 & fossils f\nd1 9 ! cliff on ! ,v5tnor side ( ,bon*ur* ,cove1--:i* has all slipp$ d[n f a high] level4 ,! upp]mo/ /rata ( ! ,l[] ,*alk are kn[n z ! ,belemnite ,m>ls4 ,!y are d>k m>ly b&s1 9 :i* a ,belemnite1 ,act9ocamax pl5us1 is f\nd4 ,! h>d b&s kn[n z ,melb\rn ,rock & ,*alk ,rock1 :i* on ! ma9l& m>k ! top ( ! ,l[] & ,middle ,*alk respectively1 are nei!r ( !m well m>k$ 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,9 ! ,middle ,*alk ,inoc]amus labiatus1 a l>ge bivalve %ell1 occurs 9 great pr(usion2 & 9 ! ,upp] fl9ty ,*alk are %eets ( ano!r species1 ,i4 ,cuvi]i4 ,x is h>dly ev] f\nd p]fect1 ! %ells be+ ( a fibr\s /ructure1 ) ! fibres at "r angles to ! surface1 & s v fragile4 ,!re is a /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,middle & ,upp] ,*alk1 :i* all w obs]ve4 ,x consi/s 9 ! num]\s b&s ( d>k fl9ts :i* run ?r\gh ! ,upp] ,*alk p>allel to ! /rata4 ,! ,l[] ,*alk is entirely1 & ! ,middle ,*alk ne>ly1 devoid ( fl9t4 ,?\gh ! l9e at :i* ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,upp] ,*alk is tak5 is r bel[ ! fir/ fl9t b& ( ! ,upp] ,*alk1 & a few fl9ts occur 9 ! highe/ b$s ( ! ,middle ,*alk2 yet1 speak+ g5]ally1 ! great di/9ction betwe5 ! ,middle & ,upp] ,*alk1 ! two divisions ( ! ,:ite ,*alk1 may be consid]$ to be t ( fl9tless *alk & *alk ) fl9ts4 ,e>ly 9 our /udies we notic$ ! great curves into :i* ! upheav$ /rata h be5 ?r[n1 & t on ! nor!rn side ( ! anticl9e ! /rata are 9 places v]tical4 ,?is c be well obs]v$ 9 ! ,culv] ,cliffs & ,brad+ ,d[n1 :]e ! /rata ( ! ,upp] ,*alk are m>k$ by ! l9es ( black fl9ts4 ,9 ! l>ge qu>ry on ,brad+ ,d[n ! v]tical l9es ( fl9t c be cle>ly se52 & by walk+ at l[ tide at ,:itecliff ,bay r\nd ! corn] ( ! cliff1 or by obs]v+ ! cliff f a boat1 we may see a beautiful section ( ! fl9ty *alk1 ! l9es ( black fl9ts slop+ at a high angle4 ,! fl9ts 9 g5]al =m r\nd or oval masses1 b ( irregul> %ape ) _m projections1 & ! masses lie 9 regul> b&s p>allel to ! /ratification4 ,! trem5d\s e>? movem5t :i* has b5t ! /rata into a great curve has compress$ ! v]tical portion into ab\t half its orig9al ?ickness1 & has made ! *alk ( our d[ns extremely h>d4 ,x has also %att]$ ! fl9ts 9 ! *alk into fragm5ts4 ,! r\nd$ masses reta9 _! =m1 b :5 pull$ out ( ! *alk fall into %>p angul> fragm5ts1 & we f9d !y are %att]$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo by ,j4 ,milman ,br[n1 ,%ankl94 ,,culv] ,,cliffs--,,highly ,,incl9$ ,,*alk ,,/rata ,n[1 :at are fl9ts1 & h[ 7 !y =m$8 ,fl9ts are a =m ( silica1 a pur] =m ?an *]t1 z ! *alk 9 :i* !y are emb$d$ 0 =m$ 9 ! deep sea1 & s we h no admixture ( s&4 ,fl9ts1 z we f9d !m 9 ! *alk1 are g5]ally black transluc5t nodules1 ) a :ite coat+1 ! result ( a *emical action :i* has affect$ ! outside aft] !y 7 =m$4 ,fl9t is v h>d1--h>d] ?an /eel4 ,y _c scrat* x ) a knife1 ?\gh y may leave a /reak ( /eel on ! surface ( ! fl9t4 ,?is h>dness is a prop]ty ( o!r =ms ( silica1 z qu>tz & *alc$ony4 ,! "q h[ ! fl9ts 7 =m$ is a difficult "o4 ,z to ?is mu* /ill rema9s obscure4 ,! sea conta9s m9]al sub/ances 9 solution4 ,calcium sulphate & *loride1 & a small am\nt ( calcium c>bonate 7c>bonate ( lime7 are 9 solution 9 ! sea4 ,f ^! salts is d]iv$ ! calcium deposit$ z calcium c>bonate to =m ! %ells ( ! ,=am9if]a & ! l>g] %ells 9 ! ,*alk4 ,!re is also silica 9 small quantity 9 sea wat]4 ,f ?is ! skeletons ( radiol>ia & diatoms & ! spicules ( sponges are =m$4 ,n[1 _m fl9ts conta9 fossil sponges1 & :5 brok5 %[ a section ( ! sponge cle>ly m>k$4 ,especially well c ?is be se5 9 fl9ts :i* h la9 "s "t 9 a gravel b$ =m$ ( fl9ts worn out ( ! *alk by d5udation4 ,h>d z a fl9t seems1 x is p5etrat$ by num]\s f9e pores4 ,! gravel b$s are usually /a9$ yell[ by wat] conta9+ iron1 & ?is has p5etrat$ by ! pores ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! fl9ts1 /a9+ !m br[n & orange4 ,_m ( ! /a9$ fl9ts %[ beautifully ! sponge m>k+s1--a wide c5tral canal ) f9e ?read-l canals lead+ into x f all sides4 ,! ,*alk ,sea evid5tly ab\nd$ 9 silice\s organisms1 & x _c be d\bt$ t x is f su* organisms t ! silica 0 d]iv$1 :i* has =m$ ! masses ( fl9t4 ,silica occurs 9 two =ms--9 a cry/all9e =m z qu>tz or rock cry/al1 & z amorph\s1 i4e41 =mless or uncry/all9e 7also call$ opal9e7 silica4 ,! silice\s skeletons ( m>9e organisms are =m$ ( amorph\s silica4 ,fl9t consi/s ( innum]able f9e cry/all9e gra9s1 closely pack$ toge!r4 ,amorph\s silica is less /able ?an cry/all9e1 & is capable ( be+ dissolv$ 9 alkal9e wat]1 i4e41 wat] conta9+ c>bonate ( sodium or potassium 9 solution4 ,if ! silica s dissolv$ be deposit$ aga91 x is g5]ally 9 ! cry/all9e =m4 ,x seems probable1 !re=e1 t ! amorph\s silica ( ! skeletal p>ts ( m>9e organisms has be5 dissolv$ by alkal9e wat] p]colat+ ?r\gh ! /rata1 & re-deposit$ z fl9t4 ,z ! silica 0 deposit$1 *alk 0 remov$4 ,! l>ge irregul> masses ( fl9t ly+ 9 ! ,*alk /rata h cle>ly tak5 ! place ( *alk :i* has be5 remov$4 ,wat] *>g$ ) silica soak+ ?r\gh ! /rata has deposit$ silica1 & at ! same "t dissolv$ out s mu* c>bonate ( lime4 ,bivalve %ells1 orig9ally c>bonate ( lime1 are (t5 replac$1 & fill$ up by fl9t1 & ca/s ( sea ur*9s 9 solid fl9t are common1 & (t5 beautiful fossils4 ,?is process ( *ange took place aft] ! =am9if]al ooze _h be5 compact$ into *alk /rata2 & to "s ext5t at any rate1 !re has be5 deposition ( silica aft] ! *alk _h become h>d & solid2 = we f9d flat %eets1 call$ tabul> fl9t1 ly+ along ! /rata1 or fill+ cracks cutt+ ?r\gh ! /rata at "r angles4 ,b 9 all probability ! re-arrangem5t ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! /rata took place 9 ! ma9 dur+ ! fir/ consolidation1 z ! /rata rose above ! sea-level1 & ! sea-wat] dra9$ out4 ,a sugge/ion has be5 made by ,r4 ,e4 ,liesegang1 ( ,dresd51 to expla9 ! occurr5ce ( ! fl9ts 9 ! b&s ) cle> int]spaces betwe51 :i* are su* a m>k$ feature ( ! ,upp] ,*alk4 ,he has %[n h[ a solution diffus+ outw>d & enc\nt]+ some?+ ) :i* x reacts & =ms a precipitate1 moves on into ?is m$ium until a conc5tration suffici5t to cause precipitation ( ! p>ticul> salt occurs4 ,a zone ( precipitation is ?us =m$1 ?r\gh :i* ! fir/ solution p5etrates until ! conditions are repeat$1 & a second zone ( precipitate is ?r[n d[n4 ,zone aft] zone may ?us arise z diffusion goes on4 ,he sugge/s t ! zones ( fl9t may be simil> ph5om5a1 wat] diffus+ ?r\gh ! masses ( *alk tak+ up silica till su* conc5tration is rea*$ t precipitation takes place1 ! wat] !n p]colat+ fur!r & repeat+ ! process4#h ,! precipitation ( silica & replacem5t ( ! *alk occurs irregul>ly along ! zone ( precipitation1 =m+ great irregul> masses ( fl9t1 :i* enclose ! sponges & o!r m>9e organisms t lay 9 ! *alk /rata4 ,:]e a deposit ( silica has begun1 x w probably h det]m9$ ! precipitation ( m silica1 9 ! mann] con/antly se5 9 *emical precipitation2 & x w\ld seem t silice\s organisms z sponges h to "s ext5t s]v$ z c5tres ar\nd :i* silica has be5 precipitat$1 = fl9ts are v commonly f\nd1 hav+ ! evid5t ext]nal =m ( sponges4 ,x w be well to say some?+ "h ( ! hi/ory ( ! fl9ts z ! *alk :i* conta9s !m is gradually d5ud$ away4 ,ra9 wat] conta9+ c>bonic dioxide has a great effect 9 eat+ away all lime/one rocks1 *alk includ$4 ,a va/ ext5t ( *alk1 :i* =m]ly cov]$ mu* ( ,engl& has ?us disappe>$4 ,! ar* ( *alk connect+ our two ranges ( d[ns has be5 cut ?r\gh1 & f ! top ( ! d[ns !mselves a great ?ickness ( *alk has be5 remov$4 ,! *alk 9 ! d[ns above ,v5tnor & ,bon*ur* is ne>ly horizontal4 ,x consi/s ( ,l[] & ,middle ,*alk2 & probably a small bit ( ! ,upp] occurs4 ,b ! top ( ,/4 ,boniface ,d[n is cov]$ ) a great mass ( angul> fl9t gravel1 :i* mu/ h come f ! ,upp] ,*alk4 ,! gravel is ( consid]able ?ickness1 p]haps #bj ft41 & on ! spurs ( ! d[n falls ov] to a l[] level l a table-clo?4 ,x is work$ 9 _m pits = road metal4 ,?is fl9t gravel repres5ts ! insoluble residue :i* has be5 left :5 ! ,*alk 0 dissolv$ away4 ,on ! top ( ! cliffs betwe5 ,v5tnor & ,bon*ur*1 at a po9t call$ ,highport1 is a /ratum ( fl9t gravel c>ri$ d[n f ! top ( ! d[n4 ,! %ore "h is /rewn ) l>ge fl9ts fall5 f ! gravel4 ,! sub/ance ( _m ( ! fl9ts has und]gone a rem>kable *ange4 ,in/ead ( black or dull grey fl9t x has become transluc5t agate1 ( spl5did orange & purple col\rs1 or has be5 *ang$ into cle> transluc5t *alc$ony4 ,9 ! agate ! =ms ( fossil sponges c (t5 be beautifully se54 ,! col\rs are due to iron-*>g$ wat] p]colat+ into ! fl9t 9 ! gravel b$1 b fur!r /ructural *anges h alt]$ ! =m ( ! silica2 *alc$ony hav+ a /ructure ( close cry/all9e fibres1 reveal$ by pol>iz$ light3 :5 v>i\sly /a9$ & col\r$1 x is usually call$ agate4 ,_m ( ^! fl9ts1 :5 cut ?r\gh & poli%$1 are ( great beauty4 ,! ma9 =ce ( ! tides along ^! %ores is f we/ to ea/2 & s !re is a cont9ual passage ( pebbles on ! %ore 9 t direction4 ,! fl9ts 9 ,s&[n ,bay h 9 ! ma9 travell$ r\nd f "h2 & t[>ds ! ,culv]s small h&y specim5s ( agates & *alc$onies r\nd$ by ! waves may be collect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,photo by ,j4 ,milman ,br[n1 ,%ankl94 ,,scrat*ell',s ,,bay--,,highly ,,incl9$ ,,*alk ,,/rata ,! ext5sive d[ns 9 ! c5tre ( ! ,isl& are l>gely ov]spread ) angul> fl9t gravel simil>ly =m$ to t ( ,/4 ,boniface4 ,( o!r b$s ( gravel1 :i* h be5 wa%$ d[n to a l[] level by riv]s or o!r ag5cy we %all h m to say lat]4 ,! ,*alk /rata 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight are ( great ?ickness4 ,9 ! ,culv] ,cliff !re are "s #djj feet ( fl9tless ,*alk 7,l[] & ,middle ,*alk71 & !n "s #a1jjj feet ( *alk ) fl9ts4 ,!re is "s v>iation 9 ! ?ickness ( ! /rata 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! ,isl&1 & ! am\nt ( ! ,upp] /rata1 :i* has be5 remov$ by d5udation1 v>ies consid]ably4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( ! :ite *alk 9 ! ,isl& is ab\t #a1cej feet4#i ,includ+ ! ,l[] ,*alk1 ! maximum ?ickness ( ! ,*alk /rata is #a1fcj ft4 ,! divisions ( ! *alk we h s f> consid]$ dep5d on ! "* ( ! rock3 we mu/ say a ^w ab\t ano!r way ( divid+ ! /rata4 ,x is f\nd t 9 ! *alk1 z 9 o!r /rata1 fossils *ange ) e few feet ( deposit4 ,we may make a zoological division ( ! *alk by see+ h[ ! fossils are di/ribut$4 ,! ,*alk 0 fir/ /udi$ f ?is po9t ( view by ! great ,fr5* geologi/1 ,m4 ,b>rois1 :o divid$ x into zones1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! animal life1 ! zones be+ call$ by ! "n ( "s fossil specially *>act]i/ic ( a p>ticul> zone4 ,m rec5tly ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,r[e has made a v c>eful /udy ( ! zones ( ! ,:ite ,*alk1 & is n[ our *ief au?ority on ! subject4 ,! /rata h be5 gr\p$ into zones z foll[s3-- ,zones4 ,sub-,zones4 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,act9ocamax quadratus4 ,(fa/] pilula4 ,upp] ,(fa/] pilula4 ,e*9ocorys depressus4 ,*alk4 ,m>supites ,m>supites4 te/ud9>ius4 ,u9tacr9us4 ,micra/] cor-angu9um4 ,micra/] cor-te/ud9>ium4 ,hola/] planus4 ,middle ,t]ebratul9a lata4 ,*alk4 ,inoc]amus labiatus4 ,hola/] subglobosus4 ,act9ocamax ,l[] pl5us 7at top74 ,*alk4 ,s*lo5ba*ia v>ians4 ,/auronema c>t]i 7at base74 ,! me?od ( /udy accord+ to zoological zones is ( great int]e/4 ,! p]iod ( ! ,:ite ,*alk 0 ( long duration1 & ! physical conditions rema9$ v uni=m4 ,s t by /udy+ ! succession ( life dur+ ?is p]iod we may le>n mu* ab\t ! gradual *ange ( life on ! e>?1 & ! evolution ( liv+ ?+s4 ,we h se5 t ! :ole mass ( ! *alk is made up ma9ly ( ! rema9s ( liv+ ?+s1--mo/ly ( ! microscopic =am9if]a4 ,we h se5 t sponges 7 v pl5tiful 9 t anci5t sea4 ,( o!r fossils we f9d bra*iopods--diff]5t species ( ,t]ebratula & ,rhyn*onella--a l>ge bivalve ,inoc]amus sometimes v common2 ! v beautiful bivalve1 ,spondylus sp9osus1 belemnites1 s]pulae2 & diff]5t species ( sea-ur*9 are v common4 ,a pretty he>t-%ap$ "o1 ,micra/] cor-angu9um1 m>ks a zone ( ! high] *alk1 :i* runs along ! top ( our nor!rn d[ns4 ,o!r common sea ur*9s are v>i\s species ( ,cid>is1 ( a =m l a turban 7,gk4 cid>is1 a ,p]sian head-dress72 ,cyphosoma1 ano!r circul> =m2 ! oval ,e*9ocorys scutatus1 :i*1 ) v>ieties ( ! same & alli$ species1 ab\nds 9 ! ,upp] ,*alk1 & ! m conical ,conulus conicus4 ,! topmo/ zone1 t ( ,b4 ,macronata1 w\ld yield a record ( exub]ant life1 7 ! *alk s(t & horizontal4 ,!re 0 a ri* developm5t ( e*9od]ms 7sea ur*9s & /> fi%es71 b no?+ is p]fect1 ow+ to ! h>dness ( ! rock 7,dr4 ,r[e74 ,! g5]al diff]5ce 9 ! life ( ! ,*alk p]iod is ! great developm5t ( ,ammonites & o!r ,cephalopods 9 ! ,l[] ,*alk1 & ( sea ur*9s & o!r e*9od]ms 9 ! ,upp]1 :ile ! ,middle ,*alk is want+ 9 ! "o & ! o!r4 ,%>k's tee? tell ( ! l>g] inhabitants ( ! ocean t fl[$ above ! *alky bottom4 ,_m qu>ries h be5 op5$ on ! flanks ( ! ,*alk ,d[ns1 ( :i* a l>ge numb] are n[ disus$4 ,!y occur j :]e !y are ne$$ = *alk to lay on ! l&1 ! pure *alk on ! nor? ( ! ,d[ns to break up ! heavy ,t]ti>y clays1 :i* l>gely cov] ! nor? ( ! ,isl&2 ! m clayey b$s ( ! ,grey ,*alk on ! s\? ( ! d[ns to /iff5 ! light loams ( ! ,gre5s&4#aj ,footnote #h3 ,see ,common ,/ones1 by ,gr5ville ,a4 ,j4 ,cole1 ,f4,r4,s4 #aiba4 ,footnote #i3 #a1dgb ft4 at ! we/]n end ( ! ,isl&1 #a1bac ft4 at ! ea/]n4--,dr4 ,r[e's measurem5ts4 ,footnote #aj3 ,dr4 ,a4 ,w4 ,r[e4 ,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,t]ti>y ,,era3 ,,! ,,eoc5e ,ages mu/ h pass$ :ile ! ocean fl[$ ov] ?is "p ( ! _w1 & ! *alk mud1 ) its v>i$ rema9s ( liv+ ?+s1 gradually accumulat$ at ! bottom4 ,at la/ a *ange came4 ,sl[ly ! sea b$ rose1 till ! *alk1 n[ h>d5$ by pressure1 0 rais$ into l& above ! sea level4 ,z soon z ?is happ5$1 sea waves & ra9 & riv]s began to cut x d[n4 ,!re is evid5ce "h ( a wide gap 9 ! succession ( ! /rata4 ,high] *alk /rata1 :i* probably once exi/$1 h be5 wa%$ away1 :ile ! und]ly+ /rata h be5 plan$ (f to an ev5 surface m or less oblique to ! b$d+-planes4 ,! highe/ zone ( ! *alk 9 ! ,isl& 7t ( ,belemnitella macronata7 v>ies greatly 9 ?ickness1 f #aej ft4 at ! ea/]n end ( ! ,isl& to #dge at ! we/]n4 ,! late/ inve/igations give reason to conclude t ?is is due to g5tle syncl9es & anticl9es1 :i* h be5 plan$ smoo? by ! erosion :i* prec$$ ! deposition ( ! next /rata1--! ,eoc5e4#aa ,at ,alum ,bay ! erod$ surface ( ! *alk may be se5 ) roll$ fl9ts ly+ ^u x1 & r\nd$ holl[s or pot-holes1 ! appe>ance be+ t ( a =e%ore worn 9 a horizontal l$ge ( rock1 mu* l ! ,horse ,l$ge at ,%ankl94 ,! l& sank aga91 b n to any?+ l ! dep? ( ! great ,*alk ,sea4 ,we n[ come to an era call$ ! ,t]ti>y4 ,! :ole geological hi/ory is divid$ into f\r great eras4 ,! fir/ is ! ,eozoic1 or ! age ( ! ,ar*aean1--(t5 call$ ,pre-,cambrian--rocks2 rocks l>gely volcanic1 or greatly alt]$ s9ce _! =mation1 %[+ only obscure traces ( ! life :i* no d\bt exi/$4 ,!n foll[ ! ,prim>y era1 or1 z x is g5]ally call$1 ! ,palaeozoic2 ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic2 & ! ,t]ti>y or ,ka9ozoic4 ,palaeozoic is us$ r ?an ,prim>y1 z ?is ^w is ambigu\s1 be+ also us$ = ! cry/all9e rocks fir/ =m$ by ! solidification ( ! molt5 surface ( ! e>?4 ,b ,second>y & ,t]ti>y are /ill 9 con/ant use4 ,^! long ages1 or eras1 7 ( v unequal duration2 yet !y m>k su* *anges 9 ! life ( animal & plant ^u ! e>? t !y =m natural divisions4 ,! ,palaeozoic 0 an imm5se p]iod dur+ :i* life ab\nd$ 9 ! seas1--numb]less species ( mollusca1 cru/aceans1 corals1 fi% are f\nd1--& !re 7 great =e/s1 :i* h =m$ ! coal measures1 on l&1--=e/s ( /range primeval vegetation1 b 9 :i* beautiful f]ns1 l>ge & small1 fl\ri%$ 9 great numb]s4 ,! ,second>y ,era may be call$ ! age ( reptiles4 ,to ?is era all ! rocks we h s f> /udi$ belong4 ,n[ we come to ! la/ era1 ! ,t]ti>y1 ! age ( ! mammals4 ,in/ead ( reptiles on l&1 9 sea & air1 we f9d a complete *ange4 ,! e>? is occupi$ by ! mammalia2 ! air belongs to ! birds su* z we see to-day4 ,! /range birds ( ! ,oolitic & ,cretace\s h pass$ away4 ,birds h tak5 _! mod]n =m4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! _w /rata are f\nd transitional betwe5 ! ,second>y & ,t]ti>y4 ,! ,t]ti>y is divid$ into f\r divisions1--! ,eoc5e1 ! ,oligoc5e 7once call$ ,upp] ,eoc5e71 ! ,mioc5e1 & ! ,plioc5e2 :i* words signify1--,plioc5e ! m rec5t p]iod1 ,mioc5e ! less rec5t1 ,eoc5e ! dawn ( ! rec5t4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e we %all f9d m>9e deposits ( a comp>atively %all[ sea1 & b$s deposit$ at ! m\? ( great riv]s1 :]e rema9s ( sea creatures are m+l$ ) ^? wa%$ d[n f ! l& by ! riv]s4 ,^! /rata run ?r\gh ! ,isle ( ,wight f ea/ to we/1 & we may /udy !m at ei!r end ( ! ,isl&1 9 ,:itecliff & ,alum ,bays4 ,! /rata are highly incl9$1 s t we c walk across !m 9 a %ort walk4 ,"s b$s conta9 _m fossils1 b _m ( ! %ells are v brittle & crumbly2 & we c only secure good specim5s by cutt+ out a piece ( ! clay or s& conta9+ !m1 & transf]r+ !m c>efully to boxes1 to be c>ri$ home ) equal c>e4 ,(t5 mu* ( ! face ( ! cliff is cov]$ ) slip or ra9wa%1 & ov]gr[n ) vegetation4 ,sometimes a l>ge slip exposes a good hunt+ gr\nd4 ,n[ let u walk along ! %ore1 & try to read ! /ory ^! ,t]ti>y b$s tell u4 ,we w beg9 9 ,:itecliff ,bay4 ,?\gh easily accessible1 x rema9s /ill 9 its natural beauty4 ,! sea wa%es 9 on a f9e /ret* ( smoo? s& %elt]$ by ! :ite *alk wall :i* =ms ! s\? arm ( ! bay4 ,nor? ( ! ,culv] d[ns ! cliffs are mu* l[]1 & consi/ ( s&s & clays ( v>y+ col\r1 foll[+ ea* o!r 9 v]tical b&s4 ,look+ along ! l9e ( %ore we notice a b& ( lime/one1 at fir/ ne>ly v]tical l ! prec$+ /rata1 !n curv+ at a %>p angle z x slopes to ! %ore1 & runn+ out to sea 9 a reef kn[n z ,bembridge ,l$ge4 ,?is is ! ,bembridge lime/one2 & ! beg9n+ ( ! reef m>ks ! nor!rn b\nd>y ( ,:itecliff ,bay1 ! %ore1 h[ev]1 cont9u+ 9 ne>ly ! same l9e to ,bembridge ,=el&1 & %[+ a cont9u\s succession ( ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e /rata4 ,! /rata nor? ( ! lime/one are ne>ly horizontal1 dipp+ slightly to ! nor?4 ,9 ! ,bembridge lime/one we see ! end ( ! ,s&[n anticl9e1 & ! beg9n+ ( ! succe$+ syncl9e4 ,! /rata n[ dip "u ! ,sol5t1 & rise into ano!r anticl9e 9 ! ,portsd[n ,hills4 ,nor? & s\? ( ! great anticl9e ( ! ,weald ( ,k5t & ,sussex are two syncl9al tr\ghs kn[n z ! ,london & ,hamp%ire bas9s4 ,ne>ly ! :ole ( our ,engli% ,eoc5e /rata lies 9 ^! two bas9s1 hav+ be5 d5ud$ away f ! anticl9al ar*es4 ,! ,oligoc5e only occur 9 ! ,hamp%ire bas91 ! high] /rata only 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,coa/ ,,section1 ,,:itecliff ,,bay4 ,,bm ,bembridge ,m>ls4 ,,bl ,bembridge ,lime/one4 ,o ,osborne ,b$s4 ,h ,headon ,b$s4 ,,bs ,b>ton ,s&4 ,b ,b>ton ,clay4 ,br ,brackle%am ,b$s4 ,bg ,bag%ot ,b$s4 ,l ,london ,clay4 ,r ,read+ ,b$s4 ,* ,*alk4 ,p ,pebble ,b$s4 ,s ,s&/one ,b&4 ,above ! ,*alk we come fir/ to a ?ick r$ clay call$ ,pla/ic clay4 ,x is mu* slipp$1 & ! slip is ov]gr[n4 ,! only fossils f\nd 9 ! ,isl& are fragm5ts ( plants2 l>g] plant rema9s on ! ma9l& %[ a temp]ate climate4 ,?is clay 0 =m]ly work$ at ,newport = pott]y4 ,! clay is probably a fre%wat] deposit =m$ 9 fairly deep wat]4 ,on ! ma9l& we f9d on ! bord] %all[ wat] deposits call$ ! ,woolwi* & ,read+ b$s4 7,! clay is #aej to #afj ft4 ?ick at ,:itecliff ,bay1 less ?an #ij ft4 at ! ,alum ,bay47 ,we come next to a consid]able ?ickness ( d>k clay ) s&1 at ! surface turn$ br[n by wea!r+4 ,?is is ! ,london clay1 s call$ because x und]lies ! area on :i* ,london is built4 ,at ! base is a b& ( r\nd$ fl9t pebbles1 :i* ext5ds at ! base ( ! clay f "h to ,suffolk4 ,9 x1 z well z 9 a h>d s&/one #ah in*es high] up1 are tubul> %ells ( a m>9e worm1 ,ditrupa plana4 ,! s&/one runs out on ! %ore4 ,ab\t #ce ft4 above ! basem5t b$ is a zone ( ,panopaea int]m$ia & ,pholadomya m>g>itacea1 at #ej ft4 ano!r b& ( ,ditrupa1 & at ab\t #hj ft4 a b& ) a small ,c>dita4 ,9 ! high] "p ( ! clay are l>ge sept>ia1--r\nd$ blocks ( a calc>e\s clay-iron/one1 ) cracks runn+ ?r\gh !m fill$ ) sp>4 ,p9na aff9is is f\nd 9 ! sept>ia4 ,! ?ickness ( ! clay 9 ,:itecliff ,bay is #cbb feet4 ,x c be se5 on ! %ore1 :5 ! tide happ5s to h swept ! s& away4 ,o!rwise ! l[] b$s are h>dly visible1 !re be+ no cliff "h1 b a slope ov]gr[n ) vegetation4 ,9 ,alum ,bay ! ,london clay1 ab\t #djj ft4 9 ?ickness1 consi/s ( clays1 *iefly d>k blue1 ) s&s1 & l9es ( sept>ia4 ,9 ! l[] "p is a d>k clay ) ,pholadomya m>g>itacea1 /ill pres]v+ ! pe>ly nacre4 ,!re are also ,panopaea int]m$ia1 & 9 sept>ia ,p9na aff9is4 ,all ^! ) _! pe>ly lu/re1 are beautiful fossils4 ,a little high] is a zone ) ,ditrupa1 & fur!r on a b& ( ,c>dita4 ,o!r %ells also are f\nd 9 ! clay1 especially 9 ! l[] "p4 ,!y are all m>9e1 & indicate a sub-tropical climate4 ,l9es ( pebbles %[ t we are ne> a bea*4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! s\? ( ,engl& rema9s f ! l& are f\nd1 borne d[n an anci5t riv] 9 ! way we f\nd be=e 9 ! ,weald5 deposits4 ,b times h *ang$ s9ce ! ,weald5 days1 & ! life ( ! ,t]ti>y times has a mu* m mod]n appe>ance4 ,f leaves & fruits borne d[n f ! =e/ we c le>n cle>ly ! nature ( ! e>ly ,eoc5e l& & climate4 ,leaves are f\nd at ,ne:av51 & num]\s fossil fruits at ,%eppey4 ,! "* ( ! vegetation mo/ resembl$ t n[ to be se5 9 ,india1 ,s\? ,ea/]n ,asia1 & ,au/ralia4 ,palms grew luxuriantly1 ! mo/ abundant fruit be+ t ( "o call$ ,nipadites1 f its resemblance to ! ,nipa palm1 :i* gr[s on ! banks ( riv]s 9 ,india & ! ,philipp9es4 ,! =e/s also includ$ plants alli$ to cypresses1 banksia1 maples1 popl>s1 mimosa1 cu/>d apples1 g\rds1 & melons4 ,! riv]s ab\nd$ 9 turtle--l>ge numb]s ( rema9s ( :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,london clay at ! m\? ( ! ,?ames--crocodiles & alligators4 ,) ! exception ( ! s\? ea/ ( ,engl&1 all ! ,briti% ,isles =m$ "p ( a cont95tal mass ( l& cov]$ ) a tropical vegetation4 ,! m\nta9 *a9s ( ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 & ,wales rose z n[1 b high]4 ,long d5udation has worn !m d[n s9ce4 ,9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& ! coa/ l9e fluctuat$2 & sea %ells1 & ! rema9s ( ! plant & animal life ( ! neighb\rhood ( a great tropical riv] alt]nate 9 ! deposits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,headon ,,hill ,,& ,,high ,,d[n4 ,,%[+ ,,/rata ,,se5 ,,at ,,alum ,,bay4 ,g ,gravel ,cap4 ,bm ,bembridge ,lime/one4 ,o ,osborne ,b$s4 ,,uh ,upp] ,headon4 ,,mh ,middle 4 ,,lh ,l[] ,headon4 ,,bs ,b>ton ,s&4 ,b ,b>ton ,clay4 ,br ,brackle%am ,b$s4 ,bg ,bag%ot ,s&s4 ,l ,london ,clay4 ,r ,read+ ,b$s4 ,* ,*alk4 ,! ,london clay is succe$$ by a great ?ickness ( s&s & clays :i* =m ! ,bag%ot s]ies4 ,^! are divid$ 9 ! ,london bas9 into ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,bag%ot4 ,9 ! ,hamp%ire bas9 ! /rata are n[ classifi$ z ,bag%ot ,s&s1 ,brackle%am ,b$s1 ,b>ton ,b$s1 ! la/ compris+ ! ,b>ton ,clay & ! ,b>ton ,s&1 =m]ly t]m$ ,headon ,hill ,s&s4 ,!re is "s unc]ta9ty z to ! mann] 9 :i* ^! correspond to ! b$s ( ! ,bag%ot di/rict1 z ! ,t]ti>y /rata h be5 divid$ by d5udation into two gr\ps1 & diff] 9 "* 9 ! two areas4 ,x is possible t ! ,b>ton ,s& repres5ts a lat] deposit ?an any 9 ! ,london area4 ,almo/ ! only fossil rema9s 9 ! ,bag%ot ,s&s are ^? ( plants1 b ^! are ( great int]e/4 ,9 ,:itecliff ,bay ! b$s consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( yell[ s&s1 above :i* is a b& ( fl9t pebbles1 :i* has be5 tak5 z ! base ( ! ,brackle%am s]ies1 = 9 ! clay imm$iately above m>9e %ells occur4 ,! ,bag%ot ,s&s1 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 are ab\t #ach feet ?ick1 9 ,alum ,bay1 #gf feet1 accord+ to ! late/ classification4 ,9 ,alum ,bay ! /rata consi/ ( s&s1 yell[1 grey1 :ite1 & crimson1 ) clays1 & b&s ( pipe clay4 ,?is is rem>kably :ite & pure1 z ?\gh d]iv$ f :ite felsp>1 l ! ,*9a clay 9 ,cornwall4 ,! pipe clay conta9s leaves ( trees1 sometimes beautifully pres]v$4 ,specim5s are n v easy to obta91 z only ! edges ( ! leaves appe> at ! surface ( ! cliff4 ,!y h be5 f\nd *iefly 9 a pocket1 or ?ick5+ ( ! seam ( pipe clay1 :i* = =ty ye>s yield$ specim5s abundantly1 aft]w>ds ?9n+ out1 :5 ! leaves became r>e4 ,! leaves lie flat1 z !y drift$ & settl$ d[n 9 a pool4 ,) !m are ! twigs ( a conif]1 occasionally a fruit or fl[]1 or ! w+ case ( a beetle4 ,! leaves %[ a tropical climate4 ,! flora is a local "o1 diff]+ consid]ably f ^? ( ,eoc5e deposits else:]e4 ,! plants are ne>ly all dicotyl$ons4 ,( palms !re are only a few fragm5ts1 :ile ! ,london clay ( ,%eppey is ri* 9 palm fruits1 & _m l>ge palms are f\nd 9 ! ,b\rnem\? leaf b$s1 correspond+ 9 date to ! ,brackle%am4 ,! diff]5ces may be l>gely due to conditions ( locality & deposition4 ,! ,alum ,bay flora is *>act]is$ by a weal? ( legum9\s plants1 & l>ge leaves ( species ( fig 7,ficus72 simple laurel & will[-l leaves are common1 ( :i* x is difficult to det]m9e ! species1 & !re is abundance ( a species ( ,aralia4 ,! "* ( ! flora resembles mo/ ^? ( ,c5tral ,am]ica & ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago4 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,iv ,nummulites ,laevigatus ,turritella ,limnaea ,imbricat>ia ,longiscata ,c>dita ,planico/a 7,fusus7 ,planorbis ,leio/ama ,pyrus ,euomphalus ,cyr5a ,semi/riata ,,eoc5e ,,& ,,oligoc5e ,! ,brackle%am ,b$s 9 ,alum ,bay 7#egj ft4 ?ick7 consi/ ( clays1 ) lignite =m+ b&s #f 94 to #b ft4 ?ick2 :ite1 yell[1 & crimson s&s2 & 9 ! upp] "p d>k s&y clays1 ) b&s %[+ impressions ( m>9e fossils4 ,alum ,bay takes its "n f ! alum =m]ly manufactur$ f ! ,t]ti>y clays4 ,! col\r$ s&s h made ! bay fam\s4 ,! col\rs ( ! s&s :5 fre%ly expos$1 & ( ! cliffs :5 wet ) ra91 are v ri* & beautiful1--deep purple1 crimson1 yell[1 :ite1 & grey4 ,"s ( ! b$s are f9ely /rip$ 9 diff]5t %ades by curr5t b$d+4 ,! contra/ ( ^! col\r$ cliffs ) ! ,:ite ,*alk1 wea!r$ to a s(t grey1 ( ! o!r half ( ! bay is v /rik+ & beautiful4 ,ab\t #de ft4 f ! top is a conglom]ate ( fl9t pebbles1 "s ( l>ge size1 cem5t$ by iron oxide4 ,9 ,:itecliff ,bay ! ,brackle%am ,b$s 7#ehe ft47 consi/ ( clays1 s&s1 & s&y clays1 mo/ly d>k1 gre5i% & blue 9 col\r1 conta9+ m>9e fossils & lignite4 ,sir ,ri*>d ,worsley1 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 tells t 9 ,febru>y1 #aggc1 a b$ ( coal 0 laid b>e 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 caus+ great excitem5t 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,p flock$ to ! %ore = coal1 b x prov$ wor?less z fuel4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 work$ to "s ext5t 9 lat] ye>s4 ,9 "s ( ! b$s are _m fossils4 ,numb]s h lately be5 visible :]e a l>ge f\nd] has tak5 place4 ,!re are l>ge %ells ( ,c>dita planico/a & ,turritella imbricat>ia4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 v fragile4 ,9 a /ratum j above ^! are numb]s ( a l>ge ,nummulite 7,nummulites laevigatus74 ,^! are r\nd flat %ells l co9s1--h5ce ! "n 7,lat4 nummus1 a co974 ,!y are a l>ge species ( =am9if]a4 ,we may split !m ) a p5knife2 & !n we see a pretty spiral ( t9y *amb]s4 ,a small] v>iety1 ,n4 v>iol>ius1 occurs a little fur!r on1 & a t9y k9d1 ,n4 elegans1 9 ! ,b>ton clay4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+ features ( ! lat] ,eoc5e is ! imm5se developm5t ( ,nummulite lime/ones--va/ b$s built up ( ! delicate *amb]$ %ells ( ,nummulites1--:i* ext5d f ! ,alps & ,c>pa?ians into ,?ibet1 & f ,morocco1 ,alg]ia1 & ,egypt1 ?r\gh ,afghani/an & ! ,himalaya to ,*9a4 ,! pyramids ( ,egypt are built ( ?is lime/one4 ,! ,brackle%am b$s are foll[$ by ! ,b>ton clay1 fam\s = ! numb] ( beautiful fossil %ells f\nd at ,b>ton on ! ,hamp%ire coa/4 ,at ,:itecliff ,bay ! fossils are1 un=tunately1 v friable4 ,at ,alum ,bay ! pa?way to ! %ore is 9 a gully 9 ! upp] "p ( ! ,b>ton clay4 ,! /rata consi/ ( clays1 s&s1 & s&y clays4 ,! base ( ! b$s is m>k$ by ! zone ( ,nummulites elegans4 ,num]\s v pretty %ells ( ! small] ,b>ton types may be f\nd1 ) fragm5ts ( l>g] ones2 or a :ole "o may be f\nd4 ,ow+ to ! cliff section cutt+ /raight across ! /rata1 :i* are ne>ly v]tical1 !re is f> less ( ! b$s op5 to obs]vation ?an at ,b>ton1 :i* probably acc\nts = ! li/ ( fossils be+ mu* small]4 ,! %ells are *iefly sev]al species ( ,pleurotoma1 ,ro/ell>ia1 ,fusus1 ,voluta1 ,turritella1 ,natica1 a small bivalve ,corbula pisum1 a tubul> %ell ( a s&-bor+ mollusc ,d5talium1 ,o/roea1 ,pect51 ,c>dium1 ,crassatella4 ,! fauna is l a bl5d+ ( ,malayan & ,new ,zeal& =ms ( m>9e life4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,eoc5e f ! ,london clay onw>d ! %ells are su* z ab\nd 9 ! w>m sea s\? ea/ ( ,asia4 ,simil>ly ! plant rema9s take u into a tropic l&1 :]e fan palms & fea!r palms ov]%ad[$ ! c\ntry1 trees ( ! tropics m+l+ ) trees we /ill f9d 9 m ,nor!rn latitudes4 ,! g5]al "* ( ! flora z ( ! %ells 0 ,ori5tal & ,malayan2 bo? be+ succe$$ 9 lat] /rata by a flora & fauna ) great] analogy to t n[ exi/+ 9 ,we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,alum ,bay ! ,b>ton clay is sudd5ly succe$$ by ! v f9e yell[ & :ite s&s :i* run along ! we/]n base ( ,headon ,hill1 ! curve ( ! syncl9e br++ !m r\nd f a ne>ly v]tical to an almo/ horizontal position4 ,^! are n[ kn[n z ! ,b>ton ,s&4 ,!y are #ij ft4 ?ick1 ! :ole ( ! ,b>ton b$s be+ #cch ft4 9 ,alum ,bay1 #cfh ft4 9 ,:itecliff4 ,! s&s 7 =m]ly ext5sively us$ = glass mak+4 ,!y are almo/ unfossilif]\s4 ,! passage f ,b>ton clay to ! s&s 9 ,:itecliff ,bay is m gradual4 ,! s&s "h %[ "s f9e col\r+ :i* rem9ds u ( ! m celebrat$ s&s ( ,alum ,bay4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see ,memoir ( ,geological ,survey ( ,i4 ,w4 by ,h4 ,j4 ,osborne ,:ite1 ,f4,g4,s4 #aiba1 p4 #ij4 ,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,oligoc5e ,we pass on to /rata :i* us$ to be call$ ,upp] ,eoc5e1 b are n[ g5]ally classifi$ z a p]iod by !mselves1 & call$ ! ,oligoc5e4 ,!y are also kn[n z ! ,fluvio-m>9e s]ies4 ,l>ge "p 0 deposit$ 9 fre%wat] by riv]s runn+ into lagoons1 or 9 ! bracki% wat] ( e/u>ies1 :ile at times ! sea encroa*$1 & b$s ( m>9e orig9 7 laid d[n4 ,! we/ ( ! ,isl& is mu* ! be/ locality = ! l[] /rata1 ^? :i* take _! "n f ,headon ,hill betwe5 ,alum & ,totl& ,bays4 ,!re are ?ree divisions ( ! ,headon /rata1 m>9e b$s 9 ! middle com+ betwe5 upp] & l[] b$s =m$ 9 fre% & bracki% wat]4 ,light gre5 clays are v *>act]i/ic ( ^! b$s1 & at ! we/ ( ! ,isl& ?ick fre%wat] lime/ones1 :i* h di$ out be=e ! /rata re-appe> 9 ,:itecliff ,bay4 ,! /ronge/ masses ( lime/one 9 ,headon ,hill belong to ! ,upp] division4 ,! lime/ones are full ( fre%wat] %ells1 ne>ly all ! long spiral ,limnaea & ! flat spiral disc ( ,planorbis1 p]haps ! mo/ abundant species be+ ,l4 longiscata & ,p4 euomphalus4 ,! lime/ones !mselves are almo/ entirely ! produce ( a fre%wat] plant ,*>a1 :i* precipitates lime on its tissues1 9 ! same mann] z ! sea we$s we call corall9es4 ,on ! %ore r\nd ! base ( ,headon ,hill lie num]\s blocks ( lime/one1 ! debris ( /rata fall5 9 confusion1 9 :i* are beautiful specim5s ( ,limnaea & ,planorbis4 ,! %ells1 h[ev]1 are v fragile4 ,! m>9e b$s ( ! ,middle ,headon are be/ se5 9 ,colwell ,bay1 :]e a few y>ds nor? ( ,h[ ,l$ge !y desc5d to ! bea*1 & a cliff is se5 =m$ ( a ?ick b$ ( oy/]s1 ,o/rea velata4 ,! oy/]s occupy a holl[ erod$ 9 a s&y clay full ( ,cy!rea incrassata1 f :i* ! b$ is kn[n z ! ,v5us b$1 ! %ell =m]ly be+ call$ ,v5us1 lat] ,cy!rea1 at pres5t ,m]etrix4 ,! m>9e b$s conta9 _m drift$ fre%wat] %ells z ,limnaea & ,cyr5a4 ,! ,h[ ,l$ge lime/one =ms ! top ( ! ,l[] ,headon4 ,x is full ( well-pres]v$ ,limnaea & ,planorbis4 ,! ,upp] & ,l[] ,headon are ma9ly fre% or bracki% wat] deposits4 ,! purely fre%wat] b$s conta9 ,limnaea1 ,planorbis1 ,palud9a1 ,unio1 & l&-%ells4 ,9 ! bracki% are f\nd ,potamomya1 ,cyr5a1 ,c]i?ium 7,potamides71 ,melania & ,melanopsis4 ,palud9a l5ta is v abundant ?r\gh\t ! ,oligoc5e4 ,a l>ge numb] ( ! m>9e %ells ( ! ,headon b$s are species also f\nd 9 ! ,b>ton clay4 ,cy!rea1 ,voluta1 ,ancill>ia1 ,pleurotoma1 ,natica are purely m>9e g5]a4 ,9 ,:ite ,cliff ,bay ! b$s are mo/ly e/u>9e4 ,mo/ ( ! fossils are f\nd 9 two b&s1 "o ab\t #cj ft4 above ! base ( ! s]ies1 ! o!r a /iff blue clay1 ab\t #ij feet high]1 :i* seems to correspond ) ! ,v5us ,b$ ( ,colwell ,bay4 ,_m ( ! fossils are ( ,b>ton types4 ,! ,headon b$s are ab\t #aej feet ?ick at ,headon ,hill1 #bab ft4 9 ,:itecliff ,bay2 & are foll[$ by b$s v>y+ f ab\t #hj to #aaj ft4 9 ?ickness1 kn[n z ! ,osborne & ,/4 ,hel5s s]ies4 ,!y consi/ ma9ly ( m>ls v>i\sly col\r$1 ) s&/one & lime/one4 ,9 ,headon ,hill is a ?ick concretion>y lime/one1 :i* almo/ disappe>s nor?w>d4 ,! ,oligoc5e /rata (t5 v>y consid]ably )9 %ort di/ances4 ,! ,osborne b$s are expos$ along ! l[ %ore betwe5 ,c[es & ,ryde1 & f ,sea ,view to ,/4 ,hel5s4 ,9 ,:itecliff ,bay !y are n well se51 occurr+ 9 ov]gr[n slopes4 ,!y consi/ mo/ly ( r$ & gre5 clays4 ,a b& ( cream-yell[ lime/one a foot ?ick is ! mo/ conspicu\s feature4 ,! fossils resemble ^? f ! ,headon b$s1 b are mu* less pl5tiful4 ,! m>ls seem to h be5 mo/ly deposit$ 9 lagoons ( bracki% wat]1 :i* at ! pres5t day are fav\rite places = turtles & alligators1 & ( ^! _m rema9s are f\nd 9 ! ,osborne b$s4 ,! b$s are specially not$ = ! %oals ( small fi%1 ,diplomy/us vect5sis 7,clupea71 fir/ obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,col5utt1 ,f4,g4,s41 & prawns f\nd 9 !m1 & also rema9s ( plants4 ,! b$s t appe> 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,sea ,view & ,/4 ,hel5s are divid$ into ,nettle/one ,grits & ,/4 ,hel5's ,s&s1 ! =m] conta9+ a free/one #h feet ?ick4 ,above ^! b$s lies ! ,bembridge lime/one1 :i* is s conspicu\s 9 ,:itecliff ,bay1 & =ms ,bembridge ,l$ge4 ,on ! nor? %ore ( ! ,isl& ! /rata rise slightly on ! nor!rn side ( ! syncl9e4 ,!re are also m9or undulations 9 an ea/ & we/ direction4 ,! result is to br+ up ! ,bembridge lime/one at v>i\s po9ts along ! nor? %ore1 :]e x =ms conspicu\s l$ges--,ham/ead ,l$ge at ! m\? ( ! ,newt[n riv]1 l$ges 9 ,?orness ,bay1 & ,gurn>d ,l$ge4 ,9 ,:itecliff ,bay ! lime/one1 ab\t #be feet ?ick1 =ms ! conspicu\s reef call$ ,bembridge ,l$ge4 ,! ,bembridge lime/one consi/s ( two or m b&s ( lime/one ) int]calat$ clays4 ,x is usually :it] ?an ! ,headon lime/ones1 & ! fossils occur z ca/s1 ! %ells be+ sometimes replac$ by calc-sp>4 ,! lime/one has be5 mu* us$ z a build+ /one = c5turies1 n only 9 ! ,isl&1 b = build+s on ! ma9l&4 ,! mo/ fam\s qu>ries 7 ^? ne> ,b9/ead1 f :i* ,qu>r1 ! site ( ! great ,abbey1 n[ almo/ entirely disappe>$1 d]ives its "n4 ,f ^! qu>ries 0 obta9$ mu* ( ! /one = ,w9*e/] ,ca!dral & _m o!r anci5t build+s4 ,9 ! old walls & build+s ( ,s\?ampton ! /one may be recognis$ at once by ! ca/s ( ! ,limnaeae x conta9s4 ,! qu>ries at ,qu>r 7 not$ 9 m ways ?an "o4 ,9 lat] times ! rema9s ( e>ly mammalia1--,palaeo!rium1 ,anoplo!rium1 & o!rs--h be5 f\nd4 ,! qu>ries are n[ ab&on$ & ov]gr[n4 ,! lime/one may be se5 inl& at ,brad+1 :]e x =ms ! ridge on :i* ! ,*ur* /&s4 ,! lime/one is a fre%wat] =mation1 & ! fossils are mo/ly fre%wat] %ells1 ( ! same type z ! ,headon1 ,limnaea & ,planorbis ! mo/ common4 ,!re are also l& %ells1 especially sev]al species ( ,helix1 ! g5us :i* includes ! common snail1--,h4 globosa1 v l>ge1--& great species ( ,bulimus 7,amphidromus7 & ,a*at9a 7,b4 ,ellipticus1 ,a4 co/ellata74 ,^! int]e/+ %ells 7 *iefly obta9$ 9 ! lime/one at ,sconce ne> ,y>m\?1 a locality n[ inaccessible1 be+ occupi$ by =tifications4 ,! l& %ells h an aff9ity to species n[ f\nd 9 ,s\!rn ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! lime/one also ab\nds 9 ! s-call$ se$s ( ,*>a4 ,! reproductive organs1--! se$s1--( ?is curi\s wat]-plant1 alli$ to ! l[] ,algae1 are1 l ! re/ ( ! plant1 encas$ 9 c>bonate ( lime1 & are v durable4 ,l>ge numb]s are f\nd 9 ! ,oligoc5e /rata4 ,"u ! microscope !y are se5 to be beautifully sculptur$ 9 v>i\s designs1 ) a delicate spiral runn+ r\nd !m4 ,above ! lime/one lie ! ,bembridge m>ls1 v>y+ 9 ?ickness 9 diff]5t localities f #gj to #abj feet4 ,nor? ( ,:itecliff ,bay !y /ret* on to ! ,=el&4 ,!y are 9 ! ma9 a fre%wat] =mation1 b a few feet above ! lime/one is a m>9e b& ) oy/]s1 ,o/rea ,vect5sis4 ,x runs out along ! %ore1 :]e ! oy/]s may be se5 cov]+ ! surface4 ,! ,l[] ,m>ls consi/ *iefly ( v>i\sly-col\r$ clays ) _m %ells1 *iefly ,cyr5a pul*ra1 semi/riata1 & obovata1 ,c]i?ium mutabile1 & ,melania muricata 7acuta72 & r$ & gre5 m>ls1 9 :i* are few %ells1 b fragm5ts ( turtle occur4 ,a little above ! oy/] b$ is a b& ( h>d-blui% sept>ian lime/one4 ,sixty ye>s ago ,edw>d ,=bes rem>k$ on ! resemblance ( ?is b& to ! h>d] insect-be>+ lime/ones ( ! ,purbeck b$s4 ,9 a lime/one exactly resembl+ ?is1 & simil>ly situat$ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! m>ls 9 ,gurn>d & ,?orness ,bays1 num]\s insects 7 aft]w>ds f\nd1--beetles1 flies1 locu/s1 & dragonflies1 & spid]s4 ,leaves ( plants1 includ+ palms1 fig1 & c9namon1 h also be5 f\nd 9 ?is b$1 %[+ t ! climate 0 /ill sub-tropical4 ,! upp] ,m>ls consi/ *iefly ( grey clays ) abundance ( ,melania turritissima 7,potamaclis74 ,! *ief %ells 9 ! m>ls are ,cyr5a1 ,melania1 ,melanopsis & ,palud9a 7,vivip>us74 ,!y are (t5 beautifully pres]v$2 ! species ( ,cyr5a (t5 reta9 _! col\r-m>k+s4 ,bembridge ,=el& is =m$ by a ?ick b$ ( fl9t gravel re/+ on ! m>ls1 :i* are se5 aga9 9 ,priory ,bay1 :]e 9 w9t] !y fl[ ov] ! sea-wall 9 a semi-liquid condition4 ,!y lie above ! lime/one at ,gurn>d1 ,?orness1 & ,ham/ead4 ,we/ ( ,ham/ead ,l$ge ! :ole ( ! b$s crop out on ! %ore1 :]e beautifully pres]v$ fossils may be collect$4 ,l>ge pieces ( drift wood occur1 also se$s & fruit4 ,_m fragm5ts ( turtle plates may be f\nd4 ,l>ge cry/als ( sel5ite 7sulphate ( lime7 occur 9 ! ,m>ls4 ,la/ ( ! ,oligoc5e 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight are ! ,ham/ead b$s4 ,^! /rata are peculi> to ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! ,bembridge b$s also are n f\nd on ! ma9l&1 except a small outli] at ,cree*b>r[ ,hill 9 ,dorset4 ,! ,ham/ead b$s consi/ ( "s #bej feet ( m>ls1 9 :i* _m int]e/+ fossils h be5 f\nd4 ,!y cov] a l>ge area ( ! nor!rn "p ( ! ,isl&1 l>gely ov]laid by gravels1 & are only se5 on ! coa/ at ,ham/ead1 :]e !y =m ! great] "p ( ! cliff1 :i* rea*es a height ( #baj ft41 ! top be+ capp$ by gravel4 ,9 w9t] ! clays become semi-liquid1 9 summ] ! surface may be l>gely slip & ra9wa%1 bak$ h>d by ! sun4 ,! l[] "p ( ! /rata may be be/ se5 on ! %ore4 ,! /rata consi/ ( #bbe ft4 ( fre%wat]1 e/u>9e1 & lagoon b$s1 ) ,unio1 ,cyr5a1 ,cyclas1 ,palud9a1 ,hydrobia1 ,melania1 ,planorbis1 ,c]i?ium 7r>e71 & rema9s ( turtles1 crocodiles1 & mammals1 leaves & se$s ( plants2 & above ^! b$s #ca feet ( m>9e b$s ) ,corbula1 ,cy!rea1 ,o/rea callif]a1 ,cuma1 ,voluta1 ,natica1 ,c]i?ium1 & ,melania4 ,except = ! conv5i5ce ( divid+ s l>ge a mass ( /rata1 x w\ld n be necess>y to divide ^! f ! ,bembridge b$s1 z no break 9 ! "* ( ! life ( ! p]iod occurs at ! junction4 ,! basem5t b$ ( ! ,ham/ead /rata is kn[n z ! ,black ,b&1 #b feet ( clay1 col\r$ black ) vegetable matt]1 ) ,palud9a l5ta v num]\s1 ,melanopsis c>9ata1 ,limnaea1 ,planorbis1 a small ,cyclas 7,c4 ,bri/ovii71 se$ vessels1 & lumps ( lignite4 ,x re/s on d>k gre5 m>ls ) ,palud9a l5ta & ,melanopsis1 & full ( roots4 ,?is evid5tly m>ks an old l& surface4 ,ab\t #fe feet high] is ! ,:ite ,b&1--a :ite & gre5 clay full ( %ells1 mo/ly brok54 ,!re are b&s ( tabul> iron/one conta9+ ,palud9a l5ta4 ,clay iron/one 0 =m]ly collect$ on ! %ore betwe5 ,y>m\? & ,ham/ead & s5t to ,swansea to be smelt$4 ,! /rata consi/ l>gely ( mottl$ gre5 & r$ clays1 probably deposit$ 9 bracki% lagoons4 ,^! yield few fossils except rema9s ( turtle & crocodile & drift$ plants4 ,! blue clays are mu* m fossilif]\s4 ,among o!r plants are leaves ( palm & wat]-lily4 ,! /rata gradually become m m>9e upw>ds4 ,! m>9e b$s 7 call$ by ,=bes ! ,corbula b$s1 f two small %ells1 ,c4 pisum & ,c4 vect5sis1 ( :i* "s ( ! clays are full4 ,rema9s ( e>ly mammalia are f\nd 9 ! ,ham/ead b$s1 ! mo/ frequ5t be+ a hog-l animal1 ( suppos$ aquatic habits1 ,hyopotamus1 ( :i* !re are m ?an "o species4 ,! fauna & flora ( ! ,oligoc5e /rata %[ t ! climate 0 /ill sub-tropical1 ?\gh some:at cool+ d[n f ! ,eoc5e4 ,palms grew 9 :at is n[ ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,alligators & crocodiles swam 9 ! riv]s4 ,turtle 7 abundant 9 riv] & lagoon4 ,specially int]e/+ 9 ! ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e are ! mammalian rema9s4 ,!y %[ u mammals 9 an e>ly /age be=e !y bran*$ (f into ! v>i\s families z we "k !m to-day4 ,! ,palaeo!rium 0 an animal l ! tapir1 n[ an inhabitant ( ! w>m] regions ( ,asia & ,am]ica4 ,rec5t discov]ies 9 ,eoc5e /rata 9 ,egypt %[ /ages ( developm5t betwe5 a tapir-l animal & ! elephant ) long trunk & tusks4 ,!re 7 9 ^? days hog-l animals int]m$iate betwe5 ! hogs & ! hippopotami4 ,!re 7 ance/ors ( ! horse ) ?ree toes on ea* foot4 ,!re 7 hornless ance/ors ( ! de] & antelopes4 ,_m ( ! e>ly mammals %[$ *>act]s n[ f\nd 9 ! m>supials1 ! ord] to :i* ! ,kang>oo & ,opossum belong1 memb]s ( :i* are f\nd 9 rocks ( ! ,second>y ,era1 & are ! only repres5tatives ( ! mammalia 9 t age4 ,"s ( ! e>ly ,eoc5e mammalia are ei!r m>supials1 or closely relat$ to !m4 ,9 ! ,oligoc5e we f9d ! mammalian life becom+ m v>i$1 & bran*+ out into ! v>i\s gr\ps we "k to-day2 :ile ! succe$+ ,mioc5e ,p]iod witnesses ! culm9ation ( ! mammalia--mammals ( e family ab\nd+ all ov] ! e>?'s surface1 9 a pr(usion & v>iety n se5 be=e--or s9ce1 outside ! tropics4 ,*apt] ,x ,,be=e ,,& ,,aft]4--,,! ,,ice ,,age4 ,we h read ! /ory writt5 9 ! rocks ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,:at wond]ful *anges we h se5 9 ! c\rse ( ! long hi/ory6 ,fir/ we 7 tak5 back to ! anci5t ,weald5 riv]1 & saw 9 imag9ation ! great cont95t ?r\gh :i* x fl[$1 & ! /range creatures t liv$ 9 ! old l&4 ,we saw ! delta s9k b5ea? ! sea1 & a great ?ickness ( %all[ wat] deposits laid d[n1 enclos+ rema9s ( ammonites & o!r beautiful =ms ( life4 ,!n long ages pass$ away1 :ile 9 ! wat]s ( a deep] sea ! great ?ickness ( ! *alk 0 built up1 ma9ly by ! accumulation ( microscopic %ells4 ,9 "t ! sea b$ rose1 & new l& appe>$1 & ano!r riv] bore d[n fruits to be buri$ ) sea %ells & rema9s ( turtles & crocodiles 9 ! mud deposit$ ne> its m\? to =m ! ,london clay4 ,we foll[$ ! alt]nations ( sea & l&1 & ! *ang+ life ( ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e times4 ,we h he>d ( ! e>ly mammalia f\nd 9 ! qu>ries ( ,qu>r1 & h le>nt f ! leaf b$s ( ,alum ,bay t at t "t ! climate ( ?is "p ( ! _w 0 tropical4 ,inde$1 ,i ?9k ev]y?+ goes to prove t ?r\gh ! :ole ( ! times we h be5 /udy+1--except p]haps ! e>lie/ ,eoc5e1 t ( ! ,read+ b$s1--! climate 0 consid]ably w>m] ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,aft] all ^! *anges d y n want to "k :at happ5$ next8 ,well1 at ?is po9t we come to a gap 9 ! records ( ! rocks1 n only 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 b also 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,! ,briti% ,isles1 or ev5 ,engl& & ,wales alone1 are almo/1 if n q unique 9 ! _w 9 t1 9 _! small ext5t1 !y conta9 specim5s ( ne>ly e =mation f ! mo/ anci5t times to ! pres5t day4 ,9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w we may f9d regions _m times ?is area1 :]e we c only /udy ! rocks ( "s "o p]iod4 ,b j at ?is po9t 9 ! /ory comes a p]iod1--a v important "o1 too1--! ,mioc5e--( :i* we h no rema9s 9 our ,isl&s4 ,we mu/ he> a little ( :at happ5$ be=e we come back to ! ,isle ( ,wight aga9 9 comp>atively rec5t times4 ,b1 fir/1 p]haps1 ,i _h bett] tell1--j 9 outl9e1--some?+ ( ! e>li] hi/ory ( ! _w1 be=e any ( our ,isle ( ,wight rocks 7 made4 ,=1 if ,i d n1 q a wrong idea may be =m$ ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! "t ( ! ,weald5 riv] has seem$ to u v anci5t4 ,we _c say h[ _m hundr$s ( ?\s&s1 or r millions ( ye>s h pass$ s9ce t anci5t ,weald5 age4 ,& y may h ?\ght t we _h got back !n v ne> ! _w's bir?day1 & 7 look+ at "s ( ! olde/ rocks on ! globe4 ,b no4 ,we are n ne> ! beg9n+ yet4 ,comp>$ ) ! va/ ages t w5t be=e1 our ,weald5 p]iod is almo/ mod]n4 ,we _c tell ) any c]ta9ty ! comp>ative "t2 b we may comp>e ! ?ickness ( /rata =m$ to give u "s sort ( idea4 ,n[ to ! fir/ /rata 9 :i* fossil rema9s ( liv+ ?+s are f\nd we h 9 all a ?ickness ( /rata "s #ab times t ( all ! rocks we h be5 /udy+ f ,weald5 to ,oligoc5e1 toge!r ) ! lat] rocks1 ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e1 n f\nd 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,& be=e t !re is1 p]haps1 an equal ?ickness ( s$im5t>y deposits2 ?\gh ! fossils !y1 no d\bt1 once conta9$ h be5 de/roy$ by *anges ! rocks h und]gone4 ,n[ let me try to give y "s idea ( ! _w's hi/ory up to ! po9t :]e we began 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,if we c\ld see back ?r\gh ! ages to ! fur!/ pa/ ( geological hi/ory1 we %\ld see our _w1--be=e any ( ! /ratifi$ rocks 7 laid d[n 9 ! seas1--be=e ! seas !mselves 7 made1--a hot globe1 molt5 at lea/ at ! surface4 ,h[ d we "k ?is8 ,because "u ! rocks ( all ! _w's surface we f9d !re is granite or "s simil> rock1--a rock :i* %[s by its composition t x has cry/allis$ f a molt5 condition4 ,moreov] we h se5 t ! int]ior ( ! e>? is int5sely hot4 ,& yet all along ! e>? mu/ be radiat+ (f heat into ! cold dep?s ( space1 & cool+ l any o!r hot body surr\nd$ by space cool] ?an itself4 ,& ?is has gone on = untold ages4 ,f> en\gh back we mu/ come to a "t :5 ! e>? 0 r$ hot1--:ite hot4 ,9 imag9ation we see x cool+1--! molt5 mass solidifies into ,igne\s rock1--! cl\ds ( /eam 9 :i* ! globe is wrapp$ cond5se 9 oceans ^u ! surface4 ,! b&s ( cry/all9e rock t rise above ! primeval seas are gradually worn d[n by ra9 & riv]s & waves1 & ! fir/ s$im5t>y deposits laid d[n 9 ! wat]s4 ,& 9 ! wat]s & on ! l& life appe>$ = ! fir/ "t1--we "k n h[4 ,a va/ ?ickness ( /ratifi$ rocks 0 =m$1 :i* are call$ ,ar*aean 7anci5t74 ,!y repres5t a "t1 p]haps1 z great z all t has foll[$4 ,^! rocks h und]gone great *anges s9ce _! =mation4 ,!y h be5 press$ "u masses ( ov]ly+ /rata1 & h come into ! neighb\rhood ( ! heat$ int]ior ( ! e>?2 !y h be5 burnt & bak$ & compress$ & fold$1 & act$ on by heat$ wat] & /eam1 & _! :ole /ructure alt]$ by heat & *emical action4 ,lime/ones1 e4g41 h become m>ble1 ) a cry/all9e /ructure :i* has oblit]at$ any fossils !y may h once conta9$4 ,yet x is probable t1 l ne>ly all lat] lime/ones1 !y are ( organic orig94 ,^! ,ar*aean rocks cov] a l>ge ext5t ( c\ntry 9 ,canada4 ,we h "s ( !m 9 our ,isl&s1 9 ! ,hebrides1 & nor?-we/ ( ,scotl& & 9 ,anglesey1 & ris+ f b5ea? lat] rocks 9 ! ,malv]n ,hills & ,*>nwood ,=e/4#ab ,! ,ar*aean rocks are succe$$ by ! mo/ anci5t fossilif]\s rocks1 ! great s]ies call$ ! ,cambrian1 because f\nd1 & fir/ /udi$1 9 ,wales4 ,!y consi/ ( v h>d rocks1 & conta9 l>ge quantities ( slate4 ,!y are foll[$ by ano!r s]ies call$ ! ,ordovician2 & t by ano!r ! ,silurian4 ,^! ?ree great sy/ems ( rocks measure 9 all "s #cj1jjj ft4 ( /rata4 ,!y =m ! hills ( ,wales & ! ,engli% ,lake ,di/rict4 ,!y conta9 l>ge masses ( volcanic rocks4 ,we c see :]e 7 ! necks ( old volcanoes1 & ! %eets ( lava :i* fl[$ f !m4 ,! volcanoes are worn d[n to _! bases n[2 & ! hills ( ,wales & ! ,lakes repres5t ! rema9s ( anci5t m\nta9 *a9s1 :i* rose high l ! ,alps 9 days ( old1 long be=e ,alps or ,himalayas began to be made4 ,^! anci5t rocks conta9 abundant rema9s ( liv+ ?+s1 *iefly mollusca1 cru/aceans1 corals1 & o!r m>9e organisms1 %[+ t ! wat]s ( ^? ages ab\nd$ ) life4 ,we mu/ pass on4 ,next comes a p]iod call$ ! ,devonian1 or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 :5 ! ,old ,r$ rocks ( ,devon & ,scotl& 7 laid d[n4 ,^! conta9 rema9s ( _m v>ieties ( v rem>kable fi%4 ,a long p]iod ( coral seas succe$$1 :5 coral reefs fl\ri%$ ov] :at 0 to be ,engl&2 & _! rema9s =m$ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,d]by%ire & ! ,m5dip ,hills4 ,a p]iod foll[$ ( imm5se duration1 :5 ov] pretty well ! :ole e>? !re seem to h be5 comp>atively l[ l&s cov]$ ) a luxuriant & v /range vegetation4 ,! rema9s ( ^! anci5t =e/s h =m$ ! coal measures1 :i* tell ( ! mo/ widespread & longe/ endur+ gr[? ( vegetation ! _w has se54 ,/range z "s ( ! plants 7--gigantic horsetails & club-mosses gr[+ into trees--_m 7 exquisitely beautiful4 ,!re 7 no fl[]+ plants1 b ! f]ns1 _m ( !m tree f]ns1 7 ( z delicate beauty z ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,_m ( ! f]ns bore se$s1 & 7 n reproduc$ by spores1 su* z we see on ! fronds ( our pres5t f]ns4 ,t is a wond]ful /ory ( plant hi/ory1 :i* has only be5 read 9 rec5t ye>s4 ,aft] ! long ,c>bonif]\s p]iod came to an end foll[$ p]iods 9 :i* great =mations ( r$ s&/one 7 made1--! ,p]mian1 & ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one or ,trias4 ,dur+ mu* ( ?is "t ! condition ( ! c\ntry seems to h resembl$ t ( ! ,/eppes ( ,c5tral ,asia1 or ev5 ! great des]t ( ,sah>a--great dry s&y des]ts--hills ( b>e rock ) screes ( brok5 fragm5ts heap$ up at _! base1--salt inl& lakes1 deposit+1 z ! effect ( int5se evaporation1 ! b$s ( rock salt we f9d 9 ,*e%ire or else:]e1 9 ! same mann] z is tak+ place to-day 9 ! ,caspian ,sea1 9 ! salt lakes ( ! nor!rn edge ( ! ,sah>a1 & 9 ! ,great ,salt ,lake ( ,utah4 ,at ! close ( ! p]iod ! l& "h sank b5ea? ! sea--aga9 a sea ( coral isl&s l ! ,s\? ,pacific ( to-day4 ,!re 7 _m oscillations ( level1 or *anges ( curr5ts2 & b&s ( clay1 :5 mud f ! l& 0 laid d[n1 alt]nate ) b$s ( lime/one =m$ 9 ! cle>] coral seas4 ,^! /rata =m a p]iod kn[n z ! ,jurassic1 f ! l>ge developm5t ( ! rocks 9 ! ,jura m\nta9s4 ,9 ,engl& ! p]iod includes ! ,liassic & ,oolitic epo*s4 ,! ,liassic /rata /ret* across ,engl& f ,lyme ,regis 9 ,dorset to ,:itby 9 ,york%ire4 ,mo/ ( ! /rata we are describ+ run across ,engl& f s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/4 ,aft] !y 7 laid d[n a movem5t ( elevation1 connect$ ) ! movem5t :i* rais$ ! ,alps 9 ,europe1 took place along ! l9es ( ! ,wel% & ,scot* m\nta9s & ! *a9 ( ,sc&9avia1 :i* rais$ ! v>i\s /rata1 & left !m dipp+ to ! s\?-ea/4 ,worn d[n by d5udation ! edges are n[ expos$ 9 l9es runn+ s\?-we/ to nor?-ea/1 :ile ! /rata dip s\?-ea/ "u ! edges ( ! m rec5t /rata4 ,! ,lias is not$ = its ammonites1 & especially = its great m>9e reptiles1 ,i*?yosaurus & ,plesiosaurus4 ,! ,oolitic ,epo* foll[s--a long p]iod dur+ :i* ! f9e lime/one1 ! ,ba? free/one1 0 made2 ! lime/ones ( ! ,cotswolds1 b$s ( clay kn[n z ! ,ox=d & ,kimm]idge clays2 & aga9 coral reefs left ! rock kn[n z coral rag4 ,9 ! lat] "p ( ! p]iod 7 =m$ ! ,portl& & ,purbeck b$s1 m>9e & fre%wat] lime/ones1 :i* conta9 also an old l& surface1 :i* has left silicifi$ trunks ( trees & /ems ( cycads4 ,& n[ foll[+ on ^! came our ,weald5 /rata1 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,y see :at ages & ages _h gone be=e1 & t :5 ,weald5 times came1 f> back z !y are1 ! _w's hi/ory 0 comp>atively approa*+ mod]n times4 ,we mu/ rememb] t all ^! =mations1 ( :i* we h giv5 a rapid sket*1 are ( great ?ickness1--?\s&s ( feet ( rock1--& repres5t va/ ages ( "t4 ,see :at we h got to f look+ at ! %ells 9 ! sea cliff6 ,we h come to le>n some?+ ( ! _w's old hi/ory4 ,we h be5 c>ri$ back ?r\gh ages t pass our imag9ation to ! _w's beg9n+1 to ! "t ( ! molt5 globe1 be=e ev] x 0 cool en\gh to all[ life--we "k n h[--to beg9 ^u its surface4 ,& ,a/ronomy w take u back into an ev5 m di/ant pa/1 & %[ u a nebul\s mi/ ( va/ ext5t /ret*+ out into space l ! nebulae obs]v$ 9 ! heav5s to-day1 be=e sun & planets & moons 7 yet =m$4 ,s we are c>ri$ into ! inf9ite ( "t & space1 & que/ions arise beyond ! p[] ( human m9d to solve4 ,n[ we h1 ,i hope1 a bett] idea ( ! position ! /rata we h be5 specially /udy+ occupy 9 ! geological hi/ory1 & %all und]/& ! relation ! /rata we may f9d else:]e be> to ^? 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight & ! neighb\r+ s\? ( ,engl&4 ,aft] ?is sket* ( :at w5t be=e our ,isl& /ory1 we mu/ see :at foll[$ at ! end ( ! ,oligoc5e p]iod4 ,we said t !re are no /rata 9 ! ,briti% ,isles repres5t+ ! next p]iod1 ! ,mioc5e4 ,b x 0 a p]iod ( great importance 9 ! _w's hi/ory4 ,great /ratifi$ deposits 7 laid d[n 9 ,france & ,switz]l& & else:]e1 & x 0 a great age ( m\nta9 build+4 ,! ,alps & ! ,himalaya1 l>gely compos$ ( ,cretace\s & ,eoc5e rocks1 7 upheav$ into great m\nta9 ranges4 ,x is probable t dur+ mu* ( ! p]iod ! ,briti% ,isles 7 dry l&1 & t great d5udation ( ! l& took place4 ,b 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! p]iod at all ev5ts ?is "p ( ! _w mu/ h be5 "u wat]1 & /rata h be5 laid d[n1 :i* h s9ce be5 d5ud$ away4 ,= our s(t ,oligoc5e /rata1 if expos$ to ra9 & riv] action dur+ ! long ,mioc5e p]iod & ! "t :i* foll[$1 w\ld surely h be5 entirely swept away4 ,! ,mioc5e 0 succe$$ by ! ,plioc5e1 :5 ! /rata call$ ! ,crag1 :i* cov] ! surface ( ,norfolk & ,suffolk1 7 =m$4 ,!y are m>9e deposits ) sea %ells1 ( :i* a consid]able proportion ( species /ill survive4 ,we h se5 t ?r\gh ! ages we h be5 /udy+ ! climate 0 mo/ly w>m] ?an at ! pres5t day4 ,! climate ( ! ,eoc5e 0 tropical4 ,! ,mioc5e 0 sub-tropical & becom+ cool]4 ,palms become r>] 9 ! ,upp] /rata4 ,ev]gre5s1 :i* =m ?ree-f\r?s ( ! flora 9 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e1 divide ! flora ) decidu\s trees 9 ! ,upp]4 ,& ?r\gh ! ,plioc5e ! climate1 ?\gh /ill w>m] ?an n[1 0 /eadily becom+ cool]2 till 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! next p]iod1 ! ,plei/oc5e1 x _h become consid]ably cold] ?an t ( ! pres5t day4 ,& !n foll[$ a "t :i* is kn[n z ! great ,ice ,age1 or ! ,glacial ,p]iod1--a "t :i* has left its traces all ov] ?is c\ntry1 &1 inde$ all ov] ,nor!rn ,europe & ,am]ica1 & ev5 into s\!rn l&s4 ,! cold increas$1 heavy sn[falls pil$ up sn[ on ! m\nta9s ( ,wales1 ! ,lake ,di/rict1 & ,scotl&2 & ! sn[ rema9$1 & did n melt1 & m fell & press$ ! l[] sn[ into ice1 :i* fl[$ d[n ! valleys 9 glaci]s1 z 9 ,switz]l& to-day4 ,gradually all ! vegetation ( temp]ate l&s disappe>$1 till only ! dw>f ,arctic bir* & ,arctic will[s 7 to be se54 ,! sea %ells ( temp]ate climates 7 replac$ by nor!rn species4 ,animals ( w>m & temp]ate climates w&]$ s\?1 & ! ,arctic fox1 & ! ,norwegian lemm+1 & ! musk ox :i* n[ lives 9 ! f> nor? ( ,am]ica took _! place2 & ! mammo?1 an ext9ct elephant fitt$ by a ?ick coat ( hair & wool = liv+ 9 cold c\ntries1 & a woolly-hair$ rh9oc]os1 & o!r animals ( arctic regions occupi$ ! l&4 ,:5 ! cold 0 greate/1 ! glaci]s met & =m$ an ice-%eet2 & ,scotl&1 nor!rn ,engl& & ! ,midl&s1 ,wales1 & ,irel& 7 buri$ 9 "o va/ %eet ( ice z ,gre5l& is to-day4 ,h[ d we "k ?is8 ,to tell h[ ! /ory has be5 read w\ld be to tell "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ /ories ( geology4 ,"h we c only give ! briefe/ sket* ( ?is wond]ful *apt] ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,b we mu/ "k a little ( h[ ! /ory has be5 made out4 ,we h already se5 t ! *anges 9 plant & animal life po9t to a *ange f a hot climate1 ?r\gh a temp]ate1 at la/ to arctic cold4 ,aga91 ov] ! great] "p ( ,nor!rn ,engl& ! rocks ( ! v>i\s geological p]iods are buri$ "u %eets ( t\gh clay1 call$ b\ld] clay1 = x is /udd$ ) b\ld]s l>ge & small1 l rais9s 9 a plum pudd+4 ,no fl[+ wat] =ms su* a deposit1 b x is f\nd to be j l ! mass ( clay ) /ones "u ! great glaci]s & ice %eets ( arctic regions2 & j su* a b\ld] clay may be se5 ext5d+ f ! l[] end ( glaci]s 9 ,spitzb]g51 :5 ! glaci] has tempor>ily retreat$ 9 a succession ( w>m summ]s4 ,! /ones 9 our b\ld] clay are poli%$ & scrat*$ 9 a way glaci]s are kn[n to poli% & scrat* ! /ones !y c>ry along1 & rub aga9/ ! rocks & o!r /ones4 ,! rock ov] :i* ! glaci] moves is simil>ly scrat*$ & poli%$1 & j su* scrat*+ & poli%+ is f\nd on ! rocks 9 ,wales & ! ,lake ,di/rict4 ,aga91 we f9d rocks c>ri$ ov] hill & dale & "r across valleys1 x may be half across ,engl&4 ,we c trace = great di/ances ! l9es ( fragm5ts ( "s peculi> rock1 z ! granite ( ,%ap 9 ,we/morl&2 & ev5 rocks f ,norway h be5 c>ri$ across ! ,nor? ,sea1 & left 9 ,ea/ ,anglia4 ,?is w j give an idea h[ we "k ( ?is /range *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( our l&4 ,=1 by ?is "t x 0 our l&--,engl&--mu* z we "k x to-day2 ?\gh at times ! :ole /ood high] above sea level1 s t ! b$s ( ! ,*annel & ! ,nor? ,sea 7 dry l&4 ,b1 ap>t f v>iation ( level1 ! geography 0 9 ! ma9 z n[4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i ,,%+le ,,at ,,=el& ,bm ,bembridge ,m>ls4 ,s ,%+le4 b ,brick ,e>?4 ,cf ,old ,cliff 9 ,m>ls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e ,,diagram ,,( ,,/rata ,,betwe5 ,,s\!rn ,,d[ns ,,& ,,/4 ,,george',s ,,d[n4 ,dott$ ,l9es ,=m] ext5sion ( ,/rata4 ,brok5 ,l9e ,=m] ,b$ ( ,valley slop+ to ,/4 ,george's ,d[n4 ,! ice %eet did n come fur!r s\? ?an ! ,?ames valley4 ,:at 0 ! c\ntry l s\? ( ?is8 ,well1 y mu/ ?9k ( ! l& j outside ! ice %eet 9 ,gre5l&1 or o!r arctic c\ntry4 ,no d\bt ! w9t]s mu/ h be5 v sev]e1--h>d fro/s & heavy sn[s1--! gr\nd froz5 deep4 ,"s arctic animals w\ld manage to live z !y d n[ j outside ! ice %eet 9 ,gre5l&4 ,n[1 h we any deposits =m$ at t "t 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight8 ,i ?9k we h4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! surface ( ! ,isl& is cov]$ by %eets ( fl9t gravel4 ,! gravels diff] 9 age & mode ( =mation4 ,we h already consid]$ ! angul> gravels ( ! ,*alk d[ns1 compos$ ( fl9ts :i* h accumulat$ z ! *alk :i* once conta9$ !m 0 dissolv$ away4 ,b !re are o!r gravel b$s1 :i* consi/ ( fl9ts :i*1 aft] !y 7 set free by ! dissolution ( ! *alk1 h be5 c>ri$ d[n to a l[] level by riv]s or o!r ag5cy1 & m or less r\nd$ 9 ! process4 ,_m ( ^! b$s occur at a high level2 &1 z !y usually cap flat-topp$ hills1 !y are kn[n z ,plateau ,gravels4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable is ! imm5se %eet ( gravel :i* cov]s ! flat top ( ,/4 ,george's ,d[n betwe5 ,arreton & ,newport4 ,gravel pits %[ upw>ds ( #cj feet ( gravel1 consi/+ ( fl9ts ) "s *]t & iron/one1 & ! greate/ ?ickness is probably consid]ably m ?an ?is4 ,! s\!rn edge ( ! %eet is cut (f /raight l a wall4 ,to ! nor? x runs out on ridges betwe5 combes :i* h cut into x4 ,9 places 9 ! mass ( fl9ts occur b$s ( s&1 :i* h all ! appe>ance ( hav+ be5 laid d[n by curr5ts ( wat]4 ,! base ( ! gravel :]e x is se5 on ! /eep s\!rn slope ( ! d[n has be5 cem5t$ by wat] conta9+ iron into a solid conglom]ate rock4 ,! fl9ts =m+ ?is gravel h n simply sunk d[n f *alk /rata dissolv$ away2 = !y lie on ! upturn$ edges ( /rata f ,l[] ,gre5s& to ,upp] ,*alk1 :i* h be5 plan$ (f1 & worn into a surface slop+ g5tly to ! nor?2 & ov] ?is surface ! gravel has someh[ fl[$4 ,! %>p wall 9 :i* x ends at ! upp] "p ( ! slope %[s t x once ext5d$ to ! s\? ov] gr\nd s9ce worn away4 ,cle>ly1 ! gravel 0 =m$ be=e d5udation _h cut out ! great gap betwe5 ! c5tral & s\!rn d[ns ( ! ,isl&4 ,! d[n :]e ! gravel lies is #cfc ft4 above sea level1 #cac ft4 above ! bottom ( ! valley bel[4 ,s t1 ?\gh ! gravel %eet is mu* new] ?an ! /rata we h be5 /udy+1 x mu/ nev]!less be ( great antiquity4 ,x seems t at ! top ( ,/4 ,george's ,d[n we are /&+ on :at 0 once ! floor ( an old valley4 ,9 ! c\rse ( d5udation ! bottom ( a riv] valley (t5 becomes ! highe/ "p ( a di/rict4 ,= ! b$ ( ! valley is cov]$ by fl9t gravel1 & fl9t is excessively h>d1 & ! b$ ( fl9ts protects ! und]ly+ rock2 s t1 :ile ! rocks on ea* side are worn away1 :at 0 ! riv] b$ is ev5tually left high above !m4 ,?us ! highe/ po9ts ( a di/rict are (t5 capp$ by fl9t gravel m>k+ ! b$s ( old /reams4 ,trac+ up ?is old valley to ! s\?w>d1 at a few miles di/ance x w h rea*$ ! *alk region on ! s\? ( ! anticl9e3 & ! fl9ts c>ri$ d[n ! valley may h come f b$s ( angul> fl9ts already dissolv$ out ( ! *alk su* z we f9d on ,/4 ,boniface ,d[n4 ,b h[ h ^! great masses ( fl9ts be5 swept along8 ,c ! l& h be5 d[n "u ! sea2 & h sea waves wa%$ ! /ones along8 ,b ^! fl9ts1 ?\gh wat]-worn1 are n r\nd$ z we f9d bea* %+le4 ,:at imm5se ru% ( wat] c h spread ^! fl9ts #cj feet deep along a riv] valley8 ,we mu/ g to m\nta9 regions = torr5ts ( ?is "*4 ,& !n1 m\nta9 torr5ts r\nd ! /ones 9 _! b$ :ile ^! are mo/ly angul>4 ,! hi/ory ( ^! gravels is a difficult "o4 ,i c only give :at seems to me ! mo/ probable explanation4 ,x appe>s to me probable t 9 ! ,ice ,age1 s\? ( ! ice %eet1 ! gr\nd mu/ h be5 bo? brok5 up by fro/s1 & also held toge!r by be+ froz5 h>d to "s dep?4 ,!n :5 ?aws came 9 ! %ort b w>m summ]s1 or :5 an int]mission ( ! sev]e cold took place1 great floods w\ld fl[ d[n ! valleys 9 ! c\ntry s\? ( ! ice %eet1 & masses ( ice ) froz5 e>? & /ones w\ld be borne along 9 a sort ( semi-liquid fl[4 ,9 ?is way ,mr4 ,clem5t ,reid expla9s ! mass ( brok5-up *alk ) l>ge /ones f\nd on ! heads ( cliffs on ! ,s\? coa/1 & kn[n by ! "n ( combe-rock or head4 ,! ,ice ,age 0 n "o simple p]iod1 & x is /ill difficult to fit toge!r ! hi/ory we read 9 diff]5t places1 & 9 p>ticul> to correlate ! gravels ( ! s\? ( ,engl& ) ! b\ld] clays ( ! glaciat$ area4 ,!re 7 c]ta9ly breaks 9 ! p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! climate became mu* mild]1 or ev5 w>m2 & ^! 7 long en\gh = s\!rn species ( animals & plants to migrate nor?w>d1 & occupy ! l&s :]e an arctic climate _h prevail$4 ,!re 7 moreov] consid]able v>iations 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea4 ,s t we h a v complex hi/ory1 :i* is gradually com+ into cle>] light4 ,t ! gravels ( ! s\? ( ,engl& belong l>gely to ! age ( ice1 is %[n by rema9s ( ! mammo? conta9$ 9 _m4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are f\nd 9 lat] gravels ?an ^? we h consid]$ s f>1 gravels laid d[n aft] ! l& _h be5 cut d[n to mu* l[] levels4 ,^! l[] gravels are kn[n z ,valley gravels1 because !y lie along ! c\rse ( exi/+ valleys1 ! ,plateau gravels hav+ be5 laid d[n be=e ! pres5t valleys came into exi/5ce4 ,tee? ( ! mammo? are f\nd 9 ! ,?ames valley1 & on ! %ores ( ,s\?ampton ,wat]1 9 gravels ab\t #ej to #gj feet above sea level1 & h be5 f\nd also 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight at ,fre%wat] ,gate1 at ! top ( ! cliffs ne> ,brook1 & 9 o!r places4 ,! gravels ne> ,brook ) ! clays on :i* !y re/ h be5 contort$1 & ! gravel =c$ into pockets 9 ! clay1 9 a mann] t sugge/s ! action ( gr\nd+ ice pl\gh+ into ! soil4 ,! high level gravels mu/ belong to an e>ly /age ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4 ,we get "s idea ( ! great l5g? ( "t ?is age mu/ h la/$1 z we look f ,/4 ,george's ,d[n ov] ! l[] c\ntry ( ! c5tre ( ! ,isl&4 ,aft] ! =mation ( ! ,/4 ,george's ,d[n gravel ! va/ mass ( /rata betwe5 ?is & ! opposite d[ns ( ,/4 ,boniface & ,/4 ,ca!r9e's 0 remov$ by d5udation2 & gravels 7 !n laid d[n on ! l[] l&1 along ,blake ,d[n1 at ,arreton1 ov] ,hale common1 & along ! c\rse ( ! ,y>4 ,pat*es ( gravel occur on ! ,s&[n & ,%ankl9 cliffs4 ,at ,little ,/airs a gravel1 l>gely ( angul> *]t1 rea*es a ?ickness ( #ab feet1 & 9 p>ts are sev]al feet ( loam above gravel4 ,at ! we/ ( ! ,isl& a great %eet ( gravel cov]s ! top ( ,headon ,hill1 rea*+ a height ( #cij feet4 ,x appe>s sometimes to measure #cj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,l t on ,/4 ,george's ,d[n x slopes t[>ds ! ,sol5t1 re/+ on an erod$ surface1 9 ?is case ( ,t]ti>y /rata2 & "h too ! upp] "p ( ! %eet has be5 remov$ by ! we>+ out ( ! deep valley betwe5 ! ,hill & ! ,fre%wat] ,d[ns4 ,! %eet lies on an old valley bottom1 :i* slop$ f ! *alk d[ns on ! s\?1 !n mu* high] & m ext5sive ?an n[4 ,"h too we may see some?+ ( ! l5g? ( ! ,glacial ,p]iod4 ,= at ,fre%wat] ,gate is a mu* lat] gravel1 9 :i* tee? ( ! mammo? h be5 f\nd4 ,x 0 probably d]iv$ f old] gravels t once lay to ! s\?1 z ! fl9ts are r\nd$ by transport4 ,b ! =mation ( all ^! gravels appe>s to belong to ! ,glacial ,p]iod2 & z we /& 9 ,fre%wat] ,gate1 & look at ?is great gap 9 ! d[ns worn out by ! ,we/]n ,y>1 & ?9k ( ! "t :5 a riv] valley pass$ ov] ! tops ( ! ,high ,d[ns & ,headon ,hill1 we receive a /rong impression ( ! l5g? ( ! great ,ice ,age4 ,n[ surely ! "q w be ask$1 :at caus$ ^! *anges ( climate 9 ! _w's pa/ hi/ory--s t at times a tropical vegetation spread ov] ?is l&1 & vegetation fl\ri%$ suffici5t to leave b$s ( coal )9 ! ,arctic circle1 & 9 ! ,ant>ctic cont95t1 & at ano!r ! climate ( ,gre5l& came d[n to ,engl&1 & an ice %eet cov]$ ne>ly ! :ole c\ntry8 ,?is /ill rema9s "o ( ! difficult problems ( ,geology4 ,an explanation has be5 attempt$ by ,a/ronomical ,!ory1 accord+ to :i* ! v>y+ ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit--t is to say a slight *ange 9 ! elliptic orbit ( ! ,e>?1 by :i* at times x becomes less ne>ly circul>--a *ange :i* is kn[n to take place--may h _h ! effect ( produc+ ^! v>iations ( climatic conditions4 ,! !ory is v allur+1 = if ?is be ! cause1 we c calculate ma!matically ! date & duration ( ! ,glacial ,p]iod4 ,b1 un=tunately1 suppos+ ! a/ronomical ph5om5a to h ! effect requir$1 ! c\rse ( ev5ts giv5 by ! a/ronomical !ory w\ld be entirely diff]5t to t reveal$ by geological rese>*4 ,geographical explanations h usually fail$ ?r\gh be+ ( too local a "* to expla9 a ph5om5on :i* affect$ ! :ole nor!rn hemisph]e1 & ! effects ( :i* rea*$ at lea/ z f> s\? z ! ,equator1#ac & are se5 aga9 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e 9 ,au/ralia1 ,new ,zeal&1 & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x is n[ believ$ t great _w-movem5ts take place1 due to ! contraction by cool+ ( ! ,e>?'s int]ior1 & ! adju/m5t ( ! cru/ to ! %r9kage4#ad ,possibly "s explanation might be f\nd 9 ^! _w-wide movem5ts2 b _! effect seems to la/ ?r\gh too long p]iods ( "t to suit our ,ice ,ages4 ,aga91 :ile ! geographical di/ribution ( animals & plants 9 ! pres5t & pa/ seems to imply v great *anges 9 ! l& masses & oceanic areas1#ae ^! *anges appe> to be> no relation to glacial epo*s4 ,! cause ( ! ,ice ,ages rema9s at pres5t an unsolv$ problem4 ,m ?an "o ,ice ,age has occurr$ dur+ ! long geological hi/ory4 ,! m>ks ( su* a p]iod are f\nd 9 ,ar*aean rocks1 9 ! ,cambrian1 :5 glaci]s fl[$ d[n to ! sea level 9 ,*9a & ,s\? ,au/ralia )9 a few degrees ( ! tropics1 & above all 9 e>ly ,p]mian times4 ,! ,dwyka conglom]ate ( ! ,k>roo =mation ( ,s\? ,africa 7deposits ( ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s age7 %[ evid5ce ( ext5sive glaciation2 deposits ( ! same age 9 ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,india1 ev5 )9 ! tropics1 a glacial s]ies ( great ?ickness 9 ,au/ralia1 & deposits 9 ,brazil1 appe> to %[ a glaciation great] ?an t ( ! rec5t glacial p]iod4 ,yet ^! epo*s =m$ only episodes 9 ! great geological eras4 ,on ! :ole ! climate ?r\gh\t geological "t w\ld seem to h be5 w>m] ?an at ! pres5t day4 ,x may1 p]haps1 be d\bt$ :e!r ! e>? has yet recov]$ :at we may call its normal temp]ature s9ce ! ,glacial ,epo*4 ,note on ,a/ronomical ,!ory4--,if ! ,ice ,age be due to ! increas$ ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s orbit1 ! !ory %[s t a long duration ( normal temp]ature w be foll[$ by a gr\p ( ,glacial ,p]iods alt]nat+ betwe5 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es1 ! "t elaps+ betwe5 ! culm9ation ( su* a p]iod 9 "o hemisph]e & 9 ! o!r be+ ab\t #aj1ejj ye>s4 ,:ile "o hemisph]e is 9 a glacial p]iod1 ! o!r w be enjoy+ a specially mild1--a g5ial p]iod4 ,n[1 accord+ to ! record ( ! rocks1 ! g5ial p]iods 7 f> f be+ ^? breaks 9 ! ,glacial :i* we "k z ,int]-glacial p]iods4 ,we h ! imm5sely long w>m p]iod ( ! ,eoc5e & ,oligoc5e1 ! ,mioc5e ) a /ill w>m b r$uc$ temp]ature1 & !n ! gradual cool+ dur+ ! ,plioc5e1 till ! drop 9 temp]ature culm9ates 9 ! ,ice ,age4 ,moreov]1 ! duration ( ea* glaciation dur+ ?is ,ice ,age is usually consid]$ to h be5 mu* long] ?an ! #aj1jjj ye>s or s giv5 by ! ,a/ronomical ,!ory4 ,add to ?is t ! p]iods ( high ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s orbit1 ?\gh occurr+ at irregul> int]vals1 are1 on ! scale ( geological "t1 pretty frequ5t2 s t sev]al ( su* p]iods w\ld h occurr$ dur+ ! ,eoc5e alone4 ,yet ! geological evid5ce %[s unbrok5 sub-tropical conditions 9 ?is "p ( ! _w ?r\gh\t ! ,eoc5e4 ,footnote #ab3 ,! old] division ( ! ,ar*aean rocks--! ,lewisian gneisse--consi/s entirely ( metamorphic & igne\s rocks2 a lat] division--! ,torridonian s&/ones--is comp>atively little alt]$1 b /ill unfossilif]\s4 ,footnote #ac3 ,! great equatorial m\nta9s ,kilimanj>o & ,ruw5zori %[ signs ( a =m] ext5sion ( glaci]s4 ,footnote #ad3 ,= an acc\nt ( su* movem5ts1 see ,pr(4 ,gregory's ,mak+ ( ! ,e>? 9 ! ,home ,univ]sity ,libr>y4 ,footnote #ae3 ,see ,! ,w&]+s ( ,animals4 ,by ,h4 ,gad[1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,cambridge ,manuals4 ,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,! ,,isl& ,,riv]s2 ,,& ,,h[ ,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,wight ,,became ,,an ,,isl& ,we mu/ n[ consid] ! hi/ory ( ! riv] sy/em ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 to :i* our /udy ( ! gravels has br\ght u4 ,= riv]s h a hi/ory1 sometimes a mo/ int]e/+ "o1 :i* c>ries u back f> into ! pa/4 ,ev5 ! little riv]s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight may be truly call$ anci5t riv]s4 ,= ?\gh rec5t 9 comp>ison ) ! ages ( geological "t1 !y are ( a va/ antiquity comp>$ ) ! hi/orical p]iods ( human hi/ory4 ,to und]/& our riv] sy/ems we mu/ g back to ! "t :5 /rata =m$ by deposit ( s$im5t 9 ! sea 7 upheav$ above ! sea level4 ,to take ! simple/ case1 t ( a s+le anticl9al axis fad+ (f gradually at ea* end1 we %all h a sort ( turtle back ( l& em]g$ f ! sea1 z 9 figure #f1 aa be+ ! anticl9al axis4 ,f ?is ridge /reams w run d[n on ei!r side 9 ! direction ( ! dip1 _! c\rse be+ det]m9$ by "s m9or folds ( ! /rata1 or diff]5ce ( h>dness 9 ! surface1 or cracks =m$ dur+ elevation4 ,on ea* side ( ! dip-/reams small] ones w fl[1 m or less 9 ! direction ( ! /rike1 & run into ! ma9 /reams4 ,v>i\s irregul>ities1 su* z />t$ ! fl[ ( ! /reams1 w fav\r "o or ano!r4 ,consid] ?ree /reams1 a1 b1 c1 & let u suppose ! middle "o ! /ronge/1 ) greate/ fl[ ( wat]1 & cutt+ d[n its b$ mo/ rapidly4 ,its side /reams w become /eep] & h m erosive =ce1 & s w eat back _! c\rses mo/ rapidly until !y /rike ! l9e ( ! /reams on ei!r side4 ,_! /eep] *annels w !n (f] ! be/ way = ! upp] wat]s ( ! /reams !y h cut to rea* ! sea2 & ^! /reams w consequ5tly be tapp$1 & _! head wat]s cut (f to fl[ to ! *annel ( ! c5tre /ream4 ,we %all ?us h = a second /age 9 ! hi/ory a sy/em su* z is %[n 9 fig4 #g4 ,! same process w cont9ue till "o riv] has tapp$ sev]al o!rs2 & !re w result ! usual figure ( a riv] & its tribut>ies1 to :i* we are accu/om$ on our maps4 ,we %all obs]ve t tribut>ies d n z a rule gradually approa* ! c5tral /ream1 b sudd5ly turn (f at ne>ly a "r angle f ! direction 9 :i* !y are fl[+1 &1 aft] a long] or %ort] c\rse1 jo9 at ano!r %>p angle a riv] fl[+ m or less p>allel to _! orig9al direction4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g ,,developm5t ,,( ,,riv] ,,sy/ems ,! ,*alk & ov]ly+ ,t]ti>y /rata 7 uplift$ f ! sea 9 great folds =m+ a s]ies ( su* turtle-backs z we h be5 consid]+4 ,! l9e ( upheaval 0 n s\?-we/ & nor?-ea/1 z t :i* rais$ ! old] =mations 9 b&s across ,engl&1 b took place 9 an ea/ & we/ direction4 ,! ma9 upheaval 0 t ( ! great ,weald5 anticl9e4 ,o!r folds produc$ ! ,s&[n & ,brook anticl9es1 & t ( ! ,portsd[n ,hills4 ,! upheaval seem$ to h be5 caus$ by pressure act+ f ! s\?1 = ! /eep] slope ( ea* fold is on ! nor!rn side4 ,our late/ ,oligoc5e /rata are tilt$ ) ! *alk1 %[+ t ! upheaval took place aft] ,oligoc5e times4 ,b ! great movem5t 0 9 ! ma9 e>li] ?an ! ,plioc5e4 ,= on ! ,nor? ,d[ns ne> ,l5ham is a pat* ( ,l[] ,plioc5e deposit re/+ directly on ! ,*alk1 ! old] ,t]ti>y /rata hav+ be5 remov$ by d5udation1 cle>ly due to ! uplift ( ! ,weald5 anticl9e4 ,! rais+ ( ! ,plioc5e deposit to its pres5t position proves t ! same movem5t 0 cont9u$ at a lat] "t1 probably dur+ ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! movem5t may be assign$ to ! ,mioc5e1 ! p]iod ( great _w-movem5ts :i* rais$ ! ,alps & ! ,himalaya4 ,_m rem>kable1 &1 at fir/ sight1 v puzzl+ features connect$ ) ! c\rses ( riv]s f9d an explanation :5 we /udy ! riv] hi/ory4 ,?us1 look+ at ! ,weald ( ,k5t & ,sussex1 we see t x consi/s ( comp>atively l[ gr\nd ris+ to a l9e ( heights ea/ & we/ along ! c5tre1 & surr\nd$ on all sides b ! s\?-ea/ by a wall ( ,*alk d[ns4 ,if we consid]$ ! subject1 we %\ld suppose t ! dra9age ( ! c\ntry w\ld be t[>ds ! s\?-ea/1 :i* is op5 to ! sea4 ,n s4 ,all ! riv]s fl[ f ! c5tral heights nor? & s\?1--g /raight = ! walls ( *alk d[ns1 & cut ?r\gh ! esc>pm5t 9 deep clefts to fl[ into ! ,?ames & ! ,*annel4 ,?is is expla9$ :5 we rememb] t ! riv]s began to fl[ :5 ! great curve ( /rata rose above ! sea4 ,?\gh erod$ by ! sea dur+ its elevation1 yet :5 x rose above ! wat]s ! ar* ( *alk mu/ h be5 cont9u\s f :at are n[ ,nor? ,d[ns to ,s\?4 ,& f ! c5tre l9e ( ! great turtle back ! /reams began to fl[ nor? & s\?1 cutt+ 9 ! c\rse ( ages deep *annels = !mselves4 ,! great] erosion 9 _! high] c\rses has cut away ! mass ( *alk f ! c5tre ( ! ,weald1 b ! riv]s /ill fl[ 9 ! direction det]m9$ :5 ! ar* 0 /ill entire4 ,we h a simil> /ate ( ?+s 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,any "o n kn[+ ! geological /ory1 & look+ at ! geography ( ! ,isl&1 might naturally suppose t !re w\ld be a /ream fl[+ f we/ to ea/1 ?r\gh ! l[ gr\nd betwe5 ! two ranges ( d[ns1 & f9d+ its way into ! sea 9 ,s&[n ,bay4 ,in/ead ( ?is ! ?ree riv]s ( ! ,isl&1 ! two ,y>s & ! ,m$9a1 all fl[ nor?1 & cut ?r\gh ! *alk esc>pm5t ( ! ,c5tral d[ns1 z if an e>?quake _h made rifts = !m to pass1 & s f9d _! way into ! ,sol5t4 ,! explanation is ! same z 9 ! case ( ! ,weald4 ,! riv]s began to fl[ :5 ! ,*alk /rata 7 cont9u\s ov] ! c5tre ( ! ,isl&2 & _! c\rse 0 det]m9$ :5 ! ea/ & we/ anticl9al axis rose above ! sea4 ,we %all notice1 h[ev]1 t ! ,isl& riv]s />t f s\? ( ! anticl9al axis4 ,! c5tre ( ! ,s&[n anticl9e runs j nor? ( ,s&[n1 b ! v>i\s bran*es ( ! ,y> & ,m$9a fl[ f well s\? ( ?is4 ,! explanation w\ld appe> to be t ! anticl9e is almo/ a monocl9al curve1--t is to say1 "o slope is /eep1 ! o!r n f> f horizontal4 ,/reams />t+ f ! ridge w\ld fl[ ) mu* great] =ce d[n ! nor!rn ?an ! s\!rn side1 & w\ld cut back _! c\rse mu* m quickly4 ,?us !y w\ld cont9ually cut into ! heads ( ! s\!rn /reams1 & turn ! wat] supply+ !m into _! own *annels4 ,9 its e>ly hi/ory a riv] cuts out its b$1 & c>ries along pebbles1 s& & mud to ! sea4 ,! head wat]s are con/antly cutt+ back1 & ! slope becom+ less /eep1 till a "t comes :5 ! /ream 9 its g5tly incl9$ l[] c\rse has no m p[] to excavate1 & ! f9] s$im5t1 :i* is all t n[ rea*es ! l[] riv]1 beg9s to fill up ! old *annel4 ,& s ! alluvium is =m$ :i* fills ! l[] portions ( our riv] valleys4 ,beyond ?is1 ! great ru% ( wat]s f melt+ sn[s & ice ( ! ,glacial ,p]iod has come to an end4 ,! g5tl] & dim9i%$ /reams ( a dri] age h no p[] to roll fl9t /ones along & =m b$s ( gravel4 ,gravel t]races bord] our riv] valleys at a high] level ?an ! pres5t /reams4 ,p]iods alt]nat$ dur+ :i* gravels 7 laid d[n by ! riv]1 & :5 ! riv] acquir+ m erosive =ce1 by an elevation ( ! l& giv+ its b$ a /eep] gradi5t1 or a wett] climate produc+ a great] ru% ( wat]1 cut a new *annel deep] 9 ! old valley4 ,s our valleys 9 ,s\!rn ,engl& are frequ5tly bord]$ by a succession ( gravel t]races1 ! high] ones be+ ! old]1 dat+ f times :5 ! riv] fl[$ at a high] level ?an at pres5t4 ,su* t]races may be se5 above ! ,ea/]n ,y> & its tribut>y /reams4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! old gravels is ! alluvial flat ( a lat] age4 ,! ,isl& riv]s cut out _! *annels :5 ! l& /ood at a high] level ?an at pres5t4 ,! old *annels ( ! l[] p>ts ( ! riv]s are n[ fill$ ) alluvium1 p>tly br\ght d[n by ! riv]s & p>tly m>9e4 ,! *annels are cut d[n consid]ably bel[ sea level2 & by ! s9k+ ( ! l& ! sea has fl[$ 91 & ! la/ p>ts ( ! riv] c\rses are n[ tidal e/u>ies4 ,! sea does n cut out e/u>ies4 ,!y are ! subm]g$ ends ( riv] valleys4 ,"s idea may be =m$ ( ! antiquity ( our ,isl& riv]s by obs]v+ ! dep? ( ! clefts !y h cut ?r\gh ! d[ns at ,brad+1 ,newport1 & ,fre%wat]4 ,b to ?is we mu/ add ! dep? at :i* ! old *annels lie bel[ ! alluvium4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to "k ! ?ickness ( ! alluvium4 ,b x is n (t5 t bor+s come to be made 9 riv] alluvia4 ,h[ev]1 9 ! old ,spi!ad =ts artesian wells are sunk2 & ^! pass ?r\gh #gj to #ij feet ( rec5t deposits be=e ent]+ ,eoc5e /rata4 ,"u ,/4 ,hel5's ,=t1 at ! m\? ( ,brad+ ,h>b\r1 are #hj feet ( rec5t deposits4 ,! old *annel ( ! ,y>1 at its m\?1 mu/ lie at lea/ at ?is dep?4 ,be=e x passes ?r\gh ! gap 9 ! ,*alk d[ns ! ,y> has me&]$ ab\t1 & =m$ ! alluvial flat call$ ,morton m>%es4 ,^! m>%es /ret* out into ! flat kn[n z ,s&[n ,level1 :i* occupies ! %ore ( ! bay betwe5 ,s&[n & ! ,granite ,=t4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ?is ext5sion ( ! alluvium away f ! c\rse ( ! riv] out to ! sea at ,s&[n8 ,a glance at x z pictur$ on a geological map w sugge/ ! answ]4 ,we see cle>ly ! alluvia ( two /reams conv]g+ f "r & left1 & unit+ to pass to ! sea ?r\gh ,brad+ ,h>b\r4 ,b ! /ream to ! "r has be5 cut (f by ! sea encroa*+ on ,s&[n ,bay3 only ! la/ mile ( alluvium is left to tell ( a riv] pass$ away4 ,we mu/ recon/ruct ! pa/4 ,we see ! ,bay cov]$ by l& slop+ up to ea/ & s\? ea/1 ! l9es ( d[ns ext5d+ ea/w>d f ,dunnose & ! ,culv]s1 & an old riv] fl[+ nor?w>d1 & cutt+ ?r\gh ! *alk at ,brad+ aft] be+ jo9$ by a bran* f ! we/4 ,?is old riv] mu/ h be5 ! ma9 /ream4 ,= x 0 a transv]se /ream1 fl[+ ne>ly at "r angles to ! ridge ( ! anticl9e2 :ile ! ,y> comes 9 z a tribut>y 9 ! direction ( ! /rike4 ,( o!r tribut>y /reams1 all f ! "r are gone by ! de/ruction ( ! old l&4 ,on ! left /reams w\ld fl[ 9 f ! combes at ,%ankl9 & ,luccombe--/reams :i* h n[ cut out ,%ankl9 & ,luccombe *9es4 ,pass+ ! gap 9 ! d[ns ! riv] me&]$ ab\t1 &1 ) m>9e deposit1 wa%$ 9 by ! tides1 =m$ ! expanse ( alluvium :i* occupies :at 0 ,brad+ ,h>b\r1--a h>b\r :i* 9 old times pres5t$ at high tide a beautiful spectacle ( l&-lock$ wat] ext5d+ up to ,brad+4 ,inclosures & dra9+s h be5 made f "t to "t1 ! upp] "p ne> ,y>bridge be+ tak5 9 9 ! "t ( ,edw>d ,i4 ,fur!r inn+s 7 made 9 ! reign ( ,que5 ,elizabe?2 & ,sir ,hugh ,middleton1 :o br\ght ! ,new ,riv] to ,london1 made an attempt to enclose ! :ole1 b ! sea broke ?r\gh 8 embankm5t4 ,! h>b\r 0 f9ally reclaim$ at great co/ 9 #ahhj1 ! pres5t embankm5t enclos+ an area ( #fjj acres4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,we/]n ,y> is simil> to t ( ! ,ea/]n4 ,! ma9 /ream mu/ h fl[$ f l& n[ de/roy$ by ! sea /ret*+ f> s\? ( ,fre%wat] ,gate4 ,all t is left is its tidal e/u>y1 & ! gravel t]races & alluvial flat =m$ 9 ! la/ "p ( its c\rse4 ,( a tribut>y /ream an int]e/+ relic rema9s4 ,= m ?an #b miles f ,*ilton ,*9e ?r\gh ,brook to ,compton ,grange a b$ ( riv] gravel lies at ! top ( ! cliff1 m>k+ ! c\rse ( an old /ream1 ( :i* coa/ erosion has made a longitud9al section4 ,?is 0 a tribut>y ( ! ,y>1 :5 ! mammo? left 8 rema9s 9 ! gravel at ,grange ,*9e & ,fre%wat] ,gate4 ,d[n ! c5tre ( ! gravels lies a /rip ( alluvium laid d[n by a /ream foll[+ ! same c\rse 9 lat] days4 ,! sea _h probably by ?is "t cut into ! /ream2 & x mo/ likely fl[$ into ! sea some:]e we/ ( ,brook4 ,9 ! alluvium hazel nuts & twigs ( trees are f\nd at ,%ipp>d's ,*9e ne> ,brook4 ,! l[] c\rse ( ! ,m$9a is a subm]g$ riv] valley1 ! tide fl[+ up to ,newport4 ,! riv] rises ne> ,*ale1 & fl[s ?r\gh a /rip ( alluvium1 ov]gr[n ) m>% vegetation1 kn[n z ,! ,wild]ness4 ,?is upp] c\rse ( ! ,m$9a1 f ! abs5ce ( gravels or brick e>?1 has ! appe>ance ( a comp>atively mod]n riv]4 ,b ! ,m$9a has a fur!r hi/ory4 ,if y look at ! map y w see bran*es ( ! ,y> runn+ s\? to nor? z transv]se /reams1 b ! ma9 c\rse is t ( a lat]al riv]4 ,look at ! two *ief s\rces ( ! ,y>--! /ream f ne> ,:itwell & ,niton1 & t f ! ,wroxall valley4 ,:5 !y get d[n to ! m>%es ne> ,rookley & ,m]/on1 !y are n fl[+ at all 9 ! direction ( ,s&[n or ,brad+4 ,!y r look z if !y w\ld fl[ along ! m>%y flat by ,blackwat] into ! ,m$9a4 ,b ! ,y> cuts "r across _! c\rse1 & c>ries !m (f ea/w>d to ,s&[n4 ,:5 we look1 we f9d a l9e ( riv] valley ) a /rip ( alluvium runn+ up f ! ,m$9a at ,blackwat] 9 ! direction ( ^! two /reams--a valley :i* ! railway up ! ,y> valley f ,s&[n makes use ( to get to ,newport4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ^! /reams f ,niton & ,wroxall orig9ally ran along ?is l9e into ! ,m$9a2 b ! ,y>1 cutt+ its c\rse backw>d1 has captur$ !m1 & div]t$ _! c\rse4 ,!y probably repres5t ! ma9 bran*es ( ! ,m$9a 9 e>li] times1 ! direction ( fl[ f s\?-ea/ to nor?-we/ in/ead ( s\? to nor? be+ possibly due to ! ov]lapp+ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,newport ( ! ends ( ! ,brook & ,s&[n anticl9es4 ,! %eet ( gravel on ,blake ,d[n belongs to ?is p]iod ( ! riv]'s hi/ory4 ,! riv] mu/ h div]t$ betwe5 ! deposition ( ! ,plateau ,gravels & t ( ! ,valley ,gravels ( ! ,y>4 ,= ! =m] foll[ ! orig9al valley1 ! latt] ! new c\rse ( ! riv]4 ,we mu/ n[ take a wid] outlook1 & see :at became ( our riv]s aft] !y _h fl[$ across :at is n[ ! ,isle ( ,wight f s\? to nor?4 ,we h be5 speak+ ( times :5 ! ,isl& 0 ( mu* great] ext5t ?an at pres5t4 ,/&+ on ! d[n above ! ,ne$les1 & look+ we/w>d1 we see on a cle> day ! ,isle ( ,purbeck ly+ opposite1 & we c see t ! headl& !re is =m$ by :ite *alk cliffs l ^? b5ea? u4 ,9 front ( !m /& ! ,old ,h>ry ,rocks1 answ]+ to ! ,ne$les1 bo? relics ( a =m] ext5sion ( ! l&4 ,9 fact ,purbeck is j l a cont9uation ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,s\? ( ! ,*alk lie ,gre5s& & ,weald5 /rata 9 ,swanage ,bay1 & nor? t[>ds ,poole are ,t]ti>ies4 ,cle>ly ^! /rata 7 once cont9u\s ) ^? ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,we mu/ imag9e ! *alk d[ns ( ! ,isl& cont9u$ z a long range across :at is n[ sea1 & on ?r\gh ,purbeck4 ,a great ,valley mu/ h /ret*$ f we/ to ea/1 nor? ( ?is l9e1 along ! c\rse ( ! ,frome1 :i* runs ?r\gh ,dorset1 & n[ ent]s ! sea at ,poole ,h>b\r1 on by ,b\rnem\?1 & along ! pres5t ,sol5t ,*annel--a valley /ill mu* above sea level1 n yet cut d[n by riv]s & ! sea--& d[n ! c5tre ( ?is valley a riv] mu/ h fl[$1 :i* may be call$ ! ,riv] ,sol5t4 ,x receiv$ z tribut>ies f ! s\? ! riv]s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & o!rs f l& s9ce de/roy$ by ! sea4 ,!re fl[$ into x f ! nor? ! wat]s ( ! ,/\r & ,avon1 & an old riv] :i* fl[$ d[n ! l9e ( :at is n[ ,s\?ampton ,wat]4 ,s\?ampton ,wat] looks l ! valley ( a l>ge riv]1 mu* l>g] ?an ! pres5t ,te/ & ,it*54 ,its direction po9ts to a riv] f ! nor? we/2 & x has be5 %[n by ,mr4 ,clem5t ,reid t ! ,salisbury riv]s--,avon1 ,nadd]1 & ,wily--at a =m] "t1 :5 !y fl[$ f> above _! pres5t level--cont9u$ _! c\rse into ! valley ( ,s\?ampton ,wat]4 ,= fragm5ts ( ,purbeck rocks f ! ,vale ( ,w>d\r1 we/ ( ,salisbury1 h be5 f\nd by him 9 gravels on high l& ne> ,bram%aw1 c>ri$ "r ov] ! deep vale ( ! ,avon 9 ! direction ( ! ,wat]4 ,! l[] ,avon w\ld orig9ally be a tribut>y ( ! ,sol5t ,riv]2 & x ent]s ! sea ab\t mid-way betwe5 ! ,ne$les & ! *alk cliffs ( ,purbeck1 j opposite ! po9t :]e we might suppose ! sea w\ld h fir/ brok5 ?r\gh ! l9e ( *alk d[ns4 ,no d\bt x broke ?r\gh a gap made by ! c\rse ( an old riv] f ! s\?1 z x is n[ break+ ?r\gh ! gap made by ! old ,y> at ,fre%wat]4 ,:5 ! riv] ,sol5t _h be5 tapp$ at ?is po9t1 ! ,avon j opposite w\ld h acquir$ a mu* /eep] fl[1 caus+ x to cut back at a fa/] rate1 till x cut ! c\rse ( ! old riv] :i* ran by ,salisbury to ,s\?ampton1 &1 hav+ a /eep] fall1 div]t$ ! upp] wat]s ( ?is riv] into its own *annel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h ,,! ,,old ,,sol5t ,,riv] ,fro/ & ra9 & riv]s cut d[n ! valleys ( ! riv] sy/em = hundr$s ( feet2 ! sea :i* _h brok5 ?r\gh ! *alk range gradually cut away ! s\? side ( ! ma9 riv] valley f ,purbeck to ! ,ne$les2 & ev5tually ! valley itself 0 subm]g$ by a subsid5ce ( ! l&1 & ! sea fl[$ betwe5 ! ,isle ( ,wight & ! ma9l&4 ,a gravel ( some:at diff]5t "* to ! re/ is ! %eet ( fl9t %+le at ,bembridge ,=el&4 ,x =ms a cliff ( gravel ab\t #be feet high re/+ on ,bembridge m>ls1 & consi/s ( l>ge fl9ts1 ) l9es ( small] fl9ts & s& %[+ curr5t b$d+1 & also conta9s ,gre5s& *]t & s&/one1 :i* mu/ h be5 br\ght f "s di/rict beyond ! ,*alk4 ,! %+le slopes to nor?-ea/4 ,to ! s\?-we/ x ends abruptly1 ! divid+ l9e betwe5 %+le & m>ls runn+ up /eeply into ! cliff4 ,?is evid5tly m>ks an old sea cliff 9 ! m>ls1 aga9/ :i* ! gravel has be5 laid d[n4#af ,"o or two comp>atively rec5t deposits may be m5tion$ "h4 ,at ! top ( ! cliff 9 ,totl& ,bay1 ab\t #fj ft4 above ! sea1 = a di/ance ( #cej y>ds1 is a lacu/r9e deposit1 consi/+ 9 ! ma9 ( a calc>e\s tufa deposit$ by spr+s fl[+ f ! lime/one ( ,headon ,hill4 ,! tufa conta9s black l9es f vegetable matt]1 & num]\s l& & fre%wat] %ells ( pres5t-day species--_m species ( ,helix1 especially ,h4 nemoralis & ,h4 rotundata1 ,cyclo/oma elegans1 ,limnaea palu/ris1 ,pupa1 ,clausilia1 ,cyclas1 & o!rs4 ,on ! top ( ,gore ,cliff is a deposit ( h>d calc>e\s mud1 rea*+ a ?ickness ( ab\t #i feet1 & =m+ a small v]tical cliff above ! slopes ( *alk m>l4 ,x ext5ds nor? a few y>ds beyond ! *alk m>l on to ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,x has be5 =m$ by ra9wa% f a hill ( *alk1 :i* mu/ once h exi/$ to ! s\?4 ,! deposit conta9s num]\s exi/+ l&-%ells1 especially ,helix nemoralis & o!r species ( ,helix4 ,betwe5 ,a!rfield & ,*ale at ! top ( ! cliff is a l>ge area ( ,bl[n ,s&4 ,! s& is bl[n up f ! face ( ! cliff bel[4 ,x rea*es a ?ickness ( #bj feet1 & possibly m 9 places1 & =ms a l9e ( s& dunes along ! edge ( ! cliff4 ,! upp] "p ( ,ladd] ,*9e %[s an int]e/+ example ( w9d-erosion4 ,! s& driv5 r\nd x by ! w9d has worn x into a semi-circul> holl[ l a ,roman !atre4 ,small spits1 consi/+ p>tly ( bl[n s&1 ext5d opposite ! m\?s ( ! ,we/]n ,y>1 ! ,newt[n riv]1 & ! mo/ ext5sive--at ! m\? ( ! old ,brad+ ,h>b\r1 sep>at+ ! pres5t r$uc$ ,bembridge ,h>b\r f ! sea4 ,?is is call$ ,/4 ,hel5's ,spit1 or ,dov]1--! local "n = ^! s& spits4 ,footnote #af3 ,fig4 #i1 p4 #gi4 ,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,com+ ,,( ,,man4 ,we h wat*$ ! long succession ( v>i$ life on ! e>? record$ 9 ! rocks1 & n[ we come to ! mo/ mom5t\s ev5t ( all 9 ! hi/ory--! com+ ( ,man4 ,! fir/ c]ta9 evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( man on ! e>? is f\nd ) ! com+ ( ! ,glacial ,p]iod1--unless inde$ ! suppos$ fl9t implem5ts f\nd by ,mr4 ,reid ,moir1 "u ! ,crag 9 ,suffolk1 %\ld prove him e>li] /ill4 ,x is a r>e *ance t ! skeleton ( a l& animal is pres]v$2 especially r>e 9 ! case ( a skeleton s frail z t ( man4 ,! be/ *ance = ! pres]vation ( bones is 9 deposits 9 caves1 :i* 7 frequ5tly ! d5s ( wild bea/s & ! %elt]s ( man4 ,b ! implem5ts us$ by e>ly man 7 happily ( a v imp]i%able nature4 ,8 fav\rite mat]ial1 if he c\ld get x1 0 fl9t4 ,fl9t c\ld by dext]\s bl[s h flake aft] flake tak5 (f1 till x =m$ a tool or weapon ) %>p po9t & cutt+ edge4 ,! implem5ts1 ?\gh only *ipp$1 or flak$1 7 (t5 admirably made4 ,!y h v *>act]i/ic %apes4 ,moreov]1 ! k9d ( bl[--/ruck obliquely--by :i* ^! e>ly m5 made _! tools left m>ks :i* /amp !m z ( human workman%ip4 ,! flake /ruck (f %[s :at is call$ a bulb ( p]cussion--a swell+ :i* m>ks ! spot :]e ! bl[ 0 /ruck--& f ?is ext5ds a s]ies ( ripples1 produc+ a surface l t ( a %ell1 f :i* ?is mode ( break+ is call$ con*oidal fracture4 ,(t51 by fur!r *ipp+ ! flake itself is work$ into an implem5t4 ,implem5ts h also be5 made ( *]t1 b x is f> m difficult to "w1 z x naturally breaks 9 an irregul> way into %>p angul> fragm5ts4 ,fl9t1 on ! o!r h&1 l5t itself admirably to ! use ( e>ly man1 :o 9 "t acquir$ a p]fect ma/]y ( ! mat]ial4 ,! work+ ( fl9ts is s *>act]i/ic t1 once accu/om$ to !m1 y _c mi/ake a good specim54 ,sea waves da%+ pebbles ab\t w sometimes produce a con*oidal fracture1 b nev] a s]ies ( fractures 9 ! me?odical way 9 :i* a fl9t 0 work$ by man4 ,&1 ( c\rse1 specim5s may be f\nd s worn t x is difficult to be sure ab\t _! nature4 ,aga9 e>ly man may1 especially 9 v e>ly times1 h be5 cont5t to use a %>p /one almo/ z he f\nd x1 ) only ! slighte/ am\nt ( knock+ x into %ape4 ,s t 9 su* a case x w be v difficult to decide :e!r ! /ones h =m$ ! implem5ts ( man or n4 ,9 lat] times m5 le>nt to poli% _! implem5ts1 & made poli%$ /one axes l ^? ! ,new ,zeal&]s & ,s\? ,sea ,isl&]s us$ to make 9 mod]n times4 ,! old age ( *ipp$ or flak$ implem5ts is call$ ! ,palaeoli?ic2 ! lat] age :5 !y 7 gr\nd or poli%$ ! ,neoli?ic4 7,simple implem5ts1 z knives & scrap]s1 7 /ill unpoli%$47 ,! hi/ory ( e>ly man is a long /ory 9 itself1 & ( int5se int]e/4 ,b we mu/ n leave our geological /ory unf9i%$ by leav+ out ! culm9ation ( x all 9 man4 ,9 ! high] gravels--! ,plateau ,gravels--no rema9s ( man are f\nd2 b 9 ! l[]--! ,valley ,gravels1--( ! ,s\? ( ,engl& is f\nd abundant evid5ce ( ! pres5ce ( man4 ,l>ge numb]s ( fl9t implem5ts h be5 collect$ f ! ,?ames valley & ov] ! :ole area ( ! riv]s :i* h gravel t]races along _! c\rse4 ,ov] a l>ge %eet ( gravel at ,s\?ampton1 :5ev] a l>ge gravel pit is dug1 implem5ts are f\nd at ! base ( ! gravel4#ag ,! occurr5ce ( ! mammo? & o!r arctic creatures 9 ! gravels %[s t 9 ! ,glacial ,p]iod man 0 contempor>y ) ^! animals4 ,rema9s 9 caves tell ! same /ory4 ,9 lime/one cav]ns 9 ,devon1 ,d]by%ire1 & ,york%ire1 implem5ts made by man are f\nd 9 company ) rema9s ( ! cave be>1 cave hya5a1 lion1 hippopotamus1 rh9oc]os1 & o!r animals ei!r ext9ct or no long] inhabitants ( ?is c\ntry--rema9s :i* h be5 pres]v$ "u floors ( /alagmite deposit$ 9 ! caves4 ,9 caves ( c5tral ,france m5 h left c>v+s on bone & ivory1 repres5t+ ! wild animals ( t day--c>v+s :i* %[ a rem>kable arti/ic s5se1 & a ke5 obs]vation ( animal life4 ,among !m is a draw+ ( ! mammo? on a piece ( mammo? ivory1 %[+ admirably ! appe>ance ( ! animal1 ) 8 long hair1 z he has be5 f\nd pres]v$ 9 ice to ! pres5t day ne> ! m\?s ( ,sib]ian riv]s4 ,draw+s ( ! re9de]1 true to life1 are frequ5t4 ,till rec5tly v few ,palaeoli?ic implem5ts _h be5 record$ z f\nd 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,9 ! ,memoir ( ! ,geological ,survey 7#ahhi7 only "o su* is record$1 f\nd 9 a pat* ( brick e>? ne> ,h[gate ,f>m1 ,bembridge4#ah ,a few m implem5ts1 :i* almo/ c]ta9ly came f ?is brick-e>?1 h be5 f\nd on ! %ore s9ce4 ,9 rec5t ye>s a l>ge numb] ( ,palaeoli?ic implem5ts h be5 f\nd at ,priory ,bay ne> ,/4 ,hel5's4 ,!y 7 fir/ obs]v$ on ! bea* by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,b4 ,p\lton1 ,f4,r4,s41 9 #ahhf1 & 7 trac$ to _! s\rce 9 ! gravel 9 ! cliff by ,miss ,moseley 9 #aijb4 ,f t "t1 & especially f #aijd onw>ds1 _m h be5 f\nd by ,pr(4 ,p\lton1 by ,r4 ,w4 ,p\lton 7& o!rs74 ,up to #aiji ab\t #aej implem5ts _h be5 f\nd1 & !re h be5 m f9ds s9ce4#ai ,! mo/ important f9ds1 besides ^? at ,priory ,bay1 h be5 ^? ( ,mr4 ,s4 ,hazzl$9e ,w>r5 at ,fre%wat]1 especially 9 trial bor+s 9 loam & clay bel[ ! surface soil 9 a depression ( ! ,high ,d[ns1 s\? ( ,headon ,hill1 at a level ( ab\t #cfj ft4 ,o4,d41 9 :i* a numb] ( ,palaeoli?ic tools1 flakes1 & cores 7 f\nd#bj4 ,isolat$ implem5ts h be5 f\nd 9 rec5t ye>s 9 v>i\s localities 9 ! ,isl&4 ,!re are ref]5ces to f9ds ( implem5ts at diff]5t times 9 ! pa/1 b ! descriptions are g5]ally too vague to conclude c]ta9ly to :at date !y belong4 ,mu* ( ! gravel us$ 9 ! ,isl& comes f ! angul> gravel on ,/4 ,boniface ,d[n1 or ! high ,plateau ,gravel ( ,/4 ,george's ,d[n2 b 9 ! l[] gravels & associat$ brick e>?1 x is highly probable t m rema9s ( ,palaeoli?ic man w yet be f\nd 9 ! ,isl&1 & q possible t su* h be5 f\nd 9 ! pa/1 b = want ( accurate descriptions ( ! circum/ances ( ! f9ds are lo/ to u4 ,we mu/ pass on to ! m5 ( ! ,neoli?ic or lat] /one age4 ,! ,palaeoli?ic age 0 ( v great duration1 mu* long] ?an all succe$+ human hi/ory4 ,betwe5 ,palaeoli?ic & ,neoli?ic times !re is 9 ,engl& a l>ge gap4 ,9 ,france v>i\s /ages h be5 trac$ %[+ a cont9ual advance 9 culture4 ,9 ,engl& little1 if any?+1 has be5 f\nd belong+ to ! int]m$iate /ages4 ,su* rema9s may yet be f\nd 9 caves1 or 9 l[] riv] gravels1 n[ buri$ bel[ ! alluvium4 ,! gap betwe5 ,palaeoli?ic & ,neoli?ic is m>k$ by ! great am\nt ( riv] erosion :i* took place 9 ! int]val4 ,palaeoli?ic implem5ts are f\nd 9 gravels =m$ :5 ! riv]s fl[$ "s #ajj feet above _! pres5t c\rses4 ,take1 e4g41 ! ,it*5 at ,s\?ampton4 ,aft] ! #ajj foot gravels 7 deposit$ ! riv] cut d[n1 n m]ely to its pres5t level1 b to an old b$ n[ cov]$ up by v>i\s deposits b5ea? ! riv]4 ,aft] cutt+ d[n to t b$ ! riv] laid d[n gravels ^u x2 & !n--! l& /&+ at a high] level ?an to-day--! riv] valley & ! surr\nd+ c\ntry 7 cov]$ by a =e/1 :i*1 z ! climate alt]$ & became damp]1 0 succe$$ by ! =mation ( peat4 ,! l& has s9ce sunk1 & ! peat1 9 p>ts #ag ft4 ?ick1 is n[ f\nd "u ,s\?ampton ,wat]1 cov]$ by e/u>9e silt4 ,! ,empress ,dock at ,s\?ampton 0 dug :]e a mud bank 0 expos$ at l[ wat]4 ,! mud bank 0 =m$ ( riv] silt #ab to #ag feet ?ick4 ,bel[ ?is 0 ! peat1 re/+ on gravel4 ,on ! gravel horns ( re9de] 7 f\nd4 ,9 ! peat 7 l>ge horn cores ( ! great ext9ct ox1 ,bos primig5ius1 also horns ( r$ de]1 & also 9 ! peat 7 f\nd neoli?ic fl9t *ips1 a circul> /one hamm] head1 ) a hole bor$ ?r\gh = a wood5 h&le1 & a l>ge ne$le made ( horn4 ,"h1 at a great int]val ( "t aft] ,palaeoli?ic man1 z we see by ! hi/ory ( ! riv] we h j trac$1 we come to ! new race ( m51 ! ,neoli?ic4 ,:5 ,neoli?ic man appe>$ ! l& /ood high] ?an at pres5t1 ?\gh n s high z dur+ great "p ( ! ,plei/oc5e4 ,brita9 0 divid$ f ! ,cont95t1 b ! %ores 7 a good way out into :at is n[ sea r\nd ! coa/s1 & =e/s clo!d ^! fur!r %ores4 ,rema9s ( ^!1 kn[n z subm]g$ =e/1 are f\nd bel[ ! tide m>k r\nd _m p>ts ( our coa/4 ,peat z at ,s\?ampton ,docks1 is f\nd "u ! e/u>9e mud (f ,netley4 ,! wells at ! ,spi!ad ,=ts %[ an old l& surface ) peat m ?an #ej feet bel[ ! tide level4 ,! old b$ ( ! ,sol5t riv] lies mu* l[] /ill--#abd feet bel[ high tide at ,noman's ,l& ,=t2 ?is *annel 0 probably an e/u>y aft] ! subsid5ce ( ! l& till x silt$ up ) m>9e deposits to ! level on :i* ! subm]g$ =e/ grew4 ,:5 ! ,sol5t & ,s\?ampton ,wat] 7 wood$ valleys ) riv]s fl[+ d[n ! middle1 ! ,isle ( ,wight riv]s 7 tribut>ies to ! ,sol5t riv]1 & ! =e/1 z might be expect$1 ext5d$ up _! valleys1 & cov]$ ! l[ gr\nd ( ! ,isl&4 ,"u ! alluvial flats are rema9s ( buri$ =e/s4 ,9 digg+ a well at ,s&=d 9 #aijf l>ge trunks ( h>d oak 7 f\nd block+ ! s9k+ ( ! well4 ,:5 ! l& sank ! sea fl[$ up ! riv] valleys1 conv]t+ !m into /rait & e/u>y1 & l>gely fill+ up ! *annels ) ! silt1 :i* n[ cov]s ! peat4 ,9 ! silt ( ,newt[n riv] are f\nd bones ( ,bos primig5ius1 :i* 0 f\nd ) ! ,neoli?ic rema9s 9 ! peat ( ,s\?ampton docks4 ,! rema9s ( ,neoli?ic man are n only f\nd 9 subm]g$ =e/s1 b ov] ! pres5t surface ( ! l&1 or buri$ 9 rec5t deposits4 ,he has left u ! tombs ( 8 *iefs1 kn[n z long b>r[s--great m\nds ( e>? cov]+ a r[ ( *amb]s made ( flat /ones1 su* z ! m\nds ( ,new ,grange 9 ,irel&1 & ! cromle*s or dolm5s /ill /&+ 9 ,wales & ,cornwall4 ,^! consi/ ( a l>ge flat or curv$ /one--x may be #ad feet 9 l5g?1--support$ on ?ree or f\r o!rs4 ,orig9ally a great m\nd ( e>? or /ones 0 pil$ on top4 ,^! h g5]ally be5 remov$ s9ce by ! h& ( lat] man4 ,! /ones h be5 tak5 = road metal1 ! e>? to lay on ! l&4 ,! great cromle* at ,lanyon 9 ,cornwall 0 uncov]$ by a f>m]1 :o _h remov$ #ajj c>t loads ( e>? to lay on 8 /ony l& be=e he _h any idea t x 0 n a natural m\nd4 ,!n he came on ! great cromle* und]nea?4 ,ano!r =m ( monum5t 0 ! great /&+ /one or m5hir1 "o ( :i*1 ! ,long/one on ! ,d[n above ,motti/one /ill /&s to m>k ! tomb ( "s *iefta9 (1 x may be1 #d1jjj ye>s ago4 ,! implem5ts ( ,neoli?ic man are f\nd all ov] ,engl&1 ! smoo? poli%$ axe head1 commonly call$ a celt 7,lat4 celtis1 a *isel71 ! *ipp$ arr[ head1 ! flak$ fl9t work$ by second>y *ipp+ on ! edge into a knife1 or a scrap] = sk9s2 & mu* m common ?an ! implem5t1 ev5 ( ! simple/ description1 are ! wa/e flakes /ruck (f 9 ! mak+4 ,v few /one celts h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,! flakes are extremely num]\s1 & a scrap] or knife may (t5 be f\nd4 ,!y are turn$ up by ! pl\gh on ! surface ( ! fields1 9 ! e>? ( :i* !y h be5 pres]v$ f rubb+ & wea!r+4 ,!y h h[ev]1 acquir$ a rem>kable poli%1 or pat9a--h[ is n cle>ly expla9$--:i* di/+ui%es _! surface f ! waxy appe>ance ( newly-brok5 fl9t4 ,9 places ! gr\nd is s cov]$ ) flakes t we c h no d\bt t ^! are ! sites ( settlem5ts4 ,! implem5ts 7 made f ! black fl9ts fre% out ( ! *alk1 & we c locate ! ,neoli?ic fl9t work+s4 ,9 our nor!rn range ( d[ns :]e ! /rata are v]tical ! lay]s ( fl9t 9 ! ,upp] ,*alk run out on ! top ( ! d[ns1 only cov]$ ) a ?9 surface soil4 ,9 places :]e ?is soil has be5 remov$--z 9 digg+ a qu>ry--! *alk is se5 to be cov]$ ) flakes simil> to ^? f\nd on ! l[] gr\nd1 save t !y are wea!r$ :ite f ly+ expos$ on ! h>d *alk1 in/ead ( on s(t soil into :i* !y w\ld gradually s9k by ! burr[+ ( worms4 ,x is probable t ^! flakes w\ld be f\nd m or less along ! range ( d[ns "u ! surface soil4 ,9 places on ! ,und]cliff h be5 f\nd :at are kn[n z ,kit*5 ,midd5s--heaps ( %ells :i* h accumulat$ ne> ! huts ( tribes ( coa/ dwell]s1 :o liv$ on %ellfi%4 ,"o su* 0 =m]ly expos$ 9 ! /ream bel[ ! old *ur* at ,bon*ur*1 & is believ$ to ext5d bel[ ! f\ndations ( ! ,*ur*4 ,aft] a long duration ( neoli?ic times a great /ep 9 civilisation took place ) ! introduction ( bronze4 ,bronze implem5ts 7 introduc$ into ?is c\ntry probably "s "t ab\t ,b4,c4 #ahjj-aejj2 & bronze cont9u$ to be ! be/ mat]ial ( manufacture till ! introduction ( iron "s two or ?ree c5turies be=e ! visit ( ,julius ,caes> to ^! ,isl&s4 ,to ! e>ly bronze age belong ! graves ( anci5t *iefta9s kn[n z r\nd b>r[s1 ( :i* _m are to be se5 on ! ,isl& d[ns4 ,fun]al urns & o!r rema9s h be5 f\nd 9 ^!1 "s ( :i* are n[ 9 ! museum at ,c>isbrooke ,ca/le4 ,belong+ to lat] times are ! rema9s ( ! ,roman villa at ,brad+ & small] rema9s ( villas 9 o!r places2 & cemet]ies ( ,anglo-,saxon date1 ri* 9 weapons & ornam5ts1 :i* h be5 excavat$ on ,*essil & ,b[combe ,d[ns4 ,b ! /udy ( ! rema9s ( anci5t man =ms a sci5ce 9 itself--,ar*aeology4 ,9 /udy+ ! p]iods ( ,palaeoli?ic & ,neoli?ic man we h /ood on ! bord]l& :]e ,geology & ,ar*aeology meet4 ,we h se5 t va/ geological *anges h tak5 place s9ce man appe>$ on e>?4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! geological record is /ill 9 process ( be+ writt54 ,x is n ! record ( a "t sund]$ f ! pres5t day1 b cont9u\s ) our own times2 & x is by ! /udy ( processes /ill 9 op]ation t we are able to read ! /ory ( ! pa/4 ,footnote #ag3 ,mr4 ,w4 ,dale1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,footnote #ah3 ,see figure #i1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see acc\nt by ,r4 ,w4 ,p\lton 9 ,f4 ,morey's ,guide to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,footnote #bj3 ,surv4 ,mem41 ,i4,w41 #aiba1 p4 #agd4 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,sc5]y ,,( ,,! ,,isl&--,conclusion4 ,aft] /udy+ ! v>i\s geological =mations t ent] into ! composition ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & le>n+ h[ ! ,isl& 0 made1 x w be int]e/+ to take a g5]al view ( ! sc5]y1 & see h[ its v>i$ "* is due to ! nature ( its geology4 ,x w\ld h>dly be possible to f9d any:]e an area s small z ?is little ,isl& ) su* a v>iety ( geological =mations4 ,! result is a rem>kable v>iety 9 ! sc5]y4 ,! ma9 feature ( ! ,isl& is ! range ( *alk d[ns runn+ ea/ & we/1 & t]m9at+ 9 ! bold cliffs ( :ite *alk at ,fre%wat] & ! ,culv]s4 ,"h we h v]tical cliffs ( great height1 _! :ite s(t5$ to grey by wea!r+ & ! s(t haze ?r\gh :i* !y are (t5 se54 ,9 /rik+ contra/ ( col\r are ! ,r$ ,cliff ( ,l[] ,gre5s& adjo9+ ! ,culv]s1 & ! _m-col\r$ s&s ( ,alum ,bay jo9+ on to ! *alk ( ,fre%wat]4 ,! summits ( ! *alk d[ns h a *>act]i/ic s(tly r\nd$ =m1 & ! *alk is cov]$ ) close %ort h]bage suit$ to ! %eep :i* frequ5tly dot ! gre5 surface4 ,:]e %eets ( fl9t gravel cap ! d[ns1 z on ,/4 ,boniface1 !y are cov]$ by furze & hea!r1 produc+ a *>m+ v>iation f ! smoo? turf :]e ! surface is *alk4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& =ms mo/ ( ! undulat+ c\ntry betwe5 ! two ranges ( d[ns2 :ile ! ,upp] ,gre5s&1 ?\gh occupy+ a small] area1 produces "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s features ( ! sc5]y--! walls ( esc>pm5t t =m ! inl& cliffs betwe5 ,%ankl9 & ,wroxall1 ,gat ,cliff above ,appuldurcombe1 ! f9e wall ( ,gore ,cliff above ,rock5 ,end1 & ! l9e ( cliffs above ! ,und]cliff4 ,to ! ,gault ,clay is due ! =mation ( ! ,und]cliff--! t]race ( tumbl$ /rata runn+ = miles well above ! sea1 b %elt]$ by an upp] cliff on ! nor?1 & 9 p>ts ov]gr[n ) picturesque woods4 ,! imp]vi\s ,gault clay ?r[s out spr+s ar\nd ! d[ns1 :i* =m ! headwat]s ( ! v>i\s ,isl& /reams4 ,! upp] division ( ! ,l[] ,gre5s&1 ! ,s&rock1 =ms picturesque undulat+ foo?ills1 (t5 wood$1 z at ,apseca/le1 & at ,appuldurcombe & ,god%ill ,p>k4 ,on a spur ( ! ,s&rock /&s ,god%ill ,*ur*1 a l&m>k visible = miles ar\nd4 ,at ,a!rfield we h a f9e l9e ( cliffs ( ,l[] ,gre5s&1 :ile ! ,weald5 ,/rata on to ,brook =m l[] & s(t] cliffs4 ,to ! nor? ( ! c5tral d[ns ! ,t]ti>y s&s & clays1 (t5 cov]$ by ,plateau gravel1 =m an ext5d$ slope t[>ds ! ,sol5t %ore1 mu* ( x well wood$1 & pres5t+ a *>m+ l&scape se5 f ! tops ( ! d[ns4 ,?is slope ( ,t]ti>y /rata is deeply cut into by /reams1 :i* =m rav9es & picturesque creeks1 z ,wootton ,creek1 #bjj feet bel[ ! level ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,:ile mu* ( ! ,isl& coa/ is a l9e ( v]tical cliff1 ! nor!rn %ores are ( g5tl] aspect1 wood$ slopes rea*+ to ! wat]'s edge1 or mead[ l& slop+ gradually to ! sea level4 ,opposite ! m\?s ( /reams are banks ( %+le & s& dunes1 =m+ ! spits locally kn[n z dov]s4 ,"s ( ^!1 9 p>ticul>1 ,/4 ,hel5's ,spit1 af=d int]e/+ hunt+ gr\nds = ! botani/4 ,! great v>iety ( soil & situation r5d]s ! ,isle ( ,wight a place ( int]e/ to ! botani/4 ,we h ! plants ( *alk d[ns1 ( ! sea cliff & %ore1 ( ! woods & mead[s1 ( lane & h$g][1 & ( ! m>%es4 ,! old villages ( ! ,isl&1 (t5 occupy+ v picturesque situations--z ,god%ill on a spur ( ! s\!rn d[ns1 ,new*ur* on a bluff ov]look+ ! ,y> valley1 ,%orwell ne/l+ among trees 9 a s\?-look+ holl[ ( ! d[ns1 ,brigh/one ) its old *ur* cottages & f>mh\ses among trees & mead[s betwe5 d[n & sea--! old & int]e/+ *ur*es1 ! ?at*$ cottages1 ! old manor h\ses ( ,elizabe?an or ,jacobean date1 n[ mo/ly f>m h\ses1 = :i* ! ,isl& is fam\s1 add to ! v>i$ natural beauty4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic features ( ! s\!rn coa/s ( ! ,isl&1 %\ld be m5tion$1 ! ,*9es1--n>r[ rav9es :i* cut inl& f ! coa/ ?r\gh ! s&/one & clays ( ! ,gre5s& & ,weald5 /rata1 & along ! b$s ( :i* small /reams fl[ to ! sea4 ,n>r[ & /eep-sid$1--! "n by :i* !y are call$ is ak9 to *9k--!y are 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! m op5 valleys ( ! /reams :i* fl[ into ! ,sol5t on ! nor? %ore ( ! ,isl&4 ,! mo/ beautiful is ,%ankl9 ,*9e4 ,! cliff at ! m\? ( ! *9e1 j inside :i* /&s a picturesque fi%]man's cottage ) ?at*$ ro(1 is #ajj ft4 high2 & ! *asm runs inl& = #cej yds41 to :]e a v r$uc$ cascade 7= ! wat] ?r[n out ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s& by ! ,gault clay is tapp$ at its s\rce = ! t[n supply7 falls v]tically ov] a l$ge produc$ by h>d f]rug9\s b$s ( ! ,gre5s&4 ,above ! cascade ! rav9e runs on1 b mu* %all[]1 = "s #ijj y>ds4 ,! l[] rav9e has mu* beauty1 tall trees ris+ up ! sides1 & ov]%ad[+ ! *asm1 ! banks ?ickly clo!d ) l>ge f]ns & o!r v]dure4 ,mu* wild] are ! *9es on ! s\?-we/ ( ! ,isl&4 ,! cascade at ,blackgang falls ov] h>d f]rug9\s b$s 7to :i* ! b$s ov] :i* ,%ankl9 cascade falls--?\gh on a small] scale--probably correspond74 ,! *9e above ^! b$s1 be+ holl[$ out 9 ! s(t clays & s&s ( ! ,s&rock s]ies1 is mu* m op54 ,:ale ,*9e is a long w9d+ rav9e betwe5 /eep walls1 ! /ream at ! bottom mak+ its way ?r\gh blocks ( fall5 /rata4 ,! cause ( ^! *9es seems to be ! same 9 all cases4 ,x may be notic$ t ,%ankl9 & ,luccombe *9es are cut 9 ! floors ( op5 combes1--wide valleys ) g5tly slop+ floors2 & at ea* side ( ^! *9es is to be se5 ! gravel spread ov] ! floor ( ! old valley4 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ^! combes are ! heads ( ! valleys ( ! old /reams1 :i* fl[$ d[n a gradual slope till !y jo9$ ! old bran* 7or1 r ! old ma9 riv]7#ba ( ! ,y>1 fl[+ ov] l& ext5d+ f> ov] :at is n[ ,s&[n ,bay4 ,:5 ! sea encroa*$1 & cut into ! c\rse ( ?is old riv]1 & on till x made a section ( :at _h be5 ! left slope ( ! valley1 ! old tribut>ies ( ! ,y> n[ fell ov] a l9e ( cliff into ! sea4 ,!y ?us ga9$ new erosive p[]1 & cut back at a mu* great] rate new & deep] *annels2 ) ! result t n>r[ tr5*es 7 cut 9 ! floors ( ! old g5tly slop+ valleys4 ,! *9es on ! ,s4,w4 coa/ are to be expla9$ 9 a simil> way4 ,!y h be5 cut back ) v]tical sides1 because ! encroa*m5t ( ! sea caus$ ! /reams to fl[ ov] cliffs1 & s gave !n p[] to cut back rav9es at s fa/ a rate t ! wea!r+ d[n ( ! sides c\ld n keep pace ) x4 ,! rem>kable w9d-erosion ( ^! b>e s\?-we/]ly cliffs by a sort ( s&-bla/ driv5 be=e ! gales to :i* t /ret* ( coa/ is expos$ has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,a few words 9 conclusion to ! read]4 ,i h tri$ to %[ y some?+ ( ! int]e/ & wond] ( ! /ory writt5 9 ! rocks4 ,we h se5 some?+ ( ! _w's mak+1 & ( ! _m & v>i$ =ms ( life :i* h succe$$ ea* o!r on its surface4 ,we h _h a glimpse ( great & deep problems sugge/$1 :i* are gradually receiv+ an answ]4 ,geology has ! advantage t x c be /udi$ by all :o take walks 9 ! c\ntry1 & especially by ^? :o visit any "p ( ! sea coa/1 )\t ! ne$ ( elaborate & co/ly sci5tific in/rum5ts & app>atus4 ,any c\ntry walk w sugge/ problems = solution4 ,i h tri$ to lead y to obs]ve nature accurately1 to ?9k = y\rselves1 to draw y\r own conclusions4 ,i h %[n y h[ to try to solve ! que/ions ( geology by look+ ar\nd y at :at is tak+ place to-day1 & by apply+ ?is k to expla9 ! records :i* h rea*$ u ( :at has happ5$ 9 ! pa/4 ,y are n ask$ to accept ! facts ( ! geological /ory on ! ^w ( ! writ]1 or on ! au?ority ( o!rs1 b to ?9k = y\rselves1 to le>n to weigh evid5ce1 to seek only to f9d out ! tru?1 :e!r x be geology y are /udy+ or any o!r subject1 & to foll[ ! tru? :i!rsoev] x leads4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see p4 #ia4 ,,table ,,( ,,/rata ,rec5t4 ,peat & ,riv] ,alluvium4 ,plei/oc5e4 ,plateau ,gravels3 ,valley ,gravels & ,brick-,e>?4 ,plioc5e ,abs5t f ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,mioc5e ,m>9e1 ,corbula ,b$s ,ham/ead ,fre%wat] ,e/u>9e4 ,bembridge ,m>ls ,bembridge ,b$s ,bembridge ,lime/one ,oligoc5e ,osborne & ,/4 ,hel5's ,b$s4 ,t]ti>y ,upp]4 ,fre%wat] & ,bracki% ,headon ,middle4 ,m>9e ,b$s ,l[]4 ,fre%wat] & ,bracki% ,b>ton ,b>ton ,s&4 ,b$s ,b>ton ,clay4 ,eoc5e ,brackle%am ,b$s4 ,bag%ot ,s&s ,london ,clay ,pla/ic ,clay 7,read+ ,b$s7 ,:ite ,upp] ,*alk 7,*alk ) fl9ts7 ,*alk ,middle ,*alk 7,*alk )\t fl9ts7 ,a4 pl5us ,m>ls ,upp] ,l[] ,grey ,*alk ,cretace\s ,*alk ,*alk ,m>l ,*loritic ,m>l ,upp] ,*]t ,b$s ,selbornian ,gre5s& ,s&/one & ,rag ,b$s ,mesozoic ,gault or ,second>y ,c>/one ,l[] ,s&rock & ,clays ,gre5s& ,f]rug9i\s ,s&s ,a!rfield ,clay ,l[] ,p]na ,b$ ,cretace\s ,%ales ,weald5 ,v>iegat$ ,m>ls ,,= ,,fur!r ,,/udy4 ,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey4 ,g5]al ,memoir ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 date #ahhi4 ,new edition1 entitl$ ,a %ort acc\nt ( ! ,geology ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,osborne ,:ite1 ,f4,g4,s41 #aiba1 price #ajs4 ,! ,memoirs are ! great au?ority = ! ,geology ( ! ,isl&3 te*nical2 books = ,geologi/s4 ,! ,new ,edition is m cond5s$ ?an ! orig9al1 b conta9s mu* lat] rese>*4 ,mantell's ,geological ,excursions r\nd ! ,isle ( ,wight1 #ahdg4 ,by "o ( ! great e>ly geologi/s4 ,long out ( pr9t1 b wor? gett+1 if x c be pick$ up second-h&4 ,norman's ,guide to ! ,geology ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 #ahhg1 /ill to be obta9$ ( ,booksell]s 9 ! ,isl&4 ,gives details ( /rata1 & li/s ( fossils1 ) p5cil draw+s ( fossils4 ,o!r books be>+ on ! subject h be5 m5tion$ 9 ! text & foot-notes4 ,an excell5t geological map ( ! ,isl&1 pr9t$ 9 col\r1 scale #a 94 to ! mile1 full ( geological in=mation1 is publi%$ by ! ,survey at #cs4 ,a good collection ( fossils & specim5s ( rocks f ! v>i\s /rata ( ! ,isle ( ,wight has rec5tly be5 arrang$ at ! ,s&[n ,free ,libr>y1 & %\ld be visit$ by all int]e/$ 9 ! ,geology ( ! ,isl&4 ,x %\ld prove a mo/ valuable aid to all :o take up ! /udy1 & a great assi/ance 9 id5tify+ any specim5s !y may !mselves f9d4 ,illu/ration ,,geological ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,isle ,,( ,,wight ,,index ,words 9 ,italics ref] to a page :]e ! mean+ ( a t]m is giv54 ,agates1 #bb1 #da1 #ej ,alum ,bay1 #ef-fb ,ammonites1 #cb1 #cd1 #ci1 #dd ,anticl9e1 #ab ,a/ronomical ,!ory ( ,ice ,age1 #hc1 #he ,a!rfeld1 #bi ,avon ,riv]1 #id ,b>r[s1 #ajb1 #ajd ,b>ton1 #fa ,belemnites1 #cc ,bembridge ,lime/one1 #fe -- %+le at1 #ie ,b5ettites1 #bg ,blue ,slipp]1 #ae ,bon*ur*1 #ej1 #ajc ,bos primig5ius1 #aja1 #ajb ,botany1 #ajf ,brackle%am1 #ei1 #fj ,brad+ ,h>b\r1 #ij1 #ia ,bronze age1 #ajc ,brook1 #bi ,build+ ,/one1 #ci1 #fe ,c>/one1 #bf1 #ce ,*alc$ony1 #bb1 #da1 #ej ,*ale1 #cc ,*alk1 divisions (1 #de1 #ea1 #eb -- ,m>l1 #de -- ,rock1 #de ,*alybeate ,spr+s1 #be ,*]t1 #ci ,*loritic ,m>l1 #dd ,climate4 ,coal1 #h1 #fa ,colwell ,bay1 #fd ,compton ,bay1 #ca1 #ci ,conglom]ate1 mod]n1 #be ,crack]s1 #cb ,cretace\s4 ,crioc]as1 #cd ,curr5t ,b$d+1 #bg ,cycads4 ,d5udation1 #c1 #ab1 #gf1 #hj1 #hb ,dip1 #aa ,e*9od]ms1 #dh1 #eb ,eoc5e1 #ed ,erosion1 m>9e1 #d pre-,t]ti>y1 #ed ,esc>pm5t1 #ad ,faults1 #ac ,fault at ,brook1 #cj ,fl9t1 orig9 (1 #dg implem5ts1 #ig ,flora1 ,alum ,bay1 #ei ,eoc5e1 #eh1 #fb ,weald51 #ah1 #bg ,=am9if]a1 #db1 #fa ,gat ,cliff1 #ch ,gault1 #cg ,glacial ,p]iod1 #gg-he ,glauconite1 #bd1 #ci1 #dd ,gore ,cliff1 #ci1 #dd ,gre5s&1 ,l[]1 #bc-cf ,upp]1 #cg ,gravels1 #ej1 #gi1 #hi1 #ic-ie ,ham/ead1 #fe1 #fg ,headon ,hill1 #fb-fd ,hemp/ead1 see ,ham/ead4 ,hyopotamus1 #fi ,ice ,age1 #gg-he ,iguanodon1 #bj ,insect ,lime/one1 #fg ,iron ,ore1 #bb1 #bd ,iron pyrites1 #bb ,l&slips1 #be1 #ch ,limnaea1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff ,lob/]s1 ,a!rfield1 #cb ,london ,clay1 #eg ,luccombe1 ,l&slip at1 #be ,mammalian ,rema9s1 #ff1 #fi ,mammo?1 #gg1 #ha ,m>vel1 #ce ,m$9a1 #ic ,melb\rn ,rock1 #de ,mioc5e1 #fi1 #ga1 #gf ,nautilus1 #cb1 #de ,ne$les1 #d ,neoli?ic ,man1 #ajj ,newt[n ,riv]1 #ajb ,nummulites1 #fa ,oligoc5e1 #fc ,palaeoli?ic ,man1 #ig ,p]na ,b$1 #bc1 #ca ,p9e ,raft1 #bi ,planorbis1 #fc1 #fd1 #ff ,pla/ic ,clay1 #eg ,priory ,bay1 #ii ,purbeck ,m>ble1 #af ,qu>r1 #fe ,rag1 #ch ,rock 7place71 #ce ,roman ,villas1 #ajd ,/4 ,boniface ,d[n1 #ej1 #ajj1 #aje ,/4 ,george's ,d[n1 #gi1 #ajj ,s&[n ,anticl9e1 #aa-ac1 #hi ,s&rock1 #be1 #ce ,scaphites1 #cd ,sc5]y1 #aje ,sea ,ur*9s1 #dh1 #eb1 ,%ankl9 ,*9e1 #ajg ,sol5t1 #id ,s\?ampton ,dock1 #aja ,wat]1 #id ,sponges 9 ,fl9t1 #dg ,/one ,age1 #ig ,/rata1 ,table (1 #aaj1 #aaa ,/rike1 #aa ,subm]g$ ,=e/1 #aja ,swanage1 #ic ,syncl9e1 #ab ,table ( ,/rata1 #aaj1 #aaa ,t]ti>y1 #ed ,totl& ,bay1 #fc1 #ie ,tufa1 #de ,turtle1 #eh1 #fe1 #fh ,und]cliff1 =mation (1 #be1 #ch ,volcanic ,action1 #e ,weald51 #ae ,:itcliff ,bay1 #ef-fg ,wood1 ,fossil1 #h1 #ae1 #ah1 #bg1 #bi ,y>1 ,ea/]n1 #hi-ia ,we/]n1 #ib ,zones ( ,*alk1 #ea1 #eb ,pr9t$ by ,! ,crypt ,h\se ,press1 ,bell ,lane1 ,gl\ce/]4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,) ! exception ( ! *anges not$ bel[1 ! text 9 ?is file is ! same z t 9 ! orig9al pr9t$ v]sion4 ,^! may include alt]nate spell+ f :at may be common today 7= example1 gneisse72 punctuational &_/or grammatical nuances4 ,additionally1 sev]al miss+ p]iods 7 ins]t$2 b are n li/$ bel[4 ,la/ly1 ! ,index seems to be miss+ a few ref]5ces to page numb]s & 7 left z orig9ally pr9t$4 ,emphasis ,encod+ ,text - ,italiciz$ ,text ,text - ,greek translation ,typographical ,corrections ,page #fi3 regi\s regions ,page #aja3 s\rr\nd+ surr\nd+ ,page #ajb3 rema9s ,9 ! peat 444 9 444 ,page #ajf3 sur\nd+ surr\nd+