http3_/_/www4archive4org_/details_/dante
essaytowhic#jj;chur47                   
,transcriber's ,note3 ,spelling and     
punctuation have been retained as they  
appear in the original1 but obvious     
printer errors have been corrected      
without note4 ,printer errors in        
,italian passages from ,the ,divine     
,comedy have been corrected using the   
,italian-,english ,princeton ,university
 ,press edition 7trans4 ,charles ,s4    
,singleton1 #aigc74  ,a ,table of       
,contents has been added for the        
reader's convenience4 ,the original     
contains a separate ,contents of ,de    
,monarchia at the end of ,de ,monarchia4
     ,,dante  ,,and  ,,de ,,monarchia4  
,illustration     ,,dante4  ,an ,essay4 
,,by  ,r4 ,w4 ,,church1 ,m4,a41         
,d4,c4,l4  ,,dean ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s1 
,,and ,,honorary ,,fellow ,,of ,,oriel  
,,college1 ,,oxford4   ,to which is     
added  ,a ,,translation ,,of  ,,de      
,,monarchia4   ,,by ,f4 ,j4 ,,church4   
,london3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 #ahgi4 

,,charles ,,dickens ,,and ,,evans1      
,,crystal ,,palace ,,press4             
,,contents  ,,notice ,,dante ,,de       
,,monarchia ,,contents ,,of ,,de        
,,monarchia ,,publisher',s ,,catalogue  
,,notice4   ,the following ,essay first 
appeared in the ,christian ,remembrancer
 of ,january1 #ahej1 and it was         
reprinted in a volume of ,essays and    
,reviews1 published in #ahed4  ,it was  
written before the appearance in        
,germany and ,england of the abundant   
recent literature on the subject4 ,with 
the exception of a few trifling         
corrections1 it is republished without  
change4  ,by the desire of ,mr4         
,macmillan1 a translation of the ,de    
,monarchia is subjoined4 ,i am indebted 
for it to my son1 ,mr4 ,f4,j4 ,church1  
late ,scholar of ,new ,college4 ,it is  
made from the text of ,witte's second   
edition of the ,de ,monarchia1 #ahgd4   
,the ,de ,monarchia has been more than  
once translated into ,italian and       
,german1 in earlier or later times4 ,but

 ,i do not know that any ,english       
translation has yet appeared4 ,it is    
analysed in the fifteenth chapter of    
,mr4 ,bryce's ,holy ,roman ,empire4     
,witte1 with much probability1 ,i think1
 places the composition of the work in  
the first part of ,dante's life1 before 
his exile in #acja1 while the           
pretensions and arguments of ,boniface  
,,viii4 7#abid-acjc7 were being         
discussed by ,guelf and ,ghibelline     
partisans1 but before they were formally
 embodied in the famous ,bull ,unam     
,sanctam1 #acjb4 ,the character of the  
composition1 for the most part1 formal1 
general1 and scholastic1 sanguine in    
tone and with little personal allusion1 
is in strong contrast with the          
passionate and despairing language of   
resentment and disappointment which     
marks his later writings4 ,as an example
 of the political speculation of the    
time1 it should be compared with the ,de
 ,regimine ,principum1 ascribed to      
,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the whole subject of 

the medival idea of the ,empire is      
admirably discussed in ,mr4 ,bryce's    
book referred to above4  ,r4,w4,c4      
,,st4 ,,paul',s1   ,november1 #ahgh4    
,,dante4#a  ,,jan4 #ahej4  ,footnote #a3
 ,dante's ,divine ,comedy1 the ,inferno2
 a literal ,prose ,translation1 with the
 ,text of the ,original4 ,by ,j4,a4     
,,carlyle1 ,m4,d41 ,london3 #ahdi4 ,i   
have never quite forgiven myself for not
 having said more of the unpretending   
but honest and most useful volume which 
stood at the head of this essay when it 
first appeared as an article4 ,it was   
placed there1 according to what was then
 a custom of article writers1 as a peg  
to hang remarks upon which might or     
might not be criticisms of the          
particular book so noticed4 ,it did not 
offer itself specially to my use1 and my
 attention was busy with my own work4   
,but this was no excuse for availing    
myself of a good book1 and not giving it
 the notice which it deserved4 ,to an   
,english student beginning ,dante1 and  

wishing to study him in a scholarly     
manner1 it is really more useful than a 
verse translation can be2 and ,i have   
always greatly regretted that the plan  
of translating the whole work was       
dropped for want of the appreciation    
which the first instalment ought to have
 had4 7#ahgh47   ,the ,divina ,commedia 
is one of the landmarks of history4     
,more than a magnificent poem1 more than
 the beginning of a language and the    
opening of a national literature1 more  
than the inspirer of art1 and the glory 
of a great people1 it is one of those   
rare and solemn monuments of the mind's 
power1 which measure and test what it   
can reach to1 which rise up ineffaceably
 and for ever as time goes on1 marking  
out its advance by grander divisions    
than its centuries1 and adopted as      
epochs by the consent of all who come   
after4 ,it stands with the ,iliad and   
,shakspere's ,plays1 with the writings  
of ,aristotle and ,plato1 with the      
,novum ,organon and the ,principia1 with

 ,justinian's ,code1 with the ,parthenon
 and ,s4 ,peter's4 ,it is the first     
,christian poem2 and it opens ,european 
literature1 as the ,iliad did that of   
,greece and ,rome4 ,and1 like the       
,iliad1 it has never become out of date2
 it accompanies in undiminished         
freshness the literature which it began4
  ,we approach the history of such      
works1 in which genius seems to have    
pushed its achievements to a new limit1 
with a kind of awe4 ,the beginnings of  
all things1 their bursting out from     
nothing1 and gradual evolution into     
substance and shape1 cast on the mind a 
solemn influence4 ,they come too near   
the fount of being to be followed up    
without our feeling the shadows which   
surround it4 ,we cannot but fear1 cannot
 but feel ourselves cut off from this   
visible and familiar world--as we enter 
into the cloud4 ,and as with the        
processes of nature1 so it is with those
 offsprings of man's mind1 by which he  
has added permanently one more great    

feature to the world1 and created a new 
power which is to act on mankind to the 
end4 ,the mystery of the inventive and  
creative faculty1 the subtle and        
incalculable combinations by which it   
was led to its work1 and carried through
 it1 are out of the reach of            
investigating thought4 ,often the idea  
recurs of the precariousness of the     
result2 by how little the world might   
have lost one of its ornaments--by one  
sharp pang1 or one chance meeting1 or   
any other among the countless accidents 
among which man runs his course4 ,and   
then the solemn recollection supervenes1
 that powers were formed1 and life      
preserved1 and circumstances arranged1  
and actions controlled1 that thus it    
should be3 and the work which man has   
brooded over1 and at last created1 is   
the foster-child too of that ,wisdom    
which reaches from end to end1 strongly 
and sweetly disposing all things4  ,it  
does not abate these feelings1 that we  
can follow in some cases and to a       

certain extent1 the progress of a work4 
,indeed1 the sight of the particular    
accidents among which it was            
developed--which belong perhaps to a    
heterogeneous and widely discordant     
order of things1 which are out of       
proportion and out of harmony with it1  
which do not explain it1 which have1 as 
it may seem to us1 no natural right to  
be connected with it1 to bear on its    
character1 or contribute to its         
accomplishment1 to which we feel1 as it 
were1 ashamed to owe what we can least  
spare1 yet on which its forming mind and
 purpose were dependent1 and with which 
they had to conspire--affects the       
imagination even more than cases where  
we see nothing4 ,we are tempted less to 
musing and wonder by the ,iliad1 a work 
without a history1 cut off from its     
past1 the sole relic and vestige of its 
age1 unexplained in its origin and      
perfection1 than by the ,divina         
,commedia1 destined for the highest ends
 and most universal sympathy1 yet the   

reflection of a personal history1 and   
issuing seemingly from its chance       
incidents4  ,the ,divina ,commedia is   
singular among the great works with     
which it ranks1 for its strong stamp of 
personal character and history4 ,in     
general we associate little more than   
the name--not the life--of a great poet 
with his works2 personal interest       
belongs more usually to greatness in its
 active than its creative forms4 ,but   
the whole idea and purpose of the       
,commedia1 as well as its filling up and
 colouring1 are determined by ,dante's  
peculiar history4 ,the loftiest1        
perhaps1 in its aim and flight of all   
poems1 it is also the most individual2  
the writer's own life is chronicled in  
it1 as well as the issues and upshot of 
all things4 ,it is at once the mirror to
 all time of the sins and perfections of
 men1 of the judgments and grace of     
,god1 and the record1 often the only    
one1 of the transient names1 and local  
factions1 and obscure ambitions1 and    

forgotten crimes1 of the poet's own day2
 and in that awful company to which he  
leads us1 in the most unearthly of his  
scenes1 we never lose sight of himself4 
,and when this peculiarity sends us to  
history1 it seems as if the poem which  
was to hold such a place in ,christian  
literature hung upon and grew out of    
chance events1 rather than the          
deliberate design of its author4        
,history indeed here1 as generally1 is  
but a feeble exponent of the course of  
growth in a great mind and great ideas4 
,it shows us early a bent and           
purpose--the man conscious of power and 
intending to use it--and then the       
accidents among which he worked3 but how
 that current of purpose threaded its   
way among them1 how it was thrown back1 
deflected1 deepened1 by them1 we cannot 
learn from history4 ,it presents but a  
broken and mysterious picture4 ,a boy of
 quick and enthusiastic temper grows up 
into youth in a dream of love4 ,the lady
 of his mystic passion dies early4 ,he  

dreams of her still1 not as a wonder of 
earth1 but as a ,saint in ,paradise1 and
 relieves his heart in an autobiography1
 a strange and perplexing work of       
fiction--quaint and subtle enough for a 
metaphysical conceit2 but1 on the other 
hand1 with far too much of genuine and  
deep feeling4 ,it is a first essay2 he  
closes it abruptly as if dissatisfied   
with his work1 but with the resolution  
of raising at a future day a worthy     
monument to the memory of her whom he   
has lost4 ,it is the promise and purpose
 of a great work4 ,but a prosaic change 
seems to come over this half-ideal      
character4 ,the lover becomes the       
student--the student of the #acth       
century--struggling painfully against   
difficulties1 eager and hot after       
knowledge1 wasting eyesight and stinting
 sleep1 subtle1 inquisitive1            
active-minded and sanguine1 but         
omnivorous1 overflowing with dialectical
 forms1 loose in premiss and            
ostentatiously rigid in syllogism1      

fettered by the refinements of          
half-awakened taste1 and the mannerisms 
of the ,provenals4 ,boethius and        
,cicero1 and the mass of mixed learning 
within his reach1 are accepted as the   
consolation of his human griefs3 he is  
filled with the passion of universal    
knowledge1 and the desire to communicate
 it4 ,philosophy has become the lady of 
his soul--to write allegorical poems in 
her honour1 and to comment on them with 
all the apparatus of his learning in    
prose1 his mode of celebrating her4     
,further1 he marries2 it is said1 not   
happily4 ,the antiquaries1 too1 have    
disturbed romance by discovering that   
,beatrice also was married some years   
before her death4 ,he appears1 as time  
goes on1 as a burgher of ,florence1 the 
father of a family1 a politician1 an    
envoy1 a magistrate1 a partisan1 taking 
his full share in the quarrels of the   
day4 ,at length we see him1 at once an  
exile1 and the poet of the ,commedia4   
,beatrice reappears--shadowy1 melting at

 times into symbol and figure--but far  
too living and real1 addressed with too 
intense and natural feeling to be the   
mere personification of anything4 ,the  
lady of the philosophical ,canzoni has  
vanished4 ,the student's dream has been 
broken1 as the boy's had been2 and the  
earnestness of the man1 enlightened by  
sorrow1 overleaping the student's       
formalities and abstractions1 reverted  
in sympathy to the earnestness of the   
boy1 and brooded once more on that      
,saint in ,paradise1 whose presence and 
memory had once been so soothing1 and   
who now seemed a real link between him  
and that stable country1 where the      
angels are in peace4 ,round her image1  
the reflection of purity1 and truth1 and
 forbearing love1 was grouped that      
confused scene of trouble and effort1 of
 failure and success1 which the poet saw
 round him2 round her image it arranged 
itself in awful order--and that image1  
not a metaphysical abstraction1 but the 
living memory1 freshened by sorrow1 and 

seen through the softening and hallowing
 vista of years1 of ,beatrice           
,portinari--no figment of imagination1  
but ,god's creature and servant4 ,a     
childish love1 dissipated by study and  
business1 and revived in memory by heavy
 sorrow--a boyish resolution1 made in a 
moment of feeling1 interrupted1 though  
it would be hazardous to say in ,dante's
 case1 laid aside1 for apparently more  
manly studies1 gave the idea and        
suggested the form of the ,sacred poem  
of earth and heaven4  ,and the occasion 
of this startling unfolding of the      
poetic gift1 of this passage of a soft  
and dreamy boy1 into the keenest1       
boldest1 sternest of poets1 the free and
 mighty leader of ,european song1 was1  
what is not ordinarily held to be a     
source of poetical inspiration1--the    
political life4 ,the boy had            
sensibility1 high aspirations1 and a    
versatile and passionate nature2 the    
student added to this energy1 various   
learning1 gifts of language1 and noble  

ideas on the capacities and ends of man4
 ,but it was the factions of ,florence  
which made ,dante a great poet4 ,but for
 them1 he might have been a modern      
critic and essayist born before his     
time1 and have held a high place among  
the writers of fugitive verses2 in      
,italy1 a graceful but trifling and idle
 tribe1 often casting a deep and        
beautiful thought into a mould of       
expressive diction1 but oftener toying  
with a foolish and glittering conceit1  
and whose languid genius was exhausted  
by a sonnet4 ,he might have thrown into 
the shade the ,guidos and ,cinos of his 
day1 to be eclipsed by ,petrarch4 ,but  
he learned in the bitter feuds of ,italy
 not to trifle2 they opened to his view1
 and he had an eye to see1 the true     
springs and abysses of this mortal      
life--motives and passions stronger than
 lovers' sentiments1 evils beyond the   
consolations of ,boethius and ,cicero2  
and from that fiery trial which without 
searing his heart1 annealed his strength

 and purpose1 he drew that great gift   
and power1 by which he stands           
pre-eminent even among his high         
compeers1 the gift of being real4 ,and  
the idea of the ,commedia took shape1   
and expanded into its endless forms of  
terror and beauty1 not under the        
roof-tree of the literary citizen1 but  
when the exile had been driven out to   
the highways of the world1 to study     
nature on the sea or by the river or on 
the mountain track1 and to study men in 
the courts of ,verona and ,ravenna1 and 
in the schools of ,bologna and          
,paris--perhaps of ,oxford4  ,the       
connexion of these feuds with ,dante's  
poem has given to the middle age history
 of ,italy an interest of which it is   
not undeserving in itself1 full as it is
 of curious exhibitions of character and
 contrivance1 but to which politically  
it cannot lay claim1 amid the social    
phenomena1 so far grander in scale and  
purpose and more felicitous in issue1 of
 the other western nations4 ,it is      

remarkable for keeping up an antique    
phase1 which1 in spite of modern        
arrangements1 it has not yet lost4 ,it  
is a history of cities4 ,in ancient     
history all that is most memorable and  
instructive gathers round cities2       
civilisation and empire were            
concentrated within walls2 and it       
baffled the ancient mind to conceive how
 power should be possessed and wielded1 
by numbers larger than might be         
collected in a single market-place4 ,the
 ,roman ,empire indeed aimed at being   
one in its administration and law2 but  
it was not a nation1 nor were its       
provinces nations4 ,yet everywhere but  
in ,italy1 it prepared them for becoming
 nations4 ,and while everywhere else    
parts were uniting and union was        
becoming organisation--and neither      
geographical remoteness1 nor            
unwieldiness of numbers1 nor local      
interests and differences1 were         
untractable obstacles to that spirit of 
fusion which was at once the ambition of

 the few and the instinct of the many2  
and cities1 even where most powerful1   
had become the centres of the attracting
 and joining forces1 knots in the       
political network--while this was going 
on more or less happily throughout the  
rest of ,europe1 in ,italy the ancient  
classic idea lingered in its simplicity1
 its narrowness and jealousy1 wherever  
there was any political activity4 ,the  
history of ,southern ,italy indeed is   
mainly a foreign one1 the history of    
modern ,rome merges in that of the      
,papacy2 but ,northern ,italy has a     
history of its own1 and that is a       
history of separate and independent     
cities--points of reciprocal and        
indestructible repulsion1 and within1   
theatres of action where the blind      
tendencies and traditions of classes and
 parties weighed little on the freedom  
of individual character1 and citizens   
could watch and measure and study one   
another with the minuteness of private  
life4  ,two cities were the centres of  

ancient history in its most interesting 
time4 ,and two cities of modern ,italy  
represent1 with entirely undesigned but 
curiously exact coincidence1 the parts  
of ,athens and ,rome4 ,venice1          
superficially so unlike1 is yet in many 
of its accidental features1 and still   
more in its spirit1 the counterpart of  
,rome1 in its obscure and mixed origin1 
in its steady growth1 in its quick sense
 of order and early settlement of its   
polity1 in its grand and serious public 
spirit1 in its subordination of the     
individual to the family1 and the family
 to the state1 in its combination of    
remote dominion with the liberty of a   
solitary and sovereign city4 ,and though
 the associations and the scale of the  
two were so different--though ,rome had 
its hills and its legions1 and ,venice  
its lagunes and galleys--the long empire
 of ,venice1 the heir of ,carthage and  
predecessor of ,england on the seas1 the
 great aristocratic republic of #ajjj   
years1 is the only empire that has yet  

matched ,rome in length and steadiness  
of tenure4 ,brennus and ,hannibal were  
not resisted with greater constancy than
 ,doria and ,louis ,,xii42 and that     
great aristocracy1 long so proud1 so    
high-spirited1 so intelligent1 so       
practical1 who combined the enterprise  
and wealth of merchants1 the            
self-devotion of soldiers and gravity of
 senators1 with the uniformity and      
obedience of a religious order1 may     
compare without shame its ,giustiniani1 
and ,zenos1 and ,morosini1 with ,roman  
,fabii and ,claudii4 ,and ,rome could   
not be more contrasted with ,athens than
 ,venice with ,italian and contemporary 
,florence--stability with fitfulness1   
independence impregnable and secure1    
with a short-lived and troubled liberty1
 empire meditated and achieved1 with a  
course of barren intrigues and quarrels4
 ,florence1 gay1 capricious1 turbulent1 
the city of party1 the head and busy    
patroness of democracy in the cities    
round her--,florence1 where popular     

government was inaugurated with its     
utmost exclusiveness and most pompous   
ceremonial2 waging her little summer    
wars against ,ghibelline tyrants1       
revolted democracies1 and her own       
exiles2 and further1 so rich in         
intellectual gifts1 in variety of       
individual character1 in poets1 artists1
 wits1 historians--,florence in its     
brilliant days recalled the image of    
ancient ,athens1 and did not depart from
 its prototype in the beauty of its     
natural site1 in its noble public       
buildings1 in the size and nature of its
 territory4 ,and the course of its      
history is similar and the result of    
similar causes--a traditional spirit of 
freedom1 with its accesses of fitful    
energy1 its periods of grand display and
 moments of glorious achievement1 but   
producing nothing politically great or  
durable1 and sinking at length into a   
resigned servitude4 ,it had its         
,peisistratid more successful than those
 of ,athens2 it had1 too1 its ,harmodius

 and ,aristogeiton2 it had its great    
orator of liberty1 as potent and as     
unfortunate as the antagonist of        
,philip4 ,and finally1 like ,athens1 it 
became content with the remembrance of  
its former glory1 with being the        
fashionable and acknowledged seat of    
refinement and taste1 with being a      
favoured dependency on the modern heir  
of the ,csars4 ,but if to ,venice       
belongs a grander public history1       
,florentine names and works1 like       
,athenian1 will be living among men1    
when the ,brenta shall have been left   
unchecked to turn the ,lagunes into     
ploughland1 and when ,rome herself may  
no longer be the seat of the ,popes4    
,the year of ,dante's birth was a       
memorable one in the annals of          
,florence1 of ,italy1 and of            
,christendom4#b ,the year #abfe was the 
year of that great victory of           
,benevento1 where ,charles of ,anjou    
overthrew ,manfred of ,naples1 and      
destroyed at one blow the power of the  

house of ,swabia4 ,from that time till  
the time of ,charles ,v41 the emperors  
had no footing in ,italy4 ,further1 that
 victory set up the ,french influence in
 ,italy1 which1 transient in itself1    
produced such strange and momentous     
consequences1 by the intimate connexion 
to which it led between the ,french     
kings and the ,popes4 ,the protection of
 ,france was dearly bought by the       
captivity of ,avignon1 the great western
 schism1 and the consequent             
secularisation of the ,papacy1 which    
lasted on uninterrupted till the        
,council of ,trent4 ,nearly three       
centuries of degradation and scandal1   
unrelieved by one heroic effort among   
the successors of ,gregory ,,vii41      
connected the ,reformation with the     
triumph of ,charles and the ,pope at    
,benevento4 ,finally1 by it the ,guelf  
party was restored for good in          
,florence2 the ,guelf democracy1 which  
had been trampled down by the ,uberti   
and ,manfred's chivalry at ,monteaperti1

 once more raised its head2 and fortune1
 which had long wavered between the     
rival lilies1 finally turned against the
 white one1 till the name of ,ghibelline
 became a proscribed one in ,florence1  
as ,jacobite was once in ,scotland1 or  
,papist in ,england1 or ,royalist in    
,france4  ,footnote #b3 ,may1 #abfe4    
7,pelli47 ,benevento3 ,feb4 #bf1        
#abfe_/f4 ,the ,florentine year began   
,march #be4  ,the names of ,guelf and   
,ghibelline were the inheritance of a   
contest which1 in its original meaning1 
had been long over4 ,the old struggle   
between the priesthood and the empire   
was still kept up traditionally1 but its
 ideas and interests were changed3 they 
were still great and important ones1 but
 not those of ,gregory ,,vii4 ,it had   
passed over from the mixed region of the
 spiritual and temporal into the purely 
political4 ,the cause of the popes was  
that of the independence of ,italy--the 
freedom and alliance of the great cities
 of the north1 and the dependence of the

 centre and south on the ,roman ,see4   
,to keep the ,emperor out of ,italy--to 
create a barrier of powerful cities     
against him south of the ,alps--to form 
behind themselves a compact territory1  
rich1 removed from the first burst of   
invasion1 and maintaining a strong body 
of interested feudatories1 had now      
become the great object of the popes4   
,it may have been a wise policy on their
 part1 for the maintenance of their     
spiritual influence1 to attempt to      
connect their own independence with the 
political freedom of the ,italian       
communities2 but certain it is that the 
ideas and the characters which gave a   
religious interest and grandeur to the  
earlier part of the contest1 appear but 
sparingly1 if at all1 in its later      
forms4  ,the two parties did not care to
 keep in view principles which their    
chiefs had lost sight of4 ,the ,emperor 
and the ,pope were both real powers1    
able to protect and assist2 and they    
divided between them those who required 

protection and assistance4 ,geographical
 position1 the rivalry of neighbourhood1
 family tradition1 private feuds1 and   
above all private interest1 were the    
main causes which assigned cities1      
families1 and individuals to the        
,ghibelline or ,guelf party4 ,one party 
called themselves the ,emperor's        
liegemen1 and their watchword was       
authority and law2 the other side were  
the liegemen of ,holy ,church1 and their
 cry was liberty2 and the distinction as
 a broad one is true4 ,but a democracy  
would become ,ghibelline1 without       
scruple1 if its neighbour town was      
,guelf2 and among the ,guelf liegemen of
 the ,church and liberty the pride of   
blood and love of power were not a whit 
inferior to that of their opponents4    
,yet1 though the original principle of  
the contest was lost1 and the political 
distinctions of parties were often      
interfered with by interest or accident1
 it is not impossible to trace in the   
two factions differences of temper1 of  

moral and political inclinations1 which 
though visible only on a large scale and
 in the mass1 were quite sufficient to  
give meaning and reality to their mutual
 opposition4 ,these differences had come
 down1 greatly altered of course1 from  
the quarrel in which the parties took   
their rise4 ,the ,ghibellines as a body 
reflected the worldliness1 the licence1 
the irreligion1 the reckless            
selfishness1 the daring insolence1 and  
at the same time the gaiety and pomp1   
the princely magnificence and generosity
 and largeness of mind of the house of  
,swabia2 they were the men of the court 
and camp1 imperious and haughty from    
ancient lineage or the ,imperial cause1 
yet not wanting in the frankness and    
courtesy of nobility2 careless of public
 opinion and public rights1 but not dead
 to the grandeur of public objects and  
public services4 ,among them were found1
 or to them inclined1 all who1 whether  
from a base or a lofty ambition1 desired
 to place their will above law#c--the   

lord of the feudal castle1 the          
robber-knight of the ,apennine pass1 the
 magnificent but terrible tyrants of the
 cities1 the pride and shame of ,italy1 
the ,visconti and ,scaligers4 ,that     
renowned ,ghibelline chief1 whom the    
poet finds in the fiery sepulchres of   
the unbelievers with the great          
,ghibelline emperor and the princely    
,ghibelline cardinal--the disdainful and
 bitter but lofty spirit of ,farinata   
degli ,uberti1 the conqueror1 and then  
singly and at his own risk1 the saviour 
of his country which had wronged him1   
represents the good as well as the bad  
side of his party4  ,footnote #c3       
,maghinardo da ,susinana 7il ,demonio1  
,purg4 #ad7 fu uno grande e savio       
tiranno 444 gran castellano1 e con molti
 fedeli3 savio fu di guerra e bene      
avventuroso in pi battaglie1 e al suo   
tempo fece gran cose4 ,ghibellino era di
 sua nazione e in sue opere2 ma co'     
,fiorentini era ,guelfo e nimico di     
tutti i loro nimici1 o ,guelfi o        

,ghibellini che fossono4--,g4 ,vill4    
vii4 #adi4 ,a ,ghibelline by birth and  
disposition2 yet1 from circumstances1 a 
close ally of the ,guelfs of ,florence4 
,the ,guelfs1 on the other hand1 were   
the party of the middle classes2 they   
rose out of and held to the people2 they
 were strong by their compactness1 their
 organisation in cities1 their          
commercial relations and interests1     
their command of money4 ,further1 they  
were professedly the party of strictness
 and religion1 a profession which       
fettered them as little as their        
opponents were fettered by the respect  
they claimed for imperial law4 ,but     
though by personal unscrupulousness and 
selfishness1 and in instances of public 
vengeance1 they sinned as deeply as the 
,ghibellines1 they stood far more       
committed as a party to a public meaning
 and purpose--to improvement in law and 
the condition of the poor1 to a protest 
against the insolence of the strong1 to 
the encouragement of industry4 ,the     

genuine ,guelf spirit was austere1      
frugal1 independent1 earnest1 religious1
 fond of its home and ,church1 and of   
those celebrations which bound together 
,church and home2 but withal very proud1
 very intolerant2 in its higher form    
intolerant of evil1 but intolerant      
always to whatever displeased it4 ,yet  
there was a grave and noble manliness   
about it which long kept it alive in    
,florence4 ,it had not as yet turned    
itself against the practical corruptions
 of the ,church1 which was its ally2 but
 this also it was to do1 when the popes 
had forsaken the cause of liberty1 and  
leagued themselves with the brilliant   
tyranny of the ,medici4 ,then           
,savonarola invoked1 and not in vain1   
the stern old ,guelf spirit of          
resistance1 of domestic purity and      
severity1 and of domestic religion1     
against unbelief and licentiousness even
 in the ,church2 and the ,guelf         
,piagnoni presented1 in a more simple   
and generous shape1 a resemblance to our

 own ,puritans1 as the ,ghibellines     
often recall the coarser and worse      
features of our own ,cavaliers4  ,in    
,florence1 these distinctions had become
 mere nominal ones1 confined to the     
great families who carried on their     
private feuds under the old party names1
 when ,frederick ,,ii4 once more gave   
them their meaning4 ,although the       
accursed ,guelf and ,ghibelline factions
 lasted amongst the nobles of ,florence1
 and they often waged war among         
themselves out of private grudges1 and  
took sides for the said factions1 and   
held one with another1 and those who    
called themselves ,guelfs desired the   
establishment of the ,pope and ,holy    
,church1 and those who called themselves
 ,ghibellines favoured the ,emperor and 
his adherents1 yet withal the people and
 commonalty of ,florence maintained     
itself in unity1 to the well-being and  
honour and establishment of the         
commonwealth4#d ,but the appearance on  
the scene of an emperor of such talent  

and bold designs revived the languid    
contest1 and gave to party a cause1 and 
to individual passions and ambition an  
impulse and pretext4 ,the division      
between ,guelf and ,ghibelline again    
became serious1 involved all ,florence1 
armed house against house1 and          
neighbourhood against neighbourhood1    
issued in merciless and vindictive      
warfare1 grew on into a hopeless and    
deadly breach1 and finally lost to      
,florence1 without remedy or repair1    
half her noble houses and the love of   
the greatest of her sons4 ,the old badge
 of their common country became to the  
two factions the sign of their          
implacable hatred2 the white lily of    
,florence1 borne by the ,ghibellines1   
was turned to red by the ,guelfs1 and   
the flower of two colours marked a civil
 strife as cruel and as fatal1 if on a  
smaller scale1 as that of the ,english  
roses4#e  ,footnote #d3 ,g4 ,villani1   
vi4 #cc4  ,footnote #e3 ,g4 ,villani1   
vi4 #cc1 #dc2 ,parad4 #ai4  ,it was     

waged with the peculiar characteristics 
of ,italian civil war4 ,there the city  
itself was the scene of battle4 ,a      
thirteenth century city in ,italy bore  
on its face the evidence that it was    
built and arranged for such emergencies4
 ,its crowded and narrow streets were a 
collection of rival castles1 whose tall 
towers1 rising thick and close over its 
roofs1 or hanging perilously over its   
close courts1 attested the emulous pride
 and the insecurity of ,italian civic   
life4 ,there1 within a separate         
precinct1 flanked and faced by jealous  
friends or deadly enemies1 were         
clustered together the dwellings of the 
various members of each great           
house--their common home and the        
monument of their magnificence and      
pride1 and capable of being1 as was so  
often necessary1 their common refuge4   
,in these fortresses of the leading     
families1 scattered about the city1 were
 the various points of onset and        
recovery in civic battle2 in the streets

 barricades were raised1 mangonels and  
crossbows were plied from the towers1 a 
series of separate combats raged through
 the city1 till chance at length        
connected the attacks of one side1 or   
some panic paralysed the resistance of  
the other1 or a conflagration interposed
 itself between the combatants1 burning 
out at once ,guelf and ,ghibelline1 and 
laying half ,florence in ashes4 ,each   
party had their turn of victory2 each1  
when vanquished1 went into exile1 and   
carried on the war outside the walls2   
each had their opportunity of           
remodelling the orders and framework of 
government1 and each did so relentlessly
 at the cost of their opponents4 ,they  
excluded classes1 they proscribed       
families1 they confiscated property1    
they sacked and burned warehouses1 they 
levelled the palaces1 and outraged the  
pride of their antagonists4 ,to destroy 
was not enough1 without adding to it the
 keenest and newest refinement of       
insult4 ,two buildings in ,florence were

 peculiarly dear--among their cari      
luoghi--to the popular feeling and the  
,guelf party3 the ,baptistery of ,st4   
,john1 il mio bel ,s4 ,giovanni1 to     
which all the good people resorted on   
,sundays1#f where they had all received 
baptism1 where they had been married1   
where families were solemnly reconciled2
 and a tall and beautiful tower close by
 it1 called the ,torre del ,guardamorto1
 where the bodies of the good people1   
who of old were all buried at ,s4       
,giovanni1 rested on their way to the   
grave4 ,the victorious ,ghibellines1    
when they levelled the ,guelf towers1   
overthrew this one1 and endeavoured to  
make it crush in its fall the sacred    
church1 which1 says the old chronicler1 
was prevented by a miracle4 ,the        
,guelfs1 when their day came1 built the 
walls of ,florence with the stones of   
,ghibelline palaces4#g ,one great family
 stands out pre-eminent in this fierce  
conflict as the victim and monument of  
party war4 ,the head of the ,ghibellines

 was the proud and powerful house of the
 ,uberti1 who shared with another great 
,ghibelline family1 the ,pazzi1 the     
valley of the upper ,arno4 ,they lighted
 up the war in the ,emperor's cause4    
,they supported its weight and guided   
it4 ,in time of peace they were foremost
 and unrestrained in defiance of law and
 in scorn of the people--in war1 the    
people's fiercest and most active       
enemies4 ,heavy sufferers1 in their     
property1 and by the sword and axe1 yet 
untamed and incorrigible1 they led the  
van in that battle1 so long remembered  
to their cost by the ,guelfs1 the battle
 of ,monteaperti 7#abfj7--       ,lo    
strazio1 e 'l gran scempio      ,che    
fece l',arbia colorata in rossa4--,inf4 
#aj4  ,footnote #f3 ,g4 ,villani1 vi4   
#cc1 iv4 #aj2 ,inf4 #ai2 ,parad4 #be4   
,footnote #g3 ,g4 ,villani1 vi4 #ci1    
#fe4  ,that the head of their house1    
,farinata1 saved ,florence from the     
vengeance of his meaner associates1 was 
not enough to atone for the unpardonable

 wrongs which they had done to the      
,guelfs and the democracy4 ,when the red
 lily of the ,guelfs finally supplanted 
the white one as the arms of ,florence1 
and the badge of ,guelph triumph1 they  
were proscribed for ever1 like the      
,peisistratid and the ,tarquins4 ,in    
every amnesty their names were excepted4
 ,the site on which their houses had    
stood was never again to be built upon1 
and remains the ,great ,square of       
,florence2 the architect of the ,palace 
of the ,people was obliged to sacrifice 
its symmetry1 and to place it awry1 that
 its walls might not encroach on the    
accursed ground4#h ,they had been1 says 
a writer1 contemporary with ,dante1     
speaking of the time when he also became
 an exile2 they had been for more than  
forty years outlaws from their country1 
nor ever found mercy nor pity1 remaining
 always abroad in great state1 nor ever 
abased their honour1 seeing that they   
ever abode with kings and lords1 and to 
great things applied themselves4#i ,they

 were loved as they were hated4 ,when   
under the protection of a cardinal one  
of them visited the city1 and the       
chequered blue and gold blazon of their 
house was1 after an interval of half a  
century1 again seen in the streets of   
,florence2 many ancient ,ghibelline men 
and women pressed to kiss the arms1#aj  
and even the common people did him      
honour4  ,footnote #h3 ,g4 ,villani1 vi4
 #cc1 viii4 #bf2 ,vasari1 ,arnolfo di   
,lapo1 i4 #bee 7,fir4 #ahdf74  ,footnote
 #i3 ,dino ,compagni1 p4 #hh4  ,footnote
 #aj3 ,dino ,compagni1 p4 #ajg4  ,but   
the fortunes of ,florentine factions    
depended on other causes than merely the
 address or vigour of their leaders4    
,from the year of ,dante's birth and    
,charles's victory1 ,florence1 as far as
 we shall have to do with it1 became    
irrevocably ,guelf4 ,not that the whole 
commonalty of ,florence formally called 
itself ,guelf1 or that the ,guelf party 
was co-extensive with it2 but the city  
was controlled by ,guelf councils1      

devoted to the objects of the great     
,guelf party1 and received in return the
 support of that party in curbing the   
pride of the nobles1 and maintaining    
democratic forms4 ,the ,guelf party of  
,florence1 though it was the life and   
soul of the republic1 and irresistible  
in its disposal of the influence and    
arms of ,florence1 and though it        
embraced a large number of the most     
powerful families1 is always spoken of  
as something distinct from1 and external
 to1 the governing powers1 and the whole
 body of the people4 ,it was a body with
 a separate and self-constituted        
existence2--in the state and allied to  
it1 but an independent element1 holding 
on to a large and comprehensive union   
without the state4 ,its organisation in 
,florence is one of the most curious    
among the many curious combinations     
which meet us in ,italian history4      
,after the final expulsion of the       
,ghibellines1 the ,guelf party took form
 as an institution1 with definite       

powers1 and a local existence4 ,it      
appears with as distinct a shape as the 
,jacobin ,club or the ,orange ,lodges1  
side by side with the government4 ,it   
was a corporate body with a common seal1
 common property1 not only in funds but 
lands--officers1 archives1 a common     
palace1#aa a great council1 a secret    
committee1 and last of all1 a public    
accuser of the ,ghibellines2 of the     
confiscated ,ghibelline estates         
one-third went to the republic1 another 
third to compensate individual ,guelfs1 
the rest was assigned to the ,guelf     
party4#ab ,a pope1 7,clement ,,iv41     
#abfe-fh7 had granted them his own      
arms#ac2 and their device1 a red eagle  
clutching a serpent1 may be yet seen1   
with the red lily1 and the              
party-coloured banner of the commonalty1
 on the battlements of the ,palazzo     
,vecchio4  ,footnote #aa3 ,giotto       
painted in it3 ,vasari1 ,vit4 di        
,giotto1 p4 #cad4  ,footnote #ab3 ,g4   
,villani1 vii4 #b1 #ag4  ,footnote #ac3 

,ibid4 vii4 #b4  ,but the expulsion of  
the ,ghibellines did but little to      
restore peace4 ,the great ,guelf        
families1 as old as many of the         
,ghibellines1 had as little reverence as
 they for law or civic rights4 ,below   
these1 the acknowledged nobility of     
,florence1 were the leading families of 
the people1 houses created by successful
 industry or commerce1 and pushing up   
into that privileged order1 which1      
however ignored and even discredited by 
the laws1 was fully recognised by       
feeling and opinion in the most         
democratic times of the republic4       
,rivalries and feuds1 street broils and 
conspiracies1 high-handed insolence from
 the great men1 rough vengeance from the
 populace1 still continued to vex       
jealous and changeful ,florence4 ,the   
popes sought in vain to keep in order   
their quarrelsome liegemen2 to reconcile
 ,guelf with ,guelf1 and even ,guelf    
with ,ghibelline4 ,embassies went and   
came1 to ask for mediation and to       

proffer it2 to apply the healing        
paternal hand2 to present an obsequious 
and ostentatious submission4 ,cardinal  
legates came in state1 and were received
 with reverential pomp2 they formed     
private committees1 and held assemblies1
 and made marriages2 they harangued in  
honeyed words1 and gained the largest   
promises2 on one occasion the ,great    
,square was turned into a vast theatre1 
and on this stage one hundred and fifty 
dissidents on each side came forward1   
and in the presence and with the        
benediction of the cardinal kissed each 
other on the mouth4#ad ,and if          
persuasion failed1 the pope's           
representative hesitated not to         
excommunicate and interdict the faithful
 but obdurate city4 ,but whether        
excommunicated or blessed1 ,florence    
could not be at peace2 however wise and 
subtle had been the peace-maker's       
arrangements1 his departing cortge was  
hardly out of sight of the city before  
they were blown to the winds4 ,not more 

successful were the efforts of the      
sensible and moderate citizens who      
sighed for tranquillity within its      
walls4 ,dino ,compagni's interesting    
though not very orderly narrative       
describes with great frankness1 and with
 the perplexity of a simple-hearted man 
puzzled by the continual triumph of     
clever wickedness1 the variety and the  
fruitlessness of the expedients devised 
by him and other good citizens against  
the resolute and incorrigible           
selfishness of the great ,guelfs--ever1 
when checked in one form1 breaking out  
in another2 proof against all           
persuasion1 all benefits2 not to be     
bound by law1 or compact1 or oath2      
eluding or turning to its own account   
the deepest and sagest contrivances of  
constitutional wisdom4  ,footnote #ad3  
,g4 ,villani1 vii4 #ef4  ,a great battle
 won against ,ghibelline ,arezzo#ae     
raised the renown and the military      
spirit of the ,guelf party1 for the fame
 of the battle was very great2 the hosts

 contained the choicest chivalry of     
either side1 armed and appointed with   
emulous splendour4 ,the fighting was    
hard1 there was brilliant and           
conspicuous gallantry1 and the victory  
was complete4 ,it sealed ,guelf         
ascendancy4 ,the ,ghibelline            
warrior-bishop of ,arezzo fell1 with    
three of the ,uberti1 and other         
,ghibelline chiefs4 ,it was a day of    
trial4 ,many that day who had been      
thought of great prowess were found     
dastards1 and many who had never been   
spoken of were held in high esteem4 ,it 
repaired the honour of ,florence1 and   
the citizens showed their feeling of its
 importance by mixing up the marvellous 
with its story4 ,its tidings came to    
,florence--so runs the tale in ,villani1
 who declares what he heard and saw     
himself--at the very hour in which it   
was won4 ,the ,priors of the republic   
were resting in their palace during the 
noonday heat2 suddenly the chamber door 
was shaken1 and the cry heard3 ,rise up6

 the ,aretini are defeated4 ,the door   
was opened1 but there was no one2 their 
servants had seen no one enter the      
palace1 and no one came from the army   
till the hour of vespers1 on a long     
summer's day4 ,in this battle the ,guelf
 leaders had won great glory4 ,the hero 
of the day was the proudest1 handsomest1
 craftiest1 most winning1 most          
ambitious1 most unscrupulous ,guelf     
noble in ,florence--one of a family who 
inherited the spirit and recklessness of
 the proscribed ,uberti1 and did not    
refuse the popular epithet of           
,malefami--,corso ,donati4 ,he did not  
come back from the field of ,campaldino1
 where he had won the battle by         
disobeying orders with any increased    
disposition to yield to rivals1 or court
 the populace1 or respect other men's   
rights4 ,those rivals1 too--and they    
also had fought gallantly in the post of
 honour at ,campaldino--were such as he 
hated from his soul--rivals whom he     
despised1 and who yet were too strong   

for him4 ,his blood was ancient1 they   
were upstarts2 he was a soldier1 they   
were traders2 he was poor1 they the     
richest men in ,florence4 ,they had come
 to live close to the ,donati1 they had 
bought the palace of an old ,ghibelline 
family1 they had enlarged1 adorned1 and 
fortified it1 and kept great state      
there4 ,they had crossed him in         
marriages1 bargains1 inheritances4 ,they
 had won popularity1 honour1 influence2 
and yet they were but men of business1  
while he had a part in all the political
 movements of the day4 ,he was the      
friend and intimate of lords and        
noblemen1 with great connexions and     
famous through all ,italy2 they were the
 favourites of the common people for    
their kindness and good nature2 they    
even showed consideration for           
,ghibellines4 ,he was an accomplished   
man of the world1 keen and subtle1 full 
of malicious thoughts1 mischievous and  
crafty2 they were inexperienced in      
intrigue1 and had the reputation of     

being clumsy and stupid4 ,he was the    
most graceful and engaging of courtiers2
 they were not even gentlemen4 ,lastly1 
in the debates of that excitable        
republic he was the most eloquent       
speaker1 and they were tongue-tied4#af  
,footnote #ae3 ,campaldino1 in #abhi4   
,g4 ,vill4 vii4 #aca2 ,dino ,comp4 p4   
#ad4  ,footnote #af3 ,dino ,comp4 pp4   
#cb1 #ge1 #id1 #acc4  ,there was a      
family1 writes ,dino ,compagni1 who     
called themselves the ,cerchi1 men of   
low estate1 but good merchants and very 
rich2 and they dressed richly1 and      
maintained many servants and horses1 and
 made a brave show2 and some of them    
bought the palace of the ,conti ,guidi1 
which was near the houses of the ,pazzi 
and ,donati1 who were more ancient of   
blood but not so rich2 therefore1 seeing
 the ,cerchi rise to great dignity1 and 
that they had walled and enlarged the   
palace1 and kept great state1 the       
,donati began to have a great hatred    
against them4 ,villani gives the same   

account of the feud4#ag ,it began in    
that quarter of scandal the ,sesta of   
,porta ,s4 ,piero1 between the ,cerchi  
and ,donati1 on the one side through    
jealousy1 on the other through churlish 
rudeness4 ,of the house of the ,cerchi  
was head ,messer ,vieri de' ,cerchi1 and
 he and those of his house were people  
of great business1 and powerful1 and of 
great relationships1 and most wealthy   
traders1 so that their company was one  
of the greatest in the world2 men they  
were of soft life1 and who meant no     
harm2 boorish and ill-mannered1 like    
people who had come in a short time to  
great state and power4 ,the ,donati were
 gentlemen and warriors1 and of no      
excessive wealth4444 ,they were         
neighbours in ,florence and in the      
country1 and by the conversation of     
their jealousy with the peevish         
boorishness of the others1 arose the    
proud scorn that there was between them4
 ,the glories of ,campaldino were not as
 oil on these troubled waters4 ,the     

conquerors flouted each other all the   
more fiercely in the streets on their   
return1 and ill-treated the lower people
 with less scruple4 ,no gathering for   
festive or serious purposes could be    
held without tempting strife4 ,a        
marriage1 a funeral1 a ball1 a gay      
procession of cavaliers and ladies--any 
meeting where one stood while another   
sat1 where horse or man might jostle    
another1 where pride might be nettled or
 temper shown1 was in danger of ending  
in blood4 ,the lesser quarrels meanwhile
 ranged themselves under the greater    
ones2 and these1 especially that between
 the ,cerchi and ,donati1 took more and 
more a political character4 ,the ,cerchi
 inclined more and more to the trading  
classes and the lower people2 they threw
 themselves on their popularity1 and    
began to hold aloof from the meetings of
 the ,parte ,guelfa1 while this         
organised body became an instrument in  
the hands of their opponents1 a club of 
the nobles4 ,corso ,donati1 besides     

mischief of a more substantial kind1    
turned his ridicule on their solemn     
dulness and awkward speech1 and his     
friends the jesters1 one ,scampolino in 
particular1 carried his gibes and       
nicknames all over ,florence4 ,the      
,cerchi received all in sullen and      
clogged indifference4 ,they were        
satisfied with repelling attacks1 and   
nursed their hatred4#ah  ,footnote #ag3 
,g4 ,vill4 viii4 #ci4  ,footnote #ah3   
,dino ,compagni1 pp4 #cb1 #cd1 #ch4     
,thus the city was divided1 and the     
attempts to check the factions only     
exasperated them4 ,it was in vain that1 
when at times the government and the    
populace lost patience1 severe measures 
were taken4 ,it was in vain that the    
reformer1 ,gian della ,bella1 carried   
for a time his harsh orders of justice  
against the nobles1 and invested popular
 vengeance with the solemnity of law and
 with the pomp and ceremony of a public 
act--that when a noble had been         
convicted of killing a citizen1 the     

great officer1 ,standard-bearer1 as he  
was called1 of justice1 issued forth in 
state and procession1 with the banner of
 justice borne before him1 with all his 
train1 and at the head of the armed     
citizens1 to the house of the criminal1 
and razed it to the ground4 ,an         
eyewitness describes the effect of such 
chastisement3--,i1 ,dino ,compagni1     
being ,gonfalonier of ,justice in #abic1
 went to their houses1 and to those of  
their relations1 and these ,i caused to 
be pulled down according to the laws4   
,this beginning in the case of the other
 ,gonfaloniers came to an evil effect2  
because1 if they demolished the houses  
according to the laws1 the people said  
that they were cruel2 and if they did   
not demolish them completely1 they said 
that they were cowards2 and many        
distorted justice for fear of the       
people4 ,gian della ,bella was          
overthrown with few regrets even on the 
part of the people4 ,equally vain was   
the attempt to keep the peace by        

separating the leaders of the           
disturbances4 ,they were banished by a  
kind of ostracism2 they departed in     
ostentatious meekness1 ,corso ,donato to
 plot at ,rome1 ,vieri de' ,cerchi to   
return immediately to ,florence4        
,anarchy had got too fast a hold on the 
city1 and it required a stronger hand   
than that of the pope1 or the signory of
 the republic1 to keep it down4  ,yet   
,florence prospered4 ,every year it grew
 richer1 more intellectual1 more        
refined1 more beautiful1 more gay4 ,with
 its anarchy there was no stagnation4   
,torn and divided as it was1 its energy 
did not slacken1 its busy and creative  
spirit was not deadened1 its hopefulness
 not abated4 ,the factions1 fierce and  
personal as they were1 did not hinder   
that interest in political ideas1 that  
active and subtle study of the questions
 of civil government1 that passion and  
ingenuity displayed in political        
contrivance1 which now pervaded         
,northern ,italy1 everywhere            

marvellously patient and hopeful1 though
 far from being equally successful4 ,in 
,venice at the close of the thirteenth  
century1 that polity was finally settled
 and consolidated1 by which she was     
great as long as cities could be        
imperial1 and which even in its decay   
survived the monarchy of ,louis ,,xiv4  
and existed within the memory of living 
men4 ,in ,florence1 the constructive    
spirit of law and order only resisted1  
but never triumphed4 ,yet it was at this
 time resolute and sanguine1 ready with 
experiment and change1 and not yet      
dispirited by continual failure4        
,political interest1 however1 and party 
contests were not sufficient to absorb  
and employ the citizens of ,florence4   
,their genial and versatile spirit1 so  
keen1 so inventive1 so elastic1 which   
made them such hot and impetuous        
partisans1 kept them from being only    
this4 ,the time was one of growth2 new  
knowledge1 new powers1 new tastes were  
opening to men--new pursuits attracted  

them4 ,there was commerce1 there was the
 school philosophy1 there was the       
science of nature1 there was ancient    
learning1 there was the civil law1 there
 were the arts1 there was poetry1 all   
rude as yet1 and unformed1 but full of  
hope--the living parents of mightier    
offspring4 ,frederick ,,ii4 had once    
more opened ,aristotle to the ,latin    
world2 he had given an impulse to the   
study of the great monuments of ,roman  
legislation which was responded to      
through ,italy2 himself a poet1 his     
example and his splendid court had made 
poetry fashionable4 ,in the end of the  
thirteenth century a great stride was   
made at ,florence4 ,while her great poet
 was growing up to manhood1 as rapid a  
change went on in her streets1 her      
social customs1 the wealth of her       
citizens1 their ideas of magnificence   
and beauty1 their appreciation of       
literature4 ,it was the age of growing  
commerce and travel2 ,franciscan        
missionaries had reached ,china1 and    

settled there2#ai in #abid1 ,marco ,polo
 returned to ,venice1 the first         
successful explorer of the ,east4 ,the  
merchants of ,florence lagged not2 their
 field of operation was ,italy and the  
,west2 they had their correspondents in 
,london1 ,paris1 and ,bruges2 they were 
the bankers of popes and kings4#bj ,and 
their city shows to this day the wealth 
and magnificence of the last years of   
the thirteenth century4 ,the ancient    
buildings1 consecrated in the memory of 
the ,florentine people1 were repaired1  
enlarged1 adorned with marble and       
bronze--,or ,san ,michele1 the ,badia1  
the ,baptistery2 and new buildings rose 
on a grander scale4 ,in #abid was begun 
the ,mausoleum of the great ,florentine 
dead1 the ,church of ,s4 ,croce4 ,in the
 same year1 a few months later1 ,arnolfo
 laid the deep foundations which were   
afterwards to bear up ,brunelleschi's   
dome1 and traced the plan of the        
magnificent cathedral4 ,in #abih he     
began to raise a ,town-hall worthy of   

the ,republic1 and of being the         
habitation of its magistrates1 the      
frowning mass of the ,palazzo ,vecchio4 
,in #abii1 the third circle of the walls
 was commenced1 with the benediction of 
bishops1 and the concourse of all the   
lords and orders of ,florence4 ,and     
,giotto was now beginning to throw      
,cimabue into the shade--,giotto1 the   
shepherd's boy1 painter1 sculptor1      
architect1 and engineer at once1 who a  
few years later was to complete and     
crown the architectural glories of      
,florence by that masterpiece of grace1 
his marble ,campanile4  ,footnote #ai3  
,see the curious letters of ,john de    
,monte ,corvino1 about his mission in   
,cathay1 #abhi-acje1 in ,wadding1 vi4   
#fi4  ,footnote #bj3 ,e4g4 the ,mozzi1  
of ,greg4 ,x42 ,peruzzi1 of ,philip le  
,bel2 ,spini1 of ,boniface ,,viii42     
,cerchi del ,garbo1 of ,benedict ,,xi4  
7,g4 ,vill4 vii4 #db1 viii4 #fc1 #ga2   
,dino ,comp4 p4 #ce74  ,fifty years made
 then all that striking difference in   

domestic habits1 in the materials of    
dress1 in the value of money1 which they
 have usually made in later centuries4  
,the poet of the fourteenth century     
describes the proudest nobleman of a    
hundred years before with his leathern  
girdle and clasp of bone2 and in one of 
the most beautiful of all poetic        
celebrations of the good old time1 draws
 the domestic life of ancient ,florence 
in the household where his ancestor was 
born3       ,a cos riposato1 a cos bello
      ,viver di cittadini1 a cos fida   
,cittadinanza1 a cos dolce ostello      
,maria mi di1 chiamata in alte          
grida4--,par4 c4 #ae4ba  ,footnote #ba3 
,florence1 confined within that ancient 
wall1        ,whence still the chimes at
 noon and evening sound1      ,was      
sober1 modest1 and at peace with all4   
,myself have seen ,bellincion ,berti    
pace        ,the street in leathern     
belt2 his lady come      ,forth from her
 toilet with unpainted face4            
99      99      99      99      ,oh     

happy wives6 each soon to lay her head  
,in her own tomb2 and no one yet        
compelled      ,to weep deserted in a   
lonely bed4            99      99       
99      99      ,to such pure life of   
beauty and repose--        ,such        
faithful citizens--such happy men--     
,the virgin gave me1 when my mother's   
throes        ,forced her with cries to 
call on ,mary's name4--,,wright4  ,there
 high-born dames1 he says1 still plied  
the distaff and the loom2 still rocked  
the cradle with the words which their   
own mothers had used2 or working with   
their maidens1 told them old tales of   
the forefathers of the city1 of the     
,trojans1 of ,fiesole1 and of ,rome4    
,villani still finds this rudeness      
within forty years of the end of the    
century1 almost within the limits of his
 own and ,dante's life2 and speaks of   
that old first people1 il primo ,popolo 
,vecchio1 with their coarse food and    
expenditure1 their leather jerkins1 and 
plain close gowns1 their small dowries  

and late marriages1 as if they were the 
first founders of the city1 and not a   
generation which had lasted on into his 
own4#bb ,twenty years later1 his story  
is of the gaiety1 the riches1 the       
profuse munificence1 the brilliant      
festivities1 the careless and joyous    
life1 which attracted foreigners to     
,florence as the city of pleasure2 of   
companies of a thousand or more1 all    
clad in white robes1 under a lord1      
styled of ,love1 passing their time in  
sports and dances2 of ladies and        
knights1 going through the city with    
trumpets and other instruments1 with joy
 and gladness1 and meeting together in  
banquets evening and morning2           
entertaining illustrious strangers1 and 
honourably escorting them on horseback  
in their passage through the city2      
tempting by their liberality1 courtiers1
 and wits1 and minstrels1 and jesters1  
to add to the amusements of             
,florence4#bc ,nor were these the       
boisterous triumphs of unrefined and    

coarse merriment4 ,how variety of       
character was drawn out1 how its more   
delicate elements were elicited and     
tempered1 how nicely it was observed1   
and how finely drawn1 let the racy and  
open-eyed story-tellers of ,florence    
testify4  ,footnote #bb3 ,g4 ,vill4 vi4 
#fi 7#abei74  ,footnote #bc3 ,g4 ,vill4 
vii4 #hi 7#abhc74  ,not perhaps in these
 troops of revellers1 but amid music and
 song1 and in the pleasant places of    
social and private life1 belonging to   
the ,florence of arts and poetry1 not to
 the ,florence of factions and strife1  
should we expect to find the friend of  
the sweet singer1 ,casella1 and of the  
reserved and bold speculator1 ,guido    
,cavalcanti2 the mystic poet of the     
,vita ,nuova1 so sensitive and delicate1
 trembling at a gaze or a touch1        
recording visions1 painting angels1     
composing ,canzoni and commenting on    
them2 finally devoting himself to the   
austere consolations of deep study4 ,to 
superadd to such a character that of a  

democratic politician of the middle     
ages1 seems an incongruous and harsh    
combination4 ,yet it was a real one in  
this instance4 ,the scholar's life is1  
in our idea of it1 far separated from   
the practical and the political2 we have
 been taught by our experience to       
disjoin enthusiasm in love1 in art1 in  
what is abstract or imaginative1 from   
keen interest and successful            
interference in the affairs and         
conflicts of life4 ,the practical man   
may sometimes be also a dilettante2 but 
the dreamer or the thinker1 wisely or   
indolently1 keeps out of the rough ways 
where real passions and characters meet 
and jostle1 or if he ventures1 seldom   
gains honour there4 ,the separation1    
though a natural one1 grows wider as    
society becomes more vast and manifold1 
as its ends1 functions1 and pursuits are
 disentangled1 while they multiply4 ,but
 in ,dante's time1 and in an ,italian   
city1 it was not such a strange thing   
that the most refined and tender        

interpreter of feeling1 the popular     
poet1 whose verses touched all hearts1  
and were in every mouth1 should be also 
at once the ardent follower of all      
abstruse and difficult learning1 and a  
prominent character among those who     
administered the ,state4 ,in that narrow
 sphere of action1 in that period of    
dawning powers and circumscribed        
knowledge1 it seemed no unreasonable    
hope or unwise ambition to attempt the  
compassing of all science1 and to make  
it subserve and illustrate the praise of
 active citizenship4#bd ,dante1 like    
other literary celebrities of the time1 
was not less from the custom of the day1
 than from his own purpose1 a public    
man4 ,he took his place among his       
fellow-citizens2 he went out to war with
 them2 he fought1 it is said1 among the 
skirmishers at the great ,guelf victory 
of ,campaldino2 to qualify himself for  
office in the democracy1 he enrolled    
himself in one of the ,guilds of the    
people1 and was matriculated in the ,art

 of the ,apothecaries2 he served the    
,state as its agent abroad2 he went on  
important missions to the cities and    
courts of ,italy--according to a        
,florentine tradition1 which enumerates 
fourteen distinct embassies1 even to    
,hungary and ,france4 ,in the memorable 
year of ,jubilee1 #acjj1 he was one of  
the ,priors of the ,republic4 ,there is 
no shrinking from fellowship and        
co-operation and conflict with the keen 
or bold men of the market-place and     
council-hall1 in that mind of exquisite 
and1 as drawn by itself1 exaggerated    
sensibility4 ,the doings and characters 
of men1 the workings of society1 the    
fortunes of ,italy1 were watched and    
thought of with as deep an interest as  
the courses of the stars1 and read in   
the real spectacle of life with as      
profound emotion as in the miraculous   
page of ,virgil2 and no scholar ever    
read ,virgil with such feeling--no      
astronomer ever watched the stars with  
more eager inquisitiveness4 ,the whole  

man opens to the world around him2 all  
affections and powers1 soul and sense1  
diligently and thoughtfully directed and
 trained1 with free and concurrent and  
equal energy1 with distinct yet         
harmonious purposes1 seek out their     
respective and appropriate objects1     
moral1 intellectual1 natural1 spiritual1
 in that admirable scene and hard field 
where man is placed to labour and love1 
to be exercised1 proved1 and judged4    
,footnote #bd3 ,vide the opening of the 
,de ,monarchia4  ,in a fresco in the    
chapel of the old palace of the         
,podest#be at ,florence is a portrait of
 ,dante1 said to be by the hand of his  
contemporary ,giotto4 ,it was discovered
 in #ahda under the whitewash1 and a    
tracing made by ,mr4 ,seymour ,kirkup   
has been reproduced in fac-simile by the
 ,arundel ,society4 ,the fresco was     
afterwards restored or repainted with no
 happy success4 ,he is represented as he
 might have been in the year of         
,campaldino 7#abhi74 ,the countenance is

 youthful yet manly1 more manly than it 
appears in the engravings of the        
picture2 but it only suggests the strong
 deep features of the well-known        
traditional face4 ,he is drawn with much
 of the softness1 and melancholy pensive
 sweetness1 and with something also of  
the quaint stiffness of the ,vita       
,nuova--with his flower and his book4   
,with him is drawn his master1 ,brunetto
 ,latini1#bf and ,corso ,donati4 ,we do 
not know what occasion led ,giotto thus 
to associate him with the great ,baron4 
,dante was1 indeed1 closely connected   
with the ,donati4 ,the dwelling of his  
family was near theirs1 in the ,quarter 
of ,scandal1 the ,ward of the ,porta ,s4
 ,piero4 ,he married a daughter of their
 house1 ,madonna ,gemma4 ,none of his   
friends are commemorated with more      
affection than the companion of his     
light and wayward days1 remembered not  
without a shade of anxious sadness1 yet 
with love and hope1 ,corso's brother1   
,forese4#bg ,no sweeter spirit sings and

 smiles in the illumined spheres of     
,paradise1 than she whom ,forese        
remembers as on earth one1       ,che   
tra bella e buona      ,non so qual     
fosse pi--#bh  and who1 from the depth  
of her heavenly joy1 teaches the poet   
that in the lowest place among the      
blessed there can be no envy#bi--the    
sister of ,forese and ,corso1 ,piccarda4
 ,the ,commedia1 though it speaks1 as if
 in prophecy1 of ,corso's miserable     
death1 avoids the mention of his        
name4#cj ,its silence is so remarkable  
as to seem significant4 ,but though     
history does not group together ,corso  
and ,dante1 the picture represents the  
truth--their fortunes were linked       
together4 ,they were actors in the same 
scene--at this distance of time two of  
the most prominent2 though a scene very 
different from that calm and grave      
assembly1 which ,giotto's placid pencil 
has drawn on the old chapel wall4       
,footnote #be3 ,the ,bargello1 a prison 
7#ahej72 a museum 7#ahgh74 ,v4 ,vasari1 

p4 #caa4  ,footnote #bf3 ,he died in    
#abid4 ,g4 ,vill4 viii4 #aj4  ,footnote 
#bg3 ,purgat4 c4 #bc4  ,footnote #bh3   
,ibid4 c4 #bd4       ,my sister1 good   
and beautiful--which most ,i know       
not4--,,wright4  ,footnote #bi3 ,parad4 
c4 #c4  ,footnote #cj3 ,purg4 c4 #bd1   
#hb-hg4  ,the outlines of this part of  
,dante's history are so well known that 
it is not necessary to dwell on them2   
and more than the outlines we know not4 
,the family quarrels came to a head1    
issued in parties1 and the parties took 
names2 they borrowed them from two rival
 factions in a neighbouring town1       
,pistoia1 whose feud was imported into  
,florence2 and the ,guelfs became       
divided into the ,black ,guelfs who were
 led by the ,donati1 and the ,white     
,guelfs who sided with the ,cerchi4#ca  
,it still professed to be but a family  
feud1 confined to the great houses2 but 
they were too powerful and ,florence too
 small for it not to affect the whole   
,republic4 ,the middle classes and the  

artisans looked on1 and for a time not  
without satisfaction1 at the strife of  
the great men2 but it grew evident that 
one party must crush the other1 and     
become dominant in ,florence2 and of the
 two1 the ,cerchi and their ,white      
adherents were less formidable to the   
democracy than the unscrupulous and     
overbearing ,donati1 with their military
 renown and lordly tastes2 proud not    
merely of being nobles1 but ,guelf      
nobles2 always loyal champions1 once the
 martyrs1 and now the hereditary        
assertors1 of the great ,guelf cause4   
,the ,cerchi with less character and    
less zeal1 but rich1 liberal1 and showy1
 and with more of rough kindness and    
vulgar good-nature for the common       
people1 were more popular in ,guelf     
,florence than the ,parte ,guelfa2 and1 
of course1 the ,ghibellines wished them 
well4 ,both the contemporary historians 
of ,florence lead us to think that they 
might have been the governors and guides
 of the ,republic--if they had chosen1  

and had known how2 and both1 though     
condemning the two parties equally1     
seemed to have thought that this would  
have been the best result for the       
,state4 ,but the accounts of both1      
though they are very different writers1 
agree in their scorn of the leaders of  
the ,white ,guelfs4 ,they were upstarts1
 purse-proud1 vain1 and coarse-minded2  
and they dared to aspire to an ambition 
which they were too dull and too        
cowardly to pursue1 when the game was in
 their hands4 ,they wished to rule2 but 
when they might1 they were afraid4 ,the 
commons were on their side1 the moderate
 men1 the party of law1 the lovers of   
republican government1 and for the most 
part the magistrates2 but they shrank   
from their fortune1 more from cowardice 
than from goodness1 because they        
exceedingly feared their adversaries4#cb
 ,boniface ,,viii4 had no prepossessions
 in ,florence1 except for energy and an 
open hand2 the side which was most      
popular he would have accepted and      

backed2 but he would not lose1 he said1 
the men for the women4 ,io non voglio   
perdere gli uomini per le femminelle4#cc
 ,if the ,black party furnished types   
for the grosser or fiercer forms of     
wickedness in the poet's ,hell1 the     
,white party surely were the originals  
of that picture of stupid and cowardly  
selfishness1 in the miserable crowd who 
moan and are buffeted in the vestibule  
of the ,pit1 mingled with the angels who
 dared neither to rebel nor be faithful1
 but were for themselves2 and whoever it
 may be who is singled out in the setta 
dei cattivi1 for deeper and special     
scorn--he1       ,che fece per vilt il  
gran rifiuto--#cd  the idea was derived 
from the ,cerchi in ,florence4          
,footnote #ca3 ,in #acjj4 ,g4 ,villani1 
viii4 #ch1 #ci4  ,footnote #cb3 ,dino   
,comp4 p4 #de4  ,footnote #cc3 ,ibid4 p4
 #fb4  ,footnote #cd3 ,inf4 c4 #c1 #fj4 
,a ,french prince was sent by the ,pope 
to mediate and make peace in ,florence4 
,the ,black ,guelfs and ,corso ,donati  

came with him4 ,the magistrates were    
overawed and perplexed4 ,the ,white     
party were1 step by step1 amused1       
entrapped1 led blindly into false plots1
 entangled in the elaborate subtleties1 
and exposed with all the zest and       
mockery1 of ,italian intrigue--finally  
chased out of their houses and from the 
city1 condemned unheard1 outlawed1      
ruined in name and property1 by the     
,pope's ,french mediator4 ,with them    
fell many citizens who had tried to hold
 the balance between the two parties3   
for the leaders of the ,black ,guelfs   
were guilty of no errors of weakness4   
,in two extant lists of the             
proscribed--condemned by default1 for   
corruption and various crimes1          
especially for hindering the entrance   
into ,florence of ,charles de ,valois1  
to a heavy fine and banishment--then1   
two months after1 for contumacy1 to be  
burned alive if he ever fell into the   
hands of the ,republic--appears the name
 of ,dante ,alighieri2 and more than    

this1 concerning the history of his     
expulsion1 we know not4#ce  ,footnote   
#ce3 ,pelli1 ,memorie per servire alla  
vita di ,dante4 ,fir4 #ahbc1 pp4 #aje1  
#ajf4  ,of his subsequent life1 history 
tells us little more than the general   
character4 ,he acted for a time in      
concert with the expelled party1 when   
they attempted to force their way back  
to ,florence2 he gave them up at last in
 scorn and despair3 but he never        
returned to ,florence4 ,and he found no 
new home for the rest of his days4      
,nineteen years1 from his exile to his  
death1 he was a wanderer4 ,the character
 is stamped on his writings4 ,history1  
tradition1 documents1 all scanty or dim1
 do but disclose him to us at different 
points1 appearing here and there1 we are
 not told how or why4 ,one old record1  
discovered by antiquarian industry1     
shows him in a village church near      
,florence1 planning1 with the ,cerchi   
and the ,white party1 an attack on the  
,black ,guelfs4 ,in another1 he appears 

in the ,val di ,magra1 making peace     
between its small potentates3 in        
another1 as the inhabitant of a certain 
street in ,padua4 ,the traditions of    
some remote spots about ,italy still    
connect his name with a ruined tower1 a 
mountain glen1 a cell in a convent4 ,in 
the recollections of the following      
generation1 his solemn and melancholy   
form mingled reluctantly1 and for       
awhile1 in the brilliant court of the   
,scaligers2 and scared the women1 as a  
visitant of the other world1 as he      
passed by their doors in the streets of 
,verona4 ,rumour brings him to the      
,west--with probability to ,paris1 more 
doubtfully to ,oxford4 ,but little      
certain can be made out about the places
 where he was an honoured and admired1  
but it may be1 not always a welcome     
guest1 till we find him sheltered1      
cherished1 and then laid at last to     
rest1 by the ,lords of ,ravenna4 ,there 
he still rests1 in a small1 solitary    
chapel1 built1 not by a ,florentine1 but

 a ,venetian4 ,florence1 that mother of 
little love1 asked for his bones2 but   
rightly asked in vain4#cf ,his place of 
repose is better in those remote and    
forsaken streets by the shore of the    
,adrian ,sea1 hard by the last relics of
 the ,roman ,empire--the mausoleum of   
the children of ,theodosius1 and the    
mosaics of ,justinian--than among the   
assembled dead of ,s4 ,croce1 or amid   
the magnificence of ,s4 ,maria del      
,fiore4#cg  ,footnote #cf3 ,see ,dr4    
,barlow's ,sixth ,centenary ,festivals  
of ,dante4 7#ahff47  ,footnote #cg3     
,these notices have been carefully      
collected by ,pelli1 who seems to have  
left little to glean 7,memorie1 c4 ,ed4 
#b;da1 #ahbc74 ,a few additions have    
been made by ,gerini 7,mem4 ,stor4 della
 ,lunigiana71 and ,troya 7,veltro       
,allegorico71 but they are not of much  
importance4 ,arrivabene 7,secolo di     
,dante7 has brought together a mass of  
illustration which is very useful1 and  
would be more so1 if he were more       

careful1 and quoted his authorities4    
,balbo arranges these materials with    
sense and good feeling2 though1 as a    
writer1 he is below his subject4 ,a few 
traits and anecdotes may be found in the
 novelists--as ,sacchetti4  ,the        
,commedia1 at the first glance1 shows   
the traces of its author's life4 ,it is 
the work of a wanderer4 ,the very form  
in which it is cast is that of a        
journey1 difficult1 toilsome1 perilous1 
and full of change4 ,it is more than a  
working out of that touching phraseology
 of the middle ages1 in which the way   
was the technical theological expression
 for this mortal life2 and viator meant 
man in his state of trial1 as           
comprehensor meant man made perfect1    
having attained to his heavenly country4
 ,it is more than merely this4 ,the     
writer's mind is full of the            
recollections and definite images of his
 various journeys4 ,the permanent       
scenery of the ,inferno and ,purgatorio1
 very variously and distinctly marked1  

is that of travel4 ,the descent down the
 sides of the ,pit1 and the ascent of   
the ,sacred ,mountain1 show one familiar
 with such scenes--one who had climbed  
painfully in perilous passes1 and grown 
dizzy on the brink of narrow ledges over
 sea or torrent4 ,it is scenery from the
 gorges of the ,alps and ,apennines1 or 
the terraces and precipices of the      
,riviera4 ,local reminiscences          
abound3--the severed rocks of the ,adige
 ,valley--the waterfall of ,s4          
,benedetto--the crags of ,pietra-pana   
and ,s4 ,leo1 which overlook the plains 
of ,lucca and ,ravenna--the fair river  
that flows among the poplars between    
,chiaveri and ,sestri--the marble       
quarries of ,carrara--the rough and     
desert ways between ,lerici and ,turbia1
 and those towery cliffs1 going sheer   
into the deep sea at ,noli1 which       
travellers on the ,corniche road some   
thirty years ago may yet remember with  
fear4 ,mountain experience furnished    
that picture of the traveller caught in 

an ,alpine mist and gradually climbing  
above it2 seeing the vapours grow thin1 
and the sun's orb appear faintly through
 them2 and issuing at last into sunshine
 on the mountain top1 while the light of
 sunset was lost already on the shores  
below3       ,ai raggi1 morti gi nei    
bassi lidi3--,purg4 #ag4  or that image 
of the cold dull shadow over the        
torrent1 beneath the ,alpine fir--      
,un'ombra smorta      ,qual sotto foglie
 verdi e rami nigri      ,sovra suoi    
freddi rivi1 l',alpe porta3--,purg4     
#cc4ch  or of the large snow-flakes     
falling without wind1 among the         
mountains--               d'un cader    
lento      ,piovean di fuoco dilatate   
falde      ,come di neve in ,alpe senza 
vento4--,inferno1 #ad4ci  ,footnote #ch3
                         ,a death-like  
shade--      ,like that beneath black   
boughs and foliage green      ,o'er the 
cool streams in ,alpine glens           
display'd4--,,wright4  ,footnote #ci3   
,o'er all the sandy desert falling slow1

        ,were shower'd dilated flakes of
 fire1 like snow        ,on ,alpine     
summits1 when the wind is low4--,,ibid4 
,he delights in a local name and local  
image--the boiling pitch1 and the clang 
of the shipwrights in the arsenal of    
,venice--the sepulchral fields of ,arles
 and ,pola--the hot-spring of           
,viterbo--the hooded monks of           
,cologne--the dykes of ,flanders and    
,padua--the ,maremma1 with its rough    
brushwood1 its wild boars1 its snakes1  
and fevers4 ,he had listened to the     
south wind among the pine tops1 in the  
forest by the sea1 at ,ravenna4 ,he had 
watched under the ,carisenda tower at   
,bologna1 and seen the driving clouds   
give away their motion to it1 and make  
it seem to be falling2 and had noticed  
how at ,rome the ,october sun sets      
between ,corsica and ,sardinia4#dj ,his 
images of the sea are numerous and      
definite--the ship backing out of the   
tier in harbour1 the diver plunging     
after the fouled anchor1 the mast       

rising1 the ship going fast before the  
wind1 the water closing in its wake1 the
 arched backs of the porpoises the      
forerunners of a gale1 the admiral      
watching everything from poop to prow1  
the oars stopping altogether at the     
sound of the whistle1 the swelling sails
 becoming slack when the mast snaps and 
falls4#da ,nowhere could we find so many
 of the most characteristic and strange 
sensations of the traveller touched with
 such truth4 ,everyone knows the lines  
which speak of the voyager's sinking of 
heart on the first evening at sea1 and  
of the longings wakened in the traveller
 at the beginning of his journey by the 
distant evening bell#db2 the traveller's
 morning feelings are not less          
delicately noted--the strangeness on    
first waking in the open air with the   
sun high2 morning thoughts1 as day by   
day he wakes nearer home2 the morning   
sight of the sea-beach quivering in the 
early light2 the tarrying and lingering1
 before setting out in the morning#dc-- 

,noi eravam lunghesso 'l mare ancora1   
,come gente che pensa al suo cammino1   
,che va col cuore1 e col corpo          
dimora4#dd  ,footnote #dj3 ,inf4 #ca1   
#ah4  ,footnote #da3 ,ibid4 #ag1 #af1   
#ca2 ,purg4 #bd2 ,par4 #b2 ,inf4 #bb2   
,purg4 #cj2 ,par4 #be2 ,inf4 #g4        
,footnote #db3 ,purg4 #h4 ,era gi l'ora1
 c4  ,footnote #dc3 ,purg4 #ai1 #bg1 #a1
 #b4  ,footnote #dd3       ,by ocean's  
shore we still prolonged our stay       
,like men1 who1 thinking of a journey   
near1      ,advance in thought1 while   
yet their limbs delay4--,,wright4  ,he  
has recorded equally the anxiety1 the   
curiosity1 the suspicion with which1 in 
those times1 stranger met and eyed      
stranger on the road2 and a still more  
characteristic trait is to be found in  
those lines where he describes the      
pilgrim gazing around in the church of  
his vow1 and thinking how he shall tell 
of it3         ,e quasi peregrin che si 
ricrea      ,nel tempio del suo voto    
riguardando1      ,e spera gi ridir     

com'ello stea3--,parad4 #ca4de  or      
again1 in that description1 so simple   
and touching1 of his thoughts while     
waiting to see the relic for which he   
left his home3         ,quale  colui che
 forse di ,croazia      ,viene a veder  
la ,veronica nostra1      ,che per      
l'antica fama non si sazia1        ,ma  
dice nel pensier1 fin che si mostra2    
,signor mio ,ges ,cristo1 ,dio verace1  
,or fu s fatta la sembianza             
vostra8--,parad4 #ca4df  ,footnote #de3 
,and like a pilgrim who with fond       
delight        ,surveys the temple he   
has vow'd to see1        ,and hopes one 
day its wonders to recite4--,,ibid4     
,footnote #df3       ,like one who1 from
 ,croatia come to see        ,our       
,veronica 7image long adored71          
,gazes1 as though content he ne'er could
 be--      ,thus musing1 while the relic
 is pourtray'd--        ,jesus my ,god1 
my ,saviour and my ,lord1        ,o were
 thy features these ,i see              
display'd8--,,wright4       ,quella     

imagine benedetta la quale ,ges ,cristo 
lasci a noi      per esempio della sua  
bellissima figura4--,vita ,nuova1 p4    
#cec4  ,he speaks of the pilgrims going 
to ,rome to see it2 compare also the    
sonnet to the pilgrims1 p4 #cee3        
,deh peregrini1 che pensosi andate      
,forse di cosa1 che non v' presente1    
,venite voi di s lontana gente1         
,com'alla vista voi ne dimostrate4  ,of 
these years then of disappointment and  
exile the ,divina ,commedia was the     
labour and fruit4 ,a story in           
,boccaccio's life of ,dante1 told with  
some detail1 implies indeed that it was 
begun1 and some progress made in it1    
while ,dante was yet in ,florence--begun
 in ,latin1 and he quotes three lines of
 it--continued afterwards in ,italian4  
,this is not impossible2 indeed the germ
 and presage of it may be traced in the 
,vita ,nuova4 ,the idealised saint is   
there1 in all the grace of her pure and 
noble humbleness1 the guide and         
safeguard of the poet's soul4 ,she is   

already in glory with ,mary the queen of
 angels4 ,she already beholds the face  
of the ,everblessed4 ,and the envoye of 
the ,vita ,nuova is the promise of the  
,commedia4 ,after this sonnet1 7in which
 he describes how beyond the widest     
sphere of heaven his love had beheld a  
lady receiving honour1 and dazzling by  
her glory the unaccustomed              
spirit7--,after this sonnet there       
appeared to me a marvellous vision1 in  
which ,i saw things which made me       
resolve not to speak more of this       
blessed one1 until such time as ,i      
should be able to indite more worthily  
of her4 ,and to attain to this1 ,i study
 to the utmost of my power1 as she truly
 knows4 ,so that1 if it shall be the    
pleasure of ,him1 by whom all things    
live1 that my life continue for some    
years1 ,i hope to say of her that which 
never hath been said of any woman4 ,and 
afterwards1 may it please ,him1 who is  
the ,lord of kindness1 that my soul may 
go to behold the glory of her lady1 that

 is1 of that blessed ,beatrice1 who     
gloriously gazes on the countenance of  
,him1 qui est per omnia secula          
benedictus4#dg ,it would be wantonly    
violating probability and the unity of a
 great life1 to suppose that this       
purpose1 though transformed1 was ever   
forgotten or laid aside4 ,the poet knew 
not indeed what he was promising1 what  
he was pledging himself to--through what
 years of toil and anguish he would have
 to seek the light and the power he had 
asked2 in what form his high venture    
should be realised4 ,but the ,commedia  
is the work of no light resolve1 and we 
need not be surprised at finding the    
resolve and the purpose at the outset of
 the poet's life4 ,we may freely accept 
the key supplied by the words of the    
,vita ,nuova4 ,the spell of boyhood is  
never broken1 through the ups and downs 
of life4 ,his course of thought         
advances1 alters1 deepens1 but is       
continuous4 ,from youth to age1 from the
 first glimpse to the perfect work1 the 

same idea abides with him1 even from the
 flower till the grape was ripe4 ,it may
 assume various changes--an image of    
beauty1 a figure of philosophy1 a voice 
from the other world1 a type of heavenly
 wisdom and joy--but still it holds1 in 
self-imposed and willing thraldom1 that 
creative and versatile and tenacious    
spirit4 ,it was the dream and hope of   
too deep and strong a mind to fade and  
come to naught--to be other than the    
seed of the achievement and crown of    
life4 ,but with all faith in the star   
and the freedom of genius1 we may doubt 
whether the prosperous citizen would    
have done that which was done by the man
 without a home4 ,beatrice's glory might
 have been sung in grand though         
barbarous ,latin to the literati of the 
fourteenth century2 or a poem of new    
beauty might have fixed the language and
 opened the literature of modern ,italy2
 but it could hardly have been the      
,commedia4 ,that belongs1 in its date   
and its greatness1 to the time when     

sorrow had become the poet's daily      
portion1 and the condition of his life4 
,footnote #dg3 ,vita ,nuova1 last       
paragraph4 ,see ,purg4 #cj2 ,parad4 #cj1
 #f1 #bh-cc4  ,the ,commedia is a novel 
and startling apparition in literature4 
,probably it has been felt by some1 who 
have approached it with the reverence   
due to a work of such renown1 that the  
world has been generous in placing it so
 high4 ,it seems so abnormal1 so        
lawless1 so reckless of all ordinary    
proprieties and canons of feeling1      
taste1 and composition4 ,it is rough and
 abrupt2 obscure in phrase and allusion1
 doubly obscure in purpose4 ,it is a    
medley of all subjects usually kept     
distinct3 scandal of the day and        
transcendental science1 politics and    
confessions1 coarse satire and angelic  
joy1 private wrongs1 with the mysteries 
of the faith1 local names and           
habitations of earth1 with visions of   
hell and heaven4 ,it is hard to keep up 
with the ever-changing current of       

feeling1 to pass as the poet passes1    
without effort or scruple1 from         
tenderness to ridicule1 from hope to    
bitter scorn or querulous complaint1    
from high-raised devotion to the        
calmness of prosaic subtleties or       
grotesque detail4 ,each separate element
 and vein of thought has its precedent1 
but not their amalgamation4 ,many had   
written visions of the unseen world1 but
 they had not blended with them their   
personal fortunes4 ,s4 ,augustine had   
taught the soul to contemplate its own  
history1 and had traced its progress    
from darkness to light2#dh but he had   
not interwoven with it the history of   
,italy1 and the consummation of all     
earthly destinies4 ,satire was no new   
thing2 ,juvenal had given it a moral1   
some of the ,provenal poets a political 
turn2 ,s4 ,jerome had kindled into it   
fiercely and bitterly even while        
expounding the ,prophets2 but here it   
streams forth in all its violence1      
within the precincts of the eternal     

world1 and alternates with the hymns of 
the blessed4 ,lucretius had drawn forth 
the poetry of nature and its laws2      
,virgil and ,livy had unfolded the      
poetry of the ,roman empire2 ,s4        
,augustine1 the still grander poetry of 
the history of the ,city of ,god2 but   
none had yet ventured to weave into one 
the three wonderful threads4 ,and yet   
the scope of the ,italian poet1 vast and
 comprehensive as the issue of all      
things1 universal as the government     
which directs nature and intelligence1  
forbids him not to stoop to the lowest  
caitiff he has ever despised1 the       
minutest fact in nature that has ever   
struck his eye1 the merest personal     
association which hangs pleasantly in   
his memory4 ,writing for all time1 he   
scruples not to mix with all that is    
august and permanent in history and     
prophecy1 incidents the most transient1 
and names the most obscure2 to waste an 
immortality of shame or praise on those 
about whom his own generation were to   

inquire in vain4 ,scripture history runs
 into profane2 ,pagan legends teach     
their lesson side by side with          
,scripture scenes and miracles2 heroes  
and poets of heathenism1 separated from 
their old classic world1 have their     
place in the world of faith1 discourse  
with ,christians of ,christian dogmas1  
and even mingle with the ,saints2       
,virgil guides the poet through his fear
 and his penitence to the gates of      
,paradise4  ,footnote #dh3 ,see         
,convito1 #a1 #b4  ,this feeling of     
harsh and extravagant incongruity1 of   
causeless and unpardonable darkness1 is 
perhaps the first impression of many    
readers of the ,commedia4 ,but probably 
as they read on1 there will mingle with 
this a sense of strange and unusual     
grandeur1 arising not alone from the    
hardihood of the attempt1 and the       
mystery of the subject1 but from the    
power and the character of the poet4 ,it
 will strike them that words cut deeper 
than is their wont2 that from that wild 

uncongenial imagery1 thoughts emerge of 
singular truth and beauty4 ,their       
dissatisfaction will be chequered1 even 
disturbed--for we can often bring       
ourselves to sacrifice much for the sake
 of a clear and consistent view--by the 
appearance1 amid much that repels them1 
of proofs undeniable and accumulating of
 genius as mighty as it is strange4     
,their perplexity and disappointment may
 grow into distinct condemnation1 or it 
may pass into admiration and delight2   
but no one has ever come to the end of  
the ,commedia without feeling that if it
 has given him a new view and specimen  
of the wildness and unaccountable       
waywardness of the human mind1 it has   
also added1 as few other books have1 to 
his knowledge of its feelings1 its      
capabilities1 and its grasp1 and        
suggested larger and more serious       
thoughts1 for which he may be grateful1 
concerning that unseen world of which he
 is even here a member4  ,dante would   
not have thanked his admirers for       

becoming apologists4 ,those in whom the 
sense of imperfection and strangeness   
overpowers sympathy for grandeur1 and   
enthusiasm for nobleness1 and joy in    
beauty1 he certainly would have left to 
themselves4 ,but neither would he teach 
any that he was leading them along a    
smooth and easy road4 ,the ,commedia    
will always be a hard and trying book2  
nor did the writer much care that it    
should be otherwise4 ,much of this is no
 doubt to be set down to its age2 much  
of its roughness and extravagance1 as   
well as of its beauty--its allegorical  
spirit1 its frame and scenery4 ,the idea
 of a visionary voyage through the      
worlds of pain and bliss is no invention
 of the poet--it was one of the         
commonest and most familiar medieval    
vehicles of censure or warning2 and     
those who love to trace the growth and  
often strange fortunes of popular ideas1
 or whose taste leads them to disbelieve
 in genius1 and track the parentage of  
great inventions to the foolish and     

obscure1 may find abundant materials in 
the literature of legends4#di ,but his  
own age--the age which received the     
,commedia with mingled enthusiasm and   
wonder1 and called it the ,divine1 was  
as much perplexed as we are1 though     
probably rather pleased thereby than    
offended4 ,that within a century after  
its composition1 in the more famous     
cities and universities of ,italy1      
,florence1 ,venice1 ,bologna1 and ,pisa1
 chairs should have been founded1 and   
illustrious men engaged to lecture on   
it1 is a strange homage to its power1   
even in that time of quick feeling2 but 
as strange and great a proof of its     
obscurity4 ,what is dark and forbidding 
in it was scarcely more clear to the    
poet's contemporaries4 ,and he1 whose   
last object was amusement1 invites no   
audience but a patient and confiding    
one4         ,o voi che siete in        
piccioletta barca1      ,desiderosi di  
ascoltar1 seguiti      ,dietro al mio   
legno che cantando varca1               

,tornate a riveder li vostri liti3      
,non vi mettete in pelago1 ch forse     
,perdendo me rimarreste smarriti4       
,l'acqua ch'io prendo giammai non si    
corse3      ,minerva spira1 e conducemi 
,apollo1      ,e nuove muse mi dimostran
 l',orse4         ,voi altri pochi1 che 
drizzaste 'l collo      ,per tempo al   
pan degli angeli1 del quale      ,vivesi
 qui1 ma non si vien satollo1           
,metter potete ben per l'alto sale      
,vostro navigio1 servando mio solco     
,dinanzi all'acqua che ritorna eguale4  
,que gloriosi che passaro a ,colco1     
,non s'ammiraron1 come voi farete1      
,quando ,jason vider fatto              
bifolco4--,parad4 #b4ej  ,footnote #di3 
,vide ,ozanam1 ,dante1 pp4 #ece1 sqq4   
,ed4  ,footnote #ej3       ,o ye who    
fain would listen to my song1           
,following in little bark full eagerly  
,my venturous ship1 that chanting hies  
along1       ,turn back unto your native
 shores again2        ,tempt not the    
deep1 lest haply losing me1        ,in  

unknown paths bewildered ye remain4     
,i am the first this voyage to essay2   
,minerva breathes--,apollo is my guide2 
,and new-born muses do the ,bears       
display4       ,ye other few1 who have  
look'd up on high        ,for angels'   
food betimes1 e'en here supplied        
,largely1 but not enough to satisfy1--  
,mid the deep ocean ye your course may  
take1        ,my track pursuing the pure
 waters through1        ,ere reunites   
the quickly-closing wake4       ,those  
glorious ones1 who drove of yore their  
prow        ,to ,colchos1 wonder'd not  
as ye will do1        ,when they saw    
,jason working at the plough4           
,,wright',s ,dante4  ,the character of  
the ,commedia belongs much more1 in its 
excellence and its imperfections1 to the
 poet himself and the nature of his     
work1 than to his age4 ,that cannot     
screen his faults2 nor can it arrogate  
to itself1 it must be content to share1 
his glory4 ,his leading idea and line of
 thought was much more novel then than  

it is now1 and belongs much more to the 
modern than the medieval world4 ,the    
,story of a ,life1 the poetry of man's  
journey through the wilderness to his   
true country1 is now in various and very
 different shapes as hackneyed a form of
 imagination1 as an allegory1 an epic1 a
 legend of chivalry were in former      
times4 ,not1 of course1 that any time   
has been without its poetical feelings  
and ideas on the subject2 and never were
 they deeper and more diversified1 more 
touching and solemn1 than in the ages   
that passed from ,s4 ,augustine and ,s4 
,gregory to ,s4 ,thomas and ,s4         
,bonaventura4 ,but a philosophical poem1
 where they were not merely the         
colouring1 but the subject1 an epos of  
the soul1 placed for its trial in a     
fearful and wonderful world1 with       
relations to time and matter1 history   
and nature1 good and evil1 the          
beautiful1 the intelligible1 and the    
mysterious1 sin and grace1 the infinite 
and the eternal--and having in the      

company and under the influences of     
other intelligences1 to make its choice1
 to struggle1 to succeed or fail1 to    
gain the light1 or be lost--this was a  
new and unattempted theme4 ,it has been 
often tried since1 in faith or doubt1 in
 egotism1 in sorrow1 in murmuring1 in   
affectation1 sometimes in joy--in       
various forms1 in prose and verse1      
completed or fragmentary1 in reality or 
fiction1 in the direct or the shadowed  
story1 in the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 in  
,rousseau's ,confessions1 in ,wilhelm   
,meister and ,faust1 in the ,excursion4 
,it is common enough now for the poet1  
in the faith of human sympathy1 and in  
the sense of the unexhausted vastness of
 his mysterious subject1 to believe that
 his fellows will not see without       
interest and profit1 glimpses of his own
 path and fortunes--hear from his lips  
the disclosure of his chief delights1   
his warnings1 his fears--follow the     
many-coloured changes1 the impressions  
and workings1 of a character1 at once   

the contrast and the counterpart to     
their own4 ,but it was a new path then2 
and he needed to be1 and was1 a bold    
man1 who first opened it--a path never  
trod without peril1 usually with loss or
 failure4  ,and certainly no great man  
ever made less secret to himself of his 
own genius4 ,he is at no pains to rein  
in or to dissemble his consciousness of 
power1 which he has measured without    
partiality1 and feels sure will not fail
 him4 ,fidandomi di me pi che di un     
altro#ea--;is a reason which he assigns 
without reserve4 ,we look with the      
distrust and hesitation of modern days1 
yet1 in spite of ourselves1 not without 
admiration and regret1 at such frank    
hardihood4 ,it was more common once than
 now4 ,when the world was young1 it was 
more natural and allowable--it was often
 seemly and noble4 ,men knew not their  
difficulties as we know them--we1 to    
whom time1 which has taught so much     
wisdom1 has brought so many             
disappointments--we who have seen how   

often the powerful have fallen short1   
and the noble gone astray1 and the most 
admirable missed their perfection4 ,it  
is becoming in us to distrust           
ourselves--to be shy if we cannot be    
modest2 it is but a respectful tribute  
to human weakness and our brethren's    
failures4 ,but there was a time when    
great men dared to claim their          
greatness--not in foolish               
self-complacency1 but in unembarrassed  
and majestic simplicity1 in magnanimity 
and truth1 in the consciousness of a    
serious and noble purpose1 and of       
strength to fulfil it4 ,without passion1
 without elation as without shrinking1  
the poet surveys his superiority and his
 high position1 as something external to
 him2 he has no doubts about it1 and    
affects none4 ,he would be a coward1 if 
he shut his eyes to what he could do2 as
 much a trifler in displaying reserve as
 ostentation4 ,nothing is more striking 
in the ,commedia than the serene and    
unhesitating confidence with which he   

announces himself the heir and reviver  
of the poetic power so long lost to the 
world--the heir and reviver of it in all
 its fulness4 ,he doubts not of the     
judgment of posterity4 ,one has arisen  
who shall throw into the shade all      
modern reputations1 who shall bequeath  
to ,christendom the glory of that name  
of ,poet1 che pi dura e pi onora1       
hitherto the exclusive boast of         
heathenism1 and claim the rare honours  
of the laurel3       ,s rade volte1     
padre1 se ne coglie      ,per trionfare 
o ,cesare o poeta1      7,colpa e       
vergogna dell'umane voglie71        ,che
 partorir letizia in su la lieta        
,delfica deit dovra la fronda           
,peneia quando alcun di s               
asseta4--,parad4 #a4eb  ,footnote #ea3  
,convito1 #a1 #aj4  ,footnote #eb3      
,for now so rarely ,poet gathers these1 
,or ,csar1 winning an immortal praise   
7,shame unto man's degraded energies71  
,that joy should to the ,delphic ,god   
arise        ,when haply any one aspires

 to gain        ,the high reward of the 
,peneian prize4--,,wright4  ,he has but 
to follow his star to be sure of the    
glorious port3#ec he is the master of   
language3 he can give fame to the       
dead--no task or enterprise appals him1 
for whom spirits keep watch in heaven1  
and angels have visited the shades--tal 
si part dal cantar alleluia3--who is    
,virgil's foster child and familiar     
friend4 ,virgil bids him lay aside the  
last vestige of fear4 ,virgil is to     
crown him king and priest over          
himself1#ed for a higher venture than   
heathen poetry had dared2 in ,virgil's  
company he takes his place without      
diffidence1 and without vain-glory1     
among the great poets of old--a sister  
soul4#ee  ,footnote #ec3 ,brunetto      
,latini's ,prophecy1 ,inf4 #ae4         
,footnote #ed3 ,see the grand ending of 
,purg4 #bg4         ,tratto t'ho qui con
 ingegno e con arte2      ,lo tuo       
piacere omai prendi per duce3      ,fuor
 se' dell'erte vie1 fuor se' dell'arte4 

,vedi il sole che 'n fronte ti riluce4  
,vede l'erbetta1 i fiori1 e gli         
arboscelli      ,che questa terra sol da
 s produce4        ,mentre che vegnon   
lieti gli occhi belli      ,che         
lagrimando a te venir mi fenno1         
,seder ti puoi e puoi andar tra elli4   
,non aspettar mio dir pi n mio cenno2   
,libero1 dritto1 sano  tuo arbitrio1    
,e fallo fora non fare a suo senno3     
,perch'io te sopra te corono e mitrio4  
,footnote #ee3 ,purg4 c4 #ba4           
,poich la voce fu restata e queta1      
,vidi quattro grand'ombre a noi venire3 
,sembianza avean n trista n lieta3      
99      99      99      99         ,cos 
vidi adunar la bella scuola      ,di    
quel signor dell'altissimo canto        
,che sovra gli altri come aquila vola4  
,da ch'ebber ragionato insieme alquanto 
,volsersi a me con salutevol cenno      
,e 'l mio maestro sorrise di tanto4     
,e pi d'onore ancora assai mi fenno3    
,ch'essi mi fecer della loro schiera1   
,s ch'io fui sesto tra cotanto          

senno4--,inf4 #d4ef  ,footnote #ef3     
,ceased had the voice--when in composed 
array        ,four mighty shades        
approaching ,i survey'd2--        ,nor  
joy1 nor sorrow did their looks betray4 
99      99      99      99              
,assembled thus1 was offered to my sight
        ,the school of him1 the ,prince 
of poetry1        ,who1 eagle-like1 o'er
 others takes his flight4      ,when    
they together had conversed awhile1     
,they turned to me with salutation      
bland1        ,which from my master drew
 a friendly smile3      ,and greater    
glory still they bade me share1         
,making me join their honourable band-- 
,the sixth united to such genius        
rare4--,,wright4  ,this sustained       
magnanimity and lofty self-reliance1    
which never betrays itself1 is one of   
the main elements in the grandeur of the
 ,commedia4 ,it is an imposing spectacle
 to see such fearlessness1 such freedom1
 and such success in an untried path1   
amid unprepared materials and rude      

instruments1 models scanty and only half
 understood1 powers of language still   
doubtful and suspected1 the deepest and 
strongest thought still confined to     
unbending forms and the harshest phrase2
 exact and extensive knowledge1 as yet  
far out of reach2 with no help from     
time1 which familiarises all things1 and
 of which1 manner1 elaboration1         
judgment1 and taste are the gifts and   
inheritance2--to see the poet1 trusting 
to his eye which saw everything#eg and  
his searching and creative spirit1      
venture undauntedly into all regions of 
thought and feeling1 to draw thence a   
picture of the government of the        
universe4  ,footnote #eg3 ,dante che    
tutto vedea4--,sacchetti1 ,nov4 #aad4   
,but such greatness had to endure its   
price and its counterpoise4 ,dante was  
alone3--except in his visionary world1  
solitary and companionless4 ,the blind  
,greek had his throng of listeners2 the 
blind ,englishman his home and the      
voices of his daughters2 ,shakspere had 

his free associates of the stage2       
,goethe1 his correspondents1 a court1   
and all ,germany to applaud4 ,not so    
,dante4 ,the friends of his youth are   
already in the region of spirits1 and   
meet him there--,casella1               
,forese2--,guido ,cavalcanti will soon  
be with them4 ,in this upper world he   
thinks and writes as a friendless       
man--to whom all that he had held       
dearest was either lost or embittered2  
he thinks and writes for himself4  ,and 
so he is his own law2 he owns no        
tribunal of opinion or standard of      
taste1 except among the great dead4 ,he 
hears them exhort him to let the world  
talk on--to stand like a tower unshaken 
by the winds4#eh ,he fears to be a timid
 friend to truth1 --to lose life among  
those who shall call this present time  
antiquity4#ei ,he belongs to no party4  
,he is his own arbiter of the beautiful 
and the becoming2 his own judge over    
right and injustice1 innocence and      
guilt4 ,he has no followers to secure1  

no school to humour1 no public to       
satisfy2 nothing to guide him1 and      
nothing to consult1 nothing to bind him1
 nothing to fear1 out of himself4 ,in   
full trust in heart and will1 in his    
sense of truth1 in his teeming brain1 he
 gives himself free course4 ,if men have
 idolised the worthless1 and canonised  
the base1 he reverses their award       
without mercy1 and without apology2 if  
they have forgotten the just because he 
was obscure1 he remembers him3 if ,monna
 ,berta and ,ser ,martino1#fj the       
wimpled and hooded gossips of the day1  
with their sage company1 have settled it
 to their own satisfaction that         
,providence cannot swerve from their    
general rules1 cannot save where they   
have doomed1 or reject where they have  
approved--he both fears more and hopes  
more4 ,deeply reverent to the judgment  
of the ages past1 reverent to the       
persons whom they have immortalised for 
good and even for evil1 in his own day  
he cares for no man's person and no     

man's judgment4 ,and he shrinks not from
 the auguries and forecastings of his   
mind about their career and fate4 ,men  
reasoned rapidly in those days on such  
subjects1 and without much scruple2 but 
not with such deliberate and            
discriminating sternness4 ,the most     
popular and honoured names in ,florence1
         ,farinata e 'l ,tegghiaio1 che 
fur s degni1      ,jacopo ,rusticucci1  
,arrigo1 e 'l ,mosca      ,e gli altri1 
ch'a ben far poser gl'ingegni2  have yet
 the damning brand3 no reader of the    
,inferno can have forgotten the shock of
 that terrible reply to the poet's      
questionings about their fate3       ,ei
 son tra le anime pi nere4#fa  ,footnote
 #eh3 ,purg4 #e4  ,footnote #ei3        
,la luce in che rideva il mio tesoro    
,ch'io trovai l1 si fe' prima corrusca1 
,quale a raggio di sole specchio d'oro2 
,indi rispose3 coscienza fusca      ,o  
della propria o dell'altrui vergogna    
,pur sentir la tua parola brusca2       
,ma nondimen1 rimossa ogni menzogna1    

,tutta tua vision fa manifesta1      ,e 
lascia pur grattar dov' la rogna3       
,che se la voce tua sar molesta         
,nel primo gusto1 vital nutrimento      
,lascer poi quando sar digesta4         
,questo tuo grido far come vento        
,che le pi alte cime pi percuote3       
,e ci non fia d'onor poco argomento4    
,per ti son mostrate1 in queste ruote1  
,nel monte1 e nella valle dolorosa1     
,pur l'anime che son di fama note4      
,che l'animo di quel ch'ode non posa1   
,n ferma fede1 per esemplo ch'aja       
,la sua radice incognito e nascosa1     
,n per altro argumento che non          
paja4--,parad4 #ag4  ,footnote #fj3     
,non creda ,monna ,berta e ,ser ,martino
      ,per vedere un furare1 altro      
offerere1      ,vederli dentro al       
consiglio divino3      ,ch quel pu      
surger1 e quel pu cadere4--,ibid4 #ac4  
,footnote #fa3 ,inf4 #f4  ,if he is     
partial1 it is no vulgar partiality3    
friendship and old affection do not     
venture to exempt from its fatal doom   

the sin of his famous master1 ,brunetto 
,latini2#fb nobleness and great deeds1 a
 kindred character and common wrongs1   
are not enough to redeem ,farinata2 and 
he who could tell her story bowed to the
 eternal law1 and dared not save        
,francesca4 ,if he condemns by a severer
 rule than that of the world1 he        
absolves with fuller faith in the       
possibilities of grace4 ,many names of  
whom history has recorded no good1 are  
marked by him for bliss2 yet not without
 full respect for justice4 ,the penitent
 of the last hour is saved1 but he      
suffers loss4 ,manfred's soul is        
rescued2 mercy had accepted his tears1  
and forgiven his great sins2 and the    
excommunication of his enemy did not bar
 his salvation3         ,per lor        
maladizion s non si perde      ,che non 
possa tornar l'eterno amore      ,mentre
 che la speranza ha fior del            
verde4--,purg4 #c4  ,footnote #fb3      
,che in la mente m' fitta1 ed or        
m'accuora1        ,la cara buona imagine

 paterna4--,inf4 #ae4  ,yet his sin1    
though pardoned1 was to keep him for    
long years from the perfection of       
heaven4#fc ,and with the same           
independence with which he assigns their
 fate1 he selects his                   
instances--instances which are to be the
 types of character and its issues4 ,no 
man ever owned more unreservedly the    
fascination of greatness1 its sway over 
the imagination and the heart2 no one   
prized more the grand harmony and sense 
of fitness which there is1 when the     
great man and the great office are      
joined in one1 and reflect each other's 
greatness4 ,the famous and great of all 
ages are gathered in the poet's vision2 
the great names even of fable--,geryon  
and the giants1 the ,minotaur and       
,centaurs1 and the heroes of ,thebes and
 ,troy4 ,but not the great and famous   
only3 this is too narrow1 too           
conventional a sphere2 it is not real   
enough4 ,he felt1 what the modern world 
feels so keenly1 that wonderful         

histories are latent in the             
inconspicuous paths of life1 in the     
fugitive incidents of the hour1 among   
the persons whose faces we have seen4   
,the ,church had from the first been    
witness to the deep interest of         
individual life4 ,the rising taste for  
novels showed that society at large was 
beginning to be alive to it4 ,and it is 
this feeling--that behind the veil there
 may be grades of greatness but nothing 
insignificant--that led ,dante to refuse
 to restrict himself to the characters  
of fame4 ,he will associate with them   
the living men who have stood round him2
 they are part of the same company with 
the greatest4 ,that they have interested
 him1 touched him1 moved his indignation
 or pity1 struck him as examples of     
great vicissitude or of a perfect life1 
have pleased him1 loved him--this is    
enough why they should live in his poem 
as they have lived to him4 ,he chooses  
at will2 history1 if it has been        
negligent at the time about those whom  

he thought worthy of renown1 must be    
content with its loss4 ,he tells their  
story1 or touches them with a word like 
the most familiar names1 according as he
 pleases4 ,the obscure highway robber1  
the obscure betrayer of his sister's    
honour--,rinier da ,corneto and ,rinier 
,pazzo1 and ,caccianimico--are ranked1  
not according to their obscurity1 but   
according to the greatness of their     
crimes1 with the famous conquerors1 and 
scourges of ,god1 and seducers of the   
heroic age1 ,pyrrhus and ,attila1 and   
the great ,jason of royal port1 who     
sheds no tear in his torments4#fd ,he   
earns as high praise from ,virgil1 for  
his curse on the furious wrath of the   
old frantic ,florentine burgher1 as if  
he had cursed the disturber of the      
world's peace4#fe ,and so in the realms 
of joy1 among the faithful accomplishers
 of the highest trusts1 kings and       
teachers of the nations1 founders of    
orders1 sainted empresses1 appear those 
whom1 though the world had forgotten or 

misread them1 the poet had enshrined in 
his familiar thoughts1 for their        
sweetness1 their gentle goodness1 their 
nobility of soul2 the penitent1 the nun1
 the old crusading ancestor1 the pilgrim
 who had deserted the greatness which he
 had created1 the brave logician1 who   
syllogised unpalatable truths in the    
,quartier ,latin of ,paris4#ff          
,footnote #fc3 ,charles of ,anjou1 his  
,guelf conqueror1 is placed above him1  
in the valley of the kings 7,purg4 #g71 
,colui dal maschio naso--notwithstanding
 the charges afterwards made against him
 7,purg4 #bj74  ,footnote #fd3 ,see the 
magnificent picture1 ,inf4 #ah4         
,footnote #fe3 ,ibid4 #h4  ,footnote    
#ff3 ,cunizza1 ,piccarda1 ,cacciaguida1 
,romo4 7,parad4 #i1 #c1 #ae1 #f1 #aj47  
----,la luce eterna di ,sigieri         
,che leggendo nel vico degli ,strami    
,sillogizz invidiosi veri----  in       
company with ,s4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 in   
the sphere of the ,sun4 ,ozanam gives a 
few particulars of this forgotten       

professor of the ,rue du ,fouarre1 pp4  
#cbj-bc4  ,there is small resemblance in
 all this--this arbitrary and imperious 
tone1 this range of ideas1 feelings1 and
 images1 this unshackled freedom1 this  
harsh reality--to the dreamy gentleness 
of the ,vita ,nuova1 or even the staid  
argumentation of the more mature        
,convito4 ,the ,vita ,nuova is all      
self-concentration--a brooding1 not     
unpleased1 over the varying tides of    
feeling1 which are little influenced by 
the world without2 where every fancy1   
every sensation1 every superstition of  
the lover is detailed with the most     
whimsical subtlety4 ,the ,commedia1 too1
 has its tenderness--and that more deep1
 more natural1 more true1 than the poet 
had before adapted to the traditionary  
formul of the ,courts of ,love1--the    
eyes of ,beatrice are as bright1 and the
 conquering light of her smile2#fg they 
still culminate1 but they are not alone1
 in the poet's heaven4 ,and the         
professed subject of the ,commedia is   

still ,dante's own story and life2 he   
still makes himself the central point4  
,and steeled as he is by that high and  
hard experience of which his poem is the
 projection and type--,ben tetragono ai 
colpi di ventura--a stern and           
brief-spoken man1 set on objects1 and   
occupied with a theme1 lofty and vast as
 can occupy man's thoughts1 he still    
lets escape ever and anon some passing  
avowal of delicate sensitiveness1#fh    
lingers for a moment on some indulged   
self-consciousness1 some recollection of
 his once quick and changeful mood--io  
che son trasmutabil per tutte           
guise#fi--or half playfully alludes to  
the whispered name of a lady1#gj whose  
pleasant courtesy has beguiled a few    
days of exile4 ,but he is no longer     
spell-bound and entangled in fancies of 
his own weaving--absorbed in the        
unprofitable contemplation of his own   
internal sensations4 ,the man is indeed 
the same1 still a ,florentine1 still    
metaphysical1 still a lover4 ,he returns

 to the haunts and images of youth1 to  
take among them his poet's crown2 but   
with other voice and other garb1#ga a   
penitent and a prophet--with larger     
thoughts1 wider sympathies1 freer       
utterance2 sterner and fiercer1 yet     
nobler and more genuine in his          
tenderness--as one whom trial has made  
serious1 and keen1 and intolerant of    
evil1 but not sceptical or callous2 yet 
with the impressions and memories of a  
very different scene from his old       
day-dreams4  ,footnote #fg3 ,vincendo me
 col lume d'un sorriso4--,parad4 #ah4   
,footnote #fh3 ,for instance1 his       
feeling of distress at gazing at the    
blind1 who were not aware of his        
presence--       ,a me pareva andando   
fare oltraggio      ,vedendo altrui1 non
 essendo veduto3--,purg4 #ac4  and of   
shame1 at being tempted to listen to a  
quarrel between two lost spirits3       
,ad ascoltarli er'io del tutto fisso1   
,quando 'l ,maestro mi disse3 or pur    
mira1      ,che per poco 1 che teco non 

mi risso4        ,quando io 'l senti' a 
me parlar con ira      ,volsimi verso   
lui con tal vergogna1      ,ch'ancor per
 la memoria mi si gira1 c4--,inf4 #cj4  
and the burst1         ,o dignitosa     
coscienza e netta1      ,come t' picciol
 fallo amaro morso4--,purg4 #c4         
,footnote #fi3 ,parad4 #e4  ,footnote   
#gj3 ,purg4 #bd4  ,footnote #ga3 ,parad4
 #be4       ,after that it was the      
pleasure of the citizens of that        
fairest and most famous daughter of     
,rome1 ,florence1 to cast      me forth 
from her most sweet bosom 7wherein ,i   
had been      nourished up to the       
maturity of my life1 and in which1 with 
all peace to her1 ,i long with all my   
heart to rest my weary      soul1 and   
finish the time which is given me71 ,i  
have passed      through almost all the 
regions to which this language          
reaches1 a wanderer1 almost a beggar1   
displaying1 against my      will1 the   
stroke of fortune1 which is ofttimes    
unjustly wont      to be imputed to the 

person stricken4 ,truly1 ,i have been a 
ship without a sail or helm1 carried to 
divers harbours1 and      gulfs1 and    
shores1 by that parching wind which sad 
poverty      breathes2 and ,i have      
seemed vile in the eyes of many1 who    
perchance1 from some fame1 had imagined 
of me in another      form2 in the sight
 of whom not only did my presence become
      nought1 but every work of mine    
less prized1 both what had      been and
 what was to be wrought4--,convito1 ,tr4
 i4 c4 #c4  ,thus proved1 and thus      
furnished--thus independent and         
confident1 daring to trust his instinct 
and genius in what was entirely untried 
and unusual1 he entered on his great    
poem1 to shadow forth1 under the figure 
of his own conversion and purification1 
not merely how a single soul rises to   
its perfection1 but how this visible    
world1 in all its phases of nature1     
life1 and society1 is one with the      
invisible1 which borders on it1         
actuates1 accomplishes1 and explains it4

 ,it is this vast plan--to take into his
 scope1 not the soul only in its        
struggles and triumph1 but all that the 
soul finds itself engaged with in its   
course2 the accidents of the hour1 and  
of ages past2 the real persons1 great   
and small1 apart from and without whom  
it cannot think or act2 the material    
world1 its theatre and home--it is this 
which gives so many various sides to the
 ,commedia1 which makes it so novel and 
strange4 ,it is not a mere personal     
history1 or a pouring forth of feeling1 
like the ,vita ,nuova1 though he is     
himself the mysterious voyager1 and he  
opens without reserve his actual life   
and his heart2 he speaks1 indeed1 in the
 first person1 yet he is but a character
 of the drama1 and in great part of it  
with not more of distinct personality   
than in that paraphrase of the          
penitential ,psalms1 in which he has    
preluded so much of the ,commedia4 ,yet 
the ,commedia is not a pure allegory2 it
 admits1 and makes use of the           

allegorical1 but the laws of allegory   
are too narrow for it2 the real in it is
 too impatient of the veil1 and breaks  
through in all its hardness and detail1 
into what is most shadowy4 ,history is  
indeed viewed not in its ephemeral look1
 but under the light of ,god's final    
judgments2 in its completion1 not in its
 provisional and fragmentary character2 
viewed therefore but in faith2--but its 
issues1 which in this confused scene we 
ordinarily contemplate in the gross1 the
 poet brings down to detail and         
individuals2 he faces and grasps the    
tremendous thought that the very men and
 women whom we see and speak to1 are now
 the real representatives of sin and    
goodness1 the true actors in that scene 
which is so familiar to us as a         
picture--unflinching and terrible heart1
 he endures to face it in its most      
harrowing forms4 ,but he wrote not for  
sport1 nor to give poetic pleasure2 he  
wrote to warn2 the seed of the ,commedia
 was sown in tears1 and reaped in       

misery3 and the consolations which it   
offers are awful as they are real4      
,thus1 though he throws into symbol and 
image1 what can only be expressed by    
symbol and image1 we can as little      
forget in reading him this real world in
 which we live1 as we can in one of     
,shakspere's plays4 ,it is not merely   
that the poem is crowded with real      
personages1 most of them having the     
single interest to us of being real4    
,but all that is associated with man's  
history and existence is interwoven with
 the main course of thought--all that   
gives character to life1 all that gives 
it form and feature1 even to quaintness1
 all that occupies the mind1 or employs 
the hand--speculation1 science1 arts1   
manufactures1 monuments1 scenes1        
customs1 proverbs1 ceremonies1 games1   
punishments1 attitudes of men1 habits of
 living creatures4 ,the wildest and most
 unearthly imaginations1 the most       
abstruse thoughts take up into1 and     
incorporate with themselves the forcible

 and familiar impressions of our mother 
earth1 and do not refuse the company and
 aid even of the homeliest4  ,this is   
not mere poetic ornament1 peculiarly1   
profusely1 or extravagantly employed4   
,it is one of the ways in which his     
dominant feeling expresses              
itself--spontaneous and instinctive in  
each several instance of it1 but the    
kindling and effluence of deliberate    
thought1 and attending on a clear       
purpose--the feeling of the real and    
intimate connexion between the objects  
of sight and faith4 ,it is not that he  
sees in one the simple counterpart and  
reverse of the other1 or sets himself to
 trace out universally their mutual     
correspondences2 he has too strong a    
sense of the reality of this familiar   
life to reduce it merely to a shadow and
 type of the unseen4 ,what he struggles 
to express in countless ways1 with all  
the resources of his strange and        
gigantic power1 is that this world and  
the next are both equally real1 and both

 one--parts1 however different1 of one  
whole4 ,the world to come we know but in
 a glass darkly2 man can only think and 
imagine of it in images1 which he knows 
to be but broken and faint reflections3 
but this world we know1 not in outline1 
and featureless idea1 but by name1 and  
face1 and shape1 by place and person1 by
 the colours and forms which crowd over 
its surface1 the men who people its     
habitations1 the events which mark its  
moments4 ,detail fills the sense here1  
and is the mark of reality4 ,and thus he
 seeks to keep alive the feeling of what
 that world is which he connects with   
heaven and hell2 not by abstractions1   
not much by elaborate and               
highly-finished pictures1 but by names1 
persons1 local features1 definite       
images4 ,widely and keenly has he ranged
 over and searched into the world--with 
a largeness of mind which disdained not 
to mark and treasure up1 along with much
 unheeded beauty1 many a characteristic 
feature of nature1 unnoticed because so 

common4 ,all his pursuits and interests 
contribute to the impression1 which1    
often instinctively it may be1 he       
strives to produce1 of the manifold     
variety of our life4 ,as a man of       
society1 his memory is full of its      
usages1 formalities1 graces1 follies1   
fashions--of expressive motions1        
postures1 gestures1 looks--of music1 of 
handicrafts1 of the conversation of     
friends or associates--of all that      
passes1 so transient1 yet so keenly     
pleasant or distasteful1 between man and
 man4 ,as a traveller1 he recalls       
continually the names and scenes of the 
world2--as a man of speculation1 the    
secrets of nature--the phenomena of     
light1 the theory of the planets'       
motions1 the idea and laws of           
physiology4 ,as a man of learning1 he is
 filled with the thoughts and           
recollections of ancient fable and      
history2 as a politician1 with the      
thoughts1 prognostications1 and hopes1  
of the history of the day2 as a moral   

philosopher he has watched himself1 his 
external sensations and changes1 his    
inward passions1 his mental powers1 his 
ideas1 his conscience2 he has far and   
wide noted character1 discriminated     
motives1 classed good and evil deeds4   
,all that the man of society1 of travel1
 of science1 of learning1 the           
politician1 the moralist1 could gather1 
is used at will in the great poetic     
structure2 but all converges to the     
purpose1 and is directed by the intense 
feeling of the theologian1 who sees this
 wonderful and familiar scene melting   
into1 and ending in another yet more    
wonderful1 but which will one day be as 
familiar--who sees the difficult but    
sure progress of the manifold remedies  
of the ,divine government to their      
predestined issue2 and1 over all1 ,god  
and ,his saints4  ,so comprehensive in  
interest is the ,commedia4 ,any attempt 
to explain it1 by narrowing that        
interest to politics1 philosophy1 the   
moral life1 or theology itself1 must    

prove inadequate4 ,theology strikes the 
key-note2 but history1 natural and      
metaphysical science1 poetry1 and art1  
each in their turn join in the harmony1 
independent1 yet ministering to the     
whole4 ,if from the poem itself we could
 be for a single moment in doubt of the 
reality and dominant place of religion  
in it1 the plain-spoken prose of the    
,convito would show how he placed the   
,divine ,science1 full of all peace1 and
 allowing no strife of opinions and     
sophisms1 for the excellent certainty of
 its subject1 which is ,god1 in single  
perfection above all other sciences1    
which are1 as ,solomon speaks1 but      
queens1 or concubines1 or maidens2 but  
she is the ',dove1' and the 'perfect    
one'--',dove1' because without stain of 
strife--'perfect1' because perfectly she
 makes us behold the truth1 in which our
 soul stills itself and is at rest4 ,but
 the same passage#gb shows likewise how 
he viewed all human knowledge and human 
interests1 as holding their due place in

 the hierarchy of wisdom1 and among the 
steps of man's perfection4 ,no account  
of the ,commedia will prove sufficient1 
which does not keep in view1 first of   
all1 the high moral purpose and deep    
spirit of faith with which it was       
written1 and then the wide liberty of   
materials and means which the poet      
allowed himself in working out his      
design4  ,footnote #gb3 ,convito1 ,tr4  
#b1 c4 #ad1 #ae4  ,doubtless1 his       
writings have a political aspect4 ,the  
great ,ghibelline poet is one of        
,dante's received synonymes2 of his     
strong political opinions1 and the      
importance he attached to them1 there   
can be no doubt4 ,and he meant his poem 
to be the vehicle of them1 and the      
record to all ages of the folly and     
selfishness with which he saw men       
governed4 ,that he should take the      
deepest interest in the goings on of his
 time1 is part of his greatness2 to     
suppose that he stopped at them1 or that
 he subordinated to political objects or

 feelings all the other elements of his 
poem1 is to shrink up that greatness    
into very narrow limits4 ,yet this has  
been done by men of mark and ability1 by
 ,italians1 by men who read the         
,commedia in their own mother-tongue4   
,it has been maintained as a            
satisfactory account of it--maintained  
with great labour and pertinacious      
ingenuity--that ,dante meant nothing    
more by his poem than the conflicts and 
ideal triumph of a political party4 ,the
 hundred cantos of that vision of the   
universe are but a manifesto of the     
,ghibelline propaganda1 designed1 under 
the veil of historic images and scenes1 
to insinuate what it was dangerous to   
announce2 and ,beatrice1 in all her     
glory and sweetness1 is but a specimen  
of the jargon1 cant1 and slang of       
,ghibelline freemasonry4 ,when ,italians
 write thus1 they degrade the greatest  
name of their country to a depth of     
laborious imbecility1 to which the      
trifling of schoolmen and academicians  

is as nothing4 ,it is to solve the      
enigma of ,dante's works1 by imagining  
for him a character in which it is hard 
to say which predominates1 the pedant1  
mountebank1 or infidel4 ,after that we  
may read ,voltaire's sneers with        
patience1 and even enter with gravity on
 the examination of ,father ,hardouin's 
,historic ,doubts4 ,the fanaticism of an
 outraged liberalism1 produced by       
centuries of injustice and despotism1 is
 but a poor excuse for such perverse    
blindness4#gc  ,footnote #gc3 ,in the   
,remains of ,arthur ,henry ,hallam is a 
paper1 in which he examines and disposes
 of this theory with a courteous and    
forbearing irony1 which would have      
deepened probably into something more1  
on thinking over it a second time4      
,dante was not a ,ghibelline1 though he 
longed for the interposition of an      
,imperial power4 ,historically he did   
not belong to the ,ghibelline party4 ,it
 is true that he forsook the ,guelfs1   
with whom he had been brought up1 and   

that the ,white ,guelfs1 with whom he   
was expelled from ,florence1 were at    
length merged and lost in the           
,ghibelline party#gd2 and he acted with 
them for a time4#ge ,but no words can be
 stronger than those in which he        
disjoins himself from that evil and     
foolish company1 and claims his         
independence--                          
,a te fia bello      ,averti fatto parte
 per te stesso4#gf  ,footnote #gd3 ,dino
 ,comp4 pp4 #hi-ia4  ,footnote #ge3 ,his
 name appears among the ,white delegates
 in #acjg4 ,pelli1 p4 #aag4  ,footnote  
#gf3 ,parad4 #ag4  ,and it is not easy  
to conceive a ,ghibelline partisan      
putting into the mouth of ,justinian1   
the type of law and empire1 a general   
condemnation of his party as heavy as   
that of their antagonists2--the crime of
 having betrayed1 as the ,guelfs had    
resisted1 the great symbol of public    
right--         ,omai puoi giudicar di  
que' cotali      ,ch'io accusai di      
sopra1 e de' lor falli      ,che son    

cagion di tutti i vostri mali4          
,l'uno al pubblico segno i gigli gialli 
,oppone1 e quel s'appropria l'altro a   
parte1      ,s ch' forte a veder qual pi
 si falli4        ,faccian li           
,ghibellin1 faccian lor arte            
,sott'altro segno2 ch mal segue quello  
,sempre chi la giustizia e lui          
diparte4#gg  ,footnote #gg3 ,ibid4 #f4  
,and though1 as the victim of the       
,guelfs of ,florence1 he found refuge   
among ,ghibelline princes1 he had       
friends among ,guelfs also4 ,his steps  
and his tongue were free to the end4    
,and in character and feeling1 in his   
austerity1 his sturdiness and roughness1
 his intolerance of corruption and      
pride1 his strongly-marked devotional   
temper1 he was much less a ,ghibelline  
than like one of those stern ,guelfs who
 hailed ,savonarola4  ,but he had a very
 decided and complete political theory1 
which certainly was not ,guelf2 and1 as 
parties then were1 it was not much more 
,ghibelline4 ,most assuredly no set of  

men would have more vigorously resisted 
the attempt to realise his theory1 would
 have joined more heartily with all     
immediate opponents--,guelfs1 ,black1   
,white1 and ,green1 or even ,boniface   
,,viii41--to keep out such an emperor as
 ,dante imagined1 than the ,ghibelline  
nobles and potentates4  ,dante's        
political views were a dream2 though a  
dream based on what had been1 and an    
anticipation of what was1 in part at    
least1 to come4 ,it was a dream in the  
middle ages1 in divided and republican  
,italy1 the ,italy of cities--of a real 
and national government1 based on       
justice and law4 ,it was the dream of a 
real state4 ,he imagined that the ,roman
 empire had been one great state2 he    
persuaded himself that ,christendom     
might be such4 ,he was wrong in both    
instances2 but in this case1 as in so   
many others1 he had already caught the  
spirit and ideas of a far-distant       
future2 and the political organisation  
of modern times1 so familiar to us that 

we cease to think of its exceeding      
wonder1 is the practical confirmation1  
though in a form very different from    
what he imagined1 of the depth and      
farsightedness of those expectations    
which are in outward form so            
chimerical--i miei non falsi errori4    
,he had studied the infinite disorders  
of the world in one of their most       
unrestrained scenes1 the streets of an  
,italian republic4 ,law was powerless1  
good men were powerless1 good intentions
 came to naught2 neither social habits  
nor public power could resist1 when     
selfishness chose to have its way4 ,the 
,church was indeed still the salt of the
 nations2 but it had once dared and     
achieved more2 it had once been the only
 power which ruled them4 ,and this it   
could do no longer4 ,if strength and    
energy had been enough to make the      
,church's influence felt on government1 
there was a ,pope who could have done   
it--a man who was undoubtedly the most  
wondered at and admired of his age1 whom

 friend or foe never characterised1     
without adding the invariable epithet of
 his greatness of soul--the magnanimus  
peccator1#gh whose ,roman grandeur in   
meeting his unworthy fate fascinated    
into momentary sympathy even ,dante4#gi 
,but among the things which ,boniface   
,,viii4 could not do1 even if he cared  
about it1 was the maintaining peace and 
law in ,italian towns4 ,and while this  
great political power was failing1 its  
correlative and antagonist was paralysed
 also4 ,since the death of ,frederic    
,,ii41 says ,dante's contemporary1 the  
fame and recollections of the empire    
were well-nigh extinguished4#hj ,italy  
was left without government--come nave  
senza nocchiero in gran tempesta--to the
 mercies of her tyrants3           ,che 
le terre d',italia tutte piene      ,son
 di tiranni1 e un ,marcel diventa       
,ogni villan1 che parteggiando          
viene4--,purg4 #f4  ,footnote #gh3      
,benvenuto da ,imola4  ,footnote #gi3   
,veggio in ,alagna entrar lo fiordaliso1

      ,e nel vicario suo ,cristo esser  
catto2        ,veggiolo un'altra volta  
esser deriso2      ,veggio rinnovellar  
l'aceto e 'l fele1      ,e tra vivi     
ladroni essere anciso4--,purg4 #bj4  ,g4
 ,villani1 viii4 #fc4 ,come magnanimo e 
valente1 disse1 ,dacch per tradimento1  
come ,ges ,cristo1 voglio esser preso e 
mi conviene morire1 almeno voglio morire
 come ,papa2 e di presente si fece      
parare dell'ammanto di ,s4 ,piero1 e    
colla corona di ,constantino in capo1 e 
colle chiavi e croce in mano1 e in su la
 sedia papale si pose a sedere1 e giunto
 a lui ,sciarra e gli altri suoi nimici2
 con villane parole lo scherniro4       
,footnote #hj3 ,dino ,compagni1 p4 #ace4
  ,in this scene of violence and        
disorder1 with the ,papacy gone astray1 
the empire debased and impotent1 the    
religious orders corrupted1 power       
meaning lawlessness1 the well-disposed  
become weak and cowardly1 religion      
neither guide nor check to society1 but 
only the consolation of its             

victims--,dante was bold and hopeful    
enough to believe in the ,divine        
appointment1 and in the possibility1 of 
law and government--of a state4 ,in his 
philosophy1 the institutions which      
provide for man's peace and liberty in  
this life are part of ,god's great order
 for raising men to perfection2--not    
indispensable1 yet ordinary parts2      
having their important place1 though but
 for the present time2 and though       
imperfect1 real instruments of ,his     
moral government4 ,he could not believe 
it to be the intention of ,providence1  
that on the introduction of higher hopes
 and the foundation of a higher society1
 civil society should collapse and be   
left to ruin1 as henceforth useless or  
prejudicial in man's trial and training2
 that the significant intimations of    
nature1 that law and its results1       
justice1 peace1 and stability1 ought to 
be and might be realised among men1 had 
lost their meaning and faded away before
 the announcement of a kingdom not of   

this world4 ,and if the perfection of   
civil society had not been superseded by
 the ,church1 it had become clear1 if   
events were to be read as signs1 that   
she was not intended to supply its      
political offices and functions4 ,she   
had taught1 elevated1 solaced1 blessed1 
not only individual souls1 but society2 
she had for a time even governed it3 but
 though her other powers remained1 she  
could govern it no longer4 ,failure had 
made it certain that1 in his strong and 
quaint language1 ,virtus authorizandi   
regnum nostr mortalitatis est contra    
naturam ecclesi2 ergo non est de numero 
virtutum suarum4#ha ,another and        
distinct organisation was required for  
this1 unless the temporal order was no  
longer worthy the attention of          
,christians4  ,footnote #ha3 ,de        
,monarch4 lib4 iii4 p4 #ahh1 ,ed4       
,fraticelli4  ,this is the idea of the  
,de ,monarchia2 and though it holds but 
a place in the great scheme of the      
,commedia1 it is prominent there        

also--an idea seen but in a fantastic   
shape1 encumbered and confused with most
 grotesque imagery1 but the real idea of
 polity and law1 which the experience of
 modern ,europe has attained to4  ,he   
found in clear outline in the ,greek    
philosophy1 the theory of merely human  
society2 and raising its end and        
purpose1 finem totius human civilitatis1
 to a height and dignity which ,heathens
 could not forecast1 he adopted it in   
its more abstract and ideal form4 ,he   
imagined a single authority1 unselfish1 
inflexible1 irresistible1 which could   
make all smaller tyrannies to cease1 and
 enable every man to live in peace and  
liberty1 so that he lived in justice4   
,it is simply what each separate state  
of ,christendom has by this time more or
 less perfectly achieved4 ,the theoriser
 of the middle ages could conceive of   
its accomplishment only in one form1 as 
grand as it was impossible--a universal 
monarchy4  ,but he did not start from an
 abstraction4 ,he believed that history 

attested the existence of such a        
monarchy4 ,the prestige of the ,roman   
empire was then strong4 ,europe still   
lingers on the idea1 and cannot even yet
 bring itself to give up its part in    
that great monument of human power4 ,but
 in the middle ages the ,empire was     
still believed to exist4 ,it was the    
last greatness which had been seen in   
the world1 and the world would not      
believe that it was over4 ,above all1 in
 ,italy1 a continuity of lineage1 of    
language1 of local names1 and in part of
 civilisation and law1 forbad the       
thought that the great ,roman people had
 ceased to be4 ,florentines and         
,venetians boasted that they were       
,romans3 the legends which the          
,florentine ladies told to their maidens
 at the loom were tales of their mother 
city1 ,rome4 ,the ,roman element1 little
 understood1 but profoundly reverenced  
and dearly cherished1 was dominant2 the 
conductor of civilisation1 and enfolding
 the inheritance of all the wisdom1     

experience1 feeling1 art1 of the past1  
it elevated1 even while it overawed1    
oppressed1 and enslaved4 ,a deep belief 
in ,providence added to the intrinsic   
grandeur of the empire a sacred         
character4 ,the flight of the eagle has 
been often told and often sung2 but     
neither in ,livy or ,virgil1 ,gibbon or 
,bossuet1 with intenser sympathy or more
 kindred power1 than in those rushing   
and unflagging verses in which the      
middle-age poet hears the imperial      
legislator relate the fated course of   
the sacred sign1 from the day when      
,pallas died for it1 till it            
accomplished the vengeance of heaven in 
,juda1 and afterwards1 under            
,charlemagne1 smote down the enemies of 
the ,church4#hb  ,footnote #hb3 ,parad4 
c4 #f4  ,the following passage1 from the
 ,de ,monarchia1 will show the poet's   
view of the ,roman empire1 and its      
office in the world3       ,to the      
reasons above alleged1 a memorable      
experience brings      confirmation3 ,i 

mean that state of mankind which the    
,son of      ,god1 when ,he would for   
man's salvation take man upon ,him1     
either waited for1 or ordered when so   
,he willed4 ,for if from      the fall  
of our first parents1 which was the     
starting-point      of all our          
wanderings1 we retrace the various      
dispositions      of men and their      
times1 we shall not find at any time1   
except under the divine monarch         
,augustus1 when a perfect      monarchy 
existed1 that the world was everywhere  
quiet4 ,and      that then mankind was  
happy in the tranquillity of universal  
peace1 this all writers of history1 this
 famous poets1 this      even the       
,scribe of the meekness of ,christ has  
deigned to      attest4 ,and lastly1    
,paul has called that most blessed      
condition1 the fulness of time4 ,truly  
time1 and the things      of time1 were 
full1 for no mystery of our felicity    
then      lacked its minister4 ,but how 
the world has gone on from the      time

 when that seamless robe was first torn 
by the claws of      covetousness1 we   
may read1 and would that we might not   
also      see4 ,o race of men1 by how   
great storms and losses1 by how         
great shipwrecks hast thou of necessity 
been vexed since1      transformed into 
a beast of many heads1 thou hast been   
struggling different ways1 sick in      
understanding1 equally      sick in     
heart4 ,the higher intellect1 with its  
invincible      reasons1 thou reckest   
not of2 nor of the inferior1 with its   
eye of experience2 nor of affection1    
with the sweetness of      divine       
suasion1 when the trumpet of the ,holy  
,ghost sounds to      thee--,behold1 how
 good is it1 and how pleasant1 brethren1
      to dwell together in unity4--,de  
,monarch4 lib4 i4 p4 #ed4  ,yet this    
great ,roman empire existed still       
unimpaired in name--not unimposing even 
in what really remained of it4 ,dante1  
to supply a want1 turned it into a      
theory--a theory easy to smile at now1  

but which contained and was a beginning 
of unknown or unheeded truth4 ,what he  
yearns after is the predominance of the 
principle of justice in civil society4  
,that1 if it is still imperfect1 is no  
longer a dream in our day2 but          
experience had never realised it to him1
 and he takes refuge in tentative and   
groping theory4 ,the divinations of the 
greatest men have been vague and        
strange1 and none have been stranger    
than those of the author of the ,de     
,monarchia4 ,the second book1 in which  
he establishes the title of the ,roman  
people to ,universal ,empire1 is as     
startling a piece of medival argument as
 it would be easy to find4       ,as    
when we cannot attain to look upon a    
cause1 we commonly      wonder at a new 
effect1 so when we know the cause1 we   
look      down with a certain derision  
on those who remain in wonder4      ,and
 ,i indeed wondered once how the ,roman 
people had1 without      any resistance1
 been set over the world2 and looking at

 it      superficially1 ,i thought that 
they had obtained this by no      right1
 but by mere force of arms4 ,but when ,i
 fixed deeply      the eyes of my mind  
on it1 and by most effectual signs knew 
that ,divine ,providence had wrought    
this1 wonder departed1      and a       
certain scornful contempt came in its   
stead1 when ,i      perceived the       
nations raging against the pre-eminence 
of the      ,roman people3--when ,i see 
the people imagining a vain thing1      
as ,i once used to do2 when1 moreover1  
,i grieve over kings      and princes   
agreeing in this only1 to be against    
their ,lord      and his anointed ,roman
 ,emperor4 ,wherefore in derision1 not  
without a certain grief1 ,i can cry out1
 for that glorious      people and for  
,csar1 with him who cried in behalf of  
the      ,prince of ,heaven1 ,why did   
the nations rage1 and the people        
imagine vain things2 the kings of the   
earth stood up1 and      the rulers were
 joined in one against the ,lord and his

      anointed4 ,but 7because natural   
love suffers not derision to      be of 
long duration1 but1 like the summer sun1
 which1      scattering the morning     
mists1 irradiates the east with         
light1 so prefers to pour forth the     
light of correction7      therefore to  
break the bonds of the ignorance of such
 kings      and rulers1 to show that the
 human race is free from their          
yoke1 ,i will exhort myself1 in company 
with the most holy      ,prophet1 taking
 up his following words1 ,let us break  
their      bonds1 and cast away from us 
their yoke4--,de ,monarch4      lib4 ii4
 p4 #eh4  ,and to prove this            
pre-eminence of right in the ,roman     
people1 and their heirs1 the ,emperors  
of ,christendom1 he appeals not merely  
to the course of ,providence1 to their  
high and noble ancestry1 to the         
blessings of their just and considerate 
laws1 to their unselfish guardianship of
 the world--,romanum imperium de fonte  
nascitur pietatis2--not merely to their 

noble examples of private virtue1       
self-devotion1 and public spirit--those 
most sacred victims of the ,decian      
house1 who laid down their lives for the
 public weal1 as ,livy--not as they     
deserved1 but as he was able--tells to  
their glory2 and that unspeakable       
sacrifice of freedom's sternest         
guardians1 the ,catos2 not merely to the
 judgment of ,god in that great duel and
 wager of battle for empire1 in which   
heaven declared against all other       
champions and co-athletes--,alexander1  
,pyrrhus1 ,hannibal1 and by all the     
formalities of judicial combat awarded  
the great prize to those who fought1 not
 for love or hatred1 but justice--,quis 
igitur nunc adeo obtus mentis est1 qui  
non videat1 sub jure duelli gloriosum   
populum coronam totius orbis esse       
lucratum8--not merely to arguments      
derived from the principles of the      
,christian faith--but to miracles4 ,the 
,roman empire1 he says1 was1 in order to
 its perfections1 aided by the help of  

miracles2 therefore it was willed by    
,god2 and1 by consequence1 both was1 and
 is1 of right4 ,and these miracles1     
proved by the testimony of illustrious  
authorities1 are the prodigies of       
,livy--the ancile of ,numa1 the geese of
 the ,capitol1 the escape of ,clelia1   
the hail-storm which checked            
,hannibal4#hc  ,footnote #hc3 ,de       
,monarch4 lib4 ii4 pp4 #fb1 #ff1 #gh1   
#hb1 #hd1 #ajh-aad1 #aaf1 #gb-gf4  ,the 
intellectual phenomenon is a strange    
one4 ,it would be less strange if ,dante
 were arguing in the schools1 or        
pleading for a party4 ,but even ,henry  
of ,luxemburg cared little for such a   
throne as the poet wanted him to fill1  
much less ,can ,grande and the          
,visconti4 ,the idea1 the theory1 and   
the argument1 are of the writer's own   
solitary meditation4 ,we may wonder4    
,but there are few things more strange  
than the history of argument4 ,how often
 has a cause or an idea turned out1 in  
the eyes of posterity1 so much better   

than its arguments4 ,how often have we  
seen argument getting as it were into a 
groove1 and unable to extricate itself1 
so as to do itself justice4 ,the        
everyday cases of private experience1 of
 men defending right conclusions on     
wrong or conventional grounds1 or in a  
confused form1 entangled with           
conclusions of a like yet different     
nature2--of arguments1 theories1        
solutions1 which once satisfied1        
satisfying us no longer on a question   
about which we hold the same belief--of 
one party unable to comprehend the      
arguments of another--of one section of 
the same side smiling at the defence of 
their common cause by another--are all  
reproduced on a grander scale in the    
history of society4 ,there too1 one age 
cannot comprehend another2 there too it 
takes time to disengage1 subordinate1   
eliminate4 ,truth of this sort is not   
the elaboration of one keen or strong   
mind1 but of the secret experience of   
many2 nihil sine tate est1 omnia tempus 

expectant4 ,but a counterpart to the ,de
 ,monarchia is not wanting in our own   
day2 theory has not ceased to be mighty4
 ,in warmth and earnestness1 in sense of
 historic grandeur1 in its support of a 
great cause and a great idea1 not less  
than in the thought of its motto1       
,greek3 heis koiranos est1 ,de          
,maistre's volume ,du ,pape1 recalls the
 antagonist ,de ,monarchia2 but it      
recalls it not less in its bold dealing 
with facts1 and its bold assumption of  
principles1 though the knowledge and    
debates of five more busy centuries1 and
 the experience of modern courts and    
revolutions1 might have guarded the     
,piedmontese nobleman from the mistakes 
of the old ,florentine4  ,but the idea  
of the ,de ,monarchia is no key to the  
,commedia4 ,the direct and primary      
purpose of the ,commedia is surely its  
obvious one4 ,it is to stamp a deep     
impression on the mind1 of the issues of
 good and ill doing here--of the real   
worlds of pain and joy4 ,to do this     

forcibly1 it is done in detail--of      
course it can only be done in figure4   
,punishment1 purification1 or the       
fulness of consolation are1 as he would 
think1 at this very moment1 the lot of  
all the numberless spirits who have ever
 lived here--spirits still living and   
sentient as himself3 parallel with our  
life1 they too are suffering or are at  
rest4 ,without pause or interval1 in all
 its parts simultaneously1 this awful   
scene is going on--the judgments of ,god
 are being fulfilled--could we but see  
it4 ,it exists1 it might be seen1 at    
each instant of time1 by a soul whose   
eyes were opened1 which was carried     
through it4 ,and this he imagines4 ,it  
had been imagined before2 it is the     
working out1 which is peculiar to him4  
,it is not a barren vision4 ,his subject
 is1 besides the eternal world1 the soul
 which contemplates it2 by sight1       
according to his figures--in reality1 by
 faith4 ,as he is led on from woe to    
deeper woe1 then through the tempered   

chastisements and resignation of        
,purgatory to the beatific vision1 he is
 tracing the course of the soul on      
earth1 realising sin and weaning itself 
from it--of its purification and        
preparation for its high lot1 by        
converse with the good and wise1 by the 
remedies of grace1 by efforts of will   
and love1 perhaps by the dominant       
guidance of some single pure and holy   
influence1 whether of person1 or        
institution1 or thought4 ,nor will we   
say but that beyond this earthly        
probation1 he is not also striving to   
grasp and imagine to himself something  
of that awful process and training1 by  
which1 whether in or out of the flesh1  
the spirit is made fit to meet its      
,maker1 its ,judge1 and its ,chief      
,good4  ,thus it seems that even in its 
main design1 the poem has more than one 
aspect2 it is a picture1 a figure1      
partially a history1 perhaps an         
anticipation4 ,and this is confirmed1 by
 what the poet has himself distinctly   

stated1 of his ideas of poetic          
composition4 ,his view is expressed     
generally in his philosophical treatise1
 the ,convito2 but it is applied        
directly to the ,commedia1 in a letter1 
which1 if in its present form1 of       
doubtful authenticity1 without any      
question represents his sentiments1 and 
the substance of which is incorporated  
in one of the earliest writings on the  
poem1 ,boccaccio's commentary4 ,the     
following is his account of the subject 
of the poem3       ,for the evidence of 
what is to be said1 it is to be noted1  
that this work is not of one single     
meaning only1 but may be      said to   
have many meanings 7polysensuum74 ,for  
the first      meaning is that of the   
letter--another is that of things       
signified by the letter2 the first of   
these is called the      literal sense1 
the second1 the allegorical or moral4   
,this      mode of treating a subject   
may for clearness' sake be              
considered in those verses of the       

,psalm1 ,in exitu      ,israel4 ,when   
,israel came out of ,egypt1 and the     
house of      ,jacob from the strange   
people1 ,judah was his sanctuary1 and   
,israel his dominion4 ,for if we look at
 the letter only1      there is here    
signified1 the going out of the children
 of      ,israel in the time of         
,moses--if at the allegory there is     
signified our redemption through        
,christ--if at the moral      sense     
there is signified to us the conversion 
of the soul      from the mourning and  
misery of sin to the state of           
grace--if at the anagogic sense1#hd     
there is signified      the passing out 
of the holy soul from the bondage of    
this      corruption to the liberty of  
everlasting glory4 ,and these           
mystical meanings1 though called by     
different names1 may all      be called 
allegorical as distinguished from the   
literal or      historical sense4444    
,this being considered1 it is plain that
      there ought to be a twofold       

subject1 concerning which the      two  
corresponding meanings may proceed4     
,therefore we must      consider first  
concerning the subject of this work as  
it is      to be understood literally1  
then as it is to be considered          
allegorically4 ,the subject then of the 
whole work1 taken      literally only1  
is the state of souls after death       
considered      in itself4 ,for about   
this1 and on this1 the whole work       
turns4 ,but if the work be taken        
allegorically1 its subject      is man1 
as1 by his freedom of choice deserving  
well or ill1      he is subject to the  
justice which rewards and punishes4#he  
,footnote #hd3       ,litera gesta      
refert1 quid credas allegoria1          
,moralis quid agas1 quid speres         
anagogia4       ,de ,witte's note from  
,buti4  ,footnote #he3 ,ep4 ad ,kan     
,grand4  #f1 #g4  ,the passage in the   
,convito is to the same effect2 but his 
remarks on the moral and anagogic       
meaning may be quoted3       ,the third 

sense is called moral2 that it is which 
readers      ought to go on noting      
carefully in writings1 for their own    
profit and that of their disciples3 as  
in the ,gospel it may      be noted1    
when ,christ went up to the mountain to 
be      transfigured1 that of the twelve
 ,apostles1 he took with him      only  
three2 in which morally we may          
understand1 that in the      most secret
 things we ought to have but few        
companions4 ,the      fourth sort of    
meaning is called anagogic1 that is1    
above      our sense2 and this is when  
we spiritually interpret a      passage1
 which even in its literal meaning1 by  
means of the      things signified1     
expresses the heavenly things of        
everlasting glory3 as may be seen in    
that song of the      ,prophet1 which   
says1 that in the coming out of the     
people of      ,israel from ,egypt1     
,judah was made holy and free2 which    
although it is manifestly true according
 to the letter1 is      not less true as

 spiritually understood2 that is1 that  
when      the soul comes out of sin1 it 
is made holy and free1 in its      own  
power4#hf  ,footnote #hf3 ,convito1 ,tr4
 #b1 c4 #a4  ,with this passage before  
us there can be no doubt of the meaning1
 however veiled1 of those beautiful     
lines1 already referred to1 in which    
,virgil1 after having conducted the poet
 up the steeps of ,purgatory1 where his 
sins have been one by one cancelled by  
the ministering angels1 finally takes   
leave of him1 and bids him wait for     
,beatrice1 on the skirts of the earthly 
,paradise3         ,come la scala tutta 
sotto noi      ,fu corsa e fummo in su  
'l grado superno1      ,in me ficc      
,virgilio gli occhi suoi1        ,e     
disse3 ,il temporal fuoco1 e l'eterno   
,veduto hai1 figlio1 e se' venuto in    
parte      ,ov'io per me pi oltre non   
discerno4        ,tratto t'ho qui con   
ingegno e con arte3      ,lo tuo piacere
 omai prendi per duce2      ,fuor se'   
dell'erte vie1 fuor se' dell'arte4      

,vedi il sole che 'n fronte ti riluce3  
,vedi l'erbetta1 i fiori1 e gli         
arboscelli      ,che quella terra sol da
 s produce4        ,mentre che vegnon   
lieti gli occhi belli      ,che         
lagrimando a te venir mi fenno1         
,seder ti puoi e puoi andar tra elli4   
,non aspettar mio dir pi n mio cenno3   
,libero1 dritto1 sano  tuo arbitrio1    
,e fallo fora non fare a suo senno3--   
,perch'io te sopra te corono e          
mitrio4#hg  ,footnote #hg3              
,when we had run      ,o'er all the     
ladder to its topmost round1      ,as   
there we stood1 on me the ,mantuan fix'd
      ,his eyes1 and thus he spake3     
,both fires1 my son1      ,the temporal 
and the eternal1 thou hast seen3        
,and art arrived1 where of itself my ken
      ,no further reaches4 ,i with skill
 and art1      ,thus far have drawn     
thee4 ,now thy pleasure take      ,for  
guide4 ,thou hast o'ercome the steeper  
way1      ,o'ercome the straiter4 ,lo6  
the sun1 that darts      ,his beam upon 

thy forehead3 lo6 the herb1      ,the   
arborets and flowers1 which of itself   
,this land pours forth profuse4 ,till   
those bright eyes      ,with gladness   
come1 which1 weeping1 made me haste     
,to succour thee1 thou mayest or seat   
thee down1      ,or wander where thou   
wilt4 ,expect no more      ,sanction of 
warning voice or sign from me1          
,free of thine own arbitrement to       
choose1      ,discreet1 judicious4 ,to  
distrust thy sense      ,were henceforth
 error4 ,i invest thee then      ,with  
crown and mitre1 sovereign o'er thyself4
       ,purg4 c4 #bg--;,,cary4  ,the    
general meaning of the ,commedia is     
clear enough4 ,but it certainly does    
appear to refuse to be fitted into a    
connected formal scheme of              
interpretation4 ,it is not a            
homogeneous1 consistent allegory1 like  
the ,pilgrim's ,progress and the ,fairy 
,queen4 ,the allegory continually breaks
 off1 shifts its ground1 gives place to 
other elements1 or mingles with         

them--like a stream which suddenly sinks
 into the earth1 and after passing under
 plains and mountains1 reappears in a   
distant point1 and in different scenery4
 ,we can1 indeed1 imagine its strange   
author commenting on it1 and finding or 
marking out its prosaic substratum1 with
 the cold-blooded precision and         
scholastic distinctions of the ,convito4
 ,however1 he has not done so4 ,and of  
the many enigmas which present          
themselves1 either in its structure or  
separate parts1 the key seems hopelessly
 lost4 ,the early commentators are very 
ingenious1 but very unsatisfactory2 they
 see where we can see1 but beyond that  
they are as full of uncertainty as      
ourselves4 ,it is in character with that
 solitary and haughty spirit1 while     
touching universal sympathies1 appalling
 and charming all hearts1 to have       
delighted in his own dark sayings1 which
 had meaning only to himself4 ,it is    
true that1 whether in irony1 or from    
that quaint studious care for the       

appearance of literal truth1 which makes
 him apologise for the wonders which he 
relates1 and confirm them by an oath1 on
 the words of his poem1#hh he provokes  
and challenges us2 bids us admire       
doctrine hidden under strange verses2#hi
 bids us strain our eyes1 for the veil  
is thin3       ,aguzza1 qui1 lettor1 ben
 l'occhi al vero3      ,ch il velo  ora 
ben tanto sottile1      ,certo1 che il  
trapassar dentro  leggiero4--,purg4 c4  
#h4  ,but eyes are still strained in    
conjecture and doubt4  ,footnote #hh3   
,sempre a quel ver1 ch'ha faccia di     
menzogna1      ,de' l'uom chiuder le    
labbra1 quanto puote1      ,per che     
senza colpa fa vergogna4        ,ma qui 
tacer nol posso2 e per le note      ,di 
questa ,commedia1 lettor1 ti giuro      
,s'elle non sien di lunga grazia vote1  
c4--,inf4 #af4  ,footnote #hi3 ,inf4 #i4
  ,yet the most certain and detailed    
commentary1 one which assigned the exact
 reason for every image or allegory1 and
 its place and connexion in a general   

scheme1 would add but little to the     
charm or to the use of the poem4 ,it is 
not so obscure but that every man's     
experience who has thought over and felt
 the mystery of our present life1 may   
supply the commentary--the more ample1  
the wider and more various has been his 
experience1 the deeper and keener his   
feeling4 ,details and links of connexion
 may be matter of controversy4 ,whether 
the three beasts of the forest mean     
definitely the vices of the time1 or of 
,florence specially1 or of the poet     
himself--the wickedness of his heels1   
compassing him round about--may still   
exercise critics and antiquaries2 but   
that they carry with them distinct and  
special impressions of evil1 and that   
they are the hindrances of man's        
salvation1 is not doubtful4 ,and our    
knowledge of the key of the allegory1   
where we possess it1 contributes but    
little to the effect4 ,we may infer from
 the ,convito#ij that the eyes of       
,beatrice stand definitely for the      

demonstrations1 and her smiles for the  
persuasions of wisdom2 but the poetry of
 the ,paradiso is not about             
demonstrations and persuasions1 but     
about looks and smiles2 and the         
ineffable and holy calm--serenitatis et 
ternitatis afflatus--which pervades it1 
comes from the sacred truths1 and holy  
persons1 and that deep spirit of        
high-raised yet composed devotion1 which
 it requires no interpreter to show us4 
,footnote #ij3 ,convito1 ,tr4 #c1 c4    
#ae4  ,figure and symbol1 then1 are     
doubtless the law of composition in the 
,commedia2 but this law discloses itself
 very variously1 and with different     
degrees of strictness4 ,in its primary  
and most general form1 it is palpable1  
consistent1 pervading4 ,there can be no 
doubt that the poem is meant to be      
understood figuratively--no doubt of    
what in general it is meant to shadow   
forth--no doubt as to the general       
meaning of its parts1 their connexion   
with each other4 ,but in its secondary  

and subordinate applications1 the law   
works--to our eye at least--irregularly1
 unequally1 and fitfully4 ,there can be 
no question that ,virgil1 the poet's    
guide1 represents the purely human      
element in the training of the soul and 
of society1 as ,beatrice does the       
divine4 ,but neither represent the      
whole2 he does not sum up all appliances
 of wisdom in ,virgil1 nor all teachings
 and influences of grace in ,beatrice2  
these have their separate figures4 ,and 
both represent successively several     
distinct forms of their general         
antitypes4 ,they have various degrees of
 abstractness1 and narrow down1         
according to that order of things to    
which they refer and correspond1 into   
the special and the personal4 ,in the   
general economy of the poem1 ,virgil    
stands for human wisdom in its widest   
sense2 but he also stands for it in its 
various shapes1 in the different parts4 
,he is the type of human philosophy and 
science4#ia ,he is1 again1 more         

definitely1 that spirit of imagination  
and poetry1 which opens men's eyes to   
the glory of the visible1 and the truth 
of the invisible2 and to ,italians1 he  
is a definite embodiment of it1 their   
own great poet1 vates1 poeta noster4#ib 
,in the ,christian order1 he is human   
wisdom1 dimly mindful of its heavenly   
origin--presaging dimly its return to   
,god--sheltering in heathen times that  
vague and unconnected family of         
religious truths1 originally from ,god1 
but sojourning without the sanction of  
miracle or visible home1 as pilgrims up 
and down the world4#ic ,in the political
 order1 he is the guide of law-givers1  
wisdom fashioning the impulses and      
instincts of men into the harmony of    
society1 contriving stability and peace1
 guarding justice2 fit part for the poet
 to fill1 who had sung the origin of    
,rome1 and the justice and peace of     
,augustus4 ,in the order of individual  
life1 and the progress of the individual
 soul1 he is the human conscience       

witnessing to duty1 its discipline and  
its hopes1 and with yet more certain and
 fearful presage1 to its vindication2   
the human conscience seeing and         
acknowledging the law1 but unable to    
confer power to fulfil it--wakened by   
grace from among the dead1 leading the  
living man up to it1 and waiting for its
 light and strength4 ,but he is more    
than a figure4 ,to the poet himself1 who
 blends with his high argument his whole
 life1 ,virgil had been the utmost that 
mind can be to mind--teacher1 quickener 
and revealer of power1 source of        
thought1 exemplar and model1 never      
disappointing1 never attained to1       
observed with long study and great love3
       ,tu duca1 tu signor1 e tu        
maestro4--,inf4 #b4  ,footnote #ia3 ,o  
tu ch'onori ogni scienza ed arte4--,inf4
 #d4 ,quel savio gentil che tutto       
seppe4--,inf4 #g4 ,il mar di tutto 'l   
senno4--,inf4 #h4  ,footnote #ib3 ,de   
,monarchia4  ,footnote #ic3 ,newman's   
,arians4  ,and towards this great       

master1 the poet's whole soul is poured 
forth in reverence and affection4 ,to   
,dante he is no figure1 but a           
person--with feelings and               
weaknesses--overcome by the vexation1   
kindling into the wrath1 carried away by
 the tenderness1 of the moment4 ,he     
reads his scholar's heart1 takes him by 
the hand in danger1 carries him in his  
arms and in his bosom1 like a son more  
than a companion1 rebukes his unworthy  
curiosity1 kisses him when he shows a   
noble spirit1 asks pardon for his own   
mistakes4 ,never were the kind1 yet     
severe ways of a master1 or the         
disciple's diffidence and               
open-heartedness1 drawn with greater    
force1 or less effort2 and he seems to  
have been reflecting on his own         
affection to ,virgil1 when he makes     
,statius forget that they were both but 
shades3       ,or puoi la quantitate    
,comprender dell'amor ch'a te mi scalda1
      ,quando dismento la nostra        
vanitate      ,trattando l'ombre come   

cosa salda4--,purg4 #ba4  ,and so with  
the poet's second guide4 ,the great idea
 which ,beatrice figures1 though always 
present1 is seldom rendered artificially
 prominent1 and is often entirely hidden
 beneath the rush of real recollections1
 and the creations of dramatic power4   
,abstractions venture and trust         
themselves among realities1 and for the 
time are forgotten4 ,a name1 a real     
person1 a historic passage1 a lament or 
denunciation1 a tragedy of actual life1 
a legend of classic times1 the fortunes 
of friends--the story of ,francesca or  
,ugolino1 the fate of ,buonconte's      
corpse1 the apology of ,pier delle      
,vigne1 the epitaph of ,madonna ,pia1   
,ulysses' western voyage1 the march of  
,roman history--appear and absorb for   
themselves all interest3 or else it is a
 philosophical speculation1 or a theory 
of morality1 or a case of               
conscience--not indeed alien from the   
main subject1 yet independent of the    
allegory1 and not translateable into any

 new meaning--standing on their own     
ground1 worked out each according to its
 own law2 but they do not disturb the   
main course of the poet's thought1 who  
grasps and paints each detail of human  
life in its own peculiarity1 while he   
sees in each a significance and interest
 beyond itself4 ,he does not stop in    
each case to tell us so1 but he makes it
 felt4 ,the tale ends1 the individual   
disappears1 and the great allegory      
resumes its course4 ,it is like one of  
those great musical compositions which  
alone seem capable of adequately        
expressing1 in a limited time1 a course 
of unfolding and change1 in an idea1 a  
career1 a life1 a society--where one    
great thought predominates1 recurs1     
gives colour and meaning1 and forms the 
unity of the whole1 yet passes through  
many shades and transitions2 is at one  
time definite1 at another suggestive and
 mysterious2 incorporating and giving   
free place and play to airs and melodies
 even of an alien cast2 striking off    

abruptly from its expected road1 but    
without ever losing itself1 without     
breaking its true continuity1 or failing
 of its completeness4  ,this then seems 
to us the end and purpose of the        
,commedia2--to produce on the mind a    
sense of the judgments of ,god1         
analogous to that produced by ,scripture
 itself4 ,they are presented to us in   
the ,bible in shapes which address      
themselves primarily to the heart and   
conscience1 and seek not carefully to   
explain themselves4 ,they are likened to
 the great deep1 to the strong          
mountains--vast and awful1 but abrupt   
and incomplete1 as the huge1 broken1    
rugged piles and chains of mountains4   
,and we see them through cloud and mist1
 in shapes only approximating to the    
true ones4 ,still they impress us deeply
 and truly1 often the more deeply       
because unconsciously4 ,a character1 an 
event1 a word1 isolated and unexplained1
 stamps its meaning ineffaceably1 though
 ever a matter of question and wonder2  

it may be dark to the intellect1 yet the
 conscience understands it1 often but   
too well4 ,in such suggestive ways is   
the ,divine government for the most part
 put before us in the ,bible--ways which
 do not satisfy the understanding1 but  
which fill us with a sense of reality4  
,and it seems to have been by meditating
 on them1 which he certainly did1 much  
and thoughtfully--and on the infinite   
variety of similar ways in which the    
strongest impressions are conveyed to us
 in ordinary life1 by means short of    
clear and distinct explanation--by      
looks1 by images1 by sounds1 by motions1
 by remote allusion and broken words1   
that ,dante was led to choose so new and
 remarkable a mode of conveying to his  
countrymen his thoughts and feelings and
 presentiments about the mystery of     
,god's counsel4 ,the ,bible teaches us  
by means of real history1 traced so far 
as is necessary along its real course4  
,the poet expresses his view of the     
world also in real history1 but carried 

on into figure4  ,the poetry with which 
the ,christian ,church had been instinct
 from the beginning1 converges and is   
gathered up in the ,commedia4 ,the faith
 had early shown its poetical aspect4   
,it is superfluous to dwell on this1 for
 it is the charge against ancient       
teaching that it was too large and      
imaginative4 ,it soon began to try rude 
essays in sculpture and mosaic3         
expressed its feeling of nature in verse
 and prose1 rudely also1 but often with 
originality and force2 and opened a new 
vein of poetry in the thoughts1 hopes1  
and aspirations of regenerate man4      
,modern poetry must go back1 for many of
 its deepest and most powerful sources1 
to the writings of the ,fathers1 and    
their followers of the ,school4 ,the    
,church further had a poetry of its own1
 besides the poetry of literature2 it   
had the poetry of devotion--the ,psalter
 chanted daily1 in a new language and a 
new meaning2 and that wonderful body of 
hymns1 to which age after age had       

contributed its offering1 from the      
,ambrosian hymns to the ,veni1 ,sancte  
,spiritus of a king of ,france1 the     
,pange lingua of ,thomas ,aquinas1 the  
,dies ir1 and ,stabat ,mater1 of the two
 ,franciscan brethren1 ,thomas of       
,celano1 and ,jacopone4#id ,the elements
 and fragments of poetry were everywhere
 in the ,church--in her ideas of life1  
in her rules and institutions for       
passing through it1 in her preparation  
for death1 in her offices1 ceremonial1  
celebrations1 usages1 her consecration  
of domestic1 literary1 commercial1      
civic1 military1 political life1 the    
meanings and ends she had given them1   
the religious seriousness with which the
 forms of each were dignified--in her   
doctrine1 and her dogmatic system--her  
dependence on the unseen world--her     
,bible4 ,from each and all of these1 and
 from that public feeling1 which1 if it 
expressed itself but abruptly and       
incoherently1 was quite alive to the    
poetry which surrounded it1 the poet    

received due impressions of greatness   
and beauty1 of joy and dread4 ,then the 
poetry of ,christian religion and       
,christian temper1 hitherto dispersed1  
or manifested in act only1 found its    
full and distinct utterance1 not        
unworthy to rank in grandeur1 in music1 
in sustained strength1 with the last    
noble voices from expiring ,heathenism4 
,footnote #id3 ,trench1 ,sacred ,latin  
,poetry1 #ahdi4  ,but a long interval   
had passed since then4 ,the ,commedia   
first disclosed to ,christian and modern
 ,europe that it was to have a          
literature of its own1 great and        
admirable1 though in its own language   
and embodying its own ideas4 ,it was as 
if1 at some of the ancient games1 a     
stranger had appeared upon the plain1   
and thrown his quoit among the marks of 
former casts1 which tradition had       
ascribed to the demi-gods4#ie ,we are so
 accustomed to the excellent and varied 
literature of modern times1 so original1
 so perfect in form and rich in thought1

 so expressive of all our sentiments1   
meeting so completely our wants1        
fulfilling our ideas1 that we can       
scarcely imagine the time when this     
condition was new--when society was     
beholden to a foreign language for the  
exponents of its highest thoughts and   
feelings4 ,but so it was when ,dante    
wrote4 ,the great poets1 historians1    
philosophers of his day1 the last great 
works of intellect1 belonged to old     
,rome1 and the ,latin language4 ,so     
wonderful and prolonged was the         
fascination of ,rome4 ,men still lived  
under its influence2 believed that the  
,latin language was the perfect and     
permanent instrument of thought in its  
highest forms1 the only expression of   
refinement and civilisation2 and had not
 conceived the hope that their own      
dialects could ever rise to such heights
 of dignity and power4 ,latin1 which had
 enchased and preserved such precious   
remains of ancient wisdom1 was now      
shackling the living mind in its        

efforts4 ,men imagined that they were   
still using it naturally on all high    
themes and solemn business2 but though  
they used it with facility1 it was no   
longer natural2 it had lost the         
elasticity of life1 and had become in   
their hands a stiffened and distorted1  
though still powerful1 instrument4 ,the 
very use of the word latino in the      
writers of this period1 to express what 
is clear and philosophical in           
language1#if while it shows their deep  
reverence for it1 shows how ,latin      
civilisation was no longer their own1   
how it had insensibly become an external
 and foreign element4 ,but they found it
 very hard to resign their claim to a   
share in its glories2 with nothing of   
their own to match against it1 they     
still delighted to speak of it as our   
language1 or its writers as our poets1  
our historians4#ig  ,footnote #ie3      
,hallam's ,middle ,ages1 c4 ix4 vol4    
iii4 p4 #efc4  ,footnote #if3 ,parad4   
#c1 #ab1 #ag4 ,convit4 p4 #ajh4 ,a pi   

,latinamente vedere la sentenza         
letterale4  ,footnote #ig3 ,vid4 the ,de
 ,monarchia4  ,the spell was indeed     
beginning to break4 ,guido ,cavalcanti1 
,dante's strange1 stern1 speculative    
friend1 who is one of the fathers of the
 ,italian language1 is characterised in 
the ,commedia#ih by his scornful dislike
 of ,latin1 even in the mouth of        
,virgil4 ,yet ,dante himself1 the great 
assertor1 by argument and example1 of   
the powers of the ,vulgar tongue1 once  
dared not to think that the ,vulgar     
tongue could be other to the ,latin1    
than as a subject to his sovereign4 ,he 
was bolder when he wrote ,de ,vulgari   
,eloquio3 but in the earlier ,convito1  
while pleading earnestly for the beauty 
of the ,italian1 he yields with         
reverence the first place to the        
,latin--for nobleness1 because the      
,latin is permanent1 and the ,vulgar    
subject to fluctuation and corruption2  
for power1 because the ,latin can       
express conceptions to which the ,vulgar

 is unequal2 for beauty1 because the    
structure of the ,latin is a masterly   
arrangement of scientific art1 and the  
beauty of the ,vulgar depends on mere   
use4#ii ,the very title of his poem1 the
 ,commedia1 contains in it a homage to  
the lofty claims of the ,latin4 ,it is  
called a ,comedy1 and not ,tragedy1 he  
says1 after a marvellous account of the 
essence and etymology of the two1 first1
 because it begins sadly1 and ends      
joyfully2 and next1 because of its      
language1 that humble speech of ordinary
 life1 in which even women converse4#ajj
  ,footnote #ih3 ,inf4 #aj1 and compare 
the ,vit4 ,n4 p4 #ccd1 ed4 ,fraticelli4 
,footnote #ii3 ,convito1 i4 #e4         
,footnote #ajj3 ,ep4 ad ,kan ,grand4    
#i1--;a curious specimen of the learning
 of the time3 ,sciendum est1 quod       
,comoedia dicitur a ,greek3 km1 villa et
 ,greek3 d1 quod est cantus1 unde       
,comoedia quasi villanus cantus4 ,et est
 ,comoedia genus quoddam poetic         
narrationis1 ab omnibus aliis differens4

 ,differt ergo a ,tragoedia in materia  
per hoc1 quod ,tragoedia in principio   
est admirabilis et quieta1 in fine      
foetida et horribilis2 et dicitur       
propter hoc a ,greek3 tragos1 i4e4      
hircus1 et ,greek3 d1 quasi cantus      
hircinus1 i4e4 foetidus ad modum hirci1 
ut patet per ,senecam in suis           
tragoediis4 ,comoedia vero inchoat      
asperitatem alicujus rei1 sed ejus      
materia prospere terminatur1 ut patet   
per ,terentium in suis ,comoediis4444   
,similiter differunt in modo loquendi2  
elate et sublime ,tragoedia1 ,comoedia  
vero remisse et humiliter sicut vult    
,horat4 in ,pot4444 ,et per hoc patet1  
quod ,comoedia diciter prsens opus4 ,nam
 si ad materiam respiciamus1 a principio
 horribilis et foetida est1 quia        
,infernus3 in fine prospera1            
desiderabilis et grata1 quia ,paradisus4
 ,si ad modum loquendi1 remissus est    
modus et humilis1 quia locutio          
,vulgaris1 in qua et muliercul          
communicant4 ,et sic patet quia         

,comoedia dicitur4 ,cf4 de ,vulg4 ,eloq4
 #b1 #d1 ,parad4 #cj4 ,he calls the     
neid1 l'alta ,tragedia1 ,inf4 #bj1 #aac4
 ,compare also ,boccaccio's explanation 
of his mother's dream of the peacock4   
,dante1 he says1 is like the ,peacock1  
among other reasons1 because the peacock
 has coarse feet1 and a quiet gait2 and 
the vulgar language1 on which the       
,commedia supports itself1 is coarse in 
comparison with the high and masterly   
literary style which every other poet   
uses1 though it be more beautiful than  
others1 being in conformity with modern 
minds4 ,the quiet gait signifies the    
humility of the style1 which is         
necessarily required in ,commedia1 as   
those know who understand what is meant 
by ,commedia4  ,he honoured the ,latin1 
but his love was for the ,italian4 ,he  
was its champion1 and indignant defender
 against the depreciation of ignorance  
and fashion4 ,confident of its power and
 jealous of its beauty1 he pours forth  
his fierce scorn on the blind stupidity1

 the affectation1 the vain glory1 the   
envy1 and above all1 the cowardice of   
,italians who held lightly their mother 
tongue4 ,many1 he says1 after           
enumerating the other offenders1 from   
this pusillanimity and cowardice        
disparage their own language1 and exalt 
that of others2 and of this sort are    
those hateful dastards of               
,italy--abbominevoli cattivi            
d',italia--who think vilely of that     
precious language2 which1 if it is vile 
in anything1 is vile only so far as it  
sounds in the prostituted mouth of these
 adulterers4#aja ,he noted and compared 
its various dialects2 he asserted its   
capabilities not only in verse1 but in  
expressive1 flexible1 and majestic      
prose4 ,and to the deliberate admiration
 of the critic and the man1 were added  
the homely but dear associations1 which 
no language can share with that of early
 days4 ,italian had been the language of
 his parents--,questo mio ,volgare fu il
 congiugnitore delli miei generanti1 che

 con esso parlavano--and further1 it was
 this modern language1 questo mio       
,volgare1 which opened to him the way of
 knowledge1 which had introduced him to 
,latin1 and the sciences which it       
contained4 ,it was his benefactor and   
guide--he personifies it--and his boyish
 friendship had grown stronger and more 
intimate by mutual good offices4 ,there 
has also been between us the goodwill of
 intercourse2 for from the beginning of 
my life ,i have had with it kindness and
 conversation1 and have used it1        
deliberating1 interpreting1 and         
questioning2 so that1 if friendship     
grows with use1 it is evident how it    
must have grown in me4#ajb  ,footnote   
#aja3 ,convito1 i4 #aa4  ,footnote #ajb3
 ,convito1 i4 #ac4  ,from this language 
he exacted a hard trial2--a work which  
should rank with the ancient works4     
,none such had appeared2 none had even  
advanced such a pretension4 ,not that it
 was a time dead to literature or       
literary ambition4 ,poets and historians

 had written1 and were writing in       
,italian4 ,the same year of jubilee     
which fixed itself so deeply in ,dante's
 mind1 and became the epoch of his      
vision--the same scene of ,roman        
greatness in its decay1 which afterwards
 suggested to ,gibbon the ,decline and  
,fall1 prompted1 in the father of       
,italian history1 the desire to follow  
in the steps of ,sallust and ,livy1 and 
prepare the way for ,machiavelli and    
,guicciardini1 ,davila1 and ,fra        
,paolo4#ajc ,poetry had been cultivated 
in the ,roman languages of the ,west--in
 ,aquitaine and ,provence1              
especially--for more than two centuries2
 and lately1 with spirit and success1 in
 ,italian4 ,names had become popular1   
reputations had risen and waned1 verses 
circulated and were criticised1 and even
 descended from the high and refined    
circles to the workshop4 ,a story is    
told of ,dante's indignation1 when he   
heard the canzoni which had charmed the 
,florentine ladies mangled by the rude  

enthusiasm of a blacksmith at his       
forge4#ajd ,literature was a growing    
fashion2 but it was humble in its       
aspirations and efforts4 ,men wrote like
 children1 surprised and pleased with   
their success2 yet allowing themselves  
in mere amusement1 because conscious of 
weakness which they could not cure4     
,footnote #ajc3 ,g4 ,villani was at     
,rome in the year of jubilee #acjj1 and 
describes the great concourse and order 
of the pilgrims1 whom he reckons at     
#bjj1jjj1 in the course of the year4    
,and ,i1 he proceeds1 finding myself in 
that blessed pilgrimage in the holy city
 of ,rome1 seeing the great and ancient 
things of the same1 and reading the     
histories of the great deeds of the     
,romans1 written by ,virgil1 and by     
,sallust1 and ,lucan1 and ,titus        
,livius1 and ,valerius1 and ,paulus     
,orosius1 and other masters of          
histories1 who wrote as well of the     
smaller matters as of the greater1      
concerning the exploits and deeds of the

 ,romans2 and further1 of the strange   
things of the whole world1 for memory   
and example's sake to those who should  
come after--,i1 too1 took their style   
and fashion1 albeit that1 as their      
scholar1 ,i be not worthy to execute    
such a work4 ,but1 considering that our 
city of ,florence1 the daughter and     
creation of ,rome1 was in its rising1   
and on the eve of achieving great       
things1 as ,rome was in its decline1 it 
seemed to me convenient to bring into   
this volume and new chronicle all the   
deeds and beginnings of the city of     
,florence1 so far as ,i have been able  
to gather and recover them2 and for the 
future1 to follow at large the doings of
 the ,florentines1 and the other notable
 things of the world briefly1 as long as
 it may be ,god's pleasure2 under which 
hope1 rather by his grace than by my    
poor science1 ,i entered on this        
enterprise3 and so1 in the year #acjj1  
being returned from ,rome1 ,i began to  
compile this book1 in reverence towards 

,god and ,st4 ,john1 and commendation of
 our city of ,florence4--,g4 ,vill4     
viii4 #cf4  ,footnote #ajd3 ,sacchetti1 
,nov4 #aad4  ,dante1 by the ,divina     
,commedia1 was the restorer of          
seriousness in literature4 ,he was so1  
by the magnitude and pretensions of his 
work1 and by the earnestness of its     
spirit4 ,he first broke through the     
prescription which had confined great   
works to the ,latin1 and the faithless  
prejudices which1 in the language of    
society1 could see powers fitted for no 
higher task than that of expressing1 in 
curiously diversified forms1 its most   
ordinary feelings4 ,but he did much     
more4 ,literature was going astray in   
its tone1 while growing in importance2  
the ,commedia checked it4 ,the ,provenal
 and ,italian poetry was1 with the      
exception of some pieces of political   
satire1 almost exclusively amatory1 in  
the most fantastic and affected fashion4
 ,in expression1 it had not even the    
merit of being natural2 in purpose it   

was trifling2 in the spirit which it    
encouraged1 it was something worse4     
,doubtless it brought a degree of       
refinement with it1 but it was          
refinement purchased at a high price1 by
 intellectual distortion1 and moral     
insensibility4 ,but this was not all4   
,the brilliant age of ,frederick ,,ii41 
for such it was1 was deeply mined by    
religious unbelief4 ,however strange    
this charge first sounds against the    
thirteenth century1 no one can look at  
all closely into its history1 at least  
in ,italy1 without seeing that the idea 
of infidelity--not heresy1 but          
infidelity--was quite a familiar one2   
and that side by side with the theology 
of ,aquinas and ,bonaventura1 there was 
working among those who influenced      
fashion and opinion1 among the great    
men1 and the men to whom learning was a 
profession1 a spirit of scepticism and  
irreligion almost monstrous for its     
time1 which found its countenance in    
,frederick's refined and enlightened    

court4 ,the genius of the great doctors 
might have kept in safety the ,latin    
,schools1 but not the free and home     
thoughts which found utterance in the   
language of the people1 if the solemn   
beauty of the ,italian ,commedia had not
 seized on all minds4 ,it would have    
been an evil thing for ,italian1 perhaps
 for ,european literature1 if the siren 
tales of the ,decameron had been the    
first to occupy the ear with the charms 
of a new language4  ,dante has had hard 
measure1 and from some who are most     
beholden to him4 ,no one in his day     
served the ,church more highly1 than he 
whose faith and genius secured on her   
side the first great burst of           
imagination and feeling1 the first      
perfect accents of modern speech4 ,the  
first-fruits of the new literature were 
consecrated1 and offered up4 ,there was 
no necessity1 or even probability in    
,italy in the fourteenth century that it
 should be so1 as there might perhaps   
have been earlier4 ,it was the poet's   

free act--free in one1 for whom nature  
and heathen learning had strong         
temptations--that religion was the      
lesson and influence of the great       
popular work of the time4 ,that which he
 held up before men's awakened and      
captivated minds1 was the verity of     
,god's moral government4 ,to rouse them 
to a sense of the mystery of their      
state2 to startle their commonplace     
notions of sin into an imagination of   
its variety1 its magnitude1 and its     
infinite shapes and degrees2 to open    
their eyes to the beauty of the         
,christian temper1 both as suffering and
 as consummated2 to teach them at once  
the faithfulness and awful freeness of  
,god's grace2 to help the dull and      
lagging soul to conceive the            
possibility1 in its own case1 of rising 
step by step in joy without an end--of a
 felicity not unimaginable by man1      
though of another order from the highest
 perfection of earth2--this is the      
poet's end4 ,nor was it only vague      

religious feelings which he wished to   
excite4 ,he brought within the circle of
 common thought1 and translated into the
 language of the multitude1 what the    
,schools had done to throw light on the 
deep questions of human existence1 which
 all are fain to muse upon1 though none 
can solve4 ,he who had opened so much of
 men's hearts to themselves1 opened to  
them also that secret sympathy which    
exists between them and the great       
mysteries of the ,christian             
doctrine4#aje ,he did the work1 in his  
day1 of a great preacher4 ,yet he has   
been both claimed and condemned1 as a   
disturber of the ,church's faith4       
,footnote #aje3 ,vide ,ozanam4  ,he     
certainly did not spare the ,church's   
rulers4 ,he thought they were betraying 
the most sacred of all trusts2 and if   
history is at all to be relied on1 he   
had some grounds for thinking so4 ,but  
it is confusing the feelings of the     
middle ages with our own1 to convert    
every fierce attack on the ,popes into  

an anticipation of ,luther4 ,strong     
language of this sort was far too       
commonplace to be so significant4 ,no   
age is blind to practical abuses1 or    
silent on them2 and when the middle ages
 complained1 they did so with a         
full-voiced and clamorous rhetoric1     
which greedily seized on every topic of 
vilification within its reach4 ,it was  
far less singular1 and far less bold1 to
 criticise ecclesiastical authorities1  
than is often supposed2 but it by no    
means implied unsettled faith1 or a     
revolutionary design4 ,in ,dante's case1
 if words have any meaning--not words of
 deliberate qualification1 but his      
unpremeditated and incidental           
expressions--his faith in the ,divine   
mission and spiritual powers of the     
,popes was as strong as his abhorrence  
of their degeneracy1 and desire to see  
it corrected by a power which they would
 respect--that of the temporal sword4   
,it would be to mistake altogether his  
character1 to imagine of him1 either as 

a fault or as an excellence1 that he was
 a doubter4 ,it might as well be        
supposed of ,aquinas4  ,no one ever     
acknowledged with greater seriousness1  
as a fact in his position in the world1 
the agreement in faith among those with 
whom he was born4 ,no one ever inclined 
with more simplicity and reverence      
before that long communion and consent  
in feeling and purpose1 the publicus    
sensus of the ,christian ,church4 ,he   
did feel difficulties2 but the          
excitement of lingering on them was not 
among his enjoyments4 ,that was the lot 
of the heathen2 ,virgil1 made wise by   
death1 counsels him not to desire it3   
,matto  chi spera1 che nostra ragione   
,possa trascorrer la 'nfinita via       
,che tiene una sustanzia in tre         
,persone4        ,state contenti1 umana 
gente1 al quia2      ,ch se potuto      
aveste veder tutto1      ,mestier non   
era partorir ,maria3        ,e disiar   
vedeste senza frutto      ,tai1 che     
sarebbe lor disio quetato1              

,ch'eternamente  dato lor per lutto2    
,i' dico d',aristotile e di ,plato1     
,e di molti altri3--e qui chin la       
fronte1      ,e pi non disse1 e rimase  
turbato4--,purg4 c4 #c4ajf  ,footnote   
#ajf3       ,insensate he1 who thinks   
with mortal ken        ,to pierce       
,infinitude1 which doth enfold          
,three ,persons in one ,substance4 ,seek
 not then1      ,o mortal race1 for     
reasons--but believe1        ,and be    
contented2 for had all been seen1       
,no need there was for ,mary to         
conceive4      ,men have ye known1 who  
thus desired in vain2        ,and whose 
desires1 that might at rest have been1  
,now constitute a source of endless     
pain2      ,plato1 the ,stagirite2 and  
many more1        ,i here allude        
to2--then his head he bent1        ,was 
silent1 and a troubled aspect           
wore4--,,wright4  ,the ,christian poet  
felt that it was greater to believe and 
to act4 ,in the darkness of the world   
one bright light appeared1 and he       

followed it4 ,providence had assigned   
him his portion of truth1 his portion of
 daily bread2 if to us it appears       
blended with human elements1 it is      
perfectly clear that he was in no       
position to sift them4 ,to choose was no
 trial of his4 ,to examine and seek1    
where it was impossible to find1 would  
have been folly4 ,the authority from    
which he started had not yet been       
seriously questioned2 there were no     
palpable signs of doubtfulness on the   
system which was to him the             
representative of ,god's will2 and he   
sought for none4 ,it came to him        
claiming his allegiance by custom1 by   
universality1 by its completeness as a  
whole1 and satisfying his intellect and 
his sympathies in detail4 ,and he gave  
his allegiance--reasonably1 because     
there was nothing to hope for in        
doubting--wisely1 because he gave it    
loyally and from his heart4  ,and he had
 his reward--the reward of him who      
throws himself with frankness and       

earnestness into a system2 who is not   
afraid or suspicious of it2 who is not  
unfaithful to it4 ,he gained not merely 
power--he gained that freedom and       
largeness of mind which the suspicious  
or the unfaithful miss4 ,his loyalty to 
the ,church was no cramping or blinding 
service2 it left to its full play that  
fresh and original mind1 left it to     
range at will in all history and all    
nature for the traces of ,eternal       
wisdom1 left it to please itself with   
all beauty1 and pay its homage to all   
excellence4 ,for upon all wisdom1       
beauty1 and excellence1 the ,church had 
taught him to see1 in various and duly  
distinguished degrees1 the seal of the  
one ,creator4 ,she imparts to the poem1 
to its form and progressive development1
 her own solemnity1 her awe1 her calm1  
her serenity and joy2 it follows her    
sacred seasons and hours2 repeats her   
appointed words of benediction and      
praise2 moulds itself on her belief1 her
 expectations1 and forecastings4#ajg    

,her intimations1 more or less distinct1
 dogma or tradition or vague hint1 guide
 the poet's imagination through the land
 where all eyes are open4 ,the journey  
begins under the ,easter moon of the    
year of jubilee1 on the evening of ,good
 ,friday2 the days of her mourning he   
spends in the regions of woe1 where none
 dares to pronounce the name of the     
,redeemer1 and he issues forth to behold
 again the stars1 to learn how to die to
 sin and rise to righteousness1 very    
early in the morning1 as it begins to   
dawn1 on the day of the ,resurrection4  
,the whole arrangement of the           
,purgatorio is drawn from ,church       
usages4 ,it is a picture of men         
suffering in calm and holy hope the     
sharp discipline of repentance1 amid the
 prayers1 the melodies1 the consoling   
images and thoughts1 the orderly ritual1
 the hours of devotion1 the sacraments  
of the ,church militant4 ,when he       
ascends in his hardiest flight1 and     
imagines the joys of the perfect and the

 vision of ,god1 his abundant fancy     
confines itself strictly to the limits  
sanctioned by her famous                
teachers--ventures into no new sphere1  
hazards no anticipations in which they  
have not preceded it1 and is content    
with adding to the poetry which it      
elicits from their ideas1 a beauty which
 it is able to conceive apart altogether
 from bodily form--the beauty1 infinite 
in its variety1 of the expression of the
 human eye and smile--the beauty of     
light1 of sound1 of motion4 ,and when   
his song mounts to its last strain of   
triumph1 and the poet's thought1        
imagination1 and feeling of beauty1     
tasked to the utmost1 nor failing under 
the weight of glory which they have to  
express1 breathe themselves forth in    
words1 higher than which no poetry has  
ever risen1 and represent1 in images    
transcending sense1 and baffling it1 yet
 missing not one of those deep and      
transporting sympathies which they were 
to touch1 the sight1 eye to eye1 of the 

,creator by the creature--he beholds the
 gathering together1 in the presence of 
,god1 of all that from our earth has to 
the skies returned1 and of the countless
 orders of their thrones mirrored in    
,his light--                            
,mira      ,quanto  'l convento delle   
bianche stole--  under a figure already 
taken into the ceremonial of the        
,church--the mystic ,rose1 whose        
expanding leaves image forth the joy of 
the heavenly ,jerusalem1 both triumphant
 and militant4#ajh  ,footnote #ajg3 ,see
 an article in the ,brit4 ,critic1 ,no4 
#fe1 p4 #abj4  ,footnote #ajh3 ,see the 
form of benediction of the ,rosa d'oro4 
,rituum ,ecclesi ,rom4 ,libri ,tres4    
fol4 xxxv4 ,venet4 #aeaf4 ,form of      
giving3 ,accipe rosam de manibus nostris
 444 per quam designatus gaudium        
utriusque ,hierusalem triumphantis      
scilicet et militantis ecclesi per quam 
omnibus ,christi fidelibus manifestatur 
flos ipse pretiosissimus qui est gaudium
 et corona sanctorum omnium4 ,he alludes

 to it in the ,convito1 iv4 #bi4        
,o isplendor di ,dio1 per cu' io vidi   
,l'alto trionfo del regno verace1       
,dammi virt a dir com'io lo vidi4       
,lume  lass1 che visibile face          
,lo creatore a quella creatura1         
,che solo in lui vedere ha la sua pace3 
,e si distende in circular figura       
,in tanto1 che la sua circonferenza     
,sarebbe al ,sol troppo larga cintura4  
99      99      99      99       ,e come
 clivo in acqua di suo imo        ,si   
specchia quasi per vedersi adorno1      
,quanto  nel verde e ne' fioretti opimo2
      ,s soprastando al lume intorno    
intorno        ,vidi specchiarsi in pi  
di mille soglie1        ,quanto di noi  
lass fatto ha ritorno4      ,e se       
l'infimo grado in s raccoglie        ,s 
grande lume1 quant' la larghezza        
,di questa rosa nell'estreme foglie8    
99      99      99      99       ,nel   
giallo della rosa sempiterna1           
,che si dilata1 rigrada1 e redole       
,odor di lode al ,sol1 che sempre verna1

      ,qual' colui1 che tace e dicer    
vuole1        ,mi trasse ,beatrice1 e   
disse2 mira        ,quanto  'l convento 
delle bianche stole6      ,vedi nostra  
,citt quanto ella gira6        ,vedi li 
nostri scanni s ripieni1        ,che    
poca gente omai ci si disira4           
99      99      99      99       ,in    
forma dunque di candida rosa        ,mi 
si mostrava la milizia santa1           
,che nel suo sangue ,cristo fece        
sposa4--,parad4 #cj1 #ca4  ,but this    
universal reference to the religious    
ideas of the ,church is so natural1 so  
unaffected1 that it leaves him at full  
liberty in other orders of thought4 ,he 
can afford not to be conventional--he   
can afford to be comprehensive and      
genuine4 ,it has been remarked how1 in a
 poem where there would seem to be a    
fitting place for them1 the             
ecclesiastical legends of the middle    
ages are almost entirely absent4 ,the   
sainted spirits of the ,paradiso are not
 exclusively or chiefly the ,saints of  

popular devotion4 ,after the ,saints of 
the ,bible1 the holy women1 the three   
great ,apostles1 the ,virgin mother1    
they are either names personally dear to
 the poet himself1 friends whom he had  
loved1 and teachers to whom he owed     
wisdom--or great men of masculine energy
 in thought or action1 in their various 
lines compensations and antagonists of  
the world's evils--,justinian and       
,constantine1 and ,charlemagne--the     
founders of the ,orders1 ,augustine1    
,benedict1 and ,bernard1 ,francis and   
,dominic--the great doctors of the      
,schools1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 and         
,bonaventura1 whom the ,church had not  
yet canonized4 ,and with them are       
joined--and that with a full            
consciousness of the line which theology
 draws between the dispensations of     
nature and grace--some rare types of    
virtue among the heathen4 ,cato is      
admitted to the outskirts of ,purgatory2
 ,trajan1 and the righteous king of     
,virgil's poem1 to the heaven of the    

just4#aji  ,footnote #aji3       ,chi   
crederebbe gi nel mondo errante1        
,che ,rifo ,trojano,a in questo tondo   
,fosse la quinta delle luci sante8      
,ora conosce assai di quel1 che 'l mondo
      ,veder non pu della divina grazia2
      ,bench sua vista non discerna il  
fondo4--,parad4 c4 #bj4  ,footnote ,a3  
,rhipeus justissimus unus      ,qui fuit
 in ,teucris1 et servantissimus qui4--n4
 ii4  ,without confusion or disturbance 
to the religious character of his train 
of thought1 he is able freely to        
subordinate to it the lessons and the   
great recollections of the ,gentile     
times4 ,he contemplates them with the   
veil drawn off from them2 as now known  
to form but one whole with the history  
of the ,bible and the ,church1 in the   
design of ,providence4 ,he presents them
 in their own colours1 as drawn by their
 own writers--he only adds what         
,christianity seems to show to be their 
event4 ,under the conviction1 that the  
light of the ,heathen was a real guide  

from above1 calling for vengeance in    
proportion to unfaithfulness1 or outrage
 done to it--,he that nurtureth the     
heathen1 it is ,he that teacheth man    
knowledge--shall not ,he punish8--the   
great criminals of profane history are  
mingled with sinners against ,god's     
revealed will--and that1 with equal     
dramatic power1 with equal feeling of   
the greatness of their loss4 ,the story 
of the voyage of ,ulysses is told with  
as much vivid power and pathetic        
interest as the tales of the day4#aaj   
,he honours unfeignedly the old         
heathen's brave disdain of ease2 that   
spirit1 even to old age1 eager1 fresh1  
adventurous1 and inquisitive4 ,his faith
 allowed him to admire all that was     
beautiful and excellent among the       
heathen1 without forgetting that it fell
 short of what the new gift of the      
,gospel can alone impart4 ,he saw in it 
proof that ,god had never left ,his will
 and law without their witness among    
men4 ,virtue was virtue still1 though   

imperfect1 and                          
unconsecrated--generosity1 largeness of 
soul1 truth1 condescension1 justice1    
were never unworthy of the reverence of 
,christians4 ,hence he uses without fear
 or scruple the classic element4 ,the   
examples which recall to the minds of   
the penitents1 by sounds and sights1 in 
the different terraces of ,purgatory1   
their sin and the grace they have to    
attain to1 come indiscriminately from   
poetry and ,scripture4 ,the sculptured  
pavement1 to which the proud are obliged
 ever to bow down their eyes1 shows at  
once the humility of ,s4 ,mary and of   
the ,psalmist1 and the condescension of 
,trajan2 and elsewhere the pride of     
,nimrod and ,sennacherib1 of ,niobe1 and
 ,cyrus4 ,the envious hear the passing  
voices of courtesy from saints and      
heroes1 and the bursting cry1 like      
crashing thunder1 of repentant jealousy 
from ,cain and ,aglaurus2 the           
avaricious1 to keep up the memory of    
their fault1 celebrate by day the       

poverty of ,fabricius and the liberality
 of ,s4 ,nicolas1 and execrate by night 
the greediness of ,pygmalion and ,midas1
 of ,achan1 ,heliodorus1 and ,crassus4  
,footnote #aaj3 ,inf4 c4 #bf4  ,dante's 
all-surveying1 all-embracing mind1 was  
worthy to open the grand procession of  
modern poets4 ,he had chosen his subject
 in a region remote from popular        
thought--too awful for it1 too abstruse4
 ,he had accepted frankly the dogmatic  
limits of the ,church1 and thrown       
himself with even enthusiastic faith    
into her reasonings1 at once so bold and
 so undoubting--her spirit of certainty1
 and her deep contemplations on the     
unseen and infinite4 ,and in literature1
 he had taken as guides and models1     
above all criticism and all appeal1 the 
classical writers4 ,yet with his mind   
full of the deep and intricate questions
 of metaphysics and theology1 and his   
poetical taste always owning allegiance 
to ,virgil1 ,ovid1 and ,statius--keen   
and subtle as a ,schoolman--as much an  

idolator of old heathen art and grandeur
 as the men of the ,renaissance--his eye
 is as open to the delicacies of        
character1 to the variety of external   
nature1 to the wonders of the physical  
world--his interest in them as          
diversified and fresh1 his impressions  
as sharp and distinct1 his rendering of 
them as free and true and forcible1 as  
little weakened or confused by imitation
 or by conventional words1 his language 
as elastic1 and as completely under his 
command1 his choice of poetic materials 
as unrestricted and original1 as if he  
had been born in days which claim as    
their own such freedom1 and such keen   
discriminative sense of what is real1 in
 feeling and image2--as if he had never 
felt the attractions of a crabbed       
problem of scholastic logic1 or bowed   
before the mellow grace of the ,latins4 
,it may be said1 indeed1 that the time  
was not yet come when the classics could
 be really understood and appreciated2  
and this is true1 perhaps fortunate4    

,but admiring them with a kind of       
devotion1 and showing not seldom that he
 had caught their spirit1 he never      
attempts to copy them4 ,his poetry in   
form and material is all his own4 ,he   
asserted the poet's claim to borrow from
 all science1 and from every phase of   
nature1 the associations and images     
which he wants2 and he showed that those
 images and associations did not lose   
their poetry by being expressed with the
 most literal reality4  ,but let no     
reader of fastidious taste disturb his  
temper by the study of ,dante4 ,dante   
certainly opened that path of freedom   
and poetic conquest1 in which the       
greatest efforts of modern poetry have  
followed him--opened it with a          
magnificence and power which have never 
been surpassed4 ,but the greatest are   
but pioneers2 they must be content to   
leave to a posterity1 which knows more1 
if it cannot do as much1 a keen and even
 growing sense of their defects4 ,the   
,commedia is open to all the attacks    

that can be made on grotesqueness and   
extravagance4 ,this is partly owing1    
doubtless1 to the time1 in itself       
quaint1 quainter to us1 by being remote 
and ill-understood2 but even then1      
weaker and less daring writers than     
,dante do not equally offend or astonish
 us4 ,so that an image or an expression 
will render forcibly a thought1 there is
 no strangeness which checks him4       
,barbarous words are introduced1 to     
express the cries of the demon or the   
confusion of ,babel--even to represent  
the incomprehensible song of the        
blessed2#aaa inarticulate syllables1 to 
convey the impression of some natural   
sound--the cry of sorrowful surprise3   
,alto sospir1 che duolo strinse in      
hui2--,purg4 #af4  or the noise of the  
cracking ice3       ,se ,tabernicch     
,vi fosse s caduto1 o ,pietra-pana      
,non avria pur da l'orlo fatto          
cricch2--,inf4 #cb4  even separate      
letters--to express an image1 to spell a
 name1 or as used in some popular       

proverb4#aab ,he employs without        
scruple1 and often with marvellous force
 of description1 any recollection that  
occurs to him1 however homely1 of       
everyday life2--the old tailor threading
 his needle with trouble 7,inf4         
#ae72--the cook's assistant watching    
over the boiling broth 7,inf4 #ba72--the
 hurried or impatient horse-groom using 
his curry-comb 7,inf4 #bi72--or the     
common sights of the street or the      
chamber--the wet wood sputtering on the 
hearth3       ,come d'un stizzo verde   
che arso sia      ,dall'un de' capi1 che
 dall'altro geme      ,e cigola per     
vento che va via2--,inf4 #ac4aac  the   
paper changing colour when about to     
catch fire3       ,come procede innanzi 
dall'ardore        ,per lo papiro suso  
un color bruno      ,che non  nero      
ancora1 e 'l bianco muore3--,inf4       
#be4aad  the steaming of the hand when  
bathed1 in winter3       ,fuman come man
 bagnata il verno3--  or the ways and   
appearances of animals--ants meeting on 

their path3       ,l veggio d'ogni parte
 farsi presta      ,ciascun'ombra1 e    
baciarsi una con una      ,senza restar1
 contente a breve festa3        ,cos per
 entro loro schiera bruna      ,s'ammusa
 l'una con l'altra formica1      ,forse 
a spiar lor via e lor fortuna2--,purg4  
#bf4aae  the snail drawing in its horns 
7,inf4 #be72--the hog shut out of its   
sty1 and trying to gore with its tusks  
7,inf4 #cj72--the dogs' misery in summer
 7,inf4 #ag72--the frogs jumping on to  
the bank before the water-snake 7,inf4  
#i72--or showing their heads above      
water3       ,come al orlo dell'acqua   
d'un fosso      ,stan gli ranocchi pur  
col muso fuori1      ,s che celano i    
piedi1 e l'altro grosso4--,inf4 #bb4aaf 
,footnote #aaa3 ,parad4 #g1 #a-c4       
,footnote #aab3 ,to describe the pinched
 face of famine2--       ,parean        
l'occhiaje annella senza gemme4         
,chi nel viso degli uomini legge ,,omo  
,ben avria quivi conosciuto l'emme      
7,m74--,purg4 #bc4  ,again1             

,quella reverenza che s'indonna      ,di
 tutto me1 pur per ,b e per             
,,ice4--,parad4 #g4       ,n ,o s tosto 
mai1 n ,i si scrisse1      ,com'ei      
s'accese ed arse4--,inf4 #bd4  ,footnote
 #aac3       ,like to a sapling1 lighted
 at one end1        ,which at the other 
hisses with the wind1        ,and drops 
of sap doth from the outlet send3       
,so from the broken twig1 both words and
 blood flow'd forth4--,,wright4         
,footnote #aad3       ,like burning     
paper1 when there glides before         
,the advancing flame a brown and dingy  
shade1        ,which is not black1 and  
yet is white no more4--,,ibid4          
,footnote #aae3       ,on either hand ,i
 saw them haste their meeting1          
,and kiss each one the other--pausing   
not--        ,contented to enjoy so     
short a greeting4      ,thus do the ants
 among their dingy band1        ,face   
one another--each their neighbour's lot 
,haply to scan1 and how their fortunes  
stand4--,,wright4  ,footnote #aaf3      

,as in a trench1 frogs at the water side
        ,sit squatting1 with their noses
 raised on high1        ,the while their
 feet1 and all their bulk they hide--   
,thus upon either hand the sinners      
stood4        ,but ,barbariccia now     
approaching nigh1        ,quick they    
withdrew beneath the boiling flood4     
,i saw--and still my heart is thrill'd  
with fear--        ,one spirit linger2  
as beside a ditch1        ,one frog     
remains1 the others disappear4--,,ibid4 
,it must be said1 that most of these    
images1 though by no means all1 occur in
 the ,inferno2 and that the poet means  
to paint sin not merely in the greatness
 of its ruin and misery1 but in         
characters which all understand1 of     
strangeness1 of vileness1 of            
despicableness1 blended with diversified
 and monstrous horror4 ,even he seems to
 despair of his power at times3         
,s'io avessi le rime e aspre1 e chiocce1
        ,come si converrebbe al tristo  
buco1        ,sovra 'l qual pontan tutte

 l'altre rocce2      ,io premerrei di   
mio concetto il suco        ,pi         
pienamente2 ma perch'io non l'abbo1     
,non senza tema a dicer mi conduco3     
,che non  'mpresa da pigliare a gabbo   
,descriver fondo a tutto l'universo1    
,n da lingua1 che chiami mamma1 o       
babbo4--,inf4 #cb4aag  ,footnote #aag3  
,had ,i a rhyme so rugged1 rough1 and   
hoarse        ,as would become the      
sorrowful abyss1        ,o'er which the 
rocky circles wind their course1        
,then with a more appropriate form ,i   
might        ,endow my vast conceptions2
 wanting this1        ,not without fear 
,i bring myself to write4      ,for no  
light enterprise it is1 ,i deem1        
,to represent the lowest depth of all2  
,nor should a childish tongue attempt   
the theme4--,,wright4  ,feeling the     
difference between sins1 in their       
elements and1 as far as we see them1    
their baseness1 he treats them          
variously4 ,his ridicule is apportioned 
with a purpose4 ,he passes on from the  

doom of the sins of incontinence--the   
storm1 the frost and hail1 the crushing 
weights--from the flaming minarets of   
the city of ,dis1 of the ,furies and    
,proserpine1 ,donna dell'eterno pianto1 
where the unbelievers lie1 each in his  
burning tomb--from the river of boiling 
blood--the wood with the ,harpies--the  
waste of barren sand with fiery snow1   
where the violent are punished--to the  
,malebolge1 the manifold circles of     
,falsehood4 ,and here scorn and ridicule
 in various degrees1 according to the   
vileness of the fraud1 begin to         
predominate1 till they culminate in that
 grim comedy1 with its dramatis person  
and battle of devils1 ,draghignazzo1 and
 ,graffiacane1 and ,malacoda1 where the 
peculators and sellers of justice are   
fished up by the demons from the boiling
 pitch1 but even there overreach and    
cheat their tormentors1 and make them   
turn their fangs on each other4 ,the    
diversified forms of falsehood seem to  
tempt the poet's imagination to cope    

with its changefulness and inventions1  
as well as its audacity4 ,the           
transformations of the wildest dream do 
not daunt him4 ,his power over language 
is nowhere more forcibly displayed than 
in those cantos1 which describe the     
punishments of theft--men passing       
gradually into serpents1 and serpents   
into men3       ,due e nessun l'imagine 
perversa      ,parea4--,inf4 #be4  ,and 
when the traitor1 who murdered his own  
kinsman1 was still alive1 and seemed    
safe from the infamy which it was the   
poet's rule to bestow only on the dead1 
,dante found a way to inflict his       
vengeance without an                    
anachronism3--,branca ,d',oria's body1  
though on earth1 is only animated by a  
fiend1 and his spirit has long since    
fled to the icy prison4#aah  ,footnote  
#aah3       ,ed egli a me3 ,come 'l mio 
corpo stea        ,nel mondo s1 nulla   
scienzia porto4      ,cotal vantaggio ha
 questa ,tolommea1        ,che spesse   
volte l'anima ci cade        ,innanzi1  

ch',atrops mossa le dea4      ,e perch  
tu pi volontier mi rade        ,le      
'nvetriate lagrime dal volto1           
,sappi1 che tosto che l'anima trade1    
,come fec'io1 il corpo suo l' tolto     
,da un ,dimonio1 che poscia il governa1 
,mentre che 'l tempo suo tutto sia      
volto4      ,ella ruina in s fatta      
cisterna2        ,e forse pare ancor lo 
corpo suso        ,dell'ombra1 che di   
qua dietro mi verna4      ,tu 'l dei    
saper1 se tu vien pur mo giuso3         
,egli  ser ,branca d',oria1 e son pi    
anni        ,poscia passati1 ch'ei fu s 
racchiuso4      ,io credo1 diss'io lui1 
che tu m'inganni1        ,che ,branca   
d',oria non mor unquanche1        ,e    
mangia1 e bee1 e dorme1 e veste panni4  
,nel fosso s1 diss'ei1 di ,malebranche1 
,l dove bolle la tenace pece1           
,non era giunto ancora ,michel ,zanche2 
,che questi lasci 'l diavolo in sua vece
        ,nel corpo suo1 e d'un suo      
prossimano1        ,che 'l tradimento   
insieme con lui fece4--,inf4 #cc4       

,these are strange experiments in       
poetry2 their strangeness is exaggerated
 as detached passages2 but they are     
strange enough when they meet us in     
their place in the context1 as parts of 
a scene1 where the mind is strung and   
overawed by the sustained power1 with   
which dreariness1 horror1 hideous       
absence of every form of good1 is kept  
before the imagination and feelings1 in 
the fearful picture of human sin4 ,but  
they belong to the poet's system of     
direct and forcible representation4     
,what his inward eye sees1 what he      
feels1 that he means us to see and feel 
as he does2 to make us see and feel is  
his art4 ,afterwards we may reflect and 
meditate2 but first we must see--must   
see what he saw4 ,evil and deformity are
 in the world1 as well as good and      
beauty2 the eye cannot escape them1 they
 are about our path1 in our heart and   
memory4 ,he has faced them without      
shrinking or dissembling1 and extorted  
from them a voice of warning4 ,in all   

poetry that is written for mere delight1
 in all poetry which regards but a part 
or an aspect of nature1 they have no    
place--they disturb and mar2 but he had 
conceived a poetry of the whole1 which  
would be weak or false without them4    
,yet they stand in his poem as they     
stand in nature--subordinate and        
relieved4 ,if the grotesque is allowed  
to intrude itself--if the horrible and  
the foul1 undisguised and unsoftened1   
make us shudder and shrink1 they are    
kept in strong check and in due         
subjection by other poetical influences2
 and the same power which exhibits them 
in their naked strength1 renders its    
full grace and glory to beauty2 its full
 force and delicacy to the most         
evanescent feeling4  ,dante's eye was   
free and open to external nature in a   
degree new among poets2 certainly in a  
far greater degree than among the       
,latins1 even including ,lucretius1 whom
 he probably had never read4 ,we have   
already spoken of his minute notice of  

the appearance of living creatures2 but 
his eye was caught by the beautiful as  
well as by the grotesque4  ,take the    
following beautiful picture of the bird 
looking out for dawn3       ,come       
l'augello intra l'amate fronde1         
,posato al nido de' suoi dolci nati1    
,la notte1 che le cose ci nasconde1     
,che per veder gli aspetti desiati1     
,e per trovar lo cibo1 onde li pasca1   
,in che i gravi labor gli sono aggrati1 
,previene 'l tempo in su l'aperta       
frasca1        ,e con ardente affetto il
 sole aspetta1        ,fiso guardando1  
pur che l'alba nasca4--,parad4 #bc4aai  
,footnote #aai3       ,e'en as the bird 
that resting in the nest        ,of her 
sweet brood1 the shelt'ring boughs among
        ,while all things are enwrapt in
 night's dark vest--      ,now eager to 
behold the looks she loves1        ,and 
to find food for her impatient young    
7,whence labour grateful to a mother    
proves71      ,forestalls the time1 high
 perch'd upon the spray1        ,and    

with impassion'd zeal the sun expecting1
        ,anxiously waiteth the first    
break of day4--,,wright4  ,nothing      
indeed can be more true and original    
than his images of birds2 they are      
varied and very numerous4 ,we have the  
water-birds rising in clamorous and     
changing flocks3         ,come augelli  
surti di riviera      ,quasi            
congratulando a lor pasture1      ,fanno
 di s or tonda or lunga                 
schiera2--,parad4 #ah4abj  the rooks1   
beginning to move about at daybreak3    
,e come per lo natural costume1      ,le
 pole insieme1 al cominciar del giorno  
,si muovono a scaldar le fredde piume1  
,poi altre vanno via senza ritorno1     
,altre rivolgon s onde son mosse        
,ed altre roteando fan                  
soggiorno2--,parad4 #ba4aba  the morning
 sounds of the swallow3                 
,nell'ora che comincia i tristi lai     
,la rondinella presso alla mattina1     
,forse a memoria de' suoi primi         
guai2--,purg4 #i4abb  the joy and       

delight of the nightingale's song       
7,purg4 #ag72 the lark1 silent at last1 
filled with its own sweetness3          
,qual lodoletta1 che 'n aere si spazia1 
,prima cantando1 e poi tace contenta    
,dell'ultima dolcezza che la            
sazia2--,parad4 #bj4abc  the flight of  
the starlings and storks 7,inf4 #e1     
,purg4 #bd72 the mournful cry and long  
line of the cranes 7,inf4 #e1 ,purg4    
#bf72 the young birds trying to escape  
from the nest 7,purg4 #be72 the eagle   
hanging in the sky3       ,con l'ale    
aperte1 e a calare intesa2--  the dove1 
standing close to its mate1 or wheeling 
round it3         ,s come quando 'l     
colombo si pone      ,presso al         
compagno1 l'uno e l'altro pande         
,girando e mormorando                   
l'affezione2--,parad4 #be4abd  or the   
flock of pigeons1 feeding3              
,adunati alla pastura1      ,queti1     
senza mostrar l'usato orgoglio4--,purg4 
#b4  ,footnote #abj3       ,and as birds
 rising from a stream1 whence they      

,their pastures view1 as though their   
joy confessing1        ,now form a      
round1 and now a long array4--,,ibid4   
,footnote #aba3       ,and as with one  
accord1 at break of day1        ,the    
rooks bestir themselves1 by nature      
taught        ,to chase the dew-drops   
from their wings away2      ,some flying
 off1 to reappear no more--             
,others repairing to their nests again--
        ,some whirling round--then      
settling as before4--,,wright4          
,footnote #abb3       ,what time the    
swallow pours her plaintive strain1     
,saluting the approach of morning gray1 
,thus haply mindful of her former       
pain4--,,ibid4  ,footnote #abc3         
,e'en as the lark high soaring pours its
 throat        ,awhile1 then rests in   
silence1 as though still        ,it     
dwelt enamour'd of its last sweet       
note4--,,ibid4  ,footnote #abd3         
,as when unto his partner's side1 the   
dove        ,approaches near--both      
fondly circling round1        ,and      

cooing1 show the fervour of their love2 
,so these great heirs of immortality    
,receive each other2 while they joyful  
sound        ,the praises of the food   
they share on high4--,,wright4  ,hawking
 supplies its images3 the falcon coming 
for its food3         ,il falcon che    
prima a pi si mira1      ,indi si volge 
al grido1 e si protende1      ,per lo   
disio del pasto1 che l il tira2--,purg4 
#ai4abe  or just unhooded1 pluming      
itself for its flight3         ,quasi   
falcon1 ch'esce del cappello1           
,muove la testa1 e con l'ale s'applaude1
      ,voglia mostrando1 e facendosi    
bello2--,parad4 #ai4abf  or returning   
without success1 sullen and loath3      
,come 'l falcon ch' stato assai su      
l'ali1      ,che senza veder logoro1 o  
uccello1      ,fa dire al falconiere3   
,oim tu cali6      ,discende lasso onde 
si muove snello      ,per cento ruote1 e
 da lungi si pone      ,dal suo maestro1
 disdegnoso e fello4--,inf4 #ag4abg     
,footnote #abe3       ,and1 as a falcon1

 which first scans its feet1            
,then turns him to the call1 and forward
 flies1        ,in eagerness to catch   
the tempting meat4--,,ibid4  ,footnote  
#abf3       ,lo1 as a falcon1 from the  
hood released1        ,uplifts his head1
 and joyous flaps his wings1        ,his
 beauty and his eagerness               
increased4--,,wright4  ,footnote #abg3  
,e'en as a falcon1 long upheld in air1  
,not seeing lure or bird upon the wing1 
,so that the falconer utters in despair 
,alas1 thou stoop'st6 fatigued descends 
from high2        ,and whirling quickly 
round in many a ring1        ,far from  
his master sits--disdainfully4--,,ibid4 
,it is curious to observe him taking    
,virgil's similes1 and altering them4   
,when ,virgil describes the throng of   
souls1 he compares them to falling      
leaves1 or gathering birds in autumn3   
,quam multa in silvis auctumni frigore  
primo      ,lapsa cadunt folia1 aut ad  
terram gurgite ab alto      ,quam mult  
glomerantur aves1 ubi frigidus annus    

,trans pontum fugat1 et terris immittit 
apricis--  ,dante uses the same images1 
but without copying3         ,come      
d',autunno si levan le foglie1          
,l'una appresso dell'altra1 infin che 'l
 ramo      ,rende alla terra tutte le   
sue spoglie2        ,similemente il mal 
seme d',adamo3      ,gittansi di quel   
lito ad una ad una      ,per cenni1     
com'augel per suo richiamo4        ,cos 
sen vanno su per l'onda bruna1      ,ed 
avanti che sien di l discese1           
,anche di qua nuova schiera             
s'aduna4--,inf4 #c4abh  ,footnote #abh3 
,as leaves in autumn1 borne before the  
wind1        ,drop one by one1 until the
 branch laid bare1        ,sees all its 
honours to the earth consign'd3      ,so
 cast them downward at his summons all  
,the guilty race of ,adam from that     
strand--        ,each as a falcon       
answering to the call4--,,wright4       
,again--compared with one of ,virgil's  
most highly-finished and perfect        
pictures1 the flight of the pigeon1     

disturbed at first1 and then becoming   
swift and smooth3       ,qualis spelunca
 subito commota columba1      ,cui domus
 et dulces latebroso in pumice nidi1    
,fertur in arva volans1 plausumque      
exterrita pennis      ,dat tecto        
ingentem1 mox aere lapsa quieto         
,radit iter liquidum1 celeres neque     
commovet alas--  the ,italian's         
simplicity and strength may balance the 
ornata parola of ,virgil3       ,quali  
colombe dal disio chiamate1      ,con   
l'ali aperte e ferme al dolce nido      
,volan per l'aer dal voler              
portate4--,inf4 #e4abi  ,footnote #abi3 
,as doves1 by strong affection urged1   
repair        ,with firm expanded wings 
to their sweet nest1        ,borne by   
the impulse of their will through       
air4--,,ibid4  ,it is impossible not to 
be reminded at every step1 in spite of  
the knowledge and taste which ,mr4 ,cary
 and ,mr4 ,wright have brought to their 
most difficult task1 of the truth which 
,dante has expressed with his ordinary  

positiveness4  ,he is saying that he    
does not wish his ,canzoni to be        
explained in ,latin to those who could  
not read them in ,italian3 ,che sarebbe 
sposta la loro sentenzia col dove elle  
non la potessono colla loro bellezza    
portare4 ,e per sappia ciascuno che     
nulla cosa per legame musaico 7i4e4     
poetico7 armonizzata1 si pu della sua   
loquela in altra trasmutare senza       
rompere tutta la sua dolcezza e armonia4
 ,e questa  la ragione per che ,omero   
non si mut mai di ,greco in ,latino1    
come l'altre scritture che avemo da     
loro4--,convito1 i4 c4 #h1 p4 #di4  ,dr4
 ,carlyle has given up the idea of      
attempting to represent ,dante's verse  
by ,english verse1 and has confined     
himself to assisting ,englishmen to read
 him in his own language4 ,his prose    
translation is accurate and forcible4   
,and he has added sensible and useful   
notes4  ,take1 again1 the times of the  
day1 with what is characteristic of     
them--appearances1 lights1              

feelings--seldom dwelt on at length1 but
 carried at once to the mind1 and       
stamped upon it sometimes by a single   
word4 ,the sense of morning1 its        
inspiring and cheering strength1 softens
 the opening of the ,inferno2 breathes  
its refreshing calm1 in the interval of 
repose after the last horrors of hell1  
in the first canto of the ,purgatorio2  
and prepares for the entrance into the  
earthly ,paradise at its close4 ,in the 
waning light of evening1 and its        
chilling sense of loneliness1 he        
prepared himself for his dread          
pilgrimage3         ,lo giorno se       
n'andava1 e l'aer bruno      ,toglieva  
gli animai che sono 'n terra      ,dalle
 fatiche loro2 ed io sol uno            
,m'apparechiava a sostener la guerra    
,s del cammino1 e s della               
pietate4--,inf4 #b4  ,indeed there is   
scarcely an hour of day or night1 which 
has not left its own recollection with  
him2--of which we cannot find some      
memorial in his poem4 ,evening and night

 have many4 ,evening1 with its softness 
and melancholy--its exhaustion and      
languor1 after the work1 perhaps        
unfulfilled1 of day--its regrets and    
yearnings--its sounds and doubtful      
lights--the distant bell1 the closing   
chants of ,compline1 the ,salve ,regina1
 the ,te lucis ante terminum--with its  
insecurity1 and its sense of protection 
from above--broods over the poet's first
 resting-place on his heavenly          
road--that still1 solemn1 dreamy        
scene--the ,valley of ,flowers in the   
mountain side1 where those who have been
 negligent about their salvation1 but   
not altogether faithless and fruitless1 
the assembled shades of great kings and 
of poets1 wait1 looking upwards1 pale   
and humble1 for the hour when they may  
begin in earnest their penance4 7,purg4 
#g and #h47 ,the level1 blinding evening
 beams 7,purg4 #ae72 the contrast of    
gathering darkness in the valley or on  
the shore with the lingering lights on  
the mountain 7,purg4 #ag72 the rapid    

sinking of the sun1 and approach of     
night in the south 7,purg4 #bg72 the    
flaming sunset clouds of ,august2 the   
sheet-lightning of summer 7,purg4 #e72  
have left pictures in his mind1 which an
 incidental touch reawakens1 and a few  
strong words are sufficient to express4 
,other appearances he describes with    
more fulness4 ,the stars coming out one 
by one1 baffling at first the eye3      
,ed ecco intorno di chiarezza pari      
,nascer un lustro sopra quel che v'era1 
,a guisa d'orizzonte1 che rischiari4    
,e s come al salir di prima sera        
,comincian per lo ,ciel nuove parvenze1 
,s che la cosa pare e non par           
vera2--,parad4 #ad4acj  or else1        
bursting out suddenly over the heavens3 
,quando colui che tutto il mondo alluma1
      ,de l'emisperio nostro si         
discende1      ,e 'l giorno d'ogni parte
 si consuma2        ,lo ciel che sol di 
lui prima s'accende1      ,subitamente  
si rif parvente      ,per molte luci in 
che una risplende2--,parad4 #bj4aca  or 

the effect of shooting-stars3           
,quale per li seren tranquilli e puri   
,discorre ad ora ad or subito fuoco     
,movendo gli occhi che stavan sicuri1   
,e pare stella che tramuti loco1        
,se non che dalla parte onde s'accende  
,nulla sen perde1 ed esso dura          
poco2--,parad4 #ae4acb  or1 again1 that 
characteristic sight of the ,italian    
summer night--the fire-flies3           
,quante il villan che al poggio si      
riposa1      ,nel tempo che colui che 'l
 mondo schiara      ,la faccia sua a noi
 tien men ascosa1        ,come la mosca 
cede alla zenzara1      ,vede lucciole  
gi per la vallea      ,forse col dove   
vendemmia ed ara4--,inf4 #bf4acc        
,footnote #acj3       ,and lo1 on high1 
and lurid as the one        ,now there1 
encircling it1 a light arose1           
,like heaven when re-illumined by the   
sun3      ,and as at the first lighting 
up of eve        ,the sky doth new      
appearances disclose1        ,that now  
seem real1 now the sight                

deceive4--,,wright4  ,footnote #aca3    
,when he1 who with his universal ray    
,the world illumines1 quits our         
hemisphere1        ,and1 from each      
quarter1 daylight wears away2      ,the 
heaven1 erst kindled by his beam alone1 
,sudden its lost effulgence doth repair 
,by many lights illumined but by        
one4--,,ibid4  ,footnote #acb3       ,as
 oft along the pure and tranquil sky    
,a sudden fire by night is seen to dart1
        ,attracting forcibly the        
heedless eye2      ,and seems to be a   
star that changes place1        ,save   
that no star is lost from out the part  
,it quits1 and that it lasts a moment's 
space4--,,wright4  ,footnote #acc3      
,as in that season when the sun least   
veils      ,his face that lightens all1 
what time the fly      ,gives place to  
the shrill gnat1 the peasant then1      
,upon some cliff reclined1 beneath him  
sees      ,fire-flies innumerous        
spangling o'er the vale1      ,vineyard 
or tilth1 where his day-labour          

lies4--,,cary4  ,noon1 too1 does not    
want its characteristic touches--the    
lightning-like glancing of the lizard's 
rapid motion3         ,come il ramarro  
sotto la gran fersa      ,ne' d         
canicular cangiando siepe      ,folgore 
par1 se la via attraversa2--,inf4       
#be4acd  the motes in the sunbeam at    
noontide 7,par4 #ad72 its clear1        
diffused1 insupportable brightness1     
filling all things3       ,e tutti eran 
gi pieni      ,dell'alto d i giron del  
sacro monte4--,purg4 #ai4  and veiling  
the sun in his own light3         ,io   
veggio ben s come tu t'annidi      ,nel 
proprio lume4             99      99    
99      99         ,s come 'l sol che si
 cela egli stessi      ,per troppa luce1
 quando 'l caldo ha rose      ,le       
temperanze de' vapori spessi4--,parad4  
#e4  ,footnote #acd3       ,as          
underneath the dog-star's scorching ray 
,the lizard1 darting swift from fence to
 fence1        ,appears like lightning1 
if he cross the way4--,,wright4  ,but   

the sights and feelings of morning are  
what he touches on most frequently2 and 
he does so with the precision of one who
 had watched them with often-repeated   
delight3 the scented freshness of the   
breeze that stirs before daybreak3      
,e quale annunziatrice degli albori     
,aura di maggio muovesi ed olezza       
,tutta impregnata dall'erba e da' fiori2
        ,tal mi senti' un vento dar per 
mezza      ,la fronte2--,purg4 #bd4ace  
the chill of early morning 7,purg4 #ai72
 the dawn stealing on1 and the stars1   
one by one1 fading infino alla pi bella 
7,parad4 #cj72 the brightness of the    
trembling morning star--       ,par     
tremolando mattutina stella2--  the     
serenity of the dawn1 the blue gradually
 gathering in the east1 spreading over  
the brightening sky 7,parad4 #a72 then  
succeeded by the orange tints--and ,mars
 setting red1 through the mist over the 
sea3         ,ed ecco1 qual sul presso  
del mattino      ,per li grossi vapor   
,marte rosseggia      ,gi nel ponente1  

sopra 'l suol marino1        ,cotal     
m'apparve1 s'io ancor lo veggia1        
,un lume per lo mar venir s ratto       
,che 'l muover suo nessun volar         
pareggia2--,purg4 #b4acf  the distant   
sea-beach quivering in the early light3 
,l'alba vinceva l'ora mattutina         
,che fuggia innanzi1 s che di lontano   
,conobbi il tremolar della              
marina2--,purg4 #a4acg  the contrast of 
east and west at the moment of sunrise1 
and the sun appearing1 clothed in mist3 
,io vidi gi nel cominciar del giorno    
,la parte oriental tutta rosata      ,e 
l'altro ciel di bel sereno adorno2      
,e la faccia del sol nascere ombrata    
,s che per temperanza di vapori         
,l'occhio lo sostenea lunga             
fiata2--,purg4 #c4ach  or breaking      
through it1 and shooting his beams over 
the sky3         ,di tutte parti        
saettava il giorno      ,lo sol ch'avea 
con le saette conte      ,di mezzo 'l   
ciel cacciato 'l ,capricorno4--,purg4   
#b4aci  ,footnote #ace3       ,as when1 

announcing the approach of day1         
,impregnated with herbs and flowers of  
,spring1        ,breathes fresh and     
redolent the air of ,may--      ,such   
was the breeze that gently fann'd my    
head2        ,and ,i perceived the      
waving of a wing        ,which all      
around ambrosial odours shed4--,,wright4
  ,footnote #acf3       ,when lo6 like  
,mars1 in aspect fiery red        ,seen 
through the vapour1 when the morn is    
nigh        ,far in the west above the  
briny bed1      ,so 7might ,i once more 
see it7 o'er the sea        ,a light    
approach'd with such rapidity1          
,flies not the bird that might its equal
 be4--,,wright4  ,footnote #acg3        
,now 'gan the vanquish'd matin hour to  
flee2        ,and seen from far1 as     
onward came the day1        ,i          
recognised the trembling of the         
sea4--,,ibid4  ,footnote #ach3          
,erewhile the eastern regions have ,i   
seen        ,at daybreak glow with      
roseate colours1 and        ,the expanse

 beside all beauteous and serene3       
,and the sun's face so shrouded at its  
rise1        ,and temper'd by the mists 
which overhung1        ,that ,i could   
gaze on it with stedfast                
eyes4--,,wright4  ,footnote #aci3       
,on every side the sun shot forth the   
day1        ,and had already with his   
arrows bright        ,from the          
mid-heaven chased ,capricorn            
away4--,,ibid4  ,but light in general is
 his special and chosen source of poetic
 beauty4 ,no poet that we know has shown
 such singular sensibility to its varied
 appearances--has shown that he felt it 
in itself the cause of a distinct and   
peculiar pleasure1 delighting the eye   
apart from form1 as music delights the  
ear apart from words1 and capable1 like 
music1 of definite character1 of endless
 variety1 and infinite meanings4 ,he    
must have studied and dwelt upon it like
 music4 ,his mind is charged with its   
effects and combinations1 and they are  
rendered with a force1 a brevity1 a     

precision1 a heedlessness and           
unconsciousness of ornament1 an         
indifference to circumstance and detail2
 they flash out with a spontaneous      
readiness1 a suitableness and felicity1 
which show the familiarity and grasp    
given only by daily observation1 daily  
thought1 daily pleasure4 ,light         
everywhere--in the sky and earth and    
sea--in the star1 the flame1 the lamp1  
the gem--broken in the water1 reflected 
from the mirror1 transmitted pure       
through the glass1 or coloured through  
the edge of the fractured               
emerald--dimmed in the mist1 the halo1  
the deep water--streaming through the   
rent cloud1 glowing in the coal1        
quivering in the lightning1 flashing in 
the topaz and the ruby1 veiled behind   
the pure alabaster1 mellowed and        
clouding itself in the pearl--light     
contrasted with shadow--shading off and 
copying itself in the double rainbow1   
like voice and echo--light seen within  
light1 as voice discerned within voice1 

quando una  ferma1 e l'altra va e       
riede--the brighter nestling itself in  
the fainter--the purer set off on the   
less clear1 come perla in bianca        
fronte--light in the human eye and face1
 displaying1 figuring1 and confounded   
with its expressions--light blended with
 joy in the eye3                        
luce      ,come letizia in pupilla viva2
  and in the smile3       ,vincendo me  
col lume d'un sorriso2  joy lending its 
expression to light3       ,quivi la    
donna mia vid'io s lieta--      ,che pi 
lucente se ne f il pianeta4        ,e se
 la stella si cambi1 e rise1      ,qual 
mi fec'io2--,parad4 #e4  light from     
every source1 and in all its shapes1    
illuminates1 irradiates1 gives its glory
 to the ,commedia4 ,the remembrance of  
our serene life beneath the fair stars  
keeps up continually the gloom of the   
,inferno4 ,light1 such as we see it and 
recognise it1 the light of morning and  
evening growing and fading1 takes off   
from the unearthliness of the           

,purgatorio2 peopled1 as it is1 by the  
undying1 who1 though suffering for sin1 
can sin no more1 it is thus made like   
our familiar world1 made to touch our   
sympathies as an image of our own       
purification in the flesh4 ,and when he 
rises beyond the regions of earthly day1
 light1 simple1 unalloyed1 unshadowed1  
eternal1 lifts the creations of his     
thought above all affinity to time and  
matter2 light never fails him1 as the   
expression of the gradations of bliss2  
never reappears the same1 never refuses 
the new shapes of his invention1 never  
becomes confused or dim1 though it is   
seldom thrown into distinct figure1 and 
still more seldom coloured4 ,only once1 
that we remember1 is the thought of     
colour forced on us2 when the bright joy
 of heaven suffers change and eclipse1  
and deepens into red at the sacrilege of
 men4#adj  ,footnote #adj3 ,parad4 #bg4 
,yet his eye is everywhere1 not confined
 to the beauty or character of the sky  
and its lights4 ,his range of           

observation and largeness of interest   
prevent that line of imagery1 which is  
his peculiar instrument and             
predilection1 from becoming1 in spite of
 its brightness and variety1 dreamy and 
monotonous2 prevent it from arming      
against itself sympathies which it does 
not touch4 ,he has watched with equal   
attention1 and draws with not less      
power1 the occurrences and sights of    
,italian country life2 the summer       
whirlwind sweeping over the             
plain--dinanzi polveroso va superbo     
7,inf4 #i72 the rain-storm of the       
,apennines 7,purg4 #e72 the peasant's   
alternations of feeling in spring3      
,in quella parte del giovinetto anno    
,che 'l sole i crin sotto l',aquario    
tempra1      ,e gi le notti al mezzo d  
sen vanno2        ,quando la brina in su
 la terra assempra      ,l'imagine di   
sua sorella bianca1      ,ma poco dura  
alla sua penna tempra1        ,lo       
villanello a cui la roba manca      ,si 
leva e guarda1 e vede la campagna       

,biancheggiar tutta2 ond'ei si batte    
l'anca2        ,ritorna a casa1 e qua e 
l si lagna      ,come 'l tapin che non  
sa che si faccia3      ,poi riede e la  
speranza ringavagna        ,veggendo 'l 
mondo aver cangiata faccia      ,in poco
 d'ora1 e prende il suo vincastro       
,e fuor le pecorelle a pascer           
caccia3--,inf4 #bd4ada  the manner in   
which sheep come out from the fold3     
,come le pecorelle escon del chiuso     
,a una a due a tre1 e l'altre stanno1   
,timidette atterrando l'occhio e' l     
muso2        ,e ci che fa la prima1 e   
l'altre fanno1      ,addossandosi a lei 
s'ella s'arresta      ,semplici e quete1
 e lo 'mperch non sanno3        ,s      
vid'io muover a venir la testa      ,di 
quella mandria fortunata allotta1       
,pudica in faccia e nell'andare onesta4 
,come color dinanzi vider rotta      ,la
 luce4444        ,ristaro1 e trasser s  
indietro alquanto1      ,e tutti gli    
altri che veniano appresso1      ,non   
sappiendo il perch1 fero                

altrettanto4--,purg4 #c4  ,footnote     
#ada3       ,in the new year1 when ,sol 
his tresses gay        ,dips in         
,aquarius1 and the tardy night          
,divides her empire with the lengthening
 day--      ,when o'er the earth the    
hoar-frost pure and bright              
,assumes the image of her sister white1 
,then quickly melts before the genial   
light--      ,the rustic1 now exhausted 
his supply1        ,rises betimes--looks
 out--and sees the land        ,all     
white around1 whereat he strikes his    
thigh--      ,turns back--and           
grieving--wanders here and there1       
,like one disconsolate and at a stand2  
,then issues forth1 forgetting his      
despair1      ,for lo6 the face of      
nature he beholds        ,changed on a  
sudden--takes his crook again1          
,and drives his flock to pasture from   
the folds4--,,wright4  ,so with the     
beautiful picture of the goats upon the 
mountain1 chewing the cud in the        
noontide heat and stillness1 and the    

goatherd1 resting on his staff and      
watching them--a picture which no       
traveller among the mountains of ,italy 
or ,greece can have missed1 or have     
forgotten3         ,quali si fanno      
ruminando manse      ,le capre1 state   
rapide e proterve      ,sopra le cime   
avanti che sien pranse1        ,tacite  
al ombra mentre che 'l sol ferve1       
,guardate dal pastor che 'n su la verga 
,poggiato s'1 e lor poggiato            
serve4--,purg4 #bg4adb  ,footnote #adb3 
,like goats that having over the crags  
pursued        ,their wanton sports1    
now1 quiet pass the time        ,in     
ruminating--sated with their food1      
,beneath the shade1 while glows the sun 
on high--        ,watched by the        
goatherd with unceasing care1        ,as
 on his staff he leans1 with watchful   
eye4--,ibid4  ,so again1 with his       
recollections of cities3 the crowd1     
running together to hear news 7,purg4   
#b71 or pressing after the winner of the
 game 7,purg4 #f72 the blind men at the 

church doors1 or following their guide  
through the throng 7,purg4 #ac1 #af72   
the friars walking along in silence1 one
 behind another3         ,taciti1 soli1 
e senza compagnia      ,n'andavam1 l'un 
dinanzi1 e l'altro dopo      ,come i    
frati minor vanno per via4--,inf4 #bc4  
,he turns to account in his poem1 the   
pomp and clamour of the host taking the 
field 7,inf4 #bb72 the devices of       
heraldry2 the answering chimes of       
morning bells over the city2#adc the    
inventions and appliances of art1 the   
wheels within wheels of clocks 7,par4   
#bd71 the many-coloured carpets of the  
,east 7,inf4 #ag72 music and            
dancing--the organ and voice in church3 
--,voce mista al dolce suono      ,che  
or s or no s'intendon le parole1--,purg4
 #i4  the lute and voice in the chamber 
7,par4 #bj72 the dancers preparing to   
begin1#add or waiting to catch a new    
strain4#ade ,or1 again1 the images of   
domestic life1 the mother's ways to her 
child1 reserved and reproving--che al   

figlio par superba--or cheering him with
 her voice1 or watching him             
compassionately in the wandering of     
fever3         ,ond'ella1 appresso d'un 
pio sospiro      ,gli occhi drizz ver   
me1 con quel sembiante      ,che madre  
fa sopra figliuol deliro4--,parad4 #a4  
,footnote #adc3         ,indi come      
orologio che ne chiami      ,nell'ora   
che la sposa di ,dio surge      ,a      
mattinar lo sposo perch l'ami1          
,che l'una parte e l'altra tira ed urge 
,tin tin sonando con s dolce nota       
,che 'l ben disposto spirto d'amor      
turge2        ,cos vid'io la gloriosa   
ruota      ,muoversi e render voce a    
voce1 in tempra      ,ed in dolcezza    
ch'esser non pu nota        ,se non col 
dove 'l gioir s'insempra4--,parad4 #aj4 
,footnote #add3         ,e come surge1 e
 va1 ed entra in ballo      ,vergine    
lieta1 sol per farne onore      ,alla   
novizia1 e non per alcun fallo4--,ibid4 
#be4  ,footnote #ade3         ,donne mi 
parver1 non da ballo sciolte1      ,ma  

che s'arrestin tacite ascoltando        
,fin che le nuove note hanno            
ricolte4--,ibid4 #aj4  ,nor is he less  
observant of the more delicate phenomena
 of mind1 in its inward workings1 and   
its connexion with the body4 ,the play  
of features1 the involuntary gestures   
and attitudes of the passions1 the power
 of eye over eye1 of hand upon hand1 the
 charm of voice and expression1 of      
musical sounds even when not            
understood--feelings1 sensations1 and   
states of mind which have a name1 and   
others1 equally numerous and equally    
common1 which have none--these1 often so
 fugitive1 so shifting1 so baffling and 
intangible1 are expressed with a        
directness1 a simplicity1 a sense of    
truth at once broad and refined1 which  
seized at once on the congenial mind of 
his countrymen1 and pointed out to them 
the road which they have followed in    
art1 unapproached as yet by any         
competitors4#adf  ,footnote #adf3 ,for  
instance3--thoughts upon thoughts1      

ending in sleep and dreams3       ,nuovo
 pensier dentro de me si mise1          
,dal qual pi altri nacquero e diversi3  
,e tanto d'uno in altro vaneggiai       
,che gli occhi per vaghezza ricopersi1  
,e 'l pensamento in sogno               
trasmutai4--,purg4 #ah4  sleep stealing 
off when broken by light3         ,come 
si frange il sonno1 ove di butto        
,nuova luce percuote 'l viso chiuso1    
,che fratto guizza pria che muoja       
tutto4--,ibid4 #ag4  the shock of sudden
 awakening3         ,come al lume acuto 
si disonna1             99      99      
99      99         ,e lo svegliato ci   
che vede abborre1      ,s nescia  la    
subita vigilia1      ,finch la stimativa
 nol soccorre4--,parad4 #bf4  uneasy    
feelings produced by sight or           
representation of something unnatural3  
,come per sostentar solajo o tetto      
,per mensola talvolta una figura        
,si vede giunger le ginocchia al petto1 
,la qual fa del non ver vera rancura    
,nascer a chi la vede2 cos fatti        

,vid'io color4--,purg4 #aj4  blushing in
 innocent sympathy for others3          
,e come donna onesta che permane        
,di s sicura1 e per l'altrui fallanza   
,pure ascoltando timida si fane3        
,cos ,beatrice trasmut sembianza4--,par4
 #bg4  asking and answering by looks    
only3         ,volsi gli occhi agli     
occhi al signor mio2      ,ond'elli     
m'assent con lieto cenno      ,ci che   
chiedea la vista del disio4--,purg4 #ai4
  watching the effect of words3         
,posto avea fine al suo ragionamento    
,l'alto dottore1 ad attento guardava    
,nella mia vista s'io parea contento4   
,ed io1 cui nuova sete ancor frugava1   
,di fuor taceva e dentro dicea3 forse   
,lo troppo dimandar ch'io fo1 li grava4 
,ma quel padre verace1 che s'accorse    
,del timido voler che non s'apriva1     
,parlando1 di parlare ardir mi          
porse4--,ibid4 #ah4  ,dante betraying   
,virgil's presence to ,statius1 by his  
involuntary smile3         ,volser      
,virgilio a me queste parole      ,con  

viso che tacendo dicea3 taci2      ,ma  
non pu tutto la virt che vuole2         
,che riso e pianto son tanto seguaci    
,alla passion da che ciascun si spicca1 
,che men segnon voler ne' pi veraci4    
,io pur sorrisi1 come l'uom ch'ammicca3 
,perch l'ombra si tacque1 e riguardommi 
,negli occhi ove 'l sembiante pi si     
ficca4        ,e se tanto lavoro in bene
 assommi1      ,disse1 perch la faccia  
tua testeso      ,un lampeggiar a' un   
riso dimostrommi8--,purg4 #ba4  smiles  
and words together3       ,per le       
sorrise parolette brevi4--,parad4 #a4   
eye meeting eye3                 ,gli   
occhi ritorsi avanti      ,dritti nel   
lume della dolce guida      ,che        
sorridendo ardea negli occhi            
santi4--,ibid4 #c4         ,come si vede
 qui alcuna volta      ,l'affetto nella 
vista1 s'ello  tanto      ,che da lui   
sia tutta l'anima tolta3        ,cos nel
 fiammeggiar del fulgor santo      ,a   
cui mi volsi1 conobbi la voglia      ,in
 lui di ragionarmi ancora               

alquanto4--,ibid4 #ah4  gentleness of   
voice3       ,e cominciommi a dir soave 
e piana      ,con angelica voce in sua  
favella4--,inf4 #b4         ,e come agli
 occhi miei si fe' pi bella1      ,cos  
con voce pi dolce e soave1      ,ma non 
con questa moderna favella1             
,dissemi2--,parad4 #af4  chanting3      
,te lucis ante s divotamente      ,le   
usc di bocca e con s dolce note1        
,che fece me a me uscir di mente4       
,e l'altre poi dolcemente e divote      
,seguitar lei per tutto l'inno intero1  
,avendo gli occhi alle superne          
ruote4--,purg4 #h4  chanting blended    
with the sound of the organ3         ,io
 mi rivolsi attento al primo tuono1     
,e ,te ,deum laudamus mi parea          
,udire in voce mista al dolce suono4    
,tale imagine appunto mi rendea      ,ci
 ch'io udiva1 qual prender si suole     
,quando a cantar con organi si stea2    
,ch'or s1 or no1 s'intendon le          
parole4--,purg4 #i4  voices in concert3 
,e come in voce voce si discerne        

,quando una  ferma1 e' l altra va e     
riede4--,parad4 #h4  attitudes and      
gestures3 e4g4 ,beatrice addressing him1
       ,con atto e voce di spedito      
duce4--,ibid4 #cj4  ,sordello eyeing the
 travellers3         ,venimmo a lei3 o  
anima ,lombarda1      ,come ti stavi    
altera e disdegnosa1      ,e nel muover 
degli occhi onesta e tarda4        ,ella
 non ci diceva alcuna cosa1      ,ma    
lasciavane gir1 solo guardando1      ,a 
guisa di leon quando si posa4--,purg4   
#f4  the angel moving dry-shod over the 
,stygian pool3         ,dal volto       
rimovea quell'aer grasso      ,menando  
la sinistra innanzi spesso1      ,e sol 
di quell'angoscia parea lasso4          
,ben m'accorsi ch'egli era del ciel     
messo1      ,e volsimi al maestro2 e    
quei fe' segno      ,ch'io stessi cheto 
ed inchinassi ed esso4        ,ahi      
quanto mi parea pien di disdegno4       
99      99      99      99         ,poi 
si rivolse per la strada lorda1      ,e 
non fe' motto a noi1 ma fe' sembiante   

,d'uomo cui altra cura stringa e morda  
,che quella di colui che gli            
davante4--,inf4 #i4  ,and he has        
anticipated the latest schools of modern
 poetry1 by making not merely nature1   
but science tributary to a poetry with  
whose general aim and spirit it has     
little in common--tributary in its exact
 forms1 even in its technicalities4 ,he 
speaks of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 not  
merely as a historian1 or an observer of
 its storms or its smiles1 but as a     
geologist2#adg of light1 not merely in  
its beautiful appearances1 but in its   
natural laws4#adh ,there is a charm1 an 
imaginative charm to him1 not merely in 
the sensible magnificence of the        
heavens1 in their silence1 and light1   
and watchfulness1 but in the system of  
,ptolemy and the theories of astrology2 
and he delights to interweave the poetry
 of feeling and of the outward sense    
with the grandeur--so far as he knew    
it--of order1 proportion1 measured      
magnitudes1 the relations of abstract   

forces1 displayed on such a scene as the
 material universe1 as if he wished to  
show that imagination in its boldest    
flight was not afraid of the company of 
the clear and subtle intellect4         
,footnote #adg3 ,la maggior valle1 in   
che l'acqua si spandi4--,parad4 #i4     
,footnote #adh3 ,e4g4 ,purg4 #ae4       
,indeed the real never daunts him4 ,it  
is his leading principle of poetic      
composition1 to draw out of things the  
poetry which is latent in them1 either  
essentially1 or as they are portions1   
images1 or reflexes of something        
greater--not to invest them with a      
poetical semblance1 by means of words   
which bring with them poetical          
associations1 and have received a       
general poetical stamp4 ,dante has few  
of those indirect charms which flow from
 the subtle structure and refined graces
 of language--none of that              
exquisitely-fitted and self-sustained   
mechanism of choice words of the        
,greeks--none of that tempered and      

majestic amplitude of diction1 which    
clothes1 like the folds of a royal robe1
 the thoughts of the ,latins--none of   
that abundant play of fancy and         
sentiment1 soft or grand1 in which the  
later ,italian poets delighted4 ,words  
with him are used sparingly1 never in   
play--never because they carry with them
 poetical recollections--never for their
 own sake2 but because they are         
instruments which will give the deepest1
 clearest1 sharpest stamp of that image 
which the poet's mind1 piercing to the  
very heart of his subject1 or seizing   
the characteristic feature which to     
other men's eyes is confused and lost   
among others accidental and common1     
draws forth in severe and living truth4 
,words will not always bend themselves  
to his demands on them2 they make him   
often uncouth1 abrupt1 obscure4 ,but he 
is too much in earnest to heed          
uncouthness2 and his power over language
 is too great to allow uncertainty as to
 what he means1 to be other than        

occasional4 ,nor is he a stranger to the
 utmost sweetness and melody of         
language4 ,but it appears1 unsought for 
and unlaboured1 the spontaneous and     
inevitable obedience of the tongue and  
pen to the impressions of the mind2 as  
grace and beauty1 of themselves1 command
 and guide the eye of the painter1 who  
thinks not of his hand but of them4 ,all
 is in character with the absorbed and  
serious earnestness which pervades the  
poem2 there is no toying1 no ornament1  
that a man in earnest might not throw   
into his words2--whether in single      
images1 or in pictures1 like that of the
 ,meadow of the ,heroes 7,inf4 #d71 or  
the angel appearing in hell to guide the
 poet through the burning city 7,inf4   
#i7--or in histories1 like those of     
,count ,ugolino1 or the life of ,s4     
,francis 7,parad4 #aa7--or in the       
dramatic scenes like the meeting of the 
poets ,sordello and ,virgil 7,purgat4   
#f71 or that one1 unequalled in beauty1 
where ,dante himself1 after years of    

forgetfulness and sin1 sees ,beatrice in
 glory1 and hears his name1 never but   
once pronounced during the vision1 from 
her lips4#adi  ,footnote #adi3       ,io
 vidi gi nel cominciar del giorno       
,la parte oriental tutta rosata1        
,e l'altro ciel di bel sereno adorno1   
,e la faccia del sol nascere ombrata1   
,s che per temperanza di vapori         
,l'occhio lo sostenea lunga fiata2      
,cos dentro una nuvola di fiori1        
,che dalle mani angeliche saliva1       
,e ricadeva gi dentro e di fuori1       
,sovra candido vel cinta d'oliva        
,donna m'apparve sotto verde manto      
,vestita di color di fiamma viva4       
,e lo spirito mio1 che gi cotanto       
,tempo era stato che alla sua presenza  
,non era di stupor1 tremando1 affranto4 
,senza degli occhi aver pi conoscenza1  
,per occulta virt1 che da lei mosse1    
,d'antico amor senti' la gran potenza4  
99      99      99      99              
,volsimi alla sinistra col rispitto1    
,col quale il fantolin corre alla mamma1

        ,quando ha paura1 o quando egli 
afflitto1      ,per dicere a ,virgilio3 
,men che dramma        ,di sangue m'    
rimasa1 che non tremi3        ,conosco i
 segni dell'antica fiamma4      ,ma     
,virgilio n'avea lasciati scemi         
,di s1 ,virgilio dolcissimo padre1      
,virgilio1 a cui per mia salute diemi3  
99      99      99      99       ,dante1
 perch ,virgilio se ne vada1        ,non
 piangere anche1 non piangere ancora    
,ch pianger ti convien per altra spada4 
99      99      99      99              
,regalmente nell'atto ancor proterva    
,continu1 come colui che dice1        ,e
 il pi caldo parlar dietro reserva1     
,guardami ben3 ben son1 ben son         
,beatrice3        ,come degnasti        
d'accedere al monte8        ,non sapei  
tu1 che qui  l'uom felice8--,purg4 #cj4 
,but extracts can give but an imperfect 
notion of this grand and touching canto4
  ,but this1 or any other array of      
scenes and images1 might be matched from
 poets of a far lower order than ,dante3

 and to specimens which might be brought
 together of his audacity and           
extravagance1 no parallel could be found
 except among the lowest4 ,we cannot1   
honestly1 plead the barbarism of the    
time as his excuse4 ,that1 doubtless1   
contributed largely to them2 but they   
were the faults of the man4 ,in another 
age1 their form might have been         
different2 yet we cannot believe so much
 of time1 that it would have tamed      
,dante4 ,nor can we wish it4 ,it might  
have made him less great3 and his       
greatness can well bear its own         
blemishes1 and will not less meet its   
due honour among men1 because they can  
detect its kindred to themselves4  ,the 
greatness of his work is not in its     
details--to be made or marred by them4  
,it is the greatness of a comprehensive 
and vast conception1 sustaining without 
failure the trial of its long and       
hazardous execution1 and fulfilling at  
its close the hope and promise of its   
beginning2 like the greatness--which we 

watch in its course with anxious        
suspense1 and look back upon when it is 
secured by death1 with deep             
admiration--of a perfect life4 ,many a  
surprise1 many a difficulty1 many a     
disappointment1 many a strange reverse  
and alternation of feelings1 attend the 
progress of the most patient and        
admiring reader of the ,commedia2 as    
many as attend on one who follows the   
unfolding of a strong character in life4
 ,we are often shocked when we were     
prepared to admire--repelled1 when we   
came with sympathy2 the accustomed key  
fails at a critical moment--depths are  
revealed which we cannot sound1         
mysteries which baffle and confound us4 
,but the check is for a time--the gap   
and chasm does not dissever4 ,haste is  
even an evidence of life--the brief     
word1 the obscure hint1 the unexplained1
 the unfinished1 or even the unachieved1
 are the marks of human feebleness1 but 
are also among those of human truth4    
,the unity of the whole is unimpaired4  

,the strength which is working it out1  
though it may have at times disappointed
 us1 shows no hollowness or exhaustion4 
,the surprise of disappointment is      
balanced--there is the surprise of      
unimagined excellence4 ,powers do more  
than they promised2 and that spontaneous
 and living energy1 without which       
neither man nor poet can be trusted1 and
 which showed its strength even in its  
failures1 shows it more abundantly in   
the novelties of success--by touching   
sympathies which have never been touched
 before1 by the unconstrained freshness 
with which it meets the proverbial and  
familiar1 by the freedom with which it  
adjusts itself to a new position or an  
altered task--by the completeness1      
unstudied and instinctive1 with which it
 holds together dissimilar and          
uncongenial materials1 and forces the   
most intractable1 the most unaccustomed 
to submission1 to receive the colour of 
the whole--by its orderly and           
unmistakable onward march1 and its      

progress1 as in height1 so in what      
corresponds to height4 ,it was one and  
the same man1 who rose from the despair1
 the agony1 the vivid and vulgar horrors
 of the ,inferno1 to the sense and      
imagination of certainty1 sinlessness1  
and joy ineffable--the same man whose   
power and whose sympathies failed him   
not1 whether discriminating and         
enumerating1 as if he had gone through  
them all1 the various forms of human    
suffering1 from the dull1 gnawing sense 
of the loss of happiness1 to the        
infinite woes of the wrecked and ruined 
spirit1 and the coarser pangs of the    
material flesh2 or dwelling on the      
changeful lights and shades of earnest  
repentance1 in its hard1 but not unaided
 or ungladdened struggle1 and on that   
restoration to liberty and peace1 which 
can change even this life into paradise1
 and reverse the doom which made sorrow 
our condition1 and laughter and joy     
unnatural and dangerous--the penalty of 
that first fault1 which                 

,in pianto ed in affanno      ,cambi    
onesto riso e dolce giuoco3  or rising  
finally above mortal experience1 to     
imagine the freedom of the saints and   
the peace of eternity4 ,in this consists
 the greatness of his power4 ,it is not 
necessary to read through the ,commedia 
to see it--open it where we please1 we  
see that he is on his way1 and whither  
he is going2 episode and digression     
share in the solemnity of the general   
order4  ,and his greatness was more than
 that of power4 ,that reach and play of 
sympathy ministered to a noble wisdom1  
which used it thoughtfully and          
consciously for a purpose to which great
 poetry had never yet been applied1     
except in the mouth of prophets4 ,dante 
was a stern man1 and more than stern1   
among his fellows4 ,but he has left to  
those who never saw his face an         
inheritance the most precious2 he has   
left them that which1 reflecting and    
interpreting their minds1 does so1 not  
to amuse1 not to bewilder1 not to warp1 

not to turn them in upon themselves in  
distress or gloom or selfishness2 not   
merely to hold up a mirror to nature2   
but to make them true and make them     
hopeful4 ,dark as are his words of      
individuals1 his thoughts are not dark  
or one-sided about mankind2 his is no   
cherished and perverse severity--his    
faith is too large1 too real1 for such a
 fault4 ,he did not write only the      
,inferno4 ,and the ,purgatorio and the  
,paradiso are not an afterthought1 a    
feebler appendix and compensation1      
conceived when too late1 to a finished  
whole1 which has taken up into itself   
the poet's real mind4 ,nowhere else in  
poetry of equal power is there the same 
balanced view of what man is1 and may   
be2 nowhere so wide a grasp shown of his
 various capacities1 so strong a desire 
to find a due place and function for all
 his various dispositions4 ,where he    
stands contrasted in his idea of human  
life with other poets1 who have been    
more powerful exponents of its separate 

sides1 is in his large and truthful     
comprehensiveness4 ,fresh from the      
thought of man's condition as a whole1  
fresh from the thought of his goodness1 
his greatness1 his power1 as well as of 
his evil1 his mind is equally in tune   
when rejoicing over his restoration1 as 
when contemplating the ruins of his     
fall4 ,he never lets go the recollection
 that human life1 if it grovels at one  
end in corruption and sin1 and has to   
pass through the sweat and dust and     
disfigurement of earthly toil1 has      
throughout1 compensations1 remedies1    
functions1 spheres innumerable of       
profitable activity1 sources            
inexhaustible of delight and            
consolation--and at the other end a     
perfection which cannot be named4 ,no   
one ever measured the greatness of man  
in all its forms with so true and yet   
with so admiring an eye1 and with such  
glowing hope1 as he who has also        
portrayed so awfully man's littleness   
and vileness4 ,and he went farther--no  

one who could understand and do homage  
to greatness in man1 ever drew the line 
so strongly between greatness and       
goodness1 and so unhesitatingly placed  
the hero of this world only--placed him 
in all his magnificence1 honoured with  
no timid or dissembling reverence--at   
the distance of worlds1 below the place 
of the lowest saint4  ,those who know   
the ,divina ,commedia best1 will best   
know how hard it is to be the           
interpreter of such a mind2 but they    
will sympathise with the wish to call   
attention to it4 ,they know1 and would  
wish others also to know1 not by        
hearsay1 but by experience1 the power of
 that wonderful poem4 ,they know its    
austere1 yet subduing beauty2 they know 
what force there is1 in its free and    
earnest and solemn verse1 to strengthen1
 to tranquillise1 to console4 ,it is a  
small thing that it has the secret of   
,nature and ,man2 that a few keen words 
have opened their eyes to new sights in 
earth1 and sea1 and sky2 have taught    

them new mysteries of sound2 have made  
them recognise1 in distinct image or    
thought1 fugitive feelings1 or their    
unheeded expression1 by look1 or        
gesture1 or motion2 that it has enriched
 the public and collective memory of    
society with new instances1 never to be 
lost1 of human feeling and fortune2 has 
charmed ear and mind by the music of its
 stately march1 and the variety and     
completeness of its plan4 ,but1 besides 
this1 they know how often its           
seriousness has put to shame their      
trifling1 its magnanimity their         
faintheartedness1 its living energy     
their indolence1 its stern and sad      
grandeur rebuked low thoughts1 its      
thrilling tenderness overcome sullenness
 and assuaged distress1 its strong faith
 quelled despair and soothed perplexity1
 its vast grasp imparted the sense of   
harmony to the view of clashing truths4 
,they know how often they have found1 in
 times of trouble1 if not light1 at     
least that deep sense of reality1       

permanent1 though unseen1 which is more 
than light can always give--in the view 
which it has suggested to them of the   
judgments and the love of ,god4#aej     
,footnote #aej3 ,it is necessary to     
state1 that these remarks were written  
before we had seen the chapter on ,dante
 in ,italy1 past and present1 by ,l4    
,mariotti4 ,had we become acquainted    
with it earlier1 we should have had to  
refer to it often1 in the way of        
acknowledgment1 and as often in the way 
of strong protest4     ,,de ,,monarchia4
     ,,book ,i4   ,i4--,it very greatly 
concerns all men on whom a higher nature
 has impressed#aea the love of truth1   
that1 as they have been enriched by the 
labour of those before them1 so they    
also should labour for those that are to
 come after them1 to the end that       
posterity may receive from them an      
addition to its wealth4 ,for he is far  
astray from his duty--let him not doubt 
it--who1 having been trained in the     
lessons of public business1 cares not   

himself to contribute aught to the      
public good4 ,he is no tree planted by  
the water-side1 that bringeth forth his 
fruit in due season4 ,he is rather the  
devouring whirlpool1 ever engulfing1 but
 restoring nothing4 ,pondering1         
therefore1 often on these things1 lest  
some day ,i should have to answer the   
charge of the talent buried in the      
earth1 ,i desire not only to show the   
budding promise1 but also to bear fruit 
for the general good1 and to set forth  
truths by others unattempted4 ,for what 
fruit can he be said to bear who should 
go about to demonstrate again some      
theorem of ,euclid8 or when ,aristotle  
has shown us what happiness is1 should  
show it to us once more8 or when ,cicero
 has been the apologist of old age1     
should a second time undertake its      
defence8 ,such squandering of labour    
would only engender weariness and not   
profit4  ,footnote #aea3 ,in quos       
veritatis amorem natura superior        
impressit4 ,on the ancient idea 7,aug4  

,de ,trin4 iii4 #d2 ,aquin4 ,summ4 #a1  
#ff1 #c7 of the influence or impression 
of higher natures on lower1 cf4 ,parad4 
i4 #ajc1 x4 #bi4  ,but seeing that among
 other truths1 ill-understood yet       
profitable1 the knowledge touching      
temporal monarchy is at once most       
profitable and most obscure1 and that   
because it has no immediate reference to
 worldly gain it is left unexplored by  
all1 therefore it is my purpose to draw 
it forth from its hiding-places1 as well
 that ,i may spend my toil for the      
benefit of the world1 as that ,i may be 
the first to win the prize of so great  
an achievement to my own glory4 ,the    
work indeed is difficult1 and ,i am     
attempting what is beyond my strength2  
but ,i trust not in my own powers1 but  
in the light of that ,bountiful ,giver1 
,who giveth to all men liberally1 and   
upbraideth not4   ,,ii4--,first1        
therefore1 we must see what is it that  
is called ,temporal ,monarchy1 in its   
idea1 so to speak1 and according to its 

purpose4 ,temporal ,monarchy1 then1 or1 
as men call it1 the ,empire1 is the     
government of one prince above all men  
in time1 or in those things and over    
those things which are measured by time4
 ,three great questions are asked       
concerning it4 ,first1 there is the     
doubt and the question1 is it necessary 
for the welfare of the world8 ,secondly1
 did the ,roman people take to itself by
 right the office of ,monarchy8 ,and    
thirdly1 does the authority of ,monarchy
 come from ,god directly1 or only from  
some other minister or vicar of ,god8   
,now1 since every truth1 which is not   
itself a first principle1 becomes       
manifest from the truth of some first   
principle1 it is therefore necessary in 
every inquiry to have a knowledge of the
 first principle involved1 to which by  
analysis we may go back for the         
certainty of all the propositions which 
are afterwards accepted4 ,and since this
 treatise is an inquiry1 we must begin  
by examining the first principle on the 

strength of which deductions are to     
rest4 ,it must be understood then that  
there are certain things which1 since   
they are not subject to our power1 are  
matters of speculation1 but not of      
action3 such are ,mathematics and       
,physics1 and things divine4 ,but there 
are some things which1 since they are   
subject to our power1 are matters of    
action as well as of speculation1 and in
 them we do not act for the sake of     
speculation1 but contrariwise3 for in   
such things action is the end4 ,now1    
since the matter which we have in hand  
has to do with states1 nay1 with the    
very origin and principle of good forms 
of government1 and since all that       
concerns states is subject to our power1
 it is manifest that our subject is not 
in the first place speculation1 but     
action4 ,and again1 since in matters of 
action the end sought is the first      
principle and cause of all 7for that it 
is which first moves the agent to act71 
it follows that all our method          

concerning the means which are set to   
gain the end must be taken from the end4
 ,for there will be one way of cutting  
wood to build a house1 and another to   
build a ship4 ,that therefore1 if it    
exists1 which is the ultimate end for   
the universal civil order of mankind1   
will be the first principle from which  
all the truth of our future deductions  
will be sufficiently manifest4 ,but it  
is folly to think that there is an end  
for this and for that particular civil  
order1 and yet not one end for all4     
,,iii4--,now1 therefore1 we must see    
what is the end of the whole civil order
 of men2 and when we have found this1   
then1 as the ,philosopher#aeb says in   
his book to ,nicomachus1#aec the half of
 our labour will have been accomplished4
 ,and to render the question clearer1 we
 must observe that as there is a certain
 end for which nature makes the thumb1  
and another1 different from this1 for   
which she makes the whole hand1 and     
again another for which she makes the   

arm1 and another different from all for 
which she makes the whole man2 so there 
is one end for which she orders the     
individual man1 and another for which   
she orders the family1 and another end  
for the city1 and another for the       
kingdom1 and finally an ultimate one for
 which the ,everlasting ,god1 by ,his   
art which is nature1 brings into being  
the whole human race4 ,and this is what 
we seek as a first principle to guide   
our whole inquiry4  ,footnote #aeb3 ,the
 common title for ,aristotle from the   
first half of the thirteenth century4   
,vide ,jourdain1 ,recherches sur les    
traductions d',aristote1 p4 #bab1 note4 
,footnote #aec3 ,arist4 ,ethics1 i4 #g4 
,let it then be understood that ,god and
 nature make nothing to be idle4        
,whatever comes into being1 exists for  
some operation or working4 ,for no      
created essence is an ultimate end in   
the creator's purpose1 so far as he is a
 creator1 but rather the proper         
operation of that essence4 ,therefore it

 follows that the operation does not    
exist for the sake of the essence1 but  
the essence for the sake of the         
operation4  ,there is therefore a       
certain proper operation of the whole   
body of human kind1 for which this whole
 body of men in all its multitudes is   
ordered and constituted1 but to which no
 one man1 nor single family1 nor single 
neighbourhood1 nor single city1 nor     
particular kingdom can attain4 ,what    
this is will be manifest1 if we can find
 what is the final and characteristic   
capacity of humanity as a whole4 ,i say 
then that no quality which is shared by 
different species of things is the      
distinguishing capacity of any one of   
them4 ,for were it so1 since this       
capacity is that which makes each       
species what it is1 it would follow that
 one essence would be specifically      
distributed to many species1 which is   
impossible4 ,therefore the ultimate     
quality of men is not existence1 taken  
simply2 for the elements share therein4 

,nor is it existence under certain      
conditions2#aed for we find this in     
minerals too4 ,nor is it existence with 
life2 for plants too have life4 ,nor is 
it percipient existence2 for brutes     
share in this power4 ,it is to be       
percipient#aee with the possibility of  
understanding1 for this quality falls to
 the lot of none but man1 either above  
or below him4 ,for though there are     
other beings which with him have        
understanding1 yet this understanding is
 not1 as man's1 capable of development4 
,for such beings are only certain       
intellectual natures1 and not anything  
besides1 and their being is nothing     
other than to understand2 which is      
without interruption1 otherwise they    
would not be eternal4 ,it is plain1     
therefore1 that the distinguishing      
quality of humanity is the faculty or   
the power of understanding4  ,footnote  
#aed3 ,esse complexionatum4  ,footnote  
#aee3 ,apprehensivum per intellectum    
possibilem4 ,v4 ,aquin4 ,i4 #gi1 #a1 #b1

 #aj4  ,and because this faculty cannot 
be realised in act in its entirety at   
one time by a single man1 nor by any of 
the individual societies which we have  
marked1 therefore there must be         
multitude in the human race1 in order to
 realise it3 just as it is necessary    
that there should be a multitude of     
things which can be brought into        
being1#aef so that the capacity of the  
primal matter for being acted on may be 
ever open to what acts on it4 ,for if   
this were not so1 we could speak of a   
capacity apart from its substance1 which
 is impossible4 ,and with this opinion  
,averroes1 in his comment on            
,aristotle's treatise on the ,soul1     
agrees4 ,for the capacity for           
understanding1 of which ,i speak1 is    
concerned not only with universal forms 
or species1 but also1 by a kind of      
extension1 with particular ones4        
,therefore it is commonly said that the 
speculative understanding becomes       
practical by extension2 and then its end

 is to do and to make4 ,this ,i say in  
reference to things which may be done1  
which are regulated by political wisdom1
 and in reference to things which may be
 made1 which are regulated by art2 all  
which things wait as handmaidens on the 
speculative intellect1 as on that best  
good1 for which the ,primal ,goodness   
created the human race4 ,hence the      
saying of the ,politics#aeg that those  
who are strong in understanding are the 
natural rulers of others4  ,footnote    
#aef3 ,generabilium4  ,footnote #aeg3   
,arist4 ,polit4 i4 #e1 #f4--7,w47       
,,iv4--,it has thus been sufficiently   
set forth that the proper work of the   
human race1 taken as a whole1 is to set 
in action the whole capacity of that    
understanding which is capable of       
development3 first in the way of        
speculation1 and then1 by its extension1
 in the way of action4 ,and seeing that 
what is true of a part is true also of  
the whole1 and that it is by rest and   
quiet that the individual man becomes   

perfect in wisdom and prudence2 so the  
human race1 by living in the calm and   
tranquillity of peace1 applies itself   
most freely and easily to its proper    
work2 a work which1 according to the    
saying2 ,thou hast made him a little    
lower than the angels1 is almost divine4
 ,whence it is manifest that of all     
things that are ordered to secure       
blessings to men1 peace is the best4    
,and hence the word which sounded to the
 shepherds from above was not riches1   
nor pleasure1 nor honour1 nor length of 
life1 nor health1 nor strength1 nor     
beauty2 but peace4 ,for the heavenly    
host said3 ,glory to ,god in the        
highest1 and on earth1 peace to men of  
goodwill4 ,therefore also1 ,peace be    
with you1 was the salutation of the     
,saviour of mankind4 ,for it behoved    
,him1 who was the greatest of saviours1 
to utter in ,his greeting the greatest  
of saving blessings4 ,and this custom   
,his disciples too chose to preserve2   
and ,paul also did the same in his      

greetings1 as may appear manifest to    
all4  ,now that we have declared these  
matters1 it is plain what is the better1
 nay the best1 way in which mankind may 
attain to do its proper work4 ,and      
consequently we have seen the readiest  
means by which to arrive at the point1  
for which all our works are ordered1 as 
their ultimate end2 namely1 the         
universal peace1 which is to be assumed 
as the first principle for our          
deductions4 ,as we said1 this assumption
 was necessary1 for it is as a sign-post
 to us1 that into it we may resolve all 
that has to be proved1 as into a most   
manifest truth4   ,v4--,as therefore we 
have already said1 there are three      
doubts1 and these doubts suggest three  
questions1 concerning ,temporal         
,monarchy1 which in more common speech  
is called the ,empire2 and our purpose  
is1 as we explained1 to inquire         
concerning these questions in their     
given order1 and starting from the first
 principle which we have just laid down4

 ,the first question1 then1 is whether  
,temporal ,monarchy is necessary for the
 welfare of the world2 and that it is   
necessary can1 ,i think1 be shown by the
 strongest and most manifest arguments2 
for nothing1 either of reason or of     
authority1 opposes me4 ,let us first    
take the authority of the ,philosopher  
in his ,politics4#aeh ,there1 on his    
venerable authority1 it is said that    
where a number of things are arranged to
 attain an end1 it behoves one of them  
to regulate or govern the others1 and   
the others to submit4 ,and it is not    
only the authority of his illustrious   
name which makes this worthy of belief1 
but also reason1 instancing particulars4
  ,footnote #aeh3 ,arist4 ,polit4 i4 #e4
  ,if we take the case of a single man1 
we shall see the same rule manifested in
 him3 all his powers are ordered to gain
 happiness2 but his understanding is    
what regulates and governs all the      
others2 and otherwise he would never    
attain to happiness4 ,again1 take a     

single household3 its end is to fit the 
members thereof to live well2 but there 
must be one to regulate and rule it1 who
 is called the father of the family1 or1
 it may be1 one who holds his office4   
,as the ,philosopher says3 ,every house 
is ruled by the oldest4#aei ,and1 as    
,homer says1 it is his duty to make     
rules and laws for the rest4 ,hence the 
proverbial curse3 ,mayst thou have an   
equal at home4#afj ,take a single       
village3 its end is suitable assistance 
as regards persons and goods1 but one in
 it must be the ruler of the rest1      
either set over them by another1 or with
 their consent1 the head man amongst    
them4 ,if it be not so1 not only do its 
inhabitants fail of this mutual         
assistance1 but the whole neighbourhood 
is sometimes wholly ruined by the       
ambition of many1 who each of them wish 
to rule4 ,if1 again1 we take a single   
city3 its end is to secure a good and   
sufficient life to the citizens2 but one
 man must be ruler in imperfect#afa as  

well as in good forms of the state4 ,if 
it is otherwise1 not only is the end of 
civil life lost1 but the city too ceases
 to be what it was4 ,lastly1 if we take 
any one kingdom1 of which the end is the
 same as that of a city1 only with      
greater security for its tranquillity1  
there must be one king to rule and      
govern4 ,for if this is not so1 not only
 do his subjects miss their end1 but the
 kingdom itself falls to destruction1   
according to that word of the infallible
 truth3 ,every kingdom divided against  
itself shall be brought to desolation4  
,if then this holds good in these cases1
 and in each individual thing which is  
ordered to one certain end1 what we have
 laid down is true4  ,footnote #aei3    
,ibid4 i4 #b1 #f1 quoting ,hom4 ,od4 ix4
 #aad4--7,w47  ,footnote #afj3 ,ficinus 
translates3 ,uno proverbio che quasi    
bestemmiando dice1 ,abbi pari in casa4  
,footnote #afa3 ,obliqua  ,greek3       
parekbaseis4 ,v4 ,arist4 ,eth4 viii4    
#aj2 ,pol4 iii4 #g4--7,w47  ,now it is  

plain that the whole human race is      
ordered to gain some end1 as has been   
before shown4 ,there must1 therefore1 be
 one to guide and govern1 and the proper
 title for this office is ,monarch or   
,emperor4 ,and so it is plain that      
,monarchy or the ,empire is necessary   
for the welfare of the world4           
,,vi4--,and as the part is to the whole1
 so is the order of parts to the order  
of the whole4 ,the part is to the whole1
 as to an end and highest good which is 
aimed at2 and1 therefore1 the order in  
the parts is to the order in the whole1 
as it is to the end and highest good    
aimed at4 ,hence we have it that the    
goodness of the order of parts does not 
exceed the goodness of the order of the 
whole1 but that the converse of this is 
true4 ,therefore we find a double order 
in the world1 namely1 the order of parts
 in relation to each other1 and their   
order in relation to some one thing     
which is not a part 7as there is in the 
order of the parts of an army in        

relation to each other1 and then in     
relation to the general72 and the order 
of the parts in relation to the one     
thing which is not a part is the higher1
 for it is the end of the other order1  
and the other exists for the sake of it4
 ,therefore1 if the form of this order  
is found in the units of the mass of    
mankind1 much more may we argue by our  
syllogism that it is found in mankind   
considered as a whole2 for this latter  
order1 or its form1 is better4 ,but as  
was said in the preceding chapter1 and  
it is sufficiently plain1 this order is 
found in all the units of the mass of   
mankind4 ,therefore it is1 or should be1
 found in the mass considered as a      
whole4 ,and therefore all the parts that
 we have mentioned1 which are comprised 
in kingdoms1 and the kingdoms themselves
 ought to be ordered with reference to  
one ,prince or ,princedom1 that is1 with
 reference to a ,monarch or ,monarchy4  
,,vii4--,further1 the whole human race  
is a whole with reference to certain    

parts1 and1 with reference to another   
whole1 it is a part4 ,for it is a whole 
with reference to particular kingdoms   
and nations1 as we have shown2 and it is
 a part with reference to the whole     
universe1 as is manifest without        
argument4 ,therefore1 as the lower      
portions of the whole system of humanity
 are well adapted to that whole1 so that
 whole is said to be well adapted to the
 whole which is above it4 ,it is only   
under the rule of one prince that the   
parts of humanity are well adapted to   
their whole1 as may easily be collected 
from what we have said2 therefore it is 
only by being under one ,princedom1 or  
the rule of a single ,prince1 that      
humanity as a whole is well adapted to  
the ,universe1 or its ,prince1 who is   
the ,one ,god4 ,and it therefore follows
 that ,monarchy is necessary for the    
welfare of the world4   ,,viii4--,and   
all is well and at its best which exists
 according to the will of the first     
agent1 who is ,god4 ,this is            

self-evident1 except to those who deny  
that the divine goodness attains to     
absolute perfection4 ,now1 it is the    
intention of ,god that all created      
things should represent the likeness of 
,god1 so far as their proper nature will
 admit4 ,therefore was it said3 ,let us 
make man in our image1 after our        
likeness4 ,and though it could not be   
said that the lower part of creation was
 made in the image of ,god1 yet all     
things may be said to be after ,his     
likeness1 for what is the whole universe
 but the footprint of the divine        
goodness8 ,the human race1 therefore1 is
 well1 nay at its best state1 when1 so  
far as can be1 it is made like unto     
,god4 ,but the human race is then most  
made like unto ,god when most it is one2
 for the true principle of oneness is in
 ,him alone4 ,wherefore it is written3  
,hear1 ,o ,israel2 the ,lord thy ,god is
 one ,god4 ,but the race of man is most 
one when it is united wholly in one     
body1 and it is evident that this cannot

 be1 except when it is subject to one   
prince4 ,therefore in this subjection   
mankind is most made like unto ,god1    
and1 in consequence1 such a subjection  
is in accordance with the divine        
intention1 and it is indeed well and    
best for man when this is so1 as we     
showed at the beginning of this chapter4
   ,,ix4--,again1 things are well and at
 their best with every son when he      
follows1 so far as by his proper nature 
he can1 the footsteps of a perfect      
father4 ,mankind is the son of heaven1  
which is most perfect in all its works2 
for it is man and the sun which produce 
man1 according to the second book on    
,natural ,learning4#afb ,the human race1
 therefore1 is at its best when it      
imitates the movements of heaven1 so far
 as human nature allows4 ,and since the 
whole heaven is regulated with one      
motion1 to wit1 that of the primum      
mobile1 and by one mover1 who is ,god1  
in all its parts1 movements1 and movers 
7and this human reason readily seizes   

from science72 therefore1 if our        
argument be correct1 the human race is  
at its best state when1 both in its     
movements1 and in regard to those who   
move it1 it is regulated by a single    
,prince1 as by the single movement of   
heaven1 and by one law1 as by the single
 motion4 ,therefore it is evidently     
necessary for the welfare of the world  
for there to be a ,monarchy1 or single  
,princedom1 which men call the ,empire4 
,and this thought did ,boethius breathe 
when he said3 ,oh happy race of men1 if 
your hearts are ruled by the love which 
rules the heaven4#afc  ,footnote #afb3  
,arist4 ,phys4 ,ausc4 ii4 #b4--7,w47    
,footnote #afc3 ,de ,consol4 ,phil4 ii4 
met4 #h4--7,w47   ,x4--,wherever there  
is controversy1 there ought to be       
judgment1 otherwise there would be      
imperfection without its proper         
remedy1#afd which is impossible2 for    
,god and ,nature1 in things necessary1  
do not fail in their provisions4 ,but it
 is manifest that there may be          

controversy between any two princes1    
where the one is not subject to the     
other1 either from the fault of         
themselves1 or even of their subjects4  
,therefore between them there should be 
means of judgment4 ,and since1 when one 
is not subject to the other1 he cannot  
be judged by the other 7for there is no 
rule of equals over equals71 there must 
be a third prince of wider jurisdiction1
 within the circle of whose laws both   
may come4 ,either he will or he will not
 be a ,monarch4 ,if he is1 we have what 
we sought2 if not1 then this one again  
will have an equal1 who is not subject  
to his jurisdiction1 and then again we  
have need of a third4 ,and so we must   
either go on to infinity1 which is      
impossible1 or we must come to that     
judge who is first and highest2 by whose
 judgment all controversies shall be    
either directly or indirectly decided2  
and he will be ,monarch or ,emperor4    
,monarchy is therefore necessary to the 
world1 and this the ,philosopher saw    

when he said3 ,the world is not intended
 to be disposed in evil order2 'in a    
multitude of rulers there is evil1      
therefore let there be one prince4'#afe 
,footnote #afd3 ,sine proprio           
perfectivo4  ,footnote #afe3 ,arist4    
,metaphys4 xii4 #aj1 who quotes from    
,hom4 ,il4 ii4 #bjd4--7,w47             
,,xi4--,further1 the world is ordered   
best when justice is most paramount     
therein3 whence ,virgil1 wishing to     
celebrate that age1 which in his own    
time seemed to be arising1 sang in his  
,bucolics3#aff ,now doth the ,virgin    
return1 and the kingdom of ,saturn4 ,for
 ,justice was named the ,virgin1 and    
also ,astra4 ,the kingdom of ,saturn was
 the good time1 which they also called  
the ,golden ,age4 ,but ,justice is      
paramount only in a ,monarchy1 and      
therefore a ,monarchy1 that is1 the     
,empire1 is needed if the world is to be
 ordered for the best4 ,for better proof
 of this assumption it must be          
recognised that ,justice1 considered in 

itself1 and in its proper nature1 is a  
certain rightness or rule of conduct1   
which rejects on either side all that   
deviates from it4 ,it is like whiteness 
considered as an abstraction1 not       
admitting of degrees4 ,for there are    
certain forms of this sort which belong 
to things compounded1 and exist         
themselves in a simple and unchanging   
essence1 as#afg the ,master of the ,six 
,principles rightly says4 ,yet qualities
 of this sort admit of degrees on the   
part of their subjects with which they  
are connected1 according as in their    
subjects more or less of their          
contraries is mingled4 ,justice1        
therefore1 is strongest in man1 both as 
a state of mind and in practice1 where  
there is least admixture of its         
opposite2 and then we may say of it1 in 
the words of the ,philosopher1 that     
neither the star of morning nor of      
evening is so admirable4#afh ,for then  
is it like ,phoebe1 when she looks      
across the heavens at her brother from  

the purple of the morning calm4         
,footnote #aff3 ,ecl4 iv4 #f4  ,footnote
 #afg3 ,gilbert de la ,porre1 dagger    
symbol#aaed4 ,the ,six ,principles were 
the last six of the ,ten ,categories of 
,aristotle1 and the book became one of  
the chief elementary logic-books of the 
,middle ,ages4 ,vide ,haurau1           
,philosophie ,scolastique1 #a;e ,partie1
 p4 #deb4  ,footnote #afh3 ,from ,arist4
 ,ethics1 v4 #a4--7,w47  ,now ,justice1 
as a state of mind1#afi has a force     
which opposes it in the will2 for where 
the will of a man is not pure from all  
desire1 then1 though there be ,justice1 
yet there is not ,justice in all its    
ideal brightness2 for there is in that  
man1 however little1 yet in some degree1
 an opposing force2 and therefore they1 
who would work on the feelings#agj of a 
judge1 are rightly repelled4 ,but1 in   
practice1#aga ,justice finds an opposing
 force in what men are able to do4 ,for1
 seeing that it is a virtue regulating  
our conduct towards other men1 how shall

 any act according to ,justice if he has
 not the power of rendering to all their
 due8 ,therefore it is plain that the   
operation of ,justice will be wide in   
proportion to the power of the just man4
  ,footnote #afi3 ,quantum ad habitum4  
,footnote #agj3 ,passionare4  ,footnote 
#aga3 ,quantum ad operationem4  ,from   
this let us argue3 ,justice is strongest
 in the world when it is in one who is  
most willing and most powerful2 only the
 ,monarch is this2 therefore1 only when 
,justice is in the ,monarch is it       
strongest in the world4 ,this           
pro-syllogism goes on through the second
 figure1 with an involved negative1 and 
is like this3 ,all ,b is ,a2 only ,c is 
,a2 therefore only ,c is ,b3 or all ,b  
is ,a2 nothing but ,c is ,a2 therefore  
nothing but ,c is ,b4  ,our previous    
explanation makes the first proposition 
apparent3 the second is proved thus1    
first in regard to will1 and secondly in
 regard to power4 ,first it must be     
observed that the strongest opponent of 

,justice is ,appetite1 as ,aristotle    
intimates in the fifth book to          
,nicomachus4#agb ,remove ,appetite      
altogether1 and there remains nothing   
adverse to ,justice2 and therefore it is
 the opinion of the ,philosopher that   
nothing should be left to the judge1 if 
it can be decided by law2#agc and this  
ought to be done for fear of ,appetite1 
which easily perverts men's minds4      
,where1 then1 there is nothing to be    
wished for1 there can be no ,appetite1  
for the passions cannot exist if their  
objects are destroyed4 ,but the ,monarch
 has nothing to desire1 for his         
jurisdiction is bounded only by the     
ocean2 and this is not the case with    
other princes1 whose kingdoms are       
bounded by those of their neighbours2   
as1 for instance1 the kingdom of        
,castile is bounded by the kingdom of   
,aragon4 ,from which it follows that the
 ,monarch is able to be the purest      
embodiment of ,justice among men4       
,footnote #agb3 ,eth4 v4 #b4--7,w47     

,footnote #agc3 ,rhetoric1 i4 #a4--7,w47
  ,further1 as ,appetite in some degree1
 however small1 clouds the habit of     
,justice1 so does ,charity1 or          
rightly-directed affection1 sharpen and 
enlighten it4 ,in whomsoever1 therefore1
 rightly-directed affection may chiefly 
dwell1 in him may ,justice best have    
place3 and of this sort is the ,monarch4
 ,therefore where a ,monarch reigns     
,justice is1 or at least may be1        
strongest4 ,that rightly-directed       
affections work as we have said1 we may 
see thus3 ,appetite1 scorning#agd what  
in itself belongs to man1 seeks for     
other things outside him2 but ,charity  
sets aside all else1 and seeks ,god and 
man1 and consequently the good of man4  
,and since of all the good things that  
men can have the greatest is to live in 
peace 7as we have already said71 and as 
it is ,justice which most chiefly brings
 peace1 therefore ,charity will chiefly 
make ,justice strong1 and the more so in
 proportion to its own strength4        

,footnote #agd3 ,perseitas hominum      
facultas per se subsistendi4--,,ducange4
  ,and it is clear that right affections
 ought to exist in a ,monarch more than 
in any other man for this reason3 the   
object of love is the more loved the    
nearer it is to him that loves2 but men 
are nearer to a ,monarch than they are  
to other princes2 therefore it is by a  
,monarch that they are1 or ought to be1 
most loved4 ,the first proposition is   
manifest if the nature of activity and  
passivity are considered4 ,the second is
 manifest because men are brought near  
to a ,monarch in their totality1#age but
 to other princes only partially2 and it
 is only by means of the ,monarch that  
men are brought near other princes at   
all4 ,thus the ,monarch cares for all   
primarily and directly1 whereas other   
princes only care for their subjects    
through the ,monarch1 and because their 
care for their subjects descends from   
the supreme care of the ,monarch4       
,footnote #age3 ,secundum totum4        

,again1 a cause has the nature of a     
cause in proportion as it is more       
universal2 for the lower cause is such  
only on account of the higher one1 as   
appears from the ,treatise on           
,causes4#agf ,and1 in proportion as a   
cause is really a cause1 it loves what  
it effects2 for such love follows the   
cause by itself4 ,now ,monarchy is the  
most universal cause of men living well1
 for other princes work only through the
 ,monarch1 as we have said2 and it      
therefore follows that it is the        
,monarch who will most chiefly love the 
good of men4 ,but that in practice the  
,monarch is most disposed to work       
,justice1 who can doubt1 except indeed a
 man who understands not the meaning of 
the word8 for if he be really a ,monarch
 he cannot have enemies4  ,footnote     
#agf3 ,a compilation from the ,arabians1
 or perhaps ,aristotle or ,proclus1     
which1 under various names1 passed for a
 work of ,aristotle1 and is ascribed by 
,albert the ,great to a certain ,david  

the ,jew4 ,it is quoted in the twelfth  
century1 and was commented on by ,albert
 and ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,vide ,jourdain1 
,recherches sur les traductions         
d',aristote 7#ahdb71 pp4 #aad1 #ahd1    
#aic1 #aie1 #dde2 ,philosophie de ,s4   
,thomas 7#aheh71 i4 #id4  ,the principle
 assumed being therefore sufficiently   
explained1 the conclusion is certain1 to
 wit1 that a ,monarch is necessary that 
the world may be ordered for the best4  
,,xii4--,again1 the human race is       
ordered best when it is most free4 ,this
 will be manifest if we see what is the 
principle of freedom4 ,it must be       
understood that the first principle of  
our freedom is freedom of will1 which   
many have in their mouth1 but few indeed
 understand4 ,for they come so far as to
 say that the freedom of the will means 
a free judgment concerning will4 ,and   
this is true4 ,but what is meant by the 
words is far from them3 and they do just
 as our logicians do all day long with  
certain propositions which are set as   

examples in the books of logic1 as that1
 the three angles of a triangle are     
equal to two right angles4#agg          
,footnote #agg3 ,cf4 ,arist4 ,magna     
,moral4 i4 #a3 ,it would be absurd if a 
man1 wishing to prove that the angles of
 a triangle were equal to two right     
angles1 assumed as his principle that   
the soul is immortal4--,,witte4         
,therefore ,i say that ,judgment is     
between ,apprehension and ,appetite4    
,first1 a man apprehends a thing2 then  
he judges it to be good or bad2 then he 
pursues or avoids it accordingly4 ,if   
therefore the ,judgment guides the      
,appetite wholly1 and in no way is      
forestalled by the ,appetite1 then is   
the ,judgment free4 ,but if the         
,appetite in any way at all forestalls  
the ,judgment and guides it1 then the   
,judgment cannot be free3 it is not its 
own3 it is captive to another power4    
,therefore the brute beasts cannot have 
freedom of ,judgment2 for in them the   
,appetite always forestalls the         

,judgment4 ,therefore1 too1 it is that  
intellectual beings whose wills are     
unchangeable1 and souls which are       
separate from the body1 which have gone 
hence in peace1 do not lose the freedom 
of their wills1 because their wishes    
cannot change2 nay1 it is in full       
strength and completeness that their    
wills are free4#agh  ,footnote #agh3    
,cf4 ,purgatorio1 xviii4 #bb4--,,witte4 
,it is therefore again manifest that    
this liberty1 or this principle of all  
our liberty1 is the greatest gift       
bestowed by ,god on mankind3 by it alone
 we gain happiness#agi as men3 by it    
alone we gain happiness elsewhere as    
gods4#ahj ,but if this is so1 who will  
say that human kind is not in its best  
state1 when it can most use this        
principle8 ,but he who lives under a    
,monarchy is most free4 ,therefore let  
it be understood that he is free who    
exists not for another's sake but for   
his own1 as the ,philosopher1 in his    
,treatise of simple ,being1 thought4#aha

 ,for everything which exists for the   
sake of some other thing1 is            
necessitated by that other thing1 as a  
road has to run to its ordained end4    
,men exist for themselves1 and not at   
the pleasure of others1 only if a       
,monarch rules2 for then only are the   
perverted forms of government set right1
 while democracies1 oligarchies1 and    
tyrannies1 drive mankind into slavery1  
as is obvious to any who goes about     
among them all2 and public power#ahb is 
in the hands of kings and aristocracies1
 which they call the rule of the best1  
and champions of popular liberty4 ,and  
because the ,monarch loves his subjects 
much1 as we have seen1 he wishes all men
 to be good1 which cannot be the case in
 perverted forms of government3#ahc     
therefore the ,philosopher says1 in his 
,politics3#ahd ,in the bad state the    
good man is a bad citizen1 but in a good
 state the two coincide4 ,good states in
 this way aim at liberty1 that in them  
men may live for themselves4 ,the       

citizens exist not for the good of      
consuls1 nor the nation for the good of 
its king2 but the consuls for the good  
of the citizens1 and the king for the   
good of his nation4 ,for as the laws are
 made to suit the state1 and not the    
state to suit the laws1 so those who    
live under the laws are not ordered for 
the legislator1 but he for them2#ahe as 
also the ,philosopher holds1 in what he 
has left us on the present subject4     
,hence1 too1 it is clear that although  
the king or the consul rule over the    
other citizens in respect of the        
means#ahf of government1 yet in respect 
of the end of government they are the   
servants of the citizens1 and especially
 the ,monarch1 who1 without doubt1 must 
be held the servant of all4 ,thus it    
becomes clear that the ,monarch is bound
 by the end appointed to himself in     
making his laws4 ,therefore mankind is  
best off under a ,monarchy1 and hence it
 follows that ,monarchy is necessary for
 the welfare of the world4  ,footnote   

#agi3 ,felicitamur4  ,footnote #ahj3 ,ut
 ,dii2 cf4 ,paradiso1 v4 #ai4--,,witte4 
,footnote #aha3 ,i4e4 ,metaphys4 #a1    
#b4--7,w47  ,footnote #ahb3 ,politizant 
reges4  ,footnote #ahc3 ,oblique        
politizantes4  ,footnote #ahd3 ,polit4  
iii4 #d4  ,footnote #ahe3 ,ibid4 iii4   
#af1 #ag4--7,w47  ,footnote #ahf3       
,respectu vi 444 respectu termini4      
,,xiii4--,further1 he who can be best   
fitted to rule can best fit others4 ,for
 in every action the main end of the    
agent1 whether acting by necessity of   
nature or voluntarily1 is to unfold his 
own likeness2 and therefore every agent1
 so far as he is of this sort1 delights 
in action4 ,for since all that is       
desires its own existence1 and since the
 agent in acting enlarges his own       
existence in some way1 delight follows  
action of necessity2 for delight is     
inseparable from gaining what is        
desired4 ,nothing therefore acts unless 
it is of such sort as that which is     
acted on ought to be2 therefore the     

,philosopher said in his                
,metaphysics1#ahg ,everything which     
becomes actual from being potential1    
becomes so by means of something actual 
of the same kind1 and were anything to  
try to act in any other way it would    
fail4 ,hence we may overthrow the error 
of those who think to form the moral    
character of others by speaking well and
 doing ill2 forgetting that the hands of
 ,jacob were more persuasive with his   
father than his words1 though his hands 
deceived and his voice spake truth4     
,hence the ,philosopher1 to ,nicomachus3
 ,in matters of feeling and action1     
words are less to be trusted than       
deeds4#ahh ,and therefore ,god said to  
,david in his sin1 ,what hast thou to do
 to declare my statutes8 as though ,he  
would say1 ,thou speakest in vain1 for  
thou art different from what thou       
speakest4 ,hence it may be gathered that
 he needs to be fitted for his work in  
the best way who wishes to fit others4  
,footnote #ahg3 ,metaphys4 ix4          

#h4--7,w47  ,footnote #ahh3 ,arist4     
,eth4 x4 #a4--7,w47  ,but the ,monarch  
is the only one who can be fitted in the
 best possible way to govern4 ,which is 
thus proved3 ,each thing is the more    
easily and perfectly qualified for any  
habit1 or actual work1 the less there is
 in it of what is contrary to such a    
disposition4 ,therefore1 they who have  
never even heard of philosophy1 arrive  
at a habit of truth in philosophy more  
easily and completely than those who    
have listened to it at odd times1 and   
are filled with false opinions4 ,for    
which reason ,galen well says3 ,such as 
these require double time to acquire    
knowledge4#ahi ,a ,monarch then has     
nothing to tempt appetite1 or1 at least1
 less than any other man1 as we have    
shown before2 whereas other princes have
 much2 and appetite is the only         
corrupter of righteousness1 and the only
 impediment to justice4 ,a ,monarch     
therefore is wholly1 or at least more   
than any other prince1 disposed to      

govern well3 for in him there may be    
judgment and justice more strongly than 
in any other4 ,but these two things are 
the pre-eminent attributes of a maker of
 law1 and of an executor of law1 as that
 most holy king ,david testified when he
 asked of ,god the things which were    
befitting the king1 and the king's son1 
saying3 ,give the king thy judgment1 ,o 
,god1 and thy righteousness unto the    
king's son4#aij  ,footnote #ahi3 ,de    
cognosc4 animi morbis1 c4 #aj4--,,witte4
  ,footnote #aij3 ,cf4 ,parad4 xiii4    
#ie4--7,w47  ,we were right then when we
 assumed that only the ,monarch can be  
best fitted to rule4 ,therefore only the
 ,monarch can in the best way fit other 
men4 ,therefore it follows that         
,monarchy is necessary for the best     
ordering of the world4   ,,xiv4--,and   
where a thing can be done by one agent1 
it is better to do it by one than by    
several1 for this reason3 ,let it be    
possible to do a certain thing by means 
of ,a1 and also by means of ,a and ,b4  

,if therefore what is done by ,a and ,b 
can be done by ,a alone1 it is useless  
to add ,b2 for nothing follows from the 
addition2 for the same end which ,a and 
,b produced is produced also by ,a4 ,all
 additions of this kind are useless and 
superfluous3 all that is superfluous is 
displeasing to ,god and ,nature3 and all
 that is displeasing to ,god and ,nature
 is bad1 as is manifest4 ,it therefore  
follows not only that it is better that 
a thing should be done by one than by   
many agents1 if it is possible to       
produce the effect by one2 but also that
 to produce the effect by one is good1  
and to produce it by many is simply bad4
 ,again1 a thing is said to be better by
 being nearer to the best1 and the end  
has the nature of the best4 ,but for a  
thing to be done by one agent is better1
 for so it comes nearer to the end4 ,and
 that so it comes nearer is manifest2   
for let ,c be the end which may be      
reached by ,a1 or by ,a and ,b together3
 plainly it is longer to reach ,c by ,a 

and ,b together than by ,b alone4 ,but  
mankind may be governed by one supreme  
prince1 who is1 the ,monarch4  ,but it  
must be carefully observed that when we 
say that mankind may be ruled by one    
supreme prince1 we do not mean that the 
most trifling judgments for each        
particular town are to proceed          
immediately from him4 ,for municipal    
laws sometimes fail1 and need guidance1 
as the ,philosopher shows in his fifth  
book to ,nicomachus1 when he praises    
equity4#aia ,for nations and kingdoms   
and states have1 each of them1 certain  
peculiarities which must be regulated by
 different laws4 ,for law is the rule   
which directs life4 ,thus the ,scythians
 need one rule1 for they live beyond the
 seventh climate1#aib and suffer cold   
which is almost unbearable1 from the    
great inequality of their days and      
nights4 ,but the ,garamantes need a     
different law1 for their country is     
equinoctial1 and they cannot wear many  
clothes1 from the excessive heat of the 

air1 because the day is as long as the  
darkness of the night4 ,but our meaning 
is that it is in those matters which are
 common to all men1 that men should be  
ruled by one ,monarch1 and be governed  
by a rule common to them all1 with a    
view to their peace4 ,and the individual
 princes must receive this rule of life 
or law from him1 just as the practical  
intellect receives its major premiss    
from the speculative intellect1 under   
which it places its own particular      
premiss1 and then draws its particular  
conclusion1 with a view to action4 ,and 
it is not only possible for one man to  
act as we have described2 it is         
necessary that it should proceed from   
one man only to avoid confusion in our  
first principles4 ,moses himself wrote  
in his law that he had acted thus4 ,for 
he took the elders of the tribes of the 
children of ,israel1 and left to them   
the lesser judgments1 reserving to      
himself such as were more important1 and
 wider in their scope2 and the elders   

carried these wider ones to their       
tribes1 according as they were          
applicable to each separate tribe4      
,footnote #aia3 ,eth4 v4 #ad4--7,w47    
,footnote #aib3 ,ptolemy1 the medival   
authority on geography1 divided the     
known world into ,greek3 klimata1 zones 
of slope towards the pole1 or belts of  
latitude1 eight of which from the       
equinoctial to the mouths of the ,tanais
 and the ,riphan mountains4 ,the seventh
 clima passed over the mouths of the    
,borysthenes4 ,see ,mercator's map in   
,bertius' ,theatrum ,geographi ,veteris 
7#afah71 art4 ,ptolemy in ,smith's      
,dictionary of ,biography1 p4 #egg4     
,dictionary of ,antiquities1 art4       
,clima4  ,therefore it is better for the
 human race to be ruled by one than by  
many1 and therefore there should be a   
,monarch1 who is a single prince2 and if
 it is better1 it is more acceptable to 
,god1 since ,god always wills what is   
best4 ,and since of these two ways of   
government the one is not only the      

better1 but the best of all1 it follows 
not only that this one is more          
acceptable to ,god as between one and   
many1 but that it is the most           
acceptable4 ,therefore it is best for   
the human race to be governed by one    
man2 and ,monarchy is necessary for the 
welfare of the world4   ,,xv4--,i say   
also that ,being1 and ,unity1 and the   
,good come in order after the fifth mode
 of priority4#aic ,for ,being comes by  
nature before ,unity1 and ,unity before 
,good4 ,where ,being is most1 there     
,unity is greatest2 and where ,unity is 
greatest1 there ,good is also greatest2 
and in proportion as anything is far    
from ,being in its highest form1 is it  
far from ,unity1 and therefore from     
,good4 ,therefore in every kind of      
things1 that which is most one is best1 
as the ,philosopher holds in the        
treatise about simple ,being4 ,therefore
 it appears that to be one is the root  
of ,good1 and to be many the root of    
,evil4 ,therefore1 ,pythagoras in his   

parallel tables placed the one1 or      
,unity1 under the line of good1 and the 
many under the line of ,evil2 as appears
 from the first book of the             
,metaphysics4#aid ,hence we may see that
 to sin is nothing else than to pass on 
from the one which we despise and to    
seek many things1 as the ,psalmist saw  
when he said3 ,by the fruit of their    
corn and wine and oil1 are they         
multiplied4#aie  ,footnote #aic3 ,arist4
 ,categ41 e4g43 ,priority is said in    
five ways--#a4 ,first in time4 #b4      
,first in pre-supposition4 #c4 ,first in
 order4 #d4 ,first in excellence4 #e4   
,first in logical sequence4  ,footnote  
#aid3 ,v4 ,arist4 ,metaph4 #a1 #e2      
,ethics i4 #d2 cf4 ,ritter and ,preller1
 ,hist4 ,philos4 sec4 #aje4  ,footnote  
#aie3 ,ps4 iv4 #h 7vulg474  ,hence it is
 plain that whatever is good1 is good   
for this reason1 that it consists in    
unity4 ,and because concord is a good   
thing in so far as it is concord1 it is 
manifest that it consists in a certain  

unity1 as its proper root1 the nature of
 which will appear if we find the real  
nature of concord4 ,concord then is the 
uniform motion of many wills2 and hence 
it appears that a unity of wills1 by    
which is meant their uniform motion1 is 
the root of concord1 nay1 concord       
itself4 ,for as we should say that many 
clods of earth are concordant1 because  
that they all gravitate together towards
 the centre2 and that many flames are   
concordant because that they all ascend 
together towards the circumference1 if  
they did this of their own free will1 so
 we say that many men are in concord    
because that they are all moved         
together1 as regards their willing1 to  
one thing1 which one thing is formally  
in their wills just as there is one     
quality formally in the clods of earth1 
that is gravity1 and one in the flame of
 fire1 that is lightness4 ,for the force
 of willing is a certain power2 but the 
quality of good which it apprehends is  
its form2 which form1 like as others1   

being one is multiplied in itself1      
according to the multiplication of the  
matters which receive it1 as the soul1  
and numbers1 and other forms which      
belong to what is compound4#aif         
,footnote #aif3 ,on the scholastic      
doctrine of forms1 v4 ,thom4 ,aquin4    
,summ4 ,i4 #aje1 art4 #d4  ,to explain  
our assumption as we proposed1 let us   
argue thus3 ,all concord depends on     
unity which is in wills2 the human race1
 when it is at its best1 is a kind of   
concord2 for as one man at his best is a
 kind of concord1 and as the like is    
true of the family1 the city1 and the   
kingdom2 so is it of the whole human    
race4 ,therefore the human race at its  
best depends on the unity which is in   
will4 ,but this cannot be unless there  
be one will to be the single mistress   
and regulating influence of all the     
rest4 ,for the wills of men1 on account 
of the blandishments of youth1 require  
one to direct them1 as ,aristotle shows 
in the tenth book of his ,ethics4#aig   

,and this cannot be unless there is one 
prince over all1 whose will shall be the
 mistress and regulating influence of   
all the others4 ,but if all these       
conclusions be true1 as they are1 it is 
necessary for the highest welfare of the
 human race that there should be a      
,monarch in the world2 and therefore    
,monarchy is necessary for the good of  
the world4  ,footnote #aig3 ,arist4     
,eth4 x4 #e4--7,w47   ,,xvi4--,to all   
these reasons alleged above a memorable 
experience adds its confirmation4 ,i    
mean that condition of mankind which the
 ,son of ,god1 when1 for the salvation  
of man1 ,he was about to put on man1    
either waited for1 or1 at the moment    
when ,he willed1 ,himself so ordered4   
,for if1 from the fall of our first     
parents1 which was the turning point at 
which all our going astray began1 we    
carry our thoughts over the distribution
 of the human race and the order of its 
times1 we shall find that never but     
under the divine ,augustus1 who was sole

 ruler1 and under whom a perfect        
,monarchy existed1 was the world        
everywhere quiet4 ,and that then the    
human race was happy in the tranquillity
 of universal peace1 this is the witness
 of all writers of history2 this is the 
witness of famous poets2 this1 too1 he  
who wrote the story of the meekness and 
gentleness of ,christ has thought fit to
 attest4 ,and last of all1 ,paul has    
called that most blessed condition the  
fulness of the times4 ,for then1 indeed1
 time was full1 and all the things of   
time2 because no office belonging to our
 felicity wanted its minister4 ,but how 
the world has fared since that seamless 
robe has suffered rending by the talons 
of ambition1 we may read in books2 would
 that we might not see it with our eyes4
 ,oh1 race of mankind6 what storms must 
toss thee1 what losses must thou endure1
 what shipwrecks must buffet thee1 as   
long as thou1 a beast of many heads1    
strivest after contrary things4 ,thou   
art sick in both thy faculties of       

understanding2 thou art sick in thine   
affections4 ,unanswerable reasons fail  
to heal thy higher understanding2 the   
very sight of experience convinces not  
thy lower understanding2 not even the   
sweetness of divine persuasion charms   
thy affections1 when it breathes into   
thee through the music of the ,holy     
,ghost3 ,behold1 how good and how       
pleasant a thing it is1 brethren1 to    
dwell together in unity4#aih  ,footnote 
#aih3 ,ps4 cxxxii4 #a4--7,w47     ,,book
 ,,ii4   ,i4--,why do the heathen rage1 
and the people imagine a vain thing8    
,the kings of the earth stand up1 and   
the rulers take counsel together against
 the ,lord and against ,his anointed1   
saying3 ',let us break their bonds      
asunder1 and cast away their cords from 
us4'#aii ,as we commonly wonder at a new
 effect1 when we have never been face to
 face with its cause2 so1 as soon as we 
understand the cause1 we look down with 
a kind of scorn on those who remain in  
wonder4 ,i1 myself1 was once filled with

 wonder that the ,roman people had      
become paramount throughout all the     
earth1 without any to withstand them2   
for when ,i looked at the thing         
superficially ,i thought that this      
supremacy had been obtained1 not by any 
right1 but only by arms and violence4   
,but after that ,i had carefully and    
thoroughly examined the matter1 when ,i 
had recognised by the most effectual    
signs that it was divine providence that
 had wrought this1 my wonder ceased1 and
 a certain scornful contempt has taken  
its place1 when ,i perceive the nations 
raging against the pre-eminence of the  
,roman people2 when ,i see the people   
imagining a vain thing1 as ,i of old    
imagined2 when1 above all1 ,i grieve    
that kings and princes agree in this one
 matter only1 in opposing their ,lord1  
and ,his one only ,roman ,emperor4      
,wherefore in derision1 yet not without 
a touch of sorrow1 ,i can cry on behalf 
of the glorious people and for ,csar1   
together with him who cried on behalf of

 the ,prince of heaven3 ,why do the     
heathen rage1 and the people imagine a  
vain thing8 ,the kings of the earth     
stand up1 and the rulers take counsel   
together against the ,lord and against  
,his anointed4 ,but the love which      
nature implants in us allows not scorn  
to last for long2 but1 like the summer  
sun that when it has dispersed the      
morning clouds shines with full         
brightness1 this love prefers to put    
scorn aside1 and to pour forth the light
 which shall set men right4 ,so1 then1  
to break the bonds of the ignorance of  
those kings and princes1 and to show    
that mankind is free from their yoke1 ,i
 will comfort myself in company with    
that most holy prophet1 whom ,i follow1 
taking the words which come after3 ,let 
us break their bonds asunder1 and cast  
away their yoke from us4  ,footnote     
#aii3 ,ps4 ii4 #a-c4--7,w47  ,these two 
things will be sufficiently performed1  
if ,i address myself to the second part 
of the argument1 and manifest the truth 

of the question before us4 ,for thus1 if
 we show that the ,roman ,empire is by  
right1 not only shall we disperse the   
clouds of ignorance from the eyes of    
those princes who have wrongly seized   
the helm of public government1 falsely  
imputing this thing to the ,roman       
people2 but all men shall understand    
that they are free from the yoke of     
these usurpers4 ,the truth of the       
question can be made clear not only by  
the light of human reason1 but also by  
the ray of ,god's authority2 and when   
these two coincide1 then heaven and     
earth must agree together4 ,supported1  
therefore1 by this conviction1 and      
trusting in the testimony both of reason
 and of authority1 ,i proceed to settle 
the second question4   ,,ii4--,inquiry  
concerning the truth of the first doubt 
has been made as accurately as the      
nature of the subject permitted2 we have
 now to inquire concerning the second1  
which is3 ,whether the ,roman people    
assumed to itself of right the dignity  

of the ,empire8 ,and the first thing in 
this question is to find the truth1 to  
which the reasonings concerning it may  
be referred as to their proper first    
principle4  ,it must be recognised1     
then1 that as there are three degrees in
 every art1 the mind of the artist1 his 
instrument1 and the material on which he
 works1 so we may look upon nature in   
three degrees4 ,for nature exists1      
first1 in the mind of the ,first ,agent1
 who is ,god2 then in heaven2 as in an  
instrument1 by means of which the       
likeness of the ,eternal ,goodness      
unfolds itself on shapeless#bjj matter4 
,if an artist is perfect in his art1 and
 his instrument is perfect1 any fault in
 the form of his art must be laid to the
 badness of the material2 and so1 since 
,god holds the summit of perfection1 and
 since ,his instrument1 which is heaven1
 admits of no failure of its due        
perfection 7which is manifest from our  
philosophy touching heaven71 it follows 
that whatever fault is to be found in   

the lower world is a fault on the part  
of the subject matter1 and is contrary  
to the intention of ,god who makes      
nature1#bja and of heaven2 and if in    
this lower world there is aught that is 
good1 it must be ascribed first to the  
artist1 who is ,god1 and then to heaven1
 the instrument of ,god's art1 which men
 call nature2 for the material1 being   
merely a possibility1 can do nothing of 
itself4#bjb  ,footnote #bjj3            
,fluitantem4  ,footnote #bja3 ,dei      
naturantis4  ,footnote #bjb3 ,witte     
refers to ,parad4 xiii4 #fg1 xxix4 #cb1 
i4 #abg-acj4 ,cf4 ,thom4 ,aquin4 ,summ4 
,i41 q4 #ff1 art4 #a-c2 q4 #aaj1 art4   
#b2 q4 #aae1 art4 #c-f4 ,this view      
satisfied thinkers to the time of       
,hooker 7,e4,p4 ,i4 iii471 but was      
criticised by ,bacon1 ,nov4 ,org4 i4    
#ff4  ,hence it is apparent that1 since 
all ,right#bjc is good1 it therefore    
exists first in the mind of ,god2 and   
since all that is in the mind of ,god is
 ,god1 according to the saying1 ,what   

was made1 in ,him was life2#bjd and as  
,god chiefly wishes for what is         
,himself1 it follows that ,right is the 
wish of ,god1 so far as it is in ,him4  
,and since in ,god the will and the wish
 are the same1 it further follows that  
this ,right is the will of ,god4 ,again 
it follows that ,right in the world is  
nothing else than the likeness of the   
will of ,god1 and therefore whatever    
does not agree with the divine will     
cannot be ,right1 and whatever does     
agree with the divine will is ,right    
itself4 ,therefore to ask if a thing be 
by ,right is only to ask in other words 
if it is what ,god wills4 ,it may       
therefore be assumed that what ,god     
wills to see in mankind is to be held as
 real and true ,right4  ,footnote #bjc3 
,jus4  ,footnote #bjd3 ,st4 ,john i4    
#c4--7,w47  ,besides we must remember   
,aristotle's teaching in the first book 
of his ,ethics1 where he says3 ,we must 
not seek for certitude in every matter1 
but only as far as the nature of the    

subject admits4#bje ,therefore our      
arguments from the first principle      
already found will be sufficient1 if    
from manifest evidence and from the     
authority of the wise1 we seek for the  
right of that glorious people4 ,the will
 of ,god is an invisible thing1 but the 
invisible things of ,god are seen1 being
 understood by the things which are     
made4 ,for when the seal is out of      
sight1 the wax1 which has its           
impression1 gives manifest evidence of  
it1 though it be unseen2 nor is it      
strange that the will of ,god must be   
sought by signs2 for the human will1    
except to the person himself who wills1 
is only discerned by signs4#bjf         
,footnote #bje3 ,eth4 i4 #g1 from ,thom4
 ,aq4 ,lect4 ,,xi4--7,w47  ,footnote    
#bjf3 ,the image of the wax and seal was
 a favourite one4 ,v4 ,parad4 vii4 #fh1 
viii4 #abg1 xiii4 #fg-ge1 quoted by     
,witte1 who also refers to the ,epist4  
ad ,reges1  #h1 p4 #ddd1 ed4            
,fraticelli4   ,,iii4--,my answer then  

to the question is1 that it was by      
right1 and not by usurpation1 that the  
,roman people assumed to itself the     
office of ,monarchy1 or1 as men call it1
 the ,empire1 over all mankind4 ,for in 
the first place it is fitting that the  
noblest people should be preferred to   
all others2 the ,roman people was the   
noblest2 therefore it is fitting that it
 should be preferred to all others4 ,by 
this reasoning ,i make my proof2 for    
since honour is the reward of goodness1 
and since to be preferred is always     
honour1 therefore to be preferred is    
always the reward of goodness4 ,it is   
plain that men are ennobled for their   
virtues2 that is1 for their own virtues 
or for those of their ancestors2 for    
nobleness is virtue and ancestral       
wealth1 according to ,aristotle in his  
,politics2 and according to ,juvenal1   
,there is no nobleness of soul but      
virtue1#bjg which two statements refer  
to two sorts of nobleness1 our own and  
that of our ancestors4#bjh  ,footnote   

#bjg3 ,arist4 ,pol4 iii4 #ab2 ,juv4     
viii4 #bj4--7,w47  ,footnote #bjh3      
,witte refers to ,dante's commentary on 
his own ,canzone in the ,convito iv4 #c1
 and the ,parad4 xvi4 #a4  ,to be       
preferred1 therefore1 is1 according to  
reason1 the fitting reward of the noble4
 ,and since rewards must be measured by 
desert1 according to that saying of the 
,gospel1 with what measure ye mete1 it  
shall be measured to you again2         
therefore to the most noble the highest 
place should be given4 ,the testimonies 
of the ancients confirm our opinion2 for
 ,virgil1 our divine poet1 testifies    
throughout his neid1 that men may ever  
remember it1 that the glorious king1    
neas1 was the father of the ,roman      
people4 ,and this ,titus ,livius1 the   
famous chronicler of the deeds of the   
,romans1 confirms in the first part of  
his work1 which takes its beginning from
 the capture of ,troy4 ,the nobleness of
 this most unconquerable and most pious 
ancestor not only in regard to his own  

great virtue1 but also to that of his   
forefathers and of his wives1 the       
nobleness of whom was combined in their 
descendant by the rightful law of       
descent1 ,i cannot unfold at length2 ,i 
can but touch lightly on the outlines of
 the truth4#bji  ,footnote #bji3 ,sed   
summa sequar vestigia rerum4 ,virg4 n4  
i4 #cdb 7fastigia in all good ,,mss4 and
 edd474  ,for the virtue then of neas   
himself1 hear what our poet tells us    
when he introduces ,ilioneus in the     
first neid1 praying thus3 neas was our  
king2 in justice and piety he has not   
left a peer1 nor any to equal him in    
war4 ,hear ,virgil in the sixth neid1   
when he speaks of the death of ,misenus1
 who had been ,hector's attendant in    
war1 and1 after ,hector's death1 had    
attached himself to neas2 for there     
,virgil says that ,misenus followed as  
good a man2 thus comparing neas to      
,hector1 whom#baj ,homer ever praises   
above all men1 as the ,philosopher      
witnesses in his ,ethics1 in what he    

writes to ,nicomachus on habits to be   
avoided4  ,footnote #baj3 n4 i4 #edd1   
vi4 #agj4 ,il4 xxiv4 #beh1 quoted in    
,aristotle1 ,ethics1 vii4 #a4--7,w47    
,but1 as for hereditary virtue1 he was  
ennobled from all three continents both 
by his forefathers and his wives4 ,from 
,asia came his immediate ancestor1      
,assaracus1 and others who reigned in   
,phrygia1 which is a part of ,asia4     
,therefore ,virgil writes in the third  
neid3 ,after that it had seemed good to 
,heaven to overthrow the power of ,asia1
 and the guiltless race of ,priam4 ,from
 ,europe came the male founder of his   
race1 who was ,dardanus2 from ,africa   
his grandmother ,electra1 daughter of   
the great king ,atlas1 to both which    
things the poet testifies in the eighth 
neid1 where neas says to ,evander3      
,dardanus1 the father of our city1 and  
its founder1 whom the ,greeks call the  
son of ,atlas and ,electra1 came to the 
race of ,teucer--,electra1 whose sire   
was great ,atlas1 on whose shoulders    

rests the circle of heaven4 ,but in the 
third neid ,virgil says that ,dardanus  
drew his origin from ,europe4 ,there is 
a land which the ,greeks have named     
,hesperia1 an ancient land1 strong and  
wealthy1 where the notrians dwell2 it is
 said that now their descendants have   
named the country ,italy1 from the name 
of their king4 ,there is our rightful   
home2 from that land did ,dardanus come4
 ,that ,atlas came from ,africa1 the    
mountain called by his name1 which      
stands in that continent1 bears witness2
 and ,orosius says that it is in ,africa
 in his description of the world1 where 
he writes3 ,its boundary is ,mount      
,atlas1 and the islands which are called
 'the happy isles4' ,its--that is1 of   
,africa1 of which he was speaking4#baa  
,footnote #baa3 n4 iii4 #a1 viii4 #acd1 
iii4 #afc2 ,oros4 i4 #b4--7,w47         
,likewise ,i find that by marriage also 
neas was ennobled2 his first wife1      
,creusa1 the daughter of king ,priam1   
was from ,asia1 as may be gathered from 

our previous quotations2 and that she   
was his wife our poet testifies in the  
third neid1 where ,andromache asks neas3
 ,what of the boy ,ascanius1 whom       
,creusa bore to thee1 while the ruins of
 ,troy were yet smoking8 ,lives he yet  
to breathe this air8#bab ,the second    
wife was ,dido1 the queen and foundress 
of ,carthage in ,africa4 ,that she was  
the wife of neas our poet sings in his  
fourth neid1 where he says of ,dido3 ,no
 more does ,dido think of love in       
secret4 ,she calls it marriage1 and with
 this name she covers her sin4 ,the     
third wife was ,lavinia1 the mother of  
,albans and ,romans alike1 the daughter 
of king ,latinus and his heir1 if we may
 trust the testimony of our poet in his 
last neid1 where he introduces ,turnus  
conquered1 praying to neas thus3 ,thou  
hast conquered1 and the ,ausonians have 
seen me lift my hands in prayer for     
mercy2 ,lavinia is thine4#bac ,this last
 wife was from ,italy1 the noblest      
region of ,europe4  ,footnote #bab3     

,,iii4 #cci4 ,the best ,,mss4 of ,virgil
 omit peperit fumante ,creusa4          
,footnote #bac3 n4 xii4 #icf4--7,w47    
,and now that we have marked these      
things for evidence of our assertion1   
who will not rest persuaded that the    
father of the ,romans1 and therefore the
 ,romans themselves1 were the noblest   
people under heaven8 ,who can fail to   
see the divine predestination shown     
forth by the double meeting of blood    
from every part of the world in the     
veins of one man8   ,,iv4--,again1 that 
which is helped to its perfection by    
miracles is willed by ,god1 and         
therefore it is of right4 ,this is      
manifestly true1 for as ,thomas says in 
his third book against the ,gentiles1 a 
miracle is something done by ,god beyond
 the commonly established order of      
things4#bad ,and so he proves that ,god 
alone can work miracles2 and his proof  
is strengthened by the authority of     
,moses2 for on the occasion of the      
plague of lice1 when the magicians of   

,pharaoh used natural principles        
artfully1 and then failed1 they said3   
,this is the finger of ,god4#bae ,a     
miracle therefore being the immediate   
working of the first agent1 without the 
co-operation of any secondary agents1 as
 ,thomas himself sufficiently proves in 
the book which we have mentioned1 it is 
impious to say where a miracle is worked
 in aid of anything1 that that thing is 
not of ,god1 as something well pleasing 
to him1 which he foresaw4 ,therefore it 
is religious to accept the contradictory
 of this4 ,the ,roman ,empire has been  
helped to its perfection by miracles2   
therefore it was willed by ,god1 and    
consequently was and is by right4#baf   
,footnote #bad3 ,contra ,gent4 iii4     
#aja4--7,w47  ,footnote #bae3 ,exod4    
vii4 #ab-ae4--7,w47  ,footnote #baf3    
,witte refers to the ,ep4 ad ,reges1    
#h1 for the same thought4  ,it is proved
 by the testimony of illustrious authors
 that ,god stretched forth ,his hand to 
work miracles on behalf of the ,roman   

,empire4 ,for ,livy1 in the first part  
of his work1 testifies that a shield    
fell from heaven into the city chosen of
 ,god in the time of ,numa ,pompilius1  
the second king of ,rome1 whilst he was 
sacrificing after the manner of the     
,gentiles4 ,lucan mentions this miracle 
in the ninth book of his ,pharsalia1    
when he is describing the incredible    
force of the ,south wind4 ,he says3     
,surely it was thus1 while ,numa was    
offering sacrifices1 that the shield    
fell with which the chosen patrician    
youth moves along4 ,the ,south wind1 or 
the ,north wind1 had spoiled the people 
that bore our shields4#bag ,and when the
 ,gauls had taken all the city1 and1    
under cover of the darkness1 were       
stealing on to attack the ,capitol      
itself1 the capture of which was all    
that remained to destroy the very name  
of ,rome1 then as ,livy1 and many other 
illustrious writers agree in testifying1
 a goose1 which none had seen before1   
gave a warning note of the approach of  

the ,gauls1 and aroused the guards to   
defend the ,capitol4#bah ,and our poet  
commemorates the event in his           
description of the shield of neas in the
 eighth book4 ,higher1 and in front of  
the temple stood ,manlius1 the watchman 
of the ,tarpeian keep1 guarding the rock
 of the ,capitol4 ,the palace stood out 
clear1 rough with the thatch which      
,romulus had laid2 here the goose1      
inlaid in silver1 fluttered on the      
portico of gold1 as it warned the       
,romans that the ,gauls were even now on
 the threshold4#bai  ,footnote #bag3    
,luc4 ix4 #dgg4--7,w47  ,footnote #bah3 
,v4 ,liv4 v4 #dg1 and the ,convito1 iv4 
#e4--7,w47  ,footnote #bai3 n4 viii4    
#feb4--7,w47  ,and when the nobility of 
,rome had so fallen under the onset of  
,hannibal1 that nothing remained for the
 final destruction of the ,roman        
commonwealth1 but the ,carthaginian     
assault on the city1 ,livy tells us in  
the course of his history of the ,punic 
war1 that a sudden dreadful storm of    

hail fell upon them1 so that the victors
 could not follow up their victory4#bbj 
,footnote #bbj3 ,liv4 xxvi4 #aa2 ,oros4 
iv4 #ag4--7,w47  ,was not the escape of 
,cloelia wonderful1 a woman1 and captive
 in the power of ,porsenna1 when she    
burst her bonds1 and1 by the marvellous 
help of ,god1 swam across the ,tiber1 as
 almost all the historians of ,rome tell
 us1 to the glory of that city8#bba     
,footnote #bba3 ,liv4 ii4 #ac2 ,oros4   
ii4 #e4--7,w47  ,thus was it fitting    
that ,he should work who foresaw all    
things from the beginning1 and ordained 
them in the beauty of ,his order2 so    
that ,he1 who when made visible was to  
show forth miracles for the sake of     
things invisible1 should1 whilst        
invisible1 also show forth miracles for 
the sake of things visible4             
,v4--,further1 whoever works for the    
good of the state1 works with ,right as 
his end4 ,this may be shown as follows4 
,right is that proportion of man to man 
as to things1 and as to persons1 which1 

when it is preserved1 preserves society1
 and when it is destroyed1 destroys     
society4#bbb ,the description of ,right 
in the ,digest does not give the essence
 of right1 but only describes it for    
practical purposes4#bbc ,if therefore   
our definition comprehends well the     
essence and reason of ,right1 and if the
 end of any society is the common good  
of its members1 it is necessary that the
 end of all ,right is the common good1  
and it is impossible that that can be   
,right1 which does not aim at the common
 good4 ,therefore ,cicero says well in  
the first book of his ,rhetoric3 ,laws  
must always be interpreted for the good 
of the state4#bbd ,if laws do not aim at
 the good of those who live under them1 
they are laws only in name2 in reality  
they cannot be laws4 ,for it behoves    
them to bind men together for the common
 good2 and ,seneca therefore says well  
in his book on the four virtues3 ,law is
 the bond of human society4#bbe ,it is  
therefore plain that whoever aims at the

 good of the state1 aims at the end of  
,right2 and therefore1 if the ,romans   
aimed at the good of the state1 we shall
 say truly that they aimed at the end of
 ,right4  ,footnote #bbb3 ,cf4          
,aristotle1 ,ethics1 v4 #f4  ,footnote  
#bbc3 ,jus est ars boni et qui4 ,l4 #a1 
fr4 ,dig4 ,de ,justitia et ,jure1 i4    
#a4--7,w47  ,footnote #bbd3 ,de ,invent4
 i4 #ch4--7,w47  ,footnote #bbe3 ,not   
,seneca1 but ,martin1 ,bp4 of ,braga1   
dagger symbol#ehj4--7,w47 ,v4 ,biog4    
,univ4  ,that in bringing the whole     
world into subjection1 they aimed at    
this good1 their deeds declare4 ,they   
renounced all selfishness1 a thing      
always contrary to the public weal2 they
 cherished universal peace and liberty2 
and that sacred1 pious1 and glorious    
people are seen to have neglected their 
own private interests that they might   
follow public objects for the good of   
all mankind4 ,therefore was it well     
written3 ,the ,roman ,empire springs    
from the fountain of piety4#bbf         

,footnote #bbf3 ,romanum imperium de    
fonte nascitur pietatis4--7,,witte47 ,he
 has not been able to trace the saying4 
,but seeing that nothing is known of the
 intention of an agent who acts by free 
choice to any but the agent himself1    
save only by external signs1 and since  
reasonings must be examined according to
 the subject matter 7as has already been
 said71 it will be sufficient on this   
point if we set forth proofs which none 
can doubt1 of the intention of the      
,roman people1 both in their public     
bodies and individually4  ,concerning   
those public bodies by which men seem in
 a way to be bound to the state1 the    
authority of ,cicero alone1 in the      
second book of the ,de ,officiis1 will  
suffice4 ,so long1 he says1 as the      
,empire of the republic was maintained  
not by injustice1 but by the benefits   
which it conferred1 we fought either for
 our allies or for the ,empire4 ,our    
wars brought with them an ending which  
was either indulgent1 or else was       

absolutely necessary4 ,all kings1       
peoples1 and nations found a port of    
refuge in the ,senate4 ,our magistrates 
and generals alike sought renown by     
defending our provinces and our allies  
with good faith and with justice4 ,our  
government might have been called not so
 much ,empire1 as a ,protectorate of the
 whole world4 ,so wrote ,cicero4#bbg    
,footnote #bbg3 ,de ,off4 ii4 #h4--7,w47
  ,of individuals ,i will speak shortly4
 ,shall we not say that they intended   
the common good1 who by hard toil1 by   
poverty1 by exile1 by bereavement of    
their children1 by loss of limb1 by     
sacrifice of their lives1 endeavoured to
 build up the public weal8 ,did not     
great ,cincinnatus leave us a sacred    
example of freely laying down his office
 at its appointed end1 when1 as ,livy   
tells us1 he was taken from the plough  
and made dictator8 ,and after his       
victory1 after his triumph1 he gave back
 his ,imperator's sceptre to the        
consuls1 and returned to the ploughshare

 to toil after his oxen4#bbh ,well did  
,cicero1 arguing against ,epicurus1 in  
the volume ,de ,finibus1 speak in praise
 of him1 mindful of this good deed4#bbi 
,and so1 he says1 our ancestors took    
,cincinnatus from the plough1 and made  
him dictator4  ,footnote #bbh3 ,liv4 vi4
 #bh1 #bi2 ,oros4 ii4 #ab4--7,w47       
,footnote #bbi3 ,,ii4 #d4--7,w47  ,has  
not ,fabricius left us a lofty example  
of resisting avarice1 when1 poor man as 
he was1 for the faith by which he was   
bound to the republic1 he laughed to    
scorn the great weight of gold which was
 offered him1 and refused it1 scorning  
it with words which became him well4    
,his story too is confirmed by our poet 
in the sixth neid1#bcj where he speaks  
of ,fabricius strong in his poverty4    
,footnote #bcj3 ,,vi4 #hdd4--7,w47  ,has
 not ,camillus left us a memorable      
example of obeying the laws instead of  
seeking our private advantage8 ,for     
according to ,livy he was condemned to  
exile1 and then1 after that he had      

delivered his country from the invaders1
 and had restored to ,rome her own      
,roman spoils1 he yet turned to leave   
the sacred city1 though the whole people
 bade him stay2 nor did he return till  
leave was given him to come back by the 
authority of the ,senate4 ,this         
high-souled hero also is commended in   
the sixth neid1 where our poet speaks of
 ,camillus1 that restored to us our     
standards4#bca  ,footnote #bca3 ,liv4 v4
 #df2 n4 vi4 #hbf4--7,w47  ,was not     
,brutus the first to teach that our     
sons1 that all others1 are second in    
importance to the liberty of our        
country8 ,for ,livy tells us how1 when  
he was consul1 he condemned his own sons
 to death1 for that they had conspired  
with the enemy4 ,his glory is made new  
in our poet's sixth book1 where he sings
 how ,the father shall summon the sons  
to die for the sake of fair liberty1    
when they seek to stir fresh wars4#bcb  
,footnote #bcb3 n4 vi4 #hba4--7,w47     
,has not ,mucius encouraged us to dare  

everything for our country's sake1 when 
after attacking ,porsenna unawares1 he  
watched the hand which had missed its   
stroke being burnt1 though it was his   
own1 as if he were beholding the torment
 of a foe8 ,this also ,livy witnesses to
 with astonishment4  ,add to these those
 sacred victims the ,decii1 who laid    
down their lives by an act of devotion  
for the public safety1 whom ,livy       
glorifies in his narrative1 not as they 
deserve1 but as he was able4 ,add to    
these the self-sacrifice1 which words   
cannot express1 of ,marcus ,cato1 that  
staunchest champion of true liberty4    
,these were men of whom the one1 that he
 might save his country1 did not fear   
the shadow of death2 while the other1   
that he might kindle in the world the   
passionate love of liberty1 showed how  
dear was liberty1 choosing to pass out  
of life a free man1 rather than without 
liberty to abide in life4#bcc ,the glory
 of all these heroes glows afresh in the
 words of ,cicero in his book ,de       

,finibus2 of the ,decii he speaks thus3 
,publius ,decius1 the head of the       
,decii1 a consul1 when he devoted       
himself for the state1 and charged      
straight into the ,latin host1 was he   
thinking aught of his pleasure1 where   
and when he should take it2--when he    
knew that he had to die at once1 and    
sought that death with more eager desire
 than1 according to ,epicurus1 we should
 seek pleasure8 ,and were it not that   
his deed had justly received its praise1
 his son would not have done the like in
 his fourth consulship2 nor would his   
grandson1 again1 in the war with        
,pyrrhus1 have fallen1 a consul1 in     
battle2 and1 a third time in continuous 
succession in that family1 have offered 
himself a victim for the commonwealth4  
,but in the ,de ,officiis1#bcd ,cicero  
says of ,cato3 ,marcus ,cato was in no  
different position from his comrades who
 in ,africa surrendered to ,csar4 ,the  
others1 had they slain themselves1 would
 perhaps have been blamed for the act1  

for their life was of less              
consequence1#bce and their principles   
were not so strict4 ,but for ,cato1 to  
whom nature had given incredible        
firmness and who had strengthened this  
severity by his unremitting constancy to
 his principles1 and who never formed a 
resolution by which he did not abide1 he
 was indeed bound to die rather than to 
look on the face of a tyrant4  ,footnote
 #bcc3 ,witte quotes the ,convito1 iv4  
#e1 where all these examples are        
recounted1 almost in the same language4 
,he compares ,parad4 vi4 #df            
7,cincinnatus71 ,purgat4 xx4 #be        
7,fabricius71 ,parad4 vi4 #dg 7,decii71 
,purg4 i4 where ,cato guards the        
approach to ,purgatory4  ,footnote #bcd3
 ,i4 #ca 7,w471 carelessly quoted4      
,footnote #bce3 ,levior al4 lenior4     
,,vi4--,two things therefore have been  
made clear3 first1 that whoever aims at 
the good of the state aims at right2#bcf
 and secondly1 that the ,roman people in
 bringing the world into subjection1    

aimed at the public weal4 ,therefore let
 us argue thus3 ,whoever aims at right1 
walks according to right2 the ,roman    
people in bringing the world into       
subjection aimed at right1 as we have   
made manifest in the preceding chapter4 
,therefore in bringing the world into   
subjection the ,roman people acted      
according to right1 consequently it was 
by right that they assumed the dignity  
of ,empire4  ,footnote #bcf3 ,finem     
juris intendit4  ,we reach this         
conclusion on grounds which are manifest
 to all4 ,it is manifest from this1 that
 whosoever aims at right1 walks         
according to right4 ,to make this clear1
 we must mark that everything is made to
 gain a certain end1 otherwise it would 
be in vain1 and as we said before this  
cannot be4 ,and as everything has its   
proper end1 so every end has some       
distinct thing of which it is the end4  
,and therefore it is impossible that any
 two things1 spoken of as separate      
things1#bcg and in so far as they are   

two1 should have the same end as their  
aim1 for so the same absurdity#bch would
 follow1 that one of them would exist in
 vain4 ,since1 then1 there is a certain 
end of right1 as we have explained1 it  
necessarily follows that when we have   
decided what that end is1 we have also  
decided what right is2 for it is the    
natural and proper effect of right4 ,and
 since in any sequence it is impossible 
to have an antecedent without its       
consequent1 for instance1 to have man   
without animal1 as is evident by putting
 together and taking to pieces the      
idea1#bci so also it is impossible to   
seek for the end of right without right1
 for each thing stands in the same      
relation to its proper end1 as the      
consequent does to its antecedent2 as   
without health it is impossible to      
attain to a good condition of the body4 
,wherefore1 it is most evidently clear  
that he who aims at the end of right    
must aim in accordance with right2 nor  
does the contradictory instance which is

 commonly drawn from ,aristotle's       
treatment of good counsel avail         
anything4#bdj ,he there says3 ,it is    
possible to obtain what is the right    
result from a syllogism1 which is       
incorrect1 but not by an argument which 
is right1 for the middle term is wrong4 
,for if sometimes a right conclusion is 
obtained from false principles1 this is 
only by accident1 and happens only in so
 far as the true conclusion is imported 
in the words of the inference4 ,truth   
never really follows from falsehood2 but
 the signs of truth may easily follow   
from the signs of falsehood4 ,so also it
 is in matters of conduct4 ,if a thief  
helps a poor man out of the spoils of   
his thieving1 we must not call that     
charity2 but it is an action which would
 have the form of charity1 if it had    
been done out of the man's own          
substance4 ,and so of the end of right4 
,if anything1 such as the end of right1 
were gained without right1 it would only
 be the end of right1 that is1 the      

common good1 in the same sense that the 
gift1 made from evil gains1 is charity4 
,and so the example proves nothing1 for 
in our proposition we speak1 not of the 
apparent but of the real end of right4  
,what was sought1 therefore1 is clear4  
,footnote #bcg3 ,per se loquendo4       
,footnote #bch3 ,inconveniens4          
,footnote #bci3 ,construendo et         
destruendo4 ,technical terms of the     
conditional syllogism1 constructive and 
destructive4  ,footnote #bdj3 ,greek3   
,euboulia4 ,ethics1 vi4 #aj4            
,,vii4--,what nature has ordained is    
maintained of right4 ,for nature in its 
providence does not come short of men's 
providence2 for if it were to come      
short1 the effect would excel the cause 
in goodness1 which is impossible4 ,but  
we see that when public bodies are      
founded1 not only are the relations of  
the members to each other considered1   
but also their capacities for exercising
 offices2 and this is to consider the   
end of right in the society or order    

which is founded1 for right is not      
extended beyond what is possible4       
,nature then1 in her ordinances1 does   
not come short in this foresight4       
,therefore it is clear that nature1 in  
ordaining a thing1 has regard to its    
capacities2 and this regard is the      
fundamental principle of right which    
nature lays down4 ,from this it follows 
that the natural order of things cannot 
be maintained without right2 for this   
fundamental principle of right is       
inseparably joined to the natural order 
of things4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 
that it is of right that this order is  
preserved4  ,the ,roman people was      
ordained for empire1 by nature1 and this
 may be shown as follows3 ,the man would
 come short of perfection in his art1   
who aimed only to produce his ultimate  
form1 and neglected the means of        
reaching it2 in the same way1 if nature 
only aimed at reproducing in the world  
the universal form of the divine        
likeness1 and neglected the means of    

doing so1 she would be imperfect4 ,but  
nature1 which is the work of the divine 
intelligence1 is wholly perfect2 she    
therefore aims at all the means by which
 her final end is arrived at4  ,since   
then mankind has a certain end1 and     
since there is a certain means necessary
 for the universal end of nature1 it    
necessarily follows that nature aims at 
obtaining that means4 ,and therefore the
 ,philosopher1 in the second book of    
,natural ,learning1#bda well shows that 
nature always acts for the end4 ,and    
since nature cannot reach this end      
through one man1 because that there are 
many actions necessary to it1 which need
 many to act1 therefore nature must     
produce many men and set them to act4   
,and besides the higher influence1#bdb  
the powers and properties of inferior   
spheres contribute much to this4 ,and   
therefore we see not only that          
individual men1 but also that certain   
races are born to govern1 and certain   
others to be governed and to serve1 as  

the ,philosopher argues in the          
,politics2#bdc and for the latter1 as he
 himself says1 subjection is not only   
expedient1 but just1 even though they be
 forced into subjection4  ,footnote     
#bda3 ,arist4 ,phys4 ,ausc4 ii4         
#a4--7,w47  ,footnote #bdb3 ,i4e4 of the
 heavens4 ,witte quotes ,parad4 viii4   
#ig1 ,purg4 xiv4 #ch4  ,footnote #bdc3  
,i4 #e1 #aa2 #f1 #i4--7,w47  ,and if    
this is so1 it cannot be doubted that   
nature ordained in the world a country  
and a nation for universal sovereignty2 
if this were not so1 she would have been
 untrue to herself1 which is impossible4
 ,but as to where that country is1 and  
which is that nation1 it is sufficiently
 manifest1 both from what we have said  
and from what we shall say1 that it was 
,rome and her citizens or people2 and   
this our poet very skilfully touches on 
in the sixth neid1 where he introduces  
,anchises prophesying to neas1 the      
ancestor of the ,romans3 ,others may    
mould the breathing bronze more         

delicately--,i doubt it not2 they may   
chisel from marble the living           
countenance2 they may surpass thee in   
pleading causes2 they may track the     
course of the heavens with the rod1 and 
tell when the stars will rise2 but thou1
 ,roman1 remember to rule the nations   
with thy sway4 ,these shall be thy      
endowments--to make peace to be the     
custom of the world2 to spare thy foes  
when they submit1 and to crush the      
proud4#bdd ,and again1 ,virgil skilfully
 notes the appointment of the place1 in 
the fourth neid1 when he brings in      
,jupiter speaking to ,mercury concerning
 neas3 ,his fair mother did not promise 
him to us to be such as this3 it was not
 for this that twice she rescues him    
from ,grecian arms2 but that there      
should be one to rule over ,italy1      
teeming with empires1 tempestuous with  
wars4 ,it has1 therefore1 sufficiently  
been shown that the ,roman people was by
 nature ordained to empire4 ,therefore  
it was of right that they gained empire1

 by subduing to themselves the world4   
,footnote #bdd3 n4 vi4 #hdh1 iv4        
#bbg4--7,w47   ,,viii4--,but in order   
properly to discover the truth in our   
inquiry1 we must recognise that the     
judgment of ,god is sometimes made      
manifest to men1 and sometimes hidden   
from them4  ,it may be made manifest in 
two ways1 namely1 by reason and by      
faith4  ,there are some judgments of    
,god to which the human reason1 by its  
own paths1 can arrive2 as1 that a man   
should risk death to save his country4  
,for a part should always risk itself to
 save its whole1 and each man is a part 
of his ,state1 as is clear from the     
,philosopher in his ,politics4#bde      
,therefore every man ought to risk      
himself for his country1 as the less    
good for the better2 whence the         
,philosopher says to ,nicomachus3 ,the  
end is desirable1 indeed1 even for an   
individual1 but it is better and more   
divine for a nation and ,state4#bdf ,and
 this is the judgment of ,god1 for if it

 were not so1 right reason in men would 
miss the intention of nature1 which is  
impossible4  ,footnote #bde3 ,arist4    
,pol4 i4 #b1 #ab4--7,w47  ,footnote     
#bdf3 ,ethics1 i4 #a4  ,there are also  
some judgments of ,god to which1 though 
human reason cannot reach them by its   
own powers1 yet1 by the aid of faith in 
those things which are told us in ,holy 
,scripture it can be lifted up3 as1 for 
instance1 that no one1 however perfect  
he may be in moral and intellectual     
virtues1 both in habit and in action1   
can be saved without faith2 it being    
supposed that he never heard aught of   
,christ4 ,for human reason cannot of    
itself see this to be just1 yet by faith
 it can4 ,for in the ,epistle to the    
,hebrews it is written1 without faith it
 is impossible to please ,god2#bdg and  
in ,leviticus1 what man soever there be 
of the ,house of ,israel that killeth an
 ox1 or lamb1 or goat in the camp1 or   
that killeth it out of the camp1 and    
bringeth it not to the door of the      

tabernacle to offer an offering unto the
 ,lord1 blood shall be imputed to that  
man4#bdh ,the door of the tabernacle    
stands for ,christ1 who is the door of  
the kingdom of heaven1 as may be proved 
from the ,gospel3 the killing of animals
 represents men's actions4#bdi          
,footnote #bdg3 ,cf4 ,parad4 xix4       
#gj4--7,w47  ,footnote #bdh3 ,heb4 ii4  
#f2 ,levit4 xvii4 #c1 #d4--7,w474       
,footnote #bdi3 ,witte quotes from      
,isidore of ,seville1 a writer much used
 in the middle ages1 the following3 ,in 
a moral sense1 we offer a calf when we  
conquer the pride of the flesh2 a lamb1 
when we correct our irrational impulses2
 a kid1 when we master impurity2 a dove1
 when we are simple2 a turtle-dove1 when
 we observe chastity2 unleavened bread1 
'when we keep the feast not in the      
leaven of malice1 but in the unleavened 
bread of sincerity and truth4'  ,but the
 judgment of ,god is a hidden one1 when 
man cannot arrive at the knowledge of it
 either by the law of nature or by the  

written law1 but only occasionally by a 
special grace4 ,this grace comes in     
several ways3 sometimes by simple       
revelation1 sometimes by revelation     
assisted by a certain kind of trial or  
debate4 ,simple revelation1 too1 is of  
two kinds3 either ,god gives it of his  
own accord1 or it is gained by prayer4  
,god gives it of his own accord in two  
ways1 either plainly1 or by a sign4 ,his
 judgment against ,saul was revealed to 
,samuel plainly2 but it was by a sign   
that it was revealed to ,pharaoh what   
,god had judged touching the setting    
free of the children of ,israel4 ,the   
judgment of ,god is also given in answer
 to prayer1 as he knew who spoke in the 
second book of ,chronicles3#bej ,when we
 know not what we ought to do1 this only
 have we left1 to direct our eyes to    
,thee4  ,footnote #bej3 #b ,chron4 xx4  
#ab 7,vulg474  ,revelation by means of  
trial is also of two kinds4 ,it is given
 either by casting lots1 or by combat2  
for to strive 7certare71 is derived from

 a phrase which means to make certain   
7certum facere74 ,it is clear that the  
judgment of ,god is sometimes revealed  
to men by casting lots1 as in the       
substitution of ,matthias in the ,acts  
of the ,apostles4  ,again the judgment  
of ,god is revealed to men by combat in 
two ways3 either it is by a trial of    
strength1 as in the duels of champions  
who are called duelliones1 or it is by  
the contention of many men1 each        
striving to reach a certain mark first1 
as happens in the contests of athletes  
who run for a prize4 ,the first of these
 methods was prefigured among the       
,gentiles by the contests between       
,hercules and ,antus1 which ,lucan      
mentions in the fourth book of his      
,pharsalia1 and ,ovid in the ninth book 
of his ,metamorphoses4 ,the second is   
prefigured by the contest between       
,atalanta and ,hippomenes1 described in 
the tenth book of ,ovid's               
,metamorphoses4#bea  ,footnote #bea3    
,phars4 iv4 #eic2 ,metam4 ix4 #ahc1 x4  

#efi4--7,w474  ,moreover1 it ought not  
to pass unnoticed concerning these two  
kinds of strife1 that while in the first
 each champion may fairly hinder his    
antagonist1 in the second this is not   
so2 for athletes must not hinder one    
another in their strife1 though our poet
 seems to have thought differently in   
the fifth neid where ,euryalus so       
receives the prize4#beb ,but ,cicero has
 done better in forbidding this practice
 in the third book of the ,de ,officiis1
 following the opinion of               
,chrysippus4#bec ,he there says3        
,chrysippus is right here1 as he often  
is1 for he says that he who runs in a   
race should strive with all his might to
 win1 but in no way should he try to    
trip up his competitor4  ,footnote #beb3
 ,v4 #cce--7,w47  ,footnote #bec3 ,,iii4
 #aj4--7,w47  ,with these distinctions1 
then1 we may assume that there are two  
ways in which men may learn the judgment
 of ,god1 as we have on this point      
stated2 first by the contests of        

athletes1 and secondly by the contests  
of champions4 ,these ways of discovering
 the judgment of ,god ,i will treat of  
in the chapter following4   ,,ix4--,that
 people then1 which conquered when all  
were striving hard for the ,empire of   
the world1 conquered by the will of     
,god4 ,for ,god cares more to settle a  
universal strife than a particular one2 
and even in particular contests the     
athletes sometimes throw themselves on  
the judgment of ,god1 according to the  
common proverb3 ,to whom ,god makes the 
grant1 him let ,peter also bless4#bed   
,it cannot1 then1 be doubted that the   
victory in the strife for the ,empire of
 the world followed the judgment of     
,god4 ,the ,roman people1 when all were 
striving for the ,empire of the world1  
conquered2 it will be plain that so it  
was1 if we consider the prize or goal1  
and those who strove for it4 ,the prize 
or goal was the supremacy over all men2 
for it is this that we call the ,empire4
 ,none reached this but the ,roman      

people4 ,not only were they the first1  
they were the only ones to reach the    
goal1 as we shall shortly see4          
,footnote #bed3 ,witte only gives a     
query 7874 ,the saying expresses the    
,ghibelline view of the relation of the 
,empire to the ,pope2 it may have       
originated with the coronation of       
,charles the ,great4  ,the first man who
 panted for the prize was ,ninus1 ,king 
of the ,assyrians2 but although for more
 than ninety years 7as ,orosius         
tells#bee7 he1 with his royal consort   
,semiramis1 strove for the ,empire of   
the world and made all ,asia subject to 
himself1 nevertheless he never subdued  
the ,west4 ,ovid mentions both him and  
his queen in the fourth book of the     
,metamorphoses1 when he says1 in the    
story of ,pyramus3#bef ,semiramis       
girdled the round space with brick-built
 walls2 and1 let them come to ,ninus'   
tomb and hide beneath in its shade4     
,footnote #bee3 ,i4 #d4--7,w47          
,footnote #bef3 ,metam4 iv4 #eh1        

#hh4--7,w47  ,secondly1 ,vesoges1 ,king 
of ,egypt1 aspired to this prize2 but   
though he vexed the ,north and ,south of
 ,asia1 as ,orosius relates1#beg yet he 
never gained for himself one-half of the
 world2 nay1 when1 as it were1 between  
the judges#beh and the goal1 the        
,scythians drove him back from his rash 
enterprise4  ,footnote #beg3 ,oros4 i4  
#ad4--7,w47  ,footnote #beh3 ,athlothet4
 ,the judges or umpires in the ,greek   
games1 whose seats were opposite to the 
goal at the side of the stadium4 ,vide  
,smith's ,dictionary of ,antiquities1   
s4v4 stadium4  ,then ,cyrus1 ,king of   
the ,persians1 made the same attempt2   
but after the destruction of ,babylon1  
and the transference of its ,empire to  
,persia1 he did not even reach the      
regions of the ,west1 but lost his life 
and his object in one day at the hands  
of ,tamiris1 ,queen of the              
,scythians4#bei  ,footnote #bei3 ,oros4 
ii4 #g4--7,w47  ,but after that these   
had failed1 ,xerxes1 the son of ,darius 

and king among the ,persians1 assailed  
the world with so great a multitude of  
nations1 with so great a power1 that he 
bridged the channel of the sea which    
separates ,asia from ,europe1 between   
,sestos and ,abydos4 ,and of this       
wonderful work ,lucan makes mention in  
the second book of his ,pharsalia3#bfj  
,such paths across the seas1 made by    
,xerxes in his pride1 fame tells of4    
,but finally he was miserably repulsed  
from his enterprise1 and could not      
attain the goal4  ,footnote #bfj3       
,phars4 ii4 #fib4--7,w47  ,besides these
 kings1 and after their times1          
,alexander1 ,king of ,macedon1 came     
nearest of all to the prize of monarchy2
 he sent ambassadors to the ,romans to  
demand their submission1 but before the 
,roman answer came1 he fell in ,egypt1  
as ,livy#bfa tells us1 as it were in the
 middle of the course4 ,of his burial   
there1 ,lucan speaks in the eighth book 
of his ,pharsalia1#bfb where he is      
inveighing against ,ptolemy1 ,king of   

,egypt3 ,thou last of the ,lagan race1  
soon to perish in thy degeneracy1 and to
 yield thy kingdom to an incestuous     
sister2 while for thee the ,macedonian  
is kept in the sacred cave4444          
,footnote #bfa3 ,not ,livy4 ,cf4 ix4    
#ah1 #c1 where1 speaking of ,alexander  
and the ,romans1 he says3 ,quem ne fam  
quidem illis notum arbitror fuisse4 ,the
 story is ,greek in origin1 coming from 
,cleitarchus 7according to ,pliny1      
,hist4 ,nat4 iii4 #i71 who accompanied  
,alexander on his ,asiatic expedition4  
,cf4 ,niebuhr1 ,lectures on the ,history
 of ,rome1 lect4 #eb1 ,grote1 ,history  
of ,greece1 vol4 xii4 p4 #gj1 note1 who 
argue for its truth1 and ,mommsen1      
,history of ,rome1 vol4 i4 p4 #cid1 who 
argues against it4 ,dante1 says ,witte1 
used legends about ,alexander now lost4 
,cf4 ,inf4 xiv4 #ca4  ,footnote #bfb3   
,,viii4 #fib4  ,oh the depth of the     
riches both of the wisdom and knowledge 
of ,god6 ,who will not marvel at thee   
here8 ,for when ,alexander was trying to

 hinder his ,roman competitor in the    
race1 thou didst suddenly snatch him    
away from the contest that his rashness 
might proceed no further4  ,but that    
,rome has won the crown of so great a   
victory is proved on the testimony of   
many4 ,our poet in his first neid       
says3#bfc ,hence1 surely1 shall one day 
the ,romans come1 as the years roll on1 
to be the leaders of the world1 from the
 blood of ,teucer renewed2 over the sea 
and over the land they shall hold full  
sway4#bfd ,and ,lucan1 in his first     
book1 writes3 ,the sword assigns the    
kingdom2 and the fortune of that mighty 
people that rules o'er sea and land and 
the whole earth1 admitted not two to    
rule4 ,and ,boethius1 in his second     
book1#bfe speaking of the ,roman prince 
says3 ,with his sceptre he ruled the    
nations1 those whom ,phoebus beholds1   
from his rising afar to where he sinks  
his beams beneath the waves2 those who  
are benumbed by the frosty ,seven ,stars
 of the north1 those whom the fierce    

south wind scorches with his heat1      
parching the burning sands4 ,and ,luke1 
the ,scribe of ,christ1 bears the same  
testimony1 whose every word is true1    
where he says3 ,there went out a decree 
from ,csar ,augustus that all the world 
should be taxed2 from which words we    
must plainly understand that the ,romans
 had jurisdiction over the whole world4 
,footnote #bfc3 ,i4 #bcd4--7,w47        
,footnote #bfd3 ,i4 #aji4--7,w47        
,footnote #bfe3 ,de ,consol4 ,phil4 ii4 
#f4--7,w47  ,from all this evidence it  
is manifest that the ,roman people      
prevailed when all were striving to gain
 the ,empire of the world4 ,therefore it
 was by the judgment of ,god that it    
prevailed2 consequently its ,empire was 
gained by the judgment of ,god1 which is
 to say1 that it was gained by right4   
,x4--,and what is gained as the result  
of single combat or duel is gained of   
right4 ,for whenever human judgment     
fails1 either because it is involved in 
the clouds of ignorance1 or because it  

has not the assistance of a judge1 then1
 lest justice should be left deserted1  
we must have recourse to ,him who loved 
justice so much that ,he died to fulfil 
what it required by shedding ,his own   
blood4 ,therefore the ,psalmist wrote3  
,the righteous ,lord loveth             
righteousness4 ,this result is gained   
when1 by the free consent of the        
parties1 not from hatred but from love  
of justice1 men inquire of the judgment 
of ,god by a trial of strength as well  
of soul as of body4 ,and this trial of  
strength is called a duel1 because in   
the first instance it was between two   
combatants1 man to man4  ,but when two  
nations quarrel they are bound to try in
 every possible way to arrange the      
quarrel by means of discussion2 it is   
only when this is hopeless that they may
 declare war4 ,cicero and ,vegetius     
agree on this point1 the former in his  
,de ,officiis1#bff the latter in his    
book on war4 ,in the practice of        
medicine recourse may only be had to    

amputation and cauterising when every   
other means of cure have been tried4 ,so
 in the same way1 it is only when we    
have sought in vain for all other modes 
of deciding a quarrel that we may resort
 to the remedy of a single combat1      
forced thereto by a necessity of        
justice4  ,footnote #bff3 ,de ,off4 i4  
#ab2 ,de ,re ,milit4 iii4 prol4--7,w47  
,two formal rules1 then1 of the single  
combat are clear1 one which we have just
 mentioned1 the other1 which we touched 
on before1 that the combatants or       
champions must enter the lists by common
 consent1 not animated by private hatred
 or love1 but simply by an eager desire 
for justice4 ,therefore ,cicero1 in     
touching on this matter1 spoke well when
 he said3 ,wars1 which are waged for the
 crown of empire1 must be waged without 
bitterness4#bfg  ,footnote #bfg3        
,imperii gloria1 not corona1 in ,cic4 de
 ,off4 i4 #ab4--7,w47  ,but1 if the     
rules of single combat be kept when men 
are driven by justice to meet together  

by common consent1 in their zeal for    
justice 7and if they are not1 the       
contest ceases to be a single combat71  
do not they meet together in the name of
 ,god8 ,and if it is so1 is not ,god in 
the midst of them1 for ,he ,himself     
promises us this in the ,gospel8 ,and if
 ,god is there1 is it not impious to    
suppose that justice can fail8--that    
justice which ,he loved so much1 as we  
have just seen4 ,and if single combat   
cannot fail to secure justice1 is not   
what is gained in single combat gained  
as of right8  ,this truth the ,gentiles1
 too1 recognised before the trumpet of  
the ,gospel was sounded1 when they      
sought for a judgment in the fortune of 
single combat4 ,so ,pyrrhus1 noble both 
in the manners and in the blood of acid1
 gave a worthy answer when the ,roman   
envoys were sent to him to treat for the
 ransom of prisoners4 ,i ask not for    
gold2 ye shall pay me no price1 being   
not war-mongers1 but true men of war4   
,let each decide his fate with steel1   

and not with gold4 ,whether it be you or
 ,i that our mistress wills to reign1 or
 what chance she may bring to each1 let 
us try by valour4 ,hear ye also this    
word3 those whose valour the fortune of 
war has spared1 their liberty will ,i   
too spare4 ,take ye them as my gift4#bfh
 ,so spoke ,pyrrhus4 ,by mistress he    
meant ,fortune1 which we better and more
 rightly call the ,providence of ,god4  
,therefore1 let the combatants beware   
that they fight not for money2 then it  
would be no true single combat in which 
they fought1 for they would strive in a 
court of blood and injustice2 and let it
 not be thought that ,god would then be 
present to judge2 nay1 for it would be  
that ancient enemy who had been the     
instigator of the strife4 ,if they wish 
to be true combatants1 and not dealers  
in blood and injustice1 let them keep   
,pyrrhus before their eyes when they    
enter the arena1 the man who1 when he   
was striving for empire1 so scorned     
gold1 as we have said4  ,footnote #bfh3 

,ennius in ,cic4 de ,off4 i4 #ab 7,w47  
,war-monger is ,spenser's word4 ,f4,q4  
#c1 #aj1 #bi4  ,but1 if men will not    
receive the truth which we have proved1 
and object1 as they are wont1 that all  
men are not equal in strength1 we will  
refute them with the instance of the    
victory of ,david over ,goliath2 and if 
the ,gentiles seek for aught more1 let  
them repel the objection by the victory 
of ,hercules over ,antus4 ,for it is    
mere folly to fear that the strength    
which ,god makes strong should be weaker
 than a human champion4 ,it is1         
therefore1 now sufficiently clear that  
what is acquired by single combat is    
acquired by right4   ,,xi4--,but the    
,roman people gained their empire by    
duel between man and man2 and this is   
proved by testimonies that are worthy of
 all credence2 and in proving this1 we  
shall also show that where any question 
had to be decided from the beginning of 
the ,roman ,empire1 it was tried by     
single combat4  ,for first of all1 when 

a quarrel arose about the settling in   
,italy of ,father neas1 the earliest    
ancestor of this people1 and when       
,turnus1 ,king of the ,rutuli1 withstood
 neas1 it was at last agreed between the
 two kings to discover the good pleasure
 of ,god by a single combat1 which is   
sung in the last book of the neid4 ,and 
in this combat neas was so merciful in  
his victory1 that he would have granted 
life and peace to the conquered foe1 had
 he not seen the belt which ,turnus had 
taken on slaying ,pallas1 as the last   
verses of our poet describe4  ,again1   
when two peoples had grown up in ,italy1
 both sprung from the ,trojan stem1     
namely1 the ,romans and the ,albans1 and
 they had long striven whose should be  
the sign of the eagle1#bfi and the      
,penates of ,troy1 and the honours of   
empire2 at last by mutual consent1 in   
order to have certain knowledge of the  
case in hand1 the three ,horatii1 who   
were brethren1 and the three ,curatii1  
who were also brethren1 fought together 

before the kings and all the people     
anxiously waiting on either side2 and   
since the three ,alban champions were   
killed1 while one ,roman survived1 the  
palm of victory fell to the ,romans1 in 
the reign of ,hostilius the king4 ,this 
story has been diligently put together  
by ,livy1 in the first part of his      
history1 and ,orosius also gives similar
 testimony4#bgj  ,footnote #bfi3 ,il    
sacrosanto segno4 ,v4 ,parad4 vi4 #cb4  
,footnote #bgj3 ,liv4 i4 #bd2 ,oros4 ii4
 #d4  ,next they fought for empire with 
their neighbours the ,sabines and       
,samnites1 as ,livy tells us2 all the   
laws of war were kept2 and though those 
who fought were very many in number1 the
 war was in the form of a combat between
 man and man4 ,in the contest with the  
,samnites1 ,fortune nearly repented her 
of what she had begun1 as ,lucan        
instances in the second book of his     
,pharsalia3#bga ,how many companies lay 
dead by the ,colline gate then1 when the
 headship of the world and universal    

empire well-nigh were transferred to    
other seats1 and the ,samnite heaped the
 corpses of ,rome beyond the numbers#bgb
 of the ,caudine ,forks4  ,footnote     
#bga3 ,,ii4 #ace4  ,footnote #bgb3      
,romanaque ,samnis      ,ultra ,caudinas
 superavit vulnera furcas4  ,another    
reading is speravit4  ,but after that   
the intestine quarrels of ,italy had    
ceased1 and while the issue of the      
strife with ,greece and ,carthage was   
not yet made certain by the judgment of 
,god--for both ,greece and ,carthage    
aimed at empire--then ,fabricius for    
,rome1 and ,pyrrhus for ,greece1 fought 
with vast hosts for the glory of empire1
 and ,rome gained the day4 ,and when    
,scipio for ,rome1 and ,hannibal for    
,carthage1 fought man to man1 the       
,africans fell before the ,italians1 as 
,livy and all the other ,roman          
historians strive to tell4  ,who then is
 so dull of understanding as not to see 
that this glorious people has won the   
crown of all the world1 by the decision 

of combat8 ,surely the ,roman may repeat
 ,paul's words to ,timothy3 ,there is   
laid up for me a crown of righteousness1
 laid up1 that is1 in the eternal       
providence of ,god4 ,let1 then1 the     
presumptuous ,jurists see how far they  
stand below that watch-tower of reason  
whence the mind of man regards these    
principles3 and let them be silent1     
content to show forth counsel and       
judgment according to the meaning of the
 law4  ,it has now become manifest that 
it was by combat of man against man that
 the ,romans gained their empire3       
therefore it was by right that they     
gained it1 and this is the principal    
thesis of the present book4 ,up to this 
point we have proved our thesis by      
arguments which mostly rest on          
principles of reason2 we must now make  
our point clear by arguments based on   
the principles of the ,christian faith4 
,,xii4--,for it is they who profess to  
be zealous for the faith of ,christ who 
have chiefly raged together1 and        

imagined a vain thing against the ,roman
 empire2 men who have no compassion on  
the poor of ,christ1 whom they not only 
defraud as to the revenues of the       
,church2 but the very patrimonies of the
 ,church are daily seized upon2 and the 
,church is made poor1 while making a    
show of justice they yet refuse to allow
 the minister of justice to fulfil his  
office4  ,nor does this impoverishment  
happen without the judgment of ,god4    
,for their possessions do not afford    
help to the poor1 to whom belongs as    
their patrimony the wealth of the       
,church2 and these possessions are held 
without gratitude to the empire which   
gives them4 ,let these possessions go   
back to whence they came4 ,they came    
well2 their return is evil3 for they    
were well given1 and they are           
mischievously held4 ,what shall we say  
to shepherds like these8 ,what shall we 
say when the substance of the ,church is
 wasted1 while the private estates of   
their own kindred are enlarged8 ,but    

perchance it is better to proceed with  
what is set before us2 and in religious 
silence to wait for our ,saviour's help4
  ,i say1 then1 that if the ,roman      
empire did not exist by right1 ,christ  
in being born presupposed and sanctioned
 an unjust thing4 ,but the consequent is
 false2 therefore the contradictory of  
the antecedent is true2 for it is always
 true of contradictory propositions1    
that if one is false the other is true4 
,it is not needful to prove the falsity 
of the consequent to a true believer3   
for1 if he be faithful1 he will grant it
 to be false2 and if he be not faithful1
 then this reasoning is not for him4  ,i
 prove the consequence thus3 wherever a 
man of his own free choice carries out a
 public order1 he countenances and      
persuades by his act the justice of that
 order2 and seeing that acts are more   
forcible to persuade than words 7as     
,aristotle holds in the tenth book of   
his ,ethics71#bgc therefore by this he  
persuades us more than if it were merely

 an approval in words4 ,but ,christ1 as 
,luke who writes ,his story1 says1      
willed to be born of the ,virgin ,mary  
under an edict of ,roman authority1 so  
that in that unexampled census of       
mankind1 the ,son of ,god1 made man1    
might be counted as man3 and this was to
 carry out that edict4 ,perhaps it is   
even more religious to suppose that it  
was of ,god that the decree issued      
through ,csar1 so that ,he who had been 
such long years expected among men      
should ,himself enroll himself with     
mortal man4  ,footnote #bgc3 ,eth4 x4   
#a4  ,therefore ,christ1 by ,his action1
 enforced the justice of the edict of   
,augustus1 who then wielded the ,roman  
power4 ,and since to issue a just edict 
implies jurisdiction1 it necessarily    
follows that ,he who showed that ,he    
thought an edict just1 must also have   
showed that ,he thought the jurisdiction
 under which it was issued just2 but    
unless it existed by right it were      
unjust4  ,and it must be noted that the 

force of the argument taken to destroy  
the consequent1 though the argument     
partly holds from its form1 shows its   
force in the second figure1 if it be    
reduced as a syllogism1 just as the     
argument based on the assumption of the 
antecedent is in the first figure4 ,the 
reduction is made thus3 all that is     
unjust is persuaded to men unjustly2    
,christ did not persuade us unjustly2   
therefore ,he did not persuade us to do 
unjust things4 ,from the assumption of  
the antecedent thus3 all injustice is   
persuaded to men unjustly3 ,christ      
persuaded a certain injustice to man1   
therefore ,he persuaded unjustly4       
,,xiii4--,and if the ,roman empire did  
not exist by right1 the sin of ,adam was
 not punished in ,christ4 ,this is      
false1 therefore its contradictory is   
true4 ,the falsehood of the consequent  
is seen thus4 ,since by the sin of ,adam
 we were all sinners1 as the ,apostle   
says3--,wherefore1 as by one man sin    
entered into the world1 and death by    

sin1 and so death passed upon all men1  
for that all have sinned1--then1 if     
,christ had not made satisfaction for   
,adam's sin by his death1 we should     
still by our depraved nature be the     
children of wrath4 ,but this is not so1 
for ,paul1 speaking of the ,father in   
his ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 says3   
,having predestinated us unto the       
adoption of children by ,jesus ,christ  
to ,himself1 according to the good      
pleasure of ,his will1 to the praise of 
the glory of ,his grace1 wherein ,he    
hath made us accepted in the beloved1 in
 whom we have redemption by ,his blood1 
the forgiveness of sins according to the
 riches of ,his grace1 wherein ,he has  
abounded towards us4 ,and ,christ       
,himself1 suffering in ,himself the     
punishment1 says in ,st4 ,john3 ,it is  
finished2 for where a thing is finished1
 naught remains to be done4  ,it is     
convenient that it should be understood 
that punishment is not merely penalty   
inflicted on him who has done wrong1 but

 that penalty inflicted by one who has  
penal jurisdiction4 ,and therefore a    
penalty should not be called punishment1
 but rather injury1 except where it is  
inflicted by the sentence of a regular  
judge4#bgd ,therefore the ,israelites   
said unto ,moses3 ,who made thee a judge
 over us8  ,footnote #bgd3 ,ab ordinario
 judice4  ,if1 therefore1 ,christ had   
not suffered by the sentence of a       
regular judge1 the penalty would not    
properly have been punishment2 and none 
could be a regular judge who had not    
jurisdiction over all mankind2 for all  
mankind was punished in the flesh of    
,christ1 who hath borne our griefs and  
carried our sorrows1 as saith the       
,prophet ,isaiah4 ,and if the ,roman    
empire had not existed by right1        
,tiberius ,csar1 whose vicar was        
,pontius ,pilate1 would not have had    
jurisdiction over all mankind4 ,it was  
for this reason that ,herod1 not knowing
 what he did1 like ,caiaphas1 when he   
spoke truly of the decree of heaven1    

sent ,christ to ,pilate to be judged1 as
 ,luke relates in his gospel4 ,for      
,herod was not the vicegerent of        
,tiberius1 under the standard of the    
eagle1 or the standard of the ,senate2  
but only a king1 with one particular    
kingdom given him by ,tiberius1 and     
ruling the kingdom committed to his     
charge under ,tiberius4  ,let them      
cease1 then1 to insult the ,roman       
empire1 who pretend that they are the   
sons of the ,church2 when they see that 
,christ1 the bridegroom of the ,church1 
sanctioned the ,roman empire at the     
beginning and at the end of ,his warfare
 on earth4 ,and now ,i think that ,i    
have made it sufficiently clear that it 
was by right that the ,romans acquired  
to themselves the empire of the world4  
,oh happy people1 oh ,ausonia1 how      
glorious hadst thou been1 if either he1 
that weakener of thine empire1 had never
 been born1 or if his own pious         
intention had never deceived him8#bge   
,footnote #bge3 ,constantine the        

,great4--7,w47     ,,book ,,iii4        
,i4--,he hath shut the lions' mouths and
 they have not hurt me1 forasmuch as    
before ,him justice was found in me4#bgf
 ,at the beginning of this work ,i      
proposed to examine into three          
questions1 according as the             
subject-matter would permit me4         
,concerning the two first questions our 
inquiry1 as ,i think1 has been          
sufficiently accomplished in the        
preceding books4 ,it remains to treat of
 the third question2 and1 perchance1 it 
may arouse a certain amount of          
indignation against me1 for the truth of
 it cannot appear without causing shame 
to certain men4 ,but seeing that truth  
from its changeless throne appeals to   
me--that ,solomon too1 entering on the  
forest of his proverbs1 teaches me in   
his own person to meditate on truth1 to 
hate the wicked2#bgg seeing that the    
,philosopher1 my instructor in morals1  
bids me1 for the sake of truth1 to put  
aside what is dearest2#bgh ,i will1     

therefore1 take confidence from the     
words of ,daniel in which the power of  
,god1 the shield of the defenders of    
truth1 is set forth1 and1 according to  
the exhortation of ,st4 ,paul1 putting  
on the breast-plate of faith1 and in the
 heat of that coal which one of the     
seraphim had taken from off the altar1  
and laid on the lips of ,isaiah1 ,i will
 enter on the present contest1 and1 by  
the arm of ,him who delivered us by ,his
 blood from the powers of darkness1     
drive out from the lists the wicked and 
the liar1 in the sight of all the world4
 ,why should ,i fear1 when the ,spirit1 
which is co-eternal with the ,father and
 the ,son1 saith by the mouth of ,david3
 ,the righteous shall be had in         
everlasting remembrance1 he shall not be
 afraid of evil tidings8#bgi  ,footnote 
#bgf3 ,dan4 vi4 #bb4 ,vulg4--7,w47      
,footnote #bgg3 ,prov4 vii4 #g4         
,vulg4--7,w47  ,footnote #bgh3 ,arist4  
,eth4 i4 #d4--7,w47  ,footnote #bgi3    
,ps4 cxii4 #g4--7,w47  ,the present     

question1 then1 concerning which we have
 to inquire1 is between two great       
luminaries1 the ,roman ,pontiff and the 
,roman ,prince3 and the question is1    
does the authority of the ,roman        
,monarch1 who1 as we have proved in the 
second book1 is the monarch of the      
world1 depend immediately on ,god1 or on
 some minister or vicar of ,god2 by whom
 ,i understand the successor of ,peter1 
who truly has the keys of the kingdom of
 heaven8   ,,ii4--,for this1 as for the 
former questions1 we must take some     
principle1 on the strength of which we  
may fashion the arguments of the truth  
which is to be expounded4 ,for what does
 it profit to labour1 even in speaking  
truth1 unless we start from a principle8
 ,for the principle alone is the root of
 all the propositions which are the     
means of proof4  ,let us1 therefore1    
start from the irrefragable truth that  
that which is repugnant to the intention
 of nature1 is against the will of ,god4
 ,for if this were not true its         

contradictory would not be false2       
namely1 that what is repugnant to the   
intention of nature is not against      
,god's will1 and if this be not false   
neither are the consequences thereof    
false4 ,for it is impossible in         
consequences which are necessary1 that  
the consequent should be false1 unless  
the antecedent were false also4  ,but if
 a thing is not against the will it must
 either be willed or simply not willed1 
just as not to hate means to love1 or   
not to love2 for not to love does not   
mean to hate1 and not to will does not  
mean to will not1 as is self-evident4   
,but if this is not false1 neither will 
this proposition be false2 ,god wills   
what ,he does not will1 than which a    
greater contradiction does not exist4   
,i prove that what ,i say is true as    
follows3 ,it is manifest that ,god wills
 the end of nature2 otherwise the       
motions of heaven would be of none      
effect1 and this we may not say4 ,if    
,god willed that the end should be      

hindered1 ,he would will also that the  
hindering power should gain its end1    
otherwise ,his will would be of none    
effect4 ,and since the end of the       
hindering power is the non-existence of 
what it hinders1 it would follow that   
,god wills the non-existence of the end 
of nature which ,he is said to will4    
,for if ,god did not will that the end  
should be hindered1 in so far as ,he did
 not will it1 it would follow as a      
consequence to ,his not willing it1 that
 ,he cared nought about the hindering   
power1 neither whether it existed1 nor  
whether it did not4 ,but he who cares   
not for the hindering power1 cares not  
for the thing which can be hindered1 and
 consequently has no wish for it2 and   
when a man has no wish for a thing he   
wills it not4 ,therefore1 if the end of 
nature can be hindered1 as it can1 it   
follows of necessity that ,god wills not
 the end of nature1 and we reach our    
previous conclusion1 that ,god wills    
what ,he does not will4 ,our principle  

is therefore most true1 seeing that from
 its contradictions such absurd results 
follow4   ,,iii4--,at the outset we must
 note in reference to this third        
question1 that the truth of the first   
question had to be made manifest rather 
to remove ignorance than to end a       
dispute4 ,in the second question we     
sought equally to remove ignorance and  
to end a dispute4 ,for there are many   
things of which we are ignorant1 but    
concerning which we do not quarrel4 ,in 
geometry we know not how to square the  
circle1 but we do not quarrel on that   
point4 ,the theologian does not know the
 number of the angels1 but he does not  
quarrel about the number4 ,the ,egyptian
 is ignorant of the political system of 
the ,scythians1 but he does not         
therefore quarrel concerning it4#bhj    
,but the truth in this third question   
provokes so much quarrelling that1      
whereas in other matters ignorance is   
commonly the cause of quarrelling1 here 
quarrelling is the cause of ignorance4  

,for this always happens where men are  
hurried by their wishes past what they  
see by their reason2 in this evil bias  
they lay aside the light of reason1 and 
being dragged on blindly by their       
desires1 they obstinately deny that they
 are blind4 ,and1 therefore1 it often   
follows not only that falsehood has its 
own inheritance1 but that many men issue
 forth from their own bounds and stray  
through the foreign camp1 where they    
understand nothing1 and no man          
understands them2 and so they provoke   
some to anger1 and some to scorn1 and   
not a few to laughter4  ,footnote #bhj3 
,scytharum ,civilitatem4 ,cf4 ,arist4   
,ethics1 iii4 #e1 where ,greek3 to      
bouleuton is discussed1 and thence come 
the first and the third example1 a      
little altered1 the ,egyptian being     
substituted for the ,spartan4  ,now     
three classes of men chiefly strive     
against the truth which we are trying to
 prove4  ,first1 the ,chief ,pontiff1   
,vicar of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ and  

the successor of ,peter1 to whom we owe1
 not indeed all that we owe to ,christ1 
but all that we owe to ,peter1          
contradicts this truth1 urged it may be 
by zeal for the keys2 and also other    
pastors of the ,christian sheepfolds1   
and others whom ,i believe to be only   
led by zeal for our mother1 the ,church4
 ,these all1 perchance from zeal and not
 from pride1 withstand the truth which  
,i am about to prove4  ,but there are   
certain others in whom obstinate greed  
has extinguished the light of reason1   
who are of their father the devil1 and  
yet pretend to be sons of the ,church4  
,they not only stir up quarrels in this 
question1 but they hate the name of the 
most sacred office of ,prince1 and would
 shamelessly deny the principles which  
we have laid down for this and the      
previous questions4  ,there is also a   
third class called ,decretalists1#bha   
utterly without knowledge or skill in   
philosophy or theology1 who1 relying    
entirely on their ,decretals 7which     

doubtless1 ,i think1 should be          
venerated71 and hoping1 ,i believe1 that
 these ,decretals will prevail1         
disparage the power of the ,empire4 ,and
 no wonder1 for ,i have heard one of    
them1 speaking of these ,decretals1     
assert shamelessly that the traditions  
of the ,church are the foundation of the
 faith4 ,may this wickedness be taken   
away from the thoughts of men by those  
who1 antecedently to the traditions of  
the ,church1 have believed in ,christ   
the ,son of ,god1 whether to come1 or   
present1 or as having already suffered2 
and who from their faith have hoped1 and
 from their hope have kindled into love1
 and who1 burning with love1 will1 the  
world doubts not1 be made co-heirs with 
,him4  ,footnote #bha3 ,parad4 ix4      
#acc4--7,w47  ,and that such arguers may
 be excluded once for all from the      
present debate1 it must be noted that   
part of ,scripture was before the       
,church1 that part of it came with the  
,church1 and part after the ,church4    

,before the ,church were the ,old and   
the ,new ,testament--the covenant which 
the ,psalmist says was commanded for    
ever1 of which the ,church speaks to her
 ,bridegroom1 saying3 ,draw me after    
thee4#bhb  ,footnote #bhb3 ,ps4 cxi4 #i4
 ,cant4 i4 #c4--7,w47  ,with the ,church
 came those venerable chief ,councils1  
with which no faithful ,christian doubts
 but that ,christ was present4 ,for we  
have ,his own words to ,his disciples   
when ,he was about to ascend into       
heaven3 ,lo1 ,i am with you always1 even
 unto the end of the world1 to which    
,matthew testifies4 ,there are also the 
writings#bhc of the doctors1 ,augustine 
and others1 of whom1 if any doubt that  
they were aided by the ,holy ,spirit1   
either he has never beheld their fruit1 
or if he has beheld1 he has never tasted
 thereof4  ,footnote #bhc3 ,scriptur4   
,after the ,church are the traditions   
which they call ,decretals1 which1      
although they are to be venerated for   
their apostolical authority1 yet we must

 not doubt that they are to be held     
inferior to fundamental ,scripture1     
seeing that ,christ rebuked the         
,pharisees for this very thing2 for when
 they had asked3 ,why do thy disciples  
transgress the tradition of the elders8 
7for they neglected the washing of      
hands71 ,he answered them1 as ,matthew  
testifies3 ,why do ye also transgress   
the commandment of ,god by your         
tradition8 ,thus ,he intimates plainly  
that tradition was to have a lower      
place4  ,but if the traditions of the   
,church are after the ,church1 it       
follows that the ,church had not its    
authority from traditions1 but rather   
traditions from the ,church2 and1       
therefore1 the men of whom we speak1    
seeing that they have nought but        
traditions1 must be excluded from the   
debate4 ,for those who seek after this  
truth must proceed in their inquiry from
 those things from which flows the      
authority of the ,church4  ,further1 we 
must exclude others who boast themselves

 to be white sheep in the flock of the  
,lord1 when they have the plumage of    
crows4 ,these are the children of       
wickedness1 who1 that they may be able  
to follow their evil ways1 put shame on 
their mother1 drive out their brethren1 
and when they have done all will allow  
none to judge them4 ,why should we seek 
to reason with these1 when they are led 
astray by their evil desires1 and so    
cannot see even our first principle8    
,therefore there remains the controversy
 only with the other sort of men who are
 influenced by a certain kind of zeal   
for their mother the ,church1 and yet   
know not the truth which is sought for4 
,with these men1 therefore--strong in   
the reverence which a dutiful son owes  
to his father1 which a dutiful son owes 
to his mother1 dutiful to ,christ1      
dutiful to the ,church1 dutiful to the  
,chief ,shepherd1 dutiful to all who    
profess the religion of ,christ--,i     
begin in this book the contest for the  
maintenance of the truth4               

,,iv4--,those men to whom all our       
subsequent reasoning is addressed1 when 
they assert that the authority of the   
,empire depends on the authority of the 
,church1 as the inferior workman depends
 on the architect1 are moved to take    
this view by many arguments1 some of    
which they draw from ,holy ,scripture1  
and some also from the acts of the      
,supreme ,pontiff and of the ,emperor   
himself4 ,moreover1 they strive to have 
some proof of reason4  ,for in the first
 place they say that ,god1 according to 
the book of ,genesis1 made two great    
lights1 the greater light to rule the   
day1 and the lesser light to rule the   
night2 this they understand to be an    
allegory1 for that the lights are the   
two powers1#bhd the spiritual and the   
temporal4 ,and then they maintain that  
as the moon1 which is the lesser light1 
only has light so far as she receives it
 from the sun1 so the temporal power    
only has authority as it receives       
authority from the spiritual power4     

,footnote #bhd3 ,regimina4  ,for the    
disposing of these1 and of other like   
arguments1 we must remember the         
,philosopher's words in his book on     
,sophistry1 the overthrow of an argument
 is the pointing out of the mistake4#bhe
  ,footnote #bhe3 ,soph4 ,el4 ii4       
#c4--7,w47  ,error may arise in two     
ways1 either in the matter1 or in the   
form of an argument2 either1 that is1 by
 assuming to be true what is false1 or  
by transgressing the laws of the        
syllogism4 ,the ,philosopher raised     
objections to the arguments of          
,parmenides and ,melissus on both of    
these grounds1 saying that they accepted
 what was false1 and that they did not  
argue correctly4#bhf ,i use false in a  
large sense1 as including the           
inconceivable1#bhg that which in matters
 admitting only of probability has the  
nature of falseness4 ,if the error is in
 the form of an argument1 he who wishes 
to destroy the error must do so by      
showing that the laws of the syllogism  

have been transgressed4 ,if the error is
 in the matter1 it is because something 
has been assumed which is either false  
in itself1 or false in relation to that 
particular instance4 ,if the assumption 
is false in itself1 the argument must be
 destroyed by destroying the assumption2
 if it is false only in that particular 
instance1 we must draw a distinction    
between the falseness in that particular
 instance and its general truth4        
,footnote #bhf3 ,aristotle1 ,phys4 i4   
#b4--7,w47  ,footnote #bhg3             
,inopinabili4  ,having noted these      
things1 to make it more clear how we    
destroy this and the further fallacies  
of our adversaries1 we must remark that 
there are two ways in which error may   
arise concerning the mystical sense1    
either by seeking it where it is not1 or
 by accepting it in a sense other than  
its real sense4  ,on account of the     
first of these ways1 ,augustine says1 in
 his work ,of the ,city of ,god1#bhh    
that we must not think that all things1 

of which we are told1 have a special    
meaning2 for it is on account of that   
which means something1 that that also   
which means nothing is woven into a     
story4 ,it is only with the ploughshare 
that we turn up the earth2 but the other
 parts of the plough are also necessary4
  ,footnote #bhh3 ,dante does not quote 
,st4 ,augustine's words1 but gives his  
meaning1 xvii4 #b4--7,w47  ,on account  
of the second way in which error        
touching the interpretation of mysteries
 may arise1 ,augustine1 in his book     
concerning ,christian doctrine1 speaking
 of those who wish to find in ,scripture
 something other than he who wrote the  
,scripture meant1#bhi says1 that such   
are misled in the same way as a man who 
leaves the straight path1 and then      
arrives at the end of the path by a long
 circuit4 ,and he adds3 ,it ought to be 
shown that this is a mistake1 lest      
through the habit of going out of the   
way1 the man be driven to going into    
cross or wrong ways4 ,and then he       

intimates why such precautions must be  
taken in interpreting ,scripture4 ,faith
 will falter1 if the authority of       
,scripture be not sure4 ,but ,i say that
 if these things happen from ignorance1 
we must pardon those who do them1 when  
we have carefully reproved them1 as we  
pardon those who imagine a lion in the  
clouds1 and are afraid4 ,but if they are
 done purposely1 we must deal with those
 who err thus1 as we do with tyrants1   
who instead of following the laws of the
 state for the public good1 try to      
pervert them for their own advantage4   
,footnote #bhi3 ,i4 #cf1 #cg4 ,dante    
writes3 per gyrum4 ,the ,benedictine    
text has3 per agrum4  ,oh worst of      
crimes1 even though a man commit it in  
his dreams1 to turn to ill use the      
purpose of the ,eternal ,spirit4 ,such  
an one does not sin against ,moses1 or  
,david1 or ,job1 or ,matthew1 or ,paul1 
but against the ,eternal ,spirit that   
speaketh in them4 ,for though the       
reporters of the words of ,god are many1

 yet there is one only that tells them  
what to write1 even ,god1 who has       
deigned to unfold to us ,his will       
through the pens of many writers4       
,having thus first noted these things1  
,i will proceed1 as ,i said above1 to   
destroy the argument of those who say   
that the two great lights are typical of
 the two great powers on earth3 for on  
this type rests the whole strength of   
their argument4 ,it can be shown in two 
ways that this interpretation cannot be 
upheld4 ,first1 seeing that these two   
kinds of power are1 in a sense1         
accidents of men1 ,god would thus appear
 to have used a perverted order1 by     
producing the accidents1 before the     
essence to which they belong existed2   
and it is ridiculous to say this of     
,god4 ,for the two great lights were    
created on the fourth day1 while man was
 not created till the sixth day1 as is  
evident in the text of ,scripture4      
,secondly1 seeing that these two kinds  
of rule are to guide men to certain     

ends1 as we shall see1 it follows that  
if man had remained in the state of     
innocence in which ,god created him1 he 
would not have needed such means of     
guidance4 ,these kinds of rule1 then1   
are remedies against the weakness of    
sin4 ,since1 then1 man was not a sinner 
on the fourth day1 for he did not then  
even exist1 it would have been idle to  
make remedies for his sin1 and this     
would be contrary to the goodness of    
,god4 ,for he would be a sorry physician
 who would make a plaster for an abscess
 which was to be1 before the man was    
born4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be said    
that ,god made these two kinds of rule  
on the fourth day1 and therefore the    
meaning of ,moses cannot have been what 
these men pretend4  ,we may also be more
 tolerant1 and overthrow this falsehood 
by drawing a distinction4 ,this way of  
distinction is a gentler way of treating
 an adversary1 for so his arguments are 
not made to appear consciously false1 as
 is the case when we utterly overthrow  

him4 ,i say then that1 although the moon
 has not light of its own abundantly1   
unless it receives it from the sun1 yet 
it does not therefore follow that the   
moon is from the sun4 ,therefore be it  
known that the being1 and the power1 and
 the working of the moon are all        
different things4 ,for its being1 the   
moon in no way depends on the sun1 nor  
for its power1 nor for its working1     
considered in itself4 ,its motion comes 
from its proper mover1 its influence is 
from its own rays4 ,for it has a certain
 light of its own1 which is manifest at 
the time of an eclipse2 though for its  
better and more powerful working it     
receives from the sun an abundant light1
 which enables it to work more          
powerfully4  ,therefore ,i say that the 
temporal power does not receive its     
being from the spiritual power1 nor its 
power which is its authority1 nor its   
working considered in itself4 ,yet it is
 good that the temporal power should    
receive from the spiritual the means of 

working more effectively by the light of
 the grace which the benediction of the 
,supreme ,pontiff bestows on it both in 
heaven and on earth4 ,therefore we may  
see that the argument of these men erred
 in its form1 because the predicate of  
the conclusion is not the predicate of  
the major premiss4 ,the argument runs   
thus3 ,the moon receives her light from 
the sun1 which is the spiritual power4  
,the temporal power is the moon4        
,therefore the temporal power receives  
authority from the spiritual power4     
,light is the predicate of the major    
premiss1 authority the predicate of the 
conclusion2 which two things we have    
seen to be very different in their      
subject and in their idea4   ,v4--,they 
draw another argument from the text of  
,moses1 saying that the types of these  
two powers sprang from the loins of     
,jacob1 for that they are prefigured in 
,levi and ,judah1 whereof one was       
founder of the spiritual power1 and the 
other of the temporal4 ,from this they  

argue3 the ,church has the same relation
 to the ,empire that ,levi had to       
,judah4 ,levi preceded ,judah in his    
birth1 therefore the ,church precedes   
the ,empire in authority4  ,this error  
is easily overthrown4 ,for when they say
 that ,levi and ,judah1 the sons of     
,jacob1 are the types of spiritual and  
temporal power1 ,i could show this      
argument1 too1 to be wholly false2 but  
,i will grant it to be true4 ,then they 
infer1 as ,levi came first in birth1 so 
does the ,church come first in          
authority4 ,but1 as in the previous     
argument1 the predicates of the         
conclusion and of the major premiss are 
different3 authority and birth are      
different things1 both in their subject 
and in their idea2 and therefore there  
is an error in the form of the argument4
 ,the argument is as follows3 ,a        
precedes ,b in ,c2 ,d and ,e stand in   
the same relation as ,a and ,b2         
therefore ,d precedes ,e in ,f4 ,but    
then ,f and ,c are different things4    

,and if it is objected that ,f follows  
from ,c1 that is1 authority from        
priority of birth1 and that the effect  
is properly substituted for the cause1  
as if animal were used in an argument   
for men1 the objection is bad4 ,for     
there are many men1 who were born before
 others1 who not only do not precede    
those others in authority1 but even come
 after them3 as is plain where we find a
 bishop younger than his archpresbyters4
 ,therefore their objection appears to  
err in that it assumes as a cause that  
which is none4   ,,vi4--,again1 from the
 first book of ,kings they take the     
election and the deposition of ,saul2   
and they say that ,saul1 an enthroned   
king1 was deposed by ,samuel1 who1 by   
,god's command1 acted in the stead of   
,god1 as appears from the text of       
,scripture4 ,from this they argue that1 
as that ,vicar of ,god had authority to 
give temporal power1 and to take it away
 and bestow it on another1 so now the   
,vicar of ,god1 the bishop of the       

universal ,church1 has authority to give
 the sceptre of temporal power1 and to  
take it away1 and even to give it to    
another4 ,and if this were so1 it would 
follow without doubt that the authority 
of the ,empire is dependent on the      
,church1 as they say4  ,but we may      
answer and destroy this argument1 by    
which they say that ,samuel was the     
,vicar of ,god3 for it was not as ,vicar
 of ,god that he acted1 but as a special
 delegate for this purpose1 or as a     
messenger bearing the express command of
 his ,lord4 ,for it is clear that what  
,god commanded him1 that only he did1   
and that only he said4  ,therefore we   
must recognise that it is one thing to  
be another's vicar1 and that it is      
another to be his messenger or minister1
 just as it is one thing to be a doctor1
 and another to be an interpreter4 ,for 
a vicar is one to whom is committed     
jurisdiction with law or with arbitrary 
power1 and therefore within the bounds  
of the jurisdiction which is committed  

to him1 he may act by law or by his     
arbitrary power without the knowledge of
 his lord4 ,it is not so with a mere    
messenger1 in so far as he is a         
messenger2 but as the mallet acts only  
by the strength of the smith1 so the    
messenger acts only by the authority of 
him that sent him4 ,although1 then1 ,god
 did this by ,his messenger ,samuel1 it 
does not follow that the ,vicar of ,god 
may do the same4 ,for there are many    
things which ,god has done and still    
does1 and yet will do through angels1   
which the ,vicar of ,god1 the successor 
of ,peter1 might not do4  ,therefore we 
may see that they argue from the whole  
to a part1 thus3 ,men can hear and see1 
therefore the eye can hear and see3     
which does not hold4 ,were the argument 
negative1 it would be good3 for         
instance1 man cannot fly1 therefore     
man's arm cannot fly4 ,and1 in the same 
way1 ,god cannot1 by his messenger1     
cause what is not to have been1#bij as  
,agathon says2 therefore neither can his

 ,vicar4  ,footnote #bij3 ,as quoted by 
,aristotle1 ,ethics1 vi4 #c4--7,w47     
,,vii4--,further1 they use the offering 
of the wise men from the text of        
,matthew1 saying that ,christ accepted  
from them both frankincense and gold1 to
 signify that ,he was lord and ruler    
both of things temporal and of things   
spiritual2 and from this they infer that
 the ,vicar of ,christ is also lord and 
ruler both of things temporal and of    
things spiritual2 and that consequently 
he has authority over both4  ,to this ,i
 answer1 that ,i acknowledge that       
,matthew's words and meaning are both as
 they say1 but that the inference which 
they attempt to draw therefrom fails1   
because it fails in the terms of the    
argument4 ,their syllogism runs thus3   
,god is the lord both of things temporal
 and of things spiritual1 the holy      
,pontiff is the ,vicar of ,god2         
therefore he is lord both of things     
temporal and of things spiritual4 ,both 
of these propositions are true1 but the 

middle term in them is different1 and   
four terms are introduced1 by which the 
form of the syllogism is not kept1 as is
 plain from what is said of the         
syllogism simply4#bia ,for ,god is the  
subject of the major premiss1 and the   
,vicar of ,god is the predicate of the  
minor2 and these are not the same4      
,footnote #bia3 ,arist4 ,anal4 ,prior41 
or rather1 the ,summul ,logic1 l4 iv41  
of ,petrus ,hispanus4--7,w47  ,and if   
anyone raises the objection that the    
,vicar of ,god is equal in power to     
,god1 his objection is idle2 for no     
vicar1 whether human or divine1 can be  
equal in power to the master whose vicar
 he is1 which is at once obvious4 ,we   
know that the successor of ,peter had   
not equal authority with ,god1 at least 
in the works of nature2 he could not    
make a clod of earth fall upwards1 nor  
fire to burn in a downward direction1 by
 virtue of the office committed to him4 
,nor could all things be committed to   
him by ,god2 for ,god could not commit  

to any the power of creation1 and of    
baptism1 as is clearly proved1          
notwithstanding what#bib the ,master    
says in his fourth book4  ,footnote     
#bib3 ,peter ,lombard1 magister         
sententiarum1 iv4 dist4 #e1 f4          
#b4--7,w47  ,we know also that the vicar
 of a mortal man is not equal in        
authority to the man whose vicar he is1 
so far as he is his vicar2 for none can 
give away what is not his4 ,the         
authority of a prince does not belong to
 a prince1 except for him to use it2 for
 no prince can give to himself          
authority4 ,he can indeed receive       
authority1 and give it up1 but he cannot
 create it in another man1 for it does  
not belong to a prince to create another
 prince4 ,and if this is so1 it is      
manifest that no prince can substitute  
for himself a vicar equal to himself in 
authority respecting all things1 and    
therefore the objection to our argument 
has no weight4   ,,viii4--,they also    
bring forward that saying in ,matthew of

 ,christ to ,peter3 ,whatsoever thou    
shalt bind on earth shall be bound in   
heaven2 and whatsoever thou shalt loose 
on earth shall be loosed in heaven2     
which also1 from the text of ,matthew   
and ,john1 they allow to have been in   
like manner said to all the ,apostles4  
,from this they argue that it has been  
granted by ,god to the successor of     
,peter to be able to bind and to loose  
all things2 hence they infer that he can
 loose the laws and decrees of the      
,empire1 and also bind laws and decrees 
for the temporal power2 and1 if this    
were so1 this conclusion would rightly  
follow4  ,but we must draw a distinction
 touching their major premiss4 ,their   
syllogism is in this form4 ,peter could 
loose and bind all things2 the successor
 of ,peter can do whatever ,peter could 
do2 therefore the successor of ,peter   
can bind and can loose all things3      
whence they conclude that he can bind   
and can loose the decrees and the       
authority of the ,empire4  ,now ,i admit

 the minor premiss2 but touching the    
major premiss ,i draw a distinction4    
,the universal everything which is      
included in whatever is not distributed 
beyond the extent of the distributed    
term4 ,if ,i say all animals run1 all is
 distributed so as to include everything
 which comes under the class animal4    
,but if ,i say all men run1 then all is 
only distributed so as to include every 
individual in the class man2 and when ,i
 say every grammarian runs1 then is the 
distribution even more limited4         
,therefore we must always look to see   
what it is that is to be included in the
 word all1 and when we know the nature  
and extent of the distributed term1 it  
will easily be seen how far the         
distribution extends4 ,therefore1 when  
it is said whatsoever thou shalt bind1  
if whatsoever bore an unlimited sense1  
they would speak truly1 and the power of
 the ,pope would extend even beyond what
 they say2 for he might then divorce a  
wife from her husband1 and marry her to 

another while her first husband was yet 
alive1 which he can in no wise do4 ,he  
might even absolve me when impenitent1  
which ,god ,himself cannot do4          
,therefore it is manifest that the      
distribution of the term in question is 
not absolute1 but in reference to       
something4 ,what this is will be        
sufficiently clear if we consider what  
power was granted to ,peter4 ,christ    
said to ,peter3 ,to thee will ,i give   
the keys of the kingdom of heaven--that 
is1 ,i will make thee the doorkeeper of 
the kingdom of heaven4 ,and then ,he    
adds3 ,whatsoever1 which is to say all  
that--to wit1 all that has reference to 
this duty--thou shalt have power to bind
 and to loose4 ,and thus the universal  
which is implied in whatsoever has only 
a limited distribution1 referring to the
 office of the keys of the kingdom of   
heaven4 ,and in this sense the          
proposition of our opponents is true1   
but1 taken absolutely1 it is manifestly 
false4 ,i say1 then1 that although the  

successor of ,peter has power to bind   
and to loose1 as belongs to him to whom 
the office of ,peter was committed1 yet 
it does not therefore follow that he has
 power to bind and to loose the decrees 
of the ,empire1 as our opponents say1   
unless they further prove that to do so 
belongs to the office of the keys1 which
 we shall shortly show is not the case4 
,,ix4--,they further take the words in  
,luke which ,peter spake to ,christ1    
saying3 ,behold1 here are two swords2   
and they understood that by these two   
swords the two kinds of rule were       
foretold4 ,and since ,peter said here1  
where he was1 which is to say1 with him1
 they argue that the authority of the   
two kinds of rule rests with the        
successor of ,peter4  ,we must answer by
 showing that the interpretation1 on    
which the argument rests1 is wrong4     
,they say that the two swords of which  
,peter spake mean the two kinds of rule 
which we have spoken of2 but this we    
wholly deny1 for then ,peter's answer   

would not be according to the meaning of
 the words of ,christ2 and also we say  
that ,peter made1 as was his wont1 a    
hasty answer1 touching only the outside 
of things4  ,it will be manifest that   
such an answer as our opponents allege  
would not be according to the meaning of
 the words of ,christ1 if the preceding 
words1 and the reason of them1 be       
considered4 ,observe1 then1 that these  
words were spoken on the day of the     
feast1 for a little before ,luke writes 
thus3 ,then came the day of unleavened  
bread1 when the ,passover must be       
killed2 and at this feast ,christ had   
spoken of ,his ,passion1 which was at   
hand1 in which it was necessary for ,him
 to be separated from ,his disciples4   
,observe1 too1 that when these words    
were spoken the twelve were assembled   
together1 and therefore1 shortly after  
the words which we have just quoted1    
,luke says3 ,and when the hour was come 
,he sat down1 and the twelve ,apostles  
with ,him4 ,and continuing ,his         

discourse with them1 ,he came to this3  
,when ,i sent you1 without purse1 and   
scrip1 and shoes1 lacked ye anything8   
,and they said1 ,nothing4 ,then said ,he
 unto them3 ,but now1 he that hath a    
purse1 let him take it1 and likewise his
 scrip2 and he that hath no sword1 let  
him sell his garment1 and buy one4 ,from
 these words the purpose of ,christ is  
sufficiently manifest2 for ,he did not  
say3 ,buy1 or get for yourselves1 two   
swords1 but rather twelve swords1 seeing
 that ,he spake unto twelve disciples3  
,he that hath not1 let him buy1 so that 
each should have one4 ,and ,he said this
 to admonish them of the persecution and
 scorn that they should suffer1 as      
though ,he would say3 ,as long as ,i was
 with you men received you gladly1 but  
now you will be driven away2 therefore  
of necessity ye must prepare for        
yourselves those things which formerly  
,i forbade you to have4 ,and therefore  
if the answer of ,peter bore the meaning
 which our opponents assign to it1 it   

would have been no answer to the words  
of ,christ2 and ,christ would have      
rebuked him for answering foolishly1 as 
,he often did rebuke him4 ,but ,christ  
did not rebuke him1 but was satisfied1  
saying unto him3 ,it is enough1 as      
though ,he would say3 ,i speak because  
of the necessity2 but if each one of you
 cannot possess a sword1 two are enough4
  ,and that it was ,peter's wont to     
speak in a shallow manner is proved by  
his hasty and thoughtless forwardness1  
to which he was led not only by the     
sincerity of his faith1 but also1 ,i    
believe1 by the natural purity and      
simplicity of his character4 ,all the   
,evangelists bear testimony to this     
forwardness4  ,matthew writes that when 
,jesus had asked ,his disciples3 ,whom  
say ye that ,i am8 ,peter answered      
before them all and said3 ,thou art     
,christ1 the ,son of the living ,god4   
,he writes also that when ,christ was   
saying to ,his disciples that he must go
 up to ,jerusalem and suffer many       

things1 ,peter took ,him and began to   
rebuke ,him1 saying3 ,be it far from    
,thee1 ,lord2 this shall not be unto    
,thee4 ,but ,christ turned and rebuked  
him1 and said3 ,get thee behind me1     
,satan4 ,matthew also writes that in the
 ,mount of ,transfiguration1 on the     
sight of ,christ1 and of ,moses and     
,elias1 and of the two sons of ,zebedee1
 ,peter said3 ,lord1 it is good for us  
to be here2 if ,thou wilt1 let us make  
here three tabernacles1 one for ,thee1  
one for ,moses1 and one for ,elias4 ,he 
also writes that when the disciples were
 in a ship1 in the night1 and ,christ   
went unto them walking on the sea1 then 
,peter said unto ,him3 ,lord1 if it be  
,thou1 bid me come unto ,thee on the    
water4 ,and when ,christ foretold that  
all ,his disciples should be offended   
because of ,him1 ,peter answered and    
said3 ,though all men shall be offended 
because of ,thee1 yet will ,i never be  
offended2 and then3 ,though ,i should   
die with ,thee1 yet will ,i not deny    

,thee4 ,and to this saying ,mark bears  
witness also4 ,and ,luke writes that    
,peter had said to ,christ1 a little    
before the words touching the swords    
which we have quoted3 ,lord1 ,i am ready
 to go with ,thee1 both into prison and 
to death4 ,and ,john says of him1 that1 
when ,christ wished to wash his feet1   
,peter answered and said3 ,lord1 dost   
,thou wash my feet8 and then3 ,thou     
shalt never wash my feet4 ,the same     
,evangelist tells us that it was ,peter 
who smote the ,high ,priest's servant   
with a sword1 and the other ,evangelists
 also bear witness to this thing4 ,he   
tells us also how ,peter entered the    
sepulchre at once1 when he saw the other
 disciple waiting outside1 and how1 when
 ,christ was on the shore after the     
resurrection1 when ,peter had heard that
 it was the ,lord1 he girt his fisher's 
coat unto him 7for he was naked7 and did
 cast himself into the sea4 ,lastly1    
,john tells that when ,peter saw ,john1 
he said unto ,jesus3 ,lord1 and what    

shall this man do8  ,it is a pleasure to
 have pursued this point about our      
,chief ,shepherd1#bic in praise of his  
purity of spirit2 but from what ,i have 
said it is plain that when he spake of  
the two swords1 he answered the words of
 ,christ with no second meaning4        
,footnote #bic3 ,archimandrita nostro4  
,cf4 ,parad4 xi4 #ii1 of ,st4           
,francis4--7,w47  ,but if we are to     
receive these words of ,christ and of   
,peter typically1 they must not be      
explained as our adversaries explain    
them2 but they must be referred to that 
sword of which ,matthew writes3 ,think  
not that ,i am come to send peace on the
 earth2 ,i come not to send peace1 but a
 sword4 ,for ,i am come to set a man at 
variance against his father1 c4 ,and    
this comes to pass not only in words1   
but also in fact4 ,and therefore ,luke  
speaks to ,theophilus of all that ,jesus
 began both to do and to teach4 ,it was 
a sword of that kind that ,christ       
commanded them to buy2 and ,peter said  

that it was already doubly there4 ,for  
they were ready both for words and for  
deeds1 by which they should accomplish  
what ,christ said that ,he had come to  
do by the sword4   ,x4--,certain persons
 say further that the ,emperor          
,constantine1 having been cleansed from 
leprosy by the intercession of          
,sylvester1 then the ,supreme ,pontiff1 
gave unto the ,church the seat of       
,empire which was ,rome1 together with  
many other dignities belonging to the   
,empire4#bid ,hence they argue that no  
man can take unto himself these         
dignities unless he receive them from   
the ,church1 whose they are said to be4 
,from this it would rightly follow1 that
 one authority depends on the other1 as 
they maintain4  ,footnote #bid3 ,on the 
,donation of ,constantine1 ,witte refers
 to ,inf4 xxxviii4 #id2 xix4 #aae2      
,purg4 xxxii4 #abd2 ,parad4 xx4 #ce2    
supr ii4 #ab4  ,the arguments which     
seemed to have their roots in the       
,divine words1 have been stated and     

disproved4 ,it remains to state and     
disprove those which are grounded on    
,roman history and in the reason of     
mankind4 ,the first of these is the one 
which we have mentioned1 in which the   
syllogism runs as follows3 ,no one has a
 right to those things which belong to  
the ,church1 unless he has them from the
 ,church2 and this we grant4 ,the       
government of ,rome belongs to the      
,church2 therefore no one has a right to
 it unless it be given him by the       
,church4 ,the minor premiss is proved by
 the facts concerning ,constantine1     
which we have touched on4  ,this minor  
premiss then will ,i destroy2 and as for
 their proof1 ,i say that it proves     
nothing4 ,for the dignity of the ,empire
 was what ,constantine could not        
alienate1 nor the ,church receive4 ,and 
when they insist1 ,i prove my words as  
follows3 ,no man on the strength of the 
office which is committed to him1 may do
 aught that is contrary to that office2 
for so one and the same man1 viewed as  

one man1 would be contrary to himself1  
which is impossible4 ,but to divide the 
,empire is contrary to the office       
committed to the ,emperor2 for his      
office is to hold mankind in all things 
subject to one will3 as may be easily   
seen from the first book of this        
treatise4 ,therefore it is not permitted
 to the ,emperor to divide the ,empire4 
,if1 therefore1 as they say1 any        
dignities had been alienated by         
,constantine1 and had passed to the     
,church1 the coat without seam--which   
even they1 who pierced ,christ1 the true
 ,god1 with a spear1 dared not          
rend--would have been rent4#bie         
,footnote #bie3 ,each side in the       
controversy used the type of the        
seamless robe1 one of the ,empire 7supr 
i4 #af71 the other of the ,church2 e4g41
 in the ,bull of ,boniface ,,viii41     
,unam ,sanctam4  ,further1 just as the  
,church has its foundation1 so has the  
,empire its foundation4 ,the foundation 
of the ,church is ,christ1 as ,paul says

 in his first ,epistle to the           
,corinthians3 ,for other foundation can 
no man lay than that which is laid1     
which is ,jesus ,christ4#bif ,he is the 
rock on which the ,church is built2 but 
the foundation of the ,empire is human  
right4 ,now ,i say that1 as the ,church 
may not go contrary to its              
foundation--but must always rest on its 
foundation1 as the words of the         
,canticles say3 ,who is she that cometh 
up from the desert1 abounding in        
delights1 leaning on her                
beloved8#big--;in the same way ,i say   
that the ,empire may not do aught that  
transgresses human right4 ,but were the 
,empire to destroy itself1 it would so  
transgress human right4 ,therefore the  
,empire may not destroy itself4 ,since  
then to divide the ,empire would be to  
destroy it1 because the ,empire consists
 in one single universal ,monarchy1 it  
is manifest that he who exercises the   
authority of the ,empire may not destroy
 it1 and from what we have said before1 

it is manifest that to destroy the      
,empire is contrary to human right4     
,footnote #bif3 #a ,cor4 iii4           
#aa4--7,w47  ,footnote #big3 ,cant4     
viii4 #e4--7,w47  ,moreover1 all        
jurisdiction is prior in time to the    
judge who has it2 for it is the judge   
who is ordained for the jurisdiction1   
not the jurisdiction for the judge4 ,but
 the ,empire is a jurisdiction1         
comprehending within itself all temporal
 jurisdiction3 therefore it is prior to 
the judge who has it1 who is the        
,emperor4 ,for it is the ,emperor who is
 ordained for the ,empire1 and not      
contrariwise4 ,therefore it is clear    
that the ,emperor1 in so far as he is   
,emperor1 cannot alter the ,empire2 for 
it is to the ,empire that he owes his   
being4 ,i say then that he who is said  
to have conferred on the ,church the    
authority in question either was        
,emperor1 or he was not4 ,if he was not1
 it is plain that he had no power to    
give away any part of the ,empire4 ,nor 

could he1 if he was ,emperor1 in so far 
as he was ,emperor1 for such a gift     
would be a diminishing of his           
jurisdiction4  ,further1 if one ,emperor
 were able to cut off a certain portion 
of the jurisdiction of the ,empire1 so  
could another2 and since temporal       
jurisdiction is finite1 and since all   
that is finite is taken away by finite  
diminutions1 it would follow that it is 
possible for the first of all           
jurisdictions to be annihilated1 which  
is absurd4  ,further1 since he that     
gives is in the position of an agent1   
and he to whom a thing is given in that 
of a patient1 as the ,philosopher holds 
in the fourth book to ,nicomachus1#bih  
therefore1 that a gift may be given1 we 
require not only the fit qualification  
of the giver1 but also of the receiver2 
for the acts of the agent are completed 
in a patient who is qualified4#bii ,but 
the ,church was altogether unqualified  
to receive temporal things2 for there is
 an express command1 forbidding her so  

to do1 which ,matthew gives thus3       
,provide neither gold1 nor silver1 nor  
brass in your purses4 ,for though we    
find in ,luke a relaxation of the       
command in regard to certain matters1   
yet ,i have not anywhere been able to   
find that the ,church after that        
prohibition had licence given her to    
possess gold and silver4 ,if therefore  
the ,church was unable to receive       
temporal power1 even granting that      
,constantine was able to give it1 yet   
the gift was impossible2 for the        
receiver was disqualified4 ,it is       
therefore plain that neither could the  
,church receive in the way of           
possession1 nor could ,constantine give 
in the way of alienation2 though it is  
true that the ,emperor1 as protector of 
the ,church1 could allot to the ,church 
a patrimony and other things1 if he did 
not impair his supreme lordship1 the    
unity of which does not allow division4 
,and the ,vicar of ,god could receive   
such things1 not to possess them1 but as

 a steward to dispense the fruits of    
them to the poor of ,christ1 on behalf  
of the ,church1 as we know the ,apostles
 did4  ,footnote #bih3 ,eth4 iv4        
#a4--7,w47  ,footnote #bii3 ,dispositio2
 dispositus2 indisposita4   ,,xi4--,our 
adversaries further say that the ,pope  
,hadrian#cjj summoned ,charles the      
,great to his own assistance#cja and to 
that of the ,church1 on account of the  
wrongs suffered from the ,lombards in   
the time of their king ,desiderius1 and 
that ,charles received from that ,pope  
the imperial dignity1 notwithstanding   
that ,michael was emperor at            
,constantinople4 ,and therefore they say
 that all the ,roman emperors who       
succeeded ,charles were themselves the  
advocates of the ,church1 and ought by  
the ,church to be called to their       
office4 ,from which would follow that   
dependence of the ,empire on the ,church
 which they wish to prove4  ,footnote   
#cjj3 ,a4,d4 #ggc4--7,w47  ,footnote    
#cja3 ,advocavit4  ,but to overset their

 argument1 ,i reply that what they say  
is nought2 for a usurpation of right    
does not make right2 and if it were so1 
it might be proved in the same way that 
the ,church is dependent on the ,empire2
 for the ,emperor ,otto restored the    
,pope ,leo1 and deposed ,benedict1      
leading him into exile to ,saxony4#cjb  
,footnote #cjb3 ,otto ,i4 7#ifd7 deposed
 ,benedict ,v4 and restored ,leo ,,viii4
   ,,xii4--,but from reason they thus   
argue3 they take the principle laid down
 in the tenth book of ,philosophia      
,prima1#cjc saying that all things which
 belong to one genus are to be brought  
under one head1 which is the standard   
and measure of all that come under that 
genus4 ,but all men belong to one genus3
 therefore they are to be brought under 
one head1 as the standard and measure of
 them all4 ,but the ,supreme ,pontiff   
and the ,emperor are men2 therefore if  
the preceding reasoning be true1 they   
must be brought under one head4 ,and    
since the ,pope cannot come under any   

other man1 the result is that the       
,emperor1 together with all other men1  
must be brought under the ,pope1 as the 
measure and rule of all2 and then1 what 
those who argue thus desire follows4    
,footnote #cjc3 ,arist4 ,metaph4 x4     
#a4--7,w47  ,to overset this argument1  
,i answer that they are right when they 
say that all the individuals of one     
genus ought to be brought under one     
head1 as their measure2 and that they   
are again right when they say that all  
men belong to one genus1 and that they  
are also right when they argue from     
these truths that all men should be     
brought under one head1 taken from the  
genus man1 as their measure and type4   
,but when they obtain the further       
conclusion concerning the ,pope and the 
,emperor1 they fall into a fallacy      
touching accidental attributes4  ,that  
this thing may be understood1 it must be
 clearly known that to be a man is one  
thing1 and to be a pope or an emperor is
 another2 just as to be a man is        

different from being a father or a      
ruler4 ,a man is that which exists by   
its essential form1 which gives it its  
genus and species1 and by which it comes
 under the category of substance4 ,but a
 father is that which exists by an      
accidental form1 that is1 one which     
stands in a certain relation which gives
 it a certain genus and species1 and    
through which it comes under the        
category of relation4 ,if this were not 
so1 all things would come under the     
category of substance1 seeing that no   
accidental form can exist by itself1    
without the support of an existing      
substance2 and this is not so4 ,seeing1 
therefore1 that the ,pope and the       
,emperor are what they are by virtue of 
certain relations3 for they owe their   
existence to the ,papacy and the        
,empire1 which are both relations1 one  
coming within the sphere of fatherhood1 
and the other within that of rule2 it   
manifestly follows that both the ,pope  
and the ,emperor1 in so far as they are 

,pope and ,emperor1 must come under the 
category of relation2 and therefore that
 they must be brought under some head of
 that genus4  ,i say then that there is 
one standard under which they are to be 
brought1 as men2 and another under which
 they come1 as ,pope and ,emperor4 ,for 
in so far as they are men1 they have to 
be brought under the best man1 whoever  
he be1 who is the measure and the ideal 
of all mankind2 under him1 that is1 who 
is most one in his kind1#cjd as may be  
gathered from the last book to          
,nicomachus4#cje ,when1 however1 two    
things are relative1 it is evident that 
they must either be reciprocally brought
 under each other1 if they are          
alternately superior1 or if by the      
nature of their relation they belong to 
connected species2 or else they must be 
brought under some third thing1 as their
 common unity4 ,but the first of these  
suppositions is impossible3 for then    
both would be predicable of both1 which 
cannot be4 ,we cannot say that the      

,emperor is the ,pope1 or the ,pope the 
,emperor4 ,nor again can it be said that
 they are connected in species1 for the 
idea of the ,pope is quite other than   
the idea of the ,emperor1 in so far as  
they are ,pope and ,emperor4 ,therefore 
they must be reduced to some single     
thing above them4  ,footnote #cjd3 ,ad  
existentem maxime unum in genere suo4   
,footnote #cje3 ,eth4 x4 #e1 #g4--7,w47 
,now it must be understood that the     
relative is to the relative as the      
relation to the relation4 ,if1          
therefore1 the ,papacy and the ,empire1 
seeing that they are relations of       
paramount superiority1 have to be       
carried back to some higher point of    
superiority from which they1 with the   
features which make them different1#cjf 
branch off1 the ,pope and ,emperor1     
being relative to one another1 must be  
brought back to some one unity in which 
the higher point of superiority1 without
 this characteristic difference1 is     
found4 ,and this will be either ,god1 to

 whom all things unite in looking up1 or
 something below ,god1 which is higher  
in the scale of superiority1 while      
differing from the simple and absolute  
superiority of ,god4 ,thus it is evident
 that the ,pope and the ,emperor1 in so 
far as they are men1 have to be brought 
under some one head2 while1 in so far as
 they are ,pope and ,emperor1 they have 
to be brought under another head1 and so
 far is clear1 as regards the argument  
from reason4  ,footnote #cjf3 ,cum      
differentialibus suis4   ,,xiii4--,we   
have now stated and put on one side     
those erroneous reasonings on which     
they1 who assert that the authority of  
the ,roman ,emperor depends on the ,pope
 of ,rome1 do most chiefly rely4 ,we    
have now to go back and show forth the  
truth in this third question1 which we  
proposed in the beginning to examine4   
,the truth will appear plainly enough if
 ,i start in my inquiry from the        
principle which ,i laid down1 and then  
show that the authority of the ,empire  

springs immediately from the head of all
 being1 who is ,god4 ,this truth will be
 made manifest1 either if it be shown   
that the authority of the ,empire does  
not spring from the authority of the    
,church2 for there is no argument       
concerning any other authority4 ,or     
again1 if it be shown by direct proof   
that the authority of the ,empire       
springs immediately from ,god4  ,we     
prove that the authority of the ,church 
is not the cause of the authority of the
 ,empire in the following manner4       
,nothing can be the cause of power in   
another thing when that other thing has 
all its power1 while the first either   
does not exist1 or else has no power of 
action4#cjg ,but the ,empire had its    
power while the ,church was either not  
existing at all1 or else had no power of
 acting4 ,therefore the ,church is not  
the cause of the power of the ,empire1  
and therefore not of its authority      
either1 for power and authority mean the
 same thing4 ,let ,a be the ,church1 ,b 

the ,empire1 ,c the authority or power  
of the ,empire4 ,if ,c is in ,b while ,a
 does not exist1 ,a cannot be the cause 
of ,c being in ,b1 for it is impossible 
for an effect to exist before its cause4
 ,further1 if ,c is in ,b while ,a does 
not act1 it cannot be that ,a is the    
cause of ,c being in ,b2 for1 to produce
 an effect1 it is necessary that the    
cause1 especially the efficient cause of
 which we are speaking1 should have been
 at work first4 ,the major premiss of   
this argument is self-evident1 and the  
minor premiss is confirmed by ,christ   
and the ,church4 ,christ confirms it by 
,his birth and ,his death1 as we have   
said2 the ,church confirms it in the    
words which ,paul spake to ,festus in   
the ,acts of the ,apostles3 ,i stand at 
,csar's judgment-seat1 where ,i ought to
 be judged1 and by the words which an   
angel of ,god spake to ,paul a little   
afterwards3 ,fear not1 ,paul2 thou must 
be brought before ,csar2 and again by   
,paul's words to the ,jews of ,italy3   

,but when the ,jews spake against it1 ,i
 was constrained to appeal unto ,csar2  
not that ,i had aught to accuse my      
nation of1 but to deliver my soul from  
death4 ,but if ,csar had not at that    
time had the authority to judge in      
temporal matters1 ,christ would not have
 argued thus2 nor would the angel have  
brought these words2 nor would he1 who  
spake of himself as having a desire to  
depart and to be with ,christ1 have made
 an appeal to a judge not having        
authority4#cjh  ,footnote #cjg3 ,non    
virtuante4  ,footnote #cjh3             
,incompetentem4 ,acts xxv4 #aj2 xxvii4  
#bd2 xxviii4 #ai4 ,phil4 i4 #bc4--7,w47 
,and if ,constantine had not had the    
authority over the patronage of the     
,church1 those things which he allotted 
from the ,empire he could not have had  
the right to allot2 and so the ,church  
would be using this gift against right2 
whereas ,god wills that offerings should
 be pure1 as is commanded in ,leviticus3
 ,no meat offering that ye shall bring  

unto the ,lord shall be made with       
leaven4 ,and though this command appears
 to regard those who offer1 nevertheless
 it also regards those who receive an   
offering4 ,for it is folly to suppose   
that ,god wishes to be received that    
which ,he forbids to be offered1 for in 
the same book there is a command to the 
,levites3 ,ye shall not make yourselves 
abominable with any creeping thing that 
creepeth2 neither shall ye make         
yourselves unclean with them1 that ye   
shall be defiled thereby4#cji ,but to   
say that the ,church so misuses the     
patrimony assigned to her is very       
unseemly2 therefore the premiss from    
which this conclusion followed is false4
  ,footnote #cji3 ,levit4 ii4 #aa2 xi4  
#dc4--7,w47   ,,xiv4--,again1 if the    
,church had power to bestow authority on
 the ,roman ,prince1 she would have it  
either from ,god1 or from herself1 or   
from some ,emperor1 or from the         
universal consent of mankind1 or at     
least of the majority of mankind4 ,there

 is no other crevice by which this power
 could flow down to the ,church4 ,but   
she has it not from any of these        
sources2 therefore she has it not at    
all4  ,it is manifest that she has it   
from none of these sources2 for if she  
had received it from ,god1 she would    
have received it either by the divine or
 by the natural law3 because what is    
received from nature is received from   
,god2 though the converse of this is not
 true4 ,but this power is not received  
by the natural law2 for nature lays down
 no law1 save for the effects of nature1
 for ,god cannot fail in power1 where he
 brings anything into being without the 
aid of secondary agents4 ,since         
therefore the ,church is not an effect  
of nature1 but of ,god who said3 ,upon  
this rock ,i will build my ,church1 and 
elsewhere3 ,i have finished the work    
which ,thou gavest me to do1 it is      
manifest that nature did not give the   
,church this law4  ,nor was this power  
bestowed by the divine law2 for the     

whole of the divine law is contained in 
the bosom of the ,old or of the ,new    
,testament1 and ,i cannot find therein  
that any thought or care for worldly    
matters was commanded1 either to the    
early or to the latter priesthood4 ,nay1
 ,i find rather such care taken away    
from the priests of the ,old ,testament 
by the express command of ,god to       
,moses1#caj and from the priests of the 
,new ,testament by the express command  
of ,christ to ,his disciples4#caa ,but  
it could not be that this care was taken
 away from them1 if the authority of the
 temporal power flowed from the         
priesthood2 for at least in giving the  
authority there would be an anxious     
watchfulness of forethought1 and        
afterwards continued precaution1 lest he
 to whom authority had been given should
 leave the straight way4  ,footnote     
#caj3 ,numbers xviii4 #bj4 ,cf4 ,purg4  
xvi4 #aca4--7,w47  ,footnote #caa3      
,matt4 x4 #i4--7,w47  ,then it is quite 
plain that the ,church did not receive  

this power from herself2 for nothing can
 give what it has not4 ,therefore all   
that does anything1 must be such in its 
doing1 as that which it intends to do1  
as is stated in the book of ,simple     
,being4#cab ,but it is plain that if the
 ,church gave to herself this power1 she
 had it not before she gave it4 ,thus   
she would have given what she had not1  
which is impossible4  ,footnote #cab3   
,arist4 ,metaph4 ix4 #h4--7,w47  ,but it
 is sufficiently manifest from what we  
have previously made evident that the   
,church has received not this power from
 any ,emperor4  ,and further1 that she  
had it not from the consent of all1 or  
even of the greater part of mankind1 who
 can doubt8 seeing that not only all the
 inhabitants of ,asia and ,africa1 but  
even the greater number of ,europeans1  
hold the thought in abhorrence4 ,it is  
mere weariness to adduce proofs in      
matters which are so plain4             
,,xv4--,again1 that which is contrary to
 the nature of a thing cannot be counted

 as one of its essential powers2 for the
 essential powers of each individual    
follow on its nature1 in order to gain  
its end4 ,but the power to grant        
authority in that which is the realm of 
our mortal state is contrary to the     
nature of the ,church4#cac ,therefore it
 is not in the number of its essential  
powers4 ,for the proof of the minor     
premiss we must know that the nature of 
the ,church means the form or           
essence#cad of the ,church4 ,for        
although men use the word nature not    
only of the form of a thing1 but also of
 its matter1 nevertheless1 it is of the 
form that they use it more properly1 as 
is proved in the book of ,natural       
,learning4#cae ,but the essence or form 
of the ,church is nothing else than the 
life of ,christ1 as it is contained both
 in ,his sayings and in ,his deeds4 ,for
 ,his life was the example and ideal of 
the militant ,church1 especially of its 
pastors1 and above all of its chief     
pastor1 to whom it belongs to feed the  

sheep and the lambs of ,christ4 ,and    
therefore when ,christ left ,his life   
unto men for an example ,he said in     
,john's ,gospel3 ,i have given you an   
example that ye should do as ,i have    
done to you4 ,and ,he said unto ,peter  
specially1 after that ,he had committed 
unto him the office of shepherd1 the    
words which ,john also reports3 ,peter1 
follow me4 ,but ,christ denied before   
,pilate that ,his rule was of this sort1
 saying3 ,my kingdom is not of this     
world3 if my kingdom were of this world1
 then would my servants fight1 that ,i  
should not be delivered to the ,jews2   
but now is my kingdom not from          
hence4#caf  ,footnote #cac3 ,virtus     
auctorizandi regnum nostr mortalitatis  
est contra naturam ,ecclesi4  ,footnote 
#cad3 ,forma4  ,footnote #cae3 ,arist4  
,phys4 ,ausc4 ii4 #a4--7,w47  ,footnote 
#caf3 ,john xiii4 #ae2 xxi4 #bb2 xviii4 
#cf4--7,w47  ,but this saying must not  
be understood to mean that ,christ1 who 
is ,god1 is not the lord of this        

kingdom1 for the ,psalmist says3 ,the   
sea is ,his1 and ,he made it1 and ,his  
hands formed the dry land4#cag ,we must 
understand it to mean that1 as the      
pattern of the ,church1 ,he had not the 
care of this kingdom4 ,it is as if a    
golden seal were to speak of itself1 and
 say3 ,i am not the standard for such   
and such a class of things2 for in so   
far as it is gold1 this saying is       
untrue1 seeing that gold is the standard
 of all metals2 but it is true in so far
 as it is a sign capable of being       
received by impression4  ,footnote #cag3
 ,ps4 xcv4 #e4--7,w47  ,it belongs1     
then1 to the very form of the ,church   
always to speak the same1 always to     
think the same2 and to do the opposite  
of this is evidently contrary to its    
essential form--that is to say1 to its  
nature4 ,and from this it may be        
collected that the power of bestowing   
authority on this kingdom is contrary to
 the nature of the ,church2 for         
contrariety which is in thought or word 

follows from contrariety which is in the
 thing thought and the thing said2 just 
as truth and falsehood in speech come   
from the being or the not-being of the  
thing1 as we learn from the doctrine of 
the ,categories4 ,it has then become    
manifest enough by means of the         
preceding arguments1 by which the       
contention of our opponents has been    
shown to lead to an absurd result1 that 
the authority of the ,empire is not in  
any way dependent on the authority of   
the ,church4   ,,xvi4--,although it has 
been proved in the preceding chapter    
that the authority of the ,empire has   
not its cause in the authority of the   
,supreme ,pontiff2 for we have shown    
that this argument led to absurd        
results2 yet it has not been entirely   
shown that the authority of the ,empire 
depends directly upon ,god1 except as a 
result from our argument4 ,for it is a  
consequence that1 if the authority comes
 not from the vicar of ,god1 it must    
come from ,god ,himself4 ,and therefore1

 for the complete determination of the  
question proposed1 we have to prove     
directly that the emperor or monarch of 
the world stands in an immediate        
relation to the ,king of the universe1  
who is ,god4  ,for the better           
comprehending of this1 it must be       
recognised that man alone1 of all       
created things1 holds a position midway 
between things corruptible and things   
incorruptible2 and therefore#cah        
philosophers rightly liken him to a     
dividing line between two hemispheres4  
,for man consists of two essential      
parts1 namely1 the soul and the body4   
,if he be considered in relation to his 
body only1 he is corruptible2 but if he 
be considered in relation to his soul   
only1 he is incorruptible4 ,and         
therefore the ,philosopher spoke well   
concerning the incorruptible soul when  
he said in the second book of the ,soul3
 ,it is this alone which may be         
separated1 as being eternal1 from the   
corruptible4#cai  ,footnote #cah3 ,in   

the ,de ,causis 7v4 above1 i4 #aa71     
,propos4 #i3 ,intelligentia comprehendit
 generata et naturam1 et horizontem     
natur1 scilicet animam2 nam ipsa est    
supra naturam4--7,w47  ,footnote #cai3  
,arist4 ,de ,anim4 ii4 #b4--7,w47  ,if1 
therefore1 man holds this position      
midway between the corruptible and the  
incorruptible1 since every middle nature
 partakes of both extremes1 man must    
share something of each nature4 ,and    
since every nature is ordained to gain  
some final end1 it follows that for man 
there is a double end4 ,for as he alone 
of all beings participates both in the  
corruptible and the incorruptible1 so he
 alone of all beings is ordained to gain
 two ends1 whereby one is his end in so 
far as he is corruptible1 and the other 
in so far as he is incorruptible4  ,two 
ends1 therefore1 have been laid down by 
the ineffable providence of ,god for man
 to aim at3 the blessedness of this     
life1 which consists in the exercise of 
his natural powers1 and which is        

prefigured in#cbj the earthly ,paradise2
 and next1 the blessedness of the life  
eternal1 which consists in the fruition 
of the sight of ,god's countenance1 and 
to which man by his own natural powers  
cannot rise1 if he be not aided by the  
divine light2 and this blessedness is   
understood by the heavenly ,paradise4   
,footnote #cbj3 ,see ,purg4 xxviii43 and
 ,mr4 ,longfellow's note ad loc4  ,but  
to these different kinds of blessedness1
 as to different conclusions1 we must   
come by different means4 ,for at the    
first we may arrive by the lessons of   
philosophy1 if only we will follow them1
 by acting in accordance with the moral 
and intellectual virtues4 ,but at the   
second we can only arrive by spiritual  
lessons1 transcending human reason1 so  
that we follow them in accordance with  
the theological virtues1 faith1 hope1   
and charity4 ,the truth of the first of 
these conclusions and of these means is 
made manifest by human reason1 which by 
the philosophers has been all laid open 

to us4 ,the other conclusions and means 
are made manifest by the ,holy ,spirit1 
who by the mouth of the ,prophets and   
holy writers1 and by ,jesus ,christ1 the
 co-eternal ,son of ,god1 and ,his      
disciples1 has revealed to us           
supernatural truth of which we have     
great need4 ,nevertheless human passion 
would cast them all behind its back1 if 
it were not that men1 going astray like 
the beasts that perish1#cba were        
restrained in their course by bit and   
bridle1 like horses and mules4          
,footnote #cba3 ,sua bestialitate       
vagantes4 ,v4 ,ps4 xxxii4 #aj4          
,therefore man had need of two guides   
for his life1 as he had a twofold end in
 life2 whereof one is the ,supreme      
,pontiff1 to lead mankind to eternal    
life1 according to the things revealed  
to us2 and the other is the ,emperor1 to
 guide mankind to happiness in this     
world1 in accordance with the teaching  
of philosophy4 ,and since none1 or but a
 few only1 and even they with sore      

difficulty1 could arrive at this harbour
 of happiness1 unless the waves and     
blandishments of human desires were set 
at rest1 and the human race were free to
 live in peace and quiet1 this therefore
 is the mark at which he who is to care 
for the world1 and whom we call the     
,roman ,prince1 must most chiefly aim   
at3 ,i mean1 that in this little plot of
 earth#cbb belonging to mortal men1 life
 may pass in freedom and with peace4    
,and since the order of this world      
follows the order of the heavens1 as    
they run their course1 it is necessary1 
to the end that the learning which      
brings liberty and peace may be duly    
applied by this guardian of the world in
 fitting season and place1 that this    
power should be dispensed by ,him who is
 ever present to behold the whole order 
of the heavens4 ,and this is ,he who    
alone has preordained this1 that by it  
in ,his providence ,he might bind all   
things together1 each in their own      
order4  ,footnote #cbb3 ,cf4 ,parad4    

xxii4 #aea4 ,l'ajuola che ci fa tanto   
feroci4  ,but if this is so1 ,god alone 
elects1 ,god alone confirms3 for there  
is none higher than ,god4 ,and hence    
there is the further conclusion1 that   
neither those who now are1 nor any      
others who may1 in whatsoever way1 have 
been called ,electors1 ought to have    
that name2 rather they are to be held as
 declarers and announcers of the        
providence of ,god4 ,and1 therefore1 it 
is that they to whom is granted the     
privilege of announcing ,god's will     
sometimes fall into disagreement2       
because that1 all of them or some of    
them have been blinded by their evil    
desires1 and have not discerned the face
 of ,god's appointment4#cbc  ,footnote  
#cbc3 ,v4 ,hallam1 ,middle ,ages1 c4 v4 
,bryce1 ,roman ,empire1 c4 xiv4 ,witte1 
,prf4 p4 xxxiv4 xlv4  ,it is therefore  
clear that the authority of temporal    
,monarchy comes down1 with no           
intermediate will1 from the fountain of 
universal authority2 and this fountain1 

one in its unity1 flows through many    
channels out of the abundance of the    
goodness of ,god4  ,and now1 methinks1  
,i have reached the goal which ,i set   
before me4 ,i have unravelled the truth 
of the questions which ,i asked3 whether
 the office of ,monarchy was necessary  
to the welfare of the world2 whether it 
was by right that the ,roman people     
assumed to themselves the office of     
,monarchy2 and1 further1 that last      
question1 whether the authority of the  
,monarch springs immediately from ,god1 
or from some other4 ,yet the truth of   
this latter question must not be        
received so narrowly as to deny that in 
certain matters the ,roman ,prince is   
subject to the ,roman ,pontiff4 ,for    
that happiness1 which is subject to     
mortality1 in a sense is ordered with a 
view to the happiness which shall not   
taste of death4 ,let1 therefore1 ,csar  
be reverent to ,peter1 as the first-born
 son should be reverent to his father1  
that he may be illuminated with the     

light of his father's grace1 and so may 
be stronger to lighten the world over   
which he has been placed by ,him alone1 
who is the ruler of all things spiritual
 as well as temporal4   ,,the ,,end4    
,,contents  ,,of  ,,de ,,monarchia4     
,,book ,i4  ,,whether ,a ,,temporal     
,,monarchy ,,is ,,necessary ,,for ,,the 
,,well-,,being ,,of ,,the ,,world8      
,,chap4                                 
,,page  ,i4--,introduction              
#agg  ,,ii4--,what is the end of the    
civil order of mankind8                 
#agh  ,,iii4--,it is to cause the whole 
power of the human intellect to act in  
speculation and operation               
#ahj  ,,iv4--,to attain this end1       
mankind needs universal peace           
#ahd  ,v4--,when several means are      
ordained to gain an end1 one of them    
must be supreme over the others         
#ahe  ,,vi4--,the order which is found  
in the parts of mankind ought to be     
found in mankind as a whole             
#ahh  ,,vii4--,kingdoms and nations     

ought to stand in the same relation to  
the monarch as mankind to ,god          
#ahi  ,,viii4--,men were made in the    
image of ,god2 but ,god is one          
ib4  ,,ix4--,men are the children of    
,heaven1 and they ought to imitate the  
footprints of ,heaven                   
#aij  ,x4--,there is need of a ,supreme 
,judge for the decision of all quarrels 
#aia  ,,xi4--,the world is best ordered 
when justice is strongest therein       
#aib  ,,xii4--,men are at their best in 
freedom                             #aih
  ,,xiii4--,he who is best qualified to 
rule can best order others      #bja    
,,xiv4--,when it is possible1 it is     
better to gain an end by one agent than 
by many                                 
#bjc  ,,xv4--,that which is most one is 
everywhere best                     #bjf
  ,,xvi4--,christ willed to be born in  
the fulness of time1 when ,augustus was 
monarch                                 
#bji   ,,book ,,ii4  ,,whether ,,the    
,,roman ,,people ,,assumed ,,to ,,itself

 ,,by ,,right ,,the ,,dignity ,,of      
,,empire8  ,,chap4                      
,,page  ,i4--,introduction              
#baa  ,,ii4--,that which ,god wills in  
human society is to be held as ,right   
#bac  ,,iii4--,it was fitting for the   
,romans1 as being the noblest nation1 to
 be preferred before all others         
#baf  ,,iv4--,the ,roman ,empire was    
helped by miracles1 and therefore was   
willed by ,god                          
#bbj  ,v4--,the ,romans1 in bringing the
 world into subjection1 aimed at the    
good of the state1 and therefore at the 
end of ,right                           
#bbc  ,,vi4--,all men1 who aim at       
,right1 walk according to ,right        
#bbi  ,,vii4--,the ,romans were ordained
 for empire by ,nature                  
#bcb  ,,viii4--,the judgment of ,god    
showed that empire fell to the lot of   
the ,romans                             
#bce  ,,ix4--,the ,romans prevailed when
 all nations were striving for empire   
#bci  ,x4--,what is acquired by single  

combat is acquired as of ,right         
#bdc  ,,xi4--,the single combats of     
,rome                                   
#bdg  ,,xii4--,christ1 by being born1   
proves to us that the authority of the  
,roman ,empire was just                 
#bej  ,,xiii4--,christ1 by dying1       
confirmed the jurisdiction of the ,roman
 ,empire over all mankind               
#bec   ,,book ,,iii4  ,,whether ,,the   
,,authority ,,of ,,the ,,monarch ,,comes
 ,,directly ,,from ,,god1 ,,or ,,from   
,,some ,,vicar ,,of ,,god8  ,,chap4     
,,page  ,i4--,introduction              
#bef  ,,ii4--,god wills not that which  
is repugnant to the intention of ,nature
                                        
#beg  ,,iii4--,of the three classes of  
our opponents1 and of the too great     
authority which many ascribe to         
tradition                    #bei       
,,iv4--,the argument drawn by our       
opponents from the sun and the moon     
#bfd  ,v4--,the argument drawn from the 
precedence of ,levi over ,judah         

#bgj  ,,vi4--,the argument drawn from   
the crowning and deposition of ,saul by 
,samuel                                 
#bga  ,,vii4--,the argument drawn from  
the oblation of the ,magi               
#bgc  ,,viii4--,the argument drawn from 
the power of the keys given to ,peter   
#bge  ,,ix4--,the argument drawn from   
the two swords                          
#bgh  ,x4--,the argument drawn from the 
donation of ,constantine            #bhb
  ,,xi4--,the argument drawn from the   
summoning of ,charles the ,great by     
,pope ,hadrian                          
#bhg  ,,xii4--,the argument drawn from  
reason                                  
#bhh  ,,xiii4--,the authority of the    
,church is not the cause of the         
authority of the ,empire                
#bia  ,,xiv4--,the ,church has power to 
bestow such authority neither from ,god1
 nor from itself1 nor from any emperor  
#bid  ,,xv4--,the power of giving       
authority to the ,empire is against the 
nature of the ,church                   

#big  ,,xvi4--,the authority of the     
,empire comes directly from ,god        
#bii         99       99       99       
99       99  ,,charles ,,dickens ,,and  
,,evans1 ,,crystal ,,palace ,,press4    
,,bedford ,,street1 ,,strand1 ,,london1 
,w4,c4 ,may1 #ahhe4       ,,macmillan   
,,co4',s ,,catalogue of ,works in the   
,departments of      ,history1          
,biography1 ,travels1 ,critical and     
,literary ,essays1      ,politics1      
,political and ,social ,economy1 ,law1  
etc42 and ,works      connected with    
,language4   ,,history1 ,,biography1    
,,travels1 c4  ,,addison4--,,essays ,,of
 ,,joseph ,,addison4 ,chosen and edited 
by ,,john ,,richard ,,green1 ,m4,a41    
,,ll4,d41 late ,honorary ,fellow of     
,jesus ,college1 ,oxford4 #ahmo4 #ds4   
#f;d4 7,golden ,treasury ,series47      
,,albemarle4--,,fifty ,,years ,,of ,,my 
,,life4 ,by ,,george ,,thomas1 ,earl of 
,albemarle4 ,with ,steel ,portrait of   
the ,first ,earl of ,albemarle1 engraved
 by ,,jeens4 ,third and ,cheaper        

,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4       
,,alfred ,,the ,,great4--,by ,,thomas   
,,hughes1 ,q4,c4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4      
7,biographical ,series47                
,,appleton4--,a ,,nile ,,journal4 ,by   
,t4,g4 ,,appleton4 ,illustrated by      
,,eugene ,,benson4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4    
,,arnold 7,,matthew47--,works by        
,,matthew ,,arnold1 ,d4,c4,l4           
,,essays ,,in ,,criticism4 ,new         
,edition1 ,revised and ,enlarged4       
,crown #hvo4 #is4       ,,higher        
,,schools ,,and ,,universities ,,in     
,,germany4 ,second ,edition4      ,crown
 #hvo4 #fs4       ,,the ,,popular       
,,education ,,of ,,france4 ,with        
,notices of that of      ,holland and   
,switzerland4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4   
,,arnold 7,w4,t47--,,the ,,roman        
,,system ,,of ,,provincial              
,,administration ,,to ,,the ,,accession 
,,of ,,constantine ,,the ,,great4 ,being
 the ,arnold ,prize ,essay for #ahgi4   
,by ,w4,t4 ,,arnold1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4
 #fs4  ,,art4--,,the ,,year',s ,,art3 ,a

 concise ,epitome of all ,matters       
relating to the ,arts of ,painting1     
,sculpture1 and ,architecture1 which    
have occurred during the ,year #ahhj1   
together with ,information respecting   
the ,events of the ,year #ahha4         
,compiled by ,,marcus ,b4 ,,huish4      
,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4       ,,the     
,,same1 #ahgi-ahhj4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4   
#f;d4  ,,artevelde4--,,james ,,and      
,,philip ,,van ,,artevelde4 ,by ,w4,j4  
,,ashley1 ,b4,a41 late ,scholar of      
,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,being the  
,lothian ,prize ,essay for #ahhb4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #fs4  ,,atkinson4--,,an ,,art    
,,tour ,,to ,,northern ,,capitals ,,of  
,,europe1 including ,descriptions of the
 ,towns1 the ,museums1 and other ,art   
,treasures of ,copenhagen1 ,christiana1 
,stockholm1 ,abo1 ,helsingfors1 ,wiborg1
 ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,moscow1 and ,kief4  
,by ,j4 ,,beavington ,,atkinson4 #hvo4  
#abs4  ,,bailey4--,,the ,,succession    
,,to ,,the ,,english ,,crown4 ,a        
,historical ,sketch4 ,by ,a4 ,,bailey1  

,m4,a41 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,crown #hvo4
 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,baker 7,,sir ,,samuel    
,w47--,works by ,sir ,,samuel ,,baker1  
,pacha1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41              
,f4,r4,g4,s43--       ,,cyprus ,,as ,i  
,,saw ,,it ,,in #ahgi4 ,with            
,frontispiece4 #hvo4 #abs4      #f;d4   
,,ismail,a3 ,a ,narrative of the        
,expedition to ,central ,africa      for
 the ,suppression of the ,slave ,trade1 
organised by ,ismail1      ,khedive of  
,egypt4 ,with ,portraits1 ,map1 and     
numerous      ,illustrations4 ,new      
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,the 
,,albert ,n',,yanza1 ,great ,basin of   
the ,nile1 and ,exploration      of the 
,nile ,sources4 ,with ,maps and         
,illustrations4 ,fifth      ,edition4   
,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,the ,,nile    
,,tributaries ,,of ,,abyssinia1 and the 
,sword ,hunters of      the ,hamran     
,arabs4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 
,sixth      ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 
,,the ,,egyptian ,,question4 ,being     
,letters to the ,times and the          

,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,with ,map4 ,demy 
#hvo4 #bs4  ,,bancroft4--,,the ,,history
 ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of      
,,america1 ,,from ,,the ,,discovery ,,of
 ,,the ,,continent4 ,by ,,george        
,,bancroft4 ,new and thoroughly ,revised
 ,edition4 ,six ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4     
#eds4  ,,barker 7,,lady74--,works by    
,,lady ,,barker4       ,a ,,year',s     
,,housekeeping ,,in ,,south ,,africa4   
,by ,,lady ,,barker4 ,with              
,illustrations4 ,new and ,cheaper       
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4      #f;d4  
,,station ,,life ,,in ,,new ,,zealand4  
,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4        
#f;d4       ,,letters ,,to ,,guy4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #es4  ,,bath4--,,observations    
,,on ,,bulgarian ,,affairs4 ,by the     
,,marquis ,,of ,,bath4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4
 #f;d4  ,,beesly4--,,stories ,,from     
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,rome4 ,by ,mrs4  
,,beesly4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 
,,becker4--,,disturbed ,,ireland1 being 
the ,letters ,written during the ,winter
 of #ahhj-ahha4 ,by ,,bernard ,h4       

,,becker1 ,special ,commissioner of ,the
 ,daily ,news4 ,with ,route ,maps4      
,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,berlioz1 ,,hector1 
,,autobiography ,,of1 ,member of the    
,institute of ,france from #ahjc-ahfe2  
comprising his ,travels in ,italy1      
,germany1 ,russia1 and ,england4        
,translated entire from the second      
,paris ,edition by ,,rachel 7,scott     
,russell7 ,,holmes and ,,eleanor        
,,holmes4 #b vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #bas4   
,,bernard 7,,st47--,,the ,,life ,,and   
,,times ,,of ,,st4 ,,bernard1 ,abbot of 
,clairvaux4 ,by ,j4,c4 ,,morison1 ,m4,a4
 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
7,biographical ,series47  ,,biographical
 ,,sketches1 #aheb-ahge4 ,by ,,harriet  
,,martineau4 ,with four ,additional     
,sketches1 and ,autobiographical        
,sketch4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4  
#fs4 7,biographical ,series47           
,,bismarck--,,in ,,the ,,franco-,,german
 ,,war4 ,an ,authorized ,translation    
from the ,german of ,dr4 ,,moritz       
,,busch4 ,two ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #ahs4 

,,bismarck--,,our ,,chancellor4         
,sketches for a ,historical ,picture by 
,dr4 ,,moritz ,,busch4 ,translated from 
the ,german by ,,william                
,,beatty-,,kingston1 ,author of ,william
 ,i41 ,german ,emperor1 ,the ,battle of 
,berlin1 c4 #b vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #ahs4 
,,blackburne4--,,biography ,,of ,,the   
,,right ,,hon4 ,,francis ,,blackburne1  
,late ,lord ,chancellor of ,ireland4    
,chiefly in connection with his ,public 
and ,political ,career4 ,by his ,son1   
,,edward ,,blackburne1 ,q4,c4 ,with     
,portrait engraved by ,,jeens4 #hvo4    
#abs4  ,,blake4--,,life ,,of ,,william  
,,blake4 ,with ,selections from his     
,poems and other ,writings4 ,illustrated
 from ,blake's own ,works4 ,by          
,,alexander ,,gilchrist4 ,a new and     
,enlarged ,edition1 with additional     
,letters1 and a ,memoir of the ,author4 
,printed on hand-made paper1 the        
,illustrations on ,india paper1 and     
mounted in the text4 #b vols4 ,cloth    
elegant1 gilt1 with ,designs after      

,blake by ,,frederick ,j4 ,,shields4    
,medium #hvo4 #b #bs4  ,,blandford      
7,w4,t47--,,geology ,,and ,,zoology ,,of
 ,,abyssinia4 ,by ,w4,t4 ,,blandford4   
#hvo4 #bas4  ,,boleyn1 ,,anne3 ,a       
,chapter of ,english ,history1          
#aebg-aecf4 ,by ,,paul ,,friedmann4 #b  
vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #bhs4                 
,,boughton--,,abbey4--,,sketching       
,,rambles ,,in ,,holland4 ,by ,g4,h4    
,,boughton1 ,a4,r4,a41 and ,e4,a4       
,,abbey4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 
,fcap4 #dto4 #bas4                      
,,brimley4--,,essays4 ,by the late      
,,george ,,brimley1 ,m4,a41 ,librarian  
of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4       
,edited by ,w4,g4 ,,clark1 ,m4,a41      
,fellow and ,tutor of ,trinity ,college1
 ,cambridge4 ,new ,edition4 ,globe #hvo4
 #es4       ,,contents4--,tennyson's    
,poems--,wordsworth's ,poems--,poetry   
and      ,criticism--,carlyle's ,life of
 ,sterling--,esmond--,westward          
,ho6--,wilson's ,noctes                 
,ambrosian--,comte's ,positive          

,philosophy1 c4  ,,bront4--,,charlotte  
,,bront4 ,a ,monograph4 ,by ,t4 ,,wemyss
 ,,reid4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,third   
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4             
7,biographical ,series47                
,,brook4--,,french ,,history ,,for      
,,english ,,children4 ,by ,,sarah       
,,brook4 ,with ,coloured ,maps4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #fs4  ,,brooke4--,,the ,,raja ,,of
 ,,sarawak3 an ,account of ,sir ,james  
,brooke1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,,ll4,d4 ,given     
chiefly through ,letters or ,journals4  
,by ,,gertrude ,l4 ,,jacob4 ,with       
,portrait and ,maps4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4  
#bes4  ,,bryce4--,works by ,,james      
,,bryce1 ,m4,p41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,regius     
,professor of ,civil ,law1 ,oxford3--   
,,the ,,holy ,,roman ,,empire4 ,seventh 
,edition1 ,revised and      ,enlarged4  
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4                 
,,transcaucasia ,,and ,,ararat3 being   
notes of a ,vacation ,tour in      the  
,autumn of #ahgf4 ,with an ,illustration
 and ,map4 ,third      ,edition4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #is4  ,,burgoyne4--,,political    

,,and ,,military ,,episodes ,,during    
,,the ,,first ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,reign 
,,of ,,george ,,iii4 ,derived from the  
,life and ,correspondence of the ,right 
,hon4 ,j4 ,burgoyne1 ,lieut4-,general in
 his ,majesty's ,army1 and ,m4,p4 for   
,preston4 ,by ,e4,b4 ,,de ,,fonblanque4 
,with ,portrait1 ,heliotype ,plate1 and 
,maps4 #hvo4 #afs4  ,,burke4--,,letters1
 ,,tracts1 ,,and ,,speeches ,,on ,,irish
 ,,affairs4 ,by ,,edmund ,,burke4       
,arranged and ,edited by ,,matthew      
,,arnold4 ,with a ,preface4 ,crown #hvo4
 #fs4  ,,busch4--,,bismarck ,,in ,,the  
,,franco-,,german ,,war1 #ahgj-ahga4    
,authorised ,translation from the       
,german of ,dr4 ,,moritz ,,busch4 #b    
vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #ahs4       ,,our    
,,chancellor4 ,sketches for a           
,historical ,picture4 ,by ,,moritz      
,,busch4 ,translated from the ,german by
 ,,william      ,,beatty-,,kingston1    
,author of ,william ,i41 ,german        
,emperor1      ,the ,battle of ,berlin1 
c4 #b vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #ahs4          

,,cambridge4--,,memorials ,,of          
,,cambridge4 ,greatly ,enlarged and     
partly ,rewritten 7#ahea-ff74 ,by       
,,charles ,,henry ,,cooper1 ,f4,s4,a4   
,with ,seventy-four ,views of the       
,colleges1 ,churches1 and other ,public 
,buildings of the ,university and ,town1
 engraved on steel by ,j4 ,,le ,,keux1  
together with about ,forty-five of those
 engraved on ,copper by ,,storer1 and a 
few ,lithographs1 with ,twenty          
additional ,etchings on ,copper by      
,,robert ,,farren4 #hvo4 #c vols4 #c    
#cs4 ,also a ,large ,paper ,edition4    
,the ,engravings and ,etchings4 ,proofs 
on ,india ,paper4 #c vols4 #dto4        
half-morocco1 #aj #ajs4 ,fifty copies of
 the ,etchings1 by ,r4 ,,farren1 from   
the ,memorials of ,cambridge1 proofs    
signed in portfolio4 #c #cs4            
,,cameron4--,,our ,,future ,,highway4   
,by ,v4 ,,lovett ,,cameron1 ,c4,b41     
,commander1 ,r4,n4 ,with ,illustrations4
 #b vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #bas4            
,,campbell4--,,log-,,letters ,,from     

,,the ,,challenger4 ,by ,,lord ,,george 
,,campbell4 ,with ,map4 ,fifth and      
,cheaper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4    
,,campbell4--,,my ,,circular ,,notes2   
,extracts from ,journals2 ,letters sent 
,home2 ,geological and other ,notes1    
written while ,travelling ,westwards    
round the ,world1 from ,july #fth1      
#ahgd1 to ,july #fth1 #ahge4 ,by ,j4,f4 
,,campbell1 ,author of ,frost and ,fire4
 ,cheaper ,issue4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4     
,,campbell4--,,turks ,,and ,,greeks4    
,notes of a recent ,excursion4 ,by the  
,hon4 ,,dudley ,,campbell1 ,m4,a4 ,with 
,coloured ,map4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 
,,carpenter4--,,the ,,life ,,and ,,work 
,,of ,,mary ,,carpenter4 ,by ,j4        
,,estlin ,,carpenter1 ,m4,a4 ,with      
,steel ,portrait4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4     
7,biographical ,series47  ,,carr 7,j4   
,,comyns ,,carr74--,,papers ,,on ,,art4 
,by ,j4 ,,comyns ,,carr4 ,extra ,crown  
#hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4                        
,,carstares4--,,william ,,carstares3 a  
,character and ,career of the           

,revolutionary ,epoch 7#afdi-agae74 ,by 
,,robert ,,story1 ,minister of          
,rosneath4 #hvo4 #abs4                  
,,cassel4--,,manual ,,of ,,jewish       
,,history ,,and ,,literature2 preceded  
by a ,brief ,summary of ,bible ,history1
 by ,dr4 ,d4 ,,cassel4 ,translated by   
,mrs4 ,,henry ,,lucas4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4
 #f;d4  ,,caucasus1 ,,notes ,,on ,,the4 
,by ,,wanderer4 #hvo4 #is4              
,,challenger4--,,report ,,on ,,the      
,,scientific ,,results ,,of ,,the       
,,voyage ,,of ,h4,m4,s4 ,,challenger1   
,,during ,,the ,,years #ahgc-gf4 ,under 
the command of ,captain ,sir ,,george   
,,nares1 ,r4,n41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,captain
 ,,frank ,,turle ,,thomson1 ,r4,n4      
,prepared under the ,superintendence of 
,sir ,c4 ,,wyville ,,thomson1 ,knt41    
,f4,r4,s41 c41 and now of ,,john        
,,murray1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 one of the      
,naturalists of the ,expedition4 ,with  
,illustrations4 ,published by order of  
,her ,majesty's ,government4            
,volume ,i4 ,zoology4 ,royal1 #cgs4     

#f;d4 ,or       ,part ,i4 ,report on the
 ,brachiopoda1 #bs4 #f;d4          ,,ii4
 ,report on the ,pennatulida1 #ds4      
,,iii4 ,report on the ,ostracoda1 #aes4 
,,iv4 ,report on the ,bones of ,cetacea1
 #bs4           ,v4 ,the ,development of
 the ,green ,turtle1 #ds4 #f;d4         
,,vi4 ,report on the ,shore ,fishes1    
#ajs4       ,volume ,,ii4 ,zoology4     
#ejs4 ,or       ,part ,,vii4 ,report on 
the ,corals1 #aes4          ,,viii4     
,report on the ,birds1 #ces4            
,volume ,,iii4 ,zoology4 #ejs4 ,or      
,part ,,ix4 ,report on the ,echinoidea1 
#cfs4            ,x4 ,report on the     
,pycnogonida1 #ads4       ,volume ,,iv4 
,zoology4 #ejs4 ,or       ,part ,,xi4   
,report on the ,anatomy of the          
,tubinares1 #fs4          ,,xii4 ,report
 on the ,deep-sea ,medus1 #bjs4         
,,xiii4 ,report on the ,holdthurioidea  
7,part ,i471 #bds4       ,volume ,v4    
,zoology4 #ejs4 ,or       ,part ,,xiv4  
,report on the ,ophiuroidea4            
,,xv4 ,some points in the ,anatomy of   

the ,thylasine1 ,cuscus and             
,phascogale1 with an account of the     
,comparative ,anatomy                of 
the ,intrinsic ,muscles and ,nerves of  
the ,mammalian ,pes4       ,volume ,,vi4
 ,zoology4 #cjs4 ,or       ,part ,,xvi4 
,report on the ,actiniaria1 #abs4       
,,xvii4 ,report on the ,tunicata1 #cjs4 
,volume ,,vii4 ,zoology4 #cjs4 ,or      
,part ,,xviii4 ,report on the ,anatomy  
of the ,spheniscid1 #acs4 #f;d4         
,,xix4 ,report on the ,pelagic          
,hemiptera1 #cs4 #f;d4                  
,,xx4 ,report on the ,hydroida 7first   
part74 ,plumularid1 #is4                
,,xxi4 ,report on the ,specimens of the 
,genus ,orbitolites1 #ds4       ,volume 
,,viii4 ,zoology4 #djs4 ,or       ,part 
,,xxiii4 ,report on the ,copepoda1 #bds4
            ,,xxiv4 ,reports on the     
,calcarea1 #fs4             ,,xxv4      
,report on the ,cerripedia1 ,systematic 
,part1 #ajs4       ,,physics ,,and      
,,chemistry4 ,volume ,i4 #bas4 ,or      
,part ,i4 ,report on ,composition of    

,ocean ,water1 #is4 #f;d4          ,,ii4
 ,report on ,specific ,gravity of ,ocean
 ,water1 #cs4 #f;d4         ,,iii4      
,report on the ,temperature of ,ocean   
,water1 #hs4 #f;d4       ,,narrative4   
,volume ,,ii4 ,royal4 #cjs4 ,or         
,magnetical and ,meteorological         
,observations4 #bes4       ,appendix ,a4
 ,report on the ,pressure ,errors of the
 ,challenger      ,thermometers1 #bs4   
#f;d4       ,appendix ,b4 ,report on the
 ,petrology of ,st4 ,paul's ,rocks4     
#bs4 #f;d4  ,,chatterton3 ,a            
,,biographical ,,study4 ,by ,,daniel    
,,wilson1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of       
,history and ,english ,literature in    
,university ,college1 ,toronto ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4  ,,chatterton3 ,a      
,,story ,,of ,,the ,,year #aggj4 ,by    
,professor ,,masson1 ,,ll4,d4 ,crown    
#hvo4 #es4  ,,cicero4--,,the ,,life     
,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,marcus ,,tullius 
,,cicero3 being a ,new ,translation of  
the ,letters included in ,mr4 ,watson's 
,selection4 ,with ,historical and       

,critical ,notes1 by ,rev4 ,g4,e4       
,,jeans1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,hertford   
,college1 ,oxford1 ,assistant-,master in
 ,haileybury ,college1 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4
  ,,clark4--,,memorials ,,from          
,,journals ,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,samuel
 ,,clark1 ,m4,a41 formerly ,principal of
 the ,national ,society's ,training     
,college1 ,battersea4 ,edited with      
,introduction by his ,,wife4 ,with      
,portrait4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4      
,,classical ,,writers4--,edited by      
,,john ,,richard ,,green4 ,fcap4 #hvo4  
,price #as4 #f;d4 each4                 
,,euripides4 ,by ,professor ,,mahaffy4  
,,milton4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,stopford ,a4  
,,brooke4      ,,livy4 ,by the ,rev4    
,w4,w4 ,,capes1 ,m4,a4      ,,vergil4   
,by ,professor ,,nettleship1 ,m4,a4     
,,sophocles4 ,by ,professor ,l4         
,,campbell1 ,m4,a4      ,,demosthenes4  
,by ,professor ,s4,h4 ,butcher1 ,m4,a4  
,,tacitus4 ,by ,rev4 ,a4,j4 ,,church1   
,m4,a41 and ,w4,j4 ,,brodribb1 ,m4,a4   
,other ,volumes to follow4  ,,clifford  

7,w4,k47--,,lectures ,,and ,,essays4    
,edited by ,,leslie ,,stephen and       
,,frederick ,,pollock1 with             
,introduction by ,f4 ,,pollock4 ,two    
,portraits4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bes4        
,,combe4--,,the ,,life ,,of ,,george    
,,combe1 ,author of ,the ,constitution  
of ,man4 ,by ,,charles ,,gibbon4 ,with  
,three ,portraits engraved by ,,jeens4  
,two ,vols4 #hvo4 #cbs4                 
,,cooper4--,,athen ,,cantabrigienses4   
,by ,,charles ,,henry ,,cooper1         
,f4,s4,a41 and ,,thompson ,,cooper1     
,f4,s4,a4 ,vol4 ,i4 #hvo41 #aejj-aehe1  
#ahs42 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #aehf-afji1 #ahs4   
,,cornwall1 ,,an ,,unsentimental        
,,journey ,,through4 ,by the ,author of 
,john ,halifax1 ,gentleman4 ,with       
numerous ,illustrations by ,c4 ,,napier 
,,hemy4 ,medium #dto4 #abs4 #f;d4       
,,coues4--,,north ,,american ,,birds1   
,,key ,,to4 ,containing a ,concise      
,account of every ,species of ,living   
and ,fossil ,bird at present known from 
the ,continent north of the ,mexican and

 ,united ,states ,boundary1 inclusive of
 ,greenland4 ,second ,edition1 revised  
to date1 and entirely rewritten4 ,with  
which are incorporated ,,general        
,,ornithology1 an ,outline of the       
,structure and ,classification of       
,birds2 and ,,field ,,ornithology1 a    
,manual of ,collecting1 ,preparing1 and 
,preserving ,birds4 ,by ,,elliott       
,,coues1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 ,ph4,d41       
,member of the ,national ,academy of    
,science1 c4 c4 ,profusely ,illustrated4
 ,demy #hvo4 #b #bs4  ,,cox             
7,g4,v47--,,recollections ,,of ,,oxford4
 ,by ,g4,v4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a41 ,new         
,college1 late ,esquire ,bedel and      
,coroner in the ,university of ,oxford4 
,cheaper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4    
,,cunynghame 7,,sir ,a4,t47--,,my       
,,command ,,in ,,south ,,africa1        
#ahgd-ahgh4 ,comprising ,experiences of 
,travel in the ,colonies of ,south      
,africa and the ,independent ,states4   
,by ,sir ,,arthur ,,thurlow             
,,cunynghame1 ,g4,c4,b41 then           

,lieutenant-,governor and ,commander of 
the ,forces in ,south ,africa4 ,third   
,edition4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4  ,,daily    
,,news4--,,the ,,daily ,,news'          
,,correspondence of the ,war between    
,russia and ,turkey1 to the fall of     
,kars4 ,including the letters of ,mr4   
,archibald ,forbes1 ,mr4 ,j4,e4         
,mc,gahan1 and other ,special           
,correspondents in ,europe and ,asia4   
,second ,edition1 ,enlarged4 ,cheaper   
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,from
 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,kars ,,to ,,the    
,,conclusion ,,of ,,peace4 ,cheaper     
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4             
,,darwin4--,,charles ,,darwin3          
,,memorial ,,notices ,,reprinted ,,from 
,,nature4 ,by ,professor ,,huxley1      
,f4,r4,s42 ,g4,j4 ,,romanes1 ,f4,r4,s42 
,,archibald ,,geikie1 ,f4,r4,s2 and     
,w4,t4 ,,thiselton ,,dyer1 ,f4,r4,s4    
,with a ,portrait engraved by ,c4,h4    
,,jeens4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,nature
 ,series4  ,,davidson4--,,the ,,life    
,,of ,a ,,scottish ,,probationer2 being 

a ,memoir of ,thomas ,davidson1 with his
 ,poems and ,letters4 ,by ,,james       
,,brown1 ,minister of ,st4 ,james's     
,street ,church1 ,paisley4 ,second      
,edition1 revised and enlarged1 with    
,portrait4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4      
,,dawson4--,,australian ,,aborigines4   
,the ,language and ,customs of ,several 
,tribes of ,aborigines in the ,western  
,district of ,victoria1 ,australia4 ,by 
,,james ,,dawson4 ,small #dto4 #ads4    
,,deak4--,,francis ,,deak1 ,,hungarian  
,,statesman3 ,a ,memoir4 ,with a        
,preface1 by the ,right ,hon4 ,m4,e4    
,,grant ,,duff1 ,m4,p4 ,with ,portrait4 
#hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4  ,,deas4--,,the       
,,river ,,clyde4 ,an ,historical        
,description of the ,rise and ,progress 
of the ,harbour of ,glasgow1 and of the 
,improvement of the ,river from ,glasgow
 to ,port ,glasgow4 ,by ,j4 ,,deas1 ,m4 
,inst4 ,c4,e4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4         
,,delane4--,,life ,,and ,,letters ,,of  
,,john ,t4 ,,delane1 late ,editor of the
 ,times4 ,by ,sir ,,george ,w4 ,,dasent1

 ,d4,c4,l4 #hvo4 ,in the ,press4        
,,denison4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,cavalry 
,,from ,,the ,,earliest ,,times4 ,with  
,lessons for the ,future4 ,by           
,lieut4-,colonel ,,george ,,denison1    
,commanding the ,governor-,general's    
,body ,guard1 ,canada1 ,author of       
,modern ,cavalry4 ,with ,maps and       
,plans4 #hvo4 #ahs4  ,,dickens',s       
,,dictionary ,,of ,,paris1              
#ahhe4--7;,fourth ,year47 ,an           
,unconventional ,handbook4 ,with ,maps1 
,plans4 c4 #ahmo4 ,paper ,cover1 #as4   
,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4  ,,dickens',s        
,,dictionary ,,of ,,london1             
#ahhd4--7,sixth ,year47 ,an             
,unconventional ,handbook4 ,with ,maps1 
,plans1 c4 #ahmo4 ,paper ,cover1 #as4   
,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4  ,,dickens',s        
,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,thames1       
#ahhe4--;,an ,unconventional ,handbook4 
,with ,maps1 ,plans1 c4 ,paper ,cover1  
#as4 ,cloth1 #as4 #f;d4  ,,dickens',s   
,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,university    
,,of ,,oxford4 #ahmo4 paper cover1 #as4 

,,dickens',s ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the    
,,university ,,of ,,cambridge4 #ahmo4   
paper cover1 #as4  ,,dickens',s         
,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,universities  
,,of ,,oxford ,,and ,,cambridge4 #ahmo4 
cloth4 #bs4 #f;d4  ,,dickens',s         
,,continental ,a4,b4,c4 ,,railway       
,,guide4 ,published on the #ast of each 
,month4 #ahmo4 #as4  ,,dilke4--,,greater
 ,,britain4 ,a ,record of ,travel in    
,english-speaking ,countries during     
#ahfe-fg4 7,america1 ,australia1        
,india47 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir      
,,charles ,,wentworth ,,dilke1 ,m4,p4   
,sixth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4      
,,dilettanti ,,society',s               
,,publications4 ,,iona1 ,,antiquities   
,,of4 ,vols4 ,i4 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 #b    
#bs4 each1 or #e #es4 the set4          
,,penrose4--,,an ,,investigation ,,of   
,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,athenian      
,,architecture2 or1 ,the ,results of a  
recent ,survey conducted      chiefly   
with reference to the ,optical          
refinements exhibited      in the       

construction of the ,ancient ,buildings 
at ,athens4 ,by      ,,francis ,,cranmer
 ,,penrose1 ,archt41 ,m4,a41 c4         
,illustrated by      numerous           
,engravings4 #g #gs4       ,,specimens  
,,of ,,ancient ,,sculpture2 ,egyptian1  
,etruscan1 ,greek1      and ,roman4     
,selected from different ,collections in
 ,great      ,britain by the ,society of
 ,dilettanti4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #e #es4       
,,antiquities ,,of ,,ionia4 ,part ,,iv4 
,folio1 half-morocco4 #c      #acs4     
#f;d4  ,,dolet4--,,etienne ,,dolet3 the 
,martyr of the ,renaissance4 ,a         
,biography4 ,with a ,biographical       
,appendix1 containing a ,descriptive    
,catalogue of the ,books written1       
printed1 or edited by ,dolet4 ,by       
,,richard ,,copley ,,christie1 ,lincoln 
,college1 ,oxford1 ,chancellor of the   
,diocese of ,manchester4 ,with          
,illustrations4 #hvo4 #ahs4             
,,doyle4--,,history ,,of ,,america4 ,by 
,j4,a4 ,,doyle4 ,with ,maps4 #ahmo4 #ds4
 #f;d4 ,historical ,course4  ,,drummond 

,,of ,,hawthornden3 ,,the ,,story ,,of  
,,his ,,life ,,and ,,writings4 ,by      
,professor ,,masson4 ,with ,portrait and
 ,vignette engraved by ,c4,h4 ,,jeens4  
,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4                
,,duff4--,works by the ,right ,hon4     
,m4,e4 ,,grant ,,duff4       ,,notes    
,,of ,,an ,,indian ,,journey4 ,with     
,map4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4                 
,,miscellanies1 ,,political ,,and       
,,literary4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4           
,,eadie4--,,life ,,of ,,john ,,eadie4   
,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,by ,,james ,,brown1   
,d4,d41 ,author of ,the ,life of a      
,scottish ,probationer4 ,with ,portrait4
 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4    
#f;d4  ,,egypt4--,,recensement ,g,n,,ral
 ,,de ,l',,egypte4 #ae ,gamad ,akhar    
#abii4 #c ,mai1 #ahhb4 ,direction du    
,recensement ministre de l',intrieur4   
,tome premier4 ,royal #dto4 #b #bs4     
,,elliott4--,,life ,,of ,,henry ,,venn  
,,elliott1 of ,brighton4 ,by ,,josiah   
,,bateman1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,portrait1      
engraved by ,,jeens4 ,third and ,cheaper

 ,edition4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #fs4      
,,elze4--,,essays ,,on ,,shakespeare4   
,by ,dr4 ,,karl ,,elze4 ,translated with
 the ,author's sanction by ,l4 ,,dora   
,,schmitz4 #hvo4 #abs4                  
,,emerson4--,,the ,,collected ,,works   
,,of ,,ralph ,,waldo ,,emerson4         
7,uniform with the ,eversley ,edition of
 ,charles ,kingsley's ,novels47 ,globe  
#hvo4 ,price #es4 each volume4       #a4
 ,,miscellanies4 ,with an ,introductory 
,essay by ,,john ,,morley4      #b4     
,,essays4      #c4 ,,poems4      #d4    
,,english ,,traits2 and ,,representative
 ,,men4      #e4 ,,conduct ,,of ,,life2 
and ,,society and ,,solitude4      #f4  
,,letters2 ,,and ,,social ,,aims1 c4    
,,english ,,illustrated ,,magazine1     
,,the4 ,profusely ,illustrated4         
,published ,monthly4 ,number ,i41       
,october #ahhc4 ,price ,sixpence4       
,yearly ,volume4 #ahhc-ahhd1 consisting 
of #gib closely-printed pages1 and      
containing #dbh ,woodcut ,illustrations 
of various sizes4 ,bound in extra cloth1

 coloured edges4 ,royal #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4
 ,cloth ,covers for binding ,volumes1   
#as4 #f;d4 each4  ,,english             
,,illustrated ,,magazine4 ,,proof       
,,impressions ,,of ,,engravings         
,,originally ,,published ,,in ,,the     
,,english ,,illustrated ,,magazine1     
#ahhd4 ,in ,portfolio4 #dto4 #bas4      
,,english ,,men ,,of ,,letters4--,edited
 by ,,john ,,morley4 ,a ,series of      
,short ,books to tell people what is    
best worth knowing as to the ,life1     
,character1 and ,works of some of the   
great ,english ,writers4 ,in ,crown     
#hvo4 price #bs4 #f;d4 each4       ,i4  
,,dr4 ,,johnson4 ,by ,,leslie ,,stephen4
      ,,ii4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott4 ,by 
,r4,h4 ,,hutton4      ,,iii4 ,,gibbon4  
,by ,j4 ,,cotter ,,morison4      ,,iv4  
,,shelley4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,,symonds4        
,v4 ,,hume4 ,by ,professor ,,huxley1    
,p4,r4,s4      ,,vi4 ,,goldsmith4 ,by   
,,william ,,black4      ,,vii4 ,,defoe4 
,by ,w4 ,,minto4      ,,viii4 ,,burns4  
,by ,principal ,,shairp4      ,,ix4     

,,spenser4 ,by the ,very ,rev4 the      
,,dean ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s4      ,x4   
,,thackeray4 ,by ,,anthony ,,trollope4  
,,xi4 ,,burke4 ,by ,,john ,,morley4     
,,xii4 ,,milton4 ,by ,,mark ,,pattison4 
,,xiii4 ,,hawthorne4 ,by ,,henry        
,,james4      ,,xiv4 ,,southey4 ,by     
,professor ,,dowden4      ,,xv4         
,,bunyan4 ,by ,j4,a4 ,,froude4          
,,xvi4 ,,chaucer4 ,by ,professor ,a4,w4 
,,ward4      ,,xvii4 ,,cowper4 ,by      
,,goldwin ,,smith4      ,,xviii4 ,,pope4
 ,by ,,leslie ,,stephen4      ,,xix4    
,,byron4 ,by ,professor ,,nichol4       
,,xx4 ,,locke4 ,by ,professor ,,fowler4 
,,xxi4 ,,wordsworth4 ,by ,f4,w4,h4      
,,myers4      ,,xxii4 ,,dryden4 ,by ,g4 
,,saintsbury4      ,,xxiii4 ,,landor4   
,by ,professor ,,sidney ,,colvin4       
,,xxiv4 ,,de ,,quincey4 ,by ,professor  
,,masson4      ,,xxv4 ,,charles ,,lamb4 
,by ,rev4 ,,alfred ,,ainger4            
,,xxvi4 ,,bentley4 ,by ,professor ,r4,c4
 ,,jebb4      ,,xxvii4 ,,dickens4 ,by   
,professor ,a4,w4 ,,ward4      ,,xxviii4

 ,,gray4 ,by ,,edmund ,,gosse4          
,,xxix4 ,,swift4 ,by ,,leslie ,,stephen4
      ,,xxx4 ,,sterne4 ,by ,h4,d4       
,,traill4      ,,xxxi4 ,,macaulay4 ,by  
,j4 ,,cotter ,,morison4      ,,xxxii4   
,,fielding4 ,by ,,austin ,,dobson4      
,,xxxiii4 ,,sheridan4 ,by ,mrs4         
,,oliphant4      ,,xxxiv4 ,,addison4 ,by
 ,w4,j4 ,,courthope4      ,,xxxv4       
,,bacon4 ,by the ,very ,rev4 the ,,dean 
,,of ,,st4 ,,paul',s4      ,,xxxvi4     
,,coleridge4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,,traill4       
,in ,preparation3--       ,,adam        
,,smith4 ,by ,,leonard ,h4 ,,courtney1  
,m4,p4      ,,berkeley4 ,by ,professor  
,,huxley4      ,,sir ,,philip ,,sidney4 
,by ,j4,a4 ,,symonds4       ,other      
,volumes to follow4  ,,english ,,poets3 
,,selections1 with ,critical            
,introductions by various ,writers1 and 
a ,general ,introduction by ,,matthew   
,,arnold1 ,edited by ,t4,h4 ,,ward1     
,m4,a41 late ,fellow of ,brasenose      
,college1 ,oxford4 #d vols4 ,crown #hvo4
 #gs4 #f;d4 each4       ,vol4 ,i4       

,,chaucer to ,,donne4      ,vol4 ,,ii4  
,,ben ,,jonson to ,,dryden4      ,vol4  
,,iii4 ,,addison to ,,blake4      ,vol4 
,,iv4 ,,wordsworth to ,,rossetti4       
,,english ,,statesmen4--,under the above
 title ,messrs4 ,,macmillan and ,,co4   
beg to announce a series of short       
biographies1 not designed to be a       
complete roll of famous statesmen1 but  
to present in historic order the lives  
and work of those leading actors in our 
affairs who by their direct influence   
have left an abiding mark on the policy1
 the institutions1 and the position of  
,great ,britain among states4  ,the     
following list of subjects is the result
 of careful selection4 ,the great       
movements of national history are made  
to follow one another in a connected    
course1 and the series is intended to   
form a continuous narrative of ,english 
freedom1 order1 and power4              
,,william ,,the ,,conqueror4            
,,henry ,,ii4      ,,edward ,i4         
,,henry ,,vii4      ,,wolsey4           

,,elizabeth4      ,,oliver ,,cromwell4  
,,william ,,iii4      ,,walpole4        
,,chatham4      ,,pitt4      ,,peel4    
,among the writers will be3--           
,,mr4 ,,edward ,a4 ,,freeman1      ,,mr4
 ,,frederick ,,pollock1      ,,mr4 ,j4  
,,cotter ,,morison1      ,,prof4 ,m4    
,,creighton1      ,,the ,,dean ,,of     
,,st4 ,,paul',s1      ,,mr4 ,,frederic  
,,harrison1      ,,mr4 ,h4,d4 ,,traill1 
,,mr4 ,,leslie ,,stephen1      ,,and    
,,mr4 ,,john ,,morley4  ,,eton          
,,college1 ,,history ,,of4 ,by ,h4,c4   
,,maxwell ,,lyte1 ,m4,a4 ,with numerous 
,illustrations by ,professor            
,,delamotte4 ,coloured ,plates1 and a   
,steel ,portrait of the ,founder1       
engraved by ,c4,h4 ,,jeens4 ,new and    
,cheaper ,issue1 with ,corrections4     
,medium #hvo4 ,cloth elegant4 #bas4     
,,european ,,history1 ,narrated in a    
,series of ,historical ,selections from 
the best ,authorities4 ,edited and      
arranged by ,e4,m4 ,,sewell1 and ,c4,m4 
,,yonge4 ,first ,series1 ,crown #hvo4   

#fs42 ,second ,series1 #ajhh-abbh4      
,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4      
,,faraday4--,,michael ,,faraday4 ,by    
,j4,h4 ,,gladstone1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4  
,new ,edition1 with ,portrait engraved  
by ,,jeens from a photograph by ,j4     
,,watkins4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4      
,,portrait4 ,artist's ,proof4 #es4      
,,fenton4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,tasmania4
 ,from its ,discovery in #afdb to the   
,present ,time4 ,by ,,james ,,fenton4   
,with ,map of the ,island1 and          
,portraits of ,aborigines in            
,chromo-lithography4 #hvo4 #afs4        
,,fiske4--,,excursions ,,of ,,an        
,,evolutionist4 ,by ,,john ,,fiske1     
,m4,a41 ,,ll4,b41 formerly ,lecturer on 
,philosophy at ,harvard ,university4    
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,fison ,,and  
,,howitt4--,,kamilaroi ,,and ,,kurnai   
,,group4 ,marriage and ,relationship1   
and ,marriage by ,elopement1 drawn      
chiefly from the usage of the           
,australian ,aborigines4 ,also ,,the    
,,kurnai ,,tribe1 their ,customs in     

,peace and ,war4 ,by ,,lorimer ,,fison1 
,m4,a41 and ,a4,w4 ,,howitt1 ,f4,g4,s41 
with an ,introduction by ,,lewis ,h4    
,,morgan1 ,,ll4,d41 ,author of ,system  
of ,consanguinity1 ,ancient ,society1 c4
 ,demy #hvo4 #aes4  ,,forbes4--,,life   
,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,james ,,david    
,,forbes1 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,principal of 
the ,united ,college in the ,university 
of ,st4 ,andrews4 ,by ,j4,c4 ,,shairp1  
,,ll4,d41 ,principal of the ,united     
,college in the ,university of ,st4     
,andrews2 ,p4,g4 ,,tait1 ,m4,a41        
,professor of ,natural ,philosophy in   
the ,university of ,edinburgh2 and ,a4  
,,adams-,,reilly1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with    
,portraits1 ,map1 and ,illustrations4   
#hvo4 #afs4  ,,framji4--,,history ,,of  
,,the ,,parsis3 ,including their        
,manners1 ,customs1 ,religion1 and      
,present ,position4 ,by ,,dosabhai      
,,framji ,,karaka1 ,presidency          
,magistrate and ,chairman of ,her       
,majesty's ,bench of ,justices1 ,bombay1
 ,fellow of the ,bombay ,university1    

,member ,bombay ,branch of the ,royal   
,asiatic ,society1 c4 #b vols4 ,medium  
#hvo4 ,with ,illustrations4 #cfs4       
,,francis ,,of ,,assisi4 ,by ,mrs4      
,,oliphant4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 
#fs4 7,biographical ,series47           
,,freeman4--,works by ,,edward ,a4      
,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,,ll4,d41 ,regius 
,professor of ,modern ,history in the   
,university of ,oxford3--       ,,the   
,,office ,,of ,,the ,,historical        
,,professor4 ,an ,inaugural             
,lecture1 read in the ,museum at        
,oxford1 ,october #ae1 #ahhd4           
,crown #hvo4 #bs4       ,,the ,,growth  
,,of ,,the ,,english ,,constitution     
,,from ,,the ,,earliest      ,,times4   
,fourth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4     
,,historical ,,essays4 ,third ,edition4 
#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       ,,contents3--,i4
 ,the ,mythical and ,romantic ,elements 
in ,early      ,english ,history2 ,,ii4 
,the ,continuity of ,english ,history2  
,,iii4 ,the ,relations between the      
,crowns of ,england and      ,scotland2 

,,iv4 ,st4 ,thomas of ,canterbury and   
his      ,biographers2 ,v4 ,the ,reign  
of ,edward the ,third2 ,,vi4 ,the       
,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,,vii4 ,the       
,franks and the ,gauls2 ,,viii4         
,the ,early ,sieges of ,paris2 ,,ix4    
,frederick the ,first1 ,king      of    
,italy2 ,x4 ,the ,emperor ,frederick the
 ,second2 ,,xi4      ,charles the ,bold2
 ,,xii4 ,presidential ,government4      
,,historical ,,essays4 ,second ,series4 
,second ,edition1 ,enlarged4      #hvo4 
#ajs4 #f;d4       ,the principal ,essays
 are3--,ancient ,greece and ,medival    
,italy3 ,mr4 ,gladstone's ,homer and the
 ,homeric ,ages3 ,the      ,historians  
of ,athens3 ,the ,athenian ,democracy3  
,alexander      the ,great3 ,greece     
during the ,macedonian ,period3         
,mommsen's ,history of ,rome3 ,lucius   
,cornelius ,sulla3 ,the      ,flavian   
,csars4       ,,historical ,,essays4    
,third ,series4 #hvo4 #abs4             
,,contents3--,first ,impressions of     
,rome4 ,the ,illyrian      ,emperors and

 their ,land4 ,augusta ,treverorum4 ,the
 ,goths      of ,ravenna4 ,race and     
,language4 ,the ,byzantine ,empire4     
,first ,impressions of ,athens4 ,medival
 and ,modern ,greece4      ,the         
,southern ,slaves4 ,sicilian ,cycles4   
,the ,normans at      ,palermo4         
,,comparative ,,politics4--,lectures at 
the ,royal ,institution4 ,to      which 
is added the ,unity of ,history1 the    
,rede ,lecture at      ,cambridge1      
#ahgb4 #hvo4 #ads4       ,,the ,,history
 ,,and ,,conquests ,,of ,,the           
,,saracens4 ,six ,lectures4      ,third 
,edition1 with ,new ,preface4 ,crown    
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4       ,,historical     
,,and ,,architectural ,,sketches3       
chiefly ,italian4 ,with                 
,illustrations by the ,author4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       ,,subject ,,and 
,,neighbour ,,lands ,,of ,,venice4      
,being a ,companion      ,volume to     
,historical and ,architectural          
,sketches4 ,with      ,illustrations4   
,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       ,,english

 ,,towns ,,and ,,districts4 ,a ,series  
of ,addresses and      ,essays4 ,with   
,illustrations and ,map4 #hvo4 #ads4    
,,old ,,english ,,history4 ,with ,five  
,coloured ,maps4 ,new ,edition4         
,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #fs4       ,,history 
,,of ,,the ,,cathedral ,,church ,,of    
,,wells1 as illustrating      the       
,history of the ,cathedral ,churches of 
the ,old ,foundation4      ,crown #hvo4 
#cs4 #f;d4       ,,general ,,sketch ,,of
 ,,european ,,history4 ,being ,vol4 ,i4 
of a      ,historical ,course for       
,schools1 edited by ,e4,a4 ,,freeman4   
,new      ,edition1 enlarged with ,maps1
 ,chronological ,table1 ,index1 c4      
#ahmo4 #cs4 #f;d4                       
,,disestablishment ,,and ,,disendowment4
 ,,what ,,are ,,they8 ,second           
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4             
,,geikie4--,,geological ,,sketches ,,at 
,,home ,,and ,,abroad4 ,by ,,archibald  
,,geikie1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director
 ,general of the ,geological ,surveys of
 the ,united ,kingdom4 ,with            

illustrations4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4        
,,galton4--,works by ,,francis ,,galton1
 ,f4,r4,s43       ,,meteorographica3 or1
 ,methods of ,mapping the ,weather4     
,illustrated by upwards of #fjj ,printed
 and ,lithographed      ,diagrams4 #dto4
 #is4       ,,hereditary ,,genius3 ,an  
,inquiry into its ,laws and             
,consequences4 #hvo4 #abs4              
,,english ,,men ,,of ,,science3 ,their  
,nature and ,nurture4 #hvo4 #hs4        
#f;d4       ,,inquiries ,,into ,,human  
,,faculty ,,and ,,its ,,development4    
,with      ,illustrations and ,coloured 
and ,plain ,plates4 ,demy #hvo4         
#afs4       ,,record ,,of ,,family      
,,faculties4 ,consisting of ,tabular    
,forms and      ,directions for         
,entering ,data1 with an ,explanatory   
,preface4      #dto4 #bs4 #f;d4         
,,life ,,history ,,album2 ,being a      
,personal ,note-book1 combining      the
 chief advantages of a ,diary1          
,photograph ,album1 a      ,register of 
,height1 ,weight1 and other             

,anthropometrical      ,observations1   
and a ,record of ,illnesses4 ,containing
 ,tabular      ,forms1 ,charts1 and     
,explanations especially designed for   
popular use4 ,prepared by the direction 
of the ,collective      ,investigation  
,committee of the ,british ,medical     
,association1      and ,edited by       
,,francis ,,galton1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,chairman
 of the ,life      ,history             
,sub-,committee4 #dto4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,or1  
with ,cards of      ,wools for ,testing 
,colour ,vision4 #ds4 #f;d4             
,,gardner4--,,samos ,,and ,,samian      
,,coins4 ,by ,,percy ,,gardner1 ,m4,a41 
,f4,s4,a4 ,british ,museum1 ,disnay     
,professor of ,archology in the         
,university of ,cambridge1 and ,hon4    
,foreign ,secretary of the ,numismatic  
,society4 ,demy #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4        
,,geddes4--,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the   
,,homeric ,,poems4 ,by ,w4,d4 ,,geddes1 
,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,greek in the   
,university of ,aberdeen4 #hvo4 #ads4   
,,gladstone4--,,homeric ,,synchronism4  

,an inquiry into the ,time and ,place of
 ,homer4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,w4,e4    
,,gladstone1 ,m4,p4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4   
,,goethe ,,and ,,mendelssohn            
7#ahba-ahca74 ,translated from the      
,german of ,,dr4 ,,karl ,,mendelssohn1  
,son of the ,composer1 by ,m4,e4 ,,von  
,,glehn4 ,from the ,private ,diaries and
 ,home ,letters of ,mendelssohn1 with   
,poems and ,letters of ,goethe never    
before printed4 ,also with two ,new and 
,original ,portraits1 ,fac-similes1 and 
,appendix of ,twenty ,letters hitherto  
unpublished4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged4
 ,crown #hvo4 #es4  ,,goethe4--,a ,,life
 ,,of ,,goethe4 ,by ,,heinrich          
,d,,ntzer4 ,translated by ,t4,w4        
,,lyster1 ,assistant ,librarian1        
,national ,library of ,ireland4 ,with   
,illustrations4 ,two vols4 ,crown #hvo4 
#bas4  ,,goldsmid4--,,telegraph ,,and   
,,travel4 ,a ,narrative of the          
,formation and ,development of          
,telegraphic ,communication between     
,england and ,india1 under the orders of

 ,her ,majesty's ,government1 with      
incidental ,notices of the ,countries   
traversed by the ,lines4 ,by ,colonel   
,,sir ,,frederick ,,goldsmid1 ,c4,b41   
,k4,c4,s4,i41 late ,director of the     
,government ,indo-,european ,telegraph4 
,with numerous ,illustrations and ,maps4
 #hvo4 #bas4  ,,gordon4--,,last         
,,letters ,,from ,,egypt1 to which are  
added ,letters from the ,cape4 ,by      
,,lady ,,duff ,,gordon4 ,with a ,memoir 
by her ,daughter1 ,mrs4 ,,ross1 and     
,portrait engraved by ,,jeens4 ,second  
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #is4  ,,gordon   
7,,charles ,,george74 ,a ,,sketch4 ,by  
,,reginald ,h4 ,,barnes1 ,vicar of      
,heavitree1 and ,,charles ,e4 ,,brown1  
,major ,r4,a4 ,with ,facsimile ,letter4 
,crown #hvo4 #as4                       
,,gordon4--,,reflections ,,in           
,,palestine1 #ahhc4 ,by ,,charles       
,,george ,,gordon4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4    
#f;d4  ,,great ,,christians ,,of        
,,france3 ,,st4 ,,louis and ,,calvin4   
,by ,m4 ,,guizot1 ,member of the        

,institute of ,france4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4
 7,biographical ,series47               
,,green4--,works by ,,john ,,richard    
,,green1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d43--       ,,the
 ,,making ,,of ,,england4 ,with ,maps4  
,demy #hvo4 #afs4       ,,the ,,conquest
 ,,of ,,england4 ,with ,maps4 ,demy     
#hvo4 #ahs4       ,,history ,,of ,,the  
,,english ,,people4 ,vol4 ,i4--,early   
,england--,foreign ,kings--,the         
,charter--,the ,parliament4 ,with #h    
,coloured ,maps4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,vol4      
,,ii4--,the ,monarchy1      #adfa-aedj2 
,the ,restoration1 #aedj-afjc4 #hvo4    
#afs4 ,vol4      ,,iii4--,puritan       
,england1 #afjc-affj2 ,the ,revolution1 
#affj-afhh4      ,with #d ,maps4 #hvo4  
#afs4 ,vol4 ,,iv4--,the ,revolution1    
#afhc-agfj2 ,modern ,england1           
#agfj-ahae4 ,with ,maps and ,index4     
#hvo4 #afs4       ,a ,,short ,,history  
,,of ,,the ,,english ,,people4 ,with    
,coloured ,maps1      ,genealogical     
,tables1 and ,chronological ,annals4    
,crown #hvo4      #hs4 #f;d4 #ajhth     

,thousand4       ,,stray ,,studies      
,,from ,,england ,,and ,,italy4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4      ,containing3      
,lambeth and the ,archbishops--,the     
,florence of      ,dante--,venice and   
,rome--,early ,history of ,oxford--,the 
,district ,visitor--,capri--,hotels in  
the ,clouds--,sketches in               
,sunshine1 c4       ,,readings ,,from   
,,english ,,history4 ,selected and      
,edited by ,,john      ,,richard        
,,green4 ,in ,three ,parts4 ,fcap4 #hvo4
 #as4 #f;d4 each4      ,part ,i4--,from 
,hengest to ,cressy4 ,part ,,ii4--,from 
,cressy to      ,cromwell4 ,part        
,,iii4--,from ,cromwell to ,balaklava4  
,,green 7,w4,s47--,,the ,,high ,,alps   
,,of ,,new ,,zealand3 or1 a ,trip to the
 ,glaciers of the ,antipodes1 with an   
,ascent of ,mount ,cook4 ,by ,,william  
,,spotswood ,,green1 ,m4,a41 ,member of 
the ,english ,alpine ,club4 ,with ,maps4
 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,grove4--,a  
,,dictionary ,,of ,,music ,,and         
,,musicians 7,a4,d4 #adej-ahhd74 ,by    

,eminent ,writers1 ,english and         
,foreign4 ,with ,illustrations and      
,woodcuts4 ,edited by ,sir ,,george     
,,grove1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,director of the    
,royal ,college of ,music4 #hvo4 ,parts 
,i4 to ,,xiv41 ,,xix4 and ,,xx4 #cs4    
#f;d4 each4 ,parts ,,xv4 and ,,xvi4 #gs4
 ,parts ,,xvii4 and ,,xviii4 #gs4       
,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 and ,,iii4 #hvo4     
#bas4 each4       ,vol4 ,i4 ,a to       
,impromptu4--,vol4 ,,ii4 ,improperia to 
,plain      ,song4--,vol4 ,,iii4 ,planch
 to ,sumer is ,icumen ,in4       ,cloth 
cases for binding ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 and
 ,,iii4 #as4 each4  ,,guest4--,,lectures
 ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,england4   
,by ,m4,j4 ,,guest4 ,with ,maps4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #fs4  ,,guest4--,,origines        
,,celticae 7a ,fragment7 and other      
,contributions to the ,history of       
,britain4 ,by ,,edwin ,,guest1 ,,ll4,d44
 ,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,master of  
,gonville and ,caius ,college1          
,cambridge4 ,with ,maps1 ,plans1 and a  
,portrait engraved on ,steel by ,g4,j4  

,,stodart4 ,two vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cbs4 
,,hamerton4--,works by ,p4,g4           
,,hamerton3--       ,,etchings ,,and    
,,etchers4 ,third ,edition1 revised1    
with      ,forty-eight new ,plates4     
,columbier #hvo4       ,,the            
,,intellectual ,,life4 ,with a ,portrait
 of ,leonardo da ,vinci1      etched by 
,,leopold ,,flameng4 ,second ,edition4  
,crown #hvo4 #ajs4      #f;d4           
,,thoughts ,,about ,,art4 ,new ,edition1
 revised1 with an      ,introduction1   
,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4                 
,,handel4--,,the ,,life ,,of ,,george   
,,frederick ,,handel4 ,by ,w4,s4        
,,rockstro1 ,author of ,a ,history of   
,music for ,young ,students4 ,with an   
,introductory ,notice by ,sir ,,george  
,,grove1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with a ,portrait4   
,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4                
,,harper4--,,the ,,metaphysics ,,of     
,,the ,,school4 ,by ,,thomas ,,harper1  
7,s4,j47 7,in #e vols47 ,vols4 ,i4 and  
,,ii4 #hvo4 #ahs4 each4--,vol4 ,,iii41  
,part ,i4 #abs4  ,,heine4--,a ,,trip    

,,to ,,the ,,brocken4 ,by ,,heinrich    
,,heine4 ,translated by ,r4 ,,mclintock4
 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  ,,hellenic    
,,studies--,,journal ,,of4 #hvo4 ,parts 
,i4 and ,,ii41 constituting ,vol4 ,i4   
with #dto4 ,atlas of ,illustrations1    
#cjs4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 with #dto4 ,atlas of 
,illustrations1 #cjs41 or in ,two       
,parts1 #aes4 each4 ,vol4 ,,iii41 ,two  
,parts1 with #dto4 ,atlas of            
,illustrations1 #aes4 each4 ,vol4 ,,iv41
 ,two ,parts1 with #dto4 ,atlas of      
,illustrations1 #aes4 each4 ,vol4 ,v41  
,two ,parts1 with ,illustrations1 #aes4 
each4       ,the ,journal will be sold  
at a reduced price to ,libraries        
wishing to subscribe1 but official      
application must in each      case be   
made to the ,council4 ,information on   
this point1 and      upon the conditions
 of ,membership1 may be obtained on     
application to the ,hon4 ,secretary1    
,mr4 ,george ,macmillan1 #bi1           
,bedford ,street1 ,covent ,garden4      
,,herodotos4--,,books ,i4 ,,to          

,,iii4--,,the ,,ancient ,,empires ,,of  
,,the ,,east4 ,edited1 with ,notes1     
,introductions1 and ,appendices1 by     
,a4,h4 ,,sayce1 ,m4,a4 ,oxford1 ,hon4   
,,ll4,d4 ,dublin2 ,deputy-,professor of 
,comparative ,philology4 #hvo4 #afs4    
,,hill4--,,the ,,recorder ,,of          
,,birmingham4 ,a ,memoir of ,matthew    
,davenport-,hill1 with ,selections from 
his ,correspondence4 ,by his daughters  
,,rosamond and ,,florence               
,,davenport-,,hill4 ,with ,portrait     
engraved by ,c4,h4 ,,jeens4 #hvo4 #afs4 
,,hill4--,,what ,,we ,,saw ,,in         
,,australia4 ,by ,,rosamond and         
,,florence ,,hill4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4   
#f;d4  ,,hill 7,o47--,works by ,,octavia
 ,,hill       ,,our ,,common ,,land1 and
 other ,essays4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 
#f;d4       ,,homes ,,of ,,the ,,london 
,,poor4 ,sewed4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4       
,,hodgson4--,,memoir ,,of ,,rev4        
,,francis ,,hodgson4 ,b4,d41 ,scholar1  
,poet1 and ,divine4 ,by his son1 the    
,rev4 ,,james ,t4 ,,hodgson1 ,m4,a4     

,containing numerous ,letters from ,lord
 ,byron and others4 ,with ,portrait     
engraved by ,,jeens4 ,two vols4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #ahs4  ,,hole4--,a ,,genealogical 
,,stemma ,,of ,,the ,,kings ,,of        
,,england ,,and ,,france4 ,by the ,rev4 
,c4 ,,hole1 ,m4,a41 ,trinity ,college1  
,cambridge4 ,on ,sheet1 #as4       ,a   
,,brief ,,biographical ,,dictionary4    
,compiled and ,arranged by      the     
,rev4 ,,charles ,,hole1 ,m4,a4 ,second  
,edition4 #ahmo4 #ds4      #f;d4        
,,hooker ,,and ,,ball4--,,morocco ,,and 
,,the ,,great ,,atlas3 ,journal of a    
,tour in4 ,by ,sir ,,joseph ,d4         
,,hooker1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,c4,b41         
,f4,r4,s41 c41 and ,,john ,,ball1       
,f4,r4,s4 ,with an ,appendix1 including 
a ,sketch of the ,geology of ,morocco1  
by ,g4 ,,maw1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,with
 ,illustrations and ,map4 #hvo4 #bas4   
,,house ,,of ,,lords4--,,fifty ,,years  
,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,lords4        
,reprinted from ,the ,pall ,mall        
,gazette4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4             

#f;d4--,,popular ,,edition4 #c;d4       
,,hozier 7,h4,m47--,works by ,captain   
,,henry ,m4 ,,hozier1 late ,assistant   
,military ,secretary to ,lord ,napier of
 ,magdala3--       ,,the ,,seven        
,,weeks' ,,war2 ,its ,antecedents and   
,incidents4 ,new and      ,cheaper      
,edition4 ,with ,new ,preface1 ,maps1   
and ,plans4 ,crown      #hvo4 #fs4      
,,the ,,invasions ,,of ,,england3 a     
,history of the ,past1 with             
,lessons for the ,future4 ,two ,vols4   
#hvo4 #bhs4  ,h,,bner4--,a ,,ramble     
,,round ,,the ,,world ,,in #ahga4 ,by   
,m4 ,,le ,,baron ,h,,bner1 formerly     
,ambassador and ,minister4 ,translated  
by ,,lady ,,herbert4 ,new and ,cheaper  
,edition4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,hughes4--,works by
 ,,thomas ,,hughes1 ,q4,c41 ,author of  
,tom ,brown's ,school ,days4            
,,memoir ,,of ,a ,,brother4 ,with       
,portrait of ,,george ,,hughes1 after   
,,watts1 ,engraved by ,,jeens4 ,sixth   
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4             

,,alfred ,,the ,,great4 ,crown #hvo4    
#fs4       ,,memoir ,,of ,,daniel       
,,macmillan4 ,with ,portrait after      
,,lowes      ,,dickinson1 ,engraved by  
,,jeens4 ,fifth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo4 
#ds4 #f;d4--,,popular ,,edition1 #as4   
,,rugby1 ,,tennessee4 ,being some       
account of the ,settlement      founded 
on the ,cumberland ,plateau by the      
,board of ,aid to      ,land ,ownership4
 ,with a report on the ,soils of the    
,plateau by      the ,hon4 ,f4,w4       
,,killebrew1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41           
,commissioner for      ,agriculture for 
the ,state of ,tennessee4 ,crown #hvo4  
#ds4      #f;d4       ,,gone ,,to       
,,texas4 ,letters from ,our ,boys4      
,edited by ,,thomas      ,,hughes4      
,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4                 
,,hunt4--,,history ,,of ,,italy4 ,by the
 ,rev4 ,w4 ,,hunt1 ,m4,a4 ,being the    
,fourth ,volume of the ,historical      
,course for ,schools4 ,edited by        
,,edward ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,new  
,edition1 with ,coloured ,maps4 #ahmo4  

#cs4 #f;d4  ,,hutton4--,,essays         
,,theological ,,and ,,literary4 ,by     
,r4,h4 ,,hutton1 ,m4,a4 ,cheaper issue4 
#b vols4 #hvo4 #ahs4       ,,contents   
,,of ,,vol4 ,i43--,the moral            
significance of ,atheism--,the          
,atheistic ,explanation of              
,religion--,science and                 
,theism--,popular ,pantheism--,what is  
,revelation8--,christian                
,evidences1 ,popular and ,critical--,the
 ,historical ,problems of      the      
,fourth ,gospel--,the ,incarnation and  
,principles of      ,evidence--,m4      
,renan's ,christ--,m4 ,renan's ,st4     
,paul--,the      ,hard                  
,church--,romanism1 ,protestantism1 and 
,anglicanism4       ,,contents ,,of     
,,vol4 ,,ii43--,goethe and his          
,influence--,wordsworth      and his    
,genius--,shelley's ,poetical           
,mysticism--,mr4      ,browning--,the   
,poetry of the ,old ,testament--,arthur 
,hugh      ,clough--,the ,poetry of     
,matthew ,arnold--,tennyson--,nathaniel 

,hawthorne4  ,,inglis 7,,james7         
7,,maori74--,works by ,,james ,,inglis  
7,maori73--       ,,our ,,australian    
,,cousins4 #hvo4 #ads4       ,,sport    
,,and ,,work ,,on ,,the ,,nepaul        
,,frontier2 or1 ,twelve ,years'         
,sporting ,reminiscences of an ,indigo  
,planter4 ,by ,,maori4      ,with       
,illustrations4 #hvo4 #ads4             
,,ionia4--,,the ,,antiquities ,,of      
,,ionia1 see under ,dilettanti          
,society's ,publications4               
,,irving4--,,the ,,annals ,,of ,,our    
,,time4 ,a ,diurnal of ,events1 ,social 
and ,political1 ,home and ,foreign1 from
 the ,accession of ,queen ,victoria to  
the ,peace of ,versailles4 ,by ,,joseph 
,,irving4 ,new ,edition1 revised4 #hvo4 
half-bound4 #ahs4       ,,annals ,,of   
,,our ,,time4 ,supplement4 ,from ,feb4  
#bh1 #ahga1 to ,march      #af1 #ahgd4  
#hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,annals ,,of ,,our    
,,time4 ,second      ,supplement4 ,from 
,march1 #ahgd1 to the ,occupation of    
,cyprus4      #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4  ,,james 

7,sir ,w4,m474--,,the ,,british ,,in    
,,india4 ,by the late ,right ,hon4 ,sir 
,,william ,,milbourne ,,james1 ,lord    
,justice of ,appeal4 ,edited by his     
,daughter1 ,,mary ,j4 ,,salis ,,schwabe4
 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4                
,,james4--,works by ,,henry ,,james3    
,,french ,,poets ,,and ,,novelists4 ,new
 ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4      #f;d4 
,,contents3--,alfred de ,musset3        
,thophile ,gautier2      ,baudelaire2   
,honor de ,balzac2 ,george ,sand2 ,the  
,two ,ampres2      ,turgnieff1 c4       
,,portraits ,,of ,,places4 ,crown #hvo4 
#gs4 #f;d4  ,,jebb4--,,modern ,,greece4 
,two ,lectures delivered before the     
,philosophical ,institution of          
,edinburgh4 ,with papers on ,the        
,progress of ,greece1 and ,byron in     
,greece4 ,by ,r4,c4 ,,jebb1 ,m4,a41     
,,ll4,d4 ,edin4 ,professor of ,greek in 
the ,university of ,glasgow4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #es4  ,,johnson',s ,,lives ,,of   
,,the ,,poets4--,the ,six ,chief        
,lives--,milton1 ,dryden1 ,swift1       

,addison1 ,pope1 ,gray4 ,with           
,macaulay's ,life of ,johnson4 ,edited1 
with ,preface1 by ,,matthew ,,arnold4   
,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,jones4--,,the      
,,life',s ,,work ,,in ,,ireland ,,of ,a 
,,landlord ,,who ,,tried ,,to ,,do ,,his
 ,,duty4 ,by ,w4 ,,bence ,,jones1 of    
,lisselan4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4            
,,kant4--,,the ,,life ,,of ,,immanuel   
,,kant4 ,by ,j4,h4 ,,stuckenberg1       
,d4,d41 late ,professor in ,wittenburg  
,college1 ,ohio4 ,with ,portrait4 #hvo4 
#ads4  ,,kant--,,max                    
,m,,ller4--,,critique ,,of ,,pure       
,,reason ,,by ,,immanuel ,,kant4 ,in    
commemoration of the ,centenary of its  
first ,publication4 ,translated into    
,english by ,f4 ,,max ,m,,ller4 ,with an
 ,historical ,introduction by ,,ludwig  
,,noir4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cbs4      
,,keary4--,,annie ,,keary3 a ,memoir4   
,by ,,eliza ,,keary4 ,with a ,portrait4 
,third ,thousand4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4                        
,,killen4--,,ecclesiastical ,,history   

,,of ,,ireland1 from the ,earliest ,date
 to the ,present ,time4 ,by ,w4,d4      
,,killen1 ,d4,d41 ,president of         
,assembly's ,college1 ,belfast1 and     
,professor of ,ecclesiastical ,history4 
,two ,vols4 #hvo4 #bes4  ,,kingsley     
7,,charles74--,works by the ,rev4       
,,charles ,,kingsley1 ,m4,a41 late      
,rector of ,eversley and ,canon of      
,westminster4 7,for other ,works by the 
same ,author1 see ,,theological and     
,,belles ,,lettres ,,catalogues47       
,,at ,,last3 ,a ,,christmas in the      
,,west ,,indies4 ,with nearly ,fifty    
,illustrations4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #fs4       ,,the ,,roman ,,and    
,,the ,,teuton4 ,a ,series of ,lectures 
delivered      before the ,university of
 ,cambridge4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition1
      with ,preface by ,professor ,,max 
,m,,ller4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4             
,,plays ,,and ,,puritans1 and other     
,historical ,essays4 ,with              
,portrait of ,sir ,,walter ,,raleigh4   
,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4      #fs4   

,in addition to the ,essay mentioned in 
the title1 this volume      contains    
other two--one on ,sir ,walter ,raleigh 
and his      ,time1 and one on ,froude's
 ,history of ,england4                  
,,historical ,,lectures ,,and ,,essays4 
,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,sanitary ,,and
 ,,social ,,lectures ,,and ,,essays4    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,scientific    
,,lectures ,,and ,,essays4 ,crown #hvo4 
#fs4       ,,literary ,,and ,,general   
,,lectures4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4           
,,kingsley 7,,henry74--,,tales ,,of     
,,old ,,travel4 ,re-narrated by ,,henry 
,,kingsley1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with ,eight   
,illustrations by ,,huard4 ,fifth       
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4             
,,lang4--,,cyprus3 ,its ,history1 its   
,present ,resources and ,future         
,prospects4 ,by ,r4 ,,hamilton ,,lang1  
late ,h4,m4 ,consul for the ,island of  
,cyprus4 ,with ,two ,illustrations and  
,four ,maps4 #hvo4 #ads4                
,,laocoon4--,translated from the ,text  
of ,lessing1 with ,preface and ,notes by

 the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,,robert ,j4     
,,phillimore1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with           
,photographs4 #hvo4 #abs4  ,,lectures   
,,on ,,art4--,delivered in support of   
the ,society for ,protection of ,ancient
 ,buildings4 ,by ,,regd4 ,,stuart       
,,poole1 ,professor ,w4,b4 ,,richmond1  
,e4,j4 ,,poynter1 ,r4,a41 ,j4,t4        
,,micklethwaite1 and ,,william ,,morris4
 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4                
,,lethbridge4--,a ,,short ,,manual ,,of 
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,india1 with an   
account of ,,india ,,as ,,it ,,is4 ,the 
,soil1 ,climate1 and ,productions2 the  
,people--their ,races1 ,religions1      
,public ,works1 and ,industries2 the    
,civil ,services and ,system of         
,administration4 ,by ,,roper            
,,lethbridge1 ,m4,a41 ,c4,i4,e41 ,press 
,commissioner with the ,government of   
,india1 late ,scholar of ,exeter        
,college1 c4 c4 ,with ,maps4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #es4  ,,liechtenstein4--,,holland 
,,house4 ,by ,princess ,,marie          
,,liechtenstein4 ,with ,five ,steel     

,engravings by ,c4,h4 ,,jeens1 after    
paintings by ,,watts and other          
celebrated ,artists1 and numerous       
,illustrations drawn by ,professor      
,p4,h4 ,,delamotte1 and engraved on     
,wood by ,j4,d4 ,,cooper1 ,w4 ,,palmer1 
and ,,jewitt  ,,co41 about #dj          
,illustrations by the ,woodbury-type    
process1 and ,india ,proofs of the      
,steel ,engravings4 ,two vols4 ,medium  
#dto41 half morocco elegant4 #dl4 #ds4  
,,lloyd4--,,the ,,age ,,of ,,pericles4  
,a ,history of the ,arts and ,politics  
of ,greece from the ,persian to the     
,peloponnesian ,war4 ,by ,w4 ,,watkiss  
,,lloyd4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4 #bas4        
,,loftie4--,a ,,ride ,,in ,,egypt ,,from
 ,,sioot ,,to ,,luxor1 ,,in #ahgi2 with 
,notes on the ,present ,state and       
,ancient ,history of the ,nile ,valley1 
and some account of the various ways of 
making the voyage out and home4 ,by the 
,rev4 ,w4,j4 ,,loftie1 ,b4,a4 ,with     
,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4
  ,,lubbock4--,works by ,sir ,,john     

,,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41 ,d4,c4,l41   
,f4,r4,s4       ,,addresses1 ,,political
 ,,and ,,educational4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4  
,,fifty ,,years ,,of ,,science4 ,being  
the address delivered at ,york      to  
the ,british ,association1 ,august1     
#ahha4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4                 
,,macdonell4--,,france ,,since ,,the    
,,first ,,empire4 ,by ,,james           
,,macdonell4 ,edited with ,preface by   
his ,wife4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4            
,,macarthur4--,,history ,,of ,,scotland4
 ,by ,,margaret ,,macarthur4 ,being the 
,third ,volume of the ,historical       
,course for ,schools1 ,edited by        
,,edward ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l4       
,second ,edition4 #ahmo4 #bs4           
,mc,l,e,n,n,a,n4--,,the ,,patriarchal   
,,theory4 ,based on ,papers of the late 
,,john ,,ferguson ,,mclennan4 ,edited   
and completed by ,,donald ,,mclennan1 of
 the ,inner ,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law1
 #hvo4 #ads4  ,,macmillan 7,,rev4       
,,hugh74--,for other ,works by same     
,author1 see ,,theological and          

,,scientific ,,catalogues4              
,,holidays ,,on ,,high ,,lands2 or1     
,rambles and ,incidents in search       
of ,alpine ,plants4 ,second ,edition1   
revised and enlarged4      ,globe #hvo4 
#fs4  ,,macmillan 7,,daniel74--,,memoir 
,,of ,,daniel ,,macmillan4 ,by ,,thomas 
,,hughes1 ,q4,c41 ,author of ,tom       
,brown's ,schooldays1 etc4 ,with        
,portrait engraved on ,steel by ,c4,h4  
,,jeens1 from a ,painting by ,,lowes    
,,dickinson4 ,fifth ,thousand4 ,crown   
#hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4--,,popular ,,edition1  
,paper ,covers1 #as4                    
,,macready4--,,macready',s              
,,reminiscences ,,and ,,selections      
,,from ,,his ,,diaries ,,and ,,letters4 
,edited by ,sir ,f4 ,,pollock1 ,bart41  
one of his ,executors4 ,with ,four      
,portraits engraved by ,,jeens4 ,new and
 ,cheaper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4   
#f;d4  ,,mahaffy4--,works by the ,rev4  
,j4,p4 ,,mahaffy1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of    
,trinity ,college1 ,dublin3--           
,,social ,,life ,,in ,,greece ,,from    

,,homer ,,to ,,menander4 ,fifth         
,edition1      revised and enlarged1    
with a new chapter on ,greek ,art4      
,crown      #hvo4 #is4       ,,rambles  
,,and ,,studies ,,in ,,greece4 ,with    
,illustrations4 ,new and      enlarged  
,edition1 with ,map and ,illustrations4 
,crown #hvo4      #ajs4 #f;d4           
,,margary4--,,the ,,journey ,,of        
,,augustus ,,raymond ,,margary ,,from   
,,shanghae ,,to ,,bhamo ,,and ,,back    
,,to ,,manwyne4 ,from his ,journals and 
,letters1 with a brief ,biographical    
,preface1 a concluding chapter by ,sir  
,,rutherford ,,alcock1 ,k4,c4,b41 and a 
,steel ,portrait engraved by ,,jeens1   
and ,map4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4             
,,martel4--,,military ,,italy4 ,by      
,,charles ,,martel4 ,with ,map4 #hvo4   
#abs4 #f;d4  ,,martin4--,,the ,,history 
,,of ,,lloyd',s1 ,,and ,,of ,,marine    
,,insurance ,,in ,,great ,,britain4     
,with an ,appendix containing           
,statistics relating to ,marine         
,insurance4 ,by ,,frederick ,,martin1   

,author of ,the ,statesman's ,year      
,book4 #hvo4 #ads4                      
,,martineau4--,,biographical ,,sketches1
 #aheb-ge4 ,by ,,harriet ,,martineau4   
,with ,four ,additional ,sketches1 and  
,autobiographical ,sketch4 ,fifth       
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4             
7,biographical ,series47  ,,masson      
7,,david74--,by ,,david ,,masson1       
,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,rhetoric and   
,english ,literature in the ,university 
of ,edinburgh4 ,for other ,works by same
 ,author1 see ,,philosophical and       
,,belles ,,lettres ,,catalogue4         
,,chatterton3 ,a ,story of the ,year    
#aggj4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4       ,,the    
,,three ,,devils3 ,luther's1 ,goethe's1 
and ,milton's2 and      other ,essays4  
,crown #hvo4 #es4       ,,wordsworth1   
,,shelley1 ,,and ,,keats2 and other     
,essays4 ,crown #hvo4      #es4         
,,mathews4--,,life ,,of ,,charles ,j4   
,,mathews4 ,chiefly ,autobiographical4  
,with ,selections from his              
,correspondence and ,speeches4 ,edited  

by ,,charles ,,dickens4 ,two ,vols4     
#hvo4 #bes4  ,,maurice4--,,life ,,of    
,,frederick ,,denison ,,maurice4        
,chiefly told in his own ,letters4      
,edited by his ,son1 ,,frederick        
,,maurice4 ,with ,two ,portraits4 ,third
 ,edition4 #b vols4 ,demy #hvo4 #cfs4   
,,maurice4--,,the ,,friendship ,,of     
,,books2 ,,and ,,other ,,lectures4 ,by  
the ,rev4 ,f4,d4 ,,maurice4 ,edited with
 ,preface1 by ,,thomas ,,hughes1 ,q4,c4 
,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4                 
,,maxwell4--,,professor ,,clerk         
,,maxwell1 ,a ,,life ,,of4 ,with a      
,selection from his ,correspondence and 
,occasional ,writings1 and a ,sketch of 
his ,contributions to ,science4 ,by     
,,lewis ,,campbell1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41   
,professor of ,greek in the ,university 
of ,st4 ,andrews1 and ,professor        
,,william ,,garnett1 ,m4,a41 ,principal 
of ,durham ,college of ,science1        
,newcastle-upon-,tyne4 ,new ,edition1   
,abridged and ,revised4 ,crown #hvo4    
#gs4 #f;d4  ,,mayor 7,j4,e4,b47--,works 

edited by ,,john ,e4,b4 ,,mayor1 ,m4,a41
 ,kennedy ,professor of ,latin at       
,cambridge3--       ,,cambridge ,,in    
,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,part    
,,ii4 ,autobiography      of ,matthew   
,robinson4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4 #f;d4      
,,life ,,of ,,bishop ,,bedell4 ,by his  
,,son4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4          
,,melbourne4--,,memoirs ,,of ,,the ,,rt4
 ,,hon4 ,,william1 ,,second ,,viscount  
,,melbourne4 ,by ,w4,m4 ,,torrens1      
,m4,p4 ,with ,portrait after ,sir ,t4   
,lawrence4 ,second ,edition4 ,two ,vols4
 #hvo4 #cbs4  ,,miall4--,,life ,,of     
,,edward ,,miall1 formerly ,m4,p4 for   
,rochdale and ,bradford4 ,by his ,son1  
,,arthur ,,miall4 ,with a ,portrait4    
#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4  ,,michelet4--,a      
,,summary ,,of ,,modern ,,history4      
,translated from the ,french of ,m4     
,,michelet1 and continued to the present
 time by ,m4,c4,m4 ,,simpson4 ,globe    
#hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4  ,,millet4--,,jean     
,,fran,,ois ,,millet2 ,peasant and      
,painter4 ,translated from the ,french  

of ,,alfred ,,sensier4 ,with numerous   
,illustrations4 ,globe #dto4 #afs4      
,,milton4--,,life ,,of ,,john ,,milton4 
,narrated in connection with the        
,political1 ,ecclesiastical1 and        
,literary ,history of his ,time4 ,by    
,,david ,,masson1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41     
,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english    
,literature in the ,university of       
,edinburgh4 ,with ,portraits4 ,vol4 ,i4 
#afjh-afci4 ,new and ,revised ,edition4 
#hvo4 #bas4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #afch-afdc4     
#hvo4 #afs4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #afdc-afdi4    
#hvo4 #ahs4 ,vols4 ,,iv and ,v4         
#afdi-affj4 #cbs4 ,vol4 ,,vi4           
#affj-afgd4 ,with ,portrait4 #bas4      
,index ,volume in preparation4          
,this work is not only a ,biography1 but
 also a continuous      ,political1     
,ecclesiastical1 and ,literary ,history 
of ,england      through ,milton's whole
 time4  ,,mitford 7,a4,b47--,,tales ,,of
 ,,old ,,japan4 ,by ,a4,b4 ,,mitford1   
,second ,secretary to the ,british      
,legation in ,japan4 ,with upwards of   

#cj ,illustrations1 drawn and cut on    
,wood by ,japanese ,artists4 ,new and   
,cheaper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4    
,,murray4--,,round ,,about ,,france4 ,by
 ,e4,c4 ,,grenville ,,murray4 ,crown    
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,music4--,,dictionary
 ,,of ,,music ,,and ,,musicians 7,a4,d4 
#adej-ahhe74 ,by ,eminent ,writers1     
,english and ,foreign4 ,edited by ,,sir 
,,george ,,grove1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,director  
of the ,royal ,college of ,music4 ,three
 ,vols4 #hvo4 ,with ,illustrations and  
,woodcuts4 ,parts ,i4 to ,,xiv41 ,,xix4 
and ,,xx41 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,parts ,,xv4
 and ,,xvi41 #gs4 ,parts ,,xvii4 and    
,,xviii41 #gs4 ,vols4 ,i41 ,,ii41 and   
,,iii4 #hvo4 #bas4 each4       ,vol4    
,i4--,a to ,impromptu4 ,vol4            
,,ii4--,improperia to ,plain ,song4     
,vol4 ,,iii4 ,planch to ,sumer is       
,icumen in4  ,,myers4--,,essays ,,by    
,,frederic ,w4,h4 ,,myers4 #b vols4 ,i4 
,classical4 ,,ii4 ,modern4 ,crown #hvo4 
#ds4 #f;d4 each4  ,,napoleon4--,,the    
,,history ,,of ,,napoleon ,i4 ,by ,p4   

,,lanfrey4 ,a ,translation with the     
sanction of the ,author4 ,four ,vols4   
#hvo4 ,vols4 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 price     
#abs4 each4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,with ,index4   
#fs4  ,,newton4--,,essays ,,on ,,art    
,,and ,,arch,,ology4 ,by ,,charles      
,,thomas ,,newton1 ,c4,d41 ,ph4,d41     
,d4,c4,l41 ,l4,l4,d41 ,keeper of ,greek 
and ,roman ,antiquities at the ,british 
,museum1 c4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4           
,,nichol4--,,tables ,,of ,,european     
,,literature ,,and ,,history1 ,a4,d4    
#bjj-ahgf4 ,by ,j4 ,,nichol1 ,l4,l4,d41 
,professor of ,english ,language and    
,literature1 ,glasgow4 #dto4 #fs4 #f;d4 
,,tables ,,of ,,ancient ,,literature    
,,and ,,history1 ,b4,c4 #aejj--;,a4,d4  
#bjj4 ,by the same ,author4 #dto4 #ds4  
#f;d4  ,,nordenski,,ld',s ,,arctic      
,,voyages1 #aheh-gi4--,with ,maps and   
numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #afs4    
,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,vega4 ,by ,,adolf 
,,erik ,,nordenski,,ld4 ,translated     
by ,,alexander ,,leslie4 ,with numerous 
,illustrations1 ,maps1 c4      ,popular 

and ,cheaper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4
  ,,oliphant 7,,mrs474--,works by ,mrs4 
,,oliphant4       ,,the ,,makers ,,of   
,,florence3 ,dante1 ,giotto1            
,savonarola1 and their      ,city4 ,with
 numerous ,illustrations from drawings  
by ,professor      ,,delamotte1 and     
portrait of ,savonarola1 engraved by    
,,jeens4      ,new and ,cheaper         
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4      
,,the ,,literary ,,history ,,of         
,,england ,,in ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the   
,,eighteenth      ,,and ,,beginning ,,of
 ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,new     
,issue1 with a      ,preface4 #c vols4  
,demy #hvo4 #bas4  ,,oliphant4--,,the   
,,duke ,,and ,,the ,,scholar3 and other 
,essays ,by ,t4,l4 ,,kington ,,oliphant4
 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4                       
,,otte4--,,scandinavian ,,history4 ,by  
,e4,c4 ,,otte4 ,with ,maps4 ,extra fcap4
 #hvo4 #fs4  ,,owens ,,college ,,essays 
,,and ,,addresses4--,by ,,professors    
,,and ,,lecturers ,,of ,,owens          
,,college1 ,,manchester4 ,published in  

,commemoration of the ,opening of the   
,new ,college ,buildings1 ,october #gth1
 #ahgc4 #hvo4 #ads4  ,,palgrave         
7,r4,f4,d47--,,the ,,house ,,of         
,,commons2 ,illustrations of its        
,history and ,practice4 ,by ,,reginald  
,f4,d4 ,,palgrave1 ,clerk ,assistant of 
the ,house of ,commons4 ,new and        
,revised ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4    
#f;d4  ,,palgrave 7,,sir ,f47--,,history
 ,,of ,,normandy ,,and ,,of ,,england4  
,by ,sir ,,francis ,,palgrave1 ,deputy  
,keeper of ,her ,majesty's ,public      
,records4 ,completing the ,history to   
the ,death of ,william ,rufus4 #d ,vols4
 #hvo4 #dl4 #ds4  ,,palgrave            
7,w4,g47--,a ,,narrative ,,of ,a        
,,year',s ,,journey ,,through ,,central 
,,and ,,eastern ,,arabia1 #ahfb-c4 ,by  
,,william ,,gifford ,,palgrave1 late of 
the ,eighth ,regiment ,bombay ,n4,i4    
,sixth ,edition4 ,with ,maps1 ,plans1   
and ,portrait of ,author1 engraved on   
steel by ,,jeens4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4     
,,essays ,,on ,,eastern ,,questions4 ,by

 ,w4 ,,gifford ,,palgrave4 #hvo4        
#ajs4 #f;d4       ,,dutch ,,guiana4     
,with ,maps and ,plans4 #hvo4 #is4      
,,parkman4--,,montcalm ,,and ,,wolfe4   
,by ,,francis ,,parkman4 ,with          
,portraits and ,maps4 #b vols4 #hvo4    
#abs4 #f;d4 each4  ,,patteson4--,,life  
,,and ,,letters ,,of ,,john ,,coleridge 
,,patteson1 ,d4,d41 ,missionary ,bishop 
of the ,melanesian ,islands4 ,by        
,,charlotte ,m4 ,,yonge1 ,author of ,the
 ,heir of ,redclyffe4 ,with ,portraits  
after ,,richmond and from ,photograph1  
engraved by ,,jeens4 ,with ,map4 ,fifth 
,edition4 ,two ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4
  ,,pattison4--,,memoirs4 ,by ,,mark    
,,pattison1 late ,rector of ,lincoln    
,college1 ,oxford4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4    
#f;d4  ,,payne4--,a ,,history ,,of      
,,european ,,colonies4 ,by ,e4,j4       
,,payne1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,maps4 #ahmo4 #ds4
 #f;d4 ,historical ,course for ,schools4
  ,,persia4--,,eastern ,,persia4 ,an    
,account of the ,journeys of the        
,persian ,boundary ,commission1         

#ahgj-a-b4--,vol4 ,i4 ,the ,geography1  
with ,narratives by ,majors ,,st4       
,,john1 ,,lovett1 and ,,euan ,,smith1   
and an ,introduction by ,major-,general 
,sir ,,frederic ,,goldsmid1 ,c4,b41     
,k4,c4,s4,i41 ,british ,commissioner and
 ,arbitrator4 ,with ,maps and           
,illustrations4--,vol4 ,,ii4 ,the       
,zoology and ,geology4 ,by ,w4,t4       
,,blandford1 ,a4,r4,s4,m41 ,f4,r4,s4    
,with ,coloured ,illustrations4 ,two    
,vols4 #hvo4 #dbs4  ,,phear4--,,the     
,,aryan ,,village ,,in ,,india ,,and    
,,ceylon4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,b4 ,,phear4  
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,poole4--,a   
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,huguenots ,,of   
,,the ,,dispersion ,,at ,,the ,,recall  
,,of ,,the ,,edict ,,of ,,nantes4 ,by   
,,reginald ,,lane ,,poole4 ,crown #hvo4 
#fs4  ,,prichard4--,,the                
,,administration ,,of ,,india4 ,from    
#ahei to #ahfh4 ,the ,first ,ten ,years 
of ,administration under the ,crown4 ,by
 ,i4,t4 ,,prichard1 ,barrister-at-,law4 
,two ,vols4 ,demy #hvo4 ,with ,map4     

#bas4  ,,reed 7,,sir ,,chas474--,,sir   
,,charles ,,reed4 ,a ,memoir by         
,,charles ,e4,b4 ,,reed1 ,m4,a4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4  ,,rembrandt4--,,the   
,,etched ,,work ,,of ,,rembrandt4 ,a    
,,monograph4 ,by ,,francis ,,seymour    
,,haden4 ,with three ,plates4 #hvo4 #gs4
 #f;d4  ,,rogers 7,,james ,e4           
,,thorold74--,,historical               
,,gleanings3--,a ,series of ,sketches4  
,montague1 ,walpole1 ,adam ,smith1      
,cobbett4 ,by ,prof4 ,,rogers1 ,m4,p4   
,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,second ,series4
 ,wiklif1 ,laud1 ,wilkes1 and ,horne    
,tooke4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4               
,,rossetti4--,,dante ,,gabriel          
,,rossetti3 a ,record and a ,study4 ,by 
,,william ,,sharp4 ,with an             
,illustration after ,dante ,gabriel     
,rossetti4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4     
,,routledge4--,,chapters ,,in ,,the     
,,history ,,of ,,popular ,,progress ,,in
 ,,england1 chiefly in ,relation to the 
,freedom of the ,press and ,trial by    
,jury1 #affj-ahbj4 ,with application to 

later years4 ,by ,j4 ,,routledge4 #hvo4 
#afs4  ,,rumford4--,,count ,,rumford',s 
,,complete ,,works1 with ,memoir1 and   
,notices of his ,daughter4 ,by ,,george 
,,ellis4 ,five ,vols4 #hvo4 #dl4 #ads4  
#f;d4  ,,russell4--,,new ,,views ,,on   
,,ireland1 ,,or ,,irish ,,land          
,,grievances ,,and ,,remedies4 ,by      
,,charles ,,russell1 ,q4,c41 ,m4,p4     
,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4
  ,,sayce4--,,the ,,ancient ,,empires   
,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,by ,a4,h4 ,,sayce1  
,deputy-,professor of ,comparative      
,philology1 ,oxford2 ,hon4 ,,ll4,d4     
,dublin4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4              
,,schiller4--,,the ,,life ,,of          
,,schiller4 ,by ,,heinrich ,d,,ntzer4   
,translated by ,,percy ,e4 ,,pinkerton4 
,with ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4
 #f;d4  ,,seeley4--,works by ,j4,r4     
,,seeley1 ,m4,a41 ,regius ,professor of 
,modern ,history in the ,university of  
,cambridge1 ,fellow of ,gonville and    
,caius ,college1 ,fellow of the ,royal  
,historical ,society1 and ,honorary     

,member of the ,historical ,society of  
,massachusetts3--       ,,the           
,,expansion ,,of ,,england4 ,two        
,courses of ,lectures4 ,crown      #hvo4
 #ds4 #f;d4       ,,lectures ,,and      
,,essays4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4             
,,contents3--,roman ,imperialism3 #a4   
,the ,great ,roman ,revolution2      #b4
 ,the ,proximate ,cause of the ,fall of 
the ,roman ,empire2 ,the      ,later    
,empire4--,milton's ,political          
,opinions--,milton's                    
,poetry--,elementary ,principles in     
,art--,liberal ,education in            
,universities--,english in              
,schools--,the ,church as a ,teacher of 
,morality--,the ,teaching of ,politics3 
an ,inaugural ,lecture      delivered at
 ,cambridge4  ,,shelburne4--,,life ,,of 
,,william1 ,,earl ,,of ,,shelburne1     
,,afterwards ,,first ,,marquis ,,of     
,,landsdowne4 ,with ,extracts from his  
,papers and ,correspondence4 ,by ,lord  
,,edmond ,,fitzmaurice4 ,in ,three      
,vols4 #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i4 #agcg-agff1      

#abs42 ,vol4 ,,ii4 #agff-aggf1 #abs42   
,vol4 ,,iii4 #aggf-ahje1 #afs4          
,,sibson4--,,collected ,,works ,,of     
,,francis ,,sibson1 ,m4,d41 ,lond41     
,fellow of the ,royal ,society1         
,honorary ,m4,d4 ,trinity ,college1     
,dublin1 and ,d4,c4,l4 ,durham1 ,fellow 
of the ,royal ,college of ,physicians1  
c4 ,edited by ,,william ,m4 ,,ord1      
,m4,d4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,four      
,volumes4 #hvo4 #cl4 #cs4               
,,sime4--,,history ,,of ,,germany4 ,by  
,,james ,,sime1 ,m4,a4 #ahmo4 #cs4      
,being ,vol4 ,v4 of the ,historical     
,course for ,schools4 ,edited by        
,,edward ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l4       
,,smith 7,,goldwin74--,,three ,,english 
,,statesmen4 ,a ,course of ,lectures on 
the ,political ,history of ,england4 ,by
 ,,goldwin ,,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,c4,l4   
,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4        
,,spinoza4--,,spinoza3 a ,study of4 ,by 
,,james ,,martineau1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,d4   
,fellow of ,manchester ,new ,college1   
,london4 ,with ,portrait4 ,second       

,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,st4      
,,anselm4--,by the ,very ,rev4 ,r4,w4   
,,church1 ,m4,a41 ,dean of ,st4 ,paul's4
 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       
7,biographical ,series47  ,,statesman',s
 ,,year-,,book1 ,,the4--,a ,statistical 
and ,historical ,annual of the ,states  
of the ,civilised ,world for the ,year  
#ahhe4 ,twenty-second ,annual           
,publication4 ,revised after ,official  
,returns4 ,edited by ,j4 ,,scott        
,,keltie4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4      
,,statham4--,,blacks1 ,,boers1 ,,and    
,,british3 ,a ,three-,cornered ,problem4
 ,by ,f4,r4 ,,statham4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4
  ,,stevenson4--,,house ,,architecture4 
,by ,j4,j4 ,,stevenson1 ,fellow of the  
,royal ,institution of ,british         
,architects4 ,with numerous             
,illustrations4 ,royal #hvo4 #b ,vols4  
#ahs4 each4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,architecture4    
,vol4 ,,ii4 ,house ,planning4  ,,st4    
,,johnston4--,,camping ,,among          
,,cannibals4 ,by ,,alfred ,,st4         
,,johnston4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4     

,,strangford4--,,egyptian ,,shrines     
,,and ,,syrian ,,sepulchres1 including a
 ,visit to ,palmyra4 ,by ,,emily ,a4    
,,beaufort 7,viscountess ,strangford71  
,author of ,the ,eastern ,shores of the 
,adriatic4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4  
#gs4 #f;d4  ,,tait4--,,an ,,analysis    
,,of ,,english ,,history1 based upon    
,green's ,short ,history of the ,english
 ,people4 ,by ,c4,w4,a4 ,,tait1 ,m4,a41 
,assistant ,master1 ,clifton ,college4  
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,tait4--,,catharine ,,and ,,craufurd   
,,tait1 ,,wife ,,and ,,son ,,of         
,,archibald ,,campbell1 ,,archbishop    
,,of ,,canterbury3 a ,memoir1 ,edited1  
at the request of the ,archbishop1 by   
the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,benham1 ,b4,d41 ,rector 
of ,st4 ,edmund-the-,king and ,st4      
,nicholas ,acons1 ,one of the ,six      
,preachers of ,canterbury ,cathedral4   
,with ,two ,portraits engraved by       
,,jeens4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4    
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 7,biographical        
,series47       ,abridged ,edition4     

,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4                 
,,teresa4--,,the ,,life ,,of ,,st4      
,,teresa4 ,by ,,maria ,,trench4 ,with   
,portrait engraved by ,,jeens4 ,crown   
#hvo41 cloth extra4 #hs4 #f;d4          
,,thompson4--,,history ,,of ,,england4  
,by ,,edith ,,thompson4 ,being ,vol4    
,,ii4 of the ,historical ,course for    
,schools1 ,edited by ,,edward ,a4       
,,freeman1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,new ,edition1     
revised and enlarged1 with ,coloured    
,maps4 #ahmo4 #bs4 #f;d4  ,,through     
,,the ,,ranks ,,to ,a                   
,,commission4--,new and ,popular        
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4       
,,todhunter4--,,the ,,conflict ,,of     
,,studies2 ,,and ,,other ,,essays ,,on  
,,subjects ,,connected ,,with           
,,education4 ,by ,,isaac ,,todhunter1   
,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,fellow and     
,principal ,mathematical ,lecturer of   
,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4 #hvo4
 #ajs4 #f;d4  ,,trench 7,r4             
,,chenevix74--,for other ,works by the  
same ,author1 see ,,theological and     

,,belles ,,lettres ,,catalogues1 and    
page #bh of this ,catalogue4            
,,gustavus ,,adolphus ,,in ,,germany1   
and other ,lectures on the      ,thirty 
,years' ,war4 ,second ,edition1 revised 
and enlarged4      ,fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4    
,,plutarch1 ,,his ,,life1 ,,his ,,lives1
 ,,and ,,his ,,morals4 ,five            
,lectures4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged4  
,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4       ,,lectures
 ,,on ,,medieval ,,church ,,history4    
,being the substance of      ,lectures  
delivered in ,queen's ,college1 ,london4
 ,second      ,edition1 revised4 #hvo4  
#abs4       ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,the     
,,life ,,and ,,genius ,,of ,,calderon4  
,with      ,translations from his       
,life's a ,dream and ,great ,theatre of 
the ,world4 ,second ,edition1 revised   
and improved4 ,fcap4 #hvo4      #es4    
,,trench 7,,mrs4 ,r474--,,remains ,,of  
,,the ,,late ,,mrs4 ,,richard ,,trench4 
,being ,selections from her ,journals1  
,letters1 and other ,papers4 ,edited by 
,r4 ,,chenevix ,,trench1 ,d4,d4 ,new and

 ,cheaper ,issue4 #hvo4 #fs4            
,,trevelyan4--,,the ,,irish ,,crisis4   
,being a ,narrative of the ,measures for
 the ,relief of the ,distress caused by 
the ,great ,irish ,famine of #ahdf-g4   
,by ,sir ,,charles ,,trevelyan1 ,bart41 
,k4,c4,b4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4              
,,trollope4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,the    
,,commonwealth ,,of ,,florence ,,from   
,,the ,,earliest ,,independence ,,of    
,,the ,,commune ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of  
,,the ,,republic ,,in #ahca4 ,by ,t4    
,,adolphus ,,trollope4 #d ,vols4 #hvo4  
,cloth1 #bas4  ,,turner4--,,samoa4 ,a   
,hundred ,years ago and long before1    
together with ,notes on the ,cults and  
,customs of ,twenty-three other ,islands
 in the ,pacific4 ,by ,,george ,,turner1
 ,,ll4,d41 of the ,london ,missionary   
,society4 ,with a ,preface by ,e4,b4    
,,tylor1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with ,maps4 ,crown  
#hvo4 #is4  ,,tylor4--,,anthropology3 an
 ,introduction to the ,study of ,man and
 ,civilisation4 ,by ,e4,b4 ,,tylor1     
,d4,c4,l41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with              

,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 
,,uppingham ,,by ,,the ,,sea4--,a       
,,narrative ,,of ,,the ,,year ,,at      
,,borth4 ,by ,j4,h4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4
 #f;d4  ,,victor ,,emmanuel ,,ii41      
,,first ,,king ,,of ,,italy4 ,by ,g4,s4 
,,godkin4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4   
#fs4 7,biographical ,series47           
,,wallace4--,,the ,,malay ,,archipelago3
 the ,land of the ,orang ,utan and the  
,bird of ,paradise4 ,by ,,alfred        
,,russel ,,wallace4 ,a ,narrative of    
,travel with ,studies of ,man and       
,nature4 ,with ,maps and numerous       
,illustrations4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4  ,,wallace             
7,d4,m47--,,egypt3 and the ,egyptian    
,question4 ,by ,d4 ,,mackenzie          
,,wallace1 ,m4,a41 ,author of ,russia3 a
 ,six ,years' ,residence1 c4 #hvo4 #ads4
  ,,ward4--,a ,,history ,,of ,,english  
,,dramatic ,,literature ,,to ,,the      
,,death ,,of ,,queen ,,anne4 ,by ,a4,w4 
,,ward1 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,history  
and ,english ,literature in ,owens      

,college1 ,manchester4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4
 #cbs4  ,,ward 7,j47--,,experiences ,,of
 ,a ,,diplomatist4 ,being recollections 
of ,germany founded on ,diaries kept    
during the years #ahdj-ahgj4 ,by ,,john 
,,ward1 ,c4,b41 late ,h4,m4             
,minister-,resident to the ,hanse       
,towns4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4               
,,ward4--,,english ,,poets4 ,selections1
 with ,critical ,introductions by       
various writers1 and a ,general         
,introduction by ,,matthew ,,arnold4    
,edited by ,t4,h4 ,,ward1 ,m4,a4 #d     
vols4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4  
#f;d4 each4       ,vol4 ,i4 ,,chaucer to
 ,,donne4      ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,ben        
,,jonson to ,,dryden4      ,vol4 ,,iii4 
,,addison to ,,blake4      ,vol4 ,,iv4  
,,wordsworth to ,,rossetti4  ,,waterton 
7,c47--,,wanderings ,,in ,,south        
,,america1 ,,the ,,north-,,west ,,of    
,,the ,,united ,,states1 ,,and ,,the    
,,antilles ,,in #ahab1 #ahaf1 #ahbj1 and
 #ahbd4 ,with ,original ,instructions   
for the perfect ,preservation of ,birds1

 etc41 for ,cabinets of ,natural        
,history4 ,by ,,charles ,,waterton4 ,new
 ,edition1 edited with ,biographical    
,introduction and ,explanatory ,index by
 the ,rev4 ,j4,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,with  
#ajj ,illustrations4 ,cheaper ,edition4 
,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,,people',s     
,,illustrated ,,edition4 ,demy #dto4    
#f;d4  ,,watson4--,a ,,visit ,,to       
,,wazan1 ,,the ,,sacred ,,city ,,of     
,,morocco4 ,by ,,robert ,,spence        
,,watson4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo4   
#ajs4 #f;d4  ,,watson 7,,ellen47--,a    
,,record ,,of ,,ellen ,,watson4         
,arranged and ,edited by ,,anna         
,,buckland4 ,with ,portrait4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #fs4  ,,wesley4--,,john ,,wesley  
,,and ,,the ,,evangelical ,,reaction of 
the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,,julia   
,,wedgwood4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4     
,,wheeler4--,a ,,short ,,history ,,of   
,,india1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,frontier    
,,states ,,of ,,afghanistan1 ,,nepaul1  
,,and ,,burma4 ,by ,j4 ,,talboys        
,,wheeler1 late ,assistant-,secretary to

 the ,government of ,india1 ,foreign    
,department1 and late ,secretary to the 
,government of ,british ,burma4 ,with   
,maps and ,tables4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4   
,,whewell4--,,william ,,whewell1 ,d4,d41
 late ,master of ,trinity ,college1     
,cambridge4 ,an account of his          
,writings1 with ,selections from his    
,literary and ,scientific               
correspondence4 ,by ,i4 ,,todhunter1    
,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4     
#bes4  ,,white4--,,the ,,natural        
,,history ,,and ,,antiquities ,,of      
,,selborne4 ,by ,,gilbert ,,white4      
,edited1 with ,memoir and ,notes1 by    
,,frank ,,buckland1 ,a ,chapter on      
,antiquities by ,,lord ,,selborne1 and  
numerous ,illustrations by ,p4,h4       
,,delamotte4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,also a ,large 
,paper ,edition1 containing1 in addition
 to the      above1 upwards of ,thirty  
,woodbury-type ,illustrations from      
,drawings by ,prof4 ,,delamotte4 ,two   
,vols4 #dto4 ,half morocco1             

elegant4 #dl4 #ds4  ,,wilson4--,a       
,,memoir ,,of ,,george ,,wilson1 ,m4,d41
 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,regius ,professor of    
,technology in the ,university of       
,edinburgh4 ,by his ,,sister4 ,new      
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,wilson   
7,,daniel1 ,,ll4,d47--,works by ,,daniel
 ,,wilson1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of      
,history and ,english ,literature in    
,university ,college4 ,toronto3--       
,,prehistoric ,,annals ,,of ,,scotland4 
,new ,edition1 with numerous            
,illustrations4 ,two ,vols4 ,demy #hvo4 
#cfs4       ,,prehistoric ,,man3        
,researches into the ,origin of         
,civilization      in the ,old and ,new 
,world4 ,new ,edition1 revised and      
enlarged      throughout1 with numerous 
,illustrations and ,two ,coloured       
,plates4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4 #cfs4        
,,chatterton3 ,a ,biographical ,study4  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4  ,,yoe4--,,the  
,,burman3 ,his ,life and ,notions4 ,by  
,,shway ,,yoe4 ,two ,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 
#is4  ,,yonge 7,,charlotte ,m47--,works 

by ,,charlotte ,m4 ,,yonge1 ,author of  
the ,heir of ,redclyffe1 c4 c43--       
,,cameos ,,from ,,english ,,history4    
,from ,rollo to ,edward ,,ii4 ,extra    
,fcap4 #hvo4 ,third ,edition4 #es4      
,,second ,,series1 ,,the ,,wars ,,in    
,,france4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 ,third     
,edition4 #es4       ,,third ,,series1  
,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,roses4 ,extra 
fcap4 #hvo4 #es4       ,,fourth         
,,series1 ,,reformation ,,times4 ,extra 
fcap4 #hvo4 #es4       ,,fifth ,,series1
 ,,england ,,and ,,spain4 ,extra fcap4  
#hvo4 #es4       ,,history ,,of         
,,france4 ,maps4 #ahmo4 #cs4 #f;d4      
,historical      ,course for ,schools4  
,,history ,,of ,,christian ,,names4 ,new
 ,edition1 ,revised4 ,crown #hvo4       
#gs4 #f;d4         99       99       99 
99       99  ,,politics1 ,,political    
,,and ,,social ,,economy1 ,,law1 ,,and  
,,kindred ,,subjects4  ,,anglo-,,saxon  
,,law4--,,essays ,,in4 ,contents3 ,law  
,courts--,land and ,family ,laws and    
,legal ,procedure generally4 ,with      

,select cases4 ,medium #hvo4 #ahs4      
,,arnold4--,,the ,,roman ,,system ,,of  
,,provincial ,,administration ,,to ,,the
 ,,accession ,,of ,,constantine ,,the   
,,great4 ,being the ,arnold ,prize      
,essay for #ahgi4 ,by ,w4,t4 ,,arnold1  
,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4                
,,bernard4--,,four ,,lectures ,,on      
,,subjects ,,connected ,,with           
,,diplomacy4 ,by ,,montague ,,bernard1  
,m4,a41 ,chichele ,professor of         
,international ,law and ,diplomacy1     
,oxford4 #hvo4 #is4                     
,,bigelow4--,,history ,,of ,,procedure  
,,in ,,england1 ,,from ,,the ,,norman   
,,conquest4 ,the ,norman ,period1       
#ajff-abjd4 ,by ,,melville ,,madison    
,,bigelow1 ,ph4,d41 ,harvard            
,university4 #hvo4 #afs4  ,,bright      
7,,john1 ,m4,p474--,works by the ,right 
,hon4 ,,john ,,bright1 ,m4,p4           
,,speeches ,,on ,,questions ,,of        
,,public ,,policy4 ,edited by ,professor
      ,,thorold ,,rogers1 ,m4,p4        
,author's ,popular ,edition4 ,globe     

#hvo4      #cs4 #f;d4       ,,library   
,,edition4 ,two ,vols4 #hvo4 ,with      
,portrait4 #bes4       ,,public         
,,addresses4 ,edited by ,j4 ,,thorold   
,,rogers1 ,m4,p4 #hvo4      #ads4       
,,bucknill4--,,the ,,care ,,of ,,the    
,,insane1 ,,and ,,their ,,legal         
,,control4 ,by ,j4,c4 ,,bucknill1       
,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,lord           
,chancellor's ,visitor of ,lunatics4    
,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4                 
,,cairnes4--,works by ,j4,e4 ,,cairnes1 
,m4,a41 sometime ,professor of          
,political ,economy in ,university      
,college1 ,london3--       ,,political  
,,essays4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       ,,the 
,,character ,,and ,,logical ,,method    
,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,new        
,edition1 enlarged4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4    
,,cobden 7,,richard74--,,speeches ,,on  
,,questions ,,of ,,public ,,policy4 ,by 
,,richard ,,cobden4 ,edited by the      
,right ,hon4 ,john ,bright1 ,m4,p41 and 
,j4,e4 ,thorold ,rogers1 ,m4,p4 ,popular
 ,edition4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4             

,,cossa4--,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,study    
,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,by ,,dr4   
,,luigi ,,cossa1 ,professor of          
,political ,economy in the ,university  
of ,pavia4 ,translated from the ,second 
,italian ,edition4 ,with a ,preface by  
,w4 ,,stanley ,,jevons1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4  ,,fawcett4--,works by
 ,right ,hon4 ,,henry ,,fawcett1 ,m4,a41
 ,m4,p41 ,f4,r4,s41 late ,fellow of     
,trinity ,hall1 and ,professor of       
,political ,economy in the ,university  
of ,cambridge3--       ,,the ,,economic 
,,position ,,of ,,the ,,british         
,,labourer4 ,extra fcap4      #hvo4 #es4
       ,,manual ,,of ,,political        
,,economy4 ,sixth ,edition1 revised1    
with a      ,chapter on ,state          
,socialism and the ,nationalisation of  
the      ,land1 and an ,index1 etc4     
,crown #hvo4 #abs4       ,,speeches ,,on
 ,,some ,,current ,,political           
,,questions4 #hvo4 #ajs4      #f;d4     
,,free ,,trade ,,and ,,protection3 an   
,inquiry into the ,causes which         

have retarded the general adoption of   
,free ,trade since its      introduction
 into ,england4 ,sixth and ,cheaper     
,edition4 ,crown      #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  
,,indian ,,finance4 ,three ,essays1 with
 ,introduction and      ,appendix4 #hvo4
 #gs4 #f;d4       ,,essays ,,on         
,,political ,,and ,,social ,,subjects4  
,by ,right ,hon4 ,,henry      ,,fawcett1
 ,m4,p41 and ,,millicent ,,garrett      
,,fawcett4 #hvo4 #ajs4      #f;d4       
,,fawcett 7,,mrs47--,works by           
,,millicent ,,garrett ,,fawcett3--      
,,political ,,economy ,,for ,,beginners4
 ,,with ,,questions4 ,new      ,edition4
 #ahmo4 #bs4 #f;d4       ,,tales ,,in   
,,political ,,economy4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4
  ,,fiske4--,,american ,,political      
,,ideas ,,viewed ,,from ,,the           
,,standpoint ,,of ,,universal ,,history4
 ,three ,lectures delivered at the      
,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 
,by ,,john ,,fiske1 ,author of          
,darwinism3 and other ,essays1          
,excursions of an ,evolutionist1 c4     

,crown #hvo4 #ds4  ,,goschen4--,,reports
 ,,and ,,speeches ,,on ,,local          
,,taxation4 ,by ,,george ,j4 ,,goschen1 
,m4,p4 ,royal #hvo4 #es4  ,,guide ,,to  
,,the ,,unprotected1 in ,every ,day     
,matters ,relating to ,property and     
,income4 ,by a ,,banker',s ,,daughter4  
,fifth ,edition1 ,revised4 ,extra fcap4 
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4  ,,hamilton4--,,money  
,,and ,,value3 an ,inquiry into the     
,means and ,ends of ,economic           
,production1 with an ,appendix on the   
,depreciation of ,silver and ,indian    
,currency4 ,by ,,rowland ,,hamilton4    
#hvo4 #abs4  ,,harwood4--,works by      
,,george ,,harwood1 ,m4,a4              
,,disestablishment3 a ,defence of the   
,principle of a ,national      ,church4 
#hvo4 #abs4       ,,the ,,coming        
,,democracy4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4          
,,hill4--,works by ,,octavia ,,hill3--  
,,our ,,common ,,land2 and other ,short 
,essays4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4      #cs4   
#f;d4       ,,contents3--,our ,common   
,land4 ,district ,visiting4 ,a more     

,excellent ,way of ,charity4 ,a ,word on
 ,good ,citizenship4 ,open      ,spaces4
 ,effectual ,charity4 ,the ,future of   
our ,commons4       ,,homes ,,of ,,the  
,,london ,,poor4 ,popular ,edition4 ,cr4
 #hvo4 ,sewed1      #as4                
,,holland4--,,the ,,treaty ,,relations  
,,of ,,russia ,,and ,,turkey ,,from     
#aggd ,,to #ahec4 ,a ,lecture delivered 
at ,oxford1 ,april #ahgg4 ,by ,t4,e4    
,,holland1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,professor of     
,international ,law and ,diplomacy1     
,oxford4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4              
,,jevons4--,works by ,w4 ,,stanley      
,,jevons1 ,,ll4,d41 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4   
7,for other ,works by the same ,author1 
see ,,educational and ,,philosophical   
,,catalogues473--       ,,the ,,theory  
,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,second     
,edition1 revised1      with new        
,preface and ,appendices4 #hvo4 #ajs4   
#f;d4       ,,primer ,,of ,,political   
,,economy4 #ahmo4 #as4       ,,methods  
,,of ,,social ,,reform1 and other       
,papers4 ,demy #hvo4 #ajs4      #f;d4   

,,investigations ,,in ,,currency ,,and  
,,finance4 ,edited1 with an             
,introduction1 by ,h4,s4 ,,foxwell1     
,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,lecturer of        
,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 and  
,professor of ,political      ,economy  
at ,university ,college1 ,london4       
,illustrated by #bj      ,diagrams4     
,demy #hvo4 #bas4                       
,,laveleye4--,,primitive ,,property4 ,by
 ,,emile ,,de ,,laveleye4 ,translated by
 ,g4,r4,l4 ,,marriott1 ,,ll4,b41 with an
 ,introduction by ,t4,e4 ,,cliffe       
,,leslie1 ,,ll4,b4 #hvo4 #abs4          
,,lightwood4--,,the ,,nature ,,of       
,,positive ,,law4 ,by ,,john ,m4        
,,lightwood1 ,m4,a41 of ,lincoln's ,inn1
 ,barrister-at-,law1 ,fellow of ,trinity
 ,hall1 ,cambridge4 ,demy #hvo4 #abs4   
#f;d4  ,,lubbock4--,,addresses1         
,,political ,,and ,,educational4 ,by    
,sir ,,john ,,lubbock1 ,bart41 ,m4,p41  
c41 c4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4                 
,,macdonell4--,,the ,,land ,,question1  
,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to       

,,england ,,and ,,scotland4 ,by ,,john  
,,macdonell1 ,barrister-at-,law4 #hvo4  
#ajs4 #f;d4  ,,maitland4--,,pleas ,,of  
,,the ,,crown ,,for ,,the ,,county ,,of 
,,gloucester1 ,,before ,,the ,,abbot    
,,of ,,reading ,,and ,,his ,,fellow     
,,justices ,,itinerant1 ,,in ,,the      
,,fifth ,,year ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of  
,,king ,,henry ,,the ,,third ,,and ,,the
 ,,year ,,of ,,grace1 #abba4 ,edited by 
,f4,w4 ,,maitland4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4     
,,marshall4--,,the ,,economics ,,of     
,,industry4 ,by ,a4 ,,marshall1 ,m4,a41 
,professor of ,political ,economy in the
 ,university of ,cambridge1 late        
,principal of ,university ,college      
,bristol1 and ,,mary ,,paley ,,marshall1
 late ,lecturer at ,newnham ,hall1      
,cambridge4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #bs4     
#f;d4  ,,monahan4--,,the ,,method ,,of  
,,law3 an ,essay on the ,statement and  
,arrangement of the ,legal ,standard of 
,conduct4 ,by ,j4,h4 ,,monahan1 ,q4,c4  
,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,paterson4--,works  
by ,,james ,,paterson1 ,m4,a41          

,barrister-at-,law1 sometime            
,commissioner for ,english and ,irish   
,fisheries1 c4       ,,the ,,liberty    
,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,and ,,the ,,laws 
,,of ,,england ,,relating      ,,to     
,,the ,,security ,,of ,,the ,,person4   
,commentaries on4 ,cheaper      issue4  
,crown #hvo4 #bas4       ,,the ,,liberty
 ,,of ,,the ,,press1 ,,of ,,speech1     
,,and ,,of ,,public ,,worship4          
,being ,commentaries on the ,liberty of 
the ,subject and the      ,laws of      
,england4 ,crown #hvo4 #abs4            
,,phear4--,,international ,,trade1 ,,and
 ,,the ,,relation ,,between ,,exports   
,,and ,,imports4 ,a ,paper read before  
the ,exmouth ,liberal ,association1 on  
,july #bb1 #ahha4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,b4   
,,phear4 ,crown #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4        
,,phillimore4--,,private ,,law ,,among  
,,the ,,romans1 from the ,pandects4 ,by 
,,john ,,george ,,phillimore1 ,q4,c4    
#hvo4 #afs4  ,,pollock 7,f474--,,essays 
,,in ,,jurisprudence ,,and ,,ethics4 ,by
 ,,frederick ,,pollock1 ,m4,a41         

,,ll4,d41 ,corpus ,christi ,professor of
 ,jurisprudence in the ,university of   
,oxford2 late ,fellow of ,trinity       
,college1 ,camb4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4      
,,practical ,,politics4--,,issued ,,by  
,,the ,,national ,,liberal ,,federation4
 ,complete in one volume4 #hvo4 #fs4    
,or3--       ,i4 ,,the ,,tenant         
,,farmer3 ,land ,laws and ,landlords4   
,by ,,james      ,,howard4 #hvo4 #as4   
,,ii4 ,,foreign ,,policy4 ,by ,right    
,hon4 ,m4,e4 ,,grant ,,duff1 ,m4,p4     
#hvo4      #as4       ,,iii4 ,,freedom  
,,of ,,land4 ,by ,g4 ,,shaw ,,lefevre1  
,m4,p4 #hvo4 #bs4      #f;d4       ,,iv4
 ,,british ,,colonial ,,policy4 ,by ,sir
 ,,david ,,wedderburn1 ,bart41          
,m4,p4 #hvo4 #as4  ,,richey4--,,the     
,,irish ,,land ,,laws4 ,by ,,alexander  
,g4 ,,richey1 ,q4,c41 ,,ll4,d41 ,deputy 
,regius ,professor of ,feudal and       
,english ,law in the ,university of     
,dublin4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4        
,,sidgwick4--,works by ,,henry          
,,sidgwick1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d41           

,knightbridge ,professor of ,moral      
,philosophy in the ,university of       
,cambridge1 c43       ,,the ,,principles
 ,,of ,,political ,,economy4 ,demy #hvo4
 #afs4       ,,the ,,methods ,,of       
,,ethics4 ,third ,edition1 ,revised and 
,enlarged4      ,demy #hvo4 #ads4       
,a ,,supplement ,,to ,,the ,,second     
,,edition4 ,containing all the          
,important ,additions and ,alterations  
in the ,third ,edition4      ,demy #hvo4
 #fs4  ,,statesman',s ,,year-,,book1    
,,the3 ,a ,,statistical ,,and           
,,historical ,,annual ,,of ,,the        
,,states ,,of ,,the ,,civilized ,,world1
 ,,for ,,the ,,year #ahhe4              
,twenty-second ,annual ,publication4    
,revised after ,official ,returns4      
,edited by ,j4 ,,scott ,,keltie4 ,crown 
#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4  ,,stephen            
7,c4,e47--,,the ,,service ,,of ,,the    
,,poor3 ,being an ,inquiry into the     
,reasons for and against the            
,establishment of ,religious            
,sisterhoods for ,charitable ,purposes4 

,by ,,caroline ,,emilia ,,stephen4      
,crown #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4                 
,,stephen4--,works by ,sir ,,james      
,,fitzjames ,,stephen1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41    
,d4,c4,l4 ,a ,judge of the ,high ,court 
of ,justice1 ,queen's ,bench ,division4 
,a ,,digest ,,of ,,the ,,law ,,of       
,,evidence4 ,fourth ,edition1 with new  
,preface4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4       ,a    
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,criminal ,,law   
,,of ,,england4 ,three ,vols4 ,demy     
#hvo4 #dhs4       ,a ,,digest ,,of ,,the
 ,,criminal ,,law4 7,crimes and         
,punishments47 #hvo4      #afs4       ,a
 ,,digest ,,of ,,the ,,law ,,of         
,,criminal ,,procedure ,,in ,,indictable
      ,,offences4 ,by ,sir ,,james ,f4  
,,stephen1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 a ,judge of the
      ,high ,court of ,justice1 ,queen's
 ,bench ,division1 and ,,herbert        
,,stephen1 ,,ll4,m41 of the ,middle     
,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law4 #hvo4      
#abs4 #f;d4       ,,letters ,,on ,,the  
,,ilbert ,,bill4 ,reprinted from ,the   
,times4 #hvo4      #bs4  ,,stephen      

7,j4,k474--,,international ,,law ,,and  
,,international ,,relations3 an ,attempt
 to ,ascertain the ,best ,method of     
,discussing the ,topics of              
,international ,law4 ,by ,j4,k4         
,,stephen1 ,b4,a41 of the ,inner        
,temple1 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,crown     
#hvo4 #fs4  ,,stubbs4--,,village        
,,politics4 ,addresses and ,sermons on  
the ,labour ,question4 ,by ,c4,w4       
,,stubbs1 ,m4,a41 ,vicar of             
,granborough1 ,bucks4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4
 #cs4 #f;d4  ,,thornton4--,works by     
,w4,t4 ,,thornton1 ,c4,b41 ,secretary   
for ,public ,works in the ,india        
,office3--       ,a ,,plea ,,for        
,,peasant ,,proprietors3 ,with the      
,outlines of a ,plan      for their     
,establishment in ,ireland4 ,new        
,edition1 revised4      ,crown #hvo4    
#gs4 #f;d4       ,,indian ,,public      
,,works ,,and ,,cognate ,,indian        
,,topics4 ,with ,map of      ,indian    
,railways4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4      
,,walker4--,works by ,f4,a4 ,,walker1   

,m4,a41 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of          
,political ,economy and ,history1 ,yale 
,college3--       ,,the ,,wages         
,,question4 ,a ,treatise on ,wages and  
the ,wages ,class4      #hvo4 #ads4     
,,money4 #hvo4 #afs4       ,,money ,,in 
,,its ,,relations ,,to ,,trade ,,and    
,,industry4 ,crown #hvo4      #gs4 #f;d4
       ,,political ,,economy4 #hvo4     
#ajs4 #f;d4       ,,land ,,and ,,its    
,,rent4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4         
,,wilson4--,,reciprocity1               
,,bi-,,metallism1 ,,and ,,land-,,tenure 
,,reform4 ,by ,a4,j4 ,,wilson1 ,author  
of ,the ,resources of ,modern           
,countries4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4         99 
99       99       99       99  ,,works  
,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,science ,,or 
,,the ,,history ,,of ,,language4        
,,abbott4--,a ,,shakesperian ,,grammar3 
,an ,attempt to illustrate some of the  
,differences between ,elizabethan and   
,modern ,english4 ,by the ,rev4 ,e4,a4  
,,abbott1 ,d4,d41 ,head ,master of the  
,city of ,london ,school4 ,new and      

,enlarged ,edition4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4  
#fs4  ,,breymann4--,a ,,french ,,grammar
 ,,based ,,on ,,philological            
,,principles4 ,by ,,hermann ,,breymann1 
,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,philology in the
 ,university of ,munich1 late ,lecturer 
on ,french ,language and ,literature in 
,owens ,college1 ,manchester4 ,extra    
fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4                  
,,ellis4--,,practical ,,hints ,,on ,,the
 ,,quantitative ,,pronunciation ,,of    
,,latin1 ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of         
,,classical ,,teachers ,,and            
,,linguists4 ,by ,a4,j4 ,,ellis1 ,b4,a41
 ,f4,r4,s44 c4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4  
#f;d4  ,,fasnacht4--,works by ,g4       
,,eugene ,,fasnacht1 ,author of         
,macmillan's ,progressive ,french       
,course1 ,editor of ,macmillan's        
,foreign ,school ,classics1 c4          
,,the ,,organic ,,method ,,of ,,studying
 ,,languages4 ,i4 ,french4 ,crown       
#hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4       ,a ,,synthetic   
,,french ,,grammar ,,for ,,schools4     
,crown #hvo4 #cs4      #f;d4            

,,fleay4--,a ,,shakespeare ,,manual4 ,by
 the ,rev4 ,f4,g4 ,,fleay1 ,m4,a41 ,head
 ,master of ,skipton ,grammar ,school4  
,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4           
,,goodwin4--,works by ,w4,w4 ,,goodwin1 
,professor of ,greek ,literature in     
,harvard ,university3--       ,,syntax  
,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,moods ,,and        
,,tenses4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown         
#hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4       ,a ,,school      
,,greek ,,grammar4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4    
#f;d4       ,a ,,greek ,,grammar4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #fs4  ,,greek ,,testament4--,,the
 ,,new ,,testament ,,in ,,the ,,original
 ,,greek4 ,the ,text revised by ,b4,f4  
,,westcott1 ,d4,d41 ,regius ,professor  
of ,divinity1 and ,f4,j4,a4 ,,hort1     
,d4,d41 ,hulsean ,professor of          
,divinity1 ,fellow of ,emmanuel         
,college1 ,cambridge2 late ,fellows of  
,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,two     
,vols4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4         
,vol4 ,i4 ,text4--,vol4 ,,ii4           
,introduction and ,appendix4       ,,the
 ,,revisers ,,and ,,the ,,greek ,,text  

,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,by ,two  
,members of the ,new ,testament         
,company4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4              
,,hadley4--,,essays ,,philological ,,and
 ,,critical4 ,selected from the ,papers 
of ,,james ,,hadley1 ,,ll4,d41          
,professor of ,greek in ,yale ,college1 
c4 #hvo4 #afs4  ,,hales4--,,longer      
,,english ,,poems4 ,with ,notes1        
,philological and ,explanatory1 and an  
,introduction on the ,teaching of       
,english4 ,chiefly for use in ,schools4 
,edited by ,j4,w4 ,,hales1 ,m4,a41      
,professor of ,english ,literature at   
,king's ,college1 ,london1 c4 c4 ,fifth 
,edition4 ,extra fcap4 #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 
,,helfenstein 7,,james74--,a            
,,comparative ,,grammar ,,of ,,the      
,,teutonic ,,languages3 ,being at the   
same time a ,historical ,grammar of the 
,english ,language1 and comprising      
,gothic1 ,anglo-,saxon1 ,early ,english1
 ,modern ,english1 ,icelandic 7,old     
,norse71 ,danish1 ,swedish1 ,old ,high  
,german1 ,middle ,high ,german1 ,modern 

,german1 ,old ,saxon1 ,old ,frisian1 and
 ,dutch4 ,by ,,james ,,helfenstein1     
,ph4,d4 #hvo4 #ahs4  ,,masson           
7,,gustave74--,a ,,compendious          
,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,french        
,,language 7,french-,english and        
,english-,french74 ,adapted from the    
,dictionaries of ,professor ,,alfred    
,,elwall4 ,followed by a ,list of the   
,principal ,diverging ,derivations1 and 
preceded by ,chronological and          
,historical ,tables4 ,by ,,gustave      
,,masson1 ,assistant-,master and        
,librarian1 ,harrow ,school4 ,fourth    
,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4             
,,mayor4--,a ,,bibliographical ,,clue   
,,to ,,latin ,,literature4 ,edited after
 ,dr4 ,e4 ,,hubner4 ,with large         
,additions by ,,john ,e4,b4 ,,mayor1    
,m4,a41 ,professor of ,latin in the     
,university of ,cambridge4 ,crown #hvo4 
#ajs4 #f;d4  ,,morris4--,works by the   
,rev4 ,,richard ,,morris1 ,,ll4,d41     
,president of the ,philological         
,society1 ,editor of ,specimens of      

,early ,english1 c41 c43--              
,,historical ,,outlines ,,of ,,english  
,,accidence1 comprising      ,chapters  
on the ,history and ,development of the 
,language1 and      on ,word-formation4 
,new ,edition4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #fs4        
,,elementary ,,lessons ,,in ,,historical
 ,,english ,,grammar1 containing        
,accidence and ,word-formation4 ,third  
,edition4 #ahmo4 #bs4      #f;d4        
,,oliphant4--,,the ,,old ,,and ,,middle 
,,english4 ,by ,t4,l4 ,,kington         
,,oliphant1 ,m4,a41 of ,balliol         
,college1 ,oxford4 ,a ,new ,edition1    
revised and greatly enlarged1 of ,the   
,sources of ,standard ,english4 ,extra  
fcap4 #hvo4 #is4  ,,philology4--,,the   
,,journal ,,of ,,sacred ,,and           
,,classical ,,philology4 ,four ,vols4   
#hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 each4       ,,the     
,,journal ,,of ,,philology4 ,new        
,series4 ,edited by ,,john ,e4,b4       
,,mayor1 ,m4,a41 and ,w4 ,,aldis        
,,wright1 ,m4,a4 #ds4 #f;d4             
7,half-yearly47       ,,the ,,american  

,,journal ,,of ,,philology4 ,edited by  
,,basil ,l4      ,,gildersleeve1        
,professor of ,greek in the ,johns      
,hopkins      ,university4 #hvo4 #ds4   
#f;d4 7,quarterly47                     
,,phrynichus4--,,the ,,new ,,phrynichus4
 ,being a ,revised ,text of ,the ,ecloga
 of the ,grammarian ,phrynichus4 ,with  
,introductions and ,commentary4 ,by ,w4 
,,gunion ,,rutherford1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4 
of ,balliol ,college1 ,head ,master of  
,westminster ,school4 #hvo4 #ahs4       
,,roby 7,h4,j47--,works by ,,henry      
,,john ,,roby1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow of  
,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge4      
,a ,,grammar ,,of ,,the ,,latin         
,,language1 ,,from ,,plautus ,,to       
,,suetonius4      ,in ,two ,parts4      
,second ,edition4 ,part ,i4             
containing3--,book ,i4      ,sounds4    
,book ,,ii4 ,inflexions4 ,book ,,iii4   
,word ,formation4      ,appendices4     
,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,part           
,,ii4--,syntax1      ,prepositions1 c4  
,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       ,a       

,,latin ,,grammar ,,for ,,schools4      
,crown #hvo4 #es4  ,,schaff4--,,the     
,,greek ,,testament ,,and ,,the         
,,english ,,version1 ,a ,,companion     
,,to4 ,by ,,philip ,,schaff1 ,d4,d41    
,president of the ,american ,committee  
of ,revision4 ,with ,facsimile          
,illustrations of ,,mss4 and ,standard  
,editions of the ,new ,testament4 ,crown
 #hvo4 #abs4  ,,schmidt4--,,the         
,,rhythmic ,,and ,,metric ,,of ,,the    
,,classical ,,languages4 ,to which are  
added1 the ,lyric ,parts of the ,medea  
of ,euripides and the ,antigone of      
,sophocles2 with ,rhythmical ,scheme and
 ,commentary4 ,by ,dr4 ,j4,h4 ,,schmidt4
 ,translated from the ,german by ,j4,w4 
,,white1 ,d4,d4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4       
,,taylor4--,works by the ,rev4 ,,isaac  
,,taylor1 ,m4,a43--       ,,etruscan    
,,researches4 ,with ,woodcuts4 #hvo4    
#ads4       ,,words ,,and ,,places2 or1 
,etymological ,illustrations of         
,history1      ,ethnology and           
,geography4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,isaac       

,,taylor4 ,third      ,edition1 revised 
and compressed4 ,with ,maps4 ,globe     
#hvo4 #fs4       ,,greeks ,,and ,,goths3
 a ,study on the ,runes4 #hvo4 #is4     
,,trench4--,works by ,r4 ,,chenevix     
,,trench1 ,d4,d4 7,for other ,works by  
the same ,author1 see ,,theological     
,,catalogue47       ,,synonyms ,,of     
,,the ,,new ,,testament4 ,ninth         
,edition1 enlarged4 #hvo4      cloth4   
#abs4       ,,on ,,the ,,study ,,of     
,,words4 ,lectures ,addressed           
7originally7 to      the ,pupils at the 
,diocesan ,training ,school1            
,winchester4      ,eighteenth ,edition1 
enlarged4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4             
,,english ,,past ,,and ,,present4       
,eleventh ,edition1 revised and         
improved4 ,fcap4 #hvo4 #es4       ,a    
,,select ,,glossary ,,of ,,english      
,,words ,,used ,,formerly ,,in ,,senses 
,,different ,,from ,,their ,,present4   
,fifth ,edition1 enlarged4 ,fcap4       
#hvo4 #es4  ,,vincent ,,and             
,,dickson4--,a ,,handbook ,,to ,,modern 

,,greek4 ,by ,,edgar ,,vincent1 ,m4,a41 
and ,t4,g4 ,,dickson4 ,second ,edition  
revised and enlarged4 ,with an ,appendix
 on the ,relation of ,modern ,greek to  
,classical ,greek4 ,by ,professor ,r4,c4
 ,,jebb4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4              
,,whitney4--,a ,,compendious ,,german   
,,grammar4 ,by ,w4,d4 ,,whitney1        
,professor of ,sanskrit and ,instructor 
in ,modern ,languages in ,yale ,college4
 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4  ,,whitney ,,and     
,,edgren4--,a ,,compendious ,,german    
,,and ,,english ,,dictionary1 with      
,notation of ,correspondences and ,brief
 ,etymologies4 ,by ,professor ,w4,d4    
,,whitney1 assisted by ,a4,h4 ,,edgren4 
,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4       ,the      
,,german-,,english ,part may be had     
separately4 ,price #es4  ,,wright       
7,,aldis74--,,the ,,bible ,,word-,,book3
 a ,glossary of ,archaic ,words and     
,phrases in the ,authorised ,version of 
the ,bible and the ,book of ,common     
,prayer4 ,by ,w4 ,,aldis ,,wright1      
,m4,a41 ,fellow and ,bursar of ,trinity 

,college1 ,cambridge4 ,second ,edition1 
revised and enlarged4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 
#f;d4  ,,zechariah4--,,the ,,hebrew     
,,student',s ,,commentary ,,on ,,hebrew 
,,and ,,lxx4 ,with ,excursus on ,several
 ,grammatical ,subjects4 ,by ,w4,h4     
,,lowe1 ,m4,a41 ,hebrew ,lecturer at    
,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,demy   
#hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4         99       99   
99       99       99  ,,the ,,golden    
,,treasury ,,series4  ,,uniformly       
printed in #ahmo41 with ,vignette       
,titles by ,j4,e4 ,,millais1 ,t4        
,,woolner1 ,w4 ,,holman ,,hunt1 ,,sir   
,,noel ,,paton1 ,,arthur ,,hughes1 c4   
,engraved on ,steel by ,,jeens4 ,bound  
in extra cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 each volume4 
,messrs4 ,macmillan have1 in their      
,golden ,treasury ,series1              
especially provided editions of standard
 works1 volumes of      selected poetry1
 and original compositions1 which       
entitle      this series to be called   
classical4 ,nothing can be better       
than the literary execution1 nothing    

more elegant than the      material     
workmanship4--,,british ,,quarterly     
,,review4  ,,the ,,golden ,,treasury    
,,of ,,the ,,best ,,songs ,,and         
,,lyrical ,,poems ,,in ,,the ,,english  
,,language4 ,selected and arranged1 with
 ,notes1 by ,,francis ,,turner          
,,palgrave4  ,,the ,,children',s        
,,garland ,,from ,,the ,,best ,,poets4  
,selected and arranged by ,,coventry    
,,patmore4  ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,praise4 
,from the best ,english ,hymn ,writers4 
,selected and arranged by the ,right    
,hon4 the ,,earl ,,of ,,selborne4 ,a    
,new and ,enlarged ,edition4  ,,the     
,,fairy ,,book2 the ,best ,popular      
,fairy ,stories4 ,selected and rendered 
anew by the ,author of ,,john ,,halifax1
 ,,gentleman4       ,a delightful       
selection1 in a delightful external     
form2 full      of the physical         
splendour and vast opulence of proper   
fairy      tales4--,,spectator4  ,,the  
,,ballad ,,book4 ,a ,selection of the   
,choicest ,british ,ballads4 ,edited by 

,,william ,,allingham4  ,,the ,,jest    
,,book4 ,the ,choicest ,anecdotes and   
,sayings4 ,selected and arranged by     
,,mark ,,lemon4       ,the fullest and  
best jest book that has yet             
appeared4--,,saturday ,,review4         
,,bacon',s ,,essays ,,and ,,colours ,,of
 ,,good ,,and ,,evil4 ,with ,notes and  
,glossarial ,index4 ,by ,w4 ,,aldis     
,,wright1 ,m4,a4       ,the beautiful   
little edition of ,bacon's ,essays1 now 
before      us1 does credit to the taste
 and scholarship of ,mr4 ,aldis         
,wright4--,,spectator4  ,,the           
,,pilgrim',s ,,progress from this ,world
 to that which is to come4 ,by ,,john   
,,bunyan4       ,a beautiful and        
scholarly reprint4--,,spectator4  ,,the 
,,sunday ,,book ,,of ,,poetry ,,for     
,,the ,,young4 ,selected and arranged by
 ,c4,f4 ,,alexander4       ,a           
well-selected volume of sacred          
poetry4--,,spectator4  ,a ,,book ,,of   
,,golden ,,deeds of ,all ,times and ,all
 ,countries4 ,gathered and ,narrated    

,anew4 ,by the ,author of ,,the ,,heir  
,,of ,,redclyffe4       444 ,to the     
young1 for whom it is especially        
intended1 as a      most interesting    
collection of thrilling tales well told2
      and to their elders as a useful   
handbook of reference1 and a            
pleasant one to take up when their wish 
is to while away a      weary half-hour4
 ,we have seen no prettier gift-book for
 a      long time4--,,athen,,um4  ,,the 
,,adventures ,,of ,,robinson ,,crusoe4  
,edited1 from the ,original ,edition1 by
 ,j4,w4 ,,clark1 ,m4,a41 ,fellow of     
,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4  ,,the   
,,republic ,,of ,,plato1 ,,translated   
,,into ,,english1 with ,notes by ,j4    
,,ll4 ,,davies1 ,m4,a41 and ,d4,j4      
,,vaughan1 ,m4,a4       ,a dainty and   
cheap little edition4--,,examiner4      
,,the ,,song ,,book4 ,words and tunes   
from the best ,poets and ,musicians4    
,selected and arranged by ,,john        
,,hullah1 late ,professor of ,vocal     
,music in ,king's ,college1 ,london4    

,a choice collection of the sterling    
songs of ,england1      ,scotland1 and  
,ireland1 with the music of each        
prefixed to      the words4 ,how much   
true wholesome pleasure such a book can 
diffuse1 and will diffuse1 we trust1    
through many thousand                   
families4--,,examiner4  ,,la ,,lyre     
,,fran,,aise4 ,selected and arranged1   
with ,notes1 by ,,gustave ,,masson1     
,french ,master in ,harrow ,school4     
,we doubt whether even in ,france itself
 so interesting and      complete a     
repertory of the best ,french ,lyrics   
could be      found4--,,notes ,,and     
,,queries4  ,,tom ,,brown',s ,,school   
,,days4 ,by ,,an ,,old ,,boy4       ,a  
perfect gem of a book4 ,the best and    
most healthy book      about boys for   
boys that ever was                      
written4--,,illustrated      ,,times4   
,a ,,book ,,of ,,worthies4 ,gathered    
from the ,old ,histories and written    
anew by the ,author of ,,the ,,heir ,,of
 ,,redclyffe4       ,an admirable       

addition to an admirable                
series4--,,westminster      ,,review4   
,,guesses ,,at ,,truth4 ,by ,,two       
,,brothers4 ,new ,edition4  ,,the       
,,cavalier ,,and ,,his ,,lady4          
,selections from the ,works of the      
,first ,duke and ,duchess of ,newcastle4
 ,with an ,introductory ,essay by       
,,edward ,,jenkins1 ,author of ,ginx's  
,baby1 c4       ,a charming little      
volume4--,,standard4  ,,scotch ,,song4  
,a ,selection of the ,choicest ,lyrics  
of ,scotland4 ,compiled and arranged1   
with brief ,notes1 by ,,mary ,,carlyle  
,,aitkin4       ,the book is one that   
should find a place in every library1   
we had almost said in every             
pocket4--,,spectator4  ,,deutsche       
,,lyrik3 ,the ,golden ,treasury of the  
best ,german ,lyrical ,poems4 ,selected 
and arranged1 with ,notes and ,literary 
,introduction1 by ,dr4 ,,buchheim4      
,a book which all lovers of ,german     
poetry will      welcome4--,,westminster
 ,,review4  ,,herrick3 ,selections from 

the ,lyrical ,poems4 ,arranged1 with    
,notes1 by ,f4,t4 ,,palgrave4       ,for
 the first time the sweetest of ,english
 pastoral poets      is placed within   
the range of the great world of         
readers4--,,academy4  ,,poems ,,of      
,,places4 ,edited by ,h4,w4             
,,longfellow4 ,england and ,wales4 ,two 
,vols4       ,a very happy idea1        
thoroughly worked out by an editor who  
possesses every qualification for the   
task4--,,spectator4  ,,matthew          
,,arnold',s ,,selected ,,poems4       ,a
 volume which is a thing of beauty in   
itself4--,,pall ,,mall      ,,gazette4  
,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,christians   
,,and ,,moors ,,in ,,spain4 ,by ,c4,m4  
,,yonge1 ,author of the ,heir of        
,redclyffe4 ,with ,vignette by ,,holman 
,,hunt4  ,,charles ,,lamb',s ,,tales    
,,from ,,shakespeare4 ,edited by the    
,rev4 ,a4 ,,ainger1 ,m4,a41 ,reader at  
the ,temple4  ,,poems ,,of ,,wordsworth4
 ,chosen and ,edited1 with ,preface by  
,,matthew ,,arnold4 7,also a ,large     

,paper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #is47     
,a volume1 every page of which is       
weighted with the golden      fruit of  
poetry4--,,pall ,,mall ,,gazette4       
,,shakespeare',s ,,sonnets4 ,edited by  
,f4,t4 ,,palgrave4  ,,poems ,,from      
,,shelley4 ,selected and arranged by    
,,stopford ,a4 ,,brooke1 ,m4,a4 7,also a
 ,large ,paper ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4   
#abs4 #f;d47       ,full of power and   
true appreciation of                    
,shelley4--,,spectator4  ,,essays ,,of  
,,joseph ,,addison4 ,chosen and ,edited 
by ,,john ,,richard ,,green1 ,m4,a41    
,,ll4,d4       ,this is a most welcome  
addition to a most excellent            
series4--,,examiner4  ,,poetry ,,of     
,,byron4 ,chosen and arranged by        
,,matthew ,,arnold4 7,also a ,large     
,paper ,edition1 ,crown #hvo47 #is4     
,it is written in ,mr4 ,arnold's neatest
 vein1 and in ,mr4      ,arnold's most  
pellucid manner4--,,athen,,um4          
,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,writings    
,,of ,,walter ,,savage                  

,,landor4--,arranged and ,edited by     
,professor ,,sidney ,,colvin4  ,,sir    
,,thomas ,,browne',s ,,religio ,,medici2
 ,letter to a ,friend1 c41 and          
,christian ,morals4 ,edited by ,w4,a4   
,,greenhill1 ,m4,d4       ,dr4          
,greenhill's annotations display care   
and research to a      degree rare among
 ,english editors4 ,the bibliographical 
details furnished leave nothing to be   
desired4--,,athen,,um4  ,,the ,,speeches
 ,,and ,,table-,,talk ,,of ,,the        
,,prophet ,,mohammad4--,chosen and      
,translated1 with an ,introduction and  
,notes1 by ,,stanley ,,lane-,,poole4    
,,selections ,,from ,,cowper',s         
,,poems4--,with an ,introduction by     
,mrs4 ,,oliphant4  ,,letters ,,of       
,,william ,,cowper4--,edited1 with      
,introduction4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4        
,,benham1 ,b4,d41 ,editor of the ,globe 
,edition of ,cowper's ,poetical ,works4 
,,the ,,poetical ,,works ,,of ,,john    
,,keats4--,reprinted from the ,original 
,editions1 with ,notes4 ,by ,,francis   

,,turner ,,palgrave4  ,,lyrical ,,poems4
 ,by ,,alfred1 ,,lord ,,tennyson4       
,selected and ,annotated4 ,by ,,francis 
,,turner ,,palgrave4  asterism symbol   
,other ,volumes to follow4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,now     
,publishing1 in ,crown #hvo4 ,price #cs4
 #f;d4 each4  ,the ,english ,citizen4   
,a ,,series ,,of ,,short ,,books ,,on   
,,his ,,rights ,,and ,,responsibilities4
  ,,edited ,,by ,,henry ,,craik1 ,m4,a4 
7,,oxon472 ,,ll4,d4 7,,glasgow74  ,this 
series is intended to meet the demand   
for accessible information on the       
ordinary conditions1 and the current    
terms1 of our political life4 ,ignorance
 of these not only takes from the study 
of history the interest which comes from
 a contact with practical politics1 but1
 still worse1 it unfits men for their   
place as intelligent citizens4 ,the     
series will deal with the details of the
 machinery whereby our ,constitution    
works1 and the broad lines upon which it
 has been constructed4  ,the following  

,volumes are ready3--  ,,central        
,,government4 ,by ,h4,d4 ,,traill1      
,d4,c4,l41 late ,fellow of ,st4 ,john's 
,college1 ,oxford4  ,,the ,,electorate  
,,and ,,the ,,legislature4 ,by ,,spencer
 ,,walpole1 ,author of ,the ,history of 
,england from #ahae4  ,,the ,,national  
,,budget2 ,,the ,,national ,,debt2      
,,taxes ,,and ,,rates4 ,by ,a4,j4       
,,wilson4  ,,the ,,poor ,,law4 ,by ,rev4
 ,t4,w4 ,,fowle1 ,m4,a4  ,,the ,,state  
,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,trade4 ,by
 ,sir ,t4,h4 ,,farrer1 ,bart4  ,,the    
,,state ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,labour4  
,by ,w4 ,,stanley ,,jevons1 ,,ll4,d41   
,f4,r4,s4  ,,the ,,state ,,and ,,the    
,,church4 ,by the ,hon4 ,a4 ,,arthur    
,,elliott1 ,m4,p4  ,,foreign            
,,relations4 ,by ,,spencer ,,walpole1   
,author of ,the ,history of ,england    
from #ahae4  ,,local ,,government4 ,by  
,m4,d4 ,,chalmers1 ,m4,a4  ,,the ,,state
 ,,in ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,education4
 ,by ,,henry ,,craik1 ,m4,a41 ,,ll4,d4  
,,the ,,land ,,laws4 ,by ,,frederick    

,,pollock1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow of      
,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,corpus  
,christi ,professor of ,jurisprudence in
 the ,university of ,oxford4  ,,colonies
 ,,and ,,dependencies4--,i4 ,,india4 ,by
 ,j4,s4 ,,cotton1 ,m4,a41 late ,fellow  
of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford4 ,,ii4    
,,the ,,colonies4 ,by ,e4,j4 ,,payne1   
,m4,a41 ,fellow of ,university ,college1
 ,oxford4  ,,justice ,,and ,,police4 ,by
 ,f4,w4 ,,maitland4  ,in ,preparation3--
  ,,the ,,penal ,,system4 ,by ,sir      
,,edmund ,,du ,,cane1 ,k4,c4,b4  ,,the  
,,national ,,defences4 ,by              
,lieut4-,colonel ,,maurice1 ,r4,a4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,london3 ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1
 ,,printers4