,transcrib]'s note3 ,a few typographical errors h be5 correct$3 !y are li/$ at ! end ( ! text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,life ,illu/ration3 ,osmotic ,productions4 ,frontispiece ,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,life ,,by ,,dr4 ,,/ephane ,,l$uc ,,pr(esseur ,a ,l',,ecole ,,de ,,m$ec9e ,,de ,,nantes ,,translat$ ,,by ,w4 ,,deane ,,but*] ,,=m]ly ,,presid5t ,,( ,,! ,,ro5tg5 ,,society1 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,electro-,,!rapeutical ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,society ,,( ,,m$ic9e ,la nature a =me1 et =me t\s les j\rs les etres les plus simples p> g5]ation spontanee4 ,,lam>ck4 ,illu/ration ,,new ,,york ,,rebman ,,company ,,h]ald ,,squ>e ,,build+ #ada-ade1 ,,we/ #cf,,? ,,/reet ,fir/ ,impression ,m>* #aiaa ,second ,impression ,janu>y #aiad ,pr9t$ 9 ,engl& 99 99 99 99 99 vii ,,translator',s ,,preface ,pr(essor ,l$uc's ,!orie ,physico-*imique de la ,vie et ,g5]ations ,spontanees has excit$ a good deal ( att5tion1 & n a little opposition1 on ! ,cont95t4 ,z rec5tly z #aijg ! ,academie des ,sci5ces exclud$ f its ,comptes ,r5dus ! report ( ^! exp]im5tal rese>*es on diffusion & osmosis1 because x t\*$ too closely on ! burn+ "q ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,z ! au?or po9ts out1 ,lam>ck's e>ly evolution>y hypo!sis 0 kill$ by opposition & neglect1 & _h to be reborn 9 ,engl& be=e x obta9$ univ]sal acceptance z ! ,d>w9ian ,!ory4 ,n unnaturally1 !re=e1 he turns = an appreciation ( 8 "w to ! free air & wide horizon ( ! ,engli%-speak+ c\ntries4 ,he has entitl$ 8 book ,! ,me*anism ( ,life1 s9ce h[ev] little we may "k ( ! orig9 ( life1 we may yet hope to get a glimpse ( ! ma*9]y1 & p]haps ev5 he> ! :irr ( ! :eels 9 ,nature's work%op4 ,! subject is ( entranc+ int]e/ to ! biologi/ & ! physician1 q ap>t f its be>+ on ! "q ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,:atev] view may be ent]ta9$ by ! diff]5t s*ools ( ?\ght z to ! nature & significance ( life1 all alike w welcome ?is new & important contribution to our k ( ! me*anism by :i* ,nature con/ructs ! bewild]+ v>iety ( h] =ms4 ,!re is1 ,i ?9k1 no m wond]ful & illum9at+ spectacle ?an t ( an osmotic gr[?1--a crude lump ( brute inanimate matt] g]m9at+ be=e our v eyes1 putt+ =? bud & /em & root & bran* & leaf & fruit1 ) no /imulus f g]m or se$1 )\t ev5 viii ! pres5ce ( organic matt]4 ,= ^! m9]al gr[?s are n m]e cry/allizations z _m suppose2 !y increase by intussusception & n by accretion4 ,!y exhibit ! ph5om5a ( circulation & respiration1 & a crude sort ( reproduction by budd+2 !y h a p]iod ( vigor\s y\?ful gr[?1 ( old age1 ( dea? & ( decay4 ,!y imitate ! =ms1 ! col\r1 ! texture1 & ev5 ! microscopical /ructure ( organic gr[? s closely z to deceive ! v elect4 ,:5 we f9d1 moreov]1 t ! processes ( nutrition are c>ri$ on 9 ^! osmotic productions j z 9 liv+ be+s1 t an injury to an osmotic gr[? is repair$ by ! coagulation ( its int]nal sap1 & t x is able to p]=m p]iodic movem5ts j z an animal or a plant1 we are at a loss to def9e any l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ^! m9]al =ms & ^? ( organic life4 ,9 ! pres5t volume ! au?or has collect$ all ! data necess>y = a complete survey ( ! me*anism ( life1 :i* consi/s ess5tially ( ^? ph5om5a :i* are exhibit$ at ! contact ( solutions ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration4 ,:atev] may be ! v]dict z to ! au?or's case = spontane\s g5]ation1 all w agree t ! book is a mo/ brilliant & /imulat+ /udy1 f\nd$ on ! p]sonal inve/igation ( a born exp]im5t]4 ,! pres5t volume is a translation ( ,dr4 ,l$uc's ,fr5* edition1 b x is m ?an ?is1 ! "w has be5 translat$1 revis$ & correct$1 & 9 _m places re-writt51 by ! au?or's own h&4 ,i am responsible only = ! ,engli% =m ( ! treatise1 & c b regret t ,i h be5 able to reproduce s imp]fectly ! *>m ( ! orig9al4 ,w4 ,,deane ,,but*]4 ,,eal+4 99 99 99 99 99 ix ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,engli% ,,edition ,c'e/ p> l'initiative du ,dr4 ,deane ,but*] que cette ouvrage e/ pres5te aux lecteurs anglais1 a la race qui a dote l'humanite de tant de dec\v]tes orig9ales1 g5iales et d'une portee tres g5]ale4 ,comme un etre vivant1 une idee exige p\r naitre et se developp] le g]me et le milieu de developpem5t4 ,il e/ ind5iable que le peuple anglo-am]ica9 con/itue un milieu p>ticuli]em5t favorable a la naissance et au developpem5t des idees n\velles4 ,p5dant notre collaboration le ,dr4 ,deane ,but*] a ete un critique judicieux et eclaire1 t\s les *angem5ts dans l'edition anglaise sont dus a ses obs]vations4 ,il s'e/ assimile l'ouvrage p\r le traduire1 et dans beauc\p de p>ties1 il a mis plus de cl>te et de concision qu'il n'y en avait dans le texte orig9al4 ,,/ephane ,,l$uc4 ,,nantes1 #aiaa4 99 99 99 99 99 xi ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,translator',s ,,preface vii ,,au?or',s ,,preface ix ,,introduction xiii ,i4 ,,life ,,& ,,liv+ ,,be+s #a ,,ii4 ,,solutions #ad ,,iii4 ,,electrolytic ,,solutions #bd ,,iv4 ,,colloids #cf ,v4 ,,diffusion ,,& ,,osmosis #dc ,,vi4 ,,p]iodicity #fg ,,vii4 ,,cohesion ,,& ,,cry/allization #gh ,,viii4 ,,k>yok9esis #hi ,,ix4 ,,en]getics #ig ,x4 ,,syn!tic ,,biology #aac ,,xi4 ,,osmotic ,,gr[?3 ,a ,,/udy ,,9 ,,morphog5esis #abc ,,xii4 ,,! ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,life ,,& ,,osmotic ,,productions3 ,a ,,/udy ,,9 ,,physiog5esis #adg ,,xiii4 ,,evolution ,,& ,,spontane\s ,,g5]ation #afj 99 99 99 99 99 xiii ,,introduction ,life 0 =m]ly reg>d$ z a ph5om5on entirely sep>at$ f ! o!r ph5om5a ( ,nature1 & ev5 up to ! pres5t "t ,sci5ce has prov$ :olly unable to give a def9ition ( ,life2 evolution1 nutrition1 s5sibility1 gr[?1 organization1 none ( ^!1 n ev5 ! faculty ( reproduction1 is ! exclusive appanage ( life4 ,liv+ ?+s are made ( ! same *emical elem5ts z m9]als2 a liv+ be+ is ! ar5a ( ! same physical =ces z ^? :i* affect ! inorganic _w4 ,life is difficult to def9e because x diff]s f "o liv+ be+ to ano!r2 ! life ( a man is n t ( a polyp or ( a plant1 & if we f9d x impossible to discov] ! l9e :i* sep>ates life f ! o!r ph5om5a ( ,nature1 x is 9 fact because no su* l9e ( dem>cation exi/s--! passage f animate to inanimate is gradual & ins5sible4 ,! /ep betwe5 a /alagmite & a polyp is less ?an t betwe5 a polyp & a man1 & ev5 ! tra9$ biologi/ is (t5 at a loss to det]m9e :e!r a giv5 bord]l& =m is ! result ( life1 or ( ! inanimate =ces ( ! m9]al _w4 ,a liv+ be+ is a trans=m] ( matt] & en]gy--bo? matt] & en]gy be+ uncreateable & inde/ructible1 i4e4 inv>iable 9 quantity4 ,a liv+ be+ is only a curr5t ( matt] & ( en]gy1 bo? ( :i* *ange f mom5t to mom5t :ile pass+ ?r\gh ! organism4 ,t :i* con/itutes a liv+ be+ is its =m2 = a liv+ ?+ is born1 develops1 & dies ) ! =m & /ructure ( its organism4 ,?is ephem]al nature ( ! liv+ be+1 :i* p]i%es ) ! de/ruction ( its =m1 is 9 xiv m>k$ contra/ to ! p]5nial "* ( ! matt] & ! en]gy :i* circulate )9 x4 ,! elem5t>y ph5om5on ( life is ! contact betwe5 an alim5t>y liquid & a cell4 ,= ! ess5tial ph5om5on ( life is nutrition1 & 9 ord] to be assimilat$ all ! elem5ts ( an organism mu/ be br\ght into a /ate ( solution4 ,h5ce ! /udy ( life may be be/ begun by ! /udy ( ^? physico-*emical ph5om5a :i* result f ! contact ( two diff]5t liquids4 ,biology is ?us b a bran* ( ! physico-*emi/ry ( liquids2 x includes ! /udy ( electrolytic & colloidal solutions1 & ( ! molecul> =ces br\ght into play by solution1 osmosis1 diffusion1 cohesion1 & cry/allization4 ,9 ?is volume ,i h endeav\r$ to give z mu* ( ! sci5ce ( en]getics z c be treat$ )\t ! use ( ma!matical =mulae2 ! conception ( entropy & ,c>not's law ( !rmodynamics are also discuss$4 ,! ph5om5a ( catalysis & ( dia/atic f]m5tation h = ! fir/ "t be5 br\ght "u ! g5]al laws ( en]getics4 ,?is ,i h done by %[+ t catalysis is only "o in/ance ( ! g5]al law ( ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy1 viz4 by ! int]v5tion ( a =eign excit+ & /imulat+ en]gy :i* may be inf9itely small] ?an ! en]gy x trans=ms4 ,?is conception br+s life into l9e ) o!r catalytic actions1 & %[s u a liv+ be+ z a /ore ( pot5tial en]gy1 to be set free by an ext]nal /imulus :i* may also excite s5sation4 ,9 a subsequ5t *apt] ,i h dealt ) ! rise ( ,syn!tic ,biology1 ^: hi/ory & me?ods ,i h describ$4 ,x is only ( late t ! progress ( physico-*emical sci5ce has enabl$ u to ent] into ?is field ( rese>*1 ! f9al "o 9 ! evolution ( biological sci5ce4 ,! pres5t "w conta9s "s ( ! e>lie/ results ( ?is syn!tic biology4 ,we %all see h[ x is possible by ! m]e diffusion ( liquids to obta9 =ms :i* imitate ) ! greate/ accuracy n only ! ord9>y cellul> tissues1 b ! m complicat$ /riat$ /ructures1 su* z muscle & "m-(-pe>l4 ,we %all also see h[ x is xv possible by simple liquid diffusion to reproduce 9 ord]$ & regul> succession complicat$ movem5ts l ^? obs]v$ 9 ! k>yok9esis ( ! liv+ cell4 ,! ess5tial "* ( ! liv+ be+ is its ,=m4 ,?is is ! only *>act]i/ic :i* x reta9s dur+ ! :ole ( its exi/5ce1 ) :i* x is born1 :i* causes its developm5t1 & disappe>s ) its dea?4 ,! task ( syn!tic biology is ! recognition ( ^? physico-*emical =ces & conditions :i* c produce =ms & /ructures analog\s to ^? ( liv+ be+s4 ,?is is ! subject ( ! *apt] on ,morphog5esis4 ,! la/ *apt] deals ) ! doctr9e ( ,evolution4 ,! *a9 ( life is ( necessity a cont9u\s "o1 f ! m9]al at "o end to ! mo/ complicat$ organism at ! o!r4 ,we _c all[ t x is brok5 at any po9t1 or t !re is a l9k miss+ betwe5 animate & inanimate nature4 ,h5ce ! !ory ( evolution necess>ily admits ! physico-*emical nature ( life & ! fact ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,only ?us c ! evolution>y !ory become a rational "o1 a /imulat+ & f]tile inspir] ( rese>*4 ,we seek = ! physico-*emical =ces :i* produce =ms & /ructures analog\s to ^? ( liv+ be+s1 & ph5om5a analog\s to ^? ( life4 ,we /udy ! alt]ations 9 environm5t :i* modify ^! =ms1 & we seek 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( our planet = ^? natural ph5om5a :i* h br\ght ^! physico-*emical =ces into play4 ,9 ?is way we may f9d ! road :i* w1 we hope1 lead "s day to ! discov]y ( ! orig9 & ! evolution ( life ^u ! e>?4 99 99 99 99 99 #a ,,! ,,me*anism ,,( ,,life ,,*apt] ,i ,,life ,,& ,,liv+ ,,be+s ,primitive man di/+ui%$ b two k9ds ( bodies 9 nature1 ^? :i* 7 motionless & ^? :i* 7 animat$4 ,movem5t 0 = him ! expression ( life4 ,! /ream1 ! w9d1 ! waves1 all 7 alive1 & ea* 0 end[$ ) all ! attributes ( life--w1 s5tim5t1 & passion4 ,anci5t ,greek my?ology is b ! poetic expression ( ?is primitive conception4 ,9 ! evolution ( ! intellig5ce1 z 9 t ( ! body1 ! developm5t ( ! individual is b a repetition ( ! developm5t ( ! race4 ,ev5 n[ *ildr5 attribute life to ev]y?+ t moves4 ,= !m a little bird /ill lives 9 ! inside ( a wat*1 & produces ! tick-tick ( ! :eels4 ,9 mod]n times1 h[ev]1 we h le>nt t ev]y?+ 9 nature moves1 s t motion ( itself _c be consid]$ z ! *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,h]aclitus aptly comp>es life to a flame4 ,ari/otle says1 ,life is nutrition1 gr[?1 & decay1--hav+ = its cause a pr9ciple :i* has its end 9 itself1 namely ,greek3 entele*eia4 ,?is pr9ciple is itself 9 ne$ ( def9ition1 & ,ari/otle only sub/itutes "o unkn[n epi!t = ano!r4 ,bi*at def9$ life z ! ensemble ( ! functions :i* resi/ dea?4 ,?is is to def9e life 9 t]ms ( dea?1--b dea? is b ! end ( life1 & _c be def9$ )\t fir/ def9+ life4 ,claude ,b]n>d rejects all def9ition ( life z insuffici5t1 & incompatible ) exp]im5tal sci5ce4 #b ,"s mod]n physiologi/s reg>d s5sibility1 o!rs irritability1 z ! *>act]i/ic ( life1 & def9e life z ! faculty ( respond+1 by "s sort ( *ange1 to an ext]nal /imulus4 ,z 9 ! case ( movem5t1 we h f\nd by m att5tive obs]vation t ?is faculty also is univ]sal 9 nature4 ,!re is no action )\t reaction2 an ela/ic body repels ! body t /rikes x4 ,e object 9 nature dilates ) heat1 contracts ) cold1 & is modifi$ by ! light :i* x absorbs4 ,ev]y?+ 9 nature responds to ext]ior action by a *ange1 & h5ce ?is faculty _c be ! *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,a di/+ui%$ pr(essor ( physiology 0 accu/om$ to tea* t ! disproportion betwe5 action & reaction 0 ! *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,all[ a gramme weight to fall on a n]ve1 & ! muscle w raise a weight ( t5 grammes4 ,?is disproportion is ! *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,b !re is a mu* great] disproportion betwe5 action & reaction :5 ! friction ( a mat* bl[s up a p[d] factory1 or ! turn+ ( a swit* lights ! lamps & animates ! tramways & ! motors ( a great city4 ,! disproportion betwe5 action & reaction is !re=e no *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( life is (t5 said to be nutrition--! ph5om5on by :i* a liv+ organism absorbs matt] f its environm5t1 subjects x to *emical metamorphosis1 assimilates x1 & f9ally ejects ! de/ructive products ( metamorphosis into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,b ?is *>act]i/ic is also common to a great numb] ( ord9>y *emical reactions1 s t we _c call x peculi> to life4 ,consid]1 = in/ance1 a fragm5t ( calcium *loride imm]s$ 9 a solution ( sodium c>bonate4 ,x absorbs ! c>bonic ion1 incorporates x into a molecule ( calcium c>bonate1 & ejects ! *lor9e ion into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,x may be argu$ t ?is is m]ely a *emical process1 s9ce ! sub/ance :i* det]m9es ! reaction is also modifi$1 ! *loride ( calcium *ang+ into c>bonate ( calcium4 ,b e liv+ ?+ is also *ang+ its *emical #c con/itution dur+ e mom5t ( its exi/5ce1--x is ?is *ange :i* con/itutes ! process ( s5ile involution4 ,! sub/ance ( ! *ild is o!r ?an t ( ! ovum1 & ! sub/ance ( ! adult is n t ( ! *ild4 ,h5ce we _c reg>d nutrition z ! exclusive *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,o!r au?orities reg>d gr[? & organization z ! ess5tials ( life4 ,b cry/als also gr[4 ,x 0 said t ! gr[? ( a cry/al diff]$ f t ( a liv+ ?+1 9 t ! =m] grew by ! addition ( mat]ial f )\t--! juxtaposition ( bricks1 z x 7--:ile ! latt] grew by intussusception1 an introduction ( fre% mat]ial into ! sub/ance ( ! organism4 ,a cry/al1 moreov]1 0 homog5e\s1 :ile ! tissues ( a liv+ be+ 7 diff]5tiat$--su* diff]5tiation con/itut+ ! organization4 ,at ! pres5t "t1 h[ev]1 we recognize ! exi/5ce ( a great v>iety ( purely physical productions1 ! s-call$ osmotic gr[?s1 :i* increase by a process ( intussusception1 & develop !refrom a m>vell\s complexity ( organization & ( =m4 ,h5ce gr[? & organization _c be consid]$ z ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( life4 ,s9ce1 !n1 we are totally unable to def9e ! exact b\nd>y :i* sep>ates life f ! physical ph5om5a ( nature1 we may fairly conclude t no su* sep>ation exi/s4 ,?is is 9 con=mity ) ! law ( cont9uity1--! pr9ciple :i* ass]ts t all ! ph5om5a ( nature are cont9u\s 9 "t & space4 ,classes1 divisions1 & sep>ations are all artificial1 made n by nature b by man4 ,all ! =ms & ph5om5a ( nature are unit$ by ins5sible transition2 x is impossible to sep>ate !m1 & 9 ! di/9ction betwe5 liv+ & non-liv+ ?+s we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) relative def9itions1 :i* are f> f be+ precise4 ,life c only be def9$ z ! sum ( all ph5om5a exhibit$ by liv+ be+s1 & its def9ition ?us becomes a m]e coroll>y to ! def9ition ( a liv+ be+4 ,! true def9ition ( a liv+ be+ is t x is a trans=m] ( en]gy1 receiv+ f its environm5t ! en]gy #d :i* x returns to t environm5t "u ano!r =m4 ,all liv+ organisms are trans=m]s ( en]gy4 ,a liv+ organism is also a trans=m] ( matt]4 ,x absorbs matt] f its environm5t1 trans=ms x1 & returns x to its environm5t 9 a diff]5t *emical condition4 ,liv+ ?+s are *emical trans=m]s ( matt]4 ,liv+ be+s are also trans=m]s ( =m4 ,!y comm5ce z a v simple =m1 :i* gradually develops & becomes m complicat$4 ,! matt] ( :i* a liv+ organism is con/itut$ consi/s ess5tially ( c]ta9 solutions ( cry/alloids & colloids4 ,to ?is we may add an osmotic membrane to conta9 ! liquids1 & a solid skeleton to support & protect !m4 ,f9ally1 x w\ld seem t a colloid ( "o ( ! album9oid gr\ps is a necess>y con/itu5t ( e liv+ be+4 ,we may say1 !n1 t a liv+ be+ is a trans=m] ( en]gy & ( matt]1 conta9+ c]ta9 album9oid sub/ances1 ) an evolution>y =m1 ! con/itution ( :i* is ess5tially liquid4 ,a liv+ be+ has b a limit$ duration4 ,x is born1 develops1 becomes organiz$1 decl9es & dies4 ,?r\gh all ! metamorphoses ( =m1 ( sub/ance1 & ( en]gy1 in=m+ ! :ole c\rse ( its exi/5ce1 !re is a c]ta9 co-ord9ation1 a c]ta9 h>mony1 :i* is necess>y = ! cons]vation ( ! individual4 ,?is h>mony we call ,life4 ,discord is disease1--! total cessation ( ! h>mony is ,dea?4 ,:5 ! =m is pr(\ndly alt]$ & ! sub/ance *ang$1 ! trans=mation ( en]gy no long] foll[s its regul> c\rse1 ! organism is dead4 ,aft] dea? ! colloids :i* h con/itut$ ! =m ( ! liv+ ?+ pass f _! liquid /ate z sols into _! coagulat$ /ate z gels4 ,! metamorphoses ( =m1 sub/ance1 & en]gy /ill cont9ue1 b no long] h>moni\sly = ! cons]vation ( ! individual1 b 9 dis-h>mony = its dissolution4 ,f9ally1 ! =m ( ! individual disappe>s1 ! sub/ance & ! en]gy ( ! liv+ be+ is resolv$ & disp]s$ into o!r bodies & o!r ph5om5a4 #e ,! results hi!rto obta9$ f ! /udy ( life seem b inconsid]able :5 comp>$ ) ! "t & lab\r devot$ to ! "q4 ,max ,v]worn exclaims1 ,are we on a false track8 ,d we ask our que/ions ( ,nature amiss1 or d we n read h] answ]s aright8 ,ea* bran* ( sci5ce at its comm5cem5t employs only ! simpl] me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,x is purely descriptive4 ,! next /ep is to sep>ate ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! object /udi$--to dissect & to analyse4 ,! sci5ce has n[ become analytical4 ,! f9al /age is to reproduce ! sub/ances1 ! =ms1 & ! ph5om5a :i* h be5 ! subject ( inve/igation4 ,! sci5ce has at la/ become syn!tical4 ,up to ! pres5t "t1 biology has made use only ( ! fir/ two me?ods1 ! descriptive & ! analytical4 ,! analytical me?od is at a grave disadvantage 9 all biological inve/igations1 s9ce x is impossible to sep>ate & analyse ! elem5t>y ph5om5a ( life4 ,! function ( an organ ceases :5 x is isolat$ f ! organism ( :i* x =ms a "p4 ,?is is ! *ief cause ( our lack ( progress 9 ! analysis ( life4 ,x is only rec5tly t we h be5 able to apply ! syn!tic me?od to ! /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,n[ t we "k t a liv+ organism is b ! ar5a = ! trans=mation ( en]gy1 we may hope to reproduce ! elem5t>y ph5om5a ( life1 by call+ into play a simil> trans=mation ( en]gy 9 a suitable m$ium4 ,organic *emi/ry has already obta9$ num]\s victories 9 ! same direction1 & ! rapid advance 9 ! production ( organic bodies by *emical syn!sis may be consid]$ ! fir/-fruits ( syn!tic biology4 ,a ph5om5on is det]m9$ by a numb] ( circum/ances :i* we call its causes1 & ( :i* x is ! result4 ,e ph5om5on1 moreov]1 contributes to ! production ( o!r ph5om5a :i* are call$ its consequ5ces4 ,9 ord] !re=e to und]/& any ph5om5on 9 its entirety1 we mu/ det]m9e all its causes bo? qualitatively & quantitatively4 ,ph5om5a succe$ "o ano!r 9 "t z consequ5ces #f "o ( ano!r1 & ?us =m an un9t]rupt$ *a9 f ! inf9ite ( ! pa/ into ! inf9ite ( ! future4 ,a liv+ be+ ga!rs f its ent\rage a supply ( matt] & ( en]gy1 :i* x trans=ms & returns4 ,x is "p & p>cel ( ! m$ium 9 :i* x lives1 :i* acts ^u x1 & ^u :i* x acts4 ,! liv+ be+ & ! m$ium 9 :i* x exi/s are mutually int]dep5d5t4 ,?is m$ium is 9 its turn dep5d5t on its ent\rage1--& s on f m$ium to m$ium ?r\gh\t ! regions ( inf9ite space4 ,"o ( ! great laws ( ! univ]se is ! law ( cont9uity 9 "t & space4 ,we mu/ n lose sight ( ?is law :5 we attempt to foll[ ! metamorphoses ( matt]1 ( en]gy & ( =m 9 liv+ be+s4 ,evolution is b ! expression ( ?is law ( cont9uity1 ?is succession ( ph5om5a foll[+ "o ano!r l ! l9ks ( a *a91 )\t discont9uity ?r\gh ! va/ ext5t ( "t & space4 ,! o!r great univ]sal law1 t ( cons]vation1 applies ) equal =ce to liv+ & to inanimate ?+s4 ,?is law ass]ts ! uncreateability & ! inde/ructibility ( matt] & ( en]gy4 ,a giv5 quantity ( matt] & ( en]gy rema9s absolutely inv>iable ?r\gh all ! trans=mations ?r\gh :i* x may pass4 ,we ne$ n "h discuss ! "q ( ! possible trans=mation ( matt] into e!r1 or ( e!r into pond]able matt]4 ,su* a trans=mation1 if x exi/s1 w\ld h b little be>+ on ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,moreov]1 x also w probably be f\nd to con=m to ! law ( cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,9 m>k$ contra/ to ! p]man5ce ( matt] & ( en]gy is ! ephem]al nature ( =m1 z exhibit$ by liv+ be+s4 ,function1 s9ce x is b ! resultant ( =m1 is also ephem]al4 ,all ! faculties ( life are b\nd up ) its =m1--a liv+ be+ is born1 exi/s1 & dies ) its =m4 ,! ph5om5a ( life may 9 c]ta9 cases sl[ d[n f _! normal rapidity & int5sity1 z 9 hib]nat+ #g animals1 or be entirely susp5d$1 z 9 se$s4 ,?is /ate ( susp5sion ( life1 ( lat5t life z x 71 rem9ds u ( a ma*9e t has be5 /opp$1 b :i* reta9s its =m & sub/ance unalt]$1 & may be />t$ aga9 :5ev] ! ob/acle to its progress is remov$4 ,dur+ ! :ole c\rse ( its life a liv+ be+ is intimately dep5d5t on its ent\rage4 ,= example1 ! ph5om5a ( life are circumscrib$ )9 v n>r[ limits ( temp]ature4 ,a liv+ organism1 consi/+ z x does ess5tially ( liquid solutions1 c only exi/ at temp]atures at :i* su* solutions rema9 liquid1 i4e4 betwe5 #j;deg ,c4 & #ajj;deg ,c4 ,c]ta9 organisms1 x is true1 may be froz51 b _! life rema9s 9 a /ate ( susp5sion s long z _! sub/ance rema9s solid4 ,s9ce ! album9oid sub/ances :i* are a necess>y compon5t ( ! liv+ organism become coagulat$ at #dd;deg ,c41 ! manife/ations ( life dim9i% rapidly above ?is temp]ature4 ,! int5sity ( life may be said to augm5t gradually z ! temp]ature rises f #j;deg to #dj;deg1 & !n to dim9i% rapidly z ! temp]ature rises above t po9t1 becom+ ne>ly ext9ct at #fj;deg ,c4 ,ano!r condition indisp5sable to life is ! pres5ce ( oxyg54 ,life1 comp>$ by ,h]aclitus to a flame1 is a combu/ion1 an oxydation1 = :i* ! pres5ce ( oxyg5 at a c]ta9 pressure is indisp5sable4 ,!re are1 x is true1 c]ta9 ana]obic micro-organisms :i* app>5tly exi/ )\t oxyg51 b ^! 9 reality obta9 _! oxyg5 f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y gr[4 ,life is also influ5c$ by light1 by me*anical pressure1 by ! *emical composition ( its ent\rage1 & by o!r conditions :i* we d n z yet und]/&4 ,9 ea* case ! conditions :i* are fav\rable or noxi\s v>y ) ! nature ( ! organism1 "s liv+ 9 air1 "s 9 fre% wat]1 & o!rs 9 ! sea4 ,=m]ly x 0 suppos$ t ! sub/ance ( a liv+ be+ 0 ess5tially diff]5t f t ( ! m9]al _w1 s mu* s t two di/9ct *emi/ries 7 9 exi/5ce--organic *emi/ry1 ! /udy ( sub/ances d]iv$ f bodies :i* _h once possess$ life1 & inorganic *emi/ry1 deal+ #h ) m9]als1 metalloids1 & metals4 ,we n[ "k t a liv+ organism is compos$ ( exactly ! same elem5ts z ^? :i* con/itute ! m9]al _w4 ,^! are c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog51 phosphorus1 calcium1 iron1 sulphur1 *lor9e1 sodium1 potassium1 & "o or two o!r elem5ts 9 small] quantity4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t ! organic comb9ations ( ^! elem5ts 7 f\nd only 9 liv+ organisms & c\ld be fa%ion$ only by vital =ces4 ,9 m rec5t times1 h[ev]1 an ev] increas+ numb] ( organic sub/ances h be5 produc$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,organic bodies may be divid$ into f\r pr9cipal gr\ps4 7#a7 ,c>bohydrates1 includ+ ! sug>s & ! />*es1 all ( :i* may be consid]$ z =m$ ( c>bon & wat]4 7#b7 ,fats1 :i* may be consid]$ *emically z ! e!rs ( glyc]9e1 comb9ations ( "o molecule ( glyc]9e & ?ree molecules ( a fatty acid1 ) elim9ation ( wat]4 7#c7 ,album9oids1 sub/ances ^: molecules are complex1 conta9+ nitrog5 & sulphur 9 addition to c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog54 ,! album9oid ( ! cell nucleus also conta9s phosphorus1 & ! haemoglob9 ( ! blood conta9s iron4 7#d7 ,m9]als or inorganic elem5ts1 su* z *loride ( sodium1 phosphate ( calcium1 & c>bonic acid4 ,?is gr\p also includes wat]1 :i* is ! mo/ important con/itu5t1 s9ce x =ms m ?an a moiety ( ! sub/ance ( all liv+ creatures4 ,woehl] 9 #ahbh accompli%$ ! fir/ syn!sis ( an organic sub/ance1 urea1 "o ( ! products ( ! decomposition ( album94 ,s9ce !n a l>ge numb] ( organic sub/ances h be5 prep>$ by ! syn!sis ( _! inorganic elem5ts4 ,! mo/ rec5t advance 9 ?is direction is t ( ,emile ,fis*]1 :o has produc$ polypeptides hav+ ! same reactions z ! peptones1 by comb9+ a numb] ( molecules ( ! amides ( ! fatty acids4 ,9 ! fur!r syn!sis ( organic comp\nds ! problems we h be=e u are ( ! same ord] z ^? already solv$4 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 organic & inorganic *emi/ry2 liv+ organisms are =m$ ( ! #i same elem5ts z ! m9]al _w1 & ! organic comb9ations ( ^! elem5ts may be realiz$ 9 our laboratories1 j z 9 ! laboratory ( ! liv+ organism4 ,n only s1 b a liv+ be+ only borr[s = a %ort "t ^? m9]al elem5ts :i*1 aft] hav+ pass$ ?r\gh ! liv+ organism1 are return$ once aga9 to ! m9]al k+dom f :i* !y came4 ,all matt] has life 9 itself--or1 at any rate1 all matt] susceptible ( incorporation 9 a liv+ cell4 ,?is life is pot5tial :ile ! elem5t is 9 ! m9]al /ate1 & actual :ile ! elem5t is pass+ ?r\gh a liv+ organism4 ,m9]al matt] is *ang$ into organic matt] 9 its passage ?r\gh a vegetable organism4 ,! c>bonic acid produc$ by combu/ion & respiration is absorb$ by ! *lorophyll ( ! leaves "u ! /imulus ( light--! oxyg5 ( ! c>bonic acid be+ return$ to ! air1 :ile ! c>bon is utiliz$ by ! plant = ! =mation ( sug>1 />*1 cellulose1 & fats4 ,?us plants are f$ 9 great "p by _! leaves1 tak+ an important "p ( _! n\ri%m5t f ! air1 :ile by _! roots !y draw f ! e>? ! wat]1 ! phosphates1 ! m9]al salts1 & ! nitrates requir$ = ! =mation ( _! album9oid con/itu5ts4 ,a vegetable is a laboratory 9 :i* is c>ri$ out ! process ( organic syn!sis by :i* m9]al mat]ials are *ang$ into organic matt]4 ,! fir/ syn!tic reaction is ! =mation ( a molecule ( =mic aldehyde1 ,,*#b,o1 by ! comb9ation ( a molecule ( wat] ) an atom ( c>bon4 ,f ?is =mic aldehyde1 or =mol1 we may obta9 all ! v>i\s c>bohydrates by simple polym]ization1 i4e4 by ! association ( sev]al molecules1 ) or )\t elim9ation ( wat]4 ,?us two molecules ( =mol =m "o molecule ( acetic acid1 #b;,,*#b,o ,c#b;,h#d,o#b4 ,?ree molecules ( =mol =m a molecule ( lactic acid1 #c;,,*#b,o ,c#c;,h#f,o#c4 ,six molecules ( =mol repres5t glucose & levulose1 #f;,,*#b,o ,c#f;,h#ab,o#f4 ,twelve molecules ( =mol m9us "o molecule ( wat] =m sac*>ose1 lactose1 cane sug>1 & sug> ( milk1 #ab;,,*#b,o ,c#ab;,h#bb,o#aa ,h#b,o2 n times six #aj molecules ( =mol m9us "o molecule ( wat]1 n7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e71 =m />* & cellulose4 ,animals d]ive _! n\ri%m5t f vegetables ei!r directly1 or indirectly ?r\gh ! fle% ( h]bivor\s animals4 ,! m9]al matt]1 r5d]$ organic 9 its passage ?r\gh a vegetable gr[?1 is f9ally return$ by ! ag5cy ( animal organisms to ! m9]al _w aga91 9 ! =m ( c>bonic acid1 wat]1 urea1 & nitrates4 ,?us vegetables may be reg>d$ z syn!tic ag5ts1 & animals & microbes z ag5ts ( decomposition4 ,"h also ! diff]5ce is only relative1 = 9 c]ta9 cases vegetables produce c>bonic acid1 :ile "s animal organisms effect syn!tic comb9ations4 ,moreov]1 !re are int]m$i>y =ms1 su* z fungi1 :i* possess+ no *lorophyll are n\ri%$ l animals by organic matt]1 & yet l vegetables are able to manufacture organic matt] f m9]al salts4 ,! "w ( combu/ion begun by ! animal organism is f9i%$ by ! action ( micro-organisms1 :o complete ! oxydation--! re-m9]alization ( ! *emical sub/ances drawn orig9ally f ! inorganic _w by ! ag5cy ( plant life4 ,to sum up4 ,vegetables obta9 _! n\ri%m5t f m9]al sub/ances1 :i* !y r$uce1 de-oxydize1 & *>ge ) sol> en]gy4 ,animal organisms on ! contr>y oxydize1 & micro-organisms complete ! oxydation ( ^! sub/ances1 return+ !m to ! m9]al _w z wat]1 c>bonates1 nitrates1 & sulphates4 ,?us matt] circulates et]nally f ! m9]al to ! vegetable1 f ! vegetable to ! animal _w1 & back aga94 ,! matt] :i* =ms our /ructure1 :i* is to-day "p & p>cel ( ourselves1 has =m$ ! /ructure ( an inf9ite numb] ( liv+ be+s1 & w cont9ue to pursue its endless re9c>nation aft] our decease4 ,?is endless cycle ( life is also an endless cycle ( en]gy4 ,! comb9ation ( c>bon ) wat] c>ri$ out by ! ag5cy ( *lorophyll c only take place ) absorption ( en]gy4 ,?is en]gy comes directly f ! sun1 ! r$ & orange light radiations be+ absorb$ by ! *lorophyll4 #aa ,! arre/ ( vegetation dur+ ! w9t] mon?s is due n s mu* to ! l[]+ ( temp]ature z to ! dim9ution ( ! radiant en]gy receiv$ f ! sun4 ,9 ! same way %ade is h>mful to vegetation1 s9ce ! radiant en]gy requir$ = gr[? is prev5t$ f rea*+ ! plant4 ,! en]gy radiat$ by ! sun is accumulat$ & /or$ 9 ! plant tissues4 ,lat] on1 animals fe$ on ! plants & utilize ?is en]gy1 excret+ ! products ( decomposition1 i4e4 ! con/itu5ts ( _! food m9us ! en]gy conta9$ 9 x4 ,?us ! :ole ( ! en]gy :i* animates liv+ be+s1 ! :ole ( ! en]gy :i* con/itutes life1 comes f ! sun4 ,to ! sun also we owe all artificial heat1 ! en]gy /or$ up 9 wood & coal4 ,we are all ( u *ildr5 ( ! sun4 ,! radiant en]gy ( ! sun is trans=m$ by plants into *emical en]gy4 ,x is ?is *emical en]gy :i* fe$s ! vital activity ( animals1 :o return x to ! ext]nal _w "u ! =m ( heat1 me*anical "w1 & muscul> contraction1 light 9 ! gl[-worm1 electricity 9 ! electric eel4 ,!re is a m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! =ms affect$ by organic & inorganic sub/ances4 ,! =ms ( ! m9]al _w are ^? ( cry/als--geometrical =ms1 b\nd$ by /raight l9es1 planes1 & regul> angles4 ,liv+ organisms1 on ! contr>y1 affect =ms :i* are less regul>--curv$ surfaces & r\nd$ angles4 ,! physical reason = ?is diff]5ce 9 =m lies 9 a diff]5ce ( consi/5cy1 cry/als be+ solid1 :]eas liv+ organisms are liquids or semi-liquids4 ,! liquids ( nature1 /reams & cl\ds & dewdrops1 affect ! same r\nd$ =ms z ^? ( liv+ organisms4 ,liv+ be+s = ! mo/ "p pres5t a rem>kable degree ( symmetry4 ,"s1 l radiol>ians & />-fi%1 h a /ellate =m4 ,9 plants ! v>i\s organs (t5 radiate f an axis1 9 su* a mann] t on turn+ ! plant ab\t ?is axis ! v>i\s =ms are sup]pos$ ?rice1 f\r1 or m (t5 five times 9 "o complete revolution4 ,x is rem>kable h[ (t5 ?is numb] five recurs 9 ! #ab divisions & p>ts ( a liv+ organism4 ,9 o!r cases ! simil> p>ts are dispos$ symmetrically on ei!r side ( a m$ian l9e or plane1 giv+ a s]ies ( homolog\s p>ts :i* are n sup]posable4 ,! mo/ important *>act]i/ic ( a liv+ be+ is its =m4 ,?is is implicitly admitt$ by naturali/s1 :o classify animals & plants 9 g5]a & species accord+ to ! diff]5ces & analogies ( _! =m4 ,all liv+ be+s are compos$ ( elem5t>y organizations call$ cells4 ,9 its complete /ate1 a cell consi/s ( a membrane or envelope conta9+ a mass ( protoplasm1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* is a nucleus ( diff]5tiat$ protoplasm4 ,?is nucleus may 9 its turn conta9 a nucleolus4 ,9 "s cases ! cell is m]ely a protoplasmic mass )\t a visible envelope1 s t a cell may be def9$ z ess5tially a mass ( protoplasm provid$ ) a nucleus4 ,a liv+ organism may consi/ m]ely ( a s+le cell1 :i* is able alone to accompli% all ! functions ( life4 ,mo/ liv+ be+s1 h[ev]1 consi/ ( a collection ( innum]able cells =m+ a cellul> association or community4 ,:5 a numb] ( cells are ?us unit$ to con/itute a s+le liv+ be+1 ! v>i\s functions ( life are divid$ among diff]5t cellul> gr\ps4 ,c]ta9 cells become specializ$ = ! accompli%m5t ( a s+le function1 & to ea* function corresponds a diff]5t =m ( cell4 ,x is ?us easy to recognize by _! =m ! n]ve cells1 ! muscle cells :i* p]=m ! function ( movem5t1 & ! gl&ul> cells :i* p]=m ! function ( secretion4 ,! cells ( a liv+ be+ are microscopic 9 size1 & x is rem>kable t !y nev] atta9 to any consid]able dim5sions4 ,9 ord] t life may be ma9ta9$ 9 a liv+ organism1 x is necess>y t a cont9ual supply ( alim5t %\ld be br\ght to x1 & t c]ta9 o!r sub/ances1 ! wa/e-products ( combu/ion1 %\ld be elim9at$4 ,9 ord] to be absorb$ & assimilat$1 ! alim5t>y sub/ances mu/ be pres5t$ to ! liv+ organism 9 a liquid or gase\s /ate4 ,?us ! ess5tial condition necess>y = ! #ac ma9t5ance ( life is ! contact ( a liv+ cell ) a curr5t ( liquid4 ,! elem5t>y physical ph5om5on ( life is ! contact ( two diff]5t liquids4 ,?is is ! necess>y condition :i* r5d]s possible ! *emical ex*anges & ! trans=mations ( en]gy :i* con/itute life4 ,x is 9 ! /udy ( ! ph5om5a ( liquid contact & diffusion t we may be/ hope to pi]ce ! secrets ( life4 ,! physics ( vital action are ! physics ( ! ph5om5a :i* occur 9 liquids1 & ! /udy ( ! physics ( a liquid mu/ be ! preface & ! basis ( all inquiry into ! nature & orig9 ( life4 99 99 99 99 99 #ad ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,solutions ,we h se5 t liv+ be+s are trans=m]s ( en]gy & ( matt]1 evolution>y 9 =m & liquid 9 consi/5cy2 t !y are solutions ( colloids & cry/alloids sep>at$ by osmotic membranes to =m microscopic cells1 or consi/+ m]ely ( a gelat9\s mass ( protoplasm1 ) a nucleus ( slightly diff]5tiat$ mat]ial4 ,! elem5t>y ph5om5on ( life is ! contact ( two diff]5t solutions4 ,?is is ! initial physical ph5om5on f :i* proce$ all ! o!r ph5om5a ( life 9 accordance ) ! ord9>y *emical & physical laws4 ,?us ! basis ( biological sci5ce is ! /udy ( solution & ( ! ph5om5a :i* occur betwe5 two diff]5t solutions1 ei!r 9 imm$iate contact or :5 sep>at$ by a membrane4 ,a solution is a homog5e\s mixture ( "o or m solutes 9 a liquid solv5t4 ,be=e solution ! solute or dissolv$ sub/ance may be solid1 liquid1 or gase\s4 ,solutes1 or sub/ances capable ( solution1 may be divid$ into two classes--sub/ances :i* are capable ( cry/allization1 or cry/alloids2 & ^? :i* are incapable ( cry/allization1 ! colloids4 ,cry/alloids may be divid$ aga9 into two classes1 ^? ^: solutions are ionizable & !re=e conduct electricity1 *iefly salts1 acids1 & bases2 & ^? ^: solutions are non-ionizable & are !re=e non-conductors4 ,^! latt] are = ! mo/ "p cry/allizable sub/ances ( organic orig91 su* z sug>s1 urea1 etc4 ,avogadro's law ass]ts t "u simil> conditions ( temp]ature & pressure1 equal volumes ( v>i\s gases #ae conta9 an equal numb] ( molecules4 ,"u simil> conditions1 ! molecul> weights ( diff]5t sub/ances h !re=e ! same ratio z ! weights ( equal volumes ( _! vap\rs4 ,h5ce if we fix arbitr>ily ! molecul> weight ( any "o sub/ance1 ! molecul> weight ( all o!r sub/ances is !reby det]m9$4 ,! molecul> weight ( hydrog5 has be5 arbitr>ily fix$ z two1 & h5ce ! molecul> weight ( any sub/ance w be d\ble its gase\s d5sity :5 comp>$ ) t ( hydrog54 ,gramme-,molecule4--,a gramme-molecule is ! molecul> weight ( a body express$ 9 grammes4 ,occasionally = brevity a gramme-molecule is spok5 ( z a molecule4 ,?us we may say t ! molecul> weight ( oxyg5 is #af grammes1 mean+ !reby t !re are ! same numb] ( molecules 9 #af grammes ( oxyg5 z !re are atoms 9 #a gramme ( hydrog54 ,conc5tration4--,! conc5tration ( a solution is ! ratio betwe5 ! quantity ( ! solute & ! quantity ( ! solv5t4 ,! conc5tration ( a solution is express$ 9 v>i\s ways4 7a7 ,! weight ( solute dissolv$ 9 #ajj grammes ( ! solv5t4 7b7 ,! weight ( solute pres5t 9 #ajj grammes ( ! solution4 7c7 ,! weight ( solute dissolv$ 9 a litre ( ! solv5t4 7d7 ,! weight ( solute 9 a litre ( ! solution4 ,! mo/ usual me?od is to give ! conc5tration z ! weight ( solute dissolv$ 9 #ajj grammes or 9 "o litre ( ! solv5t4 ,molecul> ,conc5tration4--,_m ( ! physical & biological prop]ties ( a solution are proportional1 n to its mass or weight conc5tration1 b to its molecul> conc5tration1 i4e4 to ! numb] ( gramme-molecules ( ! solute conta9$ 9 a litre ( ! solution4 ,_m physical prop]ties are q indep5d5t ( ! nature ( ! solute1 dep5d+ only on its degree ( molecul> conc5tration4 ,normal ,solution4--,a normal solution is "o :i* conta9s "o gramme-molecule ( ! solute p] litre4 ,a dec9ormal solution conta9s "o-t5? ( a gramme-molecule ( ! solute p] litre1 & a c5t9ormal solution "o-hundr$? ( a gramme-molecule4 ,a normal solution ( urea1 = example1 #af conta9s #fj grammes ( urea p] litre1 :ile a normal solution ( sug> conta9s #cdb grammes ( sug> p] litre4 ,! ,dissolv$ ,sub/ance is a ,gas4--,van t' ,h(f1 us+ ! data obta9$ by ! botani/ ,pfeff]1 %[$ t ! dissolv$ matt] 9 a solution behav$ exactly z if x 7 a gas4 ,! analogy is complete 9 e respect4 ,l ! gase\s molecules1 ! molecules ( a solute are mobile ) respect to "o ano!r4 ,l ^? ( a gas1 ! molecules ( a solute t5d to spread !mselves equally1 & to fill ! :ole space at _! disposal1 i4e4 ! :ole volume ( ! solution4 ,! surface ( ! solution repres5ts ! vessel conta9+ ! gas1 :i* conf9es x )9 def9ite limits & prev5ts fur!r expansion4 ,osmotic ,pressure4--,l ! molecules ( a gas1 ! molecules ( a solute ex]cise pressure on ! b\nd>ies ( ! space conta9+ x4 ,?is osmotic pressure foll[s exactly ! same laws z gase\s pressure4 ,x has ! same con/ants1 & all ! notions acquir$ by ! /udy ( gase\s pressure are applicable to osmotic pressure4 ,osmotic pressure is 9 fact ! gase\s pressure ( ! molecules ( ! solute4 ,:5 a gas dilates & increases 9 volume1 its temp]ature falls1 & cold is produc$4 ,simil>ly1 :5 a soluble sub/ance is dissolv$1 x increases 9 volume1 & ! temp]ature ( ! liquid falls4 ,?is ph5om5on is well kn[n z a means ( produc+ cold by a refrig]at+ mixture4 ,! ph5om5a ( life are gov]n$ by ! laws ( gase\s pressure1 s9ce all ^! ph5om5a take place 9 solutions4 ,! fundam5tal laws ( biology are ^? ( ! di/ribution ( sub/ances 9 solution1 :i* is regulat$ by ! laws ( gase\s pressure1 s9ce all ^! laws are applicable also to osmotic pressure4 ,boyle's ,law4--,:5 a gas is compress$ its volume is dim9i%$4 ,if ! pressure is d\bl$1 ! volume is r$uc$ to "o-half4 ,! quantity ,v x ,p1 t is ! volume multipli$ by ! pressure1 is con/ant4 ,gay-,lussac's ,law4--,= a diff]5ce ( temp]ature ( a degree ,c5tigrade all gases dilate or contract by #a _/ #bgc ( _! volume at #j;deg ,c5tigrade4 #ag ,dalton's ,law4--,9 a gase\s mixture1 ! total pressure is equal to ! sum ( ! pressures :i* ea* gas w\ld ex]t if x alone fill$ ! :ole ( ! receptacle4 ,pressure proportional to ,molecul> ,conc5tration4--,! above laws are completely indep5d5t ( ! *emical nature ( ! gas1 !y dep5d only on ! numb] ( gase\s molecules 9 a giv5 space1 i4e4 on ! molecul> conc5tration4 ,if we d\ble ! mass ( ! gas 9 a giv5 space1 we d\ble ! numb] ( molecules1 & we also d\ble ! pressure1 :atev] ! nature ( ! molecules4 ,we may also d\ble ! pressure by compress+ ! molecules ( a gas1 or ( sev]al gases1 into a space half ! orig9al size4 ,! molecul> conc5tration ( a gas1 or ( a mixture ( gases1 is ! ratio ( ! numb] ( molecules to ! volume !y occupy4 ,! pressure ( a gas or ( a mixture ( gases is proportional to its molecul> conc5tration4 ,?is is a bett] & a %ort] way ( express+ bo? ,boyle's law & ,dalton's law4 ,"o gramme-molecule ( a gas1 :atev] its nature1 cond5s$ into ! volume ( #a litre1 has a pressure ( #bb4ce atmosph]es4 ,simil>ly "o gramme-molecule ( a solute1 :atev] its nature1 :5 dissolv$ 9 a litre ( wat]1 has ! same pressure1 viz4 #bb4ce atmosph]es4 ,absolute ,z]o4--,accord+ to ,gay-,lussac's law1 ! volume ( a gas dim9i%es by #a _/ #bgc ( its volume at #j;deg ,c4 = ea* degree fall ( temp]ature4 ,?us if ! contraction is ! same = all temp]atures1 ! volume w\ld be r$uc$ to z]o at -#bgc;deg ,c4 ,?is is ! absolute z]o ( temp]ature4 ,temp]atures measur$ f ?is po9t are call$ absolute temp]atures1 & are designat$ by ! symbol ,t4 ,if tdeg indicates ! ,c5tigrade temp]ature above ! freez+ po9t ( wat]1 !n ! absolute temp]ature is equal to tdeg #bgc;deg4 ,! ,gase\s ,con/ant4--,consid] a mass ( gas at #j;deg ,c4 "u a pressure ,po1 ) volume ,vo4 ,at ! absolute temp]ature ,t1 if ! pressure be unalt]$1 ! volume ( ?is gas w be ,vo,t _/ #bgc4 ,!re=e ! con/ant ,,pv1 ! product ( ! pressure by ! volume1 w be repres5t$ by ,po,vo,t _/ #bgc4 #ah ,at ! same temp]ature1 b "u ano!r pressure ,p' ! gas w h a diff]5t volume ,v'4 ,s9ce1 accord+ to ,boyle's law1 ,,pv is con/ant 7,p',v' ,po,vo71 x w /ill equal ,po,vo,t _/ #bgc4 ,!re=e ,po,vo _/ #bgc is also con/ant4 ,?is quantity is call$ ! gase\s con/ant1 & if we repres5t x by ! symbol ,r1 we obta9 ! g5]al =mula ,,pv ,,rt = all gases1 or ,,pv _/ ,t ,r4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 we h a gramme-molecule ( a gas at #j;deg ,c4 9 a space ( #a litre4 ,x has a pressure ( #bb4ce atmosph]es at #j;deg ,c41 or #bgc;deg absolute temp]ature4 ,s9ce ,,pv ,,rt1 ,r ,,pv _/ ,t #a x #bb4ce _/ #bgc 4#jhai4 ,?is numb] 4#jhai is ! num]ical value ( ! con/ant ,r = all gases1 volume be+ measur$ 9 litres & pressure 9 atmosph]es4 ,sub/ances 9 solution behave exactly l gases1 !y foll[ ! same laws & h ! same con/ants4 ,all ! conceptions :i* h be5 acquir$ by ! /udy ( gases are applicable to solutions1 & !re=e to ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,! osmotic pressure ( a solution is ! =ce ) :i* ! molecules ( ! solute1 l gase\s molecules1 /rive to diffuse into space1 & press on ! limits :i* conf9e !m1 ! conta9+ vessel be+ repres5t$ by ! surfaces ( ! solution4 ,osmotic pressure is measur$ 9 exactly ! same way z gase\s pressure4 ,to measure /eam pressure we ins]t a manomet] 9 ! walls ( ! boil]4 ,9 ! same way we may use a manomet] to measure osmotic pressure4 ,we atta* ! tube to ! walls ( ! por\s vessel1 all[ ! solv5t to increase 9 volume "u ! pressure ( ! solute1 & measure ! rise ( ! liquid 9 ! manomet] tube4 ,pfeff]'s ,app>atus4--,pfeff] has design$ an app>atus = ! measurem5t ( osmotic pressure4 ,x consi/s ( a vessel ( por\s porcela91 ! pores ( :i* are fill$ ) a colloidal solution ( f]rocyanide ( copp]4 ,?is =ms a semi-p]meable membrane :i* p]mits ! passage ( wat] into ! vessel1 b prev5ts ! passage ( sug> or ( any #ai colloid4 ,! /opp] :i* h]metically closes ! vessel is pi]c$ = ! reception ( a m]cury manomet]4 ,! vessel is fill$ ) a solution ( sug> & plung$ 9 a ba? ( wat]4 ,! volume ( ! solution 9 ! int]ior ( ! vessel c v>y1 s9ce wat] passes easily 9 ei!r direction ?r\gh ! pores ( ! vessel4 ,! b\nd>y ( ! solv5t has become ext5sible1 & its volume c increase or dim9i% 9 accordance ) ! osmotic pressure ( ! solute4 ,"u ! pressure ( ! sug> wat] is suck$ into ! vessel l air into a bell[s1 ! solution passes into ! tube ( ! manomet]1 & raises ! column ( m]cury until its pressure balances ! osmotic pressure ( ! sug> molecules4 ,osmotic ,pressure foll[s ! ,laws ( ,gase\s ,pressure4--,?is osmotic pressure is 9 fact gase\s pressure1 & may be measur$ 9 millimetres ( m]cury 9 j ! same way4 ,we may ?us %[ t osmotic pressure foll[s ! laws ( gase\s pressure z def9$ by ,boyle1 ,dalton1 & ,gay-,lussac4 ,! coeffici5t ( pressure v>iation = *ange ( temp]ature is ! same = a solute z = a gas4 ,! =mula ,,pv ,,rt is applicable to bo?4 ,! num]ical value ( ! con/ant ,r is also ! same = a solute z = a gas4 be+ 4#jhai = "o gramme-molecule ( ei!r1 :5 ! volume is express$ 9 litres & ! pressure 9 atmosph]es4 ,! =mula ,,pv ,,rt %[s t = a giv5 mass1 ) ! same volume1 ! pressure increases 9 proportion to ! absolute temp]ature4 ,osmotic ,pressure ( ,sug>4--,a normal solution ( sug>1 conta9+ #cdb grammes ( sug> p] litre1 has a pressure ( #bb4ce atmosph]es1 & x may well be ask$ :y su* an enorm\s pressure is n m evid5t4 ,! reason w be f\nd 9 ! imm5se frictional resi/ance to diffusion4 ,frictional resi/ance is proportional to ! area ( ! surfaces 9 contact1 & ?is area increases rapidly ) ea* division ( ! sub/ance4 ,:5 a solute is resolv$ into its compon5t molecules1 its surface is enorm\sly increas$1 & !re=e ! friction betwe5 ! molecules ( ! solute & ^? ( ! solv5t4 ,isotonic ,solutions4--,two solutions :i* h ! same #bj osmotic pressure are said to be iso-osmotic or isotonic4 ,:5 comp>+ two solutions ( diff]5t conc5tration1 ! solution ) ! high] osmotic pressure is said to be hyp]tonic1 & t ) ! l[] osmotic pressure hypotonic4 ,l[]+ ( ! ,freez+ ,po9t4--,pure wat] freezes at #j;deg ,c4 ,ra\lt %[$ t ! introduction ( a non-ionizable sub/ance1 su* z sug> or alcohol1 l[]s ! freez+ po9t ( a solution 9 proportion to ! molecul> conc5tration ( ! solute4 ,"o gramme-molecule ( ! solute introduc$ into "o litre ( ! solution l[]s its temp]ature ( congelation by #a4he;deg ,c4 ,?us a normal solution ( any non-ionizable sub/ance 9 wat] freezes at -#a4he;deg ,c4 ,! measurem5t ( ?is l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t is call$ ,cryoscopy1 a me?od :i* is becom+ ( great utility 9 m$ic9e4 ,cryoscopy ( ,blood4--,9 ord] to det]m9e ! osmotic pressure ( ! blood at #cg;deg ,c41 i4e4 #ih4f;deg ,f41 ! normal temp]ature1 we proce$ z foll[s4 ,on freez+ ! blood1 we f9d t x congeals at -4#ef;deg4 ,its molecul> conc5tration is !re=e 4#ef _/ #a4he 4#cj1 or ab\t "o-?ird ( a gramme-molecule p] litre4 ,its osmotic pressure at #j;deg ,c4 is !re=e 4#c x #bb4ce #f4g atmosph]es4 ,! increase ( pressure ) temp]ature is ! same z = a gas1 viz4 #a_/bgc1 or 4#jjcfg ( its pressure at #j;deg = e degree rise ( temp]ature4 ,! increase ( pressure at #cg;deg is !re=e 4#jjcfg x #cg x #f4g 4#i atmosph]es4 ,! total osmotic pressure at #cg;deg is !re=e #f4g 4#i #g4f atmosph]es4 ,rise ( ,boil+ ,po9t4--,wat] "u atmosph]ic pressure boils at a temp]ature ( #ajj;deg ,c4 ,! addition ( a solute ^: solution does n conduct electricity1 su* z sug>1 causes a rise 9 ! boil+ po9t proportional to ! molecul> conc5tration ( t solute4 ,l[]+ ( ! ,vap\r ,t5sion4--,! vap\r t5sion ( a liquid is l[]$ by ! addition ( a solute4 ,a liquid boils at ! temp]ature at :i* its vap\r t5sion equals t ( ! atmosph]e4 ,s9ce an aque\s solution ( sug> at atmosph]ic pressure does n beg9 to boil at #ajj;deg ,c41 x is manife/ t its vap\r t5sion is !n less ?an t ( ! #ba atmosph]e4 ,! addition ( a solute su* z sug>1 ^: solution is n ionizable1 & !re=e does n conduct electricity1 l[]s ! vap\r t5sion ( ! solution 9 proportion to ! molecul> conc5tration ( ! solute4 ,correspond+ ,values4--,we h ?us f\nd five prop]ties ( a solution :i* v>y proportionally1 s t f ! measurem5t ( any "o ( !m we c det]m9e ! correspond+ values ( all ! o!rs4 ,^! are-- #a4 ,! ,molecul> ,conc5tration4 #b4 ,! ,osmotic ,pressure4 #c4 ,! ,dim9ution ( ,vap\r ,t5sion4 #d4 ,! ,rais+ ( ! ,boil+ ,po9t4 #e4 ,! ,l[]+ ( ! ,freez+ ,po9t4 ,cryoscopy4--,! usual me?od employ$ = ! det]m9ation ( ! molecul> conc5tration & osmotic pressure ( a solution is by cryoscopy--! measurem5t ( its temp]ature ( congelation4 ,a v s5sitive !rmomet] is us$1 ! scale ( :i* ext5ds ov] only #e;deg & is divid$ into hundr$?s ( a degree4 ,! liquid "u exam9ation is plac$ 9 a te/ tube1 9 :i* ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] is plung$1 & ?is is support$ 9 a second tube ) an air space all r\nd x4 ,! :ole is !n susp5d$ to ! "u side ( ! cov] ( ! refrig]at+ vessel1 :i* may be cool$ ei!r by fill+ x ) a freez+ mixture1 or by ! evaporation ( e!r4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ! op]ation ! liquid is agitat$ by a me*anical /irr]4 ,! fir/ /ep is to det]m9e ! freez+ po9t ( di/ill$ wat]4 ,z ! wat] cools ! m]cury gradually desc5ds 9 ! /em ( ! !rmomet] till x rea*es a po9t bel[ ! z]o m>k at #j;deg ,c4 ,z soon z ice beg9s to =m ! m]cury rises1 at fir/ rapidly & !n m sl[ly1 rea*es a maximum1 & f9ally desc5ds aga94 ,?is maximum read+ is ! true po9t ( congelation4 ,! inn] tube is !n empti$1 c>e be+ tak5 to leave a few small ice cry/als to s]ve z c5tres ( congelation = ! subsequ5t exp]im5t1 ?us avoid+ sup]cool+ ( ! solution4 ,! process is !n repeat$ ) ! solution "u exam9ation4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 #bb ! two freez+ po9ts is ! requir$ l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t4 ,cryoscopy is ! me?od mo/ us$ 9 biological rese>* to det]m9e molecul> conc5tration4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 "s grave defects4 ,x necessitates sev]al cubic c5timetres ( ! liquid "u exam9ation4 ,x gives u ! con/ants ( ! solution at ! temp]ature ( freez+1 :i* is f> bel[ t ( life4 ,organic liquids are easily alt]$ & are extremely s5sible to m9ute diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 cryoscopy !re=e gives u no in=mation z to ! con/itution ( solutions "u normal conditions4 ,x is desirable to h "s o!r me?od ( det]m9+ molecul> conc5tration & ! o!r int]dep5d5t con/ants at ! normal temp]ature ( life4 ,a mu* bett] me?od1 7 x possible1 w\ld be ! direct det]m9ation ( ! vap\r t5sion ( ! solutions "u normal conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,molecul> ,l[]+ ( ! ,freez+ ,po9t4--,= e sub/ance ^: solution is n ioniz$ & !re=e does n conduct electricity1 ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t is ! same1 viz4 #a4he;deg ,c4 = ea* gramme-molecule ( ! solute p] litre ( ! solution4 ,det]m9ation ( ! ,molecul> ,conc5tration4--,9 ord] to obta9 ! molecul> conc5tration ( a non-ionizable sub/ance1 we h only to det]m9e ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t4 ,let ,a be ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t ( any solution4 ,on divid+ x by #a4he 7! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t = a normal solution71 we obta9 ! numb] ( gramme-molecules 9 a litre ( ! solution4 ,if n be ! numb] ( gramme-molecules p] litre1 !n n ,a _/ #a4he4 ,det]m9ation ( ! ,osmotic ,pressure4--,! osmotic pressure ,p ( a solution may be obta9$ by multiply+ its molecul> conc5tration n by #bb4ce atmosph]es4 ,p n x #bb4ce ,a _/ #a4he x #bb4ce4 ,det]m9ation ( ,molecul> ,weight4--,! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t also enables u to calculate ! molecul> #bc weight ( any non-ionizable solute4 ,?us ,b\*>d has be5 able to det]m9e by means ( cryoscopy ! mean molecul> weight ( ! sub/ances elim9at$ by ! ur9e4 ,a weight x ( ! sub/ance is dissolv$ 9 a litre ( wat]1 & ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t is obs]v$4 ,! value ?us f\nd divid$ by #a4he gives u n1 ! numb] ( gramme-molecules p] litre4 ,! molecul> weight ,m may be det]m9$ by divid+ ! orig9al weight x by n4 ,! /udy ( osmotic pressure 0 begun by ! ,abbe ,nollet2 & "o ( 8 disciples1 ,p>rot1 at an e>ly date ?us describ$ its importance3 ,x is a =ce analog\s 9 all respects to ! me*anical =ces1 a =ce able to set matt] 9 motion1 or to act z a /atic =ce 9 produc+ pressure4 ,x is ?is =ce :i* causes ! circulation ( het]og5e\s matt] 9 ! liquids :i* s]ve z its vehicle4 ,x is ?is =ce :i* produces ^? actions :i* escape our notice by _! m9ut5ess & bewild] u by _! results4 ,x is = ! inf9itely small p>ticles ( matt] :at gravitation is = heavy masses4 ,x c displace matt] 9 solution upw>ds aga9/ gravity z easily z d[nw>ds or 9 a horizontal direction4 ,?us ! recognition ( ! fact t a sub/ance 9 solution is really a gas1 has at a s+le /roke put u 9 possession ( ! laws ( osmotic pressure--laws sl[ly & labori\sly discov]$ by ! long s]ies ( inve/igations on ! pressure ( gases4 ,osmotic pressure plays a mo/ important role 9 ! ar5a ( life4 ,x is f\nd at "w 9 all ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,:5 osmotic pressure fails1 life itself ceases4 99 99 99 99 99 #bd ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,electrolytic ,,solutions ,solutions :i* conduct ,electricity4--,! laws ( solution :i* we h /udi$ 9 ! previ\s *apt] apply only to ^? solutions1 *iefly ( organic orig91 :i* d n conduct electricity4 ,solutions ( electrolytes su* z ! ord9>y salts1 acids1 & bases1 :i* are ioniz$ on solution1 give values = ! v>i\s con/ants ( solution :i* d n accord ) ^? requir$ by !ory4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we take a gramme-molecule ( an electrolyte su* z *loride ( sodium1 & dissolve x 9 a litre ( wat]1 we f9d t ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t is ne>ly d\ble ! !oretical value ( #a4he;deg4 ,! same holds good = ! osmotic pressure1 & = all ! con/ants :i* are proportional to ! molecul> conc5tration ( ! solute4 ,! solution behaves1 9 ea* case1 z if x conta9$ m ?an "o gramme-molecule ( sodium *loride p] litre4 ,x behaves1 9 fact1 z if x conta9$ i times ! numb] ( molecules ( solute orig9ally introduc$ into x4 ,if n be ! orig9al numb] ( molecules1 !n x w app>5tly conta9 n' 9 molecules4 ,?is law is univ]sal = all electrolytic solutions2 ! !oretical value = _! conc5tration1 osmotic pressure1 & all ! proportional physical con/ants mu/ be multipli$ by ?is quantity1 i n'_/n1 :i* is ! ratio ( ! app>5t numb] ( ! molecules pres5t to ! numb] orig9ally introduc$4 ,a simil> dissociation ( ! molecule is obs]v$ 9 ! case ( _m gases4 ,! vap\r ( *loride ( ammonium1 = in/ance1 is decompos$ by heat1 & x may be %[n exp]im5tally t ! increase ( pressure on heat+ above #be t :i* !ory dem&s1 is due to an increase 9 ! numb] ( ! gase\s molecules pres5t4 ,"s ( ! vap\r p>ticles are dissociat$ into two or m fragm5ts1 ea* ( :i* plays ! "p ( a s+le molecule4 ,arrh5ius1 9 #ahhe1 advanc$ ! hypo!sis t ! app>5t increase 9 ! numb] ( molecules ( an electrolytic solution 0 also due to dissociation4 ,?is int]pretation at once ?rew a flood ( light on a numb] ( ph5om5a hi!rto obscure4 ,coeffici5t ( ,dissociation4--,we h se5 t 9 ord] to obta9 values :i* accord ) exp]im5t we h to multiply ! numb] ( gramme-molecules ( ! solute by ! coeffici5t i1 :i* is call$ ! ,coeffici5t ( ,dissociation4 ,?is coeffici5t ( dissociation1 i1 may be f\nd by obs]v+ ! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t ( a normal solution1 & divid+ x by #a4he4 i t_/#a4he4 ,! coeffici5t ( dissociation v>ies ) ! degree ( conc5tration ( ! solution1 ris+ to a maximum :5 ! solution is suffici5tly dilut$4 ,if we "k i1 ! coeffici5t ( dissociation = a giv5 solute1 conta9$ 9 a solution ( a def9ite conc5tration1 we c f9d n'1 ! numb] ( p>ticles pres5t 9 a solution conta9+ n gramme-molecules ( ! solute p] litre1 s9ce n' 94 ,on ! o!r h&1 if f a consid]ation ( its freez+ po9t & o!r con/ants we f9d t an electrolytic solution appe>s to conta9 n' gramme-molecules p] litre1 ! real numb] ( *emical gramme-molecules 9 "o litre ( ! solution w be only n' _/ i n4 ,v conc5trat$ solutions d n con=m to ^! laws4 ,9 ?is !y resemble gases1 :i* z !y approa* _! po9t ( cond5sation t5d less & less to con=m to ! laws ( gase\s pressure4 ,electrolysis4--,if we take a solution ( an acid1 a salt1 or a base1 & dip into x two metallic rods1 "o connect$ to ! positive & ! o!r to ! negative pole ( a batt]y1 we #bf f9d t ! metals or metallic radicals ( ! solution are lib]at$ at ! negative pole1 :ile ! acid radicals ( ! salts & acids & ! hydroxyl ( ! bases are lib]at$ at ! positive pole4 ,! lib]at$ sub/ances may ei!r be dis*>g$ un*ang$1 or !y may ent] into new comb9ations1 caus+ a s]ies ( second>y reactions4 ,electrolytes4--,solutions :i* conduct electricity are call$ ,electrolytes1 & ! conduct+ metallic rods dipp+ into ! solution are ! ,electrodes4 ,f>aday gave ! names ( ,ions to ! atoms or atom-gr\ps lib]at$ at ei!r electrode4 ,! ions lib]at$ at ! positive electrode are ! ,anions1 & ^? at ! negative electrode are ! ,cations4 ,! only solutions :i* possess any notable degree ( electrical conductivity are ! aque\s solutions ( ! v>i\s salts1 acids1 & bases1 & 9 ^! solutions only d we meet ) ^? ph5om5a ( dissociation :i* are evid5c$ by anomalies ( osmotic pressure1 freez+ po9t & ! l1--anomalies :i* %[ t ! solution conta9s a great] numb] ( molecules ?an t indicat$ by its molecul> conc5tration4 ,^! anomalies are due to dissociation1 ! division ( "s ( ! molecules into fragm5ts1 ea* ( :i* plays ! "p ( a sep>ate molecule1 contribut+ its quota to ! osmotic t5sion & vap\r pressure ( ! solution1 9 fact to all ! ph5om5a :i* are dep5d5t on ! degree ( molecul> conc5tration4 ,! electrical conductivity ( a solution is !re=e prov$ to be dep5d5t on its molecul> dissociation4 ,arrh5ius' ,!ory ( ,electrolysis4--,9 #ahhe1 ,arrh5ius br\ght =w>d 8 !ory ( ! transport ( electricity by an electrolyte4 ,accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 ! electric curr5t is c>ri$ by ! ions1 ! positive *>ges by ! cations1 & ! negative *>ges by ! anions4 ,9 virtue ( ! attraction betwe5 *>ges ( diff]5t sign1 & repulsion betwe5 *>ges ( l sign1 ! cations are repell$ by ! positive *>ge on ! anode1 & attract$ by ! negative *>ge on ! ca?ode4 ,simil>ly ! anions are repell$ by ! ca?ode & attract$ by ! anode4 #bg ,an electrolytic solution conta9s ?ree v>ieties ( p>ticles1 positive ions or cations1 negative ions or anions1 & undissociat$ neutral molecules4 ,! molecul> conc5tration ( su* a solution1 ) ! correspond+ con/ants1 dep5ds on ! total numb] ( ^! p>ticles1 i4e4 ! sum ( ! ions & ! undissociat$ neutral molecules4 ,we may indicate an ion by plac+ above x ! sign ( its electrical *>ge1 "o sign = ea* val5cy4 ,?us ,na & ,cl- indicate ! two ions ( a salt solution2 ,cu & ,,s#d-- ! two ions ( a solution ( sulphate ( copp]4 ,a po9t is sometimes sub/itut$ = ! sign1 & a comma = ! - sign4 ,?us ,na4 & ,cl12 ,cu44 & ,,s#d114 ,my fri5d ,dr4 ,lewis ,jones has giv5 a v vivid picture ( ! processes :i* g on 9 an electrolytic solution :5 an electric curr5t is pass+4 ,he comp>es an electrolytic cell to a ballroom1 9 :i* are gyrat+ a numb] ( danc+ c\ples1 repres5t+ ! neutral molecules1 & a numb] ( isolat$ ladies & g5tlem5 repres5t+ ! anions & cations respectively4 ,if we suppose a mirror at "o end ( ! ballroom & a buffet at ! o!r1 ! ladies w gradually accumulate ar\nd ! mirror1 & ! g5tlem5 ar\nd ! buffet4 ,moreov]1 ! danc+ c\ples w gradually be dissociat$ 9 ord] to foll[ ?is movem5t4 ,degree ( ,dissociation4--,! degree ( dissociation is ! fraction ( ! molecules 9 ! solution :i* h und]gone dissociation4 ,let n be ! total numb] ( molecules ( ! solute1 & n ! numb] ( dissociat$ molecules4 ,!n n _/ n a w repres5t ! degree ( dissociation4 ,let k be ! numb] ( ions into :i* ea* molecule is split4 ,!n a nk _/ nk1 i4e4 ! degree ( dissociation is ! ratio ( ! numb] ( ions actually pres5t 9 a solution to ! numb] :i* w\ld be pres5t if all ! molecules ( ! solute 7 dissociat$4 ,let n' be ! total numb] ( p>ticles pres5t 9 a solution #bh conta9+ n molecules1 ea* ( :i* is compos$ ( k ions4 ,!n if a is ! degree ( dissociation1 n' n - an ank1 n' n#a a 7k - #a71 n' _/ n #a a 7k - #a7 i4 ,we ?us obta9 i ! coeffici5t ( dissociation1 9 t]ms ( ! degree ( dissociation a & ! numb] ( ions 9 ea* molecule k4 ,if !re is no dissociation1 i4e4 if a #j1 !n n' n1 & i #a4 ,if all ! molecules are dissociat$1 a #a1 & i k4 ,f>aday's ,law4--,f>aday f\nd t ! quantity ( electricity requir$ to lib]ate "o gramme-molecule ( any radical is #if4ecg c\lombs = ea* val5cy ( ! radical4 ,electro*emical ,equival5t4--,! electro*emical equival5t ( a radical is ! weight lib]at$ by "o c\lomb ( electricity4 ,x is equal to ! molecul> weight ( ! ion1 divid$ by #if4ecg times its val5cy4 ,electrolytic ,conductivity4--,! conductivity ( an electrolyte is ! inv]se ( its resi/ance4 ,c #a_/,r4 ,= a giv5 diff]5ce ( pot5tial ! conductivity ( an electrolyte is proportional to ! numb] ( ions 9 unit volume1 ! electrical *>ge on ea* ion1 & ! velocity ( ! ions4 ,! specific conductivity ,delta ( an electrolyte is ! conductivity ( a cube ( ! solution1 ea* face ( :i* is "o squ>e c5timetre 9 area4 ,! molecul> conductivity ( an electrolyte is ! conductivity ( a solution conta9+ "o gramme-molecule ( ! sub/ance plac$ betwe5 two p>allel conduct+ plates1 "o c5timetre ap>t4 ,! molecul> conductivity is indep5d5t ( ! volume occupi$ by ! gramme-molecule ( ! solute1 dep5d+ only on ! degree ( dissociation4 ,! molecul> conductivity ,u is equal to ! product ( ,v1 ! volume ( ! molecule1 by ,delta1 its specific conductivity4 ,u ,v,delta4 ,:5ce ,delta ,u _/ ,v1 i4e4 ! specific #bi conductivity equals ! molecul> conductivity divid$ by ! volume4 ,! conductivity ( an electrolyte is proportional to ! numb] ( ions 9 a volume ( ! solution conta9+ "o gramme-molecule4 ,let ,minf9ity be ! conductivity = complete dissociation & ,mv ! molecul> conductivity at ! volume ,v4 ,!n ,mv _/ ,minf9ity nk _/ nk n _/ n a1 ! degree ( dissociation4 ,?is is ,o/wald's law1 :i* says t ! degree ( dissociation is equal to ! ratio ( conductivity :5 ! gramme-molecule occupies a volume ,v1 to its conductivity :5 ! solution is s dilute t dissociation is complete4 ,h5ce ! degree ( dissociation may also be det]m9$ by comp>+ ! electrical conductivities ( two solutions ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration4 -- -- -- -- -- -- ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,fig4 #a4--;,be=e ! passage ( ! curr5t4 -- -- -- ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d ,,s#d - ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ,cu ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,fig4 #b4--;,aft] ! passage ( ! curr5t4 ,velocity ( ! ,ions4--,if ! electrolytic cell is divid$ into two segm5ts by means ( a por\s diaphragm1 we %all f9d aft] a "t an unequal di/ribution ( ! solute on ! two sides4 ,= in/ance1 ) a solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 aft] ! curr5t has pass$ = "s "t !re w be a dim9ution ( conc5tration 9 ! liquid on bo? sides ( ! diaphragm1 b ! loss w be v unequally divid$4 ,two-?irds ( ! loss ( conc5tration w be on ! side ( ! negative electrode & only "o-?ird on ! positive side4 ,9 #ahec1 ,hittorf gave ! foll[+ +5i\s explanation ( ?is ph5om5on3-- #cj ,fig4 #a repres5ts an electrolytic vessel conta9+ a solution ( sulphate ( copp]1 ! v]tical l9e indicat+ a por\s p>tition sep>at+ ! vessel into two p>ts4 ,fig4 #b %[s ! same vessel aft] ! passage ( ! curr5t4 ,! acid radical has travell$ twice z fa/ z ! metal4 ,= ea* copp] ion :i* has pass$ ?r\gh ! por\s plate t[>ds ! ca?ode two acid radicals h pass$ ?r\gh x t[>ds ! anode4 ,?ree ions h be5 lib]at$ at ei!r electrode1 b 9 consequ5ce ( ! diff]5ce ( velocity ) :i* ! positive & ! negative ions h travell$1 ! negative side ( ! vessel conta9s only "o molecule ( copp] sulphate & has lo/ two-?irds ( its molecul> conc5tration1 :ile ! positive side conta9s two molecules ( copp] sulphate & has only lo/ "o-?ird ( its conc5tration4 ,?is proves cle>ly t ! ions move 9 diff]5t directions ) diff]5t velocities4 ,let u be ! velocity ( ! anions1 & v ! velocity ( ! cations4 ,let n be ! loss ( conc5tration at ! ca?ode1 & #a - n ! loss ( conc5tration at ! anode4 ,!n u _/ v n _/ 7#a - n71 i4e4 ! loss ( conc5tration at ! ca?ode is to ! loss ( conc5tration at ! anode z ! velocity ( ! anions is to t ( ! cations4 ,h5ce by measur+ ! loss ( conc5tration at ! two electrodes1 we h an easy means ( det]m9+ ! comp>ative velocity ( diff]5t ions4 ,9 #ahgf1 ,kohlraus* comp>$ ! conductivity ( ! *lorides1 bromides1 & iodides ( potassium1 sodium1 & ammonium respectively4 ,he f\nd t alt]+ ! cation did n affect ! diff]5ces ( conductivity betwe5 ! ?ree salts1 ?us %[+ t ^! diff]5ces ( conductivity 7 dep5d5t on ! nature ( ! anion only1 & n on ! p>ticul> base ) :i* x 0 comb9$4 ,! diff]5ce ( conductivity betwe5 an iodide & a bromide1 = example1 is ! same :e!r potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium salts are comp>$4 ,a simil> exp]im5t has be5 made ) a s]ies ( cations comb9$ ) v>i\s anions4 ,! diff]5ce ( conductivity ( ! salts 9 ! s]ies is ! same :i*ev] anion is us$1 i4e4 ! diff]5ce ( conductivity betwe5 potassium *loride & sodium *loride is ! same z t betwe5 #ca potassium bromide & sodium bromide4 ,h5ce we may conclude t ! conductivity ( any salt is an ionic prop]ty4 ,kohlraus*'s law may be express$ by ! =mula c d7u v71 :]e c is ! conductivity ( ! salt1 d ! degree ( dissociation1 i4e4 ! fraction ( ! electrolyte brok5 up into ions1 & u & v ! velocity ( ! anions & cations respectively4 ,:5 all ! molecules ( ! electrolyte are dissociat$1 d #a1 & ! =mula becomes cinf9ity u v4 ,z we h already se51 a salt is =m$ by ! union ( a metal ,m ) an acid radical ,r4 ,potassium sulphate1 ,k#b,,s#d1 consi/s ( ! metal ,k#b & ! acid radical ,,s#d4 ,ammonium *loride1 ,,nh#d;,cl1 consi/s ( ! basic radical ,,nh#d & ! acid radical ,cl4 ,! v>i\s acids may be consid]$ z salts ( ! metal hydrog54 ,?us sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d1 is ! sulphate ( hydrog54 ,bases may be consid]$ z salts ) ! hydroxyl gr\p1 ,,oh1 replac+ ! acid radical4 ,?us pota%1 ,,koh1 is ! hydroxyl ( potassium4 ,! v>i\s electrolytic comb9ations may be repres5t$ by ! foll[+ symbols3-- ,salts ,,mr4 ,acids ,,hr4 ,bases ,,moh4 ,! v>i\s *emical reactions ( an electrolyte are all ionic reactions1 ! *emical activity ( an electrolytic solution be+ proportional to its electric conductivity1 i4e4 ! degree ( dissociation ( its ions4 ,! acidity ( an electrolytic solution is due to ! pres5ce ( ! dissociat$ ion ,h1 & its /r5g? is det]m9$ by ! conc5tration ( ^! free hydrog5 ions4 ,h5ce ! great] ! degree ( dissociation ! /rong] ! acid4 ,! basic "* ( a solution is det]m9$ by ! pres5ce ( ! hydroxyl radical ,,oh-4 ,! great] ! conc5tration ( ! hydroxyl ions1 i4e4 ! great] ! dissociation1 ! /rong] is ! base4 ,! ions ,h & ,,oh- are ( special importance1 s9ce !y are ! ions ( wat]1 ,h#b,o ,h ,,oh-4 ,! degree ( #cb dissociation ( pure wat] is b small4 ,wat] is1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ important ( all ! v>i\s ag5ts 9 ! *emical reactions ( life1 s9ce a l>ge numb] ( organic sub/ances are decompos$ by wat] by a process ( hydrolysis1 & a va/ numb] ( organic sub/ances are b comb9ations ( c>bon ) ! ions ,h & ,,oh-1 _! div]sity be+ due to v>iations 9 ! relative proportions & gr\p+4 ,! ,*emical1 ,!rapeutic1 & ,toxic ,actions ( ,ions4--,! *emical1 !rapeutic1 antiseptic1 & toxic actions ( electrolytic solutions are almo/ exclusively due to ionization4 ,take1 = in/ance1 a solution ( nitrate ( silv] 9 :i* ! addition ( *lor9e produces a :ite precipitate ( *loride ( silv]4 ,?is precipitate occurs only :5 ! solution add$ is "o su* z ,na,cl1 :]e ! *lor9e is pres5t z ! free ion ,cl-4 ,no su* precipitate is produc$ 9 a solution ( *lorate ( potassium or *loracetic acid1 :]e ! *lor9e is entangl$ 9 ! complex ion ,cl,o#c or ,c#b;,h#c;,cl,o#b4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! toxic & ph>macological prop]ties ( an electrolyte dep5d entirely on ! ionic gr\p+1 x behoves ! physician & ! biologi/ to /udy ! /ructure & gr\p+ ( ! ions 9 a molecule1 r ?an t ( ! atoms4 ,consid] = a mom5t ! totally diff]5t prop]ties ( ! phosphides & ! phosphates4 ,! =m] are extremely toxic1 :ile ! latt] are p]fectly h>mless4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ analogy betwe5 _! actions on ! liv+ organism4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all ! phosphides produce ! same toxic & !rapeutic effects1 :atev] ! cation ) :i* !y are unit$4 ,_! toxic prop]ties are d]iv$ f ! pres5ce ( ! free phosphorus ion ,p---4 ,! phosphates conta9 phosphorus 9 ! same proportion z ! phosphides1 b ?is phosphorus is h>mlessly entangl$ 9 ! complex ion ,,po#d---1 ^: prop]ties are absolutely diff]5t f ^? ( ! ion ,p---4 ,! above consid]ations apply equally to ! *lorides & *lorates1 ! iodides & iodates1 ! sulphides & sulphates1 & 9 g5]al to all *emical salts4 #cc ,! "q has an intimate be>+ on practical ph>macology4 ,:5 we prescribe a cacodylate or an amyl>s9ate1 we are n prescrib+ an ars5ical treatm5t ^: effects c be comp>$ ) ^? ( an ars5ide1 an ars5ite1 or an ars5ate4 ,?is fact is suffici5tly indicat$ by ! diff]5ce 9 ! toxic doses ( ! diff]5t salts4 ,ea* v>iety ( ars5ical ion has its own special physiological & !rapeutic prop]ties4 ,we d n expect to obta9 ! results ( a f]rug9\s treatm5t f ! adm9i/ration ( a f]rocyanide or a f]ricyanide4 ,bo? conta9 iron1 x is true1 b nei!r possess ! prop]ties ( ! cation ,fe1 b r ^? ( ! complex anion ( :i* !y =m a "p4 ,we h already said t mo/ ( ! !rapeutic1 toxic1 & cau/ic actions ( an electrolyte are due to ionic action1 & ! sub/ances c !re=e h no toxic action unless !y are dissociat$4 ,_m ( ! solv5ts employ$ 9 m$ic9e1 su* z alcohol1 glyc]9e1 vasel9e1 & *lor(orm dissolve ! electrolytes b d n dissociate !m into ions1 & ^! solutions !re=e d n conduct electricity4 ,su* solutions h no !rapeutic action4 ,) ! abs5ce ( dissociation all ! ionic toxic & cau/ic effects also disappe> entirely1 & only re-appe> z ! wat] ( ! tissue is able sl[ly to effect ! necess>y dissociation4 ,c>bolic acid dissolv$ 9 glyc]9e is h>dly cau/ic & b v slightly toxic4 ,we h met ) sev]al in/ances 9 :i* a tablespoonful ( c>boliz$ glyc]9e1 9 equal p>ts1 has be5 swall[$ )\t any ill effect1 ei!r cau/ic or toxic1 :]eas ! same dose dissolv$ 9 wat] w\ld h be5 fatal4 ,?is abs5ce ( dissociation has enabl$ ! surgeon ,m5ci]e to inject c>bolic & glyc]9e 9 equal proportions into ! l>g] jo9ts1 ! "p be+ subsequ5tly wa%$ out ) pure alcohol4 ,?us by employ+ vasel9e1 oil1 or glyc]9e z a solv5t1 & avoid+ ! access ( wat]1 we are able to use electrolytic antiseptics 9 v conc5trat$ =m4 ,_! action is br\ght out v sl[ly1 z ! wat] ( ! organism effects ! necess>y dissociation ( ! electrolyte4 #cd ,s9ce all *emical1 toxic1 & !rapeutic actions are ionic1 !y are proportional to ! degree ( ionic conc5tration1 i4e4 to ! numb] ( ions 9 a giv5 volume4 ,! only po9t ( importance1 t :i* det]m9es _! activity1 :e!r *emical or !rapeutic1 is ! degree ( ionization or dissociation4 ,= example1 all acids h ! same cation ,h4 ,!y h all id5tical prop]ties1 b !y diff] widely 9 ! int5sity ( _! action4 ,!re are weak acids su* z acetic acid1 & /rong acids l sulphuric acid4 ,! /rong] acids are ^? :i* are m ?or\ghly dissociat$1 & 9 :i* ! ion ,h is v conc5trat$2 :]eas ! feeble acids are b slightly dissociat$1 s t ! ion ,h is less conc5trat$4 ,paul & ,kro5ig h %[n t ! bact]icidal action ( diff]5t salts also v>ies ) _! degree ( dissociation1 i4e4 ) ! conc5tration ( ! active ions4 ,!y made a s]ies ( obs]vations on ! bact]icidal action ( v>i\s salts ( m]cury1 ! bi*loride1 ! bibromide1 & ! bicyanide1 on ! spores ( ,bacillus an?racis4 ,! foll[+ results 7 obta9$ f a comp>ison ( solutions conta9+ #a gramme-molecule ( ! salt 9 #fd litres ( wat]4 ,) ! bi*loride solution1 aft] exposure to ! solution = tw5ty m9utes1 only #g colonies ( ! bacillus 7 develop$4 ,aft] exposure to a simil> solution ( ! bibromide ! numb] ( colonies 0 #cd4 ,! antiseptic action ( ! bi*loride 0 !re=e five times z great z t ( ! bibromide4 ,! bicyanide ( m]cury1 h[ev]1 ev5 :5 f\r times z conc5trat$1 p]mitt$ ! gr[? ( an enorm\s numb] ( colonies1 %[+ t x _h no appreciable antiseptic action :atev]4 ,nev]!less1 ! proportion ( ,hg is ! same 9 all ! solutions1 & if !re 7 any diff]5ce "o w\ld naturally expect t ! ion ,cy- w\ld be m toxic ?an ,cl- or ,br-4 ,! real condition :i* v>ies 9 ^! solutions & det]m9es _! activity is ! degree ( dissociation4 ,! :ole ( ! antiseptic prop]ty resides 9 ! ion ,hg4 ,?is ion is v #ce conc5trat$ 9 ! highly dissociat$ solution ,hg,cl#b1 less conc5trat$ 9 ! less ioniz$ solution ,hg,br#b1 & exce$+ly dilute 9 ! ,hg,cy#b1 :i* is h>dly ioniz$ at all4 ,:at is true ( ! bact]icidal action ( ! salts ( m]cury is equally true ( _! !rapeutic effect4 ,x is a great mi/ake to e/imate ! m$ic9al activity ( a solution ( a salt ( m]cury1 or inde$ ( any electrolytic solution1 simply by its degree ( molecul> conc5tration4 ,! important po9t is ! degree ( dissociation1 :i* is ! only true measure ( its activity4 ,9 ! intramuscul> injection ( m]cury salts x is by no means a matt] ( indiff]5ce :at salt we employ4 ,a salt %\ld be us$ su* z ! bi*loride or ! b9iodide1 :i* is easily dissociat$4 ,o!r salts are (t5 employ$ because !y occasion less pa9 at ! site ( injection2 b ! pa9 is a sign ( ! degree ( activity ( ! prep>ation4 ,! pa91 x is true1 may be avoid$ by us+ a salt :i* is less easily dissociat$1 or 9 :i* ! m]cury is b\nd up 9 a complex ion1 b by s do+ we dim9i% ! efficacy ( ! rem$y4 ,x is moreov] q easy to dim9i%1 or ev5 entirely to suppress1 ! pa91 by us+ a v dilute solution ( an active ioniz$ salt4 ,a "o-half p] c5t4 or ev5 "o-qu>t] p] c5t4 solution ( ! bi*loride or b9iodide ( m]cury may be inject$ v sl[ly 9 suffici5t quantity )\t produc+ ! slighte/ discom=t4 ,local action dep5ds entirely on ionic conc5tration4 ,"o drop ( pure sulphuric acid w de/roy ! sk91 :]eas ! same am\nt if dilut$ 9 a tumbl]ful ( wat] w furni% a refre%+ dr9k4 99 99 99 99 99 #cf ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,colloids ,z we h already se51 liv+ organisms are =m$ ess5tially ( liquids4 ,^! liquids are solutions ( cry/allizable sub/ances or cry/alloids1 & non-cry/allizable sub/ances or colloids--a classification :i* we owe to ,graham4 ,! liquids are ! mo/ important con/itu5ts ( a liv+ organism1 s9ce !y are ! seat ( all ! *emical & physical ph5om5a ( life4 ,! junction ( two liquids ( diff]5t conc5tration is ! ar5a 9 :i* takes place bo? ! *emical trans=mation ( matt] & ! correlative trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,9 a =m] *apt] we h pass$ 9 review ! class ( cry/alloids1 we w n[ turn our att5tion to ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( colloids4 ,colloids4--,colloids diff] f cry/alloids 9 t !y d n =m cry/als f solution1 be+ completely amorph\s :5 9 ! solid /ate4 ,! solution ( a colloid solidifies 9 ! same =m :i* x possess$ 9 ! liquid /ate1 ! solv5t be+ enclos$ 9 ! me%es ( a sort ( network =m$ by ! solute4 ,?is =m is approximately reta9$ ev5 aft] ! wat] has evaporat$ by dry+1 ! passage f ! liquid /ate ( solution to ! solid /ate be+ effect$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( int]m$i>y /ates1 su* z a clot1 coagulum1 or jelly4 ,?is passage f ! /ate ( solution into a /ate ( jelly is call$ coagulation4 ,"s colloids1 su* z gelat9e1 coagulate ) cold2 :ile o!rs1 su* z egg-album91 coagulate ) heat4 ,"s1 l ! case9e ( milk1 require ! addition ( c]ta9 *emical sub/ances to set up coagulation2 :ile /ill o!rs1 su* z ! fibr9 ( blood1 appe> to coagulate spontane\sly4 ,! physical ph5om5a ( #cg coagulation are /ill b little und]/ood4 ,9 "s cases x is a rev]sible ph5om5on1 ?us gelat9e coagulat$ by cold is r$issolv$ by heat2 :]eas ) o!r colloids ! process is irrev]sible1 album9 coagulat$ by heat is n r$issolv$ on cool+4 ,colloids 9 a /ate ( coagulation h a vacuol> or sponge-l /ructure4 ,! solv5t is imprison$ 9 ! vacuoles ( ! clot1 & is expell$ little by little by its retraction4 ,colloids diffus$ 9 wat] are usually call$ colloidal solutions1 b !y are n true solutions4 ,su* a pseudo-solution ( a colloid is call$ a sol1 :ile a colloid 9 a /ate ( coagulation is call$ a gel4 ,colloidal solutions spread b little1 diffuse v sl[ly 9 ! liquids ( ! body1 & _c p5etrate organic membranes4 ,colloidal solutions diffuse light1 unlike cry/alloid solutions1 :i* are transp>5t4 ,we all "k h[ ! trajectory ( a beam ( sunlight ?r\gh a d>k5$ room is r5d]$ visible by ! p>ticles ( du/4 ,9 ! same way if a colloidal solution is illum9at$ by a transv]se ray ( light1 ! light is diffus$ by ! molecules ( ! colloid 9 semi-solution1 & ! liquid appe>s fa9tly illum9at$ on a d>k backgr\nd4 ,! light diffus$ by a colloidal solution is pol>iz$1 :i* %[s t x is reflect$ light1 ,si$5topf & ,sigmondy h appli$ ?is pr9ciple ( lat]al illum9ation on a d>k backgr\nd to ! con/ruction ( ! ultra-microscope4 ,) ! aid ( ?is in/rum5t we may n only see1 b c\nt ! p>ticles 9 a colloidal solution1 :i* is 9 reality m]ely a pseudo-solution or susp5sion1 9 contradi/9ction to ! true solution ( a cry/alloid4 ,colloidal solutions possess only a v feeble osmotic pressure4 ,! l[]+ ( ! freez+ po9t & ! o!r correspond+ con/ants are also q insignificant4 ,?is arises f ! fact t ! molecules ( a colloid are extremely l>ge :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( a cry/alloid4 ,= example let u take colloidal sub/ance ^: molecul> weight is #bjjj4 ,a solution conta9+ #dj grammes p] litre w\ld h an osmotic pressure only "o-fiftie? ( t ( a #ch solution ( simil> /r5g? ( a cry/alloid ^: molecul> weight 0 #dj4 ,n only s1 b on measur+ ! molecul> conc5tration1 ! osmotic pressure1 & ! o!r con/ants ( a colloidal solution1 we f9d values ev5 l[] ?an ^? :i* we %\ld expect f a consid]ation ( its molecul> weight4 ,?is is probably due to ! t5d5cy ( a colloid to polym]ization1 i4e4 to =m gr\ps or associations ( molecules4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 t ! molecules ( a colloidal solution are aggregat$ into gr\ps ( t54 ,s9ce ea* gr\p plays ! "p ( a simple molecule1 ! osmotic pressure w be t5 times less ?an t correspond+ to ! quantity ( ! solute pres5t4 ,su* a gr\p ( molecules is call$ by ,naegeli a micella4 ,simil> ph5om5a ( aggregation may be obs]v$ 9 ! molecules ( _m inorganic sub/ances4 ,! molecule ( iod9e1 = example1 is monatomic at #abjj;deg ,c41 b becomes diatomic at ! ord9>y temp]ature4 ,sulphur at #hfj;deg ,c4 is a gas ) a vap\r d5sity ( #b4b1 :ile at #ejj;deg ,c4 its vap\r d5sity rises to #f4f4 ,9 bo? ( ^! cases two or m molecules ( ! elem5t h be5 cond5s$ into "o z a result ( ! fall ( temp]ature4 ,we frequ5tly f9d t two successive cryoscopic obs]vations on ! freez+ po9t ( ! same colloidal solution w v>y4 ,?is is due to ! extreme s5sitiv5ess ( ! micellae1 :i* absorb or ab&on _! extra molecules "u ! slighte/ influ5ce4 ,?is mobility 9 ! con/itution ( ! micellae appe>s to be "o ( ! pr9cipal causes ( ! peculi> prop]ties ( colloidal solutions4 ,! ph5om5on ( polym]ization appe>s to be rev]sible4 ,! micellae are =m$ "u c]ta9 conditions1 & are dis9tegrat$ :5 ^! conditions are remov$4 ,! osmotic pressure v>ies 9 ! same mann]1 dim9i%+ ) polym]ization & augm5t+ ) ! dis9tegration ( ! micellae4 ,"o may easily und]/& :at an important role is play$ by ?is alt]nate polym]ization & dis9tegration 9 ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,mo/ colloidal sub/ances are precipitat$ f _! solutions by ! addition ( v small quantities ( electrolytic #ci solutions4 ,non-electrolytic solutions d n appe> to provoke ?is precipitation4 ,?is is n a *emical action1 = an exce$+ly small quantity ( an electrolyte is able to precipitate an indef9ite quantity ( ! colloid4 ,! precipitation is probably due to ! electric *>ges c>ri$ by ! dissociat$ ions ( ! electrolytes4 ,:5 an electric curr5t is pass$ ?r\gh a colloid solution1 ! c\rse ( ! molecules ( ! colloid is sometimes t[>ds ! ca?ode & sometimes t[>ds ! anode1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! colloid & ( ! solv5t4 ,?is displacem5t w\ld appe> to indicate a diff]5ce ( electric pot5tial betwe5 ! molecules ( ! colloid & ^? ( ! solv5t4 ,h>dy has %[n t 9 an alkal9e solution ! molecules ( album9 travel t[>ds ! anode1 :ile 9 an acid solution !y travel t[>ds ! ca?ode4 ,metallic ,colloids4--,c>ey ,lea & aft]w>ds ,cr$e succe$$ 9 obta9+ silv] 9 colloidal solution by ord9>y *emical means4 ,pr(essor ,br$ig has introduc$ a m g5]al me?od ( obta9+ a numb] ( metals 9 colloidal solutions 9 a /ate ( great purity4 ,he causes an electric arc to pass betwe5 two rods ( ! metal imm]s$ 9 di/ill$ wat]4 ,! ca?ode is ?us pulv]iz$ into a v f9e p[d] :i* re/s 9 susp5sion 9 ! liquid1 con/itut+ a colloidal solution4 ,br$ig has 9 ?is way prep>$ sols ( plat9um1 palladium1 iridium1 silv]1 & cadmium4 ,catalytic ,prop]ties ( ,colloids4--,catalysis is ! prop]ty possess$ by c]ta9 bodies ( initiat+ *emical reaction4 ,! mass ( ! catalyz+ body has no def9ite proportion to t ( ! sub/ances ent]+ into ! reaction1 & ! appe>ance ( ! catalyz] is 9 no way alt]$ by ! reaction4 ,o/wald has %[n t catalysis consi/s ess5tially 9 ! accel]ation or ret>dation ( *emical reactions :i* w\ld take place )\t ! action ( ! catalyz]1 b m sl[ly4 ,catalytic reactions are v num]\s 9 *emi/ry4 ,! inv]sion ( sug> by acids1 ! e!rization ( alcohol by sulphuric acid1 ! decomposition ( hydrog5 p]oxide by #dj plat9um black are all in/ances ( catalysis4 ,f]m5tation by means ( a soluble f]m5t or dia/ase1 a ph5om5on :i* may almo/ be call$ vital1 is also a catalytic action4 ,! action ( peps91 ( ! pancreatic f]m5t1 ( zymase1 & ( o!r simil> f]m5ts has a great analogy ) ! purely physical ph5om5on ( catalysis4 ,! dia/ases are all colloids1 & s are _m o!r catalyz]s4 ,a catalyz] is a /imulus :i* excites a trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,! catalyz] plays ! same role 9 a *emical trans=mation z does ! m9imal excit+ =ce :i* sets free ! accumulation ( pot5tial en]gy previ\s to its trans=mation into k9etic en]gy4 ,a catalyz] is ! friction ( ! mat* :i* sets free ! *emical en]gy ( ! p[d] magaz9e4 ,br$ig has /udi$ ! catalytic decomposition ( hydrog5 p]oxide by metallic colloids prep>$ by 8 electric me?od4 ,he f\nd t #a atom-gramme ( colloidal plat9um gives a s5sible catalytic effect :5 dilut$ ) #gj million litres ( wat]4 ,cau/ic soda & o!r *emical sub/ances inhibit ! catalytic action ( colloidal plat9um 9 ! same way z !y inhibit ! f]m5t+ action ( dia/ase4 ,! curve ( decomposition ( hydrog5 p]oxide by colloidal plat9um may be comp>$ ) ! curve ( f]m5tation by emuls94 ,bo? are equally affect$ by ! addition ( an alkali4 ,_m o!r *emical & physical ag5ts h a simil> inhibitory action on ! catalysis ( colloidal metals & on dia/asic f]m5tation4 ,?us a m]e trace ( sulphurett$ hydrog5 or hydrocyanic acid w p>alyse ! action ( a colloidal metal1 j z x does t ( a f]m5t4 ,?is is :at ,br$ig calls ! poison+ ( metallic f]m5ts4 ,we may hope t ! fur!r /udy ( catalysis1 a purely physico-*emical ph5om5on1 may ?r[ m light on ! me*anism ( dia/asic f]m5tation1 :i* is ess5tially a vital reaction4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t all classification is artificial & arbitr>y1 & only to be us$ z long z x facilitates /udy4 ,?is obs]vation is p>ticul>ly applicable to ! classification ( sub/ances into cry/alloids & colloids4 #da ,!re is no %>p l9e betwe5 ! two gr\ps1 ! passage is gradual1 & x is impossible to say :]e "o gr\p ends & ! o!r beg9s4 ,_m colloids su* z haemoglob9 are cry/allizable1 & _m cry/allizable sub/ances are coagulable4 ,_m sub/ances appe> at "o "t 9 ! cry/alloid /ate & at ano!r "t 9 ! colloidal /ate1 s t in/ead ( divid+ sub/ances into colloids & cry/alloids1 we %\ld r consid] ^! expressions z d5ot+ diff]5t phases assum$ by ! same sub/ance4 ,9 ord] to def9e cle>ly our v>i\s classes & divisions1 we are apt to exagg]ate slight diff]5ces ( prop]ties or composition4 ,we say t colloids h no osmotic pressure1 :]eas 9 fact ! osmotic pressure ( ! colloids ?\gh feeble plays a v important "p 9 ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,s 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce--a factor :i* is almo/ inf9itesimal may yet ex]cise a va/ influ5ce on ! results4 ,x is by inf9itesimal v>iations ( pressure1 a ?\s&? ( a millimetre or less1 t we obta9 ! v>i\s degrees ( p5etration 9 ! ,ro5tg5 rays4 ,! division into solutions & pseudo-solutions or susp5sions is also an arbitr>y "o4 ,a true solution is also a susp5sion ( ! molecules ( ! solute4 ,!re is no ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 a solution & a susp5sion1 b only a diff]5ce 9 ! size ( ! molecules1 or agglom]ations ( molecules1 9 "o case s small z to be transp>5t1 & 9 ! o!r case j big en\gh to diffuse light4 ,!re are moreov] _m prop]ties common to colloidal solutions & susp5sions ( f9e p[d]s1 su* z kaol91 ma/ic1 *>coal1 or ,indian ink4 ,^! p>ticles 9 susp5sion are precipitat$ by solutions ( electrolytes 9 a mann] simil> to ! coagulation ( colloids4 ,! surface ( e liquid is cov]$ by a v ?9 lay]1 a sort ( membrane slightly diff]5tiat$ f ! re/ ( ! liquid4 ,?is membrane may be a *emical "o1 a pellicul> precipitate l t :i* is =m$ by ! contact ( two membranog5\s liquids4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! membrane may n diff] f ! subjac5t liquid 9 *emical composition1 b only 9 physical prop]ties4 ,if we #db consid] ! molecules 9 ! middle ( a liquid1 ea* molecule is subject$ to ! cohesive attraction ( molecules on e side1 attractions :i* neutralize "o ano!r4 ,at ! surface ( ! liquid1 h[ev]1 !re are q o!r conditions ( equilibrium4 ,!re ea* molecule is drawn d[nw>ds t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! liquid1 & !re is no comp5sat+ attraction 9 an opposite direction4 ,! resultant pressure is normal to ! surface ( ! liquid1 & is me*anically equival5t to an ela/ic membrane :i* t5ds to dim9i% ! surface1 & h5ce ! volume ( ! liquid4 ,we may !re=e reg>d ?is surface t5sion z act+ ! "p ( a v]itable physical membrane4 ,!re is a /ill fur!r diff]5tiation ( ! surface ( a liquid4 ,:5 ! liquid is n a simple "o1 b complex z 9 a solution1 we f9d t ! conc5tration ( ! solute is great] at ! surface ?an 9 ! int]ior4 ,?is is ! s-call$ ph5om5on ( adsorption1 :i* is ano!r cause = ! production ( a physical membrane cov]+ ! surface ( a liquid4 ,sub/ances 9 a colloidal /ate h a great t5d5cy to =m ^! *emical or physical membranes at ! po9t ( contact betwe5 ! colloidal solute & ! solv5t4 ,?is is probably ! reason :y ! coagulum ( a colloidal liquid usually pres5ts a vacuol> or spongy /ructure4 99 99 99 99 99 #dc ,,*apt] ,v ,,diffusion ,,& ,,osmosis ,diffusion & ,osmosis4--,if we place a lump ( sug> 9 ! bottom ( a glass ( wat]1 x w dissolve1 & spread by sl[ degrees equally ?r\gh\t ! :ole volume ( ! liquid4 ,if we p\r a conc5trat$ solution ( sulphate ( copp] into ! bottom ( a glass vessel1 & c>efully p\r ov] x a lay] ( cle> wat]1 ! liquids1 at fir/ %>ply sep>at$ by _! diff]5ce ( d5sity1 w gradually mix1 s z to =m a solution hav+ exactly ! same composition 9 all p>ts ( ! j>4 ,! process :]eby ! sug> & ! copp] sulphate spread uni=mly ?r\gh ! :ole mass ( ! liquid 9 opposition to gravity is call$ ,diffusion4 ,?is diffusion ( ! solute is a ph5om5on exactly analog\s to ! expansion ( a gas4 ,x is ! expression ( osmotic pressure1 or r ( ! diff]5ce ( ! osmotic pressure ( ! solute 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! vessel4 ,! molecules ( ! solute move f a place :]e ! osmotic pressure is great] t[>ds a position :]e ! osmotic pressure is less4 ,! wat] molecules on ! o!r h& pass f positions :]e ! osmotic pressure ( ! solute is less t[>ds positions :]e x is great]4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is d\ble circulation ! osmotic pressure t5ds to become equaliz$ 9 all p>ts ( ! vessel4 ,diffusion appe>s to be ! fundam5tal physical ph5om5on ( life4 ,x is go+ on cont9ually 9 ! tissues ( all liv+ be+s1 & a /udy ( ! laws ( diffusion & osmosis is !re=e absolutely necess>y = a j conception ( vital ph5om5a4 ,coeffici5t ( ,diffusion4--,! coeffici5t ( diffusion has #dd be5 def9$ by ,fick z ! quantity ( a solute :i* 9 "o second trav]ses ea* squ>e c5timetre ( ! cross section ( a column ( liquid #a c5timetre long1 betwe5 ! opposite sides ( :i* !re is unit diff]5ce ( conc5tration4 ,n]n/ 9 8 def9ition sub/itutes unit diff]5ce ( osmotic pressure = unit diff]5ce ( conc5tration4 ,until rec5tly x 0 g5]ally believ$ t diffusion took place 9 colloids & plasmas j z 9 pure wat]4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 by no means ! case3 ! diff]5ces are consid]able4 ,:5 a solute is introduc$ into a colloidal solution1 ! great] ! conc5tration ( ! colloid ! sl[] w be ! diffusion4 ,?is may be %[n by a simple exp]im5t4 ,sev]al glass plates are prep>$1 by spread+ on ea* a solution ( gelat9e ( diff]5t conc5tration1 to :i* a few drops ( ph5ol ph?ale9 h be5 add$4 ,if n[ a drop ( an alkal9e solution be plac$ on ea* plate1 we c see t ! drop diffuses m sl[ly ?r\gh ! m conc5trat$ gelat9e solution1 s9ce ! pres5ce ( ! alkali is r5d]$ visible by ! coloration ( ! ph5ol ph?ale94 ,a simil> demon/ration may be made by all[+ drops ( acid to diffuse ?r\gh solutions ( gelat9e made slightly alkal9e & col\r$ ) ph5ol ph?ale94 ,9 g5]al1 we f9d on exp]im5t t :5 simil> drops ( any col\r$ or col\r+ solution are left = an equal "t on plates ( gelat9e ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration1 ! great] ! conc5tration ( ! gelat9e ! small] w be ! circle ( coloration obta9$4 ,we may %[ t ! rapidity ( diffusion dim9i%es z ! gelat9\s conc5tration increases1 by ano!r exp]im5t4 ,if we put side by side on our gelat9e plate a drop ( sulphate ( copp] & ano!r ( f]rocyanide ( potassium1 ! po9t ( contact ( ! two fluids w be %>ply m>k$ by a l9e ( precipitate4 ,we f9d t "u simil> conditions ! "t betwe5 ! s[+ ( ! drops & ! =mation ( ?is l9e ( precipitate is long] :5 ! gelat9e is m conc5trat$4 ,osmosis4--,9 #agdh1 l',abbe ,nollet discov]$ t :5 a pig's bladd] fill$ ) alcohol 0 plung$ into wat]1 ! #de wat] pass$ into ! bladd] m rapidly ?an ! alcohol pass$ out2 ! bladd] became di/5d$1 ! int]nal pressure increas$1 & ! liquid spirt$ out :5 ! bladd] 0 prick$ by a p94 ,?is passage ( c]ta9 sub/ances 9 solution ?r\gh an animal membrane is call$ ,osmosis1 & membranes :i* exhibit ?is prop]ty are call$ osmotic membranes4 ,precipitat$ ,membranes4--,9 #ahfg1 ,traube ( ,breslau discov]$ t osmotic membranes c\ld be made artificially4 ,c]ta9 *emical precipitates su* z copp] f]rocyanide c =m membranes hav+ prop]ties analog\s to ^? ( osmotic membranes4 ,) ^! precipitat$ membranes ,traube made a numb] ( int]e/+ exp]im5ts4 ,^! h lately be5 collect$ 9 ! volume ( 8 memoirs publi%$ by 8 son4 ,osmotic ,membranes4--,osmotic membranes 7 =m]ly call$ semi-p]meable membranes1 be+ reg>d$ z membranes :i* all[ wat] to pass ?r\gh !m1 b arre/ ! passage ( ! solute4 ,?is def9ition is inexact1 s9ce no membrane p]meable to wat] is absolutely imp]meable to ! solutes4 ,all we c say is t c]ta9 membranes are m p]meable to wat] ?an to ! sub/ances 9 solution1 & are moreov] v unequally p]meable to ! v>i\s sub/ances 9 solution4 ,z a rule a membrane is mu* m p]meable to a solute ^: molecule is ( small dim5sions4 ,molecules ( salt1 = in/ance1 pass ?r\gh su* a membrane mu* m quickly ?an d ^? ( sug>4 ,! t]m osmotic membrane %\ld !re=e 9 all cases replace t ( semi-p]meable membrane4 ,osmotic membranes behave exactly l colloids4 ,! resi/ance :i* !y oppose to ! passage ( diff]5t sub/ances v>ies ) ! nature ( ! liquid or solute conc]n$4 ,!re is no real diff]5ce betwe5 ! passage ( a solution ?r\gh an osmotic membrane & its diffusion ?r\gh a colloid4 ,! protoplasm ( a liv+ organism1 be+ a colloid1 acts exactly l an osmotic membrane s f> z reg>ds ! di/ribution ( solutions & sub/ances 9 solution4 #df ,! diffusion ( molecules ?r\gh a colloid1 a plasma1 or a membrane is gov]n$ by laws precisely analog\s to ,ohm's law1 :i* gov]ns ! transport ( electricity4 ,! int5sity or rapidity ( diffusion is proportional to ! diff]5ce ( osmotic pressure1 & v>ies inv]sely ) ! resi/ance4 ,9 ! case ( molecul> diffusion1 h[ev]1 ! rapidity ( diffusion dep5ds also on ! size & nature ( ! molecules ( ! diffus+ sub/ance4 ,! !ory ( ! resi/ance ( ! v>i\s plasmas & membranes to diffusion has be5 b little und]/ood2 we c discov] h>dly any ref]5ce to x 9 ! lit]ature ( ! subject4 ,! laws ( diffusion apply equally to ! diffusion ( ions4 ,n]n/ has %[n t !re is a diff]5ce ( electric pot5tial at ! surface ( contact ( two electrolytic solutions ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration4 ,bo? ! positive & negative ions ( ! m conc5trat$ solution pass into ! less conc5trat$ solution1 b ! ions ( "o sign w pass m rapidly ?an ^? ( ! o!r sign1 because be+ small]1 !y meet ) less resi/ance4 ,! resi/ance ( ! m$ium plays a mo/ important "p 9 all ! ph5om5a ( diffusion4 ,:5 two solutions ( diff]5t conc5tration come into contact1 ! int]*ange ( molecules & ions :i* occurs is unequal ow+ to ! diff]5ces 9 resi/ance4 ,h5ce bo? solutions become modifi$ n only 9 conc5tration b also 9 composition4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t diffusion c cause ! decomposition ( c]ta9 easily decompos$ sub/ances1 & x w\ld appe> probable t diffusion is also capable ( produc+ new *emical comb9ations4 ,! sep>ation ( ! lib]at$ ions 9 consequ5ce ( ! unequal resi/ance :i* !y meet ) 9 ! m$ium !y trav]se (t5 det]m9es *emical reaction4 ,?is ionic sep>ation is a f]tile ag5t ( *emical trans=mation 9 ! liv+ organism1 & may be ! det]m9ant cause 9 ^? *emical reactions :i* con/itute ! ph5om5a ( nutrition4 ,:5 diff]5t liquids come into contact !re are two di/9ct s]ies ( ph5om5a1 ^? due to osmotic pressure & ^? due to diff]5ces ( *emical composition4 ,ev5 #dg ) isotonic solutions !re w be a transf] ( ! solutes if ^! are ( diff]5t *emical con/itution4 ,take1 = in/ance1 two isotonic solutions1 "o ( salt & ano!r ( sug>4 ,:5 ^! are br\ght into contact !re is no transf]5ce ( wat] f "o solution to ! o!r1 b !re is a transf]5ce ( ! solutes4 ,9 ! salt solution ! osmotic pressure ( ! sug> is z]o4 ,h5ce ! diff]5ce ( osmotic pressure ( ! sug> 9 ! two solutions w cause ! molecules ( sug> to diffuse into ! salt solution4 ,= ! same reason ! salt w diffuse into ! sug> solution4 ,a disreg>d ( ?is fact1 t a solute w always pass f a solution :]e its osmotic pressure is high1 into "o :]e its osmotic pressure is l[1 is a frequ5t s\rce ( error4 ,?us x is said to be contr>y to ! laws ( osmosis t solutes %\ld pass f ! blood1 ) its l[ osmotic pressure1 into ! ur9e1 :]e ! g5]al osmotic pressure is high]2 ! m s because 9 consequ5ce ( ! ex*ange ! osmotic pressure ( ! ur9e is /ill fur!r increas$4 ,su* an ex*ange1 x is argu$1 is contr>y to ! ord9>y laws ( physics1 & c !re=e only be accompli%$ by "s occult vital action4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! fact1 z is prov$ by exp]im5t4 ,consid] an inext5sible osmotic cell conta9+ a solution ( sug>1 ! walls ( ! cell be+ imp]meable to sug> b p]meable to salt4 ,let u plunge su* a cell into a solution ( salt1 :i* has a l[] osmotic pressure ?an ! sug> solution4 ,s9ce ! walls ( ! cell are inext5sible1 ! quantity ( wat] 9 ! cell _c increase4 ,! salt1 h[ev]1 w pass into ! cell1 s9ce ! osmotic pressure ( ! salt is great] on ! outside ?an on ! inside1 & ! walls are p]meable to ! molecules ( salt4 ,?is passage w cont9ue until ! osmotic pressure ( ! salt is equal inside & outside ! cell2 at ! same "t ! total osmotic pressure )9 ! cell w h increas$1 9 spite ( its be+ orig9ally great] ?an ! osmotic pressure outside4 ,plasmolysis4--,we all "k t a cut fl[] soon dries #dh up & fades4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we place ! %rivell$ fl[] 9 wat]1 ! contract$ protoplasm swells up aga9 & refills ! cells1 :i* become turgid1 & ! fl[] revives4 ,?is ph5om5on is due to ! fact t vegetable protoplasm holds 9 solution sub/ances l sug>s & salts :i* h a high osmotic pressure4 ,consequ5tly wat] has a t5d5cy to p5etrate ! cellul> walls ( plants1 to di/5d ! cells & r5d] !m turgesc5t4 ,de ,vries has us$ ?is ph5om5on = ! measurem5t ( osmotic t5sion4 ,he employs = ?is purpose ! turgid cells ( ! plant ,tradescantia discolor4 ,! cells are plac$ "u ! microscope & irrigat$ ) a solution ( nitrate ( soda4 ,on gradually increas+ ! conc5tration ( ! solution !re comes a mom5t :5 ! protoplasmic mass is se5 to contract & to deta* itself f ! walls ( ! cell4 ,?is ph5om5on1 :i* is kn[n z plasmolysis1 occurs at ! mom5t :5 ! solution ( nitrate ( soda beg9s to ab/ract wat] f ! protoplasmic juice1 i4e4 :5 ! osmotic t5sion ( ! nitrate ( soda becomes great] ?an t ( ! protoplasmic liquid4 ,s long z ! osmotic t5sion ( ! soda solution is less ?an t ( ! protoplasm1 !re w be a t5d5cy = wat] to p5etrate ! cell wall & swell ! protoplasm4 ,:5 ! osmotic t5sion ( ! solution :i* ba!s ! cell is id5tical ) t ( ! cellul> juice1 !re is no *ange 9 ! volume ( ! protoplasm4 ,9 ?is way we are able to det]m9e ! osmotic pressure ( any solution4 ,we h only to dilute ! solution till x has no effect on ! protoplasm ( ! vegetable cells4 ,s9ce ! osmotic t5sion ( ?is protoplasm is kn[n1 we c easily calculate ! osmotic t5sion ( ! solution f ! degree ( dilution requir$4 ,r$ ,blood ,corpuscles z ,indicators ( ,isotony4--,9 #ahhf1 ,hamburg] %[$ t ! weake/ solutions ( v>i\s sub/ances :i* w\ld all[ ! deposition ( ! r$ blood cells1 )\t be+ dilute en\gh to dissolve ! haemoglob91 7 isotonic to "o ano!r1 & also to ! blood s]um1 & to ! cont5ts ( ! blood corpuscles4 ,?is is ,hamburg]'s me?od ( det]m9+ ! osmotic #di t5sion ( a liquid4 ,! dilut$ solution is gradually increas$ 9 /r5g? until1 :5 a drop ( blood is add$ to x1 ! corpuscles are j precipitat$1 & no haemoglob9 is dissolv$4 ,! ,haematocrite4--,9 #ahia1 ,h$9 devis$ an in/rum5t = det]m9+ ! influ5ce ( diff]5t solutions on ! r$ blood corpuscles4 ,?is in/rum5t1 ! haematocrite1 is a graduat$ pipette1 design$ to measure ! volume ( ! globules sep>at$ by c5trifugation f a giv5 volume ( blood "u ! influ5ce ( ! liquid ^: osmotic pressure is to be measur$4 ,! me?od dep5ds on ! pr9ciple t solutions isotonic to ! blood corpuscles & to ! blood s]um w n alt] ! volume ( ! blood corpuscles1 :]eas hyp]tonic solutions decrease t volume4 ,action ( ,solutions ( ,diff]5t ,degrees ( ,conc5tration on ,liv+ ,cells4--,we h j se5 t a liv+ cell1 :e!r vegetable or animal1 is n alt]$ 9 volume :5 imm]s$ 9 an isotonic solution t does n act ^u x *emically4 ,:5 imm]s$ 9 a hyp]tonic solution1 x retracts2 9 a slightly hypotonic solution x absorbs wat] & becomes turgesc5t1 :ile 9 a v hypotonic solution x swells up & bur/s4 ,9 a hyp]tonic solution ! r$ blood cells retract & fall to ! bottom ( ! glass1 ! rapidity ) :i* !y are deposit$ dep5d+ on ! am\nt ( retraction4 ,9 a hypotonic solution !y swell up & bur/1 ! haemoglob9 dissolv+ 9 ! liquid & col\r+ x r$4 ,?is is ! ph5om5on ( haematolysis4 ,accord+ to ,hamburg]1 ! s]um ( blood may be consid]ably dilut$ ) wat] be=e produc+ haematolysis4 ,exp]im5t+ ) ! blood ( ! frog1 he f\nd t ! globules rema9$ intact 9 size & %ape :5 irrigat$ ) a salt solution conta9+ 4#fd p] c5t4 ( salt1 ?is solution be+ isotonic ) ! frog's blood s]um4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y did n beg9 to lose _! haemoglob9 till ! proportion ( salt 0 r$uc$ to bel[ 4#bb p] c5t4 ,?us frog's s]um may be dilut$ ) #bjj p] c5t4 ( wat] be=e produc+ haematolysis4 ,9 mammals ! blood corpuscles rema9 inv>iable 9 a salt solution ( ab\t 4#i p] c5t41 & beg9 to lose _! #ej haemoglob9 approximately 9 a 4#f p] c5t4 solution4 ,a solution ( 4#i p] c5t4 ( ,na,cl is !re=e isotonic to ! cont5ts ( ! r$ blood corpuscles1 to ! s]um ( ! blood1 & to ! cells ( ! tissues4 ,x by no means foll[s t ! cells ( ! blood & tissues und]go no *ange :5 irrigat$ ) a 4#i p] c5t4 solution ( *loride ( sodium4 ,!y d n lose or ga9 wat]1 x is true1 & !y reta9 _! volume & _! specific gravity4 ,b !y d und]go a *emical alt]ation1 by ! ex*ange ( _! electrolytes ) ^? ( ! solution4 ,hamburg] has po9t$ out t 9 mammals ! %ape ( ! r$ corpuscles is alt]$ 9 e liquid o!r ?an ! blood s]um2 ev5 9 ! lymph ( ! same animal !re is a dim9ution ( ! long diamet]1 & an increase ( ! %ort] diamet]1 :ile ! concave discs become m sph]ical4 ,all ! cells ( a liv+ organism are extremely s5sitive to slight diff]5ces ( osmotic pressure--! cells ( epi!lial tissue & ( ! n]v\s sy/em z well z ! blood cells4 ,= in/ance1 ! introduction ( too conc5trat$ a sal9e solution into ! nasal cavity w set up rh9itis & de/roy ! t]m9ations ( ! olfactory n]ves4 ,pure wat]1 on ! o!r h&1 is itself a cau/ic4 ,!re is a spr+ at ,ga/e91 9 ! ,tyrol1 :i* is call$ ! poison spr+1 ! ,gift-,brunn54 ,! wat] ( ?is spr+ is almo/ absolutely pure1 h5ce x has a t5d5cy to di/5d & bur/ ! epi!lium cells ( ! dige/ive tract1 & ?us gives rise to ! delet]i\s effects :i* h giv5 x its "n4 ,ord9>y dr9k+ wat] is nev] pure1 x conta9s 9 solution salts f ! soil & gases f ! atmosph]e4 ,^! give x an osmotic pressure :i* prev5ts ! delet]i\s effects ( a /rongly hypotonic liquid4 ,dur+ a surgical op]ation x is ( ! fir/ importance n to injure ! liv+ surfaces by flood+ !m ) /rongly hyp]tonic or hypotonic solutions4 ,?is precaution becomes /ill m important :5 =eign liquids are br\ght into contact ) ! delicate cells ( ! l>ge surfaces ( ! s]\s membranes4 ,g>d5]s are well aw>e ( ! noxi\s influ5ce ( a l[ osmotic pressure4 ,!y wat] ! soil ar\nd ! roots ( a plant1 s t ! wat] may take up #ea "s ( ! salts f ! soil be=e be+ absorb$ by ! plant4 ,pure wat] p\r$ ov] ! he>t ( a delicate plant may bur/ its cells ow+ to its l[ osmotic pressure4 ,9 _m m$ical & surgical applications1 on ! o!r h&1 a l[ osmotic pressure is ( advantage4 ,?us1 9 ord] to remove ! dry cru/s ( eczema & impetigo1 ! mo/ efficaci\s application is a compress ( cotton wool soak$ 9 w>m di/ill$ wat]4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( su* a hypotonic solution ! dry cells rapidly swell up1 bur/1 & are dissolv$4 ,cook+ is also v mu* a "q ( osmotic pressure4 ,if salt is put into ! wat] 9 :i* potatoes & o!r vegetables are boil$1 osmosis is set up & a curr5t ( wat] passes f ! vegetable cells to ! salt wat]4 ,! cellul> tissue ( ! vegetable becomes contract$ & dri$1 & ! membranes become adh]5t1 ! vegetable loses weight & becomes difficult ( dige/ion1 9 consequ5ce ( its h>d & waxy consi/5cy1 :i* prev5ts ! action ( ! dige/ive juices4 ,vegetables %\ld be cook$ 9 s(t wat]1 & %\ld be salt$ aft] cook+4 ,:5 s treat$1 a potato absorbs wat]1 ! cells swell up1 ! sk9 bur/s1 ! gra9s ( />* also swell up & bur/1 & ! pulp becomes m friable4 ,! dige/ive juice is ?us able to p5etrate ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! vegetable rapidly1 & dige/ion is facilitat$4 ,any "o c easily prove = himself t a potato boil$ 9 salt wat] dim9i%es 9 weight1 :il/ its weight increases :5 x is cook$ 9 s(t wat]4 ,! me?od ( cryoscopy is also ( consid]able s]vice 9 =5sic m$ic9e4 ,z %[n by ,c>r>a1 ! cryoscopy ( ! blood is an important aid 9 det]m9+ ! "q :e!r a body f\nd 9 ! wat] 0 ?r[n 9 be=e or aft] dea?4 ,9 ! =m] case ! conc5tration ( ! blood w be mu* dim9i%$4 ,9 c]ta9 exp]im5ts on dogs ! cryoscopic exam9ation ( ! blood %[$ a freez+ po9t ( -4#f;deg ,c4 ,! dog 0 !n dr[n$1 :5 ! freez+ po9t ( ! blood 9 ! left v5tricle 0 increas$ to -4#bi;deg ,c41 & t 9 ! "r v5tricle to -4#db;deg ,c4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 a dog 0 kill$ be=e be+ ?r[n into ! wat]1 ! #eb osmotic pressure ( ! blood 0 h>dly decreas$ ev5 aft] an imm]sion ( #gb h\rs4 ,9 ! case ( p]sons or animals dr[n$ 9 sea wat]1 a simil> alt]ation ( ! po9t ( congelation is obs]v$1 b 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,9 ?is case ! osmotic pressure is rais$ consid]ably 9 ^? :o are dr[n$1 :]eas no su* rise is obs]v$ 9 ^? :o are ?r[n into ! sea aft] dea?4 ,! circulation ( ! sap 9 plants & trees is also 9 great "p due to osmotic pressure4 ,! aspiration ( ! wat] f ! soil is due to ! intracellul> osmotic pressure 9 ! roots1 :i* causes ! sap to rise 9 ! /em ( a plant z x w\ld 9 ! tube ( a manomet]4 ,f a k ( ! osmotic pressure ( ! intracellul> liquid ( ! roots1 we may calculate ! height to :i* ! sap c be rais$ 9 ! trunk ( a tree1 i4e4 ! maximum height to :i* ! tree c possibly gr[4 ,suppose1 = in/ance1 ! plasma ( ! rootlets has an osmotic pressure ( six atmosph]es1 correspond+ to t ( a #i p] c5t4 solution ( sug>4 ,a pressure ( six atmosph]es is equal to ! weight ( a column ( wat] #f x 4#gf x #ac4eif #fa4ie metres high4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! maximum height to :i* ?is osmotic pressure is able to lift ! sap4 ,t is to say1 a tree ^: rootlets conta9 a solution ( sug> ( #i p] c5t4 conc5tration1 or its equival5t1 c gr[ to a height ( #fb metres4 ,cryoscopy is also ( great use 9 practical m$ic9e1 m especially = ! exam9ation ( ! ur9e4 ,! freez+ po9t ( ur9e v>ies f -#a4bf;deg ,c4 to -#b4ce;deg4 ,koryani has /udi$ ! ratio ( ! po9t ( congelation ( ur9e to t ( a solution conta9+ an equal quantity ( *loride ( sodium4 ,he f9ds t ! ratio 7freez+ po9t ( ur9e7 _/ 7freez+ po9t ( ,na,cl7 increases :5 ! circulation ?r\gh ! tubules ( ! kidney is dim9i%$4 ,hans ,koeppe has %[n t ! hydro*loric acid ( ! ga/ric juice is produc$ by ! osmotic ex*anges betwe5 ! blood & ! ga/ric cont5ts4 ,! ion ,na ( ! salt 9 ! /oma* cont5ts ex*anges ) an ion ,h ( ! monobasic salts ( ! blood1 ,na,h,c,o#c ,na,cl ,h,cl ,na#b;,,co#c4 #ec ,influ5ce ( ,muscul> ,contraction on ! ,intramuscul> ,osmotic ,pressure4--,:5 a muscle is imm]s$ 9 an isotonic salt solution x does n *ange 9 weight4 ,9 a hyp]tonic solution x loses weight 9 consequ5ce ( a loss ( wat]1 :i* passes f ! muscle into ! solution to equalize ! osmotic pressure4 ,x ga9s weight 9 a hypotonic solution1 ! wat] curr5t sett+ t[>ds ! po9t ( high] conc5tration4 ,x is easy1 !re=e1 to tell :e!r ! osmotic pressure 9 a muscle is above or bel[ t ( a giv5 solution1 by obs]v+ :e!r ! muscle ga9s or loses weight :5 imm]s$ 9 x4 ,?us we may measure ! osmotic pressure 9 a muscle by f9d+ a salt solution 9 :i* ! muscle nei!r ga9s nor loses weight4 ,9 ?is way we h be5 able to prove t ! osmotic pressure ( a tir$ muscle is high] ?an t ( ! normal muscle4 ,our exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ out on ! muscles ( frogs4 ,aft] hav+ pi!d ! frog1 "o ( ! h9d legs is remov$ by a s+le /roke ( ! scissors4 ,! leg is sk9n$1 dri$ ) blott+ pap]1 & weigh$4 ,x is !n plac$ 9 a salt solution ^: freez+ po9t is -4#ec;deg ,c4 ,at #ae;deg ,c4 su* a solution has an osmotic pressure ( #f4f atmosph]es4 ,we next proce$ to det]m9e ! osmotic pressure ( ! correspond+ leg aft] x has be5 tir$ by muscul> "w4 ,= ?is x is /imulat$ by an int]mitt5t f>adic curr5t pass+ once a second = five m9utes4 ,! leg is !n sk9n$1 dri$1 weigh$1 & plac$ 9 ! same salt solution4 ,aft] eight h\rs' imm]sion ! legs are weigh$ aga94 ,! foll[+ are ! results ( six exp]im5ts1 ! numb]s repres5t+ fractions ( ! orig9al weight3-- ,*ange ( weight ( untir$ leg-- ,aft] #h h\rs -4#jjj4 ,aft] #af h\rs -4#jjj4 ,aft] #bd h\rs -4#jjf4 ,*ange ( weight ( /imulat$ leg-- ,aft] #h h\rs 4#jej4 ,aft] #af h\rs 4#jhj4 ,aft] #bd h\rs 4#aja4 #ed ,?is result %[s t muscul> "w provok$ by electric /imulation noticeably increases ! osmotic pressure ( ! muscle4 ,9 ord] to discov] ! exact osmotic pressure 9 ! /imulat$ muscles we repeat$ ! s]ies ( exp]im5ts1 us+ m & m conc5trat$ solutions4 ,9 a solution ^: freez+ po9t 0 -4#eg;deg1 we obta9$ ! foll[+ values3-- ,*ange ( weight ( untir$ leg-- ,aft] #h h\rs -4#jjj4 ,aft] #af h\rs -4#jjd4 ,aft] #bd h\rs -4#jjf4 ,*ange ( weight ( /imulat$ leg-- ,aft] #h h\rs 4#jci4 ,aft] #af h\rs 4#jgb4 ,aft] #bd h\rs 4#jii4 ,f9ally1 9 a solution freez+ at -4#gb;deg1 i4e4 ) an osmotic pressure at #ae;deg ,c4 ( #i4agf atmosph]es1 we obta9$ ! foll[+ mean values = ! untir$ leg3-- ,aft] #h h\rs -4#jd4 ,aft] #af h\rs -4#je4 ,aft] #bd h\rs -4#je4 ,9 ?is solution1 freez+ at -4#gb;deg ,c41 "s ( ! /imulat$ muscles %[$ no dim9ution 9 weight1 :ile o!rs %[$ a v small dim9ution1 & o!rs aga9 a slight augm5tation1 ! maximum increase be+ 4#jhe ( ! initial weight4 ,! solution is !re=e practically isotonic ) ! /imulat$ muscle4 ,9 ?is case ! elevation ( ! intramuscul> osmotic pressure produc$ by ! electrical excitation & ! muscul> contractions 0 !re=e #b4e atmosph]es1 or m ?an #b4f kilogrammes p] squ>e c5timetre ( surface4 ,i made fur!r exp]im5ts 9 ord] to discov] :e!r ! v>iation 9 osmotic pressure dep5d$ on ! duration ( #ee ! muscul> contraction4 ,= ?is purpose ,i us$ a solution freez+ at -4#ec;deg ,c4 & imm]s$ 9 x untir$ muscles1 & muscles :i* _h be5 electrically excit$ = two1 f\r1 & six m9utes respectively4 ,! foll[+ are ! results3-- ,untir$ muscles4 ,muscles /imulat$ once a second dur+ #b ,m9utes4 #d ,m9utes4 #f ,m9utes4 4#jjj 4#jbf 4#jhd 4#jid 4#jja 4#jcd 4#jfe 4#jic 4#jje 4#jde 4#jgi 4#jig 4#jjj 4#jcg 4#jgj 4#jie 4#jjj 4#jcb 4#jgb 4#jif ,mean ( all ! obs]vations-- 4#jjab 4#jcdh 4#jgd 4#jie ,^! exp]im5ts %[ cle>ly t ! osmotic intramuscul> pressure rises 9 proportion to ! duration ( ! electrical /imulation4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! influ5ce ( ! "w accompli%$ by ! muscle on ! elevation ( ! osmotic pressure1 ,i made ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,! two h9d legs ( a frog 7 submitt$ to ! same electrical excitation1 "o leg be+ left at lib]ty1 & ! o!r be+ /ret*$ by a hundr$-gramme weight1 act+ by a cord & pulley4 ,aft] excit+ !m electrically = five m9utes1 ! legs 7 imm]s$ = tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 a sal9e solution freez+ at 4#ec;deg ,c4 ,! free limb %[$ an augm5tation ( 4#jhe ( ! initial weight1 & ! /ret*$ limb an increase ( 4#ajf ( ! initial weight4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ! osmotic pressure increases ) ! am\nt ( "w done by a muscle4 ,briefly1 !n1 ! results ( our exp]im5ts are z foll[3-- #a4 ,muscul> contraction electrically produc$ causes an increase ( ! osmotic pressure 9 a muscle4 #b4 ,! intramuscul> osmotic pressure may rea*1 or ev5 exce$1 #b4e atmosph]es1 or #b4f kilogrammes p] squ>e c5timetre ( surface4 #c4 ,:5 a muscle is made to contract once a second1 ! #ef elevation ( ! osmotic pressure increases ) ! numb] ( contractions4 #d4 ,! intramuscul> osmotic pressure increases ) ! "w done by ! muscle4 #e4 ,fatigue is caus$ by ! increase ( osmotic pressure 9 a contract+ muscle4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,fields ( diffusive =ce4 7a7 ,monopol> field ( diffusion4 ,a drop ( blood 9 a sal9e solution ( high] conc5tration4 7b7 ,bipol> field ( diffusion4 ,two poles ( opposite signs4 ,on ! "r a gra9 ( salt =m+ a hyp]tonic pole ( conc5tration1 on ! left a drop ( blood =m+ a hypotonic pole ( dilution4 ,! ,field ( ,diffusion4--,j z ,f>aday introduc$ ! conception ( a field ( magnetic =ce & a field ( electric =ce to expla9 magnetic & electrical ph5om5a1 s we may elucidate ! ph5om5a ( diffusion by ! conception ( a field ( diffusion1 ) c5tres or poles ( diffusive =ce4 ,if we consid] a solution z a field ( diffusion1 any po9t :]e ! conc5tration is great] ?an t ( ! re/ may be consid]$ z a c5tre ( =ce1 attractive = ! molecules ( wat]1 & repulsive = ! molecules ( ! solute4 ,9 ! same way any po9t ( less conc5tration may be reg>d$ z a c5tre ( attraction = ! molecules ( ! solute1 & a c5tre ( repulsion = ! molecules ( wat]4 ,a field ( diffusion may be monopol> or bipol>4 ,a bipol> field has a hyp]tonic pole or c5tre ( conc5tration1 & a hypotonic pole or c5tre ( dilution4 ,by analogy ) ! magnetic & electric fields we may designate ! hyp]tonic pole z ! positive pole ( diffusion1 & ! hypotonic z ! negative pole4 #eg ,! positive & negative poles & ! l9es ( =ce 9 ! field ( diffusion may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ exp]im5t4 ,a ?9 lay] ( salt wat] is spread ov] an absolutely horizontal plate ( glass4 ,if n[ we take a drop ( blood1 or ( ,indian ink1 & drop x c>efully into ! middle ( ! salt solution1 we %all f9d t ! col\r$ p>ticles w travel along ! l9es ( diffusive =ce1 & ?us map out = u a monopol> field ( diffusion1 z 9 ,fig4 #c a4 ,aga91 if we place two simil> drops side by side 9 a salt solution1 _! l9es ( diffusion w repel "o ano!r1 z 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,two drops ( blood 9 a m conc5trat$ solution1 %[+ a field ( diffusion betwe5 two poles ( ! same sign4 ,n[ let u put into ! solution1 side by side1 "o drop ( less conc5tration & ano!r ( great] conc5tration ?an ! solution4 ,! l9es ( diffusion w pass f "o drop to ! o!r1 div]g+ f ! c5tre ( "o drop & conv]g+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! o!r 7,fig4 #c b74 ,9 ?is mann] we are able to obta9 diffusion fields analog\s to ! magnetic fields betwe5 poles ( ! same sign & poles ( opposite signs4 ,! conception ( poles ( diffusion is ( ! greate/ importance 9 biology1 ?r[+ a flood ( light on a numb] ( ph5om5a1 su* z k>yok9esis1 :i* h hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z ( a my/]i\s nature4 ,x also enables u to appreciate ! role play$ by diffusion 9 _m o!r biological ph5om5a4 ,consid]1 = example1 a c5tre ( anabolism 9 a liv+ organism4 ,"h ! molecules ( ! liv+ protoplasm are 9 process ( con/ruction1 simpl] molecules be+ unit$ & built up to =m l>g] & m complex gr\ps4 ,z a result ( ?is aggregation ! numb] ( molecules 9 a giv5 area is dim9i%$1 i4e4 ! conc5tration & ! osmotic pressure fall1 produc+ a hypotonic c5tre ( diffusion4 ,we may ?us reg>d e c5tre ( anabolism z a negative pole ( diffusion4 #eh ,consid]1 on ! o!r h&1 a c5tre ( catabolism1 :]e ! molecules are be+ brok5 up into fragm5ts or small] gr\ps4 ,! conc5tration ( ! solution is increas$1 ! osmotic pressure is rais$1 & we h a hyp]tonic c5tre ( diffusion4 ,e c5tre ( catabolism is !re=e a positive pole ( diffusion4 ,simil> consid]ations z to ! =mation & break+ up ( ! molecules 9 anabolism & catabolism apply to polym]ization4 ,! diffusion field has simil> prop]ties to ! magnetic & ! electric field4 ,?us !re is repulsion betwe5 poles ( simil> sign1 & attraction betwe5 poles ( diff]5t signs4 ,a simple exp]im5t w %[ ?is4 ,a field ( diffusion is made by p\r+ on a horizontal glass plate a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e to :i* #e p] c5t4 ( salt has be5 add$4 ,! gelat9e be+ set1 we place side by side on its surface two drops1 "o ( wat]1 & "o ( a salt solution ( great] conc5tration ?an #e p] c5t4 ,we h ?us two poles ( diffusion ( contr>y signs1 a hypotonic pole at ! wat] drop1 & a hyp]tonic pole at ! salt drop4 ,diffusion imm$iately beg9s to take place ?r\gh ! gelat9e1 ! drops become elongat$1 advance t[>ds "o ano!r1 t\*1 & unite4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! two neighb\r+ drops are bo? m conc5trat$ or bo? less conc5trat$ ?an ! m$ium1 !y exhibit signs ( repulsion z 9 ,fig4 #d4 ,diffusion n only sets up curr5ts 9 ! wat] & 9 ! solutes1 b x also det]m9es movem5ts 9 any p>ticles t may be 9 susp5sion1 su* z blood corpuscles1 p>ticles ( ,indian ink1 & ! l4 ,^! p>ticles are drawn along ) ! wat] /ream :i* passes f ! hypotonic c5tres or regions t[>d ^? :i* are hyp]tonic4 ,^! consid]ations sugge/ a va/ field ( inquiry 9 biology1 pa?ology1 & !rapeutics4 ,inflammation1 = example1 is *>act]iz$ by tumefaction1 turgesc5ce ( ! tissues1 & r$ness4 ,! ess5ce ( inflammation w\ld appe> to be de/ructive dis-assimilation ) int5se catabolism4 ,we h se5 t a c5tre ( catabolism is a hyp]tonic focus ( diffusion4 ,h5ce ! osmotic pressure 9 an inflam$ region is increas$1 turgesc5ce is produc$1 & #ei ! curr5t ( wat] c>ries ) x ! blood globules :i* produce ! r$ness4 ,! ph5om5on ( agglut9ation may also possibly be due to osmotic pressure1 a positive c5tre ( diffusion attract+ & agglom]at+ ! p>ticles held 9 susp5sion4 ,tactism & ,tropism4--,! ph5om5a ( tactism & tropism may also be p>tly expla9$ by ! action ( ^! diffusion curr5ts ( p>ticles 9 susp5sion1 ^! pol> attractions & repulsions4 ,9 all exp]im5ts on ?is subject we %\ld take into acc\nt ! possible influ5ce ( osmotic pressure1 s9ce _m ( ! causes ( tactism or tropism also modify ! osmotic pressure at ! po9t ( action1 & x is possible t ?is modification is ! true cause ( ! ph5om5on4 ,osmotactism & osmotropism h n z yet be5 suffici5tly /udi$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,liquid figures ( diffusion4 ,! six negative poles ( diffusion are col\r$ ) ,indian ink4 ,! positive pole 9 ! c5tre is uncol\r$ & is =m$ by a drop ( ,,kno#c solution4 ,?us x may be said t osmotic pressure dom9ates all ! k9etic & dynamic ph5om5a ( life1 all ^? at lea/ :i* are n purely me*anical1 l ! movem5ts ( respiration & circulation4 ,! /udy ( ^! vital ph5om5a is greatly facilitat$ by ! conception ( ! field ( diffusion & poles ( diffusion1 & ( ! l9es ( =ce1 :i* are ! trajectories ( ! molecules ( ! solutes1 & ! p>ticles & globules 9 susp5sion4 ,! ,morphog5ic ,effects ( ,diffusion4--,_m int]e/+ exp]im5ts may be made %[+ v>iations ( ! l9es ( =ce 9 a field ( diffusion1 & h[ liquids subject$ only to diff]5ces ( osmotic pressure diffuse & mix ) "o #fj ano!r 9 def9ite patt]ns4 ,:5 a liquid diffuses 9 ano!r undi/urb$ by ! influ5ce ( gravity1 x produces figures ( geometric regul>ity1 & we may ?us obta9 figures & =ms ( inf9ite v>iety4 ,! foll[+ is our me?od ( proc$ure4 ,a glass plate is plac$ absolutely horizontal & is cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( wat] or ( sal9e solution4 ,!n ) a pipette we introduce into ! solution1 9 a regul> patt]n1 a numb] ( drops ( liquid col\r$ ) ,indian ink4 ,a wond]ful v>iety ( patt]ns & figures may be obta9$ by employ+ solutions ( diff]5t conc5tration & v>y+ ! position ( ! drops4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,patt]n produc$ 9 gelat9e by ! diffusion ( drops ( conc5trat$ solutions ( nitrate ( silv] & bromide ( ammonium4 ,in/ead ( ! wat] or salt solution1 we may spread on ! plate a #e or #aj p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e1 conta9+ v>i\s salts 9 solution4 ,if n[ we s[ on ?is gelat9e drops ( v>i\s solutions :i* give colorations ) ! salts 9 ! gelat9e1 we may obta9 =ms ( p]fect regul>ity1 pres5t+ mo/ beautiful col\rs & contra/s4 ,! drops1 ( c\rse1 mu/ be plac$ 9 a symmetrical patt]n4 ,9 ?is way we may obta9 an endless numb] ( ornam5tal figures4 ,9 ord] to cov] a lant]n slide #h-a_/b cm4 x #aj cm41 ab\t #e c4c4 ( gelat9e is requir$4 ,to ?is am\nt ( gelat9e we add a s+le drop ( a saturat$ solution ( salicylate ( sodium1 & spread ! liquid gelat9e ev5ly ov] ! plate4 ,:5 ! gelat9e has set1 we put ! plate ov] a diagram1 a hexagon = in/ance1 & place a drop ( f]r\s sulphate solution at ea* ( ! six angles4 ,! drops imm$iately diffuse #fa ?r\gh ! gelat9e1 & ! result aft] a "t is ! production ( a beautiful purple rosette4 ,! gelat9e mu/ be c>efully cov]$ to prev5t its dry+ until ! diffusion is complete4 ,! prep>ation may !n be dri$ & m\nt$ z a lant]n slide1 & w give ! mo/ brilliant effect on projection4 ,if ! gelat9e has be5 treat$ ) a drop ( potassium f]rocyanide solution in/ead ( salicylate ( sodium1 a few drops ( ,fe,s,o#d w give a blue patt]n4 ,or we may treat ! gelat9e ) f]rocyanide ( potassium & salicylate ( sodium mix$1 & ?us obta9 an int]m$i>y col\r on ! addition ( ,fe,s,o#d4 ,we may1 inde$1 v>y indef9itely ! nature & conc5tration ( ! solution1 z well z ! numb] & position ( ! drops4 ,! results h all ! *>m ( ! unexpect$1 :i* adds greatly to ! int]e/ ( ! exp]im5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,patt]n produc$ 9 gelat9e by ! diffusion ( drops ( silv] nitrate & sodium c>bonate4 ,^! exp]im5ts are n m]ely a sci5tific toy4 ,!y %[ u ! possibility1 hi!rto unsuspect$1 t a va/ numb] ( ! =ms & col\rs ( nature may be ! result ( diffusion4 ,?us _m ( ! ph5om5a ( life1 hi!rto s my/]i\s1 pres5t !mselves to u z m]ely ! consequ5ces ( ! diffusion ( "o liquid into ano!r4 ,"o _c help hop+ t ! /udy ( diffusion w ?r[ /ill fur!r light on ! subject4 ,if a numb] ( sph]es1 ea* capable ( expansion & de=mation1 are produc$ simultane\sly 9 a liquid1 !y w =m polyh$ra :5 !y exp& by gr[?4 ,?is is ! #fb precise ar*itecture ( a va/ numb] ( liv+ organisms & tissues1 :i* are =m$ by ! union ( microscopic polyh$ra or cells4 ,a section ( su* a polyh$ral /ructure w\ld appe> z a tissue ( polygons4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! simple process ( diffusion w produce su* /ructures "u conditions closely alli$ to ^? :i* gov]n ! developm5t ( ! tissues ( a liv+ organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,patt]n produc$ 9 gelat9e by ! diffusion ( drops ( a solution ( nitrate ( silv] & ( citrate ( potassium4 ,we may obta9 ?is cellul> /ructure by a simple exp]im5t4 ,on a glass plate we spread a #e p] c5t4 solution ( pure gelat9e1 & :5 set s[ on x a numb] ( drops ( a #e to #aj p] c5t4 solution ( f]rocyanide ( potassium4 ,! drops mu/ be plac$ at regul> int]vals ( #e mm4 all ov] ! plate4 ,:5 ^! h be5 all[$ to diffuse & ! gelat9e has dri$1 we obta9 a prep>ation :i* exactly resembles ! section ( a vegetable cellul> tissue 7,fig4 #i74 ,! drops h by mutual pressure =m$ polygons1 :i* appe> 9 section z cells1 ) a membran\s envelope1 a #fc nucleus1 & a cytoplasm1 :i* is 9 _m cases entirely sep>at$ f ! membrane4 ,^! cells :5 unit$ =m a v]itable tissue1 9 all respects simil> to ! cellul> /ructure ( a liv+ organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,tissue ( artificial cells =m$ by ! diffusion 9 gelat9e ( drops ( potassium f]rocyanide4 ,9 ! prep>ation %[+ artificial cells ! cellul> /ructure is n directly visible until ! gelat9e has dri$4 ,"o sees only a gelat9\s mass analog\s to ! protoplasm ( a liv+ organism4 ,?is mass is nev]!less organiz$1 or at lea/ 9 process ( organization1 z we may see by ! refraction :5 its image is project$ on ! scre54 ,dur+ ! cell-=mation1 & z long z !re is any diff]5ce ( conc5tration 9 ! gelat9e1 ea* cell is ! ar5a ( active molecul> movem5t4 ,!re is a d\ble curr5t1 z 9 ! liv+ cell1 a /ream ( wat] f ! p]iph]y to ! c5tre1 & ( ! solute f ! c5tre to ! p]iph]y4 ,?is molecul> activity--! life ( ! artificial cell--may be prolong$ by appropriate n\ri%m5t1 #fd i4e4 by cont9ually repair+ ! loss ( conc5tration at ! c5tre ( ! cell4 ,! life ( ! artificial cell may also be prolong$ by ma9ta9+ ar\nd x an appropriate m$ium4 ,if we prematurely dry su* a prep>ation ( artificial cells1 ! molecul> curr5ts w cease1 to recur aga9 :5 we re/ore ! necess>y humidity to ! prep>ation4 ,?is to my m9d gives u a mo/ vivid picture ( ! conditions ( lat5t life 9 se$s & _m rotif]a4 ,^! artificial cells1 l liv+ organisms1 h an evolution>y exi/5ce4 ,! fir/ /age corresponds to ! process ( organization1 ! gelat9e repres5t+ ! bla/ema1 & ! drop ! nucleus4 ,?us ! cell becomes organiz$1 =m+ its own cytoplasm & its own envelop+ membrane4 ,! second /age 9 ! life ( ?is artificial cell is ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! metabolism ( ! cell is active & t5ds to equalize ! conc5tration ( ! liquid 9 ! cell & 9 ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,! ?ird /age is ! p]iod ( decl9e4 ,! d\ble molecul> curr5t gradually sl[s d[n z ! diff]5ce ( conc5tration decreases betwe5 ! cell cont5ts & its ent\rage4 ,:5 ?is equality ( conc5tration has become complete ! molecul> curr5ts cease1 ! cell has t]m9at$ its exi/5ce2 x is dead4 ,! curr5ts ( sub/ance & ( en]gy h ceas$ to fl[--! =m only rema9s4 ,^! artificial cells are s5sible to mo/ ( ! influ5ces :i* affect liv+ organisms4 ,l liv+ cells !y are influ5c$ bo? 9 _! organization & 9 _! developm5t by humidity1 dryness1 acidity1 or alkal9ity4 ,!y are also greatly affect$ by ! addition ( m9ute quantities ( *emical sub/ances ei!r to ! gelat9\s bla/ema or to ! drops :i* repres5t ! prim>y nuclei4 ,we may 9 ?is way obta9 endless v>ieties1 nuclei :i* are opaque or transp>5t1 ) or )\t a nucleolus1 & cells conta9+ homog5e\s cytoplasm )\t a nucleus4 ,we may also obta9 cells ) cytoplasm fill+ ! :ole ( ! cellul> cavity or sep>at$ f ! cell-membrane4 ,we may obta9 #fe cells imitat+ all ! natural tissues1 cells )\t a membran\s envelope1 cells ) ?ick walls adh]+ to "o ano!r1 or cells ) wide intracellul> spaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,artificial liquid cells1 =m$ by col\r$ drops ( conc5trat$ salt solution 9 a less conc5trat$ salt solution4 ,! =ms ( ^! artificial cells dep5d on ! numb] & relative position ( ! drops :i* repres5t ! nuclei1 & on ! molecul> conc5tration or osmotic t5sion ( ! solution4 ,! numb] ( ! cellul> polyh$ra is det]m9$ by ! numb] ( c5tres ( diffusion4 ,! magnitude ( ! dih$ral angles1 f :i* radiate ?ree & occasionally f\r walls1 dep5ds on ! position ( ! hyp]tonic poles ( diffusion4 ,! curvature ( a surface is det]m9$ by ! diff]5ces ( conc5tration on ei!r side4 ,betwe5 isotonic solutions ! surface is plane1 :il/ x is curv$ betwe5 solutions ( diff]5t osmotic pressures1 ! convexity be+ direct$ t[>ds ! hyp]tonic solution4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,liquid cells ) a fr+e ( cilia1 obta9$ by s[+ col\r$ drops ( conc5trat$ salt solution 9 a weak] salt solution4 ,! cont5ts ( ! cells h und]gone segm5tation4 ,! "t requir$ = ^! artificial cells to gr[ v>ies f two to tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 accord+ to ! conc5tration ( ! gelat9e1 ! gr[? be+ mo/ rapid 9 dilute solutions4 ,simil> cells may be produc$ 9 wat]4 ,if we p\r a ?9 lay] ( wat] on a horizontal plate1 & ) a pipette #ff s[ 9 x a numb] ( drops ( salt wat] col\r$ ) ,indian ink1 we may obta9 artificial cells compos$ entirely ( liquid1 hav+ ! same *>act]s z ^? produc$ 9 a gelat9\s solution4 ,x is possible by liquid diffusion to produce n only ord9>y cells b ciliat$ cells4 ,if we spread a lay] ( salt wat] on a horizontal glass plate1 & s[ 9 x drops ( ,indian ink1 artificial cells are produc$ by diffusion4 ,at ! edge ( ! prep>ation !re is (t5 to be se5 a sort ( fr+e1 analog\s to ! cilia ( liv+ cells 7,fig4 #aa74 ,^! tissues ( artificial cells demon/rate ! fact t inorganic matt] is able to organize itself into =ms & /ructures analog\s to ^? ( liv+ organisms "u ! action ( ! simple physical =ces ( osmotic pressure & diffusion4 ,! /ructures ?us produc$ h functions :i* are also analog\s to ^? ( liv+ be+s1 a d\ble curr5t ( diffusion1 an evolution>y exi/5ce1 & a lat5t vitality :5 desiccat$ or congeal$4 99 99 99 99 99 #fg ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,p]iodicity ,p]iodic ,precipitation4--,a ph5om5on is said to be p]iodic :5 x v>ies 9 "t & space & is id5tically reproduc$ at equal int]vals4 ,we are surr\nd$ on all sides by p]iodic ph5om5a2 summ] & w9t]1 day & night1 sleep & wak+1 rhy?m & rhyme1 flux & reflux1 ! movem5ts ( respiration & ! beat+ ( ! he>t1 all are p]iodic4 ,our fir/ sorr[s 7 appeas$ by ! p]iodic rhy?m ( ! cradle1 & 9 our lat] ye>s ! p]iodic sw+ ( ! rock+-*air & ! hammock /ill soo! ! infirmities ( old age4 ,s\nd is a p]iodic movem5t ( ! atmosph]e :i* br+s to u h>mony & melody4 ,light consi/s ( p]iodic undulations ( ! e!r :i* convey to u ! beauty ( =m & col\r4 ,p]iodic e!real waves waft to u ! wireless message ?r\gh t]re/rial space & ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun & />s4 ,x is !re=e n to be wond]$ at t ! ph5om5a ( diffusion are also p]iodic4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,qu9ke ( ,heidelb]g1 ! fir/ m5tion ( ! p]iodic =mation ( *emical precipitates mu/ be attribut$ to ,runge 9 #ahhe4 ,s9ce t "t ^! precipitates h be5 /udi$ by a numb] ( au?ors1 & p>ticul>ly by ,r4 ,liesegang ( ,duesseldorf1 :o 9 #aijg publi%$ a "w on ! subject1 entitl$ ,on ,/ratification by ,diffusion4 ,9 #aija ,i pres5t$ to ! ,congress ( ,ajaccio a numb] ( prep>ations %[+ conc5tric r+s1 alt]nately transp>5t & opaque1 obta9$ by diffus+ a drop ( potassium f]rocyanide solution 9 gelat9e conta9+ a trace ( f]ric #fh sulphate4 ,at ! ,congress ( ,rheims 9 #aijg ,i exhibit$ ! result ( "s fur!r exp]im5ts on ! same subject4 ,^! p]iodic precipitates may be obta9$ f a great numb] ( diff]5t *emical sub/ances4 ,! foll[+ is ! be/ me?od ( demon/rat+ ! ph5om5on4 ,a glass lant]n slide is c>efully clean$ & plac$ absolutely level4 ,we !n take #e c4c4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e & add to x "o drop ( a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium ars5ate4 ,?is is p\r$ ov] ! glass plate :il/ hot1 & z soon z x is q set1 b be=e x c dry1 we all[ a drop ( silv] nitrate solution conta9+ a trace ( nitric acid to fall on x f a pipette4 ,! drop sl[ly spreads 9 ! gelat9e1 & we ?us obta9 magnific5t r+s ( p]iodic precipitates ( ars5ate ( silv]1 ) :i* any "o may easily repeat ! exp]im5ts detail$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,l9es ( diffusion precipitate1 %[+ ! simultane\s propagation ( undulations ( diff]5t wave-l5g?4 ,circul> ,waves ( ,precipitation4--,! wave-front ( ! p]iodic r+s ( precipitates is always p]p5dicul> to ! rays ( diffusion4 ,! di/ance betwe5 ! r+s dep5ds on ! conc5tration ( ! diffus+ solution4 ,! great] ! fall ( conc5tration1 ! less is ! int]val betwe5 ! r+s4 ,ea* r+ repres5ts an equipot5tial l9e 9 ! field ( diffusion4 ,^! equipot5tial l9es ( diffusion give u ! be/ & mo/ concrete reproduction ( ! mode ( propagation ( p]iodic waves 9 space4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 a visible diagram ( ! propagation ( ! waves ( light & s\nd4 ,occasionally we may obs]ve 9 ! gelat9e ! simultane\s propagation ( undulations ( diff]5t wave-l5g?1 j z we h !m 9 ! e!r & ! air4 ,^! diffusion wavelets #fi give u a v beautiful repres5tation ( ! simultane\s propagation ( undulations ( diff]5t wave-l5g? 9 ! same m$ium4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,waves ( diffusion refract$ at a plane surface on pass+ f a less conc5trat$ into a m conc5trat$ solution4 ,! refract$ wave-front is flatt5$1 ! wave-l5g? be+ less 9 ! d5s] m$ium4 ,l waves ( light & s\nd1 ^! waves ( diffusion are refract$ :5 !y pass f "o m$ium into ano!r ( a diff]5t d5sity1 :]e !y h a diff]5t velocity4 ,:51 = in/ance1 a diffusion wave passes f a #e p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e into a #aj p] c5t4 solution1 ! wave-front is ret>d$1 ! ret>dation be+ proportional to ! l5g? ( ! pa? ?r\gh ! d5s] m$ium4 ,h5ce ! wave-front is flatt5$1 ! curvature ( ! refract$ wave be+ less ?an t ( ! orig9al wave ( diffusion4 ,! contr>y is ! case :5 ! wave-front passes into a m$ium :]e its velocity is great]4 ,! middle ( ! wave-front n[ travels fa/] ?an ! flanks1 & ! curvature is increas$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,trans=mation ( a sph]ical wave-front into a plane wave-front by a conv]g5t diopt]4 ,^! diffusion r+s furni% u ) mo/ excell5t diagrams ( refraction at a diopt]1 i4e4 a sph]ical surface sep>at+ two m$ia ( diff]5t d5sities4 ,fig4 #ad %[s ! refraction at a conv]g5t diopt]1 i4e4 a surface :]e ! d5s] m$ium is convex4 ,! diffusion waves 9 ?is case emanate f ! pr9cipal focus ( ! diopt]1 & !re=e become plane on pass+ ?r\gh ! convex surface ( ! d5s] gelat9e4 ,^! p]iodic diffusion r+s also illu/rate ! ph5om5a ( col\r diffraction4 ,diffusion waves ( diff]5t #gj wavel5g? are unequally refract$ by a gelat9e l5s4 ,h5ce r+s ( diff]5t wave-l5g? :i*1 orig9at+ at ! same spot1 are at fir/ conc5tric1 are no long] p>allel aft] pass+ ?r\gh a gelat9e l5s4 ,a conv]g5t l5s :i* w *ange ! long sph]ical incid5t waves into %ort] plane waves1 w trans=m ! %ort incid5t waves into concave waves ^: curvature is opposite to t ( ! orig9al waves1 i4e4 x w trans=m a div]g5t into a conv]g5t beam4 ,?is is an illu/ration ( :at is call$ ! ab]ration ( refrangibility4 ,9 ! same way we may demon/rate ! c\rse ( diffusion waves ?r\gh a gelat9e prism1 %[+ ! refraction on _! incid5ce & aga9 on em]g5ce4 ,! prism is made ( a /rong] gelat9e solution1 :i* is m refractive ?an ! gelat9e ar\nd x4 ,! waves ( diffusion :il/ trav]s+ ! prism are ret>d$1 & ?is ret>dation is greate/ at ! base :]e ! passage is long]4 ,h5ce ! wave-front is tilt$ t[>ds ! base ( ! prism1 & ?is tilt+ is repeat$ :5 ! wave-front leaves ! prism4 ,if we exam9e diffusion waves ( diff]5t wave-l5g? on _! em]g5ce f ! gelat9e prism1 we %all see t !y cut "o ano!r4 ,) a d5se prism1 ! wave-front ( ! %ort] waves is m tilt$ t[>ds ! base ?an ! wave-front ( ! long] waves4 ,= diffusion z = light ! %ort] waves are ! mo/ refract$4 ,bo? refraction & disp]sion are due to ! unequal resi/ances ( ! m$ium to undulatory movem5ts ( diff]5t p]iodicity4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,diffraction ( diffusion waves on pass+ ?r\gh a n>r[ ap]ture4 ,diffraction4--,:5 light trav]ses a m9ute orifice1 in/ead #ga ( pass+ on 9 a /raight l9e1 x spreads out l a fan1 =m+ a div]g+ cone ( light1 j z if ! orifice 7 itself a lum9\s po9t4 ,?is is ! ph5om5on ( diffraction :i* has hi!rto be5 consid]$ incompatible ) ! emission !ory ( light4 ,diffusion waves may also be made to pass ?r\gh a n>r[ orifice1 :5 !y w behave exactly l ! waves ( light4 ,! new waves radiate f ! orifice l a fan1 in/ead ( giv+ a cone ( waves b\nd$ by l9es pass+ ?r\gh ! circumf]5ce ( ! orifice & ! orig9al c5tre ( radiation4 ,?us on pass+ ?r\gh a small orifice diffusion waves exhibit ! ph5om5on ( diffraction j z light waves d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,int]f]5ce ( diffusion waves4 ,int]f]5ce4--,! ph5om5on ( int]f]5ce may also be illu/rat$ by waves ( diffusion4 ,if on a gelat9e plate we produce two s]ies ( diffusion waves f two sep>ate c5tres1 we get at c]ta9 po9ts an appe>ance correspond+ to ! int]f]5ce ( two sets ( light waves4 ,?is appe>ance is be/ %[n by s[+ on ! gelat9e film a /raight r[ ( drops equidi/ant f "o ano!r4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$ t ?is ph5om5on ( ! production ( circles ( precipitate sep>at$ by transp>5t spaces1 al?\gh p]iodic1 is n ( necessity vibratory or undulatory4 ,x w\ld ?us appe> t p]iodic ph5om5a may be propagat$ ?r\gh space )\t vibratory or oscillatory motion4 ,if we submit to a critical exam9ation ! v>i\s exp]im5ts :i* h e/abli%$ ! undulatory !ory ( light1 we f9d t !y d inde$ demon/rate ! p]iodic nature ( light1 b 9 no wise prove t light is a vibratory movem5t ( ! e!r4 #gb ,on ! contr>y1 ! hypo!sis t light is propagat$ by vibratory movem5ts is op5 to _m objections4 ,ev5 ! ,zeeman effect1 al?\gh x may t5d to e/abli% ! fact t light is produc$ by vibratory movem5t1 by no means proves t x is propagat$ 9 ! same mann]4 ,:5 ! !ory 0 accept$ t ! transmission ( light 0 p]iodic x 0 suppos$ t ?is p]iodic transmission c\ld only be vibratory or undulatory 9 "*1 s9ce waves or vibrations 7 ! only p]iodic ph5om5a kn[n at t "t4 ,we n[ "k t !re are o!r means ( p]iodic transmission :i* are app>5tly n undulatory4 ,! p]iodic precipitates produc$ by diffusion %[ u ! transmission ( sph]ical waves ?r\gh space1 :i* foll[ ! laws ( light1 al?\gh ! p]iodic ph5om5on is app>5tly emissive r ?an vibratory4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ,newton consid]$ light to be produc$ by projectile-l p>ticles emanat+ f a c5tre1 & proce$+ 9 /raight l9es 9 all directions4 ,?is emission !ory ( light 0 ab&on$ 9 fav\r ( ,huyg5s' undulatory !ory4 ,x 0 said t ! ph5om5a ( int]f]5ce & diffraction c\ld n be expla9$ by ! !ory ( emission1 :ile ! undulatory !ory gave a simple explanation4 ,! sci5tific m9d 0 unable to conceive ! idea ( emission & p]iodicity z tak+ "p 9 ! same ph5om5on4 ,! savants & ?9k]s :o h m$itat$ on ?is "q h always consid]$ ! !ory ( emission & t ( p]iodicity z incompatible4 ,nev]!less1 we are "h 9 pres5ce ( a ph5om5on 9 :i* emission & p]iodicity exi/ simultane\sly4 ,! molecules emanat+ f our drop are diffus$ 9 /raight radiat+ l9es1 & yet produce p]iodic precipitates :i* are subject to int]f]5ce & diffraction l ! undulations ( ,huyg5s4 ,! ph5om5a associat$ ) ! pressure ( light1 ! #gc discov]y ( ! ca?ode rays & ! radiations ( radium1 toge!r ) ! introduction ( ! electron !ory ( electricity1 all seem to h br\ght aga9 into great] prom95ce ,newton's orig9al conception ( ! emission>y nature ( light4 ,"s ( ! ph5om5a ( radiation c be expla9$ only by ! emission !ory1 & o!rs by ! undulatory !ory ( light4 ,all ^! difficulties w\ld be solv$ if we admitt$ ! hypo!sis t radiat+ bodies project electrons1 :i* produce 9 ! e!r p]iodic waves simil> to ^? =m$ 9 our gelat9e films by ! molecules ( diffusion4 ,^! diffusion films are ( ! greate/ possible s]vice 9 ! practical tea*+ ( optics4 ,!y place be=e ! eye ( ! /ud5t a work+ model z x 7 ( ! undulations ( light4 ,:5 project$ on ! scre51 !y give excell5t pictures ( ! ph5om5a ( refraction1 diffraction1 & int]f]5ce1 & ! simultane\s propagation ( undulation ( diff]5t wave-l5g?s1 & !y %[ 9 a visible mann] ! *anges ( wave-l5g? 9 m$ia ( diff]5t d5sities4 ,diffusion waves diff] greatly 9 l5g?1 v>y+ f sev]al millimetres to #b mu4 ,_m are ev5 %ort] ?an ?is1 too %ort to be sep>ately di/+ui%$ ev5 "u ! highe/ p[] ( ! microscope1 :5 !y give ! effect ( moire or "m-(-pe>l4 ,x is easy to con/ruct a spectroscopic grat+ 9 ?is way ) f9e l9es ^: di/ance ap>t is ( ! ord] ( a micron1 sep>at$ by cle> spaces4 ,e physical laboratory may ?us produce its own spectroscopic grat+s1 rectil9e>1 circul>1 or ( any desir$ =m4 ,! mo/ beautiful col\r effects may be produc$ ) ^! diffusion grat+s1 z we h %[n at ! ,congress ( ,rheims 9 #aijg4 ,we h a consid]able collection ( ^! diffusion grat+s1 "s ) v f9e l9es1 giv+ a v ext5d$ spectrum1 & o!rs ) co>s] /riations :i* give a l>ge numb] ( small spectra4 ,?is /udy ( p]iodic precipitates is ( ! highe/ int]e/ :5 we come to inve/igate ! production ( col\r 9 natural objects1 su* z ! w+s ( insects or ! plumage ( #gd birds4 ,_m tissues h ?is l9$ or /riat$ /ructure & exhibit int]f]5ce col\rs l ^? ( ! p]iodic precipitates1 _! /ructure %[+ alt]nate transp>5t & opaque l9es1 ^: wid? is ( ! ord] ( a micron4 ,?is is ! /ructure ( muscle1 & to ?is /riat$ surface is also attributable _m ( ! mo/ beautiful col\rs ( nature1 ! gleam ( t5don & aponeurosis1 ! fire ( sc>ab & beetle1 ! col\rs ( ! peacock1 & ! iridesc5ce ( ! mollusc & ! pe>l4 ,! /udy ( liquid diffusion has giv5 u an idea ( ! physical me*anism by :i* ^! /riat$ tissues are produc$1 a me*anism :i* up to ! pres5t "t has n be5 ev5 suspect$4 ,our exp]im5ts %[ h[ readily su* /rip$ or rul$ /ructures may be produc$ 9 a colloidal solution by ! simple diffusion ( salts su* z are f\nd 9 e liv+ organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,photomicrograph ( /riat$ /ructure ( a p]iodic precipitate ( c>bonate & phosphate ( lime 7magnifi$ #ejj times74 ,to make a spectroscopic grat+ by diffusion we proce$ z foll[s4 ,we take #e c4c4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e1 & add to x "o drop ( a conc5trat$ solution #ge ( calcium nitrate4 ,we spread ! gelat9e ev5ly ov] a pla9 glass lant]n slide & all[ x to set4 ,aft] x is set1 b be=e x dries1 we place 9 ! c5tre ( ! slide a drop ( conc5trat$ solution conta9+ two p>ts ( sodium c>bonate 7,na#b;,,co#c7 to "o ( dibasic sodium phosphate 7,na#b;,,hpo#d74 ,tribasic sodium phosphate alone )\t ! addition ( ! c>bonate w also give good results4 ,if ! phosphate solution is plac$ on ! gelat9e 9 ! =m ( a drop1 we obta9 circul> p]iodic precipitates4 ,if x is desir$ to make a rectil9eal grat+1 we deposit ! phosphate solution on ! gelat9e 9 a /raight l9e by means ( two p>allel glass plates4 ,9 ?is way we may obta9 l9es ( p]iodic precipitation to ! numb] ( #ejj to #ajjj p] millimetre1 =m+ grat+s :i* produce mo/ beautiful spectra4 ,pe>ls & "m-(-pe>l bo? owe _! iridesc5ce to a simil> rul$ /ructure1 :i* is develop$ 9 ! liv+ tissue ( a mollusc4 ,!y are1 9 fact1 p]iodic precipitates ( phosphate & c>bonate ( lime deposit$ 9 ! colloidal organic sub/ance ( ! mollusc4 ,!y h ! same /ructure & ! same *emical composition2 !y h ! same physical prop]ties1 ! gl[1 ! fire1 & ! brilliancy ( our spectroscopic grat+s4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts1 inde$1 we h realiz$ ! syn!sis ( ! pe>l1 n only a *emical syn!sis1 b ! syn!sis ( its /ructure & organism4 ,we h be5 able to make ^! p]iodic precipitates by ! reaction ( a great numb] ( *emical sub/ances1 giv+ a bewild]+ v>iety ( =m & /ructure4 ,"s ( ^! recall ! =m ( v>i\s organisms1 & especially ( insects1 z may be se5 9 ,fig4 #ah4 ,all ! ph5om5a ( life are p]iodic4 ,! movem5t ( he>t & lungs1 sleep & wak+1 all n]v\s ph5om5a1 h a regul> p]iodicity4 ,x is possible t ! /udy ( ^! purely physical ph5om5a ( p]iodic precipitation may give u ! key to ! causation ( rhy?m & p]iodicity 9 liv+ be+s4 ,besides ?is p]iodic precipitation !re appe> to be o!r *emical reactions :i* are p]iodic4 ,pr(essor ,br$ig ( ,heidelb]g has lately describ$ a curi\s ph5om5on1 ! #gf p]iodic catalysis ( p]oxide ( hydrog5 by m]cury4 ,he ?us describes 8 exp]im5t3 ,we place 9 a p]fectly clean te/ tube a few cubic c5timetres ( p]fectly pure m]cury4 ,^u ?is we p\r #aj c4c4 ( a #aj p] c5t4 solution ( hydrog5 p]oxide4 ,! m]cury spe$ily becomes cov]$ ) a ?91 brilliant bronze-col\r$ pellicle :i* reflects light4 ,!n little by little catalysis ( ! hydrog5 p]oxide beg9s1 ) lib]ation ( oxyg54 ,aft] "s "t1 f five to tw5ty m9utes1 ! lib]ation ( gas at ! surface ( ! m]cury ceases1 ! cl\d =m$ by ! gas bubbles disappe>s1 & ! bronze mirror at ! surface ( ! m]cury lights up ) ! gl9t ( silv]4 ,!re is a pause ( "o or m seconds1 & !n ! catalytic action beg9s afre%1 comm5c+ at ! edges ( ! mirror4 ,! cl\d is aga9 =m$ & aga9 disappe>s4 ,?is beautiful & surpris+ rhy?mic ph5om5on may cont9ue at regul> int]vals = an h\r or m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,articulate =m produc$ by p]iodic precipitation4 ,a slight alkal9ity ( ! liquid is necess>y to />t ! ph5om5on4 ,?is expla9s ! ret>dation at ! beg9n+ #gg ( ! exp]im5t1 s9ce ! rhy?mic catalysis _c beg9 until ! hydrog5 p]oxide has dissolv$ a little ( ! glass s z to r5d] x slightly alkal9e4 ,! catalytic process may1 h[ev]1 be set go+ at once by add+ a trace ( potassium acetate to ! solution4 ,we may ev5 obta9 a curve giv+ an automatic record ( ! p]iodicity ( ?is catalytic action4 ,= ?is purpose ! oxyg5 giv5 (f is l$ to a manomet]1 :i* regi/]s on a revolv+ drum ! p]iodic v>iation 9 pressure4 ,! curve ?us obta9$ pres5ts a rem>kable resemblance to a trac+ ( ! pulse4 ,! frequ5cy & "* ( ! undulatory curve is modifi$ by physical & *emical influ5ces4 ,l circulation or respiration1 p]iodic catalysis has its poisons1 & exhibits signs ( fatigue1 & ( p>alysis by cold4 ,! rhy?mic catalysis ( ,br$ig produces an electrical curr5t ( action betwe5 ! m]cury & ! wat] j l t produc$ by ! rhy?mic contraction ( ! he>t1 & ?is curr5t may be regi/]$ 9 a simil> way by means ( ! ,e9?ov5 galvanomet]4 ,?us ! he>t-beat may be b an in/ance ( rhy?mic catalysis1 s9ce bo? produce ! same ph5om5a1 movem5t1 *emical action1 & p]iodic curr5ts4 ,9 ! *apt] on physiog5esis we %all return to ! /udy ( ?is "q & consid] ano!r rhy?mic ph5om5on :i* is ! result ( osmotic gr[?4 99 99 99 99 99 #gh ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,cohesion ,,& ,,cry/allization ,*emical aff9ity is ! =ce :i* holds toge!r ! diff]5t atoms 9 a molecule4 ,cohesion is ! =ce :i* holds toge!r molecules :i* are *emically simil>4 ,al?\gh physical sci5ce di/+ui%es ?ree /ates ( matt]1 solid1 liquid1 & gase\s1 yet "h z else:]e !re are no %>p divid+ l9es1 b r an absolute cont9uity4 ,we h 9 fact _m int]m$iate /ates2 betwe5 liquids & gases !re are ! v>i\s conditions ( vap\r1 & betwe5 liquids & solids we get visc\s1 gelat9\s1 & pa/e-l conditions4 ,! only real diff]5ce betwe5 solids1 liquids1 & gases is ! int5sity ( ! =ce ( cohesion1 :i* is consid]able 9 solids1 feeble 9 liquids1 & abs5t 9 gases4 ,a liv+ organism is ! ar5a 9 :i* are br\ght into play ! oppos+ =ces ( cohesion & dis9tegration4 ,! /udy ( cohesion is !re=e a vital "o = ! biologi/1 & especially cohesion "u ! conditions :i* obta9 9 liv+ be+s1 viz4 9 liquids ( het]og5e\s con/itution4 ,! =ces ( cohesion br\ght into play "u ^! conditions may be beautifully illu/rat$ by a simple exp]im5t4 ,we take a plate ( glass1 well clean$ & absolutely horizontal4 ,on x we p\r a lay] ( salt wat]1 & 9 ! middle we c>efully drop a spot ( ,indian ink4 ,! drop at once beg9s to diffuse1 & we obta9 a circul> figure1 l ! monopol> field ( diffusion already describ$1 ! rays ( diffusion radiat+ f ! c5tre 9 all directions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,muri=m cohesion figure =m$ by a drop ( ,indian ink 9 a solution ( salt4 ,if we keep ! plate c>efully protect$ f all di/urb+ influ5ces1 aft] "s t5 to tw5ty m9utes we %all see ! col\r$ p>ticles return+ on _! pa?1 & ! c5tre ( #gi ! drop becom+ m & m black4 ,ea* l9e ( =ce becomes segm5t$ into granules1 :i* gradually increase 9 size1 & approa* ne>] to "o ano!r & to ! c5tre ( ! drop1 until x assumes ! mulb]ry appe>ance %[n 9 ! photograph 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,sev5 simil> drops ( ,indian ink diffus+ 9 a salt solution4 ,two m9utes aft] introduc+ ! drops4 ,if we s[ a numb] ( drops ( ,indian ink 9 regul> ord] on ! surface ( a salt solution1 we obta9 mo/ beautiful patt]ns =m$ by ! mutual repulsion ( ! drops4 ,figs4 #bj1 #ba1 & #bb repres5t ! successive aspects ( sev5 drops ( ,indian ink ?us s[n on a lay] ( salt solution1 & kept undi/urb$ long en\gh to all[ ( _! evolution4 ,fig4 #bj %[s ! aspect aft] two m9utes1 :5 ! diffusion is almo/ complete4 ,9 ,fig4 #ba1 photograph$ aft] fifte5 #hj m9utes1 ! col\r+ matt] has almo/ entirely reunit$ to =m sep>ate granulations2 :il/ 9 ,fig4 #bb1 tak5 aft] ?irty m9utes1 ^! granulations are re>rang$ to =m an agglom]ation ar\nd ! c5tre ( ea* drop4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,! same drops #ae m9utes lat]1 %[+ ! granulation appe>ance4 ,! foll[+ exp]im5t1 :i* is m difficult1 w %[ ! cohesive attraction ( "o drop = ano!r4 ,a plate ( glass is adju/$ absolutely horizontal1 & cov]$ z be=e ) a lay] ( salt solution4 ,on ?is we s[ a numb] ( drops ( ! same salt solution col\r$ ) ,indian ink4 ,! drops mu/ be ( exactly ! same conc5tration z ! salt m$ium1 s z to avoid any diff]5ce ( osmotic pressure betwe5 ! drops & ! m$ium1 o!rwise ! drops w\ld n rema9 intact b w\ld diffuse into ! solution4 ,s9ce "u ^! conditions ! liquid ( ! m$ium ar\nd ! drops is p]fectly symmetrical & homog5e\s1 x _c ex]cise any influ5ce on ! liquid ( ! drops4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,! same drops aft] #cj m9utes4 ,! granulations h agglom]at$ at ! c5tre ( ! drops4 ,x is o!rwise1 h[ev]1 ) ! col\r+ matt] ( ! #ha drops4 ,! p>ticles ( ,indian ink may be se5 pass+ f "o drop to ano!r1 ! col\r$ circles become elongat$ t[>ds "o ano!r1 t\*1 & f9ally unite4 ,if1 z 9 ,fig4 #bc1 ! drops are ( diff]5t size1 ! l>g] "o w h a prepond]at+ attractive action & eat up ! small] drops4 ,9 ! figure1 six small drops are plac$ ar\nd a l>ge "o1 & ! small] drops h begun to be de=m$ & to move t[>ds ! l>g] drop4 ,?is c5tral drop is also de=m$1 & has assum$ a m or less hexagonal =m1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! attraction ( ! six small] ones4 ,x may be notic$ t ! lea/ prom95t angle ( ! hexagon is opposite ! small drop :i* is f>!/ away f x1 :il/ "o ( ! small] drops has already begun to be swall[$ up by ! l>ge "o4 ,?is cohesion ph5om5on is v sl[ 9 its action1 b aft] an h\r or two ! c5tral drop w be f\nd to h #hb completely absorb$ ! six small] ones1 & only "o l>ge drop w rema94 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,attraction betwe5 col\r$ drops 9 an isotonic solution4 ,incubation4--,9 ! liv+ organism we frequ5tly f9d conditions simil> to ^? realiz$ 9 ?is exp]im5t1 viz4 v sl[ movem5ts ( diffusion 9 liquids conta9+ p>ticles 9 susp5sion4 ,9 su* cases ! consequ5ces mu/ be ! same1 viz4 granulation & segm5tation4 ,consid] = a mom5t ! incubation ( an egg4 ,! heat ( incubation det]m9es a c]ta9 am\nt ( evaporation ?r\gh ! %ell1 ) a conc5tration ( ! liquid ne> ! surface4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is sup]ficial conc5tration we get segm5tation ( ! vitellus1 ) ! production ( a morula4 ,artificial ,p>!nog5esis4--,! exp]im5tal p>!nog5esis ( ,loeb & ,delage consi/s 9 plung+ ! egg into a liquid o!r ?an sea wat]1 & return+ x aga9 to its orig9al m$ium4 ,?is op]ation w necess>ily det]m9e sl[ movem5ts ( diffusion 9 ! egg1 :i* w give rise to segm5tation4 ,x may be object$ t segm5tation is also produc$ by a solution :i* is isotonic ) sea wat]4 ,su* a solution w\ld n inde$ produce an ex*ange ( wat] ) ! egg1 b x w\ld set up an ex*ange ( electrolytes1 s9ce !re w\ld be a diff]5ce ( _! osmotic pressure 9 ! egg & 9 ! new isotonic m$ium4 ,! extremely sl[ movem5ts ( diffusion ?us produc$ w\ld be v fav\rable to ! action ( ! cohesive =ce on ! p>ticles 9 susp5sion1 & h5ce to ! segm5tation ( ! egg4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,a circle ( eight drops ( ,indian ink #cj m9utes aft] !y h be5 s[n 9 a salt solution4 ,! drops h und]gone diffusion & subsequ5t cohesion1 result+ 9 a reticulate /ructure4 ,few physical ph5om5a give u a deep] insight into ! ph5om5a ( life ?an ^? :i* we "h contemplate4 ,!re is /ill ano!r exp]im5t :i* is ev5 m conv9c+4 ,on ! surface ( our horizontal salt solution we s[ a numb] ( drops ( a m conc5trat$ salt solution at equal di/ances ar\nd ! circumf]5ce ( a circle4 ,movem5ts ( diffusion are ?us set up 9 ! int]ior ( ! circle1 & aft] a "t1 :5 ?is diffusion has become s sl[ z to be almo/ imp]ceptible1 a furr[ beg9s to appe> 9 ! col\r$ mass4 ,!n a second & ?ird appe>1 & o!rs cross+ ! =m] break up ! mass #hc into segm5ts4 ,f9ally ! segm5tation becomes complete1 & ! prep>ation pres5ts a muri=m appe>ance1 look+ 9 fact some?+ l a mulb]ry 7,fig4 #bd74 ,if ! prep>ation is pres]v$ = sev]al h\rs long]1 we may see ! cells =m$ by segm5tation unite ar\nd ! circumf]5ce s z to =m a holl[ bag correspond+ to a ga/rula1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #be4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,! same prep>ation sev]al h\rs lat]1 %[+ a cellul> ga/rula-l /ructure4 ,^! prep>ations are extremely s5sitive to ext]nal influ5ces1 :i* r5d]s ! demon/ration ( cohesion ph5om5a difficult4 ,i h nev]!less on sev]al occasions be5 able to project ! exp]im5t on ! scre5 dur+ a lecture4 ,! segm5tation is influ5c$ by v slight curr5ts ( diffusion1 & ,i h _m prep>ations %[+ ! segm5tation regul>ly di/ribut$ 9 v>i\s ways along radial diffusion l9es4 ,we may 9 ?is way produce _m v>ieties ( /ructure lamell>1 vacuolate1 or cellul>1 9 fact #hd all ! tissue /ructures :i* are met ) 9 liv+ organisms4 ,all ^! /ructures are retractile1 ! retraction go+ on v sl[ly = a long "t1 z if ! =ce ( cohesion cont9u$ to act 9 ! web ( ! /ructure ev5 aft] its =mation 0 complete4 ,! ph5om5on is a purely physical syn!tic reproduction ( ! ph5om5on ( coagulation1 ! cohesion figure be+ 9 fact a retractile clot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,field ( cry/allization ( sodium *loride 7magnifi$ #fj diamet]s74 ,cry/allization4--,:5 we evaporate a solution ( a cry/alloid x becomes m conc5trat$1 sl[ movem5ts ( diffusion are set up1 & at a giv5 mom5t agglom]ation occurs1 ! agglom]ates tak+ ! =m ( cry/als4 ,?us cry/allization may be reg>d$ z a p>ticul> case ( conglom]ation by cohesion1 diff]+ only 9 ! regul>ity ( ! arrangem5t ( ! molecules1 :i* gives ! geometrical =m ( ! cry/al4 ,h5ce we c easily und]/& h[ ! pres5ce ( a cry/all9e fragm5t may facilitate ! process ( cry/allization4 ,consid] a liquid 9 :i* extremely sl[ movem5ts ( diffusion are tak+ place4 ,if ! liquid is p]fectly homog5e\s !re w be no c5tre ( attraction to :i* ! molecules may become atta*$4 #he ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,field ( cry/allization ar\nd a cry/al ( sodium *loride 9 process ( =mation4 ,if1 h[ev]1 a cry/al or o!r het]og5e\s /ructure is pres5t1 x =ms a c5tre ( cohesion :i* w atta* any molecules t are br\ght by diffusion into its sph]e ( attraction4 ,we h succe$$ 9 photograph+ ! arrangem5t ( ! molecules ( a liquid ar\nd a cry/al 9 ! act ( =mation 7,fig4 #bf74 ,= ?is purpose we add to ! solution traces ( "s colloidal sub/ance1 su* z gelat9e or gum1 s z to delay ! cry/allization4 ,x may ?us be %[n t ! molecules ( ! surr\nd+ liquid are already arrang$ 9 cry/all9e ord] = "s di/ance f ! cry/al1 =m+ a sort ( field ( cry/allization4 ,! arrangem5t ( ?is regul> field v>ies 9 diff]5t cases1 & is m or less complicat$ accord+ to circum/ances4 ,"o ( ! mo/ frequ5t =ms is t %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg1 :i* is ! field ar\nd a cry/al ( sodium *loride4 ,9 ! c5tre #hf ( ! cry/al is a squ>e ) well-m>k$ outl9e4 ,at ea* corn] ( ?is squ>e !re is a /raight l9e at "r angles to ! diagonal1 :i* w =m ! sides ( ! cry/al 9 process ( =mation4 ,f ! middle ( ea* side arise yet o!r p]p5dicul>s1 :i* 9 _! turn be> o!r cross l9es1 ea* new l9e be+ set at "r angles to its pr$ecessor4 ,a lat] /age ( cry/allization is %[n 9 ,fig4 #bg1 :]e ! two squ>es "o inside ! o!r at an angle ( #de;deg are cle>ly indicat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,?ree cry/als ( sodium *loride 9 process ( =mation1 ea* 9 ! c5tre ( a field ( cry/allization4 ,e cry/allizable sub/ance gives a diff]5t *>act]i/ic field ( cry/allization4 ,9 #aijc1 at ! ,congress ( ,ang]s1 ,i t]m9at$ my address by ^! words3 ,! field ( cry/allization may s]ve to det]m9e ! "* ( a sub/ance 9 solution4 ,i h subsequ5tly receiv$ f ,c>bonell y ,soles ( ,b>celona an int]e/+ "w on ?is subject1 :i* he contribut$ to ! ,int]national ,congress ( ,m$ic9e at ,madrid 9 #aijc1 entitl$ ,applicacion de la cry/alog5ia exp]im5tal a la inve/igacion toxicologica de cas alcaloides4 #hg ,six ye>s ago ,i receiv$ f ,au/ralia an exce$+ly beautiful photograph ( a ?9 pellicle f\nd 9 a ra9 gauge4 ,my correspond5t suppos$ t ?is /range figure might h be5 produc$ "u ! influ5ce ( an electric or magnetic field4 ,i 0 able to assure him by return ( po/ t ! figure 0 ! result ( ! cry/allization ( copp] sulphate 9 a colloidal m$ium4 ,9 return ,i receiv$ a lett] v]ify+ ?is fact1 & say+ t !re 7 copp] works 9 ! neighb\rhood1 & ! air 0 fill$ ) ! du/ ( copp] sulphate4 ,liv+ be+s are b solutions ( colloids & cry/alloids1 & _! tissues are built up by ! aggregation ( ^! solutes4 ,we h already se5 h[ ! =ces ( cry/allization are modifi$ 9 colloid solutions4 ,?is =ce ( cry/allization mu/ play an important role 9 ! metamorphoses ( ! liv+ organism1 & influ5ce _! morphology4 ,x may !re=e be ( int]e/ to inve/igate "s ( ! numb]less =ms ( cry/allization 9 colloidal solutions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,cry/allization ( sodium *loride 9 a colloidal solution1 giv+ a plant-l =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,=m produc$ by ! cry/allization ( *loride ( ammonium 9 a colloidal solution4 ,figs4 #bi & #cj repres5t ! =ms produc$ by *loride ( sodium & *loride ( ammonium respectively1 9 solutions ( gelat9e ( diff]5t degrees ( conc5tration4 ,_! resemblance to vegetable gr[? is s rem>kable t sev]al obs]v]s on fir/ see+ !m h call$ !m ,f]n-cry/als4 ,i %\ld l "h to recall to y\r notice ! "w ( an ,engli% obs]v]1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,montgom]y ( ,/4 ,?omas's #hh ,hospital1 :i* 0 publi%$ z long ago z #ahfe4 ,?is "w 0 rec5tly br\ght to my notice by ! k9dness ( ,pr(essor ,bauml] ( ,freiburg4 ,he says3 ,cry/als are n /rang]s 9 ! organic _w4 ,_m organic comp\nds are able to assume cry/all9e =ms "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,ra9ey has %[n t _m %ells consi/ ( globul> cry/als i4e4 ( m9]al sub/ances made to cry/allize by ! influ5ce ( viscid mat]ial4 ,9 ?is connection ,i may also m5tion ! int]e/+ "w ( ,otto ,lehmann ( ,k>lsruhe on liquid cry/als4 ,9 conclusion1 we may recall ! words ( ,s*wann himself1 ! orig9ator ( ! cell !ory3 ,! =mation ( ! elem5t>y %apes ( an organism is b a cry/allization ( sub/ances capable ( imbibition4 ,! organism is b an aggregate ( su* imbib+ cry/als4 99 99 99 99 99 #hi ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,k>yok9esis ,9 #ahgc1 ,h]mann ,fol1 writ+ ( ! eggs ( ,g]yonia1 ?us describes ! ph5om5on ( k>yok9esis3 ,on ei!r side ( ! residue ( ! nucleus !re appe>s a conc5tration ( plasma1 ?us =m+ two p]fectly regul> />-l figures1 ^: rays are /raight l9es ( granulations4 ,!re are o!r curv$ rays :i* pass f "o /> or c5tre ( attraction to ! o!r4 ,! :ole figure is extraord9>ily di/9ct1 recall+ 9 a /rik+ mann] ! arrangem5t ( iron fil+s surr\nd+ ! poles ( a magnet4 ,sa*s' !ory is t ! division ( ! nucleus is caus$ by c5tres ( attraction1 & ,i agree ) him1 n on !oretical gr\nds1 b because ,i h actually se5 ^! c5tres ( attraction4 ,s9ce ! discov]y ( ,h]mann ,fol1 a great numb] ( explanations h be5 giv51 all ( !m !oretical1 to acc\nt = ! figures & ph5om5a ( k>yok9esis4 ,_m ( ^! s-call$ explanations are me*anical1 :ile o!rs invoke ! aid ( magnetism or electricity to acc\nt = ! resemblance ( ! figures ( k>yok9esis to ! magnetic or electric phantom or spectre4 ,among ! au?ors :o h dealt ) ?is "q we may m5tion ,h>tog ( ,cork1 ,gall>do ( ,bu5os ,ayres1 & ,rhumbl] ( ,goett+54 ,9 #aijd ,i pres5t$ to ! ,gr5oble ,congress1 & 9 #aijf to ! ,lyons ,congress1 a s]ies ( photographs & prep>ations ( exp]im5tal k>yok9esis4 ,i %[$ h[1 9 a solution analog\s to t f\nd 9 ! natural cell1 ! simple processes ( liquid diffusion1 )\t ! int]v5tion ( magnetism or electricity1 may reproduce ) p]fect accuracy & 9 _! normal sequ5ce ! :ole ( ! movem5ts & #ij figures :i* *>act]ize ! ph5om5on ( k>yok9esis4 ,?is exp]im5t consi/s n m]ely 9 ! production ( a c]ta9 figure1 su* z is obta9$ 9 ! magnetic spectre1 b 9 ! reproduction ( ! movem5t itself1 & ( all ! successive =ms :i* are se5 9 ! natural ph5om5on4 ,^! are evolv$ be=e ! eyes ( ! spectator 9 _! regul> ord] & sequ5ce4 ,i may "h reproduce ! text ( my communication at ,gr5oble3 ,until ,i introduc$ ! conception ( a field ( diffusion1 !re 0 no prop] means ( /udy+ ! ph5om5a ( diffusion1 :i* obey ! laws ( a field ( =ce z exp\nd$ by ,f>aday4 ,moreov]1 no "o suspect$ ! possibility ( reproduc+ by liquid diffusion a spectre analog\s to ! electro-magnetic phantom4 ,guid$ by ?is !ory ( a diffusion field ( =ce1 ,i h be5 able to reproduce exp]im5tally ! figures ( k>yok9esis by simple diffusion4 ,) reg>d to ! a*romat9 sp9dle1 ,pr(essor ,h>tog has %[n t ! two poles ( ! sp9dle are ( ! same sign1 & n ( opposite signs z 0 at fir/ suppos$4 ,9 ! process ( k>yok9esis ! two c5trosomes1 i4e4 ! two poles ( ! a*romat9 sp9dle1 repel "o ano!r4 ,!y mu/ !re=e be poles ( ! same sign4 ,an electric or magnetic spectre %[+ a sp9dle betwe5 two poles ( ! same sign is unkn[n2 su* a ?+ w\ld appe> to be an absolute impossibility4 ,:at is impossible 9 electricity & magnetism1 h[ev]1 is q possible 9 ! artificial diffusion field2 we c "h h a sp9dle betwe5 two poles :i* repel "o ano!r--t is1 betwe5 poles ( ! same sign4 ,fig4 #ca is a photograph ( su* a sp9dle produc$ by diffusion4 ,on ei!r side are two poles ( conc5tration1 :i* repres5t ! c5trosomes1 ea* pole be+ surr\nd$ by a />-l radiation4 ,^! poles be+ alike1 repel "o ano!r4 ,9 ! prep>ation "o may see ! di/ance betwe5 ! two poles sl[ly increase1 ! poles gradually sep>at+ f "o ano!r j z d ! c5trosomes ( an ovum dur+ k>yok9esis4 ,?is prep>ation1 !n1 :i* is produc$ entirely by diffusion1 pres5ts a p]fect resemblance to ! a*romat9 sp9dle 9 k>yok9esis4 #ia ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,diffusion figure repres5t+ k>yok9esis4 ,a*romat9 sp9dle betwe5 two simil> poles ( conc5tration4 ,! sp9dle ( :i* we give a photograph 9 ,fig4 #ca 0 made by plac+ 9 salt wat] a drop ( ! same solution pigm5t$ ) blood or ,indian ink1 & plac+ on ei!r side ( ?is c5tral drop a hyp]tonic drop ( salt solution m lightly col\r$4 ,aft] diffusion _h gone on = "s m9utes1 we obta9$ ! figure :i* we h photograph$4 ,i w\ld draw y\r att5tion to ! equatorial plane1 :i* %[s t ! sp9dle is n =m$ by l9es ( =ce pass+ f "o pole to ! o!r1 z w\ld be ! case betwe5 two poles ( contr>y sign1 b by two =ces act+ 9 opposite directions4 ,on ei!r side ! pigm5t ( ! c5tral drop has be5 drawn t[>ds ! hyp]tonic c5tre ne>e/ to x4 ,9 ! m$ian l9e1 h[ev]1 ! pigm5t is attract$ 9 opposite directions by equal =ces1 & !re=e rema9s undi/urb$1 m>k+ ! position ( ! equatorial plane4 ,?is obs]vation applies equally to ! equatorial plane 9 natural k>yok9esis1 ^: exi/5ce is ?us readily expla9$4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to insi/ on ! fact t liquid prep>ations l ^! are ( extreme delicacy & s5sitiv5ess1 & require = _! production1 & /ill m = _! photography1 ! greate/ c>e & skill1 :i* c only be acquir$ by long practice4 #ib ,we are able to produce by diffusion n only ! a*romat9 sp9dle1 b also ! segm5tation ( ! *romat91 & ! division ( ! nucleus4 ,if 9 ! sal9e solution we place a col\r$ isotonic drop betwe5 two col\r$ hyp]tonic drops1 all ! figures & movem5ts ( k>yok9esis appe> successively 9 _! due ord]4 ,! c5tral drop1 repres5t+ ! nucleus betwe5 ! two lat]al drops or c5trosomes1 fir/ becomes granul>4 ,next we see :at appe>s to be a roll$-up ribbon analog\s to ! *romat9 b&1 :i* soon breaks into fragm5ts analog\s to ! *romosomes4 ,^! arrange !mselves ar\nd1 & are gradually attract$ t[>ds ! c5trosomes1 :]e !y accumulate to =m two pigm5t$ nucle> masses4 ,a p>tition !n makes its appe>ance 9 ! m$ian l9e1 & ?is p>tition becomes cont9u\s ) ! b\nd>y ( ! sph]es ar\nd ! c5trosomes4 ,f9ally we h two cells 9 juxtaposition1 ea* ) its nucleus1 its protoplasm1 & its envelop+ membrane4 ,i h be5 able to photograph ^! successive /ages ( ! segm5tation ( ! *romat9 j z ,i h ^? ( ! a*romat9 sp9dle 7,fig4 #cb74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,f\r successive /ages 9 ! production ( artificial k>yok9esis by diffusion4 ,?is memoir1 writt5 9 #aijd1 cle>ly ass]ts ! homopol>ity ( ! c5trosomes1 & %[s t ! nucle> division is ! result ( a bipol> action1 two poles ( ! same sign ex]t+ _! influ5ce on opposite sides ( ! nucleus4 ,x also emphasizes ! important fact t diffusion1 #ic & z f> z we "k diffusion alone1 is able to produce a sp9dle betwe5 homolog\s poles4 ,a glance at ! photograph is en\gh to %[ t ! sp9dle is =m$ betwe5 poles ( ! same sign4 ,! l9es ( diffusion radiate f "o c5tre & conv]ge t[>ds ! o!r c5tre 9 curves1 giv+ ! d\ble conv]g5ce *>act]i/ic ( a sp9dle4 ,! c5tral drop m]ely supplies ! necess>y mat]ial1 & %\ld h a conc5tration b slightly less ?an t ( ! plasma1 s z n to set up its own l9es ( diffusion4 ,! photograph %[s cle>ly t ! rays ( ! sp9dle trav]se ! equator )\t any break4 ,x has be5 object$ t ^! l9es =m n s mu* a sp9dle z two hemi-sp9dles1 b x is cle> t ^! two hemi-sp9dles are cont9u\s & =m a s+le %eaf ( rays unit+ ! two poles ( conc5tration4 ,?is is a ph5om5on entirely unkn[n 9 ! magnetic or electric fields1 :]e two poles ( ! same sign1 "o on ei!r side ( a pole ( ! contr>y sign1 give two sep>ate sp9dles4 ,9 a magnetic field x is impossible to make ! l9es emanat+ f "o pole conv]ge1 except to a pole ( opposite sign4 ,h5ce if we admit ! homopol>ity ( ! c5trosomes1 we mu/ also admit t diffusion is ! v]a causa ( k>yok9esis1 s9ce1 z ,i %[$ at ! ,gr5oble ,congress 9 #aijd1 diffusion & diffusion alone is capable ( produc+ a sp9dle betwe5 two poles ( ! same sign4 ,nucle> ,division4--,9 ord] to reproduce artificially ! ph5om5a att5d+ ! division ( ! nucleus1 we may proce$ z foll[s4 ,we cov] a p]fectly horizontal glass plate ) a semi-saturat$ solution ( potassium nitrate to repres5t ! cytoplasm ( ! cell4 ,! nucleus 9 ! c5tre is reproduc$ by a drop ( ! same solution col\r$ by a trace ( ,indian ink1 ! solid p>ticles ( :i* w repres5t ! *romat9 granules ( ! nucleus4 ,! addition ( ! ,indian ink w h slightly l[]$ ! conc5tration ( ! c5tral drop1 & ?is is 9 accordance ) nature1 s9ce ! osmotic pressure ( ! nucleus is some:at less ?an t ( ! plasma4 ,we next place on ei!r side ( ! drop :i* repres5ts ! #id nucleus a col\r$ drop ( solution m conc5trat$ ?an ! cytoplasm solution4 ,! p>ticles ( ,indian ink 9 ! c5tral drop arrange !mselves 9 a long col\r$ ribbon1 app>5tly roll$ up 9 a coil1 ! edges ( ! ribbon hav+ a bead$ appe>ance4 ,aft] a %ort "t ! ribbon loses its bead$ appe>ance & becomes smoo?1 ) a d\ble outl9e1 z is %[n 9 ,a1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,?is coil or ske9 ( ribbon subsequ5tly divides1 =m+ a nucle> sp9dle1 :ile ! *romat9 sub/ance collects toge!r 9 ! equatorial plane z 9 ,b1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,a m advanc$ /age ( ! nucle> division is %[n at ,c1 ,fig4 #cb1 :]e ! *romat9 b&s ( artificial *romosomes are gr\p$ 9 two conical %eafs conv]g+ t[>ds ! two c5trosomes4 ,= "s consid]able "t ^! conical bundles rema9 unit$ by f9e filam5ts1 ! la/ ve/iges ( ! nucle> sp9dle4 ,! f9al /age is t ( two artificial cells 9 juxtaposition1 ^: nuclei are =m$ by ! orig9al c5trosomes augm5t$ by ! *romat9 b&s or *romosomes 7,fig4 #cb1 ,d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,equatorial cr[n produc$ by diffusion4 ,! resemblance ( ^! successive ph5om5a to ^? ( natural k>yok9esis is ( ! close/4 ,! exp]im5t %[s t diffusion is q suffici5t to produce organic k>yok9esis1 & t ! only physical =ce requir$ is t ( osmotic pressure4 ,if 9 ! cytoplasm ( a cell !re are two po9ts ( molecul> conc5tration great] ?an t ( ! g5]al mass1 ! nucleus mu/ necess>ily divide ) all ! ph5om5a :i* accompany k>yok9esis4 ,9 nature ^! two c5tres ( positive conc5tration are introduc$ into ! protoplasm ( ! cell by fecundation--t is1 by ! entrance ( ! c5trosomes ( ! sp]m cell4 ,9 c]ta9 abnormal cases ! conc5tration may be produc$ 9 ! cell itself by ! =mation ( two c5tres ( catabolism or molecul> dis9tegration1 s9ce1 z we h se51 molecul> dis9tegration raises ! osmotic pressure4 ,?is ph5om5on1 namely ! production ( k>yok9esis f c5tres ( catabolism1 may acc\nt = ! abnormal k>yok9esis ( canc] cells & ! l4 ,! subject is "o :i* w\ld well repay fur!r inve/igation4 #ie ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,a tria/] produc$ by diffusion4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 our exp]im5ts t 9 ord] to obta9 ! regul> division ( ! artificial nucleus repres5t$ by ! int]m$i>y drop1 ! latt] mu/ h an osmotic pressure slightly bel[ t ( ! plasma4 ,?is leads to ! supposition t a simil> condition mu/ obta9 9 ! natural cell4 ,x may be notic$1 moreov]1 t ! gra9s ( pigm5t foll[ ! direction ( ! fl[ ( wat]1 be+ c>ri$ along by ! /ream4 ,?is w\ld appe> to %[ t ! nucleus ( a natural cell has also a molecul> conc5tration less ?an t ( ! plasma--a result ei!r ( dehydration ( ! plasma1 or ( "s dim9ution 9 ! molecul> conc5tration ( ! nucleus4 ,o!r ph5om5a ( k>yok9esis may also be closely imitat$ by diffusion4 ,= in/ance1 9 ! diffusion prep>ation we notice at ea* extremity ( ! equator a ,v-%ap$ figure ) its apex t[>ds ! c5tre1 correspond+ exactly to :at 9 natural k>yok9esis is call$ ! equatorial cr[n4 ,we may also produce diffusion figures ( abnormal k>yok9esis4 ,fig4 #cd repres5ts su* a =m1 a tria/] produc$ by diffusion4 ,artificial k>yok9esis may also be produc$ by hypotonic poles ( conc5tration--t is to say1 :5 ! c5tral drop repres5t+ ! ovum is positive & ! lat]al drops repres5t+ ! c5trosomes are negative ) respect to ! plasma4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! resemblance to natural k>yok9esis is less p]fect4 #if ,)\t atta*+ to x an importance :i* is n w>rant$ by exp]im5tal results1 x is int]e/+ to note t we h "h two me?ods ( f]tilization1 hyp]tonic & hypotonic1 i4e4 by c5trosomes ( great] conc5tration & by c5trosomes ( less conc5tration ?an t ( ! plasma ( ! ovum1 & t we h 9 nature two correspond+ results1 viz4 two diff]5t sexes4 ,x is possible t we h 9 ^! two me?ods ( produc+ nucle> division ! secret ( ! diff]5ce ( sex4 99 99 99 99 99 #ig ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,en]getics ,movem5t is ev]y:]e2 !re is no su* ?+ z immobility2 ! v idea ( re/ is itself an illusion4 ,immobility is only app>5t & relative1 & disappe>s "u clos] exam9ation4 ,all t]re/rial objects are driv5 ) prodigi\s velocity ar\nd ! sun1 & ! dwell]s on ! e>?'s equator travel ea* day ar\nd ! #dj1jjj kilometres ( its circumf]5ce4 ,all objects on ! globe are 9 motion1 ! inanimate z well z ! liv+4 ,! wat]s rise 9 vap\r f ! sea1 float ov] m\nta9 & valley1 & return d[n ! riv]s to ! sea aga94 ,/ill m m>vell\s is ! curr5t ( wat] :i* fl[s et]nally f dew & ra91 ?r\gh ! sap ( plants & ! blood ( animals to ! m9]al _w aga94 ,! v m\nta9s crumble & _! sub/ance is wa%$ d[n into ! pla9s2 ! w9ds move ! air & raise ! waves ( ! sea1 :il/ ! /rong ocean curr5ts are produc$ by v>iations ( temp]ature 9 diff]5t p>ts4 ,?is agitation1 ?is incessant & univ]sal motion1 has be5 a fav\rite subject ( poetic contemplation4 ,h]aclitus writes3 ,!re is a p]petual fl[1 all is "o univ]sal curr5t2 no?+ rema9s z x 01 *ange alone is et]nal4 ,ovid writes 9 8 ,metamorphoses3 ,believe me1 no?+ p]i%es 9 ?is va/ univ]se1 b all v>ies1 & *anges its figure4 ,i ?9k t no?+ endures long "u ! same appe>ance4 ,:at 0 solid e>? has become sea1 & solid gr\nd has issu$ f ! bosom ( ! wat]s4 ,! ,fr5* poetess ,mme4 ,ack]mann has express$ ! same idea 9 beautiful v]se3-- ,a9si1 jamais d'arret4 ,l'immortelle mati]e1 ,un seul in/ant encore n'a pu se repos]4 ,la ,nature ne fait1 pati5te ouvri]e1 ,que defaire et recompos]4 #ih ,t\t se metamorphose entre ses ma9s actives2 ,p>t\t le m\vem5t incessant et div]s1 ,dans le c]cle et]nel des =mes fugitives1 ,agitant l'imm5se univ]s4 ,x 0 only t[>ds ! middle ( la/ c5tury t mank9d 9 ! long se>* aft] unity 9 nature began to realize t all ! movem5ts ( ! univ]se are ! manife/ations ( a s+le ag5t1 :i* we call en]gy4 ,9 reality all ! ph5om5a ( nature may be conceiv$ z div]se =ms ( motion1 & ! ^w en]gy is ! common expression appli$ to all ! v>i\s modes ( motion 9 ! univ]se4 ,x 0 by ! /udy ( heat1 & m especially ( !rmodynamics1 t we obta9$ our conceptions ( ! sci5ce ( en]getics4 ,x 0 9 ,muni* 9 #agih t ! ,engli% eng9e] ,c\nt ,rum=d fir/ obs]v$ t 9 ! op]ation ( bor+ a cannon ! copp] 0 heat$ to su* a degree t ! %av+s became r$-hot4 ,?is sugge/$ 8 fam\s exp]im5t1 9 :i* a heavy iron pe/le 0 turn$ by horse p[] 9 a metal mort> fill$ ) wat]4 ,! wat] boil$1 & :5 m wat] 0 add$ ?is also became heat$ to ebullition1 & s on indef9itely4 ,rum=d argu$ t ! heat ?us obta9$ 9 an indef9ite quantity c\ld n be a mat]ial sub/ance2 t motion 0 ! only ?+ add$ to ! wat] )\t limit1 & t !re=e heat mu/ be motion4 ,:ile ,rum=d's exp]im5t %[$ ! trans=mation ( motion into heat1 ! /eam eng9e 0 soon aft]w>ds to demon/rate ! opposite trans=mation1 viz4 t ( heat into motion4 ,! actual /ate ( our k ) reg>d to ! sci5ce ( en]gy re/s on two pr9ciples1 t ( ,may] & t ( ,c>not4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple 0 def9$ by ,j4 ,r4 ,may]1 a m$ical practition] ( ,heilbronn1 ^: "w1 ,bem]kung5 ueb] die ,kraefte d] unbelebt5 ,natur1 0 publi%$ 9 #ahdb4 ,all physical ph5om5a1 says ,may]1 :e!r vital or *emical1 are =ms ( motion4 ,all ^! =ms ( motion are susceptible ( *ange into "o ano!r1 & 9 all ! trans=mations ! #ii quantity ( me*anical "w repres5t$ by diff]5t modes ( motion rema9s inv>iable4 ,! en]gy ( a giv5 body is ! am\nt ( transf]able motion /or$ up 9 t body1 & is measur$ by its capacity ( produc+ me*anical "w4 ,o/wald ?us def9es en]gy3 ,en]gy is "w1 all t c be obta9$ f "w1 & all t c be *ang$ into "w4 ,diff]5t =ms ( en]gy may be measur$ 9 diff]5t ways1 b all =ms ( en]gy c be measur$ ei!r 9 units ( me*anical "w or 9 units ( heat1 9 kilogramme-metres or foot-p\nds or 9 calories1 accord+ z ! en]gy 9 "q is trans=m$ into me*anical "w or into heat4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple ( en]getics1 ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 may be ?us express$3 ,en]gy is et]nal2 none is ev] creat$1 & none is ev] lo/4 ,! quantity ( en]gy 9 ! univ]se is inv>iable1 & is cons]v$ = ev] 9 its integrity4 ,! unit by :i* we measure quantities ( heat is ! calory1 ! am\nt ( heat requir$ to raise ! temp]ature ( "o kilogramme ( wat] "o degree ,c5tigrade4 ,! practical unit ( me*anical "w is ! kilogramme-metre1 ! "w requir$ to raise ! weight ( "o kilogramme to ! height ( "o metre4 ,! !oretical unit ( "w is "o erg1 ! "w requir$ to move a mass ( "o gramme ?r\gh "o c5timetre aga9/ a =ce ( "o dyne4 ,j\le ( ,man*e/] 0 ! fir/ to v]ify ,may]'s law quantitatively4 ,by an exp]im5t analog\s to t ( ,rum=d1 he trans=m$ "w into heat1 arrang+ 8 app>atus s t he might measure ! am\nt ( heat produc$ & ! "w exp5d$4 ,on divid+ ! quantity ( "w t _h disappe>$ by ! quantity ( heat :i* _h be5 dis5gag$1 he f\nd t #dbd kilogramme-metres ( "w _h be5 exp5d$ = ea* calory ( heat produc$4 ,hirn ( ,colm> measur$ ! ratio ( "w to heat 9 ! /eam eng9e4 ,he f\nd t = ea* calory ( heat :i* _h disappe>$ !re 7 produc$ #dbe kilogramme-metres ( "w4 #ajj ,?is numb] #dbe has !re=e be5 accept$ z repres5t+ 9 calories & kilogramme-metres ! trans=mation ( "w into heat1 & ( heat into "w4 ,fur!r measurem5ts on ! trans=mations ( o!r =ms ( en]gy1 *emical en]gy & electrical en]gy1 h %[n t ,j\le's law ( equival5ts is g5]al1 & t ! quantity ( me*anical "w repres5t$ by any =m ( en]gy rema9s undim9i%$ aft] trans=mation1 :atev] ! nature ( t trans=mation4 ,en]gy pres5ts itself to u "u two =ms1 pot5tial & actual4 ,pot5tial en]gy is slumb]+ en]gy1 en]gy localiz$ or lock$ up 9 ! body4 ,9 ord] to trans=m pot5tial en]gy into actual en]gy1 !re is requir$ ! int]v5tion ( an additional awak5+1 /imulat+1 or excit+ en]gy f )\t4 ,?is /imulat+ en]gy may be almo/ inf9itesimal 9 am\nt & be>s no quantitative relation to ! am\nt ( en]gy trans=m$4 ,x is ! small am\nt ( "w requir$ to turn ! key :i* lib]ates an indet]m9ate quantity ( pot5tial en]gy4 ,actual en]gy1 on ! o!r h&1 is en]gy 9 movem5t1 awake & al]t1 ready to be trans=m$ into any o!r =m ( en]gy )\t ! int]v5tion ( any su* ext]nal /imulat+ =ce4 ,! passage ( a giv5 quantity ( en]gy f ! pot5tial into ! actual /ate is effect$ gradually1 & dur+ ! "t ( trans=mation ! sum ( ! actual & ! pot5tial en]gy rema9s con/ant4 ,a weight susp5d$ by a cord possesses a quantity ( pot5tial en]gy equal to ! product ( its weight into ! height ?r\gh :i* x c fall4 ,?is en]gy is lock$ up 9 a c]ta9 space1 x _c be trans=m$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( "s ext]nal en]gy to cut ! cord4 ,dur+ ! fall+ ( ! weight1 at ! middle ( its pa?1 half ( ?is slumb]+ en]gy has become k9etic1 & is repres5t$ by ! vis viva ( ! weight1 :ile ! o!r half is /ill pot5tial & is equival5t to ! "w :i* ! weight w accompli% dur+ ! second half ( its fall4 ,at any mom5t ! sum ( ^! two en]gies1 ! sleep+ & ! wak+ #aja en]gies1 repres5ts ! total pot5tial en]gy ( ! weight be=e x began to fall4 ,s ) ! p[d] 9 a gun4 ,! pot5tial en]gy ( ! p[d] _c become actual )\t "s /imulus1 "s excit+ =ce f )\t to set x free4 ,x is ! ext]nal "w ( press+ ! trigg] t lib]ates ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! p[d]1 trans=m+ x into ! actual en]gy ( combu/ion1 & ! k9etic en]gy ( ! projectile4 ,s9ce en]gy is "w1 & "w is a function ( motion1 !re is 9 reality no su* ?+ z en]gy 9 repose4 ,matt] accord+ to our mod]n conception is a complex ( molecules1 atoms1 & electrons2 we conceive ! molecules ( matt] z always 9 movem5t1 animat$ ) cyclic or vibratory motion1 ^! oscillatory or rotatory movem5ts repres5t+ ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! body 9 "q4 ,pot5tial en]gy is ?us ! expression ( molecul> motion )\t translation ( ! molecules z a :ole 9 space4 ,:5 ?is pot5tial en]gy is trans=m$ into actual en]gy by ! int]v5tion ( "s ext]nal =ce1 we get a curr5t ( en]gy1 a transf]5ce ( ! molecules 9 space4 ,?us1 :5 an ext]nal =ce has releas$ ! weight1 ! molecul> orbits 9 ! fall+ body *ange 9 =m1 & ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! molecul> motion becomes ! k9etic en]gy ( ! fall+ body4 ,simil>ly 9 ! conduction ( heat1 ! en]gy ( ! hot body is transf]r$ to a cold] body by transmission ( ! vibratory motion f molecule to molecule4 ,s aga9 ) *emical en]gy1 ! molecul> motion ( combu/ion may be trans=m$ into ! radiant en]gy ( ! e!real waves4 ,actual en]gy may be reg>d$ z a curr5t ( molecul> motion4 ,to make ! matt] cle>]1 let a mass ( matt] be repres5t$ by a regim5t ( soldi]s4 ,!n ea* soldi] w repres5t an electron1 a company w be an atom1 & a battalion w be a molecule4 ,z long z ! soldi]s m>k "t1 turn1 or o!rwise ex]cise )\t advanc+1 we h simply an accumulation ( pot5tial en]gy4 ,! ^w ( comm&1 ,m>*1 is ! excit+ =ce :i* sudd5ly trans=ms ?is pot5tial into k9etic en]gy4 ,! m>*+ #ajb regim5t is a repres5tation ( a body possess+ k9etic en]gy4 ,pot5tial en]gy is en]gy conf9$ to a c]ta9 po9t 9 space1 :]eas actual en]gy is a curr5t ( en]gy1 cont9ually *ang+ its place or =m4 ,en]gy is l wat]-p[]--pot5tial 9 ! lake1 actual 9 ! wat]fall or riv]4 ,any me*anism capable ( caus+ "o =m ( en]gy to pass into ano!r is a trans=m] ( en]gy4 ,a /eam eng9e is a trans=m] ( en]gy1 *ang+ caloric en]gy into me*anical "w4 ,an electrical ma*9e is a trans=m] ( en]gy1 conv]t+ me*anical motion into a curr5t ( electricity1 :il/ an electro-motor *anges ! movem5t ( electrons into me*anical movem5t4 ,e liv+ be+1 & ev5 man himself1 is b a trans=m] ( en]gy1 *ang+ ! en]gy d]iv$ f ! e>? & air & sun into me*anical motion1 n]v\s en]gy1 & heat4 ,! fir/ law ( en]getics1 t ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 is analog\s to ,lavoisi]'s pr9ciple 9 *emi/ry1 ! cons]vation ( matt]4 ,! sign ( equality :i* unites ! t]ms ( a *emical equation expresses ! fact t aft] e *emical reaction ! same total mass ( matt] is pres5t z be=e ! trans=mation4 ,?is is also true ( en]gy2 aft] e trans=mation we f9d exactly ! same total quantity ( en]gy z be=e x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 tells u no?+ z to ! conditions ( ! trans=mation1 or ! causes1 i4e4 ! ant]ior ph5om5a1 :i* det]m9$ su* trans=mation4 ,! second pr9ciple ( en]getics1 t ( ,c>not1 enunciat$ 9 #ahbd1 deals ) ! conditions "u :i* a trans=mation ( en]gy is possible4 ,a mass ( wat] at a c]ta9 height repres5ts a quantity ( pot5tial en]gy equal to ! product ( its weight by its height2 b ?is en]gy _c produce me*anical "w unless ! wat] is all[$ to fall4 ,consid] two lakes at ! same altitude & ( ! same capacity1 "o ( :i* is entirely l&lock$1 :ile ! o!r has an op5 *annel lead+ to ! sea4 ,ea* lake repres5ts ! same quantity ( pot5tial en]gy1 b ! en]gy ( ! l&lock$ lake is useless1 x _c be #ajc trans=m$2 :]eas ! o!r lake ^: wat] c run into ! sea realizes ! conditions necess>y = utilization1 viz4 ! trans=mability ( its en]gy4 ,! same may be said ( all =ms ( en]gy2 a heat eng9e c only act z a trans=m]1 *ange heat into "w1 if !re is a diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 its s\rce & its s9k2 an electric motor c only "w if !re is a fall ( pot5tial betwe5 ! entrance & ! exit ( ! electric curr5t4 ,en]gy pres5ts itself to u z ! product ( two factors1 weight & height 9 ! wat]fall1 quantity & temp]ature 9 ! heat eng9e1 curr5t int5sity & pot5tial 9 ! electric motor4 ,9 consid]+ ^! two factors we may note t "o factor is always a quantity 7,q7 & ! o!r an int5sity 7,i74 ,?is latt] expresses "s sort ( diff]5ce ( position or condition1 ! height ( ! weight1 a diff]5ce ( temp]ature 9 ! heat eng9e1 ( pressure 9 ! gas eng9e1 or ( electric pot5tial 9 ! dynamo or electric furnace4 ,!re c be no curr5t ( en]gy )\t ?is diff]5ce ( pot5tial1 & !re=e no trans=mation f "o =m ( en]gy to ano!r4 ,! second law ( !rmodynamics1 ,c>not's law1 may !re=e be enunciat$ ?us3 ,en]gy _c be trans=m$ )\t a fall ( pot5tial4 ,we may also d]ive ?is pr9ciple f a consid]ation ( ! =mula ( effici5cy1 ! ratio ( ! "w done by ! trans=m] to ! "w done on ! trans=m]4 ,effici5cy en]gy trans=m$ _/ total en]gy absorb$ ,! total en]gy is ! product ,,qi1 i4e4 ! product ( ! total quantity by ! total int5sity at our disposal4 ,! trans=m$ en]gy is ,q7,i - ,i'71 ! product ( ! total quantity by ! diff]5ce ( int5sity at ! inlet & at ! outlet ( ! ma*9e4 ,! =mula = effici5cy ?us becomes ,q7,i - ,i'7 _/ ,,qi 7,i - ,i'7 _/ ,i4 ,if ,i repres5ts a temp]ature1 !n 9 ord] t ! effici5cy may be positive ,i' mu/ be less ?an ,i1 #ajd !re mu/ be a fall ( temp]ature 9 ! ma*9e4 ,if ,i' 7 great] ?an ,i1 i4e4 if ! temp]ature at ! outlet 7 great] ?an t at ! inlet1 ! effici5cy w\ld be a negative "o1 & ! trans=m] w\ld h to borr[ heat f "s ext]nal s\rce4 ,entropy4--,9 e trans=mation ( en]gy a c]ta9 portion ( ! en]gy is trans=m$ into heat3 a lamp gives out useless heat z well z light1 a ma*9e gives out useless heat z well z me*anical "w4 ,?is loss ( useful en]gy z heat occurs 9 e transf]5ce or trans=mation ( en]gy2 x is only 9 ! case ( heat pass+ f a hott] to a cold] body t !re is no su* trans=mation4 ,:5 equality ( temp]ature is e/abli%$ !re has be5 no loss ( en]gy1 b ! :ole ( ! en]gy has become unutilizable1 i4e4 untrans=mable4 ,9 ! =mula ( effici5cy ! fall ( int5sity ,i - ,i' is n[ z]o1 & !re=e ! effici5cy ( ! ma*9e 7,i - ,i'7 _/ ,i is also z]o4 ,s9ce 9 all its trans=mations a c]ta9 fraction ( ! en]gy is *ang$ into heat1 !re is a t5d5cy 9 nature = all diff]5ces ( temp]ature to become equaliz$4 ,h5ce ! quantity ( utilizable en]gy 9 ! univ]se t5ds to dim9i%4 ,clausius call$ ?is unutilizable en]gy enme%$ 9 ! sub/ance ( a body its entropy1 & %[$ t 9 e trans=mation ! am\nt ( ?is unutilizable en]gy t5d$ to increase4 ,! entropy ( a sy/em always t5ds t[>ds a maximum value4 ,if ?is gradual incessant increase ( entropy is univ]sal 9 nature1 & if !re is no comp5satory me*anism1 ! univ]se mu/ be t5d+ t[>ds a def9ite end1 :5 ! :ole ( its en]gy %all h be5 trans=m$ into unutilizable heat ) a uni=m temp]ature4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 reason to suppose t "s su* comp5satory me*anism does 9 fact exi/4 ,beh9d u /ret*es an inf9ite pa/1 & 9 ! future we believe t ! ph5om5a ( nature w be unroll$ 9 a cycle :i* has no end4 ,b ! argum5ts d]iv$ f a /udy ( entropy apply only to ! facts & ph5om5a actually "u our notice1 ! suppos$ #aje impossibility1 )\t borr[+ en]gy f )\t1 ( re-e/abli%+ ! diff]5ces ( temp]ature by draw+ heat f a cold] 9 ord] to conc5trate x 9 a hott] body1 & may n be absolutely id5tical ) ^? obta9+ 9 o!r ages4 ,our ignorance ( su* a ph5om5on & our p[]lessness to produce x 9 no way argue t x is impossible4 ,x may exi/ = aught we "k 9 "s o!r region ( space1 or 9 ano!r "t ?an ours4 ,we may p]haps "s day obta9 artificially ! conditions :i* w\ld r5d] possible su* a ph5om5on1 s9ce x may be possible to produce 9 ! exp]im5tal laboratory conditions :i* are n spontane\sly realiz$ 9 nature "u pres5t conditions4 ,! future may p]*ance reveal to u absolutely new ph5om5a :i* h n hi!rto be5 realiz$4 ,9 8 "w on ! evolution ( matt] & ( en]gy ,gu/ave le ,bon gives expression to "s int]e/+ & orig9al ideas on ?is subject4 ,! laws ( ,may] & ,c>not alone are n suffici5t to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( life1 )\t "s consid]ation ( ! laws ( /imulus4 ,may]'s pr9ciple ass]ts ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 & ,c>not's ! conditions necess>y = its trans=mation1 b ^! alone _c acc\nt = ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into actual en]gy4 ,a weight susp5d$ by a cord does n fall m]ely because !re is room = its desc5t4 ,we ne$ ! int]v5tion ( "s outside =ce to cut ! cord4 ,9 e trans=mation ( en]gy ?is ext]nal =ce is requir$ to cut ! cord1 or pull ! trigg]1 "s ext]nal =ce ( excitation or lib]ation1 an en]gy :i* may be inf9itesimal 9 am\nt1 & :i* be>s no proportion to ! quantity ( pot5tial en]gy x sets free4 ,?is int]v5tion ( an excitatory1 /imulat+1 or lib]at+ en]gy is univ]sal4 ,e ph5om5on ( nature is b a trans=mation or a transf]5ce ( en]gy1 det]m9$ by ! int]v5tion ( a m9imal quantity ( en]gy f )\t4 ,?is lib]ation ( l>ge quantities ( pot5tial en]gy by an exce$+ly small ext]nal /imulus has n hi!rto receiv$ ! consid]ation x dem&s4 ,c]ta9 ph5om5a1 su* z ^? ( *emical catalysis or ! action ( soluble f]m5ts1 excite our a/oni%m5t because su* extremely small quantities ( #ajf c]ta9 sub/ances w det]m9e ! *emical trans=mations ( l>ge quantities ( matt]1 !re be+ no proportion betwe5 ! am\nt ( ! catalytic sub/ance & ( ! matt] trans=m$4 ,^! ph5om5a are1 h[ev]1 only p>ticul> cases ( ! g5]al law ( en]getics t trans=mation requires a /imulus4 ,! catalyz]1 or f]m5t1 does n contribute matt] to ! reaction1 b only ! m9imal en]gy necess>y to lib]ate ! *emical pot5tial en]gy /or$ 9 ! f]m5t+ sub/ance4 ,we mu/ !re=e add a ?ird to ! two laws ( en]getics1 ,may]'s law ( cons]vation1 & ,c>not's law ( fall ( pot5tial4 ,?is ?ird law is ! law ( /imulus1 ! necessity ( ! int]v5tion ( an ext]nal excitatory =ce capable ( sett+ 9 motion ! curr5t ( en]gy requir$ = a trans=mation4 ,?is /imulus is ! prim>y ph5om5on1 ! det]m9ant cause ( su* trans=mation4 ,?ree conditions1 !n1 are requir$ = a trans=mation or displacem5t ( en]gy3-- #a4 ,! cause1 ! int]v5tion ( a /imulus :i* />ts ! trans=mation or displacem5t4 #b4 ,! possibility1 ! necess>y fall ( pot5tial4 #c4 ,! condition1 ! cons]vation ( ! en]gy conc]n$1 s9ce be+ inde/ructible its total quantity _c alt]4 ,e liv+ be+ is a trans=m] ( en]gy4 ,! l[] animals & man himself receive f food & air ! pot5tial en]gy :i* becomes actual "u ! process ( oxydation4 ,?is *emical combu/ion is ! s\rce ( all vital en]gy2 ! anci5ts aptly comp>$ life to a flame1 & ,lavoisi] has %[n t life1 l ! flame1 is ma9ta9$ by a process ( oxydation4 ,! en]gy d]iv$ f food & air is re/or$ by ! organism to ! ext]nal _w 9 ! =m ( heat & me*anical motion4 ,! celebrat$ exp]im5ts ( ,atwat] %[ t !re is an absolute equality betwe5 ! en]gy obta9$ f ! oxydation ( ! v>i\s alim5ts & ! sum ( ! calorific & me*anical en]gy lib]at$ by a liv+ be+4 ,man obta9s 8 supply ( en]gy ei!r directly f ! #ajg vegetable _w1 or indirectly f vegetables :i* h pass$ ?r\gh ! fle% ( animals4 ,vegetables 9 _! turn obta9 _! sub/ance f ! m9]al _w & _! en]gy f ! sun4 ,! salts1 ! wat]1 & ! c>bonic acid absorb$ by plants possess no /ore ( pot5tial en]gy4 ,:5ce !n c !y obta9 ! pot5tial en]gy :i* !y transmit to animals & man1 if n f ! sun8 ,! en]gy ( ! sol> radiations is absorb$ by ! *lorophyll ( ! leaves1 & /or$ up 9 ! organic c>bohydrates =m$ by ! syn!sis ( wat] & c>bon4 ,*lorophyll has ! peculi> prop]ty ( r$uc+ c>bonic acid1 & unit+ ! c>bon ) wat] 9 diff]5t proportions to =m sug> & />*1 :il/ fats & vegetable album5s are also =m$ by an analog\s reaction4 ,all ^! complex bodies are /ores ( en]gy2 ! vital processes ( oxydation d b lib]ate 9 ! human body ! en]gy :i* ! *lorophyll ( plants has absorb$ f ! sol> rays4 ,we mu/ look1 !n1 to ! sun z ! direct s\rce ( all ! en]gy :i* animates ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,! sun looses ! w9ds1 & raises ! wat]s ( ! sea to ! m\nta9-tops1 to =m ! riv]s & torr5ts :i* return aga9 to ! sea2 ! sun w>ms our he>?s1 drives our %ips1 & works our /eam eng9es4 ,!re is no sign ( life or movem5t on our planet :i* does n come directly or indirectly f ! sol> rays4 ,x may be ask$ by :at pa? does ! *emical en]gy ( ! liv+ organism pass into ! me*anical en]gy ( motion4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! int]m$i>y /ep _c be heat1 z 9 ! /eam eng9e1 s9ce ! necess>y temp]ature w\ld be q incompatible ) life4 ,! =mula = ! effici5cy ( a !rmic trans=m] is 7,t - ,t'7 _/ ,t1 ! ratio ( ! diff]5ce ( ! absolute temp]atures at ! s\rce & at ! s9k1 to ! absolute temp]ature at ! s\rce4 ,calorimetric measurem5ts h %[n t ! effici5cy ( ! human ma*9e is ab\t "o-fif?1 i4e4 x c trans=m #bj p] c5t4 ( ! en]gy absorb$4 ,! ord9>y temp]ature ( muscle is #ch;deg ,c41 or #caa;deg absolute4 ,we h #ajh !re=e 7,t - #caa7 _/ ,t 4#bj1 or ,t #chh4ge;deg absolute1 i4e4 #aae4ge;deg ,c4 ,?us1 9 ord] to obta9 an effici5cy ( #bj p] c5t4 ) an ord9>y !rmic trans=m]1 hav+ a temp]ature ( #ch;deg at ! s9k1 we %\ld ne$ a temp]ature ( ov] #aae;deg ,c4 at ! s\rce4 ,su* a temp]ature w\ld be q incompatible ) ! integrity ( liv+ tissues1 & we may !re=e conclude t ! human organism is n a heat eng9e4 ,we are inde$ completely ignorant ( ! mode ( trans=mation ( *emical into k9etic en]gy 9 ! liv+ organism2 we "k only t muscul> contraction is accompani$ by a *ange ( =m2 at ! mom5t ( trans=mation ! combu/ion ( ! muscle is increas$1 & dur+ contraction ! /ret*$ muscul> fibre t5ds to acquire a sph]ical %ape4 ,x is ?is %ort5+ ( ! muscul> fibre :i* produces ! me*anical movem5t4 ,! /ep :i* we d n z yet fully und]/& is ! physical ph5om5on :i* int]v5es betwe5 ! dis5gagem5t ( *emical en]gy & ! occurr5ce ( muscul> contraction4 ,pr(essor d',arsonval supposes t ?is miss+ /ep is a v>iation 9 ! surface t5sion ( ! liquid 9 ! muscul> fibre4 ,! surface t5sion ( a liquid is due to ! unbalanc$ =ces ( cohesion act+ on ! surface lay] ( molecules4 ,"u ! attraction ( cohesion ! molecules )9 ! liquid are 9 a /ate ( equilibrium1 be+ equally attract$ 9 all directions1 b ^? at ! surface ( ! liquid are drawn t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,! resultant ( ^! attractive =ces is a pressure normal to ! surface1 :i* is me*anically equival5t to an ela/ic t5sion t5d+ to dim9i% ! surface4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is surface t5sion ! liquid has a t5d5cy to assume ! =m 9 :i* its surface area is a m9imum1 i4e4 ! sph]ical =m4 ,if su* a sph]e is /ret*$ into a cyl9d] or fibre by me*anical t5sion1 x w %ort5 itself :5 releas$2 & if by any means we increase ! surface t5sion ( su* a liquid fibre x w t5d to assume a sph]ical =m & contract j z a muscul> fibre does4 ,! surface t5sion ( a liquid v>ies ) its *emical composition2 ! slighte/ *emical modification ( a liquid alt]s ! =ce ( #aji ?is t5sion4 ,we may !re=e expla9 ! me*anism ( muscul> contraction by suppos+ t a n]v\s impulse alt]s 9 "s way ! rate ( combu/ion 9 a muscul> fibre1 t ?is alt]ation produces a mom5t>y *ange 9 ! *emical composition ( ! muscul> cell1 & t ?is *ange ( *emical composition increases ! surface t5sion ( ! cell suffici5tly to provoke its contraction into a m sph]ical =m4 ,o/wald has introduc$ a v useful conception = ! /udy ( ?is "q ( surface en]gy4 ,a liquid surface conta9s a quantity ( en]gy equal to its surface t5sion multipli$ by its area1 h5ce any v>iation ei!r ( area or ( t5sion corresponds to a v>iation ( its en]gy4 ,?is novel conception con/itutes a valuable addition to ! exp]im5tal /udy ( ! physiology ( muscul> action1 s9ce x gives u "s idea ( ! me*anism by :i* *emical en]gy may be trans=m$ into muscul> contraction4 ,:atev] ! me*anism ( trans=mation 9 ! animal ma*9e1 we h to consid] ! same quantities z 9 o!r motor ma*9es4 ,^! are3 7#a7 ! effici5cy2 7#b7 ! pot5tial en]gy2 7#c7 ! p[]2 7#d7 ! en]gy giv5 up to ! m$ium "u ! =m ( heat2 7#e7 ! temp]ature4 ,muscles1 !n1 are m]ely trans=m]s :i* *ange *emical en]gy into me*anical "w1 ! dim9ution ( /or$-up en]gy 9 a muscle be+ express$ by ! s5sation ( fatigue4 ,a muscle may be /udi$ 9 f\r diff]5t phases3 7#a7 9 repose2 7#b7 9 a /ate ( t5sion2 7#c7 :5 do+ positive "w2 7#d7 :5 "w is be+ done on x4 ,:5 a muscle is 9 a /ate ( t5sion1 z :5 a weight is su/a9$ by ! out/ret*$ arm1 ! muscle is produc+ no ext]nal "w4 ,! entire "w done is conv]t$ into heat2 j z x is 9 a dynamo or /eam eng9e :i* is prev5t$ f turn+ by a brake4 ,muscul> contraction produces fatigue ev5 :5 x does no ext]nal "w4 ,x is impossible = ! muscle to support ev5 ! weight ( ! out/ret*$ arm itself = any consid]able "t4 ,a muscle is do+ positive "w :5 x is rais+ a weight or mov+ a body f "o po9t to ano!r4 #aaj ,! f\r? /ate ( muscul> contraction is :5 ! muscle is do+ negative "w1 i4e4 :5 "w is be+ done on x1 z = in/ance :5 we g d[n/airs1 or :5 a desc5d+ weight =ces d[n ! oppos+ arm :i* attempts to support x4 ,9 ?is case ! muscles receive a portion ( ! en]gy lo/ by ! desc5d+ weight1 & ?is en]gy %[s itself 9 ! muscle 9 ! =m ( heat4 ,?is increase ( heat 9 a muscle do+ negative "w has be5 cle>ly demon/rat$ by ! calorimetric exp]im5ts ( ,hirn & ! !rmometric exp]im5ts ( ,becl>d4 ,hirn's obs]vations on muscul> calorimetry %[ a production ( heat correspond+ to #aej calories p] h\r :5 9 repose1 #bdh calories p] h\r dur+ positive "w1 & #bhg dur+ negative "w4 ,becl>d's !rmometric measurem5ts also %[ t ! temp]ature ( a muscle rises ea* "t t x contracts1 & t ! rise ( temp]ature is greate/ :5 ! muscle is do+ negative "w1 lea/ dur+ positive "w1 & int]m$iate :5 9 a /ate ( t5sion4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance 9 m$ical practice to di/+ui% betwe5 ^! diff]5t =ms ( muscul> activity4 ,!re is a va/ physiological diff]5ce betwe5 muscul> contraction ) ! production ( positive "w1 & muscul> contraction )\t ! production ( "w1 or ) negative "w4 ,to climb a flight ( /airs is to contract ! muscles ) ! production ( "w equal to ! weight ( ! body multipli$ by ! height ( ! /airs4 ,to desc5d ! /airs is to contract ! same muscles1 b ) ! production ( negative "w1 & consequ5tly a maximum ( heat4 ,to walk on level gr\nd is to contract ! muscles ) ! production ( little or no ext]nal "w2 z 9 a ma*9e turn+ )\t friction 9 a vacuum4 ,we h se5 t a fall ( pot5tial & a curr5t ( en]gy are ! necess>y conditions = ! production ( any natural ph5om5on4 ,h5ce we may assume t ! ph5om5on ( s5sation is also accompani$ by a fall ( pot5tial & a curr5t ( en]gy4 ,:5 we t\* a hot body1 !re is a fl[ ( en]gy f ! hot body to ! h&4 ,:5 we t\* a cold body1 !re is a curr5t ( en]gy 9 ! opposite direction1 #aaa f ! h& to ! body4 ,x 0 =m]ly held1 & is /ill held by "s physiologi/s1 t ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( life is ! disproportion betwe5 an excitation & ! response :i* x invokes f ! organism4 ,su* a doctr9e c only be held by "o :o believes1 at lea/ implicitly1 t ! ph5om5a ( life are sup]natural1 or at all ev5ts diff]5t 9 _! nature f all o!r ph5om5a2 = ! disproportion betwe5 an excitation & ! response x evokes is by no means conf9$ to liv+ ?+s4 ,?is disproportion is univ]sal 9 nature1 & q 9 con=mity ) ! physical laws :i* gov]n ! trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,! en]gy ( liv+ ?+s is pot5tial en]gy--a fact :i* has be5 too little recogniz$4 ,9 ! case ( reflex actions x is self-evid5t1 because ! response is imm$iate1 & always ! same = ! same /imulus4 ,z 9 all o!r trans=mations1 ! /imulus consi/s 9 ! int]v5tion ( a m9imal quantity ( ext]nal en]gy4 ,long be=e ! discov]y ( ! laws ( en]gy1 ,lam>ck _h recogniz$ & =mulat$ ?is fact4 ,he writes3 ,:at w\ld vegetable life be )\t excitations f )\t1 :at w\ld be ! life ev5 ( ! l[] animals )\t ?is cause8 ,9 ano!r passage1 seek+ = a p[] capable ( excit+ ! action ( ! organism1 he says3 ,! l[] animal =ms1 )\t n]v\s sy/em1 live only by ! aid ( excitations :i* !y receive f )\t4 ,9 ! l[e/ =ms ( life ?is excit+ =ce is borr[$ directly f ! environm5t1 :ile 9 ! high] =ms ! ext]nal excit+ =ce is transf]r$ to ! int]ior ( ! liv+ be+ & plac$ at ! disposal ( ! individual4 ,?is rem>k1 t ! movem5ts ( liv+ ?+s are n communicat$ b excit$1 t ! ext]nal excitation only sets free lat5t or pot5tial en]gy 9 ! organism1 %[s t ,lam>ck _h p5etrat$ m deeply ?an _m ( ! mod]n physiologi/s into ! secrets ( biological en]gy4 ,we seek 9 va9 9 ! text-books ( physiology = any conception ( pot5tial en]gy 9 liv+ be+s1 or ! notion ( an excit+ =ce z ! cause ( s5sation4 ,all action ( a liv+ organism is reflex action4 ,e action has a cause1 & #aab ! cause ( an organic action is an excit+ en]gy f )\t1 ei!r imm$iate1 or /or$ up 9 ! n]v\s sy/em f an ext]nal impression made at "s previ\s epo*4 ,actions :i* are n evid5tly reflex are m]ely delay$ reflexes2 we h acquir$ ! p[] ( inhibit+1 delay+1 or modify+ ! response to an ext]nal /imulus1 s t ! same excitation may det]m9e responses ( v diff]5t k9ds accord+ to ! mood produc$ by previ\s impressions4 ,:5 c>efully inve/igat$1 no action ( ours is automatic2 e movem5t is det]m9$ by impressions d]iv$ f )\t4 ,an action )\t a motive1 t is )\t an ext]nal det]m9+ cause1 w\ld be an action )\t reason4 ,9 conclusion1 we may =mulate ?is g5]al pr9ciple3 ,! en]gy ( a liv+ be+ is pot5tial en]gy2 s5sations repres5t ! int]v5tion ( an ext]nal excit+ en]gy :i* provokes ! response1 i4e4 ! trans=mation ( ! pot5tial en]gy already /or$ 9 ! organism into ! actual en]gy ( motion & vital activity4 99 99 99 99 99 #aac ,,*apt] ,x ,,syn!tic ,,biology ,! c\rse ( developm5t ( e bran* ( natural sci5ce has be5 ! same4 ,x beg9s by ! obs]vation & classification ( ! objects & ph5om5a ( nature4 ,! next /ep is to decompose ! m complex ph5om5a 9 ord] to det]m9e ! physical me*anism und]ly+ !m--! sci5ce has become analytical4 ,f9ally1 :5 ! me*anism ( a ph5om5on is und]/ood1 x becomes possible to reproduce x1 to repeat x by direct+ ! physical =ces :i* are its cause--! sci5ce has n[ become syn!tical4 ,mod]n biology admits t ! ph5om5a ( life are physico-*emical 9 _! nature4 ,al?\gh we h n z yet be5 able to def9e ! exact nature ( ! physical & *emical processes :i* und]lie all vital ph5om5a1 yet e fur!r discov]y confirms our belief t ! physical laws ( life are id5tical ) ^? ( ! m9]al _w1 & mod]n rese>* t5ds m & m to prove t life is produc$ by ! same =ces & is subject to ! same laws t regulate inanimate matt]4 ,! evolution ( biology has be5 ! same z t ( ! o!r sci5ces2 x has be5 successively descriptive1 analytical1 & syn!tic4 ,j z syn!tic *emi/ry began ) ! artificial =mation ( ! simple/ organic products1 s biological syn!sis mu/ cont5t itself at fir/ ) ! fabrication ( =ms resembl+ ^? ( ! l[e/ organisms4 ,l o!r sci5ces1 syn!tic biology mu/ proce$ f ! simpl] to ! m complex1 beg9n+ ) ! reproduction ( ! m elem5t>y vital ph5om5a4 ,lat] on we may hope to #aad unite & associate ^!1 & to obs]ve _! developm5t "u v>i\s ext]nal influ5ces4 ,! syn!sis ( life1 %\ld x ev] occur1 w n be ! s5sational discov]y :i* we usually associate ) ! idea4 ,if we accept ! !ory ( evolution1 !n ! fir/ dawn ( ! syn!sis ( life mu/ consi/ 9 ! production ( =ms int]m$iate betwe5 ! inorganic & ! organic _w--=ms :i* possess only "s ( ! rudim5t>y attributes ( life1 to :i* o!r attributes w be sl[ly add$ 9 ! c\rse ( developm5t by ! evolution>y action ( ! environm5t4 ,long ago1 ! p5etrat+ g5ius ( ,lam>ck seiz$ on ! idea t a k ( life c\ld only be obta9$ by ! comp>ison ( organic ) inorganic ph5om5a4 ,he writes3 ,if we w\ld acquire a real k ( :at con/itutes life1 ( :at x consi/s1 :at are ! causes & ! laws :i* give rise to ?is wond]ful ph5om5on ( nature1 & h[ life c be ! s\rce ( ! multitude ( =ms pres5t$ to u by liv+ organisms1 we mu/ be=e all consid] ) great att5tion ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ betwe5 inorganic & liv+ bodies2 & = ?is purpose we mu/ comp>e side by side ! ess5tial *>act]s ( ^! two classes ( bodies4 ,syn!tic biology includes morphog5y1 physiog5y1 & syn!tic organic *emi/ry1 :i* is also a bran* ( syn!tic biology1 s9ce x deals ) ! composition ( ! con/itu5ts ( liv+ organisms4 ,syn!tic organic *emi/ry is already a well-organiz$ sci5ce1 important by reason ( ! triumphs :i* x has already ga9$4 ,! o!r two bran*es ( biological syn!sis1 morphog5y1 ! syn!sis ( liv+ =ms & /ructures1 & physiog5y1 ! syn!sis ( functions1 c h>dly z yet be said to exi/ z sci5ces4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 no less legitimate & no less important ?an ! si/] sci5ce ( syn!tic *emi/ry4 ,al?\gh morphog5y & physiog5y d n exi/ z well-organiz$ & recogniz$ sci5ces1 !re are already a numb] ( works on ! subject by en?usia/ic pione]s--indep5d5t seek]s1 :o h n fe>$ to ab&on ! pa?s ( (ficial sci5ce to w&] 9 new & hi!rto unexplor$ doma9s4 #aae ,! fir/ exp]im5t 9 physiog5y 0 ! discov]y ( osmosis by ! ,abbe ,nollet 9 #agdh4 ,he fill$ a pig's bladd] ) alcohol1 & plung$ x into wat]4 ,he notic$ t ! bladd] gradually increas$ 9 volume & became di/5d$1 ! wat] p5etrat+ into ! int]ior ( ! bladd] m quickly ?an ! alcohol c\ld escape4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ record$ exp]im5t 9 ! physics ( nutrition & gr[?4 ,9 #ahff1 ,moritz ,traube ( ,breslau discov]$ ! osmotic prop]ties ( c]ta9 *emical precipitates4 ,z ,i po9t$ out 9 ! ,revue ,sci5tifique ( ,m>* #aijf1 ,traube made ! fir/ artificial cell1 & /udi$ ! osmotic prop]ties ( membranes & _! mode ( production4 ,?is rem>kable rese>* %\ld h be5 ! />t+-po9t ( syn!tic biology4 ,! only result1 h[ev]1 0 to give rise to numb]less objections1 & x soon fell into complete oblivion4 ,!re are1 says ,traube1 a numb] ( p]sons q bl9d to all progress1 :o 9 ! pres5ce ( a new discov]y ?9k only ( ! objections :i* may be br\ght aga9/ x4 ,! works ( ,traube h be5 collect$ & publi%$ by 8 son 7,gesammelte ,abh&lung5 von ,moritz ,traube1 #ahii74 ,9 #ahfg !re appe>$ 9 ,engl& a pap] by ,dr4 ,e4 ,montgom]y1 ( ,/4 ,?omas's ,hospital1 ,on ! ,=mation ( s-call$ ,cells 9 ,animal ,bodies4 ,?is pap]1 publi%$ by ,*ur*ill ,sons1 is a mo/ int]e/+ contribution & "o ( great orig9ality4 ,! au?or says3 ,!re c be no compromise betwe5 ! t5ets ( ! cell !ory & ! conclusions arriv$ at 9 ?is pap]2 ! di/9ction is ?or\gh4 ,ei!r ! units ( :i* an organism is compos$ owe _! orig9 to "s k9d or o!r ( procreation1 a my/]i\s act ( t my/]i\s entity life1 by :i*1 9 addition to _! mat]ial prop]ties1 !y become end[$ ) ^? peculi> metaphysical p[]s con/itut+ vitality4 ,or1 on ! o!r h&1 ! organic units1 l ! cry/all9e units ( inorganic bodies1 =m ! organism by d9t ( simil> inh]5t qualities1 =m 9 fact a liv+ be+ possess$ ( all its inh]5t prop]ties1 z soon z c]ta9 *emical comp\nds are plac$ "u c]ta9 physical conditions4 ,if ! =m] op9ion be #aaf true1 !n we mu/ cle>ly und]/& t !re exi/s naturally a break 9 ! sequ5ce ( evolution1 a *asm betwe5 ! organic & ! inorganic _w nev] to be bridg$ ov]4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! latt] view be correct1 !n x /rongly argues = a cont9uity ( developm5t1 a gradual *emical elaboration1 :i* culm9ates 9 ^? high comp\nds :i*1 "u surr\nd+ influ5ces1 manife/ ^? complex *anges call$ vital4 ,surely x is n a matt] ( indiff]5ce or ( m]e words1 if ! extreme aim ( physiology av[$ly be ! detection ( ! diff]5t functions dep5d5t on ! vital ex]tions ( a v>iety ( ultimate organisms1 & ! discov]y ( ! specific /imulants :i* naturally incite ^! functions into play4 ,or1 on ! o!r h&1 if x be und]/ood to consi/ r 9 ! c>eful inve/igation ( ! succession ( *emical diff]5tiations & _! accompany+ physical *anges1 :i* give rise to ! =mation ( a v>iety ( tissues t are f\nd to possess c]ta9 specific prop]ties1 to display c]ta9 def9ite actions due to a fur!r fl[ ( *emical & physical modifications4 ,9 #ahga !re appe>$ a memoir by ! ,dut* savant ,h>t+ entitl$ ,re*]*e de ,morphologie syn!tique sur la production artificielle de quelques =mations calcaires organiques4 ,?is memoir1 says ,pr(essor ,r4 ,dubois1 _h co/ ,h>t+ m ?an ?irty ye>s ( "w4 ,syn!tic morphology is yet only 9 its infancy1 let u hope t 9 a "t equal to t :i* has already expir$ s9ce ! fir/ artificial production ( urea1 x w h made a progress equal to t ( its old] si/]1 syn!tic *emi/ry4 ,9 ! ,comptes ,r5dues ( #ahhb is ! foll[+ note by ,d4 ,monni] & ,k>l ,vogt3-- #a4 ,figur$ =ms pres5t+ all ! *>act]i/ics ( organic gr[?1 cells1 por\s canals1 tubes ) p>tition walls1 & het]og5e\s granules1 may be produc$ artificially 9 appropriate liquids by ! mutual action ( two salts :i* =m "o or m insoluble salts by d\ble decomposition4 ,"o ( ! compon5t salts %\ld be 9 solution1 :ile ! o!r salt mu/ be introduc$ 9 ! solid =m4 #aag #b4 ,su* =ms ( organic elem5ts1 cells1 tubes1 etc41 may be produc$ ei!r 9 an organic liquid or a semi-organic liquid su* z sucrate ( lime1 or 9 an absolutely inorganic liquid su* z silicate ( soda4 ,?us !re c no long] be any "q ( di/9ctive =ms z *>act]iz+ organic bodies 9 contradi/9ction to inorganic bodies4 #c4 ,! figur$ elem5ts ( ^! pseudo-organic =ms dep5d on ! nature1 ! viscosity1 & ! conc5tration ( ! liquids 9 :i* !y are produc$4 ,c]ta9 visc\s liquids su* z solutions ( gum arabic or *loride ( z9c d n produce ^! =ms4 #d4 ,! =m ( ^! artificial pseudo-organic products is con/ant1 z con/ant z t ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( m9]al salts4 ,?is =m is s *>act]i/ic t x may (t5 s]ve = ! recognition ( a m9imal proportion ( a sub/ance 9 a mixture4 ,! obs]vation ( ^! =ms is a means ( analysis z s5sitive z t ( ! spectrum4 ,we may1 = example1 diff]5tiate 9 ?is way ! alkal9e bic>bonates f ! sesqui-c>bonates or ! c>bonates4 #e4 ,! =m ( ^! artificial pseudo-organic elem5ts dep5ds pr9cipally on ! nature ( ! acid radical ( ! solid salt4 ,?us ! sulphates & ! phosphates g5]ally produce tubes1 :ile ! c>bonates =m cells4 #f4 ,z a rule ^! pseudo-organic =ms are eng5d]$ only by sub/ances :i* are f\nd 9 ! liv+ organism4 ,?us sucrate ( calcium w eng5d] organic =ms1 :]eas sucrate ( /rontium or b>ium does n d s4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s exceptions to ?is rule1 su* z ! sulphates ( copp]1 cadmium1 z9c1 & nickel4 #g4 ,^! artificial pseudo-organic elem5ts are surr\nd$ by v]itable membranes1 dializ+ membranes :i* all[ only liquids to pass ?r\gh !m4 ,^! artificial cells h het]og5e\s cell-cont5ts1 & produce 9 _! int]ior granulations :i* are dispos$ 9 a regul> ord]4 ,?us !y are bo? 9 con/itution & 9 =m absolutely simil> to ! cellul> elem5ts :i* con/itute liv+ organisms4 #h4 ,x is probable t ! inorganic elem5ts :i* are pres5t 9 ! natural protoplasm may play an important "p #aah 9 det]m9+ ! =m :i* is assum$ by ! figur$ elem5ts ( ! organism4 ,9 #aijb1 ,pr(essor ,qu9ke ( ,heidelb]g1 :o has consecrat$ 8 life ) su* di/9ction to ! physics ( liquids1 writes ?us ( ! organog5ic p[] ( liquids 9 a pap] publi%$ 9 ! ,annal5 d] ,physik "u ! title ,unsi*tb>e ,fluessigkeits*i*t53 ,9 #ahcg1 ,gu/av ,rose obta9$ organic =ms by precipitation f inorganic solutions4 ,by precipitat+ *loride ( calcium ) ! c>bonates ( ammonium & o!r alkal9e c>bonates1 he obta9$ small sph]es :i* grew & 7 trans=m$ into calcic rhomboh$ra4 ,he also obta9$ a floccul5t precipitate :i* lat] became granul> & %[$ "u ! microscope =ms l ! />fi%1 & discs ) undulat$ bord]s4 ,at ,freib]g1 9 c]ta9 /alactites1 ,rose also discov]$ =ms consi/+ ( six pyramidal cells ar\nd a sph]ical nucleus4 ,9 #ahci1 ,l9k obta9$ sph]ical granulations by ! precipitation ( calcic or plumbic solutions by pota%1 soda1 or c>bonic acid4 ,^! sph]ical granulations unit$ aft] a "t to =m cry/als4 ,sulphate ( iron1 ammoniat$ sulphate ( z9c1 sulphate ( copp] precipitat$ by sulphurett$ hydrog51 & sal9e solutions precipitat$ by f]rocyanide ( pota%1 all give granul> precipitates or discs1 ( :i* ! granul> orig9 is q p]ceptible4 ,runge 9 #ahee 0 ! fir/ to describe ! =mation ( p]iodic *emical precipitates4 ,he us$ blott+ pap] z ! m$ium 9 :i* v>i\s *emical sub/ances met by diffusion4 ,9 ?is way he /udi$ ! mutual reactions ( solutions ( f]rocyanide ( pota%1 *loride ( iron1 & ! sulphates ( copp]1 iron1 manganese1 & z9c4 ,! col\r$ precipitates appe>$ at diff]5t positions 9 ! pap]1 & disappe>$ p]iodically at great] or long] int]vals4 ,! designs =m$ by ^! col\r$ precipitates *ange ) ! conc5tration ( ! sal9e solutions1 or on ! addition ( oxalic acid1 salts ( pota% or ammonia1 & o!r sub/ances4 ,^! designs are %[n 9 a numb] ( beautiful illu/rations :i* accompany ! "w4 ,9 ?is #aai case ! capill>ity ( ! pap] necess>ily ex]ts a c]ta9 influ5ce on ! =mation ( ! figures1 b 9 addition to ?is1 ,runge admits ! int]v5tion ( ano!r =ce hi!rto unkn[n1 :i* he calls ',bildung/rieb1' ! =mative impulse1 :i* he consid]s to be ! elem5t>y vital =ce 9 ! =mation ( plants & animals4 ,9 #ahfg1 ,r4 ,boettg] obta9$ arboresc5t =ms & ramifications ( metallic vegetation by s[+ fragm5ts ! size ( a pea ( cry/als ( ! iron *lorides1 *loride ( cobalt1 sulphate ( manganese1 nitrate & *loride ( copp]1 etc41 9 an aque\s solution ( silicate ( sodium ( specific gravity #a4ah4 ,^! =ms are due1 z ,i %all %[ lat] on1 to ! surface t5sion ( ! oily precipitate2 ,boettg] gives no explanation ( ! ph5om5on4 ,to ?is =ce1 viz4 t ( surface t5sion1 is also due ! cellul> =ms obta9$ by ,traube 9 #ahff4 ,^! 7 obta9$ f gelat9e & tann91 f acetate ( copp] or lead1 & f nitrate ( m]cury 9 an aque\s solution ( f]rocyanide ( potassium4 ,^! cells & precipitat$ membranes h also be5 /udi$ by ,re9ke1 ,f4 ,cohn1 ,h4 de ,vries1 & myself1 :o all obs]v$ ! regression ( ^! membranes1 :i* al?\gh colloidal at ! beg9n+ ( ! reaction spe$ily become friable4 ,?is entirely refutes ! op9ion ( ,traube z to ! con/itution ( ! precipitat$ membranes4 ,he suppos$ !m to consi/ ( masses ( solid sub/ance1 ) small] orifices :i* d n p]mit ! passage ( ! membranog5\s sub/ance1 :il/ ! l>g] orifices ?r\gh :i* x c pass are soon clos$ by ! precipitate1 ! membrane itself ?us gr[+ by a process ( intussusception4 ,lat] on ,traube himself consid]$ ! precipitat$ membrane to be a ?91 solid gelat9\s lay] 9 :i* ! wat] 0 me*anically entangl$4 ,tamman has also made a numb] ( exp]im5ts ) solutions ( ! *lorides & sulphates ( ! heavy metals1 & solutions ( phosphates1 silicates1 f]rocyanides1 & o!r salts4 ,he f\nd t mo/ ( ^! membranes 7 p]meable to ! membranog5\s solution4 ,accord+ to ,tamman1 all #abj precipitat$ membranes are hydrat$ sub/ances1 & "s ( !m1 l ! f]rocyanide ( copp] & ! tannate ( gelat9e are1 :5 fir/ =m$1 entirely comp>able to liquid membranes 9 all _! prop]ties4 ,graham _h already obta9$ col\rless jellies by ! int]action ( conc5trat$ solutions ( f]rocyanide ( potassium & sulphate ( copp]4 ,buets*li also has rec5tly describ$ ! microscopic appe>ance ( precipitat$ membranes produc$ by f]rocyanide ( potassium & acetate or *loride ( iron4 ,l ,l9ke & ,gu/av ,rose1 ,fam9tz9 has obta9$ sph]oidal precipitates by ! reciprocal action ( conc5trat$ solutions ( *loride ( calcium & c>bonate ( potassium4 ,^! gr[ rapidly & sudd5ly1 ) conc5tric lay]s %[+ a sph]ical or flatt5$ nucleus4 ,he also obta9$ =ms resembl+ sph]o-cry/als & />* gra9s4 ,h>t+1 ,vogelsang1 ,hans51 ,buets*li1 & o!rs h /udi$ ! /ructures :i* are =m$ by ! reciprocal action ( *loride ( calcium & ! alkal9e c>bonates4 ,vogelsang has f\nd small calc>e\s bodies 9 ! amorph\s & globul> precipitate =m$ by *loride ( calcium & c>bonate ( ammonium4 ,he describes sph]es atta*$ to "o ano!r1 vesicles1 & muri=m /ructures4 ,! numb] ( ^! sph]oids is increas$ by ! addition ( gelat9e4 ,hans5 has also /udi$ ,h>t+'s me?od = ! =mation ( sph]o-cry/als by ! action ( ! alkal9e c>bonates & phosphates on ! salts ( calcium 9 pres5ce ( album5 & gelat9e4 ,he consid]s t ! latt] ret>d ! cry/allization & assi/ ! =mation ( ! sph]o-cry/als4 ,i %all %[ lat] on t gelat9e & album5 ess5tially modify ! precipitate & d n m]ely act z catalytic sub/ances4 ,! rese>*es ( ,fam9tz91 repeat$ & ext5d$ by ,buets*li1 %[ t sph]o-cry/als are produc$ by ! reaction ( *loride ( calcium on c>bonate ( potassium )\t ! pres5ce ( gelat9e or album54 ,buets*li /udi$ ! sph]oids ( c>bonate ( lime by means ( pol>iz$ light1 & f\nd t ! lay]s 7 alt]nately positively & negatively pol>iz$4 #aba ,su* is ! hi/ory ( morphog5esis z describ$ 9 #aijb by ! au?ority mo/ qualifi$ = ! task1 ,pr(essor ,qu9ke ( ,heidelb]g4 ,9 #aijd1 ,pr(essor ,moritz ,b5$ikt ( ,vi5na treat$ ! :ole "q 9 8 book1 ,cry/allization & ,morphog5esis1 ( :i* a ,fr5* translation appe>$ 9 ! ,malo9e ,libr>y4 ,?is book is full ( orig9al & sugge/ive ideas2 x describes ! "w ( ,h>t+1 & m especially t ( ,van ,s*ro51 :o consid]s t cry/als l liv+ be+s beg9 z a cell & gr[ by a process ( intussusception4 ,pr(essor ,b5$ikt has made a complete resume ( ! "q 9 an article1 ,! ,orig9s ( ! ,=ms ( ,life1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,revue ,sci5tifique 9 #aije4 ,9 #aijd1 ,pr(essor ,dubois ( ,lyons pres5t$ a report to ! ,society ( ,biology on 8 int]e/+ exp]im5ts on m9]al cytog5esis4 ,! same ye> he gave a disc\rse at ! univ]sity ( ,lyons on ,! ,creation ( ,liv+ ,be+s1 :i* has be5 publi%$ by ,a4 ,/orck ( ,lyons4 ,"o ( ! mo/ active ( ! mod]n morphog5i/s is ,pr(essor ,h]r]a ( ,mexico1 ^: "w is illu/rat$ 9 ! ,atlas de ,plasmog5ie by ,dr4 ,jules ,felix ( ,brussels1 "o ( ! mo/ en?usia/ic disciples ( ! new sci5ce4 ,!re is a resume ( ,h]r]a's "w 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,societe ,alzate1 ,mexico4 ,a bibliography ( ! works :i* h appe>$ on ?is subject may be f\nd 9 ! book ( ,pr(essor ,rhumbl] ( ,goett+51 ,aus dem ,lueck5gebiete zwis*5 ,organis*] und ,anorganis*] ,mat]ie1 #aijf4 ,9 #aijg1 ,dr4 ,luiz ,razetti ( ,c>racas publi%$ a magnific5t /udy ( ! subject "u ! title ,que es la vida4 ,9 #aijg1 ,dr4 ,m>t9 ,kuckuck ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg repeat$ & ext5d$ ! exp]im5ts ( ,r4 ,dubois1 & publi%$ 8 results "u ! title ,ar*igonia1 ,g5]atio ,spontanea1 ,leipzig1 ,ambrosius ,b>?4 ,butl] ,burke ( ,cambridge has also made a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) radium & b>ium salts analog\s to ^? ( ,dubois4 ,9 #aiji1 ,alb]t & ,alex&re ,m>y ( ,beauvais publi%$ #abb an int]e/+ /udy ( ?is "q "u ! title ,etudes exp]im5tales sur la g5]ation primitive1 publi%$ by ,jules ,r\sset4 ,i %\ld m5tion also among ! works ( syn!tic biology ! publications ( ,pr(essor ,otto ,lehmann ( ,k>lsruhe1 & 9 p>ticul> ,fluessige ,kry/alle und die ,!ori5 des ,leb5s1 ,leipzig1 ,ambrosius ,b>?4 ,pr(essor ,ul5hu? ( ,b]l9 has publi%$ 8 /udy on ! osmotic gr[? ( iron 9 alkal9e hypo*lorites "u ! title ,unt]su*ung5 ueb] ,anti=m91 ,b]l91 ,julius ,spr+]4 ,pr(essor ,g>iel has made a s]ies ( rese>*es on osmotic gr[? :i* are publi%$ 9 ,abraham's ,recueil d'exp]i5ces de physique4 ,a4 ,le*a ,m>zo ( ,valladolid publi%$ 8 rese>*es on ! gr[? ( anil9e col\rs 9 ! ,gaceta ,m$ica ,catalana1 #aiji1 "u ! title ,otra nueva flora artificiale4 ,dr4 ,maurice d',hallu9 ( ,lille has also publi%$ a volume on osmotic gr[?s "u ! title1 ,/ephane ,l$uc a-t-il cree la vie8 ,! subjects ( ! num]\s memoirs t ,i h myself publi%$ dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s ^u ! "q are treat$ anew 9 ! pages ( ?is volume1 & a resume ( my rese>*es on osmotic gr[? has already appe>$ 9 ! ,docum5ts du ,progres1 ,sept4 #aiji4 ,we h ?us %[n t syn!tic morphog5esis has already attract$ ! att5tion ( a c]ta9 numb] ( ard5t inve/igators4 ,morphog5y has n[ its me?ods & its results1 & physiog5y is also develop+ side by side ) x1 s9ce function is b ! result ( =m4 ,! field ( rese>* is op5$1 & work]s alone are ne$$ 9 ord] to reap an abundant h>ve/4 99 99 99 99 99 #abc ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,osmotic ,,gr[?--,a ,,/udy ,,9 ,,morphog5esis ,! ph5om5on ( osmotic gr[? has d\btless pres5t$ itself to ! eyes ( e *emi/2 b to discov] a ph5om5on x is n en\gh m]ely to h x "u our eyes4 ,be=e ,newton _m a ma!matician _h se5 a spectrum1 if only 9 ! ra9b[2 _m an obs]v] be=e ,frankl9 _h wat*$ ! lightn+4 ,to discov] a ph5om5on is to und]/& x1 to give x its due int]pretation1 & to compreh5d ! importance ( ! role :i* x plays 9 ! s*eme ( nature4 ,osmotic ,membranes4--,c]ta9 sub/ances 9 conc5trat$ solution h ! prop]ty ( =m+ osmotic membranes :5 !y come 9 contact ) o!r *emical solutions4 ,:5 a soluble sub/ance 9 conc5trat$ solution is imm]s$ 9 a liquid :i* =ms ) x a colloidal precipitate1 its surface becomes encas$ 9 a ?9 lay] ( precipitate :i* gradually =ms an osmotic membrane r\nd x4 ,an osmotic membrane is n a semi-p]meable membrane1 z sometimes describ$1 i4e4 a membrane p]meable to wat] b imp]meable to ! solute4 ,x is a membrane :i* opposes diff]5t resi/ances to ! passage ( wat] & ( ! v>i\s sub/ances 9 solution1 be+ v p]meable to wat]1 b mu* less s to ! diff]5t solutes4 ,a soluble sub/ance ?us surr\nd$ by an osmotic membrane repres5ts :at ,traube has call$ an artificial cell4 ,9 su* a cell ! dissolv$ sub/ances h a v high osmotic pressure1 an expansive =ce l t ( /eam 9 a boil]2 ! molecules ( ! solute ex]t+ pressure on ! walls ( ! ext5sible cell1 & di/5d+ x l ! #abd gas 9 a balloon4 ,?is pressure increases ! volume ( ! cell1 & 9 consequ5ce wat] ru%es 9 ?r\gh ! p]meable membrane & /ill fur!r di/5ds ! cell4 ,mo/ beautiful osmotic cells may be produc$ by dropp+ a fragm5t ( fus$ calcium *loride into a saturat$ solution ( potassium c>bonate or tribasic potassium phosphate1 ! calcium *loride becom+ surr\nd$ by an osmotic membrane ( calcium c>bonate or calcium phosphate4 ,?is m9]al membrane is beautifully transp>5t & p]fectly ext5sible4 ,x is a/oni%+ to contemplate ! contra/ betwe5 ! h>d cry/all9e =ms ( ord9>y *alk & ^! s(t transp>5t ela/ic membranes :i* h ! same *emical con/itution4 ,^! osmotic cells ( c>bonate ( lime or phosphate ( lime consi/ ( a transp>5t membrane enclos+ liquid cont5ts & a solid nucleus ( *loride ( calcium4 ,_! =m is t ( an ovoid or flatt5$ sph]e1 & !y may atta9 a diamet] ( sev5 c5timetres or m4 ,m frequ5tly ! osmotic gr[? consi/s ( a numb] ( cells in/ead ( "o l>ge cell4 ,! fir/ cell gives bir? to a second cell or vesicle1 & ?is to a ?ird1 & s on1 s t we f9ally obta9 an association ( microscopic cellul> cavities1 sep>at$ by osmotic walls--a /ructure completely analog\s to t :i* we meet ) 9 a liv+ organism4 ,we may easily picture to ourselves ! me*anism by :i* an osmotic cell gives bir? to su* a colony ( microscopic vesicles4 ,! membranog5\s sub/ance1 ! *loride ( calcium1 diffuses uni=mly on all sides f ! solid nucleus1 & =ms an osmotic membrane :]e x comes into contact ) ! solution4 ,?is sph]ical membrane is ext5d$ by osmotic pressure1 & gr[s gradually l>g]4 ,s9ce ! area ( ! surface ( a sph]e increases z ! squ>e ( its radius1 :5 ! cell has gr[n to twice its orig9al diamet]1 ea* squ>e c5timetre ( ! membrane w receive by diffusion b a qu>t] z mu* ( ! membranog5\s sub/ance4 ,h5ce1 aft] a "t1 ! membrane w n be suffici5tly n\ri%$ by ! membranog5\s sub/ance1 x w break d[n1 & an ap]ture w occur ?r\gh :i* ! int]ior liquid oozes out1 =m+ 9 its turn a new #abe membran\s cov]+ = itself4 ,?is is ! explanation ( ! fact t all liv+ organisms are =m$ by colonies ( microscopical elem5ts1 al?\gh we mu/ n =get t ,nature (t5 produces simil> results 9 diff]5t ways4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,osmotic gr[?s ( f]rocyanide ( copp]4 ,osmotic gr[?s may be obta9$ f a great numb] ( *emical sub/ances4 ,! mo/ easily gr[n are ! soluble salts ( calcium 9 solutions ( alkal9e phosphates & c>bonates1 to :i* we h already allud$4 ,we may also rev]se ! ph5om5on by gr[+ phosphates & c>bonates 9 solutions ( calcium salts1 b 9 ?is case ! osmotic gr[?s are n s beautiful4 ,! v>i\s silicates play an important "p 9 ! con/itution ( %ells & ( ! skeletons ( m>9e animals4 ,mo/ ( ! metallic salts1 & m especially ! soluble salts ( calcium1 give rise to ! ph5om5on ( osmotic gr[? :5 s[n 9 solutions ( ! alkal9e silicates4 ,9 ?is way1 by us+ diff]5t silicates & v>y+ ! proportions & ! conc5trations1 we may obta9 an imm5se v>iety ( osmotic gr[?s4 ,a good solution to comm5ce ) is ! foll[+3-- ,silicate ( pota%1 sp4 gr4 #a4c 7#cc;deg ,beaume7 #fj gr4 ,saturat$ solution ( sodium c>bonate #fj gr4 ,saturat$ solution ( dibasic sodium phosphate #cj gr4 ,di/ill$ wat] make up to #a litre4 #abf ,a fragm5t ( fus$ calcium *loride dropp$ into ?is solution w produce a rapid gr[? ( sl5d] osmotic =ms :i* may atta9 a height ( #bj or #cj c5timetres4 ,small pellets may also be made ( "o "p ( sug> & two ( copp] sulphate & s[n 9 ! foll[+ solution1 :i* mu/ be kept w>m until ! gr[? is complete3-- ,t5 p] c5t4 solution ( gelat9e #aj to #bj c4c4 ,saturat$ solution ( potassium f]rocyanide #e to #aj c4c4 ,saturat$ solution ( sodium *loride #e to #aj c4c4 ,w>m wat] 7#cb;deg to #dj;deg ,c47 #ajj c4c4 ,9 ?is solution we c obta9 osmotic gr[?s :i* may atta9 to a height ( #dj c5timetres or m1 vegetable =ms1 roots1 arboresc5t twigs1 leaves1 & t]m9al organs4 ,^! gr[?s are /able z soon z ! gelat9e has cool$ & set1 & may be c>ri$ ab\t )\t fe> ( injury 7,fig4 #ce74 ,precipitat$ osmotic membranes are v widely di/ribut$ 9 nature4 ,pr(essor ,ul5hu? has se5 iron gr[?s 9 alkal9e sodium hypo*lorite 7,javelle wat]71 & ,le*a-,m>zo has demon/rat$ ! osmotic gr[? ( ! v>i\s #abg /a9s us$ = microscopy1 9 ! liquids us$ = fix+ prep>ations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,osmotic v]mi=m gr[?4 7a7 ,! sickle-%ap$ gr[?4 7b7 ,! gr[? brok5 by ! upw>d pressure ( ! solution4 7c7 ,! w\nd hav+ cicatriz$1 ! /em cont9ues to gr[ d[nw>ds4 ,we n[ "k t ! physical =ce :i* builds up ^! gr[?s is t ( osmotic pressure1 s9ce ! slighte/ consid]ation w %[ ! inadequacy ( ! usual explanation t ! gr[? is due to m]e diff]5ces ( d5sity1 or to amorph\s precipitation ar\nd bubbles ( gas4 ,^! may inde$ affect ! ph5om5on1 b c 9 no way be reg>d$ z its cause4 ,"o ( our exp]im5ts ?r[s consid]able light on ?is "q4 ,9 a glass vessel we plac$ a conc5trat$ solution ( c>bonate ( potassium1 to :i* _h be5 add$ #d p] c5t4 ( a saturat$ solution ( tribasic potassium phosphate4 ,into ?is solution we dropp$ a fragm5t ( fus$ calcium *loride1 & obta9$ a v]mi=m gr[? "s #f millimetres 9 diamet]4 ,?is gr[? 0 curv$1 at fir/ gr[+ upw>ds1 !n = a %ort di/ance horizontally1 & f9ally d[nw>ds4 ,! upw>d pressure ( ! solution1 :i* 0 heavi] ?an ! gr[?1 ultimately broke x at ! top ( ! curve1 z %[n at b1 ,fig4 #cg4 ,! liquid cont5ts ( ! gr[? began to ooze out ?r\gh ! w\nd1 b ?is aft] a "t became cicatriz$1 & ! /em cont9u$ to gr[ ob/9ately d[nw>ds once m1 9 opposition to ! hydro/atic pressure4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is pressure ! gr[? is s9u\s1 tack+ z x 7 f side to side l a boat aga9/ ! w9d4 ,we give ?ree successive photographs ( ?is gr[?1 :i* atta9$ a l5g? ( ov] #aj in*es4 ,we h frequ5tly obta9$ ^! v]mi=m gr[?s =m+ a s]ies ( su* loops1 gr[+ upw>ds & fall+ aga9 _m times 9 succession4 ,osmotic ,gr[?s 9 ,air4--,c]ta9 ( ^! artificial cells may be made to gr[ out ( ! solution into ! air4 ,= ?is purpose we place a fragm5t ( ,ca,cl#b 9 a %all[ flat-bottom$ glass di%1 j cov]+ ! fragm5t ) liquid4 ,! be/ solution is z foll[s3-- ,potassium c>bonate1 saturat$ solution #gf p>ts4 ,sodium sulphate1 saturat$ solution #bj ,tribasic potassium phosphate1 saturat$ solution #d #abh ,! calcium *loride surr\nds itself ) an osmotic membrane2 wat] p5etrates into ! int]ior ( ! cell ?us =m$1 & a beautiful transp>5t sph]ical cell is ! result1 ! summit ( :i* soon em]ges f ! %all[ liquid4 ,! cell cont9ues to increase by absorption ( ! liquid at its base1 & may gr[ up out ( ! liquid into ! air = z mu* z "o or two c5timetres4 ,?is is a mo/ impressive spectacle1 an osmotic production1 half aquatic & half a]ial1 absorb+ wat] & salts by its base1 & los+ wat] & volatile products by evaporation f its summit1 :ile at ! same "t x absorbs & dissolves ! gases ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! a]ial portion ( an osmotic gr[? w sometimes become specializ$ 9 =m4 ,! summit ( ! gr[? develops a sort ( cr[n or cup surr\nd$ by a circul> wall4 ,?is cup conta9s liquid1 & cont9ues to gr[ up into ! air l ! /em ( a plant1 c>ry+ ) x ! liquid :i* has be5 absorb$ by ! base ( ! gr[?4 ,! prec$+ exp]im5ts give u an explanation ( ! curi\s ph5om5a exhibit$ by s-call$ creep+ salts4 ,a sal9e solution left at ! bottom ( a vessel w sometimes be f\nd aft] "s mon?s to h crept up to ! top ( ! vessel4 ,cellul> p>titions =m$ 9 ?is way w be f\nd ext5d+ f ! bottom to ! top ( ! vessel1 & n only s1 b ! :ole ( ! rema9+ liquid w be imprison$ 9 ! upp] cells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,osmotic gr[? produc$ by s[+ a mixture ( ,ca,cl#b & ,mn,cl#b 9 a solution ( alkal9e c>bonate1 phosphate1 & silicate4 ,! /em & t]m9al organs are ( diff]5t col\rs4 7,"o-?ird ( ! natural size47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,an osmotic gr[? photograph$ by transv]se light to %[ ! con/ruction ( ! t]m9al organs4 ,assimilation & ,excretion4--,l a liv+ be+1 an osmotic gr[? absorbs nutrim5t f ! m$ium 9 :i* x gr[s1 & ?is nutrim5t x assimilates & organizes4 ,if we comp>e ! weight ( an osmotic gr[? ) t ( ! m9]al fragm5t :i* produc$ x1 we %all f9d t ! m9]al se$ has increas$ _m hundr$ times 9 weight4 ,simil>ly1 if we weigh ! liquid be=e & aft] ! exp]im5t1 we %all f9d t x has lo/ an equival5t weight4 ,! absorb$ sub/ance ( an osmotic production mu/ also und]go *emical trans=mation be=e x c be assimilat$--t is1 be=e x c =m "p ( ! gr[?4 ,calcium *loride1 = example1 gr[+ 9 a solution ( potassium #acj c>bonate1 is trans=m$ into calcium c>bonate4 ,ca,cl#b ,k#b;,,co#c ,ca,c,o#c #b,k,cl4 ,?us an osmotic gr[? c make a *oice betwe5 ! sub/ances (f]$ to x1 reject+ ! potassium ( ! nutri5t liquid1 & absorb+ wat] & ! radical ,,co#c1 :ile at ! same "t x elim9ates & excretes #aca *lor9e1 :i* may be f\nd 9 ! nutri5t liquid aft] ! reaction4 ,( all ! ord9>y physical =ces1 osmotic pressure & osmosis alone appe> to possess ?is rem>kable p[] ( organization & morphog5esis4 ,x is a matt] ( surprise t ?is peculi> faculty has hi!rto rema9$ almo/ unsuspect$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,osmotic gr[? 9 a solution ( ,,kno#c1 %[+ sp9e-l organs4 ,osmotic ,gr[?s4--,if we s[ fragm5ts ( calcium *loride 9 solutions ( ! alkal9e c>bonates1 phosphates1 or silicates1 we obta9 a wond]ful v>iety ( fili=m & l9e> gr[?s :i* may atta9 to a height ( #cj or #dj c5timetres4 ,"s are s flexible t ! /ems b5d1 fall+ 9 curves ar\nd ! c5tre ( gr[?1 l leaves ( grass4 ,if we dilute ?is same liquid1 z x becomes less conc5trat$ ! gr[?s are m curv$1 ramifi$1 d5dritic1 l ^? ( trees or corals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,t]m9al organs l catk9s1 develop+ 9 a solution ( ammonium *loride4 ,9 ! culture ( osmotic gr[?s we may also by appropriate means produce t]m9al organs resembl+ fl[]s & se$-capsules4 ,to d ?is we wait till ! gr[? is consid]ably advanc$1 & !n add a l>ge quantity ( liquid to ! nutri5t solution s z to dim9i% ! conc5tration a hundr$fold or m4 ,sph]ical #acb t]m9al organs w !n gr[ out f ! ends ( ! /ems1 :i* may dur+ _! fur!r gr[? become conical or piri=m 9 %ape4 ,by sup]pos+ lay]s ( liquid ( diff]5t conc5tration & decreas+ d5sity1 "o may obta9 knots & swell+s 9 ! osmotic gr[?s m>k+ ! surfaces ( sep>ation ( ! liquid4 ,:5 a "y gr[? 9 ! vig\r ( its y\? rea*es ! surface ( ! wat]1 x spreads out horizontally ov] ! surface ( ! liquid 9 ?9 leaves or foliace\s expansions ( diff]5t =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,an osmotic madrepore4 ,! prepond]at+ influ5ce 9 morphog5esis is osmotic pressure1 ! osmotic =ms v>y+ ) its int5sity1 di/ribution1 & mode ( application4 ,:atev] ! *emical composition ( ! liquid1 simil> osmotic =ces1 modifi$ 9 ! same mann]1 give rise to =ms :i* h a family resemblance4 ,! *emical nature ( ! liquid1 h[ev]1 is n entirely )\t influ5ce on ! =m4 ,?us ! pres5ce ( a nitrate 9 ! "m liquor t5ds to produce po9ts or ?orns4 ,ammonium *loride 9 a potassium f]rocyanide solution produces gr[?s %ap$ l catk9s1 & ! alkal9e *lorides t5d to produce v]mi=m gr[?s4 #acc ,corall9e gr[?s may also be obta9$ by us+ appropriate *emical solutions4 ,= ?is purpose ! solution ( silicate1 c>bonate1 & dibasic phosphate %\ld be dilut$ to half /r5g?1 ) ! addition ( #b to #d p] c5t4 ( a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium sulphate or potassium nitrate4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,an osmotic mu%room =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,osmotic fungi4 ,coral-l =ms may also be gr[n f a semi-saturat$ solution ( silicate1 c>bonate1 & dibasic phosphate1 to :i* has be5 add$ #d p] c5t4 ( a conc5trat$ solution ( sodium sulphate or potassium nitrate4 ,9 ?is we may obta9 beautiful gr[?s l madrepores or corals1 =m$ by a c5tral nucleus f :i* radiate l>ge leaves l ! petals ( a fl[]4 ,! pres5ce ( nitrate ( potassium produces po9t$ leaves ) ?orn-l processes recall+ ! =ms ( ! aloe & ! agave4 ,mo/ rem>kable fungus-l =ms may be obta9$ by comm5c+ ! gr[? 9 a conc5trat$ solution1 & !n #acd c>efully p\r+ a lay] ( di/ill$ wat] ov] ! surface ( ! liquid4 ,! resemblance is s p]fect t "s ( our productions h be5 tak5 = fungi ev5 by exp]ts4 ,! #ace /em ( ^! osmotic fungi is =m$ ( bundles ( f9e holl[ fibres1 :ile ! upp] surface ( ! cap is sometimes smoo?1 & sometimes cov]$ ) small scales4 ,! l[] surface ( ! cap %[s traces ( radiat+ lamellae1 :i* are sometimes int]sect$ by conc5tric lay]s p>allel to ! out] #acf surface ( ! cap4 ,9 ?is case ! l[] surface ( ! cap %[s a numb] ( orifices or canals simil> to ^? se5 9 _m v>ieties ( fungus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,a %ell-l calc>e\s osmotic gr[?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,osmotic gr[?s 9 ! =m ( %ells4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,capsul> osmotic gr[?4 ,! capsule has be5 brok5 to %[ ! int]ior /ructure4 ,%ell-l osmotic productions may be gr[n by s[+ ! m9]al 9 a v %all[ lay] ( conc5trat$ solution1 a c5timetre or less 9 dep?1 & p\r+ ov] ?is a less conc5trat$ lay] ( solution4 ,by v>y+ ! solution or conc5tration we may ?us gr[ an inf9ite v>iety ( %ell =ms4 #acg ,capsules or clos$ %ells may be produc$ 9 ! same way by sup]impos+ a lay] ( some:at great] conc5tration4 ,^! capsules consi/ ( two valves jo9$ toge!r at _! circumf]5ce4 ,! l[] valve is ?ick & /rong1 :ile ! upp] valve may be transp>5t1 transluc5t1 or opaque1 b is always ?9n] & m fragile ?an ! l[] "o4 ,f]r\s sulphate s[n 9 a silicate solution gives rise to gr[?s :i* are gre5 9 col\r1 climb+1 or h]bace\s1 tw9+ 9 spirals r\nd ! l>g] & m solid calc>e\s gr[?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,an osmotic gr[? 9 :i* ! t]m9al organs are diff]5tly col\r$ f ! /ems1 %[+ t ! *emical evolution is diff]5t4 ,) salts ( manganese1 ! *loride1 citrate or sulphate1 ! /ages ( evolution ( ! gr[? are di/+ui%$ n only by div]sities ( =m1 b also by modifications ( col\r4 ,we may ?us obta9 t]m9al organs black or gold5 yell[ 9 col\r on a :ite /alk4 ,9 a simil> way we may obta9 fungi ) a :ite /alk & a yell[ cap1 ( :i* ! l[] surface is black4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,osmotic capsul> gr[? ) figur$ belt4 ,v beautiful gr[?s may be obta9$ by s[+ calcium *loride 9 a solution ( potassium c>bonate1 ) ! addition ( #b p] c5t4 ( a saturat$ solution ( tribasic potassium phosphate4 ,?is w give capsules ) figur$ belts1 v]tical l9es at regul> int]vals1 or transv]se /ripes compos$ ( project+ dots su* z may be se5 9 _m sea-ur*9s4 ,^! capsules are clos$ at ! summit by a cap1 =m+ an op]culum1 s t !y sometimes appe> z if =m$ ( two valves4 ,n[ & aga9 we may see ! upp] valve rais$ by #ach ! int]nal osmotic pressure1 %[+ ! gelat9\s cont5ts ?r\gh ! op5+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,amoeboid osmotic gr[?1 float+ free 9 ! "m liquor4 ,! calc>e\s capsules gr[n 9 a saturat$ solution ( potassium c>bonate or phosphate (t5 take a regul> ovoid =m4 ,if ^! are all[$ to ?ick51 !y may be tak5 out ( ! wat] )\t break+1 & !n pres5t ! aspect ( v]itable ooli?s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,transp>5t osmotic cell1 9 :i* may be se5 ! :ite calc>e\s nucleus4 ,! summit ( ! cell be>s osmotic prolongations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,amoeboid osmotic gr[? ) long cry/all9e cilia swimm+ ab\t 9 ! "m liquor4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,osmotic gr[? swimm+ 9 "m liquor4 ,! f9-l prolongation grew out betwe5 two liquid lay]s ( diff]5t conc5trations4 ,osmotic productions may be divid$ into two gr\ps4 ,"s l ! silicate gr[?s are fix$4 ,l vegetables1 !y develop1 become organiz$1 gr[1 decl9e1 die1 & are dis9tegrat$ at ! spot :]e !y are s[n4 ,o!rs1 especially ^? :i* are gr[n 9 alkal9e c>bonates & phosphates1 h two p]iods ( evolution1 ! fir/ a fix$ p]iod1 & ! second a w&]+ #aci "o4 ,dur+ ! fir/ p]iod _! specific gravity is great] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 & !y re/ immobile at ! bottom ( ! vessel 9 :i* !y are s[n4 ,z !y gr[1 !y absorb wat] & _! specific gravity dim9i%es4 ,little by little !y rise up 9 ! liquid1 & f9ally acquire a consid]able am\nt ( mobility1 be+ readily displac$ by e curr5t4 ,h5ce x is v difficult to photograph ^! #adj mobile osmotic gr[?s1 :i* swim ab\t 9 ! "m liquor & are (t5 provid$ ) prolongations 9 ! =ms ( cilia1 & sometimes ) f9s1 :i* undulate z !y move4 ,"s ( ^! cili>y hairs are evid5tly osmotic 9 _! orig91 be+ localiz$ z a tuft at ! summit ( ! gr[?4 ,o!rs are app>5tly cry/all9e 9 /ructure1 & are spread ov] ! :ole surface ( ! swimm+ vesicle4 ,an osmotic gr[? increases by ! absorption ( wat] f a conc5trat$ solution4 ,:5 ! solution is orig9ally saturat$ x ?us becomes sup]saturat$1 & deposits ^! long cili>y cry/als on ! surface ( ! gr[?4 ,:5 a capsule splits 9 two "u ! influ5ce ( ! int]nal osmotic pressure1 x may happ5 t ! op]culum or upp] valve floats away 9 ! liquid4 ,we ?us obta9 a free swimm+ organism1 a transp>5t bell-l =m ) an undulat+ fr+e1 l a ,m$usa4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,capsul> osmotic gr[?1 ! two valves sep>at$ %[+ ! colloidal cont5ts4 ,frequ5tly a s+le se$ or /ock w give rise to a :ole s]ies ( osmotic gr[?s4 ,a vesicle is fir/ produc$1 & !n a contraction appe>s ar\nd ! vesicle1 & ?is contraction increases till a portion ( ! vesicle is cut (f & swims away free l an amoeba4 ,! same ph5om5on may be obs]v$ ) v]mi=m gr[?s1 a s+le se$ (t5 giv+ #ada rise 9 ?is way to a :ole s]ies ( amoebi=m or v]mi=m productions4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t 9 an osmotic gr[? ! active gr[+ portion is ! gelat9\s cont5ts 9 ! int]ior1 ! ext]nal visible gr[? be+ only a skeleton or %ell4 ,we may sometimes succe$ 9 hook+ up "o ( ^! long v]mi=m gr[?s1 break+ ! calc>e\s %ea?1 & draw+ out a long undulat+ translucid gelat9\s cyl9d]4 ,! outl9e ( ?is cyl9d] is s well def9$ z to make u d\bt :e!r ! f9e colloidal membrane :i* sep>ates x cle>ly f ! liquid c h be5 =m$ s rapidly1 or if x may n p]haps exi/ already =m$ 9 ! int]ior ( its calc>e\s %ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,microphotograph %[+ ! /ructure ( v>i\s osmotic /ems4 7,magnifi$ #be diamet]s47 7a7 ,sodium sulphite4 7b7 ,potassium bi*romate4 7c7 ,sodium sulphide4 7d7 ,sodium bisulphite4 ,:5 a l>ge capsul> %ell su* z we h describ$ bur/s1 x expels a "p or ! :ole ( its cont5ts z a gelat9\s mass :i* reta9s ! =m ( ! cavity4 ,simil>ly1 if we sudd5ly dilute ! "m liquor ar\nd an osmotic cell1 x bur/s by a process ( dehisc5ce1 & projects into ! liquid a "p ( its cont5ts1 :i* may ?us become an indep5d5t vesicle4 ,9 ?is way a s+le osmotic cell may produce a :ole s]ies ( indep5d5t vesicles4 ,x is ev5 possible to rejuv5ate an osmotic gr[? t has become deg5]ate ?r\gh age4 ,an osmotic production gr[s old & dies :5 x has exp5d$ ! osmotic =ce conta9$ 9 ! int]ior ( its capsule4 ,a calcium osmotic gr[? :i* has ?us become exhau/$ may be rejuv5at$ by transf]r+ x to a conc5trat$ solution ( calcium *loride4 ,x w absorb ?is1 & ?us be enabl$ to r5ew its evolution & gr[? :5 put back aga9 into ! orig9al "m liquor4 #adb ,! /ructure ( osmotic gr[?s is no less v>i$ ?an _! =m4 ,_! /ems are =m$ ( cells or vesicles juxtapos$1 %[+ cavities sep>at$ by osmotic walls4 ,sometimes ! compon5t vesicles h kept _! orig9al =m1 s t ! /em has ! appe>ance ( a r[ ( beads4 ,or ! cells may be m or less flatt5$1 ! divisions be+ widely sep>at$4 ,or aga91 by ! absorption ( ! divisions1 a tube may be =m$1 a v]itable vessel or canal 9 :i* liquids c circulate4 #adc ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,microphotograph %[+ ! /ructure ( osmotic /ems4 7,magnifi$ #dj diamet]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,photograph ( an osmotic leaf %[+ ! ve9s4 ,! foliace\s expansions1 or osmotic leaves1 also pres5t great v>ieties bo? ( appe>ance & ( /ructure4 ,! ve9s may be longitud9al1 fan-%ap$1 or p5ni=m4 ,we h occasionally met ) leaves hav+ a l9$ or rul$ surface1 giv+ mo/ beautiful diffraction col\rs4 ,! usual /ructure1 h[ev]1 is vesicul> or cellul>1 z 9 ,fig4 #eh4 ,9 photographs we (t5 get ! appe>ance ( lacunae1 b all ^! lacunae are clos$ cavities1 ! appe>ance be+ due to ! transp>5cy ( ! cell walls4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,photomicrograph ( an osmotic leaf %[+ ! cellul> /ructure4 ,9 conclusion we may say t osmotic gr[?s are =m$ ( an ensemble ( clos$ cavities ( v>i\s =ms1 conta9+ liquids & sep>at$ by osmotic membranes1 con/itut+ v]itable tissues4 ,?is /ructure (f]s ! close/ #add resemblance to t ( liv+ organisms4 ,is x possible to d\bt t ! simple conditions :i* produce an osmotic gr[? h frequ5tly be5 realiz$ dur+ ! pa/ ages ( ! e>?8 ,:at "p has osmotic gr[? play$ 9 ! evolution ( liv+ =ms1 & :at traces ( its action may we hope to f9d to-day8 ,osmotic gr[? gives u fibr\s silicates1 phosphatic nodules1 corals1 & madrepores2 x also gives u =mations :i* rem9d "o ( ! atolls1 calc>e\s gr[?s ris+ l a cr[n out ( ! wat]4 ,! geologi/ may well consid] :at role osmotic gr[? may h play$ 9 ! =mation ( ! v>i\s rocks1 silice\s1 calc>e\s1 b>ytic1 magnesian1 ! fibr\s & nodul> rocks & atolls4 ,! palaeontologi/ relies on ! diff]5t =ms f\nd 9 8 rocks to classify 8 specim5s2 f ! exi/5ce ( a %ell1 he concludes ! pres5ce ( life4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 =ms :i* are app>5tly organic may be m]ely ! product ( osmotic gr[?1 x is evid5t t he mu/ reconsid] 8 conclusions4 ,! same may be said ( ! v>i\s =ms ( coral or ( fungoid gr[?s4 ,9 ! #adf pres5ce ( a calcifi$ or silicat$ fungus we c no long] argue ) c]ta9ty z to ! exi/5ce ( life1 )\t tak+ into consid]ation ! possibility t ! specim5 9 "q may be an osmotic production4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,osmotic gr[? ) nucleat$ t]m9al organs4 7,"o-?ird ( ! natural size47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,a gr\p ( osmotic plants4 ,:atev] our op9ion z to its signification1 osmotic gr[? dem&s ! att5tion ( e m9d devot$ to ! /udy ( nature4 ,x is a m>vell\s spectacle to see a =mless fragm5t ( calcium salt gr[ into a %ell1 a madrepore1 or a fungus1 & ?is z ! result ( a simple physical =ce4 ,:y %\ld ! /udy ( osmotic gr[? attract less att5tion ?an ! =mation ( cry/als1 on :i* s mu* "t & lab\r has be5 be/[$ 9 ! pa/8 99 99 99 99 99 #adg ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,ph5om5a ,,( ,,life ,,& ,,osmotic ,,productions--,a ,,/udy ,,9 ,,physiog5esis ,x is impossible to def9e life1 n only because x is complex1 b because x v>ies 9 diff]5t liv+ be+s4 ,! ph5om5a :i* con/itute ! life ( a man are f> o!r ?an ^? :i* make up ! life ( a polyp or a plant2 & 9 ! m simple =ms life is s greatly r$uc$ t x is (t5 a matt] ( difficulty to decide :e!r a giv5 =m belongs to ! animal1 vegetable1 or m9]al k+dom4 ,consid]+ ! impossibility ( def9+ ! exact l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 animate & inanimate matt]1 x is a/oni%+ to f9d s mu* /ress laid on ! suppos$ fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 vital & non-vital ph5om5a4 ,!re is 9 fact no %>p division1 no precise limit :]e inanimate nature ends & life beg9s2 ! transition is gradual & ins5sible1 = j z a liv+ organism is made ( ! same sub/ances z ! m9]al _w1 s life is a composite ( ! same physical & *emical ph5om5a t we f9d 9 ! re/ ( nature4 ,all ! suppos$ attributes ( life are f\nd also outside liv+ organisms4 ,life is con/itut$ by ! association ( physico-*emical ph5om5a1 _! h>moni\s gr\p+ & succession4 ,h>mony is a condition ( life4 ,we are q unable to sep>ate liv+ be+s f ! o!r productions ( nature by _! composition1 s9ce !y are =m$ ( ! same m9]al elem5ts4 ,all ! alim5ts ( plants--wat]1 c>bon1 nitrog51 phosphorus1 sulphur--be=e _! absorption & assimilation belong$ to ! m9]al k+dom4 ,! c>bon & ! wat] are trans=m$ into #adh sug> & fat1 ! nitrog5 & ! sulphur into album51 & ! comp\nds s =m$ are !n said to belong to ! organic _w4 ,^! organic bodies are return$ once aga9 to ! m9]al _w by ! action ( animals & microbes1 :i* trans=m ! c>bon into c>bonates1 & ! nitrog51 sulphur1 & phosphorus into nitrates1 sulphates1 & phosphates4 ,h5ce life is b a phase 9 ! animation ( m9]al matt]2 all matt] may be said to h )9 itself ! ess5ce ( life1 pot5tial 9 ! m9]al1 actual 9 ! animal & ! vegetable4 ,! flux & reflux ( matt] is alt]nate & incessant1 f ! m9]al _w to ! liv+1 & back aga9 f ! liv+ to ! m9]al _w4 ,at ! same "t !re is a cont9u\s flux ( en]gy4 ,organic matt] conta9s pot5tial en]gy1 ! en]gy ( *emical comb9ation2 & dur+ its passage ?r\gh ! liv+ be+ x is gradually /ripp$ ( ?is en]gy & return$ to ! m9]al _w4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 syn!tic biology is ! addition ( pot5tial en]gy to matt]1 ! r$uction ( an oxide1 ! sep>ation ( a salt into its radicals1 ! production ( "s endo!rmic *emical comb9ation4 ,! en]gy /or$ up by su* processes c be aga9 lib]at$ z heat1 t fire :i* ! anci5ts ) wond]ful presci5ce long ago recogniz$ z ! symbol ( life4 ,attempts h be5 made to diff]5tiate a liv+ be+ by ! nature ( its *emical comb9ations1 ! s-call$ organic comp\nds4 ,x 0 suppos$ t life alone c\ld realize ^! & cause ! production ( ! v>i\s sub/ances :i* =m ! /ructure ( liv+ be+s4 ,( late ye>s1 h[ev]1 a l>ge numb] ( ^! organic sub/ances h be5 artificially produc$ 9 ! laboratory1 & ! syn!tic problems :i* rema9 are ( ! same ord] z ^? :i* h be5 already solv$4 ,z "o le>ns to "k ! m9]al k+dom & ! liv+ _w m intimately ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m disappe>4 ,?us a liv+ be+ 0 suppos$ to be *>act]iz$ by its s5sibility1 i4e4 its faculty ( reaction aga9/ ext]nal impressions4 ,b ?is reaction is a g5]al ph5om5on ( nature2 !re is no action )\t reaction4 ,nei!r c ! #adi reaction to int]nal impressions1 imm$iate or def]r$1 be consid]$ z ! *>act]i/ic ( life1 s9ce osmotic gr[?s exhibit a mo/ exquisite s5sibility 9 ?is direction4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! faculty ( reaction is a g5]al prop]ty ( matt]1 ! *>act]i/ics ( life 9 ! l[] organisms are only ?ree 9 numb]1 viz4 nutrition1 gr[?1 & reproduction by fission or budd+4 ,b cry/als are also n\ri%$ & gr[ 9 ! wat] ( cry/allization4 ,!y h moreov] a specific =m1 & e biologi/ :o wi%es to e/abli% a p>allel betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( ! liv+ & ! m9]al _w is wont to comp>e liv+ be+s ) cry/als4 ,cry/als1 x is said1 affect regul> geometric =ms1 sali5t angles1 & rectil9e> edges1 :ile liv+ be+s h r\nd$ =ms )\t any geometric regul>ity4 ,ano!r suppos$ di/9ction is t liv+ be+s are n\ri%$ by intussusception1 :]eas cry/als increase by apposition4 ,aga91 liv+ be+s are said to assimilate & trans=m ! alim5t !y absorb1 :]eas cry/als d n trans=m ! matt] :i* is add$ ext]nally to _! /ructure4 ,ano!r suppos$ diff]5ce is t liv+ ?+s elim9ate & dis*>ge _! products ( combu/ion1 :ile ! evolution ( a cry/al is accompani$ by no su* elim9ation4 ,f9ally1 ! ph5om5on ( reproduction is said to be ! exclusive *>act]i/ic ( a liv+ be+2 b cry/als may also be reproduc$ & multipli$ by ! introduction ( fragm5ts ( cry/all9e matt] into a sup]saturat$ solution4 ,! resemblance betwe5 an osmotic gr[? & a liv+ organism is mu* clos] ?an t betwe5 a liv+ be+ & a cry/al1 !re be+ n only an analogy ( =m1 b also ( /ructure & ( function4 ,9 ord] to f9d ! physical p>allel to life1 we mu/ turn to osmosis & osmotic gr[? r ?an to cry/als & cry/allization4 ,! fir/ & mo/ /rik+ analogy betwe5 liv+ be+s & osmotic gr[?s is t ( =m4 ,! morphog5ic p[] ( osmosis gives rise to an inf9ite v>iety ( =ms4 ,an osmotic gr[?1 ev5 at ! fir/ sight1 sugge/s ! idea ( a liv+ ?+4 ,"o ne$ only glance at ! photographs ( osmotic productions to recognize ! =ms ( madrepore1 fungus1 alga1 & %ell4 ,x is wond]ful t a =ce capable #aej ( su* m>vell\s results %\ld h hi!rto be5 almo/ entirely neglect$4 ,a second analogy betwe5 vital & osmotic gr[?s is to be f\nd 9 _! /ructure1 bo? be+ =m$ by gr\ps ( cells or vesicles sep>at$ by osmotic membranes4 ,an osmotic /em1 =m$ by a r[ ( cellul> cavities sep>at$ by osmotic membranes1 has a great /ructural resemblance to ! knott$ /ems ( bamboos1 re$s1 & ! l4 ,! foliace\s expansions ( osmotic gr[?s are =m$ by colonies ( cells or vesicles dispos$ 9 regul> l9es1 :i* may pres5t v>i\s patt]ns ( inn]vation1 p>allel1 palmate1 or p5nate4 ,_m ( ! lamell> osmotic gr[?s are /rip$ 9 p>allel l9es alt]nately opaque & transp>5t4 ,! t]m9al organs h also _! envelop+ membranes1 _! pulp & nucleus1 j l vegetable =ms4 ,! analogies ( function are no less rem>kable ?an ^? ( =m & /ructure4 ,nutrition is p]haps ! mo/ elem5t>y & ess5tial vital ph5om5on1 s9ce )\t nutrition life _c exi/4 ,nutrition consi/s 9 ! absorption ( alim5t>y sub/ances f ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 ! *emical trans=mation ( su* sub/ances1 _! fixation by intussusception 9 e "p ( ! organism1 & ! ejection ( ! products ( combu/ion into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,osmotic gr[?s absorb mat]ial f ! m$ium 9 :i* !y gr[1 submit x to *emical metamorphosis1 & eject ! wa/e products ( ! reaction into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,an osmotic gr[? moreov] ex]cises *oice 9 ! selection ( ! sub/ances :i* are (f]$ = its consumption1 absorb+ "s gre$ily & entirely reject+ o!rs4 ,?us osmotic gr[?s pres5t all ! ph5om5a ( nutrition1 ! fundam5tal *>act]i/ic ( life4 ,9 ! liv+ organism nutrition results 9 gr[?1 developm5t1 & evolution4 ,gr[? & developm5t also foll[ ! absorption & fixation ( alim5t by an osmotic production4 ,an osmotic production gr[s1 its =m develops & becomes m complicat$1 & its weight increases4 ,an osmotic gr[? may weigh _m hundr$ times z mu* z ! m9]al s[n 9 ! solution1 ! "m liquor los+ a #aea correspond+ weight4 ,?us gr[?1 :i* has hi!rto be5 consid]$ an ess5tial ph5om5on ( life1 is also a ph5om5on common to all osmotic productions4 ,osmotic gr[?s l liv+ ?+s may be said to h an evolution>y exi/5ce1 ! analogy hold+ good d[n to ! smalle/ detail4 ,9 _! e>ly y\?1 at ! beg9n+ ( life1 ! ph5om5a ( ex*ange1 ( gr[?1 & ( organization are v int5se4 ,z !y gr[ old]1 ^! ex*anges gradually sl[ d[n1 & gr[? is arre/$4 ,) age ! ex*anges /ill cont9ue1 b m sl[ly1 & ^! !n gradually fail & are f9ally completely arre/$4 ,! osmotic gr[? is dead1 & little by little x decays1 los+ its /ructure & its =m4 ,! membranes ( an osmotic gr[? ?ick5 ) age1 & ?us oppose to ! osmotic ex*anges a /eadily increas+ resi/ance4 ,"y osmotic cells appe> swoll5 & turgesc5t1 :]eas old ones become flaccid1 relax$1 & wr9kl$4 ,analog\s ph5om5a are met ) 9 liv+ organisms1 ! calc>e\s infiltration ( ! vessels repres5t+ ! ?ick5+ & h>d5+ ( ! osmotic membranes4 ,! plumpness ( a *ild & ! turgesc5ce ( "y cells are b ! expression ( high osmotic t5sion1 :ile relaxation & flaccidity ( ! tissues 9 old age betrays ! fall ( osmotic pressure 9 ! intracellul> tissues4 ,circulation ( ! nutri5t fluid may also be obs]v$ 9 an osmotic gr[? z 9 a liv+ organism4 ,if we take a calc>e\s gr[? ) long ramifi$ /ems & dilute ! "m liquor consid]ably1 we may see curr5ts ( liquid issu+ f ! summit ( ! gr[?--curr5ts :i* are made visible by ! cl\dy precipitates :i* !y cause4 ,! same curr5t is also r5d]$ visible 9 ! /ems !mselves by ! motion ( ! granulations & gas bubbles 9 ! int]ior ( ! osmotic cells4 ,x is pla9 t "s su* circulation mu/ exi/1 = h[ c\ld a membrane be =m$ #cj c5timetres f ! se$ if ! membranog5\s sub/ance did n circulate ?r\gh ! /em8 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ t ! propulsion is due to osmotic pressure & n to m]e diff]5ces ( d5sity1 = ! liquid #aeb :i* rises 9 ! /em is a conc5trat$ solution ( calcium salt mu* d5s] ?an ! "m liquor1 & ! curr5t ( liquid aft] ris+ 9 ! /em may be se5 to fall back aga9 ?r\gh ! liquid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,a gr\p ( osmotic =ms4 ,organization has long be5 consid]$ z "o ( ! pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( life1 i4e4 ! arrangem5t ( matt] s z to produce an animat$ & evolution>y =m accompani$ by trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,b osmotic gr[?s are also organizations end[$ ) ! same faculties1 & ! physical me*anism :i* is at ! basis ( _! =mation is ! same z t :i* det]m9es ! organization ( liv+ matt]4 ,! ph5om5a ( osmotic gr[? %[ h[ ord9>y m9]al matt]1 c>bonates1 phosphates1 silicates1 nitrates1 & *lorides1 may imitate ! =ms ( animat$ nature )\t #aec ! int]v5tion ( any liv+ organism4 ,ord9>y physical =ces are q suffici5t to produce =ms l ^? ( liv+ be+s1 clos$ cavities conta9+ liquids sep>at$ by osmotic membranes1 ) tissues simil> to ^? ( ! vital organs 9 =m1 col\r1 evolution1 & function4 ,x is only necess>y to glance at ! photographs ( ^! osmotic gr[?s to appreciate ! wond]ful v>iety ( =m4 ,! v>iety ( function is n less evid5t1 & 9 _m in/ances1 especially ) manganese salts1 ! diff]5ce ( function ( v>i\s regions is m>k$ by diff]5ces ( col\r4 ,:5 a l>ge osmotic cell projects beyond ! "m liquor & gr[s up into ! air1 x is evid5t t ! function ( liquid absorption mu/ be localiz$ 9 ! subm]g$ "p4 ,9 o!r cases we h a local evolution ( gas1 :i* may be demon/rat$ by gr[+ a fragm5t ( calcium *loride 9 a "m liquor compos$ ( ! foll[+ saturat$ solutions3-- ,potassium c>bonate #gf p>ts4 ,potassium sulphate #af ,tribasic potassium phosphate #df ,dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( gr[? !re is an abundant lib]ation ( bubbles ( gas1 :i* is accurately limit$ to a belt ar\nd ! base ( ! gr[?1 & sometimes also to a cap at ! summit4 ,s9ce morphological diff]5tiations ( diff]5t p>ts is b ! result ( diff]5ces ( evolution1 i4e4 ( functional diff]5ces ( ! v>i\s p>ts1 we may consid] t osmotic gr[?s possess ! faculty ( organization l liv+ be+s4 ,an osmotic gr[? may be w\nd$1 & a w\nd delays its gr[? & developm5t l a disease or an accid5t 9 a liv+ be+4 ,a w\nd 9 an osmotic production may also become cicatriz$ & cov]$ ) a membrane1 :5 ! gr[? w recomm5ce exactly z 9 a liv+ be+4 ,an osmotic gr[? is a trans=m] ( en]gy4 ,x increases 9 bulk1 pu%+ aside ! "m liquor1 & ?us do+ ext]nal "w4 ,an osmotic gr[? has a temp]ature above its m$ium1 s9ce ! *emical reaction ( :i* x is ! seat is accompani$ by ! production ( heat4 ,we "k #aed b little ( ! trans=mation ( en]gy :i* takes place 9 an osmotic production1 b we may say ) c]ta9ty t x is capable ( trans=m+ bo? *emical en]gy & osmotic en]gy into heat & me*anical motion4 ,an osmotic production is ! ar5a ( complicat$ *emical ph5om5a :i* produce a v]itable metabolism4 ,x has long be5 kn[n t diffusion & osmosis may det]m9e v>i\s *emical trans=mations4 ,h4 ,/4 ,clair ,deville has demon/rat$ t c]ta9 un/able salts are p>tially decompos$ by diffusion4 ,?us dur+ ! diffusion ( alum1 ! sulphate ( pota% is sep>at$ f ! sulphate ( alum9ium4 ,simil>ly1 :5 ! *loride or acetate ( alum9ium is caus$ to diffuse1 ! acids become sep>at$ f ! alum9ia4 ,?is decomposition is ! result ( ! diff]5t resi/ance :i* ! m$ium (f]s to ! diffusion ( diff]5t ions4 ,?is diff]5ce ( resi/ance may ev5 cause a diff]5ce ( pot5tial betwe5 two m$ia1 simil> to ! diff]5ces ( pot5tial 9 liv+ organisms4 ,frequ5tly also a diff]5ce ( hydration 9 ! *emical sub/ances on ei!r side ( an osmotic membrane w det]m9e a *emical reaction1 :i* l all o!r *emical reactions is accompani$ by a correspond+ trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,! /udy ( ^! *emical metamorphoses & ! trans=mations ( en]gy 9 osmotic gr[?s has op5$ up a new subject = exp]im5tal inve/igation 9 ! field ( organic *emi/ry4 ,coagulation4--,!re is a mo/ rem>kable analogy betwe5 ! ph5om5a ( coagulation z se5 9 liv+ be+s & ! ph5om5a :i* occur :5 ! liquid 9 ! int]ior ( an osmotic gr[? comes into contact ) ! "m liquor4 ,:5 ! sap ( a plant or ! blood ( an animal escapes into ! air or wat] ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 x coagulates1 i4e4 x *anges f a liquid to a gelat9\s consi/5cy4 ,9 ! same way1 :5 ! liquid 9 ! int]ior ( an osmotic gr[? leaks out into ! "m liquor x =ms a gelat9\s precipitate4 ,?is gelat9\s precipitation is a physico-*emical ph5om5on ( ! same nature z coagulation4 ,x is by ! /udy ( coagulation 9 liquids less complex ?an blood t we may hope to elucidate ! me*anism ( ! process1 #aee :i* is simply a physico-*emical ph5om5on exactly analog\s to gelat9\s precipitation4 ,calcium phosphate is always prone to coagulate2 x has be5 call$ ! gelat9\s phosphate ( lime1 & we h already se5 h[ readily tribasic calcium phosphate takes ! =m ( beautiful transp>5t colloidal membranes :i* are gelat9\s 9 texture4 ,we may obta9 colloidal precipitates exactly analog\s to coagulat$ album9 by mix+ a weak solution ( *loride ( calcium ) potassium c>bonate or tribasic phosphate4 ,l album9 ?is precipitate =ms flakes1 & is deposit$ sl[ly z a gelat9\s colloidal mass4 ,l album9 also ?is calcic solution is coagulat$ by heat2 a solution ( a calcic salt ( a volatile acid on heat+ =ms a precipitate :i* has all ! appe>ance ( album9 coagulat$ by heat4 ,f9ally1 ,ar?us & ,pages h %[n t blood does n coagulate :5 depriv$ ( its calcium salts by ! addition ( alkal9e oxalates1 fluorides1 or citrates1 & t ! blood ?us treat$ recov]s its coagulability on ! addition ( a soluble salt ( calcium4 ,! coagulation ( milk is also a calcium salt precipitation4 ,coagulation !re=e w\ld seem to be m]ely ! colloidal precipitation ( a salt ( calcium4 ,diffusion & osmosis are ! elem5t>y ph5om5a ( life4 ,all vital ph5om5a result f ! contact ( two colloidal solutions1 or ( two liquids sep>at$ by an osmotic membrane4 ,h5ce ! /udy ( ! physics ( diffusion & osmosis is ! v basis ( syn!tic biology4 ,a liv+ be+ exhibits two sorts ( movem5ts1 ^? :i* are ! result ( /imulus f )\t1 & ^? :i* are det]m9$ by an excitation aris+ f )94 ,9 ! high] animals ! /imulus or excit+ en]gy com+ f ! ent\rage may be inf9itely small :5 comp>$ ) ! am\nt ( en]gy trans=m$4 ,moreov]1 ! response to an id5tical excitation may s v>y z to give to ^! diff]5t responses an appe>ance ( spontaneity4 ,!re is 9 reality no spontaneity1 s9ce ! diff]5ce 9 response is gov]n$ by previ\s ext]nal impressions :i* h left _! record on ! ma*9]y4 ,!re is 9 fact no su* ?+ z a spontane\s action1 s9ce e action ( a liv+ #aef be+ has z its ultimate cause a /imulus or excitation com+ f )\t4 ,! movem5ts ( ! second category are also condition$ by an excitation1 b ! /imulus comes f )9 ! organism4 ,^! movem5ts consi/ pr9cipally ( *anges ( nutrition1 or movem5ts ( ! circulation & respiration2 !y are rhy?mic 9 "* & are probably produc$ by ! same *emico-physical causes :i* det]m9e rhy?mic movem5ts outside ! liv+ body4 ,j 9 ! same way osmotic gr[?s pres5t two sorts ( movem5ts1 ext]nal movem5ts & ^? :i* are connect$ ) _! nutrition4 ,a free osmotic gr[? swimm+ 9 ! "m liquor w alt] its position & =m "u ! influ5ce ( ! slighte/ ext]ior excitation or vibration4 ,x responds to e v>iation ( temp]ature1 or to a slight diff]5ce ( conc5tration produc$ by add+ a s+le drop ( wat]1 & reacts to e ext]ior influ5ce by displacem5t or de=mation4 ,an osmotic gr[? also %[s indications ( movem5ts :i* are connect$ ) its nutrition1 & ^! movem5ts are rhy?mic1 l ^? ( respiration or circulation 9 a liv+ organism4 ,! gr[? ( an osmotic production %[s itself n z a cont9u\s process b p]iodically4 ,! wat] trav]ses ! membrane1 raises ! pressure1 & di/5ds ! cell2 at fir/ ! cell wall resi/s by reason ( its ela/icity1 x !n sudd5ly relaxes1 yield+ to ! osmotic pressure & bulg+ out at a ?9n] spot on ! surface2 ! int]nal pressure falls sudd5ly1 & !re is a pause 9 ! gr[?4 ,?is rhy?mic gr[? may be be/ obs]v$ by s[+ 9 a solution ( a tribasic alkal9e phosphate1 pellets compos$ ( p[d]$ calcium *loride moi/5$ ) glyc]9e1 to :i* has be5 add$ #a p] c5t4 ( monobasic calcium phosphate4 ,! exp]im5t is s arrang$ z to b5d or incl9e ! gr[+ /ems :i* %oot out f ^! gra9s4 ,?is may be done by c>efully p\r+ above ! "m liquor a lay] ( wat]1 or a less conc5trat$ solution4 ,z ! int]nal osmotic pressure rises1 ! droop+ extremity ( ! twig w become turgesc5t & gradually lift itself #aeg up1 & !n sudd5ly fall aga9 = sev]al millimetres4 ,we h frequ5tly wat*$ ?is rhy?mic movem5t = an h\r or m--a sl[ gradual elevation ( ! extremity ( ! twig & a rapid fall recurr+ e f\r seconds or s4 ,x may be object$ t ! sub/ance ( an osmotic gr[? is cont9ually und]go+ *ange1 :]eas a liv+ organism trans=ms into its own sub/ance ! extrane\s matt] :i* x borr[s f its environm5t4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 is only an app>5t "o4 ,! sub/ance ( a liv+ be+ is also cont9ually und]go+ *emical *ange2 x does n rema9 ! same = a s+le in/ant4 ,we see an evid5ce ( ?is *ange 9 ! evolution ( age2 ! sub/ance ( ! adult is n t ( ! infant4 ,9 "s liv+ organisms su* z insects1 especially ! ephem]idae :o h b a brief exi/5ce1 ?is *ange ( sub/ance is ev5 m rapid ?an t 9 an osmotic gr[?4 ,x has be5 object$ t osmotic productions _c be comp>$ ) liv+ organisms s9ce !y conta9 no album9oid matt]4 ,?is is to consid] life z a sub/ance1 & to conf\nd ! syn!sis ( life ) t ( album94 ,if album9 is ev] produc$ by syn!sis 9 ! laboratory x w probably be dead album94 ,all liv+ organisms conta9 album92 ?is is probably due to ! fact t album9oid matt] is p>ticul>ly adapt$ = ! =mation ( osmotic membranes4 ,our osmotic productions are compos$ ( ! same elem5ts z ^? :i* con/itute liv+ be+s2 an osmotic gr[? obta9$ by s[+ calcium nitrate 9 a solution ( potassium c>bonate ) sodium phosphate & sulphate conta9s all ! pr9cipal elem5ts ( a liv+ organism1 viz4 c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 nitrog51 sulphur1 & phosphorus4 ,! :ole ( ! vegetable _w is produc$ by ! osmotic gr[? ( m9]al sub/ances1 if we except ! small am\nt ( organic matt] conta9$ 9 ! se$s4 ,! mo/ important problem ( syn!tic biology is n s mu* ! syn!sis ( ! album9oids z ! r$uction ( c>bonic acid4 ,9 nature ?is r$uction is accompli%$ by ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun1 by ! ag5cy ( ! catalytic action ( *lorophyll4 #aeh ,! physico-*emical /udy ( osmotic gr[? is z yet h>dly begun2 we h b indicat$ ! me?od1 ! way is op51 & ! problems await+ solution are legion4 ,only "w & ev] m "w & work]s are requir$4 ,exp]im5ts %\ld be made ) sub/ances :i* are *emically un/able l ! album9oids1 sub/ances :i* readily comb9e & dissociate aga91 alt]nately absorb+ & giv+ up ! pot5tial en]gy :i* is ! ess5ce ( life4 ,exp]im5ts %\ld also be made ) sub/ances :i* readily unite or decompose "u ! influ5ce ( wat]1 s9ce hydration & hydrolysis appe> to be ! dom9ant me*anism 9 all vital reaction1 z !y und\bt$ly are 9 osmotic gr[?1 :i* consi/s ( an increase ( hydration on "o side ( an osmotic membrane & a dim9ution on ! o!r side4 ,life is n a sub/ance b a me*anical ph5om5on2 x is a dynamic & k9etic transf]5ce ( en]gy det]m9$ by physico-*emical reactions2 & ! :ole tr5d ( mod]n rese>* leads to ! belief t ^! reactions are ( ! same nature z ^? met ) 9 ! organic _w4 ,x is ! gr\p+ ( physical reactions & _! mode ( association & succession1 _! h>mony 9 fact1 :i* con/itutes life4 ,! problem we h to solve 9 ! syn!sis ( life is ! prop] attun+ & h>moniz+ ( ^! physical ph5om5a1 z !y exi/ 9 liv+ be+s1 & !re %\ld be no absolute impossibility 9 our "s day realiz+ ?is h>mony 9 :ole or 9 "p4 ,alb]t ,gaudry says3 ,i _c conceive :y 9 det]m9+ ! connect+ l9ks ( ! animal _w ! fact t an organic body is =m$ ( su* & su* elem5ts %\ld be ( great] importance ?an ! mann] 9 :i* ^! elem5ts are gr\p$4 ,desc>tes reg>d$ ext5sion z ! ess5tial prop]ty ( an organiz$ be+2 he suppos$ x to be in]t ( itself1 & t x _h ! ,deity = its motive =ce4 ,to-day ! hypo!sis ( ,desc>tes has giv5 way to t ( ,leibnitz1 :o reg>ds =ce z ! ess5tial prop]ty ( ! liv+ be+1 ! visible & tangible matt] be+ only ( second>y importance4 ,if we reg>d ! liv+ be+ z a =ce1 ?is =ce is able to aggregate matt] "u su* & su* a =m1 #aei ) su* or su* a /ructure1 & su* or su* a *emical ess5ce4 ,x does n seem t ! classification dep5d+ on diff]5ces ( sub/ance are any m important ?an ^? :i* dep5d on diff]5ces ( =m4 ,! biological int]e/ ( osmotic productions is q indep5d5t ( ! *emical nature ( ! sub/ances :i* ent] into _! gr[?4 ,all sub/ances :i* produce osmotic membranes by ! contact ( _! solutions exhibit ph5om5a analog\s to ^? ( nutrition4 ,osmotic morphog5esis is a physical ph5om5on result+ f ! contact ( ! mo/ div]se sub/ances4 ,x has giv5 u our fir/ glimpse ( ! mann] 9 :i* a liv+ be+ may be suppos$ to h be5 =m$ accord+ to ! ord9>y physical laws ( nature4 ,we _c at pres5t produce osmotic gr[?s ) all ! comb9ations f\nd 9 liv+ be+s1 b t is only because *emi/ry /ill lags f> beh9d physics 9 ! syn!sis ( organic =ms4 ,we are (t5 told n to =ce ! analogy4 ,b error is equally produc$ by ! exagg]ation ( unimportant diff]5ces4 ,we h already se5 t nutrition1 absorption1 trans=mation1 & excitation are n ! *>act]i/ics ( liv+ organisms alone2 nor is reaction to ext]nal impressions ! appanage only ( animate be+s4 ,to insi/ on ! resemblance betwe5 an osmotic production & a liv+ be+ is n to =ce an analogy b to demon/rate a fact4 ,let u briefly recapitulate4 ,an osmotic gr[? has an evolution>y exi/5ce2 x is n\ri%$ by osmosis & intussusception2 x ex]cises a selective *oice on ! sub/ances (f]$ to x2 x *anges ! *emical con/itution ( its nutrim5t be=e assimilat+ x4 ,l a liv+ ?+ x ejects into its environm5t ! wa/e products ( its function4 ,moreov]1 x gr[s & develops /ructures l ^? ( liv+ organisms1 & x is s5sitive to _m ext]ior *anges1 :i* influ5ce its =m & developm5t4 ,b ^! v ph5om5a--nutrition1 assimilation1 s5sibility1 gr[?1 & organization--are g5]ally ass]t$ to be ! sole *>act]i/ics ( life4 99 99 99 99 99 #afj ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,evolution ,,& ,,spontane\s ,,g5]ation ,by _m biologi/s1 ev5 at ! pres5t day1 ! orig9 & evolution ( liv+ be+s is consid]$ to be outside ! doma9 ( natural ph5om5a1 & h5ce beyond ! rea* ( exp]im5tal rese>*4 ,! *ange 9 our views on ?is subject is due to a ,fr5*man1 ,jean ,lam>ck1 :o 0 ! true orig9ator ( ! sci5tific doctr9e ( evolution4 ,at a "t :5 ! miracul\s orig9 ( e liv+ be+ 0 reg>d$ z an un*angeable v]ity1 & 0 def5d$ l a sacr$ dogma1 ,lam>ck boldly =mulat$ 8 !ory ( evolution1 ) all its att5d5t consequ5ces1 f spontane\s g5]ation to ! g5ealogy ( man4 ,9 8 ,philosophie ,zoologique1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahji1 ,lam>ck put =? 8 claim to reg>d all ! ph5om5a ( life1 ( liv+ be+s1 & ( man himself z p]ta9+ to ! doma9 ( natural ph5om5a4 ,accord+ to him1 all bodies :i* are met ) 9 nature1 organic & inorganic alike1 are subject to ! same laws4 ,life is a physical ph5om5on1 & all ! processes ( life are due to me*anical causes1 ei!r physical or *emical4 ,he writes3 ,a leur s\rce le physique et le moral ne sont sans d\te qu'une seule et meme *ose4 ,il faut re*]*] dans la consid]ation de l'organisation les causes memes de la vie4 ,9 ! intellectual evolution ( ! human m9d p]haps no advance has be5 m important ?an t ( ,lam>ck--! conque/ ( ! doma9 ( life by human intellig5ce4 ,9 con=mity ) ! true sci5tific me?od1 he f\nds 8 doctr9e on ! facts & ph5om5a ( nature4 ,i conf9e myself1 he says1 )9 ! b\nds ( a simple contemplation #afa ( nature4 ,x 0 ?is obs]vation ( ! gradual p]fect+ ( liv+ organisms f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complicat$ t inspir$ ,lam>ck ) ! idea ( evolution & trans=mation4 ,h[1 he says1 c we help se>*+ = ! cause ( su* wond]ful results8 ,are we n compell$ to admit t nature has produc$ successively bodies end[$ ) life1 proce$+ f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complex8 ,! v>i\s products ( nature h be5 divid$ into classes1 g5]a1 & species1 simply to facilitate _! /udy4 ,mod]n rese>* t5ds to %[ t !re is no def9ite l9e ( dem>cation ev5 betwe5 ! animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al k+doms4 ,all our classification is artificial1 & ! passage f "o division to ano!r is gradual & ins5sible4 ,lam>ck expresses ?is idea v cle>ly3 ,we mu/ rememb] t classes1 ord]s1 & families1 & all su* nom5clature1 are me?ods ( our own inv5tion4 ,9 nature !re are no su* ?+s z classes or ord]s or families1 b only individuals4 ,z we become bett] acqua9t$ ) ! productions ( nature1 & z ! numb] ( specim5s 9 our collections increases1 we see ! int]vals betwe5 ! classes gradually fill up1 & ! l9es ( sep>ation become effac$4 ,lam>ck also raises 8 voice aga9/ ! suppos$ immutability ( species4 ,species h only a relative con/ancy1 dep5d+ on ! circum/ances ( ! individuals4 ,! individuals ( a giv5 species p]petuate !mselves )\t v>iation only s long z !re is no v>iation 9 ! circum/ances :i* influ5ce _! exi/5ce4 ,numb]less facts prove t :5 an individual ( a giv5 species *anges its locality1 x is subject$ to a numb] ( influ5ces :i* little by little alt]1 n only ! consi/5cy & proportions ( its p>ts1 b also its =m1 its faculty1 & ev5 its organization2 s t 9 "t e "p w p>ticipate 9 ! mutations :i* x has und]gone4 ,lam>ck also cle>ly affirms ! fact ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,i hope to prove1 he says1 t nature possesses means & faculties = ! production ( all ! =ms :i* we s mu* admire4 ,rudim5t>y animals & plants h #afb be5 =m$1 & are /ill be+ =m$ to-day1 by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,lam>ck himself gives a resume ( 8 doctr9e 9 ! foll[+ six propositions3-- #a4 ,all ! organiz$ bodies ( our globe are v]itable productions ( ,nature1 :i* %e has successively =m$ dur+ ! lapse ( ages4 #b4 ,nature began1 & /ill recomm5ces day by day1 ) ! production ( ! simple/ organic =ms4 ,^! s-call$ spontane\s g5]ations are h] direct "w1 ! fir/ sket*es z x 7 ( organization4 #c4 ,! fir/ sket*es ( an animal or a vegetable gr[? be+ begun "u fav\rable conditions1 ! faculties ( comm5c+ life & ( organic movem5t ?us e/abli%$ h gradually develop$ little by little ! v>i\s p>ts & organs1 :i* 9 process ( "t h become div]sifi$4 #d4 ,! faculty ( gr[? is inh]5t 9 e "p ( an organiz$ body2 x is ! prim>y effect ( life4 ,?is faculty ( gr[? has giv5 rise to ! v>i\s modes ( multiplication & reg5]ation ( ! individual1 & by its means any progress :i* may h be5 acquir$ 9 ! composition & =ms ( ! organism has be5 pres]v$4 #e4 ,all liv+ ?+s :i* exi/ at ! pres5t day h be5 successively =m$ by ?is means1 aid$ by a long lapse ( "t1 by fav\rable conditions1 & by ! *anges on ! surface ( ! globe--9 a ^w1 by ! p[] :i* new situations & new habits h ( modify+ ! organs ( a body :i* is end[$ ) life4 #f4 ,s9ce all liv+ ?+s h und]gone m or less *ange 9 _! organization1 ! species :i* h be5 ?us ins5sibly & successively produc$ c h b a relative con/ancy1 & c be ( no v great antiquity4 ,! admirable "w ( ,lam>ck 0 absolutely neglect$ 9 ,france1 :]e x 0 treat$ z unwor?y ev5 ( consid]ation4 ,?is neglect pr(\ndly afflict$ ,lam>ck1 :o gradually sank a victim to ! opposition ( 8 contempor>ies4 ,he left1 h[ev]1 "o disciple1 ,eti5ne ,je(froy ,/4 #afc ,hilaire1 b he too 0 soon r$uc$ to sil5ce "u ! weight ( au?ority ( 8 adv]s>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,osmotic vegetation4 ,be=e ! doctr9e ( evolution c\ld live & take its prop] place1 x _h to be reborn 9 ,engl&--! c\ntry ( lib]ty4 ,?is resuscitation 0 due to ,d>w91 :o add$ to x 8 illum9at+ doctr9e ( natural selection4 ,b ap>t f ?is & a p]fect+ ( its v>i\s details1 ,lam>ck _h already =mulat$ ! doctr9e ( evolution ) p]fect precision4 ,lam>ck's "w 0 /ill-born1 :]eas t ( ,d>w9 liv$ & grew to its full developm5t4 ,?is 0 due1 n to any imp]fection or insuffici5cy 9 ,lam>ck's "w1 b #afd to ! milieu into :i* x 0 born4 ,x 0 ! environm5t t /ifl$ ! (fspr+ ( ,lam>ck4 ,9 #ahfh1 ,erne/ ,haeckel speaks ( ! g5ius ( ,lam>ck 9 ^! words3 ,! *ief ( ! natural philosoph]s ( ,france is ,jean ,lam>ck1 :o takes 8 place beside ,goe! & ,d>w9 9 ! hi/ory ( evolution4 ,to him belongs ! imp]i%able glory ( be+ ! fir/ to =mulate ! !ory ( desc5t1 & ( f\nd+ ! philosophy ( nature on ! solid basis ( biology1 & adds1 ,!re is no c\ntry 9 ,europe :]e ,d>w9's doctr9e has _h s little influ5ce z 9 ,france4 ,haeckel has b done t>dy ju/ice 9 8 discov]y ( & te/imony to ! g5ius ( ,lam>ck4 ,! _s ( opposition does n seem to h mu* *ang$ 9 ,france s9ce ,lam>ck's "t4 ,9 #aijg ! ,academie des ,sci5ces de ,p>is exclud$ f its ,comptes ,r5dus ! report ( my rese>*es on diffusion & osmosis1 because x rais$ ! "q ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,! majority ( sci5ti/s seem to consid] t ! "q ( spontane\s g5]ation 0 def9itely settl$ once = all :5 ,pa/eur's exp]im5ts %[$ t a /]iliz$ liquid1 kept 9 a clos$ tube1 rema9$ /]ile4 ,)\t ! idea ( spontane\s g5]ation & a physical !ory ( life1 ! doctr9e ( evolution is a mutilat$ hypo!sis )\t unity or cohesion4 ,on ?is po9t ,lam>ck speaks mo/ cle>ly3 ,al?\gh x is cu/om>y :5 "o speaks ( ! memb]s ( ! animal or vegetable k+dom to call !m products ( nature1 x appe>s t no def9ite conception is atta*$ to ! expression4 ,our preconceiv$ notions h9d] u f recognis+ ! fact t ,nature h]self possesses all ! faculties & all ! means ( produc+ liv+ be+s 9 any v>iety4 ,%e is able to v>y1 v sl[ly b )\t cessation1 all ! diff]5t races & all ! diff]5t =ms ( life1 & to ma9ta9 ! g5]al ord] :i* we see 9 all h] works4 ,! doctr9e ( ,lam>ck is frequ5tly mis9t]pret$4 ,we (t5 he> x express$ z ,function makes ! organ1 or ev5 ,function creates ! organ4 ,?is is equival5t to say+1 ,life makes ! liv+ be+1 :i* is incompreh5sible1 #afe mak+ ( function a sort ( immat]ial & indep5d5t entity :i* con/ructs a mat]ial organ 9 ord] to lodge )9 x4 ,no su* idea is to be f\nd 9 all ! works ( ,lam>ck4 ,he =mulates 8 law 9 ! foll[+ t]ms3 ,9 e animal :i* is /ill und]go+ developm5t1 ! frequ5t & su/a9$ use ( any "o organ increases its size & p[]1 :]eas ! con/ant neglect ( ! use ( su* organ weak5s & det]iorates x1 s t x f9ally disappe>s4 ,9 8 expression ( ?is law ,lam>ck insi/s on ! fact t organization prec$es function4 ,he affirms only t function1 i4e4 action & reaction1 modifies ! organ2 or1 9 o!r words1 t organisms are modell$ by ! action ( ext]ior =ces act+ ^u !m4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se only t function may be said to make an organ1 b ?is mode ( expression %\ld be avoid$1 z x is apt to be misund]/ood4 ,a/ronomy tea*es u t our globe 0 deta*$ f ! sun 9 an inc&esc5t /ate1 & geology ass]ts t ?is e>? has pass$ ?r\gh a p]iod ( long ages :5 its temp]ature 0 incompatible ) ! exi/5ce ( life4 ,x 0 only ) ! cool+ ( ! e>? cru/ t x 0 possible = liv+ be+s to make _! appe>ance4 ,h5ce !y mu/ ( necessity h be5 produc$ spontane\sly f t]re/rial mat]ial "u ! influ5ces ( *emical & physical =ces4 ,?is op9ion imposes itself on all :o reflect & judge freely4 ,9 ! same way ! doctr9e ( evolution necessitates z a coroll>y ! doctr9e ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,! doctr9e ( evolution %\ld recon/itute e l9k 9 ! *a9 ( be+s f ! simple/ to ! mo/ complicat$2 x _c af=d to leave out ! mo/ important ( all1 viz4 ! miss+ l9k betwe5 ! inorganic & ! organic k+doms4 ,if !re is a *a91 x mu/ be cont9u\s 9 all its p>ts1 !re c be no solution ( cont9uity4 ,evolutioni/s l ,lam>ck & ,haeckel admit spontane\s g5]ation1 n z ! mo/ probable1 b z ! only possible explanation ( ! ph5om5on ( life4 ,lam>ck %[s u ! app>ition ( liv+ ?+s at a c]ta9 epo* ( ! e>?'s evolution1 & ! gradual #aff developm5t ( m complicat$ =ms z ! conditions *ang$ on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,d>w9 %[s h[ h]$ity & natural selection t5d to acc5tuate ! v>iations :i* are fav\rable to exi/5ce4 ,haeckel demon/rates ! p>allelism betwe5 ontog5esis & philog5esis--betwe5 ! successive =ms 9 ! evolution ( ! embryo & ! successive =ms ( ! individual 9 ! evolution ( a race4 ,^! are great & admirable conque/s ( ! human intellig5ce1 !y h demon/rat$ ! fir/ appe>ance & ! progressive evolution ( liv+ be+s2 x n[ only rema9s = u to expla9 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,m>9e =ms ( osmotic gr[?4 ,! doctr9e ( evolution1 :ile en=c+ ! fact ( spontane\s g5]ation & progressive evolution1 gives u no h9t z to ! physical me*anism ( su* g5]ation4 ,x does n tell u by :at =ces1 or accord+ to :at laws1 ! simpl] =ms ( life h be5 produc$1 or 9 :at mann] diff]5ces ( environm5t h act$ 9 ord] to modify !m4 ,! doctr9e ass]ts ! simultane\s v>iations 9 organic =ms & 9 ! physical influ5ces :i* produce !m1 b says #afg no?+ z to _! mode ( action4 ,! ,d>w9ian !ory %[s h[ acquir$ v>iations are transmitt$ & acc5tuat$ by natural selection1 b x says no?+ z to h[ ^! v>iations may be acquir$4 ,9 ! same way we are 9 entire ignorance z to ! physical me*anism ( ontog5etic developm5t1 ! evolution ( ! embryo4 ,! morphog5ic action ( diffusion produces osmotic gr[?s ( extreme v>iety4 ,mo/ ( ^! =ms recall ^? ( liv+ ?+s--%ells1 fungi1 corals1 & algae4 ,! analogy ( function is q z close z ! resemblance ( =m4 ,! /udy ( osmosis1 h[ev]1 is z yet 9 its infancy1 & osmotic productions v>y ) ! physical conditions ( *emical con/itution1 temp]ature1 conc5tration1 & ! l4 ,! /udy ( ! organiz+ action ( osmosis on organic mat]ial has z yet be5 h>dly attempt$4 ,osmosis produces gr[?s ( great complexity1 mu* m complicat$ inde$ ?an ! m simple =ms ( liv+ organisms4 ,?is m>vell\s complexity ( an osmotic gr[? may be comp>$ ) ano!r fact1 ! ontog5etic developm5t ( ! ovum1 a s+le cell :i* "u fav\rable conditions ( environm5t may evolve into a mo/ complicat$ organism4 ,^! consid]ations lead to ! belief t ! beg9n+ ( life has n be5 ! production ( a simple primitive =m f :i* all o!rs are desc5d$1 b t a numb] ( su* primitive =ms may h be5 produc$1 =ms :i* by a rapid physical developm5t atta9$ a high degree ( complexity4 ,osmotic morphog5esis %[s u t ! ord9>y physical =ces h 9 fact a p[] ( organization inf9itely great] ?an has be5 hi!rto suppos$ by ! bolde/ imag9ation4 ,:5 we consid] ! ignorance 9 :i* we /ill rema9 z to ! ph5om5a :i* pass be=e our v eyes1 h[ c we expect to und]/& ^? :i* occurr$ 9 pa/ ages1 :5 ! physical & *emical conditions 7 s imm5sely diff]5t f ^? :i* obta9 9 our own "t8 ,:at d we "k ev5 n[ ( ! physical & *emical ph5om5a :i* take place 9 ! unfa?om$ dep?s ( ! ocean1 :]e = aught we "k ev5 at ! pres5t "t ! same #afh process may be go+ on--! g5esis ( life1 & ! em]g5ce ( liv+ be+s out ( ! inanimate m9]al _w8 ,ev5 n[1 says ,alb]t ,gaudry1 polyps & oceanic animalculae are build+ up va/ coral reefs & rocks4 ,! oxyg5 & hydrog5 :i* exi/$ once 0 wat]1 ! oxyg5 & nitrog5 :i* once made air1 ! c>bon1 ! phosphorus1 ! silica & ! lime :i* once 7 solid rock1 n[ =m ! sub/ance ( liv+ be+s4 ,! silica is deposit$ 9 ! skeleton ( a sponge or a radiol>ia1 ! %ell ( a =am9if]a or ! c>apace ( a cru/acean1 or unites ) phosphorus to =m ! bones ( a v]tebrate4 ,a v tumult ( life has succe$$ to ! primitive sil5ce ( in]t matt]4 ,life has invad$ ! e>?1 & we see on all sides ! inanimate m9]al k+dom be+ *ang$ into a liv+ _w4 ,! admission t life may h appe>$ on ! e>? "u ! influ5ce ( natural =ces & accord+ to physical laws & conditions diff]5t f ^? ( ! pres5t era ?r[s a vivid light on ! /udy ( biog5esis1 spontane\s g5]ation1 & evolution4 ,! means ( rese>* are n[ indicat$1 & we h only to /udy ! docum5ts already 9 our possession 9 ord] to "k ! conditions :i* obta9$ :5 life fir/ appe>$ on ! globe4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to reproduce ^! conditions & to /udy _! effects4 ,s9ce all liv+ be+s are =m$ ( ! same elem5ts z ^? ( ! m9]al _w1 ! t]m organic z appli$ to comb9ations c only be us$ 9 ord] to emphasize ! complexity ( _! con/itution4 ,x 0 =m]ly believ$ t ^! organic comb9ations 7 ! result ( life1 & c\ld n be reproduc$ except by liv+ organisms4 ,to-day _m ( ^! organic sub/ances are produc$ 9 ! laboratory f inorganic mat]ials4 ,9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe x is easy to imag9e conditions :i* w\ld facilitate ! syn!sis ( organic sub/ances )\t ! int]position ( life4 ,at ! temp]ature ( ! electric furnace1 :i* 0 t ( ! e>? at an e>ly p]iod ( its evolution1 *emical comb9ations are possible q o!r ?an ^? obta9+ "u ! pres5t conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,at ! high] temp]ature ( ! e>ly #afi geological era1 silicides1 c>bides1 phosphides1 & nitrides 7 =m$ 9 /able comb9ations in/ead ( ! oxides1 silicates1 c>bonates1 phosphates1 & nitrates ( ! pres5t "t4 ,^! comb9ations exi/$ on ! e>? at a "t :5 ! conditions ( temp]ature preclud$ ! exi/5ce ( wat] 9 a liquid /ate4 ,z ! temp]ature cool$1 & ! wat] vap\r became cond5s$1 x ent]$ into *emical comb9ation ) ! v>i\s rocks1 produc+ organic comp\nds l acetyl5e1 :i* results f ! action ( wat] on calcium c>bide4 ,h4 ,l5icque has develop$ a !ory z to ! =mation ( v>i\s rocks "u ^! conditions1 :i* he communicat$ 9 #aijc to ! ,fr5* ,society ( ,civil ,eng9e]s4 ,! *emical evolution ( ! globe has und]gone great *anges z ! temp]ature gradually fell & ! con/itution ( its cru/ alt]$4 ,z long z ! temp]ature 0 high] ?an t at :i* wat] c exi/1 all *emical reactions mu/ h tak5 place betwe5 anhydric sub/ances1 elem5ts & salts 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,^! conditions are v diff]5t f ^? ( ! pres5t-day *emi/ry1 :i* is ! *emi/ry ( aque\s solutions4 ,we may hope to be able to reproduce ! e>li] conditions by ! exp]im5tal /udy ( anhydric sub/ances 9 a /ate ( fusion4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 t ( ! prim>y & second>y rocks1 !re 0 a uni=m & con/ant temp]ature ( ab\t #dj;deg ,c4 ,! atmosph]e 0 *>g$ ) wat] vap\r1 & all ! conditions 7 pres5t = ! production ( /orms & tempe/s4 ,! atmosph]e dur+ long ages mu/ h be5 ! seat ( =midable & incessant electric dis*>ges2 ^! dis*>ges are ! mo/ p[]ful ( all physical ag5ts ( *emical syn!sis1 & w cause nitrog5 to comb9e directly to =m v>i\s comp\nds--nitrates1 cyanides1 & ammonia4 ,c>bonic acid w\ld also be pres5t 9 abundance & w\ld ent] into comb9ation ) ^! nitrog5\s comp\nds4 ,9 ?is way we may imag9e t comp\nds 7 =m$ :i* by "s process ( physical syn!sis subsequ5tly gave rise to va/ quantities ( album9oid matt]4 ,at t "t ! seas & oceans conta9$ all ^? sub/ances :i* h #agj s9ce be5 fix$ by ! metamorphism ( ! primitive rocks1 or deposit$ 9 ! s$im5t>y /rata4 ,mo/ ( ! elem5ts 9 our m9]als 7 =m]ly 9 a /ate ( solution 9 ^! primeval seas1 :i* conta9$ c>bonates1 silicates1 & soluble phosphates 9 great abundance4 ,z ! cru/ gradually cool$1 ! t]re/rial atmosph]e ( necessity alt]$ 9 composition1 & ! sl[ evolution ( ! atmosph]e no d\bt also ex]cis$ an influ5ce on ! developm5t ( liv+ be+s4 ,palaeontology tea*es u t ! e>lie/ liv+ organism appe>$ 9 ! sea4 ,! mo/ anci5t ( liv+ ?+s1 ^? ( ! prim>y ages1 :i* 7 ( great] duration ?an all o!r ages put toge!r1 7 all aquatic4 ,we f9d moreov] t e liv+ organism consi/s ( liquids1 solutions ( cry/alloids & colloids sep>at$ by osmotic membranes2 & x is significant t ! ocean1 t va/ laboratory ( life1 is also a solution ( cry/alloids & colloids4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t we mu/ look to ! /udy ( solutions if we w\ld hope to discov] ! nature & orig9 ( life4 ,life is an ensemble ( functions & ( en]gy-trans=mations1 an ensemble :i* is condition$ by ! =m1 ! /ructure1 & ! composition ( ! liv+ be+4 ,life1 !re=e1 may be said to be condition$ by =m1 i4e4 ! ext]nal1 int]nal1 & molecul> =ms ( ! liv+ be+4 ,all liv+ ?+s consi/ ( clos$ cavities1 :i* are limit$ by osmotic membranes1 & fill$ ) solutions ( cry/alloids & colloids4 ,! /udy ( syn!tic biology is !re=e ! /udy ( ! physical =ces & conditions :i* c produce cavities surr\nd$ by osmotic membranes1 :i* c associate & gr\p su* cavities1 & diff]5tiate & specialize _! functions4 ,su* =ces are precisely ^? :i* produce osmotic gr[?s1 hav+ ! =ms & exhibit+ _m ( ! functions ( liv+ be+s4 ,( all ! !ories z to ! orig9 ( life1 t :i* attributes x to osmosis & looks on ! e>lie/ liv+ be+s z products ( osmotic gr[?s is ! mo/ probable & ! mo/ satisfy+ to ! reason4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,osmotic %ells & corals4 ,we h already se5 t ! seas ( ! prim>y & #aga second>y ages pres5t$ 9 a high degree ! p>ticul> conditions fav\rable = ! production ( osmotic gr[?s4 ,dur+ ^! long ages an exub]ant gr[? ( osmotic vegetation mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 ^! primeval seas4 ,all ! sub/ances :i* 7 capable ( produc+ osmotic membranes by mutual contact sprang into gr[?1--! soluble salts ( calcium1 c>bonates1 phosphates1 silicates1 album9oid matt]1 became organiz$ z osmotic productions1--7 born1 develop$1 evolv$1 dissociat$1 & di$4 ,millions ( ephem]al =ms mu/ h succe$$ "o ano!r 9 ! natural evolution ( t age1 :5 ! liv+ _w 0 repres5t$ by matt] ?us organiz$ by osmosis4 ,! exp]im5tal /udy ( osmotic morphog5y adds its weight ( evid5ce 9 ! same direction4 ,:5 we see "u our own eyes ! cells ( calcium become organiz$1 develop & gr[ 9 close imitation ( ! =ms ( life1 we _c d\bt t su* a trans=mation has (t5 occurr$ 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( our planet1 & ! conviction becomes irresi/ible #agb t osmosis has play$ a pr$om9ant role 9 ! hi/ory ( our e>? & its inhabitants4 ,x is a matt] ( a/oni%m5t t ! sci5ti/ has tak5 no notice ( ! active "p :i* osmosis has play$ 9 ! evolution ( our e>?4 ,on ! effects ( ?is mo/ important physical ph5om5on sci5ce has hi!rto rema9$ entirely mute4 ,pr9t$ by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limit$1 ,ed9burgh 99 99 99 99 99 ,corrections made to pr9t$ orig9al4 ,page #dg4 into "o :]e its osmotic pressure is l[3 'into on' 9 orig9al4 ,page #ij4 ! a*romat9 sp9dle 9 k>yok9esis43 'k>9eyoksis' 9 orig9al4 ,page #abj4 ,! rese>*es ( ,fam9tz93 ',famitz9' 9 orig9al1 inconsi/5t ) spell+ #b p>agraphs e>li]4 ,page #ada4 ,simil>ly1 if we sudd5ly dilute3 ',simi>ly' 9 orig9al4 ,page #aec4 :i* is accurately limit$3 'acurately' 9 orig9al4 ,page #aeh4 ?is =ce is able to aggregate matt]3 '?is orce' 9 orig9al4